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PRINCETON.    N.    J.  ^ 
 
 Part  of  the  o 
 
 ♦      APDISONr-^L^iL>*DEPw    LIBRARY,  | 
 
 which  was  nres^ented  by  n| 
 
 Mkssks.  }{.  L.  AND  A.  Stuart.  \| 
 
V^C^"^-     L^^  Li^  L^i^^  ^V-'^-^^      ^ 
 
 1^  l^^v^    ^4^  f^^- u  «^i 
 
 /?.. ..  ,r  r /f  r^. 
 
CHURCH  DICTIONARY. 
 
WORKS  BY  THE  SAME  AUTHOR. 
 
 DISCOURSES   BEARING  ON  THE  CONTROVERSIES  OF 
 
 THE  DAY.     8vo. 
 
 THE  NONENTITY  OF  THE  ROMISH  SAINTS,  AND  THE 
 
 INANITY  OF  ROMAN  ORDINANCES.     Third  Edition,  8vo,  2^.  &d. 
 
 ON  THE  MEANS  OF  RENDERING  MORE  EFFECTUAL 
 THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  PEOPLE.     Tenth  Edition,  8vo,  2s.  Qd. 
 
 FRIENDLY  AND  SEASONABLE  ADVICE  TO  THE  RO- 
 MAN CATHOLICS  OF  ENGLAND.  By  Dean  Comber.  Nexo  Edition, 
 with  a  Prefoce  and  Notes,  ISmo,  3s. 
 
 THE  THREE  REFORMATIONS  ;  LUTHERAN,— ROMAN,— 
 
 AND  ANGLICAN.     Third  Edition,  Sxo,  3s. 
 
 THE  DUTY  OF  ENGLISH  CHURCHMEN,  AND  THE 
 PROGRESS  OF  THE  CHURCH  AT  LEEDS.     8vo,  Is. 
 
CHURCH    DICTIONARY. 
 
 BY  / 
 
 WALTER  FARQUHAR  HOOK,  D.  D. 
 
 VICAR  OF  LEEDS. 
 
 SEVEKTII    EDITIOIS',    RETISED    AND    AUGMENTED. 
 
 LONDON : 
 JOHN    MURRAY,    ALBEMARLE    STREET. 
 
 1854. 
 
JOHN    GUILDS    AND    SON,    liUNGAY. 
 
TO 
 
 HENRY     HALL, 
 
 OF  BANK  LODGE,  LEEDS, 
 
 ESQUIRE, 
 
 SENIOR    TRUSTEE    OF    THE    ADYOWSOJf    OF    THE    TICARAGE    OF    LEEDS, 
 
 A    LOYAL    MAGISTRATE, 
 
 A    CONSISTENT    CHRISTIAN,    A    FAITHFUL    FRIEND, 
 
 THIS    VOLUME 
 
 WITH   AFFECTION   AND   RESPECT, 
 
 INSCRIBED. 
 
PREFACE  TO  THE  SIXTH  EDITION 
 
 The  Cliurcli  Dictionary,  of  which  the  Sixth  Edition  is  now  published,  appear- 
 ed originally  in  the  shape  of  montlily  tracts,  intended  hy  the  writer  to  explain 
 to  his  parishioners  the  more  important  doctrines  of  tlie  Clnirch,  and  tlie 
 fundamental  verities  of  our  religion.  The  title  of  Cliurch  Dictionary  was 
 adopted  from  a  work  published  with  a  similar  object  in  America,  by  the  Eev. 
 Mr.  Staunton;  and  the  work  itself  assumed  the  character  of  short  dissert- 
 ations on  those  theological  terms  and  ecclesiastical  practices,  which  were  mis- 
 represented or  misunderstood  by  persons  who  had  received  an  education  ex- 
 ternal to  the  Church. 
 
 For  these  tracts  there  was  a  considerable  demand ;  and  the  monthly  issue 
 amounting  to  four  thousand,  the  author  was  persuaded  to  extend  his  plan,  and 
 to  make  the  Church  Dictionary  a  work  of  more  general  utility  than  was  at 
 first  designed.  It  was,  in  consequence,  gradually  enlarged  in  each  successive 
 Edition  until  now,  when  it  has  assumed  its  last  and  permanent  character. 
 
 In  this  Edition,  which  has  been  enlarged  by  an  addition  of  more  than  one 
 hundred  articles,  the  authorities  are  quoted  upon  which  the  statements  are 
 made  in  the  more  important  articles ;  and  where  it  has  been  possible,  the 
 ipsissi?7ia  verba  of  the  authors  referred  to  have  been  given. 
 
 But  as  this  publication  has  no  pretensions  beyond  those  of  an  elementary 
 work,  it  has  been  thought,  for  the  most  part,  sufficient  only  to  refer  to  se- 
 condary authorities,  such  as  Bingham,  Comber,  Wheatly,  Palmer,  &c.,  in 
 whose  learned  works  the  reader,  who  wishes  to  investigate  any  subject  more 
 thoroughly,  will  find  the  further  references  which  he  may  require. 
 
 In  deference  to  a  wish  very  generally  expressed,  an  account  has  been  taken 
 from  sources  acknowledged  to  be  authentic,  and  which  are  duly  noticed,  of 
 various  Christian  communities,  not  in  connexion  with  the  Church. 
 
 It  was  found  impossible,  within  the  limits  prescribed,  to  act  upon  anotlier 
 suggestion,  and  to  introduce  the  biographies  of  our  great  divines.  This,  tliere- 
 fore,  has  been  done  in  a  separate  publication,  entitled  "An  Ecclesiastical 
 Biography."* 
 
 The  articles  on  Church  architecture  have  been  carefully  revised  by  the  Eev. 
 G.  A.  Poole,  M.  A.,  vicar  of  Welford. 
 
 The  Law  articles  have  been  revised,  partly  by  the  Eev,  James  Brogden, 
 A.  M.,  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  and  partly  by  Wilb'am  Johnston,  of 
 Grray's  Inn,  Esq.,  barrister-at-law. 
 
 •  "  An  Ecclesiastical  Biography,  containing  the  Lives  of  Ancient  Fathers  and  Modem  Divines. 
 By  Walter  Farquhar  Hook,  D.  D.,  Vicar  of  Leeds." 
 
VIU  PEEFACE. 
 
 To  Mr.  Johnston,  known  to  the  literary  world  as  the  author  of  "  England  as 
 it  is,"  the  thanks  of  the  present  writer  are  also  due  for  the  kindness  with  which 
 he  has  assisted  him  in  correcting  the  press,  and  for  many  valuable  suggestions. 
 
 The  original  dissertations  remain  unaltered ;  but  the  circumstances  of  the 
 Church  of  England  have  changed  considerably  from  what  they  were  when  the 
 Chiu'ch  Dictionary  was  first  published.  At  that  time  the  Protestantism  of 
 the  Cliurch  of  England  was  universally  recognised,  and  the  fear  was  lest  her 
 pretensions  to  Catliolicity  should  be  ignored.  But  now  an  afiectation  of  re- 
 pudiating our  Protestantism  is  prevalent,  while  by  ignorant  or  designing  men 
 Protestantism  is  misrepresented  as  the  antithesis,  not,  as  is  the  case,  to  Eo- 
 manism,  but  to  Catholicism  ;  at  the  same  time,  Catholicism  is  confounded  with 
 llomanism,  primitive  truth  with  mediaeval  error,  and  the  theology  of  the 
 Schools  with  that  of  the  Eathers  :  while,  therefore,  the  articles  bearing  on  the 
 catholicity,  orthodoxy,  and  primitive  character  of  the  Church  of  England  are 
 retained,  the  articles  relating  to  the  heresies  and  peculiarities  of  the  Church 
 of  Eome  have  been  expanded ;  and  strong  as  they  were  in  former  editions  in 
 condemnation  of  the  papal  system,  they  have  been  rendered  more  useful,  under 
 the  present  exigencies  of  the  Church,  by  a  reference  to  the  decisions  of  the 
 so-called  Council  of  Trent,  so  as  to  enable  the  reader  to  see  what  the  peculiar 
 tenets  of  that  corrupt  portion  of  the  Christian  world  really  are. 
 
 Vicarage,  Leeds,  21  Se2)t.  1852. 
 
 PEEFACE  TO  THE  SEYENTH  EDITION. 
 
 In  this  Edition  the  articles  on  the  Early  Heresies  have  been  revised  by  the 
 Eev.  James  Craigie  llobertson,  M.  A.  ;*  the  Eitual  articles,  by  the  Eev.  John 
 Jebb,  M.  A , ;  the  articles  on  the  Councils,  by  the  Eev.  Sanderson  Eobins,  M.  A. ; 
 and  the  Law  articles,  by  A¥illiam  Johnston,  Esq.  To  Mr.  Jebb's  notes  in  Ste- 
 phens's edition  of  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  and  to  his  other  learned  works, 
 and  to  Mr.  Eobins' s  excellent  treatise  entitled  "  Evidences  of  Scripture  against 
 the  Claims  of  the  Eomish  Church,"  reference  is  frequently  made.  Authorities 
 have  been  fully  given,  except  when  articles  have  been  taken  with  only  slight 
 alterations  from  Broughton  or  Bingham,  or  translated  from  Suicer. 
 
 *  Author  of  "  The  History  of  the  Christian  Church,  to  the  Pontificate  of  Gregory  the  Great : 
 for  general  readers  as  well  as  for  Students  in  Theology."    8vo,  12*. 
 
 July,  1854. 
 
,-■    P-BINCETOF 
 
 I 
 
 •    "THSSLOG 
 
 CIIUECIT    DICTIONARY. 
 
 ABACUS. 
 
 ABACUS.  The  upper  member  of  a 
 capital.     (See  Cajntal.) 
 
 In  semi-Norman  and  early  English  archi- 
 tecture, the  abacus  of  engaged  shafts  is 
 frequently  retui'ned  along  the  walls,  in  a 
 continued  horizontal  string :  perhaps  the 
 last  lingering  recognition  of  the  effect  of  the 
 capital  in  representing  that  horizontal  line, 
 which  was  so  decided  in  the  classic  archi- 
 trave, and  to  which  the  spirit  of  Gothic 
 architecture  is  in  the  main  so  greatly  op- 
 posed. 
 
 ABBA.  A  S}-riac  word  signifying  Fa- 
 ther, and  expressive  of  attachment  and 
 confidence.  St.  Paul  says.  Ye  have  received 
 the  Spirit  of  adoptmi^  whereby  ice  cry 
 Abba,  Father.  (Rom.  viii.  15  ;  comp.  Gal. 
 iv.  6.)  The  word  is  derived  from  the  He- 
 brew Ah :  and,  if  we  may  ascend  still  higher, 
 that  Mord  itself  (as  many  others  which  oc- 
 cui-  in  that  language)  proceeds  from  the 
 voice  of  nature  ;  being  one  of  the  most 
 obvious  sounds,  to  express  one  of  the  first 
 and  most^  obvious  ideas. 
 
 ABBE.  The  designation  assumed  in 
 France,  before  the  Revolution,  by  certain 
 persons,  who,  whether  in  the  higher  orders 
 of  the  ministry  or  not,  ostensibly  devoted 
 themselves  to  theological  studies,  in  the 
 hope  that  the  king  would  confer  upon  them 
 a  real  abbey,  i.  e.  a  certain  portion  of  the 
 revenues  of  a  real  abbey.  Hence  it  be- 
 came the  common  title  of  unemployed  se- 
 cular priests.  In  Italy  the  word  Abate  was 
 similarly  used,  to  designate  one  who  merely 
 adopted  the  clerical  habit.  \_Vocabolario 
 della  Crusca.'] 
 
 ABBEY.  The  habitation  of  a  society 
 devoted  to  religion.  It  signifies  a  monas- 
 tery, of  which  the  head  was  an  Abbot  or 
 Abbess.  (See  Abbot.)  Of  cathedral  ab- 
 beys the  bisho^i  was  considered  to  be  vir- 
 tually the  abbot :  and  therefore  the  Pres- 
 byteral  Superior  of  these  establishments 
 
 ABBOT. 
 
 was  styled  Prior.  The  abbey  of  Ely  was 
 constituted  a  cathedral  in  1109  :  when  the 
 Abbot  Harvey  was  made  bishop.  The 
 abbacy  was  henceforward  united  to  the 
 bishopric :  and  therefore  it  is  that  the 
 bishops  of  Ely  still  occupy  the  first  stall  on 
 the  right  side  of  the  choir,  usually  assigned 
 to  the  dean :  the  dean's  stall  being  the 
 first  on  the  left  side,  formerly  occupied  by 
 the  prior.     (See  3Ionasterics.) 
 
 Cranmer  begged  earnestly  of  Henry 
 VIII.  that  he  would  feave  some  of  the  ab- 
 beys, to  be  reformed  and  applied  to  holy 
 and  religious  uses,  but  his  petition,  and 
 the  exertions  of  Latimer  for  the  same  pur- 
 pose, were  in  vain.  For  the  arrangement 
 of  the  several  buildings  of  an  abbey,  see 
 Cathedral  and  3Ionastery. 
 
 ABBOT.,  The  Father  or  Superior  of 
 an  abbey  of  monks,  or  male  persons,  living 
 under  peculiar  religious  vows.  The  word 
 abbot  comes,  through  the  late  Latin  abbas, 
 from  the  Syriac  abba — father.  (See  Abba.) 
 The  word  Father,  in  its  various  forais  of 
 Papa,  Abbas,  Padre,  Pere,  Sec,  has  in  all 
 countries  and  all  ages  of  Christianity  been 
 applied  as  a  title  of  respect  to  the  superior 
 clergy  and  priesthood.  In  some  parts  of 
 the  East  and  in  Ireland,  this  term,  abbas 
 or  abbat,  was  frequently  confounded  with 
 that  of  bishop,  from  the  fact  of  the  abbots 
 being  in  the  early  times  bishops  also. 
 
 Among  the  abbeys  in  England  before  the 
 dissolution,  were  some  which  gave  the  title 
 of  Mitred  Abbot  \or  Abbots  yeneral^  or  sove- 
 reign'] to  the  superiors  of  them.  These  mitred 
 abbots  s-at  and  voted  in  the  House  of  Lords. 
 They  held  of  the  king  in  capite  per  baro- 
 7nam,  their  endowments  being  at  least  an 
 entire  barony,  which  consisted  of  thirteen 
 knights'  fees.  The  following  are  the  ab- 
 beys which  conferred  this  distinction  on 
 their  abbots  :  vSt.  Alban's,  Glastonbury,  St. 
 Peter's,  Westminster ;    St.  Edmondsbiiry, 
 
ABliOT 
 
 ABJURATION. 
 
 St.  Bonnet's  of  Holm,  Bavdney,  Shrews- 
 bury, Croyland  (or  Cro^Yland),  Abingdon, 
 Evesham,  Gloucester,  Ramsey,  St.  Mary's, 
 York ;  Tewkesbury,  Heading,  Battle, 
 AVincheomb,  Hide  by  Winchester,  Ciren- 
 cester, Waltham,  jMalmesbury,  Thorney, 
 St.  Augustine's,  Canterbury  ;  Selby,  Peter- 
 borough, St.  John's,  Colchester  ;  to  which 
 Avas  added,  not  long  before  the  Reforma- 
 tion, Tayistock.  All  mitred  abbots  Avere 
 of  the  Benedictine  order,  except  those  of 
 "Waltham  and  Cirencester,  who  Avere  Au- 
 gustinians.  This  fact  Fuller  has  overlooked. 
 (See  Duf/dale's  Monasticnn.) 
 
 But  it  is  to  be  observed,  that  there  Avere 
 tAVO  other  lords  of  parliament,  heads  of  re- 
 ligious houses,  who  Avere  not  abbots  :  (1.) 
 The  prior  of  St.  John's  of  Jerusalem,  of 
 the  Knights  Hospitallers  in  England.  He 
 ranked  before  the  mitred  abbots,  and  Avas 
 considered  the  lirst  baron  in  England.  (2.) 
 The  prior  of  Coventry  ;  a  solitary  instance 
 in  England  of  the  presbyteral  head  of  a 
 cathedral  being  a  spiritual  peer.  Of  the 
 abbots,  the  abbot  of  Glastonbury  had  the 
 precedence,  till  a.  d.  1154,  when  Pope 
 Adrian  VII.,  an  Englishman,  from  the  af- 
 fection he  entertained  for  the  place  of  his 
 education,  assigned  this  precedence  to  the 
 abbot  of  St.  Alban's.  In  consequence,  Glas- 
 tonbury ranked  next  after  him,  and  Read- 
 ing had  the  third  place. 
 
 According  to  the  ancient  laws  of  Chris- 
 tendom, confirmed  by  general  councils,  all 
 heads  of  monasteries,  Avhether  abbots  or 
 priors,  OAved  canonical  obedience  to  their 
 diocesan.  And  the  same  laAv  subsisted  till 
 the  Reformation,  Avherever  special  exemp- 
 tions had  not  been  granted,  Avhich,  hoAv- 
 ever,  Avere  numerous.  CoAvell,  as  quoted 
 by  Johnson  in  his  Dictionary,  (voce  Abbot,) 
 erroneously  says  that  the  mitred  abbots 
 Avere  exempted  from  episcopal  jurisdiction, 
 but  that  the  other  sorts  (i.  e.  the  non-mi- 
 tred) AA-ere  subject  to  their  diocesans.  The 
 truth  is,  that  the  former  endeavoured  after 
 their  oaati  aggrandizement  in  every  possi- 
 ble Avay,  but  had  no  inherent  right  of  ex- 
 emption from  the  fact  of  their  being  lords 
 of  parliament,  or  being  invested  Avith  the 
 mitre.  Thus  it  appears  from  Dugd.  Mo- 
 nast.  that  Gloucester,  Winchcomb,  and 
 TeAvkesbury  Avere  subject  to  the  visitation 
 and  jurisdiction  of  the  bishop  of  Worces- 
 ter, till  the  Reformation  ;  Croyland,  Peter- 
 borough, Bardncy,  and  Ramsey  to  the 
 bishop  of  Lincoln  ;  St.  Mary  in  York,  and 
 Selby,  to  the  archbishop  of  York,  and  Co- 
 ventry to  the  bisliop  of  Lichfield.  The  ab- 
 bots,unless  specially  exempted,took  the  oath 
 of  canonical  obedience  to  their  diocesan,  and 
 after  election,  Avere  confirmed  by  him,  and 
 
 received  his  benediction.  \_Fidler.  Collier. 
 Willis's  Mitred  Abbeys.']  In  Ireland  the 
 abbots  Avho  were  mitred,  or  lords  of  par- 
 liament, Avere  those  of  St.  ^lary,  Dublin  ; 
 St.  Thomas,  Dublin ;  Monastcreven,  Bal- 
 tinglass,  Dunbrody,  Duisk,  Jerpoint,  Rec- 
 ti ve,  ]Mellifont,  Tracton,  IVIonasterneuagh, 
 Owney,  and  Holycross.  All  these  Avere  of 
 the  Cistercian  order,  except  the  abbot  of 
 St.  Thomas,  avIio  Avas  of  St.  Victor.  The 
 other  jDarliamentary  lords,  heads  of  re- 
 ligious houses,  Avere  the  cathedral  priors 
 of  Christ  Church,  Dublin,  and  of  DoAvn- 
 patrick  ;  the  priors  of  AllhalloAvs,  Dublin  ; 
 Conall,  Kells,  (in  Kilkenny,)  Louth,  Athas- 
 sel,  Killagh,  NcAvtoAvn,  and  Rathboy.  All 
 these  Avere  of  the  Augustinian  order,  ex- 
 cept the  prior  of  DoAvn,  Avho  Avas  a  Bene- 
 dictine, the  preceptor  of  the  Knights 
 Hospitallers  at  Wexford,  and  the  prior  of 
 the  Knights  Hospitallers  at  Kilmainham. 
 (See  Monks.) 
 
 ABBESS.  The  Mother  or  Superior  of  an 
 abbey  of  nuns,  or  female  persons  living  un- 
 der peculiar  religious  voavs  and  discipline. 
 ABECEDARIAN  HYMNS.  Hymns 
 composed  in  imitation  of  the  acrostic  poetry 
 of  the  HebrcAvs,  in  Avhich  each  verse,  or 
 each  part,  commenced  Avith  the  first  and 
 succeeding  letters  of  the  alphabet,  in  their 
 order.  This  arrangement  was  intended  as 
 a  help  to  the  memory.  St.  Augustine 
 composed  a  hymn  in  this  manner,  for  the 
 common  people  to  learn,  against  the  error 
 of  the  Donatists.     (See  Acrostics.) 
 
 ABEYANCE,  from  the  French  bayer, 
 to  expect,  is  that  Avhich  is  in  expectation, 
 remembrance,  and  intendment  of  laAV.  By 
 a  principle  of  laAv,  in  every  land  there  is  a 
 fee  simple  in  some  body,  or  else  it  is  in 
 abeyatice  ;  that  is,  though  for  the  present 
 it  be  in  no  man,  yet  it  is  in  expectancy 
 belonging  to  him  that  is  next  to  enjoy  the 
 land. — Inst. 
 
 Thus  if  a  man  be  patron  of  a  church, 
 and  presenteth  a  clerk  to  the  same ;  the 
 fee  of  the  lands  and  tenements  pertaining 
 to  the  rectory  is  in  the  parson  ;  but  if  the 
 parson  die,  and  the  church  becometh  void, 
 then  is  the  fee  in  abeyance,  until  there  be 
 a   neAv   parson   presented,   admitted,    and 
 inducted.     For  the  frank  tenement  of  the 
 glebe  of  a  parsonage,  during  the  time  the 
 parsonage  is  void,  is  in  no  man  ;  but  in 
 abeyance  or  expectation,  belonging  to  him 
 Avho  is  next  to  enjoy  it. — Terms  of  the  Laiv. 
 ABJURATION.     A  solemn  renuncia- 
 '  tion  in  public,  or  before  a  proper  officer, 
 '  of  some  doctrinal  error.    A  formal  abjura- 
 '  tion  is  often  considered  necessary  by  the 
 Church,  Avhen  any  person  seeks  to  be  re- 
 ceived into  her  communion  from  heresy  or 
 
ABJURATION. 
 
 schism.  A  form  for  admittinp^  Romish  re- 
 cusants into  the  Church  of  England  was 
 drawn  up  by  one  of  the  Houses  of  Convo- 
 cation of  1714,  but  did  not  receive  the 
 royal  sanction.     It  is  as  follows  : 
 
 A  Form  for  admitting  Converts  from  the 
 
 C/iurch  of  Borne,  and  such  as  shall  re- 
 
 mnince  their  errors. 
 
 The  bishop,  or  some  priests  appointed 
 by  him  for  that  purpose,  being  at  the  com- 
 munion table,  and  the  person  to  be  re- 
 conciled standing  without  the  rails,  the 
 bishop,  or  such  priest  as  is  appointed,  shall 
 speak  to  the  congregation  as  followeth : 
 
 Dearly  beloved, 
 
 AVe  are  here  met  together  for  the  recon- 
 ciling of  a  penitent  (lately  of  the  Church 
 of  Rome,  or  lately  of  the  separation)  to 
 the  Established  Church  of  England,  as  to 
 a  true  and  sound  part  of  Ciiiiist's  holy 
 Catholic  Church.  Now,  that  this  weighty 
 affair  may  have  its  due  effect,  let  us  in  the 
 first  place  humbly  and  devoutly  pray  to 
 Almighty  GoD  for  his  blessing  upon  us  in 
 that  pious  and  charitable  office  we  are  go- 
 ing about. 
 
 Prevent  us,  O  Lord,  in  all  our  doings 
 with  thy  most  gracious  favour,  and  further 
 us  with  thy  continual  help,  tliat  in  this 
 and  all  other  our  works,  begun,  continued, 
 and  ended  in  thee,  we  may  glorify  thy 
 holy  name,  and  finally  by  thy  mercy  obtain 
 everlasting  life,  through  Jesus  Christ  our 
 Lord.     Amen. 
 
 Almighty  GoD,  who  showest  to  them 
 that  be  in  en*or  the  light  of  thy  truth,  to 
 the  intent  that  they  may  return  into  the 
 way  of  righteousness  ;  grant  unto  all  them 
 that  are  or  shall  be  admitted  into  the 
 fellowship  of  Christ's  religion,  that  they 
 may  eschew  those  things  that  are  contrary 
 to  their  profession,  and  follow  all  such 
 things  as  are  agreeable  to  the  same,  through 
 our  Lord  Jesus  Christ.     Amen. 
 
 Psalm  cxix.  161. 
 
 Let  my  complaint  come  before  thee,  O 
 Lord  ;  give  me  understanding  according 
 to  thy  word. 
 
 Let  my  supplication  come  before  thee ; 
 deliver  me  according  to  thy  word. 
 
 My  lips  shall  speak  of  thy  praise,  when 
 thou  hast  taught  me  thy  statutes. 
 
 Yea,  my  tongue  shall  sing  of  thy  word, 
 for  all  thy  commandments  are  righteous. 
 
 Let  thine  hand  help  me,  for  I  have 
 chosen  thy  commandments. 
 
 I  have  longed  for  thy  sa\-ing  health,  O 
 Lord,  and  in  thy  law  is  my  delight. 
 
 O  let  my  soul  live,  and  it  shall  praise 
 thee  and  thy  judgments  shall  help  me. 
 n  2 
 
 I  have  gone  astTay,  like  a  sheep  that  is 
 lost ;  O  seek  thy  servant,  for  I  do  not  for- 
 get tliy  commandments. 
 
 Gloi-y  be  to  tlie  Father,  &c. 
 
 As  it  was  in  the  beginning,  &c. 
 
 The  Lc^ 
 
 Luke  XV.  to  ver.  8. 
 
 Then  drew  near  unto  him  the  jiublicans 
 and  sinners  for  to  hear  him.  And  the 
 Pharisees  and  Scribes  murmured,  saying, 
 This  man  receiveth  sinners,  and  eateth  with 
 them.  And  he  spake  this  parable  unto 
 them,  saying,  What  man  of  you  having  an 
 hundred  sheep,  if  he  lose  one  of  them, 
 doth  not  leave  the  ninety  and  nine  in  the 
 wilderness,  and  go  after  that  wliich  is  lost, 
 until  he  find  it  ?  and  wlien  he  hath  found 
 it,  he  layeth  it  on  his  shoulders  rejoicing; 
 and  when  he  cometh  home,  he  calleth  to- 
 gether his  friends  and  iiis  neighbours,  say- 
 ing unto  them.  Rejoice  with  me,  for  I  have 
 found  my  sheep  which  vras  lost.  I  say 
 unto  you,  that  likewise  joy  shall  be  in  hea- 
 ven over  one  sinner  that  repcnteth,  more 
 than  over  ninety  and  nine  just  persons 
 which  need  no  repentance. 
 
 The  hymn  to  be  used  when  the  penitent 
 comes  from  the  Church  of  Rome. 
 
 Psalm  cxv.  to  ver.  10. 
 
 Not  unto  us,  O  Lord,  not  unto  us,  but 
 unto  thy  name  give  the  praise,  for  thy 
 loving  mercy  and  for  thy  truth's  sake. 
 
 Wherefore  shall  the  heathen  say :  Where 
 is  now  their  God  ? 
 
 As  for  our  God,  he  is  in  heaven ;  he  hath 
 done  whatsoever  pleased  him. 
 
 Their  idols  are  silver  and  gold,  even  the 
 work  of  men's  hands. 
 
 They  have  mouths,  and  speak  not :  eyes 
 have  they,  and  see  not;  they  have  ears, 
 and  hear  not;  noses  have  they,  and  smell 
 not ;  they  have  hands,  and  handle  not ; 
 feet  have  they,  and  walk  not ;  neither 
 speak  they  through  their  throat. 
 
 They  that  make  them  are  like  unto 
 them,  and  so  are  all  such  as  put  their 
 trust  in  them. 
 
 .  But  thou,  house  of  Israel,  trust  thou  in 
 the  Lord  ;  he  is  their  succour  and  defence. 
 
 Glory  be  to  the  Father,  &c. 
 
 As  it  was  in  the  beginning,  &c. 
 
 If  the  penitent  comes  from  the  separa- 
 tion, then  this  is  to  be  used. 
 
 Psalm  cxxii. 
 
 I  was  glad  when  they  said  unto  me,  We 
 will  go  iiito  the  house  of  the  Lord. 
 
 Our  feet  shall  stand  in  thy  gates,  O 
 Jerusalem. 
 
 Jerusalem  is  built  as  a  city  that  is  at 
 unity  in  itself. 
 
ABJURATION. 
 
 For  thither  the  tribes  go  up,  even  the 
 tribes  of  the  Lord,  to  testify  unto  Israel, 
 to  give  thanks  unto  the  name  of  the  Lord. 
 
 For  there  is  the  scat  of  judgment,  even 
 the  seat  of  tlie  house  of  David. 
 
 0  pray  for  the  peace  of  Jerusalem,  they 
 shall  prosper  that  love  thee. 
 
 Peace  be  within  thy  walls,  and  plen- 
 teousncss  within  thy  palaces. 
 
 For  my  brethren  and  companions'  sake 
 I  wish  thee  prosperity. 
 
 Yea,  because  of  the  house  of  the  Lord 
 our  God,  I  will  seek  to  do  thee  good. 
 
 Glory  be  to  the  Father,  Szc. 
 
 As  it  was  in  the  beginning,  &c. 
 
 Then  the  bishop  sitting  in  a  chair,  or  the 
 priest  standing,  shall  speak  to  the  peni- 
 tent, who  is  to  be  kneeling,  as  follows : 
 
 Dear  brother,  or  sister, 
 
 1  have  good  hope  that  you  have  well 
 weighed  and  considered  with  yourself  the 
 great  work  you  are  come  about,  before  this 
 time  ;  but  inasmuch  as  wdth  the  heart  man 
 believeth  unto  righteousness,  and  with  the 
 mouth  confession  is  made  unto  salvation, 
 that  you  may  give  the  more  honour  to 
 God,  and  that  this  present  congregation 
 of  Christ  here  assembled  may  also  under- 
 stand your  mind  and  will  in  these  things, 
 and  that  this  your  declaration  may  the 
 more  confirm  you  in  your  good  resolu- 
 tions, you  shall  answer  plainly  to  these 
 questions,  which  we  in  the  name  of  God 
 and  of  his  Church  shall  propose  to  you 
 touching  the  same : 
 
 Art  thou  thoroughly  persuaded  that 
 those  books  of  the  Old  and  the  New  Tes- 
 tament, which  are  received  as  canonical 
 scriptures  by  this  Church,  contain  suffi- 
 ciently all  doctrine  requisite  and  necessary 
 to  eternal  salvation  through  faith  in  Jesus 
 Christ  ? 
 
 Answer.     I  am  so  persuaded. 
 
 Dost  thou  believe  in  God  the  Father 
 Almighty,  Maker  of  heaven  and  earth,  and 
 in  Jesus  Christ,  his  only  begotten  Son 
 our  Lord,  and  that  he  was  conceived  of 
 the  Holy  Ghost,  born  of  the  Virgin  Mary, 
 that  he  suffered  under  Pontius  Pilate,  w^as 
 crucified,  dead,  and  buried,  that  he  went 
 down  into  hell,  and  also  did  rise  again  the 
 third  day,  that  he  ascended  into  heaven, 
 and  sitteth  at  the  right  hand  of  God  the 
 Father  Almighty,  and  from  thence  shall 
 come  again,  at  the  end  of  the  world,  to 
 judge  the  quick  and  the  dead  ? 
 
 And  dost  thou  believe  in  the  Holy 
 Ghost,  the  holy  Catholic  Church,  the  com- 
 munion of  saints,  the  remission  of  sins,  the 
 resurrection  of  the  flesh,  and  everlasting 
 life  after  death  ? 
 
 Answer.     Ah  this  I  stedfastly  believe. 
 
 Art  thou  truly  son-owful  that  thou  hast 
 not  followed  the  way  prescribed  in  these 
 Scriptures  for  the  directing  of  the  faith 
 and  practice  of  a  true  disciple  of  Christ 
 Jesus  ? 
 
 Answer.  I  am  heartily  sorry,  and  I 
 hope  for  mercy  through  Jesus  Christ. 
 
 Dost  thou  embrace  the  truth  of  the  gos- 
 pel in  the  love  of  it,  and  stedfastly  resolve 
 to  live  godly,  righteously,  and  soberly  in 
 this  present  world  all  the  days  of  thy  life  ? 
 
 Answer.  I  do  embrace  it,  and  do  so 
 resolve,  God  being  my  helper. 
 
 Dost  thou  earnestly  desire  to  be  re- 
 ceived into  the  communion  of  this  Church, 
 as  into  a  true  and  sound  part  of  Christ's 
 holy  Catholic  Church  ? 
 
 Answer.     This  I  earnestly  desire. 
 
 If  the  penitent  come  from  the  Church 
 of  Rome,  this  question  is  to  follow  : 
 
 Dost  thou  renounce  all  the  errors  and  su- 
 perstitions of  the  present  Romish  Church, 
 so  far  as  they  are  come  to  thy  knowledge  ? 
 
 Answer.  I  do  from  my  heart  renounce 
 them  all. 
 
 If  the  penitent  from  the  Church  of  Rome 
 be  in  holy  orders,  let  these  further  ques- 
 tions be  asked : 
 
 Dost  thou  in  particular  renounce  the 
 twelve  last  articles  added  in  the  confession, 
 commonly  called  "  the  Creed  of  Pope  Pius 
 IV.,"  after  having  read  them,  and  duly  con- 
 sidered them  ? 
 
 Answer.  I  do  upon  mature  deliberation 
 reject  them  all,  as  grounded  upon  no  war- 
 rant of  Scripture,  but  rather  repugnant  to 
 the  word  of  God. 
 
 Dost  thou  acknowledge  the  supremacy 
 of  the  kings  and  queens  of  this  realm,  as 
 by  law  established,  and  declared  in  the 
 thirty-seventh  article  of  religion  ? 
 
 Answer.    I  do  sincerely  acknowledge  it. 
 
 Wilt  thou  then  give  thy  faithful  dili- 
 gence always  so  to  minister  the  doctrine 
 and  sacraments,  and  the  discipline  of 
 Christ,  as  the  Lord  hath  commanded, 
 and  as  this  Church  and  realm  hath  re- 
 ceived the  same,  according  to  the  com- 
 mandments of  God,  so  that  thou  mayest 
 teach  the  people  w^ith  all  diligence  to  keep 
 and  observe  the  same  ? 
 
 Answer.  I  will  do  so  by  the  help  of 
 the  Lord. 
 
 Wilt  thou  conform  thyself  to  the  liturgy 
 of  the  Church  of  England,  as  by  law 
 established  ? 
 
 Answer.     I  will. 
 
 If  the  penitent  come  from  the  separa- 
 tion, these  questions  are  to  be  asked : 
 
ABJURATION. 
 
 ABSOLUTION. 
 
 Dost  thou  allow  and  apin-ovc  of  the 
 orders  of  bishops,  priests,  and  deacons  [as 
 ■what  have  been  in  the  Church  of  CiiiilsT 
 from  the  time  of  the  apostles]  ;  and  wilt 
 thou,  as  much  as  in  thee  lieth,  i)romote  all 
 due  regard  to  the  same  good  order  and 
 government  of  the  Church  of  Ciikist  ? 
 [Note.    That  within  the  crotchets  is  to  be 
 
 used  only  when  the  penitent  hath  been 
 
 a  teacher  in  some  separate  congregation.] 
 
 Answer.  I  do  approve  it,  and  will  jn- 
 deavour  that  it  may  be  so  regarded,  as 
 much  as  in  me  lieth. 
 
 Wilt  thou  conform  thyself  to  the  liturgy 
 of  the  Church  of  England,  as  by  law  estab- 
 lished, and  be  diligent  in  attending  the 
 prayers  and  other  offices  of  the  Church  ? 
 
 Answer.  I  will  do  so  by  the  help  of 
 God. 
 
 If  the  penitent  be  one  who  has  relapsed, 
 the  following  question  is  to  be  asked : 
 
 Art  thou  heartily  sorry,  that  when  thou 
 wast  in  the  way  of  truth,  thou  didst  so  lit- 
 tle watch  over  thy  own  heart,  as  to  suffer 
 thyself  to  be  led  away  with  the  shows  of 
 vain  doctrine  ?  and  dost  thou  stedfastly 
 purpose  to  be  more  careful  for  the  future, 
 and  to  persevere  in  that  holy  profession, 
 which  thou  hast  now  made  ? 
 
 Answer.  I  am  truly  grieved  for  my 
 former  unstedfastness,  and  am  fully  deter- 
 mined by  God's  grace  to  walk  more  cu'cum- 
 spectly  for  the  time  to  come,  and  to  conti- 
 nue in  this  my  profession  to  my  life's  end. 
 
 Then  the  bishop,  or  priest,  standing  up, 
 shall  say : 
 
 Almighty  God,  who  hath  given  you  a 
 sense  of  your  errors,  and  a  will  to  do  all 
 these  things,  grant  also  unto  you  strength 
 and  poAver  to  perform  the  same,  that  he 
 may  accomplish  his  work,  which  he  hath  be- 
 gun in  you,  through  Jesus  Christ.  Amen. 
 
 The  Ahsolutmi. 
 Almighty  GoD,  our  heavenly  Father, 
 who  of  his  great  mercy  hath  promised  for- 
 giveness of  sins  to  all  them  that  with  hearty 
 repentance  and  true  faith  turn  unto  him, 
 ha^e  mercy  upon  you,  pardon  and  deliver 
 you  from  all  your  sins,  confirm  and 
 strengthen  you  in  all  goodness,  and  bring 
 you  to  everlasting  life,  through  Jesus 
 Christ  our  Lord.     Amen. 
 
 Then  the  bishop,  or  priest,  taking  the 
 penitent  by  the  right  hand,  shall  say  unto 
 him  : 
 
 I  N.,  bishop  of ,  or  I  A.  B.,  do  upon 
 
 this  thy  solemn  profession  and  earnest  re- 
 quest receive  thee  into  the  holy  commu- 
 nion of  the   Church  of  England,   in   the 
 
 name  of  the  Father,  and  of  the  Son,  and 
 of  the  Holy  Ghost. 
 
 People :  Amen. 
 
 Then  the  bishop,  or  priest,  shall  say  the 
 Lord's  Prayer,  with  that  which  follows, 
 all  kneeling. 
 
 Let  us  pray. 
 
 Our  Fathkr,  which  art  in  heaven,  &c. 
 
 O  God  of  truth  and  love,  we  bless  and 
 magnify  thy  holy  name  for  thy  great  mercy 
 and  goodness  in  bringing  this  thy  servant 
 into  the  communion  of  this  Church :  gi\  e 
 him  (or  her)  we  beseech  thee,  stability 
 and  perseverance  in  that  faith  of  which  he 
 (or  she)  hath  in  the  presence  of  God  and 
 of  this  congregation  witnessed  a  good 
 confession.  Suffer  him  (or  her)  not  to  be 
 moved  from  it  by  any  temptations  of  Satan, 
 enticements  of  the  world,  the  scoffs  of 
 ix'religious  men,  or  the  revilings  of  those 
 who  are  still  in  error ;  but  guard  him  (or 
 her)  by  thy  grace  against  all  these  snares, 
 and  make  him  (or  her)  instrumental  in 
 turning  others  from  the  en'ors  of  their 
 ways,  to  the  saving  of  their  souls  from 
 death,  and  the  covering  a  multitude  of 
 sins.  And  in  thy  good  time,  O  Lord, 
 bring,  we  pray  thee,  into  the  way  of  truth 
 all  such  as  have  erred  and  are  deceived ; 
 and  so  fetch  them  home,  blessed  Lord,  to 
 thy  flock,  that  there  may  be  one  fold  under 
 one  Shepherd,  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ; 
 to  whom  with  the  Father  and  the  Holy 
 Spirit  be  all  honour  and  glory,  world 
 without  end.     Amen. 
 
 Then  the  bishop,  or  priest,  standing  up 
 (if  there  be  no  communion  at  that  time), 
 shall  turn  himself  to  the  person  newly  ad- 
 mitted, and  say : 
 
 Dear  brother,  or  sister, 
 
 Seeing  that  you  have  by  the  goodness 
 of  God  proceeded  thus  far,  I  must  put 
 you  in  mind,  that  you  take  care  to  go  on 
 in  that  good  way  into  which  you  are  en- 
 tered ;  and  for  your  establishment  and 
 furtherance  therein,  that,  if  you  have  not 
 been  confirmed,  you  endeavour  to  be  so 
 the  next  opportunity,  and  receive  the  holy 
 sacrament  of  the  Lord's  supper.  And 
 may  God's  Holy  Spirit  ever  be  with  you. 
 Amen. 
 
 The  peace  of  God,  which  passeth  all 
 understanding,  keep  your  heart  and  mind 
 by  Christ  Jesus.  Amen.  —  CanhcelCs 
 SynochtJia.    IVilkins's  Concilia. 
 
 ABSOLUTION.  (See  Confession,  Pe- 
 nance.) The  power  of  absolution  consists 
 in  removing  the  guilt  and  punishment  of 
 sin,  and  receiving  the  guilty  person  into 
 favour,  as  if  he  were  perfectly  innocent. 
 This  is  variously  expressed  in  holy  Scrip- 
 
6 
 
 ABSOLUTION. 
 
 ture.  It  is  sometimes  made  the  same  with 
 justification,  which  is  the  acquitting  _  a 
 person  from  guilt,  and  looking  upon  him 
 as  perfectly  righteous.  It  is  op})osed  to 
 condemnation,  which  is  a  laying  of  sin  to 
 his  charge.  This  power  is  expressed  by 
 remitting  or  retaining  of  sin,  which  is  the 
 jjardoning  or  punishing  of  it.  It  is  called 
 sometimes  the  power  of  opening  and  shut- 
 ting the  kingdom  of  heaven,  which  is  by 
 admitting  into,  or  excluding  out  of,  the 
 Church  ;  for  none  can  be  received  into  the 
 kingdom  of  glory  hereafter  but  such  as 
 are  admitted  into  the  church  or  kingdom 
 of  grace  here  :  called  therefore  the  power 
 of  the  keys.  It  is  called  in  St.  Matthew 
 the  power  of  binding  and  loosing,  (xvi.  19,) 
 "  Whatsoever  ye  shall  bind  on  earth,"  &c. 
 Sinners  are  said  to  be  "  tied  and  bound  with 
 the  chain  of  their  sins,"  to  be  "  holden 
 with  cords,"  and  to  be  "in  the  bond  of 
 iniquity."  Now  to  loosen  this  bond,  to 
 untie  those  cords,  and  so  be  freed  from 
 these  chains,  is  done  by  what  we  call  the 
 power  of  absolution,  or  remission  of  sins  : 
 and  so  the  words  of  St.  MatthcAV  are  the 
 same  in  effect  v/ith  those  of  St.  John, 
 "  "Whose  soever  sins  ye  remit,"  &c.  This 
 power  of  pardoning  is  annexed  to  some 
 acts  of  religion,  instituted  by  God  for  this 
 purpose,  and  executed  only  by  Christ's 
 ministers.  As,  1.  Baptism  was  ordained 
 for  the  remission  of  sins  ;  so  St.  Peter  told 
 his  converts,  (Acts  ii.  38,)  "  Repent,  and 
 be  baptized,  every  one  of  you,"  &c.  2.  The 
 holy  sacrament  of  the  eucharist  was  insti- 
 tuted for  this  purpose  :  as  we  read,  Matt. 
 xxvi.  28,  where  Christ's  body  is  said  to 
 be  broken,  and  "  his  blood  shed  for  many 
 for  the  remission  of  sins."  3.  The  preach- 
 ing the  word  is  for  the  proclaiming  of 
 pardon,  called  therefore  the  ministry,  or 
 w^ord,  of  reconciliation.  (2  Cor.  v.  18.) 
 4.  The  prayer  of  the  elders  over  the  sick 
 hath  joined  to  it  the  forgiveness  of  sins. 
 (Jas.  V.  14.)  Now  these  ministerial  acts 
 for  the  "  remission  of  sins,"  are  peculiar 
 only  to  the  "  priest's  office  : "  neither  is  the 
 virtue  or  effect  of  them  to  be  imparted  to 
 any  other ;  for  to  them  it  is  said,  and  to 
 no  other,  *'  whose  sins  ye  remit,"  &c. ;  and 
 therefore  a  pardon  pronounced  by  them 
 must  be  of  greater  efficacy  than  by  any 
 ordinary  person. — Rule. 
 
 The  authority  and  power  of  conferring 
 absolution  on  penitents,  wherewith  our 
 gracious  Saviour  hath  so  clearly  vested 
 his  ministerial  successors,  "  whose  soever 
 sins  ye  remit,"  <Scc.,  having  been  abused 
 by  the  Church  of  Kome  into  a  lucrative 
 market  of  pardons  and  indulgences,  it  is 
 no  wonder  that  Luther,  and  all  our  first 
 
 reformers,  should  have  taken  infinite  of- 
 fence at  a  practice  so  flagitious,  and  so 
 directly  contrary  to  the  command  of 
 Christ,  "  freely  ye  have  received,  fi-eely 
 give."  This,  however,  should  not  have 
 been  a  reason,  as  it  was  with  too  many, 
 for  rejecting  all  absolutions.  The  true 
 doctrine  is,  and  must  be,  this  :  For  the 
 consolation  of  his  Church,  and  particularly 
 of  such  as  class  with  the  penitent  publican 
 in  the  gospel,  Christ  hath  left  with  his 
 bishops  and  presbyters  a  power  to  pro- 
 nounce absolution.  This  absolution  is  on 
 condition  of  faith  and  repentance  in  the 
 person  or  persons  receiving  it.  On  suffi-  - 
 cient  appearance  of  these,  and  on  confes- 
 sion made  with  these  appearances  in  par- 
 ticular persons,  the  bishop  or  presbyter, 
 as  the  messenger  of  Christ,  is  to  pro- 
 nounce it.  But  he  cannot  search  the 
 heart ;  GoD  only,  Avho  can,  confirms  it. 
 The  power  of  absolution  is  remarkably 
 exercised  by  St.  Paul,  though  absent,  and 
 depending  on  both  report  and  the  inform- 
 ation of  the  Holy  Spirit,  in  regard  to 
 the  Corinthian  excommunicated  for  incest. 
 The  apostle,  speaking  in  the  character  of 
 one  to  whom  the  authority  of  absolution 
 had  been  committed,  saith  to  the  Church  of 
 Corinth,  "  to  whom  ye  forga^■e  anything, 
 I  forgive  also."  (2  Cor.  ii.  10.)  Thus  the 
 penitent  was  pardoned  and  restored  to 
 communion  by  delegated  authority,  in  the 
 person  of  Christ,  lest  such  an  one  should 
 be  swallowed  up  with  over-much  sorrow, 
 and  lest  Satan  should  get  an  advantage 
 over  us.  As  these  reasons  for  compassion 
 still  remain,  it  seems  evident  that  the 
 Church  should  still  retain  the  same  power 
 of  showing  that  compassion,  as  far  as  hu- 
 man understanding  may  direct  its  applica- 
 tion.— Skelton. 
 
 Sacerdotal  absolution  does  not  neces- 
 sarily require  any  particular  or  auricular 
 confession  of  private  sins  ;  forasmuch  as 
 that  the  grand  absolution  of  baptism  was 
 commonly  given  without  any  particular 
 confession.  And  therefore  the  Romanists 
 vainly  found  the  necessity  of  auricular  con- 
 fession upon  those  words  of  our  Saviour, 
 Whose  soever  sins  ye  remit,  they  are  remitted 
 unto  them  :  as  if  there  could  be  no  absolu- 
 tion without  particular  confession ;  when 
 it  is  so  plain,  that  the  great  absolution  of 
 baptism  (the  poAver  of  which  is  founded 
 by  the  ancients  upon  this  very  place)  re- 
 quired no  such  particular  confession.  Wf^ 
 may  hence  infer,  that  ti-  power  of  any 
 sacerdotal  absolution  is  only  ministerial  j 
 because  the  administration  of  baptism, 
 (which  is  the  most  universal  absolution,) 
 so  far  as  man  is  concerned  in  it,  is  no 
 
ABSULUTiON. 
 
 more  than  ministerial.  All  the  office  and 
 power  of  man  in  it  is  only  to  minister  the 
 external  form,  but  the  internal  power  and 
 grace  of  remission  of  sins  is  properly  God's  ; 
 and  so  it  is  in  all  other  sorts  of  absolution. 
 —  Binf/Iiam. 
 
 The  bishops  and  priests  of  the  whole 
 Christian  Church  have  ever  used  to  absolve 
 all  that  truly  repented,  and  at  this  day  it 
 is  retained  in  our  Churcli  as  a  part  of  the 
 daily  office  ;  which  being  so  useful,  so 
 necessary,  and  founded  on  holy  Scripture, 
 needs  not  any  arguments  to  defend  it,  but 
 that  the  ignorance  and  prejudice  of  some 
 make  them  take  offence  at  it,  and  prin- 
 cipally because  it  hath  been  so  much 
 abused  by  the  Papal  Church.  We  may 
 declare  our  abhorrcncy  of  these  evil  uses 
 of  absolution ;  though  in  that  sober,  mo- 
 derate, and  useful  manner  we  do  perform 
 it,  we  do  not  vary  from  the  prime  intention 
 of  Ciikist's  commission,  and  the  practice 
 of  antiquity  :  absolution  was  instituted  by 
 Jesus,  and  if  it  have  been  corrupted  by 
 men,  we  will  cast  away  the  corruptions, 
 not  the  ordinance  itself. —  Comber. 
 
 Sin  is  compared  to  a  bond,  (Acts  viii.  23  ; 
 Prov.  V.  22,)  because  it  binds  down  the 
 soul  by  its  guilt  and  power,  and  hinders  it 
 from  free  converse  with  God,  yea,  makes 
 it  liable  to  eternal  condemnation  :  but  Je- 
 sus came  to  unloose  these  bonds,  and  ac- 
 tually did  so  to  divers,  when  he  was  upon 
 earth,  and  left  this  power  to  his  apostles 
 and  their  successors,    when   he    went  to 
 heaven  ;  and  this  unloosing  men  from  the 
 bond  of  their  sins  is  that  which  we  pro- 
 perly call  absolution,  and  it  is  a  necessary 
 and  most  comfortable  part  of  the  priest's 
 office.     But  the  sectaries  do   wholly  dis- 
 own this  power,  and  are  so  bold  as  to  de- 
 ride us  for  the  use  thereof:  yet  it  is  certain 
 that   Christ   did   give   his  disciples   the 
 power  of  binding  and  loosing,  (Matt.  xvi. 
 19 ;  xviii.  18,)  or,  as  it  is  elsewhere  called, 
 of  remitting  sins,  (John  xx.  22,  23,)  fre- 
 quently   repeating  this    commission,    and 
 solemnly  promising    to    ratify  in   heaven 
 what  they  did  on  earth.     It  is  plain  also, 
 that   the    apostles   exercised  this    power, 
 (Acts  ii.  38  ;  2  Cor.  ii.  10,)  and  gave  their 
 successors  a  charge  to  use  it  also  (Gal.  vi. 
 1  ;  James  v.   14,  15)  ;    and  the  primitive 
 histories  do  abundantly  testify  they  did  so 
 very  often ;  so  that  they  must  cancel  all 
 those    lines  of  Scripture,  and  records  of 
 antiquity  also,  before  they  can  take  away 
 this  power.     Nor  can  they  fairly  pretend 
 it  was  a  personal  privilege  dying  with  the 
 apostles,  since  the  Church    hath   used  it 
 ever  since,  and  penitents  need  a  comfort- 
 able application  of  their  pardon  now,  as 
 
 well  as  they  did  then :  and  whereas  they 
 object  with  the  Jews,  that  ''  none  can  for- 
 give sins  but  God  only,"  (Luke  v.  21,)  we 
 reply,  that  God  alone  can  exercise  this 
 power  in  his  own  right,  but  he  may  and 
 hath  communicated  it  to  others,  who  did 
 it  in  his  name,  and  by  his  authority  ;  or, 
 as  St.  Paul  speaks,  in  the  person  of  Christ 
 (2  Cor.  ii.  10)  ;  so  that  St.  Ambrose  saith, 
 "God  himself  forgives  sins  by  them  to 
 whom  he  hath  granted  the  power  of  ab- 
 solution."—  Coniber. 
 
 Calvin's  liturgy  has  no  form  of  absolution 
 in  it :  but  he  himself  says  that  it  was  an 
 omission  in  him  at  first,  and  a  defect  in  his 
 liturgy ;  which  he  afterwards  would  have 
 rectified  and  amended,  but  could  not.  He 
 makes  this  ingenuous  confession  in  one  of 
 his  epistles :  "  There  is  none  of  us,"  says 
 he,  "  but  must  acknowledge  it  to  be  very 
 useful,  that,  after  the  general  confession, 
 some  remarkable  j)romise  of  Scripture 
 should  follow,  whereby  sinners  might  be 
 raised  to  the  hopes  of  pardon  and  recon- 
 ciliation. And  I  would  have  introduced 
 this  custom  from  the  beginning,  but  some 
 fearing  that  the  novelty  of  it  would  give 
 offence,  I  was  over-easy  in  yielding  to 
 them  ;  so  the  thing  was  omitted."  I  must 
 do  that  justice  to  Calvin  here,  by  the  way, 
 to  say,  that  he  was  no  enemy  to  j-.rivate 
 absolution  neither,  as  used  in  the  Church 
 of  England.  For  in  one  of  his  answers  to 
 Westphalus  he  thus  expresses  his  mind 
 about  it :  "I  have  no  intent  to  deny  the 
 usefulness  of  private  absolution  :  but  as  I 
 commend  it  in  several  places  of  my  writ- 
 ings, provided  the  use  be  left  to  men's 
 liberty,  and  free  from  superstition,  so  to 
 bind  men's  consciences  by  a  law  to  it,  is 
 neither  lawful  nor  expedient."  Here  we 
 have  Calvin's  judgment,  fully  and  entirely, 
 for  the  usefulness  both  of  public  and 
 private  absolution.  He  owns  it  to  be  a 
 defect  in  his  liturgy,  that  it  wants  a  public 
 absolution. — Binyhcun. 
 
 Calvin's  own  account  of  his  facility 
 merits  attention.  In  his  character,  flex- 
 ibility of  disposition  appears  to  be  a  linea- 
 ment either  so  faint,  or  so  obscured  by 
 more  prominent  features  of  a  diflcrent 
 cast,  that  it  has  generally  escaped  vulgar 
 observation.  His  panegyrist,  the  learned 
 translator  of  Mosheim'sEccles.  Hist.,  [Mac- 
 laine,]  describes  him  as  surpassing  most  of 
 the  reformers  "  in  obstinacy,  asperity,  and 
 turbulence." — Shepherd. 
 
 This  penitence  our  Church  makes  not 
 a  new  sacrament,  (as  doth  the  Church  of 
 Kome,)  but  a  means  of  returning  to  the 
 grace  of  GoD  bestowed  in  baptism.  "  They 
 which  in  act  or  deed  sin  after  baptism. 
 
8 
 
 ABSOLUTION. 
 
 (saith  our  homily,)  when  tliey  turn  to  GoD 
 unfeignedly,  they  are  likewise  washed  by 
 this  sacrifice  from  their  sins." — Puller. 
 
 If  our  confession  be  serious  and  hearty, 
 this  absolution  is  as  effectual  as  if  God  did 
 pronounce  it  from  heaven.  So  says  the 
 Confession  of  Saxony  and  Bohemia,  and 
 so  says  the  Augustan  Confession ;  and, 
 which  is  more,  so  says  St.  Chrysostom  in 
 his  fifth  homily  upon  Isaiah,  "  Heaven 
 waits  and  expects  the  prie-st's  sentence 
 here  on  earth ;  the  Lord  follows  the  ser- 
 vant, and  what  the  servant  rightly  binds 
 or  looses  here  on  earth,  that  the  Lord 
 confirms  in  heaven."  The  same  says  St. 
 Gregory  ( Hom.  26)  upon  the  Gospels : 
 "  The  apostles  (and  in  them  all  priests) 
 were  made  God's  vicegerents  here  on 
 earth,  in  his  name  and  stead  to  retain  or 
 remit  sins."  St.  Augustine  and  Cyprian, 
 and  generally  all  antiquity,  say  the  same ; 
 so  does  our  Church  in  many  places,  par- 
 ticularly in  the  form  of  absolution  for  the 
 sick;  but,  above  all,  holy  Scripture  is 
 clear,  ( St.  John  xx.  23,)  "  ^Vhose  soever 
 sins  ye  remit,  they  are  remitted  unto 
 them,"  Which  power  of  remitting  sins 
 was  not  to  end  with  the  apostles,  but  is  a 
 part  of  the  ministry'  of  reconciliation,  as 
 necessary  now  as  it  was  then,  and  there- 
 fore to  continue  as  long  as  the  ministry  of 
 reconciliation ;  that  is,  to  the  end  of  the 
 world.  (Eph.  iv.  12,  13.)  When  there- 
 fore the  priest  absolves,  God  absolves,  if 
 we  be  truly  penitent.  Now,  this  remis- 
 sion of  sins  granted  here  to  the  priest,  to 
 which  God  hath  promised  a  confirmation 
 in  heaven,  is  not  the  act  of  preaching,  or 
 baptizing,  or  admitting  men  to  the  holy 
 communion.  But  this  power  of  remitting 
 sins,  mentioned  John  xx.,  was  not  granted 
 (though  promised.  Matt.  xvi.  19)  till  7ioiv, 
 that  is,  after  the  resurrection,  as  appears 
 by  the  ceremony  of  hreathinrf,  signifying 
 that  then  it  was  given :  and  secondly,  by 
 the  word  receive,  used  in  that  place,  (ver. 
 22,)  which  he  could  not  properly  have 
 used,  if  they  had  been  endued  with  this 
 power  before.  Therefore  the  power  of 
 remitting,  which  here  GoD  authorizes,  and 
 promises  certain  assistance  to,  is  neither 
 preaching  nor  baptizing,  but  some  other 
 way  of  remitting,  viz.  that  which  the 
 Church  calls  absolution.  And  if  it  be  so, 
 then,  to  doubt  of  the  eff'ect  of  it,  (supposing 
 we  be  truly  penitent,  and  such  as  God 
 will  pardon,)  is  to  question  the  truth  of 
 God  :  and  he  that,  under  pretence  of 
 reverence  to  God,  denies  or  despises  this 
 power,  does  injury  to  God,  slighting  his 
 commission,  and  is  no  better  than  a  No- 
 vatian,  says  St.  Ambrose. — Sjmrroic. 
 
 Our  Church  has  not  appointed  the 
 indicative  form  of  absolution  to  be  used 
 in  all  these  senses,  but  only  once  in  the 
 office  of  the  sick,  and  that  may  reasonably 
 be  interpreted,  (according  to  the  account 
 given  out  of  St.  Jerome,)  a  declaration  of 
 the  sinner's  pardon,  upon  the  apparent 
 evidences  of  a  sincere  repentance,  and  the 
 best  judgment  the  minister  can  make  of 
 his  condition  ;  beyond  which  none  can  go, 
 but  the  searcher  of  hearts,  to  whom  alone 
 belongs  the  infallible  and  irreversible  sen- 
 tence of  absolution.  The  indicative  form, 
 "  I  absolve  thee,"  may  be  interpreted  to 
 mean  no  more  than  a  declaration  of  God's 
 will  to  a  penitent  sinner,  that,  upon  the 
 best  judgment  the  priest  can  make  of  his 
 repentance,  he  esteems  him  absolved  before 
 God,  and  accordingly  pronounces  and  de- 
 clares him  absolved.  As  St.  Jerome  ob- 
 serves, the  priests  under  the  old  law  were 
 said  to  cleanse  a  leper,  or  pollute  him  ;  not 
 that  they  were  the  authors  of  his  pollution, 
 but  that  they  declared  him  to  be  polluted, 
 M'ho  before  seemed  to  many  to  have  been 
 clean.  As,  therefore,  the  priest  makes  the 
 leper  clean  or  unclean,  so  the  bishop  or 
 presbyter  here  binds  or  looses,  not  pro- 
 perly making  the  guilty  or  the  guiltless  ; 
 but  according  to  the  tenor  of  his  office, 
 when  he  hears  the  distinction  of  sins,  he 
 knows  who  is  to  be  bound,  and  who  is  to 
 be  loosed.  Upon  this  also,  the  master  of 
 the  sentences  (following  St.  Jerome)  ob- 
 serves, that  the  priests  of  the  gospel  have 
 that  right  and  office  which  the  legal  priests 
 had  of  old  under  the  law  in  curing  the 
 lepers.  These,  therefore,  forgive  sins,  or 
 retain  them,  whilst  they  show  and  declare 
 that  they  are  forgiven  or  retained  by  God. 
 For  the  priests  "  put  the  name  of  the 
 Lord  "  upon  the  children  of  Israel,  but  it 
 was  he  himself  that  blessed  them,  as  it  is 
 read  in  Num.  vi.  27. — Bincjham. 
 
 Our  Church  maintains,  appealing  to 
 Scripture  for  the  proof  of  it,  that  some 
 power  of  absolving  or  remitting  sins,  de- 
 rived from  the  apostles,  remains  with  their 
 successors  in  the  ministry ;  and  accordingly, 
 at  the  ordination  of  priests,  the  words  of 
 our  Saviour,  on  which  the  power  is  found- 
 ed, are  solemnly  repeated  to  them  by  the 
 bishop,  and  the  power  at  the  same  time 
 conferred.  We  do  not  pretend  it  is  in  any 
 sort  a  discretionary  poAver  of  forgiving 
 sins,  for  the  priest  has  no  discernment  of 
 the  spirit  and  hearts  of  men,  as  the  apostles 
 had,  but  a  power  of  pronouncing  author- 
 itatively, in  the  name  of  God,  who  has 
 committed  to  the  priest  the  ministry  of 
 reconciliation,  liis  pardon  and  forgiveness 
 to  all  true  penitents  and  sincere  believers. 
 
ABSOLUTION. 
 
 ABSTINENCE. 
 
 That  God  alone  can  for«j;ive  sins,  that  he 
 is  the  Bole  author  of  all  Llcssing;s,  spiritual 
 as  Avell  as  temporal,  is  undeniable  :  but 
 that  he  can  declare  his  gracious  assurance 
 of  pardon,  and  convey  his  blessings  to  us, 
 l)y  Avhat  means  and  instruments  he  thinks 
 fit,  is  no  less  certain.  In  whatever  May 
 he  vouchsafes  to  do  it,  it  is  our  duty  hum- 
 bly and  thankfidly  to  receive  them ;  not 
 to  dispute  his  wisdom  in  the  choice  of 
 those  means  and  instruments ;  for,  in  that 
 case,  he  that  despiseth,  despiseth  not  man, 
 but  God. —  Waldo. 
 
 The  following  remarks  on  our  forms  of 
 absolution  occur  in  "  Palmer's  Origines 
 Liturgies." 
 
 "  An  absolution  followed  the  confession 
 formerly  in  the  ofiices  of  the  English 
 churches,  for  prime,  or  the  first  hour  of 
 the  day.  "We  may,  perhaps,  assign  to  the 
 absolution  thus  placed,  an  antiquity  equal 
 to  that  of  the  confession,  though  Gemma 
 Animce  and  Durandus  do  not  appear  ex- 
 pressly to  mention  it.  The  sacerdotal 
 benediction  of  penitents  was  in  the  earliest 
 times  conveyed  in  the  form  of  a  prayer  to 
 God  for  their  absolution ;  but,  in  after 
 ages,  different  forms  of  benediction  were 
 used,  both  in  the  East  and  West.  '\Vith 
 regard  to  these  varieties  oi  form,  it  does 
 not  appear  that  they  were  formerly  con- 
 sidered of  any  importance.  A  benediction 
 seems  to  have  been  regarded  as  equally 
 valid,  whether  it  was  conveyed  in  the 
 form  of  a  petition  or  a  declaration,  whe- 
 ther in  the  optative  or  the  indicative  mood, 
 whether  in  the  active  or  the  passive  voice, 
 whether  in  the  first,  second,  or  third  per- 
 son. It  is  true  that  a  direct  prayer  to 
 God  is  a  most  ancient  form  of  blessing ; 
 but  the  use  of  a  precatory,  or  an  optative 
 form,  by  no  means  warrants  the  inference, 
 that  the  person  who  uses  it  is  devoid  of 
 any  divinely  instituted  authority  to  bless 
 and  absolve  in  the  congregation  of  God. 
 Neither  does  the  use  of  a  direct  indicative 
 form  of  blessing  or  absolution  imply  any- 
 thing but  the  exercise  of  an  authority 
 which  God  has  given,  to  such  an  extent, 
 and  under  such  limitations,  as  Divine  reve- 
 lation has  declared." 
 
 In  the  primitive  Church  absolution  was 
 regarded  to  consist  of  five  kinds :  sacra- 
 mental, by  baptism  and  the  eucharist ;  de- 
 claratory, by  word  of  mouth  and  doctrine  ; 
 precatory,  Iby  imposition  of  hands  and 
 prayer ;  judicial,  by  relaxation  of  Church 
 censures. — Bhu/ham. 
 
 The  Absolution  in  the  Order  for  Morn- 
 ing and  Evening  Prayer  was  first  inserted 
 in  the  Second  Book  of  King  Edward  VI. 
 It  can  be  pronounced  by  the  priest  only  or 
 
 alone.  At  the  last  review  the  word  Mims- 
 ter  in  the  rubric  preceding  the  absolution, 
 was  changed  into  Priest  :•  this  change  be- 
 ing obviously  adopted  from  the  Scotch 
 Prayer  liook  in  Charles  I.'s  time,  where 
 the  word  in  the  same  place  is  Prcshyter. 
 The  other  two  absolutions  are  coeval  with 
 our  reformed  Prajer  Book.  The  minis- 
 terial absolution  of  persons  unquiet  in  con- 
 science, before  receiving  the  holy  commu- 
 nion, is  mentioned  in  the  first  exhortation 
 on  giving  notice  of  the  communion  ;  and 
 the  absolution  of  excommunicated  persons 
 in  the  Goth  Canon. 
 
 ABSTINENCE,  {^ee  Fasting.)  In  the 
 Romish  Church,  fasting  and  abstinence 
 admit  of  a  distinction,  and  different  days 
 are  appointed  for  each  of  them.  On  their 
 days  of  fasting,  they  are  allowed  but  one 
 meal  in  four  and  twenty  hours;  but,  on 
 days  of  abstinence,  provided  they  abstain 
 from  flesh,  and  make  but  a  moderate  meal, 
 they  are  indulged  in  a  collation  at  night. 
 The  times  by  them  set  apart  for  the  first 
 are,  all  Lent,  except  Sundays,  the  Ember 
 days,  the  vigils  of  the  more  solemn  feasts, 
 and  all  Fridays  except  those  that  fall 
 within  the  twelve  days  of  Christmas,  and 
 between  Easter  and  the  Ascension.  Their 
 days  of  abstinence  are  all  the  Sundays  in 
 Lent,  St.  Mark's  day,  if  it  does  not  fall  in 
 Easter  week,  the  three  Kogation  days,  all 
 Saturdays  throughout  the  year,  with  the 
 Fridays  before  excepted,  unless  either  hap- 
 pen to  be  Christmas  day.  The  reason 
 why  they  observe  St.  Mark  as  a  day  of 
 abstinence  is,  as  we  learn  from  their  own 
 books,  in  imitation  of  St.  ISIark's  disciples, 
 the  first  Christians  of  Alexandria,  Avho, 
 under  this  saint's  conduct,  were  eminent 
 for  their  great  prayer,  abstinence,  and  so- 
 briety. They  further  tell  us,  that  St.  Gre- 
 gory the  Great,  the  apostle  of  England,  • 
 first  set  apart  this  day  for  abstinence  and 
 public  prayer,  as  an  acknowledgment  of 
 the  Divine  mercy,  in  putting  a  stop  to  a 
 mortality  in  his  time  at  Rome. 
 
 We  do  not  find  that  the  Church  of 
 England  makes  any  difference  between 
 days  of  fasting  and  days  of  abstinence.  It 
 is  true,  in  the  title  of  the  table  of  Vigils, 
 &:c.,  she  mentions  fasts  and  days  of  absti- 
 nence separately ;  but  Avhen  she  comes  to 
 enumerate  the  particulars,  she  calls  them 
 all  days  of  fasting  or  abstinence,  without 
 distinguishing  between  the  one  and  the 
 other.  Nor  does  she  anywhere  point  out 
 to  us  what  food  is  proper  for  such  times 
 or  seasons,  or  seem  to  place  any  part  of 
 religion  in  abstaining  fi-om  any  particular 
 kinds  of  meat.  It  is  true,  by  a  statute, 
 {o  Eliz.  5,)  none  were  alloMcd  to  cat  flesh 
 
10 
 
 ABYSSINIA. 
 
 ACROSTIC. 
 
 on  fish-days,  (which  are  there  dcckired  to 
 be  all  Wednesdays,  Fridays,  and  Satur- 
 days in  the  year,)  without  a  licence  first 
 obtained,  for  which  they  are  to  pay  a 
 yearly  fine,  (except  such  as  are  sick,  who 
 may  be  licensed  either  by  the  bishop  or 
 minister,)  under  penalty  of  three  pounds' 
 forfeiture,  or  three  months'  imprisonment 
 without  bail,  and  of  forty  shillings'  for- 
 feiture for  any  master  of  a  family  that  suf- 
 fers or  conceals  it.  But  then  this  is  de- 
 clared to  be  a  mere  political  law,  for  the 
 increase  of  fishermen  and  mariners,  and 
 repau'ing  of  port  towns  and  navigation, 
 and  not  for  any  superstition  to  be  main- 
 tained in  the  clioice  of  meats.  For,  by  the 
 same  act,  whosoever,  by  preaching,  teach- 
 ing, writing,  &c.,  affirms  it  to  be  necessary 
 to  abstain  from  flesh  for  the  saving  of  the 
 soul  of  man,  or  for  the  service  of  God, 
 othervvise  than  other  politic  laws  are  or 
 be,  is  to  be  punished  as  a  spreader  of  false 
 news.  That  is,  he  must  suff'er  imprison- 
 ment till  he  ])roduce  the  author;  and,  if 
 he  cannot  produce  him,  must  be  punished 
 at  the  discretion  of  the  king's  council. 
 The  sections  of  this  act  which  relate  to 
 eating  fish  on  Wednesdays,  were  repealed 
 by  27  Eliz.  c.  11. 
 
 *  With  us,  therefore,  neither  Church  nor 
 State  makes  any  difference  in  the  kinds  of 
 meat ;  but  as  far  as  the  former  determines 
 in  the  matter,  she  seems  to  recommend  an 
 entire  abstinence  from  all  manner  of  food 
 till  the  time  of  fasting  be  over ;  declaring 
 in  her  homilies,  that  fasting  (by  the  de- 
 cree of  the  six  hundred  and  thirty  fathers, 
 assembled  at  the  Council  of  Chalcedon, 
 which  w^as  one  of  the  four  first  general 
 councils,  who  grovnided  their  determina- 
 tion upon  the  sacred  Scriptures,  and  long- 
 continued  usage  or  practice  both  of  the 
 prophets  and  other  godly  persons,  before 
 the  coming  of  Christ,  and  also  of  the  apos- 
 tles and  other  devout  men  in  the  New  Tes- 
 tament) is  a  withholding  of  meat,  drink, 
 and  all  natural  food  from  the  body,  for  the 
 determined  time  of  fasting. —  JVheatly. 
 
 ABYSSINIA.  The  Abyssinian  Church 
 was  founded  early  in  the  fourth  century. 
 Its  first  bishop,  Frumentius,  received  con- 
 secration from  St.  Athanasius,  bishop  of 
 Alexandria,  and  to  this  day  the  Ahuml  of 
 Abyssinia  is  consecrated  by  the  Alexan- 
 drian patriarch.  In  the  sixth  century  the 
 Christians  of  Abyssinia  fell  into  the  heresy 
 of  the  Monophysites,  in  which  they  still 
 remain ;  and  they  also  agree  with  the 
 Greek  Church  in  denying  the  procession 
 of  the  Holy  Ghost  from  the  Son.  In  the 
 fifth,  and  again  in  the  seventeenth,  cen- 
 tm-y,  attempts  were  made  to  reduce  the 
 
 Abyssinian  Christians  to  obedience  to  the 
 lioman  see,  but  the  attempt  in  both  in- 
 stances utterly  failed.  The  number  of 
 Christians  in  Abyssinia  is  said  to  amount 
 to  three  miUions. 
 
 ACffiMET.E.  CAKoifxnral,  Watchers.) 
 An  order  of  monks  instituted  at  the  begin- 
 ning of  the  fifth  century  at  Constantinople, 
 who  were  divided  into  three  classes,  who 
 performed  the  Divine  service  by  rotation, 
 and  so  continued  night  and  day  without 
 intermission. 
 
 ACEPHALI.  (rt  and  K€(pa\}),  literally, 
 iritlumt  a  head.)  The  name  given  to  those  of 
 the  Egyptian  Eutychians,  who,  after  Peter 
 IMagus,  bishop  of  Alexandria,  had  signed 
 the  Ilenoticun  of  Zeno,  A.  D.  482,  formed  a 
 separate  sect.  (See  Henoticon.)  The  word 
 is  also  applied  to  those  bishops  who  were 
 exempt  from  the  jm'isdiction  of  a  metro- 
 politan or  patriarch. 
 
 ACOLYTH,  or  ACOLYTE,  {aKoUvehq,) 
 in  our  old  English  called  Collet,  was  an 
 inferior  church  servant,  who,  next  under 
 the  subdeacon,  waited  on  the  priests  and 
 deacons,  and  performed  the  meaner  onices 
 of  lighting  the  candles,  carrying  the  bread 
 and  v.ine,  <S:c.  He  was  allowed  to  wear 
 the  cassock  and  surplice.  In  the  Church  of 
 Rome  it  was  accounted  one  of  the  minor 
 orders.  In  the  Greek  Church  it  is  sup- 
 posed to  be  another  name  for  the  order  of 
 subdeacons,  according  to  Bingham. — Jthh. 
 
 ACROSTIC.  A  form  of  poetical  com- 
 position among  the  Hebrews,  composed  of 
 tv.enty-tAvo  lines,  or  stanzas,  according  to 
 the  number  of  letters  in  the  Hebrew  alpha- 
 bet, each  line  or  stanza  beginning  with 
 each  letter  in  its  order.  Of  the  several 
 poems  of  this  character,  there  are  twelve 
 in  all,  in  the  Old  Testament,  viz.  Psalms 
 XXV.,  xxxiv.,  xxxvii.,  cxi.,  cxii.,  cxix.,  cxlv. 
 Part  of  Proverbs  xxxi.  Lament,  i.,  ii., 
 iii.,  iv.  Psalm  cxix.  is  the  most  remark- 
 able specimen.  It  still  retains  in  the  Bible 
 translation  the  name  of  the  several  letters 
 of  the  Hebrew  alphabet,  to  mark  its  seve- 
 ral divisions.  This  Psalm  consists  of  twen- 
 ty-two stanzas,  (the  number  of  the  letters 
 of  the  Hebrew  alphabet,)  each  division 
 consisting  of  eight  couplets ;  the  first  line 
 of  each  couplet  beginning  Avith  that  letter 
 of  the  alphabet  which  marks  the  division. 
 Psalm  xxxvii.  consists  of  twenty-two  qua- 
 trains ;  the  first  line  only  of  each  quatrain 
 being  acrostical.  Lam.  i.  and  ii.,  of  twenty- 
 two  triplets,  the  first  line  of  each  only  be- 
 ing acrostical.  Lam.  iii.,  of  twenty-tv/o 
 triplets  also,  but  with  every  line  acrostical. 
 Lam.  iv.  and  Psalms  xxv.,  xxxiv.,  and 
 cxv.,  and  part  of  Prov.  xxxi.,  of  twenty- 
 tv.o  couplets,  the  first  line  only  of  each 
 
ACTS  OF  THE  APOSTLES. 
 
 ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 11 
 
 being  acrostical.  Psalms  cxi.  and  cxli.,  of 
 tAventy-tv,  o  lines  each,  in  alphabetical  or- 
 der. The  divisions  of  the  liebrevv  poetry 
 into  lines,  not  metrical,  but  rhythmical  and 
 parallel  in  sentiment,  is  very  much  eluci- 
 dated by  the  alphabetical  or  acrostical 
 poems. — Jehh. 
 
 ACTS  OF  THE  APOSTLES.  One 
 of  the  canonical  books  of  the  New  Testa- 
 ment. It  contains  a  great  part  of  the 
 lives  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul,  beginning 
 at  our  Lord's  ascension,  and  continued 
 down  to  St.  Paul's  arrival  at  Pome,  after 
 his  appeal  to  Ca}sar ;  comprehending  in 
 all  about  thirty  years.  St.  Luke  has  been 
 generally  considered  the  author  of  this 
 book  ;  and  his  principal  design  in  -wTiting 
 it  was  to  obviate  the  false  Acts,  and  folse 
 histories,  which  began  to  be  dispersed  up 
 and  doAvn  the  world.  The  exact  time  of 
 his  writing  it  is  not  known  ;  but  it  must 
 have  been  written  at  least  two  years  after 
 St.  Paul's  arrival  at  Pome,  because  it  in- 
 forms us  that  St.  Paul  "  dwelt  two  Avhole 
 years  in  his  own  hired  house."  Perhaps 
 he  wrote  it  while  he  remained  with  St. 
 Paul,  during  the  time  of  his  imprisonment, 
 Acts  xxviii.  30. 
 
 St.  Luke  wrote  this  Avork  in  Greek  ;  and 
 his  language  is  generally  purer,  and  more 
 elegant,  than  that  of  the  other  Avriters  of  the 
 NcAv  Testament.  Epiphanius  {Hares,  xxx. 
 chap.  3  and  6)  tells  us  that  this  book  Avas 
 translated  by  the  Ebionites  out  of  Greek 
 into  IlebreAv,  that  is,  into  Syriac,  which 
 was  the  common  language  of  the  Jcavs  in 
 Palestine ;  but  that  those  heretics  cor- 
 rupted it  with  a  mixture  of  many  falsities 
 and  impieties,  injurious  to  the  memory  of 
 the  apostles.  St.  Jerome  assures  us,  that  a 
 certain  priest  of  Asia  added  to  the  true, 
 geniune  Acts,  the  voyages  of  St.  Paul 
 and  St.  Thecla,  and  the  story  of  baptizing 
 a  lion.  Tertullian  {de  JBaptismo,  chap, 
 xvii.)  tells  us  that  St.  John  the  evangelist, 
 having  convicted  this  priest  of  varying 
 from  the  truth  in  this  relation,  the  good 
 man  excused  himself,  saying,  he  did  it 
 purely  out  of  love  to  St.  Paul. 
 
 The  Marcionites  and  Manicha^ans,  be- 
 cause they  Avere  sensible  that  this  book  too 
 plainly  condemned  their  errors,  rejected 
 it  out  of  the  Canon  of  Scripture.  (Tertull. 
 contra  Marcion,  lib.  5.) 
 
 There  Avere  several   spurious  Acts  of 
 
 /  THE  Apostles  ;  particularly,  I.  The  Acts 
 
 >  of  the  Apostles,  supposed  to  be  Avritten  by 
 
 ,  Abdias,  the  pretended  bishop  of  Babylon, 
 
 Avho  gave  out,  that  he  Avas  ordained  bishop 
 
 by  the  apostles  themselves,  AA'hen  they  Avere 
 
 upon  their  journey  into  Persia.     II.  The 
 
 Acts  of  St.  Peter :  this  book  came  origin- 
 
 ally from  the  school  of  the  Ebionites.  III. 
 The  Acts  of  St.  Paul,  Avhich  is  entirely 
 lost.  Eusebius,  Avho  had  seen  it,  pro- 
 nounces it  of  no  authority.  IV.  The  Acts 
 of  St.  John  the  EA'angelist ;  a  book  made 
 use  of  by  the  Encratites,  Manichteans,  and 
 Priscillianists.  V.  The  Acts  of  St.  An- 
 drcAV  ;  received  by  the  Manichwans,  Encra- 
 tites, and  Apotactics.  VI.  The  Acts  of  St. 
 Thomas  the  Apostle  ;  received  particularly 
 by  the  Manicha^ans.  VII.  The  Acts  of  St. 
 Philip  :  this  book  the  Gnostics  made  use 
 of.  VIII.  The  Acts  of  St,  Matthias.  Some 
 have  imagined  that  the  Jews  for  a  long 
 time  had  concealed  the  original  Acts  of  the 
 Life  and  Death  of  St.  Matthias,  Avritten  in 
 HebrcAv ;  and  that  a  monk  of  the  abbey 
 of  St.  Matthias  at  Treves,  having  got  them 
 out  of  their  hands,  procured  them  to  be 
 translated  into  Latin,  and  published  them. 
 But  the  critics  Avill  not  alloAv  them  to  be 
 genuine  and  authentic. —  Cotclerius.  Fah- 
 ricitis  A  poor.  N.  T.  TiUemont,  Hist.  Eccles. 
 ^  ADA]\IITES.  A  sect  of  Christian  here- 
 tics Avho  imitated  Adam's  nakedness  before 
 his  fall,  believing  themselves  as  innocent 
 since  their  redemption  by  the  death  of 
 Cueist,  and  therefore  met  together  naked 
 upon  all  occasions,  asserting  that  if  Adam 
 had  not  sinned,  there  Avould  have  been  no 
 marriages.  They  sprang  from  the  Car- 
 pocratians  and  Gnostics,  and  folloAved  the 
 errors  of  an  infamous  person  called  Pro- 
 dicus.  They  gave  the  name  of  deity  to 
 the  four  elements,  rejected  prayer,  and 
 said  it  Avas  not  necessary  to  confess  Jesus 
 Christ.  This  sect  Avas  rencAved  in  Flan- 
 ders by  one  Tanchelm,  (111  5 — 1 1 24,)  Avho 
 being  folloAved  by  3000  soldiers,  commit- 
 ted all  kinds  of  vice,  calling  their  villanies 
 by  a  spiritual  name.  In  the  loth  century 
 one  Picard,  so  called  from  the  country  of 
 his  birth,  rencAved  it  in  Bohemia,  from 
 Avhence  the  sect  spread  into  Poland :  it 
 Avas  said  they  met  in  the  night,  and  used 
 these  Avords,  (originally  ascribed  to  the 
 Priscillianists  in  the  4th  century,)  Sicear, 
 forswear,  (mil  discover  not  the  secret. 
 
 ADMINISTPtATOR.  An  ancient  of- 
 ficer of  the  Church,  Avhose  duty  Avas  to  de- 
 fend the  cause  of  the  AvidoAvs,  orphans, 
 and  all  others  Avho  might  be  destitute  of 
 help. 
 
 ADMINISTRATION,  in  an  ecclesiasti- 
 cal sense,  is  used  to  express  the  giving  or 
 dispensing  the  sacrament  of  our  Lord. — In 
 its  more  general  use  it  signifies  the  distri- 
 bution of  the  personal  efiects  of  intestates, 
 Avhich  is  made  by  the  ordinary  according 
 to  the  enactment  of  sundry  statutes  ;  the 
 principal  of  which  is  22  and  23  Car.  II. 
 cap.  x. 
 
12 
 
 ADMONITION. 
 
 ADVENT. 
 
 ADMONITION.  The  first  step  of  ec- 
 clesiastical censure,  according  to  the  words 
 of  the  apostle,  "  a  man  that  is  an  heretic, 
 after  the  first  and  second  admonition,  re- 
 ject." (Tit.  iii.  10.)  This  part  of  episcopal 
 discipline  always  precedes  excommimica- 
 tion;  which,  however,  must  necessarily 
 follow,  if  the  offender  continue  contuma- 
 cious, and  hardened  in  his  error  or  crime. 
 Vide  Canon  64, 8zc.  The  word  also  occurs 
 in  the  Ordination  Service  :  "  following  wdth 
 a  glad  mind  and  will  their  godly  admoni- 
 tion."— Jehh. 
 
 ADMONITIONISTS.  Certain  Puritans 
 in  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  w^ho  w^ere 
 so  called  from  being  the  authors  of  the 
 "Admonition  to  the  Parliament,"  1571,  in 
 which  everything  in  the  Church  of  Eng- 
 land was  condemned,  which  was  not  after 
 the  fashion  of  Geneva.  They  required 
 every  ceremony  to  be  "  commanded  in  the 
 AVord,"  and  set  at  nought  all  general  rules 
 and  canons  of  the  Church. 
 
 ADOPTIANS.  Heretics  in  several  parts 
 of  Spain,  who  held  that  our  Saviour  was 
 God  only  by  adoption.  Their  notions 
 were  condemned  at  Frankfort  in  the  vear 
 794. 
 
 ADOPTION.  To  adopt  is  to  make  him 
 a  son  who  was  not  so  by  birth.  The  Cate- 
 chism teaches  us  that  it  is  in  holy  baptism 
 that  "  we  are  made  members  of  Christ, 
 children  of  GoD,  and  inheritors  of  the 
 kingdom  of  heaven."  GoD  sent  forth  his 
 Son  to  redeem  them  that  were  under  the 
 law,  that  ive  mifjht  receive  the  adoption  of 
 sons.     (Gal.  iv.  4,  5.) 
 
 ApOllATION.  This  word  signifies  a 
 particular  sort  of  W'orship,  which  the  Pa- 
 gans gave  to  their  deities :  but,  amongst 
 Christians,  it  is  used  for  the  general  respect 
 and  worship  paid  to  GoD.  The  heathens 
 paid  their  regard  to  their  gods,  by  putting 
 their  hands  to  their  mouths,  and  kissing 
 them.  This  was  done  in  some  places  stand- 
 ing, and  sometimes  kneeling;  their  faces 
 were  usually  covered  in  their  worship,  and 
 sometimes  they  tlu'cw  themselves  prostrate 
 on  the  ground.  The  fu'st  Christians  in 
 their  public  prayers  were  wont  to  stand  ; 
 and  this  they  did  always  on  Sundays,  and 
 on  the  fifty  days  between  Easter  and  Pen- 
 tecost, in  memory  of  our  Lord's  resurrec- 
 tion, as  is  still  common  in  the  Eastern 
 Churches.  They  were  wont  to  turn  their 
 faces  towards  the  east,  either  because  the 
 East  is  a  title  given  to  Christ  in  the  Old 
 Testament,  (as  by  Zachariah,  vi.  12,  accord- 
 ing to  the  Scptuagint  and  the  Latin  Vul- 
 gate,) or  else  to  show  that  they  expected 
 the  coming  of  Christ  at  the  last  day  from 
 the  east. 
 
 ADULT  BAPTISM.  (See  Baptis?n.) 
 
 ADVENT.  For  the  greater  solemnity 
 of  the  three  principal  hoHdays,  Christmas 
 day,  Easter  day,  and  Whit- Sunday,  the 
 Church  hath  appointed  certain  days  to 
 attend  them :  some  to  go  before,  and 
 others  to  come  after  them.  Before  Christ- 
 mas are  appointed  four  "  Advent  Sun- 
 days," so  called  because  the  design  of  them 
 is  to  prepare  us  for  a  religious  commemor- 
 ation of  the  advent  or  coming  of  Christ  iii 
 the  flesh.  The  Roman  ritualists  would 
 have  the  celebration  of  tliis  holy  season  to 
 be  apostolical,  and  that  it  was  instituted 
 by  St.  Peter.  But  the  precise  time  of  its 
 institution  is  not  so  easily  to  be  deter- 
 mined ;  though  it  certainly  had  its  be- 
 ginning before  the  year  450,  because 
 Maximus  Taurinensis,  who  lived  about 
 that  time,  writ  a  homily  upon  it.  And  it 
 is  to  be  observed,  that,  for  the  more  strict 
 and  religious  observation  of  this  season, 
 courses  of  sermons  were  formerly  preached 
 in  several  cathedi-als  on  Wednesdays  and 
 Fridays,  as  is  now  the  usual  practice  in 
 Lent.  And  we  find  by  the  Salisbury 
 Missal,  that,  before  the  Reformation,  there 
 was  a  special  Epistle  and  Gosi^el  relating  to 
 Christ's  advent,  appointed  for  those  days 
 during  all  that  time. —  Wheatly. 
 
 It  should  be  observed  here,  that  it  is 
 the  peculiar  computation  of  the  Church,  to 
 begin  her  year,  and  to  renew  the  annual 
 course  of  her  service,  at  this  time  of  Ad- 
 vent, therein  differing  from  all  other  ac- 
 counts of  time  whatsoever.  The  reason 
 of  which  is,  because  she  does  not  number 
 her  days,  or  measure  her  seasons,  so  much 
 by  the  motion  of  the  sun,  as  by  the  course 
 of  our  Saviour  ;  beginning  and  counting 
 on  her  year  with  him,  who,  being  the  true 
 "  Sun  of  righteousness,"  began  now  to  rise 
 upon  the  world,  and,  as  "the  Day-star  on 
 high,"  to  enlighten  them  that  sat  in  spuit- 
 ual  darkness. — Bp.  Cosin,  Wheatly. 
 
 The  lessons  and  services,  therefore,  for 
 the  four  first  Sundays  in  her  liturgical  year, 
 propose  to  our  meditations  the  tAVofold 
 advent  of  our  Lord  Jesi'S  Christ  ;  teach- 
 inw  us  that  it  is  he  w^ho  was  to  come,  and 
 did  come,  to  redeem  the  world ;  and  that 
 it  is  he  also  who  shall  come  again,  to  be 
 our  judge.  The  end  proposed  by  the 
 Church  in  setting  these  two  appearances  of 
 Christ  together  before  us,  at  this  time,  is 
 to  beget  in  our  minds  proper  dispositions 
 to  celebrate  the  one  and  expect  the  other  ; 
 that  so  with  joy  and  thankfulness  we  may 
 now  "  go  to  Bethlehem,  and  see  this  great  \ 
 thing  which  is  come  to  pass,  which  the  , 
 Lord  hath  made  known  to  us,"  even  the 
 Son   of  God   come  to  visit  us  in  great 
 
ADVOCATE. 
 
 ADVOWSON. 
 
 13 
 
 humility;  and  thence,  with  faith  unfeigned 
 and  hope  immoveable,  ascend  in  heart  and 
 mind  to  meet  the  same  Son  of  God  in  the 
 air,  coming  in  glorious  majesty  to  judge 
 the  quick  and  dead. — Bp.  Home. 
 
 ADVOCATE,  the  word  used  in  our 
 Bibles  as  a  translation  of  the  Greek  Trapa- 
 K\i)Tog,  (see  Paraclete,)  which  signifies  one 
 who  exhorts,  defends,  comforts  ;  also  one 
 who  prays  or  intercedes  for  another.  It 
 is  an  appellation  given  to  the  Holy  Spi- 
 rit by  our  Saviour.  (John  xiv.  10; 
 XV.  20.) 
 
 ADVOCATES  are  mentioned  in  the 
 96th,  131st,  and  133rd  English  Canons,  as 
 regular  members  of  the  Ecclesiastical 
 Courts.  The  pleaders,  or  superior  prac- 
 titioners, in  all  the  English  and  Irish 
 Church  Courts  are  so  called.  In  London 
 they  form  a  corporation,  or  college,  called 
 Doctors'  Commons ;  because  all  Advocates 
 must  be  Doctors  of  Law,  and  they  formerly 
 lived  together  in  a  collegiate  manner,  with 
 a  common  table,  &c.  The  candidate  Ad- 
 vocates obtain  a  fiat  from  the  archbishop 
 of  Canterbury,  and  are  admitted  by  the 
 judge  to  practise.  In  Ireland  they  do  not 
 form  a  college :  they  must  be  Doctors  of 
 Law,  but  generally  practise  in  the  com- 
 mon law  or  equity  courts,  besides.  They 
 are  admitted  to  practise  by  the  judge  of 
 the  Prerogative  Court.  The  pleaders  in 
 the  supreme  courts  in  Scotland,  and  ge- 
 nerally throughout  Europe,  are  called  Ad- 
 vocates. The  institution  of  the  order  is 
 very  ancient.  About  the  time  of  the 
 emperor  Alexander  Severus  (see  Butler's 
 Life  of  L'  Hopital)  three  ranks  of  legal 
 practitioners  Avere  established :  the  orators, 
 who  were  the  pleaders ;  the  advocates,  who 
 instructed  the  orators  in  points  of  law ; 
 and  the  corjuitoreH,  or  procunifores,  who 
 discharged  much  the  same  office  as  proc- 
 tors or  attorneys  now.  'I'he  first  order 
 gradually  merged  into  the  second. — Jebb. 
 
 ADVOWSON,  is  the  right  of  patronage 
 to  a  church,  or  an  ecclesiastical  benefice ; 
 and  he  who  has  the  right  of  advoAvson  is 
 called  the  patron  of  the  church,  from  his 
 obligation  to  defend  the  rights  of  the 
 church  from  oppression  and  violence.  For 
 Avhen  lords  of  manors  first  built  churches 
 upon  their  own  demesnes,  and  appointed 
 the  tithes  of  those  manors  to  be  paid  to 
 the  ofiiciating  ministers,  Avhich  before  were 
 given  to  the  clergy  in  common,  the  lord, 
 who  thus  built  a  church  and  endoAved  it 
 Avith  glebe  or  land,  had  of  common  right 
 a  poAver  annexed  of  nominating  such 
 minister  as  he  pleased  (provided  he  Avere 
 canonically  qualified)  to  officiate  in  that 
 church,  of  which  he  Avas  the  founder,  en- 
 
 doAver,    maintainer,  or,  in  one  Avord,  the 
 patron. 
 
 AdvoAvsons  arc  of  tAvo  sorts,  advowsons 
 appendant,  and  advoAvsons  in  gross.  When 
 annexed  to  a  manor  or  land,  so  as  to  pass 
 Avith  them,  they  are  appendant ;  for  so  long 
 as  the  church  continues  annexed  to  the 
 possession  of  the  manor,  as  some  have  done 
 from  the  foundation  of  the  church  to  this 
 day,  the  patronage  or  presentation  belongs 
 to  the  person  in  possession  of  the  manor 
 or  land.  But  Avhen  the  property  of  the 
 advoAvson  has  been  once  separated  from 
 that  of  the  manor  by  legal  conveyance,  it 
 is  called  an  advoAvson  in  gross,  or  at  large, 
 and  exists  as  a  personal  right  in  the  person 
 of  its  oAvner,  independent  of  his  manor  or 
 land.  AdvoAvsons  are  also  either  present- 
 ative,  collative,  donative,  or  elective.  An 
 advoAvson  presentative  is  Avhere  the  patron 
 has  a  right  to  present  the  parson  to  the 
 bishop  or  ordinary  to  be  instituted  and 
 inducted,  if  he  finds  him  canonically  quali- 
 fied. An  advoAvson  collative  is  Avhere  the 
 bisho])  is  both  patron  and  ordinary.  An 
 advoAvson  donative  is  Avhere  the  king,  or 
 any  subject  by  his  licence,  founds  a  church 
 or  chapel,  and  ordains  that  it  shall  be 
 merely  in  the  gift  or  disposal  of  the  patron ; 
 subject  to  his  Adsitation  only,  and  not  to 
 that  of  the  ordinary  ;  and  vested  absolutely 
 in  the  clerk  by  the  patron's  deed  of  dona- 
 tion, Avithout  presentation,  institution,  or 
 induction. 
 
 As  to  presentations  to  advoAvsons :  Avherc 
 there  are  divers  patrons,  joint-tenants,  or 
 tenants  in  common,  and  they  vary  in  their 
 presentment,  the  ordinary  is  not  bound  to 
 admit  any  of  their  clerks ;  and  if  the  six 
 months  elapse  Avithin  which  time  they  are 
 to  present,  he  may  present  by  the  lapse  ; 
 but  he  may  not  present  Avithin  the  six 
 months ;  for  if  he  do,  they  may  agree  and 
 bring  a  quare  impedit  against  him,  and  re- 
 move his  clerk.  "WTiere  the  patrons  are 
 co-parceners,  the  eldest  sister,  or  her  as- 
 signee, is  entitled  to  present ;  and  then,  at 
 the  next  avoidance,  the  next  sister  shall 
 present,  and  so  by  turns  one  sister  after 
 another,  till  all  the  sisters,  or  their  heirs, 
 have  presented,  and  then  the  eldest  s.ster 
 shall  begin  again,  except  they  agree  to 
 present  together,  or  by  composition  to 
 present  in  some  other  manner.  But  if  the 
 eldest  presents  together  Avith  another  of 
 her  sisters,  and  the  other  sisters  every  one 
 of  them  in  their  OAvn  name,  or  together,  the 
 ordinary  is  not  bound  to  receive  any  of 
 their  clerks,  but  may  suff'er  the  church  to 
 lapse.  But  in  this  case,  before  the  bishop 
 can  take  advantage  of  the  lapse,  he  must 
 direct  a  Avrit  to   inquire  the  right  of  pa- 
 
14 
 
 JEONS. 
 
 AFFUSION. 
 
 tronage.     Where  an   advowson   is   mort- 
 gaged, the  mortgager  alone  shall  present, 
 when  the  church  becomes  vacant :  and  the 
 mortgagee  can  derive  no  advantage  from 
 the  presentation  in  reduction  of  his  debt. 
 If  a  woman  has  an  advowson,  or  part  of  an 
 advowson,  to  her  and  her  heirs,  and  marries, 
 the  husband  may  not  only  present  jointly 
 with  his  wife,  during  the  coverture,  but 
 also  after  her  death  the  right  of  presenting 
 during  his  life  is  lodged  in  him,  as  tenant 
 by  courtesy,  if  he  has  children  by  her. 
 And  even  though  the  wife   dies  without 
 having  had  issue  by  her  husband,  so  that 
 he  is  not  tenant  by  courtesy,  and  the  church 
 remains  vacant  at  her  death,  yet  the  hus- 
 band shall  present  to  the  void  turn ;  and 
 if  in  such  case  he  does  not  present,  his 
 executor  may.     If  a  man,  seized  of  an  ad- 
 vowson, takes  a   wife,  and  dies,  the  heir 
 shall  have  two  presentations,  and  the  wife 
 the  third,  even  though  her  husband  may 
 have  granted  away  the  third  turn.     Or,  if 
 a  manor,  to  which  an  advowson  is  append- 
 ant, descends  to  the  heir,  and  he   assigns 
 dower  to  his  mother  of  the  third  part  of 
 the  manor,  with  the  appurtenances,  she  is 
 entitled  to  the  presentation  of  the  third 
 part  of  the  advowson  ;  the  right  of  present- 
 ation being  a  chose  in  action  which  is  not 
 assignable.     If  an  advowson  is  sold,  when 
 the  church  is  vacant,  it  is  decided  that  the 
 grantee  is  not  entitled  to  the  benefit  of  the 
 next  presentation.     If,  during  the  vacancy 
 of  a  church,  the  patron  die,  his  executor, 
 or  personal  representative,  is  entitled  to 
 that  presentation,  unless  it  be  a  donative 
 benefice,  in  which  case  the  ri^ht  of  donation 
 descends  to  the  heir.    But  ifthe  incumbent 
 of  a  church  be  also  seized  in  fee  of  the  ad- 
 vov.'son  of  the  same  church,  and  die,  his 
 heir,  and  not  his  executors,  shall  present. 
 As  to  the  manner  in  which  advoAvsons 
 descend,  it  has  been  determined,  that  ad- 
 vowsons  in  gross  cannot  descend  from  the 
 brother  to  the  sister  of  the  entire  blood, 
 but  they  shall  descend  to  the  brother  of 
 the  half  blood,  unless  the  first  had  pre- 
 sented to  it  in  his  lifetime,  and  then   it 
 shall  descend  to  the  sister,  she  being  the 
 next  heir  of  the  entire  blood. 
 
 -^ONS.  (AUoveg,  ages.)  The  name 
 given  by  some  of  the  Gnostic  heretics  to 
 the  spiritual  beings,  whom  they  supposed 
 to  have  emanated  from  the  Divinity.  (See 
 Valentmiis.^ 
 
 AERIANS.  A  small  sect  founded  by 
 Aerius,  a  presbyter  of  Sebaste,  in  the  lesser 
 Armenia,  about  A.  d.  355.  St.  Augustine 
 tells  us  that  Aerius,  the  author  of  this 
 heresy,  was  mortified  at  not  attaining  the 
 episcopate;    and  having  fallen   into   the 
 
 heresy  of  Arius,  and  having  been  led  into 
 many  strange  notions  by  impatience  of  the 
 control  of  the  Church,  he  taught,  among 
 other  things,  that  no  difiercnce  ought  to 
 be  recognised  between  a  bishop  and  a  pres- 
 byter ;  whereas,  until  then,  even  all  secta- 
 ries had  acknowledged  the  episcopate  as  a 
 superior  order,  and  had  been  careful  at  their 
 outset  to  obtain  episcopal  ordination  for 
 their  ministers.  Thus  Aerius  revenged 
 himself  upon  the  dignity  to  which  he  had 
 unsuccesstully  aspired  ;  and  he  has  left  his 
 history  and  his  character  to  future  ages, 
 as  an  argument  almost  as  forcible  as  direct 
 reasoning  and  evidence,  of  the  apostolical 
 ordinance  of  the  episcopate. 
 
 AFFINITY.  (Y^omaffims.)  Relation 
 by  marriage.  Relation  contracted  by  the 
 husband  to  the  kindred  of  the  wife,  and 
 by  the  wife  to  those  of  the  husband.  It 
 is  opposed  to  consanguinity,  or  relation  by 
 birth. — Johnson.     (See  Consanqiunify.^ 
 
 AFFUSION.  Although  dipping  or 
 plunging  into  the  water  vrere  the  more 
 ancient  practice,  and  more  universal  in  the 
 primitive  times,  yet  sprinkling  or  pouring 
 water  on  the  head  of  the  baptized  person 
 was  of  great  antiquity  in  the  Church  like- 
 wise. It  had  its  beginning  in  the  cases  of 
 sick  persons  chiefly,  who  could  not  come 
 to  the  public  baptistery,  nor  could  the 
 weakness  of  their  constitution  admit  of 
 their  being  dipped  all  over  in  the  vrater ; 
 and,  therefore,  the  sprinkling  or  pouring 
 of  a  small  quantity  of  water  upon  the  face 
 or  head  was  judged  sufficient.  In  the 
 fourth  and  fifth  centuries  aspersion  was 
 more  common.  After  the  heathen  nations 
 v.ere  converted  to  Christianity,  and  by  that 
 means  the  baptisms  of  adults  were  less  fre- 
 quent, the  tenderness  of  children's  bodies, 
 especially  in  the  colder  countries,  not  en- 
 during to  be  dipped  in  water,  the  use  of 
 sprinkling  generally  succeeded  in  the 
 Church,  instead  of  that  of  dipping.  And, 
 indeed,  during  the  more  early  ages  of  the 
 Church,  and  when  adults  were  frequently 
 baptized,  there  were  soine  particular  cases 
 v/hen  aspersion  was  used  instead  of  im- 
 mersion ;  as  in  that  of  some  young  vromen 
 noticed  by  St.  Chrysostom.  Our  Church, 
 with  great  moderation,  does  not  totally  lay 
 aside  immersion,  if  the  strength  of  the 
 child  will  bear  it,  as  indeed  it  seldom  will 
 without  danger  in  our  cold  country ;  in 
 which  case  she  admits  aspersion  only,  rather 
 than  occasion  any  injury  or  danger  to  the 
 body  of  a  tender  babe ;  wisely  consider- 
 ing, that,  in  the  sight  of  God,  "  mercy  is 
 better  than  sacrifice." — Dr.  Nicholls. 
 
 Either  of  these  modes  of  administering 
 \  baptism  is  sufficient.     For  it  is  not  in  this 
 
AFFUSION. 
 
 AGAP.E. 
 
 15 
 
 spiritual  washing,  as  it  is  in  the  bodily, 
 where,  if  the  bath  be  not  large  enough  to 
 receive  the  wliole  body,  some  parts  may 
 be  foul,  v.hcn  the  rest  are  cleansed.  The 
 soul  is  cleansed  after  another  manner ;  a 
 little  water  can  cleanse  the  believer,  as 
 well  as  a  whole  river.  The  old  fiishion 
 was  to  dip  or  sprinkle  the  person  "  thrice," 
 to  signify  the  mystery  of  the  Trinity.  The 
 Church  so  appointed  then  because  of  some 
 heretics  that  denied  the  Trinity :  upon  the 
 same  ground,  afterwards,  it  was  appointed 
 to  do  it  but  once,  (signifying  the  unity  of 
 substance  in  the  Trinity,)  lest  we  should 
 seem  to  agree  with  the  heretics  that  did 
 it  thrice.  This  baptizing  is  to  be  at  the 
 "  font." — Bp.  Sparrow. 
 
 It  should  here  be  noticed,  that  our 
 Church  doth  not  direct  sprinkling  or  as- 
 persion, but  affusion  or  "pouring  of  water" 
 upon  the  children  to  be  baptized.  It  is 
 true  the  quantity  of  water  to  be  used  is 
 nowhere  prescribed,  nor  is  it  necessary 
 that  it  should  be  ;  but,  however  the  quan- 
 tity be  left  to  the  minister's  discretion,  yet 
 it  must  be  understood  to  determine  itself 
 thus  far :  first,  that  the  action  be  such  as 
 is  properly  a  "  washing,"  to  make  the  ad- 
 ministration correspond  with  the  institu- 
 tion ;  and  this  we  should  observe  as  minis- 
 ters of  Christ  at  large  :  secondly,  that  the 
 action  be  such,  as  is  properly  a  "  pouring 
 of  water,"  which  is  the  rubrical  direction 
 to  express  that  washing  at  all  times  when 
 "dipping"  is  not  practised;  and  this  we 
 are  bound  to  observe  as  ministers  of  the 
 Church  of  England  in  particular ;  taking 
 it  always  for  granted,  that  there  is  a  rea- 
 son for  whatever  is  prescribed  in  a  rubric, 
 and  such  an  one  as  is  not  to  be  contra- 
 dicted by  our  private  practice,  or  rejected 
 for  the  sake  of  any  modes  or  customs 
 brought  in  we  knov,-  not  how. 
 
 And  we  should  the  rather  keep  to  this 
 rule  of  affusion,  because  Ave  have  in  a  man- 
 ner lost  that  more  primitive  way  of  bap- 
 tizing by  immersion.  Custom  having  "  cer- 
 tified" in  general,  that  it  is  the  opinion 
 and  judgment  of  all,  who  bring  their  chil- 
 dren to  the  font,  that  they  are  "  too  weak 
 to  endure  dipping."  Or,  if  we  vrould  have 
 their  sentiments  certified  more  explicitly, 
 there  being  a  rubric  to  that  purpose,  Ave 
 are  sure,  as  Dr.  Wall  observes,  to  find  a 
 certificate  of  the  children's  Aveakness  in 
 their  dress  ;  and  to  ask  for  further  satisfac- 
 tion Avould  be  a  mighty  needless  inquiry. 
 I  mention  this  observation  of  his,  as  the 
 best  apology  I  knoAV  of  for  our  present 
 practice  of  baptizing  by  affusion,  Avithout 
 any  formal  declaration  being  made,  ac- 
 cording to  rubric,  of  the  danger  of  "  dip- 
 
 ping,'' It  is  not  said  Ave  shall  ask  any 
 questions.  And,  Avhen  Ave  are  sure  before- 
 hand Avhat  Avould  be  the  ansAver  if  the 
 question  Avere  asked,  Ave  scorn  under  no 
 obligation,  as  Ave  are  under  no  direction, 
 to  put  it  at  all. — Jrchdeacon  Sharp.  (See 
 Af^pcrsion.') 
 
 AGAP^.  Love  feasts,  or  feasts  of 
 charity,  among  the  early  Christians,  Avere 
 usually  celebrated  in  connexion  Avith  the 
 Lokd's  supper,  but  not  as  a  necessary  part 
 of  it.  1'he  name  is  derived  from  the 
 Greek  Avord  aya-n-i),  Avhich  signifies  love  or 
 charity.  In  the  earliest  accounts  Avhich 
 have  come  doAvn  to  us,  Ave  find  that  the 
 bishop  or  presbyter  presided  at  these 
 feasts.  It  does  not  appear  Avhether  the 
 food  Avas  dressed  in  the  place  appointed 
 for  the  celebration  of  the  feast,  or  Avas  pre- 
 viously prepared  by  individual  members 
 of  the  Church  at  their  OAvn  homes  ;  but 
 perhaps  either  of  these  plans  Avas  adopted 
 indifferently,  according  to  circumstances. 
 Before  eating,  the  guests  Avashcd  tlieii' 
 hands,  and  a  public  prayer  Avas  offered  up. 
 A  portion  of  Scripture  Avas  then  read,  and 
 the  president  proposed  some  questions 
 upon  it,  Avhich  Avere  ansAvered  by  the  per- 
 sons present.  After  this,  any  accounts 
 Avhich  had  been  received  respecting  the 
 affairs  of  other  Churches  Averc  recited ;  for, 
 at  that  time,  such  accounts  were  regularly 
 transmitted  from  one  community  to  an- 
 other, by  means  of  which  all  Christians 
 became  acquainted  Avith  the  history  and 
 condition  of  the  Avhole  body,  and  were  thus 
 enabled  to  sympathize  Avith,  and  in  many 
 cases  to  assist,  each  other.  Letters  from 
 bishops  and  other  eminent  members  of  the 
 Church,  together  Avith  the  Acts  of  the  Mar- 
 tyrs, Avere  also  recited  on  this  occasion ; 
 and  hymns  or  psalms  Avere  sung.  At  the 
 close  of  the  feast,  money  Avas  also  collected 
 for  the  benefit  of  AA'idoAvs  and  orphans,  the 
 poor,  prisoners,  and  persons  who  had  suf- 
 fered shipAvreck.  Before  the  meeting 
 broke  up,  all  the  members  of  the  Church 
 embraced  each  other,  in  token  of  mutual 
 brotherly  love,  and  the  Avhole  ceremony 
 Avas  concluded  Avith  a  philanthropic  prayer. 
 
 As  the  number  of  Christians  increased, 
 A'arioiLS  deviations  from  the  original  prac- 
 tice of  celebration  occurred  ;  Avhich  called 
 for  the  censures  of  the  governors  of  the 
 Church.  In  consequence  of  these  irregu- 
 larities, it  Avas  appointed  that  the  pre- 
 sident should  deliver  to  each  guest  his 
 portion  separately,  and  that  the  larger 
 portions  sliould  be  distributed  among  the 
 presbyters,  deacons,  and  other  oilicers  of 
 the  Church. 
 
 While  the  Church  was  exposed  to  per- 
 
16 
 
 AGAPET/E. 
 
 AGNUS  DEI. 
 
 secution,  these  feasts  were  not  only  con- 
 ducted M-ith  regularity  and  good  order,  but 
 were  made  subservient  to  Christian  edifica- 
 tion, and  to  the  promotion  of  brotherly 
 love,  and  of  that  kind  of  concord  and 
 union  which  was  specially  demanded  by 
 the  circumstances  of  the  times. 
 
 At  fii'st  these  feasts  were  held  in  private 
 houses,  or  in  other  retired  places,  where 
 Christians  met  for  religious  worship.  After 
 the  erection  of  churches,  these  feasts  were 
 held  within  their  walls;  until,  abuses 
 having  occurred  which  rendered  the  ob- 
 servance inconsistent  with  the  sanctity  of 
 such  places,  this  practice  was  forbidden. 
 In  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century,  the 
 Council  of  Laodicea  enacted  "  that  agapse 
 should  not  be  celebrated  in  churches ; "  a 
 prohibition  which  was  repeated  by  the 
 Council  of  Carthage,  in  the  year  391 ;  and 
 was  afterwards  strictly  enjoined  during 
 the  sixth  and  seventh  centuries.  By  the 
 efforts  of  Gregory  of  Neocaesarea,  Chry- 
 sostom,  and  others,  a  custom  was  gener- 
 ally established  of  holding  the  agapae  only 
 under  trees,  or  some  other  shelter,  in  the 
 neighbourhood  of  the  churches  ;  and  from 
 that  time  the  clergy  and  other  principal 
 members  of  the  Church  were  recommended 
 to  withdraw  from  them  altogether. 
 
 In  the  early  Church  it  was  usual  to  cele- 
 brate agapse  on  the  festivals  of  martyrs, 
 agapce  natalities,  at  their  tombs  ;  a  practice 
 to  which  reference  is  made  in  the  epistle 
 of  the  church  of  Smyrna,  concerning  the 
 martyrdom  of  Polycarp. 
 
 These  feasts  were  sometimes  celebrated 
 on  a  smaller  scale  at  mai'riages,  agapm  con- 
 nuhiales,  and  funerals,  agcqjce  funerales. 
 
 The  celebration  of  the  agapse  was  fre- 
 quently made  a  subject  of  calumny  and 
 misrepresentation  by  the  enemies  of  the 
 Christian  faith,  even  during  the  earliest 
 and  best  ages  of  the  Church.  In  reply  to 
 these  groundless  attacks,  the  conduct  of 
 the  Christians  of  those  times  was  success- 
 fully vindicated  by  TertuUian,  Minucius 
 Felix,  Origen,  and  others.  But  real  dis- 
 orders having  afterwards  arisen,  and  having 
 proceeded  to  considerable  lengths,  it  be- 
 came necessary  to  abolish  the  practice 
 altogether;  and  this  task  was  eventually 
 effected,  but  not  without  the  application 
 of  various  means,  and  only  after  a  consider- 
 able lapse  of  time. — Riddle,  from  Auyusti 
 and  Sleqel. 
 
 AGAPET^.  In  St.  Cyprian's  time 
 certain  ascetics  (who  wished,  perhaps,  to 
 add  to  their  religious  celibacy  the  ad- 
 ditional merit  of  a  conquest  over  a  special 
 and  greater  temptation)  chose  persons  of 
 the  other  sex,  devoted  like  themselves  to 
 
 a  life  of  celibacy,  with  whom  they  lived 
 under  the  sanction  of  a  kind  of  spiritual 
 nuptials,  still  maintaining  their  chastity, 
 as  they  professed,  though  living,  in  all 
 things  else,  as  freely  together  as  married 
 persons.  These  were  called  Agapetce,  Suh- 
 introductce,  IvveicrciKToi.  This  practice,  how- 
 ever pure  in  intention,  gave  rise  to  the  ut- 
 most scandal  in  the  Church  ;  and  those 
 who  had  adopted  it  were  condemned  se- 
 verely, both  by  the  individual  authority  of 
 St.  Cyprian,  and  afterwards  by  the  decrees 
 of  councils.  See  Dodwell's  Dissertatiojies 
 Cyprianic(e. 
 
 AGISTMENT.  The  feeding  of  cattle 
 in  a  common  pasture  for  a  stipulated  price ; 
 and  hence  tithe  of  agistment  is  the  tithe 
 due  for  the  profit  made  by  agisting.  The 
 Irish  parliament,  in  the  last  century,  most 
 iniquitously  declared  that  man  an  enemy 
 of  his  country  who  should  demand  tithe  of 
 agistment. — Jelib. 
 
 AGNOETES  or  AGNOET^.  (a  and 
 yvuJut.)  A  sort  of  Christian  heretics  about 
 the  year  370,  followers  of  Theophronius 
 the  Cappadocian,  who  joined  himself  with 
 Eunomius  ;  they  called  in  question  the 
 omniscience  of  GoD,  alleging  that  he  knew 
 not  things  past  in  any  other  way  than  by 
 memory,  nor  things  to  come  but  by  an 
 uncertain  prescience. 
 
 AGNOETES.  Another  sort  of  heretics 
 about  the  year  535,  who  followed  the  errors 
 of  Themistius,  deacon  of  Alexandria,  who 
 believed  that  Christ  knew  not  when  the 
 day  of  judgment  should  happen. 
 
 AGNUS  DEI.  A  cake  of  wax,  used 
 in  the  Romish  Church,  stamped  with  the 
 figure  of  a  lamb  supporting  the  banner  of 
 the  cross.  The  name  literally  signifies 
 The  Lamh  of  GoD.  These  cakes,  being 
 consecrated  by  the  pope  with  great  solem- 
 nity, and  distributed  among  the  people, 
 are  supposed  to  possess  great  virtues. 
 They  cover  them  with  a  piece  of  stuff,  cut 
 in  the  form  of  a  heart,  and  carry  them  very 
 devoutly  in  their  processions.  From  sell- 
 ing these  Agnus  Deis  to  some,  and  pre- 
 senting them  to  others,  the  Romish  clergy 
 and  religious  officers  derive  considerable 
 pecuniary  advantage.  The  practice  of 
 iDlessing  the  Agnus  Dei  took  its  rise  about 
 the  seventh  or  eighth  century.  It  was  com- 
 mon in  those  times  to  mark  converts  with 
 the  sign  of  the  cross  after  baptism  ;  and 
 in  order  to  distinguish  the  converted  from 
 heathens,  they  were  commanded  to  wear 
 about  their  necks  pieces  of  white  wax 
 stamped  with  the  figure  of  a  lamb.  This 
 was  done  in  imitation  of  tlie  heathenish 
 practice  of  hanging  amulets  around  the 
 neck,  as  preservatives  against  accidents, 
 
AISLE. 
 
 ALBATI. 
 
 17 
 
 diseases,  or  any  sort  of  infection.  Though 
 the  efficacy  of  an  Agnus  1)EI  has  not  been 
 declared  by  Romish  councils,  the  belief  in 
 its  virtue  has  been  strongly  and  universally 
 established  in  the  Church  of  Kome.  Pope 
 Urban  V.  sent  to  John  Pahrologus,  em- 
 ])eror  of  the  Greeks,  an  Agnus  folded  in 
 tine  paper,  on  which  were  written  verses 
 explaining  all  its  properties.  These  verses 
 declare  that  the  Agnus  is  formed  of  balm 
 and  wax  mixed  with  chrism,  and  that  being 
 consecrated  by  myr^tical  Avords,  it  possesses 
 the  power  of  removing  thunder  and  dis- 
 persing storms,  of  giving  to  women  with 
 child  an  easy  delivery,  of  preventing  ship- 
 wreck, taking  away  sin,  repelling  the 
 devil,  increasing  riches,  and  of  securing 
 against  fire. 
 
 AISLE.  (Ala.)  The  lateral  divisions  of 
 a  church,  or  of  any  part  of  it,  as  nave,  choir, 
 or  transept,  are  called  its  aisles.  (See 
 Church.)  Where  there  is  but  one  aisle  to 
 a  transept,  it  is  always  at  the  east.  In 
 foreign  churches  the  number  of  aisles  is 
 frequently  two  on  either  side  of  the  nave 
 and  choir  ;  at  Cologne  there  are  three. 
 This  arrangement  is  very  ancient,  since  it 
 is  found  in  the  Basilicas  of  St.  John, 
 Lateran,  and  St.  Paul,  at  Home.  In  Eng- 
 land this  was  never  perhaps  the  original 
 plan.  All,  except  one  on  each  side,  are 
 clearly  additions  at  Chichester,  Manches- 
 ter, St.  Michael's,  Coventry,  Spalding,  and 
 several  other  churches. 
 
 The  last  bay  to  the  west,  or  that  west- 
 ward of  the  porch  in  the  south  aisle,  is 
 generally  a  little  earlier  in  character  than 
 the  rest.  It  frequently  happens,  too,  that 
 the  north  aisle  is  of  an  earlier  type  than 
 the  south,  where  there  is  no  reason  to  sup- 
 pose them  of  different  dates.  There  is  no 
 sufficient  reason  assigned  for  this.  The 
 word  has  been  very  commonly,  but  in- 
 correctly, applied  to  the  open  space  in  the 
 nave  of  churches  between  the  seats  of  the 
 congregation. 
 
 AISE.  A  linen  napkin  to  cover  the 
 chalice  used  in  Bishop  Andrew's  chapel, 
 and  in  Canterbury  cathedral,  before  the 
 rebellion.  See  Canierbtiry's  Doom,  1646, 
 Nettle's  Hist,  of  Puritans. 
 
 ALB.  An  ample  linen  tunic  with 
 sleeves,  named  from  its  colour,  (albus, 
 white,)  worn  next  over  the  cassock  and 
 amice.  It  was  at  first  loose  and  flowing, 
 afterwards  bound  with  a  zone,  mystically 
 signifying  continence,  according  \o  some 
 ritualists  ;  but  more  probably  for  the 
 greater  convenience  of  ministering  at  the 
 communion  office.  It  has  been  in  other 
 points  considerably  altered  from  its  primi- 
 tive form  in  the  continental  churches  sub- 
 
 ject to  Kome ;  in  the  Greek  churches  it 
 more  nearly  resembles  the  form  of  the  sur- 
 plice used  in  tlie  English  Church.  Car- 
 dinal Bona  admits  that  the  alb,  as  well 
 as  the  surplice,  was  anciently  talaris,  that 
 is,  reaching  to  the  feet,  and  it  was  there- 
 fore called  poileris  in  the  Greek  Church. 
 It  was  made  originally  of  white  linen ;  and 
 was  probably  the  same  as  the  surplice, 
 from  which  it  noAV  diflers  only  in  the  form 
 of  the  sleeves,  which  are  not  flowing,  but 
 closed  at  the  wrists. 
 
 The  rubrics  of  King  Edward  VI.'s  First 
 Book  prescribed  the  alb  to  be  worn  at  the 
 communion  by  the  principal  minister  and 
 his  assistants,  and  by  the  bishop  at  all 
 times  of  his  public  ministrations.  These 
 rubrics  are  referred  to  in  our  present 
 Prayer  Book,  in  the  notice  preceding  the 
 Moi'ning  Prayer :  "  And  here  it  is  to  be 
 noted,  that  such  ornaments  of  the  Church, 
 and  of  the  ministers  thereof  at  all  times  of 
 their  ministrations,  shall  be  retained  and 
 be  in  use  as  were  in  tins  Church  of  Eng- 
 land by  the  authority  of  parliament,  in 
 the  second  year  of  the  reign  of  King  Ed- 
 ward VI."  jNIost  of  our  most  eminent  ri- 
 tualists, and  constitutional  lav.yers,  have 
 considered  the  rubric  of  King  Edward  VL 
 as  still  binding  in  strictness  of  law.  The 
 o8th  Canon  apparently,  but  not  really,  con- 
 tradicts these  rubrics,  as  it  prescribes  a 
 surplice  tvith  sleeves,  to  be  used  at  the  com- 
 munion as  well  as  at  other  services.  But 
 it  is  to  be  observed  that  an  alb  is,  in  fact, 
 a  surplice  with  sleeves  ;  and  by  these  very 
 rubrics  the  terms  seem  to  be  almost  con- 
 vertible, as  the  bishop  is  enjoined  to  wear  a 
 surplice  or  alb  :  and  in  the  rubric  after  the 
 communion,  regulating  the  Wednesday 
 and  Friday  services,  the  priest  is  to  wear  a 
 plain  alb  or  surplice.  But  even  if  the 
 canon  did  contradict  the  rubric,  it  ought 
 to  be  remembered  that  the  rubric  of  1662 
 is  the  final  enactment  of  the  Church,  and 
 plainly  ought  to  supersede  the  enactment 
 of  1604.  The  English  alb  is  enjoined  to  be 
 2)lai7i,  that  is,  not  ornamental  with  lace,  or 
 gold,  as  was  the  mediaeval  custom.— J(bb. 
 ALBATI.  A  sort  of  Christian  hermits 
 (so  called  from  the  white  linen  which  they 
 wore).  Anno  1399,  in  the  time  of  Pope 
 Boniface  IX.,  they  came  down  from  the 
 Alps  into  several  provinces  of  Italy,  hav- 
 ing for  their  guide  a  priest  clothed  all  in 
 white,  and  a  crucifix  in  his  hand  :  he  pre- 
 tended so  much  zeal  and  religion,  that  he 
 was  taken  for  a  saint,  and  his  followers 
 multiplied  so  fast,  that  the  pope,  growing 
 jealous  of  their  leader's  aiming  at  his  chair, 
 sent  soldiers,  who  apprehended  and  put 
 him   to  death,   upon  which   his  followers 
 
18 
 
 ALBIGENSES. 
 
 ALL  SAINTS'  DAY. 
 
 dispersed.  They  professed  sorrow  and 
 weeping  for  the  sins  and  calamities  of  the 
 times,  they  ate  together  in  the  highways, 
 and  slept  promiscuously  like  beasts. 
 
 ALBIGENSES.  Certain  religionists 
 who  sprung  up  in  the  tMelfth  century. 
 They  received  their  name  from  a  town  in 
 Aquitaine,  called  Albigia  or  Alby,  where 
 their  tenets  were  first  condemned  in  a 
 council  held  in  the  year  1176.  The  Albi- 
 genses  grew  so  formidable,  that  the  court 
 of  Home  determined  upon  a  league  or 
 crusade  against  them.  Pope  Innocent  III., 
 desirous  to  put  a  stop  to  their  progress, 
 stirred  up  the  great  men  of  France  to 
 make  war  upon  them.  After  suffering 
 cruelly  from  their  persecutors,  they  dwin- 
 dled by  little  and  little,  till  the  time  of 
 the  Reformation;  when  such  of  them  as 
 were  left  fell  in  v,ith  the  Vaudois,  and 
 conformed  to  the  doctrine  of  Zuinglius 
 and  the  disciples  of  Geneva.  The  Albi- 
 genses  have  been  fi-equently  confounded 
 mth  the  Waldenses  ;  from  whom  however 
 it  is  said  that  they  differed  in  many 
 respects,  both  as  being  prior  to  them  in 
 point  of  time,  as  having  their  origin  in  a 
 different  country,  and  as  being  charged 
 with  divers  heresies,  particularly  Maniche- 
 ism,  from  which  the  Waldenses  were  ex- 
 empt. 
 
 ALBIS  {Dotninica  m).  See  Lozv  Sunday. 
 
 ALIENATION,  ecclesiastically  speak- 
 ing, is  the  improper  disposal  of  such  lands 
 and  goods  as  have  become  the  property  of 
 the  Church.  These  being  looked  upon 
 as  devoted  to  God  and  his  service,  to 
 part  with  them,  or  divert  them  to  any 
 other  use,  may  be  considered  as  no  less 
 than  the  sin  of  sacrilege.  Upon  some  ex- 
 traordinary occasions,  however,  as  the 
 redemption  of  captives  from  slavery,  or  the 
 relief  of  the  poor  in  the  time  of  famine, 
 this  was  permitted ;  in  which  cases  it  was 
 not  unusual  to  sell  even  the  sacred  vessels 
 and  utensils  of  the  church.  Some  canons, 
 if  the  annual  income  of  the  church  was 
 not  sufficient  to  maintain  the  clergy,  al- 
 lowed the  bishop  to  sell  certain  goods  of 
 the  church  for  that  purpose.  By  subse- 
 quent canons,  however,  this  was  prevented, 
 unless  the  consent  of  the  clergy  was  ob- 
 tained, and  the  sanction  of  the  metro- 
 politan, lest,  under  the  })retence  of  ne- 
 cessity or  charity,  any  spoil  or  devastation 
 should  be  made  on  the  revenues  of  the 
 church.  See  Sing.  Orig.  Eccl.  lib.  v.  ch. 
 vi.  s.  6. 
 
 ALIENATION  IN  MORTMAIN,  is 
 the  conveying  or  making  over  lands  or 
 tenements  to  any  religious  house  or  other 
 corporate  body. 
 
 ALLELUIA,  or  HALLELU-JAH.  This 
 is  a  Hebrew  word  signifying  Praise  the 
 Lord,  or  Praise  to  the  Lord.  It  occurs 
 at  the  beginning  and  at  the  end  of  many 
 of  the  Psalms,  and  was  always  sung  by 
 the  Jews  on  solemn  days  of  rejoicing.  An 
 expression  very  similar  in  sound  seems  to 
 have  been  used  in  many  nations,  who  can 
 hardly  he  supposed  to  have  borrowed  it 
 from  the  Jews.  Hence  it  has  been  sup- 
 posed to  be  one  of  the  most  ancient  words 
 of  devotion.  St.  John  retains  the  word 
 Avithout  translation  (Rev.  xix.  1,  3,  4,  6)  ; 
 and  among  the  early  Cluistians  it  was  so 
 usual  to  sing  Hallelujah ,  that  St.  Jerome 
 says  little  childi'en  v;ere  acquainted  with  it. 
 
 In  evident  imitation  of  the  Jewish  cus- 
 tom, the  Church  has  from  very  early  times, 
 at  least  during  the  season  of  Easter,  pre- 
 ceded the  daily  Psalms  with  Alleluia,  or 
 Praise  ye  the  Lord.  In  the  Roman  and 
 unreformed  offices  it  was  disused  during 
 certain  penitential  seasons ;  while  Alleluia 
 was  used  in  other  parts  of  the  service  also 
 during  the  Easter  season,  &c.  In  the  First 
 Book  of  King  Edward  VI.,  Allelujah  was 
 sung  after  "  Praise  ye  the  Lord,"  from 
 Easter  to  Trinity  Sunday.  The  response, 
 "  The  Lord's  name  be  praised,"  was  added 
 at  the  last  review.  It  had  been  inserted 
 in  the  Scotch  Liturgy  in  King  Charles  I.'s 
 time.     (See  Gloria  Patri.) — Jehh. 
 
 ALL  SAINTS'  DAY.  The  festival  of 
 All  Saints  is  not  of  very  high  antiquity. 
 About  the  year  610,  the  bishop  of  Rome 
 ordered  that  the  heathen  Pantheon,  a 
 temple  dedicated  to  all  the  gods,  should 
 be  converted  into  a  Christian  church. 
 This  was  done,  and  it  was  appropriately 
 dedicated  to  the  honour  of  All  Martyrs ; 
 hence  came  the  origin  of  All  Saints,  which 
 was  then  celebrated  on  the  first  of  May. 
 In  the  year  834  it  was  changed  to  Novem- 
 ber 1st,  on  which  day  it  is  still  observed. 
 Our  Church  having,  in  the  course  of  her 
 year,  celebrated  the  memories  of  the  holy 
 apostles,  and  the  other  most  eminent  saints 
 and  martyrs  of  the  first  days  of  the  gospel, 
 deems  it  unnecessary  to  extend  her  calendar 
 by  any  other  particular  festivals,  but  closes 
 her  course  with  this  general  one.  It  should 
 be  the  Christian's  delight,  on  this  day,  to  re- 
 flect, as  he  is  moved  by  the  appointed  scrip- 
 tures, on  the  Christian  graces  and  virtues 
 which  have  been  exhibited  by  that  goodly 
 fellowship  of  saints  who,  in  all  ages,  have 
 honoured  God  in  their  lives,  and  glorified 
 him  in  their  deaths  ;  he  should  pray  for 
 grace  to  follow  them  "in  all  virtuous  and 
 godly  living;"  he  should  meditate  on  the 
 glorious  rest  that  remains  for  the  people 
 of  God,  on  Avhich  they  have  entered  ;  he  " 
 
ALL  SOULS. 
 
 ALMS-CHEST. 
 
 19 
 
 should  gratefully  contemplate  that  commu- 
 nion of  saints  which  unites  him  to  their 
 holy  fellowship,  even  while  he  is  here 
 militant,  if  he  be  a  faithful  discijile  of  the 
 Saviouh  in  whom  they  trusted ;  he  should 
 earnestly  seek  that  grace  whereby,  after  a 
 short  further  time  of  trial,  he  may  be 
 united  with  them  in  the  everlasting  ser- 
 vices of  the  Church  triumphant.  The 
 Church  of  England  seems  to  have  been 
 induced  to  sum  up  the  commemoration  of 
 martyrs,  confessors,  doctors,  and  saints  in 
 this  one  day's  service,  from  the  circum- 
 stance of  the  great  number  of  such  days 
 in  the  Church  of  liome  having  led  to  gross 
 abuses,  some  of  which  are  enumerated  in 
 the  preface  to  the  Book  of  Common 
 Prayer. 
 
 This  day  was  popularly  called  "  Allhal- 
 lows  day."  "  Hallow  E'en  "  in  Scotland, 
 and  "  Holy  Eve  "  in  Ireland,  means  the  eve 
 of  all  Saints'  Day.  This  day  is  celebrated 
 as  a  high  festival,  or  scarlet  day,  at  the 
 Universities  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge. 
 
 ALL  SOULS.  A  festival  or  holiday  of 
 the  llomish  Church,  on  which  special  prayers 
 are  made  for  the  benefit  of  the  souls  of  the 
 departed.  Its  observance  has  been  traced 
 back  to  the  year  998  ;  about  which  time, 
 we  are  told,  a  certain  monk,  whose  curi- 
 osity had  led  him  to  visit  Mount  iEtna, 
 which  he,  in  common  with  others  of  that 
 age,  verily  believed  to  be  the  mouth  of 
 hell,  returned  to  his  abbot  with  the  grave 
 story  that  he  had  overheard  "  the  devils 
 within  complain,  that  many  departed  souls 
 were  taken  out  of  their  hands  by  the 
 prayers  of  the  Cluniac  monks."  (See 
 Clugni.)  The  compassionate  abbot  took 
 the  hint,  and  set  apart  the  second  day  of 
 November,  to  be  annually  kept  by  his 
 monks  as  a  day  of  prayer  for  All  Souls 
 departed.  This  local  appointment  was 
 afterwards  changed  by  the  pope  into  a 
 general  one,  obligatory  on  all  the  Western 
 Churches.  The  ceremonies  observed  on 
 this  day  were  in  good  keeping  with  the 
 purpose  of  its  institution.  In  behalf  of  the 
 dead,  persons  arrayed  in  black  perambu- 
 lated the  cities  and  toAvns,  each  provided 
 with  a  loud  and  dismal-toned  bell,  which 
 they  rang  in  public  places  by  way  of  ex- 
 hortation to  the  people  to  remember  the 
 souls  in  purgatory,  and  give  them  the  aid 
 of  their  prayers.  In  France  and  Italy,  at 
 the  present  day,  the  annual  Jotir  ties  Morts 
 is  observed,  by  the  ])opulation  resuming 
 their  mourning  habits,  and  visiting  the 
 graves  of  their  friends  for  many  years 
 after  their  decease.  At  the  period  of  the 
 Reformation,  the  Church  of  England  ab- 
 rogated altogether  the  observance  of  this 
 c  2 
 
 day,  as  based  on  false  doctrine,  and  as 
 originating  in  a  falseliood. 
 
 ALiNIONEK.  An  officer  in  monasteries, 
 who  had  the  care  of  the  Almonry.  In  the 
 cathedral  of  St.  Paul,  London,  the  Almon- 
 er had  the  distribution  of  the  alms,  and 
 the  care  of  the  burial  of  the  poor.  He 
 also  educated  eight  boys  in  music  and  in 
 literature,  for  the  service  of  the  Church. 
 The  office  afterwards  was  practically  that 
 of  a  Chori-master,  or  Master  of  the  Boys, 
 and  was  usually  held  by  a  Vicar  Choral. 
 See  Diuidale's  ilistory  of  St.  PauVs. 
 
 The  Lord  High  Almoner  is  a  Prelate, 
 who  has  the  disposing  of  the  King's  Alms, 
 and  of  other  sums  accruing  to  the  Crown. 
 Till  King  James  I.'s  accession,  Avhen  the 
 office  of  Dean  of  the  Chapel  Iloyal  was 
 revived,  he  had  the  care  of  the  King's 
 Chapel;  his  office  being  then  analogous 
 to  that  of  the  Grand  Almoner  of  France. 
 See  Heylin^s  Life  of  Laud. 
 
 ALMONRY.  A  room  where  alms  were 
 distributed,  generally  near  to  the  church, 
 or  a  part  of  it.  The  Almonries  in  the  prin- 
 cipal monasteries  Avere  often  great  estab- 
 lishments, with  endowments  specially  ap- 
 propriated to  their  sustentation,  having  a 
 chapel,  hall,  and  chambers  for  the  accom- 
 modation of  the  poor  and  infii-m.  The 
 remains  of  the  Almonry  at  Canterbury,  for 
 example,  are  extensive  and  interesting. 
 —Jehb. 
 
 ALMS.  In  the  primitive  Church,  the 
 people  who  were  of  sufficient  substance 
 used  to  give  alms  to  the  poor  every  Sun- 
 day, as  they  entered  the  church.  And  the 
 poor,  who  were  approved  and  selected  by 
 the  deacons  or  other  ministers,  were  ex- 
 horted to  stand  before  the  church  doors  to 
 ask  for  alms,  as  the  lame  man,  who  was 
 healed  by  Peter  and  John,  at  the  Beautiful 
 Gate  of  the  temple.  The  order  in  our 
 Church  is,  that  these  alms  should  be  col- 
 lected at  that  part  of  the  communion  ser- 
 vice which  is  called  the  Offertory,  while 
 the  sentences  are  in  reading  which  follow 
 the  place  appointed  for  the  sermon.  The 
 intention  of  the  compilers  of  our  service 
 was,  that  these  alms  should  be  collected 
 every  Sunday,  as  is  plain  from  the  direc- 
 tions in  the  rubric  ;  and  this,  whether 
 there  was  a  communion  or  not.  It  is  much 
 to  be  regretted  that  the  decay  of  charity 
 has  caused  this  good  custom  to  fall  into 
 too  general  disuse  ;  and  it  is  one  which  all 
 sincere  churchmen  should  endeavour  to 
 restore.  The  alms  are,  and  have  imme- 
 morially  been,  collected  every  Sunday  in 
 Ireland. 
 
 ALMS-CHEST.  Besides  the  alms  col- 
 lected at  the  offertory,  it  may  be  supposed 
 
20 
 
 ALOGIANS. 
 
 ALTAR. 
 
 that  devout  persons  would  make  contribu- 
 tions to  the  poor  on  entering  the  church, 
 or  departing  from  it,  at  evening  service ; 
 and  to  receive  these  alms,  it  is  appointed 
 by  the  84th  Canon,  that  a  chest  be  pro- 
 vided and  placed  in  the  church, 
 
 ALOGIANS.  Heretics  in  the  second 
 century,  who  denied  the  Divine  Logos,  or 
 Word,  and  attributed  the  writings  of  St. 
 John,  in  which  the  Second  Person  of  the 
 Godhead  is  so  styled,  to  Cerinthus. 
 
 ALTAR.  Altar  was  the  name  by  which 
 the  holy  board  was  constantly  distinguish- 
 ed for  the  fii'st  three  hundred  years  after 
 Christ  ;  during  all  which  time  it  does 
 not  appear  that  it  was  above  once  called 
 "  table,"  and  that  was  in  a  letter  of  Diony- 
 sius  of  Alexandria  to  Xystus  of  Rome. 
 And  when,  in  the  fourth  century,  Athana- 
 sius  called  it  a  "  table,"  he  thought  him- 
 self obliged  to  explain  the  word,  and  to  let 
 the  reacler  know  that  by  table  he  meant 
 altar,  that  being  then  the  constant  and 
 familiar  name.  Afterwards,  indeed,  both 
 names  came  to  be  promiscuously  used ;  the 
 one  having  respect  to  the  oblation  of  the 
 eucharist,  the  other  to  the  participatioTi,  : 
 but  it  M'as  always  placed  altar-wise  in  the 
 most  sacred  part  of  the  church,  and  fenced 
 in  with  rails  to  secure  it  from  irreverence 
 and  disrespect. —  Wlieatly. 
 
 In  King  Edward's  first  service-book  the 
 word  altar  was  permitted  to  stand,  as  be- 
 ing the  name  that  Christians  for  many 
 hundred  years  had  been  acquainted  wdthal. 
 Therefore,  when  there  was  such  pulling 
 down  of  altars  and  setting  up  of  tables  in 
 Queen  Elizabeth's  reign,  she  was  fain  to 
 make  an  injunction  to  restrain  such  un- 
 godly fury,  and  appointed  decent  and 
 comely  tables  covered  to  be  set  up  again 
 in  the  same  place  Avhere  the  altars  stood, 
 thereby  giving  an  interpretation  of  this 
 clause  in  our  communion-book.  For  the 
 word  "  table  "  here  stands  not  exclusively, 
 as  if  it  might  not  be  called  an  altar,  but 
 to  show  the  indifferency  and  liberty  of  the 
 name ;  as  of  old  it  was  called  "  mensa 
 Domini,"  the  table  of  the  Lord  ;  the  one 
 having  reference  to  the  participation,  the 
 other  to  the  oblation,  of  the  eucharist. — 
 Bp.  Cosin. 
 
 It  is  called  an  altar,  1.  Because,  the 
 holy  eucharist  being  considered  as  a  sacri- 
 fice, we  ofi'er  up  the  commemoration  of 
 that  sacrifice  which  w^as  ofiered  upon  the 
 cross.  2,  We  ofi'er,  with  the  action,  prayers 
 to  God  for  all  good  things,  and  we  need 
 not  fear  to  call  the  whole  action  by  the 
 name  of  a  sacrifice,  seeing  part  of  it  is  an 
 oblation  to  GoD  of  hearty  prayers,  and  it 
 is  not  unusual  for  that  to  be  said  of  the 
 
 whole,  which  is  exactly  true  but  of  one 
 part ;  and  as  the  word  sacrifice  may  be 
 used  without  danger,  so  also  the  ancient 
 Church  did  understand  it. 
 
 And  it  is  called  a  table,  the  eucharist 
 being  considered  as  a  sacrament ;  which  is 
 nothing  else  but  a  distribution  and  appli- 
 cation of  the  sacrifice  to  the  receivers  ; 
 and  the  proper  use  of  a  table  is  to  set  food 
 upon,  and  to  entertain  guests,  both  which 
 are  applicable  to  this. —  Clutterbuck. 
 
 But  at  the  beginning  of  the  Reformation 
 an  unhappy  dispute  arose,  viz.  whether 
 those  tables  of  the  altar  fashion,  which  had 
 been  used  in  the  Popish  times,  and  on 
 which  masses  had  been  celebrated,  should 
 still  be  continued.'^  This  point  was  fii'st 
 started  by  Bishop  Hooper,  who  in  a  ser- 
 mon before  the  king,  in  the  third  year  of 
 his  reign,  declared,  "  that  it  were  well,  if 
 it  might  please  the  magistrate  to  have 
 altars  turned  into  tables  ;  to  take  away  the 
 false  persuasion  of  the  people,  which  they 
 have  of  sacrifice,  to  be  done  upon  altars ; 
 because  as  long,"  says  he,  '*  as  altars  re- 
 main, both  the  ignorant  people  and  priests 
 will  dream  of  sacrifice."  This  occasioned 
 not  only  a  couple  of  letters  from  the  king 
 and  council,  one  of  which  was  sent  to  all 
 the  bishops,  and  the  other  to  Ridley, 
 bishop  of  London,  in  both  W' hich  they  were 
 required  to  pull  down  the  altars  ;  but  also 
 that,  when  the  liturgy  was  reviewed  in 
 1551,  the  above-said  rubric  was  altered, 
 and  in  the  room  of  it  the  priest  was  di- 
 rected to  stand  on  the  north  side  of  the 
 table.  But  this  did  not  put  an  end  to  the 
 controversy.  Another  dispute  arising,  viz. 
 whether  the  table,  placed  in  the  room  of 
 the  altar,  ought  to  stand  altarwise ;  i.  e.  in 
 the  same  place  and  situation  as  the  altar 
 formerly  stood  ?  This  was  the  occasion 
 that  in  some  churches  the  tables  were 
 placed  in  the  middle  of  the  chancels,  in 
 others  at  the  east  part  thereof,  next  to  the 
 w^all.  Bishop  Ridley  endeavoured  to  com- 
 promise this  matter,  and  therefore,  in  St. 
 Paul's  cathedral,  suffered  the  table  to 
 stand  in  the  place  of  the  old  altar ;  but 
 beating  down  the  wainscot  partition  be- 
 hind, laid  all  the  choir  open  to  the  east, 
 leaving  the  table  then  to  stand  in  the  mid- 
 dle of  the  chancel.  Under  this  diversity 
 of  usage,  things  went  on  till  the  death  of 
 King  Edward  ;  when.  Queen  Mary  coming 
 to  the  throne,  altars  were  again  restored 
 wherever  they  had  been  demolished ;  but 
 her  reign  proving  short,  and  Queen  Eliza- 
 beth succeeding  her,  the  people,  (just  got 
 free  again  from  the  tyranny  of  Popery,) 
 throvigh  a  mistaken  zeal  fell  in  a  tumultu- 
 ous manner  to  the  pulling  down  of  altars  ; 
 
ALTAR. 
 
 21 
 
 though,  indeed,  this  happened  for  the  ge- 
 nerahty  only  in  jn-ivate  churches,  they  not 
 being  meddled  ^vith  in  any  of  the  queen's 
 palaces,  and  in  but  very  few  of  the  cathe- 
 di'als.  And  as  soon  as  the  queen  was  sens- 
 ible of  what  had  happened  in  other  i)laces, 
 she  put  out  an  injunction  to  restrain  the 
 fury  of  the  people,  declaring  it  to  be  no 
 matter  of  great  moment,  wdiether  there 
 were  altars  or  tables,  so  that  the  sacrament 
 was  duly  and  reverently  administered  ;  but 
 ordering,  that  where  altars  were  taken 
 down,  holy  tables  should  be  decently  made, 
 and  set  in  the  place  where  the  altars  stood, 
 and  so  to  stand,  saving  Avhen  the  commu- 
 nion of  the  sacrament  was  to  be  distri- 
 buted ;  at  which  time  the  same  was  to  be 
 so  placed  in  good  sort  within  the  chancel, 
 as  thereby  the  minister  might  be  more 
 conveniently  heard  of  the  communicants 
 in  his  prayer  and  ministration,  and  the 
 communicants  also  more  conveniently  and 
 in  more  number  communicate  with  the 
 said  minister.  And  after  the  communion, 
 done  from  time  to  time,  the  same  holy 
 table  was  to  be  placed  where  it  stood  be- 
 fore. Pursuant  hereunto,  this  part  of  the 
 present  rubric  w^as  added  to  the  liturgy, 
 in  the  first  year  of  her  reign,  viz.  that  "  the 
 table,  at  the  communion  time,  having  a 
 fair  white  linen  cloth  upon  it,  shall  stand 
 in  the  body  of  the  church,  or  in  the  chan- 
 cel, where  morning  and  evening  prayer  are 
 appointed  to  be  said  : "  which  was  in  those 
 times  generally  in  the  choir.  But  then  it 
 is  plain  from  the  aforesaid  injunction,  as 
 well  as  from  the  eighty-second  Canon  of 
 the  Church,  (which  is  almost  verbatim  the 
 same,)  that  there  is  no  obligation  arising 
 from  this  rubric  to  move  the  table  at  the 
 time  of  the  communion,  unless  the  people 
 cannot  otherwise  conveniently  hear  and 
 communicate.  The  injunction  declares, 
 that  the  holy  tables  are  to  be  set  in  the 
 same  place  where  the  altars  stood,  which 
 every  one  knows  was  at  the  cast  end  of 
 the  chancel.  And  when  both  the  injunc- 
 tion and  canon  speak  of  its  being  moved 
 at  the  time  of  the  communion,  it  supposes 
 that  the  minister  could  not  otherwise  be 
 heard  :  the  interposition  of  a  belfry  be- 
 tween the  chancel  and  body  of  the  church 
 hindering  the  minister  in  some  churches 
 from  being  heard  by  the  people,  if  he  con- 
 tinued in  the  church.  And  with  the  same 
 view"  seems  this  rubric  to  have  been  added, 
 and  which  therefore  lays  us  under  no 
 obligation  to  move  the  table,  unless  neces- 
 sity requires.  But  whenever  the  churches 
 are  built  so  as  the  minister  can  be  heard, 
 and  conveniently  administer  the  sacrament 
 at  the  place  where  the  table  usually  stands, 
 
 he  is  rather  obliged  to  administer  in  the 
 chancel,  (that  being  the  sanctum  saiicfuiuni, 
 or  most  holy  place,  of  the  church,)  as  ap- 
 pears from  the  rubric  before  the  Com- 
 mandments, as  also  from  that  before  the 
 Absolution,  by  both  which  rubrics  the 
 priest  is  directed  to  turn  himself  to  the 
 people.  From  whence  I  argue,  that  if  the 
 table  be  in  the  middle  of  the  church,  and 
 the  peo])le  consequentlj  round  about  the 
 minister,  the  minister  cannot  turn  himself 
 to  the  peojile  any  more  at  one  time  than 
 another.  Whereas,  if  the  table  be  close 
 to  the  east  wall,  the  minister  stands  on 
 the  north  side,  and  looks  southward,  and 
 consequently,  by  looking  westward,  turns 
 himself  to  the  people. —  Wheathj. 
 
 Great  dispute  has  been  raised  in  the  last 
 age  about  the  name  of  the  communion 
 table,  whether  it  was  to  be  called  the  Holy 
 Table  or  an  Altar.  And  indeed  anything 
 will  afford  matter  of  controversy  to  men  in 
 a  disputing  age.  For  the  ancient  writers 
 used  both  names  indifferently ;  some  calling 
 it  Altar,  others  the  Lord's  Table,  the  Holy 
 Table,  the  Mystical  Table,  the  Tremen- 
 dous Table,  &c.,  and  sometimes  both  Table 
 and  Altar  in  the  same  sentence  .  .  .  Igna- 
 tius uses  only  the  name  OvaiacTrfiptov,  a/tar, 
 in  his  genuine  Epistles  .  .  .  Irena^us  and 
 Origen  use  the  same  name  .  .  .  Tertullian 
 frequently  applies  to  it  the  name  of  Ara 
 Dei  and  Altare  .  .  .  Cyprian  uses  both 
 names  ;  but  most  commonly  Altar  ...  It 
 is  certain  they  did  not  mean  by  the  altar 
 what  the  Jews  and  heathens  meant ;  either 
 an  altar  dressed  up  with  images,  or  an 
 altar  for  bloody  sacrifices.  In  the  first 
 sense  they  rejected  altars,  both  name  and 
 thing.  But  for  their  own  mystical,  un- 
 bloody sacrifice,  as  they  called  the  eucha- 
 rist,  they  always  OAvned  they  had  an  altar. 
 ....  In  Chrysostom  it  is  most  usually 
 termed,  "  the  mystical  and  tremendous 
 table,"  &c.  St.  Austin  usually  gives  it  the 
 name  of  Mensa  Domini,  the  Lord's  Table. 
 It  w^re  easy  to  add  a  thousand  other  tes- 
 timonies, where  the  altar  is  called  the 
 Holy  Table,  to  signify  to  us  their  notion 
 of  the  Christian  sacrifice  and  altar  at  once, 
 that  it  was  mystical  and  spiritual,  and  had 
 no  relation  either  to  the  bloody  sacrifices 
 of  the  Jews,  or  the  idolatries  of  the  Gen- 
 tiles, but  served  only  for  the  service  of  the 
 eucharist,  and  the  oblations  of  the  people. 
 — Buu/liani. 
 
 In  the  First  Book  of  King  Edward,  the 
 terms  used  for  this  holy  table  are  the 
 yl/tar,  and  God's  Hoard.  In  our  present 
 Prayer  Book,  it  is  styled  the  Table,  the 
 IIoli/  Tabic,  and  the  Lord's  Table.  The 
 phrase  communion  table  occurs  in  the  Ca- 
 
22 
 
 ALTAR. 
 
 lions  only,  as  in  the  20th,  and  the  82nd. 
 The  word  altar  is  used  in  the  Coronation 
 Service.  It  is  employed  without  scruple 
 by  Bishop  Overall,  one  of  the  com- 
 missioners for  the  revision  of  the  Liturgy 
 in  King  James  I.'s  reign,  and  by  those 
 who  were  employed  in  the  last  Keview  in 
 1662,  who  of  course  understood  the  real 
 spirit  of  the  Church  of  England.  For  ex- 
 ample, the  following  are  the  words  of  Bi- 
 shop Sparrow,  one  of  the  Reviewers. 
 
 "  That  no  man  take  offence  at  the  word 
 Altar,  let  him  know,  that  anciently  both 
 these  names,  Altar,^  or  Holy  Table,  were 
 used  for  the  same  thing  ;  though  most  fre- 
 quently the  fathers  and  councils  use  the 
 word  Altar.  And  both  are  fit  names  for 
 that  holy  thing.  For  the  holy  eucharist 
 being  considered  as  a  sacrifice,  in  the  re- 
 presentation of  the  breaking  of  the  bread, 
 and  pouring  forth  of  the  cup,  doing  that 
 to  the  holy  sjmbols  which  was  done  to 
 Christ's  body  and  blood,  and  so  showing 
 forth  and  'commemorating  the  Lord's 
 death,  and  offering  upon  it  the  same  sacri- 
 fice that  was  offered  upon  the  cross,  or 
 rather  the  commemoration  of  that  sacrifice, 
 (St.  Chrysost.  in  Heb.  x.  9,)  it  may  fitly 
 be  called  an  Altar  ;  which  again  is  as  fitly 
 called  an  Holy  Table,  the  Eucharist  be- 
 ing considered  as  a  Sacrament,  which  is 
 nothing  else  but  a  distribution  and  appli- 
 cation of  the  sacrifice  to  the  several  re- 
 ceivers." 
 
 And  Bishop  Cosins,  who  {NiclwlCs  add. 
 notes,  p.  42)  speaks  of  the  king  and  queen 
 presenting  their  offering  "■  on  their  knees 
 at  God's  altar:"  though  he  adds  after- 
 wards, (p.  50,)  on  the  passage  *'  This  our 
 sacrifice  of  praise  and  thanksgiving,"— "  In 
 which  regard  and  divers  others  besides, 
 the  eucharist  may  by  allusion,  analogy, 
 and  extrinsical  denomination, be  fitly  called 
 a  sacrifice,  and  the  Lord's  table  an  altar, 
 the  one  relating  to  the  other ;  though  nei- 
 ther of  them  can  be  strictly  and  properly 
 so  called.  .  .  .  The  sacrament  of  the  eu- 
 charist carries  the  name  of  a  sacrifice  ;  and 
 the  table,  whereon  it  is  celebrated,  an 
 altar  of  oblation,  in  a  far  higher  sense  than 
 any  of  their  former  sacrifices  did,  which 
 were  but  the  types  and  figures  of  those 
 services,  which  are  performed  in  recog- 
 nition and  memory  of  Christ's  own  sacri- 
 fice, once  ofiered  upon  the  altar  of  his 
 cross." 
 
 Again,  Bishop  Beveridge,  on  the  necessity, 
 ^■c.,  of  frequent  communion,  uses  the  word  ; 
 "  Upon  Sundays  and  holy  days,  although 
 there  be  not  such  a  number,  and  therefore 
 no  communion,  yet,  however,  the  priest 
 shall  go  up  to  the  altar,'''  &c. 
 
 And  Bishop  Bull  {Charge  to  the  Clergy 
 of  St.  Davids^  ;  *'  Before  the  priest  goes 
 to  the  altar  to  read  the  second  service,"  &c. 
 Hence,  though  not  presuming  to  dispute 
 the  wisdom  of  the  Reviewers,  or,  to  speak 
 more  reverently,  the  dispositions  of  God's 
 providence,  whereby  the  use  of  the  word 
 altar  was  withheld  from  our  Prayer  Book, 
 there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  employment 
 of  the  word  can  be  justified,  if  we  under- 
 stand it  as  the  ancient  Church  under- 
 stood it. — Jebb. 
 
 According  to  Bingham,  the  ancient  altars 
 were  of  wood  ;  and  he  considers  that  the 
 fashion  of  stone  altars  began  in  the  time 
 of  Constantine,  Stone  altars  were  enjoined 
 by  the  Council  of  Epone,  (or  Albon,)  in 
 France,  A.  D.  509  or  517;  and  through- 
 out the  whole  of  the  time  to  which  we  look 
 for  architectural  examples,  altars  were  of 
 stone. 
 
 The  place  of  the  high  altar  was  uniform- 
 ly, in  England  at  least,  at  the  east  of  the 
 church  ;  but  in  large  churches  room  is  left 
 for  processions  to  pass  behind  it,  and  in 
 cathedral  churches  of  Norman  foundation 
 for  the  bishop's  throne.     Where  the  end 
 of  the  church  was  apsidal,  the  high  altar 
 was    placed   in   the   chord   of    the   apse. 
 Chantry  altars,  not  being  connected  with  a 
 service  in  which  processions  were  used, 
 were  placed  against  the  wall,  and  scarcely 
 an  aisle  or  a  transept  was  without  one  or 
 more.    In  form  the  high  altar  was  generally 
 large   and   plain,   relying   for   decoration 
 wholly  on  the  rich  furniture  with  which  it 
 was   loaded ;    very  rarely   its   front    was 
 panelled  or  otherwise  ornamented.     Chan- 
 try altars   were,  perhaps,  in   ninety-nine 
 cases  in  a  hundred,  mere  slabs  built  into 
 the  wall.     At  Jervaulx,  however,  at  the 
 end  of  each  aisle,  is  a  large  plain  altar 
 built  up  of  separate  stones,  much  in  the 
 form  of  a  high  tomb.     In  situ  but  few 
 high  altars  remain,  but  chantry  altars  in 
 situ  are  frequent  enough.     They  are  not, 
 however,  often  found  in   the  aisles  and 
 transepts  of  our  churches,  but  in  places 
 where  they  would  more  readily  escape  ob- 
 servation, as,  for  instance,  under  the  east 
 window  (or  forming  its  sill)  of  a  vestry,  or 
 of  a  parvise,  or  in  a  gateway  to  a  monas- 
 tery, or  in  private  chapels  and  chapels  of 
 castles.     Altar  stones  not  in  situ,  but  used 
 in  pavements  and  all  places,  are  almost 
 innumerable,  sometimes  two  or  thi'ee  or 
 more  occurring  in  a  single  small  church. 
 They   may   be   recognised   by   five   little 
 crosses,  one  in  the  centre,  and  one  at  each 
 corner.      The  multiplication  of  altars  in 
 the  same  church  is  still  strictly  forbidden 
 in  the  Eastern  Church,  as  it  was  in  ancient 
 
ALTARAGE. 
 
 ALTAR  PIECE. 
 
 23 
 
 times.  (Vide  Bingham,  book  viii.  c.  6, 
 §  \Q.)— Poole. 
 
 ALTARAGE,  a  legal  term  used  to  denote 
 the  profits  arising  to  the  priest  or  parson 
 of  the  parish  on  account  of  the  altar,  called 
 ohvcntio  altaris.  Since  the  Reformation 
 there  has  been  much  dispute  as  to  the  ex- 
 tent of  the  vicar's  claim  upon  tithes  as 
 altarage.  In  the  21st  Eliz.  it  was  decided 
 that  the  words  Alterar/iuni  cum  inanso 
 compvtentl  would  entitle  him  to  the  small 
 tithes  ;  but  it  has  since  been  liolden 
 and  now  generally  understood,  that  the 
 extent  of  the  altarage  depends  entirely 
 upon  usage  and  the  manner  of  endow- 
 ment. 
 
 ALTAR  CLOTH.  By  the  82nd  Canon 
 it  is  appointed  that  the  table  provided  for 
 the  celebration  of  the  holy  communion 
 shall  be  covered,  in  time  of  divine  service, 
 with  a  carpet  of  silk,  or  other  decent  stufi' 
 thought  meet  by  the  ordinary  of  the  place, 
 if  any  question  be  made  of  it ;  and  with  a 
 fair  linen  cloth  at  the  time  of  the  minis- 
 tration, as  becomcth  that  table.  The  so- 
 vereigns of  England,  at  their  coronation, 
 present,  as  their  first  oblation,  a  pall  or 
 altar  cloth  of  gold,  &c. 
 
 ALTAR  PIECE.  A  picture  placed  over 
 the  altar.  It  is  not  uncommon  in  English 
 churches  to  place  paintings  over  the  altar, 
 although  it  is  a  practice  of  modern  intro- 
 duction, and  although  there  would  be  a 
 prejudice  against  placing  paintings  in  other 
 parts  of  the  church.  The  English  Reform- 
 ers were  very  strongly  opposed  to  the  in- 
 troduction of  paintings  into  the  sanctuary. 
 In  Queen  Elizabeth's  reign,  a  proclamation 
 was  issued  against  pictures  as  well  as  images 
 in  churches ;  and  Dean  Nowell  fell  under 
 her  Majesty's  displeasure  for  procuring  for 
 her  use  a  Prayer  Book  with  pictures.  The 
 Puritans,  w^ho  formed  the  religious  world 
 of  King  Charles's  time,  both  in  the  Church 
 and  out  of  it,  destroyed  pictures  wherever 
 they  could  find  them,  as  relics  of  Popery. 
 "We  may  add  that  the  feeling  against  pic- 
 tures prevailed  not  only  in  modern  times, 
 but  in  the  first  ages  of  the  primitive  Church. 
 In  the  various  catalogues  of  church  fur- 
 niture that  we  possess,  we  never  read  of 
 pictures.  There  is  a  particular  breviat  of 
 the  things  found  by  the  persecutors  in  the 
 church  of  Paul,  bishop  of  Cirta,  in  Numidia, 
 (a.  d.  303,)  where  we  find  mention  made 
 of  cups,  flagons,  two  candlesticks,  and  vest- 
 ments ;  but  of  images  and  pictures  there 
 is  not  a  syllable.  In  Spain,  at  the  Council 
 of  Eliberis,  A.  D.  30o,  there  was  a  positive 
 decree  against  them.  And,  at  the  end  of 
 this  century,  Epiphanius,  })assing  through 
 Anablatha,  a  village  of  Palestine,  found  a 
 
 veil  there,  hanging  before  the  doors  of  the 
 sanctuary  in  the  church,  whereon  was 
 painted  the  image  of  Christ,  or  some  saint, 
 which  he  immediately  tore  in  pieces,  and 
 gave  it  as  a  winding-sheet  for  the  poor, 
 himself  replacing  the  hanging  by  one  from 
 Cyi)rus.  The  first  mention  of  pictures 
 we  find  at  the  close  of  the  fourth  century  ; 
 when  Paulinus,  bishop  of  Nola,  to  keep 
 the  country  people  employed,  when  they 
 came  together  to  observe  the  festival  of 
 the  dedication  of  the  church  of  St.  Felix, 
 ordered  the  church  to  be  painted  with 
 the  images  of  saints,  and  stories  from 
 Scripture  history,  such  as  those  of  Esther 
 and  Job,  and  Tobit  and  Judith.  (Pau- 
 linus, Natal.  9,  Felicis,  p.  615.)  The  reader 
 will  find  a  learned  historical  investigation 
 of  this  subject  in  note  B  to  the  translation 
 of  Tertullian's  Apology  in  the  Library  of 
 the  Fatliers,  which  is  thus  summed  up  :  1. 
 In  the  first  three  centuries  it  is  positively 
 stated  that  Christians  had  no  images.  2. 
 Private  individuals  had  pictures,  but  it  was 
 discouraged.  {Aug.)  3.  The  cross,  not  the 
 crucifix,  was  used  ;  the  first  mention  of  the 
 cross  in  a  church  is  in  the  time  of  Constan- 
 tine.  4.  The  first  mention  of  pictures  in 
 churches,  except  to  forbid  them,  is  at  the 
 end  of  the  fourth  century,  and  these  his- 
 torical pictures  from  the  Old  Testament,  or 
 of  martyrdoms,  not  of  individuals.  5.  No 
 account  of  any  picture  of  our  Lord  being 
 publicly  used  occurs  in  the  six  first  cen- 
 turies ;  the  first  is  A.  D.  600.  6.  Outward 
 reverence  to  pictures  is  condemned.  AYe 
 find  frequent  allusion  to  pictures  in  the 
 writings  of  St.  Augustine.  We  thus  see 
 that  the  use  of  pictures  in  churches  is  to 
 be  traced  to  the  fourth  century;  and  we 
 may  presume  that  the  practice  of  the  age, 
 when  the  Church  was  beginning  to  breathe 
 after  its  severe  persecutions,  when  the 
 great  creed  of  the  Church  Universal  was 
 di'aAvn  up,  and  when  the  canon  of  Scrip- 
 ture w^as  fixed,  is  sufficient  to  sanction  the 
 use  of  pictures  in  our  sanctuaries.  That 
 in  the  middle  ages,  pictures  as  well  as 
 images  were  sometimes  worshipped,  as 
 they  are  by  many  Papists  in  the  present 
 day,  is  notto  be  denied.  It  was  therefore 
 natural  that  the  Reformers,  seeing  the 
 abuse  of  the  thing,  should  be  strongly 
 l)rejudiced  against  the  retention  of  pictures 
 in  our  churches.  But  much  of  Romish 
 error  consists  in  the  abuse  of  what  was 
 originally  good  or  true.  We  may,  in  tlie 
 present  age,  return  to  the  use  of  what  was 
 originally  good;  but  being  warned  that 
 what  has  led  to  Popish  corruptions  may 
 lead  to  them  again,  we  must  be  very  care- 
 ful tp  watch  against  the  recurrence  of  those 
 
24 
 
 ALTAR  RAILS. 
 
 AMEN. 
 
 evil  practices  to  which  these  customs  have 
 been  abused  or  perverted. 
 
 ALTAR  RAILS,  as  such,  and  as  dis- 
 tinguished from  the  cliancel  screen,  were 
 not  known  in  the  Western  Church  before 
 the  Reformation.  We  probably  owe  them 
 to  Archbishop  Laud,  who,  in  order  to  guard 
 against  a  continuance  of  the  profanations 
 to  which  the  holy  table  had  been  subject- 
 ed, while  standing  in  the  nave  of  the 
 church,  or  in  the  middle  of  the  chancel, 
 ordered  that  it  should  be  placed  at  the 
 east  end  of  the  chancel,  and  protected  from 
 rude  approach  by  rails.  As  the  use  of 
 altar  rails  arose  out  of,  and  visibly  sig- 
 nified respect  for,  the  great  mysteries  cele- 
 brated at  the  altar,  they  were,  of  course,  a 
 mark  for  the  hostility  of  the  Puritans ;  and 
 accordingly,  in  the  journal  of  William 
 Dowsing,  parliamentary  visitor  of  chiu-ches 
 in  the  great  rebellion,  vre  find  that  they 
 were  everywhere  destroyed.  They  have 
 generally,  however,  been  restored ;  and 
 there  are  now  few  churches  in  England 
 where  they  are  not  found.  In  the  East, 
 the  altar  has  been  enclosed  by  a  screen  or 
 an  enclosure  resembling  our  rails,  from 
 ancient  times.  These  were  at  first  only 
 the  cancelli,  or  KiyKXidtg,  or,  as  Eusebius 
 styles  them,  reticulated  wood-work.  They 
 were  afterwards  enlarged  into  the  holy 
 doors,  which  now  wholly  conceal  the  altar^ 
 and  which  Goar  admits  to  be  an  innova- 
 tion of  later  times,  (pp.  17,  18.)  These 
 are  not  to  be  confounded  with  the  en- 
 closure of  the  choir ;  which,  like  the  chan- 
 cel screen,  was  originally  very  low,  a  mere 
 barrier,  but  was  enlarged  afterwards  into 
 the  high  screens  which  now  shut  out  the 
 choii-  from  the  church. — Jehh. 
 
 ALTAR  SCREEN.  A  screen  behind 
 the  altar,  bounding  the  presbytery  east- 
 ward, and  in  our  larger  churches  separat- 
 ing it  from  the  parts  left  free  for  proces- 
 sions between  the  presbytery  and  the  Lady 
 Chapel,  when  the  latter  is  at  the  east  end. 
 (See  Cathedral.)  These  screens  were  of 
 comparatively  late  invention.  They  com- 
 pletely interfered  with  the  ancient  ar- 
 rangement of  the  Apsis.  (See  Apsis.)  The 
 most  magnificent  specimens  of  altar  screens 
 are  at  Winchester  cathedral,  and  at  St. 
 Alban's  abbey.  In  college  chapels,  and 
 churches  where  an  apse  would  be  alto- 
 gether out  of  place,  and  where  an  east 
 window  cannot  be  inserted,  as  at  New  Col- 
 lege, and  Magdalene,  Oxford,  they  are  as 
 appropriate  as  they  are  beautiful. — Teb.h. 
 
 AMBO.  A  kind  of  raised  platform  or 
 reading  desk,  from  which,  in  the  primitive 
 Church,  the  Gospel  and  Epistle  were  read 
 to   the  people,   and    sometimes    used   in 
 
 preaching.  Its  position  appears  to  have 
 varied  at  diff'erent  times ;  it  was  most  fre- 
 quently on  the  north  side  of  the  entrance 
 into  the  chancel.  Sometimes  there  was 
 one  on  each  side,  one  for  the  Epistle, 
 the  other  for  the  Gospel,  as  may  still 
 be  seen  in  the  ancient  churches  of  St. 
 Clement  and  St.  Lawrence,  at  Rome,  &c. 
 The  word  Ambo  has  been  popularly  em- 
 ployed for  a  reading  desk  within  memory, 
 as  in  Limerick  cathedral,  where  the  desk 
 for  the  lessons  in  the  centre  of  the  choir 
 was  so  called.  The  singers  also  had 
 their  separate  ambo,  and  in  many  of  the 
 foreign  European  churches  it  is  employed 
 by  the  precentor  and  principal  singers; 
 being  placed  in  the  middle  of  the  choii-, 
 like  an  eagle,  but  turned  towards  the 
 altar. — Jehh. 
 
 AMBROSIAX  OFFICE.  A  particular 
 office  used  in  the  church  of  Milan.  It 
 derives  its  name  from  St.  Ambrose,  who 
 was  bishop  of  Milan  in  the  fourth  century, 
 although  it  is  not  certain  that  he  took  any 
 part  in  its  composition.  Originally  each 
 church  had  its  particular  office ;  and  even 
 when  Pope  Pius  V.  took  upon  him  to  im- 
 pose the  Roman  office  on  all  the  Western 
 churches,  that  of  Milan  sheltered  itself 
 under  the  name  and  authority  of  St.  Am- 
 brose, and  the  Ambrosian  Ritual  has  con- 
 tinued in  use. — Brouqldon.,  Gueranger. 
 
 AMEDIEU,  or  Friends  of  Gop.  A 
 kind  of  religious  congregation  in  the 
 Church  of  Rome,  who  wore  grey  clothes 
 and  wooden  shoes,  had  no  breeches,  gird- 
 ing themselves  with  a  cord ;  they  began  in 
 1400,  and  grew  numerous ;  but  Pius  V. 
 united  their  society  partly  with  that  of  the 
 Cistercians,  and  partly  with  the  Soccolanti. 
 —Jehh, 
 
 AMEN.  This,  in  the  phraseology  of  the 
 Church,  is  denominated  orationis  sir/nacii- 
 lum,  or  devotee  coyiscionis  responsio,  the 
 token  for  prayer — the  response  of  the  wor- 
 shippers. It  intimates  that  the  prayer  of 
 the  speaker  is  heard,  and  approved  by  him 
 who  gives  this  response.  It  is  also  used 
 at  the  conclusion  of  a  doxology.  (Rom.  ix. 
 5.)  Justin  Martyr  is  the  first  of  the  fathers 
 who  speaks  of  the  use  of  the  response.  In 
 speaking  of  the  sacrament  he  says,  that,  at 
 the  close  of  the  benediction  and  prayer, 
 all  the  assembly  respond,  "Amen,"  which, 
 in  the  Hebrew  tongue,  is  the  same  as,  "  So 
 let  it  be."  According  to  Tertullian,  none 
 but  the  faithful  were  permitted  to  join  in 
 the  response. 
 
 In  the  celebration  of  the  Lord's  supper 
 especially,  each  communicant  was  required 
 to  give  this  response  in  a  tone  of  earnest 
 devotion.     Upon   the    reception,  both   of 
 
AMERICA. 
 
 ANABAPTISTS. 
 
 the  bread  and  of  tlie  wine,  eacli  uttered  a 
 loud  "Amen  ;''  and  at  the  close  of  the 
 consecration  by  the  jjriest,  all  joined  in 
 shouting-  a  loud  ''  Amen.''  lUit  the  prac- 
 tice Avas  discontinued  after  the  sixth  cen- 
 tury. 
 
 At  the  administration  of  baptism  also, 
 the  witnesses  and  sponsors  uttered  this 
 response  in  the  same  manner.  In  the 
 Greek  Church  it  was  customary  to  repeat 
 this  response  as  follows:  "  This  servant  of 
 the  LoKD  is  baptized  in  the  name  of  the 
 Fathek,  Amen ;  and  of  the  Son,  Amen  ; 
 and  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  Amen  ;  both  now 
 and  for  ever,  world  without  end ; "  to  which 
 the  people  responded,  *'  Amen."  This 
 usage  is  still  observed  by  the  Greek  Church 
 in  llussia.  The  repetitions  were  given 
 thrice,  with  reference  to  the  three  jjersons 
 of  the  Trinity. —  Coleman'' s  Christian  An- 
 tiquities. 
 
 It  signifies  truly  or  verily.  Its  import 
 varies  slightly  Mith  the  connexion  or  posi- 
 tion in  which  it  is  placed.  In  the  New 
 Testament  it  is  frequently  synonymous 
 with  "verily,"  and  is  retained  in  some 
 versions  without  being  translated.  At  the 
 conclusion  of  prayer,  as  the  Catechism 
 teaches,  it  signifies  So  he  it ;  after  the 
 repetition  of  the  Creed  it  means  So  it  is. 
 
 It  will  be  observed,  that  the  word 
 "Ame'n"  is  at  the  end  of  some  prayers, 
 the  Creed,  (kc,  printed  in  the  same  Koman 
 letter,  but  of  others,  and  indeed  generally, 
 in  Italics — ^^  Amen."  This  seems  not  to 
 be  done  without  meaning,  though  unfor- 
 tunately the  distinction  is  not  correctly 
 observed  in  all  the  modern  Prayer  Books. 
 The  intention,  according  to  "VMieatly,  is 
 this ;  At  the  end  of  all  the  collects  and 
 prayers,  which  the  priest  is  to  repeat  or 
 say  alone,  it  is  printed  in  Italic,  a  difierent 
 character  from  the  prayers  themselves,  pro- 
 bably to  denote  that  the  minister  is  to 
 stop  at  the  end  of  the  prayer,  and  to  leave 
 the  "Amen"  for  the  people  to  respond. 
 But  at  the  end  of  the  Lord's  Prayer,  Con- 
 fessions, Creeds,  &c.,  and  wheresoever  the 
 people  are  to  join  aloud  with  the  minister, 
 as  if  taught  and  instructed  by  him  what  to 
 say,  there  it  is  printed  in  Roman,  i.  e.  in 
 the  same  character  with  the  Confessions 
 and  Creeds  themselves,  as  a  hint  to  the 
 minister  that  he  is  still  to  go  on,  and  by 
 pronouncing  the  "  Amen "  himself,  to  di- 
 rect the  people  to  do  the  same,  and  so  to 
 set  their  seal  at  last  to  what  they  had  been 
 before  pronouncing. 
 
 AMEPJCA.     (See  Church  in  America.) 
 
 AMICE.  An  oblong  square  of  fine 
 linen  used  as  a  vestment  in  the  ancient 
 Church  by  the  priest.     At  fii-st  introduced 
 
 to  cover  the  shoulders  and  neck,  it  after- 
 wards received  the  addition  of  a  hood  to 
 cover  the  head  until  the  priest  came  be- 
 fore the  altar,  when  the  hood  was  throAvn 
 back.  We  have  the  remains  of  this  in  the 
 hood. 
 
 The  "  grey  amice,"  a  tippet  or  cape  of 
 fur,  was  retained  for  a  time  by  the  English 
 clergy  after  the  Ileformation  ;  but,  as  there 
 was  no  express  authority  for  this,  it  was 
 })rohibited  by  the  bishops  in  the  reign  of 
 Elizabeth. 
 
 The  word  Amice  is  sometimes  used  Avith 
 greater  latitude.  Thus  Milton,  (^Par.  Beg. 
 iv.,) 
 
 morning  fair 
 
 Came  forth,  with  pilgrim  steps,  iu  attdce  grey. 
 
 By  most  ritualists,  the  Aniictus,  or 
 A?nicia,  and  the  Almutium,  of  the  West- 
 ern Churches  were  considered  the  same. 
 But  W.  Gilbert  French,  in  an  interesting 
 and  curiously  illustrated  Essay  on  "  The 
 Tippets  of  the  Canons  Ecclesiastical,"  con- 
 siders that  there  is  a  distinction  between 
 the  amice  and  the  ahniicc.  The  former  he 
 identifies  with  the  definition  given  above. 
 The  latter  he  considers  to  be  the  choir 
 tippet,  Avorn  by  all  members  of  cathedral 
 churches,  of  materials  varying  with  the 
 ecclesiastical  rank  of  the  wearer.  The 
 hood  part  of  the  almuce  was  in  the 
 course  of  time  disused,  and  a  square  cap 
 substituted ;  and  the  remaining  parts  gave 
 rise  to  the  modern  cape,  worn  in  foreign 
 churches,  and  to  the  ornament  resembling 
 the  stole,  like  the  ordinary  scarf  worn  in  our 
 churches.  The  almuce,  or  "  aumusse,"  is 
 now  an  ornament  of  fur  or  other  materials 
 carried  over  the  arm  by  the  canons  of 
 many  French  and  other  continental  cathe- 
 drals. In  the  Dictionnaire  cle  Droit  Ca- 
 noniqne  (Lymr.  1787)  it  is  defined  as  an 
 ornament  which  was  fii'st  borne  on  the 
 head,  afterwards  canied  on  the  arm.  Car- 
 dinal Bona  only  mentions  the  amictus,  de- 
 scribing it  as  in  the  first  paragraph  of  this 
 article.  He  identifies  it,  but  certainly 
 without  any  reason,  with  the  Jewish 
 ephod.  There  seems  nothing  improbable 
 in  the  various  terms  above  mentioned 
 having  been  originally  identical.  (See 
 Band,  Hood,  Scarf,  and  Tippet.) — Jcbb. 
 AMPHIBALUM.  (See  Chasible.) 
 ANABAPTISTS.  (See  Baptids.)  Cer- 
 tain sectaries  whose  title  is  compounded 
 of  two  Greek  words,  {ava  and  /3a7rrt?a»,) 
 one  of  which  signifies  "  anew,"  and  the 
 other  "  to  baptize  ;"  and  whose  distinctive 
 tenet  it  is,  that  those  who  have  been  bap- 
 tized in  their  infancy  ought  tc  be  baptized 
 anetc. 
 
26 
 
 ANABAPTISTS. 
 
 ANCHORET. 
 
 John  of  Leyden,  Miinzer,  Knipperdoling, 
 and  other  German  enthusiasts  about  the 
 time  of  the  ]  Reformation,  Avere  called  by  this 
 name,  and  held  that  Chhist  -svas  not  the 
 son  of  ]\Iary,  nor  true  GoD  ;  that  v,e  Avcre 
 righteous  by  our  own  merits  and  sufi'erings, 
 that  there  was  no  original  sin,  and  that 
 infants  were  not  to  be  baptized.  They 
 rejected,  also,  communion  with  other 
 churches,  magistracy,  and  oaths  ;  main- 
 tained a  communion  of  goods,  polygamy, 
 and  that  a  man  might  put  away  his  wife  if 
 not  of  the  same  religion  AA'ith  himself ;  that 
 the  godly  should  enjoy  monarchy  here 
 on  earth  ;  that  man  had  a  free  will  in 
 spiritual  things  ;  and  that  any  man  might 
 preach  and  administer  the  sacraments. 
 The  Anabaptists  of  Moravia  called  them- 
 selves apostolical,  going  barefoot,  washing 
 one  another's  feet,  and  having  community 
 of  goods  ;  they  had  a  common  steward,  who 
 distributed  equally  things  necessary ;  they 
 admitted  none  but  such  as  would  get  their 
 livelihood  by  working  at  some  trade  ;  they 
 had  a  common  father  for  their  spirituals, 
 who  instructed  them  in  their  religion,  and 
 prayed  with  them  every  morning  before 
 they  went  abroad ;  they  had  a  general 
 governor  of  the  church,  w^hom  none  knew 
 but  themselves,  they  being  obliged  to  keep 
 it  secret.  They  would  be  silent  a  quarter 
 of  an  hour  before  meat,  covering  their 
 faces  Avith  their  hands,  and  meditating, 
 doing  the  like  after  meat,  their  governor 
 observing  them  in  the  mean  time,  to  re- 
 prove Avhat  Avas  amiss  ;  they  Avere  gener- 
 ally clad  in  black,  discoursing  much  of  the 
 last  judgment,  pains  of  hell,  and  cruelty 
 of  deA'iis,  teaching  that  the  Avay  to  escape 
 these  Avas  to  be  rebaptized,  and  to  embrace 
 their  religion.  They  caused  considerable 
 disturbance  in  Germany,  but  were  at  length 
 subdued.  To  this  sect  allusion  is  made  in 
 our  38th  Article.  By  the  present  Ana- 
 baptists in  England,  the  tenets  subversive 
 of  ci\'il  government  are  no  longer  pro- 
 fessed. 
 
 The  practice  of  rebaptizing  proselytes 
 was  used  by  some  ancient  heretics,  and 
 other  sectaries,  as  by  the  Montanists,  the 
 Novatians,  and  the  Donatists.  In  the 
 third  century,  the  Church  was  much  agi- 
 tated by  the  question  Avhether  baptism  re- 
 ceived out  of  the  Catholic  communion 
 ought  to  be  acknoAvledged,  or  Avhether 
 converts  to  the  Church  ought  to  be  rebap- 
 tized. Tertullian,  St.  Cyprian,  and  the 
 Africans  generally,  held  that  baptism  Avith- 
 out  the  Church  Avas  null,  as  did  also  Firmi- 
 lian,  bi.shop  of  Ca^sarea  in  Cappadocia,  and 
 the  Asiatics  of  his  time.  On  this  account, 
 Stephen,  bishop  of  Rome^  declined  com- 
 
 munion with  the  Churches  of  Africa  and 
 of  the  East.  To  meet  the  difficulty,  a 
 method  Avas  devised  by  the  Council  of 
 Aries,  Can.  8,  viz,  to  rebaptize  those  neAA'ly 
 converted,  if  so  be  it  Avas  found  that  they 
 had  not  been  baptized  in  the  name  of  the 
 Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Ghost  ;  and  so 
 the  fii'st  Council  of  Nice,  Can.  19,  ordered 
 that  the  Paulianists,  or  folloAvers  of  Paul 
 of  Samosata,  and  the  Cataphrygians  should 
 be  rebaptized.  The  Council  of  Laodicea, 
 Can.  7,  and  the  second  of  Aries,  Can.  16, 
 decreed  the  same  as  to  some  heretics. 
 
 But  the  notion  of  the  invalidity  of  in- 
 fant baptism,  AA'hich  is  the  foundation  of 
 the  modern  Anabaptism,  was  not  taught 
 until  the  twelfth  century,  Avhen  Peterall 
 Bruis,  a  Frenchman,  preached  it. 
 
 ANABATA.  A  cope,  or  sacerdotal 
 vestment,  to  cover  the  back  and  shoulders 
 of  a  priest.  This  is  no  longer  used  in 
 the  English  Church. 
 
 ANALOGY  OF  FAITH,  [translated 
 in  our  version,  jyrojjoi-tion  of  faith,']  is  the 
 proportion  that  the  doctrines  of  the  gospel 
 bear  to  each  other,  or  the  close  connexion 
 betAveen  the  truths  of  revealed  religion. 
 (Rom.  xii.  6.) 
 
 ANAPHORA.  That  part  of  the  liturgy 
 of  the  Greek  Church,  Avhich  follows  the 
 introductory  part,  beginning  at  the  Siir- 
 smn  corda,  or.  Lift  tip  your  hearts,' to  the 
 end,  including  the  solemn  prayers  of  con- 
 secration, &c.  It  resembles,  but  does  not 
 exactly  correspond  to,  the  Roman  Canon. 
 (See  Ilfnandot.) — Jebb. 
 
 ANATHEMA,  imports  Avhatever  is  set 
 apart,  separated,  or  divided  ;  but  is  most 
 usually  meant  to  express  the  cutting  off 
 of  a  ])erson  from  the  communion  of  the 
 faithful.  It  Avas  practised  in  the  primitive 
 Church  against  notorious  offenders.  Se- 
 veral councils,  also,  have  pronounced  ana- 
 themas against  such  as  they  thought  cor- 
 rupted the  purity  of  the  faith.  The  Church 
 of  England  in  her  18th  Article  anathema- 
 tizes those  who  teach  that  eternal  sana- 
 tion is  to  be  obtained  otherwise  than 
 through  the  name  of  Christ,  and  in  her 
 Canons  excomnumioates  all  Adio  say  that 
 the  Church  of  England  is  not  a  true  and 
 apostolic  Church. —  Can.  3.  All  impugn- 
 ers  of  the  public  Avorship  of  GoD,  estab- 
 lished in  the  Church  of  England. —  Can.  4. 
 All  impugners  of  the  rites  and  ceremonies 
 of  the  Church, — Ca7i.  6.  All  impugners 
 of  episcopacy. —  Can.  7.  All  authors  of 
 schism.  —  Can.  9.  All  maintainers  of 
 schismatics. — Can.  10.  All  these  persons 
 lie  under  the  anathema  of  the  Church  of 
 England. 
 
 ANCHORET.    A  name  given  to  a  her- 
 
ANDREW'S  DAY 
 
 ANGELITES. 
 
 27 
 
 mit,  from  his  dwelling  alone,  apart  from 
 society  ('Avai^wp//T//g).  The  anchoret  is 
 distinguished  from  the  ca?nobite,  or  the 
 monk  who  dwells  in  a  fraternity,  or  Koivo- 
 (3ia.     (See  3Ionks.) 
 
 ANDllEW'S  (iiamt)  DAY.  This  fes- 
 tival is  celebrated  by  the  Church  of  Eng- 
 land, Nov.  30,  in  commemoration  of  St. 
 Anch-ew,  who  was,  fii'st  of  all,  a  disciple  of 
 St.  John  the  Baptist,  but  being  assured  by 
 his  master  that  he  was  not  the  Messias, 
 and  hearing  him  say,  upon  the  sight  of  our 
 Saviouk,  "  Beliold  the  LAMB  ()/  GoD  !"  he 
 left  the  Baptist,  and  being  convinced  him- 
 self of  our  Saviour's  divine  mission,  by 
 conversing  with  him  some  time  at  the 
 place  of  his  abode,  he  went  to  his  brother 
 Simon,  afterwards  surnamcd  Peter  by  our 
 Sayioue,  and  acquainted  him  with  his 
 having  found  out  the  Messias  ;  but  he  did 
 not  become  our  Lohd's  constant  attendant 
 until  a  special  call  or  invitation.  After 
 the  ascension  of  Christ,  when  the  apos- 
 tles distributed  themselves  in  various  parts 
 of  the  world,  St.  Andrew  is  said  to  have 
 preached  the  gospel  in  Scythia,  in  Epirus, 
 in  Cappadocia,  Galatia,  Bithynia,  and  the 
 vicinity  of  Byzantium,  and  finally,  to  have 
 suffered  death  by  crucifixion,  at  ^gea,  by 
 order  of  the  proconsul  of  the  place.  The 
 instrument  of  his  death  is  said  to  have 
 been  in  the  form  of  the  letter  X,  being  a 
 cross  decussate,  or  saltier,  two  pieces  of 
 timber  crossing  each  other  in  the  middle ; 
 and  hence  usually  known  by  the  name  of 
 St.  Andrew's  cross. 
 
 ANGEL.  (See  Idolatry,  3Ianolatry, 
 Invocation  of  Saints.)  By  an  angel  is 
 meant  a  messenger  who  performs  the  will 
 of  a  superior.  The  scriptural  words,  both 
 in  Hebrew  and  Greek,  mean  a  messen- 
 ger. Thus,  in  the  letters  addressed  by 
 St.  John  to  the  seven  churches  in  Asia 
 Minor,  the  bishops  of  those  churches  are 
 addressed  as  angels ;  ministers  not  ap- 
 pointed by  the  people,  but  sent  by  God. 
 But  the  word  is  generally  applied  to  those 
 spiritual  beings  who  surround  the  throne 
 of  glory,  and  who  are  sent  forth  to  minis- 
 ter to  them  that  be  heirs  of  salvation.  It 
 is  supposed  by  some  that  there  is  a  sub- 
 ordination of  angels  in  heaven,  in  the  se- 
 veral ranks  of  seraphim,  cherubim,  thrones, 
 dominions,  principalities,  6cc.  AVe  recog- 
 nise in  the  service  of  the  Church,  the  three 
 orders  of  archangels,  cherubim,  and  sera- 
 phim. The  only  archangel,  as  Bishop 
 Horsley  remarks,  mentioned  in  Scripture, 
 is  St.  Michael.  (See  Cherub.)  The  word 
 seraph  signifies  in  the  Hebrew  to  burn. 
 It  is  possible  that  these  two  orders  of 
 anwls  arc  alluded  to  in  Psal.  civ.  4,  '^  He 
 
 maketh  his  angels  spirits;  and  his  min- 
 isters a  flaming  fire."  The  worship  of 
 angels  is  one  of  the  sins  of  the  llomish 
 Church.  It  was  first  invented  by  a  sect  in 
 the  fourth  century,  who,  for  the  purpose 
 of  exercising  this  unlawful  worship,  held 
 private  meetings  separate  from  those  of 
 the  Catholic  Church,  in  which  it  was  not 
 permitted.  The  Council  of  Laodicea,  the 
 decrees  of  which  were  received  and  ap- 
 proved by  the  whole  Church,  condemned 
 the  sect  in  the  following  terms :  "  Chris- 
 tians ought  not  to  forsake  the  Church  of 
 God,  and  depart  and  call  on  angels,  and 
 make  meetings,  which  are  forbidden.  If 
 any  one,  therefore,  be  found,  giving  him- 
 self to  this  hidden  idolatry,  let  him  be 
 anathema,  because  he  hath  left  the  Lord 
 Jesus  Christ,  the  Son  of  God,  and  hath 
 betaken  himself  to  idolatry."  The  same 
 principle  applies  to  prayers  made  to  any 
 created  being.  The  worship  of  the  crea- 
 ture was  regarded  by  the  (Jhurch  in  the 
 fourth  century  as  idolatry.  See  Bishop 
 Beveridges  Expos,  of  Acts  xxii. :  see  also 
 Bishop  Bull,  on  the  Corruption  of  the 
 Church  of  Rome,  sect,  iii.,  v/ho,  whilst 
 showing  that  the  ancient  fathers  and  coun- 
 cils were  express  in  their  denunciation  of 
 it,  (e.  g.  the  Council  of  Laodicea,  Theo- 
 doret,  Origen,  Justin  Martyr,  6cc.,)  says, 
 "  It  is  very  evident  that  the  Catholic  Chris- 
 tians of  Origen's  time  made  no  prayers  to 
 angels  or  saints,  but  directed  all  their 
 prayers  to  God,  through  the  alone  media- 
 tion of  Jesus  Christ  our  Saviour.  In- 
 deed, against  the  invocation  of  angels  and 
 saints  we  have  the  concurrent  testimonies 
 of  all  the  Catholic  Fathers  of  the  first 
 three  centuries  at  least."  Bishop  Bull 
 then  refers  to  his  own  Def.  Fid.  Nic.  ii.  to  8, 
 for  a  refutation  of  Bellarmine's  unfair  cita- 
 tion of  Justin  Martyr,  (Apol.  i.  6,  p.  47,) 
 where  he  says,  "  I  have  evidently  proved 
 that  that  plan  of  Justin,  so  far  from  giving 
 countenance  to  the  religious  worship  of 
 angels,  makes  directly  against  it."  Also 
 the  most  ancient  Liturgies,  See. 
 
 ANGELIC  HYMN.  A  title  given  to 
 the  hvmn  or  doxology  beginning  with 
 "  Glory  be  to  God  on  high,"  6cc.  It  is  so 
 called  "from  the  former  part  of  it  having 
 been  sung  by  the  angels  on  their  appear- 
 ance to  the  shepherds  of  Bethlehem,  to 
 announce  to  them  the  birth  of  the  llE- 
 DEEMER.     (Sec  Gloria  in  Excclsis.) 
 
 ANGELICI.  A  sort  of  Christian  here- 
 tics, who  were  supposed  to  have  their  rise 
 in  the  apostles'  time,  but  who  were  most 
 numerous  about  A.  D.  180.  They  worshipped 
 angels,  and  from  thence  had  their  name. 
 
 ANGELITES.      A    sort  of    Sabellian 
 
28       ANGLO-CATHOLIC  CHURCH. 
 
 ANNATES. 
 
 heretics,  so  called  from  Agelius  or  Ange- 
 lius,  a  place  in  Alexandria,  where  they 
 used  to  meet. 
 
 ANGLO-CATHOLIC  CHURCH.  (See 
 Church  of  Emjhind.)  Any  branch  of  the 
 CInirch  reformed  on  the  principles  of  the 
 Enghsh  Keformation. 
 
 In  certain  considerations  of  the  first 
 spiritual  importance,  the  Church  of  Eng- 
 land occupies  a  singularly  felicitous  posi- 
 tion. The  great  majority  of  Christians — 
 the  Iloman,  Greek,  and  Eastern  Churches 
 — regard  Episcopacy  as  indispensable  to 
 the  integrity  of  Christianity ;  the  Presby- 
 terians and  others,  who  have  no  bishops, 
 nor,  as  far  as  we  can  judge,  any  means 
 of  obtaining  the  order,  regard  episcopacy 
 as  unnecessary.  Supposing  for  a  moment 
 the  question  to  be  dubious,  the  position  of 
 the  Presbyterian  is,  at  the  best,  unsafe  ; 
 the  position  of  the  member  of  the  Church 
 of  England  is,  at  the  worst,  perfectly  safe : 
 at  the  worst,  he  can  only  be  in  the  same 
 position  at  last  as  the  Presbyterian  is  in  at 
 present.  On  the  Anti-episcopalian's  own 
 ground,  the  Episcopalian  is  on  this  point 
 doubly  fortified;  whilst,  on  the  opposite 
 admission,  the  Presbyterian  is  doubly  con- 
 demned, fij-st,  in  the  subversion  of  a  Divine 
 institution ;  and,  secondly,  in  the  invalidity 
 of  the  ordinances  of  grace.  Proceeding, 
 therefore,  on  mere  reason,  it  would  be 
 most  unwise  for  a  member  of  the  Church 
 of  England  to  become  a  Presbyterian ;  he 
 can  gain  nothing  by  the  change,  and  may 
 lose  everything.  The  case  is  exactly  the 
 reverse  with  the  Presbyterian. 
 
 Again:  by  all  apostolic  Churches  the 
 apostolic  succession  is  maintained  to  be  a 
 sine  qua  non  for  the  valid  administration 
 of  the  eucharist  and  the  authoritative  re- 
 mission of  sins.  The  sects  beyond  the  pale 
 of  the  apostolic  succession  very  naturally 
 reject  its  indispensability ;  but  no  one  is 
 so  fanatical  as  to  imagine  its  possession 
 invalidates  the  ordinances  of  the  Church 
 possessing  it.  Now,  of  all  branches  of  the 
 Catholic  Church,  the  Church  of  England  is 
 most  impregnable  on  this  point ;  she  unites 
 in  her  priesthood  the  triple  successions  of 
 the  ancient  British,  the  ancient  Irish,  and 
 the  ancient  Iloman  Church.  Supposing, 
 therefore,  the  apostolic  Churches  to  hold 
 the  right  dogma  on  the  succession,  the 
 member  of  the  Church  of  England  has 
 not  the  slightest  occasion  to  disturb  his 
 soul ;  he  is  trebly  safe.  Supposing,  on 
 the  other  hand,  the  apostolic  succession  to 
 be  a  fortunate  historical  fact,  not  a  divinely 
 
 {)erpetuated  authority,  he  is  still,  at  the 
 east,  as  safe  as  the  dissenter ;  whereas,  if 
 it  is,  as  the  Chui'ch  holds,  the  onlv  author- 
 
 ity on  earth  which  the  Saviour  has  com- 
 missioned with  his  power,  what  is  the 
 spiritual  state  of  the  schismatic  who  usurps, 
 or  of  the  assembly  that  pretends  to  bestow, 
 what  God  alone  can  grant  and  has  grant- 
 ed to  his  Church  only.  No  plausible'  in- 
 ducement to  separate  from  the  Church  of 
 England  can  counterbalance  this  necessity 
 for  remaining  in  her  communion  :  and  her 
 children  have  great  cause  to  be  grateful 
 for  being  placed  by  her  in  a  state  of  such 
 complete  security  on  two  such  essential 
 articles  of  administrative  Christianity. — 
 3Ior(ian. 
 
 ANNATES,     or     FIRST  -  FRUITS. 
 These  are  the  profits  of  one  year  of  every 
 vacant  bishopric  in  England,  claimed  at 
 first  by  the  pope,  upon  a  pretence  of  de- 
 fending the  Christians  from  the  infidels ; 
 and  paid  by  every  bishop  at  his  accession, 
 before  he  could  receive  his  investiture  from 
 Rome.     Afterwards  the  pope  prevailed  on 
 all   those   who  were  spiritual  patrons   to 
 oblige  their  clerks  to  pay  these  annates ; 
 and  so  by  degrees  they  became  payable  by 
 the  clergy  in  general.     Some  of  our  his- 
 torians tell  us  that  Pope  Clement  was  the 
 first  who  claimed  annates  in  England,  in 
 the  reign  of  Edward  I. ;  but  Selden,  in  a 
 short  account  which  he  has  given  us  of  the 
 reign  of  William  Rufus,  affirms  that  they 
 were  claimed   by  the    pope    before   that 
 reign.    Chronologers  differ  also  about  the 
 time  when  they  became   a  settled  duty. 
 Platina  asserts   that   Boniface   IX.,  ^who 
 was  pope  in  the  first  year  of  Henry  IV., 
 Annatarum    uswn   heneficiis    ecclesiasticis 
 primum    imposuit  (viz.)   dimidium    annui 
 proventus  Jisco  apostolico  j^ersolvere.     Wal- 
 singham  affirms  it  to  be  above  eighty  years 
 before  that  time,  (viz.)  in  the  time  of  Pope 
 John    XXII.,   who   was   pope  about   the 
 midtlle  of  the  reign  of  Edward  IL,  and 
 that  he  reservavit  camerce  suce  priinos  fruc- 
 tus  henejlciorum.     But  a  learned  bishop  of 
 Worcester  has  made  this  matter  more  clear. 
 He  states  that  the  old  and  accustomed  fees 
 paid  here  to  the  feudal  lords  were  called 
 hencficia  ;  and  that  the  popes,  assuming  to 
 be  lords  or  spiritual  heads  of  the  Church, 
 were  not  contented  with  an  empty  though 
 very  great  title,  without  some  temporal 
 advantage,  and  therefore  Boniface  VIII., 
 about  the  latter  end  of  the  reign  of  Ed- 
 ward I.,  having  assumed  an  absolute  do- 
 minion in  beneficiary  matters,  made  him- 
 self a  kind  of  feudal  lord  over  the  benefices 
 of  the  Church,  and  as  a  consequence  there- 
 of, claimed  a  year's  profits  of  the  Church, 
 as  a  beneficiary  fee  due  to   himself,  the 
 chief  lord.    But  though  the  usurped  power 
 of  the  pope  was  then  very  great,  the  king 
 
ANNATES. 
 
 20 
 
 and  tlie  people  did  not  comply  Avitli  this 
 demand ;  insomuch  that,  by  the  statute  of 
 Carlisle,  which  was  made  in  the  last  year 
 of  his  reign,  and  about  the  beginning  of 
 the  popedom  of  Clement  V.,  this  was  call- 
 ed a  new  imposition  (/ran's  et  intolerahilis, 
 et  contra  lef/cs  et  consuetudines  rcr/in  ;  and 
 by  reason  of  this  powerful  opposition  the 
 matter  rested  for  some  time  :  but  the  suc- 
 cessors of  that  pope  found  more  favourable 
 opportunities  to  insist  on  this  demand, 
 ■\niich  was  a  year's  profits  of  each  vacant 
 bishopric,  at  a  reasonable  valuation,  viz.  a 
 moiety  of  the  fidl  value ;  and  having  obtain- 
 ed what  they  demanded,  they  afterwards 
 endeavoured  to  raise  the  value,  but  were 
 opposed  in  this  likewise  by  the  parliament, 
 in  the  0th  of  Henry  IV.,  and  a  penalty  was 
 inflicted  on  those  bishops  who  paid  more 
 for  their  first-fruits  than  was  accustomed. 
 But,  notAvithstanding  these  statutes,  such 
 was  the  plenitude  of  the  pope's  power,  and 
 so  great  was  the  profit  which  accrued  to 
 him  by  this  invention,  that  in  little  more 
 than  half  a  century,  the  sum  of  £16,000 
 was  paid  to  him,  under  the  name  of  annates, 
 for  expediting  bulls  of  bishoprics  only. 
 The  payment  of  these  w^as  continued  till 
 about  the  2oth  year  of  Henry  VIII.,  and 
 then  an  act  was  made,  reciting,  that  since 
 the  beginning  of  that  parliament  another 
 statute  had  been  made  (which  act  is  not 
 printed)  for  the  suppressing  the  exaction 
 of  annates  of  archbishops  and  bishops. 
 But  the  parliament  being  unwilling  to 
 proceed  to  extremities,  remitted  the  put- 
 ting that  act  in  execution  to  the  king  him- 
 self: that  if  the  pope  would  either  put 
 down  annates,  or  so  moderate  the  payment 
 that  the;  might  no  longer  be  a  burthen  to 
 the  pec  pie,  the  king,  by  letters  patent, 
 might  declare  the  act  should  be  of  no  force. 
 The  pope,  having  notice  of  this,  and 
 taking  no  care  to  reform  those  exactions, 
 that  s  atute  was  confirmed ;  and  because  it 
 only  extended  to  annates  paid  for  arch- 
 bishoprics and  bishoprics,  in  the  next  year 
 another  statute  was  made,  (26  Henry  VIII. 
 cap.  3,)  that  not  only  those  first-fruits  for- 
 merly paid  by  bishops,  but  those  of  every 
 other  spiritual  living,  should  be  paid  to 
 the  king.  Notwithstanding  these  laws, 
 there  were  still  some  apprehensions,  that, 
 upon  the  death  of  several  prelates  who 
 Avere  tlien  very  old,  great  sums  of  money 
 would  be  conveyed  to  Rome  by  their  suc- 
 cessors ;  therefore,  Anno  33  Henry  VIII., 
 it  was  enacted,  that  all  contributions  of 
 annates  for  bishoprics,  or  for  any  bulls  to 
 be  obtained  from  the  see  of  Rome,  should 
 cease ;  and  if  the  pope  should  deny  any 
 bulls  of  consecration  by  reason  of  this  pro- 
 
 hibition, then  the  bishop  presented  should 
 be  consecrated  in  England  by  the  arch- 
 bishop of  the  province ;  and  if  it  was  in 
 the  case  of  an  archbishop,  then  he  should 
 be  consecrated  by  any  two  bishops  to  be 
 appointed  by  the  king  ;  and  that,  instead 
 of  annates,  a  bishop  should  pay  to  the 
 pope  £5  per  cent,  of  the  clear  yearly  value 
 of  his  bishopric.  But  before  this  time 
 (viz.  31  Henry  VIII.  cap.  22)  there  was 
 a  court  erected  by  the  parliament,  for  the 
 levying  and  government  of  these  first- 
 fruits,  which  court  was  dissolved  by  Queen 
 Mary  ;  and  in  the  next  year  the  payment 
 was  ordered  to  cease  as  to  her.  But  in 
 the  first  of  Elizabeth  they  were  again  re- 
 stored to  the  crown,  and  the  statute  32 
 Hen.  VIII.,  which  directed  the  grant  and 
 order  of  them,  was  recontinucd  ;  and  that 
 they  should  be  from  thenceforth  within 
 the  government  of  the  exchequer.  But 
 vicarages  not  exceeding  £10  per  annum, 
 and  parsonages  not  exceeding  ten  marks, 
 according  to  the  valuation  in  the  first- 
 fruits'  office,  were  exempted  from  payment 
 of  first-fruits ;  and  the  reason  is  because 
 vicarages,  when  this  valuation  was  made, 
 had  a  large  revenue,  arising  from  volun- 
 tary oblations  which  ceased  upon  the  dis- 
 solution, &c.,  and  therefore  they  had  this 
 favour  of  exemption  allowed  them  after- 
 wards. By  the  before-mentioned  statute, 
 a  new  officer  was  created,  called  a  remem- 
 brancer of  the  ffi'st-fruits,  whose  business 
 it  was  to  take  compositions  for  the  same  ; 
 and  to  send  process  to  the  sherifi"  against 
 those  who  did  not  pay  it ;  and  by  the  act 
 26  Henry  VIII.  he  who  entered  into  a 
 living  without  compounding,  or  paying  the 
 first-fruits,  was  to  forfeit  double  the  value. 
 To  prevent  which  forfeiture,  it  was 
 usual  for  the  clerk  newly  presented,  to 
 give  four  bonds  to  pay  the  same,  within 
 two  years  next  after  induction,  by  four 
 equal  payments.  But  though  these  bonds 
 were  executed,  yet  if  the  clergyman  died, 
 or  was  legally  deprived  before  the  pay- 
 ments became  due,  it  was  a  good  discharge 
 by  virtue  of  the  act  1  Elizabeth  before- 
 mentioned.  And  thus  it  stood,  until 
 Queen  Anne,  taking  into  consideration 
 the  insufficient  maintenance  of  the  poor 
 clergy,  sent  a  message  to  the  House  of 
 Commons  by  one  of  her  principal  secre- 
 taries, signifying  her  intention  to  grant  the 
 first-fruits  for  the  better  support  of  the 
 clergy  ;  and  that  they  would  find  out  some 
 means  to  make  her  intentions  more  effect- 
 ual. Thereupon  an  act  was  passed,  by 
 which  the  queen  was  to  incorporate  per- 
 sons, and  to  settle  upon  them  and  their 
 successors  the  revenue  of  the  first-fruits; 
 
30 
 
 ANNATES. 
 
 ANNUNCIADE. 
 
 but  that  the  statutes  before-mentioned 
 should  continue  in  force,  for  such  intents 
 and  purposes  as  should  be  directed  in  her 
 grant ;  and  that  this  new  act  should  not 
 extend  to  impeach  or  make  void  any 
 former  grant  made  of  this  revenue.  And 
 likewise  any  person,  except  infants  and 
 femme-coverts,  without  their  husbands, 
 mighti  by  bargain  and  sale  enrolled,  dis- 
 pose lands  or  goods  to  such  corporation, 
 for  the  maintenance  of  the  clergy  officiat- 
 ing in  the  Established  Church,  without 
 any  settled  competent  provision  ;  and  the 
 corporation  might  also  purchase  lands  for 
 that  purpose,  notAvithstanding  the  statute 
 of  mortmain.  Pursuant  to  this  law,  the 
 queen  (in  the  third  year  of  her  reign)  in- 
 corporated several  of  the  nobility,  bishops, 
 judges,  and  gentry,  &c.,  by  the  name  of 
 the  Governors  of  the  Bounty  of  Queen 
 Anne,  for  the  augmentation  of  the  main- 
 tenance of  the  poor  clergy,  to  whom  she 
 gave  the  first-fruits,  &c.,  and  appointed 
 the  governors  to  meet  at  the  Prince's 
 Chamber,  in  Westminster,  or  in  any  other 
 place  in  London  or  Westminster,  to  be 
 appointed  by  any  seven  of  them ;  of  which 
 number  a  privy-counsellor,  a  bishop,  a 
 judge,  or  counsellor  at  law,  must  be  one ; 
 there  to  consult  about  the  distribution  of 
 this  bounty.  That  four  courts  shall  be 
 held  by  these  governors  in  every  year,  viz. 
 in  the  months  of  December,  March,  June, 
 and  September;  and  that  seven  of  the 
 said  governors  {quuriim  tres,  ^-c.)  shall  be 
 a  court,  and  that  the  business  shall  be 
 despatched  by  majority  of  votes  :  that  such 
 courts  may  appoint  committees  out  of  the 
 number  of  the  governors,  for  the  better 
 managing  their  business  ;  and  at  their  first 
 or  any  other  meeting,  deliver  to  the  queen 
 what  methods  they  shall  think  fit  for  the 
 government  of  the  corporation ;  which 
 being  approved  under  the  great  seal,  shall 
 be  the  rules  of  the  government  thereof. 
 That  the  lord  keeper  shall  issue  out  writs 
 of  inquiry,  at  their  request,  directed  to 
 three  or  more  persons,  to  inquire,  upon 
 oath,  into  the  value  of  the  maintenance  of 
 poor  parsons  who  have  not  £80  per  annum, 
 and  the  distance  of  their  churches  from 
 London  ;  and  which  of  them  are  in  market 
 or  corporate  towns,  or  not ;  and  how  the 
 churches  are  supplied ;  and  if  the  incum- 
 bents have  more  than  one  living ;  that 
 care  may  be  taken  to  increase  their  main- 
 tenance. That  after  such  inquiry  made, 
 they  do  prepare  and  exhibit  to  the  queen 
 a  true  state  of  the  yearly  value  of  the 
 maintenance  of  all  such  ministers,  and  of 
 the  present  yearly  value  of  the  first-fruits 
 and  arrears  thereof,  and  of  such  pensions 
 
 as  are  now  payable  out  of  the  same,  by 
 virtue  of  any  former  grants.  That  there 
 shall  be  a  secretary,  and  a  treasurer,  who 
 shall  continue  in  their  office  during  the 
 pleasure  of  the  corporation ;  that  they 
 shall  take  an  oath  before  the  court  for  the 
 faithful  execution  of  their  office.  That 
 the  treasurer  must  give  security  to  account 
 for  the  money  which  he  receives  ;  and  that 
 his  receipt  shall  be  a  discharge  for  what 
 he  receives ;  and  that  he  shall  be  subject 
 to  the  examination  of  four  or  more  of  the 
 governors.  That  the  governors  shall  col- 
 lect and  receive  the  bounties  of  other  per- 
 sons ;  and  shall  admit  into  their  corpora- 
 tion any  contributors,  (whom  they  think  fit 
 for  so  pious  a  work,)  and  appoint  persons 
 under  their  common  seal,  to  take  subscrip- 
 tions, and  collect  the  money  contributed  ; 
 and  that  the  names  of  the  benefactors  shall 
 be  registered  in  a  book  to  be  kept  for  that 
 purpose. 
 
 Owing  mainly  to  the  exertion  of  Dean 
 Swift,  a  similar  remission  of  the  fii'st-fruits 
 was  made  in  Ireland  during  the  reign  of 
 Queen  Anne,  and  a  corporation  for  the 
 distribution  of  this  fruit  was  appointed 
 under  the  designation  of  the  Board  of  Fir st- 
 friiifs,  consisting  of  all  the  archbishops  and 
 bishops  of  Ireland,  the  dean  of  St.  Patrick's, 
 and  the  chief  officers  of  the  Crown.  The 
 Board  was  dissolved  by  the  act  of  parlia- 
 ment which  estabhshed  the  first  Ecclesi- 
 astical Commission,  which  now  discharges 
 its  functions. 
 
 ANNIVELAIS,  or  Annualais.  The 
 chantry  priests,  whose  duty  it  was  to  say 
 private  masses  at  particular  altars,  were 
 so  called;  as  at  Exeter  cathedral,  &c. 
 Thev  were  also  called  chaplains,  i 
 
 ANNUNCIADA.  A  society  founded 
 at  Ptome,  in  the  year  1460,  by  Cardinal 
 John  Turrecremata,  for  the  marrjing  of 
 poor  maids.  It  now  bestows,  every  Lady- 
 day,  sixty  Roman  crowns,  a  suit  of  white 
 serge,  and  a  florin  for  slippers,  to  above 
 400  maids  for  their  portion.  The  popes 
 have  so  great  a  regard  for  this  charitable 
 foundation,  that  they  make  a  cavalcade, 
 attended  with  the  cardinals,  &c.,  to  distri- 
 bute tickets  for  these  sixty  crowns,  &c., 
 for  those  who  are  to  receive  them.  If  any 
 of  the  maids  are  desirous  to  be  nuns,  they 
 have  each  of  them  120  crowns,  and  are 
 distinguished  by  a  chaplet  of  flowers  on 
 their  head, 
 
 ANNUNCIADE,  otherwise  called  the 
 Order  of  the  Ten  Virtues,  or  Delights,  of 
 the  Virgin  Mary ;  a  Popish  order  of  women, 
 founded  by  Queen  Jane,  of  France,  wife  to 
 Lewis  XII.,  whose  rule  and  chief  business 
 was  to  honour,  with  a  great  many  beads 
 
ANNUNCIATION. 
 
 ANTHEM. 
 
 31 
 
 and  rosaries,  the  ten  principal  virtues  or 
 delights  of  the  Virgin  Mary ;  tlie  first  of 
 which  they  make  to  be  -svhen  the  angel 
 Gabriel  annunciated  to  her  the  mystery  of 
 the  incarnation,  from  -whence  they  have 
 their  name ;  the  second,  when  she  saw  her 
 son  Jesus  brought  into  the  world ;  the 
 third,  when  the  wise  men  came  to  worship 
 him ;  the  fourth,  when  she  found  him  dis- 
 puting with  the  doctors  in  the  temple,  &:c. 
 This  order  was  confirmed  by  the  pope  in 
 loOl,  and  by  Leo  X.  again  in  1517. 
 
 ANNUNCIATION  of  the  BLESSED 
 VIRGIN  MARY.  This  festival  is  ap- 
 pointed by  the  Church,  in  commemoration 
 of  that  day  on  which  it  was  announced  to 
 Mary,  by  an  angel,  that  she  should  be  the 
 mother  of  the  Messiah.  The  Church  of 
 England  observes  this  festival  on  the  25th 
 of  March,  and  in  the  calendar  the  day  is 
 called  the  "  Annunciation  of  our  Lady," 
 and  hence  the  25th  of  March  is  called 
 Lady-day.  It  is  observed  as  a  "  scarlet 
 day  "  at  the  Universities  of  Cambridge  and 
 Oxford. 
 
 ANOMCEANS.  (From  dvonoiog,  un- 
 like.) The  name  of  the  extreme  Arians 
 in  the  fourth  century,  because  they  held 
 the  essence  of  the  Son  of  God  to  be  unlike 
 unto  that  of  the  Father.  These  heretics 
 were  condemned  by  the  semi-Arians,  at 
 the  Council  of  Seleucia,  A.  D.  359,  but  they 
 revenged  themselves  of  this  censure  a  year 
 after,  at  a  pretended  synod  in  Constanti- 
 nople. 
 
 ANTELUCAN.  In  times  of  persecu- 
 tion, the  Christians  being  unable  to  meet 
 for  divine  worship  in  the  open  day,  held 
 their  assemblies  in  the  night.  The  like 
 assemblies  were  afterwards  continued  from 
 feelings  of  piety  and  devotion,  and  called 
 Antelacayi,  or  assemblies  before  daylifjht. 
 
 ANTHEM.  A  hymn,  sung  in  parts 
 alternately.  Such,  at  least,  would  appear 
 to  be  its  original  sense.  The  word  is  de- 
 rived from  the  Greek  'Avn0wv>/,  which  sig- 
 nifies, as  Isidorus  interprets  it,  "  Vox  reci- 
 2}roca"  Szc,  one  voice  succeedim/  another  ; 
 that  is,  two  choruses  simjiyig  bj/  twms.  (See 
 Ajittphon.)  In  the  Greek  Church  it  was 
 more  particularly  applied  to  one  of  the 
 Alleluia  Psalms  sung  after  those  of  the 
 day.  In  the  Roman  and  unreformed 
 "Western  offices  it  is  ordinarily  applied  to  a 
 short  sentence  sung  before  and  after  one 
 of  the  Psalms  of  the  day :  so  called,  ac- 
 cording to  Cardinal  Bona,  because  it  gives 
 the  tone  to  the  Psalms  which  are  sung 
 antiphonely,  or  by  each  side  of  the  choir 
 alternately ;  and  then  at  the  end  both 
 choirs  join  in  the  anthem.  The  same 
 term  is  given  to  short  sentences  said  or 
 
 sung  at  different  parts  of  the  service ; 
 also  occasionally  to  metrical  hymns.  The 
 real  reason  of  the  application  of  the  term 
 in  these  instances  seems  to  be  this,  that 
 these  sentences  are  a  sort  of  response  to, 
 or  alternation  with,  the  other  parts  of  the 
 office.  The  preacher's  text  was  at  the  be- 
 ginning of  the  Reformation  sometimes 
 called  the  Anthem.  {Strype,  Ann.  of  the 
 lief  cha]).  ix.  A.  D.  1559.)  In  this  sense 
 it  is  applied  in  King  Edward's  First  Book 
 to  the  sentences  in  the  Visitation  of  the 
 Sick,  "  Remember  not,"  &c.,  ike,  "  O 
 Saviour  of  the  world,"  &c.,  which  were  ob- 
 viously never  intended  to  be  sung.  In 
 the  same  book  it  is  applied  to  the  hymns 
 peculiar  to  Easter  day,  and  to  the  prayer 
 in  the  Communion  Service,  "  Turn  thou 
 us,"  Szc,  both  of  which  are  prescribed  to 
 be  said  or  sung.  In  our  present  Prayer 
 Book  it  occurs  only  in  reference  to  the 
 Easter  Hymn,  and  in  the  rubrics  after  the 
 third  Collects  of  Morning  and  Evening 
 Prayer.  These  rubrics  were  first  inserted 
 at  the  last  Review,  though  there  is  no 
 doubt  that  the  anthem  had  always  been 
 customarily  performed  in  the  same  place. 
 To  the  anthem  so  performed  Milton  alluded 
 in  the  well-known  words,  "  In  service  high 
 and  anthems  clear  ; "  these  expressions,  as 
 well  as  the  whole  phraseology  of  that  un- 
 rivalled passage,  being  technically  correct : 
 the  service  meaning  the  Church  Hymns, 
 set  to  varied  harmonies ;  the  anthem,  (of 
 which  two  were  commonly  performed  in 
 the  full  Sunday  morning  service,)  the  com- 
 positions now  in  question. 
 
 The  English  Anthem,  as  the  term  has 
 long  been  practically  understood,  sanc- 
 tioned by  the  universal  use  of  the  Church 
 of  England,  has  no  exact  equivalent  in  the 
 service  of  other  Churches.  It  resembles, 
 but  not  exactly,  the  3Iofets  of  foreign 
 choirs,  and  occasionally  their  Responsories 
 or  Antiphons.  There  are  a  few  metrical 
 anthems,  corresponding  to  the  hymns  of 
 those  choirs.  But,  generally  speaking,  the 
 English  anthem  is  set  to  words  from  Holy 
 Scripture,  or  the  Liturgy ;  sung,  not  to  a 
 chant,  or  an  air,  like  tliat  of  a  hymn,  but 
 to  varied  consecutive  strains,  admitting  of 
 every  diversity  of  solo,  verse,  and  chorus. 
 The  Easter-day  Anthem,  at  the  time  of 
 the  last  Review,  was  not  usually  sung,  as 
 now,  to  a  chant,  but  to  varied  harmonies, 
 (as  is  still  the  case  at  Salisbury  cathedral,) 
 — and  in  the  sealed  book  it  is  to  be  ob- 
 served, that  it  is  not  printed  like  the 
 Psalms,  in  verses,  but  in  paragraphs. 
 Pro])erly  speaking,  our  services,  technically 
 so  called,  (see  Service,)  are  anthems ;  as  are 
 also  the  hymns  in   the   Communion  and 
 
32 
 
 ANTHOLOGIUM. 
 
 ANTICHRIST. 
 
 Burial  Service.  The  responses  to  the 
 Commandments,  and  the  sentence  "O 
 Lord,  arise,"  Sec,  in  the  Liturgy,  give  a 
 tolerably  coiTcct  notion  of  the  Koman  An- 
 tiphon. 
 
 The  Church  of  England  anthems  con- 
 sist of  three  kinds :  Full :  or  those  sung 
 throughout  by  the  whole  choir.  Full  with 
 verse ;  that  is,  consisting  of  a  chorus  for 
 the  most  part,  but  with  an  occasional  pas- 
 sage sung  by  but  a  few  voices.  ^  Verse ; 
 consisting  mainly  of  solos,  duets,  trios,  &c., 
 the  chorus  being  the  appendage,  not  the 
 substance.  Objections  have  been  made  of 
 late  to  verse  anthems ;  but  there  is  no 
 question  that  they  are  nearly,  if  not  quite, 
 coeval  with  the  Reformation. 
 
 In  many  choirs,  besides  the  anthem  in  its 
 proper  place  after  the  third  Morning  Col- 
 lect, another  was  sung  on  Sundays  after 
 the  sermon.  In  the  Coronation  Service 
 several  anthems  are  prescribed  to  be  used. 
 —Jebh. 
 
 An  anthem  in  choirs  and  places  where 
 they  sing  is  appointed  by  the  rubric  in 
 the  daily  service  in  the  Prayer  Book,  after 
 the  third  Collect,  both  at  Morning  and 
 Evening  Prayer. 
 
 ANTHOLOGIUM.  (In  Latin,  Flori- 
 ler/iuni.)  The  title  of  a  book  in  the  Greek 
 Church,  divided  into  twelve  months,  con- 
 taining the  offices  sung  throughout  the 
 whole  year,  on  the  festivals  of  our  Saviour, 
 the  Virgin  Mary,  and  other  remarkable 
 saints.  It  is  in  two  volumes ;  the  first 
 contains  six  months,  from  the  first  day  of 
 September  to  the  last  day  of  February; 
 the  second  comprehends  the  other  six 
 months.  It  is  observable  from  this  book 
 that  the  Greek  Church  celebrates  Easter 
 at  the  same  time  with  the  Church  of  Eng- 
 land, notwithstanding  that  they  differ  from 
 us  in  the  lunar  cycle. — Broughton. 
 
 ANTHROPOLATR^.  {Man  -  toor- 
 shippers.)  A  name  of  abuse  given  to 
 churchmen  by  the  Apollinarians,  because 
 they  maintained  that  Christ,  whom  both 
 admitted  to  be  the  object  of  the  Christian's 
 worship,  was  a  perfect  man,  of  a  reasonable 
 soul  and  human  flesh  subsisting.  This 
 the  Apollinarians  denied.  It  was  always 
 the  way  with  heretics  to  apply  to  church- 
 men terms  of  reproach,  while  they  assumed 
 to  themselves  distinctive  appellations  of 
 honour :  thus  the  Manichees,  for  instance, 
 while  they  caUed  themselves  the  elect,  the 
 blessed,  and  the  2)ure,  gave  to  the  church- 
 men the  name  of  shnple  ones.  It  is  not 
 less  a  sign  of  a  sectarian  spirit  to  assume 
 a  distinctive  name  of  honour,  than  to  im- 
 pose on  the  Church  a  name  of  reproach, 
 for   both   tend  to  divided  communion  in 
 
 spirit  or  in  fact.  There  is  this  good,  how- 
 ever, to  be  gathered  from  these  slanderous 
 and  vain-glorious  arts  of  heretics ;  that 
 their  terms  of  reproach  serve  to  indicate 
 some  true  doctrine  of  the  Church :  as,  for 
 instance,  that  of  Antliropolatra:  determines 
 the  opinion  of  Catholics  touching  Christ's 
 human  nature ;  while  the  names  of  dis- 
 tinction Avhich  heretics  themselves  assume, 
 usually  serve  to  throw  light  on  the  history 
 of  their  own  error. 
 
 ANTHROPOMORPHITES.  Heretics 
 who  were  so  called  because  they  main- 
 tained that  God  had  a  human  shape. 
 They  are  mentioned  by  Eusebius  as  the 
 opponents  of  Origen,  and  their  accusation 
 of  Origen  implies  their  own  heresy. 
 "  Whereas,"  they  said,  "  the  sacred  Scrip- 
 tures testify  that  God  has  eyes,  ears,  hands, 
 and  feet,  as  men  have,  the  partisans  of 
 Dioscorus,  being  followers  of  Origen,  in- 
 troduce the  blasphemous  dogma  that  GoD 
 has  not  a  body."  The  Anthropomorphite 
 error  was  common  among  the  monks  of 
 Egypt  about  the  end  of  the  fourth  cen- 
 tury. Dioscorus  was  a  leader  of  the  opposite 
 partv. 
 
 ANTICHRIST.  The  man  of  sin,  who 
 is  to  precede  the  second  advent  of  our 
 blessed  Saviour  Jesus  Christ.  "Little 
 children,"  saith  St.  John,  "  ye  have  heard 
 that  Antichrist  shall  come."  And  St.  Paul, 
 in  the  Second  Epistle  to  the  Thessalonians, 
 describes  him :  "  That  day  (the  day  of  our 
 Lord's  second  advent)  shall  not  come 
 except  there  come  a  falling  away  first, 
 and  that  man  of  sin  be  revealed,  the  son  of 
 perdition,  who  opposeth  and  exalteth  him- 
 self above  all  that  is  called  God,  or  that  is 
 worshipped  ;  so  that  he,  as  God,  sitteth  in 
 the  temple  of  God,  showing  himself  that 
 he  is  God.  Then  shall  that  wicked  be 
 revealed,  whom  the  Lord  shall  consume 
 with  the  spirit  of  his  mouth,  and  shall 
 destroy  with  the  brightness  of  his  coming; 
 even  him  whose  coming  is  after  the  work- 
 ing of  Satan,  with  all  power  and  signs  and 
 lying  wonders,  and  with  all  deceivableness 
 of  unrighteousness  in  them  that  perish." 
 
 Under  the  image  of  a  horn  that  had 
 e}"es,  and  a  mouth  that  spake  very  great 
 things  ;  that  made  war  with  the  saints,  and 
 prevailed  against  them  till  the  Ancient  of 
 days  came  ;  and  under  the  image  of  a  little 
 horn,  which  attacked  the  very  heavens, 
 and  trod  down  and  trampled  on  the  state, 
 Daniel  is  supposed  to  predict  Antichrist. 
 
 St.  John  in  the  Apocalypse  describes 
 Antichrist  as  a  beast  that  ascendeth  out  of 
 the  bottomless  pit,  and  maketh  war  upon 
 the  saints  ;  as  a  beast  rising  out  of  the  sea, 
 with  two  horns  and  two  crowns  upon  his 
 
ANTINOMIANS. 
 
 33 
 
 horns,  and  upon  his  heads  the  name  of 
 .blasphemy.  In  another  place,  he  speaks 
 of  the  number  of  the  beast,  and  says,  it  is 
 six  hundred  threescore  and  six. 
 
 It  is  not  the  purpose  of  this  dictionary 
 to  state  the  various  ways  in  which  this 
 prophecy  has  been  luiderstood.  "SVc  there- 
 fore pass  on  to  say,  that  Antichrist  is  to 
 lay  the  foundation  of  his  empire  in  Baby- 
 lon, i.  e.  (as  many  have  supposed,)  in  Komc, 
 and  he  is  to  be  destroyed  by  the  second 
 comins:  of  our  Lord. 
 
 ANTINOMIANS.  The  Antinomians 
 derive  their  name  from  dvTt,  against,  vofxog, 
 law,  their  distinguishing  tenet  being,  that 
 the  law  is  not  a  rule  of  life  to  believers 
 under  the  gospel.  The  founder  of  the 
 Antinomian  heresy  was  John  Agricola,  a 
 Saxon  divine,  a  contemporary,  a  country- 
 man, and  at  first  a  disciple,  of  Luther.  He 
 was  of  a  restless  temper,  and  wrote  against 
 ]\Ielancthon ;  and  having  obtained  a  pro- 
 fessorship at  Wittemberg,  he  first  taught 
 Antinomianism  there,  about  the  year  1535. 
 The  Papists,  in  their  disputes  with  the 
 Protestants  of  that  day,  carried  the  merit 
 of  good  works  to  an  extravagant  length ; 
 and  this  induced  some  of  their  opponents, 
 as  is  too  often  the  case,  to  run  into  the 
 opposite  extreme.  The  doctrine  of  Agri- 
 cola  was  in  itself  obscure,  and  perhaps 
 represented  worse  than  it  really  was  by 
 Luther,  who  wrote  with  acrimony  against 
 him,  and  first  styled  him  and  his  followers 
 Antinomians — ^'g^'^^^P^  thereby  "intend- 
 ing," as  Dr.  Hey  conjectures,  "  to  disgrace 
 the  notions  of  Agricola,  and  make  even 
 him  ashamed  of  them."  Agricola  stood 
 in  his  own  defence,  and  complained  that 
 opinions  were  imputed  to  him  which  he 
 did  not  hold. 
 
 About  the  same  time,  Nicholas  Amsdorf, 
 bishop  of  Naumburg  in  Saxony,  fell  under 
 the  same  odious  name  and  imputation, 
 and  seems  to  have  been  treated  more  un- 
 fairly than  even  Agricola  himself.  The 
 bishop  died  at  Magdeburg  in  1541,  and 
 some  say  that  his  followers  were  called  for 
 a  time  Amsdorfians,  after  his  name. 
 
 This  sect  sprung  up  among  the  Presby- 
 terians in  England,  during  the  Protector- 
 ate of  Oliver  Cromwell,  who  was  himself 
 an  Antinomian  of  the  worst  sort.  The 
 supporters  of  the  Popish  doctrines  de- 
 ducing a  considerable  portion  of  the  argu- 
 ments on  which  they  rested  their  defence 
 from  the  doctrines  of  the  old  law,  Agri- 
 cola, in  the  height  of  his  zeal  for  reform- 
 ation, was  encouraged  by  the  success  of 
 his  master,  Luther,  to  attack  the  very 
 foundation  of  their  arguments,  and  to  deny 
 that  any  part  of  the  Old  Testament  was 
 
 intended  as  a  rule  of  faith  or  practice  to 
 the  disci})les  of  Christ. 
 
 He  is  said  to  have  taught  that  the  law 
 ought  not  to  be  proposed  to  the  people  as 
 a  rule  of  manners,  nor  used  in  the  Church 
 as  a  means  of  instruction  ;  and,  of  course, 
 that  repentance  is  not  to  be  preached  from 
 tlie  Decalogue,  but  only  from  the  gospel; 
 that  the  gospel  alone  is  to  be  inculcated 
 and  explained,  both  in  the  churches  and 
 the  schools  of  learning;  and  that  good 
 works  do  not  promote  our  salvation,  nor 
 evil  works  hinder  it. 
 
 Some  of  his  followers  in  England,  in  the 
 seventeenth  century,  are  said  to  have  ex- 
 pressly maintained,  that  as  the  elect  can- 
 not fall  from  grace,  nor  forfeit  the  Divine 
 favour,  the  wicked  actions  they  commit 
 are  not  really  sinful,  nor  are  they  to  be 
 considered  as  instances  of  their  violation 
 of  the  Divine  laAv ;  and  that,  consequently, 
 they  have  no  occasion  either  to  confess 
 their  sins,  or  to  seek  renewed  forgiveness. 
 According  to  them,  it  is  one  of  the  essen- 
 tial and  distinctive  characters  of  the  elect, 
 that  they  cannot  do  anything  displeasing 
 to  God,  or  prohibited  by  the  law.  "  Let 
 me  speak  freely  to  you,  and  tell  you,"  says 
 Dr.  Tobias  Crisp,  (^ho  may  be  styled  the 
 primipihis  of  the  more  modern  scheme  of 
 Antinomianism,  and  was  the  great  Anti- 
 nomian opponent  of  Baxter,  Bates,  Howe, 
 Sec.,)  "  that  the  Lord  hath  no  more  to  lay 
 to  the  charge  of  an  elect  person,  yet  in  the 
 height  of  his  iniquity,  and  in  the  excess  of 
 riot,  and  committing  all  the  abominations 
 that  can  be  committed ;  I  say,  even  then, 
 when  an  elect  person  runs  such  a  course, 
 the  Lord  hath  no  more  to  lay  to  that  per- 
 son's charge,  than  God  hath  to  lay  to  the 
 charge  of  a  believer:  nay,  God  hath  no 
 more  to  lay  to  the  charge  of  such  a  person 
 than  he  hath  to  lay  to  the  charge  of  a  saint 
 triumphant  in  glory.  The  elect  of  God, 
 they  are  the  heirs  of  God  ;  and  as  they  are 
 heirs,  so  the  first  being  of  them  puts  them 
 into  the  right  of  inheritance,  and  there  is  no 
 time  but  such  a  person  is  the  child  of  God." 
 
 That  the  justification  of  sinners  is  an 
 immanent  and  eternal  act  of  God,  not  only 
 preceding  all  acts  of  sin,  but  the  existence 
 of  the  sinner  himself,  is  the  opinion  of 
 most  of  those  who  are  styled  Antinomians, 
 though  some  suppose,  with  Dr.  Crisp,  that 
 the  elect  were  justified  at  the  time  of 
 Christ's  death.  In  answer  to  the  question, 
 "  When  did  the  Lord  justify  us  ? "  Dr. 
 Crisp  says,  "He  did,  from  eternity,  in 
 respect  of  obligation  ;  but  in  respect  of 
 execution,  he  did  it  when  Christ  was  on 
 the  cross ;  and  in  respect  of  application, 
 he  doth  it  while  children  are  yet  unborn." 
 
34 
 
 ANTINOMIANS. 
 
 The  other  prmcipal  doctrines  which  at 
 present  bear  the  appellation  of  Antinomian, 
 are  said  to  be  as  follow : 
 
 1.  That  justification  by  faith  is  no  more 
 than  a  manifestation  to  us  of  what  was 
 done  before  we  had  a  being. 
 
 2.  That  men  ought  not  to  doubt  of  their 
 faith,  or  question  whether  they  believe  in 
 Christ. 
 
 3.  That  by  God's  laying  our  iniquities 
 upon  Christ,  and  our  being  imputed  right- 
 eous through  him,  he  became  as  completely 
 sinful  as  we,  and  we  as  completely  right- 
 eous as  Christ. 
 
 4.  That  believers  need  not  fear  either 
 their  own  sins  or  the  sins  of  others,  since 
 neither  can  do  them  any  injury. 
 
 5.  That  the  new  covenant  is  not  made 
 properly  with  us,  but  with  Christ  for  us  ; 
 and  that  this  covenant  is  all  of  it  a  pro- 
 mise, having  no  conditions  for  us  to  per- 
 form ;  for  faith,  repentance,  and  obedience, 
 are  not  conditions  on  our  part,  but  on 
 Christ's ;  and  that  he  repented,  believed, 
 and  obeyed  for  us. 
 
 6.  That  sanctification  is  not  a  proper 
 evidence  of  justification — that  our  right- 
 eousness is  nothing  but  the  imputation  of 
 the  righteousness  of  Christ — that  a  be- 
 liever has  no  holiness  in  himself,  but  in 
 Chi'ist  only  ;  and  that  the  very  moment  he 
 is  justified,  he  is  wholly  sanctified,  and  he 
 is  neither  more  nor  less  holy  from  that 
 hour  to  the  day  of  his  death. 
 
 Justification  by  a  faith  not  necessarily 
 productive  of  good  works,  and  right- 
 eousness imputed  to  such  a  faith,  are 
 the  doctrines  by  which  the  members 
 of  this  denomination  are  chiefly  distin- 
 guished. 
 
 While  the  Socinian  Unitarians  place  the 
 whole  of  their  religion  in  morality,  in  dis- 
 regard of  Christian  faith,  the  Antinomians 
 rely  so  on  faith  as  to  undervalue  moral- 
 ity. Their  doctrines  at  least  have  too 
 much  that  appearance. 
 
 In  short,  according  to  Dr.  Williams, 
 Dr.  Crisjj's  scheme  is  briefly  this  :  "  That 
 by  God's  mere  electing  decree  all  saving 
 blessings  are  by  Divine  obligation  made 
 ours,  and  nothing  more  is  needful  to  our 
 title  to  these  blessings  :  that  on  the  cross 
 all  the  sins  of  the  elect  were  transferred  to 
 Christ,  and  ceased  ever  after  to  be  their 
 sins  :  that  at  the  first  moment  of  concep- 
 tion a  title  to  all  those  decreed  blessings  is 
 personally  applied  to  the  elect,  and  they 
 are  invested  actually  therein.  Hence  the 
 elect  have  nothing  to  do,  in  order  to  an  in- 
 terest in  any  of  those  blessings,  nor  ought 
 they  to  intend  the  least  good  to  themselves 
 in  what  they  do  :  sin  can  do  them  no  harm 
 
 because  it  is  none  of  theirs ;  nor  can  God 
 afflict  them  for  any  sin."  And  all  the  rest 
 of  his  opinions  "  follow  in  a  chain,"  adds 
 Dr.  ^V.,  "  to  the  dethroning  of  Christ, 
 enervating  his  laws  and  pleadings,  obstruct- 
 ing the  great  design  of  redemption,  op- 
 posing the  very  scope  of  the  gospel,  and 
 the  ministry  of  Christ  and  his  prophets  and 
 apostles." — Adams. 
 
 High  Calvinism,  or  Antinomianism,  ab- 
 solutely withers  and  destroys  the  consci- 
 ousness of  human  responsibility.  It  con- 
 founds moral  with  natural  impotency, 
 forgetting  that  the  former  is  a  crime,  the 
 latter  only  a  misfortune ;  and  thus  treats 
 the  man  dead  in  trespasses  and  sins,  as  if 
 he  were  already  in  his  grave.  It  prophe- 
 sies smooth  things  to  the  sinner  going  on 
 in  his  transgressions,  and  soothes  to  skmi- 
 ber  and  the  repose  of  death  the  souls  of 
 such  as  are  at  ease  in  Zion.  It  assumes 
 that,  because  men  can  neither  believe,  re- 
 pent, nor  pray  acceptably,  unless  aided  by 
 the  grace  of  God,  it  is  useless  to  call  upon 
 them  to  do  so.  It  maintains  that  the  gos- 
 pel is  only  intended  for  elect  sinners,  and 
 therefore  it  ought  to  be  preached  to  none 
 but  such.  In  defiance,  therefore,  of  the 
 command  of  God,  it  refuses  to  preach  the 
 glad  tidings  of  mercy  to  every  sinner.  In 
 opposition  to  Scripture,  and  to  every 
 rational  consideration,  it  contends  that  it 
 is  not  man's  duty  to  believe  the  truth  of 
 God— justifying  the  obvious  inference,  that 
 it  is  not  a  sin  to  reject  it.  In  short,  its 
 whole  tendency  is  to  produce  an  impression 
 on  the  sinner's  mind,  that  if  he  is  not  saved 
 it  is  not  his  fault,  but  God's;  that  if  he  is 
 condemned,  it  is  more  for  the  glory  of  the 
 Divine  Sovereignty,  than  as  the  punish- 
 ment of  his  guilt. 
 
 So  far  from  regarding  the  moral  cure  of 
 human  nature  as  the  great  object  and  de- 
 sign of  the  gospel,  Antinomianism  does 
 not  take  it  in  at  all,  but  as  it  exists  in  Christ, 
 and  becomes  ours  by  a  figure  of  speech. 
 It  regards  the  grace  and  the  pardon  as 
 everything — the  spiritual  design  or  eflfect 
 as  nothing.  Hence  its  opposition  to  pro- 
 gressive and  its  zeal  for  imputed  sanctifi- 
 cation :  the  former  is  intelligible  and  tangi- 
 ble, but  the  latter  a  mere  figment  of  the 
 imagination.  Hence  its  delight  in  expati- 
 ating on  the  eternity  of  the  Divine  decrees, 
 which  it  does  not  understand,  but  which 
 serve  to  amuse  and  to  deceive ;  and  its 
 dislike  to  all  the  sober  realities  of  God's 
 present  dealings  and  commands.  It  exults 
 in  the  contemplation  of  a  Christ  w'ho  is  a 
 kind  of  concretion  of  all  the  moral  attri- 
 butes of  his  people ;  to  the  overlooking  of 
 that  Christ  who  is  the  Head  of  all  that  in 
 
ANTI-PJEDOBAPTISTS. 
 
 ANTI-POPE. 
 
 35 
 
 heaven  and  on  earth  bear  his  likeness.  It 
 boasts  in  the  doctrine  of  the  perseverance 
 of  the  saints,  while  it  believes  in  no  saint 
 but  one,  tliat  is,  Jesus,  and  neglects  to  per- 
 severe.—  Orme's  Life  of  Baxter,  vol.  ii.  p. 
 311. 
 
 ANTI-P^DOBAPTISTS.  (From  avrl, 
 against,  -n-aig,  child,  (Sa-TTTKrua,  baptism.) 
 Persons  who  are  opposed  to  the  baptism 
 of  infants.  In  this  country,  this  sect  ar- 
 rogate to  themselves  the  title  of  Baptists 
 par  excellence,  as  though  no  other  body  of 
 Christians  baptized :  just  as  the  Sociuians 
 extenuate  their  heresy  by  calling  them- 
 selves Unitarians  :  thereby  insinuating  that 
 those  who  hold  tlie  mystery  of  the  Holy 
 Trinity  do  not  believe  in  one  GOD.  (See 
 Anabaptists,  Baptism.) 
 
 AXTIPHON,  or  ANTIPHONY.  {avri 
 and  <pu)vt].)  The  chant  or  alternate  sing- 
 ing of  a  Christian  choir.  This  is  the  most 
 ancient  form  of  church  music.  Diodorus 
 and  Flavian,  the  leaders  of  the  orthodox 
 party  at  Antioch  during  the  ascendency  of 
 Arianism,  in  the  fourth  century,  and  St. 
 Ambrose  at  ]Milan,  instead  of  leaving  the 
 chanting  to  the  choristers,  as  had  been 
 usual,  divided  the  whole  congregation  into 
 two  choirs,  which  sang  the  psalms  alter- 
 nately. That  the  chanting  of  the  psalms 
 alternately  is  even  older  than  Christianity, 
 cannot  be  doubted,  for  the  custom  pre- 
 vailed in  the  Jewish  temple.  Many  of  the 
 psalms  are  actually  composed  in  alternate 
 verses,  evidently  with  a  view  to  their  being 
 used  in  a  responsive  manner.  "I  make 
 no  doubt,"  says  Nicholls,  "  but  that  it  is  to 
 this  way  of  singing  used  in  the  temple, 
 that  that  vision  in  Isaiah  vi.  alluded,  when 
 he  saw  the  two  cherubims,  and  heard  them 
 singing,  *  Holy,  holy,'  &c.  For  these 
 words  cannot  be  otherwise  explained,  than 
 of  their  singing  anthem- wise  ;  '  they  called 
 out  this  to  that  cherubim,'  properly  re- 
 lates to  the  singing  in  a  choir,  one  voice 
 on  one  side,  and  one  on  the  other."  In 
 the  earlier  days  of  the  Christian  Church, 
 this  practice  was  adopted,  and  became 
 universal.  The  custom  is  said,  by  So- 
 crates the  historian,  to  have  been  first  in- 
 troduced among  the  Greeks  by  Ignatius. 
 St.  Basil  tells  us  that,  in  his  time,  about 
 A.  D.  470,  the  Christians,  ''rising  from 
 their  prayers,  proceeded  to  singing  of 
 psalms,  dividing  themselves  into  two  parts, 
 and  singing  by  tunis."  Tertullian  remarks, 
 that  "  when  one  side  of  the  choir  sing  to 
 the  other,  they  both  provoke  it  by  a  holy 
 contention,  and  relieve  it  by  a  mutual  sup- 
 ply and  change."  For  these  or  similar 
 reasons,  the  reading  of  the  Psalter  is,  in 
 places  where  there  is  no  choir,  divided  be- 
 D   2 
 
 tween  the  minister  and  people.  In  the  cathe- 
 dral worship  of  the  Church  Universal,  the 
 psalms  of  the  day  are  chanted  throughout. 
 And  in  order  to  ])rescrve  their  responsive 
 character,  two  full  choirs  are  stationed  one 
 on  each  side  of  the  church.  One  of  these 
 having  chanted  one  or  two  verses  (the 
 usual  compass  of  the  chant-tune)  remains 
 silent,  while  the  opposite  choir  replies  in 
 the  verses  succeeding ;  and  at  the  end  of 
 each  psalm,  (and  of  each  division  of  the 
 119th  Psalm,)  the  Gloria  Patri  is  sung  by 
 the  united  choirs  in  chorus,  accom])anied 
 by  the  peal  of  the  great  organ.  The  usage, 
 now  prevalent  in  foreign  churches  subject 
 to  Home,  of  chanting  one  verse  by  a  single 
 voice,  and  the  other  l3y  the  full  choir,  is  not 
 ancient,  and  is  admitted  to  be  incorrect  by 
 some  continental  ritualists  themselves.  This 
 method  is  quite  destructive  of  the  genuine 
 effect  of  antiphonal  chanting,  which  ought 
 to  be  equally  balanced  on  each  side  of  the 
 choir.  It  may  indeed  be  accepted  as  a 
 sort  of  modification  of  the  ordinary  paro- 
 chial mode  ;  but  in  regular  choirs  it  would 
 be  a  clear  innovation,  a  retrograde  move- 
 ment, instead  of  an  improvement.  In 
 some  choirs  the  Gloria  Patri  is  sung  anti- 
 phonally,  but  always  to  the  great  organ. 
 — Jehl). 
 
 ANTIPHONAR.  The  book  which  con- 
 tains the  invitatories,  responsories,  verses, 
 collects,  and  whatever  else  is  sung  in  the 
 choir;  but  not  including  the  hymns  pe- 
 culiar to  the  Communion  Service,  which 
 are  contained  in  the  Gradual,  or  Grail. 
 —Jehh. 
 
 ANTI-POPE.  He  that  usurps  the  pope- 
 dom in  opposition  to  the  right  pope.  Geddes 
 gives  the  history  of  no  less  than  twenty- 
 four  schisms  in  the  Roman  Church  caused 
 by  anti-popes.  Some  took  their  rise  from 
 a  diversity  of  doctrines  or  belief,  which 
 led  different  parties  to  elect  each  their 
 several  pope ;  but  they  generally  took" 
 their  rise  from  dubious  controverted  rights 
 of  election.  During  the  great  schism, 
 which,  commencing  towards  the  close  of 
 the  14th  century,  lasted  for  fifty  years, 
 there  was  always  a  pope  and  anti-pope ; 
 and  as  to  the  fact  which  of  the  two  rivals 
 was  pope,  and  which  anti-}>o])c,  it  is  im- 
 possible even  now  to  decide.  The  great- 
 est powers  of  Europe  were  at  this  time 
 divided  in  their  opinions  on  the  subject. 
 As  is  observed  by  some  Roman  Catholic 
 writers,  many  pious  and  gifted  persons, 
 who  arc  now  numbered  among  the  saints 
 of  the  Church,  were  to  be  found  indif- 
 ferently in  either  obedience ;  which  suf- 
 ficiently proved,  as  they  assert,  that  the 
 eternal  salvation  of  the  faithful  was  not, 
 
36 
 
 ANTI-TYFE. 
 
 APOCALYPSE. 
 
 in  this  case,  endangered  by  their  error. 
 The  schism  began  soon  after  the  election 
 of  Urban  VI.,  and  was  terminated  by  the 
 Council  of  Constance.  By  that  Council 
 three  rival  popes  were  deposed,  and  the 
 peace  of  the  Cliurch  was  restored  by  the 
 election  of  Martin  V. 
 
 AXTI-TYPE.  A  Greek  word,  pro- 
 perly signifying  a  type  or  figure  corre- 
 sponding to  some  other  type  :  the  word  is 
 commonly  used  in  theological  writings  to 
 denote  the  person  in  whom  any  prophetic 
 type  is  fulfilled :  thus,  our  blessed  Saviour 
 is  called  the  Anti-tifpe  of  the  Paschal 
 lamb  under  the  Jewish  law. 
 
 APOCALYPSE.  A  revelation.  The 
 name  sometimes  given  to  the  last  book  of 
 the  New  Testament,  the  Revelation  of  St. 
 John  the  Divine,  from  its  Greek  title, 
 aTTOKoKv^iQ,  which  has  the  same  meaning. 
 
 This  is  a  canonical  book  of  the  New 
 Testament.  It  was  written,  according  to 
 Irenseus,  about  the  year  of  Christ  96,  in 
 the  island  of  Patmos,  whither  St.  John 
 had  been  banished  by  the  emperor  Domi- 
 tian ;  but  Sir  Isaac  Newton  fixes  the  time 
 of  writing  this  book  earlier,  viz.  in  the  time 
 of  Nero.  In  support  of  this  opinion  he 
 alleges  the  sense  of  the  earliest  comment- 
 ators, and  the  tradition  of  the  Churches 
 of  Spia  preserved  to  this  day  in  the  title 
 of  the  Sp'iac  version  of  that  book,  which 
 is  this :  "  The  Revelation  which  was  made 
 to  John  th^  Evangelist  by  God  in  the 
 island  of  Patmos,  into  which  he  wa.s  ban- 
 ished by  Nero  the  Ceesar."  This  opinion, 
 he  tells  us,  is  further  confirmed  by  the  al- 
 lusions in  the  Apocalypse  to  the  temple, 
 and  altar,  and  holy  city,  as  then  standing ; 
 as  also  by  the  style  of  it,  which  is  fuller  of 
 Hebraisms  than  his  Gospel ;  whence  it  may 
 be  inferred,  that  it  was  written  when  John 
 was  newly  come  out  of  Judea.  It  is  con- 
 firmed also  by  the  many  Apocalypses 
 ascribed  to  the  apostles,  which  appeared 
 in  the  apostolic  age :  for  Caius,  who  was 
 contemporary  with  Tertullian,  tells  us, 
 that  Cerinthus  wrote  his  Revelation  in  imi- 
 tation of  St.  John's,  and  yet  he  lived  so 
 early  that  he  opposed  the  apostles  at  Jeru- 
 salem twenty-six  years  before  the  death  of 
 Nero,  and  died  before  St.  John.  To  these 
 reasons  he  adds  another,  namely,  that  the 
 Apocalypse  seems  to  be  alluded  to  in  the 
 Epistles  of  St.  Peter,  and  that  to  the  He- 
 brews ;  and  if  so,  must  have  been  written 
 before  them.  The  allusions  he  means,  are 
 the  discourses  concerning  the  high  priest 
 in  the  heavenly  tabernacle;  the  cra/3/3a- 
 TiafiOQ,  or  the  millennial  rest;  the  earth, 
 "  whose  end  is  to  be  burned,"  &c. ;  whence 
 this   learned   author   is   of  opinion,  that 
 
 Peter  and  John  stayed  in  Judea  and  Syria 
 till  the  Romans  made  war  upon  their  na- 
 tion, that  is,  till  the  twelfth  year  of  Nero  ; 
 that  they  then  retired  into  Asia,  and  that 
 Peter  went  from  thence  by  Corinth  to 
 Rome ;  that  the  Romans,  to  prevent  in- 
 surrections from  the  Jews  among  them, 
 secured  their  leaders,  and  banished  St. 
 John  into  Patmos,  where  he  wrote  his 
 Apocalypsis ;  and  that  very  soon  after,  the 
 Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  and  those  of  Peter 
 were  written  to  the  churches,  with  refer- 
 ence to  this  prophecy,  as  what  they  were 
 particularly  concerned  in.  Some  attribute 
 this  book  to  the  arch-heretic  Cerinthus  : 
 but  the  ancients  unanimously  ascribe  it  to 
 John  the  son  of  Zebedee,  and  brother  of 
 James.  The  Revelation  has  not  at  all 
 times  been  esteemed  canonical.  There 
 were  many  Churches  of  Greece,  as  St.  Je- 
 rome informs  us,  which  did  not  receive  it ; 
 neither  is  it  in  the  catalogue  of  the  canon- 
 ical books  prepared  by  the  Council  of 
 Laodicea  ;  nor  in  that  of  St.  Cyril  of  Jeru- 
 salem ;  but  Justin,  Irenoeus,  Origen,  Cy- 
 prian, Clemens  of  Alexandria,  Tertullian, 
 and  all  the  fathers  of  the  fourth,  fifth,  and 
 following  centuries,  quote  the  Revelations 
 as  a  book  then  acknowledged  to  be  canon- 
 ical. 
 
 It  is  a  part  of  this  prophecy,  that  it 
 should  not  be  understood  before  the  last 
 age  of  the  Avorld  ;  and  therefore  it  makes 
 for  the  credit  of  the  prophecy  that  it  is 
 not  yet  understood. — The  folly  of  inter- 
 preters has  been  to  foretell  times  and 
 things  by  this  prophecy,  as  if  GoD  de- 
 signed to  make  them  prophets.  By  this 
 rashness,  they  have  not  only  exposed  them- 
 selves, but  brought  the  prophecy  also  into 
 contempt.  The  design  of  God  was  much 
 otherwise.  He  gave  this,  and  the  pro- 
 phecies of  the  Old  Testament,  not  to  gra- 
 tify men's  curiosities  by  enabling  them  to 
 foreknow  things,  but  that,  after  they  were 
 fulfilled,  they  might  be  interpreted  by  the 
 event ;  and  his  own  providence,  not  the  in- 
 terpreters, be  then  manifested  thereby  to 
 the  world. — There  is  already  so  much  of 
 the  prophecy  fulfilled,  that  as  many  as  will 
 take  pains  in  this  study,  may  see  sufficient 
 instances  of  God's  providence. 
 
 The  Apocaly])se  of  John  is  written  in 
 the  same  style  and  language  with  the  pro- 
 phecies of  Daniel,  and  hath  the  same  rela- 
 tion to  them  which  they  have  to  one  an- 
 other :  so  that  all  of  them  together  make 
 but  one  consistent  prophecy,  pointing  out 
 the  various  revolutions  that  should  happen 
 both  to  the  Church  and  the  State,  and  at 
 length  the  final  destruction  and  downfal 
 of  the  Roman  empire. 
 
APOCRYPHA. 
 
 APOSTLE. 
 
 37 
 
 APOCRYPHA.  (Sec  Bible,  Scriptures.) 
 From  cnrb  and  k-pvKTio,  to  hide,  "  because 
 they  -were  wont  to  be  read  not  openly  and 
 in  common,  but  as  it  were  in  secret  and 
 apart."  (Bible  of  1539,  Preface  to  Apo- 
 crypha.) Certain  books  appended  to  the 
 sacred  writings.  There  is  no  authority, 
 internal  or  external,  for  admitting  these 
 books  into  the  sacred  canon.  They  were 
 not  received  as  portions  of  the  Old  Testa- 
 ment by  the  Jews,  to  whom  "  were  com- 
 mitted the  oracles  of  GoD;"  they  are  not 
 cited  and  alluded  to  in  any  part  of  the 
 New  Testament;  and  they  are  expressly 
 rejected  by  St.  Athanasius  and  St.  Jerome 
 in  the  fourth  century,  though  these  two 
 fathers  speak  of  them  with  respect.  There 
 is,  therefore,  no  ground  for  applying  the 
 books  of  the  Apocrypha  "  to  establish  any 
 doctrine,  but  they  are  highly  valuable  as 
 ancient  writings,  which  throw  considerable 
 light  upon  the  phraseology  of  Scripture, 
 and  upon  the  history  and  manners  of  the 
 East ;  and  as  they  contain  many  noble 
 sentiments  and  useful  precepts,  the  Church 
 of  England  doth  read  them  for  "  example 
 of  life  and  instruction  of  manners."  {Art. 
 VI.)  They  are  frequently  quoted  Avith  great 
 respect  in  the  Homilies,  although  parties 
 who  bestow  much  praise  upon  the  Homi- 
 lies are  wont  to  follow  a  very  contrary 
 course.  The  corrupt  Church  of  Rome,  at 
 the  fourth  session  of  the  Council  of  Trent, 
 admitted  them  to  be  of  equal  authority  with 
 Scripture.  Thereby  the  modern  Church 
 of  Rome  differs  from  the  Catholic  Church  ; 
 and  by  altering  the  canon  of  Scripture, 
 and  at  the  same  time  making  her  dictum 
 the  rule  of  communion,  renders  it  impos- 
 sible for  those  Churches  which  defer  to 
 antiquity  to  hold  communion  Avith  her. 
 Divines  differ  in  opinion  as  to  the  degree 
 of  respect  due  to  those  ancient  writings. 
 The  reading  of  the  Apocryphal  books  in 
 churches  formed  one  of  the  grievances 
 of  the  Puritans  :  our  Reformers,  however, 
 have  made  a  selection  for  certain  holy 
 days  ;  and  for  the  first  lesson  from  the 
 evening  of  the  27th  of  Sejitember,  till  the 
 morning  of  the  2ord  of  November,  inclu- 
 sive. Some  clergymen  take  upon  them- 
 selves to  alter  these  lessons ;  but  for  so 
 doing  they  are  amenable  to  the  ordinary, 
 and  should  be  presented  by  the  church- 
 wardens, at  the  yearly  episcopal  or  archi- 
 diaconal  visitation ;  to  say  nothing  of  their 
 moral  obligation.  There  were  also  Apo- 
 cryphal books  of  the  New  Testament ;  but 
 these  were  manifest  forgeries,  and  of  course 
 Avere  not  used  or  accepted  by  the  Church. 
 (See  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles.) 
 
 APOLLINARIANS.     An  ancient  sect 
 
 who  were  followers  of  ApoUinaris  or  Apol- 
 linarius,  bishoj)  of  Laodicea,  about  the 
 middle  of  the  fourth  century.  He  denied 
 that  our  SAVIOUR  had  a  reasonable  human 
 soul,  and  asserted  that  the  Logos  or  1  )ivinc 
 nature  supplied  the  place  of  it.  This  is 
 one  of  the  sects  we  anathematize  when  we 
 read  the  Athanasian  Creed.  The  doctrine 
 of  ApoUinaris  was  condemned  by  several 
 ]n*ovincial  councils,  and  at  length  by  the 
 General  Council  of  Constantinople,  in  381. 
 In  short,  it  was  attacked  at  the  same  time 
 by  the  laws  of  the  emperors,  the  decrees  of 
 councils,  and  the  writings  of  the  learned, 
 and  sunk,  by  degrees,  under  their  united 
 force. 
 
 APOLOGY.  A  word  derived  from  two 
 Greek  words,  signifying  from  and  speech, 
 and  thus  in  its  primary  sense,  and  always 
 in  theology,  it  means  a  defence  from  at- 
 tack ;  an  answer  to  objections.  Thus  the 
 Greek  Avord,  cnroXoyin,  from  which  it 
 comes,  is,  in  Acts  xxii.  1,  translated  by 
 defence;  in  xxv.  16,  by  ansiver :  and  in 
 2  Cor.  vii.  11,  by  "clearing  of  yourselves." 
 There  were  several  Apologies  for  Chris- 
 tianity composed  in  the  second  century, 
 and  among  these,  those  of  Justin  Martyr 
 and  Tertullian  are  best  knoAvn. 
 
 APOSTASY.  (dTToardrng,  falling  away.) 
 A  forsaking  or  renouncing  of  our  religion, 
 either  formally,  by  an  open  declaration  in 
 words,  or  virtually,  by  our  actions.  The 
 Avord  has  several  degrees  of  signification. 
 The  primitive  Christian  Church  distin- 
 guished several  kinds  of  apostasy :  the 
 first,  of  those  who  went  entii-ely  from  Chris- 
 tianity to  Judaism.  The  second,  of  those 
 Avho  mingled  Judaism  and  Christianity  to- 
 gether. The  third,  of  those  Avho  complied 
 so  far  Avith  the  Jcavs,  as  to  communicate 
 Avith  them  in  many  of  their  unlaAvful  prac- 
 tices, without  formally  professing  their  re- 
 ligion ;  and  the  fourth,  of  those  Avho,  after 
 having  been  some  time  Christians,  volun- 
 tarily relapsed  into  Paganism.  It  is  ex- 
 pressly revealed  in  Holy  Scripture  that 
 there  Avill  be  a  very  general  falling  away 
 from  Christianity,  or  an  apostasy,  be- 
 fore the  second  coming  of  our  LoiiD. 
 (2  Thess.  ii.  3 ;  1  Tim.  iv.  1 ;  2  Tim.  iv. 
 3,4.) 
 
 In  the  Romish  Church  the  term  apostasy 
 is  also  api)lied  to  a  renunciation  of  the 
 monastic  voav. 
 
 APOSTLE.  A  missionary,  messenger, 
 or  envoy.  The  highest  order  in  the  min- 
 istry Avere  at  first  called  Apostles  ;  but  the 
 term  is  noAV  generally  confined  to  those 
 first  bisho])s  of  the  Church  Avho  received 
 their  connnisslon  from  our  blessed  Lord 
 himself,  and  Avho  Avere  distinguished  from 
 
38 
 
 APOSTLE. 
 
 the  bishops  who  succeeded  them,  by  their 
 having  acted  under  the  immediate  inspira- 
 tion of  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  by  their 
 having  frequently  exercised  the  power  of 
 working  miracles,  Matthias  was  chosen 
 into  the  place  of  Judas  Iscariot,  when  it  was 
 necessary  that  "another  should  take  his 
 bishopric,"  (Acts  i.  20,)  and  is  called  an 
 apostle.  St.  Paul  also  and  St.  Barnabas 
 are  likewise  styled  apostles.  So  that, 
 when  we  speak  of  the  twelve  apostles,  we 
 allude  to  them  only  as  they  w^ere  when 
 our  Lord  was  on  earth.  Afterwards, 
 even  in  the  restricted  sense,  there  were 
 more  than  twelve.  But  both  while  there 
 were  but  eleven,  and  afterwards  when 
 there  were  more,  they  were  called  the 
 tivelre,  as  the  name  of  their  college,  so  to 
 speak ;  as  the  LXXII.  translators  of  the 
 Old  Testament  into  Greek  are  called  the 
 LXX.  All  the  apostles  had  equal  power ; 
 a  fact  -which  is  emphatically  asserted  by 
 St.  Paul. 
 
 Oui-  Lord's  first  commission  to  his  apos- 
 tles was  in  the  third  year  of  his  public 
 ministry,  about  eight  months  after  their 
 solemn  election  ;  at  W'hich  time  he  sent 
 them  out  by  two  and  two.  (Matt.  x.  5,  &c.) 
 They  were  to  make  no  provision  of  money 
 for  their  subsistence  in  their  journey,  but 
 to  expect  it  from  those  to  whom  they 
 preached.  They  were  to  declare,  that 
 the  kingdom  of  heaven,  or  the  Messiah, 
 was  at  hand,  and  to  confirm  their  doctrine 
 by  miracles.  They  w'ere  to  avoid  going 
 either  to  the  Gentiles  or  the  Samaritans, 
 and  to  confine  their  preaching  to  the  peo- 
 ple of  Israel.  In  obedience  to  their  Mas- 
 ter, the  apostles  went  into  all  the  parts  of 
 Palestine  inhabited  by  the  Jews,  preach- 
 ing the  gospel,  and  w^orking  miracles. 
 (Mark  vi.  12.)  The  evangelical  history 
 is  silent  as  to  the  particular  circumstances 
 attending  this  first  preaching  of  the  apos- 
 tles, and  only  informs  us,  that  they  re- 
 turned, and  told  their  Master  all  that  they 
 had  done.     (Luke  ix.  10.) 
 
 Their  second  commission,  just  before 
 our  Lord's  ascension  into  heaven,  was  of 
 a  more  extensive  and  particular  nature. 
 They  were  now  not  to  confine  their  preach- 
 ing to  the  Jews,  but  to  "  go  and  teach  all 
 nations,  baptizing  them  in  the  name  of 
 the  Fathei',  and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the 
 Holy  Ghost."  (Matt,  xxviii.  19,  2;).)  Ac- 
 cordingly they  began  publicly,  after  our 
 Lord's  ascension,  to  exercise  the  office  of 
 their  ministry,  working  miracles  daily  in 
 proof  of  their  mission,  and  making  great 
 numbers  of  converts  to  the  Christian  faith. 
 (Acts  ii.  42 — 47.)  This  alarmed  the  Jewish 
 Sanhedi'im  ;  whereupon  the  apostles  were 
 
 apprehended,  and,  being  examined  before 
 the  high  priest  and  elders,  were  com- 
 manded not  to  preach  any  more  in  the 
 name  of  Christ.  But  this  injunction  did 
 not  terrify  them  from  persisting  in  the 
 duty  of  their  calling  ;  for  they  continued 
 daily,  in  the  temple,  and  in  private 
 houses,  teaching  and  preaching  the  gos- 
 pel.    (Acts  ii.  46.) 
 
 After  the  apostles  had  exercised  their 
 ministry  for  twelve  years  in  Palestine, 
 they  resolved  to  disperse  themselves  in 
 different  parts  of  the  world,  and  agreed  to 
 determine  by  lot  what  parts  each  should 
 take.  [Clem.  Alex.  Ajjolkmius.)  Ac- 
 cording to  this  division,  St.  Peter  went 
 into  Pontus,  Galatia,  and  those  other  pro- 
 vinces of  the  Lesser  Asia.  St.  AndrcAV 
 had  the  vast  northern  countries  of  Scythia 
 and  Sogdiana  allotted  to  his  portion.  St. 
 John's  was  partly  the  same  with  St.  Peter's, 
 namely  the  Lesser  Asia.  St.  Philip  had 
 the  Upper  Asia  assigned  to  him,  with  some 
 parts  of  Scythia  and  Colchis.  Arabia 
 Felix  fell  to  St.  Bartholomew's  share. 
 St.  Matthew  preached  in  Chaldsea,  Persia, 
 and  Parthia.  St.  Thomas  preached  like- 
 wise in  Parthia,  as  also  to  the  Hyrcanians, 
 Bactrians,  and  Indians,  St.  James  the 
 Less  continued  in  Jerusalem,  of  which 
 Church  he  was  bishop.  St.  Simon  had  for 
 his  portion  Egypt,  Cyrene,  Libya,  and 
 Mauritania ;  St.  Jude,  Syria  and  Mesopo- 
 tamia ;  and  St.  jNIatthias,  who  was  chosen 
 in  the  room  of  the  traitor  Judas,  Cappa- 
 docia  and  Colchis.  Thus,  by  the  dispersion 
 of  the  apostles,  Christianity  was  very  early 
 planted  in  a  great  many  parts  of  the  world. 
 We  have  but  very  short  and  imperfect  ac- 
 counts of  their  travels  and  actions. 
 
 In  order  to  qualify  the  apostles  for  the 
 arduous  task  of  converting  the  world  to 
 the  Christian  religion,  (Acts  ii.,)  they  were, 
 in  the  first  place,  miraculously  enalDled  to 
 speak  the  languages  of  the  several  nations 
 to  whom  they  were  to  preach  ;  and,  in  the 
 second  place,  were  endowed  wdth  the 
 power  of  working  miracles,  in  confirmation 
 of  the  doctrines  they  taught ;  gifts  which 
 were  unnecessary,  and  therefore  ceased,  in 
 the  future  ages  of  the  Church,  when  Chris- 
 tianity came  to  be  established  by  the  civil 
 power. 
 
 The  several  apostles  are  usually  repre- 
 sented with  their  respective  badges  or  at- 
 i  tributes;  St.  Peter  with  the  keys;  St. 
 I  Paul  with  a  sword ;  St.  Andrew  with  a 
 cross  ;  St.  James  the  Less  with  a  fuller's 
 pole ;  St,  John  wdth  a  cup,  and  a  winged 
 serpent  flying  out  of  it ;  St,  Bartholomew 
 with  a  knife ;  St,  Philip  with  a  long  staff, 
 whose  upper  end  is  formed  into  a  cross ; 
 
APOSTLES'  CREED. 
 
 39 
 
 St.  Thomas  with  a  lance;  St.  Matthew 
 with  a  hatchet ;  St.  Matthias  with  a  battle- 
 axe  ;  St.  James  the  Greater  with  a  pil- 
 grim's staff,  and  a  <;ourd-bottle  ;  St.  Simon 
 with  a  saw ;  and  St.  Jude  with  a  club. 
 
 APOSTLES'  CllEED   is  used  by  the 
 Church  between  the  third  part  of  the  daily 
 service,  namely,  the  lessons,  and  the  fourth 
 part,  namely,  the  petitions,  that  we  may 
 express  that  faith  in  what  we  have  heard, 
 which  is  the  ground  of  what  we  are  about 
 to  ask.     For  as  "  faith  cometh  by  hearing, 
 and  hearing  by  the  word  of  God,"  (Rom. 
 X.  17,)  so  we  must  '*  ask  in  faith,"  if  we 
 "  think  to  receive  anything  of  the  Loud." 
 (James  i.  6,  7.)     For  "  how  shall  we  call 
 upon  him,  in  whom  we  have  not  believed  ?  " 
 (llom.  X.  14.)     But  as  all  the  doctrines  of 
 Scripture,  though  equally  true,  are  not  of 
 equal    importance,    the    more    necessary 
 articles  have  been,  from  the  beginning  of 
 Cliristianity,  collected  into  one  body,  called 
 in  Scripture,  "  the  form  of  sound  words  " 
 (2  Tim.  i.  13);    "the  words  of  faith"  (1 
 Tim.  iv.  6) ;    "  the  principles  of  the  doc- 
 trine of  Christ"  (Heb.  vi.  1) ;  but  in  our 
 common  way  of  speaking  at  present,  "  the 
 Creed,"  from  the  Latin  word,  credo,  which 
 signifies  "  I   believe."     Now   the  ancient 
 Churches  had   many  such  creeds  ;    some 
 longer,  some  shorter  ;   differing  on  several 
 heads  in  phrase,  but  agreeing  in  method 
 and  sense,  of  which  that  called  "the  Apos- 
 tles' Creed  "  is  one.     And  it  deserves  this 
 name,  not  so  much  from  any  certainty,  or 
 great  likelihood,  that  the  apostles  drew  it 
 up  in  these  very  expressions ;  though  some, 
 pretty  early,  and  many  since,  have  imagined 
 they  did ;  as  because  it  contains  the  chief 
 apostolic   doctrines,  and  was   used  by  a 
 Church  which,  before  it  grew  corrupt,  was 
 justly  respected  as  the  chief  apostolic  set- 
 tlement, I  mean,  the  Roman. — Abp.  Seeker. 
 The  0])inion  which  ascribes  the  framing 
 of  this  Creed  to  the   apostles  in  person, 
 though  as  ancient  as  the  first  account  we 
 have  of  the  Creed  itself  from  Ruffinus,  in 
 the  year  390,  is  yet  rendered  highly  im- 
 probable, as  by  many  collateral  reasons,  so 
 especially  by  this  argument,  that  it  is  not 
 appealed  to  in  elder  times  as  the  sacred 
 and  unalterable  standard.     And  therefore 
 our  excellent    Church   with   due   caution 
 styles  it,  in  her  Sth  Article,  "  that  which  is 
 commonly   called    the    Apostles'    Creed." 
 But  thougli  it  seems  not  to  have  been  com- 
 piled or  formally  draAvn  up  by  the  apostles 
 themselves,  yet  is  its  authority  of  sufficient 
 strength ;  since  it  may  still  be  demonstrated 
 to  be  the  apostles',  or  rather  the  apostolic, 
 creed,  in  three  several  respects.     First,  as 
 it  is  drawn  from  the  fountains  of  apos-  | 
 
 '  tolical  Scripture.  Secondly,  as  it  agrees 
 in  substance  with  the  confessions  of  all 
 orthodox  Churches,  which  make  up  the 
 Apostolic  Church  in  the  extended  meaning 
 of  the  word.  Thirdly,  as  it  was  the  creed 
 of  an  Apostolic  Church  in  the  restrained 
 sense  of  that  term,  denoting  a  Church 
 founded  by  the  apostles,  as  was  that  of 
 Rome. — Kennet. 
 
 Though  this  Creed  be  not  of  the  apostles' 
 immediate  framing,  yet  it  may  be  truly 
 styled  apostolical,  not  only  because  it  con- 
 tains the  sum  of  the  apostles'  doctrine,  but 
 also  because  the  age  thereof  is  so  great, 
 that  its  birth  must  be  fetched  from  the 
 very  apostolic  times.  It  is  true,  the  exact 
 form  of  the  present  Creed  cannot  pretend 
 to  be  so  ancient  by  four  hundred  years ; 
 but  a  form,  not  much  different  from  it, 
 was  used  long  before.  Irenncus,  the  scholar 
 of  Polycarp,  the  disciple  of  St.  John,  where 
 he  repeats  a  creed  not  much  unlike  to 
 ours,  assures  us,  that  "the  Church,  dis- 
 persed throughout  the  whole  world,  had 
 received  this  faith  from  the  apostles  and 
 their  disciples ; "  which  is  also  affirmed  by 
 Tertullian  of  one  of  his  creeds,  that  "  that 
 rule  of  faith  had  been  current  in  the  Chm'ch 
 from  the  beginning  of  the  gospel : "  and, 
 which  is  observable,  although  there  was  so 
 great  a  diversity  of  creeds,  as  that  scarce 
 two  Churches  did  exactly  agree  therein, 
 yet  the  form  and  substance  of  every  creed 
 was  in  a  great  measure  the  same ;  so  that, 
 except  there  had  been,  from  the  very 
 plantation  of  Christianity,  a  form  of  sound 
 words,  or  a  system  of  faith,  delivered  by 
 the  first  planters  thereof,  it  is  not  easy  to 
 conceive  how  all  Churches  should  har- 
 monize, not  only  in  the  articles  themselves 
 into  which  they  were  baptized,  but,  in  a 
 great  measure  also,  in  the  method  and  order 
 of  them. — Lord  Chancellor  Kim/, 
 
 The  Creed  itself  was  neither  the  work 
 of  one  man,  nor  of  one  day  ;  but  the  com- 
 posure of  it  was  gradual.  First,  several 
 of  the  articles  therein  were  derived  from 
 the  very  days  of  the  apostles:  these  M'ere 
 the  articles  of  the  existence  of  God,  the 
 Trinity;  that  Jesus  was  Christ,  or  the 
 Saviour  of  the  world;  the  remission  of 
 sins ;  and  the  resurrection  of  the  dead. 
 Secondly,  the  others  were  afterwards  add- 
 ed by  the  primitive  doctors  and  bishops, 
 in  opposition  to  gross  heresies  and  errors 
 that  sprung  up  in  the  Church. — It  hath 
 been  received  in  all  ages  with  the  greatest 
 veneration  and  esteem.  The  ancients  de- 
 clare their  respect  and  reverence  for  it  with 
 the  most  noble  and  majestic  expressions; 
 and  in  these  latter  times,  throughout  several 
 centuries  of  years,  so  great  a  deference 
 
40 
 
 APOSTLES'  CREED. 
 
 hath  been  rendered  thereunto,  that  it  hath 
 not  only  been  used  in  baptism,  but  in 
 every  public  assembly  it  hath  been  usually, 
 if  not  always,  read  as  the  standard  and 
 basis  of  the  Christian  faith. — Lord  King. 
 
 But  neither  this,  nor  any  other  creed, 
 hath  authority  of  its  own  equal  to  Scrip- 
 ture, but  derives  its  principal  authority 
 from  being  founded  on  Scripture.  Nor  is 
 it  in  the  power  of  any  man,  or  number  of 
 men,  either  to  lessen  or  increase  the  fun- 
 damental articles  of  the  Christian  faith: 
 which  yet  the  Church  of  Rome,  not  content 
 with  this  its  primitive  creed,  hath  profanely 
 attempted,  addin<;-  twelve  articles  more, 
 founded  on  its  own,  that  is,  on  no  author- 
 ity, to  the  ancient  twelve,  which  stand  on 
 the  authority  of  God"s  word.  (See  Creed 
 of  Pope  Pius  IV.)  But  our  Church  hath 
 wisely  refused  to  go  a  step  beyond  the 
 original  form;  since  all  necessary  truths 
 are  briefly  comprehended  in  it,  which  it  is 
 the  duty  of  every  one  of  us  firmly  to  be- 
 lieve, and  openly  to  profess.  "  For  Avith 
 the  heart  man  believeth  unto  righteous- 
 ness, and  with  the  mouth  confession  is 
 made  unto  salvation."  (Rom.  x.  10.) — 
 Ahj).  Seeker. 
 
 The  place  of  the  Creed  in  our  litm-gy  is, 
 first,  immediately  after  the  lessons  of  Holy 
 Scripture,  out  of  which  it  is  taken ;  and 
 since  faith  comes  by  hearing  God's  word, 
 and  the  gospel  doth  not  profit  without 
 faith,  therefore  it  is  very  fit,  upon  hearing 
 thereof,  we  should  exercise  and  profess  our 
 faith.  Secondly,  the  Creed  is  placed  just 
 before  the  prayers,  as  being  the  foundation 
 of  om-  petitions  ;  we  cannot  "  call  on  him, 
 on  whom  we  have  not  believed  "  (Rom.  x. 
 14) ;  and  since  we  are  to  pray  to  GoD  the 
 Father  in  the  name  of  the  Son,  by  the 
 assistance  of  the  Spirit,  for  remission  of 
 sins  and  a  joyful  resurrection,  we  ought 
 first  to  declare  that  we  believe  in  God 
 the  Father,  the  Son,  and  the  Holy 
 Ghost,  and  that  there  is  remission  here 
 and  resurrection  hereafter  to  be  had  for 
 all  true  members  of  the  Catholic  Church, 
 and  then  we  may  be  said  to  pray  in  faith. 
 And  hence  St.  Ambrose  and  St.  Augustine 
 advise  Christians  to  say  it  daily  in  their 
 private  devotions ;  and  so  our  old  Saxon 
 councils  command  all  to  learn  and  use  it, 
 not  as  a  prayer,  (as  some  ignorantly  or 
 maliciously  object,)  but  as  a  ground  for 
 our  prayers,  and  a  reason  for  our  faith  and 
 hope  of  their  acceptance :  upon  which  ac- 
 count also,  as  soon  as  persecution  ceased, 
 and  there  was  no  danger  of  the  heathens 
 overhearing  it,  the  Creed  was  used  in  the 
 public  service. 
 
 And  there  are  many  benefits  which  we 
 
 may  receive  by  this  daily  use  of  it.  For, 
 first,  this  fixes  it  firmly  in  our  memories, 
 that  we  may  never  forget  this  blessed  rule 
 of  our  prayers,  nor  be  at  any  time  without 
 this  necessary  touchstone  to  try  all  doc- 
 trines by.  Secondly,  thus  we  daily  renew 
 our  profession  of  fidelity  to  Almighty  God, 
 and  repeat  that  watchword  which  was  given 
 us  when  we  were  first  listed  under  Christ's 
 banner,  declaring  thereby  that  we  retain 
 our  allegiance  to  him  and  remain  his  faith- 
 ful servants  and  soldiers ;  and  no  doubt 
 that  will  move  him  the  sooner  to  hear  the 
 prayers  which  we  are  now  making  to  him 
 for  his  aid.  Thirdly,  by  this  we  declare 
 our  unity  amongst  ourselves,  and  show 
 ourselves  to  be  members  of  that  holy 
 Catholic  Church,  by  and  for  which  these 
 common  prayers  are  made.  Those  who 
 hold  this  one  faith,  and  those  only,  have  a 
 right  to  pray  thus ;  nor  can  any  other  ex- 
 pect to  be  admitted  to  join  in  them ;  and 
 therefore  this  Creed  is  the  symbol  and 
 badge  to  manifest  who  are  fit  to  make 
 these  prayers,  and  receive  the  benefit  of 
 them. 
 
 Wherefore,  in  our  daily  use  of  this  sacred 
 form,  let  us  observe  these  rules : — First,  to 
 be  heartily  thankful  to  God  for  revealing 
 these  divine,  mysterious,  and  saving  truths 
 to  us  ;  and  though  the  Gloria  be  only  set  at 
 the  end  of  St.  Athanasius's  Creed,  yet  the 
 duty  of  thanksgiving  must  be  performed 
 upon  every  repetition  of  this  Creed  also.  Se- 
 condly, we  must  give  our  positive  and  par- 
 ticular assent  to  every  article  as  we  go 
 along,  and  receive  it  as  an  infallible  oracle 
 from  the  mouth  of  GoD ;  and  for  this 
 reason  we  must  repeat  it  with  an  audible 
 voice  after  the  minister,  and  in  our  mind 
 annex  that  word,  "I  believe,"  to  every 
 particular  article;  for,  though  it  be  but 
 once  expressed  in  the  beginning,  yet  it 
 must  be  supplied  and  is  understood  in 
 every  article ;  and  to  show  consent  the 
 more  evidently,  w^e  must  stand  up  when 
 vie  repeat  it,  and  resolve  to  stand  up  stoutly 
 in  defence  thereof,  so  as,  if  need  were,  to 
 defend  it,  or  seal  the  truth  of  it,  with  our 
 blood.  Thirdly,  we  must  devoutly  apply 
 every  article,  as  we  go  along,  to  be  both  a 
 ground  for  our  prayers  and  a  guide  to  our 
 lives ;  for  if  we  rightly  believe  the  power 
 of  the  Father,  the  love  of  the  Son,  and  the 
 grace  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  it  will  encour- 
 age us  (who  are  members  of  the  Catholic 
 Church)  to  pray  heartily  for  all  spiritual  and 
 temporal  blessings,  and  give  us  very  live- 
 ly hopes  of  obtaining  all  oar  requests. 
 Again,  since  these  holy  principles  were 
 not  revealed  and  selected  out  from  all 
 other  truths,  for  any  other  end  but  to  make 
 
APOSTOLIC. 
 
 APOSTOLICAL  CANONS. 
 
 41 
 
 us  live  more  holily,  therefore  we  must 
 consider,  how  it  is  fit  that  man  should  live, 
 who  believes  that  God  the  Father  is  his 
 Creator,  God  the  Son  his  lledeemer,  and 
 God  the  Holy  GnosT  his  Sanctilicr ;  who 
 believes  that  he  is  a  member  of  that  Ca- 
 tholic Church,  wherein  there  is  a  com- 
 munion of  saints,  and  remission  for  sins, 
 and  shall  be  a  resurrection  of  the  body, 
 and  a  life  everlasting-  afterwards.  No  man 
 is  so  ignorant  but  he  can  tell  what  manner 
 of  persons  they  ought  to  be  who  believe 
 this  ;  and  it  is  evident,  that  whoever  firmly 
 and  fully  believes  all  this,  his  faith  will 
 certainly  and  necessarily  produce  a  holy 
 life. — Dean  Cumber. 
 
 In  the  First  Book  of  King  Edward  VI., 
 the  Apostles'  Creed  followed  the  lesser 
 litany,  "  Lord,  have  mercy  upon  us," — and 
 immediatlcy  after  it  was  repeated  the 
 Lord's  Prayer.  The  alteration,  as  it  at 
 present  stands,  was  made  in  the  Second 
 Book. — Jebh. 
 
 APOSTOLIC,  APOSTOLICAL,  some- 
 thing that  relates  to  the  apostles,  or  de- 
 scends from  them.  Thus  we  say,  the  apos- 
 tolical age,  apostolical  character,  apostolical 
 doctrine,  constitutions,  traditions,  8cc.  In 
 the  primitive  Church  it  was  an  appellation 
 given  to  all  such  Churches  as  were  founded 
 by  the  apostles,  and  even  to  the  bishops 
 of  those  Churches,  as  the  reputed  successors 
 of  the  apostles.  These  were  confined  to 
 four:  Rome,  Alexandria,  Antioch,  and 
 Jerusalem.  In  succeeding  ages,  the  other 
 Churches  assumed  the  same  title,  on  ac- 
 count, principally,  of  the  conformity  of 
 their  doctrine  with  that  of  the  Churches 
 which  were  apostolical  by  foundation,  and 
 because  all  bishops  held  themselves  suc- 
 cessors of  the  apostles,  or  acted  in  their 
 respective  dioceses  with  the  authority  of 
 apostles.  The  first  time  the  term  aposto- 
 lical is  attributed  to  bishops,  is  in  a  letter 
 of  Clovis  to  the  Council  of  Orleans,  held  in 
 511 ;  though  that  king  does  not  in  it  ex- 
 pressly denominate  them  apostolical,  but 
 apostolicd  sede  dignissimi,  highly  worthy  of 
 the  apostolical  see.  In  581,  Guntram  calls 
 the  bishops,  assembled  at  Macon,  aposto- 
 lical pontiffs.  In  progress  of  time,  the 
 bishop  of  Home  increasing  in  power  above 
 the  rest,  and  the  three  patriarchates  of 
 Alexandria,  Antioch,  and  Jerusalem  having 
 fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  Saracens,  the 
 title  apostolical  came  to  be  restricted  to  the 
 pope  and  his  Church  alone.  At  length 
 some  of  the  popes,  and  among  them  Gre- 
 gory the  Great,  not  content  to  hold  the 
 title  by  this  tenure,  began  to  insist  that  it 
 belonged  to  them  by  another  and  peculiar 
 right,  as  the  successors  of  St.  Peter.     In 
 
 1046,  the  Romish  Council  of  Rheims 
 declared,  that  the  poj)e  was  the  sole 
 a])ostolical  primate  of  the  Universal 
 Church. 
 
 APOSTOLICAL  CONSTITUTIONS 
 AND  CANONS.  These  two  collections 
 of  ecclesiastical  rules  and  formularies  were 
 attributed,  in  the  early  ages  of  the  Church 
 of  Rome,  to  Clement  of  Rome,  who  was 
 supj)osed  to  have  committed  them  to  writ- 
 ing from  the  mouths  of  the  apostles,  whose 
 words  they  ju-etended  to  record.  The 
 authority  thus  claimed  for  these  writings 
 has,  however,  been  entirely  disi)roved ; 
 and  it  is  generally  supposed  by  critics,  that 
 they  were  chiefly  compiled  during  the 
 second  and  third  centuries ;  or  that,  at 
 least,  the  greater  part  must  be  assigned  to 
 a  period  before  the  first  Nicene  Council. 
 We  find  references  to  them  in  the  writings 
 of  Eusebius,  Epiphanius,  and  Athanasius, 
 writers  of  the  third  and  fourth  centuries. 
 A  modern  critic  supposes  them  not  to  have 
 attained  their  present  form  until  the  fifth 
 century.  The  Constitutions  hvq  comprised 
 in  eight  books.  In  these  the  apostles  are 
 frequently  introduced  as  speakers.  They 
 contain  rules  and  regulations  concerning 
 the  duties  of  Christians  in  general,  the 
 constitution  of  the  Church,  the  offices  and 
 duties  of  ministers,  and  the  celebration  of 
 Divine  Avorship.  The  tone  of  morality 
 which  runs  through  them  is  severe  and 
 ascetic.  They  forbid  the  use  of  all  personal 
 decorations  and  attention  to  appearance, 
 and  prohibit  the  reading  of  the  works  of 
 heathen  authors.  They  enjoin  Christians 
 to  assemble  twice  every  day  in  the  church 
 for  prayers  and  psalmody,  to  observe 
 various  fasts  and  festivals,  and  to  keep  the 
 sabbath  (i.  e.  the  seventh  day  of  the  week) 
 as  well  as  the  Lord's  day.  They  require 
 extraordinary  marks  of  respect  and  rever- 
 ence towards  the  ministers  of  religion ; 
 commanding  Christians  to  honour  a  bishop 
 as  a  king  or  a  prince,  and  even  as  a  kind 
 of  God  upon  earth,  to  render  to  him  abso- 
 lute obedience,  to  pay  him  tribute,  and  to 
 approach  him  through  the  deacons  or  serv- 
 ants of  the  Church,  as  Ave  come  to  God 
 only  through  Christ  !  This  latter  kind  of 
 (profane)  comparison  is  carried  to  a  still 
 greater  extent,  for  the  deaconesses  are  de- 
 clared to  resemble  the  Holy  Spirit,  inas- 
 much as  they  are  not  able  to  do  anything 
 Avithout  the  deacons.  Presbyters  are  said 
 to  represent  the  apostles  ;  and  the  rank  of 
 Christian  teachers  is  declared  to  be  higher 
 than  that  of  magistrates  and  princes.  We 
 find  here,  also,  a  comi)]ete  liturgy  or  fomi 
 of  Avorship  for  Christian  churches ;  contain- 
 ing not  only  a  description  of  ecclesiastical 
 
42 
 
 APOSTOLICAL  CONSTITUTIONS  AND  CANONS. 
 
 ceremonies,  but  thS  prayers  to  be  used  at 
 their  celebration. 
 
 This  f^eneral  description  of  the  contents 
 of  the  books  of  Constitutions  is  alone 
 enough  to  ])rove  that  they  are  no  produc- 
 tions of  the  apostolic  age.  Mention  also 
 occurs  of  several  subordinate  ecclesiastical 
 olhcers,  such  as  readers  and  exorcists,  who 
 were  not  introduced  into  the  Church  until 
 the  tliird  century.  And  there  are  manifest 
 contradictions  between  several  parts  of  the 
 work.  The  general  style  in  which  the 
 Constitutions  are  written  is  such  as  had 
 become  prevalent  during  the  third  cen- 
 tury. 
 
 It  is  useless  to  inquire  who  was  the  real 
 author  of  this  work;  but  the  date  and 
 probable  design  of  the  forgery  are  of  more 
 importance,  and  may  be  more  easily  ascer- 
 tained. Epiphanius,  towards  the  end  of 
 the  fourth  century,  appears  to  be  the  first 
 author  who  speaks  of  these  books  under 
 their  present  title,  Apostolical  Constitu- 
 tions. But  he  refers  to  the  work  only  as 
 one  containing  much  edifying  matter,  with- 
 out including  it  among  the  writings  of  the 
 apostles ;  and  indeed  he  expressly  says 
 that  many  persons  had  doubted  of  its 
 genuineness.  One  passage,  however,  to 
 which  Epiphanius  refers,  speaks  a  lan- 
 guage directly  the  reverse  of  what  w'e  find 
 in  the  corresponding  passage  of  the  work 
 now  extant ;  so  that  it  appears  probable 
 that  the  Apostolical  Constitutions,  which 
 that  author  used,  have  been  corrupted  and 
 interpolated  since  his  time.  On  the  whole, 
 it  appears  ])robable,  from  internal  evi- 
 dence, that  the  Apostolical  Constitutions 
 were  compiled  during  the  reigns  of  the 
 heathen  emperors,  towards  the  end  of  the 
 third  century,  or  at  the  beginning  of  the 
 fourth ;  and  that  the  compilation  was  the 
 work  of  some  one  writer  (])robably  a 
 bislio]))  of  the  Eastern  Church.  The  ad- 
 vancement of  ei)iscopal  dignity  and  power 
 appears  to  have  been  the  cliief  design  of 
 tne  forgery. 
 
 If  we  regard  the  Constitutions  as  a  pro- 
 duction of  the  third  century,  (containing 
 remnants  of  earlier  com])ositions,)  the  work 
 possesses  a  certain  kind  of  value.  It  con- 
 tributes to  give  us  an  insiglit  into  the  state 
 of  CTiristian  faith,  the  condition  of  the 
 clergy  and  inferior  ecclesiastical  officers, 
 the  worship  and  discipline  of  the  Churcli, 
 and  other  particulars,  at  the  period  to 
 which  the  composition  is  referred.  The 
 growth  of  e])iscopal  power  and  influence, 
 and  the  derivation  of  the  episcopal  author- 
 ity from  the  apostles,  is  here  clearly  shown. 
 Many  of  the  regulations  prescribed,  and 
 many  of  the  moral  and  religious  remarks, 
 
 are  good  and  edifying;  and  the  prayers 
 especially  breathe,  for  the  most  part,  a 
 spirit  of  simple  and  primitive  Christianity. 
 But  the  work  is  by  no  means  free  from 
 traces  of  superstition ;  and  it  is  occasion- 
 ally disfigured  by  mystical  interpretations 
 and  applications  of  Holy  Scripture,  and  by 
 needless  refinements  in  matters  of  cere- 
 mony. AVe  find  several  allusions  to  the 
 events  of  apostolical  times ;  but  occur- 
 rences related  exclusively  in  such  a  work, 
 are  altogether  devoid  of  credibility,  espe- 
 cially as  tliey  are  connected  with  the  de- 
 sign of  the  compiler  to  pass  ofi'  his  book 
 as  a  work  of  the  apostles. 
 
 The  Canons  relate  chiefly  to  various  par- 
 ticulars of  ecclesiastical  polity  and  Chris- 
 tian worship  ;  the  regulations  which  they 
 contain  being,  for  the  most  part,  sanc- 
 tioned with  the  threatening  of  deposition 
 and  excommunication  against  offenders. 
 The  first  allusion  to  this  work  by  name,  is 
 found  in  the  Acts  of  the  Council  which  as- 
 sembled at  Constantinople  in  the  year  394, 
 under  the  presidency  of  Nectarius,  bishop 
 of  that  see.  But  there  are  expressions  in 
 earlier  councils,  and  writers  of  the  same 
 century,  which  appear  to  refer  to  the  Ca- 
 nons, although  not  named.  In  the  be- 
 ginning of  the  sixth  century,  fifty  of  these 
 Canons  were  translated  from  the  Greek  into 
 Latin  by  the  Roman  abbot,  Dionysius  the 
 Younger;  and,  about  the  same  time,  thirty- 
 five  others  were  appended  to  them  in  a 
 collection  made  by  John,  patriarch  of  Con- 
 stantinople. Since  that  time,  the  whole 
 number  have  been  regarded  as  genuine  in 
 the  East ;  while  only  the  first  fifty  have 
 been  treated  with  equal  respect  in  the 
 West.  It  appears  highly  probable,  that 
 the  original  collection  was  made  about  the 
 middle  of  the  third  century,  or  somewhat 
 later,  in  one  of  the  Asiatic  Churches.  The 
 author  may  have  had  the  same  design  as 
 that  which  appears  to  have  influenced  the 
 compiler  of  the  Apostolical  Constitutions. 
 The  eighty-fifth  Canon  speaks  of  the  Con- 
 stitutions as  sacred  books ;  and  from  a 
 comparison  of  the  two  books,  it  is  plain 
 that  they  are  either  the  production  of  one 
 and  the  same  writer,  or  that,  at  least,  the 
 two  authors  were  contemporary,  and  had 
 a  good  understanding  with  each  other. 
 The  rules  and  regulations  contained  in  the 
 Canons  are  sucli  as  were  gradually  intro- 
 duced and  established  during  the  second 
 and  tliird  centuries.  In  the  canon  or  list 
 of  sacred  books  of  the  New  Testament, 
 given  in  this  work,  the  Revelation  of  St. 
 John  is  omitted ;  but  the  two  Epistles  of 
 St.  Clement  and  Apostolical  Constitutions 
 are  inserted. — Aucjusti. 
 
APOSTOLICAL  FATHERS. 
 
 APPEAL. 
 
 43 
 
 APOSTOLICAL  FATHERS.  An  ap- 
 pellation usually  given  to  the  writers  of 
 the  hrst  century,  ^Yho  employed  their  pens 
 in  the  cause  of  Christianity.  Of  these 
 writers,  Cotelerius,  and  after  him  Le  Clerc, 
 have  published  a  collection  in  tMO  volumes, 
 accompanied  both  Avith  their  own  annota- 
 tions and  the  remarks  of  other  learned 
 men.  Among  later  editions  may  be  par- 
 ticularly mentioned  that  by  the  Rev.  Dr. 
 Jacobson,  Regius  Professor  of  Divinity  at 
 Oxford,  Avhich,  however,  does  not  include 
 Barnabas  or  Hernias.  See  also  The  Genuine 
 Epistles  of  the  Apostolic  Fathers,  by  Arch- 
 bishop Wake,  and  a  translation  of  them 
 in  one  volume  8vo,  by  the  Rev.  Temple 
 Chevallier,  B.  D.,  formerly  Hulsean  lec- 
 turer in  the  University  of  Cambridge.  The 
 names  of  the  apostolical  fathers  are,  Cle- 
 ment, bishop  of  Rome,  Ignatius,  bishop  of 
 Antioch,  Polycarp,  bishop  of  Smyrna,  and 
 Hernias.  To  these  Barnabas  the  apostle 
 is  usually  added.  The  epistles  and  other 
 writings  of  these  eminent  men  are  still  ex- 
 tant. A  more  admirable  appendix  to  the 
 pure  word  of  GoD,  and  a  more  trustworthy 
 comment  on  the  principles  taught  by  in- 
 spired men,  cannot  be  conceived.  As  eye- 
 witnesses of  the  order  and  discipline  of  the 
 Church,  while  all  was  fresh  and  new  from 
 the  hands  of  the  apostles,  their  testimony 
 forms  the  very  summit  of  uninspired  au- 
 thority. None  could  better  know  these 
 things  than  those  who  lived  and  wrote  at 
 the  very  time.  None  deserve  a  greater 
 reverence  than  they  who  proclaimed  the 
 gospel,  while  the  echo  of  inspired  tongues 
 yet  lingered  in  the  ears  of  the  people. 
 
 APOSTOLICAL  SUCCESSION.  (See 
 Succession.)  The  line  in  which  the  minis- 
 try of  the  Church  is  handed  on  from  age 
 to  age  :  the  corporate  lineage  of  the  Chris- 
 tian clergy,  just  as  in  the  Jewish  Church 
 there  was  a  family  lineage.  The  Church 
 of  England  maintains  the  apostolical  suc- 
 cession in  the  preface  to  her  Ordination 
 Service.  Those  are  said  to  be  in  apos- 
 tolical succession  who  have  been  sent  to 
 labour  in  the  Lord's  vineyard,  by  bishops 
 who  were  consecrated  by  those  who,  in 
 their  turn,  were  consecrated  by  others,  and 
 these  by  others,  until  the  derived  author- 
 ity is  traced  to  the  apostles,  and  through 
 them  to  the  great  Head  of  the  Church. 
 The  apostolical  succession  of  the  ministry 
 is  essential  to  the  right  administration  of 
 the  holy  sacraments.  The  clergy  of  the 
 Church  of  England  can  trace  their  con- 
 nexion with  the  apostles  by  links,  not  one 
 of  which  is  wanting,  from  the  times  of  St. 
 Paul  and  St.  Peter  to  our  own. — See  Ap- 
 pendix to  Rose's  Commission  and  consequent 
 
 Duties  of  the  Clergy ;  PercevaVs  Doctrine 
 of  the  Apostolical  Succession,  2nd  edition ; 
 Sinclair  {Rev.  John)  on  the  Dpiscopal  Suc- 
 cessiofi ;  and  Courayer's  Defence  of  the 
 Enqlish  Ordina tions. 
 
 APqSTOLICI,  or  APOTACTICI.  He- 
 retics in  Christianity,  who  sprung  from 
 the  Encratites  and  Cathari,  and  took  these 
 names  because  they  pretended  to  be  the 
 only  followers  of  the  apostles,  and  because 
 they  made  a  profession  of  never  marrying, 
 and  renounced  riches.  Epiphanius  ob- 
 serves, that  these  vagabonds,  who  appeared 
 about  the  year  2G0,  for  the  most  part  made 
 use  of  the  apocryphal  Acts  of  St.  Andrew 
 and  St.  Thomas.  There  was  another  sect 
 of  this  name,  about  the  twelfth  century, 
 who  were  against  marriage,  and  never 
 went  without  lewd  Avonien  :  they  also  de- 
 spised infant  baptism,  would  not  allow  of 
 purgatory,  invocation  of  saints,  and  prayers 
 for  the  dead,  and  called  themselves  the 
 true  body  of  the  Church,  condemning  all 
 use  of  flesh  with  the  Manichseans. — Bing- 
 ham, Antiq.  Chr.  Ch. 
 
 APOTACTITJ^,  or  APOTACTICL 
 (See  Ajiostolici.) 
 
 APPARITOR.  Apparitors  (so  called 
 from  the  principal  branch  of  their  office, 
 which  consists  in  summoning  persons  to 
 appear)  are  officers  appointed  to  execute 
 tlie  orders  and  decrees  of  the  ecclesiastical 
 courts.  The  proper  business  and  employ- 
 ment of  an  apparitor  is  to  attend  in  court ; 
 to  receive  such  commands  as  the  judge 
 shall  please  to  issue  forth ;  to  convene  and 
 cite  the  defendants  into  court ;  to  admon- 
 ish or  cite  the  parties  to  produce  witnesses, 
 and  the  like.  Apparitors  are  recognised 
 by  the  138th  English  Canon,  which  wholly 
 relates  to  them. — Jehh. 
 
 APPEAL.  The  provocation  of  a  cause 
 from  an  inferior  to  a  superior  judge.  (1 
 Kings  xviii. ;  Acts  xxv.)  Appeals  are 
 divided  into  judicial  and  extra-judicial. 
 Judicial  appeals  are  those  made  from  the 
 actual  sentence  of  a  court  of  judicature. 
 In  this  case  the  force  of  such  sentence  is 
 suspended  until  the  cause  is  determined 
 by  the  superior  judge.  Extra-judicial  ap- 
 peals are  those  made  from  extra-judicial 
 acts,  by  which  a  person  eitlier  is,  or  is 
 likely  to  be,  wronged.  He  therefore  re- 
 sorts to  the  legal  protection  of  a  superior 
 judge.  By  the  civil  law,  ajjpeals  ought 
 to  be  made  gradatim  ;  but  by  the  canon 
 law,  as  it  existed  before  the  Jleformation, 
 they  might  be  made  omisso  medio,  and  im- 
 mediately to  the  pope ;  who  was  reputed 
 to  be  the  ordinary  judge  of  all  Christians 
 in  all  causes,  having  a  concurrent  power 
 with  all  ordinaries.     Appeals  to  the  pope 
 
44 
 
 APPEAL. 
 
 K' 
 
 were  first  sent  from  England  to  Home  in 
 the  reign  of  King  Stephen,  by  the  pope's 
 legate,  Henry  of  IMois,  bisliop  of  Win- 
 chester (A.  l).'li;}j— llo4).  Prior  to  that 
 period,  the  pope  was  not  permitted  to  en- 
 ov  any  appellate  jurisdiction  in  England. 
 ^Villiam  the  Conqueror  refused  to  do  him 
 homage.  Anglo-Saxon  Dooms  do  not  so 
 much  as  mention  the  pope's  name:  and 
 the  laws  of  Edward  tlie  Confessor  assert 
 the  royal  supremacy  in  the  following  words : 
 — "  Hex  autem,  (jui  yicarius  Summi  Kegis 
 est,  ad  lioc  constitutus  est,  ut  regnum  et 
 jiopulum  Domini,  et  super  omnia  sanctam 
 ecclesiam,  regat  et  defendat  ab  injuriosis ; 
 maleficos  autem  destruat  et  eyellat."  The 
 Penitential  of  Archbishop  Theodore  (a,  d. 
 0(38—690)  contains  no  mention  of  appeals 
 to  Rome ;  and  in  the  reign  of  Henry  II., 
 at  the  Council  of  Clarendon,  (a.  d.  1164,) 
 it  was  enacted,  "  De  appellationibus  si 
 cmerserint  ab  archidiacono  debebit  procedi 
 ad  episcopum,  ab  episcopo  ad  archiepis- 
 copum,  et  si  archiepiscopus  defuerit  in 
 justitia  exhibenda,  ad  dominum  regem  per- 
 veniendum  est  postremo,  ut  prjeccpto  ip- 
 sius  in  curia  archiepiscopi  controvcrsia 
 terminetur ;  ita  quod  non  debeat  ultra 
 procedi  absque  assensu  domini  regis." 
 K'otwithstanding  this  law,  and  the  statutes 
 made  against  "provisors"  in  the  reigns  of 
 Edward  I.,  Edward  III.,  Richard  IL,  and 
 Henry  V.,  appeals  used  to  be  forwarded  to 
 Rome  until  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII., 
 when,  by  the  statutes  of  the  24  Henry 
 VIII.  c.  '12,  and  the  25  Henry  VIII.  c. 
 19,  all  appeals  to  the  pope  from  England 
 were  legally  abolished.  By  these  statutes, 
 ai)peals  were  to  be  finally  determined  by 
 the  High  Court  of  Delegates,  to  be  ap- 
 pointed by  the  king  in  chancery  under  the 
 great  seal.  This  jurisdiction  was,  in  18'32, 
 by  2  &  3  AVilliam  IV.  c.  92,  transferred 
 from  the  High  Court  of  ])elegates  to  the 
 Judicial  Committee  of  the  Priyy  Council ; 
 whose  "  report  or  recommendation,"  when 
 sanctioned  by  the  Crown,  is  a  final  judg- 
 ment. 
 
 The  Crown,  howeyer,  used  to  haye  the 
 power  to  grant  a  commission  of  reyiew 
 after  the  decision  of  an  appeal  by  the  High 
 Court  of  Delegates.  (26  Henry  VIII.' c. 
 1 ;  1  Eliz.  c.  1,  GoocIman*s  case  in  Dyer's 
 Reports.)  This  prerogatiye  Queen  Mary 
 exercised  by  gi-anting  a  review  after  a 
 review  in  Goodman's  case,  regarding  the 
 deanery  of  "NVells.  (Sec  Lord  Cam])beirs 
 Judgment  in  the  Court  of  Queen's  Bench 
 in  Gorhmn  v.  the  Bishop  of  Exeter.)  It 
 is  a  remarkable  fact  that,  although  the 
 statutes  for  restraint  of  appeals  had  been 
 repealed  on   Queen   Mary's  accession,  no 
 
 APPROPRIATION. 
 
 appeal  in  Goodman's  case  was  permitted 
 to  proceed  out  of  England  to  the  pope. 
 
 The  commissions  of  review  were  not 
 granted  by  Queen  Mary  under  the  au- 
 thority of  Protestant  enactments,  but  by 
 virtue*  of  the  common  law,  regarding  the 
 regalities  of  the  Crown  of  England.  It 
 does  not  appear  that  by  the  2  &  3  Wil- 
 liam IV.  c.  92,  3  &  4  William  IV.  c.  41, 
 7  &  8  Vict.,  the  prerogative  is  interfered 
 with ;  and  that  the  Crown  is  compelled  to 
 adopt  the  "  report  or  recommendation  "  of 
 the  Judicial  Committee  of  the  Privy 
 Council  :  on  the  contrary,  the  sovereign  is 
 quite  free  to  sanction  or  reject  such  re- 
 port, which  only  becomes  valid  as  a  de- 
 cision on  the  royal  assent  being  given. 
 The  ancient  Appellant  Court  of  Delegates 
 still  subsists  In  Ireland. 
 
 APPELLANT.  Generally,  one  who  ap- 
 peals from  the  decision  of  an  inferior  court 
 to  a  superior.  Particularly  those  among 
 the  French  clergy  were  called  appellants, 
 who  appealed  from  the  bull  Uuujenitus, 
 issued  by  Pope  Clement  in  1713,  either  to 
 the  pope  better  informed,  or  to  a  general 
 council.  This  is  one  of  the  many  instances 
 in  which  the  boasted  unity  of  the  Roman 
 obedience  has  been  signally  broken  ;  the 
 whole  body  of  the  French  clergy,  and  the 
 several  monasteries,  being  divided  into 
 appellants  and  non-appellants. 
 
 APPROPRIATION  is  the  annexing  of 
 a  benefice  to  the  use  of  a  spiritual  corpor- 
 ation. This  was  frequently  done  in  Eng- 
 land after  the  Norman  Conquest.  The 
 secular  clergy  were  then  Saxons  or  Eng- 
 lishmen ;  and  most  of  the  nobility,  bishops, 
 and  abbots  being  Normans,  they  had  no 
 kind  of  regard  to  the  secular  clergy,  but 
 reduced  them  as  low  as  they  could  to 
 enrich  the  monasteries ;  and  this  was  the 
 reason  of  so  many  appropriations.  But 
 some  persons  are  of  opinion,  that  it  is  a 
 question  undecided,  whether  princes  or 
 popes  first  made  appropriations :  though 
 the  oldest  of  which  we  have  any  account 
 were  made  by  princes  ;  as,  for  instance, 
 by  the  Saxon  kings,  to  the  abbey  of  Crow- 
 land  ;  by  William  the  Conqueror,  to  Battle 
 Abbey ;  and  by  Henry  L,  to  the  church  of 
 Salisbury.  It  is  true  the  popes,  who  were 
 always  jealous  of  their  usurped  supremacy 
 in  ecclesiastical  affairs,  did  in  their  decre- 
 tals assume  this  power  to  themselves,  and 
 granted  privileges  to  several  religious 
 orders,  to  take  appropriations  from  lay- 
 men:  but  In  the  same  grant  they  Avere 
 usually  required  to  be  answerable  to  the 
 bishop  in  spiritualibus,  and  to  the  abbot 
 or  prior  in  tcmporalibus,  which  was  the 
 common   form  of  appropriations   till  the 
 
APPROPRIATION. 
 
 45 
 
 latter  end  of  the  reign  of  Henry  II.  For 
 at  first  those  grants  were  not  in  ■proprios 
 iisus :  it  was  always  necessary  to  })re- 
 sent  a  clerk  to  the  bishop  upon  the  avoid- 
 ance of  a  benefice,  who,  upon  his  insti- 
 tution, became  vicar,  and  for  that  reason 
 an  ai)propriation  and  a  rectory  were 
 then  inconsistent.  But  because  the  form- 
 ation of  an  aj)propriation  was  a  thing 
 merely  spiritual,  the  patron  usually  pe- 
 titioned the  bishop  to  appropriate  the 
 church ;  but  the  kir.g  was  first  to  give  li- 
 cence to  the  monks  that,  quantum  in  nobis 
 est,  the  bishop  might  do  it.  The  king  being 
 supreme  ordinary,  might  of  his  own  author- 
 ity make  an  appropriation  without  the  con- 
 sent of  the  bishoj),  though  this  was  seldom 
 done.  Appropriations  at  fii'st  were  made 
 only  to  spiritual  persons,  such  as  were 
 qualified  to  perform  Divine  service ;  then 
 by  degrees  they  were  extended  to  spiritual 
 corporations,  as  deans  and  chapters ;  and 
 lastly  to  priories,  upon  the  pretence  that 
 they  had  to  support  hospitality ;  and  lest 
 preaching  should  by  this  means  be  neglect- 
 ed, an  invention  was  found  out  to  supply 
 that  defect  by  a  vicar,  as  aforesaid;  and 
 it  was  left  to  the  bishop  to  be  a  moderator 
 between  the  monks  and  the  vicar,  for  his 
 maintenance  out  of  the  appropriated  tithes; 
 for  the  bishop  could  compel  the  monastery 
 to  which  the  church  was  appropriated  to 
 set  out  a  convenient  portion  of  tithes,  and 
 such  as  he  should  approve,  for  the  main- 
 tenance of  the  vicar,  before  he  confirmed 
 the  appropriation. 
 
 It  is  true  the  bishops  in  those  days 
 favoured  the  monks  so  much,  that  they 
 connived  at  their  setting  out  a  portion  of 
 small  tithes  for  the  vicar,  and  permitted 
 them  to  reserve  the  great  tithes  to  them- 
 selves. This  was  a  fault  intended  to  be 
 remedied  by  the  statute  15  Rich.  II. 
 cap.  6;  by  which  it  was  enacted,  that 
 in  every  licence  made  of  an  appropriation 
 this  clause  should  be  contained,  viz.  that 
 the  diocesan  should  ordain  that  the  vicar 
 shall  be  well  and  sufficiently  endowed. 
 But  this  statute  Avas  eluded ;  for  the  abbots 
 appointed  one  of  their  own  monks  to  of- 
 ficiate ;  and  therefore  the  parliament,  in 
 the  4th  year  of  Henry  IV.  cap.  12,  pro- 
 vided that  the  vicar  should  be  a  secular 
 clergyman,  canonically  instituted  and  in- 
 ducted into  the  church,  and  sufficienthj 
 endowed  ;  and  that  no  regular  should  be 
 made  vicar  of  a  church  appropriate.  But 
 long  before  the  making  of  these  statutes 
 the  kings  of  England  made  appropriation 
 of  the  churches  of  Feversham  and  ^lilton 
 in  Kent,  and  other  churches,  to  the  abbey 
 of  St.  Augustine  in  Canterbury,  by  these 
 
 words:  "  Concessimus,  &c.,  pro  nobis,  &o., 
 abbati  et  conventui,  &c.,  quod  ipsi  ecclc- 
 sias  jn-edictas  approjn-iare  ac  eas  sic  ap- 
 propriatas  in  proprios  usus  tcnere  possint 
 sibi  et  successoribus  in  perpetuum.       The 
 like  was  done  by  several  of  the  Norman 
 nobility,  who    came  over  with  the   king, 
 upon  whom  he  bestowed  large  manors  and 
 lands  ;  and  out  of  which  they  found  tithes 
 were  then  paid,  and  so  had  continued  to 
 be   paid   even   from  the   time  they  were 
 possessed  by  the  Saxons  :   but   they  did 
 not  regard  their  law  of  tithing,  and  there- 
 fore they  held  it  reasonable  to  a])propriate 
 all,  or  at  least  some  part  of,  those  tithes  to 
 those  monasteries  which  they  had  founded, 
 or  to  others  as  they  thought  fit ;  and  in 
 such  cases  they  reserved  a  power  to  pro- 
 vide  for   him    who  served  the  cure;  and 
 this  was  usually  paid  to  stipendiary  curates. 
 But   sometimes   the    vicarages    were   en- 
 dowed, and  the  very  endowment  was  ex- 
 pressed in  the  grant  of  the  appropriation, 
 viz.    that    the  church   should    be  appro- 
 priated  upon  condition   that   a   vicarage 
 should  be  endowed  ;  and  this  was  left  to 
 the  care  of  the  bishop.     But  whenever  the 
 vicar  had  a  competent  subsistence  by  en- 
 dowment, the  monks  took  all  opportunities 
 to   lessen  it;  and  this  occasioned  several 
 decretals  prohibiting  such  usage  Avithout 
 the  bishop's  consent,  and  that  jio  custom 
 should  be  pleaded  for  it,  where  he   that 
 served  the  cure  had  not  a  competent  sub- 
 sistence.      *.nd  it  has   been   a   question 
 whether  ai.   appropriation  is  good  when 
 there  is  no  endowment  of  a  vicarage,  be- 
 cause the  statute  of  Henry  IV.  positively 
 provides  that  vicarages  shall  be  endowed. 
 But  it  is  now  settled,  that  if  it  is  a  vicarage 
 in  reputation,  and  vicars  have  been  insti- 
 tuted and  inducted  to  the  church,  it  shall 
 be  presumed  that  the  vicarage  was  ori- 
 ginally  endowed.      Thus    much    for    the 
 tithes  :  but  the  abbot  and  convent  had  not 
 only  the  tithes  of  the  appropriate  churches, 
 but  the  right  of  patronage  too ;    for  that 
 was  extinct,  as  to  the  former  patron,  by 
 the  appropriation,  unless  he  had  reserved 
 the  presentation  to  himself;  and  that  made 
 the    advowson    disappropriate,    and    the 
 church  presentable  as  before,  but  not  by 
 the    old  patron,    but    by  the  abbot  and 
 convent,  who   were  then  bound,  upon  a 
 vacancy,  to  present  a  person  to  the  bishop. 
 Sometimes  the    bishop  would  refuse  the 
 person  presented  unless  they  consented  to 
 such  an  allowance  for  his  maintenance  as 
 he  thought  fit,  and  therefore  they  would 
 present  none.  This  occasioned  the  making 
 another  decretal,  which  gave  the  bishop 
 power  to  present ;  but  this  did  not  often 
 
46 
 
 APPROPRIATION. 
 
 APSE. 
 
 happen,  because  the  monks  >vere  favoured  i  church  was  void  ;  but  if  it  is  granted  when 
 bv^the  b^hops;  that  is,  the  poorer  sort,  the  church  is  ful  it  does  not  make  the 
 for  the  rich  wlud  not  accept  his  kindness,     appropriation    void,   though    such    grant 
 
 Tiiev  ahvavs  got  their  api)ropnations  con- 
 firnud  bv'thc  poi)e,  and  their  churches 
 from  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
 V    all   those    exemptions 
 
 '  approi)riation    void,   though    such 
 shoukl  be  in  general  words,  because,  where 
 
 ex«.'mj)ted 
 bishop.     lUil   now 
 
 nrc«  taken  awav  by  the  statute  81  Henry 
 Vlll.  cap.  l;},  and  the  ordinary  is  restored 
 to  his  ancient  right,  licl'ore  giving  an 
 account  of  that  statute,  it  will  not  be  im- 
 j)roper  to  mention  the  forms  of  appropri- 
 ations both  before  and  since  that  time. 
 A  licence  being  obtained  of  the  king  as 
 supreme  ordinary,  and  the  consent  from 
 the  diocesan,  patron,  and  incumbent,  there- 
 upon the  bishop  made  the  grant. 
 
 IJy  the  aforesaid  statute,  those  appro- 
 ])riations  which  were  made  formerly  by 
 l)ishops,  and  enjoyed  only  by  religious 
 houses,  are  now  become  the  inheritance  of 
 laymen  ;  and  though  the  bishop's  power  in 
 such  cases  is  not  mentioned  in  the  statute, 
 yet  the  law  leaves  all  matters  of  right  just 
 its  they  were  before ;  for  when  those  re- 
 ligious" houses  were  surrendered,  the  king 
 was  to  have  the  tithes  in  the  same  manner 
 as  the  abbots  had  them  in  right  of  their 
 monasteries ;  and  there  is  a  saving  of  the 
 rights  and  interests  of  all  persons  ;  so  that, 
 if  before  the  dissolution  the  vicar  had  an 
 antecedent  right  to  a  competent  mainte- 
 nance, and  the  bishop  had  power  to  allow 
 it,  it  is  not  taken  away  now. 
 
 This  is  the  law  of  England,  and  it  is 
 founded  on  good  reason :  for  tithes  were 
 originally    given   for   the   service   of  the 
 Church,  and  not  for  the  private  use  of 
 monasteries;    and  it  may  be  a  question, 
 whether  a  monastery  was  capable  of  taking 
 an  a])propriation,  because  it  is  not  an  ec- 
 clesiastical body ;    for  by  the  canons  they 
 could  not  preach,  baptize,  or  visit  the  sick, 
 and  they  hatl  no  cure  of  souls.     This  mat- 
 ter was  disputed  between   St.  Bernard,  a 
 Cistercian  monk,  and  Peter  the  Venerable  : 
 the  first  was  dissatisfied  that  monks  should 
 take  tithe  from  the  secular  clergy,  which 
 was  given  to  support  them  in  attending 
 the  cure  of  souls  ;  the  other  answered  him, 
 that  monks   prayed   for  souls,  but  tithes 
 were  not  only  given  for  prayers,  but  for 
 preaching,    and    to    sup])ort    hospitality. 
 Upon  tlu' whole  matter,  approju-iations  may 
 be  made  by  the  joint  consent  of  the  queen, 
 the  ordinary,  and  the  patron  who  hath  the 
 inheritance  of  the  advowson  ;  and  he  must 
 have  the  queen's  licence,  because  she  hath 
 an  interest  in  it  as  supreme  ordinary :  for 
 it  might  happen  that  the  presentation  may 
 be   devolved  on  her  by  lapse,  and  such 
 licence   was    usually   granted    when    the 
 
 it  may  be  taken  in  two  intents,  the  one 
 good,  the  other  not,  it  shall  be  expounded 
 fn  that  sense  which  may  make  the  grant 
 good.  It  is  true,  the  best  way  is  to  give  a 
 licence  in  particular  words,  importing  that 
 the  appropriation  shall  take  effect  after  the 
 death  of  the  incumbent :  hoAvever,  if  it  is 
 a  license  2)er  verba  de  prfese7iti,  yet  it  is 
 good  for  the  reason  already  mentioned. 
 The  bishop  must  likewise  concur,  for  he 
 has  an  interest  in  the  presentation,  which 
 may  come  to  him  by  lapse  before  it  can  be 
 vested  in  the  queen.  Besides,  an  appro- 
 priation deprives  him  of  institution,  for  it 
 not  only  carries  the  glebe  and  tithes,  but 
 gives  to  the  corporation  a  spiritual  func- 
 tion, and  supplies  the  institution  of  the 
 ordinary:  for  in  the  very  instrument  of 
 appropriation  it  is  united  and  given  to  the 
 body  corporate  in  proprios  usus,  that  is, 
 that  they  shall  be  perpetual  parsons  there  : 
 this  must  be  intended  where  there  are  no 
 vicarages  endowed,  and  yet  they  cannot 
 have  the  cure  of  souls  because  they  are  a 
 body  politic  ;  but  the  vicar  who  is  endow- 
 ed and  comes  in  by  their  appointment,  has 
 the  cure. 
 
 APSE,  or  APSIS.     A  semicircular  or 
 polygonal   teimination   of    the    choir,    or 
 other  portion  of  a  church.     The  w^ord  sig- 
 nifies in  Greek  a  spherical  arch.     It  was 
 called  in  Latin  testudo,  or  concha,  from  the 
 same  reason  that  a  hemispherical  recess  in 
 the  school-room  at  Westminster  was  called 
 the  shell.     The  ancient  Basilicas,  as  may 
 still  be  seen  at  Rome,  had  universally  a 
 semicircular  apse,  round  which  the  superior 
 clergy  had  their  seats ;  at  the  upper  end 
 was  the  bishop's  throne  ;    the  altar   was 
 placed  on  the  chord  of  the  arc ;  the  trail  - 
 sept,  or   gallery,  intervened   between  the 
 apse  or  the  choir.  There  the  inferior  clergy, 
 singers,  &c.,  were  stationed,  and  there  the 
 lessons  were  read  from  the  ambos.     (See 
 Choir  and  Chaunt.)     This  form  was  gener- 
 ally observed,  at  least  in  large  churches, 
 for  many  ages,  of  which  Germany  affords 
 frequent  specimens.     And  as  Mr.   Neale 
 has  shown  in  his  very  valuable  remarks 
 on  the  Eastern  churches,  {Hist,  of  the  Holy 
 Greek  Church,)  the  apse  is  the  almost  in- 
 variable form  even  in  parish  churches  in 
 the  East.     Of  this  arrangement  there  are 
 traces  in    England.      Then  large    Saxon 
 churches,  as  we  collect  from  history,  ge- 
 nerally had  an  eastern  apse  at  least,  and 
 often  several  others.     In  Norman  churches 
 of  large  size,  the  apse  was  very  frequent. 
 
APSE. 
 
 ARCADE. 
 
 and  it  was  repeated  in  several  parts  of  the 
 church.     These  inferior  apses  represented 
 the  oriental  cxcdrce,  v.hicli  usually  terminate 
 their    sacristies.       Norwich    and    Peter- 
 borough  cathedrals   convey    a   good  im- 
 pression of  the  general  character  of  Nor- 
 man churches  in  this  respect.     Traces  of 
 the  apse  are  found   also    at  Winchester, 
 Kochester,  Ely,  Lincoln,  llipon,  Gloucester, 
 and  Worcester  cathedrals,  besides  St.  Al- 
 ban's,  Tewkesbury,  and  other  conventual 
 churches.     So  also  at  Canterbury,  where 
 the  apse  seems  to  have  been  disturbed  by 
 subsequent  arrangements.     But  it  is  re- 
 markable that  the  ancient  archiepiscopal 
 chair  stood  behind  the  altar  in  a  sort  of 
 apse  till  late  in  the  last  century.     Traces 
 of  the  ancient  apse  at  Chester  have  been 
 discovered  of  late  years.  In  small  churches, 
 as  Steetley,  Derbyshire,  and  Birkin,  York- 
 shire, the  eastern  apse  alone  is  found,  nor 
 is  this  at  all  a  universal  feature.     See  Mr. 
 Hussey's    Notice   of  recent  discoveries   in. 
 CJieater  Cathedral.     There  are  three  very 
 interesting  English  specimens  in  Hereford- 
 shire,  viz.    as   at  Kilpech,    Moccas,    and 
 Peter  Church ;    all  small  parish  churches, 
 and  of  Norman  date;    and  with  regular 
 chancel   below   the   apse.      In   the   early 
 British  and   Irish   churches   there   is   no 
 trace  of  an  apse,  even  in  those  which  the 
 learned  Dr.  Petrie,  in  his  essay  on  round 
 towers,  attributes  to  the  5th  and  6th  cen- 
 turies.    With  the  Norman  style  the  apse 
 was  almost  wholly  discontinued,  though 
 an  early  English  apse  occurs  at  Tidmarsh, 
 Berkshire,  and  a  decorated  apse  at  Little 
 Maplestead ;    the  latter  is,  hoAvever,  alto- 
 gether an  exceptional  case.     There  seems 
 to  have  been  some  tendency  to  reproduce 
 the  apse  in  the  fifteenth   century,   as  at 
 Trinity  church,  Coventry,  and  Henry  VII. 's 
 chapel,  AVestminster ;   but  the  latter  ex- 
 amples  entirely  miss    the    breadth    and 
 grandeur  of  the  Norman  apse.     Yet  the 
 later  styles  might  have  had  one  great  ad- 
 vantage in  the  treatment  of  this  feature  in 
 their  Hying  buttresses  spanning  the  outer 
 aisle  of  the  apse,  which  is  often  so  striking 
 a  feature  in  foreign  churches,  and  to  which 
 the  perpendicular  clerestory  to  the  Nor- 
 man apse  of  Norwich  makes  some  approach. 
 Some   writers  have  confounded  the  apse 
 witli  the  choir  or  chancel ;  and  think  that, 
 according   to    primitive   usage,   the   holy 
 table  ought  to  stand  between  the  latter 
 and  the  nave :    whereas  in  fact  it  ahvays 
 stood  above  the  choir ;  so  that  in  churches 
 where  there  is  no  apse  (and  none  was  re- 
 quired when  there  were  no  collegiate  or  ca- 
 pitular clergy)  its  proper  place  is  close  to  the 
 eastern  wall  of  the  church.  See  Cathedral. 
 
 AQUARII.  A  sect  of  heretics  who 
 consecrated  their  pretended  eucharist  with 
 water  only,  instead  of  wine,  or  wine  min- 
 gled with  Avater.  This  they  did  under  tlio 
 delusion  tliat  it  was  universally  unlawful 
 to  drink  wine  ;  although,  as  St.  Chrysos- 
 tom  says,  our  blessed  Lokd  instituted  the 
 holy  eucharist  in  wine,  and  himself  drank 
 wine  at  his  communion  table,  and  after 
 his  resurrection,  as  if  by  anticipation  to 
 condemn  this  pernicious  heresy.  It  is  la- 
 mentable to  see  so  bold  an  impiety  revived 
 in  the  present  day,  when  certain  men, 
 under  the  cloak  of  temperance,  pretend 
 a  eucharist  without  wine,  or  any  fermented 
 liquor.  These  heretics  are  not  to  be  con- 
 founded with  those  against  whom  St.  Cy- 
 prian discourses  at  large  in  his  letter  to 
 Csecilian,  who,  from  fear  of  being  dis- 
 covered, from  the  smell  of  wine,  by  the 
 heathen  in  times  of  persecution,  omitted 
 the  wine  in  the  eucharist  cup.  It  was 
 indeed  very  wrong  and  unMorthy  of  the 
 Christian  name,  but  far  less  culpable  than 
 the  pretence  of  a  temperance  above  that 
 of  Christ  and  the  Church,  in  the  Aquarii. 
 Origen  engaged  in  a  disputation  with  them. 
 — Epip/i.  Hceres.  xlvi. ;  Anc/ust.  de  Ilceres. 
 c.  46. ;  Theodoret,  de  Fah.  Jlcerct.  lib.  i. 
 cap.  20. ;  Cyprian,  Ep.  Ixiii.  ad  Ccrcilium. ; 
 Cone.  Carth.  iii.  can.  xxiv. ;  Bingham. 
 
 ARABICS,  or  ARABIANS.  Heretics 
 who  appeared  in  Arabia  in  the  third  cen- 
 tury. According  to  Eusebius  and  St.  Au- 
 gustine, they  taught  that  the  soul  died, 
 and  was  corrupted  with  the  body,  and  that 
 they  were  to  be  raised  together  at  the  last 
 day. 
 
 ARCADE.  In  church  architecture,  a 
 series  of  arches  supported  by  pillars  or 
 shafts,  whether  belonging  to  the  construc- 
 tion, or  used  in  relieving  large  surfaces  of 
 masonry :  the  present  observations  will  be 
 confined  to  the  latter,  that  is,  to  orna- 
 mental arcades. 
 
 These  were  introduced  early  in  the 
 Norman  style,  and  were  used  very  largely 
 to  its  close,  the  whole  base  story  of  ex- 
 terior and  interior  alike,  and  the  upper 
 portions  of  towers  and  of  high  walls  being 
 often  quite  covered  with  them.  They 
 were  either  of  simple  or  of  intersecting 
 arches  :  it  is  needless  to  say  that  the  latter 
 are  the  most  elaborate  in  work,  and  the 
 most  ornamental ;  they  are  accordingly 
 reserved  in  general  for  the  richer  portions 
 of  the  fabric.  There  is,  moreover,  another, 
 and  perhaps  even  more  effective,  way  of 
 comjjlicating  the  arcade,  by  placing  an 
 arcade  within  and  behind  another,  so  that 
 the  wall  is  doubly  recessed,  and  the  play  of 
 light  and  shadow  greatly  increased.     The 
 
48 
 
 AKCANI  DISCirLINA 
 
 ARCH 
 
 Norman  Arcade  from  Canterbury. 
 
 decorations  of  the  transitional,  until  very 
 late  in  the  style,  are  so  nearly  thoseof  the 
 Norman,  that  we  need  not  particularize  the 
 senii-Xorman  arcade.  In  the  next  style 
 the  simple  arcade  is,  of  course,  most  fre- 
 quent. This,  like  the  Norman,  often 
 covers  very  large  surfaces.  Foil  arches  are 
 often  introduced  at  this  period,  and  greatly 
 vary  the  effect.  The  reduplication  of  ar- 
 cades is  now  managed  differently  from  the 
 former  style.  Two  arcades,  perfect  in  all 
 their  parts,  are  set  the  one  behind  the  other, 
 but  the  shaft  of  the  outer  is  opposite  to 
 the  arch  of  the  inner  series,  the  outer 
 series  is  also  more  lofty  in  its  proportions, 
 and  the  two  are  often  of  differently  con- 
 structed arches,  as  at  Lincoln,  where  the 
 outer  series  is  of  trefoil,  the  inner  of  simple 
 arches,  or  i-ice  versa,  the  two  always  being 
 different.  The  effect  of  this  is  extremely 
 beautiful. 
 
 But  the  most  exquisite  arcades  are  those 
 of  the  Geometrical  period,  where  each  arch 
 is  often  surmounted  by  a  crocketted  pedi- 
 ment, and  tlic  higher  efforts  of  sculpture 
 arc  tasked  for  their  enrichment,  as  in  the 
 glorious  cha])ter-housc  of  Salisbury,  South- 
 well, and  York;  these  are,  however,  usually 
 confined  to  the  interior.  In  the  iJccoratcd 
 period  partially,  and  in  the  Perpendicular 
 entirely,  the  arcade  gave  place  to  panelling, 
 greatly  to  the  loss  of  effect,  for  no  delicacy 
 or  intricacy  of  pattern  can  compensate  for 
 the  bright  liglit  and  deej)  shadows  of  the 
 Norman  and  Pearly  English  arcades. 
 
 AllCANI  DISCIPLINA.  The  name 
 given  to  a  part  of  the  discipline  of  the  early 
 
 Church  in  withdrawing  from  public  view 
 the  sacraments  and  higher  mysteries  of  our 
 religion :  a  practice  founded  on  a  reverence 
 for  the  sacred  mysteries  themselves,  and 
 to  prevent  their  being  exposed  to  the 
 ridicule  of  the  heathen.  Irena^us,  Ter- 
 tullian,  and  Clement  of  Alexandria  are  the 
 fu'st  who  mention  any  such  custom  in  the 
 Church.  And  the  Disciplina  Arcani  gra- 
 dually fell  into  disuse  after  the  time  of 
 Constantino,  when  Christianity  had  nothing 
 to  fear  from  its  enemies.  —  Bingham. 
 Aiigusti. 
 
 ARCH.  All  architecture  may  be  di- 
 ^dded  into  the  architecture  of  the  entahla- 
 ture  and  of  the  arch,  and  as  the  very  terms 
 denote,  the  arch  is  the  differential  of  the 
 latter.  Romanesque  and  Gothic  fall  under 
 this  head.  Our  view  of  the  arch  is  limited 
 to  a  description  of  its  several  forms  ;  an 
 estimate  of  its  effects  on  style,  and  its 
 mechanical  construction,  being  beyond  our 
 province. 
 
 The  Saxon  and  the  Norman  arch  were 
 alike  semicircular  in  their  normal  form, 
 though  in  Norman  buildings  we  often  find 
 a  greater  arc  of  a  circle,  or  "  horse-shoe  " 
 arch,  or  the  semicircle  is  "  stilted ; "  to  one 
 or  other  of  which  constructions  it  was 
 necessary  to  resort  when  an  arch  of  higher 
 proportion  than  a  semicircle  was  required. 
 In  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century  the 
 ])oiuted  arch  was  introduced.  It  was  used 
 for  a  long  time  together  with  the  semi- 
 circle, and  often  with  an  entire  absence 
 of  all  but  Norman  details  ;  and  it  is  worthy 
 of  note  that  the  pointed  arch  is  first  used 
 
 Semicircular. 
 
 Stilted. 
 
ARCHBISHOP. 
 
 49 
 
 in  construction,  as  in  the  great  pier  arches,     dows  and  decorative  arcades.  The  ]K)inted 
 
 and  evidently,  therefore,  from  an  appre 
 ciation  of  its  mechanical  value,  and  not 
 till  afterwards  in  lighter  portions,  as  win- 
 
 arch  has  three  simple  forms,  the  equilateral, 
 the  lancet,  and  the  drop  arch;  the  fu-st 
 described  from  the  an^rles  at  the  base  of 
 
 Equilateral.  Lanct 
 
 an  equilateral,  the  second  of  a  triangle 
 whose  base  is  greater,  the  third  of  a 
 triangle  whose  base  is  less,  than  the  sides. 
 These  forms  are  common  to  every  style, 
 from  Early  English  downwards.  In  the 
 Perpendicular  period  a  more  complex  arch 
 was  introduced,  struck  from  four  centres, 
 
 Drop. 
 
 all  within  or  below  the  base  of  the  arch. 
 This  modification  of  the  arch  is  of  great 
 importance,  as  involving  differences  of 
 construction  in  the  fabric,  especially  in  the 
 vaulting,  so  that  it  has  a  place  in  the  his- 
 tory of  Gothic  architecture  only  inferior  to 
 the  introduction  of  the  pointed  arch. 
 
 Four-centred.  Foil 
 
 There  are,  besides,  other  modifications 
 of  the  arch,  struck  from  more  than  two 
 centres,  but  these  are  either  of  less  frequent 
 occurrence,  or  merely  decorative.  We  may 
 mention  the  foil  and  the  ogee  arch ;  the 
 former  struck  from  four  centres,  two  with- 
 out and  two  within  the  resulting  figure, 
 and  flowing  into  one  another  ;  the  latter. 
 from  several  centres,  according  to  the 
 number  of  foils,  all  generally  within  the 
 resulting  figure,  and  cutting  one  another. 
 The  foil  arch  precedes  in  history  the  folia- 
 tion or  cusping  of  arches  and  tracery, 
 which  it  no  doubt  suggested ;  the  ogee 
 arch  came  in  with  ogee  forms  of  tracery 
 and  of  cusping,  and  outlived  them. 
 
 ARCHBISHOP.  An  archbishop  is  the 
 chief  of  the  clergy  in  a  whole  province  ; 
 and  has  the  inspection  of  the  bishops  of 
 that  province,  as  well  as  of  the  inferior 
 clergy,  and  may  deprive  them  on  noto- 
 rious causes.  The  archbishop  has  also  his 
 own  diocese  wherein  he  exercises  epis- 
 copal jurisdiction,  as  in  his  province  he 
 exercises  archiepiscopal.  As  archbishop, 
 he,  upon  the  receipt  of  the  king's  writ,  calls 
 the  bishops  and  clergy  within  his  province 
 to  meet  in  convocation.  To  him  all  ap- 
 peals are  made  from  inferior  jurisdictions 
 
 within  his  province ;  and,  as  an  appeal  lies 
 from  the  bishops  in  person  to  him  in  person, 
 so  it  also  lies  from  the  consistory  courts 
 of  his  diocese  to  his  archiepiscopal  court. 
 During  the  vacancy  of  any  see  in  his  pro- 
 vince he  is  guardian  of  the  spiritualities 
 thereof,  as  the  king  is  of  the  temporalities ; 
 and,  during  such  vacancy,  all  episcopal 
 rights  belong  to  him.  The  archbishops  in 
 England  have  from  time  to  time  exercised 
 a  visitatorial  power  over  their  suffi'agans, 
 in  use  till  the  time  of  Archbishop  Laud. 
 The  archbishops  of  Ireland  have  im- 
 memorially  visited  their  suflragans  trien- 
 nially  :  the  Episcopal  Visitation  being 
 there  annual.  (See  Stephens''  Edition  of 
 the  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  icith  notes, 
 vol.  i.  pp.  26— 30.) 
 
 Some  learned  men  are  of  opinion,  that 
 an  archbishop  is  a  dignity  as  ancient  as 
 the  apostles'  time,  for  tliere  were  primi 
 c])iscopi  then,  though  the  name  of  arch- 
 bishop was  not  known  until  some  ages 
 afterwards ;  and  that  the  aj)ostle  himself 
 gave  the  first  model  of  this  government  in 
 the  Church,  by  vesting  Titus  with  a  super- 
 intendency  over  all  Crete.  Certain  it  is 
 that  there  were  ])ersons  soon  after  that 
 time,  who,  under  the  name  of  metropoli- 
 
60 
 
 AllCIIBISIIOr. 
 
 tuns,  exercised  llie  same  spiritual  and  ec- 
 clesiastical functions  as  an  archbishop  ;  as 
 for  instance  the  bishoj)  of  Cavthaj^e,  who 
 certainly  assembled  and  ])rcsided  in  ])ro- 
 vincial  'councils,  and  had  ecclesiastical 
 jurisdiction  over  the  bishops  of  Africa; 
 and  the  bishojjs  of  Rome,  who  had  the 
 like  primacy  in  the  sHbHrbic(»>i(ni  pro- 
 vinces, viz.  'middle  and  southern  Italy, 
 with  Sicilv,  and  other  adjacent  islands. 
 Moreover,'  the  Apostolical  Canons,  which 
 were  the  rule  of  the  Greek  Church  in  the 
 third  centurv,  mention  a  chief  bishop  in 
 
 every  provnice,  an 
 
 d  most  of  them  about 
 
 the  eij,'hth  century  assumed  the  title  of 
 archbishops ;  some  of  which  were  so  in  a 
 more  eminent  degree,  viz.  those  of  Home, 
 Constantinople,  Antioch,  and  Alexandria, 
 which  were  the  four  principal  cities  of  the 
 empire.  To  these  the  archbishop  of  Je- 
 rusalem was  added  by  the  Council  of  Chal- 
 cedon,  in  4ol, because  that  was  the  capital 
 city  of  the  Holy  Land,  and  these  five  were 
 called  patriarchs. 
 
 The  archbishop  of  Canterbury  is  styled 
 primate  of  all  England  and  metropolitan, 
 and  the  archbishop  of  York   primate  of 
 England.     They  have  the  title  of  Grace, 
 and   Most  reve'rend  Father   in    God  by 
 ])ivine  Providence.     There  are  two  pro- 
 vinces or  archbishoprics  in  England,  Can- 
 terbury and  York.    The  archbishop  of  Can- 
 terbury  has   the   precedency   of    all   the 
 other  clergy ;  next  to  him  the  archbishop 
 of  York.    'Each   archbishop   has,  within 
 his  province,  bishops  of  several  dioceses. 
 The  archbishop  of  Canterbury  has  under 
 him,  within  his  province,  Rochester,  Lon- 
 don, "Winchester,  Norwich,  Lincoln,  Ely, 
 Chichester,   Salisbury,  Exeter,   Bath  and 
 AVells,   "Worcester,     Lichfield,     Hereford, 
 Landaff,    St.    David's,    Bangor,    and    St. 
 Asaph  ;  and  four  founded  by  King  Henry 
 Vni.,  erected  out  of  the  ruins  of  dissolved 
 monasteries,  viz.  Gloucester  and  Bristol, 
 now  united  into  one,  Peterborouo;h,  and 
 Oxford.     The  archbishop  of  York  has  un- 
 der him  six,  viz.  the  bishop  of  Chester, 
 erected  by  Henry  VHL,  and  annexed  by 
 him    to   the    archbishopric   of  York,   the 
 bishops  of  Durham,  Carlisle,  Ripon,  and 
 Manchester,  and  the  Lsle  of  Man,  annexed 
 to  the  ])rovince  of  York  by  King  Henry 
 VHL     The  dioceses  of  Rijion  and  Man- 
 chester have  been  formed  in  the  province 
 of  York  within  the  last  few  years,  by  act 
 of  parliament.   The  archbishop  of  Armagh 
 is  styled  primate  of  all  Ireland.    The  arch- 
 bishop of  Dublin,  primate  of  Ireland.    Be- 
 fore the  late  diminution  of  the  Irish  epis- 
 copate, there  were  two  other  archbishops, 
 viz.  of  Cashel,  styled  primate  of  ISIunster, 
 
 ARCHDEACON. 
 
 and  Tuam,  primate  of  Connaught.  Under 
 Armagh  were  the  bishoprics  of  *Meath, 
 ♦Down,  *Derry,  Dromore,  Raphoe,  *Kil- 
 more,  and  Clogher.  Under  Dublin,  Kil- 
 dare,  Ferns,  and  *  Ossory.  Under  Cashel, 
 *  Limerick,  *Cork,  Cloyiie,  *Killaloe,  and 
 "NVaterford.  Under  Tuain,  Clonfert,  Elphin, 
 and  Killala.  At  present  Cashel  is  a  suf- 
 fragan of  Dublin,  Tuam  of  Armagh  ;  and 
 only  those  sufi'ragan  bishoprics  marked 
 with  an  asterisk  are  retained.  The  bishops 
 of  Calcutta  and  Sydney,  being  metropoli- 
 tans, are  archbishops  in  reality,  though 
 not  in  title. 
 
 ARCHDEACON.  In  the  English  branch 
 of  the  united  Chnrch,  and  most  European 
 Churches,  each  diocese  is  divided  into  arch- 
 deaconries and  parishes.  Sometimes  a  dio- 
 cese has  but  one  archdeaconry  ;  sometimes 
 four  or  five.  But  in  Ireland  there  is  but 
 one  archdeacon  to  each  diocese  (several 
 dioceses  being  often  united  under  one 
 bishop) ;  and  archdeaconries,  as  ecclesi- 
 astical clivisions,  are  there  unknown.  The 
 dioceses  of  Dublin  and  Ardfert  may  be 
 regarded  as  exceptions,  but  not  with  jus- 
 tice :  as  the  archdeaconry  of  Glendaloch 
 in  the  former,  and  of  Aghadoe  in  the  lat- 
 ter, belonged  originally  to  separate  dio- 
 ceses, which  have  been  drawn  into  the 
 adjacent  ones  :  so  that  the  dividing  bound- 
 aries are  now  unknown.  [Jehh.)  Over  the 
 diocese  the  bishop  presides  ;  over  the  arch- 
 deaconry one  of  the  clergy  is  appointed 
 by  the  bishop  to  preside,  who  must  be  a 
 priest,  and  he  is  called  an  archdeacon ; 
 over  the  parish  the  rector  or  vicar  pre- 
 sides. An  archdeacon  was  so  called  an- 
 ciently, from  being  the  chief  of  the  deacons, 
 a  most  important  office  at  a  very  early 
 jDcriod  in  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 The  antiquity  of  this  ofiice  is  held  to  be 
 so  high  by  many  Roman  Catholic  Avriters, 
 that  they  derive  its  origin  from  the  ap- 
 pointment of  the  seven  deacons,  and  sup- 
 pose that  St.  Stephen  was  the  first  arch- 
 deacon :  but  there  is  no  clear  authority  to 
 warrant  this  conclusion.  Mention  is  also 
 made  of  Laurentius,  archdeacon  of  Rome, 
 who  suff'ered  A.  D.  2G() ;  but  although  he 
 was  called  archdeacon,  (according  to  Pru- 
 dentius,)  he  was  no  more  than  the  princi- 
 pal man  of  the  seven  deacons  who  stood 
 at  the  altar.  *'  Hie  primus  e  septcm  viris 
 qui  t^tant  ad  oram  proxiini."  (Prudent. 
 Hymn,  de  St.  Steph.)  At  Carthage  the 
 office  appears  to  have  been  introduced 
 within  the  last  forty  years  of  the  third 
 century,  as  St.  Cyprian  does  not  mention 
 it,  whereas  in  the  persecution  of  Diocle- 
 tian Cecilian  is  described  as  archdeacon, 
 under  the  bishop  Mensurius.     St.  Jerome 
 
ARCHDEACON. 
 
 51 
 
 says,  "  that  the  archdeacon  was  chosen  out 
 of'the  deacons,  and  was  the  principal  dea- 
 con in  every  church,  just  as  the  archpres- 
 byter  was  the  principal  presbyter." 
 
 But  even  in  St.  Jerome's  time,  the  office 
 of  archdeacon  had  certainly  grown  to  great 
 importance.  Ilis  proper  business  was,  to 
 attend  the  bishop  at  the  altar;  to  direct 
 the  deacons  and  other  inferior  officers  in 
 their  several  duties,  for  their  orderly  per- 
 formance of  Divine  service ;  to  attend  the 
 bishop  at  ordinations,  and  to  assist  him  in 
 managing  and  dispensing  the  revenues  of 
 the  Church  :  but  without  anything  that 
 could  be  called  ^^jurisdiction"  in  the  pre- 
 sent sense  of  tlie  word,  either  in  the  cathe- 
 dral or  out  of  it. 
 
 After  the  Council  of  Laodicea,  A.  d.  360, 
 when  it  Avas  ordained  that  no  bishop  should 
 be  placed  in  country  villages,  the  arch- 
 deacon, being  always  near  the  bishop,  and 
 the  person  mainly  intrusted  by  him,  grew 
 into  great  credit  and  power,  and  came  by 
 degrees,  as  occasion  required,  to  be  em- 
 ployed by  him  in  visiting  the  clergy  of 
 the  diocese,  and  in  the  despatch  of  other 
 matters  relating  to  the  episcopal  care. 
 
 He  was  the  bishop's  constant  attendant 
 and  assistant,  and,  next  to  the  bishop,  the 
 eyes  of  the  whole  Church  were  fixed  upon 
 him  ;  it  was  therefore  by  no  means  un- 
 usual for  him  to  be  chosen  the  bishop's 
 successor  before  the  presbyters,  and  St. 
 Jerome  records,  "  that  an  archdeacon 
 thought  himself  injured  if  he  was  ordained 
 a  presbyter."  ("  Certe  qui  primus  fucrit 
 ministrorum,  quia  per  singula  concionatur 
 in  pojjulos,  et  a  pontijicis  latere  nan  recedit, 
 injuriam  putat  si  presbi/ter  ordinetur."- — 
 Hieron.  Com.  in  Ezek.  c.  48.) 
 
 The  author  of  the  "  Apostolical  Con- 
 stitutions" calls  him  the 'O  Trapiarcog  t(^ 
 anxKpil ;  and  St.  Ambrose  informs  us,  in 
 the  account  which  he  gives  of  Laurentius, 
 archdeacon  of  Rome,  that  it  belonged  to 
 him  "  to  minister  the  cup  to  the  people 
 when  the  bishop  celebrated  the  eucharist, 
 and  had  administered  the  bread  before 
 him." — Amhros.  de  Ojfic.  lib.  i.  c.  41. 
 
 At  the  beginning  of  the  seventh  century, 
 he  seems  to  have  been  fully  possessed  of 
 the  chief  care  and  inspection  of  the  diocese 
 in  subordination  to  the  bishop. 
 
 But  the  authority  of  the  archdeacon,  in 
 ancient  times,  Avas  chiefiy  a  power  of  in- 
 quiry and  inspection ;  and  the  gradual 
 growth  of  his  ^^Jurisdiction"  properly  so 
 called,  during  the  middle  ages,  is  a  subject 
 of  ditficult  inquiry.  Pope  Clement  V.  gives 
 an  archdeacon  the  title  of  "  oculus  Epis- 
 copi,''  saying  that  "he  is  in  the  bishop's 
 place,  to  correct  and  amend  all  such  mat- 
 E  2 
 
 ters  as  ought  to  be  corrected  and  amended 
 by  the  bishop  himself,  unless  they  be  of 
 such  an  arduous  nature,  as  that  they  can- 
 not be  determined  without  the  presence  of 
 his  superior  the  bishop." 
 
 Regularly,  the  archdeacon  cannot  inflict 
 any  punishment,  but  can  only  proceed  by 
 "  prece})ts  "  and  "  admonifions." 
 
 Beyond  this,  all  the  rights  that  any 
 archdeacon  enjoys,  subsist  by  (/rants  from 
 the  bishop,  made  either  voluntarihj^  or  of 
 necessity,  or  by  compositioyi.  (See  the  case 
 of  composition  made  between  the  bishop 
 of  Lincoln  and  his  archdeacons,  in  Gib- 
 son's Codex,  vol.  ii.  p.  1548.) 
 
 As  to  the  divisions  in  England  of  dio- 
 ceses into  archdeaconries,  and  the  assign- 
 ment of  particular  divisions  to  particular 
 archdeaconries,  this  is  supposed  to  have 
 begun  a  little  after  the  Norman  conquest. 
 We  meet  Avith  no  archdeacons  vested  with 
 any  kind  ofjurisdictioi  in  the  Saxon  times. 
 Archbishop  Lanfranc  Avas  the  first  who 
 made  an  archdeacon  Avith  poAver  of  "juris- 
 diction," in  his  see  of  Canterbury,  and 
 Thomas,  the  first  archbishop  of  York  after 
 the  Conquest,  Avas  the  first  in  England  that 
 diA'ided  his  diocese  into  archdeacom'ies  ;  as 
 did  also  Remigius,  bishop  of  Lincoln. 
 When  the  Norman  bishops,  by  reason  of 
 their  baronies,  Avere  tied  l)y  the  Constitu- 
 tions of  Clarendon  to  strict  attendance 
 upon  the  kings  in  their  parliaments,  they 
 Avere  obliged,  for  the  administration  of 
 their  dioceses,  to  grant  larger  delegations 
 of  poAver  to  archdeacons,  Avho  A-isited  Avhcn 
 they  did  not  (de  triemtio  in  trien?iiuni). 
 Archdeacons,  therefore,  Avith  us,  could  not 
 have  this  poAver  of  jurisdiction  by  common 
 right,  or  by  immemorial  custom  ;  the  poAver 
 Avhich  the  archdeacon  has  is  derived  from 
 the  bishop,  although  he  himself  is  an  or- 
 dinary, and  is  recognised  as  such  by  the 
 books  of  common  laAV,  Avhich  adjudge  an 
 administration  made  by  him  to  be  good, 
 though  it  is  not  expressed  by  Avhat  author- 
 ity, because,  as  done  by  the  archdeacon,  it 
 is  presumed  to  be  done  '\jure  ordinario." 
 
 In  the  22nd  of  Henry  I.  Ave  have  the 
 first  account  of  their  being  summoned  to 
 convocation ;  and  in  the  15th  of  Henry  HL, 
 and  in  the  32nd  year  of  the  same  king,  they 
 Avere  summoned  by  express  name. 
 
 This  being  the  original  of  archdeacons, 
 it  is  impossible  for  them  to  prescribe  to  an 
 independency  on  the  bishop,  as  it  was  de- 
 clared in  a  court  of  law  they  might,  and 
 endeavoured  to  be  proved  by  the  gloss  on 
 a  legatine  constitution,  Avhere  we  read  that 
 an  archdeacon  may  have  a  customary  juris- 
 diction distinct  from  the  bisho]),  and  to 
 which  he  may  prescribe.     But  the  mean- 
 
52 
 
 ARCHDEACON. 
 
 ing  of  it  is,  not  that  there  can  be  an  arch- 
 deaconry bv  prescription,  and  independent 
 of  the  bishop,  but  that  the  archdeacon 
 mav  prescribe  to  a  particular  jurisdiction, 
 exempt  from  the  ordinary  ;  which  jurisdic- 
 tion has  customarily  been  enjoyed  by  him 
 and  his  predecessors  time  out  of  mind. 
 
 The  archdeaconries  of  St.  Alban's,  of 
 Kichmond,  and  Cornwall,  are  cases  of  this 
 kind  ;  these  jurisdictions  are  founded  upon 
 ancient  customs,  but  the  archdeacon  is  still 
 subordinate  to  the  bishop  in  various  ways  ; 
 he  beinj?,  in  our  law,  as  he  is  according  to 
 the  canon  law,  riran'i(s  episcojn. 
 
 According  to  Lyndwood  and  other  ca- 
 nonists, he  can  inquire  into  crimes,  but  not 
 ])unish  the  criminals  ;  he  has,  in  one  sense, 
 according  to  the  casuists,  a  cure  of  souls, 
 by  virtue  of  his  office,  though  it  is  m  foro 
 txteriori  tantum  et  sine  pastorali  cura  ;  and 
 has  authority  to  perform  ministerial  acts, 
 as  to  suspend,  excommunicate,  absolve, 
 ^rc,  therefore  by  the  ecclesiastical  law  he 
 is  obliged  to  residence.  And  that  may  be 
 one  reason  why  he  may  not  be  chosen  to 
 execute  any  temporal  office  that  may  re- 
 quire his  attendance  at  another  place ; 
 another  reason  is  because  he  is  an  eccle- 
 siastical person.  But  he  has  no  parochial 
 cure,  and  therefore  an  archdeaconry  is  not 
 comprehended  under  the  name  of  a  benefice 
 with  cure ;  for  if  one  who  has  such  benefice 
 accepts  an  archdeaconry,  it  is  not  void  by 
 our  law,  though  it  is  so  by  the  canon  law. 
 And  yet,  though  he  has  not  any  parochial 
 cure,  he  is  obliged  to  subscribe  the  de- 
 claration pursuant  to  the  statute,  14 
 Charles  II.  It  is  true,  he  is  not  expressly 
 named  therein,  but  all  persons  in  holy 
 orders  are  enjoined  to  subscribe  by  that 
 statute ;  and  because  an  archdeacon  must 
 be  in  those  orders,  therefore  he  must  like- 
 wise subsa-ibe,  6:c.  And  as  he  has  a  ju- 
 risdiction in  certain  cases,  so,  for  the  better 
 exercising  the  same,  he  has  power  to  keep 
 a  court,  which  is  called  the  Court  of  the 
 Archdeacon,  or  his  commissary,  and  this 
 he  may  hold  in  any  place  within  his  arch- 
 deaconry. With  regard  to  the  Archdea- 
 con's Court,  it  was  said  by  the  justices  of 
 the  Common  Pleas,  2  &  ;3  William  and 
 Mary,  in  the  case  of  A\^oodward  and  Fox, 
 that  though  it  might  be  su])posed  originally 
 that  the  jurisdiction  within  the  diocese 
 was  lodged  in  the  bishop,  yet  the  Arch- 
 deacon's Court  had,  "  time  out  of  mind," 
 been  settled  as  a  distinct  court,  and  that 
 the  statute  24th  of  Henry  VIII.  chap.  xii. 
 takes  notice  of  the  Consis'tory  Court,  which 
 is  the  bishop's,  and  of  the  Archdeacon's 
 Court,  from  which  there  lies  an  appeal  to 
 the  bishop's.     (See  Appeal.)     There  is  an 
 
 ARCHPRIEST. 
 
 officer  belonging  to  this  court,  called  a 
 registrar,  whose  office  concerns  the  admi- 
 nistration of  justice,  and  therefore  the 
 archdeacon  cannot  by  law  take  any  money 
 for  granting  it ;  if  he  does,  the  office  will 
 be  forfeited  to  the  queen.  Regarding 
 parochial  visitations  by  archdeacons,  see 
 "Articles  and  Directions  to  the  Incum- 
 bents and  Churchwardens  within  the  Arch- 
 deaconry of  Surrey,"  in  Gibson's  Codex, 
 vol.  ii.  p*.  1551 — 1555  ;  and  see  post,  "Visit- 
 ation." 
 
 By  1  &  2  Vict.  c.  cvi.  s.  2,  an  archdea- 
 con may  hold,  with  his  archdeaconry,  two 
 benefices  under  certain  restrictions ;  or  a 
 benefice  and  a  cathedral  preferment. 
 
 He  is  also,  whilst  engaged  in  his  archi- 
 diaconal  functions,  considered  to  be  resi- 
 dent on  his  benefice.  In  cathedi'als  of  the 
 old  foundation,  the  archdeacons  of  the  dio- 
 cese, how  numerous  soever,  were  members 
 of  the  greater  chapter,  and  had  stalls  in 
 the  choir.  This  was  the  universal  custom 
 on  the  continent,  and  is  uniformly  the  case 
 in  Ireland,  as  it  was  also  in  Scotland.  In 
 the  diocese  of  Dublin,  the  archdeacon  of 
 Dublin  has  a  stall  in  both  of  the  cathedrals 
 there,  the  archdeacon  of  Glendaloch  hoAV- 
 ever  only  in  that  of  St.  Patrick's. 
 
 The  archdeacons  of  Ireland  have  not  for 
 a  long  time  exercised  any  jurisdiction.  It 
 is  however  evident  from  old  documents 
 that  they  did  exercise  it  in  ancient  times. 
 The  bishops  hold  annual  visitation. 
 
 ARCHES,  COURT  OF.  The  Court 
 of  Arches  is  an  ancient  court  of  appeal, 
 belonging  to  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
 whereof  the  judge  is  called  the  Dean  of 
 Arches,  because  he  anciently  held  his  court 
 in  the  church  of  St.  Mary-le-Bow  [Sinicfa 
 Maria  de  Arcuhus)  ;  though  all  the  spiritual 
 courts  are  now  holden  at  Doctors'  Com- 
 mons. 
 
 ARCHIMANDRITE.  A  name  for- 
 merly given  to  the  superior  of  a  monastery : 
 it  is  derived  from  the  word  fiav^pa,  by 
 which  monasteries  were  sometimes  called. 
 The  term  Archimandrite  is  still  retained  in 
 the  Greek  Church. 
 
 ARCHPRIEST,  or  ARCHIPRESBY- 
 TER.  An  ancient  title  of  distinction, 
 corresponding  to  our  title,  rural  dean,  re- 
 vived under  most  unhappy  pretensions 
 among  the  Romanists  of  England,  in  the 
 year  1598.  These  men,  finding  themselves 
 without  bishops,  importuned  the  pope, 
 Clement  VIL,  to  supply  their  need ;  but 
 instead  of  sending  them,  as  they  desired,  a 
 number  of  bishops,  he  gave  them  but  one 
 ecclesiastical  superior,  Robert  Blackwell, 
 who  after  all  was  merely  a  priest ;  an 
 archjiriest  indeed  he  was   called,  but  as 
 
ARCHONTICS. 
 
 ARK  OF  THE  COVENANT, 
 
 53 
 
 such  having  no  episcopal  power.  In  the 
 early  times  this  title  was  given  to  the 
 chief  presbyter  in  each  church,  presiding 
 over  the  church  next  under  the  bishop, 
 and  taking  care  of  all  things  relating  to 
 the  church  in  the  bishop's  absence.  In 
 this  case  however,  instead  of  being  placed 
 in  a  cathedral  church,  or  discharging  the 
 office  of  rural  dean,  under  a  bishop  or 
 archdeacon,  he  was  api)ointed  to  govern  all 
 the  Komish  clergy  of  England  and  Scot- 
 land, without  one  or  the  other.  Here 
 then  Ave  find  Rome,  while  preserving  an 
 old  title,  inventing  an  office  hitherto  vm- 
 known  to  the  Christian  Avorld.  And,Avhen 
 appointed,  what  could  the  archpriest  do  ? 
 He  could  merely  be  a  rural  dean  on  a  large 
 scale.  He  could  merely  overlook  his  brother 
 clergy.  He  could  not  discharge  any  func- 
 tions properly  episcopal.  He  could  not 
 ordain  priests,  confirm  children,  nor  conse- 
 crate chapels,  should  circumstances  permit 
 or  require.  It  is  plain,  then,  that  the  arch- 
 priest  was  a  very  imperfect  and  insufficient 
 substitute  for  a  bishop.  The  archpriest  in 
 many  foreign  churches,  in  Italy  especially, 
 answers  to  our  cathedral  dean.  In  some 
 Italian  dioceses,  somewhat  to  our  rural 
 dean. — Danrell. 
 
 ARCHONTICS.  Heretics  who  ap- 
 peared in  the  second  century,  about  A.  D. 
 175,  and  who  w^ere  an  off'shoot  of  the  Va- 
 lentinians.  They  held  a  quantity  of  idle 
 stories  concerning  the  Divinity  and  the 
 creation  of  the  w^orld,  which  they  attributed 
 to  sundry  authors  ;  and  hence  they  w^ere 
 called  Archontics,  from  the  Greek  word 
 apx^v,  which  means  prince  or  ruler. 
 
 ARIANS.  (See  Councils.)  Heretics, 
 so  named  from  Arius,  their  first  founder  : 
 they  denied  the  three  persons  in  the  Holy 
 Trinity  to  be  of  the  same  essence,  and  af- 
 firmed the  Word  to  be  a  creature,  and  that 
 once  (although  before  the  beginning  of 
 time)  he  was  not.  They  were  condemned 
 by  the  Council  of  Nice,  in  325. 
 
 The  doctrine  of  Arius  may  be  thus 
 stated  : — The  Son  sprang  not  from  the  na- 
 ture of  the  Father,  but  was  created  from 
 nothing :  he  had,  indeed,  an  existence 
 before  the  w'orld,  even  before  time,  but 
 not  from  eternity.  He  is,  therefore,  in 
 essence  different  from  the  Father,  and  is 
 in  the  order  of  creatures,  whom  he,  how- 
 ever, precedes  in  excellence,  as  GoD  created 
 all  things,  even  time,  by  his  instrument- 
 ality ;  whence  he  was  called  the  Son  of 
 God,  the  Logos,  or  Word  of  God.  As  a 
 creature  the  Son  is  perfect,  and  as  like  to 
 the  Father  as  a  creature  can  be  to  the 
 Creator.  But  as  he  has  received  all  things 
 as  a  gift,  from  the  favour  of  the  Father, 
 
 — as  there  was  a  period  in  which  he  was 
 not, — so  there  is  an  infinite  distance  be- 
 tween him  and  the  nature  of  the  Father  ; 
 of  which  nature  he  cannot  even  form  a 
 perfect  idea,  but  can  enjoy  only  a  defective 
 knowledge  of  the  same.  His  will  was 
 originally  variable,  capable  of  good  and  of 
 evil,  as  is  that  of  all  other  rational  crea- 
 tures :  he  is,  comparatively  at  least,  free 
 from  sin  ;  not  by  nature,  but  by  his  good 
 use  of  his  power  of  election ;  the  Father, 
 therefore,  foreseeing  his  perseverance  in 
 good,  imparted  to  him  that  dignity  and 
 sublimity  above  all  other  creatures,  which 
 shall  continue  to  be  the  reward  of  his  vir- 
 tues. Although  he  is  called  God,  he  is 
 not  so  in  truth,  but  Avas  deified  in  that 
 sense  in  which  men,  who  have  attained  to 
 a  high  degree  of  sanctity,  may  arrive  at  a 
 partici]iation  of  the  Divine  prerogatives. 
 The  idea  then  of  a  generation  of  the  Son 
 from  the  essence  of  the  Father  is  to  be 
 absolutely  rejected. 
 
 This  doctrine,  which  must  have  corre- 
 sponded to  the  superficial  understandings, 
 and  to  the  yet  half-pagan  ideas,  of  many 
 who  then  called  themselves  Christians, 
 attacked  the  very  soul  of  the  Christian 
 doctrine  of  the  redemption  ;  for,  according 
 to  this  doctrine,  it  was  not  God  made  man, 
 but  a  changeable  creature,  Avho  eff"ected 
 the  great  work  of  the  redemption  of  fallen 
 man.  The  devout  Christian,  to  whom 
 faith  in  the  God-man,  Christ,  the  only 
 Divine  Mediator,  opened  the  way  to  an  in 
 timate  union  Avith  God,  saAV  by  this  doc- 
 trine that  his  Redeemer  and  Mediator 
 Avas  as  infinitely  removed  from  the  essence 
 of  God  as  himself ;  he  saAv  himself  driven 
 back  to  the  ancient  pagan  estrangement 
 from  God,  and  removed  to  an  unattainable 
 distance  from  him. — See  3Iaimhourg,  Hist, 
 of  Arians.  For  an  account  of  the  reviral  of 
 Arinnism  in  the  last  century,  see  Van  Mil- 
 derfs  Life  of  WaterJ(tnd. 
 
 ARK  OF  THE  COVENANT.  So  the 
 JcAvs  called  a  small  chest  or  coffer,  three 
 feet  nine  inches  in  length,  tAvo  feet  three 
 inches  in  breadth,  and  tAvo  feet  three 
 inches  in  height,  [Prideanx,  Connect. 
 Part  i.  Book  iii.,)  in  Avhich  Avere  contained 
 "the  golden  pot  that  had  manna,  and 
 Aaron's  rod,  and  the  tables  of  the  cove- 
 nant," as  Avell  the  broken  ones  (according 
 to  the  Rabbins)  as  the  Avhole.  Heb.  ix.  4. 
 Over  the  ark  Avas  the  mercy-seat,  and  it 
 Avas  the  covering  of  it.  It  Avas  made  of 
 solid  gold  (Exod.  xxv.  17 — 22);  and  at 
 the  tAvo  ends  of  it  Avere  tAvo  cherubims 
 looking  inAvard  toward  each  other,  with 
 expanded  wings,  A\-hich,  embracing  the 
 Avhole    circumference   of    the  mercy-seat, 
 
64        AKK  OF  THE  COVENANT. 
 
 met  on  each  side  in  the  middle.  The 
 whole  (according?  to  the  Rabbins)  was 
 made  out  of  the  same  mass,  without  join- 
 inj?  anv  of  the  jiarts  by  solder.  Here  it 
 was  that  the  Sluchimih,  or  Divine  presence, 
 rested,  both  in  the  tal)ernacle  and  in  the 
 tenijjle,  and  was  visibly  seen  in  the  appear- 
 ance of  a  cloud  over  i't.  And  from  hence 
 the  Divine  oracles  Mere  given  out,  by  an 
 audible  voice,  as  often  as  GoD  was  con- 
 sulted in  the  behalf  of  his  people.  _  And 
 hence  it  is,  that  God  is  said,  in  Scripture, 
 to  dwell  between  the  cherubims,  on  the 
 mercy-seat,  because  there  was  the  seat 
 or  throne  of  the  visible  ai)pearance  of  his 
 glory  among  them.  And  for  this  rea- 
 son the  high  priest  appeared  before  this 
 mercy-seat  once  every  year,  on  the  great 
 day  of  expiation ;  at  which  time  he  was 
 to'  make  his  nearest  approach  to  the 
 Divine  presence,  to  mediate,  and  make 
 atonement  for  the  whole  people  of  Israel. 
 — R.  Levi,  lien.  Gersoin,  Solomon,  ^-c.  Lev. 
 xvi.  2 ;  1  Sam.  iv.  4 ;  2  Sam.  vi.  6 ;  2 
 Kings  xix.  15;  1  Clu'on.  xiii.  6;  Psal. 
 Ixxx.  1  ;  Lev.  xvi.  14,  15;  Heb.  ix.  7. 
 
 The  ark  of  the  covenant  was,  as  it  were, 
 the  centre  of  worship  to  all  those  of  that 
 nation,  who  served  God  according  to  the 
 Lcvitical  law ;  and  not  only  in  the  tem- 
 ple, when  they  came  thither  to  worship, 
 but  everywhere  else,  in  their  dispersion 
 throughout  the  whole  world,  whenever 
 they  prayed,  they  turned  their  faces  to- 
 wards the  i)lace  where  the  ark  stood,  and 
 directed  all  their  devotions  that  way. 
 AMicnce  the  author  of  the  book  of  Cosri 
 justly  says,  that  the  ark,  with  the  mercy- 
 scat,  and  cherubims,  were  the  foundation, 
 root,  heart,  and  marrow,  of  the  Avhole  tem- 
 j)le,  and  all  the  Lcvitical  worship  therein 
 ])erformed.  And  therefore  had  there  been 
 nothing  else  wanting  in  the  second  temple, 
 but  the  ark  only,  this  alone  would  have 
 been  reason  enough  for  the  old  men  to 
 have  wept,  when  they  remembered  the  first 
 tem])le,  in  which  it  stood  ;  and  for  the  say- 
 ing of  Haggai,  that  the  second  temple  was 
 as  nothing  in  comparison  of  the  first ;  so 
 great  a  share  had  the  ark  of  the  covenant 
 in  the  glory  of  Solomon's  tem])le.  How- 
 ever, the  defect  was  supjdied  as  to  the  out- 
 ward form :  for,  in  the  second  temi)le, 
 there  was  also  an  ark,  of  the  same  sha])c 
 and  dimensions  with  the  first,  and  put  in 
 the  same  place :  but  it  wanted  the  tables 
 of  the  law,  Aaron's  rod,  and  the  pot  of 
 manna ;  nor  was  there  any  appearance  of 
 the  Divine  glory  over  it,  nor  any  oracles 
 delivered  from  it.  The  only  use  that  was 
 made  of  it  was,  to  be  a  representative  of 
 (he  former  on  the  great  dav  of  expiation, 
 
 ARMENIANS. 
 
 and  to  be  a  repository  of  the  Holy  Scrip- 
 tures ;  that  is,  of  the  original  copy  of  that 
 collection  of  them  made  by  Ezra,  after  the 
 captivity.  In  imitation  of  which,  the  Jews, 
 in  all  their  synagogues,  have  a  like  ark,  or 
 cofler,  in  which  they  keep  their  Scriptures. 
 1  Kings  viii.  48. — Liyhtfoot,  of  the  Temple, 
 ch.  XV.  §  4. 
 
 The  place  of  the  temple  where  the  ark 
 stood,  was  the  innermost  and  most  sacred 
 part,  called  the  Holy  of  Holies,  and  some- 
 times the  most  Iwbj  j)lace  ;  which  was  made 
 on  purpose  for  its  reception.  This  place, 
 or  room,  was  of  an  exact  cubic  form,  being 
 thirty  feet  square,  and  thirty  feet  high.  In 
 the  centre  of  it,  the  ark  was  placed  upon  a 
 stone  (say  the  Rabbins)  rising  three  fingers' 
 breadth  above  the  floor.  On  the  two 
 sides  of  it  stood  two  cherubims,  fifteen  feet 
 high,  at  equal  distance  between  the  centre 
 of  the  ark  and  each  side  of  the  w^all ;  where, 
 having  their  Avings  expanded,  wath  two  of 
 them  they  touched  the  side  walls,  whilst 
 the  other  two  met  and  touched  each  other 
 exactly  over  the  middle  of  the  ark. — Yoma, 
 cap.  V.  §  2. 
 
 The  ark,  while  it  was  ambulatory,  with 
 the  tabernacle,  was  carried  on  the  shoulders 
 of  the  Levites,  by  the  means  of  staves, 
 overlaid  with  gold,  and  put  through  golden 
 rings.  Exod.  xxv.  13,  14;  xxvii.  6  ;  Num. 
 iv.  4 — 6;  1  Chron.  xv.  15. 
 
 What  became  of  the  old  ark,  on  the  de- 
 struction of  the  temple  by  Nebuchadnez- 
 zar, is  a  dispute  among  the  Rabbins.  Had 
 it  been  carried  to  Babylon  with  the  other 
 vessels  of  the  temple,  it  would  have  been 
 brought  back  again  with  them,  at  the  end 
 of  the  captivity.  But  that  it  was  not  so, 
 is  agreed  on  all  hands  ;  whence  it  is  pro- 
 bable it  was  destroyed  with  the  temple. 
 The  Jews  contend,  that  it  was  hid  and 
 preserved  by  Jeremiah.  Some  of  them 
 will  have  it,  that  King  Josiah,  being  fore- 
 told by  Huldah  the  prophetess  that  the 
 temple,  soon  after  his  death,  would  be  de- 
 stroyed, caused  the  ark  to  be  deposited  in 
 a  vault,  which  Solomon,  foreseeing  this 
 destruction,  had  built  on  purpose  for  the 
 preservation  of  it. — Bujctorf.  de  Area,  cap. 
 xxi.,  xxii. 
 
 ARMENIANS.  The  Christians  of  Ar- 
 menia, the  first  country  in  which  Chris- 
 tianity was  recognised  as  the  national 
 religion,  in  consequence  of  the  preaching 
 of  Gregory,  called  The  Illuminator,  in  the 
 beginning  of  the  fourth  century.  At  a  later 
 time  the  Armenians  adopted  the  Eutychian 
 or  Monophysite  heresy,  asserting  that  the 
 human  nature  of  Christ  is  swallowed  up  of 
 the  Divine  ;  or  is  no  more  properly  human 
 than  a  drop  of  vinegar  put  into  the  sea  can 
 
ARMINIANS. 
 
 ARTICLES,  THE  TIIlllTY-NINE.   55 
 
 aftcnvards  be  reckoned  vinegar.  They  do 
 not  deny  the  real  presence  in  the  eucharist, 
 they  do  not  mix  -water  with  their  wine, 
 nor  do  they  consecrate  unleavened  bread. 
 They  abstain  from  eating  blood  and  things 
 strangled.  They  scrupulously  observe 
 fasting ;  and  fasts  so  frequently  occur,  that 
 their  whole  religion  seems  to  consist  in 
 fasting.  They  admit  infants  to  the  sacra- 
 ment of  the  eucharist:  they  reject  purgatory 
 and  prayers  for  the  dead :  they  fast  on 
 Christmas  day,  and  they  allow  marriage  in 
 their  priests.  The  Armenians  were  an- 
 ciently subject  to  the  patriarchs  of  Con- 
 stantinople, but  they  now  have  their  own 
 patriarchs, 
 
 AllMINIANS.  A  powerful  party  of 
 Christians,  so  called  from  Arminius,  pro- 
 fessor of  divinity  at  Ley  den,  who  Avas 
 the  first  that  opposed  the  then  received 
 doctrines  in  Holland,  of  an  absolute  ])re- 
 destination.  They  took  the  name  of 
 Kemonstrants,  from  a  Avriting  called  a 
 llemonstrance,  which  Mas  presented  by 
 them  to  the  states  of  Holland,  1609,  Avhere- 
 in  they  reduced  their  peculiar  doctrines  to 
 these  five  articles  : — 
 
 1.  That  God,  from  all  eternity,  deter- 
 mined to  bestow  salvation  on  those  who, 
 as  he  foresaw,  would  persevere  unto  the  end 
 in  their  faith  in  Jesus  Christ  ;  and  to 
 inflict  everlasting  punishment  on  those  v.dio 
 should  continue  in  their  unbelief,  and  re- 
 sist, to  the  end  of  life,  his  Divine  assistance  ; 
 so  that  election  was  conditional;  and  re- 
 probation, in  like  manner,  the  result  of 
 foreseen  infidelity  and  persevering  wicked- 
 ness. 
 
 2.  On  the  second  point,  they  taught,  That 
 Jesus  Christ,  by  his  suflFering  and  death, 
 made  an  atonement  for  the  sins  of  man- 
 kind in  general,  and  of  every  individual  in 
 particular  ;  that,  however,  none  but  those 
 who  believe  in  him  can  be  partakers  of 
 that  Divine  benefit. 
 
 3.  On  the  third  article  they  held,  That 
 true  faith  cannot  proceed  from  the  exercise 
 of  our  natural  faculties  and  powers,  nor 
 from  the  force  and  operation  of  free  will ; 
 since  man,  in  consequence  of  his  natural 
 corruption,  is  incapable  either  of  thinking 
 or  doing  any  good  thing  ;  and  that,  there- 
 fore, it  is  necessary  to  his  conversion  and 
 salvation,  that  he  be  regenerated  and  re- 
 newed by  the  operation  of  the  Holy 
 Ghost,  which  is  the  gift  of  God,  through 
 Jesus  Christ. 
 
 4.  On  the  fourth  they  believed.  That 
 this  Divine  grace,  or  energy  of  the  Holy 
 Ghost,  begins,  advances,  and  perfects 
 everything  that  can  be  called  (/ood  in 
 man ;    and   that,   consequently,   all   good 
 
 works  are  to  be  attributed  to  God  alone ; 
 that  nevertheless,  this  grace,  which  is 
 ottered  to  all,  does  not  force  men  to  act 
 against  their  inclinations,  but  may  be  re- 
 sisted and  rendered  inettectual  by  the  per- 
 verse will  of  the  impenitent  sinner. 
 
 5.  And  on  the  fifth.  That  God  gives  to 
 the  truly  faithful,  who  are  regenerated  by 
 his  grace,  the  means  of  ])rescrving  them- 
 selves in  this  state  ;  and,  though  tlie  first 
 Arminians  entertained  some  doubt  with 
 res])cct  to  the  closing  part  of  this  article, 
 their  followers  uniformly  maintain.  That 
 the  regenerate  may  lose  true  justifying 
 ftiith,  fall  from  a  state  of  grace,  and  die  in 
 their  sins. 
 
 The  synod  of  Dort,  consisting  of  Dutch, 
 French,  German,  and  Swiss  divines,  and 
 held  in  1618,  condennied  their  opinions. 
 
 ARMS.  Armorial  bearings,  whether 
 borne  by  individuals  or  by  corporate  bo- 
 dies and  corporations  sole :  among  wliicli 
 are  reckoned  bishops,  colleges,  and  other 
 ecclesiastical  persons  and  bodies.  A 
 bishop  empales  his  family  coat  with  the 
 arms  of  his  see,  to  denote  his  spiritual 
 marriage  with  his  Church  ;  but  the  arms  of 
 the  see  occupy  the  dexter  side  of  the  escut- 
 cheon, or  tJie  side  of  f/r eater  hoiiuxir.  When 
 a  bishop  is  married,  he  empales  the  arms  of 
 his  M'ife  with  his  own  family  coat,  on  a 
 separate  escutcheon  ;  and  this  escutcheon 
 is  placed  by  the  sinister  side  of  the  sliield, 
 empaling  his  own  coat  with  the  arms  of 
 the  see.  INIany  of  the  arms  of  bishoprics 
 contain  allusions  to  the  spiritual  cliaracter 
 of  the  person  who  bears  them.  Thus  the 
 archbishops  of  Canterbury,  Armagh,  and 
 Dublin,  each  bear  a  pall,  in  right  of  their 
 sees ;  as  did  the  archbishop  of  York  till 
 his  arms  Avere  changed  about  the  beginning 
 of  the  sixteenth  century  to  two  keys  cross- 
 ed saltierwise,  and  a  croAvn  royal  in  chief. 
 Colleges  often  assume  the  family  coat  of 
 their  founder  as  their  arms. 
 
 ARTICLES,  THE  THIRTY-NINE. 
 The  Thirty-nine  Articles,  based  on  the 
 Forty-tAvo  Articles  framed  by  Archbishop 
 Cranmer  and  Bishop  Ridley  in  the  reign  of 
 EdAvard  VI.,  Avere  presented  by  his  Grace 
 the  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  Dr.  Parker, 
 to  the  convocation  of  the  province  of  Can- 
 terbury Avhich  Avas  convened  Avith  the 
 parliament  in  January,  1562,  and  by  the 
 convocation  they  Avere  unanimously  ap- 
 proved. In  1566  a  bill  Avas  brought  into 
 parliament  to  confirm  them.  The  bill 
 passed  the  Commons,  but  by  the  queen's 
 command  Avas  dro])ped  in  the  Lords.  In 
 1571  the  convocation  revised  the  articles 
 of  1562,  and  made  some  alterations  in  them. 
 In  the  same  year  an  act  Avas  passed,  "  to 
 
56 
 
 ARTICLES,  THE  THIRTY-NINE. 
 
 l)rovi(le  that  the  ministers  of  the  Church 
 should  be  of  sound  religion."  It  enacted 
 that  all  ecclesiastical  persons  should  sub- 
 scribe to  "all  the  articles  of  reli<^ion  Avhich 
 only  contained  the  confession  of  the  true 
 faith  and  of  the  sacraments,  comprised 
 in  a  book  imi)rinted,  entitled  'Articles,' 
 Avhereupon  it  ^vas  af?ree<l  by  the  archlnshops 
 and  bishops,  and  the  ^vhole  clergy  in  con- 
 vocation holden  at  London,  in  the  year  of 
 our  LoiU)  God  lo(i2,  according  to  the 
 cominitation  of  the  Church  of  England,  for 
 the  avoiding  of  diversities  of  opinions,  and 
 for  the  establishing  of  consent  touching 
 true  religion,  put  forth  by  the  queen's 
 authority."  In  1628  an  English  edition 
 was  published  by  royal  authority,  to  which 
 is  prefixed  the  declaration  of  Charles  I. 
 The  English  Articles  were  adopted  by  the 
 Irish  convocation  in  1615, 
 
 Some  have  thought  that  they  are  only 
 articles  of  union  and  peace  ;  that  they  are 
 a  standard  of  doctrine,  not  to  be  contra^ 
 dieted  or  disputed ;  that  the  sons  of  the 
 Church  are  only  bound  to  acquiesce  silently 
 in  them;  and  that  the  subscription  binds 
 only  to  a  general  compromise  upon  those 
 articles,  that  so  there  may  be  no  disputing 
 or  wrangling  about  them.  By  this  means 
 they  reckon,  that  though  a  man  should 
 differ  in  his  opinion  from  that  which  ap- 
 pears to  be  the  clear  sense  of  any  of  the 
 articles ;  yet  he  may  with  a  good  consci- 
 ence subscribe  them,  if  the  article  appears 
 to  him  to  be  of  such  a  nature,  that  though 
 he  thinks  it  wrong,  yet  it  seems  not  to  be 
 of  that  consequence,  but  that  it  may  be 
 borne  with  and  not  contradicted. 
 
 Now  as  to  the  laity,  and  the  whole  body 
 of  the  people,  certainly  to  them  these  are 
 only  the  articles  of  Church  communion : 
 80  that  every  person,  who  does  not  think 
 that  there  is  some  proposition  in  them  that 
 is  erroneous  to  so  high  a  degree  that  he 
 cannot  hold  communion  with  such  as  hold 
 it,  may,  and  is  oljliged  to,  continue  in  our 
 communion ;  for  certainly  there  may  be 
 many  opinions  held  in  matters  of  religion, 
 which  a  man  may  believe  to  be  false,  and 
 yet  may  esteem  them  to  be  of  so  little  im- 
 ])ortance  to  the  chief  design  of  religion, 
 that  he  may  well  hold  communion  with 
 those  whom  he  thinks  to  be  so  mistaken. 
 
 But  what  the  clergy  are  bound  to  by 
 their  subscriptions  is  much  more  than  this. 
 The  meaning  of  every  subscription  is  to  be 
 taken  from  the  design  of  the  imposer,  and 
 from  the  words  of  the  subscription  itself. 
 ITie  title  of  the  Articles  bears,  that  they 
 were  agreed  upon  in  convocation,  "  for  the 
 avoiding  of  diversities  of  opinions,  and  for 
 the  establishing  of  consent  touching  true 
 
 religion."     ^Miere  it  is  evident  that  "a  \ 
 
 consent  in  opinion  "  is  designed.    If  we  in  \ 
 
 the  next  place  consider  the  declarations  ^ 
 
 that  the  Church  has  made  in  the  canons, 
 we  shall  find,  that  though  by  the  fifth 
 canon,  which  relates  to  the  whole  body  of 
 people,  such  only  are  declared  to  be  ex- 
 communicated ipso  facto,  who  shall  affirm 
 any  of  the  articles  to  be  erroneous,  or  such 
 as  he  may  not  with  a  good  conscience  sub- 
 scribe to';  yet  the  thirty-sixth  canon  is 
 express  for  the  clergy,  requiring  them  to 
 subscribe  "willingly  and  ex  animo"  and 
 "  acknowledge  all  and  every  article  to  be 
 agreeable  to  the  word  of  God  : "  upon 
 which  canon  it  is,  that  the  form  of  the 
 subscription  runs  in  these  words,  which 
 seem  expressly  to  declare  a  man's  ovm 
 opinion,  and  not  a  bare  assent  to  an  article 
 of  peace,  or  an  engagement  to  silence  and 
 submission.  The  statute  of  the  13th  of 
 Queen  Elizabeth,  chap.  12,  which  gives 
 the  legal  authority  to  our  requiring  sub- 
 scriptions, in  order  to  a  man's  being  capable 
 of  a  benefice,  requires  that  every  clergy- 
 man should  read  the  Articles  in  the  Church, 
 with  a  declaration  of  his  unfeigned  assent 
 to  them.  These  things  make  it  appear 
 very  plain,  that  the  subscriptions  of  the 
 clergy  must  be  considered  as  a  declaration 
 of  their  own  opinion,  and  not  as  a  bare 
 obligation  to  silence. — Bishop  Burnet. 
 
 We  learn  from  the  New  Testament,  that 
 those  who  first  embraced  the  gospel  de- 
 clared their  faith  in  Jesus,  as  the  promised 
 Messiah,  in  simple  and  general  terms  (Acts 
 viii.  37)  ;  and  there  is  no  ground  for  sup- 
 posing that  the  apostles  required  this  de- 
 claration to  be  made  in  any  one  particular 
 form  of  words.  No  such  formulary  is 
 transmitted  to  us ;  and,  had  any  ever  ex- 
 isted, it  would  probably  have  been  cited 
 or  alluded  to  in  the  New  Testament,  or  in 
 the  early  apologies  for  Christianity.  Every 
 bishop  was  authorized  to  prescribe  a  for- 
 mulary for  the  use  of  his  own  church; 
 and  there  are  still  extant  in  writers  who 
 lived  near  to  the  apostolic  age,  several  ab- 
 stracts of  Christian  faith,  which,  though 
 they  agree  in  substance,  vary  in  expres- 
 sion. But,  when  heresies  gained  ground, 
 and  destroyed  uniformity  of  belief  among 
 Christians,  it  became  necessary  to  have  a 
 })ublic  standard  of  faith  ;  and  to  this  cause 
 we  are  to  attribute  the  origin  of  creeds. 
 The  design  of  these  creeds  Avas  to  establish 
 the  genuine  doctrines  of  the  gospel,  in 
 opposition  to  the  errors  which  then  pre- 
 vailed ;  and  to  exclude  from  communion 
 with  the  orthodox  Church  of  Christ  all 
 who  held  heretical  opinions.  New  dissen- 
 sions and  controversies  continually  arose ; 
 
ARTICLES    v,'ETrriIIRTY-XINE. 
 
 and  -Q  ]jayp  ^ed  lament  that,  in  process  of 
 time,  -me  faith,  which  was  once  deUvered 
 unto  the  saints,"  became  corrupted  in  the 
 hio;hest  degree ;  and  that  those  very  coun- 
 cils, which  were  convened  according  to 
 the  practice  of  the  apostoHc  ago,  for  the 
 purpose  of  deckiring  "  the  truth  as  it  is  in 
 Jesus,"  gave  their  sanction  and  authority 
 to  the  grossest  absurdities  and  most  jialjia- 
 ble  errors.  These  corruptions,  su})ported 
 by  secukir  power,  and  favoured  by  the 
 darkness  and  ignorance  of  the  times,  were 
 ahiiost  universally  received  through  a  suc- 
 cession of  many  ages,  till  at  last  the  glori- 
 ous light  of  the  Reformation  dispelled  the 
 clouds  which  had  so  long  obscured  the 
 Christian  world. 
 
 At  that  interesting  period  the  several 
 Churches,  which  had  separated  themselves 
 from  the  Koman  communion,  found  it  ex- 
 pedient to  publish  confessions  of  their 
 faith ;  and,  in  conformity  to  this  practice, 
 Edward  the  Sixth,  the  first  Protestant 
 king  of  England,  caused  to  be  pubhshed 
 by  his  royal  authority  forty-two  "  Articles, 
 agreed  upon  by  the  bishops  and  other 
 learned  and  good  men,  in  the  convocation 
 held  at  London  in  the  year  1552,  to  root 
 out  the  discord  of  opinions,  and  establish 
 the  agreement  of  true  religion."  These 
 Articles  were  repealed  by  Queen  Mary, 
 soon  after  her  accession  to  the  throne. 
 But  Queen  Elizabeth,  in  the  beginning  of 
 her  reign,  gave  her  royal  assent  to  thirty- 
 nine  [or  rather  thirty-eight]  "  Articles, 
 agreed  upon  by  the  archbishops  and  bishops 
 of  both  provinces,  and  the  whole  clergy,  in 
 the  convocation  holden  at  London  in  the 
 year  1562,  for  avoiding  diversities  of  opi- 
 nion, and  for  the  establishing  of  consent 
 touching  true  religion."  These  Articles 
 were  revised,  and  some  small  alterations 
 made  in  them,  in  the  year  1571  ;  since 
 which  time  they  have  continued  to  be  the 
 criterion  of  the  faith  of  the  members  of 
 the  Church  of  England  on  the  subjects  to 
 which  they  relate.  The  Articles  of  1562 
 were  drawn  up  in  Latin  only  [in  reality 
 the  Articles  both  of  1552  and  of  1562  were 
 set  forth  in  our  authorized  English  version, 
 ns  well  as  in  Latin];  but,  in  1571,  they 
 were  subscribed  by  the  members  of  the 
 two  houses  of  convocation,  both  in  Latin 
 and  EngHsh  ;  and,  therefore,  the  Latin  and 
 English  copies  are  to  be  considered  as 
 equally  authentic.  The  original  manu- 
 scripts, subscribed  by  the  Houses  of  Con- 
 vocation, were  burnt  in  the  Fire  of  London ; 
 but  Dr.  Bennet  has  collated  the  oldest 
 copies  now  extant,  and  it  appears  that 
 there  are  no  variations  of  any  importance. 
 
 It  is  generally  believed  that  Cranmer 
 
 ARTS.  57 
 
 and  Ridley  were  chiefly  concerned  in 
 framing  the  forty-two  Articles,  upon  which 
 our  thirty-nine  are  founded.  But  Bishop 
 liurnet  says,  that  "  questions  relating  to 
 them  Averc  given  about  to  many  bishops 
 and  divines,  who  gave  in  their  several  an- 
 swers, which  were  collated  and  examined 
 very  maturely ;  all  sides  had  a  free  and 
 fair  hearing  before  conclusions  were  made." 
 Luleed,  caution  and  moderation  are  no 
 less  conspicuous  in  them  than  a  thorough 
 knowledge  of  the  Scriptures,  and  of  the 
 early  opinions  and  practice  of  Christians. 
 
