Division X \ £) 4“ Section • C 3 / Copy | BISHOP’S HOUSE East India, Allahabad, March 1, 1922. I have read this work in manuscript with the keenest interest and with genuine pleasure, and so has my bishop (Rt. Rev. Angelo Poli). I am very sure the treatise will create among the American people a deep interest in the affairs of our Indian Missions which cannot but enlist their practical sympathy in behalf of much that yet remains to be attempted. . . . Fraternally yours in St. Francis, {Signed) Fr. Joseph Carroll, O.M.Cap., V.G. of the Diocese and Pri¬ vate Secretary to Rt. Rev. Angelo Poli, O.M.Cap. THE MACMILLAN COMPANY NEW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO • DALLAS ATLANTA • SAN FRANCISCO MACMILLAN & CO., Limited LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA MELBOURNE THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Lro. TORONTO Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2019 with funding from Princeton Theological Seminary Library / https://archive.org/details/indiaitsmissionsOOcath POPE PIUS XI. Father of the Missions. INDIA AND ITS MISSIONS THE CAPUCHIN MISSION UNIT (C. S. M. C.) CUMBERLAND, MARYLAND gotft THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1923 All rights reserved PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Copyright, 1923. By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. Set up and electrotyped. Published February, 1923. Press of J. ,T. Little & Ives Company New York, U. S. A. NIHIL ORSTAT. Father John M. Lenhart, O.M.Cap., Father Anscar Zawart, O.M.Cap., Censores Deputati. IMPRIMI PERMITTITUR. Father Henry Kluepfel, O.M.Cap., Minister Provincial. Pittsburgh, Pa., Oct. 6, 1922. IMPRIMATUR. ^ Michael J. Curley, D.D., Archbishop of Baltimore. Baltimore, Md., Oct. 16, 1922. TO THE MISSIONARIES OF INDIA THE CATHOLIC STUDENTS’ MISSION CRUSADE AND ALL OTHER FRIENDS OF THE MISSIONS THIS VOLUME IS RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED / PREFACE The tremendous increase in a desire to know about missions which has been seen among American Catholics within the past few years has been most encouraging to those of us who have been trying to aid in pressing for¬ ward the bounds of the Kingdom of God on earth. It betokens a virile Catholicism of the kind which, humanly speaking, is indispensable if the Church in this country is to do its fair share in pushing back the borders of Satan’s dominions and take advantage of the myriad of openings for carrying out our Lord’s command to “preach the Gospel to every creature.” At the outset of this wave of increased interest we who felt a responsibility for supplying information on Mis¬ sions to those who sought it were confronted with a dearth of printed matter with which to meet their needs. In the English language there are but few books, many of them incomplete and unsuited to our use; others mere transla¬ tions from foreign languages which contain so little of interest for the average American that they seemed fitted only for a place in a reference library. Certainly they are of no use for general circulation. As Field Secretary of the Catholic Students’ Mission Crusade I was naturally in touch with bodies of students and others anxious to do something for the Mission cause. I made the suggestion that no better service could be ren¬ dered by a Unit than to make a study of some particular field and give the results to the American Catholic public. Several Units began such researches but only one has been PREFACE x able thus far to bring its labors to fruition. For nearly four years the theology students of the Capuchin Mon¬ astery of SS. Peter and Paul, Cumberland, Maryland, have been engaged in the work of studying the field of India, and this volume is presented as the result of their loving care and service. While India has always been a land of mystery and one most fascinating to Western students, the completion of this work at this time seems most providential, for at no time in the past century has the world’s interest been focused upon India as it is at the present, and at no time has India given indication of playing a more important role in the world history than it does now. Now if ever is a Christian viewpoint essential to it, and now is the decisive hour of Christian missions in India. There is much that we of America can do. Our com¬ patriots are at work in this portion of the Vineyard. Their hands need upholding and they rightly look to us for support in personnel, in material resources, in spiritual aid. Only by familiarizing ourselves with their needs can we render adequate assistance. This volume is sent forth as one means of bringing home to our fellow Americans what more than three hundred millions of human beings need and to point out to us what we can do to meet that need. While India and Its Missions does not profess to tell all about either India or its missions, one who has read it cannot but be better informed and more vitally interested in India and its problems. It is a pleasure to me personally to commend it es¬ pecially to our more mature students and to the American Catholic public and to join my prayers with those of its devoted compilers, members of one of the most mis¬ sionary branches of a most missionary Religious Order, that it may be the means of helping to bring India to the foot of the Cross and thus in one land at least making possible the fulfillment of the motto of the Catholic Students’ Mission Crusade, under the inspiration of PREFACE xi whose zeal this work was conceived and carried on : “The Sacred Heart for the World, and the World for the Sacred Heart.” Floyd Keeleb. Feast of the Stigmata of St. Francis, 1922. FOREWORD Those who have watched the revival of the missionary movement among Americans within the last few years, and who have noted its steady growth and ever-increasing success, cannot fail to realize that a new enthusiasm has been awakened. A new spirit has moved our young Cath¬ olics especially, and a new zeal and interest now inspires them with love for the missions. But, if this missionary movement is to endure, it must be kept alive. An adequate means to this end is to foster and spread the knowledge of the missions. It is for our Catholic youth, then, particularly our fellow-Crusaders, and all lovers of the missions in Christ’s Kingdom on earth, that we have compiled the present work on the mis¬ sions of India. Though this volume is, in the first place, intended for Catholics, still we hope that it may also prove interesting to non-Catholics. The first part of the work is devoted to the study of the country and the people. In the second part is given a survey of the history of the Catholic Church in India, Burma and Ceylon, and also a glimpse of non-Catholic activities. The third portion deals with the real work of the missionary, the trials and the obstacles that beset his path, and with the most vital problems of the Indian missions of to-day. The compilation of this work owes its beginning to Mr. Floyd Keeler, who, as Field-Secretary of the Catholic Students’ Mission Crusade, said in the “Crusade Kotes” XIV FOREWORD of The Missionary , February 1919, that one of the crying needs of the Catholic Students’ Mission Crusade was a series of mission books. After pointing out that the prog¬ ress of non-Catholic endeavor is due chiefly to the sys¬ tematic study of well-written and well-edited mission books, Mr. Keeler exhorted the Units to take up this work, saying at the same time that to write such books would be “per¬ forming one of the most important services possible to the Crusade.” Our response to this appeal is India and Its Missions. Many friends have aided us in preparing this work. We are indebted to the Rt. Rev. Dr. Angelo Poli, 0. M. Cap., Bishop of Allahabad, to the Very Rev. Joseph Car- roll, O. M. Cap., and to the Rev. Fathers Egidius and Augustine, O. M. Cap., all of India. Bishop Poli has kindly read the third part of the book and Fr. Joseph Carroll has given some valuable notes of criticism and correction for the improvement of this part of the manu¬ script. We furthermore bespeak our grateful appreciation to the Rt. Rev. Mgr. Joseph Freri for supplying us with illustrations, and to the Rev. Clifford King, S. V. D., now in China, and the Rev. Father Markert, S. V. D., for interest taken in our work. A special word of thanks is due to Mr. Floyd Keeler, who was ever eager to encourage and lend a helping hand; to Dr. Margaret Lamont of South Africa for fur¬ nishing us with useful information regarding the missions of India, from both the Catholic and the non-Catholic viewpoints; to the Very Rev. Henry Kluepfel, Provincial of St. Augustine’s Province of Capuchin Friars; to the Rev. Fathers Francis Laing and Felix M. Kirsch, O. M. Cap., both of whom have taken many pains in reading over the manuscript. Finally we tender our sin- cerest thanks to the Rev. Fr. John M. Lenhart, O. M. Cap., for his lively interest in our work, his scholarly direction, and his thorough revision of the manuscript, especially of the chapters on ecclesiastical history. To all these fellow- FOREWORD xv religious and friends we beg to express our gratitude for their assistance and many favors. Capuchin Mission Unit. SS. Peter & Paul’s Monastery, Cumberland, Md. Feast of the Holy Rosary, October 7, 1922. TABLE OP CONTENTS PAGE Preface . . ix Foreword . . . xiii PAET I Land and People CHAPTER I The Country . 3 A Wonderland — Boundaries, Position and Size — Mountains — River Systems and River Plains — Climate — Monsoon Periods, Rain — Cold and Heat — Irrigation — Plagues — Profiteering — Flora — Fauna — Birds, Reptiles, Fishes, Insects — Mineral Resources — Commerce and Industry — Manufactures — Trade — Railway Systems. II Political History . 15 I. Early Development : Aborigines — The Aryans — Buddhistic Period — Various Invasions — Period of Historical Deficiency — II. Mohammedan Pe¬ riod : Mohammedan Conquests — Empire of The Great Mogul — III. Europeans in India : The Dutch — The Danes — The Germans — The French — The English — Ghandi — Extent of British Rule — Effects of British Rule. Ill Non- Christian Religions in India . 29 Animism — Vedism — Sacrifices — Popular Brah¬ manism — Pantheistic Brahmanism — Transmi¬ gration — Buddhism — Siva and Vishnu Cults — Jainism — Mohammedanism — Sikhism — Zo¬ roastrianism — Modern Hinduism — Hindu Divin¬ ities — Home Services — Temple Services — Re¬ form Movements. XVII xviii TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE IV Manners and Customs . 40 Costume of Men — Clothing of Women — Native Homes — Meals — Recreation — Indian Etiquette Marriage — Funerals — Cremation on the Shores of the Ganges — Social Organization: Caste — The Village System — Some Indian Re¬ ligious Customs: Worship of Animals — “Holy” Cows and Bulls — Pilgrimages — Fakirs and Pen¬ itents. V Education . 54 A Land of Schools, Literature and Philosophy — Efforts of the Natives, Hindu Higher Education — Hindu Lower Education — Mohammedan Edu¬ cation — Transition Period: Catholic Missionar¬ ies — Missionary Linguists — Protestant Mission¬ aries — The East India Company’s Attitude to¬ ward Education — The Language Question — Triumph of English — Great Britain at the Helm — Revisions of the Systems — Administration — Classification of Institutions — Curriculum — En¬ rollment — Self-Supporting Schools — Results. VI Literature and the Fine Arts . 68 Indian Literature — Vedic Literature — Sanskrit Literature, Mahabharata — Ramayana — Kali¬ dasa — Music — Architecture, Sculpture, Paint¬ ing — Buddhistic Architecture — New Brahman Architecture. PAKT II Ecclesiastical History I Pioneer Missionaries, 52?-1498 . 81 Dawn of Christianity — St. Thomas Christians — Franciscans and Dominicans. II Modern Missions, 1498-1700 . 87 European Missionaries — Franciscans — Missions in Northern India — Colleges — Government of the Church — Ceylon — St. Francis Xavier — Mission¬ ary in Goa and Other Missions — Jesuit Mission TABLE OF CONTENTS xix HAPTER PAGE to AkbaPs Court — Robert De Nobili — Jesuits among the Thomas Christians — Carmelites in Goa — Oratorians (Native) — Theatines — Augus- tinians — Capuchins at Pondicherry — Surat — Madras — Inquisition. III Modern Missions ( Continued ), 1700-1886 .... HI The Capuchins at Surat — Madras — Tibet and Ne¬ pal — Patna — Bettiah — Theatines — Carmel¬ ites — Augustinians, Dominicans and Franciscans — Native Oratorians — Burma and the Barnab- ites — Jesuits at Madura — Mysore — Tanjore — Pondicherry — Joseph Beschi — The Malabar Rite Dispute — Suppression of the Jesuits — Carmel¬ ites in Former Jesuits Missions — Capuchins in Hindostan — Persecution — The F rench Revolu¬ tion — Status at End of Eighteenth Century — Portuguese Schism — “The Hammer of Schis¬ matics” — Missions of Northern India — Begum Sumroo of Sardhana — The Punjab — Bettiah — Tibet — Hindostan — Bombay — Verapoly or Malabar — Quilon — Madura — Madras — The Car¬ natic Mission and the Paris Seminary — Pondi¬ cherry, Coimbatore and Mysore — Prefecture Apostolic of Pondicherry — Bengal — Tranvan- core and Cochin — Mangalore — Goa — Ceylon — J affna — Colombo — Burma. IV Advance Since the Establishment of the Hier¬ archy . 142 Humanae Salutis Auctor — The Hierarchy a Fact — New Sees — Increase of Clergy — Brotherhoods and Sisterhoods — Churches, Schools and Chari¬ table Institutions — Catholic Literary Enterprise — Advance along Spiritual Lines — Advance in Individual Fields : Province of Goa — -Province of Agra — Province of Calcutta — Province of Bombay — Province of Madras — Province of Verapoly — Province of Simla — Province of Pon¬ dicherry — Province of Ceylon — Burma. V The World War and Subsequent Events .... 169 German Missionaries during the First Months of the War — Imprisonment of First Jesuits — Con- TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE centration Camp at Admednagar — Power of the Press — Fate of Sisterhoods — Missionaries of As¬ sam — Tyrolese Capuchins Expelled — Second Trip of the Golconda — Anxiety of the Hier¬ archy — Achievements of the Archbishop of Cal¬ cutta — Bombay and Poona — Bettiah — All Mis¬ sions of Empire Suffered during the War — The Peace Conference — Help for the Missions — Stir in Dacca — Meeting of South Indian Bishops — Catholic Confederation — Marian Congress — All- India, Burma and Ceylon Bishops’ Conference. VI Protestant Missions . 186 First Protestant Missionaries — Baptists — Church of England — Other Denominations — Protestant Liberality — Schools — Philanthropic Institutions — The Press — Direct Evangelistic Work — Sun¬ day Schools — Evangelization in Hospitals — The Bible-Woman — Missionary Personnel — Y. M. C. A. — The Missionaries’ Support — Result. PART III Indian Missions of To-day I The Missionary and His Work . 203 The Missionary Vocation — Climatic Hardships — Dangers of the Wild — Language Difficulties — The Central Station — In a Native Colony — Peacemaker — Night Watchman — Visiting the Sick — Missionary on Circuit — Want of a Chapel — Peril Attends Sacrifice of Mass — Sickness and Famine — Spiritual Advantages of Famine and Cholera — Evangelizing the Pagans — Catholic Life — Native Christian Marriages — Mission Theater — Most Popular Play — Insincerity of Some Converts — Joy. II The Catechists . 224 Most Vital Problem — Great Value and Need of Catechists — The Catechist’s Work — In Schools — Various Kinds of Catechists — Women Cate¬ chists — Wages — Training of Catechists — Rou¬ tine in Training Schools. TABLE OP CONTENTS xxi CHAPTER PAGE III Schools and Periodicals . 234 External Hindrances — Character of the Brahmans — First Step of the Missionary — Elementary Schools — Education of Women — Academies — University Training for Women — Education of Men — Trades — Catholic Literature — The Indian Catholic Dailies — Catholic Truth Society. IV Charitable and Social Work . 244 Early Institutions — Hospitals — Appreciation of the Government — St. Martha’s Hospital — Want of Catholic Doctors — Medical Missions — A. R. M. Association — Asylums — Dispensaries — Homes — Refuges for Widows — Sisters of St. Anne — Social Work — Cooperative Societies — Other Societies. V Difficulties and Obstacles . . 256 Poverty — Storms and Cyclones — F amine — Igno¬ rance and Indifference — Selfishness — Lack of Charity — Perverse Mind — Superstition — Hindu¬ ism — Brahmans and Mohammedans — Woman’s Lot — Mothers and Children — Caste System — Re¬ cent Developments — Attitude of Church to Castes — Government’s Attitude toward Religion — Divided Christianity. VI Native Clergy . 282 Need of Native Clergy — Reasons for a Native Clergy — Purposes of Catholic Missionary Ac¬ tivity — Perpetuation — Full Development of Church — Review of the Past. APPENDIX Statistics of Non-Catholic Activities in India, Burma and Ceylon . 295 Bibliography . 297 Index . 503 . ■ : ILLUSTRATIONS 1. Pope Pius XI. Father of the Missions . . . .Frontispiece PAGE 2. This Upland Lake Supplies the Parched Lowlands with Water . 8 3. Courthouse Street, Calcutta . 16 4. A Hindu Priest and His Disciple with Idol and Offerings 36 5. A Rajah with His Children, Showing the Attire of the Ruling Class . 40 6. This Hut Means Home to a Poor Family of India . . 44 7. Fakir of Delhi. The Long Finger Nails Render the Left Hand Practically Useless . 50 8. A Brahman Reading from a Book of Palm Leaves . . 60 9. Two Prominent Lawyers — Products of India’s Schools . 66 10. An Architectural Gem . 76 11. St. Ignatius Sending St. Francis Xavier to India ... 90 12. Poor Clares (Native Sisters) of Travancore, India . . . 146 13. Dignitaries at Marian Congress . 184 14. Natives at Work . 210 15. Capuchin Missionaries with Catechists and School Teachers 226 16. Jesuit Missionaries with School Children . 236 17. Mealtime in a Christian School . 242 18. Sisters and Nurses of St. Martha’s Hospital at Bangalore, South India . 246 19. Sisters Rendering First Aid . 252 20. A Girl in Her Best Dress . ^ L 272 21. Women Wearing Caste Ornaments . / 22. Bishop Faisandier, S.J., of Trichinopoly with Native Priests . 284 MAPS PAGE Political Map of India . 14 Ecclesiastical Map — 1886 137 Ecclesiastical Map — 1923 168 INDIA AND ITS MISSIONS PART I LAND AND PEOPLE INDIA AND ITS MISSIONS CHAPTER I THE COUNTRY India is in the truest sense of the word a wonderland, a land of the strongest contrasts, a miniature world. There is scarcely another country which offers so many sur¬ prises and is of so many-sided interest to the traveler. The variety of its nature is almost incredible. This unique region has vast alluvial plains ; lays claim to the highest mountain peak in the world; experiences the greatest heat of the equator, while up among the snow and ice-clad mountains there is perennial cold. Again, it is the land of excessive drought and heaviest rainfall; the home of the richest soil and most dismal deserts.1 In¬ teresting as these contrasting features are, the people, their history, religion, languages, education, government, manners and customs, form a study still more fascinating. These, however, will he treated severally as we proceed. At present, we shall restrict our consideration to the coun¬ try as such. Boundaries , Position and Size. — India is an irregular peninsula of the shape of a triangle, jutting out south¬ wards from the mainland of Asia, and lies within the eighth and thirty-seventh degree of north latitude. In the north the mighty Himalayas raise their lofty peaks, sep¬ arating the country from the rest of Asia. The Bay of Bengal forms the greater part of its eastern boundary, * Helmolt’s Weltgcschichie , Leipzig, Vol. II, 1002, p. 339. 3 4 INDIA AND ITS MISSIONS while the southern and western shores are washed by the waters of the Indian Ocean and Arabian Sea respectively. On the northeast and northwest India has a land frontier. The Indian Empire extends over a territory larger than the Continent of Europe without Russia. It comprises British India, legally so-called, i.e., all territories gov¬ erned by the King of England, and, moreover, all other territories ruled by native princes under his suzerainty. There are tracts of tribal territory on the northwestern and northeastern frontiers under the political influence of Great Britain, though not yet under the administrative rule of the British Indian Government. The total area of British India proper is 1,802,657 square miles, and is inhabited by 319,075,132 people. These figures according to the census of March 18, 1921, mark an increase of one and two-tenths per cent over the second last decennial census of 1911. 2 India, then, is the home of one-fifth of the whole human race, and British India comprises about three-fourths of the population of the British Em¬ pire in Europe, Asia, Africa, America and Australia, taken together. India’s population, three times that of the United States, is crowded into an area about half as large. The average density in India is 177 persons to the square mile, as compared with the density of 42 persons in the United States proper. India comprises, besides British India, also the exceedingly small French and Portuguese Possessions of 203 and 1,403 square miles respectively. While the native or Indian States and Agen¬ cies cover only an area of 709,583 square miles and have a population of 71,936,736, the British Provinces cover 1,093,074 square miles with a population of 247,138,396 inhabitants.3 Mountains . — The Himalaya, Hindu Kush and Kara¬ koram Mountains tower in the north and form a natural barrier against any enemy advancing from that direction. 2 Whitaker’s Almanac, London, 1922, p. 603. 3 Idem, pp. G03, 610-612. THE COUNTRY 5 The Himalayas are awe-inspiring. They are the silent sentinels of the north keeping strict watch over the low¬ lands. Their snow-tipped summits remind the traveler of the white-crested helmets of the medieval warrior. Be¬ sides forming a double wall along the north of India, the Himalayas stretch southward on the east and west, thus protecting the northeastern and northwestern frontiers. It is a tiresome and difficult task to cross these mountains. One can do so safely only by means of the passes which laboriously wind their way over these steep ascents. Few of these passes are under 1,600 or 1,700 feet. The mer¬ chant, explorer and missionary find safe passage over these snowy heights, but a modern army could never cross them. The peaks of the Himalayas are among the highest in the world. Their average elevation is not less than 19,000 feet. Mount Everest has the greatest altitude. Its summit is 29,009 feet, or five and a half miles above sea level. Viewing the western part of the peninsula, we find it high, sloping gradually into the Bay of Bengal in the east. The Eastern and Western Ghats run along the eastern and western coasts, rising and falling as the billows of the ocean. The mountain ranges of India are, for the greater part, composed of granite and granitic rocks. In the Himalayas gneiss predominates, while in the southeastern section of the land syenite prevails. We now turn to India’s waterways. River Systems and River Plains. — These play no in¬ significant role in the peninsula. The fertility of the soil corresponds to the natural and artificial supply of water. The rains, rivers and irrigation systems of North¬ ern India make this the richest and, therefore, the most densely populated portion of the Empire. The largest supply of water comes from the Himalayas. The wide plains watered by the mountain rivers extend from the Bay of Bengal to the Arabian Sea. The Indus and Sutlej take their rise beyond the Himalayas, issue through their western ranges and flow down upon the Punjab. The 6 INDIA AND ITS MISSIONS Brahmaputra also has its source beyond the Himalayas, near that of the Indus ; flowing, however, in the opposite direction it enters India at its most eastern point. While the Brahmaputra gathers the drainage from the northern slopes of the Himalayas, the mighty Ganges is formed by the waters descending from the southern slopes. Hence, practically all the waters of these mountains are poured down into the river plains of Bengal. Climate . — People are always much concerned about the climate of the countries they wish to visit and tour. India offers a great variety in this respect. Within its boundaries may be found almost any extreme of climate experienced either in the tropic or temperate zones. On the whole it is dry and rainless for two-thirds of the year. In the north continental climate prevails, while in the south it is oceanic. Frequent land winds sweep the north. Other characteristics of this region are great dry¬ ness of air, and a large diurnal range of temperature, with little or no precipitation. In the south climatic con¬ ditions are quite the opposite; here the temperature is more uniform, the range of the thermometer during the day small, and the air damp. Monsoon Periods , Rain. — When speaking of India one may not overlook the monsoon periods. The dry season is called the northeast monsoon; the rainy season, the southwest monsoon. The rainy season sets in during the first weeks of J une, and throughout the next three months rain is, in general, the order for India. The rain is car¬ ried on to the land by the sea breeze. The amount of rainfall varies greatly for different localities. The Indus Plain is rarely refreshed by a light rain. There have been some years in which not a drop of rain fell on the parched soil. While this plain suffers from drought, other places have an overabundance of rainfall. At Cherra- punji, in the Khasi Hills, an annual rainfall of from 300 to 500 inches has been registered. The months of Novem¬ ber and December are the so-called retreating monsoon THE COUNTRY 7 period. They form a transition from the rainy to the cold season. Cold and Heat. — The months of January and February constitute the cold season. During this time the mean temperature in the Punjab and the United Provinces is approximately thirty degrees, lower than in Southern India. Ice and snow are found only in the high altitudes. In the north the sky is cloudless throughout this season, the weather, cool and dry. On the southwestern coast it is warmer than on the southeastern. The hot weather gives more annoyance to the tourist than does the cold. Beginning in the Punjab on the 15th of March the ther¬ mometer ascends gradually but steadily until the coming of the rain in June. When the thermometer reaches the 120 and 125 degree mark, in the shade, as it does at Jacobabad in the northwest, the fiery rays of the sun fairly bake the earth. The Deccan and Central Provinces lie for the greater part within the hottest area.4 Irrigation. — During this season there is no outlook whatsoever for crops where irrigation is not used as a means of watering the dry and cracked soil. The lack of rain is greatly provided against by the government sys¬ tem of rivers and irrigating canals. The extent of this system may be judged from one example: The main arteries of the Sirhind Canal in the Punjab are 543 miles in length, and its tributaries aggregate 4,462 miles. The irrigating canals receive much of their water from the rivers, from which it is conducted by ditches. The great rivers of the north have sufficient water for extending still farther these irrigating schemes. Besides irrigating canals, tanks and wells are used extensively for supply¬ ing water. In Madras and Bombay all the irrigation sys¬ tems are dependent on reservoirs. The total area of crops irrigated from the Lahore District alone in 1917-18 was 1,440,769 acres. During 1919-20 the total number of acres under irrigation in India, excluding the areas ir- 4 Encyclopedia Britannica, Vol. XIV, 1910, p. 379. 8 INDIA AND ITS MISSIONS rigated in the Indian States, amounted to over 28,000,000.5 Plagues. — Aside from these natural and ever recurring difficulties under which the native of India must labor, there are other serious disadvantages with which he must contend. While the rainy period holds sway, North¬ western India is visited frequently by terrific storms which often terminate in most destructive cyclones. They come up unexpectedly, sweep over a section of the land and in a few hours leave nothing hut ruin in their wake. The most terrific cyclone history records is the Baker-ganj Cyclone of 1876; 150,000 acres of land were swamped and 2,000,000 inhabitants lost their lives. Following close on the heels of the wet season, when the atmosphere is damp and hot, comes that most dreaded disease, malaria. Yearly this deadly fever chums a goodly number of the natives as victims. Northern India, the alluvial plains and the lowlands are veritable hotbeds of this plague. In the British army in India during the year 1897, out of a total strength of 178,197 men, no less than 75,821 were laid low with malarial fever. There were over 7,000,000 deaths from influenza during 1918. The reported deaths in 1919 numbered 8,554,178 of which cholera accounted for 578,426; plague, 74,284; dysentery and diarrhea, 291,643. The country has also been visited by earth¬ quakes. Severe earthquakes have taken place around Mandalay and the hill country to the north. Ava, in Upper Burma, was destroyed by an earthquake in 1839. Profiteering. — Regarding the evils of India, Ernest B. Hull, S.J., an authority well qualified to speak on that country, has this to say : “The really serious evils of India as felt by the masses are three in number. The first is the artificial creation of famines. The constant recur¬ rence of famine in India is not due to local scarcity of food ; . . . the cause of famine is due simply to the com¬ bination of the native grain dealers, who buy up the sup- 6 Catholic Encyclopedia , Supplement I, Vol. XVII, 1922, p. 395. This Upland Lake Supplies the Parched Lowlands with Water. THE COUNTRY 9 plies and establish famine prices as soon as the first sign of scarcity is observed. All other explanations of famine in India are either false or inadequate and negligible. . . . The second evil is the extraordinary usury practiced by the native Marwaris or money lenders, who have the people at their mercy in times of stress, and who carry on their business in such a way that getting into their hands usually means total ruin. . . . The third evil in India is petty tyranny, extortion, and corruption on the part of subordinate native officials.” 6 As usual, it is the middle and lower class of people that chafe and smart under these crying evils of the land. Their removal would spell greater prosperity and happiness for the whole country. Flora. — We shall now take a look at India’s flora. The country has no botanical features peculiar to itself. In India adjoining floras meet and blend. In the north and northeast we find the columbine, hawthorn, Magnolia, Aucuba, Abelia, Pinus longifolia, Pinus excelsa, yew, deodar and holm oak. Dense forests of Abies webbiana grow at an altitude of 8,000 to 12,000 feet. In the north¬ west, where the climate is dry, the flora is poor. In the west and south, genera such as Sida and Indigofera thrive. Borassus, the coconut and banana are cultivated. Palms are scanty. The lemon, orange and cinnamon trees are also found. The tun and sal are the most important timber trees. Satinwood, sandalwood, ironwood and teak are also present. In the Western Ghats the forests are dense, but, on the whole, they cannot compare with the forests of our own country, e.g., the redwood forests of California and the national forests of our western and northern states. Fauna. — Par richer, however, than in our own country is the animal world of India. Among the wild animals the lion takes the first place. The tiger is at home in every part of the country, and there are no prospects 8 Catholic Encyclopedia , Vol. VII, p. 727. 