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THE 
 
 FAITH OF ISLAM: 
 
 BY 
 
 THE Rev. EDWARD SELL, 
 
 FELLOW OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MADEAS. 
 
 TRUBNER & CO., LONDON. 
 ADDISON & CO., MADRAS. 
 
 1880. 
 
 All rights Reserved. 
 

 MADRAS: 
 PRINTED BY ADDISON AND CO., MOUNT ROAD. 
 
PREFACE. ; 
 
 The following pages embody a study of Islam dur- 
 ing a residence of fifteen years in India, the greater 
 part of which time I have been in daily inter- 
 course with Musalmans. I have given in the foot- 
 notes the authorities from which I quote. I was 
 not able to procure in Madras a copy of the 
 Arabic edition of Ibn Khaldoun's great work, but 
 the French translation by Baron M. de Slane, to 
 which I so frequently refer, is thoroughly reliable. 
 The quotations from the Quran are made from 
 Rodwell's translation. The original has been con- 
 sulted when necessary. 
 
 A few slight and occasional errors in translit- 
 eration have occurred, such as Sulat for Salat, 
 Munkar for Munkir, &c, but in no case is the mean- 
 ing affected. 
 
 In some words, such as Khalif, Khalifate, and 
 Omar, I have retained the anglicised form instead 
 of using the more correct terms, Khalifa, Khilafat, 
 'Umr. The letter Q has been used to distinguish 
 the Kaf-i-Karashat from the Kaf-i-Tazl. 
 
 E. S. 
 Madras, 
 December 1st, 1880. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Introduction. ... ... ... ... ...PAGEix 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE FOUNDATIONS OP ISLAM. 
 
 The Quran — Its revelation — Miraculous nature — Arrangement of 
 Quran — Osraan's recension. The Sunnat — The authority of 
 Sunnat — Tradition — Bid'at or innovation — Shia'h Traditions. 
 Ijma' — Ijtihad — Four orthodox Imams, Hanifa, Malik, Shafa'i 
 and Hanbal. Qi&s — Established by the early Mujtahidin — 
 Sterility of Islam ... ... ... ... ... page 1 
 
 Note to Chapter I. Ijtihad ... ... ... page 32 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 EXEGESIS OP THE QURAN AND THE TRADITIONS. 
 
 Inspiration — The seven readings — Work of a Commentator — Words 
 and Sentences of the Quran — Use of the words— Deductions of 
 arguments from the Quran — Divisions of the Quran — Abroga- 
 tion — Creation of the Quran — Hadis or Tradition — Collections 
 of Traditions — Classification of Traditions ... ... page 37 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE SECTS OP ISLAM. 
 
 The Shia'hs— The Imamat— Kharigites— Nur-i-Muhammadi— Imam 
 — Isma.ilians and Imamites— Ghair-i-Mahdis— Da.iri — Mahmii- 
 diah— Khalifate— Sufiism— Persian Poetry— Darwishes— Omar 
 Khayyam— Wahhabis— their rise— spread in India— doctrines 
 and influence ... ... ... ••• ••• PAGE 73 
 
 Note to Chapter III. Wahhabiism ... ... page 314 
 
vi Contents. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE CREED OP ISLAM. 
 
 Iman — God — Attributes of God — Discussions on the nature of 
 God— The rise of the Mutazilites— The Sifatians— Mushabi- 
 hites — Names of God— Creation of the Quran. Angels — Re- 
 cording Angels — Harut and Marut — Munkir and Nakir — Jinn. 
 The Books — Abrogation — Tahrif. The Prophets — Rank and 
 inspiration of prophets— Nabi and Rasul — Sinlessness of pro- 
 phets — The Anbiya-ulul-'Azm— Miracles of prophets— The 
 Mi'raj. The Resurrection and the last day — The Trumpets— 
 Descent of the books — Balances — Bridge — Al-A'raf — Al-Bar- 
 zakh — Intercession of Muhammad — Hoaven— Hell. The Pre- 
 destination of good and evil — Jabrians — Qadrians — Ash'arians — 
 Free-will — Apostacy ... ... ... ... page 116 
 
 Note to Chapter IV. Muslim Philosophy ... ... page 181 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE PEACTICAL DUTIES OP ISLAM. 
 
 Farz, wajib, sunnat, mustahab and mubah actions — Haram or 
 unlawful acts. Tashahhud. Salat — Wazu — Ghusl — Tayam- 
 mum — Namaz — Farz, sunnat, witr and nafl rak'ats — Appointed 
 hours of prayer — Friday Namaz and sermon— Namaz on a 
 journey and in time of war — Namaz in Ramazan, during an 
 eclipse and in time of drought— Fune ral serv ice-— Its ritual and 
 prayers. Fasting — Its time and nature. Zakat — Nisab — Pro- 
 portion of property to be given as alms — Recipients of the 
 Zakat. The Hajj— Farz, sunnat, wajib and mustahab duties 
 connected with the Hajj — Time for the Hajj — Arrival of the 
 Haji at Mecca — Tawaf — Ceremonies of the Hajj — Conclusion 
 of the Hajj — Formal nature of Islam ... ... page 187 
 
 Note to Chapter V. Fatva on the Namaz ... ... page 233 
 
Contents. vii 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE FEASTS AND PASTS OF ISLAM. 
 
 Muharram — 'Ashur Khana — Marsiya — Waqi'a Khan— 'Alams— 
 Ceremonies of the 'Ashura — Fatihas for 'All, for Hasan and 
 Husain — Akhir-i-char Shamba — Bara Waf at — Jashn-i-milad-i- 
 Sharif — Asar-i-Sharif — Shab Barat — Ramazan and 'Id-ul-Fitr— 
 'Itikaf— Sadqa— Sermon on the 'Id-ul-Fitr— Baqr-'Id or 'Id-nz- 
 Zuha — Sermon on the 'Id-uz-Zuha — The Qurban or Sacrifice — 
 Festival of Madar — Festival of Salar Mas'iid Ghazi — Festival 
 of Khaja Khizr — Feast of Pir Dastgir Sahib — Festival of Qadir 
 Wall Sahib page 237 
 
 Index of Technical Terms ... ... ... page 265 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 It is necessary to enter into some explanation as 
 regards the contents of this work. It does not fall 
 in with its plan to enter into an account either of 
 the life of Muhammad or of the wide and rapid 
 spread of the system founded by him. The first 
 has been done by able writers in England, France 
 and Germany. I could add nothing new to this 
 portion of the subject, nor throw new light upon it. 
 The political growth of Muslim nations has also 
 been set forth in various ways. 
 
 It seems to me that the more important study at 
 this time is that of the religious system which has 
 grown out of the Prophet's teaching, and of its 
 effect upon the individual and the community. 
 What the Church in her missionary enterprise has 
 to deal with, what European Governments in the 
 political world have to do with is Islam as it is, and 
 as it now influences those who rule and those who 
 are ruled under it. 
 
 I have, therefore, tried to show from authentic 
 sources, and from a practical knowledge of it, what 
 the Faith of Islam really is, and how it influences 
 men and nations in the present day. I think that 
 recent Fatvas delivered by the 'Ulama in Constan- 
 tinople show how firmly a Muslim State is bound in 
 the fetters of an unchangeable Law, whilst the 
 present practice of orthodox Muslims all the world 
 
Introduction. 
 
 over is a constant carrying out of the precepts given 
 in the Quran and the Sunnat, and an illustration of 
 the principles I have shown to belong to Islam. On 
 this subject it is not too much to say that there is, 
 except amongst Oriental scholars, much miscon- 
 ception. 
 
 Again, much that is written on Islam is written 
 either in ignorant prejudice, or from an ideal stand- 
 point. To understand it aright, one should know 
 its literature and live amongst its people. I have 
 tried faithfully to prove every statement I have 
 made ; and if, now and again, I have quoted Euro- 
 pean authors, it is only by way of illustration. I 
 rest my case entirely upon Musalman authorities 
 themselves. Still more, I have ascertained from 
 living witnesses that the principles I have tried to 
 show as existing in Islam, are really at work now 
 and are as potent as at any previous period. 
 
 I have thus traced up from the very foundations 
 the rise and development of the system, seeking 
 wherever possible to link the past with the present. 
 In order not to interfere with this unity of plan, 
 I have had to leave many subjects untouched, such 
 as those connected with the civil law, with slavery, 
 divorce, jihad or religious wars, &c. A good digest 
 of Muhammadan Law 1 will give all necessary infor- 
 mation on these points. The basis of the Law 
 which determines these questions is what I have 
 described in my first chapter. Ijtihad, for example, 
 rules quite as effectually in a question of domestic 
 
 1. There is an excellent one by Neil B. E. Baillie. The question of Jihad 
 is fully discussed in Dr. Hunter's Our Indian Ihisalmdns. 
 
Introduction. xi 
 
 economy or political jurisprudence as on points of 
 dogma. It was not, therefore, necessary for me to 
 go into details on these points. 
 
 When I have drawn any conclusion from data 
 which Muhammadan literature, and the present prac- 
 tice of Muslims have afforded me, I have striven to 
 give what seems to me a just and right one. Still, 
 I gladly take this opportunity of statiug that I have 
 found many Muslims better than their creed, men 
 with whom it is a pleasure to associate, and whom 
 I respect for many virtues and esteem as friends. 
 I judge the system, not any individual in it. 
 
 In India, there are a number of enlightened 
 Muhammadans, ornaments to native society, useful 
 servants of the State, men who show a laudable 
 zeal in all social reforms, so far as is consistent 
 with a reputation for orthodoxy. Their number is 
 far too few, and they do not, in many cases, repre- 
 sent orthodox Islam, nor do I believe their counter- 
 part would be found amongst the 'Ulama of a 
 Muslim State. The fact is that the wave of scepti- 
 cism which has passed over Europe has not left the 
 East untouched. Hindu and Muslim alike have felt 
 its influence, but to judge of either the one system 
 or the other from the very liberal utterances of a 
 few men who expound their views before English 
 audiences is to yield oneself up to delusion on the 
 subject. 
 
 Islam in India has also felt the influence of con- 
 tact with other races and creeds, though, theologi- 
 cally speaking, the Iman and the Din, the faith and 
 the practice, are unchanged, and remain as I have 
 
xii Intro duci 'ion. 
 
 described them in chapters four and five. If Islam 
 in India has lost some of its original fierceness, it 
 has also adopted many superstitious practices, such 
 as those against which the Wahhabis protest. The 
 great mass of the Musalman people are quite as 
 superstitious, if not more so, than their heathen 
 neighbours. Still the manliness, the suavity of 
 manner, the deep learning, after an oriental fashion, 
 of many Indian Musalmans render them a very 
 attractive people. It is true there is a darker 
 side — much bigotry, pride of race, scorn of other 
 creeds, and, speaking generally, a tendency to 
 inertness. It is thus that in Bengal, Madras and 
 perhaps in other places, they have fallen far behind 
 the Hindus in educational status, and in the number 
 of appointments they hold in the Government 
 service. Indeed, this subject is a serious one 
 and deserves the special attention of the Indian 
 Government. In Bengal the proportion of Musal- 
 mans to Hindus in the upper ranks of the Uncov- 
 enanted Civil Service in 1871 was 77 to 341. 
 In the year 1880 it had declined to 53 to 451. 
 The state of affairs in Madras is equally bad. Yet 
 an intelligent Muslim, as a rule, makes a good 
 official. 
 
 Looking at the subject from a wider stand-point, 
 I think the Church has hardly yet realised how 
 great a barrier this system of Islam is to her 
 onward march in the East. Surely special men 
 with special training are required for such an enter- 
 prise as that of encountering Islam in its own 
 strongholds. No better pioneers of the Christian 
 
Introduction. xiii 
 
 faith could be found in the Bast than men won 
 from the Crescent to the Cross. 
 
 All who are engaged in such an enterprise will 
 perhaps find some help in this volume, and I am 
 not without hope that it may also throw some light 
 on the political questions of the day. 
 
THE 
 
 FAITH OF ISLAM. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE FOUNDATIONS OF ISLAM. 
 
 The creed of Islam, " La-ilaha-il-lal-lahu wa Muhammad-ur- 
 Rasul-Ullah," (There is no deity but God, and Muhammad 
 is the Apostle of God) is very short, but the system itself is 
 a very dogmatic one. Such statements as : " The Quran 
 is an all-embracing and sufficient code, regulating every- 
 thing," " The Quran contains the entire code of Islam — 
 that is, it is not a book of religious precepts merely, but it 
 governs all that a Muslim does," " The Quran contains the 
 whole religion of Muhammad," " The Quran which contains 
 the whole Gospel of Islam" are not simply misleading, they 
 are erroneous. So far from the Qurau alone being the sole 
 rule of faith and practice to Muslims, there is not one single 
 sect amongst them whose faith and practice is based on it 
 alone. No one among them disputes its authoi-ity or casts 
 any doubt upon its genuineness. Its voice is supreme in 
 all that it concerns, but its exegesis, the whole system 
 of legal jurisprudence and of theological science, is largely 
 founded ou the Traditions. Amongst the orthodox Musal- 
 mans, the foundations of the Faith are four in number, the 
 Quran, Sunnat, Ijma/ and Qias. The fact that all the sects 
 do not agrree with the orthodox — the Sunnis — in this matter 
 illustrates another important fact in Islam — the want of unity 
 amongst its followers. 
 
The Faith of Islam. 
 
 1. The Quean. — The question of the inspiration will be 
 fully discussed, and an account of the laws of the exegesis 
 of the Quran will be given in the next chapter. It is sufficient 
 now to state that this book is held in the highest veneration 
 by Muslims of every sect. When being read it is kept on 
 a stand elevated above the floor, and no one must read or 
 touch it without first making a legal ablution. 1 It is not 
 translated unless there is the most urgeut necessity, and 
 even then the Arabic text is printed with the translation. 
 It is said that God chose the sacred month of Ramazan in 
 which to give all the revelations which in the form of books 
 have been vouchsafed to mankind. Thus on the first night 
 of that month the books of Abraham came down from 
 heaven ; on the sixth the books of Moses ; on the thirteenth 
 the Injil, or Gospel, and on the twenty-seventh the Quran. 
 On that night, the Laylut-ul-Qadr, or " night of power," 
 the whole Quran is said to have descended to the lowest of 
 the seven heavens, from whence it was brought piecemeal 
 to Muhammad as occasion required. 2 " Verily we have 
 caused it (the Quran) to descend on the night of power." 
 (Sura xcvii. 1.) That night is called the blessed night, the 
 night better than a thousand months, the night when angels 
 came down by the permission of their Lord, the night 
 which bringeth peace and blessings till the rosy dawn. 
 Twice on that night in the solitude of the cave of Hira the 
 voice called, twice though pressed sore " as if a fearful 
 weight had been laid upon him," the prophet struggled 
 
 1. " Let none touch it but the purified." (Sura lvi. 78.) 
 
 2. " It was certainly an admirable and politic contrivance of his to bring 
 down the whole Koran at once to the lowest heaven only, and not to the 
 earth, as a bungliug prophet would have done ; for if the whole had been 
 published at once, innumerable objections might have been made, which it 
 would have been very hard, if not impossible for him to solve ; but as ho 
 pretended to receive it by parcels, as God saw proper that they should be 
 published for the conversion and instruction of the people, he had a sure 
 way to answer all emergencies, and to extricate himself with honour from 
 any difficulty which might occur." (Sale's Preliminary Discourse, Sec- 
 tion III.) 
 
The Revelation of tlie Quran. 
 
 against its influence. The third time he heard the words : — 
 
 " Kccite thou, in the name of thy Lord who created — 
 Created man from clots of hlood." (Sura xcvi. 5.) 
 
 " When the voice had ceased to speak, telling how from 
 minutest beginnings man had been called into existence, 
 and lifted up by understanding and knowledge of the Lord, 
 who is most beneficent, and who by the pen had revealed 
 that which man did not kuow, Muhammad woke up from 
 his trance and felt as if " a book had been written in his 
 heart." He was much alarmed. Tradition records that he 
 went hastily to his wife and said — " Khadija ! what 
 has happened to me \" He lay down and she watched by 
 him. When he recovered from his paroxysm, he said 
 " Khadija ! he of whom one would not have believed 
 (/. <\, himself J lias become either a soothsayer (kahin) or 
 mad." She replied, " God is my protection, Ab-ul-kasim. 
 He will surely not let such a thing happen unto thee, for 
 thou speakest the truth, dost not return evil for evil, keepest 
 faith, art of a good life and art kind to thy relatives and 
 friends, and neither art thou a talker abroad in the bazaars. 
 What has befallen thee ? Hast thou seen aught terrible V 
 Muhammad replied " Yes." And he told her what he had 
 seen. Whereupon she answered and said : — " Rejoice, O 
 dear husband and be of good cheer. He in whose hands 
 stands KhadijaV life, is my witness that thou wilt be 
 the Prophet of this people." 1 The next Sura, the 74th, 
 was revealed at Mecca, after which there seems to have 
 been an intermission, called tlie Fatrah. It was during 
 this time that the Prophet gained some knowledge of the 
 contents of the Jewish and the Christian Scriptures. 
 
 Gabriel is believed to have been the medium of communi- 
 cation. This fact, however, is only once stated in the 
 Quran : — " Say, whoso is the enemy of Gabriel — For he it is 
 
 1.. Literary Remains of Emmanuel Deutsch, p. 77. 
 
4 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 who by God's leave hath caused the Quran to descend on 
 thy heart" (Sura ii. 91.) This Sura was revealed some 
 years after the Prophet's flight to Madina. The other 
 references to the revelation of the Quran are : — " Verily from 
 the Lord of the worlds hath this book come down ; the 
 Faithful Spirit (Ruh-ul-Amin) hath come down with it" 
 (Sura xxvi. 192.) " The Quran is no other than a revela- 
 tion revealed to him, oue terrible in power (Shadid-ul-Qua) 
 taught it him." (Sura liii. 5.) These latter passages do 
 not state clearly that Gabriel was the medium of communi- 
 cation, but the belief that he was is almost, if not entirely, 
 universal, aud the Commentators say that the terms " Ruh- 
 ul-Amin" and " Shadid-ul-Qua" refer to no other angel or 
 spirit. The use of the word " taught" in the last Sura 
 quoted, and the following expression in Sura lxxv. 18. 
 " When we have recited if, then follow thou the recital," 
 show that the Qurau is entirely an objective revelation and 
 that Muhammad was only a passive medium of communi- 
 cation. The Muhammadan historian, Ibn Khaldoun, says 
 on this point : — " Of all the divine books the Quran is the 
 only oue of which the text, words and phrases have been 
 communicated to a prophet by an audible voice. It is 
 otherwise with the Pentateuch, the Gospel and the other 
 divine books : the prophets received them under the form 
 of ideas." l This expresses the universal belief on this point 
 — a belief which reveals the essentially mechanical nature of 
 Islam. 
 
 The Quran thus revealed is now looked upon as the 
 standing miracle of Islam. Other divine books, it is 
 admitted, were revelations received under the form of 
 ideas, but the Quran is far superior to them all for the 
 actual text was revealed to the ear of the prophet. Thus 
 we read in Sura lxxv. 16 — 19 : — 
 
 1. Prolegomenes d'Ibn Khaldoun, vol. i. p. 195. 
 
The Miracles of Projthcts. 
 
 " Move not thy tongue in haste to follow and master this revelation ; 
 
 For we will see to the collecting and recital of it ; 
 
 Bat when we have recited it, then follow thou the recital ; 
 
 And verily it shall be ours to make it clear to thee." 
 
 The Quran is, then, believed to be a miraculous revela- 
 tion of divine eloquence, as regards both form and sub- 
 stance, arrangement of words, and its revelation of sacred 
 things. It is asserted that each well-accredited prophet per- 
 formed miracles in that particular department of human 
 skill or science most flourishing in his age. Thus in the 
 days of Moses magic exercised a wide influence, but all the 
 magicians of Pharaoh's court had to submit to the 
 superior skill of the Hebrew prophet. In the days of Jesus 
 the science of medicine flourished. Men possessed great 
 skill in the art of healing ; but no physician could equal the 
 skill of Jesus, who not only healed the sick, but raised the 
 dead. In the days of Muhammad the special and most 
 striking feature of the age was the wonderful power of the 
 Arabs in the art of poetry. Muhammad-ud-Damiri says : — 
 " Wisdom hath alighted on three things — the brain of the 
 Franks, the hands of the Chinese and the tongue of the 
 Arabs." They were unrivalled for their eloquence, for the 
 skill with which they arranged their material and gave 
 expression to their thoughts. It is in this very particular 
 that superior excellence is claimed for the Quran. 1 It is 
 to the Muhammadan mind a sure evidence of its miraculous 
 origin that it should excel in this respect. Muslims say that 
 miracles have followed the revelations given to other pro- 
 phets in order to confirm the divine message. In this 
 case the Quran is both a revelation and a miracle. Muham- 
 
 1. " The grandeur of the Quran consists, its contents apart, in its diction. 
 We cannot explain the peculiarly dignified, impressive, sonorous nature of 
 Semitic sound and parlance ; its sesquipedalia verba with their crowd of 
 affixes and prefixes, each of them affirming its own position, whilst consci- 
 ously bearing upon and influencing the central root— which they envelope 
 like a garment of many folds, or a« chosen courtiers move around the 
 anointed person of the king." Literary Remains of Emmanuel Deutsch, p. 122. 
 
The Faith of Islam. 
 
 1 
 
 mad himself said : — " Bach prophet has received manifest 
 sisrus which carried conviction to men : but that which I 
 have received is the revelation. So I hope to have a larger 
 following on the day of resurrection than any other prophet 
 has." Ibn Khaldoun says that " by this the Prophet means 
 that such a wonderful miracle as the Quran, which is also a 
 evelation, should carry conviction to a very large number." 1 
 To a Muslim the fact is quite clear, and so to him the Quran 
 is far superior to all the precediug books. Muhammad is 
 said to have convinced a rival, Lebid, a poet-laureate, of the 
 truth of his mission by recitiug to him a portion of the now 
 second Sura. " Unquestionably it is one of the very grandest 
 specimens of Koranic or Arabic diction But even descrip- 
 tions of this kind, grand as they be, are not sufficient to 
 kindle and preserve the enthusiasm and the faith and the 
 
 hope of a nation like the Arabs The poets before him 
 
 had sung of valour and generosity, of love and strife and 
 
 revenge of early graves, upon which weeps the morning 
 
 cloud, and of the fleetiug nature of life which comes and 
 goes as the waves of the desert sands, as the tents of a cara- 
 van, as a flower that shoots up and dies away. Or they shoot 
 their bitter arrows of satire right into the enemy's own soul. 
 Muhammad sang of none of these. No love-minstrelsy his, 
 not the joys of the world, nor sword, nor camel, nor jealousy, 
 nor human vengeance, not the glories of tribe or ancestor. 
 He preached Islam." The very fierceness with which this 
 is done, the swearing such as Arab orator, proficient thougl 
 he may have been in the art, had never made, the dogmatic 
 certainty with which the Prophet proclaimed his message 
 have tended, equally with the passionate grandeur of his 
 utterances, to hold the Muslim world spell-bound to the 
 letter and imbued with all the narrowness of the book. 
 So sacred is the text supposed to be that only the Coni- 
 
 1. Piolegomenes d'Ibn Khaldoun vol. i. p. 194. 
 
 l 
 
Arrangement of the Quran. 
 
 pauious l of the Prophet are deemed worthy of being com- 
 mentators on it. The work of learned divines since then 
 has been to learn the Quran by heart and to master the 
 traditions, with the writings of the earliest commentators 
 thereon. The revelation itself is never made a subject of 
 investigation or tried by the ordinary rules of criticism. If 
 only the Isnad, or chain of authorities for any interpretation, 
 is good, that interpretation is unhesitatingly accepted as the 
 correct one. It is a fundamental article of belief that no 
 other book in the world can possibly approach near to it in 
 thought or expression. It deals with positive precepts 
 rather than with principles. Its decrees are held to be 
 binding not in the spirit merely but in the very letter on all 
 men, at all times and under every circumstance of life. 
 This follows as a natural consequence from fche belief in its 
 eternal nature. 
 
 The various portions recited by the Prophet during the 
 twenty-three years of his prophetical career were committed 
 to writing by some of his followers, or treasured up in their 
 memories. As the recital of the Quran formed a part of 
 every act of public worship, and as such recital was an act 
 of great religious merit, every Muslim tried to remember as 
 much as he could. He who could do so best was entitled 
 to the highest honour, and was often the recipient of a sub- 
 stantial reward. 2 The Arab love for poetry facilitated the 
 exercise of this faculty. When the Prophet died the reve- 
 lation ceased. There was no distinct copy of the whole, 
 nothing to show what was of transitory importance, what of 
 permanent value. There is nothing which proves that the 
 Prophet took any special care of any portions. There seems 
 to have been no definite order in which, when the book was 
 
 1. Those who were in constant intercourse with the prophet are called 
 Ashab (Companions) ; their disciples are named Tabi'in (Followers) ; their 
 disciples are known as Taba-i-Tabi'in (Followers of the Followers)." 
 
 2. " Thus, after the usual distribution of the spoils taken on the field of 
 Cadesia (a. h. 14) the residue was divided among those who knew most of 
 the Coran." Muir, vol. i. p. S. 
 
8 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 compiled, the various Suras were arranged, for the Quran, 
 as it now exists, is utterly devoid of all historical or logical 
 sequence. For a year after the Prophet's death nothing 
 seems to have been done ; but then the battle of Yemana 
 took place in which a very large number of the best Quran 
 reciters were slain. Omar took fright at this, and address- 
 ing the Khalif Abu Bakr, said, " The slaughter may again 
 wax hot amongst the repeaters of the Quran in other fields 
 of battle, and much may be lost therefrom. Now, there- 
 fore, my advice is that thou shouldest give speedy orders 
 for the collection of the Quran." Abu Bakr agreed, and 
 said to Zeid who had been an amanuensis of the Prophet : — 
 " Thou art a young man, and wise, against whom no one 
 amongst us can cast an imputation ; and thou wert wont to 
 write down the inspired revelations of the Prophet of the 
 Lord, wherefore now search out the Quran and bring it all 
 together." Zeid being at length pressed to undertake the 
 task proceeded to gather the Quran together from " date 
 leaves, and tablets of white stone, and from the hearts of 
 men." In course of time it was all compiled in the oi'der in 
 which the book is now arranged. This was the authorized 
 text for some twenty-three years after the death of Muham- 
 mad. Owing, however, either to different modes of recita- 
 tion, or to differences of expression in the sources from 
 which Zeid's first recension was made, a variety of different 
 readings crept into the copies in use. The Faithful became 
 alarmed and the Khalif Osman was persuaded to put a stop 
 to such a danger. He appointed Zeid with three of the 
 leading men of the Quraish as assistants to go over the 
 whole work again. A careful recension was made of the 
 whole book which was then assimilated to the Meccan dia- 
 lect, the purest in Arabia. After this all other copies of 
 the Quran were burnt by order of the Khalif, and new 
 transcripts were made of the revised edition which was now 
 the only authorised copy. As it is a fundamental tenet of 
 Islam that the Quran is incorruptible and absolutely free 
 
Influence of the Quran. 
 
 from error, no little difficulty has been felt in explaining 
 the need of Osman's new and revised edition and of the 
 circumstances under which it took place ; but as usual a 
 Tradition has been handed down which makes it lawful to 
 read the Quran in seven dialects. The book in its present 
 form may be accepted as a genuine reproduction of Abu 
 Bakr's edition with authoritative corrections. We may 
 rest assured that we have in the Quran now in use the 
 record of what Muhammad said. It thus becomes a funda- 
 mental basis of Islam. It was a common practice of the 
 early Muslims when speaking of the Prophet to say : — 
 " His character is the Quran." When people curious to 
 know details of the life of their beloved master asked 
 'Ayesha, one of his widows, about him, she used to reply : — 
 " Thou hast the Quran, art thou not an Arab and readest 
 the Arab tongue ? Why dost thou ask me, for the Prophet's 
 disposition is no other than the Quran ?" 
 
 Whether Muhammad would have arranged the Quran as 
 we now have it is a subject on which it is impossible to 
 form an opinion. There are Traditions which seem to show 
 that he had some doubts as to its completeness. I give the 
 following account on the authority of M. Caussin de Percival. 
 When Muhammad felt his end draw near he said : — " Bring 
 ink and paper: I wish to write to you a book to preserve you 
 always from error." But it was too late. He could not 
 write or dictate and so he said :— " May the Quran always be 
 your guide. Perform what it commands you : avoid what 
 it prohibits." The genuineness of the first part of this 
 Tradition is, I think, very doubtful, the latter is quite in 
 accordance with the Prophet's claim for his teaching. The 
 letter of the book became, as Muhammad intended it 
 should become, a despotic influence in the Muslim world, 
 a barrier to freethinkiug on the part of all the orthodox, an 
 obstacle to innovation in all spheres — political, social, intel- 
 lectual and moral. There are many topics connected with 
 it which can be better explained in the next chapter. All 
 
 2 
 
10 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 — ■■■ --■ - , , --. .-■- . , , . , ...... -. 7 - ■-— ■ — ..-■■ . j 
 
 that has now to be here stated is that the Quran is the first 
 foundation of Islam. It is an error to suppose it is the only 
 one : an error which more than anything else has led persons 
 away from the only position in which they could obtain a 
 true idea of the great system of Islam. 
 
 The Sbia'hs maintain, without good reason, that the fol- 
 lowing verses favourable to the claims of 'All and of the 
 Shia'h faction were omitted in Osman's recension. 
 
 " Believers ! believe in the two lights. (Muhammad and 'AH). 
 
 'All is of the number of the pious, we shall give him his right in 
 the day of judgment ; we shall not pass over those who wish to 
 deceive him. We have honoured him above all this family. He and 
 his family arc very patient. Their enemy 1 is the chief of sinners. 
 
 We have announced to thee a race of just men, men 2 who will 
 not oppose our orders. My mercy and peace are on them living 3 
 or dead. 
 
 As to those who walk in their way, my mercy is on them ; they 
 will certainly gain the mansions of Paradise." 
 
 2. The Sunnat. — The second foundation of Islam is based 
 on the Hadis (plural Ahadis) or Tradition. Commands 
 from God given in the Quran are called ' farz' and ' wajib.' 
 A command given by the Prophet or an example set by 
 him is called ' sunnat/ a word meaning a rule. It is then 
 technically applied to the basis of religious faith and prac- 
 tice, which is founded on traditional accounts of the sayings 
 and acts of Muhammad. 4 It is the belief common to all 
 Musalmans, that the Prophet in all that he did, and in all 
 that he said, was supernaturally guided, and that his words 
 and acts are to all time and to all his followers a divine 
 rule of faith and practice. " We should know that God 
 Almighty has given commands and prohibitions to his ser- 
 
 1. Muavia. 2. The twelve Imams. 3. Al-Mahdi is still supposed to be alive. 
 
 4. These are called (1) Sumiat-i-Fi'li ; that which Muhammad himself 
 did. (2) Sunnat-i-Qauli, that which he said should be practised. (3) 
 Sunnat-i-Taqriri, that which was done in his presence and which he did not 
 forbid. 
 
The Value of Tradition. 11 
 
 vants, either by means of the Quran, or by the mouth of His 
 Prophet." 1 Al-Ghazali, a most distinguished theologian, 
 writes : — " Neither is the faith according to His will, com- 
 plete by the testimony to the Unity alone, that is, by simply 
 saying, ' There is but one God/ without the addition of the 
 further testimony to the Apostle, that is, the statement, 
 ' Muhammad is the apostle of God.' " This belief in the 
 Prophet must extend to all that he has said concerning the 
 present and the future life, for, says the same author, 
 " A man's faith is not accepted till he is fully persuaded of 
 those things which the Prophet hath affirmed shall be after 
 death." 
 
 It is often said that the Wahhabis reject Tradition. In 
 the ordinary sense of the word Tradition they may ; but in 
 Muslim Theology the term Hadis, which we translate Tradi- 
 tion, has a special meaning. It is applied only to the sayings 
 of the Prophet, not to those of some uninspired divine or 
 teacher. The Wahhabis reject the Traditions handed down 
 by men who lived after the time of the Companions, but 
 the Hadis, embodying the sayings of the Prophet, they, 
 in common with all Muslim sects, hold to be an inspired 
 revelation of God's will to men. It would be as reasonable 
 to say that Protestants reject the four Gospels as to say that 
 the Wahhabis reject Tradition. 2 An orthodox Muslim places 
 the Gospels in the same rank as the Hadis, that is, he looks 
 upon them as a record of what Jesus said and did handed 
 down to us by His Companions. " In the same way as 
 other Prophets received their books under the form of ideas, 
 so our Prophet has in the same way received a great number 
 of communications which are found in the collections of the 
 
 1. Risala-i-Berkevi. 
 
 2. The great Wahhabi preacher Muhammad Isma'fl, of whom some 
 account will be given later on, says in the Takwiat-ul-Iman :— " The best 
 of all ways is to have for principles the words (holy writings) of God and 
 of His Apostle ; to hold them alone as precedents, and not to allow our own 
 opinion to be exercised." 
 
12 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 Traditions (Ahadis). 1 This shows that the Sunnat must be 
 placed on a level with the Jewish and Christian Scriptures ; 
 whilst the Quran is a revelation superior to them all. To 
 no sect of Musalmans is the Quran alone the rule of faith. 
 The Shia'hs, it is true, reject the Sunnat, but they have in 
 their own collection of Traditions an exact equivalent. 
 
 The nature of the inspiration of the Sunnat and its 
 authoritative value are questions of the first importance, 
 whether Islam is viewed from a theological or a political 
 stand-point. 
 
 " Muhammad said that seventy-three sects would arise, 
 of whom only one would be worthy of Paradise. The Com- 
 panions inquired which sect would be so highly favoured. 
 The Prophet replied : — ' The one which remains firm in my 
 way and in that of my friends/ It is certain that this 
 must refer to the Ahl-i-Sunnat wa Jama' at." (Sunnis.) 2 
 
 It is laid down as a preliminary religious duty that 
 obedience should be rendered to the Sunnat of the Prophet. 
 Thus in the fourth Sura of the Quran it is written : " true 
 believers ! obey God and obey the apostle." " We have 
 not sent any apostle but that he might be obeyed by the 
 permission of God." From these and similar passages the 
 following doctrine is deduced : " It is plain that the Pro- 
 phet (on whom and on whose descendants be the mercy 
 and peace of God !) is free from sin in what he ordered to 
 be done, and in what he prohibited, in all his words and 
 acts ; for were it otherwise how could obedience rendered 
 to him be accounted as obedience paid to God ?" 3 Believers 
 are exhorted to render obedience to God by witnessing to 
 His divinity, and to the Prophet by bearing witness to his 
 prophetship j this is a sign of love, and love is the cause of 
 nearness to God. The Prophet himself is reported to have 
 
 1. Prolegomenes d'lbn Khaldoun vol. i. p. 195. 
 
 2. Takmil-ul-Iman, p. 16. 
 
 3. Mudarij-un-Nabuwat, p. 285. 
 
h 
 The Sunnat. 13 
 
 said, " Obey me that God may regard you as friends." 
 From this statement the conclusion is drawn that " the love 
 of God (to man) is conditional on obedience to the Pro- 
 phet." Belief in and obedience to the Prophet are essen- 
 tial elements of the true faith, and he who possesses not 
 both of these is in error. 1 
 
 In order to show the necessity of this obedience, God is 
 said to have appointed Muhammad as the Mediator between 
 Himself and man. In a lower sense, believers are to follow 
 the " Sunnat" of the four Khalifs, Abu Bakr, Omar, 
 Osman, and 'All, who are true guides to men. 
 
 To the Muslim all that the Prophet did was pei'fectly in 
 accord with the will of God. Moral laws have a different 
 application when applied to him. His jealousy, his cruelty 
 to the Jewish tribes, his indulgence in licentiousness, his 
 bold assertion of equality with God as regards his com- 
 mands, his every act and word, are sinless, and a guide to 
 men as long as the world shall last. It is easy for an 
 apologist for Muhammad to say that this is an accretion, 
 something which engrafted itself on to a simpler system. 
 It is no such thing. It is rather one of the essential parts 
 of the system. Let Muhammad be his own witness : — " He 
 who loves not my Sunnat is not my follower." " He who 
 revives my Sunnat revives me, and will be with me in 
 Paradise." " He who in distress holds fast to the Sunnat 
 will receive the reward of a hundred martyrs." As might 
 be expected, the setting up of his own acts and words as 
 an infallible and unvaryiug rule of faith accounts more than 
 anything else for the immobility of the Muhammadan 
 world, for it must be always remembered that in Islam 
 Church and State are one. The Arab proverb, " Al mulk 
 wa din tawamini" — country and religion are twins — is the 
 popular form of expressing the unity of Church and State. 
 
 1. " Les docteurs de la loi sont unaniment d'accord sur l'obligation de 
 conformer ses actions a ce qui est indique dans les traditions attributes 
 au Prophete." Ibn Khaldoun, vol. ii. p. 465. 
 
14 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 To the mind of the Musalman the rule of the one is the 
 rule of the other, — a truth sometimes forgotten by politi- 
 cians who look hopefully on the reform of Turkey or the 
 regeneration of the House of Osman. The Sunnat as much 
 as the Quran covers all law, whether political, social, moral, 
 or religious. A modern writer who has an intimate acquain- 
 tance with Islam says : — " If Islam is to be a power for 
 good in the future, it is imperatively necessary to cut off 
 the social system from the religion. The difficulty lies in 
 the close connection between the religious and social 
 ordinances in the Kurau, the two are so intermingled that 
 it is hard to see how they can be disentangled without 
 destroying both." I believe this to be impossible, and the 
 case becomes still more hopeless when we remember that 
 the same remark would apply to the Sunnat. To forget 
 this is to go astray, for Ibn Khaldoun distinctly speaks of 
 " the Law derived from the Quran and the Sunnat," of the 
 " maxims of Musalman Law based on the text of the Quran 
 and the teaching of the Traditions." l 
 
 The Prophet had a great dread of all innovation. The 
 technical term for anything new is " bida't," and of it, it is 
 said : " Bida't is the changer of Sunnat." In other words, 
 if men seek after things new, if fresh forms of thought arise, 
 and the changing condition of society demands new modes 
 of expression for the Faith, or new laws to regulate the 
 community, if in iuternals or externals, any new thing 
 (bida't) is introduced, it is to be shunned. The law as 
 revealed in the Quran and the Sunnat is perfect. Every- 
 thing not in accordance with the precepts therein contained 
 is innovation, and all innovation is heresy. Meanwhile some 
 
 1. In June 1827, a. d., Sultan Mahmud issued a manifesto protesting 
 against interference in the affairs of the Ottoman Empire, " the affairs of 
 which are conducted upon the principles of sacred legislation, and all the 
 regulations of which are strictly connected with the principles of religion." 
 These principles still remain in force, for tlie famous Fatva given by the 
 Council of the 'Ulama, in July 1879, anent Khair-ud-din's proposed reforms, 
 speaks of " the unalterable principles of the Sheri," or Law. 
 
The Sunnat. 15 
 
 " bida't" is allowable, such as the teaching of etymology 
 and syntax, the establishment of schools, guest-houses, &c, 
 which things did not exist in the time of the Prophet ; but 
 it is distinctly and clearly laid down that compliance with 
 the least Sunnat (I.e. the obeying the least of the orders of 
 the Prophet, however trivial) is far better than doing some 
 new thing, however advantageous and desirable it may be. 
 
 There are many stories which illustrate the importance 
 the Companions of the Prophet attached to Sunnat. " The 
 Khalif Omar looked towards the black stone at Mecca, aud 
 said, ' By God, I know that thou art only a stone, aud canst 
 grant no benefit, canst do no harm. If I had not known 
 that the Prophet kissed thee, I would not have done so 
 but on account of that I do it.' " Abdullah-Ibn-'Umr was 
 seen riding his camel round and round a certain place. In 
 answer to an inquiry as to his reason for so doing he said : 
 " I know not, only I have seen the Prophet do so here." 
 Ahmad-Ibn-Hanbal, one of the four great Imams, and the 
 founder of the Hanbali school of interpretation, is said to 
 have been appointed on account of the care with which he 
 observed' the Sunnat. One day when sitting in an assembly 
 he alone of all present observed some formal custom autho- 
 rised by the practice of the Prophet. Gabriel at once 
 appeared and informed him that now, and on account of his 
 act, he was appointed au Imam. 1 In short, it is distinctly 
 laid down that the best of all works is the following of the 
 practice of Muhammad. The essence of religion has been 
 stated by a learned theologian to consist of three things : 
 first, to follow the Prophet in morals and in acts ; secondly, 
 to eat only lawful food ; thirdly, to be sincere in all actions. 
 
 1. " The respect which modern Muslims pay to their Prophet, is almost 
 idolatrous. The Imam Ibn Hanbal would uot even eat water-melons 
 because although he knew the Prophet ate them, he could not learn whether 
 he ate them with or without the rind, or whether he broke, bit or cut them : 
 and he forbade a woman, who questioned him as to the propriety of the 
 act, to spin by the light of torches passing in the streets by night, because 
 the Prophet had not mentioned that it was lawful to do so." Lane's Modern 
 Egyptians, vol. i. p. 354. 
 
16 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 The Surmat is now known to Musalmans through the col- 
 lections of Traditions gathered together by the men whose 
 names they now bear. The whole are called Sihah- Sittah, 
 or " six correct books. " Not one of these collectors flour- 
 ished until the third century of the Hijra, and so, as may 
 be easily supposed, their work has not passed unchal- 
 lenged. There is by no means an absolute consensus of 
 opinion among the Sunnis as to the exact value of each 
 Tradition, yet all admit that a ' genuine Tradition' must be 
 obeyed. Whether the Prophet spoke what in the Traditions 
 is recorded as spoken by him under the influence of the 
 highest kind of inspiration is, as will be shown in the next 
 chapter, a disputed point ; but it matters little. Whatever 
 may have been the degree, it was according to Muslim 
 belief a real inspiration, and thus his every act and word 
 became a law as binding upon his followers as the example 
 of Christ is upon Christians. 
 
 The Shia'hs do not acknowledge the Sikah-Sittah, the six 
 correct books of the Sunnis, but it by no means follows that 
 they reject Tradition. They have five books of Traditions, 
 the earliest of which was compiled by Abu Ja'far Muham- 
 mad a.h. 329, or a century later than the Sahih-i-Bukhari, 
 the most trustworthy of the Sunni set. Thus all Musalman 
 sects accept the first and second ground of the faith — the 
 Quran and the Sunnat — as the inspired will of God ; the 
 Shia'hs substituting in the place of the Traditions on which 
 the Sunnat is based, a collection of their own. What it is 
 important to maintain is this, that the Quran alone is to no 
 Musalman an all-sufficient guide. 
 
 3. Ijma\ — The third foundation of the Faith is called 
 Ijma', a word signifying to be collected or assembled. 
 Technically it means the unanimous consent of the leading 
 theologians, or what in Christian theology would be called 
 the " unanimous consent of the Fathers/' Practically it is 
 a collection of the opinions of the Companions, the Tabi'in 
 and the Taba-i-Tabi'in. "The Law/' says lb n Khaldoun 
 
Ijtihad. 1 7 
 
 " is grounded on the general accord of the Companions and 
 their followers." The election of Abu Bakr to the Khali- 
 fate is called Ijma'-i-Unimat, the unanimous cousent of the 
 whole sect. The Companions of the Prophet had special 
 knowledge of the various circumstances under which special 
 revelations had been made ; they alone knew which verses 
 of the Quran abrogated others, and which verses were thus 
 abrogated. The knowledge of these matters and many other 
 details they handed on to their successors, the Tabi'In, who 
 passed the information on to their followers, the Taba-i- 
 Tabi'in. Some Muslims, the Wahhabis for example, accept 
 only the Ijma' of the Companions ; and by all sects that is 
 placed in the first rank as regards authority ; others accept 
 that of the ' Fugitives' who dwelt at Madina ; and there are 
 some amongst the orthodox who allow, as a matter of theory, 
 that Ijma' may be collected at any time, but that practically 
 it is not done because there are now no Mujtahidiu. The 
 highest rank a Muslim Theologian could reach was that of 
 a Mujtahid, or one who could make an Ijtihad, a word which, 
 derived from the same root as Jihad (a Crescentade), means 
 in its technical sense a logical deduction. It is defined as 
 the " attaining to a certain degree of authority in searching 
 into the principles of jurisprudence." The origin of Ijtihad 
 was as follows : — Muhammad wished to send a man named 
 Mu'az to Yaman to receive some money collected for alms, 
 which he was then to distribute to the poor. On appointing 
 him he said : " Mu'az, by what rule will you act ?" He 
 replied, " by the Law of the Quran." " But if you find no 
 direction therein?" "Then I will act according to the 
 Sunnat of the Prophet." " But what if that fails ?" " Then 
 I will make an Ijtihad and act on that." The Prophet raised 
 his hands and said, " Praise be to God who guides the 
 messenger of His Prophet in what He pleases." 1 This is 
 considered a proof of the authority of Ijtihad for the Prophet 
 clearly sanctioned it. 
 
 1. Mudarij-un-Nabuwat, p. 1009. 
 
18 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 When the Prophet was alive men could go to him with 
 their doubts and fears : an infallible authority was always 
 present ready to give au inspired directiou. The Khalifs 
 who succeeded the Prophet had only to administer the Law 
 according to the opinions which they knew Muhammad had 
 held. They were busily engaged in carrying on the work 
 of conquest ; they neither attempted any new legislation, 
 nor did they depart from the practice of him whom they 
 revered. " In the first days of Islam, the knowledge of the 
 Law was purely Traditional. In forming their judgments 
 they had no recourse either to speculation, to private opinion, 
 or to arguments founded upon analogy/' 1 However, as the 
 Empire grew, new conditions of life arose, giving rise to ques- 
 tions, concerning which Muhammad had given no explicit 
 direction. This necessitated the use of Ijtihad. During the 
 Khalifates of Abu Bakr, Omar, Osman and 'All — the Khulafa- 
 i-Rashidin, or the Khalifs who could guide men in the right 
 way, the custom was for the Faithful to consult them as to the 
 course of action to be pursued under some new develop- 
 ment of circumstances ; for they knew as none other did the 
 Prophet's sayings and deeds, they could recall to their memo- 
 ries a saying or au act from which a decision could be deduced. 
 In this way all Muslims could feel that in following their 
 judgments and guidance they were walking in the right 
 path. But after the death of 'Ali, the fourth Khalif, civil war 
 and hostile factions imperilled the continuance of the Faith in 
 its purity. At Madina, where Muhammad's career as a 
 recognised Prophet was best known, devout men commenced 
 to learn by heart the Quran, the Sunnat, and the analogical 
 judgments (Ijtihad) of the four Khalifs. These men were 
 looked up to as authorities, and their decisions were after- 
 wards known as the ' Customs of Madina/ 
 
 It is not difficult to see that a system, which sought to 
 regulate all departments of life, all developments of men's 
 ideas and energies by the Sunnat and analogical deductions 
 1. Prolegomenes d'Ibn Khaldoun, vol. ii. p. 469. 
 
The Four Orthodox Imams. 19 
 
 therefrom, was one which not ouly gave every temptation 
 a system could give to the manufacture of Tradition, but 
 one which would soon become too cumbersome to be of 
 practical use. Hence, it was absolutely uecessai'y to syste- 
 matize all this incoherent mass of Tradition, of judgments 
 given by Khalifs and Mujtahidin. This gave rise to the 
 systems of jurisprudence, founded by the four orthodox 
 Imams, to one or other of which all Muslims, except the 
 Shia'hs, belong. These Imams, Abu Hanifa, Ibn Malik, 
 As-Shafi'i and Ibn Hanbal were all Mujtahidin of the 
 highest rank. After them it is the orthodox belief that 
 there has been no Mujtahid. Thus in a standard theologi- 
 cal book much used in India it is written : u Ijma' is this, 
 that it is not lawful to follow any other than the four 
 Imams." " In these days the Qazi must make no order, 
 the Mufti give no fatva (i.e. a legal decision), contrary to 
 the opinion of the four Imams." " To follow any other is 
 not lawful." So far then as orthodoxy is concerned, change 
 and progress are impossible. 
 
 Imam Abu Hanifa was born at Basra (a.h. 80), but he 
 spent the greater part of his life at Kufa. He was the 
 founder and teacher of the body of legists knowu as ( the 
 jurists of Irak/ His system differs considerably from that 
 of the Imam Malik who, living at Madina, confined himself 
 chiefly to Tradition as the basis of his judgments. Madina 
 was full of the memories of the sayings and acts of the 
 Prophet j Kiifa, the home of Hanifa, on the contrary, was 
 not founded till after the Prophet's death and so possessed 
 none of his memories. Islam there came into contact with 
 other races of men, but from them it had nothing to learn. 
 If these men became Muslims, well and good : if not, the one 
 law for them as for the Faithful was the teaching of Muham- 
 mad. Various texts of the Quran are adduced to prove the 
 correctness of this position. " For to thee have we sent 
 down the book which cleareth up every thing." (Sura xvi. 
 91) " Nothing have we passed over in the book." (Sura vi. 
 
20 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 38.) " Neither is there a grain in the darkness of the earth 
 nor a thing green or sere, but it is noted in a distinct writing." 
 (Sura vi. 59). These texts were held to pi*ove that all law 
 was provided for by anticipation in the Quran. If a verse 
 could not be found bearing on any given question/ analogi- 
 cal deduction was resorted to. Thus : ' ' He it is who created 
 for you all that is on eai'th." (Sura ii. 27). According to the 
 Hanifite jurists, this is a deed of gift which annuls all other 
 rights of property. The ' you' refers to Muslims. The 
 earth 1 may be classified under three heads : — (1) land which 
 never had an owner ; (2) land which had an owner and has 
 been abandoned ; (3 ) the person and property of the 
 Infidels. From the last division the same legists deduce the 
 lawfulness of slavery, piracy and constant war against the 
 unbelievers. To return to Abu Hanifa. He admitted very few 
 Traditions as authoritative in his system, which claims to be 
 a logical development from the Quran. " The merit of 
 logical fearlessness cannot be denied to it. The wants and 
 wishes of men, the previous history of a country — all those 
 considerations, in fact, which are held in the West to be 
 the governing principles of legislation, are set aside by the 
 legists of Irak as being of no account whatever. Legisla- 
 tion is not a science inductive and experimental, but logical 
 and deductive." 2 
 
 Imam Ibn Malik was born at Madina (a.h. 93) and his 
 system of jurisprudence is founded, as might be expected 
 from his connection with the sacred city, on the " Customs 
 of Madina." His business was to arrange and systematize 
 the Traditions current in Madina, and to form out of them 
 and the " Customs" a system of jurisprudence embi-acing 
 the whole sphere of life. The treatise composed by him 
 was called the " Muwatta" or " The Beaten Path." The 
 greater part of its contents are legal maxims and opinions 
 
 1. Journal Asiatique 4me aerie, torn. xii. 
 
 2. Osborn's Islam under the Khalifs, p. 29. 
 
Imam As-Shafa'L 21 
 
 delivered by the Companions. His system of jurisprudence, 
 therefore, has been described as historical and traditional. 
 In an elegy on his death by Abu Muhammad Ja'far it is 
 said : " His Traditions were of the greatest authority ; his 
 gravity was impressive ; and when he delivered them, all 
 his auditors were plunged in admiration." * The Traditions 
 were his great delight. " I delight," said he, " in testifying 
 my profound respect for the sayings of the Prophet of God, 
 and I never repeat one unless I feel myself in a state of 
 perfect purity/' 2 (i. e., after performing a legal ablution.) 
 As death approached, his one fear was lest he should have 
 exercised his private judgment in delivering any legal 
 opinion. In his last illness a friend went to visit him, and 
 enquiring why he wept, received the following answer : 
 " Why should I not weep, and who has more right to weep 
 than I ? By Allah ! I wish I had been flogged and re- 
 flogged for every question of law on which I pronounced 
 an opinion founded on my own private judgment." 3 
 
 Imam As-Shafa'i, a member of the Quraish tribe, was 
 born a. h. 150. He passed his youth at Mecca but finally 
 settled in Cairo where he died (a. h. 204). Ibn Khalli- 
 kan relates of him that he was unrivalled for his knowledge 
 of the Quran, the Sunnat, and the sayings of the Com- 
 panions. " Never," said Imam Ibn Hanbal, " have I 
 passed a night without praying for God's mercy and bless- 
 ing upon As-Shafi'i." " Whosoever pretends," said Abu 
 Thaur, "that he saw the like of As-Shafi'i for learning is a 
 liar." Having carefully studied the systems of the two 
 preceding Imams he then proceeded on an eclectic system 
 to form his own. It was a reaction against the system of 
 Abu Hanifa. As-Shafi'i follows rather the traditional 
 plan of Ibn Malik. The Hanifite will be satisfied if, in the 
 absence of a clear and a direct statement, he finds one 
 
 1. Ibn Khallikan's Biographical Dictionary, vol. ii. p. 594. 
 
 2. Ibid., p. 546. 3. Ibid., vol. ii. p. 548. 
 
22 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 passage in the Qm*an, or one Tradition from which the 
 required judgment may be deduced. The Shafi'ite in the 
 same circumstances, if Tradition is the source of his deduc- 
 tion, will require a considerable number of Traditions from 
 which to make it. 
 
 Imam Ibn Hanbal was the last of the four Orthodox 
 Imams. He was born at Baghdad (a. h. 164). His 
 system is a distinct return to Traditionalism. He lived at 
 Baghdad during the reign of the Khalif Mamun, when 
 Orthodox Islam seemed in danger of being lost amid the 
 rationalistic speculations, (that is, from an Orthodox Mus- 
 lim stand-point), and licentious practices of the Court. 
 The jurists most in favour at Court were followers of Abu 
 Hanifa. They carried the principle of analogical deduction 
 to dangerous lengths in order to satisfy the latitudina- 
 rianism of the Khalif. Human speculation seemed to be 
 weakening all the essentials of the Faith. Ibn Hanbal 
 met the difficulty by discarding altogether the principle of 
 analogical deduction. At the same time he saw that the 
 Maliki system, founded as it was on the " Customs of 
 Madina," was ill-suited to meet the wants of a great and 
 growing Empire. It needed to be supplemented. What 
 better, what surer ground could he go upon than the Tradi- 
 tions. These at least were inspired, and thus formed a safer 
 foundation on which to build a system of jurisprudence 
 than the aiialogical deductions of Abu Hanifa did. The 
 system of Ibn Hanbal has almost ceased to exist. There is 
 now no Mufti of this sect at Mecca, though the other three 
 are represented there. Still his influence is felt to this day 
 in the importance he attached to Tradition. 
 
 The distinction between the four Imams has been put in 
 this way. Abu Hanifa exercised his own judgment. 
 Malik and Hanbal preferred authority and precedent. As- 
 Shafi'i entirely repudiated reason. They differ, too, as 
 regards the value of certain Traditions, but to each of them 
 an authentic Tradition is an incontestable authority. Their 
 
The Ijmd' of the four Imams. 23 
 
 opinion on points of doctrine and practice forms the third 
 basis of the Faith. 
 
 The Ijma' of the four Imams is a binding law upon all 
 Suunis. It might be supposed that as the growing needs 
 of the Empire led to the formation of these schools of 
 interpretation ; so now the requirements of modern, social 
 and political life might be met by fresh Imams making new 
 analogical deductions. This is not the case. The ortho- 
 dox belief is, that since the time of the four Imams there 
 has been no Mujtahid who could do as they did. If cir- 
 cumstances should arise which absolutely require some 
 decision to be arrived at, it must be given in full accordance 
 with the ' mazhab/ or school of interpretation, to which the 
 person framing the decision belongs. l This effectually pre- 
 vents all change, and by excluding innovation, whether 
 good or bad, keeps Islam stationary. Legislation is now 
 purely deductive. Nothing must be done contrary to the 
 principles contained in the jurisprudence of the four Imams. 
 " Thus, in any Muhammadan State legislative reforms are 
 simply impossible. There exists no initiative. The Sultan, or 
 Khalif can claim the allegiance of his people only so long 
 as he remains the exact executor of the prescriptions of the 
 Law." 
 
 The question then as regards the politics of the " Eastern 
 
 1. In South India, the Muhammadan money-changer resorts to a curious 
 piece of casuistry to reconcile the practice of Jiis profession with the faith 
 he holds. It is wrong to gain money by money as a direct agency. _ Sup- 
 pose, then, for example, that the charge for changing a shilling is one 
 farthing. It is unlawful for the money-changer to give four three-penny 
 pieces for one shilling plus one farthing, for then he will have sinned 
 against the laws anent usury by gaining money (one farthing) by money ; 
 but if he gives three three-penny pieces plus two pence three farthings in 
 copper the transaction will be lawful, as his profit of one farthing is then 
 gained by selling as merchandize certain pieces of silver and copper for 
 one shilling, and not by exactly changing the shilling. 
 
 Again, pictures or representations of living creatures are unlawful ; and 
 so, when British rupees were first circulated in India, good Muslims doubted 
 whether they could use them, but after a long consultation the 'Ulama 
 declared that, as the eye of His Majesty was so small as not to be clearly 
 visible, the use of such coins was legal. This kind of casuistry is very com- 
 mon and very demoralizing; but it shows how rigid the law is. 
 
24 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 Question" is not whether Muhammad was a deceiver or self- 
 deceived, an apostle or an impostor ; whether the Quran is 
 on the whole good or bad ; whether Arabia was the better 
 or the worse for the change Muhammad wrought ; but what 
 Islam as a religious and political system has become and is, 
 how it now works, what Orthodox Muslims believe and how 
 they act in that belief. The essence of that belief is, 
 that the system as taught by Prophet, Khalifs aud Imams 
 is absolutely perfect. 1 Innovation is worse than a mistake. 
 It is a crime, a sin. This completeness, this finality of his 
 system of religion and polity, is the very pride and glory of 
 a true Muslim. To look for an increase of light in the 
 knowledge of his relation to God and the unseen world, in 
 the laws which regulate Islam on earth is to admit that 
 Muhammad's revelation was incomplete, and that admission 
 no Muslim will make. 
 
 It has been stated on high authority that all that is 
 required for the reform of Turkey is that the Qanuns or 
 orders of the Sultan should take the place of the Shari'at or 
 law of Islam. Precisely so ; if this could be doue, Turkey 
 might be reformed ; but Islam would cease to be the religion 
 of the State. That the law as formulated by the Imam Abu 
 Hauifa ill suits the conditions of modern life is more than 
 probable ; but it is the very function of the Khalif of Islam, 
 
 1. " Authority becomes sacred because sanctioned by heaven. Despo- 
 tism, being the first form of consolidated political authority, is thus 
 rendered unchangeable and identical in fact with Government at large." 
 "Supreme Government has four stages: (1) where the absolute Prince 
 (Muhammad) is among them concentrating in his own person the four 
 cardinal virtues, and this we call the reign of wisdom ; (2) where the Prince 
 appears no longer, neither do these virtues centre in any single person : but 
 are found in four (Abu Bakr, Omar. Osman and 'Ali), who govern in concert 
 with each other, as if they were one, and this we call the reign of the 
 pious ; (3) where none of these is to be found any longer, but a chief 
 (Khalif) arises with a knowledge of the rules propounded by the previous 
 ones, and with judgment enough to apply and explain them, and this we 
 call the reign of the Sunnat ; (4) Where these latter qualities, again, are 
 not to be met with in a single person, but only in a variety who govern in 
 concert ; and this we call the reign of the Sunnat-followers. 
 — Akhlak-i-Jalali, pp. 374. 378. 
 
Ijtihad. 25 
 
 which the Sultan claims to be, to maintain it. He is no 
 Mujtahid, for such there are not now amongst the Sunnis, 
 to which sect the Turks belong. If through stress of cir- 
 cumstances some new law must be made, orthodoxy demands 
 that it should be strictly in accordance with the opinions of the 
 Imams. The Shia'hs, in opposition to the Sunnis, hold that 
 there are still Mujtahidin, but this opinion arises from their 
 peculiar doctrine of the Imamat, a subject we shall discuss a 
 little later on. At first sight it would seem that if there can be 
 Mujtahidin who are now able to give authoritative opinions, 
 there may be some hope of enlightened progress amongst 
 Shia'h people — the Persians for example. There is doubt- 
 less amongst them more religious unrest, more mysticism, 
 more heresy, but they are no further on the road of progress 
 than their neighbours ; and the apparent advantage of the 
 presence of a Mujtahid is quite nullified by the fact that all 
 his decisions must be strictly in accordance with the Quran 
 and the Sunnat, or rather with what to the Shia'h stands 
 in the place of the Sunnat. The Shia'h, as well as the 
 Sunni, must base all legislation on the fossilized system of 
 the past, not on the living needs of the present. Precedent 
 rules both with an iron sway. The Wahhabis reject all 
 Ijrna' except that of the Companions, but that they accept ; 
 so when they are called the Puritans of Islam, it must be 
 remembered that they accept as a rule of faith not only the 
 Quran, but the Sunnat, and some Ijma'. 
 
 In order to make Ijma' binding, it is necessary that the 
 Mujtahidin should have been unanimous in their opinion or 
 in their practice. 
 
 The whole subject of Ijtihad is one of the most important 
 in connection with the possibility of reforms in a Muslim 
 state. A modern Muhammadan writer 1 seeking to show 
 that Islam does possess a capacity for progress and that so 
 far from being a hard and fast system, it is able to adapt 
 itself to new circumstances, because the Prophet ushered in 
 1. Life of Muhammad, by Syed Amir 'All, p. 289. 
 
26 The Faith of Islam, 
 
 " an age of active principles," uses the story I have already 
 related when describing the origin of Ijtihad (Ante. p. 17) to 
 prove the accuracy of his statement. He makes Mu'az to 
 sa y : — " I w iH look first to the Quran, then to precedents of 
 the Prophet, aud lastly rely upon my own judgment." It 
 is true that Ijtihad literally means ( great effort/ it is true 
 that the Companions and Mujtahidin of the first class had 
 the power of exercising their judgment in doubtful cases, 
 and of deciding them according to their sense of the fitness 
 of things, provided always, that their decision contravened 
 no law of the Quran or the Sunnat ; but this in no way proves 
 that Islam has any capacity for progress, or that " an age of 
 active principles" was ushered in by Muhammad, or that 
 his " words breathe energy and force, and infuse new life 
 into the dormant heart of humanity." For, though the 
 term Ijtihad might, in reference to the men I have men- 
 tioned, be somewhat freely translated as " one's own judg- 
 ment," it can have no such meaning now. It is a purely 
 technical term, and its use and only use now is to express 
 the " referring of a difficult case to some analogy drawn 
 from the Quran and the Sunnat." But even were the mean- 
 ing not thus restricted, even though it meant now as it 
 sometimes meant at first, " one's own judgment j" still Syed 
 Amir 'All's position would remain to be proved for, since the 
 days of the four Imams, the orthodox believe that there has 
 been no Mujtahid of the first class, and to none but men of 
 this rank has such power ever been accorded. Thus grant- 
 ing, for the sake of argument merely, that the Syed's 
 translation is grammatically and technically correct, all that 
 results from it is that the " age of active principles" lasted 
 only for two centuries. I do not admit that there ever was 
 such an age in Islam, and certainly neither its theological 
 development, nor its political growth negative the opposite 
 assertion, viz., that Muhammad gave precepts rather than 
 principles. The Turks are included in " the dormant heart 
 of humanity," but it is difficult to see what " energy and 
 
Qias. 27 
 
 force" is breathed, what " new life is infused" into them 
 by the "wonderful words" of the Prophet, or what lasting 
 good the " age of active principles" has produced. 
 
 4. Qias is the fourth foundation of Islam. The word 
 literally means reasoning, comparing. It is in common use 
 in Hindustani and Persian in the sense of guessing, con- 
 sidering, &c. Technically, it means the analogical reasoning 
 of the learned with regard to the teaching of the Quran, 
 the Sunnat and the Ijma\ For example, the Quran says : — 
 " Honour thy father and thy mother and be not a cause of 
 displeasure to them." It is evident from this that dis- 
 obedience to parents is prohibited, and prohibition implies 
 punishment if the order is disobeyed. Again, if the 
 Quran and the Sunnat hold children responsible, according 
 to their means, for the. debts of their father, does it not 
 follow that the elder ones ought to fulfil for their parents 
 all those obligations which for some reason or other the 
 parents may not be able to perform, such as the pilgrimage to 
 Mecca, &c. A Tradition said to come from the Companions 
 runs thus : — " One day, a woman came to the Prophet and 
 said, f my father died without making the Pilgrimage.' The 
 Prophet said, f If thy father had left a debt what wouldest 
 thou do.' ' I would pay the debt.' ' Good, then pay this 
 debt also.' " The Quran forbids the use of Khamar, an 
 intoxicating substance, and so it is argued that wine and 
 opium are unlawful, though not forbidden by name. The 
 Wahhabis would extend the prohibition to the use of tobacco. 
 Prom cases such as these, many jurisconsults hold that the 
 Mujtahidin of the earliest age established this fourth founda- 
 tion of the faith which they call Qias. It is also called 
 Ftibar-ul-Amsal, or " imitation of an example." The idea 
 is taken from the verse : " Profit by this example, ye who 
 are men of insight" (Sura lix. 2). There are strict rules 
 laid down which regulate Qias, of which the most important 
 is, that in all cases it must be based on the Quran, the Sun- 
 nat, and the lima'. In fact, the fundamental idea of Islam 
 
28 The Faith of Islam, 
 
 is that a perfect law has been given, even unto details, of 
 social and political life. The teaching- of Muhammad contains 
 the solution of every difficulty that can arise. Every law 
 not provided by the Prophet must be deduced analogically. 
 This produces uniformity after a fashion, but only because 
 intellectual activity in higher pursuits ceases and moral 
 stagnation follows. Thus all who come within the range of 
 this system are bound down to political servitude. What- 
 ever in feeling or conviction goes beyond the limits of an 
 out-worn set of laws is swept away. There is a wonderful 
 family likeness in the decay of all Musalman States, which 
 seems to point to a common cause. All first principles are 
 contained in the Quran and the Sunnat ; all that does not 
 coincide with them must be wrong. They are above all 
 criticism. 
 
 Qias, then, affords no hope of enlightened progress, 
 removes no fetter of the past, for in it there must be no 
 divergence in principle from a legislation imperfect in its 
 relation to modern life and stationary in its essence. 1 In 
 the Nihayat-ul-Murad it is written : — " We are shut up to 
 following the four Imams." In the Tafsir-i-Ahmadi we 
 read: — " To follow any other than tbefour Imams is unlawful." 
 An objector may say that such respect is like the reverence 
 the heathen pay to their ancestors. To this an answer is 
 given in the preface to the Tarjuma-i-Sharh-i-Waqayah. 
 The writer there says that it is nothing of the kind. " The 
 Mujtahidin are not the source of the orders of the Law, but 
 they are the medium by which we obtain the Law. Thus 
 Imam Abu Hanifa said : ' We select first from the Quran, 
 then from the Traditions, then from the decrees of the 
 Companions ; we act on what the Companions agreed upon ; 
 where they doubt, we doubt/ The Commentator Jelal-ud- 
 din Mahli says, f The common people and others who have 
 
 1. The Muslim 'Ulama are certainly much fettered by their religion in 
 the pursuit of some of the paths of learning ; and superstition sometimes 
 decides a point which has been controverted for centuries. Lane's Modern 
 Egyptians, vol. i. p. 269. 
 
The Authority of the four Imams. 29 
 
 not reached the rank of a Mujfeahid, must follow one of the 
 four Imams/ Then when he enters one Mazhab (sect) he 
 must not change. Again, it may be objected that God gave 
 no order about the appointment of four Imams. Now, it is 
 recorded in a Tradition that the Prophet said, ' Follow the 
 way of the great company ; whosoever departs from it will 
 enter hell/ The Followers of the Imams are a great com- 
 pany." It is moveover the unanimous opinion, the " Tima'- 
 i-Ummat," that the Imams rightly occupy the position 
 accorded to them. It is a great blessing, as we read in the 
 Tafsir-i-Ahmadi : "It is of the grace of God, that we are 
 shut up to these four Imams. God approves of this, and 
 into this matter proofs and explanations do not enter." 
 Should any one further object that, in the days of the 
 Prophet, there were no Mujtahidin, that each man acted on 
 a " saying" as he heard it, that he did not confine his belief 
 or conduct to the deductions made by some " appointed 
 Companion," he may be answered thus : — " For a long time 
 after the death of the Prophet many Companions were alive, 
 and consequently the Traditions then current were trust- 
 worthy ; but now it is not so, hence the need for the Imams 
 and their systems." 
 
 These four foundations, — the Quran, the Sdnnat, Ijma' 
 and Qias — form in orthodox Muslim opinion and belief a 
 perfect basis of a perfect religion and polity. They secure 
 the permanence of the system, but they repress an intelligent 
 growth. The bearing of all this on modern politics is very 
 plain. Take again the case of Turkey. The constitution 
 of the Government is theocratic. The germs of freedom 
 are wanting there as they have never been wanting in any 
 other country in Europe. The ruling power desires no 
 change ; originality of thought, independence of judgment 
 is repressed. Nothing good has the Turk ever done for the 
 woi'ld. 1 This rule has been one continued display of brute 
 
 1, The Goth might ravage Italy, but the Goth came forth purified from 
 fche flames which he himself had kindled. The Saxon swept Britain, but 
 
30 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 force unrelieved by any of the reflected glory which shone 
 for a while in Cordova and in Baghdad. No nation can 
 possibly progress, the foundations of whose legal and theo- 
 cratic system are what has been described in this chapter. 
 When brought into diplomatic and commercial intercourse 
 with States possessing the energy and vigour of a national 
 life and liberal constitution, Muslim kingdoms must, in the 
 long run, fail and pass away. It has been well said that 
 " Spain is the only instance of a country once thoroughly 
 infused with Roman civilisation which has been actually 
 severed from the empire ; aud even then the severance, 
 though of long duratiou, was but partial and temporary. 
 After a struggle of nearly eight centuries, the higher form 
 of social organisation ti'iumphed over the lower and the 
 usurping power of Islam was expelled." So it ought to be, 
 and so indeed it must ever be, for despotism must give way 
 to freedom ; the life latent in the subject Christian commu- 
 nities must sooner or later cast off the yoke of a barbarian 
 rule, which even at its best is petrified and so is incapable 
 of progress. However low a Christian community may have 
 fallen, there is always the possibility of its rising again. A 
 lofty ideal is placed before it. All its most cherished beliefs 
 point forward aud upward. In Islam there is no regenera- 
 tive power. Its golden age was in the past. When the 
 work of conquest is done, when a Muharamadan nation has 
 to live by industry, intelligence and thrift, it always misera- 
 bly fails. 
 
 In this chapter which must now draw to a close, I have 
 tried to prove from authentic and authoritative sources that 
 
 the music of the Celtic heart softened his rough nature, and wooed him into 
 less churlish habits. Visigoth and Frank, Heruli and Vandal, blotted out 
 their ferocity in the very light of the civilisation they had striven to extin- 
 guish. Even the Hun, wildest Tartar from the Scythian waste, was touched 
 aud softened in his wicker encampment amid Pannonian plains ; but the 
 Turk — wherever his scymitar reached — degraded, defiled, and defamed ; 
 blasting into eternal decay Greek, Roman and Latin civilisation, until, when 
 all had gone, he sat down, satiated with savagery, to doze for two hundred 
 years into hopeless decrepitude. Lieut.-Col. W. F. Butler, c. B., in Good 
 Words for September 1880, 
 
The Sterility of Islam. 31 
 
 the Quran alone is to no Muslim the sole guide of life. 
 The fetters of a dogmatic system fasten alike around the 
 individual and the community. Islam is sterile, it gives no 
 new birth to the spirit of a man, leads him not in search of 
 new forms of truth, and so it can give no real life, no last- 
 ing vitality to a nation. 1 
 
 1. " The Muslim every where, after a brilliaut passage of prosperity, seems 
 to stagnate and wither, because there is nothing in his system or his belief 
 which lifts him above the level of a servant, and on that level man's life in 
 the long run must not only stagnate but decay. The Christian, on the 
 other hand, seems every where in the last extremity to bid disorganization 
 and decay defiance, and to find, Antseus-like, in the earth which he touches, 
 the spring of a new and fruitful progress. For there is that in his belief, 
 his traditions, and in the silent influences which pervade the very atmos- 
 phere around him, which is ever moving him, often in ways that he knows 
 not, to rise to the dignity and to clothe himself with the power which the 
 Gospel proposes as the prize of his Christian calling. The submissive 
 servant of Allah is the highest type of Moslem perfection ; the Christian 
 ideal is the Christ-like son." — British Quarterly, No. cxxx. 
 
32 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 NOTE TO CHAPTER I. 
 
 IJTIHAD. 
 
 Questions connected with Ijtihad arc so important in Islam, that I 
 think it well to give in the form of a note a fuller and more technical 
 account of it, than I could do in the Chapter just concluded. This 
 account which I shall now give is that of a learned Musalman, and is, 
 therefore, of the highest value. It consists of extracts from an 
 article in the Journal Asiatique, Quatrieme Serie, tome, 15, on " Le 
 Marche et les Progres de la Jurisprudence parmi les Sectes ortho- 
 doxes Musalmanes" hy Mirza Kaziru Beg, Professor in the University 
 of St. Petersburg. It entirely supports all that has been said of the 
 rigid character of Muhammadan Law, and of the immobility of 
 systems founded thereon. 
 
 " Orthodox Musalmans admit the following propositions as axioms. 
 