 These  Thirty-nine  Articles  are  arranged 
 with  great  judgment  and  perspicuity,  and 
 may  be  considered  under  four  general  di- 
 visions :  the  first  five  contain  the  Chris- 
 tian doctrines  concerning  the  Father,  the 
 Son,  and  the  Holy  Ghost ;  in  the  sixth, 
 seventh,  and  eighth,  the  rule  of  faith  is 
 established ;  the  ten  next  relate  to  Chris- 
 tians, as  individuals ;  and  the  remaining 
 twenty-one  relate  to  them,  as  they  are 
 members  of  a  religious  society.  But,  as  all 
 confessions  of  faith  have  had  a  reference 
 to  existing  heresies,  we  shall  here  find,  not 
 only  the  positive  doctrines  of  the  gospel 
 asserted  ;  but  also  the  principal  errors  and 
 corruptions  of  the  Church  of  Rome,  and 
 most  of  the  extravagances  into  which  cer- 
 tain Protestant  sects  fell  at  the  time  of  the 
 Reformation,  rejected  and  condemned. — 
 JBj).  2 07)1  line. 
 
 The  various  forms  through  which  the 
 Articles  have  passed,  may  be  seen  in  Canl- 
 icelt's  Sijiwdalia,  and  in  Jlardicick's  History 
 of  the  Articles.  In  1615,  a  set  of  Articles 
 of  a  Calvinistic  nature  were  compiled  by 
 the  Irish  convocation  ;  but  it  does  not  ap- 
 pear that  they  ever  received  the  sanction 
 of  parliament.  These,  however,  were  su- 
 perseded in  1635  by  the  English  Articles, 
 which  were  then  adopted  by  the  Irish  Con- 
 vocation. (See  Introduction  to  Stephens^ 
 Book  of  Common  Prayer^  from  the  Dublin 
 MS.,  vol.  i.,  xxxvii. — xxxix.  The  old  Arti- 
 cles are  given  at  length.  In  general,  these 
 perfectly  agree  with  the  English  Articles  ; 
 but  the 'doctrines  of  the  Lambeth  Articles 
 are  introduced. 
 
 ARTS.  One  of  the  faculties  in  which 
 degrees  are  conferred  in  the  universities. 
 In  the  English  and  Irish  universities  there 
 are  two  degrees  in  arts,  that  of  Bachelor 
 and  that  of  Master.  The  whole  circle  of 
 the  arts  was  formerly  reduced  to  seven  sci- 
 ences, grammar,  rhetoric,  logic,  arithmetic, 
 geometry,  music,  and  astronomy ;  and  these 
 again  were  divided  into  the  tririitm,  in- 
 cluding the  first  three,  and  the  ijuudririuin, 
 including  the  remaining  four.  Music  is 
 now  considered  as  a  separate  faculty  at 
 
68 
 
 ASAPH. 
 
 Oxford,  Cambridge,  and  Dublin ;  as  the 
 degrees  of  ]Joctor  and  Bachelor  of  Music 
 are  given,  (iraniniar  ^vas  a  separate  but 
 subordinate  faculty  at  Oxford  and  Cam- 
 bridge, in  wliich  there  Avere  three  degrees, 
 Doctor,  Master,  and  liachclor.  There  is 
 an  instance  in  Wood's  Athen*  Oxon.,  of 
 a  Doctor  in  Grammar  and  Ithetoric  (Kobt. 
 AVhityndon.  1013).  The  last  record  of 
 grammatical  degrees  at  Oxford  is  in  1068  ; 
 at  Cambridge  in  lo.Vd.  The  faculty  of 
 arts  is  called  that  of  philosophy  in  some 
 foreign  and  more  modern  universities, 
 there  the  degrees  are  Doctor  and  Candi- 
 date. 
 
 ASAril,  Psnhm  of.  One  of  the  three 
 Temple  Choirs  bore  the  designation  of  the 
 Sons  of  Asaph  :  from  Asaph,  their  leader, 
 in  the  time  of  David.  They  were  descend- 
 ants of  Gershom,  the  eldest  son  of  Levi. 
 Twelve  Psalms  are  entitled  Psalms  of 
 Asaph :  viz.  the  oOth,  7ord,  74th,  75th, 
 76th,  77th,  78th,  79th,  80th,  81st,  82nd, 
 and  8.'ird.  Critics  are  divided  in  opinion, 
 as  to  whetlier  these  were  composed  or 
 adopted  by  the  above-named  Asaph,  or  by 
 one  of  the  same  name,  but  of  later  date, 
 or  were  appropriated  to  the  peculiar  use 
 of  the  Sons  of  Asaph,  in  the  courses  of  at- 
 tendance at  the  temple. 
 
 ASCENSION  DAY.  This  holy  day 
 has  been  kept  in  the  Christian  Church 
 from  the  earliest  times.  It  is  reckoned  by 
 the  compiler  of  the  Apostolic  Constitutions 
 among  the  other  great  festivals,  Christmas 
 day,  the  Epiphany,  Easter,  and  Whitsun- 
 day ;  and  St.  Augustine  speaks  of  it  as 
 cither  instituted  by  the  apostles,  or  by 
 some  early  and  numerously  attended  coun- 
 cils of  the  primitive  bishops,  Avhose  author- 
 ity he  considered  most  beneficial  in  the 
 Church.  "  On  this  day,"  says  St.  Chrysos- 
 tom,  "  the  reconciliation  between  God  and 
 mankind  was  completed,  the  long  enmity 
 was  dissolved,  the  blasting  war  brought 
 to  an  end."  "  On  this  day,  we,  Avho  had 
 been  shown  to  be  unworthy  of  earth,  were 
 raised  to  the  hope  of  heaven;  we,  who 
 were  not  fit  to  receive  dominion  even  on 
 earth  below,  were  exalted  to  the  kingdom 
 which  is  above  ;  and  our  nature,  kept  out 
 by  cherubim  from  an  earthly  i)aradise,  may 
 now  sit  above  the  cherubim  on  high." 
 CniiisT,  the  first-fruits  of  our  nature,  hav- 
 ing obtained  this  perfection,  we  that  arc 
 his  members  may  hope  to  partake  the  same 
 glory.  'I'his  hope  the  returning  dav  of  his 
 ascension  should  ever  bring  into  our  minds, 
 and  we  should  keep  it  for  the  sustaining  of 
 our  hope,  and  in  thankfulness  for  the  "-race 
 it  brought.  It  is  one  of  the  days  which 
 the  Church  especially  recommends  for  the 
 
 ASC.L- 
 
 / 
 receiving  of  the  holy  co;        .  (See 
 
 the  Special  Preface  in  the  Loihtnunion 
 Office.)  It  is  difficult  to  account  for  the 
 too  prevalent  neglect  of  this  high  festival 
 of  our  Church,  on  any  other  ground  than 
 the  encroachment  of  worldly  principles 
 upon  the  minds  of  men,  to  the  displacing 
 of  the  principles  of  the  Church.  Ascension 
 day  is  one  of  the  six  holy  days  for  which 
 special  psalms  are  appointed.  The  three 
 llogation  days  are  ai)pointed  to  prepare  us 
 for  its  right  celebration,  and  yet,  because 
 it  is  not  marked  by  worldly  festivities, 
 many  neglect  and  pass  it  by.  It  is  ob- 
 served as  a  scarlet  day  at  Oxford  and 
 Cambridge.  It  is  popularly  called  Holy 
 Thursday.  By  27  Henry  VI.  cap.  5,  the 
 holding  of  fairs  or  markets  was  prohibit- 
 ed on  Ascension  dai/,  as  well  as  on  other 
 high  holidays,  and  on  Sundays,  &c. ;  mak- 
 ing an  exception  however  of  the  four 
 Sundays  in  harvest :  and  it  was  enacted 
 that  the  fair  should  be  held  on  some  other 
 day  preceding  or  following.  That  part  of 
 the  act  which  related  to  Sundays  in  har- 
 vest Avas  repealed  by  13  and  14  Vict.  cap. 
 23.  The  rest  of  the  act  remains  unre- 
 pealed. 
 
 ASCETICS.  Men  in  the  second  cen- 
 tury, who  made  profession  of  uncommon 
 degrees  of  sanctity  and  virtue,  and  declared 
 their  resolution  of  obeying  all  the  counsels 
 of  Christ,  in  order  to  their  enjoying  com- 
 munion with  God  here ;  and  also,  in  ex- 
 pectation that,  after  the  dissolution  of  their 
 mortal  bodies,  they  might  ascend  to  him 
 with  the  greater  facility,  and  find  nothing 
 to  retard  their  approach  to  the  supreme 
 centre  of  happiness  and  perfection.  They 
 looked  upon  themselves  as  prohibited  the 
 use  of  things  which  it  was  lawful  for  other 
 Christians  to  enjoy,  such  as  wine,  Jiesh, 
 matriniomj,  and  commerce.  They  thought 
 it  their  indispensable  duty  to  attenuate  the 
 body  by  watchings,  abstinence,  labour,  and 
 hunger.  They  looked  for  felicity  in  soli- 
 tary retreats,  in  desert  places,  where,  by 
 severe  and  assiduous  efforts  of  sublime 
 meditation,  they  thought  to  raise  their  souls 
 above  all  external  objects  and  all  sensual 
 pleasures.  Both  men  and  women  imposed 
 upon  themselves  the  most  severe  tasks,  the 
 most  austere  discipline  ;  all  which,  however 
 it  might  be  the  fruit  of  pious  intention, 
 was  in  the  issue  extremely  detrimental  to 
 Christianity,  and  tended  to  introduce  the 
 doctrine  of  justification  by  inherent  right- 
 eousness. These  persons  were  called  as- 
 cetics (from  ciGKDtjiQ,  exercise  or  discipline) 
 and  2)hih)soj)hers  :  nor  were  they  only  dis- 
 tinguished by  their  title  from  other  Chris- 
 tians, but  also  by  their  garb.    In  the  second 
 
ASCETICISM. 
 
 ASPERSION, 
 
 59 
 
 century,  indeed,  such  as  embraced  this 
 austere  kind  of  life  submitted  tliemselves 
 to  all  these  mortifications  in  private,  uith- 
 out  breaking  asunder  their  social  bonds, 
 or  withdrawing  themselves  from  the  con- 
 course of  men.  But  in  process  of  time, 
 they  retired  into  deserts;  and,  after  the 
 example  of  the  Essenes  and  Therapeuta^ 
 they  formed  themselves  into  certain  com- 
 panies.— See  On'(/cn,  contr.  Cels.  lib.  v.  ; 
 Can.Apostol.  cap.  51  ;  Cyril,  Catcch.  10,  n. 
 9;  JiiiK/htim,  .Ititiq.  C/ir.  Ch. 
 
 ASCETICISM.  The  practice  of  the 
 Ascetics.  AVe  do  not  consider  neglect 
 of  the  body — meaning  by  the  term  our 
 present  material  organization— a  rule  of 
 Christianity.  The  abnegation  of  sin  is,  of 
 course,  the  root  of  all  religion,  and  the  body 
 of  sin  is  a  scriptural  phrase  for  our  nature 
 in  its  unredeemed  and  antagonistic  state ; 
 but  it  ceases  to  be  a  .body  of  sin,  in  this 
 sense,  when  it  becomes  a  member  of 
 Christ  :  it  becomes  in  baptism  a  temple 
 of  the  Holy  Ghost.  But  how  are  we  to 
 judge  that  the  spirit  within  is  indeed  re- 
 generated ?  Principally  by  the  works  of 
 the  body.  The  existence  of  good  works 
 manifests  the  aeration  of  the  spirit  of 
 good,  and  the  Christian  character  there- 
 fore takes  for  its  physical  development — 
 labour,  activity,  perseverance,  energy, 
 fortitude,  courage  ;  to  all  of  which  quali- 
 ties self-denial  is  the  preliminary.  Chris- 
 tianity, therefore,  does  not  eradicate  the 
 powers  of  the  body  any  more  than  it  does 
 the  feelings  of  the  heart,  or  the  faculties 
 of  the  mind  ;  it  eradicates  their  misdevo- 
 tion.  What  it  aims  at  effecting  is,  to 
 assign  to  each  in  its  sanctified  character 
 its  proper  place  and  province.  It  defines 
 legitimate  objects  for  the  passions,  legiti- 
 mate ambitions  for  the  mind,  legitimate 
 aspirations  for  the  soul.  Simply,  Chris- 
 tianity is  human  nature  in  rectitude,  not 
 lethargy,  of  action.  Nature  in  every  in- 
 stance tells  us  that  we  possess  such  and 
 such  powers ;  the  gospel  directs  their  appli- 
 cation, and  reveals  the  important  results 
 dependent  on  their  use  or  abuse.  The 
 right  discipline,  therefore,  not  the  de- 
 struction, of  human  capabilities,  is  incul- 
 cated by  the  Scriptures.  God  has  for  the 
 wisest  reasons  placed  the  extirpation  of 
 these  internal  organs  of  action  beyond  our 
 power,  but  within  our  power  the  regulating 
 them  for  good  or  evil,  happiness  or  misery. 
 The  choice  is  ours  ;  the  consequences  at- 
 tendant on  the  choice  are  not  ours :  these 
 have  been  fixed  from,  and  will  extend  into, 
 eternitv. — Monian. 
 
 ASCODRUTES,  or  ASCODROUTES. 
 An  heretical  sect  of  the  Marcosians.  Thev 
 
 rejected  the  sacraments,  alleging  that 
 things  spiritual  cannot  be  conveyed  in  cor- 
 poreal symbols. — l>i)t(jh(nn,/Uitiq.  Chr.  Ch. 
 
 ASHES.  Several  religious  ceremonies 
 depend  upon  tlie  use  of  unhcs.  St.  Jerome 
 relates,  that  the  Jews,  in  his  time,  rolled 
 themselves  in  ashes,  as  a  sign  of  mourning. 
 To  repent  in  saekeloth  and  ashes  is  a  frequeiit 
 expression  in  Scripture,  for  mourning  and 
 being  afllicted  for  our  sins.  Numb.  xix.  17. 
 There  was  a  sortof  lustral  water,  made  with 
 the  ashes  of  an  heifer,  sacrificed  on  the 
 great  day  of  atonement,  the  ashes  whereof 
 Mere  distributed  among  the  people.  In 
 the  Ivomish  Church,  ashes  are  given  among 
 tlie  people  on  Ash-AVednesday  :  they  must 
 be  made  from  branches  of  olive,  or  some 
 other  trees,  that  have  been  blessed  the 
 foregoing  year.  {Pescara  Cerem.  Eccles. 
 Horn.)  The  sacristan,  or  vestry-keeper, 
 prepares  these  ashes,  and  lays  them  in  a 
 small  vessel  on  the  altar :  after  which  the 
 officiating  priest  blesses  the  ashes,  which 
 are  strewed  by  the  deacons,  and  assistants, 
 on  the  heads  of  all  that  are  present,  ac- 
 companied with  these  words,  3Iemento, 
 homo,  quod  pulvis  cs,  &c. ;  Remember,  man, 
 that  thoxi  art  dust,  8zc. — Religious  Ceremo- 
 nies of  all  Nations,  vol.  iii.  (See  Ash- 
 li'ednesdai/.) 
 
 ASH-WEDNESDAY.  (See  Lent  and 
 Commi nation.)  This  day  seems  to  have 
 been  observed  as  the  first  day  of  Lent  in 
 the  time  of  Gregory  the  Great.  It  is  sup- 
 posed by  some,  that  Gregory  added  three 
 days  at  the  beginning  of  Lent,  to  make 
 the  number  forty,  in  more  exact  imitation 
 of  the  number  of  days  in  our  blessed 
 Saviour's  fast ;  and  that  before  his  time 
 there  were  only  thirty-six  days,  the  Sun- 
 days being  always  kept  as  festivals.  It 
 was  called,  in  his  time.  Dies  cinenim,  the 
 day  of  sprinkling  ashes,  or  Caput  jejunii, 
 the  beginning  of  the  fast.  The  custom  of 
 open  penance,  which  the  name  of  the  day 
 reminds  us  of,  is  one  of  those  things  which 
 the  Church  of  England,  at  the  time  of  the 
 Ileformation,  wished  to  see  restored  ;  but 
 on  account  of  the  prejudices  of  the  time, 
 she  could  not  carry  out  her  wishes.  (See  the 
 Comminution  Serriee  in  the  Prai/er  Book.) 
 
 ASPERGILLUM.  An  instrument  re- 
 sembling a  brush,  used  in  the  Roman 
 Catholic  Church  for  the  jjurpose  of  sprink- 
 ling holv  water  over  objects  to  be  blessed. 
 
 ASPERSION.  (See  Affusion.)  The 
 sprinkling  with  water  in  the  sacrament  of 
 baptism.     This  our  rubric  permits. 
 
 Then  tlie  priest  shall  take  the  child  into  his 
 hands,  and  say  to  the  godfathers  and 
 godmothers.^ 
 
60 
 
 ASSEMBLY  OF  DIVINES. 
 
 ATHANASIAN  CREED. 
 
 Name  tins  child. 
 And  then  vamiruj  it  after  them  {iftheij  shall 
 
 certify  hint  that  the  child  may  tcell  emlure 
 
 it)  he.  shall  dip  it  in  the  icater  discreetly 
 
 and  warily^  sayiny^ 
 
 N.  I  ha])tize  tlice  in  the  name  of  the 
 Father,  and  ol'  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy 
 GnosT.     Amen. 
 
 But  if  th/'y  certify  that  the  child  is  tcealc,  it 
 shall  suffice  to  pour  ivater  ujxm  it,  saying 
 the  aforesaid  words. 
 
 X.  I  bajUizc  thee  in  the  name  of  the 
 Father,  and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy 
 Ghost.    Amen. 
 
 It  is  said  by  the  Anabaptists  that  there 
 is  no  authority  in  Scripture  for  thus  ad- 
 ministering the  sacrament  of  baptism.  But 
 we  tind  in  the  primitive  Church,  that  al- 
 thouj::h  baptism  was  repjularly  administered 
 by  immersion,  yet  in  cases  of  sickness, 
 where  cHnic  baptism  was  administered, 
 aspersion  Mas  used.  We  conclude,  then, 
 that  immersion  is  not  essential  to  the  sa- 
 crament ;  and  if  sickness  were  an  excuse 
 for  not  immersinf;^. under  certain  circum- 
 stances, it  is  still  a  sufficient  excuse,  if  in 
 our  cold  climate  to  immerse  our  children 
 would  be  attended  with  danger.  —  See 
 Bin(iham^s  Ori(/ines  Ecclcsiasticce. 
 
 ASSEMBLY  OF  DIVINES.  The 
 title  given  to  a  notable  assembly  held  at 
 AVestminster,  1st  July,  1643,  convoked  by 
 an  ordinance  of  the  Lords  and  Commons, 
 but  forl)idden  to  ])e  held  by  the  king,  to 
 take  the  liturgy,  government,'  and  doctrines 
 of  the  Church  under  consideration.  The 
 members  were  elected  by  the  knights  and 
 burgesses,  two  being  returned  for  each 
 county.  According  to  Clarendon,  they 
 were  most  of  them  men  of  mean  learning, 
 and  some  of  them  of  scandalous  morals. 
 Among  the  exceptions  to  this  condemna- 
 tory- sentence  were  Lightfoot  and  Selden. 
 Lsher  was  nominated,  but  with  the  few 
 Episcopalians  elected  did  not  serve.  The 
 Scottish  covenant  Mas  taken  l)y  this  assem- 
 bly :  the  confession  of  ftiith  still  received  in 
 the  Scottish  Presbyterian  establishment, 
 and  the  larger  and  shorter  catechisms,  Avcre 
 draM-n  up.  But  the  opinions  of  the  mem- 
 bers diflered  so  -widely  on  many  points, 
 that  the  assembly  broke  up  Mithout  accom- 
 plishing the  principal  end  for  which  it  was 
 convened.  (See  Confessions  of  Faith.) 
 ^/),^;:y^II''nON  OF  THE  VIliGIN 
 M  Aia  .  A  festival  of  the  Ilomish  Church, 
 instituted  in  tlie  seventh  century,  and  fixed 
 to  the  loth  of  August,  in  honour  of  the 
 imaginary  a.scension  of  the  Virgin  Mary 
 into  heaven,  which,  without  nnv  authoritV 
 
 from  Scripture  or  tradition,  some  sects  in 
 that  con-upt  Church  teach  to  have  occurred 
 in  a  miraculous  manner,  some  years  after 
 her  death.  Such  is  the  corrupt  practice 
 of  the  llomanists,  that  in  many  places 
 higher  honour  is  paid  to  this  legendaiy 
 festival  than  even  to  the  anniversary  of  the 
 crucifixion  of  our  Lord.  (See  Viryin 
 3Itiry.) 
 
 ASYLUM.  A  place  of  refuge.  ^  This 
 began  to  be  a  privilege  of  churches  in  the 
 time  of  Constantine.  No  persons  could 
 be  arrested  in  churches.  In  the  middle 
 ages  this  Mas  a  great  advantage,  to  prevent 
 the  excesses  of  private  revenge.  In  times 
 of  great  civilization  it  became  an  abuse, 
 and  the  privilege  was  taken  aMay.  (See 
 Sanctuary,^ 
 
 ATHANASIAN  CREED.  The  learned, 
 at  this  day,  hoMever  they  may  differ  in 
 their  opinions  about  the  age,  or  author, 
 make  no  question  but  that  the  composition 
 M'as  originally  in  Latin.  The  style  and 
 phraseology — its  early  acceptance  M-ith  the 
 Latins,  while  unknoMn  to  the  Greeks — 
 the  antiquity  and  number  of  the  Latin 
 MSS.,  and  their  general  agreement  with 
 each  other,  compared  with  the  lateness,  the 
 scarceness,  and  the  disagreement  of  the 
 Greek  copies — all  seem  to  demonstrate 
 this. 
 
 As  to  the  antiquity  of  the  Athanasian 
 Creed,  it  w^as  certainly  become  so  famous 
 in  the  sixth  century  as  to  be  commented 
 upon,  together  m  ith  the  Lord's  Prayer  and 
 Apostles'  Creed,  about  the  year  570,  by 
 Venantius  Fortunatus,  bishop  of  Poitiers, 
 in  France.  This  is  certain  evidence  for 
 the  time  specified,  and  presumptive  for 
 much  gi'eater  antiquity.  For  Mho  can 
 imagine  that  it  should  grow  into  such  re- 
 pute of  a  sudden  ? 
 
 From  the  doctrines  contained  in  the 
 Creed,  and  from  its  manner  of  expressing 
 them,  it  is  probable  that  it  is  earlier  than 
 the  times  of  Nestorius,  or  the  Ephesine 
 council,  in  431  ;  the  Creed  not  condemn- 
 ing the  heresy  of  the  Nestorians  in  such 
 full,  direct,  critical  terms  as  the  Catholics 
 found  to  be  necessary  against  the  wiles  and 
 subtleties  of  those  nien. 
 
 From  the  doctrine  of  the  incarnation, 
 as  expressed  therein,  M-e  may  be  confident 
 that  it  is  not  earlier  than  the  rise  of  the 
 Apollinarian  heresy,  Mhich  appeared  at 
 first  about  the  year  360,  and  grew  to  a 
 head  about  370,  or  a  little  later.  And 
 this  consideration  is  against  the  opinion 
 that  Athanasius  made  it,  either  during  his 
 banishment  at  Treves,  Mhich  ended  in  the 
 year  338,  or  during  his  stay  at  Rome,  in 
 the  year  343 ;    or  that  he  presented  it  to 
 
ATIIANASIAN  CRE 
 
 1^^. 
 
 61 
 
 either  Pope  Julius,  or  Liberius,  who  were 
 both  dead  before  the  year  367.  And  Dr. 
 Waterland,  whose  researches  were  so  ex- 
 tensive, infers  that  the  Athanasian  Creed 
 is  not  earher  than  the  year  420. 
 
 It  is  observable  that,  about  the  year  426, 
 St.  Augustine,  then  bishop  of  Hippo,  in 
 Africa,  held  a  close  and  intimate  corre- 
 spondence with  the  Gallican  Churches.  For 
 one  Leporius,  a  presbyter,  having  spread 
 false  doctrine  in  Gaul,  chiefly  relating  to 
 the  incarnation,  and  being  censured  for  it, 
 fled  to  Africa,  and  was  there  brought  to  a 
 sense  of  his  errors  by  St.  Augustine  and 
 some  other  African  bishops.  The  lives 
 and  characters  suiting  extremely  well  with 
 place,  time,  occasion,  and  other  circum- 
 stances, all  these  concur  to  persuade  that 
 the  Creed  was  composed  in  Gaul,  between 
 the  years  426  and  430.  And  as  Honoratus 
 of  Marseilles  tells  us  that  Hilary,  arch- 
 bishop of  Aries,  from  429,  composed  an 
 admirable  "  Exposition  of  the  Creed,"  and 
 as  among  the  ancient  titles  given  to  this 
 Creed  are,  "  An  Exposition  of  the  Catholic 
 Faith,"  or,  yet  nearer,  "  An  Exposition  of 
 the  Apostles'  Creed,"  Hilary  was  probably 
 the  author  of  this  work  :  or  else  his  Creed 
 is  lost. 
 
 As  to  the  name  of  Athanasius,  noAv  ge- 
 nerally prefixed  to  it,  it  may  be  remarked, 
 that  upon  the  revival  of  the  Arian  con- 
 troversy in  Gaul,  under  the  influence  of 
 the  Burgundian  kings,  it  was  natural  to 
 call  one  side  Athanasians,  and  the  other 
 side  Arians  ;  and  so  also  to  name  the  or- 
 thodox faith  the  Athanasian  faith,  as  the 
 other,  the  Arian.  This  Creed,  therefore, 
 being  an  excellent  summary  of  the  Catholic 
 faith,  as  maintained  by  Athanasius,  might 
 in  process  of  time  acquire  the  name  of  the 
 Athanasian  faith,  and  so  in  a  little  while 
 occasion  the  mistake  of  ascribing  it  to  him 
 as  his  composition. 
 
 His  name,  together  with  the  intrinsic 
 worth  and  value  of  the  form  itself,  gave 
 it  credit  enough  to  be  received  in  France 
 as  an  orthodox  formulary,  or  system  of 
 belief,  about  the  middle  of  the  sixth  cen- 
 tury, and  into  the  public  offices  of  the 
 Gallican  Church  about  the  year  670.  In 
 Spain  it  was  known  and  approved  as  a  rule 
 of  faith  about  the  year  633,  and  was  soon 
 after  taken  into  the  offices  of  the  Church 
 in  that  kingdom.  In  Germany  it  was  re- 
 ceived at  lowest  about  787.  As  to  our 
 own  country,  we  have  proof  of  the  Creed's 
 being  sung  alternately  in  our  churches  in 
 the  tenth  century,  when  Abbo  of  Fleury, 
 an  ear-witness  of  it,  was  here ;  and  when 
 the  Saxon  versions,  still  extant,  were  of 
 standing  use,  for  the  instruction  and  benefit 
 
 both  of  clergy  and  people.  These  evidencea 
 alone  will  prove  the  reception  of  this  Creed 
 in  England  to  have  been  as  early  as  9o0,  or 
 930,  or  the  time  of  Athclstan,  Avhose  Latin 
 Psalter  has  the  Creed  in  it.  But  other  cir- 
 cumstances make  it  probable  it  was  used  as 
 early  as  880.  About  fourscore  years  after 
 this,  it  was  received  in  Italy.  And  in 
 Rome  itself  (Mhich  was  always  more  de- 
 sirous of  imposing  her  own  offices  upon 
 other  churches,  than  of  receiving  any  from 
 them)  it  Avas  received  in  the  tenth  cen- 
 tury, and  probably  about  the  year  930. 
 From  which  time  forwards  this  Creed  has 
 been  publicly  recited  in  the  Church  offices 
 all  over  the  AVest ;  and  it  seems  in  some 
 parts  of  the  Greek  Church  also. —  Water^ 
 land's  Critical  Histonj  of  the  Athanasian 
 Creed^  Sec. 
 
 Its  reception  has  been  both  general  and 
 ancient.  It  has  been  received  by  Greeks 
 and  Latins  all  over  Europe  ;  and  if  it  has 
 been  little  known  among  the  African  and 
 Asian  Churches,  the  like  may  be  said  of 
 the  Apostles'  Creed,  which  has  not  been 
 admitted,  scarce  known,  in  Africa,  and  but 
 little  in  Asia,  except  among  the  Armenians, 
 who  are  said  to  receive  it.  So  that,  for 
 generality  of  reception,  the  Athanasian 
 Creed  may  vie  with  any,  except  the  Nicene, 
 or  Constantinopolitan,  the  only  general 
 Creed  common  to  all  the  Churches. 
 
 As  to  the  antiquity  of  its  reception  into 
 the  sacred  offices,  it  was  received  in  several 
 countries,  France,  Germany,  England, 
 Italy,  and  Home  itself,  as  soon  as  the 
 Nicene,  or  sooner ;  which  is  a  high  com- 
 mendation of  it,  as  gaining  ground  by  its 
 OAvn  intrinsic  worth,  and  without  the  au- 
 thority of  any  general  council  to  enforce 
 it.  And  there  is  this  further  to  be  ob- 
 served, that  while  the  Nicene  and  Apostles' 
 Creeds  were  growing  up  to  their  present 
 perfection,  in  a  course  of  years,  or  cen- 
 turies of  years,  and  not  completed  till 
 about  the  year  600,  this  Creed  was  made 
 and  perfected  at  once,  and  is  more  an- 
 cient, if  considered  as  an  entire  form,  than 
 either  of  the  others,  having  received  its  full 
 perfection  while  the  others  wanted  theirs. 
 —  Waterland. 
 
 In  the  Greek  and  Roman  Churches  it 
 survived  in  the  midst  of  all  thQ  corruptions 
 that  arose :  upon  the  Reformation  there 
 was  not  a  Protestant  Church  but  what 
 received  it  in  its  fullest  extent :  Luther, 
 Calvin,  Bcza,  and  all  the  wisest  and  best 
 reformers,  acknowledged  the  Athanasian 
 Creed,  and  made  it  their  profession  of 
 j  faith  :  the  Puritans,  in  our  own  country, 
 1  the  parent  stock  of  all  our  modern  dis- 
 senters,  embraced    it    as  readily   as   the 
 
62 
 
 ^iHANASIAN  CREED. 
 
 Church  of  England  herseK—Uean    Vin- 
 
 This  admirable  Rummary  of  the  Chris- 
 tian faith,  as  to  the  <;reat  doctrines  of  the 
 Trinity  and  the  incarnation,  has  met  with 
 the  esteem  it  deserves  amonfi;  all  that  have 
 at  heart  the  welfare  of  Christianity.  The 
 faith  into  which  Christians  are  baptized 
 is  this,— there  is  but  one  God,  yet  there 
 are  three  persons,— the  Father,  the  Son, 
 and  the  Holy  S  pi  kit,  who  are  equally 
 Divine,  and  must  be  together  the  one  GoD, 
 since  God  is  but  one.  This  is  the  faith 
 which  has  been  received  in  the  Christian 
 Churches  from  the  beginning:  and  this 
 faith,  I  doubt  not,  will  continue  uni- 
 versally to  i)revaLl,  till  all  the  chosen  peo- 
 ple are  gathered  in,  and  united  in  one 
 general  assembly  and  church,  in  the  pure 
 realms  of  blessedness  above.  In  that  happy 
 country,  the  noise  of  controversies  will 
 cease.  All  who  are  brought  to  stand  in 
 the  presence  of  God,  dressed  in  the  un- 
 blemished robes  of  innocence  and  immor- 
 tality, will  know,  that  all  the  three  Divine 
 persons  were  concerned  in  bringing  them 
 thither  ;  and  as  they  OAve  their  happiness 
 to  the  sacred  three,  they  will  join  in 
 directing  the  same  songs  of  praise  to  God, 
 the  Father  of  mercies,  who  chose  them  to 
 himself  before  the  foundation  of  the  world  ; 
 to  God  the  Son,  who  redeemed  them  from 
 wrath,  by  shedding  his  own  precious  blood ; 
 and  to  God  the  Holy  Spirit,  who  renewed 
 and  sanctitied  them,  and  conducted  them 
 safe  through  the  wilderness  of  this  world, 
 into  the  land  of  uprightness,  the  country 
 of  rest  and  pure  delight. — Taylor  on  the 
 'Trinity. 
 
 On  the  clauses  called  damnatory,  we 
 may  offer  the  following  observations  from 
 Reveral  of  our  standard  writers.  "  He 
 that  believeth  and  is  baptized  shall  be 
 saved ;  but  he  that  believeth  not  shall  be 
 damned."  (Mark  xvi.  16.)  These  are  the 
 words  of  him  who  is  ordained  of  God  to 
 be  the  judge  of  quick  and  dead  :  of  him 
 who  himself  shall  pronounce  the  final 
 doom  of  all  men ;  spoken  by  him  at  the 
 time  when  he  was  taking  his  solemn  leave 
 of  his  apostles,  giving  them  his  last  and 
 final  charge,  and  in  which  the  fate  of  all 
 the  world  is  determined.  The  meek  and 
 humble  Jesus  makes  use  of  very  sharp 
 expressions,  when  he  warns  his  disciples 
 against  those  who  should  oppose  or  dispute 
 those  truths  :  '^  Beware  (saith  he)  of  false 
 prophets  ;■'  beware  of  false  teachers,  such  as 
 corrupt  sound  doctrine  in  the  essential  and 
 fundamental  articles  of  {d\\\\.—  Wheatly. 
 
 Many  unbelievers,  and  some  Christians, 
 supjiose  opinions  to  be   involuntary,  and 
 
 therefore  harmless.  But  let  them  consider 
 how  far  this  will  carry  them.  Nothing  is 
 more  expressly  revealed  in  Holy  Scripture, 
 than  that  he  who  does  not  believe  the 
 Christian  religion  shall  be  condemned.  If 
 it  be  said,  that  unbelief  may  arise  from  a 
 disorder  or  from  a  defect  in  the  under- 
 standing, every  such  case  is,  by  implica- 
 tion, excepted.  This  sentence  is  deemed 
 by  us  declaratory  of  the  general  will  of 
 God,  and  does  not  imply  an  absolute  ex- 
 clusion of  every  culpable  individual  from 
 his  mercy. —  Croft. 
 
 The  denial  of  our  Lord's  Divinity,  as  it 
 stands  condemned  by  the  laws  both  of  our 
 Church  and  State,  so  it  has,  from  the  very 
 beginning,  been  esteemed  a  "  damnable 
 heresy ; "  and  all  impugners  of  it  have 
 been  always  excluded  from  the  communion 
 of  the  Church.  Primitive  writers  call  it 
 an  "  abominable  heresy,"  "  a  God-denying 
 apostasy,"  and,  in  those  ages,  those  who 
 broached  such  doctrines  were  constantly 
 deposed  and  excommunicated. — Randolph 
 on  the  Trinity. 
 
 One  sometimes  finds  in  persons  a  won- 
 derful inattention  and  a  strange  indiffer- 
 ence with  regard  to  the  first  and  most 
 fundamental  doctrines  of  their  religion. 
 It  might  possibly  be  wdth  some  view  to 
 this  kind  of  conduct,  that  the  compiler  of 
 the  Creed  inserted  what  are  called  the 
 damnatory  clauses.  He  was  desirous  to 
 excite  their  attention,  and  to  rouse  them 
 from  this  unmeaning  slumber  ;  to  convince 
 them  that  something  is  to  be  believed,  as 
 well  as  practised ;  and  that  in  matters  of 
 this  importance  men  should  not  trifle  with 
 God  and  their  own  consciences,  and  halt 
 between  two  opinions. — Horhery. 
 
 These  clauses  have  occasioned  much 
 needless  uneasiness.  AVhen  such  men,  I 
 say  not  as  Chillingworth,  for  we  have 
 judged  him  weak  in  religious  reasoning, 
 but  as  Clarke,  Tillotson,  Seeker,  could  be 
 uneasy  under  them,  I  can  ascribe  it  to 
 nothing  but  the  influence  of  religious  ter- 
 ror ;  a  sentiment  which  operates  in  all  pos- 
 sible degrees ;  which  makes  us  scruple  to 
 admit  in  religion  what  would  occasion  no 
 difliculty  in  common  affairs,  lest  our  ac- 
 quiescence should  be  owing  to  some  cor- 
 rupt or  indirect  motive.  Scruples  of  this 
 kind  are  owing  to  not  freely  admitting 
 those  limitations  which  common  sense  sug- 
 gests in  the  application  of  every  general 
 proposition.  Heresies  are  very  numerous  ; 
 defiling  the  purity  of  the  faith,  making 
 men  act  on  wrong  principles,  affording 
 handles  to  infidelity,  and  clivicling  Chris- 
 tians amongst  themselves,  so  as  to  defeat 
 the  ends  of  religious  society,  and  probably 
 
ATHANASIAN  CREElx 
 
 63 
 
 lose  some  degree  of  future  happiness ;  it 
 seems  needful,  therefore,  to  draw  the  er- 
 roneous notions,  which  arc  so  pernicious, 
 into  a  small  compass,  and  solemnly  reject 
 them  ;  that  the  unwary  may  be  cautioned, 
 and  the  bold  and  busy  innovator  discour- 
 aged. And  lest  the  unstable,  who  are 
 tossed  about  with  every  wind  of  doctrine, 
 should  continue  to  indulge  their  childish 
 fondness  for  novelty,  and  live  on  without 
 any  regular  and  permanent  principles,  it 
 seems  also  needful  to  remind  thorn  of  the 
 last  solemn  declaration  of  our  blessed 
 LoKD,  not  surely  with  a  view  to  bias  the 
 judgment,  but  only  to  enforce  the  duty  of 
 a  sober  and  serious  attention  to  sacred 
 ti'uth,  unintiuenced  by  passion  or  caprice. 
 — lleifs  Lectures. 
 
 These  clauses  were  inserted  in  this  Creed, 
 and  in  most  of  the  ancient  Creeds,  the 
 Arian  as  well  as  others,  by  no  means  to 
 intimate  the  condemnation,  for  want  of 
 faith,  of  vsuch  as  had  no  opportunity  of  re- 
 ceiving the  Christian  religion  ;  but  of  such 
 only  as,  having  it  duly  i)reached  to  them, 
 should  receive  it  in  an  evil  heart  of  unbe- 
 lief, and,  holding  it  in  unrighteousness, 
 should  mutilate  or  corrupt  its  essentials. 
 There  is,  surely,  a  wide  ditference  between 
 condemning  with  severity,  and  believing 
 with  sorrow  and  compassion  that  another 
 is  condemned.  A  man  Avho  pronounces 
 this  sentence,  because  he  sees  it  pronounced 
 in  the  word  of  God,  might  die  for  the  con- 
 version and  retrieval  of  those  on  whom  he 
 is  forced,  by  the  conviction  of  his  faith,  to 
 pronounce  it. — Skelton. 
 
 Damnatory  clauses,  or  anathemas,  as 
 they  are  angrily  called,  deriving  their  au- 
 thority from  Scripture,  should  be  con- 
 sidered as  awful  admonitions,  which  it 
 hath  seemed  good  to  Divine  wisdom  to 
 announce  generally,  in  order  to  condemn 
 an  indifference  of  mind  in  matters  of  re- 
 ligious principle  ;  to  correct  a  fond  ad- 
 miration of  change  or  novelty ;  and  to 
 intimidate,  under  the  severest  penalties  of 
 God's  displeasure,  the  vain  or  interested 
 from  broaching  their  wild  and  pernicious 
 heresies. — Bishop  Cleaver. 
 
 Many  have  argued  against  the  use  of 
 this  Creed ;  and  some,  Mith  strange  vehe- 
 mence, partly  from  the  doctrines  Avhich  it 
 teaches,  but  chiefly  from  the  condemnation 
 which  it  pronounces  on  all  who  disbelieve 
 them.  Now  the  doctrines  are  undeniably 
 the  same  with  those  tliat  are  contained  in 
 the  Articles  of  our  Church,  in  the  begin- 
 ning of  our  litany,  in  the  conclusions  of 
 many  of  our  collects,  in  the  Nicene  Creed, 
 and,  as  we  conceive,  in  that  of  the  Apos- 
 tles ;  in  the  doxology,  in  the  form  of  bap- 
 
 tism, and  in  numerous  passages  of  both 
 Testaments  ;  only  here  they  are  somewhat 
 more  distinctly  set  forth,  to  prevent  equi- 
 vocation.— Archbisliop  Seeker. 
 
 AVhenever  we  go  contrary  to  a  stream, 
 which  has  run  in  one  cliannel  for  seven- 
 teen centuries,  we  ought  to  doubt  our  own 
 opinions,  and  at  least  treat  tlie  general  and 
 concuiTing  testimony  of  mankind  with  re- 
 spect. If  any  one  has  his  doubts  on  the 
 intricacies  of  this  question,  let  him  first 
 search  the  Scripture,  and  settle  his  princi- 
 ples from  thence ;  if  he  afterwards  wishes 
 to  i)ursue  his  researches,  let  him  not  recur 
 to  the  crude  and  hasty  publications  of  the 
 present  day,  in  which  asseriions  are  rashly 
 made,  without  foundation  in  Scripture, 
 antiquity,  or  the  principles  of  any  Church, 
 but  to  those  learned  writers  who  managed 
 this  controversy  fifty  years  ago  in  our  own 
 country  ;  or,  if  he  has  learning  and  leisure 
 sufficient,  to  the  primitive  fathers  them- 
 selves.— Dean  Vincent. 
 
 AVhoever  wrote  this  Creed,  he  meant 
 nothing  more  than  to  collect  things  said  in 
 various  Catholic  writers,  against  the  vari- 
 ous heresies  subsisting,  and  to  simplify  and 
 arrange  the  expressions,  so  as  to  form  a 
 confession  of  faith  the  most  concise,  order- 
 ly, and  comprehensive,  possible.  Not  with 
 any  view  of  ex])laining  any  mysterious 
 truths,  but  with  the  sole  design  of  reject- 
 ing hurtful  or  heretical  errors.  And  it 
 may  have  been  adopted  on  account  of  its 
 excellence,  in  bringing  the  errors  which 
 were  to  be  shunned  into  a  small  compass, 
 in  exposing  them  in  a  kind  of  poetic  num- 
 bers, which  strike  and  possess  the  ear  ;  and 
 may  have  been  called  "  Athanasian,"  only 
 on  account  of  its  containing  doctrines 
 which  have  been  defended  with  peculiar 
 force  and  brilliancy  by  the  great  prelate  of 
 Alexandria. — Ileifs  Lectures. 
 
 The  Athanasian  Creed  only  tells  us  what 
 we  must  believe,  if  we  believe  a  Trinity  in 
 unity,  three  persons  and  one  GoD :  and  I 
 challenge  any  man,  who  sincerely  professes 
 this  faith,  to  tell  me,  what  he  can  leave 
 out  of  this  exposition,  without  destroying 
 the  Divinity  of  some  of  the  throe  persons, 
 or  the  unity  of  the  Godhead.  If  each  per- 
 son must  be  God  and  Lord,  must  not  each 
 person  be  uncreated,  incomprehensible, 
 eternal,  almighty?  If  there  be  but  one 
 God,  and  one  Lord,  can  there  be  three 
 separated,  uncreated,  incomprehensible, 
 eternal,  almighty  Gods;  Avhich  must  of 
 necessity  be  three  Gods,  and  three  Lords ! 
 This  Creed  does  not  pretend  to  explain 
 hoiv  there  are  three  persons,  each  of  which 
 is  God,  and  yet  but  one  God,  but  only  as- 
 serts the  thing,  that  thus  it  is,  and  thus  it 
 
64 
 
 THANASIAN  CREED. 
 
 must  be,  if  we  believe  a  Trinity  in  unity ; 
 which  sliould  make  all  men,  who  would 
 be  thou«;ht  neither  Arians  nor  Socinians, 
 more  cautious  how  they  ex])ress  the  least 
 dislike  of  it. — Sherlock  on  the  Tn'nifi/. 
 
 Every  Divine  perfection  and  substantial 
 attribute  of  ])eity  is  common  to  the  three  : 
 what  is  i)eculiar  applies  only  to  their  rela- 
 tions, order,  or  office  ;  paternity,  filiation, 
 procession — first,  second,  tliird  persons — 
 creation.  redem])tion,  sanctilication.  The 
 Athanasian  Creed  is  altofi:ether  illustrative 
 of  this  economy;  and  if  it  be  carefully 
 consiilered  under  this  point  of  view,  I  am 
 persuaded  it  will  appear  to  be  exceedingly 
 reasonable  and  judicious.  There  is  some- 
 thing in  the  mere  sound  of  the  clauses 
 which  I  doubt  not  beguiles  it  of  its  just 
 praise.  Some  have  forgotten,  perhaps,  and 
 some  have  never  known,  its  proper  history. 
 Tlie  numerous  sects  whose  different  appre- 
 hensions of  the  precise  nature  of  the  holy 
 Trinity  led  men  in  those  distant  days  into 
 one,  at  least,  of  the  two  great  errors,  either 
 that  of  ''  confounding  the  persons "  or 
 *'  dividing  tlie  substance,"  are  now  perhaps 
 no  more.  They  may  indeed  subsist  under 
 other  names ;  but  men  have  long  since 
 ceased  to  talk  of  the  Sabellians,  Noetians, 
 Patripassians,  Praxeans,  Eunomians,  Apol- 
 linarians,  Photinians,  Cerinthians,  and  even 
 Arians,  Nestorians,  and  Eutychians  ;  for 
 these  latter  are  the  sects  chiefly  opposed 
 in  the  Athanasian  Creed.  But  there  is  not 
 one  clause  of  this  ancient  formulary  that 
 is  not  directed,  in  the  simplest  manner 
 possible,  against  the  different  errors  of  all 
 these  several  sects;  their  wild  and  dis- 
 cordant notions  are  all  met  by  the  con- 
 stant reiteration  of  that  one  great  truth, 
 that  though  the  Christian  verity  compels 
 us  to  acknowledge  every  person  of  the 
 holy  Trinity  to  be  God  and  Lord,  yet  the 
 Catholic  religion  equally  forbids  us  to  say 
 there  be  three  Gods, 'or  three  Lords; 
 though,  therefore,  each  is  uncreate,  each 
 eternal,  each  almighty,  each  God,  and  each 
 Lord,  yet  these  attributes,  as  the  exclusive 
 attributes  of  Deity,  are  common  to  the 
 three ;  the  omnipotence,  the  eternity,  the 
 Divinity,  the  power  and  dominion,  the'glory 
 and  majesty,  is  one ;  "  such  as  the  Father 
 is,  such  is  the  Son,  and  such  is  the  Holy 
 Ghost." — Xares  on  the  Creeds. 
 
 Whilst  the  Apostles'  Creed  compendi- 
 ously sums  up  and  declares  the  main  arti- 
 cles of  our  Christian  faith,  and  the  Nicene 
 Creed  explains  more  fullv  the  articles  re- 
 lating to  the  Son  and  the  Holy  Ghost, 
 the  Athanasian  Creed  stands  as  an  excel- 
 lent giiard  and  defence  against  the  subtle- 
 ties of  most  kmds  of  heretics,  who,  were 
 
 it  once  removed,  would  soon  find  means 
 to  enervate  and  evade  the  shorter  Creeds, 
 where  the  Christian  faith  is  more  simply 
 declared. —  IVheath/. 
 
 The  intention  of  the  Creed,  as  -well  as 
 of  our  Lord  in  the  Gospel,  is  only  to  say, 
 that  whoever  rejects  the  doctrine  of  it, 
 from  presumptuous  self- opinion,  or  wilful 
 negligence,  the  case  of  such  an  one  is  des- 
 perate. But  though  we  pass  judgment  on 
 his  errors  Avithout  reserve,  and,  in  general, 
 on  all  who  maintain  them,  yet  personally 
 and  singly  we  presume  not  to  judge  of  his 
 condition  in  the  next  world. — Archbishop 
 Seeker. 
 
 The  use  of  it  is,  to  be  a  standing  fence 
 and  preservative  against  the  wiles  and 
 equivocations  of  most  kinds  of  heretics. 
 This  was  w^ell  understood  by  Luther  when 
 he  called  it  "a  bulwark  to  the  Apostles' 
 Creed ; "  much  to  the  same  purpose  wdth 
 what  is  cited  of  Ludolphus  Saxo  ("tria 
 sunt  symbola  ;  primum  Apostolicum,  se- 
 cundum Nicenum,  tertium  Athanasii ;  pri- 
 mum factum  est  ad  fidei  instructionem, 
 secundum  ad  fidei  explanationem,  tertium 
 ad  fidei  defensionem  ").  And  it  w^as  this  and 
 the  like  considerations  that  have  all  along 
 made  it  to  be  of  such  high  esteem  among 
 all  the  Reformed  Churches,  from  the  days 
 of  their  great  leader. —  Waterland. 
 
 The  Church  of  England  proposes  no 
 Creeds  to  be  believed  upon  their  own  au- 
 thority, but  because  they  are  agreeable  to 
 the  word  of  GoD.  The  articles  of  the 
 Creed  indeed  are  proposed  as  articles  of 
 faith.  But  they  are  only  collections  of 
 some  important  truths  to  which  that  testi- 
 mony is  given.  They  are,  at  the  highest, 
 but  extracts  which  are  to  be  believed  be- 
 cause there  contained ;  and  so  to  be  be- 
 lieved as  there  delivered.  Whatever  doc- 
 trines are  consonant  to  the  Scriptures,  she 
 recommends  to  our  faith  ;  but  what  are 
 contrary  to  the  word  of  GoD,  she  pro- 
 nounces not  lawful  for  the  Church  to  or- 
 dain. She  expects  her  members  to  believe 
 nothing  as  of  Divine  revelation,  but  what 
 the  records  of  that  revelation  plainly  con- 
 tain. Nor  of  the  truths  there  discovered, 
 does  she  impose  the  belief  of  any  as  a  ne- 
 cessary term  of  communion,  but  what  she 
 apprehends  the  sacred  oracles  themselves 
 to  represent  as  a  necessary  term  of  salva- 
 tion. These  w^ere  the  creeds  of  the  West- 
 ern Church  before  the  Reformation ;  and 
 because,  at  the  Reformation,  she  withdi-ew 
 from  nothing  but  what  was  corrupt,  there- 
 fore, these  being  catholic  and  sound,  she 
 still  retains  X\\Qm.^Wheathj . 
 
 Why,  it  is  often  said,  are  w^e  so  zealous 
 in  enforcing  doctrines  merely  speculative  ? 
 
ATHANASIAN  CREED. 
 
 6& 
 
 The  answer  is,  we  believe  them  to  be  in- 
 culcated in  Scripture,  essential  to  the 
 Christian  relio:ion,  and  not  merely  specu- 
 lative. The  Son  and  the  HoLY  GilosT 
 are  each  of  them  said  to  be  sent  by  the 
 Father,  each  of  them  contributes  to  the 
 great  work  of  our  salvation.  To  refuse 
 them  Divine  honour,  is  unquestionably  to 
 deny  their  Divine  power.  "We  do  not 
 presume  to  fix  limits  to  Divine  mercy  ;  but 
 surely  we  endang-er  our  title  to  it,  when 
 we  reject  the  conditions  upon  which  it  is 
 granted.  The  humble  Christian  hopes 
 for  no  benefit  from  the  gospel  covenant, 
 but  from  a  firm  reliance  on  the  merits  of 
 his  Saviour,  and  the  aid  of  the  Holy 
 Spirit. — Croft. 
 
 In  the  sacred  Scripture  there  is  no  men- 
 tion but  of  two  sorts  of  men,  whereof  some 
 believe,  so  that  they  are  saved ;  some 
 believe  not,  and  they  are  damned.  (Mark 
 xvi.  16;  John  iii.  fS.)  But  neither  the 
 Church,  nor  the  individual  rehearsing  the 
 creed,  is  responsible  for  these  denuncia- 
 tions. It  is  a  formulary  which  happens  to 
 express  suitably  and  well  the  exact  opini- 
 ons of  the  Church  of  England,  in  regard 
 to  the  two  great  mysteries  of  the  Trinity 
 and  incarnation,  as  far  as  they  can  be 
 understood.  True  it  is,  indeed,  that  in 
 her  eighth  Article  she  asserts,  that  the  three 
 creeds,  Nicene,  Athanasian,  and  that  which 
 is  commonly  called  the  Apostles'  Creed, 
 "  ought  thoroughly  to  be  received  and  be- 
 lieved, for  they  may  be  proved  by  most 
 certain  warrants  of  Holy  Scripture."  And 
 has  the  Church  of  England  no  right  to 
 make  this  declaration  ?  Is  she  to  be  the 
 only  society  of  Christians  that  shall  not 
 have  permission  to  assert  that  her  faith  is 
 the  right  faith  ?  What  dissenter  from  the 
 Church  of  England  would  hesitate  to  as- 
 sume this  liberty  ?  Who  is  there  that 
 scruples  to  speak  thus  exclusively  of  his- 
 own  mode  of  thinking  ?  Can  anything  be 
 more  candidly  or  unexceptionably  stated, 
 than  her  confidence  that  these  creeds  ought 
 to  be  believed,  because  they  may  be  proved 
 by  warrants  of  holy  writ?  In  saying  this, 
 does  she  preclude  any  man  from  examin- 
 ation ?  Does  she  lock  up  the  vohmie  of 
 holy  writ?  She  appeals  solely  to  Scrip- 
 ture for  the  truth  of  her  doctrine,  leaving 
 all  who  oppose  her  to  the  mercies  of  GoD. 
 She  does  not  presume  to  say  with  those, 
 whose  cause  has  lately  been  strangely  po- 
 pular, and  whose  language  in  a  sister  king- 
 dom is  such  to  this  day,  that  whoever 
 presumes  to  separate  from  her,  "eo  ipso 
 illis  nulla  est  speranda  salus ! "  She  does 
 not  even  venture  to  assert,  with  the  cele- 
 brated reformer  Calvin,  whose  famous  In- 
 
 stitutes were  written  on  the  model  of  the 
 Apostles'  Creed,  and  who  must,  no  doul)t, 
 have  had  a  view,  in  saying  it,  to  his  own 
 peculiar  Church,  "  extra  ccclesia;  gremium," 
 ^-c. ;  "  out  of  the  bosom  of  the  Church 
 there  is  no  hope  whatever  of  salvation,  or 
 remission  of  sins."  AVe  may  surely  be 
 permitted  to  admire  that  strange  course  of 
 things,  and  confusion  of  circumstances, 
 that  have  lately  conspired  to  render  those 
 ])opular  Avhose  principles  are  truly  exclusive 
 and  intolerant;  and  the  Church  in  some 
 respects  unpopular,  which  is  as  truly  toler- 
 ant. Her  language  is  constantly  the  same, 
 and  perfectly  apostolic  :  "  Search  the  Scrip- 
 tures." "  Prove  all  things  ;  hold  fast  that 
 which  is  good." — Naves  on  the  Creeds. 
 
 Let  the  gates  of  our  communion  be 
 opened  as  wide  as  is  consistent  with  the 
 gospel  of  Christ  ;  yet  surely  those  will 
 stand  excluded,  v/ho  hold  errors  expressly 
 condemned  in  that  gospel,  and  which  that 
 gospel  was  particularly  and  purposely 
 wrote  to  guard  against. — Randolph  on  the 
 Trinity. 
 
 The  commissioners  in  1688,  thirty  emi- 
 nent divines,  appointed  to  review  and  cor- 
 rect the  liturgy,  close  the  inibric  they 
 had  prepared  in  the  following  words, — 
 "  And  the  condemning  clauses  (viz.  in 
 the  Athanasian  Creed)  are  to  be  under- 
 stood as  relating  only  to  those  who  obstin- 
 ately deny  the  substance  of  the  Christian 
 faith." 
 
 It  is  no  hard  matter  for  witty  men  to 
 put  very  perverse  senses  on  Scripture  to 
 favour  their  heretical  doctrines,  and  to 
 defend  them  with  sucli  sophistry  as  shall 
 easily  impose  upon  unlearned  and  unthink- 
 ing men  ;  and  the  best  way  in  this  case  is, 
 to  have  recourse  to  the  ancient  faith  of 
 the  Christian  Church,  to  learn  from  thence 
 how  these  articles  were  understood  and 
 professed  by  them;  for  we  cannot  but 
 think,  that  those  who  conversed  with  the 
 apostles,  and  did  not  only  receive  the 
 Scriptures,  but  the  sense  and  interpret- 
 ation of  them,  from  the  apostles,  or  apos- 
 tolical men,  understood  the  true  Christian 
 faith  much  better  than  those  at  a  farther 
 remove ;  and  therefore,  as  long  as  we  can 
 reasonably  suppose  this  tradition  to  be 
 preserved  in  the  Church,  their  authority 
 is  very  venerable. — Sherlock  on  the  Trinity. 
 
 These  contentions  were  cause  of  much 
 evil,  yet  some  good  the  Church  hath 
 rea])ed  by  them,  in  tliat  they  occasioned 
 the  learned  and  sound  in  failh  to  explain 
 such  things  as  heresy  went  about  to  de- 
 prave. And  in  this  respect  the  Creed  of 
 Athanasius,  concerning  that  truth  which 
 Arianism    so   mightily   did   impugn,  was 
 
GO 
 
 ATHANASIAN  CREED. 
 
 both  in  the  East  and  West  Churches  ac- 
 cepted as  a  treasure  of  inestimable  price, 
 by  as  many  as  had  not  <riven  up  even  the 
 very  gliost  of  belief.  Tliat  Avhich  heresy 
 did'bV  sinister  interi)retations  go  about  to 
 pervert  in  the  first  and  most  ancient  apos- 
 tolical creed,  tlie  same  being  by  singular 
 dexterity  and  plainness  cleared  from  those 
 heretical  corrujitions,  partly  by  this  creed 
 of  Athanasius.  These  catholic  declarations 
 of  our  belief,  delivered  by  them  who  ^vere 
 so  much  nearer  than  Ave  are  unto  the  first 
 pid)lication  thereof,  and  continuing  need- 
 ful for  all  men  at  all  times  to  know,  these 
 confessions,  as  testimonies  of  our  con- 
 tinuance in  the  same  faith  to  this  present 
 day,  we  rather  use  than  any  other  gloss  or 
 paraphrase  devised  by  ourselves,  which, 
 though  it  were  to  the  same  effect,  notAvith- 
 standing  could  not  be  of  the  like  authority 
 and  credit. — Hooker. 
 
 The  doctrinal  part  of  the  creed  has  been 
 called  a  "bulwark;"  and  if  it  be  main- 
 tained, it  should  be  maintained  as  a  fortifi- 
 cation. In  time  of  peace,  the  inconvenience 
 of  keeping  up  fortifications  occasions  their 
 being  sometimes  neglected,  but  when  war 
 breaks  out  afresh,  every  one  is  clamorous 
 in  blaming  the  imprudence  of  such  neg- 
 lect. If  we  are  at  peace  now  with  the 
 powers  which  would  attack  us  where  our 
 creed  would  be  our  defence,  we  are  always 
 liable  to  be  at  war  with  them  again.  We 
 have  seen  how  naturally  all  the  heresies 
 condemned  in  the  creed'  arise,  when  men 
 once  become  eager  in  solving  the  diffi- 
 culties of  the  Trinity  and  the  incarnation  ; 
 and  such  eagerness  might  at  any  time 
 arise,  or  any  revolution,  or  great  disturb- 
 ance, or  confusion  ;  and  in  case  of  renewed 
 attacks,  our  present  creed  would  be  a 
 much  better  defence  than  any  new  one 
 that  would  be  made  at  the  time  it  was 
 wanted. — Jlei/^s  Lectures. 
 
 AVhat  the  consequence  may  be,  should 
 we  part  with  our  creed,  may  easily  be  in- 
 ferred from  what  followed  upon  the  drop- 
 ping a  single  word  (co/tsuhstantial,  or,  as 
 expressed  in  our  English  creed,  "being  of 
 one  substance  with  the  Father")  out 
 of  the  [Nicene]  creed  at  the  Council  of 
 Ariminura.  The  Catholics,  being  deceived 
 by  the  great  and  earnest  importunity  of 
 the  Arians  for  unity  and  peace,  were  at 
 last  prevailed  upon.  The  word  consxih- 
 stantial  was  left  out  ;  and  the  Arians 
 boasted  over  all  the  world,  that  the  Ni- 
 cene faith  was  condemned  and  Arianism 
 established  in  a  general  council.  It  is 
 candour,  when  good  Catholics  are  divided 
 abou^  words,  to  bring  them  to  a  right 
 understanding  of  one  another,  which  will 
 
 get  them  at  peace  and  unity  again.  But 
 it  is  tameness  to  give  up  the  main  bul- 
 warks of  the  faith  to  fallacious  adversaries 
 and  designing  men,  whose  arts  and  aims, 
 however  disguised,  are  always  knoAvn  to 
 strike  at  the  foundation  of  religion. — 
 Binf/ham  and  Wheatly. 
 
 To  the  sceptic,  the  Arian,  and  the  Soci- 
 nian,  we  do  not  expect  to  find  such  a  creed 
 acceptable,  because  it  was  designed  to  re- 
 strain the  fantastic  and  pernicious  opinions 
 started  on  their  part  upon  the  subjects 
 contained  in  it.  But  every  firm  and  steady 
 believer  may  still,  and  indeed  ought  to, 
 hold  high  the  value  of  the  only  creed  deli- 
 vered to  us  from  antiquity,  wliich  states 
 that  first  and  great  principle  of  Christian 
 revelation,  the  importance  and  necessity  of 
 a  just  faith.  Upon  us,  the  ministers  of  the 
 Church,  especially,  it  is  incumbent,  as  oc- 
 casions off"er,  to  explain  and  illustrate  its 
 design  and  uses  to  the  more  unlearned,  as 
 Avell  as  to  obviate  the  crude  exceptions 
 made  against  its  doctrines  or  language,  to 
 derive  its  due  weight  of  authority  from  the 
 venerable  antiquity  of  its  origin,  and  to 
 draw^  an  argument  of  its  merits  from  the 
 universal  approbation  with  which  it  has 
 been  received.  AVho  would  not  tremble 
 at  the  proposal  of  laying  waste  a  fence, 
 which  in  any  degree  hath  afforded  pro- 
 tection to  w^hat  was  obtained  for  us  at  so 
 inestimable  a  price ;  and  of  inviting,  by  a 
 voluntary  surrender  of  our  present  secur- 
 ity, renewed  instances  of  insult,  in  repeat- 
 ed and  incessant  attacks  to  be  made  upon 
 the  temis  and  obligations  of  our  Christian 
 covenant  ? — ^^:».  Cleaver. 
 
 There  are  no  kinds  of  heretics  but  hope 
 to  make  the  vulgar  understand  their  tenets 
 respectively,  and  to  draw  them  aside  from 
 the  received  faith  of  the  Church:  and, 
 therefore,  it  behoves  the  pastors  of  the 
 Church  to  have  a  standing  form  to  guard 
 the  people  against  any  such  attempts. 
 The  Christian  Churches  throughout  the 
 world,  ever  since  the  multiplication  of 
 heresies,  have  thought  it  necessary  to 
 guard  their  people  by  some  such  forms  as 
 these  in  standing  use  amongst  them.  And 
 they  are  not  so  much  afraid  of  puzzling 
 and  perplexing  the  vulgar  by  doing  it,  as 
 they  are  of  betraying  and  exposing  them 
 to  the  attempts  of  seducers,  should  they 
 not  do  it.  The  common  people  will  be  in 
 no  danger  of  running  either  into  Sabel- 
 lianism,  or  tritheism,  if  they  attend  to  the 
 Creed  itself,  (which  fully  obviates  and  con- 
 futes both  those  heresies,)  instead  of  listen- 
 ing to  those  who  fh'st  industriously  labour 
 to  deceive  them  into  a  false  construction 
 of  the  Creed,  and  then  complain  of  the 
 
ATHANASIAN  CREED. 
 
 ATONEMENT. 
 
 67 
 
 common  people's  being  too  apt  to  misun- 
 derstand it. —  Waterhind. 
 
 Those  in  authority  should  be  very  cau- 
 tious how  they  give  in  to  such  schemes  as, 
 under  the  plausible  pretence  of  pruning 
 our  vine,  and  reforming  things  in  their 
 OAvn  nature  indifferent  and  alterable,  "would 
 by  degrees  overturn  our  -whole  establish- 
 ment.— Randolph  on  the  Trinihf. 
 
 We  may,  perhaps,  be  reminded,  that 
 some  of  our  own  most  sanguine  friends 
 have  wished  to  expunge  it.  But  one  of 
 them  lived  to  retract  his  opinion,  and  a 
 friend  of  truth  is  not  to  be  overawed  by 
 authority,  however  respectable,  nor  si- 
 lenced by  popular  clamour. — Croft. 
 
 So  long  as  there  shall  be  any  men  left 
 to  oppose  the  doctrines  w'liich  this  Creed 
 contains,  so  long  will  it  be  expedient,  and 
 even  necessary,  to  continue  the  use  of  it, 
 in  order  to  preserve  the  rest ;  and,  I  sup- 
 pose, when  Ave  have  none  remaining  to 
 find  fault  with  the  doctrines,  there  will  be 
 none  to  object  against  the  use  of  the  Creed, 
 or  so  much  as  to  wish  to  have  it  laid  aside. 
 —  JVaterland,  Ath.  Creed. 
 
 "\Miatever  may  be  pretended,  this  is  not 
 a  controversy  about  some  metaphysical 
 abstract  notions  of  personality,  subsistence, 
 or  moral  distinctions  in  the  Divine  nature ; 
 in  these  there  will  be  always  room  left  for 
 different  speculations  and  sentiments.  It 
 is  not  a  controversy  about  forms,  but  it  is 
 a  controversy  about  the  very  object  of  re- 
 ligious worship.  Should  there  be  a  falling 
 away  from  this  profession,  should  there  be 
 a  denpng  of  the  Lord  that  bought  us,  or 
 of  the  Holy  Spirit,  the  Sanctifier  and 
 Comforter,  disowning  them  to  be  truly 
 and  properly  by  nature  God,  of  the  same 
 essence  and  eternity  as  the  Father,  and 
 with  him  the  one  God,  not  three  Gods, 
 with  too  much  reason  it  might  be  said,  the 
 glory  is  departed  from  us,  whether  dis- 
 senters or  of  the  Established  Church,  that 
 hath  been  counted  the  head  and  great  sup- 
 port of  the  Protestant  Churches.  Should 
 we,  or  they,  thus  fall,  those  Protestants, 
 whose  confessions  we  have  mentioned,  yea, 
 and  all  Christians  abroad,  must,  upon  their 
 professed  principles,  renounce  us  as  not 
 holding  the  head. — London  Minister^  Cases, 
 Trinity. 
 
 The  Creed  of  Athanasius,  and  that  sacred 
 hymn  of  glory,  than  which  nothing  doth 
 sound  more  heavenly  in  the  ears  of  faithful 
 men,  are  now  reckoned  as  superfluities 
 which  we  must  in  any  case  pare  av/ay,  lest 
 we  cloy  God  with  too  much  service.  Yet 
 cause  sufficient  there  is  why  both  should 
 remain  in  use ;  the  one  as  a  most  divine 
 explication  of  the  chiefest  articles  of  our 
 F   2 
 
 Christian  belief,  the  other  as  an  heavenly 
 acclamation  of  joyful  applause  to  his  praises 
 in  whom  we  believe.  Neither  the  one  nor 
 the  other  unworthy  to  be  heard  sounding, 
 as  they  are,  in  the  Church  of  Christ,  whe- 
 ther Arianism  live  or  die. — Hooker.  For 
 a  detailed  justification  of  the  Athanasian 
 Creed,  see  Redcliffe  on  the  Athanasian 
 Creed. 
 
 It  is  appointed  to  be  said  in  the  Church 
 of  England  on  the  gi'eat  festivals,  and  on 
 certain  holidays,  in  place  of  the  Apostles* 
 Creed,  at  Morning  Prayer.  So  that  it 
 may  be  said  once  a  month  at  least. — 
 Sparrow.      Whcathf. 
 
 This  Creed  is  called  in  the  Iloman  offices 
 the  Psalm,  Quicunque  vult,  and  was  printed 
 for  antiphonal  chanting,  as  it  is  now  re- 
 cited in  our  choirs ;  being  alternated,  like 
 the  Psalms  between  minister  and  people 
 in  parish  churches.  The  right  notion  that 
 a  creed  is  also  a  song  of  thanksgiving  is 
 thus  significantly  cherished.  It  has  been 
 objected  to  the  Church  of  England,  that 
 she  has  disingenuously  attributed  this  Creed 
 to  St.  Athanasius  :  whereas  in  fact  she  has 
 not  decided  the  question.  It  is  called  in- 
 deed the  Creed  of  St.  Athanasius  in  the 
 rubric  before  the  Apostles'  Creed ;  but 
 that  is  plainly  an  abbreviated  term  for  the 
 full  designation  prefixed  to  the  Creed 
 itself,  "this  confession  of  our  Christian 
 faith,  commonly  called  the  Creed  of  Saint 
 Athanasius.'"  And  even  the  running  head- 
 ing does  not  so  designate  it.  The  words 
 "  the  Creed  of  Saint  Athaimsiiis"  was  de- 
 liberately altered  by  the  correctors  of  the 
 sealed  books  for  "at  Morning  Prayer," 
 the  present  heading,  in  which,  as  in  all 
 other  corrections,  the  authentic  copy  was 
 followed.  See  the  fac-simile  of  the  cor- 
 rected sealed  books  in  Stephens's  Book  of 
 Common  Prayer  with  notes.  The  same 
 remark  may  apply  to  the  designation  in 
 the  8th  Article,  Athanasius's  Creed. 
 
 ATHEIST.  (From  a  and  eioc,  without 
 God.)  One  who  denies  the  being  and 
 moral  government  of  God.  There  have 
 been  but  few  atheists  in  the  strict  sense  of 
 the  word,  under  any  system,  and  at  any 
 time.  Some  few  perhaps  still  remain,  and 
 adopt  the  system  of  Spinosa,  which  sup- 
 poses the  universe  to  be  one  vast  substance, 
 impelled  to  all  its  movements  by  some  in- 
 ternal force,  which  operates  by  a  blind  and 
 irresistible  necessity. 
 
 The  heathen,  who  vied  with  heretics  in 
 giving  names  of  op])robrium  to  true  Chris- 
 tians, called  the  primitive  Christians  Athe- 
 ists, because  they  did  not  worship  their 
 gods. 
 
 ATONEMENT.     (See  Propitiation,  Co- 
 
68 
 
 ATONEMENT. 
 
 tenant  of  Redemption,  Sacrifice,  and  Jesus 
 Christ.)  The  word  atonement  signifies 
 the  satisfvinf?  of  Divine  justice,  as  men- 
 tioned in' the  Article  on  the  Covenant  of 
 liedemi)tion.  The  etvmolofjy  of  the  word 
 conveys  the  idea  of  two  parties,  previously 
 at  variance,  ])eing  set  at  uue  aj^ain,  and 
 hence  at-oue-ment,  from  originally  signify- 
 ing reconciliation,  comes,  by  a  natural  me- 
 tonvmv,  to  denote  that  by  -svhich  the  re- 
 conciliation is  effected.  The  doctrine  of 
 the  atonement  is  thus  stated  by  the  Church : 
 "  The  Sox,  which  is  the  Word  of  the  Fa- 
 ther, begotten  from  everlasting  of  the 
 Father,  the  very  and  eternal  God,  and  of 
 one  substance  with  the  Father,  took 
 man's  nature  in  the  womb  of  the  blessed 
 Virgin,  of  her  substance;  so  that  two 
 whole  and  jjerfect  natures,  that  is  to  say, 
 the  Godhead  and  Manhood,  were  joined 
 together  in  one  person,  never  to  be  divided, 
 whereof  is  one  Christ,  very  God  andvery 
 Man ;  who  truly  suffered,  was  crucified, 
 dead  and  buried]!  to  reconcile  his  Father 
 to  us,  and  to  be  a  sacrifice,  not  only  for 
 original  guilt,  but  also  for  actual  sins  of 
 mew:'— Article  2. 
 
 That  our  blessed  Lord  suffered  is  suffi- 
 ciently clear  from  Scripture,  and  that  it 
 was  not  for  himself,  but  for  us,  that  this 
 GoD-man  lived  so  sorrowfully,  and   died 
 60  painfully,  the  Scripture  is  full  and  clear : 
 and  not  only  in  general,  that  it  was  for 
 our  sakes  he  did  it ;  but,  in  particular,  it 
 was  for  the  reconciling  his  Father  to  us, 
 and  to  purchase  the  pardon  of  our  sins  for 
 us, — expressly  telling  us,  that  "he  hath 
 reconciled  both  (Jew  and  Gentile)  unto 
 God,  in  one  body,  by  the  cross,  having 
 slain  the  enmity  thereby."     (Eph.  ii.  16.) 
 ♦'  Yea,  when  we  were   enemies,  we  were 
 reconciled  to  God  by  the  death  of  his  Son." 
 (Rom.  V.    10.)     "  So  that  us,  who  were 
 sometimes  alienated,  and  enemies  in  our 
 minds  by  wicked  works,  now  he  hath  re- 
 conciled in  the  body  of  his  flesh  through 
 death,  to  present  us  holy,  and  unblameable, 
 and  unreproveable  in  his  sight."     (Col.  i. 
 21,  22.)     And  the  reason  is,  because  "  it 
 pleased  the  Father  that  in  him  should  all 
 fulness  dwell ; "  and,  *'  having  made  peace 
 through  the  blood  of  his  cross,  by  him  to 
 reconcile  all  things  to  himself;  by  him,  I 
 say,  whether  they  be  things  in  heaven  or 
 things  in  earth."  (Verse  1 9,  20.)     And  this 
 reconciliation  of  GoD  to  us,  he  made  by 
 offering  up  liimself  a  sacrifice  for  us.     For 
 "  God  sent  his  Son  to  be  the  propitiation 
 for  our  sins,"  (1  John  iv.  10,)  "  and  he  is 
 the  promtiation  for  our  sins,  and  not  for 
 ours  only,   but   also   for  the   sins  of  the 
 whole  world."  (Chap.  ii.  2.)  And  therefore 
 
 AUGSBURGH. 
 
 when  we  see  him  sweating  great  drops  of 
 blood  under  the  burden  of  sin,  we  must 
 not  think  they  were  his  own  sins  that  lay 
 so  heavy  upon  him :  no,  they  were  our 
 sins,  which  he  had  taken  off  from  us  and 
 laid  upon  himself ;  for  he  bore  our  griefs, 
 and  carried  our  sorrows  ;  "  He  was 
 wounded  for  our  transgressions,  he  was 
 bruised  for  our  iniquities ;  the  chastise- 
 ment of  our  peace  was  upon  him,  and  wdth 
 his  stripes  we  are  healed."  (Isaiah  liii,  4, 
 5.)  So  undoubted  a  truth  is  this  comfort- 
 able assertion,  that  Jesus  Christ  by  his 
 death  and  sufferings  reconciled  his  Father 
 to  us,  and  tlierefore  was  a  sacrifice,  not 
 only  for  "  original  guilt,"  but  also  for 
 "  actual  sins  of  men." — Beveridge. 
 
 ATTRITION.  (See  Contrition.)  The 
 casuists  of  the  Church  of  Rome  have  made 
 a  distinction  between  a  perfect  and  an  im- 
 perfect contrition.  The  latter  they  call 
 attrition,  which  is  the  lowest  degree  of 
 repentance,  or  a  sorrow  for  sin  arising 
 from  a  sense  of  .shame,  or  any  temporal 
 inconvenience  attending  the  commission 
 of  it,  or  merely  from  fear  of  the  punish- 
 ment due  to  it,  without  any  resolution  to 
 sin  no  more  :  in  consequence  of  which  doc- 
 trine, they  teach  that,  after  a  wicked  and 
 flagitious  course  of  life,  a  man  may  be 
 reconciled  to  God,  and  his  sins  forgiven, 
 on  his  death-bed,  by  confessing  them  to 
 the  priest  with  this  imperfect  degree  of 
 sorrow  and  repentance.  This  distinction 
 was  settled  by  the  Council  of  Trent.  It 
 might,  however,  be  easily  shown  that  the 
 mere  sorrow  for  sin  because  of  its  conse- 
 quences, and  not  on  account  of  its  evil 
 nature,  is  no  more  acceptable  to  God  than 
 hypocrisy  itself  can  be. — Cone.  Trident. 
 sess.  xiv.  cap.  4. 
 
 AUDIENCE,  COURT  OF.  The  Court 
 of  Audience,  which  belongs  to  the  arch- 
 bishop of  Canterbury,  was  for  the  disposal 
 of  such  matters,  whether  of  voluntary  or 
 contentious  litigation,  as  the  archbishop 
 thought  fit  to  reserve  for  his  OAvn  hearing. 
 This  court  was  afterwards  removed  from 
 the  archbishop's  palace,  and  the  jurisdic- 
 tion of  it  exercised  by  the  master-official 
 of  the  audience,  who  held  his  court  in  the 
 consistory  palace  at  St.  Paul's.  But  now 
 the  three  offices  of  official-principal  of  the 
 archbishop,  dean  or  judge  of  the  peculiars, 
 and  official  of  the  audience,  being  united  in 
 the  person  of  the  dean  of  arches, its  jurisdic- 
 tion belongs  to  him.  The  archbishop  of 
 York  has  likewise  his  Court  of  Audience. 
 AUGSBURGH,  or  AUGUSTAN,  CON- 
 FESSION. In  lo;i0,  a  diet  of  the  Ger- 
 man jjrinces  was  convened  by  the  empe- 
 ror Charles  V.,  to  meet  in  that"  city,  for  the 
 
AUGSBURGII  CONFESSION. 
 
 C9 
 
 express  purpose  of  pacifying  the  religious 
 troubles,  by  -which  most  parts  of  Germany 
 Avere  then  distracted.  "  In  his  journey 
 towards  Augsburgh,"'  says  ])r.  liobertson, 
 "the  emperor  had  many  opportunities  of 
 observing  the  dispositions  of  the  Germans, 
 in  regard  to  the  points  in  controversy, 
 and  found  their  minds  everywhere  so 
 much  irritated  and  inliamed,  that  nothing 
 tending  to  severity  or  rigour  ought  to  be 
 attem])ted,  till  the  other  methods  proved 
 ineftectual.  His  presence  seems  to  have 
 communicated  to  all  parties  an  universal 
 spirit  of  moderation  and  desire  of  peace. 
 AVith  such  sentiments,  the  Protestant 
 princes  employed  Melancthon,  the  man  of 
 the  greatest  learning,  as  well  as  the  most 
 pacific  and  gentlest  spirit  among  the  lie- 
 formers,  to  draw  up  a  confession  of  faith, 
 expressed  in  terms  as  little  offensive  to 
 the  lloman  Catholics  as  a  regard  to  truth 
 would  admit.  jSIelancthon,  who  seldom 
 suffered  the  rancour  of  controversy  to  en- 
 venom his  style,  even  in  writings  purely 
 polemical,  executed  a  task,  so  agreeable 
 to  his  natural  disposition,  with  moderation 
 and  success." 
 
 The  singular  importance  of  this  docu- 
 ment of  Protestant  faith  seems  to  require, 
 in  this  place,  a  particular  mention  of  its 
 contents.  It  consists  of  twenty-one  ar- 
 ticles. In  the  first,  the  subscribers  of  it 
 acknowledge  the  unity  of  God  and  the 
 trinity  of  persons ;  in  the  second,  original 
 sin  ;  in  the  third,  the  t^vo  natures  and 
 unity  of  person  in  Jesus  Christ,  and  all 
 the  other  articles  contained  in  the  symbol 
 of  the  apostles,  respecting  the  Son  of  God. 
 They  declare  in  the  fourth,  that  men  are 
 not  justified  before  GoD  by  their  works 
 and  merits,  but  by  the  faith  which  they 
 place  in  Jesus  Christ,  when  they  believe 
 that  God  forgives  their  sins  out  of  love 
 for  his  Son.  In  the  fifth,  that  the  preach- 
 ing of  the  gospel  and  the  sacraments  are 
 the  ordinary  means  used  by  God  to  infuse 
 the  Holy  Ghost,  who  produces  faith, 
 whenever  he  wills,  in  those  that  hear  his 
 word.  In  the  sixth,  that  faith  produces 
 the  good  works  to  which  men  are  obliged 
 by  the  commandments  of  GoD.  In  the 
 seventh,  that  there  exists  a  perpetual 
 Church,  which  is  the  assembly  of  saints ; 
 and  that  the  word  of  God  is  taught  in 
 it  with  purity,  and  the  sacraments  admin- 
 istered in  a  legitimate  manner ;  that  the 
 unity  of  this  Church  consists  in  the  uni- 
 formity of  doctrine  and  sacraments ;  but 
 that  an  uniformity  of  ceremonies  is  not 
 requisite.  In  the  eighth,  they  profess 
 that  the  word  of  God  and  the  sacraments 
 have  still  their  efficacy,  although  admin- 
 
 istered by  wicked  clergymen.  In  the 
 ninth,  that  baptism  is  requisite  for  sal- 
 vation, and  that  little  children  ought  to 
 be  baptized.  In  the  tenth,  that,  in  the 
 sacrament  of  the  last  supper,  both  the 
 body  and  blood  of  the  Lord  are  truly 
 ])resent,  and  distributed  to  those  who  par- 
 take of  it.  In  the  eleventh,  that  confes- 
 sion must  be  preserved  in  the  Church,  but 
 without  insisting  on  an  exact  enumeration 
 of  sins.  In  the  twelfth,  that  penance  con- 
 sists of  contrition  and  faith,  or  the  per- 
 suasion, that,  for  the  sake  of  Jesus  Christ, 
 our  sins  are  forgiven  us  on  our  repentance  ; 
 and  that  there  is  no  true  repentance  with- 
 out good  works,  Avhich  are  its  inseparable 
 fruits.  In  the  thirteenth,  that  the  sacra- 
 ments are  not  only  signs  of  the  profession 
 of  the  gospel,  but  proofs  of  the  love  of  God 
 to  men,  which  serve  to  excite  and  confirm 
 their  faith.  In  the  fourteenth,  that  a 
 vocation  is  requisite  for  pastors  to  teach 
 in  the  Church.  In  the  fifteenth,  that  those 
 ceremonies  ought  to  be  observed  which 
 keep  order  and  ])cace  in  the  Church ;  but 
 that  the  opinion  of  their  being  necessary 
 to  salvation,  or  that  grace  is  acquired,  or 
 satisfaction  done  for  our  sins,  by  them, 
 must  be  entirely  exploded.  In  the  six- 
 teenth, that  the  authority  of  magistrates, 
 their  commands  and  laws,  with  the  legiti- 
 mate wars  in  which  they  may  be  forced  to 
 engage,  are  not  contrary  to  the  gospel. 
 In  the  seventeenth,  that  there  will  be  a 
 judgment,  where  all  men  will  appear  be- 
 fore the  tribunal  of  Jesus  Christ  ;  and 
 that  the  Avicked  will  suffer  eternal  torments. 
 In  the  eighteenth,  that  the  powers  of  free- 
 will may  produce  an  exterior  good  conduct, 
 and  regulate  the  morals  of  men  towards 
 society ;  but  that,  without  the  grace  of  the 
 Holy  Ghost,  neither  faith,  regeneration, 
 nor  true  justice  can  be  acquired.  In  the 
 nineteenth,  that  God  is  not  the  cause  of 
 sin,  but  that  it  arises  only  from  the  corrupt 
 will  of  man.  In  the  twentieth,  that  good 
 works  are  necessary  and  indispensable  ; 
 but  that  the)^  cannot  purchase  the  remis- 
 sion of  sins,  which  is  only  obtained  in 
 consideration  of  faith,  which,  when  it  is 
 sincere,  must  produce  good  works.  In 
 the  twenty-first,  that  the  virtues  of  the 
 saints  are  to  be  placed  before  the  people, 
 in  order  to  excite  imitation  ;  but  that  the 
 Scripture  noMhere  commands  their  invo- 
 cation, nor  mentions  anywhere  any  other 
 mediator  than  Jesus  Christ.  "  This,"  say 
 the  subscribers  of  the  Confession,  "  is  the 
 summary  of  the  doctrine  taught  amongst 
 us  ;  and  it  appears  from  the  exposition 
 which  we  have  just  made,  that  it  contains 
 nothing  contrary  to  Scripture ;  and  that 
 
70 
 
 AUGSBURGH  CONFESSION. 
 
 it  agrees  with  that  of  the  Catholic  Church, 
 and  even  Avith  the  Koman  Church,  as  far 
 as  is  known  to  us  by  their  writers.  This 
 being  so,  those  who  wish  that  we  should 
 be  condemned  as  heretics  are  very  unjust. 
 If  there  be  any  disnute  between  us,  it  is 
 not  upon  articles  ot  faith,  but  only  upon 
 abuses  that  liave  been  introduced  hito  the 
 Church,  and  which  we  reject.  This,  there- 
 fore, is  not  a  sufficient  reason  to  authorize 
 the  bisliops  not  to  tolerate  us,  since  we  are 
 agreed  in  the  tenets  of  faith  which  we 
 have  set  forth :  there  never  has  been  an 
 exact  uniformity  of  exterior  practice  since 
 the  beginning  of  the  Church,  and  we  pre- 
 serve the  greater  part  of  the  established 
 usages.  It  is  therefore  a  calumny  to  say, 
 that  M'e  have  abolished  them  all.  But,  as 
 all  the  world  complained  of  the  abuses 
 that  had  crept  into  the  Church,  we  have 
 corrected  those  only  which  we  could  not 
 tolerate  with  a  good  conscience ;  and  we 
 entreat  your  Majesty  to  hear  what  the 
 abuses  are  which  we  have  retrenched,  and 
 the  reasons  we  had  for  doing  it.  We  also 
 entreat,  that  our  inveterate  enemies,  whose 
 hatred  and  calumnies  are  the  principal 
 cause  of  the  evil,  may  not  be  believed." 
 
 They  then  proceed  to  state  the  abuses 
 in  the  Church  of  Rome,  of  which  they 
 complain.  The  fii'st  is  the  denial  of  the 
 cup  in  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  supper ; 
 the  second,  the  celibacy  of  the  clergy  ;  the 
 third,  the  form  of  the  mass.  On  this  head 
 their  language  is  very  remarkable :  "  Our 
 Churches,"  they  say,  "  are  unjustly  accused 
 of  having  _  abolished  the  mass,  since  they 
 celebrate  it  with  great  veneration :  they 
 even  preserve  almost  all  the  accustomed 
 ceremonies,  having  only  added  a  few  Ger- 
 man h)-mns  to  the  latter,  in  order  that  the 
 people  may  profit  by  them."  But  they 
 object  to  the  multiplicity  of  masses,  and 
 to  the  payment  of  any  money  to  a  priest 
 for  saymg  them.  The  fourth  abuse  of 
 which  they  complain,  is  the  practice  of 
 auricular  confession:  but,  they  observe, 
 that  they  have  only  taken  from  it  the 
 penitent's  obligation  to  make  to  the  priest 
 a  particular  enumeration  of  his  sins,  and 
 that  they  had  retained  the  confession  itself, 
 and  the  obligation  of  receiving  absolution 
 from  the  priest.  The  fifth  abuse  is  the 
 injunction  of  abstinence  from  particular 
 nnieats.  Monastic  vows  they  represent  as 
 the  sixth  abuse.  The  seventh  and  last 
 abuse  of  which  they  complain,  is  that  of 
 ecclesiastical  power.  They  say  that  •«  a 
 view  of  the  attempts  of  the  popes  to  ex- 
 communicate princes,  and  dispose  of  their 
 states,  led  them  to  examine  and  fix  the 
 distinction  between  the  secular  and  eccle- 
 
 siastical power,  to  enable  themselves  to 
 give  to  Caesar  what  belongs  to  Ceesar,  and 
 to  the  popes  and  bishops  what  belongs  to 
 them,"  That  "  ecclesiastical  power,  or  the 
 power  of  the  keys,  which  Jesus  Christ 
 gave  to  his  Church,  consisted  only  of  the 
 power  of  preaching  the  gospel,  of  adminis- 
 tering the  sacraments,  the  forgiveness  of 
 sins,  and  refusing  absolution  to  a  false 
 penitent :  therefore,"  say  they,  "  neither 
 popes  nor  bishops  have  any  power  to  dis- 
 pose of  kingdoms,  to  abrogate  the  laws  of 
 magistrates,  or  to  prescribe  to  them  rules 
 for  their  government ;"  and  that,  "  if  there 
 did  exist  bishops  who  had  the  power  of 
 the  sword,  they  derived  this  power  from 
 their  quality  of  temporal  sovereigns,  and 
 not  from  their  episcopal  character,  or  from 
 Divine  right,  but  as  a  power  conceded  to 
 them  by  kings  or  emperors." 
 
 It  is  not  a  little  remarkable,  that  con- 
 siderable difi'erences,  or  various  readings, 
 are  to  be  found  in  the  printed  texts  of  this 
 important  document,  and  that  it  is  far 
 from  certain  which  copy  should  be  con- 
 sidered the  authentic  edition.  The  Ger- 
 man copies  printed  in  1530,  in  quarto  and 
 octavo,  and  the  Latin  edition  printed  in 
 quarto  in  1531,  are  in  request  among 
 bibliographical  amateurs ;  but  there  is  a 
 verbal,  and,  in  some  instances,  a  material, 
 discrepancy  among  them.  The  Witten- 
 berg edition,  of  1540,  is  particularly 
 esteemed,  and  has  been  adopted  by  the 
 publishers  of  the  "  Sylloge  Confessionum 
 Diversarum,"  printed  in  1804,  at  the  Cla- 
 rendon press.  [Later  editions  of  the  Sylluye 
 inckide  also  the  form  of  1531.]  One  of  the 
 most  important  of  these  various  readings 
 occurs  in  the  tenth  article.  In  some  of  the 
 editions  which  preceded  that  of  1540,  it  is 
 expressed,  "that  the  body  and  blood  of 
 Christ  are  truly  present,  and  distributed 
 to  those  ^\\\o  partake  of  our  Lord's  sup- 
 per; and  the  contrary  doctrine  is  repro- 
 bated." The  edition  of  1540  expresses 
 that,  *'  with  the  bread  and  wine,  the  body 
 and  blood  of  Christ  are  truly  given  to 
 those  who  partake  of  our  Lord's  supper." 
 
 "  In  the  Confession  of  Augsburgh,"  says 
 Dr.  Maclaine,  the  learned  translator  of 
 Mosheim's  Ecclesiastical  History,  "  there 
 are  three  sorts  of  articles ;  one  sort,  adopted 
 equally  by  the  Roman  Catholics  and  Pro- 
 testants ;  another,  that  consists  of  certain 
 propositions,  which  the  papal  party  con- 
 sidered as  ambiguous  and  obscure;  and  a 
 third,  in  which  the  doctrine  of  Luther  was 
 entirely  opposite  to  that  of  Rome.  This 
 gave  some  reason  to  hope,  that,  by  the 
 means  of  certain  qualifications  and  modi- 
 fications, conducted  mutually  in  a  spirit  of 
 
AUGUSTINES. 
 
 71 
 
 candour  and  charity,  matters  might  be 
 accommodated  at  last.  For  this  purpose, 
 select  persons  were  aj)pointed  to  carry  on 
 the  salutary  work;  at  first,  seven  from 
 each  party,  consisting  of  princes,  lawyers, 
 and  divines ;  which  number  was  afterwards 
 reduced  to  three.  Luther's  obstinate, 
 stubborn,  and  violent  temper  rendering 
 him  unfit  for  healing  divisions,  he  Mas  not 
 employed  in  these  conferences  ;  but  he  was 
 constantly  consulted  by  the  Protestant 
 party." 
 
 The  Confession  was  read,  at  a  full  meet- 
 ing of  the  diet,  by  the  chancellor  of  the 
 elector  of  Saxony.  It  was  subscribed  by 
 that  elector,  and  three  other  princes  of  the 
 German  empire,  and  then  delivered  to  the 
 emperor. — Butler's  Confessions  of  Faith. 
 Hobertson's  Si/U.o(/e  Confess ioniun. 
 
 AUGUSTINES.  A  religious  order  in 
 the  Church  of  Kome,  who  followed  St.  Au- 
 gustine's pretended  rule,  ordered  them  by 
 Pope  Alexander  IV.,  in  1256.  It  is  di- 
 vided into  several  branches,  as  hermits  of 
 St.  Paul,  the  Jeronymitans,  monks  of  St. 
 Bridget,  the  Augustines  called  Chaussez, 
 who  go  without  stockings,  begun  in  1574, 
 by  a  Portuguese,  and  confirmed  in  1600 
 and  1602,  by  Pope  Clement  VIII.  As  for 
 the  pretended  rules  of  St.  Augustine, 
 they  are  reduced  to  three  classes,  the  first 
 comprehending  that  the  monks  ought  to 
 possess  nothing  in  particular,  nor  call  any- 
 thing their  own;  that  the  wealthy  who 
 became  monks  ought  to  sell  what  they  had, 
 and  give  the  money  to  the  poor ;  that 
 those  who  sued  for  the  religious  habit 
 ought  to  pass  under  trial  before  they  were 
 admitted;  that  the  monks  ought  to  sub- 
 tract nothing  from  the  monastery,  nor 
 receive  anything  whatsoever,  without  the 
 leave  of  their  superior,  to  whom  they  ought 
 to  communicate  those  points  of  doctrine 
 which  they  had  heard  discoursed  of  without 
 the  monastery ;  that  if  any  one  was  stub- 
 born towards  his  superior,  after  the  first 
 and  second  correction  in  secret  he  should 
 be  publicly  denounced  as  a  rebel ;  if  it 
 happened  in  the  time  of  persecution  that 
 the  monks  were  forced  to  retire,  they 
 ought  immediately  to  betake  themselves  to 
 that  place  where  their  suj)erior  was  with- 
 drawn ;  and  if  for  the  same  reason  a  monk 
 had  saved  anything  belonging  to  the  mon- 
 astery, he  should  give  it  up  as  soon  as 
 possible  to  his  superior.  The  second  class 
 imported  that  they  v.ere  to  love  GoD  and 
 their  neighbour  ;  how  they  were  to  recite 
 the  psalms,  and  the  rest  of  their  office  ;  the 
 first  part  of  the  morning  they  ought  to 
 employ  in  manual  works,  and  the  rest  in 
 reading,  and  to  letiu'n  in  the  afternoon  to 
 
 their  work  again  until  the  evening ;  that 
 they  ought  to   possess  nothing   of   their 
 own,  be  obedient  to  their  superior,  keep 
 silence  in  eating,  have  Saturday  allowed  to 
 provide  themselves  with  necessaries ;  and 
 it  was  lawful  for  them  to  drink  wine  on 
 Sundays ;    that  when   they   went  abroad 
 they  must  always  go  two  together ;  that 
 they  were  never  to  eat  out  of  the  mon- 
 astery ;  that  they  should  be  conscientious 
 in  what  they  sold,  and  faithful   in  what 
 they  bought ;  that  they  ought  not  to  utter 
 idle  words,  but  work  with  silence ;    and, 
 lastly,  that  whoever  neglected  the  practice 
 of  these   precejjts  ought  to  be  corrected 
 and  beaten,  and  that  the  true  observers  of 
 them  must  rejoice  and  be  confident  of  their 
 salvation.     As  for  the  third,  after  having 
 enjoined  them  to  love  God  and  their  neigh- 
 bour, they  ought  to  possess  nothing  but  in 
 common ;  the  superior  ought  to  distribute 
 everything  in  the  monasteiT,  according  to 
 each  man's  necessity,  and  they  should  not 
 incline  their  hearts  to  temporal  things ;  that 
 they  ought  to  honour  GoD  in  one  another  as 
 being  become  his  holy  temples ;  they  must 
 attend  prayers   at  canonical   hours,    and 
 were  not  to  be  hindered  at  any  other  time  ; 
 that  they  should  pray  with  attention,  and 
 sing  only  what  Avas  really  appointed  to  be 
 sung ;  that  they  ought  to  apply  themselves 
 to  fasting  and  abstinence  with  discretion ; 
 and  that  if  any  of  them  was  not  able  to 
 fast,  he  ought  not  to  eat  between  meals 
 unless  he  was  sick  ;  that  they  must  mind 
 Avhat  was  read  to  them  while  they  were  at 
 their  meals  ;  that  none  ought  to  be  envious 
 to  see  the  sick  better  treated  than  the  rest 
 were,  or  that  something  more  delicate  was 
 given  to  those  of  a  weaker  constitution ; 
 that   those   who    were   recovering   ought 
 to  make  use  of  comfortable  things,  and, 
 when  recovered,  to  return  to  the  common 
 usage ;   to  be  grave  and  modest  in  their 
 habits ;   never  to  be  far  from  their  com- 
 panion ;  to  express  modesty  and  stayedness 
 in  their  outward  behaviour ;  not  to  cast  a 
 lustful  eye  upon  women,  nor  wish  to  be  seen 
 by  them  ;  nor  Avhen  at  church  to  liarbour 
 any  thoughts  of  women  ;  that  when  it  was 
 known  a  fiiar  courted  any  woman,  after 
 having  been  forewarned  several  times,  he 
 ought  to  be  corrected ;  and  that  if  he  would 
 not  submit  to  the  correction,  he  should  be 
 turned   out  of  the    monastery  ;    that  ^  all 
 correction  should  be  infiicted  Avith  charity  ; 
 that  they  ouglit  not  to  receive  letters  nor 
 presents  in  secret ;  they  ought  to  be  con- 
 tented Avilh  those  habils  that  Avere  given 
 them  ;  that  all  their  Avorks  should  be  ren- 
 dered in  common  ;  that  if  some  of  their 
 relations  sent  them  clothes,  it  should  be  in 
 
72  AUSTIN  FRIARS. 
 
 the  superior's  power  to  give  them  to  whom 
 he  pleased;  that  he  who  concealed  any- 
 thing of  his  own  should  be  proceeded 
 against  as  guilty  of  robbery  ;  they  were  to 
 wash  their  own  clothes,  or  have  them 
 washed  by  others,  with  the  superior's  leave ; 
 those  who  were  in  any  olUce  should  serve 
 tlieir  brethren  without  grudging;  that 
 they  ought  to  shun  all  lawsuits;  that  they 
 ought  to  ask  tlieir  brethren  forgiveness  for 
 any  injury  done  them  ;  to  forbear  ill  lan- 
 guage'one  to  another  ;  the  superior  was  to 
 be  obeyed,  but  not  to  be  proud  of  his 
 dignity  ;  that  the  monks  ought  to  observe 
 tliese  rules  out  of  love,  and  not  slavish  fear ; 
 and  that  this  rule  ought  to  be  read  once  a 
 week  in  the  presence  of  the  monks. 
 
 The  Augustine  monks,  (commonly  call- 
 ed Black  Canons,)  according  to  Fuller, 
 were  established  in  England  later  than 
 the  Benedictines,  that  is,  in  1 105,  though 
 of  older  existence  in  Europe.  They  were 
 next  to  tlie  Benedictines  in  power  and 
 wealth.  The  members  of  these  two  orders 
 and  their  branches  were  called  Monks, 
 those  of  the  Mendicant  orders,  as  Domi- 
 nicans and  Franciscans,  were  called  Friars. 
 (See  Munasfcri/.)  But  Canon  was  the  title 
 more  usually  assigned  to  the  Augustinians. 
 This  order  was  more  numerous  and  powerful 
 in  Ireland  than  the  Benedictines,  though 
 inferior  to  them  in  England.  The  branches 
 of  this  order  were  the  Premonstrants,  (or 
 White  Canons,)  the  Victorines,  and  the 
 Gilbertines.  The  Arroasians  were  merely 
 reformed  Augustinians,  not  a  separate 
 branch  of  the  order.  The  Augustinians 
 possessed  two  mitred  abbeys,  Waltham 
 and  Cirencester ;  one  cathedral  priory, 
 Carlisle  ;  one  abbey,  afterwards  converted 
 into  a  cathedral  by  Henry  VIII.,  Bristol. 
 
 AUGUSTINE,  or  AUSTIN,  FllIARS. 
 These  are  not  to  be  confounded  with  the 
 above,  being  one  of  the  minor  Mendicant 
 orders,  observing  the  inile  of  St.  Augus- 
 tine. Fuller  says  they  first  entered  Eng- 
 land in  12o2:  "and  had  (if  not  their  fii-st) 
 their  finest  habitation  at  St.  Peter's  the 
 Poor,  London,  thence  probably  taking  the 
 denomination  of  poverty.  They  were 
 good  disputants ;  on  which  account  they 
 are  remembered  still  at  Oxford  by  an  act 
 perfoi-med  by  candidates  for  Mastership, 
 called  KeepiiKj  of  Am/ustines''  This  ex- 
 ercise, with  other  ancient  forms,  was  abol- 
 ished by  the  University  Statute  towards 
 the  beginning  of  the  present  centurv.— 
 Jchb. 
 
 AURICULAR  CONFESSION.  (See 
 Lonjfssiou,  Absolution.)  The  confession  of 
 sins  at  the  ear  of  the  priest.  The  follow- 
 ing IS  the  chapter  on  confession  in  the 
 
 AURICULAR  CONFESSION. 
 
 Council  of  Trent  which  is  obligatory  on  the 
 Romish  Church. 
 
 "  From  the  institution  of  the  sacrament 
 of  repentance  already  set  forth,  the  Church 
 has  always  understood,  that  an  entire  con- 
 fession of  sins  was  also  appointed  by  the 
 Lord  ;  and  that  it  is  of  Divine  right  neces- 
 sary to  all  who  have  lapsed  after  baptism. 
 Because  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  when 
 about  to  ascend  from  earth  to  heaven,  left 
 his  priests,  his  vicars,  to  be,  as  it  were, 
 the  presidents  and  judges,  to  whom  all 
 mortal  sins,  into  which  Christ's  faithful 
 people  should  fall,  should  be  brought ;  in 
 order  that  by  the  power  of  the  keys  they 
 might  pronounce  sentence  of  remission  or 
 retention.  For  it  is  plain  that  the  priests 
 cannot  exercise  this  judgment,  without 
 knowledge  of  the  cause,  nor  can  they 
 observe  equity  in  enjoining  penalties,  if 
 men  declare  their  sins  only  generally,  and 
 not  rather  particularly  and  separately. 
 From  this  it  is  inferred  that  it  is  right  that 
 the  penitents  should  recount  in  confession 
 all  the  deadly  sins  of  which,  upon  examin- 
 ation, their  conscience  accuses  them,  even 
 though  they  be  most  secret  and  only 
 against  the  tW' o  last  commandments,  which 
 not  unfrequently  grievously  wound  the 
 soul,  and  are  more  dangerous  than  those 
 which  are  openly  practised ;  for  as  to 
 venial  sins,  by  which  we  are  not  excluded 
 from  the  grace  of  God,  and  into  which  we 
 more  frequently  fall,  although  they  may 
 be  declared  in  confession,  rightly,  usefully, 
 and  without  any  presumption,  as  the  usage 
 of  pious  men  declares,  yet  they  may  be 
 passed  over  in  silence  without  offence,  and 
 can  be  expiated  by  many  other  remedies. 
 But  since  all  mortal  sins,  even  thoughts, 
 make  men  the  children  of  wrath  and  the 
 enemies  of  GoD,  it  is  necessary  to  seek 
 from  God  the  pardon  of  all,  with  open 
 and  modest  confession.  When,  therefore, 
 Christ's  faithful  people  desii-e  to  confess 
 all  the  sins  which  occur  to  their  memory, 
 they  expose  them  all  beyond  all  doubt  to 
 the  mercy  of  GoD  to  be  pardoned.  But 
 they  who  do  otherwise,  and  knowingly 
 keep  back  any,  propose  nothing  to  the  Di- 
 vine mercy  to  be  pardoned  by  the  priest ; 
 for  if  a  sick  man  is  ashamed  to  uncover 
 his  wound  to  the  physician,  he  cannot  with 
 medicine  cure  that  of  which  he  has  no 
 knowledge.  It  is,  moreover,  inferred  that 
 those  circumstances  should  be  explained 
 in  confession,  which  change  the  kind  of  the 
 sin ;  because,  without  these,  neither  can 
 the  sins  themselves  be  entirely  disclosed 
 by  the  penitents,  nor  known  to  the  judges  ; 
 nor  can  they  rightly  judge  of  the  grievous- 
 ness  of  the  sin,  nor  impose  upon  the  peni- 
 
AURICULAR  CONFESSION. 
 
 73 
 
 tents  the  fitting  punishments.  Whence  it 
 is  unreasonable  to  teach  that  these  circum- 
 stances were  sought  out  by  idle  men,  or 
 that  only  one  circumstance  should  be  con- 
 fessed, namely,  to  have  sinned  against  a 
 brother.  But  it  is  impious  to  call  this  con- 
 fession impossible,  'which  is  appointed  to 
 be  performed  in  this  manner,  or  to  style  it 
 the  torture  of  consciences :  for  it  a])pears 
 that  nothing  else  is  required  of  penitents 
 in  the  Church,  than  that,  after  a  man  has 
 diligently  examined  himself,  and  explored 
 the  recesses  and  hiding-places  of  his  con- 
 science, he  should  confess  those  sins  by 
 ■which  he  remembers  that  he  has  mortally 
 otfended  his  Lord  and  God.  But  the 
 other  sins  which  do  not  occur  to  him  when 
 taking  diligent  thought,  are  understood  to 
 be  included  altogether  in  the  same  con- 
 fession ;  and  for  these  we  faithfully  say 
 with  the  prophet,  '  Cleanse  thou  me,  O 
 Lord,  from  my  secret  faults.'  But  the 
 difficulty  of  this  sort  of  confession,  and  the 
 shame  of  uncovering  sins,  would,  indeed, 
 appear  grievous,  if  it  were  not  lightened 
 by  the  so  many  and  great  conveniences 
 and  consolations  which  are  most  assuredly 
 conferred  by  absolution  upon  all  who 
 rightly  approach  this  sacrament.  But  as 
 regards  the  manner  of  secretly  confessing 
 to  the  priest  alone,  although  Christ  has 
 not  forbidden  any  man  from  publicly  con- 
 fessing his  faults,  in  revenge  for  his  sins, 
 and  humiliation  of  himself,  both  by  way  of 
 example  to  others,  and  for  the  edification 
 of  the  Church  which  he  has  offended  ;  this 
 is  not,  however,  a  Divine  command,  nor 
 may  it  be  advisedly  enjoined  by  any  human 
 law,  that  sins,  especially  secret  ones,  should 
 be  disclosed  by  open  confession.  Where- 
 fore, since  that  secret  sacramental  confes- 
 sion which  the  holy  Church  has  used  from 
 the  begnniing,  and  still  uses,  has  always 
 been  approved  of  by  the  holiest  and  most 
 ancient  fathers,  with  great  consent  and 
 unanimity,  the  empty  calumny  is  plainly 
 refuted  of  those  who  are  not  ashamed  to 
 teach  that  it  is  contrary  to  the  Divine  com- 
 mand, and  a  human  invention,  which  had 
 its  origin  with  the  fathers  who  were  as- 
 sembled in  the  Lateran  Council.  For  the 
 Church  did  not  order  by  the  Lateran  Coun- 
 cil that  Christ's  faithful  people  should 
 confess,  which  she  always  had  understood 
 to  be  necessary,  and  appointed  by  Divine 
 right,  but  that  the  command  of  confession 
 should  be  complied  with  at  least  once  in 
 the  year,  by  all  and  each  who  have  come 
 to  years  of  discretion  ;  whence  now,  in  the 
 universal  Church,  that  wholesome  custom 
 of  confessing  in  the  sacred,  and  especially 
 acceptable,  time  of  Lent,  is  observed  with 
 
 great  benefit  to  the  souls  of  the  faithful ; 
 which  custom  this  holy  synod  highly  ap- 
 proves, and  receives  as  pious  and  worthy 
 to  be  retained." 
 
 Here  an  attempt  is  made  to  invest  the 
 Christian  priesthood  with  the  prerogative 
 of  the  Most  High,  who  is  a  searcher  of  the 
 hearts,  and  a  discerner  of  the  thoughts  ;  in 
 forgetfulness  of  the  very  distinction  which 
 God  drew  between  himself  and  all  men — 
 "  man  lookcth  to  the  outward  part,  the 
 Lord  trieth  the  heart."  As  Christ  has 
 invested  his  ministers  with  no  poAvcr  to  do 
 this  of  themselves,  the  Tridentinc  Fathers 
 have  sought  to  supply  what  they  must 
 needs  consider  a  grievous  omission  on  his 
 part,  by  enjoining  all  men  to  unlock  the 
 secrets  of  their  hearts  at  the  command  of 
 their  priest,  and  persons  of  all  ages  and 
 sexes  to  submit  not  only  to  general  ques- 
 tions as  to  a  state  of  sin  or  repentance,  but 
 to  the  most  minute  and  searching  ques- 
 tions as  to  their  most  inmost  thoughts. 
 
 The  extent  to  which  the  confessors  have 
 thought  it  right  to  carry  these  examina- 
 tions on  subjects  concerning  which  the 
 apostle  recommends  that  they  be  not  once 
 named  among  Christians,  and  which  may 
 be  seen  either  in  "  Dens'  Theology,"  or 
 "Burchard's  Decrees,"  c.  19,  Paris,  lo49, 
 affords  a  melancholy,  painful,  and  sicken- 
 ing subject  for  contemplation ;  especially 
 when  it  is  considered  that  they  were  Chris- 
 tian clergy  who  did  this,  and  that  it  was 
 done  in  aid,  as  they  supposed,  of  the  Chris- 
 tian religion.  The  fearful  eff'ects  of  these 
 examinations  upon  the  priests  themselves, 
 we  will  do  no  more  than  allude  to  ;  he  who 
 may  think  it  necessary  to  satisfy  himself 
 upon  the  point,  may  consult  the  cases  con- 
 templated and  provided  for  (among  others) 
 by  Cardinal  Cajetan,  in  his  Opuscula, 
 Lugd.  1562,  p.  114.  In  the  Bull  of  Pius 
 IV.,  Contra  solicitantes  in  confessione,  dated 
 Ap.  16,  1561,  [Bullarium  Mar/n.  Luxemb. 
 1727,  ii.  p.  48,)  and  in  a  similar  one  of 
 Gregory  XV.,  dated  Aug.  30,  1622,  {Gre- 
 fjory  XV.  Constit.  Horn.  1622,  p.  114,)  there 
 is  laid  open  another  fearful  scene  of  danger 
 to  female  confitents  from  wicked  priests, 
 "  mulicres  paniitentes  ad  actus  inhonestos 
 dum  earum  audiunt  confcssiones  alliciendo 
 et  provocando."  Against  which  flagrant 
 dangers,  and  the  preparatory  ste])s  of  sap- 
 ping and  undermining  the  mental  modesty 
 of  a  young  ])crson  by  examinations  of  par- 
 ticular kinds,  it  is  vain  to  think  that  the 
 feeble  bulls  of  the  bishops  of  Home  can 
 aftbrd  any  security.  These  observations 
 api)ly  to  the  system  of  the  Koman  Church, 
 peculiar  to  itself,  of  cumpeUimj  the  dis- 
 closure of  the  most  minute  details  of  the 
 
AURICULAR  CONFESSION. 
 
 AUTOCEPHALI. 
 
 most  secret  thoughts  and  actions.  As  to 
 encvuragbuf  persons  whose  minds  are  hur- 
 thened  Mith  the  remembrance  of  fearful 
 sins,  to  ease  themselves  of  the  burthen  by 
 revealing  it  to  one  at  whose  hands  they 
 may  seek  guidance,  and  consolation,  and 
 prayer,  it  is  a  totally  distinct  question,  and 
 nothing  but  wilful  art  will  attempt  to  con- 
 found them.  On  tiiis  point  we  see  no  reason 
 to  withdraw  a  regret  which  we  have  before 
 exi)ress(.'d  as  to  its  disuse  in  the  Church  of 
 England ;  for  we  cannot  but  believe  that, 
 were  it  more  frequently  had  recourse  to, 
 many  a  mind  would  depart  the  world  at 
 peace  with  itself  and  with  God,  which  now 
 sinks  to  the  grave  under  a  bond  of  doubt 
 and  fear,  through  Avant  of  confidence  to 
 make  use  of  ghostly  remedies. — Perceval. 
 
 In  the  sixth  canon  of  the  Council  of 
 Trent  it  runs  thus:— "If  any  vshall  deny 
 that  sacramental  confession  was  instituted 
 and  is  necessary  for  salvation  by  Divine 
 right,  or  shall  say  that  the  custom  of  con- 
 fessing secretly  to  the  priest  alone,  which 
 the  Catholic  Church  has  always  observed 
 from  the  beginning,  and  continues  to  ob- 
 serve, is  foreign  to  the  institution  and 
 command  of  Christ,  and  is  of  human  in- 
 vention, let  him  be  accursed." 
 
 Here  sacramental  confession  is  affirmed 
 to  be  of  Divine  institution,  and  auricular 
 confession  likewise,  and  he  is  accursed 
 who  shall  deny  it.  This  is  bravely  said ; 
 yet  the  Tridentine  Fathers  might  have 
 recollected  that,  in  the  Latin  Church  as 
 late  as  813,  it  Avas  matter  of  dispute  whe- 
 ther there  was  need  to  confess  to  a  priest 
 at  all,  as  appears  from  the  thirty-third 
 canon  of  the  Council  of  Cabaillon,  wliich 
 is  as  follows  :  "  Quidam  Deo  solummodo 
 confiteri  dcbere  dicunt  peccata,  quidam 
 vero  sacerdotibus  confitenda  esse  percen- 
 scnt:  quod  utrumque  non  sine  magno 
 fructu  intra  sanctam  fit  Ecclesiam.  Ita 
 dumtaxat  ut  et  Deo,qui  Remissor  est  pec- 
 catorum,  confiteamur  peccata  nostra,  et 
 cum  David  dicaraus,  iJelictum  mewn  coy- 
 nituin  tibi  feci,  &c.,  et  secundum  institu- 
 tionem  apostoH,  confiteamur  alterutrum 
 peccata  nostra,  et  oremus  pro  invicem  ut 
 salvemur.  Cunfessio  itaque  qu»  Deo  fit, 
 pun/at  jM'CcaUi,  ea  vero  qutc  sacerdoti  fit, 
 docet  qualiter  ipsa  purgentur  peccata,"  &:c. 
 {Cone.  vii.  1270.)  Was  Leo  the  Third 
 asleep,  that  he  could  suficr  such  heresy  to 
 be  broached  and  not  denounced  ?  But  all 
 the  world  knows,  that,  till  1215,  no  decree 
 ot  pope  or  council  can  be  adduced  cnjoin- 
 nig  tlie  nccessanj  observance  of  such  a 
 custom.  Then,  at  the  Council  of  Late- 
 ran,^  Innocent  III.  commanded  it.  As  the 
 Latin  Church  affords  no  sanction  to  the 
 
 assertion  of  the  Tridentine  Fathers,  so  is 
 it  in  vain  to  look  for  it  among  the  Greeks, 
 for  there,  as  Socrates  {Hist.  JEccies.  v.  19) 
 and  Sozomen  {Hist.  Eccles.  vii.  16)  inform 
 us,  the  whole  confessional  was  abolished 
 by  Nectarius,  the  archbishop  of  Constan- 
 tinople, in  the  4th  century,  by  reason  of 
 an  indecency  which  was  committed  on  a 
 female  penitent,  when  pursuing  her  pen- 
 ance ;  which,  sure,  he  Avould  not  have  ven- 
 tured to  have  done  had  he  deemed  it  a 
 Divine  institution.  Sozomen,  in  his  account 
 of  the  confessional,  says,  that  the  public 
 confession  in  the  presence  of  all  the  peo- 
 ple, Avhich  formerly  obtained,  having  been 
 found  grievous,  ^o^tikov  wq  elicbg,  a  well- 
 bred,  si/e7it,  and  prudent  presbyter  was  set 
 in  charge  of  it ;  thus  plainly  denoting  the 
 change  from  public  to  auricular  confes- 
 sions. It  was  this  penitential  presbyter 
 whose  office  was  abolished  by  Nectarius, 
 who  acted  by  the  advice  of  Eudsemon, 
 cruy;^wpi}(Toi  dk  iKaarov,  r</t  j'^iV/j  awii^oTi  twv 
 fxvaTtjpiiov  ntHxtiv.  And  the  reason  he  as- 
 signed is  one  which  the  Church  of  Rome 
 would  have  done  well  to  bear  in  mind; 
 oura>  yap  fioviog  t^tiv  rajv  tKKXriffiav  to  ajSAac- 
 ^ijurjTov.  (See  Perceval  on  Roman  Schism. 
 Hooker,  Eccl.  Pol.  book  vi.  Bp.  Taylor, 
 Ductor  Duhit.  part  ii.  sect.  11.) 
 
 AUMBRIE.  A  little  closet  or  locker. 
 (See  Church.) 
 
 AURORA.  The  title  of  a  Latin  me- 
 trical version  of  several  parts  of  the  Bible, 
 by  Petrus  de  Riga,  canon  of  Rheims,  in 
 the  12th  century. 
 
 AUTOCEPHALI.  AiroKs^paXoi,  self- 
 headed,  or  independent.  A  name  origin- 
 ally given  to  all  metropolitans,  as  having 
 no  ecclesiastical  superior,  and  being  amen- 
 able only  to  the  judgment  of  a  synod. 
 After  the  division  of  the  Church  into  pa- 
 triarchates, it  was  given  to  such  metro- 
 politans as  preserved  their  independence, 
 and  were  not  subject  to  any  patriarch — 
 as  the  bishop  of  Constantia,  or  Salamis, 
 in  Cyprus.  I3ingham,  book  ii.  chap.  18, 
 specifies  three  kinds  of  autocephali.  1.  All 
 metropolitans,  before  patriarchates  were 
 established.  2.  Certain  metropolitans  after 
 the  establishment  of  patriarchates,  as  those 
 of  Bulgaria,  Cyprus,  and  Iberia  :  and  the 
 Churches  of  Britain  before  the  coming  of 
 St.  Augustin.  To  which  may  be  added 
 the  Church  of  Ireland,  before  its  submis- 
 sion to  Rome  in  the  12th  century.  3. 
 Bishops  immediately  subject  to  the  patri- 
 arch of  the  diocese,  mIio  was  to  them  as  a 
 metropolitan.  There  were  twenty-five  such 
 subject  to  the  bishop  of  Jerusalem.  The 
 immediate  suffragans  of  Rome  are  of  the 
 same  class.     Bingham  considers  a  fourth 
 
AUTO  DA  FE. 
 
 AVE  MARIA. 
 
 class  mentioned  by  Valesius  on  Euseb.  lib. 
 V.  c.  23,  as  very  doubtful ;  viz.  bishops 
 wholly  independent  of  all  others. 
 
 AUTO  DA  FE  (Spanish) ;  an  Act  of 
 Faith.  In  the  Spanish  Church  a  solemn 
 day  is  held  by  the  Inquisition  for  the 
 punishment  of  heretics,  and  the  absolution 
 of  the  innocent  accused.  They  usually 
 contrive  the  Auto  to  fall  on  some  great 
 festival,  that  the  execution  may  pass  with 
 the  more  awe ;  and  it  is  always  on  a  Sun- 
 day. The  Auto  da  Fe  may  be  called  the 
 last  act  of  the  inquisitorial  tragedy  ;  it  is  a 
 kind  of  gaol  delivery,  appointed  as  often  as 
 a  competent  number  of  prisoners  in  the 
 Inquisition  are  convicted  of  heresy,  either 
 by  their  own  voluntary  or  extorted  con- 
 fession, or  on  the  evidence  of  certain  wit- 
 nesses. The  process  is  this ;  in  the  morn- 
 ing they  are  brought  into  a  great  hall, 
 where  they  have  certain  habits  put  on, 
 which  they  are  to  wear  in  the  procession, 
 and  by  which  they  know  their  doom.  The 
 procession  is  led  up  by  Dominican  friars, 
 after  which  come  the  penitents,  being  all 
 in  black  coats  without  sleeves,  and  bare- 
 footed, with  a  wax  candle  in  their  hands. 
 These  are  followed  by  the  penitents  who 
 have  narrowly  escaped  being  burnt,  who 
 over  their  black  coats  have  flames  painted, 
 with  their  points  turned  downwards.  Next 
 come  the  negative  and  relapsed,  who  are 
 to  be  burnt,  having  flames  on  their  habits 
 pointing  upwards.  After  these  come  such 
 as  profess  doctrines  contrary  to  the  faith 
 of  Kome,  who,  besides  flames  pointing  up- 
 wards, have  their  picture  painted  on  their 
 breasts,  with  dogs,  serpents,  and  devils,  all 
 open-mouthed,  about  it.  Each  prisoner 
 is  attended  by  a  familiar  of  the  Inquisition  ; 
 and  those  to  be  burnt  have  also  a  Jesuit 
 on  each  hand,  who  are  continually  preach- 
 ing to  them  to  abjure.  After  the  prisoners 
 comes  a  troop  of  familiars  on  horseback ; 
 and  after  them  the  inquisitors,  and  other 
 officers  of  the  court,  on  mules  ;  last  of  all 
 the  inquisitor-general  on  a  white  horse  led 
 by  two  men  with  black  hats  and  green  hat- 
 bands. A  scaff'old  is  erected  large  enough 
 for  two  or  three  thousand  people ;  at  one 
 end  of  which  are  the  prisoners,  at  the  other 
 the  inquisitors.  After  a  sermon  made  up 
 of  encomiums  of  the  Inquisition,  and  invec- 
 tives against  heretics,  a  priest  ascends  a 
 desk  near  the  scaff'old,  and,  having  taken 
 the  abjuration  of  the  penitents,  recites  the 
 final  sentence  of  those  who  are  to  be  put 
 to  death,  and  delivers  them  to  the  secular 
 arm,  earnestly  beseeching  at  the  same 
 time  the  secular  power  not  to  touch  their 
 blood,  or  put  their  lices  in  danger.  The 
 prisoners,  being  thus  in  the  hands  of  the 
 
 civil  magistrate,  are  presently  loaded  with 
 chains,  and  carried  fii*st  to  the  secular  gaol, 
 and  from  thence,  in  an  houi*  or  two, 
 brought  before  the  civil  judge,  who,  after 
 asking  in  what  religion  they  intend  to  die, 
 pronounces  sentence  on  such  as  declare 
 they  die  in  the  communion  of  the  Church 
 of  Home,  that  they  shall  be  first  strangled, 
 and  then  burnt  to  ashes  ;  on  such  as  die  in 
 any  other  faith,  that  they  be  burnt  alive. 
 Both  are  immediately  carried  to  the  Ri- 
 bera,  the  place  of  execution,  where  there 
 are  as  many  stakes  set  up  as  there  are 
 prisoners  to  be  burnt,  with  a  quantity  of 
 dry  furze  about  them.  The  stakes  of  the 
 professed,  that  is,  such  as  persist  in  the 
 heresy,  are  about  four  yards  high,  having 
 a  small  board  towards  the  top  for  the  pri- 
 soner to  be  seated  on.  The  negative  and 
 relapsed  being  fii'st  strangled  and  burnt, 
 the  professed  mount  their  stakes  by  a 
 ladder,  and  the  Jesuits,  after  several  re- 
 peated exhortations  to  be  reconciled  to  the 
 Church,  part  with  them,  telling  them  that 
 they  leave  them  to  the  devil,  who  is  stand- 
 ing at  their  elbow  to  receive  their  souls, 
 and  carry  them  with  him  to  the  flames  of 
 hell.  On  this  a  great  shout  is  raised,  and 
 the  cry  is,  "  Let  the  dogs'  beards  be  made," 
 which  is  done  by  thrusting  flaming  furzes, 
 fastened  to  long  poles,  against  their  faces, 
 till  their  faces  are  burnt  to  a  coal,  which  is 
 accompanied  with  the  loudest  acclamations 
 of  joy.  At  last  fire  is  set  to  the  furze  at 
 the  bottom  of  the  stake,  over  which  the 
 professed  are  chained  so  high,  that  the  top 
 of  the  flame  seldom  reaches  higher  than 
 the  seat  they  sit  on,  so  that  they  rather 
 seem  roasted'  than  burnt.  The  same  dia- 
 bolical ceremony  was  observed  in  Portugal. 
 
 AVE  MxlIlIA.  A  form  of  devotion 
 used  in  the  Church  of  Rome,  comprising 
 the  salutation  addi'essed  by  the  angel  Ga- 
 briel to  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary.  (Luke 
 i.  28.)  The  words  "  Ave  Maria  "  are  the 
 first  two,  in  Latin,  of  the  form  as  it  a])pears 
 in  the  manuals  of  the  Romish  Church, 
 thus:  "Hail  Mary,  [Ave  Maria,)  full  of 
 grace,  the  Lord  is  with  thee,"  &-c.  To 
 which  is  appended  the  following  jietition : 
 "Holy  Mary,  mother  of  God,  pray  for 
 us  sinners,  now,  and  in  the  hour  of  our 
 death.  Amen."  Here  we  find,  first,  a 
 misappKcation  of  the  words  of  Scripture, 
 and  then  an  addition  to  them.  It  was  not 
 used  before  the  Hours,  until  the  16th  cen- 
 tury, in  the  Romish  olfices.  It  was  then 
 introduced  into  the  Breviary  by  Cardinal 
 Quignon.  Cardinal  Bona  admits  that  it  is 
 modern. 
 
 "  I  cannot  but  observe,"  says  Bingham, 
 "  that  among  all  the  short  prayers  used  by 
 
76 
 
 AVOIDANCE. 
 
 BACIIELOIl. 
 
 the  ancients  before  their  sermons,  tliere  is 
 never  any  mention  made  of  an  Ave  Mary, 
 now  so  common  in  the  practice  of  the 
 Romish  Church.  Their  addresses  were  all 
 to  God  ;  and  the  invocation  of  the  Holy 
 Virgin  for  <^race  and  assistance  before 
 sermons  was  a  thinj?  not  thought  of.  They 
 who  are  most  concerned  to  ])rove  its  use 
 can  derive  its  original  no  higher  than  the 
 beginning  of  the  lifteenth  century."  But 
 Mosheim  (Keel.  Hist,  Cant.  xiv.  Part  ii. 
 eh.  iv.)  savs  that  Pope  John  XXII.  [I0I6 
 — oS)  ordered  Christians  to  add  to  their 
 prayers  those  words  with  which  the  angel 
 Gabriel  saluted  the  Virgin  Mary. 
 
 AVOIDANCE.  Avoidance  is  wdiere 
 there  is  a  want  of  a  lav.fid  incumbent  on  a 
 benefice,  during  which  vacancy  the  Church 
 is  (jwiai  riduata,  and  the  possessions  belong- 
 ing to  it  are  in  abeyance.  There  are  many 
 ways  by  which  avoidance  may  happen ; 
 by  "death;  by  cession,  or  acceptance  of  a 
 benefice  incompatible  ;  by  resignation  ;  by 
 consecration ;  for  when  a  clerk  is  jjro- 
 moted  to  a  bishopric,  all  his  other  pre- 
 ferments are  void  the  instant  he  is  con- 
 secrated, and  the  right  of  presentation 
 belongs  to  the  Crown,  unless  he  has  a  dis- 
 pensation from  the  Crown  to  hold  them  in 
 coniincndam :  by  deprivation,  either  first  by 
 sentence  declaratory  in  the  ecclesiastical 
 court  for  fit  and  sufficient  causes  allowed 
 by  the  common  law,  such  as  attainder  of 
 treason  or  felony,  or  conviction  of  other 
 infamous  crimes  in  the  king's  courts ;  for 
 heresy,  infidelity,  gross  immorality,  and  the 
 like  ;  or  secondly,  in  pursuance  of  divers 
 penal  statutes,  which  declare  the  benefice 
 void,  for  some  nonfeasance  or  neglect,  or 
 else  some  malfeasance  or  crime ;  as  for 
 simony;  for  maintaining  any  doctrine  in 
 derogation  of  the  king's  supremacy,  or  of 
 the  Thirty-nine  Articles,  or  of  the  Booh  of 
 Common  Pra>/cr ;  for  neglecting  after  in- 
 stitution to  read  the  liturgy  and  articles  in 
 the  church,  or  make  the  declarations  against 
 Popery,  or  take  the  abjuration  oath;  for 
 usinrj  any  other  form  of  prayer  than  the 
 liturgy  of  the  Church  of  England ;  or  for 
 absenting  himself  sixty  days  in  one  year 
 from  a  benefice  belonging  to  a  Popish 
 patron,  to  which  the  clerk  Avas  ])rcsented 
 by  either  of  the  universities ;  in  all  which, 
 and  similar  cases,  tlie  benefice  is  ipso  facto 
 void,  without  any  formal  sentence  of  de- 
 privation. No  person  can  take  any  dignity 
 or  benefice  in  Ireland  until  he  has  resigned 
 all  his  preferments  in  England;  and  by 
 such  resignation  the  king  is  deprived  of 
 the  presentation.— .S'/<7;/ieM,s  on  the  Laics 
 rchttiny  to  the  Clergy,  p.  01. 
 
 AZYMITES.     A   name   given   to   the 
 
 Latins,  by  those  of  the  Greek  Church,  be- 
 cause they  consecrate  the  holy  eucharist  in 
 unleavened  bread  {tv  d^vfioig).  The  more 
 ancient  custom  was  to  consecrate  a  portion 
 of  the  oblations  of  the  faithful,  and  there- 
 fore of  course  in  leavened  bread.  The 
 wafer,  or  unleavened  bread,  is  still  retained 
 in  the  Church  of  Home,  although  the 
 catechism  of  the  Council  of  Trent  admits 
 that  the  eucharist  may  also  be  consecrated 
 in  common  bread.  In  the  Church  of  Eng- 
 land unleavened  bread  was  prescribed  by 
 Queen  Elizabeth's  injunctions,  and  was 
 generally  used  throughout  her  reign.  At 
 AVestminster,  it  was  retained  until  1642, 
 nor  has  it  since  been  forbidden ;  but  the 
 use  of  leavened  bread  is  now  universal,  as 
 in  the  primitive  Church. 
 
 BACHELOR.  In  the  universities  of 
 the  Church,  bachelors  are  persons  who 
 have  attained  to  the  baccalaureate,  or 
 taken  the  first  degree  in  arts,  divinity,  law, 
 or  physic.  This  degree  in  some  univer- 
 sities has  no  existence,  in  some  the  Can- 
 didatus  answers  to  it.  It  was  first  intro- 
 duced in  the  thirteenth  centvn-y,  by  Pope 
 Gregory  IX.,  though  it  is  still  unknown 
 in  Italy.  Bachelors  of  Arts  are  not  ad- 
 mitted to  that  degree  at  Oxford  and  Dub- 
 lin till  after  having  studied  four  years  at 
 those  universities.  At  Cambridge,  the 
 regular  period  of  matriculation  is  in  the 
 October  term  ;  and  an  undergraduate  w^lio 
 proceeds  regularly  Avill  be  admitted  to  his 
 B.  A.  in  tlu-ee  years  from  the  following 
 January.  Bachelors  of  Divinity,  before 
 they  can  acquire  that  degree  either  at 
 Oxford  or  Cambridge,  must  be  of  four- 
 teen years'  standing  in  the  university. 
 Bachelors  of  Laws,  to  acquire  the  degree 
 in  Oxford  or  Cambridge,  must  have  pre- 
 viously studied  the  law  six  years.  Bache- 
 lors of  Canon  LaAV  are  admitted  after  two 
 years'  study,  and  sustaining  an  act  accord- 
 ing to  the  forms.  Bachelors  of  Medicine 
 must  have  studied  two  years  in  medicine, 
 after  having  been  four  years  ^I.  A.  in  the 
 university,  and  must  have  passed  an  ex- 
 amination ;  after  which  they  are  invested 
 with  the  fur  in  order  to  be  licensed.  Ba- 
 chelors of  ]\Iusic  in  the  English  and  Irish 
 universities  must  have  studied  musie  for 
 a  certain  number  of  years,  and  are  ad- 
 mitted to  the  degree  after  the  composition 
 and  performance  of  a  musical  exercise. 
 Anciently  the  grade  of  Bachelor,  at  least 
 in  arts,  was  hardly  considered  as  a  degree, 
 but  merely  a  step  towards  the  Doctorate 
 or  Mastership.  In  fact,  Bachelors  in  any 
 faculty,  as  such,  have  no  voice  in  the  uni- 
 versity convocations  or  senates.  '  Bachelors 
 
BAMPTON  LECTURES. 
 
 BANNER. 
 
 77 
 
 in  Divinity  have,  because  they  must  neces- 
 sarily have  been  Masters  of  Art  previously. 
 But  Bachelors  of  Law  and  Medicine  have 
 no  votes,  unless  they  happen  to  be  Mas- 
 ters of  Arts  also.  In  the  French,  as  in 
 the  Scotch  universities,  the  degree  of  Ba- 
 chelor of  Arts  was  taken  while  the  student 
 was  still  in  static  jnipillan',  and  in  fact  cor- 
 responded very  much  to  the  Sophisters  in 
 our  universities,  the  A.  M.  in  these  places 
 practically  correspond  to  our  degree  of 
 A.  B. 
 
 BAMPTOX  LECTURES.  A  course 
 of  eight  sermons  preached  annually  at  the 
 university  of  Oxford,  set  on  foot  by  the 
 Reverend  John  Bampton,  canon  of  Salis- 
 bury. According  to  the  directions  in  his 
 will,  they  are  to  be  preached  upon  any 
 of  the  following  subjects: — To  confirm 
 and  establish  the  Christian  faith,  and  to 
 confute  all  heretics  and  schismatics  ;  upon 
 the  Divine  authority  of  the  Holy  Scriptures ; 
 upon  the  authority  of  the  writings  of  the 
 primitive  fathers,  as  to  the  faith  and  prac- 
 tice of  the  primitive  Church  ;  upon  the 
 Divinity  of  our  LoiiD  and  Sayiouh  Jesus 
 Christ  ;  upon  the  Divinity  of  the  Holy 
 Ghost  ;  upon  the  articles  of  the  Christian 
 faith,  as  comprehended  in  the  Apostles' 
 and  Nicene  Creeds.  For  the  support  of 
 this  lecture  he  bequeathed  his  lands  and 
 estates  to  the  chancellor,  masters,  and  scho- 
 lars of  the  university  of  Oxford  for  ever, 
 upon  trust  that  the  vice-chancellor,  for 
 the  time  being,  take  and  receive  all  the  rents 
 and  profits  thereof;  and,  after  all  taxes,  re- 
 parations, and  necessary  deductions  made, 
 to  pay  all  the  remainder  to  the  endowment 
 of  these  divinity  lecture  sermons.  He  also 
 du-ects  in  his  will,  that  no  person  shall  be 
 qualified  to  preach  these  lectures,  unless 
 he  have  taken  the  degree  of  iNIaster  of 
 Arts,  at  least,  in  one  of  the  two  universities 
 of  Oxford  or  Cambridge,  and  that  the 
 same  person  shall  never  preach  the  same 
 sermon  twice.  A  number  of  excellent 
 sermons  preached  at  this  lecture  are  now 
 before  the  public. 
 
 BAND.  This  part  of  the  clerical  dress, 
 which  is  too  well  known  to  need  descrip- 
 tion, is  the  only  remaining  relic  of  the 
 ancient  amice.  (See  Amice.)  When  the 
 beard  was  worn,  and  when  ruffs  came  in, 
 this  ancient  part  of  clerical  dress  fell  into 
 disuse,  but  it  was  generally  resumed  after 
 the  Restoration.  The  band  is  not,  how- 
 ever, an  exclusively  clerical  vestment,  be- 
 ing part  of  the  full  dress  of  the  bar  and  of 
 the  universities,  and  of  other  bodies  in 
 which  a  more  ancient  habit  is  retained, 
 as  in  some  schools  of  old  foundation. 
 Formerly  it  was  worn  by  graduates,  and 
 
 even  under-graduates,  at  the  universities  ; 
 nor  was  the  custom  altogether  extinct 
 within  memory.  It  is  still  worn  by  the 
 scholars  at  ^Winchester,  is:c.,  and  was  an- 
 ciently worn  Avith  the  surplice  by  lay  vicars, 
 singing  men,  and  sometimes  by  parish 
 clerks. 
 
 BANGORIAN  CONTROVERSY. 
 This  was  a  celebrated  controversy  within 
 the  Church  of  England  in  the  reign  of 
 George  L,  and  received  its  name  from 
 Hoadly,  who,  although  bishoj)  of  Ban- 
 gor, was  little  else  than  a  Socinian  here- 
 tic. Hoadly  published  "  A  Preservative 
 against  the  Principles  and  Practice  of  the 
 Non-jurors,"and  soon  after,  a  sermon,  which 
 the  king  had  ordered  to  be  jjrinted,  en- 
 titled, "The  Nature  of  the  Kingdom  of 
 Christ."  This  discourse  is  a  very  confused 
 production ;  nor,  except  in  the  bitterness 
 of  its  spirit,  is  it  easy,  amidst  the  author's 
 "  periods  of  a  mile,"  to  discover  his  precise 
 aim.  To  the  perplexed  arguments  of  Bishop 
 Hoadly,  Dr.  Snape  and  Dr.  Sherlock 
 wrote  replies ;  and  a  committee  of  convo- 
 cation passed  a  censure  upon  the  discourse. 
 An  order  from  government  arrested  the 
 proceedings  of  the  convocation.  Snape 
 and  Sherlock  were  removed  from  their 
 office  of  chaplains  to  the  king ;  and  the 
 convocation  has  never  yet  been  again  per- 
 mitted to  assemble  for  the  transaction  of 
 business.  But  the  exertion  of  power  on 
 the  part  of  the  government  was  unable  to 
 silence  those  Avho  were  determined,  at  any 
 sacrifice,  to  maintain  God's  truth.  This 
 controversy  continued  to  employ  the  press 
 for  many  years,  until  those  who  held  Low 
 Church  views  were  entirely  silenced  by  the 
 force  of  argument.  Of  the  works  produced 
 by  the  Bangorian  Controversy,  perhaps 
 the  most  important  is  Lau-^s  Letters  to 
 Hoadly,  which  were  reprinted  in  "  'The 
 Scholar  Ai'metl,'^  and  have  since  been  re- 
 published. Laic's  Ljctters  have  never  been 
 answered,  and  may  indeed  be  regarded  as 
 unansAverable. 
 
 BANNER.  In  the  chapels  of  orders  of 
 knighthood,  as  in  St.  George's  chapel, 
 Windsor,  the  chapel  of  the  order  of  the 
 Garter ;  in  Henry  VII.'s  chapel,  at  West- 
 minster, the  chapel  of  the  order  of  the 
 Bath ;  and  in  St.  Patrick's  cathedral,  the 
 chapel  of  the  order  of  St.  Patrick ;  the 
 banner  of  each  knight,  i.  e.  a  little  square 
 flag  bearing  his  arms,  is  suspended,  at  his 
 installation,  over  his  appropriate  stall. 
 The  installation  of  a  knight  is  a  religious 
 cevewonji ;  hence  the  propriety  of  this  act. 
 The  same  decorations  formerly  existed  in 
 the  chapel  of  Holyrood  House,  the  chapel 
 of  the  order  of  the  Thistle. 
 
78 
 
 BANNS  OF  MARRIAGE. 
 
 Also  it  is  not  uncommon  to  see  banners 
 taken  in  battle  suspended  over  the  tombs 
 of  victorious  <:;encrals.  This  is  a  beautiful 
 way  of  cxpressinjj:  thankfulness  to  GOD  for 
 tha't  victory  which  he  alone  can  give ;  and 
 it  were  much  to  be  wislicd  that  a  spii'it  of 
 pride  and  vain-glory  sliould  never  mingle 
 with  the  religious  feeling. 
 
 Banners  were  formerly  a  part  of  the 
 accustomed  ornaments  of  the  altar,  and 
 were  suspended  over  it,  "that  in  the 
 church  the  triumph  of  Christ  may  ever- 
 more be  held  in  mind,  by  Avhich  we  also 
 hope  to  triumph  over  om-  enemy." — Da- 
 ramlus. 
 
 13.\NNS  OF  MARllIAGE.  '^Bann" 
 comes  from  a  barbarous  Latin  word  which 
 signifies  to  put  out  an  edict  or  proclama- 
 tion. "  3Iatrimo7iial  hanns  "  are  such  pro- 
 clamations as  are  solemnly  made  in  the 
 church,  or  in  some  other  lawful  congrega- 
 tion of  men,  in  order  to  the  solemnization 
 of  matrimony. 
 
 Before  any  can  be  canonically  married, 
 except  by  a  licence  from  the  bishop's 
 court,  banns  are  directed  to  be  published 
 in  the  church ;  and  this  proclamation  should 
 be  made  on  tliree  several  solemn  days,  in 
 all  the  churches  of  that  place  where  the 
 ])arties,  willing  to  contract  marriage,  dwell. 
 This  rule  is  principally  to  be  observed  when 
 the  said  parties  are  of  different  parishes  ; 
 for  the  care  of  the  Church  to  prevent  clan- 
 destine marriages  is  as  old  as  Christianity 
 itself:  and  the  design  of  the  Church  is, 
 to  be  satisfied  whether  there  be  any  "just 
 cause  or  impediment,"  why  the  persons  so 
 asked  "  should  not  be  joined  together  in 
 holy  matrimony." 
 
 The  following  are  the  regulations  under 
 which  the  Church  of  England  now  acts  on 
 this  subject : — 
 
 No  minister  shall  be  obliged  to  publish 
 the  banns  of  matrimony  between  any  per- 
 sons whatsoever,  unless  they  shall,  seven 
 days  at  least  before  the  time  required  for 
 the  first  publication,  deliver  or  cause  to  be 
 delivered  to  him  a  notice  in  writing  of 
 their  true  Christian  and  surnames,  and  of 
 the  houses  of  their  respective  abodes  within 
 such  parish,  chapehy,  or  extra-parochial 
 place,  where  the  banns  are  to  be  i)ublished, 
 and  of  the  time  during  which  they  have 
 inhabited  or  lodged  in  such  houses  respect- 
 ively. (26  George  II.  c.  33,  s.  2.)  And  ail 
 banns  of  matrimony  shall  be  published  in 
 the  parish  church,  or  in  some  public  chapel 
 wherein  banns  of  matrimony  have  been 
 usually  published,  (i.  e.  before  the  2oth  of 
 March,  1754,)  of  the  parish  or  chapelry 
 wherein  the  persons  to  be  married  shall 
 dwell.     (26  George  II.  c.  33,  s.  1.)     And 
 
 where  the  persons  to  be  married  shall 
 dwell  in  divers  parishes  or  chapelries,  the 
 banns  shall  be  published  in  the  church  or 
 chapel  belonging  to  such  parish  or  chapelry 
 wherein  each  of  the  said  persons  shall 
 dwell.  And  where  both  or  either  of  the 
 persons  to  be  married  shall  dwell  in  any 
 extra-parochial  place,  (having  no  church 
 or  chapel  wherein  banns  have  been  usually 
 published,)  then  the  banns  shall  be  pub- 
 lislied  in  the  parish  church  or  chapel  be- 
 longing to  some  parish  or  chapelry  adjoin- 
 ing to  such  extra-parochial  place.  And 
 the  said  banns  shall  be  published  upon 
 three  Sundays  preceding  the  solemnization 
 of  marriage  during  the  time  of  morning 
 service,  or  of  the  evening  service,  if  there 
 be  no  morning  service  in  such  church  or 
 chapel  on  any  of  those  Sundays,  immedi- 
 atcly  after  the  second  lesson.  (26  George 
 II.  c.  33,  s.  1.) 
 
 While  the  marriage  is  contracting,  the 
 minister  shall  inquire  of  the  people  by 
 three  public  banns,  concerning  the  freedom 
 of  the  parties  from  all  lawful  impediments. 
 And  if  any  minister  shall  do  otherwise,  he 
 shall  be  suspended  for  three  years. 
 
 llubric.  And  the  curate  shall  say  after 
 the  accustomed  manner: — "I  publish  the 
 
 banns  of  marriage  between  M.  of , 
 
 and  N.  of .     If  any  of  you  know 
 
 cause  or  just  impediment  why  these  two 
 persons  should  not  be  joined  together  in 
 holy  matrimony,  ye  are  to  declare  it. 
 This  is  the  first  (second,  or  third)  time  of 
 asking." 
 
 And  in  case  the  parents  or  guardians, 
 or  one  of  them,  of  either  of  the  parties, 
 who  shall  be  under  the  age  of  twenty-one 
 years,  shall  openly  and  publicly  declare, 
 or  cause  to  be  declared,  in  the  church  or 
 chapel  where  the  banns  shall  be  so  pub- 
 lished, at  the  time  of  such  publication,  his 
 dissent  to  such  marriage,  such  publication 
 of  banns  shall  be  void.  (26  George  II.  c. 
 3,  s.  3.) 
 
 llubric.  And  where  the  parties  dwell 
 in  divers  parishes,  the  curate  of  one  parish 
 shall  not  solemnize  marriage  between  them, 
 without  a  certificate  of  the  banns  being 
 thrice  asked,  from  the  curate  of  the  other 
 parish. 
 
 Fonnerly  the  rubric  enjoined  that  the 
 banns  should  be  published  after  the  Nicene 
 Creed ;  but  the  lamentable  deficiency  of 
 publicity  of  which  this  arrangement  was 
 the  cause,  and  the  delay  hence  arising  in 
 consequence  of  some  parishes  being  with- 
 out any  morning  service  on  some  Sundays, 
 induced  the  legislature  to  make  the  pro- 
 visions above  cited.  (26  George  II.  c.  33, 
 s.  1.) 
 
BANNS  OF  MARRIAGE. 
 
 BAPTISM. 
 
 79 
 
 It  is  to  be  feared  that  much  laxity  pre- 
 vails among  parties  to  whom  the  inquiries 
 as  to  parochial  limits  are  intrusted ;  and 
 that  recent  enactments  have  rather  aug- 
 mented than  reformed  such  laxity.  The 
 constitutions  and  canons  of  1603  guard 
 cautiously  against  clandestine  marriages. 
 Canon  62  is  as  follows : — 
 
 3Iutisfers  not  to  marry  any  persons  with- 
 out banns  or  licence. — JN'o  minister,  upon 
 pain  of  suspension  per  triennium  ipso  facto, 
 shall  celebrate  matrimony  between  any  per- 
 sons, without  a  fiiculty  or  licence  granted 
 by  some  of  the  persons  in  these  our  con- 
 stitutions expressed,  except  the  banns  of 
 matrimony  have  been  first  published  three 
 several  Sundays,  or  holidays,  in  the  time 
 of  Divine  service,  in  the  parish  churches 
 and  chapels  where  the  said  parties  dwell, 
 according  to  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer. 
 Neither  shall  any  minister,  upon  the  like 
 pain,  under  any  pretence  whatsoever,  join 
 any  persons  so  licensed  in  marriage  at  any 
 unseasonable  times,  but  only  between  the 
 hours  of  eight  and  twelve  in  the  forenoon ; 
 nor  in  any  private  place,  but  either  in  the 
 said  churches  or  chapels  where  one  of  them 
 dwelleth,  and  likewise  in  time  of  Divine 
 service ;  nor  when  banns  are  thrice  asked, 
 and  no  licence  in  that  respect  necessary, 
 before  the  parents  or  governors  of  the 
 parties  to  be  married,  being  under  the  age 
 of  twenty  and  one  years,  shall  either  per- 
 sonally, or  by  sufficient  testimony,  signify 
 to  them  their  consents  given  to  the  said 
 marriage. 
 
 Canon  63.  Ministers  of  exempt  churches 
 not  to  marry  without  ban7is  or  license. — 
 Every  minister,  who  shall  hereafter  cele- 
 brate marriage  between  any  persons  con- 
 trary to  our  said  constitutions,  or  any  part 
 of  them,  under  colour  of  any  peculiar  liberty 
 or  privilege  claimed  to  appertain  to  certain 
 churches  and  chapels,  shall  be  suspended 
 per  triennium  by  the  ordinary  of  the  place 
 where  the  offence  shall  be  committed.  And 
 if  any  such  minister  shall  afterwards  re- 
 move from  the  place  where  he  hath  com- 
 mitted that  fault,  before  he  be  suspended, 
 as  is  aforesaid,  then  shall  the  bishop  of  the 
 diocese,  or  ordinary  of  the  place  where  he 
 remaineth,  upon  certificate  under  the  hand 
 and  seal  of  the  other  ordinary,  from  whose 
 jurisdiction  he  removed,  execute  that  cen- 
 sure upon  him. 
 
 See  also  canon  70.  By  the  statute 
 6  &  7  AV.  IV.  c.  85,  sec.  1,  it  is  enacted, 
 that  where,  by  any  law  or  canon  in  force 
 before  the  passing  of  this  act,  it  is  provided 
 that  any  "  marriage  may  be  solemnized 
 after  publication  of  banns,  such  marriage 
 may  be  solemnized,   in   like  manner,  07i 
 
 production  of  the  registrar's  certificate  as 
 hereinafter  2)rovided : "  so  that  marriages 
 may  now  be  solemnized  in  the  Church  of 
 England,  without  banns  or  licence,  on  pro- 
 duction of  the  superintendent  registrar's 
 certificate. 
 
 _  BAPTISM.  {BdTTTtiv,  to  wash.)  Bap- 
 tism is  one  of  the  two  sacraments,  which, 
 according  to  the  Catechism,  "  are  gener- 
 ally necessary  to  salvation."  Our  blessed 
 Saviour  says  that  "except  a  man  be 
 born  again  he  cannot  see  the  kingdom 
 of  God  "  (John  iii.  3) ;  and  in  explana- 
 tion of  his  meaning  he  adds,  "Verily, 
 verily,  I  say  unto  thee,  except  a  man  be 
 born  of  water  and  of  the  Spirit,  he  cannot 
 enter  into  the  kingdom  of  God"  (ver.  5). 
 Upon  this  the  Church  remarks :  "  Beloved, 
 ye  hear  in  this  Gospel  the  express  words 
 of  our  Saviour  Christ,  that,  except  a 
 man  be  born  of  water  and  of  the  Spirit, 
 he  cannot  enter  into  the  kingdom  of  God  : 
 whereby  ye  may  perceive  the  great  ne- 
 cessity of  this  sacrament  where  it  may  be 
 had.  Likewise  immediately  before  his 
 ascension  into  heaven,  as  we  read  in  the 
 last  chapter  of  St.  Mark's  Gospel,  he  gave 
 command  to  his  disciples,  saying,  '  Go  ye 
 into  all  the  world,  and  preach  the  gospel 
 to  every  creature.  He  that  believeth  and 
 is  baptized  shall  be  saved ;  but  he  that  be- 
 lieveth not  shall  be  damned.'  Which  also 
 showeth  unto  us  the  great  benefit  we  reap 
 thereby.  For  which  cause,  St.  Peter  the 
 apostle,  when,  upon  his  first  preaching  of 
 this  gospel,  many  were  pricked  at  the 
 heart,  and  said  unto  him  and  the  rest  of 
 the  apostles, '  Men  and  brethren,  what  shall 
 we  do  ?  '  replied  and  said  unto  them,  '  lie- 
 pent,  and  be  baptized  every  one  of  you  for 
 the  remission  of  sins,  and  ye  shall  receive 
 the  gift  of  the  Holy  Ghost.'  The  same 
 apostle  testifieth  in  another  place,  'even 
 baptism  doth  also  now  save  us,  not  the 
 putting  away  of  the  filth  of  the  flesh,  but 
 the  answer  of  a  good  conscience  towards 
 God,  by  the  resurrection  of  Jesus  Christ.'  " 
 —  OJice  of  Adult  Baptism.  The  Church 
 also  states  in  the  Catechism,  that  a  sacra- 
 ment, as  baptism  is,  hath  two  parts,  the 
 outward  visible  sign,  and  the  inward  sj)irit- 
 ual  grace  :  that  the  outward  visible  sign  or 
 form  in  baptism  is  water,  wherein  the  per- 
 son is  baptized  in  the  name  of  the  Father, 
 and  of  the  Sox,  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost  ; 
 and  that  the  inward  and  spiritual  grace, 
 which  through  the  means  of  baptism  we 
 receive,  is  a  death  unto  sin,  and  a  new 
 birth  unto  righteousness  ;  for  being  by  na- 
 ture born  in  sin  and  the  children  of  wrath, 
 we  are  hereby,  i.  e.  by  baptism,  made  chil- 
 dren of  grace.     Therefore  the  Church,  as 
 
80 
 
 BAPTISM. 
 
 soon  as  ever  a  child  is  baptized,  directs  the 
 minister  to  say,  "  Seeinj;  now,  dearly  be- 
 loved brethren",  that  this  child  is  nycncratc 
 ■and  f^n-afted  into  the  body  of  Christ's 
 Church,  let  us  «;ive  thanks  unto  Almighty 
 God  for  these  benefits,  and  with  one  ac- 
 cord make  our  prayers  unto  him,  that  this 
 cliild  mav  lead  tlie  rest  of  his  life  according 
 to  this  beginning."  The  Church  here  first 
 declares  that  grace  has  been  given,  even 
 the  grace  of  regeneration,  and  tlicn  implies 
 that  the  grace,  if  not  used,  may  be  lost.  On 
 this  subject  more  will  be  said  in  the  article 
 vn  Iic(/('iura(ion.  See  also  Li/aiit  Baptism. 
 Grotius  [Annot.  ad  Matt.  iii.  6)  is  of 
 o])ini(m,  that  the  rite  of  baptism  had  its 
 original  from  the  time  of  the  deluge ;  im- 
 mecliately  after  which  he  thinks  it  was  in- 
 stituted, "in  memory  of  the  world  having 
 been  purged  by  water.  Some  learned  men 
 think  (Tf.  Schichard,  dc  Jur.  Reg.  cap.  o) 
 it  was  added  to  circumcision,  soon  after  the 
 Samaritan  schism,  as  a  mark  of  distinction 
 to  the  orthodox  Jews.  Spencer,  who  is  fond 
 of  deriving  the  rites  of  the  Jewish  religion 
 from  the  ceremonies  of  the  Pagan,  lays  it 
 down  as  a  probable  supposition,  that  the 
 Jews  received  the  baptism  of  proselytes  from 
 the  neighbouring  nations,  who  were  wont 
 to  prepare  candidates  for  the  more  sacred 
 functions  of  their  religion  by  a  solemn  ab- 
 lution ;  that,  by  this  affinity  of  sacred  rites, 
 they  might  draw  the  Gentiles  to  embrace 
 their  religion,  and  the  proselytes  (in  gain- 
 ing of  whom  they  were  extremely  diligent. 
 Matt,  xxiii.  lo)  might  the  more  easily  com- 
 ply with  the  transition  from  Gentilism  to 
 Judaism.  In  confirmation  of  this  o})inion, 
 he*observes,  fii-st,  that  there  is  no  Divine 
 precept  for  the  baptism  of  proselytes,  God 
 
 enjoined  only  the  rite  of  circum- 
 
 cision, (Exod.  xii.  48,)  for  the  admission 
 of  strangers  into  the  Jewish  religion ;  se- 
 condly, that,  among  foreign  nations,  the 
 Egyptians,  Persians,  Greeks,  Komans,  and 
 others,  it  was  customary  that  those  who 
 were  to  be  initiated  into  their  mysteries  or 
 sacred  rites,  should  be  first  purified  by  dip- 
 ping their  whole  body  in  water.  Grotius, 
 on  Matt.  xxvi.  27,  adds,  as  a  further  con- 
 firmation of  his  opinion,  that  the  "  cup  of 
 blessing"  likewise,  added  to  the  Paschal 
 su})per,  seems  plainly  to  have  been  derived 
 from  a  Pagan  original :  for  the  Greeks,  at 
 their  feasts,  had  one  cup,  called  Trori'ipiov 
 ayaOov  ^aijjiovog,  the  cup  of  the  good  de- 
 mon or  god,  which  they  drank  at  the  con- 
 clusion of  their  entertainment,  when  the 
 table  was  removed.  Since,  then,  a  rite  of 
 Gentile  original  was  added  to  one  of  the 
 Jewish  sacraments,  viz.  the  Passover,  there 
 can  be  no  absurdity  in   supposing,   that 
 
 baptism,  which  was  added  to  the  other 
 sacrament,  namely,  circumcision,  might  be 
 derived  from  the  same  source.  In  the  last 
 place,  he  observes,  that  Christ,  in  the  in- 
 stitution of  his  sacraments,  paid  a  peculiar 
 regard  to  those  rites  which  were  borrowed 
 from  the  Gentiles ;  for,  rejecting  circum- 
 cision and  the  Paschal  supper,  he  adopted 
 into  his  religion  baptism  and  the  sacred 
 cup ;  thus  preparing  the  way  for  the  con- 
 version and  reception  of  the  Gentiles  into 
 his  Church. 
 
 It  is  to  be  observed,  under  this  head  of 
 Jewish  baptism,  that  the  proseljie  was 
 not  to  be  baptized  till  the  wound  of  cir- 
 cumcision was  perfectly  healed ;  that  then 
 the  ceremony  was  performed  by  plunging 
 him  into  some  large,  natural  receptacle  of 
 water ;  and  that  baptism  was  never  after 
 repeated  in  the  same  person,  or  in  any  of 
 his  posterity,  who  derived  their  legal  purity 
 from  the  baptism  of  their  ancestor. — Seldcn, 
 de  Jur.  Nat.  et  Gent.  lib.  ii.  cap.  1. 
 
 In  the  primitive  Christian  Church,  {Ter- 
 tuU.  de  Haptismo,)  the  office  of  baptizing 
 was  vested  principally  in  the  bishops  and 
 priests,  or  pastors  of  the  respective  par- 
 ishes ;  but,  with  the  consent  of  the  bishop, 
 it  was  allowed  to  the  deacons,  and  in  cases 
 of  necessity  even  to  laymen,  to  baptize ; 
 but  never,  under  any  necessity  whatever, 
 was  it  permitted  to  women  to  perform  this 
 office.  Nor  was  it  enough  that  baptism 
 was  conferred  by  a  person  called  to  the 
 ministry,  unless  he  was  also  orthodox  in 
 the  faith.  This  became  matter  of  great  ex- 
 citement in  the  Church ;  and  hence  arose  the 
 famous  controversy  between  Cyprian  and 
 Stephen,  bishop  of  Home,  concerning  the 
 rebaptizing  those  Avho  had  been  baptized 
 by  heretics,  Cyprian  asserting  that  they 
 ought  to  be  rebaptized,  and  Stephen  main- 
 taining the  contrary  opinion. 
 
 The  persons  baptized  were  either  infants 
 or  adults.  To  prove  that  infants  were  ad- 
 mitted to  the  sacrament  of  baptism,  we 
 need  only  use  this  argument.  None  were 
 admitted  to  the  eucharist  till  they  had  re- 
 ceived baptism :  but  in  the  primitive 
 Church  children  received  the  sacrament 
 of  the  Lord's  supper,  as  appears  from  what 
 Cyprian  relates  concerning  a  sucking  child, 
 who  so  violently  refused  to  taste  the  sacra- 
 mental wine,  tliat  the  deacon  was  obliged 
 forcibly  to  open  her  lips  and  pour  it  down 
 her  throat.  Origen  writes,  that  children 
 are  baptized,  "  for  the  purging  away  of  the 
 natural  filth  and  original  impurity  inher- 
 ent in  them.  AVe  might  add  the  testi- 
 monies of  Irena^us  and  Cyprian ;  but  it 
 will  be  sufficient  to  mention  the  deter- 
 mination of  an  African  synod,  held  a.  d. 
 
BAPTISM. 
 
 81 
 
 254,  at  which  were  present  sixty-six  bishops. 
 The  occasion  of  it  was  this.  A  certain 
 bishop,  called  Fidus,  had  some  scruples 
 concerning  the  time  of  baptizing  infants, 
 whether  it  ought  to  be  done  on  the  second 
 or  third  day  after  their  birth,  or  not  before 
 the  eighth  day,  as  was  observed  with  re- 
 spect to  circumcision  under  the  Jewish 
 dispensation.  His  scruples  were  proposed 
 to  this  synod,  who  unanimously  decreed, 
 that  the  baptism  of  cliildren  was  not  to  be 
 deferred  so  long,  but  that  the  grace  of  God, 
 or  baptism,  should  be  given  to  all,  and 
 most  especially  unto  infants. — Justin  Mar- 
 fj/r,  Second  Apology ;  De  Lapsis,  §  20  ; 
 in  Lucam,  Hom.  xiv.  Aimd  Cyprian. 
 Epist.  lix.  §  2 — 4.  TertuU.  de  Baptismo, 
 c.  19. 
 
 As  for  the  time,  or  season,  at  which 
 baptism  was  usually  administered,  we  find 
 it  to  have  been  restrained  to  the  two 
 solemn  festivals  of  the  year,  Easter  and 
 Whitsuntide:  at  Easter,  in  memory  of 
 Christ's  death  and  resurrection,  correspond- 
 ent to  wdiich  are  the  two  parts  of  the 
 Christian  life,  represented  and  shadowed 
 out  in  baptism,  dying  unto  sin,  and  rising 
 again  unto  newness  of  life ;  and  at  ^\Tiit- 
 suntide,  in  memory  of  the  Holy  Ghost's 
 l)eing  shed  upon  the  apostles,  the  same, 
 in  some  measure,  being  represented  and 
 conveyed  in  baptism.  It  is  to  be  observed, 
 that  these  stated  returns  of  the  time  of 
 baptism  related  only  to  persons  in  health  : 
 in  other  cases,  such  as  sickness,  or  any 
 pressing  necessity,  the  time  of  baptism 
 was  regulated  by  occasion  and  opportunity. 
 
 The  place  of  baptism  was  at  first  un- 
 limited ;  being  some  pond  or  lake,  some 
 spring  or  river,  but  always  as  near  as  pos- 
 sible to  the  place  of  public  worship.  Af- 
 terwards they  had  their  baptisteries,  or  (as 
 Ave  call  them)  fonts,  built  at  first  near  the 
 church,  then  in  the  church-porch,  and  at 
 last  in  the  church  itself.  There  were  many 
 in  those  days  who  were  desirous  to  be 
 baptized  in  the  river  Jordan,  out  of  re- 
 verence to  the  place  where  our  Saviour 
 himself  had  been  baptized. 
 
 The  person  to  be  baptized,  if  an  adult, 
 was  fii-st  examined  by  the  bishop,  or  offici- 
 ating priest,  who  put  some  questions  to 
 him ;  as,  first,  whether  he  abjured  the 
 devil  and  all  his  Avorks  ;  secondly,  Avhether 
 he  gave  a  firm  assent  to  all  the  articles  of 
 the  Christian  faith  :  to  both  which  he  an- 
 swered in  the  affirmative.  Concerning 
 these  baptismal  questions,  Dionysius  Alex- 
 andrinus,  in  his  letter  to  Xistus,  bishop  of 
 Rome,  speaks  of  a  certain  scrupulous  per- 
 son in  his  church,  Avho,  being  present  at 
 baptism,  was  exceedingly  troubled,  Avhen 
 
 he  heard  the  questions  and  ansAvers  of 
 those  Avho  Avere  baptized.  If  the  person 
 to  be  baptized  Avas  an  infant,  these  inter- 
 rogatories Avere  ansAvered  by  his  spo7isorcs, 
 or  godfathers.  Whether  the  use  of  spon- 
 sors Avas  as  old  as  the  apostles'  days,  is  un- 
 certain :  perhaps  it  Avas  not,  since  Justin 
 Martyr,  speaking  of  the  method  and  form 
 of  baptism,  says  not  a  Avord  of  them. — 
 Tertull.  de  Coron.  3Iilit.  Cyprian,  Epist. 
 vii.  §  5.  Justin  Martyr,  Apolog.  2.  Apud 
 Euseh.  lib.  vii.  c.  9 ;  Ajjolog.  2. 
 
 After  the  questions  and  ansAvers,  fol- 
 lowed exorcism,  the  manner  and  end  of 
 Avhich  Avas  this.  The  minister  laid  his 
 hands  on  the  person's  head,  and  breathed 
 in  his  face,  implying  thereby  the  driving 
 aAvay,  or  expelling,  of  the  devil  from  him, 
 and  preparing  liim  for  baptism,  by  which 
 the  good  and  holy  Spirit  Avas  to.  be  con- 
 ferred upon  him. 
 
 After  exorcism,  followed  baptism  itself: 
 and  first  the  minister,  by  prayer,  conse- 
 crated the  Avater  for  that  use.  Tertullian 
 says,  "  any  Avaters  may  be  applied  to  that 
 use  ;  but  then  God  must  be  first  invo- 
 cated,  and  then  the  Holy  Ghost  presently 
 comes  doAvn  from  heaven,  and  moves  upon 
 them,  and  sanctifies  them."  The  Avater 
 being  consecrated,  the  person  Avas  bap- 
 tized "  in  the  name  of  the  Father,  and  of 
 the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost;"  by 
 Avhich  "  dedication  of  him  to  the  blessed 
 Trinity,  the  person  "  (says  Clemens  Alex- 
 andrinus)  ''  is  delivered  from  the  corrupt 
 trinity,  the  devil,  the  Avorld,  and  the  flesh." 
 —  Tertull.  de  Baptismo.  Justin  Martyr, 
 Apolog.  2. 
 
 In  performing  the  ceremony  of  baptism, 
 the  usual  custom  Avas  to  immerse  and  dip 
 the  Avhole  body.  Thus  St.  Barnabas,  de- 
 scribing a  baptized  person,  says,  "  A^'e  go 
 doAvn  into  the  Avater  full  of  sin  and  filth, 
 but  Ave  ascend  bearing  fruit  in  our  hearts." 
 And  that  all  occasions  of  scandal  and  im- 
 modesty might  be  prevented  in  so  sacred 
 an  action,  the  men  and  Avomen  Avere  ba])- 
 tized  in  distinct  apartments ;  the  AVomen 
 having  deaconesses  to  undress  and  dress 
 them.  Then  folloAved  the  unction,  by 
 Avhich  (says  St.  Cp-il)  was  signified,  that  they 
 Avere  noAV  cut  off  from  the  Avild  olive,  and 
 Avere  ingrafted  into  Christ,  the  true  olive- 
 tree  ;  or  else  to  shoAV,  that  they  Avere  noAV 
 to  be  champions  for  the  gospel,  and  Avere 
 anointed  thereto,  as  the  old  Athleta^  Avere 
 against  their  solemn  games.  With  this 
 anointing  was  joined  the  sign  of  the  cross, 
 made  upon  the  forehead  of  the  person 
 ])aj)tizcd ;  Avhich  being  done,  he  had  a 
 Avliite  garment  given  him,  to  denote  his 
 being  Avashed  from  the  defilements  of  sin,  or 
 
BAPTISM. 
 
 in  allusion  to  the  words  of  the  apostle,  "  as 
 many  as  are  baptized  into  Clu-ist  have  put 
 on  Christ."  From  tliis  custom  the  feast  of 
 Pentecost,  which  Avas  one  of  the  annual 
 seasons  of  baptism,  came  to  be  called 
 Whit-sunday,  i.  e.  White-sunday.  This 
 garment  was  afterwards  laid  up  in  the 
 church,  that  it  might  be  an  evidence  against 
 such  persons  as  violated  or  denied  that 
 faith  wliich  they  had  owned  in  baptism. 
 Of  tliis  we  have  a  remarkable  instance 
 under  the  Arian  persecution  in  Africa, 
 Elpidopliorus,  a  citizen  of  Carthage,  had 
 lived  a  long  time  in  tlic  communion  of  the 
 Church,  but,  apostatizing  afterwards  to  the 
 Arians,  became  a  most  bitter  and  implac- 
 able persecutor  of  the  orthodox.  Among 
 several  whom  he  sentenced  to  the  rack, 
 was  one  Miritas,  a  venerable  old  deacon, 
 who,  being  ready  to  be  put  upon  the  rack, 
 pulled  out  the  white  garment  with  which 
 Elpidopliorus  had  been  clothed  at  his 
 baptism,  and,  Avith  tears  in  his  eyes,  thus 
 addi'cssed  him  before  all  the  people. 
 "  These,  Elpidopliorus,  thou  minister  of 
 error,  these  are  the  garments  that  shall 
 accuse  thee,  Avhen  thou  shalt  appear  before 
 the  majesty  of  the  Great  Judge  ;  these  are 
 they  which  girt  thee,  when  thou  earnest 
 pure  out  of  the  holy  font ;  and  these  are 
 they  Avliich  shall  bitterly  pursue  thee, 
 when  thou  shalt  be  cast  into  the  place  of 
 flames  ;  because  thou  hast  clothed  thyself 
 with  cursing  as  Avith  a  garment,  and  hast 
 cast  ofl"  the  sacred  obligation  of  thy  bap- 
 tism."— Epist.  CathoL  §  9.  Cave's  Pri- 
 mitive Christian  it}/,  p.  i.  c.  10.  Epiph. 
 Han-es.  79.  Ambrose  de  Sacr.  lib.  i.  c.  21. 
 Gal.  iii.  27.  Victor.  Utic.  de  Persecut. 
 Vandal,  lib.  iii. 
 
 But  though  immersion  Avas  the  usual 
 practice,  yet  sprinkling  Avas  in  some  cases 
 alloAved,as  in  clinic  baptism,  or  the  baptism 
 of  such  persons  as  lay  sick  in  bed.  It  is 
 true,  this  kind  of  baptism  Avas  not  esteem- 
 ed so  perfect  and  etfectual  as  that  by  im- 
 mersion or  dipping ;  for  Avhich  reason,  in 
 some  Churches,  none  Avere  advanced  to  the 
 order  of  the  priesthood,  Avho  had  been 
 so  baptized  ;  an  instance  of  Avhich  Ave  have 
 in  Novatian,  Avhose  ordination  was  opposed 
 by  all  the  clergy  upon  that  account;  though 
 afterAvard,  at  the  entreaties  of  the  bishop, 
 they  consented  to  it.  NotAvithstanding 
 Avhich  general  opinion,  Cy])rian,  in  a  set 
 discourse  on  this  subject,  declares  that  he 
 thought  this  baptism  to  be  as  perfect  and 
 valid  as  that  performed  more  solemnlv  by 
 immQXiiion.  —  Epist.  Cornel,  ad  Enhium 
 Antioch.  apud  Euscb.  lib.  vi.  cap.  43.  Epist. 
 Ixxvi.  §  9.  Apoloff.  2. 
 
 When  baptism  was  performed,  the  per- 
 
 son baptized,  according  to  Justin  Martyr, 
 "  Avas  received  into  the  number  of  the  faith- 
 ful, Avho  then  sent  up  their  public  prayers 
 to  God,  for  all  men,  for  themselves,  and 
 for  those  aaIio  had  been  baptized." 
 
 As  the  Church  granted  baptism  to  all 
 persons  duly  qualified  to  receive  it,  so 
 there  Avere  some  Avhom  she  debarred  from 
 the  benefits  of  this  holy  rite.  The  author 
 of  the  Apostolical  Constitutions  mentions 
 several.  Binylunn,  Oriy.  Eccles.  b.  xi.  cap. 
 5,  §  6,  (fee.  Const.  Apost.  lib.  \\\\.  cap.  32. 
 Such  were  panders,  or  procurers  ;  whores  ; 
 makers  of  images  or  idols  ;  actors  and  stage- 
 players  ;  gladiators,  charioteers,  and  game- 
 sters ;  magicians,  enchanters,  aijtrologers, 
 diviners,  and  w^andering  beggars.  Con- 
 cerning stage-players,  the  Church  seems  to 
 have  considered  them  in  the  A^ery  same 
 light  as  the  ancient  heathens  themselves 
 did:  for  Tertullian  [TcrtiUl.  de  Spectac. 
 cap.  22)  observes  that  they  AA^ho  professed 
 those  arts  Avere  branded  with  infamy,  de- 
 graded, and  denied  many  privileges,  driven 
 from  the  court,  from  pleading,  from  the 
 order  of  knighthood,  and  all  other  honours 
 in  the  Roman  city  and  commonAvealth.  It 
 has  been  a  question,  AA'hether  the  military 
 life  disqualified  a  man  for  baptism  :  but 
 the  contrary  appears  from  the  Constitutions, 
 lib.  A'iii.  cap.  32,  which  admit  soldiers  to 
 the  baptism  of  the  Church,  on  the  same 
 terms  that  St.  John  Baptist  admitted  them 
 to  his ;  namely,  that  they  should  do  vio- 
 lence to  no  man,  accuse  no  one  falsely,  and 
 be  content  Avith  their  wages,  Luke  iii.  14. 
 The  state  of  co7icubinaye  is  another  case 
 Avhich  has  been  matter  of  doubt.  The 
 rule  in  the  Constitutions,  lib.  viii.  c.  32, 
 concerning  the  matter  is  this  :  a  concubine, 
 that  is,  a  slave  to  an  infidel,  if  she  keep 
 herself  only  to  him,  may  be  received  to 
 baptism ;  but,  if  she  commit  fornication 
 AA-ith  others,  she  shall  be  rejected.  The 
 Council  of  Toledo  {Cone.  Tolet.  1,  can.  17) 
 distinguishes  betAveen  a  man's  having  a 
 Avife  and  a  concubine  at  the  same  time,  and 
 keeping  a  concubine  only :  the  latter  case 
 it  considers  as  no  disqualification  for  the 
 sacraments,  and  only  insists  that  a  man 
 be  content  to  be  joined  to  one  Avoman 
 only,  Avhether  Avife  or  concubine,  as  he 
 pleases. 
 
 Though  baptism  Avas  esteemed  by  the 
 Church  as  a  Divine  and  heavenly  institu- 
 tion, yet  there  Avanted  not  sects,  in  the 
 earliest  ages,Avho  either  rejected  it  in  Avhole 
 or  in  part,  or  greatly  corrupted  it.  The 
 Ascodrutaj  Avholly  rejected  it,  because  they 
 would  admit  of  no  external  or  corporeal 
 symbols  Avhatever.  The  Archontics,  Avho 
 imagined  that  the  Avorld  Avas  not  created 
 
BAPTISM. 
 
 83 
 
 by  the  supreme  God,  but  by  certain  dpxov- 
 Teg,  or  powers,  the  chief  of  whom  they 
 called  Sabaoth,  rejected  this  ■whole  rite,  as 
 a  foreif^n  institution,  given  by  Sabaoth, 
 the  God  of  the  Jews,  whom  they  distin- 
 guished from  the  supreme  God.  The 
 Seleucians  and  Hermians  rejected  baptism 
 by  water,  on  pretence  tliatit  was  not  the  bap- 
 tism instituted  by  Christ ;  because  St.  John 
 Baptist,  comparing  his  OAvn  baptism  with 
 that  of  Christ,  says,  "  I  baptize  you  with 
 water,  but  he  that  cometli  after  me  shall 
 baptize  you  with  the  Holy  Ghost  and 
 with  fire,"  INIatt.  iii.  11.  they  thought 
 that  the  souls  of  men  consisted  of  fire  and 
 spirit,  and  therefore  that  a  baptism  by  fire 
 was  more  suitable  to  their  nature.  Another 
 sect  which  rejected  water-baptism,  were 
 the  Manichees,  who  looked  upon  it  as  of 
 no  efficacy  towards  salvation  :  but  whether 
 they  admitted  any  other  kind  of  baptism, 
 we  are  not  told.  The  Paulicians,  a  branch 
 of  this  heresy,  maintained  that  the  word  of 
 the  gospel  is  baptism,  because  our  Lord 
 said,  "  I  am  the  living  water."  —  Bi7if/- 
 ham  Orig.  Eccles.  h.  x.  cap.  2,  §  1. 
 Epiph.  liceres.  40.  Thcod.  Ilccr.  Fab.  1.  i. 
 cap.  11.  August  de  Hares,  ca^.  59.  Phi- 
 lastr.  de  Ilceres.  PrcBdestinat.  Hccres.  40. 
 Euihym.  Panoplia,  Par.  ii.  tit.  21. 
 
 Though  the  ancient  Church  considered 
 baptism  as  indispensably  necessary  to  sal- 
 vation, it  was  always  with  this  restriction, 
 provided  it  could  be  had  :  in  extraordinary 
 cases,  wherein  baptism  could  not  be  had, 
 though  men  were  desirous  of  it,  they 
 made  several  exceptions  in  behalf  of  other 
 things,  which  in  such  circumstances  were 
 thought  sufficient  to  supply  the  want  of 
 it.  {Bingham,  §  19,  20.)  The  chief  of 
 these  excepted  cases  was  martyrdom,  which 
 usually  goes  by  the  name  of  second  bap- 
 tism, or  baptism  in  men's  own  blood,  in 
 the  writings  of  the  ancients.  {Cyprian. 
 Ep.  Ixiii.  ad  Julian.)  This  baptism,  they 
 suppose,  our  Lord  spoke  of,  when  he  said, 
 **  I  have  another  baptism  to  be  baptized 
 with,"  alluding  to  his  own  future  martyr- 
 dom on  the  cross.  In  the  Acts  of  the  Mar- 
 tyrdom of  Perpetua,  there  is  mention  of 
 one  Saturus,  a  catechumen,  M'ho,  being 
 thrown  to  a  leopard,  was,  by  the  first  bite 
 of  the  wild  beast,  so  bathed  in  blood, 
 that  the  people,  in  derision  of  the  Chris- 
 tian doctrine  of  martyrdom,  cried  out 
 snlvinn  latum,  salvum  latum,  baptized  and 
 saved,  baptized  and  saved.  {Bingham, 
 §  24.)  But  these  exceptions  and  allow- 
 ances were  with  respect  to  adult  persons 
 only,  who  could  make  some  compensation, 
 by  acts  of  faith  and  repentance,  for  the 
 want  of  the  external  ceremony  of  baptism. 
 G  2 
 
 But,  as  to  infants  who  died  without  bap- 
 tism, the  case  was  thought  more  difficult, 
 because  they  were  destitute  both  of  "  the 
 outward  visible  sign  and  the  inward 
 spiritual  grace  of  baptism."  Upon  which 
 account  they  who  spoke  the  most  favour- 
 ably of  their  case,  would  only  venture  to 
 assign  them  a  middle  state,  neither  in 
 heaven  nor  hell. —  Greg.  Naz.  Orat.  40. 
 Sever.  Catena  in  Johan.  iii. 
 
 For  the  rest,  the  rite  of  baptism  was 
 esteemed  as  the  most  universal  absolution 
 and  grand  indulgence  of  the  ministry  of 
 the  Church ;  as  conveying  a  general  par- 
 don of  sin  to  every  true  member  of  Christ ; 
 and  as  the  key  of  the  sacraments,  that 
 opens  the  gate  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven. 
 Bingham,  b.  xix,  c.  i.  §  9. 
 
 Baptism  is  defined  by  the  Church  of 
 Rome  {Alefs  Ritual)  to  be  ''  a  sacrament, 
 instituted  by  our  Saviour,  to  wash  away 
 original  sin,  and  all  those  we  may  have 
 committed  ;  to  communicate  to  mankind 
 the  spiritual  regeneration,  and  the  grace 
 of  Christ  Jesus  ;  and  to  unite  them  to 
 him,  as  the  living  members  to  the  head." 
 
 When  a  child  is  to  be  baptized  in  that 
 Church,  the  persons  who  bring  it  wait  for 
 the  priest  at  the  door  of  the  Church,  Avho 
 comes  thither  in  his  surplice  and  purple 
 stole,  attended  by  his  clerks.  He  begins 
 with  questioning  the  godfathers,  whether 
 they  promise,  in  the  child's  name,  to  live 
 and  die  in  the  true  Catholic  and  Apostolic 
 faith,  and  what  name  they  would  give  the 
 child.  Then  follows  an  exhortation  to 
 the  sponsors  ;  after  which  the  priest,  call- 
 ing the  child  by  its  name,  asks  it  as  follows  : 
 "  What  dost  thou  demand  of  the  Church  ?  " 
 The  godfather  answers,  "  Eternal  life."  The 
 priest  goes  on ;  "If  you  are  desirous  of 
 obtaining  eternal  life,  keep  God's  com- 
 mandments, Thou  shalt  love  the  Lord  thy 
 God,"  &c.  After  which  he  breathes  three 
 times  in  the  child's  face,  saying,  "  Come 
 out  of  this  child,  thou  evil  spirit,  and  make 
 room  for  the  Holy  Ghost."  This  said,  he 
 makes  the  sign  of  the  cross  on  the  child's 
 forehead  and  breast,  saying,  "  lieceive  the 
 sign  of  the  cross  on  thy  forehead,  and  in 
 thy  heart."  Then,  taking  off  his  cap,  he 
 repeats  a  short  prayer,  and,  laying  his  hand 
 gently  on  the  child's  head,  repeats  a  second 
 prayer  :  which  ended,  he  blesses  some  salt, 
 and,  putting  a  little  of  it  into  the  child's 
 mouth,  pronounces  these  words  ;  "  Receive 
 the  salt  of  wisdom."  All  this  is  perform- 
 ed at  the  church  door. 
 
 The  priest,  with  the  godfathers  and 
 godmothers,  coming  into  the  church,  and 
 advancing  towards  the  font,  repeat  the 
 Apostles'  Creed  and  the  Lord's  Prayer. 
 
84 
 
 BAPTISM. 
 
 Being  come  to  the  font,  the  priest  exor- 
 cises the  evil  spirit  again,  and,  taking  a 
 little  of  his  own  spittle,  with  the  thumb  of 
 his  right  hand,  rubs  it  on  the  child's  ears 
 and  nostrils,  repeating,  as  he  touches  the 
 right  car,  the  same  word  (Ephatha,  "be 
 thou  opened")  which  our  Saviour  made  use 
 of  to  the  man  born  deaf  and  dumb.  Lastly, 
 they  pull  off  its  swaddling-clothes,  or  strip 
 it  below  the  shoulders,  during  which  the 
 priest  prepares  the  oils,  &c. 
 
 The  sponsors  then  hold  the  child  direct- 
 ly over  the  font,  observing  to  turn  it  due 
 east  and  west ;  whereupon  the  priest  asks 
 the  child,  "whether  he  renounces  the  devil 
 and  all  his  works  |"  and,  the  godfather 
 having  answered  in  the  affirmative,  the 
 priest  anoints  the  child  between  the  should- 
 ers in  the  form  of  a  cross.  Then,  taking 
 some  of  the  consecrated  water,  he  pours 
 part  of  it  thrice  on  the  child's  head,  at 
 each  perfusion  calling  on  one  of  the  per- 
 sons of  the  holy  Trinity.  The  priest  con- 
 cludes the  ceremony  of  baptism  with  an 
 exhortation. 
 
 It  is  to  be  observed,  that,  in  the  naming 
 the  child,  all  profane  names,  such  as  those 
 of  the  heathens  and  their  gods,  are  never 
 admitted  ;  and  that  a  priest  is  authorized 
 to  change  the  name  of  a  child  (though  it 
 be  a  Scripture  name)  who  has  been  bap- 
 tized by  a  Protestant  minister.  Benserade, 
 we  are  told,  had  like  to  have  had  his 
 Christian  name,  which  was  Isaac,  changed, 
 when  the  bishop  confirmed  him,  had  he 
 not  prevented  it  by  a  jest:  for,  when  they 
 would  have  changed  his  name,  and  given 
 him  another,  he  asked  them,  "What  they 
 gave  him  into  the  bargain ; "  which  so 
 pleased  the  bishop,  that  he  permitted  him 
 to  retain  his  former  name. 
 
 The  Homish  Church  allows  midwives,  in 
 cases  of  danger,  to  baptize  a  child  before  it 
 is  come  entirely  out  of  its  mother's  womb  : 
 where  it  is  to  be  observed,  that  some  part 
 of  the  body  of  the  child  must  appear  before 
 it  can  be  baptized,  and  that  it  is  baptized 
 on  the  part  which  first  appears :  if  it  be 
 the  head  it  is  not  necessary  to  re-baptize 
 the  child  ;  but  if  only  a  foot  or  hand  ap- 
 pears, it  is  necessary  to  repeat  baptism. 
 A  still-born  child,  thus  baptized,  may  be 
 buried  in  consecrated  ground.  A  monster, 
 or  creature  that  has  not  the  human  form, 
 must  not  be  baptized :  if  it  be  doubtful 
 whether  it  be  a  human  creature  or  not,  it 
 is  baptized  conditionally  thus,  "If  thou 
 art  a  man,  I  baptize  thee,"  &c. 
 
 The  Greek  Church  differs  from  the 
 Romish,  as  to  the  rite  of  baptism,  chiefly, 
 in  performing  it  by  immersion,  or  plunging 
 the  infant  all  over  in  the  water,  which  the 
 
 relations  of  the  child  take  care  to  have 
 warmed,  and  throw  into  it  a  collection  of 
 the  most  odoriferous  flowers. — Rycaufs 
 State  of  the  Greek  Church. 
 
 The  Church  of  England  (Article  xxvii.) 
 defines  baptism  to  be,  "  not  only  a  sign  of 
 profession,  and  mark  of  difference,  where- 
 by Christian  men  are  discerned  from  others 
 that  be  not  christened ;  but  it  is  also  a 
 sign  of  regeneration,  or  new  birth,  where- 
 by, as  by  an  instrument,  they  that  receive 
 baptism  rightly  are  grafted  into  the 
 Church :  the  promises  of  the  forgiveness  of 
 sin,  of  our  adoption  to  be  the  sons  of  God, 
 by  the  Holy  Ghost,  are  visibly  signed  and 
 sealed,  faith  is  confirmed,  and  grace  in- 
 creased, by  virtue  of  prayer  to  God."  It  is 
 added,  "  that  the  baptism  of  young  children 
 is  in  any  wise  to  be  retained  in  the  Church, 
 as  most  agreeable  with  the  institution  of 
 Christ." 
 
 In  the  rubrics  of  her  liturgy,  (see  Office 
 for  Ministration  of  Public  Baptism,)  the 
 Church  prescribes,  that  baptism  be  adminis- 
 tered only  on  Sundays  and  holy  days,  except 
 in  cases  of  necessity.  She  requires  sponsors 
 for  infants ;  for  every  male  child  two  god- 
 fathers and  one  godmother  ;  and  for  every 
 female  two  godmothers  and  one  godfather. 
 Vre  find  this  provision  made  by  a  consti- 
 tution of  Edmond,  archbishop  of  Canter- 
 bury, A.  D.  1236 ;  and  in  a  synod  held  at 
 Worcester,  A.  d.  1240.  By  the  29th  canon 
 of  our  Church,  no  parentis  to  be  admitted 
 to  answer  as  godfather  to  his  own  child. — 
 BjJ-  Gibson^ s  Codex,  vol.  i.  p.  439. 
 
 The  form  of  administering  baptism  is  too 
 well  known  to  require  a  particular  account 
 to  be  given  of  it.  We  shall  only  observe 
 some  of  the  more  material  differences 
 between  the  form,  as  it  stood  in  the  first 
 liturgy  of  King  Edward,  and  that  in  our 
 Common  Prayer  Book  at  present.  First, 
 in  that  of  King  Edward,  we  meet  with  a 
 form  of  exorcism,  founded  upon  the  like 
 practice  of  the  primitive  Church,  which  our 
 reformers  left  out,  when  they  took  a  re- 
 view of  the  liturgy  in  the  oth  and  6th  of 
 that  king.     It  is  as  follows. 
 
 "  Then  let  the  priest,  looking  iipoii  the 
 children,  say  ; 
 
 "I  com.mand  thee,  unclean  spirit,  in  the 
 name  of  the  Father,  and  of  the  Son,  and 
 of  the  Holy  Ghost,  that  thou  come  out,  and 
 depart  from  these  infants,  whom  our  Lord 
 Jesus  Christ  hath  vouchsafed  to  call  to  his 
 holy  baptism,  to  be  made  members  of  his 
 body,  and  of  his  holy  congregation.  There- 
 fore, thou  cursed  spirit,  remember  thy 
 sentence,  remember  thy  judgment,  re- 
 member the  day  to   be  at  hand,  wherein 
 
BAPTISM. 
 
 85 
 
 thou  shalt  burn  in  fire  everlasting,  pre- 
 pared for  thee  and  thy  angels.  And  pre- 
 sume not  hereafter  to  exercise  any  tyranny 
 towards  these  infants,  whom  Christ  hath 
 bought  with  his  precious  blood,  and  by 
 this  his  holy  baptism  calleth  to  be  of  his 
 flock." 
 
 The  form  of  consecrating  the  water  did 
 not  make  a  part  of  the  office  in  King 
 EdAvard's  liturgy,  as  it  does  in  the  present, 
 because  the  water  in  the  font  was  changed 
 and  consecrated  but  once  a  month.  The 
 form  likewise  itself  was  something  differ- 
 ent from  that  we  now  use,  and  was  intro- 
 duced with  a  short  prayer,  that  *'  Jesus 
 Christ,  uj)on  whom  (when  he  was  baptized) 
 the  Holy  Ghost  came  down  in  the  likeness 
 of  a  dove,  would  send  down  the  same 
 Holy  Spirit,  to  sanctify  the  fountain  of 
 baptism  ;  which  prayer  was  afterwards  left 
 out,  at  the  second  review. 
 
 By  King  Edward's  First  Book,  the  minis- 
 ter is  to  "  dip  the  child  in  the  water  thrice  ; 
 first  dipping  the  right  side ;  secondly  the 
 left;  the  third  time  dipping  the  face  to- 
 Avard  the  font."  This  trine  immersion  was 
 a  very  ancient  practice  in  the  Christian 
 Church,  and  used  in  honour  of  the  Holy 
 Trinity  :  though  some  later  writers  say,  it 
 was  done  to  represent  the  death,  burial,  and 
 resurrection  of  Christ,  together  with  his 
 three  days'  continuance  in  the  grave.  After- 
 wards, the  Arians  making  an  ill  use  of  it, 
 by  persuading  the  people  that  it  was  used 
 to  denote  that  the  three  persons  in  the 
 Trinity  were  three  distinct  substances,  the 
 orthodox  left  it  off,  and  used  only  one 
 single  immersion. —  Tertull.  adv.  Prax.  c. 
 26.  Greg.  Nyss.  de  Bapt.  Christi.  Cyril, 
 Catech.  Mystay. 
 
 By  the  first  Common  Prayer  of  King 
 Edward,  after  the  child  was  baptized,  the 
 godfathers  and  godmothers  were  to  lay 
 their  hands  upon  it,  and  the  minister  was 
 to  put  on  him  the  white  vestment  com- 
 monly called  the  Chrysome,  and  to  say : 
 "  Take  this  wliite  vesture,  as  a  token  of  the 
 innocency  which,  by  God's  grace,  in  this 
 holy  sacrament  of  baptism,  is  given  unto 
 thee;  and  for  a  sign,  whereby  thou  art 
 admonished,  so  long  as  thou  livest,  to  give 
 thyself  to  innocence  of  living,  that,  after 
 this  transitory  life,  thou  mayest  be  par- 
 taker of  the  life  everlasting.  Amen."  As 
 soon  as  he  had  pronounced  these  words,  he 
 was  to  anoint  the  infant  on  the  head,  say- 
 ing, "Almighty  God,  the  Father  of  our 
 Lord  Jesus  Christ,  who  hath  regenerated 
 thee  by  water  and  the  Holy  Ghost,  and 
 hath  given  unto  thee  remission  of  all  thy 
 sins ;  vouchsafe  to  anoint  thee  with  the 
 unction  of  his  Holy  Spirit,  and  bring  thee 
 
 to  the  inheritance  of  everlasting  life. 
 Amen."  This  was  manifestly  done  in  imi- 
 tation of  the  practice  of  the  primitive 
 Church. 
 
 The  custom  of  sprinkling  children,  in- 
 stead of  dipping  them  in  the  font,  which 
 at  first  was  allowed  in  case  of  the  weak- 
 ness or  sickness  of  the  infant,  has  so  far  pre- 
 vailed, that  immersion  is  at  length  almost 
 excluded.  AVliat  principally  tended  to 
 confirm  the  practice  of  aftusion  or  sprink- 
 ling, was,  that  several  of  our  English 
 divines,  flying  into  Germany  and  Switzer- 
 land, during  the  bloody  reign  of  Queen 
 Mary,  and  returning  home  when  Queen 
 Elizabeth  came  to  the  crown,  brought 
 back  with  them  a  great  zeal  for  the  Pro- 
 testant Churches  beyond  sea  where  they 
 had  been  sheltered  and  received ;  and, 
 having  observed  that  at  Geneva  [Calvin, 
 Instit.  lib.  iv.  c.  15)  and  some  other  places 
 baptism  was  administered  by  sprinkling, 
 they  thought  they  could  not  do  the  Church 
 of  England  a  greater  piece  of  service  than 
 by  introducing  a  practice  dictated  by  so 
 great  an  oracle  as  Calvin.  This,  together 
 with  the  coldness  of  our  northern  climate, 
 was  what  contributed  to  banish  entirely 
 the  practice  of  dipping  infants  in  the  font. 
 
 Lay-baptism  we  find  to  have  been  per- 
 mitted by  both  the  Common  Prayer  Books 
 of  King  Edward,  and  that  of  Queen  Eliza- 
 beth, when  an  infant  is  in  immediate 
 danger  of  death,  and  a  lawful  minister 
 cannot  be  had.  This  was  founded  upon 
 the  mistaken  notion  of  the  impossibility  of 
 salvation  without  the  sacrament  of  baptism  : 
 but  afterwards,  when  they  came  to  have 
 clearer  notions  of  the  sacraments,  it  was 
 unanimously  resolved  in  a  convocation, 
 held  in  the  year  1575,  that  even  private 
 baptism,  in  a  case  of  necessity,  was  only  to 
 be  administered  by  a  lawful  minister. — Bp. 
 Gibson's  Codex,\\i.  xviii.  vol.  i.  ch.  9, p.  446. 
 
 It  remains  to  be  observed,  that,  by  a 
 provincial  constitution,  made  in  the  vear 
 1236,  (26th  of  Hen.  III.,)  neither 'the 
 water,  nor  the  vessel  containing  it,  which 
 have  been  made  use  of  in  private  baptism, 
 are  afterwards  to  be  applied  to  connnon 
 uses:  but,  out  of  reverence  to  the  sacra- 
 ment, the  water  is  to  be  ])oured  into  the 
 fire,  or  else  carried  into  the  church  and 
 put  into  the  font ;  and  the  vessel  to  be 
 burnt,  or  else  ai)])roprIated  to  some  use  in 
 the  church.  But  no  provision  is  made  for 
 the  disposition  of  the  water  used  in  the 
 font  at  church.  In  the  Greek  Church, 
 ])articular  care  is  taken  that  it  be  not 
 thrown  into  the  street  like  common  water, 
 but  ])oured  into  a  hollow  place  under 
 the  altar,   (called  QaXaaaiuov  or  ;^a>vtioi/,) 
 
86 
 
 BAPTISM,  ADULT. 
 
 BAPTISM,  LAY. 
 
 where  it  is  soaked  into  the  earth,  or  finds 
 a  passage. — Broiu/Jiton.  Bp.  Gibson's  Codex, 
 tit.  xviii.  c.  2,  vol.  i.  p.  435.  Dr.  Smith's 
 Account  of  the  Gr.  Church. 
 
 BAPTISM,  ADULT.  "  It  was  thought 
 convenient,  that  some  prayers  and  thanks- 
 givings, fitted  to  special  occasions,  should 
 be  added  ;  particularly  an  office  for  the 
 baptism  of  such  as  are  of  riper  years; 
 which,  although  not  so  necessary  when  the 
 fonner  book  was  compiled,  yet  by  the 
 gro>\-th  of  anabaptism,  through  the  licen- 
 tiousness of  the  late  times  crept  in  amongst 
 us,  is  now  become  necessary,  and  may  be 
 always  useful  for  the  baptizing  of  natives 
 in  our  plantations,  and  others  converted  to 
 the  faith." — Preface  to  the  Book  of  Com- 
 mon Prayer. 
 
 liuhric.  "When  any  such  persons  of 
 riper  years  are  to  be  baptized,  timely  no- 
 tice shall  be  given  to  the  bishop,  or  Avhom 
 he  shall  appoint  for  that  purpose,  a  week 
 before  at  the  least,  by  the  parents  or  some 
 other  discreet  persons;  that  so  due  care 
 may  be  taken  for  their  examination,  whe- 
 ther they  be  sufficiently  instructed  in  the 
 principles  of  the  Christian  religion ;  and 
 that  they  may  be  exhorted  to  prepare 
 themselves  with  prayers  and  fasting  for  the 
 receiving  of  this  holy  sacrament.  And  if 
 they  shall  be  found  fit,  then  the  godfathers 
 and  godmothers  (the  people  being  assem- 
 bled upon  the  Sunday  or  holy  day  ap- 
 pointed) shall  be  ready  to  present  them  at 
 the  font,  immediately  after  the  second 
 lesson,  either  at  morning  or  evening  prayer, 
 ars  the  curate  in  his  discretion  shall  think 
 fit.  And  it  is  expedient  that  every  person 
 thus  baptized  should  be  confirmed  by  the 
 bishop,  so  soon  after  his  baptism  as  con- 
 veniently may  be ;  that  so  he  may  be  ad- 
 mitted to  the  holy  communion." 
 
 BAPTISM,  INFANT.  Article  27.  "  The 
 baptism  of  young  children  is  in  anywise  to 
 be  retained  in  the  Church,  as  most  agree- 
 able with  the  institution  of  Christ." 
 
 Rubric.  "  The  curates  of  every  parish 
 shall  often  admonish  the  people,  that  they 
 defer  not  the  baptism  of  their  children 
 longer  than  the  fii'st  or  second  Sunday 
 next  after  their  biilh,  or  other  holy  day 
 falling  between  ;  unless  upon  a  great  and 
 reasonable  cause,  to  be  approved  by  the 
 curate." 
 
 The  practice  of  infant  baptism  seems  to 
 be  a  necessary  consequence  of  the  doctrine 
 of  original  sin  and  of  the  grace  of  baptism. 
 If  it  be  only  by  union  with  Christ  that 
 the  children  of  Adam  can  be  saved ;  and 
 if,  as  the  apostle  teaches,  in  baptism  "  we 
 put  on  Christ,"  then  it  was  natui-al  for 
 parents  to   ask  for   permission    to   bring 
 
 their  little  ones  to  Christ,  that  they  might 
 be  partakers  of  the  free  grace  that  is  offer- 
 ed to  all ;  but  though  oftered  to  all,  to  be 
 applied  individually.     It  may  be  because 
 it   is   so    necessary  a  consequence   of  the 
 doctrine  of  original  sin,  that  the  rite  of 
 infant  baptism  is  not  enjoined  in  Scripture. 
 But  though  there  is  no  command  in  Scrip- 
 ture to  baptize  infants,  and  although  for 
 the  practice  we  must  plead  the  tradition 
 of  the  Church  Universal,  still  we  may  find 
 a  warrant  in   Scripture  in  favour  of  the 
 traditional  practice.     We  find  it  generally 
 stated  that  the   apostles  baptized  Mhole 
 households,  and  Christ  our  Saviour  com- 
 manded them  to  baptize  all   nations,  of 
 which  infants   form  a  considerable  part. 
 And   in   giving  this   injunction,  we  may 
 presume  that  he  intended  to  inohi^e  in- 
 fants, from  the  very  fact  of  his  not  ex- 
 cluding  them.      For  he  was   addressing 
 Jews ;  and  when  the  Jews  converted  a  hea- 
 then to  faith  in  the  God  of  Israel,  they  were 
 accustomed  to  baptize  the  convert,  ioyether 
 with  all  the  infants  of  his  fajnilij.     And, 
 consequently,  when  our  Lord  commanded 
 Jetvs,  i.  e.  men  accustomed  to  this  practice, 
 to  baptize  nations,  the  fact  that  he  did  not 
 positively  repel  infants,  implied  an  injunc- 
 tion to  baptize  them ;  and  when  the  Holy 
 Spirit  records  that  the  apostles,  in  obe- 
 dience to  that  injunction,  baptized  whole 
 households,  the  argument  gains  increased 
 force.     This  is  probably   what   St.    Paul 
 means,    when,    in    the    seventh    chapter 
 of   the    First    Corinthians,   verse    14,  he 
 speaks    of  the    children   of   believers    as 
 being  holy :    they  are  so   far  holy,  that 
 they  may  be  brought  to  the  sacrament  of 
 baptism.     From   the   apostles   has   come 
 down  the  practice  of  baptizing  infants,  the 
 Church  requiring  security,  through  certain 
 sponsors,  that  the  children  shall  be  brought 
 up  to  lead  a  godly  and  a  Christian  life. 
 And  by  the  early  Christians  the  practice 
 was  considered  sufficiently  sanctioned  by 
 the  passage  from  St.  Mark,  which  is  read 
 in  our  baptismal  office,  in  which  we  are 
 told,  that  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  having 
 rebuked  those  that  would  have  kept  the 
 children  from  him,  took  them  up  in  his 
 arms  and  blessed  them.     He  blessed  them, 
 and  his  blessing  must  have  conveyed  grace 
 to  their  souls  ;  therefore,  of  grace,  children 
 may  be  partakers.     They  may  receive  spi- 
 ritual life,  though  it  may  be  long  before 
 that  life  develope  itself;  and  that  life  they 
 may  lose  by  sinning. 
 
 BAPTISM,  LAY.  We  shall  briefly 
 state  the  history  of  lay  baptism  in  our 
 Church  both  before  and  after  the  Reform- 
 ation.     In  the  "Laws  Ecclesiastical"  of 
 
BAPTISM,  LAY. 
 
 BAPTISM,  PRIVATE. 
 
 Edmund,  king  of  England,  A.  u.  945,  it 
 is  stated  : — "  AVomen,  when  their  time  of 
 child-hearing  is  near  at  hand,  shall  have 
 water  ready,  for  baptizing  the  child  in 
 case  of  necessity." 
 
 In  the  national  synod  under  Otho,  1237, 
 it  is  directed :  "  For  cases  of  necessity,  the 
 priests  on  Sundays  shall  frequently  instruct 
 their  parishioners  in  the  form  of  baptism." 
 To  which  it  is  added,  in  the  Constitutions 
 of  Archbishop  Peckham,  in  1279,  *'  AV'hich 
 form  shall  be  thus :  I  crysten  thee  in  the 
 name  of  the  Fader,  and  of  the  Sone,  and 
 of  the  Holy  Goste." 
 
 In  the  Constitutions  of  the  same  arch- 
 bishop, in  1281,  it  is  ruled  that  infants 
 baptized  by  laymen  or  %vomen  (in  immi- 
 nent danger  of  death)  shall  not  be  bap- 
 tized again ;  and  the  priest  shall  afterwards 
 supply  the  rest. 
 
 By  the  rubrics  of  the  second  and  of  the 
 fifth  of  Edward  VI.  it  Avas  ordered  thus : 
 "  The  pastors  and  curates  shall  often  ad- 
 monish the  people,  that  without  great  cause 
 and  necessity  they  baptize  not  children  at 
 home  in  their  houses ;  and  when  great  need 
 shall  compel  them  so  to  do,  that  then  they 
 minister  it  in  this  fashion  :  —  First,  let 
 them  that  be  present  call  upon  God  for  his 
 grace,  and  say  the  Lord's  Prayer,  if  the 
 time  will  suffer ;  and  then  one  of  them  shall 
 name  the  child  and  dip  him  in  the  water, 
 or  pour  Avater  upon  him,  saying  these 
 words,  I  baptize  thee  in  the  name  of  the 
 Father,  and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy 
 Ghost." 
 
 In  the  manuscript  copy  of  the  Articles 
 made  in  convocation  in  the  year  1575,  the 
 twelfth  is,  "  Item,  where  some  ambiguity 
 and  doubt  hath  arisen  among  divers,  by 
 what  persons  private  baptism  is  to  be  ad- 
 ministered ;  forasmuch  as  by  the  Book  of 
 Common  Prayer  allowed  by  the  statute,  the 
 bishop  of  the  diocese  is  authorized  to  ex- 
 pound and  resolve  all  such  doubts  as  shall 
 arise,  concerning  the  manner  how  to  un- 
 derstand and  to  execute  the  things  con- 
 tained in  the  said  book ;  it  is  now,  by  the 
 said  archbishop  and  bishops,  expounded 
 and  resolved,  and  every  of  them  doth  ex- 
 pound and  resolve,  that  tlie  said  private 
 baptism,  in  case  of  necessity,  is  only  to  be 
 ministered  by  a  lawful  minister  or  deacon 
 called  to  be  present  for  that  purpose,  and 
 by  none  other ;  and  that  every  bishop  in 
 his  diocese  shall  take  order  that  this  ex- 
 position of  the  said  doubt  shall  be  publish- 
 ed in  writing,  before  the  first  day  of  May 
 next  coming,  in  every  parish  church  of  his 
 diocese  in  this  province ;  and  thereby  all 
 other  persons  shall  be  inhibited  to  inter- 
 meddle with  the  ministering  of  baptism 
 
 privately,  being  no  part  of  their  vocation." 
 This  article  was  not  published  in  the 
 printed  copy ;  but  whether  on  the  same 
 account  that  the  fifteenth  article  was  left 
 out,  (namely,  because  disa])})roved  by  the 
 CroAvn,)  does  not  certainly  appear.  How- 
 ever, the  ambiguity  remained  till  the  con- 
 ference at  Hampton  Court,  in  which  the 
 king  said,  that  if  baptism  was  termed  pri- 
 vate, because  any  but  a  lawful  minister 
 might  baptize,  he  utterly  disliked  it,  and 
 the  point  was  then  debated ;  which  debate 
 ended  in  an  order  to  the  bishops  to  explain 
 it,  so  as  to  restrain  it  to  a  lawful  minister. 
 Accordingly,  in  the  Book  of  Common 
 Prayer,  which  was  set  forth  the  same  year, 
 the  alterations  were  printed  in  the  rubric 
 thus : — "  And  also  they  shall  warn  them, 
 that  without  great  cause  they  procure  not 
 their  children  to  be  baptized  at  home  in 
 their  houses.  And  when  great  need  shall 
 compel  them  so  to  do,  then  baptism  shall 
 be  administered  on  this  fashion :  First,  let 
 the  lawful  minister  and  them  that  be  pre- 
 sent call  upon  God  for  his  grace,  and  say 
 the  Lord's  Prayer,  if  the  time  will  suff"er ; 
 and  then  the  child  being  named  by  some 
 one  that  is  present,  the  said  minister  shall 
 dip  it  in  the  water,  or  pour  water  upon  it." 
 And  other  expressions,  in  other  parts  of 
 the  service,  which  seemed  before  to  admit 
 of  lay  baptism,  were  so  turned,  as  express- 
 ly to  exclude  it. 
 
 BAPTISM,  PRIVATE.  Rubric.  "The 
 curates  of  every  parish  shall  often  warn  the 
 people,  that  without  great  cause  and  ne- 
 cessity, they  procure  not  their  children  to 
 be  baptized  at  home  in  their  houses." 
 
 Canon  69.  "  If  any  minister  being  duly, 
 without  any  manner  of  collusion,  informed 
 of  the  weakness  and  danger  of  death  of 
 any  infant  unbaptized  in  his  parish,  and 
 thereupon  desired  to  go  or  come  to  the 
 place  where  the  said  infant  remaineth,  to 
 baptize  the  same,  shall  either  wilfully  re- 
 fuse so  to  do,  or  of  purpose  or  of  gross 
 negligence  shall  so  defer  the  time,  as  when 
 he  might  conveniently  have  resorted  to  the 
 place,  and  have  baptized  the  said  infant,  it 
 dieth  thi'ough  such  his  default  unbaptized, 
 the  said  minister  shall  be  suspended  for 
 three  months,  and  before  liis  restitution 
 shall  acknowledge  his  fault,  and  promise 
 before  his  ordinary  that  he  will  not  wit- 
 tingly incur  the  like  again.  Provided,  that 
 where  there  is  a  curate,  or  a  substitute, 
 this  constitution  shall  not  extend  to  the 
 parson  or  vicar  himself,  but  to  the  curate 
 or  substitute  present." 
 
 liubric.  "Tiie  child  being  named  by  some 
 one  that  is  present,  the  minister  shall  pour 
 water  upon  it. 
 
88 
 
 BAPTISM,  PUBLIC. 
 
 "  And  let  them  not  doubt,  but  that  the 
 child  so  baptized  is  lawfully  and  sufficiently 
 baptized,  and  ou^ht  not  to  be  baptized 
 again.  Yet,  nevertheless,  if  the  child 
 which  is  after  this  sort  baptized  do  after- 
 ward live,  it  is  exj)edient  that  it  be  brought 
 into  the  church,  to  the  intent  that  the 
 congregation  may  be  certified  of  the  true 
 form  of  bai)tisin  privately  before  adminis- 
 tered to  such  child." 
 
 BAPTISM,  rUBLIC.  At  first  baptism 
 was  administered  publicly,  as  occasion 
 served,  by  rivers ;  afterwards  the  baptis- 
 tery was'  built,  at  the  entrance  of  the 
 church  or  very  near  it,  which  had  a  large 
 basin  in  it,  that  held  the  persons  to  be 
 baptized,  and  they  went  down  by  steps 
 into  it.  Afterwards,  when  immersion 
 came  to  be  disused,  fonts  were  set  up  at 
 the  entrance  of  churches. 
 
 By  the  "Laws  Ecclesiastical"  of  King 
 Edm.aid,  it  is  directed  that  there  shall  be 
 a  font  of  stone,  or  other  competent  mate- 
 rial, in  every  church ;  which  shall  be  de- 
 cently covered  and  kept,  and  not  convert- 
 ed to  other  uses. 
 
 And  by  canon  81,  There  shall  be  a  font 
 of  stone  in  every  church  and  chapel  where 
 baptism  is  to  be  administered ;  the  same  to 
 be  set  in  the  ancient  usual  places :  in 
 which  only  font  the  minister  shall  baptize 
 publicly. 
 
 The  rubric  directs  that  the  people  are 
 to  be  admonished,  that  it  is  most  conveni- 
 ent that  baptism  shall  not  be  administered 
 but  upon  Sundays  and  other  holy  days, 
 when  the  most  number  of  people  come  to- 
 gether ;  as  well  for  that  the  congregation 
 there  present  may  testify  the  receiving  of 
 them  that  be  newdy  baptized  into  the 
 number  of  Christ's  Church,  as  also  because 
 in  the  baptism  of  infants,  every  man  pre- 
 sent may  be  put  in  remembrance  of  his 
 own  profession  made  to  GoD  in  his  bap- 
 tism. Nevertheless,  if  necessity  so  require, 
 children  may  be  baptized  upon  any  other 
 day. 
 
 And  by  canon  68,  No  minister  shall 
 refuse  or  delay  to  christen  any  child 
 according  to  the  form  of  the  Book  of 
 Common  Prayer,  that  is  brought  to  the 
 church  to  him  upon  Sundays  and  holy 
 days  to  be  christened  (convenient  warning 
 being  given  him  thereof  before).  And 
 if  he  shall  refuse  so  to  do,  he  shall  be  sus- 
 pended by  the  bishop  of  the  diocese  from 
 his  ministry  by  the  space  of  three  months. 
 
 The  rubric  also  directs,  that  when  there 
 are  children  to  be  baptized,  the  parents 
 shall  give  knowledge  thereof  over-night, 
 or  in  the  morning  before  the  beginning  of 
 morning  prayer,  to  the  curate. 
 
 The  rubric  further  directs,  that  there 
 shall  be  for  every  male  child  to  be  bap- 
 tized two  godfathers  and  one  godmother ; 
 and  for  every  female,  one  godfather  and 
 two  godmothers. 
 
 By  the  29th  canon  it  is  related,  that  no 
 parent  shall  be  urged  to  be  present,  nor 
 admitted  to  answer  as  godfather  for  his 
 own  child :  nor  any  godfather  or  god- 
 mother shall  be  suffered  to  make  any  other 
 answer  or  speech,  than  by  the  Book  of 
 Common  Prayer  is  prescritjed  in  that  be- 
 half. Neither  shall  any  persons  be  ad- 
 mitted godfather  or  godmother  to  any 
 child  at  christening  or  confii-mation,  before 
 the  said  person  so  undertaking  hath  re- 
 ceived the  holy  communion. 
 
 According  to  the  rubric,  the  godfathers 
 and  godmothers,  and  the  people  with  the 
 chiklren,  must  be  ready  at  the  font,  either 
 immediately  after  the  last  lesson  at  morn- 
 ing prayer,  or  else  immediately  after  the 
 last  lesson  at  evening  prayer,  as  the  curate 
 by  his  discretion  shall  appoint. 
 
 The  rubric  appoints  that  the  priest  com- 
 ing to  the  font,  which  is  then  to  be  filled 
 with  pure  water,  shall  perform  the  office  of 
 public  baptism. 
 
 It  may  be  here  observed,  that  the  ques- 
 tions in  the  office  of  the  2  Edward  VI., 
 "  Dost  thou  renounce  ?  "  and  so  on,  were 
 put  to  the  child,  and  not  to  the  godfathers 
 and  godmothers,  which  (with  all  due  sub- 
 mission) seems  more  applicable  to  the  end 
 of  the  institution ;  besides  that  it  is  not 
 consistent  (as  it  seems)  with  the  propriety 
 of  language,  to  say  to  three  persons  col- 
 lectively, "  Dost  thou  in  the  name  of  tliis 
 child  do  this  or  that  ?  " 
 
 By  a  constitution  of  Archbishop  Peck- 
 ham,  the  ministers  are  to  take  care  not  to  per- 
 mit wanton  names,  which  being  pronounced 
 do  sound  to  lasciviousness,  to  be  given  to 
 children  baptized,  especially  of  the  female 
 sex ;  and  if  otherwise  it  be  done,  the  same 
 shall  be  changed  by  the  bishop  at  confirm- 
 ation ;  which  being  so  changed  at  confirm- 
 ation (Lord  Coke  says)  shall  be  deemed 
 the  lawful  name,  though  this  appears  to 
 be  no  longer  the  case.  In  the  ancient 
 offices  of  Confirmation,  the  bishop  pro- 
 nounced the  name  of  the  child  ;  and  if  the 
 bishop  did  not  approve  of  the  name,  or  the 
 person  to  be  confirmed,  or  his  friends,  desir- 
 ed it  to  be  altered,  it  might  be  done  by  the 
 bishop's  then  pronouncing  a  new  name ; 
 but  by  the  form  of  the  present  liturgy,  the 
 bishop  doth  not  pronounce  the  name  of  the 
 person  to  be  confirmed,  and  therefore  can- 
 not alter  it. 
 
 The  rubric  goes  on  to  direct.  The  priest, 
 taking  the  child  into  his  hands,  shall  say 
 
BAPTISM,  PUBLIC. 
 
 89 
 
 to  the  godfathers  and  godmothers,  "  Name  j 
 this  child : "  and  then  naming  it  after  them,  I 
 (if  they  shall  certify  him  that  the  child 
 may  viell  endure  it,)  he  shall  dip  it  in  the  ' 
 Avater  discreetly  and  warih\  saying,  "  X.  I 
 baptize  thee  in  the  name  of  the  Father, 
 and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost." 
 But  if  they  certify  that  the  child  is  weak, 
 it  shall  suffice  to  pour  Avater  ii])on  it. 
 
 Here  we  may  observe  that  the  di})ping 
 by  the  office  of  the  2  Edward  VI.  was  not 
 ail  over ;  but  they  first  dipped  the  right 
 side,  then  the  left,  then  the  face  toAvards 
 the  font. 
 
 The  rubric  directs  that  the  minister  shall 
 sign  the  child  with  the  sign  of  the  cross. 
 And  to  take  away  all  scruple  concerning 
 the  same,  the  true  explication  thereof,  and 
 the  just  reasons  for  retaining  of  this  cere- 
 mony, are  set  forth  in  the  thirtieth  canon. 
 The  substance  of  which  canon  is  this,  that 
 the  first  Christians  gloried  in  the  cross  of 
 Christ  ;  that  the  Scripture  sets  forth  our 
 whole  redemption  under  the  name  of  the 
 cross ;  that  the  sign  of  the  cross  was  used 
 by  the  first  Christians  in  all  their  actions, 
 and  especially  in  the  baptizing  of  their 
 children ;  that  the  abuse  of  it  by  the  Church 
 of  Rome  does  not  take  away  the  lawful  use 
 of  it ;  that  the  same  has  been  approved  by 
 the  reformed  divines,  with  sufficient  cau- 
 tions nevertheless  against  superstition  in 
 the  use  of  it;  that  it  is  no  part  of  the  sub- 
 stance of  this  sacrament,  and  that  the  in- 
 fant baptized  is  by  virtue  of  baptism,  before 
 it  be  signed  with  the  sign  of  the  cross,  re- 
 ceived into  the  congregation  of  Christ's 
 flock  as  a  perfect  member  thereof,  and  not 
 by  any  power  ascribed  to  the  sign  of  the 
 cross ;  and  therefore,  that  the  same,  being 
 purged  from  all  Popish  superstition  and 
 error,  and  reduced  to  its  primary  institu- 
 tion, upon  those  rules  of  doctrine  concern- 
 ing things  indifi'erent  which  are  consonant 
 to  the  word  of  God  and  to  the  judgments 
 of  all  the  ancient  fathers,  ought  to  be  re- 
 tained in  the  Church,  considering  that 
 things  of  themselves  indifferent  do,  in  some 
 sort,  alter  their  natures  w^hen  they  become 
 enjoined  or  prohibited  by  lawful  authority. 
 
 The  folloAving  is  Dr.  Comber's  analysis  of 
 our  baptismal  office  : — The  first  part  of  the 
 office,  or  the  preparation  before  baptism, 
 concerns  either  the  child  or  the  sureties. 
 As  to  the  child,  we  first  inquire  if  it  want 
 baptism;  secondly,  show  the  necessity  of 
 it  in  an  exhortation ;  thirdly,  we  pray  it 
 may  be  fitted  for  it  in  the  two  collects. 
 First,  the  priest  asks  if  this  child  have  been 
 already  baptized,  because  St.  Paul  saith, 
 "  there  is  but  one  baptism  "  (Ephes.  iv.  5) ; 
 and  as  we  are  born,  so  we  arc  bom  again, 
 
 but  once.  Secondly,  the  minister  begins 
 the  exhortation,  showing,  1.  what  reason 
 there  is  to  baptize  this  child,  namely,  be- 
 cause of  its  being  born  in  original  sin, 
 (Psalm  li.  5,)  and  by  consequence  liable 
 to  condemnation  (Rom.  v.  12);  the  only 
 way  to  free  it  from  which  is  baptizing  it 
 with  water  and  the  Holy  Ghost.  (John 
 iii.  5.)  And,  2.  beseeching  all  present, 
 ui)on  this  account,  to  pray  to  God,  that, 
 while  he  baptizes  this  child  with  water, 
 God  Avill  give  it  his  Holy  Spirit,  so  as 
 to  make  it  a  lively  member  of  Christ's 
 Church,  whereby  it  may  have  a  title  to 
 "  remission  of  sins."  Thirdly,  the  two  col- 
 lects follow,  made  by  the  ])riest  and  all  the 
 people  for  the  child  •  the  first  collect  com- 
 memorates how  God  did  typify  this  salva- 
 tion, which  he  now  gives  by  baptism,  in 
 saving  Noah  and  all  his  by  water  (1  Pet. 
 iii.  21)  ;  and  by  carrying  the  Israelites 
 safe  through  the  Red'  Sea.  (1  Cor.  x.  2.) 
 And  it  declares  also  how  Christ  himself, 
 by  being  baptized,  sanctified  water  for  re- 
 mission of  sin  :  and  u])on  these  grounds  we 
 pray  that  God  will  by  his  Spirit  cleanse 
 and  sanctify  this  child,  that  he  may  be 
 delivered  from  his  wrath,  saved  in  the  ark 
 of  his  Church,  and  so  filled  with  grace  as 
 to  live  holily  here,  and  happily  hereafter. 
 The  second  collect,  after  OAvning  God's 
 power  to  help  this  child,  and  to  raise  him 
 from  the  death  of  sin  to  the  life  of  right- 
 eousness, doth  petition  him  to  grant  it  may 
 receive  remission  and  regeneration,  plead- 
 ing with  God  to  grant  this  request,  by  his 
 promise  to  give  to  them  that  ask,  that  so 
 this  infant  may  be  spiritually  cleansed  by 
 God's  grace  in  its  baptism,  and  come  at 
 last  to  his  eternal  kingdom,  through  Christ 
 our  Lord.     Amen. 
 
 The  next  part  of  the  preparation  con- 
 cerns the  godfathers  or  sureties,  who  are, 
 1.  encouraged  in  the  gospel  and  its  ap- 
 plication, with  the   thanksgivi 
 
 mir  ;    -i.  in- 
 
 structed in  the  preface  before  the  cove- 
 nant; 3.  engaged  in  the  questions  and 
 answers.  The  Jews  had  sureties  at  cir- 
 cumcision, w'ho  promised  for  the  child  till 
 it  came  to  age  (Isaiah  viii.  2) ;  and  the 
 primitive  Christians  had  sponsors  to  engage 
 for  such  as  Avere  baptized,  and  since  chil- 
 di'en  cannot  make  a  coA-enant  themselves, 
 it  is  charity  to  appoint  (as  the  laAvs  of  men 
 do)  others  to  do  it  for  them  till  they  be  of 
 age;  and  this  gives  security  to  the  Church, 
 the  child  shall  not  be  an  apostate  ;  provides 
 a  monitor  both  for  the  child  and  its  parents, 
 to  mind  them  of  this  voav,  and  keep  the 
 memory  of  this  ncAv  birth,  by  giving  the 
 child  ncAV  and  spiritual  relations  of  god- 
 fathers and  godmothers.     Now  to  these  the 
 
90 
 
 BAPTISM,  PUBLIC. 
 
 priest  next  addresseth,  1.  in  the  Gospel  {Mark 
 X.  13—16) ;  which  shows  how  the  Jews, 
 beheving  that  Cniiisi's  blessing  would  be 
 very  beneficial  to  young  children,  brought 
 them  to  him  in  tlieir  aims,  and  when  the 
 discii)les  checked  them,  CnitlST  first  de- 
 clares that  infants,  and  such  as  were  like 
 them,  had  the  only  right  to  the  kingdom 
 of  heaven,  and  therefore  they  had  good 
 right  to  his  love  and  his  blessing,  and  to 
 all  means  which  might  bring  theni  to  it, 
 and  accordingly  he  took  them  in  his  arms 
 and  blessed  them.  After  this  follows  the 
 explicaiion,  and  applying  this  gospel  to  the 
 sureties;  for  if  they' doubt,  here  they  may 
 see  Christ's  love'  to  infants,  and  their 
 right  to  heaven  and  to  this  means,  so  that 
 they  may  firmly  believe  he  will  pardon  and 
 sanctify  this  cliild,  and  grant  it  a  title  to 
 his  kingdom  ;  and  that  he  is  well  pleased 
 with  them,  for  bringing  this  child  to  his 
 holy  baptism ;  for  he  desires  this  infant,  as 
 well  as  we  all,  may  come  to  know  and 
 believe  in  him.  AVherefore,  thii'dly,  here 
 is  a  tJ t (ink sfj icing  to  be  offered  up  by  all, 
 beginning  with  praising  God  for  calling 
 us  into  his  Church,  where  we  may  know 
 him  and  obtain  the  grace  to  believe,  it 
 being  very  proper  for  us  to  bless  GOD  for 
 our  being  Chi'istians,  when  a  new  Chris- 
 tian is  to  be  made ;  and  then  follows  a 
 prayer,  that  we  who  are  Christians  may 
 grow  in  gi'ace,  and  that  this  infant  may 
 receive  the  Spirit  in  order  to  its  regenera- 
 tion and  salvation.  After  which  form  of 
 devotion,  fourthly,  there  is  a  preface  to  the 
 covenant,  wherein  the  godfathers  and  god- 
 mothers are  put  in  mind,  first,  what  hath 
 been  done  already,  namely,  they  have 
 brought  the  child  to  Christ,  and  begged 
 of  him  in  the  collects  to  accept  it,  and 
 Christ  hath  showed  them  in  the  Gospel 
 that  the  child  is  capable  to  receive,  and  he 
 willing  to  give  it,  salvation  and  the  means 
 thereof,  upon  the  conditions  required  of 
 all  Chi'istians,  that  is,  repentance,  faith, 
 and  new  obedience.  Secondly,  therefore, 
 they  are  required  to  engage  in  the  name 
 of  this  child,  till  it  come  of  age,  that  it 
 shall  perform  these  conditions  required  on 
 its  part,  that  it  may  have  a  title  to  that 
 which  Christ  doth  promise,  and  will  cer- 
 tainly perfonn  on  his  part.  Fifthly,  the 
 engagement  itself  follows,  which  is  very 
 necessary,  since  baptism  is  a  mutual  cove- 
 nant between  God  and  man,  and  therefore, 
 in  the  beginning  of  Christianity,  (when  the 
 Church  consisted  chiefly  of  such  as  were 
 converted  from  the  Jews  and  Heathens, 
 after  they  came  to  age,)  the  parties  bap- 
 tized answered  these  very  same  questions, 
 and  entered  into  these  very  engagements. 
 
 BAPTISM,  REGISTRATION  OF. 
 
 for  themselves ;  which  infants  (who  need 
 the  benefits  of  baptism  as  much  as  any) 
 not  being  able  to  do,  the  Church  lends 
 them  the  feet  of  others  to  bring  them,  and 
 the  tongues  of  others  to  promise  for  them  ; 
 and  the  priest  stands  in  God's  stead  to 
 take  this  security  in  his  name ;  he  "  de- 
 mands," therefore,  of  the  sureties,  first,  if 
 they  in  the  name  and  stead  of  this  child 
 will  renounce  all  sinful  compliances  with 
 the  devil,  the  world,  and  the  flesh,  which 
 tempt  us  to  all  kinds  of  sin,  and  so  are 
 God's  enemies,  and  ours  also,  in  so  high 
 a  measure,  that  unless  we  vow  never  to 
 follow  and  be  led  by  them,  we  cannot  be 
 received  into  league  and  friendship  w;ith 
 God  :  to  this  they  reply  in  the  singular 
 number,  as  if  the  child  spake  by  them,  "  I 
 renounce  them  all."  Secondly,  as  Philip 
 asked  the  eimuch  if  he  did  believe  before 
 he  baptized  him,  (Acts  viii.  37,)  so  the 
 priest  asks  if  they  believe  all  the  articles 
 of  the  Christian  faith,  into  which  religion 
 they  are  now^  to  be  entered ;  and  therefore 
 they  must  engage  to  hold  all  the  funda- 
 mental principles  thereof,  revealed  in  Scrip- 
 ture and  comprised  in  the  Apostles'  Creed ; 
 and  they  are  to  answer,  "  All  this  I  sted- 
 fastly  believe."  Thirdly,  that  it  may  ap- 
 pear to  be  their  own  free  act  to  admit 
 themselves  into  this  holy  religion,  they  are 
 asked  if  they  will  be  baptized  into  this 
 faith,  and  they  answer,  "  That  is  my  de- 
 sire ; "  for  who  would  not  desii-e  to  be  a 
 child  of  God,  a  member  of  Christ,  and  an 
 heir  of  heaven  ?  But  since  these  benefits  of 
 baptism  are  promised  only  to  them  who 
 live  holily,  fourthly,  it  is  demanded  if  they 
 will  keep  God's  holy  will  and  command- 
 ments as  long  as  they  live,  since  they  now 
 take  Christ  for  their  Lord  and  Master, 
 and  list  themselves  under  his  banner,  and 
 receive  his  grace  in  this  sacrament,  to  re- 
 new and  strengthen  them  to  keep  this 
 vow  ?  U])on  these  accounts  they  promise 
 "  they  will "  keep  God's  commandments. 
 And  now  the  covenant  is  made  between 
 God  and  this  infant,  he  hath  promised  it 
 pardon,  grace,  and  glory,  and  is  willing  to 
 adopt  it  for  his  own  child  :  and  this  child, 
 by  its  sureties,  hath  engaged  to  forsake  all 
 evil  ways,  to  believe  all  truth,  and  to  prac- 
 tise all  kind  of  virtue. — Dean  Comber. 
 
 BAPTISM,  BEGISTRATION  OF. 
 When  the  minister  has  baptized  the  child 
 he  has  a  further  duty  to  perform,  in  making 
 an  entry  thereof  in  the  parish  register, 
 which  is  a  book  in  which  formerly  all 
 christenings,  marriages,  and  burials  were 
 recorded,  and  the  use  of  which  is  enforced 
 both  by  the  canon  law  and  by  the  statute. 
 
 The  keeping  of  parochial  registries  of 
 
BAPTISM,  llEGISTRATION  OF. 
 
 baptism,  and  also  of  burial,  are,  so  far  as 
 regards  the  duties  of  clergymen  in  that 
 respect,  regulated  by  the  statute  52  Geo. 
 III.  c.  146,  whereby  it  is  enacted  that  re- 
 gisters of  public  and  private  baptisms, 
 marriages,  and  burials,  solemnized  accord- 
 ing to  the  rites  of  our  Church,  shall  be 
 made  and  kept  by  the  rector  or  other  the 
 officiating  minister  of  every  parish  or  cha- 
 pelry,  on  books  of  parchment,  or  durable 
 paper,  to  be  provided  by  the  king's  printer, 
 at  the  expense  of  the  parishes  ;  and  the 
 particular  form  of  the  book,  and  of  the 
 manner  of  making  the  entries,  are  direct- 
 ed according  to  a  form  in  the  schedule  to 
 the  act. 
 
 The  register  book  is  to  be  deemed  the 
 property  of  the  parish  ;  the  custody  of  it 
 is  to  be  in  the  rector  or  other  officiating 
 minister,  by  whom  it  is  to  be  kept  in  an 
 iron  chest  provided  by  the  parish,  eitlier 
 in  his  own  house,  if  he  resides  in  the  parish, 
 or  in  the  church,  and  the  book  is  to  be 
 taken  from  the  chest  only  for  the  purpose 
 of  making  entries,  being  produced  Avhen 
 necessary  in  evidence,  or  for  some  of  the 
 purposes  mentioned  in  the  act. 
 
 The  act_6  &_  7  W.  IV.,  called  the  Ge- 
 neral Registration  Act,  provides  that  no- 
 thing therein  contained  shall  affect  the 
 registration  of  baptisms  or  burials,  as  noAV 
 by  law  established  ;  so  that  whatever  any 
 parishioner,  incumbent,  or  curate  had  re- 
 spectively a  right  to  insist  upon,  with  re- 
 gard to  the  regulation  of  baptisms,  may  be 
 equally  insisted  upon  by  either  party  now. 
 There  are,  however,  enactments  of  6  &  7 
 W.  IV.  c.  86,  which  are  to  be  observed  in 
 addition  to  those  of  52  Geo.  III.  c.  146. 
 
 If  any  child  born  in  England,  whose 
 birth  shall  have  been  registered  according 
 to  the  provisions  of  6  &  7  W.  IV.  c.  86, 
 shall,  within  six  calendar  months  after  it 
 has  been  so  registered,  have  any  name 
 given  to  it  in  baptism,  the  parents  or  per- 
 sons so  procuring  such  name  to  be  given 
 may,  within  seven  days  afterwards,  procure 
 and  deliver  to  the  registrar  a  certificate 
 according  to  a  prescribed  form,  signed  by 
 the  minister  who  shall  have  performed  the 
 rite  of  baptism,  which  certificate  the  minis- 
 ter is  required  to  deliver  immediately 
 after  the  baptism,  whenever  it  shall  then 
 be  demanded,  on  payment  of  the  fee  of  Is., 
 Avhich  he  shall  be  entitled  to  receive  for 
 the  same  ;  and  the  registrar,  or  superin- 
 tendant  registrar,  upon  the  receipt  of  that 
 certificate,  and  upon  payment  of  a  fee  of 
 Is.,  shall,  without  any  erasure  of  the  ori- 
 ginal entry,  forthwith  register  that  the 
 child  was  baptized  by  such  a  name  ;  and 
 such  registrar,  or  superintendant  registrar, 
 
 BAPTISTS. 
 
 91 
 
 shall  thereupon  certify  upon  the  certificate 
 the  additional  entry  so  made,  and  forth- 
 with send  the  certificate  through  the  post 
 to  the  registrar-general.  Every  rector, 
 &c.,  and  every  registrar,  &c.,  who  shall 
 have  the  keeping  for  the  time  being  of  any 
 register  book,  shall,  at  all  reasonable 
 times,  allow  searches  to  be  made,  and  shall 
 give  a  copy  certified  under  his  hand  of 
 any  entry  or  entries  in  the  same,  upon  pay- 
 ment of  a  fee  of  Is.,  for  every  search  ex- 
 tending over  a  i)eriod  of  not  more  than 
 one  year,  and  (5d.  additional  for  every 
 half  year,  and  2s.  6(1.  for  every  single  cer- 
 tificate. 
 
 BAPTISTERY.  Properly  h  separate, 
 or  special,  building  for  the  administration 
 of  holy  ba])tism.  In  this  sense,  a  baptist- 
 ery, originally  intended  and  used  for  the 
 purpose,  does  not  occur  hi  England  ;  for 
 that  which  is  called  the  ba])tistery  at  Can- 
 terbury, and  contains  the  font,  was  never 
 so  called,  or  so  furnished,  till  the  last  cen- 
 tury. The  remains  of  an  ancient  baptistery 
 chapel  have  lately  been  discovered  in  Ely 
 cathedral ;  and  the  chapel  is  now  in  the 
 course  of  restoration. 
 
 One  of  the  most  ancient  baptisteries  now 
 existing  is  that  of  St.  John  Lateran  at 
 Rome,  erected  by  Constantine.  It  is  a  de- 
 tached building,  and  octagonal.  In  the 
 centre  is  a  large  font  of  green  basalt,  into 
 which  the  persons  to  be  baptized  descended 
 by  the  four  steps  which  still  remain.  It 
 has  two  side  chapels  or  exedi'SB.  (See 
 Eustace,  Classical  Tour  in  Italy.) 
 
 Detached  baptisteries  still  exist  in  many 
 cities  in  Italy :  the  most  famous  are  those 
 at  Florence  and  Pisa.  These  served  for 
 the  w^hole  city ;  anciently  no  town  churches 
 but  the  cathedral  church  having  fonts. 
 (See  Bingham,  book  viii.  ch.  7,  §  6.) 
 
 Sometimes  the  canopy  to  the  font  grows 
 to  so  great  amplitude  as  to  be  supported 
 by  its  own  pillars,  and  to  receive  persons 
 within  it  at  the  baptismal  service,  and  then 
 it  may  be  called  a  baptistery.  This  is  the 
 case  at  Trunch  and  at  Aylsham,  both  in 
 Norfolk.     (See  Font.) 
 
 BAPTISTS.  A  name  improperly  as- 
 sumed by  those  who  deny  the  validity  of 
 infant  ba])tism,  defer  the  baptism  of  their 
 own  children,  and  admit  proselytes  into 
 their  community  by  a  secoiul  washing. 
 They  are  more  properly  called  Anabaptists, 
 (see'  Anabaptists,)  from  their  baptizing 
 •again  ;  or  Antip<Tdoba])tists,  from  their 
 denying  the  validity  of  infant  baptism. 
 Their  assumed  name  of  Baptists  would  in- 
 timate that  they  alone  truly  baptize,  and 
 it  ought  not  therefore  to  be  allowed  them. 
 We  ought  no  more  to  call  them  Baptists^ 
 
92 
 
 BAPTISTS. 
 
 BARDESANISTS. 
 
 than  to  call  Socinians  ^^//<7rt/•w;^'?,  or  Papists 
 Oithoh'cs,  as  if  -sve  did  not  hold  tlie  Unity 
 of  the  Godhead,  and  Socinians  Avcre  dis- 
 tinc^uishod  from  us  by  that  article ;  or  as 
 if  the  ra])ists,  and  not  "vve,  vcre  catholic 
 or  true  Christians. 
 
 ThL'  follo^^inii:  is  the  account  of  the  de- 
 nomination «>:iven  by  Burdcr.  The  mem- 
 bers of  this  denomination  are  distinguished 
 from  all  other  professing  Christians  by 
 their  opinions  respecting  the  ordinance  of 
 Christian  baptism.  Conceiving  that  posi- 
 tive institutions  cannot  be  established  by 
 analogical  reasoning,  but  depend  on  the 
 Avill  of  the  Saviouk  revealed  in  express 
 precepts,  and  that  apostolical  example  il- 
 lustrative of  this  is  the  rule  of  duty,  they 
 ditier  from  their  Christian  brethren  with 
 regard  both  to  the  subjects  and  the  mode 
 of  baptism. 
 
 With  respect  to  the  subjects,  from  the 
 command  which  Christ  gave  after  his  re- 
 surrection, and  in  which  baptism  is  men- 
 tioned as  consequent  to  faith  in  the  gospel, 
 they  conceive  them  to  be  those,  and  those 
 only,  who  believe  what  the  apostles  were 
 then  enjoined  to  preach. 
 
 With  respect  to  the  mode,  they  affirm 
 that,  instead  of  sprinkling  or  pouring,  the 
 person  ought  to  be  immersed  in  the  water, 
 referring  to  the  primitive  practice,  and  ob- 
 serving that  the  baptizer  as  well  as  the 
 baptized  having  gone  down  into  the  water, 
 the  latter  is  baptized  in  it,  and  both  come 
 up  out  of  it.  They  say,  that  John  baptized 
 in  the  Jordan,  and  that  Jesus,  after  being 
 baptized,  came  up  out  of  it.  Believers  are 
 said  also  to  be  "buried  with  Christ  by 
 baptism  into  death,  wherein  also  they  are 
 risen  with  him;"  and  the  Baptists  insist 
 that  this  is  a  doctrinal  allusion  incompati- 
 ble Avith  any  other  mode. 
 
 But  they  say  that  their  views  of  this 
 institution  are  much  more  confirmed,  and 
 may  be  better  understood,  by  studying  its 
 nature  and  import.  They  consider  it  as 
 an  im])ressive  emblem  of  that  by  which 
 their  sins  are  remitted  or  washed  away, 
 and  of  that  on  account  of  Avhich  the  Holy 
 Spirit  is  given  to  those  who  obey  the  Mes- 
 siah._  In  other  words,  they  view  Christian 
 baptism^  as  a  figurative  representation  of 
 that  which  the  gospel  of  Jesis  is  in  testi- 
 mony. To  this  the  mind  of  the  baptized 
 is  therefore  naturally  led,  Mhile  spectators 
 are  to  consider  him  as  professing  his  faith 
 in  the  gospel,  and  his  subjection  to  the 
 Redeemer.  The  Baptists,  therefore,  would 
 say,  that  none  ought  to  be  baptized  except 
 those  who  seem  to  believe  this  gospel ;  and 
 that  nnmersion  is  not  properlv  a  mode  of 
 bnj  tism,  but  baptism  itself. 
 
 Thus  the  English  and  most  foreign  Bap- 
 tists consider  a  personal  profession  of  faith, 
 and  an  immersion  in  water,  as  essential  to 
 bai)tism.  The  profession  of  faith  is  gener- 
 ally made  before  the  congregation,  at  a 
 church-meeting.  On  these  occasions  som.e 
 have  a  creed,  to  which  they  expect  the 
 candidate  to  assent,  and  to  give  a  circum- 
 stantial account  of  his  conversion  ;  but 
 others  require  only  a  profession  of  his  faith 
 as  a  Christian.  The  former  generally  con- 
 sider baptism  as  an  ordinance,  which  ini- 
 tiates persons  into  a  particular  church  ; 
 and  they  say  that,  without  breach  of  Chris- 
 tian liberty,  they  have  a  right  to  expect  an 
 agreement  in  articles  of  faith  in  their  own 
 societies.  The  latter  think  that  baptism 
 initiates  merely  into  a  profession  of  the 
 Christian  religion,  and  therefore  say  that 
 they  have  no  right  to  require  an  assent  to 
 their  creed  from  such  as  do  not  intend  to 
 join  their  communion;  and,  in  support  of 
 their  opinion,  they  quote  the  baptism  of 
 the  eunuch,  in  the  eighth  chapter  of  the 
 Acts  of  the  Apostles. 
 
 The  Baptists  are  divided  into  the  General, 
 who  are  Arminians,  and  the  Particular, 
 who  are  Calvinists.  Some  of  both  classes 
 allow  mixed  communion,  by  which  is  un- 
 derstood, that  those  who  have  not  been 
 baptized  by  immersion  on  the  profession 
 of  their  faith,  (but  in  their  infancy,  which 
 they  themselves  deem  valid,)  may  sit  doMn 
 at  the  Lord's  table  along  vrith  those  who 
 have  been  thus  baptized.  This  has  given 
 rise  to  much  controversy  on  the  subject. 
 
 Some  of  both  classes  of  Baptists  are,  at 
 the  same  time,  Sabbatarians,  and,  with  the 
 Jews,  observe  the  seventh  day  of  the  week 
 as  the  sabbath.  This  has  been  adopted  by 
 them  from  a  persuasion  that,  all  the  ten 
 commandments  are  in  their  nature  strictly 
 moral,  and  that  the  observance  of  the 
 seventh  day  was  never  abrogated  or  re- 
 pealed by  our  Saviour  or  his  apostles. 
 
 In  discipline,  the  Baptists  differ  little 
 from  the  Independents.  In  Scotland  they 
 have  some  peculiarities,  not  necessary  to 
 notice. 
 
 BARDESANISTS.  Christian  heretics 
 in  the  East,  and  the  followers  of  Bar- 
 desanes,  who  lived  in  Mesopotamia  in  the 
 second  century,  and  was  first  the  disciple 
 of  Valentinus,  but  quitted  that  heresy,  and 
 wrote  not  only  against  it,  but  against  the 
 Marcionite  and  other  heresies  of  his  time  ; 
 he  afterwards  unhappily  fell  into  the  errors 
 he  had  before  refuted.  The  Bardesanists 
 differed  from  the  Catholic  Church  on  three 
 points: — 1.  They  held  the  devil  to  be  a 
 self-existent,  independent  being.  2.  They 
 taufi:ht  that  our  Lord  was  not  born  of  a 
 
BARNABAS,  EPISTLE  OF 
 
 BARTHOLOMEWS  DAY  (ST.).      93 
 
 woman,  but  brought  his  body  with  him 
 from  heaven.  3.  They  denied  the  resur- 
 rection of  the  body. — l^useh.  Prcpp.  Evnng. 
 lib.  vi.  c.  9.  Eplph.  Hceres.  5,  6.  Origen, 
 cufifr.  3Ia)'cio7i,  §  3. 
 
 BARNABAS,  EPISTLE  OF.  The 
 Epistle  of  St.  Barnabas  is  published  by 
 Archbishop  Wake,  among  his  translations 
 of  the  works  of  the  Apostolical  Fathers ; 
 and  in  the  preliminary  dissertation  the 
 reader  will  find  the  arguments  Avhich  arc 
 adduced  to  prove  this  to  be  the  Avork  of 
 St.  Barnabas.  By  others  it  is  referred  to 
 the  second  century,  and  is  supposed  to  be 
 the  work  of  a  converted  Alexandrian  Jew. 
 Du  Pin  speaks  of  it  as  a  work  full  of  edi- 
 fication for  the  Church,  thougli  not  ca- 
 nonical. By  Clemens  Alexandrinus  and 
 Origen,  by  Eusebius  and  St.  Jerome,  the 
 work  is  attributed  to  St.  Barnabas,  though 
 they  declare  that  it  ought  not  to  be  esteem- 
 ed of  the  same  authority  as  the  canonical 
 books,  '•  because,  although  it  really  be- 
 longs to  St.  Barnabas,  yet  it  is  not  gener- 
 ally received  by  the  whole  Catholic  Church." 
 —  irake.  Du  Pin. 
 
 BARNABAS'  DAY  (ST.).  11th  of 
 June.  This  apostle  was  born  in  the  island 
 of  Cyprus,  and  was  descended  from  parents 
 of  the  house  of  Levi.  He  became  a  student 
 of  the  Jewish  law,  under  Gamaliel,  who 
 was  also  the  instructor  of  St.  Paul.  St. 
 Barnabas  was  one  of  those  who  freely 
 gave  up  his  worldly  goods  into  the  com- 
 mon stock,  which  was  voluntarily  formed 
 by  the  earliest  converts  to  Christianity. 
 After  the  conversion  of  St.  Paul,  St.  Bar- 
 nabas had  the  distinguished  honour  of 
 introducing  him  into  the  society  of  the 
 apostles ;  and  was  afterwards  his  fellow- 
 labourer  in  many  places,  especially  at  An- 
 tioch,  where  the  name  of  Christian  v>-as 
 first  assumed  by  the  followers  of  Jesus. 
 It  has  been  said  that  St.  Barnabas  founded 
 the  Church  of  Milan,  and  that  he  was 
 stoned  to  death  at  Salamis,  in  Cyprus  ; 
 but  these  accounts  are  very  uncertain. 
 For  the  Epistle  ascribed  to  him,  see  the 
 preceding  article. 
 
 BARNABITES.  Called  canons  regular 
 of  St.  Paul :  an  order  of  Romish  monks 
 approved  by  Pope  Clement  VII.  and  Pope 
 Paul  III.  There  have  been  several  learned 
 men  of  the  order,  and  they  have  several 
 monasteries  in  France,  Italy,  and  Savoy : 
 they  call  them  by  the  name  of  canons  of 
 St.  Paul,  because  their  first  founders  had 
 their  denomination  from  their  reading  St. 
 Paul's  Epistles  ;  and  they  are  named  I3ar- 
 nabites  for  their  particular  devotion  for  St. 
 Barnabas. — Du  Pin. 
 
 BARSANIANS,   or    SEMIDULITES. 
 
 Heretics  that  began  to  appear  in  the  sixth 
 age ;  tliey  maintained  the  errors  of  the 
 Gradanaites,  and  made  their  sacrifices 
 consist  in  taking  wheat  flour  on  the  top 
 of  their  finger,  and  caiTying  it  to  their 
 mouths. 
 
 BARTHOLOMEW'S  DAY  (ST.). 
 24th  of  August.  The  day  appointed  for 
 the  commemoration  of  this  apostle.  In  the 
 catalogue  of  the  apostles,  which  is  given 
 by  the  first  thr<>e  of  the  evangelists,  Bar- 
 tholomew makes  one  of  the  number.  St. 
 John,  however,  not  mentioning  him,  and 
 recording  several  things  of  another  dis- 
 ciple, whom  he  calls  Nathanael,  and  who  is 
 not  named  by  the  other  evangelists,  this 
 has  occasioned  many  to  be  of  the  opinion 
 that  Bartholomew  and  Nathanael  were  the 
 same  person.  St.  Bartholomew  is  said  to 
 have  preached  the  gospel  in  the  Greater 
 Armenia,  and  to  have  converted  the  Lyca- 
 onians  to  Christianity.  It  is  also  believed 
 that  he  carried  the  gospel  into  India  :  and 
 as  there  is  no  record  of  his  return,  it  is 
 not  improbable  that  he  suffered  martyr- 
 dom in  that  country. 
 
 St.  Bartholomew's  day  is  distinguished 
 in  history  on  account  of  that  horrid  and 
 atrocious  carnage,  called  the  Parisian  Mas- 
 sacre. This  shocking  scene  of  religious 
 phrensy  was  marked  with  such  barbarity 
 as  would  exceed  all  belief,  if  it  were  not 
 attested  by  authentic  evidence.  In  1572, 
 in  the  reign  of  Charles  IX.,  numbers  of 
 the  principal  Protestants  were  invited  to 
 Paris,  under  a  solemn  oath  of  safety,  to 
 celebrate  the  marriage  of  the  king  of  Na- 
 varre with  the  sister  of  the  French  king. 
 The  queen  dowager  of  Navarre,  a  zealous 
 Protestant,  was  poisoned  by  a  pair  of  gloves 
 before  the  marriage  was  solemnized.  On  the 
 24th  of  August,  being  St.  Bartholomew's 
 day,  about  morning  twilight,  the  massacre 
 commenced  on  the  tolling  of  a  bell  of  the 
 church  of  St.  Germain  I'Auxerrois.  The 
 Admiral  Coligni  was  basely  murdered  in 
 his  OAMi  house,  and  then  thrown  out  of  a 
 window,  to  gratify  the  malice  of  the  I  )uke 
 of  Guise.  His  head  was  afterwards  cut 
 off,  and  sent  to  the  king  and  the  queen 
 mother;  and  his  body,  after  a  thousand 
 indignities  offered  to  it,  was  hung  up  by 
 the  feet  upon  a  gibbet.  The  murderers 
 then  ravaged  the  whole  city  of  Paris,  and 
 put  to  death  more  than  ten  thousand  per- 
 sons of  all  ranks.  *'  This,"  says  Thuanus, 
 "  was  a  horrible  scene.  The  very  streets 
 and  passages  resounded  with  the  groans  of 
 the  (iving,  and  of  those  who  were  about  to 
 be  murdered.  The  bodies  of  the  slain  were 
 thrown  out  of  the  windows,  and  with  them 
 the  courts   and    chambers  of  the  houses 
 
d4 
 
 BARUCH. 
 
 BASILICA. 
 
 were  filled.  The  dead  bodies  of  others 
 were  drago:ed  through  the  streets,  and  the 
 blood  flowed  down  the  channels  in  such 
 torrents,  that  it  seemed  to  empty  itself  into 
 the  neighbouring  river.  In  short,  an  in- 
 numcral)le  multitude  of  men,  women  with 
 child,  maidens,  and  children,  were  involved 
 in  one  common  destruction ;  and  all  the 
 gates  and  entrances  to  the  king's  palace 
 were  besmeared  with  blood.  From  Paris, 
 the  massacre  spread  throughout  the  king- 
 dom. In  the  city  of  Meaux,  the  Papists 
 threw  into  gaol  more  than  two  hundred 
 persons  ;  and  after  they  had  ravished  and 
 killed  a  great  number  of  women,  and 
 plundered  the  houses  of  the  Protestants, 
 they  executed  their  fury  on  those  whom 
 they  had  imprisoned,  whom  they  killed  in 
 cold  blood,  and  whose  bodies  w^ere  thrown 
 into  ditches,  and  into  the  river  Maine. 
 At  Orleans  they  murdered  more  than  five 
 hundred  men,  women,  and  children,  and 
 enriched  themselves  with  the  plunder  of 
 their  property.  Similar  cruelties  W'ere 
 exercised  at  Angers,  Troyes,  Bourges, 
 La  Charite,  and  especially  at  Lyons,  where 
 they  inhumanly  destroyed  more  than  eight 
 hundred  Protestants,  whose  bodies  were 
 dragged  through  the  streets  and  thrown 
 half  dead  into  the  river.  It  would  be 
 endless  to  mention  the  butcheries  com- 
 mitted at  Valence,  Poanne,  Rouen,  &c. 
 It  is  asserted  that,  on  this  di'eadful  occa- 
 sion, more  than  thirty  thousand  persons 
 were  put  to  death.  This  atrocious  mas- 
 sacre met  with  the  deliberate  approba- 
 tion of  the  pope  and  the  authorities  of 
 the  Romish  Church,  and  must  convince 
 every  thinking  man  that  resistance  to 
 Popish  aggression  is  a  work  of  Christian 
 charity. 
 
 BARUCH  (THE  PROPHECY  OF). 
 One  of  the  apocryphal  books,  subjoined 
 to  the  canon  of  the  Old  Testament.  Ba- 
 ruch  was  the  son  of  Neriah,  who  was  the 
 disciple  and  amanuensis  of  the  prophet 
 Jeremiah.  It  has  been  reckoned  part  of 
 Jeremiah's  prophecy,  and  is  often  cited  by 
 the  ancient  fathers  as  such.  Josephus 
 tells  us,  Baruch  was  descended  of  a  noble 
 family ;  and  it  is  said,  in  the  book  itself, 
 that  he  wrote  this  prophecy  at  Babylon ; 
 but  at  what  time  is  uncertain. — Clem. 
 Alexand.  Padag.  ch.  10.  CxjjJrian.  de 
 Testimon.  ad  Quirinmn,  lib.  ii. 
 
 The  subject  of  it  is  an  epistle  sent,  or 
 feigned  to  be  sent,  by  king  Jehoiakim, 
 and  the  Jews  in  captivity  with  him  at 
 Babylon,  to  their  brethren  the  Jews,  who 
 were  left  behind  in  the  land  of  Judea,  and 
 m  Jerusalem  :  there  is  prefixed  an  histori- 
 cd  Preface,  {Pref.  to  the  Book  of  Baruch,) 
 
 which  relates,  that  Baruch,  being  then  at 
 Babylon,  did,  by  the  appointment  of  the 
 king  and  the  Jews,  and  in  their  name, 
 draw  up  this  epistle,  and  afterwards  read 
 it  to  them  for  their  approbation ;  after 
 which  it  was  sent  to  Jerusalem,  with  a 
 collection  of  money,  to  Joachim  the  high 
 priest,  the  son  of  Hilldah,  the  son  of  Shal- 
 lum,  and  to  the  priests,  and  to  all  the  peo- 
 ple, to  buy  therewith  bm-nt-ofi'erings,  and 
 sin-offerings,  and  incense,  8zc. 
 
 It  is  difficult  to  determine  in  what  lan- 
 guage this  prophecy  was  originally  written. 
 There  are  extant  three  copies  of  it ;  one 
 in  Greek,  the  other  two  in  Syriac ;  but 
 which  of  these,  or  whether  any  one  of 
 them,  be  the  original,  is  uncertain. — Hie- 
 ron.  in  Prafat.  ad  Jerem. 
 
 The  Jews  rejected  this  book,  because  it 
 did  not  appear  to  have  been  written  in 
 Hebrew ;  nor  is  it  in  the  catalogue  of  sa- 
 cred books,  given  us  by  Origen,  Hilary, 
 Ruffinus,  and  others.  But  in  the  Council 
 of  Laodicea,  in  St.  Cp-il,  Epiphanius,  and 
 Athanasius,  it  is  joined  with  the  prophecy 
 of  Jeremiah. 
 
 BASILIAN  MONKS.  Monks  of  the 
 order  of  St.  Basil,  who  lived  in  the  fourth 
 century.  St.  Basil,  having  retired  into  a 
 desert  in  the  province  of  Pontus,  founded 
 a  monastery  for  the  convenience  of  himself 
 and  his  numerous  followers ;  and  for  the 
 better  regulation  of  this  new  society,  it  is 
 said  that  he  drew  up  in  writing  certain 
 rules  which  he  wished  them  to  observe, 
 though  some  think  that  he  did  not  compose 
 these  rules.  This  new  order  soon  spread 
 over  all  the  East,  and  after  some  time 
 passed  into  the  West.  Some  authors  pre- 
 tend that  St.  Basil  saw  himself  the  spiritual 
 father  of  more  than  90,000  monks  in  the 
 East  only ;  but  this  order,  which  flourished 
 during  more  than  three  centuries,  was  con- 
 siderably diminished  by  heresy,  schism,  and 
 a  change  of  empire.  They  also  say,  that  it 
 has  produced  14  popes,  1805  bishops,  3010 
 abbots,  and  11,085  martps.  This  order 
 also  boasts  of  several  emperors,  kings,  apd 
 princes,  who  have  embraced  its  rule. — 
 Tillemont,  Hist.  Eccles.,  torn.  ix.  The  order 
 of  St.  Basil  prevails  almost  exclusively  in 
 the  orthodox  Greek  Churches. 
 
 BASILICA.  The  halls  of  justice  and  of 
 other  public  business  among  the  Romans 
 were  thus  called  ;  and  many  of  them,  when 
 converted  into  Christian  churches,  retained 
 the  same  name.  The  general  ground-plan 
 of  the  basilica  was  also  frequently  retained 
 in  the  erection  of  a  chm-ch.  The  basilicas 
 terminated  with  a  conchoidal  recess,  or 
 apsis,  (see  Apse.)  where  the  praetor  and 
 magistrates  sat :  beneath  this  was  a  trans- 
 
BASILIDIANS. 
 
 BASON. 
 
 95 
 
 verse  hall  or  gallery,  the  origin  of  the 
 transept,  and  below  -was  the  great  hall  with 
 its  side  passages,  afterwards  called  the  nave 
 and  aisles. 
 
 The  bishop  of  Rome  had  seven  cathe- 
 drals called  Basilica?.  Six  of  these  were 
 erected  or  converted  into  churches  by 
 Constantine,  viz.  St.  John  Lateran,  (the 
 regular  cathedral  of  Home,)  the  ancient 
 church  of  St.  Peter,  on  the  Vatican  Hill, 
 St.  Sebastian,  St.  Laurence,  the  Holy 
 Cross,  St.  Mary  the  Greater ;  and  one  by 
 Theodosius,  viz.  St.  Paul.  There  are 
 other  very  ancient  churches  in  Home, 
 basilicas  in  form  and  name,  but  not  cathe- 
 drals ;  for  example,  St.  Clement's  church, 
 supposed  to  have  been  originally  the 
 house  of  the  apostolical  bishop  of  that 
 name,  and  the  most  ancient  existing  church 
 in  the  Avorld.  Several  Italian  churche; 
 are  called  Basilicas ;  at  Milan  especially ; 
 often  more  than  one  in  a  city.  (See  Ca- 
 thedrals.) — Jehh. 
 
 It  is  sometimes  said,  but  without  any 
 certain  foundation,  that  some  of  the 
 churches  in  England  with  circular  apsidal 
 terminations  of  the  chancel,  (such  as  Kil- 
 peck  and  Steetly,)  were  originally  Roman 
 basilicas.  They  rather  derive  their  form 
 from  the  Oriental  country  churches,  which 
 are  uniformly  apsidal.  The  most  that  can 
 be  said  of  them  is,  that  they  do,  in  some 
 respects,  resemble  the  basilicas  in  ar- 
 rangement. But  as  to  the  cathedrals  of 
 England,  the  case  is  different:  and  since 
 old  Saxon  or  Xorman  churches  were  un- 
 questionably debasements  of  the  Roman 
 style  in  their  architectural  features,  it  is 
 possible  that  they  derived  from  Rome 
 the  characteristics  uniformly  observed  in 
 the  old  basilicas.  The  conversion  of  the 
 apses  into  sepulchral  chapels  for  shrines, 
 as  at  Westminster  and  Canterbury,  as  su- 
 perstition increased,  destroyed  the  ancient 
 arrangements. — Jehh. 
 
 BASILIDIANS.  A  sect  of  the  Gnostic 
 heretics,  the  followers  of  Basilides,  who 
 taught  that  from  the  Unborn  Father  was 
 born  his  Mind,  and  from  him  the  WOED, 
 from  him  Understanding  {(pp6vi](nQ),  from 
 him  Wisdom  and  Power,  and  from  them 
 Excellencies,  and  Princes,  and  Angels, 
 who  made  a  heaven.  He  then  introduced 
 a  successive  series  of  angelic  beings,  each 
 set  derived  from  the  preceding  one,  to  the 
 number  of  365,  and  each  the  author  of 
 their  own  peculiar  heaven.  To  all  these 
 angels  and  heavens  he  gave  names,  and 
 assigned  the  local  situations  of  the  heavens. 
 The  fu-st  of  them  is  called  Abraxas,  a 
 mystical  name,  containing  in  it  the  number 
 365  :  the  last  and  lowest  is  the  one  which 
 
 we  see ;  the  creators  of  which  made  this 
 world,  and  divided  its  parts  and  nations 
 amongst  them.  In  this  division  the  Jew- 
 ish nation  came  to  the  share  of  the  prince 
 of  the  angels ;  and  as  he  wished  to  bring 
 all  other  nations  into  subjection  to  his 
 favourite  nation,  the  other  angelic  princes 
 and  their  nations  resisted  him  and  his 
 nation.  The  Supreme  Father,  seeing 
 this  state  of  things,  sent  his  first-begotten 
 Mind,  who  is  also  called  Christ,  to  deliver 
 those  who  shoidd  believe  in  him  from  the 
 power  of  the  creators.  He  accordingly 
 ap])cared  to  mankind  as  a  man,  and  wrought 
 mighty  deeds.  He  did  not,  however,  really 
 sutler,  but  changed  forms  with  Simon  of 
 Cyrene,  and  stood  by  laughing,  while 
 Simon  suffered ;  and  afterwards,  being 
 himself  incorporeal,  ascended  into  he.;ven. 
 Building  upon  this  transformation,  Basili- 
 des taught  his  disciples  that  they  might 
 at  all  times  deny  him  that  was  crucified, 
 and  that  they  alone  who  did  so  understood 
 the  providential  dealings  of  the  Most 
 High,  and  by  that  knowledge  were  freed 
 from  the  power  of  the  angels,  whilst  those 
 who  confessed  him  remained  under  their 
 power.  Like  Saturninus,  however,  but  in 
 other  words,  he  asserted  that  the  soul  alone 
 was  capable  of  salvation,  but  the  body 
 necessarily  perishable.  He  taught,  more- 
 over, that  they  who  knew  his  whole  system, 
 and  could  recount  the  names  of  the  angels, 
 &c.,  were  invisible  to  them  all,  and  could 
 pass  through  and  see  them,  without  being 
 seen  in  return ;  that  they  ought  likewise 
 to  keep  themselves  individually  and  per- 
 sonally unknown  to  common  men,  and  even 
 to  deny  that  they  are  what  they  are ;  that 
 they  should  assert  themselves  to  be  neither 
 Jews  nor  Christians,  and  by  no  means  re- 
 veal their  mysteries. — Epiph.  Ilceres.  xxiv. 
 c.  1.     Cave,  Hist.  Liter.  Scsc.  Gnosticmn. 
 
 BASON  (or  BASIN)  [so  spelt  in  the 
 sealed  books]  FOR  THE  OFFER- 
 TORY. "Whilst  the  sentences  for  t]ie 
 Offertory  are  in  reading,  the  deacons,church- 
 wardens,  and  other  fit  persons  a])i)ointed 
 for  that  purpose,  shall  receive  the  alms  for 
 the  poor,  and  other  devotions  of  the  ])eoplc, 
 in  a  decent  bason,  to  be  provided  by  the 
 parish  for  that  purpose." — JRiihric. 
 
 It  is  clear  from  this  expression,  "  other 
 devotions,"  that  our  reformers  did  not  in- 
 tend to  interfere  with  the  ancient  destina- 
 tion of  alms  in  the  holy  communion ;  but 
 that  they  intended  that  all  our  gifts, 
 whether  for  the  relief  of  the  poor— to  which 
 indeed  the  Church  assigns  the  first  place 
 — or  for  any  other  good  purpose,  should 
 be  made  as  an  offering  to  GoD ;  the  word 
 devotions  signifying  an  act  of  giving  up  and 
 
BATH-KOL. 
 
 BATTLE. 
 
 dedicating  to  Almighty  God,  and  accom- 
 panied with  prayer."  In  Exeter  cathedral, 
 and  others  as  we  believe,  the  alms  are  still 
 apportioned  to  these  three  purposes, — re- 
 lief of  the  poor,  support  of  the  fabric  of  the 
 church,  and  of  the  clergy.  To  this  latter 
 use  in  the  early  Church  'they  Avere  almost 
 exclusively  devoted,  the  clergy  being  the 
 chief  almoners  for  the  poor,  as  the  Church 
 by  her  rightful  office  now  is.  It  is  often 
 objected  to  giving  largely  in  the  Offertory 
 that  there  are  no\v  poor  laws ;  but  surely 
 the  laws  of  the  state  should  not  cramp  the 
 free-will  offerings  of  Chkist's  people.  Is 
 it  too  much  to  make  the  Church  the  stcAv- 
 ard  of  our  offerings  for  the  cause  of  CilElST  ? 
 It  were  much  to  be  wished  that  all  gifts 
 were  again  made  through  this  quiet  and 
 authorized  channel.  It  is  quite  within  the 
 proA-ince  of  the  donor  to  specify  the  object 
 on  which  he  wishes  the  gift  to  be  expend- 
 ed, and  the  clergy  will  gladly  aid  the  peo- 
 ple in  obedience  to  their  holy  mother  the 
 Church. 
 
 BATH-KOL,  or  BATH-COL,  signifies 
 Dauf/hter  of  the  Voice.  It  is  a  name  by 
 which  the  Jewish  writers  distinguish  what 
 they  call  a  revelation  from  God,  after 
 verbal  prophecy  had  ceased  in  Israel,  that 
 is,  after  the  prophets  Haggai,  Zechariah, 
 and  Malachi.  The  generality  of  their 
 traditions  and  customs  are  founded  on 
 this  Bath-Kol.  They  pretend,  that  God 
 revealed  them  to  their  elders,  not  by  pro- 
 phecy, but  by  secret  inspiration,  or  tradi- 
 tion :  and  this  thev  call  the  Daughter  of 
 the  Voice.  The  Bath-Kol,  as  Dr.  Pri- 
 deaux  shows,  was  a  fantastical  way  of  di- 
 vination, invented  by  the  Jews,  like  the 
 Sorfes  VirgiUancp.  among  the  heathens. 
 "With  the  heathen,  the  words  dipt  at,  in 
 opening  the  works  of  Virgil,  were  the 
 oracle  by  which  they  prognosticated  those 
 future  events  of  which  they  desired  to  be 
 informed.  In  like  manner  by  the  Jews, 
 when  they  appealed  to  Bath-Kol,  the  next 
 words  which  they  heard  were  considered 
 as  the  desired  oracle.  Some  Christians, 
 when  Christianity  began  to  be  corrupted, 
 used  the  Scriptures  in  the  same  manner 
 as  the  heathens  employed  the  works  of 
 Virgil. 
 
 BATTLE,  or  more  properly  BATTEL, 
 Wacicr  of.  One  of  the  forms  of  ordeal,  or 
 appeal  to  the  judgment  of  God  in  the  old 
 Norman  courts  of  this  kingdom.  (See  Or- 
 deal.) In  cases  of  murder,  and  some  others, 
 Avhen  the  evidence  against  the  accused  did 
 not  amount  to  positive  proof,  he  was  allowed 
 to  assert  his  innocence  by  this  appeal.  If 
 a  prosecutor  appeared,  before  he  could  put 
 HI  his  charge,  it  was  necessarv,  in  cases  of 
 
 murder,  that  he  should  prove  himself  to 
 be  of  the  blood  of  the  deceased.  In  cases  of 
 homicide,  that  he  was  allied  to  the  slain  as 
 a  relation,  or  vassal,  or  lord,  and  could 
 speak  of  the  death  on  the  testimony  of  his 
 own  senses.  The  accused  might  then  plead 
 not  guilty,  and,  at  his  option,  throw  down 
 his  glove,  and  declare  his  readiness  to  de- 
 fend his  innocence  with  his  body.  If  the 
 appellant  took  up  the  glove,  and  professed 
 himself  willing  to  prove  the  charge  in  the 
 same  manner,  the  judges,  unless  the  guilt 
 or  innocence  of  the  accused  were  evident, 
 proceeded  to  award  a  trial  by  battle.  The 
 appellee,  with  the  book  of  the  Gospels  in 
 his  right  hand,  and  the  right  hand  of  his 
 adversary  in  his  left,  took  the  following 
 oath  :  "  Hear  me,  thou  whom  I  hold  by  the 
 right  hand,  I  am  not  guilty  of  the  felony 
 with  which  thou  hast  charged  me.  So  help 
 me  God  and  His  saints.  And  this  will  I 
 defend  with  my  body  against  thee,  as  this 
 court  shall  award."  Then  exchanging 
 hands,  and  taking  the  book,  the  appellant 
 swore,  "  Hear  me,  thou  whom  I  hold  by 
 the  hand.  Thou  art  perjured,  because 
 thou  art  guilty.  So  help  me  God  and  His 
 saints.  And  this  will  I  prove  against  thee 
 with  my  body,  as  this  court  shall  award." 
 On  the  day  appointed  by  the  court,  the  two 
 combatants  were  led  to  battle.  Each  had 
 his  head,  arms,  and  legs  bare,  was  protected 
 by  a  square  target  of  leather,  and  em- 
 ployed as  a  weapon  a  wooden  stave  one  ell 
 in  length,  and  turned  at  the  end.  If  the 
 appellee  Avas  unwilling  to  fight,  or  in  the 
 course  of  the  day  was  imable  to  continue 
 the  combat,  he  was  immediately  hanged,  or 
 condemned  to  forfeit  his  property,  and  lose 
 his  members.  If  he  slew  the  appellant,  or 
 forced  him  to  call  out  "  Craven,"  or  pro- 
 tracted the  fight  till  the  stars  appeared  in 
 the  evening,  he  was  acquitted.  Nor  did  his 
 recreant  adversary  escape  punishment.  If 
 he  survived  the  combat,  he  was  fined  sixty 
 shillings,  was  declared  infamous,  and  stript 
 of  all  the  privileges  of  a  freeman. 
 
 In  the  court  of  chivalry  the  proceedings 
 were  different.  When  the  cause  could  not 
 be  decided  on  the  evidence  of  witnesses,  or 
 the  authority  of  documents,  the  constable 
 and  marcschal  required  pledges  from  the 
 two  parties,  and  appointed  the  time  of 
 battle,  the  place,  and  the  weapons, — a  long 
 sword,  a  short  sword,  and  a  dagger ;  but 
 allowed  the  combatants  to  provide  them- 
 selves Avith  defensive  armour  according  to 
 their  own  choice.  A  spot  of  dry  and  even 
 ground,  sixty  paces  in  length  and  forty  in 
 breadth,  Avas  enclosed  Avith  stakes  seven 
 feet  high,  around  Avhich  were  placed  the 
 serjeants-at-arms,    Avith   other    officers,  to 
 
BATTLE. 
 
 BAY. 
 
 97 
 
 keep  silence  and  order  among  the  spec- 
 tators. The  combatants  entered  at  oppo- 
 site gates ;  the  appellant  at  the  east,  the 
 defendant  at  the  west  end  of  the  lists :  and 
 each  severally  swore  that  his  former  alle- 
 gations and  answers  were  true  ;  that  he 
 had  no  weapons  but  those  allotted  by  the 
 court;  that  he  wore  no  charms  about  him; 
 and  that  he  placed  his  whole  confidence  on 
 God,  on  the  goodness  of  his  cause,  and  on 
 his  own  prowess.  Then  taking  each  other 
 by  the  hand,  the  ai)pellant  swore  that  he 
 would  do  his  best  to  slay  his  adversary,  or 
 compel  him  to  acknowledge  his  guilt :  the 
 defendant,  that  he  would  exert  all  his 
 powers  to  prove  his  own  innocence.  When 
 they  had  been  separately  conducted  to  the 
 gates  at  which  they  entered,  the  constable, 
 sitting  at  the  foot  of  the  throne,  exclaimed 
 thrice,  *'  Let  them  go,"  adding  to  the  third 
 exclamation,  "  and  do  their  duty."  The 
 battle  immediately  began :  if  the  king  in- 
 terposed, and  took  the  quarrel  into  his  own 
 hands,  the  combatants  were  separated  by 
 the  officers  with  their  wands,  and  then  led 
 by  the  constable  and  mareschal  to  one  of 
 the  gates,  through  which  they  were  care- 
 ful to  pass  at  the  same  moment,  as  it  was 
 deemed  a  disgrace  to  be  the  first  to  leave 
 the  place  of  combat.  If  either  party  was 
 killed,  or  cried  "  Craven,"  he  was  stripped 
 of  his  armour  on  the  spot  where  he  lay,  was 
 dragged  by  horses  out  of  the  lists,  through 
 a  passage  opened  in  one  of  the  angles,  and 
 
 was  immediately  hanged  or  beheaded  in 
 presence  of  the  mareschal. 
 
 Trial  by  battle  was  used  not  only  in 
 military  and  criminal  cases,  but  also  in  one 
 kind  of  civil  action,  namely,  in  writs  of 
 right,  which  were  not  to  determine  the  jus 
 jxisficssionis,  but  the  less  obvious  and  more 
 profound  question  of  the  Jus  proprietatis. 
 In  the  simplicity  of  ancient  times,  it  was 
 thought  not  unreasonable  that  a  matter  of 
 such  dilliculty  should  be  left  to  the  decision 
 of  Providence  by  the  wager  of  battle.  In 
 this  case  the  battle  was  waged  by  cham- 
 pions, because,  in  civil  actions,  if  any  party 
 to  the  suit  dies,  the  suit  must  abate,  or  end, 
 and  therefore  no  judgment  could  be  given. 
 
 The  last  trial  by  battle  that  was  waged 
 in  the  court  of  Common  Pleas  at  West- 
 minster was  in  the  thirteenth  year  of 
 Queen  Elizabeth,  a.  D.  1571,  as  reported 
 by  Sir  James  Dyer ;  and  was  held  in  Tothiil 
 Fields  "  non  sine  magna  juris  consulto- 
 rum  perturbatione."  There  was  after- 
 wards one  in  the  court  of  Chivalry  in  1631, 
 and  another  in  the  county  palatine  of 
 Durham  in  1628. 
 
 The  AVager  of  Battle  was  accounted  ob- 
 solete, until  it  was  unexpectedly  demanded 
 and  admitted  in  1817,  in  a  case  of  supposed 
 murder ;  and  it  has  since  been  abolished 
 by  act  of  parliament,  59  George  III.  c.  46. 
 
 BAY.  (More  anciently  Sevenj.)  One 
 whole  compartment  of  a  building.  As  the 
 whole  structui-e  consists  of  a  repetition  of 
 
93 
 
 BEADS. 
 
 BEGUINES. 
 
 bays,  the  description  of  one  bay  comprises 
 most  of  the  terms  used  in  architectural 
 nomenclature.     The  accompanying  block 
 
 figures  are  purposely  composed  of  discord- 
 ant parts,  to  comprise  the  greater  number 
 of  terms. 
 
 EXTERIOR. 
 
 A.  Aisle. 
 
 I.  Basement. 
 
 II.  Parapet. 
 
 a.  Corl)el  table. 
 
 b.  Cornice. 
 
 c.  (iurgoyle. 
 
 III,  Buttress. 
 
 d.  Pedimental  set-olf. 
 
 e.  Plain  set-off. 
 /  Finial. 
 
 g.  Flying  buttress,  or  arch 
 buttress. 
 
 IV.  Aisle  roof. 
 C.  Clerestory. 
 
 INTERIOR. 
 
 A.  Aisle. 
 
 V.  Pier. 
 
 h.  Capital. 
 k.  Base. 
 VI.  Pier  arch, 
 m.  Spandril. 
 VII.  Vaulting  shaft 
 n.  Corbel, 
 
 B.  Triforiuni. 
 
 VIII.  Triforium  arcade. 
 p.  Blank  arches. 
 q.  Pierced  arches. 
 
 C.  Clerestory. 
 
 D.  Vault. 
 
 r.  Groining  ribs. 
 5.  Bosses. 
 
 rOMMOX  TO  EXTERIOR&  INTERIOR. 
 
 E.  Aiile  windows, 
 
 t.  Jamb  shafts. 
 u.  Tracery  (Perpendicular). 
 V.  Mullions.  to.  Transom 
 
 X.  Batement  lights. 
 
 F.  Clerestory  windows. 
 
 y.  Tracery  (Geometrical). 
 
 f.  Shaft. 
 I.  Band. 
 
 Capital. 
 
 z.  Cusping  or  foliation. 
 aa.  Tracery  (Flowing). 
 bb.  Hood,  in  the  exterior  more 
 
 correctly  dripstone. 
 cc.  Corbel,  or  label. 
 
 DECORATIONS  COMMON  TO  BOTH. 
 
 1.  Arcading  (Norman  to  Decorated.) 
 
 2.  Panelling  (Perpendicular). 
 
 3.  Niche.       4.  Panel.        5.  String. 
 
 BEADS,  or  BEDES.  A  word  of  Saxon 
 origin,  Avhich  properly  signifies  jjraijers  ; 
 hence  Bidding  the  Bedes  meant  desirinfj  the 
 2)r(n/crs  of  the  congregation,  and  from  the 
 forms  used  for  this  purpose  before  the 
 Keformation  is  derived  the  Bidding  of 
 prui/er,  prescribed  by  the  English  canons 
 of  1G03.  (See  Bidding  Prayer.)  From 
 denoting  the  prayers  themselves,  the  word 
 came  to  mean  the  little  balls  used  by  the 
 Romanists  in  rehearsing  and  numbering 
 their  Ave-marias  and  Pater-nosters.  (See 
 Bosarij.)  _A  similar  practice  prevails  among 
 the  dervises  and  other  religious  persons 
 throughout  the  East,  as  well  Mahometans 
 as  Buddhists  and  other  heathens.  The 
 ancient  form  of  the  Bedes,  or  Bidding 
 Prayer,  is  given  in  the  Appendix  to  Col- 
 lier's Eccl.  Hist.  vol.  ii.  No.  54,  which 
 shows  that  our  present  Bidding  Prayer 
 was  founded  on  that  model. 
 
 BEATIFICATION.  (See  Cmmiization.) 
 In  the  llomish  Church,  the  act  by  which 
 tiie  pope   declares  a  person  happy  after 
 
 death.  Beatification  diff'ers  from  canoniza- 
 tion. In  the  former  the  pope  does  not  act 
 as  a  judge  in  determining  the  state  of  the 
 beatified,  but  only  grants  a  privilege  to 
 certain  persons  to  honour  him  by  a  par- 
 ticular religious  worship,  without  incurring 
 the  penalty  of  superstitious  worshippers. 
 In  canonization,  the  pope  blasphemously 
 speaks  as  a  judge,  and  determines,  ex  ca- 
 thedra, on  the  state  of  the  canonized.  It 
 is  remarkable,  that  particular  orders  of 
 monks  assume  to  themselves  the  power  of 
 beatification. 
 
 BEDDERN,  BEDERNA.  The  name 
 still  retained  of  the  vicar's  college  at 
 York,  and  of  the  old  collegiate  building 
 at  Beverley.  Query,  whether  it  may  be 
 somewhat  the  same  as  Bedehouse,  i.  e.  an 
 hospital  ? — Jebb. 
 
 BEGUINES.  A  congregation  of  nuns, 
 founded  either  by  St.  Begghe,  duchess  of 
 Brabant,  in  the  seventh  century,  or  by 
 Lambert  le  Begue,  a  priest  and  native  of 
 Liege,  who  lived  in  the  twelfth  century. 
 
BELL  AND  THE  DRAGON. 
 
 BELLS. 
 
 99 
 
 They  Avere  established  first  at  Liege,  and 
 afterwards  at  Nivelle,  in  1207,  or,  as  some 
 say,  in  1226.  From  this  last  settlement 
 sprang  the  great  number  of  Beguinages, 
 which  are  spread  over  all  Flanders,  and 
 which  have  passed  from  Flanders  into 
 Germany.  In  the  latter  country,  some  of 
 them  fell  into  extravagant  errors,  and  per- 
 suaded themselves  that  it  was  possible  in 
 the  present  life  to  attain  to  the  highest 
 perfection,  even  to  impeccability,  and  a 
 clear  view  of  God,  and  in  short,  to  so  emi- 
 nent a  degree  of  contemplation,  that,  after 
 this,  there  was  no  necessity  of  submitting 
 to  the  laws  of  mortal  men,  civil  or  ecclesi- 
 astical. The  Council  of  Vienne,  in  1311, 
 condemned  these  errors,  but  permitted 
 those  who  continued  in  the  true  faith  to 
 live  in  chastity  and  penitence,  either  with 
 or  without  vows.  There  still  subsist  many 
 communities  of  Beguines  in  Flanders. — 
 Hist,  des  Ord.  Reliq.  viii.  c.  i. 
 
 BEL  AND  THE  DRAGON  (THE 
 HISTORY  OF).  An  apocryphal  and  un- 
 canonical  book  of  Scripture.  It  was  al- 
 ways rejected  by  the  Jewish  Church,  and 
 is  extant  neither  in  the  Hebrew  nor  the 
 Chaldee  language,  nor  is  there  any  proof 
 that  it  ever  was  so.  St.  Jerome  gives  it  no 
 better  title  than  "  the  fable  of  Bel  and  the 
 Dragon."  It  is,  however,  permitted  to  be 
 read,  as  well  as  the  other  apocryphal 
 writings,  for  the  instruction  and  improve- 
 ment of  manners. 
 
 Selden  {De  Diis  Syris,  Syntayma  ii.  cap. 
 17)  thinks,  this  little  history  ought  rather 
 to  be  considered  as  a  sacred  poem  or  fic- 
 tion, than  a  true  account.  As  to  the 
 Dragon,  he  observes,  that  serpents  [dra- 
 cones)  made  a  part  of  the  hidden  mysteries 
 of  the  Pagan  religion ;  as  appears  from 
 Clemens  Alexandrinus,  Julius  Firmicus, 
 Justin  Martyr,  and  others.  And  Aristotle 
 relates,  that,  in  Mesopotamia,  there  were 
 serpents  which  would  not  hurt  the  natives 
 of  the  country,  and  infested  only  strangers. 
 Whence  it  is  not  improbable  that  both  the 
 Mesopotamians  themselves  and  the  neigh- 
 bouring people  might  worship  a  serpent, 
 the  former  to  avert  the  evil  arising  from 
 those  reptiles,  the  latter  out  of  a  principle 
 of  gratitude.  But  of  this  there  is  no  clear 
 proof,  nor  is  it  certain  that  the  Babylonians 
 worshipped  a  dragon  or  sei^pent. — Aridot. 
 TTipi  Oavfiag,  aKOVTfiaT. 
 
 BELFRY.  The  place  where  the  bells 
 are  hung ;  sometimes  being  a  small  arch 
 placed  on  the  gable  of  the  church,  some- 
 times a  tower  or  turret.  The  belfries 
 were  originally  detached  from  the  church, 
 as  may  he  still  seen  in  many  places  in 
 Italy.  Instances  of  this  have  been  known 
 H   2 
 
 in  England,  as  at  Chichester,  and  at  Salis- 
 bury (the  belfry  in  the  latter  place  was 
 destroyed  some  years  ago).  The  great 
 central  towers  of  our  cathedrals  and  ab- 
 beys were  not  originally  constructed  for 
 beils,  but  for  lantcnis,  to  give  light  to  the 
 central  portion  of  the  church.  The  bells 
 were  contained  in  the  towers,  or  turrets,  at 
 the  west  end,  or  at  the  angles  of  the 
 church.  Many  churches  had  more  than 
 one  bell  tower.  In  Canterbury  cathedral 
 the  ring  of  bells  is  contained  in  the  south- 
 western tower ;  the  small  bell,  or  Bell- 
 Hurry,  which  is  rung  just  before  the 
 service,  is  placed  in  the  great  central 
 tower. 
 
 BELIEVERS  {Triaroi,  or  Faithful).  A 
 name  given  to  the  baptized  in  the  early 
 Church,  as  distinguished  from  the  Catecltu- 
 viens.  The  believer  was  admitted  to  all 
 the  rites  of  Divine  worship,  and  instructed 
 in  all  the  mysteries  of  the  Christian  re- 
 ligion.— Binyham. 
 
 BELLS.  Bells  of  a  small  size  are  very 
 ancient,  but  larger  ones  are  of  a  much  later 
 date.  The  lower  part  of  the  blue  robe 
 worn  by  the  Jewish  high  priest  was  adorn- 
 ed with  pomegranates  and  gold  bells.  The 
 kings  of  Persia  are  said  to  have  had  the 
 hem  of  their  robes  adorned  in  like  man- 
 ner. The  high  priest  probably  gave  notice 
 to  the  people,  and  also  desired  permission 
 to  enter  the  sanctuary,  by  the  sound  of 
 these  bells,  and  by  so  doing  escaped  the 
 punishment  of  death  annexed  to  an  inde- 
 cent intrusion. 
 
 On  the  origin  of  church  bells,  ]\Ir.  Whit- 
 aker,  in  his  "  History  of  Manchester,"  ob- 
 serves, that  bells  being  used,  among  other 
 purposes,  by  the  Romans,  to  signify  the 
 times  of  bathing,  were  naturally  applied 
 by  the  Christians  of  Italy  to  denote  the 
 hours  of  devotion,  and  summon  the  people 
 to  church. 
 
 *'  Bells,"  says  Nicholls,  "  were  not  in  use 
 in  the  first  ages  of  Christianity.  For,  be- 
 fore the  Christians  received  countenance 
 from  the  civil  power,  they  were  called  to- 
 gether by  a  messenger,  M'ho  v/ent  about  from 
 house  to'  house,  some  time  before  the  hour 
 tlie  congregation  met.  After  thi.s  they 
 made  use  of  a  sounding  plank  hanging  by 
 a  chain,  and  struck  with  a  hammer.^  The 
 precise  time  when  bells  first  came  in  use 
 is  not  known.  Paulinus,  bishop  of  Nola, 
 in  Campania,  in  order  to  give  notice  to  the 
 most  remote  inhabitants  when  prayers  be- 
 gan, hung  up  a  large  brass  vessel,  Avhich, 
 when  struck  upon  by  a  hammer,  gave  such 
 a  sound  as  he  desired  for  his  purpose. 
 This  was  about  the  year  420.  Hence  the 
 two  Latin  names  for  a  great  bell- — N(du, 
 
oo 
 
 BELLS. 
 
 iVom  the  town  ;   and   Campana,  from  the 
 country  whoro  they  were  first  used."^ 
 
 But,' wliat ever  liiay  be  the  connexion  of 
 bells  with  the  city  of  Nola,  there  is  no 
 <rround  for  referrinfj:  the  first  use  of  them 
 to  Paulinu:^ ;  Bingham  ])ronounces  the 
 opinion  to  be  "  certainly  a  vulgar  error." 
 Others  say  they  took  the  latter  of  these 
 names,  not  froin  their  being  invented  in 
 Campania,  but  because  it  was  there  the 
 manner  of  hanging  and  balancing  them, 
 now  in  use,  was  first  practised ;  at  least 
 that  thev  were  hung  on  the  model  of  a  sort 
 of  balance  invented  or  used  in  Campania. 
 The  Greek  Christians  are  usually  said  to 
 have  been  unacquainted  with  bells  till  the 
 ninth  century,  when  their  construction 
 was  first  taught  them  by  a  Venetian.  But 
 it  is  not  true  that  the  use  of  bells  was 
 entirely  unknown  in  the  ancient  Eastern 
 churches,  and  that  they  called  the  people 
 to  church,  as  at  present,  with  wooden  mal- 
 lets, like  the  clappers  or  crcsselles,  used 
 instead  of  bells  in  many  churches  of  the 
 Romish  communion,  during  the  holy  Aveek. 
 (See  CresscUe.)  Leo  Allatius,  in  his  Dis- 
 sertation on  the  Greek  Temples,  proves 
 the  contrary  from  several  ancient  writers. 
 He  says  bells  first  began  to  be  disused 
 among'  them  after  the  taking  of  Constan- 
 tinople by  the  Turks ;  who,  it  seems,  pro- 
 hibited them,  lest  their  sound  should  dis- 
 turb the  repose  of  the  souls  which,  accord- 
 ing to  them,  wander  in  the  air. 
 
 In  Britain,  bells  were  used  in  churches 
 before  the  conclusion  of  the  seventh  cen- 
 tury, in  the  monastic  societies  of  Northum- 
 bria,  and  as  early  as  the  sixth,  even  in 
 those  of  Caledonia.    And  they  were  there- 
 fore used  from  the  first  erection  of  parish 
 churches  among  us.    Those  of  France  and 
 England  appear  to  have  been  furnished 
 with  several  bells.     In  the  time  of  Clo- 
 thaire  II.,  king  of  France,  A.  D.  610,  the 
 anny  of  that  king  was  frightened  from 
 the  siege  of  Sens,  by  ringing  the  bells  of 
 St.  Stephen's   Church.      The   second    ex- 
 cerption of  Egbert,  about  A.  D.  750,  which 
 is  adopted  in  a  French  capitulary  of  801, 
 commands    every   priest,    at    the    proper 
 hours,  to  sound  the  bells  of  his  church, 
 and  then  to  go  through  the  sacred  offices 
 to  God.      And  the   Council  of  Eanham, 
 in  1009,  requires  all  the  mulcts  for  sins 
 to  be  expended  in  the  reparation  of  the 
 church,  clothing  and  feeding  the  minis- 
 ters of  God,  and  the  purchase  of  church 
 vestments,  church  books,  and  church  hclh. 
 These  were  sometimes  composed  of  iron 
 in  France;  and  in  England,  as  formerly 
 at  Rome,  were  frequently  made  of  brass  ; 
 and,  as  early  as  the  ninth  century,  there 
 
 were  many  cast  of  a  large  size  and  deep 
 note.  Ingulphus  mentions,  that  Turketu- 
 lus,  abbot  of  Croyland,  who  died  about 
 A.  D.  870,  gave  a  great  bell  to  the  church 
 of  that  abbey,  which  he  named  Guthlac  ; 
 and  afterwards  six  others,  viz.  two  which 
 he  called  JBartholomew  and  Betelin,  two 
 called  lurlcetttd  and  Tahcin,  and  two 
 named  Pega  and  Hega,  all  which  rang  to- 
 gether ;  the  same  author  says,  ''  Non  erat 
 tunc  tanta  consonantia  campanarum  in 
 tota  Anglia."  Not  long  after,  Kinsius, 
 archbishop  of  York,  (1051 — 1061,)  gave 
 two  great  bells  to  the  church  of  St.  John, 
 at  Beverley,  and  at  the  same  time  pro- 
 vided that  other  churches  in  his  diocese 
 should  be  furnished  with  bells.  Mention 
 is  made  by  St.  Aldhelm,  and  William  of 
 jNIalmesbury,  of  bells  given  by  St.  Dun- 
 stan  to  churches  in  the  West.  The  num- 
 ber of  bells  in  every  church  gave  occasion 
 to  a  curious  and  singular  piece  of  archi- 
 tecture in  the  campanile  or  bell  tower :  an 
 addition  which  is  more  susceptible  of  the 
 grander  beauties  of  architecture  than  any 
 other  part  of  the  edifice.  It  was  the  con- 
 stant appendage  to  every  parish  church  of 
 the  Saxons,  and  is  actually  mentioned  as 
 such  in  the  laAvs  of  Athelstan. 
 
 The  uses  of  church  bells  are  summed  up 
 in  the  following  monkish  distichs  : — 
 
 "  Lauclo  Dexun  verum,  plebem  a'OCO,  congrego 
 clerum, 
 
 Defunctos  ploro,  pestem  fugo,  festa  decoro." 
 "  Funero  plango,  fulgura  frango,sabbata  pango, 
 
 Excito  lentos,  dissipo  ventos,  paco  cruentos." 
 
 Before  bells  were  hung,  they  were  for- 
 merly, and  in  the  Romish  communion  they 
 still  are,  washed,  crossed,  blessed,  anoint- 
 ed with  chrism,  and  named  by  the  bishop. 
 This  ceremony  was  commonly  styled  hup- 
 tizinfi  them.  (See  Martene  de  Atitiq.  Ecvl. 
 Ritibus,  ii.  296.)  Some  say  that  it  was 
 introduced  by  Pope  John  XIIL,  who  oc- 
 cupied the  pontifical  chair  from  965  to 
 972,  and  who  first  consecrated  a  bell  in 
 the  Lateran  church,  and  gave  it  the  name 
 of  John  the  Baptist.  But  it  is  evidently 
 of  an  older  standing,  there  being  an  express 
 prohibition  of  the  practice  in  a  capitular 
 of  Charlemagne  in  789 — id  cloccs  non  hap- 
 tizentur. 
 
 The  following  are  the  regulations  of  the 
 Church  of  England  on  the  subject  of  bells. 
 
 By  a  constitution  of  Archbishop  Win- 
 chelsea,  the  parishioners  shall  find,  at  their 
 own  expense,  bells  with  ropes. 
 
 Canon  81.  The  churchwardens  or  quest- 
 men, and  their  assistants,  shall  not  sufi'er 
 the  bells  to  be  rung  superstitiously,  upon 
 holy  days  or  eves  abrogated  by  the  Book  of 
 Common  Prayer,  nor  at  any  other  times, 
 
BELLS. 
 
 BELL,  BOOK,  AND  CANDLE.     101 
 
 without  good  cause  to  be  allo-wed  by  the 
 minister  of  the  phice,  and  by  themselves. 
 Canon  111.  The  churchAvardens  shall 
 present  all  persons,  avIio  by  untimely  ring- 
 ing of  bells  do  hinder  the  minister  or 
 preacher. 
 
 Canon  15.  Upon  Wednesdays  and  Fri- 
 days weekly,  the  minister  at  the  accus- 
 tomed hour  of  service  shall  resort  to  the 
 church  or  chapel,  and  warning  being  given 
 to  the  people  by  tolling  of  a  bell,  shall  say 
 the  litany. 
 
 Canon  67.  AYhen  any  is  passing  out  of 
 this  life,  a  bell  shall  be  tolled,  and  the 
 minister  shall  not  then  slack  to  do  his  last 
 duty.  And  after  the  ])arty's  death,  (if  it 
 so  fall  out,)  there  shall  be  rung  no  more 
 but  one  short  peal,  and  one  other  before 
 the  burial,  and  one  other  after  the  burial. 
 Rubric  concerning  the  service  of  the 
 church.  "  And  the  curate  that  minister- 
 eth  in  every  parish  church  or  chapel,  being 
 f  at  home,  and  not  being  otherwise  reason- 
 
 I  ably  hindered,  shall  say  the  same  in  the 
 
 r  parish  church  or  chapel  when  he  minis- 
 
 tereth,  and  shall  cause  a  bell  to  be  tolled 
 thereunto  a  convenient  time  before  he  be- 
 gin, that  the  people  may  come  to  hear 
 God's  word,  and  to  pray  with  him," 
 
 Although  the  churchwardens  may  concur 
 in  directing  the  ringing  or  tolling  of  the 
 bells  on  certain  public  and  private  occa- 
 sions, the  incumbent  may  prevent  the 
 churchwardens  from  ringing  or  tolling 
 them  at  undue  hours,  or  without  just 
 cause.  Proceedings  may  be  instituted  in 
 the  ecclesiastical  court  against  churchwar- 
 dens who  have  violently  and  illegally  per- 
 sisted in  ringing  the  bells  without  consent 
 of  the  incumbents. 
 
 Bells  were  used  in  Ireland  at  a  very 
 early  period.  Harris,  in  his  edition  of 
 Ware,  (vol.  ii.  p.  129,)  quotes  Bede  as  an 
 authority  for  the  use  of  bells  in  the  sixth 
 century,  and  observes  on  Moljneux's  opi- 
 nion that  the  popular  name  of  the  round 
 tower  in  Ireland  was  derived  from  a  Ger- 
 manico-Saxon  Avord,  signifying  a  bell. 
 >  Mr.  Petrie,  in   his  recent  laborious  essay 
 
 '  on   the  Irish  Round  Towers,  has  shoAvn 
 
 that  these  towers,  as  their  name  denotes, 
 their  form  and  locality  suggest,  and  tradi- 
 tion teaches,  were  intended  for  ecclesiasti- 
 cal belfries.  And  in  the  same  work,  as 
 well  as  in  the  documents  collected  by  Irish 
 antiquarians,  it  is  shown  that  bells  were 
 known  in  Ireland  as  far  back  as  the  age  of 
 St.  Patrick,  Some  of  these  ancient  bells 
 are  still  in  existence. 
 
 Nankin,  in  China,  was  anciently  famous 
 for  the  largeness  of  its  bells  ;  but  their 
 enormous  weight    having    brought    down 
 
 the  tower  i)i  A\hich  they  were  hung,  the 
 whole  building  fell  to  niin,  and  the  bells 
 have  ever  since  been  disregarded.  One  of 
 these  bells  is  near  12  English  feet  high,  the 
 diameter  l^  feet,  its  circumference  23  feet, 
 and  the  thickness  of  the  metal  about  the 
 edges  7  inches ;  its  figure  almost  cylin- 
 drical, except  for  a  swelling  in  the  middle. 
 From  these  dimensions  its  weight  is  com- 
 puted at  50,000  lbs. 
 
 In  the  churches  of  Russia  the  bells  are 
 numerous,  and  distinguished  by  their  im- 
 mense size;  they  are  hung,  particularly  at 
 Moscow,  in  belfries  or  steeples  detached 
 from  the  churches,  with  gilt  or  silvered 
 cu})olas,  or  crosses  ;  and  they  do  not  swing, 
 but  are  fixed  immoveably  to  the  beams, 
 and  rung  by  a  rope  tied  to  the  clapi)er, 
 and  pulled  sideways.  One  of  these  bells, 
 in  the  belfry  of  St.  Ivan's  church  at  Mos- 
 cow, weighed  127,836  English  lbs.  It  has 
 always  been  esteemed  a  meritorious  act  of 
 religion  to  present  a  church  with  bells,  and 
 the  piety  of  the  donor  has  been  estimated 
 by  their  magnitude.  The  emperor  Bodis 
 Godunof  gave  a  bell  of  288,000  lbs.  to  the 
 cathedral  of  jNIoscow,  but  he  was  sur])assed 
 by  the  empress  Anne,  (or,  as  ]3r,  Clarke 
 and  others  say,  Alexis,  in  165.'3,)  at  whose 
 expense  a  bell  was  cast,  weighing  no  less 
 than  443,772  lbs,,  which  exceeds  in  size 
 every  bell  in  the  known  world.  Its  height 
 is  21  feet,  the  circumference  at  the  bottom 
 67  feet  4  inches,  and  its  greatest  thickness 
 23  inches.  The  beam  to  which  this  vast 
 machine  was  fastened  being  accidentally 
 burnt  by  a  fire  in  1737,  the  bell  fell  down, 
 and  a  fragment  was  broken  oft'  towards 
 the  bottom,  which  left  an  aperture  large 
 enough  to  admit  two  persons  abreast  with- 
 out stooping. 
 
 In  the  Russian  Divine  service  the  num- 
 ber of  strokes  on  the  bell  announces  what 
 part  of  it  is  beginning.  Several  blows 
 are  struck  before  the  mass ;  three  before 
 the  commencement  of  the  liturgy;  and, 
 in  the  middle  of  it,  a  few  strokes  apprize 
 the  people  without,  that  the  hymn  to  the 
 holy  Virgin  is  about  to  be  sung,  when  all 
 Avork  is  immediately  suspended,  they  bow 
 and  cross  themselves,  repeating  silently 
 the  verse  then  singing  in  the  church, — 
 Ofercdl.  For  some  curious  directions  as 
 to  the  chiming  of  the  bells  in  ancient  times 
 in  Eichfield  cathedral,  see  Duyd..  Monast. 
 ed.  1830,  vi,  V2o().—Jehh. 
 
 BELL,  BOOK,  AND  CANDLE.  Be- 
 tween the  seventh  and  the  tenth  century, 
 the  sentence  of  excommunication  was  at- 
 tended with  great  solemnities.  The  most 
 important  was  the  extinction  of  lamps  or 
 candles  by  throwing  them  on  the  ground, 
 
102 
 
 BEMA. 
 
 BENEDICTINES. 
 
 with  an  imprecation,  that  those  against 
 whom  the  curse  was  pronounced  might 
 be  extinguished  or  destroyed  by  tlie  ven- 
 geance of  God.  The  people  were  sum- 
 moned to  attend  this  ceremony  by  the 
 sound  of  a  bell,  and  the  curses  accomi)any- 
 ing  the  ceremony  were  pronounced  out  of 
 a  book  by  the  minister,  standing  in  a  bal- 
 cony, lience  originated  the  phrase  of 
 cursing  by  bell,  book,  and  candle. 
 
 1>K.\L\.  The  name  of  the  bishop's  throne 
 in  the  ])rimitivc  church,  or,  as  some  under- 
 stand it,  the  wliolc  of  the  upper  end  of  the 
 church,  containing  the  altar  and  the  apsis. 
 This  seat  or  throne,  together  with  those  of 
 the  j)resbyters,  was  always  fixed  at  the 
 upper  end  of  the  chancel,  in  a  semicircle 
 beyond  the  altar.  For  anciently,  the  seats 
 of  the  bishops  and  presbyters  were  joined 
 together,  and  both  w^re  called  thrones. 
 The  manner  of  their  sitting  is  related  by 
 Gregory  Nazianzen  in  his  description  of 
 the  church  of  Anastasia,  where  he  speaks 
 of  himself  as  bishop,  sitting  upon  the  high 
 throne,  and  the  presbyters  on  lower  benches 
 on  each  side  of  \\im.— Bimjham.  (See 
 Apsis  and  Cathedral.) 
 
 BENEDICITE.  A  canticle  used  at 
 Morning  Prayer,  after  the  first  lesson. 
 This  canticle  is  so  called  because,  in  the 
 Latin  version,  it  so  begins.  It  is  called 
 "The  Song  of  the  Three  Chilch-en,"  be- 
 cause Hananiah,  Mishael,  and  Azariah 
 (whom  the  prince  of  the  eunuchs  named 
 Shadrach,  Meshach,  and  Abednego,  Dan. 
 i.  7)  are  reported  to  have  sung  it  in 
 the  burning  fiery  furnace,  into  which  they 
 were  cast  by  order  of  Nebuchadnezzar  for 
 adhering  stedfastly  to  their  God,  (Dan.  iii. 
 19,)  <.K:c.,  and  in  which  God  preserved 
 them  in  a  miraculous  manner  (ver.  27). — 
 Dr.  Bennct. 
 
 This  and  the  Te  Deum  are  the  only 
 hyiuns  used  in  our  service  that  are  of 
 man's  composing.  Our  Church  being  care- 
 ful, even  beyond  all  the  ancient  Churches, 
 in  singing  to  God,  to  sing  in  the  words  of 
 God. — Dr.  Bisse.  This  statement  of  Dr. 
 Bisse  is  not  altogether  correct.  The  liymns 
 "Holy,  holy,  holy  Lord  God  of  hosts," 
 and  the  "  Gloria  in  Excelsis,"  though  sug- 
 gested by  Holy  Scripture,  are  human  com- 
 pilations. And  the  metrical  Veni  Creator 
 is  also  of  man's  composing.  The  Bene- 
 dicite  was  prescribed  to  be  used  in  Lent, 
 by  King  Edward  VI.'s  First  l^ook.—Jchh. 
 
 BENEDICTINES.  An  order  of  monks 
 who  profess  to  follow  the  rules  of  St.  Bene- 
 dict. The  Benedictines,  being  those  only 
 that  are  properly  called  monks,  wear  a 
 loose  black  gown,  with  large  white  sleeves, 
 and  a  cajmche,  or  cowl,  on  their  heads, 
 
 ending  in  a  point  behind.  In  the  canon 
 law  they  are  styled  black  friars,  from  the 
 colour  of  their  habit.  The  rules  of  St. 
 Benedict,  as  observed  by  the  English 
 monks  before  the  dissolution  of  the  monas- 
 teries, were  as  follows :  they  were  obliged 
 to  perform  their  devotions  seven  times  in 
 twenty-four  hours,  the  whole  circle  of  which 
 devotions  had  respect  to  the  passion  and 
 death  of  Christ  :  they  were  obliged  always 
 to  go  two  and  two  together :  every  day  in 
 Lent  they  were  obliged  to  fast  till  six  in 
 the  evening  ;  and  abated  of  their  usual 
 time  of  sleeping  and  eating ;  but  they  were 
 not  allowed  to  practise  any  voluntary- 
 austerity  without  leave  of  their  superior : 
 they  never  conversed  in  their  refectory  at 
 meals,  but  were  obliged  to  attend  to  the 
 reading  of  the  Scriptures  :  they  all  slept  in 
 the  same  dormitory,  but  not  two  in  a  bed : 
 they  lay  in  their  clothes :  for  small  faults 
 they  were  shut  out  from  meals :  for  greater 
 they  were  debarred  religious  commerce, 
 and  excluded  from  the  chapel :  incorrigible 
 offenders  were  excluded  from  the  monas- 
 teries. Every  monk  had  two  coats,  two 
 cowls,  a  table  book,  a  knife,  a  needle,  and 
 a  handkerchief;  and  the  furniture  of  his 
 bed  was  a  mat,  a  blanket,  a  rug,  and  a 
 pillow. 
 
 The  time  when  this  order  came  into 
 England  is  well  known,  for  in  596  Gregory 
 the  Great  sent  hither  Augustine,  prior  of 
 the  monastery  of  St.  Andrew^  at  liome, 
 with  several  other  Benedictine  monks.  Au- 
 gustine became  archbishop  of  Canterbury ; 
 and  the  Benedictines  founded  several  mon- 
 asteries in  England,  as  also  the  metro- 
 politan church  of  Canterbury.  Pope  John 
 XXII. ,  Mho  died  in  1354,  after  an  exact 
 inquiry,  found,  that,  since  the  first  rise  of 
 the  order,  there  had  been  of  it  twenty-four 
 popes,  near  200  cardinals,  7000  archbishops, 
 15,000  bishops,  15,000  abbots  of  renoAvn, 
 above  4000  saints,  and  upwards  of  37,000 
 monasteries.  There  have  been  likewise 
 of  this  order  twenty  emperors  and  ten  em- 
 presses, forty-seven  kings,  and  above  fifty 
 queens,  twenty  sons  of  emperors,  and  forty- 
 eight  sons  of  kings,  about  one  hundred 
 princesses,  daughters  of  kings  and  empe- 
 rors, besides  dukes,  marquises,  earls,  coun- 
 tesses, &c.,  innumerable.  This  order  has 
 produced  a  vast  number  of  eminent  authors 
 and  other  learned  men.  Rabanus  set  up 
 the  school  of  Germany.  Alcuinus  founded 
 the  university  of  Paris.  Dionysius  Exi- 
 guus  perfected  the  ecclesiastical  computa- 
 tion. Guido  invented  the  scale  of  music, 
 and  Sylvester  the  organ.  They  boast  to 
 have  produced  Anselm,  Ildephonsus,  Ve- 
 nerable Bede,  &c.     There  are  nuns  like- 
 
BENEDICTION. 
 
 103 
 
 wise  who  follow  the  order  of  St.  Benedict : 
 among  whom  those  who  call  themselves 
 mitigated,  cat  flesh  three  times  a  week,  on 
 Sundays,  Tuesdays,  and  Thursdays ;  the 
 others  observe  the  rule  of  St.  Benedict  in 
 its  rigour,  and  eat  no  flesh  unless  they  are 
 sick.  The  Benedictines  were  the  most  ex- 
 tensive and  poAverful  order  in  England. 
 All  the  cathedral  convents,  with  the  ex- 
 ception of  the  Augustinian  monastery  of 
 Carlisle,  were  of  this  order,  as  were  four 
 out  of  the  five  that  were  converted  into 
 cathedrals  by  Henry  VIII.,  viz.  Gloucester, 
 Oxford,  Peterborough,  and  Chester  :  and 
 all  the  mitred  abbeys,  with  the  exception 
 of  AYaltham  and  Cirencester,  which  were 
 Augustinian.  In  Ireland  they  yielded  in 
 importance  and  numbers  to  the  Augusti- 
 nians.  They  were  the  great  patrons  of 
 church  architecture  and  of  learning  in 
 England.  The  chief  branches  of  the  Be- 
 nedictine order  in  England  were  the  Clu- 
 niacs,  founded  by  Bernon,  abbot  of  Gig- 
 niac,  in  913;  and  the  Cistercian,  founded 
 by  Kobert,  abbot  of  Moleme,  at  Citeaux  in 
 Burgundy,  in  1098.  (See  Cluniacs  and 
 Cistercians.) 
 
 BENEDICTION.  A  solemn  act  of 
 blessing  performed  by  the  bishops  and 
 priests  of  the  Church.  In  the  Jewish 
 Church,  the  priests,  by  the  command  of 
 God,  were  to  bless  the  people,  by  saying, 
 "  The  Lord  bless  thee,  and  keep  thee. 
 The  Lord  make  his  face  to  shine  upon  thee, 
 and  be  gracious  unto  thee.  The  Lord 
 lift  up  his  countenance  upon  thee,  and  give 
 thee  peace."  In  the  Church  of  England, 
 several  forms  of  blessing  are  used  agreeing 
 with  the  particular  office  of  which  they 
 form  a  part.  The  ordinary  benediction  at 
 the  close  of  Divine  service,  from  the  end 
 of  the  Communion  office,  is  in  these  words  : 
 "  The  peace  of  God,  M'hich  passeth  all  un- 
 derstanding, keep  your  hearts  and  minds 
 in  the  knowledge  and  love  of  God,  and  of 
 his  Son  Jesus  Christ  our  Lord:  and 
 the  blessing  of  God  Almighty,  the  Father, 
 the  Sox,  and  the  Holy  Ghost,  be  amongst 
 you,  and  remain  with  you  always."  The 
 former  part  of  this  is  taken  from  Phihp- 
 pians  iv.  7,  and  the  latter  may  be  consi- 
 dered as  a  Christian  para])hrase  of  Num- 
 bers vi.  24,  &:c.  Other  forms  of  blessing, 
 or  modifications  of  the  above,  may  be 
 found  in  the  offices  for  Confirmation,  Ma- 
 trimony, and  Visitation  of  the  Sick.  The 
 benediction  at  the  end  of  the  Communion 
 Service  must  be  said  by  the  bishop,  if  he 
 be  present. 
 
 In  the  Romish  Church,  on  Holy  Thurs- 
 day, the  officiating  priest  blesses,  conse- 
 crates, and  exorcises,    three  sorts  of  oils. 
 
 The  first  is  that  used  in  extreme  unction  ; 
 the  second  that  of  the  Chrysma ;  the 
 third  that  of  the  Catechumens;  ending 
 with  this  salutation,  Ave  sanctum  oleum, 
 "Hail  holy  oil!"  after  which  the  new- 
 made  holy  oils  are  can-ied  in  procession 
 into  the  sacristy.— P/scrtra,  Praxis  Cerem. 
 
 In  Spain,  and  some  parts  of  France 
 bordering  upon  Spain,  the  custom  of  bless- 
 ing meats  at  Easter  is  still  preserved. 
 This  is  supposed  to  be  done  in  opposition 
 to  the  heresy  of  the  Priscillianists,  which 
 infected  Spain  and  Guienne  :  for  Priscillian 
 held,  that  the  devil,  and  not  God,  was  the 
 creator  of  flesh,  and  that  thefoithful  ought 
 to  reject  it  as  impure  and  wicked.  This 
 blessing  is  scarce  ever  used,  except  in 
 those  churches,  and  near  those  places, 
 where  that  heresy  formerly  prevailed. — 
 Alcefs  liitiial. 
 
 On  Easter  eve  they  perform  the  cere- 
 mony of  blessing  the  new  fire.  At  the 
 ninth  hour,  the  old  fire  is  put  out,  and  at 
 the  same  time  an  Acolyth  lights  the  new 
 fire  Avithout  the  church.  The  officiating 
 priest,  Avith  his  attendants,  walks  in  pro- 
 cession to  the  place  where  the  ceremony  is 
 to  be  performed.  After  repeating  a  fomi 
 of  prayer,  he  makes  the  sign  of  the  cross 
 over  the  fire.  In  the  mean  time  the  Thu- 
 riferary  puts  some  coals  into  the  thurible, 
 into  which  the  priest  throws  some  frank- 
 incense, having  ffi-st  blessed  it:  then  he 
 sprinkles  the  fire  with  holy  water,  saying, 
 Asperf/es  me,  Domine^  "  Thou  wilt  sprinkle 
 me,  O  Lord."  This  ceremony  of  the  holy 
 fire  seems  to  be  borrov/ed  from  pagan  super- 
 stition ;  for  the  ancient  Romans  used  to 
 renew  the  fii'e  of  Vesta  in  the  month  of 
 March,  as  Ovid  informs  us  ; 
 
 Adde  quod  arcauS  fieri  novus  ignis  in  aede 
 Dicitur,  et  vires  flamma  refccta  capit. 
 
 Add  that  the  hallowed  fire  new  vigour  takes, 
 And  round  the  sacred  walls  with  added  lustre 
 breaks. 
 
 The  principal  use  of  this  holy  fire,  among 
 the  Roman  Catholics,  is  to  light  therewith 
 the  Paschal  taper ;  which  likewise  receives 
 its  benediction,  or  blessing,  by  the  priest's 
 putting  five  grains  of  incense,  in  tlie  form 
 of  a  cross,  into  the  ta})cr.  This  blessed 
 taper  must  remain  on  the  gospel-side  of 
 the  altar  from  Easter  eve  to  Ascension 
 day. —  Bitudrij,  3I(uu(al.  Cerem.  Fast.  lib. 
 iii.  144.     Piscara,  Praxis  Cerem. 
 
 The  blessing  of  baj)tismal  fonts  (another 
 piece  of  Po])ish  sujierstition)  is  performed, 
 among  other  ceremonies,  by  the  priest's 
 blowing  thrice  on  the  water,  and  in  three 
 difl"erent  ])laces ;  and  afterwards  plunging 
 a  taper  thrice  into  it,  observing  to  sink  it 
 
104 
 
 BENEDICTUS. 
 
 BENEFICE. 
 
 deeper  the  second  time  than  the  first,  and 
 the  third  than  the  second,  saying  at  each 
 immersion,  Dcscemhtt  in  hone  pienitxuUncm 
 funtis  cirtus  Spiritns  Sanrti',  i.  e.  "  May  tlie 
 'influence  of  the  Holy  Spirit  descend  on 
 this  water." — Piscara,  ibid. 
 
 On  the  eve  before  Christmas,  the  holy 
 father  blesses  a  sword,  enriched  with  pre- 
 cious stones,  wrought  in  the  form  of  a 
 dove ;  with  a  ducal  hat  fixed  on  the  point 
 of  it,  richly  adorned  with  jewels.  {Sacra 
 Cereni.  EccJ.  Horn.)  This  he  sends  as  a 
 present  to  some  prince,  for  whom  he  has  a 
 particular  afiection,  or  some  great  general, 
 who  has  deserved  it  by  fighting  against 
 the  enemies  of  the  Church.  Pope  Pius 
 II.  sent  the  hat  and  sword  to  Lewis  XI., 
 with  four  Latin  verses  engraved  on  the 
 blade,  by  which  his  Holiness  exhorted  him 
 to  destroy  the  Ottoman  empire.  The  popes, 
 according  to  Aymon,  ground  this  custom  on 
 what  is  said  in  the  Second  Book  of  the 
 Maccabees,  c.  v.,  that  "  Judas  the  Macca- 
 bee,  going  to  fight  Nicanor,  general  of  the 
 army  of  Antiochus,  saw  in  a  dream  the 
 high  priest  Onias  praying  to  God  for  the 
 Jewish  people,  and  the  prophet  Jeremiah 
 presenting  him  with  a  sword,  and  saying 
 these  words ;  *  Receive,  Judas,  this  holy 
 sword,  which  is  given  thee  by  the  Lord,  to 
 destroy  the  enemies  of  Israel.'" 
 
 But  one  of  the  most  extraordinary  bene- 
 dictions of  this  kind  is  that  of  hells ;  in 
 the  performance  of  which  there  is  a  great 
 deal  of  pomp  and  superstition.    (See  Bells.) 
 
 BENEDICTUS.  The  Latin  for  "  bless- 
 ed," which  is  the  first  word  in  one  of  the 
 h^Tuns  to  be  said  or  sung  after  the  second 
 lesson  in  theMorning  Service  of  the  Church. 
 The  Benedictus  is  taken  from  Luke  i.,  from 
 the  68th  to  the  72nd  verse,  being  part  of 
 the  song  of  Zacharias  the  priest,  concerning 
 his  son  John  the  Baptist,  who  was  to  be 
 the  forerunner  of  Christ,  but  was  then 
 only  in  his  infancy. 
 
 When  the  gospel  was  first  published  to 
 the  world,  the  angels  sang  praise  ;  and  all 
 holy  men,  to  whom  it  was  revealed,  enter- 
 tained these  "  good  tidings  "  with  great 
 joy.  And  since  it  is  our  duty  also,  when- 
 ever we  hear  the  gospel  read,  to  give  glory 
 to^  God,  therefore  the  Church  appoints 
 this  hymn,  which  was  composed  by  holy 
 Zacharias  upon  the  first  notice  that  God 
 had  sent  a  Saviour  to  mankind,  and  is  one 
 of  the  first  evangelical  hymns  indited  by 
 God's  Spirit  upon  this  occasion.  Its  ori- 
 ginal therefore  is  Divine,  its  matter  unex- 
 ceptionable, and  its  fitness  for  this  place 
 unquestionable.— Z>efln  Comber. 
 
 This  prophecy  of  Zacharias,  called  "  Be- 
 nedictus," for  the  reason  already  mentioned, 
 
 was  uttered  on  the  birth  of  John  the  Bap- 
 tist ;  and  is  a  thanksgiving  for  the  redemp- 
 tion of  mankind,  of  which  he  was  to  pub- 
 lish the  speedy  approach.  It  copies  very 
 nearly  the  style  of  the  Jewish  prophets, 
 who  described  s])iritual  blessings  by  tem- 
 poral imagery.  Thus  meaning  to  praise 
 the  "  Father  of  mercies  "  (2  Cor.  i.  3)  for 
 delivering  all  nations  from  the  dominion 
 of  the  wicked  one,  it  "  blesses  the  Lord 
 God  of  Israel  for  saving  his  people  from 
 their  enemies,  and  from  the  hand  of  those 
 that  hate  them."  Now  this  kind  of  lan- 
 guage was  laid  aside  after  our  Saviour's 
 ascension ;  and  therefore  the  prophecy 
 before  us  is  not  of  later  date,  but  genuine. 
 Yet  it  sufficiently  explains  to  what  sort  of 
 "  salvation  "  it  refers,  by  mentioning  "  the 
 remission  of  sins,  the  giving  of  light  to 
 them  that  sat  in  darkness,  and  the  guiding 
 of  their  feet  into  the  way  of  peace."  And 
 so  it  may  teach  us  both  the  fitness  and  the 
 method  of  assigning  to  the  Old  Testament 
 predictions  an  evangelical  interpretation. 
 The  people,  in  repeating  it,  should  remem- 
 ber, that  the  words,  "  And  thou,  child, 
 shalt  be  called  the  prophet  of  the  Highest," 
 belong,  not  to  our  Saviour,  but  to  the 
 Baptist.  And  it  is  easily  to  be  apprehend- 
 ed, that  if,  in  the  dawning  which  preceded 
 "  the  Sun  of  righteousness,"  (Mai.  iv.  2,) 
 good  Zacharias  off'ered  up  his  thanks  with 
 such  transport,  Ave,  to  whom  he  shines  out 
 in  full  splendour,  ought  to  recite  it  with 
 dovible  gratitude. — Ahp.  Seeker. 
 
 Though  the  hundredth  psalm  is  almost 
 constantly  used  after  the  second  lesson, 
 there  seems  no  good  reason  why  this  hymn 
 should  be  laid  aside.  They  are  both  equally 
 indited  by  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  both 
 admirably  calculated  to  assist  the  devotion 
 and  elevate  the  affections  of  a  Christian 
 congregation  :  and  the  hymn,  being  placed 
 first,  seems  to  have  been  intended  for 
 more  general  use  than  the  psalm.— 7Fa/f/o. 
 The  Church  hath  appointed  tw'o  songs 
 of  praise  and  thanksgiving  to  be  used, 
 either  of  them  after  each  lesson,  but  not  so 
 indiflerently  but  that  the  former  practice  of 
 exemplary  Churches  and  reason  may  guide 
 us  in  the  choice.  For  the  "Te  Deum," 
 "Benedictus,"  "Magnificat,"  and  "Nunc 
 Dimittis,"  being  the  most  expressive  jubi- 
 lations and  rejoicings  for  the  redemption 
 of  the  world,  may  be  said  more  often  than 
 the  rest,  especially  on  Sundays  and  other 
 festivals  of  of  our  Lord. — Bishop  Sparroir. 
 The  Benedictus  was  used  exclusively 
 after  the  second  lesson  in  the  First  Book  of 
 King  Edward  VI. 
 
 BENEFICE.  In  the  ecclesiastical  sense 
 of  the  word,  means  a  church  endowed  wdth 
 
BENEFICE. 
 
 BENEFIT  OF  CLERGY. 
 
 105 
 
 a  revenue  for  the  performance  of  Divine 
 service,  or  the  revenue  itself  assigned  to 
 an  ecclesiastical  person,  by  way  of  stipend 
 for  the  service  he  is  to  do  that  church. 
 
 As  to  the  origin  of  the  word,  v,c  find  it 
 as  follows,  in  Alcefs  Ritual:  "This  word 
 was  anciently  appropriated  to  the  lands, 
 which  kings  used  to  bestow  on  those  who 
 had  fought  valiantly  in  the  wars  ;  and  was 
 not  used  in  this  particular  signification, 
 but  during  the  time  that  the  Goths  and 
 Lombards  reigned  in  Italy,  under  whom 
 those  fiefs  were  introduced,  which  were 
 peculiarly  termed  Benefices,  and  those  who 
 enjoyed  them,  Beneficiarii,  or  vassals.  For 
 notwithstanding  that  the  llomans  also  be- 
 stowed lands  on  their  captains  and  soldiers, 
 yet  those  lands  had  not  the  name  of  Bene- 
 fices appropriated  to  them,  but  the  word 
 benefice  was  a  general  term,  which  in- 
 cluded all  kinds  of  gifts  or  grants,  accord- 
 ing to  the  ancient  signification  of  the  Latin 
 word.  In  imitation  of  the  new  sense,  in 
 which  that  word  was  taken  with  regard  to 
 fiefs,  it  began  to  be  employed  in  the 
 Church,  when  the  temporalities  thereof 
 began  to  be  divided,  and  to  be  given  up 
 to  particular  persons,  by  taking  them  out 
 of  those  of  the  bishops.  This  the  bishops 
 themselves  first  introduced,  purposely  to 
 reward  merit,  and  assist  such  ecclesiastics 
 as  might  be  in  necessity.  However,  this 
 was  soon  carried  to  greater  lengths,  and  at 
 last  became  unlimited,  as  has  since  been 
 manifest  in  the  clericate  and  the  monas- 
 teries. A  benefice  therefore  is  not  merely 
 a  right  of  receiving  part  of  the  tempor- 
 alities of  the  Church,  for  the  service  a  per- 
 son docs  it;  a  right,  which  is  founded 
 upon  the  gospel,  and  has  always  subsisted 
 since  the  apostolic  age  ;  but  it  is  that  of 
 enjoying  a  part  of  the  temporalities  of  the 
 Church,  assigned  and  determined  in  a 
 special  form,  so  as  that  no  other  clergy- 
 man can  lay  any  claim  or  pretension  to  it. 
 
 And  in  this  age  it  is  not  barely  the 
 
 right  of  enjoying  part  of  the  temporalities 
 of  the  Church  ;  but  is  likewise  a  fixed  and 
 permanent  right,  in  such  a  manner  that  it 
 devolves  on  another,  after  the  death  of  tlie 
 incumbent  ;  which  anciently  was  other- 
 wise ;  for,  at  the  rise  of  benefices,  they 
 were  indulged  to  clergymen  only  for  a 
 stated  time,  or  for  life ;  after  which  they 
 reverted  to  the  Church." 
 
 It  is  not  easy  to  determine  when  the 
 effects  of  the  Church  were  first  divided. 
 It  is  certain  that,  till  the  4th  century,  all 
 the  revenues  were  in  the  hands  of  the 
 bishops,  who  distributed  them  by  their 
 CEco)ionii  or  stewards  ;  and  they  consisted 
 chiefly   in    alms  and   voluntary  contribu- 
 
 tions. 'V\1ien  the  Church  came  to  have 
 inheritances,  part  of  them  were  assigned 
 for  the  maintenance  of  the  clergy,  of  which 
 we  find  some  footsteps  in  the  oth  and  6th 
 centuries  ;  but  the  allotment  seems  not 
 to  have  been  a  fixed  thing,  but  to  have 
 been  absolutely  discretional,  till  the  I'ith 
 century. 
 
 Benefices  are  divided  by  the  canonists 
 into  simple  and  sacerdotal.  The  first  sort 
 lays  no  obligation,  but  to  read  prayers, 
 sing,  &c.  Such  kind  of  Beneficiaries  are 
 canons,  chaplains,  chantors,  8cc.  The  se- 
 cond is  charged  with  the  cure  of  souls, 
 the  guidance  and  direction  of  consciences, 
 ^•c.  Such  are  rectories,  vicarages,  &c. 
 The  canonists  likewise  specify  three  ways 
 of  vacating  a  benefice  ;  viz.  de  jure,  de 
 facto,  and  hi/  the  sentence  of  a  judt/e.  A 
 benefice  is  void  de  jure,  when  a  person 
 is  guilty  of  crimes,  for  which  he  is  dis- 
 qualified by  law  to  hold  a  benefice ;  such 
 are  heresy,  simony,  &c.  A  benefice  is 
 void  both  de  facto  and  de  jure,  by  the  na- 
 tural death,  or  resignation,  of  the  incum- 
 bent. Lastly,  a  benefice  is  vacated  by 
 sentence  of  the  jud<ie,  when  the  incumbent 
 is  dispossessed  of  it  by  way  of  punishment 
 for  immorality,  or  any  crime  against  the 
 state. 
 
 The  Romanists,  again,  distinguish  bene- 
 fices into  regular  and  secular.  Regular 
 benefices  are  those  held  by  a  religious  or 
 monk  of  any  order,  abbey,  priory,  or  con- 
 vent. Secular  benefices  are  those  confer- 
 red on  the  secular  priests ;  of  which  sort 
 are  most  of  their  cures. 
 
 The  Church  distinguishes  between  dig- 
 nities and  henojices.  The  former  title  is 
 only  applicable  to  bishoprics,  deaneries, 
 archdeaconries,  and  prebends :  the  latter 
 comprehends  all  ecclesiastical  preferments 
 under  those  degrees ;  as  rectories  and 
 vicarages.  It  is  essential  to  these  latter, 
 that  they  be  bestowed  freely,  reserving  no- 
 thing to  the  patron ;  that  they  be  given 
 as  a  provision  for  the  clerk,  who  is  only 
 an  usu-fructuart/,  and  hath  no  inheritance 
 in  them  ;  and  that  all  contracts  concern- 
 ing them  between  patron  and  incumbent 
 be,  in  their  own  nature,  void. 
 
 BENEFICIARIES,  or  BEXEFICIATL 
 The  inferior,  non-capitular  members  of 
 cathedrals,  &c.,  were  so  called  in  many 
 Churches  abroad;  as  possessing  a  bene- 
 fice or  endowment  in  the  Church.  They 
 very  much  corresponded  to  our  minor 
 canons  and  vicars  choral,  8:c. — Jehb. 
 
 BENEFIT  OF  CLERGY.  The  ;)ni;t- 
 Icf/iuni  clericale,  or,  in  common  speech,  the 
 benefit  of  the  clergy,  had  its  origin  from 
 the  pious  regard  paid  by  Christian  princes 
 
106 
 
 BEREANS. 
 
 BIBLE. 
 
 to  the  Church  of  Christ.  The  exemp- 
 tions which  they  granted  to  the  Church 
 were  principally  of  two  kinds:  1.  Exemp- 
 tion of  places  consecrated  to  religious 
 offices  from  criminal  arrests,  which  was 
 the  foundation  of  sanctuaries.  (See  Sa7w- 
 tuary,  Asylum.)  2.  Exemptions  of  the 
 persons  of  the  clergy  from  criminal  pro- 
 cess before  the  secular  magistrate  in  a  fcAv 
 j)articular  cases,  which  was  the  true  origin 
 and  meaning  of  the  prin'leyiitm  clericale. 
 Originally  the  law  was  held  that  no  man 
 should  be  admitted  to  the  privilege  of  the 
 clergy  but  such  as  had  the  hahitum  et  ton- 
 stiram  clericalem.  But,  in  process  of  time, 
 a  much  wider  and  more  comprehensive 
 criterion  was  established,  every  one  that 
 could  read  being  accounted  a  clerk  or  cle- 
 ricus,  and  allowed  the  benefit  of  clerkship, 
 whether  in  holy  orders  or  not. 
 
 BEKEANS.  An  obscure  sect  of  se- 
 ceders  from  the  Scottish  establishment, 
 which  originated  in  the  exclusion  of  one 
 Barclay  from  the  parish  of  Fettercairn,  in 
 Kincardineshire,  in  1773.  They  adopted 
 the  name  of  Bereans  in  allusion  to  the 
 text  — "  These  (the  Bereans)  w'ere  more 
 noble  than  those  in  Thessalonica,  in  that 
 they  received  the  word  with  all  readiness 
 of  mind,  and  searched  the  Scriptures  daily, 
 whether  those  things  were  so."  (Acts  xvii. 
 11.)  The  Bereans  reject  all  natural  re- 
 ligion,—  they  take  faith  to  be  a  simple 
 credence  of  God's  word, — they  consider 
 personal  assurance  of  the  essence  of  faith, 
 and  unbelief  as  the  unpardonable  sin. 
 They  deny  any  spiritual  interpretation  to 
 the  historical  books  of  the  Old  Testament, 
 and  reckon  the  Psalms  so  exclusively  typi- 
 cal or  prophetical  of  Christ,  as  to  be 
 without  application  to  the  experience  of 
 individual  Christians. 
 
 BEREFELLARII.  In  the  collegiate 
 church  of  Beverley  the  seven  inferior 
 clergymen,  ranking  next  after  the  preben- 
 daries, were  so  called.  The  origin  of  the 
 name  is  unknown  ;  though  it  appears  from 
 ancient  records,  that  it  was  a  popular  and 
 vulgar  one  ;  their  proper  designation  being 
 Hectares  Chori ;  that  is,  a  sort  of  minor 
 canons.  They  were  also  called  Persona. 
 (See  Rector  Chori,  and  Persona.)  —  See 
 Bur/dale's  Monasticon,  ed.  1830,  vi.  1307. 
 —Jehh. 
 
 BEKENGARIANS.  A  denomination, 
 in  the  eleventh  century,  which  adhered  to 
 the  opinions  of  Berenger,  archdeacon  of 
 Angers,  the  learned  and  able  opponent  of 
 Lanfranc,  whose  work  has  been  in  part 
 recovered,  and  was  printed  a  few  years 
 since^at  Berlin.  "  It  was  never  my  asser- 
 tion," says  he,  "  that  the  bread  and  wine 
 
 on  the  altar  are  only  sacramental  signs. 
 Let  no  one  suppose  that  I  affimi  that  the 
 bread  was  not  become  the  body  of  Christ 
 from  being  sim])le  bread  by  consecration 
 on  the  altar.  It  plainly  becomes  the  body 
 of  Christ,  but  not  the  bread  which  in  its 
 matter  and  essence  is  corruptible,  but  in 
 as  far  as  it  is  capable  of  becoming  what  it 
 was  not,  it  becomes  the  body  of  Christ, 
 but  not  according  to  the  manner  of  the 
 production  of  his  very  body,  for  that  body, 
 once  generated  on  earth  so  many  years 
 ago,  can  never  be  produced  again.  The 
 bread,  however,  becomes  what  it  never 
 was  before  consecration,  and  from  being 
 the  common  substance  of  bread,  is  to  us 
 the  blessed  body  of  Christ."  His  fol- 
 lowers, however,  did  not  hold  to  his  doc- 
 trines, which,  in  themselves,  Avere  a  Catho- 
 lic protest  against  Romish  errors. —  Cave^ 
 Hist.  Literar.  Sccc.  Hildehrand. 
 
 BIBLE.  (See  Scrijdure  and  Canoti  of 
 Scripture.)  The  name  applied  by  Chris- 
 tians by  way  of  eminence  to  the  sacred 
 volume,  in  which  are  contained  the  reve- 
 lations of  God.  The  names  and  numbers 
 of  the  canonical  books  will  be  found  un- 
 der the  word  Scripture. 
 
 The  division  of  the  Scriptures  into  chap- 
 ters, as  they  are  at  present,  took  place  in 
 the  middle  ages.  Some  attribute  it  to  Ste- 
 phen Langton,  archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
 in  the  reigns  of  John  and  Henry  III.  But 
 the  real  author  of  this  invention  was  Hugo 
 de  Sancto  Caro,  commonly  called  Hugo 
 Cardinalis,  from  his  being  the  first  Do- 
 minican raised  to  the  degree  of  cardinal. 
 This  Hugo  flourished  about  the  year  1240. 
 He  wrote  a  Comment  on  the  Scriptures, 
 and  projected  the  first  Concordance,  which 
 is  that  of  the  Latin  Vulgate  Bible.  As 
 the  intention  of  this  work  was  to  render 
 the  finding  of  any  word  or  passage  in  the 
 Scriptures  more  easy,  it  became  necessary 
 to  divide  the  book  into  sections,  and  the 
 sections  into  subdivisions.  These  sections 
 are  the  chapters  into  which  the  Bible  has 
 been  divided  since  that  time.  But  the 
 subdivision  of  the  chapters  was  not  then 
 in  verses  as  at  present.  Hugo  subdivided 
 them  by  the  letters  A,  B,  c,  D,  E,  F,  G, 
 which  were  placed  in  the  margin  at  an 
 equal  distance  from  each  other,  according 
 to  the  length  of  the  chapters.  About  the 
 year  1445,  Mordecai  Nathan,  a  famous 
 JcAvish  Rabbi,  improved  Hugo's  invention, 
 and  subdivided  the  chapters  into  verses,  in 
 the  manner  they  are  at  present. 
 
 The  first  English  Bible  we  read  of  was 
 that  translated  by  Wicklifi",  about  the  year 
 1360.  A  translation  of  the  New  Testa- 
 ment by  Wicliff  was  printed  by  Lewis, 
 
BIBLE. 
 
 107 
 
 about  1731,  and  the  whole  of  Wicliff's 
 translation  has  lately  been  ijublished  at 
 Oxford.  J.  de  Trevisa,  Avho  died  about 
 1398,  is  also  said  to  have  translated  the 
 whole  Bible ;  but  whether  any  copies  of 
 his  translation  are  remaininp^,  does  not  ap- 
 pear. The  first  printed  Bible  in  our  lan- 
 guage was  that  translated  by  W.  Tindal, 
 assisted  by  Miles  Coverdale,  printed  abroad 
 in  1526 ;  but  most  of  the  copies  were 
 bought  up  and  burnt  by  Bishop  Tunstal 
 and  Sir  Thomas  More.  Of  this  edition  but 
 Uvo  copies  are  known  to  exist,  one  of  which 
 was  discovered  by  Archdeacon  Cotton,  in 
 St.  Paul's  Library.  It  only  contained  the 
 New  Testament,  and  was  revised  and  re- 
 published by  the  same  person  in  1530. 
 The  prologues  and  prefaces  added  to  it 
 reflect  on  the  bishops  and  clergy ;  but  this 
 edition  was  also  suppressed,  and  the  copies 
 burnt.  In  1532,  Tindal  and  his  associates 
 finished  the  whole  Bible,  except  the  Apo- 
 crypha, and  printed  it  abroad ;  but  while 
 he  was  afterAvards  preparing  a  second  edi- 
 tion, he  was  taken  up  and  burnt  for  heresy 
 in  Flanders.  On  Tindal's  death,  his  work 
 was  carried  on  by  Coverdale,  and  John 
 Rogers,  superintendent  of  an  English 
 Church  in  Germany,  and  the  first  martp- 
 in  the  reign  of  Queen  Mary,  who  trans- 
 lated the  Apocrypha,  and  revised  Tindal's 
 translation,  comparing  it  with  the  Hebrew, 
 Greek,  Latin,  and  German,  and  adding 
 prefaces  and  notes  from  Luther's  Bible. 
 The  earhest  edition  was  printed  in  1535,  it 
 is  supposed  at  Zurich ;  though  the  book 
 has  no  place  nor  name.  He  dedicated 
 the  whole  to  Henry  VIII.  in  1 537,  under 
 the  borrowed  name  of  Thomas  Matthews  ; 
 whence  this  has  been  usually  called  Mat- 
 thews' Bible.  It  is  supposed  to  have  been 
 printed  at  Hamburgh,  and  licence  obtained 
 for  publishing  it  in  England,  by  the  favour 
 of  Archbishop  Cranmer,  and  the  Bishops 
 Latimer  and  Shaxton.  The  first  Bible 
 printed  by  authority  in  England,  and  pub- 
 licly set  up  in  churches,  was  this  same 
 Tindal's  version,  revised  and  compared 
 with  the  Hebrew,  and  in  many  places 
 amended,  by  Miles  Coverdale,  afterwards 
 bishop  of  Exeter ;  and  examined  after  him 
 by  Archbishop  Cranmer,  who  added  a  pre- 
 face to  it ;  whence  this  was  called  Cran- 
 mer's,  or  the  great  Bible.  It  was  printed 
 in  1539  by  Grafton  and  Whitchurch,  and 
 in  1540  by  Whitchurch,  (some  copies  have 
 "  liichard  Grafton,")  and  published  in  1540 ; 
 and,  by  a  royal  proclamation,  every  parish 
 was  obliged  to  set  one  of  the  copies  in 
 their  church,  under  the  penalty  of  forty 
 shillings  a  month  :  yet,  two  years  after,  the 
 Popish  bishops  obtained  its  suppression  by 
 
 the  king.  It  was  restored  under  Edward 
 VI, ,  suppressed  again  under  Queen  Mary's 
 reign,  and  restored  again  in  the  first  year 
 of  Queen  Elizabeth,  and  a  new  edition  of 
 it  given,  1562,  printed  by  Harrison.  Some 
 English  exiles  at  Geneva,  in  Queen  Mary's 
 reign,  viz.  Goodman,  Gilbie,  Sampson, 
 Cole,  Whittingham,  and  Knox,  made  a 
 new  translation,  printed  there  in  1560,  the 
 New  Testament  having  been  printed  in 
 1557  ;  hence  called  the  Geneva  Bible,  con- 
 taining the  variations  of  readings,  mar- 
 ginal annotations,  &c.,  on  account  of  which 
 it  was  much  valued  by  the  Puritan  party 
 in  that  and  the  following  reigns.  Cover- 
 dale  has  also  been  supposed  to  have  had 
 a  part  in  this  version  ;  but  from  what  is 
 known  of  his  movements,  it  appears  im- 
 possible that  he  should  have  been  con- 
 cerned in  it.  Archdeacon  Cotton  says, 
 "  The  first  edition  of  this  version  was 
 for  many  years  the  most  popular  one  in 
 England,  as  its  numerous  editions  may 
 testify.  After  the  appearance  of  King 
 James's  translation,  the  use  of  it  seems  to 
 have  declined  ;  yet  a  fondness  for  its  notes 
 still  lingered ;  and  we  have  several  in- 
 stances of  their  being  attached  to  editions 
 of  the  royal  translation,  one  of  which  kind 
 was  printed  so  lately  as  1715."  Arch- 
 bishop Parker  resolved  on  a  ncAV  transla- 
 tion for  the  public  use  of  the  Church  ;  and 
 engaged  the  bishops  and  other  learned 
 men  to  take  each  a  share  or  portion  ;  these, 
 being  afterwards  joined  together  and  print- 
 ed, with  short  annotations,  in  1568,  in 
 large  folio,  by  Richard  Jugge,  made,  what 
 was  afterwards  called,  the  Great  English 
 Bible,  and  commonly  the  Bishops'  Bible. 
 In  1569  it  was  also  published  in  octavo, 
 in  a  small  but  fine  black  letter ;  and  here 
 the  chapters  were  divided  into  verses,  but 
 without  any  breaks  for  them,  in  which 
 the  method  of  the  Geneva  Bible  was  fol- 
 lowed, which  was  the  first  English  Bible 
 where  any  distinction  of  verses  was  made. 
 It  was  afterAvards  printed  in  large  folio, 
 with  corrections,  and  several  prolegomena, 
 in  1572;  this  is  called  Matthew  Parker's 
 Bible.  The  initial  letters  of  each  trans- 
 lator's name  were  put  at  the  end  of  his 
 part ;  ex.  gr.  at  the  end  of  the  Pentateuch, 
 W.  E.  for' William  Exon  ;  that  is,  AVilliam 
 [Allev],  bishop  of  Exeter,  whose  allotment 
 ended  there  ;  at  the  end  of  Samuel,  R.  M. 
 for  Richard  Menevensis,  or  Richard  [Ha- 
 vies],  bishop  of  St.  David's,  to  whom  the 
 second  allotment  fell,  and  so  with  the  rest. 
 The  archbishop  overlooked,  directed,  exa- 
 mined, and  finished  the  whole.  This  trans- 
 lation was  used  in  the  churches  for  forty 
 years,  though  the  Geneva  Bible  was  more 
 
108 
 
 BIBLE. 
 
 read  in  private  houses,  being  printed  above 
 twenty  times  in  as  many  years.  King 
 James'  bore  to  the  Geneva  version  an  in- 
 veterate hatred,  on  account  of  the  notes, 
 which,  at  the  Hamjiton  Court  conference, 
 he  charged  as  partial,  untrue,  seditious, 
 ike.  The  Bisho])s'  Jiiblc,  too,  had  its  faults. 
 The  king  frankly  owned  that  he  had  seen 
 no  good  translation  of  tlie  Bible  in  English ; 
 but  he  thought  that  of  Geneva  the  worst 
 of  all.  After  the  translation  of  the  Bible 
 by  the  bishops,  two  other  private  versions 
 had  been  made  of  the  New  Testament; 
 the  iirst  by  Laurence  Thompson,  from 
 Beza's  Latin  edition,  with  the  notes  of 
 Beza,  pubhshed  in  1582,  in  quarto,  and 
 afterwards  in  1589,  varying  very  little 
 from  the  Geneva  Bible ;  the  second  by  the 
 llomanists  at  Kheinis,  in  1584,  called  the 
 Khemish  Bible,  or  Khemish  translation. 
 These  translators  finding  it  impossible  to 
 keep  the  people  from  having  the  Scriptures 
 in  their  vulgar  tongue,  resolved  to  give  a 
 version  of  their  own,  as  favourable  to  their 
 cause  as  might  be.  It  was  printed  on  large 
 paper,  with  a  fair  letter  and  margin.  One 
 complaint  against  it  was,  its  retaining  a 
 multitude  of  Hebrew  and  Greek  words 
 untranslated,  for  want,  as  the  editors  ex- 
 press it,  of  proper  and  adequate  terms  in 
 the  English  to  render  them  by ;  as  the  words 
 azt/mes,  timike,  liolocaust,  jJt'&pKce,  pasche, 
 Szc. :  however,  many  of  the  copies  were 
 seized  by  Queen  Elizabeth's  searchers,  and 
 confiscated ;  and  Thomas  CartAvright  was 
 solicited  by  Secretary  "Walsingham  to  re- 
 fute it ;  but  after  some  progress  had  been 
 made  in  it.  Archbishop  Whitgift  prohibited 
 his  proceeding  further,  judging  it  improper 
 that  the  doctrine  of  the  Church  of  England 
 should  be  committed  to  the  defence  of  a 
 Puritan.  He  appointed  Dr.  Fulke  in  his 
 place,  who  refuted  the  Rhemists  with  great 
 spirit  and  learning.  Cartwright's  Refuta- 
 tion was  also  afterwards  published  in  1618, 
 under  Archbishop  Abbot.  About  thirty 
 years  after  their  New  Testament,  the  Ro- 
 man Catholics  published  a  translation  of 
 the  Old,  at  Douay,  1609  and  1610,  from 
 the  Vulgate,  with  annotations,  so  that  the 
 English  Roman  Catholics  have  now  the 
 whole  Bible  in  their  mother  tongue ;  though 
 it  is  to  be  observed,  they  are  forbidden  to 
 read  it  Avithout  a  licence  from  their  supe- 
 riors :  and  it  is  a  curious  fact,  that  there 
 is  not  an  edition  of  the  Bible  which  docs 
 not  lie  under  the  ban  of  one  or  of  all  the 
 popes,  most  of  them  being  in  the  Index 
 Expurgatorius.  The  last  English  Bible 
 was  that  which  proceeded  from  the  Hamp- 
 ton Court  conference  in  1 603  :  where, 
 many  exceptions  being  made  to  the  Bishops' 
 
 Bible,  King  James  gave  order  for  a  new 
 one  :  not,  (as  the  preface  expresses  it,)  for  a 
 translation  altogether  new,  nor  yet  to  make 
 a  good  one  better,  or,  of  many  good  ones, 
 one  best.  Fifty-four  learned  men  w^ere 
 appointed  to  this  oflSce  by  the  king,  as 
 appears  by  his  letter  to  the  archbishop, 
 dated  1604  ;  which  being  three  years  before 
 the  translation  was  entered  upon,  it  is  pro- 
 bable seven  of  them  were  either  dead,  or 
 had  declined  the  task ;  since  Fuller's  list 
 of  the  translators  makes  but  forty-seven, 
 who,  being  ranged  under  six  divisions, 
 entered  on  their  province  in  1607.  It  was 
 published  in  1611  infol.  by  Barker,  with  a 
 dedication  to  James,  and  a  learned  pre- 
 face ;  and  is  commonly  called  King  James's 
 Bible.  After  this,  all  the  other  versions 
 dropped,  and  fell  into  disuse,  except  the 
 Epistles  and  Gospels  in  the  Common 
 Prayer  Book,  which  were  still  continued 
 according  to  the  Bishops'  translation  till 
 the  alteration  of  the  liturgy  in  1661,  and 
 the  Psalms  and  Hymns,  which  are  to  this 
 day  continued  as  in  the  old  version.  See 
 for  a  full  list  of  the  editions  of  the  English 
 Bible,  yirclid.  Cotton^ s  List  of  the  Editions 
 of  the  £!))(/ 1 ish  Bible,  Szc. 
 
 The  New  Testament  was  translated  in- 
 to Irish  in  the  16th  century.  Nicholas 
 Walsh,  chancellor  of  St.  Patrick's,  and 
 John  Kearney,  treasurer  of  the  same 
 cathedral,  began  this  work  in  1573.  In 
 1577  Walsh  was  appointed  bishop  of  Os- 
 sory,  but  still  proceeded  in  his  undertak- 
 ing, till  he  was  murdered  in  1585.  Some 
 years  before  this,  Nehemiah  Donnellan 
 (who  was  archbishop  of  Tuam  in  1595) 
 had  joined  Walsh  and  Kearney  in  their 
 undertaking.  This  translation  was  com- 
 pleted by  William  O'Donnell,  or  Daniel, 
 successor  of  Donnellan  in  the  archiepiscopal 
 see,  and  published  in  1603.  Bishop  Bedell 
 procured  the  Old  Testament  to  be  trans- 
 lated by  Mr.  King,  who  being  ignorant  of 
 the  original  languages,  executed  it  from 
 the  English  version.  Bedell  revised  it, 
 comparing  it  with  the  HebrcAV,  the  LXX., 
 and  the  Italian  version  of  Diodati.  He 
 supported  Mr.  King,  during  the  under- 
 taking, with  his  utmost  ability,  and,  Avhen 
 the  translation  was  finished,  would  have 
 printed  it  at  his  own  house,  if  he  had  not 
 been  prevented  by  the  troubles  in  Ireland. 
 This  translation  (together  with  Archbishop 
 Daniel's  version  of  the  New  Testament) 
 was  printed  in  London  in  1685,  at  the  ex- 
 pense of  the  celebrated  Robert  Boyle. — 
 Ki)ufs  Primer  of  the  Church  History  of 
 Irehnd.  Hornets  Introduction  to  the  Holy 
 Scriptures. 
 
 The  "SA'elsh  version  (the  New  Testament 
 
BIDDING  PRAYER. 
 
 109 
 
 only)  was  published  in  the  IGth  century. 
 The  act  of  5  Eliz.  c.  28,  directed  that  the 
 Bible  and  Prayer  Book  should  be  trans- 
 lated into  Welsh ;  committin<j^  the  direc- 
 tion of  this  version  to  the  four  AVelsh 
 bishops.  The  translators  Averc,  Thomas 
 Huet,  precentor  of  St.  David's,  Itichard 
 Davies,  bishop  of  St.  David's,  and  William 
 Salesbury.  It  was  printed  in  London  in 
 1567.  The  former  edition  Avas  revised,  and 
 the  Old  Testament  translated,  chiefly  by 
 William  Mor^^an,  bishop  of  Llandaff,  after- 
 wards of  St.  Asaph.  This  was  printed  in 
 1588,  and  was  revised  by  llichard  Parry, 
 bishop  of  St.  Asaph,  and  reprinted  in  162() : 
 the  basis  of  all  subsequent  editions. — 
 Home's  Intrucl. 
 
 The  jNIanx  version  of  the  Bible  was  be- 
 gun by  the  exertions  of  Bishop  Wilson,  by 
 whom  the  Gospel  of  St.  JSIatthew  only 
 was  printed.  His  successor,  Bishop  Hil- 
 derley,  had  the  New  Testament  completed 
 and  printed  between  the  years  1756  and 
 1760.  The  Old  Testament  was  completed 
 two  days  before  his  death  in  1772. — Home's 
 Introd.     Butler'' s  Life  of  Bishop  Hildcrlei/. 
 
 By  the  80th  canon,'  "  a  Bible  of  the 
 largest  volume"  is  one  of  those  things 
 which  the  churchwardens  are  bound  to 
 provide  for  every  parish  church. 
 
 BIDDING  PRAYER.  The  formulary 
 which  the  Church  of  England,  in  the  55th 
 of  the  canons  of  1603,  directs  to  be  used 
 before  all  sermons,  lectures,  and  homilies, 
 is  called  the  Bidding  Prayer,  because  in  it 
 the  preacher  is  directed  to  bid  or  exhort 
 the  people  to  pray  for  certain  specified 
 objects.  The  custom  of  bidding  prayers 
 is  very  ancient,  as  may  be  seen  in  St. 
 Chrysostom's  and  other  liturgies,  where  the 
 biddings  occur  frequently,  and  are  called 
 Allocutions. 
 
 The  55th  canon  of  the  Convocation  of 
 1603,  is  as  follows :  "  Before  all  sermons, 
 lectures,  and  homilies,  the  preachers  and 
 ministers  shall  move  the  people  to  join 
 with  them  in  prayer,  in  this  form,  or  to  this 
 effect,  as  briefly  as  conveniently  they  may  : 
 'Ye  shall  pray  for  Christ's  Holy  Catholic 
 Church,  that  is,  for  the  whole  congregation 
 of  Christian  people  dispersed  throughout 
 the  whole  world,  and  especially  for  the 
 Churches  of  England,  Scotland,  and  Ire- 
 land. And  herein  I  require  you  most 
 especially  to  pray  for  the  king's  most  ex- 
 cellent Majesty,  our  sovereign  Lord  James, 
 King  of  England,  Scotland,  France,  and 
 Ireland,  defender  of  the  faith,  and  supreme 
 governor  in  these  his  realms,  and  all  other 
 his  dominions  and  countries,  over  all  per- 
 sons, in  all  causes,  as  well  ecclesiastical 
 as  temporal.     Ye  shall  also  pray  for  our 
 
 gracious  Queen  Anne,  the  noble  Prince 
 Henry,  and  the  rest  of  the  king  and  queen's 
 royal  issue.  Ye  shall  also  pray  for  the 
 ministers  of  God's  holy  word  and  sacra- 
 ments, as  well  archbishops  and  bishops, 
 as  other  pastors  and  curates.  Ye  shall 
 also  pray  for  the  king's  most  honourable 
 council,  and  for  all  the  nobility  and  magis- 
 trates of  this  realm,  that  all  and  every  of 
 these  in  their  several  callings  may  serve 
 truly  and  faithfully,  to  the  glory  of  God, 
 and  the  edifying  and  well-governing  of  Ilis 
 people,  remembering  the  account  that  they 
 must  make.  Also  ye  shall  pray  for  the 
 whole  commons  of  this  realm,  that  they 
 may  live  in  the  true  faith  and  fear  of  GoD, 
 in  humble  obedience  to  the  king,  and 
 brotherly  charity  one  to  another.  Finally, 
 let  us  praise  God  for  all  those  which  are 
 departed  out  of  this  life  in  the  faith  of 
 Christ,  and  pray  unto  God  that  we  may 
 have  grace  to  direct  our  lives  after  their 
 good  example,  that,  this  life  ended,  we  may 
 be  made  partakers  with  them  of  the  glori- 
 ous resurrection  in  the  life  everlasting,'  al- 
 ways concluding  with  the  Lord's  Prayer." 
 
 The  special  pleading  of  some  Presby- 
 terians and  their  advocates,  renders  it 
 necessary  to  observe,  that  the  Church  of 
 Scotland  alluded  to,  is  not  the  present 
 Presbyterian  establishment. 
 
 The  assertion  made  by  the  adversaries 
 of  the  Church  of  England  is  this,  that  the 
 55th  canon  bids  us  pray  for  the  Church  of 
 Scotland,  and  must  have  recognised  "  that 
 Church  under  a  Presbyterian  form  as  it 
 now  is,  because  none  other,  at  that  time, 
 existed." 
 
 Now  we  may  commence  our  observa- 
 tions by  remarking  upon  the  extreme  im- 
 probability of  the  alleged  fact,  that  those 
 who  passed  the  55th  canon  should  contem- 
 plate in  the  Bidding  Prayer,  the  Presby- 
 terian community  of  Scotland,  and  regard 
 it  as  a  sister  to  the  Churches  of  England 
 and  Ireland. 
 
 The  leading  members  of  the  Convocation 
 were,  Andi-ewes,  Overall,  and  King,  emi- 
 nent men,  and  of  most  decided  views  on 
 Church  government.  Can  the  student  of 
 ecclesiastical  history  refrain  from  smiling 
 when  he  is  told  that  a  Convocation  of  the 
 English  clergy,  headed  by  these  divines, 
 who  had  already  given  a  character  to  the 
 age  in  which  they  lived,  intended  to  place 
 the  "Holy  Kirk,"  as  the  Presbyterians 
 styled  their  denomination,  on  the  same 
 footing  as  the  Churches  of  England  and 
 Ireland  ? 
 
 The  president  of  the  Convocation  was 
 Bancroft.  Dr.  Sumner  has  taught  us  how 
 immense  are  the  powers  which  the  presi- 
 
110 
 
 BIDDING  PRAYER. 
 
 dent  of  a  Convocation  possesses,  and  how 
 unscrupulously  those  powers  can  be  used 
 to  silence  the  Convocation,  if  it  be  suspect- 
 ed that  the  majority  of  the  members  differ 
 in  opinion  from  the  president.  Bishop 
 Bancroft  was  certainly  not  more  likely  to 
 be  tolerant  of  opposition  than  our  present 
 primate,  and  what  Bancroft's  opinion  of 
 Presbvtcrianism  was,  is  stated  in  a  sermon 
 which' he  published.  Of  "the  Holy  Kirk," 
 as  the  Presbyterians  called  themselves, 
 Bancroft  said  that  "they  perverted  the 
 meaning  of  the  Scriptures  for  the  mainten- 
 ance of  false  doctrine,  heresy,  and  schism," 
 and  he  likens  that  "  Holy  Kirk "  to 
 "  the  devil's  chapel  in  the  church-yard  in 
 which  Christ  hath  erected  his  Church." 
 "We  consider  Bancroft's  language  as  un- 
 justifiably violent ;  but  such  being  his  lan- 
 guage, it  is  monstrous  to  suppose  that  he 
 intended  to  place  that  Kirk,  in  his  esti- 
 mation so  unholy,  on  the  same  footing  as 
 the  Churches  of  England  and  Ireland,  or 
 that  he  would  not  have  discontinued  the 
 Convocation,  if  he  had  suspected  that  it 
 would  recognise  that  Kirk  as  a  sister 
 Church. 
 
 The  king  who  gave  his  consent  to  the 
 canons,  and  who,  in  giving  his  consent, 
 acted,  not  as  a  sovereign  in  these  days,  on 
 the  advice  of  his  ministers,  but  on  his  own 
 authority,  was  James  I.  And  King  James's 
 opinion  on  Presbyterianism  was  sufficient- 
 ly decided,  and  by  this  time  w^ell  known  : 
 
 "That  bishops  ought  to  be  in  the  Church, 
 I  have  ever  maintained  as  an  apostolic 
 institution,  and  so  the  ordinance  of  God  ; 
 contrary  to  the  Puritans,  and  likewise  to 
 Bellarmine,  who  denies  that  bishops  have 
 their  jurisdiction  immediately  from  GoD. 
 (But  it  is  no  wonder  he  takes  the  Puritans' 
 side,  since  Jesuits  are  nothing  but  Puritan- 
 papists.)  And  as  I  ever  maintained  the 
 state  of  bishops  and  the  ecclesiastical 
 hierarchy  for  order'  sake,  so  was  I  ever  an 
 enemy  to  the  confused  anarchy  or  parity 
 of  the  Puritans,  as  well  appeareth  in  my 
 BasUicoji  Boron.  Heaven  is  governed  by 
 order,  and  all  the  good  angels  there ;  nay, 
 hell  itself  could  not  subsist  without  some 
 order;  and  the  very  devils  are  divided 
 into  legions,  and  have  their  chieftains : 
 how  can  any  society  then  upon  earth  exist 
 without  order  and  degrees  ?  And  there- 
 fore I  cannot  enough  wonder  with  what 
 brazen  face  this  Answerer  could  say,  that  I 
 nan  a  Puritan  in  Scotland  and  an  enemj/  to 
 Protestants  :  I  that  was  persecuted  by  Pu- 
 ritans there,  not  from  my  birth  onlv,  but 
 ever  since  four  months  before  my  birth  ? 
 I  that,  in  the  year  of  God  1584,  erected 
 bishops,  and  depressed  all  their  popular 
 
 parity,  I  then  being  not  eighteen  years  of 
 age  ?'  I  that  in  my  said  book  to  my  son  do 
 speak  ten  times  more  bitterly  of  them  nor 
 of  the  Papists;  having  in  my  second 
 edition  thereof  affixed  a  long  apologetic 
 preface,  only  in  odium  Puritanorum  ?  I 
 that,  for  the  space  of  six  years  before  my 
 coming  into  England,  laboured  nothing  so 
 much  as  to  depress  their  parity  and  re- 
 erect  bishops  again  ?  Nay,  if  the  daily 
 commentaries  of  my  life  and  actions  in 
 Scotland  were  written,  (as  Julius  Caesar's 
 were,)  there  would  scarcely  a  month  pass 
 in  all  my  life,  since  my  entering  into  the 
 13th  year  of  my  age,  wherein  some  acci- 
 dent or  other  w^ould  not  convince  the  car- 
 dinal of  a  lie  in  this  point.  And  surely  I 
 give  a  fair  commendation  to  the  Puritans 
 in  that  place  of  my  book,  where  I  affirm 
 that  I  have  found  greater  honesty  with  the 
 Highland  and  Border  thieves  than  with 
 that  sort  of  people." — Pre?nonition  to  tJie 
 Ajxdogy  for  the  Oath  of  Allegiance,  p.  44. 
 
 Now  is  it  credible  that  a  monarch,  de- 
 spotic in  his  disposition,  and  peculiarly 
 despotic  in  what  related  to  the  Church  ;  in 
 an  age  when  the  supremacy  was  asserted 
 and  exercised  with  as  much  of  inconsiderate 
 tjTanny  as  the  most  determined  liberal  of 
 the  present  age  coidd  wdsh  or  recommend, 
 — is  it  credible  that  a  despotic  sovereign, 
 holding  these  opinions,  would  give  his 
 sanction  to  a  canon  which  would  raise  the 
 system  he  di-eaded  and  abhorred  to  a  parity 
 with  the  Church  of  England  and  Ireland  ? 
 
 Certainly  the  advocates  of  Presbyteri- 
 anism must  be  prepared  to  believe  things 
 very  incredible  to  men  of  reasoning  minds, 
 if  they  can  believe  this  to  be  probable. 
 
 But  if  we  refer  to  history,  what  we  find 
 to  be  thus  improbable,  is  proved  to  be  im- 
 possible. "  The  Church,  under  a  Presby- 
 terian form,  as  it  now  is,"  did  not  at  that 
 time  exist  as  a  recognised  body,  or  an 
 establishment.  We  will  refer  for  proof,  in 
 the  first  place,  to  the  Compendium  of  the 
 Laws  of  Scotland,  published  by  authority, 
 w'liere  we  read  that  "  From  the  time  that 
 the  Assembly  of  Perth  was  held,  (lo97,)  the 
 Preshyterian  Constitution  of  the  Church, 
 as  established  in  1592,  and  the  legitimate 
 authority  of  its  General  Assemblies  and 
 other  judicatories,  may  be  regarded  as  sub- 
 verted by  the  interferences  of  King  Jatnes 
 the  Sixth.  On  the  19th  December,  1597, 
 soon  after  the  Assemblies  of  Perth  and 
 Dundee,  he  brought  his  projects  under  the 
 consideration  of  parliament ;  when  an  act 
 was  passed  ordaining  that  such  pastors  and 
 ministers  as  his  Majesty  should  at  any 
 time  please  to  invest  with  the  office,  place, 
 and  dignity  of  bishop,  abbot,  or  other  pre- 
 
BIDDING  PRAYER. 
 
 Ill 
 
 late,  should,  in  all  time  hereafter,  have 
 vote  in  parliament,  in  the  same  -way  as 
 any  prelate  "vvas  accustomed  to  have ;  de- 
 claring that  all  bishoi)rics  presently  vacant, 
 or  which  might  afterwards  become  vacant, 
 should  be  given  by  his  Majesty  to  actual 
 preachers  and  ministers.  Henceforward, 
 therefore,  and  indeed  from  the  Assembly 
 at  Perth,  (1597,)  the  Church  of  Scotland 
 must  be  regarded  as  I'4)iscopalian  ;  " — in 
 principle,  we  may  add,  though  not  fully 
 developed.  —  Compcnulium  of  the  Laws  of' 
 the  Church  of  Scot/and,  part  ii.  p.  36. 
 
 In  the  year  1600,  "  the  Presbyterian 
 form  of  government  was,  after  eight  years 
 of  intolerable  agitation,  abolished  by  the 
 king,  with  the  full  consent  of  an  over- 
 whelming majority  of  the  ministers  and 
 the  applause  of  the  people,  whose  opinions 
 seem  to  have  been  changed  by  experience 
 of  its  tyranny." — Stephens's  History  of  the 
 Church  of  Scotland,  vol.  i.  p.  417. 
 
 The  Scottish  parliament  had  also  passed 
 an  act,  in  1597,  "  That  such  pastors  and 
 ministers  as  his  Majesty  should  promote 
 to  the  place,  dignity,  and  title  of  a  bishop, 
 or  other  prelate,  at  any  time,  should  have 
 a  voice  in  parliament,  as  freely  as  any  ec- 
 clesiastical prelate  had  in  times  past."  In 
 the  year  1600,  the  Idng  informed  the  As- 
 sembly, that  "  there  was  a  necessity  of  re- 
 storing the  ancient  government  of  the 
 Church ; "  and,  consequently,  under  the 
 sanction  of  parliament,  "  persons  Avere 
 nominated  to  the  bishoprics  that  were 
 void,"  before  the  end  of  the  year. — Sum- 
 ner's Church  History,  vol.  ii.  pp.  234 — 236. 
 
 And  so  w^e  find  that  what,  reasoning  a 
 priori,  we  should  consider  so  improbable 
 as  to  be  almost  incredible,  was  in  point  of 
 fact  impossible,  "  The  Church  of  Scotland 
 under  a  Presbyterian  form,  as  it  now  is," 
 could  not  be  intended  by  the  canon,  for 
 such  a  Church  did  not  exist  as  a  recognised 
 body  in  the  state.  On  the  contrary,  as 
 early  as  1598,  an  act  of  the  Scottish  par- 
 liament had  secured  to  the  bishops  and 
 other  ecclesiastical  prelates  to  be  appointed 
 by  the  king  their  seats  in  parliament.  And 
 before  the  year  1600,  bishops  were  nomin- 
 ated to  the  sees  of  Aberdeen,  Argyle,  Dun- 
 keld,  Brechin,  and  Dunblane.  David 
 Lindsay  and  George  Gladstone  were  in 
 that  year  designated  to  the  sees  of  Pcoss 
 and  Caithness. 
 
 But  it  is  said,  these  were  not  persons 
 whom  we  regard  as  bishops ;  they  were 
 not  consecrated,  they  were  only  titular 
 bishops.  Every  child  w^ho  has  looked  into 
 ecclesiastical  history  knows  this.  But 
 what  do  the  advocates  of  Presbyterianism 
 take  by  the  fact  ?     The  fact  is  this,  Pres- 
 
 byterianism was  legally  abolished  :  Epis- 
 copacy was  legally  established :  the  bishojjs 
 were  nominated :  but  the  bishops  designate 
 were  not  yet  consecrated.  Can  it  be 
 doubted  to  what  the  canon  referred  ?  It 
 is  absolutely  certain  that  it  could  not  refer 
 to  Presbyterianism ;  to  what,  then,  did  it 
 refer  ?  Ecclesiastical  aflairs  in  Scotland 
 were  in  a  transitional  state.  It  was  known 
 that  the  king  intended  to  introduce  the 
 substance  of  Episcopacy  as  well  as  the 
 form.  His  principles  were  known.  His 
 power  undoubted.  The  act  of  parliament 
 enabled  him  to  designate  bishops.  He 
 had  designated  them  ;  but  he  himself  said, 
 "  I  cannot  make  you  bishops,"  that  was  to 
 be  done  by  consecration.  The  Church  of 
 Scotland  was  in  the  very  act  of  being 
 formed  and  organized.  The  Convocation, 
 acting  prospectively,  spoke  of  it  as  it  was 
 about  to  be,  and  as  it  soon  after  became. 
 The  bishops  designate  were  consecrated  in 
 1610. 
 
 But  we  must  not  stop  here.  So  far 
 from  true  is  it,  that  "  the  Church  of  Scot- 
 land under  a  Presbyterian  form,  as  it  now 
 is,"  w^as  the  Church  contemplated  by  the 
 55th  canon,  that  by  other  canons  passed 
 in  this  very  Convocation  of  1603,  the 
 Presbyterians  were  actually  excommuni- 
 cated. 
 
 The  Presbyterians  had  anathematized 
 the  Church  of  England.  "\Ve  have  only 
 to  refer  to  the  "  13ook  of  the  universal 
 Kirk,"  to  see  that  at  the  fourth  session  of 
 the  General  Assemblie,  held  at  Dundee, 
 in  1580,  the  following  was  enacted  :  '*  For- 
 asmeickle  as  the  office  of  a  bischop,  as  it 
 is  now  usit,  and  commonly  taken  within 
 this  realme,  hes  no  sure  warrand,  auctoritie, 
 nor  good  ground  out  of  the  Book  and 
 Scriptures  of  God,  but  is  brocht  in  by  the 
 folie  and  corruptions  of  [men's]  invention, 
 to  the  great  overthrow  of  the  Kirk  of  God ; 
 the  haill  assembly  of  the  Kirk,  in  ana 
 voice,  after  liberty  given  to  all  men  to 
 reason  in  the  matter,  none  opposing  them- 
 selves in  defending  the  said  pretendit 
 office,  finds  and  declares  the  samein  pre- 
 tendit office,  useit  and  termeit,  as  above 
 said,  unlawfull  in  the  selfe,  as  have  had 
 neither  foundation  ground,  nor  waiTant 
 within  the  Word  of  God."— Pt.  ii.  453. 
 
 This  was  subsequently  ratified  in  the 
 second  session  of  the  General  Assembly, 
 holden  at  Edinburgh,  in  1592.  Again, 
 in  the  Conference  connected  with  the 
 General  Assembly,  holden  at  Montrose, 
 in  1600,  it  was  maintained  by  the  Kirk, 
 that  "  The  Anglican  Episcopal  dignities, 
 offices,  places,  titles,  and  all  Ecclesiastical 
 Prelacies,  dire  fiat  repugnant  to  the  Word  of 
 
112 
 
 BIDDING  PRAYER. 
 
 God;'''  and  that  "all  corruptions  of  these 
 bishopricks  are  damned  and  rejected." 
 
 So  spake  the  sect  which  the  advocates 
 of  Presbyterianism  maintain  that  we  place 
 in  our  Bidding  Prayer  on  the  same  footing 
 as  the  Churches  of'  England  and  Ireland. 
 How  the  members  of  this  "  Holy  Kirk  " 
 spoke  of  the  Prayer  Book,  we  learn  from 
 tlic  president  of  the  Convocation  himself. 
 Their  language  was,  "  That  it  (the  Prayer 
 Book)  is  full  of  corruption,  confusion,  and 
 profanation  ;  that  it  contains  at  least  jice 
 hundred  errors;  that  the  orders  therein 
 described  are  carnal,  bef/garbj,  dung,  dross, 
 lousy,  and  anti- Christian.  They  say  we 
 eat  not  the  Lord's  supper,  but  play  a  page- 
 ant of  our  own,  to  make  the  poor  silly 
 souls  believe  they  have  an  English  Mass ; 
 and  so  put  no  diiference  betwixt  truth  and 
 falsehood,  betwixt  Christ  and  anti-Christ, 
 betwixt  God  and  the  devil!" — See  Ban- 
 croft's Sermon,  p.  284. 
 
 Such  were  the  feelings  and  principles 
 and  charity  and  forbearance  of  the  Pres- 
 byterians of  that  age ;  and  how  does  the  j 
 Church  of  England  deal  with  such  per- 
 sons ?  Let  the  Church  of  England  speak 
 for  herself  through  the  canons  of  1603  : — 
 Canon  4.  "  Whosoever  shall  affirm, 
 That  the  form  of  God's  worship  in  the 
 Church  of  England,  established  by  law, 
 and  contained  in  the  Book  of  Common 
 Prayer  and  Administration  of  Sacraments, 
 is  a  corrupt,  superstitious,  or  unlawful 
 worship  of  God,  or  containeth  anything  in 
 it  that  is  repugnant  to  the  Scriptures  ;  let 
 him  be  excommunicated  ipso  facto,  and 
 not  restored,  but  by  the  bishop  of  the 
 place,  or  archbishop,  after  his  repentance, 
 and  public  revocation  of  such  his  wicked 
 eiTors." 
 
 Canon  6.  "  Whosoever  shall  hereafter 
 affirm,  That  the  rites  and  ceremonies  of 
 the  Church  of  England  by  law  established 
 are  wicked,  anti-Christian,  or  superstitious, 
 or  such  as,  being  commanded  by  lawful 
 authority,  men,  who  are  zealously  and 
 godly  affected,  may  not  with  any  good 
 conscience  approve  them,  use  them,  or,  as 
 occasion  requireth,  subscribe  unto  them  ; 
 let  him  be  excommunicated  ipso  facto,  and 
 not  restored  until  he  repent,  and  publicly 
 revoke  such  his  wicked  errors." 
 
 Canon  7.  "  Whosoever  shall  hereafter 
 affirm.  That  the  government  of  the  Church 
 of  England,  under  his  Majesty,  by  arch- 
 bishops, bishops,  deans,  archdeacons,  and 
 the  rest  that  bear  office  in  the  same,  is 
 anti-Christian,  or  repugnant  to  the  word  of 
 God  ;  let  him  be  excommunicated  ipso 
 facto,  and  so  continue  until  he  repent,  and 
 publicly  revoke  such  his  wicked  errors." 
 
 Canon  8.  "  Whosoever  shall  hereafter 
 affirm,  or  teach,  That  the  form  and  man- 
 ner of  making  and  consecrating  bishops, 
 priests,  or  deacons,  containeth  anything 
 that  is  repugnant  to  the  word  of  God  ;  or 
 that  they  who  are  made  bishops,  priests, 
 or  deacons  in  that  form,  are  not  lawfully 
 made,  nor  ought  to  be  accounted,  either 
 by  themselves  or  by  others,  to  be  truly 
 either  bishops,  priests,  or  deacons,  until 
 they  have  some  other  calling  to  those  di- 
 vine offices ;  let  him  be  excommunicated 
 ipso  f ado,  not  to  be  restored  until  he  pub- 
 licly revoke  such  his  wicked  errors." 
 
 Canon  9.  "  Whosoever  shall  hereafter 
 separate  themselves  from  the  communion 
 of  saints,  as  it  is  approved  by  the  apostles' 
 rules  in  the  Church  of  England,  and  com- 
 bine themselves  together  in  a  new  brother- 
 hood, accounting  the  Christians  who  are 
 conformable  to  the  doctrine,  government, 
 rites,  and  ceremonies  of  the  Church  cf 
 England,  to  be  profane,  and  unmeet  for 
 them  to  join  with  in  Christian  profession  ; 
 let  them  be  excommunicated  ipso  facto, 
 and  not  restored,  but  by  the  archbishop, 
 after  their  repentance,  and  public  revoca- 
 tion of  such  their  wicked  errors." 
 
 We  can  conceive  nothing  in  the  records 
 of  absurdity,  more  absurd  than  the  idea 
 that  the  very  parties  by  whom  Presbyte- 
 rians were  excommunicated,  should  be  the 
 parties  to  speak  of  their  denomination  as 
 a  sister  Church.  At  the  time  when  the 
 55th  canon  was  enacted,  the  two  king- 
 doms had  been  united,  and  the  king  of 
 the  two  kingdoms  had  expressed  his  de- 
 termination to  unite  the  two  Churches ; 
 he  had  already  taken  measures  to  effect 
 his  purpose,  and  in  a  fcAV  years  he  suc- 
 ceeded in  his  object.  The  Convocation, 
 acting  under  his  commands,  excommuni- 
 cated the  Presbyterians,  Avhom  he  hated, 
 and  held  out  the  hand  of  fellowship  to  the 
 Church,  which  he  was  rearing  amidst  the 
 ecclesiastical  anarchy  of  Scotland.  "  True," 
 says  a  learned  writer  :  "  the  bishops  were 
 not  consecrated  till  a  few  years  later,  but 
 when  the  law  of  the  land  had  recognised 
 their  estate,  and  the  men  were  knoAvn  and 
 appointed,  it  appears  to  me  a  verbal  shuffle, 
 and  something  more,  (unintentional,  of 
 course,)  to  say,  '  the  Church  of  Scotland 
 was  then,  as  now,  Presbyterian.'" 
 
 The  reader  who  desires  to  see  the  sub- 
 ject more  fully  treated,  is  referred  to  Chan- 
 cellor Harington's  most  able  Letter  on  the 
 55th  Canon.  To  Chancellor  Harington 
 the  writer  of  this  article  is  indebted  for 
 the  extract  from  the  Premonition.  It  is 
 quoted,  but  imperfectly,  in  Macrie's  Life  of 
 Andrew  Melville. 
 
BIER. 
 
 BISHOP. 
 
 113 
 
 BIER.  A  carriage  on  which  the  dead 
 are  carried  to  the  grave.  It  is  to  be  pro- 
 vided by  the  parish. 
 
 BIRTH-DAYS.  In  the  ancient  Church, 
 this  term,  in  its  application  to  martyrs, 
 and  the  festivals  in  honour  of  them,  ex- 
 pressed the  day  on  which  they  suffered 
 death,  or  M'cre  born  into  the  glory  and 
 happiness  of  the  kingdom  above.  In  this 
 sense  it  stood  distinct  from  the  time  of 
 their  natural  birth  into  the  world,  wliich 
 was  considered  as  an  event  so  inferior, 
 that  its  ordinary  designation  was  merged 
 in  that  of  a  translation  to  the  joys  of  a 
 better  world.  "  When  ye  hear  of  a  birth- 
 day of  saints,  brethren,"  says  Peter  Chry- 
 sologus,  bishop  of  Ravenna  in  the  5th 
 century,  "  do  not  think  that  that  is  spoken 
 of  in  which  they  are  born  on  earth,  of  the 
 flesh,  but  that  in  Avhich  they  are  born  from 
 earth  into  heaven,  from  labour  to  rest, 
 from  temptations  to  repose,  from  torments 
 to  delights,  not  fluctuating,  but  strong, 
 and  stable,  and  eternal :  from  the  derision 
 of  the  world  to  a  crown  and  glory.  Such 
 are  the  birth-days  of  the  martyrs  that  we 
 celebrate." 
 
 BISHOP.  (See  Orders,  Apostolical 
 Si(ccessio)i,  Succession,  Archbishop.)  This 
 is  the  title  now  given  to  those  who  are  of 
 the  highest  order  in  the  Cliristian  minis- 
 try. The  English  word  comes  from  the 
 Saxon  bischup,  wliich  is  a  derivative  from 
 the  Greek  'EinaKoiroQ,  an  overseer  or  in- 
 spector. 
 
 The  doctrine  of  Scripture,  as  it  relates 
 to  the  office  of  bishop,  may  be  briefly  stated 
 thus : — As  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  was  sent 
 by  the  Father,  so  were  the  apostles  sent  by 
 him.  "  As  my  Father  hath  sent  me,"  he 
 says  soon  after  his  resurrection,  "  even  so 
 send  I  you."  Now,  how  had  the  Father 
 sent  him  ?  He  had  sent  hi^i  to  act  as  his 
 supreme  minister  on  earth ;  as  such  to  ap- 
 point under  him  subordinate  ministers,  and, 
 to  do  what  he  then  did  when  his  work  on 
 earth  was  done,  to  hand  on  his  commission 
 to  others.  The  apostles,  in  like  manner, 
 were  sent  by  Christ  to  act  as  his  chief 
 ministers  in  the  Church,  to  appoint  subor- 
 dinate ministers  under  them,  and  then,  as 
 he  had  done,  to  hand  on  their  commission 
 to  others.  And  on  this  commission,  after  our 
 Lord  had  ascended  up  on  high,  the  apos- 
 tles proceeded  to  act.  They  formed  their 
 converts  into  Churches :  these  Churches 
 consisted  of  baptized  believers,  to  officiate 
 among  whom  subordinate  ministers,  priests, 
 and  deacons  were  ordained;  while  the 
 apostle  who  formed  any  particular  Clmrch 
 exercised  over  it  episcopal  superintendence, 
 cither  holding  an  occasional  visitation,  by 
 
 sending  for  the  clergy  to  meet  him,  (as  St. 
 Paul  summoned  to  Miletus  tiie  clergy  of 
 Ephesus,)  or  else  transmitting  to  them  those 
 pastoral  addresses,  which,  under  the  name 
 of  Epistles,  form  so  important  a  portion  of 
 Holy  Scripture.  At  length,  however,  it 
 became  necessary  for  the  apostles  to  pro- 
 ceed yet  further,  and  to  do  as  their  Lord 
 had  empowered  tliem  to  do,  to  hand  on 
 their  commission  to  others,  that  at  their 
 own  death  the  governors  of  the  Church 
 might  not  be  extinct.  Of  this  we  have  an 
 instance  in  Titus,  who  Avas  placed  in  Crete 
 by  St.  Paul,  to  act  as  chief  pastor  or  bishop  ; 
 and  another  in  Timothy,  who  was  in  hke 
 manner  set  over  the  Church  of  Ephesus. 
 And  when  Timothy  was  thus  appointed  to 
 the  office  of  chief  pastor,  he  was  associated 
 Avith  St.  Paul,  who,  in  writing  to  the  Phi- 
 lippians,  commences  his  salutation  thus : 
 "  Paul  and  Timotheus  to  the  servants  of 
 Jesus  Christ  who  are  at  Philippi,  with 
 the  bishops  and  deacons."  Now  we  have 
 here  the  three  orders  of  tlie  ministry  clearly 
 alluded  to.  The  title  of  bishop  is,  doubt- 
 less, given  to  the  second  order :  but  it  is 
 not  for  words,  but  for  things,  that  w' e  are  to 
 contend.  Titles  may  be  changed,  while 
 offices  remain  ;  so  senators  exist,  though 
 they  are  not  now  of  necessity  old  men  ; 
 and  most  absurd  would  it  be  to  contend 
 that,  when  Ave  speak  of  the  emperor  Con- 
 stantino, Ave  can  mean  that  Constantino 
 held  no  other  office  than  that  held  under 
 the  Roman  republic,  because  Ave  find  Cicero 
 also  saluted  as  emperor.  So  stood  the 
 matter  in  the  first  age  of  the  gospel,  Avhen 
 the  chief  pastors  of  the  Church  Avere  gener- 
 ally designated  apostles  or  angels,  i.  e. 
 messengers  sent  by  GoD  himself.  In  the 
 next  century,  the  office  remaining,  the 
 designation  of  those  Avho  held  it  was 
 changed,  the  title  of  Apostle  Avas  confined 
 to  the  TAvelve,  including  St.  Paul ;  and  the 
 chief  pastors  Avho  succeeded  them  Avere 
 thenceforth  called  bishops,  the  subordinate 
 ministers  being  styled  priests  and  deacons. 
 For  Avhen  the  name  of  bishop  Avas  given  to 
 those  Avho  had  that  oversight  of  presby- 
 ters, Avhich  presbyters  had  of  their  flocks,  it 
 Avould  have  been  manifestly  inconvenient, 
 and  calculated  to  engender  confusion,  to 
 continue  the  episcopal  name  to  the  second 
 order.  And  thus  Ave  see,  as  Christ  Avas 
 sent  by  the  Father,  so  he  sent  the  apos- 
 tles ;  as  the  apostles  Avere  sent  by  Christ, 
 so  did  they  send  the  first  race  of  bishops ; 
 as  the  first  race  of  bisliops  was  sent  by  the 
 a])ostles,  so  they  sent  the  second  race  of 
 bishops,  the  second  the  third,  and  so  doAvn 
 to  our  jjresent  bishops,  Avho  thus  trace  their 
 spiritual  descent  from  St.  Peter  and  St. 
 
114 
 
 BISHOPS'  BIBLE. 
 
 BISHOPS,  ELECTION  OF. 
 
 Paul,  and  prove  their  Divine  authority  to 
 govern  the  Churclies  over  which  they  are 
 canonically  appointed  to  preside. 
 
 The  three  orders  of  the  ministry  in  the 
 New  Testament  stand  thus :  1st  order, 
 Apostle.  2nd  order,  Bisliop,  Presbyter,  or 
 Elder.  3rd  order.  Deacon.  Afterwards, 
 the  office  remaining  the  same,  there  was  a 
 change  in  the  title,  and  the  ministers  of 
 Christ  were  designated  thus:  1st  order, 
 Bishop,  formerly  Apostle.  2nd  order,  Pres- 
 byter or  Elder.     3rd  order.  Deacon. 
 
 The  offices  of  an  apostle  and  a  bishop 
 are  thus  distinguished  by  the  learned  Bar- 
 row :  "  The  apostleship  is  an  extraordinary 
 office,  charged  with  instruction  and  go- 
 vernment of  the  whole  world ;  but  epis- 
 copacy is  an  ordinary  standing  charge 
 affixed  to  one  place,  and  requiring  a  spe- 
 cial attendance  there." — See  Consecration 
 of  Bishops. 
 
 The  judgment  of  the  Church  of  England 
 with  respect  to  the  primitive  existence  of 
 the  episcopal  order  is  this  :  *'  It  is  evident 
 unto  all  men  diligently  reading  Holy  Scrip- 
 ture and  ancient  authors,  that  fro7n  the 
 apostles'  time  there  have  been  these  orders 
 of  ministers  in  Christ's  Church, — Bishops, 
 Priests,  and  Deacons." — Preface  to  the 
 Ordination  Service. 
 
 BISHOPS'  BIBLE.     (See  Bible.) 
 
 BISHOPS,  ELECTION  OF.  A\Tien 
 cities  were  at  first  converted  to  Christi- 
 anity, the  bishops  were  elected  by  the 
 clergy  and  people  :  for  it  was  then  thought 
 convenient  that  the  laity,  as  well  as  the 
 clergy,  should  concur  in  the  election,  that 
 he  who  was  to  have  the  inspection  of  them 
 all  might  come  in  by  general  consent. 
 
 But  as  the  number  of  Christians  in- 
 creased, this  was  found  to  be  inconvenient ; 
 for  tumults  were  raised,  and  sometimes 
 murders  committed,  at  such  popular  elec- 
 tions. To  prevent  such  disorders,  the 
 emperors,  bemg  then  Christians,  reserved 
 the  election  of  bishops  to  themselves  ;  but 
 the  bishop  of  Pome,  when  he  had  obtained 
 supremacy  in  the  Western  Church,  was 
 unwilling  that  the  bishops  should  have  any 
 dependence  upon  princes  ;  and  therefore 
 brought  it  about  tliat  the  canons  in  cathe- 
 dral churches  should  have  the  election  of 
 their  bishops,  which  elections  were  usually 
 confirmed  at  Rome. 
 
 But  princes  had  still  some  power  in 
 those  _  elections ;  and  in  England  we  read, 
 that,  in  the  Saxon  times,  all  ecclesiastical 
 dignities  were  conferred  by  the  king  in 
 parliament. 
 
 From  these  circumstances  arose  the  long 
 controversy  about  the  right  of  investiture, 
 a  ponit  conceded,  so  far  as  our  Chui-ch  is 
 
 concerned,  by  Henry  I.,  who  only  reserved 
 the  ceremony  of  homage  to  himself  from 
 the  bishops  in  respect  of  temporalities. 
 King  John  afterwards  granted  his  charter, 
 by  common  consent  of  the  barons,  that  the 
 bishops  should  be  eligible  by  the  chapter, 
 though  the  right  of  the  Crown  in  former 
 times  M'as  acknowledged.  This  was  after- 
 wards confirmed  by  several  acts  of  parlia- 
 ment. This  election  by  the  chapter  Avas  to 
 be  a  free  election,  but  founded  upon  the 
 king's  conr/e  cP  el  ire  :  it  was  afterwards  to 
 have  the  royal  assent ;  and  the  newly-elect- 
 ed bishop  was  not  to  have  his  temporalities 
 assigned  until  he  had  sworn  allegiance  to 
 the  king;  but  it  was  agreed,  that  confirm- 
 ation and  consecration  should  be  in  the 
 power  of  the  pope,  so  that  foreign  poten- 
 tate gained  in  effect  the  disposal  of  all  the 
 bishoprics  in  England. 
 
 But  the  pope  was  not  content  with  this 
 power  of  confirmation  and  consecration; 
 hp  would  oftentimes  collate  to  the  bishop- 
 rics himself:  hence,  by  the  statute  of  the 
 26  EdAvard  HI.  sec.  6,  it  was  enacted  as 
 follows,  viz.  The  free  elections  of  arch- 
 bishops, bishops,  and  all  other  dignities 
 and  benefices  elective  in  England,  shall 
 hold  from  henceforth  in  the  manner  as 
 they  were  granted  by  the  king's  progeni- 
 tors, and  the  ancestors  of  other  lords, 
 founders  of  the  said  dignities  and  other 
 benefices.  And  in  case  that  reservation, 
 collation,  or  provision  be  made  by  the 
 court  of  Rome,  of  any  archbishopric,  bi- 
 shopric, dignity,  or  other  benefice,  in  dis- 
 turbance of  the  free  elections  aforesaid, 
 the  king  shall  have  for  that  time  the  col- 
 lations to  the  archbishoprics  and  other 
 dignities  elective  which  be  of  his  advowTy, 
 such  as  his  progenitors  had  before  that 
 free  election  was  granted;  since  that  the 
 election  was  first  granted  by  the  king's 
 progenitors  upon  a  certain  form  and  con- 
 dition, as  to  demand  licence  of  the  king  to 
 choose,  and  after  the  election  to  have  his 
 royal  assent,  and  not  in  other  manner ; 
 which  conditions  not  kept,  the  thing  ought 
 by  reason  to  resort  to  its  first  nature. 
 
 Afterwards,  by  the  25  Henry  VIII.  c. 
 20,  all  Papal  jurisdiction  whatsoever  in 
 this  matter  was  entirely  taken  away  :  by 
 which  it  is  enacted — That  no  person  shall 
 be  presented  and  nominated  to  the  bishop 
 of  Rome,  otherAvise  called  the  pope,  or  to 
 the  see  of  Rome,  for  the  office  of  an  arch- 
 bishop or  bishop ;  but  the  same  shall  ut- 
 terly cease,  and  be  no  longer  used  within 
 this  realm. 
 
 And  the  manner  and  order  as  w^ell  of 
 the  election  of  archbishops  and  bishops,  as 
 of  the  confirmation  of  the   election  and 
 
BISHOPS,  ELECTION  OF. 
 
 115 
 
 consecration,  is  clearly  enacted  and  ex- 
 pressed by  that  statute.  By  the  statute 
 of  the  1  JEdward  VI.  c.  2,  all  bishoprics 
 were  made  donative,  and  it  has  been  sup- 
 posed by  some,  that  the  principal  intent  of 
 this  act  was  to  make  deans  and  chapters 
 less  necessary,  and  thereby  to  prepare  the 
 way  for  a  dissolution  of  them. 
 
 But  this  statute  was  aftcrAvards  repealed, 
 and  the  matter  was  brought  back  ap;ain, 
 and  still  rests  upon  the  statute  cf  the  2oth 
 Henry  VIII.  c.  20. 
 
 When  a  bishop  dies,  or  is  translated,  the 
 dean  and  chapter  certify  the  queen  thereof 
 in  Chancery,  and  pray  leave  of  the  queen 
 to  make  election.  Thereupon  the  sove- 
 reign grants  a  licence  to  them  under  the 
 great  seal,  to  elect  the  person,  whom  by 
 her  letters  missive  she  has  appointed ;  and 
 they  are  to  choose  no  other.  Within 
 twenty-six  days  after  the  receipt  of  this 
 licence  they  are  to  proceed  to  election, 
 which  is  done  after  this  manner :  the  dean 
 and  chapter  having  made  their  election, 
 must  certify  it  under  their  common  seal  to 
 the  queen,  and  to  the  archbishop  of  the 
 province,  and  to  the  bishop  elected ;  then 
 the  queen  gives  her  royal  assent  under  the 
 great  seal,  directed  to  the  archbishop, 
 commanding  him  to  confii*m  and  conse- 
 crate the  bishop  thus  elected.  The  arch- 
 bishop subscribes  it  thus,  viz.  Fiat  con- 
 Jirmatio,  and  grants  a  commission  to  his 
 vicar-general  to  perform  all  acts  requisite 
 to  that  purpose.  Upon  this  the  vicar- 
 general  issues  a  citation  to  summon  all 
 persons  who  oppose  this  election,  to  ap- 
 pear, &c.,  which  citation  (in  the  province 
 of  Canterbury)  is  affixed  by  an  officer  of 
 the  Arches,  on  the  door  of  Bow  church, 
 and  he  makes  three  proclamations  there 
 for  the  opposers,  &c.  to  appear.  After 
 this,  the  same  officer  certifies  what  he  has 
 done  to  the  vicar-general ;  and  no  person 
 appearing,  &c.,  at  the  time  and  place  ap- 
 pointed, kzc,  the  proctor  for  the  dean  and 
 chapter  exhibits  the  royal  assent,  and  the 
 commission  of  the  archbishop  directed  to 
 his  vicar-general,  which  are  both  read,  and 
 then  accepted  by  him.  Afterwards  the 
 proctor  exhibits  his  proxy  from  the  dean 
 and  chapter,  and  presents  the  newly-elected 
 bishop  to  the  vicar-general,  returns  the 
 citation,  and  desires  that  three  proclama- 
 tions may  be  made  for  the  opposers  to 
 appear ;  which  being  done,  and  none  ap- 
 pearing, he  desires  that  they  may  proceed 
 to  confirmation,  iii  pcenam  conUimacice ; 
 and  this  is  subscribed  by  the  vicar-general 
 in  a  schedule,  and  decreed  by  him  accord- 
 ingly. Then  the  proctor  exhibits  a  sum- 
 mary petition,  setting  forth  the  whole 
 1  2 
 
 process  of  election ;  in  which  it  is  desired 
 that  a  certain  time  may  be  assigned  to  him 
 to  prove  it,  and  this  is  likewise  desired  by 
 the  vicar-general.  Then  he  exhibits  the 
 assent  of  the  queen  and  archbishop  once 
 more,  and  that  certificate  which  he  re- 
 turned to  the  vicar-general,  and  of  the 
 affixing  the  citation  on  the  door  of  Bow 
 church,  and  desires  a  time  may  be  ap- 
 pointed for  tlie  final  sentence,  which  is  also 
 decreed.  Tlien  three  proclamations  are 
 again  made  for  the  opposers  to  appear, 
 but  none  coming  they  are  pronounced 
 contumaces ;  and  it  is  then  decreed  to  pro- 
 ceed to  sentence,  and  this  is  in  another 
 schedule  read  and  subscribed  by  the  vicar- 
 general.  On  one  memorable  occasion,  see 
 lieg.  V.  Abp.  of  Canterbury,  Q.  B.,  Jan. 
 25,  1848,  the  court  of  Q.  B.  pronounced 
 this  to  be  a  mere  useless  form  and  cere- 
 mony. It  was  a  time  when  political  and 
 party  feeling  ran  higher,  perhaps,  than  at 
 any  time  since  the  reign  of  James  II., 
 and  it  is  hoped  that,  should  a  similar 
 case  occur,  justice  would  be  done  to  the 
 Church.  Then  the  bishop  elect  takes  the 
 oath  of  supremacy,  canonical  obedience, 
 and  that  against  simony,  and  then  the 
 dean  of  the  Arches  reads  and  subscribes 
 the  sentence.  The  dean  and  chapter  are 
 to  certify  this  election  in  twenty  days  after 
 the  delivery  of  the  letters  missive,  or  they 
 incur  a  premunire.  And  if  they  refuse  to 
 elect,  then  the  queen  may  nominate  a  per- 
 son by  her  letters  patent.  So  that,  to  the 
 making  a  bishop,  these  things  are  requisite, 
 viz.  election,  confirmation,  consecration, 
 and  investiture.  Upon  election,  the  per- 
 son is  only  a  bishop  Nomine,  and  not  In 
 re,  for  he  has  no  power  of  jurisdiction 
 before  consecration. 
 