10 INDIA AND ITS MISSIONS that this beast of prey will ever be exterminated. The damage done by these animals is almost incredible. Single tigers have killed as many as eighty persons in one year. One caused the natives to abandon thirteen villages and threw 358 square miles of land out of cultivation. In 1903 alone 866 persons were killed.7 The leopard, ever as destructive as the tiger, is still more common. The wolf and dog tribe are numerously represented. Other wild animals are the bear, elephant, rhinoceros, wild hog, wild ass, sheep and goat, antelope, deer, bison and buffalo. The rat and mouse family is only too numerous, as tour¬ ists well know. Birds, Reptiles , Fishes. — Of birds, India claims many splendid and curious varieties. The parrot tribe is the most beautiful ; the mina, the most popular. Among the birds of prey there are vultures, eagles, falcons and hawks. Kingfishers and herons are noted for their rich plumage. Waterfowl are plentiful. The florican, snipe, pigeon, partridge, quail, duck, sheldrake and teal make up the list of game birds. The serpent tribe is also abundant, entering the gardens and even the dwellings. All salt-water snakes are poisonous, whereas those that live in fresh water are not. The most dreaded are the cobra de capello and the Russelian snake. Their bite is, with few exceptions, followed by a speedy death. Over 20,000 people were killed by snakes in 1919. There are two species of crocodiles and many scorpions. The sea, the rivers and streams fairly teem with fishes. They con¬ stitute a goodly portion of the food of the poorer classes and are eaten fresh. Carp and catfish are the most com¬ mon, while mahseer and hilsa are the most delicious. Insects. — The insect tribes are innumerable, mainly on account of the heat and rains. The mosquitoes, moths and ants, besides being very troublesome, do untold damage. Of great use are the silkworm, bee and silk-producing insect. Locusts, from three to five inches in length, sweep 7 Encyclopedia Britannica, Vol. XIV, p. 380. THE COUNTRY 11 over the country in clouds and turn the green meadows into barren deserts. Mineral Resources. — So far we have been wandering about in India as tourists, viewing things as we met them. We shall now consider what the country has to show in mineral resources. The chief mining resources of India are the salt, coal and gold mines, the petroleum oil fields, the ruby and mica mines in Bengal and the tin ores and jade of Burma. Copper ore, gypsum, plumbago and alum also exist. Coal is found in almost every native state or province. Bengal lays claim to the best mines, which furnish seven-eighths of the annual returns. Assam and the Central Provinces are also rich in mines. The chief gold fields are the Kolar Fields in Mysore, whose output represents ninety-nine per cent of the whole yield. There are other mines, but they produce only very small amounts. Iron ore abounds in India, every hill has its deposits. Burma is the site of India’s rich oil fields and furnishes ninety-eight per cent of the total product. Assam supplies the rest. Valuable manganese deposits are found on the Madras Coast and in the Central Prov¬ inces. Mica, tin, copper and plumbago appear in greater or lesser quantities in various districts. India is not, as is often stated, rich in precious stones. The search for diamonds is scarcely worth the labor. To-day only the rubies and jade of Burma form an important in¬ dustry. Commerce and Industry. — Looking at the commercial and industrial efforts of the country, we see that the in¬ dustry is almost solely monopolized by agriculture. It is the industry of India. Generally speaking, about seventy- two per cent of the population are employed in agricul¬ tural pursuits. Even in towns of considerable size one generally finds a good-sized garden (if so we may call it) attached to the home. The business man as well as the trader has his own little plot of land which supplies him with the necessary grain for his family. Wheat has be- 12 INDIA AND ITS MISSIONS come a great factor in India within the last few decades. The north, and primarily the Punjab, may be said to be one endless field of wheat. Rice is not met with so fre¬ quently as is often erroneously believed, but wherever it does occur, it is grown exclusively. Rice export is with¬ out doubt an important industry. Burma, Bengal and Madras are the principal centers. The staple food grain of the country is millet, of which there are various kinds. Millions and millions of acres are planted to this grain. The reason why this grain is cultivated so extensively and in preference to all others may be found in this, that it can be planted and thrives on unirrigated land. In years of drought it averages three-fourths of the grain crop. Being a favorite food among the inhabitants, the crop is almost entirely consumed in India. Very little is exported. Gram is eaten by the poorer classes. Oil¬ seeds are also cultivated extensively, and although the Indian uses oil for many purposes, the amount of oil and oilseeds exported to Europe is enormous. Favorite native vegetables are the eggplant, cauliflower, radish, yam, onion, garlic, potato, cabbage and turnip. The last three have been introduced but recently. Among fruits we may mention the mango, pineapple, pomegranate, tamarind, custard apple, papaw, fig, orange, melon and citron. Spices, tea, coffee and cinchona are cultivated to a greater or lesser extent, and are taking the place of the once so important trade in indigo. At present, the indigo business is almost at a standstill, whilst- Canada, Russia, Australia, Persia and the United States are great markets for Indian teas. Manufactures. — We have said that agriculture takes the lead in Indian industries. This does not mean to say that other industries are neglected. Next to agriculture weaving is most widely practiced. The cotton, jute and silk industries give employment to vast numbers. Look¬ ing at the list of India’s factories and mills, we find, be¬ sides the carpet, cotton, jute and silk mills, indigo, tile THE COUNTRY 13 and lac factories, coffee works, iron and brass foundries, rice, timber, oil and paper mills, and, finally, potteries. Trade. — Indian trade with foreign countries is carried on by land and sea. Until recent times the land trade represented but a very small per cent of India’s commer¬ cial enterprise; just now it is improving and the future outlook is good. By far the greater amount of trade is carried on by sea through the four main ports of Cal¬ cutta, Bombay, Karachi and Rangoon. Native trade has been considerably improved by the railroads. Railway Systems. — Railway construction in India be¬ gan about 1853, but the development was rather slow until recent years. To-day the railroads form a network which stretches over the entire land, aggregating the sum total of 36,286 miles of track; about 5,000 more miles than the railroads of France and 30,000 more than those of China. The railway system has greatly increased the commerce of the. country. At present India’s commerce is about five times as great as when its railway system first began. It is mainly due to the railroads, which keep the grain moving, that many out-of-the-way districts are protected against famine. The Northwestern Railway System is the largest, comprising and exercising admin¬ istrative control over no less than seventeen lines exclu¬ sive of the parent line. The visitor to India will find railroad accommodations fairly good. lie will be able to reach all of the chief business centers, and practically all places of interest by rail. COPYRIGHT, 1916, BY THfc U. N. MATThtWS CO., BUFFALO, CHAPTER II POLITICAL HISTORY I. Early Development ( ? b.c.-1000 a.d.) Aborigines . — Drawing aside the curtain from the past of India a crowded stage meets onr view. There are the English, the Portuguese, the Moguls and, in the back¬ ground, the aboriginal tribes. The latter are a dark- skinned race who have left few relics but their tombs and who inhabited the land at the time of the Aryan invasion prior to 2000 b.c. The Aryans. — These Aryan invaders came from the shores of the Oxus and the Jaxartes Rivers beyond the Hindu Kush Mountain Range. Their main occupation was the raising of cattle which amply supplied them with food and clothing. Our chief source of knowledge of these Aryans is to be had from their sacred writings, the Vedas , which depict them as a morally clean and reli¬ gious, although war-loving people. After many years spent in the shedding of human blood this people became the sole possessors of the Indus Valley. But not content with their success in the Punjab they pushed on behind their retreating foe and by 1300 b.c. also brought most of the Ganges Valley under their control. The Vedas give us little valuable information regarding this period, but we are happy in finding a large store of such lore in the two great epics of India which describe this time, namely, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana. They inform us that a great change was wrought among the Aryans. Agriculture was the chief occupation; the caste 15 16 INDIA AND ITS MISSIONS system had been introduced; offering sacrifice to the gods was no longer the office of the chief, but was restricted to a certain class — the Brahmans. These grew daily in power and it became their ambition not to be kings, but to rule kings. After several centuries they realized their ambition and were looked upon by the lower castes prac¬ tically as gods and no one dared do them harm. Buddhistic Pernod. — These conditions prevailed during several centuries. In the meantime also the Ganges Val¬ ley proved too small for the Aryans and so they spread to the east and south, founding independent states as they proceeded, the greatest of which was Magadha. It was near Kadjagriah, the early capital of this state, that Gau¬ tama (560-480 b.c.), commonly called Buddha, i.e ., the “enlightened one/’ began his career. The movement he headed, it is true, was chiefly religious and as such will be treated in a later chapter, but it was also political. It did away with the selfishness of the Brahmans and one of its foremost characteristics was love of one’s neighbor. These and similar facts influenced the actions not only of the common people but to a great extent also those of the ruling class and are in so far of political importance. Various Invasions. — From time immemorial India with its fruitful valleys and plains has been a special attrac¬ tion for the people of other lands. We have mentioned the Aryans as the first known invaders of this land of promise; but they were by no means the last. Cyrus, King of Persia (559—530 b.c.), is said to have sent an expedition to India, but with no success. In the time of Darius (521-485 b.c.) the tribes north of the Kabul and west of the Indus were subdued and formed into a Per¬ sian satrapy. The greatest of the early invaders, however, was Alexander the Great. He began his march from Bactria to India in the spring of 327 b.c., but owing to unexpected resistance reached the shores of the Indus only in the spring of the following year. He defeated Porus, a king of the frontier, and penetrated as far as the Hy- Courthouse Street, Calcutta, POLITICAL HISTORY 17 phasis River. But here his success ended, due to the mutiny that broke out in his army and which forced him to return. Alexander’s expedition to India, it is true, was of short duration, but its influence continued through many centuries. It was due to this expedition that Greek ideas and culture were carried so far east, and these facts played a great role in the subsequent history of India. After Alexander’s death his empire was divided among his generals and Seleucus Nicator received Bactria and the Indian Provinces. He attempted a conquest of the lands beyond the Indus River (303 b.c.), but thereby be¬ came involved in a war with Chandragupta of Magadha, the founder of the Maurya Dynasty (321 b.c.). Seleucus, seeing the power of his adversary, preferred to ally himself with him rather than oppose him. At the death of Chan¬ dragupta his empire comprised all of Northern India. In Asoka (269-232 b.c.) the Maurya Dynasty reached its climax and Buddhism won a devoted patron. His success may be traced to his deep-rooted sense of duty which showed itself in all his actions. He despised pleas¬ ure and honor and condemned the immoral practices of his age. In his earlier years he was so moved to compas¬ sion by the sufferings of a conquered people that he made it his point never to wage war. He was beloved of his subjects and his main object was to work for the common welfare. After his death the Maurya Dynasty began to decline and the last of this house was finally assassinated in 184 a.d. Period of Historical Deficiency. — From this time until the eleventh century of the Christian era Indian history reminds one of a mosaic, as a modern historian expresses it, which has lost all but a few groups of its particles. The various coins and inscriptions, however, as also the diverse reports of the foreign travelers of that time (espe¬ cially Hsuan Tsang of China in the seventh century a.d.) show that it was a period of alternate unrests and political formations. Among the earliest celebrated rulers of this 18 INDIA AND ITS MISSIONS time is Kaniska of the Kushan Dynasty, who reigned in the northwest about 120 A.D.1 He gained renown as a monarch, hut particularly as a Buddhistic enthusiast. Another influential leader of this epoch is Gupta, a vassal of Magadha. He proclaimed his independence about 290 a.d. and by means of a successful rebellion founded a new kingdom which under his immediate successor at¬ tained to great power and included all of Northeastern India. This kingdom endured for several centuries, but in 515 a.d. it was attacked by the White Huns from the north. Although they were finally repulsed (530 a.d.) by Yasodharma, a vassal of the Gupta Kingdom, still the reigning dynasty was doomed and the Kingdom of Gupta went over into the hands of her valiant defender. The next ruler of importance in Northern India is Harsha (606-648 a.d. ) . It was his aim to bring all India under his sway. He succeeded in the north, but was repulsed in the Deccan by Pulikesin II., a member of the newly founded (620 a.d.) Chalukya Dynasty. During the next few centuries India’s history offers nothing of great im¬ portance. The various tribes continued in their strife for leadership, their characteristic faults being jealousy and ambition, and these prepared the way for the Mohamme¬ dan invasion. II. Mohammedan Period (1001-1740 a.d.) Mohammedan Conquests. — While Buddhism in the seventh century a.d. was nearing its end in India, a new religion was springing up at Mecca which later on was to influence India for over 700 years. This religion is commonly called Islam or Mohammedanism and proved to he also a great political power. Even during the life¬ time of Mohammed, the founder, its territorial conquests extended from the Euphrates to Mocha, from the Persian Gulf to the Red Sea. In 664 a.d. the Mohammedans at- xThe date of his reign is uncertain: some authorities place it at 58 b.c., others at 120 a.d., and still others as late as 278 a.d. POLITICAL HISTORY 19 tempted to conquer India and in 711 a.d. actually sub¬ dued Sind, but were again driven out by the Hindus, 750 a.d. India now enjoyed peace until 1001 a.d., when the Afghan Sultan, Mahmud of Ghazni, began his invasions. He made seventeen expeditions into India, and at his death (1030 a.d.) his Indian possessions comprised the modern Punjab, Sind and Western Raj put ana. But his successors were not capable rulers, and, finally, in 1186 a.d., this dynasty was supplanted by the House of Ghor, which reigned during twenty years (1186—1206) and extended Mohammedan, rule* in India as far east as Benares. Mohammed Ghori, the last of this line, gov¬ erned India through his favorite slave, Kutb-ud-in. Upon the death of Mohammed Ghori this slave proclaimed him¬ self Sultan of Delhi thus founding the Slave Dynasty or the Dynasty of the Mamelukes (1206—1290 a.d.). This dynasty was followed by the House of Khildji (1290- 1321) and during this period most of the Hindu States of the Deccan were brought under Mohammedan control. During the next two centuries three dynasties were in power, i.e., the Togluk (1321—1412), the Sayyid (1414— 1451) and the Lodhi (1451—1526) ; but owing to their imprudent rulers India became a land of dissatisfaction and revolt. Goaded on by these circumstances Baber, a Mogul from the north, invaded India in 1526 a.d. and gained a permanent footing. Empire of the Great Mogul. — A new period of Mo¬ hammedan rule now opened for India. Hitherto it had been an epoch of continual unrest and change. One dynasty arose only to be subdued by another. The period now opening, however, possessed greater stability, for the members of one family kept in power for over three hundred years. The greatest ruler of this Mogul Dynasty was Akbar the Great (1556—1605). He is sometimes termed “the greatest monarch in the world at that time.’7 2 3 Rev. Fr. Felix, O. M. Cap., Mughal Farmans, Panoanahs and Sanads, p. 2. 20 INDIA AND ITS MISSIONS He brought under his scepter “a larger portion of India than had ever before acknowledged the sway of one man.” His empire extended from Afghanistan to Orissa, from the Himalayas to beyond the Nerbada River including Berar. He was truly great in his conquests, but greater still in his dealings with men. The conquered he treated as human beings ; he tolerated the different religions and races; he abolished the head tax on heretics (non-Moham¬ medans) and even admitted Hindus to public offices. During the reign of Aurangzeb (1658—1707 a.d.) Mo¬ hammedan rule extended to the southern extremities of the Peninsula, but after his death the vast empire quickly fell to pieces and the Mogul Dynasty was practically at an end, although it ruled nominally until 1858. III. Europeans in India (1498-1922) The Portuguese . — Of all countries of Europe Portugal was the first to find a waterway to India. This was accomplished when Vasco da Gama sailed around the Cape of Good Hope and landed on the Malabar Coast in 1498. At first the Mohammedans of India strongly op¬ posed the plans of the Portuguese, but by the valor and persistency of their leaders, especially of Albuquerque, trading posts were soon established on the mainland. By the end of the following century we find Portuguese settlements on the eastern and western coasts, and even in Bengal and Ceylon. But during the union of Spain and Portugal (1580—1640) affairs in the East were neglected and this fact, as we shall presently see, was of great advantage to the Dutch and English. To-day the Portuguese Possessions in India comprise Goa, Damaun and Diu, having a total area of 1,403 square miles. The inhabitants of Portuguese India in 1900 amounted to 531,798. The Dutch. — Towards the end of the sixteenth century the Dutch were not on friendly terms with the Portuguese POLITICAL HISTORY 21 and being thus deprived of the only practical means then existing of getting spices from the East, finally determined to open trade directly with the Spice Islands. At first they attempted to find a passage round the north coast of Europe, but this proving unsuccessful, they followed the Portuguese round the Cape of Good Hope and reached India in 1596. They gained in power and soon the much neglected Portuguese settlements were also under their domination. By the middle of the seventeenth century the Dutch were supreme in Asiatic waters. But Holland also received her deathblow when the English Parliament passed the Navigation Act (1651) forbidding mainly the importation of merchandise into England except in Eng¬ lish ships. Erom this time dates the decline of Holland’s power both at home and abroad. To-day the flag of Hol¬ land waves nowhere on the mainland of India.3 The Danes. — The Danes first reached India in the be¬ ginning of the seventeenth century. Their colonies never attained great importance, but still they continued under Danish rule until 1845, when they were sold to England. The Germans. — The Germans were comparatively late (1723) in sending trading companies to the Ear East. The Ostend Company once established, however, threat¬ ened to become even a rival for the other European powers in India. But the jealousies of these powers, combined with unlooked-for opposition from the Fatherland, caused the company to end in bankruptcy (1784). 4 The French. — The first successful French expedition that deserves mention was made by the French India Company in 1668. By the end of the century French power in India had progressed so that its only rival for supremacy was the power of the English. In 1741 Du- pleix, an enthusiast for French control in India, was made governor of Pondicherry and in 1744 war broke out between England and France. The remaining history of 3 Encyclopedia Britannica, Vol. XIV, p. 405. 4Helmolt’s Weltgeschichte, Leipzig, Vol. II, 1902, p. 443. 22 INDIA AND ITS MISSIONS the French in India will be treated in the following pages. The English . — The first Englishman to reach India was the Jesuit Thomas Stephens, who as missionary accom¬ panied the Portuguese in 1579. His letters attracted attention at home and soon English merchants were bound for the East. However, not much was accomplished until the East India Company came into existence (1600). The Company received its first tract of land in India (Madras) in 1639. Bombay, the gift of King Charles II. of England, was added to it in 1668, and a piece of land near Calcutta was acquired from the Great Mogul in 1686. After the death of Arungzeb (1707), the Mogul Empire rapidly declined. One tribe after another was gaining its independence when war broke out in Europe between England and France (1744). This caused hos¬ tilities between the English and the French in India. Both parties easily received aid from native tribes, whom they trained in European warfare and called sepoys. During this struggle victory was on the side of the French, but by the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) conquered terri¬ tory was returned. Dupleix, Governor of Pondicherry at the time, seeing the success of French arms, conceived the idea of founding a French empire in India. This he hoped to do by bringing the native tribes under his suzerainty. An excellent opportunity was offered by the disputed successions at the native Courts of Hyderabad and Arcot. Dupleix placed nominees on both thrones. But this was contrary to the wish of the English, and they, in turn, placed a nominee on the throne of Arcot. War between the English and the French was the result. During this struggle the English by their capture and brave defense of Arcot (1751) won a name for valor throughout India. At the Battle of Plassey (1756) Bengal was brought virtually under British control. In 1760 the French began anew the struggle for supremacy. Pondicherry was finally taken (1761) and the predomi- POLITICAL HISTORY 23 nance of the British over the French was secured. In 1816 Pondicherry was restored to the French, and at the present day is the chief settlement of their possessions in India. In 1772 Warren Hastings was appointed first titular governor-general of India. During his term British rule in India passed through its most critical period. War broke out with the powerful Mahratta Confederacy and with Hyder Ali, “the ablest warrior in India” at the time. The Company was found unprepared; money especially was wanting; nevertheless, owing to the inflexibility and diplomacy of Hastings, the English did not emerge from the broil as losers. In 1798, Wellesley arrived in India as governor-general imbued with imperial projects which were destined to change the map of the country.” He conquered much land in the north and brought prac¬ tically the whole south under British administration. After his term British expansion steadily progressed in India. The Central Provinces were formed in 1818. Bur¬ mese territory was annexed in 1826, 1852 and 1885. Sind was subdued in 1843. Lord Dalhousie, Governor- General from 1848 to 1856, was of the opinion that it would be of the greatest advantage to have them under English protection. Accordingly he brought the Punjab, Sattara, Nagpur, Lower Burma and Oude under British authority. The intentions of Lord Dalhousie were un¬ doubtedly good, but by his actions he irritated the influ¬ ential classes of natives. A conspiracy was formed among them against the British and having secured the support of the Bengal Sepoy Army, they rose in open rebellion in the spring of 1857. Gradually, however, the revolt was brought under control and its leaders were severely punished. Under the Crown. — As an effect of this insurrection the government of India was by an Act of Parliament transferred from the East India Company to the Crown. The governor-general received the additional title of vice- 24 INDIA AND ITS MISSIONS roy. In 1877, Queen Victoria was proclaimed Empress of India at Delhi. At this time trouble was continually felt in the northwest. The year previous, Baluchistan had been brought under British protection, and later some of its districts were even annexed. Afghanistan was also the cause of much anxiety. Of recent years there has arisen in India “a wave of national aspiration.” It was first felt in 1886 at the forma¬ tion of the Indian NTational Congress, which comprises the educated class among the natives who claim for themselves a larger share in the administration. In 1904 general unrest was felt, and although nothing serious occurred, still the British Government thought it prudent in 1907 to appoint two natives to public offices, and another in 1909. When the World War broke out in 1914, India responded to Great Britain’s call with 1,250,000 troops. The bril¬ liant victory of Armageddon in Palestine was chiefly the achievement of Indian troops. However, India became at no time the scene of battle, except when the “Emden” bombarded Madras. In 1917 Mr. Montagu, appointed secretary of state, visited India and together with the Viceroy, Lord Chelms¬ ford, purposed to carry into effect the declaration made in Parliament, August 20, 1917, that “the policy of His Majesty’s government is that of the increasing association of the Indians in every branch of the administration and the gradual development of self-governing institutions with the view to the progressive realization of responsible government in India as an integral part of the Empire.” Shortly after this, the Committee of Inquiry into seditious crime in India, over which Mr. Justice Bowlatt presided, advised the government to arm itself with special powers against such crime, to be brought into action when sedi¬ tions imperiled public safety. The result was the Bowlatt Act (1919), introduced into the legislation despite the solid opposition of the unofficial members. This was the spark that kindled the violent agitation throughout the POLITICAL HISTORY 25 country. Riots broke out at Calcutta, Delhi and Amrit¬ sar, the sacred city of the Sikhs. At Bombay the Passive Resistance League was formed under the leadership of Mahatma Ghandi, the successful champion of the cause of Indian laborers in South Africa. Meanwhile the Montagu-Chelmsford report bore fruit. A bill framed on the lines of this report received the ap¬ proval of both Houses of Parliament and the royal assent in December 1919. This Government of India Act (1919) made several important changes especially in the manage¬ ment of the provinces. Despite the resolute opposition of the Nationalists, the new government was established, Sir William Meyer becoming the first High Commissioner of India, August 1921. In 1922, the visit of the Prince of Wales gave rise to rioting in Bombay, which called the attention of the whole world to the conditions in India and its hatred of British rule.5 Ghandi. — Mahatma Ghandi was the moving spirit of the Nationalists. He is a fascinating leader, possesses an uprightness of character that even his enemies admire, and employs a directness of speech which puts to scorn diplomatic verbosity. As a consequence his word is law to his adherents. Religiously a Hindu, he recognizes only the four traditional castes, i.e., Brahman, Kshatriya, Vaisya and Sudra. His policy is to abolish the numerous sub¬ castes and discard the childish restrictions, particularly the social ostracism of the pariahs. Ghandi preaches the doctrine of non-cooperation with the English Government, insisting on abstention from all government and military service and on withdrawal of Indian children from British schools and institutions. His program also urges the establishment of arbitration courts and the settlement of industrial disputes. By conducting a series of boycotts he attempted to drive out the English merchants and man¬ ufacturers and ultimately to gain for India her autonomy. His policy for immediate and complete self-government 8 Catholic Encyclopedia , Supplement I, Vol. XVII, 1922, p. 396. 26 INDIA AND ITS MISSIONS is likewise insisted upon by many of the daily papers. Contrary to bis doctrine of passive resistance, Ghandi is reported to have now and then preached violence in order to obtain immediate results. In view of these facts and for the reason that many of the natives, chiefly Mussul¬ mans, are restive, it is not at all surprising that daily papers from time to time report fresh outbreaks in some parts of the country. These uprisings, however, are of local character and are easily crushed by the English. On March 18, 1922, Ghandi was arrested and sentenced to six years’ imprisonment. Yet the fires of revolt are but smoldering and threaten to burst into flame at any time. Well may we ask : How is it all going to end ? 6 Extent of British Buie. — India may be divided into British territory and Independent Native States. These latter are in varying degrees under the sway of the gov¬ ernor-general of India who is more commonly called a viceroy. Since December 1912 his residence has been at Delhi. For purposes of administration the British territory is divided into eight great provinces and six lesser charges. The eight major provinces are the Presi¬ dencies of Madras, Bombay and Bengal; the Lieutenant- Governorships of the United Provinces, the Punjab, Burma and Mehar; and the Chief Commissionerships of the Central Provinces. These provinces are governed by officials variously called governors, lieutenant-governors and chief-commissioners. These officials are directly re¬ sponsible to the governor-general, who together with his council possesses the chief executive and judicial powers in India. The Indian States cover about two-fifths of the area of British India and contain about two-ninths of the popu¬ lation. These states are governed by native princes, min¬ isters and councils with the advice of the supreme gov¬ ernment of India. There are in all 693 such states of which only about 200 have claims to some importance. * Catholic Missions, New York, April 1922. POLITICAL HISTORY 27 The rulers of the states are known as maharajas and rajahs according to their rank. These men are supreme within their territories, administer justice, keep their own courts and have a limited number of standing troops. They may not, however, make treaties, send or receive ambassadors, make war or peace. The most important of the states are (1) Hyderabad, the premier state in India, comprising 82,698 square miles with a population, in 1921, of 12,453,627 ; (2) Mysore; (3) Baroda; (4) Himalayan Hill States, west of Nepal and including Kashmir; (5) Sikkim; (6) Sikh States in the Sirhind Plain; (7) Bajputana, 460 miles long and 530 miles wide with a population of 9,853,012 in 1921, and composed of some twenty states; (8) States of Central India, a group of 148 states; (9) Malayalim States of Travancore and Cochin; (10) Punjab States; (11) Gwalior State; (12) Indo-Chinese group of states; (13) Hill tribes of the northeastern frontier. There are only two totally independent states, Bhutan and Nepal, both situated in the Himalayas.7 Effects of British Rule in India . — Before concluding it may be advisable to enumerate some effects of British rule in India. British rule has constructed a network of railway and telegraph lines throughout the country; it has spent millions for the improvement of highways; it fosters learning by the erection of colleges and universi¬ ties ; it encourages works of charity by donations to hos¬ pitals, orphanages and dispensaries; in short, it has done much for the material uplift of the natives. But if British rule in India has its advantages it also has its defects. They are especially noticeable during the time of famine. As remarked above, these famines are due not so much to the scarcity of food as to the cornering of the grain by the grain dealers, who then demand unreasonable prices. The Government, it is true, does employ means to alleviate the sufferings of the people during these times, but the 7 Whitaker’s Almanac, London, 1922, pp. 628-030. 