 1. God the only legislator has shown the way of felicity to the 
 people whom He has chosen, and in order to enable them to walk in 
 that way He has shown to them the precepts which are found, partly 
 in the eternal Quran, and partly in the sayings of the Prophet trans- 
 mitted to posterity by the Companions and preserved in the Sunnat. 
 That way is called the " Sharf at." The rules thereof are called 
 Ahkam. 
 
 2. The Quran and the Sunnat, which since their manifestation are 
 the primitive sources of the orders of the Law, form two branches 
 of study, viz., Ilm-i-Tafsir, or the interpretation of the Quran and 
 Ilm-i-Hadis, or the study of Tradition. 
 
 3. All the orders of the Law have regard either to the actions 
 (Din), or to the belief (Iman) of the Mukallifs. 1 
 
 4. As the Quran and the Sunnat are the principal sources from 
 whence the precepts of the Shari'at have been drawn, so the rules 
 recognized as the principal elements of actual jurisprudence are the 
 subject of Ilm-i-Fiqh, or the science of Law. 
 
 Fiqh in its root signifies conception, comprehension. Thus 
 Muhammad prayed for Ibn Mas'iid : " May God make him compre- 
 
 1. A Mukallif is one who is subject to the Law. A Ghair-i-Mnkallif is 
 one not so subject, such as a minor, an idiot, &c. The term Mukallif is 
 thus equivalent to a consistent Muslim, one who takes trouble (taklif) in 
 his religious duties. 
 
Tlic Schools of Jurisprudence. 33 
 
 bend (Faqqihabu), and make him know the interpretation of the 
 Quran." Muhammad in his quality of Judge and chief of the 
 Believers decided, without appeal or contradiction, all the affairs of 
 the people. His sayings served as a guide to the Companions. 
 After the death of the Prophet the first Khalifs acted on the autho- 
 rity of the Traditions. Meanwhile the Quran and the Sunnat, the 
 principal elements of religion and legislation, became little by little 
 the subject of controversy. It was then that men applied them- 
 selves vigorously to the task of learning by heart the Quran and the 
 Traditions, and then that jurisprudence became a separate science. 
 No science had as yet been systematically taught, and the early Musal- 
 mans did not possess books which would serve for such teaching. 
 A change soon, however, took place. In the year in which the 
 great jurisconsult of Syria died (a. h. 80) N'iman bin Sabit, surna'med 
 Abu Hanifa was born. He is the most celebrated of the founders of 
 the schools of jurisprudence, a science which ranks first in all Mus- 
 lim seats of learning. Until that time and for thirty years later the 
 Mufassirs, 1 the Muhaddis, 2 and the Fuqiha,3 had all their know- 
 ledge by heart, and those who possessed good memories were highly 
 esteemed. Many of them knew by heart the whole Quran with the 
 comments made on it by the Prophet and by the Companions ; they 
 also knew the Traditions and their explanations, and all the com- 
 mands (Ahkam) which proceed from the Quran, and the Sunnat. 
 Such men enjoyed the right of Mujtahidm. They transmitted their 
 knowledge to their scholars orally. It was not till towards the 
 middle of the second century a. h. that treatises on the different 
 branches of the Law were avi itten, after which six schools (Mazhabs) 
 of jurisprudence were formed. The founders, all Imams of the first 
 class, were Abu Hanifa, the Imam-i-'Azam or great Imam (a. h. 
 150), 4 Safian As-Sauri (a. h. 161), Malik (a. ji. 179), As-Shafa'i (a. h. 
 •204), Hanbal (a.u. 241) and Imam Baud Az-Zahari (a. ii. 270). The 
 two sects founded by Sauri and Zahari became extinct in the eighth 
 century of the Hijra. The other four still remain. These men 
 venerated one another. The younger ones speak with great respect 
 of the elder. Thus Shafai said : — " No one in the world was so well 
 versed in jurisprudence as Abu Hanifa was, and he who has read 
 neither his works, nor those of his disciples knows nothing of juris- 
 prudence." Hanbal when sick wore a shirt which had belonged to 
 Shafa'i, in order that he might be cured of his malady; but all this 
 
 1. Commentators ou the Quran. 2. The Traditionists. 
 3. Plural of Faqih, a theologian. 4. I have given the dates of their death. 
 
 5 
 
34 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 did not prevent them starting schools of their own, for the right of 
 Ijtihad is granted to those who are real Mujtahidin. There are 
 three degrees of Ijtihad. 
 
 1. Al-Ijtihad fi'l Shari': absolute independence in legislation 
 
 2. Al-Ijtibad fi'l Mazhab : authority in the judicial systems 
 founded by the Mujtahidin of the first class. 
 
 3. Al-Ijtihad fi'l Masiiil : authority in cases which have not been 
 decided by the authors of tbe four systems of jurisprudence. 
 
 The first is called a complete and absolute authority, the second 
 relative, the third special. 
 
 THE FIRST DEGREE OF IJTIHAD. 
 
 Absolute independence in legislation is the gift of God. He to 
 whom it is given when seeking to discover the meaning of the Divine 
 Law is not bound to follow any other teacher. He can use his own 
 judgment. This gift was bestowed on the jui'isconsults of the first, 
 and to some in the second and third centuries. The Companions, 
 however, who were closely connected with the Prophet, having 
 transmitted immediately to their posterity the treasures of legisla- 
 tion, are looked upon as Mujtahidin of much higher authority than 
 tho.se of the second and third centuries. Thus Abu Hanif a says : — 
 " That which comes to us from the Companions is on our head and 
 eyes (i.e., to be received with respect) : as to that which comes from 
 tbe Tabi'in, they are men and we are men." 
 
 Since the time of the Tabi'in this degree of Ijtihad has only 
 been conferred on the six great Imams. Theoretically any Muslim 
 can attain to this degree, but it is one of the principles of jurispru- 
 dence that the confirmation of this rank is dependent on many con- 
 ditions, and so no one now gains the honour. These conditions are : — 
 
 1. The knowledge of the Quran and all that is related to it; that 
 is to say, a complete knowledge of Arabic literature, a profound 
 acquaintance with tbe orders of tbe Quran and all their sub-divisions, 
 their relationship to each other and their connection with the orders 
 of the Sunnat. The candidate should know when, and why each 
 verse of the Quran was written, he should have a perfect acquaint- 
 ance with the literal meaning of the words, the speciality or gene- 
 rality of each clause, the abrogating and abrogated sentences. He 
 should be able to make clear the meaning of the ' obscure' passages 
 (Mutashabih), to discriminate between the literal and the allegorical, 
 the universal and the particular. 
 
 2. He must know the Quran by heart with all the Traditions 
 and explanations. 
 
The Second Degree of Ijtihdd 35 
 
 3. He must have a perfect knowledge of the Traditions, or at 
 least of three thousand of them. 
 
 He must know their source, history, object and their connection 
 with the laws of the Quran. He should know by heart the most 
 important Traditions. 
 
 4. A pious and austere life. 
 
 5. A profound knowledge of all the sciences of the Law. 
 
 Should any one now aspire to such a degree another condition 
 would be added, viz : — 
 
 6. A complete knowledge of the four schools of jurisprudence. 
 The obstacles, then, are almost insurmountable. On the one hand, 
 
 there is the severity of the 'Ulama, which i*equires from the candidate 
 things almost impossible ; on the other, there is the attachment of 
 the 'Ulama to their own Imams, for should such a man arise no one 
 is bound now to listen to him. Imam Hanbal said : — " Draw your 
 knowledge from whence the Imams drew theirs, and do not content 
 yourself with following others for that is certainly blindness of 
 sight". Thus the schools of the four Imams remain intact after a 
 thousand years have passed, and so the 'Ulama recognise since the 
 time of these Imams no Mujtahid of the first degree. Ibn Hanbal 
 was the last. 
 
 The rights of the man who attained to this degree were very im- 
 portant. He was not bound to be a disciple of another, he was a 
 mediator between the Law and his followers, for whom he established 
 a system of legislation, without any one having the right to make any 
 objection. He had the right to explain the Quran, the Sunnat and 
 theljma' according as he understood them. He used the Prophet's 
 words, whilst his disciples only used his. Should a disciple find 
 some discrepancy between a decision of his own Imam and the 
 Quran or Traditions, he must abide by the decision of the Imam. The 
 Law does not permit him to interpret after his own fashion. When 
 once the disciple has entered the sect of one Imam he cannot leave 
 it and join another. He loses the right of private judgment, for 
 only a Mujtahid of the first class can dispute the decision of one of 
 the Imams. Theoretically such Mujtahidin may still arise ; but, as 
 we have already shown, practically they do not. 
 
 THE SECOND DEGREE OF IJTIHAD. 
 
 This degree has been granted to the immediate disciples of the 
 great Imams who have elaborated the systems of their masters. 
 They enjoyed the special consideration of the contemporary 'Ulama, 
 and of their respective Imams who in some cases have allowed them 
 
36 The Faith of Islami 
 
 to retain their own opinion. The most famous of these men are 
 the two disciples of Abu Hanifa, Abu Yiisuf and Muhammad bin al 
 Hasan. In a secondary matter their opinion carries great weight. 
 It is laid down as a rule that a Mufti may follow the unanimous 
 opinion of these two even when it goes against that of Abu Hanifa. 
 
 THE THIRD DEGREE OP IJT1HAD. 
 
 This is the degree of special independence. The candidates for it 
 should have a perfect knowledge of all the branches of jurisprudence 
 according to the four schools of the Arabic language and literature. 
 They can solve cases which come before them, giving reasons for 
 their judgment, or decide on cases which have not been settled by 
 previous Mujtahidin; but in either case their decisions must always 
 be in absolute accordance with the opinions of the Mujtahidin of the 
 first and second classes, and with the principles which guided them. 
 Many of these men attained great celebrity during their lifetime, but 
 to most of them this rank is not accorded till after their death. 
 Since Imam Qazi Khan died (a. h. 592), no one has been recognised 
 by the Sunnis as a Muj tabid even of the third class. 
 
 There are three other inferior classes of jurists, called Muqallidin, 
 or followers of the Mujtahidin ; but all that the highest in rank amongst 
 them can do is to explain obscure passages in the writings of the older 
 jurisconsults. By some of the 'Ulamsi they are considered to be equal 
 to the Mujtahidin of the third class. If there are several conflicting 
 legal opinions on any point, they can select one opinion on which In 
 base their decision. This a mere Qazi cannot do. In such a case he 
 would have to refer to these men. or to their writings for guidance. 
 They seem to have written commentaries on the legal systems with- 
 out originating anything new. The author of the Hidayah, who lived 
 at the end of the sixth century, was a Muqallid. 
 
 Such is Mirza Kazim Beg's account. The whole article, of which 
 I have only given the main points, is worthy of the closest study. 
 It shows how " the system, as a whole, rejects experience as a 
 guide to deeper insight or wider knowledge ; tramples upon the 
 teaching of the past ; pays no heed to differences of climate, charac- 
 ter, or history; but regards itself as a body of absolute truth, one 
 jot or tittle of which cannot be rejected without incurring the ever- 
 lasting wrath of God." l 
 
 1. Osborn's Islam under the Khalifs p. 72. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 EXEGESIS OF THE QURAN AND THE 
 TRADITIONS. 
 
 The following account of this branch of Muslim theology, 
 technically called Tlm-i-Usul, may be introduced by a few 
 remarks on the nature of inspiration according to Islam, 
 though that is not strictly speaking a portion of this study. 
 
 There are two terms used to express different degrees of 
 inspiration, Wahi and Ilham. Wahi is the term applied to 
 the inspiration of the Quran, and implies that the very 
 words are the words of God. It is divided into Wahi Zahir 
 (external inspiration), and Wahi Batin (internal inspira- 
 tion). The whole book was prepared in heaven. Muham- 
 mad, instructed by Gabriel, is simply the medium through 
 which the revelation of Wahi Zahir reaches man. The 
 Wahi Quran, i.e., the highest form of inspiration, always 
 came to the ear of the Prophet through the instrumentality of 
 Gabriel. In Muhammadan theology, this is the special 
 work of Gabriel. Thus in the Traditions it is related that 
 he appeared to Adam twelve times, to Enoch four, to Noah 
 fifty, to Abraham forty-two, to Moses four hundred, to 
 Jesus ten times, to Muhammad twenty-four thousand times. 
 
 Ilham means the inspiration given to a saint or to a pro- 
 phet when he, though rightly guided, delivers the subject 
 matter out of his own mind, and is not a mere machine to 
 reproduce the messages of Gabriel. There is a lower form 
 of Wahi Zahir, which is called Isharat-ul-Malak (literally, 
 " sio-n of the Ano-el. ; ') This expresses what Muhammad 
 meant when he said : " The Holy Ghost has entered into my 
 heart." In other words, he received the inspiration through 
 
38 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 Gabriel, but not by word of mouth. This form of inspira- 
 tion is higher than that possessed by saints, and is usually 
 applied to the inspiration of the Traditions. This is denied 
 by some, who say that except when delivering the Quran 
 Muhammad spoke by Ilham aud not by Wahi. The 
 practical belief is, however, that the Traditions were Wahi 
 inspiration, and thus they come to be as authoritative as 
 the Quran. Sharastani speaks of " the signs (sayings) of 
 the Prophet which have the marks of Wahi." 1 This opinion 
 is said by some Muslim theologians to be supported by the 
 first verse of the fifty -third Sura, entitled the Star. "By 
 the Star when it setteth ; your companion Muhammad erreth 
 not, nor is he led astray, neither doth he speak of his oivn 
 will. It is none other than a revelation which hath been 
 revealed to him." In any case the inspiration of Muhammad 
 is something quite different from the Christian idea of in- 
 spiration, which is to Musalmans a very imperfect mode of 
 transmitting a revelation of God's will. 
 
 That there should be a human as well as a divine side to 
 inspiration is an idea not only foreign, but absolutely repug- 
 nant to Muhammadans. The Quran is not a book of prin- 
 ciples. It is a book of directions. The Quran describes 
 the revelation given to Moses thus : — " We wrote for him 
 upon the tables a monition concerning every matter and said : 
 ' Receive them thyself with steadfastness, and command thy 
 people to receive them for the observance of its most goodly 
 precepts/ " (Sura vii. 142). It is such an inspiration as 
 this the Quran claims for itself. Muhammad's idea was 
 that it should be a complete and final code of directions in 
 every matter for all mankind. It is not the word of a 
 prophet enlightened by God. It proceeds immediately from 
 God, and the word ' say' or ' speak' precedes, or is under- 
 stood to precede, every sentence. This to a Muslim is the 
 highest form of inspiration ; this alone stamps a book as 
 
 1. Dabistan, p. 214. 
 
The Medium of Revelation. 39 
 
 divine. It is acknowledged that the Injil — the Gospel — 
 was given by Jesus ; but as that, too, according to Muslim 
 belief, was brought down from heaven by the angel Gabriel 
 during the mouth of Ramazau, it is now asserted that it has 
 been lost, and that the four Gospels of the New Testament 
 are simply Traditions collected by the writers whose names 
 they bear. Their value is, therefore, that of the second 
 foundation of the Islamic system. 
 
 The question next arises as to the exact way in which 
 Gabriel made known his message to Muhammad. The 
 Mudarij-un-Nabuwat, a standard theological work, gives 
 some details on this point. 1 Though the Quran is all of 
 God, both as to matter and form, yet it was not all made 
 known to the Prophet in one and the same manner. The 
 following are some of the modes : — 
 
 1. It is recorded on the authority of 'Ayesha, one of 
 Muhammad's wives, that a brightness like the brightness 
 of the morning came upon the Prophet. According to some 
 commentators this brightness remained six months. In 
 some mysterious way Gabriel, through this brightness or 
 vision, made known the will of God. 
 
 2. Gabriel appeared in the form of Dahiah, one of the 
 Companions of the Prophet, renowned for his beauty and 
 gracefulness. A learned dispute has arisen with regard to 
 the abode of the soul of Gabriel when he assumed the bodily 
 form of Dahiah. At times, the angelic nature of Gabriel 
 overcame Muhammad, who was then translated to the world 
 of angels. This always happened when the revelation was 
 one of bad news, such as denunciations or predictions of 
 woe. At other times, when the message brought by Gabriel 
 was one of consolation and comfort, the human nature of 
 the Prophet overcame the angelic nature of the angel, who, 
 in such case, having assumed a human form, proceeded to 
 deliver the message. 
 
 1. pp. 508—510. 
 
40 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 3. The Prophet heai-d at times the noise of the tinkling 
 of a bell. To him alone was known the meaning of the 
 sound. He alone could distinguish in, and through it, the 
 words which Gabriel wished him to understand. The effect 
 of this mode of Wahi was more marvellous than that of any 
 of the other ways. When his ear caught the sound his 
 whole frame became agitated. On the coldest day, the 
 perspiration, like beads of silver, would roll down his face. 
 The glorious brightness of his countenance gave place to a 
 ghastly hue, whilst the way iu which he bent down his 
 head showed the intensity of the emotion through which he 
 was passing. If riding, the camel ou which he sat would 
 fall to the ground. The Prophet one day, when reclining 
 with his head in the lap of Zeid, heard the well known 
 sound: Zeid, too, knew that something unusual was hap- 
 pening, for so heavy became the head of Muhammad that it 
 was with the greatest difficulty he could support the weight. 
 
 4. At the time of the 'Mi' raj, or night ascent into heaven, 
 God spoke to the Prophet without the intervention of an 
 angel. It is a disputed point whether the face of the Lord 
 was veiled or not. 
 
 5. God sometimes appeared iu a dream, and placing his 
 hands on the Prophet's shoulders made known his will. 
 
 6. Twice, angels having each six hundred wings, appeared 
 and brought the message from God. 
 
 7. Gabriel, though not appearing in bodily form, so in- 
 spired the heart of the Prophet that the words he uttered 
 under its influence were the words of God. This is techni- 
 cally called Ilka., and is by some supposed to be the degree 
 of inspiration to which the Traditions belong. 
 
 Above all, the Prophet was not allowed to remain in any 
 error; if, by any chance, he had made a wrong deduction 
 from any previous revelation, another was always sent to 
 rectify it. This idea has been worked up to a science of 
 abrogation, according to which some verses of the Quran 
 abrogate others. Muhammad found it necessary to shift 
 
Ilm-i- Usui. 41 
 
 his stand-point more than once, and thus it became neces- 
 sary to annul earlier portions of his revelation. 
 
 Thus in various ways was the revelation made known to 
 Muhammad. At first there seems to have been a season of 
 doubt (Ante p. 3), the dread lest after all it might be a 
 mockery. But as years rolled on confidence in himself and 
 in his mission came. At times, too, there is a joyousness 
 in his utterances as he swears by heaven and earth, by God 
 and man ; but more often the visions were weird and terri- 
 ble. Tradition says : — " He roared like a camel, the sound 
 as of bells well-nigh rent his heart in pieces." Some 
 strange power moved him, his fear was uncontrollable. For 
 twenty years or more the revelations came, a direction on 
 things of heaven and of earth, to the Prophet as the spiri- 
 tual guide of all men, 1 to the Warrior- Chief, as the founder 
 of political unity among the Arab tribes. 
 
 A Muhammadan student, after passing through a course 
 of instruction in grammar, rhetoric, logic, law, and dogma- 
 tics, at length reaches the stage when he is permitted to 
 enter upon the study of " 'Ilm-i-usul," or the exegesis 
 of the Quran, and the inspired sayings of the Prophet. 
 This done, he can henceforth read the approved commen- 
 taries in order to learn what the Fathers of Islam have to 
 say. This science in one way fits him to be a commentator, 
 for the work of a Muslim divine now is, not to bring things 
 " new and old" out of the sacred book, but to hand down 
 to others the things old. There is no indwelling spirit in 
 the Church of Islam which can reveal to the devout mind 
 new views of truth, or lead the pious scholar on to deeper 
 and more profound knowledge. 
 
 The greatest proficient in theology is the man who can 
 repeat the Quran by heart, who knows also and can repro- 
 duce at will what the early commentators have said, who can 
 remember, and quote in the most apposite manner, the Pro- 
 
 1. " It (the Quran) is simply an instruction for all mankind." (Sura 
 xii. 104). 
 
 6 
 
42 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 phet's sayings preserved in the Traditions handed down by 
 the Companions, their followers, and their followers' fol- 
 lowers, who can point out a flaw in the Isnad (i. e. chain of 
 narrators) of a Tradition quoted by an opponent, or main- 
 tain, by repeating the long list of names, the authority of 
 the Isnad of the Tradition he quotes himself. A good 
 memory, not critical acumen, is the great desideratum in a 
 Muslim theologian. The chief qualification of a Hafiz, a 
 man who can repeat the whole Quran by heart, is not that 
 he shall understand its meaning, but that he shall be able 
 to pronounce each word correctly. By men who are not 
 Arabs by birth, this is only to be attained after years of 
 practice from childhood. The Sunnis say that no Shia'h 
 can ever become a Hafiz, from which fact they draw the 
 conclusion that the Shia'hs are heretics. In the early days 
 of Islam, the great authorities on the question of the correct 
 pronunciation of the Quran were the Khalifs Abu Bakr, 
 Omar, Osman, and 'All, and ten of the Companions, who 
 learned from the Prophet himself the exact way in which 
 Gabriel had spoken. The Arabic of heaven was the Arabic 
 of Islam. The effort, however, to preserve one uniform 
 method of repeating the Quran failed. Men of other lands 
 could not acquire the pure intonation of Mecca, and so no 
 less than seven different ways of reading the sacred book 
 became current. Here was a great difficulty, but it proved 
 surmountable. Abu Ibn Kab, one of the Companions, had 
 become so famous as a reader that the Prophet himself said : 
 " read the Quran under Abu Ibn Kab." These men re- 
 membered that Abu Ibn Kab had stated, that one day when 
 scandalized at man after man who entered the mosque re- 
 peating the Quran in different ways, he spoke to Muham- 
 mad about it. His Highness said : " Abu Ibn Kab ! in- 
 telligence was sent to me to read the Quran in one dialect, 
 and I was attentive to the Court of God, and said : ' make 
 easy the reading of the Quran to my sects.' These instruc- 
 tions were sent to me a second time saying : ' read the 
 
Tlw Haft qira,at. 43 
 
 Quran in two dialects.' Then I turned myself to the Court 
 of God saying : ( make easy the reading of the Quran to my 
 sects/ Then a voice was sent to me the third time saying : 
 ' read the Quran in seven dialects.' " 
 
 This removed all difficulty, and the foresight displayed 
 by the Prophet in thus obtaining a divine sanction for the 
 various ways of reading was looked upon as a proof of his 
 inspiration. Thus arose the " haft qira,at," or seven read- 
 ings of the Quran, now recognised. 
 
 In the Quran compiled by the order of the Khalif Osrnan 
 there were no vowel -points, but when men of other countries 
 embraced Islam they found great difficulty in mastering 
 Arabic. Khalid bin Ahmad, a great grammarian, then in- 
 vented the short vowels and other diacritical marks. The 
 seven famous " Readers" whose names have been given to 
 the various modes of reading, are Imam Nafi of Madina, 
 Imam Ibn-i-Kasir of Mecca, Imam Abu ; Umr of Basra, Imam 
 Hamza of Kufa, Imam Ibn 'Amir of Syria, Imam 'Asim of 
 Kufa, Imam Kisae of Kufa. 1 These learned men affixed 
 different vowel-points in many places in the Quran, and thus 
 slight differences of meaning arose. In India the " qira,at 
 — reading, — of Imam 'Asim is followed by both Sunnis and 
 Shia'hs. There are three readings of lesser note allowable 
 when reading the Quran privately, but not when reading 
 any part in a liturgical service. During the month of Rama- 
 zan the Quran is repeated every night in the mosque, it 
 being so arranged that one-thirtieth part shall be recited 
 each night. The Imam of the mosque, or public Reader, 
 (Qari) who commences according to one of the seven recog- 
 nised readings (qira,at), must keep to the same all the month. 
 As he has to recite without a book this involves a great exer- 
 cise of the memory. A good Hafiz will know the whole seven 
 varieties. The various readings thus introduced, though 
 
 1. Zawabit-al-Quran, pp. 110, 111. 
 
44 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 unimportant in their nature, l amount to about five hun- 
 dred in number. The following are a few illustrations. 
 In the second Sura Abu ; Umr reads : " Nor shall ye be 
 questioned concerning that which they have done ;" but 
 'Asim reads : "That which ye have done." This is caused 
 by putting two dots above the line instead of below it. Again 
 'Asiin reads: "Enter ye the gates of hell" (Sura xxxix. 
 73), but Nafi reads : " Ye will he made to enter hell," — 
 that is, by a slight change the passive is substituted for the 
 active voice. These are fair samples of the rest. No doc- 
 trine, so far as I know, is touched, but the way in which 
 Tradition records the Prophet's anticipation of the difficulty 
 is instructive to the student of Islam. At times, too, fierce 
 disputes have arisen between the followers of the seven 
 famous Readers whose names I have given above. In 
 the year 935 a.h., Ibn Shanabud, a resident of Baghdad, 
 ventured to introduce some different readings in his recital 
 of the Quran. The people of Baghdad, not knowing 
 these, were furious, and the Khalif was compelled to cast 
 the offender into prison. A Council of divines was called 
 together, before whom the unhappy Ibn Shanabud was pro- 
 duced. For a while he maintained the correctness of his 
 " readings," but after being whipped seven times he said : 
 " I renounce my manner of reading, and in future I shall 
 follow no other than that of the' manuscript drawn up by 
 the Khalif Osman, and that which is generally received." 3 
 Closely connected with this subject is the history of the 
 rise of the science of grammar. As Islam spread, it became 
 necessary to expound the Quran to persons unacquainted 
 with Arabic. The science of grammar then became an 
 important branch of study, and the collection of Traditions 
 a necessary duty. The Faithful were for a long time in 
 
 l. The opiaiou of Von Hammer, quoted by Sir W. Muir, in his life of 
 Muhammad (vol. i. page 27) seems to be correct, " We may hold the Quran 
 to be as surely Muhammad's words as the Muhammadans hold it to be the 
 Word of God." 
 
 2. Ibn Khallikau's Biographical Dictionary, vol. iii. p. 16. 
 
The Style of the Quran. 45 
 
 doubt as to the lawfulness of applying the laws of grammar 
 to so sacred a book. There was no command in the book 
 itself to do so, nor had the Prophet given any directions on 
 this point. It was then neither "farz" nor " sunnat," that 
 is, neither a command based on the Quran nor one based on 
 any saying or act of the Prophet. The Traditions, however, 
 solve the difficulty. 
 
 Al Mamun, the distinguished though heretical Khalif of 
 Baghdad, was a patron of Al Farra, the chief of grammarians. 
 A distinguished pupil of his, Abu'l 'Abbas Thalub, on his 
 death-bed expressed his belief in the fact that the Quran- 
 ists, the Traditiouists, and others, had gained their heaveuly 
 reward, but he had been only a grammarian, and grammar 
 after all was, in connection with the Quran, a science of 
 doubtful legality. The friend to whom he told his doubts 
 and fears went home and saw a vision. It is recorded 
 that he had a vision in his sleep that very night, in which 
 he saw the blessed Prophet, who said to him : " Give my 
 greeting to Abu'l 'Abbas Thalub, and say, ' thou art master 
 of the superior science.' " The Prophet had now spoken, 
 and henceforth grammar became a lawful study in Islam. 
 Muslims now quote the Quran as a perfect model of style ; 
 it may be well to remember that the rules have been made 
 for it, and that, therefore, it is but natural that it should be 
 perfect according to the present canons of Arabic gram- 
 mar. 1 
 
 The question of the interpretation of the text speedily 
 became a very important branch of the " 'Ilm-i-usul." It 
 is said that the Quran was brought from Paradise by Gab- 
 riel to Muhammad as occasion required. The Prophet was 
 reproached for not having a complete revelation, and 
 
 1. " Were we to examine the Quran by the rules of rhetoric and criticism 
 as they are taught in Muslim schools, we should be obliged to acknow- 
 ledge that it is the perfection of thought and expression ; an inevitable 
 result as the Muslims drew their principles of rhetoric from that very 
 book." — Baron M. de Slane, in the introduction to lbn Khallikan's Biogra- 
 phical Dictionary. 
 
46 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 answered the reproach by the following verse, sent for 
 the purpose. " The infidels say, ' unless the Quran be 
 sent down to him all at once' — but in this way we establish 
 thy heart in it, in parcels have we parcelled it out to thee" 
 (Sura xxv. 34). The revelation thus given is entirely 
 objective ; it came to the ear of the Prophet through the 
 teaching of Gabriel. " Yet it is a glorious Quran, written 
 on the preserved Table." (Sura lxxxv. 22). Gabriel ad- 
 dresses the Prophet thus : " When we have recited it then 
 follow thou the recital." (Sura lxxv. 18). The external 
 mode in which it came is referred to in the verse : " We 
 have sent down to thee an Arabic Quran." (Suraxx. 112). 
 The fragmentary way in which the Quran was given 1 was 
 not without its difficulties. Some passages contradicted 
 others, some were difficult to understand. To the Prophet 
 alone was the solution known. The knowledge he com- 
 municated to his immediate followers, the Companions, as 
 they are called, thus : " To thee have we sent down this 
 book of monitions, that thou mayest make clear to men what 
 hath been sent down to them." (Sura xvi. 46). 
 
 Ibn Khaldoun says : " The Prophet unfolded the mean- 
 ing, distinguished between abrogated and abrogating verses, 
 
 1. There are many Traditions which refer to this fact. Omar Ibn al Khat- 
 tab said : " I accorded with my cherisher (i. e., God) in three things. One 
 is that I said, ' messenger of God ! if we were to say our prayers in 
 Abraham's place it would be better.' Then a revelation came down ' Take 
 the place of Abraham for a place of prayer.' The second is, that I said, 
 ' O messenger of God ! good and bad people come to your house ; and I do 
 not see that it is fitting ; therefore, if you order your women to be shut up 
 it will be better.' Then the revelation for doing so came down. The 
 third is, that his Majesty's wives were all agreed in a story about his 
 drinking honey ; and he had vowed never to drink it more. Then I said to his 
 Majesty's wives, ' Should the Prophet divorce you, God will give him better 
 in exchange.' Then a revelation, came down agreeing with what I said." 
 
 'Ayesha said : — " I was reflecting on those women who had given 
 themselves to the Prophet, and said ' What ! does a woman give herself 
 away P* Then the revelation descended : " Thou mayest decline for the 
 present whom thou wilt of them, and thou mayest take to thy bed her 
 whom thou wilt, and whomsoever thou shalt long for of those thou shalt 
 have before neglected : and this shall be no crime in thee.' (Sura xxxiii. 
 51). I said : ' I see nothing in which your God doth not hasten to please 
 you : whatsoever you wish He doeth.' " 
 
The Work of a Commentator. 47 
 
 and communicated this knowledge to his Companions. It 
 was from his mouth that they knew the meaning of the 
 verses and the circumstances which led to each distinct 
 revelation being made." 1 The Companions thus instructed 
 became perfectly familiar with the whole revelation. This 
 knowledge they handed down by word of mouth to their 
 followers, the Taba'in, who in their turn passed it on to their 
 followers the Taba-i-Taba'in. The art of writing then 
 became common, and the business of the commentator hence- 
 forth was to collect together the sayings of the Companions 
 thus handed down. Criticism of a passage in the Quran was 
 not his duty, criticism of a comment made on it by a Com- 
 panion was beyond his province : the first was too sacred to 
 be touched, the second must be accepted if only the chain of 
 narrators of the statement were perfect. Thus early in the 
 history of Islam were the principles of exegesis fixed and 
 settled. Every word, every sentence, has now its place and 
 class. The commentator has now. only to reproduce what 
 was written before, 2 though he may in elucidation of the 
 .point, bring forth some Tradition hitherto unnoticed, which 
 would, however, be a difficult thing to do. It will thus be 
 seen that anything like the work of a Christian commenta- 
 tor, with all its fresh life and new ideas, is not to be had in 
 Islam. The perfection of its exegesis is its dogmatic and 
 antique nature — 
 
 " While as the world rolls on from age to age, 
 And realms of thought expand, 
 The letter stands without expanse or range, 
 Stiff as a dead man's hand." 
 
 The technical terms which the student must know, and 
 
 1. Les Prolegomenes d'lbn Khaldoun, vol. ii. p. 459. 
 
 2. This includes even the orthography, for : — " La generation suivanfce, 
 je veux dire les Tabis (Taba'in), adopta l'orthographe des Conipagnons dn 
 Prophete et se fit un merite de ne point s'ecarter des formes adoptees par 
 ceux qui, apres Mahommed, etaient Jes plus excellent des homines et qui 
 avaient recu de lui les revelations celestes, soit par ecrit, soit de vive voix." 
 Ibn Khaldoun, vol. ii. p. 397. 
 
48 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 the definitions of which he must understand, are those 
 which relate to the nature of the words, the sentences, the 
 use of the words of the Quran, and the deduction of argu- 
 ments from passages in the book. 
 
 I. The words of the Quran are divided into four classes. 
 
 1. Khdss, or special words. These are sub-divided into 
 three classes. First, words which relate to genus, e.g. 
 mankind. Secondly, words which relate to species, e.g. a 
 man, which refers to men as distinguished from women. 
 Thirdly, words which relate to special individuality, e.g. 
 Zeid, which is the name of a special individual. 
 
 2. 'Amm, or common or collective names, such as " peo- 
 ple." 
 
 3. Mushtarilc, or words which have several significations, 
 as the Arabic word " 'ain," which may mean an eye, a 
 fountain, or the sun. Again, the word " Sulat," if connect- 
 ed with God, may mean mercy, as " Sulat Ullah," the 
 mercy of God ; if with man, it may mean either " namaz," 
 a stated liturgical service, or " du'a," prayer in its ordinary 
 sense, e.g. Sulat-ul-Istisqa (prayer in time of drought) is du'a, 
 not natnaz. 
 
 4. Muawival, words which have sevei'al significations, all 
 of which are possible, and so a special explanation is 
 required. For example, Sura cviii. 2, reads thus in Sale's 
 translation. " Wherefore pray unto the Lord and slay (the 
 victims)." The word translated " slay" is in Arabic "nahr," 
 which has many meanings. The followers of the great 
 Legist Abu Hanifa reuder it, " sacrifice," and add the 
 words (the " victims"). The followers of Ibn Shafa'i say it 
 means " placing the hands on the breast in prayer." 
 
 This illustrates the difference between Mushtarik and 
 Muawwal. In the former, only one meaning is allowable, 
 and that meaning the context settles ; in the latter both 
 meanings are allowable and both right. 
 
 These divisions of words haviug been well mastered and 
 the power of defining any word in the Quran gained, the 
 
Zdhir and Khafi Sentences. 49 
 
 student passes on to consider the nature of the sentences. 
 These are divided into two great classes, — the " Obvious," 
 and the " Hidden." 
 
 This division is referred to in the following passage of the 
 Quran. " He it is who hath sent down to thee the book. 
 Some of its signs are of themselves perspicuous ; these are 
 the basis (literally " mother") of the book, and others are 
 figurative. But they whose hearts are given to err follow 
 its figures, craving discord, craving an interpretation ; yet 
 none know its interpretation, but God. 1 And the stable in 
 kuowledge say : ' We believe in it, it is all from God.' " 
 (Sura iii. 3). 
 
 This has given rise to the division of the whole book into 
 liteT'al and allegorical statements. In order to explain these 
 correctly the commentator must know (1) the reason why, 
 (2) the place where, (3) the time when, the particular pas- 
 sage he is expounding was revealed ; he must know whether 
 it abrogates or is abrogated, whether it is in its proper 
 order and place or not ; whether it contains its meaning 
 within itself or needs the light which the context throws 
 upon it ; he must know all the Traditions which bear upon 
 it, and the authority for each such Tradition. This effec- 
 tually confines the order of commentators in the strict sense 
 of the word to the Companions, and supplies the reason 
 why commentators since then simply reproduce their 
 opinions. 2 But to return from this digression. Sentences 
 are Zahir — " Obvious," or Khafi — " Hidden." Obvious 
 sentences are divided into four classes. 
 
 I. (1). Zdhir, or obvious, the meaning of which is so 
 clear that he who hears it at once understands its meaning 
 
 1. This interpretation God made known to the Prophet, who communi- 
 cated it to the Companions, hence all orthodox opinion must be in strict 
 accordance with theirs. They were the sole depositaries of the inspired 
 commentary given by Muhammad. There is now no room for, as there is 
 no need of, any other. 
 
 2. Speaking on this very subject Ibn Khaldoun says : — " Rien de tout 
 celn n'a pu se connaitre que par des indications provenant des Compagnons 
 et de leurs disciples." Vol. ii. p. 460. 
 
 7 
 
50 The Faith of Mam. 
 
 without seeking for any explanation. This kind of sentence 
 may be abrogated. Unless abrogated, action in accordance 
 with it is to be considered as the express command of God. 
 All penal laws and the rules regulating the substitution of 
 one religious act for another, e.g. almsgiving instead of 
 fasting, must be based on this, the clearest of the obvious 
 sentences. 
 
 (2). Nass, a word commonly used for a text of the Quran, 
 but in its technical meaning here expressing what is meant 
 by a sentence, the meaning of which is made clear by some 
 word which occurs in it. The following sentence illustrates 
 both Zahir and Nass : " Take in marriage of such other 
 women as please you, two, three, four." This sentence is 
 Zahii*, because marriage is here declared lawful ; it is Nass, 
 because the words " one, two, three, four," which occur in 
 the sentence, show the unlawfulness of having more than 
 four wives. 
 
 (3). Mufassir, or explained. This is a sentence which 
 needs some word in it to explain it and make it clear. 
 Thus : " And the angels prostrated themselves, all of them 
 with one accord, save Iblis (Satan)." Here the words " save 
 Iblis," show that he did not prostrate himself. This kind 
 of sentence may be abrogated. 
 
 (4). Mukha/m, or perspicuous. This is a sentence as to 
 the meaning of which there can be no doubt, and which 
 cannot be controverted, thus : " God knoweth all things." 
 This kind of sentence cannot be abrogated. To act on such 
 sentences without departing from the literal sense is the 
 highest degree of obedience to God's command. 
 
 The difference between these sentences is seen when there 
 is a real or apparent contradiction between them. If such 
 should occur, the first must give place to the second, and 
 so on. Thus Mukham cannot be abrogated or changed by 
 any of the preceding, or Mufassir by Nass, &c. 
 
 The other great division of sentences is that of 
 
 II. (1). Khafi or hidden. Such are those sentences in 
 
Muskhil and Mitjmal Sentences. 51 
 
 which other persons or things are hidden beneath the plain 
 meaning of a word or expression contained therein, as : " as 
 for a thief, whether male or female, cut ye off their hands 
 m recompense for their doings." (Sura v. 42). The word 
 for thief is " Siiriq," and in this passage it is understood 
 to include highwaymen, pickpockets, plunderers of the 
 dead, &c. These meanings are Khafi or hidden under it. 
 
 (2). Muskhil, or ambiguous. The following is given as 
 an illustration : " And (their attendants) shall go round 
 about them with vessels of silver and goblets. The bottles 
 shall be bottles of silver." The difficulty here is that 
 bottles are not made of silver, but of glass. The commen- 
 tators say, however, that glass is dull in colour, though it 
 has some lustre, whilst silver is white, and not so bright as 
 glass. Now it may be, that the bottles of Paradise will be 
 like glass bottles as regards their lustre, and like silver as 
 regards their colour. But anyhow, it is very difficult to 
 ascertain the meaning. 
 
 (3.) Mvjmal. These are, first, sentences which may have 
 a variety of interpretations, owing to the words in them 
 being capable of several meanings ; in that case the mean- 
 ing which is given to the sentence in the Traditions relat- 
 ing to it should be acted on and accepted. Secondly, the 
 sentence may contain some very rare word, and thus its 
 meaning may be doubtful, as : " Man truly is by creation 
 hasty." (Sura lxx. 19.) In this verse the word " halu' " — 
 hasty — occurs. It is very rarely used, and had it not been for 
 the following words, " when evil toucheth him, he is full of 
 complaint; but when good befalleth him, he becometh niggard- 
 ly," its meaning would not have been atall easy to understand. 
 
 The following is an illustration of the first kind of Muj- 
 mal sentences : " Stand for prayer (salat) and give alms," 
 (zakat.) Both salat and zakat are ' Mush tank' woi'ds. The 
 people, therefore, did not understand this verse, so they 
 applied to Muhammad for an explanation. He explained 
 to them that " salat" might mean the ritual of public prayer, 
 
52 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 standing to say the words " God is great," or standing to 
 repeat a few verses of the Quran ; or it might mean private 
 prayer. The primitive meaning of " zakat" is growing. 
 The Prophet, however, fixed the meaning here to that of 
 " almsgiving," and said, " Give of your substance one- 
 fortieth part." 
 
 (4.) Mutashdbih. These are sentences so difficult that 
 men cannot understand them, a fact referred to in Sura iii. 3. 
 (Ante. p. 49), nor will they do so until the day of resurrec- 
 tion. The Prophet, however, knew their meaning. Such 
 portions are the letters A, L, M ; A, L, R ; Y, A at the 
 commencement of some of the Suras. 1 Such expressions 
 also as " God's hand," " The face of God," " God sitteth," 
 &c, come under this category. 
 
 The next point to be considered is the use of words in the 
 Quran, and here again the same symmetrical division iuto 
 four classes is found, viz : — 
 
 (1.) Haqiqat, that is, words which are used in their 
 literal meaning, as " rukti'," a prostration, and " salat" in 
 the sense of prayer. 
 
 (2.) Maji'iz, or words which are used in a figurative sense, 
 as " salat" in the sense of " namaz" a liturgical service. 
 
 (3.) Sarlh or words the meaning of which is quite evi- 
 dent, as, " Thou art divorced" " Thou art free." 
 
 (4.) Kinayah, or words which, being used in a meta- 
 phorical sense, require the aid of the context to make their 
 meaning clear, as : " Thou art separated," which may, as it 
 
 1. Ibu Khaldoun says that Zamakcheri, (a theologian of good repute for 
 learning in the sixth century A.H.), remarked on these letters as follows : — 
 " They indicate that the style of the Quran is carried to such a degree of 
 excellence, that it defies every attempt to imitate it ; for this book which 
 has been sent down to us from heaven is composed of letters. All men 
 know them all alike, but this power disappears when, in order to express 
 their ideas, they want to use these same letters combined." 
 
 On this curious passage Baron de Slane remarks that the author is not 
 very clear, and that the Turkish translator of Ibn Khaldoun gives the 
 sense of the passage as : — " God has placed these letters in several Suras 
 as a sort of defiance ; as if He had said : — ' Voila les elements dont se com- 
 pose le Corau ; preuez-les et faites-en uu livre cpai l'egale par le style.' " 
 lbn Khaldoun, vol. iii. p. 68. 
 
lbdrat, hhdrat and Daldlat. 53 
 
 stands alone, mean " Thou art divorced." This class also 
 includes all pronouns the meaning of which is only to be 
 known from the context, e. g., one day the Prophet not 
 knowing who knocked at his door said, " Who art thou ?" 
 The man replied, " It is I." Muhammad answered, " Why 
 dost thou say I, I ? Say thy name that I may know who 
 thou art/' The pronoun " I" is here f kinayah.' 
 
 The most important and most difficult branch of exegesis 
 is " istidlal," or the science of deducing arguments from 
 the Quran. This too is divided into four sections, as fol- 
 lows : — 
 
 (1.) lbdrat, or the plain sentence. " Mothers, after they 
 are divorced, shall give suck unto their children two full 
 years, and the father shall be obliged to maintain them and 
 clothe them according to that which is reasonable." (Sura 
 ii. 233.) From this verse two deductions are made. First, 
 from the fact that the word " them" is in the feminine 
 plural, it must refer to the mothers and not to the children ; 
 secondly, as the duty of supporting the mother is incumbent 
 on the father, it shows that the relationship of the child is 
 closer with the father than with the mother. Penal laws 
 may be based on a deduction of this kind. 
 
 (2.) Ishdrat, that is, a sign or hint which may be given 
 from the order in which the words are placed. 
 
 (3.) Daldlat, or the argument which may be deduced 
 from the use of some special word in the verse, as : " say not 
 to your parents, " Fie" (Arabic " uff") (Sura xvii. 23). 
 From the use of the word " uff," it is argued that children 
 may not beat or abuse their pai'ents. Penal laws may be 
 based on " dalalat," thus : " Their aim will be to abet dis- 
 order on the earth ; but Grod loveth not the abettors of 
 disorder." (Sura v. 69.) The word translated " aim" is in 
 Arabic literally yasa'una, " they run." From this the 
 argument is deduced that as highwaymen wander about, 
 they are included amongst those whom " God loveth not," 
 and that, therefore, the severest punishment may be given to 
 
54 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 them, for any deduction that conies under the head of 
 " dalalat" is a sufficient basis for the formation of the 
 severest penal laws. 
 
 (4.) Iqtizd. This is a deduction which demands certain 
 conditions : " whosoever killeth a believer by mischance, 
 shall be bound to free a believer from slavery." (Sura iv. 
 94). As a man has no authority to free his neighbour's 
 slave, the condition here required, though not expressed, is 
 that the slave should be his own property. 
 
 The Quran is divided into : — 
 
 (1). Harf (plural Hurilf), letters. The numbers given 
 by different authorities vary. In one standard book it is 
 said that there are 338,606 letters. 
 
 (2). Kalima (plural Kalimdt), words, stated by some to 
 amount to 79,087; by others to 77,934. 
 
 (3). Ayat (plural Aydt), verses. Ayat really means a 
 sign, and was the name given by Muhammad to short 
 sections or verses of the Quran. The end of a verse is 
 determined by the position of a small circle O. The early 
 Quran Readers did not agree as to the position of these 
 circles, and so five different ways of arranging them have 
 arisen. This accounts for a variation in the number of 
 verses in various editions. The varieties are : — 
 
 (1). Kufa verses. The Readers in the city of Kiifa say 
 that they followed the custom of 'All. Their way of 
 reckoniug is generally adopted in India. They reckon 
 6,239 verses. 
 
 (2). Basra verses. The Readers of Basra follow 'Asiui 
 bin Hajjaj, a Companion. They reckon 6,204. 
 
 (3). Shdmi verses. The Readers in Syria (Sham) fol- 
 lowed Abd-ullah bin 'Umr, a Companion. They reckon 
 6,225 verses. 
 
 (4). Mecca verses. According to this arrangement there 
 are 6,219 verses. 
 
 (5). Madlna, verses. This way of reading contains 6,211 
 verses. 
 
The Sums. 55 
 
 In each of the above varieties the verse " Bismillah" (in 
 the name of God) is not reckoned. It occurs llo times in 
 the Quran. 
 
 This diversity of punctuation does not generally affect 
 the meaning of any important passage. The third verse of 
 the third Sura is an important exception. The position of 
 the circle O, the symbol denoting a full stop, in that verse 
 is of the highest importance in connection with the rise of 
 scholasticism ('Ilm-i-kalam) in Islam. 
 
 Most of the cases, however, are like the following : — 
 
 In Suraxxvii. an account is given of the Queen of Sheba's 
 receiving a letter from King Solomon. Addressing her nobles 
 she said : " Verily, Kings, when they enter a city (by force) 
 waste the same, and abase the most powerful of the inhabi- 
 tants hereof: and so will (these) do (with us)." Many 
 Readers put the full stop after the word ' ' hereof," and say 
 that God is the speaker of the words " and so will they do." 
 
 (4). 8 dra, or chapter. The word Sura means a row or 
 series, snch as a line of bricks arranged in a wall, but it is 
 now exclusively used for chapters in the Quran. These are 
 one hundred and fourteen in number. The Suras are not 
 numbered in the original Arabic, but each one has some 
 approximate name, (as Baqr — the cow, Nisa — women, &c.,) 
 generally taken from some expression which occurs in it. 
 They are not arranged in chronological order, but accord- 
 ing to their length. As a general rule, the shorter Suras 
 which contain the theology of Islam, belong to the Meccan 
 period of the Prophet's career, 1 and the longer ones relating 
 chiefly to social duties and relationships, to the organisation 
 of Islam as a civil polity, to the time when he was consoli- 
 dating his power at Madiua. The best way, therefore, to 
 
 1. The last verse revealed at Mecca was, " This day have I perfected 
 your religion for you, and have filled up the measure of my favours 
 upon you ; and it is my pleasure that Islam be your religion ; but whoso 
 without wilful leanings to wrong shall bo forced by hunger to transgress, 
 to him, verily, will God be indulgent, merciful." (Sura v. 5). Ibn Khaldoun 
 vol. i. p. 206. 
 
56 The Faith of Mam. 
 
 read the Quran, is to begin at the end. The attempt to 
 arrange the Suras in due order, is a very difficult one, and, 
 after all, can only be approximately correct. 1 Carlyle refer- 
 ring to the confused mass of " endless iterations, long 
 windedness, entanglement, most crude, incondite" says : 
 "nothing but a sense of duty could carry any European 
 through the Quran." When re-arranged the book becomes 
 more intelligible. The chief tests for such re-arrangement 
 are the style and the matter. There is a very distinct dif- 
 ference in both of these respects between the earlier and 
 later Suras. The references to historical events sometimes 
 give a clue. Individual Suras are often very composite in 
 their character, but, such as they are, they have been from 
 the beginning. The recension made by Zeid, in the reign 
 of the Khalif Osmau, has been handed down unaltered in 
 its form. The only variations (qira'at) now to be found in 
 the text have been already noticed. They in no way affect 
 the arrangements of the Suras. 
 
 5. Sipara a thirtieth portion. This is a Persian word 
 derived from si, thirty, and para, a portion. The Arabs 
 call each of these divisions a Juz. Owing to this division, 
 a pious man can recite the whole Quran in a month, taking 
 one Sipara each day. Musalmans never quote the Quran 
 as we do by Sura and Ayat, but by the Sipara and Ruku', 
 a term I now proceed to explain. 
 
 6. BuhiV (plural Rukiuit). This word literally means a 
 prostration made by a worshipper in the act of saying the 
 prayers. The collection of verses recited from the Quran, 
 ascriptions of praise offered to God, and various ritual acts 
 connected with these, constitute one act of worship called 
 a " rak'at." After reciting some verses in this form of 
 prayer, the worshipper makes a Uuku\ or prostration, the 
 
 1. The arrangement made by Professor Th. Noldeke in his " Geschichte 
 des Qurans'' is considered by Stanley Lane Poole to be the best. Rodwell's 
 English version of the Quran is, with some exceptions, an example of this 
 order. 
 
Rah'at and RufaV. 57 
 
 portion then recited takes the name of Ruku'. Tradition 
 states that the Khalif Osman, when reciting the Quran 
 during- the month of Ramazan, used to make twenty rak'ats 
 each evening. In each rak'at he introduced different 
 verses of the Quran, beginning with the first chapter and 
 going steadily on. In this way he recited about two hun- 
 dred verses each evening ; that is, about ten verses in each 
 rak'at. Since then, it has been the custom to recite the Quran 
 in this way in Ramazan, and also to quote it by the rukiV, 
 e.q., " such a passage is in such a Sipara and in such a Ruku'. 
 The following account of a rak'at will make the matter 
 plain. When the Faithful are assembled in the mosque, the 
 Imam, or leader, being in front facing the Qibla, the seiwice 
 commences thus : — Each worshipper stands and says the 
 Niyyat (literally " intention"), a form of words declaring 
 his intention to say his prayers. He then says : " God is 
 great." After this, looking downwards, he says : " Holiness 
 to Thee, God ! and praise be to Thee, Great is Thy name, 
 Great is Thy greatness, there is no deity but Thee." Then 
 follows : " I seek from God refuge from cursed Satan." 
 Then the Tasraiyah is repeated : " In the name of God, the 
 Compassionate and Merciful." Then follows the Fatiha, 
 that is, the short chapter at the commencement of the Quran. 
 After this has been recited, the Imam proceeds, on the first 
 night of the month Ramazan, with the first verse of the 
 second chapter. 1 After saying a few verses, he makes a 
 Ruku' ; that is, he bends his head and body down, and places 
 his hands on his knees. In this position he says : " God is 
 great." Then he repeats three times the words : " I extol 
 the holiness of my Lord, the Great." He then stands up 
 and says : " God hears him who praises Him." To this 
 the people respond : " Lord, thou art praised." Again, 
 falling on his knees, the worshipper says : " God is great." 
 Then he puts first his nose, and then his forehead on the 
 
 1. On ordinary occasions any verses may be chosen. The 112th Sura is 
 the one generally repeated. 
 
 8 
 
58 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 ground and says three times : " I extol the holiness of my 
 Lord, the Most High." Then sitting on his heels, he says : 
 " God is great ;" and again repeats as before : " I extol, etc." 
 He then rises and says : " God is great." This is one rak'at. 
 On each night in the month of Ramazan this is gone through 
 twenty times, the only variation being that after the 
 Fatiha and before the first prostration, fresh verses of the 
 Quran are introduced. The whole is, of course, done in 
 Arabic, in whatever couutry the worshippers may be. The 
 name of the prostration (RukiV) has been transferred to the 
 portion of the Quran recited just before it is made. There 
 are altogether 557 Rukuat. 
 
 (7). The other divisions are not important. They are, a 
 Sumn, Bubo,', Nisf, Suls, that is one-eighth, one-fourth, 
 one-half, one-third of a Sipara respectively. 
 
 In reciting the Quran the worshipper must be careful to 
 say the " Takbir," i.e. " God is great," after the several 
 appointed places. Such a place is after the recital of the 
 93rd Sura. The custom arose in this way. The hypocrites 
 came to the Prophet and asked him to relate the story of 
 the " Seven Sleepers." He said : " I will tell you to-mor- 
 row j" but he forgot to add the words " if God will." By 
 way of warning, God allowed no inspiration to descend 
 upon him for some days. Then the hypocrites began to 
 laugh and say : " God has left him." As it was not God's 
 purpose to put his messenger to ridicule, the Sura entitled 
 " The brightness" (xciii) was immediately brought by the 
 ever-ready Gabriel. It begins : " By the brightness of the 
 morning, and by the night when it groweth dark, thy Lord 
 hath not forsaken thee, neither doth He hate thee." In re- 
 membrance of this signal interposition of Providence on 
 his behalf, the Prophet always concluded the recital of this 
 Sura with the words : " God is great." The practice thus 
 became a " Sunnat" obligation ; that is, it should be done 
 because the Prophet did it. 
 
 The doctrine of abrogation is a very important one in 
 
Abrogation. 59 
 
 connection with the study of the Quran. It is referred to 
 in the verses : " Whatever verses we cancel or cause thee to 
 forget, we give thee better in their stead, or the like there- 
 of." (Suraii. 100). This is a Madiua Sura. "What He 
 pleaseth will God abrogate or confirm ; for with Him is 
 the source of revelation." (Sura xiii. 39). Some verses 
 which were cancelled in the Prophet's life-time are not now 
 extant. Abdullah Ibn Masud states that the Prophet one 
 day recited a verse, which he immediately wrote down. The 
 next morning he found it had vanished from the material 
 on which it had been written. Astonished at this, he 
 acquainted Muhammad with the fact, and was informed 
 that the verse in question had been revoked. There are, 
 however, many verses still in the Quran, which have been 
 abrogated. It was an exceedingly convenient doctrine, and 
 one needed to explain the change of front which Muhammad 
 made at different periods of his career. Certain rules have 
 been laid down to regulate the practice. The verse which 
 abrogates is called Ndsikh, and the abrogated verse Mansukh. 
 Mansukh verses are of three kinds : — first, where the words 
 and the sense have both been abrogated ; secondly, where 
 the letter only is abrogated and the sense remaius ; thirdly, 
 where the sense is abrogated though the letter remains. 
 Imam Malik gives as an instance of the first kind the 
 verse : " If a son of Adam had two rivers of gold, he would 
 covet yet a third ; and if he had three he would covet yet 
 a fourth. Neither shall the belly of a son of Adam be filled, 
 but with dust. God will turn unto him who shall repent." 
 The Imam states that originally this verse was in the Sura 
 (ix.) called Repentance. The verse, called the " verse of 
 stoning" is an illustration of the second kind. It reads : 
 " Abhor not your parents for this would be ingratitude in 
 you. If a man and woman of reputation commit adultery, 
 ye shall stone them both ; it is a punishment ordained by 
 God ; for God is mighty and wise." The Khalif Omar says 
 this verse was extant in Muhammad's life-time but that it 
 
60 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 is now lost. But it is the third class which practically 
 comes into 'Ilm-i-usul. Authorities differ as to the number 
 of verses abrogated. Sale states that they have been esti- 
 mated at two hundred and twenty-five. The principal ones 
 are not many in number, and are very generally agreed 
 upon. I give a few examples. It is a fact worthy of 
 notice that they occur chiefly, if not almost entirely, in 
 ►Suras delivered at Madina. There, where Muhammad had 
 to confront Jews and Christians, he was at first politic in his 
 aim to win them over to his side, and then, when he found 
 them obstinate, the doctrine of abrogation came in conve- 
 niently. This is seen plainly in the following case. At 
 Mecca Muhammad and his followers did not stand facing 
 any particular direction when at prayer, a fact to which the 
 following passage refers : — " To God belongeth the east and 
 west ; therefore, whithersoever ye turn yourselves to pray 
 there is the face of God." (Siiraii. 109). When Muham- 
 mad arrived at Madina, he entered into friendship with 
 the Jews and tried to win them to his side. The Qibla 
 (sanctuary) towards which the worshippers now invariably 
 turned at prayer was Jerusalem. This went on for a while, 
 but when Muhammad claimed to be not merely a Prophet 
 for the Ai'abs, but the last and the greatest of all the Pro- 
 phets, when he asserted that Moses had foretold his advent, 
 and that his revelations were the same as those contained 
 in their own Scriptures, they utterly refused allegiance to 
 him. In the first half of the second year of the Hijra the 
 breach between them was complete. It was now time to 
 reconcile the leaders of the Quraish tribe at Mecca. So 
 the verse quoted above was abrogated by : " We have seen 
 thee turning thy face towards heaven, but we will have 
 thee turn to a Qibla, which shall please thee. Turn then 
 thy face toward the Holy Temple (of Mecca), and wherever 
 ye be, turn your faces toward that part." (Sura ii. 139.) 
 The Faithful were consoled by the assurance that though 
 they had not done so hitherto, yet God would not let their 
 
Abrogation. 61 
 
 faith be fruitless, " for unto man is God merciful, gracious." 
 (v. 138.) The doctrine of abrogation is brought in for 
 a more personal matter in the following case : " It is not per- 
 mitted to thee to take other wives hereafter, nor to change 
 thy present wives for other women, though their beauty 
 charm thee, except slaves, whom thy right hand shall 
 possess." (Sura xxxiii. 52.) This is said by Beidawi, and 
 other eminent Muslim divines, to have been abrogated by a 
 verse which though placed before it in the arrangement of 
 verses, was really delivered after it. The verse is : " 
 Prophet, we allow thee thy wives whom thou hast dowered, 
 and the slaves which thy right hand possesseth out of the 
 booty which God hath granted thee ; and the daughters of 
 thy uncle, and the daughters of thy aunts, both on thy 
 father's side, and on thy mother's side, who have lied with 
 thee (to Madina), and any other believing woman, who hath 
 given herself up to the Prophet ; if the Prophet desireth to 
 wed her, it is a peculiar privilege for thee, above the rest of 
 the Faithful." (Sura xxxiii. 49.) 
 
 The Moghul Emperor Akbar, wishing to discredit the 
 'Ulama, in one of the meetings so frequently held for dis- 
 cussion during his long reign, propounded the question as 
 to how many free born women a man might marry. The 
 lawyers answered that four was the number fixed by the 
 Prophet. " Of other women who seem good in your eyes 
 marry two and two, and three and three, and four and four." 
 (Sura iv. 3.) The Emperor said that he had not restricted 
 himself to that number, and that Shaikh 'Abd-un-Nabi had 
 told him that a certain Mujtahid had had nine wives. The 
 Mujtahid in question, Ibn Abi Lailah reckoned the number 
 allowed thus 2 + 3 + 4 = 9. Other learned men counted in 
 this way 2 + 2, 3 + 3, 4 + 4 = 18. The Emperor wished the 
 meeting to decide the point. 
 
 Again, the second verse of Sura lxxiii reads : " Stand up 
 all night, except a small portion of it, for prayer." Accord- 
 ing to a Tradition handed down by 'Ayesha the last verse 
 
62 The Faith of Islam,. 
 
 of this Sura was revealed a year later. It makes the matter 
 much easier. " God measureth the night and the day ; he 
 knoweth that ye cannot count its hours aright, and there- 
 fore turneth to you mercifully. Recite then so much of the 
 Quran as may be easy to you" (v. 20.) 
 
 The following is an illustration of a verse abrogated, 
 though there is no verse to prove its abrogation. However, 
 according to the Ijma' it has been abrogated. " But alms 
 are only to be given to the poor and the needy and to those 
 who collect them, and to those whose hearts are won to 
 Islam." (Sura ix. 60.) The clause — " to those whose hearts 
 are won to Islam" — is now cancelled. 1 Muhammad, to gain 
 the hearts of those, who lately enemies, had now become 
 friends, and to confirm them in the faith, gave them large 
 presents from the spoils he took in war ; but when Islam 
 spread and became strong, the 'Ulama agreed that such a 
 procedure was not required and said that the order was 
 " mansukh." 
 
 The other verses abrogated relate to the Ramazan fast, to 
 Jihad, the law of retaliation, and other matters of social in- 
 terest. 
 
 The doctrine of abrogation is now almost invariably ap- 
 plied by Musalman controversialists to the Old and New 
 Testaments, which they say are abrogated by the Quran. 
 " His (Muhammad's) law is the abrogator of every other 
 law." 2 This is not, however, a legitimate use of the doc- 
 trine. According to the best and most ancient Muslim 
 divines, abrogation refers entirely to the Quran and the 
 Traditions, and even then is confined to commands and pro- 
 hibitions. " Those who imagine it to be part of the 
 Muhammadan creed that one law has totally repealed 
 another, are utterly mistaken — we hold no such doctrine." 3 
 In the Tafsir-i-Itifaq it is written : ' ' Abrogation affects those 
 
 1. Tafsir-i-Husaini, p. 216. 2. Sharh-i-'Aqaid-i-Jami, p. 131. 
 
 3. Commentary on the Holy Bible by Syed Ahmad, c.s.i., vol. i. p. 268. 
 See note on this in chapter 4. Section ' Prophets.' 
 
Abrogation. 63 
 
 matters which God has confined to the followers of Muham- 
 mad, and one of the chief advantages of it is that the way 
 is made easy." In the Tafsir-i-Mazhiri we find : " Abroga- 
 tion refers only to commands and prohibitions, not to facts or 
 historical statements." 1 Again, no verse of the Quran, or a 
 Tradition can be abrogated unless the abrogating verse is 
 distinctly opposed to it in meaning. If it is a verse of the 
 Quran, we must have the authority of Muhammad himself 
 for the abrogation ; if a Tradition, that of a Companion. 
 Thus " the word of a commentator or a Mujtahid is not 
 sufficient unless there is a ' genuine Tradition' (Hadis-i- 
 Sahih), to show the matter clearly. The question of the 
 abrogation of any previous command depends on historical 
 facts with regard to the abrogation, not on the mere opinion 
 of a commentator." It cannot be shown that either 
 Muhammad or a Companion ever said that the Bible was 
 abrogated. This rule, whilst it shows that the assertion of 
 modern controversialists on this point is void of foundation, 
 also illustrates another point to which I have often called 
 attention, viz. ; that in Islam all interpretation must be re- 
 gulated by traditionalism. 
 
 Additions were occasionally made. Thus when it was 
 revealed that those who stay at home were not before God 
 as those who go forth to war, Abdullah and Ibn Um- 
 Maktum said : ' and what if they were blind/ The Prophet 
 asked for the shoulder-blade on which the verse was 
 written. He then had a spasmodic convulsion. After his 
 recovery he made Zeid add the words, "free from trouble." 
 So now the whole verse reads thus : " Those believers who 
 sit at home free from trouble (i.e., bodily infirmity), and 
 those who do valiantly in the cause of God, with their 
 substance and their persons, shall not be treated alike." 
 (Sura iv. 97). Years after, Zeid said: "I fancy I see the 
 words now on the shoulder-blade near a crack." 
 
 1. Niaz Namah, by Maulavi Safdar 'Ali, p. 250. 
 
64 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 The question of the eternal nature of the Quran does not 
 properly come under the head of 'Ilin-i-usul, but it is a 
 dogma fondly cherished by many Muslims. In the days of 
 the Khalif Al-Mamun this question was fiercely debated. 
 The Freethinkers, whilst believing in the Mission of 
 Muhammad, asserted that the Quran was created, by which 
 statement they meant that the revelation came to him in a 
 subjective mode, and that the language was his own. The 
 book was thus brought within the reach of criticism. In 
 the year 212, a. h. the Khalif issued a decree to the effect 
 that all who held the Quran to be uncreated were to be 
 declared guilty of heresy. But the Khalif himself was a 
 notorious rationalist, and so the orthodox, though they 
 remaiued quiet, remained unconvinced. The arguments 
 used on the orthodox side are, that both the words and 
 their pronunciation are eternal, that the attempt to 
 draw a distinction between the word as it exists in the 
 Divine Mind and as it appears in the Quran is highly 
 dangerous. In vain do their opponents argue that, if the 
 Quran is uncreated, two Eternal Beings are in existence. 
 To this it is answered : " This is the honourable Quran, 
 written in the preserved Tablet. " (Suralvi. 76). A Tradi- 
 tion is also adduced which states : " God wrote the Thora 
 (Law) with His own hand, and with His own hand He 
 created Adam ; and also in the Quran it is written, ' and 
 We wrote for him upon the tables a monition concerning 
 every mattei*,' in reference to the tables of the Law given 
 to Moses." If God did this for former prophets and their 
 works, how much more, it is argued, should he not have 
 done it for the last and greatest of the prophets, and the 
 noble Quran ? It is not easy to get a correct definition of 
 the term " the uncreated Quran," but it has been put thus : 
 " The Word as it exists in the mind of God is ' Kalam-i- 
 Nafsi' (spii'itual word), something unwritten and eternal. 
 It is acknowledged by the Ijma'-i-Ummat (consent of the 
 Faithful), the Traditions, and by other prophets that God 
 
The Traditions, 65 
 
 speaks. The Kalam-i-Nafsi then is eternal, but the actual 
 words, style, aud eloquence are created by God ; so also is the 
 arrangement and the miraculous uature of the book." This 
 seems to be a reasonable account of the doctrine, though 
 there are theologians who hold that the very words are 
 eternal. The doctrine of abrogation clashes with this idea, 
 but they meet the objection by their theory of absolute pre- 
 destination. This accounts for the circumstances which 
 necessitated the abrogation, for the circumstances, as well as 
 the abrogated verses, were determined on from all eternity. 
 
 This concludes the consideration of the exegesis of the 
 Quran, a book difficult and uninteresting for a non-Muslim 
 to read, but one which has engaged and is still engaging 
 the earnest thoughts of many millions of the human race. 
 Thousands of devout students in the great theological 
 schools of Cairo, Stamboul, Central Asia and India are 
 now plodding through this very subject of which I have 
 here been treating ; soon will they go forth as teachers of 
 the book they so much revere. How utterly unfit that 
 training is to make them wise men in any true sense of the 
 word, how calculated to render them proud, conceited, and 
 scornful of other creeds, its rigid and exclusive character 
 shows. Still, it is a marvellous book ; for twelve hundred 
 years and more it has helped to mould the faith, animate 
 the courage, cheer the despondency of multitudes, whether 
 dwellers in the wild uplands of Central Asia, in Hindustan, 
 or on the shores of the Mediterranean. The Turanian and 
 the Aryan, the Arab and the Negro, alike learn its sonorous 
 sentences, day by day repeat its opening clauses, and pray 
 in its words as their fathers prayed before them. 
 
 Next to the act of testifying to the unity of God, the 
 Quran is the great bond of Islam. No matter from what 
 race the convert may have come, no matter what language 
 he may speak, he must learn in Arabic, and repeat by rote 
 portions of the Quran in every act of public worship. 
 
 The next subject for consideration is that of the Tradi- 
 
 9 
 
 y 
 
66 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 tions, or the second branch of the science of 'Ilm-i-usul. 
 The Traditions contain the record of all that Muhammad 
 did and said. It is the belief of every Muslim, to whatever 
 sect he belongs, that the Prophet not only spake but also 
 acted under a divine influence. The mode of the inspiration is 
 different from that of the Quran. There the revelation was 
 objective. In the Prophet's sayings recorded in the Tradi- 
 tions the inspiration is subjective, but still a true inspiration. 
 This belief places the Traditions in a place second only to 
 the Quran ; it makes them a true supplement to that book, 
 and thus they not only throw light on its meaning, but 
 themselves form the basis on which doctrines may be 
 established. Without going so far as to say that every 
 Tradition by itself is to be accepted as an authority in Islam, 
 it may be distinctly asserted that there can be no true con- 
 ception formed of that system if the Traditions are not 
 studied and taken into account. So important a branch of 
 Muslim theology is it, that the study of the Traditions is 
 included in the 'Ilm-i-usul, or science of exegesis. Some 
 account of them, therefore, naturally forms part of this 
 chapter. 
 
 The first four Khalifs were called the Khulafa-i-Rashidin 
 that is, those who could guide others aright. They 
 had been friends and Companions of the Prophet, and 
 the Faithful could always appeal to them in cases of 
 doubt. The Prophet had declared that Islam must be 
 written in the hearts of men. There was therefore an 
 unwillingness k» commit his sayings to writing. They were 
 handed down by word of mouth. As no argument was 
 so effectual in a dispute as " a saying" of the Prophet, 
 the door was opened by which spurious Traditions could 
 be palmed off on the Faithful. To prevent this, a num- 
 ber of strict rules were framed, at the head of which 
 stands the Prophet's saying, itself a Tradition : " Convey 
 to other persons none of my words except those which ye 
 know of a surety. Verily, he who purposely represents my 
 
The Sahih-i-Bukhdri. 67 
 
 words wrongly will find a place for himself nowhere but in 
 fire." To enforce this rule, it was laid down that the 
 relator of a Tradition must also repeat its " Isnad," or 
 chain of authorities, as : "I heard from such an one, who 
 heard from such an one/' and so on, until the chain reaches 
 the Prophet himself. Each person, too, in this " Isnad/' 
 must have been well known for his good character and 
 retentive memory. This failed, however, to prevent a vast 
 number of manifestly false Traditions becoming current ; so 
 men set themselves to the work of collecting and sifting the 
 great mass of Tradition that in the second century of Islam 
 had begun to work untold evil. These men are called 
 " Muhadisiu," or " collectors of Tradition." The Sunnis 
 and the Wahhabis recognise six such men, and their collec- 
 tions are known as the " Sihah-Sittah," or six correct 
 books. They are the following : — 
 
 (1). The Sahih-i-Bukhdri, called after Abu Abdullah 
 Muhammad Ibn-i-Isma'il, a native of Bukhara. He was 
 born a.h. 194. He was a man of middle height, spare 
 in frame, and as a boy totally blind. The grief of his 
 father was on this account intense ; but one day in a dream 
 he saw the Patriarch Abraham, who said to him : " God 
 on account of thy grief and sorrow has granted sight 
 to thy son." The sight being thus restored, at the age 
 of ten he went to school, and began to learn the Tradi- 
 tions by heart. After his education was finished, a famous 
 Muhadis named Dakhli came to Bukhara. One day the 
 youthful Bukhari ventured to correct the famous mau. It 
 was an astounding piece of audacity, but the youth was 
 proved to be in the right. This set him on the work of col- 
 lecting and sifting the Traditions. At the early age of 
 sixteen he was able to remember fifteen thousand. In 
 course of time he collected 600,000 Traditions. The result 
 of his examination and selection was that he approved of 
 seven thousand two hundred and seventy-five. These are 
 now recorded in his great work, the Sahih-i-Bukhari. It 
 
68 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 is said that he never sat down to examine a Tradition 
 without first performing a legal ablution, and repeating two 
 rak'at prayers. He then said : " Lord, let me not make 
 a mistake." For sixteen years he lived in a mosque and 
 died much respected at the age of sixty-four. 
 
 (2). Sahih-i-Muslim. Muslim Ibn-i-Hajjaj was born at 
 Nishapur, a city of Khorasan. He collected about 300,000 
 Traditions, from which ,he made his collection. He is said 
 to have been a very just man, and willing to oblige all who 
 sought his advice. In fact, this williuguess to oblige was 
 the indirect cause of his death. One day he was sitting as 
 usual in the mosque when some people came to ask him 
 about a Tradition. Ashe could not discover it in the books 
 he had with him, he went to his house to search there. The 
 people brought him a basket of dates. He went on eating 
 and searching, but unfortunately he ate so many dates that 
 he died. (a. h. 201.) 
 
 (3). Sanau-i- Aba Baud. Abu Daud Sajistani, a native 
 of Seistan, was born a.h. 202. He was a great traveller, 
 and went to all the chief places of Musalman learning. In 
 knowledge of the Traditions, in devotion, in piety, he was 
 unrivalled. He collected about 500,000 Traditions, of 
 which he selected four thousand eight hundred for his book. 
 