 In  the  time  of  the  Saxons,  as  indeed 
 was  generally  the  case  throughout  Europe, 
 all  bishops  and  abbots  sat  in  state  councils, 
 by  reason  of  their  office,  as  they  were 
 spiritual  persons,  and  not  upon  account  of 
 any  tenures;  but  after  the  Conquest  the 
 abbots  sat  there  by  virtue  of  their  tenures, 
 and  the  bishops  in  a  double  capacity,  as 
 bishops  and  likewise  as  barons  by  tenure. 
 When,  in  the  11th  year  of  Henry  II., 
 Archbishop  Becket  was  condemned  in 
 parliament,  there  was  a  dispute  who  should 
 pronounce  the  sentence,  whether  a  bishop, 
 or  a  temporal  lord :  those  who  desired  that 
 a  bishop  should  do  it,  alleged  that  they 
 were  ecclesiastical  persons,  and  that  it  was 
 one  of  their  own  order  who  M-as  condemned ; 
 but  the  bishops  rcj)lied,  that  this  was  not 
 a  spiritual  but  a  sccidar  judgment;  and 
 that  they  did  not  sit  there  merely  as 
 bishops,  but  as  barons  ;  and  told  the  House 
 
116 
 
 BLASPHEMY. 
 
 of  Peers,  T^^os  haroncs,  vos  harones^  pares  ?nc 
 su7}ius.  In  the  very  year  before,  in  the 
 tenth  of  Henry  II.,  it  was  declared  by  the 
 Constitutions  of  Clarendon,  that  bishops, 
 and  all  other  persons  who  hold  of  the  king 
 in  capife,  have  their  possessions  of  him 
 sicut  baron iat)},  ct  sicut  cccteri  laroyics, 
 dchent  intvrc^se  judiciis  cxirice  rajis,  ^'r.  ; 
 and  that  they  ought  to  sit  there  likewise 
 as  bishops ;  that  is,  not  as  mere  spiritual 
 persons,  vested  with  a  poAVer  only  to  or- 
 dain and  confirm,  kc,  but  as  they  are  the 
 governors  of  the  Church.  It  is  for  this 
 reason  that,  on  the  vacancy  of  a  bishop- 
 ric, the  guardian  of  the  spiritualities  is 
 summoned  to  the  parliament  in  the  room 
 of  the  bishop ;  and  the  ncAV  bishops  of 
 Bristol,  Chester,  Gloucester,  Oxford,  and 
 Peterborough,  which  were  made  by  Henry 
 VIII.,  and  the  bishops  of  Ripon  and  Man- 
 chester, have  no  baronies,  and  yet  they  sit 
 in  parliament  as  bishops  of  those  sees  by 
 the  king's  writ.  This  view  of  the  case  is 
 confirmed  by  the  analogy  of  Scotland, 
 where  the  bishops  sat  in  parliament  as  re- 
 presenting the  spirituality,  one  of  the 
 estates  of  the  realm.  The  bishops  of 
 Ireland  were,  from  the  time  of  the  submis- 
 sion of  that  country  to  Henry  II.,  elected 
 exactly  as  in  England,  under  the  king's 
 licence,  and  by  virtue  of  a  conge  d'  elire 
 directed  to  the  chapters.  The  statute  of 
 provisors  was  in  force  in  Ireland  as  well 
 as  England ;  and  although,  from  the  un- 
 settled state  of  the  country,  irregular  elec- 
 tions occasionally  took  place  in  distant  pro- 
 vinces, it  can  be  clearly  shown  that  this 
 was  in  consequence  of  the  weakness  of  the 
 Crown,  and  in  contradiction  to  the  laAV. 
 (See  Ware^s  Irish  Bishojjs,  passi?)},  and 
 Cottu)i\s  Fadi  JEcclesice.  Ilihcrn.)  The  right 
 of  election  was  taken  away  from  the  chap- 
 ters, as  in  England,  in  the  reign  of  Henry 
 "VIII.,  and  never  restored.  The  Irish 
 bishops  are,  in  consequence,  still  nomi- 
 nated, as  their  English  brethren  were  till 
 Queen  Elizabeth's  reign,  bv  letters  patent. 
 
 BLASPHEMY.  (From  the  Greek  word, 
 pKaa^nfxku),  quasi  (SXaTTTcj  t))v  (pijfxrjv.)  An 
 injury  to  the  reputation  of  any,  but  now 
 used  almost  exclusively  to  designate  that 
 which  derogates  from  the  honour  of  God, 
 whether  by  detracting  from  his  person  or 
 attributes,  or  by  attributing  to  the  crea- 
 ture what  is  due  to  Gou  alone. 
 
 Blasphemy  is  a  crime  both  in  the  civil 
 and  canon  law,  and  is  punishable  both  by 
 the  statute  and  common  law  of  England. 
 ^  The  sin  of  blas])hemy  incurred  the  pub- 
 lic censure  of  the  primitive  Christian 
 Church.  They  distinguished  blasphemy 
 into  thi-ec  sorts.      1.    The   blasphemy  of 
 
 apostates,  whom  the  heathen  persecutors 
 obliged,  not  only  to  deny,  but  to  curse 
 Christ.  2.  The  blasphemy  of  heretics, 
 and  other  profane  Christians.  3.  The 
 blasphemy  against  the  Holy  Ghost.  The 
 first  sort  we  find  mentioned  in  Pliny,  who, 
 giving  Trajan  an  account  of  some  Chris- 
 tians, whom  the  persecutions  of  his  times 
 had  made  to  apostatize,  tells  him,  they  all 
 worshipped  his  images,  and  the  images  of 
 the  gods,  and  cursed  Jesus  Christ.  And 
 that  this  was  the  common  way  of  re- 
 nouncing their  religion,  appears  from  the 
 demand  of  the  proconsul  to  Polycarp,  and 
 Polycarp's  answer.  He  bid  him  revile 
 Christ  :  to  which  Polycarp  replied ;  "  These 
 eighty-six  years  I  have  served  him,  and  he 
 never  did  me  any  harm  ;  how  then  can  I 
 blaspheme  my  King  and  my  Saviour  ?  " — 
 These  blasphemers,  as  having  added  blas- 
 phemy to  apostasy,  were  reckoned  among 
 the  apostates,  and  punished  as  such,  to  the 
 highest  degree  of  ecclesiastical  censure. — 
 Binyham,  Origin.  Eccles.  b.  xvi.  ch.  7,  §  1. 
 PUn.  Ep.  97,  lib.  x.  JEnseb.  Hist.  Eccles. 
 lib.  iv.  cap.  15. 
 
 The  second  sort  of  blasphemers  were 
 such  as  made  profession  of  the  Christian 
 religion,  but  yet,  either  by  impious  doc- 
 trines or  profane  discourses,  derogated 
 from  the  majesty  and  honour  of  God  and 
 his  holy  religion.  This  sense  of  blasphemy 
 included  every  kind  of  heresy ;  whence  the 
 same  punishment  the  Church  had  appoint- 
 ed for  heretics,  was  the  lot  of  this  kind  of 
 blasphemers.  And  that  in  this  notion  of 
 blasphemy  they  included  all  impious  and 
 profane  language,  appears  from  Synesius's 
 treatment  of  Andi'onicus,  governor  of  Pto- 
 lemais.  He  was  contented  to  admonish 
 him  for  his  other  crimes ;  but,  when  he 
 added  blasphemy  to  them,  saying,  no  one 
 should  escape  his  hands,  though  he  laid 
 hold  of  the  very  foot  of  Christ,  Synesius 
 thought  it  high  time  to  proceed  to  ana- 
 themas and  excommunication. — Bingham, 
 ibid.  §  2. 
 
 The  third  sort  of  blasphemy  was  that 
 against  the  Holy  Ghost  :  concerning 
 which  the  opinions  of  the  ancients  varied. 
 Some  applied  it  to  the  sin  of  lapsing  into 
 idolatry  and  apostasy,  and  denying  Christ 
 in  time  of  persecution.  Others  made  it  to 
 consist  in  denying  Christ  to  be  God  ;  in 
 which  sense  Hilary  charges  the  Arians 
 with  sinning  against  the  Holy  Ghost. 
 Origen  thought  that  whoever,  after  having 
 received  the  gifts  of  the  Holy  Ghost  by 
 baptism,  afterwards  ran  into  sin,  was  guilty 
 of  the  un])ardonable  sin  against  the  Holy 
 Ghost.  Athanasius  refutes  this  notion, 
 and  delivers  his  own  opinion  in  the  folloAV- 
 
BLASPHEMY. 
 
 BLOOD. 
 
 117 
 
 ing  manner.  *'  The  Pharisees,  in  our  Sa- 
 viour's time,  and  the  Arians,  in  our  own, 
 running  into  the  same  madness,  denied 
 the  real  Word  to  be  incarnate,  and 
 ascribed  the  works  of  the  Godhead  to  the 
 devil  and  his  angels, — They  put  the  devil 
 in  the  place  of  Goi) — which  was  the  same 
 thing  as  if  they  had  said,  that  the  Avorld 
 was  made  by  Beelzebub,  that  the  sun  rose 
 at  his  command,  and  the  stars  moved  by 
 his  direction. — For  this  reason  Christ  de- 
 clared their  sin  unpardonable,  and  their 
 punishment  inevitable  and  eternal."  St. 
 Ambrose  likewise  deiines  this  sin  to  be  a 
 denying  the  Divinity  of  Christ.  There 
 are  others,  who  make  it  to  consist  in  deny- 
 ing the  Divinity  of  the  Holy  Ghost. 
 Epiphanius  calls  these  blasphemers  irvtv- 
 fxaTOfiaxoh  "  fighters  against  the  Holy 
 Ghost."  Others,  again,  place  this  sin  in 
 a  perverse  and  malicious  ascribing  the 
 operations  of  the  Holy  Spirit  to  the 
 power  of  the  devil ;  and  that  against  ex- 
 press knowledge  and  conviction  of  con- 
 science. 
 
 That  the  ancients  did  not  look  upon  the 
 sin  against  the  Holy  Ghost,  in  the  seve- 
 ral kinds  of  it  here  mentioned,  as  abso- 
 lutely u'remissible,  or  incapable  of  pardon, 
 appears  from  hence,  that  they  did  not  shut 
 the  door  of  repentance  against  such  of- 
 fenders, but  invited  them  to  repent,  and 
 prayed  for  their  conversion,  and  restored 
 them  to  communion,  upon  their  confession, 
 and  evidences  of  a  true  repentance.  Wher- 
 ever they  speak  of  it  as  unpardonable  both 
 in  this  world  and  the  next,  they  always 
 suppose  the  sinner  to  die  in  obduracy,  and 
 in  resistance  to  all  the  gracious  motions 
 and  operations  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 
 Whence  it  must  be  concluded,  that  they 
 did  not  think  the  sin  against  the  Holy 
 Ghost,  whatever  it  was,  in  its  own  nature 
 unpardonable,  but  only  that  it  becomes  so 
 through  final  impenitence.  Thus  the  au- 
 thor of  the  book,  "  Of  True  and  False  lle- 
 pentance,"  under  the  name  of  St.  Austin, 
 says,  they  only  sin  against  the  Holy 
 Ghost,  who  continue  impenitent  to  their 
 death.  And  Bacchiarius,  an  African  writer 
 about  the  time  of  St.  Austin,  says  this  sin 
 consists  in  such  a  despair  of  God's  mercy, 
 as  makes  men  give  over  all  hopes  of  re- 
 covering that  state,  from  which  they  are 
 fallen. — Si/nes.  Ep.  58,  Buujham,  ibid.  § 
 3.  Ci/pr.  Ep.  10.  Hilar,  in  Mat.  Can.  12, 
 p.  164.  Athan.  in  illud,  Qmcunque  dixerit 
 verbuni,  t^-o.,  p.  975.  Anihrus.  Comment,  in 
 Luc.  lib.  vii.  c.  12.  JEpiphan.  Hares,  ixxiv. 
 Aa(/.  QucBst.in  Vet.  et  Nov.  Test.Wl.  Bing- 
 ham, ibid.  Aurj.  de  vera  et  falsa  Pcenit.  cap. 
 iv.    Bacchiar.  Epist.  de  recipiend.  lapsis. 
 
 St.  Austin  speaks  often  of  this  crime, 
 and  places  it  in  a  continued  resistance  of 
 the  motions  and  graces  of  the  Holy  Spirit, 
 and  persisting  in  impenitency  to  our  death. 
 "  Impenitency  is  the  blasphemy,  which  has 
 neither  remission  in  this  world,  nor  in  the 
 world  to  come ;  but  of  this  no  one  can 
 judge  so  long  as  a  man  continues  in  this 
 life.  A  man  is  a  Pagan  to-day ;  but  how 
 knowest  thou  but  he  may  become  a  Chris- 
 tian to-morroAV  ?  To-day  he  is  an  unbe- 
 lieving JeAV  ;  to-morrow  he  may  believe  in 
 Christ.  To-day  he  is  an  heretic  ;  to-mor- 
 row he  may  embrace  the  Catholic  truth." 
 Out  of  this  notion  of  St.  Austin,  the  school- 
 men, according  to  their  usual  chymistry, 
 have  extracted  five  several  species  of  blas- 
 phemy against  the  Holy  Ghost  ;  viz.  de- 
 spair, presumption,  final  impenitency,  ob- 
 stinacy in  sin,  and  opposition  to  the  known 
 truth. 
 
 If  we  consider  the  Scripture  account  of 
 this  sin,  nothing  can  be  plainer  than  that 
 it  is  to  be  understood  of  the  Pharisees  im- 
 puting the  miracles,  wrought  by  the  power 
 of  the  Holy  Ghost,  to  the  power  of  the 
 devil.  Our  Lord  had  just  healed  one  pos- 
 sessed of  a  devil,  upon  which  the  Pharisees 
 gave  this  malicious  turn  to  the  miracle ; 
 "  This  fellow  doth  not  cast  out  devils,  but 
 by  Beelzebub,  the  prince  of  the  devils." 
 (Matt.  xii.  24.)  This  led  our  Saviour  to 
 discourse  of  the  sin  of  blasphemy,  and  to 
 tell  his  disciples ;  "  Wherefore  I  say  unto 
 you,  all  manner  of  sin  and  blasphemy  shall 
 be  forgiven  unto  men,  but  the  sin  against 
 the  Holy  Ghost  shall  not  be  forgiven  un- 
 to men,"  (Ver.  31.)  The  Pharisees  there- 
 fore were  the  persons  charged  with  this 
 sin,  and  the  sin  itself  consisted  in  ascribing 
 what  was  done  by  the  finger  of  GoD  to  the 
 agency  of  the  devil.  And  the  reason  why 
 our  Lord  pronounced  it  unpardonable  is 
 plain,  because  the  Jews,  by  withstanding 
 the  evidence  of  miracles,  resisted  the  strong- 
 est means  of  their  conviction.  From  all 
 which  it  will  follow,  that  no  person  now 
 can  be  guilty  of  the  sin  against  the  Holy 
 Ghost,  in  the  sense  in  which  our  Saviour 
 originally  intended  it ;  though  there  may 
 be  sins  which  bear  a  very  near  resemblance 
 to  it. — August.,  Serm.  xi.  de  Verbis  Domini. 
 Brouqhton. 
 
 BLOOD.  From  the  earliest  times  the 
 clergy  have  been  forbidden  to  sit  in  judg- 
 ment on  capital  ofi"enccs,  or  in  cases  of 
 blood ;  a  rule  still  maintained  among  us ; 
 for  the  bishops,  who,  as  peers  of  parlia- 
 ment, are  a  com])onent  part  of  the  highest 
 court  of  judicature  in  the  kingdom,  al- 
 ways retire  when  such  cases  are  before  the 
 House. 
 
118 
 
 BODY. 
 
 BOWING. 
 
 BODY.  The  Church  is  called  a  body. 
 (Rom.  xii.  5;  1  Cor.  x.  17  ;  xii.  13;  Eph. 
 iv.  4  ;  Col.  iii.  15.)  Like  every  other  body, 
 society,  or  corporation,  it  has  a  prescribed 
 form  of  admission,  baptism ;  a  constant 
 badjj^e  of  membership,  the  cucharist ;  pecu- 
 liar duties,  repentance,  ftiith,  obedience; 
 peculiar  privileges,  forgiveness  of  sins,  pre- 
 sent grace,  and  future  glory;  regularly 
 constituted  officers,  bishops,  priests,  and 
 deacons.  The  Church  is  the  body,  of 
 which  Christ  is  the  Head. 
 
 BOHEMIAN  BllETHREN.  A  sect 
 which  s])rung  up  in  Bohemia  in  the  year 
 1467.  In  la03  they  were  accused  by  the 
 lloman  Catholics  to  King  Ladislaus  II., 
 who  published  an  edict  against  them,  for- 
 bidding them  to  hold  any  meetings,  either 
 privately  or  publicly.  When  Luther  de- 
 clared himself  against  the  Church  of  Rome, 
 the  Bohemian  Brethren  endeavoured  to 
 join  his  party.  At  first,  that  reformer 
 showed  a  great  aversion  to  them ;  but  the 
 Bohemians  sending  their  deputies  to  him 
 in  1535,  with  a  full  account  of  their  doc- 
 trines, he  acknowledged  that  they  were  a 
 society  of  Christians  whose  doctrine  came 
 near  to  the  purity  of  the  gospel.  This  sect 
 published  another  confession  of  faith  in 
 1535,  in  which  they  renounced  anabaptism, 
 which  they  at  first  professed ;  upon  this 
 an  union  was  concluded  with  the  Luther- 
 ans, and  afterwards  with  the  Zuinglians, 
 whose  opinions  from  thenceforth  they  con- 
 tinued to  follow. 
 
 BOUNTY,  QUEEN  ANNE'S.  (See 
 Aiinates.) 
 
 BOWING  AT  THE  NAME  OF  JE- 
 SUS. (See  East.)  It  is  enjoined  by  the 
 eighteenth  canon  of  the  Constitutions  of 
 the  Church  of  England,  that  "  AVhen  in 
 time  of  Divine  service  the  Lord  Jesus 
 shall  be  mentioned,  due  and  lowly  rever- 
 ence shall  be  done  by  all  persons  present, 
 as  it  hath  been  accustomed ;  testifying  by 
 these  outward  ceremonies  and  gestures, 
 their  inward  humility,  Chi-istian  resolution, 
 and  due  acknowledgment  that  the  Lord 
 Jesus_  Christ,  the  ti-ue  eternal  Son  of 
 God,  is  the  only  Saviour  of  the  world,  in 
 whom  alone  all  the  mercies,  graces,  and 
 promises  of  God  to  mankind,  for  this  life 
 and  the  life  to  come,  are  fully  and  wholly 
 comprised."  We  do  not  bow  when  our 
 Lord  is  spoken  of  as  Christ  ;  for  when 
 we  speak  of  him  as  the  Christ,  we  speak 
 of  his  office,  the  anointed,  the  prophet, 
 priest,  and  king  of  our  race,  which  implies 
 his  Divine  nature.  But  Jesus  is  the  name 
 of  his  humanity,  the  name  he  was  known 
 by  as  man ;  whenever,  therefore,  we  pro- 
 nounce that  name,  we  bow,  to  signify  that 
 
 he  who  for  our  sakes  became  man,  is  also 
 God. 
 
 With  reference  to  turning  to  the  east 
 when  we  say  the  Creed,  and  bowing  at  the 
 name  of  Jesus,  Dr.  Bisse  remarks :  As  to 
 the  first,  it  was  the  custom  of  the  ancient 
 Church  to  turn  to  the  altar  or  east,  not 
 only  at  the  confessions  of  faith,  but  in  all 
 the  public  prayers.  And  therefore  Epi- 
 phanius,  speaking  of  the  madness  of  the 
 impostor  EIxebus,  counts  this  as  one  in- 
 stance of  it  among  other  things,  that  he 
 forbade  praying  towards  the  east.  (Lib.  i. 
 H»res.  18.)  Now  this  is  the  most  honour- 
 able place  in  the  house  of  God,  and  is 
 therefore  separated  from  the  lower  and  in- 
 ferior parts  of  the  Church,  answering  to 
 the  Holy  of  Holies  in  the  Jewish  tabernacle, 
 which  was  severed  by  a  veil  from  the  sanc- 
 tuary; and  the  holy  table  or  altar  in  the 
 one  answers  to  the  mercy-seat  in  the  other. 
 As  then  the  Jews  worshipped,  "  lifting  up 
 their  hands  towards  the  mercy-seat,"  (Psal. 
 xxviii.  2,)  and  even  the  cherubim  were 
 formed  with  their  faces  looking  towards  it, 
 (Exod.  XXV.  19,)  so  the  primitive  Chi-is- 
 tians  did  in  theu'  worship  look  towards  the 
 altar,  of  which  the  mercy-seat  was  a  type. 
 And  therefore  the  altar  was  usually  called 
 "the  tabernacle  of  God's  glory,"  his  "  chair 
 of  state,"  "  the  throne  of  God,"  "  the  type 
 of  heaven,"  "  heaven  itself : "  for  these  rea- 
 sons did  they  always  in  praying  look  to- 
 wards it.  But  in  rehearsing  our  Creeds 
 this  custom  is  still  more  proper  and  signi- 
 ficant, for  we  are  appointed  to  perform  it 
 "  standing ; "  by  this  posture  declaring  our 
 resolution  to  stand  by,  or  defend,  that  faith, 
 which  we  have  professed :  so  that  all  these 
 times  we  resemble,  not  so  much  an  assem- 
 bly, as  an  army :  as  then  in  every  well- 
 marshalled  army  all  look  and  move  one 
 way,  so  should  we  always  do  in  a  regular 
 assembly  ;  but  especially  at  the  confessions 
 of  faith  all  "Christ's  faithful  soldiers" 
 should  show,  by  this  uniformity  of  gesture, 
 that  they  hold  the  unity  of  faith. 
 
 The  other  usage,  of  bowing  at  the  name 
 of  Jesus,  seems  founded  on  that  Scripture, 
 where  it  is  declared,  that  "  GoD  hath  given 
 him  a  name  which  is  above  every  name ; 
 that  at  the  name  of  Jesus  every  knee 
 should  bow,  and  every  tongue  should  con- 
 fess that  Jesus  Christ  is  Lord,  to  the 
 glory  of  God  the  Father,"  (Isa.  xlv.  23 ; 
 Phil.  ii.  9,)  8zc.  Now  though  the  rubric 
 be  silent  herein,  yet  the  canon  of  our 
 Church  thus  enjoins.  Now  if  such  rever- 
 ence be  due  to  that  great  and  ever-blessed 
 name,  when  it  is  mentioned  in  the  lesson 
 or  sermon,  how  much  more  in  the  Creeds, 
 when  we  mention  it  with  our  own  lips, 
 
BOWING  TO  THE  ALTAR. 
 
 BRAWLING. 
 
 19 
 
 making  confession  of  our  faith  in  it,  add- 
 ing the  vei'y  reason  given  in  the  canon, 
 that  we  beheve  in  him  as  "  the  only  Son," 
 or  "  only-begotten  Son  of  God,"  the  Sa- 
 viour of  the  world  ;  and  wlien  too  wo  do 
 this  "  standing,"  which  is  the  proper  pos- 
 ture for  doing  reverence  ! — Dr.  Bissc. 
 
 BOAVING  TO  THE  ALTAll.  A  re- 
 verent custom  still  })ractised  at  Windsor 
 chapel,  in  college  chapels  and  cathedrals, 
 of  which  the  synod  of  1040  said,  "  A\'e 
 heartily  commend  it  to  all  good  and  well- 
 affected  people,  that  they  be  ready  to 
 tender  to  the  LoKD  their  reverence  and 
 obeisance,  both  at  their  coming  in  and 
 going  out  of  church,  according  to  the  most 
 ancient  custom  of  the  primitive  Church  in 
 the  purest  times."  "  In  the  practice  or 
 omission  of  this  rite,  we  desire  that  the 
 rule  of  charity  prescribed  by  the  apostle 
 may  be  observed,  which  is,  that  they  which 
 use  this  rite  despise  not  those  who  use  it 
 not,  and  they  who  use  it  not,  condemn  not 
 them  who  use  it." 
 
 BOYLE'S  LECTURE.  A  lecture 
 founded  under  the  Mill  of  the  Hon. 
 Robert  Boyle,  in  1691,  which  consists  of  a 
 course  of  eight  sermons,  to  prove  the  truth 
 of  Christianity  against  infidels,and  to  answer 
 new  difficulties,  Szc,  without  entering  into 
 controversies  existing  among  Christians. 
 
 BRANDENBURG,  CONFESSION 
 OF.  A  formulary,  or  confession  of  faith, 
 drawn  up  in  the  city  of  Brandenburg  by 
 order  of  the  elector,  with  a  view  to  recon- 
 cile the  tenets  of  Luther  with  those  of 
 Calvin,  and  to  put  an  end  to  the  disputes 
 occasioned  by  the  Confession  of  Augsburgh. 
 BRASSES.  Monumental  slabs  of  brass, 
 much  used  in  the  middle  ages,  with  effigies 
 carved  in  outline  upon  them.  An  historical 
 and  descriptive  account  of  brasses  used  as 
 sepulchral  memorials  would  occupy  too 
 much  space  for  this  work.  Perhaps  as 
 much  of  the  history  as  we  shall  be  ex- 
 pected to  give  is  included  in  the  following- 
 paragraph  from  the  "  Manual  of  IMonu- 
 mental  Brasses,"  (Oxford,  1848,)  to  which 
 we  may  refer  for  a  full  discussion  on  this 
 subject. 
 
 "  The  earliest  brass  of  which  we  have 
 any  record  was  that  of  Simon  de  Beau- 
 champ,  who  died  before  1208,  thus  men- 
 tioned by  Leland,  "  He  lyith  afore  the 
 highe  altare  of  S.  Panic's  chirch  in  Bede- 
 ford,  with  this  epitaphie  graven  in  bras, 
 and  set  on  a  fiat  marble  stone : — 
 
 De  Bello  Campo  jacet  hie  sub  mannorc  Simon 
 Fuudator  de  Newehani." 
 
 Several  others  of  the  thirteenth  century, 
 now  lost,  are  enumerated  by  Gough. 
 
 At  the  present  time,  the  earliest  brass 
 known  is  that  of  Sir  John  d'Abernon, 
 1277  ;  one  other  of  the  same  century  still 
 remains  at  Trumpington.  From  this  period 
 their  numbers  gradually  increased  until 
 about  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
 when  they  became  less  common.  The 
 latest  observed  example  is  at  St.  IMary 
 Cray,  Kent,  1776.  It  is  remarkable  that 
 the  earliest  brasses  are  quite  equal,  in 
 beauty  of  form  and  execution,  to  any  of  a 
 later  date.  From  the  early  ])art  of  the 
 fifteenth  century  a  gradual  decline  of  the 
 art  is  visible,  and  toAvards  the  end  of  the 
 sixteenth  century  it  became  utterly  de- 
 generate. 
 
 It  seems  needless  to  add,  that  the  interest 
 of  brasses  is  derived,  in  a  gi-eat  degree, 
 from  the  hght  which  they  throw  on  me- 
 diaeval costume,  and  the  habits  of  our  an- 
 cestors. The  destruction  of  brasses  at  the 
 Reformation  was  great ;  at  the  Rebellion 
 still  greater.  The  mention  of  this  spoha- 
 tion  by  Drake,  the  historian  of  York,  is 
 worth  volumes  of  mere  particulars.  "  Let 
 no  man  hereafter  say,  ^  Exegimoniimentum 
 cere  ])ere7i7ims ; '  for  noAV  an  ceris  sacra 
 fames  has  robbed  us  of  most  of  the  ancient 
 monumental  inscriptions  that  were  in  the 
 church.  At  the  Reformation  this  hair- 
 brained  zeal  began  to  show  itself  against 
 painted  glass,  stone  statues,  and  grave- 
 stones, many  of  which  were  defaced  and 
 utterly  destroyed,  along  Avith  other  more 
 valuable  monuments  of  the  church,  till 
 Queen  Elizabeth  put  a  stop  to  these  most 
 scandalous  doings  by  an  express  act  of  par- 
 liament. In  our  late  civil  wars,  and  during 
 the  usurpation,  our  zealots  began  again 
 these  depredations  on  grave-stones,  and 
 stripped  and  pillaged  to  the  minutest  piece 
 of  metal.  I  know  it  is  urged  that  their 
 hatred  to  Popery  was  so  great,  that  they 
 could  not  endure  to  see  an  "  orate  p'o 
 animd^''  or  even  a  cross,  over  a  monument 
 without  defacing  it ;  but  it  is  plain  that  it 
 was  more  the  poor  lucre  of  the  brass,  than 
 zeal,  which  tempted  these  miscreants  to 
 this  act,  for  there  was  no  gravestone  which 
 had  an  inscription  cut  on  itself  that  was 
 defaced  by  anything  but  age  throughout 
 this  whole  church." 
 
 BRAWLING.  The  act  of  quarrelling, 
 and,  in  its  more  limited  and  technical  sense, 
 the  act  of  quarrelling  within  consecrated 
 precincts.  If  any  person  shall,  by  words 
 only,  quarrel,  chide,  or  ])rawl  in  any  church 
 or  churchyard,  it  shall  be  lawful  unto  the 
 ordinary  of  tiie  place,  where  the  same 
 ofience  shall  be  done,  and  proved  by  two 
 lawful  witnesses,  to  suspend  every  person 
 so  offending  ;  if  he  be  a  layman,  from  the 
 
120 
 
 BREVIARY. 
 
 entrance  of  the  church ;  and  if  he  be  a 
 clerk,  from  the  ministi'ation  of  his  office, 
 for  so  longj  time  as  the  said  ordinary  shall 
 think  meet  according  to  the  fault,  {o  Sz  6 
 Edw.  VI.  c.  4,  s.  1.) 
 
 BHEVIAliY.  A  daily  office  or  book  of 
 Divine  service  in  the  Komish  Church.  So 
 called  from  being  a  compilation  in  an  ab- 
 breviated form,  convenient  for  use,  of  the 
 various  books  anciently  used  in  the  service, 
 as  antiphoners,  psalters,  S:c.  After  the 
 prayers  of  the  liturgy,  or  missal,  those  held 
 in  the  greatest  veneration  by  Roman  Ca- 
 tholics are  the  prayers  contained  in  the 
 church  office,  or  canonical  hours.  This 
 office  is  a  form  of  prayer  and  instruction 
 combined,  consisting  of  psalms,  lessons, 
 hymns,  prayers,  anthems,  versicles,  Sec, 
 combined  in  an  established  order,  separ- 
 ated into  different  hours  of  the  day.  It  is 
 divided  into  seven,  or  rather  eight  parts ; 
 and,  like  the  English  liturgy,  it  has  a  re- 
 ference to  the  mystery  or  festival  cele- 
 brated. The  festival,  and  therefore  the 
 office,  begins  Avith  vespers,  i.  e.  with  the 
 evening  prayer,  about  six  o'clock,  or  sun- 
 set. This  office  is  called,  on  the  eve-s  of 
 Sundays  and  holidays,  the  first  Vespers. 
 Next  follows  compline,  to  beg  God's  pro- 
 tection during  sleep.  At  midnight  come 
 the  three  nocturns,  as  they  are  called,  or 
 matins,  the  longest  part  of  the  office. 
 Lands,  or  matin  lauds,  or  the  morning 
 praises  of  God,  are  appointed  for  the  cock- 
 croMing,  or  before  the  break  of  day.  At 
 six  o'clock,  or  sunrise,  prime  shall  be  re- 
 cited; and  tierce,  sext,  and  7ione,  every 
 third  hour  afterwards.  (See  Ca?ionical 
 Hours.)  These  canonical  hours  of  prayer 
 are  still  regularly  observed  by  many  re- 
 ligious orders,  but  less  regularly  by  the 
 secular  clergy,  even  in  the  choir^  When 
 the  office  is  recited  in  private,  though  the 
 observance  of  regular  hours  may  be  com- 
 mendable, it  is  thought  sufficient  if  the 
 whole  be  gone  through  any  time  in  the 
 twenty-four  hours.  The  church  office,  ex- 
 clusive of  the  mass  and  occasional  services, 
 is  contained  in  what  is  called  the  breviary. 
 In  consequence  of  a  decree  of  the  Council 
 of  Trent,  Pope  Pius  V.  ordered  a  number 
 of  learned  and  able  men  to  compile  the 
 breviary ;  and  by  his  bull.  Quod  a  nohis, 
 July,  15G6,  sanctioned  it,  and  commanded 
 the  use  thereof  to  the  clergy  of  the  Iloman 
 Catholic  Church  all  over  the  word.  Cle- 
 ment VIII.,  in  1602,  finding  that  the 
 breviary  of  Pius  V.  had  been  altered  and 
 depraved,  restored  it  to  its  pristine  state ; 
 and  ordered,  under  pain  of  excommunica- 
 tion, that  all  future  editions  should  strictly 
 follow  that  which  he  then  printed  at  the 
 
 Vatican.  Lastly,  Urban  VIII.,  in  1631, 
 had  the  language  of  the  whole  work,  and 
 the  metres  of  the  hymns,  revised.  The 
 value  which  the  Church  of  Home  sets  upon 
 the  breviary,  may  be  known  from  the 
 strictness  with  which  she  demands  the 
 perusal  of  it.  Whoever  enjoys  any  eccle- 
 siastical revenue  ;  all  persons  of  both  sexes, 
 who  have  professed  in  any  of  the  regular 
 orders ;  all  sub  deacons,  deacons,  and  priests, 
 are  bound  to  repeat,  either  in  public  or  in 
 private,  the  whole  service  of  the  day,  out 
 of  the  breviary.  The  omission  of  any 
 one  of  the  eight  portions  of  which  that 
 service  consists  is  declared  to  be  a  mortal 
 sin,  i.  e.  a  sin  that,  unrepented,  would  be 
 sufficient  to  exclude  from  salvation.  The 
 person  guilty  of  such  an  omission  loses 
 all  legal  right  to  whatever  portion  of  his 
 clerical  emoluments  is  due  for  the  day  or 
 days  wherein  he  neglected  that  duty,  and 
 cannot  be  absolved  till  he  has  given  the 
 forfeited  sums  to  the  poor.  Such  are  the 
 sanctions  and  penalties  by  which  the  read- 
 ing of  the  breviary  is  enforced.  The 
 scrupulous  exactness  with  which  this  duty 
 is  performed  by  all  who  have  not  secretly 
 cast  ofi"  their  spiritual  allegiance  is  quite 
 surprising.  The  office  of  the  lioman  Ca- 
 tholic Church  was  originally  so  contrived, 
 as  to  divide  the  psalter  between  the  seven 
 days  of  the  week.  Portions  of  the  old 
 Scriptures  were  also  read  alternately,  with 
 extracts  from  the  legends  of  the  saints,  and 
 the  works  of  the  fathers.  But  as  the  ca- 
 lendar became  croAvded  with  saints,  whose 
 festivals  take  precedence  of  the  regular 
 church  service,  little  room  is  left  for  any- 
 thing but  a  few  psalms,  which  are  con- 
 stantly repeated,  a  very  small  part  of  the 
 Old  Testament,  and  mere  fragments  of  the 
 Gospels  and  Epistles. 
 
 The  lessons  are  taken  partly  out  of  the 
 Old  and  New  Testaments,  and  partly  out 
 of  the  Acts  of  the  Saints,  and  writings  of 
 the  holy  fathers.  The  Lord's  Prayer,  the 
 Hail  Mary,  or  Angelical  Salutation,  the 
 Apostles'  Creed,  and  the  Confitcor,  are  fre- 
 quently said.  This  last  is  a  prayer,  by  which 
 they  who  use  it  acknowledge  themselves  sin- 
 ners, beg  pardon  of  GoD,  and  the  intercession 
 on  their  behalf  of  the  angels,  of  the  saints, 
 and  of  their  brethren  upon  earth.  No 
 prayers  are  more  frequently  in  the  mouths 
 of  Iloman  Catholics  than  these  four;  to 
 which  we  may  add  the  doxology,  repeated 
 during  the  j)salmody  in  every  office,  but 
 though  not  uniformly  at  the  end  of  every 
 psalm,  and  in  other  places.  In  every 
 canonical  hour  a  hymn  is  also  said,  often 
 composed  by  Prudentius,  or  some  other 
 ancient  father.     The  Iloman  breviary  con- 
 
BRIEFS. 
 
 BULLS. 
 
 121 
 
 tains  also  a  small  office,  in  honour  of  the 
 Blessed  Virg-in,  and  likewise  wlmt  is  call- 
 ed t\ie  office  of  the  dead.  AVe  there  find, 
 also,  tlie  penitential  and  the  p^radual  psalms, 
 as  they  are  called,  together  with  the  litanies 
 of  the  saints,  and  of  the  Virgin  Mary  of 
 Loretto,  which  are  the  only  two  that  have 
 the  sanction  of  the  Church.  The  breviary 
 is  generally  printed  in  four  volumes,  one 
 for  each  season  of  the  year. 
 
 BllIEFS  (see  Bulls)  are  pontifical  letters 
 issued  from  the  court  of  Home,  sealed  in 
 red  wax,  Avith  the  seal  of  the  fisherman's 
 ring :  they  are  written  in  lloman  cha- 
 racters, and  subscribed  by  the  secretary  of 
 briefs,  who  is  a  secretary  of  state,  (usually 
 either  a  bishop  or  a  cardinal,)  required  to 
 be  well  versed  in  the  legal  style  of  papal 
 documents,  and  in  the  sacred  canons.  The 
 word  Brief,  in  our  Prayer  Book,  signifies 
 the  sovereign  letters  patent,  autliorizing  a 
 collection  for  a  charitable  purpose  ;  as  they 
 are  noAV  styled.  Queen's  letters.  These  are 
 directed  to  be  read  among  the  notices  after 
 the.Nicene  Creed. 
 
 BKO  ACH.     In  strictness  any  spire,  but 
 
 »  generally  used  to  signify  a  spire,  the  junc- 
 
 tion of  which  with  the  tower  is  not  marked 
 by  a   parapet.     Lancet  and    Geometrical 
 spires  are  generally  thus  treated ;  Decor- 
 .,  ated,  frequently;  Perpendicuhir,  rarely. 
 
 ■  BULL    in  Ccena  Domini.     This  is  the 
 
 r^  name  given  to   a  bull  in  the  Church  of 
 
 Home,  which  is  publicly  read  on  the  day 
 of  the  Lord's  supper,  viz.  Holy  Thursday, 
 by  a  cardinal  deacon  in  the  pope's  presence, 
 accompanied  with  the  other  cardinals  and 
 the  bishops.  The  same  contains  an  excom- 
 munication of  all  that  are  called,  by  that 
 apostate  Church,  heretics,  stubborn  and 
 disobedient  to  the  holy  see.  And  after  the 
 reading  of  this  bull,  the  pope  throws  a 
 burning  torch  into  the  public  place,  to 
 denote  the  thunder  of  this  anathema.  It 
 is  declared  expressly,  in  the  beginning  of 
 the  bull  of  Pope  Paul  HI.,  of  the  year 
 1536,  that  it  is  the  ancient  custom  of  the 
 sovereign  pontifts  to  publish  this  excom- 
 munication on  Holy  Thursday,  to  preserve 
 the  piu-ity  of  the  Christian  religion,  and  to 
 keep  the  union  of  the  faithful ;  but  the 
 original  of  this  ceremony  is  not  inserted 
 in  it.  The  principal  heads  of  this  bull  con- 
 cern heretics  and  their  upholders,  pirates, 
 imposers  of  new  customs,  those  who  falsify 
 the  bulls  and  other  apostolic  letters  ;  those 
 who  abuse  the  prelates  of  the  Church ;  those 
 that  trouble  or  would  restrain  ecclesiastical 
 jurisdiction,  even  under  pretence  of  pre- 
 ^  venting  some  violence,  though  they  might 
 be  counsellors  or  advocates,  generals  to 
 secular  princes,  whether  emperors,  lungs, 
 
 or  dukes ;  those  who  usurp  the  goods  of 
 the  Church,  &c.  All  these  cases  are  re- 
 served to  the  pope,  and  no  priest  can  give 
 absolution  in  such  a  case,  if  it  be  not  at  the 
 point  of  death.  The  Council  of  Tours,  in 
 lolO,  declared  the  bull  in  Cocna  Domini 
 void  in  respect  of  France,  which  has  often 
 protested  against  it,  in  what  relates  to  the 
 king's  prerogative,  and  the  liberties  of  the 
 Galilean  Church ;  and  there  are  now  but 
 fcAV  other  Popish  princes  or  states  that 
 have  much  regard  to  it.  So  much  has  the 
 authority  of  the  papal  chair  declined  since 
 the  Ileformation,  even  over  those  who  still 
 remain  in  the  communion  of  what  they 
 call  the  Koman  Catholic  Church. 
 
 BULLS  (see  Briefs)  are  pontifical  let- 
 ters, in  the  Itomish  Church,  written  in  old 
 Gothic  characters  upon  stout  and  coarse 
 skins,  and  issued  from  the  apostolic  chan- 
 cery, under  a  seal  {bulla)  of  lead;  which 
 seal  gives  validity  to  the  document,  and  is 
 attached,  if  it  be  a  "  Bull  of  Grace,''  by  a 
 cord  of  silk ;  and  if  it  be  a"  Bull  of  Jus- 
 tice," by  a  cord  of  hemp. 
 
 The  seal  of  the  fisherman's  ring  cor- 
 responds, in  some  degree,  with  the  privy 
 seal ;  and  the  bulla,  or  seal  of  lead,  with 
 the  great  seal  of  England. 
 
 The  bulla  is,  properly,  a  seal  of  empire. 
 The  imperial  bulla  is  of  gold ;  and  it  was 
 under  a  seal  of  this  description  that  King 
 John  resigned  the  crown  of  England  to 
 the  Pope. 
 
 Briefs  and  Bulls  diff'er  from  each 
 other. 
 
 1.  Briefs  are  issued  from  the  Roman 
 court  by  the  apostolic  secretary,  sealed 
 with  red  wax  by  the  fisherman's  ring. 
 Bulls  are  issued  by  the  apostolic  chan- 
 cellor, under  a  seal  of  lead,  having  on  one 
 side  impressed  the  likeness  of  St.  Peter 
 and  St.  Paul ;  and,  on  the  other,  the  name 
 of  the  reigning  pope, 
 
 2.  Briefs  are  wTitten  upon  fine  and 
 white  skins.  Bulls,  upon  those  which 
 are  thick,  coarse,  and  rude. 
 
 3.  Briefs  are  written  in  Roman  cha- 
 racters, in  a  legible,  fair,  and  elegant 
 manner.  Bulls,  though  in  Latin,  are 
 written  in  old  Gothic  characters,  without 
 line  or  stop,  or  that  regard  to  spelling 
 which  is  observed  in  briefs. 
 
 4.  Briefs  are  dated  "  a  die  nativitatis ; " 
 Bulls  dated  "a  die  incamationis." 
 
 5.  Briefs  have  the  date  abbreviated; 
 Bulls  have  it  given  in  length. 
 
 6.  Briefs  begin  in  a  difi"erent  form, 
 with  the  name  of  the  pope :  thus  "  Clem. 
 Papa  XII.  6cc."  Bulls  begin  with  the 
 words  "  [Clemens]  E])iscopus  scrvus  ser- 
 vorum  Dei ;"  by  way  of  distinct  heading. 
 
122 
 
 BURIAL. 
 
 7.  Briefs  are  issued  before  the  pope's 
 coronation,  but  Bulls  are  not  issued  till 
 afterwards.  (See  on  this  subject,  Cor  rod. 
 in  Praxi  Dispells,  lib.  ii.  c.  7,  n.  29;  Ro- 
 sam  de  Executiune  Liter.  Apostol.  c.  2,  n. 
 67;  Cardinal  de  Liica.  in  relat.  Bomancs 
 Curia,  discurs.  7,  and  other  canonists.) 
 
 Notwithstanding  the  above-mentioned 
 differences  between  Briefs  and  Bulls, 
 and  that  greater  weight  is  usually  attached 
 to  a  bull  than  to  a  brief,  on  account  of  its 
 more  formal  character,  still  Briefs  have 
 the  same  authority  as  Bulls  on  all  the 
 matters  to  which  they  relate ;  both  being 
 equally  acts  of  the  pope,  though  issued 
 from  dijTerent  departments  of  his  Holiness's 
 government. 
 
 BURIAL,  {^ee  Cemetery,  Dead.)  Chris- 
 tians in  the  hrst  centuries  used  to  bury 
 their  dead  in  the  places  used  also  by  the 
 heathen,  in  caves  or  vaults  by  the  way- 
 side, or  in  fields  out  of  their  cities.  The 
 heathen  used  to  burn  the  bodies  of  the 
 dead,  and  collect  the  ashes  in  urns,  but 
 Christians  thought  it  to  be  a  barbarity 
 and  insult  to  destroy  a  body  appointed  to 
 a  glorious  resurrection.  They  therefore 
 restored  the  older  and  better  practice  of 
 laying  the  remains  decently  in  the  earth. 
 Their  persecutors,  knowing  their  feelings 
 on  this  subject,  often  endeavoured  to  pre- 
 vent them  from  burying  their  dead,  by 
 burning  the  bodies  of  their  martjTs,  as 
 they  did  that  of  Polycarp,  bishop  of 
 Sm)Tna ;  or  by  throwing  their  ashes  into 
 rivers,  as  they  did  those  of  the  martyrs  of 
 Lyons  and  Vienne  in  France,  A.  D.  177. 
 And  although  the  heathen  seemed  to  think 
 it  unlucky  and  of  evil  omen  to  perform 
 their  funerals  by  day,  carrying  out  their 
 dead  after  night-fall,  and  by  torch-light ; 
 the  Christians  used  to  folloAv  their  deceased 
 friends  to  the  grave,  in  the  light  of  the  sun, 
 with  a  large  attendance  of  people  walking 
 in  procession,  sometimes  carrying  candles 
 in  token  of  joy  and  thanksgiving,  and 
 chanting  psalms.  It  Avas  also  the  custom, 
 before  they  went  to  the  grave,  to  assemble 
 in  the  church,  where  the  body  was  laid, 
 and  a  funeral  sermon  w^as  sometimes 
 preached.  The  holy  communion  w-as  admi- 
 nistered on  these  occasions  to  the  friends 
 of  the  deceased,  for  which  a  service,  with 
 an  appropriate  Collect,  Epistle,  and  Gospel, 
 was  set  forth  in  our  own  Church  in  the 
 First  Book  of  King  Edward  VI.,  and  in  the 
 reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  A.  D.  1 560.  The 
 office  for  the  Burial  of  the  Dead  used  by  the 
 English  Church  corresponds  in  all  respects 
 with  the  offices  of  the  primitive  Church, 
 particularly  as  regards  the  psalms,  the  an- 
 them, "Man  that  is  born   of  a  woman," 
 
 &e.,   and  the   portions  of  Scripture  ap- 
 pointed to  be  read. 
 
 No  person  can  be  buried  in  the  church, 
 or  in  any  part  of  it,  without  the  consent  of 
 the  incumbent,  to  whom  alone  the  common 
 law  has  given  this  privilege,  because  the 
 soil  and  freehold  of  the  church  is  in  the 
 parson  only.  But  upon  the  like  ground  of 
 freehold,  the  common  law  has  one  excep- 
 tion to  the  necessity  of  the  leave  of  the 
 parson,  namely,  where  a  burying-place 
 within  the  church  is  prescribed  for  as  be- 
 longing to  a  manor  house.  By  the  common 
 law  of  England,  any  person  may  be  buried 
 in  the  churchyard  of  the  parish  where  he 
 dies,  without  paying  anything  for  breaking 
 the  soil,  unless  a  fee  is  payable  by  prescrip- 
 tion, or  immemorial  usage.  But  ordinarily 
 a  person  may  not  be  buried  in  the  church- 
 yard of  another  parish  than  that  wherein 
 he  died,  at  least  without  the  consent  of  the 
 parishioners  or  churchwardens,  whose  pa- 
 rochial right  of  burial  is  invaded  thereby, 
 and  perhaps  also  of  the  incumbent  whose 
 soil  is  broken ;  but  where  a  person  dies  on 
 his  journey  or  otherwise,  out  of  the  parish, 
 or  where  there  is  a  family  vault  or  burial- 
 place  in  the  church,  or  chancel,  or  aisle  of 
 such  other  parish,  it  may  be  otherwise. 
 Burial  cannot  be  legally  refused  to  dead 
 bodies  on  account  of  debt,  even  although 
 the  debtor  was  confined  in  prison  at  the 
 time  of  his  death. 
 
 By  canon  68.  "  No  minister  shall  refuse 
 or  delay  to  bury  any  corpse  that  is  brought 
 to  the  church  or  churchyard,  (convenient 
 warning  being  given  him  thereof  before,) 
 in  such  manner  and  form  as  is  prescribed 
 in  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer.  And  if 
 he  shall  refuse  so  to  do,  except  the  party 
 deceased  were  denounced  excommunicated 
 majori  excomynimicatione,  for  some  griev- 
 ous and  notorious  crime,  (and  no  man  able 
 to  testify  of  his  repentance,)  he  shall  be 
 suspended  by  the  bishop  of  the  diocese 
 from  his  ministry  by  the  space  of  three 
 months."  But  by  the  rubric  before  the 
 office  for  Bui'ial  of  the  Dead,  the  said  office 
 likcM'ise  shall  not  be  used  for  any  that  die 
 unbaptized,  or  that  have  laid  violent  hands 
 upon  themselves.  The  proper  judges, 
 whether  persons  who  died  by  their  own 
 hands  were  out  of  their  senses,  arc  doubt- 
 less the  coroner's  jury.  The  minister  of 
 the  parish  has  no  authority  to  be  present 
 at  viewing  the  body,  or  to  summon  or 
 examine  witnesses.  *And  therefore  he  is 
 neither  entitled  nor  able  to  judge  in  the 
 affair ;  but  may  well  acquiesce  in  the 
 public  determination,  without  making  any 
 private  inquiry.  Indeed,  were  he  to  make 
 one,  the  opinion  which  he  might  form  from 
 
BURIAL. 
 
 123 
 
 thence  could  usually  be  grounded  only  on 
 common  discourse  and  bare  assertion.  It 
 cannot  be  justifiable  to  act  upon  these  in 
 contradiction  to  the  decision  ot'a  jury  after 
 hearing  witnesses  upon  oath.  Even  though 
 there  may  be  reason  to  suj)pose  that  the 
 coroner  s  jury  are  frequently  too  favourable 
 in  their  judgment,  in  consideration  of  the 
 circumstances  of  the  family  of  the  deceased 
 •with  respect  to  the  forfeiture,  and  their 
 verdict  is  in  its  own  nature  traversable,  yet 
 the  burial  may  not  be  delayed  until  that 
 matter  upon  trial  shall  finally  be  determined. 
 On  acquittal  of  the  crime  of  self-murder 
 by  the  coroner's  jury,  the  body  in  that  case 
 not  being  demanded  by  the  law,  it  seems 
 that  the  clergyman  may  and  ought  to  ad- 
 mit that  body  to  Christian  burial. 
 
 The  rubric  directs  that  the  priests  and 
 clerks  meeting  the  corpse  at  the  entrance  of 
 the  churchyard,  and  going  before  it  either 
 into  the  church  or  towards  the  grave,  shall 
 say  or  sing  as  is  there  appointed.  By  Avhich 
 it  seems  to  be  discretionary  in  the  minister, 
 whether  the  corpse  shall  be  carried  into  the 
 church  or  not.  And  there  may  be  good 
 reason  for  not  bringing  it  into  the  church, 
 especially  in  cases  of  infection. 
 
 Canon  67.  After  the  party's  death 
 there  shall  be  rung  no  more  than  one  short 
 peal,  and  one  before  the  burial,  and  one 
 other  after  the  burial. 
 
 The  corpse  that  is  buried  belongs  to  no 
 one,  but  is  subject  to  ecclesiastical  cog- 
 nizance, if  abused  or  removed;  and  a 
 corpse,  once  buried,  cannot  be  taken  up  or 
 removed  without  licence  from  the  ordinary, 
 if  it  is  to  be  buried  in  another  place,  or  the 
 like;  but  in  the  case  of  a  violent  death 
 the  coroner  may  take  up  the  body  for  his 
 inspection,  if  it  is  interred  before  he  comes 
 to  view  it. — Dr.  Burn. 
 
 With  reference  to  the  Order  for  the 
 Burial  of  the  Dead  in  the  Book  of  Common 
 Prayer,  we  must  note  that  the  ignorance 
 and  corruption  of  the  latter  centuries  had 
 not  vitiated  any  of  the  sacred  administra- 
 tions more  than  this  of  burial ;  on  which 
 the  fancies  of  purgatory  and  ])raycrs  for  the 
 dead  had  so  great  an  influence,  that  most 
 of  the  forms  now  extant  consist  of  little 
 else  but  impertinent  and  useless  petitions 
 for  the  dead.  Our  Protestant  reformers 
 therefore,  remembering  St.  Augustine's 
 rule,  that  all  this  office  is  designed  rather 
 for  the  comfort  of  the  living,  than  the 
 benefit  of  the  dead,  have  justly  rejected 
 these  superstitions ;  and  contrived  this 
 present  form  wholly  for  the  instruction, 
 admonition,  and  comfort  of  the  attendants 
 on  this  solemnity,  and  therein  have  re- 
 duced  this  matter  to  its  prime  intention 
 
 and  use.  It  is  not  easy  to  tell  exactly  what 
 the  primitive  form  of  burial  was  ;  but  the 
 ])salms  were  a  principal  part  of  it,  as  all 
 the  fathers  testify.  They  are  now  also  a 
 chief  part  of  this  office,  and  the  rest  is 
 generally  taken  out  of  Holy  Scripture, 
 being  such  places  as  are  most  proper  to 
 the  occasion,  so  as  to  form  altogether  a 
 most  pious  and  practical  office.  —  Dean 
 CoDihcr. 
 
 Although  all  persons  are  for  decency  to 
 be  put  under  ground,  yet  that  some  are 
 not  capable  of  Christian  burial  appears  not 
 only  from  the  canons  of  the  ancient  Church, 
 but  also  from  the  following  rubric  prefixed 
 to  our  office  at  the  last  review :  "Here  it 
 is  to  be  noted,  that  the  office  ensuing  is  not 
 to  be  used  for  any  that  die  unbaptized,  or 
 excommunicate,  or  have  laid  violent  hands 
 upon  themselves." 
 
 The  persons  capable  of  Christian  burial 
 are  only  those  within  the  pale  of  the 
 Church,  for  the  rubric  excludes  all  others 
 from  this  privilege  ;  which  is  agreeable  to 
 the  sense  of  all  nations,  who  have  generally 
 thought  fit  to  punish  some  kinds  of  male- 
 factors with  the  Avant  of  these  rites  after 
 their  death,  as  well  to  afflict  the  criminal, 
 while  he  lives,  with  apprehensions  of  the 
 disgrace  to  be  done  to  his  body,  which  is 
 naturally  dear  to  all  men  ;  as  to  perpetuate 
 the  odium  of  the  crime,  while  the  corpse 
 is  exposed  to  public  scorn  after  the  off"ender 
 hath  parted  with  his  life.  Thus  murderers 
 were  punished  among  the  Romans :  and 
 among  the  Greeks,  robbers  of  temples  and 
 sacrilegious  persons,  as  also  those  that 
 betrayed  their  country,  with  divers  other 
 notorious  transgressors.  But  none  have 
 been  so  justly  and  so  universally  deprived 
 of  that  natural  right,  which  all  men  seem 
 to  have  in  a  grave,  as  those  who  break  that 
 great  law  of  nature,  the  law  of  self-pre- 
 servation, by  laying  violent  hands  upon 
 themselves.  Among  the  Jews,  these  were 
 forbidden  to  be  buried,  and  among  the 
 ancient  Romans  also.  And  when  many  of 
 the  Milesian  virgins  made  themselves  away, 
 the  rest  were  restrained  from  so  vile  a 
 crime  by  a  decree,  that  whosoever  so  died, 
 she  should  not  be  buried,  but  her  naked 
 body  should  be  exposed  to  tlie  common 
 view.  And,  to  confirm  tlic  equity  of  these 
 customs,  we  find  the  Christian  councils,  as 
 well  abroad  as  at  home,  have  forbidden  the 
 clergy  to  bury  those  that  killed  themselves  ; 
 as  doth  also'  our  j)resent  rubric  in  imita- 
 tion of  those  ancient  constitutions.  And 
 for  very  great  reason,  namely,  to  terrify  all 
 from  committing  so  detestable  and  desper- 
 ate a  sin,  as  is  the  wilful  destroying  of 
 God's  image,  the  casting  away  of  their 
 
124 
 
 BURIAL. 
 
 CABBALA. 
 
 own  souls,  as  -well  as  their  ojiportunities  of 
 repentance  :  the  Churcli  hereby  (k^claring, 
 that  she  hath  httle  hopes  of  their  salvr, 
 tion,  who  die  in  an  act  of  the  greatest 
 wickedness,  which  they  can  never  repent 
 of  after  it  be  committed. 
 
 To  these  are  to  be  added  all  that  die 
 under  the  sentence  of  excommunication, 
 who  in  the  primitive  times  were  denied 
 Christian  burial  also,  Avith  the  intent  of 
 bringing  the  excommunicated  to  seek  their 
 absolution  and  the  Church's  peace  for  their 
 soul's  health,  ere  they  leave  this  world; 
 and,  if  not,  of  declaring  them  cut  off  from 
 the  body  of  Christ,  and  by  this  mark  of 
 infamy  distinguishing  them  from  obedient 
 and  regular  Christians. 
 
 This  office  is  also  denied  to  infants  not 
 yet  admitted  into  the  Church  by  baptism ; 
 not  so  much  to  punish  the  infants,  who 
 have  done  no  crime,  as  the  parents,  by 
 whose  neglect  this  too  often  happens.  And 
 perhaps  this  external  and  sensible  kind  of 
 punishment  may  move  them  to  be  more 
 careful  to  accomplish  the  office  in  due 
 time,  than  higher  and  more  spiritual  con- 
 siderations will  do. 
 
 Not  that  the  Church  determines  any- 
 thing concerning  the  future  state  of  those 
 that  depart  before  they  are  admitted  to 
 baptism  ;  but  since  they  have  not  been  re- 
 ceived within  the  pale  of  the  Church,  we 
 cannot  properly  use  an  office  at  their 
 funeral,  which  all  along  supposes  the  per- 
 son that  is  buried  to  have  died  in  her  com- 
 munion. 
 
 Whether  this  office  is  to  be  used  over 
 such  as  have  been  baptized  by  the  dis- 
 senters or  sectaries,  who  have  no  regular 
 commission  for  the  administering  of  the 
 sacraments,  has  been  a  subject  of  dispute ; 
 people  generally  determining  on  one  side, 
 or  the  other,  according  to  their  different 
 sentiments  of  the  validity  or  invalidity  of 
 such  disputed  baptisms. —  Whcath/, 
 
 All  other  persons  that  die  in  the  com- 
 munion of  the  visible  Church  are  capable 
 of  these  rites  of  Christian  burial,  according 
 to  the  rules  and  practice  both  of  the  pri- 
 mitive and  the  present  age^.  —  Dean 
 Comber. 
 
 Though  this  rubric  was  not  drawn  up 
 till  IGGly  and  none  of  the  regulations 
 which  it  enjoins,  excepting  only  what  re- 
 lates to  persons  excommunicate,  v/as  before 
 that  time  specified  in  any  of  oin-  articles, 
 or  ecclesiastical  constitutions,  yet  it  must 
 not  be  considered  as  a  new  law,  but  merely 
 as  explanatory  of  the  ancient  canon  law, 
 and  of  the  previous  usage  in  England. — 
 ShcphenL 
 
 The  Order  for  the  Burial  of  the  Dead  is 
 
 much  modified  from  the  service  in  the 
 First  Book  of  King  Edward  VI.  The 
 psalms  were  the  116th,  139th,  and  146th: 
 the  prayers  were  in  many  respects  differ- 
 ent ;  and  there  are  certain  passages  omit- 
 ted in  the  Second  Book.  The  psalms  in 
 the  First  Book  were  omitted  in  the  subse- 
 quent revisals,  and  the  lesson  was  recited 
 after  the  anthem,  "  I  heard  a  voice  from 
 heaven : "  and  the  present  psalms  were 
 not  inserted  till  the  last  Keview. 
 
 At  solemn  funerals  it  has  not  been  un- 
 usual to  combine  the  Burial  Service  with 
 the  office  of  Evening  Prayer,  substituting 
 the  psalms  and  lessons  for  those  of  the  day  ; 
 but  the  regularity  of  this  usage  is  ques- 
 tionable.— Jehh. 
 
 BUTTllESS.  An  external  support  to 
 a  wall,  so  arranged  as  to  counteract  the 
 lateral  thrust  of  roofs  and  vaulting. 
 
 The  buttress  is  not  used  in  Classic  ar- 
 chitecture, where  the  thrust  is  always  ver- 
 tical ;  and  in  Ilomanesque  it  is  hardly 
 developed.  It  is,  in  fact,  a  correlative  of 
 the  pointed  arch,  especially  when  used  in 
 vaulting,  and  so  first  attains  considerable 
 depth  in  the  Lancet  period.  In  the  Tudor 
 period,  when  it  had  to  support  fan  vaulting 
 of  vast  expanse  and  weight,  its  depth  or 
 projection  was  proportionably  increased. 
 
 Th.eJ^i/i)i(/  buttress^  arch-buttress^  or  cross- 
 springer,  is  an  arch  delivering  the  weight 
 to  be  supported  at  a  distance,  as  of  a  spire 
 at  the  angle  of  the  tower,  of  a  clerestory  at 
 the  aisle  buttress,  or  of  the  chapter-house 
 roof  at  Lincoln,  to  the  heavy  masses  of  ma- 
 sonry prepared  at  a  distance  to  receive  it. 
 
 The  pinnacles  which  frequently  termin- 
 ate buttresses  are  intended  to  add  to  the 
 weight  of  the  supporting  mass.  (See  Bay.) 
 
 CABBALA.  [Hebreic.)  TraditmK 
 Among  the  Jews,  it  principally  means  the 
 mystical  interpretations  of  their  Scriptures, 
 handed  down  by  tradition.  The  manner 
 in  which  Maimonides  explains  the  Cab- 
 bala, or  Traditions  of  the  Jews,  is  as  fol- 
 lows :  "  God  not  only  delivered  the  law  to 
 Moses  on  Mount  Sin  a,  but  the  explanation 
 of  it  likewise. .  When  Moses  came  doAvn 
 from  the  mount,  and  entered  into  his  tent, 
 Aaron  went  to  visit  him,  and  Moses  ac- 
 quainted Aaron  with  the  laws  he  had  re- 
 ceived from  God,  together  with  the  ex- 
 planation of  them.  After  this,  Aaron 
 placed  himself  at  the  right  hand  of  Moses, 
 and  Eleazar  and  Ithamar,  the  sons  of 
 Aaron,  were  admitted ;  to  whom  Moses 
 repeated  what  he  had  just  before  told  to 
 Aaron.  These  being  seated,  the  one  on 
 the  right,  the  other  on  the  left  hand  of 
 Moses,  the  seventy  elders  of  Israel,  who 
 
CABBALA. 
 
 CABBALISTS. 
 
 125 
 
 composed  the  Sanhedrim,  came  in.  Moses 
 again  declared  the  same  laws  to  thorn,  with 
 the  interpretations  of  them,  as  he  had  done 
 before  to  Aaron  and  his  sons.  Lastly,  all 
 who  pleased  of  the  common  people  were 
 invited  to  enter,  and  Moses  instructed 
 them  likewise  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
 rest.  So  that  Aaron  heard  four  times 
 what  Moses  had  been  taught  by  GoD  upon 
 Mount  Sina;  Eleazar  and  Ithamar  three 
 times  ;  the  seventy  elders  twice ;  and  the 
 people  once.  Moses  afterwards  reduced 
 the  laws,  which  he  had  received,  into 
 writing,  but  not  the  explanations  of  them  ; 
 these  he  thought  it  sufHcient  to  trust  to 
 the  memories  of  the  above-mentioned  per- 
 sons, who,  being  perfectly  instructed  in 
 them,  delivered  them  to  their  chikU'en, 
 and  these  again  to  theirs,  from  age  to 
 age." 
 
 The  Cabbala,  therefore,  is  properly  the 
 Oral  Law  of  the  Jews,  delivered  down,  by 
 word  of  mouth,  from  father  to  son  ;  and  it 
 is  to  these  interpretations  of  the  icritten 
 law  our  Saviour's  censure  is  to  be  applied, 
 when  he  reproves  the  Jews  for  "  making 
 the  commands  of  GoD  of  none  effect 
 through  their  traditions." 
 
 Some  of  the  Rabbins  pretend  that  the 
 origin  of  the  Cabbala  is  to  be  referred  to 
 the  angels ;  that  the  angel  Kaziel  instructed 
 Adam  in  it ;  the  angel  Japhiel,  Shem ; 
 the  angel  Zedekiel,  Abraham,  &:c.  But 
 the  truth  is,  these  explications  of  the  Law 
 are  only  the  several  interpretations  and 
 decisions  of  the  Ilabbins  on  the  Law  of 
 Moses ;  in  the  framing  of  which  they 
 studied  principally  the  combinations  of 
 particular  words,  letters,  and  numbers,  and 
 by  that  means  pretended  to  discover  clearly 
 the  true  sense  of  the  difficulty  passages  of 
 Scripture. 
 
 This  is  properly  called  the  Artificial 
 Cabbala,  to  distinguish  it  from  simple  tra- 
 dition ;  and  it  is  of  three  sorts.  The  first, 
 called  Gematria,  consists  in  taking  letters 
 as  /i(/icres,  and  explaining  words  by  the 
 arithmetical  value  of  the  letters  of  which 
 they  are  composed.  For  instance,  the 
 Hebrew  letters  of  Jabu-Schiloh  (Shiloh 
 shall  come)  make  up  the  same  arithmetical 
 number  as  Messiach  {the  Messiah) ;  from 
 whence  they  conclude  that  Shiloh  signi- 
 fies the  Messiah. 
 
 The  second  kind  of  Artijicial  Cabbala, 
 which  is  called  Notaricon,  consists  in  taking 
 each  particular  letter  of  a  word  for  an 
 entire  diction.  For  example,  of  Bere- 
 schith,  which  is  the  first  word  of  Genesis, 
 composed  of  the  letters  B.  R.  A.  S.  C.  H. 
 J.  T.,  they  make  Bnra-liakia-Arex-ScJia- 
 inaini-Jain-TehomotJi,  i.  e.  he  created  the 
 
 firmament,  the  earth,  the  heavens,  the  sea, 
 and  the  deep.  Or  in  forming  one  entire 
 diction  out  of  the  initial  letters  of  many : 
 thus,  in  Atah -  Gibbor - Lcholam  -  Adon'ai, 
 (Thou  art  strong  for  ever,  O  Lokd,)  they 
 put  the  initial  letters  of  this  sentence  to- 
 gether, and  form  the  word  At/la,  which 
 signifies  either,  I  will  reveal,  or,  a  drop  of 
 dew,  and  is  the  Cabbalistic  name  of  God. 
 
 The  third  kind,  called  77/6'?// ?/m,  consists 
 in  changing  and  transposing  the  letters  of 
 a  word:  thus  of  the  word  Bercscliith  (the 
 first  of  the  book  of  Genesis)  they  make 
 A-bdisri,  the  first  of  the  month  Tisri,  and 
 infer  from  thence  that  the  world  was  cre- 
 ated on  the  first  day  of  the  month  Tisri, 
 which  answers  very  nearly  to  our  Sep- 
 tember. 
 
 The  Cabbala,  according  to  the  Jews,  is 
 a  noble  and  sublime  science,  conducting 
 men  by  an  easy  method  to  the  profoundest 
 truths.  Without  it,  the  Holy  Scriptures 
 could  not  be  distinguished  from  profane 
 books,  wherein  we  find  some  miraculous 
 events,  and  as  pure  morality  as  that  of  the 
 law,  if  we  did  not  penetrate  into  the  truths 
 locked  up  under  the  external  cover  of  the 
 literal  sense.  As  men  were  grossly  de- 
 ceived, when,  dwelling  upon  the  sensible 
 object,  they  mistook  angels  for  men ;  so 
 also  they  fall  into  error  or  ignorance  when 
 they  insist  upon  the  surface  of  letters  or 
 words,  which  change  with  custom,  and 
 ascend  not  up  to  the  ideas  of  God  him- 
 self, which  are  infinitely  more  noble  and 
 spiritual. 
 
 Certain  visionaries  among  the  Jews  be- 
 lieve that  our  blessed  Lord  "vn'ought  his 
 miracles  by  virtue  of  the  mysteries  of  the 
 Cabbala.  Some  learned  men  are  of  opi- 
 nion, that  Pythagoras  and  Plato  learned 
 the  Cabbalistic  art  of  the  Jews  in  Eg}'pt ; 
 others,  on  the  contrary,  say  the  philoso- 
 phy of  Pythagoras  and  Plato  furnished 
 the  Jews  with  the  Cabbala.  Most  of  the 
 heretics,  in  the  primitive  Christian  Church, 
 fell  into  the  vain  conceits  of  the  Cabbala ; 
 particularly  the  Gnostics,  Valentinians,  and 
 Basilidians. — Broughton. 
 
 CABBALISTS.  Those  Jewish  doctors 
 who  profess  the  study  of  the  Cabbala.  In 
 the  opinion  of  these  men,  there  is  not  a 
 word,  letter,  or  accent  in  the  law,  without 
 some  mystery  in  it.  The  first  Cal)balistical 
 autlior  that  we  know  of  is  Simon,  the  son 
 of  Joachai,  who  is  said  to  have  lived  a  lit- 
 tle before  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by 
 Titus.  His  book,  entitled  Zohar,  is  ex- 
 tant; but  it  is  agreed  that  many  additions 
 have  been  made  to  it.  The  first  part  of 
 this  work  is  entitled  Zeniutha,  or  Mi/stery  ; 
 the  second  Lira  liabba,  or  the  Great  Si/nod ; 
 
126 
 
 CAINITES. 
 
 CALL  TO  THE  MINISTRY. 
 
 the  third,  Lira  Latta,  or  the  Little  Synod, 
 which  is  the  author's  last  adieu  to  his  dis- 
 ciples.— Broughton. 
 
 CAINITES,  or  CANIANS.  Christian 
 heretics,  a  sect  of  the  Gnostics  of  the  se- 
 cond century  :  they  uere  called  according 
 to  Cain's  name,  who,  they  say,  was  formed 
 by  a  celestial  and  almighty  power,  and 
 that  Abel  was  made  by  a  weak  one :  they 
 held  that  the  way  to  be  saved  was  to  make 
 trial  of  all  manner  of  things,  and  to  satisfy 
 their  lusts  with  all  wicked  actions:  they 
 fancied  a  great  number  of  angels,  to  which 
 they  gave  barbarous  names,  attributing  to 
 each  of  them  a  particular  sin ;  so  that 
 when  they  were  about  any  wicked  action, 
 they  invoked  the  angel  whom  they  fan- 
 cied to  preside  over  it.  They  composed  a 
 book  called  St.  Paul's  Ascension  to  Heaven, 
 which  they  filled  with  blasphemies  and 
 execrable  impieties,  as  if  they  were  the 
 secret  words  which  that  apostle  heard  in 
 his  ecstasy  :  they  had  a  particular  venera- 
 tion for  Cain,  Corah,  Dathan,  and  Abiram, 
 the  Sodomites,  and  especially  for  Judas, 
 on  whose  Gospel  they  relied,  because  his 
 treachery  occasioned  the  death  of  Christ  ; 
 and  they  made  use  of  a  Gospel  that  bore 
 that  false  disciple's  name. 
 
 CALENDAR.  The  word  calendar  is 
 derived  from  calenda,  the  first  day  of  the 
 Roman  month.  Our  calendar  in  the  Prayer 
 Book  consists  of  several  columns.  The 
 first  shows  the  days  of  the  month  in  their 
 numerical  order ;  the  second  contains  the 
 letters  of  the  alphabet  affixed  to  the  days 
 of  the  week ;  the  third,  as  printed  in  the 
 larger  Common  Prayer  Books,  (and  as  it 
 ought  to  be  in  all,)  has  the  calends,  nones, 
 and  ides,  which  was  the  method  of  com- 
 putation used  by  the  old  Romans  and  pri- 
 mitive Christians,  and  is  still  useful  to  those 
 who  read  ecclesiastical  history. 
 
 The  last  foiu*  columns  contain  the  course 
 of  lessons  for  morning  and  evening  prayer 
 for  ordinary  days  throughout  the  year. 
 The  intermediate  column,  namely,  the 
 fourth,  contains,  together  with  the  holy  days 
 observed  by  the  Church  of  England,  such 
 Popish  holy  days  as  it  Avas  thought  best  to 
 retain.  The  reasons  why  the  names  of 
 these  saints'  days  and  holy  days  were  re- 
 sumed into  the  calendar  are  various.  Some 
 of  them  being  retained  upon  account  of 
 our  courts  of  justice,  which  usually  made 
 their  returns  on  these  days,  or  else  upon 
 the  days  before  or  after  them,  which  were 
 called  in  the  writs,  Vinil.,  Fest.,  or  Crust., 
 as  in  Vigil.  Martin,  Fest.  Martin,  Crast. 
 Martin,  and  the  like.  Others  are  probably 
 kept  in  the  calendar  for  the  sake  of  such 
 tradesmen,  handicraftsmen,  and  others,  as 
 
 are  wont  to  celebrate  the  memory  of  their 
 tutelar  saints :  as  the  "Welshmen  do  of  St. 
 David,  the  shoemakers  of  St.  Crispin,  8zc. 
 And  again,  churches  being  in  several  places 
 dedicated  to  some  or  other  of  these  saints, 
 it  has  been  the  usual  custom  in  such  places 
 to  have  wakes  or  fairs   kept  upon  those 
 days ;  so  that  the  people  would  probably 
 be   displeased,  if,    either  in   this,  or  the 
 former  case,  theu*  favourite  saint's  name 
 should  be  left  out  of  the  calendar.  Besides, 
 the  histories  which  were  writ  before  the 
 Reformation  do  frequently  speak  of  trans- 
 actions happening  upon  such  a  holy  day,  or 
 about  such  a  time,  without  mentioning  the 
 month,  relating  one  thing  to  be  done  at 
 Lammas-tide,  and  another  about  Martin- 
 mas, &c. ;  so  that  were  these  names  quite 
 left  out  of  the  calendar,  we  might  be  at  a 
 loss  to  know  when  several  of  these  trans- 
 actions happened.     For  this  and  the  fore- 
 going reasons  our  second  reformers  under 
 Queen   Elizabeth  (though  all  those  days 
 had  been  omitted  in  both  books  of  King 
 Edward  VI.,  excepting  St.  George's  day, 
 Lammas  day,  St.  Laurence,  and  St.  Cle- 
 ment, which  tM'o  last  were  in  his  Second 
 Book)  thought  convenient  to  restore  the 
 names  of  them  to  the  calendar,  though  not 
 with  any  regard  of  being  kept  holy  by  the 
 Church.     For  this  they  thought  prudent 
 to  forbid,  as  well  upon  the  account  of  the 
 great     inconveniency    brought    into    the 
 Church  in  the  times  of  Popery,  by  the  ob- 
 servation of  such  a  number  of  holy  days, 
 to  the  great  prejudice  of  labouring  and 
 trading  men,  as  by  reason  that  many  of 
 those  saints  they  then  commemorated  were 
 oftentimes  men  of  none  of  the  best  cha- 
 racters. Besides,  the  history  of  these  saints, 
 and  the  accounts  they  gave  of  the  other 
 holy  days,  were  frequently  found   to  be 
 feigned  and  fabulous.     An  eff'ort  to  reform 
 the   calendar  was  made  in  the  reign  of 
 Queen  Elizabeth,  but  was  never  carried 
 into  effect.     By  the  acts  24  Geo.  ii.  c.  23, 
 and  25  Geo.  ii.  c.  30,  the  calendar  was  re- 
 formed, and  the  new  style  introduced :  in 
 consequence  of  which  the  calendar  (only 
 so  far  as  its  astronomical  errors  were  con- 
 cerned) has  attained  to  that  form  in  which 
 it  is  now  prefixed  to  the  Prayer  Book. 
 See  Stephefis's   Look  of  Common  Prayer, 
 ivith  notes,  where  both   the  ancient  and 
 modern  calendar  are  given  at  length. — 
 mieatly. 
 
 CALL  TO  THE  MINISTRY.  There 
 are  two  sorts  of  motions  or  calls  to  the 
 ministry.  First,  the  outward;  whereby 
 those  who  have  a  right  of  recommending 
 a  person  to  the  execution  of  any  ecclesias- 
 tical office,  do  fix  upon  him  as  one  in  their 
 
CALL  TO  THE  MINISTRY. 
 
 127 
 
 judgment  qualified  for  it ;  and  the  bishop, 
 approving  their  judgment,  does  admit  him 
 into  such  office  in  due  manner,  as  the  laws 
 of  God  and  the  rites  of  the  Church  do 
 require.  But  the  inward  call  is  something 
 preceding  this,  and  is  required  by  our 
 Church  as  a  qualification  for  the  latter. 
 Now  it  has  been  some  matter  of  doubt 
 what  is  meant  here  by  being  "  inwardly 
 moved  by  the  Holy  Giiost."  But  I  think 
 no  one  can  judge,  that  the  compilers  of 
 this  office  did  ever  entertain  such  enthu- 
 siastical  notions,  as  to  imagine  that  no  per- 
 sons were  to  be  admitted  into  any  degree  of 
 the  ecclesiastical  orders,  without  having  a 
 special  revelation  from  the  Holy  Spirit, 
 that  God  had  particularly  commissioned 
 them  to  take  upon  them  that  office,  as  St. 
 Paul  says  of  himself,  that  he  was  "  an 
 apostle  called  of  God."  (Rom.  i.  1  ;  1  Cor. 
 i.  1.)  For  such  calls  as  these  were  mira- 
 culous and  extraordinary,  and  remained 
 not  much  longer  than  the  apostolical  times. 
 It  remains,  therefore,  that  this  motion  or 
 call  must  be  something  in  a  more  ordinary 
 and  common  way. 
 
 Now  we  know  that  the  Scripture  teaches, 
 that  the  common  and  ordinary  graces,  and 
 all  good  dispositions  and  resolutions,  are 
 attributed  to  the  Holy  Spirit  of  God. 
 "  Every  good  and  perfect  gift  cometh  from 
 above."  (Jam.  i.  17.)  "It  is  God  that 
 worketh  in  you,  both  to  will  and  to  do,  of 
 his  good  pleasure."  (Phil.  ii.  13.)  The 
 apostle  calls  the  ordinary  graces  of  love, 
 joy,  peace,  long-suffering,  gentleness,  good- 
 ness, meekness,  temperance,  "  the  fruits  of 
 the  Spirit."  (Gal.  v.  22, 23.)  Thus  the  belief 
 of  the  gospel  is  called  "  the  spirit  of  faith." 
 (2  Cor.  iv.  13.)  And  it  is  said  expressly, 
 that  "  no  one  saith  that  Jesus  is  the  Lord, 
 but  by  the  Holy  Ghost."  (1  Cor.  xii.  3.) 
 Now,  I  conceive,  all  that  is  here  meant  by 
 "  inward  motion  of  the  Holy  Ghost,"  is 
 his  ordinary  motion,  by  which  Christians 
 are  stu-red  up  to  every  good  resolution 
 which  they  make,  or  good  action  which 
 they  do.  And  whereas  a  resolution  to  take 
 upon  one  the  office  of  the  ministry,  without 
 any  bad  design  mixing  with  it,  is  a  good 
 resolution,  so  he  that  takes  it  up  may  be 
 properly  said  to  be  moved  by  the  Holy 
 Ghost  to  do  it.  For  it  must  be  undoubt- 
 edly owned,  that  such  a  resolution  is  a 
 good  and  pious  one,  since  the  apostle  says 
 plainly,  laying  it  down  as  an  undoubted 
 truth,  "  This  is  a  true  saying,  if  a  man 
 desireth  the  office  of  a  bishop,  he  desircth 
 a  good  work."  (1  Tim.  iii.  1.)  And,  to  be 
 sure,  in  those  times  it  seldom  happened, 
 that  this  or  any  other  ecclesiastical  office 
 was  desired,  but  only  from  a  pure  view  of 
 
 doing  good.  For  these  were  exposed  the 
 foremost  to  the  rage  of  the  persecutors,  and 
 men  must  be  actuated  by  a  noble  zeal  for 
 the  gospel,  to  lay  themselves  under  the 
 necessity  of  being  exposed  to  the  most 
 grievous  sufferings,  or  laying  down  their 
 lives  for  the  sake  of  it.  And  in  these  times, 
 likewise,  men  may,  and  frequently,  I  doubt 
 not,  do,  take  upon  them  the  ecclesiastical 
 employs  upon  very  good  aims.  Therefore 
 the  meaning  of  this  question  is,  whether, 
 after  an  impartial  examination  of  their 
 hearts,  they  find  that  they  do  not  take  this 
 sacred  employ  upon  them,  barely  for  a 
 maintenance  in  the  world,  or  that  thereby 
 they  may  acquire  those  superior  dignities 
 and  profits,  which  in  these  peaceable  ages 
 of  Christianity  some  of  the  clergy  do  par- 
 take of;  but  only  that  they  think  they 
 may  be  serviceable  in  God's  vineyard,  and 
 are  willing  to  contribute  the  best  of  their 
 labours  therein,  "  for  the  promoting  of 
 God's  glory  and  the  edifying  of  his  people." 
 I  do  not  think  the  question  intends,  that 
 all  who  are  to  be  ordained  should  profess 
 that  they  would  be  desirous  of  this  office, 
 though  there  were  no  temporal  advantages 
 attending  it,  and  though  it  exposed  men 
 not  only  to  starving,  but  to  apparent  per- 
 secution and  death ;  for  then  most,  even 
 the  best  persons,  as  times  go  now,  might 
 justly  scruple  the  answering  to  such  a 
 question :  but  I  take  it  to  mean  no  more 
 than  that,  since  they  are  to  take  upon  them 
 some  employ  or  other  for  their  own  sub- 
 sistence and  the  benefit  of  the  community, 
 they  choose  to  take  upon  them  the  office 
 of  the  ministry,  wherein  they  think  they 
 can  act  more  for  God's  glory  and  the 
 benefit  of  their  Christian  brethren,  than  by 
 exercising  any  temporal  calling;  and  that 
 they  verily  believe,  that  it  was  not  without 
 the  assistance  of  God's  good  Spirit  that 
 they  formed  this  judgment  and  resolution. 
 — Dr.  Nichol/s. 
 
 The  candidate  for  deacon's  orders  has 
 the  question  of  the  inward  call  put  to  him 
 thus :  Do  you  trust  that  you  are  iuAvardly 
 moved  by  the  Holy  Ghost,  to  take  upon 
 you  this  office  and  ministration  to  serve 
 God,  in  promoting  his  glory,  and  the  edi- 
 fying of  his  people  ? 
 
 This  is  a  great  question  indeed,  and  that 
 which  no  man  can  give  a  true  and  positive 
 answer  to,  without  having  searched  nar- 
 rowly into  his  own  heart,  and  seriously 
 considered  the  bent  and  inclinations  of  his 
 soul.  But  it  is  a  question  very  necessary 
 to  be  propounded,  for  the  Holy  Ghost 
 now  supplies  the  place  and  room  of  our 
 blessed  Saviour  in  his  Church  militant 
 here  on  earth.     And  therefore,  as  it  was 
 
128 
 
 CALL  TO  THE  MINISTRY. 
 
 by  him  that  the  several  offices  themselves 
 were  at  first  constituted,  so  it  is  by  him 
 that  men  are  called  to  the  execution  of 
 them  ;  and  it  is  by  liim  alone  that  all  eccle- 
 siastical ministrations,  performed  by  such 
 officers,  are  made  effectual  to  the  purposes 
 for  which  they  are  a])i)ointcd ;  and  there- 
 fore the  Church  is  bound  to  take  care 
 that  none  be  admitted  into  lier  ministry 
 but  such  as  she  believes  and  hopes  to  be 
 called  to  it  by  the  Holy  Ghost.  But  she 
 can  have  no  ground  to  bcHeve  this,  but 
 only  from  the  persons  themselves,  none 
 but*  themselves  being  acquainted  with  the 
 motions  of  God's  Spirit  upon  their  own 
 hearts.  And  therefore  the  bishop  requires 
 them  to  deal  plainly  and  faithfully  with 
 him  and  the  Church,  and  to  tell  him 
 whether  they  really  trust  that  they  are 
 moved  by  the  Holy  Ghost  to  take  this 
 office  upon  them  ?  To  which  every  one  is 
 bound  to  answer,  "  I  trust  so  : "  not  that 
 he  knows  it,  or  is  certain  of  it,  for  it  is 
 possible  that  his  heart  may  deceive  him  in 
 it,  but  that  he  trusts  or  hopes  it  is  so. 
 
 But  wliat  ground  can  any  one  have  to 
 trust  that  he  is  moved  by  the'HoLY  Ghost 
 to  take  the  ministry  upon  him  ?  To  that 
 I  answer  in  short,  that  if  a  man  finds  that, 
 upon  due  examination,  the  bishop  of  the 
 diocese,  where  he  is  to  serve,  is  satisfied  of 
 his  abilities  and  qualifications  for  the  minis- 
 try ;  and  that  his  great  end  and  design  in 
 undertaking  it  is  to  serve  GoD,  for  the 
 promoting  of  his  glory  and  the  edifying  of 
 his  people  ;  he  hath  good  grounds  to  trust, 
 that  he  is  moved  to  it  by  the  Holy  Ghost, 
 it  being  only  by  him  that  any  man  can  be 
 duly  qualified  for  it,  and  moved  to  take  it 
 upon  him,  out  of  so  good  and  pious  a  design 
 as  that  is.  ]3ut  if  either  of  these  things 
 be  wanting;  as,  if  a  man  be  not  fitted  for 
 the  office,  he  may  conclude  he  is  not  called 
 to  it  by  the  Holy  Ghost,  for  he  neither 
 calls  nor  useth  any  but  fit  instruments  in 
 ■what  he  doth ;  or,  if  a  man  be  moved  to  it 
 out  of  a  design,  not  to  do  good,  but  to  get 
 applause  or  preferment  in  the  world,  he 
 may  thence  infer  that  he  is  not  moved  to 
 it  by  the  Spirit  of  God,  but  by  the  spirit 
 of  pride  and  covetousness,  and  then  can 
 have  no  ground  to  expect  that  the  Holy 
 Ghost  should  ever  bless  and  assist  him  in 
 the  execution  of  his  office.  According  to 
 these  rules,  therefore,  they  who  are  to  be 
 ordained  may  discern  whether  they  can 
 truly  give  the  answer  required  to  this 
 great  question  that  will  be  propounded  to 
 them.  As  for  their  qualifications  for  it, 
 the  bishop  hath  already  approved  of  them ; 
 but  as  to  their  main  end  and  design  in 
 undertaking  the  ministrv,  that  must  be  left 
 
 to  God  and  their  own  consciences,  who 
 alone  know  it,  and  so  can  best  judge 
 whether  they  can  truly  say  that  they 
 "  trust  they  are  moved  to  it  by  the  HoLY 
 Ghost." — Bjk  Beveridc/e: 
 
 The  following  is  Calvin's  definition  of 
 the  inward  call  in  his  book  of  Institutes, 
 which  being  published  about  ten  years 
 before  the  Ordinal  of  Edward  the  Sixth, 
 might  probably  be  a  guide  to  our  Reform- 
 ers in  framing  this  question  :  "  That  it  is 
 the  good  testimony  of  our  own  heart,  that 
 we  have  taken  this  office,  neither  for  ambi- 
 tion, covetousness,  nor  any  evil  design,  but 
 out  of  a  true  fear  of  God,  and  a  desire  to 
 edify  the  Church."  Now  this  we  may 
 know  by  duly  considering,  whether  it  were 
 the  external  honours  and  revenues  that  are 
 annexed  to  this  profession,  or  any  other 
 worldly  end,  that  first  or  chiefiy  did  incline 
 us  to  the  ministry.  If  so,  we  were  moved 
 by  carnal  objects,  and  led  on  by  our  own 
 corrupt  will  and  affections.  But  if  our 
 principal  motives  were  spiritual,  that  is,  a 
 zeal  for  God's  glory,  and  a  desire  to  pro- 
 mote the  salvation  of  souls,  then  we  were 
 "  moved  by  the  Spirit,  and  inAvardly  called 
 by  God."  I  grant  we  cannot  but  know 
 there  are  honours  and  reAvards  piously  and 
 justly  annexed  to  this  holy  function  ;  and, 
 as  men,  we  cannot  but  hope  for  a  compe- 
 tency ojp  them  ;  yea,  this  may  be  a  subor- 
 dinate motive.  But  I  may  say  of  the 
 priesthood,  as  Christ  of  the  kingdom  of 
 heaven,  it  must  be  sought  in  the  first  place 
 for  itself,  and  the  other  only  as  additional 
 consequences  thereof.  (Matt.  vi.  33.)  We 
 must  love  the  duties  of  this  calling ;  reading, 
 study,  praying,  preaching,  8:c.,  more  than 
 the  rewards.  Yea,  if  persecution  should 
 ever  strip  the  Church  of  these  provisions, 
 as  it  hath  often  done,  we  must  not  cast  off 
 our  holy  ministrations.    (1  Cor.  ix.  16.) 
 
 This  inward  call  thus  explained  is  the 
 first  and  one  of  the  principal  qualifications 
 for  him  that  is  to  be  employed  about  hea- 
 venly things.  And  therefore  it  is  inserted, 
 not  only  into  om*s,  but  other  reforaied 
 offices  for  ordination  ;  where  it  is  inquired, 
 "  if  they  believe  that  God  by  the  Church 
 calls  them  to  this  ministry,  and  if  they  did 
 not  seek  for  worldly  riches  or  glory,"  as  in 
 the  liturgy  of  the  Belgic  Church.  Our 
 candidates  know  this  question  will  be  ask- 
 ed :  wherefore  let  them  examine  their 
 hearts  strictly,  and  answer  it  in  the  sin- 
 cerity of  their  souls ;  not  doubting  but 
 that  good  Spirit,  who  excited  them  to 
 this  work,  will  assist  and  bless  all  their 
 performances. — Dean  Comber. 
 
 AVe  may  here  observe,  that  the  fu'st  ques- 
 tion put  to  those  who  are  to  be  ordained 
 
CALOYERS. 
 
 129 
 
 priests,  concerning  their  being  moved  by 
 the  Holy  Ghost  to  take  that  ollice  upoii 
 them,  is  now  omitted.  For,  these  having 
 been  ordained  deacons  before,  it  is  sup- 
 posed that  they  were  then  moved  by  the 
 Spirit  of  Christ  to  take  the  ministry  of 
 his  gospel  upon  them,  and  there  is  no  need 
 of  any  further  call  from  him.  For  being 
 once  called  by  him,  though  it  was  but  to 
 the  lowest  office  of  his  own  institution,  the 
 Church  takes  it  for  granted  that  it  is  his 
 pleasure  they  should  be  promoted  to  any 
 higher  office,  if  there  be  sufficient  reason 
 and  occasion  for  it. — Bp.  Bevcriih/c. 
 
 CALOYERS.  A  general  name  given 
 to  the  monks  of  the  Greek  Church.  It  is 
 taken  from  the  Greek  KoXeyopoi,  which 
 signifies  "  good  old  men." — IJisL  cJcs  Orel. 
 Relig.  P.  i.  cap.  19.  These  religious  con- 
 sider St.  Basil  as  their  father  and  founder, 
 and  look  upon  it  as  a  crime  to  follow  any 
 other  rule  than  his.  There  are  three  de- 
 grees among  them ;  the  novices,  who  are 
 called  Archari  ;  the  ordinary  professed, 
 called  Microchcmi ;  and  the  more  perfect, 
 called  Megalochemi.  They  are  likewise 
 divided  into  Coenobites,  Anchorets,  and 
 Ilecluse. 
 
 The  Coenobites  are  employed  in  reciting 
 their  office  from  midnight  to  sunset ;  and 
 as  it  is  impossible,  in  so  long  an  exercise, 
 they  should  not  be  overtaken  v.'ith  sleep, 
 there  is  one  monk  appointed  to  wake  them  ; 
 and  they  are  obliged  to  make  three  genu- 
 flexions at  the  door  of  the  choir,  and,  re- 
 turning, to  bow  to  the  right  and  left  to 
 their  brethren.  The  Anchorets  retire  from 
 the  conversation  of  the  world,  and  live  in 
 hermitages  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
 monasteries.  They  cultivate  a  little  spot 
 of  ground,  and  never  go  out  but  on  Sun- 
 days and  holidays,  to  perform  their  devo- 
 tions at  the  next  monastery :  the  rest  of 
 the  week  they  employ  in  prayer  and  work- 
 ing with  their  hands.  As  for  the  Ilecluse, 
 they  shut  themselves  up  in  grottos  and 
 caverns  on  the  tops  of  mountains,  which 
 they  never  go  out  of,  abandoning  them- 
 selves entirely  to  Providence.  They  live 
 on  the  alms  sent  them  by  the  neighbour- 
 ing monasteries. 
 
 In  the  monasteries,  the  religious  rise  at 
 midnight,  and  repeat  a  particular  office, 
 called  from  thence  Mesonycticon ;  which 
 takes  up  the  space  of  two  hours  :  after 
 which,  they  retire  to  their  cells  till  five 
 o'clock  in  the  morning,  when  they  return 
 to  the  church  to  say  matins.  At  nine 
 o'clock  they  repeat  the  Terce,  Sexte,  and 
 Mass ;  after  which  they  repair  to  the  re- 
 fectory, where  is  a  lecture  read  till  dinner. 
 Before  they  leave  the  refectory,  the  cook 
 
 comes  to  the  door,  and,  kneeling  down, 
 demands  their  blessing.  At  four  o'clock 
 in  the  afternoon,  they  say  vespers ;  and  at 
 six  go  to  supper.  After  sujjper,  they  say 
 an  olfice,  from  thence  called  Apodipho ; 
 and  at  eight,  each  monk  retires  to  his 
 chamber  and  bed  till  midnight.  Every 
 day,  after  matins,  they  confess  their  faults 
 on  their  knees  to  their  superior. 
 
 They  have  four  Lents.  The  first  and 
 greatest  is  that  of  the  liesurrection  of  our 
 Lord.  They  call  it  the  Grand  Quarantain, 
 and  it  lasts  eight  weeks.  During  this 
 Lent,  the  religious  drink  no  wine,  and 
 their  abstinence  is  so  great,  that  if  they 
 are  obliged,  in  speaking,  to  name  milk, 
 butter,  or  cheese,  they  always  add  this 
 parenthesis,  Ivnitis  arjias  saracostis,  i.  e. 
 "  Saving  the  respect  due  to  holy  Lent." 
 The  second  Lent  is  that  of  the  holy  Apos- 
 tles, which  begins  eight  days  after  AVhit- 
 Sunday :  its  duration  is  not  fixed,  it  con- 
 tinuing sometimes  three  weeks,  and  at 
 other  times  longer.  During  this  Lent, 
 they  are  allowed  to  diink  wine.  The 
 third  Lent  is  tliat  of  the  Assumption  of 
 our  Lady :  it  lasts  fourteen  days  ;  during 
 which  they  abstain  from  fish,  excepting  on 
 Sundays,  and  the  day  of  the  Transfigur- 
 ation of  our  Lord.  The  fourth  Lent  is 
 that  of  Advent,  which  they  observe  after 
 the  same  manner  as  that  of  the  Apostles. 
 
 The  Caloyers,  besides  the  usual  habit  of 
 the  monastic  life,  wear  over  their  shoulders 
 a  square  piece  of  stuff,  on  which  are  re- 
 presented the  cross,  and  the  other  marks 
 of  the  passion  of  our  Saviour,  with  these 
 letters,  JC.  XC.  VC,  i.  e.  Jesus  Christus 
 Vincit. 
 
 All  the  monks  are  obliged  to  labour  for 
 the  benefit  of  their  monastery,  as  long  as 
 they  continue  in  it.  Some  have  the  care 
 of  the  fruits,  others  of  the  grain,  and  others 
 of  the  cattle.  The  necessity  the  Caloyers 
 are  under  of  cultivating  their  own  lands, 
 obliges  them  to  admit  a  great  number  of 
 lay-brothers,  who  are  employed  the  Avhole 
 day  in  working. 
 
 Over  all  these  Caloyers  there  are  visit- 
 ors or  exarchs,  who  visit  the  convents 
 under  their  inspection,  only  to  draw  from 
 them  the  sums  which  the  patriarch  de- 
 mands of  them.  Yet,  notwithstanding  the 
 taxes  these  religious  are  obliged  to  pay, 
 both  to  their  patriarch  and  to  the  Turks, 
 their  convents  are  very  rich. 
 
 The  most  considerable  monastery  of 
 the  Greek  Caloyers  in  Asia,  is  that  of 
 Mount  Sinai,  which  was  founded  by  the 
 emperor  Justinian,  and  endowed  with 
 sixty  thousand  crowns  revenue.  The  ab- 
 bot  of    this    monastery,  who    is   also  an 
 
130 
 
 CALOYERS. 
 
 CALVINISTS. 
 
 archbishop,  has  under  him  two  hundred 
 relip:ious.  This  convent  is  a  large  square 
 building,  surrounded  with  walls  fifty  feet 
 high,  and  with  but  one  gate,  which  is 
 blocked  up  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  the 
 Arabs.  On  the  eastern  side  there  is  a 
 window,  through  Avhich  those  within  draw 
 up  the  pilgrims  in  a  basket,  which  they 
 let  down  by  a  pulley.  Not  many  miles  be- 
 yond this,  tb.ey  have  another,  dedicated  to 
 St.  Catharine.'  It  is  situated  in  the  place 
 where  Moses  made  the  bitter  waters  sweet. 
 It  has  a  garden,  with  a  plantation  of  more 
 than  ten  thousand  palm-trees,  from  whence 
 the  monks  draw  a  considerable  revenue. 
 There  is  another  in  Palestine,  four  or  five 
 leagues  from  Jerusalem,  situated  in  the 
 most  barren  place  imaginable.  The  gate 
 of  the  convent  is  covered  wath  the  skins 
 of  crocodiles,  to  prevent  the  Arabs  setting 
 fire  to  it,  or  breaking  it  to  pieces  with 
 stones.  It  has  a  large  tower,  in  which 
 there  is  always  a  monk,  who  gives  notice 
 by  a  bell  of  the  approach  of  the  Arabs,  or 
 any  wild  beasts. 
 
 The  Caloyers,  or  Greek  monks,  have  a 
 great  number  of  monasteries  in  Europe ; 
 among  Avhich  that  of  Penteli,  a  mountain 
 of  Attica,  near  Athens,  is  remarkable  for 
 its  beautiful  situation,  and  a  very  good 
 library.  That  of  Calimachus,  a  principal 
 town  of  the  island  of  Chios,  is  remark- 
 able for  the  occasion  of  its  foundation.  It 
 is  called  Niamof/ni,  i.  e.  "  The  sole  Virgin," 
 its  church  having  been  built  in  memory 
 of  an  image  of  the  holy  Virgin,  miracu- 
 lously found  on  a  tree,  being  the  only 
 one  left  of  several  which  had  been  con- 
 sumed by  fire.  Constantin  Monomachus, 
 emperor  of  Constantinople,  being  informed 
 of  this  miracle,  made  a  vow  to  build  a 
 church  in  that  place,  if  he  recovered  his 
 throne,  from  which  he  had  been  driven  ; 
 this  vow  he  executed  in  the  year  1050.  The 
 convent  is  large,  and  built  in  the  manner 
 of  a  castle.  It  consists  of  about  two  hun- 
 cbed  religious,  and  its  revenues  amount  to 
 sixty  thousand  piasters,  of  which  they  pay 
 five  hundred  yearly  to  the  Grand  Seignor. 
 There  is  in  Amourgo,  one  of  the  islands 
 of  the  Archipelago  called  Sporades,  a 
 monastery  of  Greek  Caloyers,  dedicated  to 
 our  Lady :  it  is  a  large  and  deep  cavern, 
 on  the  top  of  a  very  high  hill,  and  is  en- 
 tered by  a  ladder  of  fifteen  or  twenty 
 steps.  The  church,  refectory,  and  cells  of 
 the  religious,  who  inhabit  this  grotto,  are 
 dug  out  of  the  sides  of  the  rock  with  ad- 
 mirable artifice. 
 
 But  the  most  celebrated  monasteries  of 
 Greek  Caloyers  are  those  of  Mount  Athos 
 in  Macedonia.     They  are  twenty-three  in 
 
 number ;  and  the  religious  live  in  them  so 
 regularly,  that  the  Turks  themselves  have 
 a  great  esteem  for  them,  and  often  recom- 
 mend themselves  to  their  prayers.  Every- 
 thing in  them  is  magnificent ;  and,  not- 
 withstanding they  have  been  under  the 
 Turk  for  so  long  a  time,  they  have  lost 
 nothing  of  their  grandeur.  The  principal 
 of  these  monasteries  are  De  la  Panaf/ia 
 and  Anna  Laura.  The  religious,  who 
 aspire  to  the  highest  dignities,  come  from 
 all  parts  of  the  East  to  perform  here  their 
 noviciate,  and,  after  a  stay  of  some  years, 
 are  received,  upon  their  return  into  their 
 OAvn  country,  as  apostles. 
 
 The  Caloyers  of  Mount  Athos  have  a 
 great  aversion  to  the  pope,  and  relate 
 that  a  Roman  pontiff",  having  visited  their 
 monasteries,  had  plundered  and  burned 
 some  of  them,  because  they  would  not  adore 
 him. 
 
 There  are  female  Caloyers,  or  Greek 
 nuns,  who  likewise  follow  the  rule  of  St. 
 Basil.  Their  nunneries  are  always  depend- 
 ent on  some  monastery.  The  Turks  buy 
 sashes  of  their  working,  and  they  open 
 their  gates  freely  to  the  Turks  on  this 
 occasion.  Those  of  Constantinople  are 
 widows,  some  of  whom  have  had  several 
 husbands.  They  make  no  vow,  nor  con- 
 fine themselves  within  their  convents.  The 
 priests  are  forbidden,  under  severe  penalties, 
 to  visit  these  religious. — Broaqliton. 
 
 CALVINISTS.  Those  who  interpret 
 Scripture  in  accordance  with  the  views 
 of  John  Calvin,  who  was  born  at  Noyon, 
 A.  D.  1509,  and  afterwards  settled  at  Ge- 
 neva, and  who  established  a  system  both  of 
 doctrine  and  of  discipline  peculiarly  his 
 own. 
 
 The  essential  doctrines  of  Calvinism 
 have  been  reduced  to  these  five  :  particular 
 election,  particular  redemption,  moral  in- 
 ability in  a  fallen  state,  irresistible  grace, 
 and  the  final  perseverance  of  the  saints. 
 These  are  termed,  by  theologians,  the  five 
 points ;  and  ever  since  the  synod  of  Dort, 
 (see  Dort,)  when  they  were  the  subjects  of 
 discussion  between  the  Calvinists  and 
 Arminians,  and  whose  decrees  are  the 
 standard  of  modern  Calvinism,  frequent 
 have  been  the  controversies  agitated  re- 
 specting them.  Even  the  Calvinists  them- 
 selves differ  in  the  explication  of  them : 
 it  cannot  therefore  be  expected  that  a  very 
 specific  account  of  them  should  be  given 
 here.  Generally  speaking,  however,  they 
 comprehend  the  following  propositions  : — 
 1st,  That  God  has  chosen  a  certain 
 number  in  Christ  to  everlasting  glory,  be- 
 fore the  foundation  of  the  world,  according 
 to  his  immutable  purpose,  and  of  his  free 
 
CAMALDOLI. 
 
 CANON. 
 
 131 
 
 grace  and  love,  without  the  least  foresight 
 of  faith,  good  works,  or  any  conditions  per- 
 formed by  the  creature  ;  and  that  the  rest 
 of  mankind  he  was  pleased  to  ])ass  by,  and 
 ordain  them  to  dishonour  and  wrath  for 
 their  sins,  to  the  praise  of  his  vindictive 
 justice. 
 
 2ndly,  That  Jesus  Christ,  by  his  suf- 
 ferings and  death,  made  an  atonement  only 
 for  the  sins  of  the  elect. 
 
 3dly,  That  mankind  are  totally  depraved 
 in  consequence  of  the  fall ;  and,  by  virtue 
 of  Adam's  being  their  public  head,  the 
 guilt  of  his  sin  was  imi)uted,  and  a  corrupt 
 nature  conveyed  to  all  his  posterity,  from 
 which  proceeds  all  actual  transgression ; 
 and  that  by  sin  we  are  made  subject  to 
 death,  and  all  miseries,  temporal,  spiritual, 
 and  eternal. 
 
 4thly,  That  all  whom  God  has  predesti- 
 nated to  life,  he  is  pleased,  in  his  appointed 
 time,  effectually  to  call,  by  his  word  and 
 Spirit,  out  of  that  state  of  sin  and  death,  in 
 which  they  are  by  nature,  to  grace  and 
 salvation  by  Jesus  Christ. 
 
 And  othly.  That  those  whom  God  has 
 effectually  called  and  sanctified  by  his  Spirit, 
 shall  never  finallv  fall  from  a  state  of  grace. 
 
 CAMALDOLI.  A  religious  order  of 
 Christians  founded  by  St.  liomuald,  about 
 the  end  of  the  tenth  century :  this  man 
 gave  his  monks  the  rule  of  St.  Bennet's 
 order,  with  some  particular  constitutions, 
 and  a  white  habit,  after  a  vision  he  had  of 
 several  persons  clothed  so,  who  were  going 
 up  on  a  ladder  to  heaven.  He  was  of  a 
 noble  family  of  Ravenna,  and  having  found 
 on  the  Apennine  hills  near  Arezzo  a 
 fi'ightful  solitary  place,  called  Campo  Mal- 
 doli,  he  began  to  build  a  monastery  there, 
 about  the  year  1009,  and  this  monastery 
 gave  its  name  to  all  the  order.  The  con- 
 gregation of  hermits  of  St.  Ilomuald,  or  of 
 Mount  Couronne,  is  a  branch  of  the  Camal- 
 doli,  to  which  it  was  joined  in  1532.  Paul 
 Justinian,  of  Venice,  began  its  establishment 
 in  1520,  and  founded  the  chief  monastery 
 in  the  Apennine,  in  a  place  called  the 
 ^Mount  of  the  CroAvn,  ten  miles  from  Peru- 
 gia, and  dedicated  to  our  Saviour  in  1555. 
 — Hist,  des  Orel.  Relu/. 
 
 CAMEROXIANS."  A  party  of  Pres- 
 byterians in  Scotland,  so  called  from  Archi- 
 bald Cameron,  a  field  preacher,  who  was 
 the  first  who  separated  from  communion 
 with  the  other  Presbyterians,  who  w^ere 
 not  of  his  opinion  concerning  the  ministers 
 that  had  accepted  of  his  indulgence  from 
 King  Charles  IL  He  considered  the  accept- 
 ance of  the  indulgence  to  be  a  counten- 
 ancing of  the  supremacy  in  ecclesiastical 
 affairs.     The  other  Presbyterians  wished 
 
 K  2 
 
 the  controversy  to  drop,  till  it  could  be 
 determined  by  a  general  assembly  ;  but 
 the  Cameronians,  through  a  transport  of 
 zeal,  separated  from  them,  and  some  who 
 associated  with  them  ran  into  excess  of 
 frenzy ;  declaring  that  King  Charles  II. 
 had  forfeited  his  right  to  the  crown  and 
 society  of  the  Church,  by  his  breaking  the 
 solemn  league  and  covenant,  which  was 
 the  terms  on  which  he  received  the  former; 
 and  by  his  vicious  life,  which,  de  jure, 
 they  said,  excluded  him  from  the  latter ; 
 they  pretended  both  to  dethrone  and  ex- 
 communicate him,  and  for  that  purpose 
 made  an  insurrection,  but  were  soon  sup- 
 pressed. Since  the  accession  of  King  Wil- 
 liam III.  to  the  crown,  they  complied  with 
 and  zealously  served  the  government;  and 
 as  regards  their  former  differences  in  Church 
 matters,  they  were  also  laid  aside,  the 
 preachers  of  their  party  having  submitted 
 to  the  General  Assembly  of  the  Scottish 
 establishment  in  1690,  of  which  they  still 
 continue  members. 
 
 CAMISARDS.  The  popular  name  of 
 the  Protestants  who  rose  in  the  Cevennes 
 against  the  oppression  of  Louis  XIV.  of 
 France.  There  are  various  etymologies  of 
 the  word ;  the  most  probable  is  that  which 
 derives  it  from  camisa  or  chemise,  in  allu- 
 sion to  the  blouse  or  smock-frock  which 
 was  generally  Avorn. 
 
 CANCELLL  (See  Chancel.) 
 CVNDLES.  (See  Li(/hts  on  the  Altar.) 
 CANDLEMAS  DAY.  A  name  for- 
 merly given  to  the  festival  of  the  Purifica- 
 tion of  the  Virgin  Mary,  observed  in  our 
 Church,  February  2.  In  the  mediicval 
 Church,  this  day  was  remarkable  for  the 
 number  of  lighted  candles  which  were 
 borne  about  in  processions,  and  placed  in 
 churches,  in  memory  of  him  wdio,  in  the 
 words  of  Simeon's  song  at  the  Purification, 
 came  to  be  "  a  light  to  lighten  the  Gen- 
 tiles, and  the  glory  of  his  people  Israel." 
 From  this  custom  the  name  is  supposed  to 
 be  derived. 
 
 CANON.  The  laws  of  the  Church  are 
 called  canons,  the  word  canon  being  de- 
 rived from  a  Greek  word,  which  signifies 
 a  rule  or  measure. 
 
 Since  the  Church  is  a  society  of  Chris- 
 tians, and  since  every  society  must  have 
 authority  to  prescribe  rules  and  laws  for 
 the  government  of  its  own  members,  it 
 must  necessarily  follow  that  the  Church 
 has  this  power ;  for  otherwise  there  would 
 be  great  disorder  amongst  Christians.  This 
 power  was  exercised  in  the  Church  before 
 the  Roman  empire  became  Christian,  as 
 appears  by  those  ancient  canons  which 
 were  made  before  that  time,  and  which  are 
 
132 
 
 CANON. 
 
 mentioned  in  the  writings  of  the  primitive 
 fathers ;  by  the  apostolical  canons,  which, 
 thoug-h  not  made  by  the  apostles  them- 
 selves, are  nevertheless  of  great  antiquity ; 
 and  by  various  canons  which  were  made 
 in  councils  held  in  the  second  century, 
 which  were  not  directory  alone,  but  bind- 
 ing, and  to  be  observed  by  the  clergy, 
 under  the  penalty  of  deprivation  ;  and  by 
 the  laity,  under  pain  of  excommunication. 
 Under  this  title  we  will  mention :  1 .  Foreign 
 canons.  2 .  Such  as  have  been  received  here. 
 3.  The  power  of  making  new  canons. 
 
 (I.)  As  to  the  first,  Constantine  the 
 Great,  the  first  emperor  who  gave  Chris- 
 tians some  respite  from  persecution,  caused 
 general  councils  and  national  and  provin- 
 cial synods  to  be  assembled  in  his  domi- 
 nions ';  where,  amongst  other  things,  rules 
 were  made  for  the  government  of  the 
 Church,  which  were  called  canons ;  the 
 substance  of  which  was  at  first  collected 
 out  of  the  Scriptures,  or  the  ancient 
 writings  of  the  fathers.  AYe  will  not 
 trouble  the  reader  with  a  long  history  of 
 jyrovincial  cnnsfitutions,  synodals,  f/hssa- 
 7'ies,  seiitcnces  of  popes,  summaries,  and 
 rescripts,  from  which  the  canon  law  has, 
 by  degrees,  been  compiled,  since  the  days 
 of  that  emperor ;  it  is  suflRcient  to  state, 
 that  they  were  collected  by  Ivo,  bishop  of 
 Chartres,  about  the  14th  year  of  our  King 
 Henry  I.,  in  three  volumes,  which  are 
 commonly  called  the  Decrees.  These 
 decrees,  corrected  by  Gratian,  a  Bene- 
 dictine monk,  were  ])ublished  in  England 
 in  the  reign  of  King  Stephen ;  and  the 
 reason  of  the  publication  at  that  time 
 might  be  to  decide  the  quarrel  between 
 Theobald,  archbisho])  of  Canterbury,  and 
 Henry,  bishop  of  Winchester,  the  king's 
 brother,  who  being  made  a  legate,  the 
 archbishop  looked  upon  it  as  a  diminution 
 of  his  power,  and  an  encroachment  upon 
 that  privilege  which  he  had  as  ler/atus 
 natus.  (See  Lcr/ate.)  These  decrees  were 
 received  by  the  clergy  of  the  Western 
 Church,  but  never  by  those  of  the  East, 
 which  is  one  reason  A^hy  their  priests  con- 
 tinued to  marry,  which  the  clergy  of  the 
 West  were,  by  these  decrees,  forbidden 
 to  do. 
 
 The  next,  in  order  of  time,  were  the 
 Decretals,  (see  Decretals,)  which  are  ca- 
 nonical epistles  written  by  popes  alone,  or 
 assisted  by  some  cardinals,  to  determine 
 any  controversy ;  and  of  these  there  are 
 likewise  three  volumes.  The  first  volume 
 of  these  Decretals  was  compiled  by  Eai- 
 mundus  Barcinus,  who  was  chaplain  to 
 Gregory  IX.,  and  were  published  by  him 
 about  the  14th  year  of  King  Henry  IH., 
 
 A.  D.  1226.  This  was  appointed  to  be  read 
 in  all  schools,  and  was  to  be  taken  for  law 
 in  all  ecclesiastical  courts.  About  sixty 
 years  afterwards,  Simon,  a  monk  of  Wal- 
 den,  began  to  read  these  laws  in  the  uni- 
 versity of  Cambridge,  and  the  next  year  in 
 Oxford.  The  second  volume  was  collected 
 and  arranged  by  Boniface  VHI.,  and  pub- 
 lished about  the  27th  year  of  our  King 
 Edward  I.,  A.  D.  1298.  The  third  volume 
 was  collected  by  Clement  V.,  and  published 
 in  the  Council  of  Vienna,  and  likewise 
 here,  in  the  2nd  year  of  Edward  II.,  A.  D. 
 Io08,  and  from  him  were  called  Clementines. 
 
 These  decretals  were  never  received  in 
 England,  or  anywhere  else,  but  only  in 
 the  pope's  dominions,  which  are  therefore 
 called  by  canonists  Patriae  ohedientice,  as 
 particularly  the  canon  concerning  the  in- 
 vestiture of  bishops  by  a  lay  hand.  John 
 Andreas,  a  celebrated  canonist  in  the 
 fourteenth  century,  wrote  a  commentary 
 on  these  decretals,  which  he  entitled  No- 
 vclhe,  from  a  very  beautiful  daughter  he 
 had  of  that  name,  whom  he  bred  a  scholar: 
 the  father  being  a  professor  of  law  at  Bo- 
 logna, had  instructed  his  daughter  so  well 
 in  it,  that  she  assisted  liim  in  reading  lec- 
 tures to  his  scholars,  and,  therefore,  to 
 perpetuate  her  memory,  he  gave  that  book 
 the  title  of  Norellcp. 
 
 About  the  tenth  year  of  King  Edward 
 II.,  John  XXII.  published  his  Extrava- 
 c/ants.  But  as  to  the  Church  of  England, 
 even  at  that  time,  when  the  papal  authority 
 was  at  the  highest,  none  of  these  foreign 
 canons,  or  any  new  canons,  made  at  any 
 national  or  provincial  synod  here,  had  any 
 manner  of  force  if  they  were  against  the 
 prerogative  of  the  king,  or  the  lav.s  of  the 
 land.  It  is  true  that  every  Christian  na- 
 tion in  communion  with  the  pope  sent 
 some  bishops,  abbots,  or  priors,  to  those 
 foreign  councils,  and  generally  four  were 
 sent  out  of  England ;  and  it  was  by  those 
 means,  together  with  the  allowance  of  the 
 civil  power,  that  some  canons  made  there 
 were  received  here,  but  such  as  were 
 against  the  laws  were  totally  rejected. 
 
 Nevertheless,  some  of  these  foreign 
 canons  were  received  in  England,  and 
 obtained  the  force  of  laws  by  the  general 
 approbation  of  the  king  and  people  (though 
 it  may  be  dilhcult  to  know  what  these 
 canons  are) ;  and  it  Avas  upon  this  pretence 
 that  the  pope  claimed  an  ecclesiastical 
 jurisdiction,  independent  of  the  king,  and 
 sent  his  legates  to  England  with  commis- 
 sions to  determine  causes  according  to 
 those  canons,  which  were  now  compiled 
 into  several  volumes,  and  called  Jus  Ca- 
 nonicum :  these  were  not  only  enjoined  to 
 
CANON. 
 
 133 
 
 be  obeyed  as  laws,  but  publicly  to  be  read 
 and  expounded  in  all  schools  and  uni- 
 versities as  the  civil  law  -was  read  and 
 expounded  there,  under  pain  of  excom- 
 munication to  those  who  neglected.  Hence 
 arose  quarrels  between  kings  and  several 
 archbishops  and  other  prelates,  who  ad- 
 hered to  those  papal  usurpations. 
 
 (II.)  Besides  these  foreign  canons,  there 
 were  several  laws  and  constitutions  made 
 here  for  the  government  of  the  Church,  all 
 of  which  are  now  in  force,  but  which  had 
 not  been  so  without  the  assent  and  con- 
 firmation of  the  kings  of  England.  Even 
 from  William  I.  to  the  time  of  the  Ke- 
 formation,  no  canons  or  constitutions  made 
 in  any  synods  were  suffered  to  be  ex- 
 ecuted if  they  had  not  the  royal  assent. 
 This  was  the  common  usage  and  practice 
 in  England,  even  Avhen  the  papal  usurpation 
 was  most  exalted ;  for  if  at  any  time  the 
 ecclesiastical  courts  did,  by  their  sentences, 
 endeavour  to  force  obedience  to  such 
 canons,  the  courts  at  common  law,  upon 
 complaint  made,  Avould  grant  prohibitions. 
 So  that  the  statute  of  submission,  which 
 was  afterwards  made  in  the  26th  year  of 
 Henry  VIII. ,  seems  to  be  declarative  of 
 the  common  law,  that  the  clergy  could  not 
 dejure,  and  by  their  own  authority,  with- 
 out the  king's  assent,  enact  or  execute  any 
 canons.  These  canons  were  all  collected 
 and  explained  by  Lyndwood,  dean  of  the 
 Arches,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.,  and 
 by  him  reduced  under  this  method. 
 
 1.  The  canons  of  Stephen  Langton, 
 archbishop  of  Canterbury,  made  at  a  coun- 
 cil held  at  Oxford,  in  the  6th  year  of 
 Henry  III. 
 
 2.  The  canons  of  Otho,  the  pope's  le- 
 gate, who  held  a  council  in  St.  Paul's 
 church,  in  the  25th  year  of  Henry  III., 
 which  from  him  were  called  the  Constitu- 
 tions of  Otho  ;  upon  which  John  de  Athon, 
 one  of  the  canons  of  Lincoln,  wrote  a 
 comment. 
 
 3.  The  canons  of  Boniface,  of  Savoy, 
 archbishop  of  Canterbury,  in  the  4oth  of 
 Henry  III.,  which  were  all  usurpations 
 upon  the  common  law,  as  concerning  the 
 boundaries  of  parishes,  the  right  of  patron- 
 age, and  against  trials  of  the  right  of 
 tithes  in  the  king's  courts  against  writs  of 
 prohibition,  8cc.  Although  he  threatened 
 the  judges  Avith  excommunication  (some  of 
 the  judges  being  at  that  time  clergymen) 
 if  they  disobeyed  the  canons,  yet  they  pro- 
 ceeded in  these  matters  according  to  the 
 laws  of  the  realm,  and  kept  the  eccle- 
 siastical courts  within  their  proper  juris- 
 diction. This  occasioned  a  variance  be- 
 tween the  spiritual  and  temporal  lords ; 
 
 and  upon  this  the  clergy,  in  the  31st  of 
 Henry  III.,  exhibited  several  articles  of 
 their  grievances  to  the  parliament,  which 
 they  called  ArticuH  Clcri :  the  articles 
 themselves  are  lost,  but  some  of  the  answers 
 to  them  are  extant,  by  Avhich  it  appears 
 that  none  of  these  canons  made  by  Boniface 
 was  confirmed. 
 
 4.  The  canons  of  Cardinal  Ottobon,  the 
 pope's  legate,  who  held  a  synod  at  St. 
 Paul's,  in  the  5l}rd  of  Henry  III.,  in  which 
 he  confirmed  those  canons  made  by  his 
 predecessor  Otho,  and  ])ublished  some  new 
 ones  ;  and  by  his  Icgantine  authority  com- 
 manded that  they  should  be  obeyed  :  upon 
 these  canons,  likcAvise,  John  do  Athon 
 wrote  another  comment. 
 
 5.  The  canons  of  Archbishop  Peckham, 
 made  at  a  synod  held  at  Heading,  in  the 
 year  1279,  the  7th  of  Edward  I. 
 
 6.  The  canons  of  the  same  archbishop, 
 made  at  a  synod  held  at  Lambeth,  two 
 years  afterwards. 
 
 7.  The  canons  of  Archbishop  Winchel- 
 sea,  made  in  the  34th  of  Edward  I. 
 
 8.  The  canons  of  Archbishop  Reynolds, 
 at  a  svnod  held  at  Oxford,  in  the  year 
 1322,  the  16th  of  Edward  11. 
 
 9.  The  canons  of  Symon  ^lepham,  arch- 
 bishop of  Canterburv,  made  in  the  year 
 1328,  the  3rd  of  Edward  III. 
 
 10.  Of  Archbishop  Stratford. 
 
 11.  Of  Archbishop  Simon  Islip,  made 
 1362,  the  37th  of  Edward  III. 
 
 12.  Of  Symon  Sudbury,  archbishop  of 
 Canterbury,  made  in  the  year  1378,  the 
 2nd  of  Richard  H. 
 
 13.  Of  Archbishop  Arundel,  made  at  a 
 synod  at  Oxford,  in  the  year  1403,  the 
 10th  of  Henry  IV. 
 
 14.  Of  Archbishop  Chichely,  in  the  year 
 1415,  the  3rd  of  Henry  V. 
 
 15.  Of  Edmond  and  Richard,  arch- 
 bishops of  Canterbury,  who  immediately 
 succeeded  Stephen  Langton. 
 
 It  was  intended  to  reform  these  canons 
 soon  after  the  Reformation ;  and  Arch- 
 bishop Cranmer  and  some  other  commis- 
 sioners were  appointed  for  that  ])urposc  by 
 Henry  VIII.  and  Edward  VI.  The  work 
 was  finished,  but  the  king  dying  before  it 
 was  confirmed,  it  remains  unconfirmed  to 
 this  day.  The  book  is  called  "  licformatia 
 LeyvmEccJcsiaaticaruni  ex  Authoritate  Re^ 
 gis  Henry  VIII.  inchuata  ct  per  EdAvard  VL 
 prorecta:'^  it  Avas  put  into  elegant  Latin 
 by  Dr.  Haddon,  avIio  Avas  then  university 
 orator  of  Cambridge,  assisted  by  Sir  John 
 Cheke,  Avho  Avas  tutor  to  I'MAvard  VL  The 
 above  canons  made  by  our  Church  before 
 the  Reformation,  are,  of  course,  binding 
 on  our  Church  noAv,  and'  are  acted  upon 
 
134 
 
 CANON. 
 
 in  the  ecclesiastical  courts,  except  where 
 they  are  superseded  by  subsequent  canons, 
 or  by  the  provisions  of  an  act  of  parlia- 
 ment. 
 
 (III.)  The  next  thing  to  be  considered 
 is,  the  authority  of  making  canons  at  this 
 day  ;  and  tliis  is  grounded  upon  the  statute 
 25' Henry  VIII.,  commonly  called  the  act 
 of  submission  of  the  clergy,  by  which  they 
 acknowledge  that  the  convocation  had 
 been  always  assembled  by  the  king's  writ ; 
 and  they  promised  in  verbo  sacerdutis, 
 not  to  attempt,  claim,  or  put  in  use,  or 
 enact,  promulge,  or  execute,  any  new 
 canons  in  convocation,  without  the  king's 
 assent  or  licence.  Then  follows  this  enact- 
 ing clause,  viz.  That  they  shall  not  at- 
 tempt, allege,  or  claim,  or  put  in  use,  any 
 constitutions  or  canons  without  the  king's 
 assent ;  and  so  far  this  act  is  declarative  of 
 what  the  law  was  before.  The  clause  be- 
 fore mentioned  extends  to  such  canons  as 
 were  then  made  both  beyond  sea  and  in 
 England,  viz.  to  foreign  canons,  that  they 
 should  not  be  executed  here  until  received 
 by  the  king  and  people  as  the  laws  of  the 
 land,  and  to  canons  made  here  which  were 
 contrary  to  the  prerogative,  or  to  the  laws 
 and  customs  of  the  realm.  This  appears 
 by  the  proviso,  that  no  canons  shall  be 
 made  or  put  in  execution  within  this  realm, 
 which  shall  be  contrary  to  the  prerogative 
 or  laws.  But  the  next  are  negative  words, 
 which  relate  wholly  to  making  new  canons, 
 viz.  "  nor  make,  promulge,  or  execute  any 
 such  canons  without  the  king's  assent." 
 These  words  limit  the  clergy  in  point  of 
 jurisdiction,  viz,  that  they  shall  not  make 
 any  new  canons  but  in  convocation :  and 
 they  cannot  meet  there  without  the  king's 
 writ ;  and  Avhen  they  are  met  and  make 
 new  canons,  they  cannot  put  them  in  exe- 
 cution without  a  confirmation  under  the 
 great  seal.  Some  years  after  this  statute, 
 the  clergy  proceeded  to  act  in  convoca- 
 tion, without  any  commission  from  Henry 
 VIII.  But  the  canons  which  they  made 
 •were  confirmed  by  that  king  and  some  of 
 his  successors,  as  particularly  the  injunc- 
 tions published  in  the  28th  year  of  Henry 
 VIII.,  for  the  abolishing  superstitious 
 holy  days  ;  those  for  preaching  against  the 
 use  of  images,  relics,  and  pilgrimages ; 
 those  for  repeating  the  Creed,  the  Lord's 
 Prayer,  and  Ten  Commandments  in  the 
 English  tongue.  Henry  VIII.  sometimes 
 acted  by  the  advice  of  his  bishops,  out  of 
 convocation,  as  about  the  injunctions  pub- 
 lished in  the  30th  year  of  Henry  VIII., 
 for  admitting  none  to  preach  but  such  as 
 were  licensed ;  those  for  keeping  a  register 
 of  births,  weddings,  and  burials  :  and  for 
 
 the  abolishing  the  anniversary  of  Thomas 
 a  Becket.  The  like  may  be  said  of  those 
 injunctions  published  in  the  2nd  year  of 
 Edward  VI.,  prohibiting  the  cai-rying  of 
 candles  on  Candlemas  day,  and  ashes  in 
 Lent,  and  palms  on  Palm  Sunday.  Queen 
 Elizabeth,  in  the  second  year  of  her  reign, 
 published  several  injunctions  by  the  advice 
 of  her  bishops.  And  two  years  afterwards 
 she  published  a  book  of  orders  without  the 
 confirmation  of  her  parliament.  When  she 
 was  settled  in  her  government,  all  Church 
 affairs  were  debated  in  convocation.  Se- 
 veral canons  were  made  in  her  reign,  and 
 confirmed  by  her  letters  patent :  but  as  she 
 did  not  bind  her  heirs  and  successors  to 
 the  observance  of  them,  those  canons  ex- 
 pired with  her  reign.  In  all  these  reigns 
 the  old  canons  were  still  in  force,  but  in 
 the  first  year  of  King  James,  1603,  the 
 clergy  being  lawfully  assembled  in  convo- 
 cation, the  king  gave  them  leave,  by  his 
 letters  patent,  to  treat,  consult,  and  agree  on 
 canons :  these  they  presented  to  him,  and 
 he  gave  them  his  royal  assent ;  and  by  other 
 letters  patent,  for  himself,  his  heirs  and 
 successors,  ratified  and  confirmed  the  same. 
 These  canons  thus  established  were  not 
 then  invented,  but  were  collected  out  of 
 ordinances  which  lay  dispersed  in  several 
 injunctions  published  in  former  reigns,  and 
 out  of  canons  and  other  religious  customs 
 which  w^ere  made  and  used  in  those  days ; 
 and  being  thus  confirmed,  are  the  laws  of 
 the  land,  and  by  the  same  authority  as  any 
 other  part  of  the  law ;  for  being  authorized 
 by  the  king's  commission,  according  to  the 
 form  of  the  statute  25  Henry  VIIL,  they 
 are  warranted  by  act  of  parliament;  and 
 such  canons  made  and  confirmed,  shall 
 bind  in  ecclesiastical  matters  as  much  as 
 any  statute.  An  act  of  parliament  may 
 forbid  the  execution  of  any  canon ;  but  it 
 has  been  usual  to  respect  all  those  which 
 enjoin  some  moral  duty;  yet  a  canon  not 
 confirmed  by  an  act  of  parliament  cannot 
 alter  any  other  law.  It  is  agreed  that  ca- 
 nons made  in  convocation,  and  confu'med 
 by  letters  patent,  bind  in  all  ecclesiastical 
 affairs  ;  that  no  canons  in  England  are  ab- 
 solutely confirmed  by  parliament,  yet  they 
 are  part  of  the  laws  of  the  land,  for  the 
 government  of  the  Church,  and  in  such 
 case  bind  the  laity  as  well  as  the  clergy ; 
 that  though  such  canons  cannot  alter  the 
 common  law,  statutes,  or  royal  prero- 
 gative, yet  they  may  alter  other  canons, 
 otherwise  the  convocation  could  not  make 
 new  canons.  All  that  is  required  in  making 
 such  canons  is,  that  the  clergy  confine 
 themselves  to  Church  affairs,  and  do  not 
 meddle  with  things  which  are  settled  by 
 
CANONS  OF  1603. 
 
 135 
 
 the  common  law.  But  thou<2^h  no  canons 
 are  absolutely  confirmed  by  act  of  parlia- 
 ment, yet  those  -svhich  are  neither  contrary 
 to  the  laws  of  the  land,  nor  to  the  queen's 
 prerogative,  and  which  are  confirmed  by 
 her,  are  made  good,  and  allowed  to  be  so, 
 by  the  statute  2o  Henry  VIII.  And  as  to 
 those  canons  which  tend  to  j)romote  the 
 honour  of  GoD  and  service  of  religion,  they 
 must  necessarily  bind  our  consciences. 
 Such  are  those  which  enjoin  the  sober 
 conversation  of  ministers,  prohibiting  their 
 frequenting  taverns,  playing  at  dice,  cards, 
 or  tables ;  this  was  anciently  prohibited 
 by  the  Apostolical  Canons,  and  in  the  old 
 articles  of  Visitation  here,  and  in  several 
 diocesan  synods.  Such  are  those  canons, 
 also,  which  relate  to  the  duties  of  minis- 
 ters in  praying,  preaching,  administering 
 sacraments,  and  visiting  the  sick. 
 
 It  may  be  as  well,  for  the  convenience 
 of  students,  to  insert  here,  from  Bishop 
 Halifax's  Analysis  of  the  Civil  Law,  a  few 
 explanations  of  the  method  of  quoting  the 
 Jus  Canonicum.  The  Dccretum  of  Gra- 
 tian  (which  must  not  be  confounded  with 
 the  Decretals)  is  divided  into,  1.  Distinc- 
 tions. 2.  Causes.  8.  'Treatise  concernini/ 
 co?isecration.  The  Decretals  are  divided 
 into,  1.  Gregory  IX.  Decretals  in  5  bonks. 
 
 2.  The  sixth   Decretal.    (Boniface,   1298.) 
 
 3.  The  Clementine  Constitutions  (of  Pope 
 Clement  V.).  Now  in  the  Decretum,  1st 
 part,  e.  g.  "  1  dist.  c.  3,  Lex,  [or  i.  d.  Lex,] 
 IS  the  ^/irst  distinction,  3rd  Canon,  begin- 
 ning with  the  word  Lex.  In  the  Decretum, 
 2nd  part,  e.  g.  "  3  qu.  9,  c.  2,"  means  the 
 third  cause,  ninth  question,  2nd  Canon. 
 The  3rd  part  of  the  Decretum  is  quoted  as 
 the  first,  with  the  addition  of  the  words  de 
 consecratione. 
 
 In  the  Decretals  (the  first  division)  is 
 given  the  name  of  title,  number  of  chapter, 
 with  the  addition  of  extra,  or  a  capital  X. 
 E.  g.  "  c.  3,  extra  de  usuris,"  means  the 
 3rd  chapter  of  Gregory's  Decretals,  in- 
 scribed "  de  usuris,"  i.  e.  the  19th  of  the 
 5th  book.  "  c.  cum  contingat  3G  X.  de 
 oif.  et  Pot.  Jud.  del.,"  means  the  36th 
 chapter  beginning  with  "  cum  contingat," 
 of  the  Title  in  Gregory's  decrees,  inscribed 
 "de  officio."  The  sixth  Decretal,  and  the 
 Clementine  Constitutions,  are  quoted  the 
 same  way,  except  that  instead  of  extra,  or 
 X.,  is  subjoined  in  sexto,  or  in  6  ;  and  in 
 Clementini,  or  in  Clem.  The  Extravagants 
 of  John  XXII.  are  contained  in  one  book, 
 xiv.  titles.     The  folloAving  are  the 
 
 CANONS  OF  1603. 
 
 Constitutions  and  Canons  Ecclesiasti- 
 cal, treated  upon  by  the  Bishop  of  Lon- 
 
 don, President  of  the  Convocation  for 
 the  Province  of  Canterbury,  and  the  rest 
 of  the  Bishops  and  Clergy  of  the  said 
 Province ;  and  agreed  upon  with  the 
 King's  Majesty's  Licence,  in  their  Synod 
 begun  at  London,  Anno  Domini  1603, 
 and  in  the  year  of  tlie  Beign  of  our 
 Sovereign  Lord  JAMES,  by  the  Grace 
 of  God,  King  of  England,  France,  and 
 Ireland,  the  First,  and  of  Scotland  the 
 Thirty-seventh  :  and  now  published  for 
 the  due  observation  of  them,  by  his 
 Majesty's  Authority  under  the  Great 
 Seal  of  England. 
 
 James,  by  the  grace  of  God,  King  of 
 England,  Scotland,  France,  and  Ireland, 
 Defender  of  the  Faith,  &:c.,  to  all  to  whom 
 these  presents  shall  come,  greeting :  "Where- 
 as our  Bishops,  Deans  of  our  Cathedral 
 Churches,  Archdeacons,  Chapters,  and 
 Colleges,  and  the  other  Clergy  of  every 
 Diocese  within  the  Province  of  Canterbury, 
 being  summoned  and  called  by  virtue  of 
 our  Writ  directed  to  the  Most  Bevercnd 
 Father  in  God,  John,  late  Archbishop  of 
 Canterbury,  and  bearing  date  the  one  and 
 thirtieth  day  of  January,  in  the  first  year  of 
 our  reign  of  England,  France,  and  Ireland, 
 and  of  Scotland  the  thirty-seventh,  to  have 
 appeared  before  him  in  our  Cathedral 
 Church  of  St.  Paul  in  London,  the  twenti- 
 eth day  of  March  then  next  ensuing,  or 
 elsewhere,  as  he  should  have  thought  it 
 most  convenient,  to  treat,  consent,  and  con- 
 clude upon  certain  difficult  and  urgent 
 affairs  mentioned  in  the  said  Writ ;  did 
 thereupon,  at  the  time  appointed,  and  with- 
 in the  Cathedral  Church  of  St.  Paul  afore- 
 said, assemble  themselves,  and  appear  in 
 Convocation  for  that  purpose,  according  to 
 our  said  Writ,  before  the  Right  Reverend 
 Father  in  God,  Richard  Bishop  of  London, 
 duly  (upon  a  second  Writ  of  ours,  dated 
 the  ninth  day  of  March  aforesaid)  author- 
 ized, appointed,  and  constituted,  by  reason 
 of  the  said  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  his 
 death,  President  of  the  said  Convocation, 
 to  execute  those  things,  which,  by  virtue  of 
 our  first  Writ,  did  appertain  to  him  the  said 
 Archbishop  to  have  executed  if  he  had  lived. 
 
 AVe,  for  divers  urgent  and  weighty  causes 
 and  considerations  as  thereunto  especially 
 moving,  of  our  especial  grace,  certain  know- 
 ledge, and  mere  motion,  did,  by  virtue  of 
 our  Prerogative  Royal,  and  Supreme  Au- 
 thority in  causes  I^>clesiastical,  give  and 
 grant  by  our  several  Letters  Patent  under 
 our  Great  Seal  of  England,  the  one  dated 
 the  twelfth  day  of  April  last  past,  and  the 
 other  the  twenty-fifth  day  of  June  then 
 next  following,  full,  free,  and  lawful  liberty, 
 
136 
 
 CANONS  OF  1603. 
 
 licence,  power,  and  authority  unto  the  said 
 Bishop  of  London,  President  of  the  said 
 Convocation,  and  to  the  other  Bishops, 
 Deans,  Archdeacons,  Chapters,  and  Col- 
 leges, and  the  rest  of  the  Clergy  before 
 mentioned,  of  the  said  Province,  that  they 
 from  time  to  time,  during  our  first  Parlia- 
 ment now  prorogued,  might  confer,  treat, 
 debate,  consider,  consult,  and  agree  of  and 
 upon  such  Canons,  Orders,  Ordinances,  and 
 Constitutions,  as  they  should  think  neces- 
 sary, fit,  and  convenient,  for  the  honour  and 
 service  of  Almighty  God,  the  good  and 
 quiet  of  the  Church,' and  the  better  govern- 
 ment thereof,  to  be  from  time  to  time 
 observed,  performed,  fulfilled,  and  kept  as 
 well  by  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury, 
 the  Bishops,  and  their  Successors,  and  the 
 rest  of  the  whole  Clergy  of  the  said  Province 
 of  Canterbury  in  their  several  callings, 
 offices,  functions,  ministries,  degrees,  and 
 administrations ;  as  also  by  all  and  every 
 Dean  of  the  Arches,  and  other  Judge  of 
 the  said  Archbishop's  Courts,  Guardians 
 of  Spiritualities,  Chancellors,  Deans,  and 
 Chapters,  Archdeacons,  Commissaries,  Offi- 
 cials, Registrars,  and  all  and  every  other 
 Ecclesiastical  Officers,  and  their  inferior 
 ^Ministers,  whatsoever,  of  the  same  Province 
 of  Canterbury,  in  their  and  every  other  of 
 their  distinct  Courts,  and  in  the  order  and 
 manner  of  their  and  every  of  their  proceed- 
 ings :  and  by  all  other  persons  within  this 
 realm,  as  far  as  lawfully,  being  members  of 
 the  Church,  it  may  concern  them,  as  in  our 
 said  Letters  Patent  amongst  other  clauses 
 more  at  large  doth  appear.  Forasmuch  as 
 the  Bishop  of  London,  President  of  the 
 said  Convocation,  and  others,  the  said 
 Bishops,  Deans,  Archdeacons,  Chapters, 
 and  Colleges,  with  the  rest  of  the  Clergy, 
 having  met  together  at  the  time  and  place 
 before  mentioned,  and  then  and  there,  by 
 virtue  of  our  said  authority  granted  unto 
 them,  treated  of,  concluded,  and  agreed 
 upon  certain  Canons,  Orders,  Ordinances, 
 and  Constitutions,  to  the  end  and  purpose  by 
 us  limited  and  prescribed  unto  them  ;  and 
 have  thereupon  offered  and  presented  the 
 same  unto  us,  most  humbly  desiring  us  to 
 give  our  royal  assent  unto  their  said 
 Canons,  Orders,  Ordinances,  and  Constitu- 
 tions, according  to  the  form  of  a  certain 
 Statute  or  Act  of  Parliament,  made  in  that 
 behalf  in  the  twenty-fifth  year  of  the  reign 
 of  King  Henry  the  Eighth,  and  by  our  said 
 Prerogative  Royal  and  Supreme  Authority, 
 in  Causes  Ecclesiastical,  to  ratify  by  our 
 Letters  Patent  under  our  Great  Seal  of 
 England,  and  to  confirm  the  same,  the 
 title  and  tenor  of  them  being  word  for 
 word  as  ensucth : 
 
 The  Table  of  the  Constitutions  and  Canons 
 JEcclesiastical. 
 
 Of  the  Church  of  England. 
 
 1.  The  King's  Supremacy  over  the  Church 
 
 of  England,  in  Causes  Ecclesiastical, 
 to  be  maintained. 
 
 2.  Impugners  of  the  King's  Supremacy 
 
 censured. 
 
 3.  The  Church  of  England  a  true  and 
 
 apostolical  Church. 
 
 4.  Impugners  of  the  public  Worship  of 
 
 God,  established  in  the  Church  of 
 England,  censured. 
 
 5.  Impugners  of  the  Articles  of  Religion, 
 
 established  in  the  Church  of  Eng- 
 land, censured. 
 
 6.  Impugners  of  the  Rites  and  Ceremo- 
 
 nies, established  in  the  Church  of 
 England,  censured. 
 
 7.  Impugners  of  the  Government  of  the 
 
 Church  of  England,  by  Archbishops, 
 Bishops,  &c.,  censm-ed. 
 
 8.  Impugners  of  the  Form  of  consecrat- 
 
 ing and  ordering  Archbishops,  Bi- 
 shops, &c.  in  the  Church  of  England, 
 censured. 
 
 9.  Authors  of  Schism  in  the  Church  of 
 
 England  censured. 
 
 10.  Maintainers   of    Schismatics    in    the 
 
 Church  of  England  censured. 
 
 11.  Maintainers  of  Conventicles  censured. 
 
 12.  Maintainers  of  Constitutions  made  in 
 
 Conventicles  censured. 
 
 Of  Divine  Service,  and  Administration  of  the 
 Sacraments. 
 
 13.  Due  Celebration  of  Sundays  and  Holy- 
 
 days. 
 
 14.  The  prescript  Form  of  Divine  Service 
 
 to  be  used  on  Sundays  and  Holy- 
 days. 
 
 15.  The  Litany  to  be  read  on  Wednesdays 
 
 and  Fridays. 
 
 16.  Colleges  to  use  the  prescript  Form  of 
 
 Divine  Service* 
 
 17.  Students  in  Colleges  to  wear  Surplices 
 
 in  time  of  Divine  Service. 
 
 18.  A  reverence  and  attention  to  be  used 
 
 within  the  Church  in  time  of  Divine 
 Service. 
 
 19.  Loiterers  not  to  be  suff'ered  near  the 
 
 Church  in  time  of  Divine  Service. 
 
 20.  Bread  and  Wine  to  be  provided  against 
 
 every  Communion. 
 
 21.  The  Communion  to  be  thrice  a  Year 
 
 received. 
 
 22.  Warning  to  be  given  beforehand  for 
 
 the  Communion. 
 
 23.  Students   in  Colleges  to   receive   the 
 
 Communion  four  times  a  Year. 
 
 24.  Copes  to  be  worn  in  Cathedi'al  Churches 
 
CANONS  OF  1603. 
 
 137 
 
 by  those  that  administer  the  Com- 
 munion. 
 
 25.  Surplices  and  Hoods  to  be  worn  in 
 
 Cathedral  Churches,  when  there  is 
 no  Communion. 
 
 26.  Notorious  Otienders  not  to  be  admitted 
 
 to  the  Communion. 
 
 27.  Schismatics  not  to  be  admitted  to  the 
 
 Communion. 
 
 28.  Strang:ers  not  to  be  admitted  to  the 
 
 Communion. 
 
 29.  Fathers  not  to  be  Godfathers  in  Bap- 
 
 tism, and  Cliildren  not   Communi- 
 cants. 
 
 30.  The  lawful  use  of  the  Cross  in  Baptism 
 
 explained. 
 
 Ministers,  their  Ordination,  Function,  and 
 Charge. 
 
 31.  Four  solemn  times  appointed  for  the 
 
 making  of  Ministers. 
 
 32.  None  to  be  made  Deacon  and  Minister 
 
 both  in  one  day. 
 
 33.  The  Titles  of  such  as  are  to  be  made 
 
 Ministers. 
 31.  The  Quality  of  such  as  are  to  be  made 
 Ministers. 
 
 35.  The  Examination  of  such  as  are  to  be 
 
 made  Ministers. 
 
 36.  Subscription  required  of  such  as  are 
 
 to  be  made  Ministers. 
 The  Articles  of  Subscription, 
 The  Form  of  Subscription. 
 
 37.  Subscription  before  the  Diocesan. 
 
 38.  Revolters     after     Subscription    cen- 
 
 sured. 
 
 39.  Cautions  for  Institution  of  Ministers 
 
 into  Benefices. 
 
 40.  An  Oath  against  Simony  at  Institution 
 
 into  Benefices. 
 
 41.  Licences    for  Plurality   of    Benefices 
 
 limited,  and  Residence  enjoined. 
 
 42.  Residence  of  Deans  in  their  Churches. 
 
 43.  Deans   and    Prebendaries   to    preach 
 
 during  their  Residence. 
 
 44.  Prebendaries  to  be  resident  upon  their 
 
 Benefices. 
 
 45.  Beneficed   Preachers,   being  resident 
 
 upon  their  Livings,  to  preach  every 
 Sunday. 
 
 46.  Beneficed  Men,  not  Preachers,  to  pro- 
 
 cure monthly  Sermons. 
 
 47.  Absence  of  Beneficed  Men  to  be  sup- 
 
 plied by  Curates  that    are  allowed 
 Preachers. 
 
 48.  None  to  be  Curates  but  allowed  by  the 
 
 Bishop. 
 
 49.  Ministers,  not  allowed  Preachers,  may 
 
 not  expound. 
 
 50.  Strangers  not  admitted  to  preach  with- 
 
 out showing  their  Licence. 
 
 51.  Strangers  not  admitted  to  preach  in 
 
 Cathedral  Churches  without  suflici- 
 ent  Authority. 
 
 52.  The  Names  of  strange  Preachers  to 
 
 be  noted  in  a  liook. 
 
 53.  No       ])ublic      Opposition      between 
 
 Preachers. 
 
 54.  The   Licences   of  Preachers    refusing 
 
 Conformity  to  be  void. 
 
 55.  The  Form  of  a  Prayer  to  be  used  by 
 
 all  Preachers  before  their  Sermons. 
 
 56.  Preachers  and  Lecturers  to  read  ])i- 
 
 vine  Service,  and  administer  the  Sa- 
 craments twice  a  Year  at  the  least. 
 
 57.  The  Sacraments  not  to  be  refused  at 
 
 the  hands  of  unpreaching  Ministers. 
 
 58.  Ministers  reading  Divine  Service,  and 
 
 administering  the  Sacraments,  to 
 wear  Surplices,  and  Graduates  there- 
 withal Hoods. 
 
 59.  Ministers  to  catechize  every  Sunday. 
 
 60.  Confirmation  to  be  performed  once  in 
 
 three  Years. 
 
 61.  Ministers  to  prepare  Children  for  Con- 
 
 firmation. 
 
 62.  Ministers  not  to  marry  any  Persons 
 
 without  Banns  or  Licence. 
 
 63.  Ministers  of  exempt  Churches  not  to 
 
 marry  without  Banns  or  Licence. 
 
 64.  ]Ministers  solemnly  to  bid  Holy-days. 
 
 65.  Ministers  solemnly  to  denounce  Re- 
 
 cusants and  Excommunicates. 
 
 66.  Ministers  to  confer  with  Recusants. 
 
 67.  Ministers  to  visit  the  Sick. 
 
 68.  Ministers  not  to  refuse  to  christen  or 
 
 bury- 
 
 69.  Ministers  not  to  defer  Christening,  if 
 
 the  Child  be  in  danger. 
 
 70.  Ministers  to  keep  a  Register  of  Christ- 
 
 enings, Weddings,  and  Burials. 
 
 71.  Ministers  not  to  preach,  or  administer 
 
 the  Communion,  in  private  Houses. 
 
 72.  Ministers    not   to    appoint   public    or 
 
 private  Fasts  or  Pro])hecies,  or  to 
 exorcise,  but  by  Authority. 
 
 73.  Ministers  not  to  hold  private  Conven- 
 
 ticles. 
 
 74.  Decency  in  Apparel  enjoined  to  Min- 
 
 isters. 
 
 75.  Sober  Conversation  required  in  Min- 
 
 isters. 
 
 76.  Ministers  at  no  time  to  forsake  their 
 
 Calling. 
 
 Schoolmasters. 
 
 77.  None  to  teach  School  without  Licence. 
 
 78.  Curates   desirous   to   teach,  to  be  li- 
 
 censed before  others. 
 
 79.  The  duty  of  Schoolmasters. 
 
 Things  ajipertaining  to  Churches. 
 
 80.  The  Great  Bible,  and  Book  of  Common 
 
 Prayer,  to  be  had  in  every  Church. 
 
138 
 
 CANONS  OF  1603. 
 
 81.  A  Font  of  Stone  for  Baptism  in  every 
 
 Church. 
 
 82.  A  decent  Communion-Table  in  every 
 
 Church. 
 
 83.  A   Pulpit  to   be    provided   in    every 
 
 Church. 
 
 84.  A  Chest  for  Alms  in  every  Church. 
 
 85.  Churches  to  be  kept  in  sufficient  Re- 
 
 parations. 
 
 86.  Churches  to  be  surveyed,  and  the  decays 
 
 certified  to  the  high  Commissioners. 
 
 87.  A  Terrier  of  Glebe-lands  and  other 
 
 Possessions  belonging  to  Churches. 
 
 88.  Churches  not  to  be  profaned. 
 
 Churchwardens  or   Quest-men,  and  Side-men 
 or  Assistants. 
 
 89.  The   choice   of    Churchwardens,    and 
 
 their  Account. 
 
 90.  The   choice    of  Side-men,   and   their 
 
 joint  office  with  Churchwardens. 
 
 Parish- Clei-/cs. 
 
 91.  Parish-Clerks   to   be   chosen    by   the 
 
 Minister. 
 
 Ecclesiastical  Courts  belonging  to  the  Archbi- 
 shop's Jurisdiction. 
 
 92.  None  to  be  cited  into  divers  Courts 
 
 for  Probate  of  the  same  Will. 
 
 93.  The  Kate  of  Bona  notahilia  liable  to 
 
 the  Prerogative  Court. 
 
 94.  None  to  be  cited  into  the  Appeals  or 
 
 Audience,   but  dwellers  within  the 
 Archbishop's  Diocese,  or  Peculiars. 
 
 95.  The  Restraint  of  double  Quarrels. 
 
 96.  Inliibitions  not  to  be  granted  without 
 
 the  Subscription  of  an  Advocate. 
 
 97.  Inhibitions  not  to  be  granted,  until 
 
 the    Appeal    be    exhibited    to    the 
 Judge. 
 
 98.  Inhibitions  not  to  be  granted  to  fac- 
 
 tious  Appellants,   unless   they  first 
 subscribe. 
 
 99.  None   to  marry  within  the  Degrees 
 
 prohibited. 
 
 100.  None   to  marry  under   Twenty-one 
 
 Years,  without  their  Parents'  con- 
 sent. 
 
 101.  By  whom  licences  to  marry  without 
 
 Banns    shall   be   granted,    and    to 
 what  sort  of  persons. 
 
 102.  Security  to  be  taken  at  the  granting 
 
 of  such  Licences,  and  under  what 
 Conditions. 
 
 103.  Oaths  to  be  taken  for  the  Conditions. 
 
 104.  An  Exception  for  those  that  are  in 
 
 Widowhood. 
 
 105.  No  sentence  for  Divorce  to  be  given 
 
 upon   the   sole   confession   of    the 
 parties. 
 
 106.  No  Sentence  for  Divorce  to  be  given 
 
 but  m  open  Court. 
 
 107.  In  all  sentences  for  Divorce,  Bond 
 
 to  be  taken  for  not  mai'rying  during 
 each  other's  life. 
 
 108.  The  Penalty  for  Judges  oflFending  in 
 
 the  Premises. 
 
 Ecclesiastical  Courts  belonging  to  the  Jurisdic- 
 tion of  Bishops  and  Archdeacons,  and  the 
 I'roceedings  in  tJieni. 
 
 109.  Notorious  Crimes  and  Scandals  to  be 
 
 certified  into  Ecclesiastical  Courts 
 by  Presentment. 
 
 110.  Schismatics  to  be  presented. 
 
 111.  Disturbers  of  Divine    Service  to  be 
 
 presented. 
 
 112.  Non-Communicants  at  Easter  to  be 
 
 presented. 
 
 113.  Ministers  may  present. 
 
 114.  Ministers  shall  present  Recusants. 
 
 115.  Ministers  and  Churchwardens  not  t  o 
 
 be  sued  for  presenting. 
 
 116.  ChurcliAvardens  not  bound  to  present 
 
 oftener  than  twice  a  year. 
 
 117.  Churchwardens  not  to   be  troubled 
 
 for    not    presenting    oftener   than 
 twice  a  year. 
 
 118.  The    old    Churchwardens    to   make 
 
 their  Presentments  before  the  new 
 be  sworn. 
 
 119.  Convenient  time  to  be  assigned  for 
 
 framing  Presentments. 
 
 120.  None  to  be  cited  into  Ecclesiastical 
 
 Courts  by  process  of  Quortim  No- 
 mina. 
 
 121.  None  to  be  cited  into  several  Courts 
 
 for  one  Crime. 
 
 122.  No  Sentence  of  Deprivation  or  De- 
 
 position to  be  pronounced  against 
 a  Minister,  but  by  the  Bishop. 
 
 123.  No  Act  to  be  sped  but  in  open  Court. 
 
 124.  No  Court  to  have  more  than  one  Seal. 
 
 125.  Convenient  Places  to  be  chosen  for 
 
 the  keeping  of  open  Courts. 
 
 126.  Peculiar  and  inferior  Courts  to  ex- 
 
 hibit the  original  Copies  of  Wills 
 into  the  Bishop's  Registry. 
 
 Judges  Ecclesiastical,  and  their  Surrogates. 
 
 127.  The  Quality  and  Oath  of  Judges. 
 
 128.  The  Quality  of  SuiTogates. 
 
 Proctors. 
 
 129.  Proctors  not  to  retain  Causes  without 
 
 the  lawful  Assignment  of  the  Parties. 
 
 130.  Proctors  not  to  retain  Causes  with- 
 
 out the  Counsel  of  an  Advocate. 
 
 131.  Proctors    not    to    conclude    in   any 
 
 Cause  without  the  Knowledge  of 
 an  Advocate. 
 
 132.  Proctors    prohibited    the   Oath,   In 
 
 ayiimam  do?nini  sui. 
 
 133.  Proctors  not  to  be  clamorous  in  Court. 
 
 Registrars. 
 
 134.  Abuses  to  be  reformed  in  Registrars. 
 
CANONS  OF  IGIO. 
 
 130 
 
 135.  A  certain  Rate  of  Fees  due  to  all 
 
 Ecclesiastical  Otticers. 
 
 136.  A  Table  of  the  Hates  and  Fees  to  be 
 
 set  up  in  Courts  and  Hej^jistries. 
 
 137.  The  -whole  Fees  for  showing  Letters 
 
 of  Orders,  and  other  Licences,  due 
 but  once  in  every  Bishop's  time. 
 
 Ajyparifoi's. 
 
 138.  The  Number  of  Apparitors  restrained. 
 
 Authority  of  Synods. 
 
 139.  A  National  Synod  the  Church  Re- 
 
 presentative. 
 
 140.  Synods  conclude  as  well  the  absent 
 
 as  the  present. 
 
 141.  Depravers  of  the  Synod  censured. 
 
 CANONS  OF  1640.  On  the  2Vth  May, 
 1640,  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury  stated 
 before  the  convocation  that  the  Canons 
 agreed  upon  in  the  sacred  synod  had  been 
 read  before  the  king  and  the  privy-coun- 
 cil, and  unanimously  approved.  The  first 
 Canon  is  concerning  the  regal  power ;  and, 
 I.  Enacts  that  every  parson,  vicar,  curate, 
 or  preacher,  shall,  under  pain  of  suspen- 
 sion, on  four  Sundays  in  each  year,  at 
 morning  prayer,  read  certain  explanations 
 of  the  regal  power,  to  the  effect : — 
 
 (1.)  That  the  sacred  order  of  kings  is  of 
 Divine  right,  that  a  supreme  power  is 
 given  by  God  in  Scripture  to  kings  to  rule 
 all  persons  civil  and  ecclesiastical. 
 
 (2.)  That  the  care  of  God's  Church  is 
 committed  to  kings  in  the  Scripture. 
 
 (3.)  That  the  power  to  call  and  dissolve 
 national  and  provincial  councils  within 
 their  own  territories  is  the  true  right  of 
 princes. 
 
 (4.)  That  it  is  treason  against  God  and 
 the  prince  for  any  other  to  set  up  any  in- 
 dependent co-active  power,  either  papal  or 
 popular,  within  the  prince's  territory. 
 
 (5.)  That  subjects  who  resist  their  na- 
 tural prince  by  force  resist  God's  ordinance, 
 and  shall  receive  damnation. 
 
 (6.)  That  as  tribute  is  due  from  subjects 
 to  their  prince,  so  those  subjects  have  not 
 only  possession  of,  but  a  true  and  just 
 title  to,  all  their  goods  and  estates ;  that 
 as  it  is  the  duty  of  subjects  to  supply  their 
 king,  so  is  it  his  duty  to  defend  them  in 
 their  property. 
 
 Forbids,  under  pain  of  excommunica- 
 tion, all  persons  to  preach  or  teach  any- 
 thing contrary  to  the  tenor  of  these  ex- 
 planations. 
 
 II.  For  the  better  keeping  of  the  day  of 
 his  Majesty's  most  happy  inauguration. 
 
 Orders  all  persons  to  keep  the  morning 
 of  the  said  day  in  coming  diligently  to 
 
 church,  and  that  due  inquiry  be  made  by 
 bishops  and  others  as  to  how  the  day  is 
 observed,  in  order  that  offenders  may  be 
 punished. 
 
 III.  For  suppressing  the  growth  of 
 Popery. 
 
 Orders  all  ecclesiastical  persons,  bishops, 
 6cc.,  having  exempt  or  peculiar  jurisdiction, 
 and  all  oiiicials,  and  others  having  the 
 cure  of  souls,  to  confer  privately  with  the 
 parties,  and  by  Church  censures,  <S:c.,  to 
 recbice  those  who  are  misled  into  Popish 
 superstition  to  the  Church  of  I-higland. 
 
 Such  private  conferences  to  be  perform- 
 ed by  the  bishop  himself,  or  by  some  one 
 or  more  persons  of  his  appointment. 
 
 The  said  ecclesiastical  persons  to  inform 
 themselves  of  all  persons,  above  the  age  of 
 twelve  years,  in  every  parish,  who  do  not 
 come  to  church,  or  receive  the  holy  eucha- 
 rist,  and  who  say  or  hear  mass. 
 
 Ministers,  churchwardens,  &c.,  to  pre- 
 sent all  such  persons. 
 
 If  neither  private  conferences  nor  Church 
 censures  will  avail  with  such  offenders, 
 their  names  shall  be  certified  by  the  bishop 
 of  the  diocese  unto  the  justices  of  assize. 
 
 Marriages,  burials,  and  christenings  of 
 recusants,  celebrated  otherwise  than  ac- 
 cording to  the  form  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
 land, to  be  declared  by  churchwardens 
 and  others  at  visitations. 
 
 Diligent  inquiry  to  be  made  as  to  who 
 are  employed  as  schoolmasters  of  the  chil- 
 dren of  recusants.  Churchwardens  to  give 
 upon  oath  the  names  of  those  who  send 
 their  children  to  be  brought  up  abroad. 
 
 IV.  Against  Socinianism. 
 
 Forbids  any  one  to  print,  sell,  or  buy 
 any  book  containing  Socinian  doctrines 
 upon  pain  of  excommunication,  and  orders 
 all  ordinaries  to  signify  the  names  of  of- 
 fenders to  the  metropolitan,  in  order  to  be 
 by  him  delivered  to  the  king's  attorney- 
 general,  that  proceedings  may  be  taken 
 against  them. 
 
 No  preacher  to  vent  such  doctrine  in  a 
 sermon,  under  pain  of  excommunication, 
 and  for  a  second  offence  deprivation.  No 
 university  student  or  person  in  holy  orders, 
 except  graduates  in  divinity,  to  have  any 
 Socinian  book  in  his  possession  :  all  books 
 so  found  to  be  burned :  diligent  inquiry 
 to  be  made  after  oftenders. 
 
 V.  Against  sectaries. 
 
 Declares  that  all  the  enactments  of  the 
 canon  against  Popish  recusants  shall,  as  far 
 as  they  are  applicable,  stand  in  full  force 
 against  all  Anabaptists,  Brownists,  Separ- 
 atists, Familists,  and  other  sects. 
 
 That  the  clauses  in  the  canons  against 
 Socinianism,  referring  to  Socinian  books, 
 
HO 
 
 CANONS  OF  1640. 
 
 shall  stand  in  full  force  ap^ainst  all  books 
 devised  against  the  discipline  and  govern- 
 ment of  the  Church  of  England. 
 
 Orders  all  church  and  chapel  wardens 
 and  quest-men  to  present  at  visitations  the 
 names  of  those  disaffected  persons  who 
 neglected  the  prayers  of  the  church,  and  j 
 came  in  for  sermon  only,  thinking  thereby  | 
 to  avoid  the  penalties  enacted  against 
 such  as  wliolly  absented  themselves. 
 
 VI.  An  oath  enjoined  for  the  preventing 
 of  all  innovations  in  doctrine  and  govern- 
 ment. 
 
 Declares  that  all  archbishops,  bishops, 
 and  all  other  priests  and  deacons  shall,  to 
 secure  them  against  suspicion  of  Popery  or 
 other  superstition,  take  the  oath  which  it 
 prescribes. 
 
 Offenders,  after  three  months'  delay 
 gi-anted  them,  if  they  continue  obstinate, 
 to  be  deprived. 
 
 Orders  that  the  following  shall  also  be 
 compelled  to  take  the  prescribed  oath,  viz. 
 all  masters  of  arts,  bachelors  and  doctors 
 in  divinity,  law,  or  physic,  all  licensed 
 practitioners  of  physic,  all  registrars,  proc- 
 tors, and  schoolmasters,  all  graduates  of 
 fo)-eign  universities  who  come  to  be  incor- 
 porated into  an  English  imiversity,  and 
 ail  persons  about  to  be  ordained  or  licensed 
 to  preach  or  serve  any  cure. 
 
 VII.  A  declaration  concerning  some 
 rites  and  ceremonies. 
 
 Declares  the  standing  of  the  communion 
 table  side-ways  under  the  east  window  of 
 every  chancel  or  chapel,  to  be  in  its  own 
 nature  indifferent,  and  that  therefore  no 
 religion  is  to  be  placed  therein,  or  scruple 
 to  be  made  thereof. 
 
 That  although  at  the  Reformation  all 
 Popish  altars  were  demolished,  yet  it  was 
 ordered  by  Queen  Elizabeth's  injunction, 
 that  the  holy  tables  should  stand  where 
 the  altars  stood,  and  that,  accordingly,  they 
 have  been  so  continued  in  the  royal  cha- 
 pels, most  cathedrals,  and  some  parish 
 churches,  that  all  churches  and  chapels 
 should  conform  to  the  example  of  the  ca- 
 theckal  mother  churches  in  this  particular, 
 saving  always  the  general  liberty  left  to 
 the  bishop  by  law  during  the  time  of  ad- 
 ministration of  the  holy  communion.  De- 
 clares that  this  situation  of  the  holy  table 
 does  not  imply  that  it  is  or  ought  to  be 
 esteemed  a  true  and  proper  altar,  whereon 
 Christ  is  again  really  sacrificed  ;  but  it 
 is,  and  may  be,  by  us  called  an  altar  in 
 that  sense  in  which  the  primitive  Church 
 called  it  an  altar. 
 
 Orders  that  in  order  to  prevent  profane 
 abuses  of  the  communion  table,  it  shall  be 
 railed  in. 
 
 Orders  that  at  the  words  "  draw  near," 
 Sec,  all  communicants  shall  with  all  hum- 
 ble reverence  approach  the  holy  table. 
 
 Ilecommends  to  all  good  and  well-af- 
 fected members  of  the  Church,  that  they 
 do  reverence  and  obeisance  both  at  their 
 coming  in  and  going  out  of  the  church, 
 chancel,  or  chapel,  according  to  the  custom 
 of  the  primitive  Church  and  the  Church  of 
 England  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth. 
 
 Vni.  Of  j)reaching  for  conformity. 
 
 Orders  all  preachers,  under  pain  of  sus- 
 pension, to  instruct  the  people  in  their 
 sermons  twice  a  year  at  least,  that  the  rites 
 and  ceremonies  of  the  Church  of  England 
 are  lawful  and  commendable,  and  to  be 
 submitted  to. 
 
 IX.  One  Book  of  Articles  of  inquiry  to 
 be  used  at  all  parochial  visitations. 
 
 Declares  that  the  synod  had  caused  a 
 summary  or  collection  of  visitatory  articles 
 (out  of  the  rubrics  of  the  service  book  and 
 the  canons  and  warrantable  rules  of  the 
 Church)  to  be  made  and  deposited  in  the 
 records  of  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
 and  that  no  bishop  or  other  ordinary  shall, 
 under  pain  of  suspension,  cause  to  be  print- 
 ed, or  otherwise  to  be  given  in  charge  to 
 the  churchwardens  or  others  which  shall 
 be  sworn  to  make  presentments,  any  other 
 articles  or  forms  of  inquiry  upon  oath, 
 than  such  as  shall  be  approved  by  his  me- 
 tropolitan. 
 
 X.  Concerning  the  conversation  of  the 
 clergy. 
 
 Charges  all  clergymen  carefully  to  ab- 
 stain from  all  excess  and  disorder,  and  that 
 by  their  Christian  and  religious  conversa- 
 tion they  shine  forth  as  lights  to  others  in 
 all  godliness  and  honesty. 
 
 Requires  all  to  whom  the  government 
 of  the  clergy  is  committed,  to  set  themselves 
 to  countenance  godliness,  and  diligently  to 
 labour  to  reform  their  clergy  where  they 
 require  it. 
 
 XI.  Chancellor's  patents. 
 
 Forbids  bishops  to  grant  any  patent  to 
 any  chancellor,  commissary,  or  official,  for 
 longer  than  the  life  of  the  grantee,  nor 
 otherwise  than  with  the  reservation  to 
 himself  and  his  successors  of  the  power 
 to  execute  the  said  place,  either  alone  or 
 with  the  chancellor,  if  the  bishop  shall  please 
 to  do  so  ;  forbids,  under  the  heaviest  cen- 
 sures, to  take  any  reward  for  such  places. 
 
 XII.  Chancellors  alone  not  to  censure 
 any  of  the  clergy  in  sundry  cases. 
 
 All  cases  involving  suspension  or  any 
 higher  censure  to  be  heard  by  the  bishop 
 or  by  his  chancellor,  together  with  two 
 grave,  dignified,  or  beneficed  ministers  of 
 the  diocese. 
 
CANONS   OF  lt)40. 
 
 141 
 
 XIII.  Excommunication  and  absolution 
 not  to  be  pronounced  but  by  a  priest. 
 
 No  excommunications  or  absolutions  to 
 be  valid,  unless  pronounced  by  the  bishop, 
 or  by  some  priest  appointed  by  the  bishop  ; 
 such  sentence  of  absolution  to  be  pro- 
 nounced either  in  open  consistory,  or,  at 
 least,  in  a  church  or  chapel,  the  penitent 
 humbly  craving  it  on  his  knees. 
 
 XIV.  Concerning  commutations  and  the 
 dis])Osing  of  them, 
 
 No  chancellor  or  other  to  commute 
 penance  without  the  bishop's  privity ;  or 
 if  by  himself,  he  shall  render  strict  account 
 of  the  moneys  received,  Avhich  shall  be  ap- 
 plied to  charitable  and  public  uses. 
 
 XV.  Touching  concurrent  jurisdic- 
 tion. 
 
 That  in  places  "wherein  there  is  concur- 
 rent jurisdiction,  no  executor  be  cited 
 into  any  court  or  office  for  the  space  of  ten 
 days  after  the  death  of  the  testator. 
 
 XVI.  Concerning  licences  to  marry. 
 No   licence   shall   be   granted    by   any 
 
 ordinary  to  any  parties,  except  one  of 
 the  parties  have  been  living  in  the  juris- 
 diction of  the  said  ordinary  for  one 
 month  immediately  before  the  licence  be 
 desired. 
 
 XVII.  Against  vexatious  citations. 
 
 No  citations  grounded  only  upon  pre- 
 tence of  a  breach  of  law,  and  not  upon 
 presentment  or  other  just  ground,  shall 
 issue  out  of  any  ecclesiastical  court,  except 
 under  certain  specified  circumstances,  and 
 except  in  cases  of  grievous  crime,  such  as 
 schism,  incontinence,  misbehaviour  in 
 church,  &c. 
 
 These  canons  were  ratified  by  the  king 
 under  the  great  seal,  June  86th,  1640. 
 An  attempt  was  made  at  the  time  to  set 
 aside  their  authority,  upon  the  plea  that 
 convocation  could  not  lawfully  continue  its 
 session  after  the  dissolution  of  parliament, 
 which  took  place  on  the  5th  of  May ;  but 
 the  opinion  of  all  the  judges  taken  at 
 the  time  was  unanimously  in  favour  of 
 the  legality  of  their  proceeding,  as  appears 
 by  the  following  document : — 
 
 "  The  convocation  being  called  by  the 
 king's  writ  under  the  great  seal,  doth  con- 
 tinue until  it  be  dissolved  by  writ  or  com- 
 mission under  the  great  seal,  notwithstand- 
 ing the  parliament  be  dissolved. 
 "  14th  May,  1640. 
 
 "  Jo.  Finch. 
 
 "  C.  S.  II.  jNIanchester. 
 
 "  John  Bramston. 
 
 "  Edward  Littleton. 
 
 "Ralplie  AVhiificld. 
 
 "  Jo.  Bankes. 
 
 "Ro.  Heath." 
 
 An  act  of  parliament,  passed  in  the 
 thirteenth  year  of  Charles  II.,  leaves  to 
 these  canons  their  full  canonical  authority, 
 whilst  it  provides  that  nothing  contained 
 in  that  statute  shall  give  them  the  force  of 
 an  act  of  parliament. 
 
 The  acts  of  this  convocation  were  unan- 
 imously confirmed  by  the  synod  of  York. 
 —  CanlwcU,  vol.  ii.  p.  593,  vol.  i.  p.  o80. 
 Wilkius,  Cone.  vol.  iv.  p.  538. 
 
 These  canons,  though  passed  in  convo- 
 cation, are  not  in  force  for  the  following 
 reason  :  In  1639  a  jiarliamentary  writ  was 
 directed  to  the  bishops  to  summon  these 
 clergy  to  parliament  ad  consenticndum,  S:c., 
 and  the  convocation  writ  to  the  archbi- 
 shops ad  tradand.  ct  consentiend.  Tlie 
 parliament  met  on  the  13lh  of  Ajn-il,  1640, 
 and  was  dissolved  on  the  15th  of  ^lay  fol- 
 lowing. Now  though  the  convocation,  sit- 
 ting by  virtue  of  the  first  writ  directed  to 
 the  bishops,  must  fall  by  the  dissolution  of 
 that  parliament,  yet  the  laAvyers  held  that 
 they  might  sit  till  dissolved  by  like  au- 
 thority. But  this  being  a  nice  point,  a 
 commission  was  granted  about  a  week 
 after  the  dissolution  of  the  parliament  for 
 the  convocation  to  sit,  which  commission 
 the  king  sent  to  them  by  Sir  Harry  Vane, 
 his  })rincipal  Secretary  of  State,  and  by 
 virtue  thereof  they  were  turned  into  a  pro- 
 vincial synod.  The  chief  of  the  clergy 
 then  assembled  desired  the  king  to  con- 
 sult all  the  judges  of  England  on  this  mat- 
 ter, which  was  done  :  and  upon  debating 
 it  in  the  presence  of  his  council,  they  as- 
 serted under  their  hands  the  power  of  con- 
 vocation in  making  canons.  Upon  this 
 the  convocation  sat  a  whole  month,  and 
 composed  a  Book  of  Canons,  which  was 
 approved  by  the  king  by  the  advice  of  his 
 privy-council,  and  confirmed  under  the 
 broad  seal.  The  objection  against  the 
 Canons  w^as  that  they  were  not  made  pur- 
 suant to  the  statute  25  Hen.  VIII.,  be- 
 cause they  were  made  in  a  convocation, 
 sitting  by  the  king's  writ  to  the  arch- 
 bishops, after  the  parliament  was  dis- 
 solved, though  there  is  nothing  in  the 
 statute  which  relates  to  their  sitting  in 
 time  of  parliament  only. 
 
 After  the  Restoration,  when  an  act  was 
 passed  to  restore  the  bishops  to  their  or- 
 dinary jurisdiction,  a  ])roviso  was  made 
 that  the  act  should  not  confirm  the  Canons 
 of  1640.  This  clause  makes  void  the 
 royal  confirmation.  Hence  we  may  con- 
 clude that  canons  should  be  made  in  a 
 convocation,  the  parliament  sitting;  that 
 being  so  made,  they  are  to  be  confirmed 
 by  the  sovereign ;  and  that  without  such 
 confirmation  they  do  not  bind  the  laity, 
 
142 
 
 CANON. 
 
 much  less  any  order  or  rule  made  by  a 
 bishop  alone,  ■where  there  is  neither  custom 
 nor  canon  for  it. — Burn. 
 
 Canon  is  used  in  the  serv^ice  of  the 
 Roman  Church  to  signify  that  part  of  the 
 communion  service,  or  the  mass,  -which  fol- 
 lows immediately  after  the  Sanctus  and 
 Hosanna ;  corresponding  to  that  part  of 
 our  service  which  begins  at  the  prayer, 
 "  IFe  do  not presnme"  &c.  It  is  so  called 
 as  being  the  fixed  rule  of  the  Liturgy, 
 which  is  never  altered.  Properly  speaking, 
 the  canon  ends  just  before  the  Lord's 
 Prayer,  which  is  recited  aloud  ;  the  canon 
 being  said  in  a  low  voice.  In  the  First 
 Book  of  King  Edward  VI.,  the  word  is 
 used  in  this  sense,  viz.  in  the  Visitation  of 
 the  Sick,  after  the  Gospel,  the  service  pro- 
 ceeds as  follows : 
 
 "  Tlie  Pn-face.     The  Lord  be  with  you. 
 
 Ansicer.     And  with  thy  spirit. 
 
 ^  Lift  up  your  hearts,  &c. 
 
 Unto  the  end  of  the  canon." 
 
 The  Anaphora  of  the  Greek  Church 
 somewhat  resembles  the  canon  of  the  Ko- 
 man.   (See  Anaphora.) — Jehh. 
 
 CANON.  (See  Deans  and  Chapters.) 
 The  name  of  canon,  as  applied  to  an  officer 
 in  the  Church,  is  derived  from  the  same 
 Greek  word  already  alluded  to,  which  also 
 signifies  the  roll  or  catalogue  of  the 
 Church,  in  which  the  names  of  the  eccle- 
 siastics were  registered ;  hence  the  clergy 
 so  registered  were  denominated  Canonici 
 or  Canons.  Before  the  Reformation,  they 
 were  divided  into  two  classes.  Regular  and 
 Secular.  The  Secidar  were  so  called,  be- 
 cause they  canonized  in  seculo,  abroad  in 
 the  world. 
 
 Regular  canons  were  such  as  lived  under 
 a  rule,  that  is,  a  code  of  laws  published  by 
 the  founder  of  that  order.  They  were  a 
 less  strict  sort  of  religious  than  the  monks, 
 but  lived  together  under  one  roof,  had  a 
 common  dormitory  and  refectory,  and 
 were  obliged  to  observe  the  statutes  of 
 their  order. 
 
 The  chief  rule  for  these  canons  is  that  of 
 St.  Augustine,  who  was  made  bishop  of 
 Hippo  in  the  year  395.  But  they  were  but 
 little  known  till  the  tenth  or  eleventh  cen- 
 tury, were  not  brought  into  England  till 
 after  the  Conquest,  and  seem  not  to  have 
 obtained  the  name  of  Augustine  canons  till 
 some  years  after.  The  general  opinion  is, 
 that  they  came  in  after  the  beginning  of  the 
 reign  of  King  Henry  L,about  the  year  1 105. 
 
 Their  habit  was  a  long  black  cassock, 
 with  a  white  rochet  over  it,  and  over  that 
 a  black  cloak  and  hood  ;  from  whence  they 
 w^ere  called  Black  Canons  Regular  of  St. 
 Augustine. 
 
 The  monks  were  always  shaved,  but 
 these  canons  wore  beards,  and  caps  on 
 their  heads. 
 
 There  were  about  175  houses  of  these 
 canons  and  canonesses  in  England  and 
 AVales. 
 
 But  besides  the  common  and  regular 
 sort  of  these  canons,  there  were  also  the 
 following  particular  sorts. 
 
 As  first,  such  as  observed  St.  Augustine's 
 rule,  according  to  the  regulations  of  St. 
 Nicholas  of  Arroasia ;  as  those  of  Hare- 
 wolde  in  Bedfordshire,  Nutley  or  Crendon 
 in  Buckinghamshire,  Hertland  in  Devon- 
 shire, Brunne  in  Lincolnshire,  and  Lille- 
 shul  in  Shropshire. 
 
 Others  there  were  of  the  rule  of  St. 
 Augustine,  and  order  of  St.  Victor ;  as  at 
 Keynsham  and  Worsping  in  Somerset- 
 shire, and  Wormsley  in  Herefordshire. 
 
 Others  of  the  order  of  St.  Augustine,  and 
 the  institution  of  St.  ISIary  of  Meretune, 
 or  Merton;  as  at  Buckenham  in  Norfolk. 
 
 The  PrtPmonstratenses  were  canons  who 
 lived  according  to  the  rule  of  St.  Augustine, 
 reformed  by  St.  Norbert,  who  set  up  this 
 regulation  about  the  year  1120,  at  Pra- 
 nionsfratum  in  Picardy,  a  place  so  called 
 because  it  was  said  to  have  been  foreshown, 
 or  P remonstrated,  by  the  Blessed  Virgin,  to 
 be  the  head  seat  and  mother  of  the  church 
 of  the  order.  These  canons  were,  from 
 their  habit,  called  ^\Tiite  Canons.  They 
 w^ere  brought  into  England  soon  after  the 
 year  1 140,  and  settled  first  at  Newhouse 
 in  Lincolnshire.  They  had  in  England  a 
 conservator  of  their  privileges,  but  were 
 nevertheless  often  visited  by  their  supe- 
 rior at  Premonstre,  and  continued  under 
 his  jurisdiction  till  the  year  1512,  when 
 they  were  exempted  from  it  by  the  bull  of 
 Pope  Julius  II.,  confirmed  by  King  Henry 
 VIII. ;  and  the  superiority  of  all  the 
 houses  of  this  order  in  England  and 
 Wales,  was  given  to  the  abbot  of  Welbeck 
 in  Nottinghamshire.  There  were  about 
 thirty-five  houses  of  this  order. 
 
 The  Sempringham  or  Gilbertine  canons 
 were  instituted  by  St.  Gilbert  at  Sem- 
 pringham in  Lincolnshire,  in  the  year  1148. 
 He  composed  his  rule  out  of  those  of  St. 
 Augustine  and  St.  Benedict,  (the  women 
 following  the  Cistercian  regulation  of  St. 
 Benedict's  rule,  and  the  men  the  rule  of 
 St.  Augustine,)  with  some  special  statutes 
 of  their  own.  The  men  and  women  lived 
 in  the  same  houses,  but  in  such  diff'erent 
 apartments  that  they  had  no  communica- 
 tion with  each  other ;  and  increased  so 
 fast,  that  St.  Gilbert  himself  founded  thir- 
 teen monasteries  of  this  order;  viz.  four 
 for  men   alone,   and  nine   for  men   and 
 
CANON  OF  SCRIPTURE. 
 
 143 
 
 women  together,  which  had  in  them  700 
 brethren  and  1500  sisters.  At  the  disso- 
 lution of  the  monasteries  there  were  about 
 twenty-five  liouses  of  this  order  in  Eng- 
 land and  Wales. 
 
 Canons  regular  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre 
 were  instituted  in  the  beginning  of  the 
 r2th  century,  in  imitation  of  the  regulars 
 instituted  in  the  cliurch  of  the  Holy  Sepul- 
 chre of  our  Saviour  at  Jerusalem.  The 
 first  house  they  had  in  England  Avas  at 
 AVarwick,  which  was  begun  for  them  by 
 Henry  de  Newburgh,  earl  of  Warwick, 
 who  died  in  the  year  1123,  and  perfected 
 by  liis  son  Roger.  They  are  sometimes 
 called  canons  of  the  Holy  Cross,  and  wore 
 the  same  habit  with  the  other  Austin  ca- 
 nons, distinguished  only  by  a  double  red 
 cross  upon  the  breast  of  their  cloak  or 
 upper  garment.  The  endeavours  of  these 
 religious  for  regaining  the  Holy  Land 
 coming  to  nothing  after  the  loss  of  Jeru- 
 salem, in  the  year  1188,  this  order  fell  into 
 decay,  their  revenues  and  privileges  were 
 mostly  given  to  the  Maturine  friars,  and 
 only  two  houses  of  them  continued  to  the 
 dissolution. — Burn. 
 
 CANON  OF  SCRIPTURE.  (See  Scrip- 
 ture, and  Bible.)  The  books  of  Holy  Scrip- 
 sure  as  received  by  the  Church,  who,  being 
 the  "  witness  and  keeper  of  Holy  Writ," 
 had  authority  to  decide  what  is  and  what 
 is  not  inspired. 
 
 That  the  Holy  Scriptures  are  a  complete 
 rule  of  faith  is  proved,  first,  by  the  author- 
 ity of  the  Holy  Scriptures.  And  this  is  so 
 plainly  laid  down  therein,  that  nothing 
 but  a  strange  prejudice  and  resolution  to 
 support  a  cause  could  contradict  it.  Those 
 words  of  St.  Paul  are  very  full  to  this  pur- 
 pose. "  All  Scripture  is  given  by  inspira- 
 tion of  God,  and  is  profitable  for  doctrine, 
 for  reproof,  for  correction,  for  instruction 
 in  righteousness,  tliat  the  man  of  God  may 
 be  perfect,  thoroughly  furnished  unto  all 
 good  works."  (2  Tim.  iii.  16,  17.)  Moses 
 expressly  forbids  that  any  one  should 
 "  add  unto  the  word  that  I  command  you, 
 neither  shall  ye  diminish  ought  from  it." 
 (Deut.  iv.  2.)  "  Whatsoever  I  command 
 unto  you  to  observe  and  do  it,  thou  shalt 
 not  add  thereto,  nor  diminish  from  it." 
 (Deut.  xii.  32.)  The  same  prohibition  is 
 given  out  in  the  New  Testament.  For  St, 
 John,  closing  his  Book  of  Revelation,  and 
 with  that  our  Christian  canon,  so  that  it 
 may  not  improbably  seem  to  bear  relation 
 to  the  whole  New  Testament,  forbids  any 
 addition  or  diminution,  with  a  curse  an- 
 nexed to  it :  "  If  any  man  shall  add  unto 
 these  things,  GoD  shall  add  unto  him  the 
 plagues  that  are  written  in  this  book ;  and 
 
 if  any  man  shall  take  away  from  the  words 
 of  the  book  of  this  prophecy,  God  shall 
 take  away  his  part  out  of  the  book  of  life, 
 and  out  of  the  holy  city,  and  from  the 
 things  which  are  written  in  this  book." 
 (Rev.  xxii.  18,  19.)  But  the  substance  of 
 this  had  been  before  declared  by  St.  Paul : 
 "  Though  we,  or  an  angel  from  heaven, 
 preach  any  other  gospel  unto  you  than 
 that  which  we  have  preached  unto  you,  let 
 him  be  accursed."  (Gal.  i.  8.)  And  as  for 
 the  endeavour  of  some  to  piece  out  God's 
 written  word  by  tradition,  our  Saviour 
 warns  us  against  this,  when  he  blames  the 
 Pharisees  for  it;  namely,  in  "  teaching  for 
 doctrines  the  commandments  of  men," 
 (Matt.  XV.  9,)  and  "  making  the  command- 
 ment of  God  of  none  effect  by  their  tradi- 
 tions."  (Ver.  3,  6.) 
 
 Secondly,  by  reason,  drawn  from  the 
 nature  of  the  thing,  and  the  whole  order 
 of  the  gracious  dispensation  of  the  gospel, 
 with  which  GoD  hath  been  pleased  to  bless 
 mankind,  this  is  no  more  than  we  might 
 expect.  For  our  Saviour  having  first 
 made  known  the  gospel  to  the  world  by 
 his  own  preaching  and  suflering,  and  pro- 
 pagated it  throughout  the  several  parts 
 thereof  by  the  preaching  of  his  apostles,  in 
 order  to  be  conveyed  down  to  successive 
 generations,  this  could  not  well  be  ett'ected 
 without  a  written  word.  For  to  have  de- 
 livered down  the  gospel  truths  by  word 
 of  mouth,  or  oral  tradition,  would  have 
 made  it  subject  to  as  many  errors  as  the 
 prejudices,  fancies,  and  mistakes  of  the 
 several  relators  could  have  given  it.  Now 
 since  GoD  has  been  pleased  to  make  use  of 
 this  method  to  convey  these  truths  which 
 he  has  revealed  unto  us,  it  is  but  reason- 
 able to  think  that  all  the  truths  which  he 
 has  judged  necessary  for  our  salvation,  and 
 which  he  has  required  of  us  to  believe,  are 
 contained  in  this  written  word.  For  why 
 God  should  leave  some  of  the  gospel  truths 
 to  be  conveyed  in  a  purer,  and  others  in  a 
 more  corrupt,  channel,  some  by  Scripture 
 and  others  by  tradition,  is  unaccountable : 
 Avhy,  since  he  designed  the  Scripture  to  be 
 in  some  measure  the  rule  of  faith,  he  should 
 not  at  the  same  time  render  it  a  complete 
 one ;  why  this  Divine  law  of  God  must  be 
 eked  out  by  human  traditions,  which  have 
 been  uncertain  in  the  best  times,  and  per- 
 nicious in  some,  and  which  strangely  vary 
 according  to  dificrent  countries  and  ages  ;— 
 these  notions  highly  reflect  upon  the  I)i- 
 vine  wisdom  and  goodness,  and  are  taken 
 up  only  to  defend  the  corrupt  practices  of 
 the  Romish  Cliurch,  which  that  Church  is 
 resolved  to  maintain  at  any  rate,  rather 
 than  to  part  Avith  them. 
 
144 
 
 CANON  LAW. 
 
 CANONISATION. 
 
 The  like  reasons  are  alleged  by  the  an- 
 cient divines  of  the  Church. — Dr.  Nicholls. 
 
 The  ancient  fathers  always  speak  of  the 
 Scriptures  as  containing  a  complete  rule  of 
 faith  and  practice ;  and  appeal  to  them, 
 and  to  them  only,  in  support  of  the  doc- 
 ti-ines  which  they  advance, — Bp.  Tomluie. 
 
 CAXOX  LAA\'.  The  canon  law  which 
 rcgvdates  the  discipline  of  the  Ilomish 
 Church  consists,  1.  Of  the  Decree  of 
 Gratian,  {Decrctum  Grafiani,)  a  comi)ila- 
 tion  made  by  a  Benedictine  monk,  whose 
 name  it  bears,  at  Bologna  in  Italy,  in 
 1150,  and  made  up  of  the  decrees  of  dif- 
 ferent popes  and  councils,  and  of  several 
 passages  of  the  holy  fathers  and  other  re- 
 putable writers. 
 
 2.  Of  the  Decretals,  collected  by  order 
 of  Pope  Gregory  IX,,  in  the  year  1230,  in 
 five  books, 
 
 3.  Of  the  compilation  made  by  order 
 of  Boniface  YIII,,  in  1297,  known  by  the 
 name  of  the  Sixth  Book  of  Decretals,  be- 
 cause added  to  the  other  five,  although  it 
 is  itself  divided  into  five  books. 
 
 4.  Of  the  Clementines,  as  they  are  called, 
 or  Decretals  of  Pope  Clement  V,,  published 
 in  the  year  1317  by  John  XXII. 
 
 5.  Of  other  decretals,  known  under  the 
 name  of  Extravafjantes,  so  called  because 
 not  contained  in  the  former  decretals. 
 These  Extra vagantes  are  twofold  ;  —  the 
 first,  called  common,  containing  constitu- 
 tions of  various  popes  down  to  the  year 
 14 S3  ;  and,  secondly,  the  particular  ones  of 
 John  XXII, 
 
 These,  containing  besides  the  decrees  of 
 popes  and  the  canons  of  several  councils, 
 constitute  the  body  of  the  canon  law. 
 The  constitutions  of  subsequent  popes  and 
 councils  have  also  the  force  of  canons, 
 although  not  hitherto  reduced  into  one 
 body,  nor  digested,  as  the  others,  under 
 proper  heads,  by  any  competent  authority. 
 These,  together  with  some  general  cus- 
 toms, or  peculiar  ones  of  different  places, 
 having  the  force  of  laws,  and  certain  con- 
 ventions entered  into  betAveen  the  popes 
 and  different  Iloman  Catholic  states,  deter- 
 mine the  discipline  of  the  Church  of  Kome, 
 
 CANONICAL,  That  which  is  done  in 
 accordance  with  the  canons  of  the  Church. 
 
 CANONICAL  HOUKS,  The  first, 
 third,  the  sixth,  and  the  ninth  hours  of  the 
 day,  that  is,  six,  nine,  twelve,  and  three 
 o'clock,  are  so  denominated.  Bishop  Pa- 
 trick remarks  that  "  the  Universal  Church 
 anciently  observed  certain  set  hours  of 
 prayer,  that  all  Christians  throughout  the 
 world  might  at  the  same  time  join  together 
 to  glorify  GoD  ;  and  some  of  them  were  of 
 opinion  that  the  angelic  host,  being  ac- 
 
 quainted with  those  hours,  took  that  time 
 to  join  their  prayers  and  praises  with  those 
 of  the  Church,"  The  directions  in  the 
 Apostolical  Constitutions  are  as  follows : 
 "  Offer  up  your  prayers  in  the  morning,  at 
 the  third  hour,  at  the  sixth,  and  at  the 
 ninth,  and  in  the  evening ;  in  the  morning 
 returning  thanks  that  the  Lord  hath  sent 
 you  light,  and  brought  you  through  the 
 perils  of  the  night ;  at  the  third  hour,  be- 
 cause at  that  hour  the  Lord  received  sen- 
 tence of  condemnation  from  Pilate  ;  at  the 
 sixth,  because  at  that  hour  he  was  cruci- 
 fied ;  at  the  ninth,  because  at  that  hour  all 
 things  were  in  commotion  at  the  crucifixion 
 of  our  Lord,  as  trembling  at  the  bold  at- 
 tempt of  the  wicked  Jcms,  and  at  the  in- 
 jury offered  to  their  Master ;  in  the  evening, 
 giving  thanks  that  he  has  given  thee  the 
 night  to  rest  from  thy  daily  labours," 
 
 In  the  Church  of  Rome,  the  canonical 
 hours  begin  with  vespers,  i,  e.  evening 
 prayer,  about  six  o'clock,  or  sunset ;  next 
 follows  compline,  to  beg  God's  protection 
 during  sleep ;  at  midnight,  the  three  noc- 
 turns  or  matins,  the  longest  part  of  the 
 office.  Lands  or  morning  praises  of  GoD 
 are  appointed  for  cock-crowing,  or  before 
 break  of  day ;  at  six  o'clock,  or  sunrise, 
 2)rime  should  be  recited ;  and  terce,  sexi, 
 and  none,  every  third  hour  afterwards. 
 
 CANONICAL  OBEDIENCE,  (See 
 Orders.)  The  obedience  which  is  due, 
 according  to  the  canons,  to  an  ecclesiastical 
 superior.  Every  clergyman  takes  an  oath 
 of  canonical  obedience  to  his  bishop  when 
 he  is  instituted  to  a  benefice,  or  licensed 
 to  a  cure, 
 
 CANONISATION.  (See  Beatijica- 
 tion,  and  Saints.)  A  ceremony  in  the 
 Ilomish  Church,  by  which  persons  deceased 
 are  ranked  in  the  catalogue  of  saints. 
 It  succeeds  beatification.  When  a  person 
 is  to  be  canonised,  the  pope  holds  four 
 consistories.  In  the  first,  he  causes  the 
 petition  of  those  who  request  the  canonisa- 
 tion to  be  examined  by  three  auditors  of 
 the  rota,  and  directs  the  cardinals  to  revise 
 all  the  necessary  instruments.  In  the 
 second,  the  cardinals  report  the  matter  to 
 the  pope.  In  the  third,  which  is  held  in 
 public,  the  cardinals  pay  their  adoration 
 to  the  pope,  and  an  advocate  makes  a 
 pompous  oration  in  praise  of  the  person 
 who  is  to  be  created  a  saint.  This  advo- 
 cate expatiates  at  large  on  the  supposed 
 miracles  Avhich  the  person  has  WTought, 
 and  even  pretends  to  knoAV  from  what 
 motives  he  acted.  In  the  fourth  consis- 
 tory, the  pope,  having  summoned  together 
 all  the  cardinals  and  prelates,  orders  the 
 report  concerning  the  deceased  to  be  read, 
 
CANONRY. 
 
 145 
 
 and  then  takes  their  votes,  whether  he 
 is  to  be  canonised  or  not.  On  the  day 
 of  canonisation,  the  church  of  St.  Peter  is 
 hunnf  with  rich  tapestry,  on  which  are  em- 
 broidered the  arms  of  tlie  pope,  and  those 
 of  the  prince  who  desires  the  canonisation. 
 The  church  is  most  brilliantly  ilhnninatcd, 
 and  filled  with  thousands  of  llomanists, 
 who  superstitiously  think  that  the  more 
 respect  they  show  to  the  saint,  the  more 
 ready  will  he  be  to  hear  their  prayers,  and 
 offer  them  to  God.  During?  this  ceremony 
 the  pope  and  all  the  cardinals  are  dressed 
 in  white.  It  costs  the  prince  Avho  requests 
 the  canonisation  a  great  sum  of  money,  as 
 all  the  officers  belonging  to  the  Church  of 
 Rome  must  have  their  fees  ;  but  this  is  con- 
 sidered a  trifle,  when  it  is  expected  that 
 the  saint  will  intercede  in  heaven  for  his 
 subjects,  who,  indeed,  poor  as  they  are, 
 generally  pay  all  the  expenses  attending 
 the  ceremony. 
 
 Canonisation  of  saints  was  not  known  to 
 the  Chi-istian  Church  till  towards  the  middle 
 of  the  tenth  century.  So  far  as  we  are 
 able  to  form  an  opinion,  the  Christians  in 
 that  age  borroAved  this  custom  from  the 
 heathens;  for  it  was  usual  with  both  the 
 Greeks  and  Romans  to  deify  all  those 
 heroes  and  great  men  who  had  rendered 
 themselves  remarkable.  It  is  not  allowed 
 to  enter  into  inquiries  prior  to  canonisation, 
 till  at  least  fifty  years  after  the  death  of 
 the  person  to  be  canonised.  This  regula- 
 tion, however,  though  now  observed,  has 
 not  been  folloAved  above  a  century.  Thomas 
 Becket  was  canonised  within  three  years 
 of  his  death.  It  has  been  properly  object- 
 ed against  canonisation,  that  it  is  perform- 
 ed by  human  beings,  who  assume  a  power 
 of  rendering  some  one  an  object  of  divine 
 worship,  who  in  this  life  was  no  more  than 
 mortal ;  that  it  is  a  direct  violation  of  the 
 Saviour's  command,  "  Judge  not ; "  and 
 that  it  lies  at  the  foundation  of  that  idol- 
 atry of  which  the  Church  of  Rome  is  justly 
 charged. — Brough  ton . 
 
 CANONRY.  A  canonry  is  a  name  of 
 office,  and  a  cimon  is  the  officer;  in  like 
 manner  as  a  prehoidari/ :  and  a  prebend 
 is  the  maintenance  or  stipend  both  of  the 
 one  and  the  other. — Gibson.  It  is  not 
 easy  to  assign  a  reason  why  this  name 
 should  have  been  given  to  members  of 
 cathedral  churches.  Some  have  thought 
 it  was  because  a  great  number  of  them 
 were  regular  priests,  and  obliged  to  observe 
 the  canons  or  rules  of  their  respective 
 orders,  or  founders,  or  visitors.  According 
 to  Nicholls,  the  name  is  of  a  higher  origin, 
 and  not  so  directly  from  the  Greek  word 
 Kcivujv,  rerpda,  a  statute  or  ordinance,  as 
 
 L 
 
 from  the  Latin  word  canon,  an  allowance 
 or  stated  quantity  of  provision.  Thus 
 it  is  used  by  Cicero.  So  the  collection 
 of  the  respective  quotas  of  the  provinces 
 sent  in  corn  to  Rome  for  the  subsist- 
 ence of  the  poorer  citizens  was  called 
 the  canon.  Afterwards,  when  Christianity 
 prevailed,  the  word  was  adapted  to  an 
 ecclesiastical  use,  and  those  clergymen 
 that  had  the  canon,  or  sport ida,  taken  from 
 the  common  liank  of  the  church  ofl'erings 
 delivered  out  to  them  for  their  mainten- 
 ance, cnme  to  be  called  cafionici.  As  the 
 church  revenues  were  divided  into  four 
 parts — one  for  the  maintenance  of  the 
 bishop,  a  second  for  the  fabric  of  the 
 church,  and  a  third  for  the  poor,  so  a  fourth 
 part  was  divided  among  tlie  subordinate 
 clergy,  who  lived  in  a  collegiate  manner 
 about  the  bishop. 
 
 It  seems  most  likely,  however,  that  the 
 word  canon  meant  to  designate  one  who 
 resided  at  the  cathedral  church  constantly, 
 and  followed  the  ride  of  Divine  service 
 there.  So  the  application  of  the  word  at 
 home  and  abroad  would  seem  to  indicate. 
 Thus,  till  a  very  late  enactment,  3  &  4 
 Vic.  c.  113,  the  word  canon  was  restricted 
 in  cathedrals  of  the  old  foundation  to  the 
 residentiaries.  Prebendary  was  statutably 
 applied  to  all,  because  all  had  a  pnrbenda, 
 either  fixed  stipend,  or  an  estate  in  fee  : 
 while  in  the  cathedrals  of  ncAv  found- 
 ation all  were  called  indifferently  canons 
 or  prebendaries,  because  all  were  equally 
 bound  to  residence.  The  act  referred  to 
 has  now  directed  that  all  shall  be  styled 
 canons  (except  perhaps  the  prebendaries 
 retained,  but  without  their  ancient  sti- 
 pends or  estates)  in  the  cathedrals  of  old 
 foundation.  Nevertheless,  all  canons  are 
 still  really  prebendaries,  as  long  as  they 
 have  any  property.  In  Ireland,  the  only 
 prebendaries  denominated  canons,  are 
 those  of  Kildare.  These  form  the  lesser 
 chapter. 
 
 Canons  in  most  cathedrals  were  divided 
 into  two  classes,  major,  or  minor.  (See 
 3Iinor  Canons.) 
 
 The  fellowships  of  the  collegiate  church 
 in  Manchester,  since  its  elevation  into  a 
 cathedral,  have  been  recently  erected  into 
 canonries,  and  the  warden  of  former  times 
 is  now  called  dean. 
 
 Canonry,  or  chanonrie,  in  Scotland,  was 
 the  same  as  the  cathedral  precinct  in  Eng- 
 land. Thus  at  Aberdeen  the  canonry-  in- 
 cluded the  cathedral,  bishop's  palace,  pre- 
 bendal  houses,  gardens,  and  an  hospital, 
 all  surrounded  by  a  stone  wall.  {Kenned j/.s 
 Annals  of  Aberdeen.)  The  cathedral  town 
 of  Rosemarkie,  or  Fortrose,  in  the  diocese 
 
146 
 
 CANTICLES. 
 
 CAPITAL. 
 
 of  Ross,  was  sometimes  called  the  caiionry 
 town,  or  channery  town. 
 
 CANTICLES.  This  literally  signifies 
 songs,  but  it  is  peculiarly  applied  to  a 
 canonical  book  of  the  Old  Testament, 
 called  in  Hebrew  the  Song  of  Songs,  that 
 is,  the  most  excellent  of  all  songs.  The 
 word  canticle  in  our  Prayer  Book  is  applied 
 to  the  Benedicite,  and  was  so  first  used  in 
 King  Edward's  Second  Book. 
 
 CAPITAL.  The  highest  member  of  a 
 pillar. 
 
 The  capital  consists  of  the  abacus,  the 
 bell,  the  nccJc,  or  astragal,  and  each  of  these 
 varies  in  the  several  styles,  as  well  in  form 
 as  in  relative  importance.  A  few  of  the 
 more  prominent  variations  may  be  enume- 
 rated. 
 
 In  the  Saxon  period,  the  abacus  is  usually 
 a  low,  flat,  unmoulded  slab  ;  the  rest  of  the 
 capital,  if  it  has  any  character,  approaches 
 that  of  the  succeeding  style. 
 
 In  the  Norman  capital  the  abacus  is 
 square,  of  considerable  thickness,  generally 
 slightly  bevelled  at  the  lower  side,  and 
 sometimes  moulded.  The  bell,  resting  on 
 a  cylindrical  shaft,  and  fitted  with  a  square 
 abacus,  is  circular  at  the  bottom,  and  be- 
 comes square  at  the  top,  and  the  way  of  re- 
 solving the  round  into  the  square  gives  it 
 its  peculiar  character.  In  examples,  how- 
 ever, of  any  richness,  the  abundance  of 
 decoration  often  obscures  its  constructive 
 character. 
 
 In  the  period  of  transition  to  Early  Eng- 
 lish, the  abacus  sometimes  becomes  octa- 
 gonal, seldom,  however,  a  regular  octagon, 
 but  a  square  with  the  corners  slightly  cut 
 off.  It  is  also  sometimes  circular.  The 
 upper  surface  continues  flat,  but  the  under 
 part  is  more  frequently  moulded.  The  bell 
 often  approaches  the  Classic  capital  in 
 design,  and  sometimes  even  in  treatment, 
 as  at  Canterbury  ;  but  this  is  a  rare  amount 
 of  excellence.  More  frequently  a  lotus-like 
 flower  rises  from  the  neck,  and  curls  be- 
 neath the  abacus.  The  neck  is  still  a  mere 
 round  bead. 
 
 In  the  next,  or  Lancet  period,  the  abacus 
 more  frequently  becomes  circular,  the  top 
 is  seldom  flat,  the  mouldings  usually  con- 
 sist of  two  rounds,  with  a  deep  undercut, 
 hollow  between,  the  upper  one  a  little  over- 
 hanging the  under,  and  in  the  hollow  a 
 trail  of  nail-head  or  dog-tooth  is  often 
 found.  The  bell,  also,  is  deeply  undercut, 
 and  in  some  instances,  where  efi'ect  is 
 sought  in  moulding  rather  than  in  carving, 
 it  is  repeated;  but,  in  moderately  rich 
 examples,  the  bell  is  usually  covered  with 
 fohage  of  which  the  stems  spring  from  the 
 neck,    generally  crossing   one  another  as 
 
 they  rise,  and  breaking  into  leaves  near 
 the  top,  where  they  throw  off  a  profusion 
 of  crisped  foliage,  which  curls  under  the 
 abacus ;  a  stray  leaf,  in  very  rich  and 
 rather  late  examples,  sometimes  shooting 
 up,  over  the  hollow,  to  the  upper  member  of 
 the  abacus.  The  whole  treatment  of  this 
 foliage  in  capitals  and  corbels,  where  it 
 follows  the  same  law,  has  sometimes  a 
 boldness  and  a  grace,  though  it  never  deserts 
 its  conventional  type,  of  which  no  descrip- 
 tion, and  no  engraving  even,  except  on  a 
 large  scale,  can  convey  an  idea.  The  neck 
 of  the  Early  English  capital  is  generally 
 either  a  rounded  bowtel  of  rather  more 
 than  half  a  cylinder,  or  a  semi-hexagon, 
 the  latter  with  the  sides  sometimes  slightly 
 hollowed. 
 
 In  the  Geometrical  period,  the  abacus 
 continues  round.  It  is  no  longer,  except 
 in  rare  instances,  flat  at  the  top  :  the  scroll 
 moulding  begins  to  appear,  and  sometimes 
 a  hollow  intervenes  between  it  and  the 
 first  member  of  the  bell.  The  bell,  when 
 moulded,  rather  follows  the  routine  of  the 
 last  style ;  but,  when  foliated,  the  leaves 
 or  flowers,  without  losing  anything  of  the 
 force  and  boldness  of  the  latter,  have  a 
 naturalness  never  approached  in  any  other 
 style:  we  begin  to  recognise  the  oak,  the 
 hawthorn,  or  the  maple,  as  familiar  friends, 
 and  no  longer  need  to  employ  conventional 
 terms  to  designate  their  foliage,  or  the 
 method  of  its  treatment. 
 
 In  the  Decorated  period,  the  scroll- 
 moulding  is  almost  constantly  employed 
 for  the  abacus  and  for  the  neck ;  the  ball- 
 flower  sometimes  occurs  in  the  hollow  of 
 the  abacus,  but  not  so  frequently  as  the 
 dog-tooth  in  the  Lancet  period.  The  mould- 
 ings of  the  bell  are  generally  the  roll  and 
 fillet,  or  the  scroll,  in  some  of  their  forms  ; 
 and  the  foliage  entirely  loses  the  nature  of 
 the  Geometrical,  without  recovering  the 
 force  of  the  Early  English.  It  surrounds 
 the  bell  as  a  chaplet,  instead  of  creeping 
 up  it,  and,  instead  of  indicating  the  shape 
 which  it  clothes,  converts  the  whole  be- 
 tween the  neck  and  the  abacus  into  a 
 floAvered  top. 
 
 In  the  next  and  last  period,  the  abacus 
 is  sometimes  so  nearly  lost  in  the  bell,  or 
 the  bell  in  the  abacus,  that  it  is  hard  to 
 separate  them.  The  form  of  both  becomes 
 generally  octagonal,  and  a  great  poverty 
 of  design  is  apparent :  this  is  the  case  in 
 ordinary  instances  of  pillars  with  entire 
 capitals.  In  later  examples,  and  where 
 there  are  greater  pretensions,  the  capital 
 does  not  extend  to  the  whole  jjillar,  but 
 the  outer  order  of  the  arches  is  continued 
 to  the  base,  without  the  intervention  of  a 
 
CAPITULAR. 
 
 CAPUCHINS. 
 
 147 
 
 capital,  only  the  inner  order  bein_^  sup- 
 ported and  stopped  by  an  attached  shaft, 
 or  bowtel,  with  its  capital,  and  so  tlie 
 capital  loses  all  its  analop;y  with  the  classic 
 architrave,  and  no  longer  carries  the  eye 
 along  in  a  horizontal  line. 
 
 CAPITULAR.  A  term  often  used  in 
 foreign  countries  to  designate  a  major  ca- 
 non or  prebendary  ;  a  capitular  member  of 
 a  cathedral  or  collegiate  church. 
 
 CAPITULARIES.  Ordinances  of  the 
 kings  of  France,  in  "which  are  many  heads 
 or  articles  which  regard  the  government  of 
 the  Church,  and  were  done  by  the  advice 
 of  an  assembly  of  bishops.  The  original  of 
 the  word  comes  from  capitiUa,  Avhich  were 
 articles  that  the  prelates  made  and  pub- 
 lished to  serve  as  instructions  to  the  clergy 
 of  their  dioceses,  so  that  at  last  this  name 
 of  capitularies  was  given  to  all  the  arti- 
 cles which  related  to  ecclesiastical  affairs. 
 Those  of  Charlemagne  and  Louis  the  Meek 
 were  collected  in  four  books  by  the  abbot 
 Angesius  ;  those  of  King  Lothaire,  Charles 
 and  Louis,  sons  of  Louis  the  Meek,  were 
 collected  by  Bennet  the  Levite,  or  deacon, 
 into  three  books,  to  which  there  have  been 
 since  four  or  five  additions ;  and  Father 
 Simon  published  those  of  Charles  the 
 Bald. 
 
 CAPUCHINS.  Monks  of  the  order  of 
 St.  Francis.  They  owe  their  original  to 
 Matthew  de  Bassi,  a  Franciscan  of  the 
 duchy  of  Urbino,  who,  having  seen  St. 
 Francis  represented  with  a  sharp-pointed 
 capuche,  or  cowl,  began  to  wear  the  like 
 in  1525,  with  the  permission  of  Pope  Cle- 
 ment VII.  Ilis  example  was  soon  follow- 
 ed by  two  other  monks,  named  Louis  and 
 Raphael  de  I'ossembrun ;  and  the  pope, 
 by  a  brief,  granted  these  three  monks 
 leave  to  retire  to  some  hermitage,  and  re- 
 tain their  new  habit.  The  retirement  they 
 chose  was  the  hermitage  of  the  Camaldo- 
 lites  near  Massacio,  where  they  v/ere  very 
 charitably  received. 
 
 This  innovation  in  the  habit  of  the  order 
 gave  great  offence  to  the  Franciscans,  whose 
 provincial  persecuted  these  poor  monks, 
 and  obliged  them  to  fly  from  place  to 
 place.  At  last  they  took  refuge  in  the 
 palace  of  the  Duke  de  Camerino,  by  whose 
 credit  they  Avere  received  under  the  obedi- 
 ence of  the  conventuals,  in  the  quality  of 
 Hermits  Minors,  in  the  year  1527.  The 
 next  year,  the  pope  approved  this  union, 
 and  confirmed  to  them  the  privilege  of 
 wearing  the  square  capuche,  and  admitting 
 among  them  all  who  would  take  the  habit. 
 Thus  the  order  of  the  Capuchins,  so  called 
 from  wearing  the  capuche^  began  in  the 
 year  1528. 
 
 L  2 
 
 Their  first  establishment  was  at  Colmcn- 
 zono,  about  a  league  from  Camerino,  in  a 
 convent  of  the  order  of  St.  Jerome,  which 
 had  been  abandoned ;  but,  their  numbers 
 increasing,  Louis  do  Fossembrun  built 
 another  small  convent  at  Montmelon,  in 
 the  territory  of  Camerino.  The  great  num- 
 ber of  conversions  which  the  Capuchins 
 made  by  their  preaching,  and  the  assist- 
 ance they  gave  the  people  in  a  contagious 
 distemper  with  which  Italy  was  afflicted 
 the  same  year,  1528,  gained  them  an  uni- 
 versal esteem. 
 
 In  1529,  Louis  de  Fossembrun  built  for 
 them  two  other  convents,  the  one  of  Alva- 
 cina  in  the  territory  of  Fabriano,  the  other 
 at  Fossembrun  in  the  duchy  of  Urbino. 
 Matthew  de  Bassi,  being  chosen  their  vicar- 
 general,  drew  up  constitutions  for  the  go- 
 vernment of  this  order.  They  enjoined, 
 among  other  things,  that  the  Capuchins 
 should  perform  Divine  service  without 
 singing ;  that  they  should  say  but  one 
 mass  a  day  in  their  convents ;  they  di- 
 rected the  hours  of  mental  prayer,  morn- 
 ing and  evening,  the  days  of  disciplining 
 themselves,  and  those  of  silence  ;  they  for- 
 bade the  monks  to  hear  the  confessions  of 
 seculars,  and  enjoined  them  always  to  tra- 
 vel on  foot ;  they  recommended  poverty  in 
 the  ornaments  of  their  church,  and  pro- 
 hibited in  them  the  use  of  gold,  silver,  and 
 silk  ;  the  pavilions  of  the  altars  were  to  be 
 of  stufi",  and  the  chalices  of  tin. 
 
 This  order  soon  spread  itself  all  over 
 Italy  and  into  Sicily.  In  1573,  Charles 
 IX.  demanded  of  Po^dc  Gregory  XIII.  to 
 have  the  order  of  Capuchins  established  in 
 France,  which  that  pope  consented  to ;  and 
 their  first  settlement  in  that  kingdom  was 
 in  the  little  town  of  Picpus  near  Paris, 
 which  they  soon  quitted  to  settle  at  Mcu- 
 don,  from  whence  they  were  introduced 
 into  the  capital  of  the  kingdom.  In  1606, 
 Pope  Paul  V.  gave  them  leave  to  accept 
 of  an  establishment  v.hich  was  offered  them 
 in  Spain.  They  even  passed  the  seas  to 
 labour  on  tlie  conversion  of  the  infidels ; 
 and  their  order  is  become  so  considerable, 
 that  it  is  at  present  divided  into  more  than 
 sixty  provinces,  consisting  of  near  1600 
 convents,  and  25,000  monks,  besides  the 
 missions  of  Brazil,  Congo,  Barbary,  Greece, 
 Syria,  and  Fgypt. 
 
 Among  those  who  have  jjreferred  the 
 poverty  and  humility  of  tlie  Capuchins  to 
 the  advantages  of  ])irth  and  fortune,  was 
 the  famous  Alphonso  d'Este,  duke  of  Mo- 
 dena  and  Reggio,  who,  after  the  death  of 
 his  wife  Isabella,  took  the  habit  of  this 
 order  at  Munich,  in  the  year  1626,  under 
 the   name   of    Brother  John-Baptist,  and 
 
148 
 
 CAPUCHINS. 
 
 CARDINAL. 
 
 died  in  the  convent  of  Castlenuovo,  in 
 1644.  In  France,  likewise,  the  great  duke 
 de  Joyeuse,  after  having  distinguished 
 himself  as  a  general,  became  a  Capuchin 
 in  September,  1587. 
 
 Father  Paul  [of  Hcclcsj'astical  Benejices, 
 cap.  53)  observes,  that  "  The  Capuchins 
 preserve  their  reputation  by  reason  of  their 
 
 {)0verty,  and  that  if  they  should  suffer  the 
 east  change  in  their  institution,  they  -would 
 acquire  no  immoveable  estates  by  it,  but 
 would  lose  the  alms  they  now  receive." 
 He  adds  :  "  It  seems,  therefore,  as  if  here 
 an  absolute  period  were  put  to  all  future 
 acquisitions  and  improvements  in  this  gain- 
 ful trade ;  for  whoever  should  go  about  to 
 institute  a  new  order,  with  a  power  of  ac- 
 quiring estates,  such  an  order  would  cer- 
 tainly tind  no  credit  in  the  world ;  and  if 
 a  profession  of  poverty  w^ere  a  part  of  the 
 institution,  there  could  be  no  acquisitions 
 made  whilst  that  lasted,  nor  would  there 
 be  anv  credit  left  when  that  was  broke." 
 —Hist,  des  Orel.  Relig.  T.  vii.  c.  27. 
 
 There  is  likewise  an  order  of  CapKchin 
 Nuns,  who  follow  the  rule  of  St.  Clare. 
 Their  first  establishment  was  at  Naples  in 
 1538,  and  their  foundress  the  venerable 
 mother  jNIaria  Laurentia  Longa,  of  a  noble 
 family  of  Catalonia — a  lady  of  the  most 
 uncommon  piety  and  devotion.  Some 
 Capuchins  coming  to  settle  at  Naples,  she 
 obtained  for  them,  by  her  credit  wdth  the 
 archbishop,  the  church  of  St.  Euphebia, 
 without  the  city ;  soon  after  which  she 
 built  a  monastery  of  virgins,  under  the 
 name  of  Our  Lach/  oj^crusalem,  into  Avhich 
 she  retired  in  1 534,  together  with  nineteen 
 young  women,  who  engaged  themselves  by 
 solemn  vows  to  follow  the  third  rule  of  St. 
 Francis.  The  pope  gave  the  government 
 of  this  monastery  to  the  Capuchins ;  and, 
 soon  after,  the  nuns  quitted  the  third  rule 
 of  St.  Francis,  to  embrace  the  more  rigor- 
 ous nile  of  St.  Clara,  from  the  austerity  of 
 which  they  had  the  name  of  Kiins  of  the 
 Passion,  and  that  of  Capuchines  from  the 
 habit  they  took,  which  was  that  of  the 
 Cajnichins. 
 
 After  the  death  of  their  foundress,  an- 
 other monastery  of  Capuchines  was  estab- 
 lished at  Rome,  near  the  Quirinal  palace, 
 and  was  called  the  monaster]/  of  the  Holy 
 Sacrameiit ;  and  a  third,  in  the  same  city, 
 built  by  Cardinal  Baronius.  These  found- 
 ations were  approved,  in  the  year  1600,  by 
 Pope  Clement  VIII.,  and  confirmed  by 
 Gregory  XV.  There  were  afterwards  se- 
 veral other  establishments  of  Capuchines, 
 in  particular  one  at  Paris,  in  1604,  found- 
 ed by  the  Duchesse  de  IVIercocur,  who  put 
 crowns  of  thorns  on  the  heads  of  the  young 
 
 women  whom  she  placed  in  her  monastery. 
 — Bronqhton. 
 
 CAPUTIUM.     (See  Hood.) 
 
 CARDINAL.  This  is  the  title  given 
 to  one  of  the  chief  governors  of  the  Romish 
 Church.  The  term  has  long  been  in  use, 
 and  originally  signified  the  same  as  prcB- 
 cipuus,  principalis,  id  quod  rei  cardo  est, 
 synonymous  with  pralatus ;  or  else  it  was 
 derived  from  cardinare  or  incardinare,  to 
 hinge  or  join  together,  and  was  applied  to 
 the  regular  clergy  of  the  metropolitan 
 church.  In  Italy,  Gaul,  8zc.,  such  churches 
 early  received  the  title  of  cardinal  churches  ; 
 the  ministers  of  these  churches  were  also 
 called  cardinals. 
 
 The  following  statements  comprise  the 
 important  historical  facts  relative  to  the 
 office  of  cardinal : 
 
 1.  The  institution  of  the  office  has  been 
 ascribed  by  respectable  Roman  Catholic 
 wi'iters  to  Christ  himself,  to  the  apostle  of 
 their  faith,  to  the  Roman  bishop  Evaristus, 
 to  Hyginus,  Marcellus,  Boniface  III.,  and 
 others.  But  we  only  know  that  cardinals, 
 presbyters,  and  deacons  occur  in  history 
 about  the  sixth  and  seventh  centuries,  who 
 were,  however,  not  itinerant,  but  stationary 
 church  officers  for  conducting  religious 
 worship.  The  deacons  and  presbyters  of 
 Rome  especially  bore  this  name,  who  com- 
 posed the  presbytery  of  the  bishop  of  the 
 place.  The  title  was  also  conferred  upon 
 the  suffi-agan  bishops  of  Ostia,  Albano, 
 and  others  in  the  immediate  vicinity,  but 
 without  any  other  rights  than  those  which 
 were  connected  appropriately  with  the 
 ministerial  office. 
 
 2.  The  import  of  the  term  was  varied 
 still  more  in  the  ninth  century,  and  espe- 
 cially in  the  eleventh,  by  Nicolaus  II.,  who 
 in  his  constitution  for  the  election  of  the 
 Roman  pontifi",  not  only  appointed  his 
 seven  suffragan  bishops  as  members  of  the 
 pope's  ecclesiastical  council,  but  also  con- 
 stituted them  the  only  legitimate  body  for 
 the  election  of  the  pope.  To  these  he  gave 
 the  name  of  cardinal  bishops  of  the  Church 
 of  Rome,  or  cardinals  of  the  Lateran  Church. 
 
 This  is  the  important  period  in  history 
 when  the  first  foundation  was  laid  for 
 rendering  the  hierarchy  of  the  Church  in- 
 dependent both  of  the  clergy  and  of  the 
 secular  power.  This  period  has  not  been 
 noticed  so  particularly  by  historians  as  its 
 importance  requires.  They  seem  espe- 
 cially to  have  overlooked  the  fact,  that  the 
 famous  Hildebrand,  (Gregory  VII.,)  in  the 
 year  1073,  concerted  these  measures  for 
 the  independence  of  the  Church,  as  the 
 following  extract  will  show  :  "  It  was  the 
 deep  design  of  Hildebrand,  which  he  for  a 
 
CARDINAL. 
 
 CARMELITES. 
 
 149 
 
 long  time  prosecuted  with  unwearied  zeal, 
 to  brin<>-  the  pope  wholly  within  the  pale 
 of  the  Church,  and  to  prevent  the  inter- 
 ference, in  his  election,  of  all  secular  in- 
 fluence and  arbitrary  })ower.  And  that 
 measure  of  the  council  which  wrested  from 
 the  emperor  a  right  of  so  long  standing 
 and  which  had  never  been  called  in  ques- 
 tion, may  deservedly  be  regarded  as  the 
 master-piece  of  popisli  intrigue,  or  rather 
 of  Ilildebrand's  cunning.  The  concession 
 which  disguised  this  crafty  design  of  his 
 was  expressed  as  follows :  that  the  emperor 
 should  ever  hold  from  the  pope  the  rujht  of 
 ajypointimj  the  pope^ 
 
 3.  As  might  have  been  expected,  this 
 privilege  was  afterwards  contested  by  the 
 princes  of  the  German  States,  especially 
 by  those  of  Saxony  and  the  House  of 
 Hohenstaufen.  But  these  conflicts  uni- 
 formly resulted  in  favour  of  the  ambitious 
 designs  of  the  pope.  A  momentary  con- 
 cession, granted  under  the  pressure  of  cir- 
 cumstances, became  reason  sufficient  for 
 demanding  the  same  ever  afterwards  as  an 
 established  right.  In  the  year  A.  d.  1179, 
 Alexander  III.,  through  the  canons  of  the 
 Lateran,  confirmed  yet  more  the  inde- 
 pendent election  of  the  pope,  so  that,  after 
 this,  the  ratification  of  the  emperor  was 
 no  longer  of  any  importance.  Something 
 similar  was  also  repeated  by  Innocent  III., 
 A.  D.  1215,  and  Innocent  tV.,  A.  D.  1254. 
 The  former  had  already,  in  the  year  A.  D. 
 1198,  renounced  th?  civil  authority  of 
 Rome,  and  ascended  the  papal  throne.  In 
 the  year  1274,  the  conclave  of  cardinals 
 for  the  election  of  the  pope  was  fully  estab- 
 lished by  Gregory  X.,  and  remains  the 
 same  to  this  day. 
 
 4.  The  college  of  cardinals,  wdiich,  until 
 the  twelfth  century,  had  been  restricted 
 to  Home  and  its  vicinity,  has  since  been 
 greatly  enlarged,  so  as  to  become  the  su- 
 preme court  of  the  Komish  Church  through- 
 out the  world.  Priests  of  illustrious  name 
 in  other  provinces  and  countries  have  been 
 elevated  to  the  dignity  of  cardinals.  Of  this, 
 Alexander  III.  gave  the  first  example  in  the 
 year  1165,  by  conferring  the  honour  upon 
 Galdinus  Sala,  archbishop  of  Milan,  and 
 upon  Conrad,  archbishop  of  Mentz.  But, 
 to  the  injury  of  the  Church,  the  greater 
 part  have  ever  been  restricted  to  the  limits 
 of  Kome  and  Italy. 
 
 5.  The  formal  classification  of  the  car- 
 dinals into  three  distinct  orders,  1.  car- 
 dinal bishops ;  2.  cardinal  presbyters ;  3. 
 cardinal  deacons,  was  made  by  Paul  II.  in 
 the  fifteenth  century.  He  also  gave  them, 
 instead  of  the  scarlet  robe  which  they  had 
 worn  since  the  year  1244,  a  jnirple  robe, 
 
 from  whence  they  derived  the  name  of  the 
 purple :  a  title  indicative,  not  merely  of 
 their  superiority  to  bishops  and  arch- 
 bishops, but  of  their  regal  honours  and 
 rights.  Boniface  VIII.  gave  them  the 
 title  of  emi>ientissimi\  most  eminent;  and 
 Pius  v.,  in  the  year  1507,  decrees  that  no 
 other  should  have  the  name  of  cardinal. 
 
 0.  The  number  of  cardinals  was  at  first 
 not  less  than  sercn  ;  and,  after  having 
 ranged  from  seve?i  to  /iftt/-thrce,  it  was 
 reduced  again  in  the  year  1277  to  the 
 minimum  above-mentioned.  The  General 
 Assembly  of  the  Church  of  l>asil  limited 
 the  number  to  ticentyfour ;  but  the  popes 
 from  this  time  increased  them  at  their 
 pleasure.  Under  Leo  X.  there  were  sixty- 
 five  cardinals :  Paul  IV.  and  Pius  V.  de- 
 creed that  the  maximum  should  be  seventy 
 — equal  in  number  to  the  disciples  of  our 
 Lord.  These  were  arranged  under  the  fol- 
 lowing grades :  1 .  Six  cardinal  bishops,  with 
 the  following  titles  : — the  bishops  of  Ostia, 
 Porta,  Albano,  Frascati,  Sabina,  and  Pa- 
 laestrina ;  2.  Fifty  cardinal  priests,  who 
 were  named  after  the  parochial  and  cathe- 
 dral churches  of  Home  ;  3.  Fourteen  car- 
 dinal deacons,  who  were  named  after  the 
 chapels.  This  number  Avas  seldom  full ; 
 but,  since  1814,  they  have  again  become 
 quite  numerous. — Aiajusti. 
 
 The  canons  in  some  foreign  cathccbals 
 are  called  cardinals ;  as  at  Milan  and  Sa- 
 lerno. In  the  cathedral  of  St.  Paul's, 
 London,  two  of  the  minor  canons  are  still 
 so  designated.  Their  statutable  duties  are 
 to  superintend  the  behaviour  of  the  mem- 
 bers of  the  choir,  in  order  to  the  correc- 
 tion of  off"enders  by  the  dean  and  chapter, 
 and  to  see  to  the  burial  of  the  dead,  &c. 
 —Jehh. 
 
 CARMELITES,  or  WHITE  FRIARS. 
 Monks  of  the  order  of  Our  Ladi/  of  Blount 
 Carmel.  They  pretend  to  derive  their 
 original  from  the  prophets  Elijah  and 
 Elisha  ;  and  this  occasioned  a  very  warm 
 controversy  between  this  order  and  the 
 Jesuits,  about  the  end  of  the  seventeenth 
 century ;  both  parties  publishing  several 
 works,  and  petitioning  the  popes  Innocent 
 XI.  and  Innocent  XII. ;  the  latter  of  whom 
 silenced  them  both,  by  a  brief  of  the  20th 
 November,  1698. 
 
 What  we  know  of  their  original  is,  that, 
 in  the  twelfth  century,  Aimerie,  legate  of 
 the  holy  see  in  the  east,  and  patriarch  of 
 Antioch,  collected  together  several  hermits 
 in  Syria,  who  were  exposed  to  the  violence 
 and  incursions  of  the  barbarians,  and 
 placed  them  on  Blount  Carmel,  formerly 
 the  residence  of  the  projjhets  Elijah  and 
 Eli.sha ;  from  which  mountain  they  took 
 
150 
 
 CAllOLS. 
 
 CARPOCRATIANS. 
 
 the  name  of  Carmelites.  Albert,  patriarch 
 of  Jerusalem,  gave  them  rules  in  1205, 
 which  Pope  Honorius  III.  confirmed  in 
 1224. 
 
 The  peace  concluded  by  the  emperor 
 Frederic  II.  with  the  Saracens,  in  the  year 
 1229,  so  disadvantageous  to  Christendom, 
 and  so  beneficial  to  the  infidels,  occasioned 
 the  Carmelites  to  quit  the  Holy  Land  un- 
 der Alan,  thfe  fifth  general  of  the  order. 
 He  first  sent  some  of  the  monks  to  Cyprus, 
 who  landed  there  in  the  year  1238,  and 
 founded  a  monastery  in  the  forest  of  For- 
 tania.  Some  Sicilians,  at  the  same  time, 
 leaving  Mount  Carmel,  returned  to  their 
 own  country,  where  they  founded  a  mon- 
 astery in  the  suburbs  of  Messina.  Some 
 English  departed  out  of  Syria,  in  the  year 
 1440,  to  found  others  in  England.  Others 
 of  Provence,  in  the  year  1244,  founded  a 
 monastery  in  the  desert  of  Aigualates,  a 
 league  from  Marseilles  ;  and  thus,  the  num- 
 ber of  their  monasteries  increasing,  they 
 held  their  fii'st  European  general  chapter 
 in  the  year  1245,  at  their  monastery  of 
 Aylesford,  in  England. 
 
 After  the  establishment  of  the  Carmel- 
 ites in  Europe,  their  rule  was  in  some 
 respects  altered:  the  first  time,  by  Pope 
 Innocent  IV.,  who  added  to  the  first  arti- 
 cle a  precept  of  chastity,  and  relaxed  the 
 eleventh,  which  enjoins  abstinence  at  all 
 times  from  liesh,  permitting  them,  when 
 they  travelled,  to  eat  boiled  flesh.  This 
 pope  likewise  gave  them  leave  to  eat  in  a 
 common  refectory,  and  to  keep  asses  or 
 mules  for  their  use.  Their  rule  was  again 
 mitigated  by  the  popes  Eugenius  IV.  and 
 Pius  II.  Hence  the  order  is  divided  into 
 two  branches,  viz.  the  Carmeliies  of  the 
 ancietit  observance,  called  the  moderate  or 
 mitigated,  and  those  of  the  strict  observance, 
 who  are  the  barefuuted  Carmelites ;  a  reform 
 set  on  foot,  in  1540,  by  S.  Theresa,  a  nun 
 of  the  convent  of  Aviia,  in  Castile :  these 
 last  are  divided  into  two  congregations, 
 that  of  Spain  and  that  of  Italy. 
 
 The  habit  of  the  Carmelites  was  at  first 
 white,  and  the  cloak  laced  at  the  bottom 
 with  several  lists  ;  but  Pope  Honorius  IV. 
 commanded  them  to  change  it  for  that  of 
 the  Minims.  Their  scapulary  is  a  small 
 M'oollen  habit,  of  a  brown  colour,  thrown 
 over  their  shoulders.  They  wear  no  linen 
 shirts,  but  instead  of  them  linsey-woolsey. 
 — Broufjhton. 
 
 CAROLS.  Hymns  sung  by  the  people 
 at  Christmas  in  memory  of  the  song  of  the 
 angels,  which  the  shepherds  heard  at  our 
 Lord's  birth. 
 
 CARPqCRATIANS.  Heretics  who 
 sprang  up  in  the  second  century ;  followers 
 
 of  Carpocrates,  of  the  island  of  Cephalenia, 
 according  to  Epiphanius,  or,  according  to 
 Theodoret  and  Clemens  Alexandrinus,  of 
 the  city  of  Alexandria.  This  Carpocrates 
 was  a  man  of  the  worst  morals,  and  ad- 
 dicted to  magic.  Eusebius  says  expressly, 
 he  was  the  father  of  the  heresy  of  the 
 Gnostics ;  and  it  is  true  that  all  the  in- 
 famous things  imputed  to  the  Gnostics  are 
 ascribed  likewise  to  the  Carpocratians.  It 
 is  sufficient  to  mention  tMo  of  their  prin- 
 ciples :  the  one  is,  a  community  of  wives ; 
 the  other,  that  a  man  cannot  arrive  at  per- 
 fection, nor  deliver  himself  from  the  power 
 of  the  princes  of  this  world,  as  they  ex- 
 pressed it,  without  having  passed  through 
 all  sorts  oJP  criminal  actions ;  laying  it  down 
 for  a  maxim,  that  there  is  no  action  bad  in 
 itself,  but  only  from  the  opinion  of  men. 
 This  induced  them  to  establish  a  new  kind 
 of  metempsychosis,  that  those  who  have 
 not  passed  through  all  sorts  of  actions  in 
 the  first  life,  may  do  it  in  a  second,  and, 
 if  that  be  not  sufficient,  in  a  third,  and  so 
 on,  till  they  have  discharged  this  strange 
 obligation.  Accordingly,  they  are  charged 
 with  committing  the  most  infamous  things 
 in  their  Agapae,  or  love-feasts. 
 
 As  to  their  theology,  they  attributed  the 
 creation  of  the  world  to  angels ;  they  said 
 that  Jesus  Christ  was  born  of  Joseph  and 
 Mary  in  a  manner  like  other  men ;  that 
 his  soul  alone  was  received  into  heaven, 
 his  body  remaining  on  the  earth ;  and,  ac- 
 cordingly, they  rejected  the  resurrection  of 
 the  body. 
 
 They  marked  their  disciples  at  the  bot- 
 tom of  the  right  ear  with  a  hot  iron,  or 
 with  a  razor. 
 
 They  had  images  of  Jesus  Christ  as  well 
 in  painting  as  in  sculpture,  which  they  said 
 w^ere  made  by  Pilate ;  they  kept  them  in 
 a  little  box  or  chest.  They  had  likewise 
 the  images  of  Pythagoras,  Plato,  Aristotle, 
 and  other  philosophers.  They  put  crowns 
 on  all  these  images,  and  paid  them  the 
 same  superstitious  honours  which  the  Pa- 
 gans did  to  their  idols,  adoring  them,  and 
 offering  sacrifice  to  them.  A  w^oman  of 
 this  sect,  named  Marcellina,  came  to  Rome, 
 in  the  pontificate  of  Anicetus,  where  she 
 made  a  great  many  proselytes.  She  wor- 
 shipped the  images  of  Jesus  Christ,  Paul, 
 Homer,  and  Pythagoras,  and  ofi'ered  in- 
 cense to  them. 
 
 Carpocrates  had  a  son,  named  Epiphanes, 
 who,  by  means  of  the  Platonic  philosophy, 
 gave  a  greater  extent  to  the  fabulous 
 opinions  of  the  Carpocratians.  He  died  at 
 seventeen  years  of  age,  but  in  that  short 
 time  had  acquired  so  great  a  reputation 
 among  the  disciples  of  his  father,  that,  after 
 
CARTHUSIANS. 
 
 151 
 
 his  death,  he  was  revered  by  Iheni  as  a  god, 
 insomuch  that  they  built  a  temple  to  him 
 in  the  island  of  Cephalenia,  and  the  Cepha- 
 lenians,  every  first  day  of  the  month, 
 solemnized  the  feast  of  his  apotheosis, 
 ofiering  sacrifices  to  him,  and  singing- 
 hymns  to  his  honour. 
 
 Epiphanius  relates  of  himself,  that  in  his 
 youth  he  accidentally  fell  into  company 
 with  some  women  of  this  sect,  who  reveal- 
 ed to  him  the  most  horrible  secrets  of  the 
 Carpocratians.  They  were  armed  with 
 beauty  sufficient  to  make  an  impression  on 
 a  person  of  his  age ;  but,  by  the  grace  of 
 God,  he  says,  he  escaped  the  snare  w'hich 
 the  devil  had  laid  for  him.  (See  Gnostics.) 
 — Brouqhton. 
 
 CAIITHUSIANS.  A  religious  order, 
 founded  in  the  year  1080  by  one  Bruno,  a 
 very  learned  man,  a  native  of  Cologne, 
 and  canon  of  Cologne,  and  afterwards 
 Canon  Scholaster  or  Theologal,  (i.  e.  a 
 lecturer  in  theology,)  at  Ilheims,  The  oc- 
 casion of  its  institution  is  related  as  follows : 
 a  friend  of  Bruno's,  liairaond  Diocre,  an 
 eminent  canon  of  Paris,  w^ho  had  been 
 looked  upon  as  a  good  liver,  being  dead, 
 Bruno  attended  his  funeral.  Whilst  the 
 service  was  performing  in  the  church,  the 
 dead  man,  who  lay  upon  a  bier,  raised  him- 
 self up  and  said,  "  By  the  just  judgment  of 
 God,  I  am  accused."  The  company  being 
 astonished  at  this  unusual  accident,  the 
 burial  was  deferred  to  the  next  day,  when 
 the  concourse  of  people  being  much  greater, 
 the  dead  man  again  raised  himself  up  and 
 said,  "  By  the  just  judgment  of  God,  I  am 
 judged:  "  and  on  a  third  similar  occasion, 
 "  By  the  just  judgment  of  God,  I  am  con- 
 demned." This  miracle,  it  is  pretended, 
 wrought  such  an  effect  on  Bruno  and  six 
 more,  that  they  immediately  retired  to  the 
 desert  of  Chartreux,  in  the  diocese  of 
 Grenoble,  in  Dauphine,  where  Hugh, 
 bishop  of  that  diocese,  assigned  them  a 
 spot  of  ground,  and  where  Bruno,  A.  D. 
 1084,  (or  108G,  according  to  Baronius,.) 
 built  his  first  monastery,  under  the  follow- 
 ing rigid  institutes : — 
 
 His  monks  were  to  wear  a  hair-cloth 
 next  their  body,  a  white  cassock,  and  over 
 it  a  black  cloak :  they  were  never  to  eat 
 fiesh ;  to  fast  every  Friday  on  bread  and 
 water ;  to  eat  alone  in  their  chambers,  ex- 
 cept upon  certain  festivals  ;  and  to  observe 
 an  almost  perpetual  silence ;  none  were 
 allowed  to  go  out  of  the  monastery,  except 
 the  prior  and  procurator,  and  they  only 
 about  the  business  of  the  house. 
 
 The  Carthusians,  so  called  from  the 
 place  of  their  first  institution,  are  a  very 
 rigid  order.     They  are  not  to  go   out  of 
 
 their  cells,  except  to  church,  Avithout  leave 
 of  their  superior.  They  are  not  to  speak 
 to  any  i)crson,  even  their  own  brother,  with- 
 out leave.  They  may  not  keep  any  part 
 of  their  portion  of  meat  or  drink  till  the 
 next  day,  except  herbs  or  fruit.  Their 
 bed  is  of  straw,  covered  w^ith  a  felt  or 
 coarse  cloth ;  their  clothing,  two  haircloths, 
 two  cowls,  two  pair  of  hose,  a  cloak,  &c., 
 all  coarse.  Every  monk  has  two  needles, 
 some  thread,  scissors,  a  comb,  a  razor,  a 
 hone,  an  ink-horn,  pens,  chalk,  two  pumice- 
 stones  ;  likewise  two  pots,  two  porringers, 
 a  basin,  two  spoons,  a  knife,  a  drinking  cup, 
 a  water-pot,  a  salt,  a  dish,  a  towel ;  and  for 
 fire,  tinder,  flint,  wood,  and  an  axe. 
 
 In  the  refectory  they  are  to  keep  their 
 eyes  on  the  meat,  their  hands  on  the  table, 
 their  attention  on  the  reader,  and  their 
 heart  fixed  on  God.  When  allowed  to 
 discourse,  they  are  to  do  it  modestly,  not 
 to  Avhisper,  nor  talk  aloud,  nor  to  be  con- 
 tentious. They  confess  to  the  prior  every 
 Saturday.  Women  are  not  allowed  to 
 come  into  their  churches,  that  the  monks 
 may  not  see  anything  which  may  provoke 
 them  to  lewdness. 
 
 It  is  computed  there  are  a  hundred  and 
 seventy-two  houses  of  Carthusians,  whereof 
 five  are  of  nuns,  who  practise  the  same 
 austerities  as  the  monks.  They  are  divided 
 into  sixteen  provinces,  each  of  which  has 
 two  visitors.  There  have  been  several 
 canonised  saints  of  this  order  ;  four  car- 
 dinals, seventy  archbishops  and  bishops, 
 and  a  great  many  very  learned  writers. 
 
 The  story  of  the  motive  of  St.  Bruno's 
 retirement  into  the  desert  was  inserted  in 
 the  Koman  Breviary,  but  was  afterwards 
 left  out,  when  that  Breviary  was  reformed, 
 by  order  of  Pope  Urban  VIII. ;  and  this 
 gave  occasion  to  several  learned  men  of 
 the  seventeenth  century  to  publish  writings 
 on  that  subject,  some  to  vindicate  the 
 truth  of  the  story,  and  others  to  invalid- 
 ate it.  It  is  rejected  by  Pagius,  the  learned 
 annotator  on  Baronius,  who  says  it  was 
 invented  two  centuries  after  Bruno's  time. 
 —Jehh. 
 
 In  the  year  1170,  Pope  Alexander  III. 
 took  this  order  under  the  protection  of  the 
 holy  see.  In  1391,  Boniface  IX.  exempted 
 them  from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  bishops. 
 In  1420,  Martin  V.  exempted  them  from 
 paying  the  tenths  of  the  lands  belonging 
 to  them  ;  and  Julius  II.,  in  1508,  ordered 
 that  all  the  houses  of  the  order,  in  what- 
 ever part  of  the  world  they  were  situated, 
 should  obey  the  prior  of  the  Grand  Char- 
 treuse, and  the  general  chapter  of  the 
 order. 
 
 The  convents  of  this  order  are  generally 
 
152 
 
 CARTULARIES. 
 
 CATECHISM. 
 
 very  beautiful  and  magnificent;  that  of 
 Naples,  though  but  small,  sui-passes  all  the 
 rest  in  ornaments  and  riches.  Nothing 
 is  to  be  seen  in  the  church  and  house  but 
 marble  and  jasper.  The  apartments  of 
 the  prior  are  rather  those  of  a  prince  than 
 of  a  poor  monk.  There  are  innumerable 
 statues,  bas-reliefs,  paintings,  Sec,  together 
 with  very  fine  gardens ;  all  which,  joined 
 with  the  holy  and  exemplary  life  of  the 
 good  monks,  di'aws  the  curiosity  of  all 
 strangers  Avho  visit  Naples. 
 
 The  Carthusians  settled  in  England 
 about  the  year  1140.  They  had  several 
 monasteries  here,  particularly  at  Witham, 
 in  Somersetshire  ;  Hinton,  in  the  same 
 county;  Bcauval,  in  Nottinghamshire  ; 
 Kingston-upon-Hull ;  Mount  Grace,  in 
 Yorkshire  ;  Eppewort,  in  Lincolnshire  ; 
 Shene,  in  Surrey,  and  one  near  Coventry. 
 In  London  they  had  a  famous  monastery, 
 since  called,  from  the  Carthusians  who  set- 
 tled there,  the  Charter  House. — See  Du 
 Pin,  and  Baro7iius. 
 
 CARTULARIES,  according  to  Jerom 
 lie  Costa,  were  papers  wherein  the  con- 
 tracts, sales,  exchanges,  privileges,  im- 
 munities, and  other  acts  that  belong  to 
 churches  and  monasteries  were  collected, 
 the  better  to  preserve  the  ancient  deeds, 
 by  rendering  frequent  reference  to  them 
 less  necessary. 
 
 CASSOCK.  The  under  dress  of  all 
 orders  of  the  clergy;  it  resembles  a  long 
 coat,  with  a  single  upright  collar.  In  the 
 Church  of  Rome  it  varies  in  colour  with 
 the  dignity  of  the  wearer.  Priests  wear 
 black ;  bishops,  purple ;  cardinals,  scar- 
 let ;  and  popes,  white.  In  the  Church  of 
 England,  black  is  worn  by  all  the  three 
 orders  of  the  clergy,  but  bishops,  upon 
 state  occasions,  often  wear  purple  coats. 
 The  74th  English  canon  enjoins  that  bene- 
 ficed clergymen,  8zc.  shall  not  go  in  pub- 
 lic in  their  doublet  and  hose,  without  coats 
 or  cassocks. — Jehb. 
 
 CASUIST.     One  who  studies  cases  of 
 
 COnSClGllCG 
 
 CASUISTRY.  The  doctrine  and  sci- 
 ence of  conscience  and  its  cases,  with  the 
 rules  and  principles  of  resolving  the  same  ; 
 di-awn  partly  from  natural  reason  or  equity, 
 and  partly  from  the  authority  of  Scrip- 
 ture, the  canon  law,  councils,  fathers,  ^c. 
 To  casuistry  belongs  the  decision  of  all 
 difficulties  arising  about  what  a  man  may 
 lawfully  do  or  not  do ;  what  is  sin  or  not 
 sin  ;  what  things  a  man  is  obliged  to  do 
 in  order  to  discharge  his  duty,  and  what 
 he  may  let  alone  without  breach  of  it.  The 
 most  celebrated  writers  on  this  subject,  of 
 the  Church  of  England,  are  Bishop  Jeremy 
 
 Taylor,  in  his  *'  Diictor  Duhitantium  ; "  and 
 Bishop  Sanderson,  in  his  "  Cases  of  Con- 
 science." There  was  a  professor  of  casuistry 
 in  the  university  of  Cambridge,  but  the 
 title  of  the  professorship  has  lately  been 
 altered  to  3Ioial  PhilosopIiT/. 
 
 CASULA.     (See  Chasible.) 
 
 CATACOMBS.  Burying-places  near 
 Rome  ;  not  for  Christians  only,  but  for  all 
 sorts  of  people.  There  is  a  large  vault 
 about  three  miles  from  Rome,  used  for  this 
 purpose ;  there  is  another  near  Naples. 
 That  at  Naples  consists  of  long  galleries 
 cut  out  of  the  rock,  of  three  stories,  one 
 above  another.  These  galleries  are  gener- 
 ally about  twenty  feet  broad,  and  fifteen 
 high.  Those  at  Rome  are  not  above  three 
 or  four  feet  broad,  and  five  or  six  feet  high. 
 They  are  very  long,  full  of  niches,  shaped 
 according  to  the  sizes  of  bodies,  wherein 
 the  bodies  were  put,  not  in  coffins,  but 
 only  in  burial  clothes.  Many  inscriptions 
 are  still  extant  in  them ;  and  the  same 
 stone  sometimes  bears  on  one  side  an  in- 
 scription to  heathen  deities  and  marks  of 
 Christianity  on  the  other.  But  see  a  large 
 account  of  these  in  Bishop  Burnet's  Travels, 
 in  his  fourth  letter  ;  also  "  The  Church  in 
 the  Catacombs,"  by  Dr.  C.  Maitland ;  and 
 Macfarlane's  "  Catacombs  of  Rome." 
 
 The  name  "  Catacombs  "  is  now  gener- 
 ally applied  to  the  stone  vaults  for  the 
 dead  constructed  in  the  public  cemeteries 
 of  England. 
 
 CATAPHRYGES.  Christian  heretics, 
 who  made  their  appearance  in  the  second 
 century  ;  they  had  this  name  given  to  them 
 because  the  chief  promoters  of  this  heresy 
 came  out  of  Phrygia.  They  followed  Mon- 
 tanus's  errors.    (See  Montanists.) 
 
 CATECHISM,  is  derived  from  a  Greek 
 term,  {KaTi)x^io,)  and  signifies  instruction  in 
 the  first  rudiments  of  any  art  or  science, 
 communicated  by  asking  questions  and 
 hearing  and  correcting  the  answers.  From 
 the  earliest  ages  of  the  Church  the  word 
 has  been  employed  by  ecclesiastical  writers 
 in  a  more  restrained  sense,  to  denote  in- 
 struction in  the  principals  of  the  Chi'istian 
 religion  by  means  of  questions  and  an- 
 swers.— Dean  Comber.  iShepherd. 
 
 By  canon  59,  "  Every  parson,  vicar,  or 
 curate,  upon  every  Sunday  and  holy  day, 
 before  evening  prayer,  shall,  for  half  an 
 hour  or  more,  examine  and  instruct  the 
 youth  and  ignorant  persons  of  his  parish, 
 in  the  ten  commandments,  the  articles  of 
 the  belief,  and  in  the  Lord's  Prayer  ;  and 
 shall  diligently  hear,  instruct,  and  teach 
 them  the  catechism  set  forth  in  the  Book  of 
 Common  Prayer.  And  all  fathers,  mothers, 
 masters,  and  mistresses  shall  cause  their 
 
CATECHISM. 
 
 153 
 
 children,  servants,  and  apprentices,  which 
 have  not  learned  the  catechism,  to  come  to 
 the  church  at  the  time  appointed,  obe- 
 diently to  hear,  and  to  be  ordered  by  the 
 minister,  until  they  have  learned  the  same. 
 And  if  any  minister  neglect  his  duty  here- 
 in, let  him  be  sharply  reproved  upon  the 
 first  complaint,  and  true  notice  thereof 
 given  to  the  bishop  or  ordinary  of  the 
 place.  If  after  submitting  liimself  he 
 shall  willingly  offend  therein  again,  let  him 
 be  suspended.  If  so  the  third  time,  there 
 being  little  hope  that  he  will  be  therein 
 reformed,  then  excommunicated,  and  so 
 remain  until  he  be  reformed.  And  like- 
 wise, if  any  of  the  said  fathers,  mothers, 
 masters,  or  mistresses,  children,  servants, 
 or  apprentices,  shall  neglect  their  duties,  as 
 the  one  sort  in  not  causing  them  to  come, 
 and  the  other  in  refusing  to  learn,  as  afore- 
 said, let  them  be  suspended  by  their  or- 
 dinaries, (if  they  be  not  children,)  and  if 
 they  so  persist  by  the  space  of  a  month, 
 then  let  them  be  excommunicated." 
 
 And  by  the  rubric,  "The  curate  of 
 every  parish  shall  diligently  upon  Sundays 
 and  holy  days,  after  the  second  lesson  at 
 evening  prayer,  openly  in  the  church  in- 
 struct and  examine  so  many  children  of 
 his  parish  sent  unto  him,  as  he  shall  think 
 convenient,  in  some  part  of  the  catechism. 
 And  all  fathers  and  mothers,  masters  and 
 dames,  shall  cause  their  children,  servants, 
 and  apprentices  (who  have  not  learned 
 their  catechism)  to  come  to  the  church  at 
 the  time  appointed,  and  obediently  to  hear, 
 and  be  ordered  by  the  curate,  until  such 
 time  as  they  have  learned  all  that  therein 
 is  appointed  for  them  to  learn." 
 
 In  the  office  of  public  baptism  the 
 minister  directs  the  godfathers  and  god- 
 mothers to  "take  care  that  the  child  be 
 brought  to  the  bishop,  to  be  confirmed 
 by  him,  so  soon  as  he  or  she  can  say  the 
 Creed,  the  Lord's  Prayer,  and  the  ten 
 commandments  in  the  vulgar  tongue,  and 
 be  further  instructed  in  the  Church  Cate- 
 chism set  forth  for  that  purpose." 
 
 The  catechism  of  children  is  enjoined  by 
 God,  (Deut.  vi.  7  ;  Prov.  xxii.  6  ;  Ephes. 
 vi.  4,)  and  was  always  practised  by  pious 
 men,  (Gen.  xviii.  19;  1  Chron.  xxviii.  9; 
 2  Tim.  i.  5,)  and  it  is  Christ's  especial 
 charge  to  ministers,  to  feed  his  lambs. 
 (John  xxi.  15.)  The  Jewish  doctors  took 
 care  of  this.  (Luke  ii.  42.)  And  in  the 
 Christian  churches  there  was  a  peculiar 
 officer  who  was  the  catechist ;  and  all  the 
 new  converts,  who  were  to  be  baptized  at 
 Easter,  were  catechized  all  the  forty  days 
 of  Lent.  But  since  we  have  few  such  now, 
 and  generally  baptize  infants,  who  cannot  j 
 
 at  that  time  understand  the  covenant  which 
 is  entered  into,  therefore  we  are  bound  to 
 take  more  care  to  make  them  understand 
 it  afterward,  by  instructing  them  in  the 
 "Catechism  of  the  Church;"  which  is 
 drawn  up  according  to  the  primitive  forms 
 by  way  of  question  and  answer,  (Acts  viii. 
 37  ;  1  Pet.  iii.  21,)  being  not  a  large  system 
 of  divinity  to  puzzle  the  heads  of  young- 
 beginners,  but,  like  those  of  the  ancients,  a 
 short  and  full  explication  of  the  baptismal 
 vow  ;  teaching  them,  first,  what  their  bap- 
 tismal vow  is,  namely,  what  were  the 
 benefits  promised  on  God's  part,  Quest. 
 I.,  II.,  and  what  were  the  duties  ])romised 
 on  their  part,  to  renounce  all  evil,  to  believe 
 all  divine  truth,  and  to  keep  God's  com- 
 mandments. Quest.  III.;  together  with 
 their  grateful  owning  of  this  covenant, 
 Quest.  IV.  Secondly,  the  parts  of  the 
 vow  are  explained:  first,  as  to  the  matter 
 of  them,  in  repeating  and  expounding  the 
 creed.  Quest.  V.,  VI.,  and  repeating  and 
 explaining  the  ten  commandments,  Quest. 
 VIL,  VIIL,  IX.,  X.,  XL  Secondly,  as 
 to  the  means  to  enable  them  to  keep  them, 
 which  are  prayer  and  the  holy  sacraments  : 
 and  the  duty  of  prayer  is  taught  them  in 
 the  Lord's  Prayer,  and  the  explication 
 thereof.  Quest.  XII.,  XIII.  The  due  use 
 of  the  sacraments  is  taught  them,  fh'st  in 
 general,  as  to  their  number,  nature,  and 
 necessity,  Quest.  XIV.,  XV.  Secondly 
 in  particular,  baptism.  Quest.  XVI. — 
 XX. ;  and  the  Lord's  supper,  Quest.  XXI. 
 — XXV.  This  is  all  that  is  absolutely  ne- 
 cessary to  be  known  in  order  to  salvation, 
 and  all  that  the  primitive  Church  did  teach 
 their  catechumens.  And  if  childi'cn  be  but 
 made  to  repeat  this  perfectly,  and  under- 
 stand it  fully,  they  will  increase  in  know- 
 ledge as  they  grow  in  years. — Dean  Comber. 
 It  is  the  peculiar  glory  of  Christianity  to 
 have  extended  religious  instruction,  of 
 which  but  few  partook  at  all  before,  and 
 scarce  any  in  purity,  through  all  ranks  and 
 ages  of  men,  and  even  women.  The  first 
 converts  to  it  were  immediately  formed 
 into  regular  societies  and  assemblies ;  not 
 only  for  the  joint  worship  of  God,  but  the 
 further  "  edifying  of  the  body  of  Christ  " 
 (Eph.  iv.  12);  in  Avhich  good  work  some 
 of  course  w^re  stated  teachers,  or,  to  use 
 the  apostle's  own  expression,  "  catechizers 
 in  the  word  : "  others  taught  or  catechized. 
 (Gal.  vi.  6.)  For  catechizhn/  signifies,  in 
 Scripture  at  large,  instructing^  persons  in 
 any  matter,  but  es])ecially  in  religion.  And 
 thus  it  is  used.  Acts  xviii.  2o,  where  we 
 read,  "This  man  was  {nstrucfcd  in  the  way 
 of  the  Lord  ;"  and  Luke  i.  4,  where,  again, 
 we  read,  "  That  thou  mayest  know  the 
 
154 
 
 CATECHISM. 
 
 certainty  of  thase  things  wherein  thou 
 hast  been  instructed^'  The  original  word, 
 in  both  places,  is  catechized. 
 
 But  as  the  different  advances  of  persons 
 in  knowledge  made  different  sorts  of  in- 
 structions requisite,  so,  in  tlie  primitive 
 Church,  different  sorts  of  teachers  were 
 appointed  to  dispense  it.  And  they  w^ho 
 taught  so  much  only  of  the  Christian  doc- 
 trine, as  might  qualify  the  hearers  for 
 Christian  communion,  had  the  name  of 
 catecJiists  appropriated  to  them :  whose 
 teaching  being  usually,  as  Avas  most  con- 
 venient, in  a  great  measure  by  way  of 
 question  and  answer,  the  name  of  Cate- 
 chism hath  now  been  long  confined  to 
 such  instruction  as  is  given  in  that  form. 
 But  the  method  of  employing  a  particular 
 set  of  men  in  that  work  only,  is  in  most 
 places  laid  aside. 
 
 Under  the  darkness  of  Popery  almost  all 
 religious  instruction  was  neglected.  "  Very 
 few,"  to  use  the  words  of  one  of  our  homi- 
 lies, "  even  of  the  most  simple  people,  were 
 taught  the  Lord's  Prayer,  the  articles  of 
 the  faith,  or  the  ten  commandments,  other- 
 wise than  in  Latin,  which  they  understood 
 not;"  so  that  one  of  the  first  necessary 
 steps  taken  towards  the  Reformation  in 
 this  country,  was  a  general  injunction,  that 
 parents  and  masters  should  first  learn  them 
 in  their  OAvn  tongue,  then  acquaint  their 
 children  and  servants  with  them:  which 
 three  main  branches  of  Christian  duty, 
 comprehending  the  sum  of  what  we  are  to 
 believe,  to  do,  and  to  petition  for,  were 
 soon  after  formed,  with  proper  explanations 
 of  each,  into  a  catechism.  To  this  w^as 
 added,  in  process  of  time,  a  brief  account 
 of  the  two  sacraments ;  all  together  making 
 up  that  very  good,  though  still  improveable, 
 "  form  of  sound  words  "  (2  Tim.  i.  13)  which 
 we  may  now  use. — Ahp.  Seeker. 
 
 As  to  the  form  of  our  catechism,  it  is 
 drawn  up  after  the  primitive  manner,  by 
 way  of  question  and  answer  :  so  Philip 
 catechized  the  eunuch,  (Acts  viii.  37,) 
 and  so  the  persons  to  be  baptized  were 
 catechized  in  the  first  ages.  And,  indeed, 
 the  very  word  catechism  implies  as  much ; 
 the  original  KaTi)xi<o,  from  whence  it  is 
 derived,  being  a  compound  of  rix^,  which 
 signifies  an  echo,  or  repeated  sound.  So 
 that  a  catechism  is  no  more  than  an  in- 
 struction fu-st  taught  and  instilled  into  a 
 person,  and  then  repeated  upon  the  cate- 
 chist's  examination. 
 
 As  to  the  contents  of  our  catechism,  it 
 is  not  a  large  system  or  body  of  divinity, 
 to  puzzle  the  heads  of  young  beginners, 
 but  only  a  short  and  full  explication  of  the 
 baptismal  vow.    The  primitive  catechisms. 
 
 indeed,  (that  is,  all  that  the  catechumens 
 were  to  learn  by  heart  before  their  baptism 
 and  confirmation,)  consisted  of  no  more 
 than  the  renunciation,  or  the  repetition  of 
 the  baptismal  vow,  the  creed,  and  the 
 Lord's  prayer :  and  these,  together  with 
 the  ten  commandments,  at  the  lleform- 
 ation,  were  the  whole  of  ours.  But  it  being 
 afterwards  thought  defective  as  to  the  doc- 
 trine of  the  sacraments,  (which  in  the 
 primitive  times  were  more  largely  ex- 
 plained to  baptized  persons,)  King  James 
 I.  appointed  the  bishops  to  add  a  short 
 and  plain  explanation  of  them,  which  was 
 done  accordingly  in  that  excellent  form  we 
 see  ;  being  penned  by  Bishop  Overall,  then 
 dean  of  St.  Paul's,  and  allowed  by  the  bi- 
 shops. So  that  now  (in  the  opinion  of  the 
 best  judges)  it  excels  all  catechisms  that 
 ever  were  in  the  world ;  being  so  short, 
 that  the  youngest  children  may  learn  it  by 
 heart ;  and  yet  so  full,  that  it  contains  all 
 things  necessary  to  be  known  in  order  to 
 salvation. 
 
 In  this  also  its  excellency  is  very  dis- 
 cernible, namely,  that  as  all  persons  are 
 baptized,  not  into  any  particular  Church, 
 but  into  the  Catholic  Church  of  Christ  ; 
 so  here  they  are  not  taught  the  opinion  of 
 this  or  any  other  particular  Church  or  peo- 
 ple, but  what  the  whole  body  of  Christians 
 all  the  world  over  agree  in.  If  it  may  any- 
 where seem  to  be  otherwise,  it  is  in  the 
 doctrine  of  the  sacraments ;  but  even  this 
 is  here  worded  with  so  much  caution  and 
 temper,  as  not  to  contradict  any  other  par- 
 ticular Church,  but  so  as  that  all  sorts  of 
 Christians,  w^hen  they  have  duly  consider- 
 ed it,  may  subscribe  to  everything  that  is 
 here  taught  or  delivered. —  Wheathj. 
 
 The  country  parson,  says  Herbert,  va- 
 lues catechizing  highly  ....  He  exacts 
 of  all  the  doctrine  of  the  catechism  ;  of  the 
 younger  sort,  the  very  words  ;  of  the  elder, 
 the  substance.  Those  he  catechizeth  pub- 
 licly ;  these  privately,  giving  age  honour', 
 according  to  the  apostle's  rule.  He  requires 
 all  to  be  present  at  catechizing  ;  first,  for 
 the  authority  of  the  work  ;  secondly,  that 
 parents  and  masters,  as  they  hear  the  an- 
 swers proved,  may,  when  they  come  home, 
 either  commend  or  reprove,  either  rew'ard 
 or  punish ;  thirdly,  that  those  of  the  elder 
 sort,  who  are  not  well  grounded,  may  then 
 by  an  honourable  way  take  occasion  to  be 
 better  instructed ;  fourthly,  that  those  who 
 are  well  grown  in  the  knowledge  of  religion, 
 may  examine  their  grounds,  renew  their 
 vows,  and  by  occasion  of  both  enlarge 
 their  meditation.  Having  read  Divine  ser- 
 vice twice  fully,  and  preached  in  the 
 morning,  and  catechized  in  the  afternoon, 
 
CATECHIST. 
 
 CATENA. 
 
 153 
 
 he  thinks  he  hath,  in  some  measure,  ac- 
 cordinn^  to  poor  and  frail  man,  discharged 
 the  public  duties  of  the  congregation. — 
 Herhert\  Country  Parson. 
 
 With  respect  to  the  catechetical  instruc- 
 tion of  youth,  I  would  remind  you,  that 
 it  was  the  primitive  method,  employed  by 
 the  apostles  and  their  immediate  follow^ers, 
 and  in  after  ages  by  the  whole  succession 
 of  the  catholic  and  apostolic  Church,  for 
 training  up  and  organizing  the  visible 
 community  of  Christians  in  sound  princi- 
 ples of  faith,  in  the  love  of  God  and  man, 
 and  in  purity  of  life  and  conversation.  It 
 is  observable,  accordingly,  that  in  exact 
 proportion  as  catechizing  has  been  prac- 
 tised or  neglected,  in  the  same  proportion 
 have  the  public  faith  and  morals  been  seen 
 to  flourish  or  decline  ....  In  the  earlier 
 ages  of  the  Church,  catechetical  schools 
 were  established  in  the  great  cities  of  the 
 empire  ;  over  Avhich  men  of  the  profound- 
 est  learning,  and  most  brilliant  talents, 
 felt  themselves  honoured  when  they  were 
 called  to  preside ;  w^hile  each  particular 
 church  had  its  catechists ;  and  the  cate- 
 chumens formed  a  regular  and  ascertained 
 class  or  division  of  every  congregation. 
 And  it  is  not  too  much  to  say,  that,  next 
 to  an  established  liturgy,  and  beyond  all 
 prescribed  confessions  of  faith,  the  single 
 ordinance  of  catechetical  instruction  has, 
 under  Providence,  been  the  great  stay  and 
 support,  throughout  Christendom,  of  or- 
 thodox, unAvavering  Christianity  ..... 
 Let  not  the  common  prejudice  be  enter- 
 tained, that  catechizing  is  a  slight  and 
 trifling  exercise,  to  be  performed  without 
 pain  and  preparation  on  your  part.  This 
 would  be  so,  if  it  were  the  mere  rote-work 
 asking  and  answering  of  the  questions  in 
 our  Chui'ch  Catechism :  but  to  open,  to 
 explain,  and  familiarly  to  illustrate  those 
 questions,  in  such  a  manner,  as  at  once  to 
 reach  the  understanding  and  touch  the 
 aff'ections  of  little  children,  is  a  work  which 
 demands  no  ordinary  acquaintance  at  once 
 with  the  whole  scheme  of  Christian  the- 
 ology, with  the  philosophy  of  the  human 
 minci,  and  with  the  yet  profounder  mys- 
 teries of  the  human  heart.  It  has,  there- 
 fore, been  well  and  truly  said,  by  I  recol- 
 lect not  Avhat  writer,  that  a  hoy  may  preach, 
 hut  to  catechize  requires  a  man. — Bp.  Jehh. 
 
 CATECHIST.  The  person  who  cate- 
 chizes. There  were  officers  of  this  name 
 in  the  ancient  Church ;  but  they  did  not 
 form  a  distinct  order.  Sometimes  the 
 bishop  catechized,  sometimes  the  catechists 
 were  selected  from  the  inferior  orders,  as 
 readers,  &c. — (See  Binqham.) 
 
 CATECHUMENS.    "A  name  given,  in 
 
 the  first  ages  of  Christianity,  to  the  Jews 
 or  Gentiles  who  were  being  prepared  and 
 instructed  to  receive  baptism.  It  comes 
 from  the  Greek  word  fcarTj^Jr,  which  sig- 
 nifies to  teach  by  word  of  mouth,  or  viva, 
 voce :  and  of  that  word  this  other,  koti^xov- 
 fifvoQ,  is  formed,  which  denotes  him  that  is 
 so  taught :  these  had  people  on  purpose 
 to  instruct  them.  Eusebius  makes  men- 
 tion of  Pantaenus,  Clemens,  and  Origen, 
 who  were  catechists  in  the  Church  of  Alex- 
 andria, and  had  a  peculiar  place  in  the 
 church  where  they  used  to  teach,  and  the 
 same  was  called  the  place  of  the  catechu- 
 mens, as  appears  by  the  canons  of  the 
 Council  of  Neoc(Csarea  :  they  tell  us  the 
 catechumens  were  not  permitted  to  be 
 present  at  the  celebration  of  the  holy  eu- 
 charist ;  but,  immediately  after  the  Gospel 
 was  read,  the  deacons  cried  with  a  loud 
 voice  :  "  Withdraw  in  peace,  you  catechu- 
 mens," for  so  the  book  of  the  Apostolical 
 Constitutions  will  have  it.  The  service 
 from  the  beginning  to  the  Offertory  was 
 called  3Iissa  catechumenorum.  The  cate- 
 chumens, not  being  baptized,  were  not  to 
 receive,  nor  so  much  as  permitted  to  see, 
 the  consecrated  elements  of  the  eucharist. 
 Some  writers  suppose  that  they  received 
 some  of  the  consecrated  bread,  called  cu- 
 loyicce ;  but  Bingham  shows  that  this  idea 
 is  founded  on  a  misconstruction  of  a  pass- 
 age in  St.  Augustine,  and  that  the  use  of 
 euloyiccB  was  not  known  in  the  Church, 
 until  long  after  the  discipline  of  the  cate- 
 chumens had  ceased.  According  to  a 
 canon  of  the  Council  of  Orange,  they  were 
 not  permitted  to  pray  with  the  faithful  or 
 those  in  full  communion.  There  were  se- 
 veral degrees  of  favour  in  the  state  of  the 
 catechumens  :  at  first  they  were  instructed 
 privately,  or  by  themselves,  and  afterwards 
 admitted  to  hear  sermons  in  the  church ; 
 and  these  last  were  called  audientes. 
 There  was  a  third  sort  of  catechumens, 
 called  orantes  or  yenujlectentes,  because 
 they  were  present  and  concerned  in  some 
 part  of  the  prayers  :  to  w^hich  we  may  add 
 a  fourth  degree  of  catechumens,  which 
 were  the  compctentcs ;  for  so  they  were 
 called  when  thev  desired  to  be  baptized. 
 
 CATENA.  From  a  Greek  word  sig- 
 nifying a  chain.  By  a  Catena  Patrum  is 
 meant  a  string  or  series  of  passages  from 
 the  writings  of  various  fathers,  and  ar- 
 ranged for  the  elucidation  of  some  portions 
 of  Scripture,  as  the  Psalms  or  Gospels. 
 They  seem  to  have  originated  in  the  short 
 scholia  or  glosses  which  it  was  customary  in 
 MSS-  cf  the  Scrii)tures  to  introduce  in  the 
 margin.  These  by  degrees  were  expanded, 
 and  passages  from  the  homilies  or  sermons 
 
156 
 
 CATHARISTS. 
 
 CATHEDRAL. 
 
 of  the  fathers  were  added  to  them.  The 
 most  celebrated  catena  is  the  Catena  Aurea 
 of  Thomas  Aquinas.  It  was  translated  at 
 Oxford,  under  tlie  superintendence  of  INIr. 
 Newman,  of  Oriel  College.  The  subse- 
 quent conduct  of  that  gentleman  has  led 
 those  who  were  willing  to  attach  some 
 authority  to  the  work  to  examine  it  care- 
 fully, and  the  result  has  been,  the  detection 
 that  Thomas  Aquinas  has  sometimes  falsi- 
 fied the  quotations  he  has  made  from  the 
 fathers ;  and  the  whole,  as  a  commentary, 
 is  inferior  to  the  commentaries  of  modern 
 theologians. 
 
 CATHAKISTS.  The  last  surviving  sect 
 of  Manicha^ans,  or  Gnostics,  who  gave  them- 
 selves that  name,  (from  KaOapcg,  pure,)  to 
 indicate  their  superior  purity.  There  were 
 many  different  degrees  of  error  among 
 them,  but  the  following  tenets  were  com- 
 mon to  all : — That  matter  was  the  source 
 of  all  evil ;  that  the  Creator  of  the  visible 
 world  was  not  the  same  as  the  Supreme 
 
 B( 
 
 that  Christ  had  not  a  real  body, 
 
 was  properly  speaking  born,  nor  really 
 died;  that  the  bodies  of  men  were  the 
 production  of  the  evil  principle,  and  were 
 incapable  of  sanctification  and  a  new  life ; 
 and  that  the  sacraments  were  but  vain 
 institutions,  and  without  power.  They 
 rejected  and  despised  the  Old  Testament, 
 but  received  the  New  Avith  reverence.  The 
 consequence  of  such  doctrines  was,  of  course, 
 that  they  made  it  the  chief  object  of  their 
 religion  to  emancipate  themselves  from 
 whatever  was  material,  and  to  macerate 
 their  bodies  to  the  utmost ;  and  their  per- 
 fect disciples,  in  obedience  to  this  prin- 
 ciple, renounced  animal  food,  wine,  and 
 marriage.  The  state  of  their  souls,  while 
 united  with  the  body,  was  in  their  estima- 
 tion a  wretched  incarceration,  and  they 
 only  escaped  from  some  portion  of  the  hor- 
 rors of  such  a  dungeon,  by  denying  them- 
 selves all  natural  enjoyments,  and  escaping 
 from  the  solicitations  of  all  the  senses. 
 
 The  Catharists  in  the  twelfth  century 
 spread  themselves  from  Bulgaria  over  most 
 of  the  European  provinces,  but  they  met 
 everywhere  with  extensive  persecution,  and 
 are  not  heard  of  after  that  time. 
 
 CATHEDKAL.  The  chief  church  in 
 every  diocese  is  called  the  Cathedi'al,  from 
 the  word  cathedra,  a  chair,  because  in  it 
 the  bishop  has  his  seat  or  throne.  The 
 cathedral  church  is  the  parish  church  of 
 the  whole  diocese  (which  diocese  was  there- 
 fore commonly  called  parocltia  in  ancient 
 times,  till  the  application  of  this  name  to 
 the  lesser  branches  into  which  it  was  di- 
 vided, caused  it  for  distinction'  sake  to  be 
 called  only  by  the  name  of  diocese) :  and 
 
 it  has  been  affirmed,  with  great  proba- 
 bility, that  if  one  resort  to  the  cathedral 
 church  to  hear  Divine  service,  it  is  a  re- 
 sorting to  the  parish  church  within  the 
 natural  sense  and  meaning  of  the  statute. 
 
 By  the  oth  canon  of  the  oth  Council  of 
 Carthage  it  is  ordained,  that  every  bishop 
 shall  have  his  residence  at  his  principal  or 
 cathedral  church,  which  he  shall  not  leave, 
 to  betake  himself  to  any  other  church  in 
 his  diocese  ;  nor  continue  upon  his  private 
 concerns,  to  the  neglect  of  his  cure,  and 
 hinderance  of  his  frequenting  the  cathe- 
 di'al church. — Bingham. 
 
 By  the  constitutions  of  Archbishop 
 Langton,  1222,  it  is  enjoined,  bishops  shall 
 be  at  their  cathedrals  on  some  of  the 
 greater  feasts,  and  at  least  in  some  part 
 of  Lent. 
 
 By  the  constitutions  of  Otho,  1237, 
 bishops  shall  reside  at  their  cathedral 
 churches,  and  officiate  there  on  the  chief 
 festivals,  on  the  Lord's  days,  and  in  Lent, 
 and  in  Advent. 
 
 By  the  constitutions  of  Othobon,  in  1268, 
 bishops  shall  be  personally  resident  to  take 
 care  of  their  flock,  and  for  the  comfort  of 
 the  churches  espoused  to  them,  especially 
 on  solemn  days,  in  Lent  and  Advent,  un- 
 less their  absence  is  required  by  theii*  supe- 
 riors, or  for  other  just  cause. 
 
 Canon  24,  "  In  all  cathedral  and  col- 
 legiate churches,  the  holy  communion  shall 
 be  administered  upon  principal  feast  days, 
 sometimes  by  the  bishop,  (if  he  be  pre- 
 sent,) and  sometimes  by  the  dean,  and 
 sometimes  by  a  canon  or  prebendary ;  the 
 principal  minister  using  a  decent  cope, 
 and  being  assisted  with  the  gospeller  and 
 epistler  agreeably,  according  to  the  ad- 
 vertisements published  in  the  seventh  year 
 of  Queen  Elizabeth  (hereafter  following). 
 The  said  communion  to  be  administered  at 
 such  times,  and  with  such  limitation,  as  is 
 specified  in  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer. 
 Provided  that  no  such  limitation  by  any 
 construction  shall  be  allowed  of,  but  that 
 all  deans,  wardens,  masters,  or  heads  of 
 cathedral  and  collegiate  churches,  preben- 
 daries, canons,  vicars,  petty  canons,  sing- 
 ing men,  and  all  others  of  the  foundation, 
 shall  receive  the  communion  four  times 
 yearly  at  the  least." 
 
 Canon  42.  "  Every  dean,  master,  or 
 warden,  or  chief  governor  of  any  cathedi'al 
 or  collegiate  church,  shall  be  resident  there 
 fourscore  and  ten  days,  co7\junctini  or  di- 
 risim,  in  every  year  at  the  least,  and  then 
 shall  continue  there  in  preaching  the  word 
 of  God,  and  keeping  good  hospitality ;  ex- 
 cept he  shall  be  othervAise  let  with  weighty 
 and  urgent  causes,  to  be  approved  by  the 
 
CATHEDRAL. 
 
 157 
 
 bishop,  or  in  any  other  lawful    sort  dis- 
 pensed with." 
 
 Canon  43.  "  The  dean,  master,  warden, 
 or  chief  governor,  prebendaries  and  canons, 
 in  every  cathedral  and  collegiate  church, 
 shall  preach  there,  in  their  own  jjcrsons,  so 
 often  as  they  are  bound  by  law,  statute, 
 ordinance,  or  custom." 
 
 Canon  44.  "  Prebendaries  at  large  shall 
 not  be  absent  from  their  cures  above  a 
 month  in  the  year ;  and  residentiaries  shall 
 divide  the  year  among  them ;  and,  when 
 their  residence  is  over,  shall  repair  to  their 
 benefices." 
 
 And  by  Canon  51,  "the  deans,  presi- 
 dents, and  residentiaries  of  any  cathedral 
 or  collegiate  church,  shall  suifer  no  stranger 
 to  preach  unto  the  people  in  their  churches, 
 except  they  be  allowed  by  the  archbishop 
 of  the  province,  or  by  the  bishop  of  the 
 same  diocese,  or  by  cither  of  the  univer- 
 sities. And  if  any  in  his  sermon  shall 
 publish  any  doctrine  either  strange,  or 
 disagreeing  from  the  word  of  God,  or  from 
 any  of  the  Thirty-nine  Articles,  or  from  the 
 Book  of  Common  Prayer,  the  dean  or  the 
 residents  shall  by  their  letters,  subscribed 
 with  some  of  their  hands  that  heard  him, 
 so  soon  as  may  be,  give  notice  of  the  same 
 to  the  bishop  of  the  diocese,  that  he  may 
 determine  the  matter,  and  take  such  order 
 therein  as  he  shall  think  convenient." 
 
 The  passage  of  the  advertisements  pub- 
 lished in  the  seventh  year  of  Queen  Eliza- 
 beth, referred  to  in  Canon  24,  is  as  follows : 
 "  Item,  in  the  ministration  of  the  holy 
 communion  in  cathedral  and  collegiate 
 churches,  the  principal  minister  shall  use 
 a  cope  with  gospeller  and  epistoler  agree- 
 ably ;  and  at  all  other  prayers  to  be  said 
 at  the  communion  table,  to  use  no  copes 
 but  surplices.  Item,  that  the  dean  and 
 prebendaries  wear  a  surplice,  with  a  silk 
 hood,  in  the  choir;  and  when  they  preach 
 in  the  cathedral  or  collegiate  church,  to 
 wear  a  hood."  And  at  the  end  of  the 
 service  book  in  the  second  year  of  Edward 
 VI.,  it  is  ordered  that  "  in  all  cathedral 
 churches,  the  archdeacons,  deans,  and  pre- 
 bendaries, being  graduates,  may  use  in  the 
 choir,  beside  their  surplices,  such  hoods  as 
 pertaineth  to  their  several  degrees,  which 
 they  have  taken  in  any  university  within 
 this  realm." 
 
 Churches  collegiate  and  conventual  were 
 always  visitable  by  the  bishop  of  the  dio- 
 cese, if  no  special  exemption  was  made  by 
 the  founder  thereof.  And  the  visitation  of 
 cathedral  churches  belongs  unto  the  metro- 
 politan of  the  province,  and  to  the  king 
 when  the  archbishopric  is  vacant. — Burn. 
 
 All  cathedrals  throudiout  the  world  had 
 
 a  body  of  clergy  and  ministers  belonging 
 to  them ;  which  were  divided  into  various 
 orders  and  degrees  ;  they  were  gradually 
 incorporated  in  Western  Christendom,  but 
 not  in  the  East.  (See  CJiapter.)  In  Eng- 
 land no  diocese  has  more  than  one  cathe- 
 dral. There  are  many  instances  of  a 
 plurality  of  cathecb-als  even  in  the  same 
 city,  as  at  Home,  Milan,  &c.,  and  formerly 
 in  France.  These  churches  were  called 
 concatJiedrals.  One  instance  exists  in 
 Ireland,  viz.  in  Dublin,  where  Christ 
 Church  and  St.  Patrick's  enjoy  all  the 
 rights  of  cathedrals ;  and  while  the  conge 
 d'  elire  existed,  conjointly  elected  the 
 archbishop  ;  and  their  united  consent  must 
 still  be  given  to  all  acts  which  require  the 
 sanction  of  a  chapter.  This  plurality  of 
 cathedrals  in  one  see  is  not  to  be  con- 
 founded with  a  plurality  of  cathedrals 
 under  the  same  bishop,  when,  as  generally 
 in  Ireland,  he  has  under  his  charge  two  or 
 more  dioceses.  One  Irish  diocese  (Meath) 
 has  no  cathedral ;  and  two  others  (Kilmore 
 and  Ardagh)  have  no  cathedral  chapters. 
 These  anomalies  are  not,  as  some  have 
 supposed,  remnants  of  a  primitive  order  of 
 things ;  for  it  can  be  proved  that  they  did 
 not  originally  exist  in  the  respective  dio- 
 ceses now  mentioned ;  but  were  the  con- 
 sequences of  poverty,  barbarism,  and  other 
 unhappy  causes  which  mutilated  the  ex- 
 ternal framework  of  the  Irish  church. — 
 Jehh. 
 
 With  reference  to  the  architecture  of  a 
 cathedral :  the  normal  plan  of  an  English 
 cathedral  is  in  the  form  of  a  Latin  cross ; 
 a  cross,  that  is,  whose  transverse  arms  are 
 less  than  the  lower  longitudinal  limb  ;  and, 
 in  a  general  architectural  description,  its 
 parts  are  sufficiently  distinguished  as  nave, 
 choir,  and  transept,  witli  their  aisles, 
 western  towers,  and  central  tower ;  but  in 
 more  minute  description,  especially  where 
 ritual  arrangements  are  concerned,  these 
 terms  are  not  always  sufficiently  precise, 
 and  we  shall  hardly  arrive  at  the  more 
 exact  nomenclature,  without  tracing  the 
 changes  in  a  cathedral  church  from  the 
 Norman  period  to  our  own. 
 
 In  a  Norman  cathedral,  the  cast  end,  or 
 architectural  choir,  usually  terminated  in 
 an  apse,  (see  Apse,)  surrounded  by  _  the 
 continuation  of  the  choir  aisles.  The  aisles 
 formed  a  path  for  processions  at  the  back 
 of  the  altar,  and  were  called  the  proces- 
 sumnry.  The  bishop's  throne  was  placed 
 behind  the  altar,  and  the  altar  itself  in  the 
 chord  of  the  ai)se ;  and  westward  of  this 
 was  a  considerable  space,  unoccupied  in 
 ordinary  cases,  which  was  called  the  pres- 
 hijiery.     The  choir,  or  place  in  which  the 
 
158 
 
 CATHEDRAL. 
 
 CATHOLIC. 
 
 daily  service  was  performed,  was  under  the 
 central  toAver,  with  perhaps  one  or  two 
 bays  of  the  nave  in  addition ;  so  that  the 
 ritual  and  the  architectural  choir  did  not 
 coincide,  but  the  ritual  choir  occupied  the 
 towQf  and  a  considerable  portion  of  the 
 architectural  nave.  This  arrangement 
 seems  unnatural,  and  even  inconvenient ; 
 but  it  was  perhaps  required  by  the  con- 
 nexion of  the  cathedral  with  the  monastic 
 or  other  offices  of  the  establishment ;  for 
 these  were  arranged  around  a  quadrangle, 
 of  wliich  the  architectural  nave,  or  western 
 limb  of  the  church,  formed  one  side,  and 
 length  was  gained  to  the  quadrangle,  with- 
 out disproportionate  enlargement  of  the 
 church,  by  making  the  western  limb  suf- 
 ficiently large  to  receive  part,  at  least,  of 
 the  ritual  choir.     (See  Monastery.) 
 
 The  transept  was  not  originally  sym- 
 bolical in  its  form ;  but  was  derived  from 
 the  transverse  hall  or  gallery  in  the  ancient 
 basilicas  at  the  upper  end  of  the  nave,  its 
 length  equal  to  the  breadth  of  the  nave 
 and  aisles.  The  accidental  approximating 
 to  the  form  of  the  cross  W'as  doubtless 
 perceived  by  later  Christian  architects, 
 who  accordingly  in  many  instances  length- 
 ened the  transept  so  as  to  make  the  ground- 
 plan  of  the  church  completely  cuneiform. — 
 Jehh. 
 
 In  the  transepts  and  aisles,  and  also  in 
 the  crj/pt,  which  generally  extended  be- 
 neath the  whole  eastern  limb  of  the  church, 
 were  numerous  altars,  and  little  chapels 
 were  often  thrown  out,  of  an  apsidal  form, 
 for  their  altars.  One  chapel,  especially, 
 was  dedicated  to  the  Blessed  Virgin,  and 
 called  the  Ladi/  chajjel,  but  its  place  does 
 not  seem  to  have  been  constant. 
 
 Subsequent  churches  were  of  course 
 subject  to  many  variations,  but  they  gener- 
 ally folloAved  much  this  course.  First,  the 
 apse  was  taken  down,  and  the  eastern  arm 
 of  the  cross  was  extended  considerably,  so 
 as  to  enlarge  the  presbytery,  or  part  in 
 which  the  altar  stood,  and  to  add  a  retro- 
 choir  in  place  of  the  old  processionary  be- 
 hind it ;  and  this  change  was  probably 
 connected  always  in  prospect,  and  often 
 at  once,  Avith  the  carrying  up  of  the  choir 
 eastward  of  the  great  tower,  or  in  other 
 words,  reconciling  the  ritual  with  the  ar- 
 chitectural arrangement.  After  this  jet 
 another  addition  was  made  to  the  east  end, 
 which  was  often  nearly  equal  to  the  nave 
 in  length ;  and  the  Lady  chapel  was  built 
 beyond  the  presbytery  and  retrochoir. 
 
 In  the  course  of  these  arrangements  the 
 several  screens,  the  rood  screen  and  the 
 altar  screen,  had  to  be  removed.  The 
 rood  screen  was  placed  within  the  eastern 
 
 arch  of  the  tower,  which  may  now  be  call- 
 ed its  proper  place,  wherever  the  church 
 has  received  its  usual  additions.  This 
 screen  is  now  almost  universally  used  as 
 an  organ  loft ;  and  it  is  obvious  to  remark, 
 that  though  the  organ  intercepts  the  view 
 from  the  west  end  of  the  church,  it  cer- 
 tainly does  not  do  so  more  than  the  rood 
 and  its  accompaniments  formerly  did.  The 
 altar  screen  first  became  necessary  at  the 
 enlarging  of  the  space  behind  the  altar :  it 
 formed  the  separation  of  the  presbytery 
 from  the  retrochoir.  In  some  instances 
 this  arrangement  has  been  disturbed  of  late 
 years,  but  always  with  bad  effect. 
 
 The  modifications  of  these  plans  and 
 arrano^ements  are  various,  but  oftener  on 
 the  side  of  excess  than  of  defect.  The 
 Lady  chapel  is  not  always  at  the  extreme 
 east.  At  Ely,  for  instance,  and  once  at 
 Peterborough,  it  was  at  the  north.  The 
 great  transept  is  never  omitted  (Manchester 
 can  hardly  be  called  an  exception,  since  it 
 has  only  lately  been  made  a  cathedral) ; 
 but  a  second  transept  to  the  east  of  the 
 tower  was  often  added,  as  at  Canterbury, 
 Lincoln,  and  Salisbury.  Sometimes,  as  at 
 Durham,  the  second  transept  is  carried  to 
 the  extreme  east  end  of  the  church,  which 
 it  crosses  in  the  form  of  a  T.  Sometimes 
 there  was  a  western  transept,  treated  in 
 the  same  way  as  at  Ely  and  Peterborough ; 
 and  at  Durham,  Ely,  and  Lincoln  was 
 another  considerable  addition,  called  the 
 Galilee  porch.  At  Canterbury,  the  whole 
 arrangement  of  the  east  end  is  very  re- 
 markable, the  crown  of  Archbishop  Becket 
 taking  the  usual  place  of  the  Lady  chapel. 
 The  shrines  of  reputed  saints,  and  chantry 
 monuments  inserted  in  diff"erent  portions 
 of  the  fabric,  with  too  little  respect  for  its 
 general  effect,  are  constant  additions  to  the 
 plan ;  but  it  would  be  useless  to  attempt 
 to  reduce  these  to  a  general  rule,  and  end- 
 less to  enumerate  particular  cases. 
 
 The  cathedrals  in  Ireland  and  Scotland 
 v.-ere  originally  very  small.  That  of  Ar- 
 magh, the  largest,  it  is  supposed,  of  ancient 
 date,  and  originally  built  by  St.  Patrick, 
 was  without  transepts,  which  were  added 
 many  ages  after.  The  most  interesting 
 relics  of  very  ancient  cathedrals  in  Ireland 
 are  at  Tuam  and  Clonfert.  Many  of 
 them  in  Scotland,  as  Elgin,  were  modelled 
 on  the  plan  of  Lincoln  cathedi'al. — Poole.       ^ 
 
 CATHOLIC.  (/caO  bXov.)  Universal  or  ' 
 general.  "  The  Church,"  says  St.  Cyril, 
 "  is  called  catholic,  because  it  is  throughout 
 the  world,  from  one  end  of  the  earth  to  the 
 other ;  and  because  it  teaches  universally 
 and  completely  all  the  truths  which  ought 
 to  come  to  men's  knowledge,  concerning 
 
CATHOLIC. 
 
 CELESTINES. 
 
 159 
 
 things  both  visible  and  invisible,  heavenly 
 and  earthly  ;  and  because  it  subjugates  ii'^ 
 order  to  godliness,  every  class  of  men, 
 governors  and  governed,  learned  and  un- 
 learned ;  and  because  it  universally  treats 
 and  heals  every  sort  of  sins  which  are  com- 
 mitted by  soul  or  body,  and  possesses  in 
 itself  every  form  of  virtue  which  is  named, 
 both  in  deeds  and  words,  and  every  kind 
 of  spiritual  gifts." — Catechetical  Lectures, 
 xviii.  23. 
 
 The  term  was  first  applied  to  the  Chris- 
 tian Church  to  distinguish  it  from  the 
 Jewish,  the  latter  being  confined  to  a  single 
 nation,  the  former  being  open  to  all  Avho 
 should  seek  admission  into  it  by  holy  bap- 
 tism. Hence,  the  Christian  Church  is 
 general  or  universal.  The  first  regularly 
 organized  Christian  Church  was  formed  at 
 Jerusalem.  When  St.  Peter  converted 
 three  thousand  souls,  (Acts  ii.  41,)  the  new 
 converts  were  not  formed  into  a  new  Church, 
 but  were  added  to  the  original  society. 
 When  Churches  were  formed  afterwards  at 
 Samaria,  Antioch,  and  other  places,  these 
 were  not  looked  upon  as  entirely  separate 
 bodies,  but  as  branches  of  the  one  holy 
 Catholic  or  Apostolic  Church.  St.  Paul 
 says,  (1  Cor.  xii.  13,)  "i>y  one  Spirit  ire 
 are  all  baptized  into  one  hody ;  "  and,  (Eph. 
 iv.  4,)  "  There  is  one  hody  and  one  SPIRIT." 
 A  Catholic  Church  means  a  branch  of  this 
 one  great  society,  as  the  Church  of  England 
 is  said  to  be  a  Catholic  Church  ;  the  Catho- 
 lic Church  includes  all  the  Churches  in  the 
 world  under  their  legitimate  bishops. 
 
 When  in  after-times  teachers  began  to 
 form  separate  societies,  and  to  call  them 
 by  their  own  name,  as  the  Arians  were 
 named  from  Arius,  the  Macedonians  from 
 Macedonius  ;  and,  in  later  times,  Calvin- 
 ists  from  Calvin,  Wesleyans  from  Wesley  ; 
 the  true  churchmen,  refusing  to  be  de- 
 signated by  the  name  of  any  human  leader, 
 called  themselves  Catholics,  i.  e.  members, 
 not  of  any  peculiar  society,  but  of  the 
 Universal  Church.  And  the  term  thus 
 used  not  only  distinguished  the  Church 
 from  the  world,  but  the  true  Church  from 
 heretical  and  schismatical  parties.  Hence, 
 in  ecclesiastical  history,  the  word  catholic 
 means  the  same  as  orthodox,  and  a  catholic 
 Christian  denotes  an  orthodox  Christian. 
 
 From  this  may  be  seen  the  absurdity  of 
 calling  those  who  receive  the  decrees  of 
 the  Council  of  Trent  Catholics.  The  Ro- 
 manists, or  Papists,  or  Tridentines,  belong 
 to  a  peculiar  society,  in  which  llomanism 
 or  Romish  eiTors  are  added  to  orthodox 
 truth.  "When  we  call  them  Catholics,  we 
 as  much  as  call  ourselves  Heretics,  we  as 
 much  as  admit  them  to  be  orthodox :  and 
 
 they  gladly  avail  themselves  of  this  admis- 
 sion, on  the  part  of  some  ignorant  Protest- 
 ants, to  hold  up  an  argument  against  the 
 Church  of  England.  Let  the  member  of  the 
 Church  of  England  assert  his  right  to  the 
 name  of  Catholic,  since  he  is  the  only  per- 
 son in  England  who  has  a  right  to  that 
 name.  The  English  Romanist  is  a  Romish 
 schismatic,  and  not  a  Catholic. 
 
 CATHOLIC  EPISTLES.  The  Epis- 
 tles of  St.  James,  St.  Peter,  St.  Jude,  and 
 St.  John  are  called  Catholic  Epistles,  either 
 because  they  were  not  Mritten  to  any  par- 
 ticular person,  or  Church,  but  to  Christians 
 in  general,  or  to  Christians  of  several  coun- 
 tries :  or  because,  whatever  doubts  may  at 
 first  have  been  entertained  respecting  some 
 of  them,  they  were  all  acknowledged  by 
 the  Catholic  or  Universal  Church,  at  the 
 time  this  appellation  was  attached  to  them, 
 which  we  find  to  have  been  common  in  the 
 fourth  century. 
 
 CAVEAT.  A  caveat  is  a  caution  en- 
 tered in  the  spiritual  court,  to  stop  pro- 
 bates, administi'ations,  licences,  &c.,  from 
 being  granted  without  the  knowledge  of 
 the  party  that  enters  the  caveat. 
 
 CELESTINES.  A  religious  order  of 
 Christians,  which  derives  its  name  from  its 
 founder,  Pietro  de  Morone,  afterwards  Ce- 
 lestin  v.,  a  hermit,  who  followed  the  rules 
 of  St.  Bcnnet,  who  founded  the  order  in 
 1254,  and  got  the  institution  confirmed  by 
 Pope  Urban  VIII.  in  1264,  and  by  Gre- 
 gory X.  in  1273,  at  the  second  general 
 Council  of  Lyons :  this  order  soon  multi- 
 plied in  Italy,  and  Avas  brought  into  France 
 in  1300,  by  Philip  the  Fair,  who  sent  to 
 Peter  of  Sorrel,  a  singer  of  the  Church  of 
 Orleans,  or  according  to  others,  of  that  of 
 Amiens,  his  ambassador  then  at  Naples, 
 to  beg  of  the  abbot-general  of  it  twelve  of 
 this  order,  to  be  sent  into  France.  When 
 they  were  arrived,  the  king  gave  them  two 
 monasteries,  one  In  the  forest  of  Orleans, 
 at  a  place  called  Ambert,  and  the  other  in 
 the  forest  of  Complegne,  in  Mount  Charti'cs. 
 Charles,  dauphin  and  regent  of  France,  in 
 1352,  Avhile  King  John,  his  father,  was 
 prisoner  in  England,  sent  for  six  of  these 
 monks  of  Mount  Chartres,  to  establish  them 
 at  Paris,  at  a  place  called  Barrez,  where 
 there  was,  till  the  Revolution,  a  monastery 
 of  that  order:  and  that  prince,  in  1356, 
 gave  them  every  month  a  purse  under  the 
 seal  of  the  chancelery,  which  gift  was  con- 
 firmed by  a  patent  in  1361,  at  King  John's 
 return.  When  Charles  came  to  the  crown 
 himself,  he  made  them  a  gift  of  a  thousand 
 livres  of  gold,  with  twelve  acres  of  the  best 
 timber  in  the  forest  of  Moret,  to  build 
 their  church  with,  whereof  he  himself  laid 
 
160 
 
 CELIBACY. 
 
 the  first  stone,  and  had  it  consecrated  in 
 his  presence.  After  which  he  settled  a 
 considerable  parcel  of  land  upon  the  same 
 monastery.  The  Celestines  ^vere  called 
 hermits  of  St.  ])amian  before  their  insti- 
 tutor  became  po])e.  Their  first  monastery 
 •was  at  Monte  Majella,  in  the  kingdom  of 
 Naples. 
 
 CELIBACY.  The  state  of  unmamed 
 persons :  a  word  used  chiefly  in  speaking 
 of  the  single  life  of  the  Komish  clergy,  or 
 the  obligation  they  are  under  to  abstain 
 from  marriage. 
 
 At  the  time  of  the  Reformation,  scarcely 
 any  point  was  more  canvassed  than  the 
 right  of  the  clergy  to  marry.  The  celibacy 
 of  the  clergy  was  justly  considered  as  a 
 principal  cause  of  irregular  and  dissolute 
 living ;  and  the  wisest  of  the  Reformers 
 were  exceedingly  anxious  to  abolish  a 
 practice,  which  had  been  injurious  to  the 
 interests  of  religion,  by  its  tendency  to 
 corrupt  the  morals  of  those  who  ought  to 
 be  examples  of  virtue  to  the  rest  of  man- 
 kind. The  marriage  of  priests  was  so  far 
 from  being  forbidden  by  the  Mosaic  insti- 
 tution, that  the  priesthood  was  confined 
 to  the  descendants  of  one  family,  and  con- 
 sequently there  was  not  only  a  permission, 
 but  an  obligation  upon  the  Jewish  priests 
 to  marry.  Hence  we  conclude  that  there 
 is  no  natural  inconsistency,  or  even  un- 
 suitableness,  between  the  married  state 
 and  the  duties  of  the  ministers  of  religion. 
 Not  a  single  text  in  the  New  Testament 
 can  be  interpreted  into  a  prohibition 
 against  the  marriage  of  the  clergy  under 
 the  gospel  dispensation;  but,  on  the  con- 
 trary, there  are  many  passages  from  which 
 we  may  infer  that  they  are  allowed  the 
 same  liberty  upon  this  subject  as  other 
 men  enjoy.  One  of  the  twelve  apostles, 
 namely,  St.  Peter,  was  certainly  a  married 
 man  (Matt.  viii.  14) ;  and  it  is  supposed 
 that  several  of  the  others  were  also  mar- 
 ried. Philip,  one  of  the  seven  deacons, 
 was  also  a  married  man  (Acts  xxi.  9) ; 
 and  if  our  Lord  did  not  require  celibacy 
 in  the  first  preachers  of  the  gospel,  it 
 cannot  be  thought  indispensable  in  their 
 successors.  St.  Paul  says,  "  Let  every 
 man  have  his  own  wife"  (1  Cor.  vii.  2); 
 and  that  marriage  is  honourable  in  all, 
 (Heb.  xiii.  4,)  without  excepting  those 
 who  are  employed  in  the  public  offices 
 of  religion.  He  expressly  says,  that  "a 
 bishop  must  be  the  husband  of  one  wife  " 
 (1  Tim.  iii.  2) ;  and  he  gives  the  same  di- 
 rection concerning  elders,  priests,  and  dea- 
 cons. \^Tien  Aquila  travelled  about  to 
 preach  the  gospel,  he  was  not  only  mar- 
 ried, but  his  wife  Priscilla  accompanied 
 
 him  (Acts  xviii.  2) ;  and  St.  Paul  insists 
 that  he  might  have  claimed  the  privilege 
 "  of  caiTying  about  a  sister  or  wife,  (1  Cor. 
 ix.  5,)  as  other  apostles  did."  The  "  for- 
 bidding to  marry"  (1  Tim.  iv.  3)  is  men- 
 tioned as  a  character  of  the  apostasy  of 
 the  latter  times.  That  the  ministers  of  the 
 gospel  were  allowed  to  marry  for  several 
 centuries  after  the  days  of  the  apostles 
 appears  certain.  Polycarp  mentions  Va- 
 lens,  presbyter  of  Philippi,  who  was  a 
 married  man,  and  there  are  now  extant 
 two  letters  of  Tertullian,  a  presbyter  of 
 the  second  century,  addi'essed  to  his  wife. 
 Novatus  was  a  married  presbyter  of  Car- 
 thage, as  we  learn  from  Cyprian,  who  was, 
 in  the  opinion  of  some  historians,  him- 
 self a  married  man  ;  and  so  was  Ca}cilius, 
 the  presbyter  who  converted  him,  and 
 Numidius,  another  presbyter  of  Carthage. 
 That  they  were  allowed  to  cohabit  with 
 their  wives  after  ordination  appears  from 
 the  charge  which  Cyprian  brought  against 
 Novatus,  that  he  had  struck  and  abused 
 his  wife,  and  by  that  means  caused  her  to 
 miscaiTy.  In  the  Council  of  Nice,  A.  D. 
 325,  a  motion  was  made,  that  a  law  might 
 pass  to  oblige  the  clergy  to  abstain  from 
 all  conjugal  society  :  but  it  was  strenuously 
 opposed  by  Paphnutius,  a  famous  Egyptian 
 bishop,  who,  although  himself  unmarried, 
 pleaded  that  marriage  was  honourable,  and 
 that  so  heavy  a  burden  as  abstaining  from 
 it  ought  not  to  be  laid  upon  the  clergy. 
 Upon  which  the  motion  was  laid  aside,  and 
 every  man  left  to  his  liberty,  as  before. 
 All  that  Valesius,  after  Bellarmine,  has  to 
 say  against  this  is,  that  he  suspects  the 
 truth  of  the  thing,  and  begs  leave  to  dis- 
 sent from  the  historian ;  which  is  but  a 
 poor  evasion  in  the  judgment  of  Du  Pin 
 himself,  who,  though  a  Romanist,  makes 
 no  question  but  that  the  Council  of  Nice 
 decreed  in  favour  of  the  married  clergy. 
 The  same  thing  is  evident  from  other 
 councils  of  the  same  age  ;  as  the  councils 
 of  Gangra,  Ancyra,  Neoca?sarea,  Eliberis, 
 and  Trullo.  We  have  also  a  letter  from 
 Hilary  of  Poictiers,  written  to  his  daughter 
 when  he  was  in  exile;  and  from  what  can 
 be  collected  concerning  her  age,  it  seems 
 probable  that  she  was  born  when  he  was  a 
 bishop.  At  the  same  time  it  must  be 
 owned,  that  many  things  are  said  in  praise 
 of  a  single  life  in  the  writings  of  the  an- 
 cient fathers  ;  and  the  law  of  celibacy  had 
 been  proposed,  before  or  about  the  begin- 
 ning of  the  fourth  century,  by  some  in- 
 dividuals. The  arguments  are  forcible 
 which  are  used,  but  there  is  one  general 
 answer  to  them  all:  the  experiment  has 
 been  made,  and  it  has  failed.     In  a  country 
 
CELLITES. 
 
 CENSURES  ECCLESIASTICAL.    101 
 
 where  there  are  no  nunneries,  the  wives  of 
 the  clergy  are  most  useful  to  the  Church. 
 Siricius,  who,  according  to  Dufresnoy,  died 
 in  the  year  1399,  [397,  Barcnius,]  was  the 
 first  po])e  who  forbade  the  marriage  of  the 
 clergy  ;  but  it  is  probable  that  this  prohi- 
 bition was  little  regarded,  as  the  celibacy 
 of  the  clergy  seems  not  to  have  been  com- 
 pletely established  till  the  papacy  of  Gre- 
 gory VII.,  at  the  end  of  the  eleventh  cen- 
 tury, and  even  at  that  time  it  was  loudly 
 complained  of  by  many  writers.  The  his- 
 tory of  the  following  centuries  abundantly 
 proves  the  bad  efiects  of  this  abuse  of 
 Church  power.  The  old  English  and  "Welsh 
 records  show  that  the  clergy  were  married 
 as  late  as  the  eleventh  century.  See  the 
 Liber  Latidavensis,  passim. 
 
 CELLITES.  A  certain  religious  order 
 of  Popish  Christians,  which  has  houses  in 
 Antwerp,  Louvain,  Mechlin,  Cologne,  and 
 in  other  towns  in  Germany  and  the  Ne- 
 therlands, whose  founder  was  one  Mexius, 
 a  lloman,  mentioned  in  the  history  of 
 Italy,  where  they  are  also  called  Mexians. 
 
 CEMETERY  means  originally  a  place 
 to  sleep  in,  and  hence  by  Christians,  who 
 regard  death  as  a  kind  of  sleep,  it  is  applied 
 to  designate  a  place  of  burial.  Cemetery 
 is  derived  from  Koifiauj,  to  sleep,  because 
 the  primitive  Christians  spoke  of  death  as 
 a  sleep,  from  which  men  are  to  aAvake  at 
 the  general  resurrection.  The  first  Chris- 
 tian sepulchres  were  crypts  or  catacombs. 
 The  custom  of  burying  in  churches  was 
 not  practised  for  the  first  300  years  of  the 
 Christian  era  ;  and  severe  laws  were  passed 
 against  burying  even  in  cities.  The  first 
 step  towards  the  practice  of  burying  in 
 churches,  was  the  transferring  of  the  relics 
 of  martyrs  thither:  next,  sovereigns  and 
 princes  were  allowed  burial  in  the  porch : 
 in  the  sixth  century  churchyards  came 
 into  use.  By  degrees  the  practice  prevailed 
 from  the  ninth  to  the  thirteenth  century, 
 encouraged  first  by  special  grants  from 
 popes,  and  by  connivance,  though  con- 
 trary to  the  express  laAvs  of  the  Church. — 
 See  BuH/ham.  (See  9  &  10  Vict.  c.  68, 
 entitled  "  An  Act  for  better  enabling  the 
 Burial  Service  to  be  performed  in  one 
 chapel,  where  contiguous  burial-ground 
 shall  have  been  provided  for  two  or  more 
 parishes  or  places.") 
 
 The  following  is  a  list  of  the  several  acts 
 of  parliament  recently  passed  relating  to 
 church  building,  and  to  cemeteries  and 
 churchvards :— 43  Geo.  III.  c.  108;  51 
 Geo.  III.  c.  lloj  56  Geo.  III.  c.  141  ;  58 
 Geo.  III.  c.  45;  59  Geo.  III.  c.  134;  3 
 Geo.  IV.  c.  72 ;  5  Geo.  IV.  c.  103;  7  &  8 
 Geo.  IV.  0.  72 ;  9  Geo.  IV.  c.  42 :  1  &  2 
 
 Wm.  IV.  c.  38 ;  2  &  3  Wm.  IV.  c.  61 ;  1 
 Vict.  c.  75  ;  1  &  2  Vict.  c.  107  ;  2  &  3 
 Vict.  c.  49 ;  3  &  4  Vict.  c.  60  ;  7  &  8  Vict, 
 c.  56 ;  8  &  9  Vict.  c.  70 ;  9  &  10  Vict.  c. 
 88  ;  10  &  11  Vict.  c.  65  ;  11  &  12  Vict.  c. 
 37;  11  &  12  Vict.  c.  71. 
 
 In  the  neighbourhood  of  London  are 
 several  cemeteries  endowed  with  privileges 
 under  acts  of  parliament  specially  apj)!!- 
 cable  to  them.  The  principal  is  that  of 
 Kensall  Green,  established  2  &  3  Wm.  IV., 
 and  consecrated  by  the  bishop  of  London 
 in  1832 ;  the  South  London,  at  Norwood, 
 was  estabhshed  6  &  7  Wm.  IV.,  1836. 
 There  are  four  others  in  the  neighbour- 
 hood of  London.  There  are  large  ceme- 
 teries also  at  Manchester,  Liverpool,  Read- 
 ing, and  several  other  towns. 
 
 In  1850  was  passed  the  act  13  &  14 
 Vict.  c.  52,  which  gave  to  the  General 
 Board  of  Health  very  extensive  powers 
 for  abolishing  existing  places  of  se])ulture, 
 whether  in  the  neighbourhood  of  churches 
 or  not,  and  for  establishing  public  ceme- 
 teries. This  very  elaborate  act,  containing 
 seventy-seven  sections  and  four  schedules, 
 has  hitherto  been  found  impracticable, 
 except  in  so  far  as  it  relates  to  the  ap]ioint- 
 ment  of  a  new  commissioner  of  the  lioard 
 of  Health  to  work  the  act.  In  the  year 
 1852  was  passed  the  15  &  16  Vict.  c.  85, 
 making  provision  for  interments  in  tlie 
 metropolis.  In  1853,  by  16  &  17  Vict.  c. 
 134,  most  of  the  provisions  of  the  act  of 
 1852  were  extended  to  all  England. 
 
 CENOBITES.  A  name  formerly  given 
 to  such  as  entered  into  a  monastic  life,  and 
 lived  in  communities,  to  distinguish  them 
 from  such  as  passed  their  lives  in  wilder- 
 nesses and  alone,  as  hermits  and  anchorites. 
 The  word  is  derived  from  koiv6i3lov,  vitce 
 communis  societas. 
 
 CENOTAPH.  {Ksvord(pwv,  from  ksvoq 
 and  Tcicpog,  an  emjjfij  tomh.)  A  memorial  of 
 a  deceased  person,  not  erected  over  his 
 body.  So  far  as  churches  may  be  con- 
 sidered memorials  of  the  saints  whose 
 name  they  bear,  they  are  analogous  either 
 to  monuments,  when  the  bodies  of  the 
 saints  there  repose,  (as,  for  instance,  St. 
 Alban's,  and  the  ancient  church  at  Peran- 
 sabulo,)  or  to  cenotaphs,  when,  as  is  far 
 more  generally  the  case,  the  saint  is  buried 
 far  oft".  A  great  part  of  the  monuments 
 which  disfigure  AVestminster  Abbey  and 
 St.  Paul's  are  cenotaphs. 
 
 CENSURES  ECCLESIASTICAL. 
 The  penalties  by  which,  for  some  remark- 
 able misbehaviour.  Christians  are  de})rived 
 of  the  communion  of  the  Church,  or  clergy- 
 men are  prohibited  to  execute  the  sacer- 
 dotal ofiice.     These  censures  are,  excom- 
 
1G2     CENTURIES,  MAGDEBURG. 
 
 CEREMONY. 
 
 niimication,  suspension,  and  interdict;  or 
 else,  irregularity,  "which  hinders  a  man 
 from  being  admitted  into  holy  orders. 
 
 The  canonists  define  an  ecclesiastical 
 censure  to  be  a  spiritual  punishment,  in- 
 flicted by  some  ecclesiastical  judge,  Avhere- 
 by  he  deprives  a  person  baptized  of  the  use 
 of  some  s])iritual  things,  ^hich  conduce,  not 
 only  to  his  present  Avelfare  in  the  Church, 
 but  likewise  to  his  future  and  eternal 
 salvation.  It  differs  from  civil  punishments, 
 vhich  consist  only  in  things  temporal ;  as 
 confiscation  of  goods,  pecuniary  mulcts  or 
 fines,  and  the  like  ;  but  the  Church,  by  its 
 censures,  does  not  deprive  a  man  of  all 
 spirituals,  but  only  of  some  in  particular. 
 This  definition  speaks  of  such  things  as 
 conduce  to  eternal  salvation,  in  order  to 
 manifest  the  end  of  this  censure  ;  for  the 
 Church,  by  censures,  does  not  intend  the 
 destroying  of  men's  souls,  but  only  the 
 savhuj  them  ;  by  enjoining  repentance  for 
 past  errors,  a  return  from  contumacy,  and 
 an  abstaining  from  future  sins. 
 
 CENTURIES,  MAGDEBURG.  A 
 celebrated  and  extraordinary  ecclesiastical 
 history,  projected  by  Flacius  Illp'icus,  and 
 prosecuted  by  him,  in  conjunction  with 
 several  others,  many  of  them  divines  of 
 Magdeburg.  Their  names  were,  Nicolaus 
 Gallus,  Johannes  AYigandus,  and  Matthias 
 Judex,  all  ministers  of  Magdeburg,  as- 
 sisted by  Caspar  Nidpruckius,  an  Imperial 
 Counsellor,  Johannes  Baptista  Heincelius, 
 an  Augustinian,  Basil  Faber,  and  others. 
 The  ccnturiators  thus  describe  the  process 
 employed  in  the  composition  of  their  work. 
 Five  directors  were  appointed  to  manage 
 the  whole  design  ;  and  ten  paid  agents 
 supplied  the  necessary  labour.  Seven  of 
 these  Avere  well-informed  students,  who 
 were  employed  in  making  collections  from 
 the  various  pieces  set  before  them.  Tavo 
 others,  more  advanced  in  years,  and  of 
 greater  learning  and  judgment,  arranged 
 the  matter  thus  collected,  submitted  it  to 
 the  directors,  and,  if  it  were  approA  ed,  em- 
 ployed it  in  the  composition  of  the  work. 
 As  fast  as  the  various  chapters  were  com- 
 posed, they  were  laid  before  certain  in- 
 spectors, selected  from  the  directors,  who 
 carefully  examined  what  had  been  done, 
 and  made  the  necessary  alterations  •  and, 
 finally,  a  regular  amanuensis  made  a  fair 
 copy  of  the  whole. 
 
 At  length,  in  the  year  1560,  (though 
 probably  printed  in  1559,)  appeared  the 
 first  volume  of  their  laborious  undertaking. 
 It  was  printed  at  Basle.  But  the  city  in 
 which  the  first  part  of  it  was  composed 
 has  given  it  a  distinctive  title  ;  and  the 
 first  great  Protestant  work  on  Church  his- 
 
 tory has  been  always  commonly  known  as 
 the  3Iaf/ debit )r/  Centuries. 
 
 It  was  in  every  point  of  view  an  extra- 
 ordinary production.  Though  the  fii'st 
 modern  attempt  to  illustrate  the  history  of 
 the  Church,  it  was  written  upon  a  scale 
 which  has  scarcely  been  exceeded.  It 
 brought  to  light  a  large  quantity  of  un- 
 published materials  ;  and  cast  the  whole 
 subject  into  a  fixed  and  regular  form. 
 One  of  its  most  remarkable  features  is  the 
 elaborate  classification.  This  was  strictly 
 original,  and,  with  all  its  inconveniences, 
 undoubtedly  tended  to  introduce  scientific 
 arrangement  and  minute  accuracy  into 
 the  study  of  Church  history.  Each  cen- 
 tury is  treated  separately,  in  sixteen  heads 
 or  chapters.  The  first  of  these  gives  a 
 general  view  of  the  history  of  the  century  ; 
 then  follow,  2.  The  extent  and  propaga- 
 tion of  the  Church.  3.  Persecution  and 
 tranquillity  of  the  Church.  4.  Doctrine. 
 5.  Heresies.  6.  Bites  and  Ceremonies. 
 7.  Government.  8.  Schisms.  9.  Coun- 
 cils. 10.  Lives  of  Bishops  and  Doctors. 
 11.  Heretics.  12.  Martyrs.  13.  Miracles. 
 14.  Condition  of  the  Jews.  15.  Other  re- 
 ligions not  Christian.  16.  Political  con- 
 dition of  the  world. 
 
 Mr.  Dowling  (from  whose  excellent 
 work  on  the  study  of  Ecclesiastical  His- 
 tory this  article  is  taken)  adds,  that  this  pe- 
 culiarity of  form  rendered  the  work  of  the 
 ccnturiators  rather  a  collection  of  separate 
 treatises,  than  a  compact  and  connected 
 history ;  while,  their  object  being  to  sup- 
 port a  certain  form  of  polemical  theology, 
 their  relations  are  often  twisted  to  suit 
 their  particular  views. 
 
 CERDONIAXS.  Heretics  of  the  se- 
 cond century,  followers  of  Cerdon.  The 
 heresy  consisted  chiefly  in  laying  down  the 
 existence  of  two  contrary  principles  ;  in 
 rejecting  the  law,  and  the  prophets  as 
 ministers  of  a  bad  GoD ;  in  ascribing,  not 
 a  true  body,  but  only  the  phantasm  of  a 
 body,  to  our  blessed  Loed,  and  in  de- 
 nying the  resurrection. — Terhdlian.  Epi- 
 phajivKs. 
 
 CEREMONY.  This  word  is  of  Latin 
 origin,  though  some  of  the  best  critics  in 
 antiquity  are  divided  in  their  opinions,  in 
 assigning  from  what  original  it  is  derived. 
 Joseph  Scaliger  proves  by  analogy,  that  as 
 sancthnotn'a  comes  from  sanctvs,  so  does 
 ccrcmonia  from  the  old  Latin  Avord  cents, 
 Avhich  signifies  sacred  or  holy.  The  Chris- 
 tian Avriters  have  adapted  the  word  to 
 signify  external  rites  and  customs  in  the 
 worship  of  God  ;  which,  though  they  are 
 not  of  the  essence  of  religion,  yet  contri- 
 bute much  to  good  order  and  uniformity 
 
CEREMONY. 
 
 163 
 
 in  the  church.  If  there  were  no  orna- 
 ments in  the  clmrch,  and  no  prescribed 
 order  of  administration,  the  common  peo- 
 ple would  hardly  be  persuaded  to  show 
 more  reverence  in  the  sacred  assemblies 
 than  in  other  ordinary  places,  where  they 
 meet  only  for  business  or  diversion.  Upon 
 this  account  St.  Augustine  says,  "  No  re- 
 ligion, either  true  or  false,  can  subsist  with- 
 out some  ceremonies."  Notwithstanding 
 this,  some  persons  have  laid  it  down,  as  a 
 fundamental  principle  of  religion,  that  no 
 ceremony,  or  human  constitution,  is  justifi- 
 able, but  wliat  is  expressly  warranted  in  the 
 word  of  God.  This  dogma  Mr.  Cartwright 
 has  reduced  into  a  syllogistical  demonstra- 
 tion. "  Wheresoever  faith  is  wanting, 
 there  is  sin.  In  every  action  not  com- 
 manded, faith  is  wanting ;  ergo,  in  every 
 action  not  commanded,  tliere  is  sin."  But 
 the  falsity  of  this  syllogism  is  shown  at 
 large  by  Hooker,  in  his  second  book  of 
 Ecclesiastical  Polity,  by  arguments  drawn 
 from  the  indifference  of  many  human  ac- 
 tions— from  the  natural  liberty  God  has 
 afforded  us — from  the  examples  of  holy 
 men  in  Scripture,  who  have  differently 
 used  this  liberty — and  from  the  power 
 which  the  Church  by  Divine  authority  is 
 vested  with.  That  apostolical  injunction, 
 '*  Let  all  things  be  done  with  decency,  and 
 in  order,"  (1  Cor.  xiv.  40,)  is  a  much  bet- 
 ter demonstration,  that  the  Church  has  a 
 power  to  enjoin  proper  ceremonies,  for  the 
 good  order  and  comeliness  of  ecclesiastical 
 conventions,  than  Mr.  Cart^^Tight's  syllo- 
 gism is  for  the  people's  contempt  of  them 
 when  enjoined. — Nicholls. 
 
 We  still  keep,  and  esteem,  not  only  those 
 ceremonies  which  we  are  sure  were  de- 
 livered us  from  the  apostles,  but  some 
 others  too  besides,  which  we  thought  might 
 be  suffered  without  hurt  to  the  Church  of 
 God  ;  for  that  we  had  a  desire  that  all 
 things  in  the  holy  congregation  might,  as 
 St.  Paul  commandeth,  be  done  with  come- 
 liness, and  in  good  order.  But  as  for  all 
 those  things  which  we  saw  were  either 
 very  superstitious,  or  utterly  unprofitable, 
 or  noisome,  or  mockeries,  or  contrary  to 
 the  Holy  Scriptures,  or  else  unseemly  for 
 sober  and  discreet  people,  whereof  there 
 be  infinite  numbers  now-a-days,  where  the 
 Roman  religion  is  used ;  these,  I  say,  we 
 have  utterly  refused  without  all  manner  of 
 exception,  because  we  would  not  have  the 
 right  worshipping  of  God  to  be  defiled  any 
 longer  with  such  follies. — Bp.  Jewell. 
 
 Wise  Christians  sit  down  in  the  mean 
 
 now  under  the  gospel,  avoiding  a  careless 
 
 and  parsimonious  neglect  on  the  one  side, 
 
 and   a   superstitious   slovenliness   on   the 
 
 M  2 
 
 other :  the  painted  looks  and  lascivious 
 gaudiness  of  the  Church  upon  the  hills, 
 and  the  careless,  neglected  dress  of  some 
 Churches  in  the  valley. — Bp.  Hall. 
 
 Far  be  it  from  me  to  be  a  patron  of 
 idolatry  or  superstition  in  the  least  degree, 
 yet  I  am  afraid  lest  we,  who  have  refoiTned 
 the  worship  of  God  from  that  pollution, 
 (and  blessed  be  his  name  therefor !)  by 
 bending  the  crooked  stick  too  much  the 
 other  way,  liave  run  too  far  into  the  other 
 extreme. — Mede. 
 
 It  may  be  objected,  that  my  superior 
 may  enjoin  me  such  a  law,  as  my  consci- 
 ence tells  me  is  scandalous  to  my  brother, 
 not  convenient,  not  edifying,  &c. ;  what 
 shall  I  do  in  this  condition  ?  If  I  conform, 
 I  sin  against  my  conscience  (llom.  xiv. 
 23) ;  if  I  do  not,  I  sin  against  his  author- 
 ity. Answer,  that  text  of  Rom.  xiv.  23, 
 hath  only  reference  to  things  not  only 
 indifferent  in  their  own  nature,  but  left 
 free  from  any  superior  command  intei'pos- 
 ing,  and  therefore  the  text  is  not  ad  idem ; 
 for  though  such  laws  may  be  of  things 
 indifferent,  yet  being  commanded  by  just 
 authority,  the  indifference  by  that  com- 
 mand determineth,  and  they  become  ne- 
 cessary.— Z'  Esfram/e. 
 
 The  Reformation  gave  such  a  turn  to 
 weak  heads,  that  had  not  weight  enough 
 to  poise  themselves  between  the  extremes 
 of  Popery  and  fanaticism,  that  everything 
 older  than  yesterday  was  looked  upon  to 
 be  Popish  and  anti-Christian.  The  meanest 
 of  the  people  aspired  to  the  priesthood, 
 and  were  readier  to  frame  new  laws  for 
 the  Church,  tlian  obey  the  old. — Sherlock. 
 
 It  is  a  rule  in  prudence,  not  to  remove 
 an  ill  custom  when  it  is  well  settled,  unless 
 it  bring  great  prejudices,  and  then  it  is 
 better  to  give  one  account  why  we  have 
 taken  it  away,  than  to  be  always  making 
 excuses  why  we  do  it  not.  Needless  alter- 
 ation doth  diminish  the  venerable  esteem 
 of  religion,  and  lessen  the  credit  of  ancient 
 truths.  Break  ice  in  one  place,  and  it  will 
 crack  in  more. — Archbishop  Bramhall. 
 
 Our  Saviour  and  his  apostles  did  use 
 indifferent  things,  which  were  not  pre- 
 scribed in  Divine  worship.  Thus  he  joined 
 in  the  synagogue  worship,  (John  xviii.  20, 
 &rc.,)  though  (if  the  place  itself  were  at  all 
 prescribed)  the  manner  of  that  service  was 
 not  so  m\ich  as  hinted  at.  Thus  he  used 
 the  cup  of  charity  in  the  Passover,  thougli 
 it  was  not  instituted.  (Luke  xxii.  17.) 
 The  feast  of  dedication  was  a  human  in- 
 stitution, yet  he  vouchsafed  to  be  present 
 at  it.  Nay,  he  complied  with  the  Jews  in 
 the  very  posture  of  the  Passover,  which 
 they  changed  to  sitting,  though  God  had 
 
161 
 
 CEREMONY. 
 
 prcscriLed  standing.  The  apostles  also 
 observed  the  hours  of  prayer,  Avhich  were 
 of  human  institution.  (Acts  iii.  1.)  Now 
 if  Christ  and  his  apostles  did  thus  under 
 the  Jewish  law,  Avhich  was  so  exact  in  pre- 
 scribing outward  ceremonies,  certainly  we 
 may  do  the  same  under  the  gospel.  I  may 
 add,  that  the  primitive  Chris-tians  not  only 
 complied  with  the  Jews  in  such  rites  as 
 were  not  forbidden,  but  also  had  some 
 ritual  observations  taken  up  by  themselves. 
 Thus  they  washed  the  disciples'  feet  in  imi- 
 tation of  Christ,  and  used  love-feasts,  till 
 they  thought  it  convenient  to  lay  them 
 aside.  From  whence  it  appears,  that  pre- 
 scription is  not  necessaiy  to  make  a  rite 
 lawful ;  it  is  enough  if  it  be  not  forbidden. 
 — Beiinct. 
 
 Calvin,  in  his  book  of  the  True  Way  of 
 Reformation,  saith,  he  would  not  contend 
 about  ceremonies,  not  only  those  which  are 
 for  decency,  but  those  that  are  symbolical. 
 CEcolampadius  looked  on  the  gesture  at 
 the  sacrament  as  indifferent.  Bucer  thought 
 the  use  of  the  sign  of  the  cross  after  baptism 
 neither  indecent  nor  unprofitable.  Crocius 
 says,  that  the  nature  of  ceremonies  is  to  be 
 taken  from  the  doctrine  which  goes  along 
 with  them;  if  the  doctrine  be  good,  the 
 rites  are  so,  or,  at  least,  are  tolerable  ;  if  it 
 be  false,  then  they  are  troublesome,  and 
 not  to  be  borne  ;  if  it  be  impure,  and  lead 
 to  idolatry,  then  the  ceremonies  are  tamted 
 with  the  poison  of  it. — Stillwfjjieet. 
 
 No  abuse  of  any  gesture,  though  it  be  in 
 the  most  manifest  idolatry,  doth  render  that 
 gesture  simply  evil,  and  for  ever  after 
 unlawful  to  be  used  in  the  worship  of  GoD 
 u])on  that  account.  For  the  abuse  of  a 
 thing  supposes  the  lawful  use  of  it ;  and  if 
 anything  otherwise  lawful  becomes  sinful 
 by  an  abuse  of  it,  then  it  is  plain  that  it  is 
 not  in  its  own  nature  sinful,  but  by  acci- 
 dent, and  with  respect  to  somewhat  else. 
 This  is  clear  from  Scripture;  for  if  rites 
 and  ceremonies,  after  they  have  been  abused 
 by  idolaters,  become  absolutely  evil,  and 
 unlawful  to  be  used  at  all,  then  the  Jews 
 sinned  in  offering  sacrifices — erecting  altars 
 ■ — burning  incense  to  the  God  of  heaven 
 — bowing  down  themselves  before  him — 
 wearing  a  linen  garment  in  the  time  of 
 Divine  worship — and  observing  other  things 
 and  rites  which  the  heathens  observe  in  the 
 worship  of  false  gods.  Kneeling  at  prayers, 
 and  standing,  and  sitting,  and  lifting  up 
 the  hands  and  eyes  to  heaven,  and  bowing 
 of  the  body,  together  with  prayer,  and 
 praise,  and  singing,  have  been  all  notori- 
 ously abused  to  idolatry,  and  are  so  to 
 this  d.^y.~Bennef.  Nay,  this  principle 
 would  render  Christianity  impracticable  ; 
 
 because  there  is  no  circumstance,  no  in- 
 strimient,  no  ministry  in  worship,  but  may 
 have  been  in  some  way  or  other  abused  by 
 Pagan  or  Romish  idolatries. — Bennet. 
 
 Bucer,  in  a  letter  to  Johannes  a  Lasco, 
 says,  "  If  you  will  not  admit  such  liberty 
 and  use  of  vesture  to  this  pure  and  holy 
 Church,  because  they  have  no  command- 
 ment of  the  Lord,  nor  no  example  for 
 it,  I  do  not  see  how  you  can  grant  to 
 any  Church,  that  it  may  celebrate  the 
 Lord's  supper  in  the  morning,  &c.  ;  for  we 
 have  received  for  these  things  no  com- 
 mandment of  the  Lord,  nor  any  example  ; 
 yea,  rather,  the  Lord  gave  a  contrary 
 example." 
 
 The  word  ceremony  occurs  in  the  title 
 page  of  the  Prayer  Book,  in  the  prefatory 
 section,  [of  Cereiyioiiies,)  in  the  34th  Article, 
 and  the  vi.,  xiv.,  xviii.,  and  xxx.  Canons, 
 &c.  It  is  plainly  a  different  thing  from 
 Common  Prayer,  (i.  e.  the  ordinary  public 
 service  as  contrasted  with  the  occasional 
 services,)  the  administration  of  sacraments, 
 or  rites. 
 
 Dr.  Nicholls  says  that  the  cross  in  bap- 
 tism, and,  it  may  be,  the  marriage  ring,  are 
 perhaps  the  only  ceremonies  enjoined  in 
 the  Book  of  1662,  which  can  in  a  strict  and 
 proper  sense  be  called  so.  But,  as  is  ob- 
 served in  a  note  to  Stephens's  Common 
 Prayer  Book  tcith  notes,  (vol.  i.  p.  139,) 
 "  Dr.  Nicholls  uses  ceremony  in  a  limited 
 sense,  which  is  by  no  means  sanctioned  by 
 our  best  writers  and  divines.  Ceremouia 
 in  its  classical  sense  was  a  general  term 
 for  worship.  Johnson's  definition,  out- 
 tcardritc,  external  form  in  relujion,  is  fully 
 supported  by  his  references,  and  especially 
 Hooker,  who,  throughout  his  book,  applies 
 it  to  all  that  is  external  in  worship.  It 
 seems  that  rite  and  ceremony  are  thus  to 
 be  distinguished.  A  rite  is  an  act  of  re- 
 ligious worship,  whether  including  cere- 
 monies or  not.  A  ceremony  is  any  par- 
 ticular of  religious  worship,  (included  in  a 
 rite,)  which  prescribes  action,  position,  or 
 even  the  assumption  of  any  particular  ves- 
 ture. The  latter  sense  is  plainly  recognised 
 by  Hooker.  [EccL  Pol.  book  iv.  sect.  i. ; 
 book  V.  sect.  29.)  The  Preface  to  the  Book 
 of  Common  Prayer  speaks  first  of  common 
 prayer,  viz.  the  offices  intended  for  the 
 common  and  periodical  use  of  alt  at  stated 
 times ;  next,  the  administration  of  the  sa- 
 craments ;  next,  of  other  rites  and  cere- 
 monies ;  i.  e.  the  occasional  services,  whe- 
 ther public  or  private,  and  all  the  methods 
 of  administration  which  these  involve.  Now 
 among  ceremonies,  the  prescribed  proces- 
 sion in  the  Marriage  and  Burial  Services, 
 the  standing  at  certain  parts  of  the  service, 
 
CERINTHIANS. 
 
 CHAMFER. 
 
 IGo 
 
 the  bowing  at  the  name  of  Jesus,  as  pre- 
 scribed by  the  18th  canon,  ought  to  be  in- 
 cluded." It  may  be  observed,  that  the 
 18th  canon  expressly  calls  the  bowing  just 
 mentioned,  a  ceremony,  as  also  in  the  8()th 
 canon,  the  sign  of  the  cross. — See  Hooker, 
 book  iii.  sect.  11,  and  book  v.  sect.  6. 
 
 CERINTHIANS.  Ancient  heretics,  the 
 followers  of  Cerinthus.  This  man,  who 
 was  a  Jew  by  birth,  attempted  to  form  a 
 new  and  singular  system  of  doctrine  and 
 discipline,  by  combining  the  doctrines  of 
 Christ  with  the  opinions  and  errors  of  the 
 Jews  and  Gnostics.  He  taught  that  the 
 Creator  of  the  world,  whom  he  considered 
 also  as  the  Sovereign  and  Lawgiver  of  the 
 Jews,  was  a  Being  endued  with  the  great- 
 est virtues,  and  derived  his  birth  from  the 
 Supreme  God  ;  that  this  Being  gradually 
 degenerated  from  his  former  virtue  ;  that, 
 in  consequence  of  this,  the  Supreme  Being 
 determined  to  destroy  his  empire,  and,  for 
 that  purpose,  sent  upon  earth  one  of  the 
 ever  happy  and  glorious  a^ons  whose  name 
 was  Christ;  that  this  Christ  chose  for 
 his  habitation  the  person  of  Jesus,  into 
 whom  he  entered  in  the  form  of  a  dove, 
 whilst  Jesus  was  receiving  baptism  of  John 
 in  the  waters  of  Jordan  ;  that  Jesus,  after 
 this  union  with  Christ,  opposed  the  God 
 of  the  Jews,  at  whose  instigation  he  was 
 seized  and  crucified  by  the  HebreAV  chiefs  ; 
 that  when  Jesus  was  taken  captive,  Christ 
 ascended  on  high,  and  the  man  Jesus  alone 
 was  subjected  to  the  pain  of  an  ignomini- 
 ous death. 
 
 CESSION.  This  is  where  the  incum- 
 bent of  any  living  is  promoted  to  a  bishop^ 
 ric ;  the  church  in  that  case  is  void  by 
 cession. 
 
 CHALDEANS.  A  modern  sect  of 
 Christians  in  the  East,  in  obedience  to  the 
 see  of  Rome.  I  )r.  Grant,  in  his  Nestorians^ 
 quotes  with  approval  the  following  passage 
 from  Smith  and  Dwir/ht's  Itcsearches  in 
 Armenia:  which  is  also  confirmed  by  Mr. 
 Badger,  in  his  Nestorians  and  their  llituals 
 (vol.  i.  p.  177—181).  "  In  1G81,  the  Nes- 
 torian  metro])olitan  of  Diarbekir,  having 
 quarrelled  with  his  patriarch,  was  first  con- 
 secrated by  the  pope  Patriarch  of  the 
 Chaldeans.  The  sect  was  as  new  as  the 
 ofhce,  and  created  for  it.  Converts  to  Pa- 
 pacy from  the  Nestorians "  [not  from  the 
 Jacobites,  as  Mr.  Badger  corrects  Dr.  Grant] 
 "were  dignified  with  the  name  of  the 
 Chaldean  Church.  It  means  no  more  than 
 Papal  Syrians,  as  we  have  in  other  parts 
 Papal  Armenians  and  Papal  Greeks."  (See 
 Nestorians.) 
 
 CHALDEE  LANGUAGE.  This  was 
 a  dialect  of  the  Hebrew,  almost  identical 
 
 with  the  old  Syriac,  spoken  formerly  in 
 Assyria,  and  the  vernacular  language  of 
 the  Jews  after  the  Babylonish  captivity. 
 The  following  parts  of  the  Old  Testament 
 are  written  in  (.'haldee  :  Jer.  x.,  xi. ;  Dan. 
 ii.  4  to  the  end  of  chap.  vii. ;  Ezra  iv.  8  to 
 vi.  10,  and  vii.  12—17. — Tehb. 
 
 CHALDEE  PARAPHRASE,  in  the 
 Rabbinical  style,  is  called  Targum.  There 
 are  three  Chaldee  ]iara])hrases  in  AValton's 
 Polyglot,  viz.  1 .  Of  Onkelos.  2.  Of  Jona- 
 than, son  of  Uzziel.  .'3.  Of  Jerusalem. 
 The  iirst  of  these  is  supposed  to  have  been 
 composed  about  the  time  that  our  blessed 
 Lord  was  on  earth.  It  com])rises  the 
 Pentateuch.  The  second,  comprising  the 
 Prophets  and  Historical  Books,  is  supposed 
 to  have  been  composed  about  the  same 
 time  as  the  former.  The  Jerusalem  Tar- 
 gum is  considered  a  compilation  not  earlier 
 than  the  eighth  century.  It  comprises 
 the  Pentateuch. — Another  Targum,  falsely 
 ascribed  to  Jonathan  Ben  Uzziel,  was  pro- 
 bably written  two  centuries  after  Christ,  if 
 not  later.  There  are  other  inferior  Tar- 
 gums. — See  Home  on  the  Scriptures. 
 
 CHALICE.  (Lat.  ca/ix.)  This  word 
 was  formerly  (as  by  Shakspeare)  used  to 
 denote  any  sort  of  cup,  but  is  now  usually 
 restricted  to  the  cup  in  which  the  con- 
 secrated wine  for  the  eucharist  is  adminis- 
 tered. The  primitive  Christians,  desirous 
 of  honouring  the  holy  purpose  for  which  it 
 was  used,  had  it  made  of  the  most  costly 
 substances  their  circumstances  would  al- 
 low— of  glass,  crystal,  onyx,  sardonyx,  and 
 gold. 
 
 By  a  canon  of  the  Council  of  Rheims,  in 
 Charles  the  Great's  time,  all  churches  were 
 obliged  to  have  chalices  of  some  purer 
 metal.  The  ancient  chalices  were  of  two 
 kinds :  the  greater,  which  were  in  the  na- 
 ture of  our  flagons,  containing  a  large 
 quantity  of  wine,  which  was  all  consecrated 
 in  them  together ;  and  the  lesser,  which 
 were  otherwise  called  "  ministeriales,"  be- 
 cause the  priest  delivered  the  A^ine  to  be 
 drunk  out  of  them  ;  for  communion  in  one 
 kind  was  not  then  invented  bv  the  Romish 
 Church.— />/•.  Nichol/s.     (See  Cu/k) 
 
 CHAMFER.  The  flat  slope  formed  by 
 cutting  away  an  angle  in  timber,  or  ma- 
 sonry. The  chamfer  is  the  first  a])proach 
 to  a 'moulding,  though  it  can  hardly  itself 
 be  called  one.  The  chamfer  ])hine,  in 
 speaking  of  mouldings,  Ls  used  for  the 
 plane  at  an  angle  of  45°,  or  thereabouts, 
 with  the  face  of  the  wall,  in  which  some  of 
 the  mouldings  often,  and  sometimes  all  of 
 them,  lie.  The  resolution  of  the  chamfer 
 into  the  square  is  called  a  stop-chamfer ;  it 
 is  often  of  considerable  elegance. 
 
166 
 
 CHANCEL. 
 
 CHANCEL.  The  upper  part  of  the 
 church,  containing  the  holy  table,  and 
 the  stalls  for  the  clergy.  It  is  called  the 
 Chori  in  cathedrals,  college  chapels,  and 
 large  churches :  and  in  many  of  the  an- 
 cient English  parish  churches  is  inferior 
 in  height  and  width  to  the  nave.  (See 
 Choir.) — Jehb.  [Cancellus.)  So  called  a 
 Cancellis,  from  the  lattice-work  partition 
 betwixt  the  choir  and  the  body  of  the 
 church,  so  framed  as  to  separate  the  one 
 from  the  other,  but  not  to  intercept  the 
 sight.  By  the  rubric  before  the  Common 
 Prayer,  it'  is  ordained  that  "  the  chancels 
 shall  remain  as  they  have  done  in  times 
 past,"  that  is  to  say,  distinguished  from  the 
 body  of  the  church  in  manner  aforesaid  ; 
 against  which  distinction  Bucer  (at  the 
 time  of  the  Reformation)  inveighed  vehe- 
 mently, as  tending  only  to  magnify  the 
 priesthood  ;  but  though  the  king  and  the 
 parliament  yielded  so  far  as  to  allow  the 
 daily  service  to  be  read  in  the  body  of  the 
 church,  if  the  ordinary  thought  fit,  yet 
 they  would  not  suffer  the  chancel  to  be 
 taken  away  or  altered. 
 
 The  chancel  is  the  freehold  of  the  rector, 
 and  part  of  his  glebe,  and  therefore  he 
 ought  to  repair  it :  but  if  the  rectory  is 
 impropriate,  then  the  impropriator  must 
 do  it :  and  this  he  is  enjoined  to  do,  not 
 only  by  the  common  law,  but  by  the 
 canons  of  the  Church ;  for  in  the  gloss 
 upon  the  Constitutions  of  Othobon  it  is 
 said,  that  chancels  must  be  repaired  by 
 those  who  are  thereunto  obliged ;  which 
 words  must  refer  to  the  common  custom 
 of  England,  by  which  rectors  are  obliged 
 to  repair  the  chancels.  As  to  seats  in  the 
 chancel,  it  has  been  made  a  question, 
 whether  the  ordinary  may  place  any  per- 
 son there  ?  The  objections  against  it  are, 
 — 1.  Because  it  is  the  freehold  of  the  rec- 
 tor. 2.  Because  he  is  to  repair  it.  But 
 these  are  not  sufficient  reasons  to  divest 
 the  ordinary  of  that  jurisdiction ;  for  the 
 freehold  of  the  church  is  in  the  parson, 
 and  yet  the  bishop  hath  a  povrer  of  placing 
 persons  there. 
 
 Unhappy  disputes  have  arisen  concern- 
 ing the  situation  of  the  Lord's  table  in 
 the  chancels.  The  first,  in  the  beginning 
 of  the  Reformation,  was,  whether  those  of 
 the  altar  fashion,  which  had  been  used  in 
 the  Popish  times,  and  on  which  the  masses 
 were  celebrated,  should  be  kept  up.  This 
 point  was  first  started  by  Bishop  Hooper, 
 in  a  sermon  before  King  Edward  VI. :  and, 
 after  this,  altars  were  ordered  to  be  taken 
 down  ;  and,  instead  of  them,  a  table  to  be 
 set  up,  in  some  convenient  place  of  the 
 chancel.     In   the  first   liturgy  it  was  di- 
 
 rected, that  the  priest  officiating  should 
 stand  before  the  midst  of  the  altar.  In 
 the  second,  that  the  priest  shall  stand  on 
 the  north  side  of  the  table.  And  thus 
 the  first  dispute  was  at  an  end.  But  then 
 there  followed  another  controversy,  whe- 
 ther the  table,  placed  in  the  room  of  the 
 altar,  ought  to  stand  altar-wise  ?  i.  e.  in 
 the  same  place  and  situation  of  the  altar. 
 In  some  churches  the  tables  Avere  placed 
 in  the  middle  of  the  chancels  ;  in  others, 
 at  the  east  part  thereof,  next  to  the  wall. 
 Bishop  Ridley  endeavoured  to  make  a 
 compromise  in  his  church  of  St.  Paul's, 
 suffering  the  table  to  stand  in  the  place  of 
 the  old  altar ;  but,  beating  down  the  wain- 
 scot partition  behind,  laid  all  the  choir 
 open  to  the  east,  leaving  the  table  then  to 
 stand  in  the  middle  of  the  chancel.  Under 
 this  diversity  of  usage  matters  continued 
 during  this  king's  reign  ;  but  when  Queen 
 Elizabeth  came  to  the  crown,  and  a  new 
 review  of  the  liturgy  was  made,  the  pre- 
 sent clause  was  added — "  and  the  chan- 
 cels shall  remain  as  they  have  done  in 
 times  past."  Whereby  an  indulgence  is 
 given  to  those  cathedral  or  collegiate 
 churches,  where  the  table  stood  altar-wise, 
 and  fastened  to  the  east  part  of  the  chan- 
 cel, to  retain  their  ancient  practice ;  but 
 the  general  rule  is  otherAvise,  especially  as 
 to  parish  churches ;  as  in  the  rubric  before 
 the  Communion,  "  the  table  having,  at  the 
 communion  time,  a  fair  white  linen  cloth 
 upon  it,  shall  stand  in  the  body  of  the 
 church,  or  in  the  chancel,  where  morning 
 or  evening  prayer  shall  be  appointed  to 
 be  said."  So  that,  by  these  authorities, 
 where  tables  were  fixed,  they  ought  to 
 remain  as  they  were  ;  and,  at  the  time  of 
 the  communion,  they  might  either  stand 
 at  the  east  wall  of  the  church,  or  in  other 
 place  more  convenient.  But  this  lati- 
 tude being  granted,  several  inconveniences 
 arose.  Great  irreverence  was  used  towards 
 the  holy  table,  hats  and  gloves  were  thrown 
 upon  it,  and  the  churchwardens  and  over- 
 seers were  frequently  writing  their  ac- 
 counts thereon,  the  processioning  boys 
 eating  their  loaves  and  cakes,  and  dogs 
 leaping  up  at  the  bread,  to  the  great  scan- 
 dal of  our  reformation,  not  only  among 
 the  Papists,  but  also  among  the  Protestant 
 churches  abroad.  Archbishop  Laud,  out 
 of  zeal  to  reform  these  abuses,  endeavoured 
 to  have  the  communion  table  set  altar- 
 wise,  at  the  east  end  of  the  chancel,  and  to 
 be  railed  in,  engaging  many  of  the  bishops 
 to  press  this  in  their  visitation  articles : 
 and  it  is  one  of  the  injunctions  of  Queen 
 Elizabeth,  "that  the  holy  table  in  every 
 church  be  decently  made,  and  set  in  the 
 
CHANCELLOR. 
 
 CHANT. 
 
 IG- 
 
 place  where  the  altar  stood ;  and  there 
 commonly  covered,  as  thereto  belongeth, 
 and  so  stand,  saving  "vvhen  the  communion 
 of  the  sacrament  is  to  be  distributed ;  at 
 which  time,  the  same  shall  be  so  placed  in 
 good  sort  within  the  chancel,"  &c.  Great 
 contentions  were  for  many  years  kept  up 
 in  this  controversy,  till  the  civil  war  came 
 on,  and  all  things,  civil  and  sacred,  were 
 overwhelmed  with  confusion.  Since  the 
 Restoration,  no  positive  determination 
 therein  being  made,  the  dispute  has  happily 
 died,  and  the  tables  have  generally  been 
 settled  altar- wise,  and  railed  in  ;  the  gener- 
 ality of  parishioners  esteeming  it  a  decent 
 situation. — Nicholls. 
 
 CHANCELLOR.  In  ancient  times, 
 emperors  and  kings  esteemed  so  highly  the 
 piety  of  bishops,  that  they  gave  them  ju- 
 risdiction in  particular  causes,  as  in  mar- 
 riages, adultery,  last  Avills,  &c.,  which  were 
 determined  by  them  in  their  consistory 
 courts.  But  when  many  controversies 
 arose  in  these  and  other  causes,  it  was  not 
 consistent  with  the  character  of  a  bishop 
 to  interpose  in  every  litigious  matter,  nei- 
 ther could  he  despatch  it  himself;  and 
 therefore  it  Avas  necessary  for  the  bishop 
 to  depute  some  subordinate  officer,  expe- 
 rienced both  in  the  civil  and  canon  law,  to 
 determine  those  ecclesiastical  causes  :  and 
 this  was  the  original  of  diocesan  chan- 
 cellors. For,  in  the  first  ages  of  the 
 Church,  the  bishops  had  officers  Avho  were 
 called  ecdesiecd/'ci,  that  is,  church  lawyers, 
 who  were  bred  up  in  the  knowledge  of 
 the  civil  and  canon  law,  and  their  business 
 was  to  assist  the  bishop  in  his  jurisdiction 
 throughout  the  whole  diocese.  But  pro- 
 bably they  were  not  judges  of  ecclesias- 
 tical courts,  as  chancellors  are  at  this  day, 
 but  only  advised  and  assisted  the  bishops 
 themselves  in  giving  judgment ;  for  we 
 read  of  no  chancellors  here  in  all  the 
 Saxon  reigns,  nor  after  the  Conquest,  be- 
 fore the  time  of  Henry  II.  That  king, 
 requiring  the  attendance  of  bishops  in  his 
 state  councils,  and  other  public  affairs,  it  was 
 thought  necessary  to  substitute  chancellors 
 in  their  room,to  despatch  those  causes  which 
 were  proper  for  the  bishop's  jurisdiction. 
 
 In  a  few  years  a  chancellor  became 
 such  a  necessary  officer  to  the  bishop, 
 that  he  was  not  to  be  without  him ;  for  if 
 he  would  have  none,  the  archbishop  of 
 the  province  might  enjoin  him  to  depute 
 one,  and  if  he  refuse,  the  archbishop 
 might  appoint  one  himself;  because  it  is 
 presumed  that  a  bishop  alone  cannot 
 decide  so  many  spiritual  causes  as  arise 
 within  his  diocese.  The  person  thus  de- 
 puted by   the   bishop   has  his   authority 
 
 from  the  law;  and  his  jurisdiction  is  not, 
 like  that  of  a  commissary,  limited  to  a 
 certain  place  and  certain  causes,  but  ex- 
 tends throughout  the  whole  diocese,  and 
 to  all  ecclesiastical  matters  ;  not  only  for 
 reformation  of  manners,  in  punishment  of 
 criminals,  but  in  all  causes  concerning 
 marriages,  last  wills,  administrations,  c^-c. 
 IJin'n. 
 
 The  chancellor  in  cathedral  churches,  and 
 anciently  in  some  colleges,  was  a  canon, 
 who  had  the  general  care  of  the  literature 
 of  the  church.  He  was  the  secretary  of 
 the  chapter,  the  librarian,  the  superintend- 
 ent of  schools  connected  with  the  church, 
 sometimes  of  the  greater  schools  in  the 
 diocese ;  sometimes,  as  in  Paris,  had  an 
 academical  jurisdiction  in  the  university 
 of  the  place.  He  also  had  the  supervision 
 of  readers  in  the  choirs,  the  regulation  of 
 preachers  in  the  cathedral,  and  in  many 
 places  the  more  frequent  delivery  of  ser- 
 mons and  of  theological  lectures  than 
 fell  to  the  turn  of  the  other  canons. 
 All  these  offices  Avere  not  ahvays  com- 
 bined; but  one  or  more  of  them  ahvays 
 belonged  to  the  chancellor.  Every  cathe- 
 dral of  old  foundation  in  England,  and 
 most  in  Ireland,  had  originally  a  chancellor. 
 The  title  was  not  so  common  in  France  or 
 Italy,  where  the  above-named  offices  were 
 frequently  divided  among  canons  with 
 other  official  titles.  The  chancellor  of  the 
 church  (the  above-named  officer)  is  not 
 to  be  confounded  with  the  chancellor  of 
 the  diocese. — Jebb. 
 
 CHANT.  This  word,  derived  from  the 
 Latin  cantus,  "  a  song,"  applies,  in  its 
 most  extended  sense,  to  the  musical  per- 
 formance of  all  those  parts  of  the  liturgy 
 Avhich,  by  the  rubric,  are  permitted  to  be 
 sung.  A  distinction,  however,  is  to  be 
 made  between  simjiiuj  and  chanting.  Chant- 
 ing does  not  apply  to  the  performance  of 
 those  metrical  versions  of  the  Psalms,  the 
 use  of  which  in  parish  churches,  though 
 legitimate,  as  sanctioned  by  authority,  is 
 not  contemplated  by  the  rubric.  Neither 
 does  it  apply  to  those  musical  arrange- 
 ments of  the  canticles,  hymns,  and  of  the 
 Nicene  Creed,  used  in  collegiate  churches, 
 and  technically  called  "  services,"  which 
 though  originally  derived  from  chants,  have 
 long  found  a  distinct  feature  in  the  cho- 
 ral service.  The  chant  properly  signifies 
 that  plain  tune  to  which  the  prayers,  the 
 litany,  the  vcrsicles,  and  responses,  and  the 
 psalms,  and  (where  services  are  not  in  use) 
 the  canticles,  are  set,  in  choirs  and  places 
 where  they  sing.  In  Xhe  chant,  when 
 properly  and  fully  performed,  both  the 
 minister  and  the  chou*  bear  their  respective 
 
168 
 
 CHANT. 
 
 CHANTRY. 
 
 parts.  The  minister  recites  the  prayers, 
 and  all  the  parts  of  the  service  ^vhich  he 
 is  enjoined  to  say  alone,  (except  the  lessons,) 
 in  one  sustained  note,  occasionally  varied 
 at  the  close  of  a  cadence :  and  the  choir 
 makes  the  responses  in  harmony,  some- 
 times in  unison.  But  in  the  psalms  and 
 canticles  both  the  minister  and  choir  join 
 together  in  the  chant,  without  distinction, 
 each  verse  being  sung  in  full  harmony. 
 
 The  chanting  of  the  prayers  has  always 
 been  observed  in  our  principal  cathedrals ; 
 and  till  recent  times,  it  was  universal  in 
 all  those  places  within  the  reformed  Church 
 of  England  where  choral  foundations  ex- 
 isted; and  therefore  the  disuse  of  this 
 custom,  in  any  such  establishments,  is  a 
 plain  contradiction  to  the  spirit  of  our 
 liturgy.  It  is  an  usage  so  very  ancient, 
 that  some  learned  men  have  derived  it, 
 with  every  appearance  of  probalnlity,  from 
 the  practice  of  the  Jewish  Church  ;  whence 
 we  have  unquestionably  derived  the  chant- 
 ing of  the  psalms.  It  has  prevailed  in 
 every  portion  of  the  Church,  eastern  or 
 western,  reformed  or  unreformed,  since  a 
 liturgy  has  been  used.  And  traces  of  this 
 custom  are  to  be  found  in  all  places  of  the 
 world. 
 
 Of  the  chants  for  the  psalms,  the  most 
 ancient  which  are  used  in  our  Church  are 
 derived  from  some  coeval,  in  all  likelihood, 
 with  Christianity  itself.  Of  this,  however, 
 there  is  no  proof:  and  it  is  a  mere  baseless 
 conjecture  to  refer  them,  as  some  do,  to 
 the  strains  of  the  temple  w^orship.  Ac- 
 cording to  present  custom,  the  chant  con- 
 sists of  two  kinds,  single  and  double.  The 
 single  chant,  which  is  the  most  ancient 
 kind,  is  an  air  consisting  of  two  parts  ;  the 
 first  part  terminating  with  the  point  or 
 colon  (:),  which  uniformly  divides  each 
 verse  of  the  psalms  or  canticles  in  the 
 Prayer  Book,  the  second  part  terminating 
 with  the  verse  itself.  The  double  chant  is 
 an  air  consisting  of  four  strains,  and  con- 
 sequently extending  to  two  verses.  This 
 kind  of  chant  does  not  appear  to  be  older 
 than  the  time  of  Charles  II. ;  and  is  pecu- 
 liar to  the  Church  of  England. 
 
 In  chanting,  special  heed  should  be 
 taken  to  two  things  :  first,  to  observe  strictly 
 the  "  pointing  "  of  the  psalms  and  hymns, 
 "  as  they  are  to  be  sung  or  said  in  churches." 
 We  have  no  more  right  to  alter  the  rubric 
 in  this  respect  than  in  any  other.  Secondly, 
 to  chant  reverentially,  which  implies  dis- 
 tinctness of  utterance,  clearness  of  tone, 
 and  moderate  slowness  as  to  time.  A 
 rapid  and  confused  mode  of  singing  the 
 awful  hymns  of  the  Church,  is  not  only 
 utterly  destructive  of  musical  effect,  but, 
 
 what  is  of  much  greater  consequence,  is 
 hostile  to  the  promotion  of  the  honour  of 
 God,  and  of  the  edification  of  man. — Jehb. 
 Persons  who  have  heard  extempore  pray- 
 ing from  the  mouths  of  illiterate  characters, 
 must  have  been  struck  by  the  rude  modu- 
 lated chant  in  Avhich  it  is  delivered.  Object- 
 ors to  the  cathedral  mode  of  service  some- 
 times aver  "  intoning  "  to  be  unnatural.  This 
 is  a  misconception.  "  Intoning,"  musical  or 
 unmusical,  is  the  natural  key  in  which  vent 
 is  given  to  a  large  and  important  class  of 
 devotional  feelings :  cathedral  intoning  is 
 this  voice  correctly  timed  and  tuned  to 
 harmony.  Non-intoning,  on  the  other  hand, 
 or  reading,  is  artificial.  No  one  hears  an 
 uneducated  person  attempt  to  read  in  the 
 same  tone  as  he  speaks.  Heading  is  an 
 artificial  drill,  the  correction  of  natural, 
 undisciplined  locution. — Morgan. 
 
 CHANTER.  (See  Precentor.)  In  fo- 
 reign churches  it  is  synonymous  with  our 
 lay  clerks.  The  chanters  in  Dublin  col- 
 lege are  certain  officers  selected  from  the 
 foundation  students,  whose  duty  is  to  ofli- 
 ciate  as  chapel  clerks.  They  are  so  called 
 from  formerly  constituting  the  choir  of  the 
 chapel. 
 
 CHANTRY.  A  chapel,  or  other  separ- 
 ated place  in  a  church,  for  the  celebration 
 of  masses  for  the  soul  of  some  person 
 departed  this  life.  Their  ordinary  places 
 are  mentioned  under  the  head  Church. 
 The  chantry  sometimes  included  the  tomb 
 of  the  person  by  w^hom  it  was  founded, 
 as  in  the  splendid  examples  in  Winchester 
 cathedral.  It  was  sometimes  an  entire 
 aisle,  as  the  golden  choir  at  St.  Mary's, 
 Stamford  ;  and  sometimes  a  separate 
 chapel,  as  the  Beauchamp  chapel,  St. 
 Mary's,  Warwick,  and  Henry  VII.'s  chapel 
 at  Westminster. 
 
 In  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  when  the 
 belief  of  purgatory  began  to  decline,  it 
 was  thought  an  unnecessary  thing  to  con- 
 tinue the  pensions  and  endowments  of 
 chantry  priests  ;  therefore,  in  the  37  of 
 Henry  VIII.  cap.  4,  those  chantries  were 
 given  to  the  king,  who  had  power  at  any 
 time  to  issue  commissions  to  seize  their 
 endowments,  and  take  them  into  his  pos- 
 session :  but  this  being  in  the  last  year  of 
 his  reign,  there  were  several  of  those  en- 
 dowments which  were  not  seized  by  virtue 
 of  any  such  commissions  ;  therefore,  in  the 
 first  year  of  Edward  VI.  cap.  14,  those 
 chantries  which  were  in  being  five  years 
 before  the  session  of  that  parliament,  and 
 not  in  the  actual  possession  of  Henry  VIII., 
 were  adjudged  to  be,  and  were,  vested  in 
 that  king.  Cranmer  endeavoured  to  ob- 
 tain that  the  disposal  of  the  chantries,  &c.. 
 
CHAPEL. 
 
 CHAPLAIN. 
 
 169 
 
 should  be  deferred  until  the  king  should  be 
 of  age — hoping  that  if  they  >vere  saved 
 from  the  hands  of  the  laity  until  that  time, 
 EdAvard  might  be  persuaded  to  apply  the 
 revenues  to  the  relief  of  the  poor  paro- 
 chial clergy;  but  the  archbishop's  exer- 
 tions were  unsuccessful. 
 
 CHAPEL.  In  former  times,  uhen  the 
 kings  of  France  uere  engaged  in  -wars, 
 they  always  carried  St.  Martin's  cope 
 {cappa)  into  the  field,  -which  was  kept  as  a 
 precious  relic,  in  a  tent  where  mass  was 
 said,  and  thence  the  place  was  called 
 capeUa,  the  chapel.  The  word  was  gra- 
 dually applied  to  any  consecrated  place  of 
 prayer,  not  being  the  parish  church. 
 
 AVith  us  in  England  there  are  several 
 sorts  of  chapels : 
 
 L  Iloyal  chapels.  (See  Chapel  Royal.) 
 2.  Domestic  chapels,  built  by  noblemen 
 for  private  worship  in  their  families.  3. 
 College  chapels,  attached  to  the  different 
 colleges  of  the  universities.  4.  Chapels  of 
 ease,  built  for  the  ease  of  parishioners,  who 
 live  at  too  great  a  distance  from  the  parish 
 church,  by  the  clergy  of  which  the  ser- 
 vices of  the  chapel  are  performed.  5.  Pa- 
 rochial chapels,  which  differ  from  chapels 
 of  ease  on  account  of  their  having  a  per- 
 manent minister,  or  incumbent,  though 
 they  are  in  some  degree  dependent  upon 
 the  mother  church.  A  parochial  chapelry, 
 with  all  parochial  rites  independent  of  the 
 mother  church,  as  to  sacraments,  marriages, 
 burials,  repairs,  &c.,  is  called  a  reputed 
 jjcirish.  6.  Free  chapels ;  such  as  were 
 founded  by  kings  of  England,  and  made 
 exempt  from  episcopal  jurisdiction.  7. 
 Chapels  which  adjoin  to  any  part  of  the 
 church  ;  such  were  formerly  built  by 
 persons  of  consideration  as  burial-places. 
 To  which  may  be  added  chapels  of  corpor- 
 ation societies,  and  eleemosynary  found- 
 ation ;  as  the  mayor's  chapel  at  Bristol, 
 Szc,  the  chapels  of  the  inns  of  court, 
 chapels  of  hospitals  and  almshouses. — 
 Burn. 
 
 The  word  chapel  in  foreign  countries 
 frequently  means  the  choir  or  chancel. 
 This  may  possibly  be  the  meaning  in- 
 tended in  the  rubric  preceding  Morning 
 Prayer,  directing  the  Morning  and  Even- 
 ing Prayers  to  be  used  in  the  accustomed 
 place  of  the  church,  chapel,  or  chancel. 
 It  may  allude  to  the  college  chapels,  or 
 such  collegiate  chapels  as  St.  George's  at 
 Windsor,  or  to  the  usage  of  some  cathedrals 
 of  having  early  morning  prayer  (as  at 
 Gloucester,  &:c.)  in  the  Lady  chapel,  or 
 late  evening  prayer  (as  at  Durham)  in  the 
 Galilee  chapel.  Henry  VI I. 's  chapel  at 
 Westminster  was,  at  least  in  the  reign  of 
 
 Queen  Elizabeth,  used  for  this  purpose. — 
 Jehh. 
 
 CHAPEL  ROYAL.  The  chapel  royal 
 is  under  the  government  of  the  dean  of  the 
 chapel,  and  not  within  the  jurisdiction  of 
 any  bishop.  But  the  archbishop  is  the 
 first  chaplain  and  paruchus  of  the  sove- 
 reign. The  deanery  was  an  ofKce  of  ancient 
 standing  in  the  court,  but  discontinued  in 
 lo72,  till  King  James's  accession,  then  it 
 was  revived  in  the  person  of  Dr.  Montague. 
 — Ilcj/lin's  Life  of  Laud.  Next  to  the 
 dean  is  the  subdean,  who  has  the  special 
 care  of  the  chapel  service ;  a  clerk  of  the 
 court,  Avith  his  deputies,  a  prelate  or  clergy- 
 man, whose  ofHce  it  is  to  attend  the  sove- 
 reign at  Divine  service,  and  to  wait  on  her 
 in  her  private  oratory. — There  are  forty- 
 eight  chai)lains  in  ordinary,  who  wait  four 
 in  each  month,  and  preach  on  Sundays 
 and  holidays  ;  to  read  Divine  service  when 
 required  on  week  days,  and  to  say  grace  in 
 the  absence  of  the  clerk  of  the  closet.  The 
 other  officers  are,  a  confessor  of  the  house- 
 hold, now  called  chajjlain  of  the  house- 
 hold, who  has  the  pastoral  care  of  the 
 rojal  household ;  ten  ])ricsts  in  ordinary 
 (Avhose  duties  are  like  those  of  chaplains, 
 or  vicars  in  cathedrals) ;  sixteen  gentlemen 
 of  the  chapel,  who  with  ten  choristers  noAV 
 form  the  choir ;  and  other  officers.  The 
 officiating  members  of  the  chapel  royal 
 were  formerly  much  more  numerous  than 
 now ;  thus  there  were  thirty-two  gentle- 
 men of  the  chapel  in  King  Edward  M.'s 
 reign,  and  twenty-three  in  King  James  I.'s. 
 The  priests  in  ordinary,  properly  speaking, 
 form  part  of  the  choir.  In  strictness  this 
 establishment  is  ambulatory,  and  ought  to 
 accompany  the  sovereign,  oi"  which  practice 
 we  have  many  proofs  in  ancient  records. 
 
 The  chapel  royal  in  Dublin  consists  of 
 a  dean  and  twenty-four  chaplains,  (who 
 preach  in  turn,)  and  a  choir-  of  laymen. 
 Before  the  legal  establishment  of  Presby- 
 terianism  in  Scotland,  the  royal  chapel  of 
 Holyrood  had  a  full  establishment  of  chap- 
 lains, &c.,  and  the  liturgy  was  then  cele- 
 brated chorally,  at  least 'in  the  reign  of 
 King  Charles  I. 
 
 CHAPLAIN.  A  person  authorized  to 
 officiate  in  the  chapels  of  the  queen,  or  in 
 the  private  oratories  of  noblemen.  The 
 name  is  derived  from  capcUa  ;  the  priests 
 Avho  superintend  the  capella  being  called 
 Capellani.  According  to  a  statute  of  Henry 
 VIIL,  the  persons  vested  with  a  power  of 
 retaining  chaplains,  together  with  the  num- 
 ber each  is  allowed  to  qualify,  are  as  fol- 
 low:  "an  archbishop,  ei'ijht;  a  duke  or 
 bishop,  six  ;  marquis  or  earl,  five;  viscount, 
 four ;  baron,  kniglit  of  the  garter,  or  lord 
 
170 
 
 CPIAPLAIN. 
 
 CHAPTER. 
 
 chancellor,  three ;  a  duchess,  marchioness, 
 countess,  baroness,  the  treasurer  or  comp- 
 troller of  the  king's  household,  clerk  of  the 
 closet,  the  king's  secretary,  dean  of  the 
 chapel,  almoner,  and  master  of  the  rolls, 
 each  of  them,  two ;  chief  justice  of  the 
 King's  Bench,  and  warden  of  the  Cinque 
 Ports,  each,  one."  In  England  there  are 
 forty-eight  chaplains  to  the  queen,  called 
 chaplains  in  ordinary.  Clergymen  who  offi- 
 ciate in  the  army  and  navy,  in  the  gaols, 
 public  hospitals,  and  workhouses,  are  call- 
 ed chaplains.  Chaplain  is  also  a  compre- 
 hensive name,  applied,  more  rarely  in 
 England  than  abroad,  to  the  members  of 
 cathedrals  and  collegiate  churches  and 
 chapels,  who  are  responsible  for  the  daily 
 service.  In  a  few  instances  it  is  applied  to 
 the  superior  members.  Thus  at  Lichfield, 
 there  were  live  capellani  principales,  major 
 canons,  whose  office  it  was  to  serve  at  the 
 great  altar,  rule  the  choir,  ike,  [Dagd.  3Ion. 
 ed.  1830,  vi.  1257,)  and  at  Winchester 
 college  the  ten  fellows  are  called,  in  the 
 original  charter,  ^^  cojjelhmi  perpetui ;"  in 
 contradistinction  to  the  capelluni  coiiductitii, 
 or  remotivi ; — and  the  princijml  duty  of 
 these  chaplain-fellows  was  to  officiate  in 
 the  chapel.  But  in  general,  a  chaplain 
 signified  a  minister  of  the  Church  of  infe- 
 rior rank,  a  substitute  for  and  coadjutor 
 of  the  canons  in  chanting,  and  in  the  per- 
 formance of  the  Divine  offices.  (See  JDic- 
 tionnaire  de  droit  canotiique,  jJcr  Duratid  de 
 Maillane,  Lyons,  1787.)  They  were  so 
 called  from  serving  in  the  capella  or  choir, 
 at  the  various  offices,  and  in  the  various 
 side  chapels,  in  contradistinction  to  the 
 capitular  canons,  whose  peculiar  privilege 
 it  was  to  serve  at  the  great  altar.  Under 
 the  name  of  chaplain,  were  included  minor 
 canons,  vicars  choral,  and  similar  officers, 
 Avho  had  a  variety  of  designations  abroad, 
 unknown  to  us,  such  as  porticuristi,  demi- 
 canons,  semi-prebends,  &c.,  &c. 
 
 The  name  of  chaplain,  in  its  choral 
 sense,  is  retained  with  us  only  at  Christ 
 Church  Oxford,  Manchester,  and  the  col- 
 leges at  the  universities.  At  the  latter, 
 they  are  frequently  styled  in  the  old 
 c\iar\cr'&,  capellani  condiictitii  or  reniotiri  ; 
 by  which  is  to  be  understood,  that  they 
 were  originally,  at  least,  intended  to  be 
 mere  stipendiaries,  adjuncts  to  the  found- 
 ation ;  as  contrasted  with  tliose  who  have 
 a  permanent,  corporate  interest,  or  an  en- 
 doMment  in  fee  ;  like  the  ptrebendufi  in 
 the  foreign  cathedrals,  or  the  incorporated 
 vicars  choral  in  our  own  cathedrals.  (See 
 CoUef/e,  Prebendary,  and  Vicars  Choral.) 
 The  chaplains  at  Cambridge  are  commonly 
 called  conducti,  though  originally  thev  were 
 
 designated,  as  at  Oxford,  copellani  condnc- 
 titii ;  a  designation  which  it  were  to  be 
 wished  were  changed  for  the  more  p'oper 
 name  of  chaplain.  Before  the  lleformation 
 the  capellani  to  be  found  in  many  of  the 
 old  cathech'als,  were  exclusive  of  tlie  vicars 
 choral,  and  were  chanting  priests.  These 
 sometimes  formed  corporations  or  colleges. 
 Abroad,  the  chaplains  in  many  places  dis- 
 charged both  the  duties  of  chanting  priests 
 and  vicars  choral,  or  minor  canons ;  each 
 having  his  separate  chapel  for  daily  mass  ; 
 but  all  being  obliged  to  unite  in  discharg- 
 ing the  Divine  offices,  at  least  at  matins 
 and  vespers  in  the  great  choirs. — Jehh. 
 
 CHAPTER.  (See  Bible.)  The  word 
 is  derived  from  the  Latin  ca^mt,  head  ;  and 
 signifies  one  of  the  principal  divisions  of  a 
 book,  and,  in  reference  to  the  Bible,  one 
 of  the  larger  sections  into  which  its  books 
 are  divided.  This  division,  as  well  as  that 
 consisting  of  verses,  was  introduced  to 
 facilitate  reference,  and  not  to  indicate  any 
 natural  or  accurate  division  of  the  subjects 
 treated  in  the  books.  For  its  origin,  see 
 Bible. 
 
 CHAPTER.  (See  Dean  and  Chapter.) 
 A  chapter  of  a  cathedi'al  church  consists 
 of  persons  ecclesiastical,  canons  and  pre- 
 bendaries, whereof  the  dean  is  chief,  all 
 subordinate  to  the  bishop,  to  whom  they 
 are  as  assistants  in  matters  relating  to  the 
 Church,  for  the  better  ordering  and  dis- 
 posing the  things  thereof,  and  for  confirm- 
 ation of  such  leases  of  the  temporalities 
 and  offices  relating  to  the  bishopric,  as  the 
 bishop  from  time  to  time  shall  happen  to 
 make. — God.  58. 
 
 And  they  are  termed  by  the  canonists, 
 capitulum,  being  a  kind  of  head,  instituted 
 not  only  to  assist  the  bishop  in  manner 
 aforesaid,  but  also  anciently  to  rule  and 
 govern  the  diocese  in  the  time  of  vacation. 
 —God.  56. 
 
 Of  these  chapters,  some  are  ancient, 
 some  new :  the  new  are  those  which  are 
 founded  or  translated  by  King  Henry  VIII. 
 in  the  places  of  abbots  and  convents,  or 
 jjriors  and  convents,  which  were  chapters 
 whilst  they  stood,  and  these  are  new  chap- 
 ters to  old  bishoprics ;  or  they  are  those 
 which  are  annexed  unto  the  new  bishoprics 
 founded  by  King  Henry  VIII.,  and  are, 
 therefore,  ncAV  chapters  to  new  bishoprics. 
 —  1  Inst.  95. 
 
 The  chapter  in  the  collegiate  church  is 
 more  properly  called  a  college ;  as  at  West- 
 minster and  Windsor,  where  there  is  no 
 episcopal  see.  —  Wood,  b.  i.  c.  3.  But 
 however  this  may  originally  have  been, 
 the  rule  has  long  been  disregarded  through- 
 out Europe. 
 
CHAPTER  HOUSE. 
 
 CHASIBLE. 
 
 171 
 
 There  may  be  a  chapter  without  any 
 dean;  as  the  chapter  of  the  coHogiate 
 church  of  Southwell :  and  ji^rants  by  or  to 
 them  are  as  effectual  as  other  grants  by 
 dean  and  chapter. —  IJ'afs.  c.  38. 
 
 In  the  cathedral  churches  of  St.  David's 
 and  Llandaff  there  never  hath  been  any 
 dean,  but  the  bishop  in  either  is  head  of 
 the  chapter ;  and  at  the  former  the  chantor, 
 at  the  latter  the  archdeacon  presides,  in 
 the  absence  of  the  bishop,  or  vacancy  of 
 the  see. — Johns.  GO.  [St.  David's  and 
 Llandaff  are  now  placed  on  the  same  foot- 
 ing with  other  cathedrals  in  this  respect.] 
 
 One  bishop  may  possibly  have  tAvo 
 chapters,  and  that  by  union  or  consolida- 
 tion :  and  it  seemeth  that  if  a  bishop  hath 
 two  chapters,  both  must  confirm  his  leases. 
 ■ — God.  58.  In  cathedrals  of  the  old  found- 
 ation chapters  are  of  two  kinds,  the  greater 
 and  the  lesser.  The  greater  chapter  con- 
 sists of  all  the  major  canons  and  prebend- 
 aries, whether  residentiary  or  not ;  and 
 their  privileges  are  now  considered  to  be 
 limited  to  the  election  of  a  bishop,  of 
 proctors  in  convocation,  and  possibly  a 
 few  other  rare  occasions  ;  the  lesser  chap- 
 ter consists  of  the  dean  and  residentiaries, 
 who  have  the  management  of  the  chapter 
 property,  and  the  ordinary  government  of 
 the  cathedral.  This  however  has  been 
 the  growth  of  later  ages  :  as  it  is  certain 
 that  all  prebendal  members  had  a  voice  in 
 matters  which  concerned  the  interests  of 
 the  cathedral  church.  In  Ireland  the  dis- 
 tinction now  mentioned  is  unknown,  ex- 
 cept at  Kildare. 
 
 In  the  statutes  of  the  old  cathedrals,  by 
 chapter  is  also  understood,  a  sort  of  court 
 held  by  one  or  more  of  the  canons,  some- 
 times even  by  the  non-capitular  officers, 
 for  the  administering  the  ordinary  disci- 
 pline of  the  church,  fining  absentees,  &c. 
 &c. 
 
 The  word  chapter  is  occasionally  applied 
 abroad  to  boards  of  universities  or  other 
 corporations. 
 
 The  assemblies  of  the  knights  of  the  or- 
 ders of  chivalry,  (as  of  the  Garter,  Bath, 
 &c..)  are  also  called  chapters. 
 
 CHAPTER  HOUSE.  The  part  of  a 
 cathedral  in  which  the  dean  and  chapter 
 meet  for  business.  Until  the  thirteenth 
 century,  the  chapter  house  was  always 
 rectangular.  Early  in  that  century  it 
 became  multagonal,  generally  supported 
 by  a  central  shaft,  and  so  continued  to  the 
 latest  date  at  which  any  such  building  has 
 been  erected.  The  greatest  cost  was  ex- 
 pended on  the  decoration  of  the  chapter 
 house,  and  there  is  little  even  in  the  choir 
 of  our  cathedrals,  of  greater  beauty  than 
 
 such  chapter  houses  as  Lincoln,  Salisbury, 
 Southwell,  York,  and  Ilowden.  That  of 
 old  St.  Paul's  in  London,  to  judge  by  the 
 plates  in  Dugdale's  History  of  St.  Paul's, 
 must  have  been  very  beautiful.  It  stood 
 in  an  unique  position,  in  the  centre  of  a 
 cloister.  For  the  plan  of  the  chapter 
 house,  in  the  arrangement  of  the  conven- 
 tual buildings,  see  3Ionasfen/.  Some  have 
 imagined  that  the  idea  of  the  circular  or 
 polygonal  chapter  houses  was  derived  from 
 the  circular  baptisteries  abroad. 
 
 CHAPGE.  This  is  the  address  de- 
 livered by  a  bishop,  or  other  prelate  called 
 ordinary,  at  a  visitation  of  the  clergy  under 
 his  jurisdiction.  A  charge  may  be  con- 
 sidered, in  most  instances,  rather  in  the 
 light  of  an  admonitory  exhortation,  than 
 of  a  judgment  or  sentence  ;  although  the 
 ordinary  has  full  power  in  the  charge  to 
 issue  authoritative  commands,  and  to  cause 
 them  to  be  obeyed,  by  means  of  the  other 
 legal  forms,  for  the  exercise  of  his  ordinary 
 jurisdiction.  It  appears  also  that  the 
 clergy  are  legally  bound  by  their  oath  of 
 canonical  obedience,  and  by  their  ordina- 
 tion vows,  reverently  to  obey  their  ordi- 
 nary. It  is  customary  for  archdeacons, 
 and  other  ecclesiastics  having  peculiar 
 jurisdiction,  to  deliver  charges.  Archdea- 
 cons have  a  a  charge  of  the  parochial 
 churches  within  the  diocese  to  which  they 
 belong,  and  have  power  to  hold  visitations 
 when  the  bishop  is  not  there. — Burn.  (See 
 Visitation.) 
 CHARTREUX.  (See  Carthusians.) 
 CHASIBLE.  {Chasvhie,  Casula.)  The 
 outermost  dress  formerly  worn  by  the 
 priest  in  the  service  of  the  altar,  but  not 
 now  used  in  the  English  Church,  though 
 prescribed  under  the  title  of  Vestment,  in 
 the  rubric  of  King  Edward  VI.'s  First 
 Book,  to  be  worn  by  the  priest  or  bishop 
 when  celebrating  the  communion,  indif- 
 ferently with  the  cope.  In  the  time  of  the 
 primitive  Church,  the  Roman  toga  was  be- 
 coming disused,  and  the  pa?nula  was  tak- 
 ing its  place.  Tlie  pa}nula  formed  a  per- 
 fect circle,  with  an  aperture  to  admit  the 
 head  in  the  centre,  while  it  fell  down  so 
 as  completely  to  envelope  the  jjcrson  of 
 the  wearer.  A  short  pa?nula  was  more 
 common,  and  a  longer  for  the  higher  or- 
 ders ;  it  was  this  last  which  was  used  by 
 the  clergy  in  their  services.  The  Romish 
 Church  has  altered  it  much  by  cutting  it 
 away  laterally,  so  as  to  expose  the  arms^ 
 and  leave  only  a  straight  piece  before  and 
 behind.  The  Greek  Church  retains  it  in 
 its  primitive  shape,  under  the  title  of  <p(u- 
 voXjor,  or  (pevwXiov  :  the  old  brasses  in  Eng- 
 land also  show  the  same  form,  some  even 
 
172 
 
 CHERUB. 
 
 since  the  Reformation.  And  many  tombs 
 of  bishops  in  the  13th  century,  and  later, 
 show  it  in  a  graceful  and  flowing  form. 
 
 CHERUB,  or  [the  plural)  CHEKU13IM, 
 a  particular  order  of  angels.  When  God 
 drove  Adam  and  Eve  out  of  Paradise,  "  he 
 placed  at  the  east  of  the  garden  of  Eden 
 cherubims,  and  a  flaming  sword  which 
 turned  every  way,  to  keep  the  way  of  the 
 tree  of  life."  (Gen.  iii.  24.)  When  Moses 
 was  commanded  by  God  to  make  the  ark 
 of  the  covenant  with  the  propitiatory,  or 
 mercy-scat,  he  was  (Exod.  xxv.  19,  20)  to 
 make  one  cherub  on  the  one  end,  and 
 another  cherub  on  the  other  end ;  the 
 cherubims  were  to  stretch  forth  their  wings 
 on  high,  and  to  cover  the  mercy-seat  with 
 them  ;  and  their  faces  were  to  look  one  to 
 the  other.  Moses  has  left  us  in  the  dark 
 as  to  the  form  of  these  cherubims.  The 
 Jews  suppose  them  to  have  been  in  the 
 shape  of  young  naked  men,  covered  for  the 
 sake  of  decency  with  some  of  their  wings  ; 
 and  the  generality  of  interpreters,  both 
 ancient  and  modern,  suppose  them  to  have 
 had  human  shapes.  But  it  is  certain  that 
 the  prophet  Ezekiel  (i.  10,  and  x.  14)  re- 
 presents them  quite  otherwise,  and  speaks 
 of  the  face  of  a  cherub  as  synonymous 
 with  that  of  an  ox  or  calf;  and  in  the 
 Revelation  (iv.  6)  they  are  called  t,ioa, 
 beasts.  Josephus  {Atih'q.  lib.  iii.)  says 
 that  they  were  a  kind  of  winged  creatures, 
 answering  to  the  description  of  those  Avhich 
 Moses  saw  about  the  throne  of  God,  but 
 the  like  to  which  no  man  had  ever  seen 
 before.  Grotius,  Bochart,  and  other  learned 
 moderns,  deriving  the  word  from  charah, 
 which  in  the  Chaldee,  Syriac,  and  Arabic, 
 signifies  to  ploitgli,  make  no  difficulty  to 
 suppose  that  the  cherubim  here  spoken  of 
 resembled  an  ox,  either  in  whole  or  in  part. 
 The  learned  Spencer  supposes  them  to 
 have  had  the  face  of  a  man,  the  wings  of 
 an  eagle,  the  back  and  mane  of  a  lion, 
 and  the  feet  of  a  calf.  This  he  collects 
 from  the  prophetical  vision  of  Ezekiel  (i.), 
 in  which  the  cherubims  are  said  to  have 
 four  forms,  those  of  a  man,  a  lion,  an  ox, 
 and  an  eagle.  There  is  something  in  this 
 mixed  form,  according  to  that  author, 
 which  is  very  suitable  to  the  regular  cha- 
 racter which  God  bore  among  the  Jews, 
 and  the  peculiar  circumstances  of  the 
 time.  The  Israelites  were  then  in  the 
 wilderness,  and  encamped  in  four  cohorts  ; 
 and  the  Hebrews  have  a  tradition,  that  the 
 standard  of  the  tribe  of  Judah  and  the 
 associated  tribes  carried  a  lion,  the  tribe 
 of  Ephraim  an  ox,  the  tribe  of  Reuben  a 
 man,  and  the  tribe  of  Dan  an  eagle.  GoD 
 therefore  would  sit  upon  cherubims  bearing 
 
 the  forms  of  these  animals,  to  signify  that 
 he  was  the  Leader  and  King  of  the  four 
 cohorts  of  the  Israelites.  The  same  writer, 
 in  another  place,  makes  the  cherubims  of 
 the  mercy-seat  to  be  of  Egyptian  extrac- 
 tion ;  for  Porphyry,  speaking  of  the  priests 
 of  Egypt,  says,  "  Among  these,  one  god  is 
 formed  like  a  man  as  high  as  the  neck, 
 and  they  give  him  the  face  of  some  bird, 
 or  of  a  lion,  or  of  some  other  animal ;  and 
 again,  another  has  the  head  of  a  man,  and 
 the  other  parts  of  other  animals."  Add 
 to  this,  that  the  Apis  of  the  Egyptians  was 
 worshipped  under  the  figure  of  an  ox. 
 Nor  can  any  other  reason,  he  thinks,  be 
 assigned  why  God  should  order  the  che- 
 rubims to  be  fashioned  in  the  shape  of 
 different  animals,  particularly  the  ox,  but 
 that  he  did  it  out  of  indulgence  to  the 
 Israelites,  who,  being  accustomed  to  such 
 kinds  of  representations,  not  only  easily 
 bore  with  them,  but  ardently  desired  them. 
 The  cherubims  of  the  mercy-seat,  Bochart 
 supposes  to  have  had  a  mystical  and  sym- 
 bolical relation  to  God,  the  angels,  the 
 tabernacle,  and  the  people.  As  to  God, 
 they  represented  his  great  power  according 
 to  that  of  the  Psalmist,  (xcix.  1,)  "The 
 Lord  reigneth,  let  the  people  tremble  ;  he 
 sitteth  between  the  cherubims,  let  the 
 earth  be  moved."  They  represented  like- 
 wise the  nature  and  ministry  of  angels. 
 By  the  lion's  form  is  signified  their  strength, 
 generosity,  and  majesty ;  by  that  of  the 
 ox,  their  constancy  and  assiduity  in  exe- 
 cuting the  commands  of  God  ;  by  the 
 human  shape,  their  humanity  and  kind- 
 ness ;  and  by  that  of  the  eagle,  their  agility 
 and  speed.  As  to  the  tabernacle,  the  che- 
 rubims denoted  that  the  holy  ])lace  was  the 
 habitation  of  the  King  of  heaven,  whose 
 immediate  attendants  the  angels  are  sup- 
 posed to  be.  Lastly,  with  respect  to  the 
 people,  the  cherubims  might  teach  them 
 that  God,  who  sat  between  them,  was 
 alone  to  be  the  object  of  their  worship. 
 Upon  this  subject  see  the  curious  and 
 interesting,  though  somewhat  painful  dis- 
 sertation of  Mr.  Parkhurst  in  his  Hebrew 
 and  Greek  Lexicons. 
 
 By  many  it  has  been  considered  that  the 
 four  symbols,  applied  from  very  ancient 
 times  to  the  four  evangelists,  are  derived 
 from  the  cherubic  figures.  The  cherubims 
 are  also  described  in  Rev.  iv.  7. 
 
 It  is  surely  derogatory  to  right  ideas  of 
 religion,  to  suppose  that  these  mysterious 
 symbols  were  derived  from  the  images  of 
 heathen  idolatry,  in  order  to  indulge  the 
 prejudices  of  the  Israelites.  This  would 
 be  to  encourage  idolatry,  against  which 
 the   Divine   vengeance  was  so   markedly 
 
CHERUBICAL  HYMN. 
 
 CHOIR. 
 
 173 
 
 directed.  It  is  much  more  consistent  and 
 probable  to  believe  that  the  correspondin<j^ 
 symbols  of  Etryptians  and  Assyrians  (the 
 latter  so  wonderfully  illustrated  by  the  late 
 discoveries  at  Nineveh)  were  derived  from 
 patriarchal  traditions  ;  distortions  of  that 
 pure  worship  of  God  which  was  derived  to 
 the  whole  world  from  Noah.  This  solu- 
 tion will  account  for  many  of  those  extra- 
 ordinary resemblances  between  heathen 
 and  Jewish  customs,  Avhich  have  been 
 stumblino^-blocks  to  neologists,  especially 
 in  our  dav. 
 
 CHERUBICAL  HYMN.  A  title  some- 
 times p^iven  to  the  Tersanctus  or  Trisagion. 
 (See  Tersanctus.) 
 
 CHILIASTS,  or  ISIILLENARIANS. 
 (Sec  Mil/enninm.)  A  school  of  Christians 
 who  believe  that,  after  the  general  or  last 
 judgment,  the  saints  shall  live  a  thousand 
 years  upon  earth,  and  enjoy  all  manner 
 of  innocent  satisfaction.  It  is  thought 
 Papias,  bishop  of  Hierapolis,  who  lived  in 
 the  second  century,  and  was  disciple  to  St. 
 John  the  evangelist,  or,  as  some  others 
 think,  to  John  the  Elder,  was  the  first  -who 
 maintained  this  opinion.  The  authority 
 of  this  bishop,  supported  by  some  passages 
 in  the  Revelation,  brought  a  great  many 
 of  the  primitive  fathers  to  embrace  liLs 
 persuasion,  as  Irena^us,  Justin  Martyr,  and 
 Tertullian ;  and  after-wards  Nepos,  an 
 Egyptian  bishop,  living  in  the  third  century, 
 was  so  far  engaged  in  this  belief,  and  main- 
 tained it  with  so  much  elocution,  that 
 Dionysius,  bishop  of  Alexandria,  thought 
 himself  obliged  to  Mrite  against  him  :  upon 
 which  Coracion,  one  of  the  principal  abet- 
 tors of  this  doctrine,  renounced  it  publicly, 
 which  practice  was  followed  by  the  gener- 
 ality of  the  West.  The  Millenarians  were 
 in  like  manner  condemned  by  Pope  Da- 
 masus,  in  a  synod  held  at  Rome  against 
 the  Apollinarians.  Some  of  the  modern 
 Millenarians  have  refined  the  notion  of 
 Cerinthus,  and  made  the  satisfactions  ra- 
 tional and  angelical,  untainted  with  any- 
 thing of  sensuality  or  Epicurism.  As  for 
 the  time  of  this  thousand  years,  those  that 
 hold  this  opinion  are  not  perfectly  agreed. 
 Mr.  ]Mcde  makes  it  to  commence  and  de- 
 termine before  the  general  conflagration  ; 
 but  Dr.  Thomas  Burnet  supposes  that  this 
 world  will  be  first  destroyed,  and  that  a 
 new  paradisaical  earth  will  be  formed  out 
 of  the  ashes  of  the  old  one,  where  the 
 saints  will  converse  together  for  a  thousand 
 years,  and  then  be  translated  to  a  higher 
 station. 
 