28 INDIA AND ITS MISSIONS means employed are, to quote an authority on India, “neither adequate nor radical,”'® and in so far the Govern¬ ment is to he blamed. Furthermore, British rule in India has always been, and still is, more a drawback, perhaps, than an advantage in the conversion of the natives. The Government professes a strict neutrality regarding the Christianization of the pagans, hut this neutrality “is nothing short of a public encouragement to indilfer- entism.” 9 Then also Christ and His teaching are (at least were in 1905 with no outlook for change) so strictly barred from the state schools that from them we could not even learn that Christianity exists in the world.10 But this is not the worst ; even “idolatry and vile superstition are under the protection of the law,” and a law, be it re¬ membered, compiled by a Christian government. An¬ other evil connected with British rule consists in the numerous taxes under wdiich the people of India are groaning. A post-war writer on India expresses this fact in the words: “Taxes and more taxes, that is the story of British rule.” 11 8 Rev. Ernest Hull, S. J., Catholic Encyclopedia , Vol. VII, p. 727. ® Ihidem, p. 732. 10 Rev. Jos. Dahlmann, S. J., Indische Fahrten , Freiburg, Vol. I, 1908, p. 390. “Basanta K. Roy, What India Wants, in America, Vol. XXI, 1919, p. 540. CHAPTER III NON-CHRISTIAN RELIGIONS IN INDIA There are seven main forms of religion in India to¬ day, but what is known as the religion of India is Brah¬ manism. We can trace its development from the poly¬ theistic nature-w7orship of the ancient Aryan conquerors through profound changes to the intricate cult in modern times, called Hinduism. Animism. — Of all the religions of India Animism is the oldest. It is a belief which ascribes to all nature, mountains and rivers, plants and animals, stars and planets, an individual soul. Its followers hold elves and fairies to be just as real as demons and deities, believe in magic, and strive to propitiate invisible beings. Animism is the religion of the aboriginal Dravidian tribes, a rem¬ nant of pre-Aryan times now gradually being absorbed into Hinduism. It may surprise us to hear of the exist¬ ence of such a pre-Christian religion in a country so long in contact with civilization, yet at the time of the last census (1921) India had 10,295,168 adherents of this creed. The Santals, Bhils and Gonds have clung to this religion for over 4,000 years. Vedism. — When the Aryan invaders first appeared in history they professed the Vedic Religion, so called from the Vedas, their sacred books, written between 1500 and 700 b.c. Vedism stands in marked contrast to the gloomy pantheism of a later day. It consisted in the worship of the personified powers of nature. The Aryan deities are described as rather pure, powerful, all-wise, the protectors of the individuals, of the family and of the tribe, who provided for the Indian the joys of life. 29 30 INDIA AND ITS MISSIONS Sacrifices. — At this period temples were unknown. The householder offered the sacrifice, consisting of ani¬ mals or cereals, on a little mound of earth or stone. Only the great tribal sacrifices were offered by priests, who con¬ sidered this their chief task. The Aryans held woman in high regard. She held many rights in common with man that are now lost to her through the formation of classes and the oppres¬ sion of the Brahman. Some of the most beautiful hymns of this time were composed by women. The deceased relatives held a place sacred in the memory of the sur¬ vivors. The latter made feast offerings at stated times, to increase, as they believed, the happiness of the de¬ parted, and these in turn promoted the welfare of the descendants. Popular Brahmanism. — About the year 1000 b.c. we note a marvelous change in the Vedic Religion. The caste system had sprung up. An elaborate liturgy had been introduced, outdoing even J udaism in its multiplicity of purifications and complexity of ceremonial rite. Only priests who had undergone a long period of training in the household of a Brahman teacher, called guru, could offer sacrifice. They performed the marriage rite and other important family ceremonies. Their will, the na¬ tives believed, bestowed an eternity of bliss, or doomed to the deepest hell. They had practically become gods. Women forfeited nearly all their rights. Though the moral code taught many salutary lessons of obedience, charity and chastity, this new form of Brahmanism placed an inconceivable burden on the members of the lower castes who were banished from society. Pantheistic Brahmanism. — The vague monotheism that found expression in the later Vedic hymns appealed to the minds of the educated Brahmans more and more and led them to invent a new deity, the pantheistic All-god, Brahma, represented as the creator of the world. They taught that the ultimate end of all things, of the lesser NON-CHRISTIAN RELIGIONS IN INDIA 31' gods as well as of the earth, was the absorption into the impersonal Brahma. This form of Brahmanism became very popular within the Brahman caste, where it still obtains to-day. But the masses had no love for an impersonal god, who for a life¬ span of faithful service proffered only the loss of all in¬ dividuality. Their hearts still clung to an eternity of conscious bliss. Transmigration. — About this time the idea of the transmigration of the soul came into vogue. This doc¬ trine, which later became prominent in both Brahmanism and Buddhism, teaches that at death the soul passes from one body to another, either of man or brute, and so the process continues for an indefinite period of time till the soul returns again to Brahma. The natives hold that in as far as a person led a life of virtue or crime, he would be reborn in a higher or lower animal or even in a plant. For this reason, all living creatures are held sacred. This theory of reincarnation has given rise to inhuman prac¬ tices of penance and self-torture, made worse by the belief that sins committed in a preexistent state are punished in a future birth if not expiated before death. The misery caused by this wretched doctrine is untold. Buddhism. — In the sixth century b.c. a portion of Brahmanism took on a new form, called Buddhism. Gau¬ tama, or Buddha, the “enlightened,” as he is commonly known, belonged to the house of the royal Cakyas. At an early age he was deeply impressed by the universal suffering of mankind. Having renounced his right to reign he secretly took leave of wife and child and set out to study the cause of so much misery and to discover a means of deliverance. After seven years of fasting he believed he had discovered a way of salvation. He began to preach at Benares and, ' aided by an attractive per¬ sonality and unusual eloquence, soon had many adherents even among the Brahmans and nobles. Many of Buddha’s disciples left their homes, as he had done, lived in com- 32 INDIA AND ITS MISSIONS mon a life of poverty and devoted their days to contempla¬ tion, thus founding Buddhistic monasticism. “Buddha may be credited with the qualities of a great and good man. In his mildness, his readiness to overlook insults, his zeal, chastity and simplicity of life, he reminds one not a little of St. Francis of Assisi,77 1 Buddha accepted much that the Brahmans taught : the belief in a previous existence, the system of rebirths; differing only in his conception of the final state of the saved and in his plan of salvation. To obtain deliverance from rebirths man must stifle all desire, both lawful and unlawful; he thus enters Nirvana, the Buddhistic heaven, a state where all self-consciousness is lost, in reality, where the soul ceases to exist. He set aside the caste system and taught that all men are equal. He also in¬ culcated the spirit of unselfishness, of brotherhood, of forgiveness, patience and compassion. Because of this new doctrine of fraternal charity, and owing to the en¬ deavors of royal converts, Buddhism spread over the whole of Northern India during the next two centuries, and about the middle of the third century b.c. King Asoka established it as a state religion. Buddhism, however, ignored the deities, and though for a time after Buddha’s death he was the object of worship, the masses soon clamored for their gods. A reaction set in which resulted in the formation of two rival cults, that of Siva and that of Vishnu. Buddhism never ousted Brah¬ manism from any large part of India. The two religions coexisted as popular religions during more than a thou¬ sand years (250 b.c.— 800 a.d.) and modern Hinduism is the joint product of both. Though at the present writing the Buddhists number more than ten million or three per cent of the population of British India, Buddhism is of little importance in India proper. Burma, however, a province of Farther India, is essentially Buddhistic. The census of 1921 gives 1 Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. Ill, p. 29. NON-CHRISTIAN RELIGIONS IN INDIA 33 10,721,453 Buddhists, nearly all living in Burma. It is here characterized by the extensive building of pagodas. Every village has its group. The Burmese thereby hope to be free from rebirths and to gain merit for heaven. Here, too, Buddhism is found in its relatively purest form. Every Burman must dwell for a time in the mon¬ asteries of the monks, who thus gain many supporters and friends. Siva and Vishnu Cults. — As noted above, the natives cared little for the Nirvana of the Buddhists and less for Brahma; so they raised to the dignity of the supreme deity two of their old traditional gods and honored them by a special cult. One, the ancient storm-god Rudra, re¬ ceived a new name, Siva, the “blessed.” The other, Vishnu, in Vedic times a form of the sun-god, was hon¬ ored as the promoter of growth and joy among men. The new outgrowths sprang up in different parts of India in the fourth or fifth century. They did not exclude the worship of other gods and goddesses, nor of the spirits, of the sacred rivers and mountains, the sun, moon and stars. The Brahmans viewed with alarm the rising popu¬ larity of the new religions. To counteract it they created the Hindu triad, consisting of Brahma (the Creator), Vishnu (the Preserver), and Siva (the Dissolver), and in this manner sought to bring the unsatisfied masses once more under Brahman subjection. With Vishnu and Siva the popular fancy again associated other gods. Promi¬ nent among them is Krishna, the god of incarnations, who, to obtain special favors for mankind, assumed now a human, now an animal form. Jainism . — With the rise of Buddhism another system of worship came into existence. Jainism, so called from jina , i.e., the conqueror, one of the names applied to the founder, resembles Buddhism very closely. Like Buddha, Nattaputta gave up the luxury of a princely home to lead the mortified life of a Brahman ascetic. He gathered about him disciples and with them organized a monastic 34 INDIA AND ITS MISSIONS system. He insisted upon a life of extreme mortification. He likewise accepted the theory of rebirths, and after the eighth, a perfect Jain entered a heaven of individual blessedness. At present Jainism is but a form of hero- worship. Magnificent temples are erected to Jina and other teachers. The Jain may not eat meat, nor take animal life. This principle has been so overdrawn that in Hutch a temple-hospital is maintained supporting 5,000 rats. In 1921 India counted 1,248,182 Jains. Mohammedanism. — Mohammed, the founder of Mo¬ hammedanism, was born in Arabia, near Mecca, 570 a.d. In his fortieth year he claimed to have received a call from the Angel Gabriel to preach as a prophet of Allah. Driven from Mecca he fled to Medina, where he secured a following. Having organized an army of 40,000 he conquered Mecca, and from here began a series of aggres¬ sive wars. Mohammedanism entered India in 1001 a.d., when Punjab became a Mohammedan province. In the seventeenth century it flourished over a great part of the country. Mohammedanism is by no means an original system of theology; it contains no doctrine not found in Judaism, Christianity or Arabian heathenism. Its chief doctrine is : “ There is no God but the true God, and Mohammed is His prophet.” Mohammed taught monotheism as the Christians have it, but rejected the belief in Christ. He held that God will reward the good and punish the wicked : though according to his teaching God predestines the one to be good, the other, wicked. The moral code of the Mohammedans possesses much that is praiseworthy, yet falls far beneath the Christian standard. Idolatry, adultery, false witness, gambling and usury are rightly forbiddden, but fraternal charity is confined to fellow- Mohammedans. Mohammed forbade infanticide, but al¬ lowed a man to have four lawful wives at the same time and any number of concubines. In the Koran, the Mo¬ hammedan Bible, church and state are not separated and NON-CHRISTIAN RELIGIONS IN INDIA 35 a religious war of aggression is the sacred duty of the Moslem whenever there is hope of conquering the “in¬ fidel” India had 66,647,299 Mohammedans in 1921, The most influential maharajas and rajahs of to-day are Mo¬ hammedans. Politically they are the strongest body in India. To-day they are divided into many sects, of which the Sunnites, the Wahabis and Shiites are the chief. There is also a modern school known as the Motazalites, who form the progressive party. They reject much of the Koran. They seek to further education, hut are hostile to Christianity. Many of them are gradually adopting Hin¬ duism. Sikhism. — Sikhism was founded by Nanak (1469— 1539) as a reaction against Brahmanism. Though of minor importance to-day the Sikhs still keep up the tra¬ ditional teaching of the unity of God, salvation by faith and good works, and the equality of all men. Under the first nine gurus or great teachers (1469-1675), the Sikhs were a peaceful sect, but the tenth guru , Govind Singh (1675—1708), having added martial passages to the Adi - granth, their sacred book, made war their business. The Sikhs adore no idols, but the sacred book given them as a guide by the fourth guru , Arjan, is worshiped as a personal god in the far-famed Golden Temple of Amritsar. The Sikhs are easily recognized by their long hair, for they never have it cut. They never use tobacco. For a time they had control of a part of the Punjab, but after several wars with the Moslem, the English disbanded them in 1849. Since that time they have ceased to exist as a governing power. The census of 1921 gives the number of Sikhs as 3,014,466, most of whom are in the Punjab. Zoroastrianism. — A learned Jesuit says of Zoroastrian¬ ism: “It is the highest result to which human reason, unaided by revelation can attain.” 2 The Parsis, as they are called in India, were originally Persians and are still ’Ernest Hull, S. J., Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. Ill, p. 15& 36 INDIA AND ITS MISSIONS adherents of the religions system which teaches that there are two supreme beings: one, a principle of good, the other, of evil. Persecuted by the Mohammedans they fled from place to place till they finally reached India about 700 a.d. Here, too, they came in conflict with the Mos¬ lem. They obtained peace only in 1774, when Thana, their chief city, came under English control. Modern Zoroastrianism is now better called Mazdaism (from Mazda, the name of the “Good God”). The Parsis teach that God gave man a free will, and that He will reward or punish him in as far as he observes or disobeys the divine law. The Evil Spirit tempts man, but if he sins he can repent and make amendment. They have a sort of purgatory where souls whose good works are equaled by their wicked deeds are confined. Truth¬ fulness and generosity are their national virtues. Con¬ verts are not accepted. The Parsis have the peculiar cus¬ tom of placing their dead in the so-called Towers of Silence, where they are exposed to birds of prey. Owing to his intelligence and easy accommodation to circum¬ stance the Parsi holds prominent positions in industry and trade. The sect forms a community of aristocracy. To¬ day the society is divided and many of the traditional usages are coming into disuse. Of the present adherents the Bombay Presidency has the highest percentage. The census of 1921 gives 100,096 Parsis, of whom all but 7,000 are found in Bombay. Modem Hinduism. — It is difficult, in fact impossible, to define what is essential to Hinduism, the third phase of development or transformation of Brahmanism. It is generally described as the popular, distorted, corrupted side of early Brahmanism. All the religions so far treated are to some extent contained in Hinduism. It comprises the dignified monotheism of the Brahmans and the most degrading forms of nature-worship, immoral rites and superstitions. A noted authority on Hinduism says of it : “Hay, it holds out the right hand of brotherhood to nature- NON-CHRISTIAN RELIGIONS IN INDIA 37 worshipers, animal-worshipers, tree-worshipers, fetish- worshipers, demon-worshipers. It does not scruple to per¬ mit the most grotesque forms of idolatry, and the most degrading varieties of superstition/’ 3 Any one can become a Hindu if he admits the supremacy of the Brahmans, and • observes certain caste rules about mar¬ riage, food and professional pursuits. No set doctrine is prescribed. This accounts for the fact that so many sects are drifting into Hinduism and that of a total population of 319,075,132 in 1921, India had 217,586,892 Hindus or sixty-nine per cent of the total population. Hindu Divinities. — We have considered the most popu¬ lar Hindu deities, Siva and Vishnu. There are still a few others deserving mention. Ganesa, as the lord of all mischievous spirits, is invoked before all undertakings. He is represented as having an elephant head and a re¬ pulsive human body. With every god the Indians asso¬ ciate a goddess; of these Kali, the wife of Siva, is most widely honored. The natives who worship a goddess are known as Saktas. Their cult has degenerated to shock¬ ing orgies of drunkenness and sexual immoralities, which even to the present day are a scandal to the world. The Brahmans are still held in high repute especially in the villages. “They (Hindus) are taught, that it is better to offend the gods than the Guru. If a man offends the gods, his Guru can intercede in his behalf and win their favor ; but if a man offend a Guru, there is none to appease his wrath.” Deceased relatives and other noted men are also deified. Even animals and plants are accorded divine worship. This degrading idolatry is due to the doctrine of the transmigration of the soul. Of the many trees and plants reverenced the banyan tree, the wood apple and the tulasi plant excel. The latter is worshiped especially by the women, many of whom make their religion consist in 8 Catholic Encyclopedia , Vol. VII, p. 358, quoting Monier Williams, Brahmanism and Hinduism, 1891, p. 2. 38 INDIA AND ITS MISSIONS walking round the tulasi plant, in saying prayers to it, or in placing offerings before it. Animal worship will be treated in a later chapter. Stones are believed to possess real divinity, though oftener they are mere amulets. Of all nature-worship water gets a goodly portion. Lakes and rivers, particularly the Ganges, are addressed in prayer as personal gods. This, for instance, is a prayer to the Ganges : “Oh, Mother Ganga ! I now bow at thy feet; have mercy on thy servant. Who can describe thy virtues ? Were the greatest of sinners, the perpetrator of endless crimes to pronounce the word Ganga, he being delivered from all his sins, shall be translated to the bliss¬ ful abode of the celestials.” Home Services . — Home worship differs according to the creed and the condition of the family. In the wealthier homes a morning and evening service is held before the household god by a priest called the purohit. The offerings of cereals, fruits or milk used in the ceremony become his property. But where the pinch of poverty is felt the family service consists almost exclusively in the mechani¬ cal repetition of the names of the gods, which is said to confer great merit. For this reason the Hindu names his child after the gods. Beal adoration is scarcely found among the lower classes. The wife of the Bheddi still invokes the family deity in a worshiping posture. Temple Services. — The Hindu’s idea of worship differs entirely from ours. We have a common devotion. But when a Hindu goes to the temple on the appointed days he does not think of assisting at prayers with others ; he is satisfied with beholding his god and making a private offering. Reform Movements. — The Hindus are gradually showing signs of the influence of Christian thought. Many movements have begun, tending to bring back the purer Yedic cult seasoned with Christian ideas. The first and most important of these is the reform inaugurated by Bam Mohan Boy (1774-1833), who sought to eliminate NON-CHRISTIAN RELIGIONS IN INDIA 39 idolatry, calling it “the source of prejudice and super¬ stition, and the total destruction of moral principle.” After the death of the reformer his society, called Brahma Sarnaj or Theistic Church, in 1878 because of internal dissensions split up into three sections. There are more than a hundred theistic societies in India to-day, which though tainted with pantheism show the desire for a saner creed. The total number of adherents does not exceed 4,000, mostly in the Calcutta district. To gain an adequate idea of the general corruption both moral and religious, India must be seen. One cannot study its religions without feeling a desire to help the Indians to a knowledge of a better creed. Steeped in idolatry and superstition, sunk in a mass of spiritual and bodily misery, the Indian people form a fertile field for the zeal of the missionary. r CHAPTER IV MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Like all other peoples of the Orient, the natives of India have peculiarities of manner and custom, which are both quaint and amusing to an inhabitant of the West. These peculiarities show themselves in every phase of the Indian’s private, social and religious life. The Abbe Dubois 1 has made a thorough and interesting study of this strangely self-contradicting people, but for our pur¬ pose the brief consideration of the following topics is deemed sufficient. Costume of Men. Headdress. — Personal attire in India with some slight modifications is substantially the same for its four main religious groups, Mohammedan, Hindu, Sikh and Parsi. The costume of the aboriginal races such as the Bhils, Gonds, Santals, etc., is rather scanty. The principal garments of these people are the headdress, shirt and covering for legs. Mohammedans shave the head, but wear a full beard which, if the wearer has made a pilgrimage to Mecca, is dyed a dull red ; while Hindus, except the Rajput, shave the face and head, leaving a topknot. The Sikh shaves neither head nor face. He parts his beard in the middle and trains it upwards. A piece of cloth, called dhata, is generally wound around chin and head to keep the hair clean and tidy. The hair of the Sikh’s head is tied into a knot at the top or back of the head. When the Parsis were first admitted into India, the condition, among others, was imposed on them by the Hindus that they follow the Hindu custom of 1 Hindu Manners, Customs and Ceremonies, Oxford, 1897. 40 A Rajah with His Children, Showing the Attire of the Ruling Class. MANNEKS AND CUSTOMS 41 wearing the topknot. To-day it is chiefly the old-fashioned Parsi in country districts who still follows this prescrip¬ tion. The covering for the head is either a turban or a cap. Turbans are of two kinds, the amamah and the pagri. The amamah is a piece of cloth measuring from twenty to thirty inches wide, and from six to nine yards long, and is bound around the head from left to right so as to form angles at the front and back. The amamah is some¬ times wrapped around a conical cap with the ends hang¬ ing over the shoulders. This latter style is adopted mostly by the wealthier and nobler Mohammedans. The pagri, of Hindu origin, is a piece of cloth six to eight inches wide and of any length from ten to fifty yards, and is wound around the head in innumerable ways, each style having a different name. The pagri is common to the Hindus. The cap or topi is very often made of cloth, though in Bengal and Western India generally of goat¬ skin. These caps are of manifold shape, some round, others three-cornered or four-cornered, according to the custom of the above-named group. Parsis of both sexes wear a cap in and out of doors and deem it a sin to un¬ cover the head. Body Covering. — For the upper part of the body the principal article of clothing for Mohammedans and Sikhs is the hurta, the equivalent of the European shirt. It is usually of white cotton and may have an opening at the front, back, or at either side. It is generally fastened by the ghundi (old form of button) and tukmak or loop. Some Hindus of the upper castes also wear the hurta; but more common, especially among the lower castes, is the dhoti, a piece of white cloth wound around the loins. The dhoti of a Brahman reaches below the knee, while that of a Kajput reaches to the ankle. Mussulmans and Parsis wear baggy, flowing trousers varying in length, while Sikhs wear knickerbockers. Hindu men and women use earrings ; Sikhs have an iron bangle around the wrist, 42 INDIA AND ITS MISSIONS and, in general, are fond of jewelry. Many of the wealthier natives living in cities have adopted the European fashion of dress. Shoes . — The majority of natives do not wear shoes, hut go barefooted almost throughout the year. However, the wealthier classes are fond of richly embroidered and orna¬ mented shoes, made usually of thin red leather. People living in the northern hills wear a kind of sandal, made of wood, straw or grass. Clothing of Women . Headdress. — Mohammedan, Sikh and Hindu women usually plait their hair. Hindu women are fond of a number of plaits made into one large plait, and let it fall down the. back. Parsi women, however, dress their hair after the old Greek fashion with a knot behind. The veil, differing in length and manner of wear¬ ing, is common to all women, at least out of doors. In some cases it is very long and draped around the body as is fashionable among the Parsi women. A ring in the nose distinguishes a married from an unmarried Mo¬ hammedan woman. In the latter case a brighter colored veil is worn. On the upper part of the body women generally wear the Jcurta which is of manifold styles. The bodice or waistcoat is also worn to cover the breast and shoulders. Mohammedan women wear the pa’ e jamas or trousers and in this consists the chief distinction between their dress and that of other Indian women. The tillah or bright colored robe is a characteristic of Mohammedan women in Gujarat, Rajputana and the Sirsa District. Out of doors Mohammedan women wear the burJca , a long, loose, white garment, entirely covering head and body, having two holes for eyes. They pencil the eyes with Jcohl or surma , use missi for the teeth, and dye their hands and finger nails with henna. Instead of trousers, Hindu women wear a skirt called ghagra, or, if not this, the sari , a long piece of cotton or silk cloth draped around the waist, which falls to the feet in folds, and whose remainder is MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 43 passed over the left shoulder. The ghagra is customary, especially in Rajputana, while the sari, which is also worn by Par si women, is more frequent in Bengal, Madras and the Bombay Presidencies. Sikh women dress very similarly to Hindu women. Native Christian women, while following in the main the prevailing fashion of dress, have made some slight alterations in favor of modesty. Native Homes. There are two kinds of native homes, those of the wealthy and those of the poor. The wealthy natives, notably in Calcutta, have large houses. The patriarchal system in vogue mainly among the higher grades of society, according to which the members of three generations live together and lead a common life, calls for spacious homes. The home of a wealthy Indian usually has two or more courts, one behind the other. The front court is occupied by the men, the rear court by the women. In the rear we sometimes find a room with latticed galleries intended for worship, and a walled enclosure for bathing. Houses may also be of two stories, in which case the upper story is of larger dimensions and projects over the lower story on all sides. As a consequence there is a profusion of shade in the street. The upper stories of a double house are often connected by a small bridge. Quite different from these and by far more numerous are the homes of the poor. Structures of mud or matting with tiled or thatched roof, a latticed window or two to admit light and air, and sometimes a veranda where guests are received — is the common boast of the poor. Unattractive as is the exterior of the average Indian’s home, the interior is even more so. Some of the more wealthy and more progressive natives furnish their homes in European style, but these are in the minority. Hence, we more generally find no chairs or tables; only a low stool, a rude cot without a mattress, a loose mat for the accommodation of a visitor, a box or two for storing away jewelry, best clothes and other valuables, and countless 44 INDIA AND ITS MISSIONS earthen pots for cooking and holding provisions complete the stock of furniture. Meals. — The most serious part of the day’s business in the Indian family is the preparation of the meal. The principal food of the natives is rice, peas, beans of various kinds, vegetables and greens, bread made of wheat, barley and corn, etc. Bread is baked in a very primitive manner. A handful of flour is mixed with water and kneaded into dough. Loaves of a half inch in thickness are then rolled, and baked for three minutes over the fire. Meat is seldom eaten, owing to the religious precepts of the people. Fish, however, serves as a delicious substitute. Fish are very plentiful in the rainy seasons, and every schoolboy goes fishing in his leisure hours. Milk is enjoyed when sour and thick. The Indians cook their food in brazen vessels. At meal time all squat on the floor with crossed legs and eat with their fingers. The housewife brings the meal separately to each member of the family and immediately withdraws. The older sons and young girls of five or six years eat with the father, and afterwards the older daugh¬ ters and small boys eat with the mother. Be it said to the credit of Hindu men and children, they are not so help¬ less and dependent on the women for cooking as men and children of other countries, but almost every man and child of seven or eight years can prepare the ordinary daily meal. Recreation. — Amusements do not assume a prominent place in the Indian’s life. The principal games of the children are variations of marbles, pussy in the corner, blindman’s buff, hide and seek, odd or even, etc. Adults indulge in wrestling, acrobatic performances, jugglery, fireworks, chess, nautch dancing, etc. Of course, all are passionately fond of theatrical representation, music and song. Frequently throughout the year each village has its natak and tamasha. The natak is akin to our drama, but the speaking roles are largely interspersed with singing. The principal characters, especially during the climax of Tills Hut Means Home to a Poor Family of India. MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 45 the play, do not speak, but sing their cues. The tamasha is made np of songs and musical dances, and is usually performed at dusk in the temples. The songs are set to a catchy melody and repeated so often throughout the per¬ formance that at the end the audience knows them by heart and long afterwards can be heard singing them. The most unfortunate thing about the theater is its immorality. The indecent deeds of the gods are often sung and enacted. Indian Etiquette. — On entering a strange house the polite Hindu will not remove his turban, but his shoes. Indeed, to remove the headdress of whatever kind, is an act of discourtesy; to strike it off, a deep insult. The native, when making calls, never rises to depart until dis¬ missed by the host, which, among Mohammedans, is done by offering betel,2 and sprinkling rose essence; and with Hindus, by hanging wreaths of flowers around the visi¬ tor’s neck. Discourteous Englishmen frequently offend Hindu guests with an emphatic “Ab Jao ” “Now go.” A less offensive dismissal is to say: aCome and see me again soon,” or, “Always make a practice of visiting my house,” which will be speedily understood. It is always disre¬ spectful to use the left hand in salutation, eating, or on any occasion when it can be avoided.3 Marriage. — The most important and most engrossing event in a Hindu’s life is marriage. It is a subject of endless conversation and lengthy preparation. Childhood marriage, though common to all castes, is most strictly ob¬ served by the Brahmans. Often there is a ridiculous dif¬ ference of age between the husband and the wife. An old man of sixty or more, who lost his first wife, is frequently espoused to a mere child of six or seven years. The wed¬ ding itself entails great expense, and among all the castes it is customary for poor men to enter the services of rela¬ tions or of other people of their caste who have marriage- 2 A climbing species of pepper. Its leaves and seed are chewed as tobacco in the East. 3 ~New American Cyclopaedia, Vol. IX, p. 183. 