 (4). Jami'-i-Tirmizi. Abu Isa J Muhammad Tirmizi was 
 born at Tirmiz in the year a.h. 209. He was a disciple of 
 Bukhari. Ibn Khallikan says this work is " the production 
 of a well-informed man : its exactness is proverbial." 1 
 
 (5). 8iman-i-Nas<'ii. Abu Abd-ur- Rahman Nasai was 
 bora at Nasa, in Khorasan, in the year a.h. 214, and died 
 a. h. 303. It is recorded of him, with great approbation, 
 that he fasted every other day, and had four wives and 
 many slaves. This book is considered of great value. He 
 met with his death in rather a sad way. He had compiled 
 a book on the virtues of ; Ali, and as the people of Damas- 
 
 1. Biographical Dictionary, vol. ii, p. 679. 
 
The Importance of Tradition. 69 
 
 cus were at that time inclined to the heresy of the Khari- 
 gites, he wished to read his book in the mosque of that 
 place. After he had read a little way, a man arose and 
 asked him whether he knew aught of the praises of Muavia, 
 'All's deadly enemy. He replied that he did not. This 
 answer enraged the people, who beat him so severely that 
 he died soon after. 
 
 (6). Siinan-i-Ibn Mt'tjah. Ibn Majah 1 was born at 'Irak 
 a. h. 209. This work contains 4,000 Traditions. 
 
 The Shia'hs reject these books and substitute five books 2 
 of their own instead. They are of a much later date, the 
 last one, indeed, having been compiled more than four hun- 
 dred years after the Hijra. 
 
 The belief which underlies the question of the authority 
 of the Traditions is that before the Throne of God there 
 stands a ' preserved Table,' on which all that can happen, 
 and all that has ever entered, or will enter, the mind of 
 man is ' noted in a distinct writing.' Through the medium 
 of Gabriel, the Prophet had access to this. It follows then 
 that the words of the Prophet are the words of God. 
 
 Of the four great "Canonical Legists" of Islam, Ahmad 
 Ibn Hanbal was the greatest collector of Traditions. It 
 is said that he knew by heart no less than one million. 
 Of these he incorporated thirty thousand into his system of 
 jurisprudence. That system is now almost obsolete. Abu 
 Hanifa, who is said to have accepted only eighteen Tradi- 
 tions as authentic, founded a system which is to this day 
 the most powerful in Islam. The Hanifites, however, as 
 well as other Muslims, acknowledge the six standard col- 
 lections of Traditions as direct revelations of the will of 
 
 1. " He ranked as a high authority in the Traditions and was well 
 versed in all the sciences connected with them." Ibn Khallikan, vol. ii. 
 p. 680. 
 
 2. The Kafi, by Abu Ja'far Muhammad, a. h. 329. The Man-la-yastah- 
 zirah-al-Faqih, by Shaikh 'All, a. h. 381. The Tahzib and the Istibsiir by 
 Shaikh Abu Ja'far Muhammad, A. h. 466. The Nahaj-ul-Balaghat by 
 Sayyud Razi A. n. 406. 
 
70 The Faith of hldvt. 
 
 God. They range over a vast number of subjects, and 
 furnish a commentary on the Quran. The Prophet's per- 
 sonal appearance, his mental and moral qualities, his actions, 
 his opinions, are all recorded over and over again. Many 
 questions of religious belief are largely founded on the 
 Traditions, and it is to them we must go for an explanation 
 of much of the ritual of Islam. It is very difficult for any 
 one, who has not lived in long and friendly intercourse 
 with Muslims, to realize how much their religious life and 
 opinions, their thought and actions, are based on the 
 Traditions. 
 
 Having thus shown the importance of the Traditions, 
 I now proceed to enter a little into detail on the question 
 of the rules framed concerning them. The classification 
 adopted by different authors may vary in some subordinate 
 points, but the following account is adopted from a standard 
 Muhammadan work. A Tradition may be Hadis-i-Quali, 
 that is, an account of something the Prophet said ; or Hadis- 
 i-Fa'li, a record of something which he did ; or Hadis-i- 
 Taqriri, a statement of some act performed by other persons 
 in his presence, and which action he did not forbid. 
 
 The Traditions may be classed under two general heads : — 
 
 First. — Hadis-i-Mutawatir, that is, "an undoubted Tra- 
 dition," the Isnad, or chain of narrators of which is perfect, 
 and in which chain each narrator possessed all the necessary 
 qualifications for his office. ] Some authorities say there are 
 only a few of these Traditions extant, but most allow that 
 the following is one : " There are no good works except 
 with intention," for example, a man may fast, but, unless 
 he has the intention of fasting firmly in his mind, he gains 
 no spiritual reward by so doing. 
 
 Second. — Radis-i-Ahkl. The authority of this class is 
 
 1. If the Isnad is good, internal improbability carries with it little weight 
 against the genuineness of a Tradition. There is a saying current to this 
 effect : — " A relation made by Shafa'i on the authority of Malik, and by him 
 on the authority of Nafi, and by him on the authority of Ibn Omar, is 
 really the golden chain." 
 
Genuine Traditions. 71 
 
 theoretically somewhat less than that of the first, but prac- 
 tically it is the same. 
 
 This class is again sub-divided into two : — 
 
 (1). Haclis-i-Sahlh, or a genuine Tradition. It is not 
 necessary to go into the sub-divisions of this sub-division. 
 A Tradition is Sahih if the narrators have been men of pious 
 lives, abstemious in their habits, eudowed with a good 
 memory, free from blemish, and persons who lived at peace 
 with their neighbours. The following also are Sahih, 
 though their importance as authorities varies. I arrange 
 them in the order of their value. Sahih Traditions are those 
 which are found in the collections made by Bukhari and 
 Muslim, or in the collection of either of the above, though 
 not in both j or, if not mentioned by either of these famous 
 collectors, if it has been retained in accordance with their 
 canons for the rejection or retention of Traditions ; or 
 lastly, if retained in accordance with the rules of any other 
 approved collector. For each of these classes there is a 
 distinct name. 
 
 (2). Hadts-i-Hasan. The narrators of this class are not 
 of such good authority as those of the former with regard 
 to one or two qualities ; but these Traditions should be 
 received as of equal authority as regards any practical 
 use. * It is merely as a matter of classification that they 
 rank second. 
 
 In addition to these names, there are a number of other 
 technical terms which have regard to the personal character 
 of the narrators, the Isnad, and other points. A few 
 may be mentioned. 
 
 (1). Hadis-i-Z'aif, or a weak Tradition. The narrators 
 of it have been persons whose characters were not above 
 reproach, whose memories were bad, or who, worse still, 
 were addicted to " bid'at," innovation, a habit now, as then, 
 a crime in the eyes of all true Muslims. All agree that a 
 
 J. Nur-ul-IIidayahi p. 5, 
 
72 The Faith of Mam. 
 
 " weak Tradition " has little force ; but few rival theologians 
 agree as to which are, and which are not, " weak Tra- 
 ditions." 
 
 (2). Hadls-i-Mua'llaq, or a Tradition in the Isnad of 
 which there is some break. If it begins with a Tabi' (one 
 iu the generation after that of the Companions), it is called 
 " Mursal" the oue link in the chain, the Companion, being 
 wanting. If the first link in the chain of narrators begins 
 in a generation still later, it has another name, and so on. 
 
 (3). Traditions which have various names, according as 
 the narrator concealed the name of his Imam, or where 
 different narrators disagree, or where the narrator has mixed 
 some of his own words with the Tradition, or has been 
 proved to be a liar, an evil liver, or mistaken ; but into an 
 account of these it is not necessary to enter, for no Tradition 
 of this class would be considered as of itself sufficient 
 ground on which to base any important doctrine. 1 
 
 It is the universally accepted rule, that no authentic 
 Tradition can be contrary to the Quran. The importance 
 attached to Tradition has been shown in the preceding 
 chapter, an importance which has demanded the formation 
 of an elaborate system of exegesis. To an orthodox Muslim 
 the Book and the Sunnat, God's word direct and God's 
 word through the mind of the Prophet, are the foundation 
 and sum of Islam, a fact not always taken into account by 
 modern panegyrists of the system. 
 
 1. A full account of these will be found in the preface to the Nur-ul- 
 Hidayah, the Urdu translation of the Sharh-i-Waqiiyah. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE SECTS OF ISLAM. 
 
 It is a commonly received but nevertheless an erroneous 
 opinion, that the Muhammadan religion is one remarkable 
 for the absence of dogma and the unanimity of its pro- 
 fessors. In this chapter I propose to show how the great 
 sects differ in some very important principles of the faith, 
 and their consequent divergence in practice. There is much 
 that is common ground to all, and of that some account was 
 given in the first chapter on the " Foundations of Islam." 
 
 It was there shown that all Muslim sects are not agreed 
 as to the esseutial foundations of the Faith. The Suunis 
 recognise four foundations, the Wahhabis two; whilst the 
 Shia'hs reject altogether the Traditions held sacred by both 
 Sunui and Wahhabi. The next chapter will contain a full 
 account of the doctrines held by the Suunis, and so no 
 account of this, the orthodox sect, is given in this chapter. 
 
 The first breach in Islam arose out of a civil war. The 
 storv has been so often told that it need not be reproduced 
 here at any length. ; All, the son-in-law of Muhammad, was 
 the fourth Khalif of Islam. He is described as " the last and 
 worthiest of the primitive Musalmans who imbibed his reli- 
 gious enthusiasm from companionship with the Prophet 
 himself, and who followed to the last the simplicity of his 
 character." He was a man calculated by his earnest devo- 
 tion to the Prophet and his own natural graces to win, as he 
 has done, the admiration of succeeding generations. A 
 strong opposition, however, arose, and 'All was assassinated 
 in a mosque at Kufa. It is not easy, amid the conflicting 
 statements of historians of the rival sects, to arrive at the 
 
 truth in all the details of the events which happened then ; 
 
 10 
 
74 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 but the generally received opinion is, that after the assassi- 
 nation of 'All, Hasan, his son, renounced his claim to the 
 Khalifate in favour of his father's rival, Muavia. Hasan 
 was ultimately poisoned by his wife, who, it is said, was in- 
 stigated by Muavia to do the deed, in order to leave the 
 coast clear for his son Yezid. The most tragic event has 
 yet to come. Yezid, who succeeded his father, was a very 
 licentious and irreligious man. The people of Kufa, being 
 disgusted at his conduct, sent messengers to Husain, the 
 remaining son of 'AH, with the request that he would as- 
 sume the Khalifate. In vain the friends of Husain tried to 
 persuade him to let the people of Kufa first revolt, and thus 
 show the reality of their wishes by their deeds. In an evil 
 hour Husain started with a small band of forty horsemen 
 and one hundred foot-soldiers. On the plain of Karbala he 
 found his way barred by a force of three thousand men. 
 " We are few in number," said Husain, " and the enemy is 
 in force. I am resolved to die. But you — I release you 
 from your oath of allegiance ; let all those who wish to do 
 so leave me." " Son of the Apostle of God !" was the 
 reply, " what excuse could we give to thy grandfather on 
 the day of resurrection did we abandon thee to the hands 
 of thine enemies V One by one these brave men fell 
 beneath the swords of the enemy, until Husain and his 
 infant son alone were left. Weary and thirsty, Husain 
 sat upon the ground. The enemy drew near, but no one 
 dared to kill the grandson of the Prophet. An arrow 
 pierced the earr of the little boy and he died. " We came 
 from God, and we return to him,* were the pathetic words 
 of Husain, as with a sorrowful heart he laid the dead body 
 of his son on the sand. He then stooped down to drink 
 some water from the river Euphrates. Seeing him thus 
 stooping, the enemy discharged a flight of arrows, one of 
 which wounded him in the mouth. He fought bravely for 
 a while, but at last fell covered with many wounds. The 
 schism between the Suuni and the Shia'h was now complete. 
 
The Imiimat. 75 
 
 The ceremonies celebrated during the annual fast of 
 Muharram refer to these historical facts, and help to keep 
 alive a bitter feud ; but to suppose that the only difference 
 between the Shia'h and the Sunni is a mere dispute as to 
 the proper order of the early Khalifs would be a mistake. 
 Starting off with a political quarrel, the Shia'hs have tra- 
 velled into a very distinct religious position of their own. 
 The fundamental tenet of the Shia'h sect is the " divine 
 right-" of 'Ali the Chosen and his descendants. From this 
 it follows that the chief duty of religion consists in devo- 
 tion to the Imam ( or Pontiff) ; from which position some 
 curious dogmas issue. The whole question of the Imamat 
 is a very important one. The word Imam comes from an 
 Arabic word meaning to aim at, to follow after. The term 
 Imam then becomes equal to the word leader or exemplar. 
 It is applied in this sense to Muhammad as the leader in all 
 civil and religious questions, and to the Khalifs, his successors. 
 It is also, in its religious import only, applied to the founders 
 of the four orthodox schools of jurisprudence, and in a 
 restricted sense to the leader of a congregation at prayer in 
 a mosque. It is with the first of these meanings that we 
 have now to deal. It is so used in the Quran—" When his 
 Lord made trial of Abraham by commands which he fulfilled, 
 He said : ' I am about to make of thee an Imam to mankind ;' 
 he said : ' Of my offspring also V ' My covenant/ said God, 
 'ernbraceth not the evil-doers.'" (Sura ii. 118.) From 
 this verse two doctrines are deduced. First, that the Imam 
 must be appointed by God, for if this is not the case, why 
 did Abraham say " of my offspring also i" Secondly, the 
 Imam is free from sin, for God said : " My covenant embraceth 
 not the evil-doer." 
 
 The first dispute about the Imamat originated with the 
 twelve thousand who revolted from 'Ali after the battle of 
 Siffin (657 a.d.), because he consented to submit to arbitra- 
 tion the dispute between himself and Muavia. Some years 
 after they were nearly all destroyed by 'Ali. A few survi- 
 
76 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 vors, however, fled to various parts. Two at last settled 
 in Oman, and there preached their distinctive doctrines. 
 In course of time the people of Oman adopted the doc- 
 trine that the Imamat was not hereditary but elective, and 
 that in the event of misconduct the Imam might be deposed. 
 'Abdullah-ibn-Ibadh (744 a.d.) was a vigorous preacher of 
 this doctrine, and from him the sect kuown as the 'Ibad- 
 hiyah takes its rise. The result of this teaching was the 
 establishment of the power and jurisdiction of the Imam 
 of Oman. The 'Ibadhiyah seem to have always kept them- 
 selves independent of the Sunni Khalifs of Baghdad, and, 
 therefore, would consider themselves free from any obligation 
 to obey the Sultan of Turkey. From the ordinary Shia'hs 
 they differ as regards the " divine right" of 'All aud 
 his children. The curious in such matters will find the 
 whole subject well treated in Dr. Badger's " Seyyids of 
 Oman." 
 
 The term Kharigite (Separatist) has since become the 
 generic name for a group of sects which agree as to the 
 need of an Imam, though they differ as to the details of the 
 dogma. In opposition to this heresy of the Kharigite stands 
 what may be termed the orthodox doctrine of the Shia'h. The 
 Sbia'hs hold that the Imamat must continue in the family of 
 'Ali, and that religion consists mainly in devotion to the 
 Imam. • The tragic end of 'Ali and his sous invested them 
 with peculiar interest. When grieving for the sad end of 
 their leaders, the Shi'ahs found consolation in the doctrine 
 which soon found development, viz., that it was God's will 
 that the Imamat should continue in the family of 'All. 
 Thus a tradition relates that the Prophet said : " He of 
 whom I am master has 'All also for a master." " The best 
 judge among you is 'Ali." Ibu Abbas, a Companion says : 
 " I heard the Prophet say : ' He who blasphemes my name 
 blasphemes the name of God j he who blasphemes the name 
 of 'Ali blasphemes my name.' " A popular Persian hymn 
 shows to what an extent this feeling deepened. 
 
The Niir-i-Muhammadi. 77 
 
 " Mysterious being ! none can tell 
 The attributes in thee that dwell ; 
 None can thine essence comprehend ; 
 To thee should every mortal bend — 
 For 'tis by thee that man is given 
 To know the high behests of heaven." 
 
 The general idea is, that long before the creation of the 
 world, God took a ray of light from the splendour of His own 
 glory and united it to the body of Muhammad, to which He 
 said : " Thou art the elect, the choseu, I will make the 
 members of thy family the guides to salvation." Muham- 
 mad said : " The first thing which God created was my 
 light, and my spirit." 1 The body of the Prophet was then 
 in some mysterious way hidden. In due time the world was 
 created, but not until the birth of Muhammad did this ray 
 of glory appear. It is well kuowu to all Musalmans as the 
 " Nur-i-Muhammadi" — light of Muhammad. 
 
 This " Nur" is said to be of four kinds. From the first 
 kind God created His Throne, from the second the Pen of 
 Fate, from the third Paradise, and from the fourth the state, 
 or place of Spirits and all created beings. According to a 
 statement made by 'All, Muhammad said that he was created 
 from the light of God, whilst all other created beings were 
 formed from the "light of Muhammad." 2 
 
 This " light" descended to J Ali, and from him passed on 
 to the true Imams, who alone are the lawful successors of 
 the Prophet. Rebellion against them is sin ; devotion to 
 them the very essence of religion. 
 
 The doctrine of the Imamat has given rise to endless dis- 
 cussion and dissension, as the numerous sub-divisions of 
 the Shia'h sect will show. They are said to be thirty-two 
 in number. The Shia'h proper is the largest aud most 
 influential of them. The following are the Shi'ah tenets 
 regarding the Imam, based on one of their standard books of 
 
 1. Sharh-i-'Aqaid-i-Jamf, p. 123. 
 
 2. Kisas-ul-Anbiya. — " Lives of the Prophets." 
 
78 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 divinity. 1 The Imam is the successor of the Prophet, adorned 
 with all the qualities which he possessed. He is wiser than 
 the most learned men of the age, holier than the most 
 pious. He is the noblest of the sons of men and is free 
 from all sin original or actual : heuce the Imam is called 
 ma'sum (innocent.) 2 God rules the world by wisdom, hence 
 the seuding forth of prophets was a necessity ; but it was 
 equally necessary to establish the Imauiat. Thus the Imam 
 is equal to a prophet. 'All said : " In me is the glory of 
 every prophet that has ever been." The authority of the 
 Imam is the authority of God, for (I quote the Hyat-un- 
 Nafis) " his word is the word of God and of the Prophet, 
 and obedience to his order is iucumbent." The nature of 
 the Imam is identical with the nature of Muhammad, for 
 did not 'Ali say : "I am Muhammad, and Muhammad is 
 me." This probably refers to the possession by the Imam 
 of the " light of Muhammad." The bodies of the Imams 
 are so pure and delicate that they cast no shadow. 3 They 
 
 1. Hyat-un-Nafis. 
 
 2. The Shfa'hs in claiming freedom from sin for the infallible Imams are 
 more logical than the Romanists, thus :— 
 
 " If we are to believe in the inerrability of a person, or a body of per- 
 sons, because it is, forsooth, necessary for the full preservation of the 
 truth, we must then also believe in all besides that can be shown to be 
 needful for the perfect attainment of that end. Now, the conservation of 
 all spiritual truth is not a mere operation of the intellect. It requires the 
 faultless action of the perceiving power, of the spirit. That is to say, it 
 requires the exclusion of sin ; and the man or body that is to be infallible, 
 must also be a sinless organ. It is necessary that the tainting, blinding, 
 distorting power of sin should be shut out from the spiritual eye of the 
 infallible judge." Gladstone's Gleanings, vol. hi. p. 260. 
 
 3. It is a common Musalman belief that the body of a prophet casts no 
 shadow. A similar idea regarding necromancers was widely spread over 
 Northern Europe. It is alluded to by Scott in the " Lay of the Last Min- 
 strel," where speaking of the father of the Ladye, who in Padua, " had 
 learned the art that none might name," he says : — 
 
 " His form no darkening shadow traced 
 Upon the sunny wall." 
 
 It is said that at a certain stage of initiation candidates for magical 
 honours were iu danger of being caught by the devil. Now if the devil 
 could only catch the shadow, and the man escaped, though so nearly 
 
The Tenets of the Shia'hs. 79 
 
 are the beginning and the end of all things. To know the 
 Imams is the very essence of the knowledge which men can 
 gain of God. " The Holy God calls the Imams His word, 
 His hands, His signs, His secret. Their commands and 
 prohibitions, their actions too, He recognises as His own." 
 As mediums between God and man they hold a far higher 
 position than the prophets, for u the grace of God, without 
 their intervention, reaches to no created being." These 
 extravagant claims for the Imams culminate in the asser- 
 tion that " for them a pillar of light has been fixed between 
 the earth and heaven, by which the actions of the Faithful 
 are made known to them." The Imam is the supreme Pon- 
 tiff, the Vicar of God on earth. The possession of an infalli- 
 ble book is not sufficient. The infallible guide is needed. 
 Such wisdom and discernment as such a guide would require 
 can only be found amongst the descendants of the Prophet. 
 It is no longer, then, a matter of wonder, that in some 
 cases, almost, if not entirely, divine honour is paid to 'All 
 and his descendants. 1 
 
 The Usui, or fundamental tenets of the Shia'h sect are 
 five in number. (1) To believe in the unity of God, (2) To 
 admit that He is just, (3) To believe in the divine mission 
 of all the prophets, and that Muhammad is the chief of all, 
 (4) To consider 'All the Khalif next in order after Muham- 
 mad, (5) To believe 'All's descendants from Hasan to 
 Mahcli, the twelfth Imam, to be his true successors, and to 
 consider all of them in character, position and dignity as 
 raised far above all other Muslims. This is the doctrine of 
 the Imamat. 
 
 captured, he became a great magician. This is evidently a legend to 
 explain a previous belief. Muhammadan ideas in the middle ages were 
 prevalent in the Universities of Southern Europe, and Salamanca and 
 Padua were the universities, in which it was supposed that the greatest 
 proficiency in magic was obtained. The superstition has evidently some 
 connection with the Musalman belief regarding the shadows of prophets. 
 
 1. The Sunnis esteem and respect the Imams, as Ahl-i-Beit— men^of the 
 House, (of the Prophet) ; but do not give them precedence over the duly 
 appointed Khalifs, 
 
80 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 The first principal divisions of the Shia'h sect are the 
 Isma'ilians and the Imamites. The latter believe in twelve 
 Imams, reckoning 'Ali as the first. 1 The last of the twelve 
 Abu '1-Qasim, is supposed to be alive still, though hidden in 
 some secret place. He bears the name of Al-Mahdi, " the 
 guided." It is expected that he will reappear at the second 
 advent of Christ. They say that he was born near Baghdad in 
 the year 258 a.h. He afterwards mysteriously disappeared. 
 When he was born the words, " Say : 'truth is come and 
 falsehood is vanished : Verily falsehood is a thing that van- 
 ishcth/ " (Sura xvii. 83) were found written on his right 
 arm. When he came into the world, he pointed with his 
 fingers to heaven, sneezed, and said : ' Praise be to God, 
 the Lord of the world.' A person one day visited Imam 
 Hasan 'Askari (the eleventh Imam) and said : ' son of the 
 Prophet who will be Khalif and Imam after tliee V He 
 brought out a child and said : ' if thou hadst not found 
 favour in the eyes of God, He would not have shown thee 
 this child ; his name is that of the Prophet, and so is his 
 patronymic.' (Abu '1-Qasim). The sect who believe Mahdi 
 to be alive at present, say that he rules over cities in the far 
 west, and ho is even said to have children. God alone 
 knows the truth." 2 
 
 The other large division, the Isuui'ilians, agree with the 
 Imamites in all particulars save one. They hold that after 
 Sadiq, the sixth Imam, commenced what is called the suc- 
 cession of the " concealed Imams." They believe that there 
 never can be a time when there shall be no Imam, but that 
 he is now in seclusion. This idea has given rise to all sorts 
 of secret societies, and has paved the way for a mystical 
 religion, which often lands its votaries in atheism.* 
 
 1. The names are 'All, Hasan, Husain, Zain-ul-'Abid-din, Muhammad 
 Baqr, Ja'far Sadiq, Musa Kazim, 'Ah' Musa Raza, Muhammad Tftqi, 
 Muhammad Naqf, Hasan 'Askari, Abu M-Qasim (or Imam Mahdi). 
 
 2. Rauzat-ubAimmah by Sayyid 'Jzzat 'All. 
 
 3. For a f^ood account of this movement see, Osborn's Islam under the 
 Araba, pp. 168—184. 
 
Thr Ghair-i-Mahdi. 81 
 
 The Grhair-i-Mahdi (literally " without Mahdi") are a 
 small sect who believe; that A.1- Mahdi will not reappear. 
 They say that one Syod Muhammad of Jcypore was the real 
 Mahdij the twelfth Imam, and that he has now gone never 
 more to return. They venerate him as highly as they do 
 the Prophet, and consider all other Musalmans to be unbe- 
 lievers. On the night called Lailat-ul-Qadr, in the month 
 of Ramazan, they meet and repeat two rak'at prayers. 
 After that act of devotion is over, they say : " God is Al- 
 mighty, Muhammad is our Prophet, the Quran and Mahdi 
 are just and true. Imam Mahdi is come and gone. Whoso- 
 ever disbelieves this is an infidel." They are a very 
 fanatical sect. 
 
 There is another small community of Grhair-i-Mahdis 
 called the Da,iri, settled in the province of Mysore, who 
 hold peculiar views on this point. About four hundred years 
 ago, a man named Syed Ahmad collected some followers in 
 the dominions of the Nizam of Hyderabad. He called 
 himself the Imam Mahdi, and said that he was superior to 
 any prophet. He and his disciples, being bitterly persecuted 
 by the orthodox Musalmans, fled to a village in the adjoining 
 district of Mysore where their descendants, fifteen hundred 
 in number, now reside. It is said that they do not inter- 
 marry with other Musalmans. The usual Friday service in 
 the mosque is ended by the leader saying : " Imam Mahdi 
 came and went away," to which the people respond : " Ho 
 who does not believe this is a Kafir" (infidel). 
 
 There are several Traditions which refer to the hitter days. 
 "When of time one day shall bo left, God shall raise up a 
 man from among my descendants, who shall fill the world 
 with justice, just as before him the world was full of oppres- 
 sion." And again: "The world shall not come to an end 
 till the king of the earth shall appear, who is a man of my 
 family, and whose name is the same as mine." When Islam 
 entered upon the tenth century of its existence, there was 
 throughout Persia and India a millenarian movement. Men 
 
 11 
 
82 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 declared that the end was drawing near, and various persons 
 arose who claimed to be Al-Mahdi. I have already men- 
 tioned two. Amongst others was Shaikh 'Alai of Agra. 
 (956 a.h.) Shaikh Mubarak, the father of Abu'1-Fazl— the 
 Emperor Akbar' s famous vizier, was a disciple of Shaikh 
 'Alai and from him imbibed Mahdavi ideas. This brought 
 upon him the wrath of the 'Ulama who, however, were finally 
 overcome by the free-thinking and heretical Emperor and 
 his vizier. There never was a better ruler in India than 
 Akbar, and never a more heretical one as far as orthodox 
 Islam is concerned. The Emperor delighted in the contro- 
 versies of the age. The Sufis and Mahdavis were in favour 
 at Court. The orthodox 'Ulania were treated with contempt. 
 Akbar fully believed that the millennium had come. He 
 started a new era, and a new religion called the ' Divine 
 Faith/ There was toleration for all except the bigoted 
 orthodox Muslims. Abu'1-Fazl and others like him, who 
 professed to reflect Akbar's religious views, held that all 
 religions contained truth. Thus : — 
 
 l> O God, in every temple I see people that seek Thee, and in every 
 language I hear spoken, people praise Thee ! 
 Polytheism and Islam feel after Thee, 
 Each religion says, ' Thou art one, without equal.' 
 If it be a mosque, people murmur the holy prayer, and if it be a 
 Christian Church, people ring the bell from love to Thee, 
 
 Sometimes I frequent the Christian cloister, and sometimes 
 
 the mosque, 
 But it is Thou whom I search from temple to temple." 
 
 In this reign one Mir Sharif was promoted to the rank 
 of a Commander of a thousand, and to an appointment 
 in Bengal. His chief merit in Akbar's eyes was that he 
 taught the doctrine of the transmigration of souls and the 
 close advent of the milleunium. He was a disciple of Mah- 
 mud of Busakhwan, the founder of the Nuqtawiah sect. As 
 this is another offshoot of the Shia'hs I give a brief account 
 of them here, Mahmud lived in the reign of Timur and 
 
The Mahmudiah Sect. 83 
 
 professed to be Al-Mahdi. He also called himself the 
 Shakhs-i-Wahid — the Individual one. He used to quote 
 the verse, " It may be that thy Lord will raise thee up to a 
 glorious (mahmud) station." (Sura xvii. 81). From this 
 he argued that the body of man had been advancing in 
 purity since the creation, and that on its reaching to a cer- 
 tain degree, one Mahmud (glorious) would arise, and that 
 then the dispensation of Muhammad would come to an end. 
 He claimed to be the Mahmud. He also taught the doctrine 
 of transmigration, and that the beginning of everything 
 was the Nuqtah-i-khak — earth atom. It is on this account 
 that they are called the Nuqtawiah sect. They are also 
 known by the names Mahmudiah and Wahidiah. Shah 
 'Abbas king of Persia expelled them from his dominions, 
 but Akbar received the fugitives kindly and promoted some 
 amongst them to high offices of State. 
 
 This Mahdavi movement, arising as it did out of the 
 Shia'h doctrine of the Imamat, is a very striking fact. 
 That imposters should arise and claim the name and office 
 of Al-Mahdi is not to be wondered at, but that large bodies 
 of men should follow them shows the unrest which dwelt in 
 men's hearts, and how they longed for a personal leader and 
 guide. 
 
 The whole of the Shia'h doctrine on this point seems to 
 show that there is in the human heart a natural desire for 
 some Mediator — some Word of the Father, who shall reveal 
 Him to His children. At first sight it would seem, as if the 
 doctrine of the Imamat might to some extent reconcile the 
 thoughtful Shia'h to the Christiau doctrine of the Incarna- 
 tion and Mediation of Jesus Christ, to His office as the 
 perfect revealer of God's will, and as our Guide in life ; but 
 alas ! it is not so. The mystic lore connected with Shia'h 
 doctrine has sapped the foundation of moral life and vigour. 
 A system of religious reservation, too, is a fundamental 
 part of the system iu its mystical developments, whilst all 
 Shia'hs may lawfully practise " takia," or religious com- 
 
84 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 promise in their daily lives. It thus becomes impossible 
 to place dependence on what a Shia'h may profess, as pious 
 frauds are legalised by his system of religion. If he becomes 
 a mystic, he looks upon the ceremonial and the moral 
 law as restrictions imposed by an Almighty Power. The 
 omission of the one is a sin almost, if not quite, as bad 
 as a breach of the other. The advent of Mahdi is the good 
 time when all such restrictions shall be removed, when the 
 utmost freedom shall be allowed. Thus the moral sense, in 
 mauy cases, becomes deadened to an extent such as those 
 who are not in daily contact with these people can hardly 
 credit. The practice of " takia," religious compromise, and 
 the legality of " mutaTi" or temporary marriages, have done 
 much to demoralise the Shia'h community. The following 
 words of a recent author descriptive of the Shia'h 'system 
 are iu the main true, though they do not apply to each 
 individual in that system : — 
 
 " There can be no stronger testimony of the corrupting power and 
 the hard and hopeless bondage of the orthodox creed, than that 
 nun should escape from it into a system which established falsehood 
 as the supreme law of conduct, and regarded the reduction of men to 
 the level of swine as the goal of human existence." 1 
 
 The Mutazilites, or Seceders, were once an influential 
 body. They do not exist as a separate sect now. An 
 account of them will be given in the next chapter. 
 
 In the doctrine of the Imamat, common to all the off- 
 shoots of the Shia'h sect, is to be found the chief point of 
 difference between the Suuni and the Shia'h, a difference 
 so great that there is no danger of even a political union 
 between these two great branches of Islam. I have already 
 described, too, how the Shia'hs reject the Sunnat, though 
 they do not reject Tradition. A good deal of ill-blood is 
 still kept up bj the recollection — a recollection kept alive 
 by the annual recurrence of the Muharram fast — of the sad 
 
 1. Islam under the Khalii's, p. 139. 
 
The Sultan's claim to the Klialifate. 85 
 
 fate of 'All and his sons. The Sunuis are blamed for the 
 work of their ancestors in the faith, whilst the Khalifs Abu 
 Bakr, Omar, and Osmau are looked upon as usurpers. Not 
 to them was committed the wonderful ray of light. In the 
 possession of that alone can any one make good a claim to 
 be the Imam, the Guide of the Believers. The terrible 
 disorders of the early days of Islam cau only be understood 
 when we realise to some extent the passionate longing 
 which men felt for a spiritual head — an Imam. It was 
 thought to be impossible that Muhammad, the last — the 
 seal — of the prophets should leave the Faithful without a 
 guide, who would be the interpreter of the will of Allah. 
 
 We here make a slight digression to show that this feeling 
 extends beyond the Shia ; h sect, and is of some importance 
 in its bearing upon the Eastern Question. Apart from 
 the superhuman claims for the Imam, what he is as a ruler 
 to the Shia'h, the Khalif is to the Sunni — the supreme head 
 in Church and State, the successor of the Prophet, the Con- 
 servator of Islam as made known in the Quran, the Sunnat 
 and the Ijrna/ of the early Mujtahidin. To administer the 
 laws, the administrator must have a divine sanction. Thus 
 when the Ottoman ruler, Selim the First, conquered Egypt, 
 (a.d. 151 G) he sought and obtained, from an old descendant 
 of the Baghdad Khalifs, the transfer of the title to himself, 
 and in this way the Sultans of Turkey became the Khalifs 
 of Islam. Whether Mutawakal Billal, the last titular Khalif 
 of the house of 'Abbas, was right or wrong in thus trans- 
 ferring the title is not my purpose now to discuss. I only 
 adduce the fact to show how it illustrates the feeling of the 
 need of a Pontiff — a divinely appointed Ruler. Strictly 
 speaking, according to Muhammadan law, the Sultans are 
 not Khalifs, for it is clearly laid down in the Traditions that 
 the Khalif (or the Imam) must be of the tribe of the 
 Quraish, to which the Prophet himself belonged. 
 
 Ibn-i-Umr relates that the Prophet said : — " The Khalifs 
 shall be in the Quraish tribe as long as there are two per- 
 
86 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 sons in it, one to rule and another to serve." J "It is a 
 necessary condition that the Khalif should be of the Quraish 
 tribe." 2 Such quotations might be multiplied, and they 
 tend to show that it is not at all incumbeut on orthodox 
 Sunnis, other than the Turks, to rush to the rescue of the 
 Sultan, whilst to the Shia'hs he is little better than a heretic. 
 Certainly they would never look upon him as an Imam, 
 which personage is to them in the place of a Khalif. In 
 countries not under Turkish rule, the Khutbah, or prayer 
 for the ruler, said on Fridays in the mosques, is said for the 
 " ruler of the age," or for the Amir, or whatever happens 
 to be the title of the head of the State. Of late years it has 
 become more common in India to say it for the Sultan. This 
 is not, strictly speaking, according to Muhammadan law, 
 which declares that the Khutbah can only be said with the 
 permission of the ruler, and as in India that ruler is the 
 British Government, the prayers should be said for the 
 Queen. Evidently the law never contemplated large bodies 
 of Musalmans residing anywhere but where the influence of 
 the Khalif extended. 
 
 In thus casting doubt on the legality of the claim made 
 by Turkish Sultans to the Khalifate of Islam, I do not deny 
 that the Law of Islam requires that there should be a Khalif. 
 Unfortunately for Islam, there is nothing in its history 
 parallel to the conflict of Pope and Emperor, of Church and 
 State. " The action and re-action of these powerful and 
 partially independent forces, their resistance to each other, 
 and their miuistry to each other, have been of incalculable 
 value to the higher activity and life of Christendom." In 
 Islam the Khalif is both Pope and Emperor. Ibn Khaldoun 
 states that the difference between the Khalif and any other 
 ruler is that the former rules according to divine, the latter 
 according to human law. The Prophet in transmitting his 
 sacred authority to the Khalifs, his successors, conveyed to 
 
 1. Miakat-ul-Musiibih. 2. Hujjat-ullah-ul-Balaghah. 
 
Sufiism. 87 
 
 them absolute powers. Khalifs can be assassinated, mur- 
 dered, banished, but so long as they reign anything like 
 constitutional liberty is impossible. It is a fatal mistake in 
 European politics and an evil for Turkey to recognize the 
 Sultan as the Khalif of Islam, for, if he be such, Turkey can 
 never take any step forward to newness of political life. l 
 
 This, however, is a digression from the subject of this 
 chapter. 
 
 There has been from the earliest ages of Islam a move- 
 ment which exists to this day. It is a kind of mysticism, 
 known as Sufiism. It has been especially prevalent among 
 the Persians. It is a re-action from the burden of a riarid 
 law, and a wearisome ritual. It has now existed for a thou- 
 sand years, and if it has the element of progress in it, if it 
 is the salt of Islam some fruit should now be seen. But 
 what is Sufiism ? The term Sufi is most probably derived 
 from the Arabic word Suf, " wool," of which material the 
 garments worn by Eastern ascetics used to be generally 
 made. Some persons, however, derive it from the Persian, 
 Suf, " pure," or the Greek o-o<f>ia, " wisdom." Tasawwuf, or 
 Sufiism, is the abstract form of the word, and is, according 
 to Sir W. Jones, and other learned orientalists, a figurative 
 mode, borrowed mainly from the Indian philosophers of the 
 Vedanta school, of expressing the fervour of devotion. The 
 chief idea is that the souls of men differ in degree, but not 
 
 1. Nothing shows this more plainly than the Fatva pronounced by the 
 Council of the 'Ulama in July 1879 anent Khair-ud-din's proposed reform, 
 which would have placed the Sultan in the position of a constitutional 
 sovereign. This was declared to be directly contrary to the Law. Thus : — 
 " The law of the Sheri does not authorize the Khalif to place beside him a 
 power superior to his own. The Khalif ought to reign alone and govern 
 as master. The Vakils (Ministers) should never possess any authority 
 beyond that of representatives, always dependent and submissive. It 
 would consequently be a transgression of the unalterable principles of the 
 Sheri, which should be the guide of all the actions of the Khalif, to transfer 
 the supreme power of the Khalif to one Vakil." This, the latest and most 
 important decision of the jurists of Islam, is quite in accordance with all 
 that has been said about Muhammadan Law. It proves as clearly as 
 possible that so long as the Sultan rules as Khalif, he must oppose any 
 attempt to set up a constitutional Government. There is absolutely no 
 hope of reform. 
 
88 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 in kind, from the Divine Spirit, of which they are emana- 
 tions, and to which they will ultimately return. The 
 Spirit of God is in all He has made, and it in Him. He 
 alone is perfect love, beauty, etc. — hence love to hiaa is the 
 only real thing j all else is illusion. Sa'di says : " I swear 
 by the truth of God, that when He showed me His glory 
 all else was illusion." This present life is one of separation 
 from the beloved. The beauties of nature, music, and art 
 revive in men the divine idea, and recall their affections 
 from wandering from Him to other objects. These sublime 
 affections men must cherish, and by abstraction concentrate 
 their thoughts on God, and so approximate to His essence, 
 and finally reach the highest stage of bliss — absorption into 
 the Eternal. The true end and object of human life is to 
 lose all consciousness of individual existence — to sink " in 
 the ocean of Divine Life, as a breaking bubble is merged 
 into the stream on the surface of which it has for a moment 
 risen." 1 
 
 Stifis, who all accept Islam as a divinely established reli- 
 gion, suppose that long before the creation of the world a 
 contract was made by the Supreme Soul with the assembled 
 world of spirits, who are parts of it. Each spirit was 
 addressed separately, thus : " Art thou not with thy Lord?" 
 that is, bound to him by a solemn contract. To this they 
 all answered with one voice, " Yes." 
 
 Another account says that the seed of theosophy (m'arifat) 
 was placed in the ground in the time of Adam ; that the plant 
 
 1. It is instructive to compare the words of the Christian poet with the 
 Sufi idea of absorption into the Divine Being. 
 
 " That each who seems a separate whole 
 Should move his rounds, and fusing all 
 The skirts of self again, should fall 
 Remerging in the general soul, 
 
 Is faith as vague as all unsweet : 
 Eternal form shall still divide 
 The eternal soul from all beside ; 
 And I shall know him when we meet." 
 
 Tennyson's " lu Memorjam." 
 
The Earlier. Mystics. 89 
 
 came forth in the days of Noah, was in flower when Abra- 
 ham was alive and produced fruit before Moses passed away. 
 The grapes of this noble plant were ripe iu the time of 
 Jesus, but it was not till the age of Muhammad that pure 
 wiue was made from them. Then those intoxicated with it, 
 having attained to the highest degree of the knowledge of 
 God, could forget their own personality and say : — " Praise 
 to me, is there any greater than myself ? I am the Truth." 
 
 The following verse of the Quran is quoted by Sufis 
 in support of their favourite dogma — the attaining to the 
 knowledge of God : " When God said to the angels, ' I 
 am about to place a viceregent on the earth,' they said : 
 ( Wilt Thou place therein one who shall commit abomina- 
 tion and shed blood ? Nay ; we celebrate Thy praise and 
 holiness.' God answered them, ( Verily I know that ye 
 wot not of.' " (Sura ii. 28.) It is said that this verse 
 proves that, though the great mass of mankind would com- 
 mit abomination, some would receive the divine light and 
 attain to a knowledge of God. A Tradition states that 
 David said : " ' Oh Lord ! why hast Thou created mankind V 
 God replied, ' I am a hidden treasure, and I would fain 
 become known.' " The business of the mystic is to find this 
 treasure, to attain to the Divine light and the true know- 
 ledge of God. 
 
 The earlier Muhammadan mystics sought to impart life 
 to a rigid and formal ritual, and though the seeds of 
 Pantheism were planted in their system from the first, they 
 maintained that they were orthodox. " Our system of doc- 
 trine," says Al-Junaid, " is firmly bound up with the dogmas 
 of the faith, the Quran and the Traditions." There was a 
 moral earnestness about many of these men which frequently 
 restrained the arm of unrighteous power, and their sayings, 
 often full of beauty, show that they had the power of appre- 
 ciating the spiritual side of life. Some of these sentences 
 are worthy of any age. "As neither meat nor drink/' 
 says one, " profit the diseased body, so no warning avails 
 
 12 
 
90 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 to touch the heart full of the love of this world." " The 
 work of a holy man doth uot cousist in this, that he eats 
 grain, and clothes himself in wool, but in the knowledge of 
 God and submission to His will." " Thou deservest not 
 the name of a learned man till thy heart is emptied of the 
 love of this world." "Hide thy good deeds as closely 
 as thou wouldst hide thy sins." A famous mystic was 
 brought into' the presence of the Khalif Harun-ur-Rasliid 
 who said to him : " How great is thy abnegation V He 
 replied, " Thine is greater." " How so ?" said the Khalif. 
 " Because I make abnegation of this world, and thou makest 
 abnegation of the next." The same man also said : " The 
 display of devotional works to please men is hypocrisy, and 
 acts of devotion done to please men are acts of polytheism." 
 
 But towards the close of the second century of the Hijra, 
 this earlier mysticism developed into Sufiism. Theu Al- 
 Hallaj taught in Baghdad thus: "I am the Truth. There 
 is nought in Paradise but God. I am He whom I love, and 
 He whom I love is I ; we are two souls dwelling in one 
 body. When thou seest me, thou seest Him ; and when 
 thou seest Him thou seest me." This roused the opposition 
 of the orthodox divines by whom Al-Hallaj was condemned 
 to be worthy of death. He was then by order of the Khalif 
 Hogged, tortured and finally beheaded. Thus died one of 
 the early martyrs of Sufiism, but it grew in spite of bitter 
 persecution. 
 
 In order to understand the esoteric teaching of Sufiistic 
 poetry, it is necessary to remember that the perceptive 
 sense is the traveller, the knowledge of God the goal, the 
 doctrines of this ascent, or upward progress is the Tarikat, 
 or the road. The extinction of self is necessary before any 
 progress can be made on that road. A Sufi poet writes : — 
 
 " Plant oue foot upon the neck of self, 
 The other in thy Friend's domain ; 
 In everything His presence see, 
 For other vision is in vain." 
 
Persian Poetry. 91 
 
 Sa'di in the Bnstuu says : " Art thou a friend of God ? 
 Speak not of self, for to speak of God and of self is infi- 
 delity. " Shaikh Abu'1-Faiz, a great poet and a friend of 
 the Emperor Akbar, from whom he received the honour- 
 able title of Malik-ush-Shu'ara — Master of the Poets, says : 
 " Those who have not closed the door ou existence and 
 non-existence reap no advantage from the calm of this 
 world and of the world to come.'" Khusrau, another well- 
 known poet says : — 
 
 " I have become Thou : Thou art become I, 
 I am the body, Thou the soul ; 
 Let no one henceforth say 
 That I am distinct from Thee, and Thou from me." 
 
 The fact is, that Persian poetry is almost entirely Sufiis- 
 tic. It is difficult for the uninitiated to arrive at the 
 esoteric meaning 1 of these writings. Kitraan, or the art of 
 hiding from the profane religious beliefs, often contrary to 
 the revealed law, has always been a special quality of the 
 East. Pantheistic doctrines are largely inculcated. 1 Thus : — 
 
 " I was, ere a name had been named upon earth ; 
 Ere one trace yet existed of aught that has birth ; 
 When the locks of the Loved One streamed forth for a sign, 
 And Being was none, save the Presence Divine! 
 Named and name were alike emanations from Me, 
 Ere aught that was ' I' existed, or ' We.' " 
 
 The poet then describes his fruitless search for rest and 
 peace in Christianity, Hinduism, and the religion of the 
 Parsee. Even Islam gave him no satisfaction, for — 
 
 " Nor above nor beneath came the Loved One to view, 
 I toiled to the summit, wild, pathless and lone, 
 Of the globe-girding Kaf - : — but the 'Anka 3 had flown! 
 
 1. " Le spiritualisme des Sofis, quoiqu'il soit le contraire du material- 
 isme, lui est eu realite identique. Mais si lour doctrine n'est pas plus 
 raisomiable, elle est du moins plus elevee et plus poetique." Poeaie Philo- 
 sophique et religieuse chez les Persans, par M. Garcin De Tassy, p. 2. 
 
 2. Kaf — a chain of mountains supposed to encircle the earth. 
 
 3. 'Anka — the Phoenix. 
 
92 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 The sev'nth heaven I traversed — the sev'nth heaven explored, 
 
 But in neither discern'd I the court of the Lord ! 
 
 I question'd the Pen and the Tablet of Fate, 
 
 But they whisper' d not where He pavilions His state ; 
 
 My vision I strain'd ; but my God-scanuing eye 
 
 No trace, that to Godhead belongs, could descry! 
 
 My glance I bent inward ; within my own breast, 
 
 Lo, the vainly sought elsewhere, the Godhead confess'd ! 
 
 In the whirl of its transport my spirit was toss'd, 
 
 Till each atom of separate being I lost." 
 
 These are the words of the greatest authority among the 
 Sufis, the famous Maolana Jelal-ud-din Rumi, founder of 
 the order of the Maulavi Darwishes. He also relates the 
 following story : " One knocked at the door of the beloved, 
 and a voice from within said : ' Who is there V Then he 
 answered, ' It is I.' The voice replied, ' This house will not 
 hold me and thee V So the door remained shut. The lover 
 retired to a wilderness, and spent some time in solitude, 
 fasting, and prayer. One year elapsed, when he again 
 returned, and knocked at the door. ' Who is there V said 
 the voice. The lover answered, ' It is thou.' Then the door 
 was opened." 
 
 The great object of life, then, being to escape from the 
 hindrances to pure love and to a return to the divine essence, 
 the Talib, or seeker, attaches himself to a Murshid, or 
 teacher. If he pi'osecutes his studies according to Sufiistic 
 methods he now often enters one of the many orders of 
 Darwishes. After due preparation under his Murshid, he is 
 allowed to enter on the road. He then becomes a Salik, or 
 traveller, whose business henceforth is suluk that is, devo- 
 tion to one idea — the knowledge of God. In this road there 
 are eight stages. (1) Service. Here he must serve God 
 and obey the Law for he is still in bondage. (2) Love. It 
 is supposed that now the Divine influence has so attracted 
 his soul that he really loves God. (3) Seclusion. Love 
 having expelled all worldly desires, he ai'rives at this stage, 
 and passes bis time in meditation on the deeper doctrines 
 
The Safiistic Stages. 93 
 
 of Sufiism regarding the Divine nature. (4) Knowledge. 
 The meditation in the preceding stage, and the investiga- 
 tion of the metaphysical theories concerning God, His nature, 
 His attributes and the like make him an 'Arif — one who 
 knows. (5) Ecstasy. The mental excitement caused by such 
 continued meditation on abstruse subjects pi'oduces a kind 
 of frenzy, which is looked upon as a mark of direct illumi- 
 nation of the heart from God. It is known as Hal — the 
 state j or Wajd — ecstasy. Arrival at this stage is highly 
 valued, for it is the certain entrance to the next. (6) Haqiqat 
 — the Truth. Now to the traveller is revealed the true 
 nature of God, now he learns the reality of that which he 
 has been for so long seeking. This admits him to the 
 highest stage in his journey, as far as this life is concerned. 
 (7 J That stage is Wasl — union with God. 
 
 " There was a door to which I found no key ; 
 There was a veil past which I could not see : 
 Some little talk of Me and Thee 
 There seemed — and then no more of Thee and Me." 
 
 He cannot, in this life, go beyond that, and very few 
 reach that exalted stage. Thus arose a " system of Pan- 
 theism, which represents joy and sorrow, good and evil, 
 pleasure and pain as manifestations of one changeless 
 essence." Religion, as made known by an outward revela- 
 tion, is, to the few who reach this stage, a thing of the 
 past. Even its restraints are not needed. The soul that 
 is united to God can do no evil. The poet Khusrau says : 
 " Love is the object of my worship, what need have I of 
 Islam ?" 
 
 Death ensues and with it the last stage is reached. (8) 
 It is Fana — extinction. The seeker after all his search, the 
 traveller after all his wearisome journey passes behind the 
 veil and finds — nothing ! As the traveller proceeds from 
 stage to stage, the restraints of an objective revelation 
 and of an outward system are less and less heeded. "The 
 
94 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 religion of the mystic consists in his immediate com- 
 munication with God, and when once this has been 
 established, the value of ecclesiastical forms, and of 
 the historical part of religion, becomes doubtful." What 
 law can bind the soul in union with God, what outward 
 system impose any trammels on one who, in the " Ecstasy," 
 has received from Him, who is the Truth, the direct reve- 
 lation of His own glorious nature ? Moral laws and 
 ceremonial observances have only an allegorical signification. 
 Creeds are but fetters cunningly devised to limit the flight 
 of the soul ; all that is objective in religion is a restraint to 
 the reason of the initiated. 1 
 
 Pantheistic in creed, aud too often Antinomian in prac-' 
 tice, Sufiism possesses no regenerative power in Islam. 
 " It is not a substantive religion such as shapes the life of 
 races or of nations, it is a state of opinion." No Muslim 
 State makes a national profession of Sufiism. 
 
 In spite of all its dogmatic utterances, in spite of much 
 that is sublime in its idea of the search after light and 
 truth, Sufiism ends in utter negation of all separate exist- 
 ence. The pantheism of the Sufis, this esoteric doctrine of 
 Islam, as a moral doctrine leads to the same conclusions as 
 materialism, " the negation of human liberty, the indiffer- 
 ence to actions and the legitimacy of all temporal enjoy- 
 ments." 
 
 The result of Sufiism has been the establishment of a 
 large number of religious orders known as Darwishes. 2 
 These men are looked upon with disfavour by the ortho- 
 
 1. " lis penaent que la Bible et le Coran out etc seulement ecrits pour 
 l'homme qui se contente de l'apparence des choses, qui s'occupe de 
 l'exterieur, pour le zdhir parast, comuie ils le noniment, et uon pour le 
 soli qui sonde le fond des choses." La Poesie Philosophique et religieuse 
 chez les Persans, par M. Garcin de Tassy, p. 13. 
 
 2. The word Darvish, or Darwish, is of Persian origin. It is derived 
 from ' dar,' a door, aud ' wiz' the root of the verb ' awikhtan,' to hang ; 
 hence the idea of hanging about doors, or begging. The 'z' is changed 
 into ' sh* and the word becomes ' Darwish.' Some Musalmans, however, 
 do not like this idea of holy men being called by a name which implies the 
 
The Dar wishes. 95 
 
 dox ; but they flourish nevertheless, and in Turkey at 
 the present day have great influence. There are in Constan- 
 tinople two hundred Takiahs, or monasteries. The Dar- 
 wishes are not organized with such regularity, nor subject 
 to discipline so severe as that of the Christian Monastic 
 orders ; but they surpass them in number. Each order has 
 its own special mysteries and practices by which its mem- 
 bers think they can obtain a knowledge of the secrets of the 
 invisible world. They are also called Faqirs — poor men, not, 
 however, always in the sense of being in temporal want, but 
 as being poor in the sight of God. As a matter of fact the 
 Darwishes of many of the orders do not beg, and many of 
 the Takiahs are richly endowed. They are divided into 
 two great classes, the Ba Shara' (with the Law) Darwishes ; 
 and the Be Shara' (without the Law). The former prefer 
 to rule their conduct according to the law of Islam and are 
 called the Salik — travellers on the path (tariqat) to heaven ; 
 the latter though they call themselves Muslims do not con- 
 form to the law, and are called Azad (free), or Majzub 
 (abstracted), a term which signifies their renunciation of all 
 worldly cares and pursuits. 
 
 The Salik Darwishes are those who perform the Zikrs. l 
 What little hope there is of these professedly religious men 
 working any reform in Islam will be seen from the following 
 account of their doctrines. 2 
 
 1. God only exists, — He is in all things, and all things 
 are in Him. " Verily we are from God, and to Him shall 
 we return." (Sura ii. 151.) 
 
 habit of begging, and so they propose another derivation. They derive it 
 from " dur," a pearl, and " wish," like ; and so a durwish is one ' like a 
 pearl.' The wish is from wash, a lengthened form of wash, an affix of 
 common use to express similitude ; or the long vowel in wash may by a 
 figure of speech, called Imala, be changed into the l of wish. I think the 
 first derivation the more probable. A good Peisian dictionary, the Ghias-ul- 
 Lughat, gives both derivations. 
 
 1. For a very interesting account of this religious ceremony, see Hughes' 
 Notes on Muhammadanism, Chapter 51. 
 
 2. La Poesie Philosophique et Religieuse chez les Persans, par M. Garcin 
 de Tassy, p. 7. 
 
96 the Faith of Islam. 
 
 2. All visible and invisible beings are an emanation from 
 Him, and are not really distinct from Him. Creation is 
 only a pastime with God. 
 
 3. Paradise and Hell, and all the dogmas of positive 
 religions, are only so many allegories, the spirit of which is 
 only known to the Sufi. 
 
 4. Religions are matters of indifference ; they, however, 
 serve as a means of reaching to realities. Some, for this 
 purpose, are more advantageous than others. Among which 
 is the Musalman religion, of which the doctrine of the Sufis 
 is the philosophy. 
 
 5. There is not any real difference between good and evil, 
 for all is reduced to unity, and God is the real author of the 
 acts of mankind. 
 
 6. It is God who fixes the will of man. Man, therefore, 
 is not free in his actions. 
 
 7. The soul existed before the body, and is now confined 
 within it as in a cage. At death the soul returns to the 
 Divinity from which it emanated. 
 
 8. The principal occupation of the Sufi is to meditate on 
 the unity, and so to attain to spiritual perfection — unifica- 
 tion with God. 
 
 9. Without the grace of God no one can attain to this 
 unity ; but God does not refuse His aid to those who are in 
 the right path. 
 
 The power of a Sheikh, a spiritual leader, is very great. 
 The following account of the admission of a Novice, called 
 Tawakkul Beg, into an Order, and of the severe tests applied, 
 will be of some interest. 1 Tawakkul Beg says : — " Having 
 been introduced by Akhund Moolla Muhammad to Sheikh 
 Moolla Shah, my heart, through frequent intercourse with 
 him, was filled with such a burning desire to arrive at a true 
 knowledge of the mystical science that I found no sleep by 
 night, nor rest by day. When the initiation commenced, 
 
 1. Sufi doctrines of the Moolla Shah by Tawakkul Beg. Journal 
 Asiatique 6me Serie, torn, 13. 
 
Initiation of a Novice. 97 
 
 I passed the whole night without sleep, and repeated innu- 
 merable times the Surat-ul-Ikhlas : — 
 
 " Say : He is God alone : 
 God the eternal • 
 
 He begetteth not, and He is not begotten ; 
 And there is none like unto Him." (Sura cxii.) 
 
 Whosoever repeats this Sura one hundred times can ac- 
 complish all his vows. I desired that the Sheikh should 
 bestow on me his love. No sooner had I finished my task 
 than the heart of the Sheikh became full of sympathy for 
 me. On the followiug night I was conducted to his presence. 
 During the whole of that night he concentrated his thoughts 
 on me, whilst I gave myself up to inward meditation. Three 
 nights passed in this way. On the fourth night the Sheikh 
 said : — ' Let Moolla Seughini and Salih Beg, who are very 
 susceptible to ecstatic emotions, apply their spiritual ener- 
 gies to Tawakkul Beg.' 
 
 They did so, whilst I passed the whole night iu medita- 
 tion, with my face turned toward Mecca. As the morning- 
 drew near, a little light came into my mind, but I could 
 not distinguish form or colour. After the morning prayers, 
 I was taken to the Sheikh who bade me inform him of 
 my meutal state. I replied that I had seen a light with my 
 inward eye. On hearing this, the Sheikh became animated 
 and said: f Thy heart is dark, but the time is come when 
 I will show myself clearly to thee.' He then ordered me 
 to sit down in front of him, and to impress his features on 
 my mind. Then having blindfolded me, he ordered me to 
 concentrate all my thoughts upon him. I did so, and in 
 an instant by the spiritual help of the Sheikh my heart 
 opened. He asked me what I saw. I said that I saw 
 another Tawakkul Beg and another Moolla Shah. The 
 bandage was then removed, and I saw the Sheikh in front 
 of me. Again they covered my face, and again I saw him 
 with my inward eye. Astonished, I cried: f O master! 
 
 whether I look with my bodily eye, or with my spiritual 
 
 13 
 
98 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 sight, it is always you I see/ I then saw a dazzling 
 figure approach uie. The Sheikh told me to say to the 
 apparition, ' What is your name V In my spirit I put the 
 question, and the figure answered to my heart : ' I am 
 'Abd-ul-Qadir Jilani, I have already aided thee, thy heart 
 is opened.' Much affected, I vowed that in honour of the 
 saint, I would repeat the whole Quran every Friday night. 
 
 Moolla Shah then said : ' The spiritual world has been 
 shown to thee in all its beauty.' I then rendered perfect 
 obedience to the Sheikh. The following day I saw the 
 Prophet, the chief Companions, and legions of saints and 
 angels. After three months, I entered the cheerless region 
 in which the figures appeared no more. During the whole 
 of this time, the Sheikh continued to explain to me the 
 mystery of the doctrine of the Unity and of the know- 
 ledge of God j but as yet he did not show me the absolute 
 reality. It was not until a year had passed that I arrived 
 at the true conception of unity. Then in words such as 
 these I told the Sheikh of my inspiration. f I look upon 
 the body as only dust and water, I regard neither my 
 heart nor my soul, alas ! that in separation from Thee 
 (God) so much of my life has passed. Thou wert I and I 
 knew it not.' The Sheikh was delighted, and said that 
 the truth of the union with God was now clearly revealed 
 to me. Then addressing those who were present, he 
 said : ' Tawakkul Beg learnt from me the doctrine of the 
 Unity, his inward eye has been opened, the spheres of 
 colours and of images have been shown to him. At length, 
 he entered the colourless region. He has now attained to 
 the Unity, doubt and scepticism henceforth have no 
 power over him. No one sees the Unity with the outward 
 eye, till the inward eye gains strength and power.' ; 
 
 I cannot pass from this branch of the subject without 
 making a few remarks on Omar Khayyam, the great Astro- 
 nomer-Poet of Persia. He is sometimes confounded with 
 the Sufis, for there is much in his poetry which is similar 
 
Omar Khayyam. 99 
 
 in tone to that of the Sufi writers. But his true position 
 was that of a sceptic. He wrote little, but what he has 
 written will live. As an astronomer he was a man of note. 
 He died in the year 517 a.h. There are two things which 
 may have caused his scepticism. To a man of his intelligence 
 the hard and fast system of Islam was an intolerable burden. 
 Then, his scientific spirit had little sympathy with mysticism, 
 the earnest enthusiasts of which were too often followed by 
 hollow impostors. It is true, that there was much in the 
 spirit of some of the better Sufis that seemed to show a 
 yearning for something higher than mere earthly good ; 
 above all, there was the recognition of a Higher Power. 
 But with all this came spiritual pride, the world and its 
 duties became a thing of evil, and the religious and the 
 secular life were completely divorced, to the ruin of both. 
 The Pantheism which soon pervaded the system left no room 
 for man's will to act, for his conscience to guide. So the 
 moral law become a dead letter. Irreligious men, to free 
 themselves from the bondage and i^estraiuts of law, assumed 
 the religious life. " Thus a movement, animated at first by 
 a high and lofty purpose, has degenerated into a fruitful 
 source of ill. The stream which ought to have expanded 
 into a fertilising river has become a vast swamp, exhaling 
 vapours charged with disease and death." 
 
 Omar Khayyam saw through the unreality of all this. In 
 vain does he try, by an assumed air of gaiety, to hide from 
 others the sadness which fills his heart, as all that is bright 
 is seen passing away into oblivion. 
 
 One moment in annihilation's waste, 
 
 One moment, of the well of life to taste — 
 
 The stars are setting and the Caravan 
 
 Starts for the dawn of nothing— oh, make haste ! 
 
 Ah, fill the enp : — what boots ib to repeat 
 How Time is slipping underneath onr feet : 
 Unborn To-morrow, and dead Yesterday, 
 Why fret about them if To-day be sweet, 
 
100 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 Omar held to the earthly and the material. For him 
 there was 110 spiritual world. Chauce seemed to rule all the 
 affairs of men. A pitiless destiny shaped out the course of 
 each human being. 
 
 " Tis all a chequer-board of nights and days 
 Where destiny with men for pieces plays : 
 Hither and thither moves, and mates, and slays, 
 And one by one back in the closet lays. 
 
 The moving finger writes ; and, having writ, 
 Moves on : nor all thy piety nor wit 
 Shall lure it back to cancel half a line, 
 Nor all thy tears wash out a word of it." 
 
 Neither from earth nor heaven could he find any answer 
 to his cry. With sages and saints he discussed, and heard, 
 " great argument, but evermore came out by the same 
 door as in he went." He left the wise to talk, for one 
 thing alone was certain, and all else was lies, — " the flower 
 that once has blown for ever dies." Leaving men he 
 turned to nature, but it was all the same. 
 
 " Up from earth's centre through the seventh gate 
 I rose, and on the throne of Saturn sate, 
 And many knots unravell'd by the road ; 
 But not the knot of human death and fate. 
 
 And that inverted bowl we call the sky, 
 Where under crawling coop'd we live and die, 
 Lift not thy hands to it for help — for it 
 Rolls impotently on as thou or I." 
 
 Omar has with justice been compared to Lucretius. 
 Both were materialists, both believed not in a future life. 
 
 " Lucretius built a system for himself in his poem it 
 
 has a professed practical aim — to explain the wot'ld's self- 
 acting machine to the polytheist, and to disabuse him of all 
 spmtual ideas." Omar builds up no system, he only 
 shows forth his own doubts and difficulties, " he loves to 
 balance antitheses of belief, and settle himself in the equi- 
 poise of the sceptic." 
 
The Wahhabis. 101 
 
 The fact that there is no hereafter gives Lucretius no 
 pain, but Omar who, if only his reason could let him, would 
 believe, records his utter despair in words of passionate bit- 
 terness. He is not glad that there is no help anywhere. 1 
 And though he calls for the wine-cup, and listens to the 
 voice within the tavern cry, 
 
 " Awake, my little ones, and fill the cup 
 Before Life's liquor in its cup be dry," 
 
 yet he also looks back to the time, when he consorted 
 with those who professed to know, and could say : 
 
 " With them the seed of wisdom did I sow, 
 And with my own hand laboured it to grow." 
 
 The founder of the Wahhabi sect was Muhammad-ibn- 
 Abd-ul-Wahhab, who was born at a village in Nejd in the 
 year 1691 a.d. The Wahhabis speak of themselves as Mu- 
 wahhid — Unitarians ; but their opponents have given to them 
 the name of the father of the founder of their sect and call 
 them Wahhabis. Muhammad was a bright intelligent youth, 
 of a strong constitution and generous spirit. After going 
 through a course of Arabic literature he studied jurispru- 
 dence under a teacher of the Hanifi school. He then set out 
 in company with his father to pei'form the Hajj. At Madiua 
 he received further instruction in the Law. He spent some- 
 time at Ispahan in the society of leaimed men. Full of 
 
 1. " That Omar iu his impiety was false to his better nature we may 
 readily admit, while, at the same time, we may find some excuse for his 
 errors, if we remember the state of the world at that time. His clear 
 strong sense revolted from the prevailing mysticism where all the earnest 
 spirits of his age found their refuge, and his honest independence was 
 equally shocked by the hypocrites who aped their fervour and enthusiasm ; 
 and at that dark hour of man's history whither, out of Islam, was the 
 thoughtful Muhammadan to repair ? No missionary's step, bringing good 
 tidings, had appeared on the mountains of Persia; the few Christians who 
 might cross his path in his native laud, would only seem to him idolaters." 
 Speaking, too, of Sa'di's life the reviewer says : " almost the only point of 
 contact with Christendom is his slavery under the Crusaders at Tripoli. 
 The same isolation runs through all the golden period of Persian Litera- 
 ture" — Calcutta Review, No lix. 
 
102 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 knowledge, he returned to his native village of Ayina where 
 he assumed the position of a religious teacher. He was 
 shocked to see how the Arabs had departed from what 
 seemed to him the strict unchanging precepts of the Prophet. 
 Luxury in the form of rich dresses and silken garments, 
 superstition in the use of omens, auguries, and the like, in 
 the pilgrimages to shrines and tombs seemed to be altering 
 the character of the religion as given by the Apostle of God. 
 He saw, or thought he saw, that in the veneration paid to 
 saints and holy men, the great doctrine of the " Unity" was 
 being obscured. The reason was very plain. The Quran 
 and the Traditions of the Companions had been neglected, 
 whilst the sayings of men of lesser note, and the jurispru- 
 dence of the four great Imams had been too readily followed. 
 Here was work to do. He would reform the Church of 
 Islam, and restore men to their allegiance to the Book and 
 the Suunat, as recorded by the Companions. It is true, 
 that the Sunnis would rise up in opposition, for thus the 
 authority of the four Imams, the " Canonical Legists" of 
 the orthodox sect, would be set aside ; but what of that ? 
 Had he not been a follower of Abu Hanifa ? Now he was 
 prepared to let Abu Hanifa go, for none but a Companion 
 of the Prophet could give an authoritative statement with 
 regard to the Sunnat — the Prophet's words and acts. He 
 must break a lance with the glorious Imam, and start a 
 school of his own. 
 
 He said : " The Muslim pilgrims adore the tomb of the 
 Prophet, and the sepulchre of 'Ali, and of other saints who 
 have died in the odour of sanctity. They run there to pay 
 the tribute of their fervent prayers. By this means they 
 thiuk that they can satisfy their spmtual and temporal 
 needs. From what do they seek this benefit ? From walls 
 made of mud and stones, from corpses deposited in tombs. 
 If you speak to them they will reply, ' We do not call these 
 monuments God ; we turn to them in prayer, and we pray 
 the saints to intercede for us on high.' Now, the true 
 
Progress of the Wahhdbis. 103 
 
 way of salvation is to prostrate one's self before Him who is 
 ever present, aud to venerate Him — the one without asso- 
 ciate or equal.-" Such outspoken language raised up 
 opposition, and he had to seek the protection of Muham- 
 rnad-Ibn-Saud, a chief of some importance, who now 
 vigorously supported the Wahhabi movement. He was 
 a stern aud uncompromising man. " As soon as you seize 
 a place," he said to his soldiers, " put the males to the 
 sword. Plunder and pillage at your pleasure, but spare 
 the women and do not strike a blow at their modesty/' 
 On the day of battle he used to give each soldier a paper, 
 a safe conduct to the other world. This letter was address- 
 ed to the Treasurer of Paradise. It was enclosed in a basr 
 which the warrior suspended to his neck. The soldiers 
 were persuaded that the souls of those who died in battle 
 would go straight to heaveu, without being examined by 
 the augels Munkar and Nakir in the grave. The widows 
 and orphans of all who fell were supported by the survivors. 
 Nothing could resist men who, fired with a burning zeal 
 for what they deemed the truth, received a share of the 
 booty, if conquerors ; who went direct to Paradise if they 
 were slain. In course of time, Muhammad- Ibn-Saud 
 married the daughter of Ibn-Abd-ul-Wahhab and founded 
 the Wahhabi dynasty which to this day rules at Ryadh. 1 
 
 Such was the origin of this great movement, which 
 spread, in course of time, over Central and Eastern Arabia, 
 and in the beginning of this century found acceptance in 
 India. In the year 1803 a.d. both Mecca and Madina fell 
 into the hands of the Wahhabis. A clean sweep was made 
 of all things, the use of which was opposed to Wahhabi 
 principles. Not only rosaries and charms, but silk robes 
 and pipes were consigned to the flames, for smoking is a 
 
 1. The following are the names of the Wahhabi chiefs : — Mnhammad- 
 Ibn-Saud, died a.d. 1765; 'Abd-ul-Aziz, assassinated, 1803; Saud-Ibn- 
 'Abd-ul-Aziz, died 1814; 'Abd-UUah-ibn-Saud, beheaded 1818; Turki, 
 assassinated ] 830 ; Fayzul, died 1866; 'Abd-Ullah, still living. Hughes 
 Notes, p. 221. 
 
i04 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 deadly sin. On this point there is a good story told by 
 Palgrave — " 'Abd-ul-Karim said : ' The first of the great 
 sins is the giving divine honours to a creature.' Of course 
 I replied, ' The enormity of such a sin is beyond all doubt. 
 But if this be the first, there must be a second ; what is 
 it V 'Drinking the shameful !' (in English idiom, ' smok- 
 ing tobacco') was the unhesitating answer. f And murder, 
 and adultery, and false witness ?' I suggested. ' God is 
 merciful and forgiving,' rejoined my friend ; that is, these 
 are merely little sins." ! 
 
 After holding possession of the holy cities for nine years 
 they were driven out by the Turkish forces. 'Abdullah, 
 the fourth Wahhabi ruler, was captured by Ibrahim Pasha, 
 and afterwards executed in the square of St. Sophia (1818 
 a.d.) The political power of the Wahhabis has since been 
 confined to parts of Arabia ; but their religious opinions 
 have widely spread. 
 
 The leader of the Wahhabi movement in India was Sayyid 
 Ahmad, a reformed freebooter. He was now born at Rai 
 Bareili, in Oudh, 1786 a.d. When about thirty years of age 
 he gave up his wild way of living and settled down in Delhi 
 as a student of the Law of Islam. After a while, he went 
 on pilgrimage to Mecca, but his opinions, so similar to those 
 of the noted Wahhabi, attracted the attention of the orthodox 
 theologians, through whose influence he was expelled from 
 the sacred city. Persecution deepened his religious con- 
 victions, and he returned to India a pronounced Wahhabi. 
 He soon gained a large number of disciples, and in 1826 a.d. 
 he preached a Jihad against the Sikhs. This war was not 
 a success. In the year 1831 the Wahhabis were suddenly 
 attacked by the Sikhs, under Sher Singh, and Sayyid 
 Ahmad was slain. This did not, however, prevent the 
 spread of Wahhabi principles, for he had the good fortune 
 to leave behind him an enthusiastic disciple. This man, 
 
 1. Palgrave's Arabia, vol. ii. p. 10. 
 
Indian Wahhabis. 105 
 
 Muhammad Isma'il, was bom near Delhi in the year 1781 a.d. 
 He was a youth of good abilities and soon mastered the 
 subjects which form the curriculum of a liberal education 
 amongst Musalmans. His first preaching was in a Mosque 
 at Delhi on Tauhid (Unity), and against Shirk (Polytheism). 
 He now met with Sayyid Ahmad who soon acquired great 
 influence over his new disciple. Isma/il told him one evening 
 that he could not offer up his prayers with Huziir-i-Kalb, 
 presence of heart. The Sayyid took him to his room where 
 he instructed him to repeat the first of the prayers after him, 
 and then to conclude them alone. He did so, and was able 
 to so abstract himself in the contemplation of God that he 
 remained engaged in prayer till the morning. Hencefor- 
 ward he was a devoted adherent of his spiritual teacher. 
 In the public discussions, which now often took place, none 
 were a match for Isma'il. This fervent preacher of Wah- 
 habiism is now chiefly remembered by his great work, the 
 Takwiat-ul-Iman, the book from which the account of 
 Wahhabi doctrine given in this chapter is taken. If I 
 make no special reference to the quotations given, it will 
 be known that my authority for the statements thus made 
 is Muhammad Isma'il, the most famous of all Sayyid 
 Ahmad's disciples. This book was followed by the Sirat- 
 ul-Mustaqim, said to have been written by one of Ismail's 
 followers. Wahhabi doctrines are now spread throughout 
 India. In the South there is not much religious excitement 
 or inquiry, yet Wahhabis are to be found there. 1 It was 
 and is a remarkable movement. In one sense it is a struggle 
 against the traditionalism of later ages, but in no sense 
 can it be said that the Wahhabis reject Tradition. They 
 acknowledge as the foundation of the faith — first, the Quran ; 
 secondly, the Traditions which are recorded on the authority 
 of the Companions, and also the Ijma' of the Companions, 
 that is, all things on which they were unanimous in opinion 
 
 1. According to the latest Census Report there are 4,000 in the Madras 
 Presidency, where the total Musalnmn population is about 2,000,000. 
 