 CHIMERE.  The  upper  robe  worn  by 
 a  bishop,  to  which  the  lawn  sleeves  are 
 generally  attached.     Before  and  after  the 
 
 Reformation,  till  Queen  Elizabeth's  time, 
 the  bishops  wore  a  scarlet  chimere  or  gar- 
 ment over  the  rochet,  as  they  still  do  when 
 assembled  in  convocation  ;  and  when  the 
 sovereign  attends  parliament.  But  Bishop 
 Hooper,  having  superstitiously  scrupled  at 
 this  as  too  light  a  robe  for  ej)iscopal  gra- 
 vity, it  was  in  her  reign  changed  into  a 
 chimere  of  black  satin. 
 
 The  chimere  seems  to  resemble  the  gar- 
 ment used  by  bishops  during  the  middle 
 ages,  and  called  incrntelletum  ;  which  was  a 
 sort  of  cope,  with  a])ertures  for  the  arms 
 to  pass  through. — See  Uh  Canges  Glos- 
 sary. The  name  of  chimere  is  probably 
 derived  from  the  Italian  zimarra,  which  is 
 described  as  "  vesta  talare  de'  sacerdoti  et 
 de'  chierici." — Palmer. 
 
 The  scarlet  chimere  strongly  resembles 
 the  scarlet  habit  worn  in  congregation,  and 
 at  St.  Mary's,  by  doctors  at  Oxford.  Some 
 have  supposed  that  our  episcopal  dress  is 
 in  fact  merely  a  ductorial  habit.  Per- 
 haps, however,  the  origin  of  both  the 
 chimere,  the  Oxford  habit,  and  the  Cam- 
 bridge doctorial  cope,  and  the  episcopal 
 mantelletum,  may  all  be  derived  from  the 
 dalmatic  or  tuniclc,  (see  Dalmatic,)  which 
 was  formerly  a  characteristic  part  of  the 
 dress  of  bishops  and  deacons  :  from  Avhich 
 the  chimere  differs  in  being  open  in  front. 
 The  sewing  of  the  lawn  sleeves  (now  of 
 preposterous  fulness)  to  the  chimere,  is  a 
 modern  innovation.  They  ought  properly 
 to  be  fastened  to  the  rochet. — Jebb. 
 
 CHOIR,  or  QUIRE.  This  word  has 
 two  meanings.  The  fii'st  is  identical  with 
 chancel,  (see  Chancel,)  signifying  the  place 
 which  the  ministers  of  Divine  worship  oc- 
 cupy, or  ought  to  occupy.  The  word,  ac- 
 cording to  Isidore,  is  derived  from  chorus 
 circumstantium,  because  the  clergy  stood 
 round  the  altar.  Custom  has  usually 
 restricted  the  name  of  chancel  to  parish 
 churches,  that  of  choir  to  cathedrals,  and 
 such  churches  or  chapels  as  are  collegiate. 
 In  the  choirs  of  cathedrals,  (see  Cathedral,) 
 which  are  very  large,  the  congregation  also 
 assemble ;  but  the  clergy  and  other  mem- 
 bers of  the  foundation  occupy  the  seats  on 
 each  side,  (which  are  called  stalls,)  accord- 
 ing to  the  immemorial  custom  of  all  Chris- 
 tian countries. 
 
 The  second,  but  more  proper  sense  of 
 the  word,  is,  a  body  of  men  set  apart  for 
 the  performance  of  all  the  services  of  the 
 Church,  in  the  most  solemn  form.  Pro- 
 perly s])eaking,  the  whole  corporate  body 
 of  a  cathedral,  including  capitular  and  lay 
 members,  forms  the  choir  ;  and  in  this  ex- 
 tended sense  ancient  writers  frequently 
 used  the  word.     Thus  the  "  "-lorious  com- 
 
174 
 
 CHOIR. 
 
 CHOREPISCOPUS. 
 
 ■j^any  of  the  apostles"  is  called  in  Latin 
 "'  apostolorum  chorus."  The  choir  is  used 
 in  some  very  ancient  documents  for  the 
 cathedral  chapter.  But,  in  its  more  re- 
 stricted sense,  -vve  are  to  understand  that 
 body  of  men  and  hoys  who  form  a  part  of 
 the  foundation  of  tlicse  places,  and  Avhose 
 special  duty  it  is  to  perform  the  service  to 
 music.  The  choir  pro])erly  consists  of 
 clergymen,  both  capitular  (including  the 
 precentor)  and  non-capitular,  laymen,  and 
 chorister  boys ;  and  should  have  at  least 
 six  men  and  six  boys  at  every  week-day 
 service,  these  being  essential  to  the  due 
 performance  of  the  chants,  services,  and 
 anthems.  Every  choir  is  divided  into  two 
 parts,  stationed  on  each  side  of  the  chancel, 
 in  order  to  sing  alternately  the  verses  of 
 the  psalms  and  hymns,  one  side  answering 
 the  other.  The  alternate  chanting  by  one 
 or  a  few  voices  and  a  chorus,  in  the  psalms, 
 now  very  general  abroad,  is  a  corruption, 
 and  inconsistent  with  the  true  idea  of  an- 
 tiphonal  singing.  This  alternate,  or  anti- 
 phonal,  recitation  is  very  ancient,  as  old  as 
 the  time  of  IMiriam,  who  thus  alternated 
 her  song  with  the  choir  of  Israel.  (Exod. 
 XV.  20.)  And  we  know  from  Isaiah  that 
 the  angels  in  heaven  thus  sing.  (Isaiah 
 vi.  3.)  So  that  w^hile  we  chant,  we  obey 
 the  practice  of  the  Church  in  earth  and 
 heaven. 
 
 In  the  first  Common  Prayer  Book  of  King 
 Edward  VI.,  the  rubric,  at  the  beginning 
 of  the  morning  prayer,  ordered  the  priests, 
 "  being  in  the  quire,  to  begin  the  Lord's 
 Prayer ; "  so  that  it  was  the  custom  of  the 
 minister  to  perform  Divine  service  at  the 
 upper  end  of  the  chancel  near  the  altar. 
 Against  this,  Bucer,  by  the  direction  of 
 Calvin,  made  a  great  outcry,  pretending 
 "  it  was  an  antichristian  practice  for  the 
 priest  to  say  prayers  only  in  the  choir,  a 
 place  peculiar  to  the  clergy,  and  not  in 
 the  body  of  the  church  among  the  people, 
 who  had  as  much  right  to  Divine  worship 
 as  the  clergy."  This  occasioned  an  alter- 
 ation of  the  rubric,  when  the  Common 
 Prayer  Book  was  revised  in  the  fifth  year 
 of  King  Edward,  and  it  was  ordered,  that 
 prayers  should  be  said  in  such  part  of  the 
 church  "  where  the  people  might  best 
 hear."  However,  at  the  accession  of  Queen 
 Elizabeth  to  the  throne,  the  ancient  practice 
 was  restored,  with  a  dispensing  power  left 
 in  the  ordinary,  of  determining  it  otherwise 
 if  he  saw  just  cause.  Convenience  at  last 
 prevailed,  so  that  the  prayers  are  very 
 commonly  read  in  the  body  of  the  church, 
 and  in^  those  parish  churches  where  the 
 service  is  read  in  the  chancel,  the  minister's 
 place  is  at  the  lower  end  of  it. — Jebb. 
 
 CHOREPISCOPUS.  (Country  bishops, 
 XiopiiriffKOTToi,  Episcopi  rurales,  from  x<^p« 
 or  ■)(iopiov,  country.) 
 
 Some  considerable  diff'crence  of  opinion 
 has  existed  relative  to  the  true  ministerial 
 order  of  the  chorepiscopi,  some  contending 
 that  they  were  mere  presbyters,  others  that 
 they  were  a  mixed  body  of  presbyters  and 
 bishops,  and  a  third  class  that  they  were 
 all  invested  with  the  authority  of  the  epis- 
 copal office.  That  the  latter  opinion,  how- 
 ever, is  the  correct  one,  is  maintained  by 
 Bishop  Barlow,  Dr.  Hammond,  Beveridge, 
 Cave,  and  other  eminent  divines  of  the 
 English  Church,  together  with  Bingham,  in 
 his  "  Antiquities  of  the  Christian  Church." 
 Their  origin  seems  to  have  arisen  from  a 
 desire  on  the  part  of  the  city  or  diocesan 
 bishops  to  supply  the  churches  of  the 
 neighbouring  country  wdth  more  episcopal 
 services  than  fhei/  could  conveniently  ren- 
 der. Some  of  the  best  qualified  presbyters 
 were  therefore  consecrated  bishops,  and 
 thus  empowered  to  act  in  the  stead  of  the 
 principal  bishop,  though  in  strict  subor- 
 dination to  his  authority.  Hence,  we  find 
 them  ordaining  presbyters  and  deacons 
 under  the  licence  of  the  city  bishop ;  and 
 confirmation  was  one  of  their  ordinary 
 duties.  Letters  dimissory  were  also  given 
 to  the  country  clergy  by  the  chorepiscopi, 
 and  they  had  the  privilege  of  sitting  and 
 voting  in  synods  and  councils.  The  dif- 
 ference between  the  chorepiiscopus  and 
 what  was,  at  a  later  period,  denominated 
 a  siiffracjon,  is  scarcely  appreciable,  both 
 being  under  the  jurisdiction  of  a  superior, 
 and  limited  to  the  exercise  of  their  powers 
 within  certain  boundaries,  enjoying  only 
 a  delegated  power. 
 
 The  chorepiscopi  were  at  first  confined 
 to  the  Eastern  Church.  In  the  Western 
 Church,  and  especially  in  France,  they  be- 
 gan to  be  known  about  the  fifth  century. 
 They  have  never  been  numerous  in  Spain 
 and  Italy.  In  Germany  they  must  have 
 been  frequent  in  the  seventh  and  eighth 
 centuries.  In  the  East,  the  order  was 
 abolished  by  the  Council  of  Laodicea, 
 A.  D.  36L  But  so  little  respect  was  enter- 
 tained for  this  decree,  that  the  order  con- 
 tinued until  the  tenth  century.  They  were 
 first  prohibited  in  the  Western  Church  in 
 the  ninth  century ;  but,  according  to  some 
 ^vl■iters,  they  continued  in  France  until  the 
 twelfth  century,  when  the  arrogance,  in- 
 subordination, and  injurious  conduct  of 
 this  class  of  ecclesiastics  became  a  subject 
 of  general  complaint  in  that  country  ;  and 
 they  are  said  to  have  existed  in  Ireland 
 until  the  thirteenth  century.  The  functions 
 of  the  chorepiscopi  are  now  in  great  part 
 
CIIOREUT.E. 
 
 CHRISTIAN  NAME. 
 
 175 
 
 performed  by  archdeacons,  rural  deans, 
 and  vicars-o^eneral.  (See  Suff'ratjians.) 
 
 CIIOREUT^.  A  sect  of  heretics,  Avho, 
 among-  other  errors,  persisted  in  keeping 
 the  Sunday  as  a  fast. 
 
 CIIOIUSTER.  A  sincrcr  in  a  choir.  It 
 properly  means  a  singing  boi/  ;  and  so  it  is 
 used  in  all  old  documents  and  statistics. 
 
 CIIKISM.  {Xpirrixa,  oil.)  Oil  conse- 
 crated in  the  Romish  and  Greek  Churches 
 by  the  bishop,  and  used  in  baptism,  con- 
 firmation, orders,  and  extreme  unction. 
 This  chrism  is  consecrated  -with  great  cere- 
 mony upon  lioly  Thursday.  There  are  two 
 sorts  of  it ;  the  one  is  a  composition  of  oil 
 and  balsam,  made  use  of  in  baptism,  con- 
 firmation, and  orders ;  the  other  is  only 
 ]ilain  oil  consecrated  by  the  bishop,  and 
 used  for  catechumens  and  extreme  unc- 
 tion. Chrism  has  been  discontinued  in 
 the  Church  of  England  since  the  Reform- 
 ation. 
 
 CIIRISOME,  in  the  office  of  baptism, 
 was  a  white  vesture,  Avhich  in  former  times 
 the  priest  used  to  put  upon  the  child,  say- 
 ing, "  Take  this  Avhite  vestiu'e  for  a  token 
 of  innocence." 
 
 By  a  constitution  of  Edmund,  archbishop 
 of  Canterbury,  A.  D.  736,  the  chrisomes, 
 after  having  served  the  purposes  of  bap- 
 tism, were  to  be  made  use  of  only  for  the 
 making  or  mending  of  surplices,  &c.,  or 
 for  the  wrapping  of  chalices. 
 
 The  first  Common  Prayer  Book  of  King 
 Edward  orders  that  the  woman  shall  off'er 
 the  chrisome,  when  she  comes  to  be 
 churched  ;  but,  if  the  child  happens  to  die 
 before  her  churching,  she  was  excused 
 from  ofi'ering  it ;  and  it  was  customary  to 
 use  it  as  a  shroud,  and  to  wrap  the  child 
 in  it  when  it  was  buried.  Hence,  by  an 
 abuse  of  words,  the  term  is  now  used  not 
 to  denote  children  who  die  between  the 
 time  of  their  baptism  and  the  churching  of 
 the  mother,  but  to  denote  children  who 
 die  before  they  are  baptized,  and  so  are 
 incapable  of  Christian  burial. 
 
 CHRIST.  From  the  Greek  word  {Xpitrrog) 
 corresponding  with  the  Hebrew  word  Mes- 
 siah, and  signifying  the  Anointed  One.  It 
 is  given  pre-eminently  to  our  blessed  Lord 
 and  Saviour  Jesus  CnmsT.  As  the  holy 
 unction  was  given  to  kings,  priests,  and 
 prophets,  by  describing  the  promised  Sa- 
 viour of  the  world  under  the  name  of 
 Christ,  Anointed,  or  Messiah,  it  was 
 suflicient  evidence  that  the  qualities  of 
 king,  prophet,  and  high  priest  would  emi- 
 nently centre  in  him ;  and  that  he  would 
 exercise  them  not  only  over  the  Jews,  but 
 over  all  mankind,  and  particularly  over 
 those   whom  he    should    elect    into    his 
 
 Church.  Our  blessed  Saviour  was  not, 
 indeed,  anointed  to  these  ofiices  by  oil ;  but 
 he  was  anointed  by  the  power  and  grace 
 of  the  Holy  Ghost,  who  visibly  descended 
 upon  him  at  his  baptism.  Thus,  (Acts  x. 
 38,)  "God  anointed  Jesus  of  Nazareth 
 with  the  Holy  Ghost  and  with  power." — 
 See  Matt.  iii.  10,  17.  John  iii.  34.  (See 
 Jesits  and  Messuih.) 
 
 CHRISTEN,  To.  To  baptize  ;  because, 
 at  bajjtism,  the  person  receiving  that  sa- 
 crament is  made,  as  the  catechism  teaches, 
 a  member  of  Christ. 
 
 CHRISTENDOM.  All  those  regions 
 in  which  the  kingdom  or  Church  of  Christ 
 is  planted. 
 
 CHRISTIAN.  The  title  given  to  those 
 who  call  upon  the  name  of  the  Lord  Jesus. 
 It  was  at  Antioch,  where  St.  Paul  and  St. 
 Barnabas  jointly  preached  the  Christian 
 religion,  that  the  disciples  were  first  called 
 Christians,  (Acts  xi.  26,)  in  the  year  of  our 
 Lord  43.  They  were  generally  called  by 
 one  another  brethren^  faithful,  saints,  and 
 believers.  The  name  of  Nazarenes  was,  by 
 way  of  reproach,  given  them  by  the  Jews. 
 (Acts  xxiv.  5.)  Another  name  of  reproach 
 was  that  of  Galilceans,  which  was  the  em- 
 peror Julian's  style  whenever  he  spoke  of 
 the  Christians.  Epiphanius  says,  that  they 
 were  called  Jcsseans,  either  from  Jesse,  the 
 father  of  David,  or,  which  is  more  probable, 
 from  the  name  of  Jesus,  whose  disciples 
 they  were.  The  word  is  used  but  tliree 
 times  in  Holy  Scripture  :  Acts  xi.  26 ; 
 xxvi.  28 ;  1  St.  Pet.  iv.  16. 
 
 CHRISTIAN  NAME.  (See  Name.) 
 The  name  given  to  us  when  we  are  made 
 Christians,  i.  e.  at  our  baptism. 
 
 The  Scripture  history,  both  of  the  Old 
 and  New  Testament,  contains  many  in- 
 stances of  the  names  of  persons  being 
 changed,  or  of  their  receiving  an  addi- 
 tional name,  when  they  were  admitted  into 
 covenant  with  God,  or  into  a  new  relation 
 with  our  blessed  Lord  ;  and  it  was  at  cir- 
 cumcision, which  answered,  in  many  re- 
 s))ects,  to  baptism  in  the  Christian  Church, 
 that  the  Jews  gave  a  name  to  their  chil- 
 dren. This  custom  was  adopted  into  the 
 Christian  Church,  and  we  find  very  ancient 
 instances  of  it  recorded.  For  example, 
 Thascius  Cyprian,  at  his  baptism,  changed 
 his  first  name  to  Ctecilius,  out  of  respect 
 for  the  presbyter  who  was  his  spiritual 
 father.  The  custom  is  still  retained,  a 
 name  being  given  by  the  godfather  and 
 godmother  of  each  child  at  ba])tism,  by 
 which  name  he  is  addressed  by  the  minis- 
 ter when  he  receives  that  holy  sacrament. 
 (See  JJaptiswal  Service.) 
 
 Our  Christian  names  serve  to  remind  us 
 
176    CHRISTIANS  OF  ST.  THOMAS. 
 
 CHURCH. 
 
 of  the  duties  and  privileges  on  which  we 
 entered  at  baptism.  Our  surname  is  a 
 memorial  of  original  sin,  or  of  the  nature 
 which  we  bring  into  the  world. 
 
 CHRISTIANS  OF  ST.  THOMAS. 
 (See  Thomas,  St.,  Christians  of.) 
 
 CIIKISTMAS  DAY.  The  2oth  De- 
 cember; the  day  on  which  the  universal 
 Church  celebrates  the  nativity  or  birthday 
 of  our  Lord  and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ. 
 The  observance  of  this  day  in  the  Western 
 Church  is  most  ancient,  although  we  may 
 not  give  much  belief  to  the  statement  of 
 the  forged  decretal  epistles,  that  Telesi- 
 phorus,  who  lived  in  the  reign  of  Antoni- 
 nus Pius,  ordered  Divine  service  to  be 
 celebrated,  and  an  angelical  hymn  to  be 
 sung,  the  night  before  the  nativity.  While 
 the  persecution  raged  under  Diocletian, 
 who  ke])t  his  court  at  Nicomedia,  that  ty- 
 rant, among  other  acts  of  cruelty,  finding 
 multitudes  of  Christians  assembled  together 
 to  celebrate  the  nativity  of  Christ,  com- 
 manded the  church  doors  to  be  shut,  and 
 fire  put  to  the  building,  which  soon  re- 
 duced them  and  the  place  to  ashes.  In 
 the  East  it  was  for  some  time  confounded 
 with  the  Epiphany;  and  St.  Chrysostom 
 mentions  that  it  was  only  about  his  time 
 that  it  became  a  distinct  festival  at  An- 
 tioch. 
 
 The  Athanasian  Creed  is  ordered  to  be 
 said  or  sung  on  this  day.  This  is  one  of 
 the  days  for  which  the  Church  of  England 
 appoints  special  psalms,  and  a  special  pre- 
 face in  the  Communion  Service  :  and  if  it 
 fall  on  a  Friday,  that  Friday  is  not  to  be 
 a  fast  day. — Cave.    Bingham. 
 
 It  is  one  of  the  scarlet  days  -at  Oxford 
 and  Cambridge :  and  in  cathedrals  and 
 choirs  the  responses  and  litany  (if  to  be 
 used)  ought  to  be  solemnly  sung  to  the 
 organ.  In  the  First  Book  of  King  Edward, 
 there  were  separate  Collects,  Epistles,  and 
 Gospels  appointed  for  the  first  and  second 
 communion  on  this  and  on  Easter  day. 
 
 The  chronological  correctness  of  keeping 
 the  birthday  of  our  Lord  on  the  25th  of 
 December,  has  been  demonstrated  in  a 
 most  careful  analysis,  by  the  late  lamented 
 Dr.  Jarvis,  in  his  Chronological  Introduc- 
 tion to  the  Jliston/  of  the  Church. — Jebb. 
 
 CHRISTOLYTES.  {Xpi<TTo\irni,  sejmr- 
 ators  of  Christ.)  A  sect  in  the  sixth  cen- 
 tury, which  held,  that  when  Christ  de- 
 scended into  hell,  he  left  his  soul  and 
 body  there,  and  only  rose  with  his  Divinity 
 to  heaven. 
 
 CHRISTOPHOEI  and  THEOPHORI, 
 [XpiffTotpSpoi  Kai  Qeocpdpoi,  Christ-bearers  and 
 God-bearers,)  names  given  to  Christians  in 
 the  earhest  times,  on  account  of  the  com- 
 
 munion between  Christ,  who  is  God,  and 
 the  Church.  Ignatius  commences  his  Epis- 
 tles thus,  'lyvciTioQ  6  Kal  OsocpopoQ  :  and  it  is 
 related  in  the  acts  of  his  mai'tyrdom,  that 
 hearing  him  called  Theophorus,  Trajan 
 asked  the  meaning  of  the  name  ;  to  which 
 Ignatius  replied,  it  meant  one  that  carries 
 Christ  in  his  heart.  "  Dost  thou  then," 
 said  Trajan,  "  carry  him  that  was  crucified 
 in  thy  heart  ?  "  "  Yes,"  said  the  holy  mar- 
 tyr, "  for  it  is  written,  I  will  dwell  in  them, 
 and  walk  in  them." 
 
 CHRONICLES.  Two  canonical  books 
 of  the  Old  Testament.  They  contain  the 
 history  of  about  3500  years,  from  the  cre- 
 ation until  after  the  return  of  the  Jews 
 from  Babylon.  They  are  fuller  and  more 
 comprehensive  than  the  Books  of  Kings. 
 The  Greek  interpreters  hence  call  them 
 Uapa\inro[iiva,  supplements,  additions.  The 
 Jews  make  but  one  book  of  the  Chronicles, 
 under  the  title  Dibree  hajamin,  i.  e.  journal 
 or  annals.  Ezra  is  generally  supposed  to 
 be  the  author  of  these  books.  The  Chroni- 
 cles, or  Paraleipomena,  are  an  abridgment, 
 in  fact,  of  the  whole  Scripture  history.  St. 
 Jerome  so  calls  it,  "  Omnis  traditio  Scrip- 
 turarum  in  hoc  continetur.''^  The  First  Book 
 contains  a  genealogical  account  of  the  de- 
 scent of  Israel  from  Adam,  and  of  the  reign 
 of  David.  The  Second  Book  contains  the 
 history  of  Judah  to  the  very  year  of  the 
 Jews'  return  from  the  Babylonish  captivity 
 — the  decree  of  Cyrus  granting  them  li- 
 berty being  in  the  last  chapter  of  this 
 Second  Book. 
 
 CHURCH.  (See  Catholic.)  The  word 
 church  is  derived  from  the  Greek  KvpiaKog  {be- 
 longing to  the  Lord) — the  Teutonic  nations 
 having,  at  their  first  conversion,  generally 
 adopted  the  Greek  ecclesiastical  terms.  The 
 truth  of  this  etymology  is  confirmed  by  the 
 fact,  that  in  the  Sclavonic  languages  the 
 names  for  the  Church  resemble  the  Teutonic, 
 evidently  because  derived  from  a  common 
 Greek  original.  The  Church,  meaning  by 
 the  word  the  Catholic  or  Universal  Church, 
 is  that  society  which  was  instituted  by  our 
 blessed  Lord,  and  completed  by  his  apos- 
 tles, acting  under  the  guidance  of  the  HOLY 
 Spirit,  to  be  the  depository  of  Divine 
 truth  and  the  channel  of  Divine  grace. 
 Every  society,  or  organized  community, 
 may  be  distinguished  from  a  mere  multi- 
 tude or  accidental  concourse  of  people,  by 
 having  a  founder,  a  form  of  admission,  a 
 constant  badge  of  membership,  peculiar 
 duties,  peculiar  privileges,  and  regularly 
 appointed  officers.  Thus  the  Catholic 
 Church  has  the  Lord  Christ  for  its 
 founder ;  its  prescribed  form  of  admission 
 is  the  holy  sacrament  of  baptism  ;  its  con- 
 
CHURCH. 
 
 CHURCH  IN  NORTH  AMERICA.  177 
 
 stant  badge  of  membership  is  the  holy  sa- 
 crament of  the  eucharist ;  its  peculiar 
 duties  are  repentance,  faith,  obedience  ;  its 
 peculiar  privileges,  union  with  Goi),through 
 Christ  its  Head,  and  hereby  forgiveness 
 of  sins,  present  grace,  and  future  glory ; 
 its  officers  are  bishops  and  priests,  assisted 
 by  deacons,  in  regular  succession  from  the 
 apostles,  the  first  constituted  officers  of 
 this  body  corporate.  It  has  the  Bible  for 
 its  code  of  laws,  and  tradition  for  prece- 
 dents, to  aid  its  officers  in  the  interpreta- 
 tion of  that  code  on  disputed  points.  It  is 
 through  the  ordinances  and  sacraments  of 
 the  Church,  administered  by  its  divinely 
 appointed  officers,  that  we  are  brought 
 into  union  and  communion  with  the  in- 
 visible Saviour  ;  it  is  through  the  visible 
 body  that  we  are  to  receive  communica- 
 tions from  the  invisible  Spirit  ;  and,  says 
 the  apostle,  in  the  fourth  chapter  to  the 
 Ephesiaus,  "There  is,"  not  merely  one 
 Spirit,  "there  is  one  body  afid one  Spirit, 
 even  as  ye  are  called  in  one  hope  of  your 
 calling."  Again,  (1  Cor.  x.  17,)  "  We  being 
 many  are  one  bread  and  one  body."  And 
 in  the  first  chapter  to  the  Colossians,  the 
 same  apostle  tells  us  that  this  body  is  the 
 Church.  And  thus  we  must,  if  we  are 
 scriptural  Christians,  beheve  that  there  is 
 one  holy  Catholic  and  Apostolic  Church. 
 
 Of  this  one  Church  there  are  many 
 branches  existing  in  various  parts  of  the 
 world,  (not  to  mention  the  great  division 
 of  militant  and  triumphant,)  just  as  there 
 is  one  ocean,  of  which  portions  receive  a 
 particular  designation  from  the  shores 
 which  they  lave.  But  of  this  one  society 
 there  cannot  be  tvro  branches  in  one  and 
 the  same  place  opposed  to  each  other, 
 either  in  discipline  or  in  doctrine.  Al- 
 though there  be  two  opposing  societies  or 
 more  in  one  place,  both  or  all  claiming  to 
 be  Christ's  Church  in  that  place,  yet  w^e 
 are  quite  sure  that  only  one  of  them  can 
 be  the  real  Church.  So  here,  in  this  realm 
 of  England,  speaking  natmially,  there  is 
 but  one  Church,  over  which  the  arch- 
 bishops of  Canterbury  and  York,  with 
 their  sufi"ragans,  preside  :  and  in  each  dio- 
 cese there  is  only  that  one  Church,  over 
 which  the  diocesan  presides,  a  branch  of 
 the  national  Church,  as  the  national  is  a 
 branch  of  the  universal  Church ;  and 
 again,  in  each  parish  there  is  but  one 
 Church,  forming  a  branch  of  the  diocesan 
 Church,  over  which  the  parochial  minister 
 presides. 
 
 "  Religion  being,  therefore,  a  matter 
 partly  of  contemplation,  partly  of  action,  we 
 must  define  the  Church,  which  is  a  religious 
 society,  by  such  diff'erences  as  do  projicrly 
 
 explain  the  essence  of  such  things ;  that  is 
 to  say,  by  the  object  or  matter  whereabout 
 the  contemplation  and  actions  of  the  Church 
 are  projicrly  conversant ;  for  so  all  know- 
 ledge and  all  virtues  are  defined.  Where- 
 upon, because  the  onln  oh/ecl  which  sepa- 
 rateth  ours  from  other  religions  is  Jksus 
 Christ,  in  whom  none  but  the  Church 
 doth  believe,  and  whom  none  but  the 
 Church  doth  worship,  we  find  that  accord- 
 ingly the  apostles  do  everywhere  distin- 
 guish hereby  the  Church  from  infidels  and 
 from  Jews,  accounting  them  which  call 
 upon  the  name  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ 
 to  be  his  Church."— 7/oo7i-er's  Heel.  Pol. 
 Hooker's  assertion  as  to  the  Church  in  this 
 country  must  be  so  far  modified,  that  now, 
 by  change  of  political  circumstances,  the 
 Churches  of  England  and  Ireland  are 
 politically  united,  and  form  but  one  Church, 
 over  which  two  primates,  that  of  Canter- 
 bury and  Armagh,  of  co-ordinate  jurisdic- 
 tion, preside,  with  other  archbishops  and 
 suff'ragans,  &c. — Jebb. 
 
 CHURCH  IN  NORTH  AMERICA. 
 It  is  not  possible,  in  such  a  publication 
 as  this,  to  give  an  account  of  the  various 
 branches  of  the  one  Catholic  Church, 
 which  are  to  be  found  in  the  various  parts 
 of  the  world;  but  it  would  be  improper 
 not  to  notice  the  Church  in  the  United 
 States  of  America,  since  it  is  indebted  for 
 its  existence,  under  the  blessing  of  the 
 Great  Head  of  the  Church  Universal, 
 to  the  missionary  labours  of  the  Church  of 
 England ;  or  rather  we  should  say,  of 
 members  of  that  Church  acliiig  under  the 
 sanction  of  their  bishops,  and  formed  into 
 the  Spciety  for  the  Propagation  of  the 
 Gospel  in  Foreign  Parts.  Before  the 
 American  Revolution  it  can  scarcely  be 
 said  that  the  Church  existed  in  our  Ame- 
 rican colonies.  There  were  congregations 
 formed  chiefly  through  the  Society  just 
 mentioned,  and  the  clergy  w'ho  ministered 
 in  these  congregations  were  under  the 
 superintendence  of  the  bishop  of  London. 
 We  may  say  that  the  first  step  taken  for 
 the  organization  of  the  Church  was  after 
 the  termination  of  the  revolutionary  war, 
 at  a  meeting  of  a  few  of  the  clergy  of  New 
 York,  New  Jersey,  and  Pennsylvania,  at 
 New  Brunswick,'  N.  Y.,  in  May,  1784. 
 Though  this  meeting  was  called  on  other 
 business,  yet  the  project  of  a  general 
 union  of  the  churches  throughout  the 
 States  became  a  topic  of  sufficient  in- 
 terest to  lead  to  the  calling  of  another 
 meeting,  to  be  held  in  October  following, 
 in  the  city  of  New  York.  At  this  latter 
 meeting,  "  although  the  members  com- 
 posing   it    were    not   vested  with   powers 
 
178 
 
 CHURCH  IN  NORTH  AMERICA. 
 
 adequate  to  the  present  exif^encies  of  the 
 Church,  they  happily,  and  with  great  una- 
 nimity, laid  down  a  few  general  principles 
 to  be  recommended  in  the  respective  States, 
 as  the  ground  on  which  a  future  ecclesi- 
 astical government  should  be  established." 
 It  was  also  recommended  that  the  several 
 States  should  send  clerical  and  lay  depu- 
 ties to  a  future  meeting  in  Philadelphia, 
 on  September  the  twenty-seventh,  of  the 
 following  year.  In  the  interim,  the 
 churches  of  Connecticut,  having  made 
 choice  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Seabury  for  a  bi- 
 shop, he  had  proceeded  to  England  with 
 a  view  to  consecration.  In  this  applica- 
 tion he  was  not  successful,  the  English 
 bishops  having  scruples,  partly  of  a  poli- 
 tical nature,  and  partly  relative  to  the  re- 
 ception with  which  a  bishop  might  meet, 
 under  the  then  imperfect  organization  of 
 the  Church  in  America.  Resort  was 
 therefore  had  to  the  Church  in  Scotland, 
 where  Dr.  Seabury  received  consecration 
 in  November,  1784. 
 
 According  to  appointment,  the  first 
 general  convention  assembled  in  1785, 
 in  Philadelphia,  with  delegates  from  seven 
 of  the  thirteen  States.  At  this  conven- 
 tion measures  were  taken  for  a  revisal  of 
 the  Prayer  Book,  to  adapt  it  to  the  poli- 
 tical changes  which  had  recently  taken 
 place  ;  articles  of  union  were  adopted ;  an 
 ecclesiastical  constitution  was  framed ;  and 
 the  first  steps  taken  for  the  obtaining  of 
 an  episcopate  direct  from  the  Church  of 
 England. 
 
 In  June,  1786,  the  convention  again 
 met  in  Philadelj)hia.  A  correspondence 
 having  meanwhile  been  carried  on  with 
 the  archbishops  and  bishops  of  the  English 
 Church,  considerable  dissatisfaction  was 
 expressed  on  their  part  relative  to  some 
 changes  in  the  liturgy,  and  to  one  point 
 of  importance  in  the  constitution.  The 
 latter  of  these  was  satisfied  by  the  pro- 
 ceeding of  the  then  session,  and  the  for- 
 mer were  removed  by  reconsideration  in 
 a  special  convention  summoned  in  October 
 in  the  same  year.  It  soon  appearing  that 
 Dr.  Provoost  had  been  elected  to  the 
 episcopate  of  New  York,  Dr.  AVhite  to 
 that  of  Pennsylvania,  and  Dr.  Griffith  for 
 Virginia,  testimonials  in  their  favour  were 
 signed  by  the  convention.  The  two  former 
 sailed  for  England  in  November,  1786, 
 and  were  consecrated  at  Lambeth  on  the 
 4th  of  February  in  the  following  year,  by 
 the  ISIost  Reverend  John  Moore,  arch- 
 bishop of  Canterbury.  Before  the  end 
 of  the  same  month  they  sailed  for  New 
 York,  where  they  arrived  on  Easter  Sun- 
 day, April  7th,  1787. 
 
 In  July,  1789,  the  general  convention 
 again  assembled.  The  episcopacy  of 
 Bishops  White  and  Provoost  was  recog- 
 nised ;  the  resignation  of  Dr.  Griffith,  as 
 bishop  elect  of  Virginia,  was  received  ; 
 and  in  this  and  an  adjourned  meeting  of 
 the  body,  in  the  same  year,  the  constitution 
 of  1786  was  remodelled;  union  was  happily 
 effected  with  Bishop  Seabury  and  the 
 northern  clergy ;  the  revision  of  the  Prayer 
 Book  was  completed ;  and  the  Church 
 already  gave  promise  of  great  future  pros- 
 perity. In  September,  1790,  Dr.  Madison 
 was  consecrated  bishop  of  Virginia  at 
 Lambeth  in  England,  by  the  same  arch- 
 bishop, who,  a  few  years  before,  had  im- 
 parted the  apostolic  commission  to  Drs. 
 "White  and  Provoost.  There  being  now 
 three  bishops  of  the  English  succession, 
 besides  one  of  the  Scotch,  everything 
 requisite  for  the  continuation  and  exten- 
 sion of  the  episcopacy  was  complete. 
 Accordingly  the  line  of  American  conse- 
 cration opened  in  1792,  with  that  of  Dr. 
 Claggett,  bishop  elect  of  Maryland.  In 
 1795  Dr.  Smith  was  consecrated  for  South 
 Carolina  ;  in  1797  the  Rev.  Edward  Bass, 
 for  Massachusetts,  and  in  the  same  year 
 Dr.  Jarvis,  for  Connecticut,  that  diocese 
 having  become  vacant  by  the  death  of 
 Bishop  Seabury.  From  that  time  the 
 consecration  of  bishops  has  proceeded 
 according  to  the  wants  of  the  Church, 
 without  impediment,  to  the  present  day. 
 At  the  beginning  of  the  present  century 
 the  Church  had  become  permanently 
 settled  in  its  organization,  and  its  stabi- 
 lity and  peace  w'ere  placed  on  a  secure 
 footing.  In  1811  there  were  already  eight 
 bishops  and  about  two  hundi*ed  and  thirty 
 other  clergymen  distributed  through  thir- 
 teen States.  A  spirit  of  holy  enterprise 
 began  to  manifest  itself  in  measures  for 
 the  building  up  of  the  Church  west  of  the 
 Alleghany  Mountains,  and  in  other  por- 
 tions of  the  country,  where  heretofore  it 
 had  maintained  but  a  feeble  existence. 
 The  ministry  numbers  in  its  ranks  men  of 
 the  first  intellectual  endowments,  and  of 
 admirable  self-devotion  to  the  cause  of  the 
 gospel.  With  a  steady  progress,  unawed 
 by  the  assaults  of  sectarianism  and  the 
 reproaches  of  the  fanatic,  the  Church 
 gradually  established  itself  in  the  affec- 
 tions of  all  who  came  with  a  spirit  of  can- 
 dour to  the  examination  of  her  claims. 
 The  blessing  of  her  Great  Head  w^as 
 apparent,  not  only  in  the  peace  which 
 adorned  her  councils,  but  in  the  demands 
 w^hich  were  continually  made  for  a  wider 
 extension  of  her  influence.  Hence  the 
 establishment  of  the  General  Theological 
 
CHURCH  IN  NORTH  AMERICA. 
 
 CHURCH  OF  ENGLAND. 
 
 179 
 
 Seminary  by  Bishop  Ilobart  (1817—1821), 
 and  afterwards  of  the  Domestic  and  Foreign 
 Missionary  Society  (1885) ;  both  of  -wliich 
 institutions  were  instrumental  in  providing 
 heralds  of  the  gospel  for  the  distant  places 
 of  the  West.  These  were  followed  by  the 
 diocesan  seminaries  of  Virginia,  Ohio,  and 
 Kentucky,  and  efforts  for  the  founding  of 
 several  in  other  dioceses.  At  the  general 
 convention  of  1835,  the  whole  Church 
 assumed  the  position  of  one  grand  mis- 
 sionary organization,  and  has  already  her 
 bands  of  missionaries  labouring  in  the 
 cause  of  the  Church  in  the  remotest  dis- 
 tricts of  the  country ;  and  her  banner  has 
 been  lifted  up  in  Africa,  China,  Greece, 
 and  other  foreign  parts.  The  year  1852 
 was  distinguished  by  remarkable  demon- 
 strations of  communion  between  the 
 Churches  of  England  and  America.  The 
 American  Church,  in  token  of  her  con- 
 nexion Avith  the  mother  Church,  and  of 
 gratitude  for  benefits  received  from  the 
 Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel 
 while  the  American  States  were  part  of 
 the  British  dominions,  deputed  Bishop 
 M'Coski-y,  of  Michigan,  and  Bishop  De 
 Lancey,  of  "Western  New  York,  to  attend 
 the  third  Jubilee  of  the  Society.  These 
 bishops  were  received  in  England  Avith  cor^ 
 dial  affection,  and  the  bishop  of  Michigan 
 preached  the  Jubilee  Sermon  at  St.  Paul's 
 cathedi-al.  A  few  months  later  the  Eng- 
 lish bishop  Fulford,  of  Montreal,  shared 
 in  consecrating  Dr.  Wainwright,  who  had 
 been  a  member  of  the  deputation  to  Eng- 
 land, coadjutor  bishop  of  Eastern  New 
 York.  In  1853  Bishop  Spenser,  Arch- 
 deacon Sinclair,  and  the  Kev.  Ernest 
 Hawkins,  were  deputed  by  the  Society  for 
 Propagating  the  Gospel  to  return  the  visit 
 of  the  American  prelates,  and  were  re- 
 ceived with  great  cordiality  by  the  general 
 convention  of  the  American  Church.  An 
 attempt  to  excite  a  llomanizing  spirit  on 
 the  part  of  a  few  half-educated  persons  has 
 signally  failed,  by  the  suppression,  for  want 
 of  support,  of  the  Journal  they  established. 
 With  her  37  bishops,  2000  clergy,  and 
 more  than  2,000,000  of  lay  members; 
 with  her  numerous  societies  for  the  spread 
 of  the  Bible  and  the  Liturgy  ;  and  with  her 
 institutions  of  learning,  and  presses  con- 
 stantly pouring  out  the  light  of  the  truth, 
 may  we  not  predict,  under  the  Divine  pro- 
 tection, a  day  of  coming  prosperity,  when 
 Zion  shall  be  a  praise  in  all  the  earth ; 
 when  her  temples  and  her  altars  shall  be 
 seen  on  the  far-off  shores  of  the  Pacific ; 
 when  even  "  the  wilderness  and  the  soli- 
 tary place  shall  be  glad  for  them,  and  the  de- 
 sert shall  rejoice  and  blossom  as  the  rose  ?" 
 N   2 
 
 For  a  more  detailed  history  of  the 
 Church  in  America,  the  reader  may  con- 
 sult Bishop  Whitens  Memoirs  of  the  Pro- 
 t ('Slant  and  J^piscopal  Church  in  America  ; 
 CastcaWs  America  and  the  American 
 Church  :  the  Ilistorij  of  the  Church  in 
 America  in  the  Christian'' s  Miscellany ; 
 and  the  more  recent  Ilistorj/  hy  Uishop 
 Wilhcrforce,  published  in  the  Enylish- 
 man\s  Library. 
 
 CHUBCH  OF  ENGLAND.  (See 
 Anr/lo-CathoIic  Church.)  By  the  Church 
 of  England  Ave  mean  that  branch  of  the 
 Catholic  Church  Avhich  is  established  under 
 its  canonical  bishops  in  England.  Pro- 
 perly speaking,  at  present  it  forms  only  a 
 branch  of  the  united  Church  of  England 
 and  Ireland.  When  and  by  Avhom  the 
 Church  Avas  first  introduced  into  Britain 
 is  not  exactly  ascertained,  but  it  has  been 
 inferred  from  Eusebius  that  it  Avas  first 
 established  here  by  the  apostles  and  their 
 disciples  ;  some  haA'e  supposed,  by  St.  Paul. 
 According  to  Archbishop  Usher,  there  Avas 
 a  school  of  learning  to  provide  the  British 
 churches  Avith  proper  teachers  in  the  year 
 182.  But  Avhen  the  Britons  Avere  conquer- 
 ed by  the  Anglo-Saxons,  Avho  Avere  hea- 
 thens, the  Church  Avas  persecuted,  and  the 
 professors  of  Christianity  Avere  either  driven 
 to  the  mountains  of  AVales,  or  reduced  to 
 a  state  of  slavery.  The  latter  circum- 
 stances prepared  the  Avay  for  the  conversion 
 of  the  conquerors,  Avho,  seeing  the  pious 
 and  regular  deportment  of  their  slaves, 
 soon  learned  to  respect  their  religion.  We 
 may  gather  this  fact  from  a  letter  written 
 by  Gregory,  the  bishop  of  Home,  in  the 
 sixth  century,  to  tAvo  of  the  kings  of  France, 
 in  Avhich  he  states  that  the  English  nation 
 Avas  desirous  of  becoming  Christian ;  and 
 in  Avhich  he,  at  the  same  time,  complains 
 to  those  monarchs  of  the  remissness  of 
 their  clergy  in  not  seeking  the  conA'ersion 
 of  their  neighbours.  And  hence  it  Avas 
 that  Gregory,  Avith  that  piety  and  zeal  for 
 Avhich  he  Avas  pre-eminently  distinguished, 
 sent  over  Augustine,  and  about  forty 
 missionaries,  to  England,  to  labour  in  the 
 good  Avork.  The  success  of  these  mission- 
 aries, the  Avay  having  thus  been  paved 
 before  them,  Avas  most  satisfactory.  They 
 converted  Ethelbert,  Avho  Avas  not  only 
 king  of  Kent,  but  BrtctAvalda,  or  chief  of 
 the  Saxon  monarchs.  His  exam])le  Avas 
 soon  folloAved  by  the  kings  of  Essex  and 
 East  Anglia,  and  gradually  by  the  other 
 sovereigns  of  JMigland. 
 
 The  successful  Augustine  then  Avent 
 over  to  Aries  in  France,  Avhere  he  Avas 
 consecrated  by  the  prelate  of  that  see  ; 
 and,  returning,  became  the  first  archbishop 
 
180 
 
 CHURCH   OF  ENGLAND. 
 
 of  Canterbury,  the  patriarch  and  metro- 
 politan of  the  Church  of  England.  His 
 see  was  immediately  endowed  with  large 
 revenues  by  King  Ethelbert,  v\-ho  likewise 
 established,  at  the  instance  of  the  arch- 
 bishop, the  dioceses  of  Rochester  and  Lon- 
 don. Another  portion  of  ■  the  Anglo- 
 Saxons  were  converted  by  the  Scottish 
 bishops.  And  thus  gradually  the  Anglo- 
 Saxon  kings  created  bishoprics  equal  in 
 size  to  their  kingdoms.  And  the  example 
 was  followed  by  their  nobles,  who  convert- 
 ed their  estates  into  parishes,  erecting  fit 
 places  of  worship,  and  endowing  them  with 
 tithes. 
 
 It  is  a  great  mistake  to  suppose,  as  some 
 do,  that  the  old  churches  in  England  were 
 built  or  endowed  by  laws  of  the  state  or 
 acts  of  parliament.  They  were  the  fruit 
 of  the  piety  of  individuals  of  all  ranks, 
 ]n-inces  and  nobles,  and  private  citizens. 
 This  fact  accounts  for  the  unequal  sizes 
 of  our  dioceses  and  parishes  :  the  dioceses 
 were  (though  sul)sequently  subdivided)  of 
 the  same  extent  as  the  dominions  of  the 
 respective  kings  ;  the  parishes  correspond- 
 ed with  the  estate  of  the  patrons  of  par- 
 ticular churches.  Nor  was  the  regard  of 
 those  by  whom  the  Church  was  established 
 and  endowed,  confined  to  the  spiritual 
 edification  of  the  poor ;  no,  they  knew  that 
 righteousness  exalteth  a  nation,  and  esti- 
 mating properly  the  advantages  of  infusing 
 a  Christian  spirit  into  the  legislature,  they 
 summoned  the  higher  order  of  the  clergy 
 to  take  part  in  the  national  councils. 
 
 From  those  times  to  these,  an  uninter- 
 rupted series  of  valid  ordinations  has 
 carried  down  the  apostolical  succession  in 
 our  Church. 
 
 That  in  the  Church  of  England  purity 
 of  doctrine  was  not  always  retained  may  be 
 readily  admitted.  In  the  dark  ages,  when 
 all  around  was  dark,  the  Church  itself 
 suffered  from  the  universal  gloom  :  this 
 neither  our  love  of  truth,  nor  our  wishes, 
 will  permit  us  to  deny.  About  the  seventh 
 century  the  pope  of  JRome  began  to  estab- 
 lish an  interest  in  our  Church.  The 
 interference  of  the  prelate  of  that  great 
 see,  before  he  laid  claim  to  any  dominion 
 of  right,  was  at  first  justifiable,  and  did 
 not  exceed  just  bounds,  while  it  con- 
 tributed much  to  the  propagation  of  the 
 gospel.  That  the  bishop  of  Rome  was 
 justified  as  a  Christian  bishop,  of  high 
 influence  and  position,  in  endeavouring  to 
 aid  the  cause  of  Christianity  here  in  Eng- 
 land, while  England  was  a  heathen  na- 
 tion, will  not  be  disputed  by  those  who 
 recognise  the  same  right  in  the  archbishop 
 of    Canterbury   with  -respect   to   foreign 
 
 heathens.  But,  in  after  ages,  what  was 
 at  first  a  justifiable  interference  was  so  in- 
 creased as  to  become  an  intolerable  usurp- 
 ation. This  interference  was  an  usurp- 
 ation because  it  was  expressly  contrary  to 
 the  decisions  of  a  general  council  of  the 
 Church,  and  such  as  the  Scripture  con- 
 demns, in  that  the  Scripture  places  all 
 bishops  on  an  equality  ;  and  so  they  ought 
 to  continue  to  be,  except  where,  for  the 
 sake  of  order,  they  voluntarily  consent  to 
 the  appointment  of  a  president  or  arch- 
 bishop, who  is  nothing  more  than  a  primus 
 i7iter  pares,  a  Jirst  among  equals.  This 
 usurpation  for  a  time  continued,  and  with 
 it  were  introduced  various  corriiptions,  in 
 doctrine  as  well  as  in  discipline. 
 
 At  length,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII., 
 the  bishops  and  clergy  accorded  with  the 
 laity  and  government  of  England,  and 
 threw  off  the  yoke  of  the  usurping  pope 
 of  Rome.  They,  at  the  same  time,  cor- 
 rected and  reformed  all  the  errors  of.  doc- 
 trine, and  most  of  the  errors  of  discipline, 
 which  had  crept  into  our  Church  during 
 the  reign  of  intellectual  darkness  and 
 papal  domination.  They  condemned  the 
 monstrous  doctrine  of  transubstantiation, 
 the  worship  of  saints  and  images,  commu- 
 nion in  one  kind,  and  the  constrained 
 celibacy  of  the  clergy  ;  "having  fiirst  ascer- 
 tained that  these  and  similar  errors  were 
 obtruded  into  the  Church  in  the  middle 
 ages.  Thus  restoring  the  Church  to  its 
 ancient  state  of  purity  and  perfection,  they 
 left  it  to  us,  their  children,  as  we  now  find 
 it.  They  did  not  attempt  to  make  neu-, 
 their  object  was  to  reform,  the  Church. 
 They  stripped  their  venerable  mother  of 
 the  meretricious  gear  in  which  superstition 
 had  arrayed  her,  and  left  her  in  that  plain 
 and  decorous  attire  with  which,  in  the 
 simple  dignity  of  a  matron,  she  had  been 
 adorned  by  apostolic  hands. 
 
 Thus,  then,  it  seems  that  ours  is  the  old 
 Church  of  England,  tracing  its  origin,  not 
 to  Cranmer  and  Ridley,  who  only  reforyned 
 it ;  but  that  it  is  the  onhi  Church  of  Eng- 
 gland,  which  traces  its  origin  up  through 
 the  apostles  to  our  Sayiour  Himself.  To 
 adopt  the  words  of  a  learned  and  pious 
 writer :  "  The  orthodox  and  undoubted 
 bishops  of  Great  Britain  are  the  only  per- 
 sons who,  in  any  manner,  whether  by  or- 
 dination or  possession,  can  prove  their  de- 
 scent from  the  ancient  saints  and  bishops 
 of  these  isles.  It  is  a  positive  fact  that 
 they,  and  they  aln^ie,  can  trace  their  or- 
 dinations from  Peter  and  Paul,  through 
 Patrick,  Augustine,  Theodore,  Colman, 
 Columba,  David,  Cuthbert,  Chad,  Anselm, 
 Osmund,  and  all  the  other  worthies  of  our 
 
CHURCH  OF  ENGLAND. 
 
 CHURCH  OF  IRELAND. 
 
 181 
 
 Church."  "  It  is  true  that  there  are  some 
 schismatieal  Romish  hisho])s  in  these 
 realms,  but  they  are  of  a  recent  origin,  and 
 cannot  show  the  prescription  and  posses- 
 sion that  we  can.  Some  of  these  teach- 
 ers do  not  profess  to  be  bishops  of  our 
 churches,  but  are  titular  bishops  of  places 
 we  know  not.  Others  usurp  the  titles  of 
 various  churches  in  these  islands,  but  are 
 neither  in  possession  themselves,  nor  can 
 prove  that  their  predecessors  ever  occu- 
 pied them.  The  sect  (the  sect  of  English 
 Papists  or  Roman  Catholics)  arose  in  the 
 reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  when  certain 
 persons,  unhappily  and  blindly  devoted  to 
 the  see  of  Rome,  refused  to  obey  and  com- 
 municate with  their  lawful  pastors,  who, 
 in  accordance  with  the  laws  of  God  and 
 the  canons,  asserted  the  ancient  independ- 
 ence of  the  British  and  Irish  Chm-ch ;  and 
 the  Roman  patriarch  then  ordained  a  few 
 bishops  to  sees  in  Ireland,  which  were  al- 
 ready occupied  by  legitimate  pastors.  In 
 England  this  ministry  is  of  later  origin ; 
 for  the  fii'st  bishop  of  that  communion  was 
 a  titular  bishop  of  Chalcedon  in  the  seven- 
 teenth century. 
 
 The  ecclesiastical  state  of  England,  as  it 
 stands  at  this  day,  is  divided  into  two  pro- 
 vinces or  archbishoprics,  of  Canterbury 
 and  York,  Avhich  are  again  subdivided  into 
 several  dioceses.     (See  Archbishop.) 
 
 For  the  safeguard  of  the  doctrine  and 
 discipline  of  the  Church  of  England,  many 
 provisions  are  made  both  by  the  civil  and 
 canon  law. 
 
 Whoever  shall  come  to  the  possession  of 
 the  crown  of  England  shall  join  in  commu- 
 nion with  the  Church  of  England,  as  by  law 
 established.     (12  &  13  Will.  in.  c.  2,  s.  3.) 
 
 By  the  1  Will.  III.  c.  6,  an  oath  shall  be 
 administered  to  every  king  or  queen  who 
 shall  succeed  to  the  imperial  crown  of  this 
 realm,  at  their  coronation ;  to  be  adminis- 
 tered by  one  of  the  archbishops  or  bishops, 
 to  be  thereunto  appointed  b}'  such  king  or 
 queen;  that  they  will  do  the  utmost  in 
 their  power  to  maintain  the  laws  of  God, 
 the  true  profession  of  the  gospel,  and  Pro- 
 testant reformed  religion  established  by 
 law;  and  will  preserve  unto  the  bishops 
 and  clergy  of  this  realm,  and  to  the  churches 
 committed  to  their  charge,  all  such  rights 
 and  privileges  as  by  law  do  or  shall  apper- 
 tain unto  them,  or  any  of  them. 
 
 And  by  the  5  Anne,  c.  5,  the  king,  at 
 his  coronation,  shall  take  and  subscribe  an 
 oath  to  maintain  and  preserve  inviolably 
 the  settlement  of  the  Church  of  England, 
 and  the  doctrine,  worship,  discipline,  and 
 government  thereof,  as  bv  law  estabHshcd. 
 (s.  2.) 
 
 By  Canon  3,  whoever  shall  affirm  that 
 the  Church  of  England,  by  law  established, 
 is  not  a  true  and  apostolical  Church,  teach- 
 ing and  maintaining  the  doctrine  of  the 
 apostles,  let  him  be  excommunicated  ipso 
 facto,  and  not  restored  but  only  by  the 
 archbishop,  after  his  repentance  and  pub- 
 lic revocation  of  this  his  wicked  error. 
 
 And  by  Canon  7,  whoever  shall  affirm 
 that  the  government  of  the  Church  of 
 England  under  Her  Majesty,  by  arch- 
 bishops, bishops,  deans,  archdeacons,  and 
 the  rest  that  bear  office  in  the  same,  is 
 antichristian,  or  repugnant  to  the  word  of 
 God,  let  him  be  excommunicated  ipso  facto, 
 and  so  continue  until  he  repent,  and  pub- 
 licly revoke  such  his  Micked  errors. 
 
 And  moreover,  seditious  words,  in  dero- 
 gation of  the  established  religion,  are  in- 
 dictable, as  tending  to  a  breach  of  the 
 peace. 
 
 CHURCH  OF  IRELAND.  Of  the  first 
 introduction  of  the  Church  into  Ireland 
 we  have  no  authentic  records ;  nor  is  it 
 necessary  to  search  for  them,  since,  of  the 
 present  Church,  the  founder,  under  God, 
 was  St.  Patrick,  in  the  fifth  century.  From 
 him  it  is  that  the  present  clergy,  the  re- 
 formed clergy,  and  they  only,  have  their 
 succession,  and  through  him  from  the 
 apostles  themselves.  That,  by  a  regular 
 series  of  consecrations  and  ordinations,  the 
 succession  from  Patrick  and  Palladius,  and 
 the  first  Irish  missionaries,  was  kept  up  un- 
 til the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  our  op- 
 ponents, the  Irish  Papists,  will  allow.  The 
 question,  therefore,  is  whether  that  succes- 
 sion was  at  that  time  lost.  The  onus  ^yro- 
 handi  rests  with  our  opponents,  and  we 
 defy  them  to  prove  that  such  was  the  case. 
 It  is  a  well-known  fact,  that  of  all  the 
 countries  of  Europe,  there  was  not  one  in 
 Avhich  the  process  of  the  Reformation  was 
 carried  on  so  regularly,  so  canonically,  so 
 quietly,  as  it  was  in  Ireland.  Carte,  the 
 biographer  of  Ormond,  having  observed 
 that  the  Popish  schism  did  not  commence 
 in  England  until  the  twelfth  year  of  Queen 
 Elizabeth's  reign,  but  that  for  eleven  years 
 those  who  most  favoured  the  pretensions 
 of  the  pope  conformed  to  the  reformed 
 Catholic  Church  of  England,  remarks, 
 "  The  case  was  much  the  same  in  Ireland, 
 where  the  bishops  complied  with  the  Reform- 
 ation, and  the  JRoman  Catholics-  (meaning 
 those  Avho  afterwards  became  liotnan,  in- 
 stead of  remaining  reformed  Catholics) 
 resorted  in  general  to  the  parish  churches 
 in  M'hich  the  iMiglish  service  was  used, 
 until  the  end  of  Queen  EHzabeth's  reign." 
 It  is  here  stated  that  the  bishops  of  the 
 Church  of  Irelaiul,  that  is,  as  the  Papists 
 
182 
 
 CHURCH  OF  IRELAND. 
 
 will  admit,  the  then  successors  of  St.  Pat- 
 rick and  his  suffragans,  those  who  had  a 
 right  to  reform  the  Church  of  Ireland,  con- 
 sented to  the  Reformation ;  and  that,  imtil 
 the  end  of  Queen  Elizabeth's  reign,  (and 
 she  reigned  above  forty-four  years,)  there 
 was  no  pretended  Church,  under  the  do- 
 minion of  the  pope,  opposed  to  the  true 
 Catholic  Church,  as  is  unfortunately  now 
 the  case.  The  existing  clergy  of  the  Church 
 of  Ireland,  whether  we  regard  their  order 
 or  their  mission,  and  consequently  the 
 Church  itself,  are  the  only  legitimate  suc- 
 cessors of  those  by  whom  that  Church  was 
 founded.  That  in  the  Church  of  Ireland, 
 as  well  as  in  the  Church  of  England,  cor- 
 ruptions in  doctrine  as  v;e\\  as  in  practice 
 prevailed  before  the  Reformation,  and  that 
 the  pope  of  Rome  gradually  usurped  over 
 it  an  authority  directly  contrary  to  one  of 
 the  canons  of  a  general  council  of  the 
 Church  Universal,  (that  of  Ephesus,)  we 
 fully  admit.  But  that  usurpation  was  resist- 
 ed and  renounced,  and  those  corruptions  re- 
 moved and  provided  against  at  the  Reform- 
 ation. After  the  English  Reformation  the 
 Irish  Church  received  the  English  liturgy, 
 in  conformity  with  the  principle  now  pro- 
 fessed by  the  English  government,  though 
 not  always  consistently  or  fairly  carried  out, 
 of  promoting  a  close  ecclesiastical  unity 
 between  the  two  countries.  Articles  of 
 Religion,  of  a  Calvinistic  tendency,  were 
 passed  by  the  Irish  convocation  of  1615, 
 but  in  1635  the  English  Articles  were  re- 
 ceived and  approved  by  a  canon  of  convo- 
 cation, and  have  eveV  since  been  sub- 
 scribed by  Irish  clergymen.  In  1662  the  re- 
 vised Prayer  Book  of  England  Avas  adopted 
 by  the  Irish  convocation.  At  the  time 
 of  the  union  of  the  two  kingdoms,  the  two 
 Churches  Avere  united  under  the  title  of 
 the  United  Church  of  England  and  Ireland. 
 Doubts  have  been  expressed  as  to  what 
 this  union  means.  It  does  not  mean 
 union  in  doctrine.  The  Churches  were  in 
 full  communion  in  every  respect  before ; 
 and  still  are,  except  in  a  few  particulars, 
 merely  circumstantial.  It  does  not  mean 
 distinct  synodical  rights,  for  the  two  Eng- 
 lish provinces  have  their  convocations  dis- 
 tinct one  from  the  other,  and  the  decrees 
 of  the  one  do  not,  of  necessity,  bind  the 
 other.  The  union  is  national  and  political. 
 lYhen  the  two  kingdoms  became  politically 
 and  legislatively  one,  the  two  Churches,  in 
 confomiity  with  the  ancient  and  avowed 
 principles  of  English  government,  were  de- 
 clared to  be  identified.  This  identification 
 was  solemnly  declared  by  the  sovereign 
 and  parliament  of  both  countries,  as  an  in- 
 dispejisahle  and  fundamental  article  of  union, 
 
 asserted  by  the  spiritual  lords  of  each; 
 without  the  slightest  reclamation  on  the 
 part  of  the  clergy  or  laity.  Now  this  de- 
 claration of  legislative  union  is  in  fact  a 
 solemn  declaration  on  the  part  of  the  state 
 of  identification  of  interests.  If  each  of 
 the  English  provinces  of  the  United  Church 
 claim  synodical  rights,  a  right  of  advising 
 when  the  great  interests  of  the  Church  are 
 concerned,  the  claim  of  the  Irish  provinces 
 of  the  same  Church  are  equally  strong,  are 
 strictly  parallel.  If  the  property  and 
 rights  of  the  English  clergy  are  to  be  pro- 
 tected, the  Irish  clergy  have  as  strong  a 
 claim  to  protection.  How  far  the  avowed 
 principle  has  been  acted  upon,  it  is  not 
 difficult  to  deteraiine.  The  property  of 
 the  Irish  clergy  has  been  dealt  with  upon 
 principles  altogether  different  from  those 
 which  still  protected  the  property  of  their 
 English  brethren.  No  provision  whatever 
 was  made  for  perpetuating  the  Irish  con- 
 vocations, which  are  still  in  abeyance,  even 
 as  to  outward  form,  though  formerly  they 
 had  as  defined  a  system  as  in  England. 
 (See  Co7i  vocation.)  In  an  age,  when  the 
 multiplication  of  bishops  has  been  urged, 
 and  generally  admitted  as  necessary,  the 
 Church  in  Ireland  has  been  disheartened 
 by  a  retrograde  movement.  For,  in  oppo- 
 sition to  the  earnest  reclamation  of  her 
 clergy,  ten  of  her  bishops  were,  by  a  very 
 tyrannical  act  of  the  state,  suppressed ; 
 and  two  of  her  archiepiscopal  sees  (Cashel 
 and  Tuam)  reduced  to  the  rank  of  suffra- 
 gans ;  and  this  to  meet  a  mere  fiscal 
 exigency,  to  provide  for  the  Church  Rates  ; 
 for  which,  be  it  observed,  the  clergy  of 
 Ireland,  whose  revenues  have  been  in  many 
 other  ways  legislatively  curtailed,  are  now 
 taxed. 
 
 The  words  of  the  fifth  article  of  the  Union 
 with  Ireland  are  these  :  "  That  it  be  the  fifth 
 article  of  Union,  that  the  Churches  of  Eng- 
 land and  Ireland,  as  now  by  law  established, 
 be  united  into  one  Protestant  Episcopal 
 Church,  to  be  called,  27w  United  Church 
 of  England  and  Ireland;  and  that  the 
 doctrine,  worship,  discipline,  and  govern- 
 ment of  the  said  United  Church  shall  be, 
 and  shall  remain  in  full  force  for  ever,  as 
 the  same  are  now  by  law  established  for 
 the  Church  of  England ;  and  that  the  con- 
 tinuance and  preservation  of  the  said 
 United  Church,  as  the  established  Church 
 of  England  and  Ireland,  shall  be  deemed 
 and  taken  to  be  an  essential  and  funda- 
 mental part  of  the  Union." 
 
 The  Cliurch  in  Ireland  had  till  lately 
 four  archbishops:  1.  Armagh,  with  seven 
 suffragans,  viz.  Meath,  Down,  JDromore, 
 Derry,  Kilmore,  |  Raphoe,  and  %  Clogher. 
 
CHURCH  OF  ROME. 
 
 183 
 
 2.  Dublin,  >Yith  three  suffragans,  viz. 
 X  Kildare,  |  Ferns,  and  Ossory.  8.  Cashel, 
 with  five  suffragans,  viz.  Limerick,  Cork, 
 J  Cloyne,  Kilkiloc,  and  |  Watcrford.  4. 
 Tuam,  with  three  suffragans,  viz.  jClonfert, 
 X  Elphin,  and  J  Killala.  [Those  whieh  are 
 marked  thus  J  are  noAV  suppressed.]  For- 
 merly there  had  been  32  bishops*  in  all ; 
 but  the  sees  had  become  so  impoverished 
 that  it  became  necessary  from  time  to 
 time  to  unite  some  of  these  to  others,  (but 
 for  reason  and  under  sanction  far  different 
 from  those  which  influenced  the  late  in- 
 novations,) so  that  in  the  17th  century  they 
 were  much  the  same  as  stated  above.  The 
 bishops  of  Meath  and  Kildare  had  pre- 
 cedence over  the  other  bishops.— See  Jebb's 
 Charqe  to  the  Clerqy  of  Limerick. 
 
 CHURCH  OF 'ROME.  (See  Pope, 
 Poperji,  CotmcilofTrcJit^  Romanism.)  The 
 Church  of  Rome  is  properly  that  particular 
 Church  over  which  the  bishop  of  Rome 
 presides,  as  the  Church  of  England  is  that 
 Church  over  Avhich  the  bishop  of  Canter- 
 bury presides.  To  enter  into  the  history 
 of  that  foreign  Church,  to  describe  its 
 boundaries,  to  explain  those  peculiar  doc- 
 trines, which  are  contrary  to  Catholic  doc- 
 trines, but  Avhich  are  retained  in  it,  to 
 discuss  its  merits  or  its  corruptions,  would 
 be  beside  the  pvu*pose  of  this  Dictionary. 
 But  there  are  certain  schismatical  commu- 
 nities in  these  kingdoms  which  have  set  up 
 an  altar  against  our  altar,  and  which  are 
 designated  as  the  Church  of  Rome  in  Eng- 
 land, and  the  Church  of  Rome  in  Ireland  ; 
 and  with  the  claims  of  these  schismatical 
 sects,  in  which  the  obnoxious  doctrines  of 
 the  Church  of  Rome,  as  asserted  in  the 
 so-called  general  Council  of  Trent,  are 
 maintained,  and  in  which  the  supremacy 
 of  the  pope  of  Rome  is  acknowledged,  we 
 are  nearly  concerned.  It  will  be  proper, 
 therefore,  to  give  an  account  of  the  intro- 
 duction of  Romanism  or  Popery  into  this 
 country  and  into  Ireland,  subsequently  to 
 the  Reformation.  From  the  preceding 
 articles  it  will  have  been  seen  that  the 
 Churches  of  England  and  Ireland  were 
 canonically  reformed.  The  old  Catholic 
 Church  of  England,  in  accordance  with  the 
 law  of  God  and  the  canons,  asserted  its  an- 
 cient independence.  That  many  members 
 of  the  Church  were  in  their  hearts  opposed 
 to  this  great  movement,  is  not  only  pro- 
 bable, but  certain  ;  yet  they  did  not  incur 
 the  sin  of  schism  by  establishing  a  sect  in 
 opposition  to  the  Church  of  England,  until 
 the  twelfth  year  of  Elizabeth's  reign,  when 
 they  Avere  hurried  into  this  sin  by  foreign 
 emissaries  ft'om  the  pope  of  Rome,  and 
 certain  sovereigns  hostile   to  the  queen. 
 
 Mr.  Butler,  himself  a  Romanist,  observes, 
 that "  Many  of  them  conformed  for  a  while, 
 in  hopes  that  the  queen  would  relent,  and 
 things  come  round  again." — Memoirs,  ii. 
 p.  280.  "  He  may  be  right,"  says  Dr. 
 Phelan,  "  in  complimenting  their  ortho- 
 doxy at  the  expense  of  their  truth ;  yet  it 
 is  a  curious  circumstance,  that  their  hy- 
 pocrisy, while  it  deceived  a  vigilant  and 
 justly  suspicious  Protestant  government, 
 should  be  disclosed  by  the  tardy  candour 
 of  their  own  historians."  The  admission, 
 however,  is  important ;  the  admission  of  a 
 Romanist  that  Romanism  was  for  a  season 
 extinct,  as  a  community,  in  these  realms. 
 The  present  Romish  sect  cannot,  therefore, 
 consistently  claim  to  be  what  the  clergy 
 of  the  Church  of  England  really  and  truly 
 are,  the  representatives  of  the  founders  of 
 the  English  Church.  The  Romish  clergy 
 in  England,  though  they  have  orders,  have 
 no  mission,  on  their  oaMi  showing,  and  are 
 consequently  schismatics.  The  Romanists 
 began  to  fall  away  from  the  Catholic  Church 
 of  England,  and  to  constitute  themselves 
 into  a  distinct  community  or  sect,  about  the 
 year  1570,  that  is,  about  forty  years  after 
 the  Church  of  England  had  suppressed 
 the  papal  usurpation.  This  act  Avas  en- 
 tirely voluntary  on  the  part  of  the  Roman- 
 ists. They  refused  any  longer  to  obey  their 
 bishops;  and,  departing  from  our  commu- 
 nion, they  established  a  rival  Avorship,  and 
 set  up  altar  against  altar.  This  sect  Avas 
 at  first  governed  by  Jesuits  and  missionary 
 priests,  under  the  superintendence  of  Allen, 
 a  Roman  cardinal,  Avho  lived  in  Flanders, 
 and  founded  the  colleges  at  Douay  and 
 Rheims.  In  1598,  Mr.  George  Black Avell 
 Avas  appointed  archpriest  of  the  EngHsh 
 Romanists,  (see  Archpriest,)  and  this  form 
 of  ecclesiastical  government  prevailed 
 among  them  till  1623,  Avhen  Dr.  Bishop 
 was  ordained  titular  bishop  of  Chalcedon, 
 and  sent  from  Rome  to  govern  the  Romish 
 sect  in  England.  Dr.  Smith,  the  next 
 bishop  of  Chalcedon,  Avas  banished  in  1628, 
 and  the  Romanists  Avere  without  bishops 
 till  the  reign  of  James  II. — Palmer,  ii.  252. 
 During  the  Avhole  of  the  reign  of  James  I., 
 and  part  of  the  folloAving  reign,  the  Romish 
 priesthood,  both  in  England  and  in  Ire- 
 land, Avere  in  the  interest,  and  many  of 
 them  in  the  pay,  of  the  Spanish  monarchy. 
 The  titulars  of  Dublin  and  Cashel  are 
 particularly  mentioned  as  pensioners  of 
 Spain.     The  general  memorial  of  the  Ro- 
 
 I  mish  hierarchy  in  Ireland,  in  1617,  Avas 
 addressed  to  the   Spanish  court,  and  Ave 
 
 I  are  told  by  Berrington,  himself  a  Roman- 
 ist, that  the  English  Jesuits,  300  in  num- 
 
 I  her,  Avere  all  of  the  Spanish  faction.     In 
 
184 
 
 CHURCH  IN  SCOTLAND. 
 
 Ireland,  as  we  have  seen  before,  the  bishops 
 almost  unanimously  consented,  in  the  be- 
 ginning of  Queen  Elizabeth's  reign,  to  re- 
 move the  usurped  jurisdiction  of  the  lloman 
 pontiff,  and  consequently  there,  as  in  Eng- 
 land, for  a  great  length  of  time  there  were 
 scarcely  any  Popish  bishops.  But "  Swarms 
 of  Jesuits',"  says  Carte,  "  and  Romish 
 priests,  educated  in  the  seminaries  founded 
 by  King  Philip  II.,  in  Spain  and  the  Ne- 
 therlands, and  by  the  cardinal  of  Lorraine 
 in  Champagne,  (where,  pursuant  to  tlie 
 vows  of  the  founders,  they  sucked  in,  as 
 well  the  principles  of  rebellion,  as  of  what 
 they  call  catholicity,)  coming  over  to  that 
 kingdom,  as  full  of  secular  as  of  religious 
 %iews,  they  soon  prevailed  with  an  ignor- 
 ant and  credulous  people  to  withdraw  from 
 the  public  service  of  the  Church."  Mac- 
 gauran,  titular  archbishop  of  Armagh,  was 
 sent  over  from  Spain,  and  slain  in  an  act 
 of  rebellion  against  his  sovereign.  In  1621 
 there  were  two  Popish  bishops  in  Ireland, 
 and  two  others  resided  in  Spain.  These 
 persons  were  ordained  in  foreign  coun- 
 tries, and  could  not  trace  their  ordinations 
 to  the  ancient  Irish  Church.  The  au- 
 dacity of  the  Romish  hierarchy  in  Ireland 
 has  of  late  years  been  only  equalled  by 
 their  mendacity.  But  we  know  them  who 
 they  are ;  the  successors,  not  of  St.  Patrick, 
 but  of  certain  Spanish  and  Italian  prelates, 
 who,  in  the  reign  of  James  I.,  originated, 
 contrary  to  the  canons  of  the  Church,  the 
 Romish  sect — a  sect  it  truly  is  in  that 
 country,  since  there  can  be  but  one  Church, 
 and  that  is  the  Catholic,  in  the  same  place, 
 (see  article  on  the  Church,)  and  all  that 
 they  can  jn'etend  to  is,  that  without  having 
 any  mission,  being  therefore  in  a  state  of 
 schism,  they  hold  peculiar  doctrines  and 
 practices  which  the  Church  of  Ireland  may 
 have  practised  and  held  for  one,  two,  three, 
 or  at  the  very  most  four  hundred  out  of 
 the  fourteen  hundred  years  during  which 
 it  has  been  established ;  while  even  as  a 
 counterpoise  to  this,  we  may  place  the 
 three  hundred  years  which  have  elapsed 
 betAveen  the  Reformation  and  the  present 
 time.  Since  the  above  article  Avas  written, 
 the  Romish  sect  has  assumed  a  new  cha- 
 racter in  England.  The  pope  of  Rome 
 has  added  to  his  iniquities  by  sending  here, 
 in  1850,  schismatical  prelates,  with  a  view 
 of  superseding  the  orthodox  and  catholic 
 bishops  of  the  English  Church ;  an  act 
 which  has  increased  the  abhorrence  of 
 Popery  in  every  true  Englishman's  heart, 
 and  which  should  lead  to  greater  imion 
 among  all  who  repudiate  idolatry,  and  love 
 the  Lord  Jesus. 
 
 CHURCH     IN     SCOTLAND.      The 
 
 early  history  of  the  ancient  Church  of 
 Scotland,  like  that  of  Ireland,  is  involved 
 in  much  obscurity ;  nor  is  it  necessary  to 
 investigate  it,  since,  at  the  period  of  our 
 Reformation,  it  was  annihilated  ;  it  was 
 entirely  subverted ;  not  a  vestige  of  the 
 ancient  Christian  Church  of  that  kingdom 
 remained.  Meantime  the  Scottish  nation 
 was  torn  by  the  fiercest  religious  factions. 
 The  history  of  what  occurred  at  the  so- 
 called  Reformation  of  Scotland — the  fierce- 
 ness, the  fury,  the  madness  of  the  people, 
 who  murdered  Avith  Scripture  on  their 
 lips — would  make  an  infidel  smile,  and  a 
 pious  Christian  weep.  It  is  probable  that 
 a  sense  of  the  danger  to  his  throne  may 
 have  led  King  James  I.  to  his  first  mea- 
 sures, taken  before  his  accession  to  the 
 English  croAvn,  for  the  restoration  of  epis- 
 copacy in  his  own  dominion.  His  first 
 step  Avas  to  obtain,  in  December,  1597,  an 
 act  of  the  Scottish  parliament,  "  that  such 
 pastors  and  ministers  as  the  king  should 
 please  to  provide  to  the  place,  title,  and 
 dignity  of  a  bishop,  abbot,  or  other  prelate, 
 should  have  A^oice  in  parliament  as  freely 
 as  any  ecclesiastical  prelate  had  at  any 
 time  by-past."  This  act  was  folloAved  by 
 the  appointment  of  certain  ministers,  with 
 the  temporal  title  of  bishops,  in  the  next 
 year. — Ahp.  Spottiswood's  Hist.  449,  456. 
 But  the  assembly  of  ministers  at  Montrose, 
 in  March,  1599,  jealous  of  the  king's  in- 
 tention, passed  a  resolution  of  their  oaau, 
 "  that  they  AA'ho  had  a  voice  in  parliament 
 should  have  no  place  in  the  general  as- 
 sembly, unless  they  Avere  authorized  by  a 
 commission  from  the  presbyters."  The 
 bishops,  hoAvcA'er,  took  their  seats  in  par- 
 liament, and  voted  in  the  articles  of  union 
 for  the  two  kingdoms,  A.  D.  1601.  At 
 length,  in  A.  D.  1610,  the  bishops  Avere  ad- 
 mitted as  presidents  or  moderators  in  the 
 diocesan  assemblies;  and,  in  1612,  "after 
 fifty  years  of  confusion,  and  a  multiplicity 
 of  windings  and  turnings,  either  to  im- 
 prove or  set  aside  the  plan  adopted  in 
 1560,"  (to  use  Bishop  Skinner's  Avords,) ''  we 
 see  an  episcopal  Church  once  more  settled 
 in  Scotland,  and  a  regular  apostolical  suc- 
 cession of  episcopacy  introduced,  upon  the 
 extinction  of  the  old  line  AA'hich  had  long 
 before  failed,  Avithout  any  attempt,  real  or 
 pretended,  to  keep  it  up."  For  in  this  year 
 the  king  caused  three  of  them  to  be  con- 
 secrated in  London  ;  "  and  that,"  says  Bi- 
 shop Guthrie,  *'  not  Avithout  the  consent 
 and  furtherance  of  many  of  the  wisest 
 amongst  the  ministry."  Noav  in  common 
 justice  to  Episcopalians  it  must  be  remem- 
 bered, as  Bishop  Skinner  observes,  that 
 the  restoration  of  the  primitive  order  was 
 
CHURCH  IN  SCOTLAND. 
 
 185 
 
 strictly  legal.  "  A  regular  episcopacy  by 
 canonical  consecration  had  been  adopted 
 by  the  general  assemblies  of  the  Church,  and 
 confirmed  by  unquestionable  acts  of  parlia- 
 ment" King  Charles  I.  endeavoured  to 
 complete  the  good  work  which  his  father 
 had  begun,  but,  for  the  sins  of  the  Scottish 
 people,  he  was  not  permitted  to  succeed  in 
 his  labour  of  love  ;  nay,  rather,  the  attempt 
 to  introduce  the  English  Prayer  Book  so 
 exasperated  the  Scots  against  him,  that 
 they  finally  proved  their  ignorance  of 
 Scripture,  and  their  want  of  true  Christian 
 principles,  by  assenting  to  the  parricide  of 
 their  sovereign,  when  it  was  effected  by 
 their  disciples  in  England.  The  general 
 assembly  of  1638  was  held  in  opposition  to 
 the  sovereign,  cmd  to  the  law ;  it  declared 
 all  assemblies  since  1605  void;  proscribed 
 the  service  book ;  and  abjured  Episcopacy, 
 condemning  it  as  unti-christian,  and  the  bi- 
 shops were  excommunicated  and  deposed. 
 In  1613,  the  Scotch  general  assembly 
 passed  the  Solemn  League  and  Covenant, 
 adopted  by  that  assembly  of  divines  at 
 Westminster,  who  drew  up  the  Confession, 
 which  afterwards  was  established  by  law 
 as  the  Faith  of  the  Kirk  of  Scotland.  The 
 Catholic  Church,  after  the  martyrdom  of 
 Charles,  became  extinct  in  Scotland ;  but 
 it  was  once  more  restored  at  the  restor- 
 ation of  his  son.  By  the  solemn  act  of 
 parliament.  Episcopacy  was  re-established, 
 and  declared  to  be  most  agreeable  to  the 
 word  of  God  ;  and  synods  were  constituted, 
 very  much  upon  the  system  of  the  English 
 convocation.  Four  Scottish  divines  were 
 again  consecrated  in  London  in  1 66 1 .  These 
 prelates  took  possession  of  the  several  sees 
 to  which  they  had  been  appointed,  and  the 
 other  ten  sees  were  soon  canonically  filled 
 by  men  duly  invested  with  the  episcopal 
 character  and  function.  So  things  re- 
 mained until  the  Revolution  of  1688.  The 
 bishops  of  Scotland,  mindful  of  their  oaths, 
 refused  to  withdraAV  their  allegiance  from 
 the  king,  and  to  give  it  to  the  Prince  of 
 Orange,  who  had  been  elected  by  a  portion 
 of  the  people  to  sovereignty,  under  the 
 title  of  "William  III.  The  Prince  of  Orange 
 offered  to  protect  them,  and  to  preserve 
 the  civil  establishment  of  the  Church, 
 provided  that  they  would  come  over  to 
 his  interest,  and  support  his  pretensions 
 to  the  throne.  This  they  steadily  re- 
 fused to  do ;  and  consequently,  by  the 
 prince  and  parliament,  the  bishojjs  and  the 
 clergy  were  ordered  cither  to  conform  to 
 the  new  government,  or  to  quit  their 
 livings.  There  were  then  fourteen  bishops 
 in  Scotland,  and  nine  hundred  clergy  of 
 the  other  two  orders.      All  the  bishops, 
 
 and  by  far  the  greater  number  of  the  other 
 clergy,  refused  to  take  the  oaths ;  and  in 
 tlie  livings  they  were  thus  compelled  to 
 relinquish,  Presbyterian  ministers  were  in 
 general  placed.  And  thus  the  Presbyterian 
 sect  was  established  (so  far  as  it  can  be 
 established  by  the  authority  of  man)  in- 
 stead of  the  Church  in  Scotland.  It  was 
 stated  that  this  was  done,  not  because 
 bishops  were  illegal  and  unscriptural,  but 
 because  the  establishment  of  the  Church 
 was  contrary  to  the  will  of  the  people, 
 who,  as  they  had  elected  a  king,  ought,  as 
 it  was  supi)oscd,  to  be  indulged  in  the  still 
 greater  privilege  of  selecting  a  religion. 
 And  yet  it  is  said,  in  the  liife  of  Bishop 
 Sage,  "  it  was  certain,  that  not  one  of  three 
 parts  of  the  common  people  were  then  for 
 the  presbytery,  and  not  one  in  ten  among 
 the  gentlemen  and  people  of  education." 
 The  system  of  doctrine  to  which  the  estab- 
 lished Kirk  of  Scotland  subscribes  is  the 
 Westminster  Confession  of  Faith,  and  to 
 the  Kirk  (for  it  was  passed  in  1643  by  the 
 general  assembly  of  the  Kirk)  belongs  the 
 national  and  solemn  League  and  Covenant, 
 (a  formulary  more  tremendous  in  its  ana- 
 themas than  any  bull  of  liome,)  to  "  en- 
 deavour the  extirpation  of  Popery  and 
 prelacy,"  i.  e.  "  Church  government  by  arch- 
 bishops, bishops,  and  all  ecclesiastical  of- 
 ficers dependent  upon  the  hierarchy."  This 
 League  was  approved  by  that  very  assem- 
 bly at  Westminster,  whose  Confession  was 
 now  nationally  adopted.  And  certainly, 
 during  their  political  ascendency,  the  mem- 
 bers of  that  establishment  have  done  their 
 best  to  accomplish  this,  so  far  as  Scotland 
 is  concerned,  although,  contrary  to  their 
 principles,  there  are  some  among  them 
 who  would  make  an  exception  in  favour 
 of  England,  if  the  Church  of  England 
 would  be  base  enough  to  forsake  her  sister 
 Church  in  Scotland.  That  Church  is  now 
 just  in  the  position  in  which  our  Church 
 would  be,  if  it  pleased  parliament,  in  Avhat 
 is  profanely  called  its  omnipotence,  to 
 drive  us  from  our  sanctuaries,  and  to  estab- 
 lish the  Independents,  or  the  Wesleyans, 
 in  our  place. 
 
 The  bishops  of  the  Scottish  Church,  thus 
 deprived  of  their  property  and  their  civil 
 rights,  did  not  attempt  to  keep  up  the 
 same  number  of  bishops  as  before  the  Re- 
 volution, nor  did  they  continue  tlie  division 
 of  the  country  into  the  same  dioceses,  as 
 there  was  no  occasion  for  that  accuracy, 
 by  reason  of  tlie  diminution  which  their 
 clergy  and  congregations  had  suffered, 
 owing  to  the  persecutions  they  had  to 
 endure.  They  have  also  dropped  the  de- 
 signation of  archbishops,  now  only  making 
 
186 
 
 CHURCH  IN  SCOTLAND. 
 
 CHURCH,  GALLICAN. 
 
 use  of  that  of  Primus,  (a  name  formerly 
 given  to  the  presiding  bishop,)  who  being 
 elected  by  the  other  bishops,  six  in  num- 
 ber, is  invested  thereby  with  the  authority 
 of  calling  and  presiding  in  such  meetings 
 as  may  be  necessary  for  regulating  the  af- 
 fairs of  the  Church.  The  true  Church  of 
 Scotland  has  thus  continued  to  exist  from 
 the  llevolution  to  the  present  time,  not- 
 withstanding those  penal  statutes,  of  the 
 severity  of  which  some  opinion  may  be 
 formed  when  it  is  stated,  that  the  grand- 
 father of  the  present  venerable  bishop  of 
 Aberdeen,  although  he  had  taken  the  oaths 
 to  the  government,  was  committed  to  prison 
 for  six  months ;  and  why  ?  for  the  heinous 
 offence  of  celebrating  Divine  service  «c- 
 cording  to  the  forms  of  the  English  Book  of 
 Common  Prayer,  in  the  presence  of  more 
 than  four  persons!  But  in  vain  has  the 
 Scottish  establishment  thus  persecuted  the 
 Scottish  Church ;  as  we  have  said,  she  still 
 exists,  perhaps,  amidst  the  dissensions  of 
 the  estabhshment,  to  be  called  back  again 
 to  her  own.  The  penal  statutes  were  re- 
 pealed in  the  year  1792.  But  even  then 
 the  clergy  of  that  Church  were  so  far  pro- 
 hibited from  officiating  in  the  Church  of 
 England,  that  the  clergpnan,  in  whose 
 church  they  should  perform  any  ministerial 
 act,  was  liable  to  the  penalties  of  a  pre- 
 munire.  Although  a  clergyman  of  any 
 of  the  Greek  churches,  although  even  a 
 clergyman  of  the  Church  of  Rome,  upon 
 his  renouncing  those  Romish  peculiarities 
 and  errors,  which  are  not  held  by  our 
 Scottish  brethren,  could  serve  at  our  altars, 
 and  preach  from  our  pulpits,  our  brethren 
 in  Scotland  and  America  were  prevented 
 from  doing  so.  This  disgrace  however  has 
 now  been  removed  by  the  piety  of  the  late 
 archbishop  of  Canterbury,  who  has  obtained 
 an  act  which  restores  to  the  Church  one  of 
 her  lost  liberties.  At  the  end  of  the  last 
 century,  the  Catholic  Church  in  Scotland 
 adopted  those  Thirty-nine  Articles  Avhich 
 w^ere  drawn  up  by  the  Church  of  England 
 in  the  reign  of  Queen  EKzabeth.  They, 
 for  the  most  part,  make  use  of  our  liturgy, 
 though  in  some  congregations  the  old 
 Scotch  liturgy  is  used,  and  it  is  expressly 
 appointed  that  it  shall  always  be  used  at 
 the  consecration  of  a  bishop. 
 
 The  Church  of  Scotland,  before  the  po- 
 litical recognition  of  Presbyterianism,  had 
 fourteen  bishops  :  viz.  The  archbishop  of 
 St.  Andrew's,  primate  of  Scotland,  with 
 nine  suffragans;  viz.  Edinburgh,  Aber- 
 deen, Moray,  Dunkeld,  Brechin,  Caithness, 
 Dunblane,  Orkney,  and  Ross.  The  arch- 
 bishop of  Glasgow,  with  three  suffragans ; 
 viz.  Galloway,  Argyle,  and  the  Isles.     The 
 
 bishops  of  Edinburgh  and  Galloway  had 
 precedence  over  the  others.  All  the  bi- 
 shops sat  in  the  Scottish  parliament,  but 
 they  had  no  convocation,  like  those  of  the 
 Church  of  England  in  ancient  times,  their 
 synods  being  episcopal.  After  the  Re- 
 formation, their  assemblies  were  long  of 
 an  anomalous  kind,  and  bore  witness  to  a 
 continual  struggle  between  the  episcopal 
 and  presbyterian,  or  rather  democratic, 
 principle,  which  finally  prevailed.  In 
 1663,  however,  an  act  of  parliament  was 
 passed  regulating  their  national  synod. 
 (See  Convocation.) 
 
 CHURCH,  GALLICAN,  or  THE 
 CHURCH  OF  FRANCE,  although  in  com- 
 munion with  the  see  of  Rome,  maintained 
 in  many  respects  an  independent  position. 
 (See  Concordat  and  Pragmatic  Sanction.) 
 This  term  is  very  ancient,  for  we  find  it 
 used  in  the  Council  of  Paris,  held  in  the  year 
 362,  and  the  Council  of  Illyria,  in  367. 
 
 This  Church  all  along  preserved  certain 
 ancient  rites,  which  she  possessed  time  out 
 of  mind ;  neither  were  these  privileges  any 
 grants  of  popes,  but  certain  franchises  and 
 immunities,  derived  to  her  from  her  first 
 original,  and  which  she  will  take  care  never 
 to  relinquish.  These  liberties  depended 
 upon  two  maxims,  which  were  always 
 looked  upon  in  France  as  indisputable. 
 The  first  is,  that  the  pope  had  no  authority 
 or  right  to  command  or"  order  anything, 
 either  in  general  or  particular,  in  which 
 the  temporalities  or  civil  rights  of  the 
 kingdom  were  concerned.  The  second 
 was,  that,  notwithstanding  the  pope's  su- 
 premacy was  owned  in  cases  purely  spi- 
 ritual, yet,  in  France,  his  power  was  limited 
 and  regulated  by  the  decrees  and  canons 
 of  ancient  councils  received  in  that  realm. 
 The  liberties  or  privileges  of  the  Galilean 
 Church  were  founded  upon  these  two 
 maxims,  and  the  most  considerable  of  them 
 are  as  follows : 
 
 I.  The  king  of  France  has  a  right  to 
 convene  synods,  or  provincial  and  national 
 councils,  in  which,  amongst  other  important 
 matters  relating  to  the  preservation  of  the 
 state,  cases  of  ecclesiastical  discipline  are 
 likewise  debated. 
 
 II.  The  pope's  legates  a,  latere,  who  are 
 empowered  to  reform  abuses,  and  to  exer- 
 cise the  other  parts  of  their  legantine  office, 
 are  never  admitted  into  France  unless  at 
 the  desire,  or  with  the  consent,  of  the  king : 
 and  whatever  the  legates  do  there,  is  with 
 the  approbation  and  allowance  of  the  king. 
 
 III.  The  legate  of  Avignon  cannot  ex- 
 ercise his  commission  in  any  of  the  king's 
 dominions,  till  after  he  hath  obtained  his 
 Majesty's  leave  for  that  purpose. 
 
CHURCH,  GALLICAN. 
 
 187 
 
 IV.  The  prelates  of  the  Gallican  Church, 
 being  summoned  by  the  pope,  cannot  de- 
 part the  realm  upon  any  pretence  what- 
 ever, -without  the  king's  permission. 
 
 V.  The  pope  has  no  authority  to  levy 
 any  tax  or  imposition  upon  the  tempo- 
 ralities of  the  ecclesiastical  preferments, 
 upon  any  pretence,  either  of  loan,  vacancy, 
 annates,  tithes,  procurations,  or  otherwise, 
 without  the  king's  order,  and  the  consent 
 of  the  clergy. 
 
 VI.  The  pope  has  no  authority  to  de- 
 pose the  king,  or  grant  away  his  dominions 
 to  any  person  whatever.  His  Holiness  can 
 neither  excommunicate  the  king,  nor  ab- 
 solve his  subjects  from  their  allegiance. 
 
 VII.  The  pope  likewise  has  no  authority 
 to  excommunicate  the  king's  officers  for 
 their  executing  and  discharging  their  re- 
 spective offices  and  functions. 
 
 VIII.  The  pope  has  no  right  to  take 
 cognizance,  either  by  himself  or  his  dele- 
 gates, of  any  pre-eminencies  or  privileges 
 belonging  to  the  crown  of  France,  the  king 
 being  not  obliged  to  argue  his  prerogatives 
 in  any  court  but  his  own. 
 
 IX.  Counts  palatine,  made  by  the  pope, 
 are  not  acknowledged  as  such  in  France, 
 nor  allowed  to  make  use  of  their  privileges 
 and  powers,  any  more  than  those  created 
 by  the  emperor. 
 
 X.  It  is  not  lawful  for  the  pope  to  grant 
 licences  to  churchmen,  the  king's  subjects, 
 or  to  any  others  holding  benefices  in  the 
 realm  of  France,  to  bequeath  the  titles  and 
 profits  of  their  respective  preferments,  con- 
 trary to  any  branch  of  the  king's  laws,  or 
 the  customs  of  the  realm,  nor  to  hinder  the 
 relations  of  the  beneficed  clergy,  or  monks, 
 to  succeed  to  their  estates,  when  they  enter 
 into  religious  orders,  and  are  professed. 
 
 XI.  The  pope  cannot  grant  to  any  per- 
 son a  dispensation  to  enjoy  any  estate  or 
 revenues,  in  France,  without  the  king's 
 consent. 
 
 XII.  The  pope  cannot  grant  a  licence 
 to  ecclesiastics  to  alienate  church  lands, 
 situate  and  lying  in  France,  without  the 
 king's  consent,  upon  any  pretence  what- 
 ever. 
 
 XIII.  The  king  may  punish  his  eccle- 
 siastical officers  for  misbehaviour  in  their 
 respective  charges,  notwithstanding  the 
 privileges  of  their  orders. 
 
 XIV.  No  person  has  any  right  to  hold 
 any  benefice  in  France,  unless  he  be  either 
 a  native  of  the  country,  naturalized  by  the 
 king,  or  has  royal  dispensation  for  that 
 purpose. 
 
 XV.  The  pope  is  not  superior  to  an 
 oecumenical  or  general  council. 
 
 XVI.  The  Galhcan  Church  does  not  re- 
 
 ceive, without  distinction,  all  the  canons, 
 and  all  the  decretal  epistles,  but  keeps 
 principally  to  that  ancient  collection  called 
 Corpus  Cano7iicum,  the  same  which  Pope 
 Adrian  sent  to  Charlemagne  towards  the 
 end  of  the  eighth  century,  and  which,  in 
 the  year  860,  under  the  pontificate  of 
 Nicolas  I.,  the  French  bishops  declared  to 
 be  the  only  canon  law  they  were  obliged 
 to  acknowledge,  maintaining  that  in  this 
 body  the  liberties  of  the  Gallican  Church 
 consisted. 
 
 XVII.  The  pope  has  no  power,  for  any 
 cause  whatsoever,  to  dispense  with  the  law 
 of  God,  the  law  of  nature,  or  the  decrees 
 of  the  ancient  canons. 
 
 XVIII.  The  regulations  of  the  apostolic 
 chamber,  or  court,  are  not  obligatory  to 
 the  Gallican  Church,  unless  confirmed  by 
 the  king's  edicts. 
 
 XIX.  If  the  primates  or  metropolitans 
 appeal  to  the  pope,  his  Holiness  is  obliged 
 to  try  the  cause,  by  commissioners  or  dele- 
 gates, in  the  same  diocese  from  which  the 
 appeal  was  made. 
 
 XX.  When  a  Frenchman  desires  the 
 pope  to  give  him  a  benefice  lying  in  France, 
 his  Holiness  is  obliged  to  order  him  an  in- 
 strument, sealed  under  the  faculty  of  his 
 office ;  and,  in  case  of  refusal,  it  is  lawful 
 for  the  person  pretending  to  the  benefice 
 to  apply  to  the  parliament  of  Paris,  which 
 court  shall  send  instructions  to  the  bishop 
 of  the  diocese  to  give  him  institution, 
 which  institution  shall  be  of  the  same  va- 
 lidity as  if  he  had  received  his  title  under 
 the  seals  of  the  court  of  Rome. 
 
 XXI.  No  mandates  from  the  pope,  en- 
 joining a  bishop,  or  other  collator,  to  pre- 
 sent any  person  to  a  benefice  upon  a  va- 
 cancy, are  admitted  in  France. 
 
 XXII.  It  is  only  by  suflferance  that  the 
 pope  has  Avhat  they  call  a  right  of  preven- 
 tion, to  collate  to  benefices  which  the  or- 
 dinary has  not  disposed  of. 
 
 XXIII.  It  is  not  lawful  for  the  pope  to 
 exempt  the  ordinary  of  any  monastery,  or 
 any  other  ecclesiastical  corporation,  from 
 the  jurisdiction  of  their  respective  dio- 
 cesans, in  order  to  make  the  person  so 
 exempted  immediately  dependent  on  the 
 holy  see. 
 
 These  liberties  were  esteemed  inviolable, 
 and  the  French  kings,  at  their  coronation, 
 solemnly  swore  to  preserve  and  maintain 
 them.  The  oath  ran  thus :  "  Promitto 
 vobis  et  perdono  quod  unicuique  de  vobis 
 et  ecclesiis  vobis  commissis  canonicum  jn-i- 
 vilegium  et  debitam  legem  atque  justitiam 
 servabo." 
 
 The  bishoprics  were  entirely  in  the  hands 
 of  the  Crown.     There  were,  in  France,  18 
 
188 
 
 CHURCH,  GALLICAN. 
 
 archbishops,  112  bishops,  160,000  clergy- 
 men of  various  orders,  and  3400  convents. 
 
 The  archbishops  were :  1 .  Rheims,  (pri- 
 mate of  France,)  eight  suffragans.  2.  Ly- 
 ons, (primate  of  Gaul,)  five  suffragans.  3. 
 Rouen,  (primate  of  Normandy,)  six  suffra- 
 gans. 4.  Paris,  four  suffragans.  5.  Sens, 
 three  suffragans.  6.  Tours,  eleven  suffi-a- 
 gans.  7.  Bordeaux,  nine  suffragans.  8. 
 Bourges,  five  sufli'agans.  9.  Toulouse, 
 seven  suffragans.  10.  Narbonne,  eleven 
 suffi'agans.  11.  Besan^on,  one  suffragan. 
 12.  Aries,  four  suffragans.  13.  Auch,  ten 
 suffragans.  14.  Aix,  five  suffragans.  15. 
 Alby,  five  suffragans.  16.  Embrun,  six 
 suffragans.  17.  Vienne,  four  suffragans. 
 18.  Cambray,  two  suffragans,  with  six  other 
 bishops  under  foreign  archbishops.  The 
 archbishop  of  Cambray  and  his  suffragans, 
 and  the  archbishop  of  Besancon  with  his 
 suffragan,  and  eight  other  bishops,  were 
 not  considered  properly  to  form  part  of  the 
 Gallican  Chiu-ch. 
 
 Such  ivas  the  Church  of  France  with 
 the  "  Gallican  Liberties,"  previously  to  the 
 great  French  Revolution  of  1789 — 1793. 
 
 Jansenism  (see  Jansenists)  became  very 
 prevalent  in  the  Gallican  Church  before  the 
 Revolution  ;  and  the  antipapal  principle  of 
 Jansenism,  combined  with  the  revolutionary 
 mania,  developed  in  1790  the  civil  consti- 
 tution of  the  clergy  in  France,  under  which 
 false  appellation  the  constituent  assembly 
 affected  extraordinary  alterations  in  spi- 
 ritual moXiers.  M.  Bouvier,  the  late  bishop 
 of  Mans,  remarks,  that  this  constitution 
 "  abounded  with  many  and  most  grievous 
 faults."  "Fu'st,"  he  says,  "the  National 
 Convention,  by  its  own  authority,  without 
 any  recourse  to  the  ecclesiastical  povrer, 
 changes  or  reforms  all  the  old  dioceses, 
 erects  ncAV  ones,  diminishes  some,  increases 
 others,  &c. ;  (2.)  forbids  any  Gallican  church 
 or  citizen  to  acknoAvledge  the  authority  of 
 any  foreign  bishop,  8zc. ;  (3.)  institutes  a 
 new  mode  of  administering  and  ruling 
 cathedral  churches,  even  in  spirituals;  (4.) 
 subverts  the  divine  authority  of  bishops, 
 restraining  it  within  certain  limits,  and  im- 
 posing on  them  a  certain  council,  without 
 whose  judgment  they  could  do  nothing," 
 &c.  The  great  body  of  the  Gallican  bishops 
 naturally  protested  against  this  constitu- 
 tion, which  suppressed  135  bishoprics,  and 
 erected  83  in  their  stead,  under  different 
 titles.  The  Convention  insisted  that  they 
 should  take  the  oath  of  adhesion  to  the 
 civil  constitution  in  eight  days,  on  pain  of 
 being  considered  as  having  resigned ;  and, 
 on  the  refusal  of  the  great  majority,  the 
 new  bishops  were  elected  in  their  place, 
 and  consecrated  by  TallejTand,  bishop  of 
 
 Autun,  assisted  by  Gobel,  bishop  of  Lydda, 
 and  Miroudet  of  Babylon. 
 
 M.  Bouvier  proves,  from  tlie  principles 
 of  his  Church,  that  this  constitution  was 
 schismatical ;  that  all  the  bishops,  rectors, 
 curates,  confessors,  instituted  by  virtue  of 
 it,  were  intruders,  schismatics,  and  even 
 involved  in  heresy ;  that  the  taking  of  the 
 oath  to  observe  it  was  a  mortal  sin,  and 
 that  it  would  have  been  better  to  have 
 died  a  hundred  times  than  to  have  done  so. 
 Certainly,  on  all  the  principles  of  Roman- 
 ists at  least,  the  adherents  of  the  civil  con- 
 stitution were  in  schism  and  heresy. 
 
 Nevertheless,  these  schismatics  and  here- 
 tics Avere  afterwards  introduced  into  the 
 communion  of  the  Roman  Church  itself,  in 
 which  they  propagated  their  notions.  On 
 the  signature  of  the  Concordat  between 
 Bonaparte  and  Pius  VII.  in  1801,  for  the 
 erection  of  the  new  Gallican  Church,  the 
 first  consul  made  it  a  point,  that  ticclve  of 
 these  constitutional  bishops  should  be  ap- 
 pointed to  sees  under  the  new  arrange- 
 ments. He  succeeded.  "  He  caused  to 
 be  named  to  sees  twelve  of  those  same 
 constitutionals  who  had  attached  them- 
 selves with  such  uhstinate  perseverance,  for 
 ten  years,  to  the  propaf/ation  of  schism  in 
 
 France One  of  the  partisans  of  the 
 
 new  Concordat,  who  had  been  charged  to 
 receive  the  recantation  of  the  constitu- 
 tionals, certified  that  they  had  renounced 
 their  civil  constitution  of  the  clergy.  Some 
 of  them  vaunted,  nevertheless,  that  they 
 had  not  changed  their  principles ;  and  one 
 of  them  publicly  declared  that  they  had 
 been  offered  an  absolution  of  their  cen- 
 sures, but  that  they  had  thrown  it  into 
 the  fire ! "  The  government  forbad  the 
 bishops  to  exact  retractations  from  the 
 constitutional  priest,  and  commanded  them 
 to  choose  one  of  their  vicars-general  from 
 among  that  party.  They  were  protected 
 and  supported  by  the  minister  of  police, 
 and  by  Portalis,  the  minister  of  worship. 
 In  1803,  we  hear  of  the  "indiscreet  and 
 irregular  conduct  of  some  new  bishops, 
 taken  from  among  the  constitutionals,  and 
 who  brought  into  their  dioceses  the  same 
 spirit  which  had  hitherto  directed  them." 
 Afterwards  it  is  said  of  some  of  them,  that 
 they  "  professed  the  most  open  resistance  to 
 the  holy  see,  expelled  the  best  men  from 
 their  dioceses,  and  perpetuated  the  spirit 
 of  schism."  In  1804,  Pius  VIL,  being  at 
 Paris,  procured  their  signature  to  a  de- 
 claration approving  generally  of  the  judg- 
 ments of  the  holy  see  on  the  ecclesiastical 
 affairs  of  France;  but  this  vague  and  ge- 
 neral formulary,  which  Bouvier  and  other 
 Romanists  pretend  to  represent  as  a  re- 
 
CHURCH,  GALLICAN. 
 
 CHURCH,  GREEK. 
 
 189 
 
 cantation,  was  not  so  understood  by  these 
 bishops ;  and  thus  the  GalHcan  Church 
 continued,  and  probably  still  continues,  to 
 number  schisiiiatical  his/iojjs  and  priests  in 
 her  communion.  Such  is  the  boasted 
 and  most  inviolable  unity  of  the  Roman 
 Church  ! 
 
 We  are  now  to  speak  of  the  Concordat 
 of  1801,  between  Bonaparte,  first  consul 
 of  the  French  republic,  and  Pope  Pius  VII. 
 The  first  consul,  designing  to  restore  Chris- 
 tianity in  France,  engaged  the  pontiff  to 
 exact  resignations  from  all  the  existing 
 bishops  of  "the  French  territory,  both  con- 
 stitutional and  royalist.  The  bishoprics 
 of  old  France  were  130  in  number;  those 
 of  the  conquered  districts  (Savoy,  Ger- 
 many, &c.)  were  24;  making  a  total  of 
 154.  The  constitutional  bishops  resigned 
 their  sees ;  those,  also,  who  still  remained 
 in  the  conquered  districts,  resigned  them 
 to  Pius  VII.  Eighty-one  of  the  exiled 
 royalist  bishops  of  France  were  still  alive  ; 
 of  these  forty-five  resigned,  but  thirty-six 
 declined  to  do  so.  The  pontiff  derogated 
 from  the  consent  of  these  latter  prelates, 
 annihilated  159  bishoprics  at  a  blow,  cre- 
 ated in  their  place  60  new  ones,  and  ar- 
 ranged the  mode  of  appointment  and  con- 
 secration of  the  new  bishops  and  clergy, 
 by  his  bull  Ecclesia  Christi  and  Qui 
 Christi  Domini.  To  this  sweeping  Con- 
 cordat the  French  government  took  care 
 to  annex,  by  the  authority  of  their  "  corps 
 legislatif,"  certain  "  Organic  Articles,"  re- 
 lating to  the  exercise  of  worship.  Ac- 
 cording to  a  Romish  historian,  they  "  ren- 
 dered the  Church  entirely  dependent,  and 
 placed  everything  under  the  hand  of 
 government.  The  bishops,  for  example, 
 were  prohibited  from  conferring  orders 
 without  its  consent;  the  vicars-general 
 of  a  bishop  were  to  continue,  even  after 
 his  death,  to  govern  the  diocese,  without 
 regard  to  the  rights  of  chapters ;  a  multi- 
 tude of  things  which  ought  to  have  been 
 left  to  the  decision  of  the  ecclesiastical 
 authority  were  minutely  regulated,"  &:c. 
 The  intention  was,  "  to  place  the  priests, 
 even  in  the  exercise  of  their  spiritual  func- 
 tions, in  an  entire  dependence  on  the 
 government  agents  !  "  The  pope  remon- 
 strated against  these  articles  —  in  vain: 
 they  continued,  were  adopted  by  the  Bour- 
 bons, and,  with  some  modifications,  are  in 
 force  to  this  day ;  and  the  government  of 
 the  Gallican  Church  is  vested  more  in  the 
 conseil  d'  etat,  than  in  the  bisho})s.  Bona- 
 parte assumed  the  language  of  piety,  while 
 he  proceeded  to  exercise  the  most  absolute 
 jurisdiction  over  the  Church.  "Hencefor- 
 ward nothing  cmban*asscs  him  in  the  yn- 
 
 vernment  of  the  CJiurch  ;  he  decides  every- 
 thing as  a  master ;  he  creates  bishoprics, 
 unites  them,  suppresses  them."  He  ap- 
 parently found  a  very  accommodating  epis- 
 copacy. A  royal  commission,  including 
 two  cardinals,  five  archbishops  and  bishops, 
 and  some  other  high  ecclesiastics,  in  1810 
 and  1811,  justified  many  of  the  "Organic 
 Articles"  which  the  pope  had  objected  to  ; 
 acknowledged  that  a  national  council  could 
 order  that  bishops  should  be  instituted 
 by  the  metropolitan  or  senior  bishop,  in- 
 stead of  the  pope,  in  case  of  urgent  cir- 
 cumstances ;  and  declared  the  papal  bull 
 of  excommunication  against  those  who  had 
 unjustly  deprived  the  pope  of  his  states, 
 was  null  and  void. 
 
 These  proceedings  were  by  no  means 
 pleasing  to  the  exiled  French  bishops,  who 
 had  not  resigned  their  sees,  and  yet  beheld 
 them  filled  in  their  own  lifetime  by  new 
 prelates.  They  addressed  repeated  pro- 
 tests to  the  Roman  pontiff  in  vain.  His 
 conduct  in  derogating  from  their  consent, 
 suppressing  so  many  sees,  and  appointing 
 new  bishops,  was  certainly  unprecedented. 
 It  was  clearly  contrary  to  all  the  canons  of 
 the  Church  universal,  as  every  one  admits. 
 The  adherents  of  the  ancient  bishops  re- 
 fused to  communicate  with  those  whom 
 they  regarded  as  intruders.  They  d^velt 
 on  the  odious  slavery  under  w^hich  they 
 were  placed  by  the  "Organic  Articles;" 
 and  the  Abbes  Blanchard  and  Gauchet, 
 and  others,  wrote  strongly  against  the 
 Concordat,  as  null,  illegal,  and  unjust ; 
 affirmed  that  the  new  bishops  and  their 
 adherents  were  heretics  and  scliismatics, 
 and  that  Pius  VII.  was  cut  off  from  the 
 Catholic  Church.  Hence  a  schism  in  the 
 Roman  churches,  which  continues  to  this 
 day,  between  the  adherents  of  the  new 
 Gallican  bishops  and  the  old.  The  latter 
 are  styled  by  their  opponents,  "  La  Petite 
 Eglise.^^  The  truly  extraordinary  origin  of 
 the  present  Gallican  Church  sufficiently 
 accounts  for  the  reported  prevalence  of  ul- 
 tramontane or  high  papal  doctrines  among 
 them,  contrary  to  the  old  Gallican  doc- 
 trines, and  notwithstanding  the  incessant 
 efforts  of  Napoleon  and  the  Bourbons  to 
 force  on  them  the  four  articles  of  the 
 Gallican  clergy  of  1()82.  They  see,  plainly 
 enough,  that  their  Church's  origin  rests 
 chiefiy  on  the  nnliniited  power  of  the  pope. 
 — Brou'/Ziton.    Palmer. 
 
 CHURCH,  GREEK.  The  Oriental 
 (sometimes  called  the  Greek)  Church,  pre- 
 vails more  or  less  in  Russia,  Siberia,  North 
 America,  Poland,  European  Turkey,  Ser- 
 via,  Moldavia,  Wallachia,  Greece,  the 
 Archipelago,    Crete,    C}'prus,   the    Ionian 
 
190 
 
 CHURCH,  GREEK. 
 
 Islands,  Georgia,  Circassia,  Mingrelia,  Asia 
 Minor,  Syria,  Palestine,  Egypt.  The  vast 
 and  numerous  Churches  of  the  East,  are 
 all  ruled  by  bishops  and  archbishops,  of 
 whom  the  chief  are  the  four  patriarchs  of 
 Constantinople,  Alexandria,  Antioch,  and 
 Jerusalem.  The  llussian  Church  was  sub- 
 ject to  a  fifth  patriarch,  from  the  latter 
 part  of  the  sixteenth  century,  [1588,]  but 
 since  the  reign  of  Peter  the  Great,  the  ap- 
 pointment to  this  high  office  has  been  sus- 
 pended by  the  emperor,  Avho  deemed  its 
 power  too  great,  and  calculated  to  rival 
 that  of  the  throne  itself.  It  was  abolished 
 in  1721.  In  its  place  Peter  the  Great 
 instituted  the  *'  Holy  Legislative  Synod," 
 which  is  directed  by  the  emperor  .... 
 Many  of  these  Churches  still  subsist  after 
 an  uninterrupted  succession  of  eighteen 
 hundred  years :  such  as  the  Churches  of 
 Smyrna,  Philadelphia,  Corinth,  Athens, 
 Thessalonica,  Crete,  Cyprus.  Many  others, 
 founded  by  the  apostles,  continued  to  sub- 
 sist uninterruptedly,  till  the  invasion  of  the 
 Saracens  in  the  seventh  century,  and  re- 
 vived again  after  their  oppression  had  re- 
 laxed. Such  are  the  Churches  of  Jerusa- 
 lem, Antioch,  Alexandi'ia,  and  others ;  from 
 these  apostolical  Churches  the  whole  Ori- 
 riental  Church  derives  its  origin  and  suc- 
 cession ;  for  wherever  new  Churches  were 
 founded,  it  was  always  by  authority  of  the 
 ancient  societies  previously  existing.  AVith 
 these  all  the  more  recent  Churches  held 
 close  communion ;  and  thus,  by  the  con- 
 sanguinity of  faith  and  discipline  and 
 charity,  were  themselves  apostolical.  They 
 were  also  apostolical  in  their  ministry ;  for 
 it  is  undeniable,  that  they  can  produce  a 
 regular  uninterrupted  series  of  bishops, 
 and  of  valid  ordinations  in  their  churches, 
 from  the  beginning.  No  one  denies  the 
 validity  of  their  ordination. — Palmer. 
 
 The  descendants  of  the  ancient  Chris- 
 tians of  the  East,  who  still  occupy  the 
 Oriental  sees,  are  called  the  Greek  Church. 
 The  Greek  Church  was  not  formerly  so 
 extensive  as  it  has  been  since  the  emperors 
 of  the  East  thought  proper  to  lessen  or 
 reduce  the  other  patriarchates,  in  order  to 
 aggrandize  that  of  Constantinople  ;  a  task 
 which  they  accomplished  with  the  greater 
 ease,  as  they  were  much  more  powerful 
 than  the  emperors  of  the  West,  and  had 
 little  or  no  regard  to  the  consent  of  the 
 patriarchs,  in  order  to  create  new  bishop- 
 rics, or  to  confer  new  titles  and  privileges. 
 Whereas,  in  the  Western  Church,  the  popes, 
 by  slow  degrees,  made  themselves  the  sole 
 arbiters  in  all  ecclesiastical  concerns  ;  in- 
 somuch, that  princes  themselves  at  length 
 became  obliged  to  have  recourse  to  them. 
 
 and  were  subservient  to  their  directions  on 
 every  momentous  occasion. 
 
 The  Greek  Churches,  at  present,  deserve 
 not  even  the  name  of  the  shadow  of  what 
 they  were  in  their  former  flourishing  state, 
 when  they  were  so  remarkably  distin- 
 guished for  the  learned  and  worthy  pastors 
 Avho  presided  over  them  ;  but  now  nothing 
 but  wretchedness,  ignorance,  and  poverty 
 are  visible  amongst  them.  "  I  have  seen 
 churches,"  says  Kicaut,  "  which  were  more 
 like  caverns  or  sepidchres  than  places  set 
 apart  for  Divine  worship  ;  the  tops  thereof 
 being  almost  level  Avith  the  ground.  They 
 are  erected  after  this  humble  manner  for 
 fear  they  should  be  suspected,  if  they 
 raised  them  any  considerable  height,  of 
 an  evil  intention  to  rival  the  Turkish 
 mosques."  It  is,  indeed,  very  surprising 
 that,  in  the  abject  state  to  which  the 
 Greeks  at  present  are  reduced,  the  Chris- 
 tian religion  should  maintain  the  least 
 footing  amongst  them.  Their  notions  of 
 Christianity  are  principally  confined  to  the 
 traditions  of  their  forefathers  and  their 
 own  received  customs ;  and,  among  other 
 things,  they  are  much  addicted  to  external 
 acts  of  piety  and  devotion,  such  as  the  ob- 
 servance of  fasts,  festivals,  and  penances : 
 they  revere  and  dread  the  censures  of  their 
 clergy ;  and  are  bigoted  slaves  to  their  re- 
 ligious customs,  many  of  which  are  absurd 
 and  ridiculous  ;  and  yet  it  must  be  acknow- 
 ledged, that,  although  these  errors  reflect  a 
 considerable  degree  of  scandal  and  reproach 
 upon  the  holy  religion  they  profess,  they 
 nevertheless  prevent  it  from  being  entirely 
 lost  and  abolished  amongst  them.  A  fire 
 which  lies  for  a  time  concealed  under  a  heap 
 of  embers,  may  revive  and  burn  again  as 
 bright  as  ever  ;  and  the  same  hope  may  be 
 conceived  of  truth,  when  obscured  by  the 
 dark  clouds  of  ignorance  and  error. 
 
 Caucus,  archbishop  of  Corfu,  in  his  Dis- 
 sertation on  what  he  calls  the  erroneous 
 doctrines  of  the  modern  Greeks,  dedicated 
 to  Gregory  XIII.,  has  digested  their  tenets 
 under  the  following  heads : 
 
 I.  They  rebaptize  all  Romanists  who 
 are  admitted  into  their  communion. 
 
 II.  They  do  not  baptize  their  children 
 till  they  are  three,  four,  five,  six,  ten,  and 
 even  sometimes  eighteen  years  of  age. 
 
 III.  They  exclude  confirmation*and  ex- 
 treme unction  from  the  number  of  the 
 sacraments. 
 
 IV.  They  deny  there  is  any  such  place 
 as  purgatory,  although  they  pray  for  the 
 dead. 
 
 V.  They  deny  the  papal  supremacy,  and 
 assert  that  the  Church  of  Rome  has  aban- 
 doned the  doctrines  of  her  fathers. 
 
CHURCH,  GREEK. 
 
 191 
 
 VI.  They  deny,  by  consequence,  that 
 the  Church  of  liome  is  tlic  true  Catholic 
 mother  Church,  and  on  Holy  Thursday 
 excommunicate  the  pope  and  all  the  Latin 
 prelates,  as  heretics  and  schismatics,  pray-  ' 
 ing  that  all  those  who  oiler  iip  unleavened 
 bread  in  the  celebration  of  the  sacrament 
 may  be  covered  Avith  confusion. 
 
 VII.  They  deny  that  the  Holy  Ghost 
 proceeds  from  the  Father  and  the  Son. 
 
 VIII.  They  refuse  to  receive  the  host 
 consecrated  by  Romish  priests  Avith  unlea- 
 vened bread.  They  likewise  wash  the 
 altars  on  which  Romanists  have  celebrated 
 mass,  and  will  not  suffer  a  Romish  priest 
 to  officiate  at  their  altars. 
 
 IX.  They  assert  that  the  usual  form  of 
 words,  wherein  the  consecration,  accord- 
 ing to  the  Church  of  Rome,  wholly  consists, 
 is  not  sufficient  to  change  the  bread  and 
 wine  into  the  body  and  blood  of  CiimsT. 
 
 X.  They  insist  that  the  sacrament  of 
 the  Lord's  supper  ought  to  be  adminis- 
 tered in  both  kinds  to  infants,  even  before 
 they  are  capable  of  distinguishing  this 
 spiritual  food  from  any  other,  because  it 
 is  a  Divine  institution.  For  which  reason 
 they  give  the  eucharist  to  infants  imme- 
 diately after  baptism,  and  look  upon  the 
 Romanists  as  heretics  for  not  observing 
 the  same  custom. 
 
 XL  They  hold  that  the  laity  are  under 
 an  indispensable  obligation,  by  the  law  of 
 God,  to  receive  the  communion  in  both 
 kinds,  and  look  on  the  Romanists  as  here- 
 tics who  maintain  the  contrary. 
 
 XII.  They  assert  that  no  members  of 
 the  Church,  when  they  have  attained  to 
 years  of  discretion,  ought  to  be  compelled 
 to  receive  the  communion  every  Easter,  but 
 should  have  free  liberty  to  act  according 
 to  the  dictates  of  their  own  conscience. 
 
 XIII.  They  pay  no  religious  homage,  or 
 veneration,  to  the  holy  sacrament  of  the 
 eucharist,  even  at  the  celebration  of  their 
 own  priests  ;  and  use  no  lighted  tapers 
 when  they  administer  it  to  the  sick. 
 
 XIV.  They  are  of  opinion  that  such 
 hosts  as  are  consecrated  on  Holy  Thursday 
 are  much  more  efficacious  than  those  con- 
 secrated at  other  times. 
 
 XV.  They  maintain  that  matrimony  is  a 
 union  which  may  be  dissolved.  For  Avhich 
 reason  they  charge  the  Church  of  Rome 
 with  l)eing  guilty  of  an  error,  in  asserting 
 that  the  bonds  of  marriage  can  never  be 
 broken,  even  in  case  of  adultery,  and  that 
 no  person  upon  any  provocation  whatso- 
 ever can  lawfully  marry  again. 
 
 XVI.  They  condemn  all  fourth  mar- 
 riages. 
 
 XVII.  They  refuse  to  celebrate  the  so- 
 
 lemnities instituted  by  the  Romish  Church 
 in  honour  of  the  Virgin  Mary  and  the 
 Saints.  They  reject  likewise  the  religious 
 use  of  graven  images  and  statues,  although 
 they  admit  of  pictures  in  their  churches. 
 
 XVIII.  They  insist  that  the  canon  of 
 the  mass  of  the  Roman  Cliurch  ought  to 
 be  abolished,  as  being  full  of  errors. 
 
 XIX.  They  deny  that  usury  is  a  mortal 
 sin. 
 
 XX.  They  deny  that  the  subdeaconry 
 is  at  present  a  holy  order. 
 
 XXI.  Of  all  the  general  councils  that 
 have  been  held  in  the  Catholic  Church  by 
 the  popes  at  different  times,  they  pay  no 
 regard  to  any  after  the  sixth,  and  reject 
 not  only  the  seventh,  which  was  the  second 
 held  at  Nice,  for  the  express  purpose  of 
 condemning  those  who  rejected  the  use  of 
 images  in  their  Divine  worship,  but  all 
 those  which  have  succeeded  it,  by  which 
 they  refuse  to  submit  to  any  of  their  in- 
 stitutions. 
 
 XXII.  They  deny  auricular  confession 
 to  be  a  Divine  precept,  and  assert  that  it  is 
 only  a  positive  injunction  of  the  Church. 
 
 XXIII.  They  insist  that  the  confession 
 of  the  laity  ought  to  be  free  and  volun- 
 tary ;  for  which  reason  they  are  not  com- 
 pelled to  confess  themselves  annually,  nor 
 are  they  excommunicated  for  the  neglect 
 of  it. 
 
 XXIV.  They  insist  that  in  confession 
 there  is  no  Divine  law  which  enjoins  the 
 acknowledgment  of  every  individual  sin, 
 or  a  discovery  of  all  the  circumstances 
 that  attend  it,  which  alter  its  natiure  and 
 property. 
 
 XXV.  They  administer  the  communion 
 to  their  laity  both  in  sickness  and  in  health, 
 though  they  have  never  applied  themselves 
 to  their  confessors ;  the  reason  of  which 
 is,  that  they  are  persuaded  all  confessions 
 should  be  free  and  voluntary,  and  that  a 
 lively  faith  is  all  the  preparation  that  is 
 requisite  for  the  worthy  receiving  of  the 
 sacrament  of  the  Lord's  supper. 
 
 XXVI.  They  look  down  with  an  eye  of 
 disdain  on  the  Romanists  for  their  observ- 
 ance of  the  vigils  before  the  nativity  of  our 
 blessed  Saviour,  and  the  festivals  of  the 
 Virgin  Mary  and  the  apostles,  as  well  as 
 for  their  fasting  in  Ember-week.  They 
 even  affect  to  eat  meat  more  plentifully  at 
 those  times  than  at  any  other,  to  testify 
 their  contempt  of  the  Latin  customs.  They 
 prohibit,  likewise,  all  fasting  on  Saturdays, 
 that  preceding  Easter  only  excepted. 
 
 XXVII.  They  condemn  the  Romanists 
 as  heretics,  for  eating  such  things  as  have 
 been  strangled,  and  such  other  meats  as 
 are  prohibited  in  the  Old  Testament. 
 
192 
 
 CHURCH,  GREEK. 
 
 CHURCH,  ARCHITECTURE  OF. 
 
 XXVIII.  They  deny  that  simple  forni- 
 cation is  a  mortal  sin. 
 
 XXIX.  They  insist  that  it  is  lawful  to 
 deceive  an  enemy,  and  that  it  is  no  sin  to 
 injure  and  oppress  him. 
 
 XXX.  They  are  of  opinion  that,  in 
 order  to  be  saved,  there  is  no  necessity  to 
 make  restitution  of  such  goods  as  have 
 been  stolen  or  fraudulently  obtained. 
 
 XXXI.  To  conclude:  'they  hold  that 
 such  as  have  been  admitted  into  holy 
 orders  may  become  laymen  at  pleasure. 
 From  whence  it  plainly  appears  that  they 
 do  not  allow  the  character  of  the  priest- 
 hood to  be  indelible.  To  which  it  may  be 
 added,  that  they  approve  of  the  marriage 
 of  their  priests,  provided  they  enter  into 
 that  state  before  their  admission  into  holy 
 orders,  though  they  are  never  indulged  in 
 that  respect  after  their  ordination. 
 
 The  patriarch  of  Constantinople  assumes 
 the  honourable  title  of  Universal  or  Oecu- 
 menical Patriarch.  As  he  purchases  his 
 commission  of  the  Grand  Seignior,  it  may 
 be  easily  supposed  that  he  makes  a  tyran- 
 nical and  simoniacal  use  of  a  privilege 
 which  he  holds  himself  by  simony.  The 
 patriarchs  and  bishops  are  always  single 
 men  ;  but  the  priests  (as  observed  before) 
 are  indulged  in  marriage  before  ordin- 
 ation ;  and  this  custom,  which  is  gener- 
 ally practised  all  over  the  Levant,  is 
 very  ancient.  Should  a  priest  happen 
 to  m.arry  after  ordination,  he  can  officiate 
 no  longer  as  priest,  which  is  conform- 
 able to  the  injunctions  of  the  Council  of 
 Neocesarea.  The  marriage,  however,  is 
 not  looked  upon  as  invalid;  whereas,  in 
 the  Romish  Chui'ch,  such  marriages  are 
 pronounced  void  and  of  no  effect,  because 
 the  priesthood  is  looked  upon  as  a  lawful 
 bar  or  impediment. — Broughton. 
 
 Their  Pappas,  or  secular  priests,  not 
 having  any  settled  and  competent  livings, 
 are  obliged  to  subsist  by  simoniacal  prac- 
 tices. "  The  clergy,"  says  Ricaut,  "  are 
 almost  compelled  to  sell  those  Divine  mys- 
 teries which  are  intrusted  to  their  care. 
 No  one,  therefore,  can  procure  absolution, 
 be  admitted  to  confession,  have  his  chil- 
 dren baptized,  be  married  or  divorced,  or 
 obtain  an  excommunication  against  his 
 adversary,  or  the  communion  in  time  of 
 sickness,  without  first  paying  dow^n  a  valu- 
 able consideration.  The  priests  too  often 
 make  the  best  market  they  can,  and  fix  a 
 price  on  their  spiritual  commodities  in  pro- 
 portion to  the  devotion  or  abilities  of  their 
 respective  customers." 
 
 The  national  Church  of  the  kingdom  of 
 Greece  has  lately  been  reconstructed  simi- 
 larly to  that  of  Russia,  by  the  establish- 
 
 ment of  a  synod. — See  Ki7^g's  Rites  of  the 
 Greek  Clurrc/i,  and  CoweVs  Account  of  the 
 Greek  Church,  1722. 
 
 CHURCH,  ARCHITECTURE  OF. 
 There  seems  to  be  an  absurdity  in  the 
 modern  practice  of  building  churches  for 
 the  ritual  of  the  nineteenth  century,  on 
 the  model  of  churches  designed  for  the 
 ritual  of  the  fourteenth  century.  And  for 
 a  service  such  as  ours,  nothing  more  is  re- 
 quired than  a  nave  and  a  chancel ;  the  only 
 divisions  which  we  find  in  the  primitive 
 Eastern  churches.  But  as  we  have  inhe- 
 rited churches  which  ^w^ere  erected  during 
 the  middle  ages,  it  is  rather  important 
 that  we  should  understand  their  designed 
 arrangement.  We  find  in  such  churches  a 
 nave  [navis)  with  its  aisles  {alee) ;  a  chancel; 
 a  tower,  generally  at  the  west  end  ;  and  a 
 porch,  generally  to  the  second  bay  of  the 
 south  aisle.  The  uses  of  the  nave  and 
 chancel  are  obvious  ;  the  aisles  were  added 
 in  almost  all  cases  perhaps,  prospectively 
 at  least  in  all,  that  they  might  serve  for 
 places  for  the  erection  of  chantry  altars, 
 and  for  the  same  end  served  the  transejDts 
 and  chancel  aisles,  or  side  chapels,  to  the 
 chancels,  sometimes  found  even  in  small 
 churches.  To  the  chancel,  generally  at 
 the  north,  a  vestry  vras  often  attached ;  and 
 this  was  sometimes  enlarged  into  a  habit- 
 ation for  the  officiating  priest,  by  the  ad- 
 dition of  an  upper  chamber,  with  fire-place 
 and  other  conveniences.  But  the  more 
 frequent  place  for  this  clomus  inclusa  was 
 over  the  porch,  when  it  is  commonly  call- 
 ed parvise  ;  and  sometimes  the  tower  has 
 evidently  been  made  habitable,  though,  in 
 this  case,  it  may  be  rather  suspected  that 
 means  of  defence  have  been  contemplated. 
 In  the  clonius  inclusa,  in  the  vestry,  and  in 
 the  parvise,  was  often  an  altar,  which  not 
 unfrequently  remains.     (See  Altar.) 
 
 The  chancel  was  separated  from  the 
 nave  by  a  screen,  cancelli,  from  which  the 
 word  chancel  is  derived,  and  over  the 
 screen  a  loft  was  extended,  bearing  the 
 rood — a  figure  of  our  blessed  Lord  on  the 
 cross,  and,  on  either  side,  figures  of  the 
 Blessed  Virgin  and  of  St.  John.  But  few 
 rood  lofts  remain,  but  the  screen  is  of  fre- 
 quent occurrence,  especially  in  the  north- 
 ern and  eastern  counties.  The  loft  was 
 generally  gained  by  a  newel  stair  running 
 up  the  angle  between  the  chancel  and  the 
 nave,  but  sometimes  apparently  by  move- 
 able steps.  The  side  chapels  were  gener- 
 ally parted  off  from  the  adjoining  parts  of 
 the  church  by  screens,  called  parcloses. 
 The  chancel,  if  any  conventual  body  was 
 attached  to  the  church,  was  furnished  with 
 stalls,  which   were   set  against  the  north 
 
CHURCHING  OF  WOMEN. 
 
 193 
 
 and  south  walls,  and  returned  a<:^ainst  the 
 rood  screen,  looking  east.  Connected  with 
 the  altar,  and  sometimes,  also,  with  some 
 of  the  chantry  altars,  were  scdilia,  in  the 
 south  wall  of  the  chancel,  varying  in  number 
 from  one  to  five,  for  the  officiating  clergy  ; 
 and,  eastward  of  these,  the  piscina ;  also 
 an  aiimhrie,  or  locker,  in  the  north  chancel 
 wall.  The  altar  and  these  accessories  were 
 generally  raised  at  least  one  step  above  the 
 level  of  'the  rest  of  the  chancel  floor,  and 
 the  chancel  itself  the  like  height  from  the 
 nave.  The  font  stood  against  the  first 
 pillar  to  the  left  hand,  entering  at  the  south 
 porch;  it  was  often  raised  on  steps,  and 
 furnished  with  an  elaborate  cover.  (See 
 Baptistery.)  The  pulpit  ahyays  stood  in 
 the  nave,  generally  against  a  north  pillar 
 in  cathedrals ;  but  in  other  churches,  ge- 
 nerally against  a  south  pillar,  towards  the 
 east.  The  seats  for  the  congregation  were 
 placed  in  a  double  series  along  the  nave, 
 with  an  alley  between,  and  looking  east. 
 There  are  a  few  instances  of  seats  with 
 doors,  but  none  of  high  pews  till  the  time 
 of  the  Puritans. 
 
 The  doors  to  the  church  were  almost 
 always  opposite  to  one  another  in  the 
 second  bay  of  the  aisles:  besides  these, 
 there  was  often  a  west  door,  and  this  is 
 generally  supposed  to  denote  some  con- 
 nexion with  a  monastic  body,  and  was, 
 perhaps,  especially  used  on  occasions  of 
 greater  pomp,  processions,  and  the  like. 
 What  is  usually  called  the  priest's  door, 
 at  the  south  side  of  the  chancel,  opens 
 always  from  within,  and  was,  therefore,  not 
 (as  is  usually  supposed)  for  the  priest  to 
 enter  hy  :  in  which  case,  moreover,  it  vrould 
 rather  have  been  to  the  north,  where  the 
 glebe  house  usually  stands.  Was  it  for 
 the  exit  of  those  who  had  assisted  at  mass  ? 
 A  little  bell-cot  is  often  seen  over  the  nave 
 and  altar,  or  on  some  other  part  of  the 
 church,  called  the  service-hcll-cot ;  for  the 
 bell  rung  at  certain  solemn  parts  of  the 
 service  of  the  mass  ;  as  at  the  words  "  Sanc- 
 tus,  sanctus,  sanctus  Deus  Sabaoth,"  and 
 at  the  elevation  of  the  Host.  If,  as  is 
 supposed,  those  who  were  not  in  the  church 
 were  acustomed  to  kneel  at  this  time,  there 
 is  an  obvious  reason  for  the  external  posi- 
 tion of  this  bell. 
 
 CHUIICHING  OF  WOMEN.  The 
 birth  of  man  is  so  truly  wonderful,  that  it 
 seems  to  be  designed  as  a  standing  demon- 
 stration of  the  omnipotence  of  God.  And 
 therefore  that  the  frequency  of  it  may  not 
 diminish  our  admiration,  the  Church  orders 
 a  public  and  solemn  acknowledgment  to 
 be  made  on  every  such  occasion  by  the 
 woman  on  whom  the  miracle  is  wrought ; 
 
 who  still  feels  the  bruise  of  our  first  parents' 
 fall,  and  labours  under  the  curse  which 
 Eve  then  entailed  upon  her  whole  sex. 
 
 As  to  the  original  of  this  custom,  it  is 
 not  to  be  doubted  but  that,  as  many  other 
 Christian  usages  received  their  rise  from 
 other  parts  of  the  Jewish  economy,  so  did 
 this  from  the  rite  of  purification,  which  is 
 enjoined  so  particularly  in  the  twelfth 
 chapter  of  Leviticus.  Not  that  we  observe 
 it  by  virtue  of  that  precept,  which  we 
 grant  to  have  been  ceremonial,  and  so  not 
 now  of  any  force ;  but  because  we  appre- 
 hend some  moral  duty  to  have  Ijeen  implied 
 in  it  by  way  of  analogy,  which  must  be 
 obligatory  upon  all,  even  when  the  cere- 
 mony is  ceased.  The  uncleanness  of  the 
 v\^oman,  the  set  number  of  days  she  is  to 
 abstain  from  the  tabernacle,  and  the  sacri- 
 fices she  was  to  off'er  when  she  first  came 
 abroad,  are  rites  wholly  abolished,  and 
 what  we  no  ways  regard;  but  then  the 
 open  and  solemn  acknowledgment  of  God's 
 goodness  in  delivering  the  mother,  and 
 increasing  the  number  of  mankind,  is  a 
 duty  that  Avill  oblige  to  the  end  of  the 
 world.  And  therefore,  though  the  mother 
 be  now  no  longer  obliged  to  offer  the 
 material  sacrifices  of  the  law,  yet  she  is 
 nevertheless  bound  to  off'er  the  evangelical 
 sacrifice  of  praise.  She  is  still  publicly  to 
 acknowledge  the  blessing  vouchsafed  her, 
 and  to  profess  her  sense  of  the  fresh  obli- 
 gation it  lays  her  under  to  obedience. 
 Nor  indeed  may  the  Church  be  so  reason- 
 ably supposed  to  have  taken  up  this  rite 
 from  the  practice  of  the  Jews,  as  she  may 
 be,  that  she  began  it  in  imitation  of  the 
 Blessed  Virgin,  who,  though  she  was  rather 
 sanctified  than  defiled  by  the  birth  of  our 
 Lord,  and  so  had  no  need  of  purification 
 from  any  uncleanness,  whether  legal  or 
 moral ;  yet  wisely  and  humbly  submitted 
 to  this  rite,  and  offered  her  praise,  together 
 with  her  blessed  Son,  in  the  temple.  And 
 that  from  hence  this  usage  was  derived 
 among  Christians  seems  probable,  not  only 
 from  its  being  so  universal  and  ancient, 
 that  the  beginning  of  it  can  hardly  any- 
 where be  found ;  but  also  from  the  practice 
 of  the  Eastern  Church,  where  the  mother 
 still  brings  the  child  along  with  her,  and 
 presents  it  to  God  on  her  churching-day. 
 The  priest  indeed  is  there  said  to  "  purify  " 
 them:  and  in  our  first  Common  Prayer, 
 this  olHce  with  us  was  entitled  "  the  Order 
 of  the  Purification  of  Women."  But  that 
 neither  of  these  terms  implied,  that  the 
 woman  had  contracted  any  uncleanness  in 
 her  state  of  child-bearing,  may  not  only 
 be  inferred  from  the  silence  of  the  offices 
 both  in  the  Greek    Church  and  ours,  in 
 
194 
 
 CHURCHING  OF  WOMEN. 
 
 relation  to  any  uncleanness ;  but  is  also 
 further  evident  from  the  ancient  laws  re- 
 lating to  this  practice,  •which  by  no  means 
 ground  it  upon  any  impurity  from  which 
 the  woman  stands  in  need  to  be  purged. 
 And  therefore,  when  our  own  liturgy  came 
 to  be  reviewed,  to  prevent  all  misconstruc- 
 tions that  might  be  put  upon  the  word, 
 the  title  was  altered,  and  the  office  named, 
 (as  it  is  still  in  our  present  Common  Prayer 
 Book,)  "  The  Thanksgiving  of  Women 
 after  Child-birth,  commonly  called.  The 
 Churching  of  Women."  —  Dean  Comber. 
 JJ'licatl}/. 
 
 WTien  Holy  Scripture  describes  excessive 
 sorrow  in  the  most  expressive  manner,  it 
 likens  it  to  that  of  a  woman  in  travail. 
 And  if  this  sorrow  be  so  excessive,  how 
 great  must  the  joy  be  to  be  delivered  from 
 that  soiTOW  !  commensurate  certainly,  and 
 of  adequate  proportion :  and  no  less  must  be 
 the  debt  of  thankfulness  to  the  benefactor, 
 the  donor  of  that  recovery ;  whence  a  ne- 
 cessity of  "  thanksgiving  of  women  after 
 child-birth."  If  it  be  asked,  why  the  Church 
 hath  appointed  a  particular  form  for  this 
 deliverance,  and  not  for  deliverance  from 
 other  cases  of  equal  danger  ?  the  answer  is, 
 the  Church  did  not  so  much  take  measure 
 of  the  peril,  as  accommodate  herself  to 
 that  mark  of  separation  which  GoD  him- 
 self hath  put  between  this  and  other  ma- 
 ladies. "  To  conceive  and  bring  forth  in 
 sorrow  "  was  signally  inflicted  upon  Eve  ; 
 and,  in  her,  upon  all  mothers,  as  a  penalty 
 for  her  first  disobedience  (Gen.  iii.  16) ; 
 so  that  the  son-ows  of  child-birth  have,  by 
 God's  express  determination,  a  more  di- 
 rect and  peculiar  reference  to  Eve's  dis- 
 obedience than  any  other  disease  whatso- 
 ever ;  and,  though  all  maladies  are  the 
 product  of  the  first  sin,  yet  is  the  maledic- 
 tion specifically  fixed  and  applied  to  this 
 alone.  Now,  when  that  which  was  or- 
 dained primarily  as  a  curse  for  the  first 
 sin,  is  converted  to  so  great  a  blessing, 
 God  is  certainly  in  that  case  more  to  be 
 praised  in  a  set  and  solemn  office. — 
 />'  Estrancje. 
 
 In  the  Greek  Church  the  time  for  per- 
 forming this  office  is  limited  to  be  on  the 
 fortieth  day ;  but,  in  the  West,  the  time 
 was  never  strictly  determined.  And  so 
 our  present  rubric  does  not  pretend  to 
 limit  the  day  when  the  woman  shall  be 
 churched,  but  only  supposes  that  she  Mill 
 come  "  at  the  usual  time  after  her  de- 
 livery." The  "  usual  time  "  is  now  about 
 a  month,  for  the  woman's  weakness  will 
 seldom  permit  her  coming  sooner.  And 
 if  she  be  not  able  to  come  so  soon,  she  is 
 allowed  to  stay  a  longer  time,  the  Church 
 
 not  expecting  her  to  return  her  thanks  for 
 a  blessing  before  it  is  received. —  WJieatly. 
 
 It  is  required,  that  whenever  a  woman 
 is  churched,  she  "  shall  come  into  the 
 church."  And  this  is  enjoined,  first,  for 
 the  honour  of  God,  whose  marvellous  works 
 in  the  formation  of  the  child,  and  the  pre- 
 servation of  the  woman,  ought  publicly  to 
 be  owned,  that  so  others  may  learn  to  put 
 their  trust  in  him.  Secondly,  that  the 
 whole  congregation  may  have  a  fit  oppor- 
 tunity for  praising  God  for  the  too  much 
 forgotten  mercy  of  their  birth.  And,  third- 
 ly, that  the  woman  may,  in  the  proper 
 place,  OAvn  the  mercy  now  vouchsafed  her, 
 of  being  restored  to  the  happy  privilege  of 
 worshipping  God  in  the  congregation  of 
 his  saints. 
 
 HoAv  great,  therefore,  is  the  absurdity 
 which  some  would  introduce,  of  stifling 
 their  acknowledgments  in  private  houses, 
 and  of  giving  thanks  for  their  recovery 
 and  enlargement  in  no  other  place  than 
 that  of  their  confinement  and  restraint ;  a 
 practice  which  is  inconsistent  with  the 
 very  name  of  this  office,  which  is  called 
 "  the  churching  of  women,"  and  which  con- 
 sequently implies  a  ridiculous  solecism,  of 
 being  churched  at  home.  Nor  is  it  any- 
 thing more  consistent  with  the  end  and  de- 
 votions prescribed  by  this  office,  than  it  is 
 with  the  name  of  it.  For  with  what  decency 
 or  propriety  can  the  woman  pretend  to 
 "  pay  her  vows  in  the  presence  of  all  God's 
 people,  in  the  courts  of  the  Lord's  house," 
 when  she  is  only  assuming  state  in  a  bed- 
 chamber or  parlour,  and  perhaps  only  ac- 
 companied with  her  midwife  or  nurse  P  To 
 give  thanks,  therefore,  at  home  (for  by  no 
 means  call  it  "churching")  is  not  only  an 
 act  of  disobedience  to  the  Church,  but  a 
 high  affi'ont  to  Almighty  GoD  ;  whose 
 mercy  they  scorn  to  acknowledge  in  a 
 church,  and  think  it  honour  enough  done 
 him,  if  he  is  summoned  by  his  priest  to 
 wait  on  them  at  their  house,  and  to  take 
 what  thanks  they  will  vouchsafe  him  there. 
 But  methinks  a  minister,  who  has  any  re- 
 gard for  his  character,  and  considers  the 
 honour  of  the  Lord  he  serves,  should  dis- 
 dain such  a  servile  compliance  and  sub- 
 mission, and  abhor  the  betraying  of  his 
 Master's  dignity.  Here  can  be  no  pre- 
 tence of  danger  in  the  case,  should  the 
 woman  prove  obstinate,  upon  the  priest's 
 refusal  (which  ministers  are  apt  to  urge 
 for  their  excuse,  when  they  are  prevailed 
 upon  to  give  public  baptism  in  private) ; 
 nor  is  the  decision  of  a  council  wanting  to 
 instruct  him,  (if  he  has  any  doubts  upon 
 account  of  the  woman's  ill  health,)  that  he 
 is  not  to  perform  this  office  at  home,  though 
 
CHURCHING  OF  WOMEN. 
 
 CHURCHWARDENS. 
 
 195 
 
 she  be  really  so  weak  as  not  to  be  able  to 
 come  to  church. —  Cone.  3,  Medial,  cap.  5. 
 For  if  she  be  not  able  to  come  to  church, 
 let  her  stay  till  she  is ;  God  does  not  re- 
 quire any  thanks  for  a  mercy,  before  he 
 has  vouchsafed  it :  but  if  she  comes  as  soon 
 as  her  strength  permits,  she  discharges  her 
 obligations  both  to  him  and  the  Church. — 
 Wheidbj. 
 
 The  rubric,  at  the  end  of  the  service, 
 directs  the  ■woman  that  cometh  to  give  her 
 thanks,  to  otfer  the  accustomed  otierings. 
 By  "  the  accustomed  offerings "  is  to  be 
 understood  some  offering  to  the  minister 
 who  performs  the  office,  not  under  the  no- 
 tion of  a  fee  or  reward,  but  of  something 
 set  apart  as  a  tribute  or  acknowledgment 
 due  to  God,  who  is  pleased  to  declare  him- 
 self honoured  or  robbed  according  as  such 
 offerings  are  paid  or  withheld.  We  see 
 under  the  law,  that  every  woman,  who 
 came  to  be  purified  after  child-bearing, 
 was  required  to  bring  something  that  put 
 her  to  an  expense ;  even  the  poorest  among 
 them  was  not  wholly  excused,  but  obliged 
 to  do  something,  though  it  were  but  small. 
 And  though  neither  the  kind  nor  the  value 
 of  the  expense  be  now  prescribed,  yet  sure 
 the  expense  itself  should  not  covetously  be 
 saved :  a  woman  that  comes  with  any  thank- 
 fulness or  gratitude  should  scorn  to  offer 
 what  David  disdained,  namely,  "of  that 
 which  costs  nothing."  And  indeed  with 
 what  sincerity  or  truth  can  she  say,  as  she 
 is  directed  to  do  in  one  of  the  Psalms,  *'  I 
 will  pay  my  vows  now  in  the  presence  of 
 all  his  people,"  if  at  the  same  time  she  de- 
 signs no  voluntary  offering,  which  vows 
 were  always  understood  to  imply  ? 
 
 But,  besides  the  accustomed  offering  to 
 the  minister,  the  woman  is  to  make  a  yet 
 much  better  and  greater  offering,  namely, 
 an  offering  of  herself,  to  be  a  reasonable, 
 holy,  and  lively  sacrifice  to  GoD.  For  the 
 rubric  declares,  that  "  if  there  be  a  com- 
 munion, it  is  convenient  that  she  receive 
 the  holy  communion  ; "  that  being  the  most 
 solemn  way  of  praising  GoD  for  him  by 
 whom  she  received  both  the  present  and 
 all  other  God's  mercies  towards  her ;  and 
 a  means  also  to  bind  herself  more  strictly 
 to  spend  those  days  in  his  service,  which, 
 by  this  late  deliverance,  he  hath  added  to 
 her  life. —  JVhcatly. 
 
 In  the  Greek  and  Ethiopic  Churches 
 women  upon  these  occa.sions  always  did 
 receive  the  holy  sacrament ;  and  it  seems 
 in  this  very  Church  above  a  thousand  years 
 ago ;  and  still  we  carry  them  up  to  the 
 altar  to  remind  them  of  their  duty.  And 
 doubtless  the  omission  of  it  occasions  the 
 too  soon  forgetting  of  this  mercy,  and  the 
 
 sudden  falling  off  from  piety,  which  we  see 
 in  too  many.  Here  they  niay  praise  God 
 for  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  and  for  this 
 late  temi)oral  mercy  also  :  here  they  may 
 quicken  their  graces,  seal  their  vows  and 
 promises  of  obedience,  offer  their  charity, 
 and  begin  that  pious  life  to  which  they  are 
 so  many  ways  obliged.  To  receive  the 
 sacrament,  while  the  sense  of  God's  good- 
 ness and  her  own  engagements  is  so  fresh 
 upon  her,  is  the  likeliest  means  to  make 
 her  remember  this  blessing  long,  apply 
 it  right,  and  effectually  to  profit  by  it. 
 AVherefore  let  it  not  be  omitted  on  this 
 occasion. — Dean  Comber. 
 
 The  woman  is  directed  to  kneel  down  in 
 "  some  convenient  place,  as  hath  been  ac- 
 customed." No  general  rule  is  either  pre- 
 scribed or  observed  as  to  time  or  place,  and 
 therefore  these  are  matters  which  fall  with- 
 in the  office  of  the  ordinary  to  determine. 
 Many  read  the  office  just  before  the  General 
 Thanksgiving:  others,  though  not  so  usual- 
 ly, at  some  part  of  the  Communion  Service  ; 
 some  at  the  altar,  others  at  the  desk :  the 
 woman  in  some  churches  occupies  a  seat 
 specially  set  apart  for  this  office  ;  in  others 
 she  kneels  at  the  altar  table,  and  there 
 makes  her  offering.  And  in  others  a  cus- 
 tom prevails  (which  does  not  seem  worthy 
 of  imitation)  of  performing  this  service  at 
 some  time  distinct  from  the  office  of  Com- 
 mon Prayer. 
 
 CHUllCH  RATE.     (See  Rate.) 
 
 CHURCHWARDENS.  These  are 
 very  ancient  officers,  and  by  the  common 
 laAV  are  a  lay  corporation,  to  take  care  of 
 the  goods  of  the  church,  and  may  sue  and 
 be  sued  as  the  representatives  of  the  parish. 
 Churches  are  to  be  repaired  by  the  church- 
 wardens, at  the  charge  of  all  the  inhabit- 
 ants, or  such  as  occupy  houses  or  lands 
 within  the  parish. 
 
 In  the  ancient  episcopal  synods,  the 
 bishops  were  wont  to  summon  divers 
 creditable  persons  out  of  every  parish,  to 
 give  information  of,  and  to  attest  the  dis- 
 orders of  clergy  and  people.  They  were 
 called  testes  sjpiodales  ;  and  were,  in  after 
 times,  a  kind  of  empanelled  jury,  consist- 
 ing of  two,  three,  or  more  persons  in  every 
 parish,  who  were,  upon  oath,  to  present 
 all  heretics  and  other  irregular  persons. 
 And  these,  in  process  of  time,  became 
 standing  officers  in  several  places,  espe- 
 cially in  great  cities,  and  from  hence  were 
 called  synods-men,  and  by  corruption 
 sidesmen :  they  are  also  sometimes  called 
 questmen,  from  the  nature  of  their  office, 
 in  making  inquiry  concerning  offences. 
 And  these  sidesmen  or  questmen,  by  Canon 
 00,  are  to  be  chosen  yearly  in  Easter  week, 
 
196 
 
 CHURCHYARD. 
 
 CIRCUMCISION  OF  JESUS  CHRIST. 
 
 by  the  minister  and  parishioners,  (if  they 
 can  agree,)  otherwise  to  be  appointed  by 
 the  ordinary  of  the  diocese.  But  for  the 
 most  part  this  whole  office  is  now  devolved 
 upon  the  churchwardens,  together  with 
 that  other  office  which  their  name  more 
 properly  imports,  of  taking  care  of  the 
 church  and  the  goods  thereof,  which  has 
 long  been  their  function. 
 
 By  Canon  118.  The  churchwardens  and 
 sidesmen  shall  be  chosen  the  first  week 
 after  Easter,  or  some  week  following,  ac- 
 cording to  the  direction  of  the  ordinary. 
 
 And  by  Canon  89.  All  churchwardens 
 or  questmen  in  every  parish  shall  be 
 chosen  by  the  joint  consent  of  the  minister 
 and  the  parishioners,  if  it  may  be ;  but 
 if  they  cannot  agree  upon  such  a  choice, 
 then  the  minister  shall  choose  one,  and 
 the  parishioners  another ;  and  Avithout 
 such  a  joint  or  several  choice,  none  shall 
 take  upon  them  to  be  churchwardens.  But 
 if  the  parish  is  entitled  by  custom  to  choose 
 both  churchwardens,  then  the  parson  is 
 restrained  of  his  right  under  this  canon. 
 For  further  information  on  this  subject 
 the  reader  is  referred  to  Dean  Prideaux's 
 "  Practical  Guide  to  the  Duties  of  Church- 
 wardens in  the  execution  of  their  Office,"  a 
 new  edition  of  which  has  recently  appeared, 
 edited  by  C.  G.  Prideaux,  barrister-at-law. 
 (See  Sidesmeji  and  Visitation.) 
 
 CHURCHYARD.  The  ground  ad- 
 joining to  the  church,  in  which  the  dead 
 are  buried.  As  to  the  original  of  burial- 
 places,  many  writers  have  observed,  that, 
 at  the  first  erection  of  churches,  no  part 
 of  the  adjacent  ground  was  allotted  for  the 
 interment  of  the  dead  ;  but  some  place  for 
 this  purpose  was  appointed  at  a  further 
 distance.  This  practice  continued  until 
 the  time  of  Gregory  the  Great,  when  the 
 monks  and  priests  procured  leave,  for 
 their  greater  ease  and  profit,  that  a  liberty 
 of  sepulture  might  be  in  churches  or  places 
 adjoining  to  them.  But,  by  the  ninth 
 canon,  entitled  De  non  sepeliendo  in  eccle- 
 siis,  this  custom  of  sepulture  in  churches 
 was  restrained,  and  no  such  liberty  allowed 
 for  the  future,  unless  the  person  was  a 
 priest  or  some  holy  man,  who,  by  the 
 merits  of  his  past  life,  might  deserve  such 
 peculiar  favour. 
 
 By  Canon  85.  The  churchwardens  or 
 questmen  shall  take  care  that  the  church- 
 yards be  well  and  sufficiently  repaired, 
 fenced,  and  maintained  with  walls,  rails, 
 or  pales,  as  have  been  in  each  place  accus- 
 tomed, at  their  charges  unto  whom  by  law 
 the  same  appertains. 
 
 The  churchyard  is  the  freehold  of  the 
 parson :  but  it  is  the  common  burial-place 
 
 of  the  dead,  and  for  that  reason  it  is  to  be 
 fenced  at  the  charge  of  the  parishioners, 
 unless  there  is  a  custom  to  the  contrary, 
 or  for  a  particular  person  to  do  it,  in  re- 
 spect of  his  lands  adjoining  to  the  church- 
 yard ;  and  that  must  be  tried  at  common 
 law.  But  though  the  freehold  is  in  the 
 parson,  he  cannot  cut  down  trees  growing 
 there,  except  for  the  necessary  repairs  of 
 the  chancel ;  because  they  are  planted  and 
 grow  there  for  the  ornament  and  shelter 
 of  the  church.  (See  Burial  and  Cemetery.) 
 
 CIBORIUM.  A  small  temple  or  taber- 
 nacle placed  upon  the  altar  of  Roman  Ca- 
 tholic churches,  and  containing  the  conse- 
 crated wafer. 
 
 CIRCUMCELLIONS.  A  sect  of  the 
 Donatist  Christians  in  Africa,  in  the  fourth 
 century,  being  so  called,  because  they 
 rambled  from  one  town  to  another,  and 
 pretended  to  public  reformation  and  re- 
 di'essing  of  grievances ;  they  manumitted 
 slaves  without  their  master's  leave,  forgave 
 debts  which  w^ere  none  of  their  own,  and 
 committed  a  great  many  other  insolencies  : 
 they  were  headed  by  Maxides  and  Faser. 
 At  the  beginning  of  their  disorders  they 
 marched  only  with  staves,  which  they 
 called  the  staves  of  Israel,  in  allusion  to 
 the  custom  of  the  Israelites  eating  the 
 paschal  lamb  with  staves  in  their  hands, 
 but  afterwards  they  made  use  of  all  sorts 
 of  arms  against  the  Catholics.  Donatus 
 called  them  the  saints'  chiefs,  and  revenged 
 himself  by  their  means  upon  the  Catholics. 
 A  mistaken  zeal  for  martyrdom  made  these 
 people  destroy  themselves ;  some  of  them 
 threw  themselves  down  precipices,  others 
 leaped  into  the  fire,  and  some  cut  their 
 own  throats :  so  that  their  bishops,  not 
 being  able  to  prevent  such  horrible  and 
 unnatural  violences,  were  obliged  to  apply 
 themselves  to  the  magistracy  to  put  an 
 end  to  their  phrensy. — Aiu/ust.  Ilcsres,  69 ; 
 Optatus,  lib.  iii. ;  Theod.  Hist.  JEccles.  lib. 
 iy.  c.  6. 
 
 CIRCUMCISION  of  JESUS  CHRIST. 
 This  feast  is  celebrated  by  the  Church,  to 
 commemorate  the  active  obedience  of  our 
 Lord  in  fulfilling  all  righteousness,  which 
 is  one  branch  of  the  meritorious  cause  of 
 our  redemption ;  and  by  that  means  ab- 
 rogating the  severe  injunctions  of  the 
 Mosaical  establishment,  and  putting  us 
 under  the  grace  of  the  gospel.  The  insti- 
 tution of  this  feast  is  of  very  considerable 
 antiquity.  In  the  sixth  century  a  special 
 and  appropriate  service  for  it  was  in  use. 
 It  sometimes  took  the  name  of  the  "  Octave 
 of  Christmas,"  or  the  eighth  day  from 
 that  festival,  being  observed  on  January 
 1st.     (See  Octave.)     It  is  one  of  the  scarlet 
 
CISTERCIANS. 
 
 CLARENDON,  CONSTITUTIONS  OF.     197 
 
 clays  at  the  universities  of  Cambridge  and 
 Oxford. 
 
 CISTERCIANS.  Towards  the  con- 
 clusion of  the  11th  century,  Robert,  abbot 
 ofMoleme,  in  Burgundy,  having  einpk\yed, 
 in  vain,  his  most  zealous  efforts  to  revive 
 the  decaying  piety  and  disciphne  of  his 
 convent,  and  to  obhge  his  monks  to  observe 
 more  exactly  the  rule  of  St.  Benedict, 
 retired  with  about  tAventy  monks  to  a 
 place  called  Citeaux,  in  the  diocese  of 
 Chalons.  In  this  retreat  Robert  founded 
 the  famous  order  of  the  Cistercians,  which 
 made  a  most  rapid  and  astonishing  progress, 
 spread  through  the  greatest  part  of  Europe 
 in  the  following  century,  was  enriched 
 with  the  most  liberal  and  splendid  dona- 
 tions, acquired  the  form  and  privileges  of 
 a  spiritual  republic,  and  exercised  a  sort 
 of  dominion  over  all  the  monastic  orders. 
 The  great  and  fundamental  law  of  this 
 new  fraternity  was  the  rule  of  St.  Benedict, 
 which  was  to  be  rigorously  observed.  (See 
 Benedictines.)  To  this  were  added  several 
 other  injunctions  intended  to  maintain  the 
 authority  of  the  rule.  The  first  Cistercian 
 monastery  in  England  was  that  of  Waver- 
 ley,  in  Surrey,  1129.  In  the  reign  of  Ed- 
 ward I.  there  were  sixty-one  Cistercian 
 monasteries.  —  Monast.  Anyl. ;  Hist,  dcs 
 Ord.  Helif/.  tom.  v.  c.  33. 
 
 CITATION.  This  is  a  precept  under 
 the  seal  of  the  ecclesiastical  judge,  com- 
 manding the  person  against  Avhom  the 
 complaint  is  made  to  appear  before  him, 
 on  a  certain  day,  and  at  a  certain  place 
 therein  mentioned,  to  answer  the  complaint 
 in  such  a  cause,  &c. 
 
 CLAIRE,  ST.  A  religious  order  of 
 women  in  the  Romish  Church,  the  second 
 that  St.  Francis  instituted.  This  order 
 was  founded  in  1213,  and  was  confirmed 
 by  Innocent  III.,  and  after  him  by  Hono- 
 rius  III.,  in  1223.  It  took  its  name  from 
 its  first  abbess  and  nun,  Clara  of  Assisi,  and 
 was  afterwards  divided  into  Damianists 
 and  Urbanists  ;  the  first  follow  the  ancient 
 discipline  in  all  its  rigour,  but  the  other 
 the  rule  with  Urban  IV.'s  allowance. — • 
 Hist,  des  Ord.  Re.licj.  t.  vii.  c.  25. 
 
 CLARENDON,  CONSTITUTIONS 
 OF.  Certain  constitutions  made  in  the 
 reign  of  Henry  II.,  a.  d.  11G4,  in  a  par- 
 liament or  council  held  at  Clarendon,  a 
 village  three  miles  distant  from  Salisbury. 
 These  are  as  follows  : — 
 
 I.  When  any  difference  relating  to  the 
 right  of  patronage  arises  between  the  laity, 
 or  between  the  laity  and  clergy,  the  con- 
 troversy is  to  be  tried  and  ended  in  the 
 kind's  courts. 
 
 II.  Those  churches  which  are  fees  of  the 
 
 Crown  cannot  be  granted  away  in  perpe- 
 tuity without  the  king's  consent. 
 
 lil.  AVhcn  the  clergy  are  charged  with 
 any  misdemeanour,  and  summoned  by  the 
 justiciary,  they  shall  be  obliged  to  niake 
 their  a])pearance  in  his  court,  and  plead 
 to  such  parts  of  the  indictments  as  shall 
 be  put  to  them.  And  likewise  to  answer 
 such  articles  in  the  ecclesiastical  court  as 
 they  shall  be  prosecuted  for  by  that  juris- 
 diction ;  always  provided  that  the  king's 
 justiciary  shall  send  an  officer  to  ins])ect 
 the  proceedings  of  the  court  Christian. 
 And  in  case  any  clerk  is  convicted  or 
 pleads  guilty,  he  is  to  forfeit  the  privilege 
 of  his  character,  and  be  protected  by  the 
 Church  no  longer. 
 
 IV.  No  archbishops,  bishops,  or  parsons 
 are  allowed  to  depart  the  kingdom  without 
 a  licence  from  the  Crown ;  and,  provided 
 they  have  leave  to  travel,  they  shall  give 
 security  not  to  act  or  solicit  anything 
 during  their  passage,  stay,  or  return,  to 
 the  prejudice  of  the  king  or  kingdom, 
 
 V.  When  any  of  the  laity  are  prosecuted 
 in  the  ecclesiastical  courts,  the  charge  ought 
 to  be  proved  before  the  bishop  by  legal 
 and  reputable  witnesses :  and  the  course 
 of  the  process  is  to  be  so  managed,  that 
 the  archdeacon  may  not  lose  any  part  of 
 his  right,  or  the  profits  accruing  to  his  of- 
 fice :  and  if  any  offenders  appear  screened 
 from  prosecution  upon  the  score  either  of 
 favour  or  quality,  the  sheriff,  at  the  bishop's 
 instance,  shall  order  twelve  sufficient  men 
 of  the  vicinage  to  make  oath  before  the 
 bishop,  that  they  will  discover  the  truth 
 according  to  the  best  of  their  knowledge. 
 
 VI.  Excommunicated  persons  shall  not 
 be  obliged  to  make  oath,  or  give  security 
 to  continue  upon  the  place  where  they  live, 
 but  only  to  abide  by  the  judgment  of  the 
 Church,  in  order  to  their  absolution. 
 
 VII.  No  person  that  holds  in  chief  of 
 the  king,  or  any  of  his  barons,  shall  be 
 excommunicated,  or  any  of  their  estates 
 put  under  an  interdict,  before  application 
 made  to  the  king,  provided  he  is  in  the 
 kingdom  :  and  in  case  his  Highness  is  out 
 of  England,  then  the  justiciary  must  be 
 acquainted  with  the  dispute,  in  order  to 
 make  satisfaction:  and  thus  that  which 
 belongs  to  the  cognizance  of  the  king's 
 court  must  be  tried  there,  and  that  which 
 belongs  to  the  courts  Christian  must  he 
 remitted  to  that  jurisdiction. 
 
 VIII.  In  case  of  appeals  in  ecclesiastical 
 causes,  the  first  step  is  to  be  made  from 
 the  archdeacon  to  the  bishop,  and  from 
 the  bishop  to  the  archbisliop ;  and  if  the 
 archbishop  fails  to  do  him  justice,  a  further 
 recourse  may  be  had  to  the  king  ;  by  whose 
 
198    CLARENDON,  CONSTITUTIONS  OF. 
 
 CLERGY. 
 
 order  the  controversy  is  to  be  finally  de- 
 cided in  the  archbishop's  court.  Neither 
 shall  it  be  lawful  for  either  of  the  parties 
 to  move  for  any  further  remedy  without 
 leave  from  the  Crown. 
 
 IX.  If  a  difference  happen  to  arise  be- 
 tween any  clergyman  and  layman  concern- 
 ing any  tenement ;  and  that  the  clerk  pre- 
 tends it  held  by  frank-almoine,  and  the 
 layman  pleads  it  a  lay-fee,  in  this  case  the 
 tenure  shall  be  tried  by  the  inquiry  and 
 verdict  of  tAvelve  sufficient  men  of  the 
 neighbourhood,  summoned  according  to 
 the  custom  of  the  realm ;  and  if  the  tene- 
 ment, or  thing  in  controversy,  shall  be 
 found  frank-almoine,  the  dispute  concern- 
 ing it  shall  be  tried  in  the  ecclesiastical 
 court ;  but  if  it  is  brought  in  a  lay-fee,  the 
 suit  shall  be  followed  in  the  king's  courts, 
 unless  both  the  plaintiff  and  defendant 
 hold  the  tenement  in  question  of  the  same 
 bishop ;  in  which  case  the  cause  shall  be 
 tried  in  the  court  of  such  bishop  or  baron, 
 with  this  further  proviso,  that  he  who  is 
 seized  of  the  thing  in  controversy  shall  not 
 be  disseized  pending  the  suit,  upon  the 
 score  of  the  verdict  above-mentioned. 
 
 X.  He  who  holds  of  the  Idng  in  any 
 city,  castle,  or  borough,  or  resides  upon 
 any  of  the  demesne  lands  of  the  Crown,  in 
 case  he  is  cited  by  the  archdeacon  or 
 bishop  to  answer  to  any  misbehaviour  be- 
 longing to  their  cognizance ;  if  he  refuses 
 to  obey  their  summons,  and  stand  to  the 
 sentence  of  the  court,  it  shall  be  lawful  for 
 the  ordinary  to  put  him  under  an  inter- 
 dict, but  not  to  excommunicate  him  till 
 the  king's  principal  officer  of  the  town 
 shall  be  pre-acquainted  with  the  case,  in 
 order  to  enjoin  him  to  make  satisfaction  to 
 the  Chm-ch.  And  if  such  officer  or  magis- 
 trate shall  fail  in  his  duty,  he  shall  be  fined 
 by  the  king's  judges.  And  then  the  bishop 
 may  exert  his  discipline  on  the  refractory 
 person  as  he  thinks  fit. 
 
 XI.  All  archbishops,  bishops,  and  other 
 ecclesiastical  persons,  who  hold  of  the  king 
 in  chief,  and  the  tenure  of  a  barony,  are, 
 for  that  reason,  obliged  to  appear  before 
 the  lung's  justices  and  ministers,  to  answer 
 the  duties  of  their  tenure,  and  to  observe 
 all  the  usages  and  customs  of  the  realm ; 
 and,  like  other  barons,  are  bound  to  be 
 present  at  trials  in  the  king's  court,  till 
 sentence  is  to  be  pronounced  for  the  losing 
 of  life  or  limbs. 
 
 XII.  When  any  archbishopric,  bishop- 
 ric, abbey,  or  priory  of  royal  foundation, 
 becomes  vacant,  the  king  is  to  make 
 seizure ;  from  Avhich  time  all  the  profits  and 
 issues  are  to  be  paid  into  the  exchequer, 
 as  if  they  were  the  demesne  lands  of  the 
 
 and  oblige  him  to 
 
 The  goods  and  chattels  of  those 
 "    "  •  of 
 
 Crown.  And  when  it  is  determined  the 
 vacancy  shall  be  filled  up,  the  king  is  to 
 summon  the  most  considerable  persons  of 
 the  chapter  to  the  court,  and  the  election 
 is  to  be  made  in  the  chapel  royal,  with  the 
 consent  of  our  sovereign  lord  the  king, 
 and  by  the  advice  of  such  persons  of  the 
 government  as  his  Highness  shall  think  fit 
 to  make  use  of.  At  which  time  the  person 
 elected,  before  his  consecration,  shall  be 
 obliged  to  do  homage  and  fealty  to  the 
 king,  as  his  liege  lord;  w^hicli  homage 
 shall  be  performed  in  the  usual  form,  with 
 a  clause  for  the  saving  the  privilege  of  his 
 order. 
 
 XIII.  If  any  of  the  temporal  barons,  or 
 great  men,  shall  encroach  upon  the  rights 
 of  property  of  any  archbishop,  bishop,  or 
 archdeacon,  and  refuse  to  make  satisfaction 
 for  the  wrong  done  by  themselves  or  their 
 tenants,  the  king  shall  do  justice  to  the 
 party  aggrieved.  And  if  any  person  shall 
 disseise  the  Icing  of  any  part  of  his  lands, 
 or  trespass  upon  his  prerogative,  the  arch- 
 bishops, bishops,  and  archdeacons  shall 
 call  him  to  an  account, 
 make  the  Crown  restitution. 
 
 XIV 
 who  lie  under  forfeitures  of  felony  or 
 treason,  are  not  to  be  detained  in  any 
 church  or  churchyard,  to  secure  them 
 against  seizure  and  justice  ;  because  such 
 goods  are  the  king's  property,  whether 
 they  are  lodged  within  the  precincts  of  a 
 church,  or  without  it. 
 
 XV.  All  actions  and  pleas  of  debt, 
 though  never  so  solemn  in  the  circum- 
 stances of  the  contract,  shall  be  tried  in 
 the  king's  court. 
 
 XVI.  The  sons  of  copyholders  are  not 
 to  be  ordained  without  the  consent  of  the 
 lord  of  the  manor  w^here  they  were  born. 
 
 CLERESTORY.  That  part  of  a  church 
 with  aisles  which  rises  on  the  nave  arches 
 over  the  aisle  roofs.  Constructively,  the 
 clerestory  is  often  to  be  referred  to  the 
 roof.  The  original  roof  of  small,  and 
 sometimes  even  of  large,  churches  usually 
 covered  nave  and  aisles  at  one  span.  When 
 the  original  roof  needed  repair,  the  old 
 timbers  were  made  available  by  cutting 
 off  the  ends  which  had  suffered  most.  But 
 this  process  rendered  them  unfit  for  a 
 compass  roof  of  high  pitch.  An  addition, 
 therefore,  was  made  to  the  walls  of  the 
 nave,  by  which  the  roof  might  rise  as  high 
 as  before  in  the  centre,  though  of  lower 
 pitch. 
 
 CLERGY.  (See  Bisliop,  Preshyter, 
 Priest,  Deacon,  Apostolical  Succession, 
 Orders.)  The  general  name  given  to  the 
 body  of  ecclesiastics  of  the  Christian  Church, 
 
CLERGY. 
 
 199 
 
 in  contradistinction  to  the  laity.  It  is  de- 
 rived from  KXtjpoc;,  a  lot  or  portion. 
 
 The  distinction  of  Christians  into  clergy 
 and  laity  was  derived  from  the  Jewish 
 Church,  and  adopted  into  the  Christian  by 
 the  apostles  themselves.  Wherever  any 
 number  of  converts  was  made,  as  soon  as 
 they  were  capable  of  beinj:^  formed  into  a 
 congregation  or  church,  a  bishop  or  i)res- 
 byter,  with  a  deacon,  were  ordained  to 
 minister  to  them,  as  Epiphanius  relates 
 from  the  ancient  histories  of  the  Church, 
 The  author  of  the  Comment  on  St.  Paul's 
 Epistles,  under  the  name  of  St.  Ambrose, 
 says,  indeed,  that  at  first  all  Christ's 
 disciples  were  clergy,  and  had  all  a  gener- 
 al commission  to  preach  the  gospel  and 
 baptize :  but  this  Avas  in  order  to  convert 
 the  world,  and  before  any  multitude  of 
 people  were  gathered,  or  churches  founded, 
 wherein  to  make  a  distinction.  But,  as 
 soon  as  the  Church  began  to  spread  itself 
 over  the  world,  and  sufficient  numbers 
 were  converted  to  form  themselves  into  a 
 regular  society,  then  rulers,  and  other  ec- 
 clesiastical officers,  were  appointed  among 
 them,  and  a  distinction  made  that  each 
 might  not  interfere  with  the  other. 
 
 The  clergy,  originally,  consisted  only  of 
 bishops,  priests,  and  deacons ;  but,  in  the 
 third  century,  many  inferior  orders  were 
 appointed,  as  subservient  to  the  office  of 
 deacon,  such  as  sub-deacons,  acolyths, 
 readers,  &c. 
 
 There  is  another  name  for  the  clergy, 
 very  commonly  to  be  met  with  in  the 
 ancient  councils,  which  is  ihat  of  ccmonici ; 
 a  name  derived  from  the  Greek  word 
 Kctvojv,  which  signifies,  among  other  things, 
 the  roll  or  catalogue  of  every  church,  in 
 which  the  names  of  the  ecclesiastics,  be- 
 longing to  each  church,  were  written. 
 
 The  privileges  and  immunities  which 
 the  clergy  of  the  primitive  Christian 
 Church  enjoyed,  deserve  our  notice.  In 
 the  first  place,  whenever  they  travelled 
 upon  necessary  occasions,  they  were  to  be 
 entertained  by  their  brethren  of  the  clergy, 
 in  all  places,  out  of  the  public  revenues  of 
 the  Church.  When  any  bishop  or  pres- 
 byter came  to  a  foreign  Church,  they  were 
 to  be  complimented  with  the  honorary 
 privilege  of  performing  divine  offices,  and 
 consecrating  the  eucharist  in  the  church. 
 If  any  controversies  hapjjened  among  the 
 clergy,  they  freely  consented  to  have  them 
 determined  by  their  bishops  and  councils, 
 without  having  recourse  to  the  secular 
 magistrate  for  justice.  The  great  care  the 
 clergy  had  of  the  characters  and  reputa- 
 tions of  those  of  their  order  appears  from 
 hence,  that,  in  all  accusations,  especially 
 
 against  bishops,  they  required  the  testi- 
 mony of  two  or  three  witnesses,  according 
 to  the  apostle's  rule  ;  they  likewise  examined 
 the  character  of  the  witnesses,  before  their 
 testimony  was  admitted ;  nor  would  they 
 suficr  a  heretic  to  give  evidence  against 
 a  clergyman.  These  instances  relate  to 
 the  respect  which  the  clergy  mutually  paid 
 to  each  other. 
 
 AVith  regard  to  the  respect  paid  to  the 
 clergy  by  the  civil  government,  it  consisted 
 chiefiy  in  exempting  them  from  some  kind 
 of  obligations,  to  which  others  were  liable, 
 and  in  granting  them  certain  privileges 
 and  immunities  which  others  did  not  enjoy. 
 Thus,  by  a  law  of  Justinian,  no  secular 
 judge  could  compel  a  bishop  to  appear  in 
 a  public  court,  to  give  his  testimony,  but 
 was  to  send  one  of  his  officers  to  take  it 
 from  his  mouth  in  private ;  nor  was  a 
 bishop  obliged  to  give  his  testimony  upon 
 oath,  but  only  upon  his  bare  word.  Pres- 
 byters, we  find,  were  privileged  from  being 
 questioned  by  torture,  as  other  witnesses 
 were.  But  a  still  more  extensive  ])rivilege 
 was,  the  exemption  of  the  clergy  from  the 
 ordinary  cognizance  of  the  secular  courts 
 in  all  causes  purely  ecclesiastical ;  such 
 being  reserved  for  the  hearing  of  the 
 bishops  and  councils,  not  only  by  the 
 canons  of  the  Church,  but  by  the  laws  of 
 the  state  also ;  as  appears  from  several 
 rescripts  of  the  emperors  Constantius,  Va- 
 lentinian,  Gratian,  Theodosius  the  Great, 
 Arcadius  and  Ilonorius,  Valentinian  II., 
 and  Justinian. 
 
 Another  privilege,  which  the  clergy  en- 
 joyed by  the  favour  of  Christian  princes, 
 was,  that,  in  certain  cases,  they  were  ex- 
 empt from  some  of  the  taxes  laid  upon  the 
 rest  of  the  Roman  empire.  In  the  first 
 place,  they  were  exempt  from  the  census 
 capitum,  or  personal  tribute,  but  not  from 
 the  census  agrorum,  or  tribute  arising  from 
 men's  lands  and  possessions.  In  the  next 
 place  they  were  not  obliged  to  pay  the 
 aurum  tironicum,  soldiers'  money,  nor  the 
 equoriim  canonicorum  adceratio,  horse  mo- 
 ney ;  which  were  taxes  laid  on  some  jjro- 
 vinces,  for  furnishing  the  emperor  with 
 new  levies,  and  fresh  horses,  for  tlie  wars. 
 A  third  tax  from  which  the  clergy  was 
 exempt  was  the  xP^^^Pf^'Q^^^  ^^^^  silver  and 
 gold  tax,  which  was  laid  upon  trade  and 
 commerce ;  and  the  fourth,  the  metatum, 
 so  called  from  the  word  mctatores,  which 
 signifies  the  emperor's  forerunners  or  har- 
 bingers ;  being  a  duty  incumbent  on  the 
 subjects  of  the  empire  to  give  entertain- 
 ment to  the  emperor's  court  and  retinue, 
 when  they  travelled.  The  clergy  were  also 
 exempt  from  contributing  to  the  reparation 
 
200 
 
 CLERGY. 
 
 of  highways  and  bridges,  and  from  the 
 duties  called  ati (/a rics  and  paranf/arics,  See, 
 by  which  the  subjects  were  obliged  to 
 furnish  horses  and  carriages  for  the  con- 
 veying of  corn  for  the  use  of  the  army. 
 
 Another  sort  of  immunity  Avhich  the 
 clergy  enjoyed,  was  their  exemption  from 
 civil  offices  in  the  Roman  empire.  But 
 this  privilege  was  confined  to  such  of  the 
 clergy  as  had  no  estates,  but  what  belonged 
 to  the  Church  by  the  laws  of  Constantine. 
 For  the  Christian  princes  always  made  a 
 wide  difierence  betAveen  the  public  patri- 
 mony of  the  Church,  and  the  private 
 estates  of  such  of  the  clergy  as  had  lands 
 of  a  civil  or  secular  tenure.  For  the  one, 
 the  clergy  were  obliged  to  no  duty  or 
 burden  of  civil  offices ;  but  for  the  other, 
 they  were,  and  could  not  be  excused  from 
 them  otherwise  than  by  providing  proper 
 substitutes  to  officiate  for  them. 
 
 After  this  account  of  the  privileges  of 
 the  ancient  Christian  clergy,  it  may  not 
 be  improper  to  take  some  notice  of  the 
 principal  laws  made  for  the  regulation  of 
 their  lives  and  conversations. 
 
 And,  first,  we  may  observe  what  sort  of 
 crimes  were  thought  worthy  of  degrad- 
 ation. It  was  not  every  slight  failing  or 
 infirmit)',  for  which  a  clergyman  was  de- 
 graded, but  only  crimes  of  a  deeper  dye, 
 such  as  theft,  murder,  fraud,  perjury, 
 sacrilege,  and  adultery  :  to  which  may  be 
 added,  di'inking  and  gaming,  those  two 
 great  consumers  of  time,  and  enemies  to 
 all  noble  undertakings  and  generous  ser- 
 \-ices  ;  as,  also,  the  taking  of  money  upon 
 usur}^,  which  is  condemned  by  many  of 
 the  ancient  canons  as  a  species  of  co- 
 yetousness  and  cruelty.  And  therefore, 
 instead  of  lending  upon  usury,  the  clergy 
 were  obliged  to  be  exemplary  for  the  con- 
 trary virtues,  hospitality  and  charity  to 
 the  ix)or,  frugality,  and  a  contempt  of  the 
 world.  And,  to  guard  against  defamation 
 and  scandal,  it  was  enacted  by  the  canons 
 of  several  councils,  that  no  bishops,  pres- 
 byters, or  deacons  should  visit  widows 
 and  virgins  alone,  but  in  the  company  and 
 presence  of  some  other  of  the  clergy,  or 
 some  grave  Christians. 
 
 With  regard  to  the  laws,  more  par- 
 ticularly relating  to  the  exercise  of  the 
 duties  and  offices  of  their  function,  the 
 clergy  w^ere,  in  the  first  place,  obliged  to 
 lead  studious  hves.  But  it  was  not  all 
 sorts  of  studies  that  were  equally  recom- 
 mended to  them  :  the  principal  was  the 
 study  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  as  being  the 
 fountains  of  that  learning,  which  was  most 
 proper  for  their  calling.  Next  to  the 
 Scriptures,  they  were  to  study  the  canons 
 
 of  the  Church,  and  the  best  ecclesiastical 
 authors.  In  after  ages,  in  the  time  of 
 Charles  the  Great,  we  find  some  laws 
 obliging  the  clergy  to  read,  together  with 
 the  canons,  Gregory's  book  "  De  Cura 
 Pastorali."  As  to  other  books,  they  were 
 more  cautious  and  sparing  in  the  study 
 and  use  of  them.  Some  canons  forbad  a 
 bishop  to  read  heathen  authors  ;  nor  was 
 he  allowed  to  read  heretical  books,  except 
 when  there  was  occasion  to  confute  them, 
 or  to  caution  others  against  the  poison  of 
 them.  But  the  prohibition  of  heathen 
 learning  was  to  be  understood  with  a  little 
 qualification.  It  vras  only  forbidden  so 
 far  as  it  tended  to  the  neglect  of  Scripture 
 and  more  useful  studies.  AVe  pass  over  the 
 obligations  incumbent  on  them  to  attend 
 the  daily  service  of  the  Church,  to  be 
 pious  and  devout  in  their  public  addresses 
 to  God,  to  be  zealous  in  defending  the 
 truth,  and  maintaining  the  unity  of  the 
 Church,  Sec. 
 
 By  the  ecclesiastical  laws,  no  clergyman 
 was  allowed  to  relinquish  or  desert  his 
 station  without  just  grounds  and  leave  : 
 yet,  in  some  cases,  resignation  was  allowed 
 of, — such  as  old  age,  sickness,  or  other 
 infirmity.  No  clergyman  was  to  remove 
 from  one  diocese  to  another,  without  the 
 consent,  and  letters  dimissory,  of  his  own 
 bishop.  The  laws  were  no  less  severe 
 against  all  wandering  clergymen,  or  such 
 as,  having  deserted  their  own  church, 
 would  fix  in  no  other,  but  went  roving 
 from  place  to  place :  these  some  of  the 
 ancients  called  /3aK-avrt/3oi  or  Vacantki. 
 By  the  laws  of  the  Church,  the  bishops, 
 were  not  to  permit  such  to  officiate  in 
 their  dioceses,  nor  indeed  so  much  as  to 
 communicate  in  their  churches.  Other 
 laws  there  were,  which  obliged  the  clergy 
 to  residence,  or  a  constant  attendance 
 upon  their  duty.  The  Council  of  Sardica 
 has  several  canons  relating  to  this  matter. 
 Others  inhibited  pluralities,  or  the  offi- 
 ciating in  two  parochial  churches.  In 
 pursuance  of  the  same  design,  of  keeping 
 the  clergy  strict  and  constant  to  their  duty, 
 laws  were  also  made  to  prohibit  them  fol- 
 lowing any  secular  employment,  which 
 might  divert  them  too  much  from  their 
 proper  business  and  calling.  In  some 
 times  and  places,  the  laws  of  the  Church 
 were  so  strict  about  this  matter,  that  they 
 would  not  suffer  a  bishop,  or  presbyter, 
 to  be  left  trustee  to  any  man's  will.  By 
 other  laws  they  Avere  prohibited  from  tak- 
 ing upon  them  the  office  of  pleading  at  the 
 bar  in  any  civil  contest. 
 
 Another  sort  of  laws  respected  the  out- 
 ward behaviour  of  the  clergy.     Such  were 
 
CLERK. 
 
 201 
 
 thk  laws  against  corresponding  and  con- 
 vcr.^ng  too  freely  with  Jews,  and  Gentile 
 philosophers  ;  and  the  canons  which  re- 
 strained them  from  eating  and  drinking  in 
 a  tavern,  or  being  present  at  the  public 
 theatres.  To  this  sort  of  laws  we  may 
 reduce  the  ancient  rules  which  concern 
 the  garb  and  habit  of  the  clergy ;  which 
 were  to  be  such  as  might  express  the 
 gravity  of  their  minds,  without  any  affect- 
 ation, or  superstitious  singularity.  As  to 
 the  kind  or  fashion  of  their  apparel,  it 
 does  not  appear,  for  several  ages,  that 
 there  was  any  other  distinction  observed 
 therein  between  them  and  tlie  laity,  than 
 the  modesty  and  gravity  of  their  garb, 
 without  being  tied  to  any  certain  habit,  or 
 form  of  dress. 
 
 These  were  the  principal  laws  and  regu- 
 lations by  which  the  clergy  of  the  primi- 
 tive Christian  Church  were  governed  ;  and 
 it  is  remarkable,  that  the  apostate  emperor 
 Julian  was  so  convinced  of  their  excel- 
 lency, that  he  had  a  design  of  reforming 
 the  heathen  priesthood  upon  the  model  of 
 the  Christian  clergy. 
 
 The  clergy  of  the  Church  of  Rome  are 
 distinguished  into  regular  and  secular. 
 The  regular  clergy  consist  of  those  monks, 
 or  religious,  who  have  taken  upon  them 
 holy  orders,  and  perform  the  offices  of  the 
 priesthood  in  their  respective  monasteries. 
 The  secular  clergy  are  those  who  are  not 
 of  any  religious  order,  and  have  the  care 
 and  direction  of  parishes.  The  canons  of 
 such  cathedrals  as  were  not  monastic 
 foundations  were  so  called ;  i.  e.  secular 
 canons.  In  the  Saxon  times  these  might 
 be  married.  The  Protestant  clergy  are  all 
 seculars. 
 
 The  Romish  Church  forbids  the  clergy 
 of  her  communion  to  marry,  and  pretends 
 that  a  w)w  of  perpetual  celibacy,  or  absti- 
 nence from  conjugal  society,  was  required 
 of  the  clergy,  as  a  condition  of  their  or- 
 dination, even  from  the  apostolical  ages. 
 But  the  contrary  is  evident  from  innu- 
 merable examples  of  bishops  and  presby- 
 ters, who  lived,  in  those  early  ages,  in  a 
 state  of  matrimony.  —  Binyham.  (See 
 Celibaci/.) 
 
 CLERK.  This  word  is  in  fact  only  an 
 abbreviation  of  the  word  clericus,  or  cler- 
 gyman. It  is  still  used,  in  a  few  instances, 
 to  designate  clergymen :  as  clerk  of  the 
 king's  closet,  clerks  in  orders  in  certain 
 parish  churches.  In  foreign  churches,  it 
 is  usually  applied  to  the  ministers  in  minor 
 orders.  But  it  is  now  used  to  designate 
 certain  laymen,  who  are  appointed  to  con- 
 duct or  lead  the  responses  of  the  congrega- 
 tion, and  otherwise  to  assist  in  the  services 
 
 of  the  church.  In  most  cathedrals  and 
 collegiate  churches,  and  in  some  colleges, 
 there  are  several  of  these  lay  clerks  (see 
 Vicar  Choral,  Secondanj,  and  Stipe7idiary) ; 
 in  parish  churches,  generally,  there  is  but 
 one,  who  is  styled  the  parish  clerk.  These 
 were,  originally,  real  clerks,  i.  e.  clergy- 
 men, generally  in  minor  orders,  who  as- 
 sisted the  officiating  priest.  But  the  minor 
 orders  have  long  ceased  to  be  conferred, 
 except  as  symbolical  steps  towards  the 
 higher  grades  of  the  ministry ;  so  that  in 
 countries  of  the  Romish  communion,  as 
 well  as  among  ourselves,  the  office  which 
 used  to  be  performed  by  one  or  more  cler- 
 gymen has  devolved  u})on  laymen.  There 
 can  be  httle  doubt  that,  in  j)arishes  where 
 there  are  more  than  one  clergyman  resi- 
 dent, the  duties  of  the  parish  clerk  should 
 be  performed  by  them,  especially  in  lead- 
 ing the  responses,  singing,  giving  notices, 
 &c. ;  but  long  custom  has  so  familiarized 
 us  to  the  services  of  a  lay-clerk,  that  we 
 permit  him,  as  of  right,  to  do  even  in  the 
 presence  of  the  clergy  what,  strictly  speak- 
 ing, belongs  to  the  clerical  office.  It  is  a 
 great  fault  in  a  congregation  when  they 
 permit  the  lay-clerk  to  do  more  than  lead 
 them  in  the  responses  or  their  singing.  The 
 eighteenth  canon  directs  all  persons,  man, 
 woman,  and  child,  to  say  in  their  due 
 places,  audibly  with  the  minister,  the  Con- 
 fession, the  Lord's  Prayer,  and  the  Creed, 
 and  make  such  other  answers  to  the  public 
 prayer  as  are  appointed  in  the  Book  of 
 Common  Prayer ;  and  the  laity  forfeit  a 
 high  privilege  when  they  leave  their  share 
 of  the  service  to  the  lay-clerk  alone. 
 
 Clerks  are  mentioned  in  the  Prayer 
 Book  in  the  Rubric  before  the  second  oc- 
 currence of  the  Lord's  Prayer,  in  Morn- 
 ing and  Evening  Prayer  :  "  The  minister, 
 clerks,  and  people  shall  say  the  Lord's 
 Prayer  Avith  a  loud  voice  : "  in  the  Marriage 
 Service,  "  The  minister  and  clerks,  going 
 to  the  Lord's  table,  shall  say  or  sing  this 
 Psalm  following:"  in  the  Burial  Service, 
 "  The  priest  and  clerks  meeting  the  corpse 
 at  the  entrance  of  the  churchyard,  ^^rc, 
 shall  say  or  sing  :"  and  when  they  are  come 
 to  the  grave,  "  The  priest  shall  say,  or  the 
 priest  and  clerks  shall  sing : "  and  in  the 
 Commination  Service,  "  The  priest  and 
 clerks,  kneeling,  (in  the  place  where  they 
 are  accustomed  to  say  the  Litany,)  shall 
 say  this  Psalm,  Miserere  mei.  Dens."  The 
 c/erk  in  the  singular  number  is  mentioned 
 but  once  only,  which  is  in  the  ^larriage 
 Service ;  where  the  man  is  directed  to  lay 
 the  ring  on  the  book  "with  the  accustomed 
 duty  to  the  priest  and  clerk.^^ — Jehh. 
 
 Canon  91.   Pariah  clerks  to  he  chosen  by 
 
?02 
 
 CLINIC  BAPTISM. 
 
 CLUNIAC  MONKS. 
 
 the  mim'sler. — No  parish  clerk  upon  any 
 vacation  shall  be  chosen,  M'ithin  the  city  of 
 London,  or  elsewhere  "within  the  province 
 of  Canterbury,  but  by  the  parson  or  vicar  : 
 or,  where  there  is  no  parson  or  vicar,  by 
 the  minister  of  that  place  for  the  time 
 being ;  which  choice  shall  be  signified  by 
 the  said  minister,  vicar,  or  parson,  to  the 
 parishioners  the  next  Sunday  following,  in 
 the  time  of  Divine  service.  And  the  said 
 clerk  shall  be  of  twenty  years  of  age  at  the 
 least,  and  known  to  the  said  parson,  vicar, 
 or  minister,  to  be  of  honest  conversation, 
 and  sufficient  for  his  reading,  writing,  and 
 also  for  his  competent  skill  in  singing,  if 
 it  may  be.  And  the  said  clerks  so  chosen 
 shall  have  and  receive  their  ancient  wages 
 ■without  fraud  or  diminution,  either  at  the 
 hands  of  the  churchwarden,  at  such  times 
 as  hath  been  accustomed,  or  by  their  own 
 collection,  according  to  the  most  ancient 
 custom  of  every  parish. 
 
 Since  the  maldng  of  this  canon,  the 
 right  of  putting  in  the  parish  clerk  has 
 often  been  contested  between  incumbents 
 and  parishioners,  and  prohibitions  prayed, 
 and  always  obtained,  to  the  spiritual  court, 
 for  maintaining  the  authority  of  the  canon 
 in  favour  of  the  incumbent,  against  the  plea 
 of  custom  in  behalf  of  the  parishioners. 
 
 All  incumbents  once  had  the  right  of 
 nomination  of  the  parish  clerks,  by  the 
 common  law  and  custom  of  the  realm. 
 
 Parish  clerks,  after  having  been  duly 
 chosen  and  appointed,  are  usually  licensed 
 by  the  ordinary.  And  when  they  are  li- 
 censed, they  are  sworn  to  obey  the  minister. 
 
 By  a  recent  regulation,  (7  &  8  Vict. 
 c.  59,)  persons  in  holy  orders  may  be  ap- 
 pointed to  the  office  of  parish  clerk,  which 
 is  to  be  held  under  the  same  tenure  as  that 
 of  a  stipendiary  curacy.  Lay-clerks  may 
 also  be  dismissed  by  the  minister,  without 
 the  intervention  of  a  mandamus  from  the 
 Queen's  Bench. 
 
 By  7  &  8  AVm.  III.  c.  35,  a  parish  clerk, 
 for  assisting  at  a  marriage,  without  banns 
 or  licence,  shall  forfeit  five  pounds  for 
 every  such  offence. 
 
 CLINIC  BAPTISM.  Baptism  on  a  sick 
 bed  [kXivt])  was  so  called  in  the  primitive 
 Church.  In  the  earlier  ages  of  Christianity 
 certain  solemn  days  were  set  apart  for  the 
 administration  of  holy  baptism,  and  only 
 on  extraordinary  occasions  Avere  converts 
 baptized,  except  on  one  or  other  of  those 
 days ;  but  if  one  already  a  candidate  for 
 baptism  fell  sick,  and  if  his  life  was  en- 
 dangered, he  was  allowed  to  receive  clinic 
 baptism.  There  was,  however,  a  kind  of 
 clinics  to  whom  great  suspicion  attached ; 
 some  persons  who  were  converts   to  the 
 
 doctrines  of  Christianity  -would  not  be 
 baptized  while  in  health  and  vigour, 
 because  of  the  greater  holiness  of  life  to 
 which  they  would  account  themselves 
 pledged,  and  because  they  thought  that 
 baptism  administered  on  their  death-bed 
 would  wash  away  the  sins  of  their  life. 
 Such  persons,  though  they  recovered  after 
 their  baptism,  were  held  to  be  under 
 several  disabilities,  and  especially  they 
 were  not  admitted  as  candidates  for  holy 
 orders. 
 
 CLOISTER.  (See  ITonastery.)  A 
 covered  walk,  not  unusually  occupying  the 
 four  sides  of  a  quadrangle,  which  is  almost 
 an  invariable  appendage  to  a  monastic  or 
 ancient  collegiate  residence.  The  most 
 beautiful  cloister  remaining  in  England  is 
 at  Gloucester  cathedral.  Several  of  the 
 cathedrals  which  were  not  monastiD  have 
 or  had  cloisters  ;  as  York,  old  St.  Paul's, 
 Chichester,  Exeter,  Hereford,  Lincoln,  Sa- 
 lisbury, Wells ;  formerly  St.  Patrick's  in 
 Dublin :  and  some  colleges,  as  New  Col- 
 lege, Magdalen,  and  Corpus  at  Oxford ; 
 Winchester  College.  A  cloister  was  pro- 
 jected for  King's  College  by  the  founder, 
 but  never  executed.  St.  George's  Chapel 
 at  Windsor  has  also  a  cloister. 
 
 CLUNIAC  MONKS.  Religious  of  the 
 order  of  Clugni.  It  is  the  first  branch  of 
 the  order  of  St.  Benedict. 
 
 St.  Bernon,  abbot  of  Gigniac,  of  the  fa- 
 mily of  the  earls  of  Burgundy,  was  the 
 founder  of  this  order.  In  the  year  910, 
 he  built  a  monastery  for  the  reception  of 
 Benedictine  monks,  in  the  town  of  Clugni, 
 situated  in  the  Maconnois,  a  little  province 
 of  France,  on  the  river  Saone.  The  noble 
 abbey  of  Clugni  was  destroyed  in  1789. 
 
 The  monks  of  Clugni  (or  Cluni)  were 
 remarkable  for  their  sanctity.  They  every 
 day  sang  two  solemn  masses,  ^ey  so 
 strictly  observed  silence,  that  they  would 
 rather  have  died  than  break  it  before  the 
 hour  of  prime.  When  they  were  at  work, 
 they  recited  psalms.  They  fed  eighteen 
 poor  persons  every  day,  and  were  so  pro- 
 fuse of  their  charity  in  Lent,  that  one  year, 
 at  the  beginning  of  Lent,  they  distributed 
 salt  meat,  and  other  alms,  among  7000 
 poor. 
 
 The  preparation  they  used  for  making 
 the  bread  which  was  to  serve  for  the  eu- 
 charist  is  worthy  to  be  observed.  They 
 first  chose  the  wheat  grain  by  grain,  and 
 washed  it  very  carefully.  Then  a  servant 
 carried  it  in  a  bag  to  the  mill,  and  washed 
 the  grindstones,  and  covered  them  with 
 curtains.  The  meal  was  afterwards  washed 
 in  clean  water,  and  baked  in  iron  moulds. 
 
 The  extraordinary  discipline  observed  in 
 
COADJUTOR. 
 
 COLLECTS. 
 
 the  monasteries  of  Clugni  soon  spread  its 
 fame  in  all  parts.  France,  Germany,  Eng- 
 land, Spain,  and  Italy,  desired  to  have  some 
 of  these  religious,  for  whom  they  built  new 
 monasteries.  They  also  passed  into  the 
 East;  and  there  was  scarcely  a  place  in 
 Europe  where  the  order  was  not  known. 
 
 The  principal  monasteries  in  which  the 
 discipline  and  rules  of  Clugni  were  ob- 
 served, were  those  of  Tulles  in  the  Li- 
 mousin, Aurillac  in  Auvergne,  Bourgdieu 
 and  Massa  in  Berri,  St.  Benet  on  the  Loire 
 in  the  Orleanois,  St.  Peter  le  Vif  at  Sens, 
 St.  Alhre  of  Clermont,  St.  Juhan  of  Tours, 
 Sarlat  in  Perigord,  and  Koman-Mourier  in 
 the  country  of  Vaux. 
 
 This  order  was  divided  into  ten  pro- 
 vinces, being  those  of  Dauphine,  Auvergne, 
 Poitiers,  Saintonge,  and  Gascony,  in 
 France;  Spain,  Italy,  Lombardy,  Ger- 
 many, and  England. 
 
 At  the  general  chapters,  which  were  at 
 first  held  yearly,  and  afterwards  every 
 three  years,  two  visitors  Avere  chosen  for 
 every  province,  and  two  others  for  the  mon- 
 asteries of  nuns  of  this  order,  fifteen  de- 
 finitors,  three  auditors  of  causes,  and  two 
 auditors  of  excuses.  There  were  formerly 
 five  principal  priories,  called  the  five  fir.st 
 daughters  of  Clugni ;  but,  since  the  disso- 
 lution of  the  monasteries  in  England, 
 which  involved  that  of  St.  Pancrace,  at 
 Lewes  in  Sussex,  there  remained  but  four 
 principal  priories,  being  those  of  La  Cha- 
 rite  sur  Loire,  St.  Martin  des  Champs  at 
 Paris,  Souvigni,  and  Souxillanges. 
 
 The  Cluniac  monks  were  first  brought 
 into  England  by  William,  earl  of  Warren, 
 about  the  year  of  our  Lord,  1077.  These 
 religious,  though  they  lived  under  the  rule 
 of  St.  Benedict,  and  wore  a  black  habit, 
 yet,  because  their  discipline  and  observ- 
 ances difi'ered  in  many  things  from  those 
 of  the  Benedictines,  therefore  they  were 
 not  called  Benedictines,  but  monks  of  the 
 order  of  Clugni.  In  the  reign  of  Henry  V., 
 the  Cluniac  monasteries,  by  reason  of  the 
 war  between  England  and  France,  were 
 cut  off  from  the  obedience  of  the  abbot  of 
 Clugni,  nor  were  they  permitted  to  have 
 any  intercourse  Avith  the  monasteries  of 
 their  order  out  of  England.  The  monas- 
 teries of  Cluniac  monks  in  England  amount- 
 ed in  number  to  thirty-eight. — Broitcjhtoii's 
 Sibliotlieca  Ilistorico-Sacra. 
 
 COADJUTOIl.  In  cases  of  any  ha- 
 bitual distemper  of  the  mind,  whereby  the 
 incumbent  is  rendered  incapable  of  the 
 administration  of  his  cure,  such  as  frenzy, 
 lunacy,  and  the  like,  the  laws  of  the  Church 
 have  provided  coadjutors.  Of  these  there 
 are   many  instances   in  the   ecclesiastical 
 
 records,  both  before  and  since  the  Keform- 
 ation ;  and  we  find  them  given  generally 
 to  parochial  ministers,  (as  most  numerous,) 
 but  sometimes  also  to  deans,  archdeacons, 
 prebendaries,  and  the  like  ;  and  no  doubt 
 they  may  be  given,  in  such  circumstances, 
 at  the  discretion  of  the  ordinary,  to  any 
 ecclesiastical  person  having  ecclesiastical 
 cure  and  revenue. 
 
 CCENOBITES.  Monks,  who  lived  to- 
 gether in  a  fixed  habitation,  and  formed 
 one  large  community  under  a  chief,  whom 
 they  called  father  or  abbot.  The  word  is 
 derived  from  Koivo(3tov,  ritce  communis  so- 
 ciefas.     (See  Monks.) 
 
 COLIDEI.     (See  Cnldees.) 
 
 COLLATION.  This  is  where  a  bishop 
 gives  a  benefice,  which  either  he  had  as 
 patron,  or  which  came  to  him  by  lapse. 
 
 This  is  also  a  term  in  use  among  eccle- 
 siastical writers  to  denote  the  spare  meal 
 on  days  of  abstinence,  consisting  of  bread 
 or  other  fruits,  but  without  meat. 
 
 COLLECTS.  These  are  certain  brief 
 and  comprehensive  prayers,  which  are 
 found  in  all  known  liturgies  and  public 
 devotional  offices.  Ritualists  have  thought 
 that  these  prayers  were  so  called,  because 
 they  were  used  in  the  public  congregation 
 or  collection  of  the  people  ;  or  from  the  fact 
 of  many  petitions  being  here  collected 
 together  in  a  brief  summary  ;  or  because 
 they  comprehend  objects  of  prayer  col- 
 lected out  of  the  Epistles  and  Gospels. 
 But  whatever  may  be  the  origin  of  the 
 term,  it  is  one  of  great  antiquity.  It  is 
 indeed  difficult  to  trace  the  antiquity  of 
 repeating  collects  at  the  end  of  the  service. 
 It  certainly,  however,  prevailed  in  our 
 owm  Church,  the  Church  of  England,  even 
 during  the  period  preceding  the  Norman 
 Conquest.  The  very  collects  that  Ave  still 
 use,  formed  part  of  the  devotional  offices 
 of  our  Church  long  before  the  Reforma- 
 tion. They  are  generally  directed  to  GoD 
 the  Father,  in  the  name  of  Jesus  Christ 
 our  Lord;  for  so  they  usually  conclude, 
 though  sometimes  they  are  directed  to 
 Christ  himself,  Avho  is  God  co-equal  and 
 co-eternal  Avith  the  Father.  They  consist 
 usually  of  tAvo  parts,  an  humble  acknow- 
 ledgment of  the  adorable  perfection  and 
 goodness  of  God,  and  a  petition  for  some 
 benefits  from  him.  Among  the  advantages 
 resulting  from  the  regulation  of  the  Church 
 in  making  use  of  these  short  collects  are, 
 — the  relief  they  give  to  the  Avorshii)per ; 
 the  variety  they  throAV  into  the  service ; 
 the  fixing  of  attention  by  ncAV  impulses  of 
 thought ;  the  solemnizing  of  the  mind  by 
 frequent  invocations  of  the  hearer  of 
 prayer ;  the  constant  reference  of  all  our 
 
204 
 
 COLLECTS. 
 
 hopes  to  the  merits  and  mediation  of 
 Christ,  in  ivhose  name  every  collect  is 
 offered ;  and,  lastly,  the  inspiring  feeling, 
 that  in  them  we  are  offering  up  our  prayers 
 in  the  same  words  which  have  been  on 
 the  lips  of  the  martyrs  and  saints  of  all 
 ages. 
 
 The  more  usual  name  in  the  Latin 
 Church  was  collccf(^,  collects,  because  the 
 prayers  of  the  bishop,  which  in  any  part 
 of  the  service  followed  the  joint  prayers 
 of  the  deacon  and  congregation,  were  both 
 a  recollection  and  recommendation  of  the 
 prayers  of  the  people.  In  this  sense 
 Cassian  takes  the  phrase,  coUiyere  oraHonein, 
 when  speaking  of  the  service  in  the  Egyp- 
 tian monasteries  and  Eastern  churches,  he 
 says,  "  after  the  psalms  they  had  private 
 prayers,  which  they  said  partly  standing 
 and  partly  kneeling ;  which  being  ended, 
 he  that  collected  the  prayer  rose  up,  and 
 then  they  all  rose  up  together  with  him, 
 none  presuming  to  continue  longer  upon 
 the  ground,  lest  he  should  seem  rather  to 
 pursue  his  own  prayers  than  go  along  with 
 him  who  collected  the  prayers,  or  closed  up 
 all  with  his  concluding  collect."  Where  we 
 may  observe,  that  a  culled  is  taken  for  the 
 chief  minister's  prayer  at  the  close  of  some 
 part  of  Divine  service,  collecting  and  con- 
 cluding the  people's  preceding  devotions. 
 Uranius,  speaking  of  one  John,  bishop  of 
 Naples,  who  died  in  the  celebration  of 
 Divine  service,  says,  "  he  gave  the  signal 
 to  the  people  to  pray,  and  then,  having 
 summed  up  their  prayers  in  a  collect,  he 
 yielded  up  the  ghost." — Bin(/ham. 
 
 Walapidus  Strabo,  as  quoted  by  Wheat- 
 ly,  says  that  they  are  so  called  because 
 the  priest  collects  the  petitions  of  all  in  a 
 compendious  brevity.  To  which  Dr.  Bisse 
 assents,  and  considers  the  word  to  mean 
 the  collectbig  into  one  prayer  the  peti- 
 tions which  were  anciently  divided  be- 
 tween him  and  the  people  by  versicles  and 
 responses.  They  are  in  fact  used  in  con- 
 tradistinction to  the  alternate  versicles, 
 and  the  larger  and  less  compendious 
 prayers. 
 
 Mon'nus,  in  his  notes  on  Greek  Ordina- 
 tion, remarks  on  the  resemblance  betAveen 
 the  Greek  word  awaTrr?),  and  the  Latin  col- 
 lecta  :  but  shows  that  the  (JovaTrri),  though 
 meaning  a  connected  prayer,  has  a  very  dif- 
 ferent use.  The  avvaizTi]  was  sometimes  a 
 sort  of  litany,  sometimes  a  set  of  versicles 
 resembling  the  "  preces "  of  the  Roman 
 Church,  or  our  versicles  and  responses 
 after  the  Creed.  The  avva-nrTt]  iikyaKr}, 
 again,  is  like  our  Prayer  for  the  Church 
 Militant.  _  The  Greek  ihxn^  said  after  the 
 cvvaTTTii,  is  more  Hke  our   collect :    but 
 
 there  is  nothing  exactly  resembling  it  in 
 the  Greek  formularies.  Their  prayers  are 
 generally  much  longer. 
 
 The  collects  are  (for  the  most  part) 
 constructed  upon  one  uniform  rule,  con- 
 sisting of  three  parts.  (1.)  The  com- 
 memoration of  some  special  attribute  of 
 God.  (2.)  A  prayer  for  the  exercise  of 
 that  attribute  in  some  special  blessing. 
 (3.)  A  prayer  for  the  beneficial  and  per- 
 manent consequences  of  that  blessing. 
 The  punctuation  of  the  Prayer  Book  most 
 accurately  brings  out  the  meaning  of  the 
 collects.  The  apodosis  of  the  sentence  is 
 (for  the  most  part)  begun  by  a  capital 
 letter. 
 
 In  many  of  the  collects,  GoD  is  desired 
 to  hear  the  petitions  of  the  people,  those 
 that  the  people  had  then  made  before  the 
 collect.  These  come  in  at  the  end  of 
 other  devotions,  and  were  by  some  of  old 
 called  inisscp,  that  is  to  say,  dismissio?is, 
 the  people  being  dismissed  vipon  the  pro- 
 nouncing of  them  and  the  blessing  ;  the 
 collects  themselves  being  by  some  of  the 
 ancients  called  blessings,  and  also  sacra- 
 menta,  either  for  that  their  chief  use  was 
 at  the  communion,  or  because  they  were 
 uttered  per  sacerdotum,  by  one  consecrated 
 to  holy  offices. — Spnrroiv. 
 
 Our  Reformers  observed,  first,  that  some 
 of  those  collects  were  corrupted  by  super- 
 stitious alterations  and  additions,  made  by 
 some  later  hand.  Secondly,  that  the  mo- 
 dern Roman  missals  had  left  some  of  the 
 primitive  collects  quite  out,  and  put  in 
 their  stead  collects  containing  some  of 
 their  false  opinions,  or  relating  to  their 
 innovations  in  practice.  Where  the  mass 
 had  struck  out  an  old,  and  put  in  a  new, 
 collect,  agreeable  to  their  new  and  false 
 doctrines  or  practices,  there  the  Reformers 
 restored  the  old  collect,  being  pure  and 
 orthodox.  At  the  restoration  of  King 
 Charles  II.,  even  those  collects  made  or 
 allowed  at  the  Reformation  were  strictly 
 reviewed,  and  what  was  deficient  was  sup- 
 plied, and  all  that  was  but  incongruously 
 expressed  was  rectified  ;  so  that  now  they 
 are  complete  and  unexceptionable,  and 
 may  be  ranked  into  three  several  classes. 
 First,  the  ancient  primitive  collects,  con- 
 taining nothing  but  true  doctrine,  void 
 of  all  modern  corruptions,  and  having  a 
 strain  of  the  primitive  devotion,  being 
 short,  but  regular,  and  very  expressive ; 
 so  that  it  is  not  possible  to  touch  more 
 sense  in  so  few  words  :  and  these  are  those 
 taken  out  of  Pope  Gregory's  Sacramentary, 
 or  out  of  those  additions  made  to  it  by  the 
 abbot  Grimoaldus.  Many  of  these  were 
 retained  in    their   native   purity  in    the 
 
COLLECTS  Foil  THE  DAY. 
 
 205 
 
 missals  of  York  and  Salisbury,  and  the 
 breviaries  ;  but  were  no  more  depreciated 
 by  standing  there  than  a  jewel  by  lying 
 on  a  dunghill.  The  second  order  of  col- 
 lects are  also  ancient  as  to  the  main  ;  but 
 where  there  were  any  passages  that  had 
 been  corrupted,  they  were  struck  out,  and 
 the  old  form  restored,  or  that  passage 
 rectified  ;  and  where  there  was  any  defect 
 it  was  supplied.  The  third  order  are  such 
 as  had  been  corrupted  in  the  Iloman 
 missals  and  breviaries,  and  contained  some- 
 thing of  false  doctrine,  or  at  least  of  super- 
 stition, in  them ;  and  new  collects  M'ere 
 made,  instead  of  these,  at  the  lleformation, 
 under  King  Edward  VI. ;  and  some  few 
 which  were  wanting  were  added,  anno 
 1GQ2.  — Comber. 
 
 The  objection,  that  our  service  is  taken 
 from  the  Popish,  affects  chiefly  the  collects. 
 But  those  of  ours  which  are  the  same 
 with  theirs,  are  mostly  derived  from  prayer 
 books  brought  over  in  the  days  of  that 
 pope  by  whose  means  our  Saxon  ances- 
 tors were  converted  to  Christianity,  above 
 1 100  [now  1200]  years  ago  ;  and  they  were 
 old  ones  then,  much  older  than  the  main 
 errors  of  Popery. — Seeker. 
 
 It  appears  that  the  service  of  the  Church 
 is  far  more  ancient  than  the  Roman  missal, 
 properly  speaking.  And  whoever  has  at- 
 tended to  the  superlative  simplicity,  fer- 
 vour, and  energy  of  the  prayers,  will  have 
 no  hesitation  in  concluding,  that  they 
 must,  the  collects  particularly,  have  been 
 composed  in  a  time  of  true  evangelical 
 light  and  godliness. — Milner^s  Chureh  Hist. 
 
 It  is  the  boast  of  the  Church  of  England, 
 and  her  praise,  that  her  Common  Prayer 
 corresponds  with  the  best  and  most  ancient 
 liturgies  which  were  used  in  the  Church 
 in  the  most  primitive  and  purest  times. — 
 Directions  to  Commissioriers  in  1661. 
 
 Here  I  entreat  the  people  to  remember 
 that  these  collects,  and  the  following 
 prayers,  are  to  be  vocally  pronounced  by 
 the  minister  only,  though  the  people  are 
 obliged  to  join  mentally  therein.  Where- 
 fore let  none  of  the  congregation  disturb 
 the  rest,  especially  those  that  are  near 
 them,  by  muttering  over  their  prayers  in 
 an  audible  manner,  contrary  to  the  design 
 and  rule  of  the  Church,  which  always  tells 
 the  people  when  their  voices  are  allowed 
 to  be  heard,  and  consequently  commands 
 them  at  all  other  times  to  be  silent,  and 
 to  speak  to  God  in  a  mental  manner  only. 
 —Iie7inett. 
 
 COLLECTS  FOR  THE  DAY.  Our 
 Church,  endeavouring  to  preserve  not  only 
 the  spirit,  but  the  very  forms,  as  much  as 
 may  be,  and  in  a  known  tongue,  of  ancient 
 
 primitive  devotion,  has  retained  the  same 
 collects. 
 
 For  the  object,  they  are  directed  to 
 God,  in  the  name  of  "  Jesus  Christ  our 
 Lord  ; "  a  few  are  directed  to  Christ  ; 
 and  in  the  Litany  some  sujjplications  to  the 
 Holy  Ghost,  besides  that  precatory  hymn 
 of  *'  Veni  Creator,"  in  the  book  of  Ordin- 
 ation. Some  collects,  especially  for  great 
 festivals,  conclude  with  this  acknowledg- 
 ment,— that  Christ,  Avith  the  Father, 
 and  the  Holy  Ghost,  "liveth  andrcigneth, 
 one  God,  world  without  end."  This  seems 
 to  be  done  to  testify  what  the  Scripture 
 warrants,  that  although,  for  more  con- 
 gruity,  we  in  the  general  course  of  our 
 prayers  go  to  the  Father  by  the  Son, 
 yet  that  we  may  also  invocate  both  the  Son 
 and  the  Holy  Ghost  ;  and  that  while  we 
 call  upon  one,  we  equally  worship  and 
 glorify  all  three  together. 
 
 For  their  form  and  proportion,  as  they 
 are  not  one  long-continued  prayer,  but 
 divers  short  ones,  they  have  many  advan- 
 tages ;  the  practice  of  the  Jews  of  old,  in 
 whose  prescribed  devotions  we  find  a  cer- 
 tain number  of  several  prayers  or  collects, 
 to  be  said  together  ;  the  example  of  our 
 Lord  in  prescribing  a  short  form ;  and 
 the  judgment  and  practice  of  the  ancient 
 Christians  in  their  liturgies.  St.  Chrysos- 
 tom,  among  others,  commends  highly,  short 
 and  frequent  prayers  with  little  distances 
 between.  And  they  are  most  convenient 
 for  keeping  away  coldness,  distraction,  and 
 illusions  from  our  devotion ;  for  what  we 
 said  in  praise  of  short  ejaculations,  is  true 
 also  concerning  collects;  and  that  not 
 only  in  respect  of  the  minister,  but  the 
 people  also,  whose  minds  and  affections 
 become  hereby  more  erect,  close,  and  earn- 
 est, by  the  oftener  breathing  out  their 
 hearty  concurrence,  and  saying  all  of  them 
 "  Amen  "  together,  at  the  end  of  each  col- 
 lect. The  matter  of  them  is  most  excel- 
 lent. It  consists  usually  of  two  parts  ;  an 
 humble  acknowledgment  of  the  adorable 
 perfection  and  goodness  of  GoD,  and  a 
 congruous  petition  for  some  benefit  from 
 him.  The  first  is  seen  not  only  in  the  col- 
 lects for  special  festivals  or  benefits,  but 
 in  those  also  that  are  more  general ;  for 
 even  in  such  what  find  we  in  the  begin- 
 ning of  them,  but  some  or  other  of  these 
 and  the  like  acknowledgments? — That 
 God  is  almighty,  everlasting,  full  of  good- 
 ness and  pity ;  the  strength,  refuge,  and 
 protector  of  all  that  trust  in  him ;  without 
 whom  nothing  is  strong,  nothing  is  holy. 
 That  there  is  no  continuing  in  safety 
 without  him ;  that  such  is  our  weakness 
 and   frailty,    that    we    have   no  power  of 
 
206      COLLECTS  FOR  THE  DAY. 
 
 COLLEGE. 
 
 ourselves  to  help  ourselves,  to  do  any 
 good,  or  to  stand  upright,  and  therefore 
 cannot  but  fall.  That  Ave  put  no  trust  in 
 anything  that  we  do,  but  lean  only  upon 
 the  help  of  his  heavenly  grace.  That  he  is 
 the  author  and  giver  of  all  good  things ; 
 from  Avhoni  it  comes  that  we  have  an 
 hearty  desire  to  pray,  or  do  him  any  true 
 or  laudable  service.  That  he  is  ahvays 
 more  ready  to  hear  than  we  to  pray,  and 
 to  give  more  than  -sve  desu-e  or  deserve  ; 
 having  prepared  for  them  that  love  him 
 such  good  things  as  pass  man's  under- 
 standing.— Sjyarroiv. 
 
 That  most  of  our  collects  are  very  an- 
 cient, appears  by  their  conformity  to  the 
 Epistles  and  Gospels,  which  were  selected 
 by  St.  Hierom,  and  put  into  the  lectionary 
 ascribed  to  him.  Many  believed  he  first 
 framed  them  for  the  use  of  the  Roman 
 Church,  in  the  time  of  Pope  Damasus,above 
 1300  [now  nearly  1500]  years  ago.  Cer- 
 tain it  is  that  Gelasius,  who  was  bishop  of 
 Rome  above  1200  years  since,  [a.  d.  492-6,] 
 did  range  those  collects,  which  were  then 
 used,  into  order,  and  composed  some  new 
 ones ;  and  that  office  of  his  was  again  cor- 
 rected by  Pope  Gregory  the  Great,  A.  D. 
 600,  whose  Sacramentary  contains  most  of 
 those  collects  which  we  now  use. —  Cumber. 
 
 One  of  the  principal  reasons  why  our 
 public  devotions  are,  and  should  be, 
 divided  into  short  collects,  is  this, — our 
 blessed  SAVioni  hath  told  us,  that  what- 
 soever we  ask  the  Father  in  his  name 
 he  will  give  it  us.  It  cannot  then  but  be 
 necessary  that  the  name  of  Christ  be 
 frequently  inserted  in  our  prayers,  that 
 so  we  may  lift  up  our  hearts  unto  him, 
 and  rest  our  faith  upon  him,  for  the  ob- 
 taining those  good  things  we  pray  for. 
 And  therefore,  whatsoever  we  ask  of  GoD, 
 we  presently  add, "  through  Jesus  Christ 
 our  Lord." —  Wheatly. 
 
 The  petitions  are  not  in  one  long  prayer, 
 but  several  short  ones ;  which  method  is 
 certainly  as  lawful  as  the  other,  and,  we 
 think,  more  expedient.  It  reminds  us 
 oftcner  of  the  attributes  of  GoD  and 
 merits  of  Christ,  which  are  the  ground  of 
 our  asking  in  faith ;  and,  by  the  frequency 
 of  saying  "  Amen,"  it  stirs  up  our  atten- 
 tion and  warms  our  devotions,  which  are 
 too  apt  to  languish. — Seeker. 
 
 We  may  refer  to  ShejjJierd  on  the  Com- 
 mon Prayer  for  a  classified  arrangement 
 of  the  collects;  (1.)  which  were  retained 
 from  ancient  liturgies  at  the  Reformation  ; 
 (2.)  which  were  altered  by  the  Reform- 
 ers and  reviewers;  and  (3.)  which  were 
 composed  anew.  Those  composed  anew 
 in  1549  are  the  collects  for  the   1st  and 
 
 2nd  Sunday  in  Advent,  Christmas,  the 
 Epiphany,  Quinquagesima,  Ash-Wednes- 
 day, 1st  Sunday  in  Lent,  1st  and  2nd  Sun- 
 days after  Easter  ;  St.  Thomas's  day,  St. 
 Matthias's,  St.  Mark's,  St.  Barnabas's,  St. 
 John  Baptist's,  St.  Peter's,  St.  James's,  St. 
 Matthew's,  St.  Luke's,  St.  Simon  and  St. 
 Jude's;  All-Saints'.  In  1552,  St.  An- 
 drew's. In  1662,  3rd  Sunday  in  Advent ; 
 6th  Sunday  after  Epiphany ;  Easter  Even. 
 The  prayers  denominated  collects  in  our 
 liturgy  are  those  of  the  day,  and  the  2nd 
 and  3rd  at  Morning  and  Evening  Prayer 
 respectively  ;  the  Prayer  for  all  Conditions 
 of  Men,  which  is  called  also  a  collect ; 
 the  prayer  preceding  the  ten  command- 
 ments, the  prayer  for  the  sovereign  in  the 
 Communion  Service,  and  the  six  occa- 
 sional collects  following  it ;  the  prayer 
 following  the  Lord's  Prayer  in  the  Con- 
 firmation Service ;  the  prayer  preceding 
 the  psalm  in  the  Visitation  of  the  Sick, 
 that  in  the  Communion  of  the  Sick,  and 
 the  prayer  preceding  the  blessing  in  the 
 Burial  of  the  Dead ;  three  in  the  Ordering 
 of  Priests  and  Deacons  respectively,  and 
 one  in  the  Consecration  of  Bishops. 
 
 COLLEGE.  A  community.  Hence  we 
 speak  of  an  episcopal  college,  or  college  of 
 bishops.  It  was  an  old  maxim  of  Roman 
 law,  that  by  fewer  than  three  persons  a 
 college  could  not  be  formed.  Hence,  as 
 a  bishop  is  to  be  consecrated  not  by  a 
 single  bishop,  but  by  a  synod  or  coUege, 
 at  least  three  are  required  to  be  present 
 at  each  consecration.  Every  corporation, 
 in  the  civil  law,  is  called  a  college,  and  so 
 it  has  been  applied  in  England,  in  some 
 rare  instances,  irrespective  of  social  com- 
 binations :  and  abroad  it  was  very  exten- 
 sively applied  to  incorporated  boards.  But 
 in  England  it  generally  implies  a  society 
 of  persons,  living  in  a  common  habitation, 
 and  bound  together  by  statutes  which  have 
 respect  to  their  daily  life.  The  minor  cor- 
 porations of  the  universities,  and  those  of 
 Eton  and  Winchester,  are  specially  so 
 termed  :  and  residences  for  the  members, 
 a  chapel,  hall,  and  library,  are  considered 
 as  essential  features  of  the  college.  As  it 
 is  unquestionable  that  our  academical  col- 
 leges were  all  instituted  for  the  promotion 
 of  godliness,  as  well  as  of  human  knowledge, 
 that  they  were  intended  to  be  handmaids 
 of  the  Church,  as  their  highest  function, 
 besides  nurseries  of  good  learning,  they 
 deserve  special  notice  in  a  Church  Dic- 
 tionary. All  cathedral  and  collegiate 
 churches  are  colleges  ;  and  the  word  in 
 this  sense  comprehends  all  the  members 
 of  each  establishment,  whether  inferior  or 
 superior.     The  buildings  of  some  of  our 
 
COLLEGIATE  CHUPwCHES. 
 
 COMMENTARY. 
 
 207 
 
 cathedrals  containing  the  residence  of  the 
 members,  are  still  often  popularly  called 
 *'  the  college."  The  ^vord  is  also  applied 
 to  those  inferior  corporations  attached  to 
 the  cathedi-als  of  old  foundation.  (See 
 Minor  Canons  and  Vicars  Choral.) 
 
 The  colleges  of  our  universities  are  each 
 independent  societies,  having  their  own 
 statutes,  and  ])roperty  as  strictly  their 
 own  as  that  of  any  lay  proprietor.  Still 
 they  are  connected  with  a  greater  corpor- 
 ation, which  is  called  the  university.  It 
 has  been  commonly  thought,  that  these 
 relations  between  minor  and  major  aca- 
 demical corporations  is  an  anomaly  pecu- 
 liar to  England.  The  fact  is  otherwise. 
 The  most  ancient  universities,  as  Paris, 
 Bologna,  and  Salamanca,  had  each  several 
 colleges,  which  bore  an  analogous  relation 
 to  the  universitv-     (See  University.) 
 
 COLLEGIATE  CHURCHES.  Churches 
 with  a  body  of  canons  and  prebendaries, 
 &c.,  and  inferior  members,  with  corporate 
 privileges.  The  services  and  forms  in 
 these  churches  are,  or  ought  to  be,  like 
 those  in  cathedral  churches.  The  number 
 of  collegiate  churches  has  been  much  di- 
 minished since  the  Reformation  ;  those  at 
 present  existing  in  England,  are  West- 
 minster, Windsor,  Southwell,  Wolverhamp- 
 ton, Middleham,  and  Brecon ;  and  in  Ire- 
 land, the  collegiate  church  of  Galway. 
 
 COLLYRIDIANS.  Certain  heretics 
 that  worshipped  the  Virgin  Mary  as  a 
 goddess,  and  offered  cake  in  sacrifice  to 
 her ;  they  appeared  in  the  fourth  century, 
 about  the  year  373.  Their  name  is  de- 
 rived from  KoWvpa,  a  little  cake. 
 
 COMMANDRIES.  New  houses  of  the 
 same  kind  among  the  Knights  Hospitallers 
 as  the  Preceptories  among  the  Templars. 
 (See  Preceptories.) 
 
 COMMEMORATIONS.  The  recital 
 of  the  names  of  famous  martyrs  and  con- 
 fessors, patriarchs,  bishops,  kings,  great 
 orthodox  writers,  munificent  benefactors  : 
 which  recitation  was  made  at  the  altar  out 
 of  diptychs  or  folded  tables.  There  are 
 Commemoration  days  at  Oxford  and  Cam- 
 bridge, on  which  the  names  of  all  the 
 known  benefactors  to  the  universities  are 
 proclaimed,  special  psalms  and  lessons 
 recited,  and  special  collects  and  versicles. 
 These  have  been  coeval  with  the  Reform- 
 ation, and  sanctioned  by  the  highest  au- 
 thority.    (See  IJiptijchs.) 
 
 COMMEND  AM.  Commendam  is  a 
 living  commended  by  the  Crown  to  the  care 
 of  a  clerg}Tnan  until  a  proper  jiastor  is 
 provided  for  it.  These  commendams  for 
 some  time  have  been  seldom  or  never 
 granted  to  any  but  bishops,  who,  when 
 
 their  bishoprics  were  of  small  value,  were, 
 by  special  dispensation,  allowed  to  hold 
 their  previous  benefices,  which,  on  their 
 promotion,  had  devolved  into  the  patron- 
 age of  the  Crown. 
 
 COMMENDATORY  LETTERS.  (See 
 Literce  formatce.) 
 
 COMMENTARY.  An  exposition;  a 
 book  of  annotations  on  Holy  Scripture. 
 
 In  selecting  a  commentary  much  care  is 
 necessary,  because  a  skilful  commentator 
 may  wrest  the  Scrij)tures  so  as  to  make 
 them  support  his  private  opinion.  A  Cal- 
 vinist  makes  Scripture  speak  Calvinism, 
 an  Arminian  makes  it  speak  Arminianism. 
 The  question  to  be  asked,  therefore,  is, 
 According  to  what  principle  does  the  an- 
 notator  j^rofess  to  interpret  Scripture  ?  If 
 he  takes  the  Church  for  his  guide ;  if  he 
 professes  to  interpret  according  to  the  doc- 
 trines of  the  Church,  although  he  may  err 
 in  a  matter  of  detail,  he  cannot  seriously 
 mislead  us.  We  may  instance  the  third 
 chapter  of  St.  John's  Gospel.  How  very 
 different  will  be  the  meaning  of  that  chap- 
 ter interpreted  by  a  Calvinist,  who  denies 
 the  scri])tural  doctrine  of  baptismal  re- 
 generation, from  the  meaning  which  will 
 be  attached  to  it  by  one  who  holds  the 
 truth  as  it  is  taught  in  the  Church,  and 
 who,  with  the  Church  of  England,  in  the 
 Office  for  the  Baptism  of  Persons  in  Riper 
 Years,  applies  what  is  said  in  that  chapter 
 to  baptismal  grace. 
 
 To  give  a  complete  list  of  commentaries 
 is,  in  such  a  work  as  the  present,  impos- 
 sible. The  reader  who  would  pursue  the 
 subject  is  refeiTed  to  the  authorities  men- 
 tioned in  the  next  article,  Commentators. 
 Some  of  the  leading  commentaries  most 
 used  in  the  Church  of  England  are  here 
 given. 
 
 Theophylact ;  the  last  edition  of  whose 
 works  is  that  published  at  Venice,  1754 — 
 1763,  in  four  volumes,  folio.  In  Theo- 
 phylact we  have  the  pith  of  St.  Chrysostom, 
 whose  w^orks  also  are  useful,  especially  his 
 Homilies  on  St.  Matthew  and  on  St.  Paul's 
 Epistles.  They  have  lately  been  trans- 
 lated. 
 
 "  Critici  Sacri,  sive  Annotata  doctissi- 
 morum  Virorum  in  Vetus  ac  Novum  Tes- 
 tamentum ;  quibus  accedunt  Tractatus 
 varii  Theologico-Philologici,"  9  tomis  in  12 
 voluminibus.     Amsterdam,  1698,  folio. 
 
 This  is  considered  the  best  edition  of  this 
 great  work,  which  was  first  published  in 
 London,  in  1660,  in  nine  volumes,  folio,  un- 
 der the  direction  of  the  celebrated  Bishop 
 Pearson  and  other  learned  divines.  In  1 701 
 there  were  published  at  Amsterdam,  "  The- 
 saurus  Theologico-Philologicus,"    in   two 
 
208 
 
 COMMENTARY. 
 
 COMMENTATORS. 
 
 volumes  folio,  and  two  additional  volumes 
 in  1732.  These  complete  the  v,'ork. 
 
 *'  Mathsei  Poli  Synopsis  Criticorum  alio- 
 rumque  SS.  Interpretum,"  London,  1669 — 
 1674  ;  five  volumes,  folio.  This  has  been 
 reprinted,  the  best  edition  being  that  of 
 Utrecht,  1686.  It  is  a  valuable  abridg- 
 ment and  consolidation  of  the  "  Critici 
 Sacri."  It  gives  the  conclusions,  without 
 the  arguments,  of  that  work. 
 
 Bishop  Hall's  '*  Contemplations  on  the 
 Old  and  New  Testament,"  of  which  valu- 
 able work  there  have  been  several  reprints. 
 
 Patrick,  Lowth,  "VVTiitby,  and  Arnold's 
 "  Commentary  on  the  Bible."  London, 
 1727 — 1760:  seven  volumes,  folio.  Re- 
 printed in  4to,  1821 ;  and  lately  in  large 
 8vo.     This  is  a  standard  work. 
 
 "  An  Exposition  of  the  Old  and  New 
 Testament,"  by  the  Rev.  Matthew  Henry  : 
 folio,  five  volumes.  There  have  been 
 many  reprints  of  this  truly  excellent  com- 
 mentary. 
 
 "  A  Commentary  on  the  Books  of  the 
 Old  and  New  Testaments,  in  which  are  in- 
 serted the  Notes  and  Collections  of  John 
 Locke,  Esq.,  Daniel  Waterland,  D.  D.,  and 
 the  Earl  of  Clarendon  and  other  learned 
 persons,  with  Practical  Improvements." 
 London,  1770:  three  volumes,  folio.  This 
 was  reprinted  in  six  volumes,  4to,  in  1801, 
 by  Dr.  Coke,  a  Methodist,  with  some  re- 
 trenchments and  unimportant  additions, 
 and  goes  by  the  name  of  "  Coke's  Com- 
 mentary." It  is  very  useful  for  practical 
 purposes. 
 
 "  The  Holy  Bible,  with  Original  Notes 
 and  Practical  Observations,"  by  Thomas 
 Scott,  M.  A.,  Rector  of  Aston  Sandford : 
 London.     This  has  been  often  reprinted. 
 
 "  The  Holy  Bible,  with  Notes,"  by  Tho- 
 mas Wilson,  D.  D.,  Bishop  of  Sodor  and 
 Man:  London,  1785:  three  volumes,  4to. 
 "WTiatever  comes  from  the  pen  of  Bishop 
 Wilson  is  valuable ;  but  the  notes  are 
 rather  suggestive  than  illustrative. 
 
 "  The  Holy  Bible,  with  Notes  explana- 
 tory and  practical ;"  taken  principally  from 
 the  most  recent  Avriters  of  the  United 
 Church  of  England  and  Ireland,  prepared 
 and  arranged  by  Dr.  D'Oyley  and  Bishop 
 Mant.  Oxford  and  London,  1817:  three 
 volumes,  4to,  and  since  reprinted.  This 
 work,  published  under  the  sanction  of  the 
 Society  for  promoting  Christian  Know- 
 ledge, is  perhaps  the  most  sound  and  use- 
 ful that  we  possess. 
 
 It  is  impossible  to  enumerate  the  com- 
 mentators on  separate  books  of  the  Bible, 
 but  we  may  mention  Dean  Graves  on  the 
 Pentateuch,  Bishops  Home  and  Horsley  on 
 the  Psalms,  Bishop  Lowth  on  Isaiah,  Dr. 
 
 Blayney  on  Jeremiah,  Archbishop  New- 
 come  on  Ezekiel,  Mr.  Wintle  on  Daniel, 
 Bishop  Horsley  on  Hosea,  Dr.  Blayney  on 
 Zechariah,  Dr.  Stock  on  Malachi,  Dr.  Po- 
 cocke  on  Hosea,  Joel,  Micah,  and  Mala- 
 chi ;  Archbishop  Newcome  on  the  Twelve 
 Minor  Prophets. 
 
 On  the  New  Testament,  we  may  refer  to 
 Hammond,  Whitby,  Burkitt,  Doddridge, 
 Bishop  Pearce,  Dr.  Trapp,  Bishop  Porteus 
 on  St.  Matthew,  Biscoe  on  the  Acts,  Mac- 
 knight,  Bishop  Fell,  Bishop  Davenant,  Pyle 
 on  the  Epistles,  Archbishop  Leighton  on  St. 
 Peter,  Mede,  Daubeny,  Lowman,  Sir  Isaac 
 Newton,  and  Bishop  Newton  on  the  Apo- 
 calypse. We  have  omitted,  in  this  list,  con- 
 temporary writers,  for  obvious  reasons,  and 
 we  have  referred  to  commentaries  chiefly 
 used  by  English  churchmen ;  the  more 
 learned  reader  will,  not  without  caution, 
 have  recourse  to  foreign  critics  also ;  of 
 whom  we  may  mention,  as  persons  much 
 consulted,  Vitringa,  Tittmann,  Bengel, 
 Olshausen,  Tholuck,  Wolfius,  Raphelius, 
 Calmet,  and  Hengstenberg.  The  "  Catena 
 Aurea"  of  Thomas  Aquinas  has  lately  been 
 translated ;  but  it  is  useful  rather  to  the 
 antiquarian  and  the  scholar,  than  to  those 
 who  wish  to  ascertain  the  exact  meaning  of 
 Scripture  ;  and  in  the  quotations  from  the 
 Fathers,  Aquinas  is  not  to  be  depended  upon. 
 
 COMMENTATORS.  "  A  complete  his- 
 tory of  commentators,"  says  Mr.  Hartwell 
 Home,  "  would  require  a  volume  of  no 
 ordinary  dimensions."  The  reader  who  is 
 desirous  of  prosecuting  this  subject,  will 
 find  much  interesting  information  relative 
 to  the  early  commentators  in  Rosenmiiller's 
 "  Historia  Interpretationis  Librorum  Sa- 
 crorum  in  Ecclesia  Christiana,  inde  ab 
 Apostolorum  -^tate  usque  ad  Origenem, 
 1795 — 1814."  This  elaborate  work  treats 
 exclusively  of  the  early  commentators. 
 Father  Simon's  "  Histoire  Critique  de 
 Vieux  Testament,"  4to,  1680,  and  his 
 "  Histoire  Critique  des  Principaux  Com- 
 mentateurs  du  Nouveau  Testament,"  4to, 
 Rotterdam,  1689,  contain  many  valuable 
 strictures  on  the  expositors  of  the  Old  and 
 New  Testament  up  to  his  own  time.  In 
 1674  was  published  at  Frankfort,  in  two 
 volumes  folio,  Joh.  Georg.  Dorschei  "  Bib- 
 lia  Numerata,  sen  Index  Specialis  in  Vetus 
 Testamentum  ad  singula  omnium  Librorum 
 Capita  et  Commenta."  It  contains  a  list  of 
 commentators,  191  in  number,  who  had 
 illustrated  every  book,  chapter,  or  verse  of 
 the  Scriptures,  with  reference  to  the  books, 
 chapters,  and  pages  of  their  several  works. 
 The  merits  and  demerits  of  commentators 
 are  likewise  discussed  in  Walchius's  "  Bib- 
 liotheca  Theolooica  Selecta : "  in  Ernesti's 
 
COMMINATION. 
 
 209 
 
 "  Institutio  Interpretis  Novi  Testamenti ; " 
 in  Morus's  "  Acroases  Academicsc."  Pro- 
 fessor Keil,  in  his  "  Elementa  Hermeneu- 
 tices  Novi  Testamenti,"  and  Professor  Beck, 
 in  "  Monogrammata  Hermeneutices,  Li- 
 brorum  Novi  Fccderis,"  Seiler's  Biblical 
 Hermeneutices,  (translated  from  the  Ger- 
 man by  Dr.  Wright,  1835,) — respectively 
 notice  the  principal  expositors  of  the 
 Scriptures. 
 
 COMjMINATION,  means  a  threat  or 
 denunciation  of  vengeance.  There  is  an 
 ancient  office  in  the  Church  of  England, 
 entitled,  "  A  Commination,  or  denouncing 
 of  God's  Anger  and  Judgment  against  Sin- 
 ners, with  certain  Prayers,  to  be  used  on 
 the  first  Day  of  Lent,  and  at  other  times,  as 
 the  Ordinary  shall  appoint."  This  office, 
 says  Mr.  Palmer,  is  one  of  the  last  memo- 
 rials Ave  retain  of  that  solemn  penitence, 
 which  during  the  primitive  ages  occupied 
 so  conspicuous  a  place  in  the  discipline  of 
 the  Christian  Church.  In  the  earliest  ages, 
 those  who  were  guilty  of  grievous  sins 
 were  solemnly  reduced  to  the  order  of 
 penitents  ;  they  came  fasting  and  clad  in 
 sackcloth  and  ashes  on  the  occasion,  and 
 after  the  bishop  had  prayed  over  them, 
 they  were  dismissed  from  the  church. 
 They  then  were  admitted  gradually  to 
 the  classes  of  hearers,  suhstrati,  and  coti- 
 sistentes,  until  at  length,  after  long  trial 
 and  exemplary  conduct,  they  were  again 
 decreed  worthy  of  communion.  This  pe- 
 nitential discipline  at  length,  from  vari- 
 ous causes,  became  extinct,  both  in  the 
 Eastern  and  Western  Churches  :  and,  from 
 the  twelfth  or  thirteenth  century,  the  so- 
 lemn office  of  the  first  day  of  Lent  was  the 
 only  memorial  of  this  ancient  discipline 
 in  the  West.  The  Church  of  England 
 has  long  used  this  office  nearly  as  we  do 
 at  present,  as  we  find  almost  exactly  the 
 same  appointed  in  the  JNIS.  Sacramentary 
 of  Leofric,  which  was  written  for  our  Church 
 about  the  ninth  or  tenth  century ;  and 
 year  by  year  she  directs  her  ministers  to 
 lament  the  defection  of  the  godly  discipline 
 we  have  been  describing. 
 
 The  preface  which  the  Church  has  pre- 
 fixed to  this  office  will  supply  the  room  of 
 an  introduction.  It  informs  us  that,  "  in 
 the  primitive  Church,  there  was  a  godly 
 discipline  ;  that,  at  the  beginning  of  Lent, 
 such  persons  as  stood  convicted  of  noto- 
 rious crimes  were  put  to  open  penance,  and 
 punishment  in  this  M'orld,  that  their  souls 
 might  be  saved  in  the  day  of  the  Lokd  ; 
 and  that  others,  admonished  by  their  ex- 
 ample, might  be  the  more  afraid  to  offend." 
 The  manner  in  which  this  discipline  was 
 inflicted,  is  thus  recorded  by  Gratian  :  On 
 
 the  first  day  of  Lent  the  penitents  were  to 
 present  themselves  before  the  bishop, 
 clothed  with  sackcloth,  with  naked  feet, 
 and  eyes  turned  to  the  ground :  and  this 
 was  to  be  done  in  the  presence  of  the  prin- 
 cipal clergy  of  the  diocese,  who  were  to 
 judge  of  the  sincerity  of  their  repentance. 
 These  introduced  them  into  the  Church, 
 where  the  bishop,  all  in  tears,  and  the  rest 
 of  the  clergy,  repeated  the  seven  penitential 
 psalms.  Then,  rising  from  prayers,  they 
 threw  ashes  upon  them,  and  covered  their 
 heads  with  sackcloth ;  and  then  with 
 mournful  sighs  declared  to  them,  that  as 
 Adam  was  cast  out  of  paradise,  so  they 
 must  be  cast  out  of  the  Church.  Then  the 
 bishop  commanded  the  officers  to  turn 
 them  out  of  the  church  doors,  and  all  the 
 clergy  followed  after,  repeating  that  curse 
 upon  Adam,  "  In  the  sweat  of  thy  brow 
 thou  shalt  eat  bread."  The  like  penance 
 was  inflicted  upon  them  the  next  time  the 
 sacrament  was  administered,  which  was 
 the  Sunday  following.  And  all  this  was 
 done,  to  the  end  that  the  penitents,  ob- 
 serving how  great  a  disorder  the  Church 
 was  in  by  reason  of  their  crimes,  should 
 not  lightly  esteem  of  penance. 
 
 Though  this  discipline  was  severe,  yet 
 the  many  good  consequences  of  it  showed 
 it  worthy  the  imitation  of  the  Church  in 
 succeeding  ages ;  so  that  it  was  anciently 
 exercised  in  our  own,  as  well  as  in  foreign 
 churches.  But  in  latter  ages,  during  the 
 corruption  of  the  Church  of  Rome,  this 
 godly  discipline  degenerated  into  a  formal 
 and  customary  confession  upon  Ash  Wed- 
 nesdays, used  by  all  persons  indifferently, 
 whether  penitents  or  not,  from  whom  no 
 other  testimony  of  their  repentance  was 
 required,  than  that  they  should  submit  to 
 the  empty  ceremony  of  sprinkling  ashes 
 upon  their  heads.  But  this  our  wise  re- 
 formers prudently  laid  aside  as  a  mere 
 shadow  and  show ;  and  not  without  hearty 
 grief  and  concern,  that  the  long  continu- 
 ance of  the  abominable  corruptions  of  the 
 Romish  Church,  in  their  formal  confessions 
 and  pretended  absolutions,  in  their  sale  of 
 indulgences,  and  their  sordid  commuta- 
 tions of  penance  for  money,  had  let  the 
 people  loose  from  those  primitive  bands  of 
 discipline,  which  tended  really  to  their 
 amendment,  but  to  which,  through  the 
 rigour  and  severity  it  enjoins,  they  found 
 it  impracticable  to  reduce  them  again. 
 However,  since  they  could  not  do  what 
 they  desired,  they  desired  to  do  as  much 
 as  they  could ;  and  therefore,  till  the  said 
 discipline  may  be  restored  again,  (which  is 
 rather  to  be  wished  than  expected  in  these 
 Hcentious  times,)    they  have  endeavoured 
 
210 
 
 COMMINATION. 
 
 COMMON  PRAYER. 
 
 to  supply  it  as  well  as  they  were  able,  by 
 appointing  an  office  to  be  used  at  this 
 season,  called  "  A  Commination,  or  de- 
 nouncing of  God's  Anger  and  Judgments 
 against  Sinners ; "  that  so  the  people,  being 
 apprized  of  God's  wrath  and  indignation 
 against  their  wickedness  and  sins,  may  not 
 be  encouraged,  through  the  want  of  disci- 
 pline in  the  Church,  to  follow  and  pursue 
 them ;  but  be  moved,  by  the  terror  of  the 
 dreadful  judgments  of  God,  to  supply  that 
 discipline  to'themselves,  by  severely  judg- 
 ing and  condemning  themselves,  and  so  to 
 avoid  being  judged  and  condemned  at  the 
 tribunal  of  God. 
 
 2.  But,  besides  "the  first  day  of  Lent," 
 on  which  it  is  expressly  enjoined,  it  is  also 
 supposed,  in  the  title  of  it,  to  be  used  "  at 
 other  times,  as  the  ordinary  shall  direct." 
 This  was  occasioned  by  the  observation  of 
 Bucer  ;  for  it  was  originally  ordered  upon 
 Ash  AVednesdays  only,  and  therefore  in 
 the  first  Common  Prayer  Book,  it  had  no 
 other  title,  but  "  The  First  Day  of  Lent, 
 commonly  called  Ash  Wednesday."  But 
 Bucer  approving  of  the  office,  and  not 
 seeing  reason  why  it  should  be  confined  to 
 one  day,  and  not  used  oftener,  at  least 
 four  times  a  year,  the  title  of  it  was  altered 
 when  it  came  to  be  reviewed ;  from  which 
 time  it  was  called,  "  A  Commination  against 
 Sinners,  with  certain  Prayers  to  be  used  at 
 divers  times  in  the  Year."  How  often,  or 
 at  what  particular  times,  we  do  not  find 
 prescribed;  except  that  Bishop  Cosin  in- 
 forms us  from  the  Visitation  Articles  of 
 Archbishop  Grindal  for  the  province  of 
 Canterbury,  in  the  year  1576,  that  it  was 
 appointed  three  times  a  year ;  namely,  on 
 one  of  the  three  Sundays  next  before 
 Easter,  on  one  of  the  two  Sundays  next 
 before  Pentecost,  and  on  one  of  the  two 
 Sundays  next  before  Chi-istmas ;  that  is,  I 
 suppose  the  office  was  appointed  yearly  to 
 be  used  on  these  three  days,  as  well  as  on 
 Ash  Wednesday.  For  that  Ash  Wednes- 
 day was  then  the  solemn  day  of  all,  and  on 
 which  this  office  was  never  to  be  omitted, 
 may  be  gathered  from  the  preface,  which 
 is  drawn  up  for  the  peculiar  use  of  that 
 day.  And  accordingly  we  find,  that,  in  the 
 Scotch  Common  Prayer,  a  clause  was  added, 
 that  it  was  to  be  used  •'  especially  on  the 
 first  day  of  Lent,  commonly  called  Ash 
 Wednesday."  However,  in  our  own  li- 
 turgy, the  title  stood  as  above,  till  the  last 
 review,  when  a  clause  was  added  for  the 
 sake  of  explaining  the  word  commination  ; 
 and  the  appointing  of  the  times  on  v>-hich 
 it  should  be  used  was  left  to  the  discre- 
 tion of  the  bishop,  or  the  ordinary.  So 
 that  the  whole  title,  as  it  stands  now,  runs 
 
 thus  :  "  A  Commination,  or  denouncing  of 
 God's  Anger  and  Judgments  against  Sin- 
 ners, with  certain  Prayers  to  be  used  on 
 the  first  Day  in  Lent,  and  at  other  Times,  as 
 the  Ordinary  shair  appoint."  The  ordin- 
 aries, indeed,  seldom  or  never  make  use  of 
 the  power  here  given  them,  except  that 
 sometimes  they  appoint  part  of  the  office, 
 namely,  from  the  fifty-first  Psalm  to  the 
 end,  to  be  used  upon  solemn  days  of  fast- 
 ing and  humiliation.  But  as  to  the  whole 
 office,  it  is  never  used  entirely  but  upon 
 the  day  mentioned  in  the  title  of  it,  namely, 
 "  the  first  day  of  Lent." — Wheatly. 
 
 The  Commination  properly  means  that 
 part  of  the  special  service  which  precedes 
 the  Psalm ;  the  rest  coming  under  the 
 title  of  "  certain  prayers ; "  and  it  would 
 seem  that  the  latter  are  alone  to  be  used  at 
 other  times  that  the  ordinary  shall  ap- 
 point.— Jehh. 
 
 COMMISSARY,  is  a  title  of  jurisdic- 
 tion, appertaining  to  him  that  exercises 
 ecclesiastical  jurisdiction,  in  places  so  far 
 distant  from  the  chief  city,  that  the  chan- 
 cellor cannot  call  the  people  to  the  bishoj/s 
 principal  consistory  court  without  great 
 trouble  to  them. 
 
 Chancellors,  or  bishops'  lawyers,  were 
 first  introduced  into  the  Church  by  the 
 2nd  canon  of  the  Council  of  Chalcedon, 
 and  were  men  trained  up  in  the  civil  and 
 canon  law,  to  direct  bishops  in  matters  of 
 judgment  relating  to  ecclesiastical  afiairs. 
 
 AVhatever  the  extent  of  the  chancellor's 
 authority  as  a  judge  may  be,  throughout 
 the  diocese,  with  relation  to  the  bishop's, 
 it  is  quite  clear  that  the  commissary's  au- 
 thority extends  only  to  such  particular 
 causes,  in  such  parts  of  the  diocese,  for 
 which  he  holds  the  bishop's  commission  to 
 act. 
 
 In  the  Clementine  constitutions  this 
 officer  is  termed  ojficialis  foraneus.  By 
 the  21st  of  Henry  VIII.  c.  13,  he  shall  not 
 be  within  the  statute  of  non-residence  ;  he 
 may  grant  licences ;  he  may  excommuni- 
 cate, and  prove  a  last  will  and  testament ; 
 but  that  shall  be  in  the  name  of  the  ordin- 
 ary ;  and  a  grant  of  such  power  does  not 
 hold  good  beyond  the  Hfe  of  the  ordinary, 
 and  does  not  bind  his  successor  :  where,  by 
 prescription  or  by  composition,  there  are 
 archdeacons,  who  have  jurisdiction  in  their 
 archdeaconries,  as  in  most  places  they  have, 
 there  the  office  of  commissary  is  superflu- 
 ous.— See  Gibson'' s  Codex,  vol.  i.  Introduc- 
 tory Discourse,  p.  25. 
 
 COMMON  PRAYER.     (See  Liturgy.) 
 
 By  Common  Prayer  we  are  to  understand 
 a  form  of  prayer  adapted  and  enjoined  for 
 common  or  universal  use  :  in  the  vernacu- 
 
COMMON  PRAYER. 
 
 COMMUNION. 
 
 211 
 
 lar  language,  such  as  may  be  understood 
 of  people,  and  in  which  they  are  required 
 to  join  with  one  heart  and  voice.  It  is 
 contrasted  with  those  services  which  have 
 either  actually  or  virtually  become  exclu- 
 sive, or  confined  to  but  a  few :  such  as  the 
 forms  of  matins  in  the  Roman  breviary, 
 which  from  its  extreme  length,  and  from 
 the  inconvenience  of  the  hour  when  it  is 
 prescribed  to  be  recited,  are  impracticable 
 to  the  people,  to  all  in  fact  but  the  inmates 
 of  monasteries  or  collegiate  churches.  Such, 
 indeed,  are  all  those  services  Avhich  are 
 written  in  a  language  which  is  no  longer 
 vernacular. 
 
 Bishop  Sparrow  observes,  that  the  Com- 
 mon Prayer  contains  in  it  many  holy  oflaces 
 of  the  Church ;  as  prayers,  confessions  of 
 faith,  holy  hymns,  divine  lessons,  priestly 
 absolutions,  and  benedictions ;  all  which 
 are  set  and  prescribed,  not  left  to  private 
 men's  fancies  to  make  or  alter.  So  it  was 
 of  old  ordained.  Cone.  Carthag.  can.  106, 
 "  It  is  ordained,  that  the  prayers,  prefaces, 
 and  impositions  of  hands,  which  are  con- 
 firmed by  the  Synod,  be  observed  and 
 used  by  all  men :  these,  and  no  other.  " 
 
 So  is  our  14th  English  Canon "  And  as 
 
 these  offices  are  set  and  prescribed,  so  are 
 they  moreover  appointed  to  be  one  and 
 the  same  throughout  the  whole  national 
 Church." 
 
 By  Canon  4.  "  Whosoever  shall  affirm 
 that  the  form  of  God's  worship  in  the 
 Church  of  England,  established  by  law, 
 and  contained  in  the  Book  of  Common 
 Prayer  and  Administration  of  the  Sacra- 
 ments, is  a  corrupt,  superstitious,  or  un- 
 laAvful  worship  of  GoD,  or  containeth  any- 
 thing in  it  that  is  repugnant  to  the  Scrip- 
 tures, let  him  be  excommunicated  ipso  facto, 
 and  not  restored  but  by  the  bishop  of  the 
 place,  or  archbishop,  after  his  repentance 
 and  public  revocation  of  such  his  wicked 
 errors." 
 
 By  Canon  38.  "  If  any  minister,  after 
 he  has  subscribed  to  the  Book  of  Common 
 Prayer,  shall  omit  to  use  the  form  of 
 prayer,  or  any  of  the  orders  or  ceremonies 
 prescribed  in  the  Communion  Book,  let 
 him  be  suspended ;  and  if  after  a  month 
 he  does  not  reform  and  submit  himself, 
 let  him  be  excommunicated ;  and  then,  if 
 he  shall  not  submit  himself  within  the 
 space  of  another  month,  let  him  be  deposed 
 from  the  ministry. 
 
 And  by  Canon  98.  "  After  any  judge 
 ecclesiastical  has  pronounced  judicially 
 against  contemners  of  ceremonies,  for  not 
 observing  the  rites  and  orders  of  the 
 Church  of  England,  or  for  contempt  of 
 public  prayer,  no  judge  ad  quern  shall 
 p  2 
 
 allow  of  his  appeal,  unless  the  party  ap- 
 pellant do  first  personally  promise  and 
 avoAV,  that  he  will  faithfully  keep  and 
 observe  all  the  rites  and  ceremonies  of  the 
 Church  of  England,  as  also  the  prescribed 
 form  of  Common  Prayer,  and  do  likewise 
 subscribe  to  the  same. 
 
 COMMUNION.  This  is  one  of  the 
 names  given  to  the  sacrament  of  the  eu- 
 charist,  and  was  undoubtedly  taken  from 
 St.  Paul's  account  of  that  sacrament, 
 where  he  teaches,  as  the  learned  Dr. 
 Waterland  observes,  that  the  effect  of  this 
 service  is  the  communion  of  the  body  and 
 blood  of  Christ.  (1  Cor.  x.  16.)  He 
 does  not,  indeed,  call  the  sacrament  by 
 that  name,  as  others  have  done  since.  He 
 was  signifying  what  the  thing  is,  or  what 
 it  does,  rather  than  hoAv  it  was  then  called. 
 (See  Eucharist,  Lord^s  Su^yper,  and  Conse^ 
 cration  of  the  Elements.) 
 
 The  office  for  the  Holy  Communion  is  a 
 distinct  office,  and  there  is  no  direction  at 
 what  time  of  the  day  it  shall  be  used,  only 
 custom,  in  accordance  with  the  almost  in- 
 variable usage  of  Christendom,  has  deter- 
 mined that  it  shall  be  used  in  the  fore- 
 noon. The  communion  is  appointed  for 
 every  Sunday,  only  the  Church  has  ordered 
 that  there  shall  be  no  communion  except 
 four  (or  three  at  least)  communicate  with 
 the  priest.  The  absence  of  the  weekly  eu- 
 charist  therefore  proves  one  of  two  things ; 
 either  that  the  sin  of  the  people  is  so 
 great  that  even  in  large  parishes  three 
 such  persons  ready  to  communicate  are 
 not  to  be  found  every  Sunday,  and  so  only 
 part  of  the  service  can  be  us^ed ;  or  else  if 
 three  communicants  can  be  found,  the  sin 
 of  the  clergy  is  great  in  not  having  weekly 
 communion.  "  In  cathedral  and  collegiate 
 churches,  where  there  are  many  priests 
 and  deacons,  they  shall  all  receive  the  com- 
 munion witli  the  priest  every  Sunday  at 
 the  least."  A¥e  here  subjoin  the  directions 
 of  the  canons  and  rubric. 
 
 The  rubric  decrees,  there  shall  none  be 
 admitted  to  the  holy  communion  until 
 such  time  as  he  be  confirmed,  or  be  ready 
 and  desirous  to  be  confirmed. 
 
 By  the  canons  of  Archbishop  Peckham, 
 1279,  it  is  ruled  that  none  shall  give  the 
 communion  to  the  parishioner  of  another 
 priest,  without  his  manifest  licence  ;  which 
 ordinance  shall  not  extend  to  ti'avellers, 
 or  to  persons  in  danger,  nor  to  cases  of 
 necessity. 
 
 And  by  Canon  28.  "  The  churchwardens 
 or  questmen,  and  their  assistants,  shall 
 mark,  as  well  as  the  minister,  whether 
 a)iy  strangers  come  often  and  commonly 
 from  other  parishes  to  their  church,  and 
 
212 
 
 COMMUNION. 
 
 show  their  minister  of  them,  lest  perhaps 
 they  be  admitted  to  the  Lokd's  tabic 
 amongst  others  ;  -which  they  shall  forbid, 
 and  remit  such  home  to  their  own  parish 
 churches  and  ministers,  there  to  receive 
 the  communion  with  the  rest  of  their  own 
 neighbours." 
 
 Kubric.  "  And  if  any  be  an  open  and 
 notorious  evil  liver,  or  have  done  any 
 wrong  to  his  neighbours  by  word  or  deed, 
 so  that  the  congregation  be  thereby  of- 
 fended, the  curate,  having  knowledge 
 thereof,  shall  call  him  and  advertise  him, 
 that  in  anywise  he  presume  not  to  come 
 to  the  Lord's  table  until  he  has  openly 
 declared  himself  to  have  truly  repented 
 and  amended  his  former  naughty  life,  that 
 the  congregation  may  thereby  be  satisfied, 
 which  before  were  offended;  and  that  he 
 has  recompensed  the  parties  to  whom  he 
 has  done  wrong ;  or  at  least  declare  him- 
 self to  be  in  full  purpose  so  to  do,  as  soon 
 as  he  conveniently  may." 
 
 Rubric.  "  The  same  order  shall  the 
 curate  use  with  those  between  whom  he 
 perceiveth  malice  and  hatred  to  reign,  not 
 suffering  them  to  be  partakers  of  the 
 Lord's  table  until  he  know  them  to  be 
 reconciled.  And  if  one  of  the  parties  so 
 at  variance  be  content  to  forgive,  from 
 the  bottom  of  his  heart,  all  that  the  other 
 has  trespassed  against  him,  and  to  make 
 amends  for  that  he  himself  has  off'ended, 
 and  the  other  party  will  not  be  persuaded 
 to  a  godly  unity,  but  remain  still  in  his 
 frowardness  and  malice,  the  minister  in 
 that  case  ought  to  admit  the  penitent  per- 
 son to  the  holy  communion,  and  not  him 
 that  is  obstinate.  Provided  that  every 
 minister  so  repelhng  any,  as  is  specified 
 in  this  or  the  next  preceding  paragraph 
 of  this  rubric,  shall  be  obliged  to  give  an 
 account  of  the  same  to  the  ordinary, 
 within  fourteen  days  after  at  the  farthest ; 
 and  the  ordinary  shall  proceed  against  the 
 off'ending  person  according  to  the  canon." 
 
 By  Canon  26.  "  No  minister  shall  in  any- 
 wise admit  to  the  receiving  of  the  holy 
 communion  any  of  his  cure  or  flock,  which 
 be  openly  known  to  live  in  sin  notorious 
 without  repentance;  nor  any  who  have 
 maliciously  and  openly  contended  with 
 their  neighbours  ;  nor  any  churchwardens 
 or  sidesmen  who  refuse  or  neglect  to  make 
 presentment  of  off'ences  accordin^r  to  their 
 oaths." 
 
 By  Canon  27.  "  No  minister,  when  he 
 celebrateth  the  communion,  shall  wittingly 
 administer  the  same  to  any  but  to  such  as 
 kneel,  under  pain  of  suspension ;  nor, 
 under  the  like  pain,  to  any  that  refuse  to 
 be  present  at  public  prayers,  according  to 
 
 the  order  of  the  Church  of  England ;  nor 
 to  any  that  are  common  and  notorious 
 depravers  of  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer 
 and  Administration  of  the  Sacraments,  and 
 of  the  orders,  rites,  and  ceremonies  therein 
 prescribed;  or  of  anything  that  is  con- 
 tained in  the  book  of  ordering  priests  and 
 bishops ;  or  to  any  that  have  spoken 
 against  and  depraved  his  Majesty's  sove- 
 reign authority  in  causes  ecclesiastical ;  ex- 
 cept every  such  person  shall  first  acknow- 
 ledge to  the  minister  before  the  church- 
 wardens his  repentance  for  the  same,  and 
 promise  by  word  (if  he  cannot  write)  that 
 he  will  do  so  no  more ;  and  except  (if  he 
 can  write)  he  shall  first  do  the  same  under 
 his  handwriting,  to  be  delivered  to  the 
 minister,  and  by  him  sent  to  the  bishop 
 of  the  diocese,  or  ordinary  of  the  place. 
 Provided  that  every  minister  so  repelling 
 any  (as  is  specified  either  in  this  or  the 
 next  preceding  constitution)  shall  upon 
 complaint,  or  being  required  by  the  ordin- 
 ary, signify  the  cause  thereof  unto  him, 
 and  therein  obey  his  order  and  direction." 
 
 By  Canon  109.  "  If  any  off'end  their 
 brethren,  either  by  adultery,  whoredom, 
 incest,  or  drunkenness,  or  by  swearing, 
 ribakh'y,  usury,  or  any  other  uncleanness, 
 or  wickedness  of  life,  such  notorious  of- 
 fenders shall  not  be  admitted  to  the  holy 
 communion  till  they  be  reformed." 
 
 Canon  71.  "No  minister  shall  administer 
 the  holy  communion  in  any  private  house, 
 except  it  be  in  times  of  necessity,  when 
 any  being  either  so  impotent  as  he  cannot 
 go  to  the  church,  or  very  dangerously 
 sick,  are  desirous  to  be  partakers  of  this 
 holy  sacrament,  upon  pain  of  suspension 
 for  the  fii'st  off'ence,  and  excommunication 
 for  the  second.  Provided  that  houses  are 
 here  reputed  for  private  houses,  wherein 
 are  no  chapels  dedicated  and  allowed  by 
 the  ecclesiastical  laMS  of  this  realm.  And 
 provided  also,  under  the  pains  before  ex- 
 pressed, that  no  chaplains  do  administer 
 the  communion  in  any  other  places,  but  in 
 the  chapels  of  the  said  houses ;  and  that 
 also  they  do  the  same  very  seldom  upon 
 Sundays  and  holy-days  ;  so  that  both  the 
 lords  and  masters  of  the  said  houses  and 
 their  families  shall  at  other  times  resort 
 to  their  own  parish  churches,  and  there 
 receive  the  holy  communion  at  least  once 
 every  year." 
 
 Canon  22.  "We  do  require  every  min- 
 ister to  give  warning  to  his  parishioners 
 publicly  in  the  church  at  morning  prayer, 
 the  Sunday  before  every  time  of  his  ad- 
 ministering that  holy  sacrament,  for  their 
 better  preparation  of  themselves ;  which 
 said  warning  we   enjoin  the  said  parish- 
 
COMMUNION. 
 
 213 
 
 ioners  to  accept  and  obey,  under  the  pe- 
 nalty and  danger  of  the  law." 
 
 And  by  the  rubric.  "  The  minister  shall 
 ahvays  give  warning  for  the  celebration  of 
 the  holy  communion  upon  the  Sunday  or 
 some  holy-day  immediately  preceding." 
 
 Rubric,  "  So  many  as  intend  to  be  par- 
 takers of  the  holy  communion  shall  signify 
 their  names  to  the  curate,  at  least  some 
 time  the  day  before." 
 
 Rubric.  "  There  shall  be  no  celebration 
 of  the  Lord's  supper,  except  there  be  a 
 convenient  number  to  communicate  with 
 the  priest,  according  to  his  discretion. 
 And  if  there  be  not  above  twenty  persons 
 in  the  parish,  of  discretion  to  receive  the 
 communion,  yet  there  shall  be  no  commu- 
 nion, except  four  (or  three  at  the  least) 
 communicate  with  the  priest.  And  in 
 cathecb'al  and  collegiate  churches  and  col- 
 leges, where  there  are  many  priests  and 
 deacons,  they  shall  all  receive  the  commu- 
 nion with  the  priest  every  Sunday  at  the 
 least,  except  they  have  reasonable  cause 
 to  the  contrary."  The  rubric  implies 
 daily  communion.  "  The  Collect,  Epistle, 
 and  Gospel,  appointed  for  the  Sunday,  shall 
 serve  all  the  tceek  after,  when  it  is  not  in 
 this  book  otherwise  ordered."  In  the  First 
 Book  of  King  Edward,  daily  communion  is 
 expressly  mentioned.  "  Upon  Wednesdays 
 and  Fridays  ....  though  there  be  none 
 to  communicate  Avith  the  priest,  yet  these 
 days,  after  the  Litany  ended,  the  priest 
 shall say  all  things  at  the  altar,  ap- 
 pointed to  be  said  at  the  celebration  of  the 
 Lord's  supper,  until  after  the  offertory." 
 "In  cathedral  churches,  or  other  places, 
 ichere  there  is  daily  coiDnunion,"  &c. 
 From  the  Pietas  Londinensis  it  appears 
 that  in  some  London  churches  at  the 
 beginning  of  the  last  century,  the  commu- 
 nion Avas  celebrated  daily  in  the  octaves  of 
 the  great  festivals.  And  a  remembrance  of 
 this  daily  communion  was  formerly  kept  up 
 at  Durham,  where,  in  Bishop  Cosin's  time, 
 the  ante-communion  was  daily  performed, 
 as  it  still  is  at  St.  Patrick's,  on  Wednes- 
 days and  Fridays  in  Lent. 
 
 Canon  82.  "  Whereas  we  have  no  doubt 
 but  that  in  all  churches  convenient  and 
 decent  tables  are  provided  and  placed  for 
 the  celebration  of  the  holy  communion, 
 we  appoint  that  the  same  tables  shall  from 
 time  to  time  be  kept  and  repaired  in  suffi- 
 cient and  seemly  manner,  and  covered  in 
 time  of  Divine  service  with  a  carpet  of 
 silk  or  other  decent  stuff,  thought  meet  by 
 the  ordinary  of  the  place,  if  any  question 
 be  made  of  it,  and  with  a  fair  linen  cloth 
 at  the  time  of  the  ministration  as  bccometh 
 that  table ;  and  so  stand,  saving  when  the 
 
 holy  communion  is  to  be  administered,  at 
 which  time  the  same  shall  be  placed  in  so 
 good  sort  within  the  church  or  chancel, 
 as  thereby  the  minister  may  be  more  con- 
 veniently heard  of  the  communicants  in 
 his  prayer  and  ministration,  and  the  com- 
 municants also  more  conveniently  and  in 
 more  number  may  communicate  with  the 
 said  minister." 
 
 By  Canon  20.  "  The  churchwardens, 
 against  the  time  of  every  communion, 
 shall,  at  the  charge  of  the  parish,  with  the 
 advice  and  direction  of  the  minister,  pro- 
 vide a  sufficient  quantity  of  fine  white 
 bread,  and  of  good  and  wholesome  wine, 
 for  the  number  of  communicants  that  shall 
 receive  there  ;  which  wine  shall  be  brought 
 to  the  communion  table  in  a  clean  and 
 sweet  standing  pot  or  stoop  of  pewter,  if 
 not  of  purer  metal." 
 
 And  by  the  rubric.  '*  The  bread  and 
 wine  for  the  communion  shall  be  provided 
 by  the  curate  and  churchwardens  at  the 
 charge  of  the  parish.  And  to  take  away 
 all  occasion  of  dissension  and  superstition, 
 which  any  person  has  or  might  have  con- 
 cerning the  bread  and  Avine,  it  shall  suffice 
 that  the  bread  be  such  as  is  usual  to  be 
 eaten,  but  the  best  and  purest  wheat  bread 
 that  conveniently  may  be  gotten." 
 
 In  the  rubric,  in  the  communion  service 
 of  the  Second  Edward  VL,  it  was  ordained, 
 that,  *'  Avhyles  the  clearkes  do  syng  the 
 offertory,  so  many  as  are  disposed  shall 
 offer  to  the  poore  mennes  boxe,  every  one 
 accordinge  to  his  habilitie  and  charitable 
 mynde." 
 
 And  by  the  present  rubric,  "  whilst  the 
 sentences  of  the  offertory  are  in  reading, 
 the  deacons,  churchAvardens,  or  other  fit 
 person  appointed  for  that  purpose,  shall 
 receive  the  alms  for  the  poor,  and  other 
 devotions  of  the  people,  in  a  decent  basin, 
 to  be  provided  by  the  parish  for  that  pur- 
 pose, and  reverently  bring  it  to  the  priest, 
 who  shall  humbly  present  and  place  it 
 upon  the  holy  table."  And  "  after  the 
 Divine  serAdce  ended,  the  money  given  at 
 the  offertory  shall  be  disposed  of  to  such 
 pious  and  charitable  uses  as  the  minister 
 and  churchAvardens  shall  think  fit ;  Avherein 
 if  they  disagree,  it  shall  be  disposed  of  as 
 the  ordinary  shall  appoint." 
 
 Rubric.  "  Such  ornaments  of  the  church, 
 and  of  the  ministers  thereof,  at  all  times 
 of  their  ministration,  shall  be  retained 
 and  be  in  use  as  Avere  in  this  Church  of 
 England  by  the  authority  of  parliament, 
 in  the  second  year  of  the  reign  of  King 
 Edward  VL"  And  by  the  rubric  of  2  Ed- 
 Avard  VI. ,  Avhich  had  this  authority  of  par- 
 liament, it  is  ordained,  that  "  upon  the 
 
214 
 
 COMMUNION. 
 
 day,  and  at  the  time  appointed  for  the 
 ministration  of  the  holj'  communion,  the 
 priest  that  shall  execute  the  holy  ministry 
 shall  put  upon  him  the  vesture  appointed 
 for  that  ministration ;  that  is  to  say,  a 
 white  albe  plain,  with  a  vestment  or  cope  : 
 and  where  there  be  many  priests  or  dea- 
 cons, then  so  many  shall  be  ready  to  help 
 the  priest  in  the  ministrations  as  shall  be 
 requisite,  and  shall  have  upon  them  like- 
 wise the  vestures  appointed  for  their  minis- 
 try, that  is  to  say,  albes  with  tunicles. 
 And  whensoever  the  bishop  shall  celebrate 
 the  holy  communion  in  the  church,  or 
 execute  any  other  public  ministration,  he 
 shall  have  upon  him,  besides  his  rochet,  a 
 surplice  or  albe,  and  a  cope  or  vestment, 
 and  also  his  pastoral  staff  in  his  hand,  or 
 else  borne  or  holden  by  his  chaplain." 
 
 And  by  Canon  24.  "In  all  cathedi'al 
 churches,  the  holy  communion  shall  be  ad- 
 ministered upon  principal  feast  days,  some- 
 times by  the  bishop,  if  he  be  present,  and 
 at  sometimes  by  a  canon  or  prebendary, 
 the  principal  minister  using  a  decent  cope, 
 and  being  assisted  with  the  Gospeller  and 
 Epistler  agreeably,  according  to  the  adver- 
 tisements published  antio  7  EUz." 
 
 Art.  28.  "  Transubstantiation  (or  the 
 change  of  the  substance  of  bread  and  wine) 
 in  the  supper  of  the  Lord  cannot  be  proved 
 by  Holy  ^Ynt;  but  is  repugnant  to  the 
 plain  words  of  Scripture,  overthroweth  the 
 nature  of  a  sacrament,  and  hath  given  oc- 
 casion to  many  superstitions." 
 
 Art.  30.  "  The  cup  of  the  Lord  is  not 
 to  be  denied  to  the  lay  people ;  for  both 
 the  parts  of  the  Lord's  sacrament,  by 
 Christ's  ordinance  and  commandment, 
 ought  to  be  ministered  to  all  Christian  men 
 alike." 
 
 And  by  the  statute  of  the  1  Edward  VI. 
 c.  1.  "  Forasmuch  as  it  is  more  agreeable 
 to  the  first  institution  of  the  said  sacra- 
 ment, and  more  conformable  to  the  common 
 use  and  practice  of  the  apostles  and  of  the 
 primitive  Church,  for  above  500  years  after 
 Christ's  ascension,  that  the  same  should 
 be  administered  under  both  the  kinds,  of 
 bread  and  wine,  than  under  the  form  of 
 bread  only ;  and  also  it  is  more  agreeable 
 to  the  first  institution  of  Christ,  and  to 
 the  usage  of  the  apostles  and  the  primitive 
 Church,  that  the  people  should  receive  the 
 same  with  the  priest,  than  that  the  priest 
 should  receive  it  alone  ;  it  is  enacted  that 
 the  said  most  blessed  sacrament  be  com- 
 monly delivered  and  ministered  unto  the 
 people,  under  both  the  kinds,  that  is  to 
 say,  of  bread  and  wine,  except  necessity 
 otherwise  require.  And  also  that  the  priest 
 which  shall  minister  the  same  shall,  at  the 
 
 least  one  day  before,  exhort  all  persons 
 which  shall  be  present  likewise  to  resort 
 and  prepare  themselves  to  receive  the  same. 
 And  when  the  day  prefixed  cometh,  after 
 godly  exhortation  by  the  minister  made, 
 (wherein  shall  be  further  expressed  the 
 benefit  and  comfort  promised  to  them 
 which  worthily  receive  the  holy  sacrament, 
 and  danger  and  indignation  of  God 
 threatened  to  them  which  shall  presume  to 
 receive  the  same  unworthily,  to  the  end 
 that  every  man  may  try  and  examine  his 
 own  conscience  before  he  shall  receive  the 
 same,)  the  said  minister  shall  not,  without 
 a  lawful  cause,  deny  the  same  to  any  per- 
 son that  will  devoutly  and  humbly  desire 
 it;  not  condemning  hereby  the  usage  of 
 any  Church  out  of  the  king's  dominions." 
 
 llubric.  "  If  any  of  the  bread  and  wine 
 remain  unconsecrated,  the  cm-ate  shall 
 have  it  to  his  omu  use  ;  but  if  any  remain 
 of  that  which  was  consecrated,  it  shall  not 
 be  carried  out  of  the  church,  but  the  priest, 
 and  such  other  of  the  communicants  as  he 
 shall  then  call  unto  him,  shall  immediately 
 after  the  blessing  reverently  eat  and  drink 
 the  same." 
 
 By  a  constitution  of  Archbishop  Lang- 
 ton  it  is  enjoined,  that  no  sacrament  of  the 
 Church  shall  be  denied  to  any  one,  upon 
 the  account  of  any  sum  of  money  ;  but  if 
 anything  hath  been  accustomed  to  be  given 
 by  the  pious  devotion  of  the  faithful,  justice 
 shall  be  done  thereupon  to  the  churches 
 by  the  ordinary  of  the  place  afterwards. 
 
 And  by  the  rubric.  "  Yearly  at  Easter, 
 every  parishioner  shall  reckon  with  the 
 parson,  vicar,  or  curate,  or  his  or  their 
 deputy  or  deputies,  and  pay  to  them  or 
 him  all  ecclesiastical  duties,  accustomably 
 due,  then  and  at  that  time  to  be  paid." 
 
 By  the  ancient  canon  laAv,  every  layman 
 (not  prohibited  by  crimes  of  a  heinous 
 nature)  was  required  to  communicate  at 
 least  thrice  in  the  year,  namely,  at  Easter, 
 Whitsuntide,  and  Christmas ;  and  the 
 Council  of  Agda*,  A.  D.  500,  enacted  that 
 the  secular  clergy  not  communicating  at 
 those  times  were  not  to  be  reckoned 
 amongst  the  Catholics.  The  fourth  Coun- 
 cil of  Lateran,  A.  D.  1215,  reduced  the  ne- 
 cessary number  of  times  to  one,  and  the 
 Council  of  Trent  has  sanctioned  this  as  the 
 rule  for  the  Ilomish  Church.  Our  re- 
 formers laudably  reverted  to  the  earlier 
 order,  directing  by  the  rubric  in  the  Book 
 of  Common  Prayer,  that  "  every  parishioner 
 shall  communicate  at  least  three  times  in 
 one  year,  of  which  Easter  to  be  one." 
 
 And  by  Canon  21.  "In  every  parish 
 church  and  chapel  where  sacraments  are 
 to  be  administered,  the  holy  communion 
 
COMMUNION. 
 
 215 
 
 shall  be  administered  by  the  parson,  vicar, 
 or  minister,  so  often,  and  at  such  times,  as 
 every  parishioner  may  communicate  at  the 
 least  three  times  in  the  year,  uhoreof  the 
 feast  of  Easter  to  be  one  ;  according  as 
 they  are  appointed  by  the  Book  of  Com- 
 mon Prayer.  And  the  churchwardens  or 
 questmen,  and  their  assistants,  shall  mark, 
 (as  well  as  the  minister,)  whether  all  and 
 every  of  the  parishioners  comes  so  often 
 every  year  to  the  holy  communion  as  the 
 laws  and  constitutions  do  require."  Canon 
 28.  "  And  shall  yearly,  within  forty  days 
 after  Easter,  exhibit  to  the  bishop  or  his 
 chancellor,  the  names  and  surnames  of  all 
 the  parishioners,  as  well  men  as  women, 
 which  being  of  the  age  of  sixteen  years 
 received  not  the  communion  at  Easter  be- 
 fore." 
 
 By  Canon  24.  "  All  deans,  wardens, 
 masters,  or  heads  of  cathedral  and  collegi- 
 ate churches,  prebendaries,  canons,  vicars, 
 petty  canons,  singing  men,  and  all  others 
 of  tile  foundation,  shall  receive  the  com- 
 munion four  times  yearly  at  the  least." 
 And  by  Canon  23.  "  In  all  colleges  and 
 halls,  within  both  tlie  universities,  the 
 masters  and  fellows,  such  especially  as  have 
 any  pupils,  shall  be  careful  that  all  their 
 said  pupils,  and  the  rest  that  remain  among 
 them,  do  diligently  frequent  public  service 
 and  sermons,  and  receive  the  holy  com- 
 munion, which  we  ordain  to  be  adminis- 
 tered in  all  such  colleges  and  halls  the 
 first  and  second  Sunday  of  every  month  ; 
 requiring  all  the  said  masters,  fellows,  and 
 scholars,  and  all  the  rest  of  the  students, 
 officers,  and  all  other  the  servants  there, 
 so  to  be  ordered,  that  every  one  of  them 
 shall  communicate  four  times  in  the  year 
 at  the  least,  kneeling  reverently  and  de- 
 cently upon  their  knees,  according  to  the 
 order  of  the  communion  book  prescribed 
 in  that  behalf." 
 
 By  the  1  Edward  VI.  c.  1.  "Whosoever 
 shall  deprave,  despise,  or  contemn  the  most 
 blessed  sacrament  of  the  body  and  blood 
 of  our  Saviour  Jesus  Christ,  commonly 
 called  the  sacrament  of  the  altar,  and  in 
 Scripture,  the  supper  and  table  of  the  Lord, 
 the  communion  and  partaking  of  the  body 
 and  blood  of  Christ,  in  contempt  thereof, 
 by  any  contemptuous  words  or  by  any 
 words  of  depraving,  despising,  or  reviling  ; 
 or  whosoever  shall  advisedly  in  any  other 
 wise  contemn,  despise,  or  revile  the  said 
 most  blessed  sacrament,  contrary  to  the 
 effects  and  declaration  al)ove-said,  shall 
 suffer  imprisonment  of  his  1)ody,  and  make 
 fine  and  ransom  at  the  king's  will." 
 
 llubric.  "  Uj)on  the  Sundays,  and  other 
 holy-days,  (if  there   be   no  communion,) 
 
 shall  be  said  all  that  is  appointed  at  the 
 communion,  until  the  end  of  the  general 
 prayer  for  the  whole  state  of  Curist's 
 Church  militant  here  in  earth,  together 
 with  one  or  more  of  the  collects  last  before 
 rehearsed,  concluding  with  the  blessing." 
 
 Since  the  death  of  Christ  hath  recon- 
 ciled God  to  mankind,  and  his  intercession 
 alone  obtains  all  good  things  for  us,  we 
 are  enjoined  to  make  all  our  prayers  in  his 
 name ;  and,  as  a  more  powerful  w^ay  of 
 interceding,  to  commemorate  his  passion 
 by  celebrating  the  holy  eucharist,  which  in 
 the  purest  ages  was  always  joined  to  their 
 public  and  common  prayers.  (Acts  ii.  42.) 
 And  as  evidence  that  our  Church  wishes  it 
 were  so  still,  she  appoints  a  great  part  of 
 this  office  to  be  used  on  all  Sundays  and 
 holy-days,  and  orders  the  priest  to  say  it 
 at  the  altar,  the  place  where  all  the  prayers 
 of  the  Church  of  old  were  wont  to  be  made, 
 because  there  was  the  proper  place  to 
 commemorate  Jesus  our  only  Mediator, 
 by  whom  all  our  prayers  become  accepted. 
 And  hence  the  ancients  call  this  office  "the 
 service  of  the  altar,"  which  in  the  time  of 
 celebration  was  then  also,  as  our  rubric 
 now  enjoins,  covered  with  a  fair  linen 
 cloth.  As  for  the  primitive  and  original 
 form  of  administration,  since  Christ  did 
 not  institute  any  one  method,  it  was  various 
 in  divers  churches,  only  all  agreed  in 
 using  the  Lord's  Prayer,  and  reciting  the 
 words  of  institution,  which  therefore  some 
 think  was  all  the  apostles  used  ;  but  their 
 successors  in  several  churches  added  seve- 
 ral devout  forms  thereunto,  which  being 
 joined  to  the  original  order  used  by  the 
 founder  of  each  church,  was  for  greater 
 honour  called  by  the  name  of  that  fkst 
 author ;  and  hence  we  have  now  the  liturgy 
 used  at  Jerusalem,  called  "The  Liturgy 
 of  St.  James  ; "  that  of  Alexandria,  called 
 "  The  Liturgy  of  St.  Mark ; "  that  of  Home, 
 called  "The  Liturgy  of  St.  Clement;" 
 with  others  of  lesser  value  :  which,  by  the 
 fancy  of  adding  to  them  in  every  age,  have 
 contracted  many  superstitions  of  later  times, 
 and  yet  do  still  contain  many  genuine  and 
 substantial  pieces  of  true  primitive  devo- 
 tion, easily  distinguished  from  the  modern 
 and  corrupt  additions.  But  since  none  of 
 these  apostolical  liturgies  were  believed  of 
 Divine  institution,  St.  Basil  and  St.  Chry- 
 sostom  made  new  forms  for  their  own 
 churches,  now  generally  used  in  the  East; 
 and  St.  Ambrose  and  St.  Gregory  the 
 Great  composed  sacramentaries  for  their 
 several  churches ;  and  the  Christians  in 
 Si)ain  had  a  peculiar  order  for  this  office, 
 called  the  jNIazarabic  form ;  the  Gallican 
 Church  had  another  distinct  from  all  these ; 
 
216 
 
 COMMUNION. 
 
 so  had  the  Irish  Church,  and  St.  Gregory 
 was  so  far  from  imposing  the  Roman  mis- 
 sal on  this  Church  of  England,  tliat  he 
 advises  Augustine  the  monk  to  review  all 
 liturgies,  and  take  out  of  them  what  was 
 best,  and  so  to  compose  a  form  for  this 
 nation.  And  when  the  lloman  missal 
 (afterward  imposed  here)  was  shamefully 
 corrupted,  our  judicious  reformers  made 
 use  of  this  ancient  and  just  liberty ;  and, 
 comparing  all  liturgies,  they  have  out  of 
 them  all  extracted  what  is  most  pure  and 
 primitive,  and  so  composed  this  admirable 
 office,  which,  as  Bishop  Jewel  affirms, 
 "  comes  as  nigh  as  can  be  to  the  apostolic 
 and  ancient  Catholic  Church,"  and  indeed 
 is  the  most  exact  now  extant  in  the  Chris- 
 tian world,  the  explaining  whereof  will 
 effectually  serve  to  assist  the  communicant 
 in  order  to  a  worthy  preparation  before 
 the  receiving,  devout  affections  in  receiv- 
 ing, and  the  confirming  of  his  holy  pur- 
 poses afterwards :  for  it  doth  instruct  us 
 in  all  that  is  necessary  to  be  knoAvn  and 
 to  be  done  in  this  sacred  and  sublime  duty, 
 and  is  contrived  in  this  cmious  method. 
 (See  Litimjy.) 
 
 The  whole  communion  office  consists  of 
 four  parts.  First,  a  more  general  prepar- 
 ation to  the  communion,  and  as  either  com- 
 mon to  the  whole  congregation  in  the  ex- 
 ercise of,  1.  llepentance,  by  the  Lord's 
 Prayer,  the  collect  for  Purity,  and  the  ten 
 commandments.  2.  Holy  desires,  by  the 
 collects  for  the  King  and  the  Day.  3.  Of 
 obedience,  by  the  hearing  of  the  Epistle 
 and  Gospel.  4.  Of  faith,  by  repeating 
 the  Creed.  5.  Of  charity,  by  the  Offer- 
 tory and  the  prayer  for  the  holy  Catholic 
 Church  :  or  else  this  general  preparation 
 is  proper  to  those  who  ought  to  commu- 
 nicate, namely,  the  warning  before  the 
 communion,  and  the  exhortation  to  it. 
 Secondly,  there  is  the  more  immediate 
 preparation,  contained  in,  1.  The  proper 
 instructions,  in  the  exhortation  at  the 
 communion,  and  the  immediate  invitation. 
 2.  The  form  of  acknowledging  our  of- 
 fences, in  the  confession.  '6.  The  means 
 of  insuring  our  pardon,  by  the  absolution, 
 and  the  sentences.  4.  The  exciting  our 
 love  and  gratitude,  in  the  preface,  and  the 
 hymn  called  Trisaf/uon.  Thirdly,  there 
 is  the  celebration  of  the  mystery,  consist- 
 ing of,  1.  The  communicant's  humble  ap- 
 proach, in  the  adcbess.  2.  The  minister's 
 blessing  the  elements,  in  the  prayer  of 
 consecration.  3.  His  distributing'  them 
 according  to  the  form  of  administration. 
 Lastly,  there  is  the  post-communion,  con- 
 taining, 1.  Prayers  and  vows,  in  the  Lord's 
 Prayer,  the  first  and  second  prayers  after 
 
 the  Communion.  2.  Praises  and  thanks- 
 giving, in  the  Gloria  in  excelsis.  3.  The 
 dismission  by  the  final  blessing. — Dean 
 Comber. 
 
 This  service  is  called  "  The  Communion 
 Sendee "  in  the  liturgy ;  and  well  it 
 were  that  the  piety  of  the  people  were 
 such  as  to  make  it  always  a  communion. 
 The  Church,  as  appears  by  her  patheti- 
 cal  exhortation  before  the  communion, 
 and  the  rubric  after  it,  labours  to  bring 
 men  oftener  to  communicate  than  she 
 usually  obtains.  Private  and  solitary  com- 
 munions, of  the  priest  alone,  she  allows 
 not ;  and  therefore,  when  others  cannot  be 
 had,  she  appoints  only  so  much  of  the  ser- 
 vice as  relates  not  of  necessity  to  a  present 
 communion,  and  that  to  be  said  at  the 
 holy  table  :  and  upon  good  reason ;  the 
 Church  thereby  keeping,  as  it  were,  her 
 ground,  visibly  minding  us  of  what  she 
 desires  and  labours  towards,  our  more  fre- 
 quent access  to  that  holy  table  :  and  in  the 
 mean  while,  that  part  of  the  service,  which 
 she  uses,  may  perhaps  more  fitly  be  called 
 "the  second  service"  than '*  the  commu- 
 nion." And  so  it  is  often  called,  though 
 not  in  the  rubric  of  the  liturgy,  yet  in 
 divers  fast-books,  and  the  like,  set  out  by 
 authority.  If  any  should  think,  that  it 
 cannot  properly  be  called  the  second  ser- 
 vice, because  the  morning  service  and 
 Litany  go  before  it,  which  indeed  are  two 
 distinct  services,  —  whereby  this  should 
 seem  to  be  the  third,  rather  than  the 
 second  service, — it  is  answered,  that  some- 
 times the  communion  service  is  used  upon 
 such  days  as  the  Litany  is  not ;  and  then 
 it  may,  Avithout  question,  be  called  the 
 second  service.  Nay,  even  then,  when 
 the  Litany  and  all  is  used,  the  commu- 
 nion service  may  be  very  fitly  called  the 
 second  service  ;  for  though,  in  strictness  of 
 speech,  the  Litany  is  a  service  distinct,  yet 
 in  our  usual  acceptation  of  the  word  service, 
 — namely,  for  a  complete  service  with  all  the 
 several  parts  of  it,  psalms,  readings,  creeds, 
 thanksgivings,  and  prayers, — so  the  Litany 
 is  not  a  service,  nor  so  esteemed,  but  called 
 "  the  LitanyJ'  or  supplications  :  and  looked 
 upon  sometimes,  when  other  offices  follow, 
 as  a  kind  of  preparative,  though  a  distinct 
 form,  to  them,  as  to  the  Communion, 
 Commination,  &c.  And  therefore  it  was 
 a  custom  in  some  churches,  that  a  bell  Avas 
 tolled  while  the  Litany  was  saying,  to  give 
 notice  to  the  people  that  the  communion 
 service  was  noAv  coming  on. — Bp.  Sparrojv. 
 
 Of  the  many  compellations  given  to 
 this  sacrament  in  former  ages,  our  Church 
 has  very  wisely  thought  fit  to  retain  these 
 tAVO  (namely,  the  exhortation  before  and 
 
COMMUNION. 
 
 217 
 
 the  rubric  after  the  communion  service) 
 in  her  public  service,  as  those  Avhich  are 
 most  ancient  and  scriptural.  As  for  the 
 name  of  "  the  Lord's  supper,"  which  name 
 the  Papists  cannot  endure  to  have  this 
 sacrament  called  by,  because  it  destroys 
 their  notion  of  a  sacrifice,  and  their  use  of 
 private  mass,  we  find  this  given  to  it,  as 
 its  proper  name  in  the  apostles'  time,  by 
 St.  Paul  himself,  "  when  ye  come  together 
 into  one  place,  this  is  not  to  eat  the  Lord's 
 supper."  (1  Cor.  xi.  20.)  And  this  name 
 is  frequently  given  to  it  by  ancient  writers. 
 So  for  "  the  communion  ;  "  this  is  plainly 
 another  scriptural  name  of  the  same  holy 
 sacrament.  "The  cup  of  blessing  which 
 we  bless,  is  it  not  the  communion  of  the 
 blood  of  Christ?"  (I  Cor.  x.  16.)  Which 
 name  is  given  to  it,  partly,  because  by  this 
 we  testify  our  communion  with  CllRlST  our 
 Head ;  partly,  because  it  unites  us  together 
 with  all  our  fellow-Christians ;  partly,  be- 
 cause all  good  Christians  have  a  right  to 
 partake  of  it ;  hence,  with  St.  Chrysostom 
 and  St.  Basil,  "  to  communicate "  is  the 
 common  word  to  express  the  participation 
 of  this  sacrament. — Dr.  Niclwlls. 
 
 The  reason  why  it  is  enjoined  that  no- 
 tice shall  be  given  to  the  minister  when 
 we  intend  to  communicate  is,  that  the 
 minister  of  the  parish  may  have  time  to 
 inform  himself  of  the  parties  who  design 
 to  receive :  so  that,  if  there  be  any  among 
 tlieni  who  are  not  duly  qualified,  he  may 
 persuade  them  to  abstain  for  some  time ; 
 or,  in  case  of  their  refusal,  repel  them. 
 Now,  in  several  cases,  persons  may  be  un- 
 qualified to  partake  of  this  sacrament, 
 either  by  the  prescript  of  God's  word,  or  by 
 the  canons  of  the  Church. 
 
 1.  A  want  or  a  contempt  of  the  rite  of 
 confirmation  unqualifies  persons  to  receive ; 
 for  the  rubric  of  the  Common  Prayer, 
 which  is  confirmed  by  the  Act  of  Uniformity, 
 says,  "No  one  shall  be  admitted  to  the 
 holy  communion,  until  such  time  as  he  be 
 confirmed,  or  be  ready  and  desirous  to  be 
 confirmed."  This  is  agreeable  to  the 
 provisions  of  the  ancient  Church;  and 
 the  only  reasonable  impediment  to  con- 
 firmation is  the  want  of  a  bishop  near  the 
 place. 
 
 2.  Persons  excommunicate,  or  who  are 
 doing  penance  by  church  censure  for  any 
 notorious  fault,  arc  unqualified  to  receive ; 
 for  such  persons  are  shut  out  from  the 
 communion,  and  therefore  called  excom- 
 municate. 
 
 3.  Persons  under  pliren-sy  are  unqualified 
 to  partake  of  the  holy  commiuiion.  And 
 all  persons,  under  the  foregoing  want  of 
 qualification,  may  lawfully  be  refused  ad- 
 
 mission to  the  communion  by  the  minister ; 
 for  the  ecclesiastical  law  imposes  great 
 penalties  upon  the  minister,  who  shall  give 
 them  the  commimion  in  such  cases. 
 
 4.  A  person  may  be  unqualified  by  no- 
 torious wickedness,  or  flagitiousness  of  life. 
 But  of  this  more  in  the  next  note. — Dr. 
 Nicholls. 
 
 In  the  primitive  times,  when  discipline 
 was  strictly  maintained,  all  such  persons, 
 as  soon  as  known,  were  put  under  censure ; 
 but  if,  before  censure,  they  offered  them- 
 selves at  the  communion,  they  were  re- 
 pelled. And  indeed  such  severe  discipline 
 might  not  be  amiss,  whilst  it  was  grounded 
 only  upon  piety  and  zeal  for  God's  honour, 
 as  it  was  in  those  devout  times.  But, 
 afterwards,  some  persons  being  debarred 
 from  the  communion  out  of  private  pique 
 and  resentment,  an  imperial  injunction 
 prohibited  all,  both  bishops  and  presby- 
 ters, from  shutting  out  any  one  from  the 
 communion,  before  just  cause  be  shown 
 that  the  holy  canons  do  give  them  power 
 so  to  do.  And  the  canon  law  did  not 
 allow  a  discretionary  power  to  the  priest 
 to  thrust  away  every  ill  person  from  the 
 sacrament :  "  a  vicious  person,  ofiering  liim- 
 self  to  receive  the  communion,  is  not  to  be 
 expelled,  but  is  to  be  carried  privately 
 aside,  and  to  be  exhorted  not  to  receive 
 the  communion."  Indeed  the  later  canon- 
 ists did  interpret  this  only  of  occult  crimes, 
 and  such  as  were  not  generally  known  ; 
 allowing  only  persons  "  notoriously  guilty  " 
 to  be  expelled ;  and  of  this  opinion  were 
 the  compilers  of  our  rubrics  in  Edward 
 the  Sixth's  time,  as  appears  from  their 
 wording  this  rubric,  "  If  any  be  an  open 
 and  notorious  evil  liver,"  &c.  But,  how- 
 ever, they  limited  this  discretionary  power 
 of  the  minister,  obliging  him,  even  in  "no- 
 torious" crimes,  to  "admonish"  such  per- 
 sons first  to  abstain,  and  only  upon  ob- 
 stinacy to  repel.  But,  nevertheless,  this 
 formerly  gave  occasion  to  several  exceptions 
 and  disputes ;  and  therefore,  in  the  last 
 revision  of  the  Common  Prayer,  repulsion 
 was  not  left  to  the  absolute  power  of  the 
 minister,  but  he  was  obliged  to  give  notice 
 thereof  to  the  diocesan,  and  to  take  his 
 advice  therein.  And  still  it  remains  so 
 uncertain,  what  is  "  notoriety,"  both  in 
 ])resumption,  law,  and  fact,  that  a  minister 
 is  not  out  of  danger  of  transgressing  his 
 rule,  if,  before  judicial  con\-iction  of  a 
 crime,  he  goes  further  than  admonishing 
 any  person  to  abstain. — Dr.  Nicholls.  Our 
 law  in  England  will  not  suffer  the  minister 
 to  judge  any  man  as  a  notorious  ofiender, 
 ])ut  him  who  is  convicted  by  some  legal 
 sentence. — Bj^).  Andrewcs. 
 
218 
 
 COMMUNION  OF  THE  SICK. 
 
 Notoriety  in  fact  is  one  thing,  and  no- 
 toriety in  presumption  is  another.  And 
 in  either  case  it  should  he  a  notoriety  in 
 law  too,  to  indemnify  the  minister  for  pro- 
 ceeding upon  the  ruhric,  or  to  render  him 
 safe,  in  point  of  law,  for  repelling  any  per- 
 son from  the  communion. 
 
 Upon  the  whole  of  the  matter,  however, 
 though  this  rubric  may  '^  require  some 
 explanation,"  as  Bishop  Cosin  remarks, 
 "  for  the  avoiding  of  disputes  and  doubts 
 between  the  communicants  and  curates;" 
 yet,  if  it  be  taken  in  all  its  parts,  namely, 
 that  no  person,  however  "  notoriously 
 wicked,"  shall  be  withheld  from  the  com- 
 munion, till  he  be  admonished  to  withdi'aw 
 himself;  and  that  when  he  is  repelled 
 upon  his  obstinacy,  it  is  only  till  such  time 
 as  the  advice  of  the  ordinary  can  be  had 
 therein,  to  whom  the  curate  is  obliged  to 
 give  early  notice  of  such  his  act ;  it  seems 
 in  this  view  the  best,  and  I  think  the  only 
 ecclesiastical,  rule  we  have  to  go  by  in 
 such  case  ;  nor  doth  it  appear  liable  to  ex- 
 ceptions, unless  it  be  in  that  particular,  of 
 how  far  we  are  safe  in  acting  according 
 to  it. 
 
 But,  as  tliis  is  properly  a  point  of  law, 
 it  is  not  so  fit  for  me  to  undertake  any 
 determination  of  it ;  it  must  be  left  to  the 
 gentlemen  of  that  profession.  Only  thus 
 much  I  would  put  in,  that,  if  a  clergyman's 
 conduct  in  this  matter  shall  appear  to  be 
 upright,  dispassionate,  and  disinterested, 
 (and  I  wish  it  may  never  appear  otherwise,) 
 so  as  to  gain  the  approbation  of  reasonable 
 and  indilferent  persons, — which  I  think  it 
 would  gain  in  all  notorious  and  flagrant 
 cases,  which  are  those  mentioned  in  the 
 rubric, — it  is  to  be  hoped  and  presumed, 
 that  the  interpreters  of  the  law  would,  in 
 their  turn  too,  show  him  all  the  favour  and 
 regard  they  could. — Archdeacon  Shar^). 
 
 COMMUNION  OF  THE  SICK.  In 
 this  office  we  have  an  example  of  the  bene- 
 volent care  exhibited  by  the  Church  to- 
 wards her  suffering  members.  As  all 
 mortal  men  be  subject  to  many  sudden 
 perils,  diseases,  and  sicknesses,  and  ever 
 uncertain  what  time  they  shall  depart  out 
 of  this  life,  the  Church  has  not  only  pro- 
 vided for  their  baptism,  and  for  the  visita- 
 tions of  the  pastor,  but  has  authorized  and 
 du'ected  the  administration  to  them  of 
 "  the  most  comfortable  sacrament  of  the 
 body  and  blood  of  Christ." 
 
 Although  the  Church  maintains  that  the 
 eucharist,  as  a  general  rule,  is  to  be  pub- 
 licly administered  in  the  consecrated  house 
 of  God,  and  has  signified  her  disapproval 
 of  solitary  communion  in  all  cases ;  yet, 
 when  by  sickness  her  members  are  inca- 
 
 pable of  presenting  themselves  at  the  altar, 
 there  is  a  wise  and  tender  relaxation  of 
 her  usages,  corresponding  with  the  pecu- 
 liar necessity  of  the  case.  This  too  '•  is 
 exactly  conformable  to  the  most  early 
 practice  of  the  primitive  Church  ;  for  there 
 is  nothing  more  frequently  mentioned  by 
 the  ancient  writers,  than  the  care  of  the 
 Church  to  distribute  the  eucharist  to  all 
 dying  persons  that  were  capable  of  re- 
 ceiving it." 
 
 "  There  are  many  instances,"  says  Palm- 
 er, "  in  antiquity,  of  the  celebration  of 
 the  eucharist  in  private  for  the  sick.  Thus 
 Paulinus,  bishop  of  Nola,  caused  the  eu- 
 charist to  be  celebrated  in  his  own  cham- 
 ber, not  many  hours  before  his  death. 
 Gregory  Nazianzen  informs  us,  that  his 
 father  communicated  in  his  own  chamber, 
 and  that  his  sister  had  an  altar  at  home ; 
 and  Ambrose  is  said  to  have  administered 
 the  sacrament  in  a  private  house  at  Home. 
 The  Church  is  therefore  justified  in  direct- 
 ing the  eucharist  to  be  consecrated  in  pri- 
 vate houses,  for  the  benefit  of  the  sick ; 
 and  she  has  taken  care,  in  the  rubric  im- 
 mediately preceding  the  office,  that  the 
 sacrament  shall  be  decorously  and  rever- 
 ently administered." 
 
 In  the  distribution  of  the  elements,  the 
 rubric  orders  that  the  sick  person  shall 
 receive  last.  This  is  done,  "  because  those 
 Avho  communicate  with  him,  through  fear 
 of  some  contagion,  or  the  noisomeness  of 
 his  disease,  may  be  afraid  to  drink  out  of 
 the  same  cup  after  him." 
 
 By  a  constitution  of  Archbishop  Peck- 
 harn,  the  sacrament  of  the  eucharist  shall 
 be  carried  with  due  reverence  to  the  sick, 
 the  priest  having  on  at  least  a  surplice  or 
 stole,  with  a  light  carried  before  him  in  a 
 lantern,  with  a  bell,  that  the  people  may 
 be  excited  to  due  reverence ;  who  by  the 
 minister's  direction  shall  be  taught  to 
 prostrate  themselves,  or  at  least  to  make 
 humble  adoration,  wheresoever  the  King 
 OF  Glory  shall  happen  to  be  carried  under 
 the  cover  of  bread. 
 
 But  by  the  rubric  of  the  2  Edward  VI. 
 it  was  ordered,  that  there  shall  be  no  ele- 
 vation of  the  host,  or  showing  the  sacra- 
 ment to  the  people. 
 
 By  the  present  rubric,  before  the  office 
 for  the  Communion  of  the  Sick,  it  is  ordered 
 as  follows  :  "  Forasmuch  as  all  mortal  men 
 be  subject  to  many  sudden  perils,  diseases, 
 and  sicknesses,  and  ever  uncertain  what 
 time  they  shall  depart  out  of  this  life ; 
 therefore,  to  the  intent  they  may  be  always 
 in  a  readiness  to  die  whensoever  it  shall 
 please  Almighty  God  to  call  them,  curates 
 shall    diligently  from    time  to   time  (but 
 
COMMUNION  OF  THE  SICK. 
 
 COMMUNION  OF  SAINTS.       219 
 
 especially  in  the  time  of  pestilence  or 
 other  infectious  sickness)  exhort  their 
 parishioners  to  the  often  receivini^  of  the 
 holy  communion  of  the  Iwdy  and  l)lood 
 of  our  Saviour  Christ,  when  it  shall  be 
 publicly  administered  in  the  church  ;  that, 
 so  doing,  they  may,  in  case  of  sudden  visit- 
 ation, have  the  less  cause  to  be  disquieted 
 for  lack  of  the  same.  But  if  the  sick 
 person  be  not  able  to  come  to  the  church, 
 and  yet  is  desirous  to  receive  the  com- 
 munion in  his  house,  tlien  he  must  give 
 timely  notice  to  the  curate,  signifying  also 
 how  many  there  are  to  communicate  with 
 him,  (which  shall  be  three,  or  two  at  the 
 least,)  and  having  a  convenient  ])lace  in 
 the  sick  man's  house,  with  all  things  ne- 
 cessary so  prepared,  that  the  curate  may 
 reverently  minister,  he  shall  there  cele- 
 brate the  holy  communion. 
 
 "  But  if  a  man,  either  by  reason  of  ex- 
 tremity of  sickness,  or  for  want  of  warning 
 in  due  time  to  the  curate,  or  for  lack  of 
 company  to  receive  with  him,  or  by  any 
 other  just  impediment,  do  not  receive  the 
 sacrament  of  Christ's  body  and  blood, 
 the  curate  shall  instruct  him,  that  if  he  do 
 truly  repent  him  of  his  sins,  and  stedfastly 
 believe  that  Jesus  Christ  hath  suffered 
 death  upon  the  cross  for  him,  and  shed 
 his  blood  for  his  redemption  ;  earnestly 
 remembering  the  benefits  he  hath  thereby, 
 and  giving  him  hearty  thanks  therefore  ; 
 he  doth  eat  and  th-ink  the  body  and  blood 
 of  our  Saviour  Christ  profitably  to  his 
 soul's  health,  although  he  do  not  receive 
 the  sacrament  Avith  his  mouth. 
 
 "  In  the  time  of  plague,  sweat,  or  other 
 such  like  contagious  times  of  sickness  or 
 diseases,  when  none  of  the  parish  can  be 
 gotten  to  communicate  with  the  sick  in 
 theu'  houses,  for  fear  of  infection,  upon 
 special  request  of  the  deceased,  the  minis- 
 ter may  only  communicate  with  him." 
 
 It  has  been  the  constant  usage  of  the 
 Church,  in  all  probability  derived  from  the 
 apostolical  times,  for  persons  dangerously 
 sick  to  receive  the  holy  sacrament  of  the 
 Lord's  supper  for  their  spiritual  comfort 
 and  assistance.  Hence  this  private  com- 
 munion obtained  the  name  of  viaticum 
 among  the  Latins,  and  a  correspondent 
 name  among  the  Greeks ;  that  is,  ;;?-o- 
 vision,  as  it  were,  laid  in  to  sustain  them 
 in  their  journey  to  the  other  world.  Our 
 Church  follows  this  example  of  the  primi- 
 tive ages.  And  rather  than  the  sick  man 
 should  want  so  necessary  a  comfort,  we 
 are  allowed  to  dispense  it  in  a  private 
 house,  and  to  a  small  company,  which  in 
 other  cases  we  avoid.  Indeed  there  are 
 divers   weighty   reasons    Avhy   the    dying 
 
 Christian  should  receive  this  sacrament, 
 and  why  ministers  should  persuade  them 
 to  it,  and  labour  to  fit  them  for  the  wor- 
 thy receiving  of  it.  For,  1.  This  is  the 
 highest  mystery  of  religion,  and  fittest  for 
 those  who  are  by  sickness  put  into  a  hea- 
 venly frame  and  are  nearest  to  perfection. 
 
 2.  This  is  God's  seal  of  remission  to  all 
 that  receive  it  with  penitence  and  faith. 
 
 3.  This  arms  them  against  the  fear  of 
 death,  by  setting  Jesus  before  them,  who 
 died  for  them,  and  hath  pulled  out  the 
 sting  of  death.  4.  This  assures  them  of 
 their  resurrection,  by  keeping  them  mem- 
 bers of  Christ's  body.  (John  vi.  54.)  5. 
 It  declares  they  die  in  the  peace  and  com- 
 munion of  the  true  Church,  out  of  which 
 there  is  no  salvation.  And  if  the  sick  man 
 have  done  all  the  duties  in  the  foregoing 
 office,  he  is  ])repared  to  die,  and  therefore 
 fit  for  this  communion ;  and  if  he  do  re- 
 ceive it  with  devotion,  the  comfortable  as- 
 surances of  God's  love  which  he  gets  here 
 will  never  leave  him  till  he  see  God  face 
 to  face.  We  shall  only  add,  that,  lest  the 
 fears  of  the  Divine  displeasure  which  sick 
 men  are  very  apt  to  entertain,  should 
 trouble  their  minds,  and  hinder  their  joy 
 and  comfort  in  this  holy  ordinance,  the 
 Church  hath  chosen  a  peculiar  Epistle  and 
 Gospel  on  purpose  to  comfort  them  and 
 deliver  them  from  these  fears,  and  also 
 made  a  proper  collect  to  beg  patience  for 
 them  under  this  their  affliction.  All  which 
 are  so  plain  they  need  no  explication,  but 
 only  require  the  sick  man's  devout  atten- 
 tion, and  then  it  is  hoped  they  will  not 
 fail  of  their  desired  effect. — Dr.  NichoUs, 
 Dean  Covibcr. 
 
 COMMUNION  OF  SAINTS.  (See 
 Saints.)  This  is  an  article  of  the  Creed  in 
 which  we  profess  to  believe,  as  a  necessary 
 and  infallible  truth,  that  such  persons  as  are 
 truly  sanctified  in  the  Church  of  Christ, 
 while  they  live  among  the  crooked  gener- 
 ations of  men,  and  struggle  with  the  mise- 
 ries of  this  world,  have  fellowship  with 
 God  the  Father,  (1  John  i.  3;  2  Peter 
 i.  4,)  with  God  the  Son,  (1  John  i.  3  ; 
 2  John  9  ;  John  xvii.  20,  21,  23.)  with  God 
 the  PIoLY  Ghost,  (Phil.  ii.  1  ;  2  Cor.  xiii. 
 14,)  as  dwelling  with  them,  and  taking 
 up  their  habitations  in  them  ;  that  they 
 partake  of  the  care  and  kindness  of  the 
 blessed  angels,  who  take  delight  in  the 
 ministration  for  their  benefit,  being  "  min- 
 istering sj)irits  sent  forth  to  minister  for 
 them  who  shall  be  heirs  of  salvation" 
 (lieb.  i.  14  ;  Luke  xv.  10;  Matt,  xyiii.  10); 
 that  besides  the  external  fellowship  which 
 they  have  in  the  word  and  sacraments, 
 with  all  the  members  of  the  Church,  they 
 
220       COMMUNION  OF  SAINTS. 
 
 COMMUNION  IN  ONE  KIND. 
 
 have  an  intimate  union  and  conjunction 
 with  all  the  saints  on  earth,  as  the  living 
 members  of  Christ.  (1  John  i.  7;  Col. 
 ii.  19.)  Nor  is  this  union  separated  by 
 the  death  of  any ;  but  as  Christ,  in  whom 
 they  live,  is  the  Lamb  slain  from  the 
 foundation  of  the  world,  so  have  they  fel- 
 lowship with  all  the  saints,  who,  from  the 
 death  of  Abel,  have  departed  in  the  true 
 faith  and  fear  of  God,  and  now  enjoy  the 
 presence  of  the  Father,  and  folloAv  the 
 Lamb  whithersoever  he  goeth.  (Heb.  xii. 
 22,  23.)  "  Indeed,"  says  Bishop  Pearson, 
 from  whom  tliis  article  is  taken,  "  the 
 communion  of  saints  in  the  Church  of 
 Christ  with  those  who  are  departed  is  de- 
 monstrated by  their  communion  with  the 
 saints  alive.  For  if  I  have  communion 
 with  a  saint  of  GoD  as  such,  while  he 
 liveth  here,  I  must  still  have  communion 
 with  him  when  he  is  departed  hence ;  be- 
 cause the  foundation  of  that  communion 
 cannot  be  removed  by  death.  The  mys- 
 tical union  between  Christ  and  his  Church, 
 the  spii'itual  conjunction  of  the  members 
 with  the  head,  is  the  true  foundation  of 
 that  communion  which  one  member  hath 
 with  another,  all  the  members  living  and 
 increasing  by  the  same  influence  which 
 they  receive  from  him.  But  death,  which 
 is  nothing  else  but  the  separation  of  the 
 soul  from  the  body,  maketh  no  separation 
 in  the  mystical  union,  no  breach  of  the 
 spiritual  conjunction ;  and,  consequently, 
 there  must  continue  the  same  commimion, 
 because  there  remaineth  the  same  found- 
 ation. Indeed  the  saint  before  his  death 
 had  some  communion  with  the  hypocrite, 
 as  hearing  the  word,  professing  the  faith, 
 receiving  tlie  sacraments  together ;  which 
 being  in  things  only  external,  as  they 
 were  common  to  them  both,  and  all  such 
 external  actions  ceasing  in  the  person 
 dead,  the  hypocrite  remaining  loseth  all 
 communion  with  the  saint  departing,  and 
 the  saints  suviving  cease  to  have  farther 
 fellowship  with  the  hypocrite  dying.  But 
 seeing  that  the  true  and  unfeigned  holiness 
 of  man,  wrought  by  the  powerful  influence 
 of  the  Spirit  of  God,  not  only  remaineth, 
 but  also  is  improved  after  death ;  seeing 
 that  the  correspondence  of  the  internal 
 holiness  was  the  true  communion  with 
 other  persons  during  life,  they  carniot  be 
 said  to  be  divided  by  death,  which  hath 
 no  power  over  that  sanctity  by  which  they 
 were  first  conjoined.  But  although  this 
 communion  of  the  saints  in  paradise  and 
 on  earth,  upon  the  mystical  union  of 
 Christ  their  head,  be  fundamental  and 
 internal,  yet  what  acts  or  external  oper- 
 ations it  produces  is  not  so  certain.     That 
 
 we  communicate  with  them  in  hope  of 
 that  happiness  which  they  actually  enjoy 
 is  evident ;  that  we  have  the  Spirit  of  GoD 
 given  us  as  an  earnest,  and  so  a  part  of 
 their  felicity,  is  certain.  But  what  they 
 do  in  heaven  in  relation  to  us  on  earth 
 particularly  considered,  or  what  we  ought 
 to  perform  in  reference  to  them  in  heaven, 
 besides  a  reverential  respect  and  study  of 
 imitation,  is  not  revealed  unto  us  in  the 
 Scriptures,  nor  can  be  concluded  by  ne- 
 cessary deduction  from  any  principles  of 
 Christianity.  They  who  first  found  this 
 part  of  the  article  in  the  creed,  and  de- 
 livered their  exposition  to  us,  have  made 
 no  greater  enlargement  of  this  communion, 
 as  to  the  saints  of  heaven,  than  the  society 
 of  hope,  esteem,  and  imitation  on  our  side, 
 of  desires  and  supplications  on  their  side ; 
 and  what  is  now  taught  by  the  Church  of 
 Rome  is  as  an  unwarrantable,  so  a  noviti- 
 ous,  interpretation." 
 
 COMMUNION  IN  ONE  KIND.  The 
 principal  advocates  of  Popery  at  the  be- 
 ginning of  the  lieformation  were  not  will- 
 ing to  own,  that  the  universal  practice  of 
 the  primitive  Church  was  against  the  mo- 
 dern sacrilege  of  denying  the  cup  to  the 
 people  ;  and,  therefore,  though  they  con- 
 fessed there  were  some  instances  in  anti- 
 quity, of  communion  under  both  kinds,  yet 
 they  maintained  the  custom  was  not  uni- 
 versal. So  Eckius  and  Harding,  and 
 many  others.  But  they  who  have  since 
 considered  the  practice  of  the  ancient 
 Church  more  narrowly,  are  ashamed  of  this 
 pretence,  and  freely  confess,  that  for  tAvelve 
 centuries  there  is  no  instance  of  the  peo- 
 ple's being  obliged  to  communicate  only 
 in  one  kind,  in  the  public  administration 
 of  the  sacrament ;  but  in  private  they  think 
 some  few  instances  may  be  given.  This  is 
 Cardinal  Bona's  distinction.  "  It  is  very 
 certain,"  says  he,  "  that  anciently  all  in 
 general,  both  clergy  and  laity,  men  and 
 women,  received  the  holy  mysteries  in  both 
 kinds,  when  they  were  present  at  the  so- 
 lemn celebration  of  them,  and  they  both 
 offered  and  were  partakers.  But  out  of 
 the  time  of  sacrifice,  and  act  of  the  Church, 
 it  was  customary  always  and  in  all  places 
 to  communicate  only  in  one  kind.  In  the 
 fh-st  part  of  the  assertion  all  agree,  as  well 
 Catholics  as  sectaries ;  nor  can  any  one 
 deny  it,  that  has  the  least  knowledge  of 
 ecclesiastical  affairs.  For  the  faithful  ahvays 
 and  in  all  places,  from  the  very  first  found- 
 ation of  the  Church  to  the  tAvelfth  century, 
 Avere  used  to  communicate  under  the  species 
 of  bread  and  wine  ;  and  in  the  beginning 
 of  that  age  the  use  of  the  cup  began  by 
 little  and  little  to  be  laid  aside,  whilst 
 
COMMUNION  IN  ONE  KIND. 
 
 COMPLINE. 
 
 221 
 
 many  bishops  interdicted  the  people  the 
 use  of  the  cup,  for  fear  of  irreverence  and 
 effusion."  (Book  ii.  c.  18,  n.  1.)  And  ^vhat 
 they  did  first  for  their  own  Churclies,  -was 
 afterward  confirmed  by  a  canonical  sanc- 
 tion of  the  Council  ol  Constance  [a.  d. 
 
 1414] At  this  day  the  Greeks,  and 
 
 Maronites,  and  Abyssins,  and  all  the  Ori- 
 entals, never  communicate  but  in  both 
 kinds,  as  Bona  himself  confesses  (book  ii. 
 0.  18,  n.  2). — Bhu/ham.  The  followin<^  is 
 the  decree  of  the  popish  Council  of  Con- 
 stance [A.  D.  1418]  on  this  subject. 
 
 "  "Wliereas,  in  some  parts  of  the  world, 
 certain  persons  rashly  presume  toasscrt,that 
 the  Christian  people  ought  to  receive  the 
 holy  sacrament  of  the  eucharist  under  both 
 kinds  of  bread  and  wine  ;  and  do  every- 
 where communicate  the  laity,  not  only  in 
 the  bread,  but  also  in  the  wine ;  and  per- 
 tinaciously assert  also,  that  they  ought  to 
 communicate  after  supper,  or  else  not  fast- 
 ing, doing  this  contrary  to  the  laudable 
 custom  of  the  Church,  Avhich  is  agreeable 
 to  reason,  which  they  damnably  endeavour 
 to  reprobate  as  sacrilegious,  this  present 
 holy  general  Council  of  Constance,  law- 
 fully assembled  in  the  Holy  Ghost,  earn- 
 estly desiring  to  protect  the  safety  of  the 
 faithful  against  this  error,  after  much  and 
 mature  deliberation  had  of  many  who  are 
 learned  both  in  Divine  and  human  law, 
 declares,  decrees,  and  determines,  that, 
 although  CilKlST  instituted  this  venerable 
 sacrament  after  supper,  and  administered 
 it  to  his  disciples  under  both  kinds  of  bread 
 and  wine,  yet,  notwithstanding  this,  the 
 laudable  authority  of  the  sacred  canons, 
 and  the  approved  custom  of  the  Church 
 lias  observed,  that  this  sacrament  ought 
 not  to  be  performed  after  supper,  nor  be 
 received  by  the  faithful  unless  fasting, 
 except  in  the  case  of  sickness,  or  any  other 
 necessity,  either  duly  conceded  or  admitted 
 by  the  Church ;  and,  in  like  manner,  that 
 although  in  the  primitive  Church  this  sa- 
 crament Avas  received  of  the  faithful  under 
 both  kinds,  yet  for  the  avoiding  any  dan- 
 gers and  scandals,  the  custom  has  reason- 
 ably been  introduced,  that  it  be  received 
 by  the  officiating  persons  under  both  kinds, 
 l)ut  by  the  laity  only  under  the  kind  of 
 bread ;  since  it  is  to  be  believed  most 
 fii-mly,  and  in  nowise  to  be  doubted,  that 
 the  whole  body  and  blood  of  Christ  is 
 truly  contained  as  well  under  the  species 
 of  bread  as  under  that  of  wine." 
 
 On  which  we  may  fairly  remark,  "  full 
 well  ye  reject  the  commandment  of  God, 
 that  ye  may  keep  your  own  tradition." 
 Por  Christ,  when  he  celebrated  the  Eu- 
 charist, gave  the  cup  to  all  who  were  pre- 
 
 sent ;  and  when  he  appointed  his  a])Ostles 
 his  ministers  to  celebrate  it,  he  bade  them 
 do  the  same,  "  Do  this  in  remembrance  of 
 me."  But  ye  say,  whosoever  shall  dare  to 
 do  as  Christ  has  bidden  him,  shall  be 
 effectually  punished.  Can  human  impiety 
 exceed  this  ? — Perceval. 
 
 COMMUNION  TABLE.  A  name  for 
 the  altar  in  the  Christian  Church.  It  is 
 both  altar  and  table.  An  altar  with  respect 
 to  the  oblation  ;  a  table  with  respect  to 
 the  feast.     (See  Altar.) 
 
 COMMUTATION  OF  PENANCE. 
 Penance  is  an  ecclesiastical  ]Hinishment, 
 used  in  the  discipline  of  the  Church,  which 
 affects  the  body  of  the  ])enitent ;  by  which 
 he  is  obliged  to  give  public  satisfaction  to 
 the  Church  for  tlie  scandal  he  has  occa- 
 sioned by  his  evil  examjile.  Commutation 
 of  Penance  is  the  permission  granted  by 
 the  ecclesiastical  judge  to  pay  a  certain 
 sum  of  money  for  pious  uses,  in  lieu  of 
 public  penance.     (See  Peniteiits.) 
 
 COMPETENTES.  An  order  of  cate- 
 chumens in  the  primitive  Church,  being 
 the  immediate  candidates  for  bajitism. 
 
 CO.AIPLINE,  or  COMPLl^TOKIUM, 
 was,  before  the  Reformation,  the  last  ser- 
 vice of  the  day.  This  hour  of  prayer  was 
 first  a])pointed  by  the  celebrated  abbot 
 Benedict,  in  the  sixth  century. 
 
 The  Church  of  England,  at  the  revision 
 of  our  offices  in  the  reign  of  Edward  the 
 Sixth,  only  prescribed  public  worship  in 
 the  morning  and  the  evening ;  and  in 
 making  this  regulation  she  was  perfectly 
 justified :  for  though  it  is  the  duty  of 
 Christians  to  pray  continually,  yet  the 
 precise  times  and  seasons  of  prayer,  termed 
 canonical  hours,  do  not  rest  on  any  Divine 
 command ;  nor  have  they  ever  been  pro- 
 nounced binding  on  all  Churches  by  any 
 general  council :  neither  has  there  been 
 any  uniformity  in  the  practice  of  the 
 Clii-istian  Church  in  this  respect.  Besides 
 this,  the  Churches  of  the  Alexandi'ian 
 patriarchate,  which  were  founded  by  the 
 holy  evangelist  Mark,  only  a])i)ointed  two 
 public  assemblies  in  the  day  ;  and  no  more 
 were  customary,  even  in  the  monasteries 
 of  Egypt,  the  rest  of  the  day  being  left  for 
 private  and  voluntary  jjraycr  and  medi- 
 tation. Thus  also  the  Church  of  Phigland 
 left  her  clergy  and  people  to  follow  in 
 private  the  injunction  of  the  apostle,  to 
 "pray  without  ceasing;"  for,  as  John 
 Cassian  observes,  a  voluntary  gift  of  praise 
 and  prayer  is  even  more  acceptable  to 
 God  than  those  duties  which  are  compelled 
 by  the  canons ;  and,  certainly,  the  Church 
 of  England  did  not  intend  that  her  chil- 
 dren  should  offer  the    sacrifice  of  praise 
 
222 
 
 CONCEPTION  (IMMACULATE)  OF  THE  HOLY  VIRGIN. 
 
 and  thanksgiving  only  in  the  morning  and 
 evening  when  she  appointed  those  seasons 
 for  public  worship.  Indeed,  we  tind  that 
 a  book  of  private  devotion,  containing 
 offices  for  several  hoiurs  of  prayer,  ana 
 entitled  the  "  Horarium."  was  published  by 
 royal  authority.  A.  D.  1560.  from  which 
 Dr.  Cosin.  bishop  of  Durham,  chiefly  de- 
 rived his  '•  Collection  of  Private  Devotion," 
 &c.  The  office  of  Evensay.  or  Evening 
 Prayer,  is  a  judicious  abridgment  of  the 
 office  of  Evensay  and  Compline,  as  for- 
 merly used  by  the  English  Church. — 
 Palmer. 
 
 COXCEPTIOX  (I>DL\CULATE)  OF 
 THE  HOLY  \TRGIX.  llie  immaculate 
 conception  is  a  festival  of  the  Roman 
 Churca.  obsers'ed  on  December  8,  in  hon- 
 our of  the  alleged  conception  of  the 
 Virgin  Mary  without  sin.  The  doctrine 
 itself  was  invented  about  the  middle  of  the 
 twelfth  centur\-.  The  devotion  orfered  to 
 the  Blessed  Virgin  having  grown  to  an 
 extravagant  height,  it  was  asserted  by 
 some  obscure  theologians,  not  only  that 
 she  was  sanctified  from  her  birth,  but  also 
 that  she  was  conceived  without  sin.  The 
 opinion  was  at  first  generally  condemned, 
 and  it  woidd  have  had  its  place  among 
 other  forgotten  heresies,  if  Dims  Scotus. 
 the  great  opponent  of  the  Dominicans, 
 had  not  undertaken  its  defence. 
 
 The  testimony  of  Scripture  to  the  uni- 
 rersal  corraption  of  hxmian  nature  is  as 
 plain  as  possible,  and  no  trace  of  any  ex- 
 ception is  to  be  found.  The  witness  of  the 
 primitive  Church  is  equally  clear,  and  net 
 a  single  writer,  for  more  than  a  thousand 
 years,  can  be  cited  as  having  given  the 
 least  countenance  to  the  modern  view. 
 
 But  although  the  Roman  Church  has 
 afforded  the  highest  sanction  and  en- 
 couragement to  a  doctrine  which  is  con- 
 demned alike  by  Scripture  and  the  Fa- 
 thers, the  inconsistencies  and  contradic- 
 tions of  its  authorized  teaching  on  the 
 subject  are  endless.  The  Council  of  Basle, 
 for  instance,  in  its  thirty-sixth  session,  de- 
 clared the  belief  in  the  immaculate  con- 
 ception to  be  conformable  to  the  CathoKc 
 feith :  but  on  the  other  side  it  is  tirged,  that 
 the  council  was  in  schism  when  it  passed 
 the  decree,  on  account  of  the  deposition 
 which  it  had  pronounced  against  Eugenius. 
 The  CoimciL  of  Trent,  in  its  decree'on  the 
 subject  of  original  sin,  expressly  stated 
 that  it  had  no  intention  of  including  the 
 Blessed  Virgin  in  the  terms  which  it  em- 
 ployed ;  but  in  conclusion  it  only  enjoined 
 the^  observance  of  the  decree  of  SLsros  IV., 
 which  left  the  question  open.  The  parties 
 of  Dominicans  and  Franciscans  were  so 
 
 equally  balanced  that  the  Council  did  not 
 venture  to  pronounce  in  favour  of  the  one 
 at  the  expense  of  the  other.  Their  dis- 
 putes were  only  kept  from  proceeding  to 
 extremity  by  the  intervention  of  the  legate. 
 Pius  V.  in  the  same  way,  forbade  the  cen- 
 sure of  those  who  denied,  as  weU  as  of 
 those  who  affirmed,  the  doctrine.  Gregory 
 XV.  prohibited  the  imputation  of  original 
 sin  to  the  Blessed  Virgin,  even  in  private 
 disputations  :  but  he  made  an  exception  in 
 favour  of  the  Dominicans,  that  is  to  say, 
 while  giving  his  highest  sanction  to  the 
 dogma,  he  granted  an  immimity  to  those 
 who  had  from  the  first  resisted  it.  Alex- 
 ander VII.  decreed  that  the  immaculate 
 conception  is  a  pious  doctrine  and  worthy 
 of  honour,  but  he  forbade  the  censure  of 
 those  who  shoidd  reject  it.  The  imiversitv* 
 of  Paris,  at  one  period,  compelled  all  can- 
 didates for  the  highest  degree  in  theology 
 to  bind  themselves  to  defend  it ;  while  at 
 the  same  time  the  chief  authority  in  the 
 Church  permitted  its  denial.  Austria  re- 
 ceived from  Benedict  XIII.  the  grant  of 
 an  office  for  the  immaculate  conception, 
 but  the  phrase  itself  is  carefully  excluded 
 from  the  prayers.  The  evidence,  such  as 
 it  is,  on  both  sides  is  equally  conflicting. 
 The  Franciscans,  for  instance,  produced  a 
 revelation  of  Sr.  Bridget  in  favour  of  the 
 doctrine,  while  the  Dominicans  appealed  to 
 a  similar  revelation  made  to  St.  Catherine 
 of  Sienna,  in  which  the  contrary  is  afiirm- 
 ed.  A  question  was  raised  in  consequence, 
 whether  one  of  the  so  called  saints  is  not  to 
 be  believed  rather  than  the  other,  though 
 both  have  their  place  as  objects  of  worship 
 in  the  Roman  calendar. 
 
 To  sober-minded  Christians  it  seems  as 
 idle  a  question  as  ever  occupied  the  time, 
 or  roused  the  bad  passions,  of  theological 
 disputants,  since,  according  to  Thomas 
 Aquinas  and  others,  it  regards  only  an  in- 
 conceivably minute  instant  of  time ;  yet  it 
 sufficed  at  one  period  to  throw  the  whole 
 kingdom  of  Spain  into  confusion,  and  it 
 has  furnished  for  centuries  the  watchword 
 of  parties  in  the  Roman  Church,  who  have 
 maintained  the  fiercest  opposition  to  each 
 other ;  and  the  controversy  is  still  unde- 
 cided. Although  it  is  said  that  the  doctrine 
 is  full  of  blessing,  that  the  whole  of  Chris- 
 tendom is  devoutly  waiting  for  its  authori- 
 tative declaration,  and  that  this  would  be 
 the  great  glory  and  joy  of  an  age  which  is 
 to  witness  the  restoration  of  catholicity, 
 the  see  of  Rome  is  restrained  by  great  and 
 insurmountable  difficulties.  If  the  im- 
 maculate concepticn  were  decreed  to  be  a 
 necessary  article  of  faith,  no  one  could 
 denv  that  an  addition  had  been  made  to 
 
c^o^X'EPTION  of  our  lady. 
 
 CO>'CLAVE. 
 
 223 
 
 the  ancient  creeds,  and  in  a  case  to  which 
 
 even  the  loose  principle  of  development 
 could  hardly  be  made  applicable  :  while  at 
 the  same  time  there  would  be  an  implied 
 condemnation  not  only  of  the  primitive 
 fathers,  but  of  the  greatest  theologians 
 whom  the  Church  of  Rome  has  ever  pro- 
 duced. 
 
 CO^X'EPTIOX  OF  OUR  LADY.  A 
 religious  order  in  the  llomish  Church, 
 foimded  by  Beatrix  de  Sylva,  sister  of 
 James,  first  count  of  Portolegro,  in  the 
 kingdom  of  PortugaL  This  Ikdy,  being 
 carried  to  the  court  of  Castile  by  Eliza- 
 beth, daughter  of  Edward,  king  of  Por- 
 tugal, whom  the  king  of  Castile  had 
 married,  and  the  king  falling  in  love  with 
 her  on  account  of  her  beauty,  the  jealous 
 queen  locked  her  up  in  a  chamber,  where 
 she  left  her  without  meat  or  drink  for 
 three  days.  In  this  condition  she  im- 
 plored the  assistance  of  the  ^'irgin  Mary. 
 who,  according  to  the  legendan*  statement, 
 api)eared  to  her  and  comforted  her,  pro- 
 mising her  a  speedy  release,  which  soon 
 happened-  But  Beatrix,  fearing  the  fur- 
 ther resentment  of  the  queen,  privately 
 withdrew  from  court,  and  fled  to  Toledo  : 
 where  arriving,  she  retired  to  a  monaster)' 
 of  Dominican  nuns,  in  which  she  continued 
 forty  years  in  the  practice  of  all  sorts  of 
 austerities.  Here  she  again  imagined,  or 
 pretended,  that  the  Virgin  Mary  reap- 
 peared to  her,  and  inspired  her  with  the 
 desire  of  founding  an  order  in  honour  of 
 her  own  immaculate  conception.  To  this 
 end  she  obtained  of  the  queen  a  grant  of 
 the  palace  of  GaUiana,  where  was  a  chapel 
 dedicated  to  the  honour  of  St.  Faith. 
 Beatrix,  accompanied  by  twelve  young 
 maids  of  the  Dominican  monastery,  took 
 possession  of  it  in  the  year  14S4.  *  These 
 religious  were  habited  in  a  white  gown 
 and  scapulary,  and  a  blue  mantle,  and 
 wore  on  their  scapulary  the  image  of  the 
 Blessed  Virgin.  Pope  Innocent  Mil. 
 confirmed  the  order  in  14S9,  and  granted 
 them  permission  to  foUow  the  rule  of  the 
 Cistercians.  The  pious  foundress  died  in 
 the  year  1490,  at  sixt^-six  years  of  age. 
 
 AJfter  the  death  of  Beatrix,  Cardinal 
 Ximenes  put  the  nuns  of  the  Conception 
 under  the  direction  of  the  Franciscans,  as 
 being  the  most  zealous  defenders  of  the 
 immaculate  conception ;  at  the  same  time, 
 he  gave  them  the  rule  of  St.  Clara  to 
 foUow.  The  second  convent  of  the  order 
 was  founded  in  the  year  1507,  at  Torri^o, 
 in  the  diocese  of  Toledo,  which  produced 
 seven  others^  the  first  of  which  was  at 
 Madrid-  This  order  passed  into  Italy, 
 and  got  footing  in  Rome  and  Milan.     In 
 
 the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.,  king  of  France, 
 the  CTarisses  of  the  suburb  of  St.  Germain, 
 at  Paris,  embraced  the  order  of  the  Ojh- 
 ceplvm.  These  religious,  besides  the  grand 
 office  of  the  Franciscans,  recite  on  Sxindays 
 and  holy-days  a  lesser  office,  called  the 
 office  of  the  Conception  of  the  Holy  Virgin. 
 — Broiujhtou. 
 
 CONCEPTION,  MIRACULOUS.  The 
 production  of  the  human  nature  of  the 
 Son  of  God  out  of  the  ordinary-  course  of 
 generation,  by  the  power  of  the  HoLT 
 Ghokt.     (Matt-  L  18,  2Jj.) 
 
 It  were  not  difficult  to  show  that  the 
 miraculous  conception,  once  admitted,  na- 
 turally brings  after  it  the  great  doctrines 
 of  the  incarnation  and  the  atonement. 
 The  miraculous  conception  of  our  LoBD 
 evidently  implies  some  higher  purpose  of 
 his  coming  than  the  mere  business  of  a 
 teacher.  The  business  of  a  teacher  might 
 have  been  performed  by  a  mere  mftn, 
 enlightened  by  the  prophetic  spirit.  For 
 whatever  instruction  men  hare  the  capacity 
 to  receive,  a  man  might  have  been  maxle 
 the  instrument  to  convey.  Had  teaching, 
 therefore,  been  the  sole  purpose  of  our 
 SATiorE's  coming,  a  mere  man  might  have 
 done  the  whole  business,  and  the  super- 
 natural conception  had  been  an  unneces- 
 sary miracle.  He,  therefore,  who  came  m 
 this  miraculous  way,  came  upon  some 
 higher  business,  to  which  a  mere  maTi  -was 
 unequal  He  came  to  be  made  a  sia- 
 o&nng  for  us,  that  we  might  be  made  the 
 righteousness  of  God  in  bi-m- — Bp.  Hordey. 
 
 CONCLA^'E.  The  place  where  the 
 cardinals  meet  for  the  choosing  of  a  new 
 pope :  the  assembly  itself  is  also  called  by 
 this  name,  and  it  depends  ujx)n  the  mem- 
 bei^  themselves  to  choose  the  place,  al- 
 though for  some  time  the  Vatican  has  been 
 constantiy  used.  Here  they  erect,  in  a  large 
 apartment,  as  many  cells  of  deal  wood  as 
 there  are  cardinals,  with  lodges  and  plac^ 
 for  the  conclavists,  who  shut  themselves 
 in  to  wait  and  ser\e  the  cardinals.  These 
 Htue  chambers  have  their  numbers,  and 
 are  drawn  by  lot,  so  that  it  often  happens 
 that  cardinals  of  different  factions  lodge 
 near  one  another.  These  are  made  up 
 during  the  nine  days'  ceremony  for  the 
 pope's  funeral ;  during  which  time  any- 
 body may  go  in  and  see  the  cells-  which  are 
 hung  on  the  outside  with  green  serge  or 
 camlet,  only  those  that  belong  to  the 
 ravourites  of  the  deceased,  or  are  such  as 
 had  been  promoted  by  him,  are  covered 
 with  deep  violet-coloured  cloth,  and  over 
 each  are  the  arms  of  the  cardinal  who 
 lives  in  it.  Between  the  ceils  and  the 
 windows   of  the  palace  theane  is  a  long 
 
224 
 
 CONCLAVE. 
 
 CONCORDAT. 
 
 gallery  for  the  convenience  of  the  conclave, 
 and  it  is  from  this  that  the  cells  receive 
 their  light.  The  day  after  the  pope's 
 burial,  that  is,  the  tenth  after  his  decease, 
 the  cardinals,  having  heard  mass,  invoke 
 the  Holy  Ghost  (as  they  term  it)  and  go 
 in  procession  two  by  two  into  the  conclave, 
 where  they  all  meet  in  the  chapel  every 
 morning  and  evening  for  a  scrutiny,  which 
 is  done  by  writing  their  suffrages  in  little 
 billets,  and  putting  them  into  a  chalice 
 that  stands  upon  the  altar  :  when  all  are 
 put  in,  two  cardinals  are  chosen  by  the 
 rest  to  read  those  openly  who  are  named, 
 and  to  keep  an  account  of  the  number  of 
 each,  and  this  is  done  till  two-thirds  join 
 for  the  same  person ;  but  a  pope  is  seldom 
 chosen  after  this  manner.  When  it  ap- 
 pears that  after  the  scrutiny  they  do  not 
 agree,  they  come  to  what  they  call  an 
 accez  or  access,  that  is,  a  trial  whether  he 
 wdio  has  most  voices  in  the  scrutiny  could 
 reach  to  two-thirds  ;  but  it  is  observable 
 that  they  cannot  give  their  suffrages  in  the 
 accez  to  those  whom  they  have  appeared 
 for  in  the  scrutiny.  If  this  does  not 
 succeed,  they  have  recourse  to  the  way  of 
 inspiration,  (as  they  term  it,)  which  is  an 
 open  declaration,  or  rather  combination  of 
 many  cardinals  to  cry  together  such  a 
 cardinal  is  pope.  For  example,  Altieri 
 Papa  is  begun  by  one  or  two  chiefs  of  a 
 party,  w'hen  they  find  suffrages  enough  to 
 assure  them  that  this  method  will  not  fail, 
 and  then  the  rest  of  the  cardinals  are 
 forced  to  join,  that  they  may  not  incur  the 
 pope's  displeasure,  who  would  be  chosen 
 in  spite  of  them.  The  scrutiny  is  managed 
 in  the  following  manner :  each  cardinal 
 prepares  his  billet,  wherein  he  writes  his 
 own  name  and  that  of  the  person  for  whom 
 he  votes,  and  another  word  of  device  ;  the 
 cardinal's  name  is  written  under  the  fold 
 of  the  paper,  and  sealed  with  a  seal  for 
 that  purpose.  The  name  of  the  chosen  is 
 written  by  the  conclavist  under  another 
 fold  without  the  seal,  and  the  word  by 
 which  the  cardinal  knows  that  it  is  his 
 name  which  is  read,  is  written  on  the 
 outside,  as  Deo  volente,  or  the  like;  the 
 fold  which  covers  the  cardinal's  name  is 
 never  opened  until  the  pope  be  chosen, 
 who,  to  know  those  who  voted  for  him, 
 unfolds  all.  The  motto  serves  in  the  accez, 
 that  it  may  appear  that  each  cardinal  has 
 given  another  besides  that  in  the  scrutiny, 
 seeing  two  billets  with  different  persons 
 under  the  same  name ;  and  at  the  end  of 
 the  scrutiny  and  accez,  if  the  suffi'age  be 
 not  sufficient  to  complete  the  election, 
 they  burn  all  the  billetings  that  the  elec- 
 tors'  names   may   be  kept  secret.     Each 
 
 cardinal  during  the  conclave  is  allowed 
 but  two  servants,  or  three  at  most,  and 
 this  only  to  princes,  or  for  some  particular 
 privilege.  Several  seek  for  this  employ- 
 ment because  the  new-elected  pope  gives 
 each  conclavist  three  or  four  hundred 
 livres,  and  they  have  the  pleasure  of  seeing 
 all  that  passes:  yet  the  place  is  trouble- 
 some enough,  because  they  must  take  in 
 their  meat  and  cb'ink  from  a  certain  place 
 common  to  all  that  live  in  the  same  part, 
 must  wait  at  table,  and  be  as  strictly  con- 
 fined as  their  mai^ters.—Aufj/Ksti. 
 
 CONCORDANCE,  a  dictionary  or  in- 
 dex to  the  Bible,  wherein  all  the  leading 
 words  are  ranged  alphabetically,  and  the 
 books,  chapters,  and  verses  wherein  they 
 occur,  referred  to,  to  assist  in  finding  out 
 passages,  and  comparing  the  several  signi- 
 fications of  the  same  word.  The  earliest 
 attempt  at  a  Concordance  is  the  collection 
 of  parallel  passages  in  the  margin  of  the 
 5th  volume  of  the  Complatensian  Polyglot. 
 The  first  English  Polyglot  was  published 
 by  John  Merbeck,  or  Marbeck,  a  cele- 
 brated English  musician,  in  1550. 
 
 Of  English  Concordances,  Cruden's  is 
 well  know^n  and  valued  by  every  biblical 
 student. 
 
 Crutwell's  "  Concordance  of  Parallels"  is 
 useful,  but  the  number  of  parallel  passages 
 referred  to,  and  sometimes  the  slightness 
 of  their  connexion,  renders  the  work  less 
 useful  on  ordinary  occasions  than  the  mar- 
 ginal references  in  our  Bibles. 
 
 Gastrell's  "  Christian  Institutes,"  Locke 
 and  Dodd's  "  Common-place  Book  of 
 Scripture,"  Strutt's  work  with  the  same 
 title,  and  Matthew  Talbot's  "  Analysis  of 
 the  Holy  Bible,"  all  assume  the  character 
 of  a  concordance.  The  best  Hebrew  con- 
 cordance is  Calasios.  For  the  Septuagint, 
 Trommius,  for  the  Greek  Testament, 
 Schmidt,  (a  very  beautiful  12mo  edition  of 
 which  was  edited  by  Mr.  Greenfield  in 
 1830,)  and  for  the  Vulgate,  Cardinal 
 Hugo's  Concordance  may  be  consulted. 
 
 CONCORDAT.  An  instrument  exe- 
 cuted in  1801,  between  Bonaparte  and 
 Pope  Pius  VII.,  to  w^hich  the  present 
 Gallican  Church  owes  its  origin,  in  a  much 
 stronger  sense  that  any  in  which  the 
 Romanist  can  refer  the  origin  of  the 
 Church  of  England  to  the  Reformation. 
 For  an  account  of  this  concordat  the 
 reader  is  referred  to  the  article  on  the 
 Church  of  France.     (See  Church.) 
 
 CONCORDAT.  There  is  also  a  much 
 earlier  agreement  between  the  crown  of 
 France  and  the  pope,  generally  known  by 
 the  same  name,  viz.  the  agreement  of 
 Francis  I.   with   Pope  Leo  X.   in   1516, 
 
CONCORDAT,  GERMANIC. 
 
 CONFESSION. 
 
 225 
 
 to  abolish  the  Pragmatic  Sanction  ;  and 
 here  we  must  observe,  that  Clothaire  II. 
 issued  an  edict  in  615,  approved  by  all 
 the  bishops  of  his  kingdom,  assembled 
 at  the  fifth  Council  of  Paris,  by  which 
 he  ordered  that  no  bishop,  though  chosen 
 by  the  clergy  and  people,  should  be  con- 
 secrated if  the  king  did  not  approve  of 
 him  :  and  he  that  should  be  nominated  by 
 the  king  should  be  accepted,  if  the  metro- 
 politan found  no  just  cause  to  reject  him. 
 Now  King  Charles  VII.,  in  the  Council  of 
 Bourges,  in  1439,  established  the  Pragma- 
 tic Sanction,  whereby  part  of  the  clergy, 
 without  consulting  with  the  people  or  tlie 
 archbishops,  or  other  bishops  of  provinces, 
 chose  their  bishops,  leaving  the  king  the 
 privilege  of  consenting  to  and  confirming 
 the  election  if  he  liked  it.  This  the  court 
 of  Rome  resented  ;  the  court  first  desired, 
 and  afterwards  in  the  Lateran  Council  cited, 
 this  king  and  the  clergy  of  France  to  ap- 
 pear and  give  their  reasons,  why  they  did 
 not  abolish  that  ordinance ;  whereupon 
 King  Francis  I.  made  this  agreement,  called 
 a  Concordat,  with  Pope  Leo  X.,  whereby 
 the  king  had  the  power  to  nominate  such 
 as  he  thought  fit  for  bishops,  Szc. ;  and  the 
 pope,  if  he  found  no  fault,  either  in  respect 
 of  the  capacity  or  life  of  the  person  in  no- 
 mination, was  to  issue  the  papal  bull  for 
 the  consecration.  The  parliament,  clergy, 
 and  the  university  of  Paris  were  much 
 against  registering  this  agreement ;  and, 
 though  they  consented  to  it  at  last,  yet 
 they  solemnly  protested,  that  they  did  it 
 only  in  obedience  to  the  king's  repeated 
 commands.  This  concordat  differed  from 
 that  of  Clothaire,  that  the  pope,  by  this, 
 had  no  power  to  examine  the  ability  of  the 
 person  elected ;  so  that,  in  his  time,  they 
 consecrated  their  bishops,  without  troubling 
 themselves  to  send  to  Rome  for  bulls. 
 (See  Praqmatic  Scmctioti.) 
 
 CONCORDAT,  GERMANIC,  or  the 
 Concordat  of  Germany.  A  treaty  relating 
 to  ecclesiastical  affairs,  made  in  1488,  be- 
 tween Pope  Nicholas  V.  and  the  emperor 
 Frederick  III.,  confirmed  by  Clement  VIII. 
 and  Gregory  XIII.  It  comprehended 
 four  parts  ;  in  the  first  of  which  the  pope 
 reserved  to  himself  the  conferring  of  all 
 vacant  benefices  at  Rome,  and  100  days' 
 journey  from  it,  of  whatever  degree,  either 
 secular  or  regular,  which  before  went  by 
 election,  without  exception  of  cardinals  or 
 other  officers  of  the  holy  see.  The  second 
 concerns  the  elections  that  are  to  be  con- 
 firmed by  the  pope,  as  metropolises,  cathe- 
 drals, and  monasteries,  depending  imme- 
 diately on  the  pope,  and  having  the 
 privilege  of  canonical  election.     The  third 
 
 concerns  livings  that  are  successively  given 
 by  the  popes  and  their  proper  patrons; 
 that  the  pope  has  the  privilege  to  confer 
 both  secular  and  regular  livings,  for  the 
 months  of  January,  March,  May,  July, 
 Se])tember,  November  ;  and  the  bishop  or 
 archbishop  within  the  district  of  their  dio- 
 ceses during  the  other  months.  The  fourth 
 and  last  part  speaks  of  the  annates  or  first- 
 fruits,  after  the  death  or  removal  of  the 
 incumbent. 
 
 CONDIGNITY  and  CONGRUITY. 
 Terms  used  by  the  schoolmen  to  express 
 their  peculiar  opinions  relative  to  human 
 merit  and  deserving.  The  Scotists  main- 
 tain that  it  is  possible  for  man  in  his 
 natural  state  so  to  live  as  to  deserve  the 
 grace  of  GoD,  by  which  he  may  be  enabled 
 to  obtain  salvation ;  this  natural  fitness 
 {conr/ruitas)  for  grace,  being  such  as  to 
 oblige  the  Deity  to  grant  it.  Such  is  the 
 merit  of  congrinty.  The  Thomists,  on  the 
 other  hand,  contend  that  man,  by  the  Di- 
 vine assistance,  is  capable  of  so  living  as 
 to  merit  eternal  life,  to  be  worthy  (condir/- 
 ni(s)  of  it  in  the  sight  of  God.  In  this 
 hypothesis,  the  question  of  previous  pre- 
 paration for  the  grace  which  enables  him 
 to  be  icorthy,  is  not  introduced.  This  is 
 the  merit  of  condiynity. 
 
 Article  XIII.  "  Works  done  before  the 
 grace  of  Christ,  and  the  inspiration  of  his 
 Spirit,  are  not  pleasant  to  God,  forasmuch 
 as  they  spring  not  of  faith  in  Jesus  Christ, 
 neither  do  they  make  men  meet  to  receive 
 grace,  or  (as  the  school-authors  say)  de- 
 serve grace  of  congruity :  yea,  rather,  for 
 that  they  are  not  done  as  God  hath  willed 
 and  commanded  them  to  be  done,  we 
 doubt  not  but  they  have  the  nature  of  sin." 
 
 CONDUCT.  A  name  given  to  chap- 
 lains of  colleges  in  the  university  of  Cam- 
 bridge and  at  Eton  ;  meaning  a  "  Capel- 
 lanus  conductitius."     (See  Chaplain.) 
 
 CONFALON,  or  GONFALON,  Society 
 of  the.  So  called  from  the  Gonfalon,  or 
 banner,  bearing  the  figure  of  the  Virgin 
 Mary,  which  was  their  ensign. — Raynaldus. 
 A  confraternity  of  seculars  in  the  Church 
 of  Rome,  called  penitents,  established  first 
 of  all  by  some  Roman  citizens  in  1267: 
 and  confirmed  by  Pope  Gregory  XIII.  in 
 1576.  Henry  III.  began  one  at  Paris  in 
 1583,  and  himself  assisted  in  the  habit  of 
 a  penitent,  at  a  procession  wherein  the  car- 
 dinal of  Guise  carried  the  cross,  and  his 
 brother  the  duke  of  Mayenne  was  master 
 of  the  ceremonies. 
 
 CONFESSION.  (See  Auricular  Con- 
 fession.) The  verbal  acknowledgment  of 
 sin.  The  following  are  the  ndes  laid  down 
 by  the  Church  of  England  on  this  subject. 
 
226 
 
 CONFESSION. 
 
 The  Warning  for  the  Celebration  of  the 
 Holy  Communion :  "  Because  it  is  requisite 
 that  no  man  should  come  to  the  holy  com- 
 munion but  with  a  full  faith  in  God's 
 mercy,  and  with  a  quiet  conscience ;  there- 
 fore, if  there  be  any  of  you  who  by  this 
 means  cannot  quiet  his  conscience  therein, 
 but  requireth  further  comfort  or  counsel, 
 let  him  come  to  me,  or  to  some  other  dis- 
 creet and  learned  minister  of  God's  word, 
 and  open  his  grief,  that  by  the  ministration 
 of  God's  holy  word  he  may  receive  the 
 benefit  of  absolution,  together  with  ghostly 
 counsel  and  advice  to  the  quieting  of  his 
 conscience,  and  avoiding  of  all  scruple  and 
 doubtfulness."  Ruhric,  in  the  Office  for 
 the  Visitation  of  the  Sick :  "  Here  shall 
 the  sick  person  be  moved  to  make  a  special 
 confession  of  his  sins,  if  he  feel  his  con- 
 science troubled  with  any  weighty  matter. 
 After  which  confession,  the  priest  shall 
 absolve  him  (if  he  humbly  and  heartily 
 desire  it)  after  this  sort."  By  the  113th 
 canon,  empowering  ministers  to  prevent 
 offences  at  the  court  of  \dsitation,  it  is  pro- 
 vided that  "  if  any  man  confess  his  secret 
 and  hidden  sins  to  the  minister,  for  the 
 unburdening  of  his  conscience,  and  to  re- 
 ceive spiritual  consolation  and  ease  of 
 mind  from  him,  he  shall  not  in  anywise 
 be  bound  by  this  constitution,  but  is 
 strictly  charged  and  admonished  that  he 
 do  not  at  any  time  reveal  and  make  known 
 to  any  person  whatsoever,  any  crime  or 
 offence  so  committed  to  his  trust  and 
 secrecy,  (except  they  be  such  crimes  as,  by 
 the  laws  of  this  realm,  his  own  life  may 
 be  called  in  question  for  concealing  the 
 same,)  under  pain  of  irregularity." 
 
 In  the  primitive  Church,  no  other  con- 
 fession of  sins  was  required  in  order  to 
 receive  baptism  than  the  general  renunci- 
 ation of  the  devil  and  all  his  works. 
 
 Nor  did  the  Church  lay  any  obligation 
 on  the  consciences  of  men,  to  make  either 
 public  or  private  confession  of  their  sins 
 to  any  but  God,  in  order  to  qualify  them 
 for  the  coynmunion.  The  confessions  of  the 
 primitive  Christians  were  all  voluntary, 
 and  not  imposed  upon  them  by  any  laws 
 of  the  Church.  Notwithstanding  which  it 
 must  be  owned,  that  private  confession, 
 though  not  absolutely  required,  yet  was 
 allowed  and  encouraged  by  the  ancients, 
 in  some  cases,  and  upon  special  occasions. 
 For,  first,  they  advised  men,  in  case  of 
 lesser  sins,  to  make  confession  mutually  to 
 each  other,  that  they  might  have  each 
 other's  prayers  and  assistance,  according  to 
 the  advice  of  St.  James,  "  Confess  your 
 faults  one  to  another,  and  pray  for  one 
 another,  that  ye  m«ay  be  healed."    Which, 
 
 though  it  be  produced  by  the  Romanists 
 in  favour  of  auricular  confession  to  a  priest, 
 yet  the  ancients  understood  it  only  as  a 
 direction  to  Christians  to  confess  mutually 
 to  each  other.     2.  In  case  of  injuries  done 
 to  any  private  person,  it  was  expected  that 
 the  offender  should  make  a  private  confes- 
 sion of  his  fault  to  the  person  injured.     3. 
 "When  men  were  under  any  perplexities  of 
 mind,  or  troubles  of  conscience,  this  was 
 another  case  in  which  they  were  directed 
 to  have  recourse  to  some  pastor,  and  to 
 take  his  counsel  and  advice.     4.  Origen 
 gives  another  reason  for  confessing  private 
 sins  to  the  priest,  which  is,  that  he  was  the 
 fittest  judge   when  it  was  proper  to   do 
 public  penance  for  private  offences.     (See 
 Penitentiary.) — Bingham,  b.  xv.  ch.  8,  §  6. 
 The  Romish  Church  not  only  requires 
 confession  as  a  duty,  but  has  advanced  it 
 to  the  dignity  of  a  sacrament ;  and  this 
 greatly  adds  to  the  power  of  the  clergy  of 
 that  Church  over  the  laity.     "  Confession 
 submits   a   fearful    penitent,   whose   con- 
 science is  oppressed  with  scruples,  loaded 
 with   remorse,   and  weakened  by  the  re- 
 membrance of  its  sins,  to  the  absolute  wiU 
 of  a  cunning  priest,  who  beholds  sceptres 
 at   his  feet,  humbles  crowns,  and   makes 
 those  tremble  who  strike  terror  into  whole 
 nations."     Confession,  in  the   Church  of 
 Rome,  must  be  made  in  the  day-time,  and, 
 if  possible,  when  there  are  people  in  the 
 church.     As  soon  as  the  penitent  comes 
 up  to  the  confessional,  or  the  seat  of  the 
 priest  who  confesses,  he  makes  the  sign  of 
 the  cross,  and  asks  the  confessor's  blessing. 
 Then  the  penitent  kneels,  with  his  hands 
 clasped  and  uplifted.     The  confessional  is 
 open  before,  and  has  two  lattice  windows 
 in  it,  one  on   each  side.     The   confessor 
 sits  with  his  cap  on  his  head,  and  his  ear 
 stooped   towards    the   penitent,  in  which 
 posture  he  receives   his    confession   in   a 
 whisper ;  whence  it  is  called  auricular  con- 
 fcssioji.     This  ended,  the  priest  uncovers 
 himself,  and  stretching  out  his  right  hand 
 towards  the  penitent,  pronounces  the  ab- 
 solution.   (See  Penance.)  —  Casal  de  Veter. 
 Christ.  Ritib.    Alefs  Ritual. 
 
 That  confession  is  a  custom  observed  in 
 the  Greek  Church  is  past  all  dispute. 
 Ricaut  calls  this  practice  "  One  of  the  fun- 
 damental pillars  of  the  Eastern  Churches  ; 
 the  axis  upon  which  their  whole  ecclesias- 
 tical polity  turns,  and  that  without  which 
 the  clergy  would  no  longer  have  any 
 authority  or  influence  over  the  consciences 
 of  the  people,  and  would  very  seldom  be 
 able  to  reprove  them  in  a  country  where 
 they  could  fly  to  the  arms  of  infidels  for 
 shelter  and  protection  against  the  censures 
 
CONFESSION. 
 
 227 
 
 and  reprehensions  of  their  own  pastors." 
 There  are  four  stated  times  in  the  year  for 
 confession.  The  penitent  withdraws  with 
 the  priest  to  some  remote  corner  of  the 
 church,  where  he  sits  down,  with  his  head 
 uncovered,  and  the  confessor  assures  him, 
 the  angel  of  the  Lord  is  there  present  to  take 
 his  cotrfessio?!,  exhorting  him  at  the  same 
 time  to  conceal  none  of  his  sins.  After 
 confession,  the  penitent  receives  absolu- 
 tion, and  gives  the  priest  a  small  gratuity 
 of  money  for  his  trouble.  If  we  may  credit 
 a  judicious  and  learned  traveller,  the  prac- 
 tice of  confession  is  enormously  abused  by 
 the  Greeks.  If  a  penitent  acknowledges 
 he  has  robbed  another,  the  priest  asks  him 
 whether  the  person  injured  be  a  native  of 
 his  own  country,  or  a  Frank :  if  the  peni- 
 tent answers,  the  latter,  "  Then  there  is  no 
 harm  done,"  says  the  priest,  "  provided  we 
 share  the  booty  between  us."  These  are 
 natural  consequences  of  the  ignorance  and 
 poverty  of  the  Greeks  in  general. — Tourne- 
 forVs  Voyac/es. 
 
 "  It  standeth  with  us  in  the  Church  of 
 England,"  saith  Hooker, "  as  touching  pub- 
 lic confession,  thus :  First,  seeing  day  by 
 day  we  in  our  Church  begin  our  public 
 prayers  to  Almighty  God  with  public  ac- 
 knowledgment of  our  sins,  in  which  con- 
 fession every  man,  prostrate  before  his 
 glorious  majesty,  crieth  against  himself, 
 and  the  minister  with  one  sentence  pro- 
 nounceth  universally  all  clear  whose  ac- 
 knowledgment hath  proceeded  from  a  true 
 penitent  mind,  what  reason  is  there  every 
 man  should  not,  under  the  general  terms 
 of  confession,  represent  to  himself  his 
 own  particulars  whatsoever,  and  adjoining 
 thereto  that  affection  which  a  contrite 
 spirit  worketh,  embrace  to  as  full  effect 
 the  words  of  Divine  grace,  as  if  the  same 
 were  severally  and  particularly  uttered, 
 with  addition  of  prayers,  imposition  of 
 hands,  and  all  ceremonies  and  solemnities, 
 that  might  be  used  for  the  strengthening 
 of  men's  affiance  in  God's  peculiar  mercy 
 towards  them  ?  The  difference  of  general 
 and  particular  forms  in  confession,  is  not  so 
 material  that  any  man's  safety  or  ghostly 
 good  should  depend  upon  it."  "As  for 
 private  confession,"  says  Bishop  Jewel, 
 "  abuses  and  errors  set  apart,  we  condemn 
 it  not,  but  leave  it  at  liberty." — Brough- 
 ton.     Bingham. 
 
 All  that  can  plainly  be  deduced  from 
 the  scriptural  doctrine  concerning  confes- 
 sion is  this,  that,  in  common  or  ordinary 
 sins,  we  are  to  acknowledge  them  before 
 Almighty  God,  either  particularly  in  our 
 private,  or  generally  in  our  public  devo- 
 tion ;  but  as  for  some  sins  of  a  more  ex- 
 Q  2 
 
 traordinary  kind,  the  heinousness  whereof 
 ordinary  Christians  may  not  be  sufficiently 
 apprized  of,  or  which  may  be  attended 
 with  such  nice  circumstances  as  perplex 
 their  consciences,  here  resort  is  proper  to 
 be  made  to  the  ministers  of  the  Church, 
 who,  as  physicians  of  the  soul,  are  best 
 able  to  advise  the  fittest  remedies  upon 
 such  uncommon  emergencies.  Matters  of 
 this  kind  stood  within  these  limits  for 
 a  considerable  time  after  the  fii'st  pro- 
 pagating of  the  gospel ;  but,  during  the 
 piety  of  very  early  times,  another  sort 
 of  confession  came  in  use,  for  it  having 
 been  the  practice  for  excommunicates, 
 before  their  reception  into  the  Church,  to 
 make  a  solemn  confession  of  their  faults 
 before  the  whole  congregation,  some  per- 
 sons who  had  fallen  into  a  great  sin,  though 
 they  had  never  been  censured  for  it, 
 thought  it  a  part  of  their  duty  to  take 
 upon  themselves  a  public  shame  for  it, 
 by  discovering  it  to  the  whole  congre- 
 gation they  were  members  of,  and  to 
 desire  their  prayers  to  GoD  for  their  par- 
 don. Some  difficulties  and  inconvenience 
 arising  from  this  practice,  about  the  year 
 360,  the  office  of  a  public  penitentiary  in 
 the  Greek  Church  began,  who  was  to  be 
 a  presbyter  of  good  conversation,  prudent, 
 and  one  who  could  keep  a  secret ;  to 
 whom  those  who  were  lapsed  into  any 
 greater  sin  might  confess  it ;  and  he,  ac- 
 cording to  his  discretion,  was  to  enjoin  a 
 penance  for  it.  But  still  there  was  no 
 command  for  all  people  to  confess  their 
 sins  to  this  presbyter.  In  the  Latin 
 Chui'ch,  the  practice  of  public  confession 
 to  the  whole  congregation  continued  100 
 years  longer,  viz.  till  the  time  of  Pope 
 Leo,  which  was  about  the  year  450,  who, 
 by  an  injunction  of  his,  did  abrogate  it; 
 and,  after  some  time,  the  Greek  Church 
 began  to  grow  weary  of  this  private  con- 
 fession to  a  penitentiary,  and  so  laid  it 
 aside.  But  whilst  private  confession  to 
 ministers  was  practised,  in  some  of  the 
 earlier  ages  of  the  Church,  recourse  was 
 had  to  them  only  as  spiritual  physicians 
 and  counsellors,  as  appears  by  many  pas- 
 sages of  antiquity.  In  the  Council  of 
 Lateran,  A.  d.  1215,  every  person,  of  each 
 sex,  was  obliged  once  in  a  year  to  confess 
 to  the  minister  of  his  parish,  the  sins 
 which  he  had  been  guilty  of.  Auricular 
 confession  to  the  priest  being  thus  estab- 
 lished, some  of  the  school  divines  of  the 
 Bomish  Church  carried  it  to  further 
 lengths,  making  it  to  be  an  article  of  faith  ; 
 to  be  received  by  the  priest,  not  minis- 
 terially, but  j  udicially  and  authoritatively ; 
 that  every  smgle  sin  must  be  discovered 
 
228 
 
 CONFESSION. 
 
 to  them,  with  all  its  aggravating  circum- 
 stances, &c.  All  -which  horrible  tp-anny 
 over  men's  consciences,  and  diving  into 
 the  secrets  of  families  and  governments, 
 was  confirmed  by  the  Council  of  Trent. 
 The  excellent  compilers  of  our  liturgy, 
 willing  to  settle  this  upon  the  ancient 
 bottom,  ordered  only  a  general  confession 
 of  sins  to  be  pronounced  by  all  persons 
 indifferently,  not  requiring  any  particular 
 confessions  to  be  made,  thereby  coming 
 much  nearer  to  the  apostolical  practice 
 than  the  Roman  liturgy  can  pretend  to, 
 in  all  which  service  there  is  no  confes- 
 sion which  the  people  share  in  ;  for  their 
 "  Conjiteor  tibi,  Domijie,^^  &c.  in  the  mass, 
 relates  to  the  priest,  and  the  "  Conjiteor 
 Deo  omnipotenti"  "  JSeatce  Marice"  &c.  in 
 the  breviary,  is  the  confession  only  of  the 
 clergy. — NichoUs. 
 
 Forms  of  confession  are  generally  to  be 
 met  with  in  the  liturgies  of  antiquity,  but 
 a  form  superior,  or  equal,  to  our  own  is 
 nowhere  to  be  found.  Our  confession, 
 like  the  prayer  which  Jesus  taught  us, 
 though  concise,  is  comprehensive  and  full. 
 It  is  conceived  in  general  terms,  yet  at 
 the  same  time  it  is  so  particular,  that  it 
 includes  every  kind  of  sin.  Where  the 
 minister  is  not  too  precipitate,  when  he 
 allows  the  congregation  time  to  repeat  it, 
 with  such  deliberation,  that  their  hearts 
 may  go  along  with  their  words,  each  indi- 
 vidual may,  and  ought,  under  the  general 
 form,  to  make  a  particular  mental  confes- 
 sion of  his  own  personal  sins,  known  only  to 
 God  and  his  own  conscience. — Shepherd. 
 
 At  the  time  of  the  review  of  the  liturgy, 
 A.  D.  1661,  it  was  objected  by  the  Pres- 
 byterian clergy  against  this  Confession, 
 that  there  was  no  preparatory  prayer  for 
 God's  assistance  and  acceptance  ;  and  that 
 it  was  defective  in  not  clearly  expressing 
 "  original  sin,"  nor  enumerating  actual  sins 
 with  their  aggravations.  To  which  it  was 
 answered  by  the  Episcopalian  commission- 
 ers, that  the  preparatory  sentences,  and 
 the  preceding  exhortation,  amply  supplied 
 this ;  and  that  the  form  being  so  general 
 is  rather  a  perfection  than  a  defect,  as  in 
 such  case  all  may  join,  since  in  many 
 things  we  offend  all.  And  as  to  the  notice 
 of  original  sin,  they  conceived  that  to  be 
 sufficiently  acknowledged  in  the  sentence, 
 (with  others,  as  the  "  devices  and  desires 
 of  our  own  hearts,"  &c.,)  "  and  there  is  no 
 health  in  us."  With  respect  to  the  general 
 terms  used  throughout  the  Common  Prayer 
 Book,  dissenters  have  complained  of  such 
 expressions  as,  "that  we  may  do  God's 
 will" — "that  we  may  be  kept  from  all 
 evil,"  &c. ;  to  which  the  Episcopalians  pro- 
 
 perly remark,  "  these  are  almost  the  very 
 terms  in  the  Lord's  Prayer  ;  so  that  they 
 must  reform  that,  before  they  can  pretend 
 to  amend  our  liturgy  in  these  petitions." 
 
 The  reader  may  judge  how  far  the  ob- 
 jections are  worthy  of  notice,  by  the  form 
 composed  by  Calvin  himself,  and  used  by 
 the  French  reformed  Churches,  which  is 
 as  follows : — "  O  Lord  God,  eternal  and 
 almighty  Father,  we  acknowledge  and 
 confess  before  thy  sacred  Majesty,  that  we 
 are  miserable  sinners,  conceived  and  born 
 in  sin  and  iniquity ;  prone  to  evil,  and  in- 
 disposed to  every  good  work;  and  that 
 being  vicious,  we  make  no  end  of  trans- 
 gressing thy  holy  commandments.  Here- 
 by we  call  destruction  upon  ourselves  from 
 thy  just  judgment.  But  yet,  O  Lord,  we 
 are  heartily  sorry  for  having  offended  thee, 
 and  we  condemn  ourselves  and  sins  by 
 true  repentance,  desiring  thy  grace  may 
 relieve  our  misery.  Therefore,  O  God, 
 merciful  Father,  vouchsafe  us  thy  mercy, 
 in  the  name  of  thy  Son  Jesus  Christ  our 
 Lord.  Blot  out  our  sins,  and  purge  away 
 all  our  filth,  and  daily  increase  in  us  the 
 gifts  of  thy  Holy  Spirit.  That  we,  ac- 
 knowledging our  iniquity  from  the  bottom 
 of  our  hearts,  may  more  and  more  dis- 
 please ourselves,  and  be  excited  to  true 
 repentance ;  which,  mortifying  us  and  all 
 our  sins,  may  produce  in  us  the  fruits  of 
 righteousness  and  innocence,  acceptable 
 unto  thee  through  the  same  Jesus  Christ 
 our  Lord."  It  appears,  indeed,  that  our 
 Confession  was  in  great  measure  suggested 
 by  this  form,  or  rather  by  the  translation 
 of  it  made  by  Valerandus  Pollanus,  for 
 the  reformed  congregation  of  Strasburg. 
 — See  Laurence^s  Batrqyton  Lectures. 
 
 There  is  hardly  anything  in  public  wor- 
 ship which  requires  more  caution  and 
 prudence  in  the  ordering  of  it,  than  that 
 confession  of  sin  which  is  to  be  made  by 
 the  whole  congregation ;  it  may  be  too 
 loose  and  general  on  the  one  side,  or  it 
 may  be  too  particular  and  distinct  on  the 
 other.  There  may  be  this  inconvenience 
 in  a  confession  very  short  and  general, 
 that  takes  in  all,  that  it  does  not  so  well 
 serve  to  excite  or  to  express  that  due 
 sense  of  sin,  nor  to  exercise  that  humility 
 and  self-abasement,  wherewith  we  should 
 always  confess  our  sins  to  God.  On  the 
 other  hand,  the  inconvenience  of  a  very 
 particular  and  distinct  confession  of  sins 
 will  be  this,  that  some  sins,  with  their  ag- 
 gravations, may  be  confessed  in  the  name 
 of  the  whole  congregation,  of  which  it  is 
 by  no  means  to  be  supposed  that  all  are 
 guilty;  and  then  they,  who  through  the 
 grace  of  GoD  have  been  kept  from  them. 
 
CONFESSIONS  OF  FAITH. 
 
 229 
 
 cannot  in  good  earnest  make  such  con- 
 fession.— Clagetfs  Answer  to  Disse)iters. 
 
 The  General  Confession  with  the  Abso- 
 lution, was  first  inserted  in  the  Morning 
 and  Evening  Prayer,  by  the  Second  Book 
 of  King  Edward  VI. 
 
 A  Confession  was  formerly  recited  in  the 
 office  for  the  first  hour  of  the  morning,  ac- 
 cordhig  to  the  rites  of  the  English  Churches. 
 It  occurred  in  the  course  of  prayers  which 
 came  at  the  end  of  the  service :  and  had  this 
 arrangement  been  regarded  by  the  reform- 
 ers, the  Confession  and  Absolution  would 
 now  be  placed  immediately  before  the  col- 
 lect for  the  day.  There  were,  however,  good 
 reasons  for  placing  the  Confession  at  the 
 beginning  of  the  office.  Christian  humility 
 would  naturally  induce  us  to  approach  the 
 infinitely  holy  God  with  a  confession  of 
 our  sinfulness  and  unworthiness  ;  and  this 
 position  of  the  Confession  is  justified  by 
 the  practice  of  the  Eastern  Church  in  the 
 time  of  Basil,  who  observes  that  the  people 
 all  confessed  their  sins  with  great  con- 
 trition, at  the  beginning  of  the  nocturnal 
 service,  and  before  the  psalmody  and 
 lessons  commenced. — Palmer. 
 
 Even  in  the  most  penitential  parts  of 
 our  service,  even  in  the  midst  of  accommo- 
 dation to  the  wants  of  persons  entering  on 
 a  course  of  amendment,  there  is  a  prospect 
 opened,  of  mature,  established,  and  vic- 
 torious Christianity  ....  Our  "  Almighty 
 and  most  merciful  Father"  is  entreated 
 not  only  to  remit  the  punishment,  but  to 
 abolish  the  power  of  sin.  And  the  abso- 
 lution and  remission  of  our  sins  itself,  is 
 made  to  consist,  not  merely  in  the  reversal 
 of  a  sentence,  and  removal  of  a  curse,  but 
 in  the  influence  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  conse- 
 quent on  true  repentance,  and  productive, 
 not  of  mere  temporary  and  outward  amend- 
 ment, but  of  that  inward  abiding  "  purity 
 and  holiness,  for  the  rest  of  our  life," 
 which,  "  at  the  last,"  will  bring  us  to 
 "  God's  eternal  jov." — Bishop  Jehb. 
 
 CONFESSIONS  OF  FAITH.  The 
 systems  of  theology  drawn  up  by  foreign 
 reformers  were  frequently  called  Confes- 
 sions of  Faith.  The  following  are  the  Con- 
 fessions of  the  diff"erent  Churches. 
 
 I.  That  of  the  Greek  Church,  entitled 
 "  The  Confessions  of  the  True  and  Genuine 
 Faith,"  which  was  presented  to  Mohammed 
 II.,  in  145;J,  but  which  gave  place  to  the 
 "  Orthodox  Confession  of  the  Catholic  and 
 Apostolic  Greek  Church,"  composed  by 
 Mogila,  metropolitan  of  Kiev,  in  Russia, 
 and  approved  in  164.'3,  with  great  solemn- 
 ity, by  the  patriarchs  of  Constantinople, 
 Alexandria,  Antioch,  and  Jerusalem.  It 
 contains  the  standard  of  the  principles  of 
 
 the  Russian  Greek  Church.  —  See  ]\[r. 
 Palmer's  (of  Magd.  Coll.  Oxf.)  Collection 
 of  Russian  Symbolical  Books ;  and  3Ir. 
 Neale's  Hist,  of  the  Greek  Church. 
 
 2.  The  Church  of  Rome,  though  she  has 
 always  received  the  Apostles',  Nicenc,  and 
 Athanasian  Creeds,  had  no  fixed  public 
 and  authoritative  symbol  till  the  Covmcil 
 of  Trent.  A  summary  of  the  doctrines 
 contained  in  the  canons  of  that  council  is 
 given  in  the  creed  published  by  Pius  IV., 
 (1564,)  in  the  form  of  a  bull.  It  is  intro- 
 duced by  the  Nicene  Creed,  to  which  it 
 adds  twelve  articles,  comprising  those  doc- 
 trines which  the  Church  of  Rome  finally 
 adopted  after  her  controversies  with  the 
 Reformers.  (See  Creed  of  Pope  Pius 
 IV.) 
 
 3.  The  Lutherans  call  their  standard 
 books  of  faith  and  discipline,  "  Libri  S}Tn- 
 bolici  Ecclesice  Evangelicic."  They  contain 
 the  three  creeds  above  mentioned,  the 
 Augsburg  Confession,  the  Apology  for  that 
 Confession  by  Mclancthon,  the  Articles  of 
 Smalcald,  drawn  up  by  Luther;  the  Cate- 
 chisms of  Luther  ;  and,  in  many  churches, 
 the  Form  of  Concord,  or  Book  of  Torgau. 
 The  best  edition  is  that  by  Tittmann, 
 Leipsic,  1817.  The  Saxon,  (composed  by 
 Melancthou,)  Wurtemberg,  Suabian,  Po- 
 meranian, Mansfeldlian,  and  Copenhagen 
 Confessions  agree  in  general  with  the  sym- 
 bolical books  of  the  Lutherans,  but  are  of 
 authority  only  in  the  countries  from  which 
 they  are  respectively  called. 
 
 4.  The  Confessions  of  the  Calvinistic 
 Churches  are  numerous.  The  following 
 are  the  principal : — (1.)  The  Helvetic  Con- 
 fessions are  three — that  of  Basle,  1530; 
 the  Summary  and  Confession  of  the  Hel- 
 vetic Churches,  1536;  and  the  "  Expositio 
 Simplex,"  &c.,  1566,  ascribed  to  Bullinger. 
 (2.)  The  Tetrapolitan  Confession,  1531, — 
 which  derives  its  name  from  the  four  cities 
 of  Strasburg,  Constance,  Memmingen, 
 and  Lindau,  by  the  deputies  of  which  it 
 was  signed, — is  attributed  to  Bucer.  (3.) 
 The  Palatine  or  Heidelberg  Confession, 
 framed  by  order  of  the  Elector  Palatine 
 John  Casimir,  1575.  (4.)  The  Confession 
 of  the  Gallic  Churches,  accepted  at  the  first 
 synod  of  the  reformed,  held  at  Paris,  1559. 
 (5.)  The  Confession  of  the  Reformed 
 Churches  in  Belgium,  di-awn  up  in  1559, 
 and  approved  in' 1561.  (6.)  The  Confes- 
 sion of  Faith  of  the  Kirk  of  Scotland, 
 which  was  that  composed  by  the  assembly 
 at  AVestminster,  was  received  as  the  stand- 
 ard of  the  Scotch  national  faith,  in  1690. — 
 See  the  following  article.  See  also  Har- 
 mony of  Confessions,  or  the  Faith  of  Chris- 
 tian and  Reformed  Churches,  1643;  and 
 
230    CONFESSION,  WESTMINSTER. 
 
 Sylloge   Confessionum,   sub   tempus   Re- 
 formandae  Ecclesiae,  Oxon.  1804. 
 
 CONFESSION  OF  FAITH,  WEST- 
 MINSTER. The  Confession  of  Faith 
 which  was  drawn  up  by  the  Puritans  in 
 England,  and  which  is  adopted  by  the 
 Scottish  establishment.  The  ordinance 
 under  which  the  assembly  which  drew  up 
 this  Confession  sat  at  Westminster  com- 
 mences thus  : 
 
 An  Ordinance  of  the  Lords  and  Commons 
 assembled  in  Parliament,  for  the  calling 
 of  an  Assembly  of  learned  and  godly 
 Divines,  and  others,  to  be  consulted 
 with  by  the  Parliament,  for  the  settling 
 of  the  government  and  liturgy  of  the 
 Church  of  England ;  and  for  vindicating 
 and  clearing  of  the  doctrine  of  the  said 
 Church  from  false  aspersions  and  inter- 
 pretations.    June  12,  1643. 
 
 "WTiereas,  amongst  the  infinite  blessings 
 of  Almighty  God  upon  this  nation,  none 
 is  nor  can  be  more  dear  unto  us  than  the 
 purity  of  our  religion ;  and  for  that,  as 
 yet,  many  things  remain  in  the  liturgy, 
 discipline,  and  government  of  the  Church, 
 which  do  necessarily  require  a  further  and 
 more  perfect  reformation  than  as  yet  hath 
 been  attained ;  and  whereas  it  hath  been 
 declared  and  resolved  by  the  Lords  and 
 Commons  assembled  in  Parliament,  that 
 the  present  Church-government  by  arch- 
 bishops, their  chancellors,  commissars, 
 deans,  deans  and  chapters,  archdeacons, 
 and  other  ecclesiastical  officers  depending 
 upon  the  hierarchy,  is  evil,  and  justly  of- 
 fensive and  burdensome  to  the  kingdom,  a 
 great  impediment  to  reformation  and 
 growth  of  religion,  and  very  prejudicial  to 
 the  state  and  government  of  this  kingdom ; 
 and  therefore  they  are  resolved  that  the 
 same  shall  be  taken  away,  and  that  such  a 
 government  shall  be  settled  in  the  Church 
 as  may  be  most  agreeable  to  God's  holy 
 word,  and  most  apt  to  procure  and  pre- 
 serve the  peace  of  the  Church  at  home, 
 and  nearer  agreement  with  the  Chui-ch  of 
 Scotland,  and  other  Reformed  Churches 
 abroad ;  and,  for  the  better  effecting  here- 
 of, and  for  the  vindicating  and  clearing  of 
 the  doctrine  of  the  Church  of  England 
 from  all  false  calumnies  and  aspersions,  it 
 is  thought  fit  and  necessary  to  call  an 
 Assembly  of  learned,  godly,  and  judicious 
 Divines,  who,  together  with  some  mem- 
 bers of  both  the  Houses  of  Parliament,  are 
 to  consult  and  advise  of  such  matters  and 
 things,  touching  the  premises,  as  shall  be 
 proposed  unto  them  by  both  or  either  of 
 the^  Houses  of  Parliament,  and  to  give 
 their  advice  and  counsel  therein  to  both  or 
 
 CONFESSION,  KIRK  OF  SCOTLAND. 
 
 either  of  the  said  Houses,  when,  and  as 
 often  as,  they  shall  be  thereunto  required. 
 The  Confession  consists  of  thirty-three 
 chapters,  of  which  the  following  are  the 
 heads : — 
 
 CHAP. 
 
 I.  Of  the  Holy  Scripture. 
 
 II.  Of  God,  and  of  the  Holy  Trinity. 
 
 III.  Of  God's  Eternal  Decree. 
 
 IV.  Of  Creation. 
 
 V.  Of  Providence. 
 
 VI.  Of  the  Fall  of  Man,  of  Sin,  and  of 
 the  Punishment  thereof. 
 
 VII.  Of  God's  Covenant  with  Man. 
 
 VIII.  Of  Christ  the  Mediator. 
 
 IX.  Of  Free  Will. 
 
 X.  Of  Eff-ectual  Calling. 
 XL  Of  Justification. 
 
 XII.  Of  Adoption. 
 
 XIII.  Of  Sanctification. 
 
 XIV.  Of  Saving  Faith. 
 
 XV.  Of  Repentance  unto  Life. 
 
 XVI.  Of  Good  Works. 
 
 XVII.  Of  the  Perseverance  of  the  Saints. 
 
 XVIII.  Of  Assurance  of  Grace  and  Sal- 
 vation. 
 
 XIX.  Of  the  Law  of  God. 
 
 XX.  Of  Christian  Liberty,  and  Liberty  of 
 Conscience. 
 
 XXL  Of  Religious  Worship,  and  the  Sab- 
 bath-day. 
 
 XXII.  Of  lawful  Oaths  and  Vows. 
 
 XXIII.  Of  the  Civil  Magistrate. 
 
 XXIV.  Of  Marriage  and  Divorce. 
 
 XXV.  Of  the  Church. 
 
 XXVI.  Of  Communion  of  Saints. 
 
 XXVII.  Of  the  Sacraments. 
 
 XXVIII.  Of  Baptism. 
 
 XXIX.  Of  the  Lord's  Supper. 
 
 XXX.  Of  Church  Censures. 
 
 XXXI.  Of  Synods  and  Councils. 
 
 XXXII.  Of  the  State  of  Men  after  Death, 
 and  of  the  Resurrection  of  the  Dead. 
 
 XXXIII.  Of  the  last  Judgment. 
 
 The  Westminster  Confession  of  Faith 
 was  approved  by  the  general  assembly  of 
 the  Kirk  of  Scotland,  on  the  27th  of 
 August,  1647,  Sess.  23,  and  was  ratified 
 by  Act  of  the  Scottish  Parliament,  7th 
 February,  1649. — See  next  article. 
 
 CONFESSION  OF  FAITH  OF  THE 
 KIRK  OF  SCOTLAND,  or  THE  NA- 
 TIONAL COVENANT. 
 
 Subscribed  at  first  by  the  King's  Majesty, 
 and  his  Household,  in  the  Year  1580; 
 thereafter  by  persons  of  all  ranks  in  the 
 year  1581,  by  ordinance  of  the  Lords  of 
 secret  council,  and  acts  of  the  General 
 Assembly ;  subscribed  again  by  all  sorts 
 of  persons  in  the  year  1590,  by  a  new 
 ordinance  of  council,  at  the  desire  of  the 
 
CONFESSION  OF  FAITH  OF  THE  KIRK  OF  SCOTLAND 
 
 231 
 
 General  Assembly  :  with  a  general  bond 
 for  the  mamtaining  of  the  true  Christian 
 religion,  and  the  King's  person  ;  and, 
 together  with  a  resolution  and  promise, 
 for  the  causes  after  expressed,  to  main- 
 tain the  true  religion,  and  the  King's 
 Majesty,  according  to  the  foresaid  Con- 
 fession and  acts  of  Parliament,  subscrib- 
 ed by  Barons,  Nobles,  Gentlemen,  Bur- 
 gesses, Ministers,  and  Commons,  in  the 
 year  1638  :  appro ven  by  the  General 
 Assembly  1638  and  1639;  and  sub- 
 scribed again  by  persons  of  all  ranks  and 
 qualities  in  the  year  1639,  by  an  ordin- 
 ance of  council,  upon  the  supplication 
 of  the  General  Assembly,  and  act  of  the 
 General  Assembly,  ratified  by  an  act  of 
 Parliament  1640 ;  and  subscribed  by 
 King  Charles  II.  at  Spey,  June  23, 1650, 
 and  Scoon,  January  1,  1651. 
 
 We  all  and  every  one  of  us  under-writ- 
 ten, protest,  That,  after  long  and  due 
 examination  of  our  own  conscience  in 
 matters  of  true  and  false  religion,  we  are 
 now  throughly  resolved  in  the  truth  by  the 
 word  and  Spuit  of  God  :  and  therefore  we 
 believe  with  our  hearts,  confess  with  our 
 mouths,  subscribe  with  our  hands,  and  con- 
 stantly affirm,  before  God  and  the  whole 
 world,  that  this  only  is  the  true  Christian 
 faith  and  religion,  pleasing  God,  and  bring- 
 ing salvation  to  man,  which  now  is,  by  the 
 mercy  of  God,  revealed  to  the  world  by  the 
 preaching  of  the  blessed  evangel ;  and  is 
 received,  believed,  and  defended  by  many 
 and  sundry  notable  kirks  and  realms,  but 
 chiefly  by  the  kirk  of  Scotland,  the  King's 
 Majesty,  and  three  estates  of  this  realm,  as 
 God's  eternal  truth,  and  only  ground  of  our 
 salvation  ;  as  more  particularly  is  express- 
 ed in  the  Confession  of  our  Faith,  establish- 
 ed and  publickly  confirmed  by  sundry  acts  of 
 Parliaments,  and  now  of  a  long  time  hath 
 been  openly  professed  by  the  King's  Ma- 
 ^"esty,  and  whole  body  of  this  realm  both 
 in  burgh  and  land.  To  the  which  Confession 
 and  Form  of  Religion  we  willingly  agree 
 in  our  conscience  in  all  points,  as  unto 
 God's  undoubted  truth  and  verity,  ground- 
 ed only  upon  his  written  word.  And 
 therefore  we  abhor  and  detest  all  contrary 
 religion  and  doctrine  ;  but  chiefly  all  kind 
 of  Papistry  in  general  and  particular  heads, 
 even  as  they  are  now  damned  and  confuted 
 by  the  word  of  God  and  Kirk  of  Scotland. 
 But,  in  special,  we  detest  and  refuse  the 
 usurped  authority  of  that  Koman  Anti- 
 christ upon  the  Scriptures  of  God,  upon  the 
 kirk,  the  civil  magistrate,  and  consciences 
 of  men ;  all  his  tyrannous  laws  made  upon 
 indifferent   things   against   our   Christian 
 
 liberty ;  his  erroneous  doctrine  against  the 
 sufficiency  of  the  written  word,  the  perfec- 
 tion of  the  law,  the  office  of  Christ,  and  his 
 blessed  evangel ;  his  corrupted  doctrine 
 concerning  original  sin,  our  natural  in- 
 ability andrebelHon  to  God's  law,  our  justifi- 
 cation by  faith  only,  our  imperfect  sanctifi- 
 cation  and  obedience  to  the  law ;  the  nature, 
 number,  and  use  of  the  holy  sacraments ; 
 his  five  bastard  sacraments,  with  all  his 
 rites,  ceremonies,  and  false  doctrine,  added 
 to  the  ministration  of  the  true  sacraments 
 without  the  word  of  God ;  his  cruel  judg- 
 ment against  infants  departing  without  the 
 sacrament ;  his  absolute  necessity  of  baptism; 
 his  blasphemous  opinion  of  transubstantia- 
 tion,  or  real  presence  of  Christ's  body  in 
 the  elements,  and  receiving  of  the  same  by 
 the  wicked,  or  bodies  of  men  ;  his  dispens- 
 ations with  solemn  oaths,  perjuries,  and 
 degrees  of  marriage  forbidden  in  the  word, 
 his  cruelty  against  the  innocent  divorced  ; 
 his  devilish  mass  ;  his  blasphemous  priest- 
 hood ;  his  profane  sacrifice  for  sins  of  the 
 dead  and  the  quick;  his  canonization  of 
 men  ;  calling  upon  angels  or  saints  depart- 
 ed, worshipping  of  imagery,  relicks,  and 
 crosses ;  dedicating  of  kirks,  altars,  days ; 
 vows  to  creatures  ;  his  purgatory,  prayers 
 for  the  dead ;  praying  or  speaking  in  a 
 strange  language,  with  his  processions, 
 and  blasphemous  litany,  and  multitude  of 
 advocates  or  mediators  ;  his  manifold 
 orders,  auricular  confession  ;  his  desperate 
 and  uncertain  repentance ;  his  general  and 
 doubtsome  faith ;  his  satisfactions  of  men 
 for  their  sins ;  his  justification  by  works, 
 opus  operatum,  works  of  supererogation, 
 merits,  pardons,  peregrinations,  and  sta- 
 tions ;  his  holy  water,  baptizing  of  bells, 
 conjuring  of  spirits,  crossing,  sayning, 
 anointing,  conjuring,  hallowing  of  God's 
 good  creatures,  with  the  superstitious  opi- 
 nion joined  therewith  ;  his  worldly  mon- 
 archy, and  wicked  hierarchy ;  his  tliree 
 solemn  vows,  with  all  his  sha veilings  of 
 sundry  sorts ;  his  erroneous  and  bloody 
 decrees  made  at  Trent,  with  all  the  sub- 
 scribers or  approvers  of  that  cruel  and 
 bloody  band,  conjured  against  the  kirk 
 of  God.  And  finally,  we  detest  all  his 
 vain  allegories,  rites,  signs,  and  tradi- 
 tions brought  in  the  kirk,  without  or 
 against  the  word  of  God,  and  doctrine  of 
 this  true  reformed  kirk  ;  to  the  vrhich  we 
 join  ourselves  willingly,  in  doctrine,  faith, 
 religion,  discipline,  and  use  of  the  holy 
 sacraments,  as  lively  members  of  the  same 
 in  Christ  our  Head :  promising  and  swear- 
 ing, by  the  great  name  of  the  Lord  our 
 God,  that  we  shall  continue  in  the  obedi- 
 ence of  the  doctrine  and  discipline  of  this 
 
132 
 
 CONFESSION  OF  FAITH  OF  THE  KIRK  OF  SCOTLAND. 
 
 kirk,*  and  shall  defend  the  same,  accord- 
 ing to  our  vocation  and  power,  all  the  days 
 of  our  lives  ;  under  the  pains  contained  in 
 the  law,  and  danger  both  of  body  and  soul 
 in  the  day  of  God's  fearful  judgment. 
 