46 INDIA AND ITS MISSIONS able daughters, on the condition that the employer give his daughter in marriage and pay all the expenses for the wedding. The inclinations of the persons about to be married are seldom consulted. The choice is left to the parents, who, as soon as they have discovered a suitable girl and have ascertained that her family are likely to assent, go formally to ask for her. On arriving at the girl’s home they make known the object of their visit. Before replying the girl’s parents stare steadfastly toward the south awaiting the sharp cry of one of those little house lizards crawling about the walls. Only when the lizard of the south has spoken do the parents give their consent and accept the presents offered by the petitioning guests. Preparations are begun for elaborate ceremonies which last for five days. Endless cleaning and decorating of the bride’s home usher in the solemn event. A great pandal or canopy is erected, and an image of the god Yigneshwara is enthroned beneath it. To him all pray for the aversion of any misfortune during the celebration of the marriage. Then all attendants anoint their heads with oil of sesa- mum, the gods and ancestors are invoked and invited to the feast. For five days there is a succession of typical ceremonies. The bride is given to her husband by her father, who renounces all authority over her. The husband fastens a tali around his wife’s neck to &how that hence¬ forth she is his own property. On the fifth day a mag¬ nificent banquet is given. First the guests eat in silence, and then a special meal is prepared for the wedded pair. Usually in the evening the nuptials are brought to a close by a noisy procession through the streets. Torchlights are carried and fireworks are put off. All participants in the procession are gaudily attired in silks sparkling with jewels. Gifts are showered on the newly married couple; but in reality they are only lent, for the donors them¬ selves expect to receive them back on similar occasions. These wedding parades are sometimes very beautiful, but hardly according to our taste. Although the wedding MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 47 feast of the poor class is not so elaborate, still they, too, spare neither pains nor expense in making this occasion as imposing as possible. Funerals. — A Hindu funeral is attended with many de¬ grading ceremonies, born of the grossest superstition. As soon as the sick man expires all present must burst into tears. So strict is this rule of lamentation, that some¬ times crying rehearsals are held a few days before the pagan’s death, so that all may strike the proper tone and pitch when the dread moment comes. As soon as the person has died the barber is called to shave the dead person’s head and prepare the body for the funeral. A wreath of flowers is placed around the neck, and a piece of sandalwood upon the forehead. The body is then laid on a bier and remains exposed to view until the funeral, which is held the same day. When the time comes for the funeral the corpse is wrapped in a white cloth and the chief mourner gives the signal for the funeral cortege. Walking before the corpse, the chief mourner carries an earthen pot containing the coals of fire for the crema¬ tion. Cremation on the Shores of the Ganges. — While Mo¬ hammedans and Hindus of lower castes bury their dead, Hindus of higher castes have for thousands of years trav¬ eled to the Ganges River, or, if too poor, have in many cases made provisions for having their bodies cremated on the shores of the Ganges. The human ashes are consigned to the “Sacred River,” whereby, it is believed, the soul is wonderfully transformed. The criminal whose ashes are scattered in the “Sacred River” is wholly purified and born again as a Brahman or a god. The ceremony of burning the bodies presents a most gruesome and revolting picture. The whole shore of the Ganges is strewn with human ashes. Here and there we see piles of human bodies all ablaze. Before them stand the coolies naked and dripping with sweat, stirring up the funeral piles. The fakirs shrieking like demons hold their wake, while 48 INDIA AND ITS MISSIONS pious Hindus purify themselves in the holy waters. Fre¬ quently pieces of half-burnt bodies are seen afloat in the stream and are preyed on by vultures. A greater prof¬ anation of the lifeless body can scarcely be imagined, yet Hindus deem it a most sacred act of worship. But the actual cremation of the Hindu corpse is the least trouble¬ some of the ceremonies. For, from the moment death takes place in the family, all the relatives of the deceased are considered unclean, and for thirty days are expected to purify themselves by countless baths and works of penance.4 Social Organization. Caste. — The most unique feature of the social organization of India is the division of the people into distinct classes known as castes. The origin of the caste system is not clearly known, but it is believed to be rather a political or social than a religious institu¬ tion. Few Indians care for what their neighbor believes, but all inquire whether they may eat with him, or take water from his hands. “The real cause of the caste sys¬ tem,7’ says Father Houpert, S.J., “is that spirit of selec¬ tion and exclusiveness, due to a variety of conditions, which has worked for centuries and split society into a thousand fragments.77 5 The ancient Hindu Law Books divide the people into four groups: — The Brahmans, or priests; the Kshatriya, or warriors; the Vaisya, or farm¬ ers; and the Sudra, or laborers. These four clearly de¬ fined castes are no longer so distinct, and instead of four, their number is legion. In 1905, the Brahmans had nearly two thousand subdivisions; the Vaisya and Sudra are endlessly subdivided. Castes and sub-castes are al¬ ways in the making ; change of religion is enough to create them. The census of 1911 shows in the Madras Presi¬ dency alone 479 sets of people, each with its distinctive label.6 Inferior to the four principal castes are the pariahs 4 Dahlmann, Indische Fahrten, Freiburg, Vol. I, 1908, p. 262. 6 The Madura Mission Manual , Trichinopoly, 1916, p. 19. ® Ibidem, p. 20. MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 49 or outcasts, who are considered an utterly vile and con¬ temptible sect. The outstanding features of the caste system are the following : All persons are bound by heredity to a certain occupation and religion, and to change the one or the other entails expulsion or social ostracism; eating is re¬ stricted to food prepared by a member of one’s own caste, or in accordance with carefully prescribed rules, by a member of a higher caste; marriage must be contracted between members of the same caste ; contact with members of a lower caste engenders pollution, the removal of which is accomplished by elaborate purifications and divers cere¬ monies. The consequences of these social principles, if rigidly insisted on, as they frequently are, cannot be ex¬ aggerated.7 Thus until the British Government abolished it in 1850, a loss of caste involved a complete loss of civil rights and property. In Malabar a man of high caste may kill a man of lower caste for touching him even acci¬ dentally. The lower castes live in the most servile sub¬ jection, the sacred writings may not be read in their presence, nor may the Brahmans counsel or instruct them. Caste is the dominating factor of Indian life. From the cradle to the grave all actions are regulated by caste. Even the Mohammedans, whose leading doctrine is the equality of all men before Allah, have succumbed to the caste system. More than twenty-eight thousand Moham¬ medans claim to be Sheiks; over a million, to be Saiads; nearly three million, to be Jolahas, etc. The caste rules of Mohammedans, however, do not seem so inflexible as those of Hindus, as the proverb current in Northern India shows : “Last year I was a J olaha ; to-day I am a Sheik ; next year if the prices rise I shall become a Saiad.” 8 The Village System . Local Panchayat. — By virtue of the village system each Indian village or township has its own headman or chief, and is a small republic managing T Abb6 Dubois, op. c., pp. 38, 39. 8 Richter, History of Indian Missions, 1908, pp. 20, 21. 50 INDIA AND ITS MISSIONS its own internal affairs, taxing its own members, having its own police or chauhidars , and being responsible for all property stolen within its limits. The panchayat , a time- honored institution in the village, constitutes a local court consisting of five elders. It is invested with judiciary powers to decide petty quarrels and punish minor offenses. Each village, likewise, repairs its roads and public edifices, maintains the public worship and supports the poor. For all these duties proper officers are provided, who are paid by fees, either of money or of produce, such as wheat, rice, barley, etc. Some Indian Religious Customs. Superstitious Wor¬ ship of Animals. — The natives of India are, one might say, compounded of superstitions. This is due to their religion, the particular shade of which is betokened by the different marks of paint, ashes or dung smeared on their foreheads. Their fanatic belief in the transmigration of souls has necessarily led to the exaltation of the brute and to the utter degradation of the human being. In an end¬ less change of foolish rites and customs, reverence and adoration are shown to the ugliest and fiercest beasts. In Benares there is a most venerable temple, Durga Khond, better known as the monkey temple. On entering the “sacred” fane a throng of apes leap to greet you. Hindus believe that the “divine” blood of the immortal primitive ape still flows in the veins of every ape, hence the curious and superstitious cult of the monkey tribe. An unseemly sight it is to see the bold creatures roam the temple, climb the pillars and swing on the arches. All at once they scramble to the floor, each eager to be the first to gulp down the sweets thrown extravagantly to them by the worshipers. Having licked every crumb from the floor they jostle one another about, make all sorts of grimaces and greedily beg for more. A disgusting sight, these specimens of Hindu “divinities,” yet millions approach them with aw^e, and glory in being permitted to tread the “sacred pre¬ cincts” of their temple. Monkeys bound freely through Fakir of Delhi — The Long Finger Nails Brahman Reading from a Book of Palm Render the Left Hand Practically Use- Leaves. MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 51 the streets, play in gardens, and perform all manner of indecencies on trees and roofs. Woe to the unfortunate person, who by maltreating the ape sins against the “divinity.” 9 “Holy” Coivs and Bulls. — Another essential Hindu tenet is to pay honor to the cow and the bull. These ani¬ mals are permitted to wander through the streets whither¬ soever their “divine instinct” may lead them, and they have unrestricted access to vegetables and fruits which they find in their path or on display at the bazaars. Cer¬ tain marks, known to the Brahmans alone, render a cow or a bull “holy,” and it is a great grace for a Hindu to have a cow or a bull worthy of the name. In general the Hindu will kill no animal, because he is assured it con¬ tains the soul of his ancestor. Not only the pariah, but also the Bajput swarms with small creeping animals. Yes, superstition has driven this degraded people so far as to build hospitals for aged animals. In all larger cities such hospitals are found. Even the serpent and all kinds of dangerous worms are worshiped in India, and although thousands die yearly of snake bites, the Hindu will never destroy a serpent. Pilgrimages to “ Holy Places P — The religious history of Hindu India is contained in the history of Benares, the “Indian Borne,” and of the Ganges, the “Holy Biver.” Benares is the center of religious cult, the holiest and most venerable city of India. Year in, year out, Benares is the goal of countless pilgrims from all parts of India. All professions, classes, races and languages are repre¬ sented — the yellow Mongol from the Himalayan valleys walk side by side with the dark brown Dravida of the south. Whole families, even half the inhabitants of villages, wander through Benares together. Marathi, Bengali, Telugu and Tamil tongues are heard on all sides. Every pious Hindu should visit at least once in his life the “Holy City,” and bathe in the “Sacred Stream.” eDahlmann, Indische Fahrten, Vol. I, p. 237. 52 INDIA AND ITS MISSIONS Those who cannot come usually send others in their stead. One pilgrim measured with the length of his body the entire distance from Gwalior to Benares, a stretch of about three hundred miles. Months and months are spent in journeying to this stronghold of Hindu superstition, and when at length the goal is reached, nothing but a group of nude, sensual gods and goddesses look down in stolid greeting upon the pilgrim. Fakirs and Penitents. — There are people in India who lead an austere life which is as degrading as it is un¬ reasonable. These are known as fakirs and penitents. They generally discard all clothing, save a rag about the loins, often retire into the wilderness, eat nothing but roots, sleep on the bare ground and let themselves be tor¬ tured by all kinds of vermin. Some enter into a hollow tree, the inner side if which is sharply pointed with nails, so that the penitent finds no place to lean without wound¬ ing himself. Others stand for years with outstretched arms, so that by and by the whole body becomes numb. Penitents have been known to close their hands and keep them in that position until the fingernails grew through the palms and protruded from the back of the hands. Many stare at the sun until it blinds them, or sit between fires and roast gradually to death. One was seen to stand on his head for hours at the entrance to a temple on Mount Abu. These are but a few samples of Hindu penance, and they are mostly so unworthy of man that we turn in disgust from them. It is estimated that there are from four to five million such ascetics and pious frauds in India. From the perusal of the foregoing pages we cannot but be impressed by the very strangeness of the Indian people. Their outstanding feature, whether we consider them individually or collectively, is a slavish, superstitious traditionalism, which renders any departure, however insignificant, from ancient conviction or practice, odious and damnable. Social usages, impossible in our country MANNEBS AND CUSTOMS and, indeed, in any other country, are the same in India to-day as they were thousands of years ago. Even the long and close contact with Europeans has as yet effected within three centuries little or no change in the time- honored customs of Indian society. CHAPTER V EDUCATION Prom time out of mind India has been a land of schools, of literature and of philosophy, all of which have been intimately bound up with the religious beliefs of the peo¬ ple. The principal religion, Brahmanism, brought Torth the Yedic and Sanskrit Literatures, the Brahmans or priestly class and the caste system, in a word, all that in the course of ages has vitally influenced the growth and character of education, whereas the other religions culti¬ vated the Pali and Prakrit languages. To form an ade¬ quate idea of the educational development of India would necessitate a thorough study and mastery of her religions. A formidable task this ; and quite beyond the scope of our present purpose. Hence, we must content ourselves with giving the bare outline of educational growth. Efforts of the Natives. Hindu Higher Education. — In primitive times the Brahmans had the monopoly of educa¬ tion. Teachers and lawgivers of the people, guardians of the Yedic hymns and authors of the commentaries, rituals and mythologies, the Brahmans rigidly determined the limits of knowledge for the lower castes. Moreover, owing to the difficulty of learning Sanskrit, the language of the Brahmanic school, but few were able to worship at the shrine of learning. For the vast majority higher educa¬ tion meant nothing more than learning by rote the hymns, prayers and religious ceremonies. The Brahmans, how¬ ever, spent no effort on educating girls. “To educate a woman and to give a monkey a sharp knife is the same thing,” runs the Law of Manu, the Moses of India. A 54 EDUCATION 55 few women of very low moral caliber who were to serve as dancers and singers in the temples learned to read and write, but their chief training was in singing and danc¬ ing. In the earliest Brahmanic schools, sacred literature together with the national epics and a crude form of science, also of Brahmanic origin, commensurate only to the exigencies of worship, were the substance of Hindu higher education. But with the social development, the educational system also expanded. Schools of literature, law, philosophy, medicine and astronomy came into being.1 Mathematics received special attention, and to India we owe our wrongly so-called Arabic numerals. Hindu Lower Education. — While the schools of higher education were limited to the region north of the Vindhya Range, lower education spread throughout entire India. The village school (pathsala) , like the village system was founded on the Sastras, or Books of Sacred Laws, and formed an integral part of the village life. Under a wide- spreading tree, or in a convenient shed, the village school¬ master assembled the boys of from five to ten or twelve years of age and taught them penmanship, multiplication, money values, weights and measures. In the beginning the pupils traced letters and figures on the ground with their fingers. The more advanced scholars wrote on palm leaves or on prepared wooden tablets with a reed pen dipped in charcoal ink. Down to the sixth century before Christ writing was unknown. In this century the alpha¬ bet was first introduced. In the absence of books, instruc¬ tion was oral and in the vernacular. The discipline was strict, not to say heartlessly cruel. Failure to measure up to the required tasks meant standing on one foot for a half hour, or suspension of the culprit head downwards from the nearest tree. Mohammedan Education. — Unlike the Brahmanic edu¬ cational system, Mohammedans advocated universal in¬ struction and bestowed educational advantages on women 1 Monroe's Cyclopedia of Education, s. v. Education in India. 56 INDIA AND ITS MISSIONS as well as men. In the sixteenth century, five centuries after Islam’s arrival in India, every mosque, like the cathe¬ drals of medieval Europe, had its school attached, in which children were taught the Arabic alphabet and select verses from the Koran. Higher education also was in a rather flourishing stage, and in the schools supported by imperial grants and private bounty, Arabic, Persian, rhetoric, logic, literature, law and undeveloped forms of science were taught. Mohammedan schools are still in existence to-day and together with Brahmanic schools number about 40,000.2 Transition Period . Catholic Missionaries. — The en¬ tire period from the sixteenth to the nineteenth century may be regarded as a period of transition from ancient to modern conditions. With the advent of the Catholic missionaries in the sixteenth century the Brahmanic and Mohammedan systems of education began to shift. Firm advocates of the principle, “First a school, then a church,” the missionaries gathered the children together and in¬ structed them in the rudiments of secular as well as of religious knowledge. It was to be expected that the mes¬ sengers of the Gospel would bring with them traditions of their homeland ; hence their methods bore the stamp of European influence. Studying the language of the na¬ tives, they began to impart the substance of lower educa¬ tion in the vernacular, while employing their own lan¬ guage as the medium of higher education. This method so commended itself that when the English Government assumed control of education in India in the nineteenth century (1854), it built up its system on the foundation laid by the early missionaries. Missionary Linguists. — To achieve success with the In¬ dians the missionaries saw at a glance the necessity of mastering the countless Indian languages and literatures. They had to meet the Indian on common ground, converse with him in his own tongue, know his religious traditions 2 M onroe’s Cyclopedia of Education, 1. c. EDUCATION 57 and tenets, be able to refute them and present the true doctrine of Christianity with force and precision. With this in view the missionaries set themselves to study the Indian’s languages, and to translate important Indian books into modern European languages and vice versa. Their efforts in this work laid the foundation of modern Oriental philology. St. Francis Xavier himself set the ex¬ ample. To him is ascribed the authorship of the first book printed in India, Catechismo da Doctrina Christiana. His companion, Fr. Henrico Henriquez, S.J. (died 1600), wielded a prolific pen. His compositions comprise a gram¬ mar and dictionary in Tamil, two catechisms, Lives of Christ, of the Blessed Virgin and of other Saints, and many other apologetic and devotional works. A place of honor is duly assigned to the Jesuit, Joseph Constantine Beschi, who acquired such perfection in Tamil that he wrote prose as well as poetry with almost the same ease as his mother tongue. By his masterful poem, Tembavani, written in honor of St. Joseph, he has won himself a place among the foremost poets of India.3 One of the first mis¬ sionaries to distinguish himself in the study of Konkani was Thomas Stephens, S.J. His perfect acquaintance with this language is nowhere more in evidence than in the Fur ana, a work setting forth the mysteries of the Catholic Faith in poetic form. Even to-day his work is popular among native Catholics.4 Among the noted Franciscan linguists we may mention Fr. Manuel Banha, the author of a dictionary in Kon¬ kani ; and Fr. Amador de Santa Anna, who translated the excellent work, Flos Sanctorum, into Kanari. A schol¬ arly Konkani grammar was the fruit of the pen of the Carmelite, Fr. Francis Xavier de Santa Anna. The eminent ethnologist, Max Mueller, cedes to de Nobili, S.J., the honor of being the first European to 8 Dahlmann, Die Sprachlcunde und die Missionen , Freiburg, 1891, p. 13. * Ibidem , p. 15. 58 INDIA AND ITS MISSIONS master Sanskrit.5 The Jesuits, Henry Roth (died 1668) and Hanxleden (died 1732), were clever students of San¬ skrit and produced valuable works in that language. Their brethren Calmette (died 1740) and Coeurdoux attracted much attention in learned European circles by their liter¬ ary achievements in Sanskrit. The first European to turn books from Sanskrit into a modern European language (Italian) was the Capuchin, Joseph Bernini (died 176 1).6 The translation of the celebrated epic poem, Bamayana , the Vishnu Parana, be¬ sides two other larger and numerous smaller works, are from his pen. Bernini was likewise a profound scholar of Hindus¬ tani. As collaborator with Cassian Beligatti, O.M.Cap., he composed, among numerous apologetical works in Hin¬ dustani, the Dialogue , a valuable work setting forth proofs for the Catholic Doctrine. This, Bernini presented to the King of Bettiah in 1751. The first grammar in Hin¬ dustani was published by the same Cassian Beligatti in 1771. 7 The Catholic translation of the New Testament in Hindustani appeared for the first time in September 1864 from the fertile pen of Anastasius Hartmann, O. M. Cap. He is also the author of a catechism in Hindustani, which met with favor from the Bay of Bengal to the con¬ fines of Persia.8 Er. Francesco Orazio della Pennabilli, O.M.Cap. (died 1745), is the father of the Tibetan phil¬ ology. He translated three larger works from Tibetan into Italian and rendered Cardinal Bellarmine’s Christian Doctrine , Thurlot’s Catechism , and Salian’s Church His¬ tory into the Tibetan and Nepalese languages. A Tibetan- 6 Ibidem, p. 17. 6 Rocco da Cesinale, Storia delle Missioni del Cappuccini, Tom. Ill, Roma, 1873, pp. 742-746 and 275-276. TThe full title of this grammar is Alphabetum Brammhanicum seu Indostanum, Romse, Propaganda Fidei, 1771. It is still extant. All otner Hindustani grammars are of a*later date. For a list of such grammars cf. Zenker’s Bibliotheca Orientalis, Leipzig, 1846. 8 Adrian Imhof und Adelhelm Jann, O. M. Cap., Anastasius Hart- mwnn, Luzern, 1903, p. 535. EDUCATION 59 Italian and Italian-Tibetan dictionary of 35,000 words, published by J. Marshmann at Serampur in 1826 by the Baptist Missionary Press, is also a credit to his industry and scholarship. The Augustinian, A. Aug. Giorgi (died 1797) published at Pome (1762) the first Tibetan gram¬ mar (Alphabetum Tibetanum) , and the aforesaid Cassian Beligatti the second Tibetan grammar ( Alphabetum Tan- gutanum sive Thibetanum) at Borne in 1773. Fr. An¬ tonins Pezzoni, O.M.Cap. (died 1844), is the author of a Hindustani grammar, the translator of forty-four Lives of Saints and other works into the same language, and of the Pentateuch into Sanskrit. The Carmelite, Paulinus a S. Bartholomaeo (died 1805), is the author of the first Sanskrit grammar (Alphabeta Indica) , published at Rome in 1790. Under such ministers of the Gospel education could not but make steady and substantial progress. Catholic schools and colleges were opened as the need for them arose. Then, as now, the Jesuits proved themselves good educators. Of them a Protestant writer says: “It can not be denied that the Jesuits were great masters in the art of instruction, and the advances which the Christians of Pondicherry have made in the language and principles of European knowledge, is an eminent proof of the ability of those Fathers.” 9 And about the Holy Name University of Bandra (1575) Dr. da Cunha writes: “Thousands of Indian families had been converted to Christianity, and from these the early British Government drew their supply of clerks, assistants and secretaries. They were the first fruits of the education imparted by the Por¬ tuguese Priests at a time when hardly any Hindu, Moslem or Parsi could read the Roman characters.” 10 Protestant Missionaries. — Protestantism, though in ex¬ istence since the middle of the sixteenth century, had sent #T. W. M. Marshall, Christian Missions, Vol. I, p. 257. 10 J. C. Houpert, S. J., Madura Mission Manual, Trichinopoly, 1910, p. 140. 60 INDIA AND ITS MISSIONS no missionaries to India until the eighteenth century. The first Protestant missionaries to set foot on India’s soil were the German Lutherans, Ziegenbalg and Pleut- schau. They began their missionary career in 1706.11 At first, they endeavored to convert the natives by means of preaching and by distributing literature. Having failed to achieve results, they undertook the establishment of schools, in which, besides, the three P’s, geography, astron¬ omy, history and natural philosophy were taught. The more prominent of Protestant ministers to open schools were Schwarz, Marshman and Duff. Duff was the first of the Protestants to make English a medium of educa¬ tion and he founded a school at Calcutta in 1830. Normal schools for training native teachers according to Western methods were also opened. Despite the means at their disposal and the prestige of the government, the Protestants had little or no success. In 1845, the Basle Mission Society opened a school in Neilgherries and literally paid one hundred boys for com¬ ing to school. In 1862 Mr. Clements Markham examined the work of the Protestant missionaries and reported: “They have schools and labor amongst the Bagagas, but as yet with scarcely any success.” 12 The representatives of Protestantism in India may have been actuated by pure motives, but it is a fact of history that they gained little or nothing for the cause of Christian education.1 3 During the transition period secular schools were opened under private management, alongside with the missionary institutions, chief among which were the Mohammedan College in Calcutta founded in 1780 by Warren Hastings, and the Sanskrit College established at Benares in 1791 by a wealthy resident of that city. In 1823 the College of Agra was opened and in 1824 a Sanskrit college at Calcutta. The year 1835 witnessed the endowment 31 Julius Richter, A History of Missions in India, p. 103. “Marshall, Christian Missions, Vol. 1, pp. 324, 325. 