 14 
 
106 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 or in practice. Thus to the Wahhabi as to the Sunni, 
 Muhammad is in all his acts and words a perfect guide. 
 
 So far from Wahhabiism being a move onward because 
 it is a return to first principles, it rather binds the fetters 
 of Islam more tightly. It does not originate anything new, 
 it offers no relaxation from a system which looks upon the 
 Quran and the Traditions as a perfect and complete law, 
 social and political, moral and religious. 
 
 The Wahhabi places the doctrine of the " Tauhid," or 
 Unity, in a very prominent position. It is true that all 
 Musalman sects put this dogma in the first rank, but Wah- 
 habis set their faces against practices common to the other 
 sects, because they consider that they obscure this funda- 
 mental doctrine. It is this which brings them into collision 
 with other Musalmans. The greatest of all sins is Shirk 
 (i.e. the ascribing of plurality to the Deity). A Mushrik 
 (Polytheist) is one who so offends. All Musalmans consider 
 Christians to be Polytheists, and all Wahhabis consider all 
 other Musalmans also to be Polytheists, because they look 
 to the Prophet for intercession, pray to saints, visit shrines, 
 and do other unlawful acts. 
 
 The Takwiat-ul-Iman says that " two things are neces- 
 sary in religion — to know God as God, and the Prophet as 
 the Prophet." The two fundamental bases of the faith are 
 the " Doctrine of the Tauhid (Unity) and obedience to the 
 Sunnat." The two great errors to be avoided are Shirk 
 (Polytheism) and Bida't (Innovation). As Bida't is looked 
 upon as evil, it is somewhat difficult to see what hope of 
 progress can be placed upon this latest phase of Muham- 
 madan revival. 
 
 Shirk is defined to be of four kinds : Shirk-ul- ; ilm, 
 ascribing knowledge to others than God ; Shirk-ut-tasarruf, 
 ascribing power to others than God ; Shirk-ul- J Ibadat, 
 offering worship to created' things ; Shirk-ul-'adat, the per- 
 formance of ceremonies which imply reliance on others 
 than God. 
 
Shirk 107 
 
 The first, Shirk-ul-'ilm, is illustrated by the statement 
 that prophets and holy men have no knowledge of secret 
 things unless as revealed to them by God. Thus some 
 wicked persons made a charge against 'Ayesha. The 
 Prophet was troubled in mind, but knew not the truth of 
 the matter till God made it known to him. To ascribe, then, 
 power to soothsayers, astrologers, and saints is Polytheism. 
 " All who pretend to have a knowledge of hidden things, 
 such as fortune-tellers, soothsayers and interpreters of 
 dreams, as well as those who pi*ofess to be inspired are all 
 liars. " Again, " should any one take the name of any saint, 
 or invoke his aid in the time of need, instead of calling on 
 God, or use his name in attacking an enemy, or read passages 
 to propitiate him, or make him the object of contemplation — 
 it is Shirk-ul-'ilm." 
 
 The second kind, Shirk-ut-tasarruf, is to suppose that 
 any one has power with God. He who looks up to any one 
 as an intercessor with God commits Shirk. Thus : " But 
 they who take others beside Him as lords, saying, c We 
 only serve them that they may bring us near God/ — God 
 will judge between them (and the Faithful) concerning that 
 wherein they are at variance." (Sura xxxix. 4.) Intercession 
 may be of three kinds. For example, a criminal is placed 
 before the King. The Vizier intercedes. The King, having 
 regard to the rank of the Vizier, pardons the offender. 
 This is called Shafa'at-i-Wajahat, or ' intercession from 
 regard.' But to suppose that God so esteems the rank of 
 any one as to pardon a sinner merely on account of it is 
 Shirk. Again, the Queen or the Princes intercede for the 
 criminal. The King, from love to them, pardons him. This 
 iscalled Shafa'at-i-muhabbat,or 'intercession from affection.' 
 But to consider that God so loves any one as to pardon a 
 criminal on his account is to give that loved one power, and 
 this is Shirk, for such power is not possible in the Court 
 of God. " God may out of His bounty confer on His 
 favourite servants the epithets of Habib — favourite, or Kb alii 
 
108 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 — friend, &c. ; but a servant is but a servant, no one can put 
 his foot outside the limits of servitude, or rise beyond the 
 rank of a servant." Again, the King may himself wish to 
 pardon the offender, but he fears lest the majesty of the 
 law should be lowered. The Vizier perceives the King's 
 wish, and intercedes. This intercession is lawful. It is 
 called Shafa'at-i-ba-izn — intercession by permission, and 
 such power Muhammad will have at the day of Judgment. 
 Wahhabis hold that he has not that power now, though all 
 other Musalmans consider that he has, and in consequence 
 (in Wahhabi opinion) commit the sin of Shirk-ut-tasarruf. 
 The Wahhabis quote the following passages in support of their 
 view. " Who is he that can intercede with Him but by His 
 own permission." (Sura ii. 256) " Say: Intercession is wholly 
 with God ! His the kingdoms of the heavens and of the 
 earth." (Sura xxxix. 46). They also say: "whenever 
 an allusion is made in the Quran, or the Traditions to the 
 intercession of certain prophets or apostles, it is this kind 
 of intercession and no other that is meant." 
 
 The third Shirk is prostration before any created being, 
 with the idea of worshipping it. It also includes peram- 
 bulating the shrines of departed saints. Thus : " Prostra- 
 tion, bowing down, standing with folded arms, spending 
 money in the name of an individual, fasting out of respect 
 to his memory, proceeding to a distant shrine in a pilgrim's 
 garb and calling out the name of the saint whilst so going- 
 is Shirk-ul-'Ibadat." It is wrong " to cover the grave with 
 a sheet (ghilaf), to say prayers at the shrine, to kiss any 
 particular stone, to rub the mouth and breast against the 
 walls of the shrine, &c." This is a stern condemnation of 
 the very common practice of visiting the tombs of saints 
 and of some of the special practices of the pilgrimage to 
 Mecca. All such practices as are here condemned arc called 
 Ishrak fi'l 'Ibadat — ' association in worship.' 
 
 The fourth Shirk is the keeping up of superstitious cus- 
 toniSj such as the Istikhara— seeking guidance from beads 
 
Wahhdbi idea of Ood. 109 
 
 &c., trusting to omens, good or bad, believing in lucky 
 and unlucky days, adopting such, names as 'Abd-un-Nabi 
 (slave of the Prophet), and so on. In fact, the denouncing 
 of such practices and calling them Shirk brings Wahhabiism 
 into daily contact with the other sects, for scarcely any 
 people in the world are such profound believers in the virtue 
 of charms and the power of astrologers as Musalmans. The 
 difference between the first and fourth Shirk, the Shirk-ul- 
 'ilm and the Shirk-ul-'adat, seems to be that the first is the 
 belief, say in the knowledge of a soothsayer, and the second 
 the habit of consulting him. 
 
 To swear by the name of the Prophet, of 'All, of the 
 Imams, or of Pirs (Leaders) is to give them the honour 
 due to God alone. It is Ishrak fi'l adab — ' Shirk in asso- 
 ciation/ 
 
 Another common belief which Wahhabis oppose is that 
 Musalmans can perform the Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca), 
 say prayers, read the Quran, abide in meditation, give alms, 
 and do other good works, the reward of which shall be 
 credited to a person already dead. 1 Amongst other Musal- 
 mans it is a common practice to read the Quran in the belief 
 that, if done with such an intention, the reward will pass to 
 the deceased object of the desire. Wahhabis entirely object 
 to this. 
 
 The above technical exposition of Wahhabi tenets shows 
 how much stress they lay on a rigid adherence to the 
 doctrine of the " Unity." " La-il-laha, Il-lal-la-hu" (there 
 is no God but God) is an eternal truth. Yet to the Musal- 
 man God is a Being afar off. In rejecting the Fatherhood 
 of God he has accepted as the object of his worship, hardly 
 of his affections, a Being despotic in all He does, arbitrary 
 in all His ways. He has accepted the position of a slave 
 instead of that of a son. Wahhabiism emphasizes the ideas 
 which flow from the first article of the Muslim creed. But 
 
 1.. Mudurij-uu.Nabuwat, p. 149. 
 
110 The Faith of Islam, 
 
 _ : . — - — ^p — . 
 
 on this subject we prefer to let Palgrave speak. He of all 
 men knew the Wahhabi best, aDd he, at least, can be 
 accused of no sectarian bias. The extract is rather long, 
 but will repay perusal ; indeed, the whole passage from 
 which this extract is taken should be read. 
 
 " ' There is no God but God,' are words' simply tantamount in 
 English to the negation of any deity save one alone ; and thus much 
 they certainly mean in Arabic, but they imply much more also. 
 Their full sense is, not only to deny absolutely and unreservedly all 
 plurality whether of nature or of person in the Supreme Being, not 
 only to establish the unity of the Unbegetting and the Unbegot, in 
 all its simple and incommunicable oneness, but besides this, the 
 words, in Arabic and among Arabs, imply that this one Supreme 
 Being is the only Agent, the only Force, the only Act existing 
 throughout the universe, and leave to all beings else, matter or spirit, 
 instinct or intelligence, physical or moral, nothing but pure uncon- 
 ditional passiveness, alike in movement or in quiescence, in action or 
 in capacity. Hence in this one sentence is summed up a system 
 which, for want of a better name, I may be permitted to call the 
 ' Pantheism of Force.' ' God is One in the totality of omnipotent 
 and omnipresent action, which acknowledges no rule, standard, or 
 limit, save one sole and absolute will. He communicates nothing to 
 His creatures, for their seeming power and act ever remain His alone, 
 and in return He receives nothing from them.' ' It is His singular 
 satisfaction to let created beings continually feel that they are 
 nothing else than His slaves, that they may the better acknowledge 
 His superiority.' ' He Himself, sterile in His inaccessible height, 
 neither loving nor enjoying aught save His own and self -measured 
 decree, without son, companion, or councillor, is no less barren for 
 Himself than for His creatures, and His own barrenness and lone 
 egoism in Himself is the cause and rule of His indifferent and unre- 
 garding despotism around.' "* 
 
 Palgrave allows that such a notion of the Deity is mon- 
 strous, but maintains that it is the " truest mirror of the 
 mind and scope of the writer of the Book" (Quran), and 
 that, as such, it is confirmed by authentic Tradition and 
 learned commentaries. At all events, Palgrave possessed 
 
 1. Palgrave's Arabia vol. i. p. 3GU. 
 
The Immobility of Islam. Ill 
 
 the two essential qualifications for a critic of Islam — a 
 knowledge of the literature, and intercourse with the people. 
 So far as my experience goes I have never seen any reason 
 to differ from Palgrave's statement. Men are often better 
 than their creeds. Even the Prophet was not always con- 
 sistent. There are some redeeming points in Islam. But 
 the root idea of the whole is as described above, and from 
 it no system can be deduced which will grow in grace and 
 beauty as age after age rolls by. 
 
 The Arab proverb states that " The worshipper models 
 himself on what he worships." x Thus a return to " first 
 principles/' sometimes proclaimed as the hope of Turkey, is 
 but the " putting back the hour-hand of Islam" to the place 
 where indeed Muhammad always meant it to stay, for 
 
 " Islam is in its essence stationary, and was framed thus to remain. 
 Sterile, like its God, lifeless like its first Principle and supreme Ori- 
 ginal in all that constitutes true life — for life is love, participation, 
 and progress, and of these the Quranic Deity has none — it justly 
 repudiates all change, all advance, all development." 2 
 
 Muhammad Ibn 'Abd-ul Wahhab was a man of great 
 intellectual power and vigour. He could pierce through the 
 mists of a thousand years, and see with an eagle eye how 
 one sect and another had laid accretions on the Faith. He 
 had the rare gift of intuition, and could see that change 
 (Bida't) and progress were alien to the truth. This recog- 
 nition of his ability is due to him ; but what a sad prostra- 
 tion of great gifts it was to seek to arrest, by the worship 
 of the letter, all hope of progress, and to make " the start- 
 ing-point of Islam its goal." That he was a good Musalman 
 in so doing no one can doubt, but that his work gives any 
 hope of the rise of an enlightened form of Islam no one who 
 really has studied Islam can believe. 
 
 Wahhabiism simply amounts to this, that while it de- 
 nounces all other Musalmans as polytheists, it enforces the 
 
 1. Palgrave's Arabia, vol. i. p. 372. 2. Ibid, p. 372. 
 
112 The Faith of Mam. 
 
 Sunnat of the Prophet with all its energy. 1 It breaks down 
 shrines, but insists on the necessity of a pilgrimage to a 
 black stone at Mecca. It forbids the use of a rosary, but 
 attaches great merit to counting the ninety-nine names of 
 God on the fingers. It would make life unsocial. The 
 study of the Fine Arts with the exception of Architecture 
 can find no place in it. Isma'il quotes with approval the 
 following Tradition. " 'Ayesha said : ' I purchased a carpet 
 on which were some figures. The Prophet stood in the 
 doorway and looked displeased/ I said : ' messenger of 
 God, I repent to God and His Messenger ; what fault have 
 I committed that you do not enter V His Highness then 
 said : ' What is this carpet ?' I replied ; ' I have bought 
 it for you to sit and rest upon.' Then the messenger of God 
 replied : ' Verily, the maker of pictures will be punished on 
 the day of resurrection, when God will desire them to bring 
 them to life. A house which contains pictures is not visited 
 by the angels.' " In a Tradition quoted by Ibn 'Abbas, 
 the Prophet classes artists with murderers and parricides. 
 Wahhabiism approves of all this, and thus by forbidding 
 harmless enjoyments it would make society t( an organised 
 hypocrisy." It would spread abroad a spirit of contempt 
 for all mankind except its own followers, and, where it had 
 the power, it would force its convictions on others at the 
 point of the sword. 
 
 Wahhabiism was reform after a fashion, in one direction ; 
 in the history of Islam there have been attempts at reform 
 in other directions ; there will yet be such attempts, but so 
 long as the Quran and the Sunnat (or, in the case of the 
 Shia'h, its equivalent) are to form, as they have hitherto 
 
 1. Muhammad Isma'il concludes his great work, the Takwiat-ul-Tman, 
 with the prayer — " () Lord teach us by Thy grace, the meaning of the 
 terms Bid'at and Sunnat, aud the Law of the Prophet. Make us pure Sunnis 
 and strictly submissive to the Sunnat." This is a clear and distinct proof 
 that Wahhabis do not reject Tradition as a basis of the Faith. It also 
 shows their horror of innovation, and reveals the little hope there is of any 
 real progress through their influence, 
 
The Influence of Islam. 113 
 
 done for every sect, the sole law to regulate all conditions 
 and states of life, enlightened and continued progress is 
 impossible. The deadening influence of Islam is the greatest 
 obstacle the Church of God has to overcome in her onward 
 march ; its immobility is the bane of many lands ; connec- 
 tion with it is the association of the living with the dead ; 
 to speak of it, as some do, as if it were a sort of sister 
 religion to Christianity, is but to show deplorable ignorance 
 where ignorance is inexcusable. Thus it is plain that 
 Musalmans are not all of one heart and soul. 1 In the next 
 chapter I hope to show that Islam is a very dogmatic and 
 complex system in spite of the simple form of its creed. 
 
 1. " Mr. Finlay, the clever but partial author of " The Byzantine Empire," 
 has declared in a sweeping way ' that there is no greater delusion than to 
 speak of the unity of the Christian Church.' However this may be, I can 
 affirm the perfect applicability of this sentence to Islam in the East. In 
 no part of the world is there more of secret division, aversion, misbelief 
 (taking Muhammadanism as our standard), and unbelief than in those very 
 lands which to a superficial survey, seem absolutely identified in the one 
 common creed of the Quran and its author." — Palgrave's Arabia, vol. i. p. 10. 
 
 15 
 
114 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 NOTE TO CHAPTER III. 
 
 WAHH ABIISM. 
 
 In the Journal Asiatique, 4me Serie, tome 11, a curious account is 
 given of the voyage of Mirza Muhammad 'Ali Khan, some time 
 Persian Ambassador in Paris. This gentleman states that in one 
 of his voyages from Persia to India he met with a Wahhabi, who 
 had in his possession a tract written by the founder of the sect. 
 This small pamphlet he allowed Mirza Muhammad to copy. I give 
 the substance of the pamphlet in this note. The original Arabic 
 will be found in the Journal Asiatique. It is of considerable 
 interest as a protest against idolatry. It is as follows : — I know that 
 God is merciful, that the sect of Abu Hanifa is orthodox and 
 identical with the religion of Abraham. After thou hast known that 
 God has created His servants for the purpose of being served by 
 them, know also that this service or devotion is to worship God, 
 One and alone ; just as prayer (Salat) is not prayer (Salat), unless it 
 is accompanied with the legal purification. God Most High has said : 
 " It is not for the votaries of other gods with God, witnesses against 
 themselves of infidelity, to visit the temples of God. These ! vain 
 their works : and in the fire shall they abide for ever !" (Sura ix. 17.) 
 
 Those who in their prayers, address any other than God, in the 
 hope of obtaining by them that which God alone can give — those 
 bring unto their prayers the leaven of idolatry and make them of 
 none effect, " and who erreth more than he who, beside God, calleth 
 upon that which shall not answer him until the day of resurrection." 
 (Sura xlvi. 4.) On the contrary, when the day of resurrection 
 comes, they will become their enemies and treat them as infidels for 
 having served others than God. " But the gods whom ye call on 
 beside Him have no power over the husk of a date-stone ! If ye cry 
 to them they will not hear your cry ; and if they heard they would 
 not answer you, and in the day of resurrection they will disown 
 your joining them with God." (Sura xxxv. 14, 15.) 
 
 He who says : " thou Prophet of God ! 'Ibn 'Abbas ! O 
 'Abd-ul-Qadir !" &c. with the persuasion that the souls of these 
 blessed ones can obtain from God that of which the suppliant has 
 need, or that they can protect him, is an infidel whose blood any one 
 may shed, and whose goods any one may appropriate with impunity 
 unless he repent. There are four different classes of idolaters. 
 
Wahhabiism . 115 
 
 First, the infidels against whom the Prophet made war. These 
 acknowledge that God is the creator of the world, that He supports 
 all living creatures, that in wisdom He rules over all. " Say : who 
 supplieth you from the heavens and the earth ? who hath power 
 over hearing and sight ? and who bringeth forth the living from 
 the dead, and bringeth forth the dead from the living ? who ruleth 
 all things ? they will surely say : • God,' then say : ' What ! will ye 
 not therefore fear Him.'" (Sura x. 32.) It is difficult to dis- 
 tinguish idolatry of this kind; but under an outwardly orthodox 
 appearance they go astray ; for they have recourse to divinities of 
 their own choosing and pray to them. 
 
 Secondly, there are idolaters who say that they only call upon 
 these intermediary powers to intercede in their favour with God, 
 and that what they desire they seek from God. The Quran fur- 
 nishes a proof against them. " They worship beside God what 
 cannot hurt or help them, and say, these are our advocates with 
 God ! say : will ye inform God of aught in the heavens and in the 
 earth which He knoweth not ?" (Sura x. 19.) 
 
 Thirdly, those are idolaters who choose one idol as their patron, 
 or rather those who, renouncing the worship of idols, become 
 attached to one saint, as Jesus or His Mother, and put themselves 
 under the protection of Guardian Angels. Against them we cite 
 the verse : " Those whom ye call on, themselves desire union with 
 their Lord, striving which of them shall be nearest to Him ; they 
 also hope for His mercy, and fear His chastisement." (Sura xvii. 
 59.) We see here that the Prophet drew no distinction between the 
 worship of an idol and the worship of such and such a saint ; on 
 the contrary, he treated them all as infidels, and made war upon 
 them in order to consolidate the religion of God upon a firm basis. 
 Fourthly, those who worship God sincerely in the time of trouble, 
 but at other times call on other Gods are idolaters. Thus : " Lo ! 
 when they embark on board a ship, they call upon God, vowing Him 
 sincere worship, but when He bringeth them safe to land, behold 
 they join partners with Him." (Sura xxix. 65.) 
 
 In the age in which we live, I could cite still worse heresies. The 
 idolaters, our contemporaries, pray to and invoke the lower divini- 
 ties when they are in distress. The idolaters of the Prophet's time 
 were less culpable than those of the present age are. They, at least, 
 had recourse to God in time of great evil ; these in good and evil 
 states, seek the aid of their patrons, other than God, and pray 
 to them. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE CREED OF ISLAM. 1 
 
 Faith is defined by Muslim theologians as ; a Confession 
 with the tongue and belief with the heart." 2 It is said to 
 " stand midway between hope and fear." It is sub-divided 
 into Iman-i-mujmal and Iman-i-mufassal. The former is 
 an expression of the following faith : " I believe in God, 
 His names and attributes, and accept all His commands." 3 
 The latter is the acceptance of the following dogmas : " I 
 believe in God, Angels, Books, Prophets, the Last Day, 
 the Predestination by the Most High God of good and 
 evil and the Resurrection after death." 4 These form the 
 articles of faith which every Muslim must believe, to which 
 belief, in order to render it perfect, he must add the per- 
 formance of the " acts of practice," viz. : (1) " The recital 
 of the Kalima or creed : — ' There is no deity but God, and 
 Muhammad is the Apostle of God.' (2) Sulat. The five 
 daily prayers. (3) Roza. The thirty days fast of Ramazan. 
 (4) Zakat. The legal alms. (5) Hajj, or the pilgrimage 
 to Mecca." This chapter will contain an account of the 
 Inian — the dogmas of Islam. An account of the Din — the 
 practical duties, will be given in the next chapter. 
 
 1. Strictly speaking, this chapter should be entitled the ' Faith of Islam,' 
 as the subject of it is technically called Iman, or faith. The Kalima, 
 or creed is, in the strict sense, the expression of belief in one God, and in 
 Muhammad as His apostle. I here use the word creed in the usual sense of 
 a body of dogmas. 
 
 2. Iqrarun bil-lisani wa tasdiqun bil janani. 
 
 3. Amantu billahi kama hua bismaihi wa sifatihi wa qabiltu jami'a 
 ahkamihi. 
 
 4. Amantu billahi wa malaikatihi wa kutubihi wa rusulihi wal-youm-il- 
 akhiri wal-qadri khairihi wa sharrihi min allahi ta'ala wal-ba'si ba'd al- 
 mouti. 
 
The Attributes of God. 117 
 
 1. God. — This article of the faith includes a belief in the 
 existence of God, His unity and attributes, and has given rise 
 to a large number of sects. Some acquaintance with the 
 various controversies which have thus arisen is necessary to a 
 correct knowledge of Islam. I commence the considera- 
 tion of this subject by giving the substance of a Sunni, or 
 orthodox treatise known as the Risala-i-Berkevi. The learned 
 orientalist M. Garcin de Tassy, considered it to be of such 
 authority that in his " I/Islamisme d'apres le Goran" he 
 has inserted a translation of the Risala. 1 Muhammad Al- 
 Berkevi, speaking of the Divine attributes, says : — 
 
 (1). Life. (Hyat). God Most High is alone to be adored. He has 
 neither associate nor equal. He is free from the imperfections of 
 humanity. [He is neither begotten nor does He beget. He is invi- 
 sible. He is without figure, form, colour or parts. His existence 
 has neither beginning nor end. He is immutable. If He so wills, 
 He can annihilate the world in a moment of time and, if it seem 
 good to Him, recreate it in an instant. Nothing is difficult to Him, 
 whether it be the creation of a fly or that of the seven heavens. He 
 receives neither profit nor loss from whatever may happen. If all 
 the Infidels became Believers and all the irreligious pious, He would 
 gain no advantage. On the other hand, if all Believers became 
 Infidels, He would suffer no loss. 
 
 (2). Knowledge. ('Urn). He has knowledge of all things hidden 
 or manifest, whether in heaven or on earth. He knows the number 
 of the leaves of the trees, of the grains of wheat and of sand. Events 
 past and future are known to Him. He knows what enters into the 
 heart of man and what he utters with his mouth. He alone, except 
 those to whom He has revealed them, knows the invisible things. 
 He is free from forgetfulness, negligence and error. His knowledge 
 is eternal : it is not posterior to His essence. 
 
 (3). Power. (Qudrat). He is Almighty. If He wills, He can raise 
 the dead, make stones talk, trees walk, annihilate the heavens and 
 the earth and recreate of gold or of silver thousands similar to those 
 destroyed. He can transport a man in a moment of time from the 
 east to the west, or from the west to the east, or to the seventh 
 heaven. His power is eternal a priori and a posteriori. It is not 
 posterior to His essence. 
 
 1. He speaks of it thus : " l'ouvrage elementaire de la religion Musul- 
 mane le plus estime et le plus repandu en Turquie," p. 154. 
 
118 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 (4). Will. (Iradah). He can do what He wills, and whatever He 
 wills comes to pass. He is not obliged to act. Everything, good or 
 evil, in this world exists by His will. He wills the faith of the 
 believer and the piety of the religious. If He were to change His 
 will there would be neither a true believer nor a pious man. He 
 willeth also the unbelief of the unbeliever and the irreligion of the 
 wicked and, without that will, there would neither be unbelief nor 
 irreligion. All we do we do by His will : what He willeth not does 
 not come to pass. If one should ask why God does not will that all 
 men should believe we answer : " We have no right to enquire about 
 what God wills and does. He is perfectly free to will and to do 
 what He pleases." In creating unbelievers, in willing that they 
 should remain in that state ; in making serpents, scorpions and pigs : 
 in willing, in short, all that is evil God has wise ends in view which 
 it is not necessary that we should know. We must acknowledge that 
 the will of God is eternal and that it is not posterior to His essence. 
 
 (5). Hearing. (Sama'). He hears all sounds whether low or loud. 
 He hears without an ear for His attributes are not like those of men. 
 
 (6). Seeing. (Basr). He sees all things, even the steps of a black 
 ant on a black stone in a dark night ; yet He has no eye as men have. 
 
 (7). Speech. (Kalam). He speaks, but not with a tongue as men do. 
 He speaks to some of His servants without the intervention of 
 another, even as He spoke to Moses, and to Muhammad on the night 
 of the ascension to heaven. He speaks to others by the instrumen- 
 tality of Gabriel, and this is the usual way in which He communicates 
 His will to the prophets. It follows from this that the Quran is the 
 word of God, and is eternal and uncreated. 
 
 These are the " haft sifat," or seven attributes of God. 
 There is unanimity of opinion as to the number of attributes, 
 but not as regards their nature and the extent of the know- 
 ledge concerning them to which men can attain. Thus 
 some say that the knowledge of God is the first thing to 
 acquire ; but Imam Shafa'i and the Mutazilites say that a 
 man must first attain to the idea of the knowledge of God. 
 The meaning of the expression " Knowledge of God" is the 
 ascertaining the truth of His existence, and of His positive 
 and privative attributes, as far as the human understanding 
 can enter into these matters. The unity is not a mere 
 numerical unity but absolute, for the number one is the 
 first of a series and implies a second, but God has not a 
 
Enquiries into the Nature of God unlawful. 119 
 
 second. He is " singular without anything like Him, sepa- 
 rate having no equal ;" for, " had there been either in heaven 
 or earth gods beside God, both surely had gone to ruin." 
 (Sura xxi. 22). God is not a substance, for substance has 
 accidents, but God has none : otherwise His nature would 
 be that of " dependent existence." God is without parts, 
 for otherwise he would not exist till all the parts were 
 formed, and His existence would depend on the parts, that 
 is, on something beside Himself. 
 
 The orthodox strictly prohibit the discussion of minute 
 particulars, for say they, " just as the eye turning to the 
 brightness of the sun finds darkness intervene to prevent 
 all observation, so the understanding finds itself bewildered 
 if it attempts to pry into the nature of God." The Prophet 
 said : " We did not know the reality of the knowledge of 
 Thee •" and to his followers he gave this advice : " Think 
 of God's gifts, not of His nature : certainly you have no 
 power for that." The Khalif Akbar is reported to have 
 said : " to be helpless in the search of knowledge is know- 
 ledge and to enquire into the nature of God is Shirk 
 (infidelity) ." * A moderate acquaintance with Muslim theo- 
 logy shows that neither the injunction of the Prophet nor 
 the warning of the Khalif has been heeded. 
 
 According to the early Muslims, the Companions and 
 their followers, enquiries into the nature of God and His 
 attributes were not lawful. The Prophet knowing what 
 was good for men, had plainly revealed the way of salvation 
 and had taught them : — 
 
 " Say : He is God alone : 
 God the eternal ! 
 
 He begetteth not, and He is not begotten ; 
 And there is none like unto Him." (Sura cxii.) 
 
 This was sufficient for them to know of the mystery of 
 the Godhead. God is far beyond the reach of the human 
 
 1. Sharh-i-'Aqaid-i-Jami, p. 27. 
 
 V 
 
120 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 understanding. He alone embraces all in His comprehen- 
 sion. Men should therefore mistrust their own perceptive 
 faculties and notions and should obey the inspired legislator 
 Muhammad, who loving them better than they love them- 
 selves, and knowing better than they do what is truly useful, 
 has revealed both what they ought to believe and what they 
 ought to do. It is true that men must exercise their 
 reason, but they must not do so with regard to the divine 
 attributes. 1 
 
 Dogma is divided into two portions, usul and faru' — 
 (i. e., roots and branches.) The former include the doc- 
 trine about God ; the latter, as the name implies, consist of 
 truths which result from the acceptance of the former. 
 The orthodox belief is that reason has only to do with the 
 " faru'," for the usul being founded on the Quran and 
 Sunnat have an objective basis. 
 
 Differences of opinion about various branches of the 
 ' faru', " led to discussions which did not stop there but 
 went on to the " usul," and so paved the way for the rise 
 of scholastic theology ('Ilm-i-kalam.) I have already in 
 the chapter on the exegesis of the Quran explained the 
 difference in meaning between muhkam (obvious) verses 
 and mutashabih (intricate) ones. This difference lies at 
 the very foundation of the present subject. It is, there- 
 fore, necessary to enter a little into detail. 
 
 The question turns very much on the interpretation of 
 the 5th verse of the 3rd Sura : " He it is who hath sent 
 down to thee ' the Book.' Some of its signs are of them- 
 selves perspicuous (muhkam) : these are the basis of the 
 
 ( 
 
 1. The above statements form the substance of several pages in the 
 " Prolegomenes d'Ibn Khaldoun," in which also occurs the following : 
 " Cela n'est pas toutefois un motif pour deprecier notre intelligence et nos 
 facultes peroeptives i l'intelligence est une balance parfaitement juste : 
 elle nous fournit des resultats certains sans nous tromper. Mais on ne 
 doit pas employer cette balance pour peser les choses qui se rattachent 
 a l'unite de Dieu, a la vie future, a la nature du prophetisme, au veritable 
 caractere des attributs divins et a tout ce qui est au dela de sa portee. 
 Vouloir le faire, ce serait une absurdite." Vol. iii. p. 45. 
 
Interpretation of Mutashabih Verses. 121 
 
 Book — and others are figurative (mutashabih.) But they 
 whose hearts are given to err, follow its figures, craving 
 discord, craving an interpretation ; yet none knoweth its 
 interpretation but God. And the stable in knowledge say, 
 * We believe in it : it is all from our Lord.' But none will 
 bear this in mind, save men endued with understanding." 
 Here it is clearly stated (1) that no one except God can 
 know the interpretation of mutashabih verses, and (2) that 
 wise men though they know not their interpretation, yet 
 believe them all. Many learned men, however, say that 
 the full stop should not be placed after the word " God" 
 but after " knowledge," and so this portion of the verse 
 would read thus : " None knoweth its interpretation but 
 God and the stable in knowledge. They say : ' we believe, 
 &c.'." On this slight change in punctuation, which shows 
 that the f stable in knowledge* can interpret the mutashabih 
 verses, opposite schools of theology have arisen in Islam. 
 
 The latter reading opens the way to a fearless investiga- 
 tion of subjects which all the early Muslims avoided as 
 beyond their province. In the early days of Islam it was 
 held that all parts of the Quran, except the muhkam verses 
 and the purely narrative portions, were mutashabih ; that 
 is, all verses which related to the attributes of God, to the 
 existence of angels and genii, to the appearance of Anti- 
 christ, the period and signs of the day of judgment, and 
 generally all matters which are beyond the daily experience 
 of mankind. It was strongly felt that not only must there 
 be no discussion on them, 1 but no attempt should be made 
 to understand or act on them. Ibn 'Abbas, a Companion, 
 says : " One must believe the mutashabih verses, but not 
 take them for a rule of conduct." Ibn Jubair was once 
 
 1. "Telle fat la regie suivie par les anciens musulmaus a l'egard des 
 verses motachabeh ; ils l'appliquaient aussi aux expressions du meme 
 genre qui se presentent dans la Sonna, parce qu'elles proviennent de la 
 meme source que celles du Coran." Ibn Khaldoun, vol. iii. p. 67. 
 
 This passage is of some interest as maintaining the common source and 
 origin of the Quran and the Sunnat. 
 
 16 
 
122 The Faith of Mam. 
 
 asked to put the meaning of the Quran into writing. He 
 became angry and said : " I should rather be palsied in 
 one-half of my body than do so." 1 ; Ayesha said : "Avoid 
 those persons who dispute about the meaning of the Quran, 
 for they are those whom God has referred to in the words, 
 { whose hearts are given to err/ " 
 
 The first reading is the one adopted by the Ashab, the 
 Tabi'in and the Taba-i-Tabi'in and the great majority of 
 Commentators. The Sunnis generally, and, according to 
 the testimony of Fakr-ud-din Razi (a. h. 544 — 606), the 
 Shafa'i sect are of the same opinion. 
 
 Those who take the opposite view are the Commenta- 
 tors Mujahid (died a.h. 101), Rabi' bin Ans and others. 
 The scholastic theologians 2 (Mutakalliman) generally adopt 
 the latter reading. 3 They argued thus : how could* men 
 believe what they did not know ; to which their opponents 
 \ answered, that the act of belief in the unknown is the very 
 thing here praised by God. The scholastics then enquired 
 why, since the Quran was sent to be a guide and direction 
 to men, were not all its verses muhkam ? The answer was, 
 that the Arabs acknowledged two kinds of eloquence. One 
 kind was to arrange words and ideas in a plain and simple 
 style so that the meaning might be at once apparent, the 
 other was to speak in figurative language. Now, if the 
 Quran had not contained both these styles of composition, 
 it could not have claimed the position it does as a book 
 absolutely perfect iu form as well as in matter. 4 
 
 Bearing in mind this fundamental difference of opinion, 
 we can now pass on to the consideration of the attributes. 
 
 1. Ibn Khallikan, vol. i. p. 565. 
 
 2. " The Musulman Authors distinguish between the earlier and later 
 Mutakalliman. The former (of whom we here treat) were occupied with 
 purely religious questions ; the latter, who arose after the introduction of 
 the Greek philosophy amongst Muslims, embraced many philosophic 
 notions, though they tried to make them fit in with their religious opinions." 
 Melanges de Philosophie Juive et Arabe, p. 320. 
 
 3. Tafsir-i-Faiz-ul-Karim, p. 250. 4. Tafsir-i-Faiz-ul-Karim, p. 250. 
 
Affirmative and Privative Attributes. 123 
 
 The essential attributes are Life, Knowledge, Power, Will, 
 for without these the others could not exist. Then the 
 attributes of Hearing, Seeing, Speech give us a further idea 
 of perfection. These are the " Sifat-i-Sabutiah," or affir- 
 mative attributes, the privation of which would imply loss ; 
 there are also Sifat-i-Salbiah, or privative attributes, such 
 as — God has no form, is not limited by place, has no equal, 
 &c. The acts of sitting, rising, descending, the possession 
 of face, hands, eyes, &c, being connected with the idea of 
 corporeal existences imply imperfection and apparently 
 contradict the doctrine of " exemption'' (tenzih) according 
 to which God is, in virtue of His essence, in no way like the 
 creatures He has made. This was a difficulty, but the four 
 great Imams all taught that it was impious to enquire into 
 these matters for all such allusions were mutashabih. " The 
 Imam Hanbal and other early divines followed in the path 
 of the early Muslims and said : ' We believe in the Book 
 and the Sunnat, and do not desire explanations. We know 
 that the High God is not to be compared to any created 
 object : nor any creature with Him. J " x Imam As-Shafa'i 
 said that a man who enquired into such matters should be 
 tied to a stake, and carried about, and that the following 
 proclamation should be made before him : " This is the 
 reward of him who left the Quran and the Traditions for 
 the study of scholastic theology." Imam Hanbal says : 
 " Whosoever moves his hand when he reads in the Quran the 
 words, ' I have created with my hand/ ought to have his 
 hand cut off ; and whoever stretches forth his finger in 
 repeating the saying of Muhammad, f The heart of the 
 believer is between two fingers of the Merciful/ deserves to 
 have his finger cut off/' At-Tirmizi when consulted about 
 the statement of the Prophet that God had descended to 
 the lowest of the seven heavens, said : " The descent is 
 intelligible, the manner how is unknown ; the belief therein 
 
 1. Dabistan, p. 218. 
 
124 ' The Faith of Islam. 
 
 is obligatory ; and the asking about it is a blameable inno- 
 vation." But all such attempts to restrain discussion and 
 investigation failed. 
 
 The two main points in the discussion of this question 
 are (1) whether the attributes of God are internal or exter- 
 nal, whether they are part of His essence or not, and 
 (2) whether they are eternal or not. 
 
 The two leading Sects were the Sifatians (or Attributists) 
 and the Mutazilites. The Sifatians whom the early orthodox 
 Muslims follow, taught that the attributes of God are 
 eternally inherent in His essence without separation or 
 change. Every attribute is conjoined with Him as life 
 with knowledge, or knowledge with power. They also 
 taught that the mutashabih verses were not to be explained, 
 and such were those which seemed to show a resemblance 
 between God and His creatures. So at first they did not 
 attempt to give the meaning of the terms, " hands, eyes, 
 face, &c," when applied to God. They simply accepted 
 them as they stood. In course of time, as will be seen, 
 differences of opinion on this point led to some sub-divisions 
 of this sect. 
 
 The Mutazilites were the great opponents of the Sifatians. 
 They rejected the idea of eternal attributes, saying that 
 eternity was the formal attribute of the essence of God. 
 " If," said they, " we admit the eternal existence of an 
 attribute then we must recognize the multiplicity of eternal 
 existences." They also rejected the attributes of hearing, 
 seeing and speech, as these were accidents proper to cor- 
 poreal existences. They looked upon the divine attributes 
 as mental abstractions, and not as having a real existence 
 in the divine essence. The Mutazilites were emphatically 
 the Free thinkers of Islam. The origin of the sect was as 
 follows : Al Hasan, a famous divine, was one day seated in 
 the Mosque at Basra when a discussion arose on the ques- 
 tion whether a believer who committed a mortal sin became 
 thereby an unbeliever. The Kharigites (Ante p. 76) affirm- 
 
The Origin of the Mutazilites. 125 
 
 ed that it was so. The orthodox denied this, saying that, 
 though guilty of sin, yet that as he believed rightly he was 
 not an infidel. 1 One of the scholars Wasil Ibn Ata, (who 
 was born at Madina a. h. 80), then rose up and said : " I 
 maintain that a Muslim who has committed a mortal sin 
 should be regarded neither as a believer nor an unbeliever, 
 but as occupying a middle station between the two." He 
 then retired to another part of the Mosque where he was 
 joined by his friend 'Umr Ibn Obaid and others. They 
 resumed the discussion. A learued man, named Katada, 
 entering the Mosque, went up to them, but on finding that 
 they were not the party in which Al Hasan was, said 
 ' these are the Seceders (Al-Mutazila)/ Al Hasan soon 
 expelled them from his school. Wasil then founded a 
 school of his own of which, after the death of his master, 
 'Umr Ibn Obaid became the head. 
 
 Wasil felt that a believer, though sinful, did not merit 
 the same degree of punishment as an infidel, and thus start- 
 ing off on the question of degrees of punishment, he soon 
 opened up the whole subject of man's responsibility and 
 the question of free-will. This soon brought him into con- 
 flict with the orthodox on the subject of predestination and 
 that again to the subject of the inspiration, the interpreta- 
 tion and the eternity of the Quran, and of the divine attri- 
 butes. His followers rejected the doctrine of the " divine 
 right" of the Imam, and held that the entire body of the 
 Faithful had the right to elect the most suitable person, 
 who need not necessarily be a man of the Quraish tribe, to 
 fill that office. The principles of logic and the teaching of 
 philosophy were brought to bear on the precepts of religion. 
 According to Shahrastani the Mutazilites hold : — 
 
 " That God is eternal ; and that eternity is the peculiar property 
 of His essence; but they deny the existence of any eternal attributes 
 (as distinct from His nature). For they say, He is Omniscient as to 
 
 1. Ibn Khallikan, vol. iii. p. 343. 
 
126 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 His nature; Living as to His nature; Almighty as to His nature; 
 but not through any knowledge, power or life existing in Him as 
 eternal attributes ; for knowledge, power and life are part of His 
 essence, otherwise, if they are to be looked upon as eternal attributes 
 of the Deity, it will give rise to a multiplicity of eternal entities." 
 
 " They maintain that the knowledge of God is as much within the 
 province of reason as that of any other entity ; that He cannot be 
 beheld with the corporeal sight ; and with the exception of Himself 
 everything else is liable to change or to suffer extinction. They also 
 maintain that Justice is the animating principle of human actions : 
 Justice according to them being the dictates of Reason and the con- 
 cordance of the ultimate results of this conduct of man with such 
 dictates." 
 
 " Again, they hold that there is no eternal law as regards human 
 actions ; that the divine ordinances which regulate the conduct of 
 men are the results of growth and development ; that God has com- 
 manded and forbidden, promised and threatened by a law which 
 grew gradually. At the same time, say they, he who works righteous- 
 ness merits rewards and he who works evil deserves punishment. 
 They also say, that all knowledge is attained through reason, and 
 must necessarily be so obtained. They hold that the cognition of good 
 and evil is also within the province of reason ; that nothing is known 
 to be right or wrong until reason has enlightened us as to the dis- 
 tinction ; and that thankfulness for the blessings of the Benefactor 
 is made obligatory by reason, even before the promulgation of any 
 law upon the subject. They also maintain that man has perfect 
 freedom ; is the author of his actions both good and evil, and deserves 
 reward or punishment hereafter accordingly." 
 
 During the reigns of the 'Abbasside Khalifs Marnun, 
 Mutasim and Wathik (198—232 a.h.) at Baghdad, the 
 Mutazilites were in high favour at Court. Under the 
 'Abbasside dynasty 1 the ancient Arab Society was revolu- 
 tionized, Persians filled the most important offices of State ; 
 Persian doctrines took the place of Arab ones. The orthodox 
 suffered bitter persecution. The story of that persecution 
 will be told later on. The Khalif Wathik at length relented. 
 
 1. " C'etait l'epoque de la plus grande splendeur exterieure de l'empire 
 des Arabes, ou leur pouvoir, et en meme temps leur culture intellectuelle 
 et littaraire, atteignirent leur point culminant-" Journal Asiatique 4me 
 Serie, Tome xii. p. 104. 
 
The Creation of the Quran,. 127 
 
 An old man, heavily chained, was one day brought into his 
 presence. The prisoner obtained permission to put a few 
 questions to Ahmad Ibn Abu Da,ud, a Mutazilite and the 
 President of the Court of Inquisition. The following dialogue 
 took place. " Ahmad/' said the prisoner, " what is the 
 dogma which you desire to have established." " That 
 the Quran is created," replied Ahmad. " This dogma, then, 
 is without doubt an essential part of religion, insomuch that 
 the latter caunot without it be said to be complete V 
 " Certainly." " Has the Apostle of God taught this to 
 men or has he left them free V " He has left them free." 
 "Was the Apostle of God acquainted with this dogma or not V 
 " He was acquainted with it." " Wherefore, then, do you 
 desire to impose a belief regarding which the Apostle of God 
 has left men free to think as they please ?" Ahmad remaining 
 silent, the old man turned to Wathik and said, " Prince of 
 Believers, here is my first position made good." Then turning 
 to Ahmad, he said, " Godhassaid, ' This day have I perfected 
 religion for you, and have filled up the measures of my 
 favours upon you ; and it is my pleasure that Islam be your 
 religion.' (Sura v. 5). Bat according to you Islam is not 
 perfected unless we adopt this doctrine that the Quran is 
 created. Which now is most worthy of credence — God, 
 when He declares Islam to be complete and perfect, or you 
 when you announce the contrary ?" Ahmad was still 
 silent. " Prince of Believers," said the old man, " there 
 is my second point made good." He continued, " Ahmad, 
 how do you explain the following words of God in His 
 Holy Book ? — ' Apostle ! proclaim all that hath been sent 
 down to thee from thy Lord ; for if thou dost not, thou hast 
 not proclaimed His message at all.' Now this doctrine that 
 you desire to spread among the Faithful, has the Apostle 
 taught it, or has he abstained from doing so ?" Ahmad 
 remained silent. The old man resumed, " Prince of Believ- 
 ers, such is my third argument." Then turning to Ahmad 
 he said : " If the Prophet was acquainted with the doctrine 
 
128 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 which you desire to impose upon us, had he the right to pass 
 by it in silence ?" " He had the right." " Aud did the 
 same right appertain to Abu Bakr, Omar, Osman and 'Ali ?." 
 " It did." " Prince of Believers," said the prisoner, " God 
 will, in truth, be severe on us, if He deprives us of a liberty 
 which He accorded to the Prophet and his Companions." 
 The Khalif assented, and at once restored the old man to 
 liberty. So ended one of the fiercest persecutions the 
 orthodox have ever had to endure, but so also ended the 
 attempt to break through the barriers of traditionalism. * 
 The next Khalif, Al Mutawakhil, a ferocious and cruel man, 
 restored the orthodox party to place and power. He issued 
 a fatva (decree) declaring that the dogma ,that the Quran 
 was created was an utter falsehood. He instituted severe 
 measures against Christians, Jews, Shia'hs and Mutazilites. 
 Ahmad Ibn Abu Da,ud was one of the first to be disgraced. 
 Heresy and latitudinarianism were banished. 
 
 The final blow to the Mutazilites, however, came not 
 from the Khalif but a little later on from Abu Hasan-al- 
 Ash'ari (270—340 a.h.) 
 
 The Mutazilites expelled from power in Baghdad, still 
 flourished at Basra where one day the following incident 
 occurred. Abu 'All Al-Jubbai, a Mutazilite doctor, was 
 lecturing to his students when Al-Ash'ari propounded the 
 following case to his master : " There were three brothers, 
 one of whom was a true believei', virtuous and pious ; the 
 second an infidel, a debauchee and a reprobate ; and the 
 third an infant ; they all died. What became of them ?" 
 Al-Jubbai answered : " The virtuous brother holds a high 
 station in Paradise, the infidel is in the depths of hell, and 
 the child is among those who have obtained salvation." 
 
 1. To understand the bearing of all the discussions that then took place, 
 the reader should have some acquaintance with the history of the Khalifs, 
 and of the risejand progress of Muslim philosophy. The former can be found 
 in Osborn's " Khalifs of Baghdad." A short review of the latter will be 
 found in a note at the end of this chapter. 
 
The Rise of the Ash'arians. 129 
 
 " Suppose now/' said Al-Ash'ari, " that the child should 
 wish to asceud to the place occupied by his virtuous brother, 
 would he be allowed to do so V <c No/' replied Al-Jubbai, 
 " it would be said to him : ' thy brother arrived at this 
 place through His numerous works of obedience to God, 
 and thou hast no such works to set forward.' : " Suppose 
 then/' said Al-Ash'ari, " that the child should say : ' this is 
 not my fault, you did not let me live long enough, neither 
 did you give me the means of proving my obedience.' 
 " In that case," said Al-Jubbai, " the Almighty would say : 
 ' I knew that if I allowed thee to live, thou wouldest have 
 been disobedient and have incurred the punishment of hell : 
 I acted, therefore, for thy advantage.'" "Well," said 
 Al-Ash'ari, " and suppose the infidel brother were here to 
 say : ' God of the Universe ! since Thou knewest what 
 awaited him, Thou must have known what awaited me ; why 
 then didst Thou act for his advantage and not for mine ?' 
 Al-Jubbai was silent, though very angry with his pupil, 
 who was now convinced that the Mutazilite dogma of man's 
 free-will was false, and that God elects some for mercy and 
 some for punishment without any motive whatever. Dis- 
 agreeing with his teacher on this point, he soon began to 
 find other points of difference, and soon announced his 
 belief that the Quran was not created. This occurred on a 
 Friday in the Great Mosque at Basra. Seated in his chair 
 he cried out in a loud voice : " They who know me know 
 who I am ; as for those who do not know me I shall tell 
 them ; I am 'Ali Ibn Isma'il Al-Ash'ari, and I used to hold 
 that the Quran was created, that the eyes (of men) shall 
 not see God, and that we ourselves are the authors of our 
 evil deeds ; now, I have returned to the truth : I renounce 
 these opinions, and I take the engagement to refute the 
 Mutazilites and expose their infamy and turpitude." 
 
 He then, adopting scholastic methods, started a school of 
 
 1. Ibn Khallikan, vol. ii. p. 669. 2. Ibid, p. 228. 
 
 17 
 
130 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 thought of his own, which was in the main a return to 
 orthodoxy. The Ash'arian doctrines differ slightly from the 
 . tenets of the Sifatians of which sect Al- Ash' an' s disciples 
 form a branch. The Ash'arians hold — 
 
 (i.) That the attributes of God are distinct from His 
 essence, yet in such a way as to forbid any comparison 
 being made between God and His creatures. They say they 
 are not " 'ain nor ghair :" not of His essence, nor distinct 
 from it : is., they cannot be compared with any other things, 
 (ii.) That God has one eternal will from which proceed 
 all things, the good and the evil, the useful and the hurtful. 
 The destiny of man was written on the eternal table before 
 the world was created. So far they go with the Sifatians, 
 but in order to preserve the moral responsibility of man 
 they say that he has power to convert will into action. 
 But this power cannot create anything new for then God's 
 sovereignty would be impaired ; so they say that God in 
 His providence so orders matters that whenever " a man 
 desires to do a certain thing, good or bad, the action corres- 
 ponding to the desire is, there and then, created by God, 
 and, as it were, fitted on to the desire." Thus it seems as 
 if it came naturally from the will of the man, whereas it 
 does not. This action is called Kasb (acquisition) because 
 it is acquired by a special creative act of God. It is an act 
 directed to the obtaining of profit, or the removing of 
 injury : the term is, therefore, inapplicable to the Deity. 
 Abu Bakr-al-Bakillani, a disciple of Al-Ash'ari, says : " The 
 essence or substance of the action is the effect of the power 
 of God, but its being an action of obedience, such as 
 prayer, or an action^ of disobedience, such as fornication, 
 are qualities of the action, which proceed from the power 
 of man." The Imam Al-Haramain (419—478 a. h.) held 
 " that the actions of men were effected by the power which 
 God has created in man." Abu Ishaq al Isfarayain says : 
 " That which maketh impression, or hath influence on action, 
 is a compound of the power of God and the power of man." 
 
The MvshcibiMte*. 131 
 
 (iii.) They say that the word of God is eternal, though 
 they acknowledge that the vocal sounds used in the Quran, 
 which is the manifestation of that word, are created. They 
 say, in short, that the Quran contains (1) the eternal word 
 which existed in the essence of God before time was ; and 
 (2) the word which consists of sounds and combinations of 
 letters. This last they call the created word. 
 
 Thus Al-Ash'ari traversed the main positions of the Muta- 
 zilites, denying that man can by the aid of his reason alone 
 rise to the knowledge of good and evil. He must exercise 
 no judgment but accept all that is revealed. He has no 
 right to apply the moral laws which affect men to the 
 actions of God. It cannot be asserted by the human reason 
 that the good will be rewarded, or the bad punished in a 
 future world. Man must always approach God as a slave, 
 in whom there is no light or knowledge to judge of the 
 actions of the Supreme. Whether God will accept the 
 penitent sinner or not cannot be asserted, for He is an 
 absolute Sovereign, above all law. 1 
 
 The opinions of the more irrational sub-divisions of the 
 Sifatians need not be entered into at any length. 
 
 The Mushabikites (or Assimilators), interpreting some of 
 the mutashabih verses literally, held that there is a resem- 
 blance between God and His creatures ; and that the Deity is 
 capable of local motion, of ascending, descending, &c. These 
 they called " declarative attributes." The Mnjassimians (or 
 Corporealists) declaimed God to be corporeal, by which some of 
 them meant, a self-subsisting body, whilst others declared the 
 Deity to be finite. They are acknowledged to be heretics. 
 
 1. Ibn Khaldoun says : " L'etablissement des preuves (fondees sur la 
 raison) fut adopte par les (premiers) scolastiques pour le sujeb de leur 
 traites, mais il ne fut pas, comme chez les philosophes, une tentative pour 
 arriver a la decouverte de la verite et ponr obtenir, au moyen de la demon- 
 stration, la connaissance de ce qui etait ignore jusqu' alors. Les scolas- 
 tiques recherchaient des preuves iutellectuelles dans le but de confirmer la 
 verite des dogmes, de justifier les opinions des premiers Musalmans et de 
 repousser les doctrines trompeuses que les uovateurs avaient emises." 
 Prolegomenes d'Ibn Khaldoun, vol. iii. p. 169. 
 
132 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 The Jabrians gave great prominence to the denial of 
 free agency in man, and thus opposed the Mutazilites, who 
 in this respect are Kadrians, that is, they deny " Al- 
 Kadr," God's absolute sovereignty, and recognize free 
 will in man. 
 
 These and various other sub-divisions are not now of much 
 importance. The Sunnis follow the teaching of Al-Ash'ari, 
 whilst the Shi'ahs incline to that of the Mutazilites. 
 
 Connected with the subject of the attributes of God is 
 that of the names to be used when speaking of Him. All 
 sects agree in this, that the names " The Living, the Wise, 
 the Powerful, the Hearer, the Seer, the Speaker/' &c. ? are 
 to be applied to God ; but the orthodox belief is that all 
 such names must be " tauqifi/' that is dependent on some 
 revelation. Thus it is not lawful to apply a name to God 
 expressive of one of His attributes, unless there is some 
 statement made, or order given by Muhammad to legalize 
 it. God is rightly called Shafi (Healer), but He cannot be 
 called Tabib which means much the same thing, for the 
 simple reason that the word Tabib is never applied in the 
 Quran or the Traditions to God. In like manner the term 
 'Alim (Knower) is lawful, but not so the expression 'Aqil 
 (Wise). The Mutazilites say that if, in the Quran or Tradi- 
 tions, there is any praise of an attribute, then the adjective 
 formed from the name of that attribute can be applied to God 
 even though the actual word does not occur in any revela- 
 tion. Al-Ghazzali (a.h. 450 — 505), who gave in the East the 
 death-blow to the Muslim philosophers, says : " The names 
 of God not given in the Law, if expressive of His glory, 
 may be used of Him, but only as expressive of His attri- 
 butes, not of His nature." On the ground that it does not 
 occur in the Law, the Persian word " Khuda" has been 
 objected to, an objection which also holds good with regard 
 to the use of such terms as God, Dieu, Gott, &c. To this 
 it is answered, that as " Khuda" means " one who comes 
 by himself" it is equivalent to the term Wajib-ul-Wajud, 
 
The Name* of God. 133 
 
 " one who has necessary existence/' and therefore so long 
 as it is not considei'ed as the " Ism-i-Zat (name of His 
 nature) it may with propriety be used." 1 
 
 The current belief now seems to be that the proper name 
 equal to the term Allah, current in a language, can be used, 
 provided always that such a name is not taken from the 
 language of the Infidels ; so God, Dieu, &c, still remain 
 unlawful. The names of God authorised by the Quran and 
 Traditions are, exclusive of the term Allah, ninety-nine in 
 number. They are called the Asma-i-Husna 3 (noble names) ; 
 but in addition to these there are many synonyms used on 
 the authority of Ijina/. Such are Hanan, equal to Rahim 
 (Merciful) aud Manan, " one who puts another under an 
 obligation." In the Tafsir-i-Bahr it is stated that there 
 are three thousand names of God ; one thousand of which 
 are known to angels ; one thousand to prophets ; whilst 
 one thousand are thus distributed, viz., in the Pentateuch 
 there are three hundred, in the Psalms three hundred, in 
 the Gospels three hundred, in the Quran ninety-nine, and 
 one still hidden. 
 
 The following texts of the Quran are adduced to prove 
 the nature of the divine attributes : — 
 
 (1). Life. "There is no God but He, the Living, the 
 Eternal." (Sura ii. 256). "Put thy trust in Him that 
 liveth and dieth not." (Sura xxv. 60). 
 
 (2). Knowledge. " Dost thou not see that God knoweth 
 all that is in the heavens, and all that is in the earth." 
 (Sura lviii. 8). "With Him are the keys of the secret 
 things ; none knoweth them but He : He knoweth what- 
 ever is on the land and in the sea ; and no leaf falleth but 
 He knoweth it ; neither is there a grain in the darknesses 
 of the earth, nor a thing green or sere, but it is noted in a 
 distinct writing." (Sura vi. 59). 
 
 1. Sharh-i-Aqafd-i-Jami, p. 63. 
 
 2. " Most excellent titles has God : by these call ye on Him and stand 
 aloof from those who pervert His titles." (Sura vii. 179.) 
 
134 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 (3). Power. " If God pleased, of their ears and of their 
 eyes would He surely deprive theni. Verily God is Al- 
 mighty." (Sura ii. 19). "Is He not powerful enough to 
 quicken the dead." (Sura lxxv. 40). " God hath power 
 over all things." (Sura iii. 159.) 
 
 (4). Will. " God is worker of that He willeth." (Sura 
 lxxxv. 16). " But if God pleased, He would surely bring 
 them, one and all, to the guidance." (Sura vi. 35). " God 
 misleadeth whom He will, and whom He will He guideth — 
 God doeth His pleasure." (Sura xiv. 4, 32). 
 
 As this attribute is closely connected with the article 
 of the Creed which refers to Predestination, the different 
 opinions regarding it will be stated under that head. 
 
 There has never been any difference of opinion as to 
 the existence of these four attributes so clearly described 
 in the Quran : the difference is with regard to the mode 
 of their existence and their operation. There is, first, the 
 ancient Sifatian doctrine that the attributes are eternal 
 and of the essence of God : secondly, the Mutazilite theory 
 that they are not eternal ; and, thirdly, the Ash'arian 
 dogma that they are eternal, but distinct from His 
 essence. 
 
 There is also great difference of opinion with regard to 
 the next three attributes — hearing, sight, speech. For the 
 existence of the two first of these the following verses are 
 quoted, " He truly heareth and knoweth all things." 
 (Sura xliv. 5). " No vision taketh in Him, but He taketh 
 in all vision." (Sura vi. 103). 
 
 The use of the terms sitting, rising, &c, hands, face, eyes, 
 and so on, gave rise as I have shown to several sub-divisions 
 of the Sifatians. Al-Ghazzali says : " He sits upon His 
 throne after that manner which He has Himself described 
 and in that sense which He Himself means, which is a sitting 
 far remote from any notion of contact or resting upon, or 
 local situation." This is the Ash'arian idea, but between 
 the Ash'arians and those who fell into the error of the 
 
Kaldm. 135 
 
 Mujasshnians, x there was another school. The followers of 
 Imam Ibn Hanbal say that such words represent the attri- 
 butes existing in God. The words " God sits on His throne" 
 mean that He has the power of sitting. Thus, they say, " We 
 keep the literal meaning of the words, we allow no figura- 
 tive interpretation. To do so is to introduce a dangerous 
 principle of interpretation, for the negation of the apparent 
 sense of a passage may tend to weaken the authority of 
 revelation. At the same time we do not pretend to explain 
 the act, for it is written : ' There is none like unto Him.' 
 (Sura cxii.) ' Nought is there like Him.' (Sura xlii. 9.) 
 ' Unworthy the estimate they form of God/ " (Sura xxii. 
 73.) To prove that God occupies a place they produce the 
 following Tradition : " Ibn-al-Hakim wished to give liberty 
 to a female slave Saouda and consulted the Prophet about 
 it. Muhammad said to her, ' Where is God V ' In heaven/ 
 she replied. ' Set her at liberty, she is a true believer/ " 
 Not, say the Commentators, because she believed that God 
 occupied a place but because she took the words in their 
 literal signification. The Shi'ahs consider it wrong to 
 attribute to God movement, quiescence, &c, for these 
 imply the possession of a body. They hold, too, in opposi- 
 tion to the orthodox that God will never be seen, for that 
 which is seen is limited by space. 
 
 The seventh attribute — speech — has been fruitful of a 
 very long and important controversy connected with the 
 nature of the Quran, for the word " Kalam" means not 
 mere speech, but revelation and every other mode of com- 
 municating intelligence. Al-Ghazzali says : — 
 
 " He doth speak, command, forbid, promise, and threaten by an 
 eternal ancient word, subsisting in His essence. Neither is it like to 
 the word of the creatures, nor doth it consist in a voice arising from 
 the commotion of the air and the collision of bodies, nor letters 
 
 1. " The Mujassimians, or Corporealists not only admitted a resemblance 
 between God and created beings, but declared God to be corporeal." Sale's 
 Preliminary discourse, Section viii. para. 3. 
 
136 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 which are separated by the joining together of the lips or the motion 
 of the tongue. The Quran, the Law, the Gospel and the Psalter are 
 books sent down by Him to His Apostles, and the Quran, indeed, is 
 read with tongues written in books, and is kept in hearts ; yet, as 
 subsisting in the essence of God, it doth not become liable to separa- 
 tion and division whilst it is transferred into the hearts and on to 
 paper. Thus Moses also heard the word of God without voice or 
 letter, even as the saints behold the essence of God without sub- 
 stance or accident." 
 
 The orthodox believe that God is really a speaker : the 
 Mutazilites deny this, and say that He is only called a 
 speaker because He is the originator of words and sounds. 
 
 They also bring the following objections to bear against 
 the doctrine of the eternity of the Quran. (1) It is written 
 in Arabic, it descended, is read, is heard, and is written. 
 It was the subject of a miracle. It is divided into parts 
 and some verses are abrogated by others. (2) Events are 
 described in the past tense, but if the Quran had been 
 eternal the future tense would have been used. (3) The 
 Quran contains commands and prohibitions ; if it is eternal 
 who were commanded and who were admonished ? (4) If it 
 has existed from eternity it must exist to eternity, and so 
 even in the last day, and in the next world, men will be 
 under the obligation of performing the same religious 
 duties as they do now, and of keeping all the outward pre- 
 cepts of the law. (5) If the Quran is eternal, then there 
 are two eternals. 
 
 The position thus assailed was not at first a hard and fast 
 dogma of Islam. It was more a speculative opinion than 
 anything else, but the opposition of the Mutazilites soon 
 led all who wished to be considered orthodox to become 
 not only stout assertors of the eternity of the Quran, but 
 to give up their lives in defence of what they believed to 
 be true. The Mutazilites by asserting the subjective nature 
 of the Quranic inspiration brought the book itself within 
 the reach of criticism. This was too much for orthodox 
 Islam to bear even though the Khalif Mamun in the 
 
The Mernity of the Quran. 137 
 
 year 212 a.h. issued a fatva declaring that all who asserted 
 the eternity of the Quran we're guilty of heresy. Some six 
 years after this, the Imam Ahmad Ibn Hanbal was severely 
 beaten, and then imprisoned because he refused to assent to 
 the truth of the decree issued by the Khalif. Al Buwaiti, 
 a famous disciple of As-Shafa'i, used an ingenious argu- 
 ment to fortify his own mind when being punished by 
 the order of the Khalif. He was taken all the way from 
 Cairo to Baghdad and told to confess that the Quran was 
 created. On his refusal, he was imprisoned at Baghdad 
 and there remained in chains till the day of his death. As 
 Ar-Rabi Ibn Sulaiman says : " I saw Al Buwaiti mounted 
 on a mule : round his neck was a wooden collar, on his 
 legs were fetters, from these to the collar extended an 
 iron chain to which was attached a clog weighing fifty 
 pounds. Whilst they led him on he continued repeating 
 these words, ' Almighty God created the world by means of 
 the word Be ! Now, if that word was created, one created 
 thing would have created another.' "* Al Buwaiti here refers 
 to the verse, " Verily our speech unto a thing when we 
 will the same, is that we only say to it, ' Be,' and it is, — 
 Kun fayakuna." (Sura xxxvi. 82 J. This, in the way Al 
 Buwaiti applied it, is a standing argument of the orthodox 
 to prove the eternity of the Quran. 
 
 When times changed men were put to death for holding 
 the opposite opinion. The Imam As-Shafa'i held a public 
 disputation in Baghdad with Hafs, a Mutazilite preacher, 
 on this very point. Shafa'i quoted the verse, " God said he, 
 and it ivas," and asked, ff Did not God create all things by 
 the word be 1" Hafs assented. " If then the Quran was 
 created, must not the word be have been created with it ?" 
 Hafs could not deny so plain a proposition. " Then," said 
 Shafa'i, " all things, according to you, were created by a 
 .created being, which is a gross inconsistency and manifest 
 
 1. Ibn Khallikan, vol. iv. p. 394. 
 
 18 
 
138 The Faith of Islam, 
 
 impiety." Hafs was reduced to silence, and such an effect 
 had Shafa'i's logic on the audience that they put Hafs to 
 death as a pestilent heretic. Thus did the Ash'arian 
 opinions on the subject of the Divine attributes again gain 
 the mastery. 1 
 
 The Mutazilites failed, and the reason why is plain. 
 They were, as a rule, influenced by no high spiritual 
 motives ; often they were mere quibblers. They sought 
 no light in an external revelation. Driven to a reaction 
 by the rigid system they combated, they would have 
 made reason alone their chief guide. The nobler spirits 
 among them were impotent to regenerate the faith they 
 professed to follow. It was, however, a great movement, 
 and at one time, it threatened to change the whole nature 
 of Islam. This period of Muslim history, famed as that in 
 which the effort was made to cast off the fetters of the 
 rigid system which Islam was gradually tightening by the 
 increased authority given to traditionalism, and to the 
 refinements of the four Imams, was undoubtedly a period 
 of, comparatively speaking, high civilization. Baghdad, the 
 capital of the Khalifate, was a busy, populous, well-governed 
 city. This it mainly owed to the influence of the Persian 
 family of the Barmecides, one of whom was Vizier to the 
 Khalif Harun-ur-Rashid. Harun's fame as a good man is 
 quite undeserved. It is true that he was a patron of learn- 
 ing, that his Empire was extensive, that he gained many 
 victories, that his reign was the culminating point of Arab 
 grandeur. But for all that, he was a morose despot, a cruel 
 man, thoroughly given up to pleasures of a very questionable 
 nature. Drunkenness and debauchery were common at 
 court. Plots and intrigues were ever at work. Such was 
 the state of one of the greatest, if not the greatest, periods 
 
 1. " The Freethinkers (Mutazilites) left no traces of themselves except 
 in the controversial treatises which they had written. These were des- 
 troyed, and with their destruction the last vestiges of the conflict between 
 Free-thought and the spirit of Islam were obliterated." Osborn's Khalifs 
 of Baghdad, p. 148. 
 
Angels. 139 
 
 of Muslim rule. This, too, was at a time most favourable 
 for the development of any good which Islam might have 
 possessed. It should be remembered that whatever glory 
 is rightly attached to this period is connected with an epoch 
 when heresy was specially prevalent, when orthodoxy was 
 weak in Baghdad. The culture of the time was in spite of, \ 
 not on account of, the influence of orthodox Islam. 
 
 2. Angels. — Of this article of the creed Muhammad Al- 
 Berkevi says : — 
 
 " We must confess that God has angels who act according to His 
 order and who do not rebel against Him. They neither eat nor 
 drink, nor is there amongst them any difference of sex. Some are 
 near the throne of God ; these are His messengers. Each one has 
 his particular work. Some are on earth, some in heaven, some are 
 always standing, some always prostrate themselves and some laud 
 and praise God. Others have charge of men and record all their 
 actions. Some angels are high in stature and are possessed of great 
 power. Such an one is Gabriel (Jibra,il) who in the space of one 
 hour can descend from heaven to earth, and who with one wing can 
 lift up a mountain. 
 
 We must believe in 'Izra,il who receives the souls of men when 
 they die, and in Israfil into whose charge is committed the trumpet. 
 This trumpet he has actually in his hand, and placed to his mouth 
 ready to blow when God gives the order. When he receives that 
 order he will blow such a terrible blast that all living things will 
 die. 1 This is the commencement of the last day. The world will 
 remain in this state of death forty years. Then God Most High will 
 revive Israfil who will blow a second blast, at the sound of which all 
 the dead will rise to life." 2 
 
 This confession of faith makes no mention of Mika,il 
 (Michael), the fourth of the archangels. His special duty is 
 to see that all created beings have what is needful for them. 
 He has charge of the rain-fall, plants, grain and all that is 
 required for the sustenance of men, beasts, fishes, &c. 
 Gabriel's special charge is the communication of God's will to 
 prophets. The words " one terrible in power" (Suraliii. 5) 
 
 1. Sura xxxix, 68, 69. 2. L'Islamisuie d'apres le Coran, p. 135. 
 
140 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 are generally applied to hiui. He is honoured with the 
 privilege of nearness to God. Tradition says that on the 
 night of the Mi* raj, the Prophet saw that Gabriel had six hun- 
 dred wings, and that his body was so large that from one 
 shoulder to the other the distance was so great that a swift 
 flying bird would require five hundred years to pass over it. 
 Nine-tenths of all created beings are said to be angels 
 who are formed of light. Their rank is stationary, and each 
 is content with the position he occupies. Their one desire 
 is to love and to know God. Whatever he commands 
 they do. " All beings in the heaven and on the earth are 
 His : and they who are in His presence disdain not His 
 service, neither are they wearied : they praise Him day and 
 night." (Sura xxi. 19, 20.) They are free from all sin. 1 
 It is true that they did not wish for the creation of Adam, 
 and this may seem like a want of confidence in God. It is 
 said, however, that their object was not to oppose God, but 
 to relieve their minds of the doubts they had in the matter. 
 Thus " when the Lord said to the angels, ' Verily, I am 
 about to place one in my stead on earth/ they said : ' Wilt 
 Thou place there one who will do ill therein, and shed blood 
 when we celebrate thy praise and extol thy holiness/ God 
 said : ' Verily I know what ye know not/ " It is true that 
 Iblis was disobedient, but then he belonged not to the angelic 
 order but to that of the jinn. " When we said to the angels, 
 ' prostrate yourselves before Adam/ they all prostrated them- 
 selves save Iblis, who was of the jinn, and revolted from his 
 Lord's behest." (Sura xviii. 48.) (See also Sura ii. 33.) 
 
 Angels appear in human form on special occasions, but 
 usually they are invisible. It is a common belief that 
 animals can see angels and devils. This accounts for the 
 sayiug, " If you hear a cock crow, pray for mercy, for it 
 has seen an angel ; but if you hear an ass bray, take refuge 
 with God, for it has seen a devil." 
 
 1. Sharh-i-'Aqaid-i-Jami, p. 112. 
 
The Recording Angels. 141 
 
 The angels intercede for man : " The angels celebrate 
 the praise of their Lord and ask forgiveness for the 
 dwellers on earth." (Sura xlii. 3.) They also act as guar- 
 dian angels : " Each hath a succession of angels before him 
 and behind him who watch over him by God's behest." 
 (Sura xiii. 12.) " Is it not enough for you that your Lord 
 aideth you with three thousand angels sent down from on 
 high ?" (Sura iii. 120.) " Supreme over His servants He 
 sendeth forth guardians who watch over you, until when 
 death overtaketh any one of you our messengers take his 
 soul and fail not." (Sura vi. 61.) 
 
 In the Traditions it is said that God has appointed for 
 every man two angels to watch over him by day, and two 
 by night. The one stands on the right hand side of the 
 man, the other on his left. Some, however, say that they 
 reside in the teeth, and that the tongue of the man is the 
 pen and the saliva of the mouth the iuk. 1 They protect the 
 actions of men and record them all whether good or bad. 
 They are called the Mua'qqibat, i.e., those who succeed one 
 another. They also bear the name of Kiram-ul-Katibin, 
 "the exalted writers." They are referred to in the Quran. 
 " Think they that we hear not their secrets and their 
 private talk ? Yes, and our angels who are at their sides 
 write them down." (Sura xliii. 80). 
 
 There are eight angels who support the throue of God. 
 " And the augels shall be on its sides, and over them on 
 that day eight shall bear up the throne of thy Lord." 
 (Sura lxix. 17). Nineteen have charge of hell. "Over 
 it are nineteen. None but angels have we made guardians 
 of the fire." (Sura lxxiv. 30). 
 
 There is a special arrangement made by Providence to 
 mitigate the evils of Satanic interference. " Iblis," says 
 Jabir Maghrabi, "though able to assume all other forms is 
 not permitted to appear in the semblance of the Deity, or 
 
 1. Sharh-i-'Aqaid-i-Jami, p. 187- 
 
142 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 any of His angels, or prophets. There would otherwise be 
 much danger to human salvation, as he might, under the 
 appearance of one of the prophets, or of some superior 
 being, make use of this power to seduce men to sin. To 
 prevent this, whenever he attempts to assume such forms, 
 fire comes down from heaven and repulses him." 
 