 And  seeing  that  many  are  stirred  up  by 
 Satan,  and  that  Roman  Antichrist,  to 
 promise,  swear,  subscribe,  and  for  a  time  use 
 the  holy  sacraments  in  the  kirk  deceitfully, 
 against  their  own  conscience ;  minding 
 hereby,  first,  under  the  external  cloak  of 
 religion,  to  corrupt  and  subvert  secretly 
 God's  true  religion  within  the  kirk ;  and 
 afterward,  when  time  may  serve,  to  become 
 open  enemies  and  persecutors  of  the  same, 
 under  vain  hope  of  the  pope's  dispensation, 
 devised  against  the  word  of  God,  to  his 
 greater  confusion,  and  their  double  con- 
 demnation in  the  day  of  the  Lord  Jesus  : 
 we  therefore,  willing  to  take  away  all 
 suspicion  of  hypocrisy,  and  of  such  double 
 dealing  with  God,  and  his  kirk,  protest, 
 and  call  the  Searcher  of  all  hearts  for 
 witness,  that  our  minds  and  hearts  do  fully 
 agree  with  this  our  Confession,  promise, 
 oath,  and  subscription :  so  that  we  are  not 
 moved  with  any  worldly  respect,  but  are 
 persuaded  only  in  our  conscience,  through 
 the  knowledge  and  love  of  God's  true  re- 
 ligion imprinted  in  our  hearts  by  the  Holy 
 Spirit,  as  we  shall  answer  to  him  in  the  day 
 when  the  secrets  of  all  hearts  shall  be 
 disclosed. 
 
 And  because  we  perceive,  that  the  quiet- 
 ness and  stability  of  our  religion  and  kirk 
 doth  depend  upon  the  safety  and  good  beha- 
 viour of  the  King's  Majesty,  as  upon  a  com- 
 fortable instrument  of  God's  mercy  granted 
 to  this  country,  for  the  maintaining  of  his 
 kirk,  and  ministration  of  justice  amongst 
 us;  we  protest  and  promise  with  our 
 hearts,  under  the  same  oath,  hand- writ,  and 
 pains,  that  we  shall  defend  his  person  and 
 authority  with  our  goods,  bodies,  and  lives, 
 in  the  defence  of  Christ,  his  evangel,  liber- 
 ties of  our  country,  ministration  of  justice, 
 and  punishment  of  iniquity,  against  all 
 enemies  within  this  realm  or  without,  as 
 we  desire  our  God  to  be  a  strong  and  mer- 
 ciful defender  to  us  in  the  day  of  our  death, 
 and  coming  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ ;  to 
 whom,  with  the  Father,  and  the  Holy  Spirit, 
 be  all  honour  and  glory  eternally.    Amen. 
 
 Likeas  many  Acts  of  Parliament,  not 
 only  in  general  do  abrogate,  annul,  and 
 rescind  all  laws,  statutes,  acts,  constitu- 
 tions, canons  civil  or  municipal,  with  all 
 other  ordinances,  and  practique  penalties 
 
 *  The  Confession  which  was  subscribed   at 
 
 Halyrud-house  the  25tli  of  February,   1587-8, 
 
 by  the  King,  Lennox,  Huntly,  the  Chancellor,      ment. 
 
 and  about  ninety-five  other  persons,  hath  here  | 
 
 whatsoever,  made  in  prejudice  of  the  true 
 religion,  and  professors  thereof;  or  of  the 
 true  ku'k,  discipline,  jurisdiction,  and  free- 
 dom thereof;  or  in  favours  of  idolatry 
 and  superstition,  or  of  the  Papistical  kirk  : 
 as  Act  3,  Act  31,  Pari.  1,  Act  23,  Pari.  11, 
 Act  114,  Pari.  12,  of  King  James  VL 
 That  Papistry  and  superstition  may  be 
 utterly  suppressed,  according  to  the  in- 
 tention of  the  Acts  of  Parliament,  repeated 
 in  the  fifth  Act,  Pari.  20,  King  James  VL 
 And  to  that  end  they  ordain  all  Papists 
 and  priests  to  be  punished  with  manifold 
 civil  and  ecclesiastical  pains,  as  adversaries 
 to  God's  true  religion,  preached,  and  by 
 law  established,  within  this  realm,  Act  24, 
 Pari.  11,  King  James  VL ;  as  common 
 enemies  to  all  Christian  government.  Act 
 18,  Pari.  16,  King  James  VL  ;  as  rebellers 
 and  gainstanders  of  our  Sovereign  Lord's 
 authority.  Act  47,  Pari.  3,  King  James  VI. ; 
 and  as  idolaters,  Act  104,  Pari.  7,  King 
 James  VI.  But  also  in  particular,  by  and 
 attour  the  Confession  of  Faith,  do  abolish 
 and  condemn  the  Pope's  authority  and 
 jurisdiction  out  of  this  land,  and  ordains 
 the  maintainers  thereof  to  be  punished. 
 Act  2,  Pari.  1,  Act  51,  Park  3,  Act  106, 
 Pari.  7,  Act  114,  Pari.  12,  King  James  VL, 
 do  condemn  the  Pope's  erroneous  doctrine, 
 or  any  other  erroneous  doctrine  repugnant 
 to  any  of  the  articles  of  the  true  and 
 Christian  religion,  publicly  preached  and 
 by  law  established  in  this  realm ;  and 
 ordains  the  spreaders  and  makers  of  books, 
 or  libels,  or  letters  or  writs  of  that  nature, 
 to  be  punished.  Act  46,  Pari.  3,  Act  106, 
 Pari.  7,  Act  24,  Pari.  11,  King  James  VL, 
 do  condemn  all  baptism  conform  to  the 
 Pope's  kii'k,  and  the  idolatry  of  the  mass ; 
 and  ordains  all  sayers,  wilful  hearers,  and 
 concealers  of  the  mass,  the  maintainers 
 and  resetters  of  the  priests,  Jesuits,  traf- 
 ficking Papists,  to  be  punished  without 
 any  exception  or  restriction,  Act  5,  Pari. 
 1,  Act  120,  Park  12,  Act  164,  Park  13,  Act 
 193,  Park  14,  Act  1,  Park  19,  Act  5,  Park 
 20,  King  James  VL,  do  condemn  all  erro- 
 neous books  and  writs  containing  erro- 
 neous doctrine  against  the  religion  pre- 
 sently professed,  or  containing  superstitious 
 rites  and  ceremonies  Papistical,  whereby 
 the  people  are  greatly  abused,  and  ordains 
 the  home-bringers  of  them  to  be  punished, 
 Act  25,  Park  11,  King  James  VL,  do  con- 
 demn the  monuments  and  dregs  of  bygone 
 idolatry,  as  going  to  crosses,  observing  the 
 festival  days  of  saints,  and  such  other  su- 
 
 added,  **  Agreeing  to  the  word."  Sir  John 
 Maxwell  of  Pollock  hath  the  original  parch- 
 
CONFESSION  OF  FAITH  OF  THE  KIRK  OF  SCOTLAND. 
 
 233 
 
 perstitious  and  Papistical  rites,  to  the  dis- 
 honour of  God,  contempt  of  true  religion, 
 and  fostering  of  great  error  among  the 
 people  ;  and  ordains  the  users  of  them  to 
 be  punished  for  the  second  fault  as  idol- 
 aters. Act  104,  Pari,  7,  King  James  VI. 
 
 Likeas  many  Acts  of  Parliament  are  con- 
 ceived for  maintenance  of  God's  true  and 
 Christian  religion,  and  the  purity  thereof, 
 in  doctrine  and  sacraments  of  the  true 
 church  of  God,  the  liberty  and  freedom 
 thereof,  in  her  national,  synodal  assem- 
 blies, presbyteries,  sessions,  policy,  disci- 
 pline, and  jurisdiction  thereof;  as  that 
 purity  of  religion,  and  liberty  of  the  church 
 was  used,  professed,  exercised,  preached, 
 and  confessed,  according  to  the  reforma- 
 tion of  religion  in  this  realm.  As  for  in- 
 stance, the  99th  Act,  Pari.  7,  Act  25,  Pari. 
 11,  Act  114,  Pari.  12,  Act  160,  Pari.  13,  of 
 King  James  VI.,  ratified  by  the  4th  Act  of 
 King  Charles.  So  that  the  6th  Act,  Pari. 
 1,  and  68th  Act,  Pari.  6,  of  King  James 
 VL,  in  the  year  of  God  1579,  declare  the 
 ministers  of  the  blessed  evangel,  whom 
 God  of  his  mercy  had  raised  up,  or  here- 
 after should  raise,  agreeing  with  them  that 
 then  lived,  in  doctrine  and  administration 
 of  the  sacraments ;  and  the  people  that 
 professed  Christ,  as  he  was  then  offered 
 in  the  evangel,  and  doth  communicate 
 with  the  holy  sacraments  (as  in  the  reform- 
 ed kirks  of  this  realm  they  were  presently 
 administrate)  according  to  the  Confession 
 of  Faith,  to  be  the  true  and  holy  kirk  of 
 Christ  Jesus  within  this  realm.  And 
 decerns  and  declares  all  and  sundry,  who 
 either  gainsay  the  word  of  the  evangel  re- 
 ceived and  approved  as  the  heads  of  the 
 Confession  of  Faith,  professed  in  Parlia- 
 ment in  the  year  of  God  1560,  specified  also 
 in  the  first  Parliament  of  King  James  VL, 
 and  ratified  in  this  present  Parliament,  more 
 particularly  do  express  ;  or  that  refuse  the 
 administration  of  the  holy  sacraments,  as 
 they  were  then  ministrated ;  to  be  no 
 members  of  the  said  kirk  within  this  realm, 
 and  true  religion  presently  professed,  so 
 long  as  they  keep  themselves  so  divided 
 from  the  society  of  Christ's  body.  And 
 the  subsequent  Act  69,  Pari.  6,  of  King 
 James  VI.  declares,  that  there  is  no  other 
 face  of  kirk,  nor  other  face  of  religion, 
 than  was  presently  at  that  time,  by  the 
 favour  of  God,  established  within  this 
 realm :  "  "VVliich  therefore  is  ever  styled 
 God's  true  religion,  Christ's  true  reli- 
 gion, the  true  and  Christian  religion,  and 
 a  perfect  religion  ; "  which,  by  manifold 
 Acts  of  Parliament,  all  within  this  realm 
 are  bound  to  profess,  to  subscribe  the  arti- 
 cles thereof,  the  Confession  of  Faith,  to 
 
 recant  all  doctrine  and  errors  re})ugnant 
 to  any  of  the  said  articles.  Act  4  and  9, 
 Pari,  'l,  Acts  45,  46,  47,  Pari.  3,  Act  71, 
 Pari.  6,  Act  106,  Pari.  7,  Act  24,  Pari.  11, 
 Act  123,  Pari.  12,  Act  194  and  197,  Pari. 
 14,  of  King  James  VI.  And  all  magis- 
 trates, sheriffs,  &c.  on  the  one  part,  are 
 ordained  to  search,  apprehend,  and  punish 
 all  contraveners  :  For  instance.  Act  5,  Pari. 
 1,  Act  104,  Pari.  7,  Act  25,  Pari.  11,  King 
 James  VI.  ;  and  that,  notwithstanding  of 
 the  King's  Majesty's  licences  on  the  con- 
 trary, which  are  discharged,  and  declared 
 to  be  of  no  force,  in  so  far  as  they  tend  in 
 anywise  to  the  prejudice  and  hinder  of  the 
 execution  of  the  Acts  of  Parliament  against 
 Papists  and  adversaries  of  true  religion, 
 Act  106,  Pari.  7,  King  James  VI.  On  the 
 other  part,  in  the  47th  Act,  Pari.  3,  King 
 James  VI.  it  is  declared  and  ordained, 
 Seeing  the  cause  of  God's  true  religion 
 and  his  Highness's  authority  are  so  joined, 
 as  the  hurt  of  the  one  is  common  to  both ; 
 that  none  shall  be  reputed  as  loyal  and 
 faithful  subjects  to  our  sovereign  Lord,  or 
 his  authority,  but  be  punishable  as  rebel- 
 lers  and  gainstanders  of  the  same,  who 
 shall  not  give  their  confession,  and  make 
 their  profession  of  the  said  true  religion  : 
 and  that  they  who,  after  defection,  shall 
 give  the  confession  of  their  faith  of  new, 
 they  shall  promise  to  continue  therein  in 
 time  coming,  to  maintain  our  sovereign 
 Lord's  authority,  and  at  the  uttermost  of 
 their  power  to  fortify,  assist,  and  main- 
 tain the  true  preachers  and  professors  of 
 Christ's  religion,  against  whatsoever  ene- 
 mies and  gainstanders  of  the  same ;  and, 
 namely,  against  all  such,  of  whatsoever 
 nation,  estate,  or  degree  they  be  of,  that 
 have  joined  or  bound  themselves,  or  have 
 assisted,  or  assist,  to  set  forward  and  exe- 
 cute the  cruel  decrees  of  the  Council  of 
 Trent,  contrary  to  the  true  preachers  and 
 professors  of  the  word  of  God  ;  which  is 
 repeated,  word  by  word,  in  the  articles  of 
 pacification  at  Perth,  the  23rd  of  February, 
 1572,  approved  by  Parliament  the  last  of 
 April,  1573,  ratified  in  Parliament  1587, 
 and  related  Act  123,  Pari.  12,  of  King 
 James  VI. ;  with  this  addition,  "  That  they 
 are  bound  to  resist  all  treasonable  uproars 
 and  hostihtics  raised  against  the  true  re- 
 ligion, the  King's  Majesty,  and  the  true 
 professors." 
 
 Likeas,  all  lieges  are  bound  to  maintain 
 the  King's  INIajesty's  royal  person  and  au- 
 thority, the  authority  of  Parliaments,  with- 
 out the  which  neither  any  laws  or  lawful 
 judicatories  can  be  established.  Acts  130 
 and  131,  Pari.  8,  King  James  VI. ,  and  the 
 subjects'  liberties,  who  ought  only  to  live 
 
234 
 
 CONFESSION  OF  FAITH  OF  THE  KIRK  OF  SCOTLAND. 
 
 and  be  governed  by  the  King's  laws,  the 
 common  laws  of  this  realm  allenarly,  Act 
 48,  Pari.  3,  King  James  I,,  Act  79,  Pari. 
 6,  King  James  IV. ;  repeated  in  the  Act 
 131,  Pari.  8,  King  James  YI.  ;  which  if 
 they  be  innovated  and  prejudged,  "  the 
 commission  anent  the  union  of  the  two 
 kingdoms  of  Scotland  and  England,  which 
 is  the  sole  act  of  the  17th  Pari,  of  King 
 James  VI.,  declares,"  such  confusion  would 
 ensue  as  this  realm  could  be  no  more  a 
 free  monarchy:  because,  by  the  funda- 
 mental laws,  ancient  privileges,  offices,  and 
 liberties  of  this  kingdom,  not  only  the 
 princely  authority  of  his  Majesty's  royal 
 descent  hath  been  these  many  ages  main- 
 tained, but  also  the  people's  security  of 
 their  lands,  livings,  rights,  offices,  liber- 
 ties, and  dignities  preserved.  And,  there- 
 fore, for  the  preservation  of  the  said  true 
 religion,  laws,  and  liberties  of  this  king- 
 dom, it  is  statute  by  the  8th  Act,  Pari.  1, 
 repeated  in  the  99th  Act,  Pari.  7,  ratified 
 in  the  23rd  Act,  Pari.  11,  and  114th  Act, 
 Pari.  12,  of  King  James  VI.,  and  4th  Act, 
 Pari.  1,  of  King  Charles  I.,  "That  all 
 Kings  and  Princes  at  their  coronation, 
 and  reception  of  their  princely  authority, 
 shall  make  their  faithful  promise  by  their 
 solemn  oath,  in  the  presence  of  the  eter- 
 nal God,  that,  enduring  the  whole  time  of 
 their  lives,  they  shall  serve  the  same  eter- 
 nal God,  to  the  uttermost  of  their  power, 
 according  as  he  hath  required  in  his  most 
 holy  word,  contained  in  the  Old  and  New 
 Testament ;  and  according  to  the  same 
 word,  shall  maintain  the  true  religion  of 
 Christ  Jesus,  the  preaching  of  his  holy 
 word,  the  due  and  right  ministration  of 
 the  sacraments  now  received  and  preached 
 within  this  realm,  (according  to  the  Con- 
 fession of  Faith  immediately  preceding,) 
 and  shall  abolish  and  gainstand  all  false 
 rehgion  contrary  to  the  same;  and  shall 
 rule  the  people  committed  to  their  charge, 
 according  to  the  will  and  command  of 
 God  revealed  in  his  foresaid  word,  and  ac- 
 cording to  the  laudable  laws  and  constitu- 
 tions received  in  this  realm,  nowise  repug- 
 nant to  the  said  will  of  the  eternal  God  ; 
 and  shall  procure,  to  the  uttermost  of  their 
 power,  to  the  kirk  of  God,  and  whole 
 Christian  people,  true  and  perfect  peace  in 
 all  time  coming ;  and  that  they  shall  be 
 careful  to  root  out  of  their  empire  all  here- 
 tics and  enemies  to  the  true  worship  of 
 God,  who  shall  be  convicted  by  the  true 
 kirk  of  God  of  the  foresaid  crimes." 
 Which  was  also  observed  by  his  Majesty, 
 at  his  coronation  in  Edinburgh,  1633,  as 
 may  be  seen  in  the  order  of  the  coronation. 
 In  obedience  to  the  commandment  of 
 
 God,  conform  to  the  practice  of  the  godly 
 in  former  times,  and  according  to  the  laud- 
 able example  of  our  worthy  and  religious 
 progenitors,  and  of  many  yet  living  amongst 
 us,  which  was  warranted  also  by  act  of 
 council,  commanding  a  general  band  to  be 
 made  and  subscribed  by  his  Majesty's  sub- 
 jects of  all  ranks ;  for  two  causes :  one 
 was.  For  defending  the  true  religion,  as  it 
 was  then  reformed,  and  is  expressed  in  the 
 Confession  of  Faith  above  Avritten,  and  a 
 former  large  Confession  established  by 
 sundry  acts  of  lawful  General  Assemblies 
 and  of  Parliaments,  unto  which  it  hath  re- 
 lation, set  down  in  public  Catechisms ;  and 
 which  hath  been  for  many  years,  with  a 
 blessing  from  Heaven,  preached  and  pro- 
 fessed in  this  kirk  and  kingdom,  as  God's 
 undoubted  truth,  grounded  only  upon  his 
 WTitten  word.  The  other  cause  was,  For 
 maintaining  the  King's  Majesty,  his  per- 
 son and  estate ;  the  true  worship  of  God 
 and  the  King's  authority  being  so  straitly 
 joined,  as  that  they  had  the  same  friends 
 and  common  enemies,  and  did  stand  and 
 fall  together.  And  finally,  being  convinced 
 in  our  minds,  and  confessing  with  our 
 mouths,  that  the  present  and  succeeding 
 generations  in  this  land  are  bound  to  keep 
 the  foresaid  national  oath  and  subscription 
 inviolable. 
 
 We  Noblemen,  Barons,  Gentlemen,  Bur- 
 gesses, Ministers,  and  Commons  under- 
 subscribing,  considering  divers  times  be- 
 fore, and  especially  at  this  time,  the  danger 
 of  the  true  reformed  religion,  of  the  King's 
 honour,  and  of  the  public  peace  of  the 
 kingdom,  by  the  manifold  innovations  and 
 evils,  generally  contained,  and  particularly 
 mentioned  in  our  late  supplications,  com- 
 plaints, and  protestations ;  do  hereby  pro- 
 fess, and  before  God,  his  angels,  and  the 
 w^orld,  solemnly  declare.  That  with  our 
 whole  heart  we  agree,  and  resolve  all  the 
 days  of  our  life  constantly  to  adhere  unto 
 and  to  defend  the  foresaid  true  religion, 
 and  (forbearing  the  practice  of  all  inno- 
 vations already  introduced  in  the  matters 
 of  the  worship  of  God,  or  approbation  of 
 the  corruptions  of  the  public  government 
 of  the  kirk,  or  civil  places  and  power  of 
 kirkmen,  till  they  be  tried  and  allowed  in 
 free  assemblies  and  in  parliament)  to  la- 
 bour, by  all  means  lawful,  to  recover  the 
 purity  and  liberty  of  the  Gospel,  as  it  was 
 established  and  professed  before  the  fore- 
 said novations.  And  because,  after  due 
 examination,  we  plainly  perceive,  and  un- 
 doubtedly believe,  that  the  innovations 
 and  evils  contained  in  our  supplications, 
 complaints,  and  protestations,  have  no 
 warrant  of  the  word  of  God,  are  contrary 
 
CONFESSION  OF  FAITH  OF  THE  KIRK  OF  SCOTLAND. 
 
 235 
 
 to  the  articles  of  the  foresaid  Confession, 
 to  the  intention  and  meaning  of  the  blessed 
 reformers  of  religion  in  this  land,  to  the 
 above-written  Acts  of  Parliament ;  and  do 
 sensibly  tend  to  the  re-establishing  of  the 
 Popish  religion  and  tyranny,  and  to  the 
 subversion  and  ruin  of  the  true  reformed 
 religion,  and  of  our  liberties,  laws,  and 
 estates  ;  w'e  also  declare,  That  the  foresaid 
 Confessions  are  to  be  interpreted,  and 
 ought  to  be  understood  of  the  foresaid  no- 
 vations and  evils,  no  less  than  if  every  one 
 of  them  had  been  expressed  in  the  fore- 
 said Confessions  ;  and  that  we  are  obliged 
 to  detest  and  abhor  them,  amongst  other 
 particular  heads  of  Papistry  abjured  there- 
 in. And  therefore,  from  the  knoAvledge 
 and  conscience  of  our  duty  to  God,  to  our 
 King  and  country,  without  any  worldly 
 respect  Or  inducement,  so  far  as  human 
 infirmity  will  sufter,  wishing  a  further 
 measure  of  the  grace  of  God  for  this  ef- 
 fect ;  we  promise  and  swear,  by  the  GREAT 
 NAME  OF  THE  LoRD  OUR  GoD,  to  con- 
 tinue in  the  profession  and  obedience  of 
 the  foresaid  religion  ;  and  that  we  shall 
 defend  the  same,  and  resist  all  these  con- 
 trary errors  and  corruptions,  according  to 
 our  vocation,  and  to  the  uttermost  of  that 
 power  that  God  hath  put  in  our  hands,  all 
 the  days  of  our  life. 
 
 And  in  like  manner,  with  the  same  heart, 
 we  declare  before  God  and  men.  That  we 
 have  no  intention  nor  desire  to  attempt 
 anything  that  may  turn  to  the  dishonour 
 of  God,  or  to  the  diminution  of  the  King's 
 greatness  and  authority ;  but,  on  the  con- 
 trary, we  promise  and  swear.  That  we 
 shall,  to  the  uttermost  of  our  power,  wdth 
 our  means  and  lives,  stand  to  the  defence 
 of  our  dread  Sovereign  the  King's  Majesty, 
 his  person  and  authority,  in  the  defence 
 and  preservation  of  the  foresaid  true  re- 
 ligion, liberties,  and  laws  of  the  kingdom  ; 
 as  also  to  the  mutual  defence  and  assist- 
 ance every  one  of  us  of  another,  in  the 
 same  cause  of  maintaining  the  true  re- 
 ligion, and  his  Majesty's  authority,  with 
 our  best  counsel,  our  bodies,  means,  and 
 whole  power,  against  all  sorts  of  persons 
 whatsoever;  so  that  whatsoever  shall  be 
 done  to  the  least  of  us  for  that  cause,  shall 
 be  taken  as  done  to  us  all  in  general,  and 
 to  every  one  of  us  in  particular.  And 
 that  we  shall  neither  directly  nor  indi- 
 rectly sufi'er  ourselves  to  be  divided  or 
 withdrawn,  by  whatsoever  suggestion, 
 combination,  allurement,  or  terror,  from 
 this  blessed  and  loyal  conjunction ;  nor 
 shall  cast  in  any  let  or  impediment  that 
 may  stay  or  hinder  any  such  resolution  as 
 by  common  consent  shall  be  found  to  con- 
 
 duce for  so  good  ends ;  but,  on  the  con- 
 trary, shall  by  all  lawful  means  labour  to 
 furtlier  and  promote  the  same  :  and  if  any 
 such  dangerous  and  divisive  motion  be 
 made  to  us  by  Avord  or  writ,  we,  and  every 
 one  of  us,  shall  either  suppress  it,  or,  if 
 need  be,  shall  incontinent  make  the  same 
 known,  that  it  may  be  timcously  obviated. 
 Neither  do  we  fear  the  foul  aspersions  of 
 rebellion,  combination,  or  what  else  our 
 adversaries,  from  their  craft  and  malice, 
 would  put  upon  us ;  seeing  what  we  do  is 
 so  well  warranted,  and  ariseth  from  an 
 unfeigned  desire  to  maintain  the  true 
 worship  of  God,  the  majesty  of  our  King, 
 and  the  peace  of  the  kingdom,  for  the 
 common  happiness  of  ourselves  and  our 
 posterity. 
 
 And  because  we  cannot  look  for  a  bless- 
 ing from  God  upon  our  proceedings,  ex- 
 cept with  our  profession  and  subscription 
 we  join  such  a  life  and  conversation  as  be- 
 seemeth  Christians  who  have  renewed  their 
 covenant  with  God ;  we  therefore  faith- 
 fully promise  for  ourselves,  our  followers, 
 and  all  others  under  us,  both  in  public, 
 and  in  our  particular  families,  and  per- 
 sonal carriage,  to  endeavour  to  keep  our- 
 selves within  the  bounds  of  Christian 
 liberty,  and  to  be  good  examples  to  others 
 of  all  godliness,  soberness,  and  righteous- 
 ness, and  of  every  duty  we  owe  to  God 
 and  man. 
 
 And,  that  this  our  union  and  conjunc- 
 tion may  be  observed  without  violation, 
 we  call  the  LmNG  God,  the  searcher 
 OF  OUR  hearts,  to  witness,  who  knoweth 
 this  to  be  our  sincere  desire  and  unfeigned 
 resolution,  as  we  shall  answer  to  Jesus 
 Christ  in  the  great  day,  and  under  the 
 pain  of  God's  everlasting  wrath,  and  of 
 infamy  and  loss  of  all  honour  and  respect 
 in  this  world :  most  humbly  beseeching 
 the  Lord  to  strengthen  us  by  his  Holy 
 Spirit  for  this  end,  and  to  bless  our  de- 
 su*es  and  proceedings  with  a  happy  suc- 
 cess ;  that  religion  and  righteousness  may 
 flourish  in  the  land,  to  the  glory  of  God, 
 the  honour  of  our  King,  and  peace  and 
 comfort  of  us  all.  In  witness  whereof,  we 
 have  subscribed  w'ith  our  hands  all  the 
 premises. 
 
 The  article  of  this  covenant,  which 
 was  at  the  first  subscription  referred  to 
 the  determination  of  the  General  Assembly, 
 being  now  determined  ;  and  thereby  the 
 five  articles  of  Perth,  the  government  of 
 the  kirk  by  bishops,  and  the  civil  places 
 and  power  of  kirkmen,  upon  the  reasons 
 and  grounds  contained  in  the  Acts  of  the 
 General  Assembly,  declared  to  be  unlaw- 
 
236 
 
 CONFESSION  OF  AUGSBOURG. 
 
 fal  within  this  kirk,  we  subscribe  accord- 
 ing to  the  determination  aforesaid. 
 
 This,  together  with  the  Solemn  League 
 and  Covenant,  (which  see,)  is  bound  up 
 with  and  added  to  the  Westminster  Con- 
 fession of  Faith,  and  published  by  author- 
 ity of  the  Scottish  Establishment.  But 
 an  eminent  member  of  that  establishment 
 officiating  at  present  as  a  dissenting  minister 
 in  London,  asserts  that  no  licentiate  or 
 minister  of  the  Scottish  Establishment  has 
 signed  or  been  asked  to  sign  this,  or  the 
 Solemn  League  and  Covenant,  for  the  last 
 150  years.  This  does  not,  however,  ex- 
 onerate the  religious  community  which  still 
 publishes  these  documents  authoritatively 
 from  the  charge  of  intolerance  ;  and  all 
 classes  of  Episcopalians,  including  of 
 course  the  Church  of  England,  are  in- 
 volved in  these  fearful  anathemas. 
 
 CONFESSION  OF  AUGSBOURG,  or 
 AUGUSTAN  CONFESSION.  A  con- 
 fession of  faith,  drawn  up  by  Melancthon, 
 and  presented  by  him  and  Luther  to  the 
 emperor  Charles  V.  at  Augsbourg,  in  the 
 year  1530.  It  was  divided  into  two  parts, 
 and  was  designed  to  support  all  the  points 
 of  the  Lutheran  reformation,  and  to  show 
 the  heterodoxy  of  the  Church  of  Home. — 
 Maimborirg^  Hist,  du  Lufheranisme. 
 
 The  first  part  contained  twenty-one  arti- 
 cles. The  first  acknowledged  and  agreed 
 to  all  the  decisions  of  the  first  four  general 
 councils,  concerning  the  Trinity.  Tlie  se- 
 cond admitted  of  original  sin,  but  defined 
 it  diff"erently  from  the  Church  of  Rome, 
 making  it  to  consist  only  in  concupiscence. 
 The  third  contained  the  substance  of  the 
 Apostles'  Creed.  The  fourth  maintained, 
 against  the  Pelagians,  that  a  man  cannot 
 be  justified  by  the  mere  strength  and 
 capacity  of  nature ;  and,  against  the  Ro- 
 man Catholics,  that  justification  is  the 
 eff'ect  of  faith,  exclusive  of  good  works. 
 The  fifth  agreed  with  the  Church  of  Rome, 
 that  the  word  of  GoD,  and  the  sacraments, 
 are  the  means  of  conveying  the  Holy 
 Spirit,  but  differed  from  that  communion, 
 by  asserting  that  this  Divine  operation  is 
 never  present  without  faith.  The  sixth  af- 
 fii-med,  that  our  faith  ought  to  produce 
 good  works,  purely  in  obedience  to  God, 
 and  not  in  order  to  our  own  justification. 
 The  seventh  made  the  time  Church  to  con- 
 sist of  none  but  the  righteous.  The  eighth 
 acknowledged  the  validity  of  the  sacra- 
 ments, though  administered  by  hypocrites 
 or  wicked  persons.  The  ninth  asserted, 
 against  the  Anabaptists,  the  necessity  of 
 infant  baptism.  The  tenth  acknowledged 
 the  presence   of  the  bodv  and   blood   of 
 
 Christ  under  the  consecrated  elements  ; 
 adding,  that  this  mysterious  presence  in 
 the  holy  sacrament  continued  with  the 
 elements  only  during  the  time  of  receiving, 
 and  that  the  eucharist  ought  to  be  given 
 in  both  kinds.  The  eleventh  granted  the 
 necessity  of  absolution  to  penitents,  but 
 denied  their  being  obliged  to  make  a  par- 
 ticular confession  of  their  sins.  The  twelfth 
 condemned  the  Anabaptists,  who  affirm, 
 that  whoever  is  once  justified  cannot  fall 
 from  grace ;  as  also  the  Novatians,  who 
 refused  absolution  to  sins  committed  after 
 baptism ;  asserting  withal,  against  the 
 Church  of  Rome,  that  a  repenting  sinner 
 is  not  made  capable  of  forgiveness  by  any 
 acts  of  penance  whatever.  The  thirteenth 
 required  actual  faith  from  those  who  par- 
 ticipate of  the  sacraments.  The  fourteenth 
 forbad  those,  who  were  not  lawfully  called, 
 to  teach  in  the  Church,  or  administer  the 
 sacraments.  The  fifteenth  appointed  the  ob- 
 servation of  the  festivals,  and  prescribed  the 
 ceremonies  of  the  Church.  The  sixteenth 
 acknowledged  the  obligation  of  civil  laws. 
 The  seventeenth  acknowledged  the  resur- 
 rection, heaven,  and  hell,  and  condemned 
 the  two  following  errors  of  the  Anabap- 
 tists and  Fifth-monarchy  men  ;  viz.  That 
 the  punishment  of  the  devils  and  the 
 damned  will  have  an  end,  and  that  the 
 saints  will  reign  with  Christ  a  thousand 
 years  upon  earth.  The  eighteenth  de- 
 clared, that  our  wills  are  not  sufficiently 
 free,  in  actions  relating  to  the  promoting 
 of  our  salvation.  The  nineteenth  main- 
 tained, that,  notwithstanding  God  created 
 man,  and  still  continues  to  preserve  him, 
 God  neither  is,  nor  can  be,  the  author  of  sin. 
 The  twentieth  affirmed,  that  good  works 
 are  not  altogether  unprofitable  :  and  the 
 twenty-first  forbad  the  invocation  of  saints. 
 The  second  part  of  the  Augustan  Con- 
 fession is  altogether  in  opposition  to  the 
 Church  of  Rome,  referring  to  the  seven 
 principal  abuses,  on  which  the  Lutherans 
 found  the  necessity  of  separating  from  the 
 communion  of  that  Church.  The  first  head 
 enjoined  communion  in  both  kinds,  and 
 forbad  the  procession  of  the  holy  sacra- 
 ment. The  second  condemned  the  celibacy 
 of  priests.  By  the  third,  private  masses 
 were  abolished,  and  some  part  at  least  of 
 the  congregation  were  obliged  to  commu- 
 nicate with  the  priest.  The  fourth  declared 
 against  the  necessity  of  making  a  parti- 
 cular confession  of  sins  to  the  priest.  The 
 fifth  rejected  tradition.  The  sixth  disal- 
 lowed of  monastic  vows  :  and  the  seventh 
 asserted,  that  the  power  of  the  Church 
 consisted  only  in  preaching  the  gospel 
 and  administering  the  sacraments. 
 
CONFESSIONAL. 
 
 CONFIRMATION. 
 
 237 
 
 This  confession  of  faith  was  signed  by 
 the  Elector  of  Saxony,  and  his  eklest  son, 
 by  the  jNIarquis  of  Brandenbourg,  by  the 
 Landgrave  of  Hesse,  the  Prince  of  Hai- 
 nault,  and  the  republics  of  Nuremberg  and 
 Rutlingua.  It  was  argued  before  the  em- 
 peror Charles  V.,  but  rejected  ;  the  lloman 
 Catholics  having  a  majority  of  votes  in  the 
 council.  This  was  followed  by  a  confer- 
 ence between  seven  deputies  of  each  party ; 
 in  which,  Luther  being  absent,  Melancthon, 
 by  his  mollifying  explanations,  brought 
 both  sides  to  an  agreement  in  relation  to 
 fifteen  of  the  first  twenty-one  articles.  But 
 the  conference  broke  vip  without  adjusting 
 all  the  differences  between  them. 
 
 CONFESSIONAL.  (See  Confession  and 
 Auricular  Confession.)  An  enclosed  seat 
 or  recess  in  Koman  churches  w^here  peni- 
 tents make  confession  to  the  priests. 
 
 CONFESSOR.  A  name  given  to  those 
 who  confessed  the  doctrine  of  Christ  be- 
 fore heathen  or  persecuting  judges ;  or  to 
 those  who  firmly  endiu-ed  punishment  for 
 defending  the  faith :  if  they  died  under 
 their  torments  they  were  called  martyrs. 
 Our  Lord  says  that  he  will  confess  before 
 his  heavenly  Father  them  that  shall  con- 
 fess him  before  men.  (Matt.  x.  32.)  The 
 Church  of  England  can  bless  God  for 
 having  honoured  her  with  many  confessors, 
 especially  during  the  persecution  which 
 was,  under  the  usurpation  of  Oliver  Crom- 
 well, raised  against  her  by  Presbyterians, 
 Independents,  and  Infidels.  In  the  time 
 of  Queen  Mary,  also,  there  were  confessors, 
 as  well  as  martyrs. 
 
 CONFESSOK,  in^  the  Romish  Church, 
 is  a  priest  who  receives  confession.  (See 
 Auricular  Confession.) 
 
 CONFIRMATION.  This  is  a  Latin 
 word  which  signifies  streyigthenimj .  It  is 
 used  to  express  the  rite  in  which  the 
 indwelling  grace  of  the  Holy  Ghost  is 
 sought  for  those  who  have  been  made 
 children  of  God  in  baptism  ;  to  which 
 sacrament  it  is,  strictly  speaking,  a  sup- 
 plemental rite.  This  ordinance  is  called 
 confirmation^  because  they  who  duly  re- 
 ceive it  are  confirmed  or  strengthened  for 
 the  fulfilment  of  their  Christian  duties  by 
 the  grace  therein  bestowed  upon  them. 
 The  words  which  accompany  confirmation 
 in  the  Eastern  Churches  are,  "  The  seal 
 of  the  gift  of  the  Holy  Ghost  :"  and  the 
 effect  of  it  is  well  expressed  in  that  ancient 
 prayer  which,  from  the  earliest  times,  has 
 been  used  in  all  the  Western  Churches : 
 "  Almighty  and  everlasting  God,  who  hast 
 vouchsafed  to  regenerate  these  thy  serv- 
 ants, by  w^ater  and  the  Holy  Ghost,  and 
 hast  given    unto   them  forgiveness  of  all 
 
 their  sins,  —  pour  into  them  thy  seven- 
 fold Spirit,  the  Holy  Comforter  from  hea- 
 ven ; "  or,  "  Strengthen  them,  we  beseech 
 thee,  with  the  Holy  Ghost,  the  Comforter." 
 In  the  Greek  and  African  Churches  con- 
 firmation is  administered  with  chrism,  an 
 unguent  consecrated  by  a  bishop  ;  in  the 
 Latin  Churches  with  the  same,  at  a  bishop's 
 hands  ;  in  the  English  Churches,  by  laying 
 on  of  the  bishop's  hands,  the  only  rite 
 mentioned  in  connexion  with  it  in  the 
 Scriptures :  "  Then  laid  they  their  hands 
 upon  them,  and  they  received  the  Holy 
 Ghost."     (Acts  viii.  17.) 
 
 In  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  confirm- 
 ation (there  spoken  of  under  the  term 
 "  laying  on  of  hands  ")  is  ranked  among 
 the  chief  fundamentals  of  Christian  doc- 
 trine, (Heb.  vi.  2,)  and  must  therefore  be 
 of  perpetual  obligation.  In  the  first  ages 
 of  the  Church,  confirmation  appears  to 
 have  been  administered  in  all  cases  as 
 soon  after  baptism  as  possible,  as  it  con- 
 tinues to  be  in  the  Greek  and  African 
 Churches.  But  in  the  Western  Churches, 
 for  the  last  three  or  four  hundred  years, 
 the  bishops  have  interposed  a  delay  of 
 seven  years  after  infant  baptism  :  which 
 delay  in  the  English  Churches  has  latterly 
 been  extended  to  fifteen  or  sixteen  years — 
 the  determination  of  the  age  being  left  to 
 the  bishop.  At  the  last  revision  of  our 
 Prayer  Book,  in  1661,  confirmation  was 
 made  an  occasion  of  requiring  from  those 
 who  have  been  baptized  in  infancy,  a  re- 
 newal, in  their  own  persons,  of  the  engage- 
 ments of  the  baptismal  covenant.  The 
 dispositions  of  mind  required  of  those  who 
 would  benefit  by  confii'mation  are  the 
 same  which  are  necessary  to  fit  men  for 
 receiving  grace  in  the  sacraments ;  name- 
 ly, repentance  and  faith :  without  which, 
 where  persons  are  capable  of  them,  neither 
 this  nor  any  of  the  means  of  grace  can 
 benefit  those  to  whom  they  are  adminis- 
 tered. 
 
 No  persons  are  admissible  to  the  holy 
 communion  unless  they  have  been  con- 
 firmed, or  are  ready  and  desirous  to  be 
 confirmed. — Buhric. 
 
 When  childi-en  are  well  instructed  in 
 the  vow  made  for  them  at  baptism,  by  the 
 Church  Catechism,  it  is  then  required  they 
 should  take  it  upon  themselves,  and  be 
 confirmed  by  the  bishop  :  which  holy  rite 
 of  confirmation,  though  it  were  not  in- 
 stituted by  Christ,  and  so  be  not  properly 
 a  sacrament,  yet  the  apostles  did  lay  their 
 hands  on  such  as  had  been  before  baptized 
 by  an  inferior  minister.  (Acts  viii.  14 — 17  ; 
 and  xix.  6.)  This  custom  the  primitive 
 Church  imitated  in  the  bishops  laying  on 
 
238 
 
 CONFIRMATION. 
 
 their  hands  with  holy  prayers,  upon  per- 
 sons that  had  been  baptized ;  which  was 
 believed  to  convey  the  Holy  Spirit  to 
 them  for  enabling  "them  to  keep  their  vow. 
 And  this  holy  rite  is  still  retained  in  the 
 Eastern  and  Western  Churches,  and  in  all 
 Protestant  Churches  where  they  have  bi- 
 shops. And  we  have  an  excellent  office 
 for  it,  containing,  first,  the  preparation  for 
 it  bv  a  serious  admonition  to  all  that  come 
 to  it,  a  solemn  engagement  from  the  parties 
 to  keep  their  vow,  with  some  acts  of  praise 
 and  prayer  suited  to  the  occasion.  Secondly, 
 the  rite  itself  consists  of  the  ceremony, 
 which  is  the  la}-ing  on  of  the  bishop's  hands, 
 and  his  benediction.  Thirdly,  the  office  is 
 concluded  with  prayers :  general,  as  the 
 Lord's  Prayer  :  and  peculiar  to  the  occa- 
 sion, as  the  two  collects ;  and  with  a  final 
 blessing. 
 
 The  person  who  doth  confirm  is  a 
 bishop,  to  which  order  the  ancient  CTim'ch 
 did  always  reserve  the  dispensing  of  this 
 rite,  because  the  apostles  only  did  this 
 (Acts  viii.  14) ;  and  therefore  the  bishops 
 are  highly  obliged  to  take  care  that  all  in 
 their  dioceses,  who  need  and  desire  it,  may 
 not  want  the  opportunity  of  coming  to  it. 
 The  persons  who  are  to  be  confirmed  are 
 all  that  have  been  baptized,  from  the  time 
 they  come  to  years  of  discretion,  or  how- 
 ever to  be  able  to  understand  the  nature 
 of  their  baptismal  vow,  which  they  are  here 
 to  take  upon  themselves;  and  since  we 
 baptize  infants,  it  is  more  necessary-  to 
 bring  them  to  confirmation ;  and  their  god- 
 fathers can  no  way  better  acquit  themselves 
 of  the  charge  they  have  undertaken,  than 
 by  taking  care,  as  the  Church  in  tliis  ex- 
 hortation requires,  that  they  may  learn 
 their  catechism,  and  understand  their  vow  ; 
 and  here  solemnly,  before  God  and  many 
 witnesses,  renew  it  in  their  own  name. 
 For,  secondly,  the  bishop  doth  particularly 
 inquire,  if  they  do  here  in  God's  presence, 
 and  before  all  the  congregation,  renew 
 that  solemn  vow  in  their  own  names  made 
 at  their  baptism  ;  and  if  they  do  engage  to 
 perform  and  do  what  was  promised  for 
 them  by  their  sureties  :  to  which  they  must 
 even*-  one  answer,  with  great  reverence 
 and  serious  consideration,  that  "  they  do." 
 Thirdly,  the  bishop  and  the  priests  that 
 are  present  begin  their  devotions,  encour- 
 aging the  parties  who  have  promised  this, 
 by  minding  them  that  they  shall  have 
 ''  help "  from  him  that  made  heaven  and 
 earth,  (Psal.  cxxiv.  7,)  and  praising  GoD 
 for  bringing  these  persons  into  so  blessed 
 a  condition.  (Psal.  cxiii.  2.)  Finally,  de- 
 siring him  to  hear  the  prayers  now  to 
 be  made  for  them.     Fourthly,  there  is  a 
 
 larger  form  of  prayer  made  by  the  bishop, 
 wherein  he  first  acknowledges  God's  mercy 
 in  granting  them  regeneration  and  pardon 
 of  their  sins  in  their  baptism;  and  now 
 that  they  are  to  exercise  that  warfare  they 
 then  engaged  themselves  to,  he  prays  for 
 a  larger  supply  of  God's  holy  Spirit  with 
 its  sevenfold  gifts  (Isa.  xi.  2) ;  so  that 
 they  may  be  made  so  wise  as  to  understand 
 their  duty,  and  so  strong  as  to  perform  it, 
 desiring  they  may  by  his  ministry  have 
 these  gifts  conveyed  to  them  now,  and,  by 
 their  diligent  improving  of  them,  keep 
 them  for  ever. 
 
 Being  thus  prepared,  the  rite  itself  is 
 now  to  be  administered  by  the  ancient 
 ceremony  of  lading  the  bishop's  hand  on 
 the  head  of  each  person,  used  by  the 
 apostles  as  the  means  of  convening  the 
 Holy  Spirit  (Acts  viii.  17) ;  whence  the 
 whole  office  is  called  laying  on  of  hands 
 (Heb.  vi.  2) ;  (yet  the  Papists  omit  this 
 apostolical  ceremony,  and  use  the  anointing 
 with  chrism,  which  came  later  into  the 
 Church).  The  bishop  also  gives  a  solemn 
 blessing  to  every  one,  desiring  God  to  de- 
 fend that  person  with  his  heavenly  grace, 
 from  forsaking  his  faith,  or  breaking  God's 
 commandments ;  that  is,  to  take  him  for 
 his  o-^-n,  and  seal  him  with  his  Spirit,  so 
 that  he  may  ever  after  look  on  him  as  one 
 of  his  own  children,  and  praying  that  he 
 may  daily  increase  in  grace  and  grow  wiser 
 and  better,  until  he  be  fit  for  that  heavenly 
 kingdom  which  GoD  hath  promised  to  him 
 in  baptism;  and  this  prayer  thus  ofi'ered 
 up  by  a  holy  man,  and  one  of  the  chief 
 officers  of  Christ's  Church,  shall  be  efi"ec- 
 tual  to  the  obtaining  of  the  Spirit  for  all 
 that  have  duly  prepared  themselves,  and 
 do  sincerely  make  and  renew  this  vow. 
 And  now  the  bishop  concludes  the  office, 
 first  with  the  usual  form,  desiring  God 
 may  be  with  them,  to  assist  them  in  these 
 prayers,  as  they  also  desire  he  may  be  with 
 his  spirit  who  is  to  ofi'er  them ;  calling  also 
 upon  God,  as  the  common  Father  of  all 
 that  are  confirmed,  and  so  in  covenant 
 with  him:  to  which  is  joined  the  proper 
 collect,  beginning  with  a  preface,  which 
 confesseth,  that  this  good  desire  and  reso- 
 lution of  these  persons  to  keep  their  vow 
 came  from  God,  and  by  him  they  must 
 have  grace  acceptably  to  perform  it.  And 
 then  here  are  petitions  for  them,  first,  that 
 as  the  bishop's  hand  was  over  them,  so  the 
 good  hand  of  his  providence  signified  there- 
 by maybe  ever  over  them  to  preserve  them : 
 secondly,  that  the  Holy  Spirit,  now  im- 
 parted to  them  by  this  holy  rite,  may  be 
 ever  with  them,  the  blessed  efiect  of  which 
 is  here  declared  to  be,  that  this  will  make 
 
CONFIRMATION  OF  A  BISHOP. 
 
 CONGE'  D'  ELIRE. 
 
 239 
 
 them  understand  God's  word,  and  enable 
 them  to  obey  it,  so  that  at  the  end  of  their 
 lives  they  may  be  certainly  saved  through 
 Jesus  Christ  ;  to  -whom,  ^vith  the  whole 
 Trinity,  for  these  means  of  salvation,  we  offer 
 up  our  praises  and  acknowledgments  :  and 
 to  this  is  added  a  devout  collect  out  of  the 
 Communion  Ser%-ice,  that  GOD,  who  hath 
 sealed  these  his  ^owed  servants  with  his 
 Spu'it,  will  direct,  sanctify,  and  govern  their 
 souls  and  bodies  in  the  ways  of  his  laws, 
 so  that  they  may  ever  be  holy,  safe,  and 
 happy.  Finally,  the  office  is  concluded 
 with  the  bishop's  blessing,  who  now  in  the 
 name  of  God  wishes  the  blessing  of  the 
 Father,  Sox,  and  Holy  Ghost  may  be 
 now  bestowed  on  you,  and  remain  upon 
 you  for  ever.  Thus  our  Church  appoints 
 this  necessar\'  and  pious  office  shall  be 
 done  ;  and  the  due  administration  thereof 
 would  highly  conduce  to  make  the  benefits 
 of  baptism  more  visible,  to  increase  know- 
 ledge and  piety  in  the  younger  sort,  and 
 to  secure  them  from  being  seduced  by 
 Papists  or  sectaries ;  it  would  make  the 
 Church  to  flourish  and  be  at  unity,  and 
 convey  mighty  blessings  to  all  that  rever- 
 ently and  devoutly  receive  it :  wherefore, 
 as  the  bishops  are  ready  to  do  their  pai't, 
 let  all  that  want  it  be  willing  and  very  de- 
 sirous to  come,  and  let  parents  and  masters, 
 and  especially  godfathers  and  godmothers, 
 encourage  them  to  come  to  it,  and  labour 
 to  fit  them  for  it,  that  it  may  be  done  to 
 God's  glory  and  their  comfort.  —  Dean 
 Comber. 
 
 COXFIRMATIOX  OF  A  BISHOP. 
 To  understand  what  is  meant  by  the  con- 
 finnation  of  a  bishop,  it  may  be  proper  to 
 state  the  process  adopted  in  England  be- 
 fore a  presbyter  can  be  consecrated  to  the 
 episcopal  office,  the  king  having  issued  his 
 conge  (V  elire  to  the  dean  and  chapter,  and 
 nominating,   in  his  "  letters  missive,"  the 
 
 ?erson  whom  he  thinks  fit  to  be  chosen, 
 he  dean  and  chapter  are  obliged,  within 
 twenty  days  next  after  the  receipt  of  this 
 licence,  to  make  the  election,  which  being 
 accepted  by  the  party  elected,  is  certified 
 both  to  the  sovereign  and  to  the  arch- 
 bishop of  the  province.  If  the  dean  and 
 chapter  fail  to  certify  the  election  within 
 twenty  days  after  the  delivery  of  the  "  let- 
 ters missive,"  they  incur  the  penalty  of 
 praemunire ;  and  if  they  refuse  to  elect, 
 the  king  may  nominate  by  lettei-s  patent. 
 The  election  being  certified,  the  king  grants 
 his  royal  assent  under  the  great  seal,  di- 
 rected to  the  archbishop,  commanding  him 
 to  confirm  and  consecrate  the  bishop  thus 
 elected ;  and  the  archbishop  subscribes  it 
 ^'•Jiat  conjinnatio,'^  and  grants  a  commis- 
 
 sion to  his  vicar-general  for  that  purpose. 
 The  %-icar-general  issues  a  citation  to  sum- 
 mon opposers,  which  is  affixed  on  the  door 
 of  Bow  Church,  and  three  proclamations 
 are  made  thereof;  this  being  certified  to 
 the  vicar-general,  at  the  time  and  place 
 appointed,  the  proctor  for  the  dean  and 
 chapter  exhibit  the  royal  assent,  and  the 
 archbishop's  commission  directed  to  the 
 vicar-general.  After  this,  a  long  and 
 formal  process  is  gone  through,  and  after 
 six  proclamations  for  opposers,  if  none  ap- 
 pear, they  are  pronounced  contumacious. 
 It  is  then  decreed  to  proceed  to  sentence. 
 The  bishop  elect  takes  the  oaths  of  office, 
 the  sentence  is  subscribed  by  the  vicar- 
 general,  and  the  election  is  ratified  and 
 decreed  to  be  good.  (See  BisJwjjs,  Elec- 
 tion of.) 
 
 Not  only  bishops,  but  deans  of  many 
 cathedrals,  were  confirmed  by  their  dio- 
 cesans :  as  at  St.  Paul's  in  London,  and 
 St.  Patrick's  in  Dublin.  See  Oiujiiton 
 Ordo  Judicium  de  ecclesici  Cathedr.  cxxvii., 
 and  3Iason's  Hibernia,  p.  219. 
 
 COXFORMITY,  DECL.\RATIOX 
 OF.  A  declaration  is  required  of  all  per- 
 sons who  are  to  be  licensed  or  instituted  to 
 an  ecclesiastical  charge  in  the  Church  of 
 England,  in  the  following  words  : — "  I, 
 A.  B.,  do  declare  that  I  will  conform  to 
 the  liturgy  of  the  Chui'ch  of  England,  as 
 it  is  now  by  law  established."  This  declar- 
 ation is  to  be  made  and  subscribed  before 
 the  bishop  or  his  commissary,  and  the 
 making  and  subscription  thereof  is  to  be 
 testified  under  the  episcopal  seal  of  the 
 bishop,  and  under  the  hand  of  the  bishop 
 or  his  commissar^".    (See  also  Heading  in.) 
 
 COXGE'  D'  ELIRE.  This  is  a  French 
 term,  and  signifies  leave  to  choose :  and  is 
 the  king's  wiit  or  licence  to  the  dean  and 
 chapter  of  the  diocese  to  choose  a  bishop,  in 
 the  time  of  vacancy  of  the  see.  Prior  to  the 
 reign  of  Henry  L,  the  kings  of  England 
 used  to  invest  bishops  with  the  ring  and 
 stafi",  in  virtue  of  their  donative  right. 
 Henry  I.  so  far  ceded  this  right  as  to  give 
 a  conc/e  d'  elire  to  deans  and  chapters  for 
 the  election  of  bishops.  Henry  VHI. 
 added  "letters  missive,"  nominating  the 
 person  whom  he  required  them  to  elect, 
 under  pain  of  praemunire;  and  Edward 
 VI.  (1  Edw.  VL  c.  1,  2)  aboHshed  elec- 
 tions by  writ  of  conr/e  J'  elire,  as  being 
 "indeed  no  elections,"  and  "seeming  also 
 derogatory  and  prejudicial  to  the  king's 
 prerogative  royal,  to  whom  only  apper- 
 taineth  the  collation  and  gift  of  all  arch- 
 bishoprics, and  bishoprics,  and  sufiragan 
 bishops,  within  his  Highness's  said  realm." 
 The  statute  goes  on  to  enact,  "That  no 
 
240 
 
 CONGREGATION  IN  THE  PAPAL  COURT. 
 
 election  of  any  archbishop  or  bishop  shall 
 be  made  by  the  dean  and  chapter;"  but 
 that  the  king  by  his  "letters  patent,  at  all 
 times  when  the  archbishopric  or  bishopric 
 be  void,  shall  confer  the  same  to  any  person 
 whom  the  king  shall  think  meet."  This 
 statute  was  repealed  by  Queen  Mary,  and 
 never  afterwards  revived.  The  law  now 
 rests  upon  the  25  Henry  VIII.  c.  20,  which 
 statute  was  revived  by  Queen  Elizabeth. 
 — Burn.  (See  Jurisdiction.)  But  in  Ire- 
 land, the  act  of  2  Eliz.  c.  4,  established 
 the  same  manner  of  appointment  by  the 
 sovereign,  without  election,  as  the  English 
 act  of  Edward,  and  so  it  has  continued  to 
 this  day. 
 
 CONGREGATION.  In  its  largest  sense, 
 this  word  includes  the  w^hole  body  of  Chris- 
 tian people,  considered  as  assembled,  not 
 locally,  but  in  some  act  of  fellowship,  as 
 when  it  is  said,  "  Let  the  congregation  of 
 saints  praise  Him  : "  but  the  word  is  more 
 commonly  used  for  the  worshippers,  being 
 members  of  the  true  Church  assembled  in 
 a  particular  place ;  a  sense  in  Avhich  the 
 word  is  plainly  used  in  the  prayer  for  the 
 Chui-ch  militant,  where  an  especial  distinc- 
 tion is  made  between  all  God's  people,  or 
 the  congregation  of  the  saints,  and  the  parti- 
 cular congregation  present  when  the  prayer 
 is  used :  "To  all  Thy  people  give  Thy 
 heavenly  grace,  and  especially  to  this  con- 
 gregation here  present."  The  word  con- 
 firegation  follows  therefore  the  use  of  the 
 word  Church ;  we  use  "  The  Church"  for  the 
 whole  body  of  Christ's  people,  and  "  a 
 Church,"  or  "  this  Church,"  for  a  particular 
 portion  of  them.  And  as  a  Church  is  the 
 immediate  bond  of  union  to  each  individual 
 with  the  Church,  so  is  a  congregation  the 
 immediate  company  w^ith  which  the  indi- 
 vidual joins,  and  the  immediate  sign  of  his 
 adherence  to  the  congregation  of  saints. 
 Thus,  in  the  Order  of  Confirmation,  the 
 preface  declares  that  hej'ore  the  Church 
 children  should  ratify  their  baptismal  vow, 
 and  they  are  consequently  asked  by  the 
 bishop  whether  they  do  this  "  in  the  pre- 
 sence of  God  and  of  this  congregation.^^ 
 Congregation  and  Church  are  considered 
 by  our  translators  convertible  terms  :  e.  g. 
 Psal.  xxii.  22,  "  In  the  midst  of  the  co7i- 
 gregation^'  is  rendered  in  Heb.  ii.  12,  "In 
 the  midst  of  the  Church.^' 
 
 CONGREGATION  IN  THE  PAPAL 
 COURT,  means  a  committee  of  cardinals 
 met  for  the  despatch  of  some  particular 
 business,  and  each  congregation  is  denomi- 
 nated from  the  peculiar  business  it  has  to 
 despatch. 
 
 I.  TJie  Pope's  Congregation^  instituted 
 by  Sixtus  V. — They  are  to  prepare  the 
 
 most  difficult  beneficiary  matters,  which 
 are  afterwards  to  be  debated  in  the  con- 
 sistory, in  the  presence  of  the  pope.  This 
 congregation  is  composed  of  several  car- 
 dinals, whose  number  is  not  fixed.  The 
 cardinal-deacon,  or,  in  his  absence,  some 
 other  cardinal  chosen  by  the  pope  pro  tern- 
 po7-e,  presides  in  this  assembly.  The  affairs 
 treated  in  it  are,  the  erecting  of  new  sees 
 and  cathedral  churches ;  re-unions,  sup- 
 pressions, and  resignations  of  bishoprics, 
 coadjutorships,  alienations  of  church  reve- 
 nues ;  and,  lastly,  the  taxes  and  annates  of 
 all  the  benefices  to  which  the  pope  collates. 
 
 II.  The  Congregation  of  the  Holy  Office., 
 or  Inquisition.  This  congregation  was  in- 
 stituted by  Pope  Paul  III.,  at  the  desire 
 of  Cardinal  Caraffa,  who,  being  afterwards 
 raised  to  the  pontificate  under  the  name  of 
 Paul  IV.,  enlarged  the  privileges  thereof, 
 to  which  Sixtus  V.  added  statutes,  by  w'hich 
 means  this  tribunal  became  so  powerful 
 and  formidable,  that  the  Italians  at  that 
 time  used  to  say,  "  II  sommo  pontifice  Sisto 
 71071  la  jierdonarehh'  a  Christo,"  i.  e.  "  Pope 
 Sixtus  would  not  pardon  Christ  himself." 
 
 This  congregation  generally  consists  of 
 twelve  cardinals,  and  sometimes  many 
 more,  as  also  of  a  considerable  number  of 
 prelates  and  divines  of  difierent  orders, 
 both  secular  and  regular,  who  are  called 
 Co7isulters  and  Quatijicators  of  the  Holy 
 Office.  This  congregation  takes  cognizance 
 of  heresies,  and  all  novel  opinions ;  as  also 
 of  apostasy,  magic,  witchcraft,  the  abuse  of 
 the  sacraments,  and  the  spreading  of  per- 
 nicious books.  For  this  purpose,  an  assem- 
 bly is  held  every  Wednesday  at  the  general 
 of  the  Jacobins,  and  every  Thursday  be- 
 fore the  pope,  who  is  president  thereof. 
 
 The  palace  of  the  Holy  Office  serves 
 likewise  by  way  of  prison  for  such  as  are 
 accused  or  suspected  of  the  above-men- 
 tioned crimes ;  who,  in  case  they  are  found 
 guilty,  are  delivered  over  to  the  secular 
 arm.  But  at  present  they  seldom  go  fur- 
 ther than  punishing  them  with  perpetual 
 imprisonment.  Nor  is  this  tribunal  as 
 rigorous  and  severe  as  in  Spain,  Portugal, 
 and  other  countries  where  the  Inquisition 
 is  established.     (See  Inquisition.) 
 
 III.  The  Cong7'egatio7i  de  Propaganda 
 Fide. — It  was  instituted  by  Gregory  XV., 
 and  consists  of  eighteen  cardinals,  one  of 
 the  secretaries  of  state,  an  apostolical  pro- 
 thonotary,  a  referendary,  an  assistant  or 
 lateral  judge,  and  a  secretary  of  the  Holy 
 Office.  All  these  prelates  and  officers  meet 
 in  the  pope's  presence,  as  often  as  occasion 
 requires,  in  order  to  examine  whatever 
 may  be  of  advantage  to  religion,  and  to 
 consult  about  missions,  &c. 
 
CONGREGATION  IN  THE  PAPAL  COURT. 
 
 241 
 
 IV.  The  Congregation  for  explaining  the 
 Council  of  Trent. — At  the  breaking  up  of 
 that  council,  Pius  IV.  deputed  certain  car- 
 dinals who  had  assisted  in  it,  to  put  an  end 
 to  all  doubts  which  might  arise  concerning 
 its  decrees.  Sixtus  V.  fixed  this  congre- 
 gation, and  empowered  it  to  interpret  all 
 points  both  of  discipline  and  faith.  This 
 congregation  meets  once  a  week  at  the 
 palace  of  the  senior  cardinal,  the  whole 
 assembly  being  composed  of  persons  of 
 that  dignity.  The  president  is  chosen  out 
 of  the  body  by  the  pope,  and  is  paid  twelve 
 hundred  crowns  of  gold  yearly  out  of  the 
 apostolic  chamber.  The  other  cardinals 
 have  no  salaries,  but  think  it  the  highest 
 honour  to  assist  in  explaining  the  most 
 important  matters  relating  to  religion. 
 
 V.  The  Congregation  of  the  Index. — The 
 fathers  of  the  so-called  Council  of  Trent, 
 considering  the  great  number  of  pernicious 
 and  heretical  books  published  since  the 
 invention  of  printing,  deputed  certain  car- 
 dinals, and  other  divines,  to  examine  into 
 such  books.  These  deputies  drew  up  a 
 list  of  them,  divided  into  several  classes ; 
 and  the  council  gave  orders  for  correcting, 
 in  a  second  impression,  whatever  these  ex- 
 aminers had  altered  or  expunged.  Pope 
 Pius  V.  confirmed  the  establishment  of  this 
 congregation,  and  empowered  it  to  exa- 
 mine all  books  A^T.-itten  since  the  Council 
 of  Trent,  and  all  such  as  shall  be  pub- 
 lished hereafter.  This  congregation  is  com- 
 posed of  several  cardinals,  and  a  secretary 
 of  the  order  of  St.  Dominic  ;  but  it  seldom 
 assembles,  except  on  affairs  of  the  highest 
 importance.     (See  Indexes.) 
 
 VI.  Tlie  Congregation  of  Lnmunities, 
 established  by  Pope  Urban  VIII.,  in  order 
 to  obviate  the  difficulties  and  disputes  which 
 arose  in  the  judgments  of  such  suits  as 
 were  carried  on  against  churchmen  for 
 various  matters,  whether  civil  or  criminal. 
 This  congregation  is  composed  of  several 
 cardinals,  nominated  by  his  Holiness,  and 
 takes  cognizance  of  all  ecclesiastical  im- 
 munities and  exemptions.  It  is  held  in 
 the  palace  of  the  senior  cardinal  e\ery 
 Tuesday. 
 
 VII.  The  Congregation  of  Bishops  and 
 Regidars. — Pope  Sixtus  V.,  in  the  begin- 
 ning of  his  pontificate,  united  two  congre- 
 gations, under  the  name  above-mentioned. 
 It  is  composed  of  a  certain  number  of  car- 
 dinals at  his  Holiness's  pleasure,  and  of  a 
 prelate,  who  is  the  secretary  thereof,  and 
 has  six  writers  under  him.  This  congre- 
 gation has  power  to  regulate  all  such  dis- 
 putes as  arise  between  bishops  and  the 
 monastic  orders,  and  assembles  every  Fri- 
 day for  that  purpose. 
 
 VIII.  The  Congregation  for  the  Exa- 
 mination of  Bishojjs,  instituted  by  Gregory 
 XIV.,  to  examine  into  the  qualifications 
 of  all  such  churchmen  as  are  nominated  to 
 bishoprics.  It  is  composed  of  eight  car- 
 dinals, six  prelates,  ten  divines  of  diflerent 
 orders,  both  secular  and  regular,  some  of 
 Avhom  must  be  doctors  of  the  canon  law. 
 These  examiners  are  chosen  by  the  pope, 
 and  assemble  in  his  palace  every  Tuesday 
 and  Friday,  when  any  affair  is  to  be  exa- 
 mined. All  the  Italian  bishops  are  obliged 
 to  submit  to  this  examination  before  they 
 are  consecrated  ;  and  for  this  purpose  they 
 present  themselves  upon  their  knees  be- 
 fore his  Holiness,  who  is  seated  in  an  easy 
 chair,  whilst  the  examiners,  standing  on 
 each  hand  of  him,  interrogate  them  on 
 such  heads  of  divinity  and  the  canon  law 
 as  they  think  proper.  Such  as  are  raised 
 to  the  cardinalate,  before  they  are  made 
 bishops,  are  dispensed  from  this  examina- 
 tion ;  as  are  all  cardinal-nephews. 
 
 IX.  The  Congregation  of  the  Blorals  of 
 Bishops,  instituted  by  Pope  Innocent  XI., 
 to  inquire  into  the  morals  of  churchmen 
 recommended  to  ecclesiastical  dignities.  It 
 is  composed  of  three  cardinals,  two  bishops, 
 four  prelates,  and  a  secretary,  who  is  the 
 pope's  auditor.  It  is  held  alternately  in 
 the  palaces  of  the  three  cardinals,  where 
 they  examine  very  strictly  the  certificates 
 of  the  life  and  manners  of  the  candidates. 
 However,  those  who  have  led  irregular 
 lives,  find  several  ways  of  eluding  the  ex- 
 amination of  this  tribunal. 
 
 X.  llie  Congregation  for  the  Ileside?ice 
 of  Bishops. — It  has  the  jjower  of  enjoin- 
 ing, or  dispensing  with,  the  residence  of 
 the  Italian  bishops,  and  obliging  all  abbots 
 to  reside  in  their  several  communities.  It 
 consists  of  three  cardinals,  three  prelates, 
 and  a  secretary.  But,  having  very  little 
 business,  they  assemble  but  seldom,  and 
 that  only  at  the  request  of  such  bishops  or 
 abbots  as  desire  to  be  absent  from  their 
 churches,  for  reasons  specified  in  their  pe- 
 titions. 
 
 XI.  27ie  Congregation  for  such  3Io7ias- 
 teries  as  are  to  be  suppressed. — This  con- 
 gregation was  instituted  by  Pope  Inno- 
 cent X.,  to  inquire  into  the  state  of  the 
 Italian  monasteries,  and  to  suppress  those 
 whose  temporalities  were  so  far  diminished, 
 that  the  remainder  was  not  sufficient  for 
 the  maintenance  of  six  religious.  It  is 
 composed  of  eight  cardinals  and  a  certain 
 number  of  monks,  deputed  by  the  pro- 
 vincials of  orders  to  take  care  of  their  in- 
 terests. This  assembly  regulates  the  pre- 
 tensions of  founders  and  benefactors,  and 
 their  heirs,  and  disposes  of  the  remains  of 
 
242 
 
 CONGREGATION. 
 
 CONSANGUINITY. 
 
 the  temporalities  of  abandoned  and  ruined 
 houses  :  it  likewise  examines  the  petitions 
 of  such  communities,  or  cities,  as  desire  to 
 rebuild,  and  found  anew,  any  monastery, 
 for  which  it  despatches  the  proper  instru- 
 ments. 
 
 XII.  The  Conpretjation  of  the  Aiwstol- 
 ical  Visitation.— It  is  composed  of  a  cer- 
 tain number  of  cardinals  and  prelates, 
 whose  business  it  is  to  visit,  in  the  name 
 of  the  pope,  as  archbishop  of  Rome,  the 
 six  bishoprics,  suffragans  to  the  metropolis 
 of  Home. 
 
 XIII.  The  Cotigregation  of  Belies.— It 
 is  composed  of  six  cardinals  and  four  pre- 
 lates ;  and  their  business  is  to  superintend 
 the  relics  of  ancient  martjTS,  that  are  said 
 to  be  frequently  found  in  catacombs  and 
 other  subterraneous  places  in  Rome,  and 
 to  distinguish  their  bones,  shrines,  and 
 tombs,  from  those  of  the  heathens,  who 
 were  buried  undistinguished  in  those  sub- 
 terraneous caverns.  After  the  congrega- 
 tion has  pronounced  sentence  on  the  valid- 
 ity of  any  relics,  they  are  consigned  to  the 
 vicar  and  the  pope's  sacristan,  who  distri- 
 bute them  to  such  as  desire  them. 
 
 XIV.  The  Congreyation  of  Indulgences. 
 • — This  congregation,  the  number  of  v>'hose 
 cardinals  and  prelates  is  not  fixed,  assem- 
 bles in  the  palace  of  the  senior  cardinal, 
 to  examine  into  the  causes  and  motives  of 
 those  who  sue  for  indulgences.  The  re- 
 gistrar of  this  congregation  sends  the  mi- 
 nutes and  conclusions  of  petitions  to  the 
 secretary  of  the  briefs,  who  despatches 
 them  under  the  fisherman's  seal. 
 
 XV.  The  Congregation  of  Rites. — Pope 
 Sixtus  V.  founded  this  congregation  to 
 regulate  the  ceremonies  and  rites  of  the 
 new  offices  of  saints,  which  are  added  to 
 the  Romish  calendar,  when  any  person  is 
 canonized.  It  has  authority  to  explain  the 
 rubrics  of  the    mass-book  and   breviarv. 
 
 thereto;  and  its  power  extends  to  pro- 
 nounce sentence,  from  which  there  is  no 
 appeal,  on  all  disputes  relating  to  the  pre- 
 cedency of  churches.  It  is  composed  of 
 eight  cardinals  and  a  secretary,  who  as- 
 semble once  a  month  in  the  palace  of  the 
 senior  cardinal. 
 
 XVI.  The  Congregation  for  the  Building 
 of  Churches.— ^o^c  Clement  VIII.  founded 
 this  congregation,  to  superintend  the  build- 
 ing of  !St.  Peter's  church,  adjoining  to  the 
 Vatican,  and  it  is  employed,  to  this  day, 
 in  repairing  and  beautifying  it.  It  con- 
 sists of  eight  cardinals  and  four  prelates, 
 who  assemble  at  the  palace  of  the  senior 
 cardinal  on  the  Monday  or  Saturday  near- 
 est to  the  beginning  and  middle  of  each 
 month.  This  congregation  has  the  pecu- 
 liar privilege  of  altering  the  last  wills  and 
 testaments  of  those  who  bequeath  sums  to 
 be  employed  in  pious  uses,  and  to  apply 
 the  money  towards  supporting  the  fabric 
 of  St.  Peter's. — Broughton. 
 
 CONGREGATION  is  also  applied  in 
 England  to  one  of  the  assemblies  of  the 
 university  of  Oxford,  consisting  of  Regents, 
 who  transact  the  ordinary  business  of  the 
 university. 
 
 CONGREGATIONALISTS  are  nearly 
 the  same  as  Independents.  (See  Itide- 
 jjendents.)  The  chief  point  of  difference  is 
 that  the  Congregationalists  hold  the  prin- 
 ciple of  a  communio7i  of  Churches. 
 
 CONGRUITY.     (See  Condignitt/.) 
 
 CONSANGUINITY.  AUiance  by 
 blood,  as  ajinitg  is  alliance  by  marriage. 
 
 Certain  degrees  of  consanguinity  are 
 among  the  impediments  to  marriage,  both 
 by  the  law  of  nature  and  by  the  revealed 
 word  of  God.  These  degrees,  as  well  as 
 those  of  affinity,  are  defined  by  the  Church, 
 and  are  expressed  in  a  table  drawn  up  by 
 Archbishop  Parker,  in  1563,  and  set  forth 
 by  authority.     This  table  is  as  follows : 
 
 when  any  difficulties  are  started  in  relation 
 
 A  Table  of  Kindred  and  Affinity,  wherein  whosoever  are  related  are  forbidden 
 in  Scripture  and  our  laws  to  marry  together. 
 
 A  man  may  not  marry  his 
 
 1  GRANDMOTHER, 
 
 2  Grandfather's  AVife, 
 
 3  Wife's  Grandmother. 
 
 4  Father's  Sister, 
 
 5  JMother's  Sister, 
 
 6  Father's  Ej-other's  Wife. 
 
 7  Mother's  Brother's  Wife, 
 
 8  Wife's  Father's  Sister, 
 
 9  Wife's  Mother's  Sister. 
 
 10  Mother, 
 
 11  Step-Mother, 
 
 12  Wife's  Mother. 
 
 A  tuoman  may  not  marry  with  her 
 
 1  GRANDFATHER, 
 
 2  Grandmother's  Husband, 
 
 3  Husband's  Grandfather. 
 
 4  Father's  Brother, 
 
 5  Mother's  Brother, 
 
 6  Father's  Sister's  Husband. 
 
 7  Mother's  sister's  Husband, 
 
 8  Husband's  Father's  Brother, 
 
 9  Husband's  Mother's  Brother. 
 
 10  Father, 
 
 11  Step-Father, 
 
 12  Husband's  Father. 
 
CONSECRATION. 
 
 13  Daughter, 
 
 14  Wife's  Daughter, 
 
 15  Son's  Wife. 
 
 16  Sister, 
 
 17  AVife's  Sister, 
 
 18  Brother's  Wife. 
 
 19  Son's  Daughter, 
 
 20  Daughter's  Daughter, 
 
 21  Son's  Son's  Wife. 
 
 22  Daughter's  Son's  Wife, 
 
 23  Wife's  Son's  Daughter, 
 
 24  Wife's  Daughter's  Daughter. 
 
 25  Brother's  Daughter, 
 
 26  Sister's  Daughter, 
 
 27  Brother's  Son's  Wife. 
 
 28  Sister's  Son's  Wife, 
 
 29  Wife's  Brother's  Daughter, 
 
 30  Wife's  Sister's  Daughter. 
 
 CONSECRATION.  The  solemn  act 
 of  dedicating  anytliing  or  person  to  a  Di- 
 vine service  and  use. 
 
 CONSECRATION  OF  A  BISHOP. 
 By  this  we  mean  the  separating  of  a  per- 
 son for  the  holy  office  of  a  bishop,  by  im- 
 position of  hands  and  prayer.  According 
 to  a  canon  of  the  first  Nicene  Council,  there 
 must  be  four,  or  at  least  three,  bishops 
 present  at  the  consecration  of  a  bishop. 
 The  form  used  in  the  Church  of  England 
 may  be  found  in  the  Book  of  Common 
 Prayer.  And  it  is  stated  in  the  preface 
 thereto,  that  '*  no  one  shall  be  accounted  or 
 taken  to  be  a  bishop,  or  suffered  to  execute 
 the  same  function,  unless  he  be  called,  tried, 
 and  admitted  thereunto  according  to  that 
 form,  or  hath  had  formerly  episcopal  con- 
 secration.^'' The  concluding  portion  of  this 
 sentence  recognises  the  validity  of  conse- 
 crations given  in  foreign  churches  by  any 
 other  form  adopted  by  those  Churches. 
 Thus  a  French,  or  an  Italian,  or  a  Greek 
 bishop,  conforming  to  the  rules  of  the 
 Church  of  England,  requires  no  fresh  con- 
 secration, but  is  at  liberty  to  officiate 
 among  us. 
 
 By  the  eighth  canon,  "Whoever  shall 
 affirm  or  teach,  that  the  form  and  manner 
 of  making  and  consecrating  bishops,  priests, 
 and  deacons,  containeth  anything  in  it  that 
 is  repugnant  to  the  word  of  God  ;  or  that 
 they  who  are  made  bishops,  priests,  or  dea- 
 cons in  that  form  are  not  lawfully  made, 
 nor  ought  to  be  accounted,  either  by  them- 
 selves or  others,  to  be  truly  either  bishops, 
 priests,  or  deacons,  until  they  have  some 
 other  calling  to  those  Divine  offices ;  let 
 him  be  excommunicated  ipso  facto,  not  to 
 be  restored  until  he  repent,  and  publicly 
 revoke  such  his  wicked  eiTors." 
 R  2 
 
 CONSECRATION  OF  A  BISHOP.  243 
 
 13  Son, 
 
 14  Husband's  Son, 
 
 15  Daughter's  Husband. 
 
 16  Brother, 
 
 17  Husband's  Brother, 
 
 18  Sister's  Husband. 
 
 19  Son's  Son, 
 
 20  Daughter's  Son, 
 
 21  Son's  Daughter's  Husband. 
 
 22  Daughter's  Daughter's  Husband, 
 
 23  Husband's  Son's  Son, 
 
 24  Husband's  Daughter's  Son. 
 
 25  Brother's  Son, 
 
 26  Sister's  Son, 
 
 27  Brother's  Daughter's  Husband. 
 
 28  Sister's  Daughter's  Husband, 
 
 29  Husband's  Brother's  Son, 
 
 30  Husband's  Sister's  Son. 
 
 ^  And  by  the  thirty-sixth  of  the  Thirty- 
 nine  Articles,  "the  book  of  consecration  of 
 archbishops  and  bishops,  and  ordering  of 
 priests  and  deacons,  lately  set  forth  in  the 
 time  of  Edward  VI.,  and  confirmed  at  the 
 same  time  by  authority  of  parliament,  doth 
 contain  all  things  necessary  to  such  conse- 
 crating and  ordering  ;  neither  hath  it  any- 
 thing that  of  itself  is  superstitious  and  un- 
 godly. And  therefore  whosoever  are  con- 
 secrated or  ordered  according  to  the  rites 
 of  that  book,  since  the  second  year  of  the 
 forenamed  King  Edward  unto  this  time,  or 
 hereafter  shall  be  consecrated  or  ordered 
 according  to  the  same  rites,  we  decree  all 
 such  to  be  rightly,  orderly,  and  lawfully 
 consecrated  and  ordered."  And  by  the  Act 
 of  Uniformity  in  the  13th  and  14th  Charles 
 II.,  all  subscriptions  to  be  made  unto  the 
 Thirty-nine  Articles  shall  be  construed  to 
 extend  (touching  the  said  thirty-sixth 
 article)  to  the  book  containing  the  form 
 and  manner  of  making,  ordaining,  and 
 consecrating  of  bishops,  priests,  and  dea- 
 cons, in  this  said  act  mentioned,  as  the 
 same  did  heretofore  extend  unto  the  book 
 set  forth  in  the  time  of  King  Edward  VI. 
 (13  &  14  Charles  11.  c.  4,  s.  30,  31.) 
 
 Here  we  may  allude  to  the  Nag's  Head 
 story,  one  of  the  most  flimsy,  as  well  as 
 wicked,  inventions  of  the  Romanists,  to  in- 
 validate the  orders  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
 land. It  refers  to  the  consecration  of 
 Archbishop  Parker,  on  which  depends  the 
 validity  of  orders  in  the  English  Church : 
 for  if  Archbishop  Parkcr*s  consecration 
 was  not  good,  all  those  who  were  conse- 
 crated by  him  were  not  bishops,  because 
 he  could  not  confer  that  character  upon 
 others  which  he  liad  not  himself. 
 
 The  Papists  assert  that  his  consecration 
 
244 
 
 CONSECRATION  OF  CHURCHES. 
 
 "Nvas  irregular,  both  as  to  the  place  -where 
 it  was  performed,  which  they  say  was  at 
 the  Nag's  Head  Tavern,  Cheapside,  and  as 
 to  the  manner  of  doing  it,  Avhich  they  say 
 was  by  one  of  the  bishops  then  present, 
 who  laid  the  Bible  on  Dr.  Parker's  head, 
 and  then  pronounced  the  words,  "Take 
 thou  authority,"  &c.  It  is  further  objected, 
 that  three  of  the  four  bishops  then  present 
 were  only  bishops  elect,  and  had  no  sees  ; 
 and  that  the  other  was  a  suffragan. 
 
 The  story,  which  has  long  since  been 
 abundantly  refuted,  and  which  is  now  given 
 up  by  the  best  authorities  among  the  Ko- 
 manists,  was  as  folloAvs  :  The  queen  issued 
 forth  her  warrant,  directed  to  the  bishop 
 of  Llandaff;  to  Dr.  Scory,  elect  of  Here- 
 ford ;  Dr.  Barlow,  elect  of  Chichester ;  Dr. 
 Coverdale,  elect  of  Exeter ;  and  Dr.  Hodg- 
 kins,    suffragan    of    Bedford.     All   these 
 persons  met  at  the  Nag's  Head  Tavern, 
 where  it  had  been  usual  for  the  dean  of 
 the  Arches   and  the  civilians  to   refresh 
 themselves,   after    any  confirmation   of  a 
 bishop ;    and  there  one   Neale,  who  was 
 Bonner's  chaplain,  peeped  through  a  hole 
 in  the  door,  and  saw  all  the  other  bishops 
 very  importunate  with  Llandaff,  who  had 
 been  dissuaded  by  Bonner  to  assist  in  this 
 consecration,  which  he  obstinately  refusing, 
 Dr.  Scory  bid  the  rest  kneel,  and  he  laid 
 the  Bible  on   each  of  their  shoulders  or 
 heads  and  pronounced  these  words,  "  Take 
 thou  authority,"  &c.,  and  so  they  stood  up 
 all  bishops.     This  story  was  certainly  in- 
 vented after  the  queen's  reign ;  for  if  it 
 had  been  true,  it  is  so  remarkable,  that 
 some   of  the  writers  of  that  time  would 
 undoubtedly  have  taken  notice  of  it.     But 
 Bishop  Burnet  has  discovered  the  falsity 
 of  it,  from  an  original  manuscript  of  the 
 consecration  of  this  very  archbishop,  which 
 Avas  done  in  the  chapel  at  Lambeth,  on 
 Sunday,  the  17th  of  December,  in  the  first 
 year  of  the  queen's  reign,  where  Dr.  Park- 
 er came  a  little  after  five  in  the  morning 
 in  a  scarlet  gown  and  hood,  attended  by 
 the  said  four  bishops,  and  lighted  by  four 
 torches ;    and   there,    after    prayers.    Dr. 
 Scory    preached  ;     and    then    the   other 
 bishops  presented  the  archbishop  to  him, 
 and  the  mandate  for  his  consecration  being 
 read  by  a  doctor  of  the  civil  law,  and  he 
 having  taken  the  oaths  of  supremacy,  and 
 some  prayers  being  said,  according  to  the 
 form  of  consecration  then  lately  published, 
 all  the  four  bishops  laid  their  hands  on  the 
 archbishop's  head,  and  said,  "  Receive  the 
 Holy  Ghost,"  &c.     And  this  was  done  in 
 the  presence  of  several  other  clergy.     See 
 Archbishop  Bramhall's  "  Consecration  and 
 Succession    of  Protestant  Bishops   Justi- 
 
 fied," with  the  additions  in  vol.  iii.  of  his 
 works,  Oxford,  1844. 
 
 CONSECRATION  OF   CHURCHES. 
 
 The  law  recognises  no  place  as  a  church 
 until  it  has  been  consecrated  by  the 
 bishop. 
 
 In  the  Church  of  England  the  bishop  is 
 left  to  his  own  discretion  as  to  the  form  he 
 will  use  in  the  consecration  of  a  church  ; 
 but  in  the  21  Henry  VIII.  c.  13,  which 
 limits  the  number  of  chaplains  that  each 
 person  may  have,  one  reason  assigned  why 
 a  bishop  may  retain  six  chaplains  is  be- 
 cause he  must  occupy  that  number  in  the 
 consecration  of  churches. 
 
 The  custom  of  solemnly  setting  apart, 
 from  ordinary  and  secular  use,  whatever 
 is  appropriated  to  the  service  of  Almighty 
 God,  has  the  highest  possible  sanction  ;  for 
 many  are  the  instances  of  it  recorded  in  the 
 Holy  Scriptures.  True  it  is  that  there  is 
 no  record  of  any  such  ceremonial  having 
 been  used  among  Christians  in  reference 
 to  churches,  before  the  fourth  century, 
 though  some  ritualists  are  of  opinion  that 
 a  form  of  dedication  was  common  much 
 earlier.  No  sooner,  however,  was  the 
 sword  of  persecution  sheathed,  and  God 
 permitted  his  Church  to  serve  him  in  all 
 godly  quietness,  than  such  solemnities  be- 
 came general.  Then,  as  Eusebius  tells  us, 
 "there  was  an  incessant  joy,  and  there 
 sprung  up  for  all  a  certain  celestial  glad- 
 ness, seeing  every  place,  which  but  a  short 
 time  before  had  been  desolated  by  the 
 impieties  of  the  tyrants,  reviving  again, 
 and  recovering  from  a  long  and  deadly 
 distemper ;  temples  again  rising  from  the 
 soil  to  a  lofty  height,  and  receiving  a 
 splendour  far  exceeding  those  which  had 
 been  formerly  destroyed."  And  again: 
 "  after  this  the  sight  was  afforded  us,  so 
 eagerly  desired  and  prayed  for  by  all, — 
 the  festivals  of  dedications,  and  consecra- 
 tions of  the  newly-erected  houses  of  prayer 
 throughout  the  cities.  After  this,  the 
 convention  of  bishops,  the  concourse  of 
 foreigners  from  abroad,  the  benevolence 
 of  people  to  people,  the  unity  of  the  mem- 
 bers of  CiiliIST  concurring  in  one  harmo- 
 nious body.  Then  was  it  according  to  the 
 prophetic  declaration,  mystically  indicating 
 what  would  take  place,  '  bone  was  brought 
 to  bone,  and  joint  to  joint,'  and  whatsoever 
 other  matters  the  Divine  word  faithfully 
 intimated  before.  There  was,  also,  one 
 energy  of  the  Divine  Spirit  pervading 
 all  the  members,  and  one  soul  among  all, 
 one  and  the  same  ardour  of  faith,  one  song 
 of  praise  to  the  Deity ;  yea  now,  indeed, 
 complete  and  perfect  solemnities  of  the 
 prelates  and  heads  of  the  Church,  sacred 
 
CONSECRATION  OF  CHURCHES. 
 
 245 
 
 performances  of  sacred  rites,  and  solemn 
 rituals  of  the  Church.  Here  you  might 
 hear  the  singing  of  psahns ;  there,  the 
 performance  of  divine  and  sacred  mys- 
 teries. The  mystic  symbols  of  our  Sa- 
 viour's passion  were  celebrated  ;  and,  at 
 tlie  same  time,  each  sex  of  every  age, 
 male  and  female,  Avith  the  power  of  the 
 mind,  and  with  a  mind  and  whole  heart 
 rejoicing  in  prayer  and  thanksgiving,  gave 
 
 flory  to  God,  the  author  of  all  good. 
 Ivery  one  of  the  prelates  present  also 
 delivered  panegyrical  discourses,  desirous 
 of  adding  lustre  to  the  assembly,  according 
 to  the  ability  of  each."  One  such  discourse, 
 pronounced  by  Eusebius  himself,  still  re- 
 mains. 
 
 In  his  Life  of  Constantine,  Eusebius  gives 
 an  instance  of  the  ceremonial  thus  de- 
 scribed in  the  consecration,  amid  a  full 
 synod  of  bishops  of  the  church  of  Jeru- 
 salem, which  Constantine  had  built  over 
 our  Saviouii's  sepulchre,  A.  D.  335.  So- 
 crates records  a  similar  consecration  of  the 
 famous  church  of  Antioch,  called  Domi- 
 nicmn  Aurewn,  which  was  begun  by  Con- 
 stantine and  finished  by  Constantius,  A.  D. 
 o41.  Testimony  to  the  pre  valency  of  this 
 custom  is  also  borne  by  St.  Athanasius, 
 who  defends  himself  in  his  apology  to 
 Constantius,  (c.  14 —  18,)  when  charged 
 with  having  used  a  building  for  public 
 worship,  before  it  was  dedicated  by  the 
 emperor,  and  consecrated  by  himself,  on 
 the  ground  of  necessity ;  for  since  during 
 Lent  the  congregations  in  the  ordinary 
 churches  had  been  so  crowded  as  to  prove 
 injurious  to  the  persons  present,  and  anti- 
 cipating still  more  crowded  assemblies  at 
 Easter,  he  thought  himself  justified,  under 
 such  circumstances,  to  use  an  edifice  which 
 was  unconsecrated.  St.  Gregory  Nazi- 
 anzen  likewise  speaks  of  this  ceremonial 
 as  an  ancient  custom  {iraXawQ  vofxog). 
 
 Such  then  were  the  offices  connected 
 with  the  consecration  of  chui'ches  in  pri- 
 mitive times.  Bishops,  from  distant  pro- 
 vinces, with  a  vast  concourse  of  clergy  and 
 laity,  were  present ;  an  appropriate  sermon 
 or  sermons  were  preached ;  the  holy  eu- 
 charist  was  aluays  administered;  in  the 
 course  of  which  prayers  suitable  to  the  oc- 
 casion were  offered.  Of  these  prayers  one 
 is  still  preserved  in  the  writings  of  St. 
 Ambrose. 
 
 On  this  model  it  was  that  the  consecra- 
 tion services  of  the  Church  Catholic  were 
 formed,  each  church,  at  first,  varying  in 
 non-essentials,  as  circumstances  may  have 
 required. 
 
 In  the  English  Clnn-ch,  various  records 
 of  very  early  date   exist  relating  to  the 
 
 consecration    of    churches.      Geoffrey    of 
 Monmouth,  who  ])rofesses  to  follow  Gildas, 
 says  that  in  the  time  of  King  Lucius  (a.  u. 
 102)  pagan  temples  were   consecrated   in 
 Britain  to  the   honour  of  the  true  GoD. 
 And  we  find  from  Bede,  that  the  ])assagc 
 just  quoted  from  Eusebius  was  applicable 
 to  oiu'  own  island.      It    is    known    that 
 Bertha,  wife  of  EAhelbert,  king  of  Kent, 
 rc})aired    or   rebuilt  a  church,  first  built 
 by  the  Komans,  and  had  it  dedicated  to 
 the    honour   of  St.  ]Martin   of  Tours,  an 
 eminent  saint  among  the  Christians  of  her 
 native    country.      This    was    the    church 
 granted    by   Ethelbcrt   to   Augustine,  on 
 his  landing  in  the   isle  of  Thanct,  A.  D. 
 596.     Some  time  after  his  arrival,  Gregory 
 the   Great   sent  Augustine   particular  in- 
 structions   about   the    dedication   of    the 
 temples  of  the  Anglo-Saxons ;  and  when 
 the  bishop  had  his  episcopal  see  assigned 
 him  in  the  royal  city,  he  recovered  therein 
 a  church,  which  he  was  informed  had  been 
 built  by  the  ancient  Iloman  Christians,  and 
 consecrated  it  in  the  name  of  our  holy 
 Saviour,  God  and  Lord,  Jesus  Christ. 
 From  the    same   historian  we  learn,  that 
 Laurentius,  Augustine's    successor  in  the 
 primacy,  consecrated  a  church  to  St.  Peter 
 and   St.  Paul,  afterwards  called   St.  Au- 
 gustine's, in    honour    of   Augustine,  who 
 had    commenced   building   it.      Mellitus, 
 who    succeeded    Laurentius,    consecrated 
 the  church  of  the  Holy  Mother  of  GoD, 
 built  by  King  Eadbald,  A.  D.  622.     There 
 is  a  detailed  account  of  the  consecration 
 of  the  church  of  Ilipon,  by  Wilfrid,  arch- 
 bishop of  York,  A.  D.  665,  given  in  the  Life 
 of  that   prelate,  written   by  Eddius    and 
 Fridegode.     Numerous  subsequent  canons 
 are    found,  bearing  on  the  same  subject. 
 For  instance,  one  of  Archbishop  Ecgbriht's 
 "  Excerptions,"  A.  D.  740, relates  to  the  con- 
 secration of  churches.    In  Archbishop  Wil- 
 frid's canons,  A.  D.  816,  it  is  ordered  : 
 
 "  When  a  church  is  built,  let  it  be  con- 
 secrated by  the  bishop  of  its  own  diocese, 
 according  to  the  ministerial  book." 
 
 Again,  in  the  canons  of  Archbishop 
 Corboyl,  A.  D.  11 26,  in  the  canons  at  AVest- 
 minster,  A.  D.  11  o8,  and  in  Archbishop 
 Richard's  canons,  A.  D.  1175,  similar  in- 
 junctions are  given. 
 
 From  the  constitutions  of  Otho,  A.  D. 
 1237,  it  would  ajipear — so  unfounded  is 
 the  boast  of  the  Komanists,  that  the  time 
 when  Popery  was  dominant  in  England 
 was  a  period  of  reverence  and  devotion 
 never  since  known  to  her  Church — that 
 this  solemnity  was  then  much  neglected. 
 This  is  evident  from  the  first  of  these 
 canons,  which,  after   observing   that    the 
 
246  CONSECRATION  OF  CHURCHES.    CONSECRATION  OF  THE  ELEMENTS. 
 
 dedication  of  royal  temples  is  known  to 
 have  taken  its  beginning  from  the  Old 
 Testament,  and  was  observed  by  the  holy 
 fathers  in  the  New  Testament,  under  which 
 it  ought  to  be  done  with  the  greater  care 
 and  dignity,  &:c.,  goes  on  to  enact, 
 •  "  That  because  ice  have  ourselves  seen, 
 and  heard  hy  maynj,  that  so  ivJiolcsome  a 
 mystery  is  despised,  at  least  neylectedi  hy 
 some,  (for  we  have  found  many  churches, 
 and  some  cathedrals,  not  consecrated  Avith 
 holy  oil  though  built  of  old,)  we,  therefore, 
 being  desirous  to  obviate  so  great  a  neg- 
 lect, do  ordain  and  give  in  charge,  that 
 all  cathedrals,  conventual  and  parochial 
 churches,  which  are  ready  built,  and  their 
 walls  perfected,  be  consecrated  by  the 
 diocesan  bishops,  to  whom  they  belong,  or 
 others  authorized  by  them,  within  two 
 years :  and  let  it  so  be  done  in  a  like  time 
 in  all  churches  hereafter  to  be  built ;  and 
 lest  so  wholesome  a  statute  grow  into  con- 
 tempt, if  such  like  places  be  not  dedicated 
 within  two  years  from  the  time  of  their 
 being  finished,  we  decree  them  to  remain 
 interdicted  from  the  solemnization  of  masses 
 until  they  be  consecrated,  unless  they  be 
 excused  for  some  reasonable  cause." 
 
 In  the  constitutions  of  Othobon,  A.  D. 
 1268,  there  is  a  similar  canon. 
 
 From  these  canons  it  is  plain,  that  the 
 office  of  consecration  had  contracted  many 
 of  those  Romish  superstitions  which  Mere 
 retained  until  the  Keformation.  Not  that 
 om'  reformers,  when  reforming  the  other 
 services  of  the  Church,  extended  their 
 labours  to  that  of  consecration.  Indeed, 
 as  that  was  a  period,  to  use  the  words  of 
 Bishop  Short,  when  more  churches  Avere 
 destroyed  than  built,  there  was  no  imme- 
 diate use  for  the  service  in  question.  This 
 task  was  reserved  for  Bishop  Andi'ews, 
 whose  service  was  compiled,  as  were  all 
 the  offices  of  the  English  Church,  from  the 
 formularies  in  use  before  the  Keformation. 
 
 Unanswerable  as  was  Hooker's  defence 
 of  the  consecration  of  churches,  it  was 
 insufficient  to  protect  Laud  from  the  cla- 
 mour of  his  implacable  enemies,  when  he 
 consecrated  St.  Catherine  Cree  church,  as 
 bishop  of  London,  in  1630.  And  in  the 
 well-known  London  petition,  presented  to 
 the  Long  Parliament,  by  the  notorious 
 Alderman  Pennington,  about  ten  years 
 later,  the  consecration  of  churches  was 
 not  forgotten  to  be  included  "  among  the 
 manifold  evils,  pressures,  and  grievances, 
 caused,  practised,  and  occasioned  by  the 
 prelates  and  their  dependants." 
 
 At  the  Restoration  the  custom  revived, 
 and  the  subject  was  again  discussed;  but 
 as  there  was  no  authorized  office,  (Laud, 
 
 having  been  prevented  from  drawing  up  a 
 form,  as  he  intended,  in  the  convocation 
 of  1640,)  the  preparation  of  one  was  com- 
 mitted to  Bishop  Cosin  in  the  convocation 
 of  1661.  When  prepared  it  was  presented 
 to  the  house,  and  referred  to  a  committee 
 of  four  bishops  for  revision,  but  nothing 
 seems  ultimately  to  have  been  done  about 
 it.  Since  that  period  each  bishop  has 
 adopted  any  form  he  thought  best,  though 
 perhaps  the  form  of  consecrating  churches, 
 chapels,  and  chui'chyards,  or  places  of 
 burial,  w^hich  was  sent  down  by  the  bishops 
 to  the  lower  houses  of  convocation,  (1712,) 
 and  altered  by  a  committee  of  the  whole 
 house,  is  the  one,  not  that  it  is  enjoined 
 by  any  competent  authority,  now  most 
 generally  used. — Teale. 
 
 Different  rites  were  prepared  by  Barlow, 
 bishop  of  Lincoln,  Patrick,  bishop  of  Ely, 
 and  King,  bishop  of  London. — Palmer ; 
 Supplement.  (See  Harrington,  on  the  Con- 
 secration of  Churches.) 
 
 CONSECRATION  OF  THE  ELE- 
 MENTS. The  following  is  the  rubric 
 with  reference  to  the  consecration  of  the 
 elements  in  the  Lord's  supper:  "When 
 the  priest,  standing  before  the  table,  hath 
 so  ordered  the  bread  and  wine,  that  he 
 may  with  the  more  readiness  and  decency 
 break  the  bread  before  the  people,  and 
 take  the  cup  into  his  hands,  he  shall 
 say  the  prayer  of  consecration."  If  it 
 be  asked,  whether  the  priest  is  to  say 
 this  prayer  standing  before  the  table,  or 
 at  the  north  end  of  it,  I  answer,  at  the 
 north  end  of  it ;  for,  according  to  the 
 rules  of  grammar,  the  participle  "  standing" 
 must  refer  to  the  verb  "  ordered,"  and  not 
 to  the  verb  "  say."  So  that,  Avhilst  the 
 priest  is  "  ordering  the  bread  and  wine," 
 he  is  to  stand  before  the  table  ;  but  when 
 he  says  the  prayer,  he  is  to  stand  so  as 
 "  that  he  may  wdth  the  more  readiness  and 
 decency  break  the  bread  before  the  people," 
 which  must  be  on  the  north  side.  For  if 
 he  stood  "  before  "  the  table,  his  body  would 
 hinder  the  people  from  seeing ;  so  that  he 
 must  not  stand  there,  and  consequently  he 
 must  stand  on  the  north  side  ;  there  being, 
 in  our  present  rubric,  no  other  place  men- 
 tioned for  performing  any  part  of  this 
 office.  In  the  Romish  Church  indeed  they 
 always  stand  "  before  "  the  altar  during  the 
 time  of  consecration,  in  order  to  prevent 
 the  people  from  being  eye-witnesses  of 
 their  operation  in  working  their  pretended 
 mu-acle  ;  and  in  the  Greek  Church  they 
 shut  the  chancel  door,  or  at  least  draw  a 
 veil  or  curtain  before  it,  I  suppose,  upon 
 the  same  account.  But  our  Church,  that 
 pretends  no  such  miracle,  enjoins,  w^e  see, 
 
CONSECRATION  OF  THE  ELEMENTS. 
 
 247 
 
 the  direct  contrary  to  this,  by  ordering  the 
 priest  so  "to  order  the  bread  and  wine, 
 that  he  may  with  the  more  readiness  and 
 decency  break  the  bread  and  take  the  cup 
 into  his  hands  before  the  people."  And 
 with  this  view  it  is  probable  the  Scotch 
 liturgy  ordered,  that,  "  during  the  time  of 
 consecration,  the  presbyter  should  stand  at 
 such  a  part  of  the  holy  table,  where  he  may 
 with  the  more  ease  and  decency  use  both 
 his  hands." —  Wlieatly. 
 
 The  consecration  of  the  elements  being 
 always  esteemed  an  act  of  authority,  and 
 standing  being  therefore  a  more  proper 
 posture,  as  well  as  a  more  commodious  one, 
 for  this  purpose,  the  priest  is  here  directed 
 to  stand. — Collls. 
 
 AVe  do  not  eat  our  common  food  with- 
 out first  praying  for  a  blessing  on  it ;  which 
 pious  custom  is  so  universal,  that  it  is  cer- 
 tainly a  piece  of  natural  religion ;  how 
 much  more  then  are  we  obliged,  before  we 
 eat  and  drink  this  bread  and  wine,  which 
 Christ  designed  to  set  forth  the  mystery 
 of  his  death,  to  consecrate  it  and  set  it 
 apart  by  a  solemn  prayer ;  especially  since 
 Christ  himself  in  the  institution  of  this 
 sacred  ordinance,  while  he  was  teaching 
 his  apostles  how  to  celebrate  it,  did  use  a 
 form  of  blessing  over  it  (Matt.  xxvi.  26) ; 
 which  St.  Paul  calls  "  giving  thanks." 
 (1  Cor.  xi.  24.)  Wherefore  all  churches 
 in  the  world,  from  the  apostles'  days,  have 
 used  such  a  form,  the  ancient  and  essential 
 part  of  which  is  the  words  of  our  Saviour's 
 institution  ;  for,  since  he  makes  this  sacra- 
 mental charge,  it  hath  been  thought  fit  by 
 all  churches  to  keep  his  own  words,  which 
 being  pronounced  by  a  lawful  priest,  do 
 properly  make  the  consecration ;  wherefore 
 our  Church  has  cut  of?  all  the  later  super- 
 stitious additions,  by  Avhich  the  Roman 
 Church  hath  corrupted  this  form,  and  given 
 us  a  prayer  of  consecration,  consisting  only 
 of  the  words  of  our  Saviour's  institution, 
 and  a  proper  prayer  to  introduce  it.  The 
 first  part  is  a  prayer  directed  to  "  Almighty 
 God  our  heavenly  Father,"  commemor- 
 ating his  mercy  in  giving  his  Son  to  die 
 for  us,  and  the  all-sufficient  merit  of  his 
 death,  together  with  his  command  for  our 
 remembering  it  in  this  sacrament ;  and  on 
 these  grounds  desiring  that,  since  we  obey 
 him  in  thus  celebrating  it,  we  may  therein 
 receive  Christ's  body  and  blood.  The 
 second  part  is  the  repetition  of  the  words 
 and  actions  of  our  Lord  at  the  institution, 
 concerning  both  the  time  and  the  manner 
 of  its  institution. — Denn  Comber. 
 
 If  it  be  here  demanded,  to  what  words 
 the  consecration  of  the  elements  ought  to 
 be  ascribed,  I  answer,  to  the  prayer  of  the 
 
 faithful  offered  by  the  priest,  and  to  the 
 words  of  institution  repeated  by  him. 
 This  was  the  sense  of  the  ancient  Church 
 of  Christ,  which  used  them  both  in  their 
 eucharistical  offices  ;  and  never  held,  that 
 the  elements  were  changed  from  their 
 common  to  a  more  sublime  use  and  efficacy 
 by  the  bare  repeating  of  the  words,  "  This 
 is  my  body,"  and  "  This  is  my  blood,"  as 
 the  Papists  absurdly  hold.  To  bring  about 
 this  change  must  be  the  work  of  the  Holy 
 Ghost  ;  and  thereupon  it  is  requisite,  that 
 we  shoiild  pray  to  GoD,  to  endue  the 
 elements  with  this  life-giving  virtue.  Now 
 the  words  of  institution  can  by  no  means 
 be  called  a  prayer :  they  were  addressed 
 by  our  Saviour  to  his  disciples,  and  not 
 to  God  :  to  them  he  said,  "  Take  and  eat." 
 When  we  use  them,  they  are  historical, 
 recounting  what  our  Lord  said  and  did, 
 when  he  ordained  this  sacrament.  And 
 though  when  he  said,  "  This  is  my  body, 
 this  is  my  blood,"  these  words  effectually 
 made  them  so,  showing  that  it  was  his  will 
 and  pleasure  that  they  should  be  taken  as 
 his  sacramental  body  and  blood ;  though 
 the  virtue  of  those  words,  once  spoken  by 
 Christ,  doth  still  operate  towards  making 
 the  bread  and  wine  his  body  and  blood; 
 yet,  as  now  used  and  spoken  by  the  priest, 
 they  do  not  contain  in  them  any  such 
 power,  unless  they  be  joined  with  prayer 
 to  God. 
 
 Our  Lord  himself  did,  besides  pro- 
 nouncing them,  give  thanks  and  bless  the 
 elements.  Thus  our  Church  uses  prayer, 
 as  well  as  the  words  of  institution;  and 
 doth  not  attribute  the  consecration  to  the 
 one  without  the  other.  "  If  the  consecrated 
 bread  or  wine  be  all  spent,  before  all  have 
 communicated,  the  priest,"  it  is  true,  is 
 ordered  by  the  rubric  to  "  consecrate 
 more,"  by  repeating  only  the  words  of  in- 
 stitution. But  the  virtue  of  the  prayer, 
 which  the  Church  hath  last  made,  is  to  be 
 understood  as  concurring  therewith  ;  and 
 this  is  only  a  particular  application  to  these 
 particular  elements.  Ilence  comes  the 
 propriety  of  saying  "  Amen  "  at  the  end  of 
 those  words ;  which  would  not  be  so  pro- 
 perly added,  unless  it  referred  back  to  the 
 preceding  petitions.  And  that  this  is  the 
 sense  of  the  Church  of  I^ngland  is  further 
 plain,  in  that  she  in  her  rubric  calls  this 
 "  the  prayer  of  consecration,"  in  which  the 
 \vords  of  "institution  are  contained  ;  and  it 
 is  addressed  to  Almighty  God,  &c.,  whereas 
 the  words  of  Christ  were  not  supplicatory 
 to  God,  but  declaratory  to  his  disciples. 
 
 After  the  same  manner,  in  the  "  Office  of 
 Public  Baptism,"  in  imitation  of  the  custom 
 of  the   ancient  Christians,  who  dedicated 
 
248 
 
 CONSERVATORIES. 
 
 CONSTANCE,  COUNCIL  OF. 
 
 the  baptismal  water  to  the  holy  and  spi- 
 ritual use  for  which  it  was  designed,  our 
 Church  not  only  repeats  the  words  of  in- 
 stitution of  that  other  sacrament,  but 
 likewise  adds  a  solemn  prayer,  that  GOD 
 would  "  sanctify  the  water  to  the  mystical 
 washing  away  of  sin."  And,  as  in  that  sa- 
 crament she  joins  the  prayer  of  the  faithful 
 to  the  words  of  CliRiST,'  so  in  the  sacra- 
 ment of  the  altar  she  thinks  them_  both 
 necessary  to  complete  the  consecration. — 
 Archdeacon  Yardlei/. 
 
 A  prayer  of  consecration,  or  setting  apart 
 the  bread  and  wine  to  the  sacred  purpose 
 in  which  they  are  about  to  be  employed, 
 hath  been  used  for  that  end  at  least  1600 
 years.  And  the  mention  which  ours  makes 
 of  the  institution  of  the  Lord's  supper, 
 from  the  v/ords,  "  who  in  the  same  night 
 that  he  was  betrayed,"  to  the  conclusion, 
 is  in  every  old  liturgy  in  the  world.  The 
 Komanists  have  put  into  their  prayer  of 
 consecration  names  of  saints,  and  comme- 
 morations of  the  dead  which  we  have 
 throAvn  out.  And  indeed  we  have  left 
 nothing  that  so  much  as  needs  explaining, 
 unless  it  may  be  useful  to  observe,  that 
 oui'  Saviour's  "  one  oblation  of  himself" 
 is  opposed  to  the  various  kinds  of  oblations 
 under  the  law ;  and,  "  once  offered,"  to  the 
 continual  repetition  of  them  :  though  pro- 
 bably a  further  view  was  to  intimate,  that 
 he  is  not,  as  the  Papists  pretend,  really 
 sacrificed  anew  in  this  holy  ordinance. — 
 Abp.  Seeker. 
 
 The  death  of  Christ,  if  we  regard  the 
 persons  for  whom  it  Avas  undergone,  is  a 
 "  sacrifice ;"  if  we  regard  him  who  offered 
 it,  it  is  a  free  "  oblation ;"  if  we  consider 
 him  to  whom  it  was  offered,  it  is  a  "  satis- 
 Taction;"  and,  in  every  one  of  these  re- 
 spects, it  is  "  full,  perfect,  and  sufficient :" 
 or,  particularly,  it  is  a  "  full  satisfaction," 
 a  "  perfect  oblation,"  and  a  "  sufficient  sa- 
 crifice ;"  not,  like  the  legal  offerings,  for 
 the  sins  of  one  kind,  or  the  offences  of  one 
 nation  or  of  one  person,  but  for  the  sins  of 
 all  the  world.  Let  none  therefore  mis- 
 take, or  imagine  we  are  about  to  sacrifice 
 Christ  again,  as  the  lloman  Church  falsely 
 teacheth  ;  for  that  is  not  only  needless  and 
 impossible,  but  a  plain  contradiction  to  St. 
 Paul,  who  affirms,  that  Jesus  was  offered 
 only  "  once  "  (Heb.  ix.  26  ;  x.  10,  12) ;  and 
 by  that  "  one  oblation  he  hath  perfected 
 for  ever  them  that  are  sanctified "  (ver. 
 14) ;  so  that  there  needs  "  no  more  offering 
 for  sin"  (ver.  18). — Dean  Comber. 
 
 From  these  passages  of  the  Epistle  to 
 the  Hebrews  it  is  plain,  to  use  Bishop 
 Overall's  words,  that "  Christ  can  be  no 
 more  offered,  as  the  doctors  and  priests  of 
 
 the  Roman  party  fancy  it  to  be,  and  vainly 
 think  that,  every  time  they  say  mass,  they 
 offer  up  and  sacrifice  Cueist  anew,  as 
 properly  and  truly  as  he  offered  up  him- 
 self in  his  sacrifice  upon  the  cross.  And 
 this  is  one  of  the  points  of  doctrine,  and 
 the  chief  one,  whereof  the  Popish  mass 
 consisteth  ;  abrogated  and  reformed  here 
 by  the  Church  of  England,  according  to 
 the  express  word  of  GoD." 
 
 CONSERVATOPIES.  Public  schools 
 of  music  in  Italy,  so  called  because  they 
 are  intended  to  preserve  the  purity  of  the 
 science  and  practice  of  music.  The  Co?!- 
 serratorios  are  j^ious  foundations,  kept  up 
 at  the  expense  of  rich  citizens,  in  which 
 orphans,  foundlings,  and  the  children  of 
 poor  parents  are  boarded,  lodged,  and 
 taught  gratuitously.  There  are  separate 
 foundations  for  pupils  of  each  sex.  These 
 institutions,  which  ought  to  provide  the 
 churches  of  Italy  with  well-instructed 
 choristers,  and  to  limit  their  attention  to 
 this  object,  do  in  fact  supply  the  theatre, 
 as  well  as  the  Church,  with  the  most  ad- 
 mired performers.  See  Dr.  Burneifs 
 Present  State  of  INIusic  in  France  and 
 Italy,  for  an  account  of  these  conserva- 
 torios. 
 
 CONSISTENTES.  (English,  Co-stand- 
 ers.)  The  last  order  of  penitents  in  the 
 primitive  Church,  so  called  from  their 
 having  the  liberty,  after  other  penitents, 
 energumens,  and  catechumens  were  dis- 
 missed, to  stand  with  the  faithful  at  the 
 altar,  and  join  in  the  common  prayers, 
 and  see  the  oblation  offered  ;  but  yet  they 
 might  neither  make  their  own  oblations, 
 nor  partake  of  the  eucharist  with  them. — 
 Binqham. 
 
 CONSISTORY.  .A  word  used  to  denote 
 the  Court  Christian,  or  Spiritual  Court. 
 Every  bishop  has  his  consistory  court  held 
 before  his  chancellor  or  commissary,  in 
 his  cathedi-al  church,  or  other  convenient 
 place  of  his  diocese,  for  ecclesiastical  causes. 
 In  the  Church  of  England,  before  the  Nor- 
 man Conquest,  the  ecclesiastical  jurisdic- 
 tion was  not  separated  from  the  civil ;  for 
 the  earl  and  bishop  sat  in  one  court,  that 
 is,  in  the  ancient  county  court. 
 
 CONSTANCE,  COUNCIL  OF.  This 
 council  assembled  in  1414,  by  the  com- 
 bined authority  of  the  emperor  and  the 
 pope.  It  was  attended  by  thirty  cardinals, 
 three  patriarchs,  twenty  archbishops,  one 
 hundred  and  fifty  bishops,  besides  an  im- 
 mense number  of  the  inferior  clergy.  It 
 included  sovereign  princes,  electors  of 
 Germany,  as  well  as  representatives  from 
 every  country  in  communion  with  Rome. 
 Its  objects  were,  to   put  an   end   to  the 
 
CONSTANCE,  COUNCIL  OF. 
 
 249 
 
 schism,  to  reform  the  Church,  and  to  put 
 down  the  so-called  heresy  of  Bohemia, 
 
 During  a  period  of  nearly  forty  years 
 rival  popes  had  claimed  the  see  of  Home  ; 
 and  the  whole  of  Christendom  had  been 
 scandalized  by  their  intrigues,  their  false- 
 hoods, and  their  mutual  anathemas.  P^ach 
 side  had  the  support  of  universities  and  of 
 learned  divines.  Each  pleaded  a  1  )ivine  re- 
 velation, which  Avas  said  to  have  been  com- 
 municated on  behalf  of  the  one  to  St. 
 Bridget,  and  of  the  other  to  St.  Catherine 
 of  Sienna. 
 
 The  council  not  only  removed  the  two 
 popes  whose  title  had  been  previously  dis- 
 allowed, but  also  deposed  the  third,  who 
 had  been  legitimately  appointed,  and  had 
 forfeited  his  right  by  many  and  great 
 crimes.  The  wickedness  of  John  XXIII. 
 seems  to  have  been  almost  without  pa- 
 rallel. Some  charges  against  him  were 
 indeed  suppressed,  because  it  was  thought 
 that  the  papacy  itself  would  be  endangered 
 by  their  publication ;  but  enough  was 
 proved  on  unquestionable  testimony  to 
 insm*e  unanimous  consent  to  his  depo- 
 sition. 
 
 In  the  mean  while  the  necessity  of  re- 
 formation was  urged  on  all  sides.  In  the 
 council  itself,  cardinals  and  bishops,  as 
 well  as  other  divines,  declaimed  against 
 the  ignorance  and  vicious  lives  of  the 
 clergy,  which  bore  testimony  to  the  ill 
 effects  resulting  from  the  lengthened 
 schism  ;  while  the  German  people  pre- 
 sented a  memorial  demanding  reformation 
 of  the  evils  by  which  they  affirmed  the 
 Church  to  be  overrun,  and  that  it  should 
 take  place  of  all  other  business.  A  vehe- 
 ment contest  on  this  subject  ensued  be- 
 tween the  secular  and  ecclesiastical  au- 
 thorities, somewhat  similar  to  that  which 
 afterwards  occurred  at  Trent ;  but  in  the 
 end  the  urgent  duty  Avas  postponed  until 
 the  election  of  the  pope  had  taken  place, 
 and  then  it  was  successfully  evaded. 
 
 John  Huss,  who  was  a  learned  and  elo- 
 quent man,  of  blameless  life,  and  of  great 
 influence,  arrived  at  Constance  soon  after 
 the  meeting  of  the  council.  He  had  em- 
 braced the  opinions  of  AMcklifie,  and  had 
 been  especially  earnest  in  denouncing  the 
 avarice  and  immoralities  of  the  priests,  as 
 well  as  the  frauds  ])ractised  upon  the  people 
 by  pretended  miracles.  He  was  accused 
 and  thrown  into  prison.  The  emperor  at 
 fii'st  expressed  great  indignation  at  his 
 aiTcst,  but  having  been  influenced  by  mem- 
 bers of  the  council,  he  not  only  withdrew 
 his  protection,  but  deputed  the  elector  pa- 
 latine, as  vicar  of  the  empire,  to  place  him 
 in  the  hands  of  the  secular   magistrate. 
 
 The  pleas  on  which  this  breach  of  faith 
 have  been  defended  by  Roman  writers  are 
 inconsistent  and  self  contradictory.  Some 
 endeavour  to  maintain  that  Huss  did  not 
 possess  the  safe-conduct  until  after  his 
 arrest ;  some,  that  he  broke  the  conditions 
 on  which  it  was  granted ;  and  some,  that 
 no  engagement  of  the  emperor  could  limit 
 the  authority  of  the  council.  All  impar- 
 tial judges  have  long  been  agreed  in  con- 
 demning the  act  as  a  deep  and  indelible 
 disgrace  to  the  lioman  Church.  The 
 letters  of  the  martp*  himself,  as  well  as  the 
 language  of  his  defence,  describe  in  touch- 
 ing and  Christianly  terms,  the  harshness 
 and  injustice  with  which  he  was  treated. 
 Having  resisted  all  efforts  to  procure  his 
 recantation,  whether  by  threats  or  per- 
 suasion, he  was  condemned,  and  met  his 
 death  with  wonderful  calmness  and  he- 
 roism, on  the  7th  July,  1415,  The  imme- 
 diate effect  of  his  condemnation,  and  that 
 of  Jerome  of  Prague,  which  speedily  fol- 
 lowed, was  to  kindle  the  flames  of  civil  war 
 in  Bohemia,  during  which  the  names  of 
 AYickliffe  and  Huss  formed  the  watchword  • 
 on  the  one  side,  and  that  of  the  pope  on 
 the  other.  It  is  said  that  the  descendant 
 of  Sigismund,  in  the  foui'th  generation, 
 believed  himself  to  be  suffering  under 
 the  wrath  of  God  on  account  of  his  ances- 
 tor's sin. 
 
 In  the  fourth  and  fifth  sessions,  the 
 absolute  superiority  of  a  general  council 
 over  the  pope  was  expressed  in  the  form 
 of  an  exact  decree.  It  was  declared  that 
 the  council  holds  its  authority  directly 
 from  Christ ;  and  that  all  persons,  includ- 
 ing those  of  papal  dignity,  are  amenable 
 to  its  jurisdiction,  and  are  liable  to  pun- 
 ishment for  disobedience.  No  language 
 could  be  more  precise  than  that  which 
 was  employed.  The  same  doctrine  had 
 been  previously  asserted  in  the  Council  of 
 Pisa ;  and  was  afterwards  confirmed  in 
 the  Council  of  Basle.  It  was  the  judg- 
 ment of  the  constitutional  party  which  had 
 gradually  become  strong  in  the  Poman 
 Church ;  and  it  was  now  embodied  in  the 
 solemn  act  by  which  three  popes  were  set 
 aside,  and  Martin  V  substituted  in  their 
 place ;  in  the  validity  of  whose  appoint- 
 ment the  papal  succession  is  inseparably 
 bound  up.  The  decision  of  the  council 
 Avas  gravely  and  deliberately  adopted  ;  and 
 it  had  the  fullest  support  of  the  learned 
 divines  avIio  Avere  present,  such  as  Cardinal 
 P.  d'  Ailli,  Avho  had  been  chancellor  of  the 
 university  of  Paris,  and  his  still  more  illus- 
 trious pu])il  and  successor  John  Gerson, 
 Avho,  beyond  all  other  theologians,  influ- 
 enced and  represented  the  mind  of  that 
 
250 
 
 CONSUBSTANTIAL. 
 
 CONVERSION. 
 
 age.  It  has  always  furnished  an  insur- 
 mountable difficulty  to  conti'oversialists 
 of  the  ultramontane  school.  They  cannot 
 reject  its  authority  without  giving  up  the 
 legitimacy  of  every  pope  since  Martin  V. ; 
 while,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  plainly  at 
 variance  with  the  decrees  of  the  Council  of 
 Florence. 
 
 The  decrees  of  their  fourth  and  fifth 
 sessions  have  been  strenuously  maintained 
 by  the  Galilean  Church,  especially  by  Bos- 
 suet,  and  the  very  learned  men  who  shared 
 his  opinions  in  the  seventeenth  century ; 
 as  well  as  by  the  universities  of  Paris, 
 Louvain,  and  Cologne. 
 
 jMaterials  for  the  history  of  the  Council 
 of  Constance  are  provided  abundantly  by 
 the  invaluable  collection  of  documents 
 made  by  H.  Von  der  Hardt. 
 
 COXSUBST.INTIAL.  Co-essential;  of 
 the  same  substance  with  another.  Thus  we 
 say  of  our  blessed  Lord,  that  he  is  consiib- 
 stantial  Avith  the  Father,  being  "  of  one 
 substance  with  the  Father."  The  term 
 {bjxoovaioQ)  was  first  adopted  by  the  fathers 
 in  the  Council  of  Nice,  A.  D.  325,  to  express 
 more  precisely  the  orthodox  doctrine,  and 
 to  serve  as  a  precaution  against  the  sub- 
 tleties of  the  Arians,  who  admitted  every 
 thing  except  the  consubstantiality,  using  a 
 word  similar  in  sound,  but  very  different 
 in  meaning,  buoiovaioq.  This  word  is  still 
 the  distinguishing  criterion  between  the 
 catholic  or  orthodox  Christian  and  the 
 Ai'ian  heretic. 
 
 COXSUBSTANTIATION.  The  Romish 
 divines  fell  into  the  error  of  endeavouring 
 to  explain  the  manner  in  which  our  blessed 
 Lord  is  present  in  the  eucharist.  (See 
 Transuhstantiation.)  Luther  and  his  fol- 
 lowers, while  opposing  the  Romanists,  fell 
 into  a  similar  error,  only  insisting  on  a 
 different  manner  of  explaining  the  inex- 
 plicable mystery.  Luther  and  his  fol- 
 lowers maintained,  that,  after  the  conse- 
 cration of  the  elements,  the  body  and 
 blood  of  our  Saviour  are  substantially 
 present  together  with  the  bread  and  wine. 
 This  doctrine  is  called  consuhstantiation. 
 They  believe  that  the  real  body  and  blood 
 of  our  Lord  are  united  in  a  mysterious 
 manner,  through  the  consecration,  with 
 the  bread  and  wine,  and  are  received  with 
 and  under  them  in  the  sacrament  of  the 
 Lord's  supper. 
 
 CONTRITION.  (See  Attrition.)  Ro- 
 manists define  contrition  to  be  a  sorrow 
 for  sin,  with  a  sincere  resolution  of  re- 
 forming. The  word  is  derived  from  the 
 Latin  cnnterere,  to  break  or  bruise.  The 
 Psalmist  says,  "A  broken  and  a  contrite 
 heart,    O    God,   thou   wilt   not   despise." 
 
 (Psalm  li.  17.)  —  Cone.  Trident.  §  14, 
 c.  4. 
 
 CONVENT.  A  religious  house ;  a  mon- 
 astery; more  usually  used  to  signify  a 
 nunnery.  For  its  architectural  arrange- 
 ments, see  Monastery. 
 
 CONVENTICLE.  A  diminutive  of  con- 
 vent, denoting  properly  a  cabal,  or  secret 
 assembly  of  a  part  of  the  monks  of  a  con- 
 vent, to  make  a  party  in  the  election  of  an 
 abbot.  It  is  now  the  legal  term  to  denote 
 any  place  of  worship  used  by  those  who 
 depart  from  the  Church  of  England. 
 
 By  the  7.'3rd  canon  it  is  thus  ordained : 
 "  Forasmuch  as  all  conventicles  and  secret 
 meetings  of  priests  and  ministers  have  ever 
 been  justly  accounted  very  hateful  to  the 
 state  of  the  Church  wiierein  they  live,  we 
 do  ordain  that  no  priests  or  ministers  of 
 the  Word  of  GoD,  nor  any  other  persons, 
 shall  meet  together  in  any  private  house, 
 or  elsewhere,  to  consult  upon  any  matter 
 or  course  to  be  taken  by  them,  or  upon 
 their  motion  or  direction  by  any  other, 
 which  may  any  way  tend  to  the  impeach- 
 ing or  depraving  of  the  doctrine  of  the 
 Church  of  England,  or  the  Book  of  Com- 
 mon Prayer,  or  any  part  of  the  govern- 
 ment or  discipline  now  established  in  the 
 Church  of  England,  under  pain  of  excom- 
 munication ipso  facto." 
 
 CONVERSION.  A  change  of  heart 
 and  life  from  sin  to  holiness.  This  change, 
 when  it  takes  place  in  a  heathen  or  an 
 infidel,  comprises  a  reception  and  confes- 
 sion of  the  truths  of  Christianity  :  when  it 
 takes  place  in  a  person  already  baptized 
 and  a  Christian  in  profession,  it  implies  a 
 saving  and  influential  impression  on  his 
 heart,  of  those  truths  which  are  already 
 received  by  the  mind  and  acknowledged 
 with  the  lips.  To  the  heathen  and  infidel 
 conversion  is  absolutely  and  always  neces- 
 sary to  salvation.  The  baptized  Christian 
 may  by  God's  grace  so  continue  in  that 
 state  of  salvation  in  M'hich  he  was  placed 
 in  baptism,  (see  Church  Catechism,)  that 
 conversion,  in  this  sense,  is  not  necessary 
 to  him  :  still  even  he,  day  by  day,  will  fall 
 into  sins  of  infirmity,  and  he  will  need  re- 
 newal or  renovation :  and  all  these — the 
 daily  renewal  of  the  pious  Christian,  the 
 conversion  of  the  nominal  Christian,  and 
 the  conversion  of  the  infidel  or  heathen — 
 are  the  work  of  the  Holy  Spirit  of  God  on 
 the  hearts  of  men. 
 
 Some  persons  have  confused  conrersion 
 with  re</eneratio?i,  and  have  taught  that  all 
 men — the  baptized,  and  therefore  in  fact 
 regenerate  —  must  be  regenerated  after- 
 wards, or  they  cannot  be  saved.  Now  this 
 is  in  many  ways  false;  for  regeneration, 
 
CONVERSION. 
 
 CONVOCATION. 
 
 251 
 
 which  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  himself  has 
 connected  "with  holy  baptism,  cannot  be 
 repeated:  moreover,  not  all  men  (thoug^h 
 indeed  most  men  do)  fall  into  such  sin 
 after  baptism,  that  conversion,  or,  as  they 
 term  it,  regeneration,  is  necessary  to  their 
 salvation ;  and  if  a  regeneration  were  ne- 
 cessary to  them,  it  could  only  be  obtained 
 through  a  repetition  of  baptism,  which 
 were  an  act  of  sacrilege.  Those  Avho  speak 
 of  this  supposed  regeneration,  uncharitably 
 represent  the  orthodox  as  denying  the  ne- 
 cessity both  of  regeneration  and  of  con- 
 version ;  because  they  themselves  call  these 
 by  wrong  names,  and  the  orthodox  only 
 proclaim  their  necessity  in  their  true  sense. 
 They  who  object  to  the  expression  Bap- 
 thmallter/eneration,  by  regeneration  mean, 
 for  the  most  part,  the  first  influx  of  irre- 
 sistible and  indefectible  grace  ;  grace  that 
 cannot  be  repelled  by  its  subject,  and  which 
 must  issue  in  his  final  salvation.  Now,  of 
 such  grace  our  Church  knows  nothing,  and 
 of  course,  therefore,  means  not  by  regener- 
 ation at  baptism  the  first  influx  of  such 
 grace.  That  the  sins,  original  and  actual, 
 of  the  faithful  recipient  of  baptism,  are 
 washed  away,  she  doth  indeed  believe  ;  and 
 also  that  grace  is  given  to  him  by  the  im- 
 mediate agency  of  the  Holy  Spirit  ;  yet 
 so  that  the  conscience  thus  cleansed  may 
 be  again  defiled,  and  that  the  baptized 
 person  may,  and  often  does,  by  his  own 
 fault,  fall  again  into  sin,  in  which  if  he  die 
 he  shall  without  doubt  perish  everlasting- 
 ly; his  condemnation  not  being  avoided, 
 but  rather  increased,  by  his  baptismal  pri- 
 vilege. So  that,  in  fact,  we  say  not  that 
 any  one  is  regenerated  at  baptism,  accord- 
 ing to  the  meaning  of  these  words  in  the 
 lips  of  our  opponents.  And  if  they  v/ill 
 not  admit  that  baptism  is  the  Divinely 
 appointed  medium  of  regeneration  in  our 
 sense  of  that  term,  what  grace  can  they 
 imagine  so  trifling  as  to  comport  with  their 
 views  of  that  sacrament,  and  at  the  same 
 time  so  lofty  and  essential,  as  to  be  con- 
 templated by  Christ  in  the  solemn  insti- 
 tution of  a  sacrament ;  and  in  his  declara- 
 tions concerning  the  efficacy  and  necessity 
 of  that  sacrament;  and  by  the  apostles, 
 and  the  whole  Church,  in  their  sense  of  the 
 same  matter,  and  their  consequent  prac- 
 tice ?  "What  approaches  most  nearly  to 
 that  grace  of  their  own  imagining,  which 
 they  call  regeneration,  is  the  repentance 
 not  to  be  repented  of,  and  followed  by 
 fruits  of  righteousness  to  the  glory  of 
 God's  grace,  and  to  the  salvation  of  the 
 Chi'istian,  which  we  call  conversiun  or  re- 
 newal, and  attribute  to  the  same  Spirit 
 from  whom  we  receive  our  new   life  at 
 
 baptism  ;  and  which  we  hold  to  be  as  ne- 
 cessary to  the  salvation  of  one  who  has 
 fallen  from  his  baptismal  purity,  (and  who 
 has  not  so  fallen  P)  as  wc  hold  ba/)tis?nal 
 regeneration  to  be,  and  as  they  hold  their 
 supposed  regeneration.  Except  in  words, 
 then,  we  and  our  opponents  are  more 
 nearly  agreed  than  is  at  first  sight  appa- 
 rent; and  if  the  choice  of  terms  be  the 
 chief  point  at  issue,  we  have  this  to  say  for 
 the  expressions  which  we  use,  that  they 
 arc  consentient,  and  even  identical,  with 
 those  which  are  used  in  the  Scriptures  ; 
 and  that  they  are  the  same  which  the 
 whole  Church  employed,  until  the  days  of 
 certain  founders  of  sects,  called  after  their 
 OAvn  names  at  the  continental  lleformation ; 
 so  that  they  rest  on  the  highest  possible 
 grounds  of  Scripture  and  authority. — 
 Poole.     (See  Rcye)ieration.) 
 
 CONVOCATION  (see  Synod)  is  an  as- 
 sembly of  the  bishops  and  other  clergy  of 
 each  of  the  provinces  of  the  Church  of 
 England  to  consult  on  matters  ecclesiasti- 
 cal. As  much  is  in  these  days  said  of 
 convocation,  and  as  many  seem  to  think 
 that  a  convocation  must  be  holden  to  settle 
 the  disputes  now  unhappily  ])revailing 
 among  the  clergy,  it  may  be  interesting  if 
 we  extend  this  article,  that  we  may  supply 
 our  readers  with  a  history  of  convocations. 
 It  will  be  abridged  from  the  account  given 
 by  Dr.  Burn. 
 
 That  the  bishop  of  every  diocese  in 
 England,  as  in  all  other  Christian  coun- 
 tries, had  power  to  convene  the  clergy  of 
 his  diocese,  and,  in  a  common  synod  or 
 council,  with  them  to  transact  such  affairs 
 as  specially  related  to  the  order  and  go- 
 vernment of  the  churches  under  his  juris- 
 diction, is  not  to  be  questioned.  These 
 assemblies  of  the  clergy  were  as  old  almost 
 as  the  first  settlement  of  Christianity 
 amongst  us,  and,  amidst  all  other  revolu- 
 tions, continued  to  be  held  till  the  time  of 
 King  Henry  VIII. 
 
 What  the  bishop  of  every  diocese  did 
 within  his  own  district,  the  archbishop  of 
 each  province,  after  the  kingdom  was 
 divided  into  provinces,  did  within  his  pro- 
 per province.  They  called  together  first 
 the  bishops,  afterwards  the  other  prelates, 
 of  their  provinces ;  and  by  degrees  added 
 to  these  such  of  their  inferior  clergy  as 
 they  thought  needful.  In  these  two  as- 
 semblies of  the  clergy  (the  diocesan  synods 
 and  provincial  councils)  only  the  spiritual 
 affairs  of  the  Church  were  wont  for  a  long 
 time  to  be  transacted:  so  that,  in  this  re- 
 spect, there  was  no  difference  between  the 
 bishops  and  clergy  of  our  own  and  of  other 
 Christian    churches.      Our  metropolitans 
 
252 
 
 CONVOCATION. 
 
 and  their  suffrao^ans   acted  by  the   same 
 rules  here  as  they  did  in  ail  other  coun- 
 tries.    They  held  these  assemblies  by  the 
 same  power,  convened  the  same  persons, 
 and  did  the  same  thinj^s  in  them.     AMien 
 the  papal  authority  had   prevailed  here, 
 as  in  most  other  kingdoms  and  countries 
 in  Europe,  by  the  leave  of  our  kings,  and 
 at  the  conmiand  of  the  legates  sent  from 
 Rome,  another  and  yet  larger  sort  of  coun- 
 cils  was  introduced  amongst  us,    of  the 
 bishops  and  prelates  of  the  whole  realm. 
 These    were    properly    national    Church 
 councils,  and  were  wont  to  be   held   for 
 some  special  designs,  which  either  the  pope, 
 the  king,  or  both,  had  to  promote  by  them. 
 But  besides  these  synods  common  to  us 
 with   all   other   Christian  Churches,    and 
 which  were   in  their  nature  and  end,  as 
 well  as  constitution,  properly  and  purely 
 ecclesiastical,  two  other  assemblies  there 
 were  of  the  clergy  of  this  realm,  peculiar 
 to  our  otcn  state  and  country  ;  in  which  the 
 clergy  were  convened,  not  for  the  spiritual 
 afltiirs  of  the  Church,  but  for  the  good  and 
 benefit  of  the  realm,  and  to  act  as  members 
 of  the  one  as  well  as  of  the  other.     Now 
 the  occasion  of  these  was  this :  when  the 
 faith  of  Christ  was  thoroughly   planted 
 here,  and  the  piety  of  our  ancestors  had 
 liberally  endowed  the  bishops  and  clergy 
 of  the  Church   with  temporal   lands  and 
 possessions,  not  only  the  opinion  which  the 
 political  government  had  of  their  prudence 
 and  piety  prompted  it  to  take  the  most  emi- 
 nent of  them  into  the  public  councils,but  the 
 interest  which  they  had  by  that  means  in 
 the  state  made  it  expedient  so  to  do,  and 
 to  commit  the  direction  and  management 
 of  offices  and  affairs  to  them.     Hence  our 
 bishops  first,  and  then  some  of  our  other 
 prelates,  (as  abbots  and  priors,)  were  very 
 early  brought  into  the  great  councils  of  the 
 realm,  or  parliament,  and  there  consulted 
 and  acted  together  with  the  laity.     And 
 in  process  of  time,  our  princes  began  to 
 have  a  further   occasion  for  them.     For 
 being  increased  both  in  number  and  in 
 wealth,  not  only  our  kings,  but  the  people 
 began  to    think   it   reasonable,   that   the 
 clergy  should  bear  a  part  in  the  public 
 burdens,  as  well  as  enjoy  their  share  of 
 the  public  treasure.     Hence   our    Saxon 
 ancestors,  under  whom  the   Church   was 
 the  most  free,  yet  subjected  the  lands  of 
 the  clergy   to  the  threefold  necessity   of 
 castles,   bridges,   and   expeditions.      And 
 the  granting  of  aids  in  these  cases  brought 
 on  assemblies  of  the  clergy,  which  were 
 afterwards  distinguished  by  the  name  of 
 convocations. 
 
 In  the  Saxon  times,  the  lords  spiritual 
 
 (as  well  as  the  other  clergy)  held  by  frank- 
 almoigne,  but  yet  made  great  ])art  (as  was 
 said)  of  the  grand  council  of  the  nation  ; 
 being  the  most  learned  persons  that,  in 
 those  times  of  ignorance,  met  to  make 
 laws  and  regulations.  But  William  the 
 Conqueror  turned  the  frankalmoigne  te- 
 nures of  the  bishops  and  some  of  the  great 
 abbots  into  baronies  ;  and  from  thence- 
 forwards  they  were  obliged  to  send  per- 
 sons to  the  wars,  or  were  assessed  to  the 
 escuage,  (which  was  a  fine  or  papnent  in 
 money  instead  thereof,)  and  were  obliged 
 to  attend  in  parliament.  But  the  body  of 
 the  clergy  had  no  baronies,  and  holding 
 by  frankalmoigne,  were  in  a  great  measure 
 exempt  from  the  charges  which  were 
 assessed  upon  the  laity,  and  were  there- 
 fore by  some  other  way  to  be  brought 
 under  the  same  obligation.  In  order  here- 
 unto several  measures  were  taken,  till  at 
 last  they  settled  into  that  method  which 
 finally  obtained,  and  set  aside  the  necessity 
 of  any  other  way.  First,  the  pope  laid  a 
 tax  upon  the  Church  for  the  use  of  the 
 king ;  and  both  their  powers  uniting,  the 
 clergy  were  forced  to  submit  to  it.  Next, 
 the  bishops  were  prevailed  with,  upon 
 some  extraordinary  occasions,  to  oblige 
 their  clergy  to  grant  a  subsidy  to  the  king, 
 in  the  way  of  a  benevolence  ;  and  for  this, 
 letters  of  security  were  granted  back  by 
 the  king  to  them,  to  insure  them  that  what 
 they  had  done  should  not  be  drawn  into 
 example  or  consequence.  And  these  con- 
 cessions were  sometimes  made  by  the 
 bishops  in  the  name  of  their  clergy ;  but 
 the  common  way  was,  that  every  bishop 
 held  a  meeting  of  the  clergy  of  his  diocese. 
 Then  they  agreed  what  they  would  do; 
 and  empowered  first  the  bishops,  after- 
 wards their  archdeacons,  and  finally  proc- 
 tors of  their  own,  chosen  for  that  end,  to 
 make  the  concession  for  them. 
 
 Thus  stood  this  matter  till  the  time  of 
 Edward  the  First,  who,  not  willing  to  con- 
 tinue at  such  a  precarious  rate  with  his 
 clergy,  took  another  method ;  and,  after 
 several  other  experiments,  fixed  at  last 
 upon  an  establishment,  which  has,  to  a 
 certain  extent,  continued  ever  since,  viz. 
 that  the  earls  and  barons  should  be  called 
 to  parliament  as  formerly,  and  embodied 
 in  one  house  ;  and  that  the  tenants  in 
 burgage  should  also  send  their  representa- 
 tives ;  and  that  the  tenants  by  knight's 
 service,  and  other  soccage  tenants  in  the 
 counties,  should  send  their  representatives ; 
 and  these  were  embodied  in  the  other 
 house.  He  designed  to  have  the  clergy 
 as  a  third  estate  ;  and  as  the  bishops  were 
 to  sit  per  haroniam  in  the  temporal  par- 
 
CONVOCATION. 
 
 253 
 
 liament,  so  they  were  to  sit  with  the 
 inferior  clergy  in  convocation.  And  the 
 project  and  design  of  the  king  was,  that, 
 as  the  two  temporal  estates  charged  the 
 temporalities,  and  made  laws  to  bind  all 
 temporal  things  within  this  realm  ;  so  this 
 other  body  should  have  given  taxes  to 
 charge  the  spiritual  possessions,  and  have 
 made  canons  to  the  ecclesiastical  body  : 
 to  this  end  was  the  pircnninientes  clause 
 (so  called  from  the  first  word  thereof)  in 
 the  summons  to  the  archbishops  and  bi- 
 shops, by  which  he  rccpiired  them  to  sum- 
 mon such  of  their  inferior  clergy  to  come 
 with  them  to  i)arliamcnt,  as  he  then  spe- 
 cified and  thought  suflicient  to  act  for  the 
 whole  body  of  the  clergy.  This  altered 
 the  convocation  of  the  Church  of  England 
 from  the  foreign  synods;  for  these  were 
 totally  composed  of  the  bishops,  who  were 
 pastors  of  the  Church ;  and  therefore  the 
 bishops  only  were  collected  to  compose 
 such  foreign  synods,  to  declare  what  was 
 the  doctrine,  or  should  be  the  discipline,  of 
 the  Church. 
 
 Edward  I.  projected  making  the  clergy 
 a  third  estate,  dependent  on  himself;  and, 
 therefore,  not  only  called  the  bishops, 
 whom  as  barons  he  had  a  right  to  summon, 
 but  the  rest  of  the  clergy,  that  he  might 
 have  their  consent  to  the  taxes  and  assess- 
 ments made  on  that  body.  But  the  clergy, 
 foreseeing  they  were  likely  to  be  taxed, 
 alleged  that  they  could  not  meet  under  a 
 temporal  authority,  to  make  any  laws  or 
 canons  to  govern  the  Church.  And  this 
 dispute  was  maintained  by  the  archbishops 
 and  bishops,  who  were  very  loath  the 
 clergy  should  be  taxed,  or  that  they  should 
 have  any  interest  in  making  ecclesiastical 
 canons,  Avhich  formerly  vrere  made  by  the 
 sole  authority  of  the  bishops ;  for  even  if 
 those  canons  had  been  made  at  Home,  yet, 
 if  they  were  not  made  in  a  general  council, 
 they  did  not  think  them  binding  here, 
 unless  they  were  received  by  some  pro- 
 vincial constitution  of  the  bishops.  The 
 whole  body  of  the  Church  being  thus  dis- 
 satisfied, the  archbishops  and  bishops 
 threatened  to  excommunicate  the  king : 
 but  he  and  the  temporal  estate  took  it  so 
 ill  that  the  clergy  would  not  bear  any 
 part  of  the  pui)lic  charge,  that  they  were 
 beforehand  with  them,  and  the  clergy 
 were  all  outlawed,  and  their  possessions 
 seised  into  the  king's  hands.  This  so 
 humbled  the  clergy  that  they  at  last  con- 
 sented to  meet.  And  to  take  away  all  pre- 
 tence, there  was  a  summons,  besides  the 
 prcBiiiunientes  clause,  to  the  archbishop, 
 that  he  should  summon  the  bishops,  deans, 
 archdeacons,  colleges,  and  whole  clergy  of 
 
 his  province.  From  hence,  therefore,  the 
 bishops,  deans,  archdeacons,  colleges,  and 
 clergy,  met  by  virtue  of  the  archbishop's 
 summons ;  to  which,  being  an  ecclesiastical 
 authority,  they  could  not  object.  And  so 
 the  bishops  and  clergy  came  to  convocation 
 by  virtue  of  tlie  archbishop's  summons ; 
 they  esteeming  it  to  be  in  his  power,  whe- 
 ther he  would  obey  the  king's  writ  or 
 not :  but  when  he  had  issued  his  sum- 
 mons, they  could  not  pretend  it  was  not 
 their  duty  to  come.  But  the  prcemunientes 
 writ  was  not  disused ;  because  it  directed 
 the  manner  in  which  the  clergy  were  to 
 attend,  to  wit,  the  deans  and  archdeacons 
 in  person,  the  chapter  by  one,  and  the 
 clergy  by  two  proctors.  So  that  the  clergy 
 were  doubly  summoned  ;  first,  by  the  bi- 
 shop, to  attend  the  parliament;  and,  se- 
 condly, by  the  archbishoj),  to  appear  in 
 convocation.  And  that  the  archbishop 
 might  not  appear  to  summon  them  solely 
 in  pursuance  of  the  king's  writ,  he  for  the 
 most  part  varied  in  his  summons  from  the 
 king's  writ,  both  as  to  the  time  and  place 
 of  their  meeting.  And  lest  it  might  be 
 thought  still  (of  which  they  were  very 
 jealous)  that  their  power  was  derived  from 
 temporal  authority,  they  sometimes  met 
 on  the  archbishop's  summons  without  the 
 king's  Avrit ;  and  in  such  convocation  the 
 king  demanded  supplies,  and  by  such  re- 
 quest owned  the  episcopal  authority  of 
 convening.  So  that  the  king's  writ  was 
 reckoned  by  the  clergy  no  more  than  one 
 motive  for  their  convening.  From  hence- 
 forward, instead  of  making  one  state  of 
 the  kingdom,  as  the  king  designed,  the 
 clergy  composed  two  ecclesiastical  synods, 
 i.  e.  of  Canterbury  and  York,  under  the 
 summons  of  each  of  the  archbishops  ;  and 
 being  forced  into  those  two  synods  before 
 mentioned,  they  sat  and  made  canons,  by 
 which  each  respective  province  Avas  bound, 
 and  gave  aids  and  taxes  to  the  king.  But 
 the  archbishop  of  Canterbury's  clergy, 
 and  that  of  York,  assembled  each  in  their 
 own  ])rovince  ;  and  the  king  gratified  the 
 archbishops,  by  suff'ering  this  new  body  of 
 convocation  to  be  formed  in  the  nature  of 
 a  parliament.  The  archbishop  sat  as  king ; 
 his  sufiVagans  sat  in  the  upper  house  as 
 his  peers ;  the  deans,  archdeacons,  and  the 
 proctor  for  the  chapter  represented  the 
 burghers ;  and  the  two  proctors  for  the 
 clergy,  the  knights  of  the  shire.  And  so 
 this  body,  instead  of  being  one  of  the 
 estates  as  the  king  designed,  became  an 
 ecclesiastical  parliament,  to  make  laAvs, 
 and  to  tax  the  possessions  of  the  Church. 
 
 But  although  they  thus  sat  as  a  parlia- 
 ment, and  made  laws  for  the  Church,  yet 
 
254 
 
 CONVOCATION. 
 
 they  did  not  make  a  part  of  the  parliament 
 
 {)roperly  so  called.  Sometimes  indeed  the 
 ords,  and  sometimes  the  commons,  were 
 wont  to  send  to  the  convocation  for  some 
 of  their  body  to  give  them  advice  in  spi- 
 ritual matters  :  but  still  this  was  only  by 
 way  of  advice ;  for  the  parliament  have 
 always  insisted  that  their  laws,  by  their 
 own  natural  force,  bind  the  clergy;  as  the 
 laws  of  all  Christian  princes  did  in  the  first 
 ages  of  the  Church.  And  even  the  con- 
 vocation tax  always  passed  both  houses  of 
 parliament,  since  it  could  not  bind  as  a 
 law  till  it  had  the  consent  of  the  legislature. 
 
 Thus  the  case  stood  when  the  act  of 
 submission  (25  Henry  VIII.  c.  19)  was 
 made  ;  by  which  it  is  enacted  as  followeth : 
 — "  Whereas  the  king's  humble  and  obe- 
 dient subjects,  the  clergy  of  this  realm  of 
 England,  have  not  only  acknowledged,  ac- 
 cording to  the  truth,  that  the  convocation 
 of  the  same  clergy  is,  always  hath  been, 
 and  ought  to  be  assembled  only  by  the 
 king's  writ ;  but  also  submitting  themselves 
 to  the  king's  Majesty  have  promised,  in 
 verho  sacerdotil,  that  they  will  never  from 
 henceforth  presume  to  attempt,  allege, 
 claim,  or  put  in  ure,  enact,  promulge,  or 
 execute  any  new  canons,  constitutions,  or- 
 dinances, provincial  or  other,  or  by  what- 
 soever name  they  shall  be  called,  in  the 
 convocation,  unless  the  king's  most  royal 
 assent  and  licence  may  to  them  be  had,  to 
 make,  promulge,  and  execute  the  same, 
 and  that  his  Majesty  do  give  his  most 
 royal  assent  and  authority  in  that  behalf: 
 it  is  therefore  enacted,  according  to  the 
 said  submission,  that  they,  nor  any  of  them, 
 shall  presume  to  attempt,  allege,  claim,  or 
 put  in  ure  any  constitutions  or  ordinances 
 provincial,  by  whatsoever  name  or  names 
 they  may  be  called,  in  their  convocations 
 in  time  coming  (which  shall  always  be  as- 
 sembled by  authority  of  the  king's  writ) ; 
 unless  the  same  clergy  may  have  the  king's 
 most  royal  assent  and  licence  to  make, 
 promulge,  and  execute  such  canons,  con- 
 stitutions, and  ordinances,  provincial  or 
 synodal ;  upon  pain  of  every  one  of  the 
 said  clergy  doing  contrary  to  this  act,  and 
 being  thereof  convict,  to  suffer  imprison- 
 ment, and  make  fine  at  the  king's  will." 
 
 It  was  resolved  upon  this  statute,  by  the 
 two  chief  justices  and  divers  other  jus- 
 tices, at  a  committee  before  the  lords  in 
 parliament,  in  the  eighth  year  of  James  I., 
 1.  That  a  convocation  cannot  assemble  at 
 theu'  convocation  without  the  assent  of  the 
 king.  2.  That  after  their  assembly  they 
 cannot  confer,  to  constitute  any  canons, 
 without  licence  of  the  king.  3.  When 
 they  upon  conference  conclude  any  canons. 
 
 yet  they  cannot  execute  any  of  their  ca- 
 nons without  the  royal  assent.  4.  That 
 they  cannot  execute  any  after  the  royal 
 assent,  but  with  these  four  limitations : 
 (1.)  that  they  be  not  against  the  prero- 
 gative of  the  king ;  nor  (2.)  against  the 
 common  law ;  nor  (3.)  against  the  statute 
 law;  nor  (4.)  against  any  custom  of  the 
 realm. 
 
 The  clergy  having  continued  to  tax  them- 
 selves in  convocation  as  aforesaid,  these 
 assemblies  were  regularly  kept  up  till  the 
 act  of  the  13  Charles  II.  c.  4,  was  passed, 
 when  the  clergy  gave  their  last  subsidy :  it 
 being  then  judged  more  advantageous  to 
 continue  the  taxing  them  by  way  of  land- 
 tax  and  poll-tax,  as  it  had  been  in  the 
 time  of  the  Long  Parliament  during  the 
 civil  wars. 
 
 And  in  the  year  1664,  by  a  private 
 agreement  between  Archbishop  Sheldon 
 and  the  Lord  Chancellor  Clarendon,  and 
 other  the  king's  ministers,  it  was  concluded 
 that  the  clergy  should  silently  waive  the 
 privilege  of  taxing  their  own  body,  and 
 permit  themselves  to  be  included  in  the 
 money  bills  prepared  by  the  commons. 
 And  this  hath  made  convocations  unne- 
 cessary to  the  Crown,  and  inconsiderable 
 in  themselves. 
 
 And  since  that  time  the  clergy  have 
 been  allowed  to  vote  in  choosing  knights 
 of  the  shire,  as  other  freeholders,  which  in 
 former  times  they  did  not. 
 
 And  from  that  time  the  convocation  has 
 never  passed  any  synodical  act ;  and  from 
 thenceforth,  until  the  year  1700,  for  the 
 most  part  they  were  only  called,  and  very 
 rarely  did  so  much  as  meet  together  in  a 
 full  body,  and  with  the  usual  solemnity. 
 It  is  true  that,  during  the  remainder  of 
 King  Charles  the  Second's  reign,  when  the 
 office  of  prolocutor  was  void  by  death  or 
 promotion,  so  many  of  the  lower  house 
 came  together  as  were  thought  sufficient 
 to  choose  a  new  one ;  and  those  members 
 that  were  about  the  town  commonly  met, 
 during  parliament,  once  a  week,  had  pray- 
 ers read,  and  were  formally  continued  till 
 the  parliament  was  dissolved,  and  the  con- 
 vocation together  with  it.  And  in  King 
 James  the  Second's  time,  the  ^^Tits  issued 
 out  of  course,  but  the  members  did  not 
 meet.  In  the  year  1689,  after  the  acces- 
 sion of  William  and  Mary  to  the  throne,  a 
 convocation  was  not  only  called,  but  be- 
 gan to  sit  in  due  form ;  but  their  resolu- 
 tions came  to  nothing.  And  from  thence 
 till  the  year  1700  they  Mere  only  called, 
 but  did  not  meet ;  but  in  that  year,  and 
 ever  since,  at  the  meeting  of  the  parlia- 
 ment, the  convocation  of  the  clergy  has 
 
CONVOCATION. 
 
 255 
 
 likewise  been  solemnly  opened,  and  the 
 lower  clergy  have  been  permitted  to  form 
 themselves  into  a  house,  and  to  choose 
 their  prolocutor  ;  nor  have  they  been  final- 
 ly dismissed  as  soon  as  that  solemnity  was 
 over,  but  they  continued  from  time  to  time 
 till  the  parliament  hath  broke  up,  or  been 
 dissolved.  And  now^  it  seems  to  be  agreed 
 that  they  are  of  right  to  be  assembled  con- 
 currently with  parliaments,  and  may  act 
 and  ])roceed  as  provincial  councils,  when 
 her  Majesty  in  her  royal  wdsdom  shall  judge 
 it  expedient. 
 
 In  Ireland,  the  convocations  of  the  four 
 
 f)rovinces  assembled  all  together  in  Dub- 
 in  ;  and  were  formed  exactly  upon  the 
 model  of  those  of  England;  consisting  of 
 the  upper  house,  consisting  of  the  bishops  ; 
 and  of  the  lower,  consisting  of  deans,  arch- 
 deacons, proctors  of  the  chapters,  and 
 proctors  of  the  clergy  of  each  diocese. — 
 See  Wilkins's  Concilia,  iv.  496,  and  for  the 
 rules  and  privileges  of  the  convocation,  iv. 
 032. 
 
 Mr.  Stephens,  in  his  Introduction  to  the 
 Irish  Common  Prayer  Book,  (xxxvii.  &c.,) 
 remarks  that,  "In  1615,  a  convocation  of 
 the  Irish  clergy,  formed  after  the  model 
 of  the  English  convocation,  assembled  in 
 Dublin.  This  seems  to  have  been  the  Jirst 
 convocation  ever  held  in  Ireland.  The 
 clergy  do  not  appear  to  have  granted  any 
 subsidies,  or  ever  to  have  claimed  the  right 
 
 of  taxing  themselves In  the  reign 
 
 of  Henry  VIII.  there  does  not  seem  to  be 
 any  reference  of  ecclesiastical  matters  to 
 the  convocation,  nor  any  claim  of  exemp- 
 tion on  the  part  of  the  clergy."  [He  then 
 quotes  the  preamble  of  28  Henry  VIII.  c. 
 12.]  "  In  the  second  year  of  Elizabeth  a 
 parliament  was  assembled,  and  no  men- 
 tion is  made  of  a  convocation,  though  acts 
 with  respect  to  the  Church  were  passed. 
 And  in  the  third  year  of  Elizabeth  there 
 was  not  any  parliament,  yet  she  signifies 
 her  pleasure  to  Lord  Sussex,  the  lord 
 lieutenant,  for  a  general  meeting  of  the 
 clergy,  and  the  establishment  of  the  Pro- 
 testant religion.  This  of  course  was  an 
 order  to  summon  not  a  convocation,  but 
 the  ancient  synod  of  the  clergy,  w^hich  had 
 the  power  of  settling  all  matters  concern- 
 ing religion  ...  In  Ireland  the  provincial 
 synod  had  not  been  suspended,  and  by 
 their  consent  given  at  three  different  times 
 in  the  reign  of  EdAvard,  .  .  .  the  clergy  re- 
 vived the  use  of  the  English  liturgy,  and 
 expressed  their  conformity  to  the  doctrine 
 of  the  English  Church.  There  is,  indeed, 
 a  passage  in  the  Manuscript  Collections  of 
 Dudley  Loftus,  which  has  been  adduced 
 as  proof  of  a  convocation  having  been  held 
 
 in  1560:  "  This  year  was  held  a  convoca- 
 tion of  bishops  at  the  queen's  command, 
 for  establishing  the  Protestant  religion." 
 But  he  must  have  used  the  word  convoca- 
 tion merely  "  to  express  a  meeting  of  the 
 bishops,  and  would  have  adopted  a  very 
 different  phraseology  to  describe  the  meet- 
 ing of  the  convocation."  See  also  Ebring- 
 ton's  Life  of  Ussher,  38 — 40.  As  before 
 observed,  (see  Church  of  Ireland,)  no  pro- 
 vision whatever  has  been  made  since  the 
 Irish  Union,  for  the  assembling  even  form- 
 ally of  the  convocation  of  the  Irish  pro- 
 vince of  the  Church.  Still  it  appears  (vide 
 11  Pari.  Ileg.  164  and  274)  that  it  was  by 
 no  means  intended  that  the  Irish  provinces 
 should  be  deprived  of  their  convocations. 
 It  was  proposed  on  the  20th  April,  1800, 
 that  the  archbishops,  bishops,  and  clergy 
 of  Ireland,  should  be  summoned  to  sit  in 
 the  convocation  of  the  United  Church. 
 Mr.  Pitt  expressly  said,  in  proposing  the 
 amendment  to  this  resolution,  "  that  the 
 prosperity  of  the  Church  of  Ireland  never 
 could  be  permanent,  unless  it  be  a  part  of 
 the  Union  to  have,  as  a  guard,  power  to 
 the  United  Parliament  to  make  some  pro- 
 vision in  this  respect;"  i.e.  convocation. 
 "And  afterwards,"  he  said,  "it  was  judged 
 better  to  omit  the  insertion  of  any  pro- 
 visional article  respecting  the  convocation, 
 till  the  Union  actually  took  place."  This 
 pledge  has  never  been  redeemed. — See  an 
 article  on  the  United  Church  and  its  Sy- 
 nods, in  the  law  Review  for  Feb.  1851. 
 
 In  Scotland,  by  an  act  of  parliament, 
 1663,  an  order  was  made  for  regulating  the 
 meetings  of  the  national  synod,  or,  as  it 
 is  called  in  England,  the  convocation  of 
 the  Church  of  Scotland ;  and  an  act  was 
 passed.  That  this  synod  shall  consist  of 
 the  two  archbishops  and  their  suffragans, 
 all  the  deans  and  archdeacons,  the  fixed 
 moderators,  along  with  one  minister  of 
 every  presbytery,  and  one  commissioner 
 from  each  of  the  four  universities  :  That 
 the  synod,  then  constituted,  is  to  meet  at 
 such  places  and  times  as  his  Majesty  by 
 proclamation  shall  appoint,  and  is  to  de- 
 bate, treat,  consider,  consult,  conclude,  and 
 determine  upon  such  pious  matters,  causes, 
 and  things,  concerning  the  doctrine,  wor- 
 ship, discipline,  and  government  of  this 
 Church,  as  his  Majesty  shall,  from  time  to 
 time,  under  his  loyal  hand,  deliver,  or  cause 
 to  be  delivered,  to  the  archbishop  of  St. 
 Andrew's,  president  of  the  said  national 
 assembly,  to  be  by  him  off'ercd  to  their 
 consideration  :  Tliat  unless  his  Majesty  or 
 his  commissioner  be  present,  no  national 
 assembly  can  be  held :  And  that  no  act, 
 canon,  order,  or  ordinance,  shall  be  owned 
 
256 
 
 COPE. 
 
 CORONATION. 
 
 as  an  act  of  the  national  synod  of  the 
 Church  of  Scotland,  but  such  as  shall  have 
 been  considered,  consulted,  and  agreed 
 upon  by  the  president  and  major  part  of 
 the  number  above  specified.  —  Skitmer^s 
 Eccles.  Hist,  of  Scotland. 
 
 COPE.  {Capjnt,  called  also  pallium,  or 
 pluviale.)  A  kind  of  cloak  worn  during 
 Divine  service  by  the  clergy.  It  reaches 
 from  the  neck  nearly  to  the  feet,  and  is 
 o])en  in  front,  except  at  the  top,  Avhere  it 
 is  united  by  a  band  or  clasp.  It  is  in  use 
 in  the  AVesiern  Church  only ;  and  is  pro- 
 bably only  a  modification  of  the  vestment, 
 or  chasuble.  The  latter,  in  the  Roman 
 Church,  is  used  by  the  officiating  priest  at 
 mass  only ;  the  other,  by  all  orders  of  the 
 clergy  in  procession,  &c.,  on  solemn  occa- 
 sions. The  rubrics  of  King  Edward  VI., 
 still  legally  in  force,  prescribe  a  cope  or  vest- 
 ment for  the  priest  administering  the  holy 
 communion,  and  for  the  bishops,  when  ex- 
 ecuting any  public  ministration  in  the 
 church ;  for  which  a  vestment  may  be 
 substituted  either  by  priest  or  bishop.  By 
 the  24th  canon  the  cope  only  is  prescribed 
 to  the  priest  administering  the  communion, 
 and  that  only  in  cathedral  churches.  But 
 the  rubric  being  subsequently  enacted, 
 which  refers  to  the  regulation  of  Edward 
 VI.'s  First  Prayer  Book,  the  latter  is  more 
 strictly  to  be  considered  as  the  law  of  the 
 Church.  It  was  used  in  several  churches 
 and  college  chapels  in  the  17th  century, 
 (see  Jebh's  Church  Service,  p.  217,)  and  was 
 in  use  at  Durham  cathedral  and  West- 
 minster till  the  middle  of  the  last  century. 
 De  Foe,  in  his  anonpnous  Tour  through 
 England,  1762,  says  that  "the  old  vest- 
 ments, which  the  clergy  before  the  Reform- 
 ation wore,  are  still  used  on  Sundays  and 
 holidays,  by  the  residents."  And  Dr.  Collis, 
 in  his  Rubric  of  the  Church  of  England  ex- 
 amined, 1737,  says  that  "no  copes  are 
 worn  at  present  in  any  cathedi'al  or  collegi- 
 ate church  in  the  ministration  of  the  holy 
 communion,  except  in  the  churches  of 
 Westminster  and  Durham."  The  cope 
 has  always  been  worn  by  officiating  bishops, 
 and  by  the  dean  and  prebendaries  of  West- 
 minster at  coronations,  and  occasionally 
 at  state  funerals. 
 
 COPIAT^.  The  office  of  the  Copiatae, 
 ((coTTiaw,  to  travail,)  who  are  called  in  Latin 
 Fosmrii,  was  to  superintend  funerals,  and 
 to  see  that  all  persons  had  a  decent  burial. 
 They  performed  their  office  gratuitously 
 towards  the  poor. — Cave. 
 
 COPTS.  The  Monophysite,  or  Jacobite, 
 Christians  of  Egypt,  who  have  been  for 
 eleven  centuries  in  possession  of  the  patri- 
 archal chair  of  Alexandria,  and  the  domi- 
 
 nant sect  among  the  Christians  of  that 
 region,  are  called  Copts.  They  were  placed 
 in  possession  of  the  Egyptian  churches  on 
 the  irruption  of  the  Saracens  in  the  seventh 
 century.  Their  numbers  are  noAv  perhaps 
 about  100,000.  They  have  three  Hturgies, 
 one  ascribed  to  St.  Basil,  which  they  use 
 on  fast  days ;  that  of  St,  Cyril,  which  they 
 use  in  Lent ;  and  that  of  St.  Gregory, 
 which  they  use  on  festivals.  Their  service 
 is  very  much  crowded  with  ceremonies. 
 The  Coptic  tongue,  in  which  their  worship 
 is  conducted,  is  to  them  a  dead  language, 
 and  not  even  understood  by  many  of  their 
 priests.  Their  habits  of  life  are  ascetic, 
 and  they  have  many  monasteries.  They 
 have  a  patriarch,  who  resides  at  Cairo,  but 
 takes  his  title  from  Alexandria. 
 
 CORBEL.  A  bracket.  A  projection 
 supporting  a  weight;  and  so  corbel-fable, 
 a  table  or  horizontal  projection  supported 
 by  corbels.  Corbel-tables  are  almost  con- 
 fined to  the  Norman,  Transition,  and  Early 
 English  periods.  Corbels  in  other  places 
 are  of  course  continued ;  they  are  often  of 
 extreme  beauty. 
 
 CORDELIERS.  {Monks  of  the  Order 
 of  St.  Francis.)  They  w^ear  coarse  grey 
 cloth  with  a  little  cowl,  and  a  rope  girdle 
 with  three  knots ;  from  this  girdle  they 
 are  called  Cordeliers.  They  are  the  same 
 with  the  Minorites ;  but  had  the  name  of 
 Cordeliers  given  them  upon  this  occasion, 
 they  having  repulsed  the  infidels  in  a  war 
 which  St.  Louis  made  against  them,  the 
 king  asked  their  name,  and  was  answered, 
 they  were  des  Gens  des  Co;-<:/e/?Vs— people 
 with  cords  about  them.  (See  Franciscans.) 
 CORONATION.  The  solemn  religious 
 rite  by  Avhich  a  sovereign  prince  is  con- 
 secrated to  his  high  office,  in  which  also 
 the  queen  consort  in  Christian  countries 
 is  usually  associated  with  her  husband,  not 
 for  office'  sake,  but  hojwris  gratia. 
 
 By  ancient  custom  the  coronation  of  the 
 sovereign  of  England  belongs  to  the  arch- 
 bishop of  Canterbury,  and  that  of  the 
 queen  consort  to  the  archbishop  of  York. 
 The  place  is  Westminster  Abbey.  The 
 kings  of  Scotland  were  crowned  at  Scone. 
 According  to  Mr.  Palmer,  (Supplement,) 
 the  coronation  of  sovereigns  may  be  traced 
 to  A.  D.  457,  when  Leo  was  crowned  em- 
 peror by  Anatolius,  patriarch  of  Constan- 
 tinople. Pepin  was  the  first  French 
 monarch  who  was  crowned.  The  first 
 coronation  in  England  was  that  of  Egferth 
 king  of  Mercia ;  and  we  have  still  the 
 forms  used  in  the  time  of  the  Heptarchy, 
 from  which  our  coronation  service  (slightly 
 modified  from  time  to  time)  is  substan- 
 tially derived.— See  Dr.  Silver's  Coronation 
 
CORNET. 
 
 Service,  or  Consecration  of  the  Anglo-Saxon 
 
 It  is  a  forai  of  immemorial  prescription, 
 substantially  the  same  as  that  used  at  the 
 inauguration  of  our  Christian  monarchs  in 
 Saxon  times,  and  sanctioned  by  the  solemn 
 approval  of  all  the  estates  of  the  realm, 
 the  nobility,  the  clergy,  and  the  people, 
 assembled  at  its  celebration.  The  ]n-ayers 
 are  framed  in  the  best  spirit  of  antiquity, 
 with  the  rhythm  so  characteristic  of  primi- 
 tive forms,  and  with  an  elevation  and 
 majesty  of  sentiment  unsurpassed  in  any 
 part  of  our  liturgy.  The  service  is,  how- 
 ever, peculiarly  valuable,  as  recording 
 certain  high  religious  and  political  prin- 
 ciples, which  of  course  must  be  considered 
 as  receiving  the  full  sanction  of  the  Church 
 and  nation.  Thus,  there  is  an  acknow- 
 ledgment of  the  sovereignty  of  Christ 
 over  the  whole  world,  and  the  derivation 
 of  all  kingly  poAver  from  Him.  "  When 
 you  see  this  orb  set  under  the  cross,  re- 
 member that  the  whole  world  is  subject  to 
 the  power  and  empire  of  Christ  our  He- 
 deemer.  For  He  is  the  Prince  of  the 
 kings  of  the  earth,  King  of  kings,  and 
 Lord  of  lords ;  so  that  no  man  can  reign 
 happily,  who  derives  not  his  authority 
 from  Him,  and  directs  not  all  his  actions 
 according  to  His  laws."  It  is  declared 
 that  Christian  sovereigns,  like  the  Jewish 
 kings  of  old,  are  consecrated  to  the  fulness 
 of  tlieir  office  by  the  religious  rite  of  unc- 
 tion, and  that  their  function  is  not  merely 
 secular.  *'  Bless  and  sanctify  thy  chosen 
 servant  Victoria,  who  by  our  office  and 
 ministry  is  now  to  be  anointed  with  this 
 oil,  and  consecrated  Queen  of  this  realm." 
 There  is  a  strict  recognition  of  the  pre- 
 rogative of  the  clergy,  empowered  as  the 
 ministers  of  Christ,  to  assert  the  dominion 
 of  our  Lord,  who  exalts  her  to  her  holy 
 dignity :  "  Stand  firm  and  hold  fast  from 
 henceforth  the  seat  and  the  state  of  royal 
 and  imperial  dignity,  which  is  this  day 
 delivered  to  you  in  the  name  and  by  the 
 authority  of  Almighty  God,  and  by  the 
 hands  of  us  the  bishops  and  servants  of 
 God,  though  unworthy  :  and  as  you  see  us 
 to  approach  nearer  to  God's  altar,  so  vouch- 
 safe the  more  graciously  to  continue  to 
 us  your  royal  favour  and  protection.  And 
 the  Lord  God  Almighty,  whose  ministers 
 we  are,  and  the  stewards  of  his  mysteries, 
 establish  you  therein  in  righteousness,  that 
 it  may  stand  fast  for  evermore." — Palmer. 
 
 COJvXJ"/r.  A  species  of  horn  or  trum- 
 pet formerly  much  used  in  tlie  Church 
 service ;  in  the  king's  chapel  especially. 
 Dr.  Kimbault,  in  his  Notes  on  Roger 
 North's  Memoirs  of  Music,  states,  that  in 
 
 CORPUS  CHRISTI,  FEAST  OF.    257 
 
 the  Statutes  of  Canterbury  cathedral, 
 provision  is  made  for  players  on  sackbuts 
 and  cornets,  on  high  festivals.  After  the 
 llestoration,  as  appears  from  North's  Life 
 of  Guildford,  the  cornet  was  used  at  Dur- 
 ham and  York  cathedrals  ;  and  Matthew 
 Lock  says,  that  for  about  a  year  after  the 
 opening  of  the  Koyal  Chapel,  the  cornet 
 was  used  to  supply  the  want  of  treble 
 voices. 
 
 Evelyn,  in  his  Memoirs,  (21  Dec.  1663,) 
 com])lains  of  violins  being  substituted  in 
 the  Koyal  Chapel,  "  instead  of  the  ancient, 
 grave,  and  solemn  wind-music,  accompany- 
 ing the  organ  :"  and  that  "  we  no  more 
 heard  the  cornet,  which  gave  life  to  the 
 organ,  that  instrument  quite  left  off',  in 
 which  the  English  were  so  skilful." — Jehb. 
 
 CORPOKAL.  This  is  the  name  given 
 to  the  linen  cloth  which  is  spread  over  the 
 body,  [corpus,]  or  consecrated  bread,  after 
 the  communion.  It  was  of  common  use  in 
 the  Church  in  the  fifth  century,  as  is  evi- 
 dent from  the  testimony  of  Isidore  of  Pe- 
 lusium,  who  observes  that  tlie  design  of 
 using  it  was  to  represent  the  body  of  our 
 Saviour  being  wrapped  in  fine  linen  by 
 Joseph  of  Arimathea. 
 
 The  direction  concerning  this  "  fiiir  linen 
 cloth  "  in  our  Order  of  the  Holy  Communion 
 is  as  follows  :  "  When  all  have  communi- 
 cated, the  minister  shall  return  to  the 
 Lord's  table,  and  reverently  place  upon  it 
 what  remaineth  of  the  consecrated  ele- 
 ments, covering  the  same  with  a  fair  linen 
 cloth."  Our  reformers  may  have  been  in- 
 fluenced in  their  retention  of  this  decent 
 ceremony  after  consecration,  as  a  ])rotest 
 against  the  elevation  of  the  host,  and 
 "  gazing  "  at  the  sacrament. 
 
 CORPUS  CHRISTI,  FEAST  OF.  A 
 Roman  festival,  instituted  by  Pope  Urban 
 IV.,  A.  D.  1264,  and  observed  on  the  Thurs- 
 day of  the  week  after  Pentecost.  The 
 institution  was  the  natural  result  of  the 
 acceptance  of  the  doctrine  of  transubstan- 
 tiation.  Hildebert  of  Tours  was  the  fii'st 
 who  made  use  of  the  high-sounding  term 
 transuhstantiatio.  Most  of  the  earlier 
 scholastics,  and  the  disciples  of  Lanfranc 
 in  particular,  had,  however,  previously  de- 
 fended both  the  doctrine  of  the  change  of 
 the  bread  into  the  body  of  Christ,  and 
 that  of  the  accidentia  sine  suhjectn  ;  but  it 
 was  not  made  an  article  of  faith  till  the 
 time  of  Innocent  II L  Ry  the  institution 
 of  the  Corpus  Christ i  day,  by  Urban,  this 
 doctrine  was  cx])ressed  in  a  liturgical  form, 
 and  its  popularity  Avas  secured.  The  fes- 
 tival was  established  in  honour  of  the  con- 
 secrated host,  and  with  a  view  to  its  ador- 
 ation.    Its  origin  is  connected  wdth  some 
 
258 
 
 CORSNED. 
 
 COUNCILS. 
 
 of  those  "  lying  wonders,"  in  which  we 
 read  one  of  the  mai'ks  of  the  scriptural 
 condemnation  of  the  Church  of  Kome. 
 The  Komish  legend  states  that,  in  1230, 
 Juliana,  a  nun  of  Liege,  while  looking  at 
 the  full  moon,  saw  a  gap  in  its  orb ;  and, 
 by  a  peculiar  revelation  from  heaven, 
 learned  that  the  moon  represented  the 
 Christian  Church,  and  the  gap  the  want  of 
 a  certain  festival — that  of  the  adoration  of 
 the  body  of  CiiKlsT  in  the  consecrated  host 
 — which  she  was  to  begin  to  celebrate,  and 
 announce  to  the  world.  In  1264,  while  a 
 priest  at  Bolsena,  who  did  not  believe  in 
 the  change  of  the  bread  into  the  body  of 
 Christ,  was  going  through  the  ceremony 
 of  benediction,  chops  of  blood  fell  on  his 
 surplice,  and  when  he  endeavoured  to  con- 
 ceal them  in  the  folds  of  his  garment, 
 formed  bloody  images  of  the  host.  The 
 bloody  surplice  is  still  shown  as  a  relic  at 
 Civita  Vecchia.  It  was  in  this  year  that 
 Pope  Urban  published  his  bull,  and  it  is 
 with  such  authority  that  the  Chui'ch  of 
 Home  is  contented ! 
 
 CORSXED.     (See  Ordeal.) 
 
 COUNCILS.  (See  Synod.)  General  or 
 cecumcnical  councils,  or  synods,  are  assem- 
 blies of  bishops  from  all  parts  of  the  Church, 
 to  determine  some  weighty  controversies  of 
 faith  or  discipline.  Of  such  councils  the 
 Catholic  or  Universal  Church  has  never 
 received  or  approved  more  than  six,  al- 
 though the  Romish  Church  acknowledges 
 several  others.  This  is  one  of  the  many 
 instances  in  which  the  Romish  Church  is 
 at  variance  with  the  Catholic  Church.  The 
 first  Cathohc  Council  is  that  of  Nice,  which 
 was  convened  by  the  emperor  Constan- 
 tine,  A.  D.  325,  to  terminate  the  controversy 
 raised  by  Arius,  presbyter  of  Alexandria, 
 who  denied  the  Divinity  of  the  Son  of  God, 
 maintaining  that  he  was  a  creature  brought 
 forth  from  nothing,  and  susceptible  of  vice 
 and  virtue.  The  council  condemned  his 
 doctrine  as  heretical,  and  declared  the 
 faith  of  the  Church  in  that  celebrated 
 creed  called  the  Nicene  Creed,  which  is 
 repeated  by  us  in  the  Communion  Service, 
 and  v.'hich  has,  ever  since  its  promulgation, 
 been  received  and  venerated  by  the  Uni- 
 versal Church,  and  even  by  many  sects  and 
 heretics.  This  council  also  made  several 
 regulations  in  matters  of  discipline.  The 
 second  general  council  was  that  of  Con- 
 stantinople, assembled  by  the  emperor 
 Theodosius  the  Elder,  in  381,  to  appease 
 the  troubles  of  the  East.  The  heresy  of 
 Macedonius,  who  blasphemously  taught 
 that  the  Holy  Ghost  was  a  creature,  was 
 herein  anathematized,  and  the  Nicene 
 Creed  was  brought  into  its  present  form  by 
 
 the  addition  of  some  passages  concerning 
 the  orthodox  doctrine  of  the  incarnation, 
 and  of  the  real  Divinity  of  the  HoLY 
 Ghost.  The  third  general  council  was 
 assembled  at  Ephesus,  a.  d.  431,  by  the 
 emperor  Theodosius  the  Younger,  to  de- 
 termine the  controversy  raised  by  Nesto- 
 rius,  bishop  of  Constantinople,  who  de- 
 claimed against  the  title  of  Theotokos, 
 (Mother  of  God,)  which  the  Church  had 
 long  applied  to  the  mother  of  him  who 
 was  both  God  and  man ;  and  taught  that 
 the  Son  of  man  and  GoD  the  "Word  were 
 different  persons,  connected  only  by  a 
 moral  or  apparent  union,  contrary  to  the 
 Scripture,  which  declared  that  "  the  Word 
 was  made  flesh  and  dwelt  among  us,"  and 
 that  God  purchased  the  Church  "  with  his 
 own  blood."  (Acts  xx.  28.)  By  this  coun- 
 cil the  Nestorian  heretics  were  condemned. 
 The  fourth  general  council  was  assembled 
 by  the  emperor  Marcian,  in  451,  at  Chal- 
 cedon.  This  council  published  a  confes- 
 sion, or  definition  of  faith,  in  vdiich  the 
 doctrine  and  creed  of  the  three  preceding- 
 Councils  of  Nice,  Constantinople,  and 
 Ephesus,  were  confirmed,  and  the  orthodox 
 doctrine  of  the  existence  of  two  perfect 
 and  distinct  natures,  the  Divine  and  human, 
 in  the  "unity  of  the  person  of  our  Loud 
 Jesus  Christ,  was  clearly  defined.  Euty- 
 ches,  and  Dioscorus  bishop  of  Alexandria, 
 who  maintained  that  there  was  only  one 
 nature  in  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  after 
 the  incarnation  or  union  of  the  Divinity 
 and  humanity,  were  condemned  as  heretics 
 by  this  council.  The  fifth  general  council, 
 commonly  called  the  Second  Council  of 
 Constantinople,  was  convened  by  the  em- 
 peror Justinian,  in  553 ;  but  it  is  only  to 
 be  viewed  as  a  supplement  to  the  third 
 general  council,  being  engaged  like  it  in 
 condemning  the  Nestorian  heresy.  The 
 sixth  council,  called  the  Third  Council  of 
 Constantinople,  was  assembled  in  680,  by 
 the  emperor  Constantine  Pogonatus.  It 
 stands  in  the  same  relation  to  the  fourth 
 council  that  the  fifth  does  to  the  third. 
 "  These  are  the  only  councils,"  says  Mr. 
 Palmer,  "  which  the  Universal  Church  has 
 ever  received  and  approved  as  general." 
 The  doctrine  of  these  general  councils, 
 having  been  approved  and  acted  on  by  the 
 whole  body  of  the  Catholic  Church,  and 
 thus  ratified  by  an  universal  consent,  which 
 has  continued  ever  since,  is  irrefragably 
 true,  unalterable,  and  irreformable ;  nor 
 could  any  Church  forsake  or  change  the 
 doctrine  without  ceasing  to  be  Christian. 
 
 In  the  act  of  the  first  of  Elizabeth  .... 
 the  commissioners,  in  their  judgment  of 
 heresies,  were  enjoined  to  adhere,  in  the 
 
COUNSEL. 
 
 COVENANT  OF  REDEMPTION.  2o9 
 
 first  place,  to  the  authority  of  the  canoni- 
 cal Scriptures ;  secondly,  to  the  decisions 
 of  the  first  four  general  councils ;  and 
 thirdly,  to  the  decision  of  any  other  general 
 council,  founded  on  the  cxj)ress  and  2)Iain 
 words  of  Holy  Scriptm-e.  In  this  act,  one 
 particular  deserves,  and  demands,  very 
 special  attention  ;  namely,  the  unqualified 
 deference  paid  to  the  first  four  general 
 councils.  The  latest  of  these  councils  sat 
 and  deliberated  in  the  year  451,  A  point 
 of  time,  therefore,  is  fixed,  previously  to 
 which  the  Chvu'ch  of  England  unreservedly 
 recognises  the  guidance  of  the  Catholic 
 Church,  in  the  interpretation  of  Christian 
 verities. — Bishop  Jebb,  Appendix  to  Prac- 
 tical Sermons. 
 
 Provincial  councils  consist  of  the  metro- 
 politan and  the  bishops  subject  to  him. 
 Diocesan  councils  are  assemblies  of  the 
 bishop  and  his  presbyters  to  enforce  canons 
 made  by  general  or  provincial  councils, 
 and  to  consult  and  agree  upon  rules  of 
 discipline  for  themselves.  (For  an  account 
 of  the  Romish  councils,  see  Laternn.  For 
 the  authority  of  councils  in  the  Church  of 
 England,  see  Hert'sy.) 
 
 COUNSEL.  Besides  the  common  sig- 
 nification of  the  Avord,  it  is  frequently  used 
 in  Scripture  to  signify  the  designs  or  pur- 
 poses of  God,  or  the  orders  of  his  provi- 
 dence. (Acts  iv.  28,  and  Psalm  Ixxiii. 
 24.)  It  also  signifies  his  will  concerning 
 the  way  of  salvation.  (Luke  vii.  30 ; 
 Acts  XX.  27.) 
 
 This  word  is  also  used  by  the  doctors  of 
 the  Romish  Church,  to  denote  those  pre- 
 cepts which  they  hold  to  be  binding  upon 
 the  faithful,  in  virtue  of  an  implied  direc- 
 tion or  recommendation  of  our  Lord  and 
 his  apostles.  Thus  the  celibacy  of  the 
 clergy  is  numbered  by  them  among  "  evan- 
 gelical counsels,"  which,  receiving  the 
 acceptance  of  the  Church,  they  hold,  here- 
 tically,  to  be  equally  binding  with  the  com- 
 mands of  canonical  Scripture. 
 
 COURT  CHRISTIAN.  The  ecclesiasti- 
 cal courts  are  so  designated.  In  the  Church 
 of  England  there  are  six  spiritual  courts. 
 
 1.  The  Archdeacon^  Courts  which  is 
 the  lowest,  and  is  held  in  such  places 
 where  the  archdeacon,  either  by  prescrip- 
 tion or  composition,  has  jurisdiction  in 
 spiritual  or  ecclesiastical  causes  within  his 
 archdeaconry.  The  judge  of  this  court 
 is  called  the  official  of  the  archdeaconry. 
 
 2.  The  Consistort/  Courts  of  the  arch- 
 bishops and  bishops  of  every  diocese,  held 
 in  their  cathedral  churclies,  for  trial  of  all 
 ecclesiastical  causes  within  the  diocese. 
 The  bishop's  chancellor  or  commissary  is 
 the  judge. 
 
 s  2 
 
 3.  The  Prerogative  Court,  held  at  Doc- 
 tors' Commons,  in  London,  in  which  all 
 testaments  and  last  wills  are  proved,  and 
 administrations  upon  the  estates  of  in- 
 testates granted,  where  the  party  dies 
 beyond  seas  or  within  his  province,  leaving 
 bona  notabilia. 
 
 4.  The  Arches  Court,  (so  called  because 
 anciently  held  in  the  arched  church  of 
 St.  Mary,  in  Cheapside,  London,)  is  that 
 which  has  jurisdiction  upon  appeal  in  all 
 ecclesiastical  causes,  except  v>hat  belong 
 to  the  Prerogative  Court.  The.  judge  is 
 the  official  principal  of  the  archbishop. 
 
 5.  The  Court  of  Peculiars,  of  the  arch- 
 bishop of  Canterl)ury,  subservient  to,  and 
 in  connexion  w^ith,  that  of  the  Arches. 
 
 6.  The  Court  of  Delegates,  so  called 
 because  the  judges  are  delegated  and  sit 
 in  virtue  of  the  king's  commission,  under 
 the  great  seal,  pro  hac  vice,  upon  appeals 
 to  the  king  on  ecclesiastical  matters.  The 
 powers  of  this  court  are  now  in  England 
 transferred  to  the  Judicial  Committee  of 
 the  Privy  Council.  It  remains  in  Ireland. 
 (See  Dcleqates,  and  Appeal.) 
 
 COVENANT.  A  mutual  agreement 
 between  two  or  more  parties.  (Gen.  xxi. 
 32.)  In  the  Hebrew  the  word  signifies, 
 1.  A  disposition,  dispensation,  institution, 
 or  appointment  of  God  to  man.  (Hebrews 
 ix.  16,  17,  20.)  2.  The  religious  dispens- 
 ation or  institution  which  GoD  appointed 
 to  Abraham  and  the  patriarchs.  (Acts  iii. 
 25;  Luke  i.  72;  Acts  vii.  8.)  3.  The 
 dispensation  from  Sinai.  (Heb.  viii.  9; 
 Gal.  iv.  24.)  4.  The  dispensation  of  faith 
 and  free  justification,  of  which  Christ  is 
 the  Mediator,  (Heb.  vii.  22 — viii.  6,) 
 and  which  is  called  new  in  respect  of  the 
 old  or  Sinai  covenant,  (2  Cor.  iii.  6 ;  Heb. 
 viii.  8,  13;  ix.  15,)  and  whence  the  New 
 Covenant  or  Testament  became  the  title 
 of  the  books  in  which  this  new  dispensation 
 is  contained.  Into  this  covenant  we  are 
 admitted  by  union  with  Christ  ;  and  into 
 union  with  Christ  all  infants,  and  such 
 adults  as  are  properly  qualified  by  faith  and 
 repentance,  may  be  admitted  in  holy  bap- 
 tism. (Gal.  iii.  27.)  5.  The  old  dispensa- 
 tion is  used  for  the  books  of  Moses  con- 
 taining that  dispensation  by  St.  Paul.  (2 
 Cor.  iii.  14.) 
 
 We  renew  our  baptismal  covenant  in 
 our  confirmation,  and  in  each  faithful  par- 
 ticipation of  the  eucharist. 
 
 COVENANT  OF  REDEMPTION. 
 This  is  said  to  be  the  mutual  stipulation 
 between  the  everlasting  Father  and  the 
 co-eternal  Son,  relating  to  the  salvation  of 
 our  fallen  race,  previously  to  any  act  upon 
 the  part  of  Christ  under  the  character  of 
 
260 
 
 COVENANT. 
 
 CREDENCE. 
 
 Mediator.     That  there  was  such  a  cove- 
 nant, either  tacit  or  express,  we  may  as- 
 suredly conclude,  from  the  importance  of 
 the  work   undertaken  by  God    the    Son, 
 and  the  awful  sacrifice  made  for  its  ac- 
 complishment.    All  the  prophecies  which 
 relate  to   what   was  to  be  done   by  the 
 Messiah  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  benefits 
 and  rewards  which  were   to  be  conferred 
 upon  him  and  his  people   on  the  other, 
 may  properly  be  considered  as  intimations 
 of  such  a  covenant.     (1  Pet.  i.  1 1 .  Compare 
 John  xvii.    1—5,  14 ;  vi.  37  ;    Tit.   i.  2  ; 
 2  Tim.  i.  9;  Rev.  xiii.  8;  Ps.  Ixxxix.  19.) 
 By  this  covenant,  the  everlasting  Son, 
 who,  with  the  Fatheh  and  the  Holy  Spi- 
 iiiT,  is  without  beginning,  God  of  God, 
 Light  of  light,  very  God  of  very  God,  un- 
 dertook to  become  incarnate,  to  dwell  a 
 certain  time  upon  earth,  subject  to  the  law 
 of  human  nature  ;  directing  his  whole  con- 
 duct while  he  should  continue   here,  in 
 such  a  manner  as  most  effectually  to  pro- 
 mote the  honour  of  his   Father  and  the 
 salvation  of  his  people  ;  that  at  length  he 
 would  voluntarily  deliver  himself  to  suf- 
 ferings and  death,  and  remain  for  a  time 
 in  the  grave ;  thereby,  in  human  nature, 
 offering  a  satisfaction  to  the  law  of  perfect 
 obedience  to  the  will  of  the  Creator,  which 
 human  nature  had  violated,  and  removing 
 the  obstacle  to  the  operation  of  Divine 
 mercy,  w^hich  Divine  justice  interposed; 
 also,  that,  after  his  resurrection  and  as- 
 cension into  heaven,  he  would  employ  his 
 renewed   life   as   the   GoD-Man,    and  his 
 extensive   authority    in    the    mediatorial 
 kingdom,  to  the  same  great  purposes  which 
 engaged  him  to  become  incarnate.     (Ps. 
 xl.  6—9;  Heb.  x.  5-10;  Isa.  Ixi.  1—3; 
 Luke   iv.    18  ;    Isa.   i.   5,   6.)     God  the 
 Father,  on  the  other  hand,  stipulated  to 
 produce  a  human  body  for  his  co-eternal 
 Son,  in  the  womb  of  the  Virgin  ;  that  he 
 would  strengthen  his  human   nature  by 
 the  gifts  and  graces  of  the  Holy  Spikit, 
 for  the  extraordinary   work  before  him  ; 
 that  he  would  raise  him  from  the  dead,  and 
 elevate  his   human   nature   to  the   right 
 hand  of  power ;  and  that  he  would  accept 
 the  atonement  when  offered.     It  is  added, 
 that  God  the  Holy  Ghost  stipulated  to 
 regenerate,   renew,  and  sanctify  those  of 
 mankind,  whom  GoD  the  Father  gave  to 
 his  Son.     (Besides  the  texts  given  above, 
 see  Isa.  vii.  14;  xi.  2,  &c. ;  Hi.   13 — 15; 
 liii.  10—12;  Iv.  4,  5;  xlix.   1—12,  com- 
 pared with  Luke  ii.  32  ;  2  Cor.  vi.  2  ;  Rev. 
 vii.  16,  17;  Ps.  ii.  7—9;  Luke  xxii.  29; 
 John  V.  22—29  ;  Heb.  xii.  2.) 
 
 COVENANT,  in  ecclesiastical  history, 
 denotes  a  contract  or  convention  agreed 
 
 to  by  the  Scots  in  1638,  for  maintaining 
 the  Presbyterian  religion  free  from  inno- 
 vation. In  1581,  the  general  assembly 
 of  Scotland  drew  up  a  confession  of  faith, 
 or  national  covenant,  condemning  the  epis- 
 copal government  of  the  Christian  Church, 
 under  the  name  of  hierarchy.  It  was 
 signed  by  James  VL,  who  was  compelled 
 to  enjoin  it  upon  all  his  subjects.  It  was 
 again  subscribed  in  1590  and  1596  ;  and, 
 in  1638,  it  was  taken  wdth  an  oath  on  the 
 part  of  the  subscribers,  to  maintain  reli- 
 gion in  the  state  it  was  in  in  1580.  The 
 oath  annexed  to  the  confession  of  faith 
 received  the  name  of  Covenarit,  and  those 
 who  subscribed  it  w^ere  called  Covenanters. 
 (See  Confession  of  Faith,  Westminster.) 
 
 CREDENCE,  or  CREDENTIAL.  A 
 table  or  shelf  near  the  altar,  on  which  the 
 bread  and  wine  to  be  used  in  the  eucharist 
 are  placed,  previously  to  consecration, 
 called  in  the  Greek  Church  rpcnrtla  irpo- 
 QtakoQ,  mensa  propositionis.  The  table  of 
 Prothesis  in  the  Greek  Church  is  placed  in 
 a  side  vestry;  and  here  many  prefatory 
 prayers  and  ceremonies  are  performed, 
 before  the  priest  goes  into  the  chancel. 
 The  word  credence  appears  to  be  derived 
 from  the  Italian  "  credenzare,^'  to  taste 
 meats  and  drink  before  they  were  offered 
 to  be  enjoyed  by  another ;  an  ancient  court 
 practice,  which  was  performed  by  the  cup- 
 bearers and  carvers,  who  for  this  reason 
 were  also  called  in  German  credenzer. 
 Hence  also  the  credenz-teller — credence- 
 plate,  on  which  cup-bearers  credeiiced  the 
 wine  ;  and,  in  general,  a  plate  on  which  a 
 person  offers  anything  to  another  :  credenz- 
 tisclt,  credence-table,  a  sideboard,  an  arti- 
 ficial cupboard  with  a  table  for  the  pur- 
 pose of  arranging  in  order  and  keeping 
 the  drinking  apparatus  therein.  (See 
 Adehmc/'s  German  Dictionary,  w^ord  "  Cre- 
 denzenj')  This  table  or  shelf  is  used  for 
 the  more  convenient  observance  of  the 
 rubric  following  the  Offertory  sentences,  in 
 which  it  is  directed  :  "  And  when  there  is 
 a  communion,  the  priest  shall  THEN  place 
 upon  the  table  so  much  bread  and  wine  as 
 he  shall  think  sufficient."  Where  the  staff 
 of  the  clergy  is  large,  the  rubric  can  be 
 conveniently  observed  without  this  aid. 
 Archbishop  Laud,  [Troubles  and  Try al,ch.. 
 33,)  in  his  chapel  at  Lambeth,  had  a  cre- 
 dential, (or  side-table,)  from  which  the 
 elements  were  fetched,  and  set  reverently 
 upon  the  communion  table.  He  defends 
 this,  by  saying  that  both  Bishop  Andrewes 
 and  some  other  bishops  used  it  so  all  their 
 time,  and  no  exception  taken.  From  the 
 plan  of  the  chapel  of  Bishop  Andrewes,  in 
 Archbishop    Laud's   possession,    and   ad- 
 
CREED. 
 
 261 
 
 duced  as  evidence  against  him  by  Prynne, 
 it  appears  that  the  credential  was  placed 
 on  the  south  side  of  the  communion  table, 
 the  vessels  for  the  communion  being  placed 
 upon  it.  There  are  many  credences  in 
 various  churches  ;  among  others,  in  the 
 collegiate  and  in  St.  John's  churches, 
 Manchester,  and  in  the  parish  church  at 
 Ludlow,  where  they  have  been  in  use  from 
 time  immemorial. — Jehb. 
 
 CREED.  (See  Apostles'  Creed,  Atha- 
 nasian  Creed,  Nicene  Creed.)  By  the  word 
 creed  (from  credo,  I  believe)  is  meant  the 
 substance  of  the  Christian's  faith.  There 
 are  three  creeds  recognised  by  the  Catholic 
 Church, — the  Apostles'  Creed,  the  Nicene 
 Creed,  and  the  Athana.sian  Creed.  The 
 Latin  name  for  creed  is  symhohun,  which 
 signifies  a  watchword,  or  signal  in  war. 
 Ludolph  of  Saxony,  in  his  Life  of  CiiiiiST, 
 describes  the  creeds  of  the  Catholic  Church 
 thus :  "  There  are  three  symbols,  (watch- 
 words or  tokens,  such  as  are  used  among 
 soldiers  of  a  garrison,  to  recognise  their 
 comrades,  and  to  detect  insidious  in- 
 truders,)— the  first  of  the  Apostles,  the  se- 
 cond of  the  Nicene  Council,  the  third  of 
 St.  Athanasius  ;  the  first  for  instruction  in 
 the  faith,  the  second  for  the  explanation 
 of  the  faith,  the  third  for  defence  of  the 
 faith."  Three  in  name,  but  one  in  fact, 
 and  which,  except  a  man  believe  faithfully, 
 he  cannot  be  saved. 
 
 The  cause  of  a  gradual  adoption  of  a 
 series  of  creeds  is  simply  this:  the  truth 
 being  but  one  and  unvarying,  the  plain 
 assertion  of  it  is,  in  the  fii'st  instance,  all 
 that  is  necessary,  all  that  can  be  done  for 
 it:  and  this  was  done  by  the  Apostles' 
 Creed.  Error,  on  the  other  hand,  is  mul- 
 tiform ;  and  consequently,  as  error  upon 
 error  continued  to  rise,  correctives  un- 
 thought  of  before  were  to  be  found  to 
 meet  the  exigency:  hence  the  Nicene 
 Creed.  Again,  subsequent  to  that,  new 
 errors  were  broached,  the  old  were  revived, 
 clever  evasions  of  the  terms  of  the  existing 
 creeds  Avere  invented,  the  vehemence  of 
 opponents  was  increased ;  but  all  desiring 
 still,  with  all  their  mischievous  errors,  to 
 be  witliin  the  pale  of  the  Church,  it  became 
 still  more  imperatively  necessary  to  fence 
 in  the  Church  from  such  dangers  ;  and  the 
 creed  called  that  of  St.  Athanasius,  was 
 compiled  from  the  logical  forms  of  expres- 
 sion which  prevail  in  his  writings,  and  those 
 of  similar  champions  of  the  catholic  faith, 
 and  was  very  soon  adopted  ])y  the  Churcli 
 as  an  additional  bulwark  to  preserve  that 
 faith  in  its  original  integrity  and  purity. 
 Luther  calls  this  creed,  '*  the  Ijulwark  of 
 the  Apostles'  Creed." 
 
 It  is  a  mistake  to  imagine  that  creeds 
 were,  at  first,  intended  to  teach,  in  fidl 
 and  explicit  terms,  all  that  should  be 
 necessary  to  be  believed  by  Christians. 
 They  were  designed  rather  for  hints  and 
 minutes  of  the  main  credcnda,  to  be  re- 
 cited by  catechumens  before  baptism  ;  and 
 they  were  purposely  contrived  short,  that 
 they  might  be  the  more  easily  retained 
 in  memory,  and  take  up  the  less  time  in 
 reciting.  Creeds,  very  probably,  at  first, 
 were  so  far  from  being  paraphrases  or 
 explications  of  the  form  of  baptism,  (or  of 
 Scripture  texts,)  that  they  went  no  farther, 
 or  very  little  farther,  than  the  form  itself, 
 and  wanted  as  much  explaining  and  para- 
 phrasing, in  order  to  be  rightly  and  dis- 
 tinctly understood,  as  any  other  words  or 
 forms  could  do.  Hence  it  was  that  the 
 catechumens  were  to  be  instructed  in  the 
 creed,  previously  to  baptism,  for  many 
 days  together.  As  heresies  gave  occasion, 
 new  articles  were  inserted  ;  not  that  they 
 w^ere  originally  of  greater  importance  than 
 any  other  articles  omitted,  but  the  o})po- 
 sition  made  to  some  doctrines  rendered  it 
 the  more  necessary  to  insist  upon  an  explicit 
 belief  and  profession  of  them. —  WaterlaniTs 
 Sermons  on  the  Divinity  of  Christ. 
 
 As  the  apostles  had  foretold,  "false 
 teachers  "  crept  into  the  Church,  and  "  pri- 
 vily brought  in  damnable  heresies,  denying 
 the  Lord  that  bought  them,"  even  "  the 
 only  Lord  God,  and  our  Lord  Jesus 
 Christ."  (2  Pet.  ii.  1,  and  Jude  4.)  As 
 these  spread  their  poison,  it  became  neces- 
 sary to  provide  an  antidote ;  for  which 
 purpose  it  was  wisely  ordered,  that  creeds, 
 or  summaries  of  the  Christian  faith,  should 
 be  drawn  up,  and  published  for  general 
 use. —  Waldo. 
 
 As  to  the  primitive  Churches,  their  con- 
 stant way  was  to  enlarge  their  creeds  in 
 proportion  to  the  growth  of  heresies,  that 
 so  every  corruption  arising  to  the  faith  of 
 Christ  might  have  an  immediate  remedy. 
 The  design  was  to  keep  up,  as  strictly  as 
 possible,  the  whole  fabric  of  the  Christian 
 faith  as  it  stands  in  Scripture ;  and  if  any 
 part  came  to  be  attacked,  they  were  then 
 to  bend  all  their  cares  to  succour  and  re- 
 lieve that  part,  in  order  still  to  secure  the 
 whole.  The  sum  of  Christian  practice  is 
 contained  in  two  brief  rules, — to  love  God, 
 and  to  love  one's  neighbour.  But  mis- 
 takes and  perverse  sentiments  may  arise  ; 
 to  correct  and  remove  which  it  may  be 
 necessary  to  enlarge  the  rule  of  practice, 
 and  to  branch  it  out  into  many  other 
 ])articulars. —  Waterlundon  the  Athanasian 
 Creed. 
 
 If  our  creeds  1)e  found  fault  with  for 
 
262 
 
 CREED  OF  POPE  PIUS  IV. 
 
 not  being  expressed  in  scriptural  terms 
 only,  let  them  bear  the  blame  who,  by  an 
 artful  misapplication  of  Scripture  terms  at 
 fii'st,  made  it  necessary  for  the  guardians 
 of  the  faith  to  express  the  Scripture  doc- 
 trine in  other  terms,  more  explicit,  and 
 not  so  liable  to  be  perverted  and  abused. 
 —  Wheotly  on  the  Creeds. 
 
 We  must  ever  lament  that  the  misapplied 
 curiosity  of  men  should  have  made  it  at 
 all  necessary  to  enlarge  upon  mysterious 
 doctrines.  It  might  have  been  fortunate 
 for  the  peace  and  tranquillity  of  the  Chris- 
 tian Church,  if  the  Apostles'  Creed  had 
 been  sufficient.  But  since  men  will  be 
 "  wise  above  what  is  written,"  some  remedy 
 must  be  found  out,  which  may  either 
 satisfy  or  restrain  their  curiosity.  And 
 whoever  peruses  the  several  parts  of  the 
 Athanasian  Creed  will  find,  that,  so  far  from 
 creating  minute  inquiries  concerning  the 
 doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  it  is  more  especially 
 calculated  to  discountenance  and  prevent 
 them.  Sublime  truths  require  modesty 
 and  caution  in  our  expressions  ;  and  what- 
 ever checks  presumption,  prepares  the 
 mind  for  the  reception  of  sound  and  useful 
 doctrine.  The  abuse  of  Scriptural  lan- 
 guage first  occasioned  a  deviation  from  it 
 in  creeds,  and  common  candour  wdll  com- 
 pel all  parties  to  acknowledge  the  difficulty 
 of  finding  proper  words  to  express  so  much 
 as  it  was  intended  for  us  to  know,  and  no 
 more. —  Croffs  Bamp.  Lectures. 
 
 CREED  OF  POPE  PIUS  IV.  A  suc- 
 cinct and  explicit  summary  of  the  doctrine 
 contained  in  the  canons  of  the  Council  of 
 Trent,  is  expressed  in  the  creed  which  was 
 published  by  Pius  IV.  in  1564,  in  the  form 
 of  a  bull,  and  which  usvially  bears  his  name. 
 It  is  received  throughout  the  whole  Roman 
 Catholic  Church  ;  every  person  who  is  ad- 
 mitted into  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
 publicly  reads  and  professes  his  assent  to 
 it.  It  is  by  these  additional  articles  to  the 
 Nicene  Creed,  that  the  Romish  Church 
 cuts  itself  ofl'  from  the  Church  Catholic, 
 and  becomes  heretical. 
 
 The  tenor  of  it  is  as  follows  :  "  I,  N.,  be- 
 lieve and  profess,  with  a  firm  faith,  all  and 
 every  one  of  the  things  which  are  con- 
 tained in  the  Symbol  of  Faith,  which  is 
 used  in  the  holy  Roman  Church,  viz. 
 
 _"  I  believe  in  one  God  the  Father  Al- 
 mighty, Maker  of  heaven  and  earth,  and 
 of  all  things  visible  and  invisible ;  and  in 
 one  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  the  only  begot- 
 ten Son  of  God,  Light  of  light,  true  God 
 of  true  God,  begotten,  not  made,  consub- 
 stantial  to  the  Father,  by  whom  all  things 
 were  made ;  who  for  us  men,  and  for  our 
 salvation,  came  down    from   heaven,  and 
 
 was  incarnate  by  the  Holy  Ghost  of  the 
 Virgin  Mary,  and  was  made  man,  was 
 crucified  also  for  us  under  Pontius  Pilate, 
 suffered,  and  was  buried,  and  rose  again 
 the  thnd  day  according  to  the  Scriptures, 
 and  ascended  into  heaven,  sits  at  the  right 
 hand  of  the  Father,  and  Avill  come  again 
 with  glory  to  judge  the  living  and  the 
 dead,  of  whose  kingdom  there  will  be  no 
 end ;  and  in  the  Holy  Ghost,  the  Lord 
 and  Life-giver,  who  proceeds  from  the 
 Father  and  the  Son  ;  who,  together  Avith 
 the  Father  and  the  Son,  is  adored  and 
 glorified  ;  who  spoke  by  the  prophets.  And 
 one  holy  Catholic  and  Apostolic  Church. 
 I  confess  one  baptism  for  the  remission  of 
 sins,  and  I  expect  the  resurrection  of  the 
 body,  and  the  life  of  the  w^orld  to  come. 
 Amen. 
 
 "  I  most  firmly  admit  and  embrace  apos- 
 tolical and  ecclesiastical  traditions,  and  all 
 other  constitutions  and  observances  of  the 
 same  Church. 
 
 "  I  also  admit  the  sacred  Scriptures  ac- 
 cording to  the  sense  which  the  holy  mother 
 Church  has  held,  and  does  hold,  to  whom 
 it  belongs  to  judge  of  the  true  sense  and 
 interpretation  of  the  Holy  Scriptures ;  nor 
 will  I  ever  take  and  interpret  them  other- 
 wise than  according  to  the  unanimous  con- 
 sent of  the  Fathers. 
 
 "  I  profess  also,  that  there  are  truly  and 
 properly  seven  sacraments  of  the  new  laAV, 
 instituted  by  Jesus  Christ  our  Lord,  and 
 for  the  salvation  of  mankind,  though  all 
 are  not  necessary  for  every  one ;  viz.  bap- 
 tism, confirmation,  eucharist,  penance,  ex- 
 treme unction,  order,  and  matrimony,  and 
 that  they  confer  grace  ;  and  of  these,  bap- 
 tism, confirmation,  and  order  cannot  be 
 reiterated  without  sacrilege. 
 
 "  I  also  receive  and  admit  the  ceremo- 
 nies of  the  Catholic  Church,  received  and 
 approved  in  the  solemn  administration  of 
 all  the  above-said  sacraments. 
 
 "  I  receive  and  embrace  all  and  every 
 one  of  the  things  which  have  been  defined 
 and  declared  in  the  holy  Council  of  Trent, 
 concerning  original  sin  and  justification. 
 
 "  I  profess  likev.'ise,  that  in  the  mass  is 
 offered  to  God  a  true,  proper,  and  propi- 
 tiatory sacrifice  for  the  living  and  the 
 dead ;  and  tliat  in  the  most  holy  sacra- 
 ment of  the  eucharist  there  is  truly,  really, 
 and  substantially  the  body  and  blood, 
 together  with  the  soul  and  divinity,  of 
 our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  ;  and  that  there 
 is  made  a  conversion  of  the  whole  sub- 
 stance of  the  bread  into  the  body,  and  of 
 the  whole  substance  of  the  wine  into  the 
 blood,  which  conversion  the  Catholic 
 Church  calls  transubstantiation. 
 
CRESSELLE. 
 
 CROSS. 
 
 263 
 
 "  I  confess  also,  that,  under  either  kind 
 alone,  whole  and  entire,  CiiiiiyT  and  a  true 
 sacrament  is  received. 
 
 "  I  constantly  hold  that  there  is  a  purga- 
 tory, and  that  the  souls  detained  therein 
 are  helped  by  the  suffrages  of  the  faithful. 
 
 "  Likewise  that  the  saints  reigning  to- 
 gether with  C'llKiST,  are  to  be  honoured 
 and  invocated,  that  they  otfer  prayers  to 
 God  for  us,  and  that  their  relics  are  to  be 
 venerated. 
 
 "  I  most  fii-mly  assert,  that  the  images 
 of  Christ,  and  of  the  Mother  of  God  ever 
 virgin,  and  also  of  the  other  saints,  are  to 
 be  had  and  retained  ;  and  that  due  honour 
 and  veneration  are  to  be  given  to  them. 
 
 "  I  also  affirm,  that  the  power  of  indul- 
 gences was  left  by  Christ  in  the  Church  ; 
 and  that  the  use  of  them  is  most  w^hole- 
 some  to  Christian  people. 
 
 "  I  acknowledge  the  holy  Catholic  and 
 Apostolic  Eoman  Church,  the  mother  and 
 mistress  of  all  Churches  ;  and  I  promise 
 and  swear  true  obedience  to  the  Koman 
 bishop,  the  successor  of  St.  Peter,  prince  of 
 the  apostles,  and  vicar  of  Jesus  Christ. 
 
 "  I  also  profess  and  undoubtedly  receive 
 all  other  things  delivered,  defined,  and  de- 
 clared by  the  sacred  canons  and  general 
 councils,  and  particularly  by  the  holy 
 Council  of  Trent ;  and  likewise  I  also  con- 
 demn, reject,  and  anathematize  all  things 
 contrary  thereto,  and  all  heresies  w'hatso- 
 ever  condemned  and  anathematized  by  the 
 Church. 
 
 "  This  true  catholic  faith,  out  of  which 
 none  can  be  saved,  which  I  now  freely 
 profess  and  truly  hold,  I,  N.,  promise,  vow, 
 and  swear  most  constantly  to  hold  and 
 profess,  the  same,  whole  and  entii'e,  Avith 
 God's  assistance,  to  the  end  of  my  life. 
 Amen." 
 
 CllESSELLE.  An  instrument  of  wood, 
 made  use  of  in  the  Komish  Church  during 
 Passion  week,  instead  of  bells,  to  give 
 notice  of  Divine  service.  This  is  done  in 
 imitation  of  the  primitive  Christians,  who, 
 they  suppose,  made  use  of  such  an  instru- 
 ment, before  the  invention  of  bells,  to  call 
 their  brethren  secretly  to  prayers.  There 
 are  mysteries  in  the  Cressclle.  It  repre- 
 sents Christ  praying  on  the  cross,  and 
 calling  nations  to  his  preaching;  as  also 
 his  humility,  &c. — Jebb. 
 
 CKEST.  (In  ecclesiastical  architecture.) 
 An  ornamental  finish  at  the  top  of  a  screen, 
 or  other  subordinate  feature. 
 
 CROSIER.  A  crosier  is  the  pastoral 
 staff  of  an  archbishop,  and  is  to  be  distin- 
 guished from  the  pastoral  staff  of  a  bishop ; 
 the  latter  terminating  in  an  ornamented 
 crook,  while  the  crosier  always  terminates 
 
 in  a  cross.  At  the  end  of  the  Common 
 Prayer  IJook  established  in  the  second 
 year  of  Edward  VI.,  which  is  referred  to 
 as  still  obligatory,  so  far  as  the  ornaments 
 of  the  church  and  of  the  ministers  thereof 
 are  concerned,  in  the  rubric  immediately 
 before  the  Morning  Prayer  it  is  ordered, 
 — "  AVhcnsoever  the  bishop  shall  celebrate 
 the  holy  communion,  or  execute  any  other 
 public  office,  he  shall  have  upon  him,  be- 
 sides his  rochet,  an  alb,  and  cope  or  vest- 
 ment, and  also  his  ])astural  staff  in  his 
 hand,  or  else  home  hy  his  chaplain.^^ 
 
 CROSS.  The  cross  was  the  instrument 
 of  death  to  our  most  blessed  Lord  and 
 Saviour,  and  it  has  been  considered  in 
 all  ages  by  the  Church  as  the  most  apjv.-o- 
 priate  emblem,  or  symbol,  of  the  Christian 
 religion.  The  sign  of  the  cross  was  made 
 in  the  primitive  Church  in  some  part  of 
 almost  every  Christian  office.  The  Church 
 of  England,  in  the  constitutions  of  1603, 
 has  a  long  canon  (the  30th)  on  this  subject, 
 wherein  it  is  said  :  "  The  Holy  Gikjst, 
 by  the  mouths  of  the  apostles,  did  honour 
 the  name  of  the  cross,  being  hateful  among 
 the  Jews,  so  far  that,  under  it,  he  compre- 
 hended not  only  Christ  crucified,  but  the 
 force,  effects,  and  merits  of  his  death  and 
 passion,  with  all  the  comforts,  fruits,  and 
 promises  which  we  receive  or  expect 
 thereby.  Secondly,  the  honour  and  dig- 
 nity of  the  name  of  the  cross  begat  a 
 reverent  estimation  even  in  the  apostles' 
 times,  for  aught  that  is  known  to  the  con- 
 trary, of  the  sign  of  the  cross,  which  the 
 Christians  shortly  after  used  in  all  their 
 actions  ;  thereby  making  an  outward  show 
 and  i)rofession,  even  to  the  astonishment 
 of  the  Jews,  that  they  were  not  asliamed 
 to  acknowledge  him  for  their  Lord  and 
 Saviour,  who  died  for  them  upon  the 
 cross.  And  this  sign  they  not  only  used 
 themselves,  wdth  a  kind  of  glory,  when 
 they  met  with  any  Jews,  but  signed  there- 
 with their  children,  when  they  were  chris- 
 tened, to  dedicate  them  by  that  badge  to 
 his  service,  whose  benefits  bestowed  upon 
 them  in  baptism,  the  name  of  the  cross 
 did  represent.  And  this  use  of  the  sign 
 of  the  cross  was  held  in  the  primitive 
 Church,  as  well  by  the  Greeks  as  by  the 
 Latins,  with  one  consent,  and  great  ap- 
 plause. At  which  time,  if  any  had  opposed 
 themselves  against  it,  they  would  certainly 
 have  been  censured  as  enemies  of  the 
 name  of  the  cross,  and  consequently  of 
 Christ's  merits,  the  sign  whereof  they 
 could  no  better  endure.  This  continual 
 and  general  use  of  the  sign  of  the  cross,  is 
 evident  by  many  testimonies  of  the  ancient 
 Eathcrs.      Thirdlv,  it   must  be  confessed 
 
264 
 
 CROSS. 
 
 that,  in  process  of  time,  the  sign  of  the 
 cross  was  greatly  abused  in  the  Church  of 
 Rome,  especially  after  that  corruption  of 
 Popery  had  once  possessed  it.  But  the 
 abuse  of  a  thing  doth  not  take  away  the 
 lawful  use  of  it.  Nay,  so  far  was  it  from 
 the  purpose  of  the  Church  of  England  to 
 forsake  and  reject  the  Churches  of  Italy, 
 France,  Spain,  Germany,  or  any  such  like 
 Churches,  in  all  things  that  they  held  and 
 practised,  that,  as  Bishop  Jewel's  "  Apo- 
 logy of  the  Church  of  England"  con- 
 fesseth,  it  doth  with  reverence  retain  those 
 ceremonies  which  do  neither  endamage 
 the  Church  of  God,  nor  oifend  the  minds 
 of  sober  men ;  and  only  departed  from 
 them  in  those  particular  points  Avherein 
 they  were  fallen,  both  from  themselves  in 
 their  ancient  integrity,  and  from  the  apos- 
 tolical Churches  which  were  their  first 
 founders.  In  which  respect,  amongst  some 
 other  very  ancient  ceremonies,  the  sign  of 
 the  cross  in  baptism  hath  been  retained  in 
 this  Church,  both  by  the  judgment  and 
 practice  of  those  reverend  fathers  and 
 grave  divines  in  the  days  of  King  Edward 
 VI.,  of  whom  some  constantly  suffered  for 
 the  profession  of  the  truth ;  and  others, 
 being  exiled  in  the  time  of  Queen  Mary, 
 did,  after  their  return,  in  the  beginning  of 
 the  reign  of  our  late  dread  sovereign,  con- 
 tinually defend  and  use  the  same." 
 
 The  sign  of  the  cross  is  appointed  to  be 
 used  at  baptism.  After  the  priest  hath 
 baptized  the  child,  he  receives  it  into 
 the  congregation,  by  this  solemnity  de- 
 claring that  he  is  by  baptism  made  a 
 member  of  the  Church.  (1  Cor.  xii.  13.) 
 "  We  are  all  baptized  into  one  body." 
 And  when  he  thus  receives  it,  he  signs  it 
 with  the  sign  of  the  cross,  as  of  old  it  was 
 wont,  according  to  St.  Augustine  ;  and  on 
 the  forehead,  the  seat  of  blushing  and 
 shame,  that  he  may  not  hereafter  blush  and 
 be  ashamed  of  the  disgraced  cross  of 
 Christ,  as  St.  Cyprian  saith.  By  this 
 badge  is  the  child  dedicated  to  his  service, 
 whose  benefits,  bestowed  upon  him  in  bap- 
 tism, the  name  of  the  cross  in  Holy  Scrip- 
 ture does  represent.  Whosoever  desires 
 to  be  fully  satisfied  concerning  the  use  of 
 the  cross  in  baptism,  let  him  read  the 
 thirtieth  canon  of  our  Church,  in  the  year 
 1603. — Bp.  Spai'vow. 
 
 The  Church,  studious  to  retain  this  an- 
 cient and  universal  ceremony  of  the  purest 
 primitive  times,  was  also  careful  to  decline 
 all  fear  of  superstitious  intendment ;  as  if 
 she  thought  the  sacrament  imperfect  with- 
 out it.  Therefore,  whereas  the  primitive 
 mode  made  it  to  usher  in  baptism,  our 
 Church  inverted  the  order,  and  made  it 
 
 come  after,  and  so  to  follow  it,  as  she  ex- 
 pressly first  declareth,  "the  child  to  be  re- 
 ceived into  the  congregation  of  Christ's 
 flock,  as  a  perfect  member  thereof,  and  not 
 by  any  power  ascribed  to  the  sign  of  the 
 cross."  (Canon  30.)  And  further  to  assure 
 all  distrustful  minds,  that  she  maketh  it 
 not  of  the  substance  of  the  sacrament,  she 
 hath  totally  omitted  it  in  the  office  of  pri- 
 vate baptism. — X'  Estrange. 
 
 The  child,  being  now  baptized,  is  become 
 a  member  of  the  Christian  Church,  into 
 which  the  minister  (as  a  steward  of  God's 
 family)  doth  solemnly  receive  it ;  and,  for 
 the  clearer  manifestation  that  it  now  be- 
 longs to  Christ,  solemnly  signs  it  in  the 
 forehead  with  the  sign  of  the  "  cross."  For 
 the  better  understanding  of  which  primitive 
 ceremony,  we  may  observe,  that  it  was  an 
 ancient  rite  for  masters  and  generals  to 
 mark  the  foreheads  or  hands  of  their  ser- 
 vants and  soldiers  with  their  names  or 
 marks,  that  it  might  be  known  to  whom 
 they  did  belong ;  and  to  this  custom  the 
 angel  in  the  Revelation  is  thought  to 
 allude :  "  Hurt  not  the  earth,  &c.,  till  we 
 have  sealed  the  servants  of  our  God  in 
 their  foreheads  "  (Rev.  vii.  3) :  thus  again 
 the  retinue  of  the  Lamb  are  said  to  "  have 
 his  Father's  name  written  in  their  fore- 
 heads" (chap.  xiv.  1).  And  thus,  lastly,  in 
 the  same  chapter,  as  Christ's  flock  carried 
 his  mark  on  their  foreheads,  so  did  his 
 great  adversary  the  beast  sign  his  servants 
 there  also  :  "If  any  man  shall  receive  the 
 mark  of  the  beast  in  his  forehead,  or  in  his 
 hand,"  &c.  (ver.  9).  Now  that  the  Chris- 
 tian Church  might  hold  some  analogy  with 
 those  sacred  applications,  she  conceived  it 
 a  most  significant  ceremony  in  baptism, 
 (which  is  our  first  admission  into  the 
 Christian  profession,)  that  all  her  children 
 should  be  signed  with  the  cross  on  their 
 foreheads,  signifying  thereby  their  con- 
 signment up  to  Christ  ;  Avhence  it  is 
 often  called  by  the  ancient  Fathers,  the 
 "  Lord's  signet "  and  "  Christ's  seal." — 
 Wheatly. 
 
 The  true  sense  and  intention  of  the 
 Church  of  England  in  appointing  this  sign 
 appears  from  Dr.  Burgess's  sense  of  the 
 matter,  which  was  accepted  by  King  James 
 the  First,  and  affirmed  by  the  archbishop 
 of  Canterbury  [Bancroft]  to  be  the  sense 
 of  the  Church.  His  words  are  these  which 
 follow  : — "  I  know  it  is  not  made  any  part 
 of  the  sacrament  of  baptism,  which  is  ac- 
 knowledged by  the  canon  to  be  complete 
 without  it,  and  not  perfected  or  bettered 
 by  it. 
 
 "I  understand  it  not  as  any  sacra- 
 mental,  or  operative,   or  efficacious   sign 
 
CRUCIFIX. 
 
 CRUSADE. 
 
 265 
 
 bringing  any  virtue  to  baptism,  or  the 
 baptized. 
 
 "  "Where  the  book  says,  *  and  do  sign  him 
 with  the  sign  of  the  cross  in  token,'  &c., 
 I  understand  the  book  not  to  mean,  that 
 the  sign  of  the  cross  has  any  virtue  in  it  to 
 eifect  or  further  this  duty ;  but  only  to 
 intimate  and  express  by  that  ceremony,  by 
 which  the  ancients  did  avow  their  profes- 
 sion of  Christ  crucified,  Avhat  the  congre- 
 gation hopeth  and  expecteth  hereafter  from 
 the  infant ;  namely,  that  he  shall  not  be 
 ashamed  to  profess  the  faith  of  CllliIST 
 crucified,  into  which  he  was  even  now  bap- 
 tized. 
 
 "  And  therefore  also  when  the  30th  canon 
 saith,  that  the  infant  is  '  by  that  sign  dedi- 
 cated unto  the  service  of  CliiiiST,'  I  under- 
 stand that  dedication  to  import,  not  a  real 
 consecration  of  the  child,  which  was  done 
 in  baptism  itself;  but  only  a  ceremonial 
 declaration  of  that  dedication,  like  as  the 
 priest  is  said  to  make  clean  the  leper, 
 whose  being  clean  he  only  declared." 
 
 The  Church's  use  of  the  sign  of  the  cross 
 and  her  expressions  concerning  it,  are  fairly 
 capable  of  this  construction  ;  and  so  au- 
 thentic a  declaration  is  sufficient  to  satisfy 
 any  sober  inquirer,  that  this  sense  not 
 only  may  be,  but  ought  to  be,  received. — 
 Dr.  Bemref. 
 
 The  heathens  were  wont  to  deride  the 
 Christians,  and  to  speak  disdainfully  of 
 them,  as  worshippers  of  a  malefactor  cru- 
 cified. To  encounter  which  reproach,  and 
 to  show  that  they  "  gloried  in  the  cross  of 
 Christ,"  (Gal.  vi.  14,)  taking  it  to  be  an 
 honour,  not  an  ignominy ;  they  assumed 
 this  ceremony  of  signing  themselves  with 
 the  cross,  both  in  baptism,  and  at  several 
 other  times.  And  this  sign  being  signi- 
 ficant of  a  duty  to  be  elicited  by  future 
 practice,  good  reason  had  our  Church  to 
 continue  it. — i'  Estrayic/e. 
 
 It  is,  in  brief,  a  mark,  by  which  we,  as 
 the  primitive  Christians  did,  declare  our 
 religion,  and  no  more  than  that,  wherewith 
 we  conclude  all  our  prayers  and  thanks- 
 givings, when  we  say  through  Jesus  Christ 
 our  Lord  and  Saviour. — Clutterhuck. 
 
 Upon  the  whole,  the  ceremony  is  ex- 
 ceeding proper,  and  very  innocent ;  used 
 by  most  Christians  ;  approved  by  all  the 
 ancients,  and  l)y  some  of  the  most  eminent 
 reformed  divines  expressly ;  and  condemned 
 by  no  Church  :  so  that,  if  this  ceremony  be 
 rejected  by  any,  they  ought  to  consider  that 
 the  fault  is  in  themselves,  not  in  the  thing, 
 at  which  off'cnce  is  taken,  but  none  justly 
 given,  if  the  Church  be  but  rightly  under- 
 stood.— Dean  Comber. 
 
 CRUCIFIX.     A   cross  upon  which  a 
 
 sculptured  or  carved  ima^e  of  the  body 
 of  our  Lord  is  fastened.  It  is  much  used 
 by  the  Romanists  and  the  Lutheran  Pro- 
 testants, to  excite  in  their  minds  a  strong 
 idea  of  our  Saviour's  passion.  It  has 
 never  been  used  in  the  Church  of  England 
 since  the  Reformation,  on  the  ground  of 
 its  having  been  abused  to  superstition  and 
 idolatrv. 
 
 ClltlSADE.  A  name  given  to  the 
 Christian  expeditions  against  the  infidels, 
 for  the  recovery  of  the  Holy  Land  out  of 
 their  hands,  because  they  who  engaged 
 themselves  in  the  undertaking  wore  a  cross 
 on  their  clothes,  and  had  one  in  their 
 standards.  There  were  eight  crusades. 
 The  first,  in  1096,  at  the  solicitation  of 
 the  Greek  emperor  and  patriarch  of  Jeru- 
 salem. Peter  the  Hermit,  Avho  was  the 
 preacher  of  this  crusade,  was  made  general 
 of  a  great  army,  a  thing  that  did  not  very 
 well  agree  with  his  profession,  being  a 
 priest ;  and  all  the  princes, — Hugo  the 
 Great,  count  of  Vermandois,  brother  to 
 Philip  I.  king  of  France ;  Robert,  duke  of 
 Normandy ;  Robert,  count  of  Flanders  ; 
 Raymond,  count  of  Toulouse  and  St.  Giles ; 
 Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  duke  of  Lorraine, 
 with  his  brothers,  Baldwin  and  Eustace  ; 
 Stephen,  count  of  Chartres  and  Blois ; 
 Hugo,  count  of  St.  Paul,  with  a  great 
 number  of  other  lords,  took  difi"erent  ways 
 to  meet  at  Constantinople.  The  first  who 
 marched  his  troops  was  the  famous  God- 
 frey de  Bouillon,  who  had  a  greater  share 
 than  any  of  the  rest  in  this  undertaking, 
 though  not  the  command  of  the  Avhole 
 arm  v.  He  commenced  his  march  Aug.  15, 
 1096,  with  10,000  horse  and  70,000  foot ; 
 and  before  the  other  princes  were  come  to 
 Constantinople,  passing  the  Hellespont, 
 besieged  Nice,  which,  notwithstanding  the 
 double-dealing  of  the  Greek  emperor 
 Alexis,  after  six  weeks'  siege,  was  surren- 
 dered to  him  ;  after  which  he  victoriously 
 entered  SjTia  and  took  Antioch.  Jeru- 
 salem was  taken  in  1099,  and  Godfrey  of 
 Bouillon  chosen  king  ;  a  little  after  which 
 the  Christians  gained  the  famous  battle  of 
 Ascalon  against  the  sultan  of  Egypt ;  which 
 victory  put  an  end  to  the  first  crusade ; 
 for  the  princes  and  lords,  with  those  who 
 followed  them,  believing  they  had  fully  ac- 
 complished the  vow  they  liad  made,  took 
 their  leave  of  Godfrey,  and  returned  to 
 their  respective  countries. 
 
 The  second  crusade  was  in  1141,  and 
 this  was  headed  by  the  emperor  Conrad  III. 
 and  Louis  VII.  of  France :  the  emperor's 
 army  was  (nther  destroyed  by  the  enemy, 
 or  perished  through  the  treachery  of  the 
 Greek  empei-or   and  his  brother-in-law  j 
 
266 
 
 CRUSADE. 
 
 and  the  second  army,  through  the  unfaith- 
 fulness and  treachery  of  the  Christians  of 
 Syria,  was  forced  to  quit  the  siege  of  Da- 
 mascus. 
 
 Tlie  third  crusade  Avas  in  1188,  after 
 the  taking  of  Jerusalem  by  Saladin,  sultan 
 of  Egypt.  The  most  distinguished  per- 
 sons engaged  in  this  expedition  -were  the 
 emperor  Frederick  Barbarossa  ;  Frederick, 
 duke  of  Swabia,  his  second  son ;  Leopold, 
 duke  of  Austria ;  Berthold,  duke  of  Mo- 
 ravia ;  Herman,  marquis  of  Baden ;  the 
 counts  of  Nassau,  Thuringcn,  ^Meissen,  and 
 Holland,  and  above  sixty  more  of  the 
 chief  princes  of  the  empire,  with  divers 
 bishops.  Barbarossa,  in  spite  of  the  em- 
 peror of  Constantinople,  having  got  into 
 Asia  jNIinor,  defeated  the  sultan  at  Ico- 
 nium,  but,  ckawing  near  to  Syria,  sickened 
 and  died  in  1190:  hov.-evcr  his  son  Fre- 
 derick led  the  army  to  Antioch,  and  joined 
 •with  Guy,  king  of  Jerusalem,  in  the  siege 
 of  Ptolemais,  but,  failing  of  success,  he 
 died  soon  after,  which  proved  the  ruin  of 
 his  army.  Nevertheless,  Kichard,  king 
 of  England,  and  Philip  Augustus,  king  of 
 France,  arriving  some  months  after  in  the 
 Holy  Land,  with  a  great  force,  compelled 
 Ptolemais  to  surrender,  July  12,  1191. 
 After  which,  Philip  returned  home  in  dis- 
 content, Avhile  the  brave  King  Richard 
 concluded  a  peace  with  Saladin,  upon  these 
 conditions, — that  all  the  coast  from  Joppa 
 to  Tyre  should  be  left  to  the  Christians, 
 and  that  Saladin  should  have  all  the  rest 
 of  Palestine,  except  Ascalon,  M'hich  was  to 
 belong  to  the  party  who,  at  the  end  of  the 
 truce,  obtained  possession  of  it ;  and  that, 
 during  the  truce,  which  was  to  last  three 
 years,  three  months,  three  weeks,  and  three 
 days,  it  should  be  laAvful  for  the  Christians 
 to  go  to  Jerusalem  in  small  companies,  to 
 pay  their  devotions  there. 
 
 The  fourth  was  undertaken  in  1195,  by 
 the  emperor  Henry  VI.,  after  Saladin's 
 death  :  his  army  started  for  the  Holy  Land 
 three  several  ways,  and,  he  himself  at 
 length  arriving  a't  Ptolemais,  the  Chris- 
 tians gained  several  battles  against  the 
 infidels,  and  took  many  towns  ;  but  the 
 death  of  the  emperor  compelled  them  to 
 quit  the  Holy  Land,  and  return  into  Ger- 
 many. 
 
 The  fifth  crusade  was  published  by  tlie 
 artifice  of  Pope  Linocent  HL  in  1198. 
 Most  of  tlie  adventurers  in  this  expedition 
 employed  themselves  in  taking  Zara  for 
 the  Venetians,  and  afterwards  in  making 
 war  against  the  Greek  emperor ;  and  those 
 who  proceeded  to  Palestine  suflcred  a  de- 
 feat in  1204. 
 
 The  sixth  crusade   began   in    1228,  in 
 
 which  the  Christians  took  the  town  of  Da- 
 mietta,  but  were  forced  to  surrender  it 
 again.  The  emperor  Frederick,  in  1229, 
 went  to  the  Holy  Land,  and  next  year 
 made  a  peace  with  the  sultan  for  ten  years, 
 upon  these  conditions  —  that  the  sultan 
 should  deliver  to  the  Christians  the  towns 
 of  Jerusalem,  Bethlehem,  Nazareth,  Tyre, 
 and  Sidon,  but  the  temple  of  Jerusalem 
 should  be  left  to  the  Saracens,  to  perform 
 the  free  exercise  of  their  law  ;  after  v.hich 
 the  emperor  returned  home.  About  1240, 
 Richard,  earl  of  Cornwall,  and  brother  to 
 Henry  IH.,  king  of  England,  arrived  in 
 Palestin.e,  but,  finding  all  efibrts  useless, 
 while  the  Templars  and  Hospitallers  con- 
 tinued their  disputes  and  private  animosi- 
 ties, he,  with  the  advice  of  the  duke  of 
 Burgundy,  the  great  master  of  the  Hos- 
 pitallers, and  chief  persons  of  the  crusade, 
 accepted  the  advantageous  conditions  the 
 sultan  ofi"ered,  whereby  the  Christians  were 
 to  enjoy  some  lands  in  Palestine,  then  in 
 the  soldan's  possession.  In  1244,  the  Co- 
 rasmins,  the  descendants  of  the  ancient 
 Parthians,  fell  upon  the  Christians  in  Pa- 
 lestine, and  almost  extirpated  them. 
 
 The  seventh  crusade  was  led  by  St. 
 Louis,  king  of  France,  who  appeared  be- 
 fore Damietta,  after  the  feast  of  Whitsun- 
 tide, in  1249.  He  took  it,  but  after  some 
 battles  his  army  was  at  last  defeated,  and 
 himself  taken  prisoner  ;  after  which  a  truce 
 was  concluded  for  ten  years,  and  the  Chris- 
 tians were  to  keep  what  they  Avere  in  pos- 
 session of,  except  Damietta,  Avhich  Avas  to 
 be  delivered  to  the  sultan  for  tlie  king's 
 ransom,  with  a  great  sum  of  money ;  this 
 done,  the  king  sailed  for  Syria,  and  having 
 put  Acre  and  other  sea-ports  in  a  good 
 condition,  returned  home  in  1254. 
 
 The  same  prince  put  himself  at  the  head 
 of  the  eighth  crusade  in  1270,  and  laying- 
 siege  to  Tunis  v.'ithout  success,  died  there  : 
 but  his  son,  Philip  the  Bold,  and  Charles, 
 king  of  Sicily,  afterwards  brought  the  king 
 of  Tunis  to  agree  to  a  truce  for  ten  years, 
 upon  condition  that  he  should  set  all  the 
 slaves  of  his  kingdom  at  liberty ;  that  he 
 should  give  the  Dominican  and  Franciscan 
 friars  leave  to  preach  the  gospel  in  his 
 territories,  and  build  monasteries,  and  bap- 
 tize all  those  that  should  desire  it,  besides 
 a  sum  of  money  to  be  paid  Charles  yearly. 
 About  this  time,  Prince  Edward  of  England 
 arrived  at  Ptolemais  with  a  small  force  of 
 300  men.  He  hindered  Benzdoctar  from 
 laying  siege  to  Ptolemais,  but  was  obliged 
 soon  after  to  quit  the  Holy  Land  on  ac- 
 count of  his  father's  death,  and  his  conse- 
 quent succession  to  the  crown  of  England. 
 In  1291  the  town  of  Ptolemais,  or  Acre, 
 
CRYPT. 
 
 was  taken,  and  the  Christians  were  driven 
 out  of  S}Tia.  Since  which  time  there  has 
 been  no  crusade,  though  the  po])es  have 
 more  than  once  attempted  to  stir  up  Chris- 
 tians to  the  undertaking. 
 
 CRYPT.  The  subterranean  vault  under 
 any  portion  of  a  church.  The  original  use 
 of  the  crypt  seems  to  have  been  to  increase 
 the  number  of  places  for  altars  :  they  were 
 also  sometimes  used  as  places  of  burial, 
 not  as  being  set  apart  for  that  purpose,  but 
 that  persons  would  desire  to  be  buried  be- 
 fore this  or  that  altar,  or  in  some  particu- 
 lar place  in  the  crypt,  as  they  chose  any 
 part  of  the  church  for  the  same  pur- 
 pose. 
 
 The  cr)-pt  is  generally  found  under  the 
 east  end  of  the  church,  and  it  is  often  the 
 oldest  part  of  it,  and,  as  such,  full  of  in- 
 terest to  the  student  of  ecclesiastical  archi- 
 tecture and  antiquities.  It  often  contains 
 evidence  of  the  form  and  extent  of  the 
 church  in  its  original  condition,  which 
 would  elsewhere  be  sought  in  vain.  The 
 most  remarkable  crypts  in  England  are 
 those  of  Canterbury,  Gloucester,  and  Ro- 
 chester. At  Wrexham  and  Ripon  portions 
 of  the  Saxon  remains  are  retained  in  the 
 crypt,  and  at  York  the  size  and  form  of  the 
 Korman  chou-  is  displayed  in  the  older 
 jjortion  of  the  crypt. 
 
 CULDEES.^  iKelidei,  or  CoUdei']  The 
 name  Culdee  is  derived  from  the  Gaelic 
 Gille  De,  (or  Irish  Ceile  De,)  which  signi- 
 fies God's  servant.  There  is  an  evident 
 affinity  between  this  and  the  cidtores  Dei 
 of  the  Latin :  and  the  same  affinity  has 
 been  remarked  between  many  of  the  Latin 
 and  Gallic  words.  There  seems  every  rea- 
 son for  believing  that  the  name  of  Culdees 
 was  bestowed  on  the  indigenous  clergy 
 of  the  country  from  the  time  it  was  Chris- 
 tianized.— Lynn^s  Hist,  of  St.  Andrews. 
 
 As  to  the  Culdees,  it  is  very  certain 
 that  there  was  a  sort  of  monks,  and  of 
 secular  priests  also,  who  went  under  that 
 appellation,  not  only  among  the  Scots,  but 
 among  the  Britons  and  Irish,  and  even  also 
 among  the  northern  English,  who  were 
 first  converted  by  the  Scots,  particularly 
 in  the  cathedral  of  York. — Goodall,  Pre- 
 liminary Dissert,  prefixed  to  JBp.  RusselVs 
 edition  of  Keitli's  Scottish  Bishops. 
 
 The  Culdees  were,  as  far  as  antiquarians 
 can  discover,  the  first  order  of  monks  that 
 settled  in  the  British  Isles  ;  and  wherever 
 the  Celtic  language  was  used,  whether  in 
 Scotland,  Ireland,  or  AVales,  the  name  of 
 Culdee  was  given  to  every  one,  Avho,  relin- 
 quishing the  temporal  pursuits  of  life, 
 joined  an  association  of  a  religious  charac- 
 ter, for  the  purpose  of  fasting,  meditation, 
 
 CULDEES. 
 
 267 
 
 and  prayer. — Bishop  Busseirs  Supplement 
 to  the  above  Dissertation. 
 
 The  name  was  not  exclusively  applied 
 to  the  followers  of  St.  Colum])a  at  lona, 
 but  establishments  of  the  Culdees  were 
 founded  by  Columba,  a  native  of  Ireland, 
 in  oG.'J,  and  for  a  long  period  remained 
 independent  of  the  see  of  Rome,  and  free 
 from  the  corruptions  of  that  Church. 
 The  abbot  of  lona  was  their  head ;  not 
 that  he  assumed  episcopal  authority  (for 
 the  superiority  of  bishops,  quoad  spiritu- 
 alia,  was  acknowledged  even  by  Columba 
 himself,  who  refused  to  consecrate  the 
 eucharist,  as  we  are  told  by  Adannian  in 
 his  Life  of  that  abbot,  in  the  ])resence  of 
 a  bishop) ;  but  because  he  exercised  full 
 authority  over  his  monks  quoad  civilia. — 
 See  Lyon's  Hist,  of  St.  Andrews. 
 
 The  Colidei,  or  Culdees  in  general,  (as 
 a])pears  from  the  old  authorities,  and 
 from  "Ware,)  were  in  fact  the  ancient  colle- 
 giate clergy  of  Ireland  and  Scotland  ;  in- 
 cluding those  who  led  a  monastic  life,  that 
 is,  under  vows  of  celibacy ;  yet  including 
 communities  of  cathedral  canons,  who 
 were  frequently  married,  though  living  to- 
 gether near  their  cathedi-al,  with  an  abbot 
 or  prior  at  their  head.  In  Scotland  the 
 Culdees  constituted  the  cha])ter  of  several 
 cathedrals,  and  elected  the  bishop,  as  Mr, 
 Goodall  shows  from  charters  and  docu- 
 ments still  extant.  At  St.  Andrew's  they 
 were  the  sole  chapter  and  electors  of  the 
 bishop  till  1140,  when  canons  regular  were 
 introduced,  who  shared  the  privileges  of 
 the  Culdees  till  1273.  Great  jealousy  sub- 
 sisted between  these  ancient  communities, 
 and  the  interior  secular  canons  and  monks ; 
 who  in  the  course  of  time  expelled  or  su- 
 perseded the  Culdees.  There  was  no  dif- 
 ference of  doctrine  however  between  them ; 
 for  the  Culdees,  though  originally  inde- 
 pendent of  Rome,  adopted  Roman  systems, 
 like  the  other  clergy.  The  causes  of  dispute 
 were  those  differences  in  discipline,  and 
 those  jealousies  which  have  ever  prevailed 
 among  rival  communities.  The  Culdees 
 had  in  many  instances  a  kind  of  hereditary 
 succession  to  their  benefices. 
 
 Ware  (Antiq.  of  Ireland,  chap,  xxxvi. 
 sect.  4,  cd.  Harris)  states,  that  there  were 
 some  secular  priests,  called  Colidei,  who 
 served  in  the  cathedral  church  of  Armagh, 
 and  their  ])rcsidcnt  was  called  Prior  of  the 
 College  of  the  Colidei;  and  Avas  in  the 
 nature  of  a  chanter  to  that  church  :  elected 
 by  Colidei,  and  confirmed  by  the  archbishop, 
 (ilarris  adds,  that  it  was  a  body  corporate, 
 and  had  considerable  estates,  till  these  fell 
 to  tlie  Crown  on  the  abdication  of  the  com- 
 munity  after    the    Reformation.)      Ware 
 
268 
 
 CUP. 
 
 gives  other  instances  in  Ireland.  The  min- 
 isters of  York  cathedral  ■were  called  (Jo- 
 lidei  in  the  time  of  Athelstan. 
 
 In  a  fine  MS.  Antij)honary  anciently  be- 
 longinjT  to  Armagh  cathedral,  and  now  in 
 the  library  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin, 
 there  are  several  entries  of  the  obits  of  the 
 Colidei  of  Armagh. 
 
 Some  derive  the  name  from  Ct/Uc,  which 
 signifies  in  Gaelic  a  cell,  and  tec,  or  dee,  a 
 house.  But  the  derivation  given  above 
 seems  the  most  consistent  with  history  and 
 tradition. 
 
 CUP.  (See  Cotmnunioji  in  one  Kind.) 
 The  sacred  vessel  in  which  the  consecrated 
 wine  in  the  Lord's  supper  is  conveyed  to 
 the  communicant,  distinguished  from  the 
 Jiagon,  in  which  the  wine  is  brought  to 
 the  altar,  and  in  which,  if  more  than  the 
 cup  will  conveniently  hold  is  required,  it 
 is  consecrated.  The  rubric  directs  that  it 
 shall  be  delivered  to  each  communicant. 
 
 Kubric.  "  When  the  priest,  standing 
 before  the  table,  hath  so  ordered  the  bread 
 and  wine,  that  he  may  with  the  more  readi- 
 ness and  decency  break  the  bread  before 
 the  people,  and  take  the  cup  into  his  hands, 
 he  shall  say  the  prayer  of  consecration,  as 
 followeth."  And  in  the  prayer  of  conse- 
 cration, "  Here  he  is  to  take  the  cup  into 
 his  hand,"  and,  "  Here  to  lay  his  hand  upon 
 every  vessel  (be  it  chaHce  or  flagon)  in 
 which  there  is  any  wine  to  be  consecrated." 
 
 "The  minister  that  delivereth  the  cup 
 to  any  shall  say,  The  Blood  of  our  Lord 
 Jesus  Christ,"  <S:c. 
 
 Article  30.  "  The  cup  of  the  Lord  is 
 not  to  be  denied  to  the  lay  people  ;  for 
 both  the  parts  of  the  Lord's  sacrament, 
 by  Christ's  ordinance  and  commandment, 
 ought  to  be  ministered  to  all  Christian  men 
 alike." 
 
 This  article  is  directed  against  the 
 Romish  custom  of  denying  the  cup  to  the 
 laity,  concerning  which  it  may  be  enough 
 to  say,  that  it  is  clearly  and  confessedly 
 contrary  to  the  custom  of  the  Church; 
 that  for  twelve  centuries  there  was  no  in- 
 stance to  be  adduced  of  any  receiving  in 
 one  kind  at  the  public  celebration  of  the 
 eucharist ;  and  that  it  was  even  accounted 
 sacrilege  to  deprive  any  of  either  part  of 
 our  blessed  Lord's  ordinance. — See  Binfj- 
 ham,  XV.  5,  and  xvi.  6 — 27. 
 
 It  appears  from  the  unanimous  testimony 
 of  the  Fathers,  and  from  all  the  ancient 
 rituals  and  liturgies,  that  the  sacrament  of 
 the  Lord's  supper  was,  in  the  earlv  ages 
 of  the  Church,  administered  in  l)oth  kinds, 
 as  well  to  the  laity  as  to  the  clerjry.  The 
 l)ractice  of  denying  the  cup  to  Vhe  laity 
 arose  out  of  the  doctrine  of  transubstan- 
 
 tiation.  The  belief  that  the  sacramental 
 bread  and  wine  were  actually  converted 
 into  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ,  natur- 
 ally produced,  in  a  weak  and  superstitious 
 age,  an  anxious  fear  lest  any  part  of  them 
 should  be  lost  or  wasted.  To  prevent 
 anything  of  this  kind  in  the  bread,  small 
 wafers  were  used,  which  were  put  at  once 
 into  the  mouths  of  the  communicants  by 
 the  officiating  ministers  ;  but  no  expedient 
 could  be  devised  to  guard  against  the 
 occasional  spilling  of  the  wine  in  admin- 
 istering it  to  large  congregations.  The 
 bread  was  sopped  in  the  wine,  and  the 
 wine  was  conveyed  by  tubes  into  the 
 mouth,  but  all  in  vain ;  accidents  still 
 happened,  and  therefore  it  was  determined 
 that  the  priests  should  entirely  withhold 
 the  cup  from  the  laity.  It  is  to  be  sup- 
 posed that  a  change  of  this  sort,  in  so  im- 
 portant an  ordinance  as  that  of  the  Lord's 
 supper,  could  not  be  effected  at  once.  The 
 first  attempt  seems  to  have  been  made  in 
 the  tAvelfth  century;  it  was  gradually  sub- 
 mitted to,  and  was  at  last  established  by 
 the  authority  of  the  Council  of  Constance, 
 in  the  year  1414  ;  but  in  their  decree  they 
 acknowledged  that  "  Christ  did  institute 
 this  sacrament  of  both  kinds,  and  that  the 
 faithful  in  the  primitive  Church  did  receive 
 both  kinds  ;  yet  a  practice  being  reasonably 
 introduced  to  avoid  some  dangers  and 
 scandals,  they  appoint  the  custom  to  con- 
 tinue of  consecrating  in  both  kinds,  and  of 
 giving  to  the  laity  only  in  one  kind,"  thus 
 presuming  to  depart  from  the  positive 
 commands  of  our  Lord  respecting  the 
 manner  of  administering  the  sign  of  the 
 covenant  between  himself  and  mankind. 
 From  that  time  it  has  been  the  invariable 
 practice  of  the  Church  of  Rome  to  confine 
 the  cup  to  the  priests.  And  it  was  again 
 admitted  at  the  Council  of  Trent,  that  the 
 Lord's  supper  was  formerly  administered 
 in  both  kinds  to  all  communicants,  but  it 
 was  openly  contended  that  the  Church  had 
 poAver  to  make  the  alteration,  and  that 
 they  had  done  it  for  weighty  and  just 
 causes.  These  causes  are  not  stated  in  the 
 canon  of  the  council.  The  reformed 
 churches,  even  the  Lutheran,  which  main- 
 tains the  doctrine  of  consubstantiation,  re- 
 stored the  cup  to  the  laity.  In  a  convo- 
 cation held  in  the  first  year  of  Edward  the 
 Sixth's  reign,  it  was  unanimously  voted 
 that  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  supper 
 should  be  received  in  both  kinds  by  the 
 laity  as  well  as  the  clergy ;  and  therefore 
 it  is  remarkable  that  there  was  nothing  on 
 this  subject  in  the  articles  of  1552 :  both 
 this  and  the  preceding  article  [the  29th] 
 were  added  in  1562. — ^/j.  Tomline. 
 
CURATE. 
 
 269 
 
 "WTierever  the  institution  of  the  Lord's 
 supper  is  mentioned,  there  is  not  the  least 
 hint  that  the  clergy  are  to  receive  it  in  one 
 manner,  and  the  laity  in  another.  And  if 
 one  part  of  this  sacrament  be  more  neces- 
 sary than  the  other,  it  seems  to  be  the  cup  ; 
 since  it  rejjresents  the  blood  of  Christ,  to 
 which  remission  of  sins  and  our  redemption 
 are  more  often  ascribed  in  Scripture  than 
 to  his  body.  It  is  triflinf^  in  the  Ilomanists 
 to  say  that  the  blood  is  with  the  body : 
 since  in  the  eucharist  we  commemorate, 
 not  the  life  of  our  Lord,  but  his  death,  in 
 which  the  blood  was  separated  from  his 
 body;  (see  1  Cor.  xi.  26;  Luke  xxii.  19, 
 20  ;)  and  to  represent  his  blood,  thus  se- 
 parated from  his  body,  the  cup  w^as  conse- 
 crated apart  by  him.  Christ  himself  also 
 seems  to  have  guarded  designedly  against 
 this  piece  of  sacrilege  of  denying  the  cup 
 to  the  laity,  by  commanding  that  "  all " 
 should  drink  of  the  cup.  (Matt.  xxvi.  27.) 
 And  in  Mark  xiv.  23,  it  is  said,  that  "  all 
 drank  of  it;"  which  is  nowhere  expressly 
 said  of  eating  the  bread.  See  also  1  Cor. 
 xi.  26 — 28,  in  all  which  verses  the  Corinth- 
 ians in  general  are  expressly  required  to 
 "  drink  of  that  cup." — Archdeacon  Welch- 
 man.  Veneer. 
 
 There  is  not  any  one  of  all  the  contro- 
 versies that  we  have  with  the  Church  of 
 Home,  in  which  the  decision  seems  more 
 easy  and  shorter  than  this.  And,  as  there 
 is  not  any  one  in  which  she  has  acted  more 
 visibly  contrary  to  the  gospel  than  in  this,  so 
 there  is  not  any  one  that  has  raised  higher 
 prejudices  against  her,  that  has  made  more 
 forsake  her,  and  has  possessed  mankind 
 more  against  her,  than  this.  This  has  cost 
 her  dearer  than  any  other. — Bp.  Bur7iet. 
 
 For  the  material  of  the  cup,  see  Chalice. 
 
 CURATE.  ^  The  person  who  has  the 
 cure  of  souls  in  a  parish.  In  this  sense  the 
 word  is  used  in  the  Prayer  Book,  "all 
 bishops  and  curates,"  as  the  word  is  still 
 employed  in  France,  Spain,  8zc. 
 
 The  word  is,  in  common  parlance,  used 
 to  denote  the  minister,  whether  presbyter 
 or  deacon,  who  is  employed  under  the 
 spiritual  rector  or  vicar,  as  assistant  to 
 him  in  the  same  church,  or  else  in  a  chapel 
 of  ease  within  the  same  parish,  belonging 
 to  the  mother  church.  Where  there  is  in 
 a  parish  neither  spiritual  rector  nor  vicar, 
 but  a  clerk  employed  to  officiate  there  by 
 the  impropriator,  this  is  called  a  perpetual 
 curacy,  and  the  priest  thus  emi)loyed  the 
 perpetual  curate.  The  impropriator,  by 
 the  terms  of  his  sacrilegious  gift,  is  bound 
 to  "  maintain  "  the  priest :  how  far  this  is 
 complied  with  by  those  lay  imjjropriators 
 who  allow  the  same  stipend  now  that  was 
 
 given  200  or  300  years  ago,  we  need  not 
 wait  to  inquire.  The  a])pointment  of  a 
 curate  to  officiate  under  an  incumbent,  in 
 his  own  church,  must  be  by  such  incum- 
 bent's nomination  of  him  to  the  bishop. 
 To  every  one  of  these  several  kinds  of 
 curates,  the  ordinary's  licence  is  necessary 
 before  he  shall  be  admitted  to  officiate. 
 
 For  by  Canon  41,  "  No  curate  or  minister 
 shall  be  i)ermitted  to  serve  in  any  place 
 Avithout  examination  and  admission  of  the 
 bishop  of  the  diocese,  or  ordinary  of  the 
 place  having  e])isco])al  jurisdiction,  under 
 his  hand  and  seal,  having  respect  to  the 
 greatness  of  the  cure,  and  meetness  of  the 
 party." 
 
 And  by  the  same  canon,  "  If  the  curates 
 remove  from  one  diocese  to  another,  they 
 shall  not  be  by  any  means  admitted  to 
 serve  without  testimony  in  writing  of  the 
 bishop  of  the  diocese,  or  ordinary  of  the 
 place  having  episcopal  jurisdiction,  from 
 whence  they  came,  of  their  honesty,  ability, 
 and  conformity  to  the  ecclesiastical  laws  of 
 the  Church  of  England." 
 
 By  Canon  36,  "  No  person  shall  be  suf- 
 fered to  preach,  to  catechize,  or  to  be  a 
 lecturer,  m  any  parish  church,  chapel,  or 
 other  place,  except  he  be  licensed  either 
 by  the  archbishop  or  by  the  bishop  of  the 
 diocese,  and  except  he  shall  first  subscribe 
 to  the  three  articles  specified  in  the  said 
 canon,  concerning  the  king's  supremacy, 
 the  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  and  the 
 Thirty-nine  Articles  of  religion." 
 
 And  by  Canon  37,  "  None  who  hath 
 been  licensed  to  preach,  read,  lecture,  or 
 catechize,  and  shall  afterwards  come  to  re- 
 side in  another  diocese,  shall  be  permitted 
 there  to  preach,  read,  lecture,  catechize,  or 
 administer  the  sacraments,  or  to  execute 
 any  other  ecclesiastical  function,  by  Avhat 
 authority  soever  he  be  thereunto  admitted, 
 unless  he  first  consent  and  subscribe  to 
 the  three  articles  before  mentioned,  in  the 
 presence  of  the  bishop  of  the  diocese 
 wherein  he  is  to  preach,  read,  lecture, 
 catechize,  or  administer  the  sacraments  as 
 aforesaid." 
 
 He  must  also,  within  two  months,  or  at 
 the  time  when  he  reads  the  morning  and 
 evening  prayers  as  aforesaid,  (on  the  like 
 pain  of  deprivation  ipso  facto,)  read  and 
 assent  to  the  Thirty-nine  Articles,  if  it  be  a 
 l)lace  with  cure.  (13  Eliz.  c.  12.  23  Geo. 
 11.  c.  28.) 
 
 A  curate  not  licensed  may  be  removed 
 at  pleasure ;  but,  if  licensed,  lie  can  be  re- 
 moved only  by  the  consent  of  the  bishop, 
 or  where  the  rector  or  vicar  does  the  duty 
 himself. 
 
 By  the  76th  section  of  1  &  8  Vict.  c.  106, 
 
270 
 
 CURATE. 
 
 it  is  enacted  as  follov*-s :  "  And  be  it  enacted, 
 that  in  every  case  -where  a  curate  is  ap- 
 pointed to  serve  in  any  benefice  upon 
 •which  the  incumbent  either  does  not  re- 
 side, or  has  not  satisfied  the  bishop  of  his 
 full  purpose  to  reside  durins:  four  months 
 of  the  year,  such  curate  shall  be  required 
 by  the  bishop  to  reside  -within  the  parish 
 or  place  in  -which  such  benefice  is  situate, 
 or  if  no  convenient  residence  can  be  pro- 
 cured within  such  parish  or  place,  then 
 within  three  statute  miles  of  the  church  or 
 chapel  of  the  benefice  in  which  he  shall  be 
 licensed  to  serve,  except  in  cases  of  neces- 
 sity, to  be  approved  of  by  the  bishop,  and 
 specified  in  the  licence,  and  such  place  of 
 residence  shall  also  be  specified  in  the 
 licence." 
 
 By  the  81st  section  of  the  same  act  it  is 
 enacted  as  follo-ws :  "  And  be  it  enacted, 
 that  every  bishop  to  whom  any  application 
 shall  be  made  for  any  licence  for  a  curate 
 to  serve  for  any  person  not  duly  residing 
 upon  his  benefice,  shall,  before  he  shall 
 grant  such  licence,  require  a  statement  of 
 all  the  particulars  by  this  act  required  to 
 be  stated  by  any  person  applying  for  a 
 licence  for  non-residence ;  and  in  every 
 case  in  which  application  shall  be  made  to 
 any  bishop  for  a  licence  for  any  stipendiary 
 curate  to  serve  in  any  benefice,  whether 
 the  incumbent  be  resident  or  non-resident, 
 such  bishop  shall  also  require  a  declaration 
 in  -writing,  to  be  made  and  subscribed  by 
 the  incumbent  and  the  curate,  to  the  pur- 
 port and  eflect  that  the  one  hand  Jide  in- 
 tends to  pay,  and  the  other  bond  Jide  in- 
 tends to  receive,  the  whole  actual  stipend 
 mentioned  in  such  statement,  without  any 
 abatement  in  respect  of  rent  or  considera- 
 tion for  the  use  of  the  glebe  house,  and 
 v/ithout  any  other  deduction  or  reserva- 
 tion whatever." 
 
 By  the  88rd  section  of  the  same  act  it  is 
 enacted  as  follows:  "And  be  it  enacted, 
 that  it  shall  be  lawful  for  the  bishop  of 
 the  diocese,  and  he  is  hereby  required, 
 subject  to  the  several  provisions  and  re- 
 strictions in  this  act  contained,  to  appoint 
 to  every  curate  of  a  non-resident  incum- 
 bent such  stipend  as  is  specified  in  this 
 act ;  and  every  licence  to  be  granted  to  a 
 stipendiary  curate,  whether  the  incumbent 
 of  the  benefice  be  resident  or  non-resident 
 thereon,  shall  specify  the  amount  of  the 
 stipend  to  be  paid  to  the  curate ;  and  in 
 case  any  diff"erence  shall  arise  between  the 
 incumbent  of  any  benefice  and  his  curate 
 touching  such  stipend,  or  the  payment 
 thereof,  or  of  the  arrears  thereo'f,  the 
 bishop,  on  complaint  to  him  made,  may 
 and  shall  summarily  hear  and  determine 
 
 the  same,  without  appeal ;  and  in  case  of 
 wilful  neglect  or  refusal  to  pay  such  sti- 
 pend, or  the  arrears  thereof,  he  is  hereby 
 empowered  to  enforce  payment  of  such 
 stipend,  or  the  arrears  thereof,  by  moni- 
 tion, and  by  sequestration  of  the  profits  of 
 such  benefice." 
 
 The  following  papers  are  to  be  sent  to 
 the  bishop  by  a  curate  applying  to  be 
 licensed : — 
 
 1.  A  nomination  by  the  incumbent. 
 
 The  following  form  of  nomination  is  in- 
 tended to  serve  where  the  incumbent  is 
 non-resident. 
 
 "  To  the  Right  Reverend Lord  Bishop 
 
 of . 
 
 "  I,  G.  H.  of ,  in  the  county  of , 
 
 and  your  lordship's  diocese  of  ,  do 
 
 hereby  nominate  E,  F.,  bachelor  of  arts,  {or 
 other  decree,)  to   perform  the   oflice   of  a 
 
 curate  in  my  church   of  aforesaid; 
 
 and  do  promise  to  alloAv  him  the  yearly 
 stipend  of ,  to  be  paid  by  equal  quar- 
 terly pavments,  [as  to  amount  of  stipend,  see 
 1  &  2  Vic.  c.  106,  and  the  latter  part  of  this 
 article,]  with  the  surplice  fees,  amounting 
 to pounds  per  annum,  (;/  they  are  in- 
 tended to  be  alloivcd,)  and  the  use  of  the 
 glebe  house,  garden,  and  offices  which  he 
 is  to  occupy  (//  that  be  the  fact ;  if  not, 
 state  the  reason,  and  name  xchere  and  at 
 ivhat  distance  from  the  church  the  curate 
 purposes  to  reside) :  and  I  do  hereby  state 
 to  your  lordship,  that  the  said  E.  F.  does 
 not  serve  any  other  parish,  as  incumbent 
 or  curate  ;  and  that  he  has  not  any  cathe- 
 dral preferment  or  benefice,  and  does  not 
 ofliciate  in  any  other  church  or  chapel  {if 
 however,  the  curate  does  serve  another  church 
 as  incumbeM,  or  as  curate,  or  has  anj/  cathe- 
 dral preferment,  or  a  benefice,  or  officiates 
 in  any  other  church  or  chapel,  the  same 
 respectii'cfy  must  be  correctly  and  particu- 
 larly stated)  :  that  the  net  annual  value  of 
 my  said  benefice,  estimated  according  to 
 the  act  1  &  2  Vict.  c.  106,  ss.  8  &  10, 
 is ,  and  the  population  thereof,  accord- 
 ing to  the  latest  returns  of  population 
 made  under  the  authority  of  parliament 
 
 is ;    that  there  is   only   one    church 
 
 belonging  to  my  said  benefice  {if  there  be 
 another  church  or  chapel,  state  the  fact); 
 and  that  I  was  admitted  to  the  said  bene- 
 fice on  the day  of ,  18 — . 
 
 "Witness  my  hand   this  day  of 
 
 ,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  one 
 
 thousand  eight  hundred  and 
 
 \_Siynature  and  address  of~\        G.  H." 
 
CURATE. 
 
 271 
 
 Declaration  to  he  written  at  the  foot  of  the 
 Nomination. 
 "We  the  before-nnnied G.  II.  and  E.  F. 
 
 do  declare  to  the  said  Lord  Bishoj)  of , 
 
 as  folloAvs :  namely,  I  the  said  G.  H.  do 
 declare,  that  I  bona  fide  intend  to  pay,  and 
 I  the  said  E.  F.  do  declare  that  I  bondjide 
 intend  to  receive,  the  "svhole  actual  stipend 
 mentioned  in  the  foregoing  nomination  and 
 statement,  without  any  abatement  in  re- 
 spect of  rent,  or  consideration  for  the  use 
 of  the  glebe  house,  garden,  and  offices, 
 thereby  agreed  to  be  assigned,  and  without 
 any  other  deduction  or  reservation  what- 
 soever. 
 
 Witness  our  hands  this day  of 
 
 ,  one  thousand  eight  hundred 
 
 and . 
 
 lSi(jnaturcs  of]      G.  H.  and  E.  F." 
 
 The  folloAving  form  of  nomination  is 
 proposed  where  the  incumbent  is  resident. 
 
 The  same  form  as  the  preceding,  so  far  as 
 "  quarterly  payments  ; "  then  proceed  as  fol- 
 lows :  "  And  I  do  hereby  state  to  your  lord- 
 ship, that  the  said  E.  F.  intends  to  reside 
 in  the  said  parish,  in  a  house  {describe  its 
 situatioji  so  as  clearly  to  identify  it)  distant 
 
 from  my  church mile  ({/*  E.  F.  does 
 
 7iot  intend  to  reside  in  the  parish,  then  state 
 at  what  place  he  intends  to  reside,  and  its 
 distance  from  the  said  church) ;  and  that 
 the  said  E.  F.  does  not  serve  any  other 
 parish  as  incumbent  or  curate ;  and  that 
 he  has  not  any  cathedral  preferment  or 
 benefice,  and  does  not  officiate  in  any  other 
 church  or  chapel  [if,  however,  the  curate 
 does  serve  another  parish,  as  incumhent  or 
 as  curate,  or  has  any  cathedral  preferment 
 or  a  benefice,  or  officiates  in  any  other  church 
 or  chapel,  the  same  respectively  must  he  cor- 
 rectly and  particularly  stated). 
 
 Witness  my  hand  this  day  of 
 
 ,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  one 
 
 thousand  eight  hundred  and . 
 
 l_Siy7iature  and  address  of~\        G.  H." 
 
 Declaration  to  he  ivritten  at  the  foot  of  the 
 Nomination. 
 The  declaration  to  be  signed  by  the  in- 
 cumbent and  curate  is  to  be  in  the  same 
 form  as  that  given  above,  so  far  as  the 
 word  "  statement ; "  after  which,  proceed 
 as  follows :  "  Without  any  deduction  or 
 reservation  whatsoever. 
 
 Witness  our  hands  this  day  of 
 
 ,  one  thousand  eight  hundred 
 
 and . 
 
 \_Signatures  of]  G.  H.  and  E.  F." 
 
 *  If  the  clerk  nominated  shall  have  been 
 ordained  a  less  time  than  three  years,  the  testi- 
 monial may  be  from  the  time  of  ordination. 
 
 2.  Letters  of  orders,  deacon  and  priest. 
 
 3.  Letters  testimonial  to  be  signed  by 
 three  beneficed  clergymen,  in  the  follow- 
 ing form : 
 
 "To  the  lit.  Rev. ,  Lord  Bishop  of . 
 
 '*  We,  whose  names  are  here  under  writ- 
 ten, testify  and  make  known  that  A.  IJ., 
 clerk,  bachelor  of  arts,  {or  oflter  dcyrce,) 
 
 of college,  in  the  university  of , 
 
 nominated  to  serve  the  cure  of ,  in 
 
 the  county  of ,  hath  been  personally 
 
 known  to  us  for  the  space  of*  three  years 
 last  past ;  that  we  have  had  opportunities 
 of  observing  his  conduct ;  that  during  the 
 whole  of  that  time  we  verily  believe  that 
 he  lived  piously,  soberly,  and  honestly,  nor 
 have  we  at  any  time  heard  anything  to  the 
 contrary  thereof;  nor  hatli  he  at  any  time, 
 as  far  as  we  know  or  believe,  held,  written, 
 or  taught  anything  contrary  to  the  doc- 
 trine or  discipline  of  the  United  Church  of 
 England  and  L^eland ;  and,  moreover,  we 
 believe  him  in  our  consciences  to  be,  as  to 
 his  moral  conduct,  a  person  Avorthy  to  be 
 licensed  to  the  said  curacy. 
 
 In  witness  whereof  we  have  hereunto 
 
 set  our  hands  this day  of , 
 
 in  the  year  of  our  Lord  one  thou- 
 sand eight  huncb'ed  and . 
 
 t  C.  D.  rector  of . 
 
 E.  F.  vicar  of . 
 
 G.IL  rector  of ." 
 
 To  be  countersigned,  if  all  or  either  of 
 the  subscribers  to  the  testimonial  are  not 
 beneficed  in  the  diocese  of  the  bi.'^hop  to 
 whom  it  is  addressed,  by  the  bishop  of  the 
 diocese  wherein  their  benefices  are  re- 
 spectively situate. 
 
 On  receipt  of  these  papers,  the  bishop, 
 if  he  be  satisfied  with  them,  will  either  ap- 
 point the  clergyman  nominated  to  attend 
 him,  to  be  licensed,  or  issue  a  commission 
 to  some  neighbouring  incumbent. 
 
 Before  the  licence  is  granted,  the  ctn'ate 
 is  to  subscribe  the  Thirty-Nine  Articles, 
 and  the  three  articles  in  the  oGth  canon  ; 
 to  declare  his  conformity  to  the  liturgy  of 
 the  United  Church  of  England  and  Ireland, 
 and  to  take  the  oaths  of  allegiance  and  su- 
 premacy, and  of  canonical  obedience  : — 
 
 "  I,  E.  F.,  do  swear  that  I  will  pay  true 
 and  canonical  obedience  to  the  Lord  Bi.shop 
 
 of in  all  things  lawful  and  honest. 
 
 So  help  me  God." 
 
 The  licence  will  be  sent  by  the  bishop 
 
 t  It  is  recommended  that  the  clergyman 
 nominating  be  not  a  subscriber  to  the  testi- 
 monial. 
 
272 
 
 CURATE. 
 
 to  the  registry-office,  and  from  thence  it 
 will  be  forwarded  to  the  churchwardens. 
 
 Within  three  months  after  he  is  licensed, 
 the  curate  is  to  read  in  the  church  the 
 declaration  appointed  by  the  Act  of  Uni- 
 formity, and  also  the  certificate  of  his 
 having  subscribed  it  before  the  bishop. 
 
 By  the  106th  section  of  the  Resitlence 
 Act,"  (1  &  2  Vict.  c.  106,)  it  is  enacted  that 
 no  spiritual  person  shall  serve  more  than 
 two  benefices  in  one  day,  unless  in  case 
 of  unforeseen  and  })ressing  emergency,  in 
 which  case  he  shall  forthwith  report  the 
 circumstance  to  the  bishop. 
 
 The  directions  as  to  notices  to  be  given 
 for  the  curate  to  give  up  the  cure,  are  con- 
 tained in  the  95th  section  of  the  said  act, 
 and  for  his  quitting  the  house  of  residence 
 in  the  96th  section  ;  and  as  to  notice  of  the 
 curate's  intention  to  relinquish  the  cure,  in 
 the  97th  section ;  and  power  is  given  to 
 the  bishop,  by  the  98th  section,  to  revoke 
 any  licence  to  a  curate,  (after  having  given 
 him  sufficient  opportunity  to  show  reason 
 to  the  contrary,)  subject  to  an  appeal  to 
 the  archbishop  of  the  province  within  one 
 month  after  service  of  revocation. 
 
 (1.)  Form  of  notice  by  a  ncic  incinnhent  to 
 a  curate  to  quit  curacy,  or  to  give  up 
 possession  of  house  of  residence. 
 
 "  I,  A.  B.,  clerk,  having  been  duly  ad- 
 mitted to  the  rectory  of ,  in  the  county 
 
 of ,  and  diocese  of ,  do  hereby,  in 
 
 pursuance  of  the  power  and  authority  for 
 this  purpose  vested  in  me  by  vu-tue  of  the 
 act  of  parliament  passed  in  the  first  and 
 second  years  of  her  present  Majesty's  reign, 
 intituled  '  An  Act  to  abridge  the  holding 
 of  benefices  in  plurality,  and  to  make 
 better  provision  for  the  residence  of  the 
 clergy,'  give  notice  to  and  require  you, 
 C.  D.,  clerk,  to  quit  and  give  up  the  curacy 
 
 of aforesaid  [thefoUoivi7iy  to  he  added 
 
 where  applicable,  and  to  deliver  up  posses- 
 sion of  the  rectory  house  of aforesaid, 
 
 and  the  ofiices,  stables,  gardens,  and  ap- 
 purtenances thereto  belonging,  and  (if  any) 
 such  part  of  the  glebe  land  as  has  been 
 assigned  to  you]  at  the  expiration  of  six 
 weeks  from  the  giving  of  this  notice  to 
 you. 
 
 "Witness   my    hand    this day  of 
 
 ,  one  thousand  eight  huncked 
 
 and ." 
 
 (2.)  Form  of  notice  by  an  incumbent,  with 
 consent  of  the  bishop,  to  a  curate  to  quit 
 curacy,  or  to  give  up  house  of  residence. 
 
 "  I,  A.  B.,  clerk,  rector  of  ,  in  the 
 
 county  of  ,  and  diocese   of ,   in 
 
 pursuance  of  the  power  and  authority  for 
 
 tliis  purpose  vested  in  me  by  vulue  of  the 
 act  of  parliament  passed  in  the  fii'st  and 
 second  years  of  her  present  Majesty's  reign, 
 intituled  '  An  Act  to  abridge  the  holding 
 of  benefices  in  plurality,  and  to  make 
 better  provision  for  the  residence  of  the 
 clergy,'  do  hereby,  with  the  permission  of 
 
 the  Kight  Reverend Lord  Bishop  of 
 
 the  diocese  of aforesaid,  signified  by 
 
 writing  under  his  lordship's  hand,  give 
 notice  to,  and  require  you,  C.  D.,  clerk,  my 
 
 licensed  curate  of aforesaid,  to  quit 
 
 and  give  up  the  said  curacy  of [the 
 
 folloicing  to  be  added  where  applicable^  and 
 
 the  rectory  house  of aforesaid,   and 
 
 the  offices,  stables,  gardens,  and  appur- 
 tenances thereto  belonging,  and  (if  any) 
 such  part  of  the  glebe  land  as  has  been 
 assigned  to  you]  at  the  expiration  of  six 
 calendar  months  from  the  giving  of  this 
 notice  to  you.* 
 
 AVitness  my  hand   this  day  of 
 
 ,  one  thousand  eight  hunclred 
 
 and ." 
 
 Form  of  bishop's  permission  to  an  incum- 
 bent to  give  his  curate  notice  to  quit 
 curacy,  or  give  up  possession  of  house  of 
 residence. 
 
 [Applicable  to  notice  No.  2.  only.) 
 
 "  I, ,  Lord  Bishop  of ,  do  here- 
 by, on  the  application  of  A.  B.,  clerk,  rector 
 
 of  ,  in  the  county  of ,  and  my 
 
 diocese  of ,  signify  my  permission  for 
 
 him  to  require  and  direct  C.  D.,  clerk,  his 
 
 licensed  curate  at aforesaid,  to  quit 
 
 and  give  up  the  said  curacy  [the  following 
 to  be  added  where  applicable,  and  to  deliver 
 
 up  possession  of  the  rectory  house  of 
 
 aforesaid,  and  the  offices,  outhouses,  gar- 
 dens, and  appurtenances  thereto  belonging, 
 and  (if  any)  such  part  of  the  glebe  land  as 
 has  been  assigned  to  the  said  C,  J),  as  such 
 curate]  upon  six  calendar  months'  notice 
 thereof  being  given  to  such  curate. 
 
 Given  under  my  hand  this day 
 
 of ,  one  thousand  eight  hun- 
 dred and ." 
 
 Note. — The  notice  No.  1.  applies  only  to 
 an  incumbent  newly  admitted  to  a  benefice, 
 and  must  be  given  within  six  months  after 
 such  admission. 
 
 The  notice  No.  2.  applies  to  every  other 
 case  of  an  incumbent  requiring  his  curate 
 to  quit  the  curacy.  The  consent  of  the 
 bishop  is  required  only  in  the  latter  case. 
 
 The  112th  section  of  the  act  referred 
 to  in  the  notices  contains  directions  as 
 to  the  mode  in  which  the  notice  is  to  b(j 
 
 *  This  notice  miist  be  dated  on  a  day  subse- 
 quent to  the  date  of  the  bishop's  permission. 
 
CURATE. 
 
 CURE 
 
 273 
 
 served ;  and  it  directs  that  "  it  shall  be 
 served  personally  upon  the  s])iritual  ])erson 
 therein  named,  or  to  whom  it  shall  be  di- 
 rected, by  shoAving  the  original  to  him  and 
 leaving  Avith  him  a  true  co])y  thereof,  or, 
 in  case  such  si)iritual  person  cannot  be 
 found,  by  leaving  a  true  copy  thereof  at 
 his  usual  or  last  known  place  of  residence, 
 and  by  affixing  another  copy  thereof  u})on 
 the  church  door  of  the  parish  in  which 
 such  place  of  residence  shall  be  situate." 
 The  notice  must,  immediately  after  the 
 service  thereof,  be  returned  into  the  Con- 
 sistorial  Court,  (or  the  Court  of  Peculiars, 
 in  the  case  of  an  archbishop's  or  bishop's 
 peculiar  ;  see  sect.  108,)  and  be  there  filed, 
 together  Avith  an  affidavit  of  the  time  and 
 manner  in  Avliich  the  same  shall  have  been 
 served. 
 
 The  stipends  to  be  paid  to  curates  by 
 non-resident  incumbents  must  be  in  strict 
 conformity  with  the  directions  of  the  act 
 of  parliament  1  &  2  Yict.  c.  106.  Clergy- 
 men who  were  incumbents  of  benefices 
 before  July  20th,  1813,  cannot  be  com- 
 pelled (see  sect.  84)  to  pay  more  than  £75 
 per  annum  as  a  stipend  to  the  curates  of 
 such  benefices,  but  the  bishop  may  add  to 
 that  sum  £15  in  lieu  of  a  house. 
 
 Non-resident  incumbents  admitted  to 
 benefices  after  tlie  above  date,  are  to  allow 
 stipends  according  to  the  following  scale, 
 prescribed  by  the  85th  section  : 
 
 The  lowest  stipend  is  .  .  .  £  80 
 If  the  population  amount  to  300, 
 
 the  stipend  is  to  be  .  .  .  100 
 If  the  population  amount  to  500, 
 
 the  stipend  is  to  be  .  .  .120 
 If  the  population  amount  to  750, 
 
 the  stipend  is  to  be  .  .  .  135 
 If  the  population  amount  to  1000, 
 
 the  stipend  is  to  be  .         ,         .     150 
 
 or  the  whole  value  oLthe  benefice,  if  it 
 does  not  exceed  these  sums  respectively. 
 Where  the  net  yearly  income  of  a  benefice 
 exceeds  £400,  the  bishop  may  (by  sect.  86) 
 assign  a  stipend  of  £100,  notwithstanding 
 the  population  may  not  amount  to  300  ; 
 and  if  with  that  income  the  population 
 amounts  to  500,  he  may  add  any  sum  not 
 exceeding  £50  to  any  of  the  stipends  pay- 
 able by  the  last-mentioned  incmnbent, 
 where  the  curate  resides  within  the  bene- 
 fice, and  serves  no  other  cure.  Where  the 
 population  exceeds  2000,  the  bishop  may 
 require  the  incumbent  to  nominate  two 
 curates,  with  stipends  not  exceeding  to- 
 gether the  highest  rate  of  stipend  allowed 
 to  one  curate. 
 
 Incumbents  who  have  become  incapable 
 of  performing  their  duties  from  age,  sick- 
 
 T 
 
 ness,  or  other  unavoidable  cause,  (and  to 
 whom,  from  these  or  from  any  other  special 
 and  peculiar  circumstances,  great  hardship 
 Avould  arise  if  they  Avere  required  to  pay 
 the  full  stipend,)  may  (by  sect.  87)  be  re- 
 lieved by  the  bisliop,  Avith  the  consent  of 
 the  archbishop  of  the  province. 
 
 The  bishop  may  (by  sect.  89)  direct  that 
 the  stipend  to  a  curate  licensed  to  serve 
 tAvo  parishes  or  places  shall  bo  less  for  each 
 by  a  sum  not  exceeding  £30  per  annum 
 than  the  full  stipend. 
 
 All  agreements  for  payment  of  a  less 
 stipend  than  that  assigned  by  the  licence 
 are  (by  sect.  90)  declared  to  be  void  ;  and 
 if  less  be  paid,  the  remainder  may  be  after- 
 Avards  recovered  by  the  curate  or  his  re- 
 presentatives. When  a  stijiend,  equal  to 
 the  Avhole  value  of  a  benefice,  is  assigned 
 to  the  curate,  he  is  (by  sect.  91)  to  be 
 liable  to  all  charges  and  outgoings  legally 
 affbcting  the  benefice ;  and  (by  sect.  94) 
 AA'hen  such  a  stipend  as  last  mentioned  is 
 assigned,  and  the  curate  is  directed  to  re- 
 side in  the  glebe  house,  he  is  to  be  liable 
 to  the  taxes,  parochial  rates,  and  assess- 
 ments of  the  glebe  house  and  ])remises  ; 
 but  in  every  other  case  in  Avhich  the  curate 
 shall  so  reside  by  such  direction,  the  bishop 
 may,  if  he  shall  think  fit,  order  tliat  the 
 incumbent  shall  pay  the  curate  all  or  any 
 part  of  such  sums  as  he  may  have  been 
 required  to  pay,  and  shall  have  paid,  Avithin 
 one  year,  ending  at  Michaelmas  day  next 
 preceding  the  date  of  such  order  for  any 
 such  taxes,  parochial  rates,  or  assessments, 
 as  should  become  due  at  any  time  after  the 
 passing  of  the  act. 
 
 For  other  particulars  as  to  curates'  sti- 
 pends and  alloAvances,  &c.,  see  the  act  1  & 
 2  Vict.  0.  106,  from  sect.  75  to  102,  both 
 inclusiA'e. 
 
 CURE.  The  spiritual  charge  of  a  parish, 
 or,  in  a  larger  sense,  the  parish  itself. 
 When  Christianity  was  first  planted  in  this 
 nation,  the  bishops  were  constantly  resi- 
 dent at  their  cathedrals,  and  had  several 
 clergymen  attending  them  at  that  place, 
 Avhom  they  sent  to  preach  and  convert  the 
 people,  Avhere  there  Avas  the  greatest  pro- 
 bability of  success ;  and  the  persons  thus 
 sent  either  returned  or  continued  in  those 
 places,  as  occasion  required,  having  no 
 fixed  cures  or  titles  to  particular  places  ; 
 for  being  all  entered  in  the  l)ishop's  regis- 
 try, (as  the  usual  course  then  Avas,)  they 
 could  not  be  discharged  Avithout  his  con- 
 sent. AfterAvards,  Avhen  Christianity  pre- 
 vailed, and  many  churches  Avere  built,  the 
 cure  of  souls  Avas  limited  both  as  to  places 
 and  persons.  The  places  are  those  which 
 Ave  noAv  call  parishes,  the  extent  Avhereof 
 
274 
 
 CUSPS. 
 
 DALMATIC. 
 
 is  certainly  known,  and  the  boundaries  are 
 now  fixed  by  long  usage  and  custom.  The 
 parsons  are  the  ministers,  who,  by  present- 
 ation, institution,  and  induction,  are  enti- 
 tled to  the  tithes  and  other  ecclesiastical 
 profits  arising  within  that  parisli,  and  have 
 the  cure  of  souls  of  those  who  live  and  reside 
 there :  and  this  the  canonists  call  a  cure  In 
 foro  intcriori  tantum ;  and  they  distinguish 
 it  from  a  cure  of  souls,  In  foro  exteriori,  .such 
 as  archdeacons  have,  to  suspend,  excom- 
 municate, and  absolve,  and  which  is  Sine 
 pasfora/i  cum :  and  from  another  cure, 
 which  they  say  is  In  utroque  shmd,  that  is, 
 both  In  extcriori  et  interiori  foro  :  and  such 
 the  bishop  has,  who  has  a  superintendent 
 care  over  the  whole  diocese,  intermixed 
 with  jurisdiction. 
 
 CUSPS.  (In  church  architecture.)  The 
 projecting  points  from  the  foliation  of 
 arches  or  tracery.  Cusping  first  appear- 
 ed in  the  Geometric  period,  and  was  con- 
 tinued so  long  as  Gothic  architecture  was 
 emplo}-ed.  Besides  the  more  obvious  dif- 
 ferences arising  from  the  number  of  cusps, 
 which,  however,  it  is  needless  to  particu- 
 larize, there  is  one  very  great  peculiarity 
 of  the  earlier  cusping  which  ought  to  be 
 clearly  understood.  Let  the  tracery  bar 
 consist  of  three  planes,  a  the  wall,  b  the 
 chamfer,  and  c  sofiit  plane  (the  latter  of 
 course  not  being  visible  in  the  two  larger 
 diagrams,  which,  being  elevations,  show  no 
 line  at  right  angles  to  the  wall).  In  the 
 more  common  cusping,  the  cusp  is  formed 
 by  carrying  out  the  whole  of  the  soffit  and 
 part  of  the  chamfer  plane,  and  leaving  an 
 unpierced  hollow,  or  eye,  in  the  tracery 
 
 bar,  as  at  A  a,  ^9.  1 ;  a  a  in  the  section 
 answering  to  A  A  in  the  elevation,  and  E  Eto 
 E  E.  In  the  Earlier  or  Geometrical  cusping. 
 
 the  tracery  bar  is  completed  all  round,  and 
 the  cusp  carries  with  it  no  part  either  of 
 the  soffit  or  of  the  chamfer,  but  is  let  into 
 the  soffit,  always  in  appearance,  sometimes 
 in  fact,  as  a  separate  piece  of  stone,  as  at 
 B  D,  Jir/.  II.  Here,  too,  the  cusp  leaves 
 a  free  space  between  itself  and  the  tracery 
 bar,  as  at  B  B  b  in  elevation,  and  section 
 II.  D  D  D,  representing  the  place  of  de- 
 parture of  the  cusp  from  the  tracery  bar. 
 This  is  generally  called  soffit  cusping,  from 
 its  springing  exclusively  from  the  soffit 
 plane. 
 
 DAILY  PRAYERS.  "  All  priests  and 
 deacons  are  to  say  daily  the  morning  and 
 evening  prayer,  either  privately  or  openly, 
 not  being  let  by  sickness  or  some  other 
 urgent  cause.  And  the  curate  that  minis- 
 tereth  in  every  parish  church  or  chapel, 
 being  at  home,  and  not  being  otherwise 
 reasonably  hindered,  shall  say  the  same 
 in  the  parish  church  or  chapel  where  he 
 ministcreth,  and  shall  cause  a  bell  to  be 
 tolled  thereunto  a  convenient  time  before 
 he  begin,  that  the  people  may  come  to  hear 
 God's  word,  and  pray  with  him." — Preface 
 to  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer.  As  this 
 is  not  only  a  direction  of  the  Church,  but 
 also  part  of  an  act  of  parliament,  any 
 parishioners  desirous  of  attending  daily 
 prayers  might  compel  the  clergyman  to 
 officiate,  by  bringing  an  action  against 
 him,  as  well  as  by  complaining  to  the 
 bishop.  For  this,  of  course,  there  can 
 seldom  be  any  necessity,  as  most  of  the 
 clergy  would  be  too  happy  to  officiate,  if 
 they  could  secure  the  attendance  of  two  or 
 three  of  their  parishioners.  By  the  general 
 practice  of  the  clergy  it  seems  to  be  de- 
 cided, that  they  are  to  say  the  morning  and 
 evening  prayer  in  private,  if  they  cannot 
 obtain  a  congregation ;  though,  even  under 
 those  circumstances,  the  letter  of  the  ru- 
 bric seems  to  direct  them  to  say  the  offi.ces 
 at  church,  if  possible.  It  is  a  cheering  sign 
 of  the  times,  that  the  number  of  instances 
 in  which  the  daily  prayers  are  duly  said  in 
 church  is  rapidly  on  the  increase. 
 
 DALMATIC,  was  formerly  the  charac- 
 teristic dress  of  the  deacon  in  the  adminis- 
 tration of  the  holy  eucharist.  It  was  also 
 worn  by  the  bishop  at  stated  times ;  and 
 in  the  Latin  Church  still  forms  part  of  the 
 episcopal  dress,  under  the  chasuble.  It  is 
 a  robe  reaching  below  the  knees,  and  open 
 at  each  side  for  a  distance  varying  at  dif- 
 ferent periods.  It  is  not  marked  at  the 
 back  with  a  cross  like  the  chasuble,  but  in 
 the  Latin  Church  with  two  narrow  stripes, 
 the  remains  of  the  angusti  clavi  worn  on 
 the    old    Roman   dress.      In    the    Greek 
 
DAMNATORY  CLAUSES. 
 
 DANIEL. 
 
 275 
 
 Church  it  is  called  colobmi,  is  covered  with 
 a  multitude  of  small  crosses,  and  has  no 
 sleeves.  The  dalmatic  is  seen  on  the 
 efiigies  of  bishops  on  monuments,  and  in 
 some  old  brasses,  over  the  alb  and  the  stole, 
 the  fringed  extremities  of  which  reach  just 
 below  it.  It  has  received  its  name  from 
 being  the  regal  vest  of  Dahnatia.  It  is 
 the  same  as  the  tunicle,  which  is  directed 
 to  be  worn  according  to  the  rubrics  of 
 King  EdAvard  VI.'s  First  Prayer  Book,  by 
 the  priests  and  deacons  who  may  assist  the 
 priest  at  the  holy  communion.  Like  all 
 the  other  ecclesiastical  vestures,  it  was 
 curtailed  by  the  corrupt  practice  of  later 
 ages  in  the  West,  so  as  not  to  reach  further 
 than  the  knees. — Jehb. 
 
 DAMNATORY  CLAUSES.  (See 
 Athanasian  Creed.) 
 
 D/VNIEL  (THE  BOOK  OF).  A  ca- 
 nonical book  of  the  Old  Testament. 
 Daniel  descended  from  the  royal  house  of 
 the  kings  of  Judah,  and  was  contemporary 
 with  Ezekiel.  (An.  606,  before  Christ.) 
 He  was  of  the  children  of  the  captivity, 
 being  carried  to  Babylon  when  he  was 
 about  eighteen  years  of  age.  His  name  is 
 not  prefixed  to  his  book ;  yet  the  many 
 passages  in  which  he  speaks  in  the  first 
 person,  are  a  sufficient  proof  that  he  was 
 the  author  of  it.  The  style  of  Daniel  is 
 not  so  lofty  and  figurative  as  that  of  the 
 other  prophets  :  it  is  clear  and  concise,  and 
 his  narrations  and  descriptions  simple  and 
 natural ;  in  short,  he  writes  more  like  an 
 historian  than  a  prophet. 
 
 He  was  a  very  extraordinary  person,  and 
 was  favoured  of  God,  and  honoured  of 
 men,  beyond  any  that  had  lived  in  his 
 time.  His  prophecies  concerning  the  com- 
 ing of  the  ^Messiah,  and  the  other  great 
 events  of  after-times,  are  so  clear  and  ex- 
 plicit, that  Porphyry  objected  to  them, 
 that  they  must  have  been  written  after  the 
 facts  were  done. — Prideaux,  Connect.  P.  I. 
 b.  iii.  Ann.  534.  Hieron.  in  Prooem.  ad 
 Coin,  in  Dan. 
 
 The  Jews  do  not  reckon  ]')aniel  among 
 the  prophets ;  and  the  reason  they  assign 
 is,  because  he  rather  lived  the  life  of  a 
 courtier,  in  the  palace  of  the  king  of  Baby- 
 lon, than  that  of  a  prophet.  They  add, 
 that,  though  he  had  Divine  revelations 
 given  to  him,  yet  it  was  not  in  the  pro- 
 phetic way,  but  by  dreams  and  visions  of 
 the  night,  which  they  look  upon  as  the 
 most  imperfect  way  of  revelation,  and  be- 
 low the  prophetic.  But  Josephus,  one  of 
 the  ancientest  writers  of  that  nation,  reckons 
 him  among  the  greatest  of  the  prophets, 
 and  says  fiu-ther  of  him,  that  he  conversed 
 familiarly  with  God,  and  not  only  foretold 
 T  2 
 
 future  events,  as  other  prophets  did,  but 
 determined  likewise  the  time  when  they 
 should  come  to  pass.  But  our  Saviour, 
 by  acknowledging  Daniel  as  a  prophet, 
 ])uts  his  ])ro])hetic  character  out  of  all  dis- 
 pute.— Maimonid.  in  More  Nevochim,  p. 
 2,  ch.  45.  Iluet.  Demonstr.  Evanr/el. 
 Prop.  4,  ch.  14.  Joseph.  Antiq.  lib.  x.  ch. 
 12.     Matt.  xxiv.  15. 
 
 Part  of  the  book  of  Daniel  was  originally 
 written  in  the  Chaldee  language ;  that  is, 
 from  the  fourth  verse  of  the  second  chapter 
 to  the  end  of  the  seventh  chapter  ;  and  the 
 reason  was,  because,  in  that  part,  he  treats 
 of  the  Chaldean  or  Babylonish  affairs.  All 
 the  rest  of  the  book  is  in  Hebrew. — Hieron. 
 in  Pr<xf.  ad  Dan.  The  Greek  translation, 
 used  by  the  Greek  Churches  throughout 
 the  East,  was  that  of  Theodotion.  In  the 
 \'ulgar  Latin  Bible,  there  is  added,  in  the 
 thh-d  chapter,  after  the  twenty-fourth 
 verse,  the  Song  of  the  Three  Children, 
 and,  at  the  end  of  the  book,  the  History  of 
 Susanna,  and  of  Bel  and  the  Dragon  :  the 
 former  is  made  the  thirteenth,  and  the 
 latter  the  fourteenth  chapter  of  the  book, 
 in  that  edition.  But  these  additions  were 
 never  received  into  the  canon  by  the  Jews ; 
 neither  are  they  extant  in  the  Hebrew  or 
 the  Chaldee  language,  nor  is  there  any 
 proof  that  they  ever  were  so. 
 
 The  first  six  chapters  of  the  book  of 
 Daniel  are  a  history  of  the  kings  of  Ba- 
 bylon, and  what  befell  the  captive  Jews 
 under  their  government.  In  the  last  six, 
 he  is  altogether  prophetical,  foretelling, 
 not  only  what  should  happen  to  his  own 
 Church  and  nation,  but  events  in  which 
 foreign  princes  and  kingdoms  were  con- 
 cerned ;  particularly  the  rise  and  downfal 
 of  the  four  secular  monarchies  of  the  world, 
 and  the  establishment  of  the  fifth,  or  spi- 
 ritual kingdom  of  the  Messiah. 
 
 It  is  believed  that  Daniel  died  in  Chal- 
 dea,  and  that  he  did  not  take  advantage 
 of  the  permission  granted  by  Cyrus  to  the 
 Jews  of  returning  to  their  own  country. 
 St.  Epiphanius  says  he  died  at  Babylon, 
 and  herein  he  is  followed  by  the  gener- 
 ality of  historians. 
 
 "  Amongst  the  old  prophets,"  says  the 
 great  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  "  Daniel  is  most 
 distinct  in  order  of  time,  and  easiest  to  be 
 understood  ;  and  therefore,  in  those  things 
 which  relate  to  the  last  times,  he  must  be 
 made  the  key  to  the  rest.  His  prophecies 
 are  all  of  them  related  to  one  another,  as 
 if  they  Avere  but  several  parts  of  one  ge- 
 neral prophecy.  The  first  is  the  easiest  to 
 be  understood,  and  every  folloAving  pro- 
 pliecy  adds  something  new  to  the  former." 
 — Observations  on  Daniel,  pp.  15,  24. 
 
276 
 
 DATARY. 
 
 DEACON. 
 
 DATARY.  An  officer  in  llie  pope's 
 court.  He  is  always  a  prelate,  and  some- 
 times a  cardinal,  deputed  by  his  Holiness 
 to  receive  such  petitions  as  are  presented 
 to  him,  touching  the  provision  of  benefices. 
 By  his  post,  the  datary  is  empowered  to 
 gi-ant,  without  acquainting  the  pope  there- 
 with, all  benefices  that  do  not  produce 
 upwards  of  twenty-four  ducats  annually ; 
 but  for  such  as  amount  to  more,  he  is 
 obliged  to  get  the  provisions  signed  by  the 
 pope,  who  admits  him  to  audience  every 
 day.  If  there  be  several  candidates  for 
 the  same  benefice,  he  has  the  liberty  of 
 bestowing  it  on  which  of  them  he  thinks 
 pro])er,  provided  he  has  the  requisite 
 qualifications.  The  datary  has  a  yearly 
 salary  of  two  thousand  crowns,  exclusive 
 of  the  perquisites,  which  he  receives  from 
 those  who  aj^ply  to  him  for  any  bene- 
 fice. This  office  has  a  substitute,  named 
 the  sub-dafanj,  Avho  is  likewise  a  prelate, 
 and  has  a  yearly  pension  of  a  thousand 
 crowns  :  but  he  is  not  allowed  to  confer 
 any  benefice,  without  acquainting  the 
 datary  therewith.  AVhen  a  person  has 
 obtained  the  pope's  consent  for  a  benefice, 
 the  datary  subscribes  his  petition  with  an 
 annuit  sanctissiynus,  i.  e.  the  moat  holy  father 
 consents  to  it.  The  pope's  consent  is  sub- 
 scribed in  these  words,  Fiat  ut  pet itur,  i.  e.  Be 
 it  according  to  the  petition.  After  the  petition 
 has  passed  the  proper  offices,  and  is  regis- 
 tered, it  is  carried  to  the  datary,  who  dates 
 it,  and  writes  these  words — Datum  liomcc 
 Ujyud,  ^-c. :  Given  at  Rome  in  the  pontifical 
 palace,  S^-c.  Afterwards  the  pope's  bull, 
 granting  the  benefice,  is  despatched  by  the 
 datary,  and  passes  through  the  hands  of 
 more  than  a  thousand  persons,  belonging 
 to  fifteen  different  offices,  who  have  all 
 their  stated  fees.  The  reader  may  from 
 hence  judge  how  expensive  it  is  to  procure 
 the  pope's  bull  for  a  benefice,  and  what 
 large  sums  go  into  the  office  of  the  datary, 
 especially  when  the  provisions,  issued  from 
 thence,  are  for  bishoprics,  and  other  rich 
 benefices. — Bronqhton. 
 
 ])EACON.  (See  Bishoj),  Presbyter, 
 Priest,  Orders,  Clergy.)  The  name  Auikovoi, 
 which  is  the  original  word  for  deacons,  is 
 sometimes  used  in  the  New^  Testament 
 for  any  one  that  ministers  in  the  service  of 
 GoD:  in  which  large  sense  we  sometimes 
 find  bishops  and  presbyters  styled  deacons, 
 not  only  in  the  New  Testament,  but  in 
 ecclesiastical  writers  also.  But  here  we 
 take  it  for  the  name  of  the  third  order  of 
 the  clergy  in  the  Church.  Deacons  are 
 styled  by  Ignatius,  "  ministers  of  the  mys- 
 teries of  Christ,"  adding  that  they  are  "  not 
 ministers  of  meats  and  drinks,  but  of  the 
 
 Church  of  God."  In  another  place  he 
 speaks  of  them  as  "  ministers  of  Jesus 
 Christ,"  and  gives  them  a  sort  of  presi- 
 dency over  the  people,  together  with  the 
 bishops  and  presbyters.  Cyprian  speaks 
 of  them  in  the  same  style,  calling  them 
 "ministers  of  episcopacy  and  the  Church," 
 and  referring  their  origin  to  the  Acts  of 
 the  Apostles ;  and  he  asserts  that  they 
 were  called  ad  altaris  ministerium,  to  the 
 ministry  and  service  of  the  altar.  Optatus 
 had  such  an  opinion  of  them  as  to  reckon 
 their  office  a  lower  degree  of  the  priest- 
 hood. At  the  same  time  it  is  to  be  ob- 
 served, that  in  this  he  was  singular.  By 
 those  who  regarded  them  as  a  sacred  order, 
 they  were  generally  distinguished  from 
 priests  by  the  name  of  ministers  and  Lc- 
 vites.  The  ordination  of  a  deacon  differed 
 in  the  primitive  Church  from  that  of  a 
 presbyter,  both  in  the  form  and  manner  of 
 it,  and  also  in  the  gifts  and  powers  that 
 were  conferred  by  the  ordinance.  In  the 
 ordination  of  a  presbyter,  the  presbyters 
 who  were  present  w^ere  required  to  join  in 
 imposition  of  hands  with  the  bishop.  But 
 the  ordination  of  a  deacon  might  be  per- 
 formed by  the  bishop  alone,  because,  as  the 
 [fourth]  Council  of  Carthage  words  it,  he 
 was  ordained  not  to  the  priesthood,  but 
 to  the  inferior  services  of  the  Church  : 
 "quia  non  ad  sacerdotium  sed  ad  minis- 
 terium consecratur."  It  belonged  to  the 
 deacons  to  take  care  of  the  holy  table  and 
 all  the  ornaments  and  utensils  appertaining 
 thereto;  to  receive  the  oblations  of  the 
 people,  and  present  them  to  the  priest ;  in 
 some  churches,  to  read  the  Gospel  both  in 
 the  communion  service  and  before  it  also  ; 
 to  minister  the  consecrated  bread  and  wine 
 to  the  people  in  the  eucharist;  in  some 
 churches,  to  baptize  ;  to  act  as  directors  to 
 the  people  in  public  worship,  for  which 
 purpose  they  were  wont  to  use  certain 
 known  forms  of  words,  to  give  notice  when 
 each  part  of  the  service  began,  and  to  ex- 
 cite people  to  join  attentively  therein ;  to 
 preach,  with  the  bishop's  licence ;  in  ex- 
 treme cases  to  reconcile  the  excommuni- 
 cated to  the  Church;  to  attend  upon  the 
 bishop,  and  sometimes  to  represent  him 
 in  general  councils.  Deacons  seem  also 
 to  have  discharged  most  of  the  offices 
 which  now  devolve  upon  churchwardens. 
 — Bingham. 
 
 The  Church  of  England  enjoins  that 
 "  none  shall  be  admitted  a  deacon  except 
 he  be  twenty-three  years  of  age,  unless  he 
 have  a  faculty ; "  and  she  describes  the 
 duties  of  a  deacon  in  her  office  as  follows  : 
 "  It  appertaineth  to  the  office  of  a  deacon, 
 in  the  church  where  he  shall  be  appointed 
 
DEACONESS. 
 
 DEAD. 
 
 277 
 
 to  serve,  to  assist  the  priest  in  Divine  ser- 
 vice, and  specially  when  he  ministereth  the 
 holy  communion,  and  to  help  him  in  the 
 distribution  thereof,  and  to  read  Holy 
 Scripture  and  homilies  in  the  church ;  and 
 to  instruct  the  youth  in  the  catechism ; 
 in  the  absence  of  the  priest  to  ba])tize  in- 
 fants, and  to  preach,  if  he  be  admitted 
 thereto  by  the  bishop.  And,  furthermore, 
 it  is  his  office,  where  provision  is  so  made, 
 to  search  for  the  sick,  poor,  and  impotent 
 people  of  the  parish,  to  intimate  their 
 estates,  names,  and  places  where  they 
 dwell,  unto  the  curate,  that  by  his  exhort- 
 ation they  may  be  relieved  with  the  alms 
 of  the  parishioners,  or  others." 
 
 In  the  rubric  after  the  sentences  of  the 
 Offertory,  it  is  ordered,  that  "  while  these 
 sentences  are  in  reading,  the  deacons, 
 churchwardens,  or  other  fit  persons  ap- 
 pointed for  that  purpose,  shall  receive  the 
 alms  for  the  poor,"  &c. 
 
 The  deacon  cannot  pronounce  the  abso- 
 lution, or  minister  at  the  holy  communion, 
 except  as  an  assistant.  And  if  the  rubrics 
 be  strictly  construed  according  to  the  let- 
 ter, neither  can  he  read  the  versicles  before 
 the  Psalms,  or  after  the  Lord's  Prayer, 
 (at  its  second  occurrence,)  nor  the  latter 
 part  of  the  Litany,  beginning  at  the  Lohd's 
 Prayer ;  nor  any  part  of  the  Communion 
 Service,  except  the  Gospel,  (not  according 
 to  the  rubric,  however,  but  in  virtue  of  the 
 licence  in  the  Ordination  Service,)  the 
 Creed,  and  the  confession.  He  is  permit- 
 ted to  baptize  only  in  the  absence  of  the 
 priest ;  and  perhaps  the  same  remark  may 
 apply  to  the  other  occasional  offices. 
 
 DEACONESS.  A  woman  who  served 
 the  Church  in  those  offices  in  which  the 
 deacons  could  not  with  propriety  exercise 
 themselves.  This  order  was  also  appointed 
 in  the  apostolic  age.  They  were  gener- 
 ally widows  who  had  been  only  once 
 married,  though  this  employment  was 
 sometimes  exercised  by  virgins.  Their 
 office  consisted  in  assisting  at  the  baptism 
 of  women,  in  previously  catechizing  and 
 instructing  them,  in  visiting  sick  persons 
 of  their  own  sex,  and  in  performing  all 
 those  inferior  otHces  towards  the  female 
 part  of  the  congregation,  which  the  deacons 
 were  designed  to  execute  for  the  men. 
 St.  Paul  (Rom.  xvi.)  speaks  of  Phoebe  as 
 servant,  or  deaconess,  of  the  church  at 
 Cenchrea,  which  was  a  haven  of  Corinth. 
 Deaconesses  appear  to  be  the  same  per- 
 sons as  those  whom  Pliny,  in  his  famous 
 letter  to  Trajan,  styles  "  ancUl<e  qiue  mi- 
 nistrce  dicehantur ; "  that  is,  "  female  attend- 
 ants, called  assistants,  ministers,  or  serv- 
 ants."    It  appears,  then,  that  these  were 
 
 customary  officers  throughout  the  churches ; 
 and  when  the  fury  of  j)ersecution  fell  on 
 Christians,  these  were  among  the  first  to 
 suffer.  They  underwent  the  most  cruel 
 tortures,  and  even  extreme  old  age  was 
 not  spared.  It  is  ])robable  that  they  were 
 blessed  by  the  laying  on  of  hands,  but  it 
 is  certain  they  were  not  permitted  to  exe- 
 cute any  part  of  the  sacerdotal  office. 
 This  order  continued  in  the  Greek  Church 
 longer  than  in  the  liatin.  It  was  generally 
 disused  in  the  Western  Church  in  the 
 fifth  century,  but  continued  in  the  Eastern 
 Church  until  the  twelfth.  The  deacon's 
 wife  a})pears  sometimes  to  have  been 
 called  a  deaconess,  as  the  presbyter's  \nfe 
 was  styled  presbytera,  and  the  bishop's 
 Avife  episcopa. 
 
 DEAD.  (See  Burial  of  the  Dead.)  If 
 all  our  prayers  and  endeavours  for  our 
 friend  prove  unavailable  for  the  continu- 
 ance of  his  life,  we  must  with  patience 
 submit  to  the  will  of  GoD,  "  to  whom  the 
 issues  of  life  and  death  belong : "  and 
 therefore,  after  recommending  his  soul  to 
 God,  which  immediately  upon  its  dissolu- 
 tion returns  to  Ilim,  it  is  fit  we  should  de- 
 cently dispose  of  his  body,  which  is  left  to 
 our  management  and  care.  Not  that  the 
 dead  are  anything  the  better  for  the  hon- 
 ours which  wc  perform  to  their  corpses 
 (for  we  know  that  several  of  the  ancient 
 philosophers  cared  not  whether  they  were 
 buried  or  not ;  and  the  ancient  martyrs  of 
 the  Christian  Church  despised  their  perse- 
 cutors for  threatening  them  with  the  want 
 of  a  grave).  But  those  who  survive  could 
 never  endure  that  the  shame  of  nature 
 should  lie  exposed,  nor  see  the  bodies  of 
 those  they  loved  become  a  prey  to  birds 
 and  beasts.  For  these  reasons,  the  very 
 heathens  called  it  a  Divine  institution,  and 
 a  law  of  the  immortal  gods.  And  the 
 Romans  especially  had  a  peculiar  deity  to 
 preside  over  this  affair.  The  Athenians 
 were  so  strict,  that  they  would  not  admit 
 any  to  be  magistrates,  who  had  not  taken 
 care  of  their  parents'  sepulture,  and  be- 
 headed one  of  their  generals  after  he  had 
 gotten  a  victory,  for  throwing  the  dead 
 bodies  of  the  slain,  in  a  tempest,  into  the 
 sea.  And  Plutarch  relates,  that,  before 
 they  engaged  with  the  Persians,  they  took 
 a  solemn  oath,  that,  if  they  were  con- 
 querors, they  would  bury  their  foes;  this 
 being  a  privilege  which  even  an  enemy 
 hath  a  right  to,  as  being  a  debt  which  is 
 owing  to  humanity. 
 
 2.  It  is  true,  indeed,  the  manner  of 
 funerals  has  varied  according  to  the  dif- 
 ferent customs  of  several  countries  ;  but 
 all  civilized  nations  have  ever  agreed  in 
 
278 
 
 DEAD. 
 
 performing  some  funeral  rites  or  other. 
 The  most  ancient  manner  ^vas  by  '*  burying 
 them  in  the  earth ; "  uhich  is,  indeed,  so 
 natural,  that  some  brutes  have  been  ob- 
 served, by  mere  instinct,  to  bury  their 
 dead  with' wonderful  care.  The  body,  we 
 know,  was  formed  of  the  dust  at  first,  and 
 therefore  it  is  fit  it  should  "  return  to  the 
 earth  as  it  was"  (Gen.  iii.  19  ;  Eccles.  xii. 
 7) ;  insomuch  that  some  heathens  have, 
 by  the  light  of  reason,  called  burying  in 
 the  earth  the  being  "  hid  in  our  mother's 
 lap,"  and  the  being  "  covered  with  her 
 skirt."  And  that  "interment,"  or  enclos- 
 ing the  dead  body  in  the  grave,  was  used 
 anciently  by  the  Egyptians  and  other  na- 
 tions oftheEast,  is  plain  from  the  account 
 we  have  of  the  embalming,  and  from  their 
 mummies,  which  are  frequently  found  to 
 this  day  whole  and  entire,  though  some  of 
 them  have  lain  above  three  thousand  years 
 in  their  graves.  That  the  same  practice 
 of  burying  was  used  by  the  patriarchs,  and 
 their  successors  the  Jews,  we  have  abun- 
 dant testimony  from  the  most  ancient 
 records  in  the  world,  the  books  of  Moses ; 
 by  which  we  find,  that  their  funerals  were 
 performed,  and  their  sepulchres  provided 
 with  an  officious  piety  (Gen.  xxiii.  4 ; 
 XXV.  9  ;  XXXV.  29  ;  xlix.  31) ;  and  that  it 
 was  usual  for  parents  to  take  an  oath  of 
 their  children,  (which  they  religiously  per- 
 formed,) that  they  should  bury  them  with 
 their  fathers,  and  carry  their  bones  with 
 them,  whenever  they  quitted  their  land 
 where  they  were.  (Gen.  xlvii.  29 — 31  ; 
 xlix.  29—33;  1.  25,  26;  Exod.  xiii.  19. 
 See  also  Josh.  xxiv.  32  ;  Acts  vii.  16  ;  Heb. 
 xi.  22.)  In  succeeding  ages,  indeed,  it 
 became  a  custom  in  some  places  to  burn 
 the  bodies  of  the  dead ;  which  was  owing 
 partly  to  a  fear  that  some  injury  might  be 
 offered  them  if  they  were  only  buried,  by 
 digging  their  corpses  again  out  of  their 
 graves  ;^  and  partly  to  a  conceit,  that  the 
 souls  of  those  that  were  burnt  wxre  carried 
 up  by  the  flames  to  heaven. 
 
 3.  But  though  other  nations  sometimes 
 used  interment  and  sometimes  burning, 
 yet  the  Jews  confined  themselves  to  the 
 former  alone.  There  is  a  place  or  two  in- 
 deed in  our  translation  of  the  Old  Testa- 
 ment, (1^  Sam.  xxxi.  12;  Amos  vi.  10,) 
 which  might  lead  us  to  imagine  that  the 
 rite  of  bui-ning  was  also  used  by  them 
 sometimes.  But  upon  consulting  the  ori- 
 ginal texts,  and  the  customs  of  the  Jews, 
 it  does  not  appear  that  the  burnings  there 
 mentioned  were  anything  more  than  the 
 burning  of  odours  and  spices  about  their 
 bodies,  which  was  an  honour  they  usually 
 performed  to  their  kings.     (2  Chron.  xvi. 
 
 14  ;  xxi.  19  ;  Jer.  xxxiv.  5.)  So  that,  not- 
 withstanding these  texts,  we  may  safely 
 enough  conclude,  that  interment,  or  bury- 
 ing, Avas  the  only  rite  with  them ;  as  it 
 was  also  in  after-times  with  the  Christian 
 Church.  For  wherever  Paganism  was  ex- 
 tirpated, the  custom  of  burning  was  dis- 
 used ;  and  the  first  natural  way  of  laying 
 up  the  bodies  of  the  deceased  entire  in  the 
 grave  obtained  in  the  room  of  it. 
 
 4.  And  this  has  always  been  done  with 
 such  solemnity,  as  is  proper  to  the  occasion. 
 Sometimes,  indeed,  it  has  been  attended 
 with  an  expensive  pomp,  that  is  iinseemly 
 and  extravagant.  But  this  is  no  reason 
 why  we  should  not  give  all  the  expressions 
 of  a  decent  respect  to  the  memory  of  those 
 whom  God  takes  from  us.  The  description 
 of  the  persons  w^ho  interred  our  Saviour, 
 the  enumeration  of  their  virtues,  and  the 
 everlasting  commendation  of  her  who  spent 
 three  hundred  pennyworth  of  spikenard  to 
 anoint  his  body  to  the  burial,  have  always 
 been  thought  sufficient  grounds  and  en- 
 couragements for  the  careful  and  decent 
 sepulture  of  Clmstians.  And,  indeed,  if 
 the  regard  due  to  a  human  soul,  rendered 
 some  respect  to  the  dead  a  principle  that 
 manifested  itself  to  the  common  sense  of 
 heathens,  shall  we  think  that  less  care  is 
 due  to  the  bodies  of  Christians,  who  once 
 entertained  a  more  glorious  inhabitant, 
 and  w'ere  living  temples  of  the  Holy 
 Ghost?  (1  Cor.  vi.  19;)  to  bodies  which 
 were  consecrated  to  the  service  of  God  ; 
 which  bore  their  part  in  the  duties  of  re- 
 ligion ;  fought  the  good  fight  of  faith  and 
 patience,  self-denial  and  mortification  ;  and 
 underwent  the  fatigue  of  many  hardships 
 and  afflictions  for  the  sake  of  piety  and 
 virtue  ; — to  bodies  which,  we  believe,  shall 
 one  day  be  aAvakened  again  from  their 
 sleep  of  death ;  have  all  their  scattered 
 particles  of  dust  summoned  together  into 
 their  due  order,  and  be  "  fashioned  like  to 
 the  glorious  body  of  Christ"  (Phil.  iii.  21 ; 
 see  also  1  Cor.  xv.  42 — 44) ;  as  being  made 
 partakers  of  the  same  glory  with  tl^eir  im- 
 mortal souls,  as  once  they  were  of  the  same 
 sufferings  and  good  works.  Surely  bodies 
 so  honoured  here,  and  to  be  so  glorified 
 hereafter,  and  which  too  we  own,  even  in 
 the  state  of  death,  to  be  under  the  care  of 
 a  Divine  providence  and  protection,  are 
 not  to  be  exposed  and  despised  by  us  as 
 unworthy  of  our  regard.  Moved  by  these 
 considerations,  the  primitive  Christians, 
 though  they  made  no  use  of  ointments 
 M-hilst  they  lived,  yet  they  did  not  think 
 the  most  precious  too  costly  to  be  used 
 about  the  dead.  And  yet  this  was  so  far 
 from  being  reproached  with  superstition, 
 
DEAD. 
 
 DEAN. 
 
 279 
 
 that  it  is  ever  reported  as  a  laudable  cus- 
 tom, and  such  as  had  something  in  it  so 
 engaging,  so  agreeable  to  the  notions  of 
 civilized  nature,  as  to  have  a  very  con- 
 siderable influence  upon  the  heathens,  who 
 observed  and  admired  it ;  it  becoming  in- 
 strumental in  disposing  them  to  a  favour- 
 able opinion  at  first,  and  afterwards  to  the 
 embracing  of  the  Christian  religion,  where 
 these  decencies  and  tender  regards  to  de- 
 ceased friends  and  good  people,  were  so 
 constantly,  so  carefully,  and  so  religiously 
 practised. — Dean  Comber.    Wheatly. 
 
 Christ's  Church,  that  is,  the  whole 
 number  of  the  faithful,  is  usually  divided 
 into  two  parts ;  namely,  the  Church  mili- 
 tant, and  the  Church  triumphant.  By  the 
 Church  militant,  or  in  a  state  of  war- 
 fare, we  mean  those  Christians  who  are  at 
 present  alive,  and  perpetually  harassed 
 w-ith  the  temptations  and  assaults  of  the 
 world,  the  flesh,  and  the  devil,  and  w"hose 
 life  is  consequently  a  continual  warfare 
 under  the  banner  of  our  blessed  Saviour. 
 By  the  Church  triwnphant,  we  mean  those 
 Christians  who  have  departed  this  life  in 
 God's  true  faith  and  fear ;  and  who  now 
 enjoy  in  some  measure,  and  after  the  day 
 of  judgment  shall  be  fully  possessed  of, 
 that  glory  and  triumph,  which  is  the  fruit 
 of  their  labours,  and  the  reward  of  those 
 victories  which  they  obtained  over  their 
 spiritual  adversaries,  during  the  time  of 
 their  trial  and  combat  here  upon  earth. — 
 Dr.  Bennet. 
 
 After  the  Oflertory  in  the  eucharist  is 
 said,  and  the  oblations  of  bread  and  wine, 
 with  the  alms  for  the  poor,  are  placed 
 upon  the  table,  the  minister  addresses  this 
 exhortation  to  the  people :  *'  Let  us  pray  for 
 the  whole  state  of  Christ's  Church  mili- 
 tant here  in  earth."  The  latter  part  of 
 this  sentence  is  wanting  in  Edward's  First 
 Book.  The  words  "  militant  here  in  earth," 
 which  were  designed  expressly  to  exclude 
 prayer  for  the  dead,  were  inserted  in  the 
 Second  Book,  in  which  that  part  of  this 
 prayer,  which  contained  intercession  for 
 the  dead,  was  expunged.  It  was  the 
 intention  of  the  divines  who  made  this  al- 
 teration, to  denote  that  prayers  are  not  to 
 be  ofi'ered  up  for  the  dead,  whose  spiritual 
 warfare  is  already  accomplished ;  but  for 
 those  only  who  are  yet  "  fighting  the  good 
 fight  of  faith,"  and  are  consequently  in  a 
 capacity  of  needing  our  prayers. — Shepherd. 
 
 Although  the  doctrine  of  purgatory  be 
 a  comparatively  modern  doctrine,  yet 
 prayers  for  the  justified  dead,  for  the  in- 
 crease of  their  happiness,  and  for  our  re- 
 union with  them,  were  introduced  early 
 into  the  Church.     But  it  can  be  proved  : 
 
 First.  That,  the  prayers  of  the  primi- 
 mitive  Church/;r  the  dead,  being  especially 
 for  those  who  were  accounted  saints  par 
 excellence,  and  including  even  the  Blessed 
 Virgin  and  the  Holy  Apostles,  prayer  to 
 the  departed  saints,  whoever  they  may  be, 
 as  it  is  practised  by  the  churches  under 
 the  lloman  obedience,  must  be  contrary 
 in  theory,  as  it  is  in  fact,  to  the  primitive- 
 practice  ;  since  it  were  impossible  to  pray 
 to  and/o/-  the  same  persons. 
 
 Secondly.  That  it  was  not  for  the  re- 
 lease of  the  spirit  of  the  departed  from 
 purgatory  that  the  Church  supi)licated 
 Almighty  GoD.  For  this  also  were  in- 
 compatible with  prayer  for  the  Blessed 
 Virgin,  and  other  eminent  saints,  of  which 
 there"  was  never  any  doubt  but  that  they 
 were  already  in  Abraham's  bosom,  or 
 even,  as  in  the  case  of  martyrs,  in  heaven 
 itself. 
 
 Thirdly.  That  works  of  supererogation 
 formed  no  part  of  the  system  of  primitive 
 theology ;  since  all  were  prayed  for  as 
 requiring  the  mercy  of  God,  though  it 
 was  not  declared  to  what  particular  end. 
 
 Fourthly.  That  the  use  of  hired  masses 
 for  the  dead,  who  may  have  been  persons 
 of  exceeding  criminality,  and  have  died 
 in  mortal  sin,  is  utterly  at  variance  with 
 the  practice  of  the  Church  of  old. — See 
 Archbishop  Usher  and  Bint/ham. 
 
 DEADLY  SIN.  We  pray  in  the  Litany 
 to  be  delivered  from  "  all  deadly  sin."  In 
 the  strict  sense  of  the  w'ord  every  sin  is 
 deadly,  and  would  cause  eternal  death  if 
 it  were  not  for  the  intervention  of  our 
 blessed  Saviour.  Even  what  are  called 
 infirmities  and  frailties,  are  in  this  sense 
 deadly.  But  persons  under  grace  have 
 for  these  offences  "  an  Advocate  with  the 
 Father,  Jesus  Christ  the  righteous,  and 
 he  is  the  propitiation  for  our  sins."  (1  John 
 ii.  2.)  Their  infirmities  and  frailties, 
 therefore,  if  they  are  trying  to  overcome 
 them,  are  not  deadly  to  persons  under 
 grace,  or  baptized  persons  justified  by 
 faith,  although,  if  persevered  in,  and  un- 
 corrected, they  may  terminate  in  deadly 
 sin ;  and  they  consequently  require  con- 
 tinual repentance,  lest  they  should  grow 
 into  such  a  fearful  burden.  But  even  to 
 persons  under  grace  we  learn,  from  1  John 
 V.  16, 17, that  there  are  "sins  unto  death," 
 — which  must  mean  sins  that  put  us  out 
 of  a  state  of  grace,  and  this  is  done  by 
 any  wilful  sin  persevered  in.  By  deadly 
 sin  in  a  Christian  is  meant  wilful  sin, 
 persevered  in,  which  deprives  us  of  all 
 Christian  privileges.  (See  Sin.) 
 
 DEAN.  Of  deans  there  are  two  sorts ; 
 1st,  the   dean  of  a   cathedral,   who  is  an 
 
280 
 
 DEAN  AND  CHAPTER. 
 
 ecclesiastical  magistrate,  next  in  degree  to 
 the  bishop.  He  is  chief  of  the  chapter, 
 and  it  is  supposed  is  called  a  dean,  {iJeca- 
 91US,)  from  a  similar  title  in  ancient  monas- 
 teries, of  an  officer  who  presided  over  ten 
 monks. 
 
 The  dean  represents  the  Archprcshyter, 
 or  Protopapas,  who  all  the  world  over, 
 from  the  most  ancient  times,  was  found 
 under  one  denomination  or  another  in  the 
 principal  church  of  the  diocese,  to  which 
 a  bodv  of  clergy  was  uniformly  attached. 
 Notre  ])ame  at  'Paris  had  a  dean  as  early 
 as  991  at  least.  There  was  a  dean  of  Ban- 
 gor in  603;  of  Llandaif  in  612;  at  Can- 
 terbury from  825  to  1080,  then  the  name 
 of  Prior  was  substituted.  Salisbury  had 
 its  dean  in  1072  ;  Lincoln,  1092.  In  con- 
 ventual cathedrals,  the  head  was  generally 
 prior,  the  bishop  being  virtually  abbot. 
 The  dean  was  the  first  dignitary  of  the 
 cathedral ;  the  head  of  the  corporation ; 
 and,  in  subordination  to  the  bishop,  has, 
 according  to  the  statutes  of  more  ancient 
 cathedrals,  the  cure  of  souls  over  the  mem- 
 bers of  the  cathedi'al,  and  the  administra- 
 tion of  the  corrective  discipline  of  the 
 Church.  He  has  also  duties  in  the  choir  and 
 the  chapter  in  common  with  all  the  chap- 
 ter. He  is  by  our  laAV  a  sole  corporation, 
 that  is,  he  represents  a  whole  succession, 
 and  is  capable  of  taking  an  estate  as  dean, 
 and  conveying  it  to  his  successors.  2nd, 
 Rural  deems,  whose  office  is  of  ancient  date 
 in  the  Church  of  England,  long  prior  to 
 the  Reformation,  as  it  has  been  through- 
 out Europe,  and  which  many  of  the 
 bishops  ai-e  now  reviving.  Theu'  chief 
 duty  is  to  visit  a  certain  number  of  par- 
 ishes, and  to  report  then-  condition  to  the 
 bishop.  (See  Mural  Dean.)  The  dean 
 was  not  always  head  of  the  chapter  abroad ; 
 the  provost  being  sometimes  the  superior. 
 But  he  had  always  the  administration  of 
 the  discipline  in  sjnrituals,  [curam  aiwna- 
 rum,  as  it  is  expressly  called  in  statutes 
 both  of  home  and  foreign  Churches,]  the 
 provosts  often  concerning  themselves 
 merely  in  temporals,  and  he  had  the  super- 
 intendence of  the  choir,  or  cathedi'al  body. 
 (See  Dictionnaire  de  Droit  Canom'que, 
 Lyons,  1787,  voce  Doyen.)  They  were,  in 
 fact,  very  much  like  the  deans  in  our  col- 
 leges, though  more  strictly  limited  ad 
 sacra.  The  Dean  of  Faculty,  in  most 
 ancient  and  some  modern  universities, 
 presided  over  the  meetings  of  their  re- 
 spective faculties,  and  maintained  the  aca- 
 demical discipline. 
 
 DEAN  AND  CHAPTER.  This  is  the 
 style  and  title  of  the  governing  body  of  a 
 cathedral.     A  chapter  consists  of  the  dean, 
 
 with  a  certain  number  of  canons,  or  pre- 
 bendaries, heads  of  the  church  —  capita 
 ecclesice.  The  origin  of  this  institution  is 
 to  be  traced  to  a  remote  antiquity.  A 
 missionary  bishop,  when  converting  our 
 ancestors,  would  take  his  position  in  some 
 central  town,  with  his  attendant  priests  : 
 these,  as  opportunity  offered,  would  go  to 
 the  neighbouring  villages  to  preach  the 
 gospel,  and  administer  the  other  offices  of 
 the  Church.  But  they  resided  with  the 
 bishop,  and  were  supported  out  of  his 
 revenues.  By  degrees  parochial  settle- 
 ments were  made ;  but  still  the  bishop 
 required  the  attendance  of  certain  of  the 
 clergy  at  his  cathedral,  to  be  his  council; 
 (for  the  bishops  never  thought  of  acting 
 without  consulting  their  clergy  :)  and  also 
 to  officiate  in  his  principal  church  or  ca- 
 thech'al.  These  persons,  to  qualify  them- 
 selves for  their  office,  gave  themselves  up 
 to  study,  and  to  the  maintenance  and  de- 
 coration of  their  sanctuary ;  the  services 
 of  which  were  to  be  a  model  to  all  the 
 lesser  churches  of  the  diocese.  Forming, 
 in  the  course  of  time,  a  corporation,  they 
 obtained  property,  and  ceased  to  be  de- 
 pendent upon  the  bishop  for  a  mainten- 
 ance. And  being  considered  the  repre- 
 sentatives of  the  clergy,  upon  them  de- 
 volved the  government  of  the  diocese  when 
 vacant;  and  they  obtained  the  privilege, 
 doubtless  on  the  same  principle,  of  choos- 
 ing the  bishop,  which  originally  belonged 
 to  the  whole  clergy  of  the  diocese,  in  con- 
 junction with  the  bishops  of  the  province. 
 In  this  privilege  they  were  supported  by 
 the  kings  of  the  country,  who  perceiA'ed 
 that  they  were  more  likely  to  intimidate 
 a  chapter  into  the  election  of  the  royal 
 nominee,  than  the  whole  of  the  clergy  of 
 a  diocese.  But  still  the  deans  and  chap- 
 ters sometimes  acting  independently,  an 
 act  was  passed  under  Henry  VHI.,  by 
 which  a  dean  and  chapter  refusing  to  elect 
 the  king's  nominee  to  the  bishopric  be- 
 come individually  outlawed,  lose  all  their 
 property,  and  are  to  be  imprisoned  during 
 pleasure.  Since  that  time  these  corpora- 
 tions have  always  succumbed  to  the  royal 
 will  and  pleasure.  The  great  object  of 
 the  institution,  it  will  be  perceived,  is,  1st, 
 To  provide  the  bishop  with  a  council ; 
 2nd,  To  make  provision  for  a  learned  body 
 of  divines,  who,  disengaged  from  paro- 
 chial cares,  may  benefit  the  cause  of  reli- 
 gion by  their  writings  ;  3rd,  To  make 
 provision,  also,  that  in  the  cathecbal 
 church  of  each  diocese  the  services  shall 
 be  performed  Avith  rubrical  strictness,  and 
 with  all  the  solemnity  and  grandeui'  of 
 which  our  services  are  capable. 
 
DECALOGUE. 
 
 281 
 
 It  is  not  to  be  denied,  that,  dvu'ino^  the 
 Ictst  century,  this  institution  was  oreatly 
 abused.  Patrons  made  use  of  it  to  enrich 
 their  own  families  or  political  partisans ; 
 and  the  cathedral  clergy,  instead  of  givin»>- 
 themselves  up  to  learned  labours,  dwelt 
 chiefly  on  their  livings,  coming  merely  for 
 a  short  time  to  their  cathedrals  :  as  their 
 estates  advanced  in  value,  they  expended 
 the  income  on  themselves,  instead  of  in- 
 creasing the  cathedral  libraries,  and  ren- 
 dering the  choirs  more  efficient,  by  raising 
 the  salaries  of  the  choristers,  and  doubling 
 or  trebling  their  number :  finally,  being 
 forgetful  of  the  command  of  the  Church, 
 that,  •'  in  cathetbal  and  collegiate  churches 
 and  colleges,  where  there  are  many  ])riests 
 and  deacons,  they  shall  all  receive  the 
 communion  with  the  priest,  every  Sunday 
 at  the  least,"  many  deans  and  chapters 
 have,  most  unjustifiably,  discontinued  the 
 weekly  communion.  TN^hethcr  individual 
 members  of  chapters  consider  these  ob- 
 servances superstitious  or  not,  it  is  on  these 
 conditions  they  enjoy  their  property  ;  and 
 if  they  cannot  conscientiously  keep  the 
 conditions,  they  ought  conscientiously  to 
 resign  their  places.  These  things  required 
 reform ;  and  forecasting  men,  seeing  no 
 symptoms  of  improvement,  expected  that 
 the  arm  of  the  Lord  would  be  made  bare 
 for  vengeance  ;  and  the  Lord  made  use  of 
 the  secular  government  of  England  as  his 
 instrument  of  chastisement.  The  British 
 legislature,  acting  on  the  precedent  of 
 Cardinal  AVolsey  and  Henry  VIII. ,  has 
 seized  a  large  portion  of  the  property  be- 
 longing to  the  deans  and  chapters,  and 
 has  reduced  the  number  of  canons.  May 
 this  be  a  warning  to  the  deans  and  chap- 
 ters as  they  now  exist !  May  patrons  make 
 the  cathedral  close  the  abode  of  men  of 
 learning,  and  may  the  members  of  chap- 
 ters sacrifice  even  their  private  property  to 
 render  their  cathedral  choii's  what  they 
 ought  to  be !  May  they  have  strength  of 
 mind  to  sacrifice  all  they  have  in  the 
 world,  rather  than  elect  as  a  bishop  an  un- 
 worthy nominee  of  the  Crown,  if,  perad- 
 venture,  the  Crown  nominate  a  Sabellian, 
 or  an  Arian,  or  a  Socinian  heretic.  (See 
 Chapters^  Canous,  and  Prebendaries.) 
 
 DECALOGUE.  The  ten  precepts,  or 
 commandments,  (}ie\\\ere(\.  by  GoD  to  Moses, 
 and  by  him  written  on  two  tables  of  stone, 
 and  delivered  to  the  Hebrews,  as  the  basis 
 and  foundation  of  their  religion.  The 
 history  of  this  great  event,  together  with 
 the  ten  commandments  themselves,  are  re- 
 cited at  large  in  the  li>th  and  20th  chap- 
 ters of  the  book  of  Exodus. 
 
 The  Jews  called  these  commandments. 
 
 by  way  of  excellence,  the  ten  words,  from 
 whence  they  had  afterwards  the  name  of 
 Decalogue.  IJut  it  is  to  be  observed,  that 
 they  joined  the  first  and  second  into  one, 
 and  divided  the  last  into  two.  They  un- 
 derstand that  against  stealing  to  relate  to 
 the  stealing  of  men,  or  kidnai)ping,  al- 
 leging, that  the  stealing  of  another's  goods 
 or  property  is  forbidden  in  the  last  com- 
 mandment.— De  Leyib.  llehr.  lib.  i,  c.  2. 
 
 "  Most  divines,"  says  the  learned  Spen- 
 cer, "  seem  to  have  been  of  opinion,  that 
 God  gave  the  Decalogue,  to  be  a  general 
 rule  of  life  and  manners,  and  as  it  were  a 
 summary,  to  which  all  other  precepts, 
 either  of  the  law  or  the  gos])el,  may  be 
 reduced.  Hence  they  rack  their  brains, 
 to  fix  so  large  and  extensive  a  meaning 
 on  all  these  commands,  that  all  duties,  re- 
 specting God  or  our  neighbour,  may  be 
 understood  to  be  contained  in  them.  But 
 no  one,  who  duly  considers  the  matter, 
 can  think  it  probable,  that  the  Decalogue 
 was  therefore  given,  that  it  might  be  a 
 kind  of  compendium  of  all  the  other  laws 
 of  the  Pentateuch ;  since  those  eminent 
 precepts  of  the  law,  '  Thou  shalt  love  the 
 Lord  thy  God  with  all  thy  heart,'  and 
 '  Thou  slialt  love  thy  neighbour  as  thy- 
 self,' cannot  be  found  in  the  Decalogue, 
 without  affixuig  a  meaning  to  some  com- 
 mands quite  foreign  to  the  natural  sense 
 of  the  words,  and  subjecting  them  to  an 
 arbitrary  interpretation.  To  give  my  opi- 
 nion in  a  few  words  ;  the  chief  scope  and 
 intent  of  the  Decalogue  was  to  root  out 
 idolatry  and  its  more  immediate  efl'ects, 
 and  to  add  force  and  authority  to  the 
 other  laws  contained  in  the  Pentateuch. 
 For  who  can  persuade  himself,  that  God 
 would  have  collected  together,  into  the 
 one  little  system  of  the  Decalogue,  those 
 ten  precepts,  which  have  scarce  any  con- 
 nexion with  each  other,  had  the}'  not  all 
 naturally  tended  to  destroy  idolatry  and 
 its  primary  eff'ects  ? "  The  author  then 
 proceeds  to  confii-m  the  truth  of  this  as- 
 sertion by  a  distinct  consideration  of  each 
 precept  of  the  two  tables. 
 
 It  has  been  a  question,  and  even  matter 
 of  admiration,  why  God,  in  delivering  laws 
 to  the  Hebrews,  kept  precisely  to  tlic  num- 
 ber ten.  This  question  is  answered  by  the 
 above-cited  author,  (Id.  ib.  §  2,)  Mho  as- 
 signs the  following  reasons  for  this  pro- 
 ceeding. "  First,  the  number  ten  exceeds 
 all  others  in  perfection  and  capacity :  for 
 in  it  are  comprehended  all  the  diversities 
 of  numbers  and  their  analogies,  and  all 
 the  geometrical  figures  which  have  any 
 relation  to  numbers.  Secondly,  A  Decad 
 seems   lo  have  been   in   most  esteem  and 
 
282 
 
 DECLARATION. 
 
 DECRETALS. 
 
 use,  among  all  nations,  from  the  earliest 
 times.  Thirdly,  As  the  number  ten  com- 
 prehends in  it  all  others,  so  the  Decalogue 
 was  to  be  a  kind  of  representative  of  all 
 the  other  laws  of  Moses,  which  were  too 
 numerous  to  be  distinctly  and  separately 
 rehearsed  from  Mount  Sinai.  Lastly,  The 
 number  ten  was  a  sacred  number,  and 
 most  frequently  applied  to  the  things  men- 
 tioned in  the  Law  :  as  will  be  evident  to 
 those,  who  carefully  read  over  the  institutes 
 of  Moses." 
 
 The  Samaritans,  to  raise  and  maintain 
 the  credit  of  their  temple  on  Mount  Geri- 
 zim,  forged  an  eleventh  command  or  pre- 
 cept, Avhich  in  their  Pentateuch  they  added 
 at  the  end  of  the  Decalogue,  both  in 
 Exodus  and  Deuteronomy.  It  was  this  : 
 "  When  the  Lord  thy  God  shall  have 
 brought  thee  into  the  land  of  Canaan, 
 whither  thou  goest  to  possess  it,  thou 
 shalt  erect  to  thyself  large  stones,  and 
 shalt  write  on  them  all  the  words  of  this 
 Law.  And,  after  thou  shalt  have  passed 
 over  Jordan,  thou  shalt  place  those  stones, 
 which  I  command  thee  this  day,  on  INIount 
 Gerizim,  and  shalt  build  there  an  altar  to 
 the  Lord  thy  God,  an  altar  of  stone,"  &c. 
 
 DECLARATION.     (See  Conformity.) 
 
 DECORATED.  The  style  of  archi- 
 tecture which  succeeded  the  Geometrical 
 about  1315,  and  gave  place  to  the  Perpen- 
 dicular about  1360. 
 
 The  most  obvious  characteristic  of  this 
 style  is  the  window  tracery  (see  Tracery) ; 
 but  all  the  parts  and  details  have  also 
 their  appropriate  features.  The  doorway 
 is  no  longer  divided  by  a  central  shaft. 
 The  windows  are  larger  than  in  the  former 
 Btyle,  and  their  mullions  have  in  general 
 fewer  subordinations  of  mouldings.  The 
 comer  buttresses  are  usually  set  diagonally 
 instead  of  in  pairs,  and  the  buttresses  ge- 
 nerally are  of  considerable  projection,  and 
 much  enriched  with  pediments  and  niches. 
 The  piers  consist  generally  of  four  shafts 
 with  mtervcning  hollow.s,  set  lozengewise  ; 
 and  the  detached  shaft  is  wholly  discon- 
 tinued. The  triforium,  which  had  begun 
 to  lose  its  relative  importance  in  the  Geo- 
 metrical, is  in  this  style  generally  treated 
 as  a  mere  course  of  panelling  at  the  base 
 of  the  clerestory  windows,  which  are  pro- 
 portionally enlarged.  Arcading  begins  to 
 be  superseded  by  panelling.  Foliage,  and 
 other  carving,  is  treated  with  less  force 
 and  nature  than  in  the  preceding  style ; 
 and  heraldi-y  begins  to  appear.  The 
 vaulting  (sec  Vuidtiny)  is  more  intricate. 
 One  or  two  mouldings  and  decorations  are 
 almost  peculiar  to  this  style,  especially  the 
 ogee  in  all  its  forms  and  in  eveiy  position. 
 
 The  ball-flower  and  the  scroll  moulding,  it 
 has  in  common  with  the  Geometrical,  but 
 far  more  frequently.  (See  3Ioiddiny.)  The 
 broach  spire  is  still  used,  but  begins  to 
 give  wav  to  the  parapet  and  spire. 
 
 DECRETALS.  The  name  given  to 
 the  letters  of  popes,  being  in  answer  to 
 questions  proposed  to  them  by  some  bishop  . 
 or  ecclesiastical  judge,  or  even  particular 
 person,  in  which  they  determined  business, 
 as  they  thought  fit.  In  the  ninth  century 
 there  appeared  a  collection  of  decretal 
 letters  ascribed  to  more  than  thirty  popes, 
 succeeding  each  other  in  the  fii'st  three 
 centuries.  The  author  is  unknown,  but 
 they  are  generally  ascribed  to  a  certain 
 Isidore  Mercator,  and  pass  usually  under 
 his  name.  Their  uniform  tendency  is  to 
 exalt  papal  power,  and  exactly  on  those 
 points  for  which  no  sanction  can  be  alleged 
 from  Scripture,  or  from  the  early  periods 
 of  any  genuine  Church  history ;  such  as 
 supreme  authority  over  bishops,  the  receiv- 
 ing appeals  from  all  parts  of  the  world,  and 
 the  reservation  of  causes  for  the  hearing 
 of  the  Roman  see.  In  the  words  of  Fleury, 
 "  They  inflicted  an  irreparable  wound  on 
 the  discipline  of  the  Church,  by  the  new 
 maxims  v.hich  they  introduced  in  regard 
 to  the  judgment  of  bishops  and  the  au- 
 thority of  the  pope."  Dr.  Barrow  mentions 
 them  among  the  chief  causes  by  which  the 
 power  of  the  bishop  of  Rome  has  been 
 advanced :  "  The  forgery  of  the  decretal 
 epistles  (wherein  the  ancient  popes  are 
 made  expressly  to  speak  and  act  according 
 to  some  of  his  highest  pretences,  devised 
 long  after  their  times,  and  which  they 
 never  thought  of,  good  men)  did  hugely 
 conduce  to  his  purpose ;  authorizing  his 
 encroachments  by  the  suffrage  of  ancient 
 doctrine  and  practice."  "  Upon  these  spu- 
 rious decretals,"  (writes  the  historian  of  the 
 middle  ages,)  "  was  built  the  great  fabric 
 of  papal  supremacy  over  the  different  na- 
 tional Churches  :  a  fabric  which  has  stood 
 after  its  foundation  crumbled  beneath  it; 
 for  no  one  has  pretended  to  deny,  during 
 the  last  two  centuries,  that  the  imposture 
 is  too  palpable  for  any  but  the  most  ignor- 
 ant ages  to  credit."  Their  effect  was,  to 
 diminish  the  authority  of  metropolitans 
 and  provincial  synods,  by  allowing  to  an 
 accused  bisho]),  not  only  the  right  of  ap- 
 peal, but  the  power  also  of  removing  any 
 process  into  the  supreme  court  at  Rome. 
 And  on  this  account  it  has  been  supposed 
 that  the  decrees  were  forged  by  some 
 bishop  who  desired  to  reduce  the  power  of 
 his  immediate  superior.  But  whoever  may 
 have  been  the  author,  and  whatever  the 
 origin,  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  popes 
 
DEDICATION,  FEAST  OF. 
 
 283 
 
 became,  from  the  first,  theii*  most  strenuous 
 defenders. 
 
 The  best  account  of  these  forg^eries  is  to 
 be  found  in  the  posthumous  -work  of  Van 
 Espen,  Commentarius  in  Jus  Novum  Canon- 
 icum,  part  ii.  diss.  1,  p.  451 — 475.  See 
 also  ])e  iNIarca,  l)e  Concord,  iii.  c.  4,  5,  p. 
 242  ;  Natalis  Alexandri  Hist.  Eccles.  &ccc. 
 i.  diss.  13,  p.  213;  Coci  Ccnsura  quorun- 
 dam  Scriptovum,  &c.,  passim. — Safuh'rson. 
 Jiobhis,  Evidence  of  Scripture  against  the 
 Roman  CJiurch. 
 
 ])EDICATION,  FEAST  OF.  The 
 wake  or  customary  festival  for  the  dedi- 
 cation of  churches  sionifies  the  same  as 
 vif/il  or  eve.  The  reason  of  the  name  is 
 thus  assigned  in  an  old  manuscript :  "  Ye 
 shall  understand  and  know  how  the  evens 
 were  first  founded  in  old  times.  In  the  be- 
 ginning of  Holy  Church  it  was  so,  that  the 
 people  came  to  the  church  with  candles 
 burning,  and  would  wake  and  come  with 
 lights  towards  night  to  the  church  in  their 
 devotions :  and  after,  they  fell  to  lechery, 
 and  songs,  and  dances,  harping  and  piping, 
 and  also  to  gluttony  and  sin ;  and  so  turned 
 the  holiness  to  cursedness.  Wherefore 
 the  holy  Fathers  ordained  the  people  to 
 leave  that  waking,  and  to  fast  the  even. 
 But  it  is  still  called  vifjil,  that  is,  ivnking 
 in  English :  and  it  is  also  called  the  even, 
 for  at  even  they  were  wont  to  come  to 
 church."  It  was  in  imitation  of  the  pri- 
 mitive aycnrai,  or  love  feasts,  (see  Agap<e,) 
 that  such  public  assemblies,  accompanied 
 with  friendly  entertainments,  were  first 
 held  upon  each  return  of  the  day  of  con- 
 secration, though  not  in  the  body  of 
 churches,  yet  in  the  churchyards,  and  most 
 nearly  adjoining  places.  This  practice  was 
 established  in  England  by  Gregory  the 
 Great;  who,  in  an  epistle  to  Mellitus  the 
 abbot,  gives  injunctions  to  be  delivered  to 
 Augustine  the  monk,  a  missionary  to  Eng- 
 land ;  amongst  which  he  allows  the  solemn 
 anniversary  of  dedication  to  be  celebrated 
 in  those  churches  which  Avere  made  out  of 
 heathen  temples,  with  religious  feasts  kept 
 in  sheds  or  arbours,  made  up  with  branches 
 and  boughs  of  trees  round  the  said  church. 
 But  as  the  love  feasts  held  in  the  place  of 
 worship  were  soon  lialjle  to  such  great 
 disorders,  that  they  were  not  only  con- 
 demned at  Corinth  by  St.  Paul,  but  pro- 
 hibited to  be  kept  in  the  house  of  God  by 
 the  20th  canon  of  the  Council  of  Laodicea, 
 and  the  30th  of  the  third  Council  of  Car- 
 thage :  so,  from  a  sense  of  the  same  incon- 
 veniences, this  custom  did  not  long  con- 
 tinue of  feasting  in  the  churches  or 
 churchyards;  but  strangers  and  inhabitants 
 paid  the  devotion  of  prayers  and  oflerings 
 
 in  the  church,  and  then  adjourned  their 
 eating  and  drinkhig  to  the  more  proper 
 ])lace  of  public  and  private  houses.  The 
 institution  of  these  church  encaenia,  or 
 Makes,  was,  without  question,  for  good  and 
 laudable  designs  :  at  first,  thankfully  to 
 commemorate  the  bounty  and  munificence 
 of  those  who  had  founded  and  endowed 
 the  church ;  next,  to  incite  others  to  the 
 like  generous  acts  of  piety  ;  and,  cliiefiy,  to 
 maintain  a  Christian  spirit  of  unity  and 
 charity,  by  such  sociable  and  friendly 
 meetings.  And  therefore  care  was  taken 
 to  keep  up  the  laudable  custom.  The  laws 
 of  Edward  the  Confessor  gave  peace  and 
 protection  in  all  parishes  during  the  so- 
 lemnity of  the  day  of  dedication,  and  the 
 same  privilege  to  all  that  were  going  to 
 or  returning  from  such  solemnity.  In  a 
 council  held  at  Oxford,  in  the  year  1222, 
 it  was  ordained,  that  among  other  festivals 
 should  be  observed  the  day  of  dedication 
 of  every  church  within  the  proper  parish. 
 And  in  a  synod  under  Archbishop  Islip, 
 (who  was  promoted  to  the  see  of  Canter- 
 bury in  the  year  1349,)  the  dedication 
 feast  is  mentioned  with  particular  respect. 
 This  solemnity  was  at  first  cele])rated  on 
 the  very  day  of  dedication,  as  it  annually 
 returned.  But  the  bishops  sometimes  gave 
 authority  for  transposing  the  observance  to 
 some  other  day,  and  especially  to  Sunday, 
 whereon  the  people  could  best  attend  the 
 devotions  and  rites  intended  in  this  cere- 
 mony. Henry  VIII.  enjoined  that  all 
 wakes  should  be  kept  the  first  Sunday  in 
 October. 
 
 This  laudable  custom  of  wakes  prevailed 
 for  many  ages,  till  the  Puritans  began  to 
 exclaim  against  it  as  a  remnant  of  Popery. 
 By  degrees  the  humour  grew  so  popular, 
 that  at  the  summer  assizes  held  at  Exeter, 
 in  the  year  1627,  the  Lord  Chief  Baron 
 Walter  and  Baron  Denham  made  an  or- 
 der for  suppression  of  all  wakes.  And  a 
 like  order  was  made  by  Judge  Ilichardson 
 for  the  county  of  Somerset,  in  the  year 
 1631.  But  on  Bishop  Laud's  comi)laint 
 of  these  innovations,  the  king  commanded 
 the  last  order  to  be  reversed  ;  which  Judge 
 Ilichardson  refusing  to  do,  an  account  was 
 required  from  the  Bishop  of  Bath  and 
 AVells,  how  the  said  feast  days,  church 
 ales,  wakes,  and  revels,  were  for  the  most 
 part  celebrated  and  observed  in  his  dio- 
 cese. On  the  receipt  of  these  instruc- 
 tions, the  bishop  sent  for  and  advised  with 
 seventy-two  of  the  most  orthodox  and  able 
 of  his  clergy ;  who  certified  under  tlieir 
 hands,  that,* on  these  feast  days,  (which 
 generally  fell  on  Sundays,)  the  service  of 
 God  was  more  solemnly  performed,  and 
 
284      DEFENDER  OF  THE  FAITH. 
 
 DEGREE. 
 
 the  church  much  better  frequented,  both 
 in  the  forenoon  and  afternoon,  than  on 
 any  other  Sunday  in  the  year ;  that  the 
 people  very  much  desired  the  continuance 
 of  them ;  that  the  ministers  did  in  most 
 places  the  like,  for  these  reasons,  viz.  for 
 preservino^  the  memorial  of  the  dedication 
 of  their  several  churches,  for  civilizing  the 
 people,  for  composing  differences  by  the 
 mediation  and  meeting  of  friends,  for  in- 
 crease of  love  and  unity  by  these  feasts  of 
 charity,  and  for  relief  and  comfort  of  the 
 poor.  '  On  the  return  of  this  certificate, 
 Judge  Richardson  Avas  again  cited  to  the 
 council  table,  and  peremptorily  commanded 
 to  reverse  his  former  order.  After  which 
 it  was  thought  fit  to  reinforce  the  declara- 
 tion of  King  James,  when  perhaps  this  was 
 the  only  good  reason  assigned  for  that  un- 
 necessary and  unhappy  licence  of  sports  : 
 *'  We  do  ratify  and  publish  this  our  blessed 
 father's  decree,  the  rather  because  of  late, 
 in  some  counties  of  our  kingdom,  we  find, 
 that,  under  pretence  of  taking  away  abuses, 
 there  hath  been  a  general  forbidding  not 
 only  of  ordinary  meetings,  but  of  the  feasts 
 of  the  dedication  of  churches,  commonly 
 called  wakes."  However,  by  such  a  popu- 
 lar prejudice  against  wakes,  and  by  the 
 intermission  of  them  in  the  confusions  that 
 followed,  they  are  now  discontinued  in 
 many  counties,  especially  in  the  east  and 
 some  Avestern  parts  of  England,  but  are 
 commonly  observed  in  the  north  and  in 
 the  midland  counties. 
 
 DEFENDER  OF  THE  FAITH.  {Fidei 
 Defensor.)  A  peculiar  title  belonging  to 
 the  sovereign  of  England ;  as  Catholic  to 
 the  king  of  Spain,  and  3Iost  Christian  to 
 the  king  of  France.  These  titles  were 
 given  by  the  popes  of  Rome.  That  of  Fidei 
 Defensor  was  first  conferred  by  Pope  Leo 
 X.  on  King  Henry  VIII.,  for  writing 
 against  Martin  Luther  ;  and  the  bull  for  it 
 bears  date  guitito  idus  Octobris,  152L  It 
 was  afterwards  confii-med  by  Clement  VII. 
 On  Henry's  suppression  of  the  monasteries, 
 the  pope  of  Rome  deprived  him  of  this 
 title,  and  had  the  presumption  and  absurd- 
 ity to  depose  him  from  his  croAvn.  There- 
 fore the  title  was  conferred  by  a  higher 
 authority  than  the  pope,  the  parliament  of 
 England,  in  the  thirty-fifth  year  of  Hem-y's 
 reign.  By  some  antiquarians  it  is  main- 
 tained that  the  bull  of  Leo  only  revived  a 
 title  long  sustained  by  the  English  kings. 
 
 DEGRADATION  is  an  ecclesiastical 
 censure,  whereby  a  clergyman  is  deprived 
 of  the  holy  orders  which  formerly  he  had, 
 as  of  a  priest  or  deacon  ;  and  by  the  canon 
 laAV  this  may  be  done  two  ways,  either 
 summarily  or  by  Avord  only,  or  solemnly, 
 
 as  by  divesting  the  party  degraded  of  those 
 ornaments  and  rights  Avhich  Avere  the  en- 
 signs and  order  of  his  degree. 
 
 Collier  thus  describes  the  form  of  de- 
 gradation of  a  priest,  in  the  case  of  FaAA'ke, 
 burnt  for  heresy  in  the  reign  of  Henry  IV. 
 After  being  pronounced  a  heretic  relapsed, 
 he  Avas  solemnly  degraded  in  the  following 
 manner : 
 
 C  I  Priest, 
 
 2  Doacon. 
 
 3  Sub-ilcaco 
 
 4  Aeoljlh. 
 
 5  Kxorcist. 
 
 6  Header. 
 
 7  Ostiarius,  < 
 
 ton. 
 
 1  Tho   jiaten,   chalico,  and  pulling 
 
 oft  liis  cliasuble. 
 •J  The  New  Testament  and  tlie  stolo. 
 
 3  'I'hc  albe  and  the  maniple. 
 
 4  The  candlcatiek,  taper,  iirceolum, 
 .=)  Tlic  office  for  exorcisms. 
 
 6  The  lectionarium,  or  legend  book. 
 
 7  The  keys  of  the  church-doors,  and 
 
 surplice. 
 
 After  this,  his  ecclesiastical  tonsure  was 
 obliterated,  and  the  form  of  his  degrada- 
 tion pronounced  by  the  archbishop  ;  and 
 being  thus  deprived  of  his  sacerdotal  cha- 
 racter, and  dressed  in  a  lay  habit,  he  Avas 
 put  into  the  hands  of  the  secular  court, 
 Avith  the  significant  request,  that  he  might 
 be  favourably  received. 
 
 The  ancient  laAv  for  degradation  is  set 
 forth  in  the  sixth  book  of  the  Decretals ; 
 and  the  causes  for  degradation  and  depriA'- 
 ation  are  enumerated  by  Bishop  Gibson. 
 —See  Gibson's  Codex,  i^.  1066—1068. 
 
 By  Canon  122,  Sentence  against  a  min- 
 ister, of  deposition  from  the  ministry, 
 "  shall  be  pronounced  by  the  bishop  only, 
 with  the  assistance  of  his  chancellor  and 
 the  dean,  (if  they  may  conA^eniently  be  had,) 
 and  some  of  the  prebendaries,  if  the  court 
 be  kept  near  the  cathedral  church  ;  or  of 
 the  archdeacon,  if  he  may  be  had  conve- 
 niently, and  tAVo  other  at  the  least  grave 
 ministers  and  preachers  to  be  called  by  the 
 bishop,  Avhen  the  court  is  kept  in  other 
 places." 
 
 DEGREE.  Psahns  or  Sonf^s  of  De- 
 crees is  a  title  given  to  fifteen  psalms, 
 Avhich  are  the  1 20th  and  all  that  follow  to 
 the  134th  inclusive.  The  Hebrew  text 
 calls  them  a  song  of  ascents.  Junius  and 
 Tremellius  translate  the  HebreAV,  by  a 
 song  of  excellencies,  or  ati  excellent  song, 
 because  of  the  excellent  matter  of  them, 
 as  eminent  persons  are  called  men  of  high 
 degree.  (1  Chr.  xvii.  17.)  Some  call  them 
 psalms  of  deration,  because,  say  they,  they 
 were  sung  Avith  an  exalted  voice ;  or  be- 
 cause at  every  psalm  the  A^oice  AA'as  raised: 
 but  the  translation  of  jjsalms  of  degrees 
 has  more  generally  obtained.  Some  inter- 
 preters think,  that  they  Avere  so  called  be- 
 cause they  Avere  sung  upon  the  fifteen 
 steps  of  the  temple ;  but  they  are  not 
 agreed  about  the  place  AA'here  these  fifteen 
 steps  Avere.  Others  think  they  Avere  so 
 called,  because  they  Avere  sung  in  a  gallery, 
 Avhich  they  say  was  in  the  court  of  Israel, 
 
DEGREES. 
 
 DEISTS, 
 
 285 
 
 where  sometimes  the  Levites  read  the  law. 
 But  others  think,  that  the  most  prohable 
 reason  why  they  are  called  son^s  of  de- 
 grees, or  of  ascent,  is,  because  they  were 
 composed  and  sung  by  the  Jews  on  the 
 occasion  of  their  (loing  up  to  Jerusalem, 
 after  the  deliverance  from  the  captivity 
 of  Babylon,  whether  it  were  to  implore 
 this  deliverance  from  God,  or  to  return 
 llianks  for  it  after  it  had  happened :  others, 
 that  they  were  severally  composed  not 
 only  upon  this,  but  upon  other  remarkable 
 occasions  when  they  made  their  ascent  to 
 the  tem])le. 
 
 DEGREES  in  the  universities  denote 
 a  quality  confen-ed  on  the  students  or 
 members  thereof,  as  a  testimony  of  their 
 proficiency  in  the  arts  and  sciences,  and 
 entitling  them  to  certain  privileges.  They 
 were  first  instituted  by  Pope  Eugenius  III. 
 at  the  suggestion  of  Gratian,  the  cele- 
 brated compiler  of  the  canon  law,  in  1151  ; 
 but  were  limited  to  the  faculty  of  canon 
 law,  for  the  encouragement  of  which  they 
 were  instituted ;  and  consisted  of  the  ranks 
 of  bachelor,  licentiate,  and  doctor.  Short- 
 ly after  Peter  Lombard  instituted  similar 
 degrees  in  theology  in  the  university  of 
 Paris.  In  the  course  of  time  degrees  were 
 given  in  other  faculties,  those  of  arts  and 
 medicine  being  added.  In  many  of  the 
 foreign  universities,  theology  and  canon 
 law  have  each  their  three  classes  of  de- 
 grees as  above  stated ;  medicine  has  gener- 
 ally but  two,  bachelor  and  doctor ;  and 
 arts  two,  bachelor  and  master.  The  de- 
 signation of  doctor  in  philosophy  is  very 
 modern.  The  English  universities  have 
 only  two  degrees,  bachelor  and  doctor  in 
 the  superior  faculties  ;  master  and  bachelor 
 in  arts.  The  student  of  civil  law  is  not, 
 properly  speaking,  a  graduate.  Formerly 
 separate  degrees  were  given  in  England 
 (as  abroad)  in  canon  and  civil  law ;  but 
 the  distinction  ceased  in  the  17th  century. 
 Oxford  has  for  some  time  ceased  to  confer 
 degrees  in  utroque  jure,  (i.  e.  civil  and  ca- 
 non law,)  but  only  in  civil  law.  Hence 
 her  graduates  are  T).  C.  L.  and  B.  C.  L.,  and 
 not  L.  L.  D.  and  L.  L.  B.,  as  at  Cam- 
 bridge and  Dublin.  The  three  ancient 
 universities  of  England  and  Ireland  confer 
 degrees  in  music.  Anciently  degrees  in 
 grammar,  doctorate,  mastership,  and  bac- 
 calaurenti  Avere  given  at  Oxford  or  Cam- 
 bridge. But  they  fell  into  disuse  in  the 
 17th  century. 
 
 DEISTS.  Those  who  deny  the  exist- 
 ence and  necessity  of  any  revelation,  and 
 profess  to  acknowledge  that  the  being  of  a 
 God  is  the  chief  article  of  their  belief. 
 The  term  Deist  is  derived  from  the  Latin 
 
 word  Deus,  God.  The  same  persons  are 
 frequently  called  infidels,  on  account  of 
 their  incredulity,  or  want  of  belief  in  the 
 Christian  dispensation  of  religion. — Con- 
 sult Boyle's  Lectures,  Lcland's  View  of 
 Deisdccd  Writers,  Leslie's  Short  (ind  Easy 
 Method  with  the  Deists,  Watson's  Apology 
 for  the  Bible. 
 
 Dr.  Clarke,  {Evidences  of  Nat.  and  Rev. 
 Be/.  Introd.,)  taking  the  denomination  in  its 
 most  extensive  signification,  distinguishes 
 deists  into  four  sorts.  The  first  are,  such 
 as  pretend  to  believe  the  existence  of  an 
 eternal,  infinite,  independent,  intelligent 
 Being ;  and  who,  to  avoid  the  name  of  Epi- 
 curean Atheists,  teach  also,  that  this  Su- 
 preme Being  made  the  world  ;  though,  at 
 the  same  time,  they  agree  with  the  Epi- 
 cureans in  this,  that  they  fancy,  God  does 
 not  at  all  concern  himself  in  the  govern- 
 ment of  the  world,  nor  has  any  regard  to, 
 or  care  of,  what  is  done  therein. 
 
 The  second  sort  of  deists  are  those,  who 
 believe,  not  only  the  being,  but  also  the 
 providence  of  God,  with  respect  to  the  na- 
 tural world ;  but  who,  not  allowing  any 
 diff'erence  between  moral  good  and  evil, 
 deny  that  God  takes  any  notice  of  the 
 morally  good  or  evil  actions  of  men  ;  these 
 things  depending,  as  they  imagine,  on  the 
 arbitrary  constitution  of  human  laws. 
 
 A  third  sort  of  deists  there  are,  who, 
 having  right  apprehensions  concerning  the 
 natural  attributes  of  GoD,  and  his  all-go- 
 verning providence,  and  some  notion  of 
 his  moral  perfections  also  ;  yet,  being  pre- 
 judiced against  the  notion  of  the  immor- 
 tality of  the  human  soul,  believe,  that  men 
 perish  entirely  at  death,  and  that  one  ge- 
 neration shall  perpetually  succeed  another, 
 without  any  future  restoration  or  renova- 
 tion of  things. 
 
 A  fourth,  and  the  last  sort  of  deists,  are 
 such,  as  believe  the  existence  of  a  Supreme 
 Being,  together  with  his  providence  in  the 
 government  of  the  world,  as  also  all  the 
 obligations  of  natural  religion  ;  but  so  far 
 only  as  these  things  are  discoverable^  by 
 the  light  of  nature  alone,  without  believ- 
 ing any  Divine  revelation. 
 
 These,  Dr.  Clarke  observes,  arc  the  only 
 true  deists :  but,  as  the  i)rincii)lcs  of  these 
 men  would  naturally  lead  them  to  em- 
 brace the  Christian  revelation,  he  concludes, 
 there  is  now  no  consistent  scheme  of  deism 
 in  the  world.  "  The  heathen  ))hilosophers, 
 those  few  of  them,  who  taught  and  lived 
 up  to  the  obligations  of  natural  religion, 
 had  indeed  a  consistent  scheme  of  deism 
 so  far  as  it  went.  But  the  case  is  not  so 
 now.  The  same  scheme  is  not  any  longer 
 consistent  with    its    own   principles,  if  it 
 
286 
 
 DEISTS. 
 
 DEMONIACS. 
 
 does  not  now  lead  men  to  believe  and  em- 
 brace revelation,  as  it  then  taught  them  to 
 hope  for  it.  Deists,  in  our  days,  who  re- 
 ject revelation  when  offered  to  them,  are 
 not  such  men  as  Socrates  and  Cicero  were ; 
 but,  under  pretence  of  deism,  it  is  plain, 
 they  are  generally  ridiculers  of  all  that  is 
 truly  excellent  in  natural  religion  itself. 
 Their  trivial  and  vain  cavils  ;  their  mock- 
 ing and  ridiculing,  without  and  before  ex- 
 amination ;  their  directing  the  whole  stress 
 of  their  objections  against  particular  cus- 
 toms, or  particular  and  perhaps  uncertain 
 opinions,  or  explications  of  opinions,  with- 
 out at  all  considering  the  main  body  of 
 religion ;  their  loose,  vain,  and  frothy  dis- 
 courses ;  and,  above  all,  their  vicious  and 
 immoral  lives ;  show  plainly  and  unde- 
 niably, that  they  are  not  really  deists,  but 
 mere  atheists  ;  and  consequently  not  capa- 
 ble to  judge  of  the  truth  of  Christianity." 
 
 "  We  are  fallen  into  an  age,  (says  another 
 learned  author,  Jenhijns,  lleasonableness  of 
 Christ.  Relig.  in  the  Preface,)  in  which  there 
 are  a  sort  of  men,  who  have  shown  so 
 gi'eat  a  forwardness  to  be  no  longer  Chris- 
 tians, that  have  catclied  at  all  the  little 
 cavils  and  pretences  against  religion — but 
 they  both  think  and  live  so  ill,  that  it  is 
 an  argument  for  the  goodness  of  any  cause 
 that  they  are  against  it.  It  was  urged  as 
 a  confirmation  of  the  Christian  religion  by 
 Tertullian,  that  it  was  hated  and  perse- 
 cuted by  Nero,  the  worst  of  men  :  and  I  am 
 confident,  it  would  be  but  small  reputation 
 to  it  in  any  age,  if  such  men  should  be 
 fond  of  it.  They  speak  evil  of  the  things 
 they  understand  not,  and  are  wont  to  talk 
 with  as  much  confidence  against  any  point 
 of  religion,  as  if  they  had  all  the  learning 
 in  the  world  in  their  keeping,  when  com- 
 monly they  know  little  or  nothing  of  what 
 has  been  said  for  that  against  which  they 
 dispute." 
 
 Prateolus  {Eleiich.  Ilceres.)  mentions  a 
 sect  of  deists  (as  they  were  called)  which 
 sprung  up  in  Poland,  in  the  year  1564. 
 They  were  a  branch  of  the  Lutherans,  and, 
 coming  into  France  in  1566,  settled  at 
 Lyons.  Their  leader  (he  tells  us)  was  one 
 Gregorius  Pauli,  a  minister  of  Cracow. 
 They  boasted,  that  God  had  bestowed  on 
 them  much  greater  gifts  than  on  Luther 
 and  others,  and  that  the  destruction  of 
 Antichi-ist  was  reserved  for  them.  They 
 asserted,  that  there  is  one  nature,  or  Deity, 
 common  to  the  Father,  Son,  and  Holy 
 Ghost,  but  not  one  and  the  same  essence ; 
 and  that  the  Father  alone  is  the  one  only 
 true  God. 
 
 These  deists  (as  Prateolus  calls  them) 
 ought  rather  to  be  denominated  Arians. 
 
 DELEGATES.  The  court  of  delegates 
 was  so  called,  because  these  delegates  sat 
 by  force  of  the  king's  commission  under 
 the  great  seal,  upon  an  appeal  to  the  king 
 in  the  court  of  Chancery,  in  three  causes : 
 1.  When  a  sentence  was  given  in  any  ec- 
 clesiastical cause  by  the  archbishop  or  his 
 official :  2.  When  any  sentence  was  given  in 
 any  ecclesiastical  cause  in  places  exempt : 
 3.  When  a  sentence  was  given  in  the  ad- 
 miral's court,  in  suit  civil  and  marine,  by 
 the  order  of  the  civil  laws.  And  these 
 commissioners  were  called  delegates,  be- 
 cause they  were  delegated  by  the  king's 
 commission  for  these  purposes. 
 
 For  the  origin  of  the  high  court  of  dele- 
 gates, see  24  Hen.  VIH.  c.  12,  and  25  Hen. 
 VIII.  c.  19,  §  4.  By  the  2  &  3  Wm.  IV. 
 c.  92,  the  powers  of  the  high  court  of  dele- 
 gates, both  in  ecclesiastical  and  maritime 
 causes,  are  transferred  to  her  Majesty  in 
 council ;  which  transfer  is  further  regulated 
 by  the  3  &  4  Wm.  IV.  c.  41,  and  by  7  &  8 
 Vict.  c.  69.  This  act  does  not  extend  to 
 Ireland. 
 
 The  Judicial  Committee   of  the  Privy 
 Council,  consists  of 
 The  Lord  President. 
 The  Lord  Chancellor. 
 The  Lord  Keeper  of  the  Great  Seal. 
 The  Chief    Justice   of  the  Court  of 
 
 Queen's  Bench. 
 The  Master  of  the  Rolls. 
 The  Vice-chancellor. 
 The   Chief  Justice   of  the  Court   of 
 
 Common  Pleas. 
 Tlie  Chief  Baron  of  the  Exchequer. 
 The  Judge  of  the  Prerogative  Court 
 
 of  Canterbury. 
 The  Judge  of  the  Admiralty  Court. 
 The  Chief  Judge  of  the  Bankruptcy 
 
 Court. 
 All  who  have  held  the  aforenamed 
 
 offices. 
 Two  privy-councillors   appointed   by  the 
 
 sign-manual. 
 
 No  matter  is  to  be  heard  unless  in  the 
 presence  of  at  least  four  members  of  the 
 committee  ;  and  no  report  or  recommend- 
 ation made  to  the  Crown,  unless  a  ma- 
 jority of  the  members  present  at  the 
 hearing  shall  concur  in  such  report  or 
 recommendation. 
 
 DEMIURGE.  (From  ^iiiov^ybg,  an  arti- 
 ficer.) The  name  given  by  some  Gnostic 
 sects  to  the  Creator  of  the  world,  who,  ac- 
 cording to  them,  was  different  from  the 
 supreme  God.     (See  Gnostics.) 
 
 DEMONIACS.  Persons  possessed  of 
 the  devil.  That  the  persons  spoken  of  in 
 the  New  Testament  as  possessed  of  the 
 devil,  were  not  simply  lunatics,  is  clear 
 
DENARII  DE  CARITATE. 
 
 DESK. 
 
 287 
 
 from  a  mere  perusal  of  the  facts  recorded. 
 The  devils  owned  Christ  to  be  the  Mes- 
 siah ;  they  besought  him  not  to  torment 
 them ;  they  passed  into  the  swine  and 
 drove  them  into  the  sea.  The  manner  in 
 which  our  Lord  addressed  the  demoniacs 
 clearly  shows  that  they  were  really  such : 
 he  not  only  rebuked  the  devils,  but  called 
 them  unclean  spirits,  asking  them  ques- 
 tions, commanding  them  to  come  out,  Szc. 
 We  find  also  that,  for  some  time,  in  the 
 early  ages  of  the  Church,  demoniacs  ex- 
 isted, as  there  was  a  peculiar  service  ap- 
 pointed in  the  Church  for  their  cure.  (See 
 J^ncrt/umetis.) 
 
 DENARII  DE  CARITATE.  {Lat) 
 Customary  oblations,  anciently  made  to 
 cathedral  churches,  about  the  time  of 
 Pentecost,  when  the  parish  priests,  and 
 many  of  their  parishioners,  went  in  pro- 
 cession to  visit  their  mother-church.  This 
 custom  was  afterwards  changed  into  a 
 settled  due,  and  usually  charged  upon  the 
 parish  priest,  though  at  first  it  was  but  a 
 gift  of  charity,  or  present,  towards  the 
 support  and  ornament  of  the  bishop's  see. 
 
 DENOMINATIONS,  THE  THREE. 
 The  general  body  of  dissenting  ministers 
 of  London  and  Westminster  form  an  as- 
 sociation so  styled,  which  was  organized 
 in  1727.  The  object  of  the  association 
 appears  to  be  political.  The  Three  De- 
 nominations are,  the  Presbyterian,  (nov/ 
 Socinian,)  Independent,  and  Baptist. 
 
 DEO  GRATIAS.  {LaL)  God  he 
 thanked .  A  form  of  salutation,  anciently 
 used  by  Christians,  when  they  accosted 
 each  other.  The  Donatists  ridiculed  the 
 use  of  it ;  which  St.  Augustine  defended, 
 affirming,  that  a  Christian  had  reason  to 
 return  God  thanks  when  he  met  a  brother 
 Christian.  It  is  at  present  used  only  in 
 the  sacred  offices  of  the  Romish  Church. 
 We  have  something  like  it  in  the  Com- 
 munion Service  of  our  own  Church,  in  which 
 the  minister  says.  Let  us  give  thanks  unto 
 our  Lord  God. 
 
 DEPOSITION.     (See  Degradation.) 
 
 DEPRECATIONS.     (See  Litany.) 
 
 DEPRIVATION  is  an  ecclesiastical 
 sentence,  whereby  a  clergjman  is  deprived 
 of  his  parsonage,  vicarage,  or  other  spi- 
 ritual promotion  or  dignity. 
 
 By  Canon  122.  Sentence  against  a  min- 
 ister, of  deprivation  from  his  living,  "  shall 
 be  pronounced  by  the  bishop  only  with  the 
 assistance  of  his  chancellor  and  the  dean, 
 (if  they  may  conveniently  be  had,)  and 
 some  of  the  prebendaries,  if  the  court  be 
 kept  near  the  cathedral  church ;  or  of  the 
 archdeacon,  if  he  may  be  had  conveniently, 
 and  two  other  at  the  least  gi-ave  ministers 
 
 and  preachers  to  be  called  by  the  bishop, 
 when  the  court  is  kept  in  other  places." 
 
 The  causes  of  deprivation  may  be  re- 
 duced to  three  heads,  viz.  to  want  of 
 capacity,  contempt,  and  crimes.  Noncon- 
 formity is  thus  specially  punished  by 
 1  Eliz.  c.  2, 13  Eliz.  c.  12,  14  Car.  II.  c.  4. 
 Dilapidation  used  to  be  held  a  good  cause 
 of  deprivation,  yet  that  it  has  ever  been 
 inflicted  as  a  punishment  of  dilapidation 
 does  not  appear,  either  by  the  books  of 
 common  or  canon  law.  In  all  causes  of 
 deprivation,  where  a  person  is  in  actual 
 possession  of  an  ecclesiastical  benefice, 
 these  things  must  concur  :  1st,  A  monition 
 or  citation  of  the  party  to  appear :  2nd, 
 A  charge  given  against  him  by  way  of 
 libel  or  articles,  to  which  he  is  to  give  an 
 ansM-er :  3rd,  A  competent  time  must  be 
 assigned,  for  proofs  and  interrogatories  : 
 4th,  The  person  accused  shall  have  the 
 liberty  of  counsel  to  defend  his  cause,  to 
 except  against  witnesses,  and  to  bring 
 legal  proofs  against  them  :  and  5th,  There 
 must  be  a  solemn  sentence,  read  by  the 
 bishop,  after  hearing  the  merits  of  the 
 cause,  or  pleadings  on  both  sides.  These 
 are  the  fundamentals  of  all  judicial  pro- 
 ceedings in  the  ecclesiastical  courts,  in 
 order  to  a  deprivation.  And  if  these 
 things  be  not  observed,  the  party  has  a 
 just  cause  of  appeal,  and  may  have  a  re- 
 medy in  a  superior  court. 
 
 By  1  &  2  Vict.  c.  106,  s.  31,  spiritual 
 persons  trading  contrary  to  the  provisions 
 of  that  act,  may  be,  for  the  third  ofi'ence, 
 deprived. 
 
 DESK.  This  is  the  name  usually  gi\en 
 to  the  pulpit  or  pew  in  which  morning 
 and  evening  prayers  are  sung  or  said  in 
 the  English  churches.  The  using  of  this 
 pulpit  for  prayer  is  peculiar  to  the  English 
 Church,  and  has  a  very  unpleasant  effect. 
 The  First  Prayer  Book  of  Edward  VI. 
 ordered  "  the  priest,  heiny  in  the  choir,  to 
 begin  the  Lord's  Prayer,  called  Pater 
 Noster,  (with  which  the  morning  and  even- 
 ing services  then  began,)  with  a  loud 
 voice :"  so  that  it  was  at  that  time  the 
 custom  for  the  minister  to  sing  or  say  the 
 morning  and  evening  prayer,  not  in  a 
 desk  or  pulpit,  but  at  the  upper  end  of 
 the  choir  or  chancel,  near  the  altar,  to- 
 wards which,  whether  standing  or  kneeling, 
 he  always  turned  his  face  in  the  i)rayers. 
 This  gave  great  ofience,  however,  though 
 it  had  been  the  custom  of  the  Church  of 
 England  for  many  hundred  years,  to  some 
 superstitious  weaker  ])rethren,  who  so  far 
 forgot  their  charity  as  to  call  it  anti- 
 Christian.  The  outcry,  however  frivolous 
 and  vexatious,  prevailed  so  far,  that  when. 
 
288 
 
 DESK. 
 
 DEVIL. 
 
 in  the  fifth  year  of  King  Edward,  the 
 Prayer  Book 'was  ahered,  the  following 
 rubric  appeared  instead  of  the  old  one, 
 viz.  "  The  morning  and  evening  prayers 
 shall  be  used  in  such  places  of  the  church, 
 chapel,  or  chancel,  and  the  minister  shall 
 so  turn  him,  as  the  people  best  may  hear. 
 And  if  there  be  any  controversy  therein, 
 the  matter  shall  be  referred  to  the  ordin- 
 arv,  and  he  or  his  deputy  shall  appoint 
 the  place."  This  caused  great  contentions 
 — the  more  orthodox  kneeling  in  the  old 
 way,  and  singing  or  saying  the  prayers  in 
 the  chancel,  and  the  innovators,  or  idtra- 
 Protestants,  adopting  new  forms,  and  per- 
 forming all  the  services  in  the  body  of  the 
 church.  In  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  the 
 rubric  was  brought  to  its  present  form  : 
 "that  the  morning  and  evening  prayers 
 shall  be  used  in  the  accustomed  place  in 
 the  church,  chapel,  or  chancel,"  by  which 
 was  clearly  meant  the  choir  or  chancel, 
 which  had  been  for  centuries  the  accus- 
 tomed place ;  and  it  cannot  be  supposed 
 that  the  Second  Book  of  Edward,  Avhich 
 lasted  only  one  year  and  a  half,  could 
 establish  a  custom.  A  dispensing  power, 
 however,  was  left  with  the  ordinary,  who 
 might  determine  it  otherwise,  if  he  saw 
 just  cause.  Pursuant  to  this  rubric,  the 
 morning  and  evening  services  were  again, 
 as  formerly,  sung  or  said  in  the  chancel  or 
 chou-.  But  in  some  churches,  owing  to  the 
 too  great  distance  of  the  chancel  from  the 
 body  of  the  church,  in  others  owing  to  the 
 ultra-Protestant  superstition  of  the  par- 
 ishioners, the  ordinaries  permitted  the 
 clergy  to  leave  the  chancel,  and  read 
 prayers  from  a  pew  in  the  body  of  the 
 church.  This  innovation  and  novelty, 
 begun  fii'st  by  some  few  ordinaries,  and 
 recommended  by  them  to  others,  grew  by 
 degrees  to  be  more  general,  till  at  last 
 it  came  to  be  the  universal  practice  ;  in- 
 somuch that  the  convocation,  in  the  be- 
 ginning of  King  James  the  Fu-st's  reign, 
 ordered  that  in  every  church  there  should 
 be  a  convenient  seat  made  for  the  minister 
 to  read  service  in.  In  new  churches, 
 where  there  can  be  no  complaint  of  the 
 size  of  the  chancels,  there  seems  to  be  no 
 reason  why  the  ordinaries  should  not  now 
 remove  the  desk,  and  send  the  clergy 
 back  to  then*  proper  place,  to  sing  or  say 
 the  prayers  in  the  chancel.  At  all  events, 
 they  might  get  rid  of  that  unsightly  nui- 
 sance, a  second  pulpit  instead  of  a  reading 
 pew.  If  the  prayers  are  to  be  preached 
 to  the  people,  as  well  as  the  sermon,  one 
 pulpit  might  suffice.  It  is  gratifying  to 
 know,  that  since  the  article  was  written  in 
 the  fii'st  edition  of  this  work,  this  disfigure- 
 
 ment of  our  churches  has  been  very  gener- 
 ally removed.  It  is  to  be  observed,  that 
 the  word  does  not  once  occur  in  the  Prayer 
 Book. 
 
 DEUS  MISEllEATUK.  The  Latin 
 name  for  Psalm  Ixvii.,  which  may  be  used 
 after  the  second  lesson  at  evening  prayers, 
 instead  of  the  Nunc  Dimittis,  except  on 
 the  twelfth  day  of  the  month,  when  it  oc- 
 curs among  the  psalms  of  the  day.  It  was 
 first  inserted  in  our  service  in  the  Second 
 Book  of  King  Edward  VL 
 
 DEUTERONOMY.  A  canonical  book 
 of  the  Old  Testament.  The  word  implies 
 a  second  law,  the  principal  design  of  it 
 being,  a  repetitmi  of  the  laws  already  de- 
 livered ;  which  was  a  necessary  thing,  in- 
 asmuch as  the  Israelites,  Avho  had  heard  it 
 before,  w^ere  dead  in  the  wilderness,  and 
 there  was  sprung  up  another  generation  of 
 men,  w'ho  had  not  heard  the  Decalogue, 
 or  any  other  of  the  laws  openly  proclaim- 
 ed. It  contains  likewise  some  new  laws  ; 
 such  as  the  taking  down  malefactors  from 
 the  tree  in  the  evening;  the  making  of 
 battlements  on  the  roofs  of  houses  ;  the 
 expiation  of  an  unknown  murder ;  the 
 punishment  to  be  inflicted  upon  a  re- 
 bellious son ;  the  distinction  of  the  sexes 
 by  apparel ;  the  marrying  a  brother's  wife 
 after  his  decease :  as  also,  orders  and  in- 
 junctions concerning  divorce ;  laAvs  con- 
 cerning men-stealers  ;  concerning  unjust 
 weights  and  measures ;  concerning  the 
 marrying  of  a  captive  woman  ;  concerning 
 servants  that  desert  their  master's  service  ; 
 and  several  other  laws,  not  only  ecclesias- 
 tical and  civil,  but  also  military.  There 
 are  inserted  likewise  some  transactions, 
 which  happened  in  the  last  year  of  the 
 travels  of  the  Israelites  through  the  wil- 
 derness. 
 
 Deuteronomy  is  the  last  book  of  the 
 Pentateuch,  or  five  books  of  Moses ;  though 
 some  have  questioned  whether  it  was 
 written  by  that  legislator,  because,  in  the 
 last  chapter,  mention  is  made  of  his  death 
 and  burial,  and  of  the  succession  of  Joshua 
 after  him.  But  this  only  proves  that  the 
 last  chapter  was  not  written  by  Moses,  but 
 added  by  some  other  person  ;  most  pro- 
 bably by  Ezra,  when  he  published  an  edi- 
 tion of  the  Holy  Scriptures.  (See  Pen- 
 tateuch.) 
 
 DEVIL.  From  Aia^oXoq,  which  signi- 
 fies an  accuser,  or  calumniator.  The  two 
 words.  Devil  and  Satan,  are  used  in  Scrip- 
 ture to  signify  the  same  wicked  spirit,  who 
 with  many  others,  his  angels  or  under- 
 agents,  is  fighting  against  GoD  ;  and  who 
 has  dominion  over  all  the  sons  of  Adam, 
 except  the  regenerate ;  and  who  is,  in  his 
 
DIACONATE. 
 
 DIET. 
 
 289 
 
 kingdom  of  this  world,  the  nearest  imagin- 
 able approximation,  at  infinite  distance  in- 
 deed, to  the  omnipotence  of  the  Godhead. 
 
 DIACONATE.  The  office  or  order  of 
 a  deacon.     (Sec  Beacon.) 
 
 DIACONICUM.  {Gr.  and  Lat.)  This 
 word  has  different  significations  in  eccle- 
 siastical authors.  Sometimes  it  is  taken 
 for  that  part  of  the  ancient  church  in  which 
 the  deacons  used  to  sit  during  the  per- 
 formance of  Divine  service,  namely,  at  the 
 rails  of  the  altar  ;  sometimes  for  a  building 
 adjoining  to  the  church,  in  which  the  sa- 
 cred vessels  and  habits  were  laid  up  ;  some- 
 times for  that  part  of  the  public  prayers 
 which  the  deacons  pronounced.  Lastly,  it 
 denotes  an  ecclesiastical  book,  in  which  arc 
 contained  all  things  relating  to  the  duty 
 and  oflice  of  a  deacon,  according  to  the 
 rites  of  the  Greek  Church. 
 
 DIAPER.  In  church  architecture,  a 
 decoration  of  large  surfaces  with  a  con- 
 stantly recurring  pattern,  either  carved  or 
 painted.  Norman  diapers  are  usually  either 
 fretted  or  zigzag  lines,  or  imbrications  of 
 the  masonry  ;  and  not  only  plain  surfaces, 
 but  pillars,  and  small  shafts,  and  even 
 mouldings,  are  diapered,  as  the  cable 
 moulding  surrounding  the  nave  at  Hoches- 
 ter.  In  the  succeeding  styles,  flowers  and 
 leaves  are  the  most  frequent  patterns, 
 which,  in  the  Geometrical  style,  are  often 
 of  extreme  beauty  and  delicacy.  After 
 the  fourteenth  century,  diapers  are  painted 
 only,  and  now  even  the  hollows  of  mould- 
 ings are  thus  treated. 
 
 DIET.  The  assembly  of  the  states  of 
 Germany.  We  shall  only  notice  the  more 
 remarkable  of  those  which  have  been  held 
 on  the  affairs  of  religion. 
 
 The  Diet  of  Worms,  in  1521,  where  Alex- 
 ander, the  pope's  nuncio,  having  charged 
 Luther  with  heresy,  the  Duke  of  Saxony 
 said,  that  Luther  ought  to  be  heard ; 
 which  the  emperor  granted,  and  sent  him 
 a  pass,  provided  he  did  not  preach  on 
 this  journey.  Being  come  to  Worms,  he 
 protested  that  he  would  not  recant  unless 
 they  would  show  him  his  errors  by  the 
 word  of  God  alone,  and  not  by  that  of 
 men ;  wherefore  the  emperor  soon  after 
 outlawed  him  by  an  edict. 
 
 The  first  Diet  of  Nuremberg  was  held 
 in  1523,  when  Francis  Cheregat,  Adrian 
 VI.'s  nuncio,  demanded  the  execution  of 
 Leo  X.'s  bull,  and  of  Charles  V.'s  edict, 
 published  at  Worms,  against  Luther  :  but 
 it  was  answered,  that  it  was  necessary  to 
 call  a  council  in  Germany,  to  satisfy  the 
 nation  about  its  grievances,  which  were  re- 
 duced to  a  hundred  articles,  some  whereof 
 struck  at  the   pope's   authority,  and  the 
 
 discipline  of  the  lloman  Church :  they 
 added  that,  in  the  interim,  the  Lutherans 
 should  be  commanded  not  to  write  against 
 the  lloman  Catholics,  cV'c.  All  tliesc  things 
 were  brought  into  the  form  of  an  edict, 
 and  p\iblished  in  the  emperor's  name. 
 
 The  second  Diet  of  Nuremberg  Avas  in 
 1524.  Cardinal  Cangegio,  Pope  Clement 
 Vll.'s  legate,  entered  the  town  incognito, 
 for  fear  of  exas])erating  the  people  there  : 
 the  Lutherans  having  the  advantage,  it 
 was  decreed  that,  with  the  emperor's  con- 
 sent, the  pope  should  call  a  council  in 
 Germany;  but,  in  the  interim,  an  assembly 
 should  be  held  at  Spire,  to  determine 
 what  was  to  be  believed  and  practised  ; 
 and  that  to  obey  the  emperor,  tlie  princes 
 ought  to  order  the  observance  of  the  edict 
 of  Worms  as  strictly  as  they  could.  Charles, 
 angry  at  this,  commanded  that  edict  to  be 
 very  strictly  observed,  and  prohibited  the 
 assembly  at  Spire. 
 
 The  first  Diet  of  Spire  was  held  in  1526. 
 The  emperor  Charles  V.  being  then  held  in 
 Spain,  named  his  brother.  Archduke  Ferdi- 
 nand, to  preside  over  that  assembly,  where 
 the  Duke  of  Saxony  and  Landgrave  of 
 Hesse  demanded  a  full  and  free  exercise 
 of  the  Lutheran  religion,  so  that  the  Lu- 
 therans preached  there  publicly  against 
 Popery ;  and  the  Lutheran  princes'  serv- 
 ants had  these  five  capital  letters,  V.D. 
 M.I.^.,  embroidered  on  their  sleeves,  sig- 
 nifying, Vcrbum  Dei  nianet  in  JEtcrnnw, 
 to  show  publicly  they  would  follow  no- 
 thing else  but  the  pure  word  of  God. 
 The  archduke,  not  daring  to  oppose  this, 
 proposed  two  things,  the  first  concerning 
 the  Popish  religion,  which  was  to  be  main- 
 tained in  observing  the  edict  of  Worms ; 
 and  the  second  concerning  the  aid  de- 
 manded by  Lewis,  king  of  Hungary, 
 against  the  Turks  :  the  Lutherans  prevail- 
 ing about  the  first,  it  was  decreed,  that 
 the  emperor  should  be  desired  to  call  a 
 general  or  national  council  in  Germany 
 within  a  year,  and  that  in  the  mean  time 
 every  one  was  to  have  lil)erty  of  conscience, 
 and  whilst  they  were  deliberating  in  vain 
 about  the  second.  King  Lewis  was  defeated 
 and  slain  at  the  battle  of  Mohatz. 
 
 The  second  Diet  of  Spire  was  held  in 
 1529.  It  was  decreed  against  the  Lu- 
 therans, that  wherever  the  edict  of  Worms 
 was  received,  it  shall  be  lawful  for  nobody 
 to  change  his  opinion  ;  but  in  the  countries 
 where  the  new  religion  (as  they  termed 
 it)  was  received,  it  should  be  lawful  to 
 continue  in  it  till  the  next  council,  if  the 
 old  religion  could  not  be  re-established 
 there  without  sedition.  Nevertheless  the 
 mass  was  not  to  be  abolished  there,  and 
 
290 
 
 DIET. 
 