13 Ibidem, pp. 278-303. EDUCATION 61 of a medical college at Calcutta by Lord William Ben- tinck. The East India Company’s Attitude toward Educa¬ tion. — The educational endeavors heretofore considered were mainly native or missionary undertakings. While India was under the East India Company more than two hundred years elapsed before its masters awoke to their grave responsibility in regard to education. Only in 1813 did this Company take action in educational matters and appropriate the annual sum of 100,000 rupees (approxi¬ mately $50,000) for promoting education. This sum was largely expended in scholarships to enable promising students to attend the existing schools. In 1823 began what is known as the “Educational Conquest of India.” The move was inaugurated by Governor Mountstuart El- phinstone, who advocated a better and higher education of the natives along European lines. A committee of instruction was created to take charge of the annual ap¬ propriations and of the schools and colleges which had come under government control. Local school committees were also appointed and no stone was left unturned to advance the natives’ education so long neglected. The Language Question. — A great difficulty, however, lay in the way. If Indians were to be taught European literature and science, what language should be employed as a medium ? A brief mention of the many and contrast¬ ing tongues of India will suffice to show what a perplexing problem awaited solution. After thirty years of patient toil the British Government has only recently succeeded in classifying the languages of India under nine families comprising one hundred and forty-seven distinct vernacu¬ lars. The more important of these families are the Dra- vidian and the Indo-European. The former is restricted to the Deccan and numbers fourteen languages, including the four literary languages of the south ; the latter is prev¬ alent in Northern India and embraces twenty-five lan¬ guages, the most important of which is Hindustani. This 62 INDIA AND ITS MISSIONS language dates back to the conquest of Delhi at the close of the twelfth century and is spoken by more than 100, 000,000 inhabitants. The articulate expressions of some of these languages are limited to a few hundred words, whilst others have an abundant vocabulary; some are en¬ tirely devoid of inflection, whereas others can compare with the classical languages. Besides the native tongues, European languages are also spoken quite extensively, particularly English, French and Portuguese. Triumph of English. — It was long disputed whether the language of higher education should be English, Hin¬ dustani, Bengali, or another of the native languages. The debate lasted for some years and reached a climax in 1835, when the opportune arrival of Lord Macaulay in India as the legislative member on the council of the governor- general settled the controversy in favor of the English language. English schools were subsequently opened in all provinces and regardless of caste, Christian, Moham¬ medan and Hindu came together to study English. The desire for a knowledge of English was the sign not so much of an inclination toward modern learning as of a passion for an immediate means of livelihood and a pass¬ port to the favor of the rulers. While the study of English flourished, the classic learning of the Indians was not allowed to decline. In 1839 an annual grant of 25,000 rupees was devoted to its maintenance. Great Britain at the Helm of Indian Education. — The next important step in the history of Indian education was taken in 1854, when instead of the East India Company, the English Government assumed full control. The char¬ ter of education insisted principally on the following: (1) establishment of a Department of Public Instruction and of a university in each presidency; (2) government sup¬ port of training schools for teachers; (3) maintenance of existing government colleges and high schools and their increase when necessary; (4) opening of new middle schools and increased attention to the vernacular and other EDUCATION 63 elementary schools; (5) inauguration of the “grant-in- aid” system whereby also private schools receive govern¬ mental support provided they comply with prescribed conditions. Revisions of the System. — In 1858, when the govern¬ ment of India passed from the Company to the English Crown, neither energy nor funds were spared to advance education. But since the system in vogue failed to cope with the needs of the ignorant masses, Lord Ripon, Vice¬ roy of India, appointed a commission in 1882 to look after the education of women and of the backward races. As a result more attention was given to primary schools. The commission also created the office of Director General of Education and introduced quinquennial reports re¬ garding the status of education in whole India. In 1904 another revision of the government system took place under Lord Curzon whose reforms called especially for higher schools of agriculture and of technical arts and the introduction of science in secondary schools. In this same year the universities, which by their examinations and by their power of affiliating colleges controlled higher education, were authorized to inspect the colleges and secondary schools and to provide for the promotion of study and research. Administration. — At the head of the educational sys¬ tem is the Director of Education at Calcutta. This official, however, has no authority over schools and col¬ leges. He supervises the whole system indirectly through the distribution of the government appropriations. The Board of Education in each province has the direct administration of public education. A number of men and women inspectors under the direction of this board examine every school and class annually, in order to determine the amount of the grant to each. These in¬ spectors, the principals and a certain proportion of the professors of the government colleges are drawn from England. * 64 INDIA AND ITS MISSIONS Further Details of the System . — The whole system of education in India is divided into fourteen grades or “standards” each of a year’s duration. The elementary classes comprising four years are called the primary de¬ partment. The secondary department includes a six years’ course, the first three of which are spent in the middle school and the other three in the high school. The four grades above the high school are called academic classes, the first two grades of which prepare for the examination termed “First in Arts” (F. A.), while the last grades prepare for the “Bachelor of Arts” (B. A.). In some parts of India another course of two years is added in preparation for the highest academic examination, that of the “Master of Arts” (M. A.). These six years of advanced study compose the “College” in the technical sense and mark the completion of the educational system. We distinguish (a) art colleges, of which the majority are English and a few Oriental, and (b) professional col¬ leges of law, medicine and engineering. They are divided into first, second and third grades according to the de¬ grees for which they prepare. Promotion from one grade to another, i.e., from the primary to the middle school and so on, and also to the three degrees, is by means of public examinations. These are conducted by the uni¬ versities and are nearly all written. Classification of Institutions. — In India not only those institutions which are established and maintained by the state are classed as public, but also those private institu¬ tions which are recognized by the government whether they receive government aid or not. Educational institu¬ tions, public or private, are commonly divided into (a) indigenous, (6) vernacular, (c) public and (d) mission¬ ary. In indigenous schools education is carried on in the vernacular by the natives according to their old methods regardless of the ordinary rules of the Department of Education. In vernacular schools education is likewise imparted in the vernacular, but according to the require- EDUCATION 65 ments of the government. Public schools are similar to the public schools in our country and missionary schools resemble our parochial schools. Only a trifle more than fifteen per cent of India’s schools are strictly public schools, i.e., established and maintained by the govern¬ ment alone; of the rest a little over half receive govern¬ ment aid. Curriculum. — Formerly reading, writing and arith¬ metic were taught in the primary schools. To-day geog¬ raphy, history, hygiene, agriculture, singing, recitation and physical exercise are additional compulsory branches. The optional branches are: English, Persian and manual work for pupils above the infant classes. An important feature of this curriculum is that it is always adjusted to the needs of the pupils; therefore, the study plan of urban schools differs from that of rural schools. Most parents who are willing to keep their boys at school to the age of fifteen prefer an Anglo-vernacular school, since even a smattering of English has value in clerical em¬ ployment. In the secondary schools the courses of study depend upon the university to which they are affiliated. The following studies are the general course: English, mathematics, history, geography, another language be¬ sides English, classical languages, an Indian vernacular and science. Some of these are compulsory, others elec¬ tive. The curriculum of the college is in accord with its purpose. Enrollment. — The total number of pupils enrolled in educational institutions on March 31, 1919, was 7,936,577, divided as follows: 50,730 students attended the art col¬ leges; 13,100, the professional colleges; 1,212,133, the public secondary schools; 5,941,482, the public primary schools; 20,633, the public training schools; 100,585, other public special schools; 597,914, private institutions. The grand total of 7,936,577 comprises 6,623,149 males and 1,313,428 females. It is particularly interesting to note the importance now attaching to the education of 66 INDIA AND ITS MISSIONS girls. This increased attention to the members of the weaker sex reaches to the very root of the social life and marks the breaking np of a most stubborn traditional cus¬ tom. At the end of the official year of 1918-1919 there were 23,351 educational institutions for girls and women with an enrollment of 1,3 13,42 8. 14 This total marks an increase of 733,780 above the total of 579,648 in 1907. In the absence of the regular incumbents, on military service, lady professors have been temporarily and suc¬ cessfully appointed in colleges for Indiap youths. Expenditure. — The total cost of public education for the official year 1918—1919 was Rs. 129,863,073. Of this sum Rs. 4,397,221 were expended on the universities. Rs. 91,849,130 is the amount of direct expenditure on public instruction; and Rs. 33,616,722, the total of in¬ direct expenditure.15 The salary of teachers is assuming greater importance than formerly. Salaries range from Rs. 15 to Rs. 25 per month for beginners and rise as high as Rs. 60 for others. In some sections teachers receive as high as Rs. 400. The primary school-teacher receives from Rs. 15 to Rs. 35.16 Latest Educational Project , Self-Supporting Schools. — The latest move in educational circles is that of the “In¬ dian Self-Supporting Educational Colonies Association.” The principle of this scheme is that students support themselves while learning a trade. “The long period of training should be divided into two parts, first the school¬ ing which could last up to twelve or fourteen or there¬ abouts, secondly a period of educative productive employ¬ ment, lasting two or more years and during the latter period the well-trained youths would be able to pay by their labor for their whole education and training.” 17 The founder of this Association is Captain J. W. Petavel and 14 Indian Education in 1918-1919 , Government Report, 1920, p. 23. 10 Ibidem, pp. 5, 24, 25. 10 Ibidem, p. 6. 17 Times of India, July 24, 1914. Two Prominent Lawyers— Products of India’s Schools. EDUCATION 67 the movement, though supported by the University of Cal¬ cutta and by many prominent men in India and England, is nevertheless pronounced utopian by others. Comments on Results. — In the face of all that is done for promoting India’s education we naturally expect to hear something of results. What are the material benefits of the English system of education? We answer, the fruits of England’s efforts show themselves in the Press, vernacular as well as English, in the proceedings of the educational conferences, in the National Indian Asso¬ ciation, in the Indian National Congress and in the scientific movements initiated and financed by native citizens. In like manner the new religious organizations, the Brahmo Samaj and the Ary a Samaj, have borrowed many religious conceptions from the West. In short, W. W. Hunter, an eminent English leader in India, puts it: the “higher state of society” and the “nobler ideal of domestic and individual life” to which the natives are advancing has its root in the schools modeled after Eng¬ lish type.18 But while this is true of the more well-to-do and city population, the village people, in the words of Basanta Koomar Boy, “have no educational advantages worthy of the name.” 19 The great lack in India is the free primary school. The result of this is that eighty out of a hundred children of school-going age grow up without any school¬ ing. The bulk of the Indian people live in villages, and the proportion is one school to seven villages. The census of 1911 showed that only 106 males and ten females per thousand could read and write. In 1920 about ninety- four per cent of the population were illiterate.20 Thus after England’s rule of one hundred and fifty years in India illiteracy is still rampant. w Monroe’s Cyclopedia of Education, s. v. Education in India. 19 America, Vol. XXI, 1919, p. 541. 30 Catholic Encyclopedia, Supplement I, Vol. XVII, 1922, p. 395. CHAPTER VI LITERATURE AND THE FINE ARTS Literature and the fine arts are units in the scale of measurements for marking off the progress and civiliza¬ tion of nations. As cultural elements of a nation are strong and developed, to that degree is a nation strong and influential in the world about it. If we apply this to India we must conclude that she stood foremost in civilization among the nations of the East in the centuries long preceding the Christian era. Until the last centuries, however, Indian culture, “one of the oldest and most remarkable in the world/’ was for the Western nations well-nigh a sealed book. It is true, after the military excursion of Alexander the Great, India and the Eastern nations were no longer utterly isolated from the Western civilized world, but there was as yet no steady intercourse between them. The physician Ktesias, on his return to Greece from the Court of Artaxerxes Memnon, 358 b.c., brought with him most wonderful fables of the unknown land, and Megasthenes, after he had visited India about 300 b.c., described for his country¬ men the characteristics of the land and its people. But Rome and the European peoples, down through the Middle Ages, never knew or even dreamt of the treasure of litera¬ ture and art that lay hidden in far-away India. Even after the Portuguese had opened a route to India, conquest and enrichment were the primary interests. Soldiers and merchants were the first guests in the new land, not the artist and the student. It remained for the missionary, who of necessity studied the language of the people, to 68 LITERATURE AND THE FINE ARTS 69 unearth, first of all, the rich literary treasures and to open the road to the scholarly Orientalist. Indian Literature “Among all the ancient literatures,” says Professor Macdonell, “that of India is undoubtedly in intrinsic value and aesthetic merit second only to that of Greece.” 1 We might separate Indian literature into two main sec¬ tions: Sanskrit literature or classical Indian literature and Prakrit or vernacular literature. Sanskrit literature again is divided into two periods, namely that of Indian antiquity, which comprises the Vedic literature (so called from Veda , i.e., knowledge or lore), and the literature of the Indian Middle Ages, or the classical Sanskrit (the literature of the superior Indian castes). The Vedic Literature. — The Vedic literature is the sacred literature of India, and is looked upon as divinely inspired by the majority of the Indian peoples. Por this reason, it has been carefully guarded by the Brahmans, the priestly caste, down through the ages, and has become a fountain and norm for all future religious speculation among the Hindus. It is divided into four collections, which form also the literature of India and are called : the Rig-Veda (Lore of Hymns), the Sama-Veda (Lore of Chants), the Yajur-Veda (Lore of Prayers) and the Atharva-Veda (Lore of Spells). Of these the oldest and most important is the Rig-Veda , parts of which date back, perhaps, to 2400 b.c. It is made up of 1,028 almost exclusively religious hymns. The authorship of these hymns is ascribed to a number of generations of Brahmans. The children of these priests preserved the part of their fathers’ making, and delivered it again orally, as a precious heritage to their children, until the cantos were finally collected into the one sacred 1 Harold Binns, Outlines of the World’s Literature , St. Louis, 1908, p. 8. 70 INDIA AND ITS MISSIONS book.2 The hymns are sacred lyrics written in thirteen varying meters, and, as a rule, have four lines to the stanza and, on the average, ten or twelve stanzas to each hymn. They are, in the main, invocations to the various deities, the Dawn, the Sun, the Wind, the Stars, etc., which the Brahmans worshiped. Very remarkable among these are the hymns to Varuna (a personification of Law) because of their monotheistic tendencies. The culture represented in these simple cantos bears an idyllic, naive,, patriarchal stamp, and presents, for the most part, a people of shepherds, although agriculture was fast devel¬ oping and a system of exchange was already arranging in the very small towns. The Sama-Veda and the Yajur-Veda were made up mostly of newly arranged extracts from the Rig-Veda , and were used along with it in the public religious serv¬ ices of the Brahmans as a kind of ritual and hymn book. The Atharva-Veda , on the other hand, is a private prayer book of the people. It contains invocations which are to give protection from diseases and wild animals; malediction to be directed against one’s enemies; prayers for protection on journeys; prayers for luck in games, etc. This book is of deep linguistic interest as being the oldest larger body of Indo-European prose. Closely connected with these four great sacred books are the so-called Brahmanas, Amnyakas and Upanishads, commentaries to each Veda, in which the doctrine con¬ cerning the gods and the ritual is explained and further developed. The substance of the doctrine contained in the Brahmanas and bearing references to single Vedic pieces was again set forth, explained and supplemented in the so-called Sutras , or mnemonic summaries, but in such a concise style that it became well-nigh unintelligible to a student without the help of a teacher. The hymnody, ritual, mythology and philosophy of the 2 A. Baumgartner, Gescldchte der WeltUteratur, Freiburg, 1897, Vol. II, p. 2. LITERATURE AND THE FINE ARTS 71 Brahmans thus grew into a rich and luxuriant literature. The rival religion, however, of Buddha, or Cakya-Munis, became at a later period the seed for a new mystic- philosophical literature, making doubtful which would hold supremacy in the estimation of the Indian people, mysticism or philosophy. The Sanskrit Literature. Mahabharata. — The San¬ skrit literature may be said to begin about the year 500 b.c. Its earliest and greatest achievements are undoubt¬ edly the two epic poems, the Mahabharata and the Rama- yana. Mahabharata means as much as “the great poem of Bharata” ; the name, however, of Bharata appears in the poem itself as that of a fabulous king and his tribe. The Mahabharata is evidently not the work of a single man, but was centuries in the making. It is an epic of more than 200,000 lines and is written in clokas, a trochaic meter, the peculiar music of which cannot be rendered in translation. Its leading theme is the eighteen days’ strife between Duryodhana and Yudhishthira. The types of kings and heroes set forth in this poem turn one’s thoughts unwittingly to the kings and heroes of the Greek classics, of Achilles and Hector, of Agamemnon and Priam. The sad fate of the blind King Dhritarashtra reminds one of the King of Troy ; Yudhishthira, the eldest of the sons of Pandu, of the King of Achaia; whilst Arjuna, the beloved of the gods, represents Achilles; and Kama, in many respects, Hector. Hero and king play apparently the leading roles in the epics of India, but only apparently. Above the warlike caste of Kshatriyas stands a higher, the highest of all castes of India, the Brahman. Pomp and splendor they leave to the reigning kings; the danger and the glory of the battlefields they give gen¬ erously to the soldiers ; but at the sacrificial altar they take the first place. They are of divine origin, favorites of the gods ; they are mediators between the gods and men ; even in political and military circles they are believed to pos¬ sess superhuman power of decision, and, because of their 72 INDIA AND ITS MISSIONS austere penances, they wield an influence that becomes dangerous even to the gods. Ramayana. — The Ramayana (the song of the deeds of Rama) is the second great national epic of India. About twice the length of the Iliad , it contains approximately 48,000 lines, divided into seven books ( Kandas ), each embodying from 76 to 119 cantos. The great epic is ascribed to Valmiki, but there is no certainty as to the date of its origin. It narrates the struggle between Rama, son of King Dasaratha, and the King of the Southern Demons, and has wielded a great influence upon the Indian literature of a later date. This epic was probably written as an allegory to depict “the advance of Aryan civilization into the wild regions of the south.” 3 As we have mentioned, there is no certainty as to the date of origin of these two great epics. Most philologists, however, agree that they were written no later than the sixth century b.c. During the next thousand years there was a lull, in the originality at least, of Indian poetry. The poetic power of invention, although not completely exhausted in these two great epics, never produced anything comparable with them in vastness and loftiness of conception or in exquisite beauty of poetic form. The new interest which was given to poetry in the time of Kalidasa was due to the development of court life and the dramatic art. The poetry of these later days is no longer of an ascetic character as were the Vedic hymns or even the Mahabharata and Ramayana. Luxury-loving men and court ladies became the sponsors of the poets; and Love, the main theme of their poetry. The epic still flourished; but side by side with it grew up the lyric and the drama. It is impossible in these pages to count up the lesser poets of the later Prakrit period and their works. We 3 Library of the World’s Best Literature, N. Y., 1897, Vol. XIV, p. 7925. LITERATURE AND THE FINE ARTS 73 will confine ourselves to the greatest poet of the time, Kalidasa, and his work. Kalidasa. — Kalidasa has been styled the Indian Shakespeare. He is supposed to have lived in the fifth century a.d. As Harold Binns remarks, “even less is known — for nothing at all is known — of his personality than of the dramatist whom Baconians style the discred¬ ited dummy of Stratford.” 4 He was the author both of Kavyas , court epics, and of Nat okas, lyrical dramas. His three great epics, Raghuvamsa (Kace of Bagha), Kuma- rasambluiva (Birth of the War-gods) and Nalodaya (a history of Nal and Damayanti) are all based upon older epics and supplement them. Eor their brilliancy in de¬ scribing natural beauty, however, and for the deep emotion which some of the lyric passages of these epics breathe, they stand, perhaps, unsurpassed. At times, however, true emotion gives place to the most violent obscenity. “Eor the most part,” says A. Weber, “the amatory poetry of India is unbridled, and excessively sensual, although one occasionally finds a ditty of tender and truly romantic affection.” In his Meghdata (Cloud Messenger) and Ritusamhara (Cycle of the Seasons), two exquisite pieces both in description and delicate coloring, Kalidasa dis¬ plays a high lyric genius. Kalidasa’s greatest achievement, however, lies in his dramas. Of these, three have been preserved: Cakuntala, Vikramorvaci and M a lavi kagnimi t ra . Cakuntala is rightly considered the poet’s greatest work. The material for this drama was taken from Mahabharata ; but Kali¬ dasa has chosen, with admirable genius, character and action, and woven of them a wonderful drama, and, at the same time, developed and unfolded poetic elements which were contained in the earlier epic as in a germ. Of this drama it has been said that for analysis of emotion it will well sustain comparison with the great dramas of Europe. 4 Harold Binns, op. c., p. 12. 74 INDIA AND ITS MISSIONS In many ways Sanskrit literature has merited the title of greatness and marvelously influenced the literatures of other nations. Even such men as Goethe and Schiller have found inspiration in its magic lore. Sanskrit has been a dead language for the past two thousand years. At the present time the people of India speak no less than 220 different vernacular languages, some of which have attained the dignity of literary- languages and form a respectable literature. Music Music in India followed in the wake of literature. The Vedas, especially those used in the Liturgy, were put to melody at an early date. This is the sacred music of India. It is sometimes called the Vedic music. It was simple or solemn as occasion demanded. The solemn music used at the Soma sacrifice was polyphonic. The choir was made up of priestly singers. The principal examples of this sacred music are contained in the Sama- Veda, also styled the Indian Book of Hymns. In the sacred music of India the scale did not comprise a full octave. The profane music, however, had a range of about three octaves with half and quarter tones, the notes of which were indicated by a system of solmization in which the set of syllables: sa, ri, ga, na, pa, dha, ni, were em¬ ployed. The popular songs of the Indian people as well as the sacred hymns were arranged for the various days and seasons of the year, and these various periods were celebrated with their own peculiar song. The principal instruments used in accompaniment were the Vina (a four-stringed pick-instrument), the Sarangi or Dilruba (a cello), the Magudi (a guitar), the Tumri, Tihtiri , Sanai (all wind instruments), and the Talam (cymbals). LITERATURE ANT) THE FINE ARTS 75 Architecture, Sculpture, Painting The relics of the architectural art of India are almost exclusively religious monuments. Beginning with the year 1250 b.c. and running, each through a thousand years, we find three distinct periods in which so many schools of art held sway. These have been styled the Old Brahman Art, the Buddhistic Art and the New Brahman Art. Of the oldest of these schools no relics remain. The perishability of materials employed in their erection, and the frailty of the structure of the arch monuments of this period explain their traceless disappearance. They were done in wood, stucco and brick, and these could not withstand the hot, moist climate of India. Of the exist¬ ence of the Old Brahman Art, and of its colorfulness and grandeur we know only from the epics of the times. Buddhistic Architecture. — The history of architectural art in India begins about 250 b.c. with the transition from wood to stone structure. The stone art of India evidently sprang from the religious enthusiasm of King Asoka, who wished to give to the many art buildings and monuments that he raised in honor of Buddha an eternal existence. The development of the Buddhistic Art shows traces of influence from the art of neighboring empires, particu¬ larly from that of the Persians. This influence, indeed, was so great that the older Buddhistic Art is sometimes called Persian-Indian Art. Foremost among the pre¬ served memorials of the Buddhistic Art of India we find commemorative columns, topes and cave structures. The first of these rise in high slender shafts, and are capped with the chalice- and bell-shaped capital of Persia, which is divided from the body of the column by lines and decorations resembling strings of pearls. Sometimes also the neck of these shafts is embellished with rich palmetto and lotus ornaments of Western art, sometimes they are adorned with religious symbols such as a spoked 76 INDIA AND ITS MISSIONS wheel and the figures of elephants and lions. Such pillars as these, dating hack to the time of Asoka, can still be seen in the Ganges Valley, e.g., in Delhi, Allahabad, Tir- hut and Sankisa. Topes and dagobas are the technical names for the domes or bubble-shaped monuments of Buddha. These have been preserved in great number and are sometimes merely commemorative of Buddha, in which case they are called topes. At other times they contain a relic of this great reformer and then they are dagobas. These monu¬ ments form the characteristic feature of national Indian art. But the most remarkable monuments of this land of wonder are the grotto temples and cave structures, which were sometimes natural caves enlarged, sometimes temples chiseled into the solid rock. These temples were beautified with all manner of decorations, the central figure of which was that of Buddha. However admirable and wonderful these temples might seem, and although cave structures have been found dating back to 300 b.c., the Buddhistic artist might, nevertheless, be called an explorer in this kind of architecture. Its fullest development was realized only in the following period. The only Buddhistic free stone structure, the building of which dates back to the time of Asoka, is the renowned nine-story temple of Buddha-Gaya in Magadha. Asoka is supposed to have built it opposite the fig tree under which Buddha attained the highest degree of enlightenment. Mention of the Buddhistic figures leads us to a con¬ sideration of the development of plastic art. The plastic art of India possesses from the beginning the essential and national characteristics. The pliancy of form and suppleness of the members of the body of the Indian people are on the whole mirrored correctly in the sculp¬ tor’s art. But beyond this a certain bonelessness and superficiality in the plastic fashioning of form and figure is clearly discernible. Nowhere do we find personality An Architectural Gem, : * LITERATURE AND THE FINE ARTS 77 sharply expressed ; nowhere do we find the outward play of muscles reproduced; nowhere can the motive of action be traced back to anatomical causality. The Indian sculptor was controlled more by artistic rules than by rules of natural beauty and was led to produce phantoms rather than human beings. Painting seems to have been, for the most part, the art of women and dilettanti. However, it also frequently came into the service of architecture and has produced masterpieces. Especially remarkable are the rich floral designs and colorful decorations. New Brahman Architecture. — The New Brahman Architecture is the successor and heir of the Buddhistic Architecture of India, which it supplanted. What this new school developed on its own initiative is magnificent in the province of architecture, not remarkable, however, is its sculptural work or its art of painting. The New Brahman Art has given to India those powerful temples, with their grand conical and pyramidical towers, which we are wont to call pagodas. The New Brahman artist, moreover, took the cave structure of the Buddhist and carried it to its fullest development. The semicircle of the Buddhistic temples disappeared and in its stead grew up the square architecture of the Brahman, richer, more luxurious and more massive by far in its decorations and plastic ornaments than was that of its Buddhistic masters. A comparison of the lesser temples of Aiwulli and of Pittadkul, both in the west of India, would be illustrative of its development. The first, which dates back to the seventh century after Christ, still possesses the Buddhistic semicircle. But even here, we notice, the Brahman aCell of the Gods’7 lias been substituted for the dagoba; while in the latter, which is, perhaps, a few centuries younger, we find the whole form of architecture changed from the round to the square form, both in the temple proper as also in the structure of the “Cell of the Gods.” Over the 78 INDIA AND ITS MISSIONS Cell arose then as now, upon a square foundation, the pyramidic tower, which is typical of the Brahman Art. The most renowned cave temples of the Brahmans can be seen at Ellora, Badami, Mahavellipur, south of Madras, and on the Island Elefanta near Bombay. But the Brahman artist took his boldest step when he began not only to hollow out the rocks from within, but to cut away the rock from without, giving the temple the appearance of a free structure. On the coast of Mahavellipur such temples as these were called Monolith-temples; and at Ellora there is one, even more famous, known as Kailasa. The temples at Mahavellipur were chiseled out of free standing rock, but their interiors were never completed. The Kailasa , however, which is also interiorly complete, is cut into the side of a mountain. Galleries and grottos deck the neighboring wall of rock, and the inner and outer walls of this remarkable structure are linked with pilasters and niches, and adorned with the most varied groups of gods and animals. Indian architecture has fostered a deep dislike for empty walls. The wall spaces, both within and without, are covered with protruding and retreating parts, with pillars and niches, and almost entirely with ornamenta- tion. The decorations are sometimes minute and resemble the fine filigree work of the goldsmith ; sometimes they consist in rich floral ornaments, while at other times they show forth the most luxuriant plastic works of animal and human forms. Even the pillars and columns unfold an unending variety of fantastic forms. That the Indian was a vigorous and clever artist is evident, and his poets have taken pains to record the fact. PART II ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY CHAPTER I PIONEER MISSIONARIES: 52?