 The story of Hariit and Marut is of some interest from 
 its connection with the question of the impeccability of the 
 angels. Speaking of those who reject God's Apostle the 
 Quran says : " And they followed what the Satans read in 
 the reign of Solomon ; not that Solomon was unbelieving, 
 but the Satans were unbelieving. Sorcery did they teach 
 to men, and what had been revealed to the two angels 
 Harut and Marut at Babel. Yet no man did these two 
 teach until they had said, ' We are only a temptation. Be 
 not thou an unbeliever/ " (Sura ii. 96). Here it is quite 
 clear that two angels teach sorcery, which is generally allowed 
 to be an evil. Some explanation has to be given. Com- 
 mentators are by no means reticent on this subject. The 
 story goes that in the time of the prophet Enoch when the 
 angels saw the bad actions of men they said : " Lord ! 
 Adam and his descendants whom Thou has appointed as Thy 
 vice-regents on earth act disobediently." To which the 
 Lord replied : " If I were to send you on earth, and to give 
 you lustful and angry dispositions, you too would sin." The 
 ansrels thought otherwise ; so God told them to select two 
 of their number who should undergo this ordeal. They 
 selected two, renowned for devotion and piety. God hav- 
 ing implanted in them the passions of lust and anger said : 
 " All day go to and fro on the earth, put an end to the 
 quarrels of men, ascribe no equal to Me, do not commit 
 adultery, drink no wine, and every night repeat the 
 Ism-ul-A'zam, the exalted name (of God) and return to 
 heaven." This they did for some time, but at length a 
 beautiful woman named Zuhra (Venus) led them astray. 
 One day she brought them a cup of wine. One said : 
 
Barut and Mdrid. 143 
 
 " God has forbidden it ;" the other, " God is merciful and 
 forgiving." So they drank the wine, killed the husband 
 of Zuhra, to whom they revealed the " exalted name/' and 
 fell into grievous sin. Immediately after, they found that 
 the " name" had gone from their memories and so they 
 could not return to heaven as usual. They were very much 
 concerned at this and begged Enoch to intercede for them. 
 The prophet did so, and with such success that the angels 
 were allowed to choose between a present or a future punish- 
 ment. They elected to be punished here on earth. They 
 were then suspended with their heads downwards in a well 
 at Babel. Some say that angels came and whipped them 
 with rods of fire, and that a fresh spring ever flowed just 
 beyond the reach of their parched lips. The woman was 
 changed to a star. Some assert that it was a shooting star 
 which has now passed out of existence. Others say that 
 she is the star Venus. 
 
 It is only right to state that the Qazi 'Ayaz, Imam 
 Fakhr-ud-din Razi (544—606 a.h.), Qazi Nasir-ud-din 
 Baidavi (620—691 a.h.) and most scholastic divines deny 
 the truth of this story. They say that angels are immacu- 
 late, but it is plain that this does not meet the difficulty 
 which the Quran itself raises in connection with Harut and 
 Marut. They want to know how beings in such a state 
 can teach, and whether it is likely that men would have the 
 courage to go near such a horrible scene. As to the woman, 
 they think the whole story absurd, not only because the 
 star Venus was created before the time of Adam, but also 
 because it is inconceivable that one who was so wicked 
 should have the honour of shining in heaven for ever. A 
 solution, however, they are bound to give, and it is this. 
 Magic is a great art which God must allow mankind to 
 know. The dignity of the order of prophets is so great 
 that they cannot teach men what is confessedly hurtful. 
 Two angels were therefore sent, and so men can now 
 distinguish between the miracles of prophets, the signs of 
 
i44 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 saints, the wonders of magicians and others. Then Hariit 
 and Marut always discouraged men from learning magic. 
 They said to those who came to them : " We are only a 
 temptation. Be not thou an unbeliever." Others assert 
 that it is a Jewish allegory in which the two angels repre- 
 sent reason and benevolence, the woman the evil appetites. 
 The woman's ascent to heaven represents death. 
 
 To this solution of the difficulty, however, the great 
 body of the Traditionists do not agree. They declare that 
 the story is a Hadis-i-Sahih, and that the Isnad is sound 
 and good. I name only a few of the great divines who 
 hold this view. They are Imam Ibn Hanbal, Ibn Ma'siid, 
 Ibn 'Umr, Ibn ' Abbas, Hafiz 'Asqallani 1 and others. Jelal- 
 ud-din Syuti in his commentary the Durr-i-Mashur, has 
 given all the Traditions in order and, though there is some 
 variety in the details, the general purport accords with the 
 narrative as I have related it. The Traditionists answer 
 the objections of the Scholastics thus. They say that 
 angels are immaculate only so long as they remain in the 
 angelic state ; that, though confined, Harut and iVLarut can 
 teach magic, for a word or two is quite sufficient for that 
 purpose ; that some men have no fear and, if they have, it 
 is quite conceivable that the two angels may teach through 
 the instrumentality of devils or jinn. With regard to the 
 woman Zuhra they grant that to be changed into a bright 
 star is of the nature of a reward ; but they say the desire 
 to learn the " exalted name" was so meritorious an act that 
 the good she desired outweighs the evil she did. With 
 regard to the date of the creation of the star Venus, it is 
 said that all our astronomical knowledge is based on obser- 
 vations made since the Flood, whereas this story relates to 
 the times of Enoch who lived before the days of Noah. 
 So the dispute goes on and men of great repute for learn- 
 ing and knowledge believe in the story. 
 
 1. Tafsir-i-Faiz-ul-Karim, p. 58. 
 
Munkir and Nakir. 145 
 
 Munkir and Nakir are two fierce-looking black angels 
 with blue eyes who visit every man in his grave, and 
 examine him with regard to his faith in God and in 
 Muhammad. The dead are supposed to dwell in 'Alam-i- 
 barzakh, a state of existence intervening between the 
 present life and the life of mankind after the resurrec- 
 tion. 1 This is the meaning of the word " gi'ave" when used 
 in this connection. Unbelievers and wicked Muslims suffer 
 trouble in that state ; true believers who can give a good 
 answer to the angels are happy. Some suppose that a 
 body of angels are appointed for this purpose and that 
 some of them bear the name of Munkir, and some that of 
 Nakir and that, just as each man has two recording angels 
 during his lifetime, two from this class are appointed to 
 examiue him after death. There is a difference of opinion 
 with regard to children. The general belief is. that the 
 children of believers will be questioned, but that the angels 
 will teach them to say : " Allah is ray Lord, Islam my 
 religion, and Muhammad my Prophet." With regard to 
 the children of unbelievers being questioned, Imam Abu 
 Hanifa hesitated to give an opinion. He also doubted 
 about their punishment. Some think they will be in 
 A'raf, a place between heaven and hell ; others suppose 
 that they will be servants to the true believers in Paradise. 
 
 Distinct from the angels there is another order of beings 
 made of fire called jinn (genii.) It is said that they were 
 created thousands of years before Adam came into exist- 
 ence. " We created man of dried clay, of dark loam 
 moulded, and the jinn had been before created of subtle 
 fire." (Sura xv. 26, 27.) They eat, drink, propagate their 
 species and are subject to death, though they generally live 
 many centuries. They dwell chiefly in the Koh-i-Kaf, a 
 chain of mountains supposed to encompass the world : 2 
 
 1. Takmil-ul-Iman, p. 19. 
 
 2. " From the beginning of history the Caucasus is to civilized nations, both 
 Greek and Oriental, the boundary of geographical knowledge— indeed, the 
 boundary of the world itself." — liryce's Transcaucasia and Ararat, p. 48. 
 
 19 
 
146 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 some are believers in Islam ; some are infidels, and will be 
 punished. " I will wholly fill hell with jinn and men." 
 (Sura xi. ] 20. J The Sura called Surat-ul-Jinn (lxxii.) refers 
 to their belief in Islam. The passage is too long to quote. 
 They try to hear l what is going on in heaven. " We guard 
 them [i.e., men) from every stoned Satan, save such as 
 steal a hearing." fSiira xv. 18.) They were under the 
 power of Solomon and served him. (Sura xxxviii. 36.) 
 An 'Ifrit of the jinn said, " I will bring it thee (Solomon) 
 ere thou risest from thy place : I have power for this and 
 am trusty." (Suraxxvii. 39.) At the last day the jinn also 
 will be questioned. Imam Hanifa doubted whether the jinn 
 who are Muslims will be rewarded. The unbelieving jinn will 
 assuredly be punished. Tradition classifies them in the fol- 
 lowing order: (1) Jann, (2) Jinn, (3) Shaitan, (4) 'Ifrit, (5) 
 Marid. Many fables have been invented concerning these 
 beings, and though intelligent Muslims may doubt these 
 wonderful accounts, yet a belief in the order of jinn is 
 imperative, at least, as long as there is belief in the Quran. 
 Those who wish to know more of this subject will find a very 
 interesting chapter on it in Lane's Modern Egyptians. 
 3. The Books. — Al Berkevi says : — 
 
 '• It is necessary to believe that the books of God have been sent 
 through the instrumentality of Gabriel, to prophets upon the earth. 
 The books are never sent except to prophets. The Quran was sent 
 to Muhammad portion by portion during a space of 23 years. The 
 Pentateuch came to Moses, the Injil to Jesus, the Zabiir to David, 
 and the other books to other prophets. The whole number of the 
 Divine books is 104. The Quran, the last of all, is to be followed 
 till the day of judgment. It can lieither be abrogated nor changed. 
 Some laws of the previous books have been abrogated by the Quran 
 and ought not to be followed." 
 
 The one hundred and four books were sent from heaven 
 in the following order : — To Adam, ten ; to Seth, fifty ; to 
 Enoch (Idris), thirty ; to Abraham, ten ; to Moses, the 
 
 1. See also Sura xxxviii. S9. 
 
The Abrogation of previous Scriptures. 147 
 
 Taurat (Pentateuch) ; to David, the Zabur (Psalms) ; to Jesus, 
 the Injil ; to Muhammad, the Quran. The one hundred to 
 which no distinctive name is given are known as the ' ' Suhuf- 
 ul-Anbiya," — Books of the Prophets. The Quran is also 
 known as the Furqan, the distinguisher ; the Quran-i- 
 Sharif, noble Quran ; the Quran-i-Majid, glorious Quran ; 
 the Mushaf, the Book. It is said to be the compendium of 
 the Taurat, Zabur and Injil l ; so Muslims do not require to 
 study these books. 2 The orthodox belief is that they are 
 entirely abrogated by the Quran, 3 though Syed Ahmad 
 denounces as ignorant and foolish those Musalmans who 
 say so. 4 Be that as it may, their inspiration is considered 
 to be of a lower order than that of the Quran. A large 
 
 1. Sharh-Aqai'd-i-Jami, p. 140. 
 
 2. Thus the famous Persian poet Sa'di says in the Bustau, " Yeti'mi kih 
 nakardah Quran darust, kutub khana-i-chandmillat bashust." — " The Perfect 
 one who, ere the whole of Gabriel's book he reads, has blotted out the 
 library of all the peoples' creeds." 
 
 3. Sharh-Aqaid-i- Jami, p. 147. Mausukh shud tilawatan wa Kitabatan, 
 i.e. abrogated both as regards reading and writing — entirely abrogated. 
 Also Tamil-ul-Iman, p. 64. Din-i-wai Nasikh-i-jami'-i-adian ast. — " His 
 religion abrogates all religions." 
 
 4. Commentary on the Holy Bible by Syed Ahmad, c.s.i., vol. i. p. 268. 
 This Commentary is written in Urdu, but the author has made a translation 
 for the benefit of the English reader. The passage referred to reads thus 
 in English : " Those who imagine it to be part of the Muhainmadan creed 
 that one law has totally repealed another are utterly mistaken, and we do 
 not believe that the Zuboor (Book of Psalms) abrogated the Taureit (Pen- 
 tateuch) ; that the Taureit in turn gave way to the Injeel (New Testament) 
 and that the New Testament was suppressed by the Holy Koran. We 
 hold no such doctrine, and if any ignorant Muhainmadan should assert to the 
 contrary, he simply knows nothing whatever about the doctrines and 
 articles of his faith." The learned Syed here assumes the role of a liberal 
 Musalman, but the English translation is different from his Urdu text 
 which, literally translated, is as follows : — " Now it should be considered 
 that those who imagine it to be part of the creed of Muslims that the 
 Taurat by the coming of the Zabur, and the Zabur by the coming of the 
 Injil, and the Injil by the coming of the Quran are abrogated on acc< ,,,' 
 of the idea that there is any defect in them are utterly mistaken, &c." 
 
 The clause which I have italicised is entirely omitted in the English 
 text ; but it alters the import of the whole passage. To his co-religionists 
 the Syed says in effect : " The books are abrogated but not because they 
 were imperfect." Now, as no Muslim would believe that a divine book was 
 defective, the Syed is simply asserting the fact of the abrogation of the 
 previous Scriptures and to the orthodox is orthodox. The leader of an 
 apparently liberal section of Indian Musalmans is, in this instance, at least, 
 as conservative as the most bigoted. 
 
148 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 portion of the Tnjil is considered to be mere narrative. 
 The actual words of Christ only are looked upon as the 
 revelation which descended from heaven. It is so in the 
 case of the Old Testament Prophets. " However, it was 
 the rule to call a book by the name of the prophet, whether 
 the subject-matter was pure doctrine only, or whether it 
 was mixed up with narrative also." " It is to be observed 
 that, in the case of our own Prophet, the revelations made 
 to him were intended to impart a special miracle of elo- 
 quence and they were written down, literally and exactly, 
 in the form in which they were communicated without any 
 narrative being inserted in them." 1 The writings of the 
 Apostles are not considered to be inspired books. " We do 
 not consider that the Acts of the Apostles, or the various 
 Epistles, although unquestionably very good books, are to 
 be taken as part and parcel of the New Testament itself ; 
 nevertheless we look upon the writings of the Apostles in the 
 same light as we do the writings of the Companions of our 
 own Prophet ; that is to say, as entitled to veneration and 
 respect." 2 There are many verses in the Quran which 
 speak of previous revelations, thus : " We also caused 
 Jesus, the son of Mary, to follow the footsteps of the pro- 
 phets, confirming the law (Taurat) which was sent before 
 him, and we gave him the Injil with its guidance and light, 
 confirmatory of the preceding law ; a guidance and a warn- 
 ing to those that fear God." (Sura v. 50). " We believe 
 in God, and that which hath been sent down to us, and that 
 which hath been sent down to Abraham and Isaac and 
 Jacob and the tribes, and that which hath been given to 
 Moses and to Jesus, and that which was given to the pro- 
 phets from their Lord. No difference do we make between 
 any of them : and to God are we resigned." (Sura ii. 130). 
 " In truth hath He sent down to thee the Book, which 
 confirmeth those that precede it, for He had sent down the 
 
 1. Syed Ahmad's Commentary ou the'Holy Bible, vol. i. p. 22. 
 
 2. Ibid, p. 31. 
 
Tahrif-i-m'anavi and Tahrif-i-lafzi. 149 
 
 Law and the Injil aforetime, as man's guidance ; and now 
 hath He sent down the Furqan." (Sura iii. 2). ' 
 
 Practically, Musalmans reject the Old and New Testa- 
 ments. To do so is manifestly against the letter of the 
 Quran, and, as some reason for this neglect of previous 
 Scriptures must be given, Muslim divines say that the 
 Jewish and Christian Scriptures have been corrupted. The 
 technical expression is "tahrif," a word signifying, to 
 change, to turn aside anything from the truth. Then 
 tahrif may be of two kinds, tahrif-i-m'anavi, a change in 
 the meaning of words ; tahrif-i-lafzi, an actual change of 
 the written words. Most Musalmans maintain that the 
 latter kind of corruption has taken place, and so they do 
 not feel bound to read or study the previous revelations so 
 frequently referred to in the Quran. The charge brought 
 against the Jews of corrupting their Scriptures is based on 
 the following verse of the Quran : " Some truly are there 
 among you who torture the Scriptures with their tongues, 
 in order that ye may suppose it to be from the Scripture, 
 yet it is not from the Scripture. And they say : ' this is 
 from God/ yet it is not from God ; and they utter a lie 
 against God, and they know they do so." (Sura iii. 72.) 
 All the ancient commentators assert that this only proved 
 tahrif-i-m'anavi ; that is, that the Jews referred to either 
 misinterpreted what they read, or, whilst professing to 
 read from the Scripture, used expressions not found therein. 
 It does not mean that they altered the text of their Scrip- 
 tures. This, however, does not excuse Musalmans for their 
 neglect of the previous Scriptures, and so the orthodox 
 divines of modern times maintain that the greater corrup- 
 tion—the tahrif-i-lafzi, has taken place. The question is 
 fully discussed, and the opinion of the earlier commentators 
 endorsed by Syed Ahmad in his Commentary on the Bible. 2 
 
 1. There are many other such passages. They are given in detail, with 
 the interpretation of approved commentators, in a small S. P. C. K. publi- 
 cation — The Koran — by Sir W. Muir. 
 
 2. Commentary on the Holy Bible, by Syed Ahmad, c.s.i., vol. i. pp. 64-95. 
 
150 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 4. Prophets. — Muhammad Al Berkevi says : — 
 
 " Ifc is necessary to confess that God has sent prophets ; that Adam 
 is the first of the prophets and the father of all men ; that Muham- 
 mad is the last of the prophets ; that between Adam and Muhammad 
 there were a great number of prophets ; that Muhammad is the most 
 excellent of all and that his people are the best of all peoples ; that 
 each of the preceding prophets was sent to a special people, some 
 with books, some without, but that Muhammad was sent to all men 
 and also to the genii; that his law will remain until the end of the 
 world, that his miracles are many in number, that by his blessed 
 finger he made waters flow, that he divided the moon into two parts, 
 that animals, trees, and stones said to him : ' Thou art a true 
 prophet.' 
 
 We must also believe that one night he was transported from 
 Mecca to Jerusalem, and from thence to heaven, where he saw both 
 paradise and hell, conversed with the Most High and returned to 
 Mecca before morning. After him no other prophet will come, for 
 he is the seal of the prophets." 
 
 The number of prophets sent by God to make known His 
 will varies according to the Tradition which records it. 
 About two hundred thousand is the usual number stated. 
 Twenty-five are mentioned by name in the Quran, of whom 
 six are distinguished by special titles. Adam, Sufi Ullah, 
 the chosen of God ; Noah, Nabi Ullah, the prophet of 
 God ; Abraham, Khalil Ullah, the friend of God ; Moses, 
 Kalim Ullah, the speaker with God ; Jesus, Ruh Ullah, the 
 spirit of God ; Muhammad, Rasul Ullah, the messenger of 
 God. These are called the Anbiya-ulul-'Azm (possessors 
 of purpose) because they were the heads of their respective 
 dispensations, and because they will be permitted by God to 
 intercede in the day of judgment for their followers. They 
 are the greatest and most exalted of the prophets. 1 
 
 There are degrees of rank amongst the prophets, for 
 " Some of the Apostles have We eudowed more highly than 
 others. Those to whom God hath spoken, He hath raised 
 to the loftiest grade, and to Jesus, the Son of Mary We gave 
 
 1. Takmil-ul-Iman, p. 59. 
 
The Prophets. 151 
 
 manifest signs, and We strengthened him with the Holy 
 Spirit." (Sura ii. 254). The Anbiya-ulul-'Azm are ranked 
 in the following order : Noah, Jesus, Moses, Abraham and 
 as the chief of all, Muhammad, of whom it is said : " He 
 is the Apostle of God and the seal of the prophets." (Sura 
 
 xxxiii. 40). 
 
 A Tradition, as usual, supports his position. " I am the 
 chief of the sons of men." " Adam and all beside him will 
 be ranged under my flag in the judgment day." 1 It is said 
 that the law given by Moses was harsh and severe ; that 
 by Christ was mild and gracious ; but that the law given 
 by Muhammad is perfect, for it combines both the quality 
 of strictness and that of graciousness ; according to the 
 Tradition: " I always laugh and by laughing kill." 2 Each 
 prophet is said to have been sent to his own tribe, but 
 Muhammad was sent for all men. A Tradition is adduced 
 to support this statement : " I was raised up for all men 
 whether white or black, other prophets were not except for 
 their own tribe." The Quran also states : " We have 
 sent thee (Muhammad) for all men." 
 
 There is some difference of opinion as to whether the pro- 
 phets are superior to the angels. The Hanifites hold that 
 the prophets amongst men are superior to the prophets 
 amongst angels, who in their turn are superior to the 
 ordinary ruu of men, to whom again the angels, other 
 than prophets, are inferior. The Mutazilites say that the 
 angels are superior to the prophets. The Shia'hs assert 
 that the twelve Imams are superior to prophets. 
 
 The way in which Muhammad received inspiration has 
 been shown in a previous chapter ; but lbn Khaldoun gives 
 such an interesting account of prophetic inspiration that I 
 give the substance of his remarks here. He speaks some- 
 what as follows. 3 If we contemplate the world and the crea- 
 tures it contains we shall recognize a perfect order, a regular 
 
 1. Takiml-ul-Iman, p. 59. 2. Takmil-ul-Iman, p. 65. 
 
 3. Prolegomenes d'Ibn Khaldoun, vol. i. pp. 196—205. 
 
152 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 system, a sequence of cause and effect, a connexion be- 
 tween different categories of existence, and a transforma- 
 tion of beings from one category of existence to another. 
 Then the phenomena of the visible world indicate to us the 
 existence of an agent whose nature is different from that of 
 the body, who is in fact a spiritual existence. This agent, 
 which is the soul, must on the one hand be in contact with 
 the existences of this world and, on the other, with the 
 existences in the next category of superiority, and one 
 whose essential qualities are pure perception and clear 
 intelligence. Such are the angels. It follows, then, that 
 the human soul has a tendency towards the angelic world. 
 All this is quite in accordance with the idea that, according 
 to a regular order, all the categories of existences in the 
 universe are in mutual contact by means of their faculties 
 and on account of their nature. 
 
 The souls of men may be divided into three classes. The 
 first kind of soul is too feeble by nature to attain to a per- 
 ception of the spiritual : it has to content itself with moving 
 in the region of sense and imagination. Thus it can under- 
 stand concepts and affirmations. It can raise itself high in 
 its own category but cannot pass its limit. 
 
 The souls of the second class are carried by a reflective 
 movement and a natural disposition towards a spiritual 
 intelligence. They can enter into a state of contempla- 
 tion which results in ecstasy. This is the intuition of 
 the Saints (Auliya,) 1 to whom God has given this divine 
 knowledge. 
 
 The souls of the third class are created with the power 
 of disengaging themselves altogether from their human 
 bodies in order that they may rise to the angelic state 
 where they become like angels. In a moment of time such 
 
 1. " That the " Auliya" are distinguished above ordinary mortals is 
 maintained on the authority of : — " Are not the friends (Auliya) of God, 
 those on whom no fear shall come, nor shall they he put to grief." (Sura 
 x. 63.) 
 
Nabi and Rits/'tl. 153 
 
 a soul perceives the sublime company (of angels) in the 
 sphere which contaius them. It, there and then, hears the 
 speech of the soul and the divine voice. Such are the 
 souls of the prophets. God has given to these souls the 
 power of leaving the human body. Whilst thus separate 
 from it God gives to them His revelation. The prophets 
 are endowed by God with such a purity of disposition, such 
 an instinct of uprightness, that they are naturally iuclined 
 to the spiritual world. They are animated by an ardour 
 quite peculiar to their order. When they return from the 
 angelic state they deliver to men the revelations they have 
 received. Sometimes the revelation comes to the prophet 
 as the humming of confused discourse. He grasps the 
 ideas and, as soon as the humming ceases, he comprehends 
 the message ; sometimes an angel in human form commu- 
 nicates the revelation, and what he says the prophet learns 
 by heart. The journey to, the return from the angelic 
 state, and the comprehension of the revelation received 
 there occupy less time than the twinkling of an eye. So 
 rapidly do the souls of prophets move. So instantaneously 
 do they receive and understand God's revelations. This is 
 why inspiration is called Wahi, a word which, according to 
 Ibn Khaldoun, means to make haste. 
 
 The first way of delivering a message is adopted when he 
 who receives it is only a Nabi (prophet), and not a Rasul 
 (apostle or messenger.) The second mode is employed 
 towards a Rasul who, on the principle that the greater 
 contains the less, is also a Nabi. A Hadis records that 
 Muhammad said : " Revelation came to me sometimes like 
 the ticking of a clock and fatigued me much. When it 
 stopped I learnt the meaning of what had been delivered to 
 me. Sometimes an angel in human form spoke to me and, 
 whilst he was speaking, T learnt what was said." That a 
 prophet should feel oppressed on such occasions is hinted 
 at in " With measured tone intone the Quran, for we shall 
 devolve on thee mighty words." (Sura lxxiii. 5.) 
 
 20 
 
154 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 A Nabi, (who must be a wise and a free man, that is, one 
 who is not a slave of another, and one also who is free from 
 imperfection either of body or mind), receives Wahi but has 
 not necessarily to deliver to men the orders of God. A 
 Rasul who must possess the same qualifications as a Nabi, 
 is one who is commanded to deliver God's message to men, 
 though he does not necessarily abrogate what preceding 
 Rasuls have delivered. Neither is it necessary that he 
 should bring a book or even a new law. Some Rasuls do 
 so, but the distinguishing mark of the Rasul is that he 
 delivers to men commands direct from God, and is speci- 
 ally commissioned so to do. Thus every Rasul is a Nabi, 
 whilst every Nabi is not a Rasul. 
 
 The question of the sinlessness of the prophets is one to 
 which considerable attention has been paid by Muslim theo- 
 logians. The orthodox belief is that they are free from sin. 
 Some think that their freedom from sin is because the grace 
 of God being ever in them in the richest fulness they are 
 kept in the right path. The Ash'arians believe that the 
 power of sinning is not created in them. ' The Mutazilites 
 deny this, but admit the existence of some quality which 
 keeps them from evil. These theories do not agree with 
 actual facts. Prophets like other men commit faults, but 
 here comes in the Muslim distinction of sins iuto g- U nah-i- 
 kabira " great sins/' and gunah-i-saghira " little sins." 
 The gunah-i-kabira are, murder, adultery, disobedience to 
 God and to parents, robbing of orphans, to accuse of adul- 
 tery, to avoid fighting against infidels, drunkenness, to 
 give or to take usury, to neglect the Friday prayers and the 
 Ramazan fast, tyranny, backbiting, untrustworthiness, for- 
 getting the Quran after reading it, to avoid giving true or to 
 give false witness, lying without sufficient reason, 2 to swear 
 falsely or to swear by any other than God, flattery of 
 tyrants, false judgments, giving short weight or measure, 
 
 1. Shash-i-Aqaid-i-Jami, p. 125. 2. Sjrat-ul-Islam, p. 18, 
 
The Sinlessness of Prophets. 155 
 
 magic, gambling, approval of the ceremonies of infidels, 
 boasting of one's piety, calling on the names of deceased 
 persons and beating the breast at such times, 1 dancing, 
 music, neglect when opportunity offers of warning other 
 persons with regard to the " commands and prohibitions" 
 of God, disrespect to a Hafiz, to shave the beard, to omit 
 saying the " darud" (i.e. on whom and on whose family be the 
 peace and mercy of God) whenever the name of Muhammad 
 is mentioned. 2 These are all " great sins" and can only be 
 forgiven after due repentance : the " little sins" are for- 
 given if some good actions are done. " Observe prayer at 
 early morning, at the close of day, and at the approach 
 of night ; for the good deeds drive away the evil deeds." 
 (Sura xi. 11G). 
 
 Men may commit sin wittingly or unwittingly. It is the 
 universal belief that a prophet never commits the greater 
 sins in either way ; but there is a difference of opinion with 
 regard to the lesser sins. Some hold that they can do them 
 unwittingly, though even then it is not in any thing con- 
 nected with their office. Others again limit even this frailty 
 to the period before " wahi" (inspiration) comes upon them. 
 The general opinion, however, is that they are free from all 
 sin, whether great or small. The frailties which they show 
 are merely reckoned as faults and slight imperfections not 
 amounting to sin. 
 
 This, to the Muslim mind at once disposes of a difficulty 
 the Quran itself raises on this point. With the exception of 
 Jesus Christ, the Anbiya-ulul-'Azm are spoken of as doing 
 what every one except an orthodox Muslim would call sin. 
 Adam's transgression 3 is referred to in Sura ii. 29 — 37 and 
 
 1. This is an orthodox blow at the Shi'a'h practices in the month of 
 Muharram. Shia'hs consider this a good act. 
 
 2. Takmil-ul-Iman, p. 18. 
 
 3 It is said Adam's sin was a mere slip but it brought good to the 
 world Had he remained in Paradise the world would not have been 
 peopled ; and the word of God " I have not created men and jinns, except 
 for worship," would not have been fulfilled. 
 
156 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 in Sura vii. 10 — 24. I quote only one verse : " They said, 
 ' our Lord ! with ourselves have we dealt unjustly ; if 
 Thou forgive us not and have not pity on us, we shall surely 
 be of those that perish/ " The sin of Noah is not specified 
 in the Quran, yet it is plainly hinted at. " To Thee verily, 
 O my Lord, do I repair lest I ask that of Thee wherein I 
 have no knowledge : unless Thou forgive me and be merciful 
 to me I shall be one of the lost." (Sura xi. 40). There is 
 also a similar request in Sura Ixxi. 29. Abraham is re- 
 presented as sayiug to his people : " They whom ye worship, 
 ye and your fathers of early days, are my foes ; but uot so 
 the Lord of the worlds, who hath created me, and guideth 
 me, who giveth me food and drink ; and when I am sick, 
 he healeth me, and who will cause me to die and again 
 quicken me, and who, I hope, will forgive me my sins in the 
 day of reckoning." (Sura xxvi. 75 — 82). Moses is des- 
 cribed as having done " a work of Satan" in killing a man, 
 and as saying : " ' my Lord, I have sinned to my own hurt ; 
 forgive me/ So God forgave him ; for He is the forgiving, 
 the merciful. He said : ' Lord, because thou hast showed me 
 this grace, I will never again be the helper of the wicked.' 
 (Sura xxviii. 15, 16). 
 
 The following passages refer to Muhammad. " Be thou 
 steadfast and patient ; for true is the promise of God ; and 
 seek pardon for thy fault/' 1 (Sura xl. 57). " Ask par- 
 don for thy sin, and for believers, both men and women." 
 (Sura xlvii. 21). The scandal caused by the Prophet's 
 conduct with the wife of Zeid, and with the Egyptian slave 
 Mary, necessitated a pretended revelation of God's will in 
 reference to these events. The circumstances will be found 
 fully detailed in Sura xxxiii. 36 — 38 and in Sura lxvi. 1 — 5. 
 
 One of the most important verses is : " Verily, we have 
 won for thee an undoubted victory, in token that God 
 forgiveth thy earlier and later fault." (Sura xlviii. 1 — 2). 
 
 1. That is, according to the commentator Bcidawi',— "Thy remissness in 
 propagating Islam." 
 
The 'Earlier and Later Fault* of Muhammad. 157 
 
 It is not quite clear what victory is here referred to. 
 According to the Tafsir-i-Husaini, some commentators 
 say that it is the taking of Mecca, the past tense being 
 prophetically used for the future. The following explana- 
 tions are given of the expression " earlier and later fault." 
 (1) God has forgiven thy sin committed before and after 
 the descent of wahi, (2) before and after the taking of 
 Mecca, or (3) before the descent of this Sura. (4) The 
 commentator Salmi says : " The earlier sin refers to the sin 
 of Adam committed when Muhammad was in the loins of his 
 great ancestor and thus connected with him ; the later sin 
 refers to the followers of the Prophet, and in that way is 
 connected with him, just as the sin of Adam was the prede- 
 cessor and the cause of their sin." (5) Imam Abu'1-Lais says: 
 " The words refer to the sin of Adam, and to those of the 
 followers of the Prophet. Both are connected with Muham- 
 mad, because the former is forgiven by the blessing, and the 
 latter by the intercession of Muhammad." l 
 
 From these extracts from the Quran it appears that sin 
 is imputed to prophets, though Muslims evade the charge 
 by the casuistry I have already referred to. Be that as 
 it may, it is a striking fact that the one sinless member of 
 the Anbiya-ulul-'Azm, the one sinless prophet of Islam, is 
 none other than Jesus Christ. There is no passage in the 
 Quran which hints at sin, even in the modified form in 
 which Muslims attribute it to other prophets, being com- 
 mitted by him : no passage which speaks of His seeking for 
 pardon. 
 
 It is the universal belief that prophets work miracles, 
 (mu'jizat). A miracle is defined to be " Kharq-i-'adat," 
 that is, something contrary to the usual course of nature. 
 
 The object for which a miracle is performed must be a 
 moral one, and chiefly to attest the truth of the statements 
 made by the prophet. Although Muhammad makes, in the 
 
 1. Tafsir-i-Husaini, p. 332. 
 
158 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 Quran, no distinct claim to the power of working miracles, 1 
 his followei's maintain that in this, as in all other respects he 
 was equal to all and superior to some prophets, and produce 
 various passages of the Quran in support of their view. Thus, 
 according to Shaikh Jelal-ud-din Syuti, if to Adam was given 
 the power of naming every thing, Muhammad also possessed 
 the same power. Enoch was exalted on high, but Muhammad 
 was taken to the ' Baqab-i-qausain,' the ' two bows' length,' 
 where Gabriel, "one mighty in power/' appeared to him. 
 (Sura liii. 5 — 9). Ishmael was ready to be sacrificed, but 
 Muhammad endured the splitting of his chest ; 2 Joseph 
 was to some extent handsome, but Muhammad was the very 
 perfection of beauty ; Moses brought water from the rock, 
 but Muhammad produced it from his fingers. The sun was 
 stayed on its course by Joshua and so it was by Muhammad. 
 Solomon had a great kingdom, Muhammad a greater, for he 
 possessed the keys of the treasuries of the earth. Wisdom 
 was given to John the Baptist whilst yet a child, so also were 
 wisdom and understanding granted to Muhammad at an 
 early period of his life. Jesus could raise the dead, so also 
 could Muhammad. In addition to all these, the special 
 miracles of the Prophet are the splitting of the moon asunder, 
 the Mi'raj, the coming of a tree into his presence, and 
 above all the wonderful miracle of the Quran. 3 
 
 The splitting of the moon in sunder is referred to in, 
 
 1. On the contrary, he seems to disclaim such a power. Thus the 
 Quraish said : " By no means will we believe on thee till thou cause a foun- 
 tain to gush forth for us from the earth ; or, till thou have a garden of 
 palm-trees and grapes, and thou cause forth-gushing rivers to gush forth 
 in its midst ; or thou make the heaven to fall on us, as thou hast given out, 
 in pieces ; or thou bring God and the angels to vouch for thee, &c. Say : 
 Am I more than a man, an Apostle ?" (Sura xvii. 92 — 95). Former pro- 
 phets, Muhammad used to say, were sent to their own sect, but he was 
 sent for all. Their miracles were confined to their own times. The Quran 
 the great miracle of Islam, was for all ages. He needed no other sign 
 than this. 
 
 2. " Have We not opened thine heart for thee." (Sura xciv. 1). Tradi- 
 tion relates that when young, two angels cut open his breast, and took out 
 a black drop ; many other marvels are also connected with this event. 
 
 3. Sharh-i-Aqaid-i-Jami. 
 
The Resurrection and the Last Day. 159 
 
 " The hour of judgment approacheth ; and the moon hath 
 been split in sunder." (Sura liv. 1). Imam Zahid says 
 that Abu Jahl and a Jew visited the Prophet, and demanded 
 a sign from him on pain of death. The Prophet made a 
 sign .with his little finger, and at once the moon separated 
 into two parts : one of which remained in the sky, the 
 other went off to a long distance. The Jew believed in 
 Islam forthwith. Abu Jahl ascribed the affair to magic, 
 but on making enquiry from various travellers ascertained 
 that they, on this very night, distinctly saw the moon in 
 two parts. 1 Some, however, refer the passage to the future, 
 as they consider the splitting of the moon to be one of the 
 signs of the last day. 
 
 The Mi'raj, or night ascent, is mentioned in, " Glory be 
 to Him who carried His servant by night from the sacred 
 temple (of Mecca) to the temple that is more remote, whose 
 precinct We have blessed, that We might show him of our 
 signs." (Sura xvii. 1). Muslim writers, who are fond 
 of the marvellous, narrate at length the wonderful things 
 the Prophet saw and did on this eventful night ; 2 but 
 some maintain that it was only a vision, and quote the 
 words : " We ordained the vision which we showed thee/' in 
 pi-oof of this assertion. 3 Be that as it may, all orthodox 
 Muslims maintain the superiority of Muhammad, as a worker 
 of miracles, over all other prophets. 
 
 5. The Resurrection and the last day. — These two 
 articles of the faith may be considered together. The 
 
 1. Tafsfr-i-Husaini. p. 362. 
 
 2. For a graphic account of these eveuts see " Literary Remains of 
 Emmanuel Deutsch," pp. 99— 112. f 
 
 3. " All that Muhammadans must believe respecting the Mi ra] is that 
 the Prophet saw himself, in a vision, transported from Mecca to Jerusalem, 
 and that in such a vision he really beheld some of the greatest signs of his 
 Lord." Essays by Syed Ahmad, Essay vi. p. 34. This, though a legiti- 
 mate, is not, however, an orthodox opinion ; which is, that he who denies 
 an actual bodily migration from Mecca to Jerusalem is a Kafir, (infidel) as 
 he denies the statement of a ' nass' or plain text of the Quran. He who 
 denies the ascension to heaven, and the wonderful account of the night s 
 proceedings preserved in the Traditions is a " fasiq," (sinner), though he 
 remains a Muslim. 
 
160 The Faith of Islam, 
 
 following is a summary of the remarks of Muhammad Al 
 Berkevi on this point. It is necessary to acknowledge : — 
 
 1. That the torments of the tomb are real and certain and that 
 Mnnkir and Nakir (Ante p. 145) will come and interrogate the dead 
 person concerning his God, his Prophet, his faith and his Qibla. The 
 faithful will reply : " our God is God ; our Prophet is Muhammad ; 
 our religion, Islam ; our Qibla, the K'aba. 
 
 2. That all the signs of the last day mentioned by the Prophet 
 will come to pass ; such as, the appearance of Dajjal, or Antichrist ; 
 the descent of Jesus from heaven ; the appearance of Imam Mahdi 
 and of Gog and Magog ; the rising of the sun from the west, &c. 
 
 3. That all living things will die; that the mountains will fly in 
 the air like birds ; that the heavens will melt away ; that after some 
 time has thus passed God most High will set the earth in order and 
 raise the dead; that prophets, saints, doctors of the law, and the 
 faithful will find near them the robes and the horses of Paradise. 
 They will put on the robes, and mount the horses and go into the 
 shade of the throne of God. Other men, hungry, thirsty, and naked 
 will go on foot. The Faithful will go to the right, the Infidels to 
 the left. 
 
 4. That there will be a balance, in which the good and bad actions 
 of men will be weighed. Those whose good deeds outweigh the bad 
 will go to Paradise ; if the bad predominate, they will go into the 
 fire, unless God has mercy on them, or the prophets or saints inter- 
 
 ' cede for them. If, however, they were not Muslims there will be no 
 intercession for them, nor will they come out from the fire. The 
 Muslims who enter the fire will, after having purged their crimes, 
 enter Paradise. 
 
 5. That the bridge Sirat, which is sharper than a sword, is raised 
 above the fire ; that all men must pass over this. Some will pass 
 over with the speed of lightning, some like a horse that runs, some, 
 their backs laden with their sins, will go very slowly over ; others 
 will fall and certainly enter into the fire. 
 
 6. That each prophet has a pool where he, with his people, will 
 quench their thirst before entering Paradise ; that the pool of 
 Muhammad is the largest of all, for it is a month's march from one 
 side thereof to the other. Its water is sweeter than honey, whiter 
 than milk. 
 
 7. That Paradise and Hell actually exist ; that the chosen remain 
 for ever in the former ; they neither die, nor grow aged. They expe- 
 rience no kind of change. The Houris and the females are exempted 
 
The Sounding of the Trumpets. 161 
 
 from the infirmities of their sex. Thoy will no longer bear children. 
 The elect will find there the meat and the drink they require, with- 
 out taking upon themselves any trouble. The ground of Paradise 
 is of musk ; the bricks of its edifices are of gold and of silver. 
 
 The unbelievers and the demons will remain for ever in hell, tor- 
 mented by serpents as thick as the neck of a camel, by scorpions as 
 large as mules, by fire and by scalding water. Their bodies will 
 burn, till they become reduced to a coal, when G-od will revive them 
 so that they may endure fresh torments. This will last for ever." 
 
 The following additional remarks are based on the Sharh- 
 i-'Aqaid-i-Jami. They fall under four heads. 
 
 (1;. The sounding of the trumpets. (Nafkhatain-i-Sur). 
 This will not take place until wickedness spreads over all 
 the earth. The Prophet said : " The resui*rection will not 
 come to pass, till some of the sects among my followers mix 
 up with the Mushriks (those who associate others with God) 
 and till others commence to worship monuments." Again, 
 " The last hour will not be till no one is found who calls on 
 God." Then " There shall be a blast on the trumpet, and 
 all who are in the heavens and all who are in the earth 
 shall expire, save those whom God shall vouchsafe to 
 live. There shall be another blast on it, and lo ! arising 
 they shall gaze ai*ound them." (Sura xxxix. 68). Abu 
 Huraira, a Companion, relates that the Prophet speaking 
 of the ti'umpet stated as follows : " After the creation of 
 the heavens and the earth God created the trumpet and 
 gave it to Israfil who, with his mouth placed to it, is ever 
 looking up and waiting for the order to blow it. He will 
 blow three times. 1 The first time, the blast of consternation, 
 to terrify ; the second, the blast of examination, to slay ; 
 the third, the blast of resurrection, to quicken the dead." 
 Most persons believe that everything, save God and His 
 attributes, will perish. The Karamians and some other 
 sects deny this. 
 
 1. Some commentators make no distinction between the first and second 
 blast, as only two are distinctly mentioned in the Quran. 
 
 21 
 
162 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 The resurrection of the body is clearly proved by the 
 Quran. Thus, " They say, ' Who will bring us back V 
 Say: ' He who created you at first/ " (Sura xvii. 53). 
 " ' Who shall give life to bones when they are rotten ? ' 
 Say : ' He shall give life to them who gave them being 
 at first, for in all creation is He skilled/ " ( Sura xxxvi. 
 79;. "Man saith : 'What! after I am dead, shall I in 
 the end be brought forth alive V Doth not man bear in 
 mind that we made him at first, when he was nought ?" 
 (Sura xix. 68). "The infidels will say, 'shall we indeed 
 be restored as at first ? What ! When we have become 
 rotten bones V ' This then/ say they, ' will be a return 
 to loss/ Verily, it will be but a single blast, and lo ! 
 they are on the surface of the earth." (Sura lxxix. 10 
 — 14). " Is He not powerful enough to quicken the 
 dead?" (Sura lxxv. 40). i This resurrection will be to 
 judgment. " ' Never/ say the unbelievers, ' will the hour 
 come upon us/ Say : ' Yea, by my Lord who knoweth the 
 
 unseen, it will sm-ely come upon you, to the intent 
 
 that God may reward those who have believed, but 
 
 as for those who aim to invalidate our signs, a chastisement 
 of painful torment awaiteth them/ " (Sura xxxiv. 3, 4). 
 " A terrible chastisement doth await them on the Day when 
 faces shall turn white, and faces shall turn black. ' What ! 
 after your belief have ye become infidels ? Taste, then, 
 the chastisement for that ye have been unbelievers/ And 
 as to those whose faces shall have become white, they shall 
 be within the mercy of God." (Sura iii. 102). The Pro- 
 phet knew not the time when all this would take place. 
 " They will ask thee of the ' Hour/ when will be its fixed 
 time ? But what knowledge hast thou of it ? Its period 
 is known only to thy Lord ; and thou art charged with the 
 warning of those who fear it." (Sura lxxix. 41 — 45.) These 
 and similar texts show the certainty of the resurrection. 
 According to the Ijtna' of the Faithful, he who has any 
 doubts on this article of the faith is an infidel. The Muta- 
 
The Descent of the Boohs. 163 
 
 zilites show from reason that a resurrection of the body is 
 necessary in order that rewards and punishment may be 
 bestowed. The orthodox agree with the conclusion, but 
 hesitate to base it on reason. 1 
 
 The Karamians hold that the different parts of the body 
 will not cease to be, but that at the last God will gather 
 them together. " Thinketh man that we shall not re-unite 
 his bones ? Aye ! his very finger tips we are able evenly 
 to replace." (Sura lxxv. 3, 4.) The orthodox, however, 
 hold that this verse does not disprove the fact of previous 
 annihilation, a belief supported by the Prophet's saying, 
 " All the sons of men will be annihilated." It will be a 
 re-creation though the body will return to its former state. 
 
 The learned are not agreed as to the state of the soul 
 during this period of the death of the body, and therefore 
 disagree with regard to its revival. Some assert that it is 
 wrong to speak of a resurrection of the soul, for it exists 
 in the body as " fire in coal/' hence its revival is included 
 in the resurrection of the body ; others maintain that as it 
 is a distinct entity, it is not annihilated with the body. 
 The scholastics favour the first idea. Practically the result 
 seems the same in both cases. The resurrection body has 
 a soul. Wise and foolish, devils and beasts, insects and 
 birds — all will rise at the last day. Muhammad will come 
 first in order and be the first to enter Paradise. 
 
 (2). The descent of the Books (Tatair-i-saha,if). After 
 the resurrection, men will wander about for forty years, 
 during which time the " Books of Actions" will be given 
 to them. These books contain the record kept by the 
 Kiram-ul-Katibin, (Ante p. 141). Traditions recorded by 
 Abu Huraira state : "Men will rise up naked, and confused ; 
 some will walk about, some stand for forty years. All will 
 be constantly looking up toward the heavens (i.e. expect- 
 ing the books.) They will perspire profusely through 
 
 X. Sharh-i-'Aqafd-i-Jami, p. 183. 
 
164 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 excess of sorrow. 1 Then God will say to Abraham, ' put 
 on clothes.' He will put on a robe of Paradise. Then He 
 will call Muhammad for whose benefit a fountain will flow 
 forth not far from Mecca. The people, too, shall thirst no 
 more." The Prophet said : " I will also put on a dress 
 and will stand near the throne, where no one else will be 
 allowed to stand and God will say : ' Ask and it shall be 
 granted to thee ; intercede, thy intercession shall be ac- 
 cepted/ " Each book flies from the treasury under the 
 Throne of God and is given to its proper owner. " Every 
 man's fate have We fastened about his neck ; and on the day 
 of resurrection will We bring forth to him (every man) a book 
 which shall be proffered to him wide open : ' Read thy 
 book, there needeth none but thyself to make out an account 
 against thee this day.' " (Sura xvii. 15). " He into whose 
 right hand his book shall be given, shall be reckoned, 
 with an easy reckoning, and shall turn, rejoicing, to his 
 kindred. But he whose book shall be given behind his 
 back {i.e. into his left hand) shall invoke destruction." 
 (Sura lxxxiv. 8 — 11.) " He, who shall have his book given 
 into his left hand will say : ' that my book had never 
 been given me ! and that I had not known my reckoning.' " 
 ("Sura lxix. 25). It is always said that wicked Musalmans 
 will be seized by the right hand before they are cast into 
 the fire, which is a proof that they are not always to remain 
 there. Some hold that the expression " Read thy book" 
 implies a literal reading ; others that it is a metaphorical 
 expression which simply means that all the past actions will 
 be known. Those who believe in a literal reading say that 
 each believer will read the account of his faults only, and 
 that other persons will read that of his good deeds. The 
 face of the believer as he reads will shine resplendently, 
 but black will be the face of the infidel. 
 
 1. According to Bukharf and to Muslim, this perspiration will flow to 
 a distance of seventy yards from, and reach up to the lobe of the ears of 
 those who perspire. 
 
The Balance*. 165 
 
 (3). The Balances (Mizan). This belief is based on the 
 authority of the Quran, Sunnat and the Tjma' ; no Muslim./ 
 therefore, can have any doubt about it. Thus : " They 
 whose balances shall be heavy, shall be the blest ; but 
 they whose balances shall be light, — these are they who 
 shall lose their souls, abiding in hell for ever." (Sura 
 xxiii. 104). " As to him whose balances are heavy, his 
 shall be a life that shall please him well : and as to him 
 whose balances are light, his dwelling-place shall be the 
 pit. And who shall teach thee what the pit (Al-Hawia) 
 is ? A raging fire \" (Sura ci. 5 — 8). The Traditions on 
 this point are very numerous. The Ijma/ is also strong 
 on the reality, the objective existence, of a balance with 
 scales, &c, complete. They also state that the " Books 
 of Actions" (Saha,if-i-A'inal) will be weighed. In the 
 Sahih-i-Bukhari it is said that the Believers will not 
 be weighed in the balances, for " God will say, f 
 Muhammad make those of thy people, from whom no 
 account is taken, enter into Paradise.' " Prophets and 
 angels will also be exempt. Such a test also is not requir- 
 ed for the unbelievers, for their state is very evident ; " By 
 their tokens shall the sinners be known, and they shall be 
 seized by their forelocks and their feet." (Sura lv. 41). 
 Thus it is evident that, with regard to true believers and 
 unbelievers, the works of such only as God may choose 
 need be weighed. Some, however, maintain that no un- 
 believer will have this test applied to his case and quote: 
 " Vain therefore, are their works ; and no weight will we 
 allow them on the day of resurrection." (Sura xviii. 105). 
 To this it is answered, that all that is here denied is the 
 fact of " a weighing in their favour." The place where the 
 weighing will take place is situated midway between heaven 
 and hell. Gabriel standing by watches the movement of 
 the scales and Michael guards the balance. The orthodox 
 are not agreed as to whether there will be a separate balance 
 for each tribe of men, and also for each of the ' good works 1 
 
166 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 of the believers. Those who hold that there will be a 
 balance for prayer, another for fasting and so on, adduce 
 the use of the plural form, balances (muwazin) in proof of 
 their statement. There is also a difference of opinion as to 
 whether the " works" themselves, or the books (saha,if) 
 will be weighed. The latter opinion is supported by a 
 Tradition recorded by Tirmizi. "The Prophet said ; ' Ninety- 
 nine registers will be distributed. Each register will extend 
 as far as the eye can reach. God will say : ' What ! dost 
 thou deny this, or have the recording angels treated thee 
 unjustly V Each will say : ' No ! Lord.' ' Hast thou 
 then any excuse V ' No ! Lord/ Then God will display 
 a cloth on which the Kalima is written. This will be put 
 into one scale, and God will say : ' To thee will be no evil if 
 thou hast a register in this scale, and this cloth in the other, 
 for the first scale will be light/ " This is considered con- 
 clusive testimony with regard to the weighing of the Saha,if . 
 The Mutazilites objected to statements such as these, for 
 said they: " actions are accidents, and the qualities of light- 
 ness and heaviness cannot be attributed to accidents." 
 They explained the verses of the Quran and the statements 
 of the Traditions on this point, as being a figurative way of 
 saying that perfect justice will be done to all in the Day of 
 Judgment. 
 
 (4). The Bridge (Sirat). The meaning of the word 
 Sirat is a road, a way. It is so used in the Quran. In 
 connection with the Day of Judgment it is said : " If we 
 pleased we would surely put out their eyes : yet even then 
 would they speed on with rivalry in their path (Sirat)." 
 (Sura xxxvi. 66). " Gather together those who have acted 
 unjustly, and their consorts (demons), and the gods whom 
 they have adored beside God ; and guide them to the road 
 (Sirat) for hell." (Sura xxxvii. 23). It is nowhere in the 
 Quran called a bridge, but Tradition is very clear on this 
 point. The Prophet said : " There will be a bridge sharper 
 than the edge of a sword, finer than a hair, suspended over 
 
Al A'rdf. 167* 
 
 hell. Iron spikes on it will pierce those whom God wills. 
 Some will pass over it in the twinkling of an eye, some like 
 a flash of lightning, others with the speed of a swift horse. 
 The angels will call ont, ' Lord ! save and protect.' 
 Some Muslims will be saved, some will fall headlong into 
 hell." Bukhari relates a similar Tradition. The infidels 
 will all fall into hell and there remain for ever. Muslims 
 will be released after a while. 
 
 The Mutazilites deny the existence of such a bridge. 
 " If we admit it/' say they, " it would be a trouble for the 
 believers, and such there is not for them in the Day of 
 Judgment." To this the orthodox reply that the believers 
 pass over it to show how they are saved from fire, and that 
 thus they may be delighted with Paradise, and also that 
 the infidels may feel chagrin at those who were with them 
 on the bridge being now safe for ever. 
 
 Al A'raf is situated between heaven and hell. It is 
 described thus : " On (the wall) A I A'raf shall be men who 
 know all, by their tokens, 1 and they shall cry to the inha- 
 bitants of Paradise, ' Peace be on you !' but they shall 
 not yet enter it, although they long to do so. And when 
 their eyes are turned towards the inmates of the fire, they 
 shall say, f our Lord ! place us not with offending people 
 &c.' " (Sura vii. 44, 45). Sale's summary of the opinions 
 regarding Al A'raf in his Preliminary Discourse is exceed- 
 ingly good. It is as follows : — 
 
 " They call it Al Orf, and more frequently in the plural, Al Aral', 
 a word derived from the verb Arafa, which signifies to distinguish 
 between things, or to part them ; though some commentators give 
 another reason for the imposition of this name, because, say they, 
 those who stand ou this partition will knoiv and distinguish the 
 blessed from the damned, by their respective marks or characteris- 
 tics : and others say the word properly intends anything that is high 
 raised or elevated, as such a wall of separation must be supposed to 
 
 1. " That is, they will know the inhabitants of Paradise by their white- 
 ness, and the people of Hell by the blackness of their faces." 
 
J 
 
 168 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 be. Some imagine it to be a sort of limbo for the patriarchs and 
 prophets, or for the martyrs and those who have been most eminent 
 for sanctity. Others place here such whose good and evil works are 
 so equal that they exactly counterpoise each other, and therefore 
 deserve neither reward nor punishment ; and these, say they, will 
 on the last day be admitted into Paradise, after they shall have per- 
 formed an act of adoration, which will be imputed to them as a 
 merit, and will make the scale of their good works to overbalance. 
 Others suppose this intermediate space will be a receptacle for those 
 who have gone to war, without their parents' leave, and therein 
 suffered martyrdom ; being excluded from Paradise for their dis- 
 obedience, and escaping hell because they are martyrs." 
 
 There is also an interval, between the death of the body 
 in this world and the Last Day, called Al-Barzakh. 
 " Behind them shall be a barrier (barzakh), until the day 
 when they shall be raised again." (Sura xxiii. 102). When 
 death takes place, the soul is separated from the body by 
 the Augel of death ; in the case of the good with ease, in 
 that of the wicked with violence. It then enters into Al- 
 Barzakh. 1 
 
 It is a doctrine founded on Ijma', that God will not 
 pardon Shirk, that is, the ascribing plurality to the Divine 
 Being. The Mushrik, one who does so, will remain in hell 
 for ever, for as Kufr, infidelity, is an eternal crime, its 
 punishment must also be eternal. " The unbelievers among 
 the people of the Book, and among the Polytheists shall 
 go into the fire of Gehenna to abide therein for aye. Of all 
 creatures are they the worst?" (Sura xcviii. 5). * Cast 
 into Hell every infidel, every hardened one, the hinderer 
 of the good, the transgressor, the doubter who set up other 
 Gods with God. Cast ye him into the fierce torment." 
 (Sura 1. 23—25.) 
 
 Muslims who commit great (Kabira) sins, though they 
 die unrepentant, will not remain in hell for ever, for, " who- 
 soever shall have wrought an atom's weight of good shall 
 
 1. For some curious opinions with reyard to the state of the soul there 
 see Sale's Preliminary Discourse, Section iv., p. 55. 
 
The Intercession of Muhammad. 169 
 
 behold it." (Sura xcix. 7). It is asserted that the tact of 
 believing in Islam is a good woi'k and merits a reward : 
 this cannot be given before the man enters hell to be 
 punished for his sins, and therefore he must be, after a 
 while, released from punishment. " Perfect faith (Irnan-i- 
 Kamil) consists iu believing with sincerity of heart and 
 acting in accordance thereto, but the actions are not the 
 faith itself. Great sins, therefore, prevent a man from 
 having " perfect faith," but do not destroy faith (Irnan), 
 nor make the Muslim an infidel, but only a sinner." x The 
 Mutazilites teach that the Muslim who enters hell will 
 remain there for ever. They maintain that the person who, 
 having committed great sins, dies unrepentant, though not 
 an infidel, ceases to be a believer and hence suffers as the 
 infidels do. 
 
 The orthodox belief is that Muhammad is now an Inter- 
 cessor and will be so at the Last Day. The intercession 
 then is of several kinds. There is the ' great intercession' 
 to which the words, " it may be that thy Lord will raise 
 thee to a glorious station," (Sura xvii. 81) are supposed 
 to refer. The Maqam-i-mahmud, (glorious station), is said 
 to be the place of intercession in which all persons will 
 praise the Prophet. 2 In the Zad-ul-Masir it is said that 
 the Maqam-i-mahmud refers to the fact that God will place 
 the Prophet on His Throne. Others say that it is a place 
 in which a standard will be given to the Prophet, around 
 whom all the other prophets will then gather to do him 
 honour. The first interpretation is, however, the ordinary 
 one. The people will be in great fear. Muhammad will 
 say : " my people ! I am appointed for intercession." 
 Their fear will then pass away. The second intercession is 
 made so that they may enter into Paradise without render- 
 ing an account. The authorities differ with regard to this. 
 The third intercession is on behalf of those Muslims who 
 
 1. Takim'1-ul-lman, p. 47. 2. Tafsir-i-Httsaini, vol. i. p. 397. 
 
 22 
 
170 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 ought to go to hell. The fourth for those who are already 
 there. No one but the Prophet can make these interces- 
 sious. The fifth intercession is for an increase of rank to 
 those who are in Paradise. The Mutazilites maintained that 
 there would be no intercession for Muslims guilty of great 
 sins, and adduced in favour of their opinion the verse : 
 " Fear ye the day when soul shall uot satisfy for soul at all, 
 nor shall any intercession be accepted from them, nor shall 
 any ransom be taken, neither shall they be helped/' (Sura 
 ii. 45). The orthodox bring in reply this Hadis-i-Sahih : 
 " The Prophet said : ( my intercession is for the men of my 
 following who have committed great sins/ " If this Tradi- 
 tion is disputed, they then say that the verse in the Qui-an 
 just quoted does not refer to Muslims at all, but to the 
 Infidels. 1 
 
 According to a Tradition related by Anas the Prophet 
 said : " In the day of resurrection Musalmans will not be 
 able to move, and they will be greatly distressed and say : 
 ' would to God that we had asked Him to create some one 
 to intercede for us, that we might be taken from this place, 
 and be delivered from tribulation and sorrow/ " The Tra- 
 dition goes on to state how they sought help from Adam 
 and the prophets of the old dispensation, who, one and all, 
 excused themselves on account of their own sinfulness. At 
 length Moses told them to go to Jesus, the Apostle of God, 
 the Spirit of God and the Word of God. They did so and 
 Jesus said : "Go to Muhammad who is a servant, whose 
 sins God has forgiven both first and last." The Prophet 
 continued, according to the Tradition, " then the Musal- 
 mans will come to me, and I will ask permission to go into 
 God's presence and intercede for them." 2 
 
 The second advent of Christ is a sign of the last day. 
 "Jesus is no more than a servant whom We favoured 
 
 1. Tafsir-i-Faiz-ul-Karim, p. 25. 
 
 2. Miskat-ui-Musabili, book xxiii. ch. 12. 
 
Paradise. 1 71 
 
 and he shall be a sign of the last hour." (Sura xliii. 61). 
 He will not, according- to the Quran, come as a judge, but 
 like other prophets to be judged. " We formed with them 
 (i.e. prophets) a strict covenant, that God may question the 
 men of truth as to their truth, (i.e. how they have dis- 
 charged their prophetic functions)." (Sura xxxiii. 7,8). 
 He will come to bear witness against the Jews who reject 
 him : " In the day of resurrection, He will be a witness 
 acrainst them." (Sura iv. 158). 
 
 It is necessary to believe in the pond of the Prophet 
 called Kausar. This faith is founded on the verse " Truly 
 we have given thee an abundance." ( Sura cviii. 1 ). Bukhari 
 says : " The meaning of Kausar is the ' abundance of good' 
 which God gives to the Prophet. Abu Bash said to one 
 Sa'id, ' the people thiuk that Kausar is a river of Paradise/ 
 Sa'id replied, ' Kausar is a river in which there is abundance 
 of o-ood.' " According to the same authority Muhammad 
 said : " My pond is square, its water is whiter than milk, 
 its perfume better than that of musk, whosoever drinks 
 thereof will thirst no more." 
 
 There are many degrees of felicity in heaven to which the 
 believers are admitted. The Prophet, according to Tirmizi, 
 said there were one hundred. Some of these may possibly 
 be meant by the eight names they give to Paradise. 
 (1.) Jannat-ul-Khuld. "Say: Is this, or the Garden of 
 Eterniti/ which was promised to the God-fearing, best ?" 
 (Sura xxv. 16.) (2. , Januat-us-Salam. "For them is a 
 Dwelling of Peace with their Lord." (Sura vi. 127.) 
 (3.) Dar-ul-Qanir. " The life to come is the Mansion which 
 abideth." (Sura xl. 42.) (4. ) Jannat-ul-'Adan. " To the 
 Faithful, both men and women, God promiseth gardens and 
 goodly mansions in the Garden of Wdem*"- (Sura ix. 73.) 
 (5.) Jannat-ul-Mawa. "Near which is the Garden of 
 Repose." (Sura liii. 15., (6 Jannat-un-Na'im. 'Amid 
 delights shall the righteous dwell." (Sura lxxxn. 13.) 
 (7) 'jannat-ul-Illiyun. "The register of the righteous is 
 
172 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 in Illiyun." (Sura lxxxiii. 18,) (8.) Jannat-ul-Firdaus. 
 " Those who believe and do the things that are right, they 
 shall have the Gardens of Paradise for their abode." 
 (Sura xviii. 107.) 
 
 Hell is said to have seven divisions. The Quran, though 
 it mentions the names of these divisions, does not state 
 what classes of persons will be sent to each ; but Muslim 
 Commentators have supplied the needed information. They 
 classify them thus : — (1.) Jahannam, for sinners who die 
 without repentance. (2.) Lazwa, for the infidels (?'. e. x Chris- 
 tians.) (3.) Hutama, a fire for Jews, and according to 
 some for Christians. (4.) Sa'ir, for devils, the descendants 
 of Iblis. (5.) Saqar, for the magians : also for those who 
 neglect prayer. (6.) Jahim, a boiling caldron for idolaters : 
 also for Gog and Magog. (7.) Hawia, a bottomless pit for 
 hypocrites. It is said that heaven has one division more 
 than hell to show that God's mercy exceeds His justice. 
 
 The Muhammadan writers give very full and minute 
 accounts of the events connected with the resurrection, 
 judgment and future state of those who are lost, and of 
 those who are saved. Sale gives such an excellent sum- 
 mary of these opinions, that it is not necessary to enter 
 into details here. The orthodox belief is that the state- 
 ments in the Quran and the Traditions regarding the 
 pleasures of Paradise are to be taken literally. 1 
 
 6. The Predestination of good and evil. — I have already 
 in the section in which the attribute " will" is described 
 (p. 118) given some account of the dogmatic statements con- 
 cerning the doctrine of predestination ; but as it always 
 forms a distinct chapter in Musalman books, I treat it 
 separately here. Having, however, in the passage referred 
 
 l. " Although some Muhaininadans, whose understandings are too 
 refined to admit such gross conceptions, look on their Prophet's descrip- 
 tion as parabolical, and are willing to receive them in an allegorical or 
 spiritual acceptation, yet the general and orthodox doctrine is, that the 
 whole is to be strictly believed in the obvious and literal acceptance." 
 Sale's Preliminary Discourse, Section iv. p. 73. 
 
Predestination. 173 
 
 to, given Al Berkevi's words on the attribute " will," it is 
 only necessary to make a short extract from his dogmatic 
 statement concerning Predestination. He says : — 
 
 " It is necessary to confess that good and evil take place by the 
 predestination and predetermination of God, that all that has been 
 and all that will be was decreed in eternity, and written on the 
 preserved table; 1 that the faith of the believer, the piety of the 
 pious and good actions are foreseen, willed, predestinated, decreed 
 by the writing on the preserved table, produced and approved by 
 God ; that the unbelief of the unbeliever, the impiety of the impious 
 and bad actions come to pass with the fore-knowledge, will, predes- 
 tination and decree of God, but not with His satisfaction and 
 approval. Should any ask why God willeth and produceth evil, we 
 can only reply that He may have wise ends in view which we cannot 
 comprehend." 
 
 Another confession of faith has : — 
 
 " Whoever shall say, that God is not delighted with virtue and 
 faith, and is not wroth with vice and infidelity, or that God has 
 decreed good and evil with equal complacency is an infidel." 
 
 There are three well-defined schools of thought ou the 
 
 subject : — 
 
 First.— The Jabrians, so called from the word " jabr" 
 compulsion, deny all free agency in man and say that man 
 is necessarily constrained by the force of God's eternal and 
 immutable decree to act as he does. 2 They hold that as 
 
 1 This the Lauh-ul-Mahfuz, is referred to in Sura lxxxv. 22, as that on 
 which the Quran is written. In Sura xxxvi. 11, the actions of men are 
 said to be written in " the clear book of our decrees." This is called the 
 Imam-ul-Mubin, the clear prototype. 
 
 2 " The Prophet of God said that Adam and Moses (in the world ot 
 Spirits) maintained a debate before God, and Adam got the better of Moses, 
 who said ' Thou art that Adam, whom God created and breathed into thee 
 His own Spirit, and made the angels bow down before thee, and placed 
 thee in Paradise ; after which, thou threwest man upon the earth, from the 
 fault which thou didst commit.' Adam replied, ' Thou art that Moses, 
 whom God selected for His prophecy and to converse with, and He gave 
 thee twelve tables, in which are explained everything, and he made thee 
 His confidant and the bearer of His secrets ; then how long was the Bible 
 written before I was created ?' Moses said, ' Forty years. Then said 
 Adam, ' Didst thou see in the Bible that Adam disobeyed God r Yes. 
 ' Dost thou reproach me on a matter, which God wrote in the Bible forty 
 years before creating me ?' " 
 
174 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 \> 
 
 God is the absolute Lord, He can, if He so wills, admit all 
 men into Paradise, or cast all into hell. This sect is one of 
 the branches of the Ash'arians with whom on most points 
 they agree. 
 
 Secondly. — The Qadrians, who deny Al-Qadr, or God's 
 absolute decree, say that evil and injustice ought not to be 
 attributed to God but to man, who is altogether a free 
 agent. God has given him the power to do or not to do an 
 act. This sect is generally considered to be a branch of the 
 Mutazilite body, though in reality it existed before Wasil 
 quitted the school of his master Hasan (Ante. p. 125). As 
 Wasil, however, followed the opinions of Mabad-al-Johni, 
 the leading Kadrian divine, the Mutazilites and Qadrians 
 are practically one and the same. 
 
 Thirdly. — The Ash'arians, of whom I have already 
 given some account, maintain that God has one eternal will 
 which is applied to whatsoever He willeth, both of His own 
 actions and those of men ; that He willeth that which He 
 knoweth and what is written on the 'preserved table ; that 
 He willeth both good and evil. So far they agree with the 
 Jabrians ; but then they seem to allow some power to 
 man, a tenet I have already explained when describing 
 their idea of "Kasb" (Ante. p. 130). The orthodox, or Sunni 
 belief is theoretically Ash'arian, but practically the Sunnis 
 are confirmed Jabrians. The Mutazilite doctrines are look- 
 ed upon as quite heretical. 
 
 No subject has been more wai^mly discussed in Islam 
 than that of predestination. The following abstract of some 
 lengthy discussions will present the points of difference. 
 
 The Ash'arians, who in this matter represent in the main 
 orthodox views, formulate their objections to the Mutazilite 
 system thus : — 
 
 (i). If man is the causer of an action by the force of his 
 own will, then he should also have the power of controlling 
 the result of that action. 
 
 (ii). If it be granted that man has the power to originate 
 
Ash'arian view of Predestination. 175 
 
 an act it is necessary that lie should know all acts, because 
 a creator should be independent in act and choice. Intention 
 must be conditioned by knowledge. To this the Mutazilites 
 well reply that a man need not know the length of a road 
 before he walks, or the structure of the throat before he talks. 
 
 (iii). Suppose a man wills to move his body and God at 
 the same time wills it to be steady, then if both intentions 
 come to pass there will be a collection of opposites ; if 
 neither, a removal of opposites ; if the exaltation of the 
 first, an unreasonable preference. 
 
 (iv). If man can create an act, some of his works will be 
 better than some of the works of God, e.g. a man deter- 
 mines to have faith : now faith is a better thing than 
 reptiles, which are created by God. 
 
 (v). If man is free to act, why can he not make at once 
 a human body ; why does he need to thank God for grace 
 and faith ? 
 
 (vi). But better far than all argument, the orthodox say, 
 is the testimony of the Book. " All things have we created 
 under a fixed decree." (Sura liv. 49). "When God created 
 you and that ye make." (Sura xxxvii. 94). " Some of them 
 there were whom God guided and there were others decreed 
 to err." (Sura xvi. 38). As God decrees faith and obedi- 
 ence He must be the causer of it, for " on the hearts of these 
 hath God graven the Faith." (Suralviii. 22). "It is he who 
 causeth you to laugh and weep, to die and make alive." (Sura 
 liii. 44) . " If God pleased He would surely bring them, one 
 and all, to the guidance." (Sura vi. 36). " Had God pleased, 
 He had guided you all aright." (Sura vi. 150). "Had the 
 Lord pleased, He would have made mankind of one religion. 
 (Sura xi. 120). " God will mislead whom he pleaseth, and 
 whom He pleaseth He will place upon the straight path." 
 (Sura vi. 39.) Tradition records that the Prophet said : 
 " God is the maker of all makers and of their actions." l 
 
 1. Ibn Kah, commenting on the verse, " When thy Lord brought forth 
 their descendants from the reins of the sons of Adam and took them to 
 
176 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 The Mutazilites took up the opposite side of this great 
 question and said : — 
 
 (i) . If man has no power to will or to do, then what is 
 the difference between praising God and sinning agaiust 
 Him ; between faith and infidelity ; good and evil ; what 
 is the use of commands and prohibitions; rewards and 
 punishments ; promises and threats ; what is the use of 
 prophets, books, &c. 
 
 (ii). Some acts of men are bad, such as tyranny and 
 polytheism. If these are created by God, it follows that to 
 tyrannise and to ascribe plurality to the Deity is to render 
 obedience. To this the Ash'arians reply that orders are of 
 two kinds, immediate and mediate. The former which they 
 call " Amr-i-takwiti/' is the order, " Be and it was." This 
 comprehends all existences, and according to it whatever 
 is ordered must come to pass. The latter they call " Auir- 
 i-tashri'i/' an order given in the Law. This comes to men 
 through prophets and thus is to be obeyed. True obedience 
 is to act according to that which is revealed, not according 
 to the secret intentions of God, for that we know not. 
 
 (iii). If God decrees the acts of men, He should bear the 
 name of that which he decrees. Thus the causer of infide- 
 lity is an infidel ; of tyranny a tyrant, and so on ; but to 
 speak thus of God is blasphemy. 
 
 (iv). If infidelity is decreed by God He must wish it ; 
 but a prophet desires faith and obedience and so is opposed 
 to God. To this the orthodox reply, that God knows by 
 His eternal knowledge that such a man will die an infidel. 
 
 witness against themselves, ' Am I not,' said He, ' your Lord,' They said : 
 ' yes. we witness it.' " (Sura vii. 171), goes on to say : " God formed all 
 the prophets and saints into one class, and the martyrs into another. The 
 pious men, also, were separated into one, and the wicked into another. One 
 class was formed of the obedient servants, while the unbelievers, viz., the 
 Jews, the Christians, the Majians, the Hindus, &c, were likewise divided 
 into several parties ; next, they were shaped into forms, that is, into the 
 shape in which he was to appear in the world was predestined for each 
 one." This passage is quoted with approval by the Wahhabi author of the 
 Takwiyat-ul-lman. 
 
The Mutazilite view of Predestination. 177 
 
 If a prophet intends by bringing the message of salvation 
 to such an one to make God's knowledge become ignorance, 
 he would be doing wrong j but as he does not know the 
 secret decrees of God, his duty is to deliver his message 
 according to the Hadis : " A prophet has only to deliver 
 the clear message." 
 
 (v). The Mutazilites claimed as on their side all verses 
 of the Quran, in which the words to do, to construct, to 
 renew, to create, &c, are applied to men. Such are the 
 verses : " Whatever is in the heavens and in the earth is 
 God's that He may reward those who do evil according to 
 their deeds : and those who do good will He reward with 
 good things." (Sura liii. 32). " Whoso shall have wrought 
 evil shall not be recompensed but with its like : but whoso 
 shall have done the things that are right, whether male or 
 female and is a believer, these shall enter Paradise." (Sura 
 xl. 43). Say : " the truth is from the Lord ; let him then 
 who will believe ; and let him who will, be an infidel." 
 (Sura xviii. 28). 1 fC Those who add Gods to God will say : 
 1 If God had pleased neither we nor our fathers had given 
 Him companions.' Say : ' Verily ye follow only a conceit, ye 
 utter lies.' " (Sura vi. 149). The Hadis is also very plain. 
 " All good is in Thy hands and evil is not to Thee." (Al- 
 khair kuluhu fi yadaika wash-sharru laisa 'alaika.) 
 