 DIGNITARY. 
 
 no  Roman  Catholic  was  allowed  to  turn 
 Lutheran ;  that  the  Sacramentarians  should 
 be  banished  out  of  the  emjjire,  and  the  Ana- 
 baptists put  to  death ;  and  that  preachers 
 should  nowhere  preach  against  the  doc- 
 trine of  the  Churcli  of  Kome.  This  decree 
 destroying  that  of  the  first  Diet,  six  Lu- 
 theran princes,  viz.  the  Elector  of  Saxony, 
 the  Marquis  of  Brandenburg,  the  two  Dukes 
 of  Lunenburg,  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse,  and 
 the  Prince  of  Anhalt,  with  the  deputies  of 
 fourteen  imperial  towns,  protested  in  writ- 
 ing, two  days  after,  in  the  assembly,  against 
 that  decree,  which  they  would  not  obey,  it 
 being  contrary  to  the  gospel ;  and  ap- 
 pealed to  the  general  or  national  council, 
 to  the  emperor,  and  to  any  other  unpreju- 
 diced judge.  From  this  solemn  protesta- 
 tion came  that  famous  name  of  Protestants, 
 which  the  Lutherans  took  presently,  and 
 the  Calvinists  and  other  reformed  Chris- 
 tians afterwards.  They  also  protested 
 against  contributing  anything  towards 
 the  war  against  tlie  Turks,  till  after  the 
 exercise  of  their  religion  was  free  in  all 
 Germany.  Next  year  the  emperor  held 
 the  famous  Diet  of  Augsburg. 
 
 The  first  Diet  of  Augsburg  was  called 
 in  the  year  1530,  by  the  emperor  Charles 
 v.,  to  reunite  the  princes  about  some 
 matters  of  religion,  and  to  join  them 
 all  together  against  the  Turks.  Here  the 
 Elector  of  Saxony,  followed  by  many 
 princes,  presented  the  confession  of  faith 
 called  the  Confession  of  Augsburg.  The 
 conference  about  matters  of  faith  and  dis- 
 cipline being  concluded,  the  emperor  ended 
 the  Diet  by  a  decree,  that  nothing  should 
 be  altered  in  the  doctrine  and  ceremonies 
 of  the  Church  of  Home  till  a  council  should 
 order  it  otherwise. 
 
 The  second  Diet  of  Augsburg  was  held 
 in  1547.  The  electors  being  divided  con- 
 cerning the  decisions  of  the  Council  of 
 Trent,  the  emperor  demanded  that  the 
 management  of  this  affair  should  be  left  to 
 him,  and  it  was  resolved,  that  every  one 
 should  conform  to  the  council's  decisions. 
 
 The  third  Diet  of  Augsburg  was  held  in 
 1548,  when,  the  commissioners  named  to 
 examine  some  memoirs  about  a  confession 
 of  faith,  not  agreeing  together,  the  em- 
 peror named  three  divines,  who  di*ew  the 
 design  of  that  famous  hiterim  so  well 
 known  in  Germany  and  elsewhere. 
 
 The  fourth  Diet  of  Augsburg  was  held  in 
 1550,  when  the  emperor  complained  that 
 the  Interim  was  not  observed,  and  de- 
 manded that  all  should  submit  to  the 
 council,  which  they  were  going  to  renew  at 
 Trent ;  but  Duke  Maurice,  one  of  Saxony's 
 deputies,  protested  that  their  master  did 
 
 submit  to  the  council  on  this  condition, 
 that  the  divines  of  the  Confession  of 
 Augsburg  not  only  should  be  heard  there, 
 but  should  vote  also  like  the  lioman  Ca- 
 tholic bishops,  and  that  the  pope  should 
 not  preside  :  but,  by  plurality  of  votes, 
 submission  to  the  council  was  resolved  on. 
 
 The  first  Diet  of  Ilatisbon  was  held  in 
 1541,  for  uniting  the  Protestants  to  the 
 Church  of  Rome.  The  pope's  legate  having 
 altered  the  twenty-two  articles  drawn  up 
 by  the  Protestant  divines,  the  emperor  pro- 
 posed to  choose  some  learned  divines  that 
 might  agree  peaceably  upon  the  articles, 
 and  being  desired  by  the  Diet  to  choose 
 them  himself,  he  named  thrae  Papists,  viz. 
 Julius  Phlugus,  John  Gropperus,  and 
 John  Eckius ;  and  three  Protestants,  viz. 
 Philip  Melancthon,  Martin  Bucer,  and 
 John  Pistorius.  After  an  examination 
 and  dispute  of  a  whole  month,  those  di- 
 vines could  never  agree  upon  more  than 
 five  or  six  articles,  wherein  the  Diet  still 
 found  some  difficulties ;  wherefore  the  em- 
 peror, to  end  these  controversies,  ordered 
 by  an  edict,  that  the  decision  of  those 
 doctors  should  be  reserved  to  a  general 
 council,  or  to  the  national  council  of  all 
 Germany,  or  to  the  next  Diet  eighteen 
 months  after ;  and  that,  in  the  mean  while, 
 the  Protestants  should  keep  the  articles 
 agreed  on,  forbidding  them  to  solicit  any- 
 body to  change  the  old  religion,  (as  they 
 called  it,)  &c.  But  to  gratify  the  Pro- 
 testants in  some  measure,  he  gave  them 
 leave,  by  patent,  to  retain  their  religion, 
 notwithstanding  the  edict. 
 
 The  second  Diet  at  Ratisbon  was  held  in 
 1546  :  none  of  the  Protestant  confederate 
 princes  appeared ;  so  that  it  was  easily  de- 
 creed here,  by  plurality  of  votes,  that  the 
 Council  of  Trent  was  to  be  followed,  which 
 yet  the  Protestant  deputies  opposed,  and 
 this  caused  a  war  against  them. 
 
 The  thu*d  Diet  of  Ratisbon  was  held  in 
 1557:  the  assembly  demanded  a  confer- 
 ence between  some  famous  doctors  of  both 
 parties ;  which  conference,  held  at  Worms, 
 between  twelve  Lutheran  and  as  many 
 Popish  divines,  was  soon  dissolved  by  the 
 Lutherans'  division  among  themselves. — 
 Brought  on. 
 
 DIGNITARY.  One  who  holds  ciithe- 
 di-al  or  other  preferment  to  which  jurisdic- 
 tion is  annexed. 
 
 The  dignitaries  in  British  cathedrals  are, 
 for  the  most  part,  the  dean,  precentor, 
 chancellor,  treasurer,  and  archdeacon. 
 Sometimes  the  suhdean  and  succentor  ca- 
 nonicornm  are  so  called ;  and  in  a  few 
 churches  in  Ireland,  the  provost,  and  sacrist 
 (or  treasurer).     The  only  dignitary  in  ca- 
 
DILAPIDATION. 
 
 DIOCESE. 
 
 291 
 
 thedrals  of  the  new  foundation  is  the  dean  ; 
 as  the  arclideacon  is  not  necessarily  a  mem- 
 ber of  such  chapters.  It  is  a  vulji^ar  error 
 to  style  prebendaries,  or  canons  residentiary, 
 dignitaries.  The  prebendaries  ^vithout  dig- 
 nity were  styled  canonici  (or  lyrchendarii) 
 simpUccs. — Jehh. 
 
 DILAPIDATION  is  the  incumbent  suf- 
 fering the  chancel,  or  any  other  edifices, 
 of  his  ecclesiastical  living,  to  go  to  ruin  or 
 decay,  by  neglecting  to  repair  the  same ; 
 and  it  likewise  extends  to  his  committing, 
 or  suffering  to  be  committed,  any  wilful 
 ■waste  in  or  upon  the  glebe,  woods,  or  any 
 other  inheritance  of  the  church.  By  the 
 injunctions  of  King  Edward  VI.  it  is  re- 
 quired, "  that  the  proprietors,  parsons,  vi- 
 cars, and  clerks,  having  churches,  chapels, 
 or  mansions,  shall  yearly  bestow  on  the 
 said  mansions  or  chancels  of  tlieir  churches, 
 being  in  decay,  the  fifth  part  of  their  bene- 
 fices, till  they  be  fully  repaired ;  and  the 
 same  being  thus  repaired,  they  shall  al- 
 ways keep  and  maintain  them  in  good 
 estate." — See  Art.  XIII.  of  Queen  Eliza- 
 hetNs  Injunctions. 
 
 By  the  constitutions  of  Othobon  it  is 
 ordained,  that  ''  all  clerks  shall  take  care 
 decently  to  repair  the  houses  of  their  bene- 
 fices and  other  buildings,  as  need  shall  re- 
 quire, whercunto  they  shall  be  earnestly 
 admonished  by  their  bishops  or  archdea- 
 cons ;  and  if  any  of  them,  after  the  moni- 
 tion of  the  bishops  or  archdeacons,  shall 
 neglect  to  do  the  same  for  the  space  of 
 two  months,  the  bishop  shall  cause  the 
 same  effectually  to  be  done,  at  the  cost 
 and  charges  of  such  clerk,  out  of  the  pro- 
 fits of  his  church  and  benefice,  by  the  au- 
 thority of  this  present  statute,  causing  so 
 much  thereof  to  be  received  as  shall  be 
 sufficient  for  such  reparation  :  the  chancels 
 also  of  the  church  they  shall  cause  to  be 
 repaired  by  those  who  are  bound  there- 
 unto according  as  is  above  expressed  ;  also 
 we  do  enjoin,  by  attestation  of  the  Divine 
 judgment,  the  archbishops  and  bishops, 
 and  other  inferior  prelates,  that  they  do 
 keep  in  repair  their  houses  and  other  edi- 
 fices, by  causing  such  reparation  to  be 
 made  as  they  know  to  be  needful." — See 
 13  Eliz.  c.  10  ;  17  Geo.  III.  c.  53  ;  21  Geo. 
 III.  c.  66 ;  Gibson^ s  Codex,  pp.  7ol — 754, 
 and  IIod(/m}i's  Instructions  to  the  Clerqy. 
 
 DIMISSORY  LETTERS.  In  the 'an- 
 cient Christian  Church,  they  Avere  letters 
 granted  to  the  clergy,  when  they  were  to 
 remove  from  their  own  diocese  and  settle 
 in  another,  to  testify,  that  they  had  the 
 bishop's  leave  to  depart ;  whence  they  were 
 called  Diinissoria,  and  sometimes  Tacijicce. 
 
 In  the  Church  of  England,  dimissory 
 u  2 
 
 letters  are  such  as  are  used  when  a  candi- 
 date for  holy  orders  has  a  title  in  one  dio- 
 cese, and  is  to  be  ordained  in  another ;  in 
 which  case  the  proper  diocesan  sends  his 
 letters,  directed  to  the  ordaining  bishop, 
 giving  leave  that  the  bearer  may  be  or- 
 dained by  him. 
 
 Persons  inferior  to  bishops  cannot  grant 
 these  letters,  unless  the  bishop  shall,  by 
 special  commission,  grant  this  power  to  his 
 vicar-gcneral ;  or  unless  the  bishop  be  at 
 a  great  distance  from  his  diocese,  in  which 
 case  his  vicar-general  in  spirituals  may 
 grant  such  licence  as  the  chapter  of  a 
 cathedral  may  do  sede  vacante ;  or,  lastly, 
 when  a  bishop  is  taken  prisoner  by  the 
 enemy,  for  then  the  chapter  exercises  the 
 same  rights  and  powers  as  if  the  bishop 
 were  naturally  dead. 
 
 DIOCESE.  The  circuit  of  a  bishop's 
 jurisdiction.  The  ecclesiastical  division  in 
 England  is,  primarily,  into  two  provinces, 
 those  of  Canterbury  and  York.  In  Ireland 
 into  two,  Armagh  and  Dublin  ;  till  lately, 
 however,  into  four,  Cashel  and  Tuam,  be- 
 sides the  two  now  mentioned.  A  province 
 is  a  circuit  of  an  archbishop's  jurisdiction. 
 Each  province  contains  divers  dioceses,  or 
 sees  of  suffragan  bishops ;  whereof  Canter- 
 bury includes  twenty,  and  York  five.  Ar- 
 magh and  Dublin,  five  each ;  though  till 
 lately  Armagh  had  seven,  Dublin  three, 
 Cashel  five,  and  Tuam  three.  Though, 
 properly  speaking,  the  Irish  dioceses 
 are  far  more  numerous,  as  most  of  the 
 bishops  have  more  than  one  see  under 
 their  jui'isdiction;  which  nevertheless, 
 though  thus  united  as  to  episcopal  go- 
 vernment, have  their  separate  chapters, 
 ecclesiastical  officers,  &c.  Every  diocese 
 in  England  is  divided  into  archdeaconries, 
 and  each  archdeaconry  into  rural  dean- 
 eries, and  every  deanery  into  parishes. 
 In  Ireland,  there  is  but  one  archdeaconry 
 to  each  diocese,  though  in  two  instances, 
 those  of  Glendaloch  and  Aghadoe,  these 
 dioceses  have  been  so  long  united  to  the 
 adjacent  sees,  that  theii*  boundaries  are 
 now  unknown,  and  consequently  the  dio- 
 cese of  Dublin  and  Ardfert  have  appar- 
 ently, though  not  really,  two  archdeacons 
 each.  The  division  into  rural  deaneries 
 and  parishes  is  as  in  England. 
 
 The  division  of  the  Church  into  dioceses 
 may  be  viewed  as  a  natural  consequence 
 of  the  institution  of  the  ofiice  of  bishops. 
 The  authority  to  exercise  jurisdiction,  when 
 committed  to  several  hands,  requires  that 
 some  boundaries  be  defined  within  which 
 each  party  may  employ  his  powers  ;  other- 
 wise disorder  and  confusion  would  ensue, 
 and  the  Church,  instead  of  being  benefited 
 
292 
 
 DIOCESE. 
 
 DIRECTORY. 
 
 by  the  appointment  of  governors,  might 
 be  exposed  to  the  double  calamity  of  an 
 overplus  of  them  in  one  district,  and  a  total 
 deficiency  of  them  in  another.  Hence  we 
 find,  so  early  as  the  New  Testament  his- 
 tory, some  plain  indications  of  the  rise  of 
 the'  diocesan  system,  in  the  cases  respect- 
 ively of  James,  bishop  of  Jerusalem; 
 Timothy,  bishop  of  Ephesus;  Titus,  of 
 Crete,  to  whom  may  be  added  the  "  angels  " 
 or  bishops  of  the  seven  churches  in  Asia. 
 These  were  placed  in  cities,  and  had  juris- 
 diction over  the  churches  and  inferior 
 clergy  in  those  cities,  and  probably  in  the 
 country  adjacent.  The  first  dioceses  were 
 formed  by  planting  a  bishop  in  a  city  or 
 considerable  village,  where  he  officiated  re- 
 gularly, and  took  the  spiritual  charge,  not 
 only  of  the  city  itself,  but  of  the  suburbs,  or 
 region  lying  round  about  it,  within  the 
 verge  of  its  [civil]  jurisdiction  ;  which 
 seems  to  be  the  plain  reason  of  that  great 
 and  visible  difference  which  we  find  in  the 
 extent  of  dioceses,  some  being  very  large, 
 others  very  small,  according  as  the  civil 
 government  of  each  city  happened  to  have 
 a  larger  or  lesser  jurisdiction. 
 
 Thus,  in  our  own  Church,  there  were  at 
 first  only  seven  bishoprics,  and  these  were 
 commensurate  with  the  Saxon  kingdoms. 
 Since  that  time  our  Church  has  thought  fit 
 to  lessen  the  size  of  her  dioceses,  and  to 
 multiply  them  into  above  twenty ;  and  if 
 she  thought  fit  to  add  forty  or  a  hundred 
 more,  she  would  not  be  without  precedent 
 in  the  primitive  Church.  It  is  a  great 
 misfortune  to  the  Church  of  England  that 
 her  dioceses,  compared  with  the  popula- 
 tion, are  so  extensive  and  so  few.  It  is 
 impossible  for  our  bishops  to  perform  all 
 their  canonical  duties,  such  as  visiting 
 miJiually  every  parish  in"  the  diocese,  in- 
 specting schools.  Divine  service,  instruc- 
 tion, &c.,  besides  baptizing,  confirming, 
 consecrating.  Episcopal  extension,  as  well 
 as  Church  extension,  is  most  important. 
 "VVe  must  seek  to  add  to  the  number  of  our 
 bishops.  There  will  be  prejudices  and 
 difficulties  for  some  time  to  be  overcome 
 on  the  part  of  the  State,  which  is  not  suffi- 
 ciently religious  to  tolerate  an  increase  in 
 the  number  of  spiritual  peers.  An  addition 
 to  the  nimibcr  of  our  spiritual  peers  is 
 however  not  what  we  seek,  but  that  our 
 spiritual  pastors  may  be  more  numerous. 
 
 The  ancient  bishoprics  being  baronies, 
 the  possessors  of  them  might  sit  in  parlia- 
 ment ;  while  the  new  bishoprics,  not  having 
 baronies  attached,  might  only  quaUfy  for  a 
 seat  in  the  upper  house  of  convocation. 
 The  beginning  of  a  new  system  was  made 
 on  the  erection  of  the  see  of  Manchester, 
 
 in  1847,  since  which  time  the  junior  bishop 
 has  no  seat  in  the  House  of  Lords. 
 
 DIOCESAN.  A  bishop,  as  he  stands 
 related  to  his  diocese.  (See  Bishop.) 
 DIPPERS.  (See  Dunkers.) 
 DIPTYCH.  A  kind  of  sacred  book,  or 
 register,  made  use  of  in  the  ancient  Chris- 
 tian Church,  and  in  which  were  written 
 the  names  of  such  eminent  bishops,  saints, 
 and  mart}TS,  as  were  particularly  to  be 
 commemorated,  just  before  oblation  was 
 made  for  the  dead.  It  Avas  called  diptych 
 {SiiTTvxog)  from  its  being  folded  together ; 
 and  it  was  the  deacon's  oliice  to  recite  the 
 names  written  in  it,  as  occasion  required. 
 Some  distinguish  three  sorts  of  diptychs : 
 one,  wherein  the  names  of  bishops  only 
 were  written,  such  especially  as  had  been 
 governors  of  that  particular  church ;  a 
 second,  in  which  the  names  of  the  living 
 were  written,  such  in  particular  as  were 
 eminent  for  any  office  or  dignity,  or  some 
 benefaction  and  good  work,  in  which  rank 
 were  bishops,  emperors,  and  magistrates  ; 
 lastly,  a  third,  containing  the  names  of 
 such  as  were  deceased  in  catholic  com- 
 munion. 
 
 Theodoret  mentions  these  kind  of  regis- 
 ters in  relation  to  the  case  of  St.  Chry- 
 sostom,  whose  name,  for  some  time,  was 
 left  out  of  the  diptychs,  because  he  died 
 under  the  sentence  of  excommunication, 
 pronounced  against  him  by  Theophilus, 
 bishop  of  Alexandria,  and  other  Eastern 
 bishops,  with  whom  the  Western  Church 
 would  not  communicate  until  they  had 
 replaced  his  name  in  the  diptychs ;  for, 
 to  erase  a  person's  name  out  of  these 
 books  was  the  same  thing  as  declaring  him 
 to  have  been  an  heretic,  or  some  way  de- 
 viating from  the  faith. — Binqham. 
 
 DIRECTORY.  A  kind  "of  regulation 
 for  the  performance  of  religious  worship, 
 drawn  up  by  the  Assembly  of  Divines  in 
 England,  at  the  instance  of  the  parliament, 
 in  the  year  1 G44.  It  was  designed  to  supply 
 the  place  of  the  Liturgy,  or  Book  of  Common 
 Prayer,  the  use  of  which  the  parliament 
 had  abolished.  It  consisted  only  of  some 
 general  heads,  which  were  to  be  managed 
 and  filled  up  at  discretion ;  for  it  pre- 
 scribed no  form  of  prayer  or  circumstances 
 of  external  worship,  nor  obliged  the  people 
 to  any  responses,  excepting  Amen.  The 
 use  of  the  Directory  was  enforced  by  an 
 ordinance  of  the  Lords  and  Commons  at 
 "Westminster,  which  was  repeated  August 
 3rd,  1645.  By  this  injunction,  the  Direc- 
 tory was  ordered  to  be  dispersed  and  pub- 
 lished in  all  parishes,  chapelries,  donatives, 
 &c.  In  opposition  to  this  injunction,  King 
 Charles  issued  a  proclamation  at  Oxford, 
 
DISCIPLE. 
 
 November  13tli,  1G45,  enjoiniiify  the  use  of 
 the  Common  Prayer  accordhij:;  to  hiw,  not- 
 withstanding: the  pretended  ordinances  for 
 the  new  Directory. 
 
 To  <2:ive  a  short  abstract  of  the  Directory : 
 It  forbids  all  salutations  and  civil  cere- 
 mony in  the  churches.  The  reading-  the 
 Scripture  in  the  coni^regation  is  declared 
 to  be  ])art  of  the  i)astoral  office.  All  the 
 canonical  books  of  the  Old  and  New  Tes- 
 tament (but  none  of  the  ApocrypJut)  are  to 
 be  publicly  read  in  the  vulgar  tongue. 
 How  large  a  portion  is  to  be  read  at  once 
 is  left  to  the  minister,  who  has  likewise  the 
 liberty  of  expoimdimj,  when  he  judges  it 
 necessary.  It  prescribes  heads  for  the 
 prayer  before  sermon ;  among  which  i)art 
 of  the  prayer  for  the  king  is,  to  save  hi/ii 
 from  evil  counsel.  It  delivers  rules  for 
 managing  the  sermon  ;  the  introduction  to 
 the  text  must  be  short  and  clear,  dra^vn 
 from  the  words  or  context,  or  some  parallel 
 place  of  Scripture ;  in  dividing  the  text, 
 the  minister  is  to  regard  the  order  of  the 
 matter  more  than  that  of  the  words ;  he 
 is  not  to  burden  the  memory  of  his 
 audience  with  too  many  divisions,  nor  per- 
 plex their  understandings  with  logical 
 phrases  and  terms  of  art;  he  is  not  to 
 start  unnecessary  objections;  and  he  is  to 
 be  very  sparing  in  citations  from  ecclesi- 
 astical, or  other  human  writers,  ancient  or 
 modern. 
 
 The  Directory  recommends  the  use  of 
 the  Lord's  Prayer,  as  the  most  perfect 
 model  of  devotion.  It  forbids  private  or 
 lay  persons  to  administer  baptism,  and  en- 
 joins it  to  be  performed  in  the  face  of  the 
 congregation.  It  orders  the  communion 
 table  at  the  Lord's  supper  to  be  so  placed 
 that  the  communicants  may  sit  about  it. 
 The  dead,  according  to  the  rules  of  the 
 Directory,  are  to  be  buried  without  any 
 prayers  or  religious  ceremony. 
 
 The  Iloman  Catholics  publish  an  annual 
 Directory  for  their  laity,  which  serves  the 
 l)urpose  of  a  book  of  reference  in  matters 
 of  ceremonial  as  settled  by  their  com- 
 munion.— Brouqhtou. 
 
 DISCIPLE,  "in  the  first  sense  of  the 
 word,  means  one  who  learns  any  thing 
 from  another.  Hence  the  followers  of  any 
 teacher,  philosopher,  or  head  of  a  sect,  are 
 usually  called  his  disciples.  In  the  Cliris- 
 tian  sense  of  the  term,  ilisciplcs  are  the 
 followers  of  Jesus  Christ  in  general ; 
 but,  in  a  more  restrained  sense,  it  denotes 
 those  who  were  the  inmiediate  followers 
 and  attendants  on  his  person.  The  names 
 disciple  and  apostle  are  often  used  synonym- 
 ously in  the  gospel  history;  but  sometimes 
 the  apostles  are   distinguished   from  dis- 
 
 DISCIPLINE,  ECCLESIASTICAL.     203 
 
 ciples,  as  ])ersons  selected  out  of  the  num- 
 ber of  discii)les,  to  be  the  jjrincipal  minis- 
 ters of  his  religion.  Of  these  there  were 
 twelve;  whereas  those  who  are  simply 
 styled  disciples  were  seventy,  or  seventy- 
 two,  in  nund)cr.  There  was  not  as  yet 
 any  catalogue  of  the  discii)les  in  Eusebius's 
 time,  i.  e.  in  the  fourth  century.  The 
 Latins  kept  the  festival  of  the  seventy  or 
 seventy-two  disciples  on  the  loth  of  July, 
 and  the  Greeks  on  4th  of  Januarv. 
 
 DISCIPLINE,  ECCLESLVSTICAL. 
 The  Christian  Church  being  a  spiritual 
 community  or  society  of  persons  j)rofessing 
 the  religion  of  Jesus,  and,  as  such,  govern- 
 ed by  spiritual  or  ecclesiastical  laws,  her 
 discipline  consists  in  putting  those  laws  in 
 execution,  and  inflicting  the  ])enallies  en- 
 joined by  them  against  several  sorts  of 
 otienders.  To  understand  the  true  nature 
 of  church  discipline,  we  must  consider  how 
 it  stood  in  the  ancient  Christian  Church. 
 And,  first. 
 
 The  primitive  Church  never  i)retcnded 
 to  exercise  discipline  upon  any  but  such 
 as  were  within  her  pale,  in  the  largest 
 sense,  Ijy  some  act  of  their  own  profession  ; 
 and  even  upon  these  she  never  pretended 
 to  exercise  her  discipline  so  fiir  as  to  cancel 
 or  disannul  their  baptism.  Ihit  tlie  disci- 
 pline of  the  Church  consisted  in  a  power 
 to  deprive  men  of  the  benefits  of  external 
 communion,  such  as  public  prayer,  receiv- 
 ing the  eucharist,  and  other  acts  of  Divine 
 worship.  Tins  power,  before  the  establish- 
 ment of  the  Church  by  human  laws,  was  a 
 mere  spiritual  authority,  or,  as  St.  Cyprian 
 terms  it,  a  spiritual  sword,  aficcting  the 
 soul,  and  not  the  body.  Sometimes,  in- 
 deed, the  Church  craved  assistance  from 
 the  secular  power,  even  when  it  was  hea- 
 then, but  more  frequently  after  it  was  be- 
 come Christian.  But  it  is  to  be  observed, 
 that  the  Church  never  encouraged  the 
 magistrate  to  i)roceed  against  any  one  for 
 mere  error,  or  ecclesiastical  misdemeanour, 
 further  than  to  punish  the  delinquent  by 
 a  pecuniary  mulct,  or  bodily  punishment, 
 such  as  confiscation  or  banishment ;  and 
 St.  Austin  affirms,  that  no  good  men  in 
 the  Catholic  Church  were  ])lcascd  that 
 heretics  should  be  prosecuted  unto  death. 
 Lesser  punishments,  they  thought,  might 
 have  their  use,  as  means  sometimes  to  bring 
 them  to  consideration  and  repentance. 
 
 Nor  was  it  a  part  of  the  ancient  disci- 
 pline to  deprive  men  of  their  natural  or 
 civil  rites.  A  master  did  not  lose  hi.s 
 authority  over  his  family,  a  parent  over 
 his  children,  nor  a  magistrate  his  office  and 
 charge  in  the  state,  l)y  being  cast  out  of 
 the  Church.      But   the    discij)line  of  the 
 
294 
 
 DISPENSATION. 
 
 DIVORCE. 
 
 Church  bemg  a  mere  spiritual  power,  was 
 confined  to,  1.  The  admonition  of  the  of- 
 fender ;  2.  The  lesser  and  greater  excom- 
 munication. 
 
 As  to  the  objects  of  ecclesiastical  disci- 
 pline, they  were  all  such  delinquents  as 
 fell  into  great  and  scandalous  crimes  after 
 baptism,  whether  men  or  women,  priests 
 or  people,  rich  or  poor,  princes  or  subjects. 
 That  princes  and  magistrates  fell  under 
 the  Church's  censures,  may  be  proved  by 
 several  instances  ;  particularly  St.  Chry- 
 sostom  relates,  that  Baby  las  denied  com- 
 munion to  one  of  the  Koman  emperors  on 
 account  of  a  barbarous  murder  committed 
 by  him  :  St.  Ambrose  likcAvise  denied  com- 
 munion to  Maximus  for  shedding  the  blood 
 of  Gratian  ;  and  the  same  holy  bishop  ab- 
 solutely refused  to  admit  the  emperor 
 Theodosius  the  Great  into  his  church,  not- 
 withstanding his  humblest  entreaties,  be- 
 cause he  had  inhumanly  put  to  death  7000 
 men  at  Thessalonica,  without  distinguish- 
 ing the  innocent  from  the  guilty. 
 
 DISPENSATION.  The  providential 
 dealing  of  God  with  his  creatures.  We 
 thus  speak  of  the  Jewish  dispensation  and 
 the  Christian  dispensation.  (See  Covenant 
 of  Redemption.) 
 
 In  ecclesiastical  laAV,  by  dispensation  is 
 meant  the  power  vested  in  archbishops  of 
 dispensing,  on  particular  emergencies,  with 
 certain  minor  regulations  of  the  Church, 
 more  especially  in  her  character  as  an 
 establishment. 
 
 DISSENTERS.  Separatists  from  the 
 Church  of  England,  and  the  service  and 
 worship  thereof,  v.hether  Protestants  or 
 Papists.  At  the  Revolution  a  law  was 
 enacted,  that  the  statutes  of  Elizabeth  and 
 James  I.,  concerning  the  discipline  of  the 
 Chm-ch,  should  not  extend  to  Protestant 
 Dissenters.  But  persons  dissenting  were 
 to  subscribe  the  declaration  of  30  Car.  II. 
 c.  1,  and  take  the  oath  or  declaration  of 
 fidelity,  kc.  They  are  not  to  hold  their 
 meetings  until  their  place  of  worship  is 
 certified  to  the  bishop,  or  to  the  justices  of 
 the  quarter  sessions,  and  registered  ;  also 
 they  are  not  to  keep  the  doors  of  their 
 meeting-houses  locked  during  the  time  of 
 worship.  Whoever  disturbs  or  molests  them 
 in  the  performance  of  their  worship,  on  con- 
 viction at  the  sessions,  is  to  forfeit  £20  by 
 the  statute  of  1  W.  &  M.—Brom/hton. 
 
 At  the  present  time  there  are  in  England 
 34  dissenting  communities  or  sects ;  26  na- 
 tive or  indigenous,  9  foreign. 
 
 PROTESTANT  SECTS. 
 
 Scottish  Presbyterians  : 
 Church  of  Scotland. 
 
 United  Preshjterian  Synod. 
 
 Prcshyterian  Church  in  England. 
 Independents,  or  Congregationalists. 
 Baptists : 
 
 Getieral. 
 
 Particular. 
 
 Seventh  Day. 
 
 Scotch. 
 
 New  Connexion  General. 
 Society  of  Friends. 
 Unitarians. 
 
 ^Moravians,  or  United  Brethren. 
 AVesleyan  Methodists : 
 
 Original  Connexion. 
 
 New  Connexio7i. 
 
 Primitive  Methodists. 
 
 Bible  Christians. 
 
 Weslcyan  Association. 
 
 Independent  3Iethodists. 
 
 Wesley  an  Reformers. 
 Calvinistic  Methodists : 
 
 Welsh  Calvinistic  3Iethodists. 
 
 Countess  of  Huntingdon''  s  Connexion. 
 Sandemanians,  or  Glassites. 
 New  Church. 
 Brethren. 
 FOREIGN : 
 Lutherans. 
 
 German  Protestant  Reformers. 
 Reformed  Church  of  the  Netherlands. 
 French  Protestants. 
 
 OTHER  CHRISTIAN  SECTS. 
 
 Roman  Catholics. 
 
 Greek  Church. 
 
 German  Catholics. 
 
 Italian  Reformers. 
 
 Irvingites,    or   Catholic    and   Apostolic 
 
 Church. 
 Latter-day  Saints,  or  Mormons. 
 JE  ]VS. 
 
 JRegistrar-generaTs  Report. 
 
 DIVINE.  Something  relating  to  GoD ; 
 a  minister  of  the  gospel ;  a  priest ;  a  theo- 
 logian.    (See  Clerqy.) 
 
 DIVINITY.  the  science  of  Divine 
 things ;  theology ;  a  title  of  the  Godhead. 
 (See  Theology.)  In  strictness,  meaning  that 
 department  of  sacred  knowledge  which  has 
 more  peculiar  reference  to  the  attributes 
 and  essence  of  God. 
 
 DIVORCE.  A  separation  of  a  married 
 man  and  woman  by  the  sentence  of  an  ec- 
 clesiastical judge  qualified  to  pronounce 
 the  same. 
 
 Among  us,  divorces  are  of  two  kinds,  a 
 mensd  et  thoro,  from  bed  and  board ;  and 
 a  vinculo  matrimonii,  from  the  marriage  tie. 
 The  former  neither  dissolves  the  marriage, 
 nor  debars  the  woman  of  her  dower,  nor 
 bastardizes  the  issue;   but  the  latter  ab- 
 
DOCETiE. 
 
 solutoly  dissolves  the  marriage  contract, 
 making  it  void  from  the  very  beginning. 
 The  causes  of  a  divorce  d  mensd  et  thoro 
 are  adultery,  cruelty  of  the  husband,  &c. ; 
 those  of  a  divorce  d  rincnlo  matriinonii, 
 precontract,  consanguinity,  impotency,  ^:c. 
 On  this  divorce  the  dower  is  gone,  and  the 
 children,  if  any  begotten,  bastardized.  On 
 a  divorce  for  adultery,  some  acts  of  parlia- 
 ment have  allowed  the  innocent  person  to 
 marry  agahi. 
 
 DOCETiE.  Heretics,  so  called  airb 
 Tov  doKuii'  (apparere),  because  they  taught 
 that  our  Lord  had  only  a  seeniinr/  body, 
 and  that  his  actions  and  sufferings  were 
 not  in  reality,  but  in  appearance.  There 
 was  in  the  second  century  a  sect  Avhich 
 especially  bore  this  name  ;  but  the  Docetic 
 error  was  common  to  many  kinds  of  Gnos- 
 tics. (See  Gnostics.) 
 
 DOCTOK.  One  who  has  the  highest 
 degree  in  the  faculties  of  divinity,  law, 
 physic,  or  music.  (See  Der/ree.) 
 
 DOCTRINE.  A  system  of  teaching. 
 By  Christian  doctrine  should  be  intended 
 the  principles  or  positions  of  the  Holy 
 Catholic  and  Apostolic  Church. 
 
 DOGMA.  A  word  used  originally  to 
 express  any  doctrine  of  religion  formally 
 stated.  Dofpnatic  theology  is  the  statement 
 of  positive  truths  in  religion.  The  indiffer- 
 ence of  later  generations  to  positive  truth 
 is  indicated,  among  other  things,  by  the 
 diff'erent  notion  which  has  come  to  be 
 attached,  in  common  discourse,  to  these 
 words.  By  a  dogma  is  now  generally 
 meant  too  positive  or  harsh  a  statement  of 
 uncertain  or  unimportant  articles  ;  and  the 
 epithet  doginatie  is  given  to  one  who  is 
 rude  or  obtrusive,  or  overbearing  in  the 
 statement  of  what  he  judges  to  be  true. 
 
 DOMINICAL  or  SUNDAY  LETTER. 
 In  the  calendar,  the  first  seven  letters  of 
 the  alphabet  are  applied  to  the  days  of  the 
 week,  the  letter  A  being  always  given  to 
 the  1st  of  January,  whatsoever  that  day 
 may  be,  and  the  others  in  succession  to  the 
 following  days.  If  tlie  year  consisted  of 
 364  days,  making  an  exact  number  of 
 weeks,  it  is  evident  that  no  change  would 
 ever  take  place  in  these  letters  :  thus,  sup- 
 j)Osing  the  1st  of  January  in  any  given 
 year  to  be  Sunday,  all  the  Sundays  would 
 be  represented  by  A,  not  only  in  that  )'ear, 
 but  in  all  succeeding.  There  being,  how- 
 ever, 365  days  in  the  year,  the  first  letter 
 is  again  repeated  on  the  31st  of  December, 
 and  consequently  the  Sunday  letter  for  the 
 following  year  will  be  G.  This  retroces- 
 sion of  the  letters  will,  from  the  same 
 cause,  continue  every  year,  so  as  to  make 
 F  the   dominical  letter  of  tlie  third,  &c. 
 
 DOMINICAN  MONKS. 
 
 295 
 
 If  every  year  were  common,  the  process 
 would  continue  regularly,  and  a  cycle  of 
 seven  years  would  sufhce  to  restore  the 
 same  letters  to  the  same  days  as  before. 
 But  the  intercalation  of  a  day,  every  bis- 
 sextile or  fourth  year,  has  occasioned  a 
 variation  in  this  respect.  The  bissextile 
 year,  containing  366  instead  of  36.3  days, 
 will  throw  the  dominical  letter  of  the  fol- 
 lowing year  back  two  letters,  so  that  if  the 
 dominical  letter  at  the  beginning  of  the 
 year  be  C,  the  dominical  letter  of  tlie  next 
 year  will  be,  not  B,  but  A.  This  alteration 
 is  not  effected  by  dropping  a  letter  alto- 
 gether, but  by  changing  the  dominical  let- 
 ter at  the  end  of  February,  where  the 
 intercalation  of  a  day  takes  place.  In  con- 
 sequence of  this  change  every  fourth  year, 
 twenty-eight  years  nnist  elapse  before  a 
 complete  revolution  can  take  ])lace  in  the 
 dominical  letter,  and  it  is  on  this  circum- 
 stance that  the  period  of  the  solar  cycle  is 
 founded. 
 
 DOMINICAN  MONKS.  The  religious 
 order  of  Dominic,  or  friars  2>}'cac/iers; 
 called  in  England  Black  friars,  and  in 
 France  Jacobins. 
 
 Dominic  de  Guzman  was  born  in  the  year 
 1170,  at  Calaruega,  a  small  town  of  the  dio- 
 cese of  Osma,  in  Old  Castile.  According  to 
 the  Romish  legend,  his  mother,  being  with 
 child  of  him,  dreamed  she  was  delivered  of 
 a  little  dog,  which  gave  light  to  all  the 
 world,  with  a  flambeau  in  his  mouth.  At 
 six  years  of  age  he  began  to  study  human- 
 ity under  the  direction  of  his  uncle,  who 
 was  arch-priest  of  the  church  of  Gumyel 
 de  Ystan.  The  time  he  had  to  s])are  from 
 his  studies  was  spent  in  assisting  at  divine 
 offices,  singing  in  the  churches,  and  adorn- 
 ing the  altars.  At  thirteen  years  of  age, 
 he  was  sent  to  the  university  of  Palencia, 
 in  the  kingdom  of  Leon,  where  he  spent 
 six  years  in  the  study  of  philosophy  and 
 divinity.  From  that  time  he  devoted  him- 
 self to  all  manner  of  religious  austerities, 
 and  he  employed  his  time,  successfully, 
 in  the  conversion  of  sinners  and  heretics. 
 This  raised  his  reputation  so  high,  that  tlie 
 bishop  of  Osma,  resolving  to  reform  the 
 canons  of  his  church,  cast  his  eyes  upon 
 Dominic  for  that  jiurpose,  whom  he  in- 
 vited to  take  u})on  him  tlie  habit  of  a  canon 
 in  the  church  of  Osma.  Accordingly, 
 Dominic  astonished  and  edified  the  canons 
 of  Osma  by  liis  extraordinary  humility, 
 mortification,  and  other  virtues.  Some 
 time  after,  Dominic  was  ordained  priest 
 by  the  bishoj)  of  Osma,  and  was  made 
 sub-])rior  of  the  chapter.  That  prelate, 
 making  a  scru])le  of  confining  so  great  a 
 treasure  to  his  own  church,  sent  Dominic 
 
296 
 
 DOMINICAN  MONKS. 
 
 out  to  exercise  the  ministry  of  an  evan- 
 gelical preacher ;  accordingly,  he  went 
 through  several  provinces,  as  Galicia,  Cas- 
 tile, and  Aragon,  converting  many,  till,  in 
 the  year  1204,  the  bishop  of  Osma,  being 
 sent  ambassador  into  France,  took  Dominic 
 with  him.  In  their  passage  through  Lan- 
 guedoc,  they  were  ■witnesses  of  the  deso- 
 lation occasioned  by  the  Alhir/eyises,  and 
 obtained  leave  of  Pope  Innocent  III.  to 
 stay  some  time  in  that  country,  and  labour 
 on  the  conversion  of  those  heretics.  Here  it 
 was  that  Dominic  resolved  to  put  in  execu- 
 tion the  design  he  had  long  formed,  of  insti- 
 tuting a  religious  order,  whose  principal 
 employment  should  be,  preaching  the  gos- 
 pel, converting  heretics,  defending  the 
 faith,  and  propagating  Christianity.  By 
 degrees  he  collected  together  several  per- 
 sons, inspired  with  the  same  zeal,  whose 
 number  soon  increased  to  sixteen.  Pope 
 Innocent  III.  confirmed  this  institution,  at 
 the  request  of  Dominic,  who  went  to  Rome 
 for  that  purpose.  They  then  agreed  to 
 embrace  the  rule  of  St.  Augustine,  to  which 
 they  added  statutes  and  constitutions  which 
 had'  formerly  been  observed  either  by  the 
 Carthusians,  or  the  Premonstratenses.  The 
 principal  articles  enjoined  perpetual  silence, 
 abstinence  from  flesh  at  all  tmies,  wearing 
 of  woollen,  rigorous  poverty,  and  several 
 other  austerities. 
 
 The  first  monasteiy  of  this  order  was 
 established  at  Toulouse,  by  the  bounty  of 
 the  bishop  of  Toulouse,  and  Simon  earl  of 
 Montfort.  From  thence  Dominic  sent  out 
 some  of  the  community  to  several  parts,  to 
 labour  in  preaching,  which  was  the  main 
 design  of  his  institute.  In  the  year  1218 
 he  founded  the  convent  of  Dominicans  at 
 Paris,  in  the  Rue  St.  Jaques,  from  whence 
 they  had  the  name  of  Jacohms.  At  ]Metz, 
 in  Germany,  he  founded  another  monastery 
 of  his  order ;  and  another,  soon  after,  at 
 Venice.  At  Rome,  he  obtained  of  Pope 
 Honorius  III.  the  church  of  St.  Sabina, 
 where  he  and  his  companions  took  the 
 habit  which  they  pretended  the  Blessed 
 Virgin  showed  to  the  holy  Ilenaud  of 
 Orleans,  being  a  white  garment  and 
 scapular,  to  Avhich  they  added  a  black 
 mantle  and  hood  ending  in  a  point.  In 
 1221,  the  order  had  sixty  monasteries, 
 being  divided  into  eight  provinces,  those 
 of  Spain,  Toulouse,  France,  Lombardy, 
 Rome,  Provence,  Germany,  and  England. 
 St.  Dominic,  having  thus  settled  and  en- 
 larged his  order,  died  at  Bologna,  August 
 4th,  1221,  and  was  canonized  by  Pope 
 Gregory  IX.,  July  13th,  1234. 
 
 The  order  of  the  Dominicans,  after  the 
 death  of  their  founder,  made  a  very  con- 
 
 siderable progress  in  Europe  and  elsewhere. 
 They  therefore  erected  four  new  provinces, 
 namely,  those  of  Greece,  Poland,  Denmark, 
 and  the  Holy  Land.  Afterwards  the  num- 
 ber of  monasteries  increased  to  such  a  de- 
 gree, that  the  order  was  divided  into  forty- 
 five  provinces,  having  spread  itself  into  all 
 parts  of  the  Avorld.  It  has  produced  a  great 
 number  of  martyrs,  confessors,  bishops,  and 
 holy  virgins :  there  are  reckoned  of  this 
 order  3  popes,  60  cardinals,  150  arch- 
 bishops, 800  bishops,  besides  the  masters 
 of  the  sacred  palace,  who  have  always  been 
 Dominicans. 
 
 There  are  iiuns  of  this  order,  who  owe 
 their  foundation  to  St.  Dominic  himself, 
 who,  whilst  he  was  labouring  on  the  con- 
 version of  the  Albigenses,  was  so  much 
 concerned  to  see  that  some  gentlemen  of 
 Guienne,  not  having  wherewith  to  main- 
 tain their  daughters,  either  sold  or  gave 
 them  to  be  brought  up  by  heretics,  that, 
 with  the  assistance  of  the  archbishop  of 
 Narbonne,  and  other  charitable  persons, 
 he  laid  the  foundation  of  a  monastery  at 
 Prouille,  where  those  poor  maids  might  be 
 brought  up,  and  supplied  with  all  neces- 
 saries for  their  subsistence.  The  habit 
 of  these  religious  was  a  white  robe,  a 
 tawny  mantle,  and  a  black  veil.  Their 
 founder  obliged  them  to  work  at  certain 
 hours  of  the  day,  and  particularly  to  spin 
 yarn  and  flax.  The  nuns  of  this  order 
 had  above  130  houses  in  Italy,  45  in 
 France,  50  in  Spain,  15  in  Portugal,  40  in 
 Germany,  and  many  in  Poland,  Russia,  and 
 other  countries.  They  never  eat  flesh, 
 excepting  in  sickness  ;  they  wear  no  linen, 
 and  lie  on  straw  beds  ;  but  many  monas- 
 teries have  mitigated  this  austerity. 
 
 In  the  year  1221,  Dominic  sent  Gilbert 
 du  Fresney,  with  twelve  brothers,  into 
 England,  where  they  founded  their  first 
 house  at  Oxford  the  same  year,  and  soon 
 after  another  at  London.  In  the  year 
 1276,  the  mayor  and  aldermen  of  the  city 
 of  London  gave  them  two  streets  by  the 
 river  Thames,  where  they  had  a  very  com- 
 modious monastery  ;  whence  that  place  is 
 still  called  Black  Friars.  They  had  mon- 
 asteries likewise  at  Warwick,  Canterbury, 
 Stamford,  Chelmsford,  Dunwich,  Ipswich, 
 Norwich,  Thetford,  Exeter,  Brecknock, 
 Langley,  and  Guildford. 
 
 The  i)ominicans,  being  fortified  with  an 
 authority  from  the  court  of  Rome  to  preach 
 and  take  confessions,  made  great  encroach- 
 ments upon  the  English  bishops  and  the 
 parochial  clergy,  insisting  upon  a  liberty 
 of  preaching  wherever  they  thought  fit. 
 And  many  persons  of  quality,  especially 
 women,  deserted  from  the  parochial  clergy, 
 
DONATISTS. 
 
 DONATIVE. 
 
 297 
 
 Mid  confessed  to  the  Dominicans,  insomuch 
 that  the  character  of  the  secular  clero^y 
 ■\vfis  greatly  sunk  thereby-  This  innovation 
 made  ^vay  for  a  dissoluteness  of  manners ; 
 for  the  people,  being  under  no  necessity  of 
 confessing  to  their  parish  priest,  broke 
 through  their  duty  with  less  reluctancy,  in 
 hopes  of  meeting  with  a  Dominican  con- 
 fessor, those  friars  being  generally  in  a 
 travelling  motion,  making  no  stay  where 
 they  came,  and  strangers  to  their  penitents. 
 — Brouqhton. 
 
 DONATISTS.  Schismatics,  originally 
 partisans  of  Donatus,  an  African  by  birth, 
 and  bishop  of  Casce  Nigrcp,  in  Numidia. 
 A  secret  hatred  against  Cecilian,  elected 
 bishop  of  Carthage,  notwithstanding  the 
 opposition  of  Donatus,  excited  the  latter 
 to  form  one  of  the  most  pernicious  schisms 
 that  ever  disturbed  the  peace  of  the  Church, 
 He  accused  Cecihan  of  having  delivered 
 up  the  sacred  books  to  the  Pagans,  and 
 pretended  that  his  election  was  thereby 
 void,  and  all  those  who  adhered  to  him 
 heretics.  Under  this  false  pretext  of  zeal 
 for  the  Church,  he  set  up  for  the  head  of 
 a  party,  and  about  the  year  312,  taught 
 that  baptism,  administered  by  heretics, 
 was  null ;  that  the  Church  was  not  infal- 
 lible ;  that  it  had  erred  in  his  time ;  and 
 that  he  was  to  be  the  restorer  of  it.  But 
 a  council,  held  at  Aries  in  314,  acquitted 
 Cecilian,  and  declared  his  election  valid. 
 
 The  schismatics,  irritated  at  this  sen- 
 tence, refused  to  acquiesce  in  the  decisions 
 of  the  council ;  and  the  more  firmly  to  sup- 
 port their  cause,  they  thought  it  better  to 
 subscribe  to  the  opinions  of  Donatus,  and 
 openly  to  declaim  against  the  Catholics : 
 they  gave  out,  that  the  Church  was  become 
 prostituted  ;  they  re-baptized  the  Catho- 
 lics ;  they  trod  under  foot  the  eucharist 
 consecrated  by  priests  of  the  Catholic  com- 
 munion; they  overthrew  their  altars,  burn- 
 ed their  churches,  and  ran  up  and  down 
 decrying  the  Church.  (See  CircumcclUans.) 
 They  had  chosen  into  the  place  of  Cecilian 
 one  Majorinus  ;  but  he  dying  soon  after, 
 they  brought  in  one  Donatus,  different 
 from  him  of  CascB  Nirira. 
 
 This  new  head  of  the  cabal  used  so 
 much  violence  against  the  C'atholics,  that 
 the  schismatics  took  their  name  from  him. 
 But  as  they  could  not  prove  that  they 
 composed  a  true  Church,  they  sent  one  of 
 their  bishops  to  Rome,  who  secretly  took 
 upon  him  the  title  of  bishop  of  Home. 
 This  bishop  being  dead,  the  Donatists  ap- 
 pointed hhn  a  successor.  They  attempted 
 likewise  to  send  some  bishops  into  Spain, 
 that  they  might  say,  their  Cliurch  began 
 to  spread  itself   everywhere ;  but    it  was 
 
 only  in  Africa  that  it  could  gain  any  con- 
 siderable footing,  and  this  want  of  difl'u- 
 sion  was  much  insisted  on  by  their  op- 
 ponents as  an  argument  against  their  pre- 
 tensions. 
 
 After  many  vain  efforts  to  crush  this 
 schism,  the  emperor  Ilonorius  assembled 
 a  council  of  bishops  at  Carthage,  in  the 
 year  410;  where  a  disputation  was  held 
 between  seven  of  each  party.  Marcellinus, 
 the  emperor's  de])uty,  who  presided  in 
 that  assembly,  decided  in  favour  of  the 
 Catholics,  and  ordered  them  to  take  pos- 
 session of  all  the  churches,  which  the 
 Donatist  bishops  had  seized  on  by  vio- 
 lence, or  otherwise.  This  decree  exasper- 
 ated the  Donatists ;  but  the  Catholic 
 bishops  used  so  much  wisdom  and  pru- 
 dence, that  they  insensibly  brought  over 
 most  of  those  who  had  strayed  from  the 
 bosom  of  the  Church.  It  appears,  how- 
 ever, that  the  schism  was  not  quite  extinct 
 till  the  7th  century. — Brou(/hton. 
 
 DONATIVE.  A  donative  is  when  the 
 king,  or  any  subject  by  his  licence,  founds 
 a  church  or  chapel,  and  ordains  that  it 
 shall  be  merely  in  the  gift  or  disposal  of 
 the  patron,  and  vested  absolutely  in  the 
 clerk  by  the  patron's  deed  of  donation, 
 without  presentation,  institution,  or  induc- 
 tion. This  is  said  to  have  been  anciently 
 the  only  way  of  conferring  ecclesiastical 
 benefices  in  England ;  the  method  of  in- 
 stitution by  the  bishop  not  being  estab- 
 lished more  early  than  the  time  of  Arch- 
 bishop Becket  in  the  reign  of  Henry  II. 
 And  therefore  Pope  Alexander  III.,  {De- 
 cretal, 1.  3,  t.  7,  c.  3,)  in  a  letter  to  Becket, 
 severely  inveighs  against  the  prava  con- 
 siietudo,  as  he  calls  it,  of  investiture  con- 
 ferred by  the  patron  only  :  this  however 
 show^s  what  was  then  the  common  usage. 
 Others  contend,  that  the  claim  of  the 
 bishops  to  institution  is  as  old  as  the  first 
 planting  of  Christianity  in  this  island ;  and, 
 in  proof  of  it,  they  allege  a  letter  from  the 
 English  nobility  to  the  pope  in  the  reign 
 of  Henry  III.,  recorded  by  Matthew  Paris, 
 (a.  d.  1239,)  which  speaks  of  presentation 
 to  the  bishoj)  as  a  thing  immemorial.  The 
 truth  seems  to  be  that,  where  a  benefice 
 was  to  be  conferred  on  a  mere  layman,  he 
 was  first  presented  to  the  bishop,  in  order 
 to  receive  ordination,  who  was  at  lilierty 
 to  examine  and  refuse  him  :  but  where 
 the  clerk  was  already  in  orders,  the  living 
 was  usually  vested  in  him  by  the  sole 
 donation  of  the  patron  ;  until  about  the 
 middle  of  the  twelfth  century,  when  the 
 po})e  endeavoured  to  introduce  a  kind  of 
 feudal  dominion  over  ecclesiastical  bene- 
 fices, and,  in  consequence  of  that,  began 
 
298   DONNELLAN  LECTURES. 
 
 DOXOLOGY. 
 
 to  claim  and  exercise  the  right  of  insti- 
 tution universally  as  a  species  of  spiritual 
 investiture. 
 
 By  the  act  14  &  15  Vict.  c.  97,  sec.  9, 
 the  right  of  perpetual  nomination  of  an 
 incumbent  may  be  acquired  by  the  person 
 or  body,  their  heirs,  Szc,  who  shall  procure 
 a  church  to  be  erected  and  endowed. 
 
 DOXNELL.\X  LKCTUIIES.  Mrs. 
 Anne  Donncllan,  in  the  last  century,  be- 
 queathed a  sum  of  £1243  to  the  college 
 of  Dublin,  for  the  encouragement  of  reli- 
 gion, learning,  and  good  manners ;  the 
 application  of  the  sum  being  intrusted  to 
 the  provost  and  senior  fellows  ;  who,  con- 
 sequently, in  1794,  resolved,  that  a  lecturer 
 should  be  annually  appointed  to  preach 
 six  lectures  in  the  college  chapel :  the 
 subject  of  the  lectures  for  each  year  being 
 determined  by  them.  The  other  regulations 
 are .  analogous  to  those  of  the  Barapton 
 Lectures  at  Oxford.  Many  distinguished 
 works  have  been  the  fruits  of  this  Lec- 
 ture :  among  them  may  be  mentioned  Dr. 
 Graves's  Lectures  on  the  Pentateuch,  Ai*ch- 
 bishop  ]\Iagee  on  Prophecy,  &c. 
 
 DORMITORY,  DORTOR,  or  DOR- 
 TURE.  The  sleeping  apartment  in  a  mon- 
 astic institution. 
 
 A  place  of  sepulture  is  also  so  called, 
 with  reference,  like  the  word  cemetery, 
 which  has  the  same  meaning,  to  the  re- 
 surrection, at  which  time  the  bodies  of  the 
 saints,  which  for  the  present  repose  in  their 
 graves,  shall  arise,  or  awake.  But  it  must 
 be  borne  in  mind,  that  the  word  has  refer- 
 ence to  the  sleep  of  the  body,  and  not  of 
 the  soul,  which  latter  was  never  an  article 
 of  the  Christian  faith. 
 
 DORT.  The  Synod  of  Dort  was  con- 
 vened to  compose  tlie  troubles  occasioned 
 by  the  celebrated  Arminian  controversy. 
 
 Arminius,  professor  of  divinity  at  Ley- 
 den,  had  received  his  theological  education 
 at  Geneva.  After  much  profound  medi- 
 tation on  the  abstruse  subject  of  predestin- 
 ation, he  became  dissatisfied  with  Calvin's 
 doctrine  of  the  absolute  decrees  of  God, 
 in  respect  to  the  salvation  and  perdition  of 
 man ;  and,  while  he  admitted  the  eternal 
 prescience  of  the  Deity,  he  held,  with  the 
 Roman  Catholic  Church,  that  no  mortal  is 
 rendered  finally  unhap])y,  by  an  eternal 
 and  invincible  decree  ;  and  that  the  misery 
 of  those  who  perish  comes  from  them- 
 selves. ]Many  who  were  eminent  for  their 
 talents_  and  learning,  and  some  who  filled 
 high  situations  in  Holland,  embraced  his 
 opinions ;  but,  apparently  at  least,  a  great 
 majority  sided  against  them.  The  most 
 active  of  these  M-as  Gomar,  the  colleague 
 of  Arminius  in  the  professorship.     Unfor- 
 
 tunately, politics  entered  into  the  contro- 
 versy. Most  of  the  friends  of  Arminius 
 were  of  the  party  which  opposed  the  poli- 
 tics of  the  Prince  of  Orange ;  while,  ge- 
 nerally, the  adversaries  of  Arminius  were 
 favourable  to  the  views  of  that  prince. 
 Barnevcldt  and  Grotius,  two  of  the  most 
 respectable  partisans  of  Arminius,  were 
 thrown  into  prison  for  their  supposed 
 practices  against  the  state.  The  former 
 perished  on  the  scafibld  ;  the  latter,  by  his 
 wife's  address,  escaped  from  prison.  AYhile 
 these  disturbances  were  at  the  highest, 
 Arminius  died. 
 
 On  his  decease,  the  superintendence  of 
 the  party  devolved  to  Episcopius,  who 
 was,  at  that  time,  professor  of  theology  at 
 Leyden,  and  universally  esteemed  for  his 
 learning,  his  judgment,  and  his  eloquence. 
 The  Arminian  cause  prospering  under  him, 
 the  opposite  party  took  the  alarm,  and,  in 
 1618,  a  s)iiod  was  called  at  Dort,  by  the 
 direction,  and  under  the  influence,  of 
 Prince  INIaurice.  It  was  attended  by  de- 
 puties from  the  United  Provinces,  and  from 
 the  Churches  of  England,  Hesse,  Bremen, 
 Switzerland,  and  the  I'alatinate. 
 
 The  synod  adopted  the  Belgic  Confes- 
 sion, decided  in  favour  of  absolute  decrees, 
 and  excommunicated  the  Arminians.  Its 
 canons  were  published  under  the  title  of 
 "  Judicium  Synodi  nationalis  reformata- 
 rum  ecclesiarum  habiti  Dordi'echti  anno 
 1618  et  1619,  de  quinque  doctrinae  capi- 
 tibus,  in  ecclesiis  Belgicis,  controversis : 
 Promulgatum  VI.  J\Iaii  MDCXIX.  4to." 
 It  concludes  the  Sylloge  Confessionum, 
 printed  at  the  Clarendon  press. — Butler* s 
 Confcfismi  of  Faith. 
 
 DOXOLOGY.  (See  Gloria  Patri.)  A 
 hprin  used  in  the  Divine  service  of  Chris- 
 tians. The  ancient  doxology  was  only  a 
 single  sentence,  without  a  response,  run- 
 ning in  these  Avords :  "  Glory  be  to  the 
 Father,  and  to  the  Son,  and  to  the  Holy 
 Ghost,  world  without  end.  Amen."  Part 
 of  the  latter  clause,  "  As  it  was  in  the  be- 
 ginning, is  now,  and  ever  shall  be,"  was 
 inserted  some  time  after  the  first  composi- 
 tion. The  fourth  Council  of  Toledo,  in 
 the  year  633,  added  the  word  "  honour"  to 
 it,  and  read  it,  "  Glory  and  honour  be  to 
 the  Father,"  t^-c,  because  the  prophet 
 David  says,  "Bring  glory  and  honour  to 
 the  Lord."  It  is  not  easy  to  say  at  what 
 time  the  latter  clause  was  inserted.  Some 
 ascribe  it  to  the  Council  of  Nice,  and  sup- 
 pose it  was  added  in  opposition  to  tho 
 Arians.  But  the  first  express  mention 
 made  of  it  is  in  the  second  Council  of  Vai- 
 son,  an.  529,  above  tAvo  centuries  later. 
 
 There  was  another  small  difference  in 
 
DOXOLOGY. 
 
 BUNKERS. 
 
 299 
 
 the  use  of  this  ancient  hymn ;  some  read- 
 ing it,  "  Glory  be  to  the  Father,  and  to 
 the  Son,  with  the  Holy  Ghost  ;"  others, 
 "  Glory  be  to  the  Father,  in  (or  by)  the 
 Son,  and  by  the  Holy  Ghost."  This  dif- 
 ference of  expression  occasioned  no  dis- 
 putes in  the  Church,  till  the  rise  of  the 
 Arian  heresy :  but,  "when  the  folloAvers  of 
 Arius  began  to  make  use  of  the  latter,  and 
 made  it  a  distinguishing  character  of  their 
 party,  it  was  entirely  laid  aside  by  the 
 Catholics,  and  the  use  of  it  was  enough  to 
 bring  any  one  under  suspicion  of  hetero- 
 doxy. 
 
 This  hymn  was  of  most  general  use,  and 
 was  a  doxology,  or  giving  of  praise  to 
 God,  at  the  close  of  every  solemn  office. 
 The  Western  Church  repeated  it  at  the 
 end  of  every  psalm,  with  some  few  excep- 
 tions ;  and  omitted  it  on  the  three  days 
 before  Easter,  and  in  offices  of  the  dead ; 
 and  the  Eastern  Church  used  it  only  at 
 the  end  of  the  last  psalm.  ISIany  of  their 
 prayers  were  also  concluded  with  it,  par- 
 ticularly the  solemn  thanksgiving,  or  con- 
 secration-prayer at  the  eucharist.  It  was 
 also  the  ordinary  conclusion  of  their  ser- 
 mons. 
 
 There  was  likewise  another  hymn,  of 
 great  note  in  the  ancient  Church,  called  the 
 great  doxology,  or  angelical  hymn,  begin- 
 ning with  those  words,  which  the  angels 
 sung  at  our  Saviour's  birth,  "  Glory  be  to 
 God  on  high,"  8cc.  This  was  chiefly  used 
 in  the  Communion  Service.  It  was  also 
 used  daily  in  men's  private  devotions.  In 
 the  ]Mozarabic  liturgy  it  is  appointed  to  be 
 sung  before  the  lessons  on  Christmas  day. 
 St.  Chrysostom  often  mentions  it,  and  ob- 
 serves that  the  Ascetics,  or  Christians  who 
 had  retired  from  the  world,  met  together 
 daily  to  sing  this  hymn.  Who  first  com- 
 posed it,  adding  the  remaining  part  to  the 
 words  sung  by  the  angels,  is  uncertain. 
 Some  suppose  it  to  be  as  ancient  as  the 
 time  of  Lucian,  about  the  beginning  of  the 
 second  century.  Others  take  it  for  the 
 Gloria  Patri ;  which  is  a  dispute  as  diffi- 
 cult to  be  determined,  as  it  is  to  find  out 
 the  first  author  and  original  of  this  hymn. 
 
 Both  these  doxologies  have  a  place  in 
 the  liturgy  of  the  Church  of  England,  the 
 former  being  repeated  after  every  psalm, 
 the  latter  used  in  the  Communion  Service. 
 
 As  the  ancient  doxology  of  "  Glory  to 
 the  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Ghost"  was, 
 among  the  Christians,  a  solemn  profession 
 of  their  belief  in  the  Holy  Trinity,  so  the 
 Mohammedans,  by  their  doxology,  "  There 
 is  but  one  God,"  (to  which  they  sometimes 
 add,  "  and  Mohammed  is  his  prophet,") 
 which  they  use  both  in  their  public  and 
 
 private  prayers,  and  in  their  acclamations, 
 suificiently  show  their  disbelief  of  a  Trinity 
 of  persons  in  the  Godhead. — Bim/hnnt. 
 
 DKIPSTONE.  In  church  architecture, 
 the  projecting  moulding  which  crowns 
 doors,  windows,  and  other  arches,  in  the 
 exterior  of  a  building. 
 
 DULCIXISTS.  Heretics,  so  denomin- 
 ated from  one  Dulcinus,  a  layman,  of  No- 
 vara  in  liOmbardy,  Avho  lived  in  the  begin- 
 ning of  the  14th  century.  He  pretended 
 to  i)reach  the  reign  of  the  Holy  Ghost  ; 
 and  while  he  justly  enough  rejected  the 
 pope's  authority,  he  foolishly  made  himself 
 to  be  the  head  of  that  third  reign,  saying, 
 that  the  Father  had  reigned  from'  the 
 beginning  of  the  world  to  the  coming  of 
 Christ  ;  and  the  Son's  reign  began  then, 
 and  continued  until  the  year  1:300.  He 
 was  followed  by  a  great  many  people  to  the 
 Alps,  where  he  and  his  wife  were  taken  and 
 burnt  by  the  order  of  Clement  IV. 
 
 DULIA.  {SovXtia.)  The  worship  paid 
 by  Komanists  to  saints  and  angels,  and  to 
 images.  Not  denying  that  all  these  are 
 made  by  them  objects  of  worship,  the  Pa- 
 pists invent  a  distinction  of  many  kinds 
 and  degrees  of  worship,  and  very  accu- 
 rately assign  to  each  object  of  worship  its 
 proper  amount  of  reverence.  The  lowest 
 degree  is  the  dnlia,  Avhich  is  given  to  saints 
 and  angels.  Hi/perdu/ia  {v7r(pcov\iia)  is 
 reserved  for  the  Blessed  Virgin  alone  :  and 
 Latria  {XarpHo)  is  given  to  the  Lord  him- 
 self, and  to  each  person  in  the  ever  blessed 
 and  glorious  Trinity.  Images  of  either  of 
 these  receive  a  relative  worship  of  the  same 
 order.  An  image  of  a  saint  or  angel,  fela- 
 tive  Dnlia  :  an  image  of  the  Blessed  Virgin, 
 relative  hyperdulia :  an  image  of  either 
 person  of  the  Blessed  Trinity,  relative 
 Latria.  (See  Idolatry,  Imar/es,  Invocation 
 of  Saints.) 
 
 HUNKERS,  or  DIPPEIIS.  A  sect  of 
 Baptists,  originating  (1724)  in  the  teaching 
 of  one  Conrad  Peysel  or  Beissel,  a  German, 
 in  Philadel])hia,  one  of  the  American  states. 
 They  are  distinguished  not  only  by  their 
 adherence  to  the  right  of  bai)tism  with  trine 
 immersion,  which,  like  other  Baptists,  they 
 of  course  confine  to  adults,  but  also  by 
 their  rigid  abstinence  from  flesh,  except 
 on  particular  occasions  ;  by  their  living  in 
 monastic  societies,  by  their  jK'culiar  garb, 
 like  that  of  the  Dominican  friars,  and  by 
 their  scruples  with  regard  to  resistance, 
 war,  slavery,  and  litigation.  Their  great 
 settlement  is  at  a  place  which  they  call 
 Euphrata,  in  allusion  to  the  lament  of  the 
 Hebrews  in  their  captivity,  which  they 
 used  to  pour  forth  to  their  harjis  as  they 
 sat  on  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates, 
 
)00 
 
 EAGLE. 
 
 EAST. 
 
 EAGLE.  A  frequent,  and  the  most 
 beautiful,  form  of  the  lectern  for  reading- 
 the  lessons  from  in  churches.  It  has  i)ro- 
 bably  some  reference  to  the  eagle,  which 
 is  the  symbolical  companion  of  St.  John, 
 in  ecclesiastical  design.  The  eagle  is  fre- 
 quently employed  in  foreign  churches,  but 
 generally  for  the  chanting  of  the  service, 
 not  for  the  lessons.  Sometimes  it  is  em- 
 ployed for  the  reading  of  the  Epistles  and 
 Gospels,  and  there  are  instances  of  one 
 being  on  each  side  of  the  choir  or  chancel. 
 Several  of  the  cathedrals  and  colleges  in 
 our  universities  have  this  kind  of  lec- 
 terns. Before  the  civil  Mars  in  1651,  there 
 ■vvas  in  the  cathedral  of  Waterford,  a 
 "great  standing  pelican  to  support  the 
 Bible,  a  brazen  eagle,"  and  other  orna- 
 ments.— lii/la?i(rs  Waterford.  Winchester 
 and  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge,  have  of 
 late  years  been  provided  uith  eagle  lec- 
 terns. The  "  Lederna  "  or  Bible  eagle  at 
 Peterborough  was  given  by  Abbot  Ramsay 
 and  John  Maldon  in  1471. — Dugd.  Monast. 
 cd.  1830,  i.  MA.—Jehh. 
 
 EAKLY  ENGLISH,  or  LANCET, 
 the  first  style  of  pure  Gothic  architecture, 
 fully  established  about  1190,  and  merging 
 in  the  Geometrical  about  1245.  The  Lan- 
 cet window  is  the  principal  characteristic 
 of  this  style ;  but  it  has,  besides,  various  pe- 
 culiarities, (see  Arcade,  Capital,  Moulding, 
 Vatdting,)  among  which  are  the  following  : 
 — The  door-ways  are  frequently  divided  by 
 a  central  shaft.  As  compared  with  the  pre- 
 ceding style,  the  buttresses  have  a  con- 
 siderable projection,  and  they  usually  ter- 
 minate in  a  plain  pediment.  The  flying 
 buttress  becomes  frequent.  Gables  are  of 
 very  high  pitch ;  the  parapet  usually  re- 
 tains the  corbel-table.  Piers  consist  of  a 
 circular  or  octagonal  shaft,  surrounded  by 
 four  or  eight  smaller  ones,  which  stand 
 free,  except  that,  when  of  great  length,  they 
 are  generally  banded  in  the  centre.  Pur- 
 beck  or  Petworth  marble  is  often  used  both 
 for  the  central,  which  is  really  the  bearing 
 shaft,  and  the  smaller  ones ;  but  in  this  case 
 the  marble  of  the  bearing  shaft  is  laid  as 
 in  the  quarry,  while  the  smaller  shafts  are 
 set  upwards,  for  the  sake  of  greater  length. 
 The  triforium  still  maintains  its  im])ort- 
 ance,  though  hardly  so  lofty  as  in  the  Nor- 
 man style  :  it  is  usually  of  two  smaller 
 behind  a  principal  arch,  or  of  four  smaller 
 behind  two  principal  arches.  The  cleres- 
 tory is  generally  of  the  three  Lancets,  the 
 central  one  much  more  lofty  than  the  two 
 others.  The  carving  is  extremely  sharp 
 and  good,  and  very  easily  recognised,  when 
 it  contains  foliage,  by  the  stiff  stalks  end- 
 ing in  crisped  or  curled  leaves.     Panels 
 
 are  often  used  to  relieve  large  spaces  of 
 masonry,  either  blank  or  pierced ;  and 
 sometimes  in  window-heads,  and  in  tri- 
 forium arcades,  approach  very  nearly  to 
 the  character  of  tracery.  They  are  also 
 often  filled  with  figures.  The  dog-tooth, 
 Avhich  had  made  its  appearance  in  the 
 Transition,  is  now  extremely  abundant, 
 often  filling  the  hollows  of  the  mouldings 
 in  two  or  three  continuous  trails.  The 
 spires  are  almost  invariably  broach-spires. 
 EAST.  (See  also  Bowing  and  Apostles' 
 Creed.)  In  the  aspect  of  their  churches, 
 the  ancient  Christians  reversed  the  order 
 of  the  Jews,  placing  the  altar  on  the  east, 
 so  that  in  facing  towards  the  altar  in  their 
 devotions  they  were  turned  to  the  east. 
 As  the  Jews  began  their  day  with  the 
 setting  sun,  so  the  followers  of  Christ 
 began  theirs  with  the  rising  sun.  The 
 eye  of  the  Christian  turned  with  peculiar 
 interest  to  the  east,  whence  the  day-spring 
 from  on  high  had  visited  him.  There  the 
 morning  star  of  his  hope  fixed  his  admiring 
 gaze.  Thence  arose  the  Sun  of  righteous- 
 ness with  all  his  heavenly  influences. 
 Thither,  in  prayer,  his  soul  turned  with 
 kindling  emotions  to  the  altar  of  his  God. 
 And  even  in  his  grave,  thither  still  he  di- 
 rected his  slumbering  eye,  in  quiet  expect- 
 ation of  awakening  to  behold  in  the  same 
 direction  the  second  appearing  of  his  LoED, 
 when  he  shall  come  in  the  clouds  of  heaven 
 to  gather  his  saints. 
 
 In  the  ancient  Church  it  was  a  ceremony 
 almost  of  general  use  and  practice,  the 
 turning  the  face  to  the  east  in  their  solemn 
 adorations,  which  custom  seems  derived 
 from  the  ceremonies  of  baptism,  when  it 
 was  usual  to  renounce  the  devil  with  the 
 face  to  the  west,  and  then  turn  to  the 
 east  and  make  the  covenant  with  Christ. 
 Several  reasons  were  given  by  the  Fathers 
 for  this.  First,  As  the  east,  the  place  of 
 the  day-spring  from  darkness,  was  the 
 symbol  of  Christ,  "  the  Sun  of  righteous- 
 ness." 2ndly,  As  it  was  the  place  of  para- 
 dise, lost  by  the  fall  of  the  first  Adam,  and 
 to  be  regained  by  the  second  Adam. 
 3rdly,  'I'hat  CliRlsf  made  his  appearance 
 on  earth  in  the  east ;  there  ascended  into 
 heaven ;  and  thence  will  again  come  at 
 the  last  day.  And,  4thly,  That  the  east, 
 as  the  scat  of  light  and  brightness,  was  the 
 most  honourable  part  of  the  creation,  and 
 therefore  peculiarly  ascribed  to  GoD,  the 
 fountain  of  light,  and  illuminator  of  all 
 things ;  as  the  west  was  ascribed  to  the 
 devil,  because  he  hides  the  light,  and  brings 
 darkness  on  men  to  their  destruction. 
 
 When  we  repeat  the  creed,  it  is  cus- 
 tomary to  turn  toAvards  the  east,  that  so, 
 
EASTER. 
 
 301 
 
 whilst  we  are  making  profession  of  our 
 faith  in  the  blessed  Trinity,  we  may  look 
 tOAvards  that  quarter  of  the  heavens  Mhere 
 God  is  supposed  to  have  his  peculiar  re- 
 sidence of  glory. —  Wheatly. 
 
 Turning  towards  the  east  is  an  ancient 
 custom, — as  indeed  in  most  religions,  men 
 have  directed  their  worship  some  i)articular 
 way.  And  this  practice  being  intended 
 only  to  honour  Christ,  the  Sun  of  right- 
 eousness, who  hath  risen  u])on  us,  to  en- 
 lighten us  with  that  doctrine  of  salvation 
 to  which  M'e  then  declare  our  adherence,  it 
 ought  not  to  be  condemned  as  superstition. 
 — Seeker. 
 
 INIost  churches  are  so  contrived,  that 
 the  greater  part  of  the  congregation  faces 
 the  east.  The  Jews,  in  their  dispersion 
 throughout  the  world,  when  they  prayed, 
 tiu-ned  their  faces  towards  the  mercy-seat 
 and  cherubim,  where  the  ark  stood.  (2 
 Chi-on.  vi.  36 — 38.)  Daniel  was  found 
 praying  towards  Jerusalem,  (Dan.  vi.  10,) 
 because  of  the  situation  of  the  temple. 
 And  this  has  always  been  esteemed  a  very 
 becoming  way  of  expressing  our  belief  in 
 God. — CoUis. 
 
 EASTER.  A  festival  of  the  Christians 
 observed  in  the  memory  of  our  Saviour's 
 resurrection.  The  Latins,  and  others,  call 
 it  Pascha,  an  Hebrew  word,  which  signi- 
 fies "  passage,"  and  is  applied  to  the  Jew- 
 ish feast  of  the  Passover,  to  which  the 
 Christian  festival  of  Easter  corresponds. 
 This  festival  is  called,  in  English,  Easter, 
 from  the  Saxon  Eostre,  an  ancient  goddess 
 of  that  people,  worslii])pcd  with  peculiar 
 ceremonies  in  the  month  of  April. 
 
 Concerning  the  celebration  of  this  festi- 
 val, there  were  anciently  very  great  dis- 
 putes in  the  Church.  Though  all  agreed 
 in  the  observation  of  it  in  general,  yet  they 
 differed  very  much  as  to  the  particular 
 time  when  it  was  to  be  observed ;  some 
 keeping  it  precisely  on  the  same  stated  day 
 every  year ;  others,  on  the  fourteenth  day  of 
 the  first  moon  in  the  new  year,  Avhatever 
 day  of  the  week  it  happened  on  ;  and 
 others,  on  the  first  Sunday  after  the  first 
 full  moon.  This  diversity  occasioned  a 
 great  dispute,  in  the  second  century,  be- 
 tween the  Asiatic  Churches  and  the  rest 
 of  the  world  ;  in  the  course  of  Avhich  Pope 
 Victor  excommunicated  all  those  Churches. 
 But  the  Council  of  Nice,  in  the  year  324, 
 decreed,  that  all  Churches  should  keep 
 the  Pasch,  or  festival  of  Easter,  on  one  and 
 the  same  day,  which  should  be  always  a 
 Sunday.  This  decree  was  afterwards  con- 
 firmed by  the  Council  of  Antioch,  in  the 
 year  341.  Yet  this  did  not  put  an  end  to 
 all  disputes  concerning  the  observation  of 
 
 this  festival ;  for  it  was  not  easy  to  deter- 
 mine on  wliat  Sunday  it  was  to  be  held, 
 because,  being  a  movable  feast,  it  some- 
 times happened,  that  the  Churches  of  one 
 country  kept  it  a  week,  or  a  month,  sooner 
 than  other  Churches,  by  reason  of  their 
 different  calculations.  Therefore  the  Coun- 
 cil of  Nice  is  said  to  have  decreed  further, 
 that  the  bishops  of  Alexandria  should 
 adjust  a  proper  cycle,  and  inform  the  rest 
 of  the  Morld,  on  what  Sunday  every  year 
 ]'>aster  was  to  be  observed.  Notwithstand- 
 ing which,  the  lioman  and  Alexandrian 
 accounts  continued  to  differ,  and  sometimes 
 varied  a  week,  or  a  month,  from  each 
 other :  and  no  effectual  cure  Mas  found 
 for  this,  till,  in  the  year  525,  Dionysius 
 Exiguus  brought  the  Alexandrian  canon, 
 or  cycle,  entirely  into  use  in  the  lioman 
 Church.  Meantime,  the  Churches  of 
 France  and  Britain  kept  to  the  old  Koman 
 canon,  and  it  was  two  or  three  ages  after, 
 before  the  new  lioman,  that  is,  the  Alexan- 
 drian canon  was,  not  without  some  struggle 
 and  difficulty,  settled  among  them. — Binf/- 
 ham,  Oru/.  Eccles.  b.  xx.  c.  5.  Theod.  lib. 
 i.  c.  10.  Socrat.  lib.  ii.  c.  9.  Euseh.  de  Vit, 
 Const,  lib.  iii.  c.  14.  Leo,  Ep.  63,  ad  Mar- 
 cian.  Lnper. 
 
 But  though  the  Christian  Churches  dif- 
 fered as  to  the  time  of  celebrating  Easter, 
 yet  they  all  agreed  in  showing  a  peculiar 
 respect  and  honour  to  this  festival.  Gre- 
 gory Nazianzen  calls  it  the  Queen  of  Fes- 
 tivals, and  says,  it  excels  all  others  as  far 
 as  the  sun  exceeds  the  other  stars.  Hence, 
 in  some  ancient  writers,  it  is  distinguished 
 by  the  name  of  Dominica  Gaiidii,  i.  e.  the 
 "  Sunday  of  joy."  One  great  instance  of 
 the  public  joy  was  given  by  the  emperors, 
 who  were  used  to  grant  a  general  release 
 to  the  prisons  on  this  day,  with  an  excep- 
 tion only  to  such  criminals  as  were  guilty 
 of  the  highest  crimes.  The  ancient  Fathers 
 frequently  mention  these  Paschal  indul- 
 gences, or  acts  of  grace,  and  speak  of  them 
 with  great  commendations.  It  was  like- 
 wise usual  at  this  holy  season  for  ])rivate 
 persons  to  grant  slaves  their  freedom  or 
 manumission. — Orat.  19,  in  fini.  Putris,  t. 
 V.  Cod.  Theod.  lib.  ix.  tit.  38,  leg.  3.  Cod. 
 Justin,  lib.  iii.  tit.  12,  leg.  8. 
 
 To  these  expressions  of  ])ublic  joy  may 
 be  added,  that  the  Christians  were  ambi- 
 tious, at  this  time  especially,  to  show  their 
 liberality  to  the  poor.  They  likewise  kept 
 the  whole  week  after  Easter  day,  as  part 
 of  the  festival ;  holding  religious  assem- 
 blies every  day,  for  prayer;  preaching,  and 
 receiving  the  communion.  Upon  which 
 account  the  author  of  the  Constitutions 
 requires  servants  to  rest  from  their  labour 
 
302 
 
 EASTER. 
 
 the  whole  Aveek.  All  public  games  were 
 prohibited  during  this  whole  season  ;  as 
 also  all  proceedings  at  law,  except  in  some 
 special  and  extraordinary  cases. — Lib.  viii. 
 0.  53.  Cod.  Theod.  lib.  xv.  tit.  v.  leg.  5. 
 lb.  lib.  ii.  tit.  viii. 
 
 The  festival  of  Easter  was,  likewise, 
 the  most  noted  and  solemn  time  of  baptism, 
 which,  except  in  cases  of  necessity,  was 
 administered  only  at  certain  stated  times 
 of  the  year. 
 
 The  eve,  or  vigil,  of  this  festival  was 
 celebrated  with  more  than  ordinary  pomp, 
 with  solemn  watchings,  and  with  multi- 
 tudes of  lighted  torches,  both  in  the 
 churches  and  in  private  houses,  so  as  to 
 turn  the  night  itself  into  day.  This  they 
 did  as  a  prodroyyius,  or  fore-runner  of  that 
 great  light,  the  Sun  of  righteousness,  which 
 the  next  day  arose  upon  the  world.— 
 Gref/.  Xaz.  Orat.  ii.  in  Pasch. 
 
 The  paschal  canon,  or  rule,  of  Dionysius 
 having  become  the  standing  rule,  for  the 
 celebration  of  Easter,  to  all  the  Western 
 Churches,  it  will  be  proper  briefly  to  ex- 
 plain it.  The  particulars  of  it  are  as  fol- 
 lows :  viz.  That  Easter  be  always  on  the 
 Sunday  next  after  the  JeAvish  Passover; 
 that,  the  Jewish  Passover  being  ahvays  on 
 the  fourteenth  day  of  the  fost  vernal  moon, 
 the  Christian  Easter  is  always  to  be  the 
 next  Sunday  after  the  said  fourteenth  day 
 of  that  moon ;  that,  to  avoid  all  conform- 
 ity with  the  Jews  in  this  matter,  if  the 
 fourteenth  day  of  the  said  moon  be  on  a 
 Sunday,  this  festival  is  to  be  deferred  to 
 the  Sunday  following ;  that  the  first  vernal 
 moon  is  that,  whose  fourteenth  day  is 
 either  upon  the  day  of  the  vernal  equinox, 
 or  the  next  fourteenth  day  after  it ;  that 
 the  vernal  equinox,  according  to  the  Coun- 
 cil of  Nice,  is  fixed  to  the  twenty-first  day 
 of  March ;  that  therefore  the  first  vernal 
 moon,  according  to  this  rule,  is  that,  whose 
 fourteenth  day  falls  upon  the  21st  of  March, 
 or  the  first  fourteenth  day  after  ;  that  the 
 next  Sunday  after  the  fourteenth  day  of 
 the  vernal  moon  (Avhich  is  called  the  pas- 
 chal term)  is  always  Easter  day;  that, 
 therefore,  the  earliest  paschal  term  being 
 the  21st  of  March,  the  22nd  of  March  is 
 the  earHest  Easter  possible ;  and  the  18th 
 of  April  being  the  latest  paschal  term,  the 
 seventh  day  after,  that  is,  the  25th  of 
 April,  is  the  latest  Easter  possible  ;  that 
 the  cycle  of  the  moon,  or  golden  number, 
 always  shows  us  the  first  day  of  the  paschal 
 moon,  and  the  cycle  of  the  sun,  or  domini- 
 cal letter,  alwavs  shows  us  Avhich  is  the 
 next  Sunday  after.— Prideaux,  Connect. 
 part  ii.  b.  iv. 
 
 In  the  llomish  Church,  on  Easter  eve, 
 
 the  bells  are  rung  about  four  in  the  after- 
 noon ;  the  ornaments  of  the  churches  and 
 altars  are  changed  from  black  to  white ; 
 and  the  paschal  taper  is  placed  in  a  great 
 candlestick  made  in  the  shape  of  an  angel. 
 On  the  morning  of  Easter  Sunday,  matins 
 are  said  before  day-break,  because  our 
 Saviour  rose  at  that  time.  AVhen  the  pope 
 officiates,  tAvo  cardinal  deacons  are  placed 
 on  the  right  and  left  of  the  altar,  dressed 
 in  AA'hite  robes,  to  represent  the  tAVO  angels 
 Avho  Avatched  our  Saviour's  sepulclire. 
 — Sacra  Cerem.  Eccl.  Rom.  lib.  ii. 
 
 In  the  Greek  Church,  it  is  usual,  on 
 Easter  day,  upon  meeting  their  friends,  to 
 greet  them  Avith  this  salutation,  "Jesus 
 Christ  is  risen  from  the  dead ; "  to  Avhich 
 the  person  accosted  replies,  "  He  is  risen 
 indeed."  On  Good  Friday,  tAvo  priests 
 carry  in  procession,  on  their  shoulders,  the 
 picture  or  representation  of  a  tomb,  in 
 Avhich  the  crucified  Jesus,  painted  on  a 
 board,  is  deposited.  On  Easter  Sunday, 
 this  sepulchre  is  carried  out  of  the  church, 
 and  exposed  to  public  vieAv,  when  the  priest 
 solemnly  assures  the  people,  that  Christ 
 is  risen  from  the  dead,  and  shoAvs  them 
 the  picture  turned  on  the  other  side,  which 
 represents  Jesus  Christ  rising  out  of  the 
 sepulchre.  The  AA'hole  congregation  em- 
 brace each  other,  and,  in  transports  of  joy, 
 shoot  off"  pistols. — Tournefort^s  Voyages^ 
 Letter  III.     Brongliton. 
 
 The  anniversary  festival  appointed  in 
 remembrance  of  the  resurrection  of  our 
 blessed  Saviour  from  the  state  of  death, 
 to  AA'hich  he  had  subjected  himself  as  an 
 atonement  for  the  sins  of  men.  It  is  stated 
 by  Venerable  Bede,  that  this  name  was 
 given  to  this  festival  at  the  time  AAhen 
 Christianity  Avas  first  introduced  among 
 our  Saxon  ancestors  in  this  island.  Those 
 people,  says  Bede,  Avorshipped  an  imagin- 
 ary deity,  called  Eostre,  Avhose  feast  they 
 celebrated  every  year  at  this  season;  the 
 name  remained  Avhen  the  Avorship  AA-as 
 altered.  Others  conceive  the  name  to  be 
 derived  from  an  old  Saxon  w'ord  importing 
 rising  ;  Easter  day  thus  signifying  the  day 
 of  resurrection.  Easter  Sunday  is  not 
 strictly  the  anniversary  day  of  our  Sa- 
 viour's resurrection,  but  is  the  day  ap- 
 pointed by  the  Church  to  be  kept  in  re- 
 membrance of  that  event.  After  great 
 difference  of  opinions,  it  was  decided  in 
 the  Council  of  Nice  that  Easter  day  should 
 be  kept  on  the  Sunday  following  the  JeAvish 
 feast  of  the  Passover,  Avhich  Passover  is 
 kept  on  the  14th  day,  or  full  moon,  of  the 
 JeAvish  month  Nisan.  At  the  same  time, 
 to  prevent  all  uncertainty  in  future,  it  AA'as 
 made  a  further  rule  of  the  Church,  that 
 
EASTER. 
 
 EASTER  ANTHEMS. 
 
 303 
 
 the  full  moon  next  to  the  vernal  (or  spring) 
 equinox  should  be  taken  for  the  full  moon 
 in  the  month  Xisan,  and  the  '21st  of  March 
 be  accounted  the  vernal  equinox.  Easter 
 Sunday,  therefore,  is  always  the  Sunday 
 following  the  full  moon  which  falls  on,  or 
 next  after,  the  21st  of  March.  Easter  is 
 thus  observed  with  reference  to  the  feast 
 of  the  Passover,  on  account  of  the  tyj)ical 
 quality  of  that  day ;  the  annual  sacrifice 
 commanded  by  the  Jewish  law  being  re- 
 garded as  a  type  of  the  greater  sacrifice  of 
 Chkist  for  our  redemption^  and  the  de- 
 liverance of  the  Israelites  out  of  Egypt  as 
 a  type  of  our  deliverance  from  sin  and  death 
 by  his  merits. 
 
 This  was  the  birth-day  of  our  Saviour 
 in  his  state  of  glory  and  exaltation,  as  his 
 nativity  was  his  birth-day  to  his  state  of 
 humiliation.  It  was  anciently  called  the 
 "  great  day,"  and  "  the  feast  of  feasts  ; " 
 being  by  eminence  "  the  day  which  the 
 Lord  hath  made,"  (Ps.  cxviii.  24,)  for  the 
 Fathers  unanimously  expound  that  passage 
 of  this  day,  and  therefore  with  them,  as 
 with  us,  that  psalm  was  always  part  of  the 
 office  of  the  day.  For  the  antiquity  of  the 
 observation  of  this  day  innumerable  au- 
 thors might  be  produced  ;  but  the  matter 
 is  not  at  all  controverted. — IJ  Estrange. 
 
 This  is  the  highest  of  all  feasts,  saith 
 Epiphanius :  this  day  Christ  opened  to 
 us  the  door  of  life,  being  the  first-fruits  of 
 those  that  rose  from  the  dead :  whose  re- 
 surrection was  our  life  ;  for  he  rose  again 
 for  our  justification.  (Rom.  iv.  25.) — Bp. 
 Sparrow. 
 
 In  the  primitive  times  the  Christians  of 
 all  Churches  on  this  day  used  this  morning 
 salutation,  "  Christ  is  risen  ; "  to  which 
 those  who  were  saluted  answered, "  Christ 
 is  risen  indeed;"  or  else  thus,  "and  hath 
 appeared  unto  Simon  ; "  a  custom  still  re- 
 tained in  the  Greek  Church.  And  our 
 Church,  supposing  us  as  eager  of  the  joy- 
 ful ncAvs  as  they  were,  is  loth  to  withhold 
 from  us  long  the  pleasure  of  expressing  it ; 
 and  therefore,  as  soon  as  the  absolution  is 
 pronounced,  and  we  are  thereby  rendered 
 fit  for  rejoicing,  she  begins  her  office  of 
 praise  with  anthems  proper  to  the  day, 
 encouraging  her  members  to  call  upon  one 
 another  "  to  keep  the  feast ;  for  that 
 Christ  our  Passover  is  sacrificed  for  us, 
 and  is  also  risen  from  the  dead,  and  be- 
 come the  first-fruits  of  them  that  slept," 
 kc.—  Whcathj. 
 
 The  first  lesson  in  the  morning  is  the 
 twelfth  chapter  of  Exodus,  in  Mhich  is 
 mentioned  the  institution  of  the  Passover, 
 proper  for  this  day,  the  feast  of  the  Pass- 
 over :  for,  as  St.  Augustine  observes,  "  we 
 
 do  in  this  feast  not  only  call  to  mind  the 
 history  of  our  Saviour's  resurrection,  but 
 also  celebrate  the  mystery  of  ours."  That 
 as  Christ  this  day  rose  again  from  death 
 to  life,  so  by  Christ,  and  the  virtue  of  his 
 resurrection,  shall  we  be  made  alive,  and 
 rise  from  death  to  life  eternal.  Christ  is 
 therefore  our  true  Passover,  whereof  the 
 other  was  a  type  :  the  lesson  then  is  i)ro])er 
 for  the  day.  So  is  the  fii*st  lesson  for  the 
 evening,  (Exod.  xiv.,)  for  it  is  concerning 
 the  Israelites'  deliverance  out  of  Egypt,  a 
 type  of  our  deliverance  from  hell  this  day 
 by  Christ's  glorious  resurrection.  As 
 that  day  Israel  saw  that  great  Avork,  which 
 the  Lord  did  upon  Egypt,  (ver.  81,)  so 
 this  day  we  see  the  great  conquest  over 
 hell  and  death  finished  by  Christ's  tri- 
 umphant resurrection  from  the  dead.  The 
 second  lessons  are  plain.  The  Gospel  gives 
 us  the  full  evidence  of  Christ's  resurrec- 
 tion :  the  Epistle  tells  us  what  use  we 
 should  make  of  it,  "  If  Christ  be  risen, 
 seek  those  things  that  are  above,"  &c.  The 
 collect  prays  for  grace,  to  make  the  use  of 
 it  which  the  Ej)istle  directs. 
 
 Thus  holy  Church  is  careful  to  teach  and 
 instruct  all  her  children  in  the  matter  of 
 the  feast,  preaching  Christ's  resurrection 
 to  us,  both  in  the  type  and  prophecy  out 
 of  the  Old  Testament,  and  in  the  history 
 of  it  out  of  the  New.  And  she  does  not 
 only  teach  us  to  know  what  God  hath 
 done  for  us  this  day,  but  also  she  is  careful 
 that  we  may  do  our  duty  to  God  for  this 
 his  marvellous  goodness,  commanding  and 
 directing  us  to  pray  for  grace  to  do  our 
 duty,  prescribing  us  excellent  forms  of 
 adoring  and  blessing  God  for  his  mercy 
 this  day,  such  methods  as  the  Holy  Ghost 
 hath  set  down,  in  which  we  may  be  sure  to 
 pray  and  praise  God  by  the  spirit. — Bp. 
 Sparroiv.  On  this  day,  as  on  Christmas 
 day,  there  were  formerly  [in  the  First  Book 
 of  King  EdAvard  VI.]  two  communions, 
 whereof  we  have  retained  the  former  Epis- 
 tle and  Gospel. — Bp.  Cosin. 
 
 Easter  day  is  a  scarlet  day  at  the  uni- 
 versities of  Cambridge  and  Oxford.  In 
 choirs,  the  Responses  and  Litanies  used  to 
 be  universally,  and  in  many  places  are  still, 
 solemnly  sung  to  the  organ  ;  and  the  Re- 
 sponses, on  the  Monday  and  Tuesday  fol- 
 lowing.— Jd)b. 
 
 EASTER  ANTHEMS.  On  Easter  day, 
 instead  of  the  Venite,  certain  anthems  are 
 appointed  to  be  said  or  sung.  At  the  last 
 review  the  first  two  verses  now  used  were 
 prefixed,  and  the  authorized  translation 
 ado])ted.  In  the  First  Book  of  King 
 Edward  VI.,  these  anthems  were  appoint- 
 ed to  be  said  or  sung  "  afore  matins,  the 
 
304 
 
 EBIONITES. 
 
 ECCLESIASTES. 
 
 people  being  assembled  in  the  church  ; " 
 and  were  followed  by  the  following  Versicle 
 and  Response. 
 
 Priest.  Show  forth  to  all  the  nations  the 
 glory  of  God.  * 
 
 Ansn\  And  among  all  people  his  won- 
 derful works, 
 "With  a  special  praver.     (See  Anthem.) 
 
 EBIOXITES.  Heretics  in  the  first  cen- 
 tury; so  called  from  their  leader,  Ebion. 
 The  Ebion  it cs,  as  well  as  the  Kazarcnes, 
 had  their  origin  from  the  circumcised 
 Christians,  Avho  had  retired  from  Jerusa- 
 lem to  Pella,  during  the  war  between  the 
 Jews  and  Komans,  and  made  their  first 
 appearance  after  the  destruction  of  Jeru- 
 salem, about  the  time  of  Domitian,  or  a 
 little  before. 
 
 Ebion,  the  author  of  the  heresy  of  the 
 Ebionites,  was  a  disciple  of  Ccrinthus,  and 
 his  successor.  He  improved  upon  the 
 errors  of  his  master,  and  added  to  them 
 new  opinions  of  his  own.  He  began  his 
 preaching  in  Judea  :  he  taught  in  Asia, 
 and  even  at  Home  :  his  tenets  infected  the 
 isle  of  Cyprus.  St.  John  opposed  both 
 Cerinthus  and  Ebion  in  Asia ;  and  it  is 
 thought  that  this  apostle  WTote  his  Gospel, 
 in  the  year  97,  particularly  against  this 
 heresy. 
 
 The  Ebionites  held  the  same  errors  as 
 the  Nazarenes.  They  united  the  cere- 
 monies of  the  law  with  the  precepts  of  the 
 gospel :  they  observed  both  the  Jewish 
 Sabbath  and  the  Christian  Sunday.  They 
 called  their  place  of  assembling  a  sj/Jia- 
 f/or/ue,  and  not  a  church.  They  bathed 
 every  day,  which  was  the  custom  of  the 
 Jews.  In  celebrating  the  eucharist,  they 
 made  use  of  unleavened  bread,  but  no 
 wine. 
 
 They  added  to  the  observance  of  the  law 
 divers  superstitions.  They  adored  Jeru- 
 salem as  the  house  of  God.  Like  the 
 Samaritans,  they  would  not  suff'er  a  person 
 of  another  religion  to  touch  them.  They 
 abstained  from  the  flesh  of  animals,  and 
 even  from  milk  :  and,  lest  any  one  should 
 object  to  them  that  passage  of  the  Gospel, 
 where  our  Lord  says  he  desires  to  eat  of 
 the  passover,  they  corrupted  it.  When 
 they  were  sick,  or  bitten  by  a  serpent,  they 
 plunged  themselves  into  water,  and  invoked 
 all  sorts  of  things  to  their  assistance. 
 
 They  disagreed  among  themselves  in  re- 
 lation to  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ.  Some 
 of  them  said  he  was  born,  like  other  men, 
 of  Joseph  and  Mary,  and  acquired  sanctifi- 
 cation  only  by  his  good  works.  Others  of 
 them  allowed  that  he  was  born  of  a  virgin, 
 but  denied  that  he  was  the  JFord  of  God, 
 or  had  a  pre-existence  before  his  human 
 
 generation.  They  said  he  was  indeed  the 
 only  true  prophet,  but  yet  a  mere  man, 
 w^ho,  by  his  virtue,  had  arrived  at  being 
 called  Christ  and  the  Son  of  God.  They 
 supposed  that  Christ  and  the  devil  were 
 two  principles,  which  God  had  opposed 
 the  one  to  the  other. 
 
 Though  the  Ebionites  observed  the  law, 
 yet  they  diff'ered  from  the  Jews  in  many 
 points.  They  acknowledged  the  sanctity 
 of  Abraham,  Isaac,  Jacob,  Moses,  Aaron, 
 and  Joshua  ;  but  they  laughed  at  all  those 
 who  came  after  them.  They  rejected  some 
 parts  of  the  Pentateuch ;  and  when  they 
 were  too  closely  pressed  by  these  books, 
 they  entirely  abandoned  them. 
 
 Of  the  New  Testament,  they  acknow- 
 ledged only  the  Gospel  of  St.  Matthew, 
 that  is,  that  which  was  written  in  Hebrew, 
 and  which  they  called  the  Gospel  accordinf/ 
 to  the  Hebrews.  But  they  took  from  it  the 
 two  fii'st  chapters,  and  corrupted  other 
 passages  of  it.  They  absolutely  rejected 
 St.  Paul  as  an  apostate,  and  an  enemy  of 
 the  law,  and  published  several  calumnies 
 against  him.  They  had  likewise  false  Acts 
 of  the  Apostles,  in  which  they  mixed  a 
 great  many  fables. 
 
 As  to  their  manner  of  life,  they  imitated 
 the  Carpocratians,  the  most  infamous  of  all 
 heretics.  They  rejected  virginity  and  con- 
 tinence :  they  obliged  children  to  marry 
 very  young  :  they  allowed  married  persons 
 to  separate  from  each  other,  and  marry 
 again,  as  often  as  they  pleased. 
 
 St.  Justin,  St.  Irenteus,  and  Origen, 
 wrote  against  the  Ebionites.  Symmachus, 
 author  of  one  of  the  Greek  versions  of  the 
 Scriptures,  was  an  Ebionite. 
 
 ECCLESIASTES.  A  canonical  book 
 of  the  Old  Testament.  It  is  called  "  The 
 words  of  the  Preacher,  the  son  of  David, 
 king  of  Jerusalem,"  that  is,  of  Solomon, 
 who,  from  the  great  excellency  of  his  in- 
 structions, was  emphatically  styled  **  the 
 preacher."  The  design  of  it  is  to  shoAV 
 the  vanity  of  all  sublunary  things,  in  order 
 to  which  the  author  enumerates  the  seve- 
 ral objects  upon  which  men  place  their 
 happiness  in  this  life,  and  then  discovers 
 the  emptiness  and  insufficiency  of  all 
 worldly  enjoyments,  by  many  various  re- 
 flections on  the  evils  of  human  life.  The 
 conclusion  of  the  whole  is,  in  the  words  of 
 the  preacher,  "  Fear  God,  and  keep  his 
 commandments,  for  this  is  the  whole  duty 
 of  man."  St.  Jerome  observes,  that  this 
 pious  inference  prevented  the  Jews  from 
 suppressing  this  whole  book  of  Ecclesiastes, 
 which  they  had  thoughts  of  doing,  (as  well 
 as  many  other  writings  of  Solomon,  which 
 are  now  lost   and   forgotten,)  because  it 
 
ECCLESIASTES. 
 
 ECCLESIASTICUS. 
 
 305 
 
 asserts  that  the  creatures  of  God  are  vain, 
 and  all  things  as  nothing;  it  was  also 
 thought  to  contain  some  dangerous  o])i- 
 nions,  and  some  ])articular  expressions 
 that  might  infuse  doubts  concerning  the 
 immortality  of  the  soul. 
 
 The  word  Ecclesiostes,  which  is  Greek, 
 signifies  a  preacher.  The  Hebrews  call  it 
 Coheleth,\\\\\c\i  literally  signifies  a  collector, 
 because  it  is  supposed  to  be  a  sermon  or 
 discourse  delivered  to  an  assembly.  The 
 Talmudists  will  have  Kinglfezekiah  to  be 
 the  author  of  it.  Kimchi  ascribes  it  to 
 Isaiah,  and  Grotius  to  Zorobabel ;  but  the 
 book  itself  afibrds  no  foundation  for  these 
 conjectures.  On  the  contrary,  as  observed 
 by  ^Ir.  Holden,  "  The  author  is  expressly 
 styled  in  the  initiatory  verse,  the  son  of 
 iJaricl,  king  in  Jerusalem  ;  and  in  the  12th 
 verse  he  is  described  as  king  over  Israel, 
 in  Jerusalem.  These  passages  are  found 
 in  every  known  MS,,  and  in  all  the  ancient 
 versions ;  and  Solomon,  as  is  well  known, 
 was  the  only  son  of  David  who  ever 
 reigned  in  Jerusalem.  The  book  has  been 
 thus  admitted  into  the  sacred  canon  as  the 
 production  of  Solomon,  to  whom  it  has 
 also  been  ascribed  by  a  regular  and  con- 
 current tradition.  A  collateral  proof  arises 
 from  the  contents  of  the  work  itself,  in 
 which  the  author  is  stated  to  have  excelled 
 in  wisdom  beyond  all  who  were  before 
 him  in  Jerusalem,  and  to  have  composed 
 many  proverbs  :  circumstances  descriptive 
 of  Solomon,  and  of  no  other  personage 
 whose  name  is  recorded  in  the  Holy  Scrip- 
 tures. The  writer  is  likewise  represented 
 as  abounding  in  wealth  and  treasure,  &c., 
 extremely  applicable  to  Solomon."  Mr. 
 Holden,  and  Mr.  Desvoeux,  in  their  very 
 learned  and  exhaustive  dissertations,  com- 
 pletely refute  the  really  shallow  objections 
 of  Grotius,  Dathe,  Eichhorn,  and  others, 
 as  to  Solomon's  authorship.  They  do  not, 
 however,  quite  agi'ee  as  to  the  scope  of 
 the  book.  Mr.  ])esvoeux  (to  whom  ]}r. 
 Graves,  in  his  Lectures  on  the  Pentateuch, 
 assents)  states  that  his  object  is  to  prove 
 the  immortality  of  the  soul,  or  rather  the 
 necessity  of  another  state  after  this  life, 
 from  such  arguments  as  may  be  afforded 
 by  reason  and  experience.  Mr.  Holden 
 abides  by  the  generally  received  opinion, 
 that  it  is  "  an  arguing  into  the  siomnum 
 hoium,  or  chief  good :  not  however  merely 
 as  regarding  happiness  in  this  life,  but 
 that  which  in  all  its  bearings  and  relations 
 is  conducive  to  the  best  interests  of  man. 
 This  he  finally  determines  to  be  true  wis- 
 dom :  .  .  .  and  every  part  of  the  discourse, 
 when  considered  in  reference  to  this  object, 
 tends  to  develope  the  nature  of  true  wis- 
 
 X 
 
 dom,  to  display  its  excellence,  or  to  re- 
 commend its  acquirement."  So  Bishop 
 Gray  :  "  he  cndeavoin*s  to  illustrate  the 
 insufficiency  of  earthly  enjoyment  ;  not 
 witli  design  to  excite  in  us  a  disgust  to 
 life,  but  to  influence  us  to  prepare  for  that 
 state  where  there  is  no  vanity."  Ecclesi- 
 astes  may  justly  be  considered  as  a  sequel 
 to  the  ]?ook  of  Proverbs.  Ecclesiastes,  ac- 
 cording to  a  modern  author,  is  a  dialogue 
 in  which  a  man  of  piety  disputes  against  a 
 libertine  who  favoured' the  opinions  of  the 
 Sadducees ;  his  reason  is,  because  there  are 
 some  things  in  it  which  seem  to  contradict 
 each  other,  and  could  not  proceed  from  the 
 same  person.  Put  this  may  be  wholly 
 owing  to  Solomon's  method  of  disputing 
 jiro  and  con,  and  jn'oposing  the  objections 
 of  the  Sadducees,  to  which  he  replies. 
 
 The  generality  of  commentators  believe 
 this  book  to  be  the  product  of  Solomon's 
 repentance,  after  having  experienced  all 
 the  follies  and  pleasures  of  life;  notwith- 
 standing which,  some  have  questioned 
 whether  Solomon  be  saved,  and  his  repent- 
 ance is  still  a  problem  in  the  Church  of 
 Rome, 
 
 ECCLESIASTIC.  A  person  holding 
 any  office  in  the  sacred  ministry  of  the 
 Church.  {See  Bishop,  Priest,  aniV Deacon.) 
 
 ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTOKIANS. 
 (See  Historians.) 
 
 ECCLESIASTICUS.  An  apocryphal 
 book  of  Scripture,  distinguished  by  this 
 name  because  it  was  read  {in  ecclesia)  in 
 the  church  as  a  book  of  piety  and  instruc- 
 tion, but  not  of  infaUible  authority  ;  or  it 
 is  so  called,  perhaps,  to  distinguish  it  from 
 the  book  of  Ecclesiastes ;  or  to  show  that 
 it  contains,  as  well  as  the  former,  precepts 
 and  exhortations  to  wisdom  and  virtue, 
 The  anonymous  preface  to  this  work  in- 
 forms us,  that  the  author  of  it  was  a  Jew, 
 called  Jesus,  the  son  of  Sirach,  who  wrote 
 it  in  Hebrew;  but  it  was  rendered  into 
 Greek  by  his  grandson  of  the  same  name. 
 The  Hebrew  copy  of  tliis  book,  which  St. 
 Jerome  saw,  was  entitled  Proverbs.  By 
 many  of  the  ancients  it  was  styled  Uavape- 
 rog,  the  hook  of  every  virtue :  but  the  most 
 common  name  among  the  Greeks  is,  77ie 
 Wisdom  of  Jesus  the  son  of  Sirach.  This 
 book  was  written  under  the  high  priest- 
 hood of  Onias  HI.,  and  translated  in  the 
 reign  of  Ptolemy  Euergetes,  or  Physcon. 
 Some  of  the  ancients  have  ascribed  it  to 
 Solomon.  The  author,  no  doubt,  had  in 
 his  vicAv  the  subject  and  thoughts  express- 
 ed in  the  Proverbs  of  that  king,  and  has 
 followed  his  method  of  teaching  morality 
 by  sentences  or  maxims.  This  book  begins 
 with    an    exhortation    to    the   pursuit   of 
 
306 
 
 ECLECTICS. 
 
 EDIFICATION, 
 
 v.'isdom  ;  after  which  follow  many  maxims  of 
 morality  to  the  forty-fourth  chapter,  where 
 the  author  begins  to  rehearse  the  praises  of 
 famous  men,  such  as  the  patriarchs,  pro- 
 phets, and  the  most  illustrious  men  of  the 
 Jewish  nation.  The  Latin  version  of 
 Ecclesiasticus  has  more  in  it  'than  the 
 Greek,  several  particulars  being  inserted  in 
 that,  which  are  not  in  the  other.  These, 
 Dr.  Prideaux  observes,  seem  to  have  been 
 interpolated  by  the  first  author  of  that 
 version  ;  but  now,  the  Hebrew  being  lost, 
 the  Greek,  which  was  made  from  it  l)y  the 
 grandson  of  the  author,  must  stand  for  the 
 original ;  and  from  that  the  English  trans- 
 lation was  made. 
 
 Parts  of  Ecclesiasticus  are  strikingly  like 
 the  style  of  Solomon,  and  truly  Hebraic 
 in  then-  cast,  as  has  been  remarked  by 
 Bishop  Lowth  in  his  24th  Prelection ;  who 
 subjoins  a  translation  of  the  24th  chapter 
 into  Hebrew.  He  recognises  however  a 
 considerable  difiorence  between  its  style 
 and  that  of  Solomon. 
 
 ECLECTICS.  A  sect  which  arose  in  the 
 Christian  Church  towards  the  close  of  the 
 second  century.  They  professed  to  make 
 truth  the  only  object  of  their  inquiry,  and 
 to  be  ready  to  adopt  from  all  the  different 
 systems  and  sects  such  tenets  as  they 
 thought  agreeable  to  it ;  and  hence  their 
 name,  from  kXtyw,  to  select.  They  pre- 
 ferred Plato  to  the  other  philosophers,  and 
 looked  upon  his  opinions  concerning  GoD, 
 the  human  soul,  and  things  invisible,  as 
 conformable  to  the  spirit  and  genius  of  the 
 Christian  doctrine.  One  of  the  principal 
 patrons  of  this  system  was  Ammonius 
 Saccas,  who  at  this  time  laid  the  founda- 
 tion of  that  sect,  afterwards  distinguished 
 by  the  name  of  the  New  Platonists,  in  the 
 Alexandrian  School. — Browjhton, 
 
 ECONOMICAL.  The  economical  me- 
 thod of  disputing  was  that  in  which  the 
 disputants  accommodated  themselves,  as 
 much  as  possible,  to  the  taste  and  preju- 
 dices of  those  whom  they  Mere  endeavour- 
 ing to  gain  over  to  the  truth.  Some  of 
 the  early  Christians  carried  this  conde- 
 scension too  far,  and  abused  St.  Paul's  ex- 
 ample. (1  Cor.  ix.  20.)  The  word  is 
 derived  from  oiKovofila,  dispensatio  rei  fa- 
 iniUaris,  the  discretionary  arrangement  of 
 things  in  a  house  according  to  circum- 
 stances. 
 
 ECONOMIST.  {(Econo^mis.)  An  officer 
 in  some  cathedrals  of  Ireland,  chosen  peri- 
 odically by  the  chapter  out  of  their  own 
 body,  whose  office  is  to  manage  the  com- 
 mon estate  of  the  cathedral,  to  see  to  the 
 necessary  repairs,  pay  the  church  officers, 
 Szc—Jebb. 
 
 ECONOMY  ESTATE,  or  FUND.     In 
 
 some  Irish  cathedrals  the  common  fund, 
 for  the  support  of  the  fabric,  the  pajTnent 
 of  the  inferior  church  officers,  and  some- 
 times certain  members  of  the  choir,  is  so 
 called.  It  is  not  divisible  among  the  ca- 
 thedral body  themselves.  About  half  the 
 cathedrals  in  Ireland  are  destitute  of  any 
 common  or  corporate  fund  whatever. — 
 Jebb. 
 
 ECUMENICAL.  (From  oUovfiEvr},  the 
 u-o)id.)  A  term  applied  to  general  coun- 
 cils of  the  Church,  to  distinguish  them 
 from  provincial  and  diocesan  synods.  (See 
 Councils.) 
 
 EDIFICATION.  Literally,  a  huilding 
 up  ;  and  in  the  figurative  language  of  the 
 New  Testament,  a  growing  in  grace  and 
 holiness,  w'hether  of  individuals  or  of  the 
 Church. 
 
 A  pretence  of  greater  edification  has 
 been  a  common  ground  of  separation  from 
 the  Church  ;  but  most  absurdly,  for  "  edi- 
 fication," says  Dean  Sherlock,  in  his  reso- 
 lution of  some  cases  of  conscience  which 
 respect  Church  communion,  is  building 
 up,  and  is  applied  to  the  Church,  considered 
 as  God's  house  and  temple  ;  and  it  is  an 
 odd  way  of  building  up  the  temple  of  GoD, 
 by  dividing  and  separating  the  parts  of  it 
 from  each  other.  The  most  proper  signi- 
 fication of  the  word  which  our  translators 
 render  by  "  edification,"  is  a  house  or  build- 
 ing ;  and  this  is  the  proper  sense  wherein 
 it  belongs  to  the  Christian  Chm-ch  :  "  ye  are 
 God's  husbandry,  ye  are  God's  building," 
 that  is,  the  Church  is  God's  house  or 
 building.  Thus  the  same  apostle  tells  us 
 that  in  Christ,  "  the  whole  building  "  (that 
 is,  the  whole  Christian  Church)  "  fitly  fram- 
 ed together,  groweth  unto  an  holy  temple  in 
 the  Lord."  (Ephes.  ii.  21.)  Hence  the  go- 
 vernors of  the  Church  are  called  builders, 
 and  the  apostles  are  called  "  labourers  to- 
 gether with  God,"  in  erecting  this  spmtual 
 building ;  and  St.  Paul  calls  himself  a 
 "  master  builder."  Hence  the  increase, 
 growth,  and  advances  towards  perfection 
 in  the  Church,  is  called  the  building  or 
 edification  of  it.  For  this  reason,  St.  Paul 
 commends  prophecy,  or  expounding  the 
 Scriptures,  before  speaking  in  unknown 
 tongues  without  an  interpreter,  because  by 
 this  the  Church  receives  building  or  edifi- 
 cation. 
 
 All  those  spiritual  gifts,  w^hich  were  be- 
 stowed on  the  Christians,  were  for  the 
 building  and  edifying  of  the  Church.  The 
 apostolical  power  in  Church  censures  was 
 "  for  edification,  not  for  destruction "  (2 
 Cor.  X.  8) ;  to  build,  and  not  to  pull  down  ; 
 that  is,  to  preserve  the  unity  of  the  Church 
 
EDIFICATION. 
 
 ELDERS. 
 
 307 
 
 entire,  and  its  communion  pure.  And  we 
 may  observe,  that  this  edification  is  prima- 
 rily applied  to  the  Church :  "  that  the 
 Church  may  receive  edifying ;"  "  that  ye 
 may  excel  to  the  edifying  of  the  Church ;" 
 "  for  the  edifying  of  the  body  of  Christ." 
 (1  Cor.  xiv.  5,  12  ;  Ephes.  iv.  12.)  And  it 
 is  very  observable  wherein  the  apostle 
 places  the  edification  of  the  body  of  Christ, 
 viz.  in  unity  and  love  :  ''  till  we  all  come 
 in  the  unity  of  the  faith,  and  of  the  know- 
 ledge of  the  Son  of  God,  to  a  perfect  man, 
 unto  the  measure  of  the  stature  of  the  ful- 
 ness of  Christ."  (Ephes.  iv.  12,  13.)  Till 
 we  are  united  by  one  faith  unto  one  body, 
 and  perfect  man,  and  "  speaking  the  truth 
 in  love,  may  grow  up  into  him  in  all  things, 
 which  is  the  head,  even  Christ;  from  whom 
 the  whole  body  fitly  joined  together,  and 
 compacted  by  that  which  every  joint  sup- 
 plieth,  according  to  the  effectual  working  in 
 the  measure  of  every  part,  maketh  increase 
 of  the  body  unto  the  edifying  of  itself 
 in  love."  (Ephes.  iv.  15,  16.)  This  is  an 
 admirable  description  of  the  unity  of  the 
 Church,  in  which  all  the  parts  are  closely 
 united  and  compacted  together,  as  stones 
 and  timber  are  to  make  one  house ;  and 
 thus  they  grow  into  one  body,  and  in- 
 crease in  mutual  love  and  charity,  which  is 
 the  very  building  and  edification  of  the 
 Church,  which  is  edified  and  built  up  in 
 love,  as  the  apostle  adds,  that "  knowledge 
 puffeth  up,  but  charity  edifieth."  (  1  Cor. 
 viii.  1.)  This  builds  up  the  Church  of 
 Christ  ;  and  that  not  such  a  common 
 charity  as  we  have  for  all  mankind,  but 
 such  a  love  and  sympathy  as  is  peculiar  to 
 the  members  of  the  same  body,  and  which 
 none  but  members  can  have  for  each  other. 
 And  now  methinks  I  need  not  prove  that 
 schism  and  separation  are  not  for  the  edifi- 
 cation of  the  Church;  to  separate  for  edifi- 
 cation is  to  pull  down  instead  of  building- 
 up.  But  these  men  do  not  seem  to  have 
 any  great  regard  to  the  edification  of  the 
 Church,  but  only  to  their  own  particular 
 edification :  and  we  must  grant  that  edifi- 
 cation is  sometimes  applied  to  particular 
 Christians  in  Scripture,  according  to  St. 
 Paul's  exhortation,  "  Comfort  yourselves 
 together,  and  edify  one  another,  even  as 
 also  ye  do."  (1  Thess.  v.  11.)  And  this 
 edifying  one  another,  without  question, 
 signifies  our  promoting  each  other's  growth 
 and  progress  in  all  Christian  graces  and 
 vu'tues  ;  and  so  the  building  and  edifi- 
 cation of  the  Church,  signifies  the  growth 
 and  improvement  of  the  Church  in  all 
 spiritual  wisdom  and  knowledge,  and 
 Christian  graces.  The  edification  of  the 
 Church  consists  in  the  edification  of  par- 
 X  2 
 
 ticular  Christians ;  but  then  this  is  called 
 edification  or  building,  because  this  growth 
 and  im])rovcment  is  in  the  unity  and 
 communion  of  the  Church,  and  makes 
 tliem  one  spiritual  liouse  and  temple. 
 Thus  the  Church  is  called  the  temple  of 
 God,  and  every  particular  Christian  is 
 God's  temple,  wherein  the  Holy  Spirit 
 dwells ;  and  yet  God  has  but  one  temple, 
 and  the  Holy  Spirit  dwells  only  in  the 
 Church  of  Christ;  but  particula'r  Chris- 
 tians are  God's  temple,  and  the  Holy 
 Spirit  dwells  in  them  as  living  members 
 of  the  Christian  Church  ;  and  thus  by  the 
 same  reason  the  Church  is  edified  and 
 built  up,  as  it  grows  into  a  spiritual  house 
 and  holy  temple,  by  a  firm  and  close  union 
 and  communion  of  all  its  parts:  and 
 every  Christian  is  edified,  as  he  grows  up 
 in  all  Christian  graces  and  virtues  in  the 
 unity  of  the  Church.  And,  therefore, 
 whatever  extraordinary  means  of  edifica- 
 tion men  may  fancy  to  themselves  in  a 
 separation,  the  apostle  knew  no  edification 
 but  in  the  communion  of  the  Church  ;  and 
 indeed,  if  our  growth  and  increase  in  all 
 grace  and  virtue  be  more  owing  to  the 
 internal  assistance  of  the  Divine  Spirit, 
 than  to  the  external  administrations,  as 
 St.  Paul  tells  us,  "  I  have  planted  and 
 Apollos  watered,  but  God  gave  the  increase ; 
 so  then,  neither  is  he  that  planteth  any- 
 thing, nor  he  that  watereth,  but  God  that 
 giveth  the  increase"  (1  Cor.  iii.  6,  7); 
 and  if  the  Divine  Spirit  confines  his  in- 
 fluences and  operations  to  the  unity  of  the 
 Church,  as  the  same  apostle  tells  us  that 
 there  is  but  "  one  body  and  one  spirit," 
 (Eph.  iv.  4,)  which  plainly  signifies  that 
 the  operations  of  this  one  spirit  are  appro- 
 priated to  this  one  body,  as  the  soul  is  to 
 the  body  it  animates ;  — then  it  does  not 
 seem  a  very  likely  way  for  edification,  to 
 cut  ourselves  off  from  the  unity  of  Christ's 
 body. 
 
 ELDERS.  (7rpf(T/3vrfpoi,  hence  Pres- 
 byterians.) Presbyterian  sects  have 
 supposed  that  the  order  of  lay  -elders, 
 as  they  denominate  some  of  their  of- 
 ficers, is  sanctioned  by  Holy  Scripture. 
 It  appears  certain,  however,  that  the 
 "elders"  mentioned  by  St.  Paul  (1  Tim. 
 V.)  did  not  hold  the  same  office  as  those 
 in  the  Presbyterian  sects,  but  "  labour- 
 ed in  the  word  and  doctrine."  In  this 
 place  the  apostle  means  only  ministers, 
 when  he  directs  that  double  honour  should 
 be  paid  to  the  elders  that  rule  well,  espe- 
 cially those  who  labour  in  the  word  and 
 doctrine  ;  and  the  distinction  does  not  ap- 
 pear to  consist  in  the  order  of  officers,  but 
 in  the  degree  of  their  diligence,  faithful- 
 
308 
 
 ELECTION. 
 
 ness,  and  eminence  in  laboriously  fulfillinjjj 
 their  ministerial  duties.  It  is  said  that 
 Calvin  admitted  lay-elders  into  Church 
 courts,  on  what  he  conceived  to  be  the 
 sanction  of  primitive  practice,  and,  as  an 
 efiectual  method  of  ])reventinp:  the  return 
 of  inordinate  power  in  a  superior  order  of 
 the  clergy.  To  this  it  is  answered  by  Ca- 
 tholics, that  neither  the  name  nor  office  of 
 lay-elder  was  ever  known  to  any  general 
 or  provincial  council,  or  even  to  any  par- 
 ticular Church  in  the  world,  before  the 
 time  of  Calvin.     (See  Presbi/terians.) 
 
 ELECTION.  (See  Predestmation,  Cal- 
 vinism, ArminifDusm.)  There  are  three 
 views  taken  of  election,  all  parties  agree- 
 ing that  some  doctrine  of  election  is  taught 
 in  Holy  Scripture,  —  the  Calvinistic,  the 
 Arminian,  and  the  Catholic. 
 
 By  the  Calvinists,  (see  Calvinism,)  elec- 
 tion is  judged  to  be  the  election  of  certain 
 individuals  out  of  the  great  mass  of  man- 
 kind, directly  and  immediately,  to  eternal 
 life,  while  all  other  individuals  are  either 
 passively  left,  or  actively  doomed,  to  a  cer- 
 tainty of  eternal  death :  and  the  moving 
 cause  of  that  election  is  defined  to  be  God's 
 unconditional  and  irrespective  will  and 
 pleasure,  inherent  in,  and  exercised  in  con- 
 sequence of,  his  absolute  and  uncontrol- 
 lable sovereignty. 
 
 By  the  Arminians,  or  Remonstrants,  (see 
 Arminianism,)  Scriptural  election  is  pro- 
 nounced to  be  the  election  of  certain  indi- 
 viduals, out  of  the  great  mass  of  mankind, 
 directly  and  immediately  to  eternal  life ; 
 and  the  moving  cause  of  that  election  is 
 asserted  to  be  God's  eternal  prevision  of 
 the  future  persevering  holiness  and  con- 
 sequent moral  fitness  of  the  individuals 
 themselves,  who  thence  have  been  thus 
 elected. 
 
 Election  under  the  gospel  or  Catholic 
 view  denotes,  the  election  of  various  indi- 
 viduals into  the  pale  of  the  visible  Church, 
 with  God's  merciful  purpose,  that  through 
 faith  and  holiness  they  should  attain  ever- 
 lasting glory,  but  with  a  possibility  (since 
 God  governs  his  intelligent  creatures  on 
 moral  principles  only)  that  through  their 
 own  perverseness  they  may  fail  of  attain- 
 ing it. 
 
 Stanley  Faber,  from  whose  learned  and 
 most  satisfactory  work  these  definitions  are 
 taken,  very  clearly  proves  this  to  be  the 
 doctrine  of  the  reformed  Church  of  Eng- 
 land;  where,  in  the  seventeenth  Article, 
 the  Church  of  England,  speaking  of  predes- 
 tination to  life,  teaches  not  an  election  of 
 certain  individuals,  either  absolute  or  pre- 
 visional,  directly  and  immediately,  to  eter- 
 nal happiness.     But  she  teaches  an  election 
 
 of  certain  individuals  into  the  Church 
 catholic,  in  order  that  there,  according  to 
 the  everlasting  purpose  and  morally  oper- 
 ating intention  of  GoD,  they  may  be  de- 
 livered from  curse  and  damnation,  and 
 thus,  indirectly  and  mediately,  may  be 
 brought,  through  Christ,  to  everlasting 
 glory  ;  agreeably  to  God's  promises,  as 
 they  are  generically,  not  specifically,  set 
 forth  to  us  in  Holy  Scripture. 
 
 That  such  is  the  real  doctrine  of  the 
 Church  of  England — in  other  words,  that 
 she  teaches  a  predestination  to  life,  not 
 direct  and  immediate,  but  indirect  and 
 mediate — inevitably  follows  from  the  cir- 
 cumstance that,  while  in  her  sixteenth 
 Article  she  hints  at  the  possibility  of  the 
 elect  individually  departing  from  grace 
 given,  in  her  Homilies  and  in  her  Burial 
 Service,  she  distinctly  states,  that  the  elect, 
 in  her  sense  of  the  word,  may,  in  their  in- 
 dividual capacity,  fall  away  utterly,  and 
 thus  perish  finally.  Now,  this  statement 
 is  palpably  incompatible  with  the  tenet  of 
 a  direct  and  immediate  predestination  of 
 individuals  to  eternal  life  ;  for  individuals, 
 so  predestinated,  could  not,  by  the  very 
 terms  of  their  predestination,  fall  away  ut- 
 terly and  irrecoverably.  Therefore,  the 
 predestination  to  life,  mentioned  in  the 
 seventeenth  Article,  can  only  mean  an  in- 
 direct and  mediate  predestination  of  indi- 
 viduals ;  or,  in  other  words,  it  can  only 
 mean  a  predestination  of  individuals  to 
 eternal  life,  through  the  medium  of  elec- 
 tion into  the  Catholic  Church ;  in  God's 
 everlasting  purpose  and  intention  indeed  ; 
 but  still,  (since  God,  in  executing  his  pur- 
 pose and  intention,  operates  upon  the 
 minds  of  his  intelligent  creatures  not  phy- 
 sically, but  morally,)  with  a  possibility  of 
 their  defeating  that  merciful  purpose  and 
 intention,  and  thence  of  their  finally  fall- 
 ing away  to  everlasting  destruction. 
 
 As  the  article,  in  connexion  with  the 
 other  documents  of  the  Anglican  Church, 
 must,  unless  we  place  them  in  irrecon- 
 cilable collision  with  each  other,  be  under- 
 stood to  propound  the  doctrine  of  predes- 
 tination after  the  manner  and  in  the  sense 
 which  has  been  specified ;  so  it  distinctly 
 enjoins  us  to  receive  God's  promises,  as 
 they  are  generally  set  forth  to  us  in  Holy 
 Scripture. 
 
 The  word  generally  in  this  place  is  not 
 opposed  to  tmusnally,  but  to  particularly, 
 and  signifies  generically.  And  the  other 
 documents  of  the  Church  of  England  agree 
 with  this  interpretation  of  the  seventeenth 
 Article. 
 
 AVe  may  refer,  in  the  first  instance,  to 
 the  peculiar  phraseology  introduced  into 
 
ELECTION. 
 
 ELEMENTS. 
 
 309 
 
 the  office  of  Infant  Baptism.  "  Regard,  we 
 beseech  thee,  the  supplications  of  thy  con- 
 gregation :  sanctify  this  water  to  the  mys- 
 tical washing  away  of  sin  :  and  grant  that 
 this  child,  noAV  to  be  baptized  therein,  may 
 receive  the  fulness  of  thy  grace,  and  ever  re- 
 main in  the  number  of  thy  faithful  and  elect 
 children,  through  Jesus  Ciihist  our  Lord." 
 
 Thus,  in  systematically  generalizing 
 phraseology,  runs  the  prayer.  Now  the 
 same  prayer  is  recited  over  every  child. 
 Consequently,  by  the  inevitable  force  of 
 the  word  "  remain "  as  here  used,  every 
 child,  baptismally  brought  into  the  pale  of 
 the  Church,  is  declared  to  be,  at  that  time, 
 one  of  the  number  of  God's  elect. 
 
 But  the  largest  charity  cannot  believe 
 that  every  child,  baptismally  brought  into 
 the  pale  of  the  Ch\irch,  is  elect  in  the 
 sense  of  election  as  jointly  maintained  by 
 Calvin  and  Arminius. 
 
 Therefore,  agreeably  to  the  tenor  of  her 
 own  explicit  jihraseology,  the  idea  which 
 the  English  Church  annexes  to  the  term 
 election,  can  only  be  that  of  ecclesiastical 
 individual  election. 
 
 The  matter  is  yet  additionally  estab- 
 lished by  the  parallel  phraseology,  Avhich 
 occurs  in  the  somewhat  more  modern  office 
 of  Adult  Baptism. 
 
 With  the  sole  requisite  alteration  of 
 "this  person"  for  "this  child,"  the  prayer 
 is  copied  verbatim  from  the  older  office. 
 Every  adult,  therefore,  who  is  baptismally 
 introduced  into  the  pale  of  the  Church,  is, 
 as  such,  declared  to  be  one  of  the  number 
 of  God's  elect  people. 
 
 The  same  matter  is  still  further  estab- 
 lished by  the  strictly  homogeneous  lan- 
 guage of  the  Catechism. 
 
 Each  questioned  catechumen,  who,  as 
 an  admitted  member  of  the  Church,  has 
 already,  in  the  baptismal  office,  been  de- 
 clared to  be  one  of  the  elect,  is  directed  to 
 reply :  that,  as  a  chief  article  of  the  faith 
 propounded  in  the  Creed,  he  has  learned 
 "  to  believe  in  God  the  Holy  Ghost,  Avho 
 sanctifieth"  him  "and  all  the  elect  people 
 of  God." 
 
 Now,  such  an  answer  plainly  makes 
 every  catechumen  declare  himself  to  be 
 one  of  the  elect. 
 
 But,  in  no  conceivable  sense  which  will 
 harmonize  with  the  general  phraseology  of 
 the  Anglican  Church,  save  in  that  of  eccle- 
 siastical individual  election  only,  can  every 
 catechumen  be  deemed  one  of  God's  elect 
 people. 
 
 Therefore  the  idea  which  to  the  Scrip- 
 tural term  election,  is  annexed  by  the 
 Church  of  England,  is  that  of  ecclesiastical 
 individual  election. 
 
 The  matter  is  also  established  by  the 
 parallel  })hraseology  introduced  into  the 
 Burial  Service. 
 
 "  We  beseech  thee,  that  it  may  please 
 thee,  of  thy  gracious  goodness,  shortly  to 
 accomplish  the  number  of  thine  elect,  and 
 to  hasten  thy  kingdom  ;  that  we,  with  all 
 those  that  are  departed  in  the  true  faith  of 
 thy  holy  name,  may  have  our  perfect  con- 
 summation and  bliss,  both  in  body  and 
 soul,  in  thy  eternal  and  everlasting  glory, 
 through  Jesus  Ciikist  our  Lord." 
 
 In  this  prayer,  the  generic  term  "  we  " 
 occurs  in  immediate  connexion  with  "  the 
 number  of  thine  electa 
 
 Therefore  the  evidently  studied  an'ange- 
 ment  of  the  words,  enforces  the  conclusion 
 that  every  member  of  the  Church,  as  de- 
 signated by  the  term  "  we,"  must  be  deem- 
 ed one  of  God's  elect  people. 
 
 Finally,  the  same  matter  is  established, 
 even  in  the  familiar  course  of  daily  recita- 
 tion, by  the  language  of  the  very  liturgy 
 itself. 
 
 "Endue  thy  ministers  with  righteous- 
 ness :  and  make  thy  chosen  people  joyful. 
 
 "  O  Lord,  save  thy  people :  and  bless 
 thine  inheritance." 
 
 Now,  who  are  the  "  chosen  people," 
 whom  the  Lord  is  here  supplicated  to 
 "make  joyful?" 
 
 Can  we  reasonably  pronounce  them,  in 
 the  judgment  of  the  Anglican  Churcli,  to 
 be  certain  individuals  of  each  actually 
 praying  congregation,  who,  in  contradis- 
 tinction to  other  individuals  of  the  same 
 congregation,  are  predestinated,  either  ab- 
 solutely or  provisionally,  to  eternal  life  ? 
 
 Assuredly,  the  whole  context  forbids  so 
 incongruous  a  supposition  ;  for,  assuredly, 
 the  whole  context  requires  us  to  pro- 
 nounce, that  "  thy  chosen  people "  are 
 identical  with  "  thine  inheritance." 
 
 But  the  entire  tenor  of  the  liturgy  iden- 
 tifies "  thine  inheritance "  with  the  Ca- 
 tholic Church. 
 
 Therefore,  "thy  chosen  people"  and  the 
 Catholic  Church  are  terms,  in  point  of 
 im])ort,  identical.     (See  Perseverauce.) 
 
 ELECTION  OF  BISHOPS.  (See 
 Bishops.) 
 
 ELEMENTS.  The  materials  used  in 
 the  sacraments,  appointed  for  that  puri)ose 
 by  our  Lord  himself.  Thus  water  is  the 
 element  of  baptism,  and  bread  and  wine 
 are  the  elements  of  the  eucharist.  With 
 respect  to  the  elements  of  the  eucharist,  it 
 is  ordered  by  the  Church  of  England  that, 
 "  when  there  is  a  communion,  the  })riest 
 shall  then  place  upon  the  table  so  much 
 bread  and  wine  as  he  shall  think  sufii- 
 cient;"  Then,  that  is,  after  the  offertory, 
 
310 
 
 ELEMENTS. 
 
 ELEVATION  OF  THE  HOST. 
 
 and  after  presenting  the  basin  with  the 
 alms.  This  rubric  being  added  to  our 
 liturgy  at  the  last  review,  at  the  same 
 time  with  the  word  "oblations,"  in  the 
 prayer  following,  it  is  clearly  evident,  as 
 Bishop  Patrick  has  observed,  that  by  that 
 word  are  to  be  iniderstood  the  elements  of 
 bread  and  wine,  which  the  i)riest  is  to 
 offer  solemnly  to  God  as  an  acknowledg- 
 ment of  his  sovereignty  over  his  creatures, 
 and  that  from  henceforth  they  might  be- 
 come properly  and  peculiarly  his.  For  in 
 all  the  Jewish  sacrihces,  of  which  the  peo- 
 ple were  partakers,  the  viands  or  materials 
 of  the  feast  were  first  made  God's  by  a 
 solemn  oblation,  and  then  afterwards  eaten 
 by  the  communicants,  not  as  man's,  but  as 
 God's  provisions,  who  by  thus  entertaining 
 them  at  his  own  table,  declared  himself 
 reconciled,  and  again  in  covenant  wdth 
 them.  And  therefore  our  blessed  Savioue, 
 when  he  instituted  the  new  sacrament  of 
 his  own  body  and  blood,  first  gave  thanks 
 and  blessed 'the  elements;  that  is,  offered 
 them  up  to  God  as  Lord  of  the  creatures, 
 as  the  most  ancient  Fathers  expound  that 
 passage ;  w^ho  for  that  reason,  whenever 
 they  celebrated  the  holy  eucharist,  always 
 offered  the  bread  and  wine  for  the  com- 
 munion to  God  upon  the  altar  by  this  or 
 some  short  ejaculation:  "Lord,  we  offer 
 thee  thine  own  out  of  what  thou  hast 
 bountifully  given  us."  After  which  they 
 received  them  into  the  sacred  banquet  of 
 the  body  and  blood  of  his  dear  Son. 
 
 In  the  ancient  Church  they  had  gener- 
 ally a  side  table,  or  2^>'othesis,  near  the 
 altar,  upon  which  the  elements  were  laid 
 till  the  first  part  of  the  communion  service 
 was  over.  Now,  though  we  have  not 
 always  a  side  table,  and  there  is  no  express 
 provision  for  one  made  in  the  Church  of 
 EngLind,  yet  in  the  first  Common  Prayer 
 Book  of  King  Edward  VI.,  the  priest  him- 
 self was  ordered,  in  this  place,  to  set  both 
 bread  and  wine  upon  the  altar  ;  but  at  the 
 review  in  1551,  this  and  several  other 
 pious  usages  were  thrown  out,  in  conde- 
 scension to  ultra-Protestant  superstition. 
 (See  Credence.)  After  which  the  Scotch 
 liturgy  was  the  first  wherein  we  find  it 
 restored ;  and  INIr.  Mede  having  observed 
 our  liturgy  to  be  defective  in  this  particu- 
 lar, was  probably  the  occasion,  that,  in  the 
 review  of  it  after  the  llestoration,  this 
 primitive  practice  was  restored,  and  the 
 bread  and  wine  ordered  by  the  rubric  to 
 be  set  solemnly  on  the  table  by  the  priest 
 himself.  It  appears,  indeed,  that  the  tra- 
 ditional practice  of  the  immediately  pre- 
 ceding times  maintained  its  ground  in 
 many   ])laces   after  the  alteration  of  the 
 
 I  rubric  ;  (see  Hicke's  Treatises,  i.  127—129, 
 I  322—324;)  but  tlie  history  of  the  change 
 gives  so  marked  a  character  to  our  present 
 rubric,  that  a  neglect  of  it  is  clearly  a  viola- 
 tion of  the  priest's  obligation  to  conformity. 
 If  the  priest  thus  ofiends  the  consciences 
 of  the  more  enlightened  members  of  a  con- 
 gregation, they  should  point  out  to  him 
 his  mistake,  which  can  only  proceed  from 
 traditional  negligence.  In  the  coronation 
 service  of  Queen  Victoria,  after  the  read- 
 ing of  the  sentences  in  the  Offertory,  this 
 rubric  occurs.  ''  And  first  the  Queen 
 oflers  bread  and  wine  for  the  communion, 
 which  being  brought  out  of  King  Edward's 
 chapel,  and  delivered  into  her  hands,  the 
 bread  upon  the  paten  by  the  bishop  who 
 read  the  Epistle,  and  the  wine  in  the 
 chalice  by  the  bishop  that  read  the  Gospel, 
 are  by  the  archbishop  received  from  the 
 Queen,  and  reverently  placed  upon  the 
 altar,  and  decently  covered  with  a  fair 
 linen  cloth,  the  archbishop  first  saying  this 
 prayer,"  &c.  (See  Oblation  and  Offertory.) 
 —See  Wheatli/. 
 
 ELEVATION.  In  architecture,  a  re- 
 presentation of  a  building,  or  of  any  por- 
 tion of  it,  as  it  would  appear  if  it  were 
 possible  that  the  eye  should  be  exactly 
 opposite  every  part  of  it  at  the  same  time. 
 ELEVATION  OF  THE  HOST.  This 
 Romish  ceremony,  condemned  in  our 
 twenty-fifth  Article,  is  not,  comparatively 
 speaking,  an  ancient  rite.  The  Homan 
 ritualists.  Bona,  Merati,  Benedict  XIV., 
 Le  Brun,  &c.,  acknowledge  that  there  is 
 no  trace  of  its  existence  before  the  eleventh 
 or  twelfth  century  in  the  West.  The  Ordo 
 Komanus,  Amalarius,  Walafrid  Strabo, 
 and  Micrologus,  make  no  mention  of  the 
 rite,  though  the  last  of  these  ritualists 
 lived  at  the  end  of  the  eleventh  century. 
 The  truth  is,  that  no  certain  documents 
 refer  to  it  until  the  beginning  of  the 
 thirteenth  century,  but  it  may  possibly 
 have  existed  in  some  places  in  the  twelfth. 
 The  synodical  constitutions  of  Odo  de  Sulli, 
 bishop  of  Paris,  about  1200,  appoint  this 
 elevation,  and  it  was  probably  then  first 
 introduced  into  the  diocese  of  Paris.  In- 
 nocent III.,  who  wrote  on  the  ceremonies 
 of  the  mass  at  the  beginning  of  the  thir- 
 teenth century,  does  not  speak  of  it ;  but, 
 in  the  time  of  Honorius  III.,  it  had  come 
 into  use,  for  he  mentions  it  in  an  epistle 
 to  the  Latin  bishops  of  the  patriarchate  of 
 Antioch,  A.  D.  1219,  where  he  commands 
 that,  at  the  elevation,  the  people  should 
 reverently  bow.  "  Sacerdos  quilibet  fre- 
 quenter doceat  plebem  suam,  ut  cum  in 
 celebratione  missarum  elevatur  hostia  salu- 
 taris,  quilibet  reverenter  inclinet."     This 
 
ELEVATION  OF  THE  HOST. 
 
 EMBLEM. 
 
 31 ; 
 
 was  inserted  in  the  decretals  (c.  sane  dc 
 celebratione  missarum)  by  Gregory  IX., 
 his  successor,  and  thus  became  the  law  of 
 the  West.  It  is  spoken  of  by  IJonaventure, 
 Durand,  and  the  Council  of  Lambeth,  in 
 the  latter  part  of  the  same  century ;  and 
 Cardinal  Guido  is  said  to  have  introduced 
 this  rite,  or  some  part  of  it,  at  Cologne, 
 about  1265. 
 
 We  know  then,  that,  in  the  thirteenth 
 century,  the  host  was  elevated,  and  the 
 people  bowed  or  knelt  at  the  same  time. 
 But  if  we  are  to  judge  by  the  authorities 
 referred  to  by  the  Koman  ritualists  them- 
 selves, the  writers  of  that  and  the  follow- 
 ing ages  did  not  ahvays  interpret  this  as 
 designed  for  the  adoration  of  the  elements, 
 or  even  of  Christ  in  the  eucharist.  Bo- 
 naventure  (a.  d.  1270)  assigns  eight  reasons 
 for  the  elevation,  some  of  which  relate  to 
 the  duty  or  dispositions  of  the  people  on 
 the  occasion  ;  but  he  does  not  notice  the 
 adoration  of  the  elements.  William,  bishop 
 of  Paris,  about  1220,  ordered  a  bell  to  be 
 rung  at  the  elevation,  that  the  people 
 might  be  excited  to  pray :  not  to  worship 
 the  host.  "  Pra;cipitur  quod  in  celebra- 
 tione missarum,  quando  corpus  Chkisti 
 elevatur,  in  ipsa  elevatione,  vel  paulo  ante, 
 campana  pulsetur,  sicut  alias  fuit  statutum, 
 ut  sic  mentcs  fidelium  ad  orationem  ex- 
 citentur."  Cardinal  Guido  (a,  d.  1265) 
 ordained,  that  at  the  elevation  all  the 
 people  should  pray  for  pardon.  "  Bonam 
 illic  consuetudinem  instituit,  ut  ad  eleva- 
 tionem  hostise  omnis  populus  in  ecclesia 
 ad  sonitum  noloB  veniam  peteret,  sicque 
 usque  ad  calicis  benedictionem  prostratus 
 jaceret."  The  synod  of  Cologne  (a.  d. 
 1536)  explained  the  people's  duty  at  the 
 elevation  to  consist,  in  remembering  the 
 Lord's  death,  and  returning  him  thanks 
 with  minds  raised  to  heaven.  "  Post  ele- 
 vationem  consecrati  corporis  ac  sanguinis 
 Domini  .  .  .  tum  videretur  silendum,  et 
 ab  omni  populo  mortis  Uominicne  comme- 
 moratio  habenda,  prostratisque  humi  cor- 
 poribus,  animis  in  coclum  erectis,  gratia? 
 agenda?  CiiRiSTO  Iledem})tori,  qui  nos  san- 
 guine suo  lavit  morteque  redemit." 
 
 On  the  other  hand,  Durand,  (1286,) 
 Lyndwood,  (1430,)  the  diocesan  synod  of 
 Augsburg,  (1518,)  and  Cardinal  Hosius, 
 one  of  the  papal  legates  at  the  synod  of 
 Trent,  understood  the  prostration  of  the 
 people  as  designed  for  the  adoration  of 
 Christ  as  present  in  the  eucharist.  Cer- 
 tainly this  has  latterly  become  the  common 
 opinion,  but  from  what  has  l)een  said  above 
 it  appears  that,  before  tlie  lleformation,  and 
 afterwards,  many  persons  at  the  elevation 
 directed  their  worship  to  God  and  Christ 
 
 simply,  without  any  exclusive  reference  to 
 the  presence  of  CHRIST  in  the  eucharist. 
 — Palmer. 
 
 EMBER  DAYS.  These  are  the  Wed- 
 nesday, Friday,  and  Saturday,  after  the 
 first  Sunday  in  Lent,  the  feast  of  Whit- 
 sunday, the  14th  of  September,  and  the 
 13th  of  Deceml)cr,  all  being  fasting  days; 
 the  Sundays  following  these  days  being 
 the  stated  times  of  ordination  in  the  Churcli. 
 It  is  to  be  remarked,  that  the  Sunday  in 
 December  which  begins  the  Ember  Meek 
 is  always  the  third  Sunday  in  Advent.  The 
 week  in  which  these  days  fall  are  called 
 Ember  week.  But  as  Sunday  begins  the 
 week,  the  Ember  collect  is  always  to  be 
 read  on  the  Sunday  preceding  the  Ember 
 days,  not  on  that  which  follows  them,  as 
 is  sometimes  erroneously  done. 
 
 The  derivation  of  the  name  is  uncertain. 
 It  has  been  supposed  by  some  to  signify 
 "  ashes,"  and  by  others  "  abstinence,"  in 
 allusion  to  the  ancient  custom  connected 
 with  fasting.  The  fact  that  the  Ember 
 weeks  return  at  stated  periods,  has  led 
 others  to  trace  the  name  to  a  Saxon  word 
 signifying  a  "  course,"  or  "  cycle."  In  the 
 A^'estern  Church  they  were  denominated 
 "  the  Easts  of  the  Four  Seasons :"  and  from 
 this  comes  another,  and  perhaps  the  most 
 probable,  illustration — the  Latin  quatuor 
 tempora  (four  seasons)  being  abbreviated 
 into  the  German  (luatcmper  or  quatemher, 
 and  again,  into  the  Ihiglish  cmher.  On 
 these  days  the  design  of  the  Church  is  to 
 call  her  members,  %  prayer  and  fasting, 
 to  invoke  the  Divine  aid  and  blessing  on 
 the  choice  and  commission  of  ministers 
 of  the  gospel.  The  deep  interest  every 
 Christian  heart  should  feel  in  a  matter  of 
 such  infinite  moment,  should  secure  for 
 these  days  the  pious  observance  of  the 
 members  of  the  Church. 
 
 E^SIBLEM.  A  visible,  and  usually  an 
 ornamental,  symbol  of  some  spiritual  thing ; 
 of  some  great  truth  concerning  the  object 
 of  a  Christian's  worship,  of  some  ol)ject  of 
 his  faith  and  hope,  or  of  some  mystery  or 
 privilege. 
 
 The  use  of  emblems,  under  wliich  the 
 truths  of  Christianity  were  veiled  from  the 
 heathen,  while  they  were  presented  vividly 
 to  the  minds  of  the  faitliful,  is  prol^ably  as 
 old  as  Christianity  itself:  and  the  fancy 
 of  pious  persons  has  continued  it  to  the 
 present  day ;  many  jiarticular  emblems 
 having  beeii  so  generally  and  almost  \mi- 
 versally  iised,  as  to  have  been  interwoven 
 almost' with  the  very  external  habit  of  the 
 Church  itself.  Among  the  most  apt  and 
 venerable  may  be  mentioned,  the  trine 
 compass,  (as  it  is  called  ])y  Chaucer,) 
 
312 
 
 EMMANUEL. 
 
 ENERGUMENS,  DEMONIACS. 
 
 "  That  of  the  trine  compas  Lord  and  gide  is," 
 
 or  a  circle  inscribed  within  an  equilateral 
 triangle ;  denoting  the  co-equality  and 
 co-eternity  of  the  three  ])ivine  persons  in 
 the  ever  blessed  and  undivided  Trinity : 
 the  hand  extended  from  the  clouds  in  the 
 attitude  of  benediction,  for  the  first  Person 
 in  the  Trinity  :  the  Lamb  triumphant,  the 
 fish,  (see  Piscis,)  the  pelican  wounding 
 her  own  breast  to  feed  her  young,  and 
 others,  for  the  Son  of  God,  Jesus  Christ 
 our  Loud  :  the  dove,  for  the  Holy  Ghost. 
 The  chalice  receiving  the  blood  of  the 
 wounded  Lamb,  for  the  holy  eucharist: 
 the  phoenix  rising  from  the  flames,  for  the 
 resurrection :  the  cross,  for  the  Christian's 
 life  of  conflict ;  the  crown,  for  his  hope  of 
 glory.  All  these  are  beautifully  significant, 
 and  are  very  innocent  in  their  use,  as  well 
 as  pious  in  their  intention. 
 
 It  is  of  the  essence  of  a  proper  emblem 
 that  it  be  not,  nor  pretend  to  be,  a  simple 
 representation.  It  then  loses  its  allusive 
 character,  and  becomes  a  mere  picture  of 
 the  thing  itself.  In  theology  there  is  an- 
 other reason  why  this  should  be  avoided : 
 for  when  we  attempt  a  representation  of 
 any  object  of  Christian  worship,  we  too 
 nearly  fall  into  idolatry.  Hence  the  cross 
 is  admissible  where  the  crucifix  is  not : 
 and  the  not  unfrequent  representation  of 
 the  Holy  Trinity,  in  which  the  Father  is 
 represented  as  a  man,  supporting  the 
 Lord  Jesus  on  the  cross,  is  shocking  to 
 the  reverent  eye.  For  the  like  reasons  the 
 representations  of  the  holy  eucharist,  under 
 the  old  figure  of  a  crucifix  pouring  blood 
 into  four  cups  placed  to  receive  it,  is  very 
 objectionable. 
 
 With  regard  to  the  use  of  emblems, 
 they  still  afford  very  happy  ornaments  for 
 churches  and  chui'ch  furniture,  especially 
 perhaps  for  painted  Avindows.  In  the 
 primitive  Church,  the  pious  sometimes 
 carried  them  on  their  persons.  Clement 
 of  Alexandi-ia  has  mentioned  some  which 
 we  ought  to  avoid,  and  others  which  we 
 may  employ  ;  of  which  latter  Ave  may  name 
 a  dove,  a  fish,  a  ship  borne  along  b}'  a  full 
 breeze,  and  an  anchor.  As  the  reason  of 
 the  rule  which  he  gives  still  holds,  we  may 
 refer  to  his  Pceday.  iii.  1 1 . 
 
 EMMANUEL,  or  IMMANUEL.  A 
 Hebrew  Avord,  Avhich  signifies  "  GoD  Avith 
 us."  Isaiah,  (vii.  14,)  in  that  celebrated 
 prophecy,  in  which  he  foretells  to  Ahaz 
 the  birth  of  the  Messiah  from  a  virgin, 
 says,  This  child  shall  be  called  Emmanuel, 
 God  Avith  us.  He  repeats  this  Avhile 
 speaking  of  the  enemy's  army,  which,  like 
 a  torrent,  Avas  to  overfloAv  Judea :  "  The 
 
 stretching  of  his  wings  shall  fill  the  breadth 
 of  thy  land,  O  E:\imanuel."  St.  Matthew 
 (i.  23)  informs  us,  that  this  prophecy  Avas 
 accomplished  in  the  birth  of  Christ,  born 
 of  the  Virgin  Mary,  in  Avhom  the  tAVO 
 natures.  Divine  and  human,  were  united  ; 
 so  that  he  Avas  really  Emmanuel,  or  "  God 
 Avith  us." 
 
 EXCCENIA.  Festivals  anciently  kept 
 on  the  days  on  which  cities  Avere  built,  or 
 churches  consecrated ;  and  in  later  times, 
 ceremonies  rencAved  at  certain  periods,  as 
 at  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  at  the  celebra- 
 tion of  founders  and  benefactors. 
 
 ENCKATITES,  or  CONTINENTS.  A 
 name  given  to  a  sect  in  the  second  cen- 
 tury, because  they  condemned  marriage, 
 forbade  the  eating  of  flesh  or  drinking  of 
 wine,  and  rejected  Avith  a  sort  of  horror 
 all  the  comforts  and  conveniences  of  life. 
 Tatian,  an  AssjTian,  and  a  disciple  of 
 Justin  Martyr,  Avas  the  leader  of  this  sect. 
 He  Avas  greatly  distinguished  for  his  genius 
 and  learning,  and  the  excessive  austerity 
 of  his  life  and  manners.  He  regarded 
 matter  as  the  fountain  of  all  evil,  and 
 therefore  recommended  in  a  peculiar  man- 
 ner the  mortification  of  the  body.  He 
 distinguished  the  Creator  of  the  Avorld 
 from  the  Supreme  Being,  denied  the  re- 
 ality of  Christ's  body,  and  blended  the 
 Christian  religion  Avith  several  corrupt  te- 
 nets of  the  Oriental  philosophA^ 
 
 ENERGUMENS,  DEM0:\1ACS,  from 
 ivtpyoviikvoL,  AA'hich  in  the  largest  sense 
 denotes  persons  under  the  motion  or  oper- 
 ation of  any  spirit  Avhatever,  good  or  bad ; 
 but,  in  a  restrained  sense,  is  used  by  ec- 
 clesiastical AA'riters  to  denote  persons 
 Avhose  bodies  are  possessed  by  an  evil 
 spirit.  Mention  is  often  made  in  the  pri- 
 mitive Church,  of  persons  possessed  of  an 
 CA'il  spu'it.  The  regulations  of  the  Church 
 bestOAved  upon  them  special  care.  They 
 constituted  a  distinct  class  of  Christians, 
 bearing  some  relation  both  to  the  catechu- 
 mens and  the  faithful ;  but  differing  from 
 both  in  this,  that  they  Avere  under  the 
 special  oversight  and  direction  of  exorcists, 
 Avhile  they  took  part  in  some  of  the  reli- 
 gious exercises  of  both  classes. 
 
 Catechumens  Avho,  during  their  proba- 
 tionary exercises,  became  demoniacs,  Avere 
 never  baptized  until  thoroughly  healed, 
 except  in  case  of  extreme  sickness.  Be- 
 lievers Avho  became  demoniacs,  in  the 
 worst  stage  of  their  disease,  like  the  Aveep- 
 ing  penitents,  were  not  permitted  to  enter 
 the  church ;  but  Avere  retained  under  close 
 inspection  in  the  outer  porch.  When 
 partially  recovered  they  Avere  permitted, 
 Avith  the  aiidientes,  to  join   in  public  Avor- 
 
ENGLAND. 
 
 EPHOD. 
 
 313 
 
 ship,  but  they  were  not  permitted  to  par- 
 take of  the  eucharist  until  wholly  restored, 
 evcept  in  the  immediate  prospect  of  death. 
 In  general,  the  cnergumens  were  subject 
 to  the  same  rules  as  the  penitents. — • 
 Binqham. 
 
 ENGLAND.  (See  Church  of  England.) 
 
 ENOCH,  'niv:  PKOPHFX'Y  OF.  An 
 apocryphal  book,  of  which  there  remains 
 but  a  few  fragments. 
 
 Enoch  was  certainly  one  of  the  most 
 illustrious  prophets  of  the  first  world,  since 
 Moses  says  of  him,  that  he  "walked  with 
 God."  (Gen.  v.  24.)  This  prophet  is  famed 
 in  the  Church  for  two  things :  the  first  is, 
 his  being  taken  up  into  heaven  without 
 seeing  death  (Ileb.  xi.  5) ;  the  second  is, 
 his  Prophecy,  a  passage  of  which  St.  Jude 
 has  cited  in  his  Epistle.  (Ver.  14.)  The 
 ancients  greatly  esteemed  the  Prophecy  of 
 Enoch.  Tertullian  expresses  his  concern, 
 that  it  was  not  generally  received  in  tlie 
 world.  That  Father,  on  the  authority  of 
 this  book,  deduces  the  original  of  idolatry, 
 astrology,  and  unlawful  arts,  from  the 
 revolted  angels,  who  married  with  the 
 daughters  of  men.  And  it  is  on  the  testi- 
 mony of  this  book,  that  the  Fathers  of  the 
 2nd  and  3rd  centuries,  as  Irena?us,  Cyprian, 
 Lactantius,  received  for  true  this  fable  of 
 the  marriage  of  the  angels  with  the 
 daughters  of  men.  St.  Augustine,  who  was 
 less  credulous,  allows,  indeed,  that  Enoch 
 wrote  something  divine  because  he  is  cited 
 by  St.  Jude ;  but  he  says,  it  w^^s  not  with- 
 out reason  that  this  book  was  not  inserted 
 in  the  Canon,  which  was  preserved  in  the 
 temple  of  Jerusalem,  and  committed  to  the 
 care  of  the  sacrificators.  St.  Augustine  suf- 
 ficiently insinuates,  that  the  authority  of 
 this  book  is  doubtful,  and  that  it  cannot  be 
 proved  that  it  was  really  written  by  Enoch. 
 Indeed  the  account  it  gives  of  giants 
 engendered  by  angels,  and  not  by  men,  has 
 manifestly  the  air  of  a  fable ;  and  the  most 
 judicious  critics  believe  it  ought  not  to  be 
 ascribed  to  Enocli.  De  Habitu  Mulier.  c.  iii. 
 De  Civit.  Dei,  lib.  xv.  c.  23. 
 
 This  apocryphal  book  lay  a  long  time 
 buried  in  darkness  ;  till  the  learned  Joseph 
 Scaliger  recovered  a  ])art  of  it.  That 
 author  gives  us  some  considerable  frag- 
 ments of  it,  in  his  notes  on  the  chronicle  of 
 Eusebius ;  particularly  in  relation  to  the 
 above-mentioned  story  of  the  man'iagc  of 
 the  angels  with  the  daughters  of  men. 
 
 Scaliger,  Isaac  Vossius,  and  other  learn- 
 ed men,  attribute  this  work  to  one  of  those 
 Jews,  who  lived  in  the  times  between  the 
 Babylonish  captivity  and  our  Saviour 
 Jesus  Christ.  Others  are  of  opinion,  it 
 was  written  after  the  rise  and  establish- 
 
 ment of  Christianity,  by  one  of  those  fana- 
 tics, with  whom  the  primitive  Church  was 
 filled,  who  made  a  ridiculous  mixture  of  the 
 Platonic  philosophy  and  the  Christian  di- 
 vinity :  such  as  the  authors,  or  forgers,  of  the 
 Sibylline  Ch'acles,  the  Dialogues  of  Hermes 
 Trismegistus,  and  the  like.  The  reasons  of 
 this  ojiinion  are  these.  1.  The  original  of 
 the  book  is  Greek ;  and  therefore  it  was 
 not  composed  by  any  Jew,  living  in  Judea, 
 or  Chaldea ;  for  they  always  wrote  in  He- 
 brew, or  in  some  of  its  dialects.  2.  It  is 
 evident  the  author  was  a  Christian,  because 
 he  makes  perpetual  allusions  to  the  texts 
 of  the  New  Testament.  It  is  therefore, 
 probably,  the  invention  of  some  Christian, 
 who  took  occasion  from  the  Epistle  of  St. 
 Jude  to  forge  this  work.  As  for  St.  Jude 
 himself,  it  is  probable  he  cites  what  con- 
 cerns the  general  judgment,  not  from 
 any  book  then  subsisting  under  the  name 
 of  Enoch,  but  from  tradition.  —  Jurieu^ 
 Hist,  ck's  Dogmes  et  Cultes,  part  i.  c.  4. 
 
 ENTHKONISATION.  (See  Bishop.) 
 The  placing  of  a  bishop  in  his  stall  or 
 throne  in  his  cathedi'al. 
 
 A  distinction  is  sometimes  made  between 
 the  enthronisation  of  an  archbishop  and  a 
 bishop,  the  latter  being  called  installation  : 
 but  this  appears  to  be  a  mere  refinement  of 
 the  middle  ages,  of  which  we  have  many 
 such. — Jehb. 
 
 EPACT.  In  chronology,  and  in  the 
 tables  for  the  calculation  of  Easter,  a 
 number  indicating  the  excess  of  the  solar 
 above  the  lunar  year.  The  solar  year 
 consisting,  in  round  numbers,  of  365  days, 
 and  the  lunar  of  twelve  months,  of  twenty- 
 nine  and  a  half  days  each,  or  354  days, 
 there  will  be  an  overplus  in  the  solar  year 
 of  eleven  days,  and  this  constitutes  the 
 Epact.  In  other  words,  the  epact  of  any 
 year  expresses  the  number  of  days  from 
 the  last  new  moon  of  the  old  year  (which 
 was  the  beginning  of  the  present  lunar 
 year)  to  the  first  of  January.  In  the  first 
 year,  therefore,  it  will  be  0 ;  in  the  second 
 1 1  days ;  in  the  third  twice  11  or  22  ;  and 
 in  the  fourth  it  would  be  11  days  more,  or 
 33  ;  but  30  days  being  a  synodical  month, 
 will  in  that  year  be  intercalated,  making 
 thirteen  synodical  months,  and  the  remain- 
 ing three  is  then  the  epact.  In  the  fol- 
 lowing year,  11  will  again  be  added,  mak- 
 ing fourteen  for  the  epact,  and  so  on  to  the 
 end  of  the  cycle,  adding  11  to  the  e])act  of 
 the  last  year,  and  always  rejecting  thirty, 
 by  counting  it  as  an  additional  month. 
 The  epact  is  inserted  in  the  table  of  move- 
 able feasts  in  the  Prayer  Book. 
 
 EPHOD,  a  sort  of  ornament  or  upper 
 garment,    worn  by   the    Hebrew   priests. 
 
314 
 
 EPIIOD. 
 
 EPIPHANY 
 
 The  word  niSK,  ephod,  is  derived  from 
 *13K,  aphad,  which  signifies  to  gird,  or  tie, 
 for  the  ephod  was  a  kind  of  girdle  which, 
 brought  from  behind  the  neck,  and  over 
 the  two  shoulders,  and  hanging  down 
 before,  was  put  cross  upon  the  stomach  ; 
 then  carried  round  the  waist,  and  made 
 use  of  as  a  girdle  to  the  tunic.  There 
 were  two  sorts  of  ephods,  one  of  plain 
 linen  for  the  priests,  and  another  em- 
 broidered for  the  high  priest.  As  there 
 was  nothing  singular  in  that  used  by  com- 
 mon priests,  Moses  does  not  dwell  upon 
 the  description  of  it,  but  of  that  belonging 
 to  the  high  priest  he  gives  us  a  large  and 
 particular  account.  (Exod.  xxviii.  6,  &c.) 
 It  was  composed  of  gold,  blue,  purple, 
 crimson,  and  twisted  cotton :  upon  that 
 part  of  it  which  passed  over  the  shoulders 
 were  two  large  precious  stones,  one  on 
 each  shoulder,  upon  which  were  engraven 
 the  names  of  the  twelve  tribes,  six  upon 
 each  stone;  and,  where  the  ephod  crossed 
 upon  the  high  priest's  breast,  there  was  a 
 square  ornament  called  the  pectoral,  or 
 breastplate. 
 
 St.  Jerome  observes,  that  the  ephod  was 
 peculiar  to  the  priesthood ;  and  it  was  an 
 opinion  among  the  Jews,  that  no  sort  of 
 worship,  true  or  false,  could  subsist  with- 
 out a  priesthood  and  ephod.  Thus  INIicah, 
 having  made  an  idol  and  placed  it  in  his 
 house,  did  not  fail  to  make  an  ephod  for  it. 
 (Judges  xvii.  5.)  GoD  foretold  by  Hosea, 
 (iii.  4,)  that  the  Israelites  should  be  for  a 
 long  time  without  kings,  princes,  sacrifices, 
 ahar,  ephod,  and  teraphim ;  and  Isaiah, 
 speaking  of  the  false  gods  who  were  Avor- 
 shipped  by  the  Israelites,  ascribes  ephods 
 to  them. 
 
 The  ephod  is  often  taken  for  the  pec- 
 toral or  breastplate,  and  for  the  Urim  and 
 Thummim,  which  Avere  fastened  to  it,  be- 
 cause all  this  belonged  to  the  ephod,  and 
 made  but  one  piece  with  it.  Though  the 
 ephod  was  properly  an  ecclesiastical  habit, 
 yet  we  find  it  sometimes  worn  by  laymen. 
 Samuel,  though  a  Levite  only,  and  a  child, 
 wore  a  linen  ephod.  (1  Sam',  ii.  18.)  And 
 David,  in  the  ceremony  of  removing  the 
 ark  from  the  house  of  Obed-edom  to  Jeru- 
 salem, was  girt  with  a  linen  ephod.  (2  Sam. 
 vi.  14.)  The  Levites  regularly  were  not 
 allowed  to  wear  the  ephod ;  but  in  the 
 time  of  Agrippa,  as  we  are  told  by  Josephus, 
 a  little  time  before  the  taking  of  Jerusalem 
 by  the  Komans,  the  Levites  obtained  of 
 that  prince  permission  to  wear  the  linen 
 stole  as  well  as  the  priests.  The  historian 
 observes,  that  this  was  an  innovation  con- 
 trar)^  to  the  laws  of  their  country,  which 
 were  never  struck  at  with  impunity. 
 
 Spencer  and  Cunteus  are  of  opinion, 
 that  the  Jewish  kings  had  a  right  to  wear 
 the  ephod,  because  David  coming  to  Zi^- 
 lag,  and  finding  that  the  Amalekites  had 
 plundered  the  city,  and  carried  away  his 
 and  the  people's  wives,  ordered  Abiathar 
 the  high  priest  to  bring  him  the  c})hod, 
 which  being  done,  David  inquired  of  the 
 Lord,  saying,  "  Shall  I  pursue  after  this 
 troop?"  '&c.  (1  Sam.  xxx.  8);  whence 
 they  infer  that  David  consulted  GoD  by 
 Urim  and  Thummim,  and  consequently 
 put  on  the  ephod.  The  generality  of 
 commentators  believe,  that  David  did  not 
 dress  himself  in  the  high  priest's  ephod, 
 and  that  the  text  signifies  no  more  than 
 that  the  king  ordered  Abiathar  to  put  on 
 the  ephod,  and  consult  God  for  him. 
 
 The  ephod  of  Gideon  is  remarkable  for 
 having  become  the  occasion  of  a  ncM'  kind 
 of  idolatry  to  the  Israelites.  (Judges  viii. 
 27.)  "What  this  consisted  in,  is  matter  of 
 dispute  among  the  learned.  Some  authors 
 are  of  opinion  that  this  ephod,  as  it  is  call- 
 ed, Avas  an  idol ;  others,  that  it  Avas  only  a 
 trophy  in  memory  of  that  signal  victory ; 
 and  that  the  Israelites  paid  a  kind  of  Di- 
 vine Avorship  to  it,  so  that  Gideon  Avas  the 
 innocent  cause  of  their  idolatry ;  in  like 
 manner  as  Moses  Avas,  Avhen  he  made  the 
 brazen  serpent,  Avhich  came  afterAvards  to 
 be  Avorshipped. 
 
 EPIGONATON.  An  appendage  of  a 
 lozenge  shape,  somewhat  resembling  a 
 small  maniple,  Avorn  on  the  right  side,  de- 
 pending from  the  girdle.  It  is  considered 
 to  represent  the  napkin  Avith  Avhich  our 
 blessed  Lord  girded  himself  at  the  last 
 supper,  and  has  embroidered  on  it  either  a 
 cross  or  the  head  of  our  Lord.  In  the 
 Romish  Church  its  use  is  confined  to  the 
 pope.  In  the  Greek  Church  it  is  used  by 
 all  bishops.  The  epigonaton  does  not  oc- 
 cur in  the  sacerdotal  vestments  of  the 
 English  Church. — Palmer. 
 
 EPIPHANY.  The  epiphany,  or  mani- 
 festation of  Christ  to  the  Gentiles,  is 
 commemorated  in  the  Church  on  the  6th 
 of  January,  and  denotes  the  day  on  Avhich 
 the  wise  men  came  from  the  East  to  Avor- 
 ship  the  infant  Jesus.  (Matt.  ii.  2.)  Let 
 us  be  thankful  for  the  light  of  the  gospel, 
 Avhich  on  that  day  began  to  shine  on  those 
 Avho  sat  in  darkness.  (Isa.  ix.  2 ;  Matt, 
 iv.  16.) 
 
 The  Avord  epiphany  is  derived  from  the 
 compound  verb  i-n-Kpaivu),  Avliich  signifies 
 to  mamfest  or  dec/are.  The  Epiphany  is 
 observed  as  a  scarlet  day  at  the  universities 
 of  Cambridge  and  Oxford. 
 
 The  feast  of  Epiphany  Avas  not,  origin- 
 ally, a  distinct  festival,  but  made  a  part  of 
 
EPISCOPACY. 
 
 315 
 
 that  of  the  nativity  of  CHRIST ;  which  being 
 celebrated  twelve  clays,  the  first  and  last 
 of  which,  according  to  the  custom  of  the 
 Jews  in  their  feasts,  were  high  or  chief 
 days  of  solemnity,  either  of  these  might 
 fitly  be  called  E])iphany,  as  that  word  sig- 
 nifies the  appearance  of  Christ  in  the 
 world. 
 
 This  festival  was,  in  one  respect,  more 
 taken  notice  of,  in  the  Greek  Church,  than 
 the  Nativity  itself,  being  allowed  as  one  of 
 the  three  solemn  times  of  ba})tism,  Avhich 
 the  Nativity  was  not ;  a  privilege  which  it 
 wanted  in  the  Latin  Church.  St.  Chrysos- 
 tom  tells  us,  that,  this  being  likewise  the 
 day  of  our  Sayiouk's  baptism,  it  was  usual 
 to  carry  home  water,  at  midnight,  from  the 
 church,  and  that  it  would  remain  as  fresh 
 and  imcorrupt  for  one,  two,  or  three  years, 
 as  if  immediately  drawn  from  the  spring. 
 — Iloniil.  24,  de  Bapt.  Christi. 
 
 Theodosius  the  Younger  gave  this  festi- 
 val an  honourable  place  among  those  days, 
 on  which  the  public  games  were  not  al- 
 lowed ;  and  Justinian  made  it  a  day  of 
 vacation  from  all  pleadings  at  law,  as  well 
 as  from  popular  pleasures.  It  is  to  be  ob- 
 served, likewise,  that  those  to  whom  the 
 care  of  the  Paschal  cycle,  or  rule  for  find- 
 ing Easter,  was  committed,  were  obliged, 
 on  or  about  the  time  of  Epiphany,  to  give 
 public  notice  when  Easter  and  Lent  were 
 to  be  kept  the  ensuing  year. — Cod.  Theod. 
 lib.  XV.  tit.  5,  leg.  5.  Cod.  Just.  lib.  iii.  tit. 
 12,  leg.  6. 
 
 EPISCOPACY.  (See  Bishops  and  Or- 
 ders.) The  ancient  apostolical  form  of 
 Church  government,  consisting  in  the  su- 
 perintendency  of  one  over  several  other 
 church  oflUcers.  Bishops  were  always  al- 
 lowed to  be  of  an  order  superior  to  pres- 
 byters ;  and,  indeed,  having  all  the  powers 
 that  presbyters  have,  and  some  more  pe- 
 culiar to  themselves,  they  must  be  of  a 
 difi'crent  order  necessarily.  It  is  their  pe- 
 culiar office  to  ordain,  which  never  v.as 
 allowed  to  presbyters ;  and,  anciently,  the 
 presbyter  acted  in  dependence  upon  the 
 bishop  in  the  administration  of  the  Lord's 
 supper  and  baptism,  and  even  in  preaching, 
 in  such  manner  that  he  could  not  do  it  re- 
 gularly without  the  bishop's  approbation. 
 
 Our  Church  asserts,  in  the  preface  to 
 the  Ordinal,  that  the  order  of  bishops  was 
 "  from  the  apostles'  time  ;"  referring  us  to 
 those  texts  of  Scripture  occurring  in  the 
 history  of  the  Acts,  and  the  apostolical 
 Epistles,  which  are  usually  urged  for  the 
 proof  of  the  episcopal  order.  And  of  a 
 great  many  which  might  be  alleged  these 
 are  some.  In  the  short  history  which  we 
 have  of  the  apostles,  we  find  them  exer- 
 
 cising all  the  peculiar  offices  of  the  episco- 
 pal order.  They  ordain  church  ministers : 
 "  And  when  they  had  ])rayed  they  laid 
 their  hands  on  them."  (Acts  vi.  C.)  They 
 confirm  baptized  persons  :  "  Who,  when 
 they  were  come  down,  prayed  for  them, 
 that  they  might  receive  the  Holy  Ghost" 
 (viii.  15).  They  excommunicate  notorious 
 offenders,  as  the  incestuous  person.  (1  Cor. 
 V.  5.)  The  like  episcopal  powers  we  find 
 in  Scripture  committed  to  others,  whom, 
 from  the  tenor  of  Scripture,  and  the  tes- 
 timony of  antiquity,  we  judge  to  have  been 
 advanced  to  that  order.  Not  only  a  power 
 of  ordination,  but  a  particular  charge  in 
 conferring  it,  is  given  to  Timothy  ;  namely, 
 that  he  "  lay  hands  suddenly  on  no  man." 
 (1  Tim.  v.  22.)  That  he  caution  the  pres- 
 byters under  him  "that  they  teach  no 
 other  doctrine"  (i.  3).  Rules  are  given 
 him  how  he  should  animadvert  on  an 
 offending  presbyter :  "  Against  an  elder 
 receive  not  an  accusation  but  before  two 
 or  three  witnesses,"  (v.  19,)  and  to  what 
 conduct  he  should  oblige  the  deacons 
 (iii.  8).  The  same  episcopal  powers  are 
 committed  to  Titus,  to  "  ordain  elders  in 
 every  city,"  (Tit.  i.  5,)  and  to  excommu- 
 nicate heretics  after  the  first  or  second 
 admonition  (iii.  10).  Now  these  are  very 
 good  proofs  to  all  reasonable  men  that 
 diligently  read  the  Holy  Scriptures,  that 
 the  order  of  bishops  was  inclusively  "from," 
 that  is,  in,  "  the  apostles'  time." 
 
 But  to  all  diligent  and  impartial  readers 
 of  ancient  writers  the  case  is  yet  more  out 
 of  doubt.  The  earliest  ecclesiastical  writer 
 extant  is  Clemens  Romanus,  who  wrote  his 
 first  epistle  to  the  Corinthians  within  forty 
 years  after  our  Saviour's  ascension.  And 
 he  speaks  not  only  of  presbyters  and  dea- 
 cons, but  of  bishops  likewise,  as  an  order 
 in  use  in  his  time,  clearly  distinguishing 
 also  between  the  two  orders  of  bishops  and 
 presbyters.  In  the  epistles  of  Ignatius, 
 who  was  bishop  of  Antioch  seventy  years 
 after  Christ,  in  which  he  continued  forty 
 years,  being  martyred  in  the  year  of  our 
 Lord  108,  just  seven  years  after  St.  John's 
 death,  all  the  three  orders  are  clearly  and 
 exactly  distinguished.  Of  lower  author- 
 ities the  instances  are  innumerable.  Cle- 
 ment of  Alexandria  wrote  in  the  latter  end 
 of  the  second  century ;  and  he  mentions 
 the  three  orders  as  the  established  use  of 
 the  Church  in  his  time.  Origen,  Avho  lived 
 at  the  same  time,  uses  corresponding  lan- 
 guage. TertuUian  likewise  mentions  these 
 three  orders  as  established  ranks  of  the 
 hierarchy.  And  so  infinite  other  authors 
 make  these  three  orders  perfectly  distinct. 
 — Dr.  NichoUs. 
 
316 
 
 EPISCOPACY. 
 
 Of  the  distinction  among  the  governors 
 of  the  Church  there  "svas  never  in  ancient 
 times  made  any  question ;  nor  did  it  seem 
 disputable  in  the  Church,  except  to  one 
 malcontent,  Aerius,  ^vho  did  indeed  get  a 
 name  in  story,  but  never  made  much  noise, 
 or  obtained  any  vogue  in  the  world.  Very 
 few  followers  he  found  in  his  heterodoxy. 
 No  great  body  even  of  heretics  could  find 
 cause  to  dissent  from  the  Church  in  this 
 point.  But  all  Arians,  Macedonians,  No- 
 vatians,  Donatists,  S:c.  maintained  the  dis- 
 tinction of  orders  among  themselves,  and 
 acknowledged  the  duty  of  the  inferior 
 clergy  to  their  bishops.  And  no  wonder ; 
 seeing  it  standeth  upon  so  very  firm  and 
 clear  grounds  ;  upon  the  reason  of  the  case, 
 upon  the  testimony  of  Holy  Scripture, 
 upon  general  tradition,  and  unquestionable 
 monuments  of  antiquity,  upon  the  common 
 judgment  and  practice  of  the  greatest 
 saints,  persons  most  renowned  for  wisdom 
 and  piety  in  the  Church. 
 
 Keason  d6th  plainly  require  such  subor- 
 dinations. This  all  experience  attesteth ; 
 this  even  the  cliief  impugners  of  episcopal 
 presidency  do  by  their  practice  confess, 
 who  for  prevention  of  disorders  have  been 
 fain,  of  their  own  heads,  to  devise  ecclesi- 
 astical subordination  of  classes,  provinces, 
 and  nations  ;  and  to  appoint  moderators, 
 or  temporary  bishops,  in  their  assemblies. 
 So  that  reason  hath  forced  the  dissenters 
 from  the  Church  to  imitate  it. 
 
 The  Holy  vScripture  also  doth  plainly 
 enough  countenance  this  distinction.  For 
 therein  we  have  represented  one  "  angel " 
 presiding  over  principal  churches,  which 
 contained  several  presbyters,  (Rev.  ii-.  1,) 
 &c. :  therein  we  find  episcopal  ordination 
 and  jurisdiction  exercised  :  we  have  one 
 bishop  constituting  presbyters  in  divers 
 cities  of  his  diocese,  (Tit.  i.  5 ;  1  Tim.  v. 
 1,  17,  19,  20,  22,)  &c. ;  ordering  all  things 
 therein  concerning  ecclesiastical  disci- 
 pline; judging  presbyters;  rebuking  "with 
 all  authority,"  or  imperiousness,  as  it 
 were,  (Tit.  ii.  15,)  and  reconciling  offend- 
 ers, secluding  heretics  and  scandalous  per- 
 sons. 
 
 In  the  Jewish  Church  there  were  an  high 
 priest,  chief  priest,  a  sanhedrim,  or  senate, 
 or  synod. 
 
 The  government  of  congregations  among 
 God's  ancient  people,  which  it  is  proba- 
 ble was  the  pattern  that  the  apostles, 
 no  affecters  of  needless  innovation,  did  fol- 
 low in  establishing  ecclesiastical  discipline 
 among^  Christians,  doth  hereto  agree  ;  for 
 in  their  synagogues,  answering  to  our 
 Christian  churches,  they  had,  as  their  elders 
 and  doctors,  so  over  them  an  apx^rwaywyoQ, 
 
 the  head  of  the  eldership,  and  president  of 
 the  synagogue. 
 
 The  primitive  general  use  of  Christians 
 most  effectually  doth  back  the  Scripture, 
 and  interpret  it  in  favour  of  this  distinction, 
 scarce  less  than  demonstrating  it  consti- 
 tuted by  the  apostles.  For  how  otherwise 
 is  it  imaginable,  that  all  the  Churches 
 founded  by  the  apostles  in  several  most 
 distant  and  disjointed  places,  at  Jerusalem, 
 at  Antioch,  at  Alexandria,  at  Ephesus,  at 
 Corinth,  at  liome,  should  presently  con- 
 spire in  acknowledgment  and  use  of  it  ? 
 How  could  it,  without  apparent  confeder- 
 acy, be  formed,  how^  could  it  creep  in  with- 
 out notable  clatter,  how  could  it  be  ad- 
 mitted without  considerable  opposition,  if 
 it  were  not  in  the  foundation  of  those 
 Churches  laid  by  the  apostles  ?  How  is  it 
 likely,  that  in  those  times  of  grievous  per- 
 secution, falling  chiefly  upon  the  bishops, 
 when  to  be  eminent  among  Christians 
 yielded  slender  reward,  and  exposed  to 
 extreme  hazard ;  when  to  seek  pre-emi- 
 nence was  in  effect  to  court  danger  and 
 trouble,  torture  and  ruin,  an  ambition  of 
 irregularly  advancing  themselves  above 
 theu'  brethren  should  so  generally  prevail 
 among  the  ablest  and  best  Chi'istians  ? 
 How  could  those  famous  martyrs  for  the 
 Christian  truth  be  some  of  them  so  uncon- 
 scionable as  to  affect,  others  so  irresolute 
 as  to  yield  to,  such  injurious  encroach- 
 ments ?  And  how  could  all  the  holy  Fa- 
 thers, persons  of  so  renowned,  so  approved 
 wisdom  and  integrity,  be  so  blind  as  not  to 
 discern  such  a  corruption,  or  so  bad  as  to 
 abet  it?  How  indeed  could  all  God's 
 Church  be  so  weak  as  to  consent  in  judg- 
 ment, so  base  as  to  comply  in  practice,  with 
 it  ?  In  fine,  how  can  we  conceive,  that  all 
 the  best  monuments  of  antiquity  down 
 from  the  beginning,  the  acts,  the  epistles, 
 the  histories,  the  commentaries,  the  w'rit- 
 ings  of  all  sorts,  coming  from  the  blessed 
 martyrs  and  most  holy  confessors  of  our 
 faith,  should  conspire  to  abuse  us  ;  the 
 which  do  speak  nothing  but  bishops ;  long 
 catalogues  and  rows  of  bishops  succeeding 
 in  this  and  that  city ;  bishops  contesting 
 for  the  faith  against  pagan  idolaters  and 
 heretical  corru])ters  of  Christian  doctrine ; 
 bishops  here  teaching,  and  planting  our 
 religion  by  their  labours,  their  suffering, 
 and  watering  it  with  their  blood? — Dr. 
 Isaac  Barroiv. 
 
 It  was  so  well  know^n  that  a  bishop  Avas 
 of  a  superior  order  to  a  presbyter,  that  it 
 was  deemed  sacrilege  by  the  fourth  general 
 council  to  thrust  a  bishop  down  from  the 
 first  to  the  second  degree.  So  that,  hoAV- 
 ever  persecution   and  dire  necessity  may 
 
EPISTLE. 
 
 ESDRAS. 
 
 317 
 
 perhaps  excuse  some  late  Churches,  for 
 being  forced  to  mix  the  two  first  orders, 
 and  to  have  only  priests  and  deacons  :  yet 
 we,  who  have  a  j)rescription  of  above  1600 
 (now  1700)  years  for  us,  even  from  the 
 apostles'  time,  have  the  ri<Tht  of  oiu*  side, 
 and  must  never  depart  therefrom. — Dean 
 Comber. 
 
 EPISTT.E.  The  Scriptural  Epistles  are 
 letters  which  were  addressed  by  the  in- 
 spired apostles  to  Churches  or  individuals. 
 
 Of  these,  the  apostle  Paul  wrote  four- 
 teen ;  viz. 
 
 1.  The  Epistle  to  the  Komans. 
 
 2.  The  First  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians. 
 
 3.  The  Second  Epistle  to  the  Corinth- 
 ians. 
 
 4.  The  Epistle  to  the  Galatians. 
 
 5.  The  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians. 
 
 6.  The  Epistle  to  the  Philippians. 
 
 7.  The  Epistle  to  the  Colossians. 
 
 8.  The  Fii'st  Epistle  to  the  Thessalo- 
 nians. 
 
 9.  The  Second  Epistle  to  the  Thessa- 
 lonians. 
 
 10.  The  First  Epistle  to  Timothy. 
 
 11.  The  Second  Epistle  to  Timothy. 
 
 12.  The  Epistle  to  Titus. 
 
 13.  The  Epistle  to  Philemon. 
 
 14.  The  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews. 
 
 St.  James  wrote  one,  general.  Epistle. 
 
 St.  Peter,  tAvo. 
 
 St,  John,  three  :  and 
 
 St.  Jude,  one. 
 
 But  by  the  Epistle  in  the  liturgy  we  mean 
 the  first  lesson  in  the  Communion  Service, 
 which  is  so  styled  because  it  is  generally 
 taken  from  the  Epistles  of  the  holy  apostles. 
 Sometimes,  however,  it  is  taken  from  the 
 Acts,  and  occasionally  from  the  prophets. 
 Almost  all  the  lessons  now  read  as  Epistles 
 in  the  English  liturgy  have  been  appointed 
 to  theu'  present  place,  and  used  by  our 
 Church,  for  many  ages.  They  are  found 
 in  all  the  liturgies  of  our  Church  used 
 before  the  revision,  in  the  reign  of  Edward 
 VI.,  and  they  also  appear  in  all  the  monu- 
 ments of  the  English  liturgy,  before  the 
 invasion  of  William  the  Conqueror.  It  is, 
 in  fact,  probable  that  they  are  generally  as 
 old  as  the  time  of  Augustine,  A.  d.  595. 
 In  this  view,  the  lessons  entitled  Epistles 
 in  our  liturgy  have  been  used,  with  some 
 alterations,  for  1200  years  by  the  Church 
 of  England.  AVe  must  consider  this  more 
 as  a  subject  of  interest  and  pleasure  than 
 of  any  great  importance,  since  all  Scripture 
 is  given  by  inspu-ation  of  GoD.  Yet  we 
 may  remark,  that  the  extracts  read  from 
 the  Epistles  are  generally  devotional  and 
 
 ])ractical,  and,  therefore,  best  adapted  for 
 ordinary  comprehension  and  general  edi- 
 fication. 
 
 I^PISTOLER.  In  the  24th  canon,  and 
 in  the  injunctions  of  Queen  I'lizaboth,  we 
 find  that  a  special  reader,  entitled  an  e])is- 
 toler,  is  to  read  the  E])istle  in  collegiate 
 churches,  vested  in  a  cope.  The  canon 
 and  the  injunctions  here  referred  to  will 
 be  found  under  the  head  Cathedral. 
 
 Epistolers  are  still  statuteable  officers  in 
 several  catliedrals  of  the  new  foundation  ; 
 though  in  most  it  has  fallen  into  desuetude. 
 It  is  retained  at  Durham.  The  epistoler 
 and  gos])eller  are  sometimes  called  deacon 
 and  subdeacon,  in  the  cathedral  statutes. 
 The  epistoler,  according  to  our  present 
 rubric,  strictly  interpreted,  must  ])e  a  ])riest. 
 In  the  Roman  Church  he  is  a  subdeacon. 
 But  by  Archbishop  Grindal's  Injunctions 
 in  1571,  it  was  requu'ed  that  parish 
 clerks  should  be  able  to  read  the  first  Les- 
 son and  Epistle. — Jehb. 
 
 EPOCH.  A  term  in  chronology  signi- 
 fying a  fixed  point  of  time  from  which  the 
 succeeding  years  are  numbered.  The  first 
 epoch  is  the  creation  of  the  Avorld,  which, 
 according  to  the  Vulgate  Bible,  Arch- 
 bishop Usher  fixes  in  the  year  710  of  the 
 Julian  periods,  and  4004  years  before 
 Jesus  Christ.  The  second  is  the  deluge, 
 which,  according  to  the  Hebrew  text, 
 happened  in  the  year  of  the  Avorld  1656. 
 Six  other  epochs  are  commonly  reckoned 
 in  sacred  history :  the  building  of  the 
 tower  of  Babel ;  the  calling  of  Abraham  ; 
 the  departure  of  the  Israelites  out  of 
 Egypt ;  the  dedication  of  the  temple  ;  the 
 end  of  the  Babylonish  captivity ;  and  the 
 birth  of  Jesus  Christ.  In  profane  history 
 are  reckoned  four  epochs :  the  aera  of  Na- 
 bonassar,  or  death  of  Sardanapalus ;  the 
 reign  of  Cyrus  at  Babylon ;  the  reign  of 
 Alexander  the  Great  over  the  Persians  ; 
 and  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Au- 
 gustus, in  which  our  Saviour  was  born. 
 
 ERASTIANS.  So  called  from  Erastus, 
 a  German  heretic  of  the  16th  century. 
 The  pastoral  office,  according  to  him,  was 
 only  persuasive,  like  that  of  a  professor  of 
 science  over  his  students,  without  any 
 power  of  the  keys  annexed.  The  Lord's 
 supper,  and  other  ordinances  of  the  gosjiel, 
 were  to  be  free  and  ojjen  to  all.  The 
 minister  might  dissuade  the  vicious  and 
 unqualified  from  the  communion,  but 
 might  not  refuse  it,  or  inflict  any  kind  of 
 censure ;  the  ])unishment  of  all  off'ences, 
 either  of  a  civil  or  religious  nature,  being 
 referred  to  the  civil  magistrate. 
 
 ESDRAS,  the  name  of  two  apocryphal 
 books  of  Scripture,  which  were  always  ex- 
 
318 
 
 ESPOUSE,  ESPOUSALS. 
 
 ESTABLISHMENT, 
 
 eluded  the  Jewish  canon,  and  are  too 
 absurd  to  be  admitted  as  canonical  by  the 
 Romanists  themselves.  They  are  supposed 
 to  have  been  originally  written  in  Greek, 
 by  some  Ilellenistical  Jews,  though  some 
 imagine  that  they  were  first  written  in 
 Chaldee,  and  afterwards  translated  into 
 Greek.  It  is  uncertain  when  they  were 
 composed,  though  it  is  generally  agreed 
 that  the  author  wrote  before  Josephus. 
 
 The  First  Book  of  Esdras  is  chiefly  his- 
 torical, and  gives  an  account  of  the  return 
 of  the  Jews  Irom  the  Babylonish  captivity, 
 the  building  of  the  temple,  and  the  estab- 
 lishment of  Divine  worship.  The  truth  it 
 contains  is  borrowed  from  the  canonical 
 books  of  Ezra  (or  Esdras,  as  the  Greeks 
 and  Latins  call  him,  and  thence  term  these 
 books,  the  Third  and  Fourth  Book  of  Es- 
 dras) ;  the  rest  is  exceeding  fabulous  and 
 trifling :  this  book  however  is  by  the 
 Greeks  allowed  to  be  canonical.  The  Se- 
 cond Book  of  Esdras  is  written  in  the  pro- 
 phetical way,  and  pretends  to  visions  and 
 revelations,  but  so  ridiculous  and  absurd, 
 that  the  Spirit  of  God  could  have  no  con- 
 cern in  the  dictating  of  them.  The  author 
 believed  that  the  day  of  judgment  was  at 
 hand,  and  that  all  the  souls  both  of  good 
 and  bad  men  would  be  delivered  out  of 
 hell  after  the  day  of  judgment.  He  speaks 
 of  two  monstrous  animals  created  by  GoD 
 at  the  beginning  of  the  world,  in  order  to 
 make  a  feast  with  them  for  all  the  elect, 
 after  the  resurrection.  He  says,  that  the 
 ten  tribes  are  gone  into  a  certain  country, 
 v,hich  he  calls  Arseret ;  that  Ezra  re- 
 paired the  whole  body  of  the  Holy  Scrip- 
 tures, w^hich  Avere  entirely  lost ;  and  he 
 speaks  of  Jesus  Christ  and  his  apostles  in 
 so  clear  a  manner,  that  the  gospel  itself  is 
 not  more  express. 
 
 The  Books  of  Esdras  are  not  read  in  the 
 service  of  the  Church  of  England.  In  the 
 list  of  apocryphal  books  in  the  6th  Article, 
 these  are  called  the  Third  and  Fourth  Books 
 of  Esdras,  because  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  were 
 formerly  joined  in  one  book ;  and  when 
 they  were  separated,  the  book  of  Nehe- 
 miah, being  considered  as  a  continuation 
 of  the  book  of  Ezra,  was  called  by  his 
 name. — Bishop  Tomline. 
 
 ESPOUSE,  ESPOUSALS.  A  cere- 
 mony of  betrothing,  or  coming  under  obli- 
 gation for  the  purpose  of  marriage.  It 
 was  a  mutual  agreement  between  the  two 
 parties,  which  usually  preceded  the  mar- 
 riage some  considerable  time.  The  dis- 
 tinction between  espousals  and  marriage 
 ought  to  be  carefully  attended  to,  as 
 espousals  in  the  East  are  sometimes  con- 
 tracted for  years  before  the  parties  cohabit, 
 
 and  sometimes  in  very  early  youth.  This 
 custom  is  alluded  to  figuratively,  as  be- 
 tween God  and  his  people,  (Jer.  ii.  2,)  to 
 whom  he  was  a  husband.  (Jer.  xxxi.  32.) 
 The  apostle  says  that  he  acted  as  a  kind 
 of  assistant  (pronuba)  on  this  occasion 
 (2  Cor.  xi.  2.) :  "  I  have  espoused  you  to 
 Chiiist,"  that  is,  I  have  dra-svn  up  the 
 Avritings,  settled  the  agreements,  given 
 pledges,  &:c.,  of  that  union.  (See  Isa.  liv. 
 5  ;  Matt.  xxv.  6  ;  Bev.  xix.) 
 
 ESSENES.  A  very  ancient  sect,  which 
 Avas  spread  abroad  through  Syria,  Eg}^t, 
 and  the  neighbouring  countries.  They 
 maintained  that  religion  consisted  wholly 
 in  contemplation  and  silence.  Some  of 
 them  passed  their  lives  in  a  state  of  celi- 
 bacy ;  others  embraced  the  state  of  matri- 
 mony, which  they  considered  as  lav.ful, 
 when  entered  into  with  the  sole  design  of 
 propagating  the  species,  and  not  to  satisfy 
 the  demands  of  lust.  Some  of  them  held 
 the  possibility  of  appeasing  the  Deity  by 
 sacrifices,  though  diflerent  from  that  of  the 
 Jews  ;  and  others  maintained  that  no  off'er- 
 ing  was  acceptable  to  GoD  but  that  of 
 a  serene  and  composed  mind,  addicted  to 
 the  contemplation  of  divine  things.  They 
 looked  upon  the  law  of  Moses  as  an  alle- 
 gorical system  of  spiritual  and  mysterious 
 truths,  and  renounced,  in  its  explication, 
 all  regard  to  the  outward  letter. 
 
 ESTABLISHMENT.  By  a  religious 
 establishment  is  generally  meant,  in  the 
 present  day,  the  religion,  whether  Chris- 
 tian or  not,  which  is  recognised  by  the 
 State.  Thus  Presbyterianism  is  the  estab- 
 lishment of  Scotland,  Mahomedanism  that 
 of  Turkey.  In  England  and  Ireland  the 
 Catholic  Church  is  the  establishment.  It 
 has  not  been  endowed  by  the  State,  which 
 has  rather  robbed  than  enriched  it ;  nor 
 has  it  been  established,  like  Presbyterianism 
 in  Scotland,  by  an  act  of  the  legislature. 
 But  being  endowed  by  individual  piety,  it 
 was  for  many  ages  the  only  community  in 
 this  country  which  even  pretended  to  be 
 the  Church :  as  svich  it  was  recognised  by 
 the  State,  and  v.hen  in  process  of  time  the 
 Catholic  Church  in  this  country  asserted 
 its  independence  of  Rome,  and  reformed 
 the  abuses  which  had  crept  into  it,  it  con- 
 tinued to  be,  as  it  always  was,  the  re- 
 ligious community  connected  with  the 
 State  ;  although,  in  the  reign  of  Queen 
 Elizabeth,  a  sect  in  communion  with  Rome 
 was  founded  in  England,  and  arrogated 
 to  itself  the  name  and  titles  which  belong 
 to  our  ancient  Church,  and  to  her  alone. 
 A  slight  reference  to  history  will  show 
 what  is  meant.  Soon  after  Augustine  had 
 been  conseci'ated,  in  France,  the  fii'st  arch- 
 
ESTABLISHMENT, 
 
 ETERNITY 
 
 319 
 
 bishop  of  Canterbury,  his  see  was  endowed 
 with  large  revenues  by  King  Ethelbert, 
 who  likewise  established,  at  the  instance  of 
 the  archbishop,  the  dioceses  of  liochester 
 and  London.  The  other  kings  of  the 
 heptarchy  erected  bishoprics  equal  to  the 
 size  of  their  kingdoms.  And  the  example 
 was  followed  by  their  nobles,  who  convert- 
 ed their  estates  into  parishes,  erecting  fit 
 pkces  of  worship,  and  endowing  them  with 
 tithes.     (See  Church  of  Ewjland.) 
 
 Thus  was  tlie  Church  established.  For 
 many  years  there  appears  to  have  con- 
 tinued a  good  understanding  between  the 
 civil  and  ecclesiastical  authorities,  the 
 powers  of  which  were,  in  most  respects, 
 as  in  these  days,  blended.  But,  after  the 
 moral  w^orld  had  been  subdvied,  and  papal 
 tjTanny  had  been  established  by  the  mar- 
 vellous energies  of  Hildebrand,  his  crafty 
 successors,  the  popes  of  Home,  soon  per- 
 ceived that,  in  order  to  secure  their  do- 
 minion, it  was  important,  as  far  as  possible, 
 to  sever  the  alliance  which  had  hitherto 
 subsisted  between  the  Church  and  the 
 State.  Representing  the  Church  as  inde- 
 pendent, they  regarded  the  king  as  the 
 head  of  the  State,  and  the  pope  as  supreme 
 over  the  Church.  No  sectarian  of  the  pre- 
 sent day  can  be  more  hostile  to  the  alliance 
 between  Church  and  State  than  were  those 
 divines,  who  in  the  middle  ages  were 
 devoted  to  the  popedom.  Although  the 
 pope,  however,  had  here  in  England,  as 
 elsewhere,  many  creatures  and  advocates, 
 yet  many  and  manful  were  the  repulses  he 
 met  with  from  our  clergy,  our  kings,  and 
 the  people.  His  authority,  indeed,  was,  in 
 this  realm,  a  mere  assumption,  for  he  was 
 never  elected  by  any  synod  of  our  Church 
 as  its  head.  Still,  assuming  rights  to  which 
 he  could  lay  no  lawful  claim,  his  usurpa- 
 tions were  continued  until,  in  the  reign  of 
 Henry  VIH.,  the  clergy,  the  monarch,  and 
 the  jieople,  could  bear  the  tp^anny  no 
 longer,  but,  throwing  off  the  yoke,  declared 
 that  the  pope  was  not  the  head  of  the 
 Church  of  England,  but  that,  in  these 
 realms,  the  king  is,  as  in  times  past  he  was, 
 over  all  persons,  and  in  all  causes,  eccle- 
 siastical as  well  as  civil,  in  these  his  do- 
 minions, supreme.  This  is  the  fact,  and 
 the  history  of  the  fact.  The  i)ropcrty  of 
 the  Church  remains  with  those  who  have 
 descended  in  an  unbroken  line  from  the 
 clergy  to  whom  it  Avas  originally  granted. 
 If  our  title  be  disputed,  it  devolves  upon 
 the  adversary  to  establish  a  prior  claim. 
 This  the  Protestant  dissenter  does  not 
 attempt  to  do ;  and,  with  respect  to  the 
 Roman  Catholic  dissenters,  we  know,  that 
 instead  of  being  descended  from  the  ori- 
 
 ginal grantees,  their  line  of  succession 
 began  at  Rome  scarcely  more  than  two 
 centuries  ago.  Nor  can  they  claim  on  the 
 ground  of  greater  similarity  of  doctrine,  for 
 transubstantiation,  the  worship  of  saints 
 and  images,  half  communion,  constrained 
 celibacy,  &c.,  the  doctrines  and  practices 
 which  distinguish  the  modern  llomanists, 
 were  unknown  to  the  Anglo-Saxon  Church. 
 Admitting,  then,  that  we  may  differ  in 
 some  particulars  of  practice  from  our  an- 
 cestors, yet  certainly  we  do  not  differ 
 from  them  so  much  as  the  modern  lio- 
 manists. 
 
 ESTHER.  The  Book  of  Esther  is  a 
 canonical  book  of  Scripture,  containing  the 
 history  of  Esther.  There  has  been  some 
 dispute  whether  it  was  a  canonical  book 
 among  the  Jews.  St.  Jerome  and  other 
 Christian  Avriters  maintain  the  affirmative, 
 but  St.  Athanasius  and  some  others  in- 
 cline to  the  opposite  conclusion. '  It  has, 
 however,  been  received  as  canonical  by  the 
 Church.  The  last  six  chapters,  beginning 
 at  the  fourth  verse  of  the  tenth  chapter, 
 are  not  in  the  Hebrew  text.  These  are 
 probably  a  composure  of  several  pieces 
 collected  by  the  Hellenistical  Jews,  and 
 are  therefore  deservedly  thrown  out  of  the 
 canon  of  the  sacred  books  by  the  Protest- 
 ant Church;  but  the  Latin  and  Greek 
 Churches  hold  them  canonical.  As  to  the 
 author  of  the  Book  of  Esther,  there  is 
 great  uncertainty.  Many  of  the  Chris- 
 tian fathers  attribute  this  history  to  Ezra. 
 Eusebius  believes  it  to  be  more  modern. 
 Others  ascribe  it  to  Joachim  the  high 
 priest,  the  grandson  of  Josetlec.  Most 
 conceive  Mordecai  to  have  been  the  author 
 of  it,  and  join  Esther  with  him  in  the  com- 
 position of  it.  M.  Du  Pin  conjectures, 
 that  the  great  synagogue,  to  preserve  the 
 memory  of  this  remarkable  event,  and  to 
 account  for  the  original  of  the  feast  of 
 Purim,  ordered  this  book  to  be  composed, 
 which  they  approved  and  placed  in  the 
 canon  of  their  sacred  books.  It  has  been 
 remarked,  as  a  singular  circumstance,  that 
 the  Divine  name  does  not  once  occur  in 
 this  book. 
 
 ETERNITY.  That  mysterious  attri- 
 bute of  God  which  implies  his  existence,  as 
 without  end,  so  without  beginning.^  The 
 self-existent  Being,  observes  ])r.  Clarke, 
 must  of  necessity  be  eternal.  The  ideas  of 
 eternity  and  self-existence  are  so  closely 
 connected,  that,  because  something  must 
 of  necessity  be  eternal,  independently  and 
 without  any  outward  cause  of  its  being, 
 therefore  it  must  necessarily  be  self-exist- 
 ent ;  and,  because  it  is  impossible  but 
 something  must  be  self-existent,  therefore 
 
320 
 
 EUCHARIST. 
 
 it  is  necessary  that  it  must  likewise  be 
 eternal.  To  be  self-existent,  is  to  exist 
 by  an  absolute  necessity  in  the  nature  of 
 the  thing  itself.  Now  this  necessity  being 
 absolute,  and  not  depending  upon  any- 
 thing external,  must  be  ahvays  unalterably 
 the  same,  nothing  being  alterable  but  what 
 is  ca])able  of  being  affected  by  somewhat 
 without  itself.  That  being,  therefore, 
 which  has  no  other  cause  of  its  existence 
 but  the  absolute  necessity  of  its  own  na- 
 ture, must,  of  necessity,  have  existed  from 
 everlasting,  without  beginning,  and  must, 
 of  necessity,  exist  to  everlasting,  without 
 end. 
 
 As  to  the  manner  of  this  eternal  exist- 
 ence, it  is  manifest  it  herein  infinitely 
 transcends  the  manner  of  the  existence  of 
 all  created  beings,  even  of  such  as  shall 
 exist  for  ever ;  that  whereas  it  is  not  pos- 
 sible for  their  finite  minds  to  comprehend 
 all  that  is  past,  or  to  understand  perfectly 
 all  things  that  are  present,  much  less  to 
 know  all  that  is  future,  or  to  have  entirely 
 in  their  power  anything  that  is  to  come, 
 but  their  thoughts,  and  knoAvledge,  and 
 power,  must,  of  necessity,  have  degrees 
 and  periods,  and  be  successive  and  tran- 
 sient as  the  things  themselves :  the  eter- 
 nal, supreme  cause,  on  the  contrary,  must 
 of  necessity  have  such  a  perfect,  independ- 
 ent, unchangeable  comprehension  of  all 
 things,  that  there  can  be  no  one  point  or 
 instant  of  his  eternal  duration,  wherein  all 
 things  that  are  past,  present,  and  to  come, 
 will  not  be  as  entirely  known  and  repre- 
 sented to  him  in  one  single  thought  or 
 view,  and  all  things  present  and  future  be 
 as  equally  and  entirely  in  his  pov/er  and 
 direction,  as  if  there  was  really  no  succes- 
 sion at  all,  but  all  things  were  actually 
 present  at  once. 
 
 This  is,  in  reality,  the  most  incompre- 
 hensible of  the  Divine  attributes.  God  is 
 without  beginning  ;  the  Father,  always  a 
 Father,  without  beginning ;  the  Son,  al- 
 ways the  only  begotten  of  the  Father, 
 without  beginning ;  the  Holy  Ghost,  al- 
 ways proceeding  from  the  Father  and 
 the  Son,  without  beginning  ;  the  one  GoD, 
 always  existing  in  the  Trinity  of  his  per- 
 sons, M'ithout  beginning. 
 
 "  There  is  but  one  living  and  true  God, 
 everlastinrj,  without  body,  parts,  or  pas- 
 sions ;  of  infinite  power,  wisdom,  and  good- 
 ness ;  the  maker  and  preserver  of  all  things 
 visible  and  invisible ;  and  in  the  unity  of 
 this  Godhead,  there  be  Three  Persons,  of 
 one  substance,  power,  and  eternity,  the 
 Father,  the  Son,  and  the  Holy  Ghost." 
 —Article  I. 
 
 EUCHARIST.   (From  ivxapi-(yTia,  giving 
 
 of  thanks.)  (See  Commitnion,  LonVs  Svp- 
 2>cr,  Elements,  Consecration  of  the  Ele^nents, 
 Sacrament,  Sacrifice,  JReal  Presence.)  Sa- 
 cramentum  eucharistice  is  the  name  given 
 to  the  Lord's  supper  in  our  Latin  articles, 
 signifying,  properly,  thanksgiving  or  bless- 
 ing, and  fitly  denoting  this  holy  service  as 
 a  sacrifice  of  praise  and  thanksgiving.  It 
 occurs  in  Ignatius,  Ircnteus,  Clemens  of 
 Alexandria,  Origen,  and  others;  and  was 
 adopted  into  the  Latin  language,  as  may 
 be  seen  from  Tertullian  and  Cyprian  in 
 many  places. —  Waterlancl.  We  have,  how- 
 ever, an  earlier  allusion  to  the  liturgy,  un- 
 der the  title  oi  eucharistia,  or  thanksgiving, 
 in  the  First  Epistle  of  St.  Paul  to  the  Cor- 
 inthians ;  where,  in  forbidding  and  rea- 
 soning against  the  practice  of  some  per- 
 sons, w^ho  used  the  miraculous  gift  of 
 tongues  in  an  improper  manner,  namely, 
 by  celebrating  the  liturgy  in  an  unknown 
 language,  he  says,  "  When  thou  shalt  hless 
 with  the  Spirit,  how  shall  he  that  occu- 
 pieth  the  room  of  the  unlearned  say  Amen 
 at  thy  giving  of  thanks,  seeing  he  under- 
 standcth  not  what  thou  sayest?"  (1  Cor. 
 xiv.  16.)  £7rf(,  idv  tv\oy{)rrjjQ  Tip  TrvtvfxaTi,  6 
 dpa7r\r]pu)V  rbv  tottov  tov  Hiwtov  ttCoq  tpu 
 TO  dfiijv  LttI  d]  ay  evxapKJTia ',  tTrtiSt),  ri 
 XkyHQ,  ovK  olh.  The  meaning  of  this  pas- 
 sage is  obvious  :  "  If  thou  shalt  bless  the 
 bread  and  wine  in  an  unknown  language, 
 which  has  been  given  to  thee  by  the  Holy 
 Spirit,  how  shall  the  lapnan  say  Amen, 
 '  so  be  it,'  at  the  end  of  "thy  thanksgiving 
 or  liturgy,  seeing  he  understandeth  not 
 what  thou  sayest  ?  "  It  is  undeniable  that 
 St.  Paul  in  this  place  uses  exactly  the 
 same  expressions  to  describe  the  supposed 
 action  as  he  has  employed  a  short  time 
 before  in  designating  the  sacraments  of 
 Christ's  body  and  blood,  and  describing 
 our  Lord's  consecration  at  the  last  supper. 
 To  TTOTTjpiov  TTJQ  (.vXoyiaQ  0  ivXoyovfiev,  ovxi 
 Koivbjvia  TOV  aifjiUTog  tov  Xpiffrov  tart  ',  "The 
 cup  of  blessing  which  we  hless,  is  it  not 
 the  communion  of  the  blood  of  Christ  ?  " 
 (1  Cor.  X.  16.)  'O  KvpioQ  'irjaovQ  tv  t?j  vvktI 
 y  TrapeSi^OTO,  tXafStv  dpTOV,  Koi   ivxapiOTi'iaag 
 
 'iicXaas.  (1  Cor.  xi.  23.)  "The  Lord  Jesus, 
 in  the  same  night  in  which  he  was  be- 
 trayed, took  bread,  and  when  he  had  given 
 thanks,  he  brake  it."  The  language  of 
 St.  Paul  also  in  the  passage  under  consi- 
 deration, as  well  as  the  action  which  he 
 describes,  is  perfectly  conformable  to  the 
 description  given  by  Justin  INIartyr  of  the 
 celebration  of  the  eucharist.  "  Then  bread 
 and  a  cup  of  water  and  wine  is  offered  to 
 the  president  of  the  brethi-en ;  and  he, 
 taking  them,  sends  up  praise  and  glory  to 
 the  Father  of  all,  in  the  name  of  the  Son 
 
EUCHARISTIC. 
 
 EUCHOLOGION. 
 
 321 
 
 and  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  makes  a 
 very  long  thanksgiving,  because  GoD  has 
 thought  us  worthy  of  these  things.  And 
 when  he  has  ended  the  prayers  and  thanks- 
 giving, all  the  people  that  are  present  sig- 
 nify their  approbation,  saying,  Amen.  For 
 Amen  in  the  Hebrew  language  signifies 
 '  so  be  it.' "  Here  we  observe  the  "  presi- 
 dent" corresponding  to  the  person  who 
 "  blesses,"  according  to  St.  Paul,  and  per- 
 forms the  "thanksgiving."  The  "  people" 
 corresponding  to  the  "unlearned  person" 
 (or  layman,  as  Chrysostom  and  Theodoret 
 interpret  the  M'ord)  of  St.  Paul,  and  reply- 
 ing Amen,  "  so  be  it,"  at  the  end  of  the 
 thanksgiving  in  both  passages.  If  we  refer 
 to  all  the  ancient  and  primitive  liturgies 
 of  the  East  and  of  Greece,  the  pecvdiar 
 applicability  of  St.  Paul's  argument  to  the 
 Christian  liturgy  will  appear  still  more. 
 In  the  liturgy  of  Constantinople  or  Greece, 
 which  has  probably  been  always  used  at 
 Corinth,  the  bishop  or  priest  takes  bread, 
 and  "  blesses  "  it  in  the  course  of  a  very 
 long  "  thanksgiving,"  at  the  end  of  which 
 all  the  people  answer,  "Amen."  The  same 
 may  be  said  of  the  liturgies  of  Antioch 
 and  Caesarea,  and,  in  fine,  of  all  the  coun- 
 tries of  the  East  and  Greece  through  which 
 St.  Paul  bare  rule  or  founded  Churches. 
 It  may  be  added,  that  there  is,  we  believe, 
 no  instance  in  the  writings  of  the  most 
 primitive  fathers,  in  which  the  Amen  is 
 ever  said  to  have  been  repeated  at  the  end 
 of  an  office  containing  both  blessing  and 
 thanksgiving,  except  in  the  liturgy  of  the 
 eucharist. 
 
 All  this  shows  plainly  that  the  argument 
 of  St.  Paul  applies  immediately  and  di- 
 rectly to  the  celebration  of  this  sacrament. 
 "Whether  we  regard  his  own  previous  ex- 
 pressions, the  language  and  the  words  of 
 the  earliest  fathers,  or  the  customs  of  the 
 primitive  Chm-ch  exhibited  in  the  ancient 
 liturgies,  we  see  the  accurate  coincidence 
 between  the  case  which  he  refers  to,  and 
 the  celebration  of  the  eucharist. — Palmer''s 
 Ori(/ines  Lituvfiiccc,  p.  114.  AVe  virtually 
 adopt  this  Avord,  when  in  the  prayer  after 
 communion,  Ave  pray  to  God  to  accept  this 
 our  sacrifice  of  praise  and  thanksyivi?ig. 
 
 _  EUCHAKiSTIC.  Belonging  to  the  ser- 
 vice of  the  holy  eucharist ;  or,  in  a  larger 
 sense,  having  the  character  of  thanks- 
 giving. 
 
 EUCHELAION.  [Gr.)  The  oil  of 
 prayer.  To  such  penitents  (in  the  Greek 
 Church)  as  are  conscious  of  the  guilt  of 
 any  mortal  sin,  as  adultery,  fornication,  or 
 pride,  is  administered  the  sacrament  of  to 
 tvx^Xawv,  Euchelaion,  which  is  performed 
 by  the  bishop,  or  archbishop,  assisted  by 
 
 seven  priests,  and  begins  with  this  prayer, 
 "  O  Lord,  who  with  the  oil  of  thy  mercies 
 hast  healed  the  wounds  of  our  souls,  do 
 thou  sanctify  this  oil,  that  tliosc  Avho  are 
 anointed  thercAvith  may  be  freed  from  their 
 infirmities,  and  from  all  corporeal  and 
 si)iritual  evils."  Tliis  oil  of  prayer  is  pure 
 and  unmixed  oil,  Avithout  any  other  com- 
 position ;  a  quantity  Avhereof,  sufficient  to 
 serA'e  for  the  Avhole  year,  is  consecrated, 
 on  Wednesday  in  the  Holy  AVeek,  by  the 
 archbishop,  or  bishop.  The  EucJielaion  of 
 the  Greek  ansAvers  to  the  Extreme  Unction 
 of  the  llomanists. 
 
 In  the  administration  of  this  oil  of 
 prayer^  the  priest  dips  some  cotton  at  the 
 end  of  a  stick,  and  thercAvith  anoints  the 
 penitent,  in  the  form  of  a  cross,  on  the 
 forehead,  on  the  chin,  on  each  cheek,  and 
 on  the  backs  and  palms  of  the  hands  : 
 after  Avhich  he  repeats  this  prayer — "  Holy 
 Father,  physician  of  souls  and  bodies,  Avho 
 hast  sent  thine  only  Son  Jesus  Christ, 
 healing  infirmities  and  sins,  to  free  us 
 from  death ;  heal  this  thy  servant  of  cor- 
 poreal and  spiritual  infirmities,  and  give 
 him  salvation  and  the  grace  of  thy  Christ, 
 through  the  prayers  of  our  more  than  holy 
 lady,  the  mother  of  God,  the  eternal  Vir- 
 gin, through  the  assistance  of  the  glorious, 
 celestial,  and  incorporeal  poAvers,  through 
 the  A'irtue  of  the  holy  and  life-giving  cross, 
 of  the  holy  and  glorious  prophet,  the  fore- 
 runner, John  the  Baptist,  and  of  the  holy 
 and  glorious  apostles." — Ricaut. 
 
 EUCHOLOGION.  (From  tvxu^  ;;;cccs, 
 and  \6yoQ,  serwo.)  The  name  of  a  litur- 
 gical book  of  the  Greek  Church,  contain- 
 ing a  collection  of  Divine  services  for  the 
 administration  of  the  sacraments,  confer- 
 ring of  orders,  and  other  religious  offices : 
 it  is  properly  their  ritual,  containing 
 everything  relating  to  religious  cere- 
 monies. Father  Simon  observes,  that 
 scA-eral  of  the  most  considerable  divines 
 of  that  Church,  in  Europe,  met  at  Kome 
 under  Pope  Urban  VIII.,  to  examine  the 
 Euchologion  :  Morinus,  who  Avas  one  of  the 
 congregation,  mentions  this  ritual  in  his 
 book  De  Conyrcyationihus :  the  greatest 
 part  of  the  divines,  being  infiuenced  by 
 the  sentiments  of  the  school-men,  Averc 
 Avilling  to  reform  this  Greek  ritual  by  that 
 of  the  Church  of  Home,  as  if  there  had 
 been  some  heresies  in  it,  or  rather  some 
 passages  Avhich  made  the  administration 
 of  the  sacraments  invalid ;  but  some,  Avho 
 more  perfectly  understood  the  controversy, 
 opposed  the  censure  of  the  Euchologion : 
 they  proved  this  ritual  Avas  agreeable  to 
 the  practice  of  the  Greek  Church  before 
 the  schism  of  Photius,  and  that  for  this 
 
322 
 
 EUDOXIANS. 
 
 EVANGELISTS. 
 
 reason  it  could  not  be  condemned,  with- 
 out condemning  all  the  old  Eastern  com- 
 munion. 
 
 EUDOXIANS.  Certain  heretics  in  the 
 foiu'th  century,  whose  founder  was  Eu- 
 doxius,  bishop  of  Antioch,  and  afterwards 
 of  Constantinople.  They  adhered  to  the 
 errors  of  the  Aetians  and  Eunomians, 
 affirming  the  Son  to  bo  differently  affected 
 in  his  will  from  the  Father,  and  made  of 
 nothing. 
 
 EULOGI^.  {Gr.)  So  the  Greek 
 Church  calls  the  Panis  bcnedidus^  or  bread, 
 over  which  a  blessing  is  pronounced,  and 
 which  is  distributed  to  those  who  are 
 unqualified  to  communicate.  The  name 
 Eulugue  was  likewise  anciently  given  to 
 the  consecrated  pieces  of  bread  which  the 
 bishops  and  priests  sent  to  each  other  for 
 the  keeping  up  a  friendly  correspondence  : 
 those  presents  likewise,  which  were  made 
 out  of  respect  or  obligation,  were  called 
 Etdogm. 
 
 St.  Paulinus,  bishop  of  Nola,  about  the 
 end  of  the  fourth  century,  having  sent  five 
 Enlogice  at  one  time  to  Romanian,  speaks 
 to  him  in  these  terms  :  "  That  I  may  not 
 be  wanting  in  the  duties  of  brotherly  love, 
 I  send  you  five  pieces  of  bread,  of  the  am- 
 munition of  the  warfare  of  Jesus  Christ, 
 under  whose  standard  we  fight,  following 
 the  laws  of  temperance  and  sobriety." 
 
 EUNOMIANS.  A  sect,  so  called  from 
 Eunomius,  who  lived  in  the  fourth  century 
 of  Christianity ;  he  was  constituted  bishop 
 of  Cyzicum,  and  stoutly  defended  the 
 Arian  heresy,  maintaining  that  the  Father 
 was  of  a  different  nature  from  the  Son, 
 because  no  creature  could  be  like  his 
 creator :  he  held  that  the  Son  of  God  did 
 not  substantially  unite  himself  to  the 
 human  nature,  but  only  by  virtue  and  his 
 operations ;  he  affirmed  blasphemously 
 that  he  knew  GoD  as  well  as  God  himself; 
 and  those  that  were  baptized  in  the  name 
 of  the  Holy  Trinity  he  rebaptized,  and 
 was  so  averse  to  the  mystery,  that  he 
 forbade  the  trinal  immersion  at  baptism. 
 Upon  divulging  his  tenets,  he  was  expelled 
 Cyzicum  and  forced  also  to  leave  Samosata, 
 where  he  was  also  obtruded  by  the  Arian 
 faction.  Valens  restored  him  to  Cyzicum, 
 but  being  again  expelled  by  the  people, 
 he  applied  himself  to  Eudoxius  at  Con- 
 stantinople 
 
 EUSTATHIANS.  A  denomination  in 
 the  fourth  century,  who  derived  their 
 name  from  Eustathius,  a  monk.  This 
 man  was  the  occasion  of  great  disorders 
 and  divisions  in  Armenia,  Pontus,  and  the 
 neighbouring  countries ;  and,  in  conse- 
 quence, he  was  condemned  and  excommu- 
 
 nicated by  the  Council  of  Gangra,  which 
 was  held  soon  after  that  of  Nice. 
 
 EUTYCHIANS.  Heretics  in  the  fifth 
 century,  the  followers  of  the  error  of 
 Eutyches,  who  being  a  Constantinopolitan 
 abbot,  and  contending  against  Nestorius, 
 fell  into  a  new  heresy.  He  and  his  follow- 
 ers affirmed  that  Christ  was  one  thing, 
 the  "Word  another  ;  they  denied  the  flesh 
 of  Christ  to  be  like  ours,  but  said  he  had 
 a  celestial  body,  which  passed  through 
 the  Virgin  as  through  a  channel ;  that 
 there  were  two  natures  in  Christ  before 
 the  hypostatical  union,  but  that,  after  it, 
 there  was  but  one,  compounded  of  both ; 
 and  thence  concluded  that  the  Divinity 
 of  Christ  both  suffered  and  died.  Being 
 condemned  in  a  synod  at  Constantinople, 
 he  appealed  to  the  emperor :  after  which, 
 by  the  assistance  of  Dioscorus,  bishop  of 
 Alexandi-ia,  he  obtained  a  synod  at  Ephe- 
 sus,  called  Latrocinium,  or  the  assembly  of 
 thieves  and  robbers,  wherein  he  got  his 
 heresy  to  be  approved:  hov;ever,  in  the 
 fourth  general  council,  under  Marcian, 
 A.  D.  451,  his  errors  were  a  second  time 
 condemned. 
 
 EVANGEL.  (From  iv,  bene,  and  dyyeXia, 
 mincius.)  The  gospel  of  Christ.  The 
 revealed  history  of  our  blessed  Lord';3 
 life. 
 
 EVANGELICAL.  Agreeable  to  the 
 gospel,  or  "  evangel."  The  term  is  used 
 by  that  class  of  dissenters  whose  private 
 judgment  leads  them  to  regard  as  Scrip- 
 tural the  facts  of  our  Lord's  Divinity  and 
 atonement,  to  distinguish  them  from  an- 
 other class  of  dissenters,  v.hose  private 
 judgment  leads  them  to  hold  these  sacred 
 truths  as  unscriptural.  (See  the  Evan- 
 gelical JIagazine,)  The  name  is  sometimes 
 given  to  those  persons  who  conform  to  the 
 Church,  but  whose  notions  are  supposed 
 more  nearly  to  coincide  with  the  opinions 
 of  dissenters  than  with  the  doctrines  of 
 the  Church  ;  thereby  most  unjustly  insinu- 
 ating that  the  principles  of  all  consistent 
 members  of  the  Church  are  not  according 
 to  the  gospel.  The  use  of  terms  of  dis- 
 tinction among  members  of  the  Church  is 
 much  to  be  reprobated  :  among  sects  it 
 cannot  be  avoided.  In  the  strict  and 
 proper  sense  of  the  words,  he  who  is  truly 
 evangelical  must  be  a  true  member  of  the 
 Church,  and  every  true  member  of  the 
 Church  must  be  trulv  evangelical. 
 
 EVANGELISTS.'  Persons  chosen  by 
 the  apostles  to  preach  the  gospel.  It  be- 
 ing impracticable  for  the  twelve  only  to 
 preach  the  gospel  to  all  the  v,-orld,  Philip, 
 among  others,  was  engaged  in  this  func- 
 tion.    As  for  their  rank   in  the  Church. 
 
EVENS. 
 
 EVEN-SONG. 
 
 323 
 
 St.  l*aul  places  them  after  the  apostles 
 and  prophets,  but  before  the  pastors  and 
 teachers,  (Eph.  iv.  ll,)Avhich  makes  Theo- 
 doret  call  them  apostles  of  the  second 
 rank:  they  had  no  particular  tlock  assio^ned, 
 as  bishops  or  ordinary  pastors,  but  tra- 
 velled from  one  ])lace  to  another,  accord- 
 ing to  their  instructions  received  ft-om  the 
 apostles,  to  uhom  they  returned  after  they 
 had  executed  their  commission,  so  that,  in 
 short,  this  office,  being  extraordinary,  ex- 
 pired "with  the  a])ostles. 
 
 The  title  of  Evangelists  is  now  more 
 particularly  given  to  those  four  holy  per- 
 sons -who  wrote  the  history  of  our  Saviour. 
 
 EVENS,  or  VIGILS.  The  nights  or 
 evenings  before  certain  holy-days  of  the 
 Church.  ^'igils  arc  derived  from  the 
 earliest  periods  of  Christianity.  In  those 
 times  of  persecution  Christians  held  their 
 assemblies  in  the  night,  in  order  to  avoid 
 detection.  On  these  occasions  they  cele- 
 brated the  memory  of  Christ's  death  in 
 the  holy  mysteries.  When  persecution 
 had  intermitted  and  finally  ceased,  al- 
 though Christians  were  able  to  celebrate 
 all  their  rites,  and  to  minister  the  sacra- 
 ments in  the  day-time,  yet  a  custom  which 
 had  com.menced  from  necessity  was  re- 
 tained from  devotion  and  choice.  The 
 reason  why  some  of  the  festivals  have 
 evens  or  vigils  assigned,  and  some  have 
 not,  appears  to  be  this,  that  the  festivals 
 which  have  no  vigils  fall  generally  between 
 Christmas  and  the  Purification,  or  between 
 Easter  and  Whitsuntide ;  which  were  al- 
 ways esteemed  such  seasons  of  joy  that 
 the  Church  did  not  think  fit  to  intermingle 
 them  with  any  days  of  fasting  and  humili- 
 ation. To  this  rule  there  are  exceptions, 
 which  may  be  severally  accounted  for,  but 
 such  seems  to  be  the  rule  :  e.  g.  There  is 
 no  vigil  on  St.  jSIichael's  day,  because,  as 
 Dr.  Bisse  remarks,  the  saints  entered  into 
 joy  through  sufferings,  and  therefore  their 
 festivals  are  preceded  by  fasts ;  which  cir- 
 cumstance is  not  applicable  to  the  angels 
 of  God.  St.  Paul's  clay  commemorates 
 not  his  martyrdom,  but  his  conversion ;  St. 
 Luke  was  not  an  apostle,  nor  does  the 
 calendar  represent  him  as  a  martyr.  The 
 holy-days  which  have  vigils  may  be  seen  in 
 the  Prayer  Book,  in  the  table  of  the  Vigils, 
 Fasts,  and  Days  of  Abstinence  to  be  ob- 
 served in  the  Year. 
 
 The  eves  are  in  some  respects  observed 
 in  colleges  and  choirs  as  Sundays.  For 
 example,  in  those  places  where  the  choral 
 service  was  not  daily,  it  was  nevertheless 
 performed  on  Saturday  evenings  and  eves, 
 as  is  still  usual ;  though  in  some  choirs  the 
 custom  has  fallen  into  abevance.  But  in  all 
 Y  2  ' 
 
 colleges  the  regulation  of  the  17th  canon  is 
 still  observed,  which  directs  that  "  all  mas- 
 ters and  fellows  of  colleges  and  halls,  and 
 all  the  scholars  and  students  in  cither  of 
 the  universities,  shall  in  their  churches 
 and  cha})els,  upon  all  Sundays,  holy-days, 
 and  their  eves,  at  the  time  of  Divine  service, 
 wear  surplices,  according  to  the  order  of 
 the  Church  of  1^'ngland ;  and  such  as  are 
 graduates,  shall  agreeably  wear  with  their 
 surplices  such  hoods  as  do  severally  apper- 
 tain to  their  degrees."  At  Oxford,  how- 
 ever, except  at  Christ  Church,  the  rule  is 
 not  generally  understood  as  applying  to 
 any  but  foundation  members. 
 
 It  is  difficult  to  determine  what  analogy 
 these  evening  services,  preceding  Sun- 
 days and  holy-days,  bear  to  those  of  the 
 unreformcd  Church  of  iMigland.  The 
 service  for  the  vigil,  in  the  Breviary,  is  not 
 at  vespers.  There  is  a  distinct  service  for 
 the  vigil  from  matins  to  nones  inclusive, 
 which  has  collects,  8cc.  different  from  that 
 of  the  Sunday  or  holy-day  which  it  pre- 
 cedes. Ordinary  Sundays  have  not  vigils, 
 either  in  our  Church  or  in  the  Roman, 
 except  at  Easter  and  Pentecost.  By  our 
 calendar,  therefore,  the  eve  of  the  Sunday 
 is  plainly  a  different  matter  from  the  vigil. 
 Though  the  collect  for  the  Sunday  is  uni- 
 formly read  on  the  preceding  Saturday 
 evening,  it  is  not  read  when  the  holy-day 
 has  no  vigil  or  eve.  The  Saturday  even- 
 ing service  is  to  be  considered  as  an  intro- 
 duction to  that  of  Sunday. 
 
 Some  clergymen  doubt  whether,  in  case 
 of  a  holy-day  with  a  vigil  or  eve  falling 
 on  a  Monday,  the  collect  for  that  holy-day 
 is  to  be  read  on  the  Sunday  evening  or 
 on  the  Saturday.  That  the  rif/il  or  fast 
 day  must  be  kept  on  the  Saturday,  and  not 
 on  the  Sunday,  is  plain  from  the  calendar. 
 But  whether  this  keeping  of  the  vigil  in- 
 cludes the  commemoration  of  the  holy-day 
 by  reading  the  collect,  is  not  so  evident. 
 The  question  must  first  be  solved,  whether 
 the  service  of  the  preceding  evening  is  a 
 viqil  service,  or  the^^rs^  vespers. — Jehb. 
 
 'EVEN-SONG.  (See  Liturriy,  Common 
 Prayer.)  Evening  prayer,  which  is  ap- 
 pointed to  be  sung  or  said.  The  office  of 
 even-song,  or  evening  prayer,  is  a  judicious 
 abridgment  of  the  offices  of  ves])ers  (i.  e. 
 even-song)  and  compline,  as  used  in  our 
 Church  before  the  lieformation  ;  and  it 
 appears  that  the  revisers  of  our  offices 
 formed  the  introduction  to  evening  prayer 
 from  those  parts  of  both  vespers  and  com- 
 pline which  seemed  best  suited  to  this 
 place,  and  which  presented  uniformity  with 
 the  introduction  to  morning  prayer. 
 
 Even-song  occurs  in  the  table  of  Proper 
 
324    EXALTATION  OF  THE  CROSS, 
 
 EXAMINATION 
 
 Lessons  for  Sundays  and  Holy-days,  and 
 Proper  Psalms.  It  is  in  fact  the  same  as 
 the  old  Avord  vespers  ;  and  only  differs 
 from  the  other  authorized  expression,  even- 
 ing prayer,  in  having  more  special  refer- 
 ence to  the  psalms  and  hymns,  and  the  an- 
 them, those  holy  som/s  which  make  up  so 
 large  a  portion  of  the  service. 
 
 EXALTATION  OF  THE  CROSS.  A 
 festival  of  the  Greek  and  Romish  Churches 
 observed  on  the  14th  of  December.  It  is 
 founded  on  the  following  legend : 
 
 In  the  reign  of  Ileraclius,  Chosroes,  king 
 of  Persia,  sacked  Jerusalem,  and,  together 
 with  other  plunder,  carried  off  that  part  of 
 the  cross  left  there  in  memory  of  our  Sa- 
 viour, by  the  empress  Helena,  which  Chos- 
 roes sent  into  Persia.  After  many  battles, 
 in  which  the  Persian  was  always  defeated, 
 Ileraclius  had  the  good  fortune  to  recover 
 the  cross.  This  prince  carried  it  to  Jeru- 
 salem himself;  and,  laying  aside  his  impe- 
 rial ornaments,  marched  with  it  on  his 
 shoulders  to  the  top  of  Mount  Calvary, 
 from  M-hence  it  had  been  taken.  The  me- 
 mory of  this  action  was  perpetuated  by  the 
 festival  of  the  re-establishment,  or  (as  it  is 
 now  called)  the  exaltation  of  the  cross. 
 
 The  latter  name  was  given  to  this  festi- 
 val, because  on  this  day  they  exalted  or 
 set  up  the  cross  in  the  great  church  at 
 Constantinople,  in  order  to  show  it  to  the 
 people. 
 
 EXAMINATION  FOR  ORDERS.  By 
 Canon  35,  "  The  bishop,  before  he  admit 
 any  person  to  holy  orders,  shall  diligently 
 examine  him,  in  the  presence  of  those 
 ministers  that  shall  assist  him  at  the  im- 
 position of  hands  ;  and  if  the  bishop  have 
 any  lawful  impediment,  he  shall  cause  the 
 said  ministers  carefully  to  examine  every 
 such  person  so  to  be  ordered.  .  .  .  And  if 
 any  bishop  or  suffragan  shall  admit  any  to 
 sacred  orders  who  is  not  so  examined,  and 
 qualified  as  before  we  have  ordained,  [viz. 
 in  Canon  34,]  the  archbishop  of  his  pro- 
 vince, having  notice  thereof,  and  being 
 assisted  therein  by  one  bishop,  shall  sus- 
 pend the  said  bishop  or  sufh'agan  so  offend- 
 ing, from  making  either  deacons  or  priests 
 for  the  space  of  two  years." 
 
 Of  common  right,  this  examination  pcr- 
 taineth  to  the  archdeacon,  saith  Lynde- 
 wood  ;  and  so  saith  the  canon  law,  in  which 
 this  is  laid  dow'n  as  one  branch  of  the  ar- 
 chidiaconal  office.  Which  is  also  supposed 
 in  our  present  form  of  ordination,  both  of 
 priests  and  deacons,  where  the  archdeacon's 
 office  is  to  present  the  persons  that  are 
 apt  and  meet.  And  for  the  regular  method 
 of  examination,  we  are  referred  by  Lyn de- 
 wood  to  the  canon  upon   that   head,  in- 
 
 serted in  the  body  of  the  canon  law,  viz. 
 "N^'hen  the  bishop  intends  to  hold  an  ordin- 
 ation, all  who  are  desirous  to  be  admitted 
 into  the  ministry  are  to  appear  on  the 
 fourth  day  before  the  ordination ;  and 
 then  the  bishop  shall  appoint  some  of  the 
 priests  attending  him,  and  others  skilled 
 in  the  Divine  laAv,  and  exercised  in  the 
 ecclesiastical  sanctions,  who  shall  diligently 
 examine  the  life,  age,  and  title  of  the  per- 
 sons to  be  ordained;  at  what  place  they 
 had  their  education ;  whether  they  be 
 well  learned ;  whether  they  be  instructed 
 in  the  law  of  GoD ;  and  they  shall  be 
 diligently  examined  for  three  days  suc- 
 cessively ;  and  so  on  the  Saturday,  they 
 who  are  approved  shall  be  presented  to 
 the  bishop. 
 
 EXA^VIINATION  BEFORE  INSTI- 
 TUTION. In  the  first  settlement  of  the 
 Church  of  England,  the  bishops  of  the 
 several  dioceses  had  them  under  their  own 
 immediate  care,  and  that  of  the  clergy  living 
 in  a  community  with  them,  whom  they  sent 
 abroad  to  several  parts  of  their  dioceses, 
 as  they  saw  occasion  to  employ  them;  but 
 by  degrees,  they  found  it  necessary  to 
 place  presbyters  within  such  a  compass, 
 that  they  might  attend  upon  the  service 
 of  God  amongst  the  inhabitants.  These 
 precincts,  which  are  since  called  parishes, 
 were  at  first  much  larger  ;  and  when  lords 
 of  manors  were  inclined  to  build  churches 
 for  their  own  convenience,  they  found  it 
 necessary  to  make  some  endowments,  to 
 oblige  those  who  officiated  in  their  churches 
 to  a  diligent  attendance :  upon  this,  the 
 several  bishops  were  very  well  content  to 
 let  those  patrons  have  the  nomination  of 
 persons  to  those  churches,  provided  they 
 were  satisfied  of  the  fitness  of  those  per- 
 sons, and  that  it  Avere  not  deferred  beyond 
 such  a  limited  time.  So  that  the  right  of 
 patronage  is  really  but  a  limited  trust ; 
 and  the  bishops  are  still  in  law  the  judges 
 of  the  fitness  of  the  persons  to  be  employed 
 in  the  several  parts  of  their  dioceses.  The 
 patrons  never  had  the  absolute  disposal  of 
 their  benefices  upon  their  OAvn  terms ;  but 
 if  they  did  not  present  fit  persons  within 
 the  limited  time,  the  care  of  the  places  did 
 return  to  the  bishop,  who  was  then  bound 
 to  provide  for  them. 
 
 By  the  statute  ArticiiU  cleri,  9  Edward 
 II.  s.  1,  c.  13,  it  is  enacted  as  follows: — 
 "  It  is  desired  that  spiritual  persons,  whom 
 our  lord  the  king  doth  present  unto  bene- 
 fices of  the  Church,  (if  the  bishop  wall  not 
 admit  them,  either  for  lack  of  learning,  or 
 for  other  cause  reasonable,)  may  not  be 
 under  the  examination  of  lay  persons  in 
 the  cases  aforesaid,  as  it  is  now  attempted. 
 
EXAMINATION  BEFORE  INSTITUTION. 
 
 325 
 
 contrary  to  the  decrees  canonical ;  but 
 that  they  may  sue  unto  a  spiritual  jud^e 
 for  remedy,  as  right  shall  require."  The 
 answer : — "  Of  the  ability  of  a  person  i)re- 
 scnted  unto  a  benefice  of  the  Church,  the 
 examination  belongeth  to  a  spiritual  judi>e ; 
 so  it  hath  been  used  heretofore,  and  shall 
 be  hereafter." 
 
 "  Of  the  ability  of  a  person  presented  " 
 — De  idoneitate  personcc :  so  that  it  is  re- 
 quired by  law,  that  the  person  presented 
 be  idonea  persona ;  for  so  be  the  words 
 of  the  king's  \w\X,  prcescnfare  idoncmn  per- 
 sonam. And  this  idoneitas  consisteth  in 
 divers  e:ipressions  against  persons  pre- 
 sented:— 1.  Concerning  the  person,  as  if 
 he  be  under  age  or  a  layman.  2.  Con- 
 cerning his  conversation,  as  if  he  be  cri- 
 minous. 3.  Concerning  his  inability  to 
 discharge  his  pastoral  duty,  as  if  he  be 
 unlearned,  and  not  able  to  feed  his  flock 
 with  spiritual  food.  And  the  examination 
 of  the  ability  and  sufficiency  of  the  person 
 ])resented  belongs  to  the  bishop,  who  is 
 the  ecclesiastical  judge ;  and  in  this  ex- 
 amination he  is  a  judge,  and  not  a  min- 
 ister, and  may  and  ought  to  refuse  the 
 person  presented,  if  he  be  not  idonea  per- 
 sona. 
 
 "  The  examination  belongeth  to  a  spiri- 
 tual judge;"  and  yet  in  some  cases,  not- 
 withstanding this  statute,  idoneitas  personce 
 shall  be  tried  by  the  country,  or  else  there 
 should  be  a  failure  of  justice,  which  the 
 law  will  not  suffer ;  as  if  the  inability  or 
 insufficiency  be  alleged  in  a  man  that  is 
 dead,  this  case  is  out  of  the  statute;  for 
 in  such  case  the  bishop  cannot  examine 
 him ;  and,  consequently,  though  the  matter 
 be  spiritual,  yet  shall  it  be  tried  by  a 
 jury;  and  the  court,  being  assisted  by 
 learned  men  in  that  profession,  may  in- 
 struct the  jury  as  well  of  the  ecclesiastical 
 law  in  that  case,  as  they  usually  do  of  the 
 common  law. 
 
 By  a  constitution  of  Archbishop  Lang- 
 ton : — "  We  do  enjoin,  that  if  any  one 
 be  canonically  presented  to  a  church,  and 
 there  be  no  opposition,  the  bishop  shall  not 
 delay  to  admit  him  longer  than  two 
 months,  provided  he  be  sufficient." 
 
 But  by  Canon  95 — "  Albeit  by  former 
 constitutions  of  the  Church  of  England, 
 every  bishop  hath  had  two  months'  space 
 to  inquire  and  inform  himself  of  the  suffi- 
 ciency and  qualities  of  every  minister  after 
 he  hath  been  presented  unto  him  to  be 
 instituted  into  any  benefice,  yet  for  the 
 avoiding  of  some  inconveniences,  we  do 
 now  abridge  and  reduce  the  said  two 
 months  unto  eight  and  twenty  days  only. 
 In  respect  of  which  abridgment  we   (lo 
 
 ordain  and  a})point  that  no  double  quarrel 
 sliall  hereafter  be  granted  out  of  any  of 
 the  archbishops'  courts,  at  the  suit  of  any 
 minister  whatsoever,  excejjt  he  shall  first 
 take  his  personal  oath,  that  tli«  said  eight 
 and  twenty  days  at  the  least  are  expired 
 after  he  first  tendered  his  })resentation  to 
 the  bishop,  and  that  he  refused  to  grant  him 
 institution  thereupon  ;  or  shall  enter  into 
 bond  with  sutficient  sureties  to  prove  the 
 same  to  be  true  ;  under  pain  of  suspension 
 of  the  granter  thereof  from  the  execution 
 of  his  office  for  half-a-ycar  foties  qiioties, 
 to  be  denounced  by  the  said  archbishop, 
 and  nullity  of  the  double  quarrel  aforesaid 
 so  unduly  procured,  to  all  intents  and 
 purposes  whatsoever.  Always  provided, 
 that  within  the  said  eight  and  twenty 
 days,  the  bishop  shall  not  institute  any 
 other  to  the  prejudice  of  the  said  party 
 before  presented,  suh  poena  niUlitatis. 
 
 "Every  bishop  hath  had." — The  canon 
 mentions  bishops,  only  because  institution 
 belongeth  to  them  of  common  right ;  but 
 it  must  also  be  understood  to  extend  to 
 others,  who  have  this  right  by  privilege  or 
 custom,  as  deans,  deans  and  chapters,  and 
 others  who  have  peculiar  jurisdiction. 
 Concerning  whom  it  hath  been  unani- 
 mously adjudged,  that  if  the  archbishop 
 shall  give  institution  to  any  peculiar  be- 
 longing to  any  ecclesiastical  person  or 
 body,  it  is  only  voidable  ;  because  they 
 being  not  free  from  this  jurisdiction  and 
 visitation,  the  archbishop  shall  be  sup- 
 posed to  have  a  concurrent  jurisdiction, 
 and  in  this  case  only  to  supply  the  defects 
 of  the  inferiors,  till  the  contrary  appears. 
 But  if  the  archbishop  grant  institution  to 
 a  peculiar  in  a  lay  hand,  it  is  null  and  void  ; 
 because  he  can  have  no  jurisdiction  there. 
 
 "  To  inquire  and  inform  himself." — In 
 answer  to  an  objection  made,  that  the 
 bishop  ought  to  receive  the  clerk  of  him 
 that  comes  first,  otherwise  he  is  a  dis- 
 turber, Hobart  saith,  the  law  is  contrary: 
 for  as  he  may  take  competent  time  to 
 examine  the  sufficiency  and  fitness  of  a 
 clerk,  so  he  may  give  convenient  time  to 
 persons  interested,  to  take  knowledge  of 
 the  avoidance,  (even  in  case  of  death,  and 
 where  notice  is  to  be  taken  and  not  given,) 
 to  present  their  clerks  to  it. 
 
 Canon  39.  "No  bishop  shall  institute 
 any  to  a  benefice,  who  hath  been  ordained 
 by  any  other  bishop,  excej)t  he  fii'st  show 
 unto  him  his  letters  of  orders;  and  bring 
 him  a  sufficient  testimony  of  his  former 
 good  life  and  behaviour,  if  the  bishop 
 shall  require  it;  and,  lastly,  shall  appear 
 upon  due  examination  to  be  worthy  of  his 
 ministry." 
 
326 
 
 EXARCH. 
 
 EXCOMMUNICATION. 
 
 "Except  he  fii'st  show  unto  him  his 
 letters  of  orders." — And  by  the  13  &  14 
 Charles  II.  c.  4,  no  person  shall  be  ca- 
 pable to  be  admitted  to  any  parsonage, 
 vicarage,  benefice,  or  other  ecclesiastical 
 promotion  or  dignity  whatsoever,  before 
 such  time  as  he  shall  be  ordained  priest, 
 and  bring  a  sufficient  testimony  of  his 
 former  good  life  and  behaviour.  By  the 
 ancient  laws  of  the  Church,  and  particu- 
 larly of  the  Church  of  England,  the  four 
 things  in  which  the  bishop  was  to  have 
 full  satisfaction  in  order  to  institution, 
 were  age,  learning,  behaviour,  and  orders. 
 And  there  is  scarce  any  one  thing  which 
 the  ancient  canons  of  the  Church  more 
 peremptorily  forbid,  than  the  admitting 
 clergymen  of  one  diocese  to  exercise  their 
 function  in  another,  without  first  exhibiting 
 the  letters  testimonial  and  commendatory 
 of  the  bishop  by  whom  they  were  or- 
 dained ;  and  tlie  constitutions  of  the  Arch- 
 bishops Reynolds  and  Arundel  show  that 
 the  same  was  the  known  law  of  the  English 
 Church,  to  wit,  that  none  should  be  ad- 
 mitted to  officiate  (not  so  much  as  a  chap- 
 lain or  cui'ate)  in  any  diocese  in  which  he 
 was  not  born  or  ordained,  unless  he  bring 
 with  him  his  letters  of  orders,  and  letters 
 commendatory  of  his  diocesan. 
 
 And,  lastly,  "  shall  appear,  upon  due 
 examination,  to  be  worthy  of  his  ministry." 
 — As  to  the  matter  of  learning,  it  hath 
 been  particularly  allowed,  not  only  by  the 
 courts  of  the  King's  Bench  and  Common 
 Pleas,  but  also  by  the  High  Court  of  Par- 
 liament, that  the  ordinary  is  not  account- 
 able to  any  temporal  court,  for  the  mea- 
 sures he  takes  or  the  rules  by  which  he 
 proceeds,  in  examining  and  judging  (only 
 he  must  examine  in  convenient  time,  and 
 refuse  in  convenient  time) ;  and  that  the 
 clerk's  having  been  ordained  (and  so  pre- 
 sumed to  be  of  good  abilities)  doth  not 
 take  away  or  diminish  the  right  which  the 
 statute  above  recited  doth  give  to  the 
 bishop  to  whom  the  presentation  is  made 
 to  examine  and  judge. 
 
 EXARCH.  An  officer  in  the  Greek 
 Church,  whose  business  it  is  to  visit  the 
 provinces  allotted  to  him,  in  order  to  in- 
 form himself  of  the  lives  and  manners  of 
 the  clergy;  take  cognizance  of  ecclesi- 
 astical causes ;  the  manner  of  celebrating 
 Divine  service ;  the  administration  of  the 
 sacraments,  particularly  confession;  the 
 observance  of  the  canons ;  monastic  dis- 
 cipline;  affau-s  of  man-iages ;  divorces,  &c. 
 ^  The  title  of  exarchs,  borrowed  from  the 
 civil  administration  of  the  empire,  was 
 given  about  the  fourth  century  to  the  chief 
 bishops  of  certain  large  provinces ;  as  the 
 
 bishops  of  Ceesarea  in  Cappadocia,  and  of 
 Ephesus. 
 
 EXCOMMUNICATION  is  an  eccle- 
 siastical censure,  whereby  the  person  against 
 whom  it  is  pronounced  is  for  the  time  cast 
 out  of  the  communion  of  the  Church. 
 
 Excommunication  is  of  two  kinds,  the 
 lesser  and  the  greater :  the  lesser  excom- 
 munication is  the  depriving  the  offender 
 of  the  use  of  the  sacraments  and  Divine 
 worship  ;  and  this  sentence  is  passed  by 
 judges  ecclesiastical,  on  such  persons  as 
 are  guilty  of  obstinacy  or  disobedience,  in 
 not  appearing  upon  a  citation,  or  not  sub- 
 mitting to  penance,  or  other  injunctions  of 
 the  court. 
 
 The  greater  excommunication  is  that 
 whereby  men  are  deprived,  not  only  of  the 
 sacraments  and  the  benefit  of  Divine  offices, 
 but  of  the  society  and  conversation  of  the 
 faithful. 
 
 If  a  person  be  excommunicated  gener- 
 ally, as  if  the  judge  say,  I  excommtiiiicate 
 such  a  person,  this  shall  be  understood  of 
 the  greater  excommunication. 
 
 The  law  in  many  cases  inflicts  the  cen- 
 siu'e  of  excommunication  ipso  facto  upon 
 offenders;  which  nevertheless  is  not  in- 
 tended so  as  to  condemn  any  person  with- 
 out a  lawful  trial  for  his  offence :  but  he 
 must  fu'st  be  found  guilty  in  the  proper 
 court ;  and  then  the  law  gives  that  judg- 
 ment. And  there  are  divers  provincial 
 constitutions,  by  which  it  is  provided,  that 
 this  sentence  shall  not  be  pronounced  (in 
 ordinary  cases)  without  previous  monition 
 or  notice  to  the  parties,  which  also  is 
 agreeable  to  the  ancient  canon  law. 
 
 By  Canon  Go.  "  All  ordinaries  shall  in 
 their  several  jurisdictions  carefully  see  and 
 give  order,  that  as  well  those  who  for 
 obstinate  refusing  to  frequent  Divine  ser- 
 vice established  by  public  authority  within 
 this  realm  of  England,  as  those  also  (espe- 
 cially those  of  the  better  sort  and  con- 
 dition) who  for  notorious  contumacy,  or 
 other  notable  crimes,  stand  lawfully  ex- 
 communicate, (unless  within  tlu-ee  months 
 immediately  after  the  said  sentence  of  ex- 
 communication pronounced  against  them, 
 they  reform  themselves,  and  obtain  the 
 benefit  of  absolution,)  be  every  six  months 
 ensuing,  as  well  in  the  parish  church  as  in 
 the  cathedral  church  of  the  diocese  in 
 which  they  remain,  by  the  minister,  openly 
 in  the  time  of  Divine  service  upon  some 
 Sunday,  denounced  and  declared  excom- 
 municate, that  others  may  be  thereby 
 both  admonished  to  refrain  their  company 
 and  society,  and  excited  the  rather  to  pro- 
 cure a  writ  de  excommunicaio  ccqnendo, 
 thereby   to  bring  and  reduce  them   into 
 
EXEAT. 
 
 EXHORTATION. 
 
 '32: 
 
 due  order  and  obedience.  LikeAvise  the 
 registrar  of  every  ecclesiastical  court  shall 
 yearly,  between  Michaelmas  and  Christmas, 
 duly  certify  the  archbishop  of  the  pro- 
 vince of  all  and  singular  the  premises 
 aforesaid." 
 
 By  Canon  GS.  '*  If  the  minister  refuse  to 
 bury  any  corpse,  except  the  party  deceased 
 \vere  denounced  excommunicated  by  the 
 greater  excommunication,  for  some  griev- 
 ous and  notorious  crime,  and  no  man  able 
 to  testify  of  his  repentance,  he  shall  be 
 suspended  by  the  bishop  from  his  ministry 
 for  the  space  of  three  months." 
 
 But  by  the  rubric  in  the  Book  of  Com- 
 mon Prayer,  the  Burial  Office  shall  not  be 
 used  for  any  that  die  excommunicate. 
 
 EXEAT.  The  permission  given  by  the 
 authorities  in  a  college,  to  persons  in  statu 
 pupillari,  to  leave  their  college  residence 
 for  a  time, 
 
 EXEDRyE,  in  ecclesiastical  antiquity, 
 is  the  general  name  of  such  buildings  as 
 were  distinct  from  the  main  body  of  the 
 churches,  and  yet  within  the  bounds  of 
 the  Church,  taken  in  its  largest  sense.  Thus 
 Eusebius,  speaking  of  the  church  of  Pau- 
 linas at  Tyre,  says,  "  When  that  curious 
 artist  had  finished  his  famous  structure 
 within,  he  then  set  himself  about  the  ex- 
 edrce,  or  buildings  that  joined  one  to  an- 
 other by  the  sides  of  the  church."  Among 
 the  excel rcc,  the  chief  was  the  haptistcry,  or 
 place  of  baptism.  Also  the  two  vestries, 
 or  sacristies,  as  we  should  call  them,  still 
 found  in  all  Oriental  churches  ;  viz.  the 
 I)iaconicum,y;\\cYcm  the  sacred  utensils,  &c. 
 were  kept ;  and  the  Prothesis,  where  the 
 side-table  stood,  on  which  the  elements 
 before  consecration  were  placed. — Jebb. 
 
 EXEMPTION,  in  the  ecclesiastical 
 sense  of  the  word,  means  a  privilege  given 
 by  the  pope  to  the  clergy,  and  sometimes 
 to  the  laity,  to  exempt  or  free  them  from 
 the  jurisdiction  of  their  respective  ordin- 
 aries. 
 
 ^^Tlien  monasteries  began  to  be  erected, 
 and  governed  by  abbots  of  great  quality, 
 merit,  and  figure,  these  men,  to  cover  their 
 ambition,  and  to  discharge  themselves  from 
 the  subjection  which  they  owed  to  the  bi- 
 shops, procured  grants  from  the  court  of 
 Rome,  to  be  received  under  the  protection 
 of  St.  Peter,  and  to  be  put  immediately 
 under  subjection  to  the  pope.  This  re- 
 quest being  for  the  interest  of  the  court  of 
 Rome,  inasmucli  as  it  contributed  greatly 
 to  the  advancement  of  the  papal  authority, 
 all  the  monasteries  were  presently  ex- 
 empted. The  chapters  also  of  cathedral 
 churches  obtained  exemptions  upon  the 
 same  score. 
 
 St.  Bernard,  who  lived  at  the  time  when 
 this  invention  was  first  put  in  practice, 
 took  the  freedom  to  tell  Pope  Eugcnius  III. 
 that  it  was  no  better  than  an  abuse,  and 
 that  it  was  by  no  means  defensible,  that 
 an  abbot  should  withdraw  himself  from 
 the  obedience  due  to  his  bishop ;  that  the 
 Church  militant  ought  to  be  governed  by 
 the  precedent  of  the  Church  triumphant, 
 in  which  no  angel  ever  said,  "  I  will  not 
 be  under  the  jurisdiction  of  an  archangel." 
 In  after  ages  this  abuse  was  carried  so 
 far,  that,  for  a  small  charge,  private  ])riests 
 procured  exemption  from  the  jurisdiction 
 of  their  bishop.  The  Council  of  Trent 
 made  a  small  reformation  in  this  matter, 
 by  abolishing  the  exemption  of  particular 
 priests  and  friars,  not  living  in  cloisters, 
 and  that  of  chapters  in  criminal  causes. — 
 Sarpi^s  Council  of  Trent. 
 
 EXHORTATION.  By  this  general 
 name  the  addresses  of  the  minister  to  the 
 people  in  the  liturgy  are  called.  AVhile 
 they  are  said,  the  people  stand,  in  sign  of 
 respectful  attention,  but  do  not  repeat 
 them  after  the  minister,  since  they  are  not 
 addresses  to  the  Almighty  made  in  their 
 name,  but  addresses  to  them  only. 
 
 The  ancient  Church,  indeed,  had  no  such 
 exhortations  as  those  in  our  Communion 
 Service  ;  for  their  daily,  or  at  least  weekly, 
 communions  made  it  known  that  there  was 
 then  no  solemn  assembly  of  Christians 
 without  it,  and  every  one  (not  under  cen- 
 sure) was  expected  to  communicate.  But 
 now,  when  the  time  is  somewhat  uncer- 
 tain, and  our  long  omissions  have  made 
 some  of  us  ignorant,  and  others  forgetful 
 of  this  duty  ;  most  of  us  unwilling,  and  all 
 of  us  more  or  less  indisposed  for  it ;  it  Avas 
 thought  both  prudent  and  necessary  to 
 provide  these  exhortations  to  be  read 
 "  when  the  minister  gives  warning  of  the 
 communion,  which  he  is  always  to  do  upon 
 the  Sunday,  or  some  holy-day  immediately 
 preceding." 
 
 As  to  the  composures  themselves,  they 
 are  so  extraordinary  suitable,  that  if  every 
 communicant  would  duly  weigh  and  con- 
 sider them,  they  would  be  no  small  help 
 towards  a  due  preparation.  The  first  con- 
 tains proper  exhortations  and  instructions 
 how  to  prepare  ourselves ;  the  latter  is 
 more  urgent,  and  a})plicable  to  those  who 
 generally  turn  their  backs  upon  those  holy 
 mysteries,  and  shows  the  danger  of  those 
 vain  and  frivolous  excuses  M'hich  men  fre- 
 quently make  for  their  staying  aAvay.  For 
 which  reason  it  is  appointed  by  the  rubric 
 to  be  used  instead  of  the  former,  whenever 
 the  minister  shall  observe  that  the  people 
 are  "  negligent  to  come." —  Whently. 
 
328 
 
 EXODUS. 
 
 EXPIATION,  THE  GREAT  DAY  OF. 
 
 The  service  of  the  Church  of  England 
 is  distinguished  by  the  number  and  fit- 
 ness of  its  exhortations.  These  are  : 
 one  at  the  beginning  of  Morning  and 
 Evening  Prayer ;  two  in  the  Communion 
 Service,  -when  notice  is  given  of  the  holy 
 communion ;  another  at  the  time  of  cele- 
 bration. Five  in  the  Ba])tismal  Service  ; 
 t"vvo  in  the  office  for  receiving  those  into 
 the  Church  -who  have  been  privately  bap- 
 tized ;  and  five  in  the  Baptism  of  those  of 
 Riper  Years ;  one  in  the  Confirmation  Of- 
 fice ;  two  in  the  Solemnization  of  Matri- 
 mony ;  two  in  the  Visitation  of  the  Sick ; 
 one  in  the  Churching  Sei-vice ;  two  in  the 
 Commination  Service  ;  besides  those  in  the 
 Ordination  Service.  These  may  be  con- 
 sidered as  so  many  sermons  of  the  Church, 
 which  assert  her  doctrines,  and  fully  show 
 what  she  expects  from  the  faith  and  prac- 
 tice of  her  children. 
 
 EXODUS.  (From  the  Greek  '^o^og, 
 (foing  out ;  the  term  generally  applied  to 
 the  departure  of  the  Israelites  from  Egypt.) 
 The  second  book  of  the  Bible  is  so  called, 
 because  it  is  chiefly  occupied  with  the  ac- 
 count of  that  part  of  the  sacred  history. 
 It  comprehends  the  transactions  of  145 
 years,  from  the  death  of  Joseph  in  2369  B.  c. 
 to  the  building  of  the  Tabernacle  in  2114. 
 
 EXORCISMS  (from  i^oQKiZ,it),  to  con- 
 jure) were  certain  prayers  used  of  old  in 
 the  Christian  churches  for  the  dispossess- 
 ing of  devils.  This  custom  of  exorcism 
 is  as  ancient  as  Christianity  itself,  being 
 practised  by  our  Saviour,  the  apostles, 
 and  the  primitive  Church ;  and  the  Chris- 
 tians were  so  well  assured  of  the  preva- 
 lency  of  their  prayers  upon  these  occasions, 
 that  they  publicly  ofi'ered  the  heathens  to 
 venture  their  lives  upon  the  success  of 
 them. 
 
 In  the  form  of  baptism,  in  the  liturgy  of 
 the  2  Edward  VI.,  it  was  ordered  thus : — 
 "Then  let  the  priest,  looking  upon  the 
 chiFdren,  say,  '  I  command  thee,  unclean 
 spirit,  in  the  name  of  the  Father,  of  the 
 Sox,  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  that  thou 
 come  out  and  depart  from  these  infants, 
 whom  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  hath  vouch- 
 safed to  call  to  his  holy  baptism,  to  be 
 made  members  of  his  body,  and  of  his 
 holy  congregation  ;  therefore,  thou  cursed 
 spirit,  remember  thy  sentence,  remember 
 thy  judgment,  remember  the  day  to  be  at 
 hand  wherein  thou  shalt  burn  in  fire  ever- 
 lasting, prepared  for  thee  and  thy  angels  ; 
 and  presume  not  hereafter  to  exercise  any 
 t}Tanny  towards  these  infants  whom  Christ 
 hath  bought  with  his  precious  blood,  and 
 by  this  his  holv  baptism  called  to  be  of 
 his  flock." 
 
 There  was  a  custom  which  obtained  in 
 the  early  ages  of  the  Church,  which  was 
 to  exorcise  the  baptized  person,  or  to  cast 
 Satan  out  of  him,  who  was  supposed  to 
 have  taken  possession  of  his  body  in  his 
 unregenerate  state.  But  because,  in  pro- 
 cess of  time,  many  superstitious  and  un- 
 warrantable practices  mixed  with  this  an- 
 cient rite,  especially  in  the  Roman  Church, 
 our  Reformers  wisely  thought  fit  to  lay  it 
 quite  aside,  and  to  substitute  in  lieu  of  it 
 these  short  excellent  prayers  :  wherein  the 
 minister  and  the  congregation  put  up  their 
 petitions  to  Almighty  GoD,  that  the  child 
 may  be  delivered  from  the  power  of  the 
 devil,  and  receive  all  the  benefits  of  the 
 Divine  grace  and  protection,  without  the 
 ancient  ceremony  attending  it.  —  Dr. 
 Nicholls. 
 
 Canon  *72.  "  No  minister  shall,  without 
 the  licence  of  the  bishop  of  the  diocese, 
 under  his  hand  and  seal,  attempt,  upon 
 any  pretence  w'hatsoever,  to  cast  out  any 
 devil  or  devils,  under  pain  of  the  imputa- 
 tion of  imposture  or  cozenage,  and  deposi- 
 tion from  the  ministry." 
 
 EXORCISTS  were  persons  ordained  in 
 the  latter  end  of  the  thu'd  century,  on  pur- 
 pose to  take  care  of  such  as  were  demo- 
 niacs, or  possessed  with  evil  spirits.  In 
 the  first  ages  of  Christianity  there  were 
 many  persons  who  are  represented  as  pos- 
 sessed with  evil  spirits,  and  exorcism  was 
 performed  not  by  any  particular  set  of 
 men,  but  afterwards  it  was  judged  requi- 
 site by  the  bishops  to  appropriate  this  office 
 by  ordination.  They  are  still  a  separate 
 order  in  the  Church  of  Rome. 
 
 EXPECTATION  WEEK.  The  whole 
 of  the  interval  between  Ascension  Day 
 and  Whit  Sunday  is  so  called,  because  at 
 this  time  the  apostles  continued  in  earnest 
 prayer  and  expectation  of  the  Comforter. 
 
 EXPIATION.  A  religious  act,  by 
 M'hich  satisfaction  or  atonement  is  made  for 
 some  crime,  the  guilt  removed,  and  the  ob- 
 ligation to  punish  cancelled.  (Lev.  xv.  15.) 
 
 EXPIATION,  THE  GREAT  DAY  OF. 
 An  annual  solemnity  of  the  Jews,  observed 
 upon  the  10th  day  of  the  month  Tisri, 
 which  answers  to  our  September.  The 
 Hebrews  call  it  Chippur,  that  is,  "  pardon," 
 because  the  sins  of  the  whole  people  were 
 then  expiated  or  pardoned.  (Lev.  xvi.  29, 
 30.)  On  this  occasion,  the  high  priest  laid 
 aside  his  pectoral  and  embroidered  ephod, 
 because  it  was  a  day  of  humihation.  He 
 ofiered  first  a  bullock  and  a  ram  for  his 
 own  sins  and  those  of  the  priests ;  then 
 he  received  from  the  heads  of  the  people 
 two  goats  for  a  sin  offering,  and  a  ram  for 
 a  burnt  offering,  to  be  offered  in  the  name 
 
EXPIATION,  THE  GREAT  DAY    OF. 
 
 EXTREME  UNCTION. 
 
 329 
 
 of  the  whole  multitude.  It  Avas  determined 
 by  lot,  "which  of  the  goats  should  be  sacri- 
 ficed, and  which  set  at  liberty.  After  this, 
 he  })crfumed  the  sanctuary  with  incense, 
 and  sprinkled  it  with  blood.  Then,  coming 
 out,  he  sacrificed  the  goat  upon  which  the 
 lot  had  fallen.  This  done,  the  goat  which 
 was  to  be  set  at  liberty  being  brought  to 
 him,  he  laid  his  hands  upon  its  head,  con- 
 fessed his  sins  and  the  sins  of  the  people, 
 and  then  sent  it  away  into  some  desert 
 place. 
 
 The  great  day  of  Expiation  was  a  day 
 of  rest  and  strict  fasting :  they  confessed 
 themselves  ten  times,  and  repeated  the 
 name  of  God  as  often  :  on  this  day  likewise 
 they  put  an  end  to  all  differences,  and 
 were  reconciled  to  each  other.  Many 
 Jews  spent  the  night  preceding  the  day  of 
 Expiation  in  prayer  and  penitential  ex- 
 ercises. It  was  customary  for  the  high 
 priest  to  separate  from  his  wife  seven  days 
 before  this  solemnity.  Upon  the  vigil, 
 some  of  the  elders  attended  the  high  priest, 
 and  their  business  was  to  prevent  his  eat- 
 ing too  much,  lest  he  should  fall  asleep, 
 lie  was  likewise  to  swear,  that  he  would 
 not  change  the  ancient  rites  in  any  par- 
 ticular. On  the  day  itself,  the  high  priest 
 washed  himself  five  times,  and  changed 
 his  habit  as  often.  When  the  ceremony 
 was  over,  the  high  priest  read  the  law,  and 
 gave  the  blessing  to  the  people. — Buxtorf, 
 Si/nacj.  Jml.  c.  xx.  Basnage,  Hist,  ties 
 Juifs,  t.  V.  lib.  vii.  c.  15. 
 
 The  modern  Jews  prepare  themselves 
 for  the  great  day  of  Expiation  by  prayer, 
 and  ablution.  They  carry  wax  candles  to 
 the  synagogue  :  the  most  devout  have  two, 
 one  for  the  body,  and  the  other  for  the 
 soul.  The  women  at  the  same  time  light 
 up  candles  in  their  houses,  from  the  bright- 
 ness of  which,  and  the  consistency  of  the 
 tallow  or  wax,  they  form  presages.  The 
 whole  day  is  spent  in  strict  fasting,  with- 
 out exception  of  age  or  sex.  At  the  con- 
 clusion of  the  solemnity,  the  high  priest 
 gives  the  blessing  to  the  people  ;  who  re- 
 turn home,  change  their  clothes,  and  sit 
 down  to  a  good  meal. 
 
 The  Jews  believe,  that  Adam  repented, 
 and  began  his  penance,  on  the  solemn  day 
 of  Expiation ;  that,  on  the  same  day, 
 Abraham  was  circumcised,  and  Isaac 
 bound  in  order  to  be  sacrificed;  lastly, 
 that  on  this  day,  Moses  descended  from 
 Mount  Sinai,  with  the  new  tables  of  the 
 law. 
 
 As  sacrificing  is  now  impracticable  to  the 
 modern  Jews,  in  regard  that  their  temple 
 is  destroyed,  they  sacrifice  a  cock  on  this 
 occasion,  instead  of  the  legal  victims,  in 
 
 the  manner  following.  The  men  take  each 
 of  them  a  cock  in  their  hands,  and  the 
 women  a  hen.  Then  the  master  of  the 
 family  walks  into  the  middle  of  the  room, 
 and  repeating  several  verses  out  of  the 
 Psalms,  dashes  the  cock  thrice  on  the  head, 
 I)ronouncing  these  words  ;  "  Let  this  cock 
 pass  as  an  exchange  for  me  ;  let  him  stand 
 in  my  place  ;  let  him  be  an  expiation  for 
 me;  let  death  befall  this  cock,  but  life  and 
 hap])iness  belong  to  me,  and  all  tlie  pco])le 
 of  Israel.  Amen."  Tliis  prayer  is  thrice 
 repeated  by  the  master  of  the  fiimily ;  for 
 himself,  his  children,  and  the  strangers  of 
 his  family.  Then  they  ])rocecd  to  kill  the 
 cock,  and  throw  his  entrails  upon  the  top 
 of  the  house,  that  the  crows  may  come 
 and  carry  them  away,  together  Avith  the 
 sins  of  the  family,  into  the  wilderness  : 
 this  is  done  by  way  of  resemblance  with 
 the  scape  goat. 
 
 It  is  of  this  fast  we  are  to  understand 
 that  passage  of  the  Acts,  where  St.  Luke 
 says,  that  St.  Paul  comforted  those  who 
 were  with  him  in  the  ship,  "  when  sailing 
 was  become  dangerous,  because  the  fast 
 was  already  past."  (Acts  xxvii.  9.)  For 
 tempests  are  very  frequent  in  the  month 
 of  September,  in  which  this  solemnity  falls, 
 and  this  was  much  about  the  time  that  St. 
 Paul  took  his  voyage  to  Rome. 
 
 EXTRAVAGANTS.  (See  Decretals.) 
 A  name  given  to  those  decretal  e])istles  of 
 the  popes  after  the  Clementines.  The  first 
 Extravagants  are  those  of  John  XXIIL, 
 successor  to  Clement  V. ;  they  were  so 
 named  because,  at  first,  they  were  not  di- 
 gested, nor  ranged  with  the  other  papal 
 constitutions,  but  seemed  to  be,  as  it  were, 
 detached  from  the  canon  law  ;  and  they 
 retained  the  same  name  when  they  were 
 afterwards  inserted  into  the  body  of  the 
 canon  law.  The  collection  of  decretals,  in 
 1483,  were  called  the  Common  Extrava- 
 gants, notwithstanding  they  were  likewise 
 embodied  Avith  the  rest  of  the  canon  law. 
 
 EXTREME  UNCTION.  Of  extreme 
 unction  the  Romish  Council  of  Trent  as- 
 serts, "  The  holy  unction  of  the  sick  was 
 instituted  by  our  Lord  Christ,  as  truly 
 and  properly  a  sacrament  of  the  New  Tes- 
 tament, as  is  implied,  indeed,  in  St.  Mark  ; 
 but  commended  and  declared  to  the  faith- 
 ful by  James,  the  apostle  and  brother  of 
 the  Lord.  "  Is  any  sick  among  you  ?  Let 
 him  call  for  the  elders  of  the  Church,  and 
 let  them  pray  over  him,  anointing  him 
 with  oil  in  the  name  of  the  Lord  ;  and  the 
 prayer  of  faith  shall  save  the  sick,  and  the 
 Lord  shall  raise  him  up,  and  if  he  have 
 committed  sins  they  shall  be  forgiven  him." 
 From   which   words,  as  the   Church  hath 
 
330 
 
 EXTREME  UNCTION. 
 
 learned  from  apostolic  tradition  handed 
 down,  she  teaches  the  matter,  form,  proper 
 minister,  and  eflect  of  this  Avholesome  sa- 
 crament ;  for  the  Church  has  understood 
 that  the  matter  is  oil  blessed  by  the  bishop, 
 for  unction  most  aptly  represents  the  grace 
 of  the  Holy  Spikit  wherewith  the  soul  of 
 the  sick  man  is  invisibly  anointed  :  then 
 that  the  form  consists  of  "these  words,  "By 
 this  anointing,"  S:c. 
 
 The  following  are  the  canons  upon  the 
 subject  passed  by  that  council. 
 
 Canon  I.  If  any  shall  say,  that  extreme 
 unction  is  not  truly  or  properly  a  sacra- 
 ment instituted  by  our  LoKD  Christ,  and 
 declared  by  the  blessed  apostle  James  ; 
 but  only  a  rite  received  from  the  Fathers, 
 or  a  human  invention  ;  let  him  be  ac- 
 cursed. 
 
 Canon  II.  If  any  shall  say,  that  the 
 holy  anointing  of  the  sick  does  not  confer 
 grace,  nor  remit  sins,  nor  relieve  the  sick, 
 but  tliat  it  has  ceased,  as  if  it  were  for- 
 merly only  the  grace  of  healing ;  let  him 
 be  accursed. 
 
 Canon  III.  If  any  shall  say,  that  the 
 rite  and  usage  of  extreme  unction,  which, 
 the  holy  Roman  Church  observes,  is  con- 
 trary to  the  sentence  of  the  blessed  apostle 
 James,  and,  therefore,  should  be  changed, 
 and  may  be  despised  by  Clmstians  without 
 sin  ;  let  him  be  accursed. 
 
 Canon  IV.  If  any  shall  say,  that  the 
 presbyters  of  the  Chm'ch,  whom  St.  James 
 directs  to  be  called  for  the  anointing  of 
 the  sick,  are  not  priests  ordained  by  the 
 bishops,  but  elders  in  age,  in  any  com- 
 munity ;  and  that,  therefore,  the  priest  is 
 not  the  only  proper  minister  of  extreme 
 unction ;  let  him  be  accursed. 
 
 Here  the  institution  of  extreme  unction 
 by  our  Lord  is  implied  by  Mark,  vi.  13, 
 where  it  is  said  of  the  apostles,  that  "  they 
 anointed  with  oil  man)'  that  were  sick,  and 
 healed  them."  But,  by-and-by,  (session  22, 
 eh.  1,)  we  are  told  that  the  Christian  priest- 
 hood was  not  instituted  until  our  Lord's 
 last  supper.  Either,  then,  extreme  unction 
 is  no  sacrament,  or  they  who  are  no  priests 
 can  administer  a  sacrament ;  for  the  apos- 
 tles were  not  priests,  according  to  the 
 Church  of  Home,  at  the  time  spoken  of  by 
 St.  Mark.  But,  further,  a  sacrament  is  a 
 visible  form  of  invisible  grace  ;  but  the 
 passage  in  St.  INIark  speaks  only  of  healing 
 the  body  ;  and,  therefore,  Cajetan,  as  cited 
 by  Catharinus,  rejects  this  text  as  inap- 
 plicable to  this  sacrament ;  and  Suarez 
 (in  part  iii.  disp.  39,  sect.  1,  n.  5)  says, 
 that  "  when  the  apostles  are  said  to  anoint 
 the  sick  and  heal  them,  (Mark  vi.  13,)  this 
 was  not  said  in  reference  to  the  sacrament 
 
 of  unction,  because  then*  cures  had  not  of 
 themselves  an  immediate  respect  to  the 
 soul."  Nor  will  this  pretended  sacrament 
 derive  more  assistance  from  the  passage  in 
 St.  James,  in  which  they  say  that  the  in- 
 stitution by  our  Lord  is  proclaimed  and 
 declared  by  that  apostle,  at  least  if  Cardi- 
 nal Cajetan  is  any  authority,  who  is  thus 
 cited  by  Catharinus  in  his  Annotationes, 
 Paris,  1535,  p.  191,  do  Sacramento  Uuc- 
 tionis  Extremae.  "  Sed  et  quod  scribit 
 B.  Jacobus,  '  Infirmatur  quis  in  vobis  ? ' 
 &c.,  pariter  negat  revcrendissimus  ad  hoc 
 sacramentum  pertinere,  ita  scribens,  nee 
 ex  verbis,  nee  ex  effectu,  verba  ha^c  lo- 
 quuntur  de  sacramentali  unctione  extremee 
 unctionis,  sed  magis  de  unctione  quam 
 instituit  Dominus  Jesus  exercendum  in 
 segrotis.  Textus  enim  non  dicit,  Infii'ma- 
 tur  quis  ad  mortem  ?  sed  absolute,  Info- 
 matur  quis  ? "  &c.  But  that  this  rite, 
 which  they  now  call  a  sacrament,  was  ori- 
 ginally applied  chiefly  to  the  healing  of 
 the  body,  is  manifest  from  the  prayers 
 which  accompanied  it.  "  Cura  qua?simius, 
 Redemptor  noster,  gratia  Spiritiis  Sancti 
 languores  istius  injirmi"  and  so  the  direc- 
 tions, "  in  loco  uhi  2^li(s  dolor  imminet,  am- 
 jilius  lierumjaturP  Let  the  patient  have 
 most  oil  applied  in  the  part  where  the  pain 
 is  greatest. — 8acr.  Gregor.  by  Menard, 
 Paris,  1542,  p.  252.  From  all  which  we 
 come  to  the  conclusion,  that  the  allegations 
 of  the  Council  of  Trent  on  this  matter 
 must  be  pronounced  "  not  proven."  Which, 
 if  it  were  a  mere  opinion,  would  be  of  no 
 great  consequence.  But  when  their  asser- 
 tion is  supported  by  anathema,  and  every 
 communicant  in  their  Church  bound  to 
 believe  it  as  necessary  to  salvation,  it  serves 
 to  show  the  cruelty  of  this  Roman  mother 
 both  to  her  own  children,  and  to  them 
 whom  she  reckons  strangers.  It  is  in 
 vain  that  the  Roman  writers  attempt  to 
 strengthen  their  cause  by  appeals  to  the 
 Greek  mysteries.  The  Greek  mysteries 
 and  the  Latin  sacraments  are  not  synonym- 
 ous. And  as  concerns  this  of  unction, 
 which  (as  its  epithet  '*  extreme,"  which  the 
 Romans  have  added,  implies)  is  designed 
 for  persons  in  articulo  mortis,  or  in  exitu 
 vita>,  as  we  have  it  in  the  third  chapter, 
 this  derives  as  little  countenance  from  the 
 Greek  Church  as  it  does  from  St.  James. 
 For,  in  the  Greek  Church,  the  service  of 
 anointing  is  used  to  persons  in  any  illness  ; 
 and  is  used  by  them  solely  for  recovery 
 from  sickness,  as  the  following  prayer  at 
 the  application  of  the  oil  clearly  shows. 
 "  O  holy  Father,  the  physician  of  our  souls 
 and  bodies,  who  didst  send  thine  only- 
 begotten  Son,  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  to 
 
EZEKIEL,  THE  PROPHECY  OF. 
 
 FACULTY  COURT, 
 
 331 
 
 heal  all  diseases,  and  to  deliver  us  from 
 death,  heal  this  thy  servant  M.  from  the 
 bodily  infirmity  under  which  he  now 
 labours,  and  raise  him  up  by  the  p;Yacc 
 of  Christ." — Perceval,  Roman  Schism. 
 Kiuffs  Greek  Church. 
 
 Now  that  this  miraculous  gift  (of  heal- 
 ing all  manner  of  diseases)  is  ceased,  there 
 is  no  reason  why  the  mere  ceremony  of 
 anointing  with  oil  should  continue ;  which 
 yet  is  still  used  in  the  Church  of  Rome, 
 and  made  a  sacrament ;  though  it  signify 
 nothing  ;  for  they  do  not  pretend  to  heal 
 men  by  it,  nay,  they  pretend  the  contrary, 
 because  they  never  use  it  but  in  extremity, 
 and  where  they  look  upon  the  person  as 
 past  recovery ;  and  if  they  do  not  think  so, 
 they  would  not  use  it. — Ahp.  Tillotson. 
 
 EZEKIl^L,  THE  PllOPIIECY  OF. 
 A  canonical  book  of  the  Old  Testament. 
 Ezekiel  was  the  son  of  Buzi,  of  the  house 
 of  Aaron.  He  was  carried  captive  to  Ba- 
 bylon with  Jechoniah.  He  began  to  pro- 
 phesy in  the  fifth  year  of  this  captivity, 
 which  is  the  pera  by  which  he  reckons  in 
 all  his  prophecies.  He  continiied  to  pro- 
 phesy during  twenty  years.  He  was  con- 
 temporary with  Jeremiah,  who  prophesied 
 at  the  same  time  in  Judea.  He  foretold 
 many  events,  particularly  the  destruction 
 of  the  temple  ;  the  fatal  catastrophe  of 
 those  who  revolted  from  Babylon  to  Egypt; 
 and,  at  last,  the  happy  return  of  the  Jcavs 
 into  their  own  land.  He  distinctly  pre- 
 dicts t\\Q  plagues  which  were  to  fall  upon 
 the  enemies  of  the  Jews,  as  the  Edomites, 
 ^loabites.  Ammonites,  Egyptians,  Assyri- 
 ans, and  Babylonians.  He  foretells  the 
 coming  of  the  Messiah,  and  the  flourishing 
 state  of  his  kingdom. — Du  Pin,  Canon  of- 
 ScriptiirBy  b.  i.  c.  iii.  §  20. 
 
 The  greatest  part  of  this  prophecy  is 
 easy,  plain,  and  intelligible,  referring 
 chiefly  to  the  manners  and  corruption  of 
 that  degenerate  age.  Of  all  the  prophets, 
 Ezekiel  abounds  the  most  in  enigmatical 
 visions.  His  style  (in  the  opinion  of  St. 
 Jerome)  is  neither  eloquent  nor  mean,  but 
 between  both.  He  abounds  in  fine  sen- 
 tences, rich  comparisons,  and  shows  a  great 
 deal  of  learning  in  profane  matters.  The 
 beginning  and  end  of  this  book  (by  reason 
 of  the  abstruse  mysteries  contained  in 
 them)  were  forbidden  to  be  read  by  the 
 Jews,  before  thirty  years  of  age. 
 
 Ezekiel  was  called  to  be  a  prophet  by 
 being  carried  in  a  vision  to  Jerusalem,  and 
 there  shown  all  tlie  several  sorts  of  idolatry, 
 which  were  practised  by  the  Jews  in  that 
 place.  This  makes  the  subject  of  the  8th, 
 9th,  10th,  and  11th  chapters  of  his  pro- 
 phecies.    At  the  same  time  God  promised 
 
 to  those  of  the  captivity,  who  kept  them- 
 selves from  these  abominations,  that  he 
 would  be  their  protector,  and  restore  them 
 to  the  land  of  Israel.  This  is  his  theme 
 in  the  15th  and  following  chapters.  The 
 26th,  27th,  and  28th  chapters  contain  the 
 threatenings  of  God's  judgments  against 
 Tyre,  for  insulting  on  the  calamitous  e>itate 
 of  Judah  and  Jerusalem.  To  these  we 
 may  add  his  prophecy  concerning  the 
 captivity  of  Zedckiah,  contained  in  the 
 12th  chapter;  and  that  against  Pharaoh 
 Hophra,  king  of  Egyj)t,  in  the  .■3;ird.  These 
 are  the  principal  prophecies  of  this  book. 
 — Prideaux,  Connect,  p.  i.  b.  i. 
 
 It  is  said,  that  Ezekiel  was  put  to  death 
 by  the  prince  of  his  people,  because  he 
 exhorted  him  to  leave  idolatry.  It  is  pre- 
 tended likewise,  that  his  body  was  depo- 
 sited in  the  same  cave  wherein  Shem  and 
 Arphaxad  were  laid,  on  the  bank  of  the 
 Euphrates.  His  tomb,  they  say,  is  still  to 
 be  seen :  the  Jews  keep  a  lamp  always 
 burning  in  it,  and  boast,  that  they  have 
 there  the  prophet's  book,  written  Avith  his 
 own  hand,  which  they  read  every  year 
 upon  the  great  day  of  Exi)iation. 
 
 The  Jewish  Sanhedrim,  we  are  told, 
 once  took  it  under  their  consideration, 
 whether  they  should  not  suppress  the  pro- 
 phecy of  Ezekiel,  on  account  of  the  ob- 
 scurity of  some  parts  of  it ;  but  that  Kabbi 
 Chananias  prevented  this  design,  by  offer- 
 ing to  remove  all  the  difficulties.  His 
 proposal,  they  say,  was  accepted,  and  a 
 present  was  made  him  of  three  hundred 
 tun  of  oil  for  the  use  of  his  lamp,  while  he 
 was  employed  in  this  undertaking.  AVe 
 may  easily  discover,  that  this  is  a  mere 
 fable  and  an  hyperbole  of  the  Talmudists. 
 
 EZRA.  One  of  the  canonical  books  of 
 Scripture  is  called  the  Book  of  Ezra. 
 
 The  book  of  Ezra  was  WTitten  in  the 
 latter  end  of  the  author's  life,  and  com- 
 prehends the  transactions  of  about  eighty, 
 or,  as  some  say,  a  hundred  years.  It  in- 
 cludes the  history  of  the  Jews  from  the 
 time  of  Cp'us's  edict  for  their  return,  to 
 the  twentieth  year  of  Artaxerxes  Longi- 
 manus.  In  this  book  are  recorded  the 
 number  of  those  Jews  who  returned  from 
 the  captivity,  Cp'us's  proclamation  for  the 
 rebuilding  of  the  temple,  the  laying  of  the 
 foundations  thereof,  "&c.  Part  of  this 
 book  was  written  in  the  Chaldee  language, 
 namely,  from  the  eighth  verse  of  the  fourth 
 chapter  to  the  twenty-seventh  verse  of  the 
 seventh  chapter ;  all  the  rest  was  written 
 in  Hebrew. 
 
 FACULTY  COURT  belongs  to  the 
 archb'shoj-)   of  Canterbury,  and  his  officer 
 
332 
 
 FAITH. 
 
 is  called  the  Master  of  the  Faculties.  His 
 power  is  to  grant  dispensation  to  marry, 
 to  eat  flesh  on  days  prohibited,  to  hold  two 
 or  more  benefices  ordinarily  incompatible, 
 and  such  like. 
 
 FAITH.  (See  Grace,  Justification.) 
 "  We  are  accounted  righteous  before  God, 
 only  for  the  merit  of  our  Lord  and  Sa- 
 viour Jesus  Christ,  by  Faith,  and  not  for 
 our  own  works  or  deservings.  Wherefore, 
 that  we  are  justified  by  faith  only  is  a 
 most  wholesome  doctrine,  and  very  full  of 
 comfort,  as  more  largely  is  expressed  in 
 the  Homily  of  Justification." — Article  XI. 
 
 Faith,  in  its  generic  sense,  either  means 
 the  holding  rightly  the  creeds  of  the  Ca- 
 tliolic  Church,  or  means  that  very  Catholic 
 faith,  which  except  a  man  believe  faith- 
 fully, he  cannot  be  saved.  Thus,  when 
 the  priest  is  directed,  in  the  office  for  the 
 Baptism  of  those  of  Iliper  Years,  to  inquire 
 into  the  faith  of  the  candidate,  he  asks 
 his  assent  to  one  of  the  creeds  ;  and,  in 
 the  office  for  the  Visitation  of  the  Sick,  he 
 is  required  to  use  the  same  test,  and  this 
 of  course  agrees  with  St.  Paul's  statement : 
 *'  With  the  heart  man  believeth  unto  right- 
 eousness, and  with  the  mouth  confession  is 
 made  unto  salvation." 
 
 It  should  be  noted,  that  we  are  justified 
 hy  faith,  not  because  of  faith ;  for  there  is 
 no  more  "  merit "  in  our  faith,  than  in  our 
 works.  Faith  therefore  is  not  the  cause, 
 but  the  condition,  of  our  justification, 
 which  is  solely  to  be  attributed  to  the 
 bounty  of  GoD,  and  the  merits  of  Christ. 
 — Archdeacon  IVelchman. 
 
 I  am  sensible,  says  Dr.  Waterland,  that 
 some  very  eminent  men  have  expressed 
 a  dislike  of  the  phrase,  of  the  instrument- 
 ality of  faith  ;  and  have  also  justly  re- 
 jected the  thing,  according  to  the  false 
 notion  which  some  had  conceived  of  it.  It 
 cannot,  with  any  tolerable  sense  or  pro- 
 priety, be  looked  upon  as  an  instrument  of 
 conveyance  in  the  hand  of  the  efficient  or 
 principal  cause ;  but  it  may  justly  and 
 properly  be  looked  upon  as  the  instrument 
 of  reception  in  the  hand  of  the  recipient. 
 It  is  not  the  mean  by  which  the  grace  is 
 wrought,  effected,  or  conferred ;  but  it 
 may  be,  and  is,  the  mean  by  which  it  is 
 accepted  or  received  :  or,  to  express  it  a 
 little  differently,  it  is  not  the  instrument 
 of  justification  in  the  active  sense  of  the 
 word,  but  it  is  in  the  passive  sense  of  it. 
 It  cannot  be  for  nothing  that  St.  Paul  so 
 often  and  so  emphatically  speaks  of  man's 
 being  justified  by  faith,' or  through  faith 
 in  Christ's  blood  ;  and  that  he  particu- 
 larly notes  it  of  Abraham,  tliat  he  l:)elieved, 
 and  that  his  faith  was  counted  to  him  for 
 
 justification ;  when  he  might  as  easily 
 have  said,  had  he  so  meant,  that  man  is 
 justified  by  faith  and  works,  or  that  Abra- 
 ham, to  whom  the  gospel  was  preached, 
 was  justified  by  gospel  faith  and  obedience. 
 Besides,  it  is  certain,  and  is  on  all  hands 
 allowed,  that,  though  St.  Paul  did  not  di- 
 rectly and  expressly  oppose  faith  to  evan- 
 gelical works,  yet  he  comprehended  the 
 works  of  the  moral  law  under  those  works 
 which  he  excluded  from  the  office  of  justi- 
 fying, in  his  sense  of  justifying,  in  those 
 passages ;  and  further,  he  used  such  argu- 
 ments as  appear  to  extend  to  all  kinds  of 
 works :  for  Abraham's  works  were  really 
 evangelical  works,  and  yet  they  were  ex- 
 cluded. Add  to  this,  that  if  justification 
 could  come  even  by  evangelical  works, 
 without  taking  in  faith  in  the  meritorious 
 sufferings  and  satisfaction  of  a  mediator, 
 then  might  we  have  "  whereof  to  glory,"  as 
 needing  no  pardon ;  and  then  might  it  be 
 justly  said,  that  "  Christ  died  in  vain."  I 
 must  further  OAvn,  that  it  is  of  great  weight 
 with  me,  that  so  early  and  so  considerable 
 a  writer  as  Clemens  of  Rome,  an  apos- 
 tolical man,  should  so  interpret  the  doc- 
 trine of  justifying  faith,  so  as  to  o])pose  it 
 plainly  even  to  evangelical  works,  however 
 exalted.  It  runs  thus :  "  They  (the  ancient 
 patriarchs)  were  all,  therefore,  greatly 
 glorified  and  magnified ;  not  for  their  own 
 sake,  or  for  their  own  works,  or  for  the 
 righteousness  which  they  themselves 
 wrought,  but  through  his  good  pleasure. 
 And  we  also,  being  called  through  his  good 
 pleasure  in  Christ  Jesub,  are  not  justified 
 by  ourselves,  neither  by  our  own  wisdom, 
 or  knowledge,  or  piety,  or  the  works  which 
 we  have  done  in  holiness  of  heart,  but  by 
 that  faith  by  which  Almighty  GoD  justi- 
 fied all  from  the  beginning,"  Here  it  is 
 observable,  that  the  word  faith  does  not 
 stand  for  the  whole  system  of  Christianity, 
 or  for  Christian  belief  at  large,  but  for 
 some  particular  self-denying  principle  by 
 which  good  men,  even  under  the  patri- 
 archal and  legal  dispensations,  laid  hold 
 on  the  mercy  and  promises  of  GoD,  refer- 
 ring all,  not  to  themselves  or  theu'  own 
 deservings,  but  to  Divine  goodness,  in  and 
 thi-ough  a  mediator.  It  is  true,  Clemens 
 elsewhere,  and  St.  Paul  almost  everywhere, 
 insists  upon  true  holiness  of  heart,  and 
 obedience  of  life,  as  indispensable  condi- 
 tions of  salvation  or  justification  ;  and  of 
 that  one  would  think  there  could  be  no 
 question  among  men  of  any  judgment  or 
 probity  :  but  the  question  about  conditions 
 is  very  distinct  from  the  other  question 
 about  instruments;  and,  therefore,  both 
 parts  may  be  true,  viz.  that  faith  and  obe- 
 
FAITH. 
 
 FAITHFUL. 
 
 333 
 
 (lience  are  equally  condidons,  and  equally 
 indispensable  where  opportunities  permit; 
 and  yet  faith  over  and  above  is  em])hatic- 
 ally  the  insfnimc/it  both  of  rcceivinj^f  and 
 holdinfi^  justification,  or  a  title  to  salvation. 
 
 To  explain  this  matter  more  distinctly, 
 let  it  be  remembered,  that  God  may  be 
 considered  (as  I  before  noted)  either  as  a 
 party  contracting  with  man,  on  very  gra- 
 cious terms,  or  as  a  judge  to  pronounce 
 judgment  upon  him. 
 
 ]Man's  first  coming  into  covenant  (su])- 
 posing  him  adult)  is  by  assenting  to  it,  and 
 accepting  of  it,  to  have  and  to  hold  it  on 
 such  kind  of  tenure  as  God  proposes  :  that 
 is  to  say,  upon  a  self-denying  tenure,  con- 
 sidering himself  as  a  guilty  man,  standing 
 in  need  of  pardon,  and  of  borrowed  merits, 
 and  at  length  resting  upon  mercy.  So 
 here  the  previous  question  is,  whether  a 
 person  shall  consent  to  hold  a  privilege 
 upon  this  submissive  kind  of  tenure  or 
 not  ?  Such  assent  or  consent,  if  he  comes 
 into  it,  is  the  very  thing  which  St.  Paul 
 and  St.  Clemens  call  faith ;  and  this  pre- 
 vious and  general  cpiestion  is  the  question 
 which  both  of  them  determine  against  any 
 proud  claimants  who  would  hold  by  a 
 more  self-admiring  tenure. 
 
 Or,  if  we  next  consider  GoD  as  sitting 
 in  judgment,  and  man  before  the  tribunal, 
 going  to  plead  his  cause  ;  here  the  ques- 
 tion is,  "\A'hat  kind  of  plea  shall  a  man  re- 
 solve to  trust  his  salvation  upon  ?  Shall 
 he  stand  upon  his  innocence,  and  rest  upon 
 strict  law ;  or  shall  he  plead  guilty,  and 
 rest  in  an  act  of  grace  ?  If  he  chooses  the 
 former,  he  is  proud,  and  sure  to  be  cast; 
 if  he  chooses  the  latter,  he  is  safe  so  far, 
 in  thi-OM-ing  himself  upon  an  act  of  grace. 
 Now  this  question  also,  which  St.  Paul  has 
 decided,  is  previous  to  the  question,  what 
 conditions  even  the  act  of  grace  itself 
 finally  insists  upon  ?  A  question  which 
 St.  James  in  i)articular,  and  the  general 
 tenor  of  the  whole  Scrii)ture,  has  abund- 
 antly satisfied ;  and  which  could  never 
 have  been  made  a  question  by  any  con- 
 siderate or  impartial  Christian.  What 
 I  am  at  present  concerned  with  is  to  ob- 
 serve, that  faith  is  emphatically  the  in- 
 strument by  which  an  adult  accepts  the 
 covenant  of  grace,  consenting  to  hold  by 
 that  kind  of  tenure,  to  be  justified  in  that 
 way,  and  to  rest  in  that  kind  of  plea,  put- 
 ting his  salvation  on  that  only  issue.  It' 
 appears  to  be  a  just  observation  which 
 iJr.  AVhitby  makes,  {Pre/,  to  the  Epist.  to 
 Galat  p.  300,)  that  Abraham  had  faith 
 (Heb.  xi.  8)  before  what  was  said  of  his 
 justification  in  Gen.  xv.  6,  and  aftcr- 
 Avards  more  abundantly,  when  he  offered 
 
 up  his  son  Isaac ;  but  yet  neither  of  those 
 instances  was  })itched  upon  by  the  apostle 
 as  fit  for  his  purpose,  because  in  both, 
 obedience  was  joined  with  faith :  whereas, 
 here  was  a  ])ure  act  of  faith,  without  works, 
 and  of  this  act  of*  faith  it  is  said,  "  it  was 
 imputed  to  him  for  righteousness."  The 
 sum  is,  none  of  our  works  are  good  enough 
 to  stand  by  themselves  before  Ilim  who  is 
 of  purer  eyes  than  to  behold  iniquity. 
 Christ  only  is  pure  enough  for  it  at  first 
 hand,  and  they  that  are  Christ's  at  second 
 hand,  in  and  through  him.  Now,  because 
 it  is  by  faith  that  we  thus  interpose,  as  it 
 were,  Christ  between  God  and  us,  in 
 order  to  gain  acceptance  by  him;  there- 
 fore faith  is  emphatically  the  instrument 
 whereby  we  receive  the  grant  of  justifica- 
 tion. Obedience  is  equally  a  condition  or 
 qualification,  but  not  an  instrument,  not 
 being  that  act  of  the  mind  whereby  we 
 look  up  to  God  and  Christ,  and  whereby 
 we  embrace  the  promises. —  Waterland  on 
 Justification. 
 
 There  is  not  any  one  word  which  hath 
 more  significations  than  this  hath  in  theword 
 of  God,  especially  in  the  New  Testament. 
 It  sometimes  signifies  the  acknowledgment 
 of  the  true  God,  in  opposition  to  heathen- 
 ism; sometimes  the  Christian  rehgion,  in 
 opposition  to  Judaism  ;  sometimes  the  be- 
 lieving the  power  of  Christ  to  heal  dis- 
 eases ;  sometimes  the  believing  that  he  is 
 the  promised  Messias ;  sometimes  fidelity 
 or  faithfulness  ;  sometimes  a  resolution  of 
 conscience  concerning  the  lawfulness  of 
 anything :  sometimes  a  reliance,  affiance, 
 or  dependence  on  Christ  either  for  tem- 
 poral or  spiritual  matters ;  sometimes  be- 
 lieving the  truth  of  all  Divine  relations  ; 
 sometimes  obedience  to  God's  commands 
 in  the  evangelical,  not  legal  sense  ;  some- 
 times the  doctrine  of  the  gospel,  in  opjjo- 
 sition  to  the  law  of  Moses ;  sometimes  it 
 is  an  aggregate  of  all  other  graces :  some- 
 times the  condition  of  the  second  covenant 
 in  opposition  to  the  first :  and  other  senses 
 of  it  also  there  are,  distinguishable  by  the 
 contexture,  and  the  matter  treated  of 
 where  the  word  is  used.  —  Hammond, 
 Practical  Catechism. 
 
 FAITH,  IMPLICIT.  (Sec  Implicit 
 Faith.) 
 
 FAITHFUL.  This  was  the  favourite 
 and  universal  name  uniformly  used  in  the 
 primitive  Church,  to  denote  those  who  had 
 been  instructed  in  the  Christian  religion, 
 and  received  by  baptism  into  the  commu- 
 nion of  the  Church.  The  apostolical  Epis- 
 tles are  all  addressed  to  "faithful  men," 
 that  is,  to  those  who  formed  the  visible 
 Church  in  their  respective  localities ;  those 
 
334 
 
 FALD  STOOL. 
 
 FASTING. 
 
 who  had  made  profession  of  the  faith  of 
 Chkist  in  holv  baptism. 
 
 FALD  STOOL.  A  small  desk,  at  which 
 the  Litany  is  enjoined  to  be  sunc^  or  said. 
 It  is  <>cne'rally  placed,  in  those  churches  in 
 which  it  is  used,  in  the  middle  of  the  choir, 
 sometimes  near  the  steps  of  the  altar.  This 
 word  is  probably  derived  from  the  bar- 
 barous Latin,  falda,  a  place  shut  up,  a  fold. 
 (See  Litany.) 
 
 FALDISTORY.  The  episcopal  seat,  or 
 throne,  within  the  chancel ;  but  more  ])ar- 
 ticularly,  the  bishop's  chair,  near  the  altar, 
 mentioned  in  the  Ordination  Service,  in 
 which  he  sits,  Avhile  addressing  the  can- 
 didates for  orders,  &c. 
 
 FALL  OF  MAN.  (See  Original  Sin.) 
 The  loss  of  those  perfections  and  that  hap- 
 piness which  his  Maker  bestowed  on  man 
 at  his  creation,  for  the  transgression  of  a 
 positive  command,  given  for  the  trial  of 
 his  obedience.  This  doctrine  may  be  stated 
 in  the  language  of  our  ninth  Article : — 
 "  Original  sin  standeth  not  in  the  following 
 of  Adam,  (as  the  Pelagians  do  vainly  talk,) 
 but  it  is  the  fault  and  corruption  of  the 
 nature  of  every  man,  that  naturally  is  en- 
 ^enf/eref/ of  the  ofispring  of  Adam,  whereby 
 man  is  very  far  gone  (the  Latin  is  qiiam 
 lonf/issitne^  i.  e.  as  far  as  jwssible)  from 
 original  righteousness,  and  is  of  his  own 
 nature  inclined  to  evil,  so  that  the  flesh 
 lusteth  always  contrary  to  the  Spirit ;  and 
 therefore,  in  every  person  born  into  this 
 world,  it  deserveth  God's  wrath  and  damn- 
 ation. And  this  infection  of  nature  doth 
 remain,  yea,  in  them  that  are  regenerated, 
 whereby  the  lust  of  the  flesh,  called  in 
 Greek  (ppuvtjfxa  aapKog,  which  some  do  ex- 
 pound the  %A  isdom,  some  sensuality,  some 
 the  aff'ection,  some  the  desire  of  the  flesh, 
 is  not  subject  to  the  law  of  God.  And 
 although  there  is  no  condemnation  for 
 them  that  believe  and  are  baptized,  yet 
 the  apostle  doth  confess  that  concupiscence 
 and  lust  hath  of  itself  the  nature  of  sin." 
 
 FAMILLVRS  OF  THE  INQUISI- 
 TION. (See  Inquisition.)  In  order  to 
 support  the  cruel  proceedings  of  the  In- 
 quisition in  Spain,  great  privileges  were 
 bestowed  upon  such  of  the  nobility  as  were 
 willing  to  degrade  themselves  so  far  as  to 
 become  familiars  of  the  holy  office.  The 
 king  himself  assumed  the  title,  and  was 
 protector  of  the  order. 
 
 The  business  of  these  familiars  was  to 
 assist  in  the  apprehending  of  such  persons 
 as  were  accused,  and  to  carry  them  to 
 prison  ;  upon  which  occasion  the  unhappy 
 person  was  surrounded  by  such  a  number 
 of  these  officious  gentlemen,  that,  though 
 he  was  neither  fettered  nor  bound,  there 
 
 was  no  possibility  of  escaping  out  of  their 
 hands.  As  a  reward  of  this  base  employ- 
 ment, the  familiars  were  allowed  to  commit 
 the  most  enormous  actions,  to  debauch, 
 assassinate,  and  kill  with  impunity.  If 
 they  happened  to  be  prosecuted  for  any 
 crime,  the  Inquisition  took  upon  itself  the 
 prosecution,  and  immediately  the  familiar 
 entered  himself  as  their  prisoner ;  after 
 which  he  was  at  liberty  to  go  where  he 
 pleased,  and  act  in  all  things  as  if  he  were 
 free. 
 
 A  gentleman,  a  familiar  of  the  holy  office 
 at  Corduba,  having  killed  a  person,  the  in- 
 quisitors were  so  strongly  solicited  against 
 him,  that  they  could  not  help  condemning 
 him  pursuant  to  the  lavrs.  But  the  rest  of 
 the  gentleman  familiars  getting  a  horse 
 ready  for  him,  and  a  sum  of  money,  let 
 him  privately  out  of  prison.  Another, 
 being  put  in  prison  for  having  disputed  on 
 free-will  and  grace,  (for  which  any  other 
 person  would  have  been  punished  with  the 
 utmost  severity,)  was  only  admonished  not 
 to  argue  any  more  upon  religion,  and  pre- 
 sently set  at  liberty. — Broxu/hton. 
 
 FANATICISM.  When  men  add  to 
 enthusiasm  and  zeal  for  the  cause  which 
 they  believe  to  be  the  cause  of  truth,  a 
 hatred  of  those  who  are  opposed  to  them, 
 whether  in  politics  or  religion,  they  fall 
 into  fanaticism,  and  thus  violating  the  law 
 of  Christian  charity,  are  guilty  of  a  great 
 sin. 
 
 FARSE.  An  addition,  used  before  the 
 Reformation,  in  the  vernacular  tongue,  to 
 the  Epistle  in  Latin,  anciently  used  in  some 
 churches,  forming  an  explication  or  para- 
 phrase of  the  Latin  text,  verse  by  verse, 
 for  the  benefit  of  the  people.  The  sub- 
 deacon  first  repeated  each  verse  of  the 
 epistle  or  lectio  in  Latin,  and  two  choris- 
 ters sang  the  farse  or  explanation.  The 
 following  is  an  example  from  the  Epistle 
 with  a  farse  for  new-year's  day.  "  Good 
 people,  for  whose  salvation  God  deigned 
 to  clothe  himself  in  flesh,  and  humbly  live 
 in  a  cradle,  who  has  the  whole  world  in 
 his  hands,  render  him  sweet  thanks,  who 
 in  his  life  worked  such  wonders,  and  for 
 our  redemption  humbled  himself  even  to 
 death." — Lectio  Epistolce,  SfC.  Then  fol- 
 lows the  lesson  from  the  Epistle  of  St.  Paul 
 to  Titus,  and  then  the/arse  proceeds.  *'  St. 
 Paul  sent  this  ditty,"  &c. — See  Buryiey^s 
 History  of  3Iusic,  ii.  256. 
 
 FASTING.  (See  Abstinence  and  Fasts.) 
 Abstinence  from  food. 
 
 By  the  regulations  of  the  Church,  fasting, 
 though  not  defined  as  to  its  degree,  is  in- 
 culcated at  seasons  of  peculiar  penitence 
 and  humiliation,  as  a  valuable  auxiliary  to 
 
FASTING. 
 
 FASTS. 
 
 335 
 
 the  cultivation  of  habits  of  devotion  and 
 self-denial,  llespectinf^  its  usefulness,  there 
 does  not  appear  to  have  been  much  diver- 
 sity of  opinion  until  late  years.  Fastinj^ 
 was  customary  in  the  Church  of  God  lon«^ 
 before  the  introduction  of  Christianity,  as 
 may  be  seen  in  the  Old  Testament  Scrip- 
 tures. That  it  was  sanctioned  by  our 
 Saviour  and  his  apostles,  is  equally  plain. 
 And  that  it  was  intended  to  continue  in 
 tlie  future  Church  can  scarcely  be  ques- 
 tioned ;  for  CillilST  gave  his  disciples  par- 
 ticular instructions  respecting  it,  and  in 
 reprobating  the  abuses  of  it  among  the 
 Pharisees,  never  objects  to  its  legitimate 
 use.  He  even  declares,  that  after  his  as- 
 cension his  disciples  should  fast :  "  The 
 days  will  come  when  the  bridegroom  shall 
 be  taken  away  from  them,  and  then  they 
 shall  fast  in  those  days."  (Luke  v.  35.) 
 Accordingly,  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles 
 occur  several  notices  of  fastings  connected 
 with  religious  devotions.  St.  Paul  evi- 
 dently practised  it  with  some  degree  of 
 frequency.  (2  Cor.  xi.  27.)  He  also  recog- 
 nises the  custom,  as  known  in  the  Cor- 
 inthian Church,  and  makes  some  observa- 
 tions implying  its  continuance.  From  the 
 days  of  the  apostles  to  the  present  time, 
 fasting  has  been  regarded  under  various 
 modifications  as  a  valuable  auxiliary  to 
 ■penitence.  In  former  times.  Christians 
 were  exceedingly  strict  in  abstaining  from 
 eveiT  kind  of  food  for  nearly  the  whole  of 
 the  appointed  fast  days,  receiving  only  at 
 stated  times  what  was  actually  necessary 
 for  the  support  of  life.  At  the  season  of 
 Lent,  much  time  was  spent  in  mortifica- 
 tion and  open  confession  of  sin,  accompa- 
 nied by  those  outward  acts  which  tend  to 
 the  control  of  the  body  and  its  appetites ; 
 a  species  of  godly  discipline  still  associated 
 with  the  services  of  that  solemn  period  of 
 the  ecclesiastical  year. 
 
 In  the  practice  of  fasting,  the  intelligent 
 Christian  will  not  rest  in  the  outward  act, 
 but  regard  it  only  as  a  means  to  a  good 
 end.  All  must  acknowledge  that  this  re- 
 straint, even  upon  the  innocent  appetites 
 of  the  body,  is  eminently  beneficial  in 
 assisting  the  operations  of  the  mind.  It 
 brings  the  animal  part  of  our  nature  into 
 greater  subservience  to  the  spiritual.  It 
 tends  to  prevent  that  heaviness  and  in- 
 dolence of  the  faculties,  as  well  as  that 
 perturbation  of  the  passions,  which  often 
 proceed  from  indulgence  and  repletion  of 
 the  body.  It  is  thus  highly  useful  in 
 promoting  that  calmness  of  mind  and 
 clearness  of  thought,  which  are  so  very 
 favourable  to  meditation  and  devotion. 
 The  great   end  of  the   observance   is   to 
 
 "  afflict  the  soul,"  and  to  increase  a  genuine 
 contrition  of  heart,  and  godly  sorrow  for 
 sin.  This  being  understood,  abstinence 
 will  be  approved  of  God,  and  made  con- 
 ducive to  a  growth  in  s])iritual  life. 
 
 The  distinction  between  the  Protestant 
 and  the  llomish  view  of  fasting  is  this,  that 
 the  Koman  regards  the  use  of  fasting  as  a 
 means  of  grace ;  the  Protestant,  only  as  a 
 useful  exercise.  It  is  not  a  means  of  grace, 
 for  it  is  nowhere  ordained  as  such  in  the 
 Scri])tures  of  the  New  Testament ;  but  it  is 
 a  useful  prc})aration  for  the  means  of  grace, 
 and  as  such  the  Scriptures  have  assumed 
 that  it  will  be  resorted  to  by  Christians. 
 
 FASTS.  Those  days  which  are  ap- 
 pointed by  the  Church  as  seasons  of  absti- 
 nence and  peculiar  sorrow  for  sin.  These 
 are  the  forty  days  of  Lent,  including  Ash 
 Wednesday  and  Good  Friday  ;  the  Ember 
 days,  the  three  llogation  days,  and  all  the 
 Fridays  in  the  year,  (except  Christmas 
 Day,)  and  the  eves  or  vigils  of  certain 
 festivals. 
 
 By  Canon  72.  "No  minister  shall,  with- 
 out the  licence  and  direction  of  the  bishop 
 under  hand  and  seal,  appoint  or  keep  any 
 solemn  fasts,  either  publicly,  or  in  any 
 private  houses,  other  than  such  as  by  law 
 are,  or  by  public  authority  shall  be,  ap- 
 pointed, nor  shall  be  wittingly  present  at 
 any  of  them  ;  under  pain  of  suspension  for 
 the  first  fault,  of  excommunication  for  the 
 second,  and  of  deposition  from  the  ministry 
 for  the  third." 
 
 By  the  rubric,  the  table  of  Vigils,  Fasts, 
 and  Days  of  Abstinence  to  be  observed  in 
 the  Year,  is  as  folloAveth,  (which,  although 
 not  in  words,  yet  in  substance,  is  the  same 
 with  what  is  above  expressed  in  the  afore- 
 said statute,)  viz.  "  The  evens  or  vigils 
 before  the  Nativity  of  our  Lord,  the  Puri- 
 fication of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary,  the 
 Annunciation  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  Eas- 
 ter Day,  Ascension  ])ay,  Pentecost,  St. 
 Matthias,  St.  John  Baptist,  St.  Peter,  St. 
 James,  St.  Bartholomew,  St.  Matthew,  St. 
 Simon  and  St.  Jude,  St.  Andrew,  St. 
 Thomas,  All  Saints.  And  if  any  of  these 
 feasts  fall  upon  a  Monday,  then  the  vigil 
 or  fast  day  shall  be  kept  u])on  the  Saturday, 
 and  not  upon  the  Sunday,  next  before  it." 
 (See  Fastincf.) 
 
 That  fasting  or  abstinence  from  our 
 usual  sustenance  is  a  proper  means  to  ex- 
 press sorroAV  and  grief,  and  a  fit  method 
 to  dispose  our  minds  towards  the  consider- 
 ation of  anything  that  is  serious,  nature 
 seems  to  suggest ;  and  therefore  all  nations, 
 from  ancient  times,  have  used  fasting  as  a 
 part  of  repentance,  and  as  a  means  to  avert 
 the  anger  of  God.     This  is  plain  in  the 
 
336 
 
 FASTS. 
 
 FATHERS,  THE. 
 
 case  of  the  Ninevites,  (Jonah  iii.  5,)  whose 
 notion  of  fasting,  to  appease  the  wrath  of 
 God,  seems  to  have  been  common  to  them 
 with  the  rest  of  mankind.  In  the  Okl 
 Testament,  besides  tlie  exampk^s  of  pri- 
 vate fasting  by  David,  (Ps.  Ixix.  10,)  and 
 Daniel,  (Dan.  ix.  3,)  and  others,  we  have 
 instances  of  public  lasts  observed  by  the 
 whole  nation  of  the  Jews  at  once  upon 
 solemn  occasions.  (See  Lev.  xxiii.  20,  &c. j 
 2  Chron.  xx.  3;  Ezra  viii.  21;  Jer.  xxxvi. 
 9;  Zech.  viii.  19;  Joel  i.  14.)  It  is  true 
 indeed,  in  the  New  Testament,  we  find  no 
 positive  precept,  that  expressly  requires 
 and  commands  us  to  fast ;  but  our  Saviour 
 mentions  fasting  with  almsgiving  and 
 prayer,  which  are  unquestionable  duties 
 (Matt.  vi.  1 — 18) ;  and  the  directions  he 
 gave  concerning  the  performance  of  it 
 sufficiently  suppose  its  necessity.  And  he 
 himself  was  pleased,  before  he  entered 
 upon  his  ministry,  to  give  us  an  extraor- 
 dinary example  in  his  own  person,  by  fast- 
 ing forty  days  and  forty  nights.  (Matt.  iv. 
 2.)  He  excused,  indeed,  his  disciples  from 
 fasting,  so  long  as  he,  *'  the  bridegroom, 
 was  Mith  them ; "  because  that  being  a  time 
 of  joy  and  gladness,  it  would  be  an  im- 
 proper season  for  tokens  of  sorrow ;  but 
 then  he  intimates  at  the  same  time,  that 
 though  it  was  not  fit  for  them  then,  it 
 would  yet  be  their  duty  hereafter :  for  "  the 
 days,"  says  he,  "  will  come,  when  the  bride- 
 groom shall  be  taken  from  them,  and  then 
 they  shall  fast."  (Matt.  ix.  lo.)  And  ac- 
 cordingly we  find,  that,  after  his  ascension, 
 the  duty  of  fasting  was  not  only  recom- 
 mended, (1  Cor.  vii.  5,)  but  practised  by 
 the  apostles,  as  any  one  may  see  by  the 
 texts  of  Scripture  here  referred  to.  (Acts 
 xiii.  2,  and  xiv.  23  ;  1  Cor.  ix.  27 ;  2  Cor. 
 vi.  5,  and  xi.  27.)  After  the  apostles,  we 
 find  the  primitive  Christians  very  constant 
 and  regular  in  the  observation  of  both  their 
 annual  and  weekly  fests.  Their  weekly 
 fasts  were  kept  on  Wednesdays  and  Fri- 
 days, because  on  the  one  our  Lord  was 
 betrayed,  on  the  other  crucified.  The 
 chief  of  their  annual  fasts  was  that  of  Lent, 
 which  they  observed  by  way  of  preparation 
 for  their  feast  of  Easter. 
 
 In  the  Church  of  Home,  fasting  and  ab- 
 stinence admit  of  a  distinction,  anddiftcrent 
 days  are  appointed  for  each  of  them.  But 
 I  do  not  find  that  the  Church  of  England 
 makes  any  difference  between  them.  It  is 
 true,  in  the  title  of  the  table  of  Vigils,  Sec. 
 she  mentions  "  fasts  and  days  of  absti- 
 nence "  separately ;  but  when  she  comes  to 
 enumerate  the  particulars,  she  calls  them 
 all  "  days  of  fasting  or  abstinence,"  without 
 distinguishing   the    one   from   the   other. 
 
 The  times  she  sets  apart  are  such  as  she 
 finds  to  have  been  observed  by  the  earliest 
 ages  of  the  Church. —  Wheatli/. 
 
 FATHEKS,  THE.  A  term  of  honour 
 applied  generally  to  all  the  ancient  Chris- 
 tian writers,  whose  works  were  in  good 
 repute  in  the  Church,  and  who  were  not 
 separated  from  its  communion  or  from  its 
 faith.  St.  Bernard,  who  flourished  in  the 
 twelfth  century,  is  reputed  to  be  the  last 
 of  the  Fathers.  The  Christian  theologians 
 after  his  time,  adopted  a  new  style  of 
 treating  religious  matters,  and  were  called 
 scholastics.  Those  writers  who  conversed 
 with  the  apostles  are  generally  called  apos- 
 tolical Fathers,  as  Ignatius,  &c. 
 
 Of  the  authority  of  the  Fathers,  the  Rev. 
 Geo.  Stanley  Faber  very  justly  observes  : 
 "  Among  unread  or  half-read  persons  of 
 our  present  somewhat  confident  age,  it 
 is  not  an  uncommon  saying,  that  THEY 
 disregard  the  early  Fathers  ;  and  that  THEY 
 will  abide  hy  nothing  but  the  Scriptures 
 alone.  If  by  a  disregard  of  the  early 
 Fathers,  they  mean  that  they  allow  them 
 not  individually  that  personal  authority 
 which  the  Romanists  claim  for  them,  they 
 certainly  will  not  have  7ne  for  their  oppo- 
 nent. And  accordingly  I  have  shown, 
 that  in  the  interpretation  of  the  Scripture 
 terms.  Election  and  Predestination,  I  regard 
 the  insulated  individual  authority  of  St. 
 Augustine  just  as  little  as  I  regard  the 
 insulated  individual  authority  of  Calvin. 
 
 "  But  if  by  a  disregard  of  the  early 
 Fathers,  they  mean  that  they  regard  them 
 not  as  evidence  of  the  fact  of  ivhat  doc- 
 trines were  or  were  not  received  by  the 
 primitive  Church,  and  from  her  were  or 
 were  not  delivered  to  posterity,  they  might 
 just  as  rationally  talk  of  the  surpassing 
 wisdom  of  extinguishing  the  light  of  his- 
 tory, by  Avay  of  more  effectually  improving 
 and  increasing  our  knowledge  of  past 
 events  ;  for,  in  truth,  under  the  aspect  in 
 which  they  are  specially  important  to  us, 
 the  early  Fathers  are  neither  more  nor  less 
 than  so  many  historical  witnesses. 
 
 "  And  if,  by  an  abiding  solely  by  the 
 decision  of  Scripture,  they  mean  that,  ut- 
 terly disregarding  the  recorded  doctrinal 
 system  of  that  primitive  Church  which 
 conversed  with,  and  was  taught  by,  the 
 apostles,  they  will  abide  by  nothing  save 
 their  own  crude  and  arbitrary  private  ex- 
 positions of  Scripture  ;  we  certainly  may 
 well  admire  their  intrepidity,  whatever  we 
 may  think  of  their  modesty  ;  for  in  truth, 
 by  such  a  plan,  while  they  call  u])on  us  to 
 despise  the  sentiments  of  Christian  anti- 
 quity, so  far  as  we  can  learn  them,  upon 
 distinct  historical  testimony,  they  expect 
 
FEASTS. 
 
 337 
 
 us  to  receive,  without  hesitation,  and  as 
 undoubted  verities,  their  own  more  modern 
 upstart  speculations  upon  the  sense  of 
 God's  holy  word  ;  that  is  to  say,  the  evi- 
 dence of  the  early  Fathers,  and  the  herme- 
 neutic  decisions  of  the  primitive  Church, 
 we  may  laudably  and  profitably  contemn, 
 but  themselves  we  must  receive  (for  they 
 themselves  are  content  to  receive  them- 
 selves) as  well  nif>h  certain  and  infollible 
 expositors  of  Scripture." 
 
 The  Apostolic  Fathers  are  those  writers 
 of  the  apostolic  age,  whose  names  are 
 given  to  certain  treatises  still  extant ; 
 though  some  of  them  are  spurious.  These 
 were  Barnabas,  Clement,  Hernias,  Igna- 
 tius, and  Polycarp. 
 
 FEASTS,  FESTIVALS,  or  HOLY- 
 DAYS.  Amon^  the  earliest  means  adopt- 
 ed by  the  holy  Church  for  the  purpose  of 
 impressing  on  the  minds  of  her  children 
 the  mysterious  facts  of  the  gospel  history, 
 was  the  appointment  of  a  train  of  anni- 
 versaries and  holy-days,  with  appropriate 
 services  commemorative  of  all  the  promi- 
 nent transactions  of  the  lledeemcr's  life 
 and  death,  and  of  the  labours  and  virtues 
 of  the  blessed  apostles  and  evangelists. 
 These  institutions,  so  replete  with  hallowed 
 associations,  have  descended  to  our  own 
 day  ;  and  the  observance  of  them  is  com- 
 mended by  the  assent  of  every  discerning 
 and  unprejudiced  mind,  and  is  sustained  by 
 the  very  constitution  of  our  nature,  which 
 loves  to  preserve  the  annual  memory  of 
 important  events,  and  is  in  the  highest 
 degree  reasonable,  delightful,  profitable, 
 and  devout. 
 
 There  is  something  truly  admirable  in 
 the  order  and  succession  of  these  holy- 
 days.  The  Church  begins  her  ecclesiastical 
 year  with  the  Sundays  in  Advent,  to  re- 
 mind us  of  the  coming  of  Christ  in  the 
 flesh.  After  these,  we  are  brought  to 
 contemplate  the  mystery  of  the  incarna- 
 tion ;  and  so,  step  by  step,  we  follow  the 
 Church  through  all  the  events  of  our  Sa- 
 viour's pilgrimage,  to  his  ascension  into 
 heaven.  In  all  this  the  grand  object  is  to 
 keep  Christ  perpetually  before  us,  to 
 make  him  and  his  doctrine  the  chief  object 
 in  all  our  varied  services.  Every  Sunday 
 has  its  peculiar  character,  and  has  refer- 
 ence to  some  act  or  scene  in  the  life  of  our 
 Lord,  or  the  redemption  achieved  by  him, 
 or  the  mystery  of  mercy  carried  on  by  the 
 blessed  Trinity.  Thus  every  year  brings 
 the  whole  gospel  history  to  view ;  and  it 
 will  be  found  as  a  general  rule,  that  the 
 appointed  portions  of  Scripture,  in  each 
 day's  service,  are  mutually  illustrative ; 
 the  New  Testament  casting  light  on  the 
 z 
 
 Old,  prophecy  being  admirably  brought  in 
 contact  with  its  accomplishment,  so  that 
 no  plan  could  be  devised  for  a  more  pro- 
 fitable course  of  Scri])ture  reading  than 
 that  })resented  by  the  Church  on  her  holy- 
 days. 
 
 The  objections  against  the  keeping  of 
 holy-days  are  such  as  these.  St.  Paul 
 says,  "  Ye  observe  days,  and  months,  and 
 times,  and  years."  This  occurs  in  the 
 J^.pistle  to  the  Galatians.  Again,  in  the 
 E])istle  to  the  Colossians,  "  Let  no  man 
 judge  you  in  respect  of  a  holy-day,"  &c. 
 From  these  it  is  argued,  that  as  we  are 
 brought  into  the  liberty  of  the  gospel,  we 
 are  no  longer  bound  to  the  observance  of 
 holy-days,  which  are  but  "  beggarly  ele- 
 ments." Respecting  the  first,  it  is  sur- 
 prising that  no  one  has  "  conscientiously  " 
 drawn  from  it  an  inference  for  the  neglect 
 of  the  civil  division  of  time  ;  and  in  rela- 
 tion to  both,  it  requires  only  an  attentive 
 reading  of  the  P^pistles  from  which  they  are 
 taken,  to  see  that  they  have  no  more  con- 
 nexion with  the  holy-days  of  the  Church 
 than  M'ith  episcopacy.  The  apostle  is 
 warning  the  Gentile  Christians  to  beware 
 of  the  attempts  of  Judaizing  teachers  to 
 subvert  their  faith.  It  was  the  aim  of 
 these  to  bring  the  converts  under  the  ob- 
 ligations of  the  Jewish  ritual,  and  some 
 progress  appears  to  have  been  made  in 
 their  attempts.  St.  Paul,  therefore,  re- 
 minds them  that  these  were  but  the  shadow 
 of  good  things  to  come,  while  Christ  was 
 the  Body.  The  passages  therefore  have 
 no  relevancy  to  the  question ;  or  if  they 
 have,  they  show  that  while  Christians 
 abandoned  the  Jewish  festivals,  they  were 
 to  observe  their  oivn.  If  they  were  to  for- 
 sake the  shadoiv,  they  were  to  cleave  to 
 the  substance.  It  should  moreover  be  re- 
 membered, that  they  apply  to  the  Lord's 
 day  no  less  than  other  holy-days  ap- 
 pointed by  the  Church.  To  observe  "  Sab- 
 baths," is  as  much  forbidden  as  aught  else. 
 And  it  is  but  one  of  the  many  inconsisten- 
 cies of  the  Genevan  doctrine  with  Scrip- 
 ture, that  it  enjoins  a  judaical  observance 
 of  Sunday,  and  contemns  a  Christian  ob- 
 servance of  days  hallowed  in  the  Church's 
 history,  and  by  gratitude  to  the  glorious 
 company  of  the  apostles,  the  noble  army 
 of  martyrs,  and  the  illustrious  line  of  con- 
 fessors and  saints,  who  have  been  baptized 
 in  tears  and  blood  for  Jksu's  sake. 
 
 Again  ;  if  we  keep  holy-days,  we  are  said 
 to  favour  Romanism.  ]kit  these  days  were 
 hallowed  long  before  corruption  was  known 
 in  the  lioman  Church.  And  waiving  this, 
 let  it  be  remembered,  that  we  are  accus- 
 tomed to  judge  of  things  by  their  intrinsic 
 
338 
 
 FEASTS 
 
 Avorth,  and  the  main  point  to  be  deter- 
 mined is,  whether  they  are  rujht  or  tvro7i(j. 
 If  they  are  right,  we  receive  them ;  and  if 
 they  are  not  right,  we  reject  them,  whether 
 they  are  received  by  the  Church  of  Rome 
 or  not. 
 
 llubric  before  the  Common  Prayer.  "  A 
 Table  of  all  the  Feasts  that  are  to  be  ob- 
 served in  the  Church  of  England  through- 
 out the  Year  :  All  Sundays  in  the  year,  the 
 Circumcision  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ, 
 the  Epiphany,  the  Conversion  of  St.  Paul, 
 the  Purification  of  the  Blessed  Vu-gin,  St. 
 Matthias  the  Apostle,  the  Annunciation 
 of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  St.  ^Nlark  the  Evan- 
 gelist, St.  Philip  and  St.  James  the  Apos- 
 tles, the  Ascension  of  our  Lord  Jesus 
 Christ,  St.  Barnabas,  the  Nativity  of  St. 
 John  Baptist,  St.  Peter  the  Apostle,  St. 
 James  the  Apostle,  St.  Bartholomew  the 
 Apostle,  St.  Matthew  the  Apostle,  St. 
 Michael  and  all  Angels,  St.  Luke  the 
 Evangelist,  St.  Simon  and  St.  Jude  the 
 Apostles,  All  Saints,  St.  Andrew  the  Apos- 
 tle, St.  Thomas  the  Apostle,  the  Nativity 
 of  our  Lord,  St.  Stephen  the  Martp,  St. 
 John  the  Evangelist,  the  Holy  Innocents, 
 Monday  and  Tuesday  in  Easter  week, 
 Monday  and  Tuesday  in  Whitsun  week." 
 
 Rubric  after  the  Nicene  Creed.  "  The 
 curate  shall  then  declare  to  the  people  Avhat 
 holy-days  or  fasting  days  are  in  the  week 
 folloM'ing  to  be  observed." 
 
 Canon  64.  *'  Every  parson,  vicar,  or 
 curate  shall,  in  his  several  charge,  declare 
 to  the  people  every  Sunday,  at  the  time 
 appointed  in  the  communion  book,  whether 
 there  be  any  holy-days  or  fasting  days  the 
 week  following.  And  if  any  do  hereafter 
 wittingly  offend  herein,  and  being  once 
 admonished  thereof  by  his  ordinary,  shall 
 again  omit  that  duty,  let  him  be  censured 
 according  to  law,  until  he  submit  himself 
 to  the  due  performance  of  it." 
 
 Canon  13.  "All  manner  of  persons 
 within  the  Church  of  England  shall  from 
 henceforth  celebrate  and  keep  the  Lord's 
 day,  commonly  called  Sunday,  and  other 
 holy-days,  according  to  God's  Avill  and 
 pleasure,  and  the  orders  of  the  Church  of 
 England  prescribed  on  that  behalf;  that 
 is,  in  hearing  the  word  of  GoD  read  and 
 taught,  in  private  and  public  prayers,  in 
 acknowledging  their  offences  to  GoD  and 
 amendment  of  the  same,  in  reconciling 
 themselves  charitably  to  their  neighbours 
 where  displeasure  hath  been,  in  oftentimes 
 receiving  the  communion  of  the  body  and 
 blood  of  Christ,  in  visiting  of  the  poor 
 and  sick,  using  all  godly  and  sober  con- 
 versation." 
 
 Canon  14.     ''The  Common  Prayer  shall 
 
 be  said  or  sung,  distinctly  and  revereniiv, 
 upon  such  days  as  are  appointed  to  be 
 kept  holy  by  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer, 
 and  their  eves." 
 
 Time  is  a  circumstance  no  less  insepar- 
 able from  religious  actions  and  place  ;  for 
 man,  consisting  of  a  soul  and  body,  cannot 
 ahvays  be  actually  engaged  in  the  service 
 of  God  :  that's  the  privilege  of  angels,  and 
 souls  freed  from  the  fetters  of  mortality. 
 So  long  as  we  are  here,  we  must  worship 
 God  with  respect  to  our  present  state,  and 
 consequently  of  necessity  have  some  defi- 
 nite and  particular  time  to  do  it  in.  Now, 
 that  man  might  not  be  left  to  a  floating 
 uncertainty,  in  a  matter  of  so  great  im- 
 portance, in  all  ages  and  nations,  men  have 
 been  guided  by  the  very  dictates  of  nature, 
 to  pitch  upon  some  certain  seasons,  wherein 
 to  assemble,  and  meet  together,  to  perform 
 the  public  offices  of  religion. —  Cave's  Prim. 
 Christianity  ;  and  see  this  same  sentiment, 
 and  the  subject  excellently  treated,  in  Nel- 
 sun's  Festivals  and  Fads, — the  Preliminary 
 Instructions  concerning  Festivals. 
 
 This  sanctification,  or  setting  apart,  of 
 festival  days,  is  a  token  of  that  thank- 
 fulness, and  a  part  of  that  public  honour, 
 w^hich  we  owe  to  God,  for  his  admirable 
 benefits  ;  and  these  days  or  feasts  set  apart 
 are  of  excellent  use,  being,  as  learned 
 Hooker  observes,  the  1.  Splendour  and 
 outward  dignity  of  our  religion  ;  2.  Forci- 
 ble witnesses  of  ancient  truth ;  3.  Pro- 
 vocations to  the  exercise  of  all  piety ;  4. 
 Shadows  of  our  endless  felicity  in  heaven ;  5. 
 On  earth,  everlasting  records,  teaching  by 
 the  eye  in  a  manner  whatsoever  we  believe. 
 
 And  concerning  particulars :  as,  that 
 the  Jews  had  the  sabbath,  which  did  con- 
 tinually bring  to  mind  the  former  world 
 finished  by  creation ;  so  the  Christian 
 Church  hath  her  Lord's  days,  or  Sundays, 
 to  keep  us  in  perpetual  remembrance  of  a 
 far  better  world,  begun  by  him  who  came 
 to  restore  all  things,  to  make  heaven  and 
 earth  new.  The  rest  of  the  holy  festivals 
 which  we  celebrate,  have  relation  all  to 
 one  head,  Christ.  AVe  begin  therefore 
 our  ecclesiastical  year  (as  to  some  accounts, 
 though  not  as  to  the  order  of  our  services) 
 with  the  glorious  annunciation  of  his  birth 
 by  angelical  message.  Hereunto  are  added 
 his  blessed  nativity  itself,  the  mystery  of 
 his  legal  circumcision,  the  testification  of 
 his  true  incarnation  by  the  purification  of 
 his  blessed  mother  the  Virgin  Mary ;  his 
 glorious  resurrection  and  ascension  into 
 heaven  ;  the  admirable  sending  down  of 
 his  Spirit  upon  his  chosen. 
 
 Again,  forasmuch  as  we  know  that 
 Christ   hath  not   only  been  manifested 
 
FEASTS. 
 
 FIVE  POINTS. 
 
 339 
 
 great  in  himself,  but  great  in  other,  his 
 saints  also ;  the  days  of  whose  departure 
 out  of  this  world  are  to  the  Church  of 
 Christ  as  the  bii-th  and  coronation  days 
 of  kings  or  emperors  ;  therefore,  special 
 choice  being  made  of  the  very  liowcr  of  all 
 occasions  in  this  kind,  there  are  annual 
 selected  times  to  meditate  of  ClliilsT  glori- 
 fied in  them,  which  had  the  honour  to 
 suffer  for  his  sake,  before  they  had  age 
 and  ability  to  know  him,  namely,  the 
 blessed  Innocents  ;  —  glorified  in  them 
 which,  knowing  him,  as  St.  Stephen,  had 
 the  sight  of  that  before  death,  whereinto 
 such  acceptable  death  doth  lead ; — glorified 
 in  those  sages  of  the  East,  that  came  from 
 far  to  adore  him,  and  were  conducted  by 
 strange  light ;  —  glorified  in  the  second 
 Elias  of  the  world,  sent  before  him  to  pre- 
 jjare  his  way ; — glorified  in  every  of  those 
 apostles,  whom  it  pleased  him  to  use  as 
 founders  of  his  kingdom  here ; — glorified 
 in  the  angels,  as  in  St.  Michael ; — glorified 
 in  all  those  happy  souls  already  possessed 
 of  bliss. — Sparioic's  Rationale. 
 
 In  the  injunctions  of  King  Henry  VIII., 
 and  the  convocation  of  the  clergy,  A.  D. 
 1536,  it  was  ordered,  that  all  the  people 
 might  freely  go  to  their  work  upon  all 
 holidays  usually  before  kept,  which  fell 
 either  in  the  time  of  harvest,  (counted  from 
 the  1st  day  of  July  to  the  29th  of  Sep- 
 tember,) or  in  any  time  of  the  four  terms, 
 when  the  king's  judges  sat  at  Westminster. 
 But  these  holidays  (in  our  book  mentioned) 
 are  specially  excepted,  and  commanded 
 to  be  kept  holy  by  every  man. — CosiWs 
 Notes. 
 
 By  statute  5  &  6  Edward  VI.  ch.  3, 
 it  was  provided,  that  it  should  be  "  law- 
 ful for  every  husbandman,  labourer,  fisher- 
 man, and  every  other  person  of  what 
 estate,  degree,  or  condition  they  be,  vipon 
 the  holidays  aforesaid,  in  harvest,  or  at 
 any  other  time  in  the  year  when  necessity 
 shall  require,  to  labour,  ride,  fish,  or  work 
 any  kind  of  work,  at  their  free  wills  and 
 pleasure."  This  was  repealed  by  Queen 
 Mary,  but  revived  by  James  I.  Queen 
 Elizabeth,  in  the  mean  while,  however, 
 declared  in  her  "  injunctions,"  that  the 
 people  might  "  with  a  safe  and  quiet  con- 
 science, after  their  common  prayer,"  (which 
 was  then  at  an  early  hour,)  "  in  the  time 
 of  harvest,  labour  upon  the  holy  and  fes- 
 tival days,  and  save  that  thing  which  God 
 hath  sent." 
 
 The  moveable  feasts  arc  those  which 
 depend  upon  Easter,  and  consequently  do 
 not  occur  on  the  same  day  every  year. 
 There  are,  besides  Easter,  the  Sundays 
 after  the  Epiphanv,  Septuagesima  Sundav, 
 '    z  2 
 
 the  first  day  of  Lent,  Rogation  Sunday, 
 (i.  e.  the  Sunday  before  the  Ascension,) 
 Ascension  Day,  AYhitsunday,  Trinity  Sun- 
 day, the  Sundays  after  Trinity,  and  Advent 
 Sunday. 
 
 FELLOWSHIP.  An  establishment  in 
 one  of  the  colleges  of  an  university,  or  in 
 one  of  the  few  colleges  not  belonging  to 
 universities,  with  a  share  of  its  reve- 
 nues. 
 
 FEUILLANS.  A  congregation  of  monks, 
 settled  towards  the  end  of  the  loth  cen- 
 tury, by  John  de  la  Barriere ;  he  was  a 
 Cistercian,  and  the  ])lan  of  his  new  congre- 
 gation was  a  kind  of  a  reformation  of  that 
 order.  His  method  of  refining  upon  the 
 old  constitution  was  approved  of  by  Pope 
 Sixtus  V.  ;  the  Feuillantines  are  nuns, 
 who  followed  the  same  reformation. 
 
 FIFTH  MONARCHY  MEN  were  a 
 set  of  enthusiasts  in  the  time  of  Cromwell, 
 who  expected  the  sudden  appearance  of 
 Christ  to  establish  on  earth  a  new  mon- 
 archy or  kingdom. 
 
 FILIATION  OF  THE  SON  OF  GOD. 
 (See  Getiercitio)t,  Eternal.) 
 
 FINIAL,  (in  church  architecture,)  more 
 anciently  Crop.  The  termination  of  a 
 pinnacle,  spire,  pediment,  or  ogced  hood- 
 mould.  Originally  the  term  was  applied 
 to  the  whole  pimiacle. 
 
 FIRST  FRUITS  were  an  act  of  si- 
 mony, invented  by  the  pope,  who,  during 
 the  period  of  his  usurpation  over  our 
 Church,  bestowed  benefices  of  the  Church 
 of  England  upon  foreigners,  upon  con- 
 dition that  the  first  year's  produce  was 
 given  to  him,  for  the  regaining  of  the  Holy 
 Land,  or  for  some  similar  pretence :  next, 
 he  prevailed  on  spiritual  patrons  to  oblige 
 their  clergy  to  pay  them  ;  and  at  last  he 
 claimed  and  extorted  them  from  those  who 
 were  presented  by  the  king  or  his  tem- 
 poral subjects.  The  first  Protestant  king, 
 Henry  VIII. ,  took  the  first  fruits  from  the 
 pope,  but  instead  of  restoring  them  to  the 
 Church,  vested  them  in  the  Crown.  Queen 
 Anne  restored  them  to  the  Church,  not  by 
 remitting  them  entirely,  but  by  applying 
 these  superfluities  of  the  larger  benefices 
 to  make  up  the  deficiencies  of  the  smaller. 
 To  this  end  she  granted  her  royal  charter, 
 whereby  all  the  revenue  of  first  fruits  and 
 tenths  is  vested  in  trustees  for  ever,  to 
 form  a  perpetual  fund  for  the  augmentation 
 of  small  livings.  This  is  usually  called 
 Queen  Anne's  Bounty.     (See  Annates.) 
 
 FIVE  POINTS  (see  Arminians  and 
 Calrinism)  are  tlie  five  doctrines  contro- 
 verted between  the  Arminians  and  Calvin- 
 ists;  relating  to,  1.  Particular  Election  ;  2. 
 Particular  Redemption  ;  3.  floral  Inability 
 
340 
 
 FLAGELLANTS, 
 
 FONT. 
 
 in  a  Fallen  State  ;  4.  Irresistible  Grace ; 
 and  5.  Final  Perseverance  of  the  Saints. 
 
 FLAGELLANTS.     A   name  given,  in 
 the  13th  century,  to  a  sect  of  people  among 
 the  Christians,  who  made  a  profession  of 
 disciplining  themselves:  it  was  begun  in 
 1260,  at  Perugia,  by  Rainerus,  a  hermit, 
 who  exhorted   people  to  do  penance  for 
 their  sins,  and  had  a  great  number  of  fol- 
 lowers.    In  1349,  they  spread  themselves 
 over  all  Poland,  Germany,  France,  Italy, 
 and  England,  carrying    a  cross    in   their 
 hands,  a  cowl  upon  their  heads,  and  going 
 naked  to  the  waist ;  they  lashed  themselves 
 twice  a  day,  and  once  in  the  night,  with 
 knotted  cords  stuck  with  points  of  pins, 
 and  then  lay  grovelling  upon  the  ground, 
 crying  out  mercy  :  from  this  extravagance 
 they  fell  into  a  gross  heresy,  affirming  that 
 their  blood  united  in  such  a  manner  with 
 Christ's  that  it  had  the  same  virtue  ;  that 
 after  thirty  days'  whipping  they  were  ac- 
 quitted from  the  guilt  and  punishment  of 
 sin,  so  that  they  cared  not  for  the  sacra- 
 ments.     They  '  persuaded    the     common 
 people  that   the  gospel  had   ceased,  and 
 allowed  all  sorts  of  perjuries.     The  frenzy 
 lasted  a   long   time,  notwithstanding  the 
 censures  of  the  Church,  and  the  edicts  of 
 princes,  for  their  suppression. 
 
 FLAGON.  A  vessel  used  to  contain 
 the  wine,  before  and  at  the  consecration, 
 in  the  holy  eucharist.  In  the  marginal 
 rubric  in  the  prayer  of  consecration,  the 
 priest  is  ordered  "  to  lay  his  hand  upon 
 every  vessel  (be  it  chalice  or  flagon)  in 
 which  there  is  any  wine  to  be  consecrated," 
 but  in  the  same  prayer  he  is  told  to  take 
 the  cup  only  in  his  hand ;  and  the  rubric 
 before  the  form  of  administering  the  cup 
 stands  thus,  "  the  minister  that  delivereth 
 the  cup."  The  distinction  then  between 
 the  flagon  and  the  cup  or  chalice  will  be, 
 that  the  latter  is  the  vessel  in  which  the 
 consecrated  wine  is  administered ;  the 
 flagon,  that  in  which  some  of  the  wine  is 
 placed  for  consecration,  if  there  be  more 
 than  one  vessel  used. 
 
 FLORID  STYLE  OF  GOTHIC  AR- 
 CHITECTURE. The  later  division  of 
 the  Perpendicular  style,  which  prevailed 
 chiefly  during  the  Tudor  tera,  and  is  often 
 called  the  Tudor  stvle. 
 
 FLOWERS.  Strewing  with  flowers  is 
 a  very  simple  and  most  innocent  method 
 of  ornamenting  the  Christian  altar,  which 
 is  enjohied  indeed  by  no  laM',  but  which  is 
 sanctioned  by  the  custom  of  some  churches 
 in  this  kingdom,  in  which  also  the  Pro- 
 testant churches  in  Germany  agree.  This 
 way  of  bringing  in  the  very  smallest  of 
 God's  works  to  praise  him  is  extremely 
 
 ancient,  and  is  several  times  alluded  to  by 
 the  Fathers ;  especially  by  St.  Jerome, 
 who  does  not  think  it  unworthy  a  place  in 
 the  panegyric  of  his  friend  Nepotian,  that 
 his  pious  care  for  the  Divine  worship  was 
 such  that  he  made  flowers  of  many  kinds, 
 and  the  leaves  of  trees,  and  the  branches 
 of  the  vine,  contribute  to  the  beauty  and 
 ornament  of  the  church.  These  things, 
 says  St.  Jerome,  were,  indeed,  but  trifling 
 in  themselves ;  but  a  pious  mind,  devoted 
 to  Christ,  is  intent  upon  small  things  as 
 well  as  great,  and  neglects  nothing  that 
 pertains  even  to  the  meanest  office  of  the 
 Church.  This  custom  has  been  immemo- 
 rially  observed  in  some  English  churches. 
 It  has  also  been  the  custom  in  some  places, 
 on  Easter  morning  to  adorn  with  flowers 
 the  graves  of  those  at  least  who  died  within 
 the  year. 
 
 FONT.     {Fons,  a  fountain.)     The  vase 
 or  basin  at  which  persons  seeking  regener- 
 ation are  baptized.     The  rites  of  baptism 
 in  the  first  times  were  performed  in  foun- 
 tains and  rivers,  both  because  their  con- 
 verts were  many,  and  because  those  ages 
 were  unprovided  with  other  baptisteries. 
 "\Ve  have  no  other  remainder  of  this  rite 
 but  the  name  :  for  hence  it  is  that  we  call 
 our  baptisteries  "  Fonts,"  which,  when  re- 
 ligion found  peace,  were  built  and  conse- 
 crated for  the  more  reverence  and  respect 
 of  the  sacrament.     These  were  placed  at 
 first  at  some  distance  from  the  church ; 
 (see  Baptistery  ;)  afterwards  in  the  church 
 porch,  and  that  significantly,  because  bap- 
 tism is  the  entrance  into  the  Church  mys- 
 tical, as  the  porch  of  the  temple.     At  last 
 they  were  introduced  into  the  church  it- 
 self, being  placed  at  the  west  end,  near  the 
 south  entrance.     They  were  not  admitted 
 in  the  first  instance  into  every  church,  but 
 into  the  cathedral  of  the  diocese,  thence 
 called  "  the  mother   church,"    because  it 
 gave  spiritual  birth  by  baptism.     After- 
 wards   they    were  introduced   into   rural 
 churches.     Wheresoever  they  stood,  they 
 were  always  held  in  high  estimation  by 
 true  Christians.     A  font  preserved  in  the 
 royal  jewel-house,  and  formerly  used  for 
 the   baptism  of  the  infants  of  the  royal 
 family,  was   of  silver.     In  England,   the 
 fonts  are  generally  placed  near  the  west 
 door,  or  south-western  porch. 
 
 Edm.  "  There  shall  be  a  font  of  stone  or 
 other  competent  material  in  every  church, 
 which  shall  be  decently  covered  and  kept, 
 and  not  converted  to  other  uses.  And 
 the  water  wherein  the  child  shall  be  bap- 
 tized shall  not  be  kept  above  seven  days 
 in  the  font." 
 
 By  Canon  81.  "According  to  a  former 
 
FORMATS. 
 
 FORMS  OF  PRAYER. 
 
 311 
 
 constitution,  too  much  ncfi^lectcd  in  many 
 places,  there  shall  be  a  font  of  stone  in 
 every  church  and  chapel  where  baptism  is 
 to  be  ministered,  the  same  to  be  set  in  the 
 ancient  usual  places ;  in  which  only  font 
 the  minister  shall  baptize  publicly." 
 
 "  When  there  are  children  to  be  bap- 
 tized, the  parents  shall  give  knowledge 
 thereof  over-night,  or  in  the  morning  be- 
 fore the  beginning  of  morning  prayer,  to 
 the  curate.  And  then  the  godfathers  and 
 godmothers,  and  the  people  with  the  chil- 
 dren, must  be  ready  at  the  font,  either  im- 
 mediately after  the  last  lesson  at  morning 
 prayer,  or  else  immediately  after  the  last 
 lesson  at  evening  prayer,  as  the  curate  by 
 his  discretion  shall  appoint.  And  the 
 priest  coming  to  the  font,  (which  is  then 
 to  be  filled  with  pure  water,)  and  standing 
 there,  shall  say." — Rubric  to  the  Ministra- 
 tion of  Public  Baptism  of  Infants,  to  be 
 used  in  Church. 
 
 In  which  rubric  it  may  be  observed, 
 that  there  is  no  note  of  a  pewter,  crockery, 
 wedgewood,  or  other  such  like  basin  with- 
 in the  font,  to  hold  the  water,  which  the 
 carelessness  or  irreverence  of  some  has 
 permitted  of  late ;  but  that  the  font  is  to 
 be  filled  with  pure  water :  and  also  that  it 
 is  then  to  be  filled,  and  not  just  at  the 
 convenience  of  the  clerk  at  any  time  pre- 
 vious ;  the  like  reverence  being  shown 
 herein  as  in  the  parallel  order  about  the 
 elements  in  the  other  holy  sacrament, 
 *'  The  priest  shall  then  place  upon  the 
 table,"  &c. 
 
 "And  if  they  shall  be  found  fit,  then 
 the  godfathers  and  godmothers  (the  people 
 being  assembled  upon  the  Sunday  or  holy- 
 day  appointed)  shall  be  ready  to  present 
 them  at  the  font,  immediately  after  the 
 second  lesson,  either  at  morning  or  even- 
 ing prayer,  as  the  curate  in  his  discretion 
 shall  think  fit." 
 
 "  Then  shall  the  priest  take  each  person 
 to  be  baptized  by  the  right  hand,  and 
 placing  him  conveniently  by  the  font,  ac- 
 cording to  his  discretion,  shall  ask  the 
 godfathers  and  godmothers  the  name  ?  and 
 then  shall  dip  him  in  the  water,  or  pour 
 water  upon  him,  saying." — Rubrics  in  the 
 3Iinistration  of  Baptism  to  such  as  are  of 
 Riper  Years. 
 
 FORMATS.     (See  LitercB  Formats.) 
 
 FORMS  OF  PRAYER,  /or  Special 
 Occasions.  Besides  the  great  festivals  and 
 fasts  of  the  Church  universal,  there  will 
 be,  in  each  Church,  continually  recumng 
 occasions  of  thanksgiving  or  humiliation, 
 and  some  events  of  importance,  which 
 ought  to  be  thus  celebrated,  and  for  which 
 forms  of  prayer    will  be  accordingly  ap- 
 
 pointed by  competent  authority.  The 
 days  thus  set  apart  in  the  Church  of  Eng- 
 land for  the  celebration  of  great  events  in 
 our  history  are  four  :  the  5th  of  Novem- 
 ber, the  30th  of  January,  the  29th  of 
 May,  and  the  20th  of  June,  the  reasons 
 for  which  are  thus  set  forth  in  the  several 
 titles  to  the  services  enjoined  on  those 
 days : — 
 
 '*  A  Form  of  Prayer  with  Thanksgiving,  to 
 be  used  yearly  upon  the  5th  day  of  No- 
 vember, for  the  happy  deliverance  of 
 King  James  I.,  and  the  three  estates 
 of  England,  from  the  most  traitorous 
 and  bloody-intended  massacre  by  gun- 
 powder. And  also  for  the  happy  ar- 
 rival of  his  Majesty  King  William  on 
 this  day,  for  the  deliverance  of  our 
 Church  and  nation." 
 
 "  A  Form  of  Prayer  with  Fasting,  to  be 
 used  yearly  on  the  30th  of  January, 
 being  the  day  of  the  martyrdom  of  the 
 blessed  King  Charles  the  First ;  to  im- 
 plore the  mercy  of  God,  that  neither 
 the  guilt  of  that  sacred  and  innocent 
 blood,  nor  those  other  sins,  by  which 
 God  was  provoked  to  deliver  up  both 
 us  and  our  king  into  the  hands  of  cruel 
 and  unreasonable  men,  may  at  any  time 
 hereafter  be  visited  upon  us  or  our  pos- 
 terity." 
 
 "  A  Form  of  Prayer  with  Thanksgiving  to 
 Almighty  GoD,  for  having  put  an  end 
 to  the  great  Rebellion,  by  the  restitu- 
 tion of  the  king  and  royal  family,  and 
 the  restoration  of  the  government,  after 
 many  years'  interruption ;  which  un- 
 speakable mercies  were  wonderfully 
 completed  upon  the  29th  of  May,  in  the 
 year  1660.  And  in  memory  thereof 
 that  day  in  every  year  is  by  act  of  par- 
 liament appointed  to  be  for  ever  kept 
 holy." 
 
 "  A  Form  of  Prayer  with  Thanksgiving  to 
 Almighty  God,  to  be  used  in  all  churches 
 and  chapels  within  this  realm,  every 
 year,  upon  the  20th  day  of  June,  being 
 the  day  on  which  her  Majesty  began  her 
 happy  reign." 
 
 '\Mien  passing  events,  such  as  a  pesti- 
 lence, or  its  removal,  call  for  humiliation 
 or  thanksgiving,  it  is  usual  for  the  Crown 
 to  require  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury 
 to  prepare  a  form  of  prayer  for  the  occa- 
 sion, which  is  then  sent  through  the  se- 
 veral suffi-agan  bishops  to  the  clergy  in 
 their  respective  dioceses,  with  the  com- 
 mand of  the  archbishop  and  bishop  that  it 
 shall  be  used  on  certain  fixed  days,  so  long 
 as  the  occasion  shall  demand. 
 
 This  charge  would  fall  on  each  separate 
 
342 
 
 FORMULARY. 
 
 bishop,  were  the  Church  of  Enghmd  separ- 
 ated from  the  State,  and  not  distributed 
 into  provinces. 
 
 FORMULARY.  (Sec  Cummon  Prayer, 
 Liturgy.)  A  book  containing  the  rites, 
 ceremonies,  and  prescribed  forms  of  the 
 Church.  The  formulary  of  the  Church  of 
 England  is  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer. 
 
 This  may  be  a  convenient  place  to  treat 
 of  forms  of  prayer  generally. 
 
 To  the  illustrious  divines  who  conducted 
 the  reformation  of  our  Church,  in  the 
 reigns  of  Henry,  Edward,  and  Elizabeth, 
 any  abstract  objections  to  a  prescribed 
 form  of  prayer  seem  never  to  have  oc- 
 cun-ed,  for  these  were  all  the  inventions 
 of  a  later  period.  Ridiculous  it  would  be, 
 if  we  were  going  to  adckess  a  human  so- 
 vereign, to  permit  one  of  our  number  to 
 utter  in  the  royal  presence  any  unpre- 
 meditated words,  which  might  chance 
 at  the  time  to  come  into  his  head  ;  and  not 
 less  ridiculous, — if  it  be  alloAvable  to  use 
 such  an  expression  under  such  cii'cum- 
 stances, — would  they  have  thought  it  to 
 permit  the  priest  to  offer  at  the  footstool 
 of  the  King  of  kings,  a  petition  in  the 
 name  of  the  Church,  of  which  the  Church 
 had  no  previous  cognizance  ;  to  require 
 the  people  to  say  "  Amen  "  to  prayers  they 
 had  never  considered,  or  to  offer  as  joint 
 prayers  what  they  had  never  agreed  to 
 offer. 
 
 But,  as  has  been  observed,  it  was  not 
 upon  the  abstract  question  that  they  were 
 called  to  decide.  In  their  Church,  the 
 Church  of  England,  when  they  were  ap- 
 pointed to  preside  over  it,  they  found  pre- 
 scribed forms  of  prayer  in  use.  They 
 were  not  rash  innovators,  who  thought 
 that  whatever  is  must  be  wrong ;  but,  on 
 the  contrary,  they  regarded  the  fact  that 
 a  thing  was  already  established  as  an  argu- 
 ment a  2)riori  in  its  favour  ;  and  therefore 
 they  would  only  have  inquired,  whether 
 prescribed  forms  of  prayer  were  contrary 
 to  Scripture,  if  such  an  inquiry  had  been 
 necessary.  "We  say,  if  such  an  inquiry  had 
 been  necessary,  because  the  slightest  ac- 
 quaintance with  Scripture  must  at  once 
 have  convinced  them  that  contrary  to 
 Scripture  could  not  be  that  practice,  for 
 which  we  can  plead  the  precedent  of 
 Moses  and  Miriam,  and  the  daughters  of 
 Israel,  of  Aaron  and  his  sons  when  they 
 blessed  the  people,  of  Deborah  and  Barak  ; 
 when  the  practice  was  even  more  directly 
 sanctioned  by  the  Holy  Ghost  at  the  time 
 he  inspired  David  and  the  psalmists  ;  for 
 what  are  the  psalms  but  an  inspired  form 
 of  prayer  for  the  use  of  the  Church  under 
 the   gospel,    as  well  as  under    the    law? 
 
 The  services  of  the  synagogue,  too,  it  is 
 well  known,  were  conducted  according  to 
 a  prescript  form.  To  those  services  -our 
 blessed  Lord  did  himself  conform :  and 
 severely  as  he  reproved  the  Jews  for  their 
 departure,  in  various  particulars,  from  the 
 principles  of  their  fathers,  against  their 
 practice  in  this  particular  never  did  he 
 utter  one  word  of  censure ;  nay,  he  con- 
 firmed  the  practice,  when  he  himself  gave 
 to  his  disciples  a  form  of  prayer,  and 
 framed  that  prayer  too  on  the  model,  and 
 in  some  degree  in  the  very  words,  of 
 prayers  then  in  use.  Our  Lord,  more- 
 over, when  giving  his  directions  to  the 
 rulers  of  his  Church,  at  the  same  time  that 
 he  conferred  on  them  authority  to  bind 
 and  to  loose,  directed  them  to  agree 
 touching  what  they  should  ask  for,  which 
 seems  almost  to  convey  an  injunction  to 
 the  rulers  of  every  particular  Church  to 
 provide  their  people  with  a  form  of  prayer. 
 The  fact  that  we  find  this  injunction  in 
 Scripture,  renders  probable  the  universal 
 tradition  of  the  universal  Church,  which 
 traces  to  the  apostles,  or  apostolic  men,  the 
 four  great  liturgies,  (which  have,  in  all 
 parts  of  the  Church,  afforded  the  model 
 according  to  which  all  others  have  been 
 framed,)  and  which  affirms  that  the  apos- 
 tles instituted  a  form  of  worship  wherever 
 they  established  a  Church.  It  would  be 
 easy,  if  the  occasion  required  it,  to  show, 
 from  a  variety  of  passages  in  holy  writ, 
 that  while  much  can  be  adduced  in  corro- 
 boration of  this  tradition,  nothinci  but  con- 
 jecture can  be  cited  against  it.  With  re- 
 spect to  those  passages  which,  referring 
 prayer  to  the  influence  of  the  Holy  Spirit 
 upon  the  soul  of  man,  are  sometimes  brought 
 forward  as  militating  against  the  adoption 
 of  a  form,  they  cannot  have  fallen  under 
 the  notice  of  our  reformers,  since  the  ap- 
 plication of  them  to  this  purpose  was  never 
 ch-eamt  of  till  about  200  years  ago,  when 
 men,  having  determined  in  their  wilfulness 
 to  reject  the  liturgy,  searched  for  every 
 possible  authority  which  might,  by  con- 
 structions the  most  forced,  support  their 
 determination ;  and  the  new  interpretation 
 they  thus  put  upon  Scripture,  may  be  con- 
 sidered as  rather  the  plea  of  their  wishes 
 than  the  verdict  of  their  conviction.  The 
 adduction,  indeed,  of  such  passages  for 
 such  a  purpose  is  a  gratuitous  assumption 
 of  the  question  in  dispute,  and  will  not  for 
 a  moment  hold  weight  in  the  balance  of 
 the  sanctuary.  According  to  the  inter- 
 pretation of  those  ancients,  whose  judg- 
 ment is  the  more  valuable  because  (living 
 before  any  controversy  was  raised  on  the 
 subject)  they  were  little  likely  to  be  warped, 
 
FORMULARY. 
 
 343 
 
 or  their  opinions  determined,  by  the  pre- 
 judices of  sect,  or  the  subtleties  of  system, 
 what  these  passages  of  Scripture  mean  is 
 this,  and  simply  this :  that  the  Holy  Ghost, 
 who  is  the  author  and  giver  of  every  good 
 and  perfect  gift,  must  stir  u])  in  our  hearts 
 that  spirit  of  devotion  and  holiness  of  tem- 
 per, without  which  the  service  we  render 
 is  but  the  service  of  the  lips,  and  is  use- 
 less, if  not  profane. 
 
 It  is,  then,  to  the  mind  with  which  we 
 pray,  not  to  the  words  which  we  adopt, 
 that  those  passages  of  Scripture  refer,  in 
 which  we  are  exhorted  to  pray  in  the 
 Spirit.  But  admitting,  for  the  sake  of 
 argument,  that  where  we  are  told  that  the 
 Spirit  will  teach  us  to  pray,  the  promise 
 is  applicable  to  the  very  expressions,  even 
 this  cannot  be  produced  as  an  argument 
 against  a  form  of  prayer.  For,  whatever 
 may  be  a  man's  imaginary  gift  of  prayer, 
 this  is  quite  certain,  that  his  thoughts 
 must  precede  his  tongue ;  that  before  he 
 speaks  he  must  think.  And  not  less  clear 
 is  it,  that  after  he  has  conceived  a  thought, 
 he  may,  for  a  moment,  restrain  his  tongue, 
 and  set  doAvn  that  thought  upon  paper. 
 To  suppose  that  the  intervention  of  the 
 materials  for  committing  his  thoughts  to 
 writing  must,  of  necessity,  drive  away  the 
 Holy  Spirit,  would  not  only  in  itself  be 
 absurd,  but  it  would  be  tantamount  to  a 
 denial  of  the  inspiration  of  the  written 
 Scriptures. .  If  the  first  conceptions  were 
 of  God  and  God's  Spirit,  then,  of  course, 
 they  are  so  still,  even  after  they  have  been 
 written ; — the  mere  writing  of  them,  the 
 mere  committing  of  them  to  paper,  can 
 have  nothing  whatever  to  do  with  the 
 question  of  inspiration,  either  one  way  or 
 the  other.  If  a  man,  therefore,  asserts 
 that  his  extemporary  prayers  are  to  be 
 attributed  to  the  inspiration  of  the  Holy 
 Ghost,  we  can  at  once  reply  that  our 
 prayers,  in  our  Prayer  Book,  are,  on  his 
 own  principles,  quite  as  much  so,  with  this 
 further  advantage,  that  they  have  been 
 carefully  compared  with  Scripture,  and 
 tested  thereby.  No  Scriptural  Christian, 
 no  one  not  mad  v/ith  folly,  will  contend 
 that,  on  that  account,  they  are  less  spirit- 
 ual ;  though,  on  the  other  hand,  we  may 
 fairly  doubt  whether  an  extemporiser  is 
 not  acting  in  direct  opposition  to  Scrip- 
 ture, for  Scripture  says,  (Eccles.  v.  2,)  "  Be 
 not  rash  with  thy  mouth  to  utter  anything 
 before  God,  for  God  is  in  heaven,  and 
 thou  upon  earth:"  and  who  in  the  world 
 is  hasty  to  utter  anything  before  God,  if 
 it  be  not  the  man  who  prays  to  him  ex- 
 temporally  ? 
 
 Again,  the  bishops  and  divines,  by  whom 
 
 our  Church  was  reformed,  recognised  it  as 
 the  duty  of  the  Church  to  excite  emotions 
 of  solemnity  rather  than  of  enthusiasm, 
 when  she  leads  her  children  to  the  foot- 
 stool of  that  throne  which,  if  a  throne  of 
 grace,  is  also  a  throne  of  glory.  And, 
 therefore,  when  discarding  those  cere- 
 monies which,  not  of  primitive  usage,  had 
 been  abused,  and  might  be  abused  again, 
 to  the  purposes  of  superstition,  they  still 
 made  ample  provision  that  the  services  of 
 the  sanctuary  should  be  conducted  with 
 decent  ceremony,  and  orderly  form,  and 
 impressive  solemnity,  and  in  our  cathe- 
 drals and  the  royal  chapels  with  magni- 
 ficence and  grandeur.  They  sought  not 
 to  annihilate  ;  they  received  v.ith  the 
 profoundest  respect  those  ancient  cere- 
 monials and  forms  of  prayer  which  had 
 been  used  in  their  Church  from  the  first 
 planting  of  Christianity  in  this  island. 
 These  ancient  forms,  however,  had  been 
 used  in  many  respects,  though  gradually 
 corrupted.  In  every  age,  men  had  made 
 the  attempt  to  render  them  more  and  more 
 conformable  to  the  spirit  of  the  age,  and 
 (in  ages  of  darkness)  superstitions  in  jirac- 
 lice,  and  novelties,  and  therefore  errors,  in 
 doctrine,  had  crept  in.  Our  wise-hearted 
 reformers,  intent,  not  on  pleasing  the  peo- 
 ple, nor  regaining  popularity,  nor  on  con- 
 sulting the  spirit  of  the  age,  but  simply 
 and  solely  on  ascertaining  and  maintaining 
 the  truth  as  it  is  in  Jesus,  having  obtained 
 a  commission  from  the  Crown,  first  of  all 
 compared  the  existing  forms  of  worship 
 with  the  inspired  word  of  GoD,  being  de- 
 termined at  once  to  reject  what  was  plainly 
 and  palpably  at  variance  therewith.  For 
 example,  the  prayers  before  the  Reform- 
 ation had  been  offered  in  the  Latin  lan- 
 guage, a  language  no  longer  intelligible  to 
 the  mass  of  the  people ;  but  to  pray  in  a 
 tongue  not  understood  by  the  people,  is 
 plainly  and  palpably  at  variance  with  Scrip- 
 ture ;  and,  consequently,  the  first  thing 
 they  did  was  to  have  the  liturgy  translated 
 into  English.  Having  taken  care  that  no- 
 thing should  remain  in  the  forms  of  worship 
 contrary  to  Scripture,  they  proceeded  (by 
 comparing  them  with  the  most  ancient 
 rituals)  to  renounce  all  usages  not  clearly 
 primitive ;  and,  diligently  consulting  the 
 works  of  the  Fathers,  they  embodied  the 
 doctrines  universally  received  by  the  early 
 Church  in  that  book  which  was  the  result 
 and  glory  of  their  labours,  the  Book  of 
 Common' Prayer.  The  work  of  these  com- 
 missioned divines  was  submitted  to  the 
 convocation  of  the  other  bishops  and  clergy, 
 and  being  approved  by  them,  and  author- 
 ized by  the  Crown,  was  laid  before  the  two 
 
314 
 
 FRANCISCANS. 
 
 houses  of  parliament,  and  was  accepted 
 by  the  laity,  who  respectfully  thanked  the 
 bishops  for  their  labour.  And  thus  it  is 
 seen,  that  the  English  Prayer  Book  was 
 not  composed  in  a  few  years,  or  by  a  few 
 men ;  it  has  descended  to  us  from  the  first 
 ages  of  Christianity.  It  has  been  shown 
 by  Palmer,  that  there  is  scarcely  a  portion 
 of  our  Prayer  Book  which  cannot,  in  some 
 way,  be  traced  to  ancient  ottices.  And 
 this  it  is  important  to  note  ;  first,  because 
 it  shows  that  as  the  Papist  in  England  is 
 not  justified  in  caUing  his  the  old  Chui-ch, 
 since  ours  is  the  old  Church  reformed,  his 
 a  sect,  in  this  country,  comparatively  new  ; 
 so  neither  may  he  produce  his  in  opposition 
 to  ours  as  the  old  liturgy.  All  that  is 
 really  ancient  we  retained,  when  the 
 bishops  and  divines  who  reformed  our  old 
 Church  corrected,  from  Scripture  and  an- 
 tiquity, our  old  liturgy.  "\\^hat  they  rej  ected, 
 and  the  Papists  adhered  to,  were  innova- 
 tions and  novelties  introduced  during  the 
 middle  ages.  And  it  is  important  to  ob- 
 serve this,  in  the  next  place,  since  it  is  this 
 fact  which  constitutes  the  value  of  the 
 Prayer  Book,  regarded,  as  we  do  regard  it, 
 not  only  as  a  manual  of  devotion,  but  also 
 as  an  interpreter  of  Scripture.  It  embodies 
 the  doctrines  and  observances  which  the 
 early  Christians  (having  received  them  from 
 the  apostles  themselves)  preserved  with 
 reverential  care,  and  handed  down  as  a 
 sacred  deposit  to  their  posteritv. 
 
 FRANCISCANS,  or  MINOPJTES. 
 [Fratres  Minores,  as  they  were  called  by 
 their  founder.)  An  order  of  friars  in  the 
 Romish  Church,  and  so  denominated  from 
 him  they  call  St.  Francis,  their  first 
 founder  in  1206,  who  prescribed  the  fol- 
 lowing rules  to  them :  That  the  rule  and 
 life  of  the  brother  minors  (for  so  he  would 
 have  those  of  his  order  called)  was  to  ob- 
 serve the  gospel  under  obedience,  possessing 
 nothing  as  their  own,  and  live  in  charity  ; 
 then  he  showed  how  they  should  receive 
 novices  after  a  year's  noviciate,  after  which 
 it  was  not  allowed  them  to  leave  the  order ; 
 he  would  have  his  friars  make  use  of  the 
 Roman  breviary,  and  the  converts  or  lay- 
 brethren  to  write  every  day,  for  their  office, 
 seventy-six  Paternosters  ;  besides  Lent,  he 
 ordered  them  to  fast  from  All-saints  to 
 Christmas,  and  to  begin  Lent  on  twelfth- 
 tide  ;  he  forbade  them  to  ride  on  horse- 
 back, without  some  urgent  necessity  ;  and 
 would  have  them  in  their  journeys  to  eat 
 of  whatsoever  was  laid  before  them :  they 
 were  to  receive  no  money,  neither  directly 
 nor  indirectly ;  that  they  ought  to  get  their 
 livelihood  by  the  labour  of  their  hands, 
 receiving  for  it  anything  but  money ;  that 
 
 they  ought  to  possess  nothing  of  their  own, 
 and  when  their  labour  was  not  sufficient 
 to  maintain  them,  they  ought  to  go  a  beg- 
 ging, and,  with  the  alms  so  collected,  to 
 help  one  another ;  that  they  ought  to  con- 
 fess to  their  provincial  ministers  those 
 sins,  the  absolution  of  which  was  reserved 
 to  them,  that  tliey  might  receive  from  them 
 charitable  corrections ;  that  the  election 
 of  their  general  ministers,  superiors,  &c. 
 ought  to  be  in  a  general  assembly ;  that 
 they  ought  not  to  preach  without  leave  of 
 the  ordinaries  of  each  diocese,  and  of  their 
 superiors.  Then  he  prescribed  the  manner 
 of  admonition  and  correction ;  how  that 
 they  ought  not  to  enter  into  any  nunnery, 
 to  be  godfathers  to  any  child,  nor  to  un- 
 dertake to  go  into  any  foreign  countries 
 to  convert  infidels,  without  leave  of  their 
 provincial  ministers ;  and  then  he  bids  them 
 ask  of  the  pope  a  cardinal  for  governor, 
 protector,  and  corrector  of  the  whole  order. 
 
 Francis,  their  founder,  was  born  in  1182, 
 at  Assisi,  in  the  province  of  Umbria,  in 
 Italy,  of  noble  parentage,  but  much  more 
 renowned  for  his  holy  life.  His  baptismal 
 name  was  John,  but  he  assumed  that  of 
 Francis,  from  having  learned  the  French 
 language.  He  renounced  a  considerable 
 estate,  with  all  the  pleasures  of  the  world, 
 to  embrace  a  voluntary  poverty,  and  live 
 in  the  practice  of  the  greatest  austerities. 
 Going  barefoot,  and  embracing  an  apos- 
 tolical life,  he  performed  the  office  of 
 preacher  on  Sundays  and  other  festivals, 
 in  the  parish  churches.  In  the  year  1206, 
 or  1209,  designing  to  establish  a  religious 
 order,  he  presented  to  Pope  Innocent  IIL 
 a  copy  of  the  rules  he  had  conceived,  pray- 
 ing that  his  institute  might  be  confirmed 
 by  the  holy  see.  The  pope,  considering 
 his  despicable  appearance,  and  the  extreme 
 rigour  of  his  rules,  bid  him  go  find  out 
 swine,  and  deliver  them  the  rule  he  had 
 composed,  as  being  fitter  for  such  animals 
 than  for  men.  Francis,  being  withdrawn, 
 Avent  and  rolled  himself  in  the  mire  with 
 some  swine,  and,  in  that  filthy  condition, 
 again  presented  himself  before  the  pope, 
 beseeching  him  to  grant  his  request.  The 
 pope,  moved  hereby,  granted  his  petition, 
 and  confirmed  his  order. 
 
 From  this  time  Francis  became  famous 
 throughout  all  Italy,  and  many  persons  of 
 birth,  following  his  example,  forsook  the 
 world,  and  put  themselves  under  his  di- 
 rection. Thus  this  order  of  friars,  called 
 Minors,  spread  all  over  Europe ;  who, 
 living  in  cities  and  towns,  by  tens  and 
 sevens,  preached  in  the  villages  and  parish 
 churches,  and  instructed  the  rude  country 
 people.      Some   of    them    likewise    went 
 
FRANCISCANS. 
 
 FRATERNITIES. 
 
 345 
 
 among  the  Saracens,  and  Into  Pagan  coun- 
 tries, many  of  -whom  obtained  the  crown 
 of  mavtM'dom.  Francis  died  at  Assisi  in 
 1226.  He  never 
 than  the  diaconate 
 
 It  is  pretended  that,  a  little  before  the 
 death  of  St.  Francis,  there  appeared 
 womids  in  his  hands  and  feet,  like  those 
 of  our  Saviour,  continually  bleeding,  of 
 which,  after  his  death,  there  appeared  not 
 the  least  token.  He  was  buried  in  his 
 own  oratory  at  Rome,  and  his  name  was 
 inserted  in  the  catalogue  of  saints. 
 
 The  first  monastery  of  this  order  was 
 at  Assisi,  in  Italy,  where  the  Benedictines 
 of  that  place  gave  St.  Francis  the  church 
 of  St.  Mary,  called  Portiuncula.  Soon 
 after,  convents  were  erected  in  other  places ; 
 and  afterwards  St.  Francis  founded  others 
 in  Spain  and  Portugal.  In  the  year  1215, 
 this  order  was  approved  in  the  general 
 Lateran  council.  Then  St.  Francis,  re- 
 turning to  Assisi,  held  a  general  chapter, 
 and  sent  missions  into  France,  Gennany, 
 England,  and  other  parts.  This  order  made 
 so  great  a  progress  in  a  short  time,  that, 
 at  the  general  chapter  held  at  Assisi,  in 
 1219,  there  met  5000  friars,  who  were  only 
 deputies  from  a  much  greater  number. 
 There  were  in  the  middle  of  the  last  cen- 
 tury above  7000  houses  of  this  order,  and 
 in  them  above  115,000  monks:  there  are 
 hl'^o  abo'.e  900  monasteries  of  Franciscan 
 ii^->s.  This  order  has  produced  four  popes, 
 forty- '^ve  cardinals,  and  an  infinite  number 
 cf  pati  irchs,  archbishops,  and  two  electors 
 ol  the  empire ;  besides  a  great  number  of 
 leaned  men  and  missionaries. 
 
 Tho  Franciscans  came  into  England 
 during  the  life  of  their  founder,  in  the 
 reign  of  Xing  Henry  III.  Their  first  estab- 
 lishment \'as  at  Canterbury.  They  zeal- 
 ously oppos>  d  King  Henry  VIII.,  in  the 
 affair  of  his  ( "vorce ;  for  which  reason,  at 
 the  suppressioi.  of  the  monasteries,  they 
 were  expelled  before  all  others,  and  above 
 200  of  them  thrown  into  gaols  ;  thirty-two 
 of  them  coupled  in  chains  like  dogs,  and 
 sent  to  distant  prisons ;  others  banished, 
 and  others  condemned  to  death.  Whilst 
 this  order  flourished  in  England,  this 
 province  was  divided  into  seven  parts  or 
 districts,  called  custodies,  because  each  of 
 them  was  governed  by  a  provincial,  or 
 superior,  called  the  custos,  or  guardian 
 of  the  district.  The  seven  custodies  were, 
 that  of  London,  consisting  of  nine  monas- 
 teries ;  that  of  York,  consisting  of  seven 
 monasteries  ;  that  of  Cambridge,  contain- 
 ing nine  monasteries  ;  that  of  I3ristol,  con- 
 taining nine  monasteries  ;  that  of  Oxford, 
 in  which  were  eight  monasteries ;  that  of 
 
 Newcastle,  in  which  were  nine  monasteries  ; 
 and  that  of  Worcester,  in  which  Mere  nine 
 monasteries  ;  in  all,  sixty  monasteries. 
 
 The  first  establishment  of  Franciscans 
 in  London  was  begun  by  four  friars,  who 
 hired  for  themselves  a  certain  house  in 
 Cornhill,  of  John  Travers,  then  sheriff  of 
 London,  and  made  it  into  little  cells ; 
 where  they  lived  till  the  summer  following, 
 when  they  were  removed,  by  John  Iwyn, 
 citizen  and  mercer  of  London,  to  the 
 parish  of  St.  Nicholas  in  the  shambles. 
 There  he  assigned  them  land  for  the  build- 
 ing of  a  monastery,  and  entered  himself 
 into  the  order. 
 
 FIlATEIiNITIES,  in  Roman  Catholic 
 countries,  are  societies  for  the,  so-called, 
 improvement  of  devotion.  They  are  of 
 several  sorts  and  several  denominations. 
 Some  take  their  name  from  certain  famous 
 instruments  of  piety.  The  more  remark- 
 able are, 
 
 1.  The  fraternity  of  the  Rosary.  This 
 society  owes  its  rise  to  Dominic,  the 
 founder  of  the  Rosary.  He  appointed 
 it,  they  say,  by  order  of  the  Blessed 
 Virgin,  at  the  time  when  he  was  la- 
 bouring on  the  conversion  of  the  Albi- 
 genses.  After  the  saint's  death,  the  de- 
 votion of  the  Rosary  became  neglected, 
 but  Avas  revived  by  Alanus  de  Rupe,  about 
 the  year  1460.  This  fraternity  is  divided 
 into  two  branches,  that  of  the  Common 
 Rosary,  and  that  of  the  Perpetual  Rosary. 
 The  former  is  obliged,  every  week,  to  say 
 the  fifteen  divisions  of  ten  beads  each,  and 
 to  confess,  and  communicate,  every  first 
 Sunday  in  the  month.  The  brethren  of  it 
 are  likewise  obliged  to  appear  at  all  pro- 
 cessions of  the  fraternity.  The  latter  are 
 under  very  strong  engagements,  the  prin- 
 cipal of  which  is,  to  repeat  the  rosary 
 perpetually  ;  i.  e,  there  is  always  some  one 
 of  them,  who  is  actually  saluting  the 
 Blessed  Virgin  in  the  name  of  the  whole 
 fraternity.  2.  The  fraternity  of  the  Sca- 
 pulary,  whom  it  is  pretended,  according 
 to  the  Sabbatine  bull  of  Pope  John  XXII., 
 the  Blessed  Virgin  has  promised  to  deliver 
 out  of  hell  the  first  Sunday  after  their 
 death.  3.  The  fraternity  of  St.  Francis's 
 girdle  are  clothed  with  a  sack  of  a  grey 
 colour,  which  they  tie  with  a  cord;  and  in 
 processions  Avalk  barefooted,  carrying  in 
 tlicir  hands  a  wooden  cross.  4.  That  of 
 St.  Austin's  leathern  girdle  comprehends 
 a  great  many  devotees.  Italy,  Spain,  and 
 Portugal  are  the  countries  where  are  seen 
 the  greatest  number  of  these  fraternities, 
 some  of  which  assume  the  name  of  arch- 
 fratornity.  Pope  Clement  VII.  instituted 
 the  arch-fraternity  of  charity,  which  dis- 
 
346 
 
 FRATRICELLI. 
 
 FREE  WILL. 
 
 tributes  bread  every  Sunday  among  the 
 poor,  and  gives  portions  to  forty  poor 
 gii-ls  on  the  feast  of  St.  Jerome,  their 
 patron.  The  fraternity  of  death  buries 
 sueli  dead  as  are  abandoned  by  their  re- 
 lations, and  causes  masses  to  be  celebrated 
 for  them. — Brcnuihton. 
 
 FllATRICELLI.  Certain  heretics  of 
 Italy,  who  had  their  rise  in  the  marquisate 
 of  Ancona,  about  1294.  They  Avcre  most 
 of  them  apostate  monks,  under  a  superior, 
 called  Pongiloup.  They  drew  women  after 
 them  on  jn-etence  of  devotion,  and  were 
 accused  of  uncleanness  with  them  in  their 
 nocturnal  meetings.  They  were  charged 
 with  maintaining  a  community  of  wives 
 and  goods,  and  denying  magistracy.  Abun- 
 dance of  libertines  Hocked  after  them,  be- 
 cause they  countenanced  their  licentious 
 way  of  living. 
 
 FREEMASONS.  An  ancient  guild  of 
 architects,  to  whom  church  architecture 
 owes  much,  and  to  whom  is  to  be  attributed 
 a  great  part  of  the  beauty  and  uniformity 
 of  the  ecclesiastical  edifices  of  the  several 
 well-marked  architectural  aeras  of  the 
 middle  ages. 
 
 The  Freemasons  at  present  arrogate  to 
 themselves  a  monstrous  antiquity ;  it  is 
 certain,  however,  that  they  were  in  ex- 
 istence early  in  the  tenth  century,  and 
 that  before  the  close  of  that  century  they 
 had  been  formally  incorporated  by  the 
 pope,  with  many  exclusive  privileges, 
 answering  to  those  which  are  now  involved 
 in  a  patent.  The  society  consisted  of 
 persons  of  all  nations  and  of  every  rank ; 
 and  being  strictly  an  ecclesiastical  society, 
 the  tone  of  the  architecture  to  which  they 
 gave  their  study  became  distinctively 
 theological  and  significant.  The  principal 
 ecclesiastics  of  the  day  were  ranked  among 
 its  members,  and  probably  many  of  its 
 clerical  brethren  were  actually  and  act- 
 ively engaged  in  its  practical  operations. 
 In  the  present  day,  if  the  clergy  would 
 pay  a  little  more  attention  to  ecclesiastical 
 architectui'e,  we  might  perhaps  rather 
 emulate  than  regret  the  higher  character 
 of  the  sacred  edifices  of  the  middle  ages. 
 
 FREE  WILL.  Since  the  introduction 
 of  Calvinism  many  persons  have  been  led 
 into  perplexity  on  this  subject,  by  not  sufii- 
 ciently  distinguishing  between  the  free  will 
 of  spontaneous  mental  preference,  and  the 
 good  will  of  freely  preferring  virtue  to  vice. 
 By  the  ancients,  on  the  contrary,  who 
 were  frequently  called  upon  to  oppose  the 
 mischievous  impiety  of  fatalism,  Avhile  yet 
 they  stood  pledged  to  maintain  the  vital 
 doctrine  of  Divine  grace,  this  distinction 
 was  well  known  and  carefully  observed. 
 
 The  Manicheans  so  denied  free  will,  as 
 to  hold  a  fatal  necessity  of  sinning,  whe- 
 ther the  choice  of  the  individual  did  or 
 did  not  go  along  with  the  action. 
 
 The  Pelagians  so  held  free  will,  as  to 
 deny  the  need  of  Divine  grace  to  make  that 
 free  will  a  good  will. 
 
 By  the  Catholics,  each  of  these  systems 
 was  alike  rejected.  They  held,  that  man 
 possesses  free  will ;  for,  otherwise,  he  could 
 not  be  an  accountable  subject  of  God's 
 moral  government.  But  they  also  held, 
 that,  in  consequence  of  the  fall,  his  free 
 will  was  a  bad  will :  whence,  with  a  per- 
 fect conscious  freedom  of  choice  or  pre- 
 ference, and  without  any  violence  put  upon 
 his  inclination,  he,  perpetually,  though 
 quite  spontaneously,  prefers  unholiness  to 
 holiness ;  and  thus  requires  the  aid  of  Di- 
 vine grace  to  make  his  bad  will  a  good 
 will. 
 
 The  reader  may  see  this  point  estab- 
 lished by  quotations  from  the  Fathers  in 
 Faber's  work  on  "  Election,"  from  which 
 this  article  is  taken.  He  shows  also  that 
 the  doctrine  taught  by  Augustine  and  the 
 ancients,  is  precisely  that  which  is  main- 
 tained by  the  reformers  of  our  Anglican 
 Church. 
 
 Those  venerable  and  well-informed  mo- 
 derns resolve  not  our  evil  actions  into  the 
 compulsory  fatal  necessity  of  Manicheism, 
 on  the  one  hand  ;  nor,  on  the  other  hand, 
 according  to  the  presumptuous  scheme  of 
 Pelagianism,  do  they  claim  for  us  a  spon- 
 taneous choice  or  preference  of  good  inde- 
 pendently of  the  Divine  assistance. 
 
 The  simple  freedom  of  man's  will,  so 
 that,  whatever  he  chooses,  he  chooses  not 
 against  his  inclination,  but  through  a  direct 
 and  conscious  internal  preference  of  the 
 thing  chosen  to  the  thing  rejected:  this 
 simple  freedom  of  man's  will  they  deny  not. 
 But,  while  they  acknowledge  the  simple 
 freedom  of  man's  will,  they  assert  the 
 quality  of  its  choice  or  preference  to  be  so 
 perverted  by  the  fall,  and  to  be  so  distorted 
 by  the  influence  of  original  sin,  that,  in 
 order  to  his  choosing  the  good  and  reject- 
 ing the  evil,  the  grace  of  God,  by  Christ, 
 must  both  make  his  bad  will  a  good  will, 
 and  must  also  still  continue  to  co-operate 
 with  him  even  when  that  goodness  of  the 
 will  shall  have  been  happily  obtained. 
 
 In  the  tenth  Article  of  the  English 
 Church,  it  is  often  not  sufficiently  ob- 
 served, that  our  minutely  accurate  re- 
 formers do  not  say,  that  the  grace  of  God, 
 in  the  work  of  conversion,  gives  us  free 
 will,  as  if  we  were  previously  subject  to  a 
 fatal  necessity ;  but  only  that  the  grace  of 
 God,  by  Christ,  prevents  us  that  we  may 
 
FRIAR. 
 
 FUNERAL  SERVICES. 
 
 347 
 
 have  a  good  will,  and  co-operatos  with  us 
 when  we  have  that  good  will. 
 
 The  doctrine,  in  short,  of  the  English 
 Church,  when  she  declares  that  fallen  man 
 cannot  turn  and  prepare  himself,  by  his 
 OM'n  natural  strength  and  good  works,  to 
 faith  and  calling  upon  GOD,  is  not  that 
 we  really  prefer  the  spiritual  life  to  the 
 animal  life,  and  are  at  the  same  time  by  a 
 fatal  necessity  prevented  from  embracing 
 it ;  but  it  is  that  Ave  prefer  the  animal  life 
 to  the  spiritual  life,  and  through  the  bad- 
 ness of  our  perverse  will,  shall  continue  to 
 prefer  it,  until  (as  the  Article  speaks)  the 
 grace  of  GoD  shall  prevent  us  that  we  may 
 have  a  good  will,  or  until  (as  Holy  Scrip- 
 ture speaks)  the  people  of  the  Loud  shall 
 be  willing  in  the  day  of  his  power. 
 
 FRIAIl.  (From  y/Y/^e;-,  brother.)  A  term 
 common  to  monks  of  all  orders :  founded 
 on  this,  that  there  is  a  kind  of  brotherhood 
 presumed  between  the  religious  persons  of 
 the  same  monastery.  It  is  however  com- 
 monly confined  to  monks  of  the  mendicant 
 orders.  Friars  are  generally  distinguished 
 into  these  four  principal  branches,  —  1 . 
 Franciscans,  Minors,  or  Grey  Friars ;  2. 
 Augustines  ;  3.  Dominicans,  or  Black  Fri- 
 ars ;  4.  Carmelites,  or  White  Friars.  From 
 these  four  the  rest  of  the  orders  in  the  Ro- 
 man Church  descend.  In  a  more  parti- 
 cular sense  the  term  Friar  is  applied  to 
 such  monks  as  are  not  priests :  for  those 
 in  orders  are  usually  dignified  with  the 
 appellation  of  Father. 
 
 FRIDAY.  Friday  was,  both  in  the 
 Greek  Church  and  Latin,  a  Litany  or  hu- 
 miliation day,  in  memory  of  Christ  cru- 
 cified :  and  so  is  kept  in  ours.  It  is  our 
 weekly  fast  for  our  share  in  the  death  of 
 Christ,  and  its  gloom  is  only  dispersed  if 
 Christmas  day  happens  to  fall  thereon. 
 
 FUNERAL  SERVICES.  (See  Burial 
 of  the  Dead  and  Dead.)  The  office  which 
 the  English  Church  appoints  to  be  used  at 
 the  burial  of  the  dead  is,  like  all  her  other 
 offices,  of  most  ancient  date,  having  been 
 used  by  the  Church  in  the  East  and  the 
 "West  from  the  remotest  antiquity,  and  hav- 
 ing been  only  translated  into  English  by 
 the  bishops  and  divines  who  reformed  our 
 Church.  But  against  this  office,  as  against 
 others,  cavils  have  been  raised.  The  ex- 
 pression chiefly  cavilled  at  in  this  service  is 
 that  with  which  we  commit  our  brother's 
 "  body  to  the  ground,  earth  to  earth,  ashes 
 to  ashes,  dust  to  dust,  in  sure  and  certain 
 hope  of  the  resurrection  to  eternal  life, 
 through  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ."  Now 
 here  it  will  be  observed,  that  no  certaxnUj 
 x?,  expressed  that  the  Individual  interred 
 will   rise    to    the   resurrection    of   glory. 
 