-1498 A conscientious historian says the history of India is both ‘Tedious and confusing.” The latter adjective may well apply to the history of the Catholic Church in India during the first sixteen centuries. Legends, traditions and conflicting inscriptions make the study of Indian Church history interesting indeed, but equally confusing. Not infrequently tradition avers something which further study would seem to deny. Dawn of Christianity . — The first Christian missionary who is said to have reached India was none other than St. Thomas, one of the Twelve. The Acts of St. Thomas > ascribed to Abdias of Babylon, relate that St. Thomas came to Northern India about the year 52 a.d. He was employed as an architect by a certain King Gundafor, who entrusted him with the erection of a palace. St. Thomas, however, built not a material but a spiritual palace for the king by distributing the treasures among the poor, to whom he also preached the Gospel. In his mis¬ sionary journeys the Apostle is said to have come to Southern India, where he closed his earthly career by laying down his life for his Divine Master. King Misbai placed the martyr’s crown on the head of the Apostle. The martyrdom took place in the year 67 a.d. at Little Mount and his remains were buried at Mylapore, the modern city of Madras. This tradition, that St. Thomas the Apostle preached in India, was widely spread in both the East and the West during the first centuries of Christianity and is referred 81 82 INDIA AND ITS MISSIONS to in the writings of St. Ephraem, St. Ambrose and others. Since the missionary labors of St. Thomas in India bore little or no lasting fruit, many, rather than say that the mission of an Apostle was a failure, are led to deny that St. Thomas was in India. Among other instances mentioned by writers who believe that St. Thomas was in India, are coins bearing inscrip¬ tions referring to the King Gundafor found about the middle of the nineteenth century and an inscription on the Takht-i-Bahi stone, now in the Lahore Museum. It is not our purpose here to discuss the historical value of these sources. More importance must be attached to the mention of the mission and martyrdom of St. Thomas in the martyrologies and the liturgical books of the Catholic Church. Some writers of recent date have taken up the study of this tradition, and the common belief seems to be that St. Thomas was in India.1 Very recent discoveries by Father Hosten, S. J., throw further light on this important question.2 Of whatever opinion we are we cannot deny that there are surviving to this day in Southern India traditions to show that an Apostle passed that way. These traditions are tenaciously held by the so-called Thomas Christians. St. Thomas Christians . — St. Thomas Christians is the name of an ancient body of Christians living on the east and west coasts of Southern India, who claim spiritual descent from the Apostle St. Thomas. They are natives of the. land by birth and follow the Syrian rite in their liturgy. These Christians have no written records of the incidents of their social life from the time of their first conversion down to the arrival of the Portuguese, just as India had no written history until the arrival of the Mohammedans. Of the earliest periods of ecclesiastical *Medlycott, India and the Apostle St. Thomas, London, 1905; Dahlmann, S. J., Die Thomaslegende, Freiburg, 1912. 2 Catholic Missions , Vol. XV, 1921, p. 119 ff; The Catholic Herald of India, March 2, 1921, p. 175. PIONEER MISSIONARIES: 52 P-1498 83 history, however, it is said that after the death of the Apostle, his disciples remained faithful for a long time and were zealous in the propagation of the F aith. As time went on, wars and famines totally dispersed the Christian communities on the east coast and many again fell into idolatry. Those on the west coast, also known as Malabar Coast, preserved the Faith longer. It must have been to the Malabar Christians, as those living on the Malabar Coast came to he called, that St. Pantaenus of Alexandria was sent. Eusebius says in his Church History that St. Pantsenus of Alexandria was active in India about the close of the second century. Another reference to these Christians we find in the docu¬ ments of the Council of Nice held in 325. Among the bishops whose signatures are attached to the decrees of this Council, is one who signed himself: John the Persian, Bishop of Persia and Great India. At a somewhat later date (328.) a certain Frumentius is mentioned as the first primate who took up his residence in India. Be this as it may, it is, however, historically certain that the Malabar Christians fell into the Nestorian heresy as early as 496, when a Nestorian prelate succeeded to the Catholic See of Seleucia in Mesopotamia, under whose jurisdiction these Christians were placed. The intercourse of the Thomas Christians was limited by the conquests of the Moslems in the seventh century to Mesopotamia, whence the Nestorian Patriarch would, from time to time, supply them with prelates. Living under Nestorian jurisdiction it was almost unavoidable for the St. Thomas or Malabar Chris¬ tians not to become Nestorians and they remained in their heresy until the arrival of the Franciscan missionaries about the middle of the sixteenth century. Some time after their conversion they received their own bishop in the person of Father Roz, S. J., who was consecrated in 1601 by the Archbishop of Goa under the title of Bishop of Angamale. Four years later he was made Archbishop of Cranganore. The new prelate worked zealously for his 84 INDIA AND ITS MISSIONS flock and after twenty-three years of a busy bishop’s life he died at Parur, February 18, 1624. The data of the Thomas Christians, meager as they are, are more plentiful than the material on Catholicism in other parts of India. In books of travel we find short references to Christians having churches, priests and a liturgy in some parts of India during the fourth, fifth and sixth centuries. Mention is made of Male (Malabar), Ceylon, Serindh in the Punjab, and other districts of Northwest India. The British Museum treasures a Report of the Serra dating from the ninth century which also contains some remarks on the Malabar Christians. Franciscans and Dominicans . — Very little, if anything, is known of the Church’s history in India from the ninth to the thirteenth century, for the next allusion to the missions of India comes to us in a letter written by Pope Innocent IV. in 1253. In the thirteenth century the Franciscans and Dominicans started working in the mis¬ sion field of East India, and a new era opened for this field. There is another letter written by Pope Alexander IV. in 1258, which tells of Franciscans laboring in East India. The Franciscans and Dominicans had missions in Abyssinia, Nubia and Persia, and they united to these some stations in Northern India. In 1288 we again find a Pope, Nicholas IV., speaking of Franciscans in India. These repeated testimonies of the popes go to prove that the sons of St. Dominic and the sons of St. Francis had continued working in India from around 1250 for up¬ wards of a half century. These reports of the popes are practically all the particulars we have of Indian Church history for this period. At the close of the thirteenth century, in 1292 or 1293, John of Corvino, a Franciscan, inaugurated the activity of European missionaries in Southern India. Tauris in Persia became the headquarters from which he and other missionaries made excursions into Southern India and China. There is a letter of Father John Corvino written PIONEER MISSIONARIES: 52 P-1498 85 from Peking in 1305 which tells of his stay in Mylapore. Father John left Mylapore for Peking about the year 1300. A few years later Friar Jordan Catalani, a Dominican, and four Franciscans arrived in India and made the Coromandel Coast their field of activity, with the city of Colombo as their mission center. This city of Colombo must not be confused with Colombo in Ceylon, nor with the city of Quilon on the Malabar Coast. The Colombo to which Friar Jordan and his Franciscan asso¬ ciates came is no longer in existence, but in those days it was situated on the east side of Cape Comorin on the Coromandel Coast opposite Ceylon. The Friars evidently worked in this field with God’s blessing, for as early as 1310 this mission was in a flourishing condition. But trouble soon came to interrupt the work of the mission¬ aries. On April 13 and 14, 1321, the four Franciscans were put to death by some infuriated Mohammedans. The Friars condemned the tenets and practices of Moham¬ medanism, and as a result were martyred at Tana on the Island of Salsette near Bombay. Friar Jordan escaped death on this occasion, and continued his labors alone on the island and in the neighboring districts of Sefer and Barokia on the Bay of Cambay. In the meantime other Dominicans had opened a mission field on the Island of Diu in the extreme northwestern part of India. In 1324 or 1325 Friar Jordan left Salsette, and re¬ turned to Europe in the interest of his mission field. Alone he had struggled along bravely for more than two and a half years on the island, and now he needed help. With his departure the mission of Salsette came to an end. But Friar Jordan was anxious to get back to his mission. While in Europe he was consecrated Bishop of Colombo on the Coromandel Coast (1328), and reached his See in 1330. Little is known of this Dominican’s further activities, but a well-founded tradition says that Jordan ended his days by a martyr’s death. When the Franciscan John of Marignola came to 86 INDIA AND ITS MISSIONS Colombo in 1348, be could find no trace of the Dominican bishop or of any of his priests. John of Marignola re¬ mained at Colombo from April 1348 till June 1349 and then returned to Europe. Another Franciscan who visited India during the fourteenth century was Blessed Odoric of Pordenone. This Friar was sent to China in 1316 and made the voyage by sea from Persia to Tana on Salsette Island. From Salsette he visited Mylapore and Colombo, and thence continued his journey to China. On his return trip to Europe he journeyed overland through Tibet, and gained the distinction of being the first European to visit Lhasa, the capital of that country. There were other missionaries who passed through India while on their way to their allotted mission fields in China or elsewhere, and from these there are passing references to Catholicism in India. But these short stops had no real influence on the Indian Church. The missions of Northern India became practically extinct during the second half of the fourteenth century, owing to the wars waged by Timur. This leader con¬ quered Northern India in 1398, and put an end to the activities of the missionaries. Pope Eugene IV. reopened this vast field in 1439 and appointed the Franciscan, Albert of Sarteano, and some of his confreres to take charge of Egypt, Abyssinia and Northern India. But neither Albert nor any of the other missionaries ever reached India. There is no other account of European missionaries going to India during the entire fifteenth century. CHAPTER II MODEKN MISSIONS : 1498-1700 European Missionaries. — Beginning with the sixteenth century missionaries of different Religious Orders flocked to India with the political conquerors and began their spiritual conquest of India. The Sons of SS. Francis and Dominic were the pioneer laborers in the field. The Jesuits and Augustinians, and later also the Carmelites, Capuchins and other religious and secular priests had representatives in this mission field. To Portugal belongs the glory of having brought the first missionaries of mod¬ ern times to India. When, in the year 1497, Vasco da Gama set out for India, two Trinitarian Fathers accom¬ panied him as missionaries. One of them, however, died in the course of the trip at Mozanbic; the other, Fr. Pedro de Covilham, landed in India, where, after a year of zealous and successful labors, he was martyred. Franciscans in India. — A band of Franciscans, eight in all, with Fr. Henry Alvarez of Coimbra as Superior, left Lisbon, March 8, 1500, with the fleet of Peter Alvares Cabral. Three of these missionaries were killed at Cali¬ cut in the massacre of November 16, and the remainder arrived at Cochin on or about the twenty-sixth of that month. Cochin, therefore, has the honor of being the cradle of the so-called rebirth of Catholicism in India. Angediva Island, near Karwar, supplied the first neo¬ phytes, twenty-three in number. The harvest of souls was rich and larger contingents of missionaries arrived from time to time. In 1503 a number of Dominican Fathers, under the guidance of Fr. Dominic de Susa, arrived at 87 88 INDIA AND ITS MISSIONS Cochin, where they were put in charge of St. Bartholo¬ mew’s Church. By the year 1531 the work of these missionaries had progressed so far that they received their first bishop in the person of the Franciscan Ferdinand Voquier, and their first Archbishop, John Albuquerque, a Franciscan, in 1537. 1 Missions in Northern India. — As the Portuguese ad¬ vanced in their conquests, the missionaries followed with the peaceful tidings of the Gospel. When in 1534 the Portuguese had conquered the Prince of Diu and the northwest coast of India, Fr. Antonio da Porto, a Fran¬ ciscan, founded churches, schools and orphanages on the Island of Salsette, near Bombay, and at other places along the coast. Five boys from his orphanage at Agasshi proved themselves so stanch in the Faith as to suffer martyrdom. Colleges in India. — Even at this time the problem of a native clergy confronted the missionaries. The scarcity of priests conversant with the native language was one of the greatest hindrances to the spread of the Faith. In 1535, Fr. Diego da Borba and Fr. Miguel Vaz established a college at Goa for training native aspirants to the priest¬ hood. This college afterwards became the famous Jesuit College of St. Paul. Another college was founded at Cranganore by the Franciscan, Fr. Vincent da Lagos, to instruct Nestorian Christians in the Catholic Faith.2 3 Government of the Church. — Portugal, being a Catholic country, arranged with the Holy See for the direction of the Church in her newly acquired possessions. The Church in India, as in all Portuguese Possessions, was under the care of the Military Order of Christ. At the head of this Order was a bishop, who came to India to 1 P. Dr. Holzapfel, Historia Ordinis, Fratrum Minorum, Freiburg, 1909, p. 233; Dr. Heinrich Hahn, Geschiohte der katholischen Missionen, Koeln, 1858, Vol. II, pp. 304 ff. 3 Ibidem } p. 309. MODERN MISSIONS: 1498-1700 89 function in his episcopal capacity. During the years 1515-1535, five bishops visited India, among whom were the Dominican Bishop Nunes and the Franciscan Bishops Torquemada and Vancquera. In 1535 the Diocese of Goa was erected as a suffragan to the Provincial See of Fun¬ chal, a Portuguese possession off the west coast of Africa. The first bishop appointed to the See of Goa died before leaving Portugal. The first bishop to take up his resi¬ dence at Goa, and to govern the diocese effectively was the Franciscan Bishop John Alphonse de Albuquerque (1537-1553). This prelate’s jurisdiction extended over all the Portuguese Settlements in Africa and the East Indies. He deeply deplored the indifference of the people, but owing to the shortage of the missionaries and the abuses committed by some of his few available priests he was unable to cope with the immorality of the European colonists, much less attempt the conversion of the Moslem and Hindu population.3 Although the Franciscan Friars did all in their power to help the bishop, they were too few in numbers to enlarge the scope of their activity. By restricting their efforts to their own mission field, extending from Diu in the north to Colombo in the south and Mylapore in the east, their work was blessed with much fruit. They built about one hundred and fifty large churches besides count¬ less mission posts and converted natives by the thousands. They had seen more than one of their brethren die a martyr’s death and they left behind them a development which might well rival the Jesuit work in the following century. In all justice, then, the zealous Sons of St. Fran¬ cis and St. Dominic deserve the title, “first heralds of the Gospel in India.” Special mention is also due the two secular priests, Fr. Pedro Gonsalves and Fr. Miguel Vaz, who assisted the Franciscans and Dominicans in their labor. 3 Catholic Directory of India, Burma and Ceylon, Madras, 1922, p. 22 ff. > 90 INDIA AND ITS MISSIONS Ceylon . — In the year 1540 one of the kings of the Island of Ceylon sent a delegation to Portugal seeking Christian missionaries. In answer to this appeal Fr. John of Villa-Comte, together with Simon of Coimbra and four other Franciscan Friars, journeyed to the royal residence on the Island of Ceylon and presented to the king an answer from King John of Portugal. The king promised the missionaries to embrace Christianity, but hesitated in carrying out his determination. They ob¬ tained permission to preach publicly in his dominions, and thus spread their missionary activity in various localities. At Colombo they founded a college, where very soon sev¬ enty children of the converts received Christian education. Fr. Anthony of Padrona, one of the missionaries who had come to Ceylon, settled at Mylapore on the Coromandel Coast with one companion. He built a little chapel in the heathen village and soon after erected a monastery. His preaching brought about 1300 heathens into the Church up to the time of his death in 1545. In a short time the Franciscan missionaries had erected twelve churches in the island. They are credited with having converted the King of Kandy in the interior part of the island and the King of Battikaloa in the eastern part, whose example led many other heathens into the Church. The indefatigable efforts of these missionaries were inadequate to care for all the Christians scattered over India, and so it was with genuine joy and welcome that they hailed the advent of the Jesuits under the leadership of the most famous missionary since the time of St. Paul. The Apostle of India. St. Francis Xavier. — St. Francis Xavier was born April 7, 1506, in the castle of Xavier in Navarre, Spain. At nineteen years of age he went to Paris, where he was matriculated in the College de Sainte-Barbe. Here he met St. Ignatius Loyola, and aided him in founding the Society of Jesus. Later on he went to Venice with St. Ignatius, where he received holy orders. From here the two proceeded to Borne to procure St. Ignatius Sending St. Francis Xavier to India. MODERN MISSIONS: 1498-1700 91 the approval of the Holy See for their new Society. Be¬ fore the Society had the written approval of the Pope, Xavier, at the earnest solicitation of John III., King of Portugal, was sent as missionary to the East Indies. Equipped with the power of a papal legate, Erancis em¬ barked with two companions on April 7, 1541, and after a long and tedious voyage landed at Goa, May 6, 1542. Missionary in Goa. — Xavier’s first care was to convert the Portuguese, who by their loose life hindered the spread of the Catholic Eaith. Aware that no lasting improvement was possible unless the children were won, Erancis walked through the streets ringing a bell and calling aloud to the faithful Christians to send their children to Christian doctrine. When he had gathered a number of children, he took them into the church and taught them their prayers and the Ten Commandments. To the intense joy of his bishop, Francis had in six months effected a notable reformation in Goa. The bishop so loved and admired Francis that he consulted him on all matters of importance and later handed over to his charge the College of St. Paul. Laboring in Other Missions. — After his success in Goa Francis left for the Pearl Fishery Coast at the southern extremity of the Peninsula. The inhabitants, called Parava , i.e., fishers, had accepted Christianity some twenty years before, but because of the scarcity of the priests, they had received only the rudiments of Faith and so in the course of time relapsed into their old cus¬ toms. For three years Francis worked among them with great success. In fact, wherever St. Francis labored, his efforts were always crowned with splendid results. How¬ ever, the stupendous number of conversions generally ascribed to him is fabulous (likewise the enormous figures attributed to other early missionaries). In 1760 the total number of Catholics in India did not exceed one million.4 4 Die Jcatholisohen Missionen, Freiburg, Vol. L, 1921-1922, pp. 191-192. 92 INDIA AND ITS MISSIONS But St. Francis Xavier did not confine his missionary labors to India. In the ten years of his apostolate he advanced as far as Japan. On April 14, 1552, he left Goa for China never to return, for he died December 2 of that year on Sancian Island off the coast of China. At the time of the death of St. Francis the Jesuit mission field was almost as large as that of the Francis¬ cans. It comprised the districts in and about Cochin, Quilon, Bassein, Diu and Mylapore, and many colleges, catechumen ates, hospitals and other institutions attested the zeal and success of the Jesuits. Jesuit Mission to Akbar s Court. — The triumph of the Gospel was not limited to the coast districts of India. The fame of the missionaries spread to Northern India through the instrumentality of a certain Anton Cabral, who was sent as ambassador from Portugal to the Court of Akbar the Great in 1578. This king, who was the greatest of the Mogul Emperors and at that time the greatest monarch in the world, was much interested in religions and invited the Jesuits to his Court. In 1580 the Jesuit missionaries Budolph Aquaviva, Anthony Monserratte and P. Henriquez arrived at the Court of Akbar. They were received with great pomp and the king himself enter¬ tained them. The missionaries presented him with an elegantly bound edition of the famous Plantin Polyglot Bible containing a Persian translation. Before allowing the missionaries to preach in his Kingdom, Akbar himself wanted to learn more about the Christian religion and so arranged for public disputations with the Mohammedan Divines. Three of these disputations are reported: the first was regarding the divine character of the Bible as against that of the Koran ; the second regarding the Para¬ dise promised and described by Mohammed; the third and last public discussion was the contrast between Christ and Mohammed. The king was pleased with the outcome of these discussions. Deeply impressed by the Christian Peligion, the skeptic Mongol nevertheless refused to be- MODERN MISSIONS: 1498-1700 93 lieve unless lie understood. After laboring for three years at the Court of Akbar with little success the missionaries left for the mission field about Bombay.5 Some years later Akbar again requested missionaries to work in his Kingdom. Jerome Xavier was made Superior of the little band that set out for the Royal Court. When the party arrived at the king’s residence in Lahore (1594) they were well received, and Jerome found special favor with the monarch and was admitted to the circle of his intimate friends. At the king’s request Jerome wrote a Life of Christ in Persian. The king readily granted the Fathers permission to preach the Gospel openly in the Kingdom of Gujarat, even granting a royal letter to that effect. Jerome accompanied the king on his tours and thus had many opportunities to preach the Gospel in the different parts of his Kingdom, especially in Kashmir, Lahore and Agra. Agra was the center of a Catholic mission since the middle of the sixteenth century. The first Catholic church in Lahore was blessed September 7, 1597. Fr. Jerome labored in the Mogul Empire for twenty years with much success; although he did not succeed in converting the king, yet he had the consola¬ tion of baptizing three royal princes after the king’s death.6 In the second half of the sixteenth century the Jesuits established themselves in the Portuguese settlements north of Goa side by side with the Franciscans. They erected schools in Bassein and Daman, and on the Islands of Salsette and Diu. South of Goa the Jesuits had many establishments, some of which had been erected by St. Francis Xavier. In the last ten years of the sixteenth century the Jesuits gained a foothold in Calicut, the residence of the Samorin, who had always been hostile to the Portuguese aRev. Fr. Felix Finck, O. M. Cap .Journal of the Punjab His¬ torical Society , Calcutta, 1916, Vt>l. V, pp. 1—11. • Ibidem , p. 2. 94 INDIA AND ITS MISSIONS and Christian missionaries. It does not seem that many conversions were made in this place, nevertheless this settlement served the purpose of bridging over the enmity that existed between the Samorin and the Portuguese, and it paved the way for bringing the Thomas Christians back to Catholic Unity. St. Francis Xavier had preached the Gospel with great success in the Kingdom of Travancore. In the meantime the King of Travancore changed his mind. He forbade the Jesuits to enter his Kingdom, and persecuted the converts, and in consequence many fell away from the Faith. In 1552 St. Francis had founded a residence in Coulan, to which was also attached a seminary. The king, intimidated by the Portuguese, again gave the Jesuits permission to preach in his Kingdom without hindrance. Thereupon the Christian Keligion took on a new spirit on the coast of Travancore, and the number of yearly con¬ versions varied between 400 and 1,000. The missions established by St. Francis Xavier among the Parava on the Fishery Coast had many disadvantages connected with them. The Badhoughers were very hostile, and the Mala¬ bar pirates often attacked the mission and put to death or carried into captivity many of the Fathers. Then, too, the heat was intense and the climate unhealthy. But the mis¬ sionaries pushed on undaunted and devoted themselves to the poor Parava, for whom they built churches and schools, erected seminaries and founded hospitals. The mission progressed steadily and the end of the century found it in a flourishing condition . . . under the direction of seventeen Jesuit Fathers. In 1560 many of the Parava settled on the Island of Manaar. Here, too, the Jesuits es¬ tablished a mission post which played an important role in the spread of the Gospel to Ceylon. The Jesuits were also active along the Coromandel Coast, and founded settle¬ ments in the Kingdoms of Megapat am, Gingi, Tan j ore and Madura. In the year 1576 they opened a school for boys at Mylapore, which by the year 1598 had developed MODERN MISSIONS: 1498-1700 95 into a seminary. From Mylapore the Jesuits spread to the Kingdom of Bisnagar and towards the end of the century established missions in Bengal and Pegu. Soon, however, the hostile rulers of the land destroyed the missions and either put to death or carried the Fathers off into captivity. From Agra as a center the Gospel spread north to the Punjab, west to Pajputana, east to Benares, and south to Gwalior. For a time it seemed as if Central India were to be brought under the sway of the Catholic Faith, hut political events retarded, for a time at least, the further conquests of the Gospel. England and Holland were not in sympathy with the Catholic Religion and made it extremely difficult for the missionaries from Europe, upon whom the spread of the Gospel in India solely de¬ pended, to get passage on their ships.7 In the seventeenth century the Jesuits pursued their missionary activities in India with great zeal. The num¬ ber of conversions had grown to tens of thousands, yet this was a small number compared with the many millions of inhabitants. Then again, the conversions were almost entirely from the lower castes. The chief obstacle to the spread of the Faith in India was, without doubt, the caste system. The higher and influential castes would have nothing to do with Christianity, because the Christian missionaries were in constant contact with the lower classes and preached the Gospel to the poor. But is was also necessary that the higher castes, the Brahmans in particular, be converted to Christianity. It is true St. Francis Xavier and his successors made a conversion among the Brahmans here and there; nevertheless, the outlook for the conversion of the higher castes in general was very poor. In order to accomplish this it was deemed necessary that certain missionaries devote themselves entirely to the higher castes, avoiding all intercourse with the lower castes. Such an accommodation to heathen cus¬ toms, however, was so contrary to Christian European 7 Hahn, op. c., p. 325 ff. 96 INDIA AND ITS MISSIONS customs that the question arose whether this could be made to harmonize with Christian principles. Father Robert de Nobili, S. J. — Fr. Robert de Nobili was the first missionary to take up this idea and to devote himself entirely to the conversion of the Brahmans. Little is known of de Nobili’s early years, save that he was born at Rome, 1577, of a noble family. At the age of nineteen he forsook the world and entered the Society of Jesus. From his entrance into this Society the missions of India interested him, and he begged his superiors to send him to these missions. Having obtained their consent, he em¬ barked about 1604 at Lisbon. His first labors were de¬ voted to caring for the natives who lived along the southern coast of India. In 1606 his attention was directed to the inhabitants of Madura, composed, for the most part, of Brahmans, who had defeated all attempts to convert them to Christianity. De Nobili threw his whole energy into this work. Since the year 1595 Fr. Gonsalvo Fernandez, S. J., had been laboring in this place, but his efforts seemed almost fruitless. He could win only those of the lower castes living along the coasts; but Christianity did not attract the heathens of Madura. De Nobili made an earnest study of the Indian character and soon realized the cause and set about to apply the remedy.8 De Nobili s Observations. — The Hindus had a great aversion to foreigners and this hindered them even from listening to the message of the Gospel. Especially were they averse to the Prangui, the name given to the Portu¬ guese, designating a low and infamous class of men, with whom no Hindu could have any intercourse. The reason of this aversion was due to the fact that the Portuguese violated the most sacred and venerated customs of India, namely, eating meat and indulging in wine and spirits; and above all because they dealt with the lower castes and the pariahs. Naturally, since Fernandez was a Portu¬ guese, and was seen associating freely with the lower 9 Ibidem, p. 332 fT. ; Marshall, Christian Missions, Vol. I, ch. 3. MODERN MISSIONS: 1498-1700 97 classes, lie and the religion he preached became objects of contempt. Fr. de Nobili noted all this and realized that if Christianity was to be successful among these people it must he presented in a different manner. His Sacrifice . — De Nobili resolved to become a Hindu in order to save the Hindus. His superiors, the Arch¬ bishop of Cranganore, and the Provincial of Malabar sanctioned and encouraged his resolution. De Nobili entered Madura dressed as a Hindu ascetic. He declared to the Hindus that he was not a Prangui but a rajah, which designated a noble of the very highest rank. Later he called himself a Brahman, since this suited his purposes better. The rajahs formed the second of the three highest castes, namely, the military caste, whereas the intellectual caste was composed exclusively of Brahmans who held full sway over the spiritual affairs of the people. De Nobili further announced himself as a Saniassy > that is, a peni¬ tent who had renounced the world. With the help of a renowned Brahman teacher de Nobili soon mastered the sacred language of the Hindus, namely Sanskrit. This