 The Ash'arians have one famous text which they bring to 
 bear against all this reasoning and evidence. It is : " This 
 truly is a warning ; and whoso willeth, taketh the way of 
 his Lord ; but will it ye shall not, unless God will it, for 
 God is knowing, wise." (Sura lxxvi. 29, 30). To the Hadis 
 they reply (1) that there is a difference between acquies- 
 cence in evil and decreeing it. Thus the expression 
 " God willeth not tyranny for His servants," does not mean 
 
 1 The orthodox Commentator 'Abbas says : " This verse refers to the 
 decree e. g. ' He whom God wills to believe certainly will do so, and whom 
 He wills to be an i«fidel will be one,' and not at all to man's free will." 
 Tafsir-Husaini, vol. ii. page 9. 
 
 23 
 
178 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 that God hath not decreed it, but that tyranny is not one of 
 His attributes : so " evil is not to Thee" means it is not an 
 attribute of God ; and (2) the Hadis must be explained in 
 accordance with the teaching of the Quran. 
 
 The Muslim philosophers tried to find a way out of the 
 difficulty . Averhoes says : " We are free to act in this 
 way or that, but our will is always determined by some 
 exterior cause. For example, we see something which 
 pleases us, we are drawn to it in spite of ourselves. Our 
 will is thus bound by exterior causes. These causes exist 
 according to a certain order of things which is founded 
 on the general laws of nature. God alone knows before 
 hand the necessary connection which to us is a mystery. 
 The connection of our will with exterior causes is determin- 
 ed by the laws of nature. It is this which in theology 
 we call, ' decrees and predestination.' ' n 
 
 I have already shown how, as Islam grew into a system, 
 the Muslims fell into a Cabbalism, and a superstitious reve- 
 rence for the mere letters and words of the Quran. With 
 this declension came a still more distorted view of the charac- 
 ter of God. The quotations made from the Quran in the 
 last few pages will have shown that whilst some passages 
 seem to attribute freedom to man and speak of his conse- 
 quent l'esponsibility, others teach a clear and distinct fata- 
 lism. The great strength of Islam lay in the energy with 
 which Muhammad preached the doctrine that God was a 
 divine Ruler, one who would deal righteous judgment, who 
 "taught man that which he knew not." As the system 
 became more complex and dogmatic — a very necessary result 
 of its first principles — men lost the sense of the nearness of 
 God. He became an unapproachable being. A harsh un- 
 feeling Fate took the place of the Omnipotent Ruler. It is 
 this dark fatalism which, whatever the Quran may teach on 
 the subject, is the ruling principle in all Muslim communi- 
 
 1. Melanges de Philosophe Juive et Arabe par S. Munk. p. 458. 
 
The Punishment of Apostasy. 179 
 
 ties. It is this which makes all Muhammadan nations 
 decay. Careless of self -improvement, 1 heedless of the need 
 of progress, the Muslim nations, still independent, are in 
 all that relates to the higher aspects of intellectual and 
 civilized life far behind the nations of the west. 
 
 The subject of ' Ilm-i- Aq&id, or the science of dogma 
 properly ends here, but most Muslim treatises include 
 in this branch of the subject a few practical remarks. I 
 therefore add a summary of them here. The believer who 
 commits murder, fornication, &c, does not cease to be a 
 Muslim provided that he does not say that these are allowed : 
 should he die unrepentant, God can punish him for a 
 while in hell, or forgive him without punishment. The 
 Hadd, a punishment based on a Zahir, or obvious sentence 
 of the Quran requires that a Muslim who apostatizes shall 
 be put to death. 2 In the case of an apostate woman, Imam 
 Abu Hanifa ruled that she should be imprisoned and beaten 
 every day. The other three Imams, Malik, Shafa'i and 
 Hanbal said that she should be put to death in accor- 
 dance with the Tradition which says : " He who changes 
 his religion, kill." The Arabic word " man," usually 
 translated " He who" is of common gender, and so these 
 Imams include women in the list of those who, after apos- 
 tasy, are to be killed. 3 God does not pardon polytheism 
 and infidelity ; but He can, if He willeth, pardon all other 
 crimes. If any one is asked, " dost thou believe V he 
 should reply, " I am truly a believer," and not say : " If God 
 
 1. Thus the poet Faizi atiys : " Before thou and I were thought of, our 
 free will was taken from our hands ; be without cares, for the Maker of 
 both worlds settled our affairs long before we were made." 
 
 2. The punishment of death is sometimes decreed for lesser offences. 
 In the latter part of the year 1879, one of the Turkish 'Ulanui, named 
 Ahmad, was condemned to death for having assisted Dr. Koelle, an English 
 clergyman residing iu Constantinople, in the translation of the Book of 
 Common Prayer, and a tract on ' Christ the Word of God.' Owing to 
 the urgent representations of the British Ambassador the Khojah's life 
 was spared, but he was banished to the island of Chio. The Porte pro- 
 mised to maintain his family whilst he was absent. It need scarcely be 
 said that nothing of the kind has been done. 
 
 3. Journal Asiatique 4me Serie, tome 17, p. 582 
 
180 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 willeth." 1 If any one says to him : " Wilt thou die in the 
 faith V he should reply : U I do not know, God knows." 
 Except when speaking of prophets, or of those of whom 
 the Prophets have spoken, such as Abu Bakr, Omar, Osman 
 and 5 Ali, it must not be said of any one, " he is gone 
 to Paradise," for Grod only knows his state. Prayer 
 should be made for a deceased Muslim whether he was a 
 good or bad man. To give alms, to read the Quran, to 
 perform other good works, and to apply the merit thus 
 gained to the souls of the dead is a pious and beneficial act. 
 
 1. This is tho Shafa'ite form which the Hanifites consider wrong. 
 
Muslim Philosophers. 181 
 
 NOTE TO CHAPTER IV. 
 
 MUSLIM PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 I have shown in the preceding chapter how the earlier scholastics, 
 or the Mutazilites, as they are called, were finally crushed by the 
 orthodox party. The later scholastics, or the philosophers, form the 
 subject of this note. The Khalif Mamun (813-833 a.d.), a notorious 
 free-thinker, was the first to give an impulse to philosophic re- 
 searches. It was then that Greek philosophical works were trans- - 
 lated into Arabic. The Greek author most patronized was Aristotle, 
 partly, because his empirical method accorded with the positive 
 tendencies of the Arab mind better than the pure idealism of Plato ; 
 and, partly, because his system of logic was considered an useful 
 auxiliary in the daily quarrels between the rival theological schools. 
 It was quite natural that Aristotle should be thus followed. " The 
 Musalman mind was trained in habits of absolute obedience to the 
 authority of fixed dogmas. The Muslims did not so much wish to 
 discover truth as to cultivate their own intellect. For that purpose, 
 a sharp and subtle systematise like Aristotle was the very man they 
 required." 1 Some idea of the range of subjects then discussed may 
 be gained from an account given by the Arab historian, Masoudi, of 
 a meeting held under the Presidentship of Yahya, one of the famous 
 Barmecide family. 2 Yahya thus addressed the meeting : " You 
 have discussed at length the theory of concealment (Al-Kumun) and 
 manifestation (Al-Zahiir), of pre-existence and creation, of duration 
 and stability, of movement and quiescence, of the uni-jn and separation 
 (of the Divine substance), of existence and non-existence, of bodies 
 and accidents, of the approval and the refutation (of the Isnads of 
 the Traditions), of the absence or the existence of attributes in God, 
 of potential and active force, of substance, quantity, modality and 
 relation, of life and annihilation. You have examined the question 
 as to whether the Imam rules by divine right, or by popular elec- 
 tion ; you have had an exhaustive discussion on metaphysical sub- 
 jects, in their principles and corollaries. Occupy yourselves to-day 
 with the subject of love," &c. 
 
 The translation of the works of Aristotle, as indeed of all the 
 Greek authors, was made by Syrian and Chaldean Christians, and 
 
 1. Kingsley's Alexandria and her Schools, p. 160. 
 
 2. Les Prairies D'or, tome sixieme, p. 368. 
 
182 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 especially by the Nestorians who, as physicians, were in high favour 
 with the liberal Khalifs of the 'Abbasside dynasty. In some cases 
 the translation into Arabic was made from Syriac versions, for in 
 the time of the Emperor Justinian many Greek works had been 
 translated into the latter language. The most celebrated translator 
 was the historian physician Honein-Ibn-Ishak (died 876 a.d.), a 
 man profoundly acquainted with the Syriac, Greek and Arabic 
 languages. He was at the head of a school of interpreters in Bagh- 
 dad, to which his son Ishak-ben-Honein and his nephew Hobeisch- 
 Al-Asam also belonged. In the tenth century (a. d.) Yahya-ben- 
 Adi and Isa-ben-Zara'a translated some works and corrected earlier 
 translations of others. It is to these men that the Arabs owe their 
 chief acquaintance with Plato. 
 
 The study of Aristotle spread rapidly amongst the Muslim people, 
 especially amongst the heretical sects. The orthodox looked with 
 grave suspicion on the movement, but could not for a while stay 
 the impulse. The historian Makrizi says : " The docti'ine of the 
 Philosophers has worked amongst the Muslims evils most fatal. It 
 serves only to augment the errors of the heretics and to increase 
 their impiety." 1 It came into contact with Muslim dogmas in such 
 subjects as the creation of the world, the special providence of God 
 and the nature of the divine attributes. To a certain extent the 
 Mutazilites were supported by the philosophical theories they 
 embraced, but this did not diminish the disfavour with which the 
 orthodox looked upon the study of philosophy. Still it grew, and 
 men in self defence had to adopt philosophic methods. Thus arose 
 a later system of scholasticism. The earlier system was confined 
 mainly to matters of religion ; the later school occupied itself with 
 the whole range of philosophic investigation, and thus went farther 
 and farther away from orthodox Islam. 
 
 The Muslims themselves did not write books on philosophy in the 
 earlier period. Men of liberal tendencies imbibed its teaching, but 
 orthodoxy finally gained the day over the earlier scholastics, and in 
 the form known as that of the Ash'arian School became again 
 supreme. 2 The great intellectual movement of the Philosophers 
 proper, the later scholastics (Mutakalliman), lasted longer, but by the 
 end of the twelfth century (a.d.) the whole Muhammadan world had 
 again become orthodox. Salah-ud-din (Saladin) and his successors in 
 Egypt were strong supporters of the Ash'arians. 
 
 1. Melanges de Philosophic Juive et Arabe, par S. Munk, p. 315. 
 
 2. For a statement of the Ash'arian doctrines see pp. 130. 131 
 
Muslim Philosophers. 183 
 
 The period now under review was one prolific of authors on 
 grammar, rhetoric, logic, exegesis, traditions and the various branches 
 of philosophy ; but the men who stand out most prominently as 
 philosophers were then, and are now, considered heretics. J 
 
 Al-Kendi, was born at Basra, on the Persian Gulf. He died about 
 870 a.0. He was a very scientific man, but a thorough rationalist in 
 theology. He composed commentaries on the logic of Aristotle. In 
 his great work on the unity of God he has strayed far away from 
 Muslim dogmas. 
 
 Al Farabi, another philosopher patronized by the 'Abbassides, 
 seems to have denied not only the rigid and formal Islamic view of 
 inspiration, but any objective revelation at all. He held that intui- 
 tion was a true inspiration, and that all who had acquired intuitive 
 knowledge were real prophets. This is the only revelation he admits. 
 He received his philosophical training at Baghdad, where for a while 
 he taught; but finally he went to Damascus, where he died 950 a.d. 
 
 Ibn Siua, better known as Avicenna, a man of Persian origin, was 
 a Philosopher of great note, but of him it is said that in spite of the 
 concessions he made to the religious ideas of his age, he could not 
 find favour for his opinions, which ill accord with the principles of 
 Islam. He was born near Bukhara, in the year 980 a.d. For a 
 while he taught medicine and philosophy in Ispahan. 
 
 Ibn Badja, (Avempace) was one of the most celebrated Muslim 
 Philosophers of Spain. He was born at Saragossa towards the end 
 of the eleventh century. He is distinguished for having opposed 
 the mystical tendencies of the teaching of Al-Ghazzali, and for 
 maintaining that speculative science alone was capable of leading 
 man to a true conception of his own proper nature. He was violently 
 attacked by the orthodox divines who declared that all philosophical 
 teaching was " a calamity for religion and an affliction to those who 
 were in the good way." 
 
 Al-Ghazzali was born a.d. 1059 in Khorasan. He was a famous 
 Muslim divine. He adopted scholastic methods. For a while he was 
 President of the Nizamiah College at Baghdad. He travelled much, 
 and wrote many books to prove the superiority of Islam over all 
 other religions and over philosophy. The first result of his wide 
 and extensive study of the writings of the philosophers, and of the 
 heretics was that he fell into a state of scepticism with regard to 
 religion and philosophy. From this he emerged into Sufiism, in 
 
 1. Strictly speaking, one should not speak of Arab but of Muslim philo- 
 sophy, for curiously enough only one famous Philosopher, Al-Kendi, was an 
 Arab. 
 
184 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 which his restless spirit found satisfaction. On Sufiism, however, 
 he exercised no very notable influence ; but the scepticism which he 
 still retained as regards philosophy rendered him a very formidable 
 opponent to those who were trying to bring Islam into accord with 
 philosophic theories. His works, " Tendency of Philosophers," and 
 " Destruction of the Philosophers" had an immense influence. In the 
 preface to the latter book, he speaks of " those who arrogate to them- 
 selves a superior intelligence, and who, in their pride, mistaking the 
 precepts of religion, take as a guide the authority of certain great 
 men, instead of revealed religion." It is, however, and with some 
 show of reason supposed that Al-Ghazzali did not really object to 
 all that he condemned, but that to gain the orthodox he wrote what 
 he did. Indeed, Moses of Narbonne states that Ghazzali later on in 
 life wrote a book, circulated only amongst a few select friends, in 
 which he withdrew many of the objections he had raised in the 
 " Destruction of Philosophers." Be that as it may, it is acknowledged 
 that he dealt a blow to philosophy from which in the East it has 
 never recovered ; that is, as far as the Muslim world is concerned. 
 His course marks a x*eaction of the exclusively religious principle 
 of Islam against philosophical speculation, which in spite of all 
 accommodation never made itself orthodox. 
 
 In Spain philosophy still found an ardent defender in Ibn Rashid, 
 better known as Averhoes. This celebrated man was born at Cordova 
 in the year 1126 a.d., or about 520 of the Muhammadan era. He 
 came of a noble and learned family, whilst he himself must ever 
 occupy a distinguished place amongst the Muslim Philosophers. 
 " Without dispute he was one of the most learned men of the Mus- 
 lim world, and one of the profoundest commentators of Aristotle. He 
 knew all the sciences then accessible to the Muslims and was a most 
 prolific writer." l One of his most famous works was the " Refutation 
 of the destruction of Philosophers." Notwithstanding his philoso- 
 phical opinions Averhoes claimed to pass for a good Muslim. He 
 held that the philosophic truths are the highest object of research ; 
 but that only a few men could by speculation arrive at them, and 
 that, therefore, a divine revelation through the medium of prophets 
 was necessary for spreading amongst men the eternal verities which 
 are proclaimed alike by philosophy and religion. He held, it is 
 true, that the orthodox had paid too much attention to the letter, 
 and too little to the spirit, and that false interpretations had 
 educed principles not really to be found in religion. This profes- 
 
 1. Melanges de Philosophie Juive et Arabe, par S. Munk, p. 429. 
 
The Revival of Orthodoxy. 185 
 
 sion and a rigid adherence to outward forms of worship, however, 
 did not save him from suspicion. He was accused of preaching 
 philosophy and the ancient sciences to the detriment of religion. 
 He was deprived of his honours and hanished by the Khah'f Al-Man- 
 siir to Lucena, near Cordova. In his disgrace he had to suffer many 
 insults from the orthodox. One day on entering the mosque with 
 his son he was forcibly expelled by the people. He died at Morocco 
 in 1198 a.d. Thus passed away in disgrace the last of the Muslim 
 Philosophers worthy of the name. 1 In Spain a strict prohibition was 
 issued against the study of Greek philosophy, and many valuable 
 works were committed to the flames. Soon after the rule of the 
 Moors in Spain began to decline. The study of philosophy came to 
 an end, and liberal culture sank under the pressure of the hard and 
 fast dogmatic system of Islam. In Spain, 2 as in Baghdad, ortho- 
 doxy gained the day. There was much of doubtful value in 
 the speculations of the Muslim Philosophers, but they were 
 Muslims, and if they went too far in their efforts to ration- 
 alize Islam, they also tried to cast off what to them seemed 
 accretions, added on by the Traditionalists and the Canonical 
 Legists. They failed because like the earlier scholastics they 
 had no gospel to proclaim to men, no tidings to give of a new 
 life which could enable wearied humanity to bear the ills to which it 
 was subject. Another strong reason was that the orthodoxy against 
 which they strove was a logical development of the foundations of 
 Islam, and these foundations are too strongly laid for any power 
 other than a spiritual one to uproot. They were men of good posi- 
 tion in life, voluminous writers, profound admirers of Aristotle, and 
 " more or less devoted to science, especially to medicine." Yet they 
 did not advance philosophy, and science they left much as they found 
 it. They preserved something of what Grecian thought had achiev- 
 ed, and so far their labour is not lost. 
 
 Thus Islam has, as a religion, no right to claim any of the glory 
 which Muslim philosophers are supposed to have shed around it. 
 
 1. Apres lui, nous ne trouvons plus chez les Arabes aucun pliilosophe 
 veritableinent digue de ce uoni." Melanges de Philosophie Juive et 
 Arabe, par S. Munk, p. 458. 
 
 2. Muslim rule iu Spain is often referred to as an instance of the 
 height of culture and the liberality of sentiment which may exist in a 
 Muhainmadan state. I have shown ■ that the culture was not due to the 
 teaching of the Arab Prophet and his Companions, and with regard to the 
 liberality it is well to remember the words of G. H. Lewes. He says : 
 " The Arabs, though they conquered Spain, were too weak in numbers to 
 hold that country in subjection otherwise than by politic concessions to 
 the opinion and customs of the people." History of Philosophy, vol. i. p. 36. 
 
 24 
 
186 The Faith of Mam. 
 
 The founders of Islam, the Arabs, produced but one philosopher 
 of note. 1 The first impetus to the study was given by heretical 
 Khalifs employing Christians at Baghdad to translate Greek 
 books ; whilst in Spain, where philosophy most flourished, it was 
 due largely to the contact of intelligent Muslims with learned 
 Jews. Even there, the philosophers were, as a rule, the objects 
 of bitter persecution. Now and again, a liberal minded Khalif 
 arose, but a system such as Islam survives the liberal tendencies 
 of a generation. From the close of the twelfth century (a.d.) 
 downwards it would be difficult to point to any Muslim Phi- 
 losopher, much more to an Arab one, whose work is of- any real 
 value to the human race. For four hundred years the contest raged, 
 a contest such as Islam has never since seen. This great effort to 
 bring it into accordance with the main stream of human thought, to 
 introduce into it some element of progress utterly failed. The lesson 
 is plain. Any project of reform in Islam which admits in any degree 
 its fundamental principles must fail. Revolution, not reform, is the 
 only hope for the permanence of an independent Muslim state when 
 it enters into the circle of civilized nations. 
 
 I. "There never was any Arabian science, strictly speaking. In the first 
 place, all the Philosophy and Science of the Muhammadans was Greek, 
 Jewish, and Persian It really designates a reaction against Islam- 
 ism, which arose in the distant parts of the Empire, in Samarcand, 
 Bokhara, Morocco, and Cordova. The Arabian language having become 
 the language of the Empire, this Philosophy is written in that language; 
 but the ideas are not Arabian ; the spirit is not Arabian." History of 
 Philosophy, by G. H. Lewes, vol. ii. p. 34. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE PRACTICAL DUTIES OF ISLAM. 
 
 The portion of the creed considered in the last chapter 
 was connected with Iinau (faith) ; the remaining portion 
 is connected with Din (practical religion). The five princi- 
 pal acts are called Irkan-i-Din, pillars of religion. They ' 
 are : (1 ) The recital of the Kalirna, or short confession of 
 faith ; (2) Sulat, the five stated periods of prayer ; (3) Roza, 
 the thirty days' fast of Ramazan ; (4) Zakat, legal alms ; 
 (5) Hajj, the pilgrimage to Mecca. These are all farz duties, I 
 being based on a Nass-i-Zahir, or " obvious," sentence of 
 the Quran, a proof derived from which is called dalil-i- 
 qata'i. This is the strongest of all kinds of proofs. 
 
 The authorities, however, specify other religious duties 
 which good Muslims should perform. Such are the seven 
 duties which are wajib, or duties based on the more obscure 
 texts of the Quran, called Khafi, or " hidden" sentences, 
 a proof derived from which is called dalil-i-zani. These 
 duties are : (1) To make the 'Uinra, or Pilgrimage to Mecca 
 in addition to the Hajj ; (2) obedience to parents ; (3) the 
 obedience of a wife to her husband ; (4) the giving of alms 
 after a fast ; (5) the offering of sacrifice ; (6) the saying of 
 Namaz-i-witr, a term which will be explained later on; (7) 
 the support of relatives. The duties numbered as (4) and 
 (5) are wdjib orders to the rich ; but only mustahab to the 
 poor : that is, it is meritorious if they perform them, but 
 not sinful if they leave them undone. 
 
 The duties next in order as regards authority are the 
 siinnat ones. They are three in number and are based 
 either on the practice of the Prophet, or are Jitrat, that is 
 practices of previous prophets, the continuance of which 
 
188 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 Muhammad did not forbid. They are (1) circumcision ; (2) 
 shaving off the hair from the head and the body ; (3) the 
 paring of the nails. In addition to these there are actions 
 which are mustahab. They are those which Muhammad 
 sometimes did and sometimes omitted. There is a still 
 lower class of action which are mubah. These are works of 
 supererogation. If omitted there is no fear of punishment. 
 It may be mentioned in passing that unlawful actions 
 and things are (1) Haram, actions and food forbidden either 
 in the Quran or the Traditions; (2) Mahruh, actions the 
 unlawfulness of which is not absolutely certain, but which 
 are generally considered wrong ; (3) Mufsid, actions cor- 
 rupting or pernicious. It is necessary to bear these terms 
 in mind as they will now frequently occur. 
 
 1 . Tashahhud. — This is the recital of a confession of faith. 
 There are several forms of this. A common one is : " I 
 testify that there is no deity but God, I testify to His unity 
 and that He has no partner ; I testify that Muhammad is 
 His servant and His messenger." The shorter form is : 
 " There is no deity but God and Muhammad is the apostle 
 of God." The power contained in this latter confession is 
 extraordinary. It embodies the very spirit of Islam. "It 
 has led everywhere the march of its armies, it has rung for 
 twelve centuries in the morning air from its minarets, it 
 has been passed from lip to lip, as no other word has ever 
 been passed, by thousands of millions of the human race." 
 The power of Islam, its proclamation of the Unity, is here 
 seen in the closest contact with what is to Muslim theolo- 
 gians the equally fundamental truth — the apostleship of 
 Muhammad, a dogma which retards the healthy develop- 
 ment, explains the narrowness, and causes the prostration of 
 Islam, as the world around grows luminant with the light 
 of science and truth, of faith and reason. 
 
 2. Sulat. ! — All the books on Fiqh (Law) which treat of 
 
 1. The Persian term for this is Namaz, a word in commoner use in India 
 than Suldt. Both terms will henceforth be employed. 
 
Legal Purifications. 189 
 
 these Irkan-i-din, give in connection with Sulat the rules 
 regaining the necessary purifications. It will be convenient 
 to follow the same order. 
 
 Taharat or legal purification is of three kinds : (1) Wazu, 
 the lesser lustration ; (2) Ghusl, the greater lustration ; (3) 
 Tayammurn, or purification by sand. 
 
 (1). Wazu is an ablution made before saying the appoint- 
 ed prayers. Those which are ' farz' are four in number, 
 viz : — to wash (1) the face from the top of the forehead to 
 the chin, and as far as each ear; and (2) the hands and 
 arms up to the elbow; (3) to rub (masah) with the wet 
 hand a fourth part of the head ; also (4) the feet to the 
 ankles. The authority for these actions is the text : " 
 Believers ! when ye address yourselves to prayer, wash your 
 bauds up to the elbow, and wipe your heads, and your 
 feet to the ankles" (Sura v. 8). The S minis wash the feet : 
 the Shia'hs are apparently more correct, for they only wipe, 
 or rather rub, (masah) them. In these ablutions, if the 
 least portion of the specified part is left untouched, the 
 whole act becomes useless and the prayer which follows is 
 vain. 
 
 The act of making wazu, however, has not been allowed 
 to remain in this simple form. The Sunnat regulations 
 regarding it are fourteen in number. They are, (1) to make 
 the intention of wazu, thus : I make this wazu for the pur- 
 pose of putting away impurity ; (2) to wash the hand 
 up to the wrist, but care must be taken not to put the 
 hands entirely into the water, until each has been rubbed 
 three times with water poured on it ; (3) to say one of the 
 names of God at the commencement of the wazu 1 thus : 
 " In the name of the Great God," or " Thanks be to God 
 for the religion of Islam ;" (4) to clean the teeth ; (5) to 
 rinse the mouth three times ; (6) to put water into the 
 
 1. There is a Tradition to the effect that " the whole body of him who 
 says the name of God when making wazu will be clean ; whereas, if he 
 says it not, only the part washed will be pure." 
 
190 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 nostrils three times ; (7) to do all the above in proper order ; 
 
 (8) to do all without any delay between the various acts; 
 
 (9) each part is to be purified three times; (10) the space 
 between the fingers of one hand must be rubbed with the 
 wet fingers of the other ; (11) the beard must be combed 
 with the fingers; (13) the whole head must be rubbed once ; 
 (13) the ears must be washed with the water remaining 
 on the fingers after the last operation; (14) to rub under 
 and between the toes with the little finger of the left hand, 
 drawing it from the little toe of the right foot and between 
 each toe in succession. Imam ShalVi holds that (1) and 
 (7) are farz duties and that (12) should be done three times. 
 Imam Malik considers (8) to be farz. 
 
 The actions may be done in silence, or prayer may be 
 repeated. Such a recital is a mustahab, not a sunnat or 
 farz order. It is not obligatory. A specimen of these prayers 
 is given in a note. l 
 
 (2). Ghusl is an ablution of the whole body after certain 
 legal defilements, and should be made as follows. The 
 person should put on clean clothes and perform the wazii, 
 then he should say : " I make ghusl to put away impurity." 
 All being ready he should wash himself in the following- 
 order. He must pour water over the right shoulder three 
 times, then over the left three times and, lastly, on his head 
 
 1. Before commencing the wazii, say : " I am. going to purify myself 
 from all bodily uncleanness preparatory to commencing prayer, that holy 
 act of duty, which will draw my soul near to the throne of the Most High. 
 In the name of God, the Great and Mighty. Praise be to God who has 
 given us grace to be Muslims. Islam is a truth and infidelity a falsehood." 
 
 When cleaning the teeth say : " Vouchsafe God, as I clean my teeth, 
 to purify me from my faults and accept my homage. Lord, may the 
 purity of my teeth be for me a pledge of the whiteness of my face at the 
 day of judgment." 
 
 When washing the nostrils say : " my God, if I am pleasing in Thy 
 sight, perfume me with the odours of Paradise." 
 
 When washing the right hand say : " my God, on the day of judg- 
 ment, place the book of my actions in my right hand, and examine my 
 account with favour." 
 
 When washing the left hand, say : "0 my God, place not at the re- 
 surrection the book of my actions in my left hand." Similar prayers are 
 said at each act. 
 
Legal Purifications. 191 
 
 also the same number of times. The three farz conditions 
 are that (1) the mouth must be rinsed, (2) water be put into 
 the nostrils, and (3) the whole body be washed. If one 
 hair even is left diw the whole act is rendered vain and use- 
 less. All other particulars are sunnat or mustahab. 
 
 There are obvious reasons why an explanation of the 
 causes which vitiate a purification, or of the cases in which 
 ghusl is required, cannot be given here. Every standard 
 Muslim work on Fikh, or law, deals fully with the subject. 
 Nothing is more calculated to show the student of Islam 
 how much the Sunnat rules in the practical life of Muslims. 
 The Traditions have raised the most trivial ceremonial ob- 
 servances into duties of the greatest importance. That 
 there may be spiritually minded men in Islam is not to be 
 denied ; but a system of religion which declares that the 
 virtue of prayer depends practically on an ablution, and that 
 that ablution is useless unless done in the order presciubed, 
 is one well calculated to make men formalists and nothing 
 more. It comes to this, that, if a man when making wazu 
 washes his left hand before his right, or his nose before 
 his teeth, he cannot lawfully say the daily Namaz enjoined 
 on all Muslims. None but those who have studied Muslim 
 treatises on the subject can conceive of the puerile discus- 
 sions which have taken place on points apparently trivial, 
 but which from their connection with the Sunnat are 
 deemed by learned Muslims of great importance. 
 
 (3). Tayammum, or purification by sand, is allowable under 
 the following circumstances. (1) When water cannot be 
 procured except at a distance of one kos (about 2 miles) ; 
 (2) in case of sickness when the use of water might be in- 
 jurious; (3) when water cannot be obtained without incur- 
 ring danger from an enemy, a beast or a i^eptile ; and (4) 
 when on the occasion of the Namaz of a Feast day or the 
 Namaz at a funeral, the worshipper is late and has no time 
 to perform the wazu. On ordinary days this substitution of 
 tayammum for wazu is not allowable. 
 
192 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 The ceremony is performed as follows. The person says : 
 " I make tayammum to put away impurity ;" then, " I seek 
 refuse near God from cursed Satan. I commence in the 
 name of God, most Merciful and most High, whose praises 
 are in the religion of Islam." He then strikes the sand 
 with open hands, rubs his mouth and, at last, the arms to 
 the elbows. Not one hair must be left untouched or the 
 whole ceremouy is useless. The farz acts are to make the 
 intention of tayammum, to rub the mouth and the hands. 
 " If ye are sick, or on a journey, or if one of you come from 
 the place of retirement, or if ye have touched women, and 
 ye find no water, then take clean sand and rub your faces 
 and your hands with it." (Sura v. 9.) 
 
 Minute regulations are laid down with regard to the 
 water which may be used for purification. The following 
 kinds of water are lawful : — rain, sea, river, fountain, well, 
 snow and ice-water. Ice is not lawful. The first kind is 
 authorized by the Quran. " He sent you down water from 
 heaven that He might thereby cleanse you, and cause the 
 pollution of Satan to pass from you." (Siira viii. 1 1 .) The 
 use of the others is sanctioned by the Traditions. I give 
 one illusti'ation. A man one day come to the Prophet and 
 said : " I am going on a voyage and shall only have a 
 small supply of fresh water ; if I use it for ablutions I shall 
 have none wherewith to quench my thirst, may I use sea 
 water ? " The Prophet replied : " The water of the sea is 
 pure." Tirmizi states that this is a Hadis-i-Sahih. Great 
 difference of opinion exists with regard to what constitutes 
 impurity in water, and so renders it unfit for ablutions. It 
 would be wearisome to the reader to enter into all details, 
 but I may briefly say that, amongst the orthodox, it is 
 generally held that if a dead body or any unclean thing 
 falls into flowing water, or into a reservoir more than 15 feet 
 square it can be used, provided always that the colour, smell 
 and taste are not changed. It is for this reason that the pool 
 near a mosque is never less than ten cubits square. If of 
 
Salat or Namaz. 193 
 
 that size, it is called a dah dar dah, (literally 10 x 10). It 
 may be, and commonly is, larger than this. It should be 
 about one foot deep. 
 
 The necessary ablutions having been made, the worshipper 
 can commence the Namaz. 
 
 (4). Salat or Namaz. The Namaz can be said either in 
 private or in public. All that is required is that the clothes 
 and person of the worshipper should be clean, the place free 
 from all impurity, and that the face be turned towards 
 Mecca. Whether the Namaz is said in public or in private, 
 it must be preceded by wazu, except when tayammura is 
 allowed. If the Namaz x is said in a mosque which is consider- 
 ed to be more meritorious than repeating it in private, it must 
 be preceded by the Azan, or call to prayers, and the Iqamat. 
 Minute particulars regarding the exact attitude in which the 
 Musalli, one who says the Salat, must stand and the words 
 he is to say are given in Muslim books. The following 
 account will give some idea of a Namaz, or Service. 2 
 
 The Mu,azzin 3 calls out loudly in Ai'abic : — 
 
 « Allahu Akbar ! Allahu Akbar ! Allahu Akbar ! Allahu 
 Akbar M" 
 
 All who hear it respond : — 
 
 " Allahu Akbar ! Allahu Akbar ! Allahu Akbar ! Allahu 
 Akbar \" 
 
 The Mu,azziu says : — 
 
 " I confess there is no God but God, I confess there is 
 no God but God." 
 
 Each of his auditors replies : — 
 
 " I confess there is no God but God, I confess there is 
 no God but God." 
 
 1. From the account which follows it will he seen that the term Namaz 
 expresses what we term a ' Service.' The word for prayer in the ordinary 
 sense is ' Du'a.' 
 
 2. It is taken from the Sirat-un-Najat, pp. 30 — 33. 
 
 3. As the use of bells is unlawful a man is employed to call the people 
 to prayers. 
 
 4. " God is Great." 
 
 25 
 
i94 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 Mu,azzin: — "I confess Muhammad is the apostle of God." 
 
 Auditor : — " I confess Muhammad is the apostle of God." 
 
 Mu,azzin : — " Come to prayer." 
 
 Auditor : — " I have no power or strength but from God 
 most High and Great." 
 
 Mu,azzin : — " Come to do good." 
 
 Auditor : — " What God wills will be ; what He wills not 
 will not be." 
 
 If it is the time of morning prayer, the Mu,azzin adds 
 the words : " Prayer is better than sleep," to which the 
 response is given : " Thou hast spoken well." " Allahu 
 Akbar," and " There is no God but God" are then repeated 
 twice aud so the Azan ends. 
 
 Thelqamat (literally, " causing to stand") is a repetition 
 of the Azan, but after the words, " come to do good," the 
 statement " prayer has commenced" is made. 
 
 These preliminaries being now over, the Namaz can 
 commence. It is as follows : 
 
 The Musalli, or worshipper, stands with his hands close 
 to his side and says in a low voice the Niyyat (intention) : — 
 
 " I have purposed to offer up to God only, with a sincere 
 heart this morning (or as the case may be), with my face 
 Qibla-wards, two (or as the case may be) rak'at prayers, 
 farz (or sunnat or nan, as the case may be)." 
 
 Then follows the Takbir-i-Tahrimah, said with the 
 thumbs touching the lobes of the ears. The palms of 
 the hands are placed towards the Qibla. The fingers are 
 slightly separated from each other. In this position the 
 Musalli says :— " Allahu Akbar !" 
 
 The Qiam, or standing position. The palm of the right 
 hand being placed on the back of the left, the thumb and 
 little finger of the former seize the wrist of the latter. 
 Both hands are then placed below the navel, l the eyes are 
 
 1. The followers of Imam As-Shafa'i and the women of all sects place 
 the hands upon the breast. The feet should be about four- inches apart ; 
 women stand with the feet close together. 
 
Ta'aivivuz, Tahbir and Tasbih. 195 
 
 directed towards the spot where the head of the worshipper 
 will touch the ground in prostration, and the Sana is said. 
 It is: — 
 
 " Holiness to Thee God ! and praise be to Thee ! 
 Great is Thy name ! Great is thy Greatness ! 
 There is no God but Thee \" 
 
 The Ta'awwuz is then said : — 
 
 " I seek refuge near God from cursed Satan." 
 
 Then follows the Tasmiyah : — 
 
 " In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful." 
 
 Then follows the Fatiha,* or first chapter of the Quran : — 
 " Praise be to God, Lord of the worlds ! the Compassionate, 
 the Merciful ! King on the day of reckoning ! Thee only do 
 we worship, and to Thee do we cry for help. Guide Thou us 
 on the straight path : the path of those to whom Thon hast 
 been gracious : with whom Thou art not angry, and who 
 go not astray." 
 
 After this the worshipper can repeat as many chapters 
 of the Quran as he likes. 2 Some verses he must repeat. 
 
 The Surat-ul-Ikhlas (Sura 112) is generally said :— 
 
 " Say : He is God alone : God the Eternal, He begetteth 
 not, and is not begotten ; and there is none like unto Him." 
 
 The Takbir-i-Rukvi'— Allahn Akbar!— is said whilst the 
 Musalli makes an inclination of the head and body, and 
 separating the fingers a little, places his hands upon his 
 
 knees. 
 
 The Tasbih-i-Ruku' is said in the same position. It is : — 
 " I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Great ! 
 I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Great ! 
 I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Great \" 
 The Tasmia' is then said with the body erect, but with 
 the hands placed on either side. Thus : — 
 
 1. The second rak'at begins here : all that precedes is only repeated at 
 the first rak'at. 
 
 2. A fixed portion is said in each rak'at during the uights of Ramazun, 
 ■which portion is then called a ruku'. (Ante. p. 57.) 
 
196 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 " God hears him who praises Him : Lord, Thou art 
 praised l ." 
 
 The Takbir-i-Sijda — Allahu Akbar ! — is said as the 
 worshipper drops on his knees. 
 
 The Musalli then kneeling down, places his hands, with 
 the fingers close to each other, upon the ground. He must 
 rest upon his toes, not on the side of the feet which must be 
 kept straight behind him. The elbow must not touch the 
 side, nor the stomach the thigh, nor the thigh the calf of 
 the leg. The eyes must be kept bent downwards. Then 
 he touches the ground first with his nose, and then with his 
 forehead, taking care that the thumbs just touch the lobe of 
 the ears. 2 All this being carefully attended to, the Musalli 
 can say the Tasbih-i-Sijda thus : — 
 
 " I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Most High ! 
 I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Most High ! 
 I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Most High \" 
 
 He then raises his head and body, sinks backwards upon 
 his heels, places his hands a little above his knees, and whilst 
 doing so says the Takbir-i-Jalsa 3 — " Allahu Akbar \" 
 
 After a slight pause, a second prostration, or Sijda is 
 made and the Takbir-i-Sijda and the Tasbih-i- Sijda are 
 repeated as before. Then when in the act of rising up the 
 Musalli says the Takbir-i-Qiam — " Allahu Akbar V 
 
 This concludes one rak'at. The second rak'at begins with 
 the Fatiha, so that after saying the Takbir-i-Qiam a Musalli 
 would have to begin again at that place (p. 195) and repeat all 
 that he had just finished j the only change being that after 
 the Fatiha, he recites different verses of the Quran to those 
 he said in the first rak'at. After two rak'ats have been 
 said, and after the last, though it be an odd number, the 
 
 1. In a mosque the Imam says the first sentence alone ; the people the 
 second. 
 
 2. Women in the Sijda keep all the limbs of the body close together, and 
 put both feet at right angles to the body. If their face is Qibla-wards it is 
 sufficient. 
 
 3. Here the Shia'hs say :— " I rise and sit by the power of God." 
 
Tashahhud, Du'a and Salam,. 197 
 
 Musalli, unless he is a Shia'h, places his left foot under him 
 and sits upon it. He then places his hands above his knees, 
 as for the Takbir-i-Jalsa, and with his eyes directed towards 
 his lap says the Attahiyat : — 
 
 " The adorations of the tongue are for God, and also the 
 adorations of the body, and almsgiving ! Peace be on thee 
 Prophet ! with the mercy of God and His blessing. Peace 
 be on us and upon God's righteous servants !" 
 
 Then raising the first finger of the right hand he says 
 the Tashahhud * :— 
 
 " I testify that there is no deity but God ; and I testify 
 that Muhammad is the servant of God and the messenger of 
 God." 
 
 Then at the end of all the rak'ats the Musalli, whilst in 
 the same posture, says the Dartid : — 
 
 "0 God ! have mercy on Muhammad and his descendants 2 ; 
 as Thou didst have mercy on Abraham and his descendants, 
 Thou art to be praised and Thou art great. God ! bless 
 Muhammad and his descendants, as Thou didst bless Abra- 
 ham and his descendants. Thou art to be praised and Thou 
 art great." 
 
 Then comes the Du'a, which may be in the worshipper's 
 own words though he usually says 3 : — 
 
 " God our Lord, give us the blessings of this life, and 
 also the blessings of life everlasting. Save us from the tor- 
 ments of hell." 
 
 Then turning the head to the right the Musalli repeats 
 the Salam : — 
 
 " The peace and mercy of God be with you." 
 Then turning the head to the left he says : — 
 " The peace and mercy of God be with you." 
 At the close of the whole ceremony, the worshipper raises 
 
 1. This is said at the close of every two rak'ats. 
 
 2. The Shfa'hs stop here and omit the rest. 
 
 3. The Shia'hs omit the Du'a and say : " Peace be on thee, O Prophet, 
 with the mercy of God and His blessing. Peace be on us and on God's 
 
 righteous servants." 
 
198 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 his hands as high as his shoulders, with the palm towards 
 heaven, or towards his own face, and offers up a Muna- 
 jat, or supplication, either in Arabic or in the vernacular. 
 The hands are then drawn over the face, as if to convey 
 the blessing received from above to every part of the 
 body. 
 
 The appointed periods of prayer are five in number, in 
 proof of which the following text is quoted : " Glorify God 
 when ye reach the evening (masa), and when ye rise at morn 
 (subh) ; and to Him be praise in the heavens and in the 
 earth, — and at twilight ('ashi) and when ye rest at noon 
 (zuhr)." (Siira xxx. 17). The Commentators say that 
 masa includes both sunset and the period after sunset ; 
 that is both the Salat-ul-Maghrib and the Salat-ul-'Isha. 
 There is also a reference to a stated period of prayer in 
 the following verse : " Observe prayer at early morning, 
 at the close of the day, and at the approach of night." 
 (Siira xi. 116). 
 
 These daily Nainaz are farz, sunnat, witr and nafl prayers. 
 Farz are those distinctly ordained by God, such as the five 
 stated periods of prayer. 
 
 Sunnat, a certain number of rak'ats which are added, 
 because it is said the Prophet repeated them. 
 
 Witr rak'ats are an odd number of rak'ats, 3, 5 or 7, which 
 may be said after the last prayer at night, and before the 
 dawn of day. Usually they are added to the Salat-ul-'Isha. 
 Imam Abu Hanifa says they are wajib, that is ordered by 
 God. They are not authorised by any text in the Quran, 
 but by Traditions each of which is generally received as 
 a Hadis-i-Sahih, and so witr rak'ats are regarded as being of 
 divine authority. Imam Shafa'i, however, considers them 
 to be sunnat only, a term already explained. 
 
 The Traditions referred to are : " God has added to your 
 Namaz one Namaz more : know that it is witr, say it 
 between the Salat-ul-'Isha and dawn." On the authority 
 of Buzar, a Traditionist, it is recorded that the Prophet 
 
Witr and Nafi rak'ats. 199 
 
 said : " Witr is wajib upon Muslims/' and in order to 
 enforce the practice he added : " Witr is right, he who 
 does not observe it is not my follower." The Prophet, 
 the Companions, the Taba'in and the Taba-i-Taba'in all 
 observed it. The word witr literally means " odd num- 
 ber." A Tradition says : " God is odd, He loves the odd." 
 (Allahu witrun yuhibbu'l-witra) . Musalmans pay the great- 
 est respect to an odd number. It is considered unlucky 
 to begin any work, or to commence a journey on a 
 day, the date of which is an even number. The number 
 of lines in a page of a book is nearly always an odd 
 number. 
 
 Nan are voluntary prayers the performance of which is 
 considered mustahab, or meritorious, but they are not of 
 divine obligation. It must be understood that all these prayers 
 are precisely the same in form. They simply consist in the 
 repetition of a number of rak'ats, of which I have already 
 given a single illustration in full. A Muslim who says the 
 five daily prayers with the full number of rak'ats will repeat 
 the Service I have described fifty times in one day. If 
 in addition to these he observes the three voluntary periods of 
 prayers, he must add twenty-five more rak'ats, making a grand 
 total of seventy-five. It is, however, usual to omit some of 
 the Sunnat rak'ats ; still there is a vast amount of repetition, 
 and as the whole must be said in Arabic it becomes very 
 mechanical. 
 
 A Muslim who ventured to say that a Namaz might be 
 recited in Hindustani was publicly excommunicated in the 
 principal Mosque at Madras on Friday, February 13th, 
 1880. 1 
 
 The table on the next page will make the matter clear 2 
 The optional Sunnat rak'ats are called ' Sunnat-i-ghair-i- 
 
 1. The Fatva, or decree, will be found in a note at the end of this 
 
 2. I am indebted to Hughes' Notes on Muhammadanism for this excel- 
 lent table. 
 
200 
 
 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 maukadda' ; the Sunnat rak'ats before the farz are 
 uat-i-maukadda' and should be said. 
 
 Sun- 
 
 's 
 
 o > 
 'u 
 
 a 
 
 > 
 
 H 
 
 .2 3 
 
 2 
 
 Time. 
 
 From dawn to 
 sunrise. 
 
 When the sun 
 has begun to 
 decline. 
 
 Midway between 
 No. 2 and 4. 
 
 A few minutes 
 after sunset. 
 
 When the night 
 has closed in. 
 
 When the sun 
 has well risen. 
 
 About 11 o'clock 
 
 A.M. 
 
 After mid-night. 
 
 The nambs of the time of pbaybb. 
 
 Arabic. 
 
 Salat-ul- 
 Fajr. 
 
 Salat-uz- 
 Zuhr. 
 
 Salat-ul- 
 'Asr. 
 
 Saliit-ul- 
 Maghrib. 
 
 Salat-ul- 
 'Isha. 
 
 Salat-ul- 
 Ishraq. 
 
 Salat-uz- 
 Zuha. 
 
 Salat-ut- 
 Tahajiud. 
 
 Persian. 
 
 Namaz-i- 
 Subh. 
 
 Namaz-i- 
 Peshin. 
 
 Namaz-i- 
 Digar. 
 
 Namaz-i- 
 Sham. 
 
 Namaz-i- 
 Khuftan. 
 
 Namaz-i- 
 Ishriiq. 
 
 Namaz-i- 
 Chast. 
 
 Namaz-i- 
 Tahajjud. 
 
 Urdu. 
 
 Pajr Ki 
 Namaz. 
 
 Zuhr Ki 
 Namaz. 
 
 'Asr Ki 
 Namaz. 
 
 Maghrib 
 Ki Namaz. 
 
 'Isha Ki 
 Namaz. 
 
 Ishraq Ki 
 Namaz. 
 
 Zuha Ki 
 Namaz. 
 
 Tahajjud 
 Ki Namaz. 
 
 The numbeb of 
 bak'ats said. 
 
 •3.1 
 
 oJ OS 
 
 a 5 
 
 5g 
 
 «■ 'C 
 £ £ 
 
 In addition to these there are several kinds of Namaz 
 which have to be said at different times, or under special cir- 
 cumstances. 
 
 (i). Salat-ul-Juina'. — The Friday Namaz. This is a farz 
 duty. It has the threefold authority of the Quran, the Sun- 
 nat, and the Ijma\ Thus : " ye who believe ! When ye 
 are summoned to prayer on the day of the assembly (Friday), 
 haste ye to the eommemoration of God, and quit your 
 traffic." (Sura lxii. 9.) The Prophet also said : " Juma' is 
 farz," and, " God will make a mark on the heart of him who 
 misses the Salat-ul-Juma' V There are, however, eight 
 kind of persons on whom it is not incumbent, viz : a travel- 
 ler, a sick person, a slave, a woman, a young child, a mad 
 
 1. The Musallf may say five or three witr rak'ats instead of seven. 
 
 2. Nur-ul-Hidayat, p. 155. 
 
8alat-uUJuma\ 201 
 
 person, a blind or a lame person. The conditions which 
 make this Namaz obligatory are : — 
 
 (1). That the place in which it is said be a town in which 
 a Qazi (judge) dwells. 
 
 (2). There must be in the town a ruler or his deputy. 
 
 (3) . It must take the place of the Salat-uz-Zuhr, with which 
 it agrees, except that two farz rak'ats instead of four are recit- 
 ed. The nail rak'ats are omitted. The four sunnat rak'ats 
 which precede, and the two which follow the farz ones are said. 
 
 (4). One, or according to the followers of Imam Shafa'i 
 two Khutbas, or sermons are preached. These are delivered 
 by the Imam after the four sunnat rak'ats are recited, and 
 before the two farz ones. The Khutba should consist of 
 the praise of God, prayer and injunctions to piety. 
 
 (5) . There must be a congregation of three persons besides 
 the Imam. The Shafa'ites say there should be at least forty 
 worshippers. 
 
 (6). The Azan, or call to prayers, must be made to all 
 without distinction of rank. 
 
 Any person who is qualified to act as Imam at the other 
 prayers can conduct this Namaz. The Imam and Khatib 
 (preacher) is usually, but not necessai'ily, one and the same 
 person. The Khutbas should not be long, for Muhammad 
 said that long sermons and short prayers would be a sign 
 of the degeneracy of the latter days. When two Khutbas 
 are said, the hnam sits down to rest before the delivery of 
 the second. The worshippers may then offer up a Du'a, or 
 private prayer. Some, however, say that this practice is 
 bid'at, (innovation) and consider it a very bad act. Accord- 
 ing to the Traditionists, Bukhari, Abu Daiid and Tirmizi, it 
 is a mustahab act to wear clean clothes on Friday. 
 
 The preacher standing on the second step of the Mimbar, 
 or pulpit, with a large club or staff in his hand, delivers his 
 
 sermon. 1 
 
 1 In countries under Muslim rule he holds a wooden sword reversed. 
 
 26 
 
202 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 The following is a specimen of the Khutbas. 
 
 SERMON ON THE EXCELLENCE OF FRIDAY. 
 
 In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful. 
 
 Praise be to God, the King, the Holy, the Great, the Knower. He 
 has opened our hearts through the blessing of Islam. He has made 
 Friday the best of days. We testify that there is no God but God, the 
 One, without partner. This confession saves those who make it from 
 danger and from darkness. We testify that our Lord Muhammad is 
 His servant and His Apostle sent to all mankind. May the mercy 
 and peace of God be on him, his descendants and on his Companions. 
 men ! believers of God ! I advise you and my own soul thus : 
 " Obey God ! Know, O servants of God ! that when Friday commen- 
 ces the angels assemble in the fourth heaven, and Gabriel, (on whom 
 be peace) is the Mu.azzin, Mika,il the Khatib, Israfil the Imam and 
 'Izra,il the Mukabbir 1 and all the angels join in the Namaz. When 
 it is over Gabriel says : " I give the reward due to me as Mu,azzin to 
 the Mu,azzins of the sect of Islam;" Mika,il : " I give mine to the 
 Khatibs ;" Israfil : " I give mine to the Imams ;" 'Izra,il : " I give mine 
 to the Mukabbirs." The angels say : " We give ours to the company 
 of the Muslims." The Prophet said : " The night and day of Friday 
 last twenty-four hours, and each hour God releases a thousand souls 
 from hell. Whosoever makes ' ghusl' on Friday, God will give him 
 for every hair on his body the reward of .ten good deeds. Whosoever 
 dies on a Friday meets with the reward of a martyr." 
 
 Certainly the best and most eloquent speech is the Holy Quran, 
 the Word of God, — the King, the Great, the Knower. His word is 
 true and righteous. When thou readest the Quran say: "0 God! 
 protect me from cursed Satan." 
 
 In the name of God the Compassionate, the Merciful. 
 
 " When ye are summoned to prayer on the day of the assembly, haste 
 to the commemoration of God and quit your traffic. This, if ye knew 
 it, will be best for you. And when the prayer is ended, then disperse 
 yourselves abroad and go in quest of the bounties of God ; and that it 
 may be well with you, oft remember God. But when they get a 
 sight of merchandize or sport, they disperse after, and leave thee 
 standing alone. Say : ' God hath in reserve what is better than 
 sport or wares. God is the best provider.' " (Sura lxii. 9 — 11.) God 
 
 1. One who says, " Allahu Akbar — God is Great." 
 
Friday Sermons. 203 
 
 by means of the Holy Quran will bless us and you. And by its verses 
 and teaching will reward us and you. God is Almighty, Generous, 
 Merciful, Eternal, Holy, Clement. 
 
 Here ends the first sermon ; after a short pause the 
 preacher commences the second. 
 
 In the name of God the Compassionate, the Merciful. 
 
 Praise be to God, the Creator of the earth and heavens, the Maker of 
 light and darkness. I testify that there is no God but God. He is one. 
 He has no partner. Know, O believers ! that this confession will save 
 you from trouble and calamity. I testify that Muhammad, who wipes 
 out error and infidelity, is the servant and Apostle of God. The mercy 
 of God be on our Lord Muhammad, the Lord of Creation ; and on his 
 descendants ; and on his Companions be grace and honour. O ser- 
 vants of God ! I advise you and my own soul thus : Obey God ! Fear 
 God, who created life and death and who scrutinizes our good actions. 
 God ! be pleased with Abu Bakr, the righteous, the Sahib-ul-Ghar, * 
 and with Omar Ibn-ul-Khattab, the chief of the holy men ; and with 
 Osman the possessor of two lights, who was martyred when reading 
 the Holy Quran, and upon Ali Murtuza, the destroyer of infidels 
 and sinners. God ! be pleased with the great Imams Hasan and 
 Husain. Be pleased with their mother Fatimat-uz-Zuhra, the chief 
 of women, and with Hamza and 'Abbas, the uncles of the Prophet. 
 Also be pleased with all the Ashab (Companions). O God ! help those 
 who help the religion of Muhammad, and make us of their number. 
 Make those wretched who corrupt it, and keep us aloof from all such. 
 O believers ! truly God orders you to do justice and to show kindness 
 to your kindred. He orders you to abstain from infidelity and from 
 the greater and the lesser sins. God warns you. God is the Most 
 High, the Most Glorious. God is Great !" 
 
 The collection of Khutbas from which the above have been 
 translated contains a considerable number on a variety of 
 subjects, such as prayer, the resurrection, worldliness, the 
 various feast and fast days, &c. The form in all is very 
 similar. The exordium and the conclusion are practically 
 the same. A few sentences in the middle refer to the 
 special subject of the sermon. The second of the two ser- 
 
 1. A reference to his presence with Muhammad in the cave (ghar) when 
 they fled from Mecca to Madina. See Sura ix. 40. 
 
204 Wte Faith of Islam. 
 
 mons is always the same ; it is practically an invocation of 
 blessings on certain persons. Both are said in Arabic. 
 What would answer to our idea of a sermon, such as an 
 explanation of some doctrine, or an exposition of some 
 passages in the Quran, is not part of the public worship in 
 the mosque, but would be done in an ordinary assembly, in 
 any convenient place, by a Moolla, or any learned man who 
 could collect an audience. 
 
 (ii). Salat-ul-Musafir. — Prayers said by a traveller. A 
 person who makes a journey which lasts three days or three 
 nights is, for this purpose, considered a traveller. x The 
 length of a day's journey is estimated at the distance a 
 camel can march in that period of time. If a traveller 
 intends to stay in a certain place fifteen days, he must repeat 
 the usual Namaz ; if less than fifteen days, or when actually 
 on the journey, he can shorten it. He is then permitted to 
 say only two farz rak'ats. He may omit the sunnat and 
 nan rak'ats if he chooses ; but the three witr rak'ats he must 
 recite at the Salat-ul-'Isha. If a traveller passing through 
 a place is, for the time being, the most suitable person to 
 act as Imam, he being a traveller will only recite two rak'ats. 
 The rest of the worshippers then complete the Namaz. In 
 the case where a permanent resident of the place is the 
 Imam and the traveller only a worshipper, the Imam is 
 bound to recite the whole number of rak'ats and the tra- 
 veller must also repeat the whole after him. The principle 
 on which this is based is that the worshippers must not 
 recite less than the Imam. 2 
 
 (iii). Salat-ul-Khauf.— Prayers of fear. This is a Namaz 
 said during the time of war. When there is imminent 
 danger from the approach of an enemy the Imam should 
 divide the army into two bodies ; one of which should be 
 placed in a position towards the enemy, the other should 
 recite, if they are on the march, one rak'at ; if stationary 
 
 1. Nur-ul-Hidayat, p. 153. 2. Sirat-un-Najat, p. 40. 
 
Saldt-ul-Khauf and Salat-ut-Tarawih. 205 
 
 in a place, two rak'ats. This division will then march 
 towards the enemy and the first division will recite as many 
 rak'ats as may be required to complete the Namaz. The 
 Salam (Ante. p. 197) will be recited by the Imam alone. The 
 first division of troops will not say the qir,at, i.e. the Fatiha 
 and the other verses of the Quran recited after it (Ante. p. 195); 
 but the second division will supply the omission. If the 
 enemy are so near that the cavalry dare not dismount, then 
 each man will recite a rak'at or rak'ats for himself, and 
 make the ruku' and sijda by means of signs. If he cannot 
 turn towards the Qibla, he is, under the circumstances, 
 allowed to face any direction most convenient. During the 
 recital of the Namaz he must not fight, or allow his horse to 
 move, lest the prayer should be rendered void. " When ye 
 go forth to war in the land, it shall be no crime in you to 
 cut short your prayers, if ye fear lest the infidels come upon 
 you. Verily, the infidels are your undoubted enemies ! 
 And when thou, Apostle ! shalt be among them, and shalt 
 pray with them, then let a party of them rise up with thee, 
 but let them take their arms ; and when they shall have 
 made their prostrations, let them retire to your rear : then 
 let another party that hath not prayed come forward, and 
 let them pray with you." (Sura iv. 102, 103). 
 
 (iv). Salat-ut-Tarawih. — This is a special set of twenty 
 rak'ats recited every night during the month of Ramazan. 
 They must be said after the farz and sunnat, and before the 
 witr rak'ats at the time of the Salat-ul-'Isha. The Salat-ut- 
 Tarawih is considei'ed of sunnat obligation. The practice 
 dates from the time of the Khalif Omar. Abd-ur-Rahman, 
 a Traditionist, states that one night in Ramazan he went 
 with Omar to the Mosque. They saw some persons saying 
 the Namaz alone and some reciting it in groups. Omar 
 said : " If I gather them all together, so that they may recite 
 it after one Imam it will be good." He did so, and the 
 next night the people of their own accord came in great 
 numbers and united together. Then said Omar : " this 
 
206 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 bid'at is good." This is good authority for the institution, 
 for the Prophet said : " Follow my Sunnatand that of the 
 Khulafa-i-Rashidin." There is also a Hadis-i-Sahih to the 
 effect that " God has made the fast of Ramazan farz, and 
 its qiam 1 sunnat." (Kutiba 'alaikum siainu Ramazana wa 
 sunna qiamuhu). The Prophet was anxious lest the Tirawih 
 Namaz should become farz and, therefore, after going to 
 the Mosque on two successive nights in Ramazan, he stayed 
 away on the third, giving as his reason for so doing that he 
 feared that, if he went every night, it might be considered a 
 farz and not a sunnat duty. 2 The number of rak'ats is 
 fixed at twenty, as that was the number recited by Muham- 
 mad and by the Khalif Omar. The Shia'hs do not say 
 these prayers or even enter the Mosque on such occasions, 
 as after every four rak'ats an eulogium is repeated on the 
 four Khalifs — the first three of whom they hate. 
 
 (v). Salat-ul-Kusiif and Salat-ul-Khusuf. — Prayer said 
 when an eclipse of the sun, or of the moon takes place. In 
 the former case, the Imam recites with the congregation in 
 the Mosque two rak'ats. The Azan and the Iqamat are both 
 omitted. No Khutba is said. In each rak'at one ruku' is 
 read. The Shafa'ites read two. After the rak'ats are com- 
 pleted those present remain in prayer (du'a) until the eclipse 
 is at an eud. The Namaz during an eclipse of the moon 
 is the same as that during an eclipse of the sun, with this 
 exception that the rak'ats need not be recited in a congre- 
 gation. Each Muslim can say the Namaz privately in his 
 own house. The practice is founded on the Prophet's 
 saying : " When you see an eclipse then remember God, 
 pray (du'a) and recite the Namaz until it becomes light 
 
 again." 
 
 (vi). Salat-ul-Istisqa.— Prayer in time of drought. When 
 
 1. Qiam is one of the positions in a Namaz and is here used by synecdoche 
 for it. In Mecca the Salat-ut-Tarawih is called with reference to this 
 Tradition the Salat-ul-Qiamiah. 
 
 2. Nur-ul.Hidayat, p. 141. 
 
Salat-ul-Jandza. 207 
 
 there is a scarcity of water each person should, with face 
 Qibla-wards, offer up prayer to God. They can be said at 
 home and in private. Care must be taken that no Zimmi x 
 is present. The reason given is that this is a prayer for a 
 blessing ; but God sends no blessing on a company in which 
 a Zimmi is present. 
 
 These prayers are simple Du'a and not a Namaz. There is 
 no well-authenticated Tradition to the effect that the Pro- 
 phet ever said Namaz on such an occasion ; whilst there are 
 many which show that he made Du'a. This is a very good 
 example of the use of the term Salat as a Mushtarik word, 
 i.e. one which has several significations. Its ordinary mean- 
 ing is Namaz ; here it means Du'a. 
 
 (vii). Salat-ul-Janaza. — Prayers at a Funeral. When a 
 person is about to die, the attendants should place him 
 on his right side with his face Qibla-wards. In that 
 position he should repeat the " Kalima-i-Shahadat," the 
 creed of testimony : " I confess that God is one, with- 
 out a partner ; that truly Muhammad is His servant and 
 His Apostle." After death has taken place, the corpse is 
 laid out, incense is burnt, and the shroud is perfumed an 
 odd number of times. A tradition states that an odd number 
 is fixed upon, because the number one which represents the 
 unity of God is odd and not even. The lesser lustration 
 (wazu) is then made. The head and beard are washed with 
 a decoction made of some flowers, after which the greater 
 lustration (ghusl) is made. The members of the body used 
 when making sijda (prostration) i.e., forehead, nose, hands, 
 knees, feet, are then rubbed with camphor. 
 
 To recite the Salat-ul-Janaza is a duty called Farz-i-kifaya, 
 that is, if some few persons in the assembly say it, all need 
 not do so ; whilst if no one repeats it all will be guilty of 
 sin. To prove that this Namaz is farz the following verse is 
 quoted : " Take alms of their substance, that thou mayest 
 
 1. That is, a non-Muslim who is allowed to reside in a Musalman State 
 on payment of a special tax. 
 
208 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 cleanse and purify them thereby, and pray for them ; for 
 thy prayers shall assure their minds : and God heareth, 
 knoweth." (Sura ix. 104.) The proof that it is not Farz-i- 
 'ain (i.e., incumbent on all), but Farz-i-kifaya is drawn from 
 an accouut given in a Hadis, to the effect that the Prophet 
 one day did not recite the Namaz over one of his deceased 
 followers. Now, if the Namaz had been Farz-i-'ain even the 
 Prophet could not have omitted it. His Sunnat, or practice, 
 has decided the nature of the farz command contained in 
 the verse of the Quran just quoted. 
 
 The Namaz can only be said when the corpse is present. 
 It is recited in the open space in front of the Mosque, or in 
 some neighbouring spot : never in the graveyard. 
 
 When all are assembled the Imam or leader says : 
 " Here begins the Namaz for the dead. ; ' 
 
 The company present then stand up in rows with faces 
 turned in the direction of Mecca. The Imam stands a 
 little in front, near the head or waist of the corpse according 
 as it is that of a male or female. Then all assume the Qiam, 
 or standing position, and recite the Niyyat as follows : — 
 
 " I recite Namaz for the sake of God, and offer prayers 
 (Du'a) for this deceased person, and I follow the Imam (who 
 is about to officiate.) 
 
 Then all at the first 1 Takbir put the hands to the lobe 
 of the ears and say : " God is Great !" 
 
 Then they say the Sana (Ante. p. 195.) : — 
 
 " Holiness to Thee O God ! And to Thee be praise ! 
 Great is Thy Name ! Great is Thy greatness ! Great is Thy 
 praise ! There is no God but Thee !" 
 
 Then follows the second Takbir : " God is Great \" 
 
 Then all say the Darud-i-Ibrahim : — 
 
 " God ! have mercy on Muhammad and upon his 
 descendants, as Thou didst bestow mercy, and peace, and 
 blessing, and compassion, and great kindness upon Abra- 
 
 1. The Shafa'ites raise the hands at the recital of each of the four 
 Takbirs ; the other sects do so only at the first. 
 
The Du'd of the, Salat-ul-Jandza. 200 
 
 ham and upon his descendants." " Thou art praised, and 
 Thou art Great !" " O God, bless Muhammad and his descen- 
 dants as Thou didst bless, and didst have compassion and 
 great kindness upon Abraham and upon his descendants." 
 ' Then follows the third Takbir : " God is Great !" 
 
 The Du'a is then repeated : — 
 
 " O God, forgive our living and our dead, and those of 
 us who are present, and those who are absent, and our 
 children and our full grown persons, our men and our 
 women. O God, those whom Thou dost keep alive amongst 
 us, keep alive in Islam, and those whom Thou causest to 
 die, let them die in the Faith." x 
 
 Then follows the fourth Takbir : " God is Great !" 
 
 Then all say : — 
 
 " God, give us good in this world and in the next, and 
 save us by Thy mercy from the troubles of the grave and 
 of hell." 
 
 Then each one in a low voice says the Salam, as in an 
 ordinary Nainaz. (Ante. p. 197.) ' l 
 
 The Namaz is now over and the people make another 
 Du'a thus : — 
 
 " ' our Lord ! suffer not our hearts to go astray after that 
 Thou hast once guided us; and give us mercy from before 
 Thee; for verily Thou art He whogiveth.' (Siiraiii. G.) 
 God, Thou art his :1 Master, and Thou createdst him, and Thou 
 didst nourish him, and didst guide him toward Islam, and 
 Thou hast taken his life, and Thou knowest well his inner 
 and outer life. Provide intercessors for us. Forgive him, 
 for Thou art the Forgiver, the most Merciful." 
 
 1. If the deceased was a child or a mad person, they say : — 
 
 " O God, make him (or her, as the case may be) a guide for us, and 
 make him a cause of our gaining a future reward. God, save him and 
 make him an intercessor for us." 
 
 2. The Imam makes the Niyyat in his mind that the Salam may be on 
 his guardian angels, and on the worshippers who are behind him ; each 
 worshipper makes the Niyyat that the Salam may be on his guardian augels, 
 on his fellow worshippers and on the Imam. 
 
 3. i.e., the deceased's. 
 
 27 
 
210 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 Then going towards the head of the corpse, they say : — 
 " No doubt is there about this Book (Quran.) It is a 
 guidance to the God-fearing, who believe in the unseen, 1 
 who observe prayer (salat,), and out of what we have 
 bestowed on them, expend (for God), and who believe 
 in that which hath been sent down to thee (Muham- 
 mad), and in what hath been sent down before thee ; and 
 full faith have they in the life to come : these are guided 
 by their Lord ; and with these it shall be well. 5 ' (Sura 
 ii. 1—4). 
 
 Then coming towards the feet of the corpse, they say : — 
 " The Apostle believeth in that which hath been sent 
 down from his Lord, as do the faithful also. Each believeth 
 in God, and His angels, and His Books and His Apostles : 
 we make no distinction between auy of His Apostles. 2 And 
 they say : ' We have heard and we obey. (We implore) 
 Thy mercy, Lord ; for unto Thee must we return.' God 
 will not burden any soul beyond its power. It shall enjoy 
 the good which it hath acquired, and shall bear the evil for 
 the acquirement of which it laboured. our Lord ! punish 
 us not if we forget, or fall into sin ; our Lord ! and lay 
 not on us a load like that which Thou hast laid on those 
 who have been before us 3 ; O our Lord ! and lay not on us 
 that for which we have no strength : but blot out our sins 
 and forgive us, and have pity on us. Thou art our protec- 
 tor ; give us victory therefore over the infidel nations." 
 (Sura ii. 285, 286). 
 
 1. Death, resurrection, judgment, &c. 
 
 2. This contradicts verse 254 of this Sura. Muslims explain it thus. We 
 accept all prophets and as regards faith in them make no difference, though 
 as regards dignity we recognize the distinction indicated in the 254th verse. 
 
 3. That is, the Jews and Christians, on whom, it is said by the Muslim 
 Commentators, many strict ceremonial observances were incumbent. The 
 word often used to express the idea of the burdensome nature of ceremo- 
 nial observance is takhlif, trouble. Practically, Muslims are not free from 
 these " loads," a fact which finds expression in the word used for a pious 
 man— a mukhallif, one who has to take trouble in the way of performing 
 religious duties 
 
Conclusion of the Salat-ul-Janam. 211 
 
 The chief mourner then gives the Izn-i-'Amm, that is, he 
 says : — 
 
 " All have permission to depart." 
 
 Some then proceed homewards, others go with the corpse 
 to the graveyard. When the bier is lifted up, or when it 
 is placed down near the grave, the people say : — 
 
 " We commit thee to earth in the name of God and in 
 the religion of the Prophet." 
 
 If the ground is very hard, a recess (lahad) is dug out in 
 the side of the grave. This must be high enough to allow 
 the corpse to sit up when Muukir and Nakir come to inter- 
 rogate it. If the ground is soft a small grave is excavated 
 at the bottom of the larger one. The corpse is then 
 placed in the lower one. The idea in both cases is that 
 the corpse must be in such a position that it can have 
 free movement. The body is placed with the face towards 
 Mecca. When the bands of the shroud have been loosened 
 the people say : — 
 
 " God deprive us not of the heavenly reward of the 
 deceased, place us not in trouble." 
 
 Each person then takes seven clods of earth, and over 
 each clod says : " Bismillah" (in the name of God), and the 
 Surat-ul-Iklas (Sura cxii) and then places each clod by the 
 head of the corpse. Unburnt bricks, bamboos or boards 
 having then been placed over the smaller grave, the persons 
 present with both hands throw clods of earth three times 
 into the grave. The first time they say : " From it (earth) 
 We created you" ; the second time, " and into it will We 
 return you ;" the third time, " and out of it will We bring 
 you a second time." (Sura xx. 57). 
 
 Then they say this Du'a : " God I beseech Thee for the 
 sake of Muhammad not to trouble the deceased." 
 
 When the attendants are filling up the grave they say :— 
 " God, defend the deceased from Shaitan (devil) and from 
 the torments of the grave." 
 
 When the grave is completely filled up, one man pours 
 
212 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 water three, or five, or seven times over it and then plants 
 a green branch on it. 1 
 
 One of the mourners then draws near the middle of the 
 grave and recites the Talqin (instruction) : — 
 
 " servant of God, and child of a female servant of God. 
 
 son of (such an one), 2 remember the faith you professed 
 on earth to the very last; that is, your witness that 
 there is no God but God, and that certainly Muhammad 
 is His Apostle, and that Paradise and Hell and the Re- 
 surrection from the dead are real ; that there will be a 
 day of judgment, and say : 'I confess that God is my 
 Lord, Islam my religion, Muhammad (on whom be the 
 mercy and peace of God) my Prophet, the Quran my guide, 
 the K'aba my Qibla, and that Muslims are my brethren/ 
 O God, keep him (the deceased) firm in this faith, and 
 widen his grave, and make his examination (by Munkir and 
 Nakir) easy, and exalt him and have mercy on him, Thou 
 most Merciful." 
 
 The other persons present then offer a Patiha. 3 
 
 After this, they may, if they like to do so, read the Surat- 
 ul-Ya Sin (xxxvi) and the Surat-ul-Mulk (lxvii.) It is not 
 common to do so. Then retiring forty paces from the 
 grave they again offer a Patiha, for by this time the exami- 
 nation of the deceased has commenced. The first night 
 is one of great trouble to the deceased, so alms should 
 be given liberally that night in his name. In order to 
 relieve him as much as possible, two nafl rak'ats of a 
 Namaz should be said. After the Fatiha in each rak'at 
 the worshipper should repeat the Ayat-ul-Kursi (Throne- 
 
 1. In Madras, a branch of the pomegranate tree is usually stuck in. 
 
 2. The name of the mother is here inserted. The mother's name is 
 chosen in preference to that of the father, as there can be no doubt as to 
 the maternity of the child. For the same reason it is said that at the Last 
 Day each man will be summoned as such an one, son of such a mother. 
 This simple fact reveals a sad state of morals, or, at least, a disbelief in the 
 virtue of women. 
 
 3. The idea is that the reward of this act is transferred to the person on 
 whose behalf it is made. 
 
The Fast of Ramazan. 213 
 
 verse) 1 three times ; then the Surat-ut-Takisur (102) eleven 
 times; then the Surat-ul-Iklas (112) three times. 
 
 After the Salam and the Darud the worshipper lifts up 
 both hands, and with great humility prays that the reward 
 of the service just concluded may be bestowed on the 
 deceased. 
 
 (viii). Salat-ul-Istikhara. — This is a Namaz said before 
 undertaking any special work. The person recites two 
 rak'at prayers. After each rak'at he says the following 
 Du'a : " God, make me know what is best for me, and 
 keep me from evil, and bestow good upon me, for I have 
 no power to know what is best for me." He then goes to 
 sleep, during which period he expects to receive a special 
 inspiration (Ilham) which will give him the needed directions 
 and guide him aright as to the matter in hand. 
 
 (ix). Salat-ut-Tarawih. — This consists of twenty rak'ats 
 recited each evening during the month of Ramazan. An 
 account of these will be given in the next chapter when the 
 ceremonies connected with the Ramazan fast are described. 
 