 The  certainty  is, — that  there  xcill  be  a  re- 
 surrection to  eternal  life,— while  a  hope 
 is  first  implied,  and  afterwards  expressed, 
 that  in  this  resurrection  the  individual 
 buried  will  have  a  part.  And  Avho  are 
 they  who  wSll  chide  the  Church  for  hoping 
 thus, — even  though  it  be  sometimes  a  hope 
 against  hope?  The  Church  refuses  to 
 perform  the  funeral  service  over  i)ersons 
 not  baptized,  or  who  have  been  excommu- 
 nicated, because  she  only  performs  her 
 good  offices  for  those  who  are  within  her 
 communion.  More  than  this  cannot  be 
 expected  of  any  society.  But  the  only 
 class  of  persons  who  may  have  died  within 
 her  communion,  over  whom  she  refuses 
 to  perform  the  burial  service,  is  that  of 
 those  M'ho  have  died  guilty  of  self-murder. 
 It  is  so  very  evident  that  such  persons 
 died  in  impenitence  and  mortal  sin,  (unless 
 they  were  insane  when  they  did  the  act,) 
 that  she  is  therefore  obliged  to  exclude 
 them.  With  respect  to  all  others,  she 
 remembers  our  Lord's  injunction — Judge 
 not.  He  does  not  say,  judge  not  harshly 
 —  he  says,  judge  not— judge  not  at  all. 
 The  province  of  judging  belongs  to  GoD, 
 and  to  God  only.  The  Church  leaves  it 
 to  that  supreme  and  irresponsible  juris- 
 diction to  make  the  necessary  particular 
 distinctions  in  the  individual  application 
 of  the  doctrine  she  teaches  generally. 
 Surely  those  very  persons  who  now  cavil 
 at  the  Church  for  her  charity  in  this  re- 
 spect, would  be  the  first  to  cast  the  stone 
 at  her,  if,  when  they  brought  the  body  of 
 a  dead  brother  to  the  church,  our  clergy 
 should  have  to  say,  "  We  will  not  express  a 
 hope  in  this  case,  because  it  does  not  admit 
 of  a  hope  ; "  as  they  must  do  if  they  were  to 
 take  upon  themselves  the  authority  to  judge 
 in  each  particular  case.  No.  Throughout 
 the  Burial  Service  we  look  to  the  bright 
 side  of  the  question,  we  remember  that 
 there  is  a  resurrection  to  life,  and  we 
 hope  that  to  that  resurrection  each  bro- 
 ther we  inter  will  be  admitted.  And  is 
 the  Church  wrong  ?  Then  let  the  cavil- 
 ler stay  away.  If  he  chooses  to  judge  of 
 his  departed  relative,  and  to  consign  him 
 without  hope  to  the  grave,  let  him  bury 
 him  with  the  burial  of  an  ass.  AVe  do  not 
 compel  him  to  attend  the  services  of  the 
 Church, — let  him,  then,  stay  away;  if  he 
 comes,  however,  to  the  church,  the  Church 
 will  express  her  hope  : 
 
 Bettor  ill  silence  hide  their  dead  and  go, 
 Thau  sing  a  liopelcs.s  dirge,  or  coldly  chide 
 Tlie  faith  that  owns  relief  from  earthly  woe. 
 
 The  last  line  of  this  quotation  suggests 
 another  point  to  which  attention  must  be 
 directed,   viz.  the  fact   of  our   returning 
 
348 
 
 FUNERAL  SERVICES. 
 
 GEHENNA. 
 
 thanks  to  Almighty  God  for  having  "  de- 
 livered our  brother  out  of  the  miseries  of 
 this  sinful  world."  How,  it  is  asked,  can 
 this  be  done  with  sincerity,  at  the  very 
 time  when  the  tears  and  moans  of  weeping 
 friends  seem  to  belie  the  assertion  ?  And 
 we  answer,  it  is  because  the  Church  as- 
 sumes that  those  who  attend  her  services 
 are  under  the  influence  of  Christian  faith  ; 
 and  of  Christian  faith  a  most  important 
 part  consists  in  the  belief  of  God's  especial 
 providence.  Except  by  God's  permission, 
 the  true  Christian  believes  that  not  a 
 sparrow  can  fall  to  the  ground,  not  a  hair 
 on  our  head  can  perish  ;  and  the  true 
 Christian  also  believeth  that  God  doth  not 
 willingly  afflict  the  children  of  men,  but 
 that  when  he  chasteneth,  he  doth  it  even 
 as  a  father  chasteneth  his  child,  for  our 
 profit,  that  we  may  be  partakers  of  his 
 holiness.  Suppose  that  a  parent  be  taken 
 in  the  vigour  of  his  strength,  from  a  loving 
 wife  and  helpless  little  ones, — and  this 
 i^,  perhaps,  the  severest  dispensation  we 
 can  conceive : — that  the  desolate  and  the 
 destitute  should  grieve  is  natural.  And 
 are  they  to  be  blamed  for  this  ?  No  ;  for 
 at  the  grave  of  Lazarus  our  blessed  Lord 
 groaned  in  his  spirit  and  wept.  Why, 
 indeed,  is  affliction  sent  ?  Is  it  not  sent 
 for  this  very  purpose — to  make  us  grieve  ? 
 And  while  affliction  is  impending,  we  may 
 pray  that  it  may  be  averted.  Did  not  the 
 Lord  Jesus  do  the  same  ?  Thrice,  in  his 
 agony,  he  prayed  that  the  cup  of  sorrow 
 might  be  removed  from  him ;  thereby 
 aftbrding  us  an  example,  that  we  may  pray 
 for  the  turning  aAvay  of  a  calamity, — 
 though  at  the  same  time  aff"ording  us  an 
 example  to  say,  when  the  prayer  has  not 
 been  granted,  "  Father,  not  my  will,  but 
 thine  be  done."  And  if  the  petition,  the 
 petition  for  the  life  of  a  parent  or  a  friend, 
 has  not  been  granted,  why  has  it  been 
 unheeded  by  the  Father  of  mercies  ? 
 The  faith  of  the  true  Christian  answers, 
 even  because  God  foresaw  that  it  would 
 be  more  conducive  to  the  everlasting  wel- 
 fare of  the  lost  one,  the  everlasting  welfare 
 of  his  desolate  wife,  to  the  everlasting  wel- 
 fare of  his  destitute  children,  that  he  should 
 be  taken  at  the  very  time  he  was.  This, 
 says  the  heart  of  faith,  is  mysterious  in 
 our  eyes,  but  it  is  the  Lord's  doing ;  it  is 
 the  Lord,  let  him  do  what  secmeth  him 
 good.  It  is  thus  that,  in  the  midst  of 
 siglis  and  groans,  the  Christian  spirit  can 
 give  God  thanks  while  nature  weeps,  grace 
 consoles,  and  faith  assures  us  that  what  has 
 been  done  is  right. 
 
 GALILEE.  An  appendage  of  some  of 
 our  large  churches  is  traditionally  known 
 by  this  name,  and  is  supposed  to  be  con- 
 nected with  some  purposes  of  discipline, 
 and  to  have  borrowed  its  name  from  the 
 words  of  the  angel  at  the  sepulchre  to  the 
 women,  "  Go  your  way,  tell  his  disciples 
 and  Peter  that  he  goeth  before  you  into 
 Galilee,  there  shall  ye  see  him,  as  he  said 
 unto  you."  (Mark  xvi.  7.)  The  churches 
 where  a  Galilee  occurs  are  Durham,  Lin- 
 coln, and  Ely  ;  but  they  have  little  in  com- 
 mon except  the  name.  That  at  Ely  agrees 
 with  that  at  Durham  in  being  at  the  west 
 end  of  the  church,  but  it  differs  in  being 
 to  all  appearance  a  mere  porch  of  en- 
 trance, while  that  at  Durham  is  a  spacious 
 building  with  five  aisles  and  three  altars  ; 
 and,  so  far  from  its  use  being  as  a  porch 
 of  entrance,  the  great  west  entrance  was 
 actually  closed  in  the  fifteenth  century, 
 while  the  Galilee  in  all  probability  re- 
 tained its  original  use.  That  at  Lincoln 
 is  at  the  south-west  corner  of  the  south 
 transept;  it  is  cruciform  in  plan,  and  has 
 over  it  another  chamber  of  the  like  size, 
 once  apparently  arranged  as  a  court  of 
 judicature,  Avhich  favours  the  idea  that  the 
 Galilee  had  some  connexion  with  discipline. 
 This  was  certainly  the  case  at  Durham, 
 for  there  the  consistory  court  has  been 
 held  from  time  immemorial :  and  there 
 Cardinal  Langton  erected  a  font  for  the 
 children  of  persons  who  were  excommuni- 
 cate. But  this  was  nearly  300  years  after 
 the  building  of  the  Galilee,  which  was  cer- 
 tainly erected  by  Hugh  Pudsey  in  the 
 twelfth  century,  that  women,  who  were  al- 
 lowed to  proceed  but  a  short  distance  into 
 that  particular  church,  might  have  a  place 
 where  they  might  frequent  the  Divine 
 ordinances ;  and  tliis  in  itself  had  some- 
 thing of  the  nature  of  discipline.  It  may 
 be  worth  noticing  in  addition,  that  all  the 
 three  Galilees  still  remaining  were  erected 
 between  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  and  the 
 middle  of  the  thirteenth  century. 
 
 GALLICAN  CHURCH.  (See  Church 
 of  France.) 
 
 GAllGOYLE,  or  GURGOYLE.  A 
 water  spout,  usually  in  Gothic  buildings 
 formed  of  some  grotesque  figure. 
 
 GEHENNA.  The  true  origin  and  oc- 
 casion of  this  word  is  this :  there  was  an 
 idol  of  Moloch,  near  Jerusalem,  in  the 
 Valley  of  Hinnom,  to  which  they  offered 
 human  sacrifices.  The  Rabbis  say,  that 
 they  were  wont  to  beat  a  drum,  lest  the 
 people  should  hear  the  cries  of  the  chil- 
 dren that  were  thrown  into  the  fire  when 
 they  sacrificed  them  to  idols.  This  valley 
 was  called  Geenon,  from  Ge,  which  signi- 
 
GENERATION,  THE  ETERNAL. 
 
 349 
 
 fies  a  valley,  and  Ennom,  which  comes  from 
 Nahom,  that  signifies  to  groan ;  therefore 
 hell,  the  place  of  eternal  fire,  is  called 
 Gehenna.  The  ancient  writers  did  not 
 make  use  of  this  word,  and  it  was  first 
 used  in  the  gos])el. 
 
 GENERATION,  THE  ETErxNAL. 
 (See  Eferniti/.)  It  is  thus  that  the  filiation 
 without  beginning  of  the  Only  Begotten 
 of  the  Father  is  expressed. 
 
 The  distinction  of  a  threefold  genera- 
 tion of  the  Son  is  well  known  among  the 
 learned,  and  is  thus  explained: — 1.  The 
 first  and  most  proper  filiation  and  genera- 
 tion is  his  eternally  existing  in  and  of  the 
 Father,  the  eternal  Aoyog  of  the  eternal 
 ^lind.  In  respect  of  this,  chiefly,  he  is  the 
 only  hec/otten,  and  a  distinct  person  from 
 the  Father.  His  other  generations  were 
 rather  condescensions,  first  to  creatures  in 
 general,  next  to  men  in  particular.  2. 
 His  second  generation  was  his  condescen- 
 sion, manifestation,  comin// forth,  as  it  were, 
 from  the  Father,  (though  never  separated 
 or  divided  from  him,)  to  create  the  world : 
 this  was  in  time,  and  a  voluntary  thing ; 
 and  in  this  respect,  properly,  he  may  be 
 thought  to  be  first-born  of  every  creature, 
 or  before  all  creatures.  3.  His  third  ge- 
 neration, or  filiation,  was  when  he  conde- 
 scended to  be  born  of  a  pure  virgin,  and 
 to  become  man  also  without  ceasing  to  be 
 God. — Water  land. 
 
 The  second  person  of  the  Trinity  is 
 called  the  Son,  yea,  and  the  "  only  be- 
 gotten Son  of  God,"  because  he  was  be- 
 gotten of  the  Father,  not  as  others  are, 
 by  spiritual  regeneration,  but  by  eternal 
 generation,  as  none  but  himself  is,  for  the 
 opening  whereof  we  must  know  that  God 
 that  made  all  things  fruitful  is  not  himself 
 sterile  or  barren ;  but  he  that  hath  given 
 power  to  animals  to  generate  and  produce 
 others  in  their  own  nature,  is  himself  much 
 more  able  to  produce  one,  not  only  like 
 himself,  but  of  the  self-same  nature  with 
 himself,  as  he  did  in  begetting  his  Son,  by 
 communicating  his  own  unbegotten  essence 
 and  nature  to  him.  For  the  person  of  the 
 Son  was  most  certainly  begotten  of  the 
 Father,  or  otherwise  he  would  not  be 
 his  Son  ;  but  his  essence  was  unbegotten, 
 otherwise  he  would  not  be  God  ;  and 
 therefore  the  highest  apprehensions  that 
 we  can  frame  of  this  great  mystery,  the 
 eternal  generation  of  the  Son  of  God,  is 
 only  by  conceiving  the  person  of  the  Fa- 
 ther to  have  communicated  his  Divine 
 essence  to  the  person  of  the  Son  ;  and  so 
 of  himself  begetting  his  other  self  the  Son, 
 by  communicating  his  own  eternal  and 
 unbegotten  essence  to  him ;  I  say,  by  com- 
 
 municating of  his  essence,  not  of  his  jterson 
 to  him  (for  then  they  would  be  both  the 
 same  person,  as  now  they  are  of  the  same 
 essence);  the  essence  of' the  Father  did 
 not  beget  the  Son  by  communicating  his 
 person  to  him,  but  the  person  of  the 
 Father  begat  the  Son  by  communicating 
 his  essence  to  him ;  so  that  the  person  of 
 the  Son  is  begotten,  not  communicated, 
 but  the  essence  of  the  SoN  is  communi- 
 cated, not  begotten. 
 
 This  notion  of  the  Father's  begetting 
 the  Son,  by  communicating  his  essence  to 
 him,  I  ground  upon  the  Son's  own  words, 
 who  certainly  best  knew  how  himself  was 
 begotten  :  "  For  as  the  Father,"  saith  he, 
 "  hath  life  in  himself,  so  hath  he  given  to 
 the  Son  to  have  life  in  himself."  (John 
 V.  26.)  To  have  life  in  himself  is  an  essen- 
 tial property  of  the  Divine  nature  ;  and, 
 therefore,  wheresoever  that  is  given  or 
 communicated,  the  nature  itself  must  needs 
 be  given  and  communicated  too. 
 
 Now  here  we  see  how  God  the  Father 
 communicated  this  his  essential  property, 
 and  so  his  essence,  to  the  Son  ;  and,  by 
 consequence,  though  he  be  a  distinct  per- 
 son from  him,  yet  he  hath  the  same  unbe- 
 gotten essence  with  him  ;  and  therefore  as 
 the  Father  hath  life  in  himself,  so  hath 
 the  Son  life  in  himself,  and  so  all  other 
 essential  properties  of  the  Divine  nature, 
 only  with  this  personal  distinction,  that 
 the  Father  hath  this  life  in  himself,  not 
 from  the  Sox,  but  from  himself ;  whereas, 
 the  Son  hath  it,  not  from  himself,  but 
 from  the  Father  ;  or,  the  Father  is  God 
 of  himself,  not  of  the  Son  ;  the  Son  is  the 
 same  God,  but  from  the  Father,  not  from 
 himself,  and  therefore  not  the  Father,  but 
 the  Son,  is  rightly  called  by  the  Council 
 of  Nice,  God  of  God,  Light  of  light,  yea, 
 very  GoD  of  very  God. — Bcveridye. 
 
 What  we  assert  is,  that  God  the  Father 
 from  all  eternity  communicated  to  his  Son 
 his  own  individual  nature  and  substance ; 
 so  that  the  same  Godhead  which  is  in  the 
 Father  originally  and  primarily,  is  also  in 
 the  Son  by  derivation  and  communication. 
 By  this  communication  there  was  given  to 
 the  Son  all  those  attributes  and  ])erfections 
 which  do  simply  and  absolutely  belong  to 
 the  Divine  nature  ;  there  was  a  communi- 
 cation of  all  the  properties  which  naturally 
 belong  to  the  essence  communicated ;  and 
 hence  it  is  that  the  Son  is  eternal,  omni- 
 scient, omnipresent,  and  the  like,  in  the 
 same  infinite  perfection  as  his  Father  is. 
 The  natural  properties  were  thus  commu- 
 nicated ;  but  we  cannot  say  the  same  of 
 the  personal  properties,  it  being  impossible 
 they  should   be  communicated,  as   being 
 
350   GENERATION,  ETERNAL. 
 
 GEOMETRICAL. 
 
 inseparable  from  the  person:  such  are, 
 the  act  of  communicating  the  essence,  the 
 generation  itself,  and  the  personal  pre- 
 eminence of  the  Father,  founded  on  that 
 generation.  These  were  not  communi- 
 cated, but  arc  ]3ropcr  to  the  Father  ;  as, 
 on  the  other  hand,  the  personal  properties 
 of  the  Son  (filiation  and  subordination) 
 are  proper  to  the  Son,  and  do  not  belong 
 to  the  Father.  And  although  in  this  in- 
 comprehensible mystery  we  use  the  term 
 generation,  (the  Scripture  having  given  us 
 sufficient  authority  to  do  so,  by  styling 
 him  God's  Son,  his  proper  Son,  and  his 
 only  begotten  Son,)  yet,  by  this  term,  we 
 are'not  to  understand  a  proceeding  from 
 non-existence  to  existence,  which  is  the 
 physical  notion  of  generation ;  nor  do  we 
 understand  it  in  that  low  sense  in  which  it 
 is  agreeable  to  creatures  ;  but  as  it  is  con- 
 sistent with  the  essential  attributes  of  God, 
 of  which  necessary  existence  is  one.  Nor, 
 further,  are  we  in  this  generation  to  sup- 
 pose any  division  of  the  essence,  or  any 
 external  separation.  The  communication 
 of  the  nature  was  not  a  separate  one,  like 
 that  of  finite  beings,  but  merely  internal : 
 and,  though  the  Son  be  generated  from 
 the  substance  of  the  Father,  (and  thence 
 be  a  distinct  person  from  him,)  yet  he  still 
 continues  to  be  in  tlie  Father,  and  the 
 Father  in  him  ;  herein  differing  from  the 
 production  of  all  created  beings,  that  in 
 them  the  producer  and  the  produced  be- 
 come two  distinct  individuals,  which  in  this 
 generation  cannot  be  affirmed.  The  term 
 used  by  the  Greek  Fathers  to  express  this 
 internal  or  undivided  existence  in  the 
 same  nature,  iixTrepix^oprjaig  ;  that  of  the 
 Latin  Fathers,  ciixumincessio ;  and  that  dis- 
 tinction of  the  schoolmen,  generatio  ah 
 intra ;  are  terms  which  are  as  expressive 
 as  any  words  can  be  of  a  mystery  so  far 
 above  our  comprehension.  The  Father 
 and  the  Son  by  this  communication  do  not 
 become  two  Gods,  (as  Adam  and  Seth  are 
 two  men.)  but  are  only  one  God  in  the 
 same  undivided  essence.  The  communi- 
 cation of  this  nature  neither  did,  nor  could, 
 infringe  the  unity  of  it,  because  the  Divine 
 essence  is  simply  one,  and  therefore  can- 
 not be  divided  ;  is  absolutely  infinite,  and 
 therefore  incapable  of  being  multiplied  into 
 more  infinities.  And  this,  by  the  way,  suf- 
 ficiently shows  the  weakness  and  falseness 
 of  that  charge  which  has  been  so  often 
 thrown  on  the  orthodox  scheme  of  the 
 Trinity,  namely,  that  it  is  downright  tri- 
 theism,  and  that  to  maintain  that  the  three 
 persons  are  each  of  them  God,  is  in  effect 
 to  maintain  three  Gods  ;  a  charge  which 
 is  so  far  from  being  a  just  consequence  of 
 
 our  principles,  that  it  is  manifestly  incon- 
 sistent with  them,  and  impossible  to  be 
 true  upon  them.  We  hold  the  Divine  es- 
 sence to  be  one  simple,  indivisible  essence  ; 
 we  assert  that  the  Father  communicated 
 to  the  Son,  without  division,  this  his  in- 
 dividual substance ;  and  therefore,  upon 
 these  our  principles,  the  unity  of  the  Di- 
 vine essence  must  still  unavoidably  be  pre- 
 served ;  and  upon  this  scheme  the  three 
 distinct  persons  neither  are,  nor  can  be, 
 (what  is  falsely  suggested  against  us,) 
 three  distinct  Gods.  This  communication 
 of  the  Divine  substance  to  GoD  the  SoN 
 was  not  a  temporary  one,  but  strictly  and  ab- 
 solutely eternal  -,  eternal  in  the  proper  sense 
 of  that  word  ;  in  the  same  sense  in  which 
 eternity  is  ascribed  to  the  Divine  nature 
 itself;  and  eternal,  in  the  same  sense  as 
 God  the  Father  himself  is  so. — Stephetis. 
 
 GENESIS.  The  first  book  of  the  Bible. 
 The  Hebrews  call  it  n^tt^na,  Berescliith^ 
 which  signifies,  in  the  beginning;  these 
 being  the  first  words  of  the  book.  The 
 Greeks  gave  it  the  name  of  Genesis,  or 
 Generation,  because  it  contains  the  genea- 
 logy of  the  first  patriarchs  from  Adam  to 
 the  sons  and  grandsons  of  Jacob  ;  or  be- 
 cause it  begins  with  the  history  of  the 
 creation  of  the  world.  It  includes  the 
 history  of  2369  years,  from  the  beginning 
 of  the  world  to  the  death  of  the  patriarch 
 Joseph.  Besides  the  history  of  the  cre- 
 ation, it  contains  an  account  of  the  original 
 innocence  and  fall  of  man,  the  propaga- 
 tion of  mankind,  the  rise  of  religion,  the 
 invention  of  arts,  the  general  defection 
 and  corruption  of  the  world,  the  deluge, 
 the  restoration  of  the  world,  the  division 
 and  peopling  of  the  earth,  the  original  of 
 nations  and  kingdoms,  the  history  of  the 
 first  patriarchs  down  to  Joseph,  at  whose 
 death  it  ends. 
 
 GENTILE.  (From  Gentes.)  AU  the 
 people  in  the  world,  except  the  Jews,  were 
 called  Gentiles. 
 
 GENTLEMEN  OF  THE  CHAPEL 
 ROYAL.  The  lay  singers  of  the  Royal 
 Chapel  are  so  called  ;  and  their  duty  is  to 
 perform  with  the  priests,  in  order,  the 
 choral  service  there,  which  was  formerly 
 daily.  According  to  the  present  rule,  they 
 attend  in  monthly  courses  of  eight  at  a 
 time.  In  ancient  times  this  body  was  more 
 numerous  :  Edward  VI.'s  chapel  had  thirty- 
 two  gentlemen  ;  Queen  Elizabeth's  thirty ; 
 James  I.'s  twenty-three. 
 
 GEOMETRICAL.  The  style  of  Gothic 
 architecture  w^hich  succeeded  the  Early 
 English  about  1245,  and  gave  place  to  the 
 Decorated  about  1315. 
 
 In  this    style  window  tracery  was  first 
 
GHOST. 
 
 GLEBE. 
 
 351 
 
 introduced,  and  it  is  distinguished  from 
 the  tracery  of  the  succeeding  style  by  the 
 use  of  simple  geometrical  forms,  each  in 
 general  perfect  in  itself,  and  not  running 
 into  one  another.  (See  Traceri/,  and  the 
 engravings  there  given.)  From  the  use 
 of  tracery  large  windows  naturally  fol- 
 lowed, sometimes  even  extending  to  six 
 or  eight  lights ;  and  from  these  larger 
 openings  in  the  walls  some  constructive 
 changes  followed,  especially  in  the  greater 
 weight  and  projection  of  the  buttresses. 
 The  doors  are  very  often,  as  in  the  Early 
 English,  divided  by  a  central  shaft.  The 
 piers  very  soon  lose  the  detached  shafts, 
 and  are  rather  formed  of  solid  clusters.  In 
 early  examples  the  triforium  is  still  re- 
 tained as  a  distinct  feature ;  in  later,  it  is 
 treated  as  a  decorative  band  of  panelling. 
 Arcading  is  either  discontinued,  or  in- 
 creases very  greatly  in  richness.  Vaulting 
 hardly  advances  upon  the  simple  forms  of 
 the  preceding  style.  All  decorative  fea- 
 tures are  of  the  very  highest  order  of  ex- 
 cellence, and  are  far  more  natural  than 
 either  before  or  after,  without  losing  in 
 grace,  or  force,  or  character.  There  is  no 
 single  decoration  peculiar  to  this  style,  but 
 crockets  first  appear  in  it,  as  also  the  ball- 
 flower  ;  on  the  other  hand,  the  dog-tooth 
 is  quite  given  up. 
 
 GHOST.  (See  Holt/  Ghost.)  A  spirit. 
 The  third  person  in  the  blessed  Trinity  is 
 spoken  of  as  the  Holy  Ghost.  Giving  tijf 
 the  ghost  means  expiring,  or  dying. 
 
 GIRDLE.  A  cincture  binding  the  alb 
 round  the  a\  aist.  Formerly  it  was  flat  and 
 broad,  and  sometimes  adorned  with  jewels  ; 
 in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  it  has  been 
 changed  into  a  long  cord  with  dependent 
 extremities  and  tassels.  The  zone  is  re- 
 garded as  a  type  of  purity. — Jehb. 
 
 GLEBE.  Every  church  is  of  common 
 right  entitled  to  house  and  glebe. 
 
 These  are  both  comprehended  under  the 
 name  of  manse,  and  the  rule  of  the  canon 
 law  is,  "  Sancitum  est,  ut  unicuique  ec- 
 clesia?  unus  mansus  integer,  absque  ullo 
 servitio,  tribuatur."  This  is  repeated  in 
 the  canons  of  Egbert ;  and  the  assigning 
 of  these  was  of  such  absolute  necessity, 
 that  without  them  no  church  could  be 
 regularly  consecrated.  The  fee  simple  of 
 the  glebe  is  in  abnyattce,  from  the  French 
 hayer,  to  expect,  i.  e.  it  is  only  in  the  re- 
 membrance, expectation,  and  intendment, 
 of  law.  Lord  Coke  says,  this  was  provided 
 by  the  providence  and  wisdom  of  the  law, 
 for  that  the  parson  and  vicar  have  cure  of 
 souls,  and  were  bound  to  celebrate  Divine 
 service,  and  administer  the  sacraments,  and 
 therefore  no  act  of  the  predecessor  should 
 
 make  a  discontinuance,  to  take  away  the 
 entry  of  the  successor,  and  to  drive  him  to 
 a  real  action  whereby  he  might  be  destitute 
 of  maintenance  in  the  mean  time. 
 
 After  induction,  the  freehold  of  the 
 glebe  is  in  the  parso?},  but  with  these 
 limitations  :  (1.)  That  he  may  not  alienate, 
 nor  exchange,  except  upon  the  conditions 
 set  forth  in  the  statutes  cited  below ;  (2.) 
 that  he  may  not  commit  waste  by  selling 
 wood,  6cc. 
 
 ^  But  it  has  been  adjudged  that  the  dig- 
 ging of  mines  in  glebe  lands  is  7iot  waste  ; 
 for^  the  court  said,  in  denying  a  prohi- 
 bition, "  if  this  were  accounted  waste,  no 
 mines  that  are  in  glebe  lands  could  ever 
 be  opened." 
 
 Glebe  lands,  in  the  hands  of  the  parson, 
 shall  not  pay  tithe  to  the  vicar,  though 
 endowed  generally  of  the  tithes  of  all  lands 
 within  the  parish  ;  nor  being  in  the  hands 
 of  the  vicar,  shall  they  pay  tithe  to  the 
 parson.  This  is  according  to  the  known 
 maxim  of  the  canon  law,  that "  The  Church 
 shall  not  pay  tithes  to  the  Church ; "  but 
 otherwise  if  the  glebe  be  leased  out,  for 
 then  it  shall  be  liable  to  pay  tithes  re- 
 spectively as  other  lands  are.  By  a  statute  of 
 Henry  VIII.,  if  the  parson  dies  in  posses- 
 sion of  glebe,  and  another  is  inducted  be- 
 fore severance  of  the  crop  from  the  ground, 
 his  executor  shall  have  the  corn,  but  the 
 successor  shall  have  the  tithes  :  the  reason 
 is,  because,  although  the  executor  repre- 
 sents the  testator,  yet  he  cannot  represent 
 him  as  imrson  ;  inasmuch  as  another  par- 
 son is  inducted.  By  13  EHz.  c.  10,  the 
 term  for  leasing  glebe  is  limited  to  twenty- 
 one-years,  or  three  lives.  The  55  Geo.  III. 
 c.  147,  56  Geo.  III.  c.  52,  1  Geo.  IV.  c.  6, 
 are  acts  for  "  enabling  spiritual  persons  to 
 exchange  their  parsonage  houses  or  glebe 
 lands."  (See  also  6  Geo.  IV.  c.  8  ;  7  Geo. 
 IV.  c.  66 ;  1  &  2  Vict.  c.  23 ;  2  &  3  Vict, 
 c.  49  ;  5  &  6  Vict.  c.  27 ;  1  &  2  Vict.  c. 
 106,  s.  93.) 
 
 Canon  87.  A  Terrier  ofGlehe  lands,  and 
 other  Possessions  belonging  to  Churches. — 
 "We  ordain  that  the  archbishops  and  all 
 bishops  within  their  several  dioceses  shall 
 procure  (as  much  as  in  them  lietli)  that  a 
 true  note  and  terrier  of  all  tlie  glebes, 
 lands,  meadows,  gardens,  orcliards,  liouses, 
 stocks,  implements,  tenements,  and  por- 
 tions of  tithes,  lying  out  of  their  parishes, 
 (which  belong  to  any  parsonage,  or  vicar- 
 age, or  rural  prebend,)  be  taken  by  the 
 view  of  honest  men  in  every  parish,  by  the 
 appointment  of  the  bishop,  (whereof  the 
 minister  to  be  one,)  and  be  laid  up  in  the 
 bishop's  registry,  there  to  be  for  a  perpe- 
 tual memory  thereof." 
 
352 
 
 GLORIA  IN  EXCELSIS. 
 
 GLORIA  PATRI 
 
 By  1  &  2  Vict.  c.  106,  the  bishop  may 
 assign  foiu'  acres  of  glebe  to  the  curate, 
 occupying  the  house  of  a  non-resident  in- 
 cumbent, at  a  fixed  rent,  to  be  approved 
 of  by  the  bishop. 
 
 GLORIA  IN  EXCELSIS.  "  Glory  be 
 [to  God]  on  high."  One  of  the  doxologies 
 of  the  Church,  sometimes  called  the  angelic 
 hymn,  because  the  first  part  of  it  was  sung 
 by  the  angels  at  Bethlehem.  The  latter 
 portion  of  this  celebrated  hymn  is  ascribed 
 to  Telcsphorus,  bishop  of  Home,  about  the 
 year  of  Christ  139  ;  and  the  whole  hymn, 
 with  very  little  diff"erence,  is  to  be  found 
 in  the  Apostolical  Constitutions,  and  was 
 established  to  be  used  in  the  Church  service 
 by  the  fourth  Council  of  Toledo,  A.  D.  633. 
 It  is  used  by  both  the  Greek  and  Latin 
 Church.  *'  in  the  Eastern  Church,"  says 
 Palmer,  "this  hymn  is  more  than  1500 
 years  old,  and  the  Church  of  England  has 
 used  it,  either  at  the  beginning  or  end  of 
 the  liturgy,  for  above  1200  years."  It  is 
 now  used  at  the  conclusion  of  the  Com- 
 munion Service  ;  but  in  the  First  Book  of 
 King  Edward  VI.  was  placed  near  the 
 beginning.  It  is  directed  to  be  sung  or 
 said;  and  ought  to  be  sung  in  all  cathe- 
 di-als  at  least,  as  it  is  still  at  Exeter,  Dur- 
 ham, and  occasionally  at  Worcester  and 
 VVindsor. 
 
 GLORIA  PATRI.  "  Glory  be  to  the 
 Father."  The  Latin  title  of  one  of  the 
 primitive  doxologies  of  the  Church,  some- 
 times called  the  lesser  doxology,  to  distin- 
 guish it  from  the  Gloria  in  excelsis,  or 
 angelic  hymn.  From  the  times  of  the 
 apostles  it  has  been  customary  to  mingle 
 ascriptions  of  glory  with  prayer,  and  to  con- 
 clude the  praises  of  the  Church,  and  also 
 sermons,  with  glory  to  the  Father,  to  the 
 Son,  and  to  the  Holy  Ghost.  The  first 
 part  of  the  Gloria  Patri  is  traced  by  St. 
 Basil  to  the  apostolic  age.  In  the  writings 
 of  the  Fathers,  doxologies  are  of  very  fre- 
 quent occurrence,  and  in  the  early  Church 
 they  appear  to  have  been  used  as  tests,  by 
 which  orthodox  Christians  and  Churches 
 were  distinguished  from  those  which  were 
 infected  with  heresy.  The  doxologies  then 
 in  use,  though  the  same  in  substance,  were 
 various  in  form  and  mode  of  expression. 
 The  Arians  soon  took  advantage  of  this 
 diversity,  and  wrested  some  of  them  so  as 
 to  appear  to  favour  their  own  vieAvs.  One 
 of  the  doxologies  which  ran  in  these  words, 
 "  Glory  be  to  the  Father,  by  the  Son,  in 
 the  Holy  Ghost,"  was  employed  by  them 
 in  support  of  their  heretical  opinions.  In 
 consequence  of  this,  and  to  set  the  true 
 doctrine  of  the  Church  in  the  clearest  light, 
 the  form,  as  now  used,  was  adopted  as  the 
 
 standing  doxology  of  the  Church.     (See 
 Doxoloc/y.) 
 
 Of  the  hymns  that  made  a  part  of  the 
 service  of  the  ancient  Church,  one  of  the 
 most  common  was  what  is  called  the  lesser 
 doxology.  The  most  ancient  form  of  it 
 was  only  a  single  sentence  without  a  re- 
 sponse— "  Glory  be  to  the  Father,  and 
 to  the  Son,  and  to  the  Holy  Ghost,  world 
 without  end.  Amen."  Part  of  the  latter 
 clause,  "  As  it  was  in  the  beginning,  is  now, 
 and  ever  shall  be,"  was  inserted  some  time 
 after  the  first  composition.  In  the  fourth 
 Council  of  Toledo,  an.  633,  the  words, 
 "  As  it  was  in  the  beginning,"  &c.,  are 
 omitted,  but  the  word  "  honour  "  is  added 
 to  "  glory,"  according  to  a  decree  of  that 
 council ;  that  it  should  be  said,  "  Glory 
 and  honour  be  to  the  Father  : "  foras- 
 much as  the  prophet  David  says,  "  Bring 
 glory  and  honour  to  the  Lord,"  and  John 
 the  Evangelist,  in  the  Revelation,  heard 
 the  voice  of  the  heavenly  host,  saying, 
 "  Honour  and  glory  be  to  our  GoD,  who 
 sitteth  on  the  throne."  (Rev.  v.  13.)  From 
 whence  they  conclude,  that  it  ought  to  be 
 said  on  earth  as  it  is  sung  in  heaven. 
 The  Mozarabic  liturgy,  which  was  used  in 
 Spain  a  little  after  this  time,  has  it  in  the 
 very  same  form :  "  Glory  and  honour  be 
 to  the  Father,  and  to  the  Son,  and  to  the 
 Holy  Ghost,  world  Avithout  end.  Amen." 
 The  Catholics  themselves  of  old  were  wont 
 to  say,  some,  "Glory  be  to  the  Father, 
 and  to  the  Son,  and  to  the  Holy  Ghost  ; " 
 others,  "with  the  Holy  Ghost;"  and 
 others,  "  in  or  by  the  Son,  and  by  the 
 Holy  Ghost."  These  difi'erent  ways  of 
 expressing  were  all  allowed,  so  long  as  no 
 heterodox  opinion  was  suspected  to  be 
 couched  under  them.  But  when  Arius 
 had  broached  his  heresy  in  the  world,  his 
 followers  would  use  no  other  form  of 
 glorification  but  the  last,  and  made  it  a 
 distinguishing  character  of  their  party  to 
 say,  "  Glory  be  to  the  Father,  in,  or  by, 
 the  Son,  and  Holy  Ghost:"  intending 
 hereby  to  denote,  that  the  Son  and  Holy 
 Ghost  were  inferior  to  the  Father  in 
 substance,  and,  as  creatures,  of  a  difi'erent 
 nature  from  him,  as  Sozomen  and  other 
 ancient  writers  inform  us.  From  this  time 
 it  became  scandalous,  and  brought  any  one 
 under  the  suspicion  of  heterodoxy  to  use 
 it,  because  the  Arians  had  now,  as  it  were, 
 made  it  the  shibboleth  of  their  party.  We 
 may  observe,  that  it  was  a  hymn  of  most 
 general  use,  and  a  doxology  offered  to  God 
 in  the  close  of  every  solemn  ofiice.  The 
 Western  Church  repeated  it  at  the  end  of 
 every  psalm,  and  the  Eastern  Church  at 
 the   end  of  the  last   psalm.. — The  whole 
 
GLORIA  PATRI. 
 
 GNOSTICS. 
 
 353 
 
 commonly  running  thus :  "  To  Father, 
 Son,  and  Holy  Ghost,  be  all  glory, 
 worship,  thanksgiving,  honour,  and  ador- 
 ation, now  and  for  ever,  throughout  all 
 ages,  world  without  end.  Amen." — Bi)i(j- 
 ham. 
 
 In  this  diversity  there  was  certainly 
 nothing  either  intended  ill  towards  the 
 truth,  or  which  could  be  directly  drawn 
 into  ill  construction  ;  but  when,  about  the 
 time  of  the  Niccne  Council,  the  Arians 
 began  to  sow  their  seeds  of  heresy  touch- 
 ing the  inequality  of  the  three  persons,  and, 
 the  better  to  colour  their  pretences,  shel- 
 tered themselves  under  the  protection  of 
 the  doxology,  "  the  Father,  by  the  Son, 
 in  the  Holy  Ghost,"  formerly  used,  to 
 which  they  constantly  adhere,  the  Council 
 of  Nice,  to  avoid  all  occasion  of  future 
 question,  held  herself  to  that  form  which 
 came  nighest  to  the  form  of  baptism  com- 
 posed by  our  Saviour,  and  the  doctrine  of 
 Christian  faith  ;  prescribing  it  to  be  punc- 
 tually observed  by  all  such  as  were  of  the 
 orthodox  party. — V  Estrmyje. 
 
 It  were  well  if  this  ancient  heresy  were 
 so  buried  as  never  to  rise  or  revive  any 
 more.  But,  alas  !  that  weed  Avas  never  so 
 thoroughly  rooted  out,  but  the  seeds  of  it 
 soon  sprang  up  again,  to  the  depraving  of 
 the  doctrine  and  disturbing  the  peace  of 
 the  Church.  In  these  later  years  there 
 hath  arisen  up  one  Socinus,  a  man  of  a 
 subtle  and  crafty  wit,  who  hath  rubbed  up 
 and  revived  the  same  heresy,  by  denying 
 the  Divinity  and  satisfaction  of  our  blessed 
 Saviour,  and  hath  carried  away  many  by 
 his  cunning  and  corrupt  reasoning. — Hole. 
 
 If  the  reasoning  of  Basil  be  conclusive, 
 or  his  opinion  may  be  relied  upon,  this 
 hymn,  Gloria  Patri,  derives  its  origin  from 
 the  apostles.  Glorifying  the  Father,  and 
 the  Son,  together  with  the  Holy  Ghost, 
 was  in  Basil's  judgment  practised  and 
 prescribed  by  the  apostles  themselves. 
 This,  he  believes,  was  one  of  the  "  ordi- 
 nances," or  "traditions,"  which  St.  Paul 
 praises  the  Corinthians  for  keeping,  as 
 they  had  been  delivered  to  them  by  him 
 (1  Cor.  xi.  2) ;  and  exhorts  the  Thessa- 
 lonians  to  hold,  as  they  had  been  taught, 
 whether  by  word,  or  by  epistle.  (2  Thess. 
 ii.  15.)  On  this  principle,  Basil  accounts 
 for  the  practice  of  ascribing  glory  to  the 
 Trinity,  which  in  his  day  was  universal. 
 — In  different  passages  of  his  works  we 
 find  him  thus  arguing :  "  As  we  have  re- 
 ceived, so  must  we  be  baptized ;  as  we  are 
 baptized,  so  must  we  believe ;  and  as  we 
 have  believed,  so  mu-st  we  glorify  the 
 Father,  the  Son,  and  the  Holy  Ghost." 
 —  Shepherd. 
 
 2  X 
 
 The  earliest  instance  that  we  meet  with 
 of  the  use  of  this  hymn,  is  found  in  the 
 circular  epistle  of  the  Church  of  Smyrna, 
 concerning  the  martyrdom  of  tlu-ir  beloved 
 bishop  Polycarp,  from  whence  we  learn 
 that  a  doxology,  nearly  resembling  Gloria 
 Patri,  was  the  last  words  he  uttered. 
 Polycarp  was  conversant  with  the  apostles, 
 and  was  consecrated  bisho])  of  Smyrna  by 
 St.  John  the  Evangelist.  To  him,  among 
 others,  St.  John  is  said  to  have  addressed 
 the  Revelation,  in  which  Polycarp  is  en- 
 titled "  the  angel  of  the  Church  of  Smyrna." 
 With  some  little  difference  in  the  phrase 
 of  their  doxologies,  the  Christians  of  the 
 three  first  ages  agreed  in  uniformly  ex- 
 pressing the  same  thing.  Believing  and 
 confessing,  that  in  the  eternal  Godhead 
 there  existed  three,  the  Father,  the  Son, 
 and  the  Holy  Ghost,  they  ascribed  to  them 
 all  honour  and  glory. — Shepherd. 
 
 To  this  very  day  this  serves  for  these 
 two  uses ;  first,  as  a  shorter  creed,  and 
 confession  of  our  believing  in  "  three  per- 
 sons and  one  God,"  whereby  we  both 
 declare  ourselves  to  he  in  the  communion 
 of  the  Catholic  Church,  and  also  renounce 
 all  heretics  who  deny  this  great  and  distin- 
 guishing article  of  our  faith;  secondly, 
 for  a  hymn  of  praise,  by  which  we  magnify 
 the  Father  for  our  creation,  the  Son  for 
 our  redemption,  and  the  Holy  Ghost  for 
 our  sanctification  ;  and  to  quicken  us  here- 
 in, we  declare  it  was  so  "  in  the  beginning," 
 for  the  angels  sung  the  praises  of  the 
 Trinity  in  the  morning  of  the  creation ; 
 and  the  patriarchs,  prophets,  and  apostles, 
 saints  and  martjTs,  did  thus  worship  God 
 from  the  beginning.  The  whole  Church 
 militant  and  triumphant  doth  it  "now," 
 and  shall  do  it  for  "  ever,"  not  only  in  this 
 "  world,"  but  in  that  which  is  "  without 
 end."  Let  us,  therefore,  with  great  de- 
 votion, join  with  this  blessed  company  in 
 so  good  a  work,  and  give  glory  to  the 
 Father  who  granted  our  pardon,  to  the 
 Son  who  purchased  it,  and  to  the  Holy 
 Ghost  who  scaled  it. — Comber. 
 
 GLOSS.     A  comment. 
 
 GNOSTICS.  (From  yvutmg,  knowledge.) 
 The  word  Gnostic  properly  signifies  a 
 learned  or  enlightened  person  ;  and  thus 
 Clement  of  Alexandria  uses  it  to  denote 
 the  perfect  Christian,  vcho  is  the  true 
 Gnostic.  But  in  its  more  common  use, 
 the  term  signifies  a  class  of  heretics,  who 
 pretended  to  superior  knowledge,  and 
 mixed  up  some  Christian  ideas  and  terms 
 with  systems  based  on  Platonism,  Oriental 
 philosophy,  or  corrupt  Judaism.  To  this 
 class  most  of  the  earhest  sects  belonged. 
 Simon  Magus  may  be  considered  as  the 
 
354 
 
 GNOSTICS. 
 
 GOD. 
 
 forerunner  of  Gnosticism ;  and  in  the  second 
 century  there  were  many  varieties  of  Gnos- 
 tics— as  the  followers  of  Basilides  Satur- 
 ninus,  Carpocrates,  Valentinus,  &c.  Of 
 these  the  Carpocratians  alone  are  said  to 
 have  assumed  the  name. 
 
 The  Gnostic  systems  held  in  common  a 
 belief  in  one  supreme  God,  dwelling  from 
 eternity  in  the  Pleroma,  or  fulness  of 
 light.  From  him  proceed  successive  ge- 
 nerations of  spiritual  beings — called  by 
 Valentinus  uEons.  In  proportion  as  these 
 emanations  are  more  remote  from  the 
 primal  source,  the  likeness  of  his  per- 
 fections in  them  is  continually  fainter. 
 Matter  is  regarded  as  eternal,  and  as  in- 
 herently evil.  Out  of  it  the  world  was 
 formed,  not  by  the  Supreme  God,  but  by 
 the  Demiurf/e — a  being  who  is  represented 
 by  some  heresiarchs  as  merely  a  subordin- 
 ate and  unconscious  instrument  of  the 
 Divine  will,  and  by  others  as  positively 
 malignant,  and  hostile  to  the  Supreme. 
 The  ])emiurge  was  the  national  God  of 
 the  Jews — the  God  of  the  Old  Testament ; 
 according,  therefore,  as  he  is  viewed,  the 
 Mosaic  economy  is  either  recognised  as 
 preparatory,  or  is  rejected  as  evil.  The 
 mission  of  Christ  was  for  the  purpose  of 
 delivering  man  from  the  tp-anny  of  the 
 Demiurge.  But  the  Christ  of  Gnosticism 
 was  neither  very  God  nor  very  man.  His 
 spiritual  nature,  being  an  emanation  from 
 the  Supreme  God,  was  necessarily  inferior 
 to  its  original ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  an 
 emanation  from  God  could  not  dwell  in  a 
 material,  and  consequently  evil,  body. 
 Either,  therefore,  Jesus  was  a  mere  man, 
 on  whom  the  iEon  Christ  descended  at  his 
 baptism,  to  forsake  him  again  before  his 
 cnicifixion ;  or  the  body  with  which  Christ 
 seemed  to  be  clothed  was  only  a  phantom, 
 and  all  his  actions  were  only  in  appearance. 
 (See  Docet(P.) 
 
 The  same  view  as  to  the  evil  nature  of 
 matter  led  the  Gnostics  to  deny  the  resur- 
 rection of  the  body.  They  could  admit 
 no  other  than  a  spiritual  resurrection  ;  the 
 object  of  their  philosophy  was  to  emanci- 
 pate the  soul  from  its  gross  and  material 
 prison  at  death ;  the  soul  of  the  perfect 
 Gnostic,  having  already  risen  in  baptism, 
 was  to  be  gathered  into  the  bosom  of  God, 
 while  such  souls  as  yet  lacked  their  full 
 perfection,  were  to  work  it  out  in  a  series 
 of  transmigrations. 
 
 Since  matter  was  evil, 
 required  to  overcome  it. 
 an   important    practical 
 while  some  sought  the 
 ascetic  abstraction  from  the  things  of  sense, 
 the  baser   kind  professed  to   show  their 
 
 the  Gnostic  was 
 
 But  here  arose 
 
 difference  ;    for, 
 
 •ictory  by  a  high 
 
 superiority  and  indifference  by  wallowing 
 in  impurity  and  excess. — (See  Bardesan- 
 ists,  Basilidiay^s,  Carpocratians,  3Iarcion- 
 ites,  Ophites,  Valentinians.) 
 
 GOD.  This  is  the  name  we  give  to 
 that  eternal,  infinite,  and  incomprehensible 
 Being,  the  Maker  and  Preserver  of  all 
 things,  who  exists  One  Being  in  a  Trinity 
 of  Persons.  The  name  is  derived  from 
 the  Icelandic  Godi,  which  signifies  the  su- 
 preme magistrate. 
 
 Ai'ticle  I.  "  There  is  but  one  living  and 
 true  God,  everlasting,  without  body,  ])arts, 
 or  passions ;  of  infinite  power,  wisdom,  and 
 goodness ;  the  Maker  and  Preserver  of  all 
 things,  both  visible  and  invisible.  And 
 in  unity  of  this  Godhead  there  be  three 
 persons,  of  one  substance,  power,  and 
 eternity ;  the  Father,  the  Sox,  and  the 
 Holy  Ghost." 
 
 The  Father  is  God. 
 
 God  the  Father  (John  vi.  27 ;  Gal.  i.  1, 
 3;  1  Thess.  i.  1).  God,  even  the  Father 
 (1  Cor.  XV.  24  ;  2  Cor.  i.  3;  James  iii.  9). 
 One  God  and  Father  (Eph.  iv,  6).  One 
 God  the  Father  (1  Cor.  viii.  6) ;  and  the 
 passages  v/here  God  is  spoken  of  as  the 
 Father  of  our  Lord  Christ,  the  Son  of 
 the  living  GoD  (Matt.  xvi.  16 ;  John  iii. 
 16;  vi.  27;  Rom.  v.  10;  viii.  3;  xv.  6). 
 
 The  Son  is  God. 
 
 I.  So  expressly  declared. 
 
 The  mighty  God  (Isa.  ix.  6).  Make 
 straight — a  highway  for  our  God  !  (xl.  3). 
 Thy  throne,  O  God,  is  for  ever  and  ever ! 
 (Ps.  xlv.  6,  with  Heb.  i.  8).  I  will  save 
 them  by  the  Lord  their  God  (Hosea  i.  7). 
 Immanuel,  God  with  us  (Isa.  vii.  14;  Matt, 
 i.  23).  The  Word  was  God  (John  i.  1). 
 My  Lord  and  my  God  !  (xx.  28 ;  see  Ps. 
 XXXV.  23).  Feed  the  Church  of  God, 
 which  he  has  purchased  with  his  own  blood 
 (Acts  XX.  28).  They  stoned  Stephen,  call- 
 ing upon  God,  and  saying.  Lord  Jesus, 
 &c.  (vii.  59).  Christ  is  over  all,  God, 
 blessed  for  ever !  (Rom.  ix.  5.)  God  was 
 manifest  in  the  flesh,  &c.,  believed  on  in 
 the  Avorld,  received  up  into  glory  (I  Tim. 
 iii.  16).  God  our  Saviour.  (Titus  ii. 
 10).  The  great  God  (13).  Our  God 
 and  Saviour,  Jesus  Christ  (Gr.)  (2  Pet. 
 i.  1,  with  Titus  ii.  13).  Hereby  perceive 
 we  the  love  of  God,  because  he  laid  down 
 his  life  for  us  (1  John  iii.  16).  The  true 
 God,  and  eternal  life  (v.  20). 
 
 II.  By  necessary  implication. 
 
 The  angel  Jehovah  is  God  (Gen.  xxxi. 
 11,  with  13;  and  xxxv.  9 — 13,  and  15; 
 xvi.  9,  with  13 ;  Ex.  iii.  2,  with  4,  and  6). 
 I  am  Alpha  and  Omega — he  that  over- 
 cometh — I  will  be  his  God  (Rev.  xxi.  6, 
 7).     We  must  all  stand  before  the  judg- 
 
GOD. 
 
 355 
 
 ment  seat  of  Christ,  for, — every  tongue 
 shall  confess  to  God  (Rom.  xiv.  10,  11). 
 I  saw  the  dead,  small  and  great,  stand 
 before  God,  &c.  (Rev.  xx.  12).  Many 
 shall  he  (John  the  Baptist)  turn  to  the 
 Lord  their  God,  for  he  shall  go  before 
 him  (Luke  i.  10,  17;  with  Matt.  iii.  11, 
 and  xi.  10).  The  Lord  God  of  the  holy 
 prophets  sent  his  angel  (Rev.  xxii.  6,  with 
 16).  I  Jesus  have  sent  mine  angel  to 
 testify,  &c.  They  temjjted  the  most  high 
 God  (Ps.  Ixxviii.  56),  applied  to  Christ 
 (1  Cor.  X.  9).  Behold  the  Lord  God  will 
 come — behold  his  reward  is  with  him  (Isa. 
 xl.  10,  with  Rev.  xxii.  12,  20).  Behold 
 I  come  quickly,  and  my  reward  is  with  me 
 — I  am  Al})ha  and  Omega.  Surely  I  come 
 quickly.  Amen  !  even  so,  come.  Lord  Jesus  ! 
 — To  the  only  wise  God,  our  Saviour,  be 
 glory.  Sec.  Amen !  (Jude  25). 
 
 IIL  From  his  attributes. 
 
 As  he  is  icisdom  itself  (Prov.  viii. 
 throughout ;  Luke  xi.  49,  with  Col.  ii.  3). 
 — As  he  is  the  holy  one  (Ps.  xvi.  10) ;  the 
 most  holy  (Dan.  ix.  24,  with  Rev.  iii.  7). 
 — As  he  is  the  truth  (John  xiv.  6,  and 
 Rev.  iii.  7,  with  1  John  v.  20). — As  he  is 
 eternal. — Eternal  life  (1  John  i.  1,2,  and 
 V.  20). — From  his  unchanr/eableness  (Heb. 
 i.  11,  12,  and  xiii.  8,  with  Mai.  iii.  6).— 
 His  omnipresence  (John  iii.  13;  Matt,  xviii. 
 20;  xxviii.  20;  Eph.  i.  23;  iv.  10).— His 
 omniscience  (Rev.  ii.  23 ;  John  ii.  24,  25  ; 
 V.  42).  Knowing  the  thoughts  (Matt.  ix. 
 4  ;  xii.  15,  25  ;  Mark  ii.  8  ;  Luke  v.  22  ; 
 vi.  8;  ix.  47;  xi.  17;  John  vi.  61,64; 
 xvi.  19;  xxi.  17,  with  1  Cor.  iv.  5  ;  this 
 with  1  Kings  viii.  39).  Thou,  even  thou 
 only,  (O  Lord  God,)  knowest  the  hearts  of 
 all  the  children  of  men. —  Omnipotence: 
 The  works  of  creation.  All  things  were 
 made  by  him ;  and  without  him  was  not 
 anything  made  that  was  made  (John  i.  3, 
 with  Ps.  cii.  25 ;  Col.  i.  16,  and  Jer.  x. 
 10,  11). — And  jn-ovidence.  By  him  all 
 things  consist  (Col.  i.  17).  Upholding  all 
 things  by  the  word  of  his  power  (Heb.  i. 
 3). — Judf/in//  the  world.  The  Lord  Jesus 
 Christ,  who  shall  judge  the  quick  and  the 
 dead  (2  Tim.  iv.  1,  &c.,  with  Gen.  xviii. 
 25,  and  Ps.  1.  6).  God  is  judge  himself. 
 — Raising  the  dead  (John  vi.  40,  54 ;  v. 
 28,  29 ;  with  Deut.  xxxii.  39).  I,  even  I, 
 am  he,  and  there  is  no  God  with  me ;  1 
 kill,  and  I  make  alive  ! — The  forgiveness 
 of  sins  (Mark  ii.  10,  11,  &c.,  with  Isa. 
 xliii.  25).  I,  even  I,  am  he  that  blotteth 
 out  thy  transgressions,  and  Mark  ii.  7. 
 
 IV.  As  Divine  worship  is  due,  and  paid 
 to  him. 
 
 Being  directed  by  prophecy.  All  kings 
 shall  fall  down  before  him  (Ps.  Ixxii.  11). 
 2  A  2 
 
 All  dominions  shall  serve  and  obey  him 
 (Dan.  \\\,  27).  Kiss  the  Son,  lest  he  be 
 angry,  and  ye  perish  from  the  way  (Ps.  ii. 
 12).  He  is  thy  Lord,  and  worship  thou 
 him  (xiv.  11).  Let  all  the  angels  of  God 
 worship  him  !  (Heb.  i.  6.)  All  men  should 
 honour  the  Son,  even  as  they  honour  the 
 l^'.VTiiER.  External  worship  was  paid  by 
 the  wise  men  (Matt.  ii.  11) — by  the  leper 
 (viii.  2)— by  the  ruler  (ix.  18)— by  the 
 seamen  in  the  storm  (xiv.  33) — by  the 
 woman  of  Canaan  (xv.  25) — by  the  blind 
 man  (John  ix.  38)— by  the  Marys,  &c. 
 (Matt,  xxviii.  9),  and  by  his  disci})les  (Rev. 
 i.  17).  At  the  name  of  Jesus  every  knee 
 should  bow  in  heaven  and  in  earth  (Phil, 
 ii.  10;  compare  this  with  INIatt.  iv.  10, 
 Thou  shalt  worship  the  Lord  thy  God, 
 and  him  only  shalt  thou  serve ;  and  Neh. 
 ix.  6,  Thou,  even  thou,  art  Lord  alone ; 
 thou  hast  made  heaven,  &c.,  and  the  host 
 of  heaven  worshippcth  thee  !). 
 
 V.  As  there  must  be  faith,  and  hope, 
 and  trust  in  him. 
 
 See  John  iii.  15,  16;  xiv.  1;  xii.  44; 
 Rom.  X.  11;  XV.  12;  Acts  xvi.  31;  Eph. 
 i.  12,  13,  with  Jer.  xvii.  5.  Cursed  be  the 
 man  that  trusteth  in  man  ;  whose  heart 
 departeth  from  the  Lord  !  but  blessed  are 
 all  they  that  put  their  trust  in  him ! 
 
 YL  As  praise  and  thanksgiving  are  of- 
 fered to  him. 
 
 Daily  shall  he  be  praised  (Ps.  Ixxii.  15). 
 Unto  him  that  loved  us,  and  washed  us 
 from  our  sins,  be  glory  and  dominion  for 
 ever  and  ever  !  (Rev.  i.  5,  6  ;  compare  Ps. 
 cxlviii.  13).  Let  them  praise  the  name  of 
 the  Lord,  for  his  name  alone  is  excellent. 
 Whosoever  shall  call  upon  the  name  of 
 the  Lord  shall  be  saved.  Saints,  with  all 
 that  in  every  place  call  upon  the  name  of 
 Jesus  Christ  (1  Cor.  i.  2,  and  Rev.  v. 
 11 — 13).  Worthy  is  the  Lamb  that  was 
 slain,  to  receive  honour,  and  glory,  and 
 blessing — blessing  and  honour  and  glory 
 and  power  be  unto  him  that  sitteth  upon 
 the  throne,  and  unto  the  Lamb,  for  ever 
 and  ever ! — Salvation  to  our  God,  who  sit- 
 teth upon  the  throne,  and  unto  the  Lamb. 
 Blessing,  &c.  be  unto  our  God  for  ever 
 and  ever.     Amen!   (Rev.  vii.  10 — 12). 
 
 The  Holy  Ghost  is  God. 
 
 This  perhaps  i^  only  to  be  proved  by 
 implication  and  analogy. 
 
 I.  In  regard  to  title. 
 
 The  Spirit  of  the  Lord  spake  by  me— 
 the  God  of  Israel  said,  the  Rock  of  Israel 
 spake  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  2,  3).  That  holy  thing 
 which  shall  be  born  of  thee  shall  be  called 
 the  Son  of  God  (Luke  i.  35).  She  was 
 found  with  child  of  the  Holy  Ghost 
 (Matt.  i.  18).     AMiy— lie   to  the  Holy 
 
356 
 
 GOD. 
 
 GODFATHER. 
 
 Ghost — thou  hast  lied  unto  God  (Acts  v. 
 3,  4).  Born  of  the  Sjnrit  (John  iii.  6). 
 Be  born  of  God  (1  John  v.  4).  Consider, 
 too,  no  man  taketh  this  honour  to  himself, 
 but  he  that  is  called  of  God  (Heb.  v.  4). 
 Pray  the  Lord  of  the  harvest  that  he  will 
 send  forth  labourers  (Matt.  ix.  o8). — The 
 Holy  Ghost  said,  Separate  me  Barnabas 
 and  Saul  for  the  work  whereunto  I  have 
 called  them. — So  they,  bein^  sent  forth  by 
 the  Holy  Ghost,  departed  (Acts  xiii.  2, 
 and  4).  They  shall  be  all  taught  of  God 
 (John  vi.  45).  Not  in  the  words  which 
 man's  wisdom  teacheth,  but  which  the 
 Holy  Ghost  teacheth  (1  Cor.  ii.  13).  Ye 
 are  the  temple  of  GoD  (1  Cor.  iii.  16). 
 Your  body  is  the  temple  of  the  Holy 
 Ghost  (vi.  19).  The  hand  of  the  Lord 
 God  fell  there  upon  me,  and  he  put  forth 
 the  form  of  an  hand,  and  took  me  by  a 
 lock  of  mine  head,  and  the  Spirit  lifted  me 
 up  (Ezek.  viii.  1 — 3). 
 
 See  also  the  following  passages,  as  re- 
 spectively explaining  each  other  :  Luke  ii. 
 26,  with  John  xiv.  16,  17,  and  1  Cor.  xiv. 
 25.— Matt.  iv.  1,  with  Luke  xi.  4.-2  Cor. 
 i.  3,  with  Acts  ix.  31  ;  John  xiv.  26,  &c. — 
 1  Cor.  ii.  11,  with  14.— Matt.  iv.  7,  with 
 Acts  v.  9.— Gen.  vi.  3,  with  1  Pet.  iii.  20. 
 — Luke  xi.  20,  with  Matt.  xii.  28. — Acts 
 iv.  24,  25,  with  i.  16,— and  Luke  i.  68,  70, 
 with  Acts  xx\'iii.  25 ;  and  various  others 
 that  might  be  noticed. 
 
 That  the  Father,  under  whatever  names 
 he  is  described  and  addressed,  is  GoD,  is 
 not  disputable.  That  the  Son  is  also  God, 
 it  would  seem  much  of  rashness  to  doubt ; 
 since  he  was  foretold  by  prophecy  before 
 his  manifestation  in  the  flesh,  to  be  GoD, 
 and  appeared  as  God  to  the  patriarchs. — 
 God  the  Son,  the  angel  and  guardian  of 
 his  people  ;  for  "  GoD  " — the  Trinity  in 
 unity — "  no  man  hath  seen  at  any  time." 
 That  he  must  be  a  GoD  who  has  such  titles 
 applied  to  him,  such  Divine  attributes  and 
 offices,  and  to  whom  Divine  worship  is 
 paid,  the  Arian  allows,  and  the  Socinian 
 did  not  always  deny;  but  that  he  is  an- 
 other— an  inferior  GoD,  thus  making  more 
 Gods  than  one,  the  voice  of  revelation  ex- 
 pressly contradicts. 
 
 The  Divinity  of  the  Son  is  in  fact  proved 
 both  directly  and  incidentally;  but  the  per- 
 sonality and  Divinity  of  the  Holy  Spirit 
 are  less  decisively  expressed  and  treated 
 of— apparently  because  the  Holy  Ghost 
 was  never  incarnate,  nor  appeared  in  a 
 bodily  form  upon  earth,  and  therefore  we 
 have  not  his  frequent  declarations,  as  we 
 have  those  of  the  Son,  nor  direct  addresses 
 to  him,  as  we  have  to  the  Father,  to 
 illustrate  this  point,  but  are  left  to  gather 
 
 the  truth  from  the  mouths  of  the  prophets 
 — the  holy  men  of  God,  who  spake  as 
 they  were  moved  by  the  Holy  Ghost. 
 From  their  preaching  we  sufficiently  learn 
 that  he  joined  in  the  work  of  creation — 
 that  he  dwells  in  the  temple  of  the  body, 
 (1  Cor.  iii.  16;  vi.  19,  20;  2  Cor.  vi.  16,) 
 and  the  faithful  are  therefore  dedicated  to 
 him — that  he  is  eternal,  omnipresent,  in- 
 finite in  power  and  knowledge  —  that  obe- 
 dience is  due  to  him,  and  the  sin  against 
 him  considered  unpardonable — and  that 
 he  is  to  be  worshipped  is  implied  by  the 
 apostolic  form  of  benediction.  That  the 
 Holy  Spirit  is  a  person  is  proved,  inde- 
 pendently of  analogous  reasoning,  by  a 
 clear  personal  distinction  between  him  and 
 the  Father  and  the  Son. 
 
 The  term  God,  when  used  in  Holy 
 Scripture  in  re-lation  to  the  Father  of  our 
 Lord  Christ,  is  evidently  used  in  a  per- 
 sonal sense  ;  and  in  such  sense  the  Church 
 also  speaks  of  God  the  Son  and  God  the 
 Holy  Ghost.  But  when  it  is  announced 
 that  there  is  but  one  God,  though  he  is 
 the  Father  of  all,  the  term  is  used  essen- 
 tially, and  comprehends  the  sacred  three. 
 The  unity  of  the  Godhead  is  so  unequi- 
 vocally declared  in  Holy  Scripture,  that 
 we  dare  not  deny  it :  but  neither,  it  is  pre- 
 sumed, can  we  safely  deny  that  the  Fa- 
 ther, the  Son,  and  the  Holy  Ghost  are 
 each  of  them  God,  without  either  impeach- 
 ing the  authenticity  of  most  of  the  passages 
 cited  in  this  article,  or  making  the  word 
 of  God  (itself)  of  none  effect,  by  strifes  of 
 words,  not  to  say  profane  and  vain  bab- 
 blings. 
 
 GODFATHER.  (See  Sponsors.)  He 
 that  holds  the  child  at  the  baptismal  font, 
 and  answers  for  him.  The  custom  of  god- 
 fathers or  sponsors  is  very  ancient  in  the 
 Church.  We  find  them  mentioned  by 
 Tertullian,  the  Apostolical  Constitutions, 
 St.  Chrysostom,  and  St.  Augustine.  There 
 were  three  sorts  of  sponsors:  1.  For  chil- 
 dren. 2.  For  adult  persons,  mIio  through 
 sickness  were  not  able  to  answer  for  them- 
 selves. 3.  For  such  as  could  answer.  The 
 sureties  for  the  first  were  obliged  to  be 
 guardians  of  children's  Christian  educa- 
 tion ;  and  indeed  at  first  they  were  the 
 parents  of  the  children,  and  it  was  in 
 extraordinary  cases,  either  when  the 
 parent  could  not  or  would  not,  that  others 
 were  admitted  to  be  sureties.  Sureties  of 
 the  second  sort  were  such  as  engaged  to 
 the  Church  that  the  adult  person,  who 
 was.  grown  incapable  to  answer  for  himself, 
 did,  when  he  was  capable,  desire  to  be 
 baptized.  But  those  of  the  third  sort,  who 
 appeared  with  the  person  to  be  baptized, 
 
GOLDEN  NUMBER. 
 
 GOOD  FRIDAY. 
 
 357 
 
 obliged  themselves  to  admonish  the  ])er- 
 son  of  his  duty,  as  they  had,  before  bap- 
 tism, instructed  him  in  it.  Anciently 
 deaconnesses  were  the  sponsors  for  women, 
 and  the  deacons  were  for  the  men.  Pa- 
 rents were  not  forbidden  to  be  sponsors 
 for  their  children,  before  the  Council  of 
 Mentz,  A.  D.  813.  In  the  Church  of  Home 
 it  is  not  lawful  to  marry  any  person  to 
 whom  one  stands  related  in  this  spiritual 
 way ;   and  this  occasions  numberless   dis- 
 
 Eutes,  and  numberless  dispensations,  which 
 ring  great  sums  of  money  to  the  exche- 
 quer of  Rome. 
 
 Rubric.  "  There  shall  be  for  every  male 
 child  to  be  baptized,  two  godfathers  and 
 one  godmother  ;  and  for  every  female,  one 
 godfather  and  two  godmothers." 
 
 Canon  29.  "  No  person  shall  be  urged 
 to  be  present,  nor  be  admitted  to  answer 
 as  godfather  for  his  own  child ;  nor  any 
 godfather  or  godmother  shall  be  suffered 
 to  make  any  other  answer  or  speech,  than 
 by  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  is  pre- 
 scribed in  that  behalf.  Neither  shall  any 
 person  be  admitted  godfather  or  god- 
 mother to  any  child  at  christening  or  con- 
 firmation, before  the  said  person  so  under- 
 taking hath  received  the  holy  communion." 
 
 Rubric.  "  And  the  godfathers  and  god- 
 mothers, and  the  people  with  the  children, 
 must  be  ready  at  the  font,  either  imme- 
 diately after  the  last  lesson  at  m.orning 
 prayer,  or  else  immediately  after  the  last 
 lesson  at  evening  prayer,  as  the  curate  by 
 his  discretion  shall  appoint." 
 
 GOLDEN  NUMBER.  By  referring 
 to  the  astronomical  tables  at  the  beginning 
 of  the  Prayer  Book,  it  will  be  seen  that  a 
 large  proportion  of  them  are  simply  cal- 
 culations of  the  day  on  which  Easter  will 
 fall  in  any  given  year,  and,  by  consequence, 
 the  moveable  feasts  depending  on  it.  In 
 the  early  Church,  it  is  well  known  that 
 there  were  many  and  long  disputes  on  this 
 point,  the  Eastern  and  Western  Churches 
 not  agreeing  on  the  particular  day  for  the 
 celebration  of  this  festival.  To  remove 
 these  difhculties,  the  Council  of  Nice  came 
 to  a  decision,  from  which  the  following 
 rule  was  framed,  viz.  "  Easter  day  is 
 always  the  first  Sunday  after  the  full 
 moon  which  happens  upon  or  next  after 
 the  21st  day  of  March;  and  if  the  full 
 moon  happens  upon  a  Sunday,  Easter  day 
 is  the  Sunday  after." 
 
 To  determine  the  time  of  Easter  in  any 
 year,  it  was  therefore  only  necessary  to 
 find  out  the  precise  time  of  the  above  full 
 moon,  and  to  calculate  accordingly.  Now 
 if  the  solar  year  exactly  corresponded  with 
 the  lunar,  the  time  of  the  paschal  moon 
 
 would  be  liable  to  no  variation,  and  Easter 
 would  fall  on  the  same  day  of  every  year ; 
 but  as  the  lunar  year  is  really  shorter  than 
 the  solar,  by  eleven  days,  it  follows  that 
 the  paschal  moon  must,  for  a  course  of 
 years,  always  happen  at  a  different  period 
 in  each  successive  year.  If  then  the  above 
 rule  be  observed,  the  time  of  Easter  may 
 vary  from  the  22nd  of  March  to  the  25th 
 of  April,  but  somewhere  within  these 
 limits  it  will  always  fall.  Hence  the  adop- 
 tion by  the  Council  of  Nice  of  the  Mctonic 
 Cycle,  by  which  these  changes  might  be 
 determined  with  tolerable  accuracy.  From 
 the  great  usefulness  of  this  cycle,  its  num- 
 bers were  usually  written  on  the  calendar 
 in  letters  of  gold,  from  which  it  derived 
 the  name  of  Golden  Numher. 
 
 GOOD  FRIDAY.  The  Friday  in  Pas- 
 sion week  received  this  name  from  the 
 blessed  effects  of  our  Saviouh's  sufferings, 
 which  are  the  ground  of  all  our  joy,  and 
 from  those  unspeakable  good  things  he 
 hath  purchased  for  us  by  his  death,  whereby 
 the  blessed  Jesus  made  expiation  for  the 
 sins  of  the  whole  world,  and  by  the  shed- 
 ding of  his  own  blood,  obtained  eternal 
 redemption  for  us.  Among  the  Saxons 
 it  was  called  Long  Friday ;  but  for  what 
 reason,  except  for  the  long  fastings  and 
 offices  they  then  used,  does  not  appear. 
 
 The  commemoration  of  our  Saviour's 
 sufferings  hath  been  kept  from  the  very 
 first  age  of  Christianity,  and  was  always 
 observed  as  a  day  of  the  strictest  fasting 
 and  humiliation  ;  not  that  the  grief  and  af- 
 fliction they  then  expressed  did  arise  from 
 the  loss  they  sustained,  but  from  a  sense 
 of  the  guilt  of  the  sins  of  the  whole  world, 
 which  di-ew  upon  our  blessed  Redeemer  that 
 painful  and  shameful  death  of  the  cross. 
 
 The  Gospel  for  this  day  (besides  its 
 coming  in  course)  is  properly  taken  out  of 
 St.  John  rather  than  any  other  evangelist, 
 because  he  was  the  only  one  that  was 
 present  at  the  passion,  and  stood  by  the 
 cross  while  others  fled :  and,  therefore,  the 
 passion  being  as  it  were  represented  be- 
 fore our  eyes,  his  testimony  is  read  who 
 saw  it  himself,  and  from  whose  example 
 we  may  learn  not  to  be  ashamed  or  afraid 
 of  the  cross  of  Christ.  The  Epistle  proves, 
 from  the  insufficiency  of  the  Jewish  sacri- 
 fices, that  they  only  tyi)ificd  a  more  suffi- 
 cient one,  which  the  Son  of  God  did,  as  on 
 this  day,  offer  up,  and  by  one  oblation  of 
 himself  then  made  upon  the  cross,  com- 
 plete all  the  other  sacrifices,  (which  were 
 only  shadows  of  this,)  and  made  full  satis- 
 faction for  the  sins  of  the  whole  world. 
 In  imitation  of  which  Divine  and  infinite 
 love,  the  Church  endeavours  to  show  her 
 
358 
 
 GOOD  WORKS. 
 
 charity  to  be  boundless  and  unlimited,  by 
 praying  in  one  of  the  proper  collects,  that 
 the  effects  of  CnmsT's  death  may  be  as 
 universal  as  the  design  of  it,  namely,  that 
 it  may  tend  to  the  salvation  of  all,  Jews, 
 Turks,  infidels,  and  heretics. 
 
 How  suitable  the  proper  psalms  are 
 to  the  day,  is  obvious  to  any  one  that 
 reads  them  with  a  due  attention  :  they 
 were  all  composed  by  David  in  times  of 
 the  greatest  calamity  and  distress,  and  do 
 most  of  them  belong  mystically  to  the 
 crucifixion  of  our  Sayiouk  ;  especially  the 
 twenty-second,  which  is  the  first  for  the 
 morning,  which  was  in  several  passages 
 literally  fulfilled  by  his  sufferings,  and, 
 either  part  of  it,  or  all,  recited  by  him  upon 
 the  cross.  And  for  that  reason  (as  St.  Aus- 
 tin tells  us)  was  always  used  upon  that  day 
 by  the  African  Church. 
 
 The  first  lesson  for  the  morning  is 
 Genesis  xxii.,  containing  an  account  of 
 Abraham's  readiness  to  offer  up  his  son ; 
 thereby  typifying  that  perfect  oblation 
 Avhich  was  this  day  made  by  the  Son  of 
 God  ;  which  was  thought  so  proper  a  les- 
 son for  this  occasion,  that  the  Church  used 
 it  upon  this  day  in  St.  Austin's  time.  The 
 second  lesson  is  St.  John  xviii.,  which 
 needs  no  explanation.  The  first  lesson  for 
 the  evening  contains  a  clear  prophecy  of 
 the  passion  of  Christ,  and  of  the  benefits 
 which  the  Church  thereby  receives.  The 
 second  lesson  exhorts  us  to  patience  under 
 afflictions,  from  the  example  of  Christ, 
 who  suffered  so  much  for  us. —  Jllieatly. 
 
 The  proper  psalms  and  both  the  second 
 lessons  for  Good  Friday  were  added  at  the 
 last  review  :  and  Genesis  xxii.,  the  first 
 morning  lesson,  which  was  formerly  read 
 all  through,  limited  to  ver.  20. 
 
 GOOD  WOKKS.  "Albeit  that  good 
 works,  which  are  the  fruits  of  faith,  and 
 follow  after  justification,  cannot  put  away 
 our  sins,  and  endure  the  severity  of  Gou's 
 judgment ;  yet  are  they  pleasing  and  ac- 
 ceptable to  God  in  Christ,  end  do  spring 
 out  necessarily  of  a  true  and  lively  faith  ; 
 insomuch  that  by  them  a  lively  faith  may 
 be  as  evidently  known  as  a  tree  discerned 
 by  the  hnii."— Article  XII. 
 
 Gook  works  are  inseparable  from  our 
 union  with  Christ  ;  but  then  as  effects  of 
 that  union,  not  as  causes  or  instruments. 
 "  We  are  created  in  Christ  Jesus  unto 
 good  works."  "  Ye  are  become  dead  to  th<? 
 law  by  the  body  of  Christ,  that  ye  should 
 be  married  to  another,  even  to  him  who 
 is  raised  from  the  dead,  that  we  should 
 bring  forth  fruit  unto  God."  "As  the 
 branch  cannot  bear  fruit  of  itself  except  it 
 abide  in  the  vine,  no  more  can  ye,  except 
 
 ye  abide  in  me.  I  am  the  vine,  ye  are  the 
 branches.  He  that  abidcth  in  me,  and  I 
 in  him,  the  same  bringeth  forth  much 
 fruit ;  for  without  me— separate  from  me 
 — ye  can  do  nothing."  While,  however, 
 we  regard  good  works  as  effects  of  our 
 union  with  Christ,  we  must  remember 
 that  they  are  an  end  also,  nay,  the  end  for 
 which  we  have  been  united  to  him ;  and  if 
 so,  a  condition  of  the  continuance  of  our 
 union.  "  The  branch  cannot,"  it  is  true, 
 "  bear  fruit  of  itself  except  it  abide  in  the 
 vine ;  "  but  yet  its  fruitfulness  is  the  obj  ect 
 of  the  care  and  pains  which  the  vine- 
 di'esser  bestows  upon  it,  and  therefore  a 
 condition  on  which  it  is  suffered  to  remain. 
 "  I  am  the  true  vine,  and  my  Father  is 
 the  husbandman.  Every  branch  in  me 
 that  beareth  not  fruit  he  taketh  away.  If 
 a  man  abide  not  in  me,  he  is  cast  forth  as 
 a  branch,  and  is  withered  ;  and  men  gather 
 them,  and  cast  them  into  the  fire,  and  they 
 are  burned."  And  as  fruitfulness  in  good 
 works  is  a  condition  on  which  we  are 
 suffered  to  continue  in  Christ,  so  also  is 
 it  the  measure  according  to  which  fresh 
 sujDplies  of  grace  are  given ;  "  every  branch 
 that  beareth  fruit,  he  purgeth  it,  that  it 
 may  bring  forth  more  fruit."  "  Whosoever 
 hath,  to  him  shall  be  given,  and  he  shall 
 have  more  abundance."  And  yet  further, 
 which  indeed  follows  upon  the  foregoing 
 — our  works  are  the  rule  by  which  God 
 will  judge  us  at  the  last  day.  These  will 
 declare,  beyond  all  controversy,  how  far 
 w^e  have  answered  the  end  of  our  new 
 creation  ;  how  far  we  have  improved  the 
 talents  intrusted  to  us ;  how  far  we  are 
 qualified  and  prepared  for  that  kingdom, 
 into  which  "there  shall  in  nowise  enter 
 anything  that  defileth,"  where  "  the  people 
 shall  be  all  righteous,"  where  "the  merci- 
 ful "  "  shall  receive  mercy,"  where  "  the 
 pure  in  heart"  "  shall  see  GoD;"  where  the 
 servant,  who  has  so  improved  the  pound 
 intrusted  to  him  as  to  have  gained  five 
 pounds,  shall  be  appointed  to  reign  over 
 five  cities,  and  he  who  has  gained  ten 
 pounds,  shall  have  authority  over  ten  cities. 
 It  is  one  great  secret  of  holy  living  to 
 remember,  that  holiness  is  to  be  sought  in 
 and  from  Christ  ;  to  be  wrought  in  us  by 
 his  Spirit.  We  are  too  prone  to  overlook 
 this  great  truth;  to  forget  the  strength 
 which  we  have  in  Christ.  We  act  as 
 though,  notwithstanding  aU  that  Christ 
 hath  done  for  us  and  in  us.  Christian  vir- 
 tue were  nothing  more  than  moral  habits 
 strengthened  by  exercise.  Whereas,  in 
 truth,  it  takes  a  far  higher  range.  It  con- 
 sists in  habits  doubtless ;  but  they  are 
 habits  of  him  who  has  been  created  anew 
 
GOSPEL. 
 
 GRACE. 
 
 359 
 
 in  Christ  Jesus  ;  they  are  the  habits  of 
 him  who  is  one  with  CuRIST,  and  a  ])ar- 
 taker  of  the  Spirit  of  Christ  ;  who  has 
 been  planted  togetlier  with  Christ,  in  the 
 likeness  of  his  death,  that  he  should  be  also 
 in  the  likeness  of  his  resurrection  ;  and 
 Avho  has  that  blessed  promise  to  cheer  and 
 encourag-e  him  in  striving  against  sin. 
 *'  Sin  shall  not  have  dominion  over  you, 
 for  ye  are  not  under  the  law,  but  under 
 grace." — Heurtley. 
 
 GOSPEL.  (A  word  compounded  of 
 two  Saxon  words,  r/od,  "  good,"  and  sjjell,  a 
 "  message  "  or  ''  tidings,"  and  so  answering 
 to  the  Greek  ivayyiXiov.)  God's  or  Good 
 Tidings — the  glad  tidings  of  the  salva- 
 tion wrought  for  man  by  the  Lord  Jesus 
 Christ. 
 
 In  a  stricter  sense,  the  word  means  each 
 of  the  four  histories  of  our  Saviour,  writ- 
 ten by  the  Evangelists  :  in  a  more  confined 
 sense  still,  it  means  that  portion  of  Scrip- 
 ture which  is  read  immediately  after  the 
 Epistle  in  the  ante-communion  service,  and 
 which  is  taken  from  one  of  the  four  Gos- 
 pels. A  Gospel  is  also  read  in  the  Bap- 
 tismal Service. 
 
 In  the  medircval  Church  there  were 
 always  peculiar  ceremonies  used  in  honour 
 of  the  Gospel,  as  for  instance,  the  bringing 
 special  lights  even  during  day-time,  placing 
 the  book  of  the  Gospels  reverently  on  the 
 altar,  incensing  them,  &c.  In  the  Anglican 
 Church  we  retain  some  vestiges  of  this  in 
 standing  whilst  the  Gospel  is  read,  and 
 preceding  it  by  the  "  Glory  be  to  thee,  O 
 Lord,"  a  sentence  retained  traditionally 
 from  the  ancient  Church. 
 
 GOSPELLEK.  The  priest  who  in  the 
 Communion  Service  reads  the  Gospel, 
 standing  at  the  north  side  of  the  altar. 
 In  some  cathedrals  one  of  the  clergy  is  so 
 designated,  and  has  this  special  duty  among 
 others  to  perform.  By  the  24th  Canon, 
 in  cathedral  and  collegiate  churches,  a 
 Gospeller  (as  well  as  an  Epistoler)  is  to 
 assist  the  priest,  vested  in  a  cope.  Gos- 
 pellers are  statutable  members  of  the  se- 
 veral cathedrals  of  the  ncAV  foundation, 
 and  an  officer  so  called  still  ofliciates  at 
 Durham,  though  the  office  has  generally 
 fallen  into  desuetude  ;  and,  contrary  to  the 
 ancient  universal  usage  of  the  Church, 
 even  when  many  priests  and  deacons  are 
 present,  it  is  usual  for  but  two  ministers 
 to  attend  at  the  first  part  of  the  Communion 
 Service :  the  principal  minister  reading 
 the  Gospel.  Strictly  s])caking,  the  deacon 
 is  the  minister  for  the  Gos])el ;  since,  in  the 
 ordering  of  deacons,  autliority  is  given 
 them  to  "  read  the  Gospel  in  the  Church  of 
 Godr — Jehh.     (See  also  Epistoler.) 
 
 GOSSIP.  A  sponsor  for  an  infant  in 
 ba})tism,  from  God  and  sih,  a  Saxon  word, 
 which  signifies  kindred,  affinity :  kin  in 
 God. 
 
 GOTHIC.  A  general  term  for  that 
 style  of  media)val  architecture  of  which  the 
 pointed  arch  is  the  most  i)rominent  cha- 
 racter. Together  with  Romanesque  (an 
 equally  general  term  for  that  style  of  which 
 the  round  arch  is  the  most  prominent  cha- 
 racter) it  comprehends  all  mediaeval  ec- 
 clesiastical architecture  in  England.  The 
 substyles  with  their  dates  may  be  roughly 
 stated  as  follows ; 
 
 Romanesque — 
 
 Saxon      ....  to  1066 
 
 Norman        .  .         .         1066—1145 
 
 Transition        .  .         .     1145—1190 
 
 Gothic- 
 Early  English  .         .         1190—1245 
 Geometrical     .  .         .     1245 — 1315 
 Decorated    .  .         .         1315—1360 
 Perpendicular  .         .     1360 — 1550 
 
 The  more  minute  characteristics  must 
 be  sought  under  these  several  names,  and 
 it  must  be  obvious  that  the  accounts  given 
 within  the  small  limits  we  can  devote  to 
 the  subject  must  be  very  superficial.  The 
 subject  may  be  pursued  in  a  number  of 
 works  now  before  the  public,  as,  first  in 
 date  and  not  last  in  importance,  Hickman's 
 "Attempt  to  distinguish  the  Styles  of 
 Architecture  in  England,"  and  last  in  time, 
 Sharpe's  "  Seven  Periods  of  English  Archi- 
 tecture." The  same  mode  of  architecture 
 prevailed  in  Ireland  and  Scotland,  with 
 some  characteristic  distinctions. 
 
 GRACE.  This  word  is  used  in  a  va- 
 riety of  senses  in  Holy  Scripture:  but 
 the  general  idea,  as  it  relates  to  God,  is  his 
 free  favour  and  love ;  as  it  relates  to 
 men,  the  happy  state  of  reconciliation  and 
 favour  with  God,  wherein  they  standi 
 and  the  holy  endowments,  qualities,  or 
 habits  of  faith,  hope,  and  love,  which  they 
 possess. 
 
 "  We  are  accounted  righteous  before 
 God,  only  for  the  merit  of  our  Lord  and 
 Saviour  Jesus  Christ  by  faith,  and  not 
 for  our  own  works  or  deser\angs :  where- 
 fore, that  we  are  justified  by  faith  only  is 
 a  most  wholesome  doctrine,  and  very  "full 
 of  comfort,  as  more  largely  is  expressed  in 
 the  homily  of  justification." — Article  XI. 
 
 The  most  pious  of  those  who  lived  un- 
 der the  Mosaic  dispensation,  often  acknow- 
 ledge the  necessity  of  assistance  from  God. 
 David  i)rays  to  GoD  to  "  open  his  eyes, 
 to  guide  and  direct  him"  (Ps.  cxix.  18, 
 32 — 35) ;  to  *'  create  in  him  a  clean  heart, 
 and    renew    a   right   spirit   within   him." 
 
36C 
 
 GRACE. 
 
 GRAVE. 
 
 (Ps.  li.  10.)  And  Solomon  says,  that 
 God  "directeth  men's  paths,  and  givcth 
 grace  to  the  lowly."  Even  we,  whose 
 minds  are  enlightened  by  the  pure  precepts 
 of  the  gospel,  and  influenced  by  the  motives 
 which  it  suggests,  must  still  be  convinced 
 of  our  weakness  and  depravity,  and  of  the 
 necessity  of  Divine  grace  to  regulate  and 
 strengthen  our  wills,  and  to  co-operate  with 
 our  endeavours  after  righteousness,  as  is 
 clearly  asserted  in  the  New  Testament. 
 See  the  texts  above  cited,  which  suffi- 
 ciently prove  that  we  stand  in  need  both 
 of  a  preventing  and  of  a  co-operating  grace  ; 
 or,  in  the  words  of  the  Article,  that "  we 
 have  no  power  to  do  good  works  pleasant 
 and  acceptable  to  God,  without  the  grace 
 of  God  by  Christ  preventing  us,  that  we 
 may  have  a  good  will,  and  working  with 
 us,  when  we  have  that  good  will." 
 
 Dr.  NichoUs,  after  quoting  many  author- 
 ities to  show,  that  the  doctrine  of  Divine 
 grace  always  jjrevailed  in  the  Catholic 
 Church,  adds,  "  I  have  spent  perhaps  more 
 time  in  these  testimonies  than  was  abso- 
 lutely necessary;  but  whatever  I  have 
 done  is  to  show,  that  the  doctrine  of  Divine 
 grace  is  so  essential  a  doctrine  of  Chris- 
 tianity, that  not  only  the  Holy  Scriptures 
 and  the  primitive  Fathers  assert  it,  but 
 likewise  that  the  Chi'istians  could  not  in 
 any  age  maintain  their  religion  without 
 it ;  it  being  necessary,  not  only  for  the  dis- 
 charge of  Christian  duties,  but  for  the  per- 
 formance of  our  ordinary  devotions."  And 
 this  seems  to  have  been  the  opinion  of  the 
 compilers  of  our  most  excellent  liturgy,  in 
 many  parts  of  which  both  a  preventing 
 and  co-operating  grace  is  unequivocally 
 acknowledged ;  particularly  in  the  second 
 collect  for  Evening  Service,  in  the  fourth 
 collect  at  the  end  of  the  Communion  Service, 
 and  in  the  collects  for  Easter  Day,  for  the 
 fifth  Sunday  after  Easter,  and  for  the  3rd, 
 9th,  17th,  19th,  and  25th  Sundays  after 
 Trinity. 
 
 This  assistance  of  Divine  grace  is  not  in- 
 consistent with  the  free  agency  of  men  (see 
 Free  Will) :  it  does  not  place  them  under 
 an  irresistible  restraint,  or  compel  them  to 
 act  contrary  to  their  will.  Though  human 
 nature  is  greatly  depraved,  yet  every  good 
 disposition  is  not  totally  extinguished,  nor 
 is  all  power  of  right  action  entirely  anni- 
 hilated. Men  may  therefore  make  some 
 spontaneous,  though  feeble,  attempt  to  act 
 conformably  to  their  duty,  which  will  be 
 promoted  and  rendered  effectual  by  the  co- 
 operation of  God's  grace  :  or  the  grace  of 
 God  may  so  far  "prevent"  our  actual  en- 
 deavours, as  to  awaken  and  dispose  us  to 
 our  duty;  but  yet  not  in  such  a  degree. 
 
 that  we  cannot  withstand  its  influence. 
 In  either  case  our  own  exertions  are  neces- 
 sary to  enable  us  to  "  work  out  our  own 
 salvation,"  but  our  "  sufficiency  "  for  that 
 purpose  is  from  GoD.  The  joint  agency  of 
 God  and  man  in  the  work  of  human 
 salvation  is  pointed  out  in  the  following 
 passage :  "  Work  out  your  own  salvation 
 with  fear  and  trembling ;  for  it  is  GoD  that 
 workcth  in  you  both  to  will  and  to  do  of 
 his  good  pleasure"  (Phil.  ii.  12,  13);  and 
 therefore  we  may  assure  ourselves  that  free 
 will  and  grace  are  not  incompatible,  though 
 the  mode  and  degree  of  then-  co-operation 
 be  utterly  inexplicable. 
 
 GRACE  AT  MEALS.  A  short  prayer, 
 invoking  a  blessing  upon  our  food,  and 
 expressive  of  gratitude  to  God  for  sup- 
 plying our  wants.  The  propriety  of  this 
 act  is  evident  from  the  traditional  custom 
 of  the  Church,  and  from  the  Divine  com- 
 mand, as  interpreted  by  this  custom,  (1 
 Thess.  v.  18;  1  Cor.  x.  31 ;  1  Tim.  iv.  5,) 
 and  from  the  conduct  of  our  LoRD.  (Mark 
 viii.  6,  7.) 
 
 GRADUAL,  or  GRAIL.  The  anti- 
 phonary  which,  before  the  Reformation, 
 supplied  the  anthems  or  verses  for  the  be- 
 ginning of  the  Communion,  the  Ofiertory, 
 &:c.,  was  often  called  the  Gradual,  because 
 some  of  the  anthems  were  chanted  on  the 
 steps  {gradus)  of  the  ambon  or  pulpit. 
 
 The  Gradual  is  also  an  anthem  sung  in 
 the  Roman  Church  immediately  after  the 
 Epistle.— Jei^). 
 
 GRAVE.  The  resting-place  of  a  dead 
 body.  The  spoliation  and  desecration  of 
 ancient  sepulchres  is  as  much  an  ecclesias- 
 tical ofi'ence  as  the  robbing  of  a  more 
 recent  grave ;  but  where  none  feel  them- 
 selves especially  aggrieved,  there  are  none 
 to  seek  redress,  and  to  bring  offenders  to 
 justice.  The  law  upon  the  subject  seems 
 to  stand  thus :  A  corpse  once  buried 
 cannot  legally  be  taken  up  to  be  deposited 
 in  another  place,  without  a  licence  from 
 the  ordinary.  But  in  case  of  a  violent 
 death  the  coroner  may  order  the  body 
 to  be  disinterred,  if  it  has  been  buried 
 before  he  has  had  an  opportunity  of  taking 
 a  view  for  the  purposes  of  his  inquest. 
 
 If  the  body,  after  it  has  been  committed 
 to  the  grave,  be  disturbed  or  removed,  it 
 is  a  subject  of  ecclesiastical  cognizance : 
 yet  the  common  law  also  protects  the 
 corpse  ;  for  the  taking  up  of  dead  bodies, 
 for  the  purposes  of  dissection,  is  an  in- 
 dictable offence,  as  highly  indecent,  and 
 contra  honos  mores. 
 
 The  property  of  things  deposited  with 
 the  dead,  as  the  grave-clothes,  &c.,  is  in 
 him  that  had  property  therein  when  the 
 
GREEK  CHURCH. 
 
 GURGOILE. 
 
 361 
 
 dead  body  was  wrapped  therewith,  and  the 
 taking  them  is  felony.  The  property  in 
 hatchments,  or  other  ensigns  of  honour,  is 
 in  the  heir,  or  the  person  concerned  in  the 
 hereditary  distinction.  (See  Burial,  and 
 the  hst  of  acts  of  parliament  appended  to 
 
 the  word  Cemeten/.) 
 
 (See    Church, 
 
 GKEEK     CHUllCH. 
 
 Greek.) 
 
 GREGORIAN  CHANT.  (See  Chatit.) 
 This  general  designation  is  given  to  the 
 collection  of  chants  compiled  by  Gregory 
 the  Great,  bishop  of  Rome,  about  A.  D. 
 600.  These  chants  have  continued  to  be 
 in  use  from  that  time  to  the  present  day, 
 in  the  Western  Church,  and  form  the  basis 
 of  our  cathedral  music.  It  is  known  that 
 Gregory  merely  collected,  arranged,  and 
 improved  the  chants  which  had  already 
 been  used  for  centuries  before  his  time. 
 The  most  learned  writers  on  the  subject 
 suppose  that  they  are  derived  from  those 
 introduced  by  St.  Ambrose  into  his  church, 
 at  Milan,  about  A.  D.  384.  Great  im- 
 provements, however,  having  been  made 
 in  the  science  of  music,  subsequently  to 
 the  time  of  St.  Ambrose,  Gregory  took 
 advantage  of  those  improvements,  and  in- 
 creased the  number  of  ecclesiastical  tones, 
 (which  somewhat  resemble  our  modern 
 keys,)  from  four  to  eight,  of  which  number 
 the  Gregorian  chants,  properly  so  called, 
 still  consist.  The  four  original  tones  are 
 called  authentic,  the  others  plagal.  All  the 
 eight  are  now  used  in  some  parts  of  the 
 Greek  Church,  as  in  Russia,  doubtless 
 adopted  from  the  West.  They  have  been 
 harmonized  according  to  the  more  recently 
 discovered  laws  of  music,  and  thus  har- 
 monized possess  a  singular  gravity,  which 
 character  would  alone  justify  their  perpe- 
 tual retention  in  the  Church  as  the  basis  of 
 church  music. 
 
 The  Gregorian  chant  is  not  limited  to 
 psalm  chants ;  it  includes  the  antiphons, 
 versicles,  graduals,  &c.,  in  short,  all  the 
 hymns  at  the  various  services  of  the  Ro- 
 mish Church.  The  eight  tones,  (which  are 
 by  some  multiplied  to  twelve,)  are  in  fact 
 so  many  scales,  and  all  the  Gregorian 
 hymns  or  anthems  must  be  written  in  one 
 or  other  of  these  tones.  The  ancient 
 Gregorian  scale  admitted  no  half  notes, 
 with  the  exception  of  B  flat.  The  Psalm 
 chants  had  considerable  variation  in  each 
 tone  ;  these  variations  occurring  in  the 
 second  part  of  the  chant :  thus  one  tone 
 may  have  three  or  four  cadences  ;  which  in 
 fact  form  so  many  separate  chants.  Much 
 of  the  old  English  church  music,  since  the 
 Reformation,  is  based  upon  the  Gregorian 
 chant :  though  none  of  our  standard  mu- 
 
 sicians were  ever  servile  followers  of  a  sys- 
 tem, which,  though  very  venerable,  is  im- 
 perfect. 
 
 It  may  be  as  well  to  subjoin  a  simple 
 rule  for  ascertaining  the  to7ics  in  which  the 
 Gregorian  music  is  written  in  the  old 
 books.  In  the  ancient  breviaries  and  an- 
 tiphonies,  &c.,  the  word  EVOVAE  fre- 
 quently occurs,  written  under  certain  notes 
 preceding  the  psalms  appropriated  to  cer- 
 tain offices.  This  word  contains  the 
 vowels  of  the  concluding  words  of  the 
 Gloria  Patri ;  viz.  sEcVlOrVm  AmEn : 
 and  by  this  is  meant,  that  the  notes  placed 
 above  it  form  the  second  part  of  the  chant 
 to  which  the  following  psalm  or  psalms 
 are  sung  :  the  first  part  being  rarely  writ- 
 ten. Now  to  find  the  tone  of  the  chant, 
 we  must  take  the  Jirst  note  of  the  Erovae, 
 which  is  the  dominant,  or  the  prevaiiinr/,  or 
 reciting  note  of  the  chant  (net  the  domi- 
 nant as  now  technically  understood  by 
 musicians) :  and  we  must  take  the  last 
 note  of  the  Antiphon  which  follows  the 
 Psalm  at  length  :  and  these  two,  according 
 to  the  table  here  subjoined,  give  the  tone 
 of  the  chant :  the  first  part  of  each  varia- 
 tion in  tone  being,  as  before  remarked, 
 always  the  same;  the  second  part  being 
 given  in  the  Evovae.  The  Psalm  Tones 
 must  be  found  out  in  one  of  the  many 
 movements  of  the  Gregorian  chant.  Care 
 must  be  taken  not  to  take  the  last  note  of 
 the  abbreviated  antiphon  which  precedes, 
 but  of  that  which  follows,  the  psalm. 
 
 Dominant   or  re- 
 citing note,  in  the 
 Evovae. 
 
 A 
 F 
 C 
 A 
 C 
 A 
 D 
 C 
 
 Of  these  tones  the  odd  numbers  are  au- 
 thentic, the  even  plagal.  The  authentic 
 has  always  a  relation  to  its  plagal  which 
 follows,  and  has  the  same  final  note,  though 
 a  difierent  dominant. — Jehb. 
 
 GREY  FRIARS.  The  Franciscans 
 were  so  called  from  their  grev  clothing. 
 
 GUARDIAN  OF  THE  SPIRITUAL- 
 ITIES. This  is  the  person  or  persons  in 
 whom  the  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  of  any 
 diocese  resides,  after  the  death  or  transla- 
 tion of  a  bishop.  If  the  vacant  see  should 
 be  an  archbishopric,  then  the  dean  and 
 chapter  are  guardians.  If  a  bishop,  then 
 the  archdeacon  of  the  province. 
 
 GURGOILE.     (See  Gargoyle.) 
 
 Final  note,  in  th 
 
 Antiphon, 
 
 1st  Tone. 
 
 D 
 
 2nd  Tone. 
 
 D 
 
 3rd  Tone. 
 
 E 
 
 4th  Tone. 
 
 E 
 
 5th  Tone. 
 
 F 
 
 6th  Tone. 
 
 F 
 
 7th  Tone. 
 
 G 
 
 8th  Tone. 
 
 G 
 
362 
 
 HABAKKUK. 
 
 HAMPTON  COURT  CONFERENCE. 
 
 HABAKKUK,  THE  PROPHECY  OF. 
 
 A  canonical  book  of  the  Old  Testament. 
 There  is  no  mention  in  Scripture,  either 
 of  the  time  when  this  prophet  lived,  or  of 
 the  parents  from  -whom  he  was  descended. 
 But  as  he  prophesied  the  coming  of  the 
 Chaldeans  in  the  same  manner  as  Jeremiah, 
 it  is  conjectured  that  he  lived  at  the  same 
 time. 
 
 The  works  of  Habakkuk,  which  are  in- 
 disputably his,  are  contained  in  three  chap- 
 ters. In  these  the  prophet  complains  very 
 pathetically  of  the  disorders,  which  he  ob- 
 served in  the  kingdom  of  Judea.  God 
 reveals  to  him,  that  he  would  shortly 
 punish  them  in  a  very  terrible  manner  by 
 the  arms  of  the  Chaldeans.  He  foretells 
 the  conquests  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  his  me- 
 tamorphosis, and  death.  He  foretells  that 
 the  vast  designs  of  Jehoiakim  would  be 
 frustrated.  He  speaks  against  a  prince 
 (probably  the  king  of  Tp-e)  who  built  with 
 blood  and  iniquity ;  and  he  accuses  another 
 king  (perhaps  the  king  of  Egypt)  of  having 
 intoxicated  his  friend,  in  order  to  discover 
 his  nakedness.  The  third  chapter  is  a 
 song,  or  prayer  to  God,  whose  majesty  the 
 prophet  describes  with  the  utmost  grandeur 
 and  sublimity  of  expression. 
 
 HADES.  (From  a,  privative,  and  iSsiv, 
 to  see  ;  the  invisible  state  of  the  departed.) 
 See  IML 
 
 HAGGAI,  THE  PROPHECY  OF.  A 
 canonical  book  of  the  Old  Testament. 
 Haggai  was  born,  in  all  probability,  at 
 Babylon,  from  whence  he  returned  with 
 Zerubbabel.  It  was  this  prophet,  who,  by 
 command  from  God,  exhorted  the  Jews, 
 after  their  return  from  the  captivity,  to 
 finish  the  rebuilding  of  the  temple,  which 
 they  had  intermitted  for  fourteen  years. 
 His  remonstrances  had  their  effect ;  and  to 
 encourage  them  to  proceed  in  the  work, 
 he  assured  them  from  God,  that  the  glory 
 of  this  latter  house  should  be  greater  than 
 the  glory  of  the  former  house  :  which  was 
 accordingly  fulfilled,  when  Christ  honour- 
 ed it  with  his  presence ;  for,  Avith  respect  to 
 the  building,  this  latter  temple  was  nothing 
 in  comparison  of  the  former. 
 
 We  know  nothing  certain  of  Haggai's 
 death.  The  Jews  pretend,  that  he  died  in 
 the  last  year  of  the  reign  of  Darius,  at  the 
 same  time  with  the  prophets  Zechariah 
 and  Malachi,  and  that  thereupon  the  spirit 
 of  prophecy  ceased  among  the  childi'en  of 
 Israel.  Epiphanius  asserts  that  he  was 
 buried  at  Jerusalem  among  the  priests. 
 The  Greeks  keep  his  festival  on  the  16th 
 of  December,  and  the  Latins  on  the  4th  of 
 July- — I)e  Vita  et  3Iorte  Prophetarum. 
 
 HAGIOGRAPHA,  i.  e.  Holy  Writings. 
 
 (From  liyioQ,  holy,  and  ypatpr},  writmg.) 
 A  word  of  great  antiquity  in  the  Christian 
 Church,  and  often  used  by  St.  Jerome, 
 taken  from  the  custom  of  the  synagogues, 
 by  which  the  Old  Testament  was  divided 
 into  three  parts,  viz.  Moses's  law,  the  Pro- 
 phets, and  the  Hagiographa ;  by  which 
 last  he  meant  the  Psalms,  the  Proverbs, 
 Job,  Ezra,  Chronicles,  Solomon's  Song, 
 Ruth,  Ecclesiastes,  and  Esther.  The  Jews 
 reckon  the  Book  of  Daniel  and  the  La- 
 mentations among  the  Hagiographa,  and 
 not  among  the  Prophets,  for  which  Theo- 
 doret  blames  them  :  but  it  matters  not 
 much,  since  they  acknowledge  those  books, 
 which  they  call  Hagiogra])ha,  to  be  in- 
 spired by  God,  and  part  of  the  sacred 
 canon,  as  well  as  those  of  the  first  and 
 second  order. 
 
 HAGIOSCOPE.  In  church  architec- 
 ture, a  contrivance,  whether  by  perforating 
 a  wall,  or  by  cutting  away  an  angle  of  it, 
 by  which  an  altar  may  be  seen  from  some 
 place  in  a  church,  or  about  it,  from  which 
 it  would  be  otherwise  hid.  There  is  a 
 most  curious  example  at  Ryhall  in  Rut- 
 land, where  there  is  (or  rather  Avas,  for  it 
 is  now  blocked  up)  an  opening  in  the  west 
 wall  of  the  north  aisle,  by  which  the  three 
 altars  in  the  chancel  and  two  aisles  were 
 commanded  by  a  person  outside  the  church, 
 though  within  what  seems  to  have  been  a 
 little  orator)',  (now  entu'ely  removed,)  de- 
 dicated to  S.  Tibald. 
 
 Openings  sometimes  seem  to  command 
 other  points,  and  may  then  be  well  enough 
 called  "  Squints."  At  Hannington,  in 
 Northamptonshire,  for  instance,  is  one 
 which  seems  intended  to  enable  a  person 
 in  the  porch  to  see  the  approach  of  the 
 minister  from  "VValgrave,  a  parish  very 
 generally  united  under  the  same  incum- 
 bencv  with  Hannington. 
 
 HALF  COMMUNION,  or  COMMU- 
 NION IN  ONE  KIND.  (See  Commn- 
 mo?i  and  Cup.)  The  withholding  of  the 
 cup  in  the  eucharist  from  the  laity.  This 
 is  the  practice  of  the  Church  of  Rome,  and 
 is  one  of  those  grievous  errors  in  which 
 that  corrupt  Church  deviates  from  Catho- 
 licism. Not  the  slightest  colour  can  be 
 brought  in  its  favour,  as  the  Romanists 
 themselves  at  the  Council  of  Constance 
 were  forced  to  confess :  the  authority  of 
 the  primitive  Church  is  against  them,  as 
 that  council  acknowledges ;  nor  can  they 
 plead  the  authority  of  any  one  of  the 
 ancient  liturgies.  The  Church  of  Rome 
 then  is,  in  this  matter,  singular  and  schism- 
 atical. 
 
 HALLELUJAH.     (See  Allelma.) 
 
 HAMPTON  COURT  CONFERENCE. 
 
HATCHMENT. 
 
 HELL. 
 
 363 
 
 A  conference  appointed  by  James  I.  at 
 Hampton  Court,  in  1603,  in  order  to  settle 
 the  disputes  betAveen  the  Church  and  the 
 Puritans.  Nine  bishops,  and  as  many  dig- 
 nitaries of  the  Church,  appeared  on  one 
 side,  and  four  Puritan  ministers  on  the 
 other.  It  lasted  for  three  days.  Of  this 
 conference  the  result  was  a  few  slight  alter- 
 ations in  the  liturgy ;  the  baptizing  of  in- 
 fants by  women,  which  had  been  ju'actised 
 in  our  Church  for  many  hundred  years, 
 was  forbidden  ;  "  remission  of  sins  "  insert- 
 ed in  the  rubric  of  absolution ;  confirma- 
 tion termed  "  laying  on  of  hands  ; "  all  the 
 thanksgivings,  except  the  general  one,  were 
 inserted  in  the  Prayer  Book ;  to  the  cate- 
 chism M'as  annexed  the  whole  of  the  latter 
 portion,  relative  to  the  two  sacraments ; 
 and  some  words  were  altered  in  the  do- 
 minical lessons,  with  a  view  to  a  new  trans- 
 lation of  the  sacred  volume. 
 
 HATCHMENT;  more  properly 
 ACHIEVEMENT.  In  heraldry,  the  whole 
 armorial  bearings  of  any  person  fully  em- 
 blazoned, with  shield,  crest,  supporters, 
 &c.  This  word  is  used  in  particular  for 
 the  emblazonment  of  arms  hung  up  in 
 churches,  in  memory  of  a  gentleman  of 
 coat  armour,  or  one  of  any  higher  degree. 
 There  was  formerly  much  of  religion  in 
 heraldry ;  and  as  the  coat  was  assumed 
 with  a  religious  feeling,  so  was  it  at  last  re- 
 stored to  the  sanctuary,  in  token  of  thank- 
 ful acknowledgment  to  Almighty  God, 
 with  whose  blessing  it  had  been  borne. 
 
 HEARSE.  A  frame  set  over  the  coffin 
 of  any  great  person  deceased,  and  covered 
 with  a  pall :  also  the  carriage  in  which 
 corpses  are  carried  to  the  grave. 
 
 HEATHEN.  (From  Wvi],  nations,  or 
 Gentiles.)    Pagans  who  worship  false  gods. 
 
 HEAVEN.  That  place  where  God  af- 
 fords a  nearer  and  more  immediate  view  of 
 himself,  and  a  more  sensible  manifestation 
 of  his  glory,  than  in  other  parts  of  the  uni- 
 verse. That  it  is  a  ^j/ace  as  well  as  a  state, 
 is  clear  from  John  xiv.  2,  3,  and  from  the 
 existence  of  our  Lord's  body  there,  and 
 the  bodies  of  Enoch  and  Elijah. 
 
 HEBDOM  ADARIUS.  The  priest  whose 
 weekly  turn  it  was  to  perform  the  divine 
 offices  in  cathedrals  and  colleges.  In  some 
 foreign  cathedrals  it  is  the  designation  of 
 a  clergyman  corresponding  to  our  minor 
 canons,  &c.  In  the  Scottish  universities 
 the  name  was  given  to  one  of  the  superior 
 members,  whose  weekly  turn  it  was  to  su- 
 perintend the  discipline  of  the  students. 
 The  office  was  effectively  exercised  at  St. 
 Andrew's,  at  least,  till  of  late  years. — Jehh. 
 
 HELL.  (Anglo-Saxon  and  Icelandic 
 Hele,  Ilela,  a  "  cavern ; "  "  concealed  place ;" 
 
 of 
 
 "  mansion  of  the  dead.")  Two  entirely  dif- 
 ferent words  in  the  original  language  ol 
 the  New  Testament  are  rendered  in  our 
 version  by  the  single  word  "hell,"  The 
 first  of  these  is  Hades,  which  occurs  eleven 
 times  in  the  New  Testament,  and  in  every 
 case  but  one  is  translated  "hell."  Now 
 Hades  is  never  used  to  denote  the  place  of 
 final  torment,  the  regions  of  the  damned ; 
 but  signifies  "the  place  of  departed  spirits," 
 M-hether  good  or  bad,— the  j)lace  where 
 they  are  kept  until  the  day  of  judgment, 
 when  they  shall  be  re-united  to  their 
 bodies,  and  go  each  to  his  appointed  des- 
 tiny. The  other  word,  Gehenna,  signifies 
 the  place  of  torment, — the  eternal  abode 
 of  the  wicked.  At  the  time  when  our 
 translation  was  made,  and  the  Prayer  Book 
 compiled,  the  English  word  "  hell "  had  a 
 more  extensive  meaning  than  it  has  at 
 present.  It  originally  signified  to  cover 
 over  or  conceal :  and  it  is  still  used  in  this 
 sense  in  several  parts  of  England,  where, 
 for  example,  to  cover  a  church  or  a  house 
 with  a  roof  is  to  hell  the  building,  and  the 
 person  by  whom  it  is  done  is  called  a 
 hellier.  But  the  word  also  denoted  the 
 place  of  future  misery,  and  is  accordingly 
 used  in  that  sense  in  the  New  Testament, 
 as  the  translation  of  Gehenna ;  and  in 
 consequence  of  the  changes  which  our  lan- 
 guage has  experienced  during  the  last  200 
 years,  it  is  now  restricted  to  this  particular 
 meaning.     (See  Gehenna.) 
 
 Bearing  in  mind,  then,  that  Hades  was 
 translated  by  the  word  "  hell,"  for  want 
 of  another  more  exactly  coiTcsponding 
 with  the  original,  the  reader  will  perceive 
 that  the  article  in  the  Creed,  "  He  de- 
 scended into  hell,"  does  not  refer  to  the 
 place  of  final  misery ;  but  to  that  general 
 receptacle  of  all  departed  human  souls, 
 both  penitent  and  impenitent,  where  they 
 are  reserved  in  a  state  of  comparative  en- 
 joyment or  misery,  to  wait  the  morning 
 of  the  resurrection,  when  their  bodies 
 being  united  to  their  souls,  they  will  be 
 advanced  to  complete  felicity  or  woe,  in 
 heaven  or  hell. 
 
 One  great  use  of  the  system  of  catechis- 
 ing, as  enjoined  by  the  Church,  is  the  op- 
 portunity it  affords  of  inculcating  upon 
 the  people  such  distinctions  as  these. 
 
 It  was  necessary  that  our  Lord's  death 
 should  be  attended  with  all  those  circum- 
 stances which  mark  the  death  of  men. 
 Christ  was  possessed  of  a  human  nature, 
 both  body  and  soul,  besides  his  Divinity. 
 The  body  of  man  at  death  sinks  to  the 
 grave ;  and  the  soul  goes  to  Hades,  or  the 
 ])lace  of  departed  spirits.  In  like  manner 
 the  bodv  of  our  Lord  was   laid  in  the 
 
364 
 
 HELL. 
 
 tomb,  but  his  soul  went  to  the  general  re- 
 pository of  human  disembodied  spirits, 
 "  the  lower  parts  of  the  earth,"  (Ps. 
 xvi.  10  ;  Eph.  iv.  9,  with  Ps.  Ixiii.  9,  and 
 Isa.  V.  14,)  Hades,  the  place  of  separated 
 souls,  not  Gehenna,  the  place  of  condemn- 
 ation ;  because  if  it  relate  to  the  place  of 
 either  bliss  or  misery,  it  must  be  the  former, 
 in  consistence  with  the  Lord's  promise  to 
 the  penitent  thief.  (Luke  xxiii.  43.) 
 
 Five  different  opinions  have  been  en- 
 tertained on  this  subject.  First,  that  the 
 word  "  descended "  is  to  be  taken  meta- 
 phorically ;  implying  only  the  efficacy  of 
 Christ's  death  as  to  the  souls  departed. 
 But  this  seems  refuted  by  the  passage, 
 "Thou  wilt  not  leave  my  soul  in  hell," 
 (Ps.  xvi.  10,)  whereas  the  efficacy  of  our 
 Lord's  death  still  continues. 
 
 Secondly,  that  the  descent  into  hell  sig- 
 nifies the  suffering  the  torments  of  the 
 damned;  and  this  in  the  stead  of  those 
 who  otherwise  must  have  endured  them. 
 But  it  is  not  to  be  believed  that  our  Lord 
 could  suffer  from  the  "  worm  that  never 
 dieth" — the  remorse  of  conscience,  and  a 
 sense  of  the  continuance  and  consequences 
 of  the  displeasure  of  God,  and  consequent 
 despair ;  or  that  he  who  overcame  the 
 powers  of  hell  could  suffer  under  their 
 vengeance.  Nor,  again,  can  he,  in  this 
 article,  be  said  by  a  metaphor  to  have  felt 
 the  torments  of  hell,  by  this  meaning  only 
 the  greatest  torments,  because  all  that  he 
 felt  which  we  know  of,  was  antecedent  to 
 his  death,  and  not  afterwards.  The  tor- 
 ments of  hell  then  cannot  be  here  meant 
 literally,  because  not  sui)ported  by  truth, 
 nor  figuratively,  because  not  applicable. 
 
 Thirdly,  that  the  w^ord  "  soul "  does  in 
 this  passage  mean  the  body,  and  "hell" 
 merely  the  grave;  and  the  same  words, 
 both  in  Hebrew  and  Greek,  as  used  re- 
 spectively by  the  psalmist  and  the  apostle, 
 and  translated  the  "  soul,"  do  elsewhere 
 in  the  Scri])tures  mean  the  "  body."  As 
 in  Numb.  vi.  6  ;  Lev.  xxi.  1 1  ;  and  xxii.  4  ; 
 and  more  particularly.  Numb.  xix.  11, 
 and  13.  And  Ainsworth,  whose  transla- 
 tion is  the  most  literal  of  any,  so  uses  the 
 word.  And  again,  with  respect  to  the 
 word  "  hell ; "  in  some  passages  it  can  mean 
 nothing  but  the  grave,  and  is  so  used  by 
 our  translation,  when  Ainsworth  uses  the 
 word  "  hell,"  as  in  Gen.  xxxvii.  35,  and 
 xlii.  38.  This  mode  of  explication  too, 
 connected  with  the  following  article,  will 
 fulfil  the  prophecy,  '*  Thou  shalt  not 
 leave  my  soul  (body)  in  hell "  (the  grave). 
 
 Fourthly,  that  by  the  "  soul "  may  be 
 understood  the  nobler  part  distinguished 
 from  the  body  ;  or  the  whole  person,  both 
 
 soul  and  body ;  or  the  living  soul  distin- 
 guished from  the  immortal  spirit.  And 
 by  "  hell,"  no  place  whatever,  but  merely 
 the  condition  of  men  in  death.  But  this 
 explanation  involves  an  entirely  novel 
 idea  as  to  Hades,  which  was  always  under- 
 stood as  some  place  where  the  souls  of 
 men  entered,  whether  this  is  in  the  earth, 
 or  out  of  it,  or  in  whatever  unknown  part ; 
 and  from  which  the  Greeks  considered 
 those  to  be  excluded  who  came  to  a  pre- 
 mature death,  or  whose  bodies  lay  un- 
 buried.  And  in  addition,  the  descent  into 
 hell  thus  explained  would  be  tautologous, 
 meaning  nothing  more  than  the  being  dead, 
 which  the  preceding  article  had  declared. 
 
 Fifthly,  and  this  is  apparently  the  best 
 explanation,  as  it  w^as  always  the  opinion 
 entertained  by  the  Church  —  that  the 
 "  soul  "  was  the  spirit,  or  rational  part,  of 
 Christ,  that  which  the  Jews  could  "  not 
 kill,"  and  "  hell,"  a  place  distinguished 
 equally  from  earth  and  from  heaven.  The 
 passage  may  then  mean,  "Thou  shalt  not 
 suffer  my  soul,"  when  separated  from  the 
 body,  and  earned  to  the  place  assigned, 
 as  other  souls  are,  to  continue  there  as 
 theirs  do,  but  shalt,  after  a  short  interval 
 only,  reunite  it  to  my  body.  That  this 
 was  an  opinion  general  in  the  Church,  is 
 proved,  not  only  by  the  direct  testimony 
 of  the  Fathers,  but  by  their  arguments  on 
 the  subject  in  answer  to  heretics. 
 
 They  all  fully  agreed  in  a  real  descent 
 of  the  soul  of  Christ  into  the  place  of 
 souls  departed ;  though  they  differed  as  to 
 the  persons  whom  he  descended  to  visit, 
 and  the  end  for  which  he  went.  Some  of 
 them  considered  Hades,  or  "  hell,"  as  the 
 common  receptacle  of  souls,  both  of  the 
 just  and  the  unjust,  and  then  thought  that 
 the  soul  of  Christ  went  unto  those  only 
 who  had  departed  in  the  true  faith  and 
 fear  of  God.  But  to  this  many  could  not 
 agree,  not  thinking  that  Hades  could  ever, 
 in  Scripture,  be  taken  for  the  place  of 
 happiness.  And  as  to  the  end,  those  who 
 held  the  former  opinion  of  the  common 
 receptacle,  imagined  that  Christ  went 
 unto  the  faithful  to  dissolve  the  power  by 
 which  they  were  detained,  and  translate 
 them  into  heaven.  But  to  this  change  of 
 place  or  condition  many  objected,  con- 
 ceiving that  the  souls  of  men  shall  not 
 enter  into  heaven  till  after  the  general 
 resuiTection. 
 
 Some  there  were  who,  conceiving  that 
 this  place  did  not  include  the  blessed, 
 imagined  that  the  object  of  our  Lord's 
 going  into  the  place  of  torment,  was  to 
 deliver  some  of  the  suffering  souls,  and 
 translate   them  to   a  place   of  happiness. 
 
HELL. 
 
 HERESY. 
 
 365 
 
 That  this  was  done  by  preaching  the 
 gospel  to  them,  that  they  after  death 
 might  have  an  opportunity  of  receiving 
 him,  and  then  pass  with  him  from  death 
 to  life. 
 
 So  that  they  all  imagined  that  the  soul 
 of  CilRIST  descended  into  hell  to  preach 
 the  gospel  to  the  spirits  there,  but  differed 
 as  to  whether  it  was  to  those  who  before 
 believed,  that  they  might  now  receive  him  ; 
 or  to  those  who  had  before  rejected  him, 
 that  they  might  yet  believe  on  him. 
 
 But  there  seem  insurmountable  objec- 
 tions both  to  the  opinion  that  he  preached 
 to  the  faithful,  for  they  were  not  "  dis- 
 obedient," (as  "  in  the  days  of  Noah,")  nor 
 could  they  need  a  publication  of  the  gospel 
 after  the  death  of  Christ,  by  virtue  of 
 which  they  were  accei)ted  while  they  lived  ; 
 and  to  that,  that  he  preached  to  the 
 wicked,  for  they  were  not  proper  objects, 
 or  likely  to  be  persuaded.  The  effect  too 
 of  the  preaching  may  be  denied.  There 
 is  no  repentance  in  the  grave,  nor  any 
 passing  the  "great  gulf"  of  separation. 
 Again,  with  respect  to  the  faithful,  it  is 
 not  certain  that  their  souls  were  in  a  place 
 where  Christ  would  descend  ;  or  that  they 
 are  now  in  another  and  better  place  than 
 they  were  at  first;  or  that  Christ  did 
 descend  into  such  place  for  such  purpose ; 
 or  that  such  effect  was  produced  at  such 
 a  time. 
 
 There  is  another  opinion  that  has  ob- 
 tained, and  perhaps  more  in  our  own 
 Church,  that  Christ  descended  into  hell 
 to  triumph  o^er  Satan  and  his  powers  in 
 their  own  dominions,  principally  grounded 
 on  Col.  ii.  11—15;  Eph.  iv.  8,  9.  But 
 these  passages  are  not  conclusive  ;  and  the 
 argument  seems  inconsistent  in  those  who 
 object  to  the  opinion,  that  the  souls  of  the 
 wicked  have  been  released,  or  those  of 
 the  saints  removed. 
 
 The  sound  conclusion  as  to  the  whole, 
 and  what  our  belief  might  be,  is,  perhaps, 
 first,  as  to  fact,  that  the  soul  of  Christ, 
 separated  from  his  body  by  death,  did  go 
 into  the  common  place  of  departed  spirits, 
 in  order  that  he  might  appear,  both  alive 
 and  dead,  as  perfect  man.  All  that  was 
 necessary  for  our  redemption,  by  way  of 
 satisfaction,  was  effected  on  the  cross. 
 The  exhibition  of  what  was  there  merited, 
 was  effected  by  his  resurrection;  and 
 between  these,  he  satisfied  the  law  of  death. 
 Secondly,  as  to  the  effect.  By  the  descent 
 of  Christ  into  the  regions  of  darkness, 
 the  souls  of  believers  are  kept  from  the 
 torments  which  are  there.  As  the  grave 
 and  hell  had  no  power  over  him,  the 
 "  head,"  so  neither  shall  it  have  over  *'  the 
 
 members."  By  his  descent  he  freed  us 
 from  all  fear,  by  his  resurrection  and 
 ascension  he  has  secured  our  hope ;  and  thus 
 through  "  death,  destroyed  him  that  hath 
 the  power  of  death,  that  is,  the  devil." 
 
 As  he  "  was  delivered  for  our  offences," 
 so  Avas  he  "  raised  again  for  our  justifi- 
 cation." (Ilom.  iv.  2o.)  If  this  had  not 
 taken  place,  our  "  faith  "  would  have  been 
 "  vain  ; "  we  should  have  been  '*  yet  in  our 
 sins,"  (1  Cor.  xv.  14,  17,)  for  as  we  are 
 "  buried  with  him  in  baptism,  we  are 
 quickened  together  with  him,"  (Col.  ii. 
 12,  13,)  and  "begotten  again  to  a  lively 
 hope,"  by  his  "  resurrection  from  the 
 dead;"  if  "by  him  we  believe  in  God  that 
 raised  him  up  from  the  dead,"  (1  Tet.  i. 
 3,  21,)  and  "walk  in  newness  of  life." 
 (ilom.  vi.  4  ;  viii.  11  ;  1  Cor.  vi.  14  ;  2  Cor. 
 iv.  14;  Eph.  i.  19,  20;  Hcb.  xiii.  20.) 
 Therefore,  "  on  the  third  day,  he  rose  again 
 from  the  dead,  a  living  body,"  (Luke  xxiv. 
 39;  John  xx.  20,  27,)  "quickened  by  the 
 spirit,"  (1  Pet.  iii.  18,)  and  raised  by 
 himself,  (John  x.  18 ;  ii.  19,)  as  this  was 
 typified  in  Isaac,  "  received  "  again  by  his 
 father,  as  "  in  (or  for)  a  figure,"  (Heb.  xi. 
 19,)  and  by  the  waved  sheaf,  the  dedicated 
 "  first-fruits  of  the  harvest."  (Lev.  xxiii. 
 10,  11.)  This,  too,  on  the  third  day — 
 the  "  first  day  of  the  week,"  the  Chris- 
 tian "  sabbath,"  (Matt,  xxviii.  1  ;  xx.  19, 
 (thenceforward  called  "the  Lord's  day," 
 Rev.  i.  10,)  John  xx.  26;  Acts  xx.  7;  1 
 Cor.  xvi.  2,)  according  to  the  deliverance 
 of  his  type  Jonah.  (Matt.  xii.  39,  40.)  As 
 this  was  frequently  predicted  by  himself, 
 (Matt.  xii.  39, 40,  and  xvi.  21 ;  xvii.  9 ;  John 
 ii.  19,  21,)  confirmed  by  his  enemies, 
 (Matt.  xxvi.  61  ;  xxvii.  63;  Mark  xv.  29,) 
 and  by  the  angel,  (Matt,  xxviii.  6,  7,  17,) 
 and  the  truth  of  it  proved  also  by  the 
 precautions  of  his  enemies,  (Matt,  xxviii. 
 13 — lo,)  by  his  showing  himself  to  his 
 disciples  several  times,  and  "  many  days," 
 (John  XX.  19,  26;  xxi.  14;  Acts  xiii.  31,)  as 
 to  "witnesses  chosen  before  of  GoD,"  (Acts 
 X.  41,)  appointed  expressly  to  bear  testi- 
 mony to  this  great  truth,  "  unto  the  utter- 
 most parts  of  the  earth,"  (Acts  i.  8,  22 ; 
 ii.  24,  31,32;  iii.  15;  iv.  33;  v.  32 ;  x.  40; 
 1  Cor.  XV.  15,)  as  was  "  also  the  Holy 
 Ghost."  (Acts  v.  32,  and  to  others,  1  Cor. 
 XV.  4—8.)  Which  truth,  that  "  God  hath 
 raised  him  from  the  dead,"  is  to  be  received 
 by  "all  men"  as  an  "assurance"  that  "GoD 
 will  judge  the  world  in  righteousness  by 
 him."     (Acts  xvii.  30—32.) 
 
 HERESIAKCH.     A  leader  in  heresy. 
 
 HERESY.  This  word  is  derived  from 
 the  Greek,  o'lpimc;,  a  choice,  and  it  means 
 an  arbitrary  adoption,  in  matters  of  faith, 
 
366 
 
 HERESY. 
 
 of  opinions  at  variance  with  the  doctrines 
 delivered  by  Christ  and  the  apostles,  and 
 received  by  the  Catholic  Church.  At  the 
 same  time  ^ve  may  remark,  that  it  is  gener- 
 ally agreed  that  the  opinion  must  be  per- 
 tinaciously and  obstinately  held,  in  order  j 
 to  constitute  formal  heresy.  And  if  there 
 be  a  legitimate  doubt  in  a  controversy 
 which  of  the  two  contrary  doctrines  is 
 stated  in  Scripture  and  received  by  the 
 Church,  either  may  be  held  without  heresy. 
 It  is  obvious,  also,  that  mere  ignorance,  or 
 a  temporary  error  in  ignorance,  is  alto- 
 gether different  from  heresy. 
 
 In  the  first  year  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  an 
 act  of  parliament  was  passed  to  enable 
 persons  to  try  heretics,  and  the  following 
 directions  were  given  for  their  guidance : — 
 "  And  such  persons  to  whom  the  queen 
 shall  by  letters  patent  under  the  great 
 seal  give  authority  to  execute  any  juris- 
 diction spiritual,  shall  not  in  anywise  have 
 power  to  adjudge  any  matter  or  cause  to 
 be  heresy,  but  only  such  as  heretofore 
 have  been  adjudged  to  be  heresy  by  the 
 authority  of  the  canonical  Scriptures,  or 
 by  some  of  the  Jirst  four  general  coiuicils, 
 or  by  any  other  general  council  wherein 
 the  same  was  declared  heresy  by  the  ex- 
 press and  plain  words  of  the  said  canon- 
 ical Scriptures,  or  such  as  hereafter  shall 
 be  judged  or  determined  to  be  heresy  by 
 the  high  court  of  parliament,  with  the  as- 
 sent of  the  clergy  in  their  convocation." 
 
 Heresies  began  very  early  in  the  Chris- 
 tian Church.  Eusebius  fixes  the  beginning 
 of  most  of  them  to  the  reign  of  the  em- 
 peror Adrian.  And  yet  it  is  certain,  that 
 Simon  Magus  had  published  his  errors  be- 
 fore that  time,  and  set  up  a  sect,  which  gave 
 rise  to  most  of  the  ancient  heresies. 
 
 The  laws,  both  of  the  Church  and  State, 
 were  very  severe  against  those  who  were 
 adjudged  to   be   heretics.     Those  of  the 
 State,   made   by   the    Christian   emperors 
 from  the   time  of  Constantine,  are  com- 
 prised under  one  title,  Ue  Hcereticis,  in  the 
 Theodosian  Code.     The  principal  of  them 
 are,  1.  The  general  note  of  infamy  afhxed 
 to  all  heretics  in  common.     2.  All  com- 
 merce forbidden  to  be  held  with  them.     3. 
 The  depriving  them  of  all  offices  of  profit  I 
 and  dignity.     4.  The  disqualifying  them  j 
 to  dispose  of  their  estates  by  will,  or  re-  i 
 ceive  estates  from  others.    5.  The  imposing  \ 
 on  them  pecuniary  mulcts.     6.  The  pro-  \ 
 scribing  and  banishing  them.     7.  The  in- 
 flicting   corporal    punishment    on    them, 
 such  as  scourging,  &c.,  before  banishment. 
 Besides  these  laws,  which  chiefly  affected 
 the  persons  of  heretics,  there  were  several 
 others,  which  tended  to  the  extii'pation  of 
 
 heresy :  such  as,  1 .  Those  which  forbade 
 heretical  teachers  to  propagate  their  doc- 
 trines publicly  or  privately.  2.  Those 
 which  forbade  heretics  to  hold  public  dis- 
 putations. 3.  Such  laws  as  prohibited  all 
 heretical  meetings  and  assemblies.  4. 
 Those  which  deny  to  the  children  of  he- 
 retical parents  their  patrimony  and  in- 
 heritance, unless  they  return  to  the 
 Church.  And,  5.  Such  laws  as  ordered 
 the  books  of  heretics  to  be  burned.  There 
 were  many  other  penal  laws  made  against 
 heretics,  from  the  time  of  Constantine  to 
 Theodosius  junior  and  Valentinian  III. 
 But  the  few  already  mentioned  may  be 
 sufficient  to  give  an  idea  of  the  rigour 
 with  which  the  empire  treated  such  per- 
 sons as  held,  or  taught,  opinions  contrary 
 to  the  faith  of  the  Catholic  Church,  whose 
 discipline  towards  heretics  was  no  less 
 severe  than  the  civil  laws. 
 
 For,  1.  The  Church  was  accustomed  to 
 pronounce  a  formal  anathema  or  excommu- 
 nication against  them.  Thus  the  Council 
 of  Nice  ends  her  creed  with  an  anathema 
 against  all  those  who  opposed  the  doctrine 
 there  delivered.  And  there  are  innumer- 
 able instances  of  this  kind  to  be  found  in 
 the  volumes  of  the  Councils.  2.  Some 
 canons  debarred  them  from  the  very  lowest 
 privileges  of  Church  communion,  forbid- 
 ding them  to  enter  into  the  church,  so 
 much  as  to  hear  the  sermon,  or  the  Scrip- 
 tures read  in  the  service  of  the  catechu- 
 mens. But  this  was  no  general  rule ;  for 
 liberty  was  often  granted  to  heretics  to  be 
 present  at  the  sermons,  in  hopes  of  their 
 conversion ;  and  the  historians  tell  us, 
 that  Chrysostom  by  this  means  brought 
 over  many  to  acknowledge  the  Divinity  of 
 Christ,  whilst  they  had  liberty  to  come 
 and  hear  his  sermons.  3.  The  Church 
 prohibited  all  persons,  under  pain  of  ex- 
 communication, to  join  with  heretics  in 
 any  religious  offices.  4.  By  the  laws  of 
 the  Church,  no  one  was  to  eat,  or  converse 
 familiarly  Mith  heretics ;  or  to  read  their 
 writings,  or  to  contract  any  affinity  Avith 
 them  :  their  names  were  to  be  struck  out 
 of  the  Diptychs,  or  sacred  registers  of  the 
 Church ;  and,  if  they  died  in  heresy,  no 
 psalmody,  or  other  solemnity,  Avas  to  be 
 used  at  their  funeral.  5.  The  testimony 
 of  heretics  was  not  to  be  taken  in  any 
 ecclesiastical  cause  whatever.  These  are 
 the  chief  ecclesiastical  laws  against  here- 
 tics. 
 
 As  to  the  terms  of  penance  imposed 
 upon  relenting  heretics,  or  such  as  Avere 
 Avilling  to  renounce  their  errors,  and  be 
 reconciled  to  the  Church,  they  were  va- 
 rious, and  differed  according  to  the  canons 
 
HERESY. 
 
 367 
 
 of  different  councils,  or  the  usages  of  dif- 
 ferent Churches.  The  Council  of  Eliberis 
 (soon  after  A.  D.  300)  appoints  ten  years' 
 penance,  before  repenting  heretics  are  ad- 
 mitted to  communion.  The  Council  of 
 Agde  (a.  d.  506)  contracted  this  term  into 
 that  of  three  years.  The  Council  of  Epone 
 (a.  d.  517)  reduced  it  to  two  years  only. 
 
 The  ancient  Christian  Church  made  a 
 distinction  between  vsuch  heretics  as  con- 
 tumaciously resisted  the  admonitions  of 
 the  Church,  and  such  as  never  had  any 
 admonition  given  them,  for  none  were  re- 
 puted formal  heretics,  or  treated  as  such, 
 till  the  Church  had  given  them  a  fii'st  and 
 second  admonition,  according  to  the  apos- 
 tle's rule. 
 
 The  principal  sects  of  heretics,  which 
 disturbed  the  peace  of  the  Church,  sprung 
 up  in  the  first  six  centuries :  most  of  the 
 heresies,  in  after  ages,  being  nothing  but 
 the  old  ones  new  vamped,  or  revived.  The 
 following  table  may  serve  to  give  the 
 reader  a  compendious  view  of  the  most 
 remarkable  of  the  ancient  heresies. 
 
 CENTURY   I. 
 
 1.  The  Simo7iia)7s,  or  followers  of  Simon 
 Magus ;  who  maintained  that  the  world  was 
 created  by  angels  :  that  there  is  no  resur- 
 rection of  the  body  ;  that  women  ought  to 
 be  in  common,  &c. 
 
 2.  Cerinthians  and  Ehionites,  followers 
 of  Cerinthus  and  Ebion ;  who  denied  the 
 Divinity  of  our  Saviouk,  and  blended  the 
 Mosaical  ceremonies  with  Christianity,  &c. 
 
 3.  The  Kicolaites,  followers  of  Nicolas, 
 deacon  of  Antioch;  who  allowed  the  pro- 
 miscuous use  of  women,  &c.,  alluded  to  by 
 St.  John  in  Rev.  ii.  6,  15. 
 
 CENTURY   II. 
 
 4.  The  Basilidians,  followers  of  Basilides 
 of  Alexandi'ia;  who  espoused  the  heresies 
 of  Simon  Magus,  and  denied  the  reality  of 
 our  Saviour's  crucifixion,  &c. 
 
 5.  The  CarpocratianSy  followers  of  Car- 
 pocrates ;  who,  besides  adhering  to  the 
 heresies  of  Simon  Magus,  rejected  the  Old 
 Testament,  and  held  that  our  Saviour 
 was  but  a  mere  man,  &c. 
 
 6.  The  Valentinians,  followers  of  Valen- 
 tinus ;  who  corrupted  the  Christian  doc- 
 trine with  the  Pythagorean  and  Platonic 
 notions,  Szc. 
 
 7.  The  Gnostics ;  so  called  from  their  pre- 
 tences to  superior  knoiclechje.  The  term 
 Gnostics  seems  to  have  been  a  general  name 
 for  many  of  the  earliest  heretics.  (See 
 Gnostics.) 
 
 8.  The  Nazarenes;  who  ingrafted  the 
 law  of  Moses  on  Christianity,  &c. 
 
 9.  The  3Iilletiarians  or  Chiliasts ;  so 
 called,  because  they  expected  to  reign 
 with  Christ,  a  thousand  years,  upon  the 
 earth. 
 
 10.  The  Cainitcs;  a  branch  of  the  Valen- 
 tinians, but  particularly  remarkable  for 
 paying  a  great  regard  to  Cain  and  all  the 
 wicked  men  mentioned  in  the  Scri])ture,  &c. 
 
 11.  The  Sothians :  who  held  that  Seth, 
 the  son  of  Adam,  was  the  Messiah. 
 
 12.  The  Qiiortodccimans;  who  observed 
 Easter  on  the  fourteenth  day  of  the  first 
 month,  in  conformity  to  the  Jewish  custom 
 of  keeping  the  Passover. 
 
 13.  The  Cerdoniaus,  followers  of  Cer- 
 don ;  who  held  two  contrary  jn-inciples, 
 denied  the  resurrection  of  the  body,  and 
 threw  the  Four  Gospels  out  of  the  canon 
 of  Scripture. 
 
 14.  The  Ifarcionitcs,  followers  of  Mar- 
 cion ;  who  held  three  principles,  denied 
 the  resurrection  of  the  body,  and  declaim- 
 ed against  marriage,  &c. 
 
 15.  The  Cafaphnjf/icms,  or  Montanists ; 
 who  baptized  the  dead,  and  held  Montanus 
 to  be  the  Holy  Ghost,  8zc. 
 
 16.  The  Encratites,  or  Tatianists^  fol- 
 lowers of  Tatian ;  who  boasted  of  an  ex- 
 traordinary continency,  and  condemned 
 marriage,  &c. 
 
 17.  The  Alof/ians :  so  called,  because 
 they  denied  the'  Divinity  of  the  Word,  and 
 rejected  St.  John's  Gospel,  which  particu- 
 larly asserts  it. 
 
 18.  The  Artoti/n'tes  ;  so  called,  because 
 they  offered  bread  and  cheese  in  the  eu- 
 charist. 
 
 19.  The  Angelics ;  so  called,  because 
 they  worshipped  angels. 
 
 CENTURY   III. 
 
 20.  The  3Ionarchici,  or  Pofripassians, 
 followers  of  Praxeas;  who  denied  a  plu- 
 rality of  persons  in  the  Trinity,  and  affirm- 
 ed that  our  Saviour  was  Gob  the  Father. 
 
 21.  The  Arabic i ;  who  believed  that  the 
 soul  dies,  or  sleeps,  till  the  day  of  judg- 
 ment, and  then  rises  with  the  body. 
 
 22.  The  Aqi(aria)is ;  who  used  only  water 
 in  the  eucharist. 
 
 23.  The  Novatians ;  who  would  not  allow 
 those,  who  had  lapsed  in  time  of  persecu- 
 tion, to  be  restored,  upon  repentance,  to 
 communion. 
 
 24.  The  Orif/cnists,  followers  of  Origcn  ; 
 who,  among  other  things,  held  that  the 
 devil,  and  all  the  damned,  will  at  last  be 
 saved. 
 
 25.  The  Mclchisedechians :  who  held  Mel- 
 chisedech  to  be  the  Messiah. 
 
 26.  The  Sahcllian-s,  followers  of  Sabcl- 
 lius ;  who  denied  the  Trinity,  and  affirmed 
 
368 
 
 HERESY. 
 
 HERETIC. 
 
 that  the  distinction  of  persons  in  the  God- 
 head was  merely  nominal,  and  founded 
 only  upon  a  diversity  of  attributes,  &c. 
 
 27.  The  Manicheans,  followers  of  Ma- 
 nes; who  held  that  two  opposite  princi- 
 ples reigned  over  the  world,  the  one  good, 
 the  other  bad,  &c. 
 
 CENTURY   IV. 
 
 28.  The  Arians,  followers  of  Arius,  a 
 priest  of  Alexandria ;  who  believed  the 
 Father  and  the  Son  not  to  be  of  the  same 
 nature,  substance,  or  essence,  and  that 
 there  was  a  time  when  the  Son  Avas  not,  &c. 
 
 29.  The  CuUuthians,  followers  of  Collu- 
 thus ;  who  confounded  the  evil  of  punish- 
 ment Avith  the  evil  of  sin. 
 
 30.  The  3Iacedo/nans ;  who  denied  the 
 Divinity  of  the  Holy  Ghost. 
 
 31.  The  Agnoetce ;  so  called,  because 
 they  denied  the  certainty  of  the  Divine 
 prescience. 
 
 32.  The  Jjwilinarians,  followers  of  Apol- 
 linaris;  Avho  asserted  that  our  Saviour,  at 
 his  incarnation,  assumed  a  human  body 
 without  a  soul,  and  that  the  Word  sup- 
 plied the  place  of  a  soul,  &c. 
 
 33.  The  Timotheans ;  Avho  held,  that  our 
 Saviour  was  incarnate  only  for  the  benefit 
 and  advantage  of  our  bodies. 
 
 34.  The  Colbjridians ;  so  called,  because 
 they  made  a  kind  of  goddess  of  the  Blessed 
 Virgin,  and  offered  cakes  to  her. 
 
 35.  The  Seleucians,  followers  of  Seleu- 
 cus ;  who  held  that  the  Deity  was  corporeal ; 
 and  that  the  matter  of  the  universe  was 
 co-eternal  with  GoD. 
 
 36.  The  P)-iscilliamsts,  followers  of  Pris- 
 cillian,  a  Spanish  bishop  ;  who  held  all  the 
 errors  of  the  Gnostics  and  Valentinians. 
 
 37.  The  Anthropoinurphites  ;  so  called, 
 because  they  ascribed  a  body  to  GoD,  un- 
 derstanding literally  those  passages  of 
 Scripture  which  speak  of  GoD  as  having 
 hands,  eyes,  feet,  &c. 
 
 38.  The  Jovinianists,  followers  of  Jovi- 
 nian  ;  who  denied  the  virginity  of  Marj'. 
 
 39.  The  Messalians ;  who  chiefly  pre- 
 tended to  prophecy. 
 
 40.  The  Bunosimts,  followers  of  Bono- 
 sus ;  who  held  that  Jesus  Christ  was  the 
 Son  of  God  only  by  adoption. 
 
 CENTURY  V. 
 
 41.  The  Pelagians,  followers  of  Pelagius ; 
 who  denied  the  necessity  of  Divine  grace, 
 in  order  to  salvation,  &c. 
 
 42.  Ncstorians,  followers  of  Nestorius ; 
 who  distinguished  our  blessed  Saviour 
 into  two  persons,  the  one  Divine,  the  other 
 human. 
 
 43.  The  Eutychians,  followers  of  Euty- 
 
 ches ;  who  fell  into  the  opposite  error,  and 
 held,  that  there  was  but  one  natui-e  in 
 Jesus  Christ. 
 
 44.  The  Theopaschites,  folloAvers  of  Pe- 
 trus  Fullo,  bishop  of  Antioch :  so  called, 
 because  they  affirmed  that  all  the  three 
 persons  in  the  Trinity  were  incarnate,  and 
 sufl'ered  upon  the  cross. 
 
 CENTURY   VI. 
 
 45.  The  Ptedcstinarians ;  so  called,  be- 
 cause they  held  that  the  salvation  or  damna- 
 tion of  men  is  pre-ordained,  and  that  no 
 man  is  saved  or  damned  by  his  works. 
 
 46.  The  Apthartodocetes,  or  Iticorrup- 
 tihilists  ;  so  called,  because  they  held  that 
 our  Saviour's  body  was  incorruptible,  and 
 exempt  from  passion. 
 
 47.  A  second  sect  of  ^^^^weYrt?,-  so  called, 
 because  they  held  that  our  blessed  Saviour, 
 when  upon  earth,  did  not  know  the  day  of 
 judgment. 
 
 48.  The  Monotheletes ;  who  held  that 
 there  was  but  one  will  in  Jesus  Christ. 
 
 These  were  the  principal  sects  of  here- 
 tics, which,  in  those  early  ages,  infested 
 the  Christian  Church.  The  succeeding 
 ages  produced  a  great  variety  of  heretics 
 Hkewise ;  as  the  Gnosimachi  and  Lampe- 
 tians,  in  the  seventh  century  ;  the  Ayuny- 
 clites  in  the  eighth ;  the  Berengarians, 
 Simoniacs,  and  Vecilians,  in  the  eleventh ; 
 the  Bogotiiiles,  in  the  twelfth ;  the  Fratri- 
 celli  and  Beguards,  in  the  thirteenth ;  to 
 enumerate  all  which  would  be  both  tedious 
 and  uninteresting. — Broughton. 
 
 HERETIC.  Dr.  Johnson,  in  his  dic- 
 tionary, defines  a  heretic  to  be,  "  one  who 
 propagates  his  private  opinions  in  oppo- 
 sition to  the  Catholic  Church ;  "  and  the 
 Catholic  or  universal  Church,  in  the  second 
 general  council,  has  pronounced  those  to 
 be  heretics  "  who,  while  they  pretend  to 
 confess  the  sound  faith,  have  separated  and 
 held  meetings  contrary  to  our  canonical 
 bishops." — Cone.  Const.  Can.  6. 
 
 A  man  may  be  erroneous  in  doctrine 
 and  yet  not  a  heretic ;  for  heresy  is  a  per- 
 tinacious adherence  to  an  opinion  when 
 it  is  known  that  the  Church  has  condemn- 
 ed it.     (See  the  preceding  article.) 
 
 Although  the  Scripture  only  is  our  guide, 
 there  are  certain  points  of  disputable 
 doctrine  on  which  the  Church  Universal 
 has  decided,  e.  g.  the  doctrine  of  the 
 Trinity  ;  and  he  who  refuses  "  to  hear  the 
 Church  "  on  these  points,  is  held  a  heretic 
 by  the  Church  Universal.  There  are  cer- 
 tain points  on  which  our  own  Church  has 
 decided,  e.  g.  the  doctrine  of  transubstan- 
 tiation,  and  he  who  holds  this  doctrine  is 
 regarded  as  a  heretic  by  the   Ch\irch  of 
 
IIERMENEUT^. 
 
 HISTORIANS,  ECCLESIASTICAL.  369 
 
 England.  For  those  who  do  not  defer  to 
 the  Church,  to  pronounce  any  one  a  heretic 
 who  professes  to  take  the  Bible  for  his 
 guide,  is  an  inconsistency  which  can  only 
 be  accounted  for  by  the  existence,  on  the 
 part  of  the  offender,  of  a  very  intolerant 
 and  tyrannical  disposition. 
 
 HERMENEUTtE.  (From  ipunvevcj,  to 
 titter  J)  ret.)  Persons  in  the  ancient  Church, 
 whose  business  it  was  to  render  one  lan- 
 guage into  another,  as  there  was  occasion, 
 both  in  reading  the  Scriptures,  and  in  the 
 homilies  that  were  made  to  the  people ; 
 an  office  which  was  very  important  in  those 
 churches  where  the  people  spoke  different 
 languages,  as  in  Palestine,  where  some 
 spoke  Syriac,  others  Greek  ;  and  in  Africa, 
 where  some  spoke  the  Latin,  and  others 
 the  Punic  tongue. 
 
 HERMENEUTICS.  (From  fpnr]veiio, 
 to  interpret.)  The  principles  and  practice 
 of  translation  and  interpretation  of  the 
 sacred  Scriptures. — See  Harticell  Hornets 
 Introehicfion  and  J^r7iesti\<>  Institutes. 
 
 HERMITAGES  were  cells  constructed 
 in  private  and  solitary  places,  for  single 
 persons,  or  for  small  communities,  and 
 were  sometimes  annexed  to  larger  religious 
 houses. 
 
 HETERODOX.  Contrary  to  the  faith 
 or  doctrine  established  in  the  true  Church. 
 
 HEXAPLA.  A  book  containing  the 
 HebreAV  text  of  the  Bible,  written  in  He- 
 brew and  Greek  characters,  with  the  trans- 
 lations of  the  Septuagint,  of  Aquila,  The- 
 odotion,  and  Symmachus,  in  six  several 
 columns.  There  was  added  to  it  a  fifth 
 translation,  found  at  Jericho,  without  the 
 author's  name ;  and  a  sixth,  named  Nico- 
 politanum,  because  found  at  Nicopolis  : 
 Origen  joined  to  it  a  translation  of  the 
 Psalms,  but  still  the  book  retained  the 
 name  of  Hexapla,  because  the  fifth  and 
 sixth  translations  did  not  extend  to  the 
 whole  Bible  ;  and  so  the  same  book  of 
 Origen  had  but  six  columns  in  divers 
 places,  eight  in  some,  and  nine  in  the 
 Psalms.  Others  are  of  opinion  that  the 
 two  columns  of  the  Hebrew  text  were  not 
 reckoned ;  and  that  the  translation  of  the 
 Psalms  was  not  to  be  considered  so  as  to 
 give  a  new  name  to  the  book.  When  the 
 edition  contained  only  the  translations  of 
 the  Septuagint,  Aquila,  Theodotion,  and 
 Symmachus,  it  was  called  Tetrdpla,  and 
 the  name  of  Octapla  was  sometimes  given 
 to  the  eight  versions,  that  is,  to  the  collec- 
 tions containing  the  translations  of  Jericho 
 and  Xicopolis.  Ituffinus,  speaking  of  this 
 elal)orate  work,  affirms  that  Origen  under- 
 took it  because  of  the  continual  contro- 
 versies between  the  Jews  and  Christians : 
 2  n 
 
 the  Jews  citing  the  Hebrew,  and  the 
 Christians  the  Septuagint,  in  their  disputes, 
 this  father  was  willing  to  let  the  Chris- 
 tians understand  how  the  Jews  read  the 
 Bible  ;  and  to  this  end,  he  laid  the  versions 
 of  Aquila,  and  some  other  Greek  transla- 
 tions, before  them,  which  had  been  made 
 from  the  Hebrew  ;  but  fcAv  people  being 
 able  to  buy  so  great  a  work,  Origen  un- 
 dertook to  abridge  it,  and  for  that  purpose 
 published  a  version  of  the  Septuagint, 
 to  which  he  added  some  supplements, 
 taken  out  of  Theodotion's  translation,  in 
 the  i)laccs  where  the  Septuagint  had  not 
 rendered  the  Hebrew  text;  and  which 
 supi)lements  were  marked  with  an  aster- 
 isk. He  added  also  a  small  line  like  a 
 spit,  M'here  the  Septuagint  had  something 
 that  was  not  in  the  Hebrew  text.  The 
 loss  of  the  Hexapla  is  one  of  the  greatest 
 which  the  Church  has  sustained.  But  a 
 fcAv  fragments  remain,  published  by  Mont- 
 faucon,  in  1713;  and  by  Bahrdt,  (an 
 abridgment,  and  not  a  very  skilful  one, 
 of  the  former,)  in  1769. 
 
 HIERARCHY.  (See  BisJwps.)  A 
 designation  equally  applied  to  the  ranks  of 
 celestial  beings  in  the  Jerusalem  above, 
 and  to  the  apostolic  order  of  the  ministry 
 in  the  Church  below.  In  reference  to  the 
 latter,  it  is  an  error  to  suppose  that  it 
 necessarily  implies  temporal  distinction, 
 wealth,  splendour,  or  any  other  adjuncts 
 with  which  the  ministry  may,  in  certain 
 times  and  countries,  have  been  distin- 
 guished. These  are  mere  accidents,  Avhich 
 prejudice  has  identified  with  the  being  of  a 
 hierarchy,  but  from  which  no  just  inference 
 can  be  drawn  against  the  inherent  s])iritual 
 dignity  of  the  Christian  priesthood. 
 
 HIGH  PRIEST.  The  highest  person 
 in  the  divinely  appointed  ecclesiastical 
 polity  of  the  Jcavs.  To  him  in  the  Chris- 
 tian Church  answers  the  bishop,  the  pres- 
 byter answering  to  the  priest,  and  the 
 deacon  to  the  Levite. 
 
 HISTORIANS,  ECCLESIASTICAL. 
 Those  waiters  who  record  the  acts  and 
 monuments  of  the  Christian  Church.  After 
 the  evangelical  historians,  the  most  distin- 
 guished is  Hegesippus,  who  lived  princi- 
 pally in  the  reign  of  Marcus  Aurelius  (a.  d. 
 161 — ISO).  He  wrote  five  books  of  eccle- 
 siastical history,  called  Commentaries  of 
 tJie  Arts  of  the  Church,  wherein  he  de- 
 scribed the  character  of  the  holy  apostles, 
 their  missions,  8zc.,  the  rcmarknlde  events 
 in  the  Churcli,  and  the  several  heresies, 
 schisms,  and  persecutions  which  had  af- 
 flicted it  from  our  Lord's  death  to  the 
 writer's  own  times.  All  the  writings  of 
 Hegesippus  are  now  lost.     Next  follows 
 
370 
 
 HOLY-DAY. 
 
 HOLY  GHOST. 
 
 Eusebius,  bishop  of  Ca?sarca,  a  pupil  of 
 Pamphilus,  on  which  account  he  is  often 
 called  Eusebius  Pamphili.  He  wrote  an 
 ecclesiastical  history  in  ten  books,  com- 
 prising a  history  of  the  Church  from  our 
 Lord's  birth  to  the  conversion  of  Constan- 
 tine  the  Great,  which  he  compiled  chiefly 
 from  the  commentary  of  Hep^esippus.  St. 
 Jerome  and  Nicephorus  derive  the  mate- 
 rials of  their  history  from  Eusebius.  The 
 histories  written  by  Socrates,  Theodoret, 
 and  Sozomen,  relate  to  their  own  times 
 only.  These  are  the  sources  from  which 
 all  modern  historians  of  the  early  Church 
 derive  their  materials. 
 
 HOLY-DAY.  The  day  of  some  eccle- 
 siastical festival.  The  rubric  after  the 
 Nicene  Creed  directs  that  "  the  curate 
 shall  then  declare  to  the  people  what  holy- 
 days  or  fasting  days  are  in  the  week  fol- 
 lowing to  be  observed." 
 
 Canon  64.  "  Every  parson,  vicar,  or  cu- 
 rate shall,  in  his  several  charge,  declare  to 
 the  people  every  Sunday,  at  the  time  ap- 
 pointed in  the  Communion  Book,  whether 
 there  be  any  holy-days  or  fasting  days  the 
 week  following.  And  if  any  do  hereafter 
 willingly  offend  herein,  and,  being  once 
 admonished  thereof  by  his  ordinary,  shall 
 again  omit  that  duty,  let  him  be  censured 
 according  to  law  until  he  submit  himself 
 to  the  due  performance  of  it." 
 
 Canon  13.  "All  manner  of  persons 
 within  the  Church  of  England  shall  from 
 henceforth  celebrate  and  keep  the  Lord's 
 day,  commonly  called  Sunday,  and  other 
 holy-days,  according  to  God's  will  and 
 pleasure,  and  the  orders  of  the  Church  of 
 England  prescribed  on  that  behalf:  that 
 is,  in  hearing  the  word  of  God  read  and 
 taught,  in  private  and  public  prayers,  in 
 acknowledging  their  offences  to  God,  and 
 amendment  of  the  same,  in  reconciling 
 themselves  charitably  to  their  neighbours 
 where  disj)leasure  has  often  been,  in  often- 
 times receiving  the  communion  of  the 
 body  and  blood  of  Christ,  in  visiting  of 
 the  poor  and  sick,  using  all  godly  and 
 sober  conversation." 
 
 Canon  14.  "  The  Common  Prayer  shall 
 be  said  or  sung  distinctly  and  reverently 
 upon  such  days  as  are  appointed  to  be  kept 
 holy  by  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  and 
 their  eves." 
 
 HOLY  GHOST.  (See  Procession.) 
 The  third  Person  of  the  adorable  Trinity. 
 
 "The  Holy  Ghost,  proceeding  from 
 the  Father  and  the  Son,  is  of  one  sub- 
 stance, majesty,  and  glory  with  the  Fa- 
 ther and  the  Son,  very  and  eternal  God." 
 —Article  V. 
 
 The  name  Ghost,  or  Gast,  in  the  ancient 
 
 Saxon,  signifies  a  spirit,  to  Avhich  the  word 
 lioly  is  applied,  as  signifying  a  communica- 
 tion of  the  Divine  holiness.  Having  been 
 baptized  "in  the  name  of  the  Father,  and 
 of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost,"  we 
 cannot  say  with  the  ignorant  disciples,  that 
 "  we  have  not  so  much  as  heard  whether 
 there  be  any  Holy  Ghost  "  (Acts  xix.  2) ; 
 we  are  therefore  called  upon  to  believe  in 
 the  Holy  Ghost  as  we  do  in  the  Father 
 and  the  Son  ;  and  for  our  authority  in 
 considering  him  to  be  a  person  as  well  as 
 the  others,  we  have  not  only  the  analogy 
 of  faith,  but  sufhcient  evidence  in  holy 
 writ. 
 
 First,  he  is  plainly  distinguishable  from 
 the  others  ;  from  the  Father,  as  proceed- 
 ing from  him,  (John  xv.  26,)  and  from  the 
 Father  and  the  Son,  in  being  sent  by  one 
 from  the  other ;  "  The  Comforter,  whom  I," 
 says  our  Lord,  "  will  send  unto  you  from 
 the  Father  ; "  "  If  I  go  not  away,  the 
 Comforter  will  not  come  unto  you,  but  if  I 
 depart,  I  will  send  him  unto  you."  (John 
 XV.  26 ;  xvi.  7.)  This  was  the  Spirit  pro- 
 mised before  of  the  Father.  (Isa.  xliv. 
 3 ;  Ezek.  xxxvi.  25,  with  John  xiv.  16 ; 
 Acts  i.  4  ;  ii.  33.)  He  is  sometimes  termed 
 "  the  Spirit  of  the  Son,"  as  well  as  of  the 
 Father,  (Gal.  iv.  6,)  and  is  given  by  the 
 Father,  (Eph.  i.  17,)  and  sent  in  his  Son's 
 name,  (John  xiv.  26,)  as  at  other  times 
 by  the  Son.  (John  xv.  26 ;  xvi.  7 ;  xx. 
 21,  22.) 
 
 Secondly,  such  properties,  attributes, 
 and  acts  are  ascribed  to  him  as  are  only 
 applicable  to  a  person.  He  is  spoken  of 
 in  formal  opposition  to  evil  spirits,  who 
 are  clearly  represented  as  persons  (1  Sam. 
 xvi.  14;  2  Chron.  xviii.  20,  21);  and  if 
 expressions  are  used  not  exactly  suitable  to 
 our  conceptions  of  a  person,  this  may  well 
 be  allowed  without  its  making  him  a  mere 
 quality  or  attribute.  AMien  God  is  said 
 to  "give"  the  Holy  Ghost  "to  them  that 
 obey  him,"  (Acts  v.  32,)  it  may  be  com- 
 pared with  similar  passages  respecting  the 
 Son  :  "  God  so  loved  the  world,  that  he 
 gave  his  only  begotten  Son,"  &c.,  (John 
 iii.  16,)  in  conformity  to  the  prophecy, 
 "  Unto  us  a  Son  is  given."     (Isa.  ix.  6.) 
 
 Thirdly,  he  is  also  truly  GoD,  as  is 
 proved  from  the  titles  given  to  him  by  fair 
 implication,  (Acts  v.  3,  4  ;  Luke  i.  35 ;  and 
 see  2  Sam.  xxiii.  2,  3,)  and  the  attributes 
 of  God,  (Job  xxxiii.  4  ;  Ps.  cxxxix.  7  ;  Isa. 
 xlviii.  16  ;  with  Acts  xiii.  2  ;  xx.  28  ;  Mark 
 xiii.  11  ;  Pom.  viii.  14  ;  xv.  13,  19  ;  1  Cor. 
 ii.  11,)  and  he  is  in  two  grand  instances 
 united  to  the  Father  and  the  Son,  in 
 perfect  equality, — the  form  of  baptism,  by 
 which  we  are  admitted  into  the  Church  of 
 
HOLY  TABLE. 
 
 God,  fMatt.  xxvlii.  19,)  and  the  apostolic 
 benediction,  the  common  Christian  saluta- 
 tion.    (2  Cor.  xiii.  14.) 
 
 As  he  is  the  Holy  Spikit  of  Gob,  "  the 
 Spirit  of  holiness,"  (Rom.  i.  4,)  so  is  he 
 the  cause  of  all  holiness  in  man.  That  as 
 the  Son,  by  his  sacrifice,  put  us  in  the  way 
 of  salvation,  (John  iii.  IG,)  so  must  the 
 Holy  Spirit  co-operate  in  sealiuf^  "  us 
 unto  the  day  of  redemption,"  through  his 
 "  sanctification,"  and  *'  belief  of  the  truth," 
 (Rom.  viii.  IG  ;  2  Cor.  i.  22  ;  v.  5  ;  Gal.  vi. 
 8;  Eph.  i.  13,  14;  iv.  30;  Phil.  i.  19; 
 2  Thess.  ii.  13  ;  Tit.  iii.  5,)  according  as  he 
 has  been  promised.  (IJeut.  xxix.  4 ;  Jer. 
 xxxii.  40;  Ezek.  xxxvi.  27;  John  vi. 
 44.)  And  this  he  does  by  regenerating 
 us  at  baptism,  (Matt.  iii.  1 1  ;  John  iii.  5  ; 
 Gal.  iv.  29  ;  Tit.  iii.  5,)  and  making  us 
 the  "sons  of  God,"  (Rom.  ^-^ii.  14—16; 
 Gal.  iv.  6,)  and  thus  uniting  us  to  our 
 "head,"  (1  Cor.  vi.  17;  xii.  12,  13;  Eph. 
 iv.  4 ;  1  John  iii.  24,)  and  by  instructing 
 us  in  our  duty,  (Prov.  i.  23  ;  Ps.  clxiii.  10  ; 
 Isa.  lix.  21  :  1  Cor.  ii.  10,  11  ;  xii.  3;  2 
 Cor.  iii.  3 ;  Gal.  v.  16,  25,)  illuminating 
 the  understanding,  (Neh.  ix.  20  ;  Isa.  xxxii. 
 15,  16;  Ezek,  xxxvi.  27;  Micah  iii.  8; 
 Rom.  viii.  2,  5 ;  Eph.  i.  17,  18 ;  1  John  iii. 
 24;  iv.  13,)  disposing  the  will,  (Heb.  iii.  7, 
 8 ;  1  Pet.  i.  2,  22,)  settling  us  in  the  foith 
 and  love  of  God,  (Rom.  v.  5 ;  2  Cor.  iv. 
 13 ;  2  Tim.  i.  7,)  giving  us  power  to  obev, 
 (Zech.  iv.  6;  2  Cor.  iii.  17;  Eph.  iii.  16,) 
 helping  us  in  prayer,  (Zech.  xii.  10  ;  Rom. 
 viii.  26;  1  Cor.  xiv.  15;  Jude  20,)  and 
 sanctifying  us.  (Rom.  xv.  16 ;  1  Cor.  vi. 
 11  ;  Gal.  V.  16.)  And  as  his  very  name, 
 "  the  Comforter,"  implies,  he  gives  con- 
 solation and  jov.  (Actsix.  31  ;  Rom.  xiv. 
 17;  XV.  13;  Gal.  v.  22  ;  1  Thess.  i._6.) 
 
 It  is  necessary,  then,  that  we  believe  in 
 the  Holy  GnosT,  as  having  been  baptized 
 to  God  in  his  name ;  and  as  we  would  re- 
 ceive the  apostolic  benediction,  (2  Cor. 
 xiii.  14  ;  Phil.  ii.  1,)  and  enjoy  the  king- 
 dom of  God  on  earth,  which  is  "  righteous- 
 ness, and  peace,  and  joy,"  in  him.  (Rom. 
 xiv.  17  ;  Acts  xiii.  52.) 
 
 HOLY  TABLE,  (ayia  TQuiTila.)  (See 
 Altar.)  The  altar  on  which  the  appointed 
 memorials  of  the  death  of  Christ,  namely, 
 the  bread  and  wine,  are  presented  before 
 God,  as  an  oblation  of  thanksgiving,  is 
 called  the  Lord's  table,  or  the  holy  table ; 
 because  his  worshippers  do  there,  as  his 
 guests,  eat  and  drink  thase  consecrated 
 elements,  in  faith,  to  be  thereby  fed  and 
 nourished  unto  eternal  life,  by  the  spiritual 
 food  of  his  most  precious  body  and  blood. 
 
 HOLY  THURSDAY.     The  day  of  our 
 Lord's  ascension.  (See  Ascension  Day.) 
 2  B  2 
 
 HOMILIES. 
 
 371 
 
 HOLY  AVATER.  In  the  Romish  Church, 
 water  blessed  with  an  approi)riate  ser- 
 vice by  the  priest,  and  placed  in  a  shal- 
 low basin,  called  the  holy  water  stoup, 
 at  the  entrance  of  the  Church.  Its  pri- 
 mary use  was,  that  the  hands  of  the  wor- 
 shippers might  be  washed,  and  "pure 
 hands  lifted  up  in  prayer ; "  afterwards  it 
 sj/nibolizcd  their  purification  from  defile- 
 ment before  engaging  in  prayer.  The 
 modern  Romanists  forget  this,  and,  as  if 
 they  thought  that  some  intrinsic  benefit 
 resulted  from  the  physical  application  of 
 the  holy  water,  independent  of  its  mystic 
 meaning,  use  it  both  on  entering  and 
 leaving  a  church. 
 
 So  many  superstitions  had  become  con- 
 nected with  the  use  of  holy  water,  that  it 
 was  discontinued  at  the  Reformation. 
 
 HOLY  WEEK.  (See  Passion  Week.) 
 The  Passion  week— the  last  week  in  Lent, 
 in  which  the  Church  commemorates  the 
 cross  and  passion  of  our  blessed  and  only 
 Saviour. 
 
 HOMILIES.  (From  bfuXia,  a  sermon 
 or  discoitrse,  delivered  in  a  plain  manner, 
 so  as  to  be  understood  by  the  common 
 people.)  The  Homilies  of  the  Church 
 of  England  are  two  books  of  plain  dis- 
 courses, composed  at  the  time  of  the  Re- 
 formation, and  appointed  to  be  read  in 
 churches,  on  "any  Sunday  or  holy-day, 
 when  there  is  no  sermon."  The  first  vo- 
 lume of  them  was  set  out  in  the  beginning 
 of  King  Edward  the  Sixth's  reign  in  1547, 
 having  been  composed  (as  it  is  thought) 
 by  Archbishop  Cranmer  and  Bishops  Ridley 
 and  Latimer,  when  a  competent  number  of 
 ministers  of  sufiicient  abilities  to  preach 
 in  a  public  congregation  was  not  to  be 
 found.  It  was  reprinted  in  1560.  The 
 second  book  appeared  in  1563,  having  been 
 printed  the  year  before,  (see  Strype's  Life 
 of  Parker,)  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth. 
 Bishop  Jewell  is  supposed  to  have  had  a 
 great  share  in  its  composition.  In  the 
 first  book,  the  homily  on  "  Salvation"  was 
 probably  Avritten  by  Cranmer,  as  also  those 
 on  "  Faith  "  and  "  Good  AVorks."  The 
 homilies  on  the  "  Fear  of  Death,"  and  on 
 the  "  Reading  of  Scrij)ture,"  have  likewise 
 been  ascribed  to  the  archbishop.  That  on 
 the  "  Misery  of  Mankind,"  which  has 
 sometimes  been  attributed  to  him,  ap- 
 pears in  Bishop  Bonner's  volume  of  Homi- 
 lies, A.  D.  1555,  with  tlie  name  of  "Jo. 
 Ilarpesfield"  attached  to  it.  The  homilies 
 '  on  "  the  Passion,"  and  on  "  the  Resurrec- 
 ■  tion,"  are  from  Taverner's  "  Postills,"  pub- 
 I  lished  in  1540.  Internal  evidence  arising 
 out  of  certain  homely  expressions,  and  pe- 
 culiar  forms   of  ejaculation,   the   like   to 
 
372 
 
 HOMILIES. 
 
 which  appear  in  Latimer's  sermons,  pretty 
 clearly  betray  the  hand  of  the  Bishop  of 
 Worcester  to  have  been  engaged  in  the 
 homily  against  "  Brawling  and  Conten- 
 tion;" the  one  against  "Adultery"  may 
 be  safely  given  to  Thomas  Becon,  one  of 
 Cranmer's  cha])lains,  in  Avhose  works, 
 published  in  loG4,  it  is  still  to  be  found; 
 of  the  rest  nothing  is  known,  but  by  the 
 merest  conjecture.  In  the  second  book,  no 
 single  homily  of  them  all  has  been  appro- 
 priated. 
 
 All  members  of  the  Church  of  England 
 agree  that  the  Homilies  "  contain  a  godly 
 and  wholesome  doctrine;"  but  they  are 
 not  agreed  as  to  the  precise  degree  of 
 authority  to  be  attached  to  them.  In 
 them  the  authority  of  the  Fathers,  of  the 
 first  six  general  Councils,  and  of  the  judg- 
 ments of  the  Church  generally,  the  holi- 
 ness of  the  primitive  Church,  the  secondary 
 insj)iration  of  the  Apocrypha,  the  sacra- 
 mental character  of  marriage  and  other 
 ordinances,  regeneration  in  holy  baptism, 
 and  the  real  presence  in  the  eucharist,  are 
 asserted.  To  some  of  these  assertions 
 ultra-Protestants  of  course  demur. 
 
 By  this  approbation  of  the  two  books  of 
 Homilies  it  is  not  meant  that  every  passage 
 of  Scripture,  or  argument  that  is  made  use 
 of  in  them,  is  always  convincing ;  or  that 
 every  expression  is  so  severely  worded, 
 that  it  may  not  need  a  little  correction  or 
 explanation :  all  that  we  profess  about 
 them  is  only  that  they  "  contain  a  godly 
 and  wholesome  doctrine."  This  rather 
 relates  to  the  main  importance  and  design 
 of  them,  than  to  every  passage  in  them. 
 Though  this  may  be  said  concerning  them, 
 that,  considering  the  age  wherein  they  Avere 
 written,  the  imperfection  of  our  language, 
 and  some  inferior  defects,  they  are  two 
 very  extraordinary  books.  Some  of  them 
 are  better  writ  than  others,  and  are  equal 
 to  anything  that  has  been  writ  upon  those 
 subjects  since  that  time.  Upon  the  whole 
 matter,  every  one,  who  subscribes  the 
 Articles,  ought  to  read  them,  otherwise  he 
 subscribes  a  blank  ;  he  approves  a  book 
 implicitly,  and  binds  himself  to  read  it,  as 
 he  may  be  required,  without  knowing  any- 
 thing concerning  it.  This  approbation  is 
 not  to  be  stretched  so  far,  as  to  carry  in  it 
 a  special  assent  to  every  particular  in  that 
 whole  volume  :  but  a  man  must  be  per- 
 suaded of  the  main  of  the  doctrine  that  is 
 taught  in  them. — Bp.  Burnet. 
 
 The  Church  requires  our  assent  and  ap- 
 probation to  the  Articles,  and  so  in  like 
 manner  to  the  Rubric,  to  be  expressed  in  a 
 dilferent  degree  and  manner  from  that  in 
 which  we  express  our  assent  to  the  Homi- 
 
 lies and  the  Canons ;  the  same  degree  of 
 preference  being  given  to  the  Articles  of 
 religion  before  the  Homilies,  in  point  of 
 doctrine,  and  to  the  Rubric  before  the 
 body  of  Canons,  in  point  of  practice. 
 
 The  Thirty-nine  Articles,  for  instance, 
 being  the  capital  rule  of  our  doctrine,  as 
 we  are  teachers  in  this  Church  ;  (they 
 being  this  Church's  interpretation  of  the 
 word  of  God  in  Scripture,  so  far  as  they 
 go  ;)  and  designed  as  a  bulwark  against 
 Popery  and  fanaticism  ;  we  are  bound  to 
 a  very  full  and  explicit  acknowledgment 
 under  our  hands,  that  Ave  do  deliberately, 
 and  advisedly,  and  ex  animo,  assent  to 
 every  part  and  proposition  contained  in 
 them.  For  this  everybody  knoAvs  to  be 
 the  meaning  of  clerical  subscriptions,  both 
 before  ordination,  and  as  often  as  the  three 
 articles  of  the  thirty-sixth  canon  are  sub- 
 scribed by  us. 
 
 In  the  like  manner  the  Rubric  being  the 
 standard  of  uniformity  of  Avorship  in  our 
 communion ;  the  adding  to  Avhich  tends 
 toAvards  ojjcning  a  gap  to  Popish  supersti- 
 tions, and  the  increase  of  human  inventions 
 in  the  service  of  God  ;  and  the  subtracting 
 from  Avhich  tends  toAvards  paA^ng  a  Avay  to 
 a  fanatical  disuse  and  contempt  of  rites 
 and  ceremonies  ;  therefore  Ave  are  obliged, 
 not  only  to  declare  our  ex  animo  approba- 
 tion, assent,  and  consent,  to  the  matter  of 
 the  Rubric,  but  are  laid  under  religious 
 promises,  that  Ave  Avill  in  every  particular, 
 prescribed  in  and  by  it.  conform  ourselves 
 to  it  as  the  rule  of  our  ministration. 
 
 And,  indeed,  considering  that  both  the 
 Ai'ticles  and  the  Rubric  are  statute  as  well 
 as  canon  laAV,  and  have  equally  the  sanc- 
 tion and  authority  both  of  the  temporal 
 and  spiritual  legislatures  ;  and  considering 
 the  condition  upon  Avhich  we  are  admitted 
 to  minister  in  this  established  Church, 
 Avhich  is  our  solemn  reception  of  them 
 both  as  our  rule ;  I  do  not  see  how  any 
 man  can,  Avith  a  good  conscience,  continue 
 acting  as  a  minister  of  our  Church,  Avho 
 can  alloAV  himself  either  to  depart  from 
 her  doctrine  as  expressed  in  her  Articles, 
 or  from  her  rites  and  ceremonies  as  pre- 
 scribed in  the  Service  Book.  "Wherefore 
 it  is  not  Avithout  reason  that  the  thirty- 
 eighth  canon,  Avhich  is  entitled  "Revolters 
 after  subscription  censured,"  expressly  de- 
 nounces, that  "if  any  minister,  after  having 
 subscribed  the  three  articles  of  the  36th 
 canon,  shall  omit  to  use  any  of  the  orders 
 and  ceremonies  prescribed  in  the  Com- 
 munion Book,  he  shall  be  suspended  ; 
 and  if  after  one  month  he  reform  not, 
 he  shall  be  excommunicated ;  and  if  after 
 the   space    of  another  month   he  submit 
 
HOMILIES. 
 
 HOMOOUSION. 
 
 373 
 
 not  himself,  he  shall  be  deposed  from  the 
 ministry." 
 
 But  the  case  of  Homilies  and  Canons  is 
 different  from  that  of  the  Articles  and 
 Rubric.  They  are  indeed  equally  set  forth 
 by  authority.  The  one  is  as  truly  the  doc- 
 trine, and  the  other  is  as  truly  tlie  law,  of 
 the  Church.  Ikit  still  the  regard  thut 
 we  are  supposed  to  pay  to  them  is  not 
 equally  the  same,  h'or,  though  we  sub- 
 scribe to  the  Homilies,  yet  this  subscription 
 amounts  to  no  more  than  our  acknowledg- 
 ment, that  "  they  contain  a  godly  and 
 wholesome  doctrine  necessary  for  the 
 times  they  were  written  in,  and  fitting  to 
 be  publicly  taught  unto  the  people  ; "  and 
 not  that  we  will  maintain  every  particular 
 doctrine,  or  argument,  or  assertion,  con- 
 tained in  them. 
 
 In  like  manner  we  say  as  to  the  Canons. 
 "We  receive  them  in  general  as  a  good  body 
 of  ecclesiastical  laws.  We  acknowledge 
 the  wholesomeness  and  fitness  of  them  all 
 for  discipline,  and  order,  and  ediiication, 
 and  proper  in  every  respect  for  the  times 
 in  which  they  were  di'awn  vij).  But  we  do 
 not  look  upon  every  particular  thereby 
 enjoined  as  absolutely  and  indispensably 
 requisite  to  be  practised  now  by  us  in  the 
 manner  it  is  enjoined,  any  more  than  we 
 hold  our  approbation  of  every  sentence  or 
 expression  in  the  Book  of  Homilies  to  be 
 necessary. — Archdeacon  S/iarp. 
 
 Were  I  asked  the  question,  whether  the 
 clergymen  of  the  Church  of  England  sub- 
 scribe to  the  doctrines  of  the  Homilies,  as 
 well  as  to  the  Articles  of  Ileligion,  I  should, 
 in  sincerity  and  truth,  be  obliged  to  reply, 
 most  undoubtedly  iiof.  Neither  at  ordin- 
 ation, nor  upon  collation  or  institution  to 
 benefices,  nor  at  any  other  period,  is  any 
 such  subscription  required  of  the  clergy. 
 We  cannot  help  remarking  a  broad  dis- 
 tinction in  the  degree  of  authority  attri- 
 buted by  our  Church,  to  the  Liturgy,  the 
 Articles,  and  the  Books  of  Homilies,  re- 
 spectively. To  the  Liturgy,  all  beneficed 
 clergymen  are  bound,  within  a  limited 
 period  aficr  institution  or  collation,  open 
 and  publicly,  before  the  congregation  to 
 which  they  have  been  appointed  ministers, 
 to  declare  their  unfeigned  assent  and  con- 
 sent. To  the  Articles,  the  clergy  are 
 obliged,  at  various  times,  and  on  difierent 
 occasions,  solemnly  to  subscribe.  But, 
 however  venerable  and  valuable  the  Homi- 
 lies unquestionably  are,  we  do  not  find 
 them  treated  with  any  such  distinction  ; 
 and,  by  the  simple  fact,  that  no  })rovision 
 is  made  for  their  being  signed,  subscribed, 
 or  solemnly  assented  to,  they  are  jdaccd  in 
 an   immeasurably  lower   grade   than   the  | 
 
 other  formularies.  It  is,  indeed,  asserted 
 in  the  thirty-fifth  Article,  that  "the  Second 
 Book  of  Homilies  doth  contain  a  goodly 
 and  wholesome  doctrine,  and  necessary  for 
 these  times,"  [the  times  in  which  it  was 
 ])repared  and  j)ublished,]  "  as  doth  the 
 former  Book  of  Homilies  :  " — and,  in  sub- 
 scribing to  the  Articles,  every  clergyman 
 admits  the  truth  of  this  assertion.  But 
 the  assertion  itself  is  both  limited  and 
 guarded,  and  is  very  different  from  that 
 full  assurance  and  conviction  ex])ressed  by 
 the  Church,  and  demanded  of  her  ministers, 
 respecting  both  our  Articles  and  Liturgy. 
 ....  I  conceive  the  framers  of  our  Articles 
 merely  to  have  asserted,  that  the  Homilies, 
 generally  speaking,  contained  religious  and 
 moral  instruction,  good,  and  salutary,  and 
 necessary  to  be  so  administered  under  the 
 peculiar  circumstance  of  their  omu  times. 
 — Bishop  Jehb  :  the  II<»)iiJics  considered. 
 
 It  seems  the  author  of  the  Homilies 
 wrote  them  in  haste,  and  the  Church  did 
 wisely  to  reserve  this  authority  of  correct- 
 ing and  setting  forth  others.  (See  Rubric 
 before  OJf'ertor>j.)  For  they  have  many 
 scapes  in  them  in  special,  although  they 
 contain  in  general  many  wholesome  les- 
 sons for  the  people ;  in  which  sense  our 
 ministers  do  subscribe  unto  them,  and  no 
 other. —  Bp.  Overall. 
 
 The  authors  of  several  of  the  Homilies 
 are  mentioned  in  Corry's  recent  edition  of 
 them,  who  also  shows  how  they  were  in- 
 tended to  bear  upon  the  Antinomian  as 
 well  as  the  Popish  errors  of  the  dav. 
 
 HOMOIOUSIANS.  Semi-Arians,  who 
 held  that  the  nature  of  God  the  Son, 
 though  not  the  same,  was  similar  to  that 
 of  God  the  Father. 
 
 HOMOOUSIANS.  A  name  given  by 
 Arians  to  Catholic  Christians,  for  holding 
 the  doctrine  of  the  Homoousion. 
 
 HOMOOUSIOX.  (See  Trinity.)  This 
 is  the  critical  word  of  the  Nicene  Creed, 
 and  is  used  to  express  the  real  Divinity  of 
 Christ,  and  that,  as  derived  from,  and  one 
 with,  the  Father.  The  word  was  adopted 
 from  the  necessity  of  the  case,  in  a  sense 
 different  from  the  ordinary  philosophical 
 use  of  it.  '0/ioojVtof  properly  means  of  the 
 same  nature,  i.  e.  under  the  same  general 
 nature,  or  species  ;  i.  e.  is  applied  to  things 
 which  are  but  similar  to  each  other,  and 
 are  considered  as  one  by  an  abstraction  of 
 our  minds.  Thus  Aristotle  speaks  of  the 
 stars  being  ufioovaia  with  each  other ;  and 
 Por})hyry,  of  the  souls  of  brute  animals 
 being  vfioovmai  to  ours.  AVhen,  however, 
 it  was  used  in  relation  to  the  incommuni- 
 cable essence  of  God,  there  was  obviously 
 no  abstraction  possible  in  contemplating 
 
HOMOOUSION. 
 
 HOSANNA. 
 
 him,  who  is  above  all  comparison  with  his 
 works.  His  nature  is  solitary,  peculiar  to 
 himself,  and  one ;  so  that,  whatever  was 
 accounted  to  be  ofxoovaiog  with  him,  was 
 necessarily  included  in  his  individuality 
 by  all  who  would  avoid  recurring  to  the 
 vagueness  of  philosophy,  and  were  cautious 
 to  distinguish  between  the  incommunicable 
 essence  of  Jehovah  and  all  created  intelli- 
 gences. And  hence  the  fitness  of  the  term 
 to  denote  without  metaphor  the  relation 
 which  the  Logos  bore  in  the  orthodox 
 creed  to  his  eternal  Father.  Its  use  is 
 explained  by  Athanasius  as  follows : 
 "  Though,"  he  says,  "  we  cannot  under- 
 stand what  is  meant  by  the  ovaia  of  God, 
 yet  we  know  as  much  as  this,  that  GoD 
 exists  [hv(u),  which  is  the  way  in  which 
 Scripture  speaks  of  him ;  and  after  this 
 pattern,  when  we  wish  to  designate  him 
 distinctly,  we  say  God,  Father,  Lord. 
 "When  then  he  says  in  Scripture,  *  I  am 
 6  wv,'  and  '  I  am  Jehovah,  GoD,'  or  uses 
 the  plain  word  '  God,'  we  understand  by 
 such  statements  nothing  but  his  incom- 
 prehensible ovcTia,  and  that  he,  who  is  there 
 spoken  of,  exists  {lariv).  Let  no  one  then 
 think  it  strange,  that  the  Son  of  God 
 should  be  said  to  be  tic  Tijg  ova'iaq  rov  Oeov, 
 of  the  substance  of  God  ;  rather,  let  him 
 agree  to  the  explanation  of  the  Nicene 
 fathers,  who,  for  the  words  Ik  Qtov,  substi- 
 tuted the  fK  TtJQ  ovaiag.  They  considered 
 the  two  phrases  substantially  the  same, 
 because,  as  we  have  said,  the  word  God 
 denotes  nothing  but  the  ovaia  ahrov  tov 
 ovTOQ.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  word  be 
 not  in  such  sense  Ik  tov  Qtov,  as  to  be  the 
 true  Son  of  the  Father  according  to  his 
 nature,  but  be  said  to  be  in  tov  Qtov, 
 merely  as  all  creatures  are  such  as  being 
 his  work,  then  indeed  he  is  not  U  ttiq 
 ovaiag  tov  UuTpog,  nor  SON  kot  ovaiav,  but 
 80  called  from  his  virtue,  as  we  may  be 
 who  receive  the  title  from  grace. 
 
 Bishop  Bull  says  that  byioovmoQ  is  used 
 by  standard  Greek  writers  to  signify  that 
 which  is  of  the  same  substance,  essence,  or 
 nature.  And  he  shows  at  large  that  the 
 term  was  not  invented  by  the  Nicene 
 Fathers,  but  was  known  in  its  present 
 theological  acceptation  long  before ;  by 
 Irenffius,  by  Origen,  (as  Diouysius  of  Alex- 
 andria and  Athanasius  testify,)  by  Gregory 
 Thaumaturgus,  &c.  See  the  2nd  section 
 of  that  exhaustive  and  irrefragable  trea- 
 tise, the  Defensio  Fidei  NicseniP.  See  also 
 Suicer  in  voc,  from  which  it  appears  that 
 the  ante-Nicene  fathers  defined  the  word  as 
 signifpng  "  that  which  is  of  the  same  na- 
 ture, essence,  eternity,  and  energy,"  with- 
 out any  difference. 
 
 HOOD.  The  hood  as  used  by  us,  is 
 partly  derived  from  the  monastic  caputiutn, 
 partly  from  the  canonical  amice,  or  cihnii- 
 tium.  It  was  formerly  used  by  the  laity  as 
 well  as  the  clergy,  and  by  the  monastic  or- 
 ders. In  cathedral  and  collegiate  churches, 
 the  hoods  of  the  canons  and  prebendaries 
 were  frequently  lined  with  fur  or  wool,  and 
 always  worn  in  the  choir.  The  term  abnu- 
 than,  or  amice,  was  peculiarly  applied  to 
 these  last.  And  such  is  the  present  usage 
 in  foreign  churches,  where  the  capitular 
 canons  are  generally  distinguished  from 
 the  inferior  members,  by  the  colour  or  ma- 
 terials of  the  almuce.  (See  Amice.)  — 
 Palmer, 
 
 As  used  in  England  and  Ireland,  it  is  an 
 ornamental  fold  that  hangs  doMn  the  back 
 of  a  graduate  to  mark  his  degree.  This  part 
 of  the  dress  was  formerly  not  intended  for 
 distinction  and  ornament,  but  for  use.  It 
 was  generally  fastened  to  the  back  of  the 
 cope  or  other  vesture,  and  in  case  of  rain 
 or  cold  was  drawn  over  the  head.  In  the 
 universities  the  hoods  of  the  graduates 
 were  made  to  signify  their  degrees  by  vary- 
 ing the  colours  and  materials.  The  hoods 
 at  our  three  principal  universities,  Oxford, 
 Cambridge,  and  Dublin,  vary  considerably 
 from  one  another :  with  this  agreement, 
 that  all  Doctors  are  distinguished  by  a 
 scarlet  hood,  the  linings  (at  Oxford  and 
 Dublin)  varying  according  to  the  different 
 faculties.  Originally  however  it  would 
 appear  that  they  were  the  same,  probably 
 till  after  the  Ptestoration.  Masters  of  Arts 
 had  originally  fur  hoods,  like  the  proctors 
 at  Oxford,  whose  dress  is  in  fact  that  of 
 full  costume  of  a  Master  of  Arts  ;  Bachelors 
 in  other  faculties  wore  silk  hoods  of  some 
 intermediate  colour ;  and  Bachelors  of  Arts 
 stuff  hoods  lined  with  lambs'  wool.  The 
 hoods  in  the  Scottish  universities  followed 
 the  pattern  of  those  of  the  university  of 
 Paris. — Jehb. 
 
 By  the  58th  canon,  every  minister  say- 
 ing the  public  prayers,  or  ministering  the 
 sacraments,  or  other  rites  of  the  Church, 
 if  they  are  graduates,  shall  wear  upon 
 their  surplice,  at  such  times,  such  hoods 
 as  by  the  orders  of  the  universities  are 
 agreeable  to  their  degrees. 
 
 HOSANNA,  signifies  as  much  as  Save 
 710W.  The  Jews  call  their  feast  of  Taber- 
 nacles, Ilosayimi  Rahha,  i.  e.  the  great 
 Hosanna  ;  the  origin  of  that  word  is,  be- 
 cause on  that  day  they  prayed  for  the  sal- 
 vation and  forgiveness  of  all  the  sins  of  the 
 people.  Therefore  they  used  the  word  Ho- 
 sanna in  all  their  prayers  ;  which  implies, 
 Save,  I  pray,  according  to  Buxtorf ;  but 
 Anthony  Nebrissensis  observes  after  Ilabbi 
 
HOSPITALS. 
 
 HUGUENOTS. 
 
 Elias,  that  the  Jews  call  the  ^villow  branches, 
 which  they  carry  at  the  feast,  Hosanna, 
 because  they  sing;  Hosanna,  shaking  thera 
 everywhere.  And  Grotius  observes,  that 
 the  feasts  of  the  Jews  did  not  only  si<rnify 
 their  going  out  of  Egypt,  the  memory  of 
 wdiich  they  celebrated,  but  also  the  ex- 
 pectation of  the  Mkssias  :  and  that  still 
 on  the  day  when  tliey  carry  those  branches, 
 they  wished  to  celebrate  that  feast  at  the 
 coming  of  the  Messias  ;  from  whence  he 
 concludes,  that  the  people  carrying  those 
 branches  before  our  Saviour,  showed 
 their  joy,  acknowledging  him  to  be  the 
 Messias. 
 
 HOSPITALS,  were  houses  for  the  relief 
 of  poor  and  impotent  persons,  and  were 
 generally  incorjiorated  by  royal  patents, 
 and  made  capable  of  gifts  and  grants  in 
 succession.  Some  of  these  in  England  are 
 very  noble  foundations,  as  St.  Cross  at 
 Winchester,  founded  in  the  reign  of  King 
 Stephen,  &c.  In  most  cathedral  towns 
 there  are  hospitals,  often  connected  with 
 the  cathedi-als.  Christ's  Hospital  in  Lon- 
 don was  one  of  those  many  excellent  en- 
 dowments, to  which  the  funds  of  alienated 
 monasteries  would  have  been  more  largely 
 directed,  had  secular  avarice  permitted. 
 
 HOSPITALLERS,  or  Knights  of  St. 
 John  of  Jerusalem.  Knights  who  took 
 their  name  from  an  hospital  built  in  Jeru- 
 salem for  the  use  of  pilgrims  coming  to  the 
 Holy  Land.  They  were  to  provide  for 
 such  pilgrims,  and  to  protect  them  on  the 
 road.  They  came  to  England  in  the  year 
 1100,  and  here  they  arrived  to  such  power 
 that  their  superior  had  a  seat  in  the  House 
 of  Lords,  and  ranked  as  the  first  lay  baron. 
 
 HOSPITIUM,  or  Bomus  IlospUimn. 
 In  ancient  monasteries,  the  place  wdiere 
 pilgrims  aj;id  other  strangers  were  received 
 and  entertained. 
 
 HOST.  (See  Trnnsi(hstantiation.)  From 
 Jwstia,  a  victim.  The  bread  used  by  the 
 Roman  Catholic  Church  in  the  celebration 
 of  the  eucharist.  It  is  unleavened,  thin, 
 flat,  and  of  circular  form,  and  has  certain 
 mystic  signs  impressed  on  it.  Komanists 
 worship  the  host,  under  a  false  presumption 
 that  the  elements  are  no  longer  bread  and 
 wine,  but  transubstantiated  into  the  real 
 bodv  and  blood  of  Chkist. 
 
 liOSTIAlUUS.  (See  Osfmrins.)  The 
 second  master  in  some  of  the  old  endowed 
 schools,  as  Winchester,  is  so  called.  Hence 
 usher. 
 
 HOUR  GLASS.  The  usual  length  of 
 sermons  in  the  English  Church,  from  the 
 Reformation  till  the  latter  part  of  the 
 seventeenth  century,  was  an  hour.  Puri- 
 tans  preached  much  longer— two,  three, 
 
 and  even  four  hours.  For  the  measurement 
 of  the  time  of  sermon,  hour  glasses  were 
 frequently  attached  to  pulpits,  and  in  some 
 churches  the  stand  for  the  glass,  if  not  the 
 instrument  itself,  still  remains. 
 
 HOURS  OF  PRAYER.  The  Church 
 of  ]<]ngland,  at  the  revision  of  our  offices 
 in  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.,  only  prescribed 
 public  worship  in  the  morning  and  even- 
 ing :  and  in  making  this  regulation  she 
 was  ])crfectly  justified :  for  though  it  is 
 the  duty  of  Christians  to  pray  continually, 
 yet  the  precise  times  and  seasons  of  ])rayer, 
 termed  Canonical  Hours,  do  not  rest  on 
 any  Divine  command ;  neither  have  they 
 ever  been  pronounced  binding  on  all 
 Churches  by  any  general  council ;  neither 
 has  there  been  any  uniformity  in  the  prac- 
 tice of  the  Christian  Church  in  this  respect. 
 The  hours  of  prayer  before  the  Reforma- 
 tion were  seven  in  number, — matins,  the 
 first,  third,  sixth,  and  ninth  hours,  vesper-i, 
 and  compline.  The  office  of  matins,  or 
 morning  prayer,  according  to  the  Church 
 of  England,  is  a  judicious  abridgment  of 
 her  ancient  services  for  matins,  lauds,  and 
 prime ;  and  the  office  of  even-song,  or 
 evening  prayer,  in  like  manner,  is  an 
 abridgment  of  the  ancient  service  for  ves- 
 pers and  compline.  Both  these  offices 
 have  received  several  improvements  in 
 imitation  of  the  ancient  discipline  of  the 
 Churches  of  Egypt,  Gaul,  and  Spain. — 
 Palmer. 
 
 The  offices  for  the  third,  sixth,  and  ninth 
 hours,  were  shorter  than  the  others,  and 
 were  nearly  the  same  every  day.  Bishop 
 Cosin  drew  up,  by  royal  command,  a 
 form  of  devotion  for  private  use  for  the 
 different  canonical  hours.  It  is  supposed 
 that  the  seven  hours  of  prayer  took  their 
 rise  from  the  example  of  the  psalm,  "  Se- 
 ven times  a  day  do  I  give  thanks  unto 
 thee ;"  but  the  ancient  usage  of  the  Church 
 does  not  sanction  more  than  two  or  three 
 times  for  statedj>>n6/ir?  praver.  (See  Primer.) 
 
 HOUSEL.  {Saxon.)  'The  blessed  eu- 
 charist. Johnson  derives  it  from  the 
 Gothic  hunsel,  a  sacrifice,  or  hostia,  dim. 
 hostiohi,  Latin.  Todd,  in  his  emendations, 
 remarks  on  the  verb  to  housel,  that  an  old 
 lexicography  defines  it  specially,  "  to  ad- 
 minister the  communion  to  one  who  lieth 
 on  his  death-bed."  It  was,  perhaps,  in 
 later  'nnes  more  generally  used  in  this 
 se'  .<; :  still  it  was  often  employed,  as  wo 
 find  from  Chaucer,  aiul  writers  as  late  as 
 the  time  of  Henry  VIIL,  as  in  Saxon  times, 
 to  signify  al)solutely  the  receiving  of  the 
 eucharist. — Jehh. 
 
 HUGUENOTS.  A  name  by  which  the 
 French    Protestants   were    distinguished, 
 
376 
 
 HULSEAN  LECTURES. 
 
 HUTCHINSONIANS. 
 
 ■very  early  in  their  history.  Tlie  name  is 
 of  uncertain  derivation  ;  some  deduce  it 
 from  one  of  the  ^ates  of  the  city  of  Tours, 
 called  Huijons,  at  which  these  Protestants 
 held  their  first  assemblies  ;  others  from  the 
 ■words  Hue  nos,  with  which  their  ori<2^inal 
 protest  commenced  ;  others  from  the  Ger- 
 man, Eidffcnossen,  (associated  by  oath,) 
 which  first  became  Eynots^  and  afterwards 
 Jluf/uenots.    . 
 
 The  origin  of  the  sect  in  France  dates 
 from  the  rcisji^n  of  Francis  I.,  when  the 
 principles  and  doctrines  of  the  German 
 ]{cformcrs  found  many  disciples  among 
 their  Gallic  neighbours.  As  everywhere 
 else,  so  in  France,  the  new  doctrines  spread 
 with  great  rapidity,  and  called  forth  the 
 energies  both  of  Church  and  State  to  re- 
 press them.  Both  Francis  and  his  suc- 
 cessor, Henry  II.,  placed  the  Huguenots 
 under  various  penal  disabilities,  and  they 
 were  subjected  to  the  violence  of  the  fac- 
 tious French  among  their  opponents,  with- 
 out protection  from  the  State :  but  the 
 most  terrible  deed  of  horror  which  was 
 ])erpetrated  against  them  was  the  massacre 
 of  St.  BartholomeAv's  day.  (See  Bartho- 
 lomew.) A  scene  which  stands  recorded 
 in  history,  as  if  to  teach  us  to  how  great  a 
 depth  of  cruelty  and  oppression  mankind 
 may  be  driven  by  fanaticism. 
 
 In  the  reign  of  Henry  IV.  the  Hugue- 
 nots were  protected  by  the  edict  of  Nantes, 
 which  was  revoked,  however,  in  1685,  by 
 Cardinal  Mazarin,  the  minister  of  Louis 
 XIV.  :  on  this  occasion  500,000  of  this 
 persecuted  race  took  refuge  in  the  neigh- 
 bouring Protestant  states.  At  the  Revo- 
 lution, the  Huguenots  were  restored  to 
 their  civil  rights,  so  far  as  civil  rights  were 
 left  to  any  citizens  of  a  libertine  and  in- 
 fidel state  :  and  at  present  their  ministers, 
 like  those  of  all  Christian  sects,  are  paid  a 
 scanty  pittance  by  the  State. 
 
 In  doctrine  and  discipline  the  Hugue- 
 nots symbolized  with  Calvin,  and  the  sect 
 which  he  originated  at  Geneva. 
 
 HULSEAN  LECTUIIES.  Lectures  de- 
 livered at  Cambridge,  under  the  will  of 
 the  Rev.  John  Hulse,  late  of  Elworth, 
 bearing  date  the  12th  day  of  July,  1777. 
 The  number,  originally  twenty,  is  noAV  re- 
 duced to  eight. 
 
 HUMANITY  OF  OUR  LORD,  is  his 
 possessing  a  true  human  body  and  a  true 
 human  soul.     (See  Jesus.) 
 
 HUSSITES.  The  followers  of  John 
 Huss,  of  Bohemia,  who  maintained  AVick- 
 liff's  opinions  in  1407,  with  wonderful  zeal. 
 The  emperor  Sigismond  sent  to  him,  to 
 persuade  him  to  defend  his  doctrine  before 
 the  Council   of  Constance,  which  he  did 
 
 A.  D.  1414,  having  obtained  a  passport  and 
 an  assurance  of  safe  conduct  from  the 
 emperor.  There  were  seven  months  spent 
 in  examining  him,  and  two  bishops  were 
 sent  into  Bohemia,  to  inform  themselves 
 of  the  doctrine  he  preached  ;  and  for  his 
 firm  adherence  to  the  same,  he  was  con- 
 demned to  be  burnt  alive  Avith  his  books, 
 which  sentence  was  executed  in  1415,  con- 
 trary to  the  safe-conduct,  which  the  Council 
 of  Constance  basely  said  that  the  emperor 
 was  not  bound  to  keep  to  a  heretic.  His  fol- 
 lowers believed  that  the  Church  consisted 
 only  of  those  predestinated  to  glory,  and 
 that  the  reprobates  were  no  part  of  it ; 
 that  the  condemnation  of  the  five  and  forty 
 articles  of  AVicklifi"  was  wicked  and  unrea- 
 sonable. Moreri  adds,  that  they  partly 
 afterwards  subdivided,  and  opposed  both 
 their  bishops  and  secular  princes  in  Bohe- 
 mia ;  where,  if  we  must  take  his  word, 
 they  were  the  occasion  of  great  disorders 
 and  civil  commotions  in  the  fifteenth  cen- 
 turv. 
 
 HUTCHINSONIANS.  "  The  name  of 
 Hutchinsonians,"  says  Jones  of  Nayland, 
 who,  -with  Bishops  Home  and  Horsley, 
 was  the  most  distinguished  of  those  who 
 bore  the  name,  "  was  given  to  those  gen- 
 tlemen who  studied  Hebrew,  and  examined 
 the  writings  of  John  Hutchinson,  Esq., 
 [born  at  Spennythorpe,  in  Yorkshire, 
 1674,]  and  became  inclined  to  favour  his 
 opinions  in  theology  and  philosophy.  The 
 theological  opinions  of  these  divines,  so 
 far  as  they  were  distinguished  from  those 
 of  their  own  age,  related  chiefly  to  the 
 explanation  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity, 
 [see  Note  L.  to  l)r.  Mill's  five  Sermons  on 
 the  Temptation  of  Christ,]  and  to  the  man- 
 ner in  which  they  confirmed  Divine  reve- 
 lation generally,  by  reference  to  the  na- 
 tural creation.  The  notion  of  a  Trinity,  it 
 was  maintained,  was  the  token  from  the 
 three  agents  in  the  system  of  nature,  fire, 
 light,  and  air,  on  which  all  natural  light 
 and  motion  depend,  and  which  were  said 
 to  signify  the  three  supreme  powers  of  the 
 Godhead  in  the  administration  of  the 
 spiritual  world.  This  led  to  their  oppos- 
 ing Newton's  theory  of  a  vacuum  and  gra- 
 vity, and  to  their  denying  that  most  matter 
 is,  like  the  mind,  capable  of  active  qualities, 
 and  to  their  ascribing  attraction,  repulsion, 
 &c.,  to  subtle  causes  not  immaterial. 
 
 In  natural  philosophy  they  maintained 
 that  the  present  condition  of  the  earth 
 bears  evident  marks  of  an  universal  flood, 
 and  that  extraneous  fossils  are  to  be  ac- 
 counted for  by  the  same  catastrophe.  They 
 urged  great  precaution  in  the  study  of 
 classical  heathen  literature,  under  the  con- 
 
HYMN. 
 
 HYPSISTARIANS. 
 
 377 
 
 viction  that  it  had  tended  to  produce  pan- 
 theistic notions,  then  so  popular.  They 
 also  looked  with  some  suspicion  upon  what 
 is  called  natural  religion,  and  to  many 
 passages  of  Scripture  they  gave  a  figura- 
 tive, rather  than  a  literal,  interpretation. 
 — See  Joneses  Life  of  Bishop  Ilonte. 
 
 The  learned  and  pious  Parkhurst  was  a 
 Hutchinsonian  ;  and  his  peculiar  opinions 
 not  a  little  influenced  his  etymological  con- 
 jectures, Tiiuu-h  in  :io  w:,y  interfering  with 
 his  orthodoxy  and  sound  scholarship. 
 
 HYMN.  A  song  of  adoration.  It  is 
 certain  from  Holy  Scrii)ture,  that  the 
 Christians  were  wont  to  sing  hymns  in  the 
 apostles'  time ;  and  it  is  probable  that  St. 
 Ignatius  appointed  them  to  be  sung  by 
 each  side  of  the  choir.  It  is  probable  also 
 that  the  place  of  these  hymns  Avas,  as  now, 
 after  the  lessons:  for  St.  Ambrose  notes, 
 that  as,  after  one  angel  had  published  the 
 gospel,  a  multitude  joined  with  him  in 
 praising  GoD,  so,  when  one  minister  hath 
 read  the  gospel,  all  the  people  glorify 
 God.  The  same  appears  to  have  been  the 
 custom  from  St.  Augustine,  and  from  a 
 constitution  of  the  Council  of  Laodicea,  in 
 the  year  365.  As  for  the  particular  hymns 
 of  our  Church,  they  are,  as  of  old  in  the 
 primitive  Church,  generally  taken  out  of 
 Scripture ;  yet  as  they  also  made  use  of 
 some  hymns  not  found  in  Scripture,  so 
 do  we. 
 
 Hymns  may  be  said  to  consist  of  three 
 kinds:  (1.)  Metrical,  such  as  were  in  use 
 in  the  daily  service  of  the  unreformed 
 Church.  Of  this  kind  there  is  but  one 
 formally  authorized  by  the  Church  of  Eng- 
 land, viz.  the  Veni  Creator.  (2.)  Canticles, 
 appointed  to  be  said  or  sung  in  the  daily 
 service,  and  divided  into  verses,  and  point- 
 ed, like  the  Psalms.  The  Te  Dewn,  and 
 the  Benedictus,  are  so  expressly  called  in 
 the  Prayer  Book  ;  and  such  by  implication 
 are  the  Benedicite,  (called  a  canticle,)  the 
 Magnijicat,  and  Nunc  Dimittis.  (3.)  Those 
 portions  of  the  Communion  Service  which 
 are  appointed  to  be  said  or  sung,  but  not 
 arranged  like  the  Canticles :  as  the  Ter- 
 sandus,  and  the  Gloria  in  Excehis.  St. 
 Paul  (Eph.  V,  19,  and  Col.  iii.  16)  speaks 
 of  psalms,  and  hymns,  and  s})iritual  songs. 
 The  first  of  these  words  would  seem  to 
 refer  to  the  mizmor,  or  psalm,  properly  so 
 called  ;  the  second  to  the  tehikah,  or  ju- 
 bilant song  of  praise ;  the  last  to  the  s/</>, 
 or  song ;  all  of  which  words  occur  both  in 
 the  titles,  and  the  text,  of  the  Book  of 
 Psalms.     (See  Som/.) 
 
 HYPERDULIA.     (See  Dulia  and  Idol- 
 
 atrif.) 
 HY 
 
 POSTASIS.     A   theological  Chris- 
 
 tian term,  for  the  true  knowledge  of  the 
 meaning  of  which  take  this  short  account. 
 The  Greeks  took  it  in  the  first  three  cen- 
 turies for  particular  substance,  and  there- 
 fore said  there  were  three  h;/postasrs,  that 
 is,  three  "  Persons,"  according  to  the  Latins. 
 Where  some  of  the  Eastern  })cople  imder- 
 standing  the  word  hi/posfascs  in  another 
 sense,  would  not  call  the  Persons  three 
 hypostases.  Athanasius  sliowed  them  in  a 
 covmcil  held  at  Alexandria  in  362,  that 
 they  all  said  the  same  thing,  and  that  all 
 the  diiference  was,  that  they  gave  to  the 
 same  word  two  different  significations  :  and 
 thus  he  reconciled  them  together.  It  is 
 evident  that  the  word  hi/postasis  signifies 
 two  things :  first,  an  individual  particular 
 substance  ;  secondly,  a  common  nature  or 
 essence.  Now  when  the  Fathers  say  there 
 are  "  three  hypostases,"  their  meaning  is 
 to  be  judged  from  the  time  they  lived  in  ; 
 if  it  be  one  of  the  thi'ee  first  centuries, 
 they  meant  all  along  three  distinct  agents, 
 of  which  the  Father  was  supreme.  If 
 one  of  much  later  date  uses  the  expression, 
 he  means,  most  probably,  little  more  than 
 a  mode  of  existence  in  a  common  nature. 
 
 HYPO  STATICAL  UNIOX.  The  union 
 of  the  human  nature  of  our  Lord  with 
 the  Divine ;  constituting  two  natures  in 
 one  person,  and  not  two  persons  in  one 
 nature,  as  the  Xestorians  assert.  (See 
 Union.) 
 
 HYPOTHETICAL,  This  term  is  some- 
 times used  in  relation  to  a  baptism  ad- 
 ministered to  a  child,  of  Avhom  it  is  un- 
 certain whether  he  has  been  already  bap- 
 tized or  not.  The  rubric  states,  that  "  if 
 they  who  bring  the  infant  to  the  church 
 do  make  such  uncertain  answers  to  the 
 priest's  questions,  as  that  it  cannot  appear 
 that  the  child  was  baptized  with  water,  in 
 the  name  of  the  Father,  and  of  the  Son, 
 and  of  the  Holy  Ghost,"  then  the  priest, 
 on  performing  the  baptism,  is  to  use  this 
 form  of   words,    viz.    "  If    thou    art    not 
 
 already  baptized,  N ,  I  baptize  thee  in 
 
 the  name,"  &c. 
 
 This,  therefore,  is  called  an  hypothetical 
 or  conditional  form,  being  used  only  on  the 
 supposition  that  the  child  may  not  have 
 already  received  baptism. 
 
 HYPSISTAlilAXS.  Heretics  in  the 
 fourth  century  of  Christianity.  According 
 to  Gregory  Xazianzen,  (whose  own  father 
 had  once  tjcen  a  member  of  the  sect,  but 
 afterwards  became  a  Christian  bishop,)  they 
 made  a  mixture  of  the  Jewish  religion  and 
 paganism,  for  they  worshipped  fire  with 
 the  pagans,  and  observed  the  sabbath,  and 
 legal  abstinence  from  meats,  with  the 
 Jews. 
 
378 
 
 ICONOCLASTS. 
 
 IDOLATRY. 
 
 ICONOCLASTS,  or  IMAGE  BREAK-  \ 
 ERS.     (See  Imajjes,  Image  Worship,  and  j 
 Idolatry.)  From  tU^v,  on  image,  and  kXcioj,  \ 
 to  break.  A  name  given  to  the  image-break- 
 ers in  the  eighth  century.    Sarantapechs,  or 
 Serantampicus,  a  Jew,  persuaded  Ezidus, 
 or  Gizidus,  king  of  the  Arabs,  to  take  the 
 images  of  saints  out  of  churches  that  be- 
 longed to  the  Christians :  and  some  time 
 after,  Bazere,  [but  l^aronius  writes  Beser,'] 
 becoming  a  Mahometan  in  Syria,  where  he 
 was  a  sL-vve,  insinuated  himself  so  much 
 into  the  favour  of  I>co  Isauricus,  that  this 
 prince,  at  his  and  the  persuasion  of  other 
 Jews,  who  had  foretold  him  his  coming  to 
 the  empire,  declared  against  images,  about 
 726,  ordered  the  statue  of  Christ,  placed 
 over  one  of  the  gates  of  the  city,  to  be  thrown 
 down,  and  being  enraged  at  a  tumult  oc- 
 casioned thereby,  issued   a   proclamation 
 wherein  he  abolished  the  use  of  statues, 
 and  menaced  the  worshippers  Avith  severe 
 punishments;  and  all  the  solicitations  of 
 Germanus  the  patriarch,  and  of  the  bishop 
 of  Rome,  could  prevail  nothing  in  their 
 favour.    His  son  and  successor  Constantine 
 forbade  praying  to  saints  or  the  Virgin ;  he 
 set  at  nought  the  pope,  and  assembled  a 
 council,   in   which   his   proceedings   were 
 approved;    but   this   council,   being  con- 
 demned at  Rome,  the  emperor  strove  more 
 than   ever   to    gain  his   point.      Leo   IV. 
 succeeded   in    775,  and  reigned  but  four 
 years,  leaving  his  son  Constantine  under 
 the  tutelage  of  the  empress  Irene.     In  her 
 time,    A.    D.    787,   was    held  the   second 
 Council  of  Nice,  in  which,  according   to 
 Baronius,   a  request  was   made  that   the 
 image  of  Christ  and  of  the  saints  might  be 
 restored.     But  Spanheim  says  that  Philip 
 the  emperor,  and  John,  patriarch  of  Con- 
 stantinople,   having     rejected    the    sixth 
 general  council  against  the  INIonothcletes 
 in    712,   took    a^ay   the   pictures   of  the 
 Fathers  of  that  and  the  former  councils, 
 hung  up  by  the  em])eror  Justinian,  in  the 
 portico  of  St.  Sophia ;  and  that  the  pope 
 thereupon,  in  a  synod  at  Rome,  ordered 
 the  like  images  to  be  placed  in  St.  Peter's 
 church,  and  thenceforth  worshipped ;  their 
 use  until  that  time  being  purely  historical. 
 The   Saracens,  offended  at  that   supersti- 
 tion, persecuted  the  Christians  ;  and  Leo 
 calling   a   synod   issued    a   proclamation, 
 condemning  the  worship  of  images,  but 
 granting  that  they  might  be  hung  up  in 
 churches,  the  better  to  prevent  idolatry; 
 and  upon   a  further   dispute   with   Pope 
 Gregory   II.,   who   excommunicated   him, 
 and  absolved  his  subjects  from  their  obe- 
 dience in  730,  he  commanded  that  they 
 should  be  quite  taken  down  and  destroyed. 
 
 Constantine     Copronymus     follow^ed     his 
 father's    example,   and   in   the    thirteenth 
 year  of  his  reign,  anno  744,  assembled  the 
 seventh   general   council    of   the   Greeks, 
 wherein  images  and  their  worshippers  were 
 condemned.     His   son  Leo   IV.    followed 
 his  steps,  who,  at  his  death,  leaving  the 
 empress  Irene  to  administer  the  state  dur- 
 ing the  minority  of  Constantine  VIL,  she, 
 to  gain  the  monks  over  to  her  interest,  made 
 use   of  them  to  restore  images,  advanced 
 Tarasius   from  a  laic  to   be  patriarch   of 
 Constantino])le,  and  so  managed  the  council 
 which  she  called  at  Nice,  that  they  decreed 
 several  sorts  of  worship  to  images ;  as  sa- 
 lutation, incense,  kissing,  wax  lights,  &c., 
 but  neither  approved  images  of  the  Tri- 
 nity, statues,  nor  any  carved  work.     Con- 
 stantine being  of  age,  and  opposing  this 
 procedure,  was  barbarously  deprived  of  his 
 sight   and  life   by  his  unnatural   mother 
 Irene;   an   act   Avhich    is   commended   by 
 Cardinal  Baronius,  who  declared  the  em- 
 peror Leo  incapable  of  the  crown,  which 
 he  calls  a  rare  example  to  posterity  not  to 
 suffer  heretical  princes  to  reign.     On  the 
 other  side,  the  popes  imitated  their  prede- 
 cessors in  their  hatred  to  the  Greek  em- 
 perors, whom  they  despoiled  of  theu'  ex- 
 archate of  Ravenna,  and  their  other  posses- 
 sions in  Italy,  which,  by  the  help  of  the 
 French,  was  turned  into  St.  Peter's  patri- 
 mony ;  but  that  the  French,  Germans,  and 
 other  northern  countries,  abhorred  image 
 worship,  is  plain  by  the  capitulary  of  Charle- 
 magne against    images,    and  the  acts   of 
 the  synod  of  Frankfort  under  that  prince, 
 who  also  wrote  four  books  to  Pope  Adrian 
 against  image   worship,    and   the    illegal 
 Council  of  Nice  above  mentioned.     Image 
 worship  was  also  opposed  by  other  em- 
 perors  who   succeeded ;    as   also   by   the 
 Churches  of  Italy,  Germany,  France,  and 
 Britain,  particularly  by  the  learned  Alcuin. 
 IDES.    A  word  occurring  in  the  Roman 
 calendar,  inserted  in  all  correct  editions  of 
 the  Prayer  Book.      The  ides  were  eight 
 days  in  each  month  :  in  ^Nlarch,  jNIay,  July, 
 and  October,  the  ides  ended  on  the  loth, 
 and  in  all  other  months,  on  the  13th  day. 
 The  word   Ides,  taken   from  the    Greek, 
 [tUoq,)  means  an  aspect  or  appearance,  and 
 was  primarily   used   to    denote    the    full 
 moon.     The  system  of  the  original  Roman 
 calendar  was   founded  on  the   change  of 
 the  moon,  the  nones  being  the  completion 
 of  the  first  quarter,  as  the  ides  were  of 
 the  second. — Stephens,  Book  of  Conunon 
 Prayer ;  Notes  on  the  Calendar. 
 
 II)OLATRY.  (See  Imar/es  and  Icono- 
 clasts.) From  tUuAov,  an  idol,  and  Xarpfla, 
 tvorshijy.     The  worship  of  idols.     Tliis  is 
 
ILE. 
 
 IMAGES. 
 
 870 
 
 one  of  the  crying  sins  of  the  Church  of 
 Home.  Palmer,  in  his  Essay  on  the  Churcli, 
 mentions  some  of  tlie  idohitries  and  here- 
 sies -which  are  held  without  censure  in  the 
 Koman  communion. 
 
 I.  It  is  maintained  without  censure  that 
 Latria,  or  the  worship  paid  to  the  Divine 
 nature,  is  also  due  to — 
 
 Images  of  Christ  ; 
 
 Images  of  the  Trinity  ; 
 
 Images  of  GoD  the  Father  ; 
 
 Relics  of  the  blood,  flesh,  hair,  and  nails 
 of  Christ; 
 
 Relics  of  the  true  cross  ; 
 
 Relics  of  the  nails,  spear,  sponge, 
 scourge,  reed,  pillar,  linen,  cloth,  napkin  of 
 Veronica,  seamless  coat,  purple  robe,  in- 
 scription on  the  cross,  and  other  instru- 
 ments of  the  passion ; 
 
 Images  of  the  cross  ; 
 
 The  Bible ; 
 
 The  Blessed  Virgin. 
 
 All  these  creatures  ought,  according  to 
 the  doctrines  taught  commonly  and  with- 
 out censure  in  the  Roman  communion,  to 
 receive  the  very  worship  paid  to  God. 
 
 II.  Divine  honours  are  practically  offer- 
 ed to  the  Virgin  and  to  all  the  saints  and 
 angels.  It  has  been  repeatedly  and  clearly 
 shoAvn,  that  they  are  addressed  in  exactly 
 the  same  terms  in  which  we  ought  to 
 address  GoD  ;  that  the  same  sort  of  con- 
 fidence is  expressed  in  their  power  ;  that 
 they  are  acknowledged  to  be  the  authors 
 of  grace  and  salvation.  Tliese  idolatries 
 are  generally  practised  without  opposition 
 or  censure. 
 
 III.  The  Virgin  is  blasphemously  as- 
 serted to  be  superior  to  God  the  Son,  and 
 to  command  him.  She  is  represented  as 
 the  source  of  all  grace,  while  believers  are 
 taught  to  look  on  Jesus  with  ch-ead.  The 
 work  of  redemption  is  said  to  be  divided 
 between  her  and  our  Lord. 
 
 IV.  It  is  maintained  that  justification 
 leaves  the  sinner  subject  to  the  wrath  and 
 vengeance  of  God. 
 
 V.  That  the  temporal  afflictions  of  the 
 righteous  are  caused  by  the  wrath  of  an 
 angry  God. 
 
 VI.  That  the  righteous  suffer  the  tor- 
 tures of  hell-fire  after  death. 
 
 VII.  That  the  sacrifice  of  Christ  on  the 
 cross  is  repeated  or  continued  in  the  eu- 
 charist. 
 
 These  and  other  errors  contrary  to  faith 
 are  inculcated  within  the  communion  of 
 the  Roman  CTiurcli,  without  censure  or 
 open  opposition. — Palmer. 
 
 ILFi.  (See  Aisle.)  Tlie  passages  in  a 
 church,  parallel  to  the  nave,  from  which 
 they  are  separated  by  rows  of  columns  and 
 
 piers,  bein^  narrower  and  lower.  The 
 same  term  is  applied  to  the  side  passages 
 which  sometimes  mark  the  transept  and 
 the  choir.  The  aisles  of  the  apin  are  more 
 properly  called  the  ambulatory.  The  aisles 
 were  adoi)tod  from  the  ancient  Basilicas, 
 in  which  they  arc  for  the  most  part  found. 
 They  are  of  comparatively  rare  occurrence 
 in  the  Oriental  churches.  The  word  is 
 derived  from  the  Latin  ala,  which  was  used 
 in  an  architectural  sense  to  mean  a  side 
 building,  as  we  use  wing.  Thus  Vitruvius, 
 as  quoted  by  Facciolati ;  *'  In  fudificiis  alee 
 dicuntur  structura  ad  latria  redium,  dextra, 
 et  sinistra  protensfc,  ut  columnarum  or- 
 dincs,  vol  i)orticus  ;  quas  Gra^ci  quoque 
 Trrtpdet  Trrtpuyoc  appellant."  And  thus  in 
 French,  the  same  word  aile  signifies  a  wing 
 and  a  church  aisle. 
 
 ILLUMINATI,  or  ALLUMBRADOS. 
 Certain  Spanish  heretics  who  began  to 
 appear  in  the  world  about  1575;  but  the 
 authors  being  severely  punished,  this  sect 
 was  stified,  as  it  were,  until  1623,  and  tlien 
 awakened  with  more  vigour  in  the  diocese 
 of  Seville.  The  edict  against  them  speci- 
 fies seventy-six  different  errors,  whereof 
 the  principal  are,  that  with  the  assistance 
 of  mental  prayer  and  union  with  GoD, 
 (which  they  boasted  of,)  they  were  in 
 such  a  state  of  perfection  as  not  to  need 
 either  good  works,  or  the  sacraments  of 
 the  Church.  Soon  after  these  were  sup- 
 pressed, a  new  sect,  under  the  same  name, 
 appeared  in  France.  These,  too,  were 
 entirely  extinguished  in  the  year  1635. 
 Among  other  extravagances,  they  held 
 that  friar  Antony  Bocquet  had  a  system 
 of  belief  and  practice  revealed  to  him  which 
 exceeded  all  that  was  in  Christianity;  that 
 by  virtue  of  that  method,  people  might 
 improve  to  the  same  degree  of  perfection 
 and  glory  that  saints  and  the  Virgin  Mary 
 had;  that  none  of  the  doctors  of  the  Church 
 knew  anything  of  devotion ;  that  St.  Peter 
 was  a  good,  well-meaning  man  only;  St. 
 Paul  never  heard  scarce  anything  of  devo- 
 tion ;  that  the  whole  Church  lay  in  dark- 
 ness and  misbelief;  that  God  regarded 
 nothing  but  himself;  that  Avithin  ten  years 
 their  notions  would  prevail  all  the  world 
 over ;  and  then  there  would  be  no  occasion 
 for  priests,  monks,  or  any  religious  dis- 
 tinctions. 
 
 IMAGES.  In  the  religious  sense  of 
 the  word,  there  appears  to  have  been 
 little  or  no  use  of  images  in  the  Chris- 
 tian Church  for  the  first  three  or  four 
 hundred  years,  as  is  evident  from  the 
 silence  of  all  ancient  authors,  and  of  the 
 heathens  themselves,  who  never  recrimi- 
 nated, or  charged  the  use  of  images  on 
 
380 
 
 IMAGES. 
 
 the  primitive  Christians.  There  are  posi- 
 tive proofs  in  the  fourth  century,  that  the 
 use  of  images  was  not  allowed ;  parti- 
 cularly, the  Council  of  Eliberis  decrees  that 
 pictures  ouo;ht  not  to  be  put  in  churches, 
 lest  that  uhich  is  tCGrshijipcd  he  painted 
 upon  the  tcalls.  Petavius  gives  this  gener- 
 al reason  for  the  prohibition  of  all  images 
 whatever  at  that  time — because  the  remem- 
 brance of  idolatry  was  yet  fresh  in  men's 
 minds.  About  the  latter  end  of  the  fourth 
 century,  })icturcs  of  saints  and  martyrs 
 began  to  creep  into  the  churches.  Pauli- 
 nus,  bishop  of  Nola,  ordered  his  church 
 to  be  painted  with  Scripture  histories,  such 
 as  those  of  Esther,  Job,  Tobit,  and  Judith. 
 And  St.  Augustine  often  speaks  of  the 
 pictures  of  Abraham  offering  his  son  Isaac, 
 and  those  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul,  but 
 without  approving  the  use  of  them  ;  on 
 the  contrary  he  tells  us,  the  Church  con- 
 demned such  as  paid  a  religious  venera- 
 tion to  pictures,  and  daily  endeavoured  to 
 correct  them,  as  untoward  children. 
 
 It  was  not  till  after  the  second  Council 
 of  Nice  that  images  of  GoD,  or  the  Trinity, 
 were  allowed  in  churches.  Pope  Gregory 
 II.,  who  was  otherwise  a  great  stickler  for 
 images,  in  that  very  epistle  which  he  wrote 
 to  the  emperor  Leo  to  defend  the  worship 
 of  them,  denies  it  to  be  lawful  to  make  any 
 image  of  the  Divine  nature.  Nor  did  the 
 ancient  Christians  approve  of  massy  images, 
 or  statues  of  wood,  metal,  or  stone,  but 
 only  pictures  or  paintings  to  be  used  in 
 churches,  and  those  symbolical  rather  than 
 any  other.  Thus,  a  lamb  was  the  symbol 
 of  Jesus  Christ,  and  a  dove  of  the  Holy 
 Ghost.  But  the  sixth  general  council  for- 
 bade the  picturing  CllKiST  any  more  under 
 the  figure  of  a  lamb,  and  ordered  that  he 
 should  be  represented  by  the  effigies  of  a 
 man.  By  this  time,  it  is  presumed,  the 
 worship  of  images  was  begun,  anno  692. 
 
 The  worshi])  of  images  occasioned  great 
 contests  both  in  the  Eastern  and  Western 
 Churches.  (See  Iconoclasts.)  Nicephorus, 
 who  had  wrested  the  empire  from  Irene, 
 in  the  year  802,  maintained  the  worship  of 
 images.  The  emperor  Michael,  in  8i;3, 
 declared  against  the  worship  of  images, 
 and  expelled  Nicephorus,  patriarch  of  Con- 
 stantinople, Theodoriis  Studita,  Nicetas, 
 and  others,  who  had  asserted  it.  Michael 
 II.,  desiring  to  re-establish  peace  in  the 
 East,  proposed  to  assemble  a  council,  to 
 which  both  the  Iconoclasts  (those  who 
 broke  down  images)  and  the  asserters  of 
 image  worship  should  be  admitted;  but 
 the  latter  refusing  to  sit  with  heretics,  as 
 they  called  the  Iconoclasts,  the  emperor 
 found  out  a  medium.  He  left  all  men  free 
 
 to  worship  or  not  worship  images,  and 
 published  a  regulation,  forbidding  the 
 taking  of  crosses  out  of  the  churches,  to 
 put  images  in  then'  place ;  the  paying  of 
 adoration  to  the  images  themselves ;  the 
 clothing  of  statues ;  the  making  them  god- 
 fathers and  godmothers  to  children;  the 
 lighting  candles  before  them,  and  offering 
 incense  to  them,  &c.  Michael  sent  ambas- 
 sadors into  the  West  to  get  this  regulation 
 approved.  These  ministers  applied  them- 
 selves to  Louis  le  Debonnaire,  who  sent 
 an  embassy  to  Home  upon  this  subject. 
 But  the  Romans,  and  Pope  Pascal  I.,  did 
 not  admit  of  the  regulation  ;  and  a  synod, 
 held  at  Paris  in  824,  was  of  opinion,  that 
 though  the  use  of  images  ought  not  to  be 
 prohibited,  yet  it  was  not  allowable  to  pay 
 them  any  religious  worship.  At  length 
 the  emperor  Michael  settled  his  regulation 
 in  the  East ;  and  his  son  Theophilus,  who 
 succeeded  him  in  the  year  829,  held  a  coun- 
 cil at  Constantinople,  in  which  the  Icono- 
 clasts were  condemned,  and  the  worship  of 
 images  restored.  It  does  not  appear  that 
 there  was  any  controversy  afterwards  about 
 images.  The  French  and  Germans  used 
 themselves,  by  degrees,  to  pay  an  outward 
 honour  to  images,  and  conformed  to  the 
 Church  of  Eome. 
 
 Image  worship  is  one  great  article  of 
 modern  Popery.  "  No  sooner  is  a  man  ad- 
 vanced a  little  forward  into  their  churches, 
 (says  a  modern  author,  speaking  of  the  lio- 
 man  Catholics,)  and  begins  to  look  about 
 him,  but  he  will  find  his  eyes  and  attention 
 attracted  by  the  number  of  lamps  and  wax 
 candles,  which  are  constantly  burning  be- 
 fore the  shrines  and  images  of  their  saints ; 
 a  sight  which  will  not  only  surprise  a 
 stranger  by  the  novelty  of  it,  but  Avill 
 furnish  him  with  one  proof  and  example 
 of  the  conformity  of  the  Romish  with  the 
 Pagan  worship,  by  recalling  to  his  memory 
 many  passages  of  the  heathen  authors, 
 where  their  perpetual  lamps  and  candles 
 are  described  as  continually  burning  before 
 the  altars  and  statues  of  their  deities." 
 The  Romanists  believe  that  the  saint  to 
 whom  the  image  is  dedicated  presides  in  a 
 particular  manner  about  its  shrine,  and 
 works  miracles  by  the  intervention  of  its 
 image ;  insomuch  that,  if  the  image  were 
 destroyed  or  taken  away,  the  saint  would 
 no  longer  perform  any  miracle  in  that  place. 
 This  is  exactly  the  notion  of  Paganism,  that 
 the  gods  resided  in  their  statues  or  images. 
 "  Minucius  Felix,  rallying  the  gods  of  the 
 heathens,  (they  are  M.  Jurieu's  words,) 
 says  :  Ecce  funditur,  fahricatnr  ;  nondum 
 Deus  est.  Ecce  pha^ibatia;  construitiir,  eri- 
 f/itur  :  nee  adhuc  Deus.    Ecce  ornatur,  con- 
 
IMAGE  WORSHIP. 
 
 IMPANATION. 
 
 381 
 
 secratur,  oratur  ;  ttnn  postremo  Deus  est. 
 I  am  mistaken  if  the  same  thing  may  not 
 be  said  of  the  Komish  saints.  They  cast 
 an  image,  they  tcork  it  with  a  hammer  ;  it  is 
 not  yet  a  saint.  They  set  it  npriyht,  and 
 fasten  it  tvith  lead  ;  neither  is  it  yet  a  saifit. 
 'They  adorn,  consecrate,  and  dedicate  it ;  be- 
 hold, at  last,  a  complete  saint/'' 
 
 By  a  decree  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  it 
 is  forbidden  to  set  up  any  extraordinary 
 and  unusual  image  in  the  churches,  with- 
 out the  bishop's  approbation  first  obtained. 
 As  to  the  consecration  of  images,  they 
 proceed  in  the  same  manner  as  at  the 
 benediction  of  a  new  cross.  At  saying  the 
 prayer,  the  saint,  whom  the  image  repre- 
 sents, is  named :  after  which  the  priest 
 sprinkles  the  image  with  holy  water.  But 
 when  an  image  of  the  Virgin  Mary  is  to 
 be  blessed,  it  is  thrice  incensed,  besides 
 sprinkling :  to  which  are  added  the  Jve 
 Mary,  psalms,  and  anthems,  and  a  double 
 sign  of  the  cross. 
 
 The  lioman  Catholics  talk  much  of  the 
 miraculous  effects  of  the  images  of  their 
 saints,  forgetting  that  lying  wonders  are  a 
 sign  of  Antichrist.  The  image  of  Jesus 
 Christ,  which,  feeling  itself  wounded  with 
 a  dagger  by  an  impious  wretch,  laid  its 
 hand  upon  the  wound,  is  famous  at  Naples. 
 The  image  of  St.  Catharine  of  Siena  has 
 often  driven  out  devils,  and  wrought  other 
 miracles.  Our  Lady  of  Lucca,  insolently 
 attacked  by  a  soldier,  (who  threw  stones 
 at  her,  and  had  nearly  broken  the  holy 
 child's  head,  which  she  held  on  her  right 
 arm,)  immediately  set  it  on  her  left ;  and 
 the  child  liked  sitting  on  that  arm  so  well, 
 that,  since  that  accident,  he  has  never 
 changed  his  situation.— Bronr/hton. 
 
 UlAGE  WORSHIP.  All  the  points 
 of  doctrine  or  practice  in  which  the  Church 
 of  Home  differs  from  the  Church  of  England 
 are  novelties,  introduced  gradually  in  the 
 middle  ages  :  of  these  the  worship  of  images 
 is  the  earliest  practice,  which  received  the 
 sanction  of  what  the  Papists  call  a  general 
 council,  though  the  second  Council  of  Nice, 
 A.  D.  787,  was  in  fact  7io  general  council. 
 As  tl^is  is  the  earliest  authority  for  any  of 
 the  Koman  peculiarities,  and  as  the  Church 
 of  England  at  that  early  period  was  re- 
 markably concerned  in  resisting  the  no- 
 velty, it  may  not  be  out  of  place  to  men- 
 tion the  circumstances  as  they  are  concisely 
 stated  by  Perceval.  The  emperor  Charle- 
 magne, who  was  very  much  oflended  at 
 the  decrees  of  this  council  in  favour  of 
 images,  sent  a  copy  of  them  into  England. 
 Alcuin,  a  most  learned  member  of  tlie 
 Church  of  England,  attacked  them,  and 
 having     produced     Scriptural     authority 
 
 against  them,  transmitted  the  same  to 
 Charlemagne  in  the  name  of  the  bishops 
 of  the  Church  of  England,  lloger  Ilove- 
 den,  Simon  of  Durham,  and  Matthew  of 
 Westminster,  mention  the  fact,  and  speak 
 of  the  worship  of  images  as  being  execrated 
 by  the  whole  Church.  Charlemagne,  pur- 
 suing his  hostility  to  the  Nicene  Council, 
 drew  up  four  books  against  it,  and  trans- 
 mitted them  to  Po])e  Adrian  ;  who  replied 
 to  them  in  an  epistle  "  concerning  images, 
 against  those  who  impugn  the  Nicene  Sy- 
 nod," as  the  title  is  given,  together  with 
 the  epistle  itself,  in  the  seventh  volume  of 
 Labbe  and  Cossart's  Councils.  The  ge- 
 nuineness of  these  books  is  admitted  by 
 all  the  chief  Koman  writers.  For  the  pur- 
 pose of  considering  the  subject  more  fully, 
 Charlemagne  assembled  a  great  council 
 of  British,  Gallican,  German,  and  Italian 
 bishops  at  Frankfort,  at  which  two  legates 
 from  the  bishop  of  Pome  were  present ; 
 where,  after  mature  deliberation,  the  de- 
 crees of  the  soi-disant  general  Council  of 
 Nice,  notwithstanding  Pope  Adrian's  coun- 
 tenance, were  ^^  rejected,"  ^'■despised,"  and 
 "  condemned."  The  synod  at  Frankfort  re- 
 mains a  monument  of  a  noble  stand  in  de- 
 fence of  the  ancient  religion,  in  which  the 
 Church  of  England  had  an  honourable 
 share,  occupying,  a  thousand  years  ago, 
 the  self-same  ground  we  now  maintain,  of 
 protesting  against  Roman  corruptions  of 
 the  Catholic  faith. 
 
 IMMACULATE  CONCEPTION.  (See 
 Conception,  Immaculate.) 
 
 i:SIMERSION.  A  mode  of  administer- 
 ing the  sacrament  of  baptism,  by  which 
 first  the  right  side,  then  the  left,  then  the 
 face,  are  dipped  in  the  font.  Immersion  is 
 the  mode  of  baptizing  first  prescribed  in 
 our  office  of  public  baptism  ;  but  it  is  per- 
 mitted to  pour  water  upon  the  child,  if  the 
 godfathers  and  godmothers  certify  that  the 
 child  is  weak.     (See  Afj'iision.) 
 
 IMMOVEABLE  FEASTS.  (See  ^love- 
 able  Feasts.) 
 
 IMPANATION.  A  term  (like  transub- 
 stantiation  and  consubstantiation)  used  to 
 designate  a  false  notion  of  the  manner  of 
 the  presence  of  the  body  and  blood  of  our 
 blessed  Lord  in  the  holy  eucharist. 
 
 This  word  is  formed  from  the  Latin 
 panis  (bread),  as  the  word  incarnation  is 
 formed  from  the  Latin  caro,  earn  is  (flesh) : 
 and  as  incarnation  signifies  the  eternal 
 Word's  becoming  flesh,  or  taking  our  na- 
 ture for  the  purpose  of  our  redemption ; 
 so  docs  impanation  signify  the  Divine  per- 
 son Jesis  Christ,  God  and  man,  becoming 
 bread  [and  icine'],  or  taking  the  nature  of 
 bread,  for  the  purposes  of  the  holy  eucha- 
 
382 
 
 IMPLICIT  FAITH. 
 
 IMPROPRIATION. 
 
 rist :  so  that,  as  in  the  one  Divine  person 
 Jesus  Christ  there  were  two  perfect  na- 
 tures, God  and  man ;  so  in  the  eucharistic 
 elements,  according  to  the  doctrine  ex- 
 pressed by  tlie  word  inipanation,  there  are 
 two  perfect  natures — one  of  the  Divine  Son 
 of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  and  another  of  the 
 eucharistic  elements  ;  the  two  natures  be- 
 ing one,  not  in  a  figurative,  but  in  a  real 
 and  literal  sense,  by  a  kind  of  hypostatical 
 union. 
 
 It  does  not  occur  to  us  that  there  is  any 
 sect  which  holds  this  false  notion  ;  but 
 there  are  some  individuals  to  whom  it 
 seems  the  true  method  of  reconciling  those 
 apparent  oppositions,  (which  are  of  the 
 very  essence  of  a  mystery,)  which  occur  in 
 the  Catholic  statement  of  the  doctrine  of 
 the  holy  eucharist.  The  nearest  approach 
 to  the  doctrine  of  impanation  avowed  by 
 any  sect,  is  that  of  the  Lutherans.  (See 
 Consuhstajitiation.) 
 
 IMPLICIT  FAITH.  The  faith  which 
 is  given  without  reserve  or  examination, 
 such  as  the  Church  of  Rome  requires  of 
 her  members.  The  reliance  we  have  on 
 the  Church  of  England  is  grounded  on  the 
 fact,  that  she  undertakes  to  prove  that  all 
 her  doctrines  are  Scriptural,  but  the  Church 
 of  Rome  requires  credence  on  her  own  au- 
 thority. The  Church  of  England  places  the 
 Bible  as  an  authority  above  the  Church, 
 the  Church  of  Rome  makes  the  authority 
 of  the  Church  co-ordinate  with  that  of  the 
 Bible.  The  Romish  divines  teach  that  we 
 are  to  observe,  not  how  the  Church  proves 
 anything,  but  what  she  says  :  that  the  will 
 of  God  is,  that  we  should  believe  and  con- 
 fide in  his  ministers  in  the  same  manner  as 
 himself.  Cardinal  Toletus,  in  his  instruc- 
 tions for  priests,  asserts,  "that  if  a  rustic 
 believes  his  bishop  proposing  an  heretical 
 tenet  for  an  article  of  faith,  such  belief  is 
 meritorious."  Cardinal  Cusanus  tells  us, 
 **  That  irrational  obedience  is  the  most 
 consummate  and  perfect  obedience,  when 
 we  obey  without  attending  to  reason,  as  a 
 beast  obeys  his  di-iver."  In  an  epistle  to 
 the  Bohemians  he  has  these  words  :  "  I  as- 
 sert that  there  are  no  precepts  of  CniiiST 
 but  those  which  are  received  as  such  by  the 
 Church  (meaning  the  Church  of  Rome). 
 When  the  Church  changes  her  judgment, 
 God  changes  his  judgment  likewise." 
 
 IMPOSITION,  or  LAYL^G  ON  OF 
 HANDS.  St.  Paul  (Heb.  vi.  2)  speaks  of 
 the  doctrine  of  laying  on  of  hands  as  one 
 of  the  fundamentals  of  Christianity :  it  is 
 an  ecclesiastical  action,  by  which  a  blessing 
 is  conveyed  from  GOD  through  his  minis- 
 ter to  a  person  prepared  by  repentance  and 
 faith  to  receive  it.     It  is  one  of  the  most 
 
 ancient  forms  in  the  world,  sanctioned  by 
 the  practice  of  Jacob,  Moses,  the  apostles, 
 and  our  blessed  Lord  himself.  It  is  the 
 form  by  which  the  bishop  conveys  his 
 blessing  in  confirmation. 
 
 This  ceremony  has  been  always  esteemed 
 so  essential  a  part  of  ordination,  that  any 
 other  way  of  conferring  orders  without  it 
 has  been  judged  invalid.  The  imposition 
 of  hands  undoubtedly  took  its  rise  from 
 the  practice  of  the  Jewish  Church,  in  ini- 
 tiating persons  for  performing  any  sacred 
 office,  or  conferring  any  employ  of  dignity 
 or  power.  Thus  Joshua  was  inaugurated 
 to  his  high  office.  (Numb,  xxvii.  23.) 
 Hence  the  Jews  derived  their  custom  of 
 ordaining  their  rabbis  by  imposition  of 
 hands.  The  same  ceremony  we  find  used 
 by  the  apostles,  as  often  as  they  admitted 
 any  new  members  into  the  ministry  of  the 
 Church.  For,  when  they  ordained  the  fu'st 
 deacons,  it  is  recorded,  that  after  praying 
 "  they  laid  hands  on  them."  (Acts  vi.  6.) 
 At  the  ordination  of  Barnabas  and  Paul  it 
 is  said,  that  they  *'  fasted  and  prayed  and 
 laid  their  hands  on  them."  (Acts  xiii.  3.) 
 AVhen  St.  Paul  bids  Timothy  have  regard 
 to  the  graces  conferred  in  his  ordination, 
 he  observes  that  these  were  conferred  by 
 imposition  of  hands  :  "  Neglect  not  the 
 gift  that  is  in  thee,  which  was  given  thee 
 by  prophecy,  with  the  laying  on  of  the 
 hands  of  the  presbytery."  (1  Tim.  iv.  14.) 
 And  in  his  other  Epistle  he  exhorts  him  to 
 "  stir  up  the  gift  of  God  which  was  in  him 
 by  the  putting  on  of  his  hands."  (2  Tim. 
 i.  6.)  The  primitive  Christians,  following 
 exactly  after  this  copy,  never  admitted  any 
 into  orders  but  Avith  this  ceremony :  so 
 that  the  ancient  councils  seldom  use  any 
 other  word  for  ordination  than  "  imposition 
 of  hands  ;  "  and  the  ancient  writers  of  the 
 Church  signify,  that  the  clerical  character, 
 and  the  gifts  of  the  Spirit,  were  conferred 
 by  this  action. 
 
 It  must  be  observed  here,  that  the  im- 
 position of  the  bishop's  hand  alone  is  re- 
 quired in  the  ordination  of  a  deacon,  in 
 conformity  to  the  usage  of  the  ancient 
 Church. — Dr.  Nicholls. 
 
 This  was  always  a  distinction  between 
 the  three  superior  and  five  inferior  orders, 
 that  the  first  were  given  by  imposition 
 of  hands,  and  the  second  were  not. — Dr. 
 J3ur7i. 
 
 IMPROPRIATION.  Ecclesiastical 
 property,  the  profits  of  which  are  in  the 
 hands  of  a  layman ;  thus  distinguished  from 
 o])propr>.atio7i,  which  is  when  the  profits 
 of  a  benefice  are  in  the  hands  of  a  college, 
 &:c.  Impropriations  have  arisen  from  the 
 confiscation  of  monasteries  in  the  time  of 
 
IMPUTATION. 
 
 INDEPENDENTS. 
 
 383 
 
 Henry  VIII.,  when,  instead  of  restoring 
 the  tithes  to  ecclesiastical  uses,  they  were 
 given  to  rapacious  laymen.  Archbishoj) 
 Laud  exerted  himself  greatly  to  buy  up 
 impropriations. 
 
 IMPUTATION.  The  attributing  a 
 character  to  a  person  which  he  does  not 
 really  possess  ;  thus,  when  in  holy  baptism 
 we  are  justified,  the  righteousness  is  im- 
 puted as  well  as  imparted  to  us.  The  im- 
 putation which  respects  our  justification 
 before  God,  is  God's  gracious  reckoning 
 of  the  righteousness  of  Christ  to  believers, 
 and  his  acceptance  of  these  persons  as 
 righteous  on  that  account ;  their  sins  being 
 imputed  to  him,  and  his  obedience  being 
 imputed  to  them.  Horn.  iv.  6,  7 ;  v.  1 8, 
 19;  2  Cor.  v.  21.  (See  Faith  and  Jtistiji- 
 cation.) 
 
 INCARNATION.  The  act  whereby 
 the  Son  of  God  assumed  the  human  na- 
 ture ;  or  the  mystery  by  which  the  Eternal 
 "Word  was  made  man,  in  order  to  accom- 
 plish the  work  of  our  salvation. 
 
 The  doctrine  of  the  incarnation  as  laid 
 down  in  the  third  General  Council,  that 
 of  Ephesus,  (a.  d.  431,)  is  as  follows: — 
 *'  The  great  and  holy  synod  (of  Nice)  said, 
 that  he  '  who  was  begotten  of  the  Father, 
 as  the  only-begotten  Son  by  nature ;  who 
 was  true  God  of  true  God,  Light  of  hght, 
 by  whom  the  Father  made  all  things ; 
 that  he  descended,  became  incarnate,  and 
 was  made  man,  suffered,  rose  on  the  third 
 day,  and  ascended  into  the  heavens.' 
 These  words  and  doctrines  we  ought  to 
 folloM',  in  considering  what  is  meant  by 
 the  Word  of  GoD  being  '  incarnate  and 
 made  man.' 
 
 "  We  do  not  say  that  the  nature  of  the 
 Word  was  converted  and  became  flesh ; 
 nor  that  it  was  changed  into  perfect  man, 
 consisting  of  body  and  soul :  but  rather, 
 that  the  Word,  uniting  tohiiroielf  personally 
 flesh,  animated  by  a  rational  soul,  became 
 man  in  an  inefiable  and  incomprehensible 
 manner,  and  became  the  Son  of  man,  not 
 merely  by  will  and  affection,  nor  merely 
 by  the  assumption  of  one  aspect  or  ap- 
 pearance ;  but  that  difi"erent  natures  were 
 joined  in  a  real  unity,  and  that  there  is 
 one  Christ  and  Son,  of  two  natures ;  the 
 ditference  of  natures  not  being  taken  aAvay 
 
 by  their  union It  is  said  also,  that 
 
 he  who  was  before  all  ages  and  begotten 
 of  the  Father,  was  '  born  according  to 
 the  flesh,  of  a  woman  : '  not  as  if  his  Divine 
 nature  had  taken  its  beginning  from  the 
 Holy  Virgin  .  .  .  but  because  for  us,  and 
 for  our  salvation,  he  united  })ersonally  to 
 himself  the  nature  of  man,  and  proceeded 
 from  a  woman  ;  therefore  he  is  said  to  be 
 
 '  born  according  to  the  flesh.'  ...  So  also 
 we  say  that  he  '  suff'ered  and  rose  again,' 
 not  as  if  God  the  AVord  had  suflered  in 
 his  own  nature  the  stripes,  the  nails,  or 
 the  other  wounds ;  for  the  Godhead  cannot 
 sutter,  as  it  is  incorporeal :  but  because 
 that  wliich  had  become  his  own  body  suf- 
 fered, he  is  said  to  suff"er  those  things  for 
 us.  For  he  who  was  incapable  of  suftering 
 was  in  a  suffering  body.  In  like  manner 
 we  understand  his  '  death.'  .  .  .  Because 
 his  own  body,  by  the  grace  of  God,  as 
 Paul  saith,  tasted  death  for  every  man, 
 he  is  said  to  suffer  death,"  &c. 
 
 INCENSE.  The  use  of  incense  in  con- 
 nexion with  the  eucharist  was  unknown 
 in  the  Church  until  the  time  of  Gregory 
 the  Great,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  sixth 
 century.  It  then  became  prevalent  in  the 
 Church,  but  has  been  long  disused  by  the 
 Church  of  England. — Bingham. 
 
 INCOMPEEHENSIBLE.  In  the  Atha- 
 nasian  Creed  it  is  said,  that  "  the  Father 
 is  incomprehensible,  the  Son  incompre- 
 hensible, the  Holy  Ghost  incomprehensi- 
 ble ; "  which  means  that  tlie  Father  is 
 illimitable,  the  Son  inimitable,  the  Holy 
 Ghost  inimitable.  At  the  time  when  this 
 creed  was  translated,  the  word  incompre- 
 Iwnsihle  was  not  confined  to  the  sense  it 
 now  bears,  of  inconceivable,  or  heyond  the 
 reach  of  our  wulerstanding ;  but  it  then 
 meant,  not  comprehended  icithin  limits. 
 
 INCORRUPTICOL^,  or  Aphthartodo- 
 cetce,  or  Phantasiasfcc.  Heretics  who  had 
 their  original  at  Alexandria,  in  the  time  of 
 the  emperor  Justinian.  The  beginning  of 
 the  controversy  was  among  the  Eutychians, 
 whether  the  body  of  Christ  was  corrupt- 
 ible or  incorruptible  from  his  conception : 
 Severus  held  it  corruptible  ;  Julian  of  Ha- 
 licarnassus  held  the  contrary,  that  our 
 Lord's  body  was  not  obnoxious  to  hun- 
 ger, thirst,  or  weariness ;  and  that  he  did 
 but  seemingly  suffer  such  things  ;  from 
 whence  they  Avere  called  Phaidasiafita;. 
 The  emperor  Justinian,  in  the  very  end  of 
 his  reign,  favoured  these  heretics,  and  per- 
 secuted the  orthodox. 
 
 INCUMBENT.  He  who  is  in  present 
 possession  of  a  benefice. 
 
 INDEPENDENTS.  Like  the  Presby- 
 terians, the  Independents  sprang  frt)m 
 Puritanism,  and  were  originally  formed  in 
 Holland,  about  the  year  IGIO,  but  their 
 distinguishing  doctrine  seems  to  have  been 
 previously  maintained  in  England  by  the 
 Brownists,  who  were  banished,  or  emi- 
 grated, in  lo93. 
 
 The  Independent  idea  of  the  word 
 "  Church,"  says  Adam,  from  whom  this 
 article  is  abridged,  is,  that  it  is  never  used 
 
384 
 
 INDEPENDENTS. 
 
 INDUCTION. 
 
 but  in  two  senses — as  including  the  whole 
 body  of  the  redeemed,  whether  in  heaven 
 or  in  earth,  who  are  called  "  the  general 
 assembly,"  See.  (Heb.  xii.  23) ;  and,  again, 
 "  the  whole  family  in  heaven  and  in  earth" 
 (Eph.  iii.  15) ;  or,  as  one  single  congrega- 
 tion. Hence  their  distinguishing  tenet  is 
 grounded  upon  the  notion  that  the  primi- 
 tive bishops  were  not  overseers  of  dioceses, 
 but  pastors  of  single  independent  congre- 
 gations. 
 
 That  which  unites  them,  or  rather  which 
 distinguishes  them  from  other  denomina- 
 tions of  Christians,  is  their  maintaining 
 that  the  power  of  Church  government  and 
 discipline  is  lodged  neither  in  the  bishop, 
 nor  in  a  presbytery  or  senate  of  Church 
 rulers  distinct  from  the  people,  but  in  the 
 community  of  the  faithful  at  laige;  and 
 their  disclaiming,  more  or  less,  every  form 
 of  union  between  Churches,  and  assigning 
 to  each  congregation  the  exclusive  govern- 
 ment of  itself,  as  a  body  corporate,  having 
 full  power  within  itself  to  acbnit  and  ex- 
 clude members  ;  to  choose  Church  officers  ; 
 and,  when  the  good  of  the  society  requires 
 it,  to  depose  them,  without  being  account- 
 able to  classes,  presbyteries,  synods,  convo- 
 cations, councils,  or  any  jurisdiction  what- 
 ever. 
 
 In  doctrine  they  are  strictly  Calvinistic. 
 But  many  of  the  Independents,  both  at 
 home  and  abroad,  reject  the  use  of  "  all 
 creeds  and  confessions  drawn  up  by  fallible 
 men ; "  and  merely  require  of  their  teachers 
 a  declaration  of  their  belief  in  the  truth  of 
 the  gospel  and  its  leading  doctrines,  and 
 of  their  adherence  to  the  Scriptures  as  the 
 sole  standard  of  faith  and  practice,  and  the 
 only  test  of  doctrine,  or  the  only  criterion 
 of  faith.  And  in  general  they  require  from 
 all  persons  who  wish  to  be  admitted  into 
 their  communion,  an  account,  either  verbal 
 or  written,  of  what  is  called  their  experi- 
 ence ;  in  which,  not  only  a  declaration  of 
 their  faith  in  the  Lord  Jesus,  and  their 
 purpose,  by  grace,  to  devote  themselves  to 
 him,  is  expected,  but  likewise  a  recital  of 
 the  steps  by  which  they  were  led  to  a 
 knowledge  and  profession  of  the  gospel. 
 
 In  regard  to  Church  government  and 
 discipline,  it  may  be  sufficient  to  remark 
 hei'e,  after  what  has  already  been  said,  that 
 Independents  in  general  agree  with  the 
 Presljyterians,  "  in  maintaining  tlic  iden- 
 tity of  presbyters  and  bishops,  and  believe 
 that  a  plurahty  of  presbyters,  pastors,  or 
 bishops,  in  one  church,  is  taught  in  Scrip- 
 ture, rather  than  the  common  usage  of  one 
 bishop  over  many  congregations  ; "  but 
 they  conceive  their  own  mode  of  discipline 
 to  be  "  as  much  beyond  the  presbyterian, 
 
 as  presbytery  is   preferable  to  prelacy:" 
 
 and, 
 
 that  one   distinguishing  feature   of 
 
 their  discipline  is,  their  maintaining  "the 
 right  of  the  Chui'ch,  or  body  of  Christians, 
 to  determine  who  shall  be  admitted  into 
 their  communion,  and  also  to  exclude  from 
 their  fellowship  those  who  may  prove  them- 
 selves unworthy  members. 
 
 This  their  regard  to  purity  of  commu- 
 nion, whereby  they  profess  to  receive  only 
 accredited,  or  really  serious  Christians, 
 has  been  termed  the  grand  Independent 
 principle. 
 
 The  earliest  account  of  the  number  of 
 Independent  congregations  refers  to  1812; 
 before  that  period.  Independent  and  Pres- 
 byterian congregations  were  returned  to- 
 gether. In  1812,  there  seem  to  have  been 
 1024  Independent  churches  in  England 
 and  Wales  (799  in  England,  and  225  in 
 Wales).  In  1838,  an  estimate  gives  1840 
 churches  in  England  and  Wales.  The 
 present  Census  makes  the  number  3244 
 (2604  in  England,  and  640  in  Wales)  ; 
 with  accommodation  (after  making  an 
 allowance  for  185  incomplete  returns)  for 
 1,063,136  persons.  The  attendance  on  the 
 Census-Sunday  was  as  follows  —  after 
 making  an  addition  for  59  chapels  for 
 which  the  numbers  are  not  given — 3Iorn- 
 iW/,  524,612;  J/ifenioow,  232,285 ;  Evening, 
 457,162. — Reqistrar''s  Heport^  1851. 
 
 INDEXES.  [ProJiihitory  and  Expur- 
 f/aturi/.)  The  books  generally  bearing  the 
 title  of  Prohibitory  and  Expurgatory  In- 
 dexes, are  catalogues  of  authors  and  works 
 either  condemned  in  toto,  or  censured  and 
 corrected  chiefly  by  expunction,  issued 
 from  the  Church  of  modern  Rome,  and 
 published  by  authority  of  her  ruling  mem- 
 bers and  societies  so  empowered. 
 
 The  Prohibitory  Index  specifies  and  pro- 
 hibits entire  authors  or  works,  whether  of 
 known  or  of  unknown  authors.  This  book 
 has  been  frequently  published,  with  suc- 
 cessive enlargements,  to  the  present  time, 
 under  the  express  sanction  of  the  reigning 
 pontiff".  It  may  be  considered  as  a  kind  of 
 periodical  publication  of  the  papacy. 
 
 The  other  class  of  indexes,  the  Expur- 
 gatory, contains  a  particular  examination 
 of  the  works  occurring  in  it,  and  specifies 
 the  passages  condemned  to  be  expunged 
 or  altered.  Such  a  Avork,  in  proportion 
 to  the  number  of  works  embraced  by  it, 
 must  be,  and  in  the  case  of  the  Spanish 
 indexes  of  the  kind,  is,  voluminous.  For 
 a  general  history  of  these  indexes  the 
 reader  is  referred  to  Mendham's  "  Literary 
 Policy  of  the  Church  of  Rome." 
 
 INDUCTION.  This  may  be  compared 
 to  livery  and  seisin  of  a  freehold,  for  it  is 
 
INDULGENCES. 
 
 385 
 
 putting  a  minister  in  actual  possession  of 
 the  Church  to  Mliich  he  is  presented,  and 
 of  the  glebe  land  and  other  temporalities 
 thereof;  for  before  induction  he  hath  no 
 freehold  in  them.  The  usual  method  of 
 induction  is  by  virtue  of  a  mandate  under 
 the  seal  of  the  bishop,  to  the  archdeacon 
 of  the  place,  who  either  himself,  or  by  his 
 warrant  to  all  clergymen  within  his  arch- 
 deaconry, inducts  the  new  incumbent  by 
 taking  his  hand,  laying  it  on  the  key  of 
 the  church  in  the  door,  and  pronouncing 
 these  words,  "I  induct  you  into  the  real 
 and  actual  possession  of  the   rectory  or 
 
 vicarage  of  H ,  with  all  its  profits  and 
 
 appurtenances."  Then  he  opens  the  door 
 of  the  church,  and  puts  the  person  in  pos- 
 session of  it,  who  enters  to  offer  his  devo- 
 tions, which  done  he  tolls  a  bell  to  summon 
 his  parishioners. 
 
 INDULGEXCES.  One  of  the  evil 
 practices  of  the  Church  of  Home,  of  whose 
 doctrine  upon  the  subject  the  following 
 outline  may  be  given:  — 
 
 The  conferring  of  indulgences,  which 
 are  denominated  "  the  heavenly  treasures 
 of  the  Church,"  [Cone.  Tri.  Decret.  Sess. 
 XX.,)  is  said  to  be  the  "  gift  of  Christ  to 
 the  Church."  {Scss.  XXV.)  To  under- 
 stand the  nature  of  indulgences  we  must 
 observe,  that  ''  the  temporal  punishment 
 due  to  sin,  by  the  decree  of  God,  when  its 
 guilt  and  eternal  punishment  are  remitted, 
 may  consist  either  of  evil  in  this  life,  or 
 of  temporal  suffering  in  the  next,  which 
 temporal  suffering  in  the  next  life  is 
 called  purgatory ;  that  the  Church  has 
 received  power  from  God  to  remit  both 
 of  these  inflictions,  and  this  remission  is 
 called  an  indulgence." — Bi(tler''s  Book  of 
 the  Rom.  Cath.  Ch.  p.  110.  "It  is  the 
 received  doctrine  of  the  Church,  that  an 
 indulgence,  when  truly  gained,  is  not 
 barely  a  relaxation  of  the  canonical  pen- 
 ance enjoined  by  the  Church,  but  also  an 
 actual  remission  by  God  himself,  of  the 
 whole,  or  part,  of  the  temporal  punishment 
 due  to  it  in  his  sight." — Milner's  End  of 
 Control-,  p.  305.  Pope  Leo  X.,  in  his  bull 
 De  Induhjentiis,  whose  object  he  states 
 to  be  **  that  no  one  in  future  may  allege 
 ignorance  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Koman 
 Church  res])ecting  indulgences,  and  their 
 efficacy,"  declares,  "  that  the  lloman  pon- 
 tiff, vicar  of  Christ  on  earth,  can,  for 
 reasonable  causes,  by  the  powers  of  the 
 keys,  grant  to  the  faitliful,  whether  in 
 this  life  or  in  purgatory,  indulgences,  out 
 of  the  superabundance  of  the  merits  of 
 Christ  and  of  the  saints  (expressly  call- 
 ed a  treasure) ;  and  that  those  wdio  have 
 truly  obtained  these  indulgences  are  re- 
 2  c 
 
 leased  from  so  much  of  the  temporal 
 ])unishment  due  for  their  actual  sins  to 
 the  ])ivine  justice,  as  is  equivalent  to  the 
 indulgence  granted  and  obtained." — lluUa 
 Leon.  X.  adv.  Luther.  Clement  VI.,  in 
 the  bull  Unhjenitus,  explains  this  matter 
 more  fully : — "As  a  single  drop  of  Christ's 
 blood  would  have  sufficed  for  the  redem})- 
 tion  of  the  whole  human  race,"  so  the  rest 
 was  not  lost,  but  "  was  a  treasure  which 
 he  acquired  for  theVnilitant  Church,  to  be 
 used  for  the  benefir  of  his  sons ;  which 
 treasure  he  would  not  suffer  to  be  hid  in 
 a  napkin,  or  buried  in  the  ground,  but 
 committed  it  to  be  dispensed  by  St.  Peter, 
 and  his  successors,  his  own  vicars  upon 
 earth,  for  proper  and  reasonable  causes, 
 for  the  total  or  partial  remission  of  the 
 temporal  punishment  due  to  sin  ;  and  for 
 an  augmentation  of  this  treasure  the  merits 
 of  the  Blessed  Mother  of  God,  and  of  all 
 the  elect,  are  known  to  come  in  aid."  "  We 
 have  resolved,"  says  Pope  Leo  XII.,  in  his 
 bull  of  indiction  for  the  universal  jubilee, 
 in  1824,  "in  virtue  of  the  authority  given 
 us  by  heaven,  fully  to  unlock  that  sacred 
 treasure,  composed  of  the  merits,  sufferings, 
 and  virtues  of  Christ  our  Lord,  and  of 
 his  Virgin  Mother,  and  of  all  the  saints, 
 which  the  author  of  human  salvation  has 
 intrusted  to  our  dispensation.  During 
 this  year  of  the  jubilee,  we  mercifully  give 
 and  grant,  in  the  Lord,  a  plenary  in- 
 dulgence, remission,  and  pardon  of  all 
 their  sins,  to  all  the  faithful  of  Christ, 
 truly  penitent,  and  confessing  their  sins, 
 and  receiving  the  holy  communion,  who 
 shall  visit  the  churches  of  blessed  Peter 
 and  Paul,"  &c.  "  We  offer  you,"  says 
 Ganganelli,  in  his  bull  De  Indu/f/c7itiis, 
 "  a  share  of  all  the  riches  of  Divine  mercy, 
 which  have  been  intrusted  to  us,  and 
 chiefly  those  which  have  their  origin  in  the 
 blood  of  Christ.  We  will  then  open  to 
 you  all  the  gates  of  the  rich  reservoir  of 
 atonement,  derived  from  the  merits  of  the 
 Mother  of  God,  the  holy  apostles,  the 
 blood  of  the  martyrs,  and  the  good  works 
 of  all  the  saints.  We  invite  you,  then,  to 
 drink  of  this  overfloAving  stream  of  in- 
 dulgence, to  enrich  yourselves  in  the  inex- 
 haustible treasures  of  the  Church,  accord- 
 ing to  the  custom  of  our  ancestors.  Do 
 not,  then,  let  slip  the  present  occasion, 
 this  favourable  time,  these  salutary  days, 
 employing  them  to  appease  the  justice  of 
 God,  and  obtain  your  pardon." 
 
 The  reasonable  causes,  on  account  of 
 whicli  indulgences  are  given,  are,  where 
 "  the  cause  be  pious,  that  is,  not  a  work 
 which  is  merely  temporal,  or  vain,  or  in 
 no  respect  pertaining  to  the  Divine  glory, 
 
386 
 
 INDULGENCES. 
 
 but  for  any  work  Avhatsoever,  which  tends 
 to  the  honour  of  God,  or  the  service  of  the 
 Church,  an  indulgence  will  be  valid.  We 
 see,  occasionally,  the  very  greatest  indul- 
 gences given  for  the  very  lightest  causes ; 
 as  when  a  ])Ie)i<iri/  indulgence  is  granted 
 to  all  who  stand  before  the  gates  of  St. 
 Peter,  whilst  the  pope  gives  the  solemn 
 blessing  to  the  people  on  Easter  day  ; "  for 
 "  indulgences  do  not  depend,  for  their  effi- 
 cacy, on  consideration  of  the  work  enjoin- 
 ed, but  on  the  infinite  treasure  of  the 
 merits  of  Christ  and  the  saints,  which  is 
 a  consideration  surpassing  and  transcend- 
 ing everything  that  is  granted  by  an  in- 
 dulgence." In  some  cases  "  the  work  en- 
 joined must  not  only  be  pious  and  useful, 
 but  bear  a  certain  proportion  with  the 
 indulgence  ;  that  is,  the  work  enjoined 
 must  tend  to  an  end  more  pleasing  in  the 
 sight  of  God,  than  the  satisfaction  remit- 
 ted," "  although  it  is  not  necessary  that  it 
 be  in  itself  very  meritorious,  or  satisfac- 
 tory, or  difficult,  and  laborious,  (though 
 these  things  ought  to  be  regarded  too,) 
 but  that  it  be  a  mean  apt  and  useful  to- 
 wards obtaining  the  end  for  which  the 
 indulgence  is  granted."  "  As  the  large 
 resort  of  people,"  before  the  gates  of  St. 
 Peter,  vv'hen  the  pope  gives  his  solemn 
 blessing,  "  is  a  mean,  apt  and  useful,  to 
 set  forth  faith,  respecting  the  head  of  the 
 Church,  and  to  the  honour  of  the  apostolic 
 see,  which  is  the  end  of  the  indulgence." — 
 Jiellarnnne  de  luduhjentiis,  lib.  i.  c.  12. 
 The  first  General  Lateran  Council  granted 
 "  remission  of  sins  to  whoever  shall  go  to 
 Jerusalem,  and  effectually  help  to  oppose 
 the  infidels."— Ca/i.  Xl'  The  third  and 
 fourth  Lateran  Councils  granted  the  same 
 indulgence  to  those  who  set  themselves  to 
 destroy  heretics,  or  who  shall  take  up 
 arms  against  them.  —See  Labhe,  vol.  x.  p. 
 1523.  Boniface  YIII.  granted,  not  only  a 
 full  and  large,  but  the  most  full,  pardon 
 of  all  sins  to  all  that  visit  Home  the  first 
 year  in  every  century.  Clement  V.  decreed, 
 that  they  who  should,  at  the  jubilee,  visit 
 such  and  such  churches,  should  obtain  "  a 
 most  full  remission  of  all  their  sins  ; "  and 
 he  not  only  granted  a  "  plenary  absolution 
 of  all  sins,  to  all  who  died  on  the  road  to 
 Home,"  but  "also  commanded  the  angels 
 of  paradise  to  carry  the  soul  direct  to 
 heaven." 
 
 "  Sincere  repentance,"  we  are  told,  "  is 
 always  enjoined,  or  implied,  in  the  grant 
 of  an  indulgence,  and  is  indispensably 
 necessary  for  every  grace."  —  Mibier's 
 End  of  Controversy,  p.  304.  But  as  the 
 dead  are  removed  from  the  possibility,  so 
 are  they  from  the  necessity,  of  repentance ; 
 
 "  as  the  pope,"  says  Bellarmine,  "  applies 
 the  satisfactions  of  Christ  and  the  saints 
 to  the  dead,  by  means  of  works  enjoined 
 on  the  living,  they  are  applied,  not  in  the 
 way  of  judicial  absolution,  but  in  the  v/ay 
 of  payment  [per  nioduni  solutionis^).  For 
 as  when  a  person  gives  alms,  or  fasts,  or 
 makes  a  pilgrimage,  on  account  of  the 
 dead,  the  effect  is,  not  that  he  obtains 
 absolution  for  them  from  their  liability 
 to  punishment,  but  he  presents  to  God 
 that  particular  satisfaction  for  them,  in 
 order  that  God,  on  receiving  it,  may  li- 
 berate the  dead  from  the  debt  of  ])unish- 
 ment  which  they  had  to  pay.  In  like 
 manner,  the  pope  does  not  absolve  the 
 deceased,  but  oilers  to  God,  out  of  the 
 measure  of  satisfaction,  as  much  as  is  ne- 
 cessary to  free  them." — Id.  Their  ob- 
 ject is  "  to  afford  succour  to  such  as  have 
 departed  real  penitents  in  the  love  of 
 God,  yet  before  they  had  duly  satisfied, 
 by  fruits  worthy  of  penance,  for  sins  of 
 commission  and  omission,  and  are  now 
 pui'ifying  in  the  fire  of  purgatory ;  that 
 an  entrance  may  be  opened  for  them  into 
 that  country,  where  nothing  defiled  is 
 admitted."— Bull.  Leo.  XII. 
 
 "As  the  power  of  granting  indulgences 
 was  given  by  Christ  to  the  Church,  and 
 she  has  exercised  it  in  the  most  ancient 
 times,  this  holy  synod  teaches,  and  com- 
 mands, that  the  use  of  them,  as  being 
 greatly  salutary  to  the  Christian  people, 
 and  approved  by  the  authority  of  councils, 
 shall  be  retained;  and  she  anathematizes 
 those  who  say  they  are  useless,  or  deny  to 
 the  Church  the  pov\'er  of  granting  them ; 
 but  in  this  grant,  the  synod  wishes  that 
 moderation,  agreeably  to  the  ancient  and 
 approved  practice  of  the  Church,  be  ex- 
 ercised; lest,  by  too  great  facility,  eccle- 
 siastical discipline  be  weakened." — Cone, 
 Trid.  Sess.  XXV.  de  Indulg. 
 
 "  The  chief  pontiffs,  by  virtue  of  the 
 supreme  authority  given  them  in  the  Uni- 
 versal Church,  have  justly  assumed  the 
 power  of  reserving  some  graver  criminal 
 causes  to  their  own  peculiar  judgment." 
 —Cone.  Trid.  Scss.  XIV.  cap.  7.  "  The 
 more  weighty  criminal  charges  against 
 bishops,  which  deserve  deposition  and  de- 
 privation, may  be  judged  and  determined 
 only  by  the  supreme  Roman  pontiff." — 
 Cone.  Trid.  Sess.  XXIV.  cap.  5. 
 
 "  No  testimony,"  says  Clementius,  "  can 
 be  produced  from  any  father,  or  any 
 ancient  Church,  that  either  this  doctrine, 
 or  the  practice  of  such  indulgences,  was 
 knoAvn,  or  used,  for  1200  years." — Exmn. 
 Cone.  Trid.  de  Indulg.  c.  4.  Many  of 
 these  indulgences  can    only  be   obtained 
 
INDULGENCES. 
 
 387 
 
 from  the  supreme  pontiff;  for  obtaining 
 which  an  office  is  opened  at  Kome,  and  a 
 table  of  fees,  payable  to  the  chancery  of 
 Kome,  ])ublished  by  authority.  The  ])ar- 
 don  of  a  heretic  is  fixed  at  £36  9s. ;  Avhilst 
 marrying  one  >vife,  after  murdering  an- 
 other, may  be  commuted  by  the  payment 
 of  £8  2s.  9^.  A  pardon  for  perjury  is 
 charged  at  9s. ;  simony,  10s.  6d.  ;  robbery, 
 12s.;  seduction,  9s.;  incest,  7s.  6d.;  mur- 
 der, 7s.  6d.  Now,  is  not  this  taxation  a 
 virtual  encouragement  to  the  commission 
 of  the  most  shocking  crimes,  when  abso- 
 lution for  them  is  granted  and  proffered 
 on  such  easy  terms  ?  This  seems  to  be, 
 in  fact,  the  establishing  a  complete  traffic 
 for  sins,  and  must  be  accounted  a  great 
 source  of  corruption  and  depravity. 
 
 "These  pardons,"  says  Silvester  de 
 Prierio,  "  are  not  known  to  us  by  the 
 authority  of  the  Scriptures,  but  by  the 
 authority  of  the  Church  of  Rome,  and  the 
 popes  ;  which  is  greater  than  the  authority 
 of  the  Scriptures." — Con.  Luth.  i)ag.  Indul. 
 They  were  first  sanctioned  by  Urban  II. , 
 as  a  reward  for  those  who  engaged  in  a 
 crusade  against  the  Mahometans,  for  the 
 recovery  of  Palestine.  To  these  Urban 
 promised  the  remission  of  all  their  sins, 
 and  to  open  to  them  the  gates  of  heaven. 
 
 From  these  extracts  we  may  learn, 
 that  the  members  of  the  Church  of  liome 
 did  formerly,  and  do  noAv,  teach  and 
 believe  on  the  subject  of  indulgences ;  1st, 
 That  these  pardons  are  to  be  paid  for ; 
 2nd,  That  they  are  granted  through  the 
 merits  of  the  Virgin  and  of  the  saints,  as 
 well  as  through  the  death  and  sufferings 
 of  our  blessed  Saviour  ;  3rd,  That  these 
 pardons  are  more  effectual  at  Home  than 
 elsewhere,  and  that  they  are  better  at  the 
 time  of  the  pope's  jubilee  than  in  other 
 years. 
 
 Now  in  all  this,  such  doctrines  do  openly 
 and  plainly  contradict  the  word  of  God. 
 For  in  the  first  place,  the  prophet  Isaiah, 
 instead  of  calling  for  money,  says,  "  IIo 
 every  one  that  thirsteth,  come  ye  to  the 
 waters,  and  he  that  hath  no  money,  come 
 ye,  buy,  and  eat;  yea,  come,  buy  wine 
 and  milk,  without  money  and  without 
 price."  (Iv.  1.)  Instead  of  speaking  hke 
 Tetzel,  St.  Paul  says,  "  I^cnig  justified 
 freely  by  his  grace,  through  the  redemption 
 that  is  in  Christ  Jesus,  whom  God  hath 
 set  forth  to  be  a  propitiation  through  faith 
 in  his  blood."  (Rom.  iii.  24,  25.)  And, 
 unlike  the  pope,  "  The  spirit  and  the  bride 
 say,  Come.  And  let  him  that  lieareth  say, 
 Come.  And  let  him  that  is  athirst  come. 
 And  whosoever  will,  let  him  take  the  water 
 of  life  freelv."  (Rev.  xxii.  17.) 
 2  0  2 
 
 In  the  next  place,  the  merits  of  saints 
 are  never  said  in  Scripture  to  be  the 
 cause  of  their  own  salvation,  or  of  that  of 
 others  ;  for  all  that  are  saved  are  said  to 
 be  saved  through  faith  in  Christ  ;  which 
 faith  produccth  in  them  good  works,  as  na- 
 turally as  a  tree  produccth  fruit.  St.  Peter 
 declares,  that  "there  is  none  other  name 
 under  heaven  given  among  men,  whereby 
 we  must  be  saved,  but  only  the  name  of 
 our  Lord  Jesus  Christ."    (Acts  iv.  12.) 
 
 And,  in  the  last  place,  as  to  the  idea, 
 that  it  is  better  to  worship  God  in  one 
 city  or  country  than  in  another,  our  Lord 
 has  plainly  said.  No,  in  his  conversation 
 with  the  woman  of  Samaria.  She  said, 
 "  Our  fathers  worshipped  in  this  mountain, 
 and  ye  say  that  in  Jerusalem  is  the  place 
 where  men  ought  to  worship.  Jesus  saith 
 unto  her,  Woman,  believe  me,  the  hour 
 Cometh,  when  ye  shall  neither  in  this 
 mountain,  nor  yet  at  Jerusalem,  worship 
 the  Father.  .  .  .  But  the  hour  cometh, 
 and  now  is,  when  the  true  worshippers 
 shall  worship  the  Father  in  spirit  and  in 
 truth,  for  the  Father  seeketh  such  to 
 worship  him."     (John  iv.  20—23.) 
 
 In  saluting  the  Corinthian  Church,  St. 
 Paul  joins  with  them  "all  that  in  every 
 place  call  upon  the  name  of  Jesus  Christ 
 our  Lord,  both  theirs  and  ours."  (1  Cor. 
 i.  2.)  The  Scripture  does  not  tell  us  of 
 any  particular  times,  in  which  prayer  is 
 more  acceptable  to  God  than  at  others  ; 
 but  they  exhort  us  to  "  seek  the  Lord 
 while  he  may  be  found,  and  to  call  upon 
 him  while  he  is  near."  (Isa.  i.  G.)  "  To- 
 day, if  you  will  hear  his  voice,  harden  not 
 your  heart."  (Ps.  xcv.  7,  8.)  "  Boast  not 
 thyself  of  to-morrow,  for  thou  knowest 
 not  what  a  day  may  bring  forth."  (Prov. 
 xxvii.  1.)  "  NoAV  is  the  accepted  time, 
 now  is  the  day  of  salvation."  (2  Cor. 
 vi.  2.)  So  that  while  GoD  thus  offers  in 
 the  Bible,  forgiveness  through  Christ,  to 
 all  who  shall  repent  and  believe  the  gospel ; 
 the  Church  of  Rome  presumes  to  tell  her 
 people,  that  it  will  be  better  for  them, 
 while  they  profess  to  repent  and  believe, 
 to  pay  their  money ;  and  safer  for  them  to 
 come  to  Rome  on  jubilee  years,  or  to  some 
 other  place  in  a  juljilee  month,  to  receive 
 the  benefits  of  their  absolution.  Surely  the 
 people  who  believe  all  this,  rather  than 
 their  Bible,  are  like  the  Jews  whom  Jere- 
 miah, in  God's  name,  thus  describes : — 
 "  My  people  have  committed  two  evils  ; 
 they  have  forsaken  me,  the  fountain  of 
 living  waters,  and  hewed  them  out  cis- 
 terns, broken  cisterns,  that  can  hold  no 
 water."  (Jer.  ii.  13.)  Or,  rather,  it  is  to 
 be  feared,  that  the  whole  body,  teachei's 
 
INDULTS. 
 
 INFALLIBILITY 
 
 and  people,  are  like  those  of  whom  our 
 I.OKi)  said,  "  They  be  blind  leaders  of  the 
 blind  ;  and  if  the  blind  lead  the  blind,  both 
 shall  fall  into  the  ditch."  (Matt.  xv.  14.) 
 —  O'Donoqli  uc. 
 
 INDUl'.TS,  in  the  Church  of  Rome,  is 
 a  power  of  presentin"^  to  benefices,  tj^ranted 
 to  certain  persons  by  the  pope.  Of  this 
 kind  is  the  Indult  of  kings,  and  sovereign 
 princes,  in  the  Romish  communion,  and 
 that  of  the  parliament  of  Paris.  By  the 
 Concordat  for  the  abolition  of  the  Prag- 
 matic Sanction,  made  between  Francis  I. 
 and  Leo  X.  in  1516,  the  king  has  the 
 poAver  of  nominating  to  bishoprics,  and 
 other  consistorial  benefices  in  his  realm. 
 At  the  same  time,  by  a  particular  bull,  the 
 pope  granted  to  the  king  the  privilege  of 
 nominating  to  the  churches  of  Bretagne 
 and  Provence.  The  bishoprics  of  Metz, 
 Toul,  and  Verdun,  being  yielded  to  the 
 French  king  by  the  treaty  of  Munster,  in 
 1648,  Pope  Alexander  VIII.  in  1664,  and 
 Clement  IX.  in  1668,  granted  the  king  an 
 Indult  for  these  three  bishoprics ;  and  in 
 1668  the  same  Pope  Clement  IX.  granted 
 the  king  an  Indult  of  the  same  purport,  for 
 the  benefices  in  the  counties  of  Rousillon, 
 Artois,  and  the  Low  Countries. 
 
 In  the  year  1424,  Pope  Martin  V. 
 granted  to  the  parliament  of  Paris  this 
 right  of  presentation  to  benefices,  which 
 they  declined  to  accept.  Eugenius  IV. 
 granted  them  the  like  privilege,  Avhich  did 
 not  take  eff"ect  by  reason  of  a  decree  of  the 
 Council  of  Basil,  which  took  away  all  ex- 
 pectative  graces.  Lastly,  at  the  interview 
 between  the  emperor  Charles  V.  and  King 
 Francis  I.  at  Nice,  in  1538,  Pope  Paul  III., 
 who  was  present  as  a  mediator,  gave  an 
 Indult  to  the  parliament  of  Paris,  reviving 
 that  formerly  granted  by  Eugenius  IV. 
 
 The  cardinals,  likewise,  have  an  Indult 
 granted  them  by  agi-cement  betAveen  Pope 
 Paul  IV.  and  the  sacred  college,  in  1555, 
 which  is  always  confirmed  by  the  popes  at 
 the  time  of  their  election.  By  this  treaty 
 or  agreement  the  cardinals  have  the  free 
 disposal  of  all  the  benefices  depending  on 
 them,  without  being  interrupted  by  any 
 prior  collations  from  the  Pope.  By  this 
 Indult  the  cardinals  are  empowered,  like- 
 wise, to  bestoAv  a  benefice  in  commendam. 
 
 INFALLIBILITY.  In  one  sense  the 
 universal  Church  is  infallible.  It  has  an  in- 
 fallible guide  in  the  Holy  Scriptures.  Holy 
 Scripture  contains  all  religious  truth.  And 
 the  _  Church  having  the  Scriptures  is  so 
 far  infallibly  guided.  But  there  is  no  in- 
 fallible guide  to  the  interpretation  of  Scrip- 
 ture. If  it  were  so,  then  there  would  be 
 an  authority  above  the  Scriptures.    Hence 
 
 the  wisdom  of  our  twentieth  Article :  "  The 
 Church  hath  power  to  decree  rites  or  cere- 
 monies, and  authority  in  controversies  of 
 faith  ;  and  yet  it  is  not  lawful  for  the 
 Church  to  ordain  anything  that  is  con- 
 trary to  God's  word  written,  neither  may 
 it  so  expound  one  place  of  Scripture  that 
 it  be  repugnant  to  another.  "Wherefore 
 although  the  Church  be  a  witness  and  a 
 keeper  of  holy  writ,  yet  as  it  ought  not  to 
 decree  anything  against  the  same,  so  be- 
 sides the  same  ought  it  not  to  enforce 
 anything  to  be  believed  for  necessity  of 
 salvation." 
 
 Here  the  authority  of  the  Church  in 
 subordination  to  Scripture  is  clearly  laid 
 doAvn.  To  the  same  eff'ect  is  our  twenty- 
 first  Article.  "  General  councils  may  not 
 be  gathered  together  Avithout  the  com- 
 mandment and  Avill  of  princes.  And 
 Avhen  they  be  gathered  together,  (for- 
 asmuch as  they  be  an  assembly  of  men, 
 Avhereof  all  be  not  governed  Avith  the 
 spirit  and  Avord  of  GoD,)  they  may  err, 
 and  sometime  have  erred,  even  in  things 
 pertaining  unto  God.  Wherefore  things 
 ordained  by  them,  as  necessary  to  salva- 
 tion, have  neither  strength  nor  authority, 
 unless  it  may  be  declared  that  they  be 
 taken  out  of  Holy  Scripture." — Bever- 
 idcje. 
 
 But  although  Ave  can  have  no  infallible 
 guide  beyond  the  Scriptures,  yet  there 
 may  be  a  proper  certainty  in  matters  of 
 faith,  doctrine,  and  discipline,  without 
 infallibility.  This,  in  his  "  Importance  of 
 the  Doctrine  of  the  Holy  Trinity,"  that 
 great  divine,  Dr.  AVaterland,  shoAvs  from 
 the  Avords  of  ChillingAvorth.  "  Though  we 
 pretend  not  to  certain  means  of  not  erring 
 in  interpreting  all  Scripture,  particularly 
 such  places  as  are  obscure  and  ambiguous, 
 yet  this,  methinks,  should  be  no  impedi- 
 ment ;  but  that  Ave  may  have  certain  means 
 of  not  erring  in  and  about  the  sense  of 
 those  places  Avhich  are  so  plain  and  clear 
 that  they  need  no  interpreters ;  and  in 
 such  Ave  say  our  faith  is  contained.  If  you 
 ask  me,  hoAv  I  can  be  sure  that  I  know 
 the  true  meaning  of  these  places  ?  I  ask 
 you  again,  can  you  be  sure  that  you  un- 
 derstand Avhat  I  or  any  man  else  says  ? 
 God  be  thanked  that  Ave  have  sufficient 
 means  to  be  certain  enough  of  the  truth 
 of  our  faith  ;  but  the  privilege  of  not  being 
 in  possibility  of  erring,  that  Ave  challenge 
 not,  because  w^e  have  as  little  reason  as 
 you  to  do  so,  and  you  have  none  at  all. 
 If  you  ask,  seeing  Ave  may  possibly  err, 
 hoAv  can  we  be  assured  Ave  do  not  ?  I  ask 
 you  again,  seeing  your  eyesight  may  de- 
 ceive you,  hoAv  can  you  be  sure  you  see 
 
INFALLIBILITY. 
 
 389 
 
 tlie  sun  when  you  do  sec  it?  A  pretty 
 sophism!  That  whosoever  possibly  may 
 err,  cannot  be  certain  that  he  doth  not 
 err.  A  judi2:e  may  possibly  err  in  judg- 
 ment ;  can  he,  therefore,  never  have  assur- 
 ance that  he  hath  judged  right  ?  A  tra- 
 veller may  possibly  mistake  his  way ;  must 
 I,  therefore,  be  doubtful  whether  1  am  in 
 the  right  way  from  my  hall  to  my  cham- 
 ber ?  Or  can  our  London  carrier  have  no 
 certainty,  in  the  middle  of  the  day,  when 
 he  is  sober  and  in  his  wits,  that  he  is  in 
 the  way  to  London  ?  These,  you  see,  are 
 right  worthy  consequences,  and  yet  they 
 are  as  like  to  your  own,  as  an  egg  to  an 
 egg,  or  milk  to  milk. 
 
 "  Mcthinks,  so  subtile  a  man  as  you  are 
 should  easily  apprehend  a  wide  difference 
 between  authority  to  do  a  thing  and  in- 
 fallibility in  doing  it.  The  former,  the 
 doctor,  together  with  the  Article  of  the 
 Church  of  England,  attributeth  to  the 
 Church,  nay,  to  particular  Churches,  and 
 I  subscribe  to  his  opinion ;  that  is,  an 
 authority  of  determining  controversies  of 
 faith,  according  to  plain  and  evident  Scrip- 
 ture and  universal  tradition  and  infalli- 
 bility, while  they  proceed  according  to 
 this  rule.  As  if  there  should  arise  an  he- 
 retic that  should  call  in  question  Christ's 
 passion  and  resurrection,  the  Church  has 
 authority  to  determine  this  controversy, 
 and  infallible  direction  how  to  do  it,  and 
 to  excommunicate  this  man  if  he  should 
 persist  in  his  errors. 
 
 "  The  ground  of  your  error  here  is,  your 
 not  distinguishing  between  actual  cer- 
 tainty and  absolute  infallibility.  Geome- 
 tricians are  not  infallible  in  their  own 
 science  ;  yet  they  are  very  certain  of  what 
 they  see  demonstrated :  and  carpenters  are 
 not  infallible,  yet  certain  of  the  straightness 
 of  those  things  which  agree  with  their  rule 
 and  square.  So  though  the  Church  be  not 
 infallibly  certain  that  in  all  her  definitions, 
 whereof  some  are  about  disputable  and 
 ambiguous  matters,  she  shall  proceed  ac- 
 cording to  her  rule ;  yet  being  certain  of 
 the  infallibility  of  her  rule,  and  that  in 
 this  or  that  thing  she  doth  manifestly  pro- 
 ceed according  to  it,  she  may  be  certain  of 
 the  truth  of  some  particular  decrees,  and 
 yet  not  certain  that  she  shall  never  decree 
 but  what  is  true. 
 
 *'  Though  the  Church  being  not  infal- 
 lible, 1  cannot  believe  her  in  everything 
 she  says ;  yet  I  can  and  must  believe  her 
 in  everything  she  proves,  either  by  Scrip- 
 ture, reason,  or  universal  tradition,  be  it 
 fundamental  or  not  fundamental.  Though 
 she  may  err  in  some  things,  vet  she  does 
 not  err  in  wliat  she  proves,  though  it  be 
 
 not  fundamental.  ]*rotestants  believing 
 Scri])ture  to  be  the  word  of  GoD,  may  be 
 certain  enough  of  the  truth  and  certainty 
 of  it.  For  what  if  they  say  the  Catliolic 
 Church,  much  more  themselves,  may 
 possibly  err  in  some  fundamental  points, 
 IS  it  therefore  consequent  they  can  be 
 certain  of  none  such  ?  AVhat  if  a  wiser 
 man  than  I  may  mistake  the  sense  of  some 
 obscure  place  of  Aristotle,  may  I  not, 
 therefore,  without  any  arrogance  or  in- 
 consequence, conceive  myself  certain  that  I 
 understand  him  in  some  j)lain  ])laces  which 
 carry  their  sense  before  them  ?  We  pre- 
 tend not  at  all  to  any  assurance  tliat  we 
 cannot  err,  but  only  to  a  sufficient  certainty 
 that  we  do  not  err,  but  rightly  understand 
 those  things  that  are  plain,  whether  fun- 
 damental or  not  fundamental.  That  GoD 
 is,  and  is  a  rewarder  of  them  that  seek 
 him;  that,  &c.  These  we  conceive  both 
 true,  because  the  Scripture  says  so,  and 
 truths  fundamental,  because  they  are 
 necessary  parts  of  the  gospel,  whereof  our 
 Saviour  says,  Qui  non  crediderit,  dai/ina- 
 hitur. 
 
 "  I  do  heartily  acknowledge  and  believe 
 the  articles  of  our  faith  to  be  in  themselves 
 truths  as  certain  and  infallible  as  the  very 
 common  principles  of  geometry  or  meta- 
 physics ;  but  that  there  is  required  of  us 
 a  knowledge  of  them  and  an  adherence  to 
 them,  as  certain  as  that  of  sense  or  science ; 
 that  such  a  certainty  is  required  of  us 
 under  i)ain  of  damnation,  so  that  no  man 
 can  hope  to  be  in  a  state  of  salvation  but 
 he  that  finds  in  himself  such  a  degree  of 
 faith,  such  a  strength  of  adherence ;  this 
 I  have  already  demonstrated  to  be  a  great 
 error,  and  of  dangerous  and  pernicious 
 consequence. 
 
 "  Though  I  deny  that  it  is  required  of 
 us  to  be  certain  in  the  highest  degree,  in- 
 fallibly certain,  of  the  truth  of  the  things 
 which  we  believe,  (for  this  were  to  know 
 and  not  believe,  neither  is  it  possible  unless 
 our  evidence  of  it,  be  it  natural  or  super- 
 natural, were  of  the  highest  degree.)  yet 
 I  deny  not  but  we  ought  to  be,  and  may 
 be,  infallibly  certain  that  we  are  to  l)eheve 
 the  religion  of  Christ.  For,  1.  This  is 
 most  certain,  that  we  are  in  all  things  to 
 do  according  to  wisdom  and  reason,  rather 
 than  against  it.  2.  This  is  as  certain,  that 
 wisdom  and  reason  require  that  we  should 
 believe  those  things  which  are  by  many 
 degrees  more  credible  and  probable  than 
 the  contrary.  3.  Tliis  is  as  certain,  that 
 to  every  man   who    considers   impartially 
 
 j  what  great  things  may  be  said  for  the 
 truth  of  Christianity,  and  what  poor  things 
 
 j  they  are  which  may  be   said  against  it, 
 
390 
 
 INFALLIBILITY  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  HOME. 
 
 either  for  any  other  religion,  or  for  none  at 
 all,  it  cannot  but  appear  by  many  degrees 
 more  credible,  that  the  Christian  religion 
 is  true,  than  the  contrary.  And  from  all 
 these  premises,  this  conclusion  evidently 
 follo^YS,  that  it  is  infallibly  certain,  that 
 we  are  firmly  to  believe  the  truth  of  the 
 Christian  religion.  There  is  an  abundance 
 of  arguments  exceedingly  credible,  in- 
 ducing men  to  believe  the  truth  of  Chris- 
 tianity ;  I  say,  so  credible,  that  though 
 they  cannot  make  us  evidently  see  "vvhat 
 we  believe,  yet  they  evidently  convince, 
 that  in  true  wisdom  and  prudence,  the 
 articles  of  it  deserve  credit,  and  ought  to 
 be  accepted  as  things  revealed  by  GOD." 
 —  JFa  terland.     Ch  illing  worth . 
 
 The  Koman  Church  has  no  authorized 
 doctrine  of  infallibility,  though  its  exist- 
 ence is  practically  assumed,  and  is  bound 
 up  with  the  whole  catalogue  of  usurpations. 
 The  Council  of  Trent  defined  many  minute 
 and  unimportant  matters,  yet  on  that  which 
 involved  so  much,  it  published  no  defini- 
 tion at  all ;  neither  pronouncing  where  the 
 gift  is  lodged,  nor  under  Avhat  conditions 
 it  is  exercised,  nor  to  what  subjects  it  ex- 
 tends ;  nay,  not  even  asserting  that  it 
 exists  at  all.  Suarez  says  that  the  pope's 
 infallibility  is  a  question  of  faith ;  Bellar- 
 mine,  that  it  is  not ;  and  Stapleton,  that, 
 though  the  denial  of  it  is  scandalous  and 
 offensive,  it  is  perhaps  not  heretical ;  while 
 Gerson,  with  a  very  large  and  learned  school 
 of  Roman  theologians,  rejects  the  doctrine 
 altogether.  And  none  of  these  opinions 
 have  been  censured. 
 
 Again,  if  we  ask  whether,  in  point  of 
 fact,  any  pope  has  ever  been  a  heretic,  we 
 shall  get  nothing  but  inconsistent  and 
 contradictory  replies.  Coster  says,  that 
 not  one  has  ever  taught  heresy,  or  fallen 
 into  error ;  and  he  makes  this  an  argument 
 for  the  doctrine  itself.  Pighius  goes  fur- 
 ther, and  says,  that  the  pope  is  so  con- 
 firmed in  the  faith,  that  he  could  not  fall 
 into  error  either  publicly  or  privately,  even 
 if  he  would ;  while,  on  the  other'  hand, 
 there  is  a  multitude  of  Roman  ^Titers,  who 
 fully  admit  the  heresies  of  Liberius,  Vigi- 
 lius,  Honorius,  and  the  rest;  either  con- 
 demning them  absolutely,  or  extenuating 
 their  acts  on  some  special  ground.  The 
 Council  of  Pisa,  A.  D.  1409,  in  its  sentence 
 of  deposition  against  the  rivals,  pronounces 
 them  both  heretics.  And  so  previous 
 councils  have  condemned  former  popes ; 
 yet  the  question  is  still  in  debate. 
 
 As  a  matter  of  doctrine,  then,  we  have  a 
 long  line  of  the  greatest  theologians  that 
 the  Roman  Church  has  ever  produced, 
 denying  in  explicit  terms  that  any  gift  of 
 
 infallibility  at  all  was  conveyed  to  the 
 bishops  of  Rome  by  the  words  of  Christ. 
 And  on  the  question  of  fact  we  find  the 
 very  chief  defenders  of  the  pope's  preroga- 
 tives, admitting  that  he  may  deceive  men 
 by  his  example,  and  lead  them  nito  error ; 
 and  that  he  may  publish  decrees,  and 
 insert  them  in  the  body  of  canon  law, 
 which  yet  contradict  the  tradition  of  the 
 Church  and  the  truth  of  the  gospel.  The 
 claim  of  infallibility,  which  advances  no 
 Scripture  proof,  except  one  perverted 
 text ;  and  which  is  maintained  in  the  face 
 of  all  these  hesitations  and  contradictions, 
 these  disproofs  on  the  one  side,  and  in- 
 jurious admissions  on  the  other ;  can  be 
 nothing  else  but  a  delusion  and  a  fraud. — 
 S.  Robins. 
 
 INFALLIBILITY  OF  THE  CHURCH 
 OF  ROME.  (See  Church  of  Rome,  Pope- 
 ry.^ On  this  subject  we  give  the  follow- 
 ing remarks  of  Bishop  Beveridge  : — That 
 the  Catholic  or  universal  Church  is  infalli- 
 ble, so  as  constantly  and  finnly  to  maintain 
 and  hold  every  particular  truth  delivered 
 in  the  gospel,  in  one  place  or  other  of  it,  I 
 think  cannot  well  be  denied  ;  but  that  any 
 particular  Church,  or  the  Church  of  Rome 
 in  particular,  is  infallible,  we  have  ex- 
 pressly denied  and  opposed  in  the  Thirty- 
 nine  Articles,  it  being  there  expressly 
 asserted,  that  "  the  Church  of  Rome  hath 
 erred,"  and  that  "  not  only  in  their  living 
 and  manner  of  ceremonies,  but  even  in 
 matters  of  faith." 
 
 Now  to  prove  that  the  Church  of  Rome 
 hath  erred,  even  in  matters  of  faith,  I 
 think  the  best  way  is  to  compare  the  doc- 
 trine maintained  by  them  vrith  the  doctrine 
 delivered  in  these  Articles.  For  whatso- 
 ever is  contained  in  these  Articles,  we  have, 
 or  shall,  by  the  assistance  of  God,  prove 
 to  be  consonant  to  Scripture,  reason,  and 
 Fathers  ;  and,  by  consequence,  to  be  a  real 
 truth.  And,  therefore,  Avhatsoever  is  any 
 way  contrary  to  what  is  here  delivered, 
 must  needs  be  an  error.  And  so  that  be- 
 sides other  errors  which  the  Church  of 
 Rome  holds,  be  sure,  whereinsoever  it  dif- 
 fers from  the  doctrine  of  the  Church  of 
 England,  therein  it  errs.  Now  to  prove 
 that  the  Church  of  Rome  doth  hold  such 
 doctrines  as  are  contrary  to  the  doctrine 
 of  the  Church  of  England,  I  shall  not  in- 
 sist upon  any  particular,  though  never  so 
 eminent,  persons  amongst  them  that  have 
 delivered  many  doctrines  contrary  to  ours. 
 For  r  know,  as  it  is  amongst  ourselves, 
 that  is  not  an  error  of  our  Church  which 
 is  the  error  of  some  one  or  many  particu- 
 lar persons  in  it;  so  also  amongst  them, 
 everything  that  Bellarniine,  Johannes  de 
 
liNl-ALLlBILlTY  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  ROME. 
 
 391 
 
 Turrecremata,  Gregorius  de  Valentia,  Al- 
 phonsus  de  Castro,  or  any  of  the  grandees 
 of  their  Church,  saitli,  cannot  be  accounted 
 as  an  error  of  their  Church  if  it  be  false ; 
 nor  if  it  be  true,  as  the  truth  of  tlic  Avhole 
 Church.  A  Church  may  be  Catholic  though 
 it  hath  many  heretics  in  it ;  and  a  Church 
 may  be  heretical  though  it  hath  many 
 Catholics  in  it.  And  therefore  I  say,  to 
 prove  the  doctrine  of  their  Church  to  be 
 erroneous,  I  shall  not  take  any  notice  of 
 the  errors  of  particular  persons,  but  of  the 
 errors  deliberately  and  unanimously  con- 
 cluded upon,  and  subscribed  to,  and  pub- 
 lished as  the  doctrine  of  that  Church,  by 
 the  whole  Church  itself  met  together  in 
 council.  For  the  doctrine  delivered  by  a 
 council  cannot  be  denied  to  be  the  doc- 
 trine of  the  whole  Church  there  represent- 
 ed. As  the  doctrine  delivered  in  these 
 Articles,  because  it  was  concluded  upon  in 
 a  council  of  English  divines,  is  accounted 
 the  doctrine  of  the  Church  of  England  ;  so 
 the  doctrine  concluded  upon  in  a  council 
 of  llomish  divines,  cannot  be  denied  to  be 
 the  doctrine  of  the  Church  of  Home.  And 
 of  all  the  councils  they  have  held,  that 
 which  I  shall  ])itch  upon  in  this  case,  is 
 the  Council  of  Trent,  both  because  it  was 
 the  most  general  council  they  ever  held, 
 and  also  because  it  was  held  about  the 
 same  time  at  Trent  that  our  convocation 
 that  composed  these  Articles  was  held  at 
 London.  For  it  was  in  the  year  of  our 
 Lord  1562,  that  our  convocation,  that 
 concluded  upon  these  Articles,  was  holden 
 at  London ;  and  though  the  Council  of 
 Trent  was  begun  in  the  year  of  our  Lord 
 1545,  yet  it  was  not  concluded  nor  con- 
 firmed till  the  fifth  year  of  Pope  Pius  IV., 
 A.  D.  15G3,  as  appears  from  Pope  Pius  III.'s 
 bull  for  the  confii-mation  of  it.  So  that 
 our  convocation  was  held  within  the  same 
 time  that  that  council  Avas ;  and  so  our 
 Church  concluded  upon  truths  here,  whilst 
 theirs  agreed  upon  errors  there.  Neither 
 need  we  go  any  further  to  prove  that  they 
 agreed  upon  errors,  than  by  showing  that 
 many  things  that  they  did  then  subscribe 
 to,  were  contrary  to  what  our  Church, 
 about  the  same  time,  concluded  upon.  For 
 all  our  Articles  are,  as  we  may  see,  agree- 
 able to  Scripture,  reason,  and  Fathers  ;  and 
 they  delivering  many  things  quite  contrary 
 to  the  said  Articles,  so  many  of  them  must 
 needs  be  contrary  to  Scripture,  reason,  and 
 Fathers  too,  and  therefore  cannot  but  be 
 errors.  And  so  in  showing  that  the  doc- 
 trine of  the  Church  of  Home  is,  in  many 
 things,  contrary  to  the  Church  of  England, 
 I  shall  prove  from  Scripture,  reason,  and 
 Fathers,  the  truth  of  this  proposition,  that 
 
 the  Church  of  Homo  hath  erred  even  in 
 matters  of  faith. 
 
 Now,  though  there  be  many  things 
 wherein  the  Church  of  Home  did  at  that, 
 and  so  still  doth  at  this,  time  disagree  with 
 ours ;  yet  I  shall  pick  out  but  some  of 
 those  propositions  that  do,  in  plain  terms, 
 contradict  these  Articles. 
 
 As,  first,  we  say,  (Art.  VI.,)  "  Scripture 
 is  sufficient,  &c.,  and  the  other  books, 
 (viz.  commonly  called  the  Apocrypha,)  the 
 Church  doth  not  apply  them  to  estal)lish 
 any  doctrine."  But  the  Church  of  Home 
 thrusts  them  into  the  body  of  canonical 
 Scriptures,  and  accounts  them  as  canon- 
 ical as  any  of  the  rest ;  saying,  *'  But  this 
 synod  thought  good  to  write  down  to  this 
 decree  an  index  of  the  holy  books,  lest 
 any  one  should  doubt  which  they  are  that 
 are  received  by  this  council.  Now  they 
 are  the  underwritten.  Of  the  Old  Tes- 
 tament, the  five  books  of  Moses,  Genesis, 
 Exodus,  Leviticus,  Numbers,  Deuterono- 
 my :  Joshua,  Judges,  Huth,  four  books  of 
 the  Kings,  two  of  the  Chronicles,  I-'sdras 
 the  first  and  second,  which  is  called  Ne- 
 hemias,  Tobias,  Judith,  Hester,  Job,  Psal- 
 ter of  one  hundred  and  fifty  Psalms, 
 Proverbs,  Ecclesiastes,  Canticles,  the  "Wis- 
 dom of  Solomon,  Ecclesiasticus,  Isaiah, 
 Jeremiah  with  Baruch,  Ezekiel,  Daniel, 
 twelve  Lesser  Prophets,  that  is,  Osee,  &c., 
 two  books  of  the  Maccabees,  the  first  and 
 second.  Of  the  New  Testament,  the  four 
 Gospels,  &c.  as  ours.  But  if  any  one  doth 
 not  receive  all  these  books,  with  every 
 part  of  them,  as  they  use  to  be  read  in 
 the  Catholic  (viz.  the  Homan)  Church, 
 and  as  they  are  contained  in  the  ancient 
 vulgar  Latin  edition,  for  holy  and  canoni- 
 cal, and  shall  knowingly  contemn  the  afore- 
 said traditions,  let  him  be  anathema." 
 
 Secondly,  we  say  that  "  original  sin  is 
 the  fault  and  corruption  of  every  man,  none 
 excepted."  (Art.  IX.)  But  they  say,  "  but 
 this  synod  declares  it  is  not  their  intention 
 to  comprehend  the  blessed  and  unspotted 
 Virgin  Mary,  the  mother  of  God,  in  this 
 decree,  where  it  treats  of  original  sin." 
 
 Thirdly,  we  say,  '*  We  are  accounted 
 righteous  before  GoD  only  for  the  merit 
 of  our  Lord  Jksus  Christ  bv  faith,  and 
 so  justified  by  faith  only."  (Art.  XI.)  But 
 they  say,  "  If  any  one  say  that  a  sinner  is 
 justified  by  faith*  only,  that  he  so  under- 
 stand that  nothing  else  is  required  to 
 attain  the  gi'ace  of  justification,  and  that  it 
 is  no  ways  necessary  that  he  should  be 
 prepared'  and  dis])osed  by  the  motion  of 
 his  own  will,  let  him  be  anathema." 
 
 Fourthly,  we  say,  "  AVorks  before  justifi- 
 cation have  the  nature  of  sin."  (Art.  XIII.) 
 
392 
 
 INFALLIBILITY  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  ROME. 
 
 But  they,  "  If  any  one  say,  that  all  the 
 works  which  are  done  before  justification, 
 howsoever  they  are  done,  are  truly  sins. 
 or  deserve  the  hatred  of  GoD  ;  or  by  hoAv 
 much  the  more  vehemently  a  man  strives 
 to  dispose  himself  for  grace,  by  so  much 
 the  more  grievously  doth  he  sin,  let  him 
 be  anathema." 
 
 Fifthly,  we  say,  "  Christ  was  alone 
 without 'sin."  (Art.  XV.)  They  say,  that 
 the  Virgin  Mary  also  was.  "  If  any  one 
 say,  that  a  man  being  once  justified  can 
 sin  no  more,  nor  lose  his  grace,  and  there- 
 fore he  who  falls  and  sins  was  never  truly 
 justified  ;  or,  on  the  contrary,  that  he  can 
 avoid  through  his  whole  life  all  even  venial 
 sins,  unless  by  a  special  privilege  from 
 God,  as  the  Church  holdeth  concerning 
 the  blessed  Virgin,  let  him  be  anathema." 
 
 Sixthly,  we  say,  "  The  llomish  doctrine 
 concerning  purgatory,  pardons,  worship- 
 ping, and  adoration,  as  well  of  images  as 
 relics,  and  also  invocation  of  saints,  is  a 
 fond  thing,  vainly  invented,  and  grounded 
 upon  no  warrant  of  Scripture,  but  rather 
 repugnant  to  the  word  of  God."  (Art. 
 XXil.)  But  they,  "  Seeing  the  Catholic 
 Church  taught  by  the  Holy  Ghost  out  of 
 the  Holy  Scriptures,  and  the  ancient  tra- 
 dition of  the  Fathers,  in  holy  councils,  and 
 last  of  all  in  this  general  synod,  hath 
 taught  that  there  is  a  purgatory,  and  that 
 souls  there  detained  are  helped  by  the  suf- 
 frages of  the  faithful,  but  principally  by 
 the  sacrifices  of  the  acceptable  altar ;  this 
 holy  synod  commands  the  bishops,  that 
 they  would  diligently  study,  that  the  sound 
 doctrine  concerning  purgatory  delivered 
 from  the  holy  Fathers  and  sacred  councils 
 be,  by  Christ's  faithful  people,  believed, 
 held,  taught,  and  preached  everywhere." 
 And  again,  "  This  holy  synod  commands  all 
 bishops  and  others,  that  have  the  charge 
 and  care  of  teaching,  that  according  to 
 the  use  of  the  Catholic  and  Apostolic 
 Church,  received  from  the  primitive  times 
 of  the  Christian  religion,  and  the  consent 
 of  the  holy  Fathers,  and  the  decrees  of 
 sacred  councils,  especially  concerning  the 
 intercession  and  invocation  of  saints,  the 
 honour  of  relics,  and  the  lawful  use  of 
 images,  they  diligently  instruct  the  faith- 
 ful, teaching  that  the  saints,  reigning 
 together  with  Christ,  do  offer  up  their 
 prayers  to  GoD  for  men,  and  that  it  is 
 good  and  profitable  simply  to  invocate  or 
 pray  unto  them,"  &c.  And  that,  "the 
 bodies  of  the  holy  martyrs,  and  others, 
 that  live  with  Christ,  are  to  be  wor- 
 shipped," &e.  And  also,  "  that  images  of 
 Christ,  the  GoD-bearing  Virgin,  and  other 
 saints,  are  to  be  had  and  retained,  espe- 
 
 cially in  churches,  and  that  due  honour 
 and  veneration  be  given  to  them."  And 
 presently,  "  But  if  any  one  teach  or  think 
 anything  contrary  to  these  decrees,  let 
 him  be  anathema." 
 
 Seventhly,  we  say,  "  It  is  a  thing  plainly 
 repugnant  to  the  word  of  GoD,  and  the 
 custom  of  the  primitive  Church,  to  have 
 public  prayer  in  the  church,  or  to  adminis- 
 ter the  sacraments,  in  a  tongue  not  under- 
 standed  of  the  people."  (Art.  XXIV.) 
 But  they,  *'  If  any  one  say,  that  the  cus- 
 tom of  the  Church  of  Home,  whereby  part 
 of  the  canon  and  the  words  of  consecration 
 are  uttered  with  a  loud  voice,  is  to  be 
 condemned,  or  that  mass  ought  to  be 
 celebrated  only  in  the  vulgar  tongue,  or 
 that  v/ater  ought  not  to  be  mixed  with 
 the  wine  that  is  to  be  offered  in  the  cup, 
 for  that  it  is  contrary  to  Christ's  institu- 
 tion, let  him  be  anathema." 
 
 Eighthlv,  we  say,  "There  are  but  two 
 sacraments."  (Art.  XXV.)  They,  "  If  any 
 one  say,  that  the  sacraments  of  the  new 
 law  were  not  all  instituted  by  Jesus  Christ 
 our  Lord,  or  that  there  are  more  or  less 
 than  seven,  to  wit,  baptism,  confirmation, 
 the  eucharist,  penance,  extreme  unction, 
 orders,  and  matrimony,  or  that  any  of  these 
 seven  is  not  truly  and  properly  a  sacra- 
 ment, let  him  be  anathema." 
 
 Ninthly,  we  say,  "  Transubstantiation 
 is  repugnant  to  the  Scripture,  and  over- 
 throweth  the  nature  of  a  sacrament." 
 (Art.  XXVIII.)  But  they,  "  But  because 
 Christ  our  Redeemer  said,  that  that  which 
 he  offered  under  the  shape  of  bread  was 
 truly  his  -body,  therefore  it  was  always 
 believed  in  the  Church  of  God  ;  and,  last 
 of  all,  this  holy  synod  doth  noAv  declare  it, 
 that,  by  the  consecration  of  bread  and 
 wine  is  made  the  changing  of  the  whole 
 substance  of  the  bread  into  the  substance 
 of  the  body  of  Christ  our  Lord,  and  of 
 the  whole  substance  of  wine  into  the  sub- 
 stance of  his  blood  ;  which  change  is  fitly 
 and  properly  called,  by  the  holy  Catholic 
 Church,  transubstantiation." 
 
 Tenthly,  we  say,  "  The  sacrament  of  our 
 Lord's  supper  is  not  to  be  worshipped.'* 
 (Art.  XXVIII.)  But  they,_  "There  is 
 therefore  no  place  of  doubting  left,  but 
 that  all  the  faithful  of  Christ,  according 
 to  the  custom  always  received  in  the  Ca- 
 tholic Church,  should  give  to  this  most 
 holy  sacrament,  in  the  adoration  of  it,  that 
 Avorship  of  service  which  is  due  to  the 
 true  God." 
 
 Eleventhly,  we  say,  "  The  cup  of  the 
 Lord  is  not  to  be  denied  to  the  lay-peo- 
 ple." (Art.  XXX.)  But  they,  "  If  any 
 one  say,  that,  from  the  command  of  God 
 
INFALLIBILITY  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  ROME. 
 
 393 
 
 and  the  necessity  of  salvation,  all  and 
 every  believer  in  Christ  ought  to  receive 
 both  kinds  of  the  most  holy  sacrament  of 
 the  eucharist,  let  him  be  anathema." 
 
 Twelfthly,  we  say,  "  The  sacrifices  of 
 the  mass  are  blasphemous  fables  and  dan- 
 gerous deceits."  (Art.  XXXI.)  But  they, 
 "  If  any  one  say  that  in  the  mass  there  is 
 not  a  true  and  proper  sacrifice  oft'cred  to 
 God,  or  that  to  be  oft'cred  is  nothing  else 
 but  for  Christ  to  be  given  to  us  to  eat,  let 
 him  be  anathema." 
 
 There  are  many  other  things  wherein 
 the  doctrine  established  by  tlie  Church  of 
 Rome  contra dicteth  ours ;  but  these  may 
 be  enough  to  show  both  the  falseness  of 
 the  calumny  that  ignorant  people  put 
 upon  our  Church  of  England,  as  if  it  Mas 
 returning  to  Popery,  whereas  the  doctrine 
 established  by  our  Church  doth,  in  so 
 many  and  plain  terms,  contradict  the 
 established  doctrine  of  theirs ;  and  also  it 
 shows  the  truth  of  this  part  of  our  doctrine, 
 that  some  i)art  of  theirs  is  false.  For 
 seeing  whatsoever  is  here  set  down  as  the 
 doctrine  of  our  Church,  is  grounded  upon 
 Scripture,  consented  to  by  reason,  and  de- 
 livered by  the  Fathers,  it  cannot  but  be 
 true  doctrine ;  and  seeing  theirs  do  so  fre- 
 quently contradict  ours,  it  cannot  but  in 
 such  things  that  are  so  contradictory  to 
 ours  be  false  doctrine.  And  therefore  we 
 may  Avell  conclude,  that  even  the  Church 
 of  Rome  too  hath  erred,  yea,  in  mat- 
 ters of  faith,  and  that  if  she  denies  it,  she 
 must  add  that  to  the  rest  of  her  errors. — 
 JBeveridf/e. 
 
 Concerning  the  pretended  infallibility 
 of  the  Church  of  Rome,  the  celebrated  Bi- 
 shop Bull  observes,  "  We  Protestants  pro- 
 fess and  prove,  by  most  evident  arguments, 
 that  the  Church  of  Rome  hath  in  sundry 
 points  erred,  and  is  guilty  of  innovation. 
 The  patrons  of  that  Church,  not  able  to 
 answer  those  arguments  of  ours,  tell  us 
 this  cannot  be  ;  that  the  Church  of  Rome 
 is  infallible,  and  cannot  possibly  be  guilty 
 of  such  innovation.  Is  not  this  an  ad- 
 mirable way  of  reasoning  and  disputation? 
 Can  the  Romanists  produce  arguments  to 
 prove  that  their  Church  cannot  err,  so 
 clear  and  evident  as  these  alleged  by  us  to 
 demonstrate  that  she  hath  erred  ?  Surely 
 no.  To  make  this  plain,  if  I  can  be  in- 
 fallibly certain  that  my  senses,  rightly 
 disposed,  and  all  due  requisites  to  sensation 
 supposed,  are  infallible,  and  cannot  be 
 deceived  about  their  proper  objects  (and  if 
 I  cannot  be  assured  of  this,  the  apostles  had 
 no  infallible  assurance  of  that  which  is  the 
 foundation  of  the  Christian  faitli,  the  resur- 
 rection of  Christ,  which  was  evidenced  to 
 
 them  by  their  testimony  of  sense,  and  that 
 testimony  i)ronounced  infallible,  Acts  i.  3  ; 
 1  John  i.  1,  2);  then  I  may  be  infallibly 
 certain  that  the  Church  of  Rome  is  not  in- 
 fallible, yea,  that  she  hath  grossly  erred  in 
 her  doctrine  of  transubstantiation,  teaching 
 the  bread  and  wine,  after  the  words  of 
 consecration,  to  be  turned  into  the  very 
 flesh  and  blood  of  Christ,  which  yet  all 
 my  senses  assure  me  to  remain  still  the 
 same  in  nature  and  substance,  that  is, 
 bread  and  wine.  If  I  can  be  infallibly 
 certain  that  Christ  himself  is  infallible, 
 that  he  would  not,  could  not,  ai)i)oint  an 
 institution  that  should  be  dangerous  and 
 scandalous  to  his  Church,  viz.  of  receiving 
 the  holy  eucharist  in  both  kinds ;  if  I  can 
 be  infallibly  certain  that  the  whole  Church 
 of  Christ,  that  was  under  the  guidance 
 and  direction  of  the  apostles,  were  not 
 grossly  deceived,  and  engaged  by  the 
 apostles  themselves  in  a  practice  dangerous 
 and  scandalous  (and  of  this  I  may  be  as 
 infallibly  sure  as  I  am  of  the  truth  of  the 
 gospel  itself)  ;  then  I  may  be  infallibly 
 certain  that  the  Church  of  Rome  not  only 
 may  err,  but  hath  grossly  erred  in  that 
 determination  of  hers,  whereby  she  rejects 
 (in  the  Council  of  Constance)  communion 
 in  both  kinds,  as  a  dangerous  and  scan- 
 dalous practice.  And  in  the  same  manner 
 we  might  proceed  to  show  the  falsehood  of 
 divers  other  determinations  of  the  Church 
 of  Rome,  if  this  paper  would  pemiit ;  but 
 these  are  sufficient  to  any  person  that 
 shall  consult  his  serious  reason.  Indeed, 
 I  look  upon  it  as  a  wonderful  both  just 
 and  wise  providence  of  God,  that  he 
 hath  suffered  the  Church  of  Rome  to  fall 
 into  such  gross  errors,  (which  otherwise  it 
 is  scarce  imaginable  how  men  in  their 
 Avits,  that  had  not  renounced  not  only  the 
 Scriptures,  but  their  reason,  yea,  and 
 their  senses  too,  could  be  overtaken  with,) 
 and  to  determine  them  for  articles  of  faith. 
 For  hereby  a  person  of  the  meanest  ca- 
 pacity (so  he  be  sincere,  and  not  under  the 
 prejudice  of  education)  may  evidently  dis- 
 cern with  what  a  strange  kind  of  im})u- 
 dence  that  Church  arrogates  to  herself  an 
 infallibility  in  all  her  determinations.  And 
 for  such  of  our  Church  that  have  been 
 informed  of  these  things,  and  yet  shall 
 leave  our  communion,  and  follow  the 
 guidance  of  that  Church  ujjon  the  account 
 of  her  infallibility,  I  fear  they  are  in  the 
 numl)er  of  those  miserable  persons  de- 
 scribed by  the  apostle,  (2  Thess.  ii.  11,  12,) 
 M'ho  are  given  up  to  strong  delusion,  that 
 they  may  believe  a  lie,  Ace.  That  which 
 foUoMs  in  the  text  I  dread  to  mention  ; 
 God  avert  it  from  them !" 
 
394 
 
 INFANT  BArTISM. 
 
 INQUISITION. 
 
 INFANT  BAPTISM.  (See  Baptism, 
 Infant.) 
 
 INFIRMAIIIAN.  An  officer  in  a  mon- 
 astery, who  had  the  care  of  the  sick  and 
 infirm.  A  dignitary  in  Nice  cathedral 
 •was  so  called. — Jehb. 
 
 INFINITY.  An  attribute  of  God.  The 
 idea  of  injinity  or  immensity  is  so  closely 
 connected  with  that  of  self-existence,  that, 
 because  it  is  impossible  but  something 
 must  be  infinite,  independently  and  of  it- 
 self, therefore  it  must  of  necessity  be  self- 
 existent  :  and  because  something  must  of 
 necessity  be  self-existent,  therefore  it  is 
 necessary  that  it  must  likewise  be  infinite. 
 A  necessarily  existent  being  must  be  every- 
 ichere  as  well  as  aiirays  unalterably  the 
 same.  For  a  necessity,  which  is  not  every- 
 where the  same,  is  plainly  a  consequential 
 necessity  only,  depending  upon  som.e  ex- 
 ternal cause.  WhateA-er  therefore  exists 
 by  an  absolute  necessity  in  its  own  nature, 
 must  needs  be  infinite,  as  well  as  eternal. 
 To  suppose  a  finite  being  to  be  self-exist- 
 ent, is  to  say,  that  it  is  a  contradiction  for 
 that  being  not  to  exist,  the  absence  of 
 which  may  yet  be  conceived  without  a 
 contradiction ;  which  is  the  greatest  ab- 
 surdity in  the  world. 
 
 From  hence  it  follows,  that  the  infinity 
 of  the  self- existent  Being  must  be  an  in- 
 finity of  fulness,  as  well  as  of  immensity  ; 
 that  is,  it  must  not  only  be  v.ithout  limits, 
 but  also  without  diversity,  defect,  or  inter- 
 ruption. It  follows,  likewise,  that  the 
 self-existent  Being  must  be  a  most  simple, 
 unchangeable,  incorruptible  Being,  with- 
 out parts,  figure,  motion,  divisibility,  or 
 any  other  such  properties,  as  we  find  in 
 matter.  For  all  these  things  do  plainly 
 and  necessarily  imply  finiteness  in  their 
 very  notion,  and  are  utterly  inconsistent 
 with  com])lete  infinity. 
 
 As  to  the  particular  manner  in  which 
 the  Supreme  Being  is  infinite,  or  every- 
 where present — this  is  as  im2)ossible  for 
 our  finite  understandings  to  comprehend 
 and  explain,  as  it  is  for  us  to  form  an  ade- 
 quate idea  of  infinity.  The  schoolmen 
 have  presumed  to  assert,  that  the  immen- 
 sity of  God  is  a  ^x;/«/,  as  his  eternity  (they 
 think)  is  an  instant.  But  this  being  alto- 
 gether unintelligible,  we  may  more  safely 
 afiirm,  that  the  Supreme  Cause  is  at  all 
 times  equally  present,  both  in  his  simple 
 essence,  and  by  the  immediate  and  perfect 
 exercise  of  all  his  attributes,  to  every  point 
 of  the  boundless  immensity,  as  if  it  were 
 really  all  but  one  single  point. —  Clarke. 
 
 INITIATED.  In  the  early  ages  of 
 the  Church,  this  term  was  ai)plied  to  those 
 who  had  been  baj)tlzed,  and  admitted  to 
 
 a  knowledge  of  the  higher  mysteries  of 
 the  gospel.  The  discipline  of  the  Church 
 at  that  period,  made  it  necessary  that 
 candidates  for  baptism  should  pass  through 
 a  long  probation,  in  the  character  of  ca- 
 techumens. While  in  this  preparatory 
 state,  they  were  not  allowed  to  be  present 
 at  the  celebration  of  the  eucharist ;  and  in 
 sermons  and  homilies  in  their  presence, 
 the  speaker  either  waived  altogether  any 
 direct  statement  of  the  sublimer  doctrines 
 of  Christianity,  or  alluded  to  them  in  an 
 obscure  manner,  not  intelhgible  to  the 
 uninitiated,  but  sufficiently  clear  to  be 
 interpreted  by  those  for  whom  they  were 
 intended,  viz.  the  baptized  or  initiated. 
 Hence  the  phrase  so  common  in  the  ho- 
 milies of  the  Fathers,  "  the  initiated  under- 
 stand what  is  said." 
 
 INNOCENTS'  DAY.  One  of  the  holy- 
 days  of  the  Church,  Its  design  is  to 
 commemorate  one  of  the  most  thrilling 
 events  in  the  gospel  history.  The  inno- 
 cents were  they  who  suffered  death  under 
 the  cruel  decree  of  Herod,  who  thought, 
 by  a  general  slaughter  of  young  children, 
 to  have  accomplished  the  death  of  the 
 infant  Jesus.  They  are  so  called  from 
 the  Latin  term  innocentes  or  innocui,  harm- 
 less babes,  altogether  incapable  of  defend- 
 ing themselves  from  the  malice  of  their 
 inhuman  persecutors.  The  celebration  of 
 the  martyrdom  of  these  innocents  was 
 very  ancient.  It  occurs  on  the  28th  of 
 December. 
 
 INQUISITION.  A  tribunal,  or  court 
 of  justice,  in  Roman  Catholic  countries, 
 erected  by  the  popes  for  the  examination 
 and  punishment  of  heretics. 
 
 Before  the  conversion  of  the  empu'e  to 
 Christianity,  there  was  no  other  tribunal, 
 for  the  inquu-y  into  matters  of  faith  and 
 doctrine,  but  that  of  the  bishops  ;  nor  any 
 other  way  of  punishing  obstinate  heretics, 
 but  that  of  excommunication.  But  the 
 Boman  emperors,  being  converted  to  Chris- 
 tianity, thought  themselves  obliged  to  inter- 
 pose in  the  punishment  of  crimes  committed 
 against  God,  and  for  this  purpose  made 
 laws,  (which  may  be  found  in  the  Theo- 
 dosian  and  Justinian  codes,)  by  which 
 heretics  were  sentenced  to  banishment  and 
 forfeiture  of  estates.  Thus  there  were 
 tAvo  courts  of  judicature  against  heretics, 
 the  one  spiritual,  the  other  civil.  The 
 ecclesiastical  court  pronounced  upon  the 
 right,  declared  what  was  heresy,  and  ex- 
 communicated heretics.  When  this  was 
 done,  the  civil  courts  undertook  the  prose- 
 cution, and  punished  those,  in  their  per- 
 sons and  fortunes,  who  were  convicted  of 
 heresy. 
 
INQUISITION. 
 
 393 
 
 This  method  lasted  till  after  the  year 
 800.  From  this  time  the  jurisdiction 
 of  the  Western  bishops  over  heretics  was 
 enlaro^ed,  and  they  had  now  authority  both 
 to  convict  and  punish  them,  by  imprison- 
 ment, and  several  acts  of  disci})line,  war- 
 ranted by  the  canons  and  custom :  but 
 they  could  not  execute  the  imperial  laws 
 of  banishment  upon  them.  INIatters  stood 
 thus  until  the  12th  century,  when  the 
 great  growth  and  power  of  heresies  (as 
 they  were  called)  began  to  give  no  small 
 disturbance  to  the  Church.  However,  the 
 popes  could  do  no  more  than  send  legates 
 and  preachers  to  endeavour  the  conversion 
 of  heretics,  particularly  the  Albiyenscs, 
 who  about  this  time  were  the  occasion  of 
 great  disturbances  in  Languedoc.  Hitlier 
 Father  Dominic  and  his  followers  (called 
 from  him  Dominicans)  were  sent  by  Pope 
 Innocent  III.,  with  orders  to  excite  the 
 Catholic  princes  and  people  to  extirpate 
 heretics,  to  inquire  out  their  number  and 
 quality,  and  to  transmit  a  faithful  account 
 thereof  to  Rome.  Hence  they  were  called 
 Inquisitors;  and  this  gave  birth  to  the 
 formidable  tribunal  of  the  Inquisition, 
 which  Avas  received  in  all  Italy,  and  the  do- 
 minions of  Spain,  excepting  the  kingdom 
 of  Naples,  and  the  Loav  Countries,  where 
 Charles  V.,  and  after  him  Philip  II.  of 
 Spain,  endeavouring  to  establish  it,  in  1567, 
 by  the  Duke  of  Alva,  thereby  incurred 
 the  loss  of  the  United  Provinces. 
 
 This  tribunal  takes  cognizance  of  heresy, 
 Judaism,  Mahometanism,  and  polygamy ; 
 and  the  people  stand  in  so  much  fear  of 
 it,  that  parents  deliver  up  their  children, 
 husbands  their  wives,  and  masters  their 
 servants,  to  its  officers,  without  daring  in 
 the  least  to  murmur.  The  prisoners  are 
 shut  up  in  frightful  dungeons,  where  they 
 arc  kept  for  several  months,  till  they  them- 
 selves turn  their  own  accusers,  and  declare 
 the  cause  of  their  imprisonment ;  for  they 
 are  never  confronted  with  witnesses.  Their 
 friends  go  into  mourning,  and  speak  of 
 them  as  dead,  not  daring  to  solicit  their 
 pardon,  lest  they  should  be  brought  in  as 
 accom])lices.  "\Vhen  there  is  no  shadow  of 
 proof  against  the  pretended  criminal,  he 
 is  discharged,  after  a  tedious  imprison- 
 ment, and  the  loss  of  the  greatest  part  of 
 his  effects. 
 
 The  sentence  against  the  prisoners  of 
 the  Inquisition  is  publicly  pronounced, 
 and  with  extraordinary  solemnity.  This 
 is  called  Auto  da  fc,  that  is,  ^c^or  Decree 
 of  Faith.  In  Portugal,  they  erect  a  the- 
 atre, capable  of  holding  3000  persons,  on 
 which  they  place  a  very  rich  altar,  and 
 raise   seats  on   each  side  in  the  form  of 
 
 an  amphitheatre,  where  tlie  criminals  are 
 placed  ;  over  against  whom  is  a  high  chair, 
 M'hither  they  are  called  one  by  one,  to 
 hear  their  doom,  pronounced  by  one  of  the 
 Inquisitors.  The  prisoners  know  their 
 doom  by  the  clothes  tliey  wear  that  day. 
 Those  who  wear  their  own  clothes,  are 
 discharged  upon  payment  of  a  fine.  Those 
 who  have  a  Santo  Benito,  or  straight  yel- 
 low coat  without  sleeves,  charged  with  St. 
 Andrew's  cross,  have  their  lives,  but  for- 
 feit their  effects.  Those  who  have  the 
 resemblance  of  flames,  made  of  red  serge, 
 sewed  upon  their  Santo  Benito,  without  any 
 cross,  are  pardoned,  but  threatened  to  bo 
 burnt,  if  ever  they  relapse.  But  those 
 who,  besides  these  flames,  have  on  their 
 Santo  Benito  their  own  picture,  environed 
 with  figures  of  devils,  are  condemned  to 
 die.  The  Inquisitors,  who  are  ecclesias- 
 tics, do  not  pronounce  the  sentence  of 
 death,  but  form  and  read  an  act,  wherein 
 they  say,  that  the  criminal,  being  con- 
 victed of  such  a  crime  by  his  own  proper 
 confession,  is  delivered  with  much  reluct- 
 ancy  to  the  secular  power,  to  be  punished 
 according  to  his  demerits.  This  writing 
 they  give  to  seven  judges,  who  attend  at 
 the  right  side  of  the  altar.  These  con- 
 demn the  criminal  to  be  first  hanged,  and 
 then  burnt  :  but  Jeivs  are  burnt  alive. 
 The  public  place  for  execution  in  Portu- 
 gal is  called  Roussi,  whither  the  Confra- 
 ternity of  Mercy  attend,  and  pray  for  the 
 prisoner. 
 
 The  Inquisition  of  Goa,  in  the  Indies,  is 
 very  powerful,  the  principal  inquisitor  hav- 
 ing more  respect  showed  him  than  either 
 the  archbishop  or  viceroy.  The  criminals, 
 sentenced  by  this  tribunal  to  die,  are  clad 
 much  after  the  same  manner  as  in  Portu- 
 gal. Such  as  are  convicted  of  magic,  wear 
 paper  caps  in  the  form  of  sugar-loaves, 
 covered  with  flames  and  frightful  figures 
 of  devils.  All  the  criminals  go  in  proces- 
 sion to  a  church  chosen  for  the  ceremony, 
 and  have  each  of  them  a  godfather,  who 
 is  answerable  for  their  forthcoming  after 
 the  ceremony  is  over.  In  this  procession 
 the  criminals  walk  barefooted,  carrying 
 lighted  tapers  in  their  hands  :  the  least 
 guilty  march  foremost.  After  the  last  of 
 them  that  are  to  be  discharged,  comes  one 
 carrying  a  crucifix,  and  followed  by  those 
 who  are  to  die.  The  next  day  after  the 
 execution,  the  pictures  of  the  executed  are 
 carried  to  the  church  of  the  Dominicans. 
 The  head  only  is  represented  surrounded 
 with  firebrands,  and  underneath  is  written 
 the  name,  quality,  and  crime  of  the  person 
 executed. 
 
 The  Inquisition  of  Venice^  consisting  of 
 
396 
 
 INSPIRATION. 
 
 INSTITUTION. 
 
 the  pope's  nuncio  residing  there,  the  pa- 
 triarch of  Venice,  the  father  inquisitor, 
 and  two  senators,  is  nothing  near  so  severe 
 as  those  of  Spain  and  Portugal.  It  does 
 not  hinder  the  Greeks  and  Armenians 
 from  the  exercise  of  their  religion  ;  and  it 
 tolerates  the  Jews,  who  wear  scarlet  caps 
 for  the  sake  of  distinction.  In  fine,  the 
 power  of  this  tribunal  is  so  limited  by  the 
 states,  that,  in  the  university  of  Padua, 
 degrees  are  taken  without  requiring  the 
 candidates  to  make  the  profession  of  faith 
 enjoined  by  the  popes  ;  insomuch  that 
 schismatics,  Jews,  and  those  they  call  he- 
 retics, daily  take  their  degrees  in  law  and 
 physic  there. 
 
 The  Inquisition  of  Rome  is  a  congrega- 
 tion of  twelve  cardinals,  and  some  other 
 officers,  and  the  pope  presides  in  it  in 
 person.  This  is  accounted  the  highest 
 tribunal  in  Rome.  It  began  in  the  time 
 of  Pope  Paul  IV.,  on  occasion  of  the 
 spreading  of  Lutheranism.  The  standard 
 of  the  Inquisition  is  of  red  damask,  on 
 which  is  painted  a  cross,  with  an  olive 
 branch  on  one  side,  and  a  SAVord  on  the 
 other  :  the  motto  in  these  words  of  the 
 73rd  psalm,  Exurge,  Domine,  et  judica 
 causam  meam. 
 
 INSPIRATION.  (See  IIoli/  Ghost.) 
 The  extraordinary  and  supernatural  in^ 
 fluence  of  the  Spirit  of  God  on  the  human 
 mind,  by  which  the  prophets  and  sacred 
 writers  were  qualified  to  receive  and  set 
 forth  Divine  communications,  without  any 
 mixture  of  error.  In  this  sense  the  term 
 occurs  in  2  Tim.  iii.  16.  "  All  Scripture 
 is  given  by  inspiration  of  GoD,"  &c.  (See 
 Scriptures.,  Inspiration  of.) 
 
 The  word  inspiration  also  expresses  that 
 ordinary  operation  of  the  Spirit,  by  which 
 men  are  inwardly  moved  and  excited  both 
 to  will  and  to  do  such  things  as  are  pleas- 
 ing to  God,  and  through  which  all  the 
 powers  of  their  minds  are  elevated,  puri- 
 fied, and  invigorated.  "There  is  a  spirit 
 in  man;  and  the  inspiration  of  the  AL- 
 MIGHTY giveth  them  understanding."  (Job 
 xxxii.  8.)  In  this  latter  sense  the  term 
 and  its  kindred  verb  frequently  appear  in 
 the  offices  of  the  Church ;  as  in  the  peti- 
 tions, "  Grant,  that  by  thy  holy  inspiration 
 we  may  think  those  things  that  are  good  ; " 
 "  Cleanse  the  thoughts  of  our  hearts  by 
 the  inspiration  of  thy  Holy  Spirit ;  "  *'  Be- 
 seeching thee  to  inspire  continually  the 
 universal  Church  with  the  spirit  of  truth, 
 unity,  and  concord  ; "  and 
 
 "  Come,  Holy  Ghost,  our  souls  inspire. 
 
 And  lighten  Avith  celestial  fire;  " 
 "  Visit  our  minds,  into  our  hearts 
 Thy  heavenly  grace  insjnre." 
 
 INSTALLATION.  The  act  of  giving 
 visible  possession  of  his  office  to  a  canon 
 or  prebendary  of  a  cathedral,  by  placing 
 him  in  his  stall.  It  is  also  applied  to  the 
 placing  of  a  bishop  in  his  episcopal  throne 
 in  his  cathedral  church ;  enthronization 
 being  said  to  be  proper  to  archbishops 
 only ;  but  this  appears  a  technical  and 
 unreal  distinction  invented  in  the  middle 
 ages. 
 
 The  installation  of  the  Knights  of  the 
 Garter  is  a  religious  ceremony,  performed 
 in  the  Chapel  of  St.  George,  at  Windsor. 
 (See  Ash  mole' s  Institution  of  the  Order  of 
 the  Garter.)  Those  of  the  Knights  of  the 
 Bath  in  Henry  VII.'s  Chapel  in  West- 
 minster Abbey,  and  of  the  Knights  of  St. 
 Patrick  in  the  Cathedi-al  of  St.  Patrick's 
 in  Dublin,  are,  according  to  the  statutes  of 
 the  orders,  conducted  upon  the  same  model. 
 
 INSTITUTION.  The  act  by  which  the 
 bishop  commits  to  a  clergyman  the  cure 
 of  a  church. 
 
 Canon  40.  "  To  avoid  the  detestable 
 sin  of  simony,  every  archbishop,  bishop,  or 
 other  person  having  authority  to  admit, 
 institute,  or  collate,  to  any  spiritual  or  ec- 
 clesiastical function,  dignity,  or  benefice, 
 shall,  before  every  such  admission,  institu- 
 tion, or  collation,  minister  to  every  person 
 to  be  admitted,  instituted,  or  collated,  the 
 oath  against  simony." 
 
 The  following  papers  are  to  be  sent  to 
 the  bishop  by  the  clergyman,  who  is  to  be 
 instituted  or  collated  : — 
 
 1.  Presentation  to  the  benefice  or  ca- 
 thedi-al  preferment,  duly  stamped  and  exe- 
 cuted by  the  patron  [or  petition,  not  on 
 stamp,  if  the  person  to  be  instituted  happe?is 
 to  he  patron  of  the  henejice~\. 
 
 The  stamp  duty  upon  presentations  is 
 now  regulated  by  the  acts  5  &  6  Vict.  c. 
 79,  and  6  6i:  7  Vict.  c.  72,  and  it  is  an  ad 
 valorem  duty  upon  the  net  yearly  value  of 
 the  preferment  or  benefice,  such  value  to 
 be  ascertained  by  the  certificate  of  the 
 ecclesiastical  commissioners  for  England 
 indorsed  upon  the  instrument  of  presenta- 
 tion. 
 
 The  following  is  the  scale  of  stamp  duty 
 to  which  presentations  are  liable  : — 
 
 AVhere    the    annual    value    is 
 
 under  £300  .         .         .    £5  stamp. 
 
 If  it  amounts  to  £300  and  is 
 less  than  £400    .         .         .10 
 
 If  it  amounts  to  £400  and  is 
 less  than  £500    .         .         .15 
 
 If  it  amounts  to  £500  and  is 
 less  than  £600    .         .         .     20 
 
 and  so  on  ;    an  additional  £5  being  re- 
 quired for  every  £100  annual  value. 
 
INSTITUTION. 
 
 INTENTION. 
 
 397 
 
 In  the  case  of  collations,  and  also  of  in- 
 stitutions proceeding  upon  the  petition  of 
 the  patron,  the  certificate  of  yearly  value 
 must  be  written  upon,  and  the  stamp  af- 
 fixed to,  the  instrument  of  collation,  or  of 
 institution,  respectively. 
 
 The  following  is  the  scale  of  duty  to 
 which  collations  and  institutions  proceed- 
 ing upon  petition  are  liable  : — 
 
 Where    the    annual    value    is 
 
 under  £300         .         .         .    £7  stamp. 
 
 If  it  amounts  to  £300  and  is 
 less  than  £400    .         .         .12 
 
 If  it  amounts  to  £400  and  is 
 less  than  £500    .         .         .17 
 
 If  it  amounts  to  £500  and  is 
 less  than  £600    .  _    .         .22 
 
 and  so  on  ;  an  additional  £5  being  re- 
 quired for  every  £100  annual  value. 
 
 In  order  to  procure  the  certificate  of 
 value  from  the  ecclesiastical  commission- 
 ers, application  should  be  made  by  the 
 secretary  to  the  commissioners,  in  the  fol- 
 lowing form : — ■ 
 
 Application  for  Certijicate  of  the  Value  of 
 a  Living  wider  5^6  Vict.  c.  79,  and  6 
 8f  7  Vict.  c.  72. 
 
 TO    THE    ECCLESIASTICAL    COMMISSIONERS 
 FOR   ENGLAND. 
 
 The  ,  of  ,   in   the    county  of 
 
 ,   and  diocese   of  ,   and   in   the 
 
 patronage  of ,  having  become  vacant 
 
 on  the day  of  ■ last,  by  the 
 
 of  the  Rev. ;  and  the  Rev. being 
 
 about  to  be thereto,  the  ecclesiastical 
 
 commissioners  for  England  are  requested 
 to  certify  the  net  yearly  value  thereof,  ac- 
 cording to  the  provisions  of  the  acts  5  & 
 6  Vict.  c.  79,  and  6  and  7  Vict.  c.  72. 
 
 [Date) . 
 
 [Signature) . 
 
 In  answer  to  this  application,  a  form  of 
 certificate  will  be  sent  from  the  office  of 
 the  ecclesiastical  commissioners,  which  is 
 to  be  indorsed  on  the  instrument  of  pre- 
 sentation, ^'c,  and  then  transmitted  to  the 
 same  office  for  signature ;  after  which,  the 
 presentation,  6cc.  will,  on  its  being  taken 
 to  the  Stamp  Office,  be  properly  stamped. 
 
 2.  Letters  of  orders,  deacon,  and  priest. 
 
 3.  Letters  testimonial  by  three  beneficed 
 clergymen,  in  the  following  form  :— 
 
 To  the  Right  Reverend 
 Bishop  of . 
 
 Lord 
 
 We,  whose  names  are  hereunder  M'rit- 
 ten,  testify  and  make  known,  that  A.  B., 
 clerk,  A.  M.,  [or  other  der/rce,)  presented 
 {or  to  be  collated,  as  the  case  may  be)  to 
 
 the  canonry,  &c.,  &c.,  [or  to  the  rectory  or 
 
 vicarage,  as  the  case  may  he,)  of ,  in 
 
 the  county  of ,  in  your  lordship's  dio- 
 cese, hath  been  personally  known  to  us  for 
 the  space  of  three  years  last  past;  that 
 we  have  had  opportunities  of  observing 
 his  conduct ;  that,  during  the  Avhole  of 
 that  time,  we  verily  believe  that  he  lived 
 piously,  soberly,  and  honestly ;  nor  have 
 Ave  at  any  time  heard  anything  to  the  con- 
 trary thereof;  nor  hath  he  at  any  time,  as 
 far  as  we  know  or  believe,  held,  written, 
 or  taught  anything  contrary  to  the  doc- 
 trine or  discipline  of  the  United  Church  of 
 England  and  Ireland  ;  and,  moreover,  we 
 believe  him  in  our  consciences  to  be,  as  to 
 his  moral  conduct,  a  person  worthy  to  be 
 admitted  to  the  said  canonry,  or  benefice 
 [as  the  case  jnay  be). 
 
 In  witness  whereof  we  have  hereunto  set 
 
 our  hands,  this day  of ,  in  the 
 
 year  of  our  Lord  18 — 
 
 C.  D.   rector  of . 
 
 E.  F.    vicar  of . 
 
 G.  H.  rector  of . 
 
 If  all  the  subscribers  are  not  beneficed  in 
 the  diocese  of  the  bishop  to  whom  the 
 testimonial  is  addressed,  the  counter- 
 signature of  the  bishop  of  the  diocese 
 wherein  their  benefices  are  respectively 
 situate  is  required. 
 
 4.  A  short  statement  of  the  title  of  the 
 patron  in  case  of  a  change  of  patron  since 
 the  last  incumbent  was  presented. 
 
 The  same  subscriptions  and  declarations 
 are  to  be  made,  and  oaths  taken,  as  by  a 
 clergyman  on  being  licensed  to  a  perpetual 
 curacy.     (See  Curacy.) 
 
 If  the  clergyman  presented,  or  to  be 
 collated,  should  be  in  possession  of  other 
 preferment,  it  will  be  necessary  for  him, 
 (if  he  wishes  to  continue  to  hold  a  cathe- 
 dral preferment,  or  a  benefice  with  the 
 cathedral  preferment,  or  benefice  to  which 
 he  has  been  presented,  or  is  to  be  collated,) 
 to  look  to  the  provisions  of  the  act  1  &  2 
 Vict.  c.  106,  sect.  1  to  sect.  14,  before  he 
 is  instituted,  or  collated. 
 
 INTENTION.  Priest's  Intention.  On 
 this  subject  the  following  is  the  eleventh 
 canon  of  the  Council  of  Trent : — "  If  any 
 shall  say  that  there  is  not  required  in  the 
 ministers  while  they  perform  and  confer 
 the  sacraments,  at  least  the  intention  of 
 doing  what  the  Church  does,  let  liim  be 
 accursed." 
 
 This  is  a  monstrous  and  fearful  asser- 
 tion, which  sujiposes  it  to  be  in  the  power 
 of  every  malicious  or  sceptical  priest  to 
 deprive  the  holiest  of  God's  worshippers 
 of  the  grace  which  is  sought  in  the  sacra- 
 
398 
 
 INTERCESSIONS. 
 
 INTERII 
 
 ments.  There  is  mention  of  this  notion 
 in  Pope  Eugenius's  letter  to  the  Arme- 
 nians at  the  Council  of  Florence ;  but  this 
 ■was  the  first  time  that  a  reputed  general 
 council  sanctioned  it.  But  the  Church  of 
 Rome  is  not  content  with  placing  all  re- 
 ceivers of  sacraments  at  the  mercy  of  the 
 priest's  intention ;  and  when  we  know  how 
 many  avowed  infidels  there  have  been 
 found  in  the  ranks  of  her  priesthood,  this 
 alone  (according  to  her  own  theory^  opens 
 a  fearful  door  to  doubt  and  hesitation, 
 affecting  the  validity  of  the  ordinations 
 and  administrations  within  her  pale  since 
 the  Council  of  Trent ;  but  in  the  sacrament 
 of  the  holy  eucharist  she  has  placed  the 
 communicants  at  the  mercy  of  the  baker's 
 and  vintner's  intention,  and  any  malevo- 
 lent tradesman  who  supplies  the  wine  and 
 wafers  to  be  used  in  the  Lord's  supper, 
 has  it  in  its  power,  according  to  their 
 rubrics,  to  deprive  the  communicants  of 
 the  grace  of  the  sacramxcnt.  For,  "  Si 
 panis  non  sit  triticeus,  vel  si  triticeus,  ad- 
 mixtus  sit  granis  alterius  generis  in  tanta 
 quantitate,  ut  non  maneat  panis  triticeus, 
 vel  sit  alioqui  corruptus :  noyi  conjicitur 
 sacr amentum. ^^  "  Si  sit  confectus  de  aqua 
 rosacea,  vel  alterius  distillationis,  dubiiim 
 est  an  conficiatur^  "  Si  vinum  sit  factum 
 penitus  acetum,  vel  penitus  putridum,  vel 
 de  uvis  acerbis  seu  non  maturis  expres- 
 sum  ;  vel  ei  admixtum  tantum  aquse  ut 
 vinum  sit  corruptum,  non  conjicitur  sacra- 
 r)ientum." —  Ruhricce  Generalcs  Missalis 
 Horn. 
 
 INTERCESSIONS.  That  part  of  the 
 Litany  in  which,  having  already  prayed  for 
 ourselves,  we  now  proceed  to  supplicate 
 God's  mercy  for  others.  The  intercessions 
 are  accompanied  by  the  response,  "  We 
 beseech  thee  to  hear  us,  good  Lord." 
 (See  Litayiy.)  The  different  species  of 
 prayer  are  alluded  to  by  St.  Paul,  1  Tim. 
 ii.  1.  "I  exhort,  therefore,  that  first  of  all, 
 supplications,  prayers,  intercessions,  and 
 giving  of  thanks,  be  made  for  all  men." 
 Sti)<JtiQ,  TrpofTtvxac,  tvTev^ng,  evxapi<yTiag. 
 
 INTERCESSOR.  (See  Lord  and  Je- 
 sus.) One  who  pleads  in  behalf  of  another. 
 The  title  is  applied  emphatically  to  our 
 blessed  Lord,  "  who  ever  liveth  to  make 
 intercession  for  us."  The  practice  of  the 
 Romanists  in  investing  angels  and  departed 
 saints  with  the  character  of  intercessors, 
 is  rejected  as  being  unsanctioned  by  Ca- 
 tholic antiquity,  as  resting  on  no  Scriptural 
 authority,  and  as  being  derogatory  to  the 
 dignity  of  our  Redeemer.  (See  Invoca- 
 tion, Saiyits,  Idolatnj.) 
 
 INTERDICT.  An  ecclesiastical  cen- 
 sure, whereby  the  Church  of  Rome  forbids 
 
 the  administration  of  the  sacraments  and 
 the  performance  of  Divine  service  to  a 
 kingdom,  province,  town,  &c.  Some  peo- 
 ple pretend  this  custom  was  introduced  in 
 the  fourth  or  fifth  century ;  but  the  opinion 
 that  it  began  in  the  ninth,  is  much  more 
 probable  :  there  are  some  instances  of  it 
 since  that  age,  and  particularly  Alexander 
 III.,  in  1170,  superciliously  put  the  king- 
 dom of  England  under  an  interdict,  for- 
 bidding the  clergy  to  perform  any  part 
 of  Divine  service  unless  baptism  to  infants, 
 taking  confessions,  and  giving  absolutions 
 to  dying  penitents,  which  was  the  usual 
 restraint  of  an  interdict ;  but  the  succeed- 
 ing popes,  for  reasons  best  known  to  them.- 
 selves,  seldom  make  use  of  it. — Broughton. 
 
 INTERI^I.  {Lat.)  The  name  of  a 
 formulary,  or  confession  of  faith,  obtruded 
 upon  the  Protestants,  after  the  death  of 
 Luther,  by  the  emperor  Charles  V.,  when 
 he  had  defeated  their  forces.  It  was  so 
 called,  because  it  was  only  to  take  place 
 in  the  Interim,  till  a  general  council  should 
 decide  all  the  points  in  question  between 
 the  Protestants  and  Catholics.  The  occa- 
 sion of  it  was  this  :  the  emperor  had  made 
 choice  of  three  divines,  viz.  Julius  Pfiug, 
 bishop  of  Naumberg,  Michael  Helding, 
 titular  bishop  of  Sidon,  and  John  Agricola, 
 preacher  to  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg ; 
 who  di'ew  up  a  project  consisting  of  twenty- 
 six  articles  concerning  the  points  of  re- 
 ligion in  dispute  between  the  Catholics 
 and  Protestants.  The  controverted  points 
 were,  the  state  of  Adam  before  and  after 
 his  fall ;  the  redemption  of  mankind  by 
 Jesus  Christ  ;  the  justification  of  sins ; 
 charity  and  good  works;  the  confidence 
 we  ought  to  have  in  God,  that  our  sins 
 are  remitted ;  the  Church,  and  its  true 
 marks ;  its  power,  authority,  and  ministers ; 
 the  pope  and  bishops ;  the  sacraments ; 
 the  mass ;  the  commemoration  of  saints  ; 
 their  intercession;  and  prayers  for  the 
 dead. 
 
 The  emperor  sent  this  project  to  the 
 pope  for  his  approbation,  which  he  re- 
 fused; whereupon  Charles  V.  published 
 the  imperial  constitution  called  the  Interim, 
 wherein  he  declared,  that  "  it  was  his 
 will,  that  all  his  Catholic  dominions  should, 
 for  the  future,  inviolably  observe  the  cus- 
 toms, statutes,  and  ordinances  of  the  Uni- 
 versal Church ;  and  that  those  who  had 
 separated  themselves  from  it,  should  either 
 reunite  themselves  to  it,  or  at  least  con- 
 form to  this  constitution;  and  that  all 
 should  quietly  expect  the  decisions  of  the 
 general  council."  This  ordinance  was 
 published  in  the  Diet  of  Augsburg,  May 
 15th,    1548.      But    this    device    neither 
 
INTERMEDIATE  STATE. 
 
 INVENTION  OF  THE  HOLY  CROSfS.    399 
 
 pleased  the  pope  nor  the  Protestants  ;  the 
 Lutheran  preachers  openly  declared  they 
 would  not  receive  it,  alleging  that  it  re- 
 established Popery,  Some  chose  rather 
 to  quit  their  chairs  and  livings  than  to  sub- 
 scribe it ;  nor  would  the  Duke  of  Saxony 
 receive  it.  Calvin,  and  several  others, 
 wrote  against  it.  On  the  other  side,  the 
 emperor  was  so  severe  against  those  who 
 refused  to  accept,  that  he  disfranchised 
 the  cities  of  Magdeburg  and  Constance, 
 for  their  opposition. — Brouqliton. 
 
 INTEliMEDIATE  STATE.  A  term 
 made  use  of  to  denote  the  state  of  the  soul 
 between  death  and  the  resurrection.  From 
 the  Scriptures  speaking  frequently  of  the 
 dead  sleeping  in  their  graves,  many  have 
 supposed  that  the  soul  slee})s  till  the  re- 
 surrection, i.  e.  is  in  a  state  of  entire  insen- 
 sibility. But  against  this  opinion,  and  that 
 the  soul,  after  death,  enters  immediately 
 into  a  state  of  conscious  happiness  or 
 misery,  though  not  of  final  reward  or 
 punishment,  the  following  passages  seem  to 
 be  conclusive :  Matt.  xvii.  3  ;  Luke  xxiii. 
 43;  2  Cor.  V.  6;  Phil.  i.  21;  Luke  xvi.  22, 
 23  ;  Rev.  vi.  9.     (See  Hell.) 
 
 INTONATION,  properly  speaking,  the 
 recitation  by  the  chanter,  or  rector  chori, 
 of  the  commencing  words  of  the  psalm  or 
 hymn,  before  the  choir  begins  :  as  is  often 
 practised  in  the  English  choirs,  with  re- 
 spect to  the  Venite,  the  Te  Deum,  the  Ni- 
 cene  Creed,  and  the  Gloria  in  Excelsis. 
 The  intonations  of  the  Gregorian  Psalm 
 chant  are  regularly  prescribed.  Intona- 
 tion is  also  applied  to  the  commencement 
 of  each  verse  of  the  Canticles  (sung  how- 
 ever by  the  choir)  before  the  reciting  note. 
 The  intonations  are  the  same  as  in  the 
 psalm  chants  ;  but  in  the  latter  they  are 
 confined  to  the  first  verse  of  each  psalm. 
 The  word  is  sometimes,  but  inaccurately, 
 used  for  the  chanting  of  the  services  by 
 the  priest  or  minister  in  the  musical  tone 
 proper  to  ch.o\x^.—Jehh. 
 
 INTROIT.  In  the  ancient  Church  a 
 psalm  was  sung  or  chanted  immediately 
 before  the  collect.  Epistle,  and  Gospel.  As 
 this  took  place  while  the  priest  was  enter- 
 ing within  the  septum  or  rails  of  the 
 altar,  it  acquired  the  name  of  Introitus  or 
 Introit. 
 
 Cardinal  Bona  says  that  Introits,  as  used 
 in  the  Roman  Church,  were  introduced 
 by  Pope  Coclestine  (.\.  D.  422 — 432).  The 
 Introit  consists  of  one  or  more  verses, 
 generally  from  the  Psalms,  but  sometimes 
 from  other  parts  of  Scripture.  This  an- 
 them is  the  Introit,  properly  so  called. 
 Then  follows  a  verse  from  the  psalm  (an- 
 ciently a  whole  psalm) :    then  the  Gloria 
 
 Patri,  after  which  the  Introit,  or  com- 
 mencing anthem,  is  repeated.  The  First 
 Prayer  Book  of  Edward  VI.,  (a.  d.  1549,) 
 appoints  special  psalms  to  be  used  as  In- 
 troits on  all  Sundays  and  holy-days.  These 
 diff'er  altogether  from  the  Roman  Introits, 
 both  in  their  selection  and  in  their  con- 
 struction. They  are  entire  psalms,  with 
 the  Gloria  Patri,  and  without  any  verse. 
 The  psalm  or  hjonn  now  universally  sung 
 in  our  churches  before  the  Communion 
 Service,  may  be  said  to  represent  the 
 Introit,  as  Bishop  Bull  observes.  "  In 
 cathedral  or  mother  churches  there  is 
 still  a  decent  distinction  between  the  two 
 services :  for  before  the  priest  goes  to  the 
 altar  to  read  the  second  service,  there  is  a 
 short  but  excellent  anthem  sung,  in  imita- 
 tion whereof  in  the  churches  of  London, 
 and  in  other  greater  churches  of  the  coun- 
 try, instead  of  that  anthem  there  is  part  of 
 a  psalm  sung. — Jebb. 
 
 In  Cliff onVs  Introduction,  (1664,)  it  ap- 
 pears that  a  voluntary  at  that  time  pre- 
 ceded the  Communion  Service  at  St.  Paul's. 
 Shortly  after  this  time,  the  custom  arose, 
 now  universal  in  choirs,  of  singing  a 
 Sanctus  in  this  place  :  St.  Paul's,  West- 
 minster, and  Canterbury  were  the  first  to 
 adopt  it.  In  parish  churches,  a  metrical 
 psalm  is  usually  sung  in  this  place,  and 
 very  properly. 
 
 INVENTION  OF  THE  HOLY  CROSS. 
 A  festival  kept  by  the  Church  of  Rome,  in 
 memory  of  the  day  on  which  they  affirm 
 our  Saviour's  cross  was  found  by  the 
 empress  Helena,  in  the  time  of  Constan- 
 tine  the  Great ;  concerning  which  the  fol- 
 lowing story  has  been  fabricated.  That 
 princess  being  at  Jerusalem,  was  informed 
 that  the  cross  of  our  Saviour  was  buried 
 in  the  sepulchre,  upon  which  she  ordered 
 them  to  dig,  when  they  found  the  cross 
 and  the  nails,  together  with  the  crosses  of 
 the  two  thieves :  but  the  wood  on  which 
 the  inscription  was  made  being  separated 
 from  the  cross,  they  could  not  distinguish 
 that  of  our  Saviour  from  the  others,  till 
 Macarius,  bishop  of  Jerusalem,  found  out 
 the  following  expedient :  he  ordered  a 
 dying  woman  to  be  brought  and  laid  upon 
 the  crosses,  two  of  which  gave  her  no 
 manner  of  relief,  but  being  set  upon  the 
 third,  she  perfectly  recovered  from  the  first 
 moment  she  touched  it,  whereby  they 
 plainly  discovered  that  it  was  the  same 
 on  wliich  our  Saviour  suflcred.  The  em- 
 press built  a  stately  church  in  the  place 
 where  the  cross  Avas  found,  where  she  left 
 some  part  of  the  wood  richly  ornamented, 
 carrying  the  rest  with  the  nails  to  Con- 
 stantinople. 
 
400 
 
 INVESTITURE. 
 
 INVOCATION  OF  SAINTS. 
 
 INVESTITURE.  The  act  of  conferring 
 a  bishopric,  by  delivering  n  pastoral  staff  or 
 ring.  Concerning  the  right  of  investiture, 
 violent  disputes  arose  in  the  middle  ages, 
 between  the  emperors  and  the  popes,  for 
 an  account  of  which  the  reader  is  referred 
 to  Moshcim,  Cent.  XI.  part  ii.  chap.  2,  the 
 account  being  too  long  for  insertion  here. 
 
 INVISIBLES.  A  distinguishing  name 
 given  to  the  disciples  of  Osiander,  Fla- 
 cius  Illyricus,  Swenkfeld,  &c.,  being  so 
 denominated  because  they  denied  the  per- 
 petual visibility  of  the  Church.  Palmer 
 remarks,  that  the  reformed  seem  gener- 
 ally to  have  taught  the  doctrine  of  the 
 visibility  of  the  Church,  until  some  of  them 
 deemed  it  necessary,  in  consequence  of 
 their  controversy  with  the  Komanists,  who 
 asked  them  where  their  Church  existed 
 before  Luther,  to  maintain  that  the  Church 
 might  sometimes  be  invisible.  This  mis- 
 taken view  appears  in  the  Belgic  Confes- 
 sion, and  was  adopted  by  some  of  the 
 Protestants ;  but  it  arose  entirely  from 
 their  error  in  forsaking  the  defensive 
 ground  which  then-  predecessors  had  taken 
 at  first,  and  placing  themselves  in  the 
 false  position  of  claiming  the  exclusive 
 title  of  the  Church  of  Christ,  according 
 to  the  ordinary  signification  of  the  term. 
 Jurieu,  a  minister  of  the  French  Protest- 
 ants, has  shown  this,  and  has  endeavoured 
 to  prove  that  the  Church  of  Christ  is 
 essentially  visible,  and  that  it  never  re- 
 mained obscured,  without  ministry  or  sa- 
 craments, even  in  the  persecutions,  or  in 
 the  time  of  Arianism.  The  same  truth 
 has  been  acknowledged  by  several  deno- 
 minations of  dissenters  in  Britain. 
 
 INVITATOPY.  Some  text  of  Scrip- 
 ture, adapted  and  chosen  for  the  occasion 
 of  the  day,  and  used  in  ancient  times  be- 
 fore the  Venite,  which  is  also  called  the 
 Invitatonj  Psalm. 
 
 The  Invitatories,  as  given  in  the  Poman 
 Breviaries,  are  two  verses,"Adoremus  Domi- 
 num,  qui  fecit  nos,"  and  "  qui  fecit  nos  : " 
 the  former  sung  before  and  after  the  psalm, 
 and  at  the  end  of  the  2nd,  6th,  and  lOth 
 verses  ;  and  the  latter  at  the  end  of  the  4th 
 and  ^\h.—Jehh. 
 
 INVOCATION.  The  commencing  part 
 of  the  Litany,  containing  the  invocation  of 
 each  Person  of  the  Godhead,  severally,  and 
 of  the  Blessed  Trinity  in  Unity.  This  dis- 
 tinction is  made  in  the  margin  of  Nicholls's 
 edition  of  the  Common  Prayer. 
 
 INVOCATION  OF  SAINTS.  The 
 thirty-fifth  canon  of  the  Council  of  Lao- 
 dicea  runs  thus:  "It  does  not  behove 
 Christians  to  leave  the  Church  of  GoD, 
 and  go  and  invoke  angels,  and  make  as- 
 
 semblies ;  which  things  are  forbidden.  If, 
 therefore,  any  one  be  detected  idling  in 
 their  secret  idolatry,  let  him  be  accursed, 
 because  he  has  forsaken  our  Lord  Jesus 
 Christ,  the  Sox  of  God,  and  gone  to  idola- 
 try." This  j)lain  testimony  of  the  fathers  of 
 the  primitive  Church,  against  the  invocation 
 and  worshipping  of  angels,  which  is  de- 
 nounced as  idolatry,  is  not  to  be  set  aside 
 by  all  the  ingenuity  of  the  Poman  writers. 
 — See  their  attempts,  Lahhe  and  Cossart, 
 i.  1526.  The  subtle  distinctions  of  Latria, 
 Dulia,  and  the  rest,  had  not  entered  the 
 imagination  of  Theodoret  when  he  cited 
 this  canon  as  condemning  the  worshipping 
 of  angels,  avvoSog  Iv  AaodiKtia  -jyc;  (^pvyiag 
 vofxti)  KtKivXvKi.  TO  toIq  uyyEXotQ  TTpoaiv )(^tc9ai 
 [Cvmni.  Culoss.  ii.  18);  nor  into  that  of 
 Origen,  who  expressly  says,  that  men  ought 
 not  to  worship  or  adore  the  angels,  for  that 
 all  prayer  and  supplication,  and  interces- 
 sion and  thanksgiving,  should  be  made  to 
 God  alone,  {Contra  Celswn,  v.  §  4,)  and 
 that  right  reason  forbids  the  invocation  of 
 them. — Ibid.  §  5. 
 
 But  in  the  twenty-fifth  session  of  the 
 Popish  Council  of  Trent,  the  synod  thus 
 rules  :  "  Of  the  invocation,  veneration,  and 
 relics  of  the  saints,  and  the  sacred  images, 
 the  holy  synod  commands  the  bishops  and 
 others  who  have  the  office  and  care  of  in- 
 struction, that  according  to  the  custom  of 
 the  Catholic  and  Apostolic  Church,  which 
 has  been  received  from  the  first  ages  of 
 the  Christian  religion,  the  consent  of  the 
 holy  Fathers,  and  the  decrees  of  the  sacred 
 councils,  they  make  it  a  chief  point  dili- 
 gently to  instruct  the  faithful  concerning 
 the  intercession  and  invocation  of  saints, 
 the  honour  of  relics,  and  the  lawful  use  of 
 images,  teaching  them  that  the  saints 
 reigning  together  with  Christ,  offer  to 
 God  their  prayers  for  men ;  that  it  is  good 
 and  useful  to  invoke  them  with  suppli- 
 cation, and,  on  account  of  the  benefits 
 obtained  from  God  through  his  Son  Jesus 
 Christ  our  Lord,  who  alone  is  our  Re- 
 deemer and  Saviour,  to  have  recourse  to 
 their  prayers,  aid,  and  assistance  ;  but  that 
 they  who  deny  that  the  saints  enjoying 
 eternal  happiness  in  heaven  are  to  be  in- 
 voked, or  who  assert  either  that  they  do 
 not  pray  for  men,  or  that  the  invoking 
 them  that  they  may  pray  for  each  of  us, 
 is  idolatry;  or  that  it  is  contrary  to  the 
 word  of  God,  and  opposed  to  the  honour 
 of  the  one  Mediator  between  God  and 
 man ;  or  that  it  is  folly,  either  by  word 
 or  thought,  to  supplicate  them  ^yho  are 
 reigning  in  heaven ;  are  impious  in  their 
 opinions. 
 
 "  Also  that  the  holy  bodies  of  the  holy 
 
INVOCATION  OF  SAINTS. 
 
 IRVINGITES. 
 
 401 
 
 niart}TS  and  others  living  with  CiiiiiST, 
 ■which  were  livinj^  members  of  Christ,  and 
 the  temple  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  arc 
 by  him  to  be  raised  to  eternal  life,  and 
 glorified,  ought  to  be  venerated  by  tlie 
 faithful ;  by  means  of  which  the  fiiithful 
 receive  many  benefits.  So  that  they  who 
 declare  that  veneration  and  honour  are 
 not  due  to  the  relics  of  the  saints,  or  that 
 the  honour  which  the  faithful  pay  to  them 
 and  other  sacred  monuments  is  useless, 
 and  that  it  is  in  vain  to  celebrate  the 
 memory  of  the  saints  for  the  sake  of  ob- 
 taining their  assistance,  are  utterly  to  be 
 condemned,  as  the  Church  already  has 
 condemned  them,  and  does  so  at  the  pre- 
 sent time. 
 
 "  Moreover,  that  the  images  of  Christ, 
 of  the  Virgin  Mother  of  GoD,  and  other 
 saints,  are  to  be  especially  had  and  retained 
 in  the  churches;  and  due  honour  and 
 veneration  to  be  given  to  them,  not  be- 
 cause it  is  supposed  that  there  is  any 
 divinity  or  virtue  in  them  on  account  of 
 which  they  are  to  be  worshipped,  nor 
 because  anything  is  to  be  asked  of  them, 
 nor  that  confidence  is  to  be  placed  in 
 images,  as  of  old  was  done  by  the  heathens, 
 who  placed  their  hope  in  idols,  but  because 
 the  honour  which  is  shown  to  them  is 
 referred  to  the  prototypes  which  they  re- 
 present ;  so  that  by  the  images  which  vre 
 kiss,  and  before  which  we  uncover  our 
 heads  and  fall  down,  we  worship  Christ, 
 and  venerate  the  saints,  whose  likeness  they 
 bear.  That  is  what  has  been  sanctioned 
 by  the  decrees  of  the  councils  against  the 
 opposers  of  images,  especially  those  of  the 
 second  Nicene  Synod. 
 
 "  But  let  the  bishops  diligently  teach  that 
 by  stories  of  the  mysteries  of  our  redemp- 
 tion, expressed  in  pictures  or  other  repre- 
 sentations, the  people  are  taught  and  con- 
 fu-med  in  commemorating  and  carefully 
 bearing  in  mind  the  articles  of  faith,  as 
 also  that  great  advantage  is  derived  from 
 all  the  sacred  images,  not  only  because 
 the  people  are  thereby  reminded  of  the 
 benefits  and  gifts  which  Christ  has  con- 
 ferred upon  them,  but  also  because  the 
 miracles  of  God  by  the  saints,  and  their 
 wholesome  examples,  are  submitted  to  the 
 eyes  of  the  faithful,  that  they  may  give 
 thanks  to  God  for  them,  and  dispose  their 
 lives  and  manners  in  imitation  of  the 
 saints ;  and  may  be  excited  to  adore  and 
 love  God,  and  to  cultivate  religion. 
 
 "  Canon.  If  any  shall  teach  or  think 
 contrary  to  these  decrees,  let  him  be  ac- 
 cursed." 
 
 The  first  council  which  decreed  this 
 invocation  and  intercession,  is  denounced 
 2  D 
 
 by  the  Romanists  themselves  as  scliism- 
 atical  and  heretical ;  it  was  the  Coun- 
 cil at  Constantinople,  under  Constantino 
 Copronymus.  Nor  have  all  the  researches 
 of  the  ]lomish  advocates  availed  to  ad- 
 duce from  the  early  ages  one  single 
 writer,  layman  or  ecclesiastic,  who  has 
 enjoined  this  practice  as  a  duty.  All  that 
 they  have  succeeded  in  shoAving  is,  that  in 
 the  course  of  the  first  five  centuries  several 
 individual  writers  are  to  be  found  who 
 commend  the  practice  as  useful.  Against 
 these  we  Avill  cite  the  following ;  and  from 
 a  comparison  of  the  passages  cited  on  both 
 sides,  it  will  be  clear  that  although,  not- 
 withstanding the  reproof  of  the  apostle, 
 (Col.  ii.  18,)  the  invocation  of  angels,  and 
 afterwards  of  saints,  obtained  in  some 
 places  in  the  Christian  Church,  it  was  al- 
 ways an  open  point  which  men  were  free 
 to  reject  or  not,  as  they  might  think  fit ; 
 and  that,  therefore,  both  the  Council  of 
 Copronymus  in  the  eighth  century,  and 
 the  Council  of  Trent  in  the  sixteenth,  were 
 violating  ecclesiastical  tradition,  when  by 
 their  anathemas  they  sought  to  abridge 
 Christian  liberty  by  confirming  a  corrupt 
 and  foolish  custom ;  especially  when  the 
 caution  of  the  apostle  Paul,  and  the  decree 
 of  the  Council  of  Laodicea,  are  taken  into 
 consideration.  It  is  a  remarkable  thing 
 that,  among  all  the  liturgies  which  Messrs. 
 Kirke  and  Berrington  have  cited  in  their 
 volume,  entitled,  "  The  Faith  of  the  Ca- 
 tholics," Lond.  1830,  amounting  to  eleven, 
 only  one  is  to  be  found,  and  that  of  the 
 Nestorian  heretics,  containing  an  invoca- 
 tion to  a  saint  for  intercession: — thus 
 showing  how  wide  a  distinction  is  to  be 
 drawn  between  the  excited  expressions  of 
 individual  writers,  and  the  authorized 
 practice  of  the  Church.  All  the  other 
 liturgies  do  no  more  than  the  Roman  canon 
 of  the  mass  ;  viz.  1st,  assume,  generally, 
 that  the  saints  departed  pray  for  the  saints 
 militant ;  and,  2ndly,  pray  to  God  to  hear 
 their  intercessions.  This  is  no  more  tan- 
 tamount to  an  invocation  of  the  saints, 
 than  a  ])rayer  to  God  for  the  assistance  of 
 the  angels  would  be  tantamount  to  a  prayer 
 to  the  angels  themselves. — Perceval. 
 IRELAND.  (See  Church  of  Ireland) 
 IRVINGITES.  The  followers  of  Ed- 
 ward Irving,  a  minister  of  the  Scottish 
 establishment,  who  Avas  born  in  1792,  and 
 died  in  1834.  In  1822,  he  Avas  appointed 
 to  a  Scotch  prcshytcrian  congregation,  and 
 for  some  years  officiated  in  a  chapel  Avith 
 great  applause,  but  Avas  at  length  deposed 
 from  his  ministry  by  the  presbytery,  for 
 holding  an  aAvful  heresy  concerning  our 
 blessed  Lord,  Avhose  nature  he  considered 
 
402 
 
 lliVINGITES. 
 
 as  peccable,  or  capable  of  sin.  He  still 
 continued,  however,  to  act  as  minister  of  a 
 congregation  in  London.  Both  in  Scotland 
 and  in  England  he  had  many  followers  ;  and 
 since  his  death  Irvingism  has  found  its 
 way  into  Germany  and  other  foreign  coun- 
 tries. The  first  form  which  his  party  as- 
 sumed was  connected  with  certain  notions 
 concerning  the  millennium,  and  the  imme- 
 diately impending  advent  of  our  blessed 
 Lord:  and  presently  after,  as  precursors 
 of  the  expected  event,  miraculous  gifts  of 
 tongues,  of  prophecy,  of  healing,  and  even 
 of  raising  the  dead,  were  pretended  to  by 
 his  followers  ;  though  L'ving  himself  never 
 pretended  to  those  more  miraculous  en- 
 dowments. Superadded  to  these  notions, 
 was  a  singularly  constructed  hierarchy,  of 
 apostles,  angels,  &c.  They  affect  the  name 
 of  Apostolicals. 
 
 The  Irvingites  call  themselves  The  Ca- 
 tholic and  Apostolic  Church  ;  and  the  fol- 
 lowing sketch  of  the  denomination  Mas 
 supplied  by  a  member  to  Mr.  Horace 
 Mann,  and  printed  by  him  in  the  Census 
 Report  of  1851. 
 
 "  The  body  to  which  this  name  is  applied 
 make  no  exclusive  claim  to  it :  they  sim- 
 ply object  to  be  called  by  any  other.  They 
 acknowledge  it  to  be  the  common  title  of 
 the  one  Church  baptized  into  Christ,  which 
 has  existed  in  all  ages,  and  of  which  they 
 claim  to  be  members.  They  have  always 
 protested  against  the  application  to  them 
 of  the  term  '  Irvingites  ;'  which  ap])ellation 
 they  consider  to  be  untrue  and  offensive, 
 though  derived  from  one  whom,  when 
 living,  they  held  in  high  regard  as  a  de- 
 voted minister  of  Christ. 
 
 "  They  do  not  profess  to  be,  and  refuse 
 to  acknowledge  that  they  are,  separatists 
 from  the  Church  established  or  dominant 
 in  the  land  of  their  habitation,  or  from  the 
 general  body  of  Christians  therein.  They 
 recognise  the  continuance  of  the  Church 
 from  the  days  of  the  first  apostles,  and  of 
 three  orders  of  bishops,  priests,  and  dea- 
 cons, by  succession  from  the  apostles. 
 They  justify  their  meeting  in  separate  con- 
 gregations from  the  charge  of  schism,  on 
 the  ground  of  the  same  being  permitted 
 and  authorized  by  an  ordinance  of  para- 
 mount authority,  which  they  believe  God 
 has  restored  for  the  benefit  of  the  whole 
 Church.  And  so  far  from  professing  to  be 
 another  sect  in  addition  to  the  numerous 
 sects  already  dividing  the  Church,  or  to  be 
 '  the  One  Church,'  to  the  exclusion  of  all 
 other  bodies,  they  believe  that  their  spe- 
 cial mission  is  to  re-unite  the  scattered 
 members  of  the  one  body  of  Christ. 
 
 "  The  only  standards  of  faith  which  thev 
 
 recognise  are  the  three  creeds  of  the  Ca- 
 tholic Church — the  Apostles'  Ci*eed,  the 
 Nicene  or  Constantinopolitan  Creed,  and 
 tliat  called  the  Creed  of  St.  Athanasius, 
 The  speciality  of  their  religious  belief, 
 whereby  they  are  distinguished  from  other 
 Christian  communities,  stands  in  this  :  that 
 they  hold  apostles,  prophets,  evangelists, 
 and  pastors,  to  be  abiding  ministries  in  the 
 Church,  and  that  these  ministries,  together 
 with  the  power  and  gifts  of  the  Holy 
 Ghost,  dispensed  and  distributed  among 
 her  members,  are  necessary  for  preparing 
 and  perfecting  the  Church  for  the  second 
 advent  of  the  Lord ;  and  that  suprem.e 
 rule  in  the  Church  ought  to  be  exercised, 
 as  at  the  first,  by  twelve  apostles,  not 
 elected  or  ordained  by  men,  but  called  and 
 sent  forth  immediately  by  God. 
 
 "  The  congregations  which  have  been 
 authorized  as  above  stated,  are  placed  un- 
 der the  pastoral  rule  of  angels  or  bishops, 
 with  whom  are  associated,  in  the  work  of 
 the  ministry,  priests  and  deacons.  The 
 deacons  are  a  distinct  and  separate  order 
 of  ministers,  taken  from  the  midst  of,  and 
 chosen  by,  the  respective  congregations  in 
 which  they  are  to  serve,  and  are  ordained 
 either  by  apostles  or  by  angels  receiving 
 commission  thereunto.  The  priests  are 
 first  called  to  their  office  by  the  word 
 through  the  prophets,  ("  no  man  taking 
 this  honour  to  himself,")  and  then  ordained 
 by  apostles  ;  and  from  among  the  priests, 
 by  a  like  call  and  ordination,  are  the  angels 
 set  in  their  places. 
 
 "  With  respect  to  the  times  of  worship, 
 the  holy  eucharist  is  celebrated,  and  the 
 communion  is  administered,  every  Lord's 
 day,  and  more  or  less  frequently  during 
 the  week,  according  to  the  number  of 
 priests  in  each  particular  congregation ; 
 and,  where  the  congregations  are  large,  the 
 first  and  last  hours  of  every  day,  reckoning 
 from  6  A.  M.  to  6  p.  M.,  are  appointed  for 
 ])ivine  worship  ;  and,  if  there  be  a  sufficient 
 number  of  ministers,  there  are,  in  addition, 
 prayers  daily  at  9  A.  M.  and  3  P.  M.,  with 
 other  services  for  the  more  special  object 
 of  teaching  and  preaching. 
 
 "  In  the  forms  of  worship  observed,  the 
 prayers  and  other  devotions  to  be  found 
 in  the  principal  liturgies  of  the  Christian 
 Church  are  introduced  by  preference,  wher- 
 ever appropriate ;  and  in  all  their  services 
 the  bishops  and  clergy  of  the  Catholic 
 Church,  and  all  Christian  kings,  princes, 
 and  governors,  are  remembered  before  God. 
 It  may  also  be  observed,  that  in  their  ritual 
 observances  and  offices  of  worship  external 
 and  material  things  have  their  place.  They 
 contend  that,  as  through  the  washing  of 
 
ISAIAH,  THE  PllOPHECY  OF 
 
 ITALIC  VERSION. 
 
 403 
 
 water  men  are  admitted  into  the  Christian 
 covenant,  and  as  bread  and  wine  duly  con- 
 secrated are  ordained  to  be  used  not  merely 
 for  spiritual  food,  but  for  purposes  of  sacra- 
 mental and  symbolic  agency,  so  also  that 
 the  use  of  other  material  tilings,  such  as 
 oil,  lights,  incense,  cSjc,  as  symbols  and  ex- 
 ponents of  spiritual  realities,  belongs  to 
 the  dispensation  of  the  gospel. 
 
 "  Besides  free-will  offerings,  the  tenth  of 
 their  increase,  including  income  of  every 
 description,  is  brought  up  to  the  Lord,  (it 
 being  regarded  as  a  sacred  duty  that  tithe 
 should  be  dedicated  to  his  service  alone,) 
 and  is  apportioned  among  those  who  are 
 separated  to  the  ministry. 
 
 "  In  England  there  are  about  30  con- 
 gregations, comprising  nearly  6000  com- 
 municants;  and  the  number  is  gradually 
 on  the  increase.  There  are  also  congrega- 
 tions in  Scotland  and  Ireland,  a  consider- 
 able number  in  Germany,  and  several  in 
 France,  Switzerland,  and  America." 
 
 Of  late  years,  it  is  said,  this  denomination 
 has  made  considerable  progress,  so  that  from 
 1846  to  1851  the  number  of  communicants 
 in  England  has  increased  by  a  third,  while 
 great  success  has  been  achieved  on  the 
 continent  and  in  America.  Ileturns  from 
 32  chapels  (chiefly  in  the  southern  counties 
 of  England)  have  been  furnished  to  the 
 Census  Office.  These  contained  (allowing 
 for  one  chapel  for  which  the  sittings  are 
 not  mentioned)  accommodation  for  7437 
 persons.  The  attendance,  on  the  Census- 
 Sunday,  was,  (making  an  estimated  addi- 
 tion for  two  chapels  with  regard  to  which 
 no  information  was  received,)  3Iorning, 
 3176  ;  Afternoon,  1659  ;  Eveninq,  2707. 
 
 ISAIAH,  THE  PROPHECY  OF.  A 
 canonical  book  of  the  Old  Testament. 
 Isaiah  is  the  first  of  the  four  greater  pro- 
 phets, the  other  three  being  Jeremiah, 
 Ezekiel,  and  Daniel.  He  was  of  royal 
 blood,  his  father  Amos  being  brother  to 
 Azariah,  king  of  Judah.  He  prophesied 
 from  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Uzziah,  to  the 
 time  of  ]\Ianasseh ;  by  whose  order,  ac- 
 cording to  a  Jewish  tradition,  he  was  sawn 
 asunder  with  a  wooden  saAv.  He  delivered 
 his  predictions  under  the  reigns  of  Uzziah, 
 Jotham,  Ahaz,  and  Hezekiah.  The  first 
 five  chapters  of  his  projihccy  relate  to  the 
 reign  of  Uzziah ;  the  vision  of  the  sixth 
 chapter  happened  in  the  time  of  Jotham ; 
 the  next  chapters,  to  the  fifteenth,  include 
 his  prophecies  under  the  reign  of  Ahaz  ; 
 and  those  that  ha])])ened  under  the  reigns 
 of  Hezekiah  and  Manasseh  are  related  in 
 the  next  chapters,  to  the  end. 
 
 The  style  of  this  prophet  is  noble,  sub- 
 lime, and  florid.  Grotius  calls  him  the 
 2  D  2 
 
 Demosthenes  of  the  Hebrews.  He  had 
 the  advantage  above  the  other  prophets 
 of  improving  his  diction  by  conversing 
 with  men  of  the  greatest  parts  and  elocu- 
 tion. This  added  a  gravity,  force,  and 
 vehemence  to  what  he  said.  He  imparti- 
 ally reproved  the  vices  and  disorders  of 
 the  age  he  lived  in,  and  openly  displayed 
 the  judgments  of  God,  which  were  hang- 
 ing over  the  Jewish  nation  ;  at  the  same 
 time  denouncing  vengeance  on  those  fo- 
 reign nations,  which  were  instrumental  in 
 inflicting  those  judgments,  viz.  the  Assy- 
 rians, Egyptians,  Ethiopians,  Moabitcs, 
 Edomites,  Tyrians,  and  Arabians.  He 
 clearly  foretold  the  deliverance  of  the  Jews 
 from  their  captivity  in  Babylon,  by  the 
 hand  of  Cyrus  king  of  Persia ;  and  this  he 
 expressly  mentioned  an  hundred  years  be- 
 fore it  came  to  pass.  But  the  most  re- 
 markable of  his  predictions  are  those  con- 
 cerning the  Messiah.  He,  in  plain  terms, 
 foretold,  not  only  the  coming  of  ClliiIST 
 in  the  flesh,  but  all  the  great  and  memor- 
 able circumstances  of  his  life  and  death. 
 Ho  speaks,  says  St.  Jerome,  rather  of 
 things  past  than  to  come  ;  and  he  may 
 rather  be  called  an  Evangelist,  than  a  Pro- 
 phet. 
 
 Besides  the  prophecies  of  Isaiah  still  ex- 
 tant, he  wrote  a  book  concerning  the  ac- 
 tions of  Uzziah,  cited  in  the  Chronicles ; 
 but  it  is  now  lost.  Origen,  Epiphanius, 
 and  St.  Jerome  speak  of  another  book, 
 called  "  The  Ascension  of  Isaiah."  Some 
 of  the  Jews  ascribe  to  him  the  Proverbs, 
 Ecclesiastes,  Solomon's  Song,  and  the  Book 
 of  Job. 
 
 ITALIC  VERSION.  The  old  Italic 
 Version,  or  Vetus  Itala,  is  the  name  usually 
 given  to  that  translation  of  the  sacred 
 Scriptures  into  the  Lathi  language,  which 
 was  generally  used  until  the  time  of  St. 
 Jerome,  being  distinguished  for  its  clear- 
 ness and  fidelity  among  the  many  versions 
 then  existing.  It  was  however  translatea 
 from  the  Greek  in  the  Old  Testament,  as 
 well  as  the  New ;  and  is  supposed  to  have 
 been  executed  in  the  early  part  of  the  2nd 
 century.  St.  Jerome,  dissatisfied  with  the 
 ruggedncss  and  imperfections  of  the  old 
 Italic,  first  commenced  a  revision  of  it, 
 which,  however,  he  did  not  com])lete  ;  and 
 afterwards  made  a  new  translation,  which 
 at  first  gradually,  but  at  length  universally, 
 obtained  in  the  Latin  Church,  under  the 
 name  of  the  Vnhjatc.  Of  the  old  Italic 
 Version,  the  Psalter  and  Book  of  Job,  cor- 
 rected by  Jerome,  remain ;  and  are  pub- 
 lished in  the  Benedictine  edition  of  St. 
 Jerome's  Works.  The  apocryphal  books 
 of  Baruch,  Ecclesiasticus,  Wi-sdom,  the  two 
 
404 
 
 JACOBITES. 
 
 JANSENISTS. 
 
 Books  of  Maccabees,  and  perhaps,  as  may 
 he  collected  from  Dr.  Hody,  the  remaining 
 chapters  of  Esther,  and  the  Song  of  the 
 Three  Children,  also  belong  to  this  transla- 
 tion. (See  VnU/ate  and  Fsalter.)  Consult 
 Walto)i*6  Proleijomena,  and  Hodins  de  Bib- 
 Uorian  textihiis  origintdihus,  (Avho  corrects 
 Walton  in  one  of  his  statements,)  for  a  full 
 account  of  this  version. 
 
 JACOBITES,  or  JACOBINS.  Eastern 
 Christians,  so  denominated  from  Jacob,  a 
 Syrian,  the  disciple  of  Eutyches  and  Dios- 
 corus,  Avhose  heresy  he  spread  so  much  in 
 Asia  and  Africa,  in  the  6th  century,  that 
 at  last,  in  the  7th,  the  different  sects  of  the 
 Eutychians  were  SMallowed  up  by  that  of 
 the  Jacobites,  which  also  comprehended  all 
 the  Monophysites  of  the  East,  i.  e.  such  as 
 acknowledged  only  one  nature  in  Christ. 
 Their  Asian  patriarch  resides  at  Caramit, 
 in  Mesopotamia  ;  Alexandria  is  the  see  of 
 the  African  one,  and  he  follows  the  errors 
 of  Dioscorus  and  the  Cophti.  M.  Simon 
 relates  that  under  the  name  of  Jacobins 
 must  be  included  all  the  Monophysites  of 
 the  East,  whether  Armenians,  Cophti,  or 
 Abyssines,  acknowledging  but  one  nature 
 in  Christ  ;  he  adds,  the  number  of  the 
 Jacobins,  properly  so  called,  is  but  small, 
 there  not  being  above  thirty  or  forty  thou- 
 sand families  of  them,  which  principally 
 inhabit  S)Tia  and  Mesopotamia :  they  are 
 divided  among  themselves,  one  part  em- 
 bracing, and  the  other  disowning,  the  com- 
 munion of  the  Church  of  Home.  These 
 last  are  not  all  united,  having  two  opposite 
 patriarchs,  one  at  Caramit,  and  the  other 
 at  Dorzapharan ;  besides  these  two,  he 
 says,  there  is  one  of  the  same  opinion  with 
 the  Latins,  residing  at  Aleppo. 
 
 JAMES'S,  ST.,  DAY,  {July  2bth,)  the 
 day  on  which  the  Church  celebrates  the 
 memory  of  the  apostle  James  the  Great, 
 or  the  Elder.  He  was  one  of  the  sons  of 
 Zebedee,  and  brother  of  St.  John.  He 
 was  the  first  of  the  apostles  who  won  the 
 crown  of  martyrdom.     (Acts  xii.  2.) 
 
 JAMES'S,  ST.,  GENERAL  EPISTLE. 
 A  canonical  book  of  the  New  Testament. 
 It  was  written  by  St.  James  the  Less,  called 
 also  the  Lord's  brother ;  who  was  chosen 
 by  the  apostles  bishop  of  Jerusalem.  The 
 date  of  this  Epistle  is  placed  by  Dr.  Mills 
 in,  or  just  before,  the  year  60 ;  two  years 
 after  which  the  writer  suifered  martyrdom, 
 under  the  high  priesthood  of  Ananus,  and 
 procuratorship  of  Albinus. 
 
 This  general  Epistle  is  addressed  partly 
 to  the  infidel,  and  partly  to  the  believing 
 Jews.  The  writer's  design  was  to  correct 
 the  errors,  soften  the  ungoverned  zeal,  and 
 
 refoi-m  the  indecent  behaviour,  of  the 
 former;  and  to  comfort  the  latter  under 
 the  hardships  they  then  did,  or  shortly 
 were  to  suff'er,  for  the  sake  of  Christianity. 
 It  is  directed  to  the  Jews  and  Jewish  con- 
 verts of  the  dispersion,  but  no  doubt  was 
 calculated  for  the  improvement  likewise  of 
 those  JcAvs,  over  Avhom  the  apostle  pre- 
 sided in  the  special  character  of  their 
 bishop. 
 
 This  Epistle  is  the  first  of  the  Catholic 
 or  General  Epistles,  in  the  canon  of  Scrip- 
 ture ;  which  are  so  called,  because  they 
 were  written,  not  to  one,  but  to  several 
 Christian  Churches. 
 