language was used exclusively by the Brahmans as a sort of an ecclesiastical language, similar to Latin nowadays, and the lower classes did not understand it. Obtaining a poor and small cabin, de Nobili shut himself off from the world, admitting to his society none hut Brahmans. His food consisted of rice, hitter herbs and water, and this he took hut once a day. With the greatest reserve did he admit visitors, and then only after they had several times been refused. When once admitted, the interview was conducted according to the strictest Hindu etiquette. Results. — Such conduct soon aroused curiosity and wonderful things were whispered about the great Saniassy. The proudest and most renowned doctors sought an inter¬ view with him. There took place long arguments on the unity of God, free will, transmigration of souls and like subjects. Philosophy had been a favorite study for eight¬ een centuries among the Brahmans, and they counted then 98 INDIA AND ITS MISSIONS among their numbers many deep thinkers. But de Nobili was a match for the best of them. De Nobili7s first convert was an esteemed Brahman of high rank and rare attain¬ ments, who was thoroughly acquainted with the philosophy of the Hindus. He demanded that the Saniassy prove his doctrines by refuting all the attacks he would make upon them. De Nobili accepted the challenge, and after a con¬ troversy of twenty days, the Brahman acknowledged him¬ self conquered and consented to be baptized. He then became a disciple and brought many others to the Faith. De Nobili strictly enjoined on his converts to discard everything which savored of idolatry and superstition. He allowed them, however, to retain certain customs which, as he believed, had only a political or national reference. Trial and Triumph. — De Nobili7 s labors were not always free of difficulties, for he had much to suffer from the fanaticism of the pagan priests. He was calumniated, imprisoned and even threatened with death, yet did not waver. Later on the king, after visiting him in person, became his protector, and his enemies left him unmolested. About this time the conversions had increased to such numbers that de Nobili was forced to apply to his superiors for an assistant, and Fr. Emmanuel Leitan was sent to help him. Seeing how well his work progressed the good Father determined to leave Madura and penetrate farther into the interior; but at this juncture he was to sustain a cruel blow, a trial, which a heart less strong than his could not have borne. Fr. Fernandez, de Nobili7s colleague and predecessor in the mission, would seemingly be the last one from whom de Nobili might expect trouble or opposi¬ tion; but, be it that he was jealous of de Nobili’s success in the very fields where he himself had failed, or be it from a mere misunderstanding of the missionary and his meth¬ ods, Fernandez sent to the Provincial at Malabar and the General of the Society at Rome a long report of weighty MODERN MISSIONS: 1498-1700 99 and formidable charges against de Nobili, accusing him of imposture, and attributing his great success to conces¬ sions to idolatry. He likewise denounced de Nobili as an innovator because he formed separate churches for the castes. Such charges, coming as they did from one of Fernandez’ standing, achieved their purpose ; for the Provincial at Malabar and the General of the Society severely reproved the missionary and warned him to change his methods immediately. Even Cardinal Bellar- mine, his uncle, wrote to him expressing his grief at his conduct, and demanded an explanation. He Nobili was much grieved, but ably cleared himself of all the charges. Both the Archbishop of Goa and the Archbishop of Cran- ganore then solemnly approved of his conduct. De Nobili wrote to Rome a long treatise setting forth the history of his coming among the Brahmans and of the methods he used in winning them to Christianity. His apology was successful at Rome, and through the explanation of the Archbishop of Cranganore and the chief Inquisitors of Goa, he was exonerated from the accusations. Cardinal Bellarmine and the General of the Society both wrote to him expressing their satisfaction and encouraged him to continue in his good work. The Holy See itself was some¬ what slower in its deliberations, and so, in the Apostolic Letter Romance Sedis Antistes, dated January 31, 1623, Gregory XV. permitted the use of the methods pursued by de Nobili, “until the Holy See would provide otherwise.” Concessions to the Natives. — De Nobili took pains to instruct his converts above all in charity, teaching them they must love also the pariahs. He did not, however, insist on their associating with those of the lower classes, for he well knew that such a thing would mean disgrace and ruin for the neophytes among their own class, although he succeeded in persuading his Brahmans to greet the Christian pariahs. De Nobili himself secretly ministered to pariahs and made many converts among them. There was another class of ascetics among the Hindus who 100 INDIA AND ITS MISSIONS ranked somewhat lower than the Brahman Saniassy. They were called Pandaram , and treated freely with all castes without endangering their omul standing. De Nobili, accordingly, with the approval of the Archbishop of Cranganore, divided his missionaries into two classes, those who, like himself, were to minister to the higher castes, and those who were to deal solely with the pariahs, and these latter were called Pandaram. Fr. Balthasar da Costa, in 1540, became the first Pandaram. Faithful unto Death. — Fr. de Nobili now had three associates, and as the mission was in a flourishing condi¬ tion, he decided to leave it and penetrate farther into Madura. In a short time he succeeded in spreading the Gospel throughout the whole of South India. His last field of labor was at Jaffnapatam in Ceylon, whence he retired in 1646. His health failing him, he took up his abode in Mylapore, and there died a holy death, January 16, 1656, in the eightieth year of his age.9 Special mention is due Fr. John Britto, one of the eminent men who followed the methods of de Nobili. His chief fields of labor were Marawa, Tanjore, Gingee and Mysore, where he is credited with performing miracles, especially healing the sick and wounded. This fact lent much influence to his teaching authority. Twice he en¬ dured the horrors of imprisonment and finally, on Febru¬ ary 4, 1693, he was beheaded. He was beatified in 1853. In the north, the Kingdom of the Great Mogul, the Jesuits had much to endure on account of the hostility of the Mohammedans since 1632. Jahangir (1605—1627), son of Akbar the Great (1542—1605), befriended the Catholics even more than Akbar himself. But his son and successor, Shah Jahan, acted otherwise. He set on foot a persecution against the Catholics and the Jesuit missionaries and destroyed the church at Lahore in 1632. The Fathers, however, still continued to labor in that mission district. Jahanara, daughter of Jahangir, died 9DahImann, S. J., Indische Fahrten , Vcl. II, p. 345. MODERN MISSIONS: 1498-1700 101 in the Christian Faith and her brother Dara, heir to the throne, was converted before he died. After the year 1632 Agra remained the only station from which the missionaries ministered to the few Christians in Lahore, Kabul, Marwar, Ahmadabad and Udaipur, till about 1690, when a second mission post was founded at Delhi. Jesuits among the Thomas Christians. — In the begin¬ ning of the seventeenth century the Jesuits continued their activities among the Thomas Christians under the direc¬ tion of Fr. Roz, Archbishop of Cranganore. After his death, Stephen Britto became Archbishop. Soon after this the Archdeacon George assumed a hostile attitude towards him. He sent to the Holy See a list of accusa¬ tions against the Jesuits, and in 1632 brought them before the King of Portugal. This state of affairs became more bitter after the death of Britto, when in 1641 P. Garzia became Archbishop of Cranganore. Thomas de Campo, successor of the Archdeacon George, carried the matter still farther by having himself sacrilegiously consecrated bishop by twelve priests, and usurping the spiritual direc¬ tion of the Thomas Christians. Carmelites among the Thomas Christians. — Those who had remained true to the Faith, tiring of this strife, appealed to the Holy See to replace the Jesuits by the Discalced Carmelites. In the interests of peace the Holy See acquiesced, and accordingly, in the year 1656, five Carmelites arrived at Malabar. In a short time they brought to Catholic Unity forty parishes of the Thomas Christians south of Malabar. In 1659 the Carmelite P. Joseph of St. Mary was appointed Bishop of Hieropolis and Apostolic Vicar of Malabar. Soon after this the Dutch conquered Couloan, Cranganore and Cochin, and banished all Catholic missionaries who were not natives. The apostolic vicar, too, was forced to leave Malabar. He left a few of his Carmelite brethren behind, and on Jan¬ uary 31, 1663, consecrated as Bishop of Megara Alexan¬ der de Campo, a virtuous priest born in India of Syrian 102 INDIA AND ITS MISSIONS parents, and placed him over the Thomas Christians. With the aid of the Carmelite missionaries Alexander ruled the diocese peacefully for twelve years. In 1677 Raphael de Figueredo Salvo, born in the land hut of Portuguese origin, was chosen as coadjutor. Strife arose between him and Bishop Alexander, which gave rise to many disturbances and was a great obstacle to the conversion of the schismatical Thomas Chris¬ tians.10 Carmelites in Goa. — The Carmelites came from Persia to Goa in 1610. Soon after they founded missions in various parts of Northern India. In 1650 they estab¬ lished a mission in Canara, where they labored with great success. In 1668 Bombay came into the possession of the English, who drove out the Franciscan and secular priests, and in their place called in the Discalced Carmelites. Bombay then became the central mission station. Towards the end of the seventeenth century, with the consent of the Propaganda, the Carmelites established missions in the Mogul Empire. In 1696 the Pope appointed the Carmelite, Fr. Peter, Apostolic Vicar of the Great Mogul, in Bejapur and Golconda. This vicariate, even after the death of Fr. Peter, was entrusted for a long time to the Carmelites. Oratorians ( Native Priests). — In the beginning of the seventeenth century a number of native priests of India banded together under the rule of St. Philip Neri. These Indian Oratorians took over the missions founded by the Jesuits in Bejapur and made many converts. In 1637 a missionary of this Congregation, Fr. Matthew de Castro, was appointed Apostolic Vicar in the Kingdom of the Great Mogul. After him came another Oratorian, Cus- todius de Pincho, as Vicar Apostolic of Mogul and Gol¬ conda. At Goa the same Congregation of Oratorians was introduced in 1682, which later on took over a mission in Ceylon. 10 Hahn, op. o., p. 352 ff. MODERN MISSIONS: 1498-1700 103 Theatines. — The Congregation of the Theatines came to Goa in 1639. From here Fr. Manco and Fr. Alvares pressed on to the Kingdom of Golconda and received per¬ mission from the king to preach the Gospel. In 1644 the Theatines were driven from Goa by a decree of the King of Portugal, because they were missionaries under the Propaganda and were subjects of the King of Spain. But by reason of their holy life they were held in great respect by the inhabitants, and through the intercession of the viceroy were again allowed to continue their activities in Goa. Furthermore they received permission to found a hospice in Lisbon. With this, all opposition on the part of the Portuguese Government ceased. Often, however, in the course of the seventeenth century these missions suffered from want of priests, and on this account the mission at Golconda was often interrupted, and some of the mission posts had to be given over to the Augus- tinians. Augustinians. — The Augustinians gave many bishops to the Indian missions, among whom may be mentioned the great Meneges, Archbishop of Goa (1594—1610). It was due to his influence that the Augustinians came to the Portuguese Possessions in Bengal in 1599. In 1622 the Augustinians founded a college for young Brahmans at Goa. In the second half of the seventeenth century they had missionaries in Hyderabad and in the Kingdom of Golconda, where they took over some stations from the Theatines. Their chief mission field was to be Bengal, where Fr. Leonard da Graca in 1599 founded a mission station at Hugli near Calcutta. In 1632 Hugli was besieged by the Mongol ruler of Bengal, Cassam- Chain, and the Augustinians as well as the Portuguese were either put to death or taken captive to Agra, where they suffered many hardships. Some time later they were set free. The Portuguese rebuilt Hugli and the Augustin¬ ians returned to continue their work. After the Portu¬ guese gave up Hugli, the missions of the Augustinians 104 INDIA AND ITS MISSIONS declined, and in the latter part of the eighteenth century were restricted to Calcutta and Bandel.11 Capuchins at Pondicherry. — In 1631 six Capuchins were sent to India by the famous Pere Joseph Du Trem¬ blay and landed at Pondicherry, January 8, 1632, Here they found remnants of Christians, who had been such in name only. The missionaries in a short time made many conversions among them. The Capuchins had come to India with the Commercial Company of India, from whom they also received support. But scarcely two years passed when the Company was dissolved and the Friars were forced to leave India. Again in 1671 the Capuchins were called to Pondi¬ cherry by the French “Company of India/’ who had es¬ tablished a factory here. But two years later the mission was again discontinued on account of the wars with the Dutch. Finally, January 15, 1674, the mission at Pondi¬ cherry was permanently established, and a little church in the fort was given to the Capuchins. Pondicherry be¬ longed to the Diocese of Mylapore and the Capuchins subjected themselves to the bishop’s jurisdiction without, however, acknowledging the Portuguese patronage. The missionaries were very successful in their labors among the Hindus and Thomas Christians or Malabarites. The congregation of the Malabarites was wholly converted by the Capuchins, and in 1686, the leader of this congrega¬ tion built a church with his own money and handed it over to these missionaries. The “Apostle of the Mala¬ barites” was the Capuchin, Spiritus of Tours, who came to Pondicherry in 1686, and who mastered the Tamil language and worked for many years among the Malabar¬ ites. In 1690 the Capuchins extended their labors to Alambarve, Carampuly, Marcane, Cuddalore, Manjacu- pum and Cadapamkam, south of Pallar; and from 1671 to 1688 were the only missionaries at Pondicherry and in these districts. In 1686 the Jesuits, who had been exiled u Halm, op. c., p. 357. MODERN- MISSIONS: 1498-1700 105 from Siam, came to Pondicherry and worked side by side with the Capuchins till 1693, when the Dutch took Pondi¬ cherry and banished all missionaries. Six years later Pondicherry was restored to the French, and the three Capuchin missionaries, Frs. James, Lawrence, Spiritus, and a lay Brother, returned and laid the foundation of a flourishing Christian community, consisting of pariahs and Brahmans, rich and poor, Europeans and Hindus.12 Capuchins at Surat. — The Capuchin mission at Surat was established by Fr. Zeno of Beauge in 1640. The manner in which the Capuchins of this mission came to India is interesting. A certain youth named Don Mat¬ thews de Castro Malo, of the Canarese tribe and a Brah¬ man by birth, had gone to Rome to prepare for the priest¬ hood. He was ordained priest by Pope Urban VIII. in 1637, consecrated Bishop of Chrysopolis and appointed Vicar Apostolic of the Kingdoms of Golconda, Adelkhan and Bizapore. Before leaving Rome in 1639, Don Mat¬ thews asked for European missionaries, adding that they should be -truly apostolic men and lovers of poverty. The Pope replied that he knew of no better men in this respect than the Capuchins. But the bishop asked for the Thea- tine Fathers, which request the Pope readily granted, ordering him at the same time to take with him to India a number of Capuchins from Syria and Palestine, to assist him in his work. When Don Matthews arrived at Pales¬ tine, the Capuchin Superior of the mission sent Frs. Peter of Piviers and Zeno of Beauge, and a lay Brother, Stephen of Castellerault with the bishop. They left Pales¬ tine in 1639 and arrived at Goa on November 26 of the same year. On their arrival the bishop, with the fickle¬ ness and instability of character so natural to the natives of India, left the Capuchins at Goa and started quickly for Adelkham. The Capuchins resolved that one of the Fathers return to Surat, where the governor had shown 12Rocco da Cesinale, 0. M. Cap., Storia delle Missioni dei Cap- puocini, Roma, 1873, pp. 322-328. 10G INDIA AND ITS MISSIONS them much kindness; that Br. Stephen go to Europe and inform the superiors of all that happened; while Er. Peter remained at Goa where the viceroy had kindly re¬ ceived them. Fr. Zeno immediately proceeded to Surat. Fr. Peter remained at Goa and soon became an object of suspicion and jealousy to the Portuguese, because he had not come to India with a license from the Portuguese Government. Soon after he was forced to embark for Europe. Later on Fr. Peter returned to Surat. Fr. Zeno, the founder of the mission at Surat, soon won the affection and the esteem of the governor, and of the commanders of the English and Dutch forts. In 1651 he went to Goa to obtain the release of Fr. Ephrem of Hevers, who had been arrested and held for the Inquisi¬ tion on false charges. Hot being able to accomplish any¬ thing at Goa, he went to Madras. In 1652 Frs. Mary of Orleans and Ambrose of Preuilly came to Surat. Fr. Ambrose had come from Persia to Goa in behalf of Fr. Ephrem. He now took charge of the Surat mission while Fr. Zeno remained at Madras. Fr. Ambrose was very highly^ esteemed by the governor. When in 1659 the Dutch won signal victories over the Portuguese, he inter¬ ceded with the Dutch commander and effected an exchange of prisoners. His many acts of charity, especially in re¬ deeming slaves and rescuing Christian girls, excited the bitter hatred of the Mohammedans. He labored with much fruit until his death in 1675. When in 1664 Sivayi took the Mogul part of Surat by surprise, the church and house of the Capuchins were spared by special order of Sivayi. While the French Capuchins at Surat were quietly dis¬ charging their duties, some of the Portuguese Jesuit Fathers of Goa arrived and settled at Surat (about 1670). For several years they tried to put this mission under the Portuguese patronage and the jurisdiction of the Archbishop of Goa, though in fact it was subject to the Vicar Apostolic of the Great Mogul appointed by the MODERN MISSIONS: 1498-1700 107 Propaganda. Pailing in their endeavors the Jesuits left the mission (1680). In 1693 some French Jesuits landed at Surat, and immediately began exercising parochial duties in the city without asking permission of Fr. Ives, who had been appointed vicar-general by the Bishop of Hieropolis. The vicar-general sent a report to Borne, and the Holy See issued a decree, dated April 28, 1698, which among other things stated that the Jesuits had no right to establish a new mission at Surat without special privilege from Borne. The Jesuits then departed from Surat (about 1700), leaving the mission to its first occupants, the Capuchins.13 The Capuchins at Madras . — Fr. Ephrem, who had come from Palestine to Surat in 1640, founded the mission at Madras. Having received orders to proceed to Pegu or Achin, he left Surat in 1641. At Pegu, the native Chris¬ tians to the number of two thousand had been kept pris¬ oners by the king of that place. They had applied to the Archbishop of Goa to send them a priest, “a true mis¬ sionary who does not care for money nor seek his own interest.” After fifty days’ journey of hardships and perils, Fr. Ephrem arrived at Bhagnagar, the capital of the Kingdom of Golconda, where he was accorded a royal reception and soon won the esteem of all by his knowledge of the Arabic and Persian tongues and his expositions of religious and scientific questions. Arriving at Madras he was cordially received by the Christians who besought him to stay and attend their spiritual wants, but he ex¬ plained to them that he must go on to Pegu. Thereupon eighteen of the principal Catholics made a request which they presented to the English Governor of Fort St. George, entreating him to forbid Fr. Ephrem to depart. They complained that they were like animals in their religion and that the priests of San Thome under whose spiritual direction they were, sought only their own interests. The English Governor approved of this petition, for it was 18 Franciscan Annals of India, Agra, 1910, Vol. 1 (passim). 108 INDIA AND ITS MISSIONS distasteful to the English to have the Portuguese priests of San Thome coming into their territory. The governor accordingly invited Er. Ephrem to remain at Madras. Fr. Ephrem finally consented and the governor ordered a church built for him (June 8, 1642). Fr. Ephrem wrote to Pome stating that there was a more abundant harvest of souls at Madras than at Pegu. In due time the Pope formally established the Capuchin mission at Madras. Portuguese Plot against Fr. Ephrem. — The Portuguese Government had already put many obstacles in the way to frustrate the action of Pome, and the vicar apostolic and missionaries sent out by the Propaganda had to un¬ dergo many vexations on the part of the Portuguese. They saw with an evil eye the success of Fr. Ephrem, who attracted such large numbers of their flock to Madras, and therefore resolved upon his ruin. False accusations were brought against him and they tried by various means to ensnare him. Er. Ephrem was one day called upon to mediate in a quarrel purposely picked between the Eng¬ lish and the Portuguese, and no sooner had he entered San Thome, than he was seized by the officers of the In¬ quisition, placed in a ship and at once taken to Goa, where he was handed over to the Inquisition to be burned. He was the first victim in the long line of confessors who suf¬ fered for the same cause of upholding papal prerogative against Portuguese aggression. The Inquisition. — There were four tribunals of the Inquisition in the Portuguese Dominions, three in Por¬ tugal itself and one in Goa. These were all sovereign tribunals from which there was no appeal. The Inquisi¬ tors were nominated and confirmed by the Pope. In Goa the Grand Inquisitor was more respected than the arch¬ bishop or even the viceroy. His authority extended over all the laity and clergy, except the archbishop, his vicar and the viceroy, and even these could be thrown into prison on receiving orders from Lisbon. There were two MODERN MISSIONS: 1498-1700 109 Inquisitors at Goa, the Grand Inquisitor, who was always a secular priest, and the Second Inquisitor, a member of the Order of St. Dominic. The Inquisition considered two or three witnesses sufficient to imprison a man, yet it never contented itself with less than seven to condemn him. The Holy Office imposed only ecclesiastical punish¬ ments, such as excommunication, whereas the government meted out the civil punishment. It was before this Inquisition that Er. Ephrem was brought (1649). Fr. Zeno, Fr. Ephrem’ s former com¬ panion, came to Goa to help him. Unable to accomplish anything at Goa, he went directly to Madras, where he discovered the treachery which had been practiced on Fr. Ephrem. He resolved to get to the bottom of it. He con¬ fided his plans to the captain of the Fort, who, like his soldiers, was much angered at the outrage committed against Fr. Ephrem. With the aid of thirty soldiers the Governor of San Thome was ambushed and carried to the Capuchin Convent at Madras, where he was kept pris¬ oner until he promised to effect the release of Fr. Ephrem. Soon after this the governor escaped. Meanwhile the imprisonment of Fr. Ephrem caused a sensation in Eu¬ rope. His brother, M. de Chateaux des Bois, complained to the King of Portugal, who ordered the immediate re¬ lease of Fr. Ephrem. The Pope also threatened the clergy of Goa with excommunication, but all this was to no avail, and Fr. Ephrem had to thank none but the King of Golconda for his liberation. The king who was at war with the Rajah of the Province of the Carnatic, had his army close to San Thome, and sent his troops with orders to lay siege to San Thome and kill all the inhabi¬ tants if the governor would not immediately release Er. Ephrem. This measure finally brought about his release in 1652. After fifteen days spent at Goa, Fr. Ephrem passed on to Madras. Fr. Zeno had been laboring at Madras in Fr. Ephrem’s place since 1650. In 1663 Mgr. Pallu, Bishop of Helio- 110 INDIA AND ITS MISSIONS polis and Vicar Apostolic of China came to Madras and administered confirmation to 3,000 persons, among whom was the wife of the English Governor. At this time the number of Catholics had increased considerably, chiefly owing to the fact that the King of Golconda had captured the town of San Thome in 1662 when nearly all the Catholics left the place to reside at Madras. Catholics flocked to Madras from many other places even as far off as Cochin, which had been captured by the Dutch. About this time the Capuchins opened a school at Madras, where Catholic children were educated in the Portuguese, In¬ dian and Malabari languages. In 1664 Fr. Zeno was sent as chaplain to the troops into the interior by the Agent of the English Company. On July 1, 1672, the French took San Thome by storm. In 1674 it was sur¬ rendered to the Dutch, who were soon forced to give it over to the Nawab. During these turbulent times the Portuguese sought refuge at Madras, and among them the Bishop of San Thome. Thirty years had passed away since Fr. Ephrem’s arrival at Madras before he succeeded in procuring a church which answered his needs. It was only in 1675 that a handsome Catholic church was opened for service. In 1693 Fr. Zeno died and soon after, Ephrem, and new missionaries continued the work.14 uRocco da Cesinale, 0. M. Cap., op. o rH 00 o CO LO CM to a CM Cl U5 co 00 N CO rH Tfl CO CM 00 IN IN CO CM o Cl i> Cl rH o CO IN f- CO CO CO Til CO Cl GO co HI co Cl co CM CM C— C^- C^- Cl l> co LO IN CO LO CO to to 1> H co CM Cl HI rH o rH rH T— ( Ttl rH Tti GO CO to rH rH CO Cl rH 00 IN rH CM CO to Hi o fT 00 H r-H tH CO r-H rH C^* C^- Cl o lO Tfl Tti CO lO 00 CM Hi CO »o CO lO o rH o co rH t- CO Cl o 00 oo Tti (M to lO O 00 r- co CO o rH rH rH rH Til 1>* CM o rH tH r-H rH C^* C^* e^» e— C^-« C^- Cl o o Cl to o co CM hi o Ol CO CM oo Cl !- LO »o CM o co lO rH 00 CM Cl CO h< CO HO CM rH t> CO CM Cl C5 rH o rH OQ 0 OQ M 0 3 . s • . • a • O u 0> ft o h Ph oJ 'S d i— i d • rH OQ d d O d s a w .9 03 a 0) O .9 03 cS 'S d h- 1 1 r— ( r— H < d • rH GQ .5 3 d >H 1 < 0 "d d hH ◄ .9 OQ Fh 0 rd 4-> d "5 d hH 1 r—i < 0 43 D d cS 03 © 43 o 9 43 03 111 bfl H— ' -M H rQ _a d d d d Fh d GQ d ' 0 ' 0 o o u o Ph h- o3 P4 03 m 0 rd -H gq 0 GQ d 0 ^d o d GQ 0 3 3 3 > d 0 Fh d GQ 0 I 3 a o a o rd d Q 0 Fh • m -h> a 0 0 rd LO O 00 22 CM* 73 cm d Cl <3 o d d rd d 0 • nd .S OQ rd Fh d Cl .2 OQ 0 d a OQ 0 Fh d bfi 2 ® 05 . 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J ao O -**-* .«*> CM PS to £3 a> ~ d > o ftai Tr --4a -00 be d i— i co to r\OiH •I— I -rH __l W) : CO fH -rH •J3 d d >> d £ o doo ® 03^ C t_. g>£5§0 8 &iam£ -d Sf d -29 43 S- 05 V* „ _ spS 3 O '§ oj^ a g^ a 03 -S t-H . -Q^ OS _. »-< rH ^ O I 2^rt 03 >Cl tH 03 00 tn M •2 oo a Joo 5g .T3 ' * Cevl 17214 27597 2903 1988 1129 1 1 24 77 5 7 9452 15262 40245 47163 1508 3176 - 2 2 50 5 6 320 1547 156 1800? 32 901 - - - - 0 6 1620 1700 126 170 62 - 1 - 6 5 6 250 2000? 330 78 130 - - - - 4 4 - 5117 - - 301 8 9347 5200. 74 119 — ? 1 1 151 411 4 2 5004 46007 no 350 — ? 1 1 35 38 1 2 5901 9119? 5’ 394 — ? 1 1 31 36 3 3 4650 6383 97 118 145 270 1 1 20 30 8 9 6012 12664? 245 601 523 1 1 11 33 9 14 1483 4057 852 4760 850 2896 1 - 7 7 4 8 2260 4000? 1940 450 — ? 1 2 5 9 13 11 1547 3254 700 668 404 151 1 - 2 10 6 6 5529 7913? - 779 — ? 1 2 30 37 19 17 3047 3492? - 126 443 - - 0 31 6 5 4097 5745? - 494 1077 1 1 27 40 14 8 4239 6526? 482 384 293 1 1 9 12 4 4 - 654 - 3 - 5 - - - - - 2 1625 2242 827 16453 257 1492 - 1 - 23 5 4 232 709? 28 8 93 - - - - 3 4 19861 35627 19? 301 138 - 1 13 60 1 4 16298 150007 50? 15400? 307 705 - 1 52 93 1 1 8736 17762 98 244 712 - 1 35 47 - 2 ~ 900? - - — ? - 1 - 20 - — ? 7673 13344 72 615 084 1 2 8 48 5 5 7505 18108 1500 685 2634 2 2 39 54 4 7 6346 8827 - ' 500? 479 1 1 8? 33 — ? 31 1590 2534? - 250? 220 1 1 28? 30 — ? 5 1047 1989? ~ 304? 211 - - - 5 — ? 12 35196 46368 796 1393 1610 2 2 47 55 6 7 6739 9210 275 236 270 1 1 28 21 4 2 2802 4969 70 245 113 - - 4 8 2 5 2271 2862 150 68 90 1 - 6 - 1 3 1807 2737 - 160 109 1 1 5 5 3 6 854 - 93 - 150 - - - 6 - 8 — 221927 37130? 5443? 16355? 22798? 24 33 706 427' 187? 201? the,. £'3,^0 "art <” avm l0*‘3t “'«tfi»able figure.. A - ? indicate. that figures are miming. A .lush (-) mean, that 1 This docs not include 108 seminaries of Religious Orders. tltSre """ba”"' r°' 192> are practically unobtainable. Thtatistics of 1908 and 1921 respectively are riot available for comi ? fe H f-H 00 cq CM CO 05 rH 50 co 1 cm cm CO CO CO o ■H t> rH d rH r-H rH o rH rH rH rH 00 CM CM rH CO rH i-H CM 05 rH i C"- C- fr- c— CM 00 o CM 50 CO OI 05 O CO o ( — > 1C rH o CM o b- 1- 50 00 50 rH CO O i-H M Pi t) d CO rH CO cm’ csi CM rH Q «! H OD ® 05 rH 50 rH CM CM CM CO rH CO CM P g O P r- rH b- rH o 50 rH 00 CO CO O R rH CM rH 50 CO rH 50 00 50 CM 50 rH W rS m g CO 50 CO CO CM 05 CM 05 00 P O rH ■H to 6 O Eh o B CO 00 rH CO 05 b- rH H rH rH 50 CO to £ rH 05 H 00 H 50 50 CD CO CM O OQ M «! B o t-H 05 cO CM rH CM CO CM 00 rH l>- rH w « rH « b O a 2 HH p 50 oo 50 s CO O 00 t>- 00 00 to o £ rH CO CO CO CO 00 o CO 50 CM O 05 H CM H CM CM CM H 50 CO B CO H 1 Ph 1 . l_ & p ■H O 00 3 9 H CLE6IASTI Province c3 I 02 T3 • • • fr o 2 o3 rP C8 • <1 H w a o 3 c3 eg ctf rO o r-H o c3 P O o3 o 3 o CCJ H3 • rH T) Ph a l o a o H to « 0 to to Jh ts/D o <3 Q O 0) p o « u o <5 d. *> U Table V. — Comparative Statistics of All Christian Denominations in British India and Burma (Excluding Ceylon) rH o% rH 05 {£ H H rH IN 05 t> CO CO tH 50 CO IN rH CO H « t-H 50 50 cd *6 in Ni © CO id CO IN < o o IN CO rH 50 tH rH CO rH JH >o o IN CO o rH rH t>- tH tH rH o 00 rH 05 O 05 co IN O 05 rH rH 00 CO rH tH 50 co rH 00 o CO IN rH 50 in CO 50 tn 50 rH CO IN 50 IN t-H 05 co rH IO 05 rH rH CO IN rH (N O rH GO o rH >o co CO rH CO CD 50 co |H 00 co CO CO rH N rH rH 50 > rH CO M H < rH rH rH tH 50 eo 00 05 tn tH 00 CO & 05 CO rH rH rH rH CO 00 05 o CO rH rH o t> t> 05 05 CO tH rH 00 00 CD CO o 05 50 00 50 CO tH CO 00 IN 00 40 rH rH rH o rH co iO CD rH rH N co rH IN co IN rH rH CO tH (N CO tH 00 05 05 00 CO 05 05 IN tn rH rH rH CO 00 00 tH O rH co 50 rH o 1 rH N IN rH 50 05 IN CO m £ 05 rH 1 CO CO rH tH O tH © 05 00 P rH 05 IN 00 tH rH 00 N CO o w o tH o rH IN rH rH | 00 05 tH 40 50 o tH rH co CO 05 rH 00 CD i> tH tH CO T— 1 00 tH rH 00 rH rH 50 t> m br 05 o tH 00 IN rH CD LO N 05 IN rH 02 rH H O « P W rH 00 rH © 00 CO CO 00 CO 50 CO o IN O 05 05 50 LO o 05 05 1 tH rH rH rH 05 co rH 05 CO rH N rH 50 05 CO CO rH CO rH rH . . . OQ CQ • # • CQ a o • * • * d fl • * CQ B H d • « • • o CQ c3 <1 a CD CD -H C3 P CQ •E a £ o Hi h •H J8 0) CD § d fl d o •t-i W) CQ (Q • rH -H ft M s H M a d P a> -H 3 o +5 05 r^ CO o • M j> o a V Q f-i >i d O 0 W— I £ c3 O m < PQ o H cc CQ W 0 CQ O o Xi to Ci -H d B CQ GQ -H a d H-» 02 0) 06 co CO 00 00 rH 00 «> q CO *9 CO to CO q Hi rH rH r>. 