 3. Roza, the thirty days' fast op Ramazan. — Fasting 
 is defined to be abstinence from food, drink and cohabita- 
 tion from sunrise to sunset. There must also be in the 
 mind the intention of keeping a fast. The person should 
 say : " Lord, I intend to fast to-morrow for Thy sake. 
 Forgive my past and future sin." When the fast is ended 
 he says : " God I fasted for Thy sake and had faith in 
 Thee, and confided in Thee and now I break (iftar) the fast 
 with the food Thou givest. Accept this act." 
 
 It is a farz duty to keep the fast during the thirty days 
 of the month Ramazan. This is laid down in the words : 
 " believers ! a fast is prescribed to you as it was pre- 
 scribed to those before you." " As to the month Ramazan, 
 in which the Quran was sent down to be man's guidance, 
 and an explanation of that guidance, and of that illumina- 
 
 1. Sura ii. 256. 
 
214 The Faith of Islam, 
 
 tion, as soon as any one of you observeth the moon, let him 
 set about the fast." [Sura ii. 179—181). The Ijma' is also 
 unanimous on this point. Young children and idiots are 
 excused. Sick persons and travellers may postpone the fast 
 to another time. " He who is sick, or upon a journey, shall 
 fast a like number of other days. God wisheth you ease, 
 but wisheth not your discomfort, and that you fulfil the 
 number of days." (Sura ii. 181). This is called a qaza fast, 
 that is, a fast kept at another time in lieu of one which has 
 been omitted. 
 
 If a person makes a vow that, if God grants a certain 
 request, he will fast (roza-i-nazr), or if he fasts by way of 
 atonement for some sin committed (roza-i-kafara), in both 
 cases it is a wajib duty to keep the fast. Some hold that 
 the former is a farz duty and base their assertion on the 
 verse : " Let them bring the neglect of their persons to 
 a close, and let them pay their vows." (Sura xxii. 30). 
 
 All other kinds of fasts are nail, a term already explained 
 (p. 199). Such are the fasts kept on the 10th day of Mu- 
 harram, on the Aiyam-i-Biz (bright days) — the loth, 14th 
 and 15th day of any month, on the 15th of Sh'aban, that is, 
 the day following the night called Shab-Barat, and on the 
 30th of each month in which there are thirty days. A nan fast 
 may be broken if the person who intended to keep it receives 
 an invitation to a feast. According to Bukhari, a woman may 
 not make a nan fast without the consent of her husband. 
 The reverse is not the case, for u Men are superior to women 
 on account of the qualities with which God hath gifted the 
 one above the other, and on account of the outlay they make 
 from their substance for them." (Siira iv. 38). It is said 
 that one day a woman came to the Prophet and said that 
 her husband had slapped her. The Prophet wished to 
 punish him for doing so improper an act, but he was pre- 
 vented by the descent from heaven of the verse just quoted, 
 which is held to be conclusive evidence of the inferiority of 
 women. The verse also contains the words " chide those 
 
The Fad of Ramazan. 215 
 
 (wives) for whose refractoriness ye have cause to fear ; 
 remove them into beds apart, and scourge them." It is 
 mustahab to fast some days in the month Shawwal, for 
 Muhammad is reported to have said : " Whosoever keeps 
 the fast of Ramazan and some seven days in the preceding 
 month of Shawwal, it is as if his whole life were a fast." 
 
 If on account of dull weather, or of dust storms the new 
 moon is not visible, it is sufficient to act on the testimony of 
 a trustworthy person who declaims that Ramazan has com- 
 menced. Imam Shafa'i requires two, but the following 
 Tradition is quoted against him : " An Arab came to the 
 Prophet and said : ' I have seen the new moon/ His Ex- 
 cellency said : c Dost thou believe that there is no God but 
 God ? Dost thou confess that Muhammad is His Apostle V 
 ' Yes/ replied the man. The Prophet calling Billal, the 
 Mu,azzin, said : f Tell the people to commence the fast. 5 " 
 This proves that the evidence of one good Muslim is suffi- 
 cient testimony in the matter. 
 
 The fast is destroyed in the following cases : — if when 
 cleansing the teeth a little water should pass into the throat, 
 if food is eaten under compulsion, if an enema is used, if 
 medicine is put into the ears, nose or a wound in the head, 
 if a meal has been taken on the supposition that it was 
 night when it was really day, if the niyyat (intention) in the 
 Ramazan fast was not properly made, if after a meal taken 
 during the night a portion of food larger than a grain of 
 corn remains between the teeth or in a cavity of a tooth, 
 lastly, if food is vomited. In each of these cases a qaza, fast 
 must be kept in lieu of the one thus broken. 
 
 In the case where the fast is deliberately broken, the 
 person must atone for his sin by settiug a slave at liberty ; 
 if from any cause that cannot be done, he must fast every 
 day for two months ; if that cannot be done, he must give 
 sixty persons two full meals each, or give one man such 
 meals daily for sixty days. 
 
 The fast is not broken by merely tasting anything, by 
 
216 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 applying antimony to the eyes, and oil to the beard, by 
 cleansing the teeth, or by kissing a person ; but it is con- 
 sidered better not to do these things during the day-time. 
 The Imam As-Shafa'i declared that it was very wrong 
 indeed to do either of these actions after noon. He used to 
 repeat the following Tradition handed down by Tabrani. 
 " The Prophet said : ' when you fast, cleanse the teeth in the 
 early morning, because when the lips of him who fasts 
 become dry and parched, they will be for him a light in the 
 day of judgment.' " 
 
 If a person through the infirmity of old age is not able to 
 keep the fast, he must perform sadqa, that is, he must feed 
 a poor person. This opinion is based on a sentence in the 
 Quran, which has caused a good deal of dispute : " As for 
 those who are able (to keep it and yet break it), the expia- 
 tion of this shall be the maintenance of a poor man." (Sura 
 ii. 180). This seems to make fasting a matter of personal 
 option, and some Commentators admit that at first it was so, 
 but they say that the words have been abrogated l by the 
 following sentence which occurs in the next verse : " As 
 soon as any one of you observeth the moon, let him set about 
 the fast." Others say that the negative particle " not" must 
 be understood before " able," in which case the words in 
 italics must be omitted. Others explain the expression 
 " those who are able" as equivalent to " those who have 
 great difficulty therein," such as aged and infirm persons. 
 This seems to be the best interpretation and is the one which 
 practically is acted on. 
 
 In the case of women with child, mothers giving suck to 
 their children, sick persons whom fasting at this particular 
 time might injure, it is sufficient if they keep it at another 
 time ; that is, they must when convenient make a qaza fast. 
 
 1. There are others who maintain that this is a mukhani statement and 
 cannot therefore be abrogated. They hold that it must be restricted to the 
 aged and to persons who have chronic diseases. Tafsir-i-Husaini, p. 30. 
 Tafair-i-Faiz-ul-Karim, p. 120. 
 
Sahra and Ifla/r. 217 
 
 In these cases the sadqa or feeding of the poor is not re- 
 quired. Thus Abu Daud says : " The Prophet said, ' God 
 allows travellers to shorten the Namaz and to postpone the 
 fast. Women also are allowed to fast another time/ ' The 
 Quran is also clear on the point : " He who is sick or upon 
 a journey, shall fast a like number of other days." (Sura 
 ii. 181). There are five days in the year in which it is un- 
 lawful to fast. These are, 'Id-ul-Fitr, Baqr-'id and the 
 three following days, viz : the 11th, 12th and 13th of Zu'l- 
 Hajja. If during the month of Ramazan, a person arrives 
 at maturity, or an Infidel becomes a Muslim, each must 
 keep the fast during the remaining days of the month. 
 
 To take the Sahra, or meal taken just before sunrise in 
 the month of Ramazan, is a Sunnat act. The great Tradi- 
 tionists, Bukhari, Muslim and Tirmizi, all agree that the 
 Prophet said : " Eat Sahra because there is a blessing in 
 it. The difference between our fast and that of the men of 
 the Book (Christians) is the partaking of Sahra." 
 
 The meal eaten immediately after sunset is called Iftar, 
 or the breaking of the fast. In India it is the custom to 
 eat a date first, or if that fruit is not procurable to drink a 
 little water. In Turkey an olive is chosen as the fruit with 
 which the fast should be broken. 
 
 The distinctive feature of a Muhammadan fast is, that it 
 is a fast during the day only. The rich classes by turning 
 day into night avoid much of its rigour. 
 
 They, however, frequently break the fast, though any such 
 action must be done in secret, for popular opinion all over 
 the Musalman world is strongly against a man who does not 
 outwardlv, at least, observe the fast of Ramazan. In this 
 matter it may be said 
 
 " Pecher en secret, n'est pas pecher, 
 Ce n'est que l'eclat qui fait le crime." 
 Those who have to work for their living find the obser- 
 vance of the fast very difficult, for however laborious may be 
 their occupation they must not swallow any liquid ; yet as 
 
 28 
 
218 The Faith of Islam, 
 
 a rule the lower classes observe it strictly. l In hot climates 
 this is often exceedingly distressing. In such circumstances 
 the evening twilight is anxiously looked for, as then the Iftar 
 can be commenced. The month of Ramazan brings with it 
 other duties than that of fasting. These will be described 
 in the next chapter. 
 
 4. Zakat. — There are two terms in use to express alms- 
 giving. The first is Zakat (literally, " purification") or the 
 legal alms due, with certain exceptions, from every Muslim. 
 The second is Sadqa, or offerings on the feast day known 
 as 'Id-ul-Fitr, or alms in general. 2 It is the first of these 
 that has now to be considered. 
 
 On the authority of the Quran and the Ijma'-i-Ummat it 
 is declared to be a farz duty for every Muslim of full age, 
 after the expiration of a year, to give the Zakat on account 
 of his property ; provided that, he has sufficient for his 
 subsistence and is a Sahib -i-Nisab, or one who possesses an 
 income equivalent to about £5 per annum. The Quran says : 
 " Observe prayer (Salat) and the legal impost (Zakat)." 
 (Sura ii. 40). The Khalif 'Umr Ibn 'Abd-ul-'Aziz used to 
 say : " Prayer carries us half way to God, fasting brings us 
 to the door of His palace, and alms procure us admission." 
 The three conditions without which Zakat would not be 
 compulsory are Islam, Hurriat (freedom) and Nisab (stock). 
 The reason for this is, that Zakat is said to be a fundamen- 
 tal part of 'Ibadat (worship), and that, as the Infidels 
 cannot perform acceptable worship, they have nothing to do 
 with Zakat. Freedom is necessary, for slaves hold no pro- 
 
 1. Barton says that, when in the disguise of a Mnsalman doctor he was 
 in Cairo making preparations for the Hajj, he had but one patient who 
 would break his fast to save his life. All the others refused though death 
 should be the consequence. 
 
 2. " The former are called Zakat, either because they increase a man's 
 store by drawing down a blessing on him and produce in his soul the virtue 
 of liberality, or because they purify the remaining part of one's substance 
 from pollution and the soul from the filth of avarice ; the latter are called 
 Sadqa because they are a proof of a man's sincerity in the worship of 
 God." Sale's Preliminary Discourse, Section iv. 
 
Nisab. 219 
 
 perty. Nisab is required, for so the Prophet has decided. 
 When the Nisab is required for daily use the zakat is not 
 taken from it ; such as a slave retained for personal service, 
 grain for food, weapons, tools, books, household furniture, 
 wearing apparel, horses for riding, &c, for one Tradition 
 records that the Prophet specially exempted all these, whilst 
 another given on the authority of Bukhari states that for 
 slaves employed in domestic service only the Sadqa-i-fltr * 
 should be given. If a person owes a debt, the amount 
 necessary for its liquidation must be deducted from his 
 property and the Zakat given on the balance. If it is a 
 debt due to God, such as an offering due on a vow or to 
 be given in atonement for the neglect of some religious duty, 
 it must not be so deducted from the property on which 
 Zakat is due. 
 
 The amount of gold which constitutes a Nisab is 20 mis- 
 kats, or of silver 200 dirhems (= £5 4s.). Whether these 
 metals are in coin or not, one-fortieth part is due. Some 
 say that gold and silver ornaments are exempt, but Imam 
 Shafa'i does not admit this, and quotes from Abu Daud 
 the following Tradition : " A woman with a child, on 
 whose arms were heavy golden bracelets, came to the Pro- 
 phet. He enquired if the Zakat had been given for them. 
 On receiving a reply in the negative he said : ' It is easy for 
 God in the day of judgment to make thee wear bracelets of 
 fire.' The girl then took them off and said : ' These are for 
 the service of God and of His Prophet/ " On all treasure 
 known as rikaz, that is, buried treasure found by any one, 
 and on valuable metals extracted from mines, one-fifth of the 
 value must be paid, whether the land be Khariji, rented at 
 its proper market value ; or 'Ushari possessed by the pay- 
 ment of a tithe. If the rikaz is found in Dar-ul-Harb, a 
 country under a non- Muslim Government, the whole belongs 
 to the finder, if it is on his own land, or if on unclaimed 
 
 1. That is food or money sufficient to provide one meal for a poor person, 
 
220 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 land he must pay the oue-fifth. If the coins found bear the 
 mint stamp of a Musalman Government, the finder must, if 
 he can, find the owner and return them to him ; if they were 
 coined in a mint belonging to the Infidels, after having given 
 one-fifth as Zakat, he may retain four-fifths for himself. 
 
 Pearls, amber and turquoise are not subject to any deduc- 
 tion, for the Prophet said : " There is no Zakat for stones." 
 
 As regards cattle the following rules have been laid down. 
 For sheep and goats nothing is given when the number is 
 under forty. The owner must give one for one hundred 
 and twenty, two for the next eighty and one for every hun- 
 dred after. The scale for buffaloes is the same as that for 
 sheep. 
 
 For camels the rule is as follows : from 5 to 24 in number, 
 one sheep or goat must be given ; from 25 to 35, one year- 
 ling female camel (bint-i-mukhaz) ; from 36 to 45, one two- 
 year old female camel (bint-i-labun) ; from 46 to 60, one 
 three-year old female camel (hiqqah) ; from 61 to 75, one 
 four-year old female camel (jaz'ah) ; from 76 to 90, two 
 bint-i-labun ; from 91 to 120, two hiqqah ; and from 121 
 upwards, either a bint-i-labun for every forty or a hiqqah 
 for every fifty. Horses follow this scale, or two and a half 
 per cent, on the value may be given instead. For 30 cows 
 a one-year old female calf (tabi'a) must be given ; for 40, a 
 two-year old female calf (musinna), and after that one calf 
 for every ten cows. 
 
 Donkeys and mules are exempt, for the Prophet said : 
 " No order has come down (from heaven) to me about 
 them." 
 
 If a stock of merchandize exceeds the Nisab (£5 4s.), Zakat 
 must be given on it and on the profits at the rate of one in 
 forty, or two-and-a-half per cent. The Hanifites do not 
 count a fraction of the forty. The Shafa'ites count such a 
 fractional part as forty and require the full Zakat to be paid 
 on it. 
 
 Honey, fruit, grain, &c, although less than five camel 
 
Recipients of the Zakdt. 22 1 
 
 loads/ must according to Imam Abu Hanifa pay one-tenth ; 
 but the Sahibain and Imam Shafa'i say that if there is less 
 than the five camel loads no Zakat is required. The Pro- 
 phet said : " If produced on land naturally watered one- 
 tenth is due, if on land artificially irrigated one-twentieth." 
 As he said nothing about the quantity, the Hanifites adduce 
 the fact of the omission as a proof on their side. 
 
 The Zakat should be given to the classes of person men- 
 tioned in the following verse. " Alms are to be given to 
 the poor and the needy, and to those who collect them, and 
 to those xuhose hearts are won to Islam, and for ransoms, and 
 for debtors, and for the cause of God, and for the wayfarer." 
 (Sura ix. 60). The words italicised, according to the Tafsir-i- 
 Husaini, are now cancelled (mansukh). The reference is to 
 the Arab Chiefs who were beaten by the Prophet at the 
 battle of Honein (a.h. 8). This victory is referred to in the 
 25th verse of this Sura. " God hath helped you in many 
 battle fields, and on the day of Honein." Abu Bakr abo- 
 lished this giving of Zakat to converts, and the Khalif Omar 
 said to these or similar persons : " This Zakat was given to 
 incline your hearts toward Islam. Now God has prospered 
 Islam. If you be converted it is well ; if not, a sword is 
 between us." No Companion has denied this statement, and 
 so the authority for the cancelling of this clause is that of the 
 Ijma/-i-Ummat (unanimous consent). It is well that an 
 appeal to unworthy motives should be abolished, but no 
 commentator so far as I know makes that a reason for the 
 cancelling of this order. It is always placed on the ground 
 of the triumphant nature of Islam which now needs no such 
 support. Contemptuous indifference, not any high moral 
 motive was the cause of the change. 
 
 In addition to the persons mentioned in the verse just 
 quoted, Zakat may be given to assist a Mukatib, or slave 
 
 1. The technical term is 5 wasq. A wasq is equal to 60 sa\ and a sa' is 
 equal to 8 ratal. A ratal is equal to 1 lb ; so a wasq, a load for one camel, 
 is about 480 ft). 
 
222 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 who is working in order to purchase his freedom. Persons 
 who are too poor to go on a Jihad or to make the Hajj must 
 be assisted. 
 
 The Zakat must not be given for building mosques, : for 
 funeral expenses, liquidating the debts of a deceased person, 
 or to purchase a slave in order to set him free. It is not 
 lawful to give the Zakat to parents or grand-parents, chil- 
 dren or grandchildren ; or for a husband to give it to his 
 wife, or a wife to her husband ; or a master to his slave. The 
 Sahibain 2 maintain that a wife can apply the Zakat to her 
 husband's wants and quote this Tradition : " A woman 
 asked the Prophet if she could give the Zakat to her hus- 
 band. He answered ' give ; such an act has two rewards, 
 one for the giving of charity and one for the fulfilment of 
 the duties of relationship.' " It .should not be given to a 
 rich man, nor to his son, nor to his slave. The descendants 
 of Hasham and the descendants of the Prophet should not 
 be the recipients of the Zakat. The Prophet said : " Ahl- 
 i-Beit (men of 4 the house), it is not lawful for you to receive 
 Zakat, for you get the one-fifth share of my fifth portion of 
 the booty." So some say that Syeds are excluded ; but they 
 demur and reply that they do not now get a portion of the 
 spoil of the Infidels. Zakat must not be given to a Zimmi 
 (a non-muslim subject). 
 
 In Muhammadan countries there are officers whose duty 
 it is to collect the Zakat ; in India the payment is left to each 
 person's conscience. Whilst there is not much regularity in 
 the payment, due credit must be given for the care which 
 Musalmans take of their poor. 
 
 The Sadqa (charitable offerings) form a different branch 
 of this subject. A full account of it will be given in the 
 section of the next chapter which treats of the 'Id-ul-Fitr. 
 
 1. Mosques are usually endowed. The property thus set apart is called 
 waqf. This supports the various officials connected with a Mosque. 
 
 2. The two famous disciples of Imam Abu Hanifa, Abu Yusuf and Mu- 
 hammad. 
 
The Hajj. 223 
 
 5. The Hajj. — The Hajj, or pilgrimage to Mecca, is a 
 farz duty, and he who denies this fact is considered to be 
 an infidel. " The pilgrimage to the temple is a service 
 due to God from those who are able to journey thither : 
 and as to him who believeth not — verily God can afford to 
 dispense with all creatures." (Sura iii. 91, 92.) On the 
 authority of Ibn 'Abbas the following Tradition has been 
 handed down. " The Prophet said : ' God has made the 
 Hajj farz/ Then Aqra' bin Habis, standing up, said : 
 ' O Prophet is it to be made every year V His Excellency 
 said : e If I say — yes, it will be a wajib duty to do it 
 annually ; but that ye are not able to bear, so the Hajj is 
 necessary only once ; whatever pilgrimage may be made to 
 Mecca in addition is nafl.' " 
 
 The Hajj must be made by every free Muslim, who is 
 sound in body, and of full age, when he has sufficient 
 means to pay his expenses, after duly providing for the 
 support of his household till his return. If a slave, or a 
 child should make the Hajj, the former on attaining free- 
 dom, and the latter on coming of age must again go on 
 pilgrimage. If a woman, whose residence is at a distance 
 of more than three days' journey from Mecca, goes on 
 pilgrimage, she must be accompanied by her husband or by 
 a near relative. Imam As Shafa'i denies the necessity of 
 such attendance, stating that the verse already quoted 
 makes no such restriction. His objection is, however, 
 met as usual by a Tradition. " A certain man came to the 
 Prophet and said : ' My wife is about to make the Hajj, 
 but I am called to go on a warlike expedition.' The 
 Prophet said : ' Turn away from the war and accompany 
 thy wife in the Hajj.' ' Imam Abu Yusuf considered that 
 a man who possessed the means should go to Mecca, and 
 held that if he delayed moi'e than a year in making the 
 Hajj he was a sinner. Imam Muhammad, and most others 
 think that a person may postpone the Hajj for some years, 
 but if death should overtake the man before he has made 
 
224 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 the pilgrimage, he will be accounted a sinner. So practi- 
 cally all agree that delay is dangerous. 
 
 Connected with the Hajj there are three actions which are 
 f arz, and five which are wajib ; all the rest are sunnat or 
 mustahab. The farz requisites are: (1) to wear no other 
 garment except the Ihram, 1 two seamless wrappers, one of 
 which is worn round the loins, the other thrown over the 
 shoulder ; (2) to stand in 'Arfat ; (3) to make the Tawaf, 
 that is to go round the K'aba seven times. 
 
 The wajib duties are: (1) to stay in Muzdalifah ; (2) to 
 run between Mount Safa and Mount Marwah ; (3) to per- 
 form the Rami-ul- Jamar, or the casting of the pebbles ; 
 (4) if the pilgrims are non-Meccans they must make an 
 extra Tawaf ; (5) to shave the head after the pilgrimage 
 is over. 
 
 The Hajj must be made at the appointed season. " Let 
 the pilgrimage (Hajj) be made in the months already known. 
 (Sura ii. 193). These months are Shawwal, Zu'1-q'ada, and 
 the first ten days of Zu'1-Hajja. The actual Hajj must be 
 in the month Zu'1-Hajja, but the preparations for, and the 
 niyyat, or intention of the Hajj can be made in the two pre- 
 ceding months. The 'Umrah, or ordinary pilgrimage, can 
 be done at any time of the year except on the ninth, and four 
 succeeding days of Zu'1-Hajja. On each of the various roads 
 leadiner to Mecca, there are at a distance of about five or six 
 miles from the city stages called Miqat. The following are 
 the names. On the Madina road, the stage (manzil) is called 
 Zu'1-Halifah ; on the 'Iraq road, Zat-i-'Arq ; on the Syrian 
 road, Hujfah ; on the Najd road, Qarn ; on the Yaman road, 
 Yalamlam. 2 
 
 1. This ceremony is called Al-Ihram (i.e., making unlawful), because 
 now various actions and pursuits must be abstained from. The ceremony of 
 doffing the pilgrim's garb is called Al-Ihlal (i.e., making lawful), for now the 
 pilgrim returns to the ordinary pursuits and joys of a life in the world. 
 
 2. This statement of names is taken from the Niir-ul-Hidayat p. 211, and 
 that of the distance from Hughes' Notes on Islam ; but Burton speaks of 
 Al Zaribah, a place 47 miles distant from Mecca as a Miqat. It was there 
 that he assumed the Ihram. The explanation probably is that a Haji must 
 
The Ihram. 225 
 
 The Hajis from all parts of the Muslim world at length 
 arrive weary and worn at one of these stages. They then 
 divest themselves of their ordinary clothing, and after a legal 
 ablution, and after saying a Namaz of two nafl rak'ats they 
 put on the Ihram. The Haji, having now really entered 
 upon the Ha]j, faces Mecca and makes the niyyat (intention), 
 and says : " God, I purpose to make the Hajj ; make this 
 service easy to me and accept it from me." He then says 
 the Talbiyah l : " Here I am ! O Allah ! Here T am ! Here 
 I am ! There is no God but Thee ! Truly, praise and bounty, 
 and the kingdom are to Thee ! No partner hast Thou ! 
 Here am I \" 
 
 The persons who reside permanently in any of these Miqat 
 can assume the pilgrim's garb in a place called Hal, near to 
 Mecca, or in the city itself ; whilst the inhabitants of Mecca 
 can put on the Ihram in the precincts of the temple. 
 
 The Haji having assumed the Ihram must now abstain 
 from worldly affairs, and devote himself entirely to the 
 duties of the Hajj. lie is not allowed to hunt, though he 
 may catch fish if he can. " Believers, kill no game while 
 ye are on pilgrimage." (Sura v. 06). The Prophet also 
 said : " He who shows the place where game is to be found 
 is equally as bad as the man who kills it." The Haji must 
 not scratch himself, lest vermin be destroyed, or a hair be 
 uprooted. Should he feel uncomfortable, he must rub him- 
 self with the open palm of his hand. 2 The face and head 
 must be left uncovered, the hair on the head and beard 
 ' unwashed and uncut. " Shave not your heads until the 
 
 not approach nearer to Mecca without the Ihram than the places named in 
 the text. The farther from Mecca it is assumed, provided that it be during 
 one of the two months preceding Zu'1-Hajja, the more meritorious is the act. 
 
 1. Talbiyah means the repetition of " Labbaik," a phrase equivalent to 
 " I am here." The Talbiyah can be said iu any language, though Arabic 
 is preferred. It usually is as follows : " Labbaik, Allahnmma, Labbaik ! 
 La Sharika laka, Labbaik ! Inna-1-hamda wa-n-ni'amata laka, w'-al-mnlk ! 
 La Sharika laka, Labbaik ! 
 
 2. " The object of these minute details is that the "Truce of God' may 
 be kept." The five noxious creatures, however, may be slain, viz., a crow, 
 a kite, a scorpion, a rat and a biting dog." (Burton). 
 
 ay 
 
226 The Faith of Ishim. 
 
 offering reach the place of sacrifice." (Siira ii. 192). On 
 arriving at an elevated place, on descending a valley, on 
 meeting any one, on entering the city of Mecca or the 
 Musjid-ul-Haram l the Haji should continually repeat the 
 word " Labbaik, Labbaik." 
 
 As soon as he sees the K'aba 2 he must say the Takbir 
 and the Tahlil. The Traditionist ' Ata says that at this stage 
 the Prophet used to lift up his hands and pray. 
 
 On entering the enclosure, the Haji says the Labbaik, 
 Takbir and the Tahlil, then a Du'a. A Namaz of two rak'ats 
 is then said at the station of one of the four great Imams. 
 On arriving near the Hajr-ul-Aswad (black stone) the Haji 
 again says the Takbir and the Tahlil, after which he kisses the 
 stone. If, on account of the crowd, he cannot get near 
 enough to do this, he must touch it with his hand or with 
 a stick, and kiss that with which he has thus touched the 
 stone. At the same time he says : " O Allah, (I do this) 
 in Thy belief, and in verification of Thy book, and in pur- 
 suance of Thy Prophet's example — may Allah bless and 
 preserve him. accept Thou my supplication, diminish 
 my obstacles, pity my humiliation and graciously grant me 
 Thy pardon." Then he again repeats the Takbir and the 
 
 1. The Musjid-ul-Haram is the large Mosque in Mecca. The K'aba (cube) 
 is a square stone building in the centre. This is also called the Qibla. 
 The Hajr-ul-Aswad is the black stone fixed in the corner of the K'aba. 
 
 2. It is said to have been rebuilt ten times. A full description will be 
 found in Burton's Pilgrimage to Madina and Mecca, vol. iii. ch. 26. It is 
 far too long to quote, and it cannot be condensed. The following extract is 
 of some interest, as it states why the 'Ulama consider the K'aba so sacred 
 a place. They quote the verse : ' Verily the first house built for mankind (to 
 worship in) is that in Beccah (Mecca) — Blessed and a salvation to human 
 beings. Therein are manifest signs, even the standing-place of Abraham, and 
 he who enterethis safe,' (Sura iii. 90). The word 'therein' is said to mean 
 Mecca, and the " manifest signs" the K'aba, which contains such marvels 
 as the. footprints on Abraham's platform, and is the spiritual safeguard of 
 all who enter it. In addition, other " signs" are the preservation of the 
 black stone, the miracles put forth to defend the House, the terrible death 
 of the sacrilegious, and the fact that in the Flood the big fish did not eat 
 the little fish in the Haram. Invalids recover their health by rubbing 
 themselves against the Kiswat (the covering of the K'aba), and the black 
 stone. One hundred thousand mercies descend on it every day, &c. Por- 
 tions of the Kiswat are highly valued as markers for the Quran. Waistcoats 
 made of it are supposed to render the combatant invulnerable in battle. 
 
The Tawcif. 227 
 
 Tahlil, the Darud and the Tahrif (prayer for, and praise of 
 Muhammad). He then encompasses the K'aba seven times, 
 in accordance with the niyyat he had made, thus : " In the 
 name of Allah, and Allah is Omnipotent ! I purpose to 
 make the circuit seven times." x This is called the Tawaf. 
 The Haji runs round three times at a rapid pace (Tarani- 
 mul), and four times he proceeds slowly (Taammul). A 
 permanent resident in Mecca will not perform the Tawaf. 
 The Haji then presses his stomach, chest and right cheek 
 against the portion of the K'aba wall, called Al-Multazim, 
 and raising up his arms on high says : " Allah, Lord of 
 the Ancient House, free my neck from hell-fire, and pre- 
 serve me from every evil deed ; make me contented with 
 that daily bread which Thou hast given to me, and bless 
 me in all Thou hast granted \" He then says the Istigfar — 
 " I beg pardon of Allah, the Most High, the Living, the 
 Eternal, and to Him I repent." 
 
 The Haji next proceeds to the Maqam-i-Ibrahim 2 (place 
 of Abraham) and then recites two rak'ats 3 called Sunnat-ut- 
 Tawaf. Some water from the sacred well Zemzem is then 
 drunk, after which the Haji returns to the Hajr-ul-Aswad, 
 and again kisses it. 
 
 Haji Burton thus describes one shaut or circuit : — 
 
 " We began the prayer ' O Allah (I do this) in Thy belief and in 
 verification of Thy Book, and in faithfulness to Thy covenant and 
 after the example of Thy Prophet Muhammad. May Allah bless 
 and preserve him !' till we reached the place Al-Multazim, between 
 the corner of the black stone and the K'aba door. Here we ejacu- 
 lated, ' O Allah, Thou hast rights, so pardon my transgressing them.' 
 Opposite the door we repeated, ' O Allah, verily the house is Thy 
 house, and the sanctuary Thy sanctuary, and the safeguard Thy 
 
 1. The whole seven are one TJsbu'. 
 
 2. The Maqam-i-Ibrahim is a small building, supported, by six pillars 
 about eight feet high, four of which are surrounded from top to bottom by 
 a fine iron railing, while the space between the two hinder pillars is left 
 open ; within the railing is a frame about five feet square, said to contain 
 the sacred stone on which Abraham sat when he built the K'aba. 
 
 3. In the first rak'at, the chapter usually recited is Sura cix ; in the 
 second, Sura cxii. 
 
228 The Faith of Mam. 
 
 safeguard, and this is the place of Him who flees to Thee from 
 (hell) fire.' At the building called Maqam-i-Ibrahim, we said : ' O 
 Allah, verily this is the place of Abraham, who took refuge with, and 
 fled to Thee from the tire ! O deny my flesh and blood, my skin 
 and bones to the (eternal) flames.' As we paced slowly round the 
 north or Irak corner of the K'aba we exclaimed, ' O Allah, verily I 
 take refuge with Thee from polytheism, and disobedience, and 
 hypocrisy, and evil conversation, and evil thoughts concerning 
 family, and property and progeny.' When we passed from the 
 Mizab, or spout, we repeated the words, ' Allah, verily I beg of 
 Thee faith which shall not decline, and a certainty which shall not 
 perish, and the good aid of Thy Prophet Muhammad — may Allah 
 bless and preserve him! O Allah, shadow me in Thy shadow, on 
 the day when there is no shadow by Thy shadow ; and cause me to 
 drink from the cup of Thy Prophet Muhammad— may Allah bless 
 and preserve him — that pleasant draught, after which is no thirst to 
 all eternity, O Lord of honour and glory.' Turning to the west 
 corner, or the Rukn el Shami, we exclaimed : ' O Allah, make it an 
 acceptable pilgrimage, and a forgiveness of sins, and a laudable 
 endeavour, and a pleasant action (in Thy sight), and a store which 
 perisheth not, Thou Glorious, O Thou Pardoner!' This was 
 repeated thrice, till we arrived at the Yemani, or southern corner, 
 where the crowd being less importunate, we touched the wall with 
 the right hand, after the example of the Prophet, and kissed the 
 finger-tips. Between the south angle and that of the black stone, 
 where our circuit would be completed, we said : ' O Allah, verily I 
 take refuge with Thee from infidelity, and I take refuge with Thee 
 from want, and from the tortures of the tomb, and from the 
 troubles of life and death. And I fly to Thee from ignominy in 
 this world and the next, and implore Thy pardon for the pre- 
 sent and the future. O Lord, grant to me. in this life prosperity, 
 and in the next life prosperity, and save me from the punishment of 
 fire.' " 
 
 The next important step is the running between the 
 Mounts Safa and Marwah. Starting from the former, the 
 Ha/ji runs seven times between the two summits. He runs, 
 moving the shoulders, and with head erect, like soldiers 
 charging in battle. The reason for this is, that the infidel 
 Meccans mocked the Companions of the Prophet, and 
 said that the climate of Madina had made them weak. 
 This bold way of running was adopted to disprove the 
 
Mind and 'Arifat. 229 
 
 calumny and so has become a Sunnat practice. The 
 prayer to be said during the S'ai (running) is : " O my Lord, 
 pardon and pity, and pass over that (sin) which Thou 
 knowest. Verily Thou knowest what is not known, and 
 verily Thou art the most Glorious, the most Generous. O, our 
 Lord, grant us iu both worlds prosperity, and save us from 
 fire." The Haji should also quote passages from the Quran. 
 This S'ai must be done after an important Tawaf, either the 
 first, or a later one. On the seventh day the Imam must 
 preach in Mecca, and instruct the pilgrims in the ritual of 
 the Hajj. He preaches again on the ninth and eleventh 
 days. 
 
 On the eighth day, (Rviz-i-Tarwiah), the Haji goes to Mina, 
 a place three miles distant from Mecca, where with all the 
 other Hajis he says the usual Namaz, and there spends the 
 night. 1 This is a sunnat observance. On the morning of the 
 ninth day, starting after the Salat-ul-Fajr, the Haji goes to 
 'Arifat.- On arriving there he says: "0 God, I turn to 
 Thee, I put my trust on Thee, I desire Thee, pardon my 
 sin, accept my Hajj, show mercy to me, supply my need 
 in 'Arifat, Thou art powerful over all." He then says 
 Labbaik, the Takbir and the Tahlil. 
 
 The noontide, and the afternoon Namaz are said together 
 there : they are thus shortened. 3 This done he should stand 
 upon the mountain, if possible at or near the place the Prophet 
 
 1. " Many find this inconvenient and so pass on to 'Arifat during the after- 
 noon of the eighth day" (Burton). 
 
 2. The following legend is current about 'Arifat. " When our parents 
 forfeited heaven by eating wheat, which deprived them of their primeval 
 purity, they were cast down upon earth. The serpent descended at 
 Ispahan, the peacock at Cabul, Satan at Bilbays, Eve upon 'Arifat and Adam 
 at Ceylon. The latter determining to seek his wife, began a journey, to 
 which the earth owes its present mottled appearance. Wherever he placed 
 his foot — -which was large — a town arose ; between the strides will always 
 he country. Wandering for many years he came to the Mountain of mercy, 
 where our common mother was continually calling upon his name, and their 
 recognition gave the place the name of 'Arifat. They lived here till death 
 took place." (Burton). 
 
 3. The Shafa'i rules allow a traveller any time when on a journey of a 
 night and day to reduce the five Namaz to three by joining some. The 
 Hanafi code allows the shortened form only on this day. 
 
230 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 is said to have occupied. This is called the Wukuf or (stand- 
 ing), a necessary part of the Hajj. He must also listen to 
 the sermon delivered by the Imam, explaining what still 
 remains of the ritual of the Hajj, i.e., how the Hajis are to 
 stand in Muzdalifah, to throw the stones in Mina, to make 
 the sacrifice, &c. 
 
 All the time the Haji should constantly shout out the 
 Talbiyah, and the Tahlil, and weep bitterly. 
 
 The Haji then proceeds to Muzdalifah, a place situated 
 about half-way between Mina and 'Arifat, where he should 
 pass a portion of the night. After a visit to the Mosque 
 Mashar al Haram, he should collect seven pebbles and 
 proceed to Mina. 
 
 When the morning of the tenth day, the 'Id-ul-Azha 
 arrives, he again goes to Mina, where there are three differ- 
 ent pillars, called respectively the Jamrat-ul-Akabah, com- 
 monly known as the Shaitan-ul-Kabir l (great devil), the 
 Wusta, or middle pillar, and the Al Ula, or first one. 
 Holding the jamar, or pebble, between the thumb and fore- 
 finger of the right hand, the Haji throws it a distance of not 
 less than fifteen feet and says : " In the name of Allah, and 
 Allah is Almighty, (I do this) in hatred of the Fiend and to 
 his shame." The remaining six stones are thrown in like 
 manner. The object is to confound the devils who are 
 supposed to be there. The stones are small lest the pilgrims 
 should be hurt. Before each stone is thrown the Takbir 
 must be said. This ceremony is called Rami-ul-Jamar, the 
 throwing of stones. It is also known as Hasal Khazaf. It 
 is said that this ceremony has been performed since the 
 time of Abraham, and that the stones are miraculously 
 removed. Ibn 'Abbas, a Companion, says that if the pil- 
 grimage of a Haji is approved of by God, the stones are 
 secretly removed. Mujahid, a well known Traditionist, 
 
 1. " The Shaitan-nl-Kabir is a dwarf buttress of rude masonry about 
 eight feet high, by two and a half broad, placed against a rough wall of 
 stones." (Burton). 
 
The Aiyam-ut-Tasliriq. 231 
 
 says that he put a mark on his stories and afterwards searched, 
 but found them not. The pilgrim then returns to Mina, 
 and there offers the usual sacrifice of the 'Id-ul-Azha. An 
 account of this will be given in the next chapter. This act 
 strictly speaking, concludes the Hajj. The Haji can now 
 shave his head, pare his nails and remove the Ihram. 
 
 The remaining three days, the 1 1th, 12th and 13th of Zu'l- 
 Hajja are called the Aiyam-ut-Tashriq "days of drying 
 flesh" because now the pilgrims prepare provisions for the 
 return journey, by cutting slices from the victims offered in 
 sacrifice and drying them in the sun. The Haji should spend 
 this time at Mina, and each day throw seven pebbles at each 
 of the pillars. This ceremony duly over, he returns to Mecca 
 and makes the Tawaf-ul-Wida' (circuit of farewell). He 
 should also drink some water from the well of Zemzem. 
 Tradition says that when Ishmael was thirsty Gabriel 
 stamped with his foot and a spring gushed forth. This is 
 now the far-famed well Zemzem. Finally, the Haji kisses 
 the threshold, and then, with hands uplifted laying hold of 
 the covering of the K'aba, and weeping bitterly, he prays 
 most humbly, and expresses regret that he will soon have to 
 depart from a place so dear as the sacred K'aba. Retiring 
 backwards, he makes his exit and the Hajj is complete. 1 
 The Umrah or little pilgrimage can be made at any time 
 except the eighth, ninth and tenth of ZuT-Hajja. It is 
 usually done before pilgrims start homewards. Its cere- 
 monies differ but slightly from the Hajj. The Ihram must 
 
 1. Most of the ceremonies connected with the Hajj, the Ihram, the 
 shaving of the head, the going to Safa and Marwah, the throwing of the 
 stones, the circuit of the K'aba, the kissing of the black stone, and the 
 sacrifice were all pagan ceremonies performed by the idolatrous Arabs. 
 Muhammad by his time- serving policy, adopted to gain the Meccans to his 
 side, has confirmed an idolatrous practice which otherwise would probably 
 have been extinct long ago. Safa, and Marwah were hills held in super- 
 stitious reverence by the Meccans. The early Muslims had some doubt 
 about retaining them as sacred places : then came the revelation to the 
 Prophet, " Safa and Marwah are among the monuments of God, whosoever 
 then maketh a pilgrimage to the temple or visiteth it, shall not be to blame 
 if he go round about them both." (Sura ii. 153). 
 
232 The Faith of islam. 
 
 be put on, and the obligations of abstinence which it entails 
 must be observed. 
 
 The usual course is then to make the Ziarat, or visit to the 
 tomb of the Prophet at Madina. Henceforth the pilgrim 
 assumes the honorable title of Haji and so is, ever after, a 
 person of some consequence among tho community in which 
 he dwells. The Hajj cannot be performed by proxy, though 
 it is esteemed a ' good work/ if some one who can afford it, 
 sends a pilgrim who otherwise could not go. 
 
 This account of the Irkan-i-din, or live pillars of religion, 
 must now draw to a close. They illustrate well the fixed 
 and formal nature of Islam, whilst the constant reference to 
 the Prophet's sayings and practice, as an authority for many 
 of the details, shows how largely Islam is based on the 
 Sunnat. With regard to the differences of opinion which 
 the great Imams hold on some of the details, it is most 
 difficult to decide which side holds the correct view. Such 
 opinions are always based on some Tradition, the value of 
 which it is impossible to determine. The opponent says it 
 is a weak (z'aif) Tradition — a statement it would puzzle any 
 one to prove or to disprove. It is sometimes said in praise 
 of Musalmans that they are not priest-ridden ; but no 
 people in the world are so Tradition- ridden, if one may use 
 such an expression. Until this chain of superstition is 
 broken there can be no progress and no enlightenment ; 
 but when it is so broken Islam will cease to be Islam, for 
 this foundation of the Faith and the edifice erected on it are 
 so welded together that the undermining of the one will be 
 the fall of the other. 
 
Fatvd on Namdz. 233 
 
 NOTE TO CHAPTER V. 
 
 The following Fatvd was publicly given in the Great Mosque, 
 Triplicane, Madras, February 13th, 1880. 
 
 In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful. 
 
 QUESTION. 
 
 " 'Ulama of the religion, and Muftis of the enlightened Law, what 
 is your opinion in this matter ? A person having translated a juz 
 (one-thirtieth part) of the noble Quran into the Hindustani 
 language has printed it. The translation is defective : moreover the 
 Arabic text is not given. In order to give the translation the same 
 authority as the original, he has retained the usual signs and marks 
 of the Arabic editions ; such as— toi, qif, jim, la, mim, and O. 1 At 
 the end of the juz he has added a translation of the Tashshahud, 
 Qamid, Sana, Ta'awwuz, Tasmi', Tashibat, Ruku' and Sujud, and has 
 said that all these must be read in Hindustani. He further states 
 that in the translation he has retained the rhythm of the original, 
 and that in eloquence and style it is equal to the Arabic. He has 
 also added rubrical directions as to the ritual of the Namaz, and has 
 stated that to those who do not know Arabic, it is a wajib and a 
 farz duty to recite the translation ; otherwise they commit sin and 
 the Namaz is vain. As regards the past, he considers that the 
 ignorant are forgiven, but he maintains that the 'Ulama of these 
 days must answer for the neglect they show in not telling the 
 people to use translations of the Quran. Further, in support of his 
 views he adduces a Hadis-i-Sahih, according to which the Prophet 
 said to a Companion, Salman-i-Farsi : " Read a translation of the 
 Quran in the Namaz." He claims, as on his side, the four great 
 Imams. He himself understands Arabic, yet he says his Namaz in 
 Hindustani and influences others to do likewise. He has been 
 spoken to, but he takes no heed and strives to spread his sect all 
 over India. 
 
 Now, what is the order of the noble Law with regard to such a 
 person, and what is the decree in the case of those who follow 
 
 1. These are the letters contained in words which direct the reader 
 when to pause. Thus toi stands for mntlaq (slight pause), qif (pause), jim 
 for ja,iz (freedom to pause, or not to pause), la for no (no pause), mim for 
 la'zim (necessary to pause), O is a full stop . 
 
 30 
 
234 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 him, or who circulate his opinions, or who consider him a religious 
 man and a guide, or who consider the translation to which reference 
 has been made to be the Holy Quran, or who teach it to their 
 children ? O learned men, state the Law in this matter and merit 
 a good reward." 
 
 THE ANSWER. 
 
 " After praising God, and after imploring His mercy and peace on 
 Muhammad, be it known that the person referred to is an infidel, 
 an atheist and a wanderer from the truth. He also causes others to 
 wander. His assertion that his opinions are in accordance with 
 those of the four Imams is utterly false, because according to 
 Imam Shafa'i, Imam Malik, and Imam Hanbal it is illegal to use 
 a translation of the Quran when saying the Namaz, whether the 
 worshipper is ignorant of Arabic or not. Thus Imam Navari, a 
 disciple of Shafa'i says : " It is unlawful in any case to use Per- 
 sian 1 in the Namaz." Faqi 'Ali, a disciple of Malik says : " Persian 
 is unlawful." To these opinions Kafi, a disciple of Hanbal adds his 
 testimony : " To recite in the Namaz from a translation of the Quran 
 is unlawful." Moreover from the Quran itself, the recital of it in 
 Arabic is proved to be a divine command (farz). The term Quran, 
 too, means an Arabic Quran, for God speaks of it as a revela- 
 tion in Arabic. The words " recite so much of the Quran as 
 may be easy to you" prove the duty of reciting it; whilst the 
 words " an Arabic Quran have we sent it down" show that 
 the Quran to be used is an Arabic one. Imam Abu Hanifa 
 and his disciples, the Sahibain (Imam Muhammad and Imam 
 Abu Yusuf), consider that, if a person can recite only a short 
 verse in Arabic, it is not lawful for such an one to use a trans- 
 lation. If he cannot read the Arabic character, he must learn by 
 heart such a sentence as " Praise be to God, Lord of the people." 
 Until he learns this he may use a translation. 2 In the Tanwir-ul- 
 Absar it is written : " It is a farz duty to read one verse, and to learn 
 it by heart is farz-i-'ain" {i.e., incumbent on all). In the Masih-ul- 
 Azhar it is written : " If a person says the Namaz in a language other 
 than Arabic, he is a madman or an atheist." With regard to the 
 statement made by Imam Abu Hanifa that a person might use for a 
 
 1. Persian was the foreign language with which the early Muslims were 
 brought most into contact ; but the objection applies equally to any other 
 language. 
 
 2. A concession of no practical value, as any one with the power of 
 speech could learn these words in a very short time. 
 
Namaz to be said in Arabic. 235 
 
 time a translation, it is well known that he afterwards recalled that 
 opinion. The statement made by the person complained of regard- 
 ing Sulman-i-Farsi is not correct. In the Nihayah (commentary on 
 the Hidayah) it is written that some Persians wrote to Sulman, and 
 requested him to send them a Persian translation of Surat-ul- 
 Fatiha. He complied with their request and they used it in the 
 Namaz, until they could pronounce Arabic properly. The Prophet on 
 hearing of this circumstance made no remark. This account, how- 
 ever, is not trustworthy ; but granting that it is true, all that it proves 
 is that, until some Arabic words can be remembered, a translation 
 may be used. No Imam has ever allowed that to read a translation 
 is farz or wajib. So if the person referred to says that it is farz to 
 read his own translation, then it follows that to read the original 
 Arabic will not be farz, but will be unlawful. Now such an opinion 
 is infidelity. The person is a Kafir, for he tries to make out that the 
 'Ulama of all preceding ages who have instructed the people, from 
 the days of the Prophet till now, to read Arabic in the Namaz are 
 sinners. Further, he rejects the statement made by learned canon- 
 ists and listens now to no advice. He reads his translation in the 
 Namaz and causes others to read it. He boasts that his translation 
 is equal in style to the original. He has translated the Du'a-i-qunut, 
 Sana, and the Tasbihat of the Ruku' and Sujud, and has said that 
 these translations should be used hi the Namaz. Thus, it is plain 
 that he wants to abolish the use of Arabic in the prayers. The 
 result of such a course would be that soon a number of different 
 translations would be circulated, and the text like that of the Taurait, 
 and the Injil would be corrupted. In the Fatawa-i-'Alamgiri it is 
 written : " Whosoever considers that the unlawful is lawful or vice 
 versa is a Kafir." " If any one without apparent cause has enmity 
 with one of the 'Ulama, his orthodoxy is doubtful." " A man who after 
 committing a fault declines to repent, though requested to do so, is 
 an infidel." In the Tahqiq-i-Sharh-i-Husaini it is written; "To 
 translate the Quran into Persian and to read that is unlawful." In 
 the Fatawa-i-Matlub-ul-Muminin it is said : " Whosoever intends to 
 write the Quran in Persian must be strictly forbidden." In the Itqan 
 it is written : " According to Ijma', it is wrong to speak of the Quran 
 as having rhymes." i In the Fatawa-i-Tatar Khania it is said : " To 
 translate the Arabic into Persian is an act of infidelity." 
 
 Our decision then is that the usual salutations should not be made 
 to this person. If he dies he must not be buried in a Musalman 
 
 1. This is because by so doing it would seem to ascribe to it similarity 
 to human compositions. 
 
236 The Faith of Mam. 
 
 cemeter}'. His marriages are void and his wives are at liberty, 
 according to the rule laid down in the Miftah-us-S'adat. To doubt 
 of the infidelity of such a person is itself infidelity. As by the proofs 
 of the law here adduced, the 'Ulama have declared such a person 
 to be an infidel, it follows that all those who assist him or who con- 
 sider his claim just, or who circulate his opinions, or who consider 
 him to be a religious person and a fit guide for men, are also infidels. 
 To send children to be taught by him, to purchase newspapers 
 which advocate his views, and to continue to read his translation is 
 unlawful. In the Fatawa-i-'Alamgiri in the chapter entitled Murtad 
 it is written : " Whosoever has doubts of the present infidelity and of 
 the future punishment of such an one is an infidel." God says in the 
 Quran : " Be helpful to one another according to goodness and piety, 
 but be not helpful for evil and malice ; and fear ye God." (Sura v. 3). 
 In another place God says : " Whosoever acts not according to God's 
 order is an infidel." Now, what greater disobedience can there be 
 than this, that a person should say that the recital of the Arabic 
 Quran in the Namaz is not lawful, and that the recital of his own 
 Hindustani translation of it is incumbent (farz). 
 
 " Our duty is to give information to Musalmans, and God is the 
 best Knower." 
 
 This was written by a learned Moulvie, and signed by twenty-four 
 other leading Moulvies of the city of Madras. 
 
 This Fatva, an authentic copy of which is in ray possession, is of 
 very considerable importance as showing how unyielding the law of 
 Islam is to the varied circumstances of the countries in which it 
 exists. The law enjoining the Arabic language as a medium of 
 worship was suited for the Arab people, and the principle involved 
 would seem to be that the vernacular language of a country should 
 be used by the Muslims of that country for the purposes of devotion ; 
 but, as I have repeatedly shown, precepts, not principles are the 
 ruling power in Islam. It further demonstrates that all such mat- 
 ters must be regulated, not by the needs of the age or country, but 
 by an antiquated law which, to say the least, is an anachronism in 
 the world's history. The authority paid to the statements made by 
 the four chief Imams, and the fact that the Fatva is based on their 
 decisions, and on previous Fatvas in which their authority has been 
 adduced, show how even to the present day they are regarded as 
 the Mujtahidin of Islam. The Fatva is thus manifestly orthodox, 
 and corroborates most fully all I have said in the first chapter on 
 the " Foundations of Islam." 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE FEASTS AND FASTS OF ISLAM. 
 
 1. Mcharram. — Muharram, the name of the first month 
 of the Muhammadan year, has now become the name by 
 which are known the days of mourning spent by the Shia'hs 
 in commemoration of the martyrdoms of 'AH and of his 
 two sons Hasan and Husain. The historical events thus 
 referred to have been already described in the third chapter, 
 so that it is only necessary now to give an account of the 
 ceremonies connected with the Muharram. They differ in 
 different countries. The following is a description of an 
 Indian Muharram. / 
 
 Some days previous to the feast, the 'Ashur Khana 
 (literally, ten-day house) is prepared. As soon as the new 
 moon appears, the people gather together in the various 
 'Ashur Khanas, and offer a Fatiha over some sherbet or some 
 sugar in the name of Husain. The Fatiha concludes thus : 
 " God, grant the reward of this to the soul of Husain." The 
 sherbet and sugar are then given to the poor. Then they 
 mark a spot for the Allawa, or hole for the bonfire which 
 is to be lit. Every night during the festival these fires are 
 kindled, and the people, both old and young, fence across 
 the fire with swords or sticks, and jump about calling 
 out : " 'Ali ! Noble Husain ! Noble Husain ! Dulha ! Dulha ! 
 Bridegroom ! Bridegroom ! Friend ! &c." These words they 
 repeat hundreds of times. 
 
 In some parts of the country they erect an Imam Bara 
 (Imam-house). This is often a substantial building, 
 frequently used afterwards as a mausoleum for the founder 
 and his family. In South India the 'Ashur Khana only 
 is known. This is generally a temporary structure, or 
 
238 The Faith of Itldm. 
 
 some large hall fitted up for the occasion. Sometimes 
 the walls are draped with black cloth, bordered with texts 
 of the Quran written in a large and elegant style. 
 The place is brilliantly illuminated. On one side stands the 
 Taziahs or Tabuts — structures made of bamboos covered 
 with tinsel and profusely ornamented. They are intended 
 to represent the mausoleum erected on the plains of Karbala 
 over the remains of Husain. Sometimes the Taziah is con- 
 structed to represent the Prophet's tomb at Madina. Large 
 sums of money are spent on these Taziahs, which when 
 lighted up have a very elegant appearance. At the back of 
 the Taziahs are laid the several articles similar to those 
 supposed to have been used by Husain at Karbala, — a turban 
 of gold, a rich sword, a shield, a bow and arrow. The 
 Mimbar, or pulpit is so placed that the speaker can face 
 Mecca. The ' Alams, or standards, which are commonly made 
 of copper and brass, though occasionally of gold or of silver, 
 are placed against the walls. The usual standard is that of 
 a hand placed on a pole. This is emblematic of the five 
 members who compose the family of the Prophet, and is the 
 special standard of the Shia'hs. These standards have 
 many different names, such as — the standard of the palm 
 of 'Ali, the Lady Fatima's standard, the standard of the 
 Horse-shoe, to represent the shoe of Husain's swift horse, 
 and others too numerous to mention. Mirrors, chandeliers 
 and coloured lanterns add lustre to the scene. 
 
 Every evening large crowds of people assemble in these 
 'Ashur Khanas. In the centre, on a slightly raised platform a 
 band of singers chant the Marsiya, an elegiac poem in honour 
 of the martyred Husain. It is a monotonous performance 
 lasting about an hour ; but it has a wonderful effect on the 
 audience, who, seated on the ground, listen patiently and 
 attentively. At each pause the hearers beat their breasts, and 
 say Husain ! Husain ! Real or stimulated grief often finds 
 expression in groans and tears, though the more violent ex- 
 pression of the anguish felt is reserved for a later ceremony. 
 
The Wdqi'a Khan. 239 
 
 This over, the Waqi'a Khan (literally, narrator of events) 
 ascends the Mimbar, or pulpit, and seats himself on the top, 
 or on a lower step. He proceeds to relate the historical 
 facts, adding many curious stories gathered from the vast 
 heap of Traditions which have cast such a halo of glory around 
 the martyr. Sometimes he becomes very excited, and the 
 audience is stirred up to great enthusiasm. The following 
 account is that of an eye-witness who passed an evening 
 in an 'Ashur Khana. " The first Waqi'a Khan was a Persian 
 who delivered a very eloquent oration in his own tongue. 
 It was calm but effective. He was succeeded by an eloquent 
 old gentleman who spoke rapidly in Hindustani at the top of 
 his voice, then rose up, ran down the steps, and casting off 
 his turban rushed in and out amougst the audience, vocife- 
 rating vigorously all the while. The effect was marvellous, 
 old and venerable men wept like little children, whilst from 
 the adjoining Zanana was heard the bitter weeping of the 
 women who, though not exposed to view, could hear all that 
 was said. After a while, the assembly rose and formed two 
 lines facing each other. A boy then chanted a few words 
 and the whole assembly began, slowly at first, to sway their 
 bodies to and fro, calling out 'All ! 'All ! Husain ! Husain ! 
 Each one then began to beat his breast vigorously. The 
 excitement at last became intense and the men in the rows 
 looked like so many wild creatures/' 
 
 In some cases blood has been known to flow from the 
 breast, so severe is the self-inflicted beating. This continues 
 till they are well-nigh exhausted, when the whole company 
 goes away to repeat the performance over again in some other 
 ; Ashur Khana. A devout person will visit several each even- 
 ing. During the day some pious Shia'hs recite the Quran. 
 
 During this season women who can read, visit the Zananas 
 and chant Marsiyas to the ladies of the Harem, by whom 
 this season of Muharram is celebrated with great earnest- 
 
 ness. 
 
 For the first six days, nothing else takes place, but on the 
 
240 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 seventh day the ; Alam-i-Qasim is taken out in public pro- 
 cession. This is to represent the maiTiage of Qasim, the son 
 of Hasan, to the favourite daughter of Husain, just before 
 the death of the latter. The event is now commemorated 
 by the bearing of Qasim's standard in procession. It is 
 usually borne by a man on horseback. If it is carried by a 
 man on foot, he reels about like a drunken man to show 
 his grief. The crowd shout out : Bridegroom ! Bridegroom ! 
 After perambulating the principal thoroughfares, the people 
 bring the standard back to its own 'Ashur Khana. As the 
 standard which represents Qasim is supposed to be a 
 martyr, it is then laid down, covered over, and treated as 
 a corpse. Lamentation is made over it as for one dead. 
 Sherbet is then produced, and a Fatiha is said, after which 
 the standard is again set up in its own place. 
 
 The Neza, a lance or spear, with a lime on the top, to 
 recall to remembrance the fact that Yezid caused Husain's 
 head to be thus carried about, is taken in procession from 
 one place to another. The Na'l Sahib (literally, Mr. Horse- 
 shoe) is the representation of a horse shoe, and is meant to 
 remind the people of the swift horse of Husain. Vows are 
 frequently made to this standard. Thus a woman may 
 say to it : " Should I through your favour be blessed with 
 offspring, I shall make it run in your procession/' If she 
 attains her wish, the child when seven or eight years old 
 has a small parasol placed in its hand and is made to run 
 after the Na'l Sahib. 
 
 If two 'Alams, or standards, meet, they embrace each 
 other, that is they are made to touch. Fatiha is then said 
 and the respective processions pass on their way. The 
 Buraq, supposed to be a fac-simile of the horse sent by 
 Gabriel for Muhammad to make the night ascent to heaven 
 (Ante. p. 159) is also taken out. 
 
 On the evening before the tenth day, which according to 
 the Muslim mode of computing time is the tenth night, 
 the whole of the Tazias and the 'Alams are taken out in 
 
Ceremonies of the 'Ashura. 241 
 
 procession. It is a scene of great confusion, for men and 
 boys disguised in all sorts of quaint devices run about. It 
 is the carnival of the Musalman year. 
 
 On the following day, the 'Ashura, they kindle the fires 
 in the Allawas, and say a Fatiha in each 'Ashur Khana. 
 After this the 'Alams and the Tazias are taken away to 
 a large open spot near water, which represents the 
 plain of Karbala. Another Fatiha is said, the orna- 
 ments and decorations are taken off the Tazias, the 
 frameworks of which are then cast into the water. 1 Some- 
 times they are reserved for use the following year. The 
 water reminds the people of the parching thirst which Husain 
 felt before his death. Only the 'Alams, not the Buraqs nor 
 the Na'l Sahibs, are immersed. The people then burn 
 incense, recite the Marsiyas, return home and say Fatiha 
 over the 'Alams, Buraqs, &c. On the evening of the 12th, 
 they sit up all night reading the Quran, reciting Marsiyas 
 and verses in the praise of Husain. On the 13th day, a quan- 
 tity of food is cooked which, when a Fatiha has been said 
 over it, is distributed to the poor. Some very pious Shia'hs 
 celebrate the fortieth day after the first of Muharram. It is 
 on this day, according to some accounts, that the head and 
 body of Husain were reunited. It is known as the 'Id-i-sar 
 wa tan (head and body feast). 
 
 The Sunnis do not, except as spectators, take any part in 
 the Muharram ceremonies. Indeed, where the ruling power 
 is not strong, there is often much ill-feeling aroused by the 
 enthusiasm excited for all that concerns 'Ali and his family. 
 The three first Khalifs are often well abused, and that no 
 Sunni can bear with patience. The breach between the 
 Sunni and the Shia'h is very wide, and the annual recur- 
 rence of the Muharram feast tends to keep alive the dis- 
 tinction. 
 
 1. During the first ten days they are supposed to contain the bodies of 
 the martyrs, but now being empty the Tazias become mere ordinary 
 frames and can be destroyed. Qanun-i-Ielam, p. 146. 
 
 31 
 
242 TJie Faith of Islam. 
 
 The tenth day — the 'Ashura is, however, a Sunnat feast 
 and, as such, is observed by all Sunnis. It is considered to 
 be a most excellent day, for on it God is said to have 
 created Adam and Eve, His throne, heaven, hell, the seat 
 of judgment, the tablet of decree, the pen, fate, life and 
 death. 
 
 The Sunnis about three o'clock in the afternoon of this day 
 prepare sherbet and khichri — a dish composed of boiled rice 
 and pulse mixed with clarified butter and spices. A Fatiha 
 in the name of Husain and of those who were martyred with 
 him is then said. The food is disposed of as usual in such 
 cases. A Namaz of some nafl rak'ats is said and sometimes 
 a Du'a is added. On this day also they go to the burial 
 grounds and place flowers on, and say Fatiha over the graves 
 of their friends. 
 
 Indian Musalmans have copied in their feast many Hindu 
 ceremonies. The procession of the Tazias, and the casting 
 of them into the water is very similar to the procession at 
 the Hindu feast of the Durga Puja, 1 when on the tenth day 
 the Hindus cast the idol Durga, the wife of Siva, into the 
 Ganges. The oblations offered at different shrines are similar 
 to those offered by the Hindus, such as rice, clarified butter 
 and flowers. 
 
 The Muhammadan form of worship was too simple for a 
 country, in which an allegorical and idolatrous religion pre- 
 dominated, addressing itself to the senses and the imagina- 
 tions rather than to the understanding and the heart; conse- 
 quently the Musalman festivals have borrowed from it a 
 variety of pagan rites, and a pompous and splendid ceremonial. 
 While this has done much to add to the superstition of the 
 Musalmans in India, it has no doubt softened their intolerant 
 spirit. Though the Sunnis consider the Shia'h observances 
 as impious, they look on with the contempt of indifference. 
 The fact that the British Government punishes all who break 
 
 1. This feaBt is known in South India as the Dassara. The idol is thrown 
 into a tank. 
 
Fatiha for 'AIL 243 
 
 the peace may have something to do with this. Still the 
 Sunni and the Shia'h in India live on much better terms, and 
 have more respect for each other than the Turk has for the 
 Persian, or the Persian for the Turk. Some Musalman 
 poets, indeed, are both Sunnis and Shia'hs. Thus Wall, 
 begins his poem with a brief encomium on the four first 
 Khalifs, and then bestows an eulogy on 'AH and his sons 
 Hasan and Husain whom he calls " Imams of the world." 
 The following is a prayer used in a Fatiha for 'All :— 
 
 I pray, " That God may deign for the sake of that pure soul, the 
 ornament of the book of nature, the first of mortals after the Pro- 
 phet, the star of mortals, the most precious jewel of the jewel-box 
 of virtue, the lord of the high and the low, he who occupies a dis- 
 tinguished place on the bridge of eternity, the mihrab * of the faith, 
 he who sits upon the throne of the palace of the law, the ship of 
 the sea of religion, the sun of the firmament of glory, the power of 
 the arm of the Prophet, he who has merited access to the taber- 
 nacle of the Divine Unity, the most profound of all religious people, 
 the resplendent brightness of the marvels of God, the father of 
 victory, the Imam of the gate of heaven, the cup-bearer of the water 
 of Kausar, he who has merited the praise of Muhammad, he who is 
 the best of men, the holy martyr, the chief of Believers, the Imam of 
 the Faithful, 'Ali, son of Abu Talib, 'All the victorious lion of the 
 Most High. I pray that God for the sake of this holy Khalif may 
 favourably hear the vows which 1 offer to Him." 
 
 The following prayer occurs in a Fatiha said for Hasan 
 and Husain :— 
 
 I pray, " That the eternal God may deign to accept the vows 
 which I make for the repose of the glorious souls of the two brave 
 Imams, the martyrs well-beloved by God, the innocent victims of 
 wickedness, the blessed Abu Muhammad Al- Hasan and Abu 'Abd- 
 Allah Al-Husain, and for the twelve Imams, and the fourteen 2 pure 
 ones, and for the seventy-two martyrs of the plain of Karbala." 
 
 1. The Mihrab is a niche in a wall which indicates the position of Mecca. 
 The face is always turned to it when prayers are said ; so that the expres- 
 sion in the prayer means that 'Alf is to be the object toward which the 
 faithful look. 
 
 2. The twelve Imams, Muhammad and Fatima. 
 
244 the Faith of Islam. 
 
 2. Akhir-i-Char Shamba. — This feast is held on the 
 last Wednesday of the month Safar. It is kept in comme- 
 moration of the fact, that, as on this day, the Prophet ex- 
 perienced some mitigation of the disorder which in the next 
 month terminated his life. Sweet cakes are prepared, and 
 Fatihas in the name of the Prophet are said over them ; 
 but the most extraordinary custom is the drinking of the 
 seven Salams. A plantain, or a mango tree leaf, or a piece 
 of paper is taken to a Mulla, or a religious teacher, who 
 writes seven short sentences from the Quran upon it. The 
 writing whilst still wet is washed off, and the mixture drunk 
 by the person for whom it was written. Peace and happi- 
 ness are thus ensured for the future. The seven Salams are : 
 (1) "Peace ! shall be the word on the part of a merciful 
 Lord." (Sura xxxvi. 58). (2) " Peace be on Noah through- 
 out the worlds." (Sura xxxvii. 77). (3) " Peace be on 
 Abraham." (S lira xxxvii. 109). (4) "Peace be on Moses 
 and Aaron." (Sura xxxvii. 120). (5) " Peace be on Blias." 
 (Sura xxxvii. 130). (6) "Peace be on you, ye have been 
 good ; enter into Paradise." (Sura xxxix. 73). (7) " It is 
 peace till the breaking of the morn." (Sura xcvii. 5). 
 The Shia'hs consider this an unlucky day. They call it 
 " Char Shamba-i-Suri. — The " Wednesday of the Trum- 
 pet ;" that is, of the trumpet of the last day. The Sunnis, 
 on the other hand, rejoice in the day, and esteem it an 
 excellent and auspicious season. 
 
 3. Bara Wafat. — This feast is held on the twelfth day 
 of the month Rabi'-ul-Awwal. The name is derived from 
 bara, twelve and wafat, death, because many suppose that 
 on this day the Prophet died. According to a well-known 
 Muslim writer "the terrific intelligence, circulating through- 
 out the world, produced universal consternation, and all 
 hastened to offer to God their vows and prayers for the 
 repose of the Prophet's soul." Others, however, maintain 
 that he died on the second of the month and, as there is 
 some doubt on the subject, many persons make a Fatiha 
 
Bard Wafdt. 245 
 
 every day, from the first to the twelfth of the month inclu- 
 sive. Those who keep the feast as Bara Wafat observe the 
 ceremony called Sandal on the previous evening, and the 
 'Urs, that is, the prayers and the oblations, on the twelfth. 
 The Sandal consists in making- a perfumed embrocation 
 from sandal wood. This is then placed into a vessel and 
 carried in procession to the 'Id-gah, * or to the place where 
 Fatiha will be said. It is then distributed to the people. 
 It is a sort of public notice on the eve of a Feast day, or of 
 a Saint's day, that on the morrow the usual prayers and 
 offerings will be made in such and such a place. On the 
 morning of the twelfth, the Quran is read in the Mosque, or 
 in private houses : then food is cooked and Fatihas are said. 
 
 Some persons possess a Qadam-i-Rasul, or footstep of the 
 Prophet. This is a stone with the impression of a footstep 
 on it. It is a sacred thing and on this day the place in which 
 it is kept is elegantly decorated. When a company has 
 assembled, some persons appointed for the purpose, repeat 
 the story of the birth, miracles and death of the Prophet. 
 Portions of the Quran are read and the Darud is said. 2 
 
 In Madras, and in some other parts, it is more customary 
 to keep this day, not as the anniversary of the death of the 
 Prophet, but as the " 'Jashn-i-milad-i-Sharif," the " Feast 
 of the noble birth." The practical duties are the same. 
 Instead of the Qadam-i-Rasul, the Asar-i-Sharif is exhib- 
 ited. This is supposed to be a real portion of the hair of 
 the Prophet's beard and moustache. It is said to possess 
 
 1. The 'Id-gali is usually built outside of the town, and consists of a long 
 wall of masonry with two minarets and a large raised open court. There 
 is a Mihrab in the wall : but no proper mimbar or pulpit, three raised steps 
 doing duty for it. Sometimes, however, a Mosque is used as an 'Id-gah. 
 
 2. Tradition records that the Prophet, after the battle of Ohud, was one 
 day ascending a hill in a rage. The heat of his passion was such that 
 the mountain softened into the consistence of wax and retained, some say 
 eighteen ; others, forty impressions of his feet. When rebuked by Gabriel 
 for his anger the Prophet enquired the cause of his rebuke. Gabriel told 
 him to look around. The Prophet seeing these impressions of his feet on 
 the stones was astonished. His anger instantly ceased. Qanun-i-Islam, 
 p. 152. 
 
246 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 the miraculous property of growing again when a portion is 
 broken off. On this day it is put into rose water which 
 those present then drink and rub on their eyes. Great 
 virtue is attached to this proceeding. In the Asar Khana, 
 or house in which this hair is kept Fatihas, Dariids, &c, 
 are repeated. 
 
 The observance of this festival is neither wajib nor 
 sunnat, but mustahab. It is generally kept, and it is a very 
 rare thing to meet a person who does not believe in the 
 miraculous growth of the Asar-i-Sharif. 
 
 4. Shab Barat. — This feast, the name of which signifies 
 the " night of the record/' is held on the fourteenth day of 
 the month Sh'aban. The 'Arfa, or vigil is kept on the 
 preceding day. 1 It is commonly but erroneously called 
 Shab-i-Barat. 
 
 The word Barat signifies a book or record. It is said that 
 God on this night registers in the Barat all the actions men 
 are to perform during the ensuing year. On the thirteenth 
 day food is prepared for the poor and a Fatiha for the benefit 
 of deceased ancestors and relatives is said over it. When 
 all in the house are assembled, the Siirat-ul-Fatiha is read 
 once, the Surat-ul-Iklas (112) three times, the Ayat-ul- 
 Kursi once, and then the Darud. After this a prayer is 
 offered, in which God is asked to transfer the reward of 
 this Service, and of the charity shown in the gift of food to 
 the poor, to the souls of deceased relatives and friends of 
 this family. This petition is offered in the name of the 
 Prophet. The men then go to the Mosque and after the 
 Namaz-i-'Isha they repeat a number of nafl rak'ats. This 
 over, the Surat-ul-Ya Sin is read three times. It must be 
 done with the niyyat, intention. The first time, the inten- 
 tion is that the worshipper may have a long life ; the 
 second time, that his means of subsistence may be increas- 
 ed j the third time, that he may be protected from evil. 
 
 1. The Baqr-'Id ia the only other feast that has an 'Arfa. 
 
Ramazan and 'Id-ul-Fitr. 247 
 
 The Sura-i-Dukhan (144) is then read with the same inten- 
 tions. Any other portions may then be read. After this 
 those present rise, and go to the various cemeteries. On 
 the way they purchase flowei's which are afterwards strewn 
 on the graves. A Fatiha is then said. If the worshipper 
 has no relatives or friends buried there, prayer is offered 
 for the benefit of the Arwah-i-Qubur, the souls of those 
 there buried. The very pious spend the whole night in 
 going from one cemetery to another. 
 
 These observances are neither farz, nor sunnat, but 
 nawafil, (sing, nafl), works of supererogation. Still though 
 they are bid' at, yet they are esteemed good and so are called 
 Bid'at-i-Hasana, or " excellent innovation." The general 
 merry-making of the fourteenth day has no religious signifi- 
 cation. The night of the fifteenth is the Guy Fawkes night 
 of Islam. Large sums of money are spent on fireworks, of 
 which more are let off on this feast than at any other. 
 
 The following prayer occurs in the Fatiha : " O our God, 
 by the merits of the Apostleship of Muhammad, grant that 
 the lamps which are lit up on this holy night may be for 
 the dead a pledge of the light eternal, which we pray Thee 
 to shed on them. O God, admit .them, we beseech Thee, 
 unto the abode of eternal felicity." 
 
 5. Ramazan and 'Id-ul-Fitr — It is one of the five pillars 
 of the practical religious duties to fast during the thirty 
 days of the month Ramazan. The subject of fasting has 
 been fully treated of in the preceding chapter ; and so it is 
 only necessary now to describe the other ceremonies con- 
 nected with the religious observance of this month. 
 