 JANSENISTS,  in  France,  are  those 
 who  follow  the  opinions  of  Jansenius,  a 
 doctor  of  divinity  of  the  university  of 
 Louvain,  and  bishop  of  Ypres.  In  the 
 year  1640,  the  two  universities  of  Louvain 
 and  Douay  thought  fit  to  condemn  the 
 loose  doctrine  of  the  Jesuits,  particularly 
 Father  Molina  and  Father  Leonard  Cel- 
 sus,  concerning  grace  and  predestination. 
 This  having  set  the  controversy  on  foot, 
 Jansenius  opposed  to  the  doctrine  of  the 
 Jesuits  the  sentiments  of  St.  Augustine, 
 and  wrote  a  treatise  upon  grace,  which  he 
 entitled  Aiu/ustmus.  The  treatise  Avas  at- 
 tacked by  the  Jesuits,  who  accused  Jan- 
 senius of  maintaining  dangerous  and  he- 
 retical opinions :  nor  did  they  stop  here, 
 but  obtained  of  Pope  Urban  VIII.,  in 
 1642,  a  formal  condemnation  of  Jansenius's 
 treatise.  The  partisans  of  Jansenius  gave 
 out,  that  this  bull  was  spurious,  and  com- 
 posed by  a  person  entirely  devoted  to  the 
 Jesuits. 
 
 After  the  death  of  Urban  VIII.,  the 
 affair  of  Jansenism  began  to  be  more 
 warmly  controverted,  and  gave  birth  to 
 an  infinite  number  of  polemical  writings 
 concerning  Grace.  What  occasioned  some 
 mirth  in  these  disputes  was,  the  titles 
 which  each  party  gave  to  their  writings. 
 One  writer  published  The  Torch  of  St. 
 Aiujustine ;  another  found  Snuffers  for  St. 
 Aiigustine^s  Torch.  F.  Veron  composed  A 
 Gag  for  the  Jansem'sts  ;  and  the  like.  In 
 the  year  1650,  sixty-eight  bishops  of 
 France  subscribed  a  letter  to  Pope  Inno- 
 cent X.,  to  obtain  of  him  an  inquiry  into, 
 and  condemnation  of,  the  five  famous  pro- 
 positions which  follow,  extracted  from 
 Jansenius's  A ugusthius : — 
 
 I.  Some  of  God's  commandm^ents  are 
 impossible  to  be  kept  by  the  righteous, 
 even  though  they  are  willing  to  observe 
 them. 
 
 II.  A  man  doth  never  resist  inward 
 grace,  in  the  state  of  fallen  nature. 
 
 III.  In  order  to  mei-it,  or  not  merit,  it 
 
JANUARY,  THIRTIETH  OF. 
 
 JEREMIAH,  THE  PROrilECY  OF.  405 
 
 is  not  necessary  that  a  man  sliould  liave 
 a  liberty  free  from  necessity.  It  is  suffi- 
 cient that  he  hath  a  liberty  free  from  re- 
 straint. 
 
 IV.  The  Semi-Pcla</ians  were  heretics, 
 because  they  asserted  the  necessity  of  an 
 inward  preventing  fz:racc  for  every  action. 
 
 V.  It  is  a  Sctni-Pehtgian  opinion  to  say, 
 that  Jesus  Christ  died  for  all  mankind, 
 without  exception. 
 
 In  the  year  1652,  the  pope  appointed  a 
 congregation  for  examining  into  the  matter 
 relating  to  Grace.  In  this  congregation 
 Jansenius  was  condemned,  and  the  bull 
 of  condemnation  published,  May  31,  1653. 
 After  its  publication  at  Paris,  the  pulpits 
 were  filled  with  violent  outcries  and  alarms 
 against  the  heresy  of  the  Jansenists.  The 
 year  1656  produced  the  famous  "  Provin- 
 cial Letters  "  of  M.  Pascal,  under  the  name 
 of  Jjouis  de  3Iorifa/te,  in  defence  of  3fes- 
 sienrs  de  Fort  Hoi/al,  who  were  looked 
 upon  as  the  bulwark  of  Jansenism.  The 
 same  year.  Pope  Alexander  VII.  issued 
 another  bull,  in  which  he  condemned  the 
 five  propositions  of  Jansenius.  The  Jan- 
 senists affirm  that  the  five  condemned  pro- 
 positions are  not  to  be  found  in  Jansenius's 
 treatise  upon  Grace,  but  that  some  enemies 
 of  Jansenius,  having  caused  them  to  be 
 printed  on  a  sheet,  inserted  them  in  a 
 book,  and  thereby  deceived  the  pope. 
 
 Among  the  enemies  of  the  Jansenists 
 Was  a  certain  sect  of  fanatics,  called  Bro- 
 thers of  the  Sodality  of  the  blessed  Saei'a- 
 inent.  They  sprung  up  at  Caen,  in  1659, 
 and  gave  out  that  their  smell  was  so  nice, 
 that  they  could  distinguish  a  Jansenist  by 
 the  very  scent,  and  that  all  the  clergy  in 
 that  city,  except  two,  were  Jansenists. 
 
 At  last  Clement  XI.  put  an  end  to  the 
 disputes  about  Jansenism  by  his  consti- 
 tution of  July  17,  1705;  in  which,  after 
 having  recited  the  constitutions  of  his 
 predecessors  in  relation  to  this  affair,  he 
 declares,  that,  to  pay  a  proper  obedience 
 to  the  papal  constitutions  concernimj  the 
 preseyit  f/iiestion,  it  is  necessary  to  receive 
 them  icith  a  respectful  silence.  The  clergy 
 assembled  at  Paris  approved  and  accepted 
 this  bull,  on  the  21st  of  August,  the  same 
 year;  and  no  one  dared  to  oppose  it. 
 This  is  the  famous  bull  Uniycnitus,  so 
 called  from  its  beginning  with  the  words, 
 Uni(fe7iitus  Dei  Fdius. — Brouyhton. 
 
 Jansenism  still  exists  in  Holland,  where 
 the  archbishop  of  Utrecht  presides  over 
 the  communion. 
 
 JANUARY,  TIIIRTIETII  OF.  (See 
 JFonns  of  Prayer.) 
 
 JEHOVAH.  One  of  the  names  given 
 in   Scripture  to  Almighty  God,  and  pecu- 
 
 liar to  him,  signifying  the  Being  who  is 
 self-existent,  and  gives  existence  to  others. 
 
 The  name  is  also  given  to  our  blessed 
 Saviour,  and  is  a  proof  of  his  Godhead. 
 (Com])are  Isaiah  xl.  3,  with  Matt.  iii.  3, 
 and  Isaiah  vi.,  with  John  xii.  41.)  The 
 Jews  had  so  great  a  veneration  for  this 
 name,  that  they  left  off  the  custom  of  pro- 
 nouncing it,  whereby  its  true  proiumcia- 
 tion  was  forgotten.  It  is  called  the  Tetra- 
 grammaton,  (Ttrpaypa/i/iorov,)  or  name  of 
 four  letters,  and  containing  in  itself  the 
 past  and  future  tenses,  as  well  as  the  pre- 
 sent participle,  and  signifies.  He  who  tvaSj 
 is,  and  shall  be ;  i.  e.  the  Eternal,  the  Un- 
 changeable, the  Faithful. 
 
 The  same  veneration  seems  to  have  ac- 
 tuated most  Christian  communities  in  their 
 translation  of  the  word,  rendered  in  Greek 
 by  Kiipwg,  in  Latin  by  Dominies,  and  in 
 English  by  Lord.  The  word  Jehovah 
 occurs  but  four  times  simply,  and  five 
 times  in  composition,  in  our  authorized 
 translation. 
 
 JEREMIAH,  THE  PROPHECY  OF. 
 A  canonical  book  of  the  Old  Testament. 
 This  divine  writer  was  of  the  race  of  the 
 priests,  the  son  of  Hilkiah  of  Anathoth, 
 in  the  tribe  of  Benjamin.  He  was  called 
 to  the  prophetic  office,  when  he  was 
 very  young,  about  the  thirteenth  year  of 
 Josiah,  and  continued  in  the  discharge 
 of  it  above  forty  years.  He  was  not  car- 
 ried captive  to  Babylon  with  the  other 
 Jews,  but  remained  in  Judea,  to  lament 
 the  desolation  of  his  country.  He  was 
 afterwards  a  prisoner  in  Egypt,  with  his 
 disciple  Baruch,  where  it  is  supposed  he 
 died  in  a  very  advanced  age.  Some  of  the 
 Christian  Fathers  tell  us,  he  was  stoned  to 
 death  by  the  Jews  for  preaching  against 
 their  idolatry  ;  and  some  say,  he  was  put 
 to  death  by  Pharaoh  Hophra,  because  of 
 his  prophecy  against  him. 
 
 I*art  of  the  prophecy  of  Jeremiah  re- 
 lates to  the  time  after  the  captivity  of 
 Israel,  and  before  that  of  Judali,  from  the 
 first  chapter  to  the  forty-fourth  ;  and  part 
 of  it  was  in  the  time  of  the  latter  cai)tivity, 
 from  the  forty-fourth  chapter  to  the  end. 
 T[\e  prophet  lays  open  the  sins  of  the 
 kingdom  of  Judali  Avith  great  freedom  and 
 boldness,  and  reminds  them  of  the  severe 
 judgments  which  had  befallen  the  ten 
 tril)es  for  the  same  offences  ;  he  passion- 
 ately laments  their  misfortinie,  and  recom- 
 mends a  speedy  reformation  to  them.  Af- 
 terwards he  i)rcdicts  the  grievous  calami- 
 ties that  were  a])proaching,  ])artieularly 
 the  seventy  years'  captivity  in  Chaldca. 
 He  likewise  foretells  their  deliverance  and 
 happy  return,  and  the  recompence  which 
 
406 
 
 JESUITS. 
 
 Babylon,  Moab,  and  other  enemies  of  the 
 Jews,  should  meet  with  in  due  time. 
 There  are  likewise  several  intimations  in 
 this  prophecy  concerning  the  kingdom  of 
 the  Messiah  ;  also  several  remarkable 
 visions  and  types,  and  historical  passages 
 relating  to  those  times. 
 
 The  fifty-second  chapter  does  not  belong 
 to  the  prophecy  of  Jeremiah,  which  con- 
 cludes, at  the  end  of  the  fifty-first  chapter, 
 with  these  words  :  "  Thus  far  are  the 
 words  of  Jeremaah."  The  last,  or  fifty- 
 second  chapter,  (which  probably  was  added 
 by  Ezra,)  contains  a  narrative  of  the  taking 
 of  Jerusalem,  and  of  what  happened  dur- 
 ing the  captivity  of  the  Jews  in  Babylon, 
 to  the  death  of  Jechonias.  St.  Jerome  has 
 observed  upon  this  prophet,  that  his  style 
 is  more  easy  than  that  of  Isaiah  and  Hosea ; 
 that  he  retains  something  of  the  rusticity 
 of  the  village  where  he  was  born  ;  but  that 
 he  is  very  learned  and  majestic,  and  equal 
 to  those  two  prophets  in  the  sense  of  his 
 prophecy. 
 
 JESUITS,  or  the  SOCIETY  OF  JE- 
 SUS. A  society  which,  at  one  period, 
 extended  its  influence  to  the  very  ends  of 
 the  earth,  and  proved  the  main  pillar  of  the 
 papal  hierarchy, — whi«h  wormed  itself  into 
 almost  absolute  power,  occupying  the  high 
 places,  and  leading  captive  the  ecclesiastical 
 dictator  of  the  world,— must  be  an  object 
 of  some  curiosity  to  the  inquisitive  mind. 
 
 Ignatius  Loyola,  a  native  of  Biscay,  is 
 well  knoAvn  to  have  been  the  founder  of 
 this,  nominally,  religious  order.  He  was 
 born  in  1491,  and  became  first  a  page 
 to  Ferdinand  V.,  king  of  Spain,  and  then 
 an  officer  in  his  army.  In  1521  he  was 
 wounded  in  both  legs  at  the  siege  of  Pam- 
 peluna,  Avhen  having  had  leisure  to  study 
 a  book  of  Lives  of  the  Saints,  he  devoted 
 himself  to  the  service  of  the  Virgin ;  and 
 his  military  ardour  becoming  metamor- 
 phosed into  superstitious  zeal,  he  Avent  on 
 a  pilgrimage  into  the  Holy  Land.  Upon 
 his  return  to  Europe,  he  studied  in  the 
 universities  of  Spain,  whence  he  removed 
 into  France,  and  formed  a  plan  for  the 
 institution  of  this  new  order,  which  he 
 presented  to  the  pope.  But,  notwith- 
 standing tlie  high  pretensions  of  liOyola 
 to  inspiration,  Paul  III.  refused  his  re- 
 quest, till  his  scruples  were  removed  by 
 an  irresistible  argument  adcbessed  to  his 
 self-interest :  it  was  proposed  that  every 
 member  should  make  a  vow  of  uncon- 
 ditional obedience  to  the  pope,  without 
 requiring  any  support  from  the  lioly  see. 
 The  order  was,  therefore,  instituted  in 
 1540,  and  Loyola  appointed  to  be  the  first 
 general. 
 
 The  plan  of  the  society  was  completed 
 by  the  two  immediate  successors  of  the 
 founder,  Lainez  and  Aquaviva,  both  of 
 whom  excelled  tlicir  master  in  ability  and 
 the  science  of  government ;  and,  in  a  few 
 years,  the  society  established  itself  in  every 
 Catholic  country,  acquiring  prodigious 
 wealth,  and  exciting  the  apprehensions  of 
 all  the  enemies  of  the  Pomish  faith. 
 
 To  Lainez  are  ascribed  the  Seer  eta 
 Monita,  or  secret  instructions  of  the  order; 
 which  were  first  discovered  when  Chris- 
 tian, duke  of  Brunswick,  seized  the  Jesuits' 
 college  at  Paderborn,  in  Westphalia,  at 
 which  time  he  gave  their  books  and  manu- 
 scripts to  the  Capuchins,  who  found  these 
 secret  instructions  among  the  archives  of 
 their  rector.  After  this,  another  copy 
 was  detected  at  Prague,  in  the  college  of 
 the  Jesuits. 
 
 The  Jesuits  are  taught  to  consider 
 themselves  as  formed  for  action,  in  oppo- 
 sition to  the  monastic  orders,  who  retire 
 from  the  concerns  of  the  world ;  and  in  en- 
 gaging in  all  civil  and  commercial  trans- 
 actions, insinuating  themselves  into  the 
 friendship  of  persons  of  rank,  studying 
 the  disposition  of  all  classes,  with  a  view 
 of  obtaining  an  influence  over  them,  and 
 undertaking  missions  to  distant  nations,  it 
 is  an  essential  principle  of  their  i>olicy,  by 
 every  means,  to  extend  the  Catholic  faith. 
 No  labour  is  spared,  no  intrigue  omitted, 
 that  may  prove  conducive  to  this  purpose. 
 
 The  constitution  of  the  society  is  mon- 
 archical. A  general  is  chosen  for  life  by 
 deputies  from  the  several  provinces.  His 
 power  is  supreme  and  universal.  Every 
 member  is  at  his  entire  disposal,  and  is 
 required  to  submit  his  will  and  sentiments 
 to  his  dictation,  and  to  listen  to  his  in- 
 junctions, as  if  uttered  by  Chiiist  himself. 
 The  fortune,  person,  and  conscience  of 
 the  whole  society  are  at  his  disposal,  and 
 he  can  dispense  his  order  not  only  from 
 the  vows  of  poverty,  chastity,  and  mon- 
 astic obedience,  but  even  from  submission 
 to  the  pope  whenever  he  pleases.  He 
 nominates  and  removes  provincials,  rec- 
 tors, professors,  and  all  officers  of  the 
 order,  superintends  the  universities,  houses, 
 and  missions,  decides  controversies,  and 
 forms  or  dissolves  contracts.  No  member 
 can  express  any  opinion  of  his  own ,  and 
 the  society  has  its  prisons,  independent  of 
 the  secular  authority. 
 
 There  are  four  classes  of  members, — 
 the  novitiates  or  probationers,  the  ap- 
 proved disciples,  the  coadjutors,  and  the 
 professors  of  the  four  vows.  The  edu- 
 cation of  youth  was  ahvays  considered  by 
 them  as  their  peculiar  province, — aware  of 
 
JESUITS. 
 
 407 
 
 the  influence  uliich  such  a  measure  would 
 infallibly  secure  over  another  generation : 
 and  before  the  conclusion  of  the  sixteenth 
 century  the  Jesuits  had  obtained  the  chief 
 direction  of  the  youthful  mind  in  every 
 Koman  Catholic  country  in  Europe.  They 
 had  become  the  confessors  of  almost  all 
 its  monarchs,  and  the  spiritual  g-uides  of 
 nearly  every  jjcrson  distinguished  for  rank 
 or  influence.  At  dift'erent  periods  they 
 obtained  the  direction  of  the  most  con- 
 siderable courts,  and  took  part  in  every 
 intrigue  and  revolution. 
 
 Notwithstanding  their  vow  of  poverty, 
 they  accumulated,  upon  various  pretences, 
 immense  wealth.  They  claimed  exemption 
 from  tithes  under  a  bull  of  Gregory  XUI., 
 who  was  devoted  to  their  interests ;  and, 
 by  obtaining  a  special  licence  from  the 
 court  of  Home  to  traile  -with  the  nations 
 whom  they  professed  to  convert,  they  car- 
 ried on  a  lucrative  commerce  in  the  East 
 and  AVest  Indies,  formed  settlements  in 
 diflerent  countries,  and  acquired  possession 
 of  a  large  province  in  South  America, 
 (Paraguay,)  where  they  reigned  as  sove- 
 reigns over  some  hundred  thousand  sub- 
 jects. 
 
 Their  policy  is  uniformly  to  inculcate 
 attachment  to  the  Order,  and  by  a  pliant 
 morality  to  soothe  and  gratify  the  passions 
 of  mankind,  for  the  pur})ose  of  securing 
 their  patronage.  They  proclaim  the  duty 
 of  opposing  princes  who  are  inimical  to 
 the  Catholic  faith,  and  have  employed 
 every  weapon,  every  artful  and  every  in- 
 tolerant measui-e,  to  resist  the  progress  of 
 Protestantism. 
 
 In  Portugal,  where  the  Jesuits  were 
 first  received,  they  obtained  the  direction 
 of  the  court,  which  for  many  years  de- 
 livered to  them  the  consciences  of  its 
 princes  and  the  education  of  the  people. 
 Portugal  opened  the  door  to  their  missions, 
 and  gave  them  establishments  in  Asia, 
 Afi'ica,  and  America.  They  usurped  the 
 sovereignty  of  Paraguay,  and  resisted  the 
 forces  of  Portugal  and  Spain,  who  claimed 
 it.  The  court  of  Lisbon,  and  even  Home 
 herself,  protested  in  vain  against  their 
 excesses.  The  league  in  France  was,  in 
 reality,  a  conspiracy  of  the  Jesuits,  under 
 the  sanction  of  Sixtus  V.,  to  disturb  the 
 succession  to  the  throne  of  France.  The 
 Jesuits'  college  at  Paris  was  the  grand 
 focus  of  the  seditions  and  treasons  which 
 then  agitated  the  state,  and  the  ruler  of 
 the  Jesuits  was  president  of  the  Council 
 of  Sixteen,  which  gave  the  impulse  to  the 
 leagues  formed  tiicre  and  throughout 
 France.  Matthieu,  a  Jesuit  and  con- 
 fessor  of  Henry   HI.,   was   called   "  the 
 
 Courier  of  the  League,"  on  account  of  his 
 frequent  journeys  to  and  from  Home  at 
 that  disastrous  period. 
 
 In  Germany  the  society  appropriated 
 the  richest  benefices,  particularly  those  of 
 the  monasteries  of  St.  Benedict  and  St. 
 Bernard.  Catherine  of  Austria  confided 
 in  them,  and  was  supplanted  ;  and  loud 
 outcries  were  uttered  against  them  by  the 
 sufierers  in  Vienna,  in  the  states  of  Styria, 
 Carinthia,  Carniola,  and  elsewhere.  Their 
 cruelties  in  Poland  will  never  be  forgotten. 
 They  were  expelled  from  Abyssinia,  Japan, 
 Malta,  Cochin,  Moscow,  Venice,  and  other 
 places,  for  their  gross  misconduct;  and  in 
 America  and  Asia  they  carried  devastation 
 and  blood  wherever  they  went.  The  great 
 object  of  the  persecution  of  the  Protestants 
 in  Savoy  was  the  confiscation  of  their 
 property,  in  order  to  endow  the  colleges 
 of  the  Jesuits.  They  had,  no  doubt,  a 
 share  in  the  atrocities  of  the  Duke  of  Alva 
 in  the  Low  Countries.  They  boasted  of 
 the  friendship  of  C'atherine  de  Medicis, 
 who  espoused  their  cause,  and  under  whose 
 influence  the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew 
 was  executed.  Louis  XIV.  had  three 
 Jesuit  confessors,  which  may  explain  the 
 revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes. 
 
 The  Jesuits  have  been  notorious  for  at- 
 tempting the  lives  of  princes.  The  reign 
 of  Queen  Elizabeth  presents  a  succession 
 of  plots.  In  her  proclamation,  dated  Nov. 
 15,  1602,  she  says,  that  "the  Jesuits  had 
 fomented  the  plots  against  her  person, 
 excited  her  subjects  to  revolt,  provoked 
 foreign  princes  to  compass  her  death,  en- 
 gaged in  all  affairs  of  state,  and  by  their 
 language  and  writings  had  undertaken  to 
 dispose  of  her  croAvn." 
 
 Lucius  enumerates  five  conspiracies  of 
 the  Jesuits  against  James  I.  before  he  had 
 reigned  a  year.  They  contrived  the  Gun- 
 powder Plot.  So  late  as  the  time  of 
 George  I.  both  houses  of  parliament  re- 
 ported, that  the  evidence  examined  by 
 them  on  the  conspiracy  of  l*lunket  and 
 Layer  had  satisfactorily  shown  that  it  had 
 for  its  object  the  destruction  of  the  king, 
 the  subversion  of  the  laws,  and  the  crown- 
 ing of  the  Popish  pretender ;  and  they 
 state  that  '*  Plunket  was  born  at  Dublin, 
 and  bred  up  at  the  Jesuits'  college  at 
 Vienna."  Henry  III.  of  France  was  as- 
 sassinated by  Clement,  a  Jesuit,  in  lo89. 
 The  Jesuits  murdered  William,  prince  of 
 Orange,  in  1 584.  They  attempted  the  life 
 of  Louis  XV.  for  imposing  silence  on  the 
 polemics  of  their  order,  and  were  also 
 guilty  of  innumerable  other  atrocities. 
 
 'J'he  pernicious  spirit  and  constitution 
 of  this  order  rendered  it  early  detested  by 
 
408 
 
 JESUITESSES. 
 
 JEWS. 
 
 the  principal  powers  of  Europe ;  and  while 
 Pascal,  by  his  "Provincial  Letters,"  ex- 
 posed the  morality  of  the  society,  and  thus 
 overthrew  their  influence  over  the  multi- 
 tude, different  potentates  concurred,  from 
 time  to  time,  to  destroy  or  prevent  its 
 estabhshments.  Charles  V.  opposed  the 
 order  in  his  dominions  :  it  was  expelled  in 
 England  by  the  proclamation  of  James  I. 
 in  1604  ;  in  Venice,  in  1606  ;  in  Portugal, 
 in  1759;  in  France,  in  1764;  in  Spain 
 and  Sicily,  in  1767,  and  suppressed  and 
 abolished  by  Pope  Clement  XIV.  in  1775. 
 Our  OAvn  age  has  witnessed  its  revival, 
 and  is  even  now  suff"ering  from  the  in- 
 creased energv  of  its  members. 
 
 JESUITESSES.  An  order  of  nuns, 
 who  had  monasteries  in  Italy  and  Flanders. 
 They  followed  the  Jesuit  rules ;  and  though 
 their  order  was  not  approved  at  Rome, 
 yet  they  had  several  monasteries,  where 
 they  had  a  lady  abbess,  who  took  the  Jesuit 
 vows  of  poverty,  chastity,  and  obedience. 
 They  did  not  confine  themselves  to  their 
 cloisters,  but  went  abroad  and  preached. 
 They  were  two  English  young  women, 
 who,  by  the  instigation  of  Father  Gerard, 
 set  up  this  order,  intending  it  for  the  use 
 of  missionaries  into  England.  This  order 
 was  suppressed  by  a  bull  of  Pope  Urban 
 VIIL,  A.  D.  1630. 
 
 JESUS,  is  the  same  with  the  Hebrew 
 name  Joshua,  or  Jehoshua,  i.  e.  Jehovah 
 THE  Saviour.  As  the  name  Jesus  was 
 given  to  the  blessed  Lord  by  Divine 
 command,  so  was  the  name  of  the  son  of 
 Nun  changed  by  Moses  from  Hoshea, 
 (the  Saviour,)  to  Joshua ;  he  being  a  type 
 of  our  blessed  Lord.  (Num.  xiii.  16.) 
 (See  Christ,  3Iessiah,  Lord.)  The  name 
 that  was  given  by  the  Divine  command  to 
 the  Saviour  of  the  world.  He  is  called 
 Christ  (anointed),  because  he  Avas  anoint- 
 ed to  the  mediatorial  office,  and  Jesus 
 (Saviour),  because  he  came  to  save  his 
 people  from  their  sins. 
 
 We  are  to  regard  him,  as  he  is  our 
 Saviour.  I  will  place  salvation  in  Jesus 
 "  the  Saviour  "  (Phil.  iii.  20),— thus  de- 
 clared by  prophecy  (Isa.  xix.  20),  and  for 
 this  reason  so  expressly  called  (Matt.  i.  21  ; 
 Luke  i.  31),  and  the  prophecies  truly  ful- 
 filled (Luke  ii.  11  ;  Acts  v.  31,  xiii.  23), 
 is  "  the  Saviour  of  the  world  "  (John  iv. 
 42;  iii.  17;  1  John  iv.  14),  "the  Saviour 
 of  all  men"  (1  Tim.  iv.  10 ;  Luke  ix.  56  ; 
 John  xii.  47),  who  "  came  into  the  world 
 to  save  sinners  "  (1  Tim.  i.  15;  Luke  v. 
 32 ;  Rom.  v.  8 ;  1  John  iii.  5),  "  the  Lord 
 and  Saviour"  (2  Pet.  ii.  20;  iii.  2),  "the 
 captain  of  their  salvation"  (Heb.  ii.  10). 
 And  he  is  revealed  as  the  only  way  to 
 
 salvation  thus  predicted  (Isa.  xxxv.  8 ;  xlix. 
 6  ;  Ii.  5  ;  lix.  16  ;  Ixiii.  1 ;  Joel  ii.  32 ;  Matt, 
 i.  21;  Acts  iv.  12;  Heb.  ix.  8),— so  by 
 himself  declared  (Matt,  xviii.  11  ;  Luke 
 xix.  9), — and  by  those  speaking  through 
 the  inspiration  of  the  Holy  Spirit  (Luke 
 i.  69,  with  67 ;  ii.  30,  with  26,  27 ;  Acts  ii. 
 21 ;  Eph.  ii.  18). 
 
 He  was  sent  by  God  for  this  purpose 
 (John  iii.  17  ;  Acts  v.  31,  xiii.  23  ;  1  John 
 iv.  14),  and  is  declared  to  be  "the  author 
 of  eternal  salvation  unto  all  them  that 
 obey  him"  (Heb.  v.  9;  Isa.  H.  6,  8),— that 
 "  confess  "  him  (Rom.  x.  9),  "  believe  on  " 
 him  (Rom,  x.  9  ;  Eph.  ii.  8  ;  Acts  xvi.  31  ; 
 X.  43,)  and  "  call  on  the  name  of  the 
 Lord"  (Acts  ii.  21),—"  to  the  Jews  first" 
 (Rom.  i.  16;  Isa.  xlv.  17;  xlvi.  13;  Ixii. 
 1,  11;  Jer.  xxxiii.  15,  16;  Zech.  ix.  9; 
 Luke  i.  69,  77  ;  Acts  xi.  19  ;  xv.  11 ;  xiii. 
 23,46),  "and  also  to  the  Greek"  (Rom. 
 i.  16),— the  Gentiles  (Isa.  xlv.  22  ;  xlix.  6  ; 
 Ii.  5 ;  Hi.  10  ;  Luke  iii.  6 ;  Acts  xxviii.  28  ; 
 Rom.  iii.  29;  x.  12;  xv.  16;  GaL  iii.  28; 
 Col.  iii.  11.) 
 
 To  "  that  blessed  hope "  we  now  look 
 (Tit.  ii.  13),  through  the  righteousness 
 of  God  and  our  Saviour"  (of  our  God 
 and  Saviour,  Gr.)  (2  Pet.  i.  1),—"  our 
 Saviour  Jesus  Christ"  (2  Tim.  i.  10; 
 Tit.  i.  4  ;  iii.  6).  Our  salvation  has  been 
 eff'ected  by  the  sacrifice  of  himself;  "  in 
 him  have  we  redemption — the  forgiveness 
 of  sins ; "  not  purchased  "  with  corrupt- 
 ible things,"  but  with  his  own  "  precious 
 blood"  (Eph.  i.  7;  1  Pet.  i.  18,  19),  for 
 "  he  gave  himself  a  ransom  for  all"  (1  Tim. 
 ii.  6).  And  thus  having  made  "peace 
 through  the  blood  of  his  cross,"  he  has 
 "  reconciled  both  " — Jews  and  Gentiles — 
 "  unto  God  in  one  body."  (Col.  i.  20 ; 
 Eph.  ii.  16.)  (See  Bowing  at  the  name  of 
 Jesus.)  Joshua,  the  successor  of  Moses,  is 
 called  Jesus  in  our  translation  of  the  New 
 Testament,  Acts  vii.  45,  and  Heb.  iv.  8. 
 Both  names  are  the  same  in  the  LXX.  and 
 the  Greek  Testament,  'I^jaovg. 
 
 JEWS.  The  general  name  given  the 
 descendants  of  Abraham,  though  in  strict- 
 ness it  originally  belonged  only  to  the 
 tribes  of  Judah  and  Benjamin,  with  the 
 Levites  settled  among  them,  who  consti- 
 tuted the  kingdom  of  Judah.  It  has  long 
 been  synonymous  with  Israelites.  On 
 their  laws  and  customs  the  reader  must 
 consult  the  books  of  Moses.  The  modern 
 Jews  have  introduced  many  very  remark- 
 able customs.  When  any  person  is  buried, 
 his  nearest  relation  keeps  the  house  a  week, 
 sitting  on  the  ground  all  the  time,  except- 
 ing on  the  sabbath  day,  when  they  go  to 
 prayers. 
 
JOB. 
 
 JOHN'S,  ST.,  EPISTLES. 
 
 409 
 
 business.  The  husband  and  the  wife  are 
 to  lodge  asunder ;  and  there  come  at  least 
 ten  people,  morning  and  evening,  to  say 
 the  accustomed  prayers.  They  pray  for 
 the  soul  of  the  person  deceased  constantly 
 that  week.  When  the  week  is  ended  they 
 go  to  the  synagogue,  and  light  up  lamps 
 and  pi*ay,  and  promise  to  give  alms  for  the 
 soul  of  the  deceased.  This  charitable  ser- 
 vice is  repeated  at  the  end  of  every  month, 
 and  every  year.  It  is  customary  for  the 
 son  to  say  every  morning  and  evening  the 
 player  for  his  father's  or  mother's  soul. 
 They  believe  a  paradise,  where  the  blessed 
 enjoy  a  beailfin  vision :  and  a  hell  for 
 wicked  men,  in  whii:b  some  shall  continue 
 for  ever,  others  only  for  }  time.  No  Jew, 
 unless  a  heretic,  or  nonconformist  to  their 
 Rabbins'  rules,  shall  continue  in  hell  above 
 a  year.  Their  creed  consists  of  thirteen 
 articles: — 1.  There  is  one  GoD,  Creator 
 of  all  things,  all-perfect,  all-sufficient.  2. 
 That  he  is  an  uncompounded,  invisible 
 essence.  3.  That  he  is  immaterial.  4. 
 Absolutely  eternal.  5.  Alone  to  be  wor- 
 shipped, without  any  mediators  or  inter- 
 cessors. 6.  That  there  have  been,  and 
 may  be,  prophets.  Y.  That  Moses  was  the 
 greatest  prophet.  8.  That  every  syllable 
 of  the  law^  was  given  to  Moses  by  inspira- 
 tion ;  and  that  the  traditionary  expositions 
 of  the  precepts  were  entirely  a  Divine  reve- 
 lation given  to  Moses.  9.  That  the  law  is 
 immutable.  10.  That  God  knows  and 
 governs  all  our  actions.  11.  That  he  re- 
 wards the  observance,  and  punishes  the 
 violation,  of  his  laws.  12.  That  the  Mes- 
 siah will  appear,  but  that  his  coming  is 
 dalayed.  13.  That  God  will  raise  the 
 dead,  and  judge  all  mankind. 
 
 They  coiifess  to  none  but  GoD  Almighty; 
 and  this  commonly  on  Mondays,  and 
 Thursdays,  and  all  fast-days  :  on  the  great 
 day  of  expiation  they  repeat  their  confes- 
 sions several  times. 
 
 There  are  three  sects  of  them  in  these 
 times.  The  greatest  and  first  of  these  is 
 that  of  the  llabbanim,  who,  besides  the 
 Scri])tures,  receive  the  Talmud.  The  se- 
 cond is  the  Caraites,  who  receive  only  the 
 Scriptures  ;  and  the  third  is  that  of  the 
 Cuthim,  of  which  there  are  very  few,  who 
 admit  only  the  Pentateuch,  or  books  of 
 Moses. — Bi-oughton. 
 
 JOB.  One  of  the  books  in  the  sacred 
 canon,  the  first  of  the  poetical  books  of  the 
 Old  Testament,  ami  probably  the  most 
 ancient  work  that  exists  in  any  form. 
 There  have  been  many  differences  of 
 opinion  upon  almost  all  imaginable  ques- 
 tions concerning  this  book,  the  date,  the 
 scene,  the  author,  whether  it  is  to  be  ac- 
 
 counted a  narrative  of  real  events,  or  a 
 ]  )ivine  allegory,  being  warmly  debated  by 
 different  critics.  That  Job  is  a  real  per- 
 son, seems  however  to  be  determined  by 
 the  mention  of  him  with  Noah  and  Daniel, 
 (of  Avhose  proper  personal  existence  and 
 history  there  can  be  no  doubt,)  in  the 
 fourteenth  chapter  of  Ezekiel.  Into  the 
 other  questions  it  is  less  important  to  enter. 
 
 JOHN,  ST.,  BAPTIST'S  DAY.  This 
 festival,  in  honour  of  St.  John  the  Baptist, 
 is  observed  on  the  24th  of  June. 
 
 JOHN,  ST.,  THE  EVANGELIST'S 
 DAY.  The  day  appointed  for  the  com- 
 memoration of  "  the  beloved  disciple." 
 St.  John  the  evangelist  (so  called  from 
 the  Greek  term  which  signifies  the  mes- 
 senger of  glad  tidings)  was  a  Galilean  by 
 birth,  the  son  of  Zebedee  and  Salome,  the 
 younger  brother  of  James,  but  not  of  him 
 who  was  surnamed  the  Just,  and  who  was 
 the  brother  of  our  Lord.  His  brother 
 James  and  he  were  surnamed  by  Jesus  the 
 Sons  of  Thunder,  for  their  peculiar  zeal 
 and  fervency  for  his  honour,  which  we  see 
 manifested  in  St.  John's  sedulous  asser- 
 tions of  our  Lord's  Divinity.  He  was  the 
 most  beloved  by  our  Saviour  of  all  the 
 disciples. 
 
 St.  John  exercised  his  ministry  in  Asia 
 Minor,  and  having  excited  enemies  through 
 preaching  the  doctrines  of  Christ,  was 
 carried  prisoner  from  Ephesus  to  Pome, 
 in  the  year  92.  Subsequently  to  this  he 
 was  banished  to  the  isle  of  Patmos,  where 
 he  wrote  his  Revelation.  He  was  after- 
 wards recalled  from  his  exile  by  Nero  the 
 emperor,  and  then  returned  to  Ephesus. 
 His  three  Epistles  w^ere  written  with  refer- 
 ence to  some  prevailing  heresies  of  the 
 times  ;  and  the  scope  of  his  Gospel,  which 
 was  his  last  work,  shows  that  the  apostle 
 had  in  view  the  same  deniers  of  the  Divinity 
 of  the  Saviour.  He  survived  till  the 
 reign  of  Trajan,  and  died  at  the  age  of 
 nearly  100  years. 
 
 St.  John  the  Evangelist's  day  is  on  the 
 27th  of  December. 
 
 JOHN'S,  ST.,  GENERAL  EPISTLES. 
 Three  canonical  books  of  the  New  Testa- 
 ment, being  letters  written  by  St.  John 
 the  evangelist.     (See  the  last  article.) 
 
 The  First  Epistle  of  St.  John  has  always 
 been  received  by  the  Church  as  genuine. 
 Though  there  is  neither  inscription  nor 
 direction,  it  appears,  by  the  beginning  of 
 chap,  ii.,  to  be  a  Catholic  or  General  Epis- 
 tle, addressed  not  to  one,  but  many  Chris- 
 tians. It  is  probal)le  he  wrote  it  towards 
 the  end  of  his  life,  because  he  mentions 
 the  opinion  which  then  prevailed,  that  the 
 day  of  judgment  was  at  hand,  and  Anti- 
 
410 
 
 JOHN'S,  ST.,  GOSPEL. 
 
 JOSHUA,  THE  BOOK  OF. 
 
 Christ  ready  to  appear.  He  insists  upon 
 the  advantages  of  faith  in  Christ ;  he  ex- 
 horts those  to  %vhom  he  writes  not  to 
 suffer  themselves  to  be  seduced  by  false 
 teachers  ;  and  recommends  to  them  good 
 ■works,  the  love  of  Goi)  and  our  neighbour, 
 purity,  and  other  Christian  virtues.  This 
 Epistle,  for  matter  and  style,  is  much  like 
 the  Gospel  written  by  the  same  apostle. 
 
 The  two  other  Epistles  which  carry  his 
 name,  have  not  always  been  so  generally 
 received.  On  the  contrary,  some  of  the 
 ancients  were  of  opinion  that  they  were 
 written  by  another  John,  called  the  Elder, 
 a  disciple  of  the  apostle's,  mentioned  by 
 Papias.  However,  Irenteus  quotes  the 
 second  under  the  name  of  John,  the  dis- 
 ciple of  our  Lord.  In  truth,  the  spirit, 
 the  sentiments,  and  style  of  these  two 
 Epistles  are  not  only  like,  but  often  the 
 same  as  the  First  Epistle  ;  which  plainly 
 bespeaks  one  and  the  same  author. 
 
 The  Second  Epistle  of  St.  John  is  di- 
 rected to  the  elect  Lady ;  by  which  some 
 understand  a  lady  named  Electa ;  others, 
 only  some  lady  of  dignity  and  distinction ; 
 and  others,  an  elect  or  chosen  Church,  me- 
 taphorically styled  Lady.  Whoever  she 
 be,  the  apostle  congratulates  her,  because 
 her  children  led  a  Christian  life.  He 
 cautions  her  likewise  to  beware  of  impos- 
 tors, who  denied  that  Christ  was  come  in 
 the  flesh.  _ 
 
 The  Third  Epistle  of  St.  John  is  directed 
 to  Gains,  or  Caius.  A^Tioever  he  be,  (for 
 it  is  controverted.)  the  apostle  declares  to 
 him  the  joy  he  conceived,  when  he  heard 
 of  his  piety  and  charity. 
 
 It  is  i)robable  St.  John  wrote  his  Epis- 
 tles, as  Avell  as  his  Gospel,  from  Ephesus, 
 after  his  return  from  the  isle  of  Patmos. 
 
 JOHN'S,  ST.,  GOSPEL.  A  canonical 
 book  of  the  New  Testament,  being  a  re- 
 cital of  the  life,  actions,  doctrine,  death, 
 &c.,  of  our  Saviour  Jesus  Christ,  written 
 by  St.  John  the  apostle  and  evangelist. 
 (See  the  preceding  article.) 
 
 St.  John  wrote  his  Gospel  at  Ephesus, 
 after  his  return  from  the  isle  of  Patmos, 
 at  the  desire  of  the  Christians  and  bishops 
 of  Asia.  St.  Jerome  says,  he  would  not 
 undertake  it,  but  on  condition  they  should 
 appoint  a  public  fast,  to  implore  the  assist- 
 ance of  GoD;  and  that,  the  fast  being 
 ended,  St.  John,  filled  with  the  Holy 
 GnosT,  broke  out  into  these  words ;  "In 
 the  beginning  was  the  Word,"  (S:c.  The 
 ancients  assign  two  reasons  for  this  under- 
 taking. The  first  is,  because,  in  the  other 
 three  Gospels,  there  was  wanting  the 
 history  of  the  beginning  of  Jesus  Christ's 
 preaching  till  the  imprisonment  of  John 
 
 the  Baptist;  which  therefore  he  applied 
 himself  particularly  to  relate.  The  second 
 reason  was,  in  order  to  confound  the 
 errors  of  the  Cerinthians,  Ebiouites,  and 
 other  heretics,  who  denied  the  Divinity  of 
 Jesus  Christ. 
 
 Some  critics  have  thought,  that  St. 
 John's  Gospel  ended  at  the  20th  chapter 
 with  these  words,  "  Many  other  signs  truly 
 did  Jesus,"  Sec,  and  that  the  following 
 chapter  was  added,  after  the  death  of  St. 
 John,  by  the  Church  of  Ephesus. 
 
 Clement  of  Alexandria  calls  this  Gospel, 
 "the  .spiritual  Gospel;"  and  St.  Jerome 
 says  of  this  evangelist,  that  he  wrote  of 
 our  Saviour's  Divinity  in  a  very  sublime 
 manner,  and  with  di  happy  temerity.  Pagan 
 philosophers  have  admired  the  sublimity 
 of  St.  John's  Gospel.  Thus,  the  Platonist 
 Amelius,  having  read  the  beginning  of  it, 
 and  finding  it  conformable  to  the  doctrine 
 of  Plato,  cried  out,  "O  Jupiter!  this  bar- 
 barian believes  with  Plato,  that  the  Word 
 is  the  beginning." 
 
 Julian  the  Apostate  accuses  St.  John  of 
 introducing  novelties  into  the  Christian 
 religion,  by  making  Jesus  Christ  pass  for 
 a  God,  which  neither  St.  Paul,  nor  the 
 other  evangelists,  had  dared  to  do. 
 
 It  is  observable,  that  the  history  of  the 
 woman  taken  in  adultery,  related  in  the 
 8th  chapter,  is  not  to  be  found  in  all  the 
 manuscripts  of  this  Gospel.  Grotius,  and 
 others,  believed,  that  the  story  was  taken 
 from  the  Gospel  of  the  Nazarenes,  and 
 inserted  afterwards  in  that  of  St.  John. 
 Others  pretend,  that  the  Novatians  had 
 razed  it  out.  But  St.  Augustine  thinks, 
 some  good  orthodox  people  had  expunged 
 it,  lest  their  wives  should  make  use  of  it, 
 to  prevent  that  chastisement  which  their 
 disloyalty  might  deserve. — Broiighton. 
 
 JONAH.  The  most  ancient  of  the  pro- 
 phetic books  of  the  Old  Testament,  which 
 contains  also  a  part  of  the  history  of  the 
 prophet  whose  name  it  bears.  Jonah  is 
 supposed  to  have  prophesied  to  the  ten 
 tribes  towards  the  close  of  Jehu's  reign,  or 
 in  the  beginning  of  Jehoahaz's  reign ;  but 
 the  great  subject  of  the  book  which  bears 
 his  name,  is  the  prophecy  which  he  was 
 commissioned  to  utter  against  Nineveh, 
 with  his  refusal  to  go,  his  punishment,  his 
 second  mission,  and  the  repentance  of  the 
 Ninevites.  The  continuing  of  Jonah  three 
 days  in  the  belly  of  the  great  fish,  is  de- 
 clared by  our  blessed  Lord  himself  to  have 
 been  a  predictive  sign  of  his  own  burial, 
 and  of  his  resurrection  on  the  third  day. 
 This  gives  great  additional  importance  to 
 the  book  of  Jonah. — Jhoiu/hton. 
 
 JOSHUA,  THE   BOOK  OF.     A   ca- 
 
JOSHUA,  THE  BOOK  OF. 
 
 JUBILEE, 
 
 411 
 
 nonical  book  of  the  Old  Testament.  The 
 learned  are  divided  in  their  opinions  about 
 the  author  of  tlie  ]Jook  of  Joshua  ;  the 
 title  at  the  head  of  the  book  being-  sup- 
 posed, not  to  denote  its  author,  but  the 
 subject  matter  of  it,  being  the  history  of 
 the  wars  and  transactions  which  happened 
 under  the  administration  of  Joshua.  Some 
 think,  the  26th  verse  of  the  last  chapter 
 are  an  evidence,  that  Joshua  was  the 
 author  of  this  book :  the  words  are  ; 
 *'  Joshua  wrote  all  these  words  in  the 
 book  of  the  law  of  the  Lord."  But  this 
 may  only  relate  to  what  is  said  in  this 
 chapter  concerning  the  covenant  that  the 
 people  made  with  GoD.  For  Joshua,  a 
 little  before  his  death,  having  assembled 
 the  Israelites  at  Sichem,  and  laid  them 
 under  a  solemn  engagement  to  serve  only 
 the  Lord,  gave  them  fresh  laws  and  ordi- 
 nances, and  "  wrote  all  these  words  in  the 
 book  of  the  law  of  the  Lord,"  Some  al- 
 lege Avhat  is  said  concerning  Joshua  in  the 
 Bookof  Ecclesiasticus,  (ch,  xlvi,,)  that  "he 
 was  the  successor  of  Moses  in  prophecies," 
 as  a  proof  that  he  wrote  a  sacred  book. 
 But  this  may  mean  no  more,  than  that  he 
 succeeded  Moses  in  the  spirit  of  prophecy. 
 The  ancient  Talmudists,  and  many  of  later 
 date,  expressly  ascribe  this  book  to  Joshua, 
 and  the  Jews  reckon  him  among  the  first 
 prophets,  as  they  call  them,  though  the 
 book  is  merely  historical. 
 
 Some  of  the  ancients,  and  many  of  the 
 moderns,  deny,  that  Joshua  was  the  author 
 of  this  book.  Theodoret  affirms,  that  it 
 was  compiled  a  long  time  after  the  death 
 of  Joshua,  and  that  it  was  but  an  abstract 
 of  an  ancient  commentary,  called  "  The 
 Book  of  Jasher,"  or  "just  men,"  spoken  of 
 in  the  tenth  chapter  of  this  book.  Others 
 have  endeavoured  to  show,  from  particular 
 passages  of  the  book,  that  it  could  not  be 
 Joshua's  ;  as  when  it  is  said,  (ch.  iv.  ver. 
 9,)  that  "  the  twelve  stones,  that  Joshua 
 set  up  in  the  midst  of  Jordan,  remain  to 
 this  day : "  and,  in  another  place,  "  This 
 place  is  called  Gilgal  to  this  day."  But 
 these,  and  the  like  passages,  might  have 
 been  afterwards  added  to  the  collections 
 of  Joshua. 
 
 However  it  be,  the  Hebrews,  as  well  as 
 the  Greeks  and  Latins,  have  distinguished 
 this  book  by  the  title  of  Joshua,  or  Jesus. 
 This  great  personage  was  the  son  of  Nun, 
 of  the  tribe  of  Ephraim.  He  was  first 
 called  Oshea ;  but  Moses  changed  his 
 name  to  Jehoshua,  or  Joshua.  These 
 names,  which  have  all  the  same  root,  sig- 
 nify a  Saviour :  and  Joshua  was  appointed 
 by  God  to  be  the  successor  of  Moses,  and 
 to  lead  the   Israelites   in  safetv,  bv  sub- 
 
 duing their  enemies,  into  the  promised 
 land ;  the  history  of  which  great  event  is 
 the  subject  of  the  Book  of  Joshua  ;  which 
 may  be  divided  into  three  parts.  The  first 
 is  a  history  of  the  conquest  of  the  land  of 
 Canaan.  The  second,  which  begins  at  the 
 twelfth  chapter,  is  a  description  of  that 
 country,  and  the  division  of  it  among  the 
 tribes.  The  third,  comprised  in  the  two 
 last  chapters,  contains  the  renewal  of  the 
 covenant  he  caused  the  Israelites  to  make, 
 and  the  death  of  their  victorious  leader 
 and  governor.  The  whole  comprehends  a 
 term  of  seventeen,  or,  according  to  others, 
 tAventy-seven  years. 
 
 JUBILATE  DEO.  ("  O  be  joyful  in 
 God.")  One  of  the  psalms  appointed  to 
 be  used  after  the  second  lesson  in  the 
 morning  service.  It  is  the  same  with  the 
 100th  Psalm  in  the  Psalter.  It  was  first 
 inserted  in  the  Prayer  Book  in  the  Second 
 Book  of  King  Edward  VI. 
 
 JUBILEE.  A  solemn  season  recurring 
 at  stated  intervals  in  the  Church  of  liome, 
 chiefly  marked  by  the  indulgences  then 
 granted  by  the  pope  to  all  of  his  commu- 
 nion. Boniface  VIII.  was  the  first  that 
 instituted  it,  in  1300,  in  imitation  of  that 
 of  the  Jews,  ordering  it  to  be  observed 
 every  hundredth  year.  Clement  VI.  re- 
 duced it  to  fifty,  Urban  IV.  to  thirty,  and 
 Sixtus  IV.  to  twenty-five,  where  it  hath 
 continued  ever  since.  Besides  this,  the 
 popes,  upon  their  exaltation  to  the  see  of 
 llome,  have  frequently  celebrated  a  jubi- 
 lee, as  likewise  upon  other  extraordinary 
 occasions.  The  ceremony  observed  at 
 Pome,  for  the  jubilee,  at  every  twenty-five 
 years'  end,  which  they  call  the  holy  year,  is 
 this :  The  pope  goes  to  St.  Peter's  church 
 to  open  the  holy  gate,  (as  they  call  it,) 
 which  is  walled  up,  and  only  opened  upon 
 this  occasion ;  and  knocking  three  times  at 
 the  said  gate,  with  a  golden  hammer,  says 
 these  words,  Aperite  mihi  partus  justitke^ 
 &c.,  "  Open  to  me  the  gates  of  righteous- 
 ness ;  I  will  go  into  them  and  I  will  praise 
 the  Lord"  (Psalm  cxviii.  19) ;  whereupon 
 the  masons  fall  to  work  to  break  down  the 
 wall  that  stopped  the  gate  ;  which  done,  the 
 pope  kneels  down  before  it,  whilst  the  pe- 
 nitentiaries of  St.  Peter  wash  him  with 
 holy  water,  and  then  taking  up  the  cross, 
 he  begins  to  sing  Te  Deinn,  and  enters  the 
 church,  followed  by  the  clergy.  In  the 
 mean  while,  three  cardinal  legates  are  sent 
 to  open  the  other  three  holy  gates,  with 
 the  same  ceremonies,  which  are  in  the 
 churches  of  St,  John  of  Lateran,  of  St. 
 Paul,  and  St,  Mary  Major ;  and  the  next 
 morning  the  pope  gives  his  benediction  to 
 the  people  in  the  jubilee  form.    When  the 
 
412        JUDGES,  THE  BOOK  OF. 
 
 JURISDICTION. 
 
 holy  year  is  expired,  they  shut  up  the  holy 
 gates  again  on  Christmas  eve  in  this  man- 
 ner. The  pope,  after  he  has  blessed  the 
 stones  and  mortar,  lays  the  first  stone,  and 
 leaves  there  twelve  boxes  full  of  gold  and 
 silver  medals. 
 
 The  Jewish  jubilee  was  celebrated  every 
 fifty  years.  The  word  is  derived  from  Jovcl, 
 which  in  Hebrew  signifies  the  blast  of 
 a  trumpet,  (Josh.  vi.  4,  13) ;  because 
 the  year  of  jubilee  was  proclaimed  with 
 trumpets.  This  year  was  a  year  of  ge- 
 neral rest  and  universal  liberty,  wherein 
 all  servants  were  restored  to  their  freedom, 
 and  all  sold  possessions  returned  to  their 
 first  owners.  The  Jews  observed  these 
 jubilees  very  exactly  till  the  Babylonian 
 captivity,  but  after  their  return  did  no 
 longer  observe  it ;  for  their  doctors  assure 
 us  that  there  were  no  jubilees  under  the 
 second  temple.     See  Lev.  xxv.  9,  et  seq. 
 
 JUDGES,  THE  BOOK  OF.  A  ca- 
 nonical book,  of  the  authenticity  of  which 
 there  is  no  doubt  in  the  Church,  though 
 the  author  is  unknown ;  some  ascribing  it 
 to  Phinehas,  others  to  Ezra  or  Hezekiah, 
 though  most  to  Samuel. 
 
 JUNE  THE  TWENTIETH.  (See 
 Forms  of  Prayer.) 
 
 "  JUilE  DiVINO."  By  Divine  right ; 
 an  expression  frequently  occurring  in  con- 
 troversial writings,  especially  in  relation  to 
 the  ministry  of  the  Church. 
 
 It  is  evident,  and  generally  confessed, 
 that  the  right  to  minister  in  holy  things  is 
 not  in  every  man's  power.  If  it  were  so, 
 the  very  idea  of  the  ministry,  as  a  dis- 
 tinct class  of  men,  empowered  to  act  "  in 
 Christ's  stead,"  would  be  broken  up,  and 
 the  Church  would  lose  its  character  as  a 
 society ;  for  that  implies  the  existence  of 
 officers  and  of  subordination.  It  is  also 
 confessed  that  in  the  Christian  Church  men 
 are  not  horn  to  the  ministry,  as  they  were 
 under  the  Jewish  dispensation.  Whence, 
 then,  comes  that  authority  with  which  the 
 ambassador  of  Christ  is  invested  ?  Is  it 
 human  ?  Can  any  body  of  men  confer  the 
 power  to  rule  and  minister  in  a  society, 
 the  full  control  of  which  is  in  the  hands 
 of  the  eternal  GoD  ?  ^Most  evidently  not. 
 Humayi  j^oicer,  or  a  commission  derived 
 from  human  resources,  is  as  void  and  in- 
 adequate in  qualifying  for  the  functions  of 
 the  ministry,  as  it  would  be  in  the  attempt 
 to  create  a  world,  or  to  found  a  new  rank 
 in  the  hierarchy  of  heaven.  We  are  driven 
 then,  at  once,  to  the  Divine  institution  as 
 the  foundation  of  all  legitimate  power  in 
 the  Church. 
 
 The  Head  of  the  Church  established  a 
 ministry,  with  the  right  and  ability  to  exe- 
 
 cute all  its  appointed  functions.  It  was 
 not  intellectual  eminence,  or  high  station, 
 or  influence,  wealth,  courage,  or  any  other 
 human  attribute,  which  brought  into  being 
 "the  glorious  company  of  the  apostles;" 
 but  it  was  the  sovereign  power  alone  of 
 him  "  in  whom  dwelt  all  the  fulness  of  the 
 Godhead  bodily."  And  was  this  power 
 to  be  recalled  on  the  demise  of  those  who 
 were  every  day  doomed  to  stripes,  impri- 
 sonments, perils,  and  death  in  a  thousand 
 shapes  ?  No ;  for  either  the  Church  for 
 the  future  must  fail,  the  sacraments  be 
 obliterated,  the  "watching  for  souls"  be 
 abolished,  or  the  continuation  of  the  sacred 
 ministry  must  be  demanded  with  all  its 
 original  spiritual  functions.  To  the  apos- 
 tles, therefore,  was  given,  {jure  divino,)  and 
 to  them  alone,  the  ability  to  perpetuate  or 
 transmit  the  gift  which  the  Hedeemer 
 had  bestowed.  From  them  the  preroga- 
 tives of  episcopacy  (or  apostolate)  were 
 communicated  to  younger  men,  including 
 the  transmissive  or  ordaining  faculty.  Un- 
 der these,  the  elders  and  deacons  w^ere  put 
 in  trust  with  a  share  of  the  original  grant 
 of  ministerial  power, — a  power  they  were 
 themselves  incapable  of  delegating;  and 
 by  an  unbroken  succession,  in  the  line  of 
 bishops,  the  Divine  commission  has  reach- 
 ed these  latter  days  of  the  Church. 
 
 If  then,  as  we  have  shown,  Divijie  right 
 is  the  only  foundation  on  which  the  minis- 
 try can  stand,  there  is  no  alternative  left 
 to  any  one  claiming  office  in  the  Church 
 of  God,  but  to  vindicate  the  legality  of  his 
 mission  by  miracle,  or  some  other  tangible 
 Divine  verification,  which  no  man  can  dis- 
 pute ;  or  else  to  bring  forth  such  creden- 
 tials as  Timothy,  Titus,  and  the  ministers 
 ordained  by  them  had  to  show,  viz.  the 
 simple  evidence  of  the  fact  that  the  apostles, 
 or  their  successors,  had  imparted  to  them 
 the  authority  they  claim  to  possess.  This 
 every  bishop,  priest,  and  deacon,  in  the 
 Catholic  Church,  is  prepared  to  do. 
 
 JURISDICTION.  The  power  and  au- 
 thority vested  in  a  bishop,  by  virtue  of  the 
 apostolical  commission,  of  governing  and 
 administering  the  laws  of  the  Church 
 within  the  bounds  of  his  diocese.  The 
 same  term  is  used  to  express  the  bounds 
 within  which  a  bishop  exercises  his  power, 
 i.  e.  his  diocese. 
 
 In  the  Saxon  times,  before  the  Norman 
 Conquest,  there  was  no  distinction  of  ju- 
 risdiction ;  but  all  matters,  as  well  spiri- 
 tual as  temporal,  were  determined  in  the 
 county  court,  called  the  Shenfi''s  Tourn, 
 where  the  bishop  and  earl  (or  in  his  ab- 
 sence the  sheriff")  sat  together ;  or  else  in 
 the  hundred  court,  which  was  held  in  like 
 
JURISDICTION. 
 
 413 
 
 manner  before  the  lord  of  the  hundred 
 and  ecclesiastical  judge. 
 
 For  the  ecclesiastical  officers  took  their 
 limits  of  jurisdiction  from  a  like  extent  of 
 the  civil  powers.  Most  of  the  old  Saxon 
 bishoprics  were  of  equal  bounds  with  the 
 distinct  kingdoms.  The  archdeaconries, 
 when  first  settled  into  local  districts,  were 
 commonly  fitted  to  the  respective  counties. 
 And  rural  deaneries,  before  the  Conquest, 
 were  correspondent  to  the  political  tith- 
 ings.  Their  spiritual  courts  were  held, 
 wdth  a  like  reference  to  the  administration 
 of  civil  justice.  The  synods  of  each  pro- 
 vince and  diocese  were  held  at  the  discre- 
 tion of  the  metropolitan  and  the  bishop,  as 
 great  councils  at  the  pleasure  of  the  prince. 
 The  visitations  were  first  united  to  the 
 civil  inquisitions  in  each  county;  and 
 afterwards,  when  the  courts  of  the  earl  and 
 bishop  were  separated,  yet  still  the  visita- 
 tions were  held  like  the  sheriff''s  tourns, 
 twice  a  year,  and  like  them  too  after 
 Easter  and  Michaelmas,  and  still,  with 
 nearer  likeness,  the  greater  of  them  was 
 at  Easter.  The  rural  chapters  were  also 
 held,  like  the  inferior  courts  of  the  hun- 
 dred, every  three  weeks ;  then,  and  like 
 them  too,  they  were  changed  into  monthly, 
 and  at  last  into  quarterly  meetings.  Nay, 
 and  a  prime  visitation  was  held  commonly, 
 like  the  prime  folcmote  or  sheriff's  tourn, 
 on  the  very  calends  of  May. 
 
 And  accordingly  Sir  Henry  Spelman 
 observes,  that  the  bishop  and  the  earl  sat 
 together  in  one  court,  and  heard  jointly 
 the  causes  of  Church  and  commonwealth ; 
 as  they  yet  do  in  parliament.  And  as  the 
 bishop  had  twice  in  the  year  two  general 
 synods,  wherein  all  the  clergy  of  his  dio- 
 cese of  all  sorts  Avere  bound  to  resort  for 
 matters  concerning  the  Church  ;  so  also 
 there  was  twice  in  the  year  a  general  as- 
 sembly of  all  the  shire  for  matters  con- 
 cerning the  commonwealth,  wherein,  with- 
 out exception,  all  kinds  of  estates  were 
 required  to  be  present,  dukes,  earls,  barons, 
 and  so  downward  of  the  laity ;  and  especi- 
 ally the  bishop  of  that  diocese  among  the 
 clergy.  For  in  those  days  the  temporal 
 lords  did  often  sit  in  synods  with  the 
 bishops,  and  the  bishops  in  like  manner  in 
 the  courts  of  the  temporality,  and  were 
 therein  not  only  necessary,  but  the  prin- 
 cipal judges  themselves.  Thus  by  the  laws 
 of  King  Canute,  "  the  shjTc-gemot  (for  so 
 the  Saxons  called  this  assembly  of  the 
 whole  shire)  shall  be  kept  twice  a  year, 
 and  oftener  if  need  require,  wherein  the 
 bishop  and  the  alderman  of  the  shire  shall 
 be  present,  the  one  to  teach  the  laws  of 
 God,  the   other  the  laws  of  the  land." 
 
 And  among  the  laws  of  King  Henry  I.,  it 
 is  ordained,  "  first,  let  the  laws  of  true 
 Cliristianity  (which  we  call  the  ecclesiasti- 
 cal) be  fully  executed  with  due  satisfac- 
 tion ;  then  let  the  pleas  concerning  the 
 king  be  dealt  with ;  and,  lastly,  those  be- 
 tween party  and  party :  and  whomsoever 
 the  Church  synod  shall  find  at  variance, 
 let  them  either  make  accord  between  them 
 in  love,  or  sequester  them  by  their  sen- 
 tence of  excommunication."  And  the  bi- 
 shop first  gave  a  solemn  charge  to  the 
 people  touching  ecclesiastical  matters, 
 opening  unto  them  the  rights  and  rever- 
 ence of  the  Church,  and  their  duty  there- 
 in towards  GoD  and  the  king,  according 
 to  the  word  of  God  :  then  the  alderman  in 
 like  manner  related  unto  them  the  laws  of 
 the  land,  and  their  duty  towards  God,  the 
 king,  and  commonwealth,  according  to  the 
 rule  and  tenure  thereof. 
 
 The  separation  of  the  ecclesiastical  from 
 the  temporal  courts  was  made  by  William 
 the  Conqueror:  for  upon  the  conquest 
 made  by  the  Normans,  the  pope  took  the 
 opportunity  to  usurp  upon  the  liberties  of 
 the  croA<'n  of  England ;  for  the  Conqueror 
 came  in  with  the  pope's  banner,  and  under 
 it  won  the  battle.  Whereupon  the  pope 
 sent  two  legates  into  England,  with  whom 
 the  Conqueror  called  a  synod,  deposed 
 Stigand,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  be- 
 cause he  had  not  purchased  his  pall  from 
 Kome,  and  displaced  many  bishops  and 
 abbots  to  make  room  for  his  Normans. 
 This  admission  of  the  pope's  legates  first 
 led  the  way  to  his  usurped  jurisdiction  in 
 England;  yet  no  decrees  passed  or  were 
 put  in  execution,  touching  matters  ecclesi- 
 astical, without  the  royal  assent ;  nor  would 
 the  king  submit  himself  in  point  of  fealty 
 to  the  pope,  as  appears  by  his  epistle  to 
 Gregory  VH.  Yet  in  his  next  successor's 
 time,  namely,  in  the  time  of  King  William 
 Ilufus,  the  pope,  by  Anselm,  archbishop 
 of  Canterbury,  attempted  to  draw  appeals 
 to  Home,  but  did  not  prevail.  Upon  this 
 occasion  it  was,  that  the  king  said  to  An- 
 selm, that  none  of  his  bishops  ought  to  be 
 subject  to  the  pope,  but  the  pope  himself 
 ought  to  be  su])ject  to  the  emperor;  and 
 that  the  king  of  England  had  the  same 
 absolute  liberty  in  his  dominions,  as  the 
 emperor  had  in  the  empire.  Yet  in  the 
 time  of  the  next  king,  King  Henry  I.,  the 
 pope  usurped  the  patronage  and  donation 
 of  bishoprics,  and  of  all  other  benefices  ec- 
 clesiastical. At  this  time,  Anselm  told  the 
 king,  that  the  patronage  and  investiture  of 
 bishops  was  not  his  right,  because  Pope 
 Urban  had  lately  made  a  decree,  that  no 
 lay  person  should  give  any  ecclesiastical 
 
414 
 
 JUSTIFICATION. 
 
 benefice.     And  after  this,  at  a  synod  held 
 at  London,  in  the  year  1107,  a  decree  Avas 
 made  to   wliich   the   kin*^   assented,  that 
 from  thenceforth  no  person  should  be  in- 
 vested in  a  bishopric  by  the  G:iving  of  a 
 ring  and  ])astoral   staff  (as  had  been  be- 
 fore) ;  nor  by  any  lay  hand.     Upon  which 
 the  pope  granted  that  the  archbishop    of 
 Canterbury  for  the  time  being  should  be 
 for  ever  ler/atus  tiatus :  and  Anselm  for  the 
 honour  of  his  see  obtained,  that  the  arch- 
 bishop of  Canterbury  should  in  all  general 
 councils  sit  at  the  pope's  foot,  as  alterius 
 orhis  impa,  or  pope  of  this  part   of  the 
 world.      Yet   after   Anselm's   death,    this 
 same  king  gave  the  archbishopric  of  Can- 
 terbury to  Kodolph,  bishop  of  London,  and 
 invested  him  with  the  ring  and  pastoral 
 staff;    and  this    because    the    succeeding 
 popes  had  broken  Pope  Urban's  promise, 
 touching  the  not  sending  of  legates  into 
 England  unless  the  king  should  require  it. 
 And  in  the  time  of  the  next  king.  King 
 Stephen,  the  pope  gained  appeals  to  the 
 court  of  Rome ;  lor  in  a  synod  at  London, 
 convened  by  Henry,  bishop  of  Winchester, 
 the  pope's  legate,  it  was  decreed,  that  ap- 
 peals   should   be    made   from   provincial 
 councils  to  the  pope:  before  which  time 
 appeals  to  Rome  were  not  in  use.     Thus 
 did  the  pope  usurp  three  main  points  of 
 jurisdiction,  upon  three  several  kings  after 
 the  Conquest,  (for  of  King  William  Rufus 
 he    could    gain   nothing,)    viz.    upon   the 
 Conqueror,  the  sending  of  the  legates  or 
 commissioners  to  hear  and  determine  ec- 
 clesiastical  causes ;   upon   Henry   I.,   the 
 donation  and  investiture  of  bishoprics  and 
 other  benefices ;  and  upon  King  Stephen, 
 the  appeals  to  the  court  of  Rome.     And 
 in  the  time  of  King  Henry  H.,  the  pope 
 claimed   exemption    for   clerks   from    the 
 secular  power.     And  finally,  in  the  time  of 
 King  John,  he  took  the  crown  from  off 
 the  king's  head,  and  compelled  him  to  ac- 
 cept his  kingdom  from  the  pope's  donation. 
 Nevertheless    all  this    was   not   obtained 
 without  violent  struggle  and  opposition : 
 and  this  caused  the  statutes  of  provisors 
 to  be  made,  in  the  reigns  of  King  Edward 
 IIL    and   King   Richard   H.     The   limits 
 of  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  were   finally 
 settled  by  the  statute  of  24  Henry  YHL 
 c.    12.      Jurisdiction   is    also    applied    to 
 the  power   vested   in    certain  dignitaries, 
 as   dean,  chancellor,    &c.,  in  some  cathe- 
 drals ;    and  in  many,  w'hen    each  indivi- 
 dual prebendary  had  a  peculiar  jurisdic- 
 tion. 
 
 JUSTIFICATION.  (See  Faith  and 
 Sanctijication.)  Justification,  in  the  lan- 
 guage of    Scripture,   signifies   our   being 
 
 accounted  just  or  righteous  in  the  sight  of 
 God. — To7nUne. 
 
 A  clear  understanding  of  the  difference 
 between  the  Church  of  England  and  the 
 Church  of  Rome  upon  this  subject  is  most 
 important,  since  the  difference  between  the 
 tM'o  Churches  on  this  point  causes  an  essen- 
 tial and  vital  difference  through  the  whole 
 system  of  their  theology.  The  definition 
 of  the  Church  of  England  is  set  forth  in 
 her  Articles  and  Homilies  :  and  it  is  there 
 propounded  in  a  manner  so  perspicuous,  as 
 to  preclude,  it  might  well  be  thought,  all 
 possibility  of  misapprehension. 
 
 As  contained  in  the  eleventh  and  twelfth 
 and  thirteenth  Articles,  the  definition  runs 
 in  terms  following  : 
 
 "  We  are  accounted  righteous  before  GoD, 
 only  for  the  merit  of  our  Lord  and  Saviour 
 Jesus  Christ,  by  faith ;  and  not  for  our 
 own  works  or  deservings.  Wherefore, 
 that  we  are  justified  by  faith  only,  is  a 
 most  wholesome  doctrine  and  very  full  of 
 comfort :  as  more  largely  is  expressed  in 
 the  homily  of  justification. 
 
 "  Albeit  that  good  works,  which  are  the 
 fruits  of  faith  and  follow  after  justification, 
 cannot  put  away  our  sins  and  endure  the 
 severity  of  God's  judgment ;  yet  are  they 
 pleasing  and  acceptable  to  God  in  Christ, 
 and  do  spring  out  necessarily  of  a  true  and 
 lively  faith;  insomuch  that,  by  them,  a 
 lively  faith  may  be  as  evidently  knoA\Ti,  as 
 a  tree  is  discerned  by  the  fruit. 
 
 "Works  done  before  the  grace  of  Christ 
 and  the  inspiration  of  his  Spirit,  are  not 
 pleasant  to  GoD,  forasmuch  as  they  spring- 
 not  of  faith  in  Jesus  Christ  ;  neither  do 
 they  make  men  meet  to  receive  grace,  or 
 (as  the  school-authors  say)  deserve  grace 
 of  congruity  ;  yea,  rather,  for  that  they  are 
 not  done  as  GoD  hath  willed  and  com- 
 manded them  to  be  done,  we  doubt  not 
 but  they  have  the  nature  of  sin." 
 
 The  homily  refeiTed  to  in  the  eleventh 
 Article,  under  the  title  of  The  Humily  of 
 Justifjcation,  is  styled,  in  the  first  Book  of 
 Homilies  itself,  "A  sermon  of  the  salva- 
 tion of  mankind,  by  only  Christ  our 
 Saviour, from  sin  and  death  everlasting:" 
 and  this  homily  is  described  as  more 
 largely  expressing  the  doctrine  of  justifi- 
 cation than  the  necessary  brevity  of  an 
 article  admitted.  Therefore,  obviously, 
 the 'statement  contained  in  it  challenges 
 our  especial  attention. 
 
 "  Because  all  men  be  sinners  and  offend- 
 ers against  God,  and  breakers  of  his  law 
 and  commandments  ;  therefore  can  no  man, 
 by  his  own  acts,  words,  and  deeds,  (seem 
 they  never  so  good,)  be  justified  and  made 
 righteous  before  God  :  but  every  man  of 
 
JUSTIFICATION. 
 
 415 
 
 necessity  is  constrained  to  seek  for  another 
 righteousness  of  justification,  to  be  re- 
 ceived at  God's  own  hands  ;  that  is  to  say, 
 the  forgiveness  of  his  sins  and  trespasses 
 in  such  things  as  he  hath  offended.  And 
 this  justification  or  righteousness,  wliich 
 we  so  receive  of  God's  mercy  and  Christ's 
 merits,  embraced  by  faith,  is  taken,  ac- 
 cepted, and  allowed,  of  GoD,  for  our  per- 
 fect and  full  justification. 
 
 "  The  apostle  toucheth  specially  three 
 things,  which  must  go  together  in  our  jus- 
 tification :  upon  God's  part,  his  great 
 mercy  and  grace ;  upon  Christ's  part, 
 justice,  that  is,  the  satisfaction  of  God's 
 justice,  or  the  price  of  our  redemption  by 
 the  offering  of  his  body  and  shedding  of 
 his  blood,  with  fulfilling  of  the  law  per- 
 fectly and  thoroughly  ;  and,  upon  our  part, 
 true  and  lively  faith  in  the  merits  of  Jesus 
 Christ,  which  yet  is  not  ours  but  by  God's 
 working  in  us.  So  that,  in  our  justifica- 
 tion, there  is  not  only  God's  mercy  and 
 grace,  but  also  his  justice,  which  the  apostle 
 calleth  the  justice  of  God  :  and  it  consist- 
 eth,  in  paying  our  ransom,  and  fulfilling 
 of  the  law.  And  so  the  grace  of  God  doth 
 not  shut  out  the  justice  of  God  in  our 
 justification,  but  only  shutteth  out  the 
 justice  of  man,  that  is  to  say,  the  justice 
 of  our  works,  as  to  be  merits  of  deserving 
 our  justification.  And  therefore  St.  Paul 
 dcclareth  nothing  upon  the  behalf  of  man 
 concerning  his  justification,  but  only  a 
 true  and  lively  faith  :  which,  nevertheless, 
 is  the  gift  of  God,  and  not  man's  only 
 work  without  God.  And  yet  that  faith 
 doth  not  shut  out  repentance,  hope,  love, 
 dread,  and  the  fear  of  GoD,  to  be  joined 
 with  faith  in  every  man  that  is  justified  ; 
 but  it  shutteth  them  out  from  the  oflSce 
 of  justifying.  So  that,  although  they  be 
 all  present  together  in  him  that  is  justified, 
 yet  they  justify  not  altogether.  Neither 
 doth  faith  shut  out  the  justice  of  our  good 
 works,  necessarily  to  be  done  afterwards 
 of  duty  toward  God  ;  for  we  are  most 
 bounden  to  serve  God,  in  doing  good 
 deeds,  commanded  by  him  in  his  Holy 
 Scripture,  all  the  days  of  our  life  :  but  it 
 excludcth  them,  so  that  we  may  not  do 
 them  to  this  intent,  to  be  made  just  by 
 doing  of  them.  For  all  the  good  works 
 that  we  can  do,  be  imperfect ;  and,  there- 
 fore, not  able  to  deserve  our  justification. 
 But  our  justification  doth  come  freely,  by 
 the  mere  mercy  of  God,  and  of  so  great 
 and  free  mercy,  that,  whereas  all  the 
 world  was  not  able  of  themselves  to  pay 
 any  part  toward  their  ransom,  it  pleased 
 our  heavenly  Father  of  his  infinite  mercy, 
 without  any   our  desert  or  deserving,  to 
 
 prepare  for  us  the  most  precious  jewels  of 
 Christ's  body  and  blood  ;  whereby  our 
 ransom  might  be  fully  ])uid,  the  law  ful- 
 filled, and  his  justice  fully  satisfied.  So 
 that  Christ  is  now  the  righteousness  of 
 all  tlicm  that  truly  do  believe  in  him.  He, 
 for  them,  paid  tlieir  ransom  by  his  death. 
 He,  for  them,  fulfilled  the  law  in  his  life. 
 So  that  now,  in  him  and  by  him,  every 
 true  Christian  man  may  be  called  a  ful- 
 filler  of  the  law  ;  forasmuch  as  that,  which 
 their  infirmity  lacked,  Christ's  justice 
 hath  supplied. 
 
 "  That  Me  be  justified  by  faith  only, 
 freely,  and  without  works,  we  do  read  oft- 
 times  in  the  best  and  most  ancient  writers  : 
 as,  beside  Hilary,  Basil,  and  St.  Ambrose, 
 we  read  the  same  in  Origen,  St.  Chrysos- 
 tom,  St,  Cyprian,  St.  Augustine,  Prosper, 
 Q^cumenius,  Photius,  Bernardus,  Anselm, 
 and  many  other  writers,  Greek  and  Latin. 
 Nevertheless,  this  sentence,  that  '  we  be 
 justified  by  faith  only,'  is  not  so  meant  of 
 them  that  the  said  justifying  faith  is 
 alone  in  man,  without  true  repentance, 
 hope,  charity,  dread,  and  the  fear  of  God, 
 at  any  time  and  season.  Nor,  when  they 
 say,  that  we  should  be  justified  freely,  do 
 they  mean  that  we  should  or  might  after- 
 ward be  idle,  and  that  nothing  should  be 
 required  on  our  parts  afterward.  Neither 
 do  they  mean  so  to  be  justified  without 
 good  works,  that  Ave  should  do  no  good 
 v.'orks  at  all.  But  this  saying,  that  '  we 
 be  justified  by  faith  only,  freely,  and  with- 
 out works,'  is  spoken  for  to  take  away 
 clearly  all  merit  of  our  works,  as  being 
 unable  to  deserve  our  justification  at 
 God's  hands,  and  thereby  most  plainly  to 
 express  the  weakness  of  man  and  the  good- 
 ness of  God,  the  great  infirmity  of  our- 
 selves and  the  might  and  ])0wer  of  GoD, 
 the  imperfection  of  our  ov/n  works  and 
 the  most  abundant  grace  of  our  Saviour 
 Christ  ;  and  therefore  wholly  to  ascribe 
 the  merit  and  deserving  of  our  justifica- 
 tion unto  Christ  only,  and  his  most  pre- 
 cious blood-shedding.  This  faith  the  Holy 
 8cri])ture  teacheth  us:  this  is  the  strong 
 rock  and  foundation  of  the  Christian  reli- 
 gion :  this  doctrine  all  old  ancient  authors 
 of  Christ's  Church  do  a])prove  :  this  doc- 
 trine advanceth  and  setteth  forth  the  true 
 glory  of  Christ,  and  beateth  down  the 
 vain  glory  of  man  :  this  whosoever  denieth, 
 is  not  to  be  accounted  for  a  Christian  man, 
 nor  for  a  setter-forth  of  Christ's  glory, 
 but  for  an  adversary  to  Christ  and  his 
 gospel,  and  for  a  setter-forth  of  men's  vain 
 glory." 
 
 The  doctrine  of  the  Church  of  Rome 
 must  be  taken  from  the  Council  of  Trent. 
 
416 
 
 JUSTIFICATION. 
 
 The  exposition  of  the  Tridentine  fathers, 
 assembled  in  their  sixth  session,  runs 
 through  sixteen  chapters  ;  and  so  extreme 
 is  its  verboseness,  and  so  perplexing  is  its 
 incessant  alternation,  that  we  might  be 
 somewhat  puzzled  to  form  a  distinct  idea 
 of  their  views  in  respect  to  justification,  if 
 the  last  of  those  chapters  had  not  given  us, 
 in  the  shape  of  an  article  or  summary,  the 
 result  of  their  prolix  theologising. 
 
 Omitting,  then,  the  discussion  upon 
 which  their  definition  is  built,  we  will 
 proceed  immediately  to  the  definition 
 itself. 
 
 "  Since  Jesus  Christ,  as  the  head  into 
 the  members  and  as  the  vine  into  the 
 branches,  perpetually  causes  his  virtue  to 
 flow  into  the  justified  ;  which  virtue  al- 
 ways precedes  and  accompanies  and  fol- 
 lows their  good  works,  and  without  which 
 they  would  in  nowise  be  grateful  to  God 
 and  meritorious  ;  we  must  believe,  that 
 nothing  more  is  wanting  to  the  justified 
 themselves,  which  need  prevent  us  from 
 thinking,  both  that  they  can  satisfy  the 
 Divine  law  according  to  the  state  of  this 
 life,  by  those  works  which  are  performed 
 in  God  ;  and  that,  in  their  own  time,  pro- 
 vided they  depart  in  grace,  they  may  truly 
 merit  the  attainment  of  eternal  life. 
 
 "  Thus,  neither  our  own  proper  right- 
 eousness is  so  determined  to  be  our  own,  as 
 if  it  were  from  ourselves  ;  nor  is  the  right- 
 eousness of  God  either  unknown  or  re- 
 jected. For  that  which  is  called  our 
 righteousness,  because,  through  it  being 
 inherent  in  us,  we  are  justified  ;  that  same 
 is  the  righteousness  of  God,  because  it  is 
 infused  into  us  by  GoD  through  the  merit 
 of  Christ. 
 
 "  Far,  however,  be  it  from  a  Christian 
 man,  that  he.  should  either  trust  or  glory 
 in  himself  and  not  in  the  Lord  ;  whose 
 goodness  to  all  men  is  so  great,  that,  what 
 are  truly  his  gifts,  he  willeth  to  be  esti- 
 mated as  their  merits." 
 
 This  article  or  summary  removes  all 
 possibility  of  misapprehension.  Through 
 it,  the  Church  of  Rome  determines  that 
 we  are  justified,  not  by  any  imputation  to 
 us  of  righteousness,  or  by  any  imputation 
 to  us  of  faith  in  the  place  of  righteousness, 
 (though  each  of  these  imputations  is  in- 
 sisted upon  by  St.  Paul,)  but  by  our  own 
 inherent  righteousness. 
 
 On  this,  the  Romish  system,  the  judicious 
 Hooker  remarks :  "  When  they  are  required 
 to  show,  what  the  righteousness  is  whereby 
 a  Christian  man  is  justified,  they  answer, 
 that  it  is  a  Divine  spiritual  quality  :  which 
 quality,  received  into  the  soul,  doth  first 
 make  it  to  be  one  of  them  who  are  born 
 
 of  God  ;  and,  secondly,  endue  it  with  power 
 to  bring  forth  such  works  as  they  do  that 
 are  born  of  him  :  even  as  the  soul  of  man, 
 being  joined  to  his  body,  doth  first  make 
 him  to  be  of  the  number  of  reasonable 
 creatures ;  and,  secondly,  enable  him  to 
 perform  the  natural  functions  which  are 
 proper  to  his  kind  :  that  it  maketh  the  soul 
 amiable  and  gracious  in  the  sight  of  God, 
 in  regard  whereof  it  is  termed  Grace ;  that 
 it  purgeth,  purifieth,  and  washeth  out,  all 
 the  stains  and  pollutions  of  sins  ;  that,  by 
 it,  through  the  merit  of  Christ,  we  are 
 delivered,  as  from  sin,  so  from  eternal 
 death  and  condemnation,  the  reward  of 
 sin.  This  grace  they  will  have  to  be  applied 
 by  infusion  ;  to  the  end  that,  as  the  body  is 
 warm  by  the  heat  which  is  in  the  body, 
 so  the  soul  might  be  made  righteous  by 
 inherent  grace  :  which  grace  they  make 
 capable  of  increase  ;  as  the  body  may  be 
 more  and  more  warm,  so  the  soul  more 
 and  more  justified  according  as  grace 
 should  be  augmented;  the  augmentation 
 whereof  is  merited  by  good  works,  as  good 
 works  are  made  meritorious  by  it.  Where- 
 fore, the  first  receipt  of  grace,  in  their  di- 
 vinity, is  the  first  justification :  the  in- 
 crease thereof,  the  second  justification. 
 As  grace  may  be  increased  by  the  merit  of 
 good  works,  so  it  may  be  diminished  by 
 the  demerit  of  sins  venial ;  it  may  be  lost 
 by  mortal  sin.  Inasmuch,  therefore,  as  it 
 is  needful,  in  the  one  case  to  repair,  in  the 
 other  to  recover,  the  loss  which  is  made, 
 the  infusion  of  grace  hath  her  sundry 
 after-meals ;  for  the  which  cause  they 
 make  many  ways  to  apply  the  infusion  of 
 grace.  It  is  applied  to  infants  through 
 baptism,  without  either  faith  or  works ; 
 and,  in  them,  really  it  taketh  away  original 
 sin,  and  the  punishment  due  unto  it :  it  is 
 applied  to  infidels  and  wicked  men  in  the 
 first  justification,  through  baptism,  with- 
 out works,  yet  not  without  faith  :  and  it 
 taketh  away  sins  both  actual  and  original 
 together,  with  all  whatsoever  punishment, 
 eternal  or  temporal,  thereby  deserved. 
 Unto  such  as  have  attained  the  first  justi- 
 fication, that  is  to  say,  the  first  receipt  of 
 grace,  it  is  applied  further  by  good  works 
 to  the  increase  of  former  grace :  which  is 
 the  second  justification.  If  they  work 
 more  and  more,  grace  doth  more  increase  : 
 and  they  are  more  and  more  justified.  To 
 such  as  diminish  it  by  venial  sins,  it  is  ap- 
 plied by  holy  water,  Ave  Marias,  cross- 
 ings, papal  salutations,  and  such  like : 
 which  serve  for  reparations  of  grace  de- 
 cayed. To  such  as  have  lost  it  through 
 mortal  sin,  it  is  applied  by  the  sacrament 
 (as  they  term  it)  of  penance:   which  sa- 
 
JUSTIFICATION. 
 
 417 
 
 crament  hath  force  to  confer  grace  anew ; 
 yet  in  such  sort,  that,  being  so  conferred, 
 It  hath  not  altogether  so  much  ])o\vcr  as  at 
 the  first.  For  it  only  cleanscth  out  the 
 stain  or  guilt  of  sin  committed ;  and 
 changeth  the  punishment  eternal  into  a 
 temporal  satisfactory  i)unishment — here,  if 
 time  do  serve,  if  not,  hereafter,  to  be  en- 
 dured ;  except  it  be  lightened  by  masses, 
 works  of  charity,  pilgrimages,  fasts,  and 
 such  like ;  or  else  shortened  by  ])ardon 
 for  term,  or  by  plenary  pardon  quite  re- 
 moved and  taken  away.  This  is  the  mys- 
 tery of  the  man  of  sin.  This  maze  the 
 Church  of  Home  doth  cause  her  followers 
 to  tread,  when  they  ask  her  the  way  to 
 justification.  AVhether  they  speak  of  the 
 first  or  second  justification,  they  make 
 *  the  essence  of  a  Divine  quality  inherent,' 
 they  make  it  '  righteousness  which  is  in 
 us.'  If  it  be  in  us,  then  it  is  ours  :  as  our 
 souls  are  ours,  though  Ave  have  them  from 
 God,  and  can  hold  them  no  longer  than 
 pleaseth  him ;  for,  if  he  withdraw  the 
 breath  of  our  nostrils,  we  fall  to  dust. 
 But  the  righteousness,  "svherein  we  must 
 be  found,  if  we  will  be  justified,  is  '  not 
 our  own.'  Therefore  Ave  cannot  be  justi- 
 fied by  any  inherent  quality.  The  Church 
 of  Rome,  in  teaching  justification  by  in- 
 herent grace,  doth  pervert  the  truth  of 
 Christ  :  and,  by  the  hands  of  the  apos- 
 tles, Ave  have  received  otherAvise  than  she 
 teacheth.  Xoav,  concerning  the  righteous- 
 ness of  sanctification,  aac  deny  it  not  to  be 
 inherent :  Ave  grant,  that,  unless  Ave  work, 
 Vfe  have  it  not :  only  Ave  distinguish  it,  as 
 a  thing  diff'erent  in  nature  from  the  right- 
 eousness of  justification.  By  the  one,  AA^e 
 are  interested  in  the  j'u/Iit  of  i/iherithiff  : 
 by  the  other,  Ave  are  brought  to  the  actual 
 possession  of  eternal  bliss.  And  so  the 
 end  of  both  is  '  everlasting  life.' " 
 
 The  diff"erence  betAveen  the  tAvo  systems 
 may  be  pointed  out  in  a  fcAV  Avords.  The 
 Romish  Church  teaches  that  a  man  is  jus- 
 tified by  an  inherent  righteousness,  Avhich, 
 though  originally  a  gift  of  God,  as  are  his 
 soul  and  his  bodily  members,  is  neverthe- 
 less, like  his  soul,  his  OAvn. 
 
 The  Anglican  Church,  on  the  contrary, 
 in  common  Avith  all  the  other  Churches  of 
 the  Reformation,  teaches :  "  that  man  is 
 justified  by  an  extrinsic  righteousness, 
 Avhich  is  not  his  OAvn,  but  the  righteous- 
 ness of  Christ  ;  the  faith  Avhich  instru- 
 mentally  lays  hold  of  it  and  appropriates 
 it,  and  Avhich  itself  is  the  gift  of  God,  be- 
 ing forensically  imputed  to  him  of  God, 
 instead  of  a  righteousness  Avhich  he  him- 
 self possesses  not ;  so  that  he  is  justified 
 throu'jh  faith,   though   not   on   account  of 
 
 2    E 
 
 faith  ;  the  sole  particular,  on  account  of 
 Avhich  he  is  justified,  being  the  merit  and 
 perfect  righteousness  of  our  Lord  and 
 only  Saviour  Jksus  Christ." 
 
 AMiichever  scheme  of  doctrine  may  be 
 preferred  as  most  agreeable  to  Scripture 
 and  to  antiquity,  it  is  clear,  that  the  tAvo 
 statements  here  given  are  at  least  incapa- 
 ble of  misapprehension.  Right  or  Avrong, 
 the  tAvo  schemes  stand  flatly  and  diametri- 
 cally opposed  to  each  other.  The  Roman 
 Church  asserts  :  the  Anglican  Church  de- 
 nies. Conversely,  the  Roman  Church  de- 
 nies :  the  Anglican  Church  asserts.  The 
 Roman  Church  asserts  the  doctrine  of  jus- 
 tification by  an  infused  and  personal  inhe- 
 rent righteousness :  the  Anglican  Church 
 strenuously  denies  that  doctrine ;  admit- 
 ting, indeed,  that  the  inherent  righteous- 
 ness of  sanctification  is  ahvays  consequen- 
 tially present  Avith  the  really  justified  ;  but 
 refusing  to  it  any,  even  the  least,  share  in 
 "  the  procurement  of  justification."  The 
 Roman  Church  denies,  that  the  ungodly  is 
 justified  through  faith  alone,  nothing  else 
 being  required  to  obtain  the  grace  of  jus- 
 tification :  the  Anglican  Church  asserts, 
 that  the  ungodly  is  justified  through  faith 
 alone  Avithout  Avorks,  nothing  save  faith 
 being  required  to  obtain  the  grace  of  jus- 
 tification, inasmuch  as  the  ofltice  of  Avorks 
 is  not  the  procurement  of  our  justification, 
 and  inasmuch  as  it  is  a  contradictory  hys- 
 teron-proteron  to  say  that  Avorks  Avhich 
 "folloAV  after"  justification,  and  are  its 
 "efi"ect,"  can  yet  "procure"  it  and  belts 
 "  cause." 
 
 It  has  been  customary  to  speak  of  the 
 doctrine  of  forensic  justification  as  if  it 
 Avere  a  Calvinistic  doctrine.  That  Calvin 
 held  it  is  not  to  be  denied,  but  all  history 
 bears  Avitness  that  it  is  not  a  2)ect(liarifi/  of 
 the  Cahdnistic  system. 
 
 Calvin  Avas  born  in  1509,  and  he  Avas  yet 
 a  schoolboy,  or  a  pluralist  in  the  Romish 
 Church,  (as  he  became  in  his  tAvelfth  year,) 
 Avhen  Luther  Avas  using  this  doctrine,  as 
 the  doctrine  by  AA'hich  to  lay  Ioav  the  Avhole 
 fabric  of  Romish  superstition. 
 
 Again,  it  Avas  the  doctrine  of  our  Eng- 
 lish reformers,  as  most  clearly  stated  in 
 our  Articles  and  Homilies ;  and  Archbishop 
 Laurence  has  triumphantly  established  the 
 historical  fact,  that  our  reformers  were  not 
 Calvinists. 
 
 If  Ave  Avish  for  a  clear  statement  of  the 
 doctrine  of  forensic  justification,  Ave  may 
 indeed  refer  to  Bishop  AndreAves  ;  and  the 
 theology  of  AndrcAves  had  certainly  no 
 affinity  to  that  of  Calvin.  Let  the  reader 
 peruse  Avith  attention  the  folloAving  pas- 
 sage from  his  sermon  on  justification. 
 
418 
 
 JUSTIFICATION. 
 
 KEYS,  POWER  OF  THE. 
 
 "  In  the  Scripture,  then,  there  is  a  double 
 righteousness  set  down,  both  in  the  Old 
 and  in  the  New  Testament. 
 
 "  In  the  Old,  and  in  the  very  first  place 
 that  righteousness  is  named  in  the  Bible  : 
 '  Abraham  believed,  and  it  was  accounted 
 unto  him  for  righteousness.'  A  righteous- 
 ness accounted.  And  again,  in  the  very 
 next  line,  it  is  mentioned,  *  Abraham  will 
 teach  his  house  to  do  righteousness.'  A 
 righteousness  done.  In  the  New  likewise. 
 The  former,  in  one  chapter,  even  the 
 fourth  to  the  Romans,  no  fewer  than 
 eleven  times,  Reputatum  est  illi  ad  justi- 
 tiam.  A  reputed  righteousness.  The 
 latter  in  St.  John :  '  My  beloved,  let  no 
 man  deceive  you,  he  that  doeth  righteous- 
 ness is  righteous.'  A  righteousness  done. 
 AVhich  is  nothing  else  but  our  just  dealing, 
 upright  carriage,  honest  conversation.  Of 
 these,  the  latter  the  philosophers  them- 
 selves conceived  and  acknowledged ;  the 
 other  is  proper  to  Christians  only,  and  al- 
 together unknoAvn  in  philosophy.  The  one 
 is  a  quality  of  the  party ;  the  other,  an  act 
 of  the  judge  declaring  or  pronouncing 
 righteous.  The  one  ours  by  influence  or 
 infusion,  the  other  by  account  or  imputa- 
 tion. That  both  these  there  are,  there  is 
 no  question.  The  question  is,  whether  of 
 these  the  prophet  here  principally  meaneth 
 in  this  Name  ?  This  shall  we  best  inform 
 ourselves  of  by  looking  back  to  the  verse 
 before,  and  without  so  looking  back  we 
 shall  never  do  it  to  purpose.  There  the 
 prophet  setteth  one  before  us,  in  his  royal 
 judicial  power,  in  the  person  of  a  king,  and 
 of  a  king  set  down  to  execute  judgment; 
 and  this  he  telleth  us,  before  he  thinks 
 meet  to  tell  us  his  name.  Before  this 
 king,  thus  set  down  in  his  throne,  there 
 to  do  judgment,  the  righteousness  that 
 will  stand  against  the  law,  our  conscience, 
 Satan,  sin,  the  gates  of  hell,  and  the  power 
 of  darkness  ;  and  so  stand  that  we  may  be 
 delivered  by  it  from  death,  despair,  and 
 damnation;  and  entitled  by  it  to  life,  sal- 
 vation, and  happiness  eternal ;  that  is 
 righteousness  indeed,  that  is  it  we  seek  for, 
 if  we  may  find  it.  And  that  is  not  this 
 latter,  but  the  former  only  ;  and  therefore 
 that  is  the  true  interpretation  of  Jehovah 
 jusiitia  nostra.  Look  but  how  St.  Augus- 
 tine and  the  rest  of  the  Fathers,  when  they 
 have  occasion  to  mention  that  place  in  the 
 Proverbs,  Cian  Bex  Justus  sedtrit  in  solio, 
 quis  potest  dicere,  Mundum  est  cor  meum  ? — 
 look  how  they  interpret  it  then,  and  it  will 
 give  us  light  to  understand  this  name; 
 and  we  shall  see,  that  no  name  will  serve 
 then,  but  this  name.  Nor  this  name 
 neither,  but  with  this  interpretation  of  it. 
 
 And  that  the  Holy  Ghost  would  have  it 
 ever  thus  understood,  and  us  ever  to  re- 
 present before  our  eyes  this  King  thus 
 sitting  in  his  judgment-seat,  when  we 
 speak  of  this  righteousness,  it  is  plain  two 
 ways.  1.  By  way  of  position.  For  the 
 tenor  of  the  Scripture  touching  our  justi- 
 fication all  along  runneth  in  judicial  terms, 
 to  admonish  us  still  what  to  set  before  us. 
 The  usual  joining  of  justice  and  judgment 
 continually  all  along  the  Scriptures,  show 
 it  is  a  judicial  justice  we  are  to  set  before 
 us.  The  terms  of,  1.  A  judge  :  *  It  is  the 
 Lord  that  judgeth  me.'  2.  A  prison : 
 Kept  and  shut  up  under  Moses.  3.  A 
 bar  :  *  We  must  all  appear  before  the  bar.' 
 4.  A  proclamation :  •  Who  will  lay  any- 
 thing to  the  prisoner's  charge  ? '  5.  An 
 accuser :  '  The  accuser  of  our  brethren.' 
 6.  A  witness :  *  Our  conscience  bearing 
 witness.'  7.  An  indictment  upon  these : 
 '  Cursed  be  he  that  continueth  not  in  all 
 the  words  of  this  law  to  do  them  ; '  and 
 again,  *  He  that  breaketh  one  is  guilty  of 
 all.'  A  conviction  that  all  may  be  vitoSikoi, 
 '  guilty '  or  culpable  '  before  GOD.'  Yea, 
 the  very  delivering  of  our  sins  under  the 
 name  of  '  debts ; '  of  the  law  under  the 
 name  of  a  '  hand-writing ; '  the  very  terms 
 of  *  an  advocate,'  of  '  a  surety  made  under 
 the  law;'  of  a  pardon,  or  'being  justified 
 from  those  things  which  by  the  law  we 
 could  not : ' — all  these,  wherein  for  the 
 most  part  this  is  still  expressed,  what  speak 
 they  but  that  the  sense  of  this  name  can- 
 not be  rightly  understood,  nor  what  man- 
 ner of  righteousness  is  in  question,  except 
 we  still  have  before  our  eyes  this  same 
 co7'a7n  rege  jiisto  judicium  faciente."  — 
 Bishop  Andr ewes''  Sermon  07i  Justijication 
 in  Christ's  Name.  See  also  Barrow's  Scr- 
 mon  on  Justification.  lVote?'land  on  Jus- 
 tification. Ileurtley  on  Justi/icatioti.  Stanley 
 Faher  on  Justijication. 
 
 KEYS,  POWER  OF  THE.  The  au- 
 thority existing  in  the  Christian  priest- 
 hood of  administering  the  discipline  of  the 
 Church,  and  communicating  or  withholding 
 its  privileges ;  so  called  from  the  declar- 
 ation of  Christ  to  St.  Peter,  (Matt.  xvi. 
 19,)  "And  I  will  give  unto  thee  the  keys 
 of  the  kingdom  of  heaven  ;  and  whatsoever 
 thou  shalt  bind  on  earth,  shall  be  bound 
 in  heaven  ;  and  whatsoever  thou  shalt 
 loose  on  earth,  shall  be  loosed  in  heaven." 
 The  power  here  promised  was  afterwards 
 conferred  on  St.  Peter  and  the  other 
 apostles,  when  the  Saviour  breathed  on 
 them  and  said,  "  Receive  ye  the  Holy 
 Ghost.  Whose  soever  sins  ye  remit,  they 
 are  remitted  unto  them  ;  and  whose  soever 
 
KEYS,  POWER  OF  THE. 
 
 419 
 
 sins  ye  retain,  they  are  retained."  (Matt. 
 xvi.  19;  xviii.  18;  John  xx.  23.) 
 
 The  poAver  of  the  keys  is  only  a  minis- 
 terial power.  By  administering  the  sa- 
 craments, tliey  who  have  that  ])Ower  do 
 that  which  conveys  grace  to  certain  souls. 
 But  Avhosc  souls  are  these  ?  The  souls  of 
 faithful  and  repentant  men.  They  who 
 are  qualified  will  receive  the  outward 
 ordinance  which  conveys  to  them  the 
 pardon  they  require :  but,  to  those  who 
 are  not  qualified  by  repentance  and  faith, 
 no  blessing  can  be  conveyed ;  the  blessing 
 of  the  minister  will  return  to  him  again. 
 
 The  power  of  the  keys  must  likewise 
 refer  to  the  authority  of  spiritual  rulers  to 
 "  bind "  their  people  by  some  ordinances, 
 and  to  "  loose "  them  from  others,  when 
 they  have  been  abused,  always  excepting 
 the  two  sacraments  of  the  gospel,  baptism 
 and  the  eucharist,  which,  instituted  by  our 
 Lord  himself,  are  always  binding.  When 
 the  bishops  of  a  Chui-ch  bind  their  people 
 by  an  ordinance,  their  act  is  ratified  in 
 heaven  :  and  they  who  seek  grace  through 
 that  ordinance,  receive  it.  Whereas,  if 
 they  loose  us  from  an  ordinance,  as  from 
 many  ordinances  we  were  loosed  at  the  Re- 
 formation, this  act  again  is  ratified  in 
 heaven,  and  to  observe  that  ordinance  be- 
 comes superstition,  not  religion. 
 
 Upon  Peter's  confession,  that  Jesus 
 was  "  the  Christ,  the  Son  of  the  living 
 God,"  1.  He  promiseth  to  build  his  Church 
 upon  the  rock  of  tlTat  truth,  and  the 
 rock  confessed  in  it;  2.  He  promiseth 
 "  the  keys  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven " 
 to  Peter  only,  of  all  the  apostles ;  mean- 
 ing thereby,  that  he  should  be  the  man 
 that  should  first  unlock  the  door  of  faith 
 and  of  the  gospel  unto  the  Gentiles,  which 
 was  accomplished  in  Acts  x.  And,  3. 
 He  giveth  him  power  of  "binding  and 
 loosing,"  and  this  power  the  other  dis- 
 ciples had  in  common  with  him.  "  Binding 
 and  loosing,"  in  the  language  and  style 
 most  familiarly  known  to  the  Jewish  na- 
 tion, (and  it  can  be  little  doubted  that 
 Christ  speaketh  according  to  the  common 
 and  most  familiar  sense  of  the  language,) 
 did  refer  more  properly  to  things  than  to 
 persons;  therefore  hcsaith,  (Matt.  xvi.  19,) 
 o  tdv  S>)(ryg,  not  of;  and  in  Matt,  xviii.  18, 
 brra  tav  Si]<Tt]Te,  not  ocrovg.  The  phrase,  "to 
 bind  and  to  loose,"  in  their  vulgar  speech, 
 meant,  to  prohibit  and  to  permit ;  or,  to 
 teach  what  is  prohibited  or  permitted,  what 
 lawful,  what  unlawful ;  as  may  appear  by 
 these  instances — a  few  produced,  whereas 
 thousands  may  be  alleged  out  of  their 
 writings.  "  ()ur  wise  men  say  that  in 
 Judali  they  did  work  on  the  Passover  eve 
 2  E  2 
 
 till  noon,  but  in  Galilee  not  at  all ;  and  as 
 for  the  night,  the  school  of  Shammai  hound 
 it,  that  is,  forbade  to  work  on  it,  or  taught 
 that  it  was  unlawful ;  but  the  school  of 
 Hillel  loosed  it  till  sun-rising,  or  taught 
 that  it  Mas  lawful  to  M'ork  till  sun-rise." 
 They  are  speaking  about  washing  in  the 
 baths  of  Tiberias  on  the  sabbath,  and  they 
 determine  hoAv  far  this  was  lawful  in  these 
 words,  "  They  boicnd  washing  to  them, 
 but  they  loosed  sweating;"  meaning,  they 
 taught  that  it  was  lawful  to  go  into  the  bath 
 to  sAveat,  but  not  to  bathe  for  pleasure. 
 "  They  send  not  letters  by  the  hand  of  a 
 Gentile  on  the  eve  of  the  sabbath,  nor  on 
 the  fifth  day  of  the  week.  Nay,  on  the 
 fourth  day  of  the  week,  the  school  of 
 Shammai  boimd  it,  but  the  school  of  Hillel 
 loosed  it."  "  Women  may  not  look  in  a 
 looking-glass  on  the  sabbath;  but  if  it 
 were  fastened  upon  a  Avail,  Kabbi  loosed 
 the  looking  into  it;  but  the  Avise  man 
 bojaid  it."  "  Iv.  Jochanan  Avent  from  Tlip- 
 poris  to  Tiberias  ;  he  saith,  '  AVhy  brought 
 ye  me  to  this  elder  ?  for  what  I  loose,  he 
 hindeth ;  and  Avhat  I  hind,  he  looseth.'" 
 "The  scribes  have  5ow;k/ leaven  ; "  that  is, 
 they  have  prohibited  it.  "  They  have, 
 u])on  necessity,  loosed  salutation  on  the 
 sabbath ; "  that  is,  they  have  permitted  it, 
 or  taught  that  it  Avas  laAvful. 
 
 Thousands  of  instances  of  this  nature 
 might  be  produced,  by  all  Avhich  it  is  clear 
 that  the  Jcavs'  use  of  the  phrase  was  of 
 their  doctors'  or  learned  men's  teaching 
 Avhat  Avas  lawful  and  permitted,  and  what 
 was  unlaiaful  and  prohibited.  Hence  is 
 that  definition  of  such  men's  office  and 
 Avork  :  "  A  Avise  man  that  judgeth  judg- 
 ment, and  maketh  unclean  and  maketh 
 clean,  hindeth  and  looseth,  that  is,  teachcth 
 Avhat  is  clean  and  unclean,  Avhat  is  per- 
 mitted or  prohibited."  And  Maimonides, 
 giAdng  the  relation  of  their  ordaining  of 
 elders,  and  to  Avhat  several  employments 
 they  Avere  ordained,  saith  thus,  "  A  wise 
 man  that  is  fit  to  teach  all  the  laAv,  the 
 consistory  had  power  to  ordain  him  to 
 judge,  but  not  to  teach  hound  and  loose: 
 or  poAver  to  teach  hound  and  loose,  but  not 
 a  judge  in  pecuniary  matters  ;  or  poAver  to 
 both  these,  but  not  to  judge  in  matters  of 
 mulct,"  (SL'C.  So  that  the  ordination  of  one 
 to  that  function, — Avhich  Avas  more  pro- 
 ])erly  ministerial,  or  to  teach  the  people 
 their  duty,  as,  Avhat  Avas  laAvful,  Avhat  not ; 
 Avhat  they  Avere  to  do,  and  what  not  to  do, 
 — Avas  to  such  a  pur])ose,  or  to  such  a  tenor 
 as  this,  "  Take  thou  the  j^OAver  to  hind  and 
 loose,  or  to  teach  Avhat  is  bound  and  loose." 
 P>y  this  vulgar  and  only  sense  of  this 
 phrase    in    the    nation,   the    meaning    of 
 
420 
 
 KEYS,  POWER  OF  THE. 
 
 Christ  using  it  thus  to  his  disciples  is 
 easily  understood,  namely,  that  he  first 
 doth  instate  them  in  a  ministerial  capacity 
 to  teach  what  bound  and  loose,  -what  to  he 
 done  and  Avliat  not ;  and  this  as  ministers  : 
 and  thus  all  ministers  successively,  to  the 
 end  of  the  world.  But,  as  they  were 
 apostles,  of  that  singular  and  unparalleled 
 order  as  the  like  were  never  in  the  Church 
 again,  he  gives  them  power  to  "  bind  and 
 loose  "  in  a  degree  above  all  ministers  that 
 were  to  foUoAV  :  namely,  that  whereas  some 
 part  of  Moses's  law  was  now  to  stand  in 
 practice,  and  some  to  be  laid  aside ;  some 
 things  under  the  laAV  prohibited,  were  now 
 to  be  permitted ;  and  some  things,  then 
 permitted,  to  be  now  prohibited,  he  pro- 
 miseth  the  apostles  such  assistance  of  his 
 Spirit,  and  giveth  them  such  power,  that 
 what  they  allowed  to  stand  in  practice 
 should  stand,  and  what  to  fall,  should  fall ; 
 "what  they  bound  in  earth  should  be 
 bound  in  heaven,"  &c. — Lujhtfoot. 
 
 There  is  one  thing  still  behind,  which 
 we  must  by  no  means  omit,  especially 
 upon  this  occasion,  and  that  is,  the  power 
 of  governing  the  Church  which  our  Lord 
 left  with  his  apostles  and  their  successors 
 to  the  end  of  the  world  ;  but  so  that  he, 
 according  to  his  promise,  is  always  present 
 with  them  at  the  execution  of  it.  For 
 this  power  is  granted  to  them  in  the  very 
 charter  to  M'hich  this  promise  is  annexed ; 
 for  here  our  Lord  gives  them  commission 
 not  only  to  baptize,  but  likewise  to  teach 
 those  who  are  his  disciples,  to  observe 
 whatsoever  he  had  commanded.  Whereby 
 they  are  empowered  both  to  declare  what 
 are  those  commands  of  Christ  which  men 
 ought  to  observe,  and  also  to  use  all  means 
 to  prevail  upon  men  to  observe  them ;  such 
 as  in  correcting  or  punishing  those  who 
 violate,  rewarding  and  encouraging  those 
 who  keep  them.  But  our  Saviour's  king- 
 dom being,  as  himself  saith,  not  of  this 
 world,  but  purely  spiritual,  he  hath  author- 
 ized his  substitutes  in  the  government  of 
 it  to  use  rewards  and  punishments  of  the 
 same  nature ;  even  to  admonish  delin- 
 quents in  his  name  to  forsake  their  sins ; 
 and  if  they  continue  obstinate,  and  neglect 
 such  admonitions,  to  excommunicate,  or 
 cast  them  out  of  his  Church:  and,  upon 
 their  repentance,  to  absolve  and  receive 
 them  in  again.  This  power  our  Saviour 
 first  promised  to  St.  Peter,  and  in  him  to 
 the  rest  of  the  apostles.  But  it  was  not 
 actually  conferred  upon  them  till  after  his  re- 
 surrection, when,  having  breathed  on  them, 
 he  said  unto  them,  "  Receive  the  Holy 
 Ghost  :  whose  soever  sins  ye  remit,  they 
 are  remitted  unto  them  ;  and  whose  soever 
 
 sins  ye  retain,  they  are  retained."  As  if 
 he  should  have  said,  "  I,  the  Son  of  man, 
 having  poAver  upon  earth  also  to  forgive 
 sins,  do  now  commit  the  same  to  you ;  so 
 that  whose  sins  soever  are  remitted  or  re- 
 tained by  you,  are  so  by  me  also."  From 
 whence  it  is  plain,  both  that  the  apostles 
 received  power  to  remit  and  retain  sins, 
 and  that  Christ  himself  concurs  with  them 
 in  the  exercise  of  that  power ;  and  how  he 
 doth  it,  even  by  his  Holy  Spirit  now 
 breathed  into  them.  To  explain  the  full 
 extent  and  latitude  of  this  power  would 
 require  more  time  than  can  be  allowed 
 upon  this  day,  whereon  it  is  to  be  exer- 
 cised ;  and  therefore  I  shall  observe  only 
 two  things  concerning  it,  whereof  the  first 
 is,  that  how  great  soever  the  power  be 
 which  our  Lord  committed  to  his  apostles 
 and  their  successors  for  the  government  of 
 his  Church  in  all  ages,  it  is  but  ministerial ; 
 they  act  only  under  him  as  his  ministers 
 and  stewards,  and  must  one  day  give  an 
 account  to  him  of  all  their  actions.  Yea, 
 whatsoever  power  they  have  of  this  nature, 
 it  is  still  his  power  in  their  hands ;  they 
 derive  it  continually  from  him,  w^ho  is  al- 
 ways present  with  them.  And,  therefore, 
 as  they  themselves  need  to  have  a  care  how 
 they  exert  this  power,  or  neglect  the  ex- 
 erting of  it,  so  others  had  need  take  care, 
 too,  that  they  neither  resist  nor  despise  it. 
 — Beveridge. 
 
 Bishop  Jeremy  Taylor  expresses,  with 
 great  clearness,  the  primitive  doctrine  on 
 this  subject :  "  The  same  promise  of  bind- 
 ing and  loosing  (which  certainly  was  all 
 that  the  keys  were  given  for)  was  made 
 afterAvards  to  all  the  apostles,  (Matt,  xviii.,) 
 and  the  power  of  remitting  and  retaining, 
 which  in  reason,  and  according  to  the 
 style  of  the  Church,  is  the  same  thing  in 
 other  words,  was  actually  given  to  all  the 
 apostles  ;  and  unless  that  was  the  perform- 
 ing the  first  and  second  promise,  we  find 
 it  not  recorded  in  Scripture  how  or  w^hen, 
 or  whether  yet  or  no,  the  promise  be  per- 
 formed." And  again  :  "  If  the  keys  were 
 only  given  and  so  promised  to  St.  Peter, 
 that  the  Church  hath  not  the  keys,  then 
 the  Church  can  neither  bind  nor  loose, 
 remit  nor  retain,  which  God  forbid  :  if  any 
 man  should  endeavour  to  answer  this  ar- 
 gument, I  leave  him  and  St.  Austin  to 
 contest  it." 
 
 The  apostles  knew  nothing  of  any  dif- 
 ferent power  conveyed  to  one  of  their 
 number  beyond  what  was  common  to  him 
 with  the  rest,  as  we  may  reasonably  con- 
 clude, since  there  is  no  record  of  any  au- 
 thority exercised  on  the  one  side,  or  of 
 obedience  rendered  on  the  other. 
 
KEYS,  POWER  OF  THE. 
 
 421 
 
 The  proposed  distinction  is,  indeed,  ut- 
 terly untenable,  and  the  whole  testimony 
 of  antiquity  is  against  it ;  yet  it  is  main- 
 tained by  some  of  the  chief  Roman  com- 
 mentators. jSIaldonat,  for  instance,  who 
 is  one  of  the  best  known  and  most  popular, 
 in  his  exposition  of  this  place,  declares  the 
 keys  to  have  been  given  to  Peter,  that  is, 
 the  power  of  binding  and  loosing,  of  open- 
 ing and  shutting,  in  subordination  to 
 Christ  alone,  wliile  the  rest  of  the  apostles 
 received  only  an  inferior  jurisdiction.  For 
 this  interpretation  he  advances  no  proof  at 
 all,  except  the  mention  of  the  keys  in  the 
 address  to  Peter,  and  the  omission  in  what 
 was  spoken  to  the  rest,  which  he  pro- 
 nounces an  irrefragable  argument ;  and  on 
 the  foundation  of  this  alleged  separate  gift 
 to  Peter  he  builds  the  right  of  jurisdiction 
 for  his  successors,  extending  to  the  su- 
 preme decision  of  spiritual  causes  on  earth, 
 and  the  regulating  the  condition  of  souls 
 in  purgatory.  Cornelius  Van  den  Steen, 
 or  a  Lapide,  as  he  is  usually  called,  seems 
 to  have  followed  the  interpretation  of 
 Maldonat,  and  says,  that  by  the  keys  is 
 signified  the  power  of  order  and  jurisdic- 
 tion granted  to  Peter  over  the  whole 
 Church ;  and  that  Christ  explains  his 
 meaning  in  the  words  which  follow.  He 
 falls  into  the  fallacy  of  representing  the 
 term  "  rock "  as  conveying  the  notion  of 
 government ;  and  then,  as  if  this  were  an 
 unquestionably  accurate  representation,  he 
 goes  on  to  blend  figures  which  have  no- 
 thing in  common,  and  assumes  that  in  this 
 way  the  supreme  power  of  the  pope  is 
 adequately  proved.  Like  his  predecessor, 
 he  vindicates  the  most  unlimited  exercise 
 of  it,  whether  in  enforcing  obedience,  or 
 in  granting  dispensations,  in  enacting  ec- 
 clesiastical laAvs,  pronouncing  excommuni- 
 cations and  other  censures,  delivering  de- 
 cisions on  questions  of  faith,  with  other 
 acts  which  fall  under  the  head  of  binding, 
 or  those  of  an  opposite  character,  which 
 belong  to  the  power  of  loosing.  In  order 
 to  dispose  of  the  difficult  fact  that  Christ 
 is  recorded  to  have  given  the  same  power 
 of  binding  and  loosing  to  others  as  well, 
 he  affirms  that  Peter  was  first  singled  out, 
 to  signify  that  the  rest  of  the  apostles  were 
 committed  to  his  care  as  his  subjects,  and 
 that  he  was  empowered  to  control,  limit, 
 or  take  away  their  jurisdictions  as  he 
 should  see  fit ;  though  it  is  clear  both  that 
 the  apostles  exercised,  in  point  of  fact,  the 
 highest  Church  discipline,  and  tliat  there 
 is  not  a  -word  which  implies  their  having 
 done  so  by  delegation.  He  very  charac- 
 teristically confirms  his  exposition  by  a 
 synodical  letter,  which  the   great  Jloman 
 
 annalist  had  given   up  as  spurious   some 
 years  before. 
 
 lioth  these  writers  were  theologians  of 
 the  highest  repute,  the  one  professor  at 
 Paris,  the  other  at  Louvain.  They  may 
 be  fairly  taken  to  express  the  judgment  of 
 the  party  at  present  dominant  in  the 
 Koman  ('hurch.  Nothing  can  be  more 
 extravagant  than  their  interpretations,  or 
 more  feebly  su})])orted  by  proofs  ;  yet  they 
 are  indispensable  to  the  position  of  the 
 ultramontanes.  This  extreme  doctrine, 
 revived  by  the  Jesuits,  for  it  was  invented 
 a  century  earlier,  has  no  pretence  of  con- 
 firmation from  any  of  the  primitive  expo- 
 sitors of  Scripture.  They  declare,  with 
 one  voice,  that  the  keys  were  given  to  the 
 Church  in  the  person  of  Peter.  In  the 
 words  of  Ambrose,  "  what  is  said  to  Peter, 
 is  said  to  the  apostles."  Cyprian  and 
 Origen,  Jerome  and  Basil,  are  of  one  mind 
 on  this  point.  The  statement  of  Augus- 
 tine, repeated  in  a  multitude  of  places,  is 
 as  clear  as  possible  that  the  Church  re- 
 ceived the  power  of  the  keys,  and  not  an 
 individual  apostle.  The  Fathers  were  not 
 writing  with  any  view  to  the  present  con- 
 troversy ;  and  many  of  their  expressions, 
 taken  separately,  Avovdd  give  a  very  untrue 
 representation  of  their  meaning,  by  mak- 
 ing them  maintain  opinions  Avhich,  in  their 
 time,  had  not  been  even  suggested.  Thus 
 Cyprian,  in  his  treatise  on  the  unity  of  the 
 Church,  applies  the  disputed  texts  to 
 Peter ;  but  then  he  speaks  of  him  as  the 
 type  of  unity,  the  representative  of  a  great 
 principle ;  and  to  guard  his  meaning 
 against  perversion,  he  states,  in  the  plain- 
 est terms,  that  the  rest  of  the  apostles 
 were  what  Peter  was,  and  had  equal  par- 
 ticipation of  honour  and  authority.  So 
 the  Fathers  continually  speak  of  him  as 
 figuring  the  oneness  of  the  Church  univer- 
 sal. They  exalt  his  chair,  but  they  are 
 careful  to  explain  that  they  arc  speaking, 
 not  of  an  individvial  bishop  possessing  su- 
 preme authority,  which  was  the  farthest 
 from  their  thoughts,  but  of  that  one  un- 
 divided episcopacy,  to  use  Cyprian's  well- 
 known  words,  of  which  every  bishop 
 possesses  a  portion. 
 
 Dupin  affirms  that  the  Fathers  are  una- 
 nimous in  assigning  ecclesiastical  power^ 
 either  to  the  Church  generally,  or  to  the 
 apostles,  and,  after  them,  to  bishops  ;  that 
 there  is  not  one  to  be  found  mIio  holds  it 
 to  have  been  given  to  Peter  and  his  suc- 
 cessors alone  ;  and  that  they  liave  guarded 
 against  any  wrong  inference  which  might 
 be  drawn  from  the  promise  given  to  Peter, 
 by  showing  that  he  was  regarded  as  the 
 representative  of  the  Church.     He  furn- 
 
422 
 
 KEYS,  POWER  OF  THE. 
 
 KING'S  EVIL. 
 
 ishes  some  authorities  on  this  subject,  not 
 only  from  the  early  Fathers,  but  from 
 popes,  great  bishops  of  the  lloman  Church, 
 scholastic  writers,  and  universities ;  and 
 he  adds,  that  the  number  of  passages 
 which  might  be  adduced  is  infinite.  The 
 same  great  writer  states  strongly  the  im- 
 portance of  the  question  :  for  if,  as  he  says, 
 the  power  of  the  keys  belongs  to  the  pope 
 alone,  there  can  bo  no  doubt  that  he  has 
 authority  over  the  whole  Church ;  since, 
 upon  this  hypothesis,  neither  the  Church 
 nor  its  prelates  can  have  any  other  power 
 than  such  as  they  derive  from  him. 
 
 In  the  Council  of  Paris,  held  in  the 
 eighth  century,  under  the  emperors  Louis 
 and  Lothaire,  the  bishops  expressly  claimed 
 this  power  of  binding  and  loosing,  without 
 any  reference  to  the  successor  of  St.  Peter. 
 The  Council  of  Constance,  in  its  fourth  ses- 
 sion, declared,  in  the  strongest  language, 
 that  the  Church  has  its  jurisdiction  imme- 
 diately from  Christ  ;  and  this  judgment 
 was  embodied  in  acts  of  the  highest  sig- 
 nificancy  and  importance.  The  Council 
 of  Basle,  in  its  first  session,  passed  a  de- 
 cree in  exactly  the  same  spirit,  and  almost 
 in  the  very  same  words,  -^neas  Sylvius, 
 the  historian  of  the  council,  and  afterwards 
 Pius  II.,  expressly  vindicates  the  text  in 
 question  from  the  interpretation  which 
 favours  the  pontifical  authority.  So  Car- 
 dinal de  Cusa,  writing  at  the  same  period, 
 claims  for  the  other  apostles  the  very  same 
 power  of  binding  and  loosing  which  was 
 conveyed  to  Peter  by  the  words  of  Christ. 
 And  John  Gerson  refers  to  this  very  place, 
 in  maintaining  the  superiority  of  a  council 
 to  a  pope.  Even  in  the  Council  of  Trent, 
 we  find  the  Cardinal  of  Lorraine  speaking 
 to  the  same  effect ;  and  though  he  may  be 
 worthless  as  a  theologian,  he  is  valuable 
 as  a  witness.  He  alleged  various  passages, 
 from  Augustine  and  others,  in  proof  that 
 bishops  derive  their  jurisdiction  immedi- 
 ately from  God.  And,  indeed,  the  whole 
 argument  of  the  French  and  Spanish  pre- 
 lates in  favour  of  the  divine  right  of  epis- 
 copacy was  based  on  the  very  interpretation 
 of  our  Lord's  words  which  the  Jesuit 
 school  condemns. 
 
 The  canonists  bear  the  same  testimony. 
 Thus  Van  Espen,  and  there  are  few  higher 
 authorities,  delivers  it  as  the  doctrine  of 
 the  Fathers  on  this  subject,  that,  while 
 Christ  spoke  to  Peter  in  the  singular,  he 
 made  conveyance  of  the  powers  in  ques- 
 tion to  all  the  apostles.  Duaren  speaks  to 
 the  same  effect.  He  affirms  that  the  power 
 of  binding  and  loosing  was  given  to  the 
 Church,  and  not  to  an  individual. 
 
 Some  even  of  the  Roman  commentators 
 
 give  a  similar  interpretation.  Thus  Nicho- 
 las de  Lyra  saj^  that,  as  the  confession  of 
 Peter  was  the  confession  of  the  rest,  so  the 
 power  given  to  him  was  bestowed  on  all. 
 D'Espence  and  many  others  give  the  same 
 exposition. 
 
 The  severe  rebuke  administered  to  Peter, 
 folloAving  so  closely  upon  his  confession, 
 puts  another  difficulty  in  the  way  of  those 
 who  insist  on  his  great  personal  preroga- 
 tives. Gregory  de  Valentia  proposes,  as  a 
 rule  of  interpretation,  that  some  things  are 
 to  be  taken  as  addressed  to  Peter  in  his 
 public,  and  some  in  his  private,  character. 
 Thus  he  supposes  him  to  have  been  called 
 the  Rock  in  the  former,  and  Satan  in  the 
 latter ;  but  this  distinction  is  arbitrary, 
 and  obviously  invented  to  serve  sc  purpose. 
 We  shall  not  be  more  disposed  to  adopt 
 the  opinion  of  Hilary,  who  would  have  us 
 consider  the  one  part  of  the  sentence  ad- 
 dressed to  Peter,  the  other  to  the  evil 
 spirit.  But  while,  with  the  great  body  of 
 ancient  doctors,  we  admit  the  sin,  we  may 
 well  believe  that  God  in  his  wisdom  over- 
 ruled it  for  good,  by  making  it  a  warning 
 that  we  should  not  think  even  of  this  emi- 
 nent apostle  more  highly  than  we  ought  to 
 think. —  S.  Robins. 
 
 KINDRED.     (See  Consanguinity.) 
 
 KING'S  EVIL.  This  disease  "is  con- 
 nected with  the  ecclesiastical  histoiy  of 
 England  by  the  power  to  cure  it,  which  was 
 for  many  centuries  attributed  to  the  kings 
 of  England,  and  which  was,  from  the  time 
 of  Edward  the  Confessor,  held  to  be  exer- 
 cised as  a  part  of  the  religion  attached  to 
 the  person  of  the  king.  The  cure,  too,  was 
 always  accompanied  by  a  religious  service. 
 
 The  kings  of  France  also  claimed  the 
 gift  of  healing,  (but  upon  no  other  occa- 
 sions than  at  their  coronation,)  and  the 
 ceremony  was  used  at  the  coronation  of 
 Charles  X.,  at  Rheims.  George  I.  made 
 no  pretensions  to  this  gift,  and  it  has  never 
 been  claimed  by  his  successors. 
 
 Bishop  Bull  says,  "  that  divers  persons 
 desperately  labouring  under  the  king's 
 evil,  have  been  cured  by  the  mere  touch  of 
 the  royal  hands,  assisted  with  the  prayers 
 of  the  priests  of  our  Church  attending,  is 
 unquestionable,  unless  the  faith  of  all  our 
 ancient  writers,  and  the  consentient  report 
 of  hundreds  of  most  credible  persons  in  our 
 own  age,  attesting  the  same,  is  to  be 
 questioned." — Sermon  on  St.  PauVs  Thorn 
 in  the  Flesh. 
 
 In  January,  1683,  a  proclamation  was 
 issued  by  the  privy-council,  and  was 
 ordered  to  be  published  in  every  parish  in 
 the  kingdom,  enjoining  that  the  time  for 
 presenting  persons  for  the  "public  heal- 
 
KING'S  EVIL. 
 
 423 
 
 ings"  should  be  from  the  feast  of  All- 
 saints,  till  a  week  before  Christmas  ;  and 
 after  Christmas  until  the  first  day  of  March, 
 and  then  to  cease  till  Passion  week. 
 
 The  office  for  the  ceremony  was  called 
 **  The  Ccrenwuies,''^  or  "  Prayers  for  the 
 Healing."  The  Latin  form  was  used  in  the 
 time  of  Henry  VII.,  and  was  reprinted  by 
 the  king's  printer  in  1686.  The  English 
 forms  were  essentially  the  same,  with  some 
 modifications.  These  occur  in  the  Common 
 Prayer  Books  of  the  reigns  of  Charles  I., 
 Charles  II.,  James  II.,  and  Anne  (and,  as 
 it  appears  from  Mr.  Stephens's  own  state- 
 ment, in  that  of  George  I.,  in  1715).  They 
 all  vary ;  and  a  new  one  appears  to  have 
 been  drawn  up  for  each  sovereign,  so  late 
 as  1719.  [^QQ  Pegge's  Curialia  MisceUa7iea, 
 161  ;  taken  from  a  folio  Prayer  Book, 
 1710.  Also  Rennet's  llegister,  731,  and 
 Sparrow's  Articles,  165,  which  latter  form 
 seems  to  have  been  used  in  the  reign  of 
 Charles  I.)  In  Mr.  Stephens's  editions  of 
 the  Common  Prayer  Book,  from  which  the 
 foregoing  article  has  been  abridged,  the 
 Latin  form  is  given,  (i.  997,)  and  the 
 English  form  in  1715  (1002). 
 
 The  following  is  the  form  in  Sjmrrotd's 
 Collections,  printed  in  1684. 
 
 AT   THE   HEALING. 
 
 Tlie  Gospel  tvritten  in  the  16th  chapter  of 
 
 St,  Mark,  beginning  at  the  14^/i  verse. 
 
 Jesus  appeared  unto  the  eleven  as  they 
 sat  at  meat,  and  cast  in  their  teeth  their 
 unbelief  and  hardness  of  heart,  because 
 they  believed  not  them  which  had  seen 
 that  he  was  risen  again  from  the  dead. 
 And  he  said  unto  them,  Go  ye  into  all  the 
 world,  and  preach  the  gospel  to  all  crea- 
 tures :  He  that  believeth  and  is  baptized, 
 shall  be  saved ;  but  he  that  believeth  not 
 shall  be  damned.  And  these  tokens  shall 
 follow  them  that  believe :  In  my  name 
 they  shall  cast  out  devils,  they  shall  speak 
 with  new  tongues,  they  shall  drive  away 
 serpents,  and  if  they  drink  any  deadly 
 thing  it  shall  not  hurt  them.  *  They  shall 
 lay  their  hands  on  the  sick,  and  they  shall 
 recover.  So  when  the  Lord  had  spoken 
 unto  them,  he  was  received  into  heaven, 
 and  is  on  the  right  hand  of  GoD.  And 
 they  went  forth,  and  preached  everywhere, 
 the  Lord  working  with  them,  and  con- 
 firming the  word  with  miracles  following. 
 
 The    Gospel  loritten   in  the  \st  chapter  of 
 St.  John,  beginning  at  the  \st  verse. 
 
 In  the  beginning  was  the  Word,  and  the 
 
 *  Here  the  infirm  persons  arc  presented  to 
 the  Idn^  on  their  knees,  and  the  king  laycth 
 his  hands  upon  them. 
 
 Word  was  with  God,  and  the  Word  was 
 God.  The  same  was  in  the  beginning 
 with  God.  All  things  were  made  by  it, 
 and  without  it  was  made  nothing  that  was 
 made.  In  it  was  life,  and  the  life  was  the 
 light  of  men,  and  the  light  shined  in  the 
 darkness,  and  the  darkness  comprehended 
 it  not.  There  was  sent  from  God  a  man 
 whose  name  was  John.  The  same  came 
 as  a  witness,  to  bear  witness  of  the  Light, 
 that  all  men  through  him  might  believe. 
 He  was  not  that  Light,  but  was  sent  to  bear 
 witness  of  the  Light,  f  T'hat  Light  teas 
 the  true  Light,  u-hich  lighteth  every  man  that 
 Cometh  i)ito  the  icorld.  He  was  in  the 
 world,  and  the  world  was  made  by  him, 
 and  the  world  kncAV  him  not.  He  came 
 among  his  own,  and  his  own  received  him 
 not.  But  as  many  as  received  him,  to 
 them  gave  he  power  to  be  made  sons  of 
 God,  even  them  that  believed  on  his  name  : 
 which  were  born,  not  of  blood,  nor  of  the 
 will  of  the  flesh,  nor  yet  of  the  will  of  man, 
 but  of  God.  And  the  same  Word  became 
 flesh,  and  dwelt  among  us,  and  we  saw  the 
 glory  of  it,  as  the  glory  of  the  only  begotten 
 Son  of  the  Father,  full  of  grace  and  truth. 
 
 THE   PRAYERS. 
 
 Vers.  Lord  have  mercy  upon  us. 
 Resp.  Lord  have  mercy  xipon  us. 
 Vers.  Christ  have  mercy  upon  us. 
 Resp.   Christ  have  mercy  upon  us. 
 Vers.  Lord  have  mercy  upon  us. 
 Resj).  Lord  have  iuercy  ujjofi  us. 
 
 Our  Father  which  art  in  Heaven.  Hal- 
 lowed be  thy  Name.  Thy  kingdom  come. 
 Thy  will  be  done  on  Earth  as  it  is  in  Hea- 
 ven. Give  us  this  day  our  daily  bread. 
 And  forgive  us  our  trespasses,  as  we  for- 
 give them  that  trespass  against  us.  And 
 lead  us  not  into  temptation,  but  deliver 
 us  from  evil.     Amen. 
 
 {These  Answers  are  to  be  made  by  them  that 
 come  to  be  healed.) 
 
 Vers.  O  Lord,  save  thy  servants. 
 
 Res}).    Which  put  their  trust  in  thee. 
 
 Vers.  Send  help  unto  them  from  above. 
 
 Resp.  And  evermore  mightily  defend 
 them. 
 
 Vers.  Help  us,  O  GoD  our  Saviour. 
 
 Resp.  And  for  the  glory  of  thy  Kame 
 deliver  us  ;  be  merciful  unto  us  siimersfor 
 thy  Name's  sake. 
 
 '  Vers.  O  Lord,  hear  our  prayer. 
 
 Resp.  And  let  our  cry  come  unto  thee. 
 
 O  Almighty  God,  who  art  the  giver  of 
 all  health,  and  the  aid  of  them  that  seek 
 
 t  Here  they  are  again  presented  unto  the 
 king  upon  their  knees,  and  the  king  putteth 
 gold  about  their  necks. 
 
424 
 
 KINGS,  BOOKS  OF. 
 
 KNEELING. 
 
 to  Thee  for  succour,  we  call  upon  Thee  fur 
 thy  help  and  goodness  mercifully  to  be 
 showed  unto  these  thy  servants,  that  they 
 bemg  healed  of  their  infirmity,  may  give 
 thanks  unto  thee  in  thy  holy  Church, 
 through  Jesus  Christ  our  Lord.  Amen. 
 The  grace  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ, 
 and  the  love  of  God,  and  the  felloM'ship  of 
 the  Holy  Ghost,  be  with  us  all  evermore. 
 Amen. 
 
 The  same  form  appears  at  the  end  of 
 L'Estrani/e's  Alliance  of  the  Divine  Offices, 
 1699.  It  seems  that  in  some  of  Queen 
 Anne's  Prayer  Books,  (not  in  1*715,  as 
 stated  by  Mr.  Stephens,)  the  form  was 
 altered,  by  the  omission  of  the  second 
 Gospel,  and  the  addition  of  certain 
 prayers. 
 
 There  seems  to  be  little  doubt  that,  by 
 the  mere  force  of  imagination,  a  cure  was 
 not  unfrequently  occasioned. 
 
 KINGS,  BOOKS  OF.  Two  canoni- 
 cal books  of  the  Old  Testament,  so  called, 
 because  they  contain  the  history  of  the 
 kings  of  Israel  and  Judah,  from  the  be- 
 ginning of  the  reign  of  Solomon  down  to 
 the  Babylonish  captivity,  for  the  space  of 
 near  600  years ;  taking  into  the  account 
 the  two  preceding  Books  of  Samuel.  In 
 the  Greek  Bibles,  as  well  as  in  the  Latin, 
 the  tvv'o  Books  of  Samuel  are  called  the 
 First  and  Second  Books  of  Kings ;  so  that  in 
 these  copies  of  the  Bible  there  are  four 
 Books  of  Kings.  Anciently  these  four 
 were  but  two  in  the  Hebrew  Bibles,  the 
 first  whereof  was  called  Samuel,  and  the 
 second  Kings,  or  Kingdoms  :  but  at  pre- 
 sent, in  the  Hebrew  copies,  the  first  of 
 these  books  is  styled  the  First  and  Second 
 Book  of  Samuel ;  and  the  other,  the  First 
 and  Second  of  Kings,  as  in  our  English 
 version  of  the  Bible. 
 
 It  is  probable  that  the  two  Books  of 
 Kings  were  composed  by  Ezra,  who  ex- 
 tracted them  out  of  the  public  records 
 which  were  kept  of  what  passed  in  that 
 nation. 
 
 KIRK  OF  SCOTLAND.  (See  Pres- 
 hyterians.)  The  Kirk  of  Scotland  ac- 
 knowledges as  its  founder  the  celebrated 
 John  Knox,  a  disciple  of  Calvin.  From 
 its  foundation,  it  adopted  the  doctrine  and 
 ecclesiastical  government  of  the  Church 
 of  Geneva.  In  1581,  King  James,  with 
 his  whole  family  and  the  whole  nation, 
 subscribed  a  confession  of  faith,  with 
 a  solemn  league  and  covenant,  obliging 
 themselves  to  maintain  and  defend  the 
 Protestant  religion  and  Presbyterian  go- 
 vernment. The  title  of  this  confession 
 is,  "A   General   Confession    of  the  true 
 
 C  hristian  Faith  and  Religion,  according  to 
 God's  Word,  and  Acts  of  our  Parliament, 
 subscribed  by  the  King's  Majestic  and  his 
 Household  ;  with  sundrie  others.  To  the 
 glory  of  GcD,  and  good  example  of  all  men. 
 At  Edinburgh,  the  28th  day  of  Januarie. 
 The  year  of  our  Lord  1581.  And  in  the 
 14th  year  of  his  Majestie's  reign."  (See 
 Cufifcssions  of  Faith.) 
 
 KISS  OF  PEACE.  (See  Pax.)  This 
 form  of  salutation,  as  a  token  of  Christian 
 afiection,  appears  to  have  been  an  apostolic 
 custom.  (Rom.  xvi.  16;  1  Cor.  xvi.  20; 
 2  Cor.  xiii.  12;  1  Thess.  v.  26;  1  Pet.  v. 
 14.)  It  Avas  one  of  the  rites  of  the  eucha- 
 ristic  service  in  the  primitive  Church.  It 
 was  omitted  on  Good  Friday  in  remem- 
 brance of  the  traitorous  kiss  of  Judas 
 Iscariot. — Auqnsti. 
 
 KNEELING.  The  posture  which  the 
 Church  prescribes  in  prayer,  acts  of  con- 
 fession, &:c. 
 
 The  practice  of  kneeling  in  confession, 
 in  prayer,  and  in  adoration,  is  of  great 
 antiquity;  a  reference  to  it  being  appa- 
 rently made  in  Isaac's  blessing  on  Jacob, 
 (Gen.  xxvii.  29,) — compared  with  his  bro- 
 ther's subsequent  conduct,  (xlii.  6,)  and 
 with  the  edict  of  Pharaoh,  "  Bow  the  knee" 
 (xli.  43)  ;  and  again  in  the  second  com- 
 mandment. (Exod.  XX.  5.)  David  says, 
 "  Let  us  worship  and  bow  down,  let  us 
 kneel  before  the  "  Lord  our  Maker." 
 (Ps.  xcv.  6.)  "  We  will  go  into  his  taber- 
 nacle, and  fall  low  on  our  knees  before  his 
 footstool."  (cxxxii.  7.)  Solomon  "kneeled 
 on  his  knees"  before  the  altar  of  the  Lord, 
 with  his  hands  spread  up  to  heaven.  (1 
 Kings  viii.  54.)  Ezra  fell  upon  his  knees, 
 and  spread  out  his  hands  unto  God,  and 
 made  his  confession.  (Ezra  ix.  5 — 15.) 
 Daniel  "  kneeled  upon  his  knees  three 
 times  a  day,"  and  prayed  "as  he  did  afore- 
 time." (Dan.  vi.  10.)  The  holy  martyr 
 Stephen  "  kneeled  down,  and  cried  with  a 
 loud  voice,"  praying  for  his  murderers. 
 (Acts  vii.  60.)  So  Peter  "  kneeled  down, 
 and  prayed,"  (Acts  ix.  40,)  and  also  St. 
 Paul.     (Acts  XX.  36  ;  xxi.  5.) 
 
 That  the  posture  was  a  customary  one 
 may  be  inferred  from  the  conduct  of  the 
 man  beseeching  Christ  to  heal  his  son, 
 (Matt.  xvii.  14,)  and  of  the  rich  young 
 man,  (Mark  x.  17,)  as  also  of  the  leper 
 (Mark  i.  40) ;  but  the  example  of  our 
 blessed  Lord  himself,  who,  though  without 
 sin,  yet  "kneeled  doAvn"  when  he  prayed, 
 (Luke  xxii.  41,)  cannot  but  recommend 
 the  practice  to  every  devout  worshipper. 
 Some  of  the  early  Christians  so  frequently 
 used  this  posture  of  humility,  as  visibly  to 
 wear  away  the  floor  on  which  they  kneeled ; 
 
KNEELING. 
 
 KORAII. 
 
 423 
 
 and  Eusebius  says  of  St.  James  the  Just, 
 that  he  had,  by  the  continual  exercise  of 
 his  devotions,  contracted  a  hardness  on  his 
 knees,  like  that  on  the  knees  of  camels. 
 The  practice  Avas  altogether  so  common, 
 that  prayer  itself  \vas  termed  kXictiq  yoj-a- 
 Tcjv — "bending  the  knees."  It  is  to  ])e 
 noticed,  however,  that  the  primitive  Chris- 
 tians, out  of  a  peculiar  regard  for  the 
 Lord's  day,  and  the  joyful  season  between 
 Easter  and  AVhitsuntide,  did  (with  the  ex- 
 ception of  the  penitents,  Avho  were  denied 
 this  privilege)  then  perform  their  whole 
 devotions  standhu/,  instead  of  kneeling  : 
 and  this  custom  was  confirmed  by  the 
 Council  of  Nice,  for  the  sake  of  uniformity. 
 It  was  from  this  circumstance,  ])robably, 
 that  the  Ethiopic  and  Muscovitish  Churches 
 adopted  the  attitude  of  standing,  generally, 
 a  custom  which  they  continue  to  this  day. 
 
 Bingham  remarks  (book  xiii.  8,  4)  that 
 though  these  two  postures  of  prayer  were 
 very  indifferent  in  their  own  nature,  yet  it 
 was  always  esteemed  an  instance  of  great 
 negligence,  or  great  perverseness,  to  in- 
 terchange them  unseasonably  one  for  the 
 other,  that  is,  to  pray  kneeling  on  the 
 Lord's  day,  when  the  Church  required 
 standing  ;  or  standing  on  other  days,  when 
 the  rules  and  custom  of  the  Church  re- 
 quired men  to  kneel.  And  therefore,  as 
 the  Canons  of  Nice  and  of  the  Council  in 
 Trullo  reflect  upon  those  who  M'ere  super- 
 stitiously  bent  upon  kneeling  on  the  Lord's 
 day,  so  others  with  equal  severity  complain 
 of  the  remissness  and  negligence  of  such 
 as  refused  to  kneel  at  other  times,  when 
 the  Church  appointed  it.  It  is  a  very  in- 
 decent and  irregular  thing,  says  CVsarius 
 of  Aries,  that  when  the  deacon  cries  out, 
 "  Let  us  bend  the  knee,"  the  people  should 
 then  stand  erect  as  pillars  in  the  Church. 
 These  were  but  small  observations  in  them- 
 selves, but  of  great  consequence,  we  see, 
 when  done  perversely,  to  the  scandal  and 
 disorder  of  the  Church,  whose  great  rule  in 
 all  such  cases  is  that  of  the  apostle,  "  Let 
 all  things  be  done  decently  and  in  order." 
 
 In  the  whole  of  the  primitive  religious 
 service  there  is  not  any  circumstance 
 casual;  every  particular,  every  gesture,  is 
 instructive.  In  the  presence  of  God  man 
 fell  upon  his  face  to  the  ground ;  and,  by 
 that  act,  humbly  confessed  his  orif/inal  : 
 hence  hoicing  to  the  ground  is  the  formal 
 word  for  worshipping,  which  it  was  high 
 treason  to  practise  toward  any  idol.  And 
 when,  from  that  posture,  man  raised  him- 
 self to  praise  and  to  bless  God,  he  raised 
 himself  no  further  than  the  knee,  still  so 
 far  retaining  the  posture  of  humility  ;  and 
 from  this  posture  the  word  to  signify  blcss- 
 
 in<j  is  taken.  As  bowing  to  the  ground  is 
 used  to  signify  worshijjping,  kneeling  is 
 used  to  signify  blessing. — Forbes'  Thoughts 
 on  Heligion. 
 
 Posture  of  body  is  a  thing  which,  how 
 slight  soever  it  Tnay  now  be  thought  to  be, 
 yet  is  not  without  its  moment,  if  either 
 Scripture,  or  reason,  or  the  practice  of  holy 
 men,  may  be  our  judges.  For  if  we  ought 
 to  glorify  God  in  our  bodies,  as  well  as  in 
 our  spirits ;  if  we  are  forl)idden  to  bow 
 down  before  a  graven  image,  lest  we  should 
 thereby  be  thought  by  God  to  impart  his 
 honour  to  it ;  in  fine,  if  our  Saviour  re- 
 fused to  fall  down,  and  worship  the  devil, 
 upon  the  account  of  God's  challenging 
 that  honour  unto  himself;  then  must  it  be 
 thought  to  be  our  duty  to  make  use  of  such 
 a  posture  of  body  towards  God,  as  may 
 bes])eak  our  inward  reverence,  and  par- 
 ticularly in  prayer,  which  is  one  of  the 
 most  immediate  acts  of  the  glorification  of 
 him. — Tower  son  on  the  Creed. 
 
 St.  Augustine  says,  "  I  know  not  how  it 
 comes  to  pass,  hut  so  it  is,  that  though 
 these  motions  of  the  body  be  not  made 
 without  a  foregoing  motion  of  the  mind, 
 yet,  again,  by  the  outward  and  visible 
 performance  of  them,  that  more  inward 
 and  invisible  one,  which  caused  them,  is 
 increased ;  and  so  the  affection  of  the 
 heart,  which  Avas  the  cause  of  their  being 
 done,  is  itself  improved  by  the  doing  of 
 them." — Aug.  de  Cura  pro  Mortuis. 
 
 In  the  morning  and  evening  service, 
 the  minister  or  priest  is  directed  to  kneel 
 (with  the  people)  at  the  Confession,  Lord's 
 Prayer,  and  two  versicles  which  follow ; 
 the  versicles  after  the  Creed,  (a  lesser  Li- 
 tany,) and  the  Lord's  Prayer  following, 
 and  at  the  Collects.  No  position  is  en- 
 joined for  the  Litany ;  but  universal  cus- 
 tom prescribes  kneeling.  In  the  Commu- 
 nion Service,  the  priest  is  to  kneel  only  at 
 the  general  confession,  at  the  prayer  im- 
 mediately following  the  Sanctus,  and  when 
 receiving  the  holy  communion.  The  di- 
 rections for  the  people  are  not  as  explicit 
 here  as  elsewhere ;  but  they  are  directed 
 to  kneel  in  the  part  before  the  sermon, 
 Mith  the  following  exceptions,  —  at  the 
 reading  of  the  Gospel  (for  the  Epistle  no 
 posture  is  prescribed)  and  at  the  Creed. 
 After  the  sermon  they  are  directed  to  kneel 
 only  at  the  confession,  and  the  reception 
 of  the  communion. 
 
 KNELL.     A  bell  tolled  at  funerals. 
 
 KOKAIi,  SONGS  OR  ]\SALMS  OF 
 THE  SONS  OF.  The  "  sons  of  Korah  " 
 formed  one  of  the  three  choirs  of  the 
 temple,  all  Levites.  They  are  sometimes 
 called  Korhites,  or  Kohathites,  being  de- 
 
426 
 
 KYRIE  ELEISON. 
 
 LAITY,  LAYMAN. 
 
 scended  from  Kohath,  the  second  son  of 
 Levi ;  Kohath's  "[randson  being  Korah. 
 Heman  was  the  director  of  this  choir  in 
 the  time  of  King  David :  but  it  seems  not 
 to  have  survived  the  captivity,  as  the  sons 
 of  Asaph  arc  alone  named  by  Nehemiah. 
 Twelve  psalms  are  inscribed  Psalms  or 
 Songs  of  the  Sons  of  Korah  ;  and  are  sup- 
 posed to  have  been  specially  performed  by 
 that  choir,  or  composed  by  some  of  its 
 members.  They  are  the  forty-second  to 
 the  forty-ninth,  eighty-fourth,  eighty-fifth, 
 eighty-seventh,  and  eighty-eighth. — Jehh. 
 
 KYRIE  ELEISON.  The  Greek  of 
 "  Lord  have  mercy  "  upon  us.  This  earnest 
 and  pathetic  appeal  of  the  penitent  heart 
 has,  from  the  apostolic  age,  been  freely 
 incorporated  into  the  liturgies  of  the 
 Church.  It  is  perpetually  repeated  in  the 
 Greek  liturgies  ;  and  in  our  own  it  is  of 
 frequent  occurrence  :  so  frequent,  indeed, 
 that  exceptions  have  sometimes  been  taken 
 to  our  forms,  as  tinctured  with  an  over- 
 abundant sorrow  and  self-abasement,  for 
 those  who  are  called  to  be  the  sons  of 
 God.  The  fault,  however,  is  fortunately 
 on  the  right  side  ;  and,  as  Bishop  SparroAV 
 remarks,  on  the  KjTie  between  the  com- 
 mandments, if  there  be  any  that  think  this 
 might  have  been  spared,  as  being  fitter  for 
 poor  publicans  than  saints,  let  them  turn 
 to  the  parable  of  the  publican  and  Pharisee 
 going  up  to  the  temple  to  pray,  (Luke 
 xviii.,)  and  here  they  shall  receive  an  an- 
 swer. It  generally  precedes  the  Lord's 
 Prayer.  In  the  Litany,  each  of  the  three 
 clauses  is  repeated  severally  by  both  min- 
 ister and  people.  In  the  First  Book  of 
 King  Edward  VL,  it  was  used  at  the  be- 
 ginning of  the  Communion  Service,  and 
 the  figure  iii.  was  prefixed  to  each  clause, 
 to  signify  that  each  was  to  be  preceded 
 three  times.  The  Kyrie  Eleison  is  gener- 
 ally called  "  the  Lesser  Litany. ^^ 
 
 KYKIE,  "  0  Lord,"  (in  Church  music,) 
 the  vocative  of  the  Greek  word  signifying 
 Lord,  with  which  word  all  the  musical 
 masses  in  the  Church  of  Eome  commence, 
 that  is,  the  above-mentioned  Kyrie  Eleison. 
 Hence  it  has  come  to  be  used  substan- 
 tively for  the  whole  piece,  as  one  may  say, 
 a  beautiful  Kyrie,  a  Kyrie  well  executed,  S^-c. 
 It  is  sometimes  applied  to  the  responses 
 betAveen  the  commandments  in  our  Prayer 
 Book. — Jehb. 
 
 LABARUM.  The  celebrated  imperial 
 standard  used  by  Constantine  the  Great. 
 Near  the  extremity  of  the  shaft  of  a  lance, 
 sheathed  in  plates  of  gold,  was  affixed,  in 
 a  horizontal  position,  a  small  rod,  so  as  to 
 form  the  exact  figure  of  a  cross.     From 
 
 this  transverse  little  bar  hung  drooping  a 
 small  purple  veil  of  the  finest  texture,  m- 
 terwoven  with  golden  threads,  and  starred 
 with  brilliant  jewels.  Above  this  rose  the 
 sacred  monogram  of  Jesus  Christ  en- 
 circled with  a  golden  crown.  Under  this 
 banner  were  his  victories  gained.  It  was 
 carried  near  the  emperor,  and  defended 
 specially  by  the  flower  of  his  army.  The 
 etymology  of  the  word  is  utterly  unknown. 
 
 LAITY,  LAYMAN.  The  people  [Xabq) 
 as  distinguished  from  the  clergy.  This 
 distinction  was  derived  from  the  Jewish 
 Church,  and  adopted  into  the  Christian  by 
 the  apostles  themselves.  Every  one  knows 
 that  the  offices  of  the  priests  and  Levites 
 among  the  Jews  were  distinct  from  those 
 of  the  people.  And  so  it  was  among 
 Christians  from  the  first  foundation  of  the 
 Church.  AYherever  any  number  of  con- 
 verts were  made,  as  soon  as  they  were 
 capable  of  being  formed  into  a  Church,  a 
 bishop  or  a  presbyter,  with  a  deacon,  was 
 ordained  to  minister  to  them,  as  Epipha- 
 nius  delivers  from  the  ancient  histories  of 
 the  Church. 
 
 Every  true  Christian  Church  is  a  body 
 of  men  associated  for  religious  purposes, 
 and  composed  of  two  distinct  classes, — 
 the  clergy  and  the  laity :  the  clergy  espe- 
 cially and  divinely  set  apart  for  sacred 
 offices  ;  the  laity  exercising  the  duties  and 
 receiving  the  privileges  of  religion,  in  the 
 midst  of  temporal  occupations  and  secular 
 affairs.  But  the  clergy  are  thus  set  apart, 
 not  for  their  own  benefit  only,  but  for  tlie 
 benefit  of  the  Church  in  general,  of  their 
 lay  brethren  among  the  rest ;  and  the 
 laity  also  are  bound  to  employ  their  tem- 
 poral opportunities  not  for  themselves  ex- 
 clusively, but  for  the  Church  in  general, 
 and  for  their  clerical  brethren  among  the 
 rest.  They  who  minister  at  the  altar, 
 minister  for  those  who  partake  of  the  altar ; 
 and  they  who  partake  of  the  altar  are 
 bound  to  support  those  Avho  minister  at 
 the  altar ;  and  this  is  one  out  of  a  thou- 
 sand applications  of  the  general  principles 
 of  communion,  and  of  the  reciprocal  rights 
 and  privileges  on  which  it  is  founded. 
 
 Compacted  by  these  reciprocal  duties 
 and  privileges,  but  still  more  truly  and 
 efiectually  by  ordinances  and  sacraments, 
 and  by  a  divine  and  mystical  agency  which 
 animates  all  with  one  spirit,  and  sanctifies 
 all  Avith  one  grace,  clergy  and  laity  to- 
 gether fonri  but  one  body.  The  clergy 
 alone  no  more  constitute  the  Church,  either 
 in  a  spiritual,  in  an  ecclesiastical,  or  in  a 
 political  sense,  than  do  the  laity  alone ; 
 and  the  Church  has  no  existence,  no  duties, 
 no   rights,  no   authority,  except    as  it  is 
 
LAITY.  LAYMAN. 
 
 427 
 
 composed  of  both  clergy  and  laity.  It  is 
 because  tliey  forget  this  that  \\c  continually 
 hear  persons  speaking  of  the  Church  as  it 
 were  only  an  hierarchy.  If  regulations  of 
 any  kind  are  proposed  for  the  prosperity 
 of  the  Church,  they  start  at  the  sound  as  if 
 it  meant  the  aggrandizement  of  the  clergy  : 
 if  the  Church  is  said  to  be  in  danger,  they 
 only  think  of  the  fall  of  mitres  and  the  im- 
 poverishing of  benefices.  The  real  truth 
 is,  that  the  Church's  privilege  and  author- 
 ity belong  to  the  whole  body,  whoever 
 may  be  their  immediate  recipients  and  ex- 
 ecutors ;  and  whoever  maintains  them, 
 whether  he  be  lay  or  clerical,  maintains 
 his  own  rights  and  his  own  patrimony. 
 
 And  the  part  of  the  laity  in  the  Church 
 is  no  more  purely  political,  than  the  part 
 of  the  clergy  is  purely  spiritual.  Nothing 
 could  be  less  just  than  to  deny  to  the  laity 
 a  spiritual  character,  although  they  are 
 not  appointed  to  spiritual  offices.  The 
 sacraments  which  the  ministers  distribute, 
 and  the  laity  partake  with  them,  are  spi- 
 ritual ;  the  one  (that  is,  holy  baptism)  ori- 
 ginating, the  other  (that  is,  the  blessed 
 eucharist)  continuing  a  spiritual  character 
 in  the  recipients.  The  minister  offers  up 
 spiritual  lauds  and  prayers  for  his  flock. 
 Even  external  disciphne  has  a  spiritual 
 object,  and  would  be  both  absurd  and  un- 
 just, if  exercised  over  those  who  are  not 
 members  of  the  Church  spiritual  as  well  as 
 visible.  And,  finally  and  principally,  the 
 ever  blessed  fountain  and  stream  of  a  true 
 spiritual  character,  without  whom  no  ex- 
 ternal sacrament  or  rite  can  be  to  any 
 purpose,  even  the  Holy  Ghost,  is  pur- 
 chased by  Christ  for  his  whole  Church  ; 
 and  sent  from  Him  and  from  the  Father, 
 not  exclusively  upon  any  order  of  men, 
 but  upon  all,  from  the  highest  order  of  the 
 clergy  to  the  least  and  lowest  of  the  laity 
 who  maintain  their  spiritual  character. 
 As  the  precious  unguent  poured  upon 
 Aaron's  head,  flowed  not  only  over  his  OAvn 
 beard,  but  even  to  the  skirts  of  his  cloth- 
 ing ;  so  does  that  spiritual  stream  of  a  holy 
 character  flow  from  the  Head  of  the  Church, 
 not  on  those  only  whose  office  is  sacred, 
 but  on  those  also  whose  character  is  satic- 
 tijied ;  not  only  upon  those  whose  part  it 
 is  to  govern,  but  on  those  also  who  must 
 obey  in  spiritual  things.  And  so  it  is  that 
 the  mystical  temple  of  Christ  "  grow- 
 eth  together  in  Christ,  which  is  the  Head  ; 
 from  whom  the  whole  body,  fitly  joined  to- 
 gether and  compacted  by  that  which  every 
 joint  supplieth,  according  to  the  efi'ectual 
 working  in  the  measure  of  every  part, 
 maketh  increase  of  the  body." 
 
 And  this  is,  indeed,  the  right  clue  to 
 
 the  interpretation  of  those  passages  of 
 Scripture  in  which  all  Christ's  peoi)le  are 
 designated  as  priests,  and  which  have  been 
 perverted  into  an  authority  for  the  exer- 
 cise of  clerical  functions  by  the  laity.  It 
 is  the  spiritual  character,  not  the  spiritual 
 office,  of  every  Christian,  of  which  St. 
 Peter  speaks,  when  he  says,  "  Ye  also,  as 
 living  stones,  are  built  up,  a  spiritual  house, 
 an  holy  ^j?v"e6'^//oof/,  to  off"er  up  spiritual 
 sacrifices  unto  GoD  by  Jesus  Christ." 
 And  again,  "  Ye  are  a  chosen  generation, 
 a  royal  priesthood,  a  holy  nation,  a  peculiar 
 people."  So  also  when  St.  John  says, 
 "  Unto  him  that  loved  us,  and  washed  us 
 from  our  sins  in  his  own  blood,  and  hath 
 made  us  kings  and  priests  unto  God  the 
 Father,  to  him  be  glory  and  dominion, 
 for  ever  and  ever ; "  and  when  Moses  de- 
 clares of  the  Israelites,  as  they  typified  the 
 Christian  Church,  "  Ye  shall  be  unto  me 
 a  kijigdom  of  priests,  and  a  holy  nation  ;" 
 they  convey  an  assurance  to  us,  not  of  the 
 priestly  office,  but  of  the  spiritual  charac- 
 ter and  privileges  of  every  member  of  the 
 Church  of  Christ. 
 
 And  it  is  as  partaking  in  this  spiritual 
 character  with  them  that  the  laity  share 
 with  the  clergy  in  many  other  things. 
 They  have  the  same  privilege  of  the  Chris- 
 tian altar,  and  for  their  children  the  same 
 privilege  of  the  Christian  font:  the  pro- 
 mises of  God  to  them  are  the  same  ;  and 
 spiritual  benefits,  both  present  and  future, 
 clergy  and  laity  share  together :  their 
 duties  are  almost  all  of  them  in  common, 
 varying  principally  in  the  external  manner 
 in  which  they  are  to  be  performed:  and 
 even  where  there  is  the  most  apparent  ex- 
 clusion of  the  laity  from  the  ceremonial, 
 they  are  by  no  means  excluded  from  the 
 authority  which  sanctions  the  ceremonial. 
 It  would  be  most  wicked  and  presump- 
 tuous for  a  layman  to  take  on  himself  the 
 ordination  of  another,  or  the  consecration 
 of  the  eucharist ;  but  it  would  be  nothing 
 short  of  heresy,  though  a  new  heresy,  to 
 deny  that  the  bishop  and  the  priest  perform 
 these  acts  with  that  authority  whicli  is 
 vested  in  the  Church,  as  a  society  of  faith- 
 ful men,  lay  as  well  as  clerical.  It  is  in 
 the  name,  not  of  the  clergy,  but  of  the 
 Church,  that  the  bishop  confirms  and  or- 
 dains ;  that  the  minister  pronounces  abso- 
 lution and  a  blessing;  that  discipline  is 
 enforced,  and  penitents  are  restored :  and 
 in  all  these  cases  the  minister  is  the  repre- 
 sentative and  instrument,  not  of  the  clergy, 
 nor  of  his  individual  bishop,  but  of  the 
 Church  at  large.  But  it  is  not  only  in  the 
 authority  and  privileges  of  the  Church,  but 
 in  its  responsibility  also,  that  the  laity  are 
 
428 
 
 LAITY,  LAYMAN. 
 
 LAMBETH  ARTICLES. 
 
 included.  If  a  Church  fall  into  heresy,  or 
 error  of  doctrine  or  of  practice,  though 
 the  hierarchy  may  be  the  chief  instigators 
 and  movers  of  such  error,  yet  the  laity, 
 still  maintaining  their  communion,  are 
 necessarily  involved  in  their  sin.  And  so, 
 on  the  other  hand,  if  the  laity  fall  into 
 spiritual  error,  the  clergy  also  are  respon- 
 sible, and  involved  in  the  sin.  It  mattered 
 not  whether  it  were  the  heresy  of  the 
 Nicolaitanes,  or  the  religious  indifference 
 of  the  body  of  a  Church  which  had  left  its 
 first  love:*  the  candlestick  was  removed, 
 not  from  the  clergy  only  in  the  one  case, 
 nor  from  the  laity  only  in  the  other,  but 
 all  were  swept  away  together.  The  laity 
 among  the  Arians  were  not  excused  be- 
 cause they  left  the  Catholic  faith  in  com- 
 pany with  their  bishops  ;  nor  were  those  of 
 the  clergy,  who,  in  latter  days,  cast  off  epis- 
 copal authority  because  of  the  clamours  of 
 the  people,  thus  justified.  GoD  only  can 
 precisely  judge  of  the  degree  of  sin  in 
 parties  thus  situated  ;  but  as  a  point  of 
 sound  theory  in  religion  and  theology, 
 the  clergy  are  concerned  in  the  errors  of 
 their  flocks ;  the  laity  are  involved  in 
 the  heresies  and  schisms,  and  other  ec- 
 clesiastical crimes,  of  their  bishops  and 
 pastors. 
 
 This  mutual  responsibility  of  clergy  and 
 laity  would  result  even  from  the  principles 
 of  a  civil  polity,  of  the  nature  of  which  the 
 Church,  as  a  society,  necessarily  partakes : 
 but  they  follow  still  more  manifestly  among 
 the  consequences  of  her  spiritual  union ; 
 and  are  plainly  stated  in  the  sacred  Scrip- 
 tures, by  the  rules  of  which  the  Church  is 
 ever  to  be  judged.  Surely  nothing  caif 
 be  clearer  than  the  words  of  St.  Paul, 
 "  Whether  one  member  suffer,  all  the  mem- 
 bers sufier  with  it,  or  one  member  be 
 honoured,  all  the  members  rejoice  with  it ; 
 now  ye  are  the  body  of  Christ,  and  mem- 
 bers in  particular." 
 
 Thus  we  see  that,  in  matters  purely 
 spiritual,  the  laity  are  very  seriously  re- 
 spotmible  for  the  proceedings  of  the  Church 
 as  earned  on,  well  or  ill,  by  its  appointed 
 ministers.  How  greatly  they  are  interested 
 in  the  same  matters,  needs  not  to  be 
 proved  at  much  length ;  since  the  validity 
 of  the  sacraments,  the  soundness  of  doc- 
 trine, the  catholicity  of  fellowship,  cer- 
 tainly concern  them  quite  as  nearly  as 
 the  clergy  themselves.  But  so  soon  as  we 
 take  into  consideration  those  matters  in 
 which  the  Church  partakes  of  the  nature 
 of  a  civil  polity,  we  find  the  interest  of  the 
 laity  in  its  regulations  so  much  increased, 
 that  sometimes  they  are  even  more  nearly 
 concerned  than  the  clergy  themselves.     A 
 
 single  line  of  George  Herbert  will  illus- 
 trate these  principles  ;  he  says, 
 "  The  Scriptures  bid  us  fast;  the   Church  says 
 now." 
 
 Here  in  the  Scriptural  part,  (the  propriety 
 and  benefit  of  fasting,)  laity  and  clergy 
 are  concerned  equally  ;  but  so  soon  as  the 
 Church  exerts  its  authority  in  the  way  of 
 polity,  (to  determine  the  time,)  the  laity, 
 upon  whose  secular  habits  a  religious  exer- 
 cise makes  a  greater  incursion,  are  by  far 
 the  most  concerned.  The  same  thing 
 holds  in  every  rule  for  the  regulation  of 
 penance  or  communion,  for  the  deter- 
 mining of  the  proper  recipients  of  baptism, 
 the  proper  candidates  for  holy  orders,  and 
 the  like.  And  to  go  a  step  farther ;  there 
 are  parts  of  the  ecclesiastical  polity  which 
 are  spiritual  only  by  accident,  and  indi- 
 rectly ;  such  as  the  means  used  in  collect- 
 ing funds  for  charitable  or  religious  pur- 
 poses, and  for  the  carrying  on  of  the 
 government  of  the  Church  ;  and  in  these 
 the  immediate  and  direct  interest  of  the 
 laity  is  altogether  paramount. 
 
 These,  which  are  the  true  Church  prin- 
 ciples on  the  subject  of  the  clergy  and 
 the  laity,  will  be  sufficient  to  ansAver  the 
 charge  of  priestcraft  against  those  of  the 
 clergy  who  enforce  sound  principles  on 
 this  subject;  and  to  make  those  of  the 
 laity  who  wish  to  act  up  to  the  high  prin- 
 ciples which  they  profess,  feel  that  as 
 churchmen  they  possess  a  sacred  character 
 which  must  not  be  lightly  compromised, 
 and  spiritual  privileges  which  they  may 
 well  think  worth  contending  for,  against 
 the  low  principles  of  dissenters  and  quasi- 
 dissenters. — Poole  on  the  Adtnission  of  La}/ 
 Monhers  to  the  Synods  of  the  Church  in 
 Scothmd. 
 
 LAMBETH  ARTICLES.  Certain 
 articles  so  called  because  they  were  drawn 
 up  at  Lambeth,  in  the  year  1595,  by  tlie 
 then  archbishop ,  of  Canterbury  and  the 
 bishop  of  London. 
 
 It  appears  that  towards  the  close  of  Queen 
 Elizabeth's  reign,  the  errors  of  Calvinism 
 had  spread  among  the  clergy  of  the  Church 
 of  England.  These  errors  were  opposed 
 by  some  of  the  most  learned  divines  of 
 Cambridge.  But  the  opponents  of  Cal- 
 vinism were  denounced  as  persons  addicted 
 to  Popery ;  and  the  heads  of  houses  ven- 
 tured to  censure  one  divine  because  he 
 denied  some  points  of  Calvinistic  doctrine, 
 and  spoke  cUsrespectfully  of  Calvin,  Peter 
 jMartyr,  and  others.  Archbishop  Whit- 
 gift,  and  some  other  bishops,  Avere  inclined 
 to  take  part  with  the  heads  of  houses  at 
 Cambridge,  and,  adhering  to  the  popular 
 side,  to   condemn   the   orthodox  divines. 
 
LAMBETH  ARTICLES. 
 
 LAiMENTATIONS  OF  JEREML\IL    429 
 
 They  met  together  at  Lambetli  palace, 
 and  there  Archbishop  Whitgift,  Dr.  Vau- 
 ghan,  elect  of  Bangor,  Dr.  Fletcher,  elect 
 of  London,  Dr.  Tyndall,  dean  of  Ely,  and 
 the  Calvinistic  divines  from  Cambridge, 
 digested  under  the  nine  following  heads 
 ■what  are  called  the  Lambeth  Articles  : 
 
 "  L  God  hath  from  eternity  predestin- 
 ated certain  persons  to  life,  and  hath  re- 
 probated certain  persons  unto  death.  2. 
 The  moving  or  elHcient  cause  of  predes- 
 tination unto  life  is  not  the  foresight  of 
 faith,  or  of  perseverance,  or  of  good  works, 
 or  of  anything  that  is  in  the  persons  pre- 
 destinated; but  the  alone  will  of  God's 
 good  pleasure.  3.  The  predestinate  are  a 
 predetermined  and  certain  number,  which 
 can  neither  be  lessened  nor  increased.  4. 
 Such  as  are  not  predestinated  to  salvation 
 shall  inevitably  be  condemned  on  account 
 of  their  sins.  o.  The  true,  lively,  and 
 justifying  faith,  and  the  spirit  of  God  jus- 
 tifying, is  not  extinguished,  doth  not  ut- 
 terly fail,  doth  not  vanish  away  in  the 
 elect,  either  finally  or  totally.  6.  A  true 
 believer,  that  is,  one  who  is  endued  with 
 justifying  faith,  is  certified  by  the  full  as- 
 surance of  faith  that  his  sins  are  forgiven, 
 and  that  he  shall  be  everlastingly  saved  by 
 Christ.  7.  Saving  grace  is  not  allowed, 
 is  not  imparted,  is  not  granted  to  all  men, 
 by  which  they  may  be  saved  if  they  will. 
 8.  No  man  is  able  to  come  to  Christ, 
 unless  it  be  given  him,  and  unless  the 
 Father  draw  him  ;  and  all  men  are  not 
 drawn  by  the  Father,  that  they  may  come 
 to  his  Sox.  9.  It  is  not  in  the  will  or 
 power  of  every  man  to  be  saved." 
 
 These  articles,  asserting  the  most  ofien- 
 sive  of  the  Calvinistic  positions,  were  not 
 accepted  by  the  Church,  and  consequently 
 were  of  no  authority,  although  they  were 
 employed  at  the  time  to  silence  those  by 
 authority  against  whom  argument  could 
 not  prevail.  The  prelates  who  drew  them 
 up  acted  without  authority,  for  they  were 
 not  assembled  in  a  synod.  A  synod  is  an 
 assembly  of  bishops  and  presbyters  duly 
 convened.  In  this  instance  there  Avas  no 
 convention.  The  meeting  was  a  mere 
 private  conference  ;  and  the  decision  was 
 of  no  more  weight  than  the  charge  of  a 
 bishop  delivered  without  a  consultation 
 with  his  clergy,  which  is  only  the  expres- 
 sion of  a  private  opinion,  it  may  be  that 
 even  of  an  Arian  or  Sabellian  ;  and  which, 
 though  heard  with  respect,  is  only  to  be 
 treated  as  the  opinion  of  an  individual, 
 until  the  clergy  have  officially  received  it 
 as  orthodox :  it  was  to  be  received  with 
 respect,  and  examined  with  reference  not 
 to  the  authority  with  which  it  was  given, 
 
 but  according  to  its  merits.  There  can 
 be  no  greater  proof  of  the  absence  of  Cal- 
 vinism from  the  Thirty-nine  Articles  than 
 the  fact,  that  the  very  persons  who  were 
 condemning  the  orthodox  for  innovation, 
 were  compelled  to  invent  new  articles 
 before  they  could  make  our  Church  Cal- 
 vinistic. The  conduct  of  the  archbishop 
 gave  much  offence  to  many  pious  persons, 
 and  especially  to  the  queen ;  and  this  at- 
 tempt to  introduce  Calvinism  into  our 
 Church  entirely  failed. 
 
 LAMBETH  DEGllEES.  The  popular 
 designation  given  to  degrees  conferred  by 
 the  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  who  has  the 
 ])ower  of  giving  degrees  in  any  of  the 
 faculties.  This  is  supposed  to  be  a  relic 
 of  legislative  authority. 
 
 LAMENTATIONS  OF  JEREMIAH. 
 A  canonical  book  of  the  Old  Testament. 
 (See  Jeremiah.) 
 
 This  book  is  a  kind  of  funeral  elegy 
 on  the  death  of  the  good  king  Josiah,  as 
 appears  from  what  is  recorded  :  "  Jeremiah 
 lamented  for  Josiah,  and  all  the  singing 
 men  and  singing  women  spake  of  Josiah 
 in  their  lamentations  to  this  day,  and  made 
 them  an  ordinance  in  Israel ;  and  behold 
 they  are  WTitten  in  the  Lamentations." 
 This  is  confirmed  by  the  Jewish  historian 
 Josephus. 
 
 St.  Jerome  imagines  this  prophet  laments 
 the  loss  of  Josiah,  as  the  beginning  of  those 
 calamities  which  followed :  accordingly  he 
 prophetically  bewails  the  miserable  state 
 of  the  Jews,  and  the  destruction  of  Jeru- 
 salem ;  though  some  are  of  opinion,  the 
 Lamentations  were  composed  after  the 
 taking  of  Jerusalem. 
 
 The  first  two  chapters  of  this  book  are 
 employed  in  describing  the  calamities  of 
 the  siege  of  Jerusalem.  In  the  third,  the 
 author  deplores  the  persecutions  he  him- 
 self had  suffered.  The  fourth  turns  upon 
 the  desolation  of  the  city  and  temple,  and 
 the  misfortune  of  Zedekiah.  The  fifth 
 chapter  is  a  kind  of  form  of  prayer  for  the 
 Jews  in  their  dispersion  and  captivity.  At 
 the  end  of  all,  he  speaks  of  the  cruelty  of 
 the  Edomites,  who  had  insulted  Jerusalem 
 in  her  misery. 
 
 The  first  four  chapters  of  the  Lamenta- 
 tions are  in  acrostic  verse,  and  abecedary ; 
 every  verse  or  couplet  beginning  with  one 
 of  the  letters  of  the  Hebrew  alphal)et,  in 
 their  alphabetical  order. 
 
 There  is  a  preface  to  the  Lamentations 
 of  Jeremiah,  in  the  Greek,  and  in  the  Vul- 
 gar Latin,  which  is  not  in  the  Hel)rew,  nor 
 in  the  Chaldee  Paraphrase,  nor  in  the  Sy- 
 riac ;  and  which  was  manifestly  added  by 
 way  of  Argument  of  the  book. 
 
430 
 
 LAMMAS  DAY. 
 
 LATERAN  COUNCILS. 
 
 LAMMAS  DAY.  A  festival  of  the 
 Romish  Church,  otherwise  called  St.  Peter's 
 chains,  or  «S'^.  Peter  in  the  fetters,  in  me- 
 mory of  the  imprisonment  of  that  apostle. 
 Two  derivations  have  been  given  of  the 
 name  Lammas.  1st,  The  literal  sense, 
 arising  from  a  ludicrous  notion  of  the 
 vulgar,  that  St.  Peter  was  patron  of  the 
 la7nbs,  from  our  Saviouk's  words  to  him, 
 "  Feed  my  lambs."  2.  From  a  Saxon 
 word,  meaning  "  Loaf-mass,'^  it  having 
 been  the  custom  of  the  Saxons  to  offer  on 
 this  day  (August  1)  an  oblation  of  loaves 
 made  of  new  wheat,  as  the  first-fruits  of 
 their  new  corn. 
 
 LAMPADAKY.  An  officer  in  the  an- 
 cient Church  of  Constantinople ;  so  called, 
 because  it  was  his  business  to  see  that  the 
 lamps  of  the  church  were  lighted,  and  to 
 carrjr  a  taper  before  the  emperor,  the  em- 
 press, and  the  patriarch,  when  they  went 
 to  church,  or  in  procession.  The  taper, 
 borne  before  the  emperor,  was  encompass- 
 ed with  several  golden  circles  representing 
 crowns :  those  carried  before  the  empress 
 and  patriarch  had  but  one.  These  tapers 
 were  emblematical,  and  signified  that  these 
 illustrious  personages  were  to  enlighten 
 the  rest  of  the  world  by  the  splendour  of 
 their  virtues. 
 
 LANTERN.  The  central  tower  of  a 
 cross  church,  when  it  is  open  over  the 
 cross.  This  seems  always  to  have  been  the 
 vernacular  term  for  such  a  tower.  Thus, 
 William  de  Chambre  says  of  Bishop  Skir- 
 law,  "  3Ia(/nam  jjarte7n  campanilis,  vulf/o 
 lantern,  minister ii  Eboracensis  construxit." 
 
 LAPSE.  When  a  patron  neglects  to 
 present  a  clerg}-man  to  a  benefice  in  his 
 gift,  within  six  months  after  its  vacancy, 
 the  benefice  lapses  to  the  bishop ;  and  if 
 he  does  not  collate  within  six  months,  it 
 lapses  to  the  archbishop ;  and  if  he  neg- 
 lects to  collate  within  six  months,  it  lapses 
 to  the  Crown. 
 
 LAPSED.  Those  persons  were  so  call- 
 ed, who  in  time  of  persecution  denied  the 
 faith  of  Christ  ;  but  again,  on  persecution 
 ceasing,  sought  reconciliation  and  Church 
 communion. 
 
 The  discipline  vf'iih  which  such  persons 
 were  visited  included  a  long  absence  from 
 the  holy  eucharist,  w'hich  however  was  not 
 denied  them  in  case  of  extreme  illness. 
 And  the  maternal  solicitude  of  the  Church 
 for  her  sons  was  so  great,  that  when  dan- 
 gerous sickness  was  prevalent,  or  when 
 another  persecution  seemed  to  impend,  it 
 somewhat  relaxed  the  rule.  This  is  espe- 
 cially shown  in  the  conduct  and  writings 
 of  St.  Cyprian  ;  in  whose  times  the  case  of 
 the  lapsed  was  brought  before  the  Church, 
 
 by  circumstances,  more  fully,  and  was  also 
 more  clearly  determined,  than  it  had  been 
 before.  One  of  his  most  celebrated  tracts 
 refers  especially  to  their  case. 
 
 Diff*erent  circumstances  gave  to  diff'erent 
 individuals  of  the  lapsed  the  names  of  Sa- 
 crijicati,  'Phurijicati,  and  Lihellatici.  (See 
 these  words.)  The  Traditores  were  not 
 held  wholly  free  from  the  crime  of  the 
 lapsed.     (See  Tradiiors.) 
 
 Those  who  absolutely  and  for  ever  fell 
 away  were  classed  by  the  Church  as  hea- 
 thens, and  had  of  course  no  ecclesiastical 
 position,  however  low. 
 
 LATERAN  COUNCILS.  Under  this 
 head,  to  which  reference  has  been  made 
 under  the  article  on  Councils,  we  shall 
 include  all  the  councils  of  the  Romish 
 Church. 
 
 Lateran  (J.)  in  the  year  1123.  It  was 
 convened  by  Pope  Calixtus  II.,  who  pre- 
 sided in  person.  It  consisted  of  300 
 bishops.  It  decreed  that  investiture  to 
 ecclesiastical  dignities  was  the  exclusive 
 right  of  the  Church  ;  and  that  the  practice 
 of  secular  princes  giving  such  investiture 
 was  an  usurpation.  The  celibacy  of  the 
 clergy  was  also  decreed. 
 
 Lateran  {LL.)  in  1139,  composed  of 
 nearly  1000  bishops,  under  the  presidency 
 of  Pope  Innocent  II.  It  decided  on  the 
 due  election  of  this  pope,  and  condemned 
 the  errors  of  Peter  de  Bruys  and  Arnold 
 of  Brescia. 
 
 Lateran  {III.)  in  1179.  At  this  coun- 
 cil, with  Pope  Alexander  III.  at  their  head, 
 302  bishops  condemned  what  they  were 
 pleased  to  call  the  "  errors  and  impieties" 
 of  the  AValdenses  and  Albigenses. 
 
 Lateran  {IV.)  in  1215,  composed  of  412 
 bishops,  under  Innocent  III.,  had  for  its 
 objects  the  recovery  of  the  Holy  Land, 
 reformation  of  abuses,  and  the  extirpation 
 of  heresy. 
 
 Lyons  {I.)  in  1245,  consisting  of  140 
 bishops,  was  convened  for  the  purpose  of 
 promoting  the  Crusades,  restoring  eccle- 
 siastical discipline,  and  dethroning  Fre- 
 derick IL,  emperor  of  Germany.  It  was 
 also  decreed  at  this  council  that  cardinals 
 should  wear  red  hats. 
 
 Lyons  {IL)  in  1274.  There  were  500 
 bishops  and  about  1000  inferior  clergy 
 present.  Its  principal  object  was  the  re- 
 union of  the  Greek  and  Latin  Churches. 
 
 Vienne  in  Gaul,  1311,  consisting  of  300 
 bishops,  who  Avere  convoked  to  suppress 
 the  Knights  Templars,  condemn  those  who 
 were  accused  of  heresy,  and  assist  the 
 Christians  in  Palestine. 
 
 Constance,  in  1414—1418.  The  Ger- 
 man emperor,  the  pope,  20  princes,  140 
 
LATERAN  COUNCILS 
 
 LAY  BAPTISM. 
 
 431 
 
 counts,  more  than  '20  cardinals,  7  patri- 
 archs, 20  archbishops,  91  bishops,  600 
 other  clerical  dip^nitaries,  and  about  4000 
 priests,  -were  i)r.esent  at  this  celebrated 
 ecclesiastical  assembly,  which  was  occa- 
 sioned by  the  divisions  and  contests  that 
 had  arisen  about  the  affiiirs  of  the  Church. 
 From  130.5 — 1377,  the  po])es  had  resided 
 at  Avignon ;  but  in  1378,  Gregory  XI. 
 removed  the  papal  seat  back  to  liome : 
 after  his  death,  the  French  and  Italian 
 cardinals  could  not  agree  upon  a  suc- 
 cessor, and  so  each  party  chose  its  own 
 candidate.  This  led  to  a  schism,  which 
 lasted  forty  years.  Indeed,  when  the 
 emperor  Sigismund  ascended  the  throne, 
 in  1411,  there  were  tJiree  popes,  each  of 
 whom  had  anathematized  the  two  others. 
 To  put  an  end  to  these  disorders,  and  to 
 stop  the  diffusion  of  the  doctrines  of  Huss, 
 Sigismund  went  in  person  to  Italy,  France, 
 Spain,  and  England,  and  (as  the  emperor 
 Maximilian  I.  used  to  say,  in  jest,  ])er- 
 forming  the  part  of  the  beadle  of  the  llo- 
 man  empire)  summoned  a  general  council. 
 The  pretended  heresies  of  AVickliff  and 
 Huss  were  here  condemned,  and  the  latter, 
 notwithstanding  the  assurances  of  safety 
 given  him  by  the  emperor,  was  burnt, 
 July  7,  1415;  and  his  friend  and  com- 
 panion, Jerome  of  Prague,  met  with  the 
 same  fate.  May  30,  141G.  The  tliree 
 popes  were  formally  deposed,  and  Martin 
 V.  was  legally  chosen  to  the  chair  of  St. 
 Peter. 
 
 Basle,  1431,  under  the  presidency  of 
 the  cardinal  legate  Juliano  Ca^sarini  of 
 St.  Angelo,  after  holding  not  fewer  than 
 forty-five  sessions,  terminated  its  labours. 
 May  16,  1443.  Its  objects,  which  were 
 partly  attained,  were  to  extirpate  heresies, 
 limit  the  power  of  the  pope,  effect  a  re- 
 formation of  the  clergy,  and  consolidate 
 the  interests  of  the  Church.  Its  decrees 
 are  not  admitted  into  any  of  the  Roman 
 collections,  and  are  considered  of  no  au- 
 thority by  the  Roman  lawyers.  They  are, 
 however,  recognised  in  points  of  canon 
 law  in  France  and  Germany ;  and  though 
 some  later  concordats  have  modified  the 
 application  of  them,  they  have  never  been 
 formally  and  entirely  annulled. 
 
 Fhrence,  1439 — 1442.  It  was  composed 
 of  141  bishops,  the  patriarch  of  Constan- 
 tinople, and  the  legates  of  the  patriarchs 
 of  Alexandi-ia,  Antioch,  and  Jerusalem. 
 It  effected  a  renunciation  of  schism  on 
 the  part  of  the  Greeks,  and  an  a])juration 
 of  heresy  on  the  part  of  the  Armenians. 
 
 Lateral  {V.)  in  1512,  convened  by  Pope 
 Julius  II.,  to  oppose  another  held  by  nine 
 cardinals  of  high  rank  the  year  before  at 
 
 Pisa,  with  a  view  to  bridle  his  wild  ani- 
 mosity, turbulence,  and  contumacy.  It 
 declared  that  council  schismatic,  abolished 
 the  Pragmatic  Sanction,  and  strengthened 
 the  power  of  the  Roman  see. 
 
 Trent,  convoked  and  opened  by  Paul  III. 
 in  1545;  continued  under  Julius  III.;  and, 
 after  numerous  interruptions,  brought  to 
 a  close  in  1563,  under  the  pontificate  of 
 Pius  IV.  Its  object  was  professedly  to 
 reform  ecclesiastical  abuses,  but  really  to 
 counteract  and  crush  the  Reformation. 
 (See  'Trent.) 
 
 LATITUDINARIANS.  Certain  di- 
 vines so  called  from  the  latitude  of  their 
 principles.  The  term  is  chiefly  applied  to 
 some  divines  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
 Avho  were  attached  to  the  English  estab- 
 lishment, as  such,  but  regarded  episcopacy, 
 and  forms  of  public  worship,  as  among  the 
 things  indifferent.  They  would  not  ex- 
 clude from  their  communion  those  who 
 differed  from  them  in  those  particulars. 
 Many  of  the  latitudinarian  divines  com- 
 menced as  Calvinists,  and  ended  as  So- 
 cinians. 
 
 LATTER-DAY  SAINTS.  (See  3Ior- 
 monists.) 
 
 LATRIA.     (See  BuUa.) 
 
 LAUDS.  The  service  which  followed 
 next  after  the  nocturn  was  so  designated 
 before  the  Reformation.  It  was  some- 
 times called  matin  lauds.  The  lauds  are 
 noAV,  in  the  reformed  Church  of  England, 
 merged  in  the  matins.  The  office  of  Lauds 
 contains  the  Benedicite  and  the  Benedic- 
 tion, as  that  of  Matins  does  the  Te  Deum. 
 Both  have  psalmody  and  hymns. 
 
 LAUDS,  in  Church  music,  hymns  of 
 praise. 
 
 LAURA.  A  name  given  to  a  collection 
 of  little  cells  at  some  distance  from  each 
 other,  in  which  the  hermits  of  ancient 
 times  lived  together  in  a  wilderness. 
 These  hermits  did  not  live  in  community, 
 but  each  monk  provided  for  himself  in  his 
 distinct  cell.  The  most  celebrated  Lauras 
 mentioned  in  ecclesiastical  history  were  in 
 Palestine ;  as  the  Laura  of  St.  Euthymius, 
 St.  Saba,  the  Laura  of  the  Towers,  Szc. 
 The  most  ancient  monasteries  in  Ireland 
 were  Lauras. 
 
 LAVACRUM.     (See  Piscina.) 
 
 LAY  BAPTISM.  (See  Baptism.)  Bap- 
 tism administered  by  persons  not  in  holy 
 orders,  i.  e.  by  laymen. 
 
 It  is  a  first  principle  in  the  Church  of 
 God,  that  no  one  has  a  right  to  execute 
 any  function  of  the  ministry,  till  he  has 
 been  lawfully  invested  with  the  ministerial 
 office.  It  is  also  confessed  that  the  ad- 
 ministration of  baptism  is  one  of  the  func- 
 
432 
 
 LAY  BAPTISM. 
 
 tions  of  the  ministry.    It  follows,  therefore, 
 that  none  have  a  riciht  to  administer  bap- 
 tism, but  those  holding  ministerial  author- 
 ity.    Here,  then,  there  can  be  no  dispute  ; 
 laymen   have   no   ric/ht   to   baptize.     But 
 what  if  they  should  baptize  in  spite  of  this 
 virtual  interdict?    Is   there    any    force  or 
 validity  in  an  act  done  in  open  violation 
 of  a  fixed  principle  of  the  Church  ?  Here 
 is  the  important  question  of  the  contro- 
 versy— the    very  "  pith    of  the  matter  ;  " 
 and  it  resolves  itself  into  this  simple  in- 
 quiry : — Suppose   that   a   layman  has  no 
 right  to  baptize,  has  he  also  no  abiliti/  ? 
 The  distinction  between  these  it  will  be 
 well  to   keep  in  view.     A  man  may  have 
 ability  to  do  an  action  without  the  right 
 to  exercise  that  ability,  and  so  vice  versa. 
 And  again,  a  citizen  may  be  in  full  pos- 
 session of  intellectual  and  physical  qualifi- 
 cations for    a  public   office ;    but  without 
 either  right  or  ahility  to  perform  the   au- 
 thoritative acts  of  such  an  office,  till  these 
 are  conferred  upon  him  by  the  superior 
 power.     Whence  then  does  a  layman  de- 
 rive  any  ahility  to  baptize  ?   AVe  do  not 
 here  mean  the  ability  to  perform  the  phy- 
 sical acts  of  reciting  the  form,  and  pouring 
 the   water,  (for  these  are  in   every  one's 
 power,)  but   that   of  standing   as    God's 
 agent  in  effecting  "  a  death  unto  sin,  and 
 a  new  birth  unto  righteousness ; "  in  con- 
 ferring  remission  of  sins,   and  declaring 
 that  "  7<e/e6//,"  in  this  very  act  of  usurp- 
 ation, "  children  of  wrath  are  made  the 
 children  of  grace."     How   can  any  one, 
 not  a  lawful  minister,   possess  ability  to 
 this  extent  ?  With  all  humility  we  reply, 
 that  we  know  not,  unless  the  sacrament 
 work  ex  opere  operato :  and  thus  the  Ro- 
 mish Church  is    so  far  consistent  in   al- 
 lowing midwives  and  others  to  baptize. 
 She  does  believe  that  the  sacrament  works 
 ex  opere  operato  ;  but  is  it  not  a  little  sin- 
 gular that  the  extremes  of  ultra-Protest- 
 antism and  llomanism  should  here  meet  ? 
 If  a  layman  should  perform  the  external 
 part   of  ordination,  confirmation,  absolu- 
 tion, consecration  of  the  eucharist,  &c.,  we 
 agree  in  the  conclusion,  that  this  is  null 
 and  void,  because  he  has  no  power  over 
 the  internal   and   spiritual   part   of  such 
 offices.     If  baptism,  therefore,  be  anything 
 more  than  an  external  ceremony,  the  same 
 conclusion  would  seem  to  follow,  for  any- 
 thing we  can  learn  from  Scripture  to  the 
 contrary.     We  have  no  proof  that  Christ 
 ever  promised  to  sanction  lay  baptism  ;  or 
 that  he  conferred  the  power  of  baptizing 
 on  any  but  the  clergy ;  or  that  the  apostles 
 ever  imparted  it  to* any  other  but  clergy; 
 or  that  Christ  ever  pledged  himself  to 
 
 bind  or  loose  in  heaven  what  laymen  might 
 bind  or  loose  on  earth.  To  say  the  least, 
 then,  there  is  very  great  uncertainty  as  to 
 the  spiritual  effect  of  baptisms  administer- 
 ed by  those  whom  neither  the  Head  of  the 
 Church,  nor  his  apostles,  ever  commissioned 
 to  baptize.  This  appears  to  us  a  manifest 
 result  of  the  principle  from  which  we 
 started  :  and,  unless  that  principle  be  pre- 
 served, we  see  not  how  the  integrity  of 
 the  Church  can  be  maintained,  or  how  the 
 prerogatives  and  powers  of  the  ministry 
 can  be  asserted ;  or  why,  except  as  a  mere 
 matter  of  expediency,  there  should  be  any 
 ministry  at  all.  For,  if  it  be  granted  that 
 though  laymen  have  no  right  to  perform 
 priestly  offices,  yet,  if  they  choose,  they 
 can  perform  them;  i.  e.  their  usurped 
 acts  are  ratified  in  heaven,  equally  with 
 those  of  an  empowered  ministry  ;  this  is 
 to  overturn  the  very  foundations  of  apos- 
 tolic order ;  to  deprive  the  clergy  of  their 
 Divine  commission,  or  to  effectually  neu- 
 tralize it;  and,  finally,  to  reduce  their 
 office,  in  the  judgment  of  the  world,  to 
 the  low  rank  of  a  mere  literary  profession, 
 or  ecclesiastical  employment. 
 
 So  much,  then,  for  the  legitimate  conse- 
 quences of  the  principle  on  which  the  doc- 
 trine of  the  ministry  rests.  But  when  we 
 turn  to  the  practice  of  the  Church,  we  are 
 struck  with  an  apparent  contrariety.  In 
 very  early  times,  the  baptisms  of  laymen, 
 and  of  degraded  or  schismatical  priests, 
 were  not  in  all  cases  repeated,  though 
 there  were  not  wanting  those  who,  like  St. 
 Cyprian,  were  resolved  to  maintain  the 
 strictest  view  of  their  invalidity.  That 
 such  baptisms  were  suffered  to  pass  in  the 
 century  next  after  the  apostles,  it  M'ould 
 be  difficult  to  prove ;  and  in  the  succeeding 
 age  the  probability  is,  that  they  were  only 
 tolerated  in  cases  of  extreme  necessity. 
 Still  the  fact  is  undeniable,  that  for  more 
 than  a  thousand  years  lay  baptisms  have 
 occurred  in  the  Church,  and  in  such  cases 
 re-baptization  was  not  always  thought  ne- 
 cessary. 
 
 How,  then,  could  the  Church  vindicate 
 herself  in  a  procedure  which  seemed  sub- 
 versive of  one  of  her  cardinal  principles  ? 
 for,  at  first  sight,  the  charge  of  inconsist- 
 ency appears  inevitable  ;  and  yet,  as  every 
 tyro  knows,  the  ancient  Church  was  tena- 
 cious of  her  rights,  and  exact  in  her  ad- 
 ministration, almost  to  a  proverb.  To  us, 
 the  key  to  the  matter  seems  to  have  been 
 this.  While  the  Church  acknowledged  no 
 authority  in  laymen  to  baptize,  yet  if  they 
 did  go  through  the  regular  forms,  the  ex- 
 ternal  part  of  the  sacrament  was  actually 
 performed.     Hence,  in  all  cases,  diligent 
 
LAY  B  An  ISM. 
 
 433 
 
 inquiry  was  made  whether  the  element  of 
 water  was  a^jplied,  and  whether  this  was 
 done  in  the  name  of  the  sacred  Trinity. 
 On  proof  of  this,  the  concession  was  made 
 that  so  far  baptism  had  been  given.  But 
 while  the  Church  allowed  that  laymen 
 could  perform  the  external  part  of  ba})tism, 
 she  seems  to  have  denied  altogether  that 
 they  could  communicate  li^^spi ritual  graces  ; 
 and,  therefore,  if  we  mistake  not,  a  lay 
 baptism  was  never  esteemed  perfect,  com- 
 plete, and  without  defect,  i.  e.  valid  both 
 in  its  external  and  internal  parts.  A  per- 
 son so  baptized,  on  returning  to  the  unity 
 of  the  Church,  or  on  application  for  ad- 
 mittance to  its  higher  privileges,  was  re- 
 ceived without  the  repetition  of  the  exter- 
 nal part  of  the  initiatory  sacrament,  but 
 was  endued  Avith  remission  and  the  Holy 
 Spirit,  by  the  laying  on  of  the  bishop's 
 hands  in  confirmation,  these  spiritual  gifts 
 being  those  which  were  wanting  in  the 
 applicant's  lay  baptism.  Now,  if  this  were 
 so,  the  Church  stands  clear  of  any  charge 
 of  inconsistency  ;  nay,  more,  she  exhibits 
 her  adherence  to  principle  in  the  strongest 
 light,  by  treating  lay  baptism  as  a  mere 
 form  of  that  sacrament,  "without  the  power 
 thereof."  This,  we  think,  was  the  ordinary 
 practice  of  the  Church.  And  though  con- 
 firmation is  an  ordinance  distinct  from 
 baptism,  yet  it  always  preserved  a  closer 
 alliance  Avith  that  sacrament  than  with 
 the  holy  eucharist,  being  anciently  given 
 either  in  immediate  connexion  with  bap- 
 tism, or  at  a  period  very  little  subsequent 
 to  it. 
 
 So  far  as  the  irregular  baptisms  of  here- 
 tics and  schismatics  were  concerned,  it  is 
 incontestable  that  the  compensating  prac- 
 tice just  referred  to  was  very  generally 
 adopted.  And  that  confirmation  was  given, 
 in  such  cases,  not  only  for  the  conferring 
 of  its  own  proper  graces,  but  also  Avith  the 
 direct  object  of  correcting  the  deficiencies 
 of  a  previous  baptism,  is  manifest  from  the 
 language  of  early  writers.  Leo,  in  writing 
 to  Nicetius,  bishop  of  Aquileia,  remarks, 
 "  that  such  as  received  baptism  from  here- 
 tics *  *  *  were  to  be  received  only  by 
 invocation  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  im- 
 position of  hands,  and  that  because  they 
 had  before  only  received  ihQ  form  of  baj)- 
 tism,  without  the  sanctifying  power  of  it." 
 St.  Augustine  "  supposes,"  says  Bingham, 
 "  that  they  who  are  thus  baptized  received 
 the  outward  visible  sacrament,  but  not  the 
 invisil)le,  internal,  sanctifying  grace  of  the 
 Spirit."  These  graces,  "  heretics  and  I 
 schismatics  were  not  sup])osed  qualified  to  { 
 give,  nor  they  Avho  desired  baptism  at  their  I 
 hands  qualified  to  receive,  till  they  rc- 
 2  F 
 
 turned  with  repentance  and  charity  to  the 
 \niity  of  the  Church  again  ;  and  then  the 
 Cinirch,  by  imjjosition  of  hands,  and  invo- 
 cation of  the  Holy  Spirit,  might  obtain 
 for  them  those  blessings  and  graces  which 
 might  have  been  had  in  baptism,  &c.  This 
 Avas  the  general  sense  of  the  Cliurch  ;  for 
 Avhich  reason  they  api)ointed  that  imjjosi- 
 tion  of  hands  should  be  given  to  such  as 
 returned  to  the  Church,  in  order  to  obtain 
 the  grace  of  the  Holy  Ghost  for  them 
 by  prayer,  Avhich  they  Avanted  before,  as 
 having  received  baptism  from  those  Avho 
 had  no  poAver  to  give  the  Holy  Ghost. 
 Innocent  says,  that  '  their  ministrations 
 Avere  defective  in  this,  that  they  could  not 
 give  the  Holy  Ghost  ;  and  therefore  such 
 as  Avere  baptized  by  them  Avere  imperfect, 
 and  Avere  to  be  received  Avith  imposition  of 
 hands,  that  they  might  thereby  obtain  the 
 grace  of  the  Holy  Ghost.''  "  "  This," 
 adds  Bingham,  "  Avas  the  true  and  only 
 method  of  supplying  the  defects  of  hereti- 
 cal baptism,  as  is  evident  from  all  the 
 passages  Avhich  speak  of  the  use  of  the 
 sacred  unction,  Avhich  Avas  joined  Avith 
 imposition  of  hands  and  prayer,  to  im- 
 plore the  grace  of  remission  of  sins,  and 
 the  other  gifts  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  Avhich 
 Avere  Avanting  before."  Confirmation  Avas 
 therefore  regarded  as  su])plying  all  that 
 Avas  deficient  in  the  unauthorized  baptism 
 of  heretics  and  schismatics  ;  and  though 
 less  is  said  about  the  usurped  baptism  of 
 orthodox  laymen,  yet  analogy  Avould  lead 
 us  to  judge  that  a  resort  Avas  had  to  the 
 same  expedient  to  relieve  their  imperfec- 
 tion. Thus  much  Ave  knoAv,  that  the  an- 
 cient Church  stood  firmly  on  principle, 
 and  yet  that  laymen  sometimes  baptized, 
 in  direct  defiance  of  that  principle,  and  in 
 such  cases  the  external  part  Avas  frequently 
 not  repeated  ;  therefore,  by  some  process, 
 this  imperfect  baptism  Avas  legalized  and 
 consummated,  and  Ave  read  of  no  other 
 such  ])rocess  than  that  just  stated. 
 
 In  the  Church  of  England  there  is  some 
 diversity  both  of  opinion  and  practice  with 
 respect  to  lay  baptisms.  By  some  persons 
 they  are  regarded  as  valid  ;  by  others,  as 
 imperfect,  till  ratified  by  confirmation,  or 
 by  the  use  of  the  hypothetical  form  ;  by  a 
 third  class,  as  totally  invalid.  From  the 
 time  of  Augustine,  the  first  archbishop  of 
 Canterbury,  till  that  of  Archbishop  Ban- 
 croft, in  the  reign  of  James  I.,  lay  baptisms 
 Avere  recognised  in  our  Church ;  but  they 
 Avere  baptisms  by  aailtorizcd  persons,  per- 
 sons Avho  had  received  episcopal  licence  for 
 the  act.  In  the  reign  of  EdAvard  VI.,  it 
 Avas  ordered  in  the  Office  of  Private  Bap- 
 tism, that  they  "that  be  prtsent  shall  call 
 
434 
 
 LAY-BROTHERS. 
 
 LEAGUE. 
 
 upon  God  for  his  grace,  and  say  the  Lokd's 
 Prayer,  if  the  time  will  sufler,  and  then  one 
 of  them  shall  name  the  child,  and  dip  him 
 in  water,  or  pom*  water  ui)on  him,  saying," 
 Sec.  But  the  rubric  now  stands  altered 
 thus  :  '*  First  let  the  minister  of  the  parish 
 (or  in  his  absence  any  other  lair/nl  minister 
 that  can  be  procured)  with  them  that  are 
 present  call  upon  God  and  say  the  Lokd's 
 Prayer,  and  so  many  of  the  collects  ajj- 
 pointed  to  be  said  before  in  the  form  of 
 Public  Baptism,  as  the  time  and  present 
 exigence  will  suffer.  And  then  the  child 
 being  named  by  some  one  that  is  present, 
 the  minister  shall  throw  water  upon  it, 
 saying,"  <^'c.  This  would  seem  to  show  a 
 desire  on  the  part  of  the  Church  to  pre- 
 vent laymen  from  baptizing,  though  it  at- 
 taches, of  course,  such  great  importance  to 
 this  holy  sacrament,  that  she  permits  any 
 lawful  minister,  i.  e.  any  minister  of  the 
 Church,  to  ofhciate  on  such  an  occasion, 
 even  though  in  another  man's  parish. 
 
 Having  now  given  the  reader  an  abstract 
 of  the  state  of  this  question,  we  leave  him 
 to  judge  as  well  as  he  can,  where  lies  the 
 preponderance  of  truth,  and  the  place  of 
 greatest  safety.  That  the  lawfully  or- 
 dained ministers  of  Christ  have  the  power 
 and  right  of  administering  true  baptism,  is 
 incontestable.  Avliether  any  others  pos- 
 sess the  like  power,  we  shall  know  and 
 acknowledge,  when  they  produce  their 
 commission  to  "  go  raid  teach  all  na- 
 tions, baptizing  them  in  the  name  of  the 
 Father,  and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy 
 Ghost." 
 
 LAY-BROTPIEES,  among  the  Roman- 
 ists, arc  the  servants  of  a  convent. 
 
 A  lay-hrother  Avears  a  different  habit 
 from  that  of  the  religious :  he  never  enters 
 into  the  choir,  nor  is  present  at  the  chap- 
 ters. He  is  not  in  any  orders,  nor  makes 
 any  vow,  except  of  constancy  and  obedience. 
 He  is  employed  in  the  tem})oral  concerns 
 of  the  convent,  and  has  the  care  of  the 
 kitchen,  gate,  &c. 
 
 The  institution  of  lay-hrothcrs  began  in 
 the  eleventh  century.  The  persons,  on 
 whom  this  title  and  office  were  conferred, 
 were  too  ignorant  to  become  clerks,  and 
 therefore  applied  themselves  wholly  to 
 bodily  work,  in  which  they  expressed  that 
 zeal  for  religion,  which  could  not  exert  it- 
 self in  spiritual  exercises. 
 
 In  the  nunneries  there  are  also  lay-sisters, 
 who  are  retained  in  the  convents  for  the 
 service  of  the  tuins,  in  like  manner  as  the 
 Intf-hrothcrs  are  for  that  of  the  monks. 
 
 LAY-CLERKS.  Clerici  Laid.  Singing 
 men  so  called  in  the  Statutes  of  the  Cathe- 
 drals,  founded    or    remodeled    by   King 
 
 Henry  VHL  In  general,  their  number 
 was  commensurate  with  that  of  the  Minor 
 Canons.  Lay-  Vicars  are  sometimes  incor- 
 rectlv  so  styled. 
 
 LAY-VICARS.     (See  Vicars  Choral.) 
 
 LAY-ELDERS.  After  Calvin  had 
 settled  the  presbyterian  form  of  govern- 
 ment at  Geneva,  and  that  model  was  fol- 
 lowed elsewhere,  laymen  were  admitted 
 into  a  share  or  part  of  the  administration 
 of  the  Church,  under  the  denomination 
 of  lay-elders.  This  sort  of  officers  was 
 utterly  unknown  in  the  Cliurch  before  the 
 sixteenth  century,  and  is  now  admitted 
 only  where  the  presb}terian  government 
 obtains. 
 
 LAYING  ON  OF  HANDS.  (See 
 Imvosition  of  Hands.) 
 
 LEAGUE,  SOLEMN  LEAGUE  AND 
 COVENANT.  (See  Confessions  of  Faith 
 and  Covenant.)  This  was  a  compact  estab- 
 lished in  1643,  to  form  a  bond  of  union 
 between  the  Scottish  and  English  Presby- 
 terians. Those  who  took  it  pledged  them- 
 selves, without  respect  of  persons,  to  en- 
 deavour the  "  extirpation  of  Popery  and 
 prelacy,  (i.  e.  cliurch  government  by  arch- 
 bishops, bishops,  their  chancellors  and 
 commissaries,  deans,  deans  and  chapters, 
 archdeacons,  and  all  other  ecclesiastical 
 officers  depending  on  that  hierarchy,)  su- 
 perstition, heresy,  schism,  profaneness,  and 
 whatever  shall  be  found  contrary  to  sound 
 doctrine  and  the  power  of  godliness."  It 
 was  opposed  by  the  parliament  and  assem- 
 bly at  Westminster,  and  ratified  by  the 
 General  Assembly  of  the  Scottish  Kirk, 
 in  1645.  In  1650,  Charles  II.,  under  com- 
 pulsion and  hypocritically,  declared  his 
 approbation  of  it.  The  league  was  ratified 
 by  parliament  in  1651,  and  subscription 
 required  of  every  member.  At  the  Re- 
 storation it  was  voted  illegal  by  parliament. 
 
 The  following  is  the  document  Mhich  is 
 still  bound  up  with  the  Westminster  Con- 
 fession, as  one  of  the  formularies  of  the 
 Scottish  Establishment,  though  the  minis- 
 ters are  no  longer  obliged  to  sign  it : — 
 
 The  solemn  League  and  Covenant  for 
 Reformation  and  Defence  of  Religion, 
 the  Honour  and  Happiness  of  the  King, 
 and  the  Peace  and  Safety  of  the  Three 
 Kingdoms  of  Scotland,  England,  and 
 Ireland  ;  agreed  upon  by  Commissioners 
 from  the  Parliament  and  Assembly  of 
 Divines  in  England,  with  Commission- 
 ers of  the  Convention  of  Estates,  and 
 General  Assembly  in  Scotland;  approved 
 by  the  General  Assembly  of  the  Church 
 of  Scotland,  and  by  both  Houses  of  Par- 
 liament and  Assembly  of    Divines   in 
 
LEAGUE,  SOLEMN  LEAGUE  AND  COVENANT. 
 
 43-) 
 
 England,  and  taken  and  subscribed  by 
 them,  Anno  1643;  and  thereafter,  by 
 the  said  authority,  taken  and  subscribed 
 by  all  Ranks  in  Scotland  and  England 
 the  same  Year;  and  ratified  by  Act  of 
 the  Parliament  of  Scotland,  Anno  1G44  : 
 And  again  renewed  in  Scotland,  with 
 an  Acknowledgment  of  Sins,  and  En- 
 gagement to  Duties,  by  all  Uanks,  An?io 
 1648,  and  by  Parliament  1649;  and 
 taken  and  subscribed  by  Kinjj/  Charles 
 II.  a.tSj)(\i/,June  23, 1650;  and  at  Scoon, 
 Januanj  1,  1651. 
 
 AVe  Noblemen,  Barons,  Knights,  Gen- 
 tlemen, Citizens,  Burgesses,  Ministers  of 
 the  Gospel,  and  Commons  of  all  sorts,  in 
 the  kingdoms  of  Scotland,  England,  and 
 Ireland,  by  the  providence  of  GOI),  living 
 under  one  King,  and  being  of  one  reform- 
 ed religion,  having  before  our  eyes  the 
 glory  of  GOD,  and  the  advancement  of 
 the  kingdom  of  our  Lord  and  Saviour 
 Jesus  Christ,  the  honour  and  happiness 
 of  the  King's  Majesty  and  his  posterity,  and 
 the  true  publick  liberty,  safety,  and  peace  of 
 the  kingdoms,  vrherein  every  one's  private 
 condition  is  included  :  And  calling  to  mind 
 the  treacherous  and  bloody  plots,  con- 
 spiracies, attempts,  and  practices  of  the 
 enemies  of  GOD,  against  the  true  religion 
 and  professors  thereof  in  all  places,  espe- 
 cially in  these  three  kingdoms,  ever  since 
 the  reformation  of  religion  ;  and  how  much 
 their  rage,  power,  and  presumption  are  of 
 late,  and  at  this  time,  increased  and  exer- 
 cised, whereof  the  deplorable  state  of  the 
 church  and  kingdom  of  Ireland,  the  dis- 
 tressed estate  of  the  church  and  kingdom 
 of  England,  and  the  dangerous  estate  of 
 the  church  and  kingdom  of  Scotland,  are 
 present  and  public  testimonies ;  we  have 
 now  at  last,  (after  other  means  of  suppli- 
 cation, remonstrance,  protestation,  and 
 sufferings,)  for  the  preservation  of  our- 
 selves and  our  religion  from  utter  ruin  and 
 destruction,  according  to  the  commend- 
 able practice  of  these  kingdoms  in  former 
 times,  and  the  example  of  GOD'S  people 
 in  other  nations,  after  mature  deliberation, 
 resolved  and  determined  to  enter  into  a 
 mutual  and  solemn  League  and  Covenant, 
 wherein  we  all  subscribe,  and  each  one  of 
 us  for  himself,  with  our  hands  lifted  up  to 
 the  most  High  GOD,  do  swear, 
 
 I.  That  we  shall  sincerely,  really,  and 
 constantly,  through  the  grace  of  GOD,  en- 
 deavour, in  our  several  places  and  callings, 
 the  preservation  of  the  reformed  religion 
 in  the  Clmrch  of  Scotland,  in  doctrine,  wor- 
 ship, discipline,  and  government,  against 
 our  common  enemies ;  the  reformation  of 
 2  F  2 
 
 religion  in  the  kingdoms  of  England  and 
 Ireland,  in  doctrine,  worship,  discipline, 
 aiul  government,  according  to  the  word  of 
 GOD,  and  the  example  of  the  best  reform- 
 ed Churches  ;  and  shall  endcavoia*  to  bring 
 the  Churches  of  God  in  the  three  king- 
 doms to  the  nearest  conjunction  and  uni- 
 formity in  religion,  confession  of  faith, 
 form  of  church-government,  directory  for 
 worship  and  catechising  ;  that  m'c,  and  our 
 posterity  after  us,  may,  as  brethren,  live  in 
 faith  and  love,  and  the  Lord  may  delight 
 to  dwell  in  the  midst  of  us. 
 
 II.  That  we  shall  in  like  manner,  with- 
 out respect  of  persons,  endeavour  the 
 extirpation  of  Popery,  Prelacy,  (that  is, 
 church-government  by  Archbishops,  Bi- 
 shops, their  Chancellors,  and  Commissaries, 
 Deans,  Deans  and  Chapters,  Archdeacons, 
 and  all  other  ecclesiastical  Officers  depend- 
 ing on  that  hierarchy,)  superstition,  heresy, 
 schism,  profaneness,  and  whatsoever  shall 
 be  found  to  be  contrary  to  sound  doctrine 
 and  the  power  of  godliness,  lest  we  partake 
 in  other  men's  sins,  and  thereby  be  in 
 danger  to  receive  of  their  plagues ;  and 
 that  the  Lord  may  be  one,  and  his  name 
 one,  in  the  three  kingdoms. 
 
 III.  We  shall,  with  the  same  sincerity, 
 reality,  and  constancy,  in  our  several 
 vocations,  endeavour,  with  our  estates  and 
 lives,  mutually  to  preserve  the  rights  and 
 privileges  of  the  Parliaments,  and  the 
 liberties  of  the  kingdoms  ;  and  to  preserve 
 and  defend  the  King's  Majestj-'s  person 
 and  authority,  in  the  preservation  and 
 defence  of  the  true  religion,  and  liberties 
 of  the  kingdoms ;  that  the  world  may 
 bear  witness  with  our  conscience  of  our 
 loyalty,  and  that  we  have  no  thoughts  or 
 intentions  to  diminish  his  Majesty's  just 
 power  and  greatness. 
 
 IV.  We  shall  also,  with  all  faithfulness, 
 endeavour  the  discovery  of  all  such  as  have 
 been  or  shall  be  incendiaries,  malignants, 
 or  evil  instruments,  by  hindering  the  re- 
 formation of  religion,  dividing  the  Idng 
 from  his  people,  or  one  of  the  kingdoms 
 from  another,  or  making  any  fiiction  or 
 parties  amongst  the  people,  contrary  to 
 this  league  and  Covenant ;  that  they  may 
 be  brought  to  i)ublic  trial,  and  receive 
 condign  punishment,  as  the  degree  of  their 
 offences  shall  require  or  deserve,  or  the 
 supreme  judicatories  of  both  kingdoms 
 res])ectively,  or  others  having  power  from 
 them  for  that  effect,  shall  judge  convenient. 
 
 V.  And  whereas  the  happiness  of  a 
 blessed  peace  between  these  kingdoms, 
 denied  in  former  times  to  our  progenitors, 
 is,  by  the  good  providence  of  G(3D,  granted 
 unto  us,  and  hath   been  latclv  concluded 
 
436 
 
 LEAGUE. 
 
 LECTURER. 
 
 and  settled  by  both  Parliaments ;  we  shall 
 each  one  of  us,  accordmg  to  our  place  and 
 interest,  endeavour  that  they  may  remain 
 conjoined  in  a  firm  peace  and  union  to  all 
 posterity ;  and  that  justice  may  be  done 
 upon  the  Milful  opposers  thereof,  in  manner 
 expressed  in  the  i)recedent  article. 
 
 VI.  "VVe  shall  also,  according  to  our 
 places  and  callings,  in  this  common  cause 
 of  religion,  liberty,  and  peace  of  the  king- 
 doms, assist  and  defend  all  those  that 
 enter  into  this  League  and  Covenant,  in 
 the  maintaining  and  pursuing  thereof; 
 and  shall  not  suffer  ourselves,  directly  or 
 indirectly,  by  whatsoever  combination, 
 persuasion,  or  terror,  to  be  divided  and 
 withdrawn  from  this  blessed  union  and 
 conjunction,  whether  to  make  defection  to 
 the  contrary  part,  or  to  give  ourselves  to  a 
 detestable  indifferency  or  neutrality  in  this 
 cause  which  so  much  concerneth  the  glory 
 of  GOD,  the  good  of  the  kingdom,  and 
 honour  of  the  King ;  but  shall,  all  the 
 days  of  our  lives,  zealously  and  constantly 
 continue  therein  against  all  opposition,  and 
 promote  the  same,  according  to  our  poAver, 
 against  all  lets  and  impediments  what- 
 soever ;  and,  what  we  are  not  able  ourselves 
 to  suppress  or  overcome,  we  shall  reveal 
 and  make  known,  that  it  may  be  timely 
 prevented  or  removed :  All  which  we  shall 
 do  as  in  the  sight  of  God. 
 
 And,  because  these  kingdoms  are  guilty 
 of  many  sins  and  provocations  against 
 GOD,  and  his  Son  Jesus  Christ,  as  is 
 too  manifest  by  our  present  distresses  and 
 dangers,  the  fruits  thereof;  we  profess  and 
 declare  before  GOD  and  the  world,  our 
 unfeigned  desire  to  be  hvmibled  for  our 
 own  sins,  and  for  the  sins  of  these  king- 
 doms :  especially,  that  we  have  not  as  we 
 ought  valued  the  inestimable  benefit  of 
 the  gospel ;  that  we  have  not  laboured  for 
 the  purity  and  power  thereof;  and  that 
 we  have  not  endeavoured  to  receive  Christ 
 in  our  hearts,  nor  to  Avalk  worthy  of  him 
 in  our  lives  ;  which  are  the  causes  of  other 
 sins  and  transgressions  so  much  abounding 
 amongst  us :  and  our  true  and  unfeigned 
 purpose,  desire,  and  endeavour  for  our- 
 selves, and  all  others  under  our  power  and 
 charge,  both  in  publick  and  in  private,  in 
 all  duties  we  owe  to  GOD  and  man,  to 
 amend  our  lives,  and  each  one  to  go  be- 
 fore another  in  the  example  of  a  real  re- 
 formation ;  that  the  Lord  may  turn  away 
 his  AATath  and  heavy  indignation,  and 
 establish  these  churches  and  kingdoms  in 
 tvuth  and  peace.  And  this  Covenant  we 
 make  in  the  presence  of  ALMIGHTY 
 GOD,  the  Searcher  of  all  hearts,  with  a 
 true  intention  to  perform  the  same,  as  we 
 
 shall  answer  at  that  great  day,  when  the 
 secrets  of  all  hearts  shall  be  disclosed; 
 most  humbly  beseeching  the  Lord  to 
 strengthen  us  by  his  Holy  Spirit  for  this 
 end,  and  to  bless  our  desires  and  proceed- 
 ings with  such  success  as  may  be  deliver- 
 ance and  safety  to  his  people,  and  en- 
 couragement to  other  Christian  churches, 
 groaning  under,  or  in  danger  of,  the  yoke 
 of  antichristian  tyranny,  to  join  in  the 
 same  or  like  association  and  covenant,  to 
 the  glory  of  GOD,  the  enlargement  of  the 
 kingdom  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  the  peace 
 and  tranquillity  of  Christian  kingdoms  and 
 commonwealths. 
 
 LECTUKER.  Long  prior  to  the  Re- 
 formation persons  were  appointed  to  read 
 lectures,  chiefly  on  the  schoolmen,  before 
 the  universities.  Hence  they  were  called 
 lecturers.  From  the  universities  they 
 passed  into  monasteries,  and  eventually 
 into  parishes :  either  upon  the  settlement 
 of  a  stipend  to  support  them,  or  upon 
 voluntary  contribution  of  the  inhabitants 
 under  the  licence  of  the  bishop.  The 
 lecture  in  parish  churches  was  nothing 
 more  than  a  sermon,  extra  ordiiiem,  as 
 being  no  part  of  the  duty  of  the  incum- 
 bent, and  therefore  delivered  at  such  times 
 as  not  to  interfere  with  his  ministrations. 
 Although  lecturers  were  continued  after 
 the  Reformation,  and  we  read  of  Travers 
 being  evening  lecturer  at  the  Temple  in 
 the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  the  first  injunction 
 respecting  them  is  in  the  canons  of  James  I. 
 In  the  year  1604  directions  for  their  con- 
 duct were  issued  by  Archbishop  Bancroft ; 
 and  in  1622  the  Primate  Abbot  enjoined 
 that  no  lecturer  "  should  preach  upon  Sun- 
 days and  holy-days  in  the  afternoon,  but 
 upon  some  part  of  the  catechism,  or  some 
 text  taken  out  of  the  creed,  Lord's  Prayer, 
 or  ten  commandments."  At  this  period 
 they  do  not  appear  to  have  been  numer- 
 ous;  but,  about  the  year  1626,  their 
 numbers  were  much  increased  by  twelve 
 persons  having  been  legally  empowered  to 
 pm-chase  impropriations  belonging  to  lay- 
 men, with  the  proceeds  of  which  they 
 were  allowed  to  provide  parishes,  where 
 the  clergy  were  not  qualified  to  preach, 
 with  preaching  ministers,  or  lecturers. 
 The  power  thus  granted  to  the  feoffees  of 
 the  impropriations,  ostensibly  for  the  good 
 of  the  Church,  was  soon  abused,  and  made 
 a  handle  of  by  Puritanism  in  the  appoint- 
 ment of  unorthodox  preachers.  Dr.  Heylyn, 
 in  an  act  sermon,  preached  at  Oxford,  first 
 pointed  out  the  evil  of  this  new  society. 
 Accordingly,  in  1633,  Archbishop  Laud 
 procured  a  bill  to  be  exhibited  by  the 
 attorney-general  in  the  Court  of  Exchequer 
 
LECTURER. 
 
 LECTURN. 
 
 437 
 
 apjainst  the  feoffees,  wherein  they  were 
 charged  with  diverting  the  charity  where- 
 wath  they  were  intrusted  to  other  uses, 
 by  appointing  a  morning  lecturer,  a  most 
 violent  Puritan,  as  Clarendon  also  wit- 
 nesses, to  St.  Antholin's  church,  I^ondon, 
 wliere  no  preacher  was  required ;  and 
 generally  nominating  nonconformists  to 
 their  lectureships.  These  charges  having 
 been  established,  the  court  condemned 
 their  proceedings,  as  dangerous  to  the 
 Church  and  State,  at  the  same  time  pro- 
 nouncing the  gifts  and  feoffments  made  to 
 such  uses  illegal ;  and  so  dissolved  the 
 same,  confiscating  the  money  to  the  king's 
 use.  But  this  judgment  does  not  appear 
 to  have  had  the  desired  effect ;  since  we 
 find  the  bishop  of  Norwich,  three  years 
 afterwards,  (1636,)  certifying  that  lecturers 
 Avcre  very  frequent  in  Suffolk,  and  many 
 of  them  set  up  by  private  gentlemen, 
 without  either  consulting  the  ordinary,  or 
 observing  the  canons  and  discipline  of  the 
 Church.  The  lecturers  in  the  country 
 were  also  said  to  run  riot,  and  live  wide 
 of  discipline.  In  1637,  therefore.  Laud 
 proceeded  with  increased  rigour  against 
 them,  and  obtained  the  king's  instructions 
 for  prohibiting  all  lecturers  preaching, 
 who  refused  to  say  the  Common  Prayer 
 in  hood  and  surplice — a  vestment  which, 
 being  considered  by  them  as  a  rag  of 
 Popery,  they  refused  to  wear.  So  there 
 seems  every  reason  to  coincide  watli  the 
 bishop  of  London  in  his  charge  of  1842, 
 wherein  he  assigns  the  origin  of  the  disuse 
 of  the  surplice  in  preaching  to  these  lec- 
 turers. They  also  introduced  the  after- 
 noon sermon,  and  thus,  according  to  Arch- 
 bishop AVake,  were  the  first  to  bring  into 
 disrepute  the  venerable  custom  of  cate- 
 chising. When  in  1641  the  revenues  of 
 archbishops  and  bishops,  deans  and  chap- 
 ters, were  confiscated,  the  advowsons  and 
 impropriations  belonging  to  them  were 
 employed  in  providing  lecturers,  who, 
 under  the  garb  of  superior  sanctity,  "  turn- 
 ed religion  into  rebellion,  and  faith  into 
 faction."  For  these,  their  innovations, 
 their  avarice,  and  their  faction,  lecturers 
 have  been  somewhat  roughly  handled  by 
 Selden  in  liis  T<ihle  Talk. 
 
 After  the  llcstoration  their  evil  influence 
 was  sufficiently  guarded  against  by  the  Act 
 of  Uniformity,  which  enacts  that  no  person 
 shall  be  allowed  or  received  as  a  lecturer, 
 unless  he  declare  his  unfeigned  assent  and 
 consent  to  the  Thirty-nine  Articles,  and 
 the  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  and  to  the 
 use  of  all  the  rites,  ceremonies,  forms,  and 
 orders  therein  contained.  It  is  further 
 enacted,  that  prayers  shall  always  be  said 
 
 before  a  lecture  is  delivered.  Archbishop 
 Sheldon  (16()5)  issued  the  last  orders 
 concerning  lectures  and  lecturers.  The 
 incumbent  may  at  any  time  prevent  a 
 lecturer  preaching  by  occupying  the  pul- 
 pit himself.  Lecturers  of  parishes  are 
 now  generally  elected  by  the  vestry  or 
 principal  inhabitants,  and  are  usually 
 afternoon  preachers.  There  are  also  lec- 
 turers in  some  cathedral  churches,  as  the 
 divinity  lectureship  at  St.  Paul's,  now  a 
 sinecure,  (see  Prcelector,)  and  several  lec- 
 tureships have  been  founded  by  private 
 individuals,  such  as  Lady  Moyer's,  Mr. 
 Boyle's,  the  Bampton  at  Oxford,  and  the 
 Hulsean  at  Cambridge.  The  act  7  &  8 
 Vict.  c.  59,  intituled  "  An  act  for  better 
 regulating  the  offices  of  lecturers  and 
 parish  clerks,"  authorizes  the  bishop,  with 
 the  consent  of  the  incumbent,  to  require  a 
 lecturer  or  preacher  to  perform  such  clerical 
 or  ministerial  duties,  as  assistant  curate, 
 or  otherwise,  within  the  parish,  &c.,  as  the 
 bishop,  with  the  assent  of  the  incumbent, 
 shall  think  proper.  The  following  papers 
 are  to  be  sent  to  the  bishop  by  a  clergy- 
 man to  be  licensed. 
 
 1 .  A  certificate  of  his  having  been  duly 
 elected  to  the  office,  or  an  appointment 
 under  the  hand  and  seal  of  the  person  or 
 persons  having  power  to  appoint ;  on  the 
 face  of  vthich  instrument  it  should  be 
 s'lown  by  whom  and  in  what  manner  the 
 olfice  had  been  vacated. 
 
 2.  A  certificate  signed  by  the  incum- 
 bent of  the  church,  of  his  consent  to  the 
 election  or  appointment. 
 
 3.  Letters  of  orders,  deacon,  and  priest. 
 
 4.  Letters  testimonial,  by  three  beneficed 
 clergymen.  (See  form  No.  3,  for  Stipen- 
 cUarj/  Curates,  adding  "  and  moreover  we 
 believe  him  in  our  consciences  to  be,  as  to 
 his  moral  conduct,  a  person  worthy  to  be 
 licensed  to  the  said  lectureship.") 
 
 Before  the  licence  is  granted,  the  same 
 subscriptions,  declarations,  and  oaths  are 
 to  be  made  and  taken,  as  in  the  case  of  a 
 licence  to  a  stipendiary  curacy,  and  the  lec- 
 turer is  to  read  the  Thirty-nine  Articles. 
 
 AVithin  three  montlis  after  he  is  licensed, 
 he  is  to  read,  in  the  church  where  he  is 
 appointed  lecturer,  the  declaration  ap- 
 pointed by  the  Act  of  Uniformity,  and  also 
 the  certificate  of  his  having  subscribed  it 
 before. 
 
 LECTURES.  (See  Bampton,  Boyle, 
 Donnellan,  llulsean,  Mot/er,  and  JVarhur- 
 ton.) 
 
 LECTURN,  or  LECTERN.  The  read- 
 ing desk  in  the  choir  of  ancient  churches 
 and  chapels.  The  earliest  examples  re- 
 maining are  of  wood,  many  of  them  beau- 
 
43a 
 
 LEGATE. 
 
 LEGENDS. 
 
 tifully  carved.  At  a  later  period  it  was 
 commonly  of  brass,  often  formed  of  the 
 figure  of  an  eagle  with  out-spread  wings. 
 (See  Readwg  Dcsh  and  FmcjIo.) 
 
 The  lectern  in  English  cathedrals  ge- 
 nerally stands  in  the  midst  of  the  choir 
 facing  westwards.  They  were  formerly 
 more  common  in  collegiate  churches  and 
 chapels  than  noAV,  as  ancient  ground-plans 
 and  engravings  show.  In  many  places  the 
 fine  old  eagles  or  carved  desks  are  thrown 
 into  a  corner  and  neglected. 
 
 AA'hen  the  capitular  members  read  the 
 lessons,  they  usually  do  so  from  the  stalls. 
 The  regularity  of  this  custom  may  be 
 doubted;  its  impropriety  is  evident.  It 
 appears  from  Dugcl.  Man.  viii.  1257,  ed. 
 1830,  that  in  Lichfield  cathedi-al,  all, 
 whether  canons  or  vicars,  anciently  read 
 the  collects  and  lessons,  not  from  their 
 own  stalls,  but  from  the  proper  place :  tne 
 dean  alone  being  permitted  to  read  from 
 his  stall.  At  Canterbury  the  canons  now 
 use  the  lectern. 
 
 LEGATE.  A  person  sent  or  deputed  by 
 another  to  act  in  his  stead,  but  now  con- 
 fined to  those  who  are  deputed  by  the  pope. 
 Of  these  there  are  three  kinds. 
 
 1.  Legati  a  latere,  cardinals  sent  from 
 the  side  or  immediate  presence,  and  in- 
 vested with  most  of  the  functions  of  the 
 lloman  pontiff"  himself.  They  can  absolve 
 the  excommunicated,  call  synods,  grant 
 dispensations  in  cases  reserved  to  the 
 pope,  fill  up  vacant  dignities  or  benefices, 
 and  hear  ordinary  appeals.  Otho  and 
 Othobon,  sent  into  England  by  Gregory 
 IX.  and  Clement  lY.  in  the  reign  of  Henry 
 III.,  were  of  this  order.  The  legatine  con- 
 stitutions, or  ecclesiastical  laws  enacted  in 
 national  synods  convened  by  these  cardi- 
 nals, may  be  seen  in  Johnson's  collections. 
 Cardinal  AVolsey  was  also  a  legate  a  latere, 
 and  the  bulls  of  Leo  X.  and  Adrian  VL, 
 investing  him  with  that  high  function,  are 
 printed  by  Kymer,  from  which  we  learn 
 that  he  was  empowered  to  visit  the  monas- 
 teries and  the  whole  clergy  of  England,  as 
 well  as  to  dispense  with  the  laws  of  the 
 Church  for  a  year.  Cardinal  Pole  was 
 also  legatus  a  latere. 
 
 2.  Legati  nati  are  such  as  hold  the 
 legatine  commission  ex  officio,  by  virtue  of 
 office,  and  till  the  latter  part  of  the  tenth 
 century  they  were  the  legates  usually  em- 
 ployed by  the  papal  power.  Before  the 
 Keformation,  the  archbishop  of  Canter- 
 bury was  the  legatus  natiis  of  England.  It 
 is  a  relic  of  the  legatine  authority  Avhich 
 enables  the  primate  of  all  England  to 
 confer  degrees  independently  of  the  uni- 
 versities. 
 
 3.  Legati  dati,  legates  given,  or  special 
 legates,  hold  authority  from  the  pope  by 
 special  commission,  and  are,  pro  temjyore. 
 superior  to  the  other  two  orders.  They 
 began  to  be  employed  after  the  tenth  cen- 
 tury, and  displayed  unbounded  arrogance. 
 They  held  councils,  promulgated  canons, 
 deposed  bishops,  and  issued  interdicts  at 
 their  discretion.  Simple  deacons  are  fre- 
 quently invested  Avith  this  office,  which  at 
 once  places  them  above  bishops. 
 
 It  may  be  added,  that  the  functions  of  a 
 legate  do  not  commence  till  he  is  forty 
 miles  distant  from  Home.  The  first  legate 
 sent  into  England  was  John,  precentor  of 
 St.  Paul's,  and  abbot  of  the  monastery  of 
 St.  Martin.  He  was  deputed  by  Agatho, 
 bishop  of  Rome,  to  Theodore,  archbishop 
 of  Canterbury,  in  679.  The  first  legate  in 
 Ireland  was  Gille,  or  Gillebert,  bishop  of 
 Limerick  early  in  the  twelfth  century.  The 
 Roman  chants  were  introduced  by  him 
 into  Britain. 
 
 It  v.as  one  of  the  ecclesiastical  privileges 
 of  England,  from  the  Norman  Conquest, 
 that  no  foreign  legate  should  be  obtruded 
 upon  the  English,  unless  the  king  should 
 desire  it,  upon  some  extraordinary  emer- 
 gency, as  when  a  case  was  too  difficult  for 
 the  English  prelates  to  determine.  Hence, 
 in  the  reign  of  Henry  II.,  when  Cardinal 
 Vivian,  who  w'as  sent  legate  into  Scotland, 
 Ireland,  and  Norway,  arrived  in  England 
 on  his  journey  thither,  the  king  sent  the 
 bishops  of  Winchester  and  Ely  to  ask  him 
 by  whose  authority  he  ventured  into  the 
 kingdom  without  his  leave :  nor  was  he 
 suffered  to  proceed  till  he  had  given  an 
 oath  not  to  stretch  his  commission  beyond 
 his  Highness's  pleasure  in  anv  particular. 
 
 LEGENDS.  {Legenda.)  By  this  word 
 we  are  to  understand  those  idle  and  ridi- 
 culous stories  which  the  Romanists  tell 
 concerning  their  saints,  and  other  persons, 
 in  order  to  support  the  credit  of  theu* 
 religion. 
 
 The  Legend  was,  originally,  a  book  used 
 in  the  old  Romish  churches,  containing  the 
 lessons  that  were  to  be  read  at  Divine  ser- 
 vice. Hence  the  lives  of  saints  and  mar- 
 tyrs came  to  be  called  legends,  because 
 chapters  were  to  be  read  out  of  them  at 
 matins,  and  in  the  refectories  of  the  re- 
 ligious houses.  The  Golden  Legend  is  a 
 collection  of  the  lives  of  the  saints,  com- 
 posed by  James  de  Varase,  better  known 
 by  his  Latin  name  of  John  de  Voragine, 
 or  Varagnie,  vicar-general  of  the  Domini- 
 cans, and  afterwards  archbishop  of  Genoa, 
 vv'ho  died  in  1298.  It  was  received  in  the 
 Church  of  Rome  with  great  applause,  which 
 it  maintained  for  200  years ;  but,  in  truth. 
 
LEGENDS. 
 
 LEIRE. 
 
 439 
 
 it  is  so  full  of  ridiculous  and  romantic 
 stories,  that  the  Romanists  themselves  are 
 ashamed  of  them. 
 
 The  llomish  Breviaries  are  full  of  le- 
 gendary stories,  Avhich  are  a])])ointcd  to  be 
 read  on  the  saints'  days ;  whicli,  being  al- 
 most as  numerous  as  the  days  in  the  year, 
 there  is  hardly  a  day  free  from  havinj;^ 
 idle  tales  mixed  in  its  service.  However, 
 there  have  been  considerable  reformations 
 made  in  this  matter,  several  legends  having 
 been  from  time  to  time  retrenched,  inso- 
 much that  the  service  of  the  Church  of 
 Rome  is  much  freer  from  these  fooleries 
 than  formerly. 
 
 But,  besides  tliese  written  legends,  there 
 are  others  which  may  be  called  tradition- 
 ary ;  by  Avhich  we  mean  those  idle  stories 
 which  are  delivered  by  Mord  of  mouth,  and 
 with  which  every  traveller  is  entertained 
 in  his  ])assage  through  Popish  countries. 
 We  will  just  give  the  reader  a  specimen 
 of  these  legends  from  Skippon. 
 
 At  Mentz,  in  Germany,  they  relate  that 
 a  drunken  fellow  swearing  he  would  kill 
 -tlie  first  man  he  met,  a  crucifix  coming  by 
 him,  he  struck  at  it  with  his  sword,  Avhich 
 drew  blood  from  the  crucifix,  and  the  fel- 
 low immediately  sunk  up  to  the  knees  in 
 the  ground,  where  he  stood  till  the  magis- 
 trates apprehended  him. 
 
 At  Landsberg,  in  Bavaria,  the  Francis- 
 cans show  a  crucifix  in  their  church  over 
 the  altar,  which,  they  pretend,  a  fellow- 
 spewed  upon,  and  immediately  the  devil 
 carried  him  away  through  the  south  wall, 
 a  round  window  being  made  where  the 
 hole  was. 
 
 At  Aix-la-Chapelle,  in  Germany,  is  a 
 church  of  our  Lady,  on  the  south  side  of 
 which  is  a  great  pair  of  brass  gates,  one  of 
 which  has  a  crack  in  the  brass,  occasioned, 
 as  the  legend  says,  thus : — When  Charle- 
 magne began  the  building  of  this  church, 
 the  devil  came  and  asked  him  what  he  in- 
 tended ;  the  emperor  told  him  he  designed 
 a  gaming-house,  which  the  devil  being 
 very  well  satisfied  with,  went  away.  The 
 emperor  having  set  up  some  altar-tables, 
 the  devil  came  again,  and  inquired  what 
 these  meant ;  Charlemagne  replied,  they 
 were  only  for  gamesters  to  play  on,  which 
 encouraged  the  devil  to  give*  his  assist- 
 ance toward  the  building.  Accordingly, 
 he  brought  a  great  pair  of  brass  gates  on 
 his  shoulders  ;  but,  seeing  a  crucifix,  he 
 took  to  his  heels,  letting  the  gates  fall,  one 
 of  which  in  the  fall  received  the  crack, 
 which  is  still  shown. 
 
 At  Milan,  they  tell  you  that  St.  Am- 
 brose, who  was  bisho])  of  that  city,  after  a 
 fight  between  the  Catholics  and  the  Arians, 
 
 ])rayed  that  it  might  be  revealed  how  to 
 distinguish  the  bodies  of  one  party  from 
 the  other,  llis  request  was  granted,  and 
 he  found  all  the  Catholics  with  their  faces 
 u])wards,  and  the  Arians  with  their  faces 
 downward. 
 
 At  St.  Agatha,  a  city  of  Calabria,  is  a 
 chapel,  in  which  they  show  a  i)iece  of  a 
 pillar,  kept  in  a  glass  case,  which  they  say 
 shined  when  St.  Paul  preached  there.  It 
 was  broken  by  the  Turks,  when  they  took 
 this  place,  and  this  piece  was  kept  at 
 Messina  till  they  brought  it  hither.  The 
 Jesuits  would  have  carried  it  to  their  col- 
 lege, but  several  men,  they  pretend,  could 
 not  stir  it ;  nevertheless,  when  it  was  re- 
 solved to  place  it  in  this  chapel,  one  man's 
 strength  was  sufficient. 
 
 We  will  add  but  one  legend  more.  At 
 Malta  they  tell  this  story.  Three  Maltese 
 knights  were  taken  prisoners  by  the  Turks, 
 and  carried  before  the  Grand  Seignior, 
 Avho  endeavoured,  by  sending  priests  to 
 them,  to  convert  them  from  the  Christian 
 religion  ;  but  they  continued  stedfast.  The 
 Grand  Seignior's  daughter  observing  them, 
 fell  in  love  with  them,  and  told  her  father 
 she  would  endeavour  their  conversion. 
 After  this,  she  discovered  to  them  her  af- 
 fection ;  but  they  informed  her  of  their 
 obligation  to  live  chastely,  and  discoursed 
 about  the  Christian  religion,  and  their 
 order,  and  promised  to  show  her  the  true 
 representation  of  the  Virgin  Mary.  Ac- 
 cordingly, they  undertook  to  carve  a  piece 
 of  wood ;  but  none  of  them  being  skilful 
 in  that  art,  they  prayed  for  assistance, 
 and  suddenly  appeared  the  image  of  the 
 Virgin  shaped  exactly  like  her.  Upon  the 
 sight  of  this,  the  princess  turned  Christian, 
 and  procuring  the  means  of  their  escape, 
 Avent  away  with  them,  and  placed  herself 
 in  a  nimnery. — BroiK/ldon. 
 
 LEGION,  THUNDERIXG.  In  the 
 wars  of  the  Romans,  under  the  emperor 
 Marcus  Antoninus,  with  the  ]Marcomanni, 
 the  Roman  troops  being  surrounded  by  the 
 enemy,  and  in  great  distress  from  intense 
 thirst,  in  the  midst  of  a  burning  desert,  a 
 legion  of  Christians,  who  served  in  the 
 army,  imploring  the  merciful  interposition 
 of  Christ,  suddenly  a  storm  with  thunder 
 and  lightning  came  on,  which  refreshed  tlie 
 fainting  Romans  with  its  seasonable  rain, 
 while  tlie  lightning  fell  among  the  enemy, 
 and  destroyed  many  of  them.  The  Chris- 
 tian legion  to  whose  prayers  this  miracu- 
 lous interposition  was  granted,  Mas  (ac- 
 cording to  the  common  account)  thenceforth 
 called  The  Tltunderimj  Lccfion. 
 
 LPjIRE.  (Probably  a  coiTuption  of  the 
 old  French  lieu  re,  for  Here,  a  book.)     A 
 
440 
 
 LENT. 
 
 Service  Book.  "  Two  great  leires,  garn- 
 ished with  stones,  and  two  lesser  leires, 
 garnished  with  stones  and  pearls,"  are 
 mentioned  among  the  furniture  of  the 
 communion  table  of  the  Koyal  Chapel, 
 156o,  in  Leland's  Collcctania,  vol.  ii.  pp. 
 691,  692,  InO.—Jehb. 
 
 LENT.     (A  Teutonic  word  :  in  German, 
 Lenz,  the  "  Spring.")      The  holy  seasons 
 
 appointed  by  the  Church  will 
 
 dly  be 
 
 found  to  date  their  rise  from  some  circum- 
 stance in  the  life  of  our  Loed,  some  event 
 in  Scripture  history,  or  a  desire  to  keep  in 
 remembrance  the  virtues  and  piety  of  the 
 saints  who  adorned  the  early  Church.  But 
 the  origin  of  the  season  of  Lent  is  not  so 
 obvious,  though  it  is  usually  supposed  that 
 Lent  is  observed  in  commemoration  of  our 
 Saviour's  temptation  and  fasting  of  forty 
 days  in  the  wilderness.  It  is  most  probable 
 that  the  Christian  Lent  originated  from  a 
 regard  to  those  words  of  the  Hedeemer, 
 "  the  days  will  come  when  the  bridegroom 
 shall  be  taken  away  from  them,  and  then 
 shall  they  fast  in  those  days."  We  learn 
 from  the  history  of  the  Church  that  the 
 primitive  Christians  considered,  that  in  this 
 passage  Christ  has  alluded  to  the  institu- 
 tion of  a  particular  season  of  fasting  and 
 prayer  in  his  future  Church.  Accorclingly 
 they,  in  the  first  instance,  began  this  solemn 
 period  on  the  afternoon  of  the  day  on  which 
 they  commemorated  the  crucifixion,  and 
 continued  it  until  the  morning  of  that  of 
 the  resurrection.  The  Avhole  interval  would 
 thus  be  only  about  forty  hours.  But  by 
 degrees  this  institution  suffered  a  consi- 
 derable change,  different  however  at  dif- 
 ferent times  and  places.  From  the  forty 
 hours,  or  the  two  days,  originally  observed, 
 it  was  extended  to  other  additional  days, 
 but  with  great  variety  in  their  number, 
 according  to  the  judgment  of  the  various 
 Churches.  Some  fasted  three  days  in  the 
 week  before  Easter,  some  four,  and  others 
 six.  A  little  after,  some  extended  the  fast 
 to  throe  Meeks,  and  others  to  six,  and  other 
 Churches  appointed  certain  portions  of 
 seven  weeks  in  succession.  The  result  of 
 all  this  was  the  eventual  fixing  of  the  time 
 at  forty  days,  commencing  on  the  Wednes- 
 day in  the  seventh  week  before  Easter,  and 
 excluding  the  intermediate  Sundays.  It 
 is  not,  however,  to  be  supposed  that  the 
 Church  remained  long  in  uncertainty  on 
 this  point,  for  it  appears  that  the  Lent  of 
 forty  days  can  be  traced  to  a  period  very 
 near  that  of  the  apostles.  That  its  term 
 of  forty  days  was  settled  at  a  very  early 
 period,  is  evident  from  the  writings  of  the 
 bishops  of  those  times,  who  refer  us,  in 
 vmdication  of  it,  to  the  examnle  of  Moses, 
 
 Elias,  and  our  Lord,  all  of  whom  fasted 
 forty  days.  From  all  this,  then,  we  anive 
 at  the  conclusion,  that  though  fasting  is 
 frequently  alluded  to  in  the  Scriptures  as 
 a  Christian  duty,  yet  the  set  times  for  it  are 
 to  be  referred  solely  to  the  authority  of 
 the  Church.  It  may  here  be  remarked, 
 that  the  name  we  apply  to  this  season  is 
 derived  from  the  time  of  the  year  when  it 
 occurs.  The  term  Lent,  in  the  Saxon  lan- 
 guage, signifies  Sprint/  ;  and,  as  we  use  it, 
 indicates  merely  the  spring  fast,  prepara- 
 tory to  the  rising  of  Christ  from  the  grave. 
 
 The  Lenten  fast  does  not  embrace  all 
 the  days  included  betv>een  Ash  Wednesday 
 and  Easter,  for  the  Sundays  are  so  many 
 days  above  the  number  of  forty.  They 
 are  excluded,  because  the  Lord's  day  is 
 always  held  as  a  festival,  and  never  as  a 
 fast.  These  six  Sundays  are,  therefore, 
 called  Sundays  in  Lent,  not  Sundays  of 
 Lent.  They  are  in  the  midst  of  it,  but 
 do  not  form  part  of  it.  On  them  we  con- 
 tinue, without  interruption,  to  celebrate 
 our  Saviour's  resurrection. 
 
 The  principal  days  of  Lent  are,  the  first 
 day,  Passion  Week,  and  particularly  the 
 Thursday  and  Friday  in  that  week.  The 
 first  day  of  Lent  was  formerly  called  the 
 head  of  the  fast,  and  also  by  the  name 
 which  the  Church  retains — Ash  Wednes- 
 day. In  the  Church  of  England  there  is 
 a  solemn  service  appointed  for  Ash  Wed- 
 nesday, under  the  title  of  a  "  Commination, 
 or  denouncing  of  God's  Anger  and  Judg- 
 ments against  Sinners."  This  Avas  designed 
 to  occupy,  as  far  as  could  be,  the  place  of 
 the  ancient  penitential  discipline,  as  is  suf- 
 ficiently declared  in  the  beginning  of  the 
 office  in  the  English  Prayer  Book.  The 
 last  week  of  Lent,  called  Passion  Week, 
 has  always  been  considered  as  its  most 
 solemn  season.  It  is  called  the  Great 
 Week,  from  the  important  transactions 
 which  are  then  commemorated ;  and  Holy 
 AVeek,  from  the  increase  of  devotional  ex- 
 ercises among  believers.  The  Thursday 
 in  Passion  Week  is  that  on  which  we  cele- 
 brate the  institution  of  the  Lord's  supper. 
 The  Epistle  for  the  day  has  been  selected 
 by  the  Church  with  a  vieAV  to  this  fact. 
 On  the  following  day  we  commemorate  the 
 sufferings,  and  particularly  the  death,  of  our 
 Saviour  Christ.  And,  from  the  mighty 
 and  blessed  effects  of  these,  in  the  redemp- 
 tion of  man,  the  day  is  appropriately  called 
 Good  Friday.  As  this  day  has  been  kept 
 holy  by  the  Church  from  the  earliest  times, 
 so  has  it  also  been  made  a  time  of  the 
 strictest  devotion  and  humiliation. 
 
 The  general  design  of  this  institution  is 
 thus  set  forth  by  St.  Chrysostom  :  "  Why 
 
LENT. 
 
 441 
 
 do  we  fast  these  forty  days  ?  Many  liere- 
 tofore  were  used  to  come  to  the  communion 
 indevoutly,  and  inconsiderately,  especially 
 at  this  time,  when  Christ  first  gave  it  to 
 his  disciples.  Therefore  our  forefathers, 
 considering  the  mischiefs  arising  from  such 
 careless  approaches,  meeting  together,  ap- 
 pointed forty  days  for  fasting  and  prayer, 
 and  hearing  of  sermons,  and  for  holy  as- 
 semblies ;  that  all  men  in  these  days  being 
 carefully  purified  by  prayer  and  almsdeeds, 
 and  fasting,  and  watching,  and  tears,  and 
 confession  of  sins,  and  other  the  like  exer- 
 cises, might  come,  according  to  their  capa- 
 city, with  a  pure  conscience,  to  the  holy 
 table." 
 
 But  if  we  inquire  more  particularly  into 
 the  reasons  of  instituting  the  Lent  fast, 
 we  shall  find  them  to  be  these  following : 
 First,  the  apostles'  sorrow  for  the  loss  of 
 their  Master.  For  this  reason,  the  ancients 
 observed  these  two  days  in  which  our  Sa- 
 viour lay  in  the  grave,  with  the  greatest 
 strictness.  Secondly,  the  declension  of 
 Christian  piety  from  its  first  and  primitive 
 fervour.  Thirdly,  that  the  catechumens 
 might  prepare  themselves  for  baptism,  and 
 the  penitents  for  absolution  ;  Easter  being 
 one  of  the  settled  times  of  baptizing  the 
 catechumens,  and  absolving  the  penitents. 
 
 This  solemn  season  of  fasting  was  uni- 
 versally observed  by  all  Christians,  though 
 with  a  great  liberty,  and  a  just  allowance 
 for  men's  infirmities ;  and  this  was  in  a 
 great  measure  left  to  their  own  discretion. 
 If  men  were  in  health,  and  able  to  bear 
 it,  the  rule  and  custom  was  for  them  to 
 observe  it.  On  the  other  hand,  bodily  in- 
 firmity and  weakness  Avere  always  admitted 
 as  a  just  apologv  for  their  non-observance 
 of  it. 
 
 The  manner  of  observing  Lent,  among 
 those  who  were  piously  disposed  to  observe 
 it,  was  to  abstain  from  all  food  till  evening. 
 Whence  it  is  natural  to  conclude,  that  the 
 pretence  of  keeping  Lent  only  by  a  change 
 of  diet  from  flesh  to  fish,  is  but  a  mock 
 fast,  and  an  innovation  utterly  unknown 
 to  the  ancients,  whose  Lent  fast  was  a 
 strict  and  rigorous  abstinence  from  all  food 
 till  the  evening.  Their  refreshment  was 
 only  a  supper,  and  then  it  was  indifi'erent 
 whether  it  was  flesh,  or  any  other  food, 
 provided  it  was  used  Avith  sobriety  and 
 moderation.  But  there  was  no  general 
 rule  about  this  matter,  as  appears  from 
 the  story  which  Sozomcn  tells  of  Spiridion, 
 bishop  of  Trimithus  in  Cyprus :  that  a 
 stranger  once  happening  to  call  upon  him 
 in  Lent,  he,  having  nothing  in  his  house 
 but  a  piece  of  pork,  ordered  that  to  be 
 dressed   and    set    before    him :    but   the 
 
 stranger  refusing  to  eat  flesh,  saying  he 
 was  a  Christian ;  Spiridion  replied,  For 
 that  very  reason  thou  oughtest  not  to  re- 
 fuse it ;  for  the  word  of  God  has  pro- 
 nounced all  things  clean  to  them  that  are 
 clean. 
 
 Lent  was  thought  the  proper  season  for 
 exercising  more  abundantly  all  sorts  of 
 charity.  Thus  what  they  spared  from 
 their  own  bodies,  by  abridging  them  of  a 
 meal,  A\a»  usually  given  to  the  poor.  They 
 likewise  employed  their  vacant  hours  in 
 visiting  the  sick  and  imprisoned,  in  enter- 
 taining strangers,  and  reconciling  differ- 
 ences. The  imperial  laws  forbade  all  pro- 
 secution of  men  in  criminal  actions,  which 
 might  bring  them  to  corporal  punishment 
 and  torture,  during  this  whole  season. 
 Lent  was  a  time  of  more  than  ordinary 
 strictness  and  devotion  ;  and  therefore,  in 
 many  of  the  great  churches,  they  had  re- 
 ligious assemblies  for  prayer  and  preaching 
 every  day.  They  had  also  frequent  com- 
 munions at  this  time,  at  least  on  every 
 sabbath  and  Lord's  day.  All  public  games 
 and  stage-plays  were  prohibited  at  this 
 season ;  as  also  the  celebration  of  all  fes- 
 tivals, birthdays,  and  marriages,  as  un- 
 suitable to  the  present  occasion. 
 
 These  were  the  common  rules  observed 
 in  keeping  the  Lent  fast,  when  it  was  come 
 to  the  length  of  forty  days.  But  there 
 Avas  one  week,  called  the  Ilehdumas  mcuina, 
 or  the  Great  Week  before  Easter,  Avhich 
 they  observed  with  a  greater  strictness 
 and  solemnity  than  all  the  rest.  This  is 
 usually  called  the  Passion  Week,  because  it 
 Avas  the  Aveek  in  which  our  SAVIOUR  suf- 
 fered.    (See  Passion  Week.) 
 
 The  Christians  of  the  Greek  Church 
 observe  four  Lents.  The  first  commences 
 on  the  fifteenth  of  November,  or  forty 
 days  before  Christmas.  The  second  is  our 
 Lent,  Avhich  immediately  precedes  Easter. 
 The  third  begins  the  Aveek  after  AVhit- 
 sunday,  and  continues  till  the  festival  of 
 St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul.  The  number  of 
 days  therefore  comprised  in  the  Lent  is 
 not  settled  and  determined,  but  they  are 
 more  or  less,  according  as  Whit-sunday 
 falls  sooner  or  later.  Their  fourth  Lent 
 commences  the  first  of  August,  and  lasts 
 no  longer  than  till  the  fifteenth.  These 
 Lents  are  observed  Avith  great  strictness 
 and  austerity.  On  Saturdays  and  Sundays 
 they  indulge  themselves  in  drinking  Avine 
 and  using  oil,  Avhich  are  prohibited  on 
 other  days. 
 
 Lent  Avas  first  commanded  to  be  ob- 
 served, in  England,  by  Ercombert,  seventh 
 king  of  Kent  (a.  d.  (k 0—660).  No  meat 
 AA-as,  formerly,  to  be  eaten  in  Lent,  but  by 
 
442 
 
 LESSONS. 
 
 licence,  under  certain  penalties.  And 
 butchers  were  not  to  kill  flesh  in  Lent, 
 except  for  victualling  of  ships,  &c. — 
 ComjiiJcd  from  various  authorities. 
 
 LESSONS,  among  ecclesiastical  writ- 
 ers, are  portions  of  the  Holy  Scriptures 
 read  i«  churches  at  the  time  of  Divine 
 service.  In  the  ancient  Church,  reading 
 the  Scriptures  was  one  part  of  the  service 
 of  the  catechumens,  at  which  all  persons 
 were  allowed  to  be  present  in  order  to 
 obtain  instruction. 
 
 The  lessons  in  the  unreformed  offices 
 are  in  general  very  short.  Nine  lessons 
 are  appointed  to  be  read  at  matins  on 
 Sundays,  and  three  on  every  week-day, 
 besides  a  chapter,  or  capitular,  at  each  of 
 the  six  daily  services.  But  of  the  nine 
 Sunday  lessons,  only  three  are  from  Scrip- 
 ture, the  six  others  being  extracts  from 
 homilies  or  martjTologies.  At  matins  only 
 is  there  anytliing  like  a  continuous  lesson 
 read.  The  capitula  or  lectioner  verses  at 
 the  other  services,  are  each  nothing  more 
 than  one  verse  (very  rarely  two  short 
 verses)  from  Scripture,  and  these  are  sel- 
 dom varied.  As  to  the  matin  lessons,  they 
 do  not  on  an  average  consist  of  more  than 
 three  verses  each  :  for  though  the  three  les- 
 sons are  generally  in  sequence,  the  sense  is 
 interrupted  by  the  interposition  between 
 each  lesson  of  a  responsory,  versicles,  and 
 the  Gloria  Patri,  so  that  edification  is  here- 
 by effectually  hindered,  as  is  remarked  in 
 the  Preface  to  our  Common  Prayer,  "  Con- 
 cerning the  Service  of  the  Church." — Jehb. 
 
 The  Church  of  England  in  the  appoint- 
 ment of  lessons  observes  two  cUfterent 
 courses  ;  one  for  ordinary  days,  and  an- 
 other for  holy-days.  On  ordinary  days  she 
 begins  the  course  of  her  first  lessons  with 
 the  book  of  Genesis,  in  the  beginning  of 
 her  civil  year,  January ;  and  proceeds 
 regularly  through  the  greatest  part  of  the 
 Bible.  Isaiah  alone  is  not  read  in  the 
 order  in  which  it  stands ;  our  Church  re- 
 serving the  evangelical  prophet,  in  confor- 
 mity to  primitive  usage,  to  be  read  in  the 
 season  of  Advent.  Before  Isaiah,  and 
 after  the  other  canonical  Scriptures,  the 
 Church  substitutes  some  apocryphal  les- 
 sons in  the  room  of  the  canonical  Scripture 
 that  has  been  omitted. 
 
 But  though  the  most  part  of  the  Bible  is 
 read  through  every  year  once,  yet  some 
 chapters  of  particular  books,  and  three 
 whole  books,  are  left  unread  for  reasons 
 that  sufficiently  appear. 
 
 Of  Genesis,  (containing  50  chapters,)  10, 
 11,  and  36  are  not  read;  10  and  oij,  evi- 
 dently, because  they  contain  little  else 
 than  genealogies.     The  first  nine  verses  of 
 
 chapter  11,  giving  an  account  of  a  most 
 extraordinary  display  of  the  Divine  power, 
 the  confusion  of  tongues  at  Babel,  is  re- 
 ceived into  the  table  of  lessons  for  holy 
 days,  viz.  Monday  in  Whitsun  week.  Of 
 Exodus,  (40  chapters,)  the  first  24  chapters 
 ai'e  read,  excepting  some  repetitions  and 
 genealogies  in  the  latter  part  of  chapter  6. 
 From  chapter  25  to  the  end  of  the  book, 
 there  is  little  that  does  not  relate  to 
 the  ark,  and  other  local  and  temporary 
 jjarticulars,  except  chapters  32,  33,  34, 
 which  are  accordingly  read.  Chapters  35 
 and  40  are  retained  in  the  Scottish  calen- 
 dar. Of  Leviticus,  (27  chapters,)  as  it 
 treats  chiefly  of  Jewish  sacrifices,  and 
 ceremonial  observances  of  clean  and  un- 
 clean beasts  and  birds,  lepers,  &c.,  only  4 
 chapters  are  read,  viz.  the  18,  19,  20,  and 
 26.  In  the  Scottish  calendar  the  9,  12, 
 16,  21,  23,  24,  25,  and  27  are  retained. 
 Of  Numbers,  {oQ  chapters,)  the  first  10 
 chapters  are  omitted,  which  relate  to  the 
 men  of  war,  the  Levites,  their  services  and 
 off"erings.  Chapters  15,  18,  19,  26,  28,  29, 
 33,  and  34  are  also  omitted,  as  containing 
 similar  subjects;  the  Scottish  liturgy  re- 
 tains chapters  5,  6,  8,  9,  10,  and  15.  All 
 Deuteronomy  (34  chapters)  is  read,  except 
 chapter  23,  Avhich  the  Scottish  calendar  re- 
 tains, w^hile  it  rejects  chapter  14.  In 
 Joshua,  (24  chapters,)  the  history  con- 
 tained from  chapter  11  to  22,  treating  of 
 the  destruction  of  several  kings,  and  the 
 division  of  the  land  of  Canaan,  is  not  read ; 
 but  chapters  14,  20,  and  22  are  retained 
 in  the  Scottish  calendar.  The  whole  of  the 
 book  of  Judges  is  read,  (21  chapters,)  and 
 also  that  of  Ruth  (4  chapters).  So  are 
 also  the  two  books  of  Samuel  (the  first, 
 "  otherwise  called  the  First  Book  of  the 
 Kings,"  containing  31  chapters  ;  and  the 
 second,  "  otherwise  called  the  Second 
 Book  of  the  Kings,"  containing  24  chap- 
 ters). Also  the  two  Books  of  Kings  (the 
 first,  "  commonly  called  the  Third  Book  of 
 the  Kings,"  containing  22  chapters,  and  the 
 second,  "  commonly  called  the  Fourth  Book 
 of  the  Kings,"  containing  25  chapters). 
 Both  the  Books  of  Chronicles  (the  first 
 containing  29  chapters,  and  the  second  36 
 chapters)  are  entirely  omitted,  probably 
 because  they  consist  of  the  details  of  facts 
 which  are  related  in  the  preceding  histori- 
 cal books.  In  the  Scottish  calendar,  1 
 Chronicles,  chap.  10,  is  to  be  read  instead 
 of  the  apocryphal  lessons,  at  morning 
 prayer  on  November  23 ;  and  then  from 
 13  to  22,  with  28,  29,  and  30.  Of  2  Chro- 
 nicles, 1,  2,  5,  6,  &c.  to  36,  are  read,  ex- 
 tending to  evening  prayer,  on  December 
 16.     Of  Ezra,  (10  chapters,)  chapter  2, 
 
LESSONS. 
 
 443 
 
 being  a  catalogue  of  names,  is  omitted,  as 
 are  also  chapters  8  and  10,  partly  for  the 
 same  reason.  In  the  Scottish  calendar, 
 chapter  7  is  omitted,  and  8  and  10  re- 
 tained. Of  Nehemiah,  (13  chapters,)  3,  7, 
 11,  and  12,  consisting  of  the  names  of  the 
 builders  of  the  Avail,  genealogies,  See,  arc 
 omitted.  Of  Esther,  (10  chapters,)  the 
 10th,  containing  only  three  verses,  is 
 omitted,  probably  on  that  account.  In 
 the  Scottish  calendar  chapters  9  and  10 
 make  one  lesson ;  a  rare  occurrence  in 
 that  calendar,  but  frequent  in  ours.  The 
 Avliole  of  the  Book  of  Job  (consisting  of  42 
 chapters)  is  read.  The  Book  of  Psalms 
 (loO)  is  passed  over  as  being  otherwise 
 used.  Of  Proverbs,  (31  chapters,)  chapter 
 30,  the  Prayer  of  Agur,  &c.,  is  alone  omit- 
 ted ;  but  the  Scottish  calendar  retains  it. 
 The  book  of  Ecclesiastes  (12  chapters)  is 
 read  throughout ;  but  the  whole  of  the 
 Song  of  Solomon  (8  chapters)  is  omitted  ; 
 as  containing  mystical  descriptions  not 
 likely  to  edify.  The  Jews  did  not  permit 
 this  book  to  be  read  by  any  one  under 
 thirty  years  of  age.  The  whole  Book  of 
 Isaiah  is  read,  {Q6  chapters,)  but  not  in  its 
 regular  place,  as  before  remarked;  the  1st 
 chapter  being  read  on  the  23rd  of  Novem- 
 hoY,  and  the  66th  concluding  the  year. 
 In  the  Scottish  calendar  it  retains  its  pro- 
 per place.  The  whole  of  Jeremiah  (52 
 chapters)  with  the  Lamentations  of  Jere- 
 miah (o  chapters)  are  read  throughout. 
 Of  Ezekiel  (48  chapters)  only  9  are  read, 
 viz.  2,  3,  6,  7,  13,  14,  18,  33,  and  34.  For 
 the  omission  of  so  large  a  portion  may  be 
 assigned  the  reason  given  for  the  omission 
 of  almost  the  whole  of  the  llevelation.  It 
 consists  in  a  great  degree  of  visions,  many 
 of  which  are  very  obscure  even  to  the 
 most  learned.  The  Scottish  liturgy  retains 
 nearly  the  whole  book.  The  remainder  of 
 the  Old  Testament  is  read  through  regu- 
 larly, viz.  Daniel,  12  chapters;  Hosea,  14 
 chapters  ;  Joel,  3  chapters  ;  Amos,  9  chap- 
 ters ;  Obadiah,  1  chapter;  Jonah,  4  chap- 
 ters ;  Micah,  7  chapters  ;  Nahum,  3  chap- 
 ters ;  Habakkuk,  3  chapters ;  Zephaniah, 
 3  chapters  ;  Ilaggai,  2  chapters ;  Zecha- 
 riah,  14  chapters  ;  Malachi,  4  chapters. 
 
 See  more  fully,  as  to  the  subjects  of  the 
 omitted  chapters,  Bennetts  Paraphrase^ 
 Common  Praijcr,  Ai)pendix  ;  and  Shep- 
 herd, Common  Prayer. 
 
 Of  the  apocryphal  lessons,  (from  otto  rjjc 
 KpvTTTrjg,  removed  from  the  j)lnce,  or  chest 
 where  the  sacred  books  were  kept ;  or 
 from  dTroKpvTTTuj,  to  coHceal  or  hide;  i.  e. 
 either  as  being  kept  from  the  people,  or  as 
 not  being  canonical ;  and  see  fully  Herfs 
 Lectures,  and  Biiujliunis  Antiquities,  book 
 
 xiv.  ch.  3,  sec.  lo,  16,)  those  read  and  those 
 omitted  are  as  follows  : — The  whole  of 
 Esdras  (2  books,  of  9  and  16  chapters)  is 
 omitted.  The  whole  book  of  Tobit  (14 
 chapters)  is  read,  except  chapter  b.  The 
 whole  of  Judith  (16  chapters)  is  read. 
 The  remainder  of  the  Book  of  jvsther  (6^ 
 chapters)  is  passed  over.  The  AVisdom  of 
 Solomon  (19  chapters)  is  read  throughout. 
 And  the  Avhole  of  the  Wisdom  of  Jesus  the 
 son  of  Sirach,  or  Ecclesiasticus,  (51  chap- 
 ters,) except  the  26,  and  part  of  the  25, 
 30,  and  46.  The  whole  of  Baruch  is  read 
 (6  chapters).  But  the  Song  of  the  Three 
 Children,  (1  chapter,)  a  continuation  of 
 Daniel  iii.  23,  is  omitted;  principally,  per- 
 haps, as  the  greater  part  of  it  is  the  "  Be- 
 nedicite,"  ^:c.  The  History  of  Susannah 
 (1  chapter)  and  that  of  Bel  and  the  Dragon 
 (1  chapter)  are  both  read.  The  two  Books 
 of  Maccabees  (16  chapters  and  15  chapters) 
 are  omitted. 
 
 We  fix  articles  of  faith,  and  things  ne- 
 cessary to  salvation,  upon  the  Scriptures  ; 
 we  do  not  alloAV  any  part  of  the  apocry- 
 pha a  casting  voice  in  the  establishment 
 of  any  doctrine. — Boys  on  the  Thirty -Nine 
 Articles. 
 
 The  New  Testament  is  read  through 
 three  times  in  the  year,  for  the  second 
 lessons;  i.  e.  the  Four  Gospels  and  the 
 Acts,  for  the  second  lessons  in  the  morning 
 service ;  and  the  Epistles  (the  Kevelation 
 of  St.  John  being  omitted)  for  the  second 
 lesson  in  the  evening  service.  The  Gospel 
 of  St.  Matthew^,  and  the  Epistle  to  the 
 Romans,  beginning  respectively  on  the  1  st 
 day  of  January — the  3rd  and  2nd  of  May 
 — and  the  31st  of  August — the  1st  chapter 
 of  St.  Luke  being,  on  the  first  and  third 
 reading,  divided  into  two  portions,  and  the 
 7th  chapter  of  Acts  on  the  third  reading. 
 Of  the  Epistles,  the  2nd  and  3rd  chapters 
 of  1  Timothy  and  of  Titus,  are  read  together ; 
 as  are  also  the  2nd  and  3rd  Epistles  of  St. 
 John,  on  the  first  and  second  reading,  but 
 not  on  the  third.  This  order  is  broken 
 into  only  on  four  Sundays  in  the  year,  i.  e. 
 the  sixth  Sunday  in  Lent,  (or  Sunday  be- 
 fore Easter,)  Easter  day,  AVhit-sunday, 
 and  Trinity  Sunday,  but  more  frequently 
 in  holy-days  ;  for  all  which  days  proper  les- 
 sons are  appointed. 
 
 The  Book  of  the  Revelation  of  St.  John 
 is  wholly  omitted,  except  on  his  own  ])ecu- 
 liar  day',  when  tlie  1st  and  22nd  cliapters 
 (the  first  and  the  last)  are  read  ;  and  on 
 All-saints  day,  when  part  of  the  19th 
 chapter  is  read. 
 
 AVhen  a  Sunday  and  a  saint's  day  coin- 
 cide, Ave  api)ear  to  be  left  in  some  degree 
 of  uncertaintv,  whether  the  first  lesson  to- 
 
44i 
 
 LETTERS  OF  ORDERS. 
 
 LIBERTINES. 
 
 gether  with  the  service  for  the  holy-day,  or 
 that  for  the  Sunday,  is  to  be  read.     The 
 consequence  is,  says  Archdeacon    Sharp, 
 {Fisit.  eh.  3,   Disc!   iv.,)  that  the   clergy 
 differ  in  their  practice,  and  use  the  service 
 appropriated  to  that  festival,  to  which,  in 
 their  private  opinion,  they  give  the  pre- 
 ference.    Some  choose  to  intermix  them, 
 using  the  collects  appointed  to  each,  and 
 preferring  the  first  lesson  for  the  Sunday, 
 taken  out  of  a  canonical  book,  to  that  for 
 the  holy-day,  if  it  happens  to  bo  appointed 
 in  the  Apocrypha.     Uniformity  of  practice 
 was  certainly  intended  by  the  Church,  and 
 what  now  may  seem  to  require  the  direc- 
 tion of  a  rubric,  or  at  least  the  decision  of 
 the  diocesan,  our  forefathers,  in  all  proba- 
 bility, thought   sufficiently   plain.      They 
 knew  that,  prior  to  the  Reformation,  (ad- 
 mitting that  the  practice  of  England  cor- 
 responded with  that  of  the  lioman   and 
 Galilean  Churches,)  the  service  for  all  the 
 holy-days  now  retained  being  "  Doubles," 
 generally  took  place  of  that  appointed  for 
 ordinary  Sundays,  excepting  those  of  Ad- 
 vent and   Lent,  with  Easter  day,  Whit- 
 sunday, and  Trinity  Sunday.    They  would, 
 therefore,  naturally  read  the  service  for  the 
 saint's  day,  and  omit  that  for  the  Sunday 
 in  general.    This  continues  to  be  the  prac- 
 tice of  the  Eoman  Church,  and  it  was  the 
 practice  of  the  Galilean  Church  for  more 
 than  a  century  after  the  a?ra  of  our  lieform- 
 ation.     In  some  parts  of  the  late  Galilean 
 Church  a  change  took  place  about  the  be- 
 ginning of  the  present  century,  and  the 
 service  for  the  Sunday  was  appointed  to 
 supersede  that  for  the  saint's  day.    But  in 
 our  Church  no  such  alterations  have  been 
 made  by  lawful  authority.    Hence  it  would 
 appear  that  the  service  for  the  saint's  day, 
 and  not  that  for  the  Sunday,  should  be 
 used.     And  notwithstanding  there  exists 
 some  diversity  of  opinion  on  this  subject, 
 yet  the  most  general  practice  seems  to  be 
 to  read  the  collect.  Epistle,  and  Gospel  for 
 the  saint's  day ;  and  it  is  most  consonant 
 to  that  practice  to  read  also  the  first  lesson 
 approj)riatcd  to  that  day.     This  remark  I 
 have  heard  made  by  the  lord  bishop  of 
 London. — Sh  epherd. 
 
 When  the  feast  day  falls  upon  a  Sunday, 
 it  was  ordered  in  the  service  of  Sarum, 
 that  the  Sunday  service  should  give  way 
 to  the  proper  service  ordained  for  the  fes- 
 tival, except  some  peculiar  Sunday  only, 
 and  then  the  one  or  the  other  was  trans- 
 ferred to  some  day  of  the  week  following. 
 ■^-Bp.  Cosin. 
 
 LETTERS  OF  ORDERS.  (See  Or- 
 f/ers.J  The  bishop's  certificate  of  his  having 
 ordamed  a  clergyman,  either  priest  or  dea- 
 
 con. Churchwardens  have  the  power  to 
 demand  a  sight  of  the  letters  of  orders 
 of  any  one  offering  to  assist  in  the  church 
 of  which  thev  are  the  guardians. 
 
 LEVITICUS,  a  canonical  book  of  Scrip- 
 ture, being  the  third  book  of  the  Penta- 
 teuch of  Closes ;  thus  called  because  it 
 contains  principally  the  laws  and  regula- 
 tions relating  to  the  priests,  the  Levites, 
 and  sacrifices ;  for  which  reason  the  He- 
 brews call  it  the  priests'  law,  because  it 
 includes  many  ordinances  concerning  sa- 
 crifices. The  Jews  term  it  likewise  Vajicra, 
 because  in  Hebrew  it  begins  with  this 
 word,  Avhich  signifies,  " and  he  called" 
 
 All  the  world  agree,  that  Leviticus  is  a 
 canonical  book,  and  of  Divine  authority. 
 It,  as  well  as  the  rest  of  the  Penta- 
 teuch, is  generally  held  to  be  the  work  of 
 Moses.  It  contains  the  history  of  what 
 passed  during  the  eight  days  of  Aaron's 
 and  his  sons'  consecration,  which  was  per- 
 formed in  the  year  of  the  world  2514. 
 The  laws  which  were  prescribed  in  it  upon 
 other  subjects,  besides  sacrifices,  have  no 
 other  chronological  mark,  whereby  v.e  may 
 be  directed  to  judge  at  what  time  they 
 were  given.  Only  four  chapters  of  Leviti- 
 cus are  read  in  our  Church,  as  remarked 
 in  the  article  on  Lessons. 
 
 LIBELLATICL  A  designation  of  one 
 kind  of  the  lapsed  from  Christianity  in 
 times  of  persecution.  They  are  first  men- 
 tioned in  the  Decian  persecution,  and  the 
 origin  of  the  name  seems  to  have  been 
 this.  It  is  probable  that  the  emperor  had 
 decreed  that  every  one  who  was  accused 
 or  suspected  of  being  a  Christian,  should 
 be  permitted  to  purge  himself  before  a 
 magistrate,  on  which  occasion  a  libellus  or 
 certificate  was  given  him,  that  he  had 
 never  been  a  Christian,  or  that  he  had  ab- 
 jured the  name  of  Christ.  Some  Chris- 
 tians, who  were  not  so  abandoned  as  to 
 forsake  the  true  faith  utterly,  were  yet 
 weak  and  dishonest  enough  to  procure 
 those  lihelli,  or  certificates,  by  fraudulent 
 compromise  with  the  magistrate :  thus 
 avoiding,  as  they  might  hope,  the  sin  of 
 apostasy,  and  at  the  same  time  escaping 
 the  sufferings  and  penalties  of  convicted 
 Christians.  The  Church,  however,  refused 
 to  sanction  their  deceit  and  cowardice,  and 
 they  were  classed  among  the  lapsed,  though 
 not  considered  quite  so  culpable  as  the 
 Sacrificati  and  lliurificnti. 
 
 LIBERTINES.  A  sect  of  Christian 
 heretics,  whose  ringleaders  were  Quintin, 
 a  tailor  of  Picardy,  and  one  Copin,  who 
 about  1525  divulged  their  errors  in  Hol- 
 land and  Brabant :  they  maintained  that 
 whatsoever  was  done  by  men,  was  done  by 
 
LIGHTS  ON  THE  ALTAR. 
 
 445 
 
 the  Spirit  of  God  ;  and  from  thence 
 concluded  there  was  no  sm,  but  to  those 
 that  thought  it  so,  because  all  came  from 
 God  :  they  added,  that  to  live  without  any 
 doubt  or  scruple,  was  to  return  to  the 
 state  of  innocency,  and  alloAved  their  fol- 
 lowers to  call  themselves  either  Catholics 
 or  Lutherans,  according  as  the  company 
 they  lighted  amongst,  were. 
 
 LIGHTS  ON  THE  ALTAR.  Among 
 the  ornaments  of  the  Church  enjoined  by 
 the  laws,  and  sanctioned  by  the  usage  of 
 tlie  Church  of  England,  are  two  lights 
 upon  the  altar,  to  be  a  symbol  to  the  peo- 
 ple that  Christ,  in  his  two-fold  nature,  is 
 the  very  true  Light  of  the  world. 
 
 The  laws  of  the  Church,  to  which  we 
 refer,  are  as  follows  : 
 
 The  rubric  immediately  preceding  "  the 
 Order  for  Morning  and  Evening  Prayer 
 daily  throughout  the  Year"  stands  thus:  — 
 
 "  And  here  it  is  to  be  noted  that  such  orna- 
 ments of  tlie  Church  and  of  the  ministers 
 thereof  at  all  times  of  their  ministration  shall 
 be  retained  and  be  in  use,  as  were  in  this 
 Church  of  England,  by  authority  of  parlia- 
 ment, in  the  second  year  of  the  reiyn  of 
 Edward  Vir 
 
 But  the  rubrics  are  a  part  of  the  laws  of 
 the  Church,  framed  by  convocation,  and 
 ratified  by  parliament ;  so  that,  if  it  appear 
 that  in  the  second  year  of  King  Edward 
 VI.  lights  were  used,  as  in  this  rubric  is 
 mentioned,  no  authority  short  of  a  convo- 
 cation for  the  Church,  and  for  the  State  an 
 act  of  parliament,  can  reverse  the  authority 
 on  which  lights  are  still  used  upon  the 
 altar. 
 
 Now,  in  the  injunctions  of  King  Edward 
 VL,  set  forth  in  1547,  it  is  expressly  or- 
 dered, "  that  all  deans,  archdeacons,  2iarsons, 
 vicars,  and  other  ecclesiastical  persons,  shall 
 suffer,  from  henceforth,  no  toi'ches  nor  can- 
 dles, tapers,  or  images  of  ivax,  to  be  set 
 before  any  image  or  picture.  BuT  ONLY 
 TWO  LIGHTS  UPON  THE  HIGH  ALTAR,  BE- 
 FORE THE  SACRAMENT,  WHICH,  FOR  THE 
 SIGNIFICATION  THAT  ClIRIST  IS  THE  VERY 
 TRUE  LIGHT  OF  THE  WORLD,  THEY  SHALL 
 SUFFER   TO   REMAIN    STILL." 
 
 Some  persons  w'ho  are  ignorant  of  the 
 history  of  those  times,  object  that  this  in- 
 junction is  not  to  the  purpose,  because  we 
 have  no  high  altar:  the  truth  is,  that  it  is 
 the  high  altar  alone  which  is  left  in  our 
 churches,  all  the  rest  being  removed  by 
 authority,  on  account  of  the  idolatrous  and 
 corrupt  practices  which  were  connected 
 with  them. 
 
 It  is  also  objected  by  some,  who  Avould 
 be  above  falling  into  so  great  and  unhappy 
 a  mistake  as  to  suppose  that  the  high  altar 
 
 is  removed  from  our  churches,  that  "  the 
 sacrament "  before  which,  on  the  altar,  the 
 lights  were  to  remain,  is  taken  away ;  for 
 by  this  term,  say  they,  was  meant  the  con- 
 secrated wafer,  suspended  in  a  pyx  on  the 
 altar.  If,  then,  this  is  taken  a^ay,  so  also 
 must  the  lights  be  taken  away  which  were 
 to  burn  before  it.  But  even  allowing  that 
 the  sacrament,  in  this  sense,  is  removed, 
 yet  the  injunction  gives  another  reason  for 
 lights,  and  may  surely  be  allowed  to  speak 
 its  meaning  better  than  those  who  must, 
 to  serve  their  turn,  give  to  it  an  idolatrous 
 meaning.  The  injunction  does  not  say  that 
 the  lights  are  to  remain  before  the  sacra- 
 ment as  an  additional  kind  of  adoration  of 
 the  host,  but  for  the  signijication  that 
 Christ  is  the  very  true  light  of  the  world. 
 It  would  be  very  illiberal  to  suppose  that 
 those  who  quarrel  with  the  lights  deny 
 the  truth  which  they  are  thus  made  by 
 authority  to  symbolize ;  but  it  is  really 
 strange  that  they  will  overlook  this  sound 
 reason  given  by  the  injunction,  in  order  to 
 set  forth  a  questionable  reason  not  given, 
 by  way  of  getting  rid  of  the  obnoxious 
 lights. 
 
 But  the  injunction  not  only  thus  explains 
 itself,  but  is  interpreted  by  the  custom  of 
 the  Church  to  enjoin  the  use  of  lights  for 
 the  signification  that  Christ  is  the  very 
 true  light  of  the  world,  after  the  pyx  had 
 been  removed ;  for,  from  the  time  of  Ed- 
 ward, there  seems  never  to  have  been  a 
 time  when  the  lights  were  not  retained 
 in  cathedral  churches,  and  wherever  we 
 might  look  for  an  authoritative  interpreta- 
 tion of  the  law.  And  to  the  present  day 
 the  candles  are  to  be  seen  on  the  altar  of 
 almost  all  the  cathedrals.  In  collegiate 
 churches,  also,  they  are  usually  found ; 
 and  so  also  in  the  chapels  royal,  and  in 
 the  chapels  of  the  several  colleges  in  Ox- 
 ford and  Cambridge.  The  use  of  these 
 ornaments  in  Oxford  and  Cambridge  is  a 
 matter  of  special  importance,  for  it  serves 
 to  give  a  singular  character  to  the  objec- 
 tion which  some,  even  of  the  clergy,  make 
 to  the  candles  on  the  ground  of  novelty. 
 Almost  every  clergyman  must  again  and 
 again  have  seen  on  the  altar  of  his  college 
 chapel  these  appropriate  and  symbolical 
 ornaments  ;  and  yet  some  clergymen,  when 
 they  wish  to  condemn  them  elsewhere,  so 
 far  forget  what  they  have  seen  as  to  call 
 them  a  novelty. 
 
 In  how  many  parochial  churches,  or 
 chapels  of  ancient  chapelrics,  or  private 
 chapels,  in  this  kingdom,  candles  on  the 
 altar  have  been  retained  since  the  times  of 
 the  Puritans,  we  know  not ;  in  some  they 
 certainly  have  been :   but  surely  the  rule 
 
446 
 
 LIGHTS  ON  THE  ALTAR. 
 
 of  the  Church  being  express  for  their  use, 
 the  custom  of  those  whose  ritual  and  fur- 
 niture is  most  carefully  maintained  under 
 the  eye  of  persons  best  qualified  to  judg-e 
 in  such  matters,  and  the  guardians  of  the 
 Church's  constitution,  is  sufficient,  at  the 
 very  least,  to  serve  as  a  Avitncss  to  the  rule, 
 and  to  make  it  clear  that  it  is  still  the  rule, 
 the  acknowleclyed  rule,  of  the  Church  of 
 England. 
 
 Thus,  then,  the  custom  of  the  Church  is 
 ■with  those  "vvho  use,  and  not  with  those 
 who  omit  the  use  of,  lights,  although  cus- 
 tom is  an  argument  brought  confidently 
 against  them.  And  here  also  we  may  note 
 that  all  the  commentators  on  the  I'rayer 
 Book,  Avhose  judgment  Ave  would  look  to 
 with  respect,  agree  in  declaring  that  it  is 
 the  law  and  the  custom  of  the  Church  of 
 England  to  retain  the  iwo  lights  on  the 
 altar. 
 
 That  their  use  has  been,  however,  too 
 much  neglected,  cannot  be  denied ;  but,  in 
 fact,  the  disuse  of  lights,  where  they  have 
 been  disused,  when  it  is  traced  to  its  real 
 cause,  tells  almost  as  much  in  their  favour 
 as  the  continued  use  of  them  where  they 
 are  retained.  It  was  not  our  reformers 
 who  removed  them  from  the  altar ;  we 
 have  already  proved  that  they  deliberately 
 commanded"  theu*  use  :  it  was  the  Puritans, 
 who  took  their  origin  in  the  days  of  Queen 
 Elizabeth,  from  the  refugees  in  Holland 
 and  Geneva  during  the  persecutions  of  the 
 bloody  Queen  Mary.  There  they  learned 
 a  less  Scriptural  ritual,  which,  working  on 
 the  saturnine  dispositions  of  some,  led 
 eventually  to  the  greatest  extremes  of 
 fanaticism,  impiety,  and  crime.  As  some 
 controversy  has  arisen  on  this  subject,  as 
 stated  in  former  editions  of  this  work,  the 
 following  observations  are  added  on  a 
 point  of  very  minor  importance,  but  still 
 one  on  which  correct  information  is  in- 
 teresting. 
 
 The  ancient  Church  appears  to  have  used 
 lights,  not  only  at  those  services  Avhich  were 
 performed  at  late  hours,  after  sunset,  or, 
 as  some  have  supposed,  when  the  Chris- 
 tians assembled  in  caves  of  the  earth,  and  in 
 the  catacombs  at  Rome,  during  the  times  of 
 public  persecution  ;  but  in  token  of  public 
 rejoicing,  at  festivals  and  other  solemn  oc- 
 casions, during  the  day-time.  St.  Gregory 
 Nazianzen  speaks  of  lights  as  being  carried 
 at  the  funerals  of  pious  Christians,  pro- 
 bably of  higher  rank,  as  it  occm-s  in  his 
 mention  of  the  honours  which  were  paid 
 after  death  to  the  emperor  Constantius. — 
 Omt.  iv.  p.  118,  ed.  Morell.  He  also  speaks 
 of  them  as  used  at  baptisms.— 0;-«^.  xl.  p. 
 672.     At   the  baptism  of  Theodosius  the 
 
 Younger,  a  little  later  than  this,  an  early 
 writer  says  that  the  crowd  of  noble  per- 
 sons bearing  tapers  made  the  earth  appear 
 as  if  spangled  with  stars. — Marc.  Diacon. 
 Vit.  Forphyy.  c.  7.  It  seems  also  to  have 
 been  a  practice  at  Church  festivals,  and 
 solemn  days  kept  in  memory  of  saints  and 
 martyrs. — S.  Paulin.  Nol.  Carm.  vi.  35 — 37. 
 Grc(/.  Nazianzen.  Orat.  xxxix.  and  xlii. 
 
 Theodoret  speaks  of  "  the  burning  of  in- 
 cense and  lights  "  as  accompanying  "  the 
 mystical  sacrifice  of  the  holy  table."  — 
 QiKPst.  in  Exod.  xxv. — xxviii.  Ojyp.  vol.  i. 
 p.  164,  ed.  Schulze.  And  St.  Jerome, 
 more  distinctly,  "  In  all  the  churches  of 
 the  East,  when  the  Gospel  is  about  to  be 
 read,  lights  are  kindled,  though  the  sun 
 may  be  shining  bright,  not  to  put  the  dark- 
 ness to  flight,  but  to  show  a  sign  of  rejoic- 
 ing."—  Contr.  Vigilantium,  tom.  i.  p.  394, 
 ed.  Vallars.  It  seems  not  at  all  improba- 
 ble that  Archbishop  Theodore,  coming  as 
 he  did  from  Tarsus,  may  have  introduced 
 this  custom  of  the  Eastern  Church  among 
 the  Anglo-Saxons. 
 
 The  mention  of  lamps  and  candlesticks 
 among  church  furniture  occurs  in  very 
 early  times.  The  passage  referred  to  in  a 
 former  edition  of  this  work,  may  be  found 
 in  Baluze,  Miscell.  tom.  i.  p.  22.  The  date 
 of  the  acts  there  recited  is  said  to  be  the 
 year  in  which  IJiocletian  was  consul  for  the 
 eighth  time,  and  Maximian  for  the  seventh, 
 i.  e.  probably  A.  D.  296,  a  few  years  before 
 the  breaking  out  of  the  tenth  persecution. 
 The  church  furniture  there  said  to  be  taken 
 from  the  Christians  of  Cirta  is  set  down  as 
 follows  :  "  Two  golden  chalices,  six  silver 
 chalices,  six  silver  flagons  or  ewers,  a  silver 
 round  vessel,  [ciicumeUum,)  seven  silver 
 lamps,  two  candlestands,  [cereofala,)  seven 
 short  candlesticks  with  their  lights,  eleven 
 brazen  lamps  with  the  chains  on  which 
 they  were  hung,"  and  a  quantity  of  male 
 and  female  articles  of  clothing,  Avhich  ap- 
 pear to  have  been  kept  in  the  church-stores 
 for  distribution  to  the  poor.  It  seems  not 
 improbable  that  the  two  tall  candlestands 
 here  mentioned,  and  the  seven  short  can- 
 dlesticks, each  contained  lights  used  at  the 
 reading  of  the  Gospel ;  the  former  would 
 be  placed  on  the  ground  at  a  little  distance 
 in  front  of  the  holy  table,  the  latter  on  the 
 table  itself.  It  was  done,  as  Theodoret 
 seems  to  shoAV,  in  imitation  of  the  solemni- 
 ties in  the  temple  service.  The  lamps  would 
 be  for  lighting  the  church  after  sunset. 
 
 Many  records  are  found  of  the  use  of 
 candlesticks  and  lamps  in  our  national 
 Church  from  the  time  of  Bede  to  the  Nor- 
 man Conquest,  particularly  a  remarkable 
 list  of  church  books  and  furniture,  which 
 
LIGHTS  ON  THE  ALTAR. 
 
 LITANY. 
 
 447 
 
 is  to  be  found  in  tlic  \vill  of  Leofric,  bishop 
 of  Exeter,  in  the  time  of  Echvard  the  Con- 
 fes.sor. — For  authorities  see  Bishop  Cosin, 
 Wheathj,  BisJiop  3Iant. 
 
 Though  it  might  admit  of  a  question, 
 whether  the  very  ancient  and  (at  one  time) 
 universal  custom  of  burning  Hghts  during 
 the  Communion  Office,  was  ever  abrogated 
 by  the  permanent  hiws  of  our  Church,  still 
 that  custom,  now  plainly  obsolete,  is  very 
 different  from  retaining  candlesticks  on  the 
 altar,  with  tapers  to  be  lighted  Avhen  they 
 are  required.  Queen  Elizabeth,  though 
 opposed  to  superstition,  yet  had  a  crucifix, 
 and  "  two  candlesticks,  and  two  tapers 
 burning  on  the  altar  "  of  her  chapel. — 
 Styype,  Annals  Rcf.  loo9,  p.  175;  1560, 
 p.  200,  fol.  ed.  And  though  objections 
 were  made  both  by  the  archbishop  of  Can- 
 terbury and  Bishop  Cox,  still  it  would  ap- 
 pear that  these  were  rather  directed  to  the 
 use  of  the  crucifix ;  and  nothing  is  said  of 
 the  illegality  of  candles.  For  their  use  on 
 the  holy  table,  we  have  the  continuous 
 sanction  of  cathedrals,  royal  chapels,  and 
 colleges,  down  to  the  time  of  the  llebellion ; 
 and  it  could  be,  and  has  been,  very  amply 
 shown  that  the  replacing  these  articles  of 
 ecclesiastical  furniture  at  the  llcstoration 
 was  very  frequent.  As  an  instance  out  of 
 many.  Parry,  bishop  of  Ossory,  in  1677,  left 
 by  will  a  pair  of  large  silver  candlesticks 
 gilt  to  Christ  Church,  Dublin.  Bishop 
 Cosin,  speaking  of  the  manner  in  which 
 the  communion  (not  oufiht  to  he,  but)  "  is 
 celebrated  in  our  churches,"  says  it  "  is 
 after  this  manner :  first  of  all,  it  is  enjoin- 
 ed, that  the  table  or  altar  should  be  spread 
 over  with  a  clean  linen  cloth,  or  other  de- 
 cent covering ;  upon  Avhich  the  Holy  Bible, 
 the  Common  Prayer  Book,  the  plate  and 
 chalice,  are  to  be  placed ;  two  icax  candles 
 are  to  be  set  upon  it." — XichoUs  on  the 
 Comnum  Prayer,  Add.  Notes,  p.  34.  It 
 is  difficult  to  believe  that,  had  this  been 
 unlawful,  the  practice  should  have  been  so 
 largely  sanctioned  by  the  heads  of  the 
 Church,  especially  hy  those  who  revised  the 
 Prayer  Booh. 
 
 After  all,  are  candlesticks  and  lights 
 mere  ornaments  ?  They  are  something 
 more ;  though  ornamental  in  themselves, 
 and  in  the  position  they  occupy,  they  are 
 for  use,  and  are  properly  church  furniture  ; 
 and  therefore  no  more  within  the  contem- 
 plation of  the  rubric  respecting  ornaments, 
 than  the  stalls,  desks,  eagle,  communion 
 rails,  organ,  or  any  other  part  of  the  move- 
 able or  permanent  furniture  of  the  church. 
 There  appears  no  sound  reason,  why,  when 
 the  church  must  of  necessity  be  lit,  the 
 ancient  custom  of  lighting  the  chancel  by 
 
 means  of  two  candlesticks  on  the  holy 
 table,  should  not  be  kept  up  according  to 
 ancient  and  unbroken  usage.  But  if  no 
 part  of  the  ecclesiastical  furniture  is  to 
 stand  in  the  church,  except  when  actually 
 in  use,  this  rule  would  lead  to  moveable 
 ])ul})its,  organs,  iKrc.  And,  indeed,  would 
 be  in  a  great  measure  impracticable. — 
 Stephens  s  Common  Prayer  Book. 
 
 In  Christ  Church  cathedral  in  Dublin, 
 within  memory,  two  silver  gilt  candlesticks 
 with  large  wax  candles  in  them  always 
 stood  on  the  holy  table  on  Sundays  and 
 holy-days,  and  were  lit  when  required  at 
 the  evening  service,  then  celebrated  at  a 
 late  hour. — Jebh. 
 
 In  the  Iliereuyia  Anylicana  there  are  a 
 great  many  detailed  proofs  adduced  of  the 
 use  of  lights  and  candlesticks  on  the  holy 
 table  in  the  English  Church,  from  the  lie- 
 formation  downwards.  The  authorities  are 
 all  given. 
 
 LINCOLN.     (See  Use.) 
 
 LITANY.  The  term  "  Litany"  is  used 
 by  ancient  writers  in  many  difi'erent  senses. 
 At  first  it  seems  to  have  been  applied  as 
 a  general  appellation  for  all  prayers  and 
 supplications,  whether  public  or  private. 
 In  the  fourth  century  it  Avas  given  more 
 especially  to  those  solemn  offices  which 
 were  formed  with  processions  of  the  clergy 
 and  people.  Public  supplications  and 
 prayers  to  Gou,  on  occasions  of  especial 
 urgency,  were  certainly  prevalent  in  the 
 Church  during  the  fourth  and  fifth  cen- 
 turies. (See  lioyation  Days.)  These  sup- 
 plications were  called  Litanies  in  the  East- 
 ern Church,  from  whence  the  name  passed 
 to  the  West.  Here  they  were  knoM-n  as 
 Bof/afions  or  supplications,  until  the  name 
 of  Litany  became  more  prevalent  than  any 
 other,  the  Church  of  England  appears  to 
 have  received  the  stated  Rogation  or  Litany 
 days  of  the  Gallican  Church  at  an  early 
 period ;  and,  from  that  time  to  the  present, 
 she  has  reckoned  them  among  her  days  of 
 fasting.  Formerly,  in  this  Church,  there 
 Avere  processions  on  all  these  days. 
 
 The  Litany  of  the  Church  of  England  is 
 not  an  exact  transcript  of  any  ancient 
 form,  though  composed  of  materials  of 
 very  ancient  date.  It  difi'ers  essentially 
 from  the  Romish  Litanies  by  containing  no 
 invocations  to  angels  and  departed  saints. 
 Our  invocations  arc  made  to  the  three 
 persons  of  the  sacred  Trinity,  and  to  them 
 alone,  while  the  office  of  ]\Iediator  and 
 Intercessor  is  throughout  ascribed  only  to 
 our  Lord  Jesus  Christ. 
 
 In  the  original  arrangement,  the  Litany 
 formed  a  distinct  service,  not  used  at  the 
 time  of  the  other  services.     But  by  later 
 
448 
 
 LITANY. 
 
 usage  it  has  been  united  with  the  morning 
 prayer,  though  still  retaining  its  separate 
 place  in  the  Prayer  Book.  Formerly 
 there  was  a  rubric,  requiring  that,  "  after 
 morning  prayer,  the  people  being  called 
 together  by  the  ringing  of  a  bell,  and 
 assembled  'in  the  church,  the  English 
 Litany  shall  be  said  after  the  accustomed 
 manner ;"  and  it  was  also  required  by  the 
 loth  canon,  that  "  every  householder  dwell- 
 ing within  half  a  mile  of  the  church  should 
 come  or  scud  some  one  at  the  least  of  his 
 household,  lit  to  join  with  the  minister  in 
 prayers."  The  ordinary  arrangement  was 
 to  hold  morning  prayer  at  eight  o'clock, 
 the  Litany  and  the  Communion  at  ten.  This 
 practice  is  still  observed  in  some  of  the 
 English  churches ;  and  Bishop  AVhite,  in 
 his  "  ]Memoirs  of  the  American  Church," 
 remarks  that  when  he  was  in  England, 
 being  on  a  visit  to  the  archbishop  of  Can- 
 terbury, he  observed  that  on  AVednesdays 
 he,  with  the  other  bishops,  retired  to  the 
 chapel  before  dinner ;  and  on  accompany- 
 ing them  he  found  that  their  object  Avas  to 
 use  the  Litany,  in  compliance  with  the 
 original  custom. 
 
 The  Litany  is  usually  considered  as  em- 
 bracing four  main  divisions,  viz.  the  In- 
 vocations, Deprecations,  Interces- 
 sions, and  Supplications. — See  Nicholls 
 on  the  Common  Prayer. 
 
 The  word  Litany  is  used  by  the  most 
 ancient  Greek  writers  for  "  an  earnest 
 supplication  to  the  gods,  made  in  time  of 
 adverse  fortune : "  and  in  the  same  sense 
 it  is  used  in  the  Christian  Church  for  "  a 
 supplication  and  common  intercession  to 
 God,  when  his  wrath  lies  upon  us."  Such 
 a  kind  of  supplication  was  the  fifty-first 
 Psalm,  which  begins  with  "  Have  mercy 
 upon  me,"  &c.,  and  may  be  called  David's 
 Litany.  Such  was  that  Litany  of  God's 
 appointing  (Joel  ii.  17);  where,  in  a 
 general  assembly,  the  priests  were  to  say 
 with  tears,  "  Spare  thy  people,  O  Lord," 
 &c.  And  such  was  that  Litany  of  our 
 Saviour,  (Luke  xxii.  42,)  which  kneeling 
 he  often  repeated  with  strong  crying  and 
 tears  (Heb.  v.  7);  and  St.  Paul  reckons 
 up  "  supplications "  among  the  kinds  of 
 Christian  offices,  which  he  enjoins  shall  be 
 daily  used  (1  Tim.  ii.  1) ;  which  suppli- 
 cations are  generally  expounded  Litanies 
 for  removal  of  some  great  evil.  As  for 
 the  form  in  which  they  are  now  made, 
 namely,  in  short  requests  by  the  priests,  to 
 which'  the  people  all  answer,  St.  Chry- 
 sostom  saith  it  is  derived  from  the  prim'i- 
 tive  age.  And  not  only  the  Western,  but 
 the  Eastern  Church  also,  have  ever  since 
 retained  this  way  of  praying.      This  was 
 
 the  form  of  the  Christians'  prayers  in 
 Tertullian's  time,  on  the  days  of  their 
 stations,  "Wednesdays  and  Fridays,  by 
 which  he  tells  us  they  removed  drought. 
 Thus,  in  St.  Cyprian's  time,  they  requested 
 God  for  deliverance  from  enemies,  for 
 obtaining  rain,  and  for  removing  or  mo- 
 derating his  judgments.  And  St.  Ambrose 
 hath  left  a  form  of  Litany,  which  bears  his 
 name,  agreeing  in  many  things  with  this 
 of  ours.  For  when  miraculous  gifts  ceased, 
 they  began  to  write  down  divers  of  those 
 primitive  forms,  which  were  the  original 
 of  our  modern  office  :  and  about  the  year 
 400  these  Litanies  began  to  be  used  in 
 procession,  the  people  walking  barefoot, 
 and  saying  them  with  great  devotion. 
 And  Mamertus,  bishop  of  Vienna,  did 
 collect  a  Litany  to  be  so  used,  by  which 
 his  country  was  delivered  from  dreadful 
 calamities,  in  the  year  460.  And  soon 
 after,  Sidonius,  bishop  of  Arverne,  [Cler- 
 mont in  Auvergne,]  upon  the  Gothic  in- 
 vasion, made  use  of  the  same  office  ;  and 
 about  the  year  500,  [511,]  the  Council  of 
 Orleans  enjoined  they  should  be  used  at 
 one  certain  time  of  the  year,  in  this  pub- 
 lic way  of  procession ;  and  in  the  next 
 century,  Gregory  the  Great  did,  out  of  all 
 the  Litanies  extant,  compose  that  famous 
 sevenfold  Litany,  by  which  Rome  was  de- 
 livered from  a  grievous  mortality,  which 
 hath  been  a  pattern  to  all  Western 
 Churches  ever  since ;  and  ours  comes 
 nearer  to  it  than  that  in  the  present 
 Koman  missal,  wherein  later  popes  had 
 put  in  the  invocation  of  saints,  which  our 
 reformers  have  justly  expunged.  But  by 
 the  way  we  may  note,  that  the  use  of 
 Litanies  in  procession  about  the  fields, 
 came  up  but  in  the  time  of  Theodosius  in 
 the  East,  and  in  the  days  of  Mamertus  of 
 Vienna,  and  Honoratus  of  Marseilles, 
 namely,  in  the  year  460,  in  the  "West ; 
 and  it  was  later  councils  which  did  enjoin 
 the  use  of  it  in  Rogation  Week ;  but  the 
 forms  of  earnest  supplications  were  far 
 more  ancient  and  truly  primitive.  As  for 
 our  own  Litany,  it  is  now  enjoined  on 
 Wednesdays  and  Fridays,  the  two  ancient 
 fasting  days  of  the  Christians,  in  which 
 they  had  of  old  more  solemn  prayers ; 
 and  on  Sundays,  when  there  is  the  fullest 
 assembly:  and  no  Church  in  the  world 
 hath  so  complete  a  form,  as  the  curious 
 and  comprehensive  method  of  it  will  de- 
 clare.— Dean  Comber. 
 
 Epiphanius  referreth  this  order  to  the 
 apostles.  The  Jew's  in  their  synagogues 
 observed  for  their  special  days  of  assem- 
 bling together  those  that  dwelt  in  villages, 
 Mondavs  and  Thursdays  besides  the  sab- 
 
LITANY. 
 
 449 
 
 bath.  The  precedent  of  the  Jews  directed 
 the  Church  not  to  do  less  than  they  did. 
 They  made  choice  of  jNIondays  and  Tluirs- 
 days,  in  rep^ard  of  some  groat  calamities 
 that  befell  their  nation  upon  those  days ; 
 and  that  they  might  not  be  three  days  to- 
 g-ether without  doing-  some  public  service 
 to  God.  The  Church  had  the  like  reason 
 of  AVednesdays  and  Fridays,  whereon  our 
 Saviour  was  betrayed  and  crucified ;  the 
 moral  reason  of  once  in  three  days,  with 
 a  convenient  distance  from  Sunday,  con- 
 curring. The  observance  of  these  days  for 
 public  assemblies  was  universal,  and  the 
 practice  of  the  oldest  times. — Bp.  Cosin. 
 
 Next  to  the  iSIorning  and  Evening  Ser- 
 vice in  our  Prayer  Book  stands  the  Litany, 
 or  more  earnest  supplication  for  averting 
 God's  judgments,  and  procuring  his  mercy. 
 This  earnestness,  it  was  thought,  would  be 
 best  excited  and  expressed  by  the  people's 
 interposing  frequently  to  repeat  with  their 
 OAvn  mouths  the  solemn  form  of  "  beseech- 
 ing "  God  to  "  deliver "  and  to   "  hear " 
 them:   in  "which  however  the  minister  is 
 understood  to  join  equally;    as  the  con- 
 gregation are  in  every  particular  specified 
 by  him.     Such  Litanies  have  been  used  in 
 the  Church  at  least  1400  years.    And  they 
 were  appointed  first  for  XVecbiesdays  and 
 Fridays,  these  being  appropriated  to  peni- 
 tence and  humiliation,  and  for  other  fasts ; 
 but  not  long  after  for  Sundays  also,  there 
 being  then  the  largest  congregation,  and 
 most  solemn  worship :   and  our  Litany  is 
 further  directed  to  be  used  at  such  other 
 times  as  the  ordinary  shall  think  proper. 
 Originally  it  was  intended  for  a  distinct 
 service,  to  come  after  the  Morning  Prayer, 
 as  the  rubric  of  our  liturgy  still  directs, 
 and  before  the  office  for  the  Communion, 
 at  a  proper  distance  of  time  from  each : 
 of  which  custom  a  few  churches  preserve 
 still,  or  did  lately,  some  remains.     But,  in 
 the  rest,  convenience  or  inclination  hath 
 prevailed  to  join  them  all  three  together, 
 excepting  that  in  some  places  there  is  a 
 psalm  or  anthem  between  the  first  and 
 second  ;  and  between  the  second  and  third, 
 almost  everywhere  :  besides  that  the  latter 
 part  of  the  Morning  Prayer  is,  most  of  it, 
 ordered  to  be  omitted,  when  the  Litany  is 
 said  Avith  it.     But  still  by  this  close  con- 
 junction many  things  may  appear  impro- 
 per repetitions,  which,  if  the  oftices  were 
 separate,  would  not.      However,  as  it  is, 
 they  M'ho  use  extempore  prayers  in  public 
 have  small  right  to  reproach  us  on  this 
 head.     For  doth  it  not  frequently  happen 
 that,  during  one  assembly  of  theirs,  differ- 
 ent ministers  praying  successively,  or  the 
 same  minister  in  several  pravers,  or  per- 
 2  G 
 
 haps  m  one  only,  shall  foil  into  as  many 
 repetitions,  as  are  in  the  different  parts  of 
 our  liturgy,  or  more  ?  But,  be  tliat  as  it 
 will,  to  these  last  all  persons  Avould  easily 
 be  reconciled,  if  an  interval  Mere  placed, 
 in  their  minds  at  least,  between  the  ser- 
 vices;  and  they  would  consider  each,  when 
 it  begins,  as  a  new  and  independent  one, 
 just  as  if  it  were  a  fresh  time  of  meeting 
 together. 
 
 The  Litany  of  our  Church  is  not  quite 
 the  same  with  any  other,  ])ut  differs  very 
 little  from  those  of  the  Lutherans  in  Ger- 
 many and  Denmark.  It  is  larger  than 
 the  Greek,  but  shorter  than  the  ]ioman, 
 which  is  half  filled  up  with  the  names  of 
 saints  invoked;  whereas  we  invoke,  first, 
 the  three  persons  of  the  holy  Trinity, 
 separately  and  jointly;  then,  in  a  more 
 particular  manner,  our  lledeemer  and  Me- 
 diator, "  to  whom  all  power  is  given  in 
 heaven  and  earth."  (Matt,  xxviii.  18.)— 
 Ahp.  Seeker. 
 
 The  posture  in  which  the  minister  is  to 
 repeat  the  Litany,  is  not  prescribed  in  any 
 present  rubric,  except  that,  as  it  is  now  a 
 part  of  the  Morning  Service  for  the  davs 
 above  mentioned,  it  is  included  in  the 
 rubric  at  the  end  of  the  suffrages  after  the 
 second  Lord's  Prayer,  which  orders  "  all 
 to  kneel "  in  that  place,  after  which  there 
 is  no  direction  for  ''standing."  And  the 
 injunctions  of  King  Edward  and  Queen 
 Elizabeth  both  appoint,  that  "  the  priests, 
 with  others  of  the  choir,  shall  kneel  in 
 the  midst  of  the  church,  and  sing  or  say 
 plainly  and  distinctly  the  Litany,  Avhich  is 
 set  forth  in  English,  with  all  the  suffrages 
 following,  to  the  intent  the  people  may 
 hear  and  answer,"  8zc.  As  to  the  posture 
 of  the  people,  nothing  needs  to  be  said  in 
 relation  to  that,  because,  whenever  the 
 priest  kneels,  they  are  always  to  do  the 
 same. —  Wheafli/. 
 
 If  the  Litany  be,  as  certainly  it  is,  our 
 most  fervent  address  to  God,  fit  is  it  that 
 it  should  be  made  in  the  most  significant, 
 that  is,  in  the  loAvest,  posture  of  supplica- 
 tion . — V  Edrange. 
 
 The  Litany  hath  been  lately  brought  into 
 that  absolute  perfection,  both  for  matter 
 and  form,  as  not  any  Church  besides  can 
 show  the  like,  so  complete  and  full ;  .  .  . 
 so  that  needs  must  they  be  u])braided, 
 either  Avith  error,  or  somewhat  worse, 
 whom  in  all  ])arts  this  ])rincij)al  and  excel- 
 lent prayer  doth  not  fully  satisfy. — Bishop 
 Cosin. 
 
 The  Litanies  in  the  Roman  and  the  Eng- 
 lish unreformed  Church  were  said  on  Easter 
 eve,  St.  Mark's  day,  the  three  Rogation 
 days,  and  AVednesdaysand  Fridays  in  Lent. 
 
4oO 
 
 LITER^E  FORMAT.^. 
 
 LITURGY 
 
 The  Litany  of  the  Church  of  England  is 
 used  on  "Wednesdays  and  Fridays,  as  was 
 the  Lenten  practice  of  the  West,  and  its 
 Sunday  use  is  in  conformity  to  the  prayers 
 resembling  it,  -which  are  found  at  the  be- 
 ginning of  the  directed  communion  offices. 
 
 In  many  choirs  now,  formerly  in  all,  (as 
 would  appear  from  direct  notice,)  the  Li- 
 tany was  sung,  since  the  Refonnation,  by 
 two  ministers,  (sometimes  deacons,)  at  other 
 times  by  laymen,  at  the  faldstool  in  the 
 centre  of  the  choir.  The  singing  by  two 
 laymen  is  a  manifest  abuse,  reprehended 
 by  most  of  our  ritualists ;  and  seems  to 
 have  arisen  from  a  misconstruction  of  the 
 ancient  rules,  which  directed  it  to  be  sung 
 by  two  of  the  choir  :  but  the  choir  included 
 priests  and  deacons,  and  clergy  in  orders, 
 though  of  the  second  form. 
 
 As  to  the  latter  part  of  the  Litany  how- 
 ever, the  rubric,  added  at  the  last  review, 
 is  confirmatory  of  the  ancient  practice  of 
 the  Church,  which  assigned  the  perform- 
 ance of  this  part  to  the  priest,  or  superior 
 minister.  This  is  observed  in  many  choirs. 
 And  at  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  on  those 
 days  when  the  Litany  is  performed  before 
 the  university,  the  vice-chancellor,  if  in 
 orders,  reads  the  Lord's  Prayer,  and  the 
 remaining  part. — Jcbh. 
 
 The  Latin  Litany  is  performed  on  cer- 
 tain days  before  the  university  at  Oxford 
 and  Cambridge.  Its  musical  arrangement, 
 as  retained  at  Oxford,  contains  the  most 
 solemn  harmonies  known  to  the  Church. 
 
 LITEll.E  FORMATS.  According  to 
 to  the  rules  and  practice  of  the  ancient 
 Chiu'ch,  no  Christian  coidd  travel  without 
 taking  letters  of  credence  with  him  from 
 his  own  bishop,  if  he  meant  to  commu- 
 nicate with  the  Church  in  a  foreign  coun- 
 try. These  letters  were  of  several  kinds, 
 according  to  the  different  occasions,  or 
 q\iality  of  the  person  who  carried  them. 
 They  are  generally  reduced  to  three  kinds, 
 commendatoy,  commrinicatory,  and  dimis- 
 sory.  The  first  were  such  as  were  granted 
 only  to  persons  of  quality,  or  to  persons 
 whose  reputation  had  been  called  in  ques- 
 tion, or  to  the  clergy  who  had  occasion  to 
 travel  in  foreign  countries.  The  second 
 sort  were  granted  to  all  who  were  in  peace 
 and  communion  of  the  Church,  whence 
 they  were  also  called  pacifiecd  and  ccclesi- 
 osfical,  and  sometimes  canonical.  The 
 third  sort  were  given  only  to  the  clergy, 
 when  they  were  removing  from  one  church 
 to  settle  in  another,  and  they  Y<ere  to  tes- 
 tify that  the  bearer  had  the  bishop's  leave 
 to  depart,  whence  they  were  called  diniis- 
 sovy.  All  these  -went  under  the  general 
 name  of  formed  letters,  because  they  were 
 
 written  in  a  particidar  form,  with  par- 
 ticular marks  and  characters,  whereby 
 they  might  be  distinguished  from  coun- 
 terfeits.— Binr/ham. 
 
 LlTUllGltlM.^  (6V.)  The  name  of 
 a  book,  in  the  Greek  Church,  containing 
 the  three  liturgies  of  St.  Basil,  St.  Chry- 
 sostom,  and  that  of  the  Premnctijied,  said 
 to  be  composed  by  Pope  Gregory,  called 
 Dialof/ns. 
 
 In  celebrating  these  three  liturgies,  the 
 Greeks  observe  the  following  order.  The 
 liturgy  of  St.  Basil,  as  appears  by  the  in- 
 troduction, is  sung  over  ten  times  in  the 
 year ;  namely,  on  the  eve  of  Christmas  day, 
 on  the  feast  of  St.  Basil,  on  the  eve  of  the 
 feast  of  Lights,  on  the  Sundays  of  Lent, 
 excepting  Palm  Sunday,  on  the  festival  of 
 the  Virgin,  and  on  the  Great  Sabbath. 
 The  liturgy  of  the  Prestinctijiedh  repeated 
 every  day  in  Lent,  the  forementioned  days 
 excepted.  The  rest  of  the  year  is  appro- 
 priated to  the  liturgy  of  St.  Chrysostom. 
 (See  Liturfiy.) 
 
 LITUllGY.  (See  Common  Prayer, 
 Formidary,  and  Public  WorsJiij).)  From 
 the  Greek  word  Xarot-pym,  a  jnddic  act  or 
 duty.  This  term  was  originally  used  to 
 denote  the  service  or  form  employed  in 
 the  celebration  of  the  eucharist.  In  the 
 Eastern  Chvu-ches,  that  service  was  fre- 
 quently called  the  "  Divine  "  or  "  mys- 
 tical "  liturgy  ;  while  in  the  West,  though 
 the  term  "  liturgy  "  was  used;  yet  the  name 
 of  "  missa "  was  more  common.  At  the 
 present  day,  the  word  is  employed  to 
 designate  the  ordinary  prescribed  service 
 of  the  Church,  either  with  or  without 
 the  Commimion  Office.  (See  article  on 
 Formularies,  where  the  general  question 
 of  forms  of  prayer  is  treated.)  The  his- 
 tory of  liturgies  may  thus  be  briefly  stated. 
 
 When  the  Christians  were  no  longer  in 
 fear  of  the  violence  and  persecutions  of 
 the  heathens,  and  in  that  age  when  the 
 Church  came  to  be  settled,  (that  is,  from 
 the  time  of  Constantine  to  that  of  St. 
 Augustine,)  we  find  there  was  a  liturgy  in 
 the  Eastern  Church. 
 
 The  first  Cyril  of  Jerusalem  mentions 
 some  parts  of  an  ancient  liturgy  used  in 
 that  place,  both  in  respect  to  the  form  of 
 baptism,  and  the  celebration  of  the  eu- 
 charist. 
 
 St.  Basil  composed  a  liturgy  himself, 
 which  is  to  be  seen  in  the  Bihliotheca 
 Patrum,  and  in  his  book  De  Spiritu 
 Saxcto  ;  and  he  tells  us  how  the  service 
 of  the  Church  was  dii'ected  by  rules  and 
 rubrics. 
 
 In  St.  Chrysostom's  time,  Omnes  unam 
 candemquo  irrccem   concipiehant,  and  this 
 
LITURGY. 
 
 451 
 
 was  not  only  a  public  prayer,  but  a  public 
 form ;  for  in  that  collection  of  his  works 
 set  forth  by  Sir  Henry  Savillc,  avc  find  a 
 lituro:y  of  his  own  niakinp^,  which  was 
 translated  out  of  the  Syriac  by  INIasius, 
 and  used  p^enerally  throughout  all  the 
 Greek  churches. 
 
 Now,  if  it  should  be  granted  that  pre- 
 meditated prayers  are  not  required  by 
 God  in  our  private  addresses  to  him,  yet 
 it  is  plain  from  those  instances  already 
 mentioned,  such  prayers  were  always  held 
 necessary  in  the  public  services  of  the 
 Church ;  and  this  further  appears  by  the 
 form  prescribed  by  our  Saviour  himself, 
 who,  when  we  pray,  commanded  us  to  say, 
 "Our  Father,"  &c.;  and  St.  Matthew  tells 
 us,  that  he  Avent  away  again,  and  prayed 
 the  third  time,  saying  the  same  words. 
 
 The  Apostolical  Canons  mention  some 
 set  forms  of  prayer,  both  before  and  after 
 the  communion ;  and  St.  Basil  and  St. 
 Chrysostom,  before  mentioned,  not  only 
 composed  set  forms  themselves,  but  they 
 describe  set  liturgies  as  having  been  com- 
 posed by  St.  Mark  and  St.  James ;  and 
 the  adversaries  to  such  forms  have  no 
 other  plausible  pretence  to  deny  these 
 authorities  than  by  alleging  these  liturgies 
 to  be  supposititious,  which  is  an  answer 
 that  may  serve  upon  any  occasion  to  evade 
 an  argument,  which  cannot  otherwise  be 
 answered. 
 
 St.  Ambrose  and  Prosper  tell  us,  there 
 were  set  forms  of  prayers  used  in  the 
 Church  in  their  time :  and  they  give  the 
 reason  for  it,  ne  in  diversum  intellectum 
 nostra  evar/eviur  arhitrio:  and  St.  Hilary 
 hath  this  expression  on  the  G6th  Psalm, 
 viz.  Let  those  without  the  Church  hear 
 the  voice  of  the  people  praying  within. 
 Now  the  word  praying  of  the  people  must 
 signify  something  more  than  the  bare 
 suffrage  Amen  ;  it  must  import  their  joint 
 concurrence  in  the  actual  performance  of 
 the  whole  duty,  which  cannot  be  done  but 
 where  the  prayers  are  in  a  set  form. 
 
 And  these  are  the  prayers  which  Isidore 
 tells  us  were  used  in  the  ancient  congre- 
 gations of  the  Christians ;  and  it  is  most 
 certain  that  such  were  in  use  in  that  great 
 apostate  Julian's  time ;  for  Nazianzen  in- 
 forms us,  that  he  endeavoured  to  estab- 
 lish the  heathen  ceremonies  in  imitation 
 of  the  Christian  services,  by  appointing, 
 not  only  certain  times,  but  set  forms  of 
 prayer. 
 
 It  is  true,  that  many  of  the  ancient 
 liturgies  were  destroyed  by  the  persecuting 
 heathens,  yet  some  fragments  of  them  still 
 remain  in  the  writings  of  the  Fathers,  and 
 are  such  as  are  used  in  our  Church  at  this 
 2  G  2 
 
 day;  as  the  words  before  and  after  the 
 consecration  of  the  sacrament  are  to  be 
 found  in  St.  Ambrose:  the  question  de- 
 manded of  the  godfathers  in  the  sacra- 
 ment of  baptism,  viz.  "  Whether  they  do, 
 in  the  name  of  the  infant,  renounce  the 
 devil  and  all  his  works,  and  the  pomps 
 and  vanities  of  this  wicked  world,"  are  to 
 be  found  in  the  same  St.  Ambrose,  and  in 
 Tertullian ;  the  Gloria  Patri,  of  which 
 more  hereafter,  is  in  Sozomen ;  and  the 
 supplement  to  that  doxology,  viz.  "  As  it 
 was  in  the  beginning,"  &c.,  is  to  be  found 
 in  Irenirus. 
 
 In  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  supper, 
 the  words  pronounced  by  the  priest,  viz. 
 "Lift  up  your  hearts,"  and  the  answer, 
 "  We  lift  them  up ;  it  is  meet  and  right  for 
 us  so  to  do,"  are  to  be  found  in  St.  iVugus- 
 tine  and  St.  Chrysostom  ;  and  so  are  these 
 Avords,  viz.  "  The  Lord  be  with  you.  And 
 Avith  thy  spirit ; "  and,  lastly,  Isidore  men- 
 tions the  usual  conclusion  of  all  our  collects, 
 viz.  "Through  Jesus  Christ  our  Lord,"  &c. 
 
 In  the  Western  Church,  St.  Cyprian 
 tells  us  there  was  a  liturgy,  viz.  in  the 
 Church .  of  Africa,  which  is  usually  ac- 
 counted amongst  the  Churches  of  the 
 West ;  and  we  find  some  pieces  of  such 
 liturgies  in  St.  Augustine ;  and  not  only 
 a])})roved  by  him,  but  by  all  the  Fathers 
 of  tliat  Church  assembled  in  a  synod,  as  it 
 appears  by  the  canons  which  they  made, 
 and  Avhich  are  mentioned  both  by  Balsa- 
 mon  and  Zonaras,  viz.  that  prayers  be 
 performed  by  all,  and  not  any  to  be  said 
 in  public,  but  only  such  as  have  been 
 composed  by  wise  and  understanding  men, 
 lest  anything  should  be  vented  against  the 
 faith,  either  through  ignorance  or  Avant  of 
 meditation. 
 
 Tertullian  mentions  a  liturgy  used  in 
 Home,  Avhich  Avas  probably  begun  by  St. 
 Peter,  for  it  bears  his  name  ;  and  Platina 
 tells  us,  that  several  additions  Avere  made 
 to  it  by  St.  Basil  in  his  time  ;  and  in  some 
 things  this  author  is  very  particular,  as 
 that  Celestine  added  the  Litroitus,  Gregory 
 added  the  Kyrie  Eleison,  Teles])horus  the 
 Gloria  in  Excchis,  Sixtus  the  First  added 
 "  Holy,  holy,  holy.  Lord  God  of  Hosts," 
 Avhich  is  called  the  Trisayion  ;  Gclasius 
 the  Collects,  St.  Jerome  the  Epistles  and 
 Gospels. 
 
 The  Gloria  Patri,  Avhich  has  been  men- 
 tioned before,  Avas  not  only  appointed  by 
 the  Council  of  Xice  to  encounter  the  Arian 
 heresy,  but  it  Avas  used  long  before  that 
 council,  even  by  the  apostles  themselves, 
 Avho  Avere  commanded  by  their  Master  to 
 baptize  in  the  name  of  the  Father,  and 
 of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost. 
 
452 
 
 LITURGY. 
 
 LITURGY,  CHURCH  OF  ENGLAND. 
 
 This  is  found  in  the  writings  of  all  those 
 ancient  fathers  who  lived  near  the  time 
 of  the  apostles,  as  in  Clemens,  who  was 
 their  scholar,  and  in  Dionysius  of  Alex- 
 andria ;  but  the  following  words,  which 
 make  up  the  whole  form  of  the  doxology, 
 viz.  "As  it  was  in  the  beginning,  is  now, 
 and  ever  shall  be,  world  without  end," 
 were  not  brought  into  the  Church  till  the 
 Arian  heresy  began  to  spread,  and  this  was 
 about  the  time  of  the  Council  of  Nice. 
 
 It  is  true  this  began  first  in  the  Eastern 
 Church,  and  from  thence  it  came  to  the 
 West,  where  Pope  Damasus  [a.  d.  366 — 
 384]  Mas  the  first  who  appointed  it  to  be 
 used  at  the  end  of  the  psalms,  which  made 
 up  the  greatest  part  of  the  public  liturgy 
 of  that  Church.  The  Churches  of  France, 
 Spain,  and  England  had  the  like  liturgies, 
 though  not  exactly  the  same. 
 
 Although  we  have  no  certain  account 
 wdiat  rites  or  forms  were  used  here  among 
 the  Britons,  yet  Eede,  in  his  ecclesiastical 
 history,  tells  us,  that  as  soon  as  the  gospel 
 was  planted  here,  there  was  a  liturgy 
 formed  out  of  the  rituals  of  the  most 
 flourishing  Churches  then  in  the  world.  For 
 Pope  Gregory  advised  St.  Augustine  not 
 to  follow  the  Koman  oftice  strictly,  but  to 
 take  what  he  should  approve  in  any  Church, 
 and  prescribe  the  same  to  the  English, 
 which  he  did ;  and  this  liturgy  of  St.  Au- 
 gustine continued  for  some  ages,  till  Os- 
 mond, bishop  of  Sarum,  [a.  d.  i078,]  find- 
 ing that  new  prayers  and  offices  abounded 
 everywhere,  reduced  them  all  to  one  form, 
 and  from  thence  it  was  called  secunduia 
 usum  Sarum. 
 
 The  liturgy  of  the  Irish  Church,  accord- 
 ing to  ]Mr.  Palmer,  was,  during  the  first 
 ages,  probably  the  same  as  that  of  Britain. 
 The  ancient  Irish  liturgy  still  extant  dif- 
 fers considerably  from  the  Roman.  It 
 seems,  he  adds,  that  in  later  times  there 
 were  great  varieties  in  the  mode  of  cele- 
 brating Divine  worship  in  Ireland,  which 
 were  mentioned  by  Gillebert,  bishop  of 
 Limerick,  A.  D.  1090.  And  which  appear 
 to  have  been  removed  by  the  Synod  of 
 Aries,  A.  D.  1152,  when  the  lloman  rites 
 were  established. 
 
 By  the  seventh  statute  of  the  Synod,  or 
 rather  Council,  of  Cashel,  1172,  the  regula- 
 tions of  the  Irish  Church  were  assimilated 
 to  those  of  England.  The  use  of  Sarum 
 was  adopted ;  though  it  has  been  supposed 
 that  the  Irish  use  lingered  for  a  consider- 
 able time  in  parts  of  the  more  distant 
 provinces. 
 
 _  As  to  the  liturgy  now  used  amongst  us. 
 It  was  reformed  at  the  time  of  the  lleform- 
 ation  :  for  the  offices  of  the  Church  before 
 
 that  time  consisting  in  missals,  breviaries, 
 psalteries,  graduals,  and  pontificals,  and 
 every  religious  order  having  peculiar  rites 
 observed  among  themselves,  it  was  thought 
 proper  that  the  worship  of  GoD  should  be 
 brought  under  a  set  form  ;  and  moreover, 
 that  nothing  should  be  changed  merely 
 out  of  an  affectation  of  novelty,  or  because 
 it  had  been  used  in  times  of  Popery,  so  as 
 it  had  been  practised  in  the  primitive 
 times.     (See  next  article.) 
 
 LITURGY  OF  THE  CHUPvCH  OF 
 ENGLAND.  (See  Common  Prayer  and 
 Formulary.)  This  book  is  entitled  The 
 Book  of  Common  Prayer  and  Administra- 
 tion of  the  Sacrayneyds,  and  other  Pites  and 
 Cereynonies  of  the  Church,  accordiny  to  the 
 Uf^e  of  the  United  Church  of  Unyland  and 
 Preland. 
 
 Before  the  Reformation,  our  liturgy  was 
 only  in  Latin,  being  a  collection  of  prayers, 
 made  up  partly  of  some  ancient  forms 
 used  in  the  primitive  Church,  and  partly 
 of  some  others  of  later  original.  But  when 
 the  nation,  in  King  Henry  VIII. 's  time, 
 was  disposed  to  a  reformation,  it  was 
 thought  necessary  both  to  have  the  service 
 in  the  English  or  vulgar  tongue,  and  to 
 correct  and  amend  the  liturgy,  by  purging 
 it  of  those  gross  corruptions  which  had 
 gradually  crept  into  it. 
 
 And,  first,  the  convocation  appointed  a 
 committee,  A.  D.  1537,  to  compose  a  book, 
 which  was  entitled  "  The  yodJy  and  pious 
 Institution  of  a  Christian  Man,  containing 
 a  declaration  of  the  Lord's  Prayer,  the  Ave 
 Maria,  the  Creed,  the  Ten  Commandynents, 
 and  the  Sevoi  Sacraments,  &c."  This  book 
 was  again  published  in  1539,  with  cor- 
 rections and  alterations.  In  1543  ap- 
 peared another  Primer,  in  substance  the 
 same  as  the  former,  under  the  title  of  ^'  A 
 necessary  doctrine  and  Erudition  for  any 
 Chrysten  3Ian."  In  the  same  year,  a  com- 
 mittee of  bishops  and  other  divines  was 
 appointed  by  King  Henry  VIII.,  to  reform 
 the  rituals  and  ollices  of  the  Church  ;  and 
 the  next  year  the  king  and  clergy  ordered 
 the  prayers  for  processions  and  litanies  to 
 be  put  into  English,  and  to  be  publicly 
 used.  The  English  Litany  accordingly, 
 not  much  differing  from  that  now  in  use, 
 was  publicly  adopted  in  1544.  Afterwards, 
 in  1545,  came  out  the  King's  Primer,  con- 
 taining tlie  Avhole  Morning  and  Evening 
 Prayer  in  English,  not  very  different  from 
 what  is  in  our  present  Common  Prayer. 
 Thus  far  the  reformation  of  our  liturgy 
 was  carried  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII. 
 
 In  the  year  1547,  the  first  of  King 
 Edward  VI.,  the  convocation  unanimously 
 declared,  that  the  communion  ought  to  be 
 
LITUKGY  OF  THE  CHUllCII  OF  ENGLAND. 
 
 453 
 
 administered  in  both  kinds  ;  whereupon  an 
 act  of  parliament  was  made,  ordering  it 
 to  be  administered.  Then  a  committee  of 
 bishops  and  other  learned  divines  was 
 a])pointed,  to  compose  An  uniform  order 
 of  communion,  accordinfi  to  the  rules  of 
 Scripture,  and  the  f(se  of  the  primitice 
 Church.  The  committee  accordin«i,-ly  met 
 in  Windsor  Castle,  and  drew  \\\)  such  a 
 form.  This  order  of  the  communion  was 
 appointed  for  {general  use,  by  royal  ])ro- 
 clamation,  in  1548.  This  made  way  for  a 
 new  commission,  empowering  the  same 
 persons  to  finish  the  Avhole  liturgy,  by 
 drawing  up  public  offices  for  Sundays  and 
 holy-days,  for  baptism,  confirmation,  ma- 
 trimony, burial,  and  other  special  occa- 
 sions. 
 
 The  committee  ajjpointed  to  compose 
 this  liturgy  were — 
 
 1.  Thomas  Cranmer,  archbishop  of  Can- 
 terbury. 
 
 2.  Thomas  Goodrich,  bishop  of  Ely. 
 
 3.  Henry  Holbech,  bishop  of  Lincoln. 
 
 4.  George  Day,  bishop  of  Chichester. 
 
 5.  John  Skip,  bishop  of  Hereford. 
 
 6.  Thomas  Thirlby,  bishop  of  Westmin- 
 ster. 
 
 7.  Nicholas  Eidley,  bishop  of  Rochester, 
 and  afterwards  of  London. 
 
 8.  Dr.  William  May,  dean  of  St.  Paul's. 
 
 9.  Dr.  John  Taylor,  dean,  afterwards 
 bishop,  of  lincoln. 
 
 10.  Dr.  Simon  Haynes,  dean  of  Exeter, 
 and  master  of  Queen's  College,  Cambridge. 
 
 IL  Dr.  John  lledman,  prebendary  of 
 Westminster,  and  master  of  Trinity  Col- 
 lege, Cambridge. 
 
 12.  Dr.  llichard  Cox,  dean  of  Christ 
 Church,  Oxon.,  and  Westminster ;  after- 
 wards bishop  of  Ely. 
 
 13.  ]VIr.  Thomas  Ilobertson,  archdeacon 
 of  Leicester  ;  afterwards  dean  of  Durham. 
 
 Our  excellent  liturgy,  thus  compiled, 
 was  revised  and  approved  by  the  arch- 
 bishops, bishops,  and  clergy  of  both  ]n'0- 
 vinces  of  Canterbury  and  York,  and  tlicn 
 confirmed  by  the  king  and  three  estates  in 
 parliament.  A,  d.  1548,  second  and  third  of 
 Edward  VI.  ch.  1.  In  1549,  an  act  passed 
 for  appointing  six  bishops  and  six  other 
 learned  men,  to  draw  up  a  form  for  con- 
 secrating bishops,  priests,  and  deacons. 
 Heylin  conjectures  that  these  were  the 
 same  as  those  above  mentioned,  with  the 
 exception  of  Bishop  ]  )ay,  who  had  refused 
 to  subscribe  the  liturgy. 
 
 But,  al)out  the  end  of  the  year  1550, 
 exceptions  were  taken  against  some  parts 
 of  this  book,  and  Archlnshop  Cranmer 
 proposed  a  new  review,  'i'be  ])rincipal 
 alterations  occasioned  by  tliis  second  re- 
 
 view were  the  addition  of  the  Sentences, 
 Exliortation,  Confession,  and  Absolution,  at 
 the  beginning  of  the  morning  and  evening 
 services,  which  in  the  first  Common  Prayer 
 Book  began  with  the  Lord's  Prayer ;  the 
 addition  of  the  Commandments  at  the 
 beginning  of  the  Communion  Office  ;  the 
 removing  of  some  rites  and  ceremonies  re- 
 tained in  the  former  book,  such  as  the  use 
 of  oil  in  confirmation,  the  unction  of  the 
 sick,  prayers  for  departed  souls,  the  invo- 
 cation of  the  Holy  Ghost  at  the  conse- 
 cration of  the  eucharist,  and  the  prayer  of 
 oblation  that  used  to  follow  it;  the  omit- 
 ting the  rubric  that  ordered  water  to  be 
 mixed  with  the  wine,  with  several  other 
 less  material  variations,  Tlie  liabits,  like- 
 wise, which  were  prescribed  in  tlie  former 
 book  were  in  this  laid  aside ;  and,  lastly, 
 a  rubric  was  added  at  the  end  of  the  Com- 
 munion Office,  to  explain  the  reason  of 
 kneeling  at  the  sacrament.  The  liturgy, 
 thus  revised  and  altered,  was  again  con- 
 firmed by  parliament,  A.  D.  1551,  with  this 
 declaration,  that  the  alterations  made  in 
 it  proceeded  from  curiosity  rather  that  any 
 ivorthy  cause.  But  both  this  and  the 
 former  act  in  1548  were  repealed  in  the 
 first  year  of  Queen  Mary. 
 
 Upon  the  accession  of  Queen  Elizabeth, 
 the  act  of  repeal  was  set  aside,  and  se- 
 veral learned  divines  ap])ointed  to  take 
 another  review  of  King  Edward's  liturgies. 
 These  (according  to  Camden  and  Strype) 
 Avere — 
 
 1 .  Dr.  ]\Iatthew  Parker,  afterwards  arch- 
 bishop of  Canterbury. 
 
 2.  Dr.  Kichard  Cox,  afterwards  bishop 
 of  Ely  ;  one  of  the  original  compilers. 
 
 3.  Dr.  William  May  ;  one  of  the  original 
 compilers. 
 
 4.  Dr.  AVilliam  Bill,  afterwards  dean  of 
 Westminster. 
 
 5.  Dr.  James  Pilkington,  afterwards  bi- 
 shop of  Durham. 
 
 6.  Sir  Thomas  Smith. 
 
 7.  :\Ir.  David  Whitehead. 
 
 8.  Mr.  Edmund  Grindal,  afterwards  bi- 
 shop of  London,  and  archbishop  of  York 
 and  Canterbury. 
 
 To  these  were  afterwards  added, 
 
 9.  Dr.  Edwyn  Sandys,  afterwards  bishop 
 of  Worcester. 
 
 10.  Mr.  Edmund  Guest,  afterwards  bi- 
 shop of  liochcster  and  Salisbury. 
 
 It  was  debated,  at  first,  which  of  the 
 two  books  of  King  Edward  sliould  be  re- 
 ceived. At  length  the  second  was  ])itehed 
 upon,  and  contirined  In'  parliament,  wliich 
 commanded  it  to  lie  used,  with  one  alter- 
 ation or  addition  of  certain  lessons  to  be 
 used    on  every  Sunday  in  the    year,  and 
 
4M 
 
 LITURGY  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  ENGLAND. 
 
 the  form  of  the  Litany  altered  and  cor- 
 rected, and  two  sentences  added  m  the 
 delivery  of  the  sacrament  to  the  communi- 
 cants, and  none  other  or  otherwise. 
 
 The  alteration  in  the  Litany  here  men- 
 tioned was  the  leaving  out  the  deprecation, 
 "  from  the  tyranny  of  the  bishop  of  Rome 
 and  all  his  detestable  enormities,"  and 
 adding  these  words  to  the  petition  for  the 
 sovereign,  "strengthen  in  the  true  wor- 
 shipping of  thee,  in  righteousness  and  ho- 
 liness of  life."  The  two  sentences  added 
 in  the  delivery  of  the  sacrament,  were, 
 "  The  body  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Chiiist," 
 &c.,  and  "'  The  blood  of  our  Lord  Jesus 
 Christ,"  Sec,  which  were  taken  out  of 
 King  Edward's  First  Book ;  whereas,  in  the 
 Second  Book,  these  sentences  were  left  out, 
 and  in  the  room  of  them  were  used,  "  Take, 
 eat,  or  drink,  this,"  with  what  follows ; 
 but  noAv,  in  Queen  Elizabeth's  book,  both 
 these  forms  were  united. 
 
 There  are  some  other  variations  in  this 
 book  from  the  Second  of  King  Edward. 
 The  first  rubric,  concerning  the  situation 
 of  the  chancel,  and  the  proper  place  of 
 reading  Divine  service,  was  altered ;  the 
 habits,  enjoined  by  the  First  Book  of  King 
 Edward,  and  forbidden  by  the  Second, 
 were  now  restored;  at  the  end  of  the 
 Litany  was  added  a  prayer  for  the  sove- 
 reign, and  another  for  the  clergy.  Lastly, 
 the  rubric,  that  was  added  at  the  end  of 
 the  Communion  Office,  in  King  Edward's 
 Second  Book,  against  our  Saviour's  cor- 
 
 poreal presence  in  the  sacrament,  was  left 
 out  in  this.  This  was  done,  that  the  afore- 
 said notion  might  remain  as  a  speculative 
 opinion,  not  determined ;  it  being  the 
 queen's  design  to  unite  the  nation,  as  near 
 as  possible,  in  one  faith. 
 
 In  this  state  the  liturgy  continued,  with- 
 out further  alteration,  till  the  first  year 
 of  King  James  I. ;  when  a  conference 
 was  held  at  Hampton  Court  between 
 that  prince,  with  Archbishop  "SVhitgift 
 and  other  bishops  and  divines,  on  the 
 one  side,  and  Dr.  Reynolds,  Avith  some 
 other  Puritans,  on  the  other:  the  result 
 of  M'hich  was,  the  adding  some  forms  of 
 thanksgiving  at  the  end  of  the  Litany,  and 
 an  addition  to  the  catechism  in  relation 
 to  the  sacraments.  Likewise,  in  the  rubric 
 at  the  beginning  of  the  Office  for  Private 
 Baptism,  the  words  "  lawful  minister  "  were 
 inserted  to  prevent  midwives  and  laymen 
 from  presuming  to  baptize,  Avith  one  or  two 
 more  small  alterations. 
 
 But,  immediately  after  the  Restoration, 
 King  Charles  II.,  at  the  request  of  several 
 of  the  Presbyterian  ministers,  issued  out  a 
 commission  for  a  new  review  of  the  liturgy, 
 empowering  twelve  of  the  bishops  and 
 twelve  Presbyterian  divines  to  make  such 
 reasonable  and  necessary  alterations  as 
 they  should  jointly  agree  upon.  Nine 
 coadjutors  were  added  on  each  side,  to 
 supply  the  place  of  any  of  the  twelve  prin- 
 cipal who  should  happen  to  be  absent. 
 Theu'  names  are  these : 
 
 0)1  the  Ejnscojjalian  side. 
 Principals. 
 
 1.  Dr.  Frcwcn,  archbishop  of  York. 
 
 2.  Dr.  Sheldon,  bishop  of  London. 
 
 3.  Dr.  Cosin,  bishop  of  Durham. 
 
 4.  Dr.  Warner,  bishop  of  Rochester. 
 
 5.  Dr.  King,  bishop  of  Chichester. 
 
 6.  Dr.  Henchman,  bishop  of  Salisbury. 
 
 7.  Dr.  IMorley,  bishop  of  Worcester. 
 
 8.  Dr.  Sanderson,  bishop  of  Lincoln. 
 
 9.  Dr.  Laney,  bishop  of  Peterborough. 
 
 10.  Dr.  Walton,  bishop  of  Chester. 
 
 11.  Dr.  Stern,  bishop  of  Carlisle. 
 
 12.  Dr.  Gaudcn,  bishop  of  Exeter. 
 
 Coadjutors. 
 
 1.  Dr.  John  Erie,  dean  of  Westminster,  afterwards  bishop  of 
 
 Worcester. 
 
 2.  Dr.  Peter  Heylyn,  prebendary  of  Westminster. 
 
 3.  Dr.  John  Hackett,  archdeacon  of  Bedford,  afterwards  bishop 
 
 of  Lichfield. 
 
 4.  Dr.  John  Barwick,  successively  dean  of  Durham  and  St. 
 
 Paul's. 
 
 5.  Dr.  Peter  Gunning,  successively  master  of  Corpus  and  St. 
 
 John's,  Cambridge,   afterwards  bishop  of  Chichester. 
 
 6.  Dr.  John  Pearson,  successively  master  of  Jesus  and  Trinity 
 
 College,  Cambridge,  afterwards  bishop  of  Chester. 
 
 7.  Dr.  Pierce. 
 
 8.  Dr.  Anthony  Sparrow,  archdeacon  of  Sudbury,  afterwards 
 
 bishop  of  Norwich. 
 
 9.  INIr.  Hubert  Thorndike,  prebendary  of  Westminster. 
 
 Oil  the  Presbyterian  side 
 
 Principals. 
 
 1. 
 
 Dr. 
 
 Reynolds. 
 
 2. 
 
 Dr 
 
 Tuckney. 
 
 3. 
 
 Dr. 
 
 Conant. 
 
 4. 
 
 Dr. 
 
 Spurstow. 
 
 5. 
 
 Dr. 
 
 Wallis. 
 
 6. 
 
 Dr. 
 
 Manton. 
 
 7. 
 
 Dr. 
 
 Calamy. 
 
 8. 
 
 Mr 
 
 Baxter. 
 
 9. 
 
 Mr 
 
 Jackson. 
 
 10. 
 
 Mr 
 
 Case. 
 
 11. 
 
 Mr 
 
 Clark. 
 
 12. 
 
 Mr 
 
 Newcomcn. 
 
 Coadjutors. 
 
 1 
 
 Dr 
 
 Horton. 
 
 2 
 
 Dr 
 
 Jacob. 
 
 3. 
 
 Mr 
 
 .  Bates. 
 
 4. 
 
 Mr 
 
 Rawlinson. 
 
 5. 
 
 Mr 
 
 Cooper. 
 
 6. 
 
 Dr 
 
 Lightfoot. 
 
 7. 
 
 Dr. 
 
 Collins.  ^ 
 
 8. 
 
 Dr. 
 
 Woodbridge. 
 
 9. 
 
 Mr 
 
 Drake. 
 
LITURGY  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  ENGLAND. 
 
 455 
 
 These  commissioners  had  several  meet- 
 ings at  the  Savoy,  but  to  very  little  pur- 
 pose; the  Presbyterians  reviving  all  the 
 old  scruples  of  the  Puritans  against  the 
 liturgy,  and  adding  several  new  ones  of 
 their  own.  Baxter  had  the  assurance  to 
 athrm,  that  our  liturgy  was  too  bad  to  be 
 mended,  and  coniidently  pro])osed  to  com- 
 pose a  new  one,  which  he  had  the  insolence 
 to  offer  to  the  bishoi)s.  Upon  this  the 
 conference  broke  up,  without  anjtliing 
 being  done,  except  that  some  particular 
 alterations  were  proposed  by  the  episcopal 
 divines  ;  which,  the  May  iollowing,  were 
 considered  and  agreed  to  by  the  whole 
 clergy  in  convocation.  The  principal  of 
 these  alterations  were,  that  several  lessons 
 in  the  calendar  were  changed  for  others 
 more  proper  for  the  days ;  the  prayers  for 
 particular  occasions  were  disjoined  from 
 the  Litany,  and  tlie  two  prayers  to  be  used 
 in  the  Ember  weeks,  the  jjrayer  for  the 
 parliament,  that  for  all  conditions  of  men, 
 and  the  general  thanksgiving,  were  added. 
 Several  of  the  collects  were  altered ;  the 
 Epistles  and  Gospels  were  taken  out  of  the 
 last  translation  of  the  Bible,  being  read 
 before  according  to  the  old  translation. 
 The  Office  for  Baptism  of  those  of  Kiper 
 Years,  and  the  Forms  of  Prayer  to  be  used 
 at  Sea,  were  added.  In  a  Avord,  the  whole 
 liturgy  was  then  brought  to  the  state  in 
 which  it  noAV  stands,  and  was  unanimously 
 subscribed  by  both  houses  of  convocation 
 of  both  provinces,  on  Friday,  Dec.  20, 
 1661.  And  being  brought  to  the  House 
 of  Lords  the  ^larch  following,  both  Houses 
 very  readily  passed  an  act  for  its  establish- 
 ment; and  the  Earl  of  Clarendon,  then 
 lord  chancellor,  was  ordered  to  return 
 the  thanks  of  the  lords  to  the  bishops  and 
 clergy,  for  their  care  and  industry  shown 
 in  the  review  of  it. 
 
 The  English  liturgy  was  adopted  in  L-e- 
 land  shortly  after  tlie  Reformation  in  Eng- 
 land. In  1551,  Edward  YI.  issued  an 
 injunction  to  Sir  Anthony  St.  Leger,  the 
 lord  deputy  there,  to  have  the  English 
 Common  Prayer  13ook  read  in  the  Irish 
 churches.  The  lord  de])uty  accordingly 
 summoned  the  whole  clergy,  and  after  op- 
 position from  the  primate  and  some  of  the 
 bishops,  a  proclamation  was  issued,  and 
 the  English  Prayer  Book  publicly  used  in 
 Christ  Church,  on  Easter  Sunday  that 
 year :  having  been  printed  in  Dublin,  with 
 these  words  on  the  title  page.  After  the  use 
 of  tlie  ChurcJi  of  Eiujland.  No  order  is 
 extant  for  the  adoption  of  King  Edward's 
 Second  Book  ;  nor  does  it  appear  that  any 
 act  was  passed  in  Queen  Mary's  reign  pro- 
 hibiting the  use  of  the  First.     In  1560,  an 
 
 Act  of  Uniformity,  copied  from  the  English 
 act,  was  ])assed,  enjoining  the  Book  of 
 Common  Prayer  as  then  revised  in  I^^ng- 
 land  :  this  act  was  passed  with  the  consent 
 of  seventeen  out  of  nineteen  prelates,  that 
 is,  of  the  spiritual  estate,  as  the  Irish 
 Church  was  then  constituted.  In  1662  the 
 English  revised  liturgy  was  referred  for 
 consideration  to  the  Irish  bishops  ;  on  their 
 apj)roval  it  was  passed  by  convocation  ;  and 
 nearly  four  years  after,  the  Act  of  Uni- 
 formity was  enacted  by  parliament. — See 
 Stephens^ s  Introduction  to  the  IrisJi  Book  of 
 Common  Prayer, 
 
 The  peculiar  excellencies  of  our  Church 
 of  England  service  are  to  be  traced  to  a 
 variety  of  causes.  One  prominent  cause  is 
 obvious  and  important ;  namely,  that  our 
 reformers  most  closely  adhered  to  the 
 model  of  primitive  devotion.  ...  To  ap- 
 proach, as  near  as  possible,  to  the  Church 
 of  the  apostles,  and  to  that  of  the  old 
 Catholic  bishops  and  fathers,  so  long  as 
 they  deemed  it  pure  and  unadulterated, 
 was  the  paramount  direction  of  their  tastes, 
 
 their  judgments,  and  their  hearts 
 
 In  the  formation  of  our  liturgy,  it  has  been 
 happily,  and  doubtless  providentially, 
 guarded  alike  from  excess  and  deficiency. 
 It  possesses  a  peculiar  temperament,  equal- 
 ly remote  from  all  extremes,  and  harmoni- 
 ously blending  all  excellencies :  it  is  not 
 superstitious,  it  is  not  fanatical,  it  is  not 
 cold  and  formal,  it  is  not  rapturous  and 
 violent ;  but  it  unites,  perhaps  beyond  any 
 other  human  composition,  sublime  truth 
 and  pure  spirit;  the  calmest  wisdom  and 
 the  most  energetic  devotion.  Under  va- 
 rious trying  circumstances  it  has  been  so 
 signally  and  repeatedly  preserved,  that  Ave 
 cannot  doubt  it  is  continued  to  iis  for 
 some  greater  purpose  than  it  has  hitherto 
 effected.  AYliile  the  very  memory  of  many 
 contending  parties,  that  threatened  its  de- 
 struction, has  nearly  passed  away,  it  re- 
 mains uninjured  and  unaltered;  giving  us 
 to  conjecture,  that  it  is  reserved  for  still 
 nobler,  more  extended,  and  more  enduring 
 triumphs. — Bishop  Jehh. 
 
 As  for  the  English  liturgy's  symbolizing 
 with  the  Popish  Missal,  as  some  have  odi- 
 ously and  falsely  calumniated,  it  doth  no 
 more  than  our  communion,  or  Lord's 
 supper  celebrated  in  I^ngland,  doth  with  the 
 mass  at  Home  ;  or  our  doctrine  about  the 
 eucharist  doth  with  theirs  about  transub- 
 stantiation  ;  or  our  humble  veneration  of 
 our  God  and  Saviour  in  that  mystery 
 doth  with  their  strange  gesticulations  and 
 superstitions.  In  all  which  particulars, 
 liow  much  the  Church  of  I'higland  differed 
 botli  in  doctrine  and  devotion  from  that  of 
 
 f-^ 
 
456 
 
 LITURGY  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  ENGLAND. 
 
 Rome,   no   man   that   is   intelligent    and  I 
 honest   can   either  deny  or   dissemble. — 
 Gaudeii's  Tears  of  the  Church  of  England. 
 
 The  Nonconformists  say,  the  liturgy  is 
 in  great  part  picked  and  culled  out  of  the 
 mass-book  ;  but  it  folloAveth  not  thence, 
 that  either  it  is,  or  was  esteemed  by  them, 
 a  devised  or  false  worship ;  for  many  things 
 contained  in  the  mass-book  itself  are  good 
 and  holy.  A  pearl  may  be  found  upon  a 
 dunghill.  We  cannot  more  credit  the  man 
 of  sin  than  to  say,  that  everything  in  the 
 mass-book  is  devilish  and  anti-christian, 
 for  then  it  would  be  anti-christian  to  pray 
 unto  God  in  the  mediation  of  Jesus  Christ 
 — to  read  the  Scriptures — to  profess  many 
 fundamental  truths  necessary  to  salvation. 
 Our  service  might  be  picked  and  culled 
 out  of  the  mass-book,  and  yet  be  free  from 
 all  fault  and  tincture,  from  all  show  and 
 appearance  of  evil ;  though  the  mass-book 
 itself  was  fraught  with  all  manner  of  abo- 
 minations. It  is  more  proper  to  say  the 
 mass  was  added  to  our  Common  Prayer, 
 than  that  our  Common  Prayer  was  taken 
 out  of  the  mass-book ;  for  most  things  in 
 our  Common  Prayer  were  to  be  found  in 
 the  liturgies  of  the  Church  long  before  the 
 mass  was  heard  of  in  the  world." — Stilling- 
 Jleet  on  Separatio7i. 
 
 A  man  would  wonder  how  it  is  possible 
 for  those,  who  understand  wherein  the 
 iniquity  of  Popery  consists,  to  make  this 
 objection  against  the  Book  of  Common 
 Prayer. 
 
 The  Papists  have  corrupted  Christianity 
 by  adding  many  unwarrantable  particu- 
 lars ;  whereas  the  Protestants  have  reject- 
 ed those  unwarrantable  particulars,  and 
 retained  pure  Christianity.  Wherefore,  as 
 the  Protestant  religion  is  very  good,  al- 
 though it  is  in  some  sense  the  same  with 
 that  of  the  Papists ;  so  also  may  an  English 
 reformed  Prayer  Book  be  very  good,  al- 
 though it  be  in  some  sense  the  same  with 
 the  Popish  liturgies.  Upon  supposition 
 that  the  matter  of  fact  were  never  so  cer- 
 tainly true,  and  that  the  Book  of  Common 
 Prayer  were  taken  word  for  word  out  of 
 the  Popish  liturgies,  yet  this  is  no  just 
 objection  against  it.  For  as  the  Popish 
 religion  is  a  mixture  of  things  good  and 
 bad  ;  so  their  liturgies  are  of  the  same 
 kind.  They  contain  many  excellent  pray- 
 ers addi'essed  to  the  true  and  only  God  ; 
 which  every  good  Christian  cannot  but 
 heartily  approve  of;  though  at  the  same 
 time  there  are  other  prayers  addressed  to 
 angels  and  saints,  and  containing  unsound 
 matter.  So  that  it  is  possible  for  us  to 
 make  a  choice  of  admirable  devotions  out 
 of  the  Popish  liturgies,  if  we  take  care  to 
 
 separate  the  good  from  the  bad ;  if  we  re- 
 ject their  superstitions,  and  retain  what  is 
 truly  Christian. — Bennefs  Farajjh.  Com. 
 Praj/er,  Appendix  I. 
 
 If  it  may  be  concluded  that  our  liturgy 
 is  not  good  because  it  is  comprehended 
 in  the  mass-book,  or  in  the  breviary,  we 
 must,  by  the  same  reason,  infer,  that  our 
 doctrine  is  unsound,  because  it  is  all  to  be 
 found  in  the  councils,  and  in  the  writings 
 of  the  doctors  of  the  Romish  Church.    But 
 so  the  Lord's  Prayer,  the  Apostles'  Creed, 
 and  many  sentences  of  Scripture  which  are 
 used  in  that  missal,  or  in  that  breviary, 
 as  also  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  of  the 
 incarnation,  passion,  &c.,  which  are  com- 
 prehended in  the  councils,  would  all  of 
 them   be  but  superstitions  and  heresies. 
 Again,  to  say  that  our  liturgy  is  naught, 
 because  it  hath  been  extracted  out  of  the 
 mass-book  or  breviary,  if  that  were  true, 
 yet  it  is  just  such  an  argument,  as  if  men 
 had  hit  Luther  and  Calvin  in  the  teeth 
 with   this,   that  they  were   superstitious, 
 Popish  heretics,  because  they  came  the  one 
 out  of  a  convent  from  among  friars,  and 
 the  other  out  of  a  cathedral  from  the  midst 
 of  prebendaries,  who  were  all  infected  with 
 Popish  heresies  and  superstitions.     And 
 would  they  not  have  had  great  cause  to 
 complain,  if  upon  this  pretence  they  had 
 been  always  suspected,  rejected,  or  con- 
 demned ?    Therefore,  as  they  were  reputed 
 sound  and  orthodox  in  that  respect,  after 
 their   doctrine   had   been  examined,   and 
 nothing  was  found  therein  of  the  leaven 
 of  Rome,  although  they  came  out  of  her 
 communion,  let  our  liturgy  have  but  the 
 same  right  done  unto  it;  let  it  be  examined, 
 and  that,  if  they  please,  with  exactness 
 and  the   greatest  rigour ;    but   in  conse- 
 quence let  it  be  also  declared  innocent,  if 
 no  harm  be  found  therein,  though  that 
 should  prove  true,  that  it  had  been  wholly 
 taken  out  of  the  mass-book,  or  breviary, 
 which  will  never  be  found  to  be  so.     For 
 I  dare  say  that  among  one   hundred  of 
 them  who  so  confidently  affirm  it,  there  is 
 not  one  that  ever  saw  the  missal  or  the 
 breviary,  or  but  knows  so  much  as  what 
 the  books  are.    And  if  we  should  put  those 
 books  into  their  hands,  that  they  might 
 produce  some  proofs  of  this  rash  affirma- 
 tion, which  is  so  frequent  in  their  mouths, 
 they  would  be  infinitely  puzzled.      They 
 would  not  find,  either  in  the  missal,  or  in 
 the  breviary,  that  wise  economy  which  our 
 liturgy  useth  in  the  reading  of  the  Holy 
 Scriptures,  nor  those  excellent   passages 
 which  set  before  our  eyes  the  greatness  of 
 our  guilt  towards  God,  and  of  his  mercy 
 in   pardoning  the   same  unto  us ;   which 
 
LOGOS. 
 
 LORD,  OUR  LORD. 
 
 4o1 
 
 passages  are  placed  in  the  very  beginning 
 of  it.  They  woukl  not  find  there  that 
 godly  exhortation  to  repentance,  and  to 
 the  confession  of  our  sins  in  the  presence 
 of  God,  which  followeth  immediately  the 
 reading  of  tliose  passages.  Nor  yet  the 
 confession  of  sins,  nor  the  absolution  -which 
 followeth  the  same,  for  there  is  not  one 
 line  of  all  this  in  the  mass-book.  The  ten 
 commandments  are  not  to  be  found  there, 
 nor  that  prayer  which  is  made  at  the  end 
 of  every  commandment  which  the  minister 
 hath  pronounced ;  nor  the  Commination, 
 nor  several  prayers  of  the  Litany,  or  of  the 
 other  forms.  But  in  it  they  will  meet  with 
 the  Lord's  Prayer,  the  Creeds,  the  songs 
 of  Zachary,  Simeon,  of  the  Blessed  Virgin, 
 and  of  some  others,  which  are  word  for 
 word  in  the  Scripture,  or  are  extracted  out 
 of  it,  and  are  grounded  upon  the  same,  and 
 were  in  use  in  the  primitive  Christian 
 Church  before  ever  the  mass  was  hatched. 
 Therefore  it  is  manifest  that  to  say  that 
 our  liturgy  is  either  the  mass,  or  taken 
 out  of  it,  is  a  mere  slander,  proceeding 
 from  malice,  or  ignorance,  or  both. — 
 Durel's  Government  of  the  Reformed 
 Churches — Sermon  on  the  Enqlish  Liturf/y. 
 
 LOGOS.  The  Word;  from  the  Greek 
 o  AoyoQ.  A  title  given  to  our  blessed  Lord 
 and  Saviour  ;  so  designated  not  only  be- 
 cause the  Father  first  created  and  still 
 governs  all  things  by  him,  but  because,  as 
 men  discover  their  sentiments  and  de- 
 signs to  one  another,  by  the  intervention 
 of  words,  speech,  or  discourse,  so  God  by 
 his  Son  discovers  his  gracious  designs  to 
 men.  All  the  various  manifestations  of 
 himself,  whether  in  the  Morks  of  creation, 
 providence,  or  redemption,  all  the  revela- 
 tions he  has  been  pleased  to  give  of  his  will, 
 are  conveyed  to  us  through  him;  and 
 therefore  he  is,  by  way  of  eminence,  called 
 the  Word  of  God. — Tomline. 
 
 The  word  appears  to  be  used  as  an  ab- 
 stract for  the  concrete,  as  St.  John  employs 
 Light  for  enliyhtejier,  Life  for  girer  of  life  ; 
 so  that  the  expression  means  speaker,  or 
 interpreter.  So,  (John  i.  18,)  "No  man 
 hath  see  God  at  any  time  ;  the  Only  Be- 
 gotten, who  is  in  the  bosom  of  the  Father, 
 he  hath  dechired  him."  Li  the  first  verse 
 he  is  described  as  the  Word  which  "  was 
 with  God  in  the  beginning,  and  was  God." 
 (See  Jesus  and  Lord.) 
 
 As  to  the  reason  of  this  name  or  title  of 
 the  Word,  given  by  the  evangelist  to  our 
 blessed  Saviour  ;  he  seems  to  have  done 
 it  in  compliance  with  the  common  way  of 
 speaking  among  the  Jews,  who  frequently 
 call  the  Messias  by  the  name  of  the  Word 
 of  the  Lord  ;  of  which  I  mij^ht  i:rive  manv 
 
 instances :  but  there  is  one  very  remark- 
 able, in  the  Targum  of  Jonathan,  which 
 renders  the  words  of  the  psalmist,  whicli 
 the  Jews  acknowledged  to  be  spoken  of 
 the  Messias,  viz.  21ie  Lord  said  ludo  my 
 Lord,  Sit  thou  on  my  riyht  hand,  Sfc, 
 thus,  *'  21ic  L^ord  said  unto  his  Word," 
 i^-c.  And  so  likewise  Pliilo  the  Jew  calls 
 him  "  by  whom  God  made  the  world, 
 the  Word  of  God,  and  the  Son  of 
 God  :  "  and  Plato  probably  had  the  same 
 notion  from  the  Jews,  which  made  Ame- 
 lius,  the  Platonist,  when  he  read  the  be- 
 ginning of  St.  John's  Gospel,  to  say,  "  This 
 barbarian  agrees  with  Plato,  ranking  the 
 Word  in  the  order  of  ])rinciples  ; "  mean- 
 ing, that  he  made  the  Word  the  principle 
 or  efficient  cause  of  the  world,  as  Plato 
 also  hath  done.  And  this  title  of  the 
 Word  was  so  famously  known  to  be  given 
 to  the  Messias,  that  even  the  enemies  of 
 Christianity  took  notice  of  it.  Julian  the 
 apostate  calls  Christ  by  this  name :  and 
 Mahomet  in  his  Alcoran  gives  this  name 
 to  Jesus  the  Son  of  Mary.  But  St.  John 
 had  probably  no  reference  to  Plato,  any 
 otherwise  than  as  the  Gnostics,  against 
 whom  he  wrote,  made  use  of  several  of 
 Philo's  words  and  notions.  So  that  in  all 
 probability  St.  John  gives  our  blessed  Sa- 
 viour this  title  with  regard  to  the  Jews 
 more  especially,  who  anciently  called  Mes- 
 sias by  this  name. — ArchJtishop  Tillofsofi. 
 
 See  the  very  learned  article  on  the  word 
 Aoyog  (under  its  16th  head)  in  Hose's  edi- 
 tion of  Parkhiirst's  Greek  Lexicon. 
 
 LOLLARDS.  A  religious  sect,  which 
 arose  in  Germany  about  the  beginning  of 
 the  fourteenth  century  ;  so  called,  as  many 
 writers  have  imagined,  from  Walter  Lol- 
 lard, who  began  to  dogmatize  in  1315,  and 
 Avas  burnt  at  Cologne ;  though  others  think 
 that  Lollard  was  no  surname,  but  merely 
 a  term  of  reproach  applied  to  all  heretics, 
 Avho  concealed  the  poison  of  error  under 
 the  appearance  of  piety.  In  England,  the 
 followers  of  Wickliff  were  called,  by  way  of 
 reproach,  Lol/ards,  from  the  supposition 
 that  there  was  some  affinity  between  some 
 of  their  tenets :  though  others  are  of 
 opinion  that  the  Englisli  Lollards  came 
 from  Germanv.     (See  Wicklijites.) 
 
 LOMBAR]')ICKS.  Flat  tombstones, 
 generally  of  granite  or  alabaster,  coffin- 
 shaped,  with  a  slightly  raised  cross  in  the 
 centre,  and  a  legend  running  round  it. 
 
 LORD,  OUR  LORD.  The  Lord  Jesus 
 Christ  is  such  to  us,  as  lie  is, 
 
 1.  Our  Saviour. 
 
 I  will  place  salvation  in  Zion.  (Isa.  xlvi. 
 13.)  Behold  thy  salvation  cometh.  (Isa. 
 Ixii.  11.)    I  speak  in  righteousness,  w^eV/A^y 
 
458 
 
 LORD,  OUR  LORD. 
 
 to  save.  (Isa.  Ixiii.  1.)  Thou  shalt  call  his 
 name  Jesus,  for  he  shall  save  his  people 
 from  theu- sins.  (Matt.  i.  21.)  The  Father 
 sent  the  Son  to  be  the  Saviour  of  the  ivorld. 
 (1  John  iv.  14.)  To  be  a  Prince  and  a 
 Saviour.  (Acts  v.  31.)  The  author  of 
 eteriial  salvation.  (Heb,  v.  9.)  GoD  our 
 Saviour.  (Tit.  ii.  10.)  The  great  God,  and 
 even  our  Saviour  Jesus  Christ.  (Tit.  ii. 
 13.)  God  hath  not  appointed  us  to  wrath  ; 
 but  to  obtain  salvation  by  our  Lord 
 Christ  Jesus.  (1  Thess.  v.  9.)  That  the 
 world  through  him  might  he  saved.  (John 
 iii.  17.)  This  is  a  faithful  saying,  &c.,  that 
 Jesus  Christ  came  into  the  world  to  save 
 sinners.  (1  Tim.  i.  15.)  Neither  is  there 
 salvation  in  any  other ;  for  there  is  none 
 other  name  under  heaven  given  among 
 men,  whereby  we  must  be  saved.  (Acts 
 iv.  12.  See 'also  Matt.  i.  21 ;  xviii.  11; 
 Luke  ii.  11 ;  John  iii.  17  ;  iv.  42  ;  xii.  47  ; 
 Acts  XV.  11 ;  Rom.  v.  9;  x.  9  ;  Eph.  v. 
 23 ;  Phil.  iii.  20  ;  1  Thess.  i.  10  ;  Heb.  ii. 
 3  ;  vii.  25  ;  Tit.  iii.  5,  6.) 
 
 2.  Our  Sacrifice  for  sin. 
 
 The  Spirit  —  testified  beforehand  the 
 sufferings  of  Christ.  (1  Pet.  i.  11.)  Be- 
 hold the  Lamb  of  GoD,  which  taketh  away 
 (beareth)  the  sin  of  the  world.  (John  i. 
 29.)  The  Lamb  slain  from  the  foundation 
 of  the  world.  (Rev.  xiii.  8.)  Christ  our 
 passover  is  sacrificed  (slain)  for  us.  (1  Cor. 
 V.  7.)  Christ  died  for  our  sins  according 
 to  the  Scriptures,  (i  Cor.  xv.  3.)  His  own 
 self  bare  our  sins  in  his  oiv7i  hodij  on  the 
 tree.  (1  Pet.  ii.  24.)  And  hath  given  him- 
 self for  us,  an  ofl'cring  and  a  sacrifice  to 
 God.  (Eph.  v.  2.)  An  ofl"ering  for  sin. 
 (Isa.  liii.  10.)  Once  oflered  to  bear  the  sins 
 of  many.  (Heb.  ix.  28.)  Thus  it  behoved 
 Christ  to  suffer.  (Luke  xxiv.  46.)  The 
 just  for  the  unjust,  that  he  might  bring  us 
 to  God.  (1  Pet.  iii.  18.)  Hereby  perceive 
 we  the  love  of  God,  because  he  laid  down 
 his  life  for  us.  (1  John  iii.  16.  See  also 
 Isa.  I'iii.'e— 12  ;  Dan.  ix.  26  ;  Luke  xxiv. 
 26;  John  iii.  14,  15 :  xv.  13  ;  Acts  iii.  18 ; 
 xxvi.  23  ;  Rom.  iv.  25;  2  Cor.  v.  21 ;  Heb. 
 ix.  26 ;  X.  5  ;  1  John  i.  7 ;  ii.  2.) 
 
 3.  Our  Redeemer. 
 
 I  know  that  my  Redeemer  liveth,  and 
 that  he  shall  stand  at  the  latter  day  u])on 
 the  earth.  (Job  xix.  25.)  The  redeemer 
 shall  come  to  Zion.  (Isa.  lix.  20.)  Christ 
 hath  redeemed  us  from  the  curse  of  the 
 law,  being  made  a  curse  for  us.  (Gal.  iii. 
 13.)  Redeemed  \{iih.  the  j)recious  blood  of 
 Christ.  (1  Pet.  i.  18,  19.)  Having  ob- 
 tained eternal  redonption  for  us.  (Heb.  ix. 
 12.  See  also  Job  xxxiii.  23,  24  ;  Matt, 
 xxvi.  28  ;  Rom.  iii.  24;  1  Cor.  i.  30;  Eph. 
 i.  7 ;   Rev.  v.  9.) 
 
 4.  Our  Mediator. 
 
 There  is  one  3fediator  between  GoD  and 
 man,  the  man  Christ  Jesus.  (1  Tim.  ii.  5.) 
 He  is  the  3Iediator  of  a  new  —  a  better 
 — covenant.  (Heb.  viii.  6 ;  xii.  24.)  The 
 3Iediator  of  the  New  Testament.  (Heb.  ix. 
 15.)  No  man  cometh  to  the  Father  but 
 by  nie.  (John  xiv.  6.  See  also  Job  ix.  2  ; 
 John  xvi.  23  ;  Heb.  vii.  25  ;  xi.  9 ;  1  Pet. 
 ii.  5.) 
 
 5.  Our  Advocate. 
 
 "We  have  an  advocate  with  the  Father, 
 Jesus  Christ  the  righteous.  (1  Johnii.  1. 
 See  also  Heb.  ix.  24.) 
 
 6.  Our  Intercessor. 
 
 He  saw  that  there  was  no  man,  and 
 wondered  that  there  was  no  Intercessor  ; 
 therefore  his  arm  brought  salvation.  (Isa. 
 lix.  16.)  He  made  ijitercession  for  the 
 transgressors.  (Isa.  liii.  12.)  He  ever  liveth 
 to  make  intercession  for  them.  (Heb.  vii. 
 25.     See  also  Rom.  viii.  34.) 
 
 7.  Our  Propitiation. 
 
 He  is  the  jxropitiation  for  our  sins  :  and 
 not  for  ours  only,  but  also  for  the  sins  of 
 the  whole  world.  (1  John  ii.  2.)  Whom 
 God  hath  set  forth  to  be  a  propitiation, 
 through  faith  in  his  blood.  (Rom.  iii. 
 25.) 
 
 8.  Our  Ransom. 
 
 He  is  gracious  unto  him,  and  saith, 
 Deliver  him  from  going  down  to  the  pit,  I 
 have  found  a  ransom.  (Job  xxxiii.  24.) 
 The  Son  of  man  came — to  give  his  life  a 
 ransom  for  many.  (Matt.  xx.  28.)  A  ran- 
 som for  all  to  be  testified  in  due  time. 
 (1  Tim.  ii.  6.) 
 
 9.  Our  Righteousness. 
 
 Their  righteousness  is  of  me,  saith  the 
 Lord.  (Isa.  liv.  17.)  The  righteousness  of 
 CtOD  which  is  in  faith  by  Jesus  Christ  to 
 all.  (Rom.  iii.  22.)  The  Lord  our  right- 
 eousness. (Jer.  xxiii.  6.  See  also  Isa.  Ixi. 
 10  ;  Dan.  ix.  24  ;  1  John  ii.  1,  29.) 
 
 10.  Our  Wisdom. 
 
 Christ  Jesus,  who  of  God  is  made  unto 
 us  wisdom.  (1  Cor.  i.  17,30.  See  also  Isa. 
 ix.  6  ;  Eph.  i.  17  ;  iii.  4.) 
 
 11.  Our  Sanctification. 
 
 Jesus  also,  that  he  might  sanctify  the 
 2)eople  with  his  own  blood,  suffered  with- 
 out the  gate.  (Heb.  xiii.  12.)  JFe  are 
 sanctified  through  the  offering  of  the  body 
 of  Jesus  Christ.  (Heb.  x.  10.  See  also 
 ]\[al.  iii.  3  ;  Matt.  iii.  12  ;  John  xvii.  19; 
 1  Cor.  i.  2  ;  vi.  11  ;  Eph.  v.  25,  26  ;  Heb. 
 X.  14  ;  1  John  i.  7.) 
 
 (Of  him  are  ye  in  Christ  Jesus,  tcho  of 
 God  is  made  unto  us  ivisdom,  and  right- 
 eousness, and  sanctification,  1  Cor.  i.  30.) 
 
 1 2.  Our  Lord  and  our  God. 
 John  XX.  28. 
 
LORD,  OUR  LORD. 
 
 459 
 
 II.  As  He  is, 
 
 1.  The  Messiati. 
 
 3Iessiah  the  prince.  (Dan.  ix.  25,  26.) 
 We  have  fountl  the  Messins,  which  is, 
 being  interpreted,  the  Christ  (the  anoint- 
 ed). (John  i.  41.)  Anointed — to  preach 
 food  tidings  unto  the  meek.  (Isa.  Ixi.  L) 
 'o  preach  the  gospel  to  the  poor,  &c. 
 (Luke  iv.  18.) 
 
 2.  The  Head  of  the  Church. 
 
 Christ  is  the  Head  of  the  Church.  (Eph. 
 V.  23.)  God — gave  him  to  be  the  head 
 over  all  things  to  tlie  Church,  -which  is  his 
 body.  (Eph.  i.  22,  23.  See  also  Ps. 
 cxviii.  22  ;  Matt.  ii.  6 ;  xxi.  42 ;  John  x. 
 14  ;  Acts  iv.  1 1  ;  Rom.  xii.  5  ;  1  Cor.  vi. 
 15;  xii.  27;  Eph.  ii.  20;  iv.  12—15;  v. 
 29  ;  Col.  i.  18,  24  ;  Heb.  iii.  1  ;  xiii.  20 ;  1 
 Pet.  ii.  6,  25.) 
 
 3.  The  Power  of  God. 
 
 Unto  them  which  are  called  —  Christ 
 the  poKcr  of  God.  (1  Cor.  i.  24.)  De- 
 clared to  be  the  Son  of  God  ivith  power. 
 (Rom.  i.  4.)  The  brightness  of  his  glory, 
 and  the  express  image  of  his  person,  and 
 upholding  all  things  by  the  xcord  of  his 
 power.  (Heb.  i.  3.)  For  in  him  dwelleth 
 all  the  fulness  of  the  Godhead  bodily. 
 (Col.  ii.  9.  See  also  Matt.  ix.  G ;  xi.  27  ; 
 xxviii.  18  ;  Luke  iv.  32  ;  x\cts  xx.  32  ;  Eph. 
 i.  20,  21  ;  Col.  ii.  10  ;  2  Tim.  i.  12 ;  1  Pet. 
 iii.  22  ;  Rev.  xi.  15.) 
 
 4.  The  Truth. 
 
 /  am  the  truth.  (John  xiv.  6.)  Grace 
 and  truth  came  by  Jesus  Christ,  —  the 
 only  begotten  of  the  Father, /«//  of  grace 
 and  truth.  (John  i.  17,  14.)  IVie  Amen, 
 the  faithful  and  true  witness.  (Rev.  iii. 
 14.  See  also  Isa.  xlii.  3  ;  John  viii.  14, 
 32  ;  xviii.  37  :  2  Cor.  xi.  10 ;  Eph.  iv.  21 ; 
 1  John  V.  20  ;  Rev.  xix.  11 ;  xxii.  6.) 
 
 5.  The  King  of  kings,  and  Lord  of 
 lords. 
 
 Rev.  xvii.  14  ;  xix.  16.  And  see  also 
 Ps.  Ixxxix.  27  ;  Dan.  vii.  14,  27  ;  Zech. 
 xiv.  9 ;  1  Tim.  vi.  15 ;  Rev.  i.  5  ;  xi. 
 15. 
 
 6.  The  Lord  of  Glory. 
 1  Cor.  ii.  8 ;  Jas.  ii.  1. 
 
 7.  The  Lord  of  All. 
 
 Jesus  Christ,  he  is  Lord  of  all.  (Acts 
 X.  36.)  To  this  end  Christ  both  died, 
 and  rose,  and  revived,  that  he  might  be 
 Lord  both  of  the  dead  and  livin//.  (Rom. 
 xiv.  9.)  And  that  every  tongue  should 
 confess  that  Jesus  Christ  is  Lord.  (Phil, 
 ii.  11.  See  also  Josh.  v.  14  ;  Micah  v.  2  ; 
 John  xiii.  13;  xvi.  15;  Acts  ii.  36;  Rom. 
 X.  12;  1  Cor.  viii.  6;  xii.  5;  xv.  47 ;  2 
 Thess.  i.  7  ;  2  Tim.  iv.  8  ;  Col.  iii.  24  ;  Heb. 
 i.  2 ;  ii.  8 ;  xiii.  20 ;  Rev.  i.  8 ;  v.  5.) 
 
 III.  Through  Him  we  have, 
 
 1.  Grace.  (John  i.  16;  Acts  xv.  11  ; 
 Rom.  i.  5;  iii.  24;  v.  2,  15—21  ;  xvi.  20, 
 and  similar  passages.  1  Cor.  i.  4  ;  xv.  10  ; 
 2  Cor.  viii.  9 ;  xii.  9 ;  Eph.  i.  7  ;  ii.  7  ;  iv. 
 7  ;  vi.  24  ;  1  Tim.  i.  2,  14  ;  2  Tim.  i.  9  ;  2 
 Pet.  iii.  18.) 
 
 2.  Power.  (1  Cor.  i.  18  ;  2  Cor.  xii.  9 ; 
 Eph.  vi.  8  ;  Phil.  iv.  13  ;  Col.  i.  29  ;  1  Tim. 
 i.  12;  2  Tim.  i.  9,  12;  Heb.  ii.  14,  18; 
 xiii.  21.) 
 
 3.  Faith.  (}.Iatt.  ix.  2  ;  John  vi.  45  ; 
 Acts  xxvi.  18  ;  iii.  16  ;  Rom.  iii.  22,  25  ;  v. 
 2  ;  1  Cor.  iii.  5  ;  Gal.  ii.  20;  iii.  22  ;  Eph. 
 ii.  8 ;  Phil.  i.  29 ;  iii.  9 ;  Col.  ii.  5,  7  ;  1 
 Tim.  iii.  13 ;  iv.  6 ;  1  Pet.  ii.  6 ;  1  John 
 V.  14.) 
 
 4.  Forgiveness  of  sins.  (Zech.  xiii.  1  ; 
 Matt.  ix.  6;  Luke  xxiv.  47;  John  i.  29; 
 Acts  ii.  38 ;  v.  31 ;  x.  43 ;  xiii.  38  ;  Rom. 
 viii.  1;  2  Cor.  ii.  10;  Eph.  i.  7;  iv.  32  j 
 Heb.  ix.  26;  1  John  ii.  12;  ]lev.  i.  5.) 
 
 5.  Justification.  (Isa.  liii.  11  ;  Acts  xiii. 
 39 ;  Rom.  iii.  24,  26;  iv.  25  ;  v.  1,  9,  16,  18  ; 
 viii.  1  ;  X.  4  ;  1  Cor.  vi.  11 ;  Gal.  ii.  16,  21 ; 
 iii.  8,  11,  24;  Phil.  iii.  9;  Tit.  iii.  7.) 
 
 6.  Patience.  (Ps.  xxxvii.  7,  with  2 
 Thess.  iii.  5  ;  1  Thess.  i.  3 ;  2  Thess.  i.  4  ; 
 2  Tim.  ii.  24;  Heb.  vi.  12;  x.  36;  xii.  1  ; 
 James  v.  7,  8 ;  Rev.  i.  9;  ii.  2,  3,  19  ;  iii. 
 10;  xiv.  12.) 
 
 7.  Light.  (Isa.  xlix.  6 ;  Luke  ii.  32  ; 
 John  i.  9;  iii.  19;  viii.  12;  ix.  5;  xii.  35, 
 36,  46  ;  2  Cor.  iv.  4,  6  ;  Eph.  v.  14  ;  1  John 
 ii.  8  ;  Rev.  xxi.  23.) 
 
 8.  Life.  (John  i.  4  ;  iii.  36  ;  v.  21,  24  ; 
 vi.  27,  33,  40 ;  x.  10,  28 ;  xi.  25 ;  xiv.  6 ; 
 XX.  31 ;  Acts  iii.  15  ;  Rom.  v.  15 — 21 ;  vi. 
 8,  11,  23  ;  viii.  2  ;  xiv.  9;  1  Cor.  xv.  22  ; 
 2  Cor.  iv.  10  ;  Phil.  i.  21  ;  Col.  iii.  4 ;  1 
 Thess.  V.  10;  2  Tim.  i.  1,  10;  1  John  i.  1  ; 
 ii.  25  ;  iv.  9  ;  v.  11,  12,  20 ;  Jude,  ver.  21.) 
 
 9.  Peace.  (Isa.  ix.  6  ;  Ezek.  xxxiv.  25  ; 
 Zech.  ix.  10;  Luke  i.  79;  ii.  14;  xix.  38; 
 John  xiv.  27 ;  xvi.  33 ;  Acts  x.  30  ;  Rom. 
 i.  7,  and  the  similar  ])assages,  and  v.  1  ;  x. 
 15;  Eph.  ii.  14 — 17;  vi.  15;  Phil.  iv.  7; 
 Col.  i.  20 ;  1  Pet.  v.  14.) 
 
 10.  Blessing.  (Gal.  iii.  14 ;  Eph.  i.  3 ; 
 2  Tim.  iv.  22.) 
 
 11.  All  we  need.  (Ps.  xxiii.  1  ;  John 
 XV.  7,  16 ;  1  Cor.  viii.  6  ;  Phil.  iv.  19.) 
 
 12.  Joy  and  consolation.  (Luke  ii.  25; 
 John  xvi.  20 ;  Rom.  v.  11 ;  xv.  13  ;  2  Cor. 
 i.  5 ;  Phil.  ii.  1 ;  iii.  1 ;  iv.  4 ;  2  Thess. 
 ii.  16.) 
 
 13.  Victory.  (Rom.  viii.  37  ;  1  Cor.  xv. 
 57  ;  2  Cor.  ii.  14  ;  1  John  iv.  4  ;  v.  4,  5 ; 
 Rev.  xii.  11.) 
 
 14.  The  kingdom  of  heaven.  (Luke 
 xxii.  28,  29;   John  xiv.  3;   Eph.  ii.  6;   v. 
 
460 
 
 LORD,  OUR  LORD. 
 
 LORD'S  DAY 
 
 5  ;    1  Thess.  iv.  17  ;   2  Tim.  ii.  12  ;    iv.  8 ; 
 2  Pet.  i.  11  ;  Kcv.  iii.  21  ;  xxi.  22.) 
 
 IV.  Through  Ilim  we  are, 
 
 1.  Reconciled  to  God.  (Dan.  ix.  24; 
 John  xi.  52  ;  Kom.  v.  1,  10 ;  xi.  15  ;  2  Cor. 
 
 V.  18,  19;    Eph.  i.  10;    ii.  13,  16;    iii.  6; 
 Col.  i.  20,  21 ;  Heb.  ii.  17 ;  1  John  iv.  10.) 
 
 2.  Made  sons  of  God.  (Isa.  Ivi.  5 ;  Luke 
 xii.  32  ;  John  i.  12  ;  Gal.  iii.  26 ;  iv.  5—7  ; 
 Eph.  i.  5  ;   1  John  iii.  1.) 
 
 V.  Through  Him  we  must, 
 
 1.  Otier  thanks.  (Kom.  i.  8;  vii.  25; 
 Eph.  i.  6;  v.  20;  Col.  iii.  17 ;  1  Thess.  v. 
 18 ;  lleb.  xiii.  15  ;  1  Pet.  ii.  5.) 
 
 2.  Give  glory  to  God.  (John  xiv.  13; 
 llom.  xvi.  27 ;  2  Cor.  viii.  23  ;  Eph.  iii. 
 21;  iPet.  iv.  11.) 
 
 3.  Be  accepted.     (Eph.  i.  6.) 
 
 YI.  In  Him  we  must, 
 
 1.  Have  faith.  (Isa.  xxviii.  16;  John  i. 
 12;  iii.  16;  vi.  29,  47;  xx.  31 ;  Acts  xvi. 
 31  ;  xviii.  8 ;  xx.  21  ;  xxiv.  24  ;  llom.  ix. 
 33;  x.  9;  Gal.  ii.  16;  Eph.  ii.  8;  Phil.  i. 
 29  ;  2  Tim.  i.  13  ;  1  John  ii.  22  ;  iii.  23  ; 
 V.  1,  10.) 
 
 2.  Hope.  (Acts  xxviii.  20  ;  1  Cor.  xv. 
 19;  Col.  i.  27;  1  Tim.  i.  1.) 
 
 3.  Trust.  (2  Cor.  i.  20;  iii.  4;  xi.  10; 
 Eph.  i.  12.) 
 
 4.  Die.  (Rom.  vii.  4;  viii.  10,  36;  1  Cor. 
 iv.  9;  ix.  15;  xv.  31  ;  2  Cor.  i.  5;  iv.  10, 
 11;  vi.  9;  Phil.  ii.  30.) 
 
 5.  Become  new  creatures.  (2  Cor.  iv. 
 16;  V.  17;  Gal.  vi.  15.) 
 
 6.  Have  our  conversation.  (John  xv. 
 16,  22  ;  Rom.  vi.  4 ;  viii.  9  ;  xiii.  14  ;  1  Cor. 
 iii.  23  ;  2  Cor.  iv.  10  ;  xiii.  5  ;  Gal.  i.  10  ; 
 ii.  17  ;  V.  24  ;  Eph.  iii.  19  ;  iv.  15 ;  vi.  6  ; 
 Phil.  i.  10,  11,  27;  ii.  5,  21  ;  iii.  18;  Col. 
 i.  10;  ii.  6;  iii.  1,  16;  1  Thess.  ii.  11,  12; 
 iv.  1 ;  2  Tim.  ii.  1—3,  19;  Tit.  ii.  10 ;  Heb. 
 ix.  14 ;  1  Pet.  iii.  16 ;  Rev.  vii.  14.) 
 
 VII.  In  His  name, 
 
 1.  We  are  exhorted.  (1  Cor.  i.  10;  iii. 
 1 ;  V.  4 ;  1  Thess.  iv.  1,  2 ;  1  Tim.  v.  21  ; 
 vi.  13 ;  2  Tim.  iv.  1.) 
 
 2.  We  must  speak.  (Rom.  ix.  1,  2;  2  Cor. 
 ii.  17;  xii.  19;  1  Tim.  ii.  7.) 
 
 3.  We  must  ask.  (Matt,  xviii.  19,  20; 
 John  xiv.  13;  xv.  7 ;  xvi.  23,  24;  2  Cor. 
 xii.  8,  9;  1  John  v.  14,  15.) 
 
 VIII.  AVe  must, 
 
 1.  Acknowledge  His  power.  (Isa.  Ixiii. 
 1—6  ;  John  V.  23  ;  Rom.  xiv.  11 ;  Phil.  ii. 
 10,  11;  Rev.  V.  13.) 
 
 2.  Confess  His  name.  (Matt.  x.  32; 
 Luke  xii.  8,  9 ;  Acts  viii.  37  ;  Phil.  ii.  11 ; 
 1  John  iv.  15  ;  2  John,  ver.  7  ;  Rev.  ii.  13  ; 
 iii.  8.) 
 
 3.  And  in  His  name  do  all  things. 
 (Eph.  vi.  7;  Col.  iii.  17,  23.) 
 
 IX.  In  Him  we  are  united. 
 
 Rom  viii.  17,  39;  xii.  5;  xvi.  7,  9 — 13; 
 1  Cor.  i.  13 ;  iii.  1  ;  vi.  15 ;  vii.  22 ;  x.  17  ; 
 xii.  13,  20,  27  ;  2  Cor.  xii.  2  ;  Gal.  i.  22  ; 
 iii.  27,  28;  Eph.  i.  10,  22,  23  ;  ii.  14,  16, 
 21  ;  iii.  6  ;  iv.  12,  16,  20,  25;  v.  30;  Col. 
 i.  18,  24  ;  1  Thess.  iv.  16 ;  Heb.  iii.  14 ; 
 1  John  i.  3 ;  v.  20. 
 
 X.  For  Him  we  must  suffer. 
 
 Matt.  V.  11,  12;  xvi.  24;  Acts  xiv.  22; 
 Rom.  V.  3;  viii.  17;  1  Cor.  iv.  9;  2  Cor. 
 i.  5;  iv.  10;  vi.  10;  vii.  4;  xii.  10;  Gal. 
 ii.  20;  Phil.  i.  12;  iii.  8;  Coh  i.  24; 
 1  Thess.  iii.  3  ;  2  Tim.  ii.  11,  12  ;  iii.  12  ; 
 Heb.  x.  34;  xi.  26;  xiii.  13;  James  i.  2; 
 1  Pet.  i.  6;  ii.  21 ;  iv.  13,  14,  16;  Rev.  i. 
 9 ;  ii.  3. 
 
 XI.  He  judgeth  all  things. 
 
 John  V.  22;  Acts  xvii.  31  ;  Rom.  ii.  16; 
 xiv.  10  ;  1  Cor.  iv.  5 ;  2  Cor.  v.  10 ;  2  Tim. 
 iv.  1  ;  1  Pet.  iv.  5  ;  Jude,  ver.  14,  15  ;  Rev. 
 XX.  12. 
 
 LORD'S  DAY.  The  first  day  of  the 
 week  is  so  designated  in  the  Christian 
 Church ; — it  is  the  KvptaKi)  y^'i^pa  of  St.  John 
 and  Ignatius  (see  tSchleusner  in  voc.) ; — ■ 
 and  as  Friday  is  appointed  as  the  weekly 
 fast,  in  commemoration  of  our  Lord's  cru- 
 cifixion, so  is  Sunday  the  Aveekly  feast,  in 
 commemoration  of  his  resurrection. 
 
 God  has  commanded  us  to  dedicate  ai 
 least  a  seventh  portion  of  our  time  to  him. 
 We  read  in  Genesis,  (ii.  3,)  that  God 
 blessed  the  seventh  day  and  sanctified  it. 
 Here  we  are  told  that  the  seventh  day, 
 or  as  we  shall  presently  shoAV,  one  day  in 
 seven,  was  not  only  blessed,  but  sanctified 
 by  God.  Now,  by  sanctifying  a  thing  or 
 i  person,  we  understand  their  being  separ- 
 ated or  set  apart  for  a  religious  purpose. 
 When  therefore  the  Ai,MlGnTY  is  said  to 
 sanctify  a  portion  of  time,  it  cannot  be  in 
 reference  to  himself,  to  whom  all  days, 
 times,  and  seasons  are  alike — equally  pure, 
 equally  holy, — but  in  reference  to  man  ; 
 and  the  sanctifying  a  day  must,  conse- 
 quently, imj)ly  a  command  to  man  to  keep 
 it  holy.  That  one  day  in  seven  was  from 
 the  beginning  dedicated  to  the  service  of 
 the  Almighty,  will  receive  confirmation 
 by  reference  to  the  chapter  which  imme- 
 diately follows  that  from  which  the  quota- 
 tion just  made  is  taken.  For  there  we 
 are  told  that  Cain  and  his  brother  Abel 
 made  a  sacrifice, — not  "  in