03 q co q 03 10 IN •o CO HI 00 q rH IN •O co 10 00 CO I> •o ” •< 0 rH C3 •O CO IO rH r>. *0 co rH CO rH IN 03 b» CO CO rH 03 IN IN Hi IN •o CO CO IN 0 CD 0 CO 00 •0 HI CD QQ 03 CO t>. tH •O rH >0 IN 0 t> 00 co to IN O l- 0 rH CO a CO CO 03 CO CO •0 IN r- co CO 10 i> 10 HI CO >0 CO 00 0 T*H co Ttl 00 03 00 CO IN CO rH rH t- IN 00 CD O P3 rH iH rH HI rH rH Hi 0 pk IN m 0 h3 T}< IN rH IN 03 rH 00 O 00 CO co IN s 00 IN CD CO c rH iH 00 IN Hi co 00 03 co CO t' Hi O Hi IN 0 co w 0 10 IN rH l> HI •0 CO CO HI Hi •O rH IN rH 03 rH rH rH C3 CO C f- rH to 0 rH 00 IN CO 00 rH IN 0 IN co 03 CO rH 03 rH rH rH rH Hi N 00 CO Hi IN IN O l> 00 O 03 H< 03 Ed J O 0 •ft IN 10 CO >0 IN CO IN Hi CO Hi rH rH O 03 rH 0 p O 0 H r- 0 03 OO rH CO l> O rH rH rH rH O O Tt» H K IO 10 rH CO Hi rH 03 rH 03 0 CO 00 rH Hi 00 rH O rH CM 0 Pd IO IN 03 rH IN 03 CO IN CO K5 »o t- H< IN 00 HI 03 CO tH rH HI rH Hi rH rH CO rH co • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ■ • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • QQ w • • • • • • • O Z p • • • • • • • 0 • • • • • • K a Ph • • • c5 • • JO a 0 • • 0) 0 fl fl • CD oT • TO CD >» 03 D M H • • > 0 Fh O a • Ph O t fl H-H T3 H a 0 • • • Fh • PP H3 a a m • 0 a a • 02 H3 fl fl Ph • fH o> • a a g < • > fl a fl fl fl fl a a CO CO 03 a fl fl Ph H d a QQ 0 14 -0 fl 13 ao fl >> a q a w fl "d fl % a! HH r-H fl Ph H-> fl O fl '£ 0 PP a 'S a a *a fcL fl T3 fl fl u d rfl a a H >> a -a a § fl a -o 0 (H fl rO fl iH 0) nd 0> Ph O QQ >) CD PQ Ph (D 0 m ID ft CD Q Ph CD Ph Ph CD 13 a ^0 Ph fl hH rfl g *H-> 0> 0 O 0 0 2 CD 'C pp m PP m £ Pi <3 O it PQ w Hi Hi H H 02 pq 1 8 a "S tH a o >> *2 03 m a X> m a o H3 c3 03 •'CO 3 H> **H I ft WIN O 03 a-H*a ■+s c3 O 2 rv ^ 03 Mg1 _ sn a cl i> t>w-r ^ w.£'-3 •■d to h — > a • a te ® o ft ro I5 0i -lj ^ 0) ^ TO'w^ J a ^ Oh aw w ,_l •h ” co -*f 33 - ® oi 2® go |t-S « s°-£ * a^ ^S-sjso oilM • r— 1 fl t_. f"1 a-S fr'S® 03 o £02*0 2 a § <8 °oa^3 s § cH © g, o p •h> bfl.,-. > co tn -*h • ■•' •n'*-* o3 X S W OrO 5 ^ £ aa"2 1-2 aOS 00 • 75 ^ 1: O o g r-^rfl _ e^a? -* 2*9 00 cn 03 w <3 fl hh > +3 o fl Js b co M § |o a a® h> CU 0 Is* Tj ^V| r. «0(2«|^.g M -h^in b g as^-gg a a q a H a 2§ M Pi g a Si-h a > o O CHS M O [j, .22?5 ^3 So APPENDIX Statistics of Non-Catholic Activities in India, Burma and Ceylon * I. Christian Population: Communicants . 590,679 Other Baptized Christians . 486,977 Others under Christian instruction . 420,256 Total . 1,497,912 II. Organized Churches . 7,706 Other places having regular worship . 6,368 Total . 14,074 III. Foreign Staff: Ordained men . 1,690 Unordained men . 428 Total . 2,118 IV. Native Staff: Ordained men . 2,355 Unordained men . 23,589 Total . 25,944 V. Schools : Kindergarten . 60 Elementary . 13,046 Secondary . 820 Theological and Bible . 79 Industrial . 97 Normal . 76 Medical . 7 Total . 14,185 * Statistics from the World Statistics of Christian Missions, 1916, by courtesy of Foreign Missions Conference of North America, New York City. 295 296 INDIA AND ITS MISSIONS VI. Pupils in the schools . 644,051 VII. Colleges and Universities . 34 VIII. Students . 9,160 IX. Orphanages . 121 X. Hospitals . 187 XI. Dispensaries . 385 BIBLIOGRAPHY General and Descriptive English Beach, Harlan Page, India and Christian Opportunity , Hew York, 1904. Carroll, Rev. Fr. Joseph, O.S.F.C., Our Missionary Life in India, Allahabad, 1917. Dubois, Abbe, Hindu Manners, Customs and Ceremonies, 2 vols., Oxford, 1897. Forty-Second Report of the Cambridge Committee for the Year 1919, Indian Ed., St. Albans, 1920. Houpert, J. C., S.J., The Madura Mission Manual, Trichin- opoly, 1916. Indian Education in 1918-1919, Bureau of Education, India, Calcutta, 1920. Lamont, Margaret, M.D., Indian Catholic Missions and Women Doctors, Trichinopoly, 1919. - Twenty Years Medical Work in Mission Countries, Shanghai, 1918. Leo, Er., O.M.Cap., The Capuchin Mission in the Punjab, Man¬ galore, 1910. Manna, Rev. Paolo, The Conversion of the Pagan World . Translated from the Italian by Rev. Jos. F. McGlinchey, D.D., Boston, 1921. Marshall, T. W. M., Christian Missions, 2 vols.. New York, 1880. Prasad, Harnaryan, B.A., The Encyclopaedic Indian Directory, Lahore, Allahabad, 1918. Schwager, Rev. Frederich, S.V.D., The Most Vital Mission Problem. Translated from the German by Rev. Agatho Rolf, O.M.Cap., Techny, 1915. Silva, J. A. E. de, The Catholic Church in India, Bombay, 1885. Society for the Propagation of the Faith. - Native Clergy for Mission Countries, New York, 1917. - The Catechist in Mission Countries, New York, 1919. Spieler, Rev. Jos., P.S.M., Lights and Shadows. Translated from the German by C. Lawrence, O.M.Cap., Techny, 1916. 297 298 INDIA AND ITS MISSIONS Thurston, Edgar, and Rangachari, R., Castes and Tribes of Southern India, 7 vols., Madras, 1909. German Arens, Bernard, S.J., Handbuch der katholischen Missionen , Freiburg, 1920. Bericht ueber die N ordtirolische Kapuziner-Mission von Bet - tiah und Nepal, 18 vols., Innsbruck, 1896-1913. Dahlmann, Jos., S.J., Indische Fahrten, 2 vols., Freiburg, 1908. Krose, H. A., S.J., Kirchliches Handbuch, Freiburg, 1908. Noti, Sev., S.J., Aus Indien — Beisebriefe eines Missionars, Einsiedeln, 1908. Yaeth, Alphons, S.J., Die Protestantischen Missionsbestre- bungen der Gegenwart (in Stimmen aus Maria-Laach, Freiburg, Vol. 79, 1910, pp. 253-267). French Besse, Leon, S.J., La Mission du Madure, Trichinopoly, 1914. Courtenay, P., Le Christianisme an Ceylon, Paris, 1900. History and Biography English Campbell, Thomas J., S.J., The Jesuits, 1531+-1921, New York, 1921. Cottineau, Denis L., History of Goa, Bombay, 1910. (First published 1827.) Felix, Finck, O.M.Cap. (Lahore), Essays on the Capuchin Missions in India. (Published in Franciscan Annals of India, Agra, 1910-1912.) - Mughal Farmans, Parwanahs and Sanade Issued in Favor of the Jesuit Missionaries. (Published in the Jour¬ nal of the Punjab Historical Society, Yol. Y, No. 1, Cal¬ cutta, 1916.) — - On the Persian Farmans Granted to the Jesuits by the Moghul Emperors, and Tibetan and Newari Farmans Granted to the Capuchin Missionaries in Tibet and Nepal. (From The Journal and Proceedings, Asiatic Society of Bengal, New Series, Yol. YIII, No. 9, 1912.) History of the Telugu Christians by a Father of the Mill Hill Society, Trichinopoly, 1910. Hosten, H., S.J., Padre Marco della Tomba and the Asoka Pillars near Bettiah. (From the Journal and Proceedings, BIBLIOGRAPHY 299 Asiatic Society of Bengal , New Series, Yol. VIII, No. 3, 1912.) Kelly, W. T., Life of St. Francis Xavier, St. Louis, 1918. Luce, Rev., An Account of Catholic Missions of Southern Burma , London, 1909. Marshmann and Ward, Life and Times of Carey, London, 1859. Medlycott, India and the Apostle St. Thomas, London, 1905. Sa, Rev. M., D’, History of the Catholic Church in India, Bombay, 1910. Sandberg, G., Exploration of Tibet, London, 1904. Zaleski, L. M., St. Francis Xavier, Missionary, 1912. - The Apostle of Ceylon, Father Joseph Vaz, 1651-1711, 1912. — - The Missionaries of To-day, a Sequel to St. Francis Xavier, Missionary, 1912. German Arens, Bernard, S.J., Das katholische Zeitungswesen in Osta- sien und Ozeanien, Aachen, 1919. Baumgartner, Alexander, S.J., Geschichte der Weltliteratur, Freiburg, 1897-1912. Becker, P. S., D.S., Aertzliche Fuersorge in den Missions- laendern, Aachen, 1921. Dahlmann, Jos., S.J., Thomaslegende, Freiburg, 1912. Hahn, Dr. Heinrich, Geschichte der katholischen Missionen, 5 vols., Koeln, 1858. Hardy, Edmund, Koenig Asoka, Mainz, 1902. Imhof, Adrian, und Jann, Adelhelm, O.M.Cap., Anastasius Hartmann, Luzern, 1903. Jann, Adelhelm, O.M.Cap., Die katholischen Missionen in Indien, China und Japan vom 15. bis 18. Jahrhundert, Paderbom, 1915. Kunstmann, Die Missionen in Indien und China. (Published in the Historisch-P olitische Blaetter, Muenchen, 1856 and 1859.) - Kenntnisse Indiens im Fuenfzehnten Jahrhundert [Voyages of Conti]. (Published in Historisch-P olitische Blaetter, Muenchen, 1863.) Lemmens, L., O.F.M., Die Heidenmissionen des Spaetmittel- alters, Muenster, 1919. Muellbauer, J., Geschichte der katholischen Mission in Ost- indien, Freiburg, 1852. Noti, Sev., S.J., Das Fuerstentum Sardhana, Freiburg, 1906. 300 INDIA AND ITS MISSIONS Sch wager, Friedrich, S.V.D., Die hatholische Heidenmission der Gegenwart, Yol. IY, Steyl, 1909. Steidl, P. Adolf, Ord.Cap., Die Missionen der Kapuziner in der Gegenwart, Meran, 1890. Wittman, Dr. Patricius, Die Herlichheiten der Eirche, Augs¬ burg, 1841. Latin Bullarium Cappuccinorum, Roma, Yols. 7 and 9, Romas, 1752, et Oeniponte, 1884. Collectanea 8. Congregationis De Propaganda Fide, Romae, 1893. Holzapfel, P. Dr. H., Historia Ordinis Minorum, Freiburg, 1909. Italian Cesinale, Rocco da, O.M.Cap., Storia delle Missioni del Cap- puccini, Yol. Ill, Roma, 1873. Lodovico da Livorno, O.M.Cap., Giovanna Sumroo, Principessa di 8ardhana e le sue Instituzione, Milano, 1892. French Launay, Adrien, Eistoire des Missions de VInde, 4 vols., Paris, 1898. Literature and Science English Monroe, Paul, Cyclopedia of Education, 5 vols., New York, 1911-1913. German Bischoffshausen, Sigismund, Freiherrn von, Das hoehere hath - olische Unterrichtswesen in Indien und die Behehrung der Brahmahnen , Freiburg, 1895. Dahlmann, Jos., S.J., Sprachhunde und Missionen, Freiburg, 1891. Woerrmann, Geschichte der Kunst, Yol. I, Leipzig, 1905. Periodicals English America, Yol. XX YI, New York, 1921, pp. 33-35 and 57-58, Yol. XIX, 1918, pp. 448-449, Yol. XXI, 1919, pp. 540-542 and 613-615. BIBLIOGRAPHY 301 Catholic Herald of India, Calcutta. Catholic Missions, New York. Catholicus, Cawnpore, India. Franciscan Annals, Sussex, England. Franciscan Annals of India, Agra, India. The Bengalese, Vol. I, 1919 to date, Washington, D. C. The Examiner, Bombay, India. The Simla Times, Simla, India. German Die hatholischen Missionen , Freiburg. St. Fidelis Gloecklein, Ingenbohl, Yol. VII, 1918-1919; Yol. VIII, 1919-1920; Yol. IX, 1920-1921. Latin Analecta Ordinis Minorum Cappuccinorum, Romse, 1884 to date. Italian II Massaja, Roma, 1914 to date. \ \ INDEX A Abdias of Babylon, 81 Aborigines, 15, 29 Academies, 238 Achin, 107 Adeikalaburam, 253 Adelkan, 105 Adigranth, 35 Aelen, Bishop J., 158 Afghanistan, 24 Agasshi, 88 Agliardi, Mgr., 142 Agra, 93, 122, 131, 149-153 Agriculture, 7, 11, 12, 256 Ahmadabad, 101, 157 Ahmadnagar, 157 Concentration Camp, 170, 174 Aiwulli Temple, 77 Aix-la-Chapelle, Treaty of, 22 Ajmere Mission, 151, 152 Akbar the Great, 19, 92, 93 Alambarve, 104 Albert, Fr., O.F.M., 86 Albuquerque, 20 Albuquerque, Bishop, O.F.M., 88, 89 Alexander de Campo, Bishop, 101, 102 Alexander the Great, 16, 68 Alexander IV., Pope, 84 Allahabad, 150 Alvares, Fr., 103 Alvarez, Henry, O.F.M., 87 Alvarez, Bishop, 165 Amador, Fr., O.F.M., 57 Ambalacatty, 289 Ambrose, Fr., O.M.Cap., 106 American missionaries, 181, 182 Amptya Seminary, 165 Amritzar, 35 303 Amusements, native, 44 Anand, 157 Anderson, Fr., S.J., 181 Angediva,- 87 Anglican Church Miss. Society, 187 Anglicans, 187, 193, 197 Animals, 9, 10, 178 Animal Worship, 31, 50, 51 Animism, 29 Annradhapura, 165 Anthony of Padrona, O.F.M., 90 Antonio da Porta, O.F.M., 88 Aquiviva, Rudolph, S.J., 92 Arakan, 117 Aranyakas, 70 Architecture, 43, 75-78 Arcot, 22 Area of India, 4 Arjan, 35 Arjuna, 71 Armageddon, 24 A.R.M. Assoc’n, 249 Art, 74-78 Artaxerxes Memnon, 68 Aryans, 13, 29 Asceticism, 31-37, 52 Asoka, King, 17, 32, 75 Assam missions, 173, 176 Asylums, 166, 190, 249 Atharva-Veda, 69, 70 Augustine, Chas., O.S.B., 283 Augustinians, 87, 103, 116, 138 Aurangabad, 159 Aurangzeb, 20, 22 Austrian missionaries, 169, 172 Ava, 117, 141 B Baber, 19 Bactria, 16 Badami, 78 304 INDEX Badgao, 112 Badhoughers, 94 Baker-ganji Cyclone, 8 Balthasar da Costa, S.J., 100 Baluchistan, 24 Bandra, 59, 157 Bandurah, 204 Bangalore, 246 Banha Manuel, O.F.M., 57 Bankapur, 181 Bannchapra, 153 Baptist missions, 186-188 Barnabites, 117, 141 Baroda, 27 Maharajah of, 278 Barokia, 85 Bartoldus, Fr., S.J., 118, 120 Barway, 154 Basle Mission Society, 60 Bassein, 93 Battikaloa, King of, 90 Beasts, wild, 9, 178 Becker, Bev. Christopher, 173, 176 Behar, 112, 123 Bejapur, 102 Belgaum, 172 Beligatti, Fr., O.F.M., 58 Bellarmine, Cardinal, 99 Bellary, 158 Benares : Buddhism, 31 Holy City, 51 Monkey Temple, 50 Sanskrit College, 60 Benedict XIII., Pope, 121 Benedict XIV., Pope, 121, 278 Benedict XV., Pope, 180, 204, 283 Benedictines, 130, 141, 144 Bengal, 95, 103, 138 Bengali, 51, 206 Bentinck, Lord William, 61 Berar, 20 Bernardino, Mgr., 133 Bernini, Jos., O.M.Cap., 58, 115 Beschi, Jos., S.J., 57, 119 Bettachini, Fr., 140 Bettiah missions, 114, 123, 152, 181 in W. War, 178 Bettiah, King of, 58 Bhagnagar, 107 Bhar, 138 Bharata, 7 1 Bhatgaon, 114 Bhils, 29, 40, 151, 157 Bhoborbara, 205 Bhutan, 27, 138 Bible-women, 189, 191, 195 Biondi, Mgr., 190 Binns, Harold, 73 Birds, 10 Bisnagar, 95 Bizapore, 105 Bois, M. de Chateau des, 109 Bombay : Ecc. Province, 156-158 missions, 102, 116, 132, 139 Portuguese Schism, 128 war conditions, 170, 175, 177 Bombay Eas\t Indian, The, 242 Bombay Examiner , The, 128, 242 Bonaventure, Fr., O.C.D., 179 Bonnand, Mgr., 135 Borghi, Mgr., 132 Bouchet, Fr., S.J., 118, 120 Boundaries of India, 3 Brahamanas , 70 Brahma, 31, 33 Brahmanism, 30, 54, 55, 69 Brahmans, 15 art, 75, 77 character, 234, 267-269 conversion, 270 dress, 40-43 education, 54-55 in power, 269 literature, 69-78 marriage, 45 vide caste Brahmaputra, 6 Brahma Samaj, 39, 67 British Government: education, 61-67 expels missionaries, 169-175 Peace Conference, 180 religion, 28, 95, 280, 285 British Rule: effects, 27, 269, 285 methods, 23-27, 49 occupation, 22-25 possessions, 26, 27 INDEX 305 British Foreign Bible Society, 191 Britto, Bishop Stephen, 101 Britto, Fr. John de, 100 Brotherhoods, 145, 158 Buddha, 16, 31-33 Buddhism, 31-33 Buddhistic art, 74-77 Burma, 117, 141, 166 C Cabral, Anton, 92 Cabral, Peter, 87 Cadapamkam, 104 Cakuntala, 73 Cakyas, 31 Calcutta: 13, 60, 138 Ecc. Province, 153-156 W. War, 176 Calmette, Fr., S.J., 58 Calvinists, 187 Cambay, 85 Campo, Alexander de, 101 Campo, Thomas de, 101 Canara, 102 Capuchins : Agra, 149-153 Allahabad, 150, 151 Bettiah, 114, 123, 131, 152 Bombay, 132 Hindostan, 122 Lhasa, 112-114 linguists, 58 Madras, 107-110 Malabar Bite Dispute, 119- 122 Patna, 112-115 Pondicherry, 104 Punjab, 131 Surat, 105 Tibet & Nepal, 112-114 varia, 111, 144 World War, 174, 178 Carampuly, 104 Carew, Bishop Patrick, 135 Carey, William, 186 Carli, Bishop, 132 Carmelites: \ Great Mogul, 102, 111, 115 Carmelites — continued other missions, 87, 101, 102, 122 Quilon, 133 Thomas Christians, Goa and Bombay, 101, 102, 116, 133 139 Verapoly, 116, 133, 139, 160 World War, 179 Carroll, Jos., O.M.Cap., 214, 228, 235, 241 Carvalho, Bishop, 127 Carvalho, Jos., S.J., 118 Cassam-Chain, 103 Caste: attitude of Church, 278 cause, 48, 275 expulsion from, 276, 277 features, 16, 30, 48, 260, 274-77 hindrance to education, 234, 235 hindrance to native clergy, 136 hindrance to religion, 95, 234 recent developments, 277 rejected by Buddha, 32 remedies, 279 Castro, Fr. Matthew de, 102 Catalani, Jordan, O.P., 84, 85 Catechists: 224-233 indispensable, 224-227, 233 training, 231, 232 wages, 231 women, 230 work, 226-228 Catholic Herald of India , 242 Catholic Leader , 242 Catholicus , 242 Caumont, Fortunatus, O.M.Cap., 152 Central Provinces, 23 Cereals, 12 Cettiatti, 116 Ceylon : Dutch persecution, 116 Ecc. Province, 164 missions, 90, 140 Chaknee, 131 Clialukya Dynasty, 18 Champattia, 153 Chandnernagore, 112, 138 Chandragupta, 17 306 INDEX Changanacherry, 161 Charity, Catholic: 244-255 A.R.M. Assoc’n, 249 asylums, 249 dispensaries, 250 hospitals, 245-248 institutions, 147, 244 medical missions, 249 orphanages, etc., 251, 252 social work,, 253, 254 visiting sick, 250 women doctors, 249 Charity, Protestant, vide Protes¬ tant Character, native, 234, 258-268, 285 Charles II. of England, 22 Chelmsford, Lord, 24 Cherrapunji, 6 Chota Nagpur, 138, 154 Christians, St. Thomas, 82, 101 Church buildings, 147, 208 Churee, 114 Clement X., Pope, 125 XI. , 112, 120 XII. , 121 XIV., 122 Clergy, native, 282-291 Climate, 6, 204 Clothing, 40-43 Cochin, 139, 149 Coeurdoux, Fr., S.J., 58 Coimbatore, 136 Cold, 6 Colgan, Mgr., 158 Colleges, vide education Colombo ( Coromandel ) , 85 Colombo (Ceylon), 141 Colonists, European, 20-23 Commerce, 11-13 Comorin, 85 Company of India, 104 Congregationalists, 188 Converts, 208, 209, 221, 262 Cooch, 138 Cooperative Societies, 254 Coromandel Coast, 85 Cornish, Judge, 154 Cosmas, Fr., O.M.Cap., 205 Costa, Balthasar de, S.J., 100 Cotton, 12 Couloan, 101 Courts, 49 Courtship, 45 Coutinho, Capt., 245 Covilham, Pedro, 87 Cozzaniga, Fr., 156 Cranganore, 88 Cremation, 47 Cuddalore, 246 Curzon, Lord, 63 Custodius de Pincho, 102 Customs, Indian: Aryan, 29 Catholic, 216-218 Hindu, 40-53 Cyclones, 8, 256 Cyrus of Persia, 16 D Dacca, 155, 173, 1S1 Dagobas, 76 Daily News, The, 242 Dailies (Cath.), 242 Dalhousie, Lord, 23 Daman, 93 Damaun, 20, 149 Damayanti, 73 Dara, 101 Darbhangar, 153 Darius, 16 Dasaratha, 72 Delhi, 19, 24, 25 Demange, Bishop, P.F.M., 225 Denmark, 21 De Nobili, vide Nobili Desideri, Fr., S.J., 113 Dhritarashtra, 71 Diego da Borba, 88, 289 Difficulties, missionary: caste, 95, 275 climate, 204 divided Christianity, 280 European example, 89, 96, 266 insincere converts, 221, 262 isolation of women, 248, 273 language, 206 native character, 234, 258-268, 285 persecutions q.v. INDEX 30? Difficulties, missionary — contin¬ ued politics: British, 28, 95, 169, 280, 285 Dutch, 95, 101, 105, 116 French, 111, 123 Portuguese, 108, 116, 124- 129 schisms q.v. Dinajour, 138 Disease, 8, 179 Dispensaries, 250 Diu, 20, 85 Doctors and missions, 179, 189, 193-196, 246-249 Doctors, women, 189, 249 Dominic, Fr., O.P., 87 Dominicans, 84-87, 89, 116 Dravidians, 29 Drawida, 61 Dress, 40-43 Drog-ne, 113 Dubois, Abbe, 40 Duff, 60 Dupleix, 21 Durga Khond, 50 Duryodhana, 71 Dutch : colonists, 20 opposition, 95, 101, 105 persecution, 116 sympathy, 180 Dwellings, 43 E Earthquakes, 8 Eastern Mail, The, 182, 243 East India Co., 22-23, 61 Education in general: caste hindrance, 54, 234 curriculum, 65, 237 East India Co., 61 Great Britain, 27, 62-68 language, 56-59, 61-62 pagan scholars, 235, 240, 241 statistics, 65 universities, 239 Education, Catholic, 56-59, 146, 236-241, 271 Education, Catholic — continued early institutions, 88, 90, 94, 103, 110, 118 Education, non-Catholic : Hindu, 55, 60 Mohammedan, 55, 60 Protestant, 59, 188 Elefanta, 78 Eline, Fr., S.J., 181 Ellora, 78 Elphinstone, Mountstuart, 61 England, vide British Ephrem of Nevers, O.M.Cap., 107- 110 Episcopalians, 187, 193, 197 Ernakulam, 161 Etiquette, 45 Eugene IV., Pope, 86 Euphrates, 18 Eusebius, 83 Everest, Mt., 5 Examiner, The, 128, 242 Exports, 12 F Factories, 12 Famine, 8, 27, 179, 214, 257 Faridur, 138 Fauna, 9 Fernandes, Gonsalvo, S.J., 98 Fialla, John, O.F.M., 90 Finck, Felix, O.M.Cap., 178, 222 Fishes, 10 Floods, 257 Forests, 9 Fourcade, Fr., 215 Franciscans (O.F.M.) : early missions, 84-87 later missions, 87-90, 116 Lhasa, 86 linguists, 56 French : colonists, 21 India Co., 21 lose India, 22 revolution, 123 Fruits, 9, 11, 12 Frumentius, Bishop, 83 Funchal, 89 308 INDEX Funerals, 47 Gurus, 35, 37 Furniture, 43 Gwalior, 27, 95 G Galle, 164 Games, native, 44 Ganesa, 37 Ganges, 6 Sacred Biver, 38, 47, 50 Garrelon, Bishop, 133 Garzia, Bishop, 101 Gautama, vide Buddha George, Archdeacon, 101 German : colonists, 21 missionaries, 169-176 Ghandi, Mahatma, 25 Ghats, 5, 9 Ghor Dynasty, 19 Ghorgargaon, 159 Ghurkas, 114 Gingi, 94 Giorgi, Augustine, 59 Goa : clergy, 124-129, 140 Diocese, 89’, 124, 125, 140 Ecc. Province, 148 inquisition, 108 schism, 127-129 Goethals, Archbishop, 155 Golconda : exile ship, 174 King of, 109 missions, 102, 103, 107 Gonds, 29, 40 Gonsalvez, Pedro, 89 Goodier, Alban, 177 Government, vide British Govind Sing, 35 Graca, Leonard da, 103 Grain, 12 Great Britain, vide British Great Mogul, 19, 100 missions, 92, 100, 111, 116 Gregory XV., Pope, 99 XVI., 126 Gujarat, 42, 93, 156 Gundafor, King, 82 Gupta, 18 H Haflong, 176 Hanxleden, Fr., S.J., 58 Harsha, King, 18 Hartmann, Anastasius, O.M.Cap., 58, 128, 129, 140, 290 Hastings, Warren, 23, 60 TT pq f Heggelin, Fr., S.J., 156 Henriquez, Henrico, S.J., 57, 92, 245 Hierarchy, Catholic, 143, 167 Himalayas, 3, 4 Hindi, 206 Hindostan, 122 Hindu : dress, 40-43 education, 55 literature, 69-74 vide Brahman Hinduism, 36-40, 264-267 Hindu Kush, 4, 15 Hindustani, 58, 207 History, Indian: early, 14-18 Mohammedan, 18-20 Europeans, 20-29 Holland, vide Dutch Holy Cross Fathers, 144, 155, 182 Home Buie, 25, 285 Flomes, 43 Hood, Fr., 204 Hospitals : Catholic, 244-248 Protestant, 189, 193-196 Hosten, Fr., S.J., 82 Houpert, Fr., S.J., 48, 275 Hsuan Tsang, 17 Hugli, 103 Hull, Fr., S.J., 172, 235, 280 Pluns, White, 18 Hunter, W. W., 67 Hurth, Bishop, 155 Hyderabad, 135, 159 Hyder Ali, 23 INDEX 309 Hymns, Vedic, 15, 29 69-71 Hyphasis, 16 I Iamgain, 154 Ice, 7 Idolatry, 29, 33, 36-38, 50, 263 Ignorance, native, 67, 257, 273 Immorality, 37, 219 Indian C. Truth Society, 182, 243 Indian Government, 169 Indian States, 27 Indigo, 12 Indus, 5, 15 Industries, 11-12 Innocent IV., Pope, 84 Inquisition, Portuguese, 108 Insects, 10 Insurrections, 23 Invasions, vide History Irish Secular Priests, 135, 139 Irrigation, 7 Ives, Fr., O.M.Cap., 107 Iyer, Sir Sheshadri, 247 J Jacobabad, 7 Jaffna Catholic Guardian, 242 Jaffna, 116, 140, 164 Jaffnapatam, 101 Jahanara, 100 Jahangir, 100 Jainism, 33 Jaipur, 151 James, Fr., O.M.Cap., 105 Jaxartes River, 15 Jelicote, 150 Jenn, Fr., 165 Jesuits : Akbar’s Court, 92 Bengal, 138 Bombay, 132, 156 Ceylon, 116 early missions, 90-101 education, 59, 165 Galle, 164 Goa, 91 linguists, 57, 58 Madura, 118, 134 J esuits — continued Malabar Rite Dispute, 119-122 Mangalore, 139 pariahs and Brahmans, 96-100 Patna, 153 Poona, 133 Sikhs, 156 suppression, 121 Surat, 105 Thomas Christians, 101 Trincomalie, 166 World War, 169-177, 181 John of Corvino, O.F.M., 84 John, King of Portugal, 91 John of Marignola, 86 John the Persian, 83 John of Villa-Comte, 90 Joseph, Fr., O.C.D., 101 Joseph, Fr., O.M.Cap., 205 Joseph of Rovato, O.M.Cap., 115 Joseph du Tremblay, O.M.Cap., 104 Joseph de Torres, 127 Jordan Catalani, O.P., 85 Juamschikai, 271 Juergens, Herman, S.J., 170, 177, 239 Joulain, Mgr., 165 K Kabul, 16 Kafristan, 162 Kailasa Temple, 78 Kali, 37 Kalidasa, 72, 73 Kali Dewi, 263 Kanara, 139 Kanari, 57 Kandy: King of, 90 missions, 141, 165 Kaniska, King, 18 Karachi, 13 Karakoran, 4 Karen Tribes, 141 Kama, 71 Karwar, 87 Kashmir, 27, 93, 162 Kathkaris, 157 Kavyas, 73 310 INDEX Kenealy, Anselm, O.M.Cap., 162, 172 Kelley, Mgr., 180 Kelly, Fr., 181 Khandala, 157, 173 Khasi Hills, 6 Khatmandu, 113 Khildji Dynasty, 19 Khwandwa, 160 Knockert, Fr., S.J., 222 Kolar Fields, 11 Kols, 154 Konkani, 57 Koran, 34, 56 Kottayam, 161 Krishna, 33 Krishnagar, 156, 205 Kshatriya, 48, 71 Ktesias, 68 Kumarasambhava, 73 Kumbakonam, 135, 163 Kunbis, 157 Kushan Dynasty, 18 Kutb-ud-in, 19 Kutch, 34 L Lacombe, Fr., S.J., 243 Lahore, 82, 93 Lamont, Dr. Margaret, 189, 193, 195, 248 Languages, 57-59, 206 Latonah, 153 Lavigne, Chas., S.J., 160 Lawrence, Fr., O.M.Cap., 105 Laynez, Francis, S.J., 118 Legrand, Bishop, 224 Leigh, Fr., S.J., 243 Leitan, Emmanuel, S.J., 98 Leo XIII., Pope, 130, 142, 165, 283 Leusch, Mother Mary, 247 Lhasa, 86, 112, 113 Lievens, Constantine, S.J., 154 Linguists, missionary, 56-59 Literature, Indian : Catholic, 56-59, 147, 242 Prakrit, 69, 72-74 Sanskrit, 69-72 Vedic, 15, 29, 69, 70 Little Mount, 81 Lohdi Dynasty, 19 Louage, Bishop, 155 Lucknow, 131 Ludhiana, 190 Lutherans, 59, 186 Lyons, Pius, O.M.Cap., 179 M Macaulay, Lord, 62 Macdonell, Prof., 69 Madras, 11, 12, 81, 134 Ecc. Province, 158 Madura, 96, 118, 134 Magadha, 17, 76 Mahabharata, 15, 71, 72 Maharata Confederacy, 23 Mahavellipur, 78 Mahe, 138 Mahers, 157 Mahmud of Ghazbi, 19 Makil, Bishop, 161 Malabar : Rite Dispute, 119-122 Thomas Christians, 82, 101, 104 Malacca, 163, 164 Malaria, 8 Malavikagnimitra, 73 Malayalim, 27 Mameluke Dynasty, 19 Manaar, 94 Manapar, 119 Manco, Fr., 103 Mandalay, 8 Mangalore, 133, 139 Mangs, 157 Manjacupum, 104 Mantotte, 140 Manufactures, 12 Marathanus, Bishop, 165 Marathi, 51 Mar cane, 104 Marian Congress, 183 Mariapur, 151 Markham, Clements, 60 Marriages, native, 45-47 Mar Rocco, 134 Marshman, 60 INDEX 311 Martin, Fr., S.J., 157 Martyrs, 85, 87, 88, 100, 123 Marwar, 101 Mary of Orleans, O.M.Cap., 106 Mary, Sister, O.C.D., 133 Mathews, Don, 105 Matta, Bishop, 129 Matthew de Castro, 102 Maurya Dynasty, 17 Mazda, 36 Mazda ism, 36 Meals, 44 Mecca, 18, 34 Medical missions, 180 Catholic, 244-251 Protestant, 189, 195 Medina, 34 Medlycott, Bishop, 160 Megapatam, 94 Megasthenes, 68 Meyhclata, 73 Melizan, Archbishop, 164 Melius, Bishop, 134 Memnon, Artaxerxes, 68 Meneges, Bishop, 103 Methodists, 166, 178, 188 Meuleman, Bishop, 173, 176, 181 Meyer, Sir William, 25 Micara, Ludovic, O.M.Cap., 123 Middleton, Thomas, 187 Milan Foreign Mission Society, 130, 139, 141 Milet, Fr., S.J., 181 Military Order of Christ, 88 Mill Hill Fathers, 144, 162 Minerals, 11 Misbai, King, 81 Missionaries, Catholic: increase, 144, 291 modern, 87-186, 203 pioneer, 81-87 work, 208-222 World War, 169 Missionaries, Protestant, 143-167 vide Protestant Missions, Catholic: difficulties q.v. progress, 142-167 vide missionaries, etc. Missions, Protestant: vide Protestant Mocha, 18 Mogul Empire, 19, 100, 102, 111, 116 Mohammed, 18, 34 Mohammedanism, 34, 55, 85 Mohammedans : caste, 49 conquer India, 18 dress, 40-43 education, 55 Mohammed Ghori, 19 Momolith, 78 Monasticism (pagan), 31-33 Monotheism, 30, 35, 36, 70 Monserratte, Anthony, S.J., 92 Monsoons, 6 Montagu, Mr.,, 24, 25 Motazalites, 35 Mott, John, 198 Mountains, 4 Mountboo, 156 Mueller, Max, 57 Muenzloher, Fr., 155 Mullan, Fr., 162 Music, 74 Mussoorie, 150 Mutual Benefit Societies, 178 Muzaffarpur, 153 Mylapore, 81, 92, 94, 149 Mysore, 11, 27, 118, 136 persecution, 123 N Nagpur, 23, 159 Nal, 73 Nalodaya, 73 Nanak, 35 NataJcas, 73 National Indian Association, 67 Native States, 26-27 Nattaputta, 33 Neemuch, 151 Neilgherries, 60 Nepal, 27, 112-114 Nerbada, 20 Nestorians, 83 Nicator, Seleucus, 17 Nice, Council of, 83 Nicholas IV., Pope, 84 312 INDEX Nirvana, 32 1 70 rn a "| Nobili, Robert de, 57, 96-100 cf. Malabar Rite Dispute Nunes, Bishop, O.P., 89 O Oblate Fathers, 130, 140, 141 Odoric of Pordenone, O.F.M., 86 O’Gorman, Col., 182, 243 0 Heraldo, 242 Oil, 11 Oratorians, 102, 117, 140 Orazio della Pennabilli, O.M.Cap., 58, 113 Orissa, 20 Orphanages, 251, 252 Ostend Co., 21 Oude, 23 Oxford Mission, 197 Oxus, 15 P Pagodas, 33 Painting, 75, 77 Palamcottah, 190 Pali, 54 Pallar, 104 Pallu, Mgr., 109 Panchayat, 49 Pandaram, 100 Pandu, 71 Pantsenus, St., 83 Pantheism, 30 vide Brahmanism Panyali, 222 Parava, 91, 94 Pariahs, 48, 276 Paris Foreign Mission Society, 122, 135, 136, 141, 163, 179 Parsis, 35, 36, 40 Parur, 84 Passam, 160 Passive Resistance League, 25 Patan, 114 Patlad, 157 Patna, 112, 115, 153, 181 Patriarchal system, 43 Paul IV., Pope, 124 Paulinus, Fr., O.C.D., 59 Peace Conference, 180 Pearl Fishery Coast, 91, 94 Pedro de Covilham, 87 Pegu, 95, 107, 141 Pelckmans, Mgr., O.M.Cap., 214 Penitents, 52 Persecutions: Dutch, 116 Mysore, 123 Nepal, 114 Sepoys, 132 Tibetan, 114 Persians, vide Parsis Persico, Ignatius, O.M.Cap., 132 Pessoa, Bishop, 130 Pests, 8 Petavel, Capt., 66 Peter, Brother, C.S.C., 204 Peter, Fr., O.C.D., 102 Peter of Rivier, O.M.Cap., 105 Petroleum, 11 Pezzoni, Antonius, O.M.Cap., 59 Piarists, 141 Pilgrimages, native, 51 Pincho, Custodius de, 102 Pisani, Mgr., 181, 183 Pittadkul, 77 Pius IX., Pope, 128, 129 X., 283 Plagues, 8, 257 Plains, 5 Plassey, 22 Pluetschau, Henry, 60, 186 Poetry, 69-74 Poli, Bishop, 150, 243 Politics, 49 Brahman and Mohammedan, 269 Pombal, 289 Pondicherry, 21, 104, 118, 136, 162 Poona, 132, 160, 177 Population, 4 Portuguese : aid missions, 142, 245 bad example, 96 colonists, 20 inquisition, 108 neglect missions, 125 patronage, 124 schism, 124-129 INDEX 313 Porus, King, 16 Pozzi, Bishop, 155 Prakrit, 54, 69, 72-74 Precipitation, 6 Presbyterians, 188, 194, 239 Press i Catholic, 128, 147, 241 Indian, 172 Protestant, 190 Prince of Wales, 25 Products, 9-12 Profiteering, 8, 27 Protestants : first missions, 59, 186 Bible-women, 189, 191 education, 188 evangelization, 191 medical missions, 189, 193 personnel, 196 philanthropy, 189 press, 190 results, 198 support, 197 Provinces of India, 26 Pulikesin II., 18 Pulleyar, 121 Punjab, 12, 27, 131 Punjabi, 206 Punnakayal, 245 Pur ana, 57 Purgatory, 36 Purohit, 38 Putempally, 161 Q Quilon, 133, 160, 161 R Rachol, 148, 289 Radjagriah, 16 Ragha, 73 Raghuvamsa, 73 Rain, 6 Rajasthani, 206 Rajput, 40 Raiputana, 27, 95, 151 Rama, 72 Ramayana, 15, 58, 71, 72 Ramnagar, 153 Rampur, 153 Ranchi, 176 Rangoon, 13 Rangpur, 138 Raphael de Figueredo Salvo, 102 Recreation, native, 44 Reform movements, 38 Religions, non-Christian : Animism, 29 Brahmanism, 30, 69-73 Buddhism, 31-33 Hinduism, 36-38, 69-73 Jainism, 33 Mohammedanism, 34 Sikhism, 35 Siva and Vishnu, 33 Vedism, 29 Zoroastrianism, 35 Religious services (pagan), 30, 38, 47, 50 Reptiles, 10 Rig-Veda, 69, 70 Ripon, Lord, 63 Ritusamhara, 73 Rivers 5 Romolo, Fr., O.M.Cap., 151 Roth, Henry, S.J., 58 Root, ex-Senator, 239 Rowlatt, Justice, 24 Act, 24 Roy, Basanta Koomar, 67 Roy, Ram Mohan, 38 Roz, Bishop, S.J., 84, 101 Rudra, 33 Russo-Japanese War, 164, 166 S Sabaragamuva, 164 Sacrifices, 30, 38 Saktas, 37 Salesians, 130, 144, 149, 106, 181 Salian, 58 Salsette, 85 Salvation Army, 188 Salvo, Bishop, 102 Sama-Veda, 69, 70, 74 Samorin, 94 314 INDEX Sancian, 92 Sanskrit, 54, 58, 69-73, 74 Santals, 29, 40 San Thome, 108-110 Sarbarnatand, 157 Sardhana, 130, 150 S attar a, 23 Sattaracerri, 116 Sayyid Dynasty, 19 Schisms: Alvarez, 165 Bishop Melius, 134 Nestorian, 83 Portuguese, 124-129 Schools, 234-241 Schueren, Vander, S.J., 176 Schwager, Fr., S.V.D., 144 Schwarz, Fr., O.M.Cap., 174 Schwarz, C. Fred., 60, 186 Sculpture, 75-78 Seaports (chief), 13 Seasons, 6-7 Secular missionaries, 89, 139, 140 Sefer, 85 Seleucus Nicator, 17 Sepoys, 22, 23, 132 Serampore, 187 Serindh, 84 Sesamum, 46 Shah Jahan, 100 Sheiks, 49 Sheshadri, 247 Shiites, 35 Shoes, 42 Sikh, 35, 40, 157 Sikhism, 35 Sikkim, 27 Silk, 12 Simla, Ecc. Province, 162 Simla Times, 242 Simon, Fr., O.M.Cap., 179 Sind, 23, 157 Sirhind, 7, 27 Sisterhoods, various, 136, 145- 154, 157, 164, 247, 252 work, 236-239, 246-254 World War, 172-179 Siva, 33 Sivayi, 106 Snakes, 10, 51 Snow, 7 S. P. Gr., 188 Society of St. Joseph, 140 Society of St. Peter, 140 Somastipur, 153 Sonderbunds, 138 Sophia, The, 156 Spain, 180 Spiritus, Fr., O.M.Cap., 104 Spitz, Dom Maternus, O.S.B., 167 Standard, The, 242 States, Indian, 27 Stephen, Fr., O.M.Cap., 105 Stephens, Thomas, S.J., 22 Stockman, Fr., S.J., 139 Storms, 8, 256 Streit, Fr., S.V.D., 245 Sudra, 48, 135 Sumroo, Queen, 130 Sunnites, 35 Superstition, 50 Surat, 105-107 Sutlej, 5 Swtras, 70 Sylvestrines, 130, 141 Switzerland, 180 T Tagpur, Rajah of, 151 Takht-i-Bahi, 82 Takpo, 113 Tamil, 51, 57, 104, 206 Tana, 86 Tanjore, 94, 118, 149 Taxes, 50 Telugu, 51, 206 Telugu-Christians, 135 Tembavani, 57 Temples, 76-78 Tenasserim, 141 Thana, 36 Thandla, 151 Theater : native, 44 missionary, 219-221 Theatines, 103, 115 Thomas de Campo, 101 Thomas, St., 81 Thomas Christians, 82, 101, 115 INDEX 315 Thurlot, 58 Tibet, 86, 112-114 Timber, 9 Timur, 86 Tinnevely, 186 Togluk Dynasty, 19 Topes, 75, 76 Torquemada, Bisliop, 89 Torpa, 154 Torres, Bishop, 127 Tournon, Chas., 120, 125 Trade, 13 Tranquebar, 186 Transmigration, 31 Travancore, 27, 94, 139 Travel, 13, 210 Trees, 9 Trichinopoly, 134, 181 Trichur, 160 Trincomalie, 166 Trinitarians, 87 Troy, Fr., S.J., 181 Tsang, Hsuan, 17 Tyrolese, 173 U Udaipur, 101 United Provinces, 26 Universities, 59, 239 Upadhyaya Brahmabandhav, 156 Vpanishads , 70 Usury, 8 Uva, 141 V Vaisya, 48 Valente, Archbishop, 148 Valmiki, 72 Vancquera, Bishop, 89 Varuna, 70 Vasco da Gama, 20, 87 Vaz, Fr., Jos., 117 Vaz, Fr., 88, 89 Vedas, 15, 29, 69, 70 Vedism, 29 Vegetables, 12 Veperi, 158 Verapoly, 116, 133, 139, 160 Versailles Treaty, 180 Vetapalem, 158 Victoria, Queen, 24 Vigano, Bishop, 159 Vigneshwara, 46 Vikramorvaci, 73 Vincent de Paul Society, 255 Vincent, Fr., 88, 289 Vindhya, 55 Vishnu, 32, 33 Vizagapatam, 135, 159 Voquier, Bishop, O.F.M., 88, 89 W Wahabis, 35 Weber, A., 73 Wehinger, Fr., 166 Wellesley, 23 White Huns, 18 Women. native, 30, 34, 54, 237-239, 248, 271-275 doctors, 189, 248 World Missionary Conference, 198 World War, 24, 169-185 Worship, pagan, vide Religious Services X Xavier, Francis de Santa Anna, 57 Xavier, Jerome, 93 Xavier, St. Francis, 57, 90-92, 215, 216, 2S9 Y Yajur-Veda, 69, 70 Yanaon, 138 Yasodharma? 18 Y. M. C. A., 197, 255 Yudhishthira, 71 Z Zaleski, Mgr., 149, 154, 165, 240, 283, 286 Zanbhars, 157 Zemindars, 154 Zeno, Fr., O.M.Cap., 105-110 Ziegenbalg, 60, 186 Zimmer, Leonard, S.J., 157 Zoroastrianism, 35 Date Due