 From the earliest days of Islam this month has been held 
 in the greatest esteem by Muslims, for it was in this month 
 that Muhammad used to retire for meditation, year after 
 year, to the cave of Hira, situated on a low hill some few 
 miles distant from Mecca. In the second year of the Hijra, 
 or flight from Mecca, it was ordained that the month of 
 Ramazan should be kept as a fast. " As to the month 
 
248 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 Ramazan, in which the Quran was sent down to be man's 
 guidance, and an explanation of that guidance, and of that 
 illumination, as soon as any one of you observeth the moon, 
 let him set about the fast." (Sura ii. 181). 
 
 The Muslims had hitherto observed as the principal fast 
 the 'Ashura, the tenth of Muharram. This fast was pro- 
 bably connected with the Jewish fast on the tenth day of 
 the seventh month. " Also on the tenth day of this seventh 
 month there shall be a day of atonement : it shall be an 
 holy convocation unto you ; and ye shall afflict your souls, 
 &c." (Leviticus xxiii. 27). Now, when Muhammad first 
 went to Madina he had great hopes of winning over the 
 Jews to his side ; but when he failed he took every oppor- 
 tunity of making Islam differ as much as possible from 
 Judaism. This was the reason why the Qibla was changed 
 (Ante. p. 60), and that in the second year of his residence 
 at Madina the fast of Ramazan was appointed. The reasons 
 assigned by learned Muslims for the selection of this month, 
 are that in Ramazan God gave to the previous prophets the 
 revelations connected with their names, and that in this 
 month the Quran was sent down from the Secret Tablet in the 
 seventh heaven to the first or lowest, and that on the Laylut- 
 ul-Qadr, or f night of power' the first revelation was made to 
 Muhammad. " Verily we have caused it (Quran) to descend 
 on the ' night of power.' And who shall teach thee what 
 the night of power is ? The night of power excelleth a 
 thousand nights." (Sura xcvii. 1 — 3). To illustrate the 
 sacredness of this month the Prophet used to say that in it 
 " the gates of Paradise are open, and the gates of hell are 
 shut, and the devils are chained by the leg." " Only those 
 who observe it will be allowed to enter by the gate of heaven 
 called Rayyan." Those who keep the fast " will be pardoned 
 all their past venial sins." 1 
 
 In making the fast one for the day, and none for the night, 
 
 1. Miahkat-ul-Musabih, Book vii. ch. 1. 
 
'Itikaf. 249 
 
 Muhammad doubtless had reference to the verse : " God 
 wisheth you ease, but wisheth not your discomfort." (Sura 
 ii. 181). 
 
 The special ceremonies connected with the Ramazan are 
 the Tarawih Namaz and 'Itikaf (retirement). The Tarawih 
 prayers have been described already (p. 205). Each night 
 in Ramazan one-thirtieth part (sipara) of the Quran is recited 
 in the Mosque. The duty of performing the 'Itikaf is a 
 Sunnat-ul-niaukadda, a very strict duty. The Mu'takif, 
 one who makes 'Itikaf, must remain apart in a Mosque used 
 for public services, and there meditate. Bukhari says that 
 the Prophet made 'Itikaf the last ten days of each Rama- 
 zan, and that the practice was continued by his wives after 
 his death. Usually a man should thus sit and meditate one 
 of the days between the twentieth and the thirtieth of Rama- 
 zan. If his meditation is disturbed by any illegal interrup- 
 tion, another day should be devoted to it ; but Imam 
 Muhammad says : " The least legal time is one hour." Some 
 theologians hold that 'Itikaf is farz-i-kifaya, that is, if one 
 person of a community does it the obligation does not rest 
 on the others. If, however, a person makes a vow in Rama- 
 zan, then 'Itikaf is considered wajib. 'Itikaf can be perform- 
 ed at any time other than the last ten days of Ramazan, but 
 then it is only mustahab, a work of supererogation. All the 
 sects except the Shafa'ites hold that the Mu'takif must fast. 
 He should also make the nizzat, or intention, of performing 
 what he is about to do. The Mu'takif must not go out of 
 the Mosque except for obviously necessary purposes, and 
 for making the legal wazu and ghusl (purifications). At 
 night he may eat, drink and sleep in the Mosque : acts 
 quite unlawful at other times. He may speak with others 
 on religious matters, and if a man of business, he 
 may give orders with regard to the purchase and sale 
 of merchandize, but on no account must any goods be 
 brought to him. It is highly meritorious for him to read 
 the Quran in an audible voice. By such an act he becomes 
 
 32 
 
250 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 a man of penetration, whose words are as powerful as a 
 Bharp sword. 1 
 
 When the thirty days have passed the fast is broken. 
 This act is called Iftar, and the first day on which food is 
 taken is called the 'Id-ul-Fitr — the ' Feast of the breaking 
 of the fast/ On that day the Sadqa, or alms are given 
 before the Namaz is said in the Mosque. The Sadqa of 
 the 'Id-ul-Fitr is confined to Muslims : no other persons 
 receive it. If any one neglects to give these alms before 
 the Namaz is said, he will not merit so great a reward as 
 he otherwise would. The reason assigned for this is that, 
 unless they are given early in the day, the poor cannot 
 refresh themselves before coming to the Mosque for the 
 Namaz. The Sadqa are given for the good of one's own 
 soul, for that of young children, slaves male and female — 
 Muslim or Infidel ; but not for the spiritual benefit of one's 
 wife or elder children. 
 
 In South India, the Sadqa consists of a gift of sufficient 
 rice to feed one person. When this has been done the 
 people go to the Mosque saying, f God is great ! God is 
 great !' The Namaz is like that of a Friday, except that 
 only two rak'ats are said, and the Khutba which is said after 
 the Namaz is sunnat j whereas the Friday Khutba is said 
 before the farz rak'ats, and is itself of farz obligation. 
 After hearing the sermon, the people disperse, visit each 
 other and thoroughly enjoy themselves. 
 
 A very usual form of the Khutba of the 'Id-ul-Fitr 
 which is preached in Arabic is as follows : — 
 
 SERMON ON THE 'lD-UL-FITR. 
 
 In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful. 
 
 " Holy is God who has opened the door of mercy for those who 
 fast, and in mercy and kindness has granted them the right of 
 entrance into heaven. God is greater than all. There is no God 
 save Him. God is great ! God is great ! and worthy of praise. It 
 
 1. That is, hiB blessing or his curse takes effect. Qanun-i.Islam p. 170. 
 
Sermon on the 'Id-ul-Fitr. 251 
 
 is of His grace and favour that He rewards those who keep the fast. 
 He has said : ' I will give in the future world houses and palaces, 
 and many excellent blessings to those who fast. God is great ! God 
 is great ! Holy is He who certainly sent the Quran to our Prophet in 
 the month of Ramazan, and who sends angels to grant peace to all 
 true believers. God is great ! and worthy of all praise. We praise and 
 thank Him for the 'Id-ul-Fitr, that great blessing ; and we testify 
 that beside Him there is no God. He is alone. He has no partner. 
 This witness which we give to His Unity will be a cause of our 
 safety here, and finally gain us an entrance to Paradise. Muham- 
 mad (on whom be the mercy and peace of God) and all famous 
 prophets are His slaves. He is the Lord of genii and of men. From 
 Him comes mercy and peace upon Muhammad and his family, so 
 long as the world shall last. God is greater than all. There is 
 none beside Him. God is great ! God is great ! and worthy of all 
 praise. O company of Believers, O congregation of Muslims, the 
 mercy of the True One is on you. He says that this Feast day 
 is a blessing to you, and a curse to the unbelievers. Your fasting 
 will not be rewarded, and your prayers will be stayed in their 
 flight to heaven until you have given the sadqa. 1 O congregation of 
 Believers, to give alms is to you a wajib duty. Give to the poor 
 some measures of grain or its money equivalent. Your duty in 
 Ramazan was to say the Tarawih prayers, to make supplication to 
 God, to sit and meditate ('itikaf) and to read the Quran. The 
 religious duties of the first ten days of Ramazan gain the mercy of 
 God, those of the second ten merit His pardon ; whilst those of the 
 last ten save those who do them from the punishment of hell. God 
 has declared that Ramazan is a noble month, for is not one of its 
 nights, the Laylut-ul-Qadr, better than a thousand months ? On 
 that night Gabriel and the angels descended from heaven : till the 
 morning breaks it is full of blessing. Its eloquent interpreter, and 
 its clearest proof is the Quran, the Word of God, most Gracious. 
 Holy is God who says in the Quran : " This word of God comes 
 down in the month of Ramazan." This is a guide for men, a dis- 
 tinguisher between right and wrong. O Believers, in such a month 
 be present, obey the order of your God and fast ; but let the sick 
 and the travellers substitute some other days on which to fast so 
 that no days be lost, and say : " God is great !" and praise Him. 
 God has made the fast easy for you. O Believers, God will bless 
 you and us by the grace of the Holy Quran. Every verse of it is a 
 benefit to us and fills us with wisdom. God is the Bestower, the 
 
 1. This ia a warning to those who may have omitted this duty. 
 
252 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 Holy King, the Munificent, the Kind, the Nourisher, the Merciful, 
 the Clement." * 
 
 " The assemblies of the ladies on this 'Id are marked by 
 all the amusements and indulgences they can possibly 
 invent or enjoy in their secluded state. Some receiving, 
 others paying visits in covered conveyances; all doing 
 honour to the day by wearing their best jewellery and 
 splendid dress. The Zanana rings with festive songs and 
 loud music, the cheerful meeting of friends, the distribu- 
 tion of presents to dependents, and remembrances to the 
 poor ; all is life and joy, cheerful bustle and amusement, 
 on this happy day of 'Id, when the good lady of the Man- 
 sion sits in state to receive presents from inferiors and to 
 grant proofs of her favour to others." 2 
 
 6. The Baqr-'Id. — This is the most important Feast in 
 the whole year. It is also known as the 'Id-i-Qurban, and 
 as the 'Id-ul-Azha, commonly called the Id-uz-Zuha, the 
 feast of sacrifice. In Turkey and in Egypt it is called 
 Bairam. Its origin was as follows : A few months after 
 the Hijra, or flight from Mecca, Muhammad, dwelling in 
 Madina, observed that the Jews kept, on the tenth day of 
 the seventh month, the great fast of the Atonement. A 
 Tradition records that the Prophet asked them why they 
 kept this fast. He was informed that it was a memorial of 
 the deliverance of Moses and the children of Israel from the 
 hands of Pharaoh. " We have a greater right in Moses 
 than they," said Muhammad, so he fasted with the Jews 
 and commanded his followers to fast also. This was at the 
 period of his mission when Muhammad was friendly with 
 the Jews of Madina, who occasionally came to hear him 
 preach. The Prophet also occasionally attended the syna- 
 gogue. Then came the change of the Qibla from Jerusalem 
 to Mecca, for the Jews were not so ready to change their 
 
 1. Khutbaha-i-Mutarjam, p. 104. 
 
 2. " Observations on the Musalmaus of India." Mrs. Mir Husan 'All, 
 . 192." 
 
The Baqr-'Id. 253 
 
 creed as Muhammad had at first hoped. In the second year 
 of the Hijra, Muhammad and his followers did not partici- 
 pate in the Jewish fast, for the Prophet now instituted the 
 feast of the Baqr-'Id. The idolatrous Arabs had been in 
 the habit of making an annual pilgrimage to Mecca at this 
 season of the year. The offering of animals in sacrifice 
 formed a part of the concluding ceremony of that pilgrimage. 
 That portion — the sacrifice of animals — Muhammad adopted 
 in the feast which now, at Madina, he substituted for the 
 Jewish fast. This was well calculated to attract the atten- 
 tion of the Meccans and to gain the goodwill of the Arabs. 
 Muhammad could not then make the pilgrimage to Mecca, 
 for as yet there was a hostile feeling between the inhabi- 
 tants of the two cities ; but on the tenth day of the month 
 Zu'1-Hajja, at the very time when the Arabs at Mecca were 
 engaged in sacrificing victims, Muhammad went forth from 
 his house at Madina, and assembling his followers instituted 
 the Id-uz-Zuha or Baqr-'Id. Two young kids were brought 
 before him. One he sacrificed and said : " Lord ! I sac- 
 rifice this for my whole people, all those who bear witness 
 to Thy unity and to my mission. Lord ! this is for Mu- 
 hammad and for the family of Muhammad." 
 
 Great merit is obtained by all who keep this feast. 
 'Ayesha relates how the Prophet once said : " Man hath not 
 done anything on the 'Id-ul-Azha more pleasiug to God than 
 spilling blood ; for verily the animal sacrificed will come on 
 the day of resurrection with its horns, hair and hoofs, and 
 will make the scale of his good actions very heavy. Verily 
 its blood reached the acceptance of God before it falleth 
 upon the ground, therefore be joyful in it." 
 
 Musalmans say that the Patriarch Abraham was order- 
 ed to sacrifice Ishmael, and that he made several ineffec- 
 tual attemps to cut the throat of his son. Ishmael then 
 said to his father : " It is through pity and compassion 
 for me that you allow the knife to miss : blindfold yourself 
 and then sacrifice me." Abraham acted upon this advice, 
 
254 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 blindfolded himself, drew his knife, repeated the Bismillah, 
 and, as he thought, cut the throat of his son ; but, behold, 
 in the meantime Gabriel had substituted a sheep for the lad. 
 This event is commemorated in this feast. 
 
 On the day before the feast, the Arfa, or vigil, is kept. 
 Food of various kinds is prepared, over which a Fatiha is 
 offered, first, in the name of the Prophet ; secondly, in the 
 names of deceased relatives, and of others for whom a bless- 
 ing is desired, or from whom some favor is expected. The 
 food is then sent as a present to friends. 
 
 On the morning of the feast day, the devout Muslims 
 proceed to the 'Id-gah or, if there is no 'Id-gah, to the 
 principal Mosque, I'epeating on the way the Takbir " God is 
 Great \" aud " There is no other God save the one true God, 
 God is great, praise be to God." At the time of making 
 wazu, the worshipper should say : " God, make this (i.e. 
 the sacrifice I shall offer to-day) an atonement for my sin, 
 and purify my religion and take evil away from me." 
 
 The Service at the 'Id-gah, or in the Mosque consists 
 of two f arz rak'ats, as in the Salat-ul- Juma (p. 201 ), after 
 the Khutba is delivered. It will, however, be seen from 
 the following sermon that it is mustahab to say four more 
 rak'ats. 
 
 SERMON ON THE 'it)-UZ-ZUHA. 
 In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful. 
 
 Allahu Akbar ! God is Great. There is no God but God. God is 
 Great ! God is Great and worthy of all praise. He is Holy. Day and 
 night we should praise Him. He is without partner, without equal. 
 All praise be to Him. Holy is He, "Who makes the rich generous, 
 Who provides the sacrifice for the wise. He is Great, without an 
 equal. All praise be to Him. Listen! I testify that there is no 
 God but God. He is alone, without partner. This testimony is as 
 bright as the early dawn, as brilliant as the glorious feast day. 
 Muhammad is His servant who delivered His message. On Muham- 
 mad, and on his family, and on his Companions may the peace of God 
 rest. On you who are present, congregation of Muslimin, may the 
 
Sermon on the 'Id-uz-Zuha. 255 
 
 mercy of God for ever rest. O servants of God ! our first duty is to 
 fear God and to be kind. God has said : " I will be with those who 
 fear Me and are kind." 
 
 Know servants of God! that to rejoice on the feast day is the 
 sign and mark of the pure and good. Exalted will be the rank 
 of such in Paradise (Dar-ul-Qarar), especially on the day of resur- 
 rection will they obtain dignity and honour. Do not on this 
 day foolish acts. It is no time for amusements and negligence. 
 This is the day on which to utter the praises of God. (Tasbih.) 
 Read the Kah'ma, the Takbir and the Tamhid. This is a high 
 festival season and the feast of sacrifice. Read now the Takbir- 
 ut-Tashriq. God is great ! God is great ! There is no God but 
 God ! God is great ! God is great ! All praise be to Him ! From 
 the morning of the 'Arfa, after every farz rak'at it is good (mustahab) 
 for a person to repeat the Takbir-ut-Tashriq. The woman before 
 whom is a man as Imam, and the traveller whose Imam is a 
 permanent resident (Muqim) should also repeat this Takbir. It 
 should be said at each Namaz until the Salat-ul-'Asr of the Feast 
 day ^10th). Some, however, say that it should be recited every day 
 till the afternoon ('Asr) of the thirteenth day, as these are the days 
 of the Tashriq (p. 231). 1 If the Imam forgets to recite, let not the 
 worshipper forget. Know, believers, that every free man who 
 is a Sahib-i-Nisab (i.e. worth Rs. 52) should offer sacrifice on this 
 day, provided that this sum is exclusive of his horse, his clothes, his 
 tools, and his household goods and slaves. It is wajib for every one 
 to offer sacrifice for himself, but it is not a wajib order that he 
 should do it for his children.2 A goat, a ram or a cow should be 
 offered in sacrifice for every seven persons. The victim must not 
 be one-eyed, blind, lame or very thin. 
 
 If you sacrifice a fat animal it will serve you well, and carry 
 you across the Sirat. Believers, thus said the Prophet, on 
 whom be the mercy and peace of God, " Sacrifice the victim with 
 your own hands, this was the Sunnat of Ibrahim, on whom be peace." 
 
 In the Kitab-uz-zad-ut-Taqwa, it is said that on the 'Id-ul-Fitr and 
 the 'Id-uz-Zuha, four nafl rak'ats should be said after the farz Namaz 
 
 1. The opinion of the various Traditionists on this point is given in the 
 Nur-ul-Hidayah, vol. iv. p. 61. m 
 
 2. Still it is mustahab, or a meritorious act so to do. It is also said that, 
 if a minor is possessed of property, his father or his guardian may purchase 
 at his expense an animal and sacrifice it. The child may then eat as much 
 as it can. The remainder of the meat must be exchanged for something 
 which the child can use, such as clothes, shoes, &c. Nur-ul-Hidayah, vol. 
 iv. p. 60. 
 
256 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 of the 'Id. In the first rak'at after the Siirat-ul-Fatiha recite the 
 Surat-ul-A'la (Sura lxxvii) ; in the second, the Siirat-ush-Shams 
 (Sura xci) ; in the third, the Surat-uz-Zuha (Sura xciii) ; in the 
 fourth, the Siirat-ul-Ikhlas (cxii). 
 
 Believers, if ye do so, God will pardon the sins of fifty yeai\s 
 which are past and of fifty years to come. The reading of these 
 Siiras are equal as an act of merit to the reading of all the books 
 God has sent by His prophets. 
 
 May God include us amongst those who are accepted by Him, who 
 act according to the Law, whose desire will be granted at the last day. 
 To all such there will be no fear in the day of resurrection ; no 
 sorrow in the examination at the day of judgment. The best of all 
 books is the Quran. believers ! May God give to us, and to you 
 a blessing for ever by the grace of the Noble Quran. May its verses 
 be our guide, and may its wise mention of God direct us aright. 
 I desire that God may pardon all believers, male and female, the 
 Muslimin and the Muslimat. believers, also seek for pardon. 
 Truly God is the Forgiver, the Merciful, the Eternal King, the 
 Compassionate, the Clement. O believers, the Khutba is over. Let 
 all desire that on Muhammad Mustafa the mercy and peace of God 
 may rest. 
 
 The worshippers then return to their respective homes 
 and offer up the sacrifice/ for it is a wajib order that every 
 Muslim should keep this feast, and sacrifice an animal for 
 himself. He need not fear though he has to incur debt for 
 the purchase of an animal, for it is said that God will in 
 some way help him to pay the debt. If a camel is sacrificed, 
 it should be one not less than five years of age, if a cow or 
 sheep it should at least be in its second year, though the 
 third year is better ; if a goat it must not be less than six 
 months old. All of these animals must be without a blemish, 
 or defect of any kind. It is a sunnat order that the head 
 of the household should himself slay the victim. If, how- 
 ever, from any cause, he cannot do so, he may call in a 
 butcher ; but in that case he must place his hand upon that 
 of the butcher when the operation is performed. If the 
 
 1. According to the Imams Shafa'i and Malik no one must offer up the 
 sacrifice until the Imam who has officiated at the previous Namaz has slain 
 his victim. Nur-ul-Hidayab, vol. iv. p. 61. 
 
The 'Main. 257 
 
 victim is a camel, it must be placed with the head towards 
 Mecca. Its front legs being bandaged together the sacri- 
 ficer must stand on the right hand side of the victim, and 
 plunge the knife into its throat with such force that the 
 animal may fall at once. Any other mode of slaying it is 
 unlawful. Other animals must be slain in the same way. 
 Just before slaying the victim the following verse of the 
 Quran should be repeated : " Say ! my prayers, and my 
 worship, and my life and my death are unto God, the Lord 
 of the worlds. He hath no associate. This am I commanded, 
 and I am the first of the Muslims." (Sura vi. 163). The 
 operator also adds : " God, from Thee, and to Thee (I do 
 this), in the name of God, God is Great !" Then having 
 slain the victim he says : " God accept this for me." The 
 first meal taken should be prepared from the flesh of the 
 animal just slaughtered, after which the members of the 
 family, the neighbours, and the poor should receive some 
 portions. 
 
 It is considered highly meritorious to sacrifice one animal 
 for each member of the family ; but as that would involve 
 an expenditure few could bear, it is allowable to sacrifice 
 one victim for the household. In extreme cases men may 
 combine together and make one sacrifice do for the whole, 
 but the number of persons so combining must not exceed 
 seventy. Some authorities limit the number to seven. 
 This feast is strictly observed by all Muslims wherever they 
 
 may be. 
 
 The Baqr-'Id and the 'Id-ul-Fitr constitute the 'Idain, the 
 two great Feasts of Islam. A country in which Musalmans 
 could not observe them both would at once become Dar-ul- 
 Harb, or House of Enmity, in which it would be the bounden 
 duty of every Muslim to join in a Jihad, against the Infidel 
 rulers of the land. 
 
 This completes the principal Feasts of the Muslim year. 
 
 Among other practices borrowed from the Hindus must 
 be placed the pilgrimage made by Indian Musalmans to the 
 
 33 
 
258 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 shrines of Saints, the ceremonies connected with them and 
 the festivals instituted in their honour. Properly speaking, 
 the Sunnis have but two festivals — the Baqr-'Id and the 'Id- 
 ul-Fitr, but many others are now observed. Of these I have 
 described several. It only remains to notice a few of the 
 festival days which are peculiar to India. The title of Pir 
 given to a Musalman devotee is equivalent to the term 
 Guru amongst the Hindus. A man who seeks to be a 
 ' religious' takes a Pir as a spiritual guide. ' ' Follow," 
 says the poet Wall, " the footsteps of thy Pir, like a 
 shadow." After death these Pirs are venerated as Walis 
 or Saints. The Pirs when alive, are frequently resorted to 
 for a ta'wiz, or charm, and the aid of their prayers is often 
 invoked. The sepulchre of a Wall is called a Dargah, 
 shrine ; Mazar, place of pilgrimage ; Rauza, garden. The 
 professional reciter of the Quran, and the Namaz at such 
 places is called a Rauza Khan. As a rule, processions are 
 made to the shrines, and flowers, sweetmeats and food over 
 which a Fatiha has been said are offered. Usually the 
 Fatiha is /or the Saint, not to the Saint. It is considered a 
 very meritorious act to give land for the erection of such 
 shrines and to endow them. An account of many of these 
 Saints is given in the Bara Masa by Jawan and the Arayish- 
 i-Mahfil by Afsos. The following selection will give an 
 idea of the customs prevalent : — 
 
 I. Festival of Madab. — Sayyid Badr-ud-din Kutb-ul- 
 Madar is said to have descended from the Imam Husain. 
 He was born at Aleppo about a.d. 1050, and received from 
 Muhammad permission to "hold his breath" (Habs-i-dam). 
 Thus he was able to live to a good old age. He is said to 
 have had 1,442 sons, and to have died when upwards of 300 
 years old. More rational people explain the number of his 
 sons by saying they were his spiritual children. The length 
 of his life is explained by saying that as each man has to 
 make a certain number of inspirations, the less frequently 
 he does it the louger he will live. Jawan in his account of 
 
Maddr and Sdldr Mas'ud Ghdzi. 259 
 
 the festival states : " The tomb of Madar is at Makanpur, 
 a place about forty miles from Cawnpore. On the seven- 
 teenth of the month Jamadi-ul-Awwal an immense crowd 
 fills the village which is illuminated at night. Fires are 
 lighted, around which Fakirs dance, and through which they 
 leap calling out " Dam Madar, Dam Madar," (breath of 
 Madar.) An order of Fakirs, called Madaria, look to this 
 Saint as their patron. In distaut places where this feast is 
 kept they set up an Alam, or standard in honour of the 
 Saint, and perform ceremonies common to such days. The 
 nights are spent in celebrating his praises, &c. 
 
 2. Festival op Mu'in-ud-din Chisti. 1 — The tomb of this 
 Saint is in Ajmir. He was a Syed descended from Husain, 
 the son of 'All, and was born in Sajistan about the year 537 
 a.h. His father died when he was about fifteen years old. 
 Soon after this he fell in with a famous Fakir, Ibrahim 
 Qanduzi, through whose influence he began to seek the 
 Tariqat, or mystical road to the knowledge of God. When 
 he was twenty years of age he received further instruction 
 from the famous 'Abd-ul-Qadir Jilani. After the conquest 
 of Hindustan by Shahab-ud-din Ghori, Mu'in-ud-din retired 
 to Ajmir, where he died in the odour of sanctity 636 a.h. 
 Pilgrimages to this tomb have been and are very popular. 
 Emperors and people vied with each other in doing honour 
 to the memory of this saint. Even Akbar, sceptic though 
 he was as regards orthodox Islam, made a pilgrimage to 
 this shrine, and offered vows that he might have a 
 son who would live to manhood. Hindus also visit this 
 tomb and presents from rich men of this class are not 
 unusual. 
 
 3. Festival op Salar Mas'ud Ghazi. — There is some 
 doubt as to the nationality of this Saint. Some say he was a 
 Husaini Syed, others that he was a Pathan, and a martyr. 
 His tomb is situated in Oude. Afsos thus describes the 
 
 1. Arayish-i-Mahfil p. 144, 
 
260 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 pilgrimage. "Once a year great crowds of people gather 
 from all parts. They carry red lances, and beat thousands 
 of tambourines. The 'Urs is held on the first Sunday of the 
 month Jith (May-June). The people believe that this was 
 his wedding day, because it is said that he had on wedding 
 garments when he was killed. This belief once led a certain 
 oilman, a resident of Raduli, to send a bedstead, chair, and 
 other marriage presents to the shrine at this time. The 
 custom is still kept up by the descendants of the oilman. 
 The common people fasten ropes to the branches of the trees 
 in the neighbourhood, and swing, some by the hands and 
 some by the heels, and assume various disguises. They thus 
 hope to obtain what they desire." The Hindus venerate this 
 Saint very highly. The Musalmans look upon him as a most 
 sacred person, for he slew many idolatrous Hindus, and so 
 earned the title of Ghazi, the warrior : the Hindus consider 
 that it was only by the power of God that he could do so 
 many acts of prowess. 
 
 4. Festival op the Bira or op Khaja Khizr. — Of this 
 Saint, M. Garcin de Tassy says : "Khaja Khizr is a personage 
 respecting whom the opinions of orientals vary. Many con- 
 sider him the same as Phineas, the grandson of Aaron ; others 
 that he is the prophet Elias ; and lastly, the Turks confound 
 him with St. George. In order to reconcile these conflicting 
 opinions, some allege that the same soul has animated three 
 different persons. Whatever be the fact, Khizr, according 
 to the Musalmans, discovered the source of the Water of 
 Life of which he is the guardian. He is believed to be 
 very clever in divination, and to be the patron of waters. 
 As such a festival is held in his honour." Jawan de- 
 scribes it thus: "In the month of Bhadun (August-Sep- 
 tember) all whose wishes have been fulfilled, make it a 
 point of duty to set afloat the boat (nau) in honour of Khaja 
 Khizr, and to make according to their means offerings of 
 milk and bruised grain to the holy personage. On every 
 Friday, and in some places on every Thursday, in the month 
 
Pir Dastgir Sahib. 2G1 
 
 in question, the devotees having prepared the bira carry it 
 at night to the bank of the river, with many ceremonies. 
 There great and small, having lighted lamps and tapers, 
 make their respective oblations, whilst a number of swim- 
 mers together jointly push the bira into the middle of the 
 river." Sometimes a number of small biras, made of clay, 
 are also launched, and as each carries a lamp the general 
 effect is striking. It is said that the Musalman natives of 
 the Maldive Islands annually launch a small vessel laden 
 with perfumes, gum, and odoriferous flowers, and leave it 
 to the mercy of the winds and waves as an offering to the 
 god of the sea. There can be no doubt that this god of the 
 sea is Khizr, the patron of the waters." 
 
 The following prayer is recited in the Fatiha of Khizr : 
 " To obtain purity of heart, and the benediction of Him 
 who hears the vows of mortals, and who alone can keep from 
 them all evils, I rest upon the merits of Khaja Khizr, the 
 great prophet Elias." 
 
 5. The Feast op Pir Dastgir Sahib. — This is held on the 
 eleventh day of the month of Rabi'-us-Sani. The Sunnis 
 hold this Saint in great reverence. He has no less than 
 ninety-nine names. His tomb is at Baghdad. On the tenth 
 of the month the ceremony called Sandal (p. 245 j is per- 
 formed, followed on the next day by the 'Urs, when the 
 Maulad, or the account of the circumstances connected with 
 the birth of the saint is read ; Qasa,id, or elegiac poems are 
 recited ; the Darud is repeated and Fatihas are said. The 
 Quran is also read through. Vows are frequently made to 
 this Saint and in time of any special visitation, such as cholera, 
 a flag is carried about in honour of this Pir by some of his 
 devotees to whom presents of food, &c, are offered. Fatiha 
 is then said over them. He is said to appear to his followers 
 during their sleep and to give them directions. Ja'far 
 Sharif, the compiler of the Qanun-i-Islam speaking, on this 
 point relates his own experience thus : " The author speaks 
 from personal experience, for at the time of need, when he 
 
262 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 was oppressed in mind concerning things which he desired, 
 he used to repeat constantly the ninety-nine names of the 
 Pir and vow before the Holy God, imploring His assistance 
 by the soul of Dastgir ; and through the mercy of the 
 Almighty, his Excellency Ghaus-ul-A'zam (Dastgir) pre- 
 sented himself in his sleep, and relieved him of his perplexi- 
 ties and vouchsafed his behests." 
 
 Syed Ahmad Kabir Rafai, the founder of the Rafai 
 Darwishes was a nephew of this Saint. 
 
 6. Festival op Qadir Wali Sahib. — This is the great 
 saint of Southern India. The 'Urs is celebrated on the 
 tenth day of Jamadi-us-Sani. The shrine is at Nagore, 
 a town situated four miles north of Negapatam. The sandal 
 and other ceremonies are similar to those described already. 
 He is the patron saint of sailors, who in times of difficulty 
 vow that, if they reach the shore in safety, they will offer a 
 Fatiha in the name of Qadir Wall. The common people 
 have a profound faith in the power of the saint to work 
 miracles. The story of the following one is frequently 
 related : " A vessel springing a leak was about to founder, 
 when the Captain made a vow that should Qadir Wali stop 
 the leak, he would offer in his name the value of the cargo. 
 At that time the saint was being shaved, but being miracu- 
 lously acquainted with the perilous position of the Captain 
 he cast away the looking-glass which he held in his hand. 
 This glass attached itself to the hole in the bottom of the 
 ship which then came safely to land. The Captain, in due 
 course, presented his offering to the saint who requested 
 him to return the glass to the barber. The Captain was 
 astonished at this request and enquired what glass was 
 meant. He was then directed to look at the bottom of his 
 ship. He did so, and discovered how the saint had saved 
 the ship." 
 
 The festival affords a curious illustration of the way in 
 which Hindu influences have acted on Islam, and how even 
 Hindus pay regard to Muslim Saints. Qadir Wali is said to 
 
Qddir Wall Sahib. 263 
 
 have been a Fakir who lived on the charity of both Hindus 
 and Musalmans. Indeed both parties claim him as belong- 
 ing to their respective religions, which may be accounted for 
 by the fact that in his preaching to mixed audiences he 
 suited his addresses to both classes of his hearers. After 
 his death a small Mosque was erected on or near his tomb. 
 The fame of the Wall gradually grew, and a Hindu Rajah 
 made a vow that if he were blessed with the birth of a 
 son, he would enlarge and beautify the Mosque. His wish 
 was fulfilled, and the present elegant structure is the result. 
 So famous has the shrine of the Saint now become that the 
 Musalmans there say : " First Mecca, then Nagore." The 
 same reason which induced the Hindu Rajah to make a 
 votive offering years ago, still influences large numbers of 
 people. On Thursday evenings, the commencement of the 
 Muhammadan Sabbath, many Hindu women resort to the 
 shrine of the Saint. On the closing night of the Annual 
 Feast, Tabuts are taken in procession from Negapatam, and 
 rich presents are sent from the Tanjore Palace to the Nagore 
 Mosque. Thus is the Hindu connection still kept up with 
 the festival of this Musalman Saint. 
 
 There are many other Walis and Pirs to whose tombs 
 pilgrimages are made, and in memory of whom many super- 
 stitious observances are still kept up; but all such pilgrimages 
 to a Dargah (shrine) are no necessary part of Islam. In 
 all parts of the country there are the shrines of Saints who 
 have a local reputation and whose annual festivals are more 
 or less observed. Still it is not necessary for me to give a 
 further account of these. This brings me to the close of 
 my subject. 
 
 In the preceding chapters, I have endeavoured to set forth 
 the main features of the Faith of Islam, and the religious 
 duties it enjoins. I might now go on to show its relation 
 to Judaism and Christianity, the elements it has drawn 
 from them, and the distortions it has made in the borrowing, 
 as well as the protest it raised against much that was cor- 
 
264 The Faith of Islam. 
 
 rapt in the Christianity with which it came in contact. I 
 might also enlarge upon its moral and social effects, and 
 the character it produces in the individual and the state. 
 But these subjects would lead me far beyond my present 
 scope. I prefer to content myself with giving a representa- 
 tion of the Faith of Islam from its own authorities, and 
 with leaving my readers to make comparisons and draw 
 inferences for themselves. 
 
 THE END. 
 
INDEX 
 
 OF 
 
 TECHNICAL TERMS. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 
 
 Bid'at 
 
 . . 
 
 A. 
 
 
 Buraq 
 
 Aiyam-i-Biz 
 
 ... 214 
 
 D. 
 
 Aiyam-nt-Tasbriq 
 
 ... 231 
 
 
 ' Alam. 
 
 ... 238 
 
 Da,iri 
 
 Al-A'raf 
 
 ... 167 
 
 Dalalat 
 
 Al-Barzakh 
 
 ... 168 
 
 Dalil-i-qata'i 
 
 Al-Mahdi 
 
 ... 80 
 
 Dalil-i-zani 
 
 Akbir-Cbar Sliambah 
 
 ... 244 
 
 Darwisbes... 
 
 'Amm 
 
 ... 48 
 
 Dargah 
 
 Amr-i-Takwiti 
 
 ... 176 
 
 Dn'a 
 
 Anbiya-nlal-'Azm 
 
 ... 150 
 
 
 Asar-i-Sbarif 
 
 ... 245 
 
 F 
 
 Asbab 
 
 .. 7 
 
 -L • 
 
 ' Asbura 
 
 ... 241 
 
 Fana 
 
 'Asbur Kbana 
 
 ... 237 
 
 Faru' 
 
 
 Asrua-i-Husna, 
 
 ... 133 
 
 Farz 
 
 
 Attabiyat ... 
 
 ... 197 
 
 Farz-i-'ain 
 
 
 Auliya 
 
 ... 152 
 
 Farz-i-kifa 
 
 ya 
 
 Ayat 
 
 ... 54 
 
 Fatrah 
 
 
 Ayat-ul-Kursi 
 
 ... 212 
 
 Fitrat 
 
 .. 
 
 Azad 
 
 ... 95 
 
 Fuqiha 
 
 
 Azan 
 
 ... 193 
 
 G. 
 
 B. 
 
 
 Ghair-i-Mabdi 
 
 Bard Wafat 
 
 ... 244 
 
 Ghusl 
 
 Baqab-i-Qansain ... 
 
 ... 158 
 
 Gunah-i-kabira 
 
 Baqr-'fd 
 
 ... 252 
 
 Gnnah-i-sa 
 
 ,ghira 
 
 PAGE. 
 .. 14 
 
 .. 241 
 
 81 
 53 
 
 187 
 187 
 94 
 258 
 197 
 
 93 
 
 120 
 187 
 208 
 207 
 3 
 187 
 33 
 
 81 
 190 
 154 
 154 
 
 34 
 
266 
 
 Index. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 H. 
 
 Hadia-i- Ahad 
 
 ... 70 
 
 Hadis-i-Hasan 
 
 ... 71 
 
 Hadis-i-Mua'llaq ... 
 
 ... 72 
 
 Hadis-i-Mursal . . . 
 
 ... 72 
 
 Hadis-i-Mutawatir 
 
 ... 70 
 
 Hadis-i- Sahih 
 
 ... 71 
 
 Hadis-i-Z'aif 
 
 ... 71 
 
 Hadd 
 
 ... 179 
 
 Hafiz 
 
 ... 42 
 
 HaftSifat 
 
 ... 118 
 
 Ha 3J 
 
 ... 223 
 
 Hajr-ul-Aswad ... 
 
 ... 226 
 
 Hal 
 
 ... 93 
 
 Haqiqat ... 
 
 52,93 
 
 Haram 
 
 ... 188 
 
 Harut 
 
 ... 142 
 
 Hasal Khazaf 
 
 ... 230 
 
 I. 
 
 Ibadhiyah . . . 
 Ibarat 
 
 Iblis 
 
 'Id-gah 
 
 'Id-ul-Fitr 
 
 Iftar 
 
 Ihlal 
 
 Ihram 
 Ijma' 
 
 Ijma'-i-Uminat . . . 
 Ijtihad... 
 Ijtihad fi'1-Masa.il 
 Ijtihad fi'1-Mazhab 
 Ijtihad fi'1-Shari' 
 
 17, 
 
 ... 76 
 ... 53 
 ... 140 
 ... 245 
 ... 247 
 ... 250 
 ... 224 
 ... 224 
 ... 16 
 ... 17 
 26, 32 
 ... 34 
 ... 34 
 ... 34 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Ilham 37 
 
 Uka ... 40 
 
 'Ilm-i-usul 41 
 
 Imam ... ... ... 75 
 
 Imam Abu Hanifa ... 19 
 
 Imam Ibn Malik 20 
 
 Imam As-Shafa'i 21 
 
 Imam Ibn Hanbal ... 22 
 
 Imamat ... ... ... 75 
 
 Imam Bara ... ... 237 
 
 Iman-i-mafassal 116 
 
 Iman-i-mujmal ... ... 116 
 
 Istidlal 53 
 
 Isharat ... ... ... 53 
 
 Ishrak fi'l-'ibadat ... 108 
 
 Ishrak fi'1-adab 109 
 
 Isnad ... ... ... Q7 
 
 'Itikaf 249 
 
 Iqamat ... ... ... 194 
 
 Iqtiza ... ... ... 54 
 
 I'tibar-ul-Amsal 27 
 
 Jabrians ... 
 
 ... 132 
 
 Jahannum 
 
 ... 172 
 
 Jami'-i-Tirmizi 
 
 ... 86 
 
 Jamrat-nl-Akaliah 
 
 ... 230 
 
 Jannat 
 
 ... 171 
 
 Jasbn-i-milad-i-sharif 
 
 ... 245 
 
 Jinn 
 
 ... 145 
 
 Juz 
 
 ... 56 
 
 K. 
 
 K'aba 
 Kalam 
 
 227 
 135 
 

 Index. 
 
 267 
 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Kalima 54, 116 
 
 Muawwal ... 
 
 ... 48 
 
 Karamians 
 
 .. 163 
 
 Mu,azzin ... 
 
 ... 193 
 
 Kasb 
 
 .. 130 
 
 Mubab 
 
 ... 188 
 
 Kausar 
 
 .. 171 
 
 Mufassir ... 
 
 33,50 
 
 Kinayah ... 
 
 .. 52 
 
 Mufsid 
 
 ... 188 
 
 Kiraru-ul-Katibin 
 
 .. 141 
 
 Muhaddis 
 
 ... 67 
 
 Kitman 
 
 .. 91 
 
 Mujassimians 
 
 ... 131 
 
 Khafi 
 
 .. 50 
 
 Mu'jizat ... 
 
 ... 157 
 
 Kharigites 
 
 .. 76 
 
 Mujmal 
 
 ... 51 
 
 Khass 
 
 .. 48 
 
 Majtahid 
 
 ... 17 
 
 Kharq-i-'adat 
 
 .. 157 
 
 Mukham ... 
 
 ... 50 
 
 Khnlafa-i-Rashidin 
 
 .. 66 
 
 Mankir 
 
 ... 145 
 
 Khutba 
 
 .. 201 
 
 Murshid ... 
 
 ... 92 
 
 
 
 Mutashabih 
 
 ... 52 
 
 
 
 Musalli 
 
 ... 193 
 
 L. 
 
 
 Mnshabihites 
 
 ... 131 
 
 
 
 Mus-haf 
 
 ... 147 
 
 Labbaik ... 
 
 . 225 
 
 Maharram 
 
 ... 237 
 
 Lahad 
 
 . 211 
 
 Muskhil 
 
 ... 51 
 
 Lailat-ul-Qadr 
 
 .. 2 
 
 Mustahab ... 
 
 ... 188 
 
 
 
 Mu'takif 
 
 ... 249 
 
 
 
 Mnstarik ... 
 
 ... 48 
 
 M. 
 
 
 Mnta'h 
 
 ... 84 
 
 
 
 Matazilites 
 
 ... 125 
 
 Mahmudiah 
 
 . 83 
 
 
 
 Majaz 
 
 . 52 
 
 
 
 Majziib 
 
 . 95 
 
 N. 
 
 
 Mankadda' 
 
 .. 200 
 
 
 
 Makruh 
 
 .. 188 
 
 Nabi 
 
 ... 153 
 
 Mansiikh ... 
 
 .. 59 
 
 Naf khatain-i-Sur. . 
 
 ... 161 
 
 Maqam-i-Mahmud 
 
 .. 169 
 
 Nafl 
 
 ... 199 
 
 Marsiya ... 
 
 . 238 
 
 Nakir 
 
 ... 145 
 
 Marut 
 
 .. 142 
 
 Namaz 
 
 ... 193 
 
 Mihrab 
 
 .. 243 
 
 Nass 
 
 ... 50 
 
 Mimbar 
 
 .. 239 
 
 Nasikh 
 
 ... 59 
 
 Miqat 
 
 .. 225 
 
 Nisab 
 
 ... 218 
 
 Mizan 
 
 .. 165 
 
 Niyyat 
 
 ... 194 
 
 Mua'qqibat 
 
 .. 141 
 
 Nur-i-Mubammadi 
 
 ... 77 
 
268 
 
 Index. 
 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 
 
 Salat-ul-Istikhara 
 
 ... 213 
 
 Q. 
 
 
 Salat-ul- Janaza . . . 
 
 ... 207 
 
 
 
 Salat-ul- Juma' 
 
 ... 200 
 
 Qadam-i-Rasul 
 
 ... 245 
 
 Sakit-ul-Khauf ... 
 
 ... 204 
 
 Qadrians ... 
 
 ... 174 
 
 Salat-ul-Khusuf . . . 
 
 ... 206 
 
 Qaza 
 
 ... 214 
 
 Salat-ul- Knsuf ... 
 
 ... 205 
 
 Qiam 
 
 ... 194 
 27,28 
 
 Salat-ul-Maghrib... 
 
 ... 200 
 
 Qias 
 
 Salat-ul-Musafir ... 
 
 ... 204 
 
 Qira,at 
 
 ... 43 
 
 Salat- ut-Tarawih ... 
 
 ... 206 
 
 Qari 
 
 ... 43 
 
 Salat-ul- Talia j j ud 
 
 ... 200 
 
 
 
 Salat-uz-Zuha 
 
 ... 200 
 
 R. 
 
 
 Salat-uz-Znhr 
 
 ... 200 
 
 
 
 Salik 
 
 ... 92 
 
 Rak'at 
 
 ... 195 
 
 Sarih 
 
 ... 52 
 
 Ramazan ... 
 
 ... 247 
 
 Shafa'at-i-ba-izn ... 
 
 ... 108 
 
 Rami-ul- Janiar . . . 
 
 ... 230 
 
 S haf a ' at- i- muhabbat 
 
 ... 107 
 
 Rasul 
 
 ... 153 
 
 Shafa'at-i-wajahat 
 
 ... 107 
 
 Rauza Khan 
 
 ... 258 
 
 Shirk 
 
 ... 105 
 
 Roza 
 
 ... 213 
 
 Shirk-ul-'Adat ... 
 
 ... 109 
 
 Roza-i-nazr 
 
 ... 214 
 
 Shirk-ul-'ibadat ... 
 
 ... 108 
 
 Roza-i-kaf ara 
 
 * 
 
 ... 214 
 
 Shirk-ul-'ilm 
 
 ... 107 
 
 Ruh-ul-Amiu 
 
 ... 4 
 
 Shirk-ut-tasarruf . . . 
 
 ... 107 
 
 Ruku' 
 
 ... 56 
 
 Sifat-i-Salbiah 
 
 ... 123 
 
 Ruz-i-Tarwiah 
 
 ... 229 
 
 Sifat-i-Sabutiah ... 
 
 ... 123 
 
 
 
 Sihah-Sittah 
 
 ... 67 
 
 S. 
 
 
 Sipara 
 
 ... 56 
 
 
 
 Sirat 
 
 ... 166 
 
 Sadqa 
 
 ... 250 
 
 Snf iism 
 
 87—101 
 
 Saha,if-i-A'mal ... 
 
 ... 165 
 
 Snnan-i-Abu Daud 
 
 ... 68 
 
 Sahih-i-Bukhari ... 
 
 ... 67 
 
 Sunan-i-Nasai 
 
 ... 68 
 
 Sahih-i-Muslim . . . 
 
 ... 68 
 
 Snnan-i-Majah ... 
 
 ... 69 
 
 S'ai 
 
 ... 229 
 
 Sunnat 
 
 ... 10 
 
 Salat 
 
 ... 193 
 
 Siira 
 
 ... 55 
 
 Salat-ul-' Asr 
 
 ... 200 
 
 
 
 Salat-ul-Fajr 
 
 ... 200 
 
 
 
 Salat-ul-'Isha 
 
 ... 200 
 
 T. 
 
 
 Salat-ul-Ishraq .. 
 
 ... 200 
 
 
 
 Salat-ul-Istisqa .. 
 
 ... 206 
 
 Ta'awwuz ... 
 
 ... 195 
 
Index. 
 
 269 
 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Taba-i-Tabi'in ... 
 
 ... 7 
 
 
 
 Tabi'in 
 
 ... 7 
 
 U. 
 
 
 Tabiit 
 
 ... 238 
 
 Usui 
 
 ... 120 
 
 Taharat 
 
 ... 189 
 
 
 
 Tahrif 
 
 ... 149 
 
 'Umrah 
 
 ... 231 
 
 Takbir 
 
 ... 193 
 
 W. 
 
 
 Takia 
 
 ... 84 
 
 
 Talbiyah 
 
 ... 225 
 
 Wahhabis ... 
 
 ... 101 
 
 Talqin 
 
 ... 212 
 
 Wahi 
 
 ... 37 
 
 Tasbih 
 
 ... 195 
 
 Wajd 
 
 ... 93 
 
 Tashahhud 
 
 ... 188 
 
 Wajib 
 
 ... 187 
 
 Tasmia' 
 
 ... 195 
 
 Wajib-ul-Wajud .. 
 
 ... 132 
 
 Tasmiyah ... 
 
 ... 195 
 
 Waqi'a Khan 
 
 ... 239 
 
 Tatair-i-Saha,if 
 
 ... 163 
 
 Wazii 
 
 ... 189 
 
 Tanhid 
 
 ... 106 
 
 Witr 
 
 ... 198 
 
 Tauqifi 
 
 ... 132 
 
 
 
 Tawaf 
 
 ... 227 
 
 Z. 
 
 
 Tawaf-ul-Wida* .. 
 
 ... 231 
 
 Zakat 
 
 . 218—222 
 
 Tayammum 
 
 ... 190 
 
 Zahir 
 
 ... 49 
 
 Taziah 
 
 ... 238 
 
 Ziarat 
 
 ... 233 
 
 ERRATA. 
 
 Page 33 line 29 for Imam-f-'Azam read Imam-i-A'zam. 
 
 40 
 91 
 92 
 93 
 
 147 
 188 
 218 
 
 29 for Ilka 
 1 for Bustun 
 12 for Maolana 
 31 for Fana 
 
 read Ilka. 
 read Bustan. 
 read Maulana. 
 read Fana. 
 
 21 for Tamil-ul-Iman read Takmil-ul-Iman. 
 6 for Mubah read Mubah. 
 
 24 for Hurriat read Hurriat. 
 
TRUBNERS 
 
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 Ruins of Sigiri in Ceylon. By T. H. Blakesley, Esq., Public Works Department, Ceylon.- The 
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 COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 
 
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 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 
 
 Afghan (or Pushto). Czechian(orBohemian). Hebrew (current hand). Polish. 
 
 Amharic. Danish. Hebrew (Judseo-Ger- Pushto (or Afghan). 
 
 Anglo-Saxon. Demotic. Hungarian. [man). Romaic(ModernGreek 
 
 Arabic. Estrangelo. Illyrian. Russian. 
 
 Arabic Ligatures. Ethiopic. Irish. Runes. 
 
 Aramaic. Etruscan. Italian (Old). Samaritan. 
 
 Archaic Characters. Georgian. Japanese. Sanscrit. 
 
 Armenian. German. Javanese. Servian. 
 
 Assyrian Cuneiform. Glagolitic. Lettish. Slavonic (Old). 
 
 Bengali. Gothic. Mantshu. Sorbian (or Wendish). 
 
 Bohemian (Czechian). Greek. Median Cuneiform. Swedish. 
 
 Bugis. Greek Ligatures. Modern Greek (Romaic) Syriac. 
 
 Burmese. Greek (Archaic). Mongolian. Tamil. 
 
 Canarese (or Carnataca). Gujerati(orGuzzeratte). Numidian. Telugu. 
 
 Chinese. Hieratic. OldSlavonic(orCyrillic). Tibetan. 
 
 Coptic. Hieroglyphics. Palmyrenian. Turkish. 
 
 Croato-Glagolitic. Hebrew. Persian. Wallachian. 
 
 Cufic. Hebrew (Archaic). Persian Cuneiform. Wendish for Sorbian). 
 
 Crillic (or Old Slavonic). Hebrew (Rabbinical). Phoenician. Zend. 
 
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44 Linguistic Publications of Trubner fy Co. 
 
 Records of the Past, being English Translations of the Assyrian 
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 Assyrian Texts.) 
 
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 Inscription of Una; Statistical Tablet ; Tablet of Thothines III.; Battle of Megiddo; 
 Inscription of Amen-em-heb. By S. Birch, LL.D. 
 Instructions of Amenemhat. By G. Maspero. 
 
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 Book of Respirations. By Rev. P. J. De Horrack. 
 
 Tale of Setnau. By P. Le Page Renouf. 
 
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 Sepulchral Inscription of Ameni ; The Conquests in Asia; Egvptian Magical Text. By S. 
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 Inscripti n of the Destruction of Mankind. By Edouard Naville. 
 
 The Song of the Harper. By Ludwig Stern. 
 
 The Tale of the Garden of Flowers. By Francois Chabas. 
 
 List of further Texts. 
 
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 Contents. 
 
 Inscription of the Gold Mines at Rhedesieh and Kuban ; Decree of Canopus ; Inscription 
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 Fragment of the First Sallier Papyrus ; Hymn to Ra-Harmachis. By Prof. E. L. Lush- 
 ington, LL.D., D.C.L. 
 
 Abstract of a Case of Conspiracy. By P. Le Page Renouf. 
 
 Great Mendes Stele. Translated from Brugsch Bey. 
 
 The Litany of Ra. By Edouard Naville. 
 
 The Papyrus of Moral Precepts. By M. Theod. Deveria. 
 
 List of Further Texts. 
 
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 Inscription of Haremhebi. By S. Birch, LL.D. 
 
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 Reykjavik, 1878. Price 2s. 6d. 
 
 60. AlJ>ixgisstadur Hinn Forni Vid Oxara, med TJppdrattum eptir 
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 6s. 
 
 Skeat. — A List of English Words, the Etymology of which is illus- 
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 W. Skeat, M. A., English Lecturer and late Fellow of Christ's College, Cam- 
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60 Linguistic Publications of Trubner 8f Co. 
 
 JAPANESE. 
 Aston. — A Grammar of the Japanese Written Language. By "W. G. 
 
 Aston, M.A., Assistant Japanese Secretary, H.B.M.'s Legation, Yedo, Japan. 
 Second edition, Enlarged and Improved. Royal 8vo. pp. 306. 28.?. 
 
 Aston. — A Short Grammar of the Japanese Stoken Language. By 
 W. G. Aston, M.A., H. B. M.'s Legation, Yedo, Japan. Third edition. 
 12mo. cloth, pp. 96. 12s. 
 
 Baba — An Elementary Grammar of the Japanese Language, with 
 Easy Progressive Exercises. By Tatuj Baba. Crown Svo. cloth, pp. xii. and 
 92. 5s. 
 
 Hepburn. — A Japanese and English Dictionary. "With an English 
 
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 KELTIC (Cornish, Gaelic, Welsh, Irish). 
 Bottrell. — Traditions and Hearthside Stories of "West Cornwall. 
 
 By W. Bottrell (an old Celt). Demy l2mo. pp. vi. 292, cloth. 1 870. Scarce. 
 
 Bottrell. — Traditions and Hearthside Stories of "West Cornwall. 
 
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 English and Welsh Languages. — The Influence of the English 
 
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 Spurrell.— A Welsh Dictionary. English-Welsh and Welsh-English. 
 
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 MAHRATTA. 
 Ballantyne. — A Grammar of the Mahratta Language. For the 
 
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 Bellairs. — A Grammar of the Marathi Language. By LL S. K. 
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 revised and enlarged. By J. T. Molesworth. Royal 4to. pp. xxx and 922, 
 boards. Bombay, 1857. £3 3s. 
 
 Molesworth. — A Compendium of Molesworth's Marathi and English 
 Dictionary. By Baba Padmanji. Second Edition. Revised and Enlarged. 
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 Tukarama. — A Complete Collection of the Poems of Tukarama 
 (the Poet of the Maharashtra). In Marathi. Edited by Vishnu Parashu- 
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 With a complete Index to the Poems and a Glossary of difficult Words. To 
 which is prefixed a Life of the Poet in English, by Janardan Sakharani Gadgil. 
 2 vols, in large 8vo. cloth, pp. xxxii. and 742, and pp. 728, 18 and 72. Bombay 
 1873. £1 11*. 6d. each vol. 
 
 MALAGASY. 
 
 Van der Tuuk. — Outlines of a Grammar of the Malagasy Language 
 By H. N. van der Tuuk. 8vo., pp. 28, sewed. Is. 
 
 MALAY. 
 
 Dennys. — A Handbook of Malay Colloquial, as spoken in Singapore, 
 Being a Series of Introductory Lessons for Domestic and Business Purposes. 
 By N. B. Dennys, Ph.D., F.R.G.S., M.R.A.S., etc., Author of ''The 
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62 Linguistic Publications of Trubner <f Co., 
 
 MALAYALIM. 
 
 Gundert. — A Malayalam and English Dictionary. By Bev. H. 
 
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 Grey. — Maori Mementos : being a Series of Addresses presented by 
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 D'Alwis. — A Descriptive Catalogue of Sanskrit, Pali, and Sinhalese 
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 published), pp. xxxii. and 244. 1870. 8s. 6d. 
 
 Buhler. — Trkee New Edicts of Asoka. By G. Buhler. 16mo. 
 
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 Prof. R. C. Childeks, late of the Ceylon Civil Service. Imperial 8vo. Double 
 Columns. Complete in 1 Vol., pp. xxii. and 622, cloth. 1875. £3 3s. 
 The first Pali Dictionary ever published. 
 
 Childers. — The Mahaparinibbanasutta of the Sutta-Pitaka. The 
 
 Pali Text. Edited by the late Professor R. C. Childeks. 8vo. cloth, pp. 
 72. 5s. 
 
 Childers. — On Sandhi in Pali. By the late Prof. E. C. Childers. 
 
 8vo. sewed, pp. 22. Is. 
 
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 By Sir M. Coomaea Swamy. Cr. 8vo. cloth, pp. xxxvi. and 160. 1874. 6s. 
 
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 174. 1874. 10s. Gd. 
 
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 fcssiou of Priests. The Pali Text, with a Translation, and Notes, by J. F. 
 Dickson. 8vo. sd., pp. 69. 2«. 
 
57 and 59, Ludgate Hill, London, B.C. 63 
 
 Fausboll. — Jataka. See under JItaka. 
 
 Fausboll. — The Dasaratha-Jataka, being the Buddhist Story of King 
 Rama. The original Pali text, with a Translation and Notes by V. Fausboll. 
 8vo. sewed, pp. iv. and 48. 'Is. 6d. 
 
 Fausboll. — Five JItakas, containing a Fairy Tale, a Comical Story, 
 and Three Fables. In the original Pali Text, accompanied with a Translation 
 and Notes. By V. Fausboll. 8vo. sewed, pp. viii. and 72. (is. 
 
 Fausboll.— Ten Jatakas. The Original Pali Text, with a Translation 
 and Notes. By V. Fausboll. 8vo. sewed, pp. xiii. and 128. 7s. 6d. 
 
 Fryer. — Vuttodaya. (Exposition of Metre.) By Sangharakkhita 
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 Fkyer. 8vo. pp. 44. 2s. 6d. 
 
 Haas. — Catalogue of Sanskrit and Pali Books in the Library of 
 the British Museum. By Dr. Ernst Haas. Printed by Permission of the 
 trustees of the British Museum. 4to. cloth, pp. 200. £1 is. 
 
 Jataka (The) ; together with its Commentary. Being Tales of the 
 Anterior Birth of Gotama Buddha. For the first time Edited in the original 
 Pali by V. Fausboll, and Translated by T. W. Rhys Davids. Vol. I. Text. 
 Demy 8vo. cloth, pp. 512. 28s. Vol. II., Text, cloth, pp. 452. 28s. 
 The " Jataka " is a collection of legends in Pali, relating- the history of Buddha's trans- 
 migration before he was born as Gotama. The great antiquity of this work is authenticated 
 by its forming part of the sacred canon of the Southern Buddhists, which was finally settled at 
 the last Council in 246 b.c. The collection has long been known as a storehouse of ancient 
 fables, and as the most original attainable source to which almost the whole of this kind of 
 literature, from the Panchatantra and Pilpay's fables down to the nursery stories of the present 
 day, is traceable; and it has been considered desirable, in the interest of Buddhistic studies as 
 well as for more general literary purposes, that an edition and translation of the complete 
 work should be prepared. The present publication is intended to supply this want. — Athenaeum. 
 
 Mahawansa (The) — The Mahawansa. From the Thirty-Seventh 
 Chapter. Revised and edited, under orders of the Ceylon Government, by 
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 Mason. — The Pali Text of Kachchayano's Grammar, with English 
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 II. The English Annotations, including the various Readings of six independent 
 Burmese Manuscripts, the Singalese Text on Verbs, and the Cambodian Text 
 on Syntax. To which is added a Concordance of the Aphorisms. In Two 
 Parts. 8vo. sewed, pp. 208, 75, and 28. Toongoo, 1871. £l lis. 6^. 
 
 Minayeff (J.) — Grammaire Palie. Esquisse d'une Phonetique et 
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 8vo. pp. 128. Paris, 1874. 8s. 
 
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 avec une traduction et des notes par E. Senart. 8vo. pp. 338. Paris, 1871. 
 12s. 
 
 PAZAND. 
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 »texts, containing the Sanskrit, Rosian, and Pahlavi equivalents, a sketch of 
 Pazand Grammar, and an Introduction. By E. W. West. 8vo. sewed, pp. 
 431. 1871. 16s. 
 
64 Linguistic Publications of Trubner & Co. 
 
 PEGUAN. 
 
 Haswell. — Grammatical Notes and Yocabt/lary of the Pegtjan 
 
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 Haswell. 8vo. pp. xvi. and 160. 15s. 
 
 PEHLEWL 
 
 Dinkard (The). — The Original Pehlwi Text, the same transliterated 
 in Zend Characters. Translations of the Text in the Gujrati and English 
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 Dustoor. Behkamjee Sunjana. Vols. I. and II. 8vo. cloth. £2 'Is. 
 
 Hang. — An Old Pahlayi-Pazand Glossary. Ed., with Alphabetical 
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 Malwa. Rev. and Enl .with Intro. Essay on the Pahlavi Language, by M. Hauo, 
 Ph.D. Pub. by order of Gov. of Bombay. 8vo. pp. xvi. 152, 268,sd. 1S70. 28s # 
 
 Hang. — A Lecture on an Original Speech of Zoroaster (Yasna 45), 
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 Bombay, 1865. 2s. 
 
 Hang — Essays on the Sacred Language, Writings, and Religion of the 
 Parsis. By Martin Hacg, Ph.D.. late Professor of Sanskrit and Comparative 
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 Edition. Post 8vo. cloth, pp. xvi. and 428. 1878. 16s. 
 
 Hang. — An Old Zand-Pahlayi Glossary. Edited in the Original 
 Characters, with a Transliteration in Roman Letters, an English Translation, 
 and an Alphabetical Index. By Destur Hoshengji Jamaspji. High-priest of 
 the Parsis in Malwa, India. Rev. with Notes and Intro, by Martin Haug, 
 Ph.D. Publ. by order of Gov. of Bombay. 8vo. sewed, pp. lvi. and 132. 15s. 
 
 Haug. — The Book of Aeda Viraf. The Pahlavi text prepared by 
 
 Destur Hoshangji Jamaspji Asa. Revised and collated with further MSS.. with 
 an English translation and Introduction, and an Appendix containing the Texts 
 and Translations of the Gosht-i Fryano and Hadokht Nask. By Martin 
 Haug, Ph.D., Professor of Sanskrit and Comparative Philology at the Uni- 
 versity of Munich. Assisted by E. W. West, Ph.D. Published by order of 
 the Bombay Government. 8vo. sewed, pp. lxxx,, v., and 316. £\ 5s. 
 
 Minocheherji. — Pahlavi, Gujarati and English Dictionary. By 
 Jamaspji Dastur Minochekji, Jam asp Asana. 8vo. Vol. I. pp. clxii. 
 and 1 to 168, and Vol. II. pp. xxxii. and pp. 169 to 440. 1877 and 1879. 
 Cloth. 14s. each. (To be completed in 5 vols.) 
 
 Sunjana. — A Grammar of the Pahlti Language, with Quotations 
 
 and Examples from Original Works and a Glossary of Words bearing affinity 
 with the Semitic Languages. By Peshotun Dustoor Behkamjee Sunjana, 
 Principal of Sir Jamsetjee Jejreboy Zurthosi Madressa. 8vo.cl., pp. 18-457. 
 25s. 
 
 Thomas. — Early Sassanian Inscriptions, Seals and Coins, illustrating 
 
 the Early History of the Sassanian Dynasty, containing Proclamations of Arde- 
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 Explanation of the Celebrated Inscription in the Hajiabad Cave, demonstrating 
 that Sapor, the Conqueror of Valerian, was a Professing Christian. By Edwakd 
 Thomas, F.R.S. Illustrated. 8vo. cloth, pp. 148. 7s. 6d. 
 
57 and 59, Ludgate Hill, London, E.C. G5 
 
 Thomas. — Comments on Pecent Pehlvi Decipherments. With an 
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 the Early History and Geography of Tabaristan. Illustrated by Coins. By 
 Edward Thomas, F.R.S. 8vo. pp. 56, and 2 plates, cloth, sewed. 3s. 6d. 
 
 West. — Glossary and Index of the Pahlavi Texts of the Book of 
 Arda Viraf, The Tale of Gosht-I Fryano, The Hadokht Nask, and to some 
 extracts from the Din-Kard and Nirangistan ; prepared from Destur Hoshangji 
 Asa's Glossary to the Arda Viraf Namak, and from the Original Texts, with 
 Notes on Pahlavi Grammar. By E. W. West, Ph.D. Revised by Martin 
 Haug, Ph.D. Published by order of the Government of Bombay. 8vo. sewed, 
 pp. viii. and 352. 25*. 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA DUTCH. 
 
 Haldeman. — Pennsylvania Dutch : a Dialect of South Germany 
 with an Infusion of English. By S. S. Haldeman, A.M., Professor of Com- 
 parative Philology in the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. 8vo. pp. 
 viii. and 70, cloth. 1872. 3s. Hd. 
 
 PERSIAN. 
 
 Ballantyne. — Principles of Persian Caligrathy, illustrated hy 
 
 Lithographic Plates of the TA" LI K characters, the one usually employed in 
 writing the Persian and the Hindustani. Second edition. Prepared for the 
 use of the Scottish Naval and Military Academy, by James R. Ballantyne. 
 4to. cloth, pp. 14, 6 plates. 2s. 6d. 
 
 Blochmann. — The Prosody of the Persians, according to Sain, Jami, 
 and other Writers. By H. Blochmann, M.A. Assistant Professor, Calcutta 
 Madrasah. 8vo. sewed, pp. 166. 10s. 6d. 
 
 Blochmann. —A Treatise on the Huba'i entitled Pisalah i Taranah. 
 By Agha Ahmad 'All With an Introduction and Explanatory Notes, by H. 
 Blochmann, M.A. 8vo. sewed, pp. 11 and 17. 2s. 6d. 
 
 Blochmann. — The Persian Metres by Saifi, and a Treatise on Persian 
 Rhyme by Jami. Edited in Persian, by H. Blochmann, M.A. 8vo. sewed 
 pp. 62. 3s. 6d. 
 
 Catalogue of Arahic and Persian Books, Printed in the East. Con- 
 stantly for sale by Triibner and Co. 16mo. sewed, pp. 46. Is. 
 
 Hafiz of Shiraz. — Selections from his Poems. Translated from the 
 Persian by Herman Bicknell. With Preface by A. S. Bicknf.ll. Demy 
 4to. , pp. xx. and 384, printed on fine stout plate-paper, with appropriate 
 Oriental Bordering in gold and colour, and Illustrations by J. R. Herbert, 
 R.A. £2 2s. 
 
 Mirkhond. The History of the Atabeks of Syria and Persia. 
 
 Bv Muhammed Ben KhawendsHah Ben Mahmud, commonly^ called 
 Mirkhond. Now first Edited from the Collation of Sixteen MSS., by 
 W. H. Morley, Barrister-at-law, M.R.A.S. To which is added a Series 
 of Facsimiles of the Coins struck by the Atabeks, arranged and described 
 by W. S. W. Vaux, M.A., M.R.A.S. Roy. 8vo. cloth, 7 lates, pp. 118. 
 1» 18. 7«. 6d. 
 
 5 
 
66 Linguistic Publications of Triibner & Co., 
 
 Morley.— A Descriptive Catalogue of the Historical Manuscripts in 
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 8vo. pp. viii. and 160, sewed. London, 1854. Is. 6d. 
 
 Palmer.— The Song of the Keed; and other Pieces, By E. H. 
 Palmer, M.A., Cambridge. Crown 8vo. pp. 208, handsomely bound in cloth. 5*. 
 Among the Contents will be found translations from Haflz, from Omer el Kheiyam, and from 
 other Persian as well as Arabic poets. 
 
 Palmer. — A Concise Dictionary of the Persian Language. By E. 
 
 H. Palmer, M.A., Professor of Arabic in the University of Cambridge. 
 
 Square 16mo. pp. viii. and 364, cloth. 10s 6d. 
 Palmer. — The Poems of Hafiz of Shiraz. Translated from the 
 
 Persian into English Verse by E. H. Palmer, M.A., Professor of Arabic in the 
 
 University of Cambridge. Post 8vo. cloth. (In preparation.) 
 
 Rieu. — Catalogue of the Persian Manuscripts in the British 
 Museum. By Charles Rieu, Ph.D., Keeper of the Oriental MSS. Vol. I. 
 4to. cloth, pp. 432. 1879. £1 5s. 
 
 PIDGIN-ENGLISH. 
 
 Leland. — Pidgin-English Sing-Song ; or Songs and Stories in the 
 China-English Dialect. With a Vocabulary. By Charles G. Leland. Fcap. 
 8vo. cl., pp. viii. and 140. 1876. 5s. 
 
 PRAKRIT. 
 
 Cowell. — A short Introduction to the Ordinary Prakrit of the 
 Sanskrit Dramas. With a List of Common Irregular Prakrit Words. By 
 Prof. E. B. Cowell. Cr. 8vo. limp cloth, pp. 40. 1875. 3s. 6d. 
 
 Cowell. — Prakrita-Prakasa ; or, The Prakrit Grammar of Vararuchi, 
 with the Commentary (Manorama) of Bhamaha ; the first complete Edition of the 
 Original Text, with various Readings from a collation of Six MSS. in the Bod- 
 leian Library at Oxford, and the Libraries of the Royal Asiatic Society and the 
 East India House ; with Copious Notes, an English Translation, and Index of 
 Prakrit Words, to which is prefixed an Easy Introduction to Prakrit Grammar. 
 By Edward Byles Cowell, of Magdalen Hall, Oxford, Professor of Sanskrit at 
 Cambridge. New Edition, with New Preface, Additions, and Corrections. Second 
 Issue. 8vo. cloth, pp. xxxi. and 204. 1868. 14s. 
 
 PUKSHTO (Pakkhto, Pashto). 
 Bellew. — A Grammar of the Pukkhto or Pukshto Language, on a 
 
 New and Improved System. Combining Brevity with Utility, and Illustrated by 
 Exercises and Dialogues. By H. W. Bellew, Assistant Surgeon, Bengal Army. 
 Super-royal 8vo.,pp. xii. and 156, cloth. 21s. 
 
57 and 59, LudgaU Bill, London, E.C. 6? 
 
 Bellew. — A Dictionary of the Pukkhto, or Pukshto Language, on a 
 
 New and Improved System. With a reversed Part, or English and Pukkhto, 
 By H. W. Bellew, Assistant Surgeon, Bengal Army. Super Royal 8vo. 
 op. xii. and 356, cloth. 42s. 
 
 Plowden. — Translation of the Kalid-i- Afghani, the Text Book for 
 the Pukkhto Examination, with Notes, Historical, Geographical, Grammatical, 
 and Explanatory. By Trevor Chichele Plowden, Captain H.M. Bengal 
 Infantry, and Assistant Commissioner, Panjab. Small 4to. cloth, pp. xx. and 
 395 andix. With Map. Lahore, 1875. £2 10s. 
 
 Thorburn (S. S.)— Bannu ; or, Our Afghan Frontier. By S. S. Thou- 
 burn, I.C.S., Settlement Officer of the Bannu District. 8vo. cloth, pp. x and 
 480. 1876. 18s. 
 pp. 171 to 230: Popular Stories, Ballads and Riddles, and pp. 231 to 413: 
 Pashto Proverbs Translated into English, pp. 414 to 473 : Pashto Proverbs 
 in Pashto. 
 
 Trumpp. — Grammar of the Pasto, or Language of the Afghans, com- 
 pared with the Iranian and North-Indian Idioms. By Dr. Ernest 1'rumpp. 
 8vo. sewed, pp. xvi. and 412. 21s. 
 
 RUSSIAN. 
 
 Riola. — A Graduated Russian Reader, with a Vocabulary of all the 
 Russian Words contained in it. Crown 8vo. pp. viii. and 314. 10s. 6d. 
 
 Riola. — How to Learn Russian. A Manual for Students of Russian, 
 based upon the Ollendorfian system of teaching languages, and adapted for 
 self instruction. By Henry Riola, Teacher of the Russian Language. With 
 a Preface by W. R. S. Ralston, M.A. Crown 8vo. cloth, pp. 576. 1878. 
 12s. 
 
 Key to the above. Crown Svo. cloth, pp. 126. 1878. 5s. 
 
 SAMARITAN. 
 Nutt. — A Sketch of Samaritan History, Dogma, and Literature. 
 
 Published as an Introduction to " Fragments of a Samaritan Targum. Bv 
 J. W. Nutt, M.A. Demy 8vo. cloth, pp. viii. and 172. 1874. 5s. 
 
 Nutt. — Fragments of a Samaritan Targum. Edited from a Bodleian 
 MS. With an Introduction, containing a Sketch of Samaritan History, 
 Dogma, and Literature. By J. W. Nutt, M.A. Demy 8vo. cloth, pp. viii., 
 172, and 84. With Plate. 1874. 15s. 
 
 SAMOAN. 
 
 Pratt. — A Grammar and Dictionary of the Samoan Language. By 
 Bev. George Pratt, Forty Years a Missionary of the London Missionary 
 Society in Samoa. Second Edition. Edited by Rev. S.J. Whitmee, F.R.G.S. 
 Crown 8vo. cloth, pp. viii. and 380. 1878. 18s. 
 
68 Linguistic Publications of Trubner & Co., 
 
 SANSKRIT. 
 
 Aitareya Brahmanam of the Rig Veda. 2 vols. See under Haug. 
 
 D'Alwis. — A Descriptive Catalogue of Sanskrit, Pali, and Sinhalese 
 Literary Works of Ceylon. By James D'Alwis, M.R.A.S , Advocate of 
 the Supreme Court, &c, &c. In Three Volumes. Vol. I., pp. xxxii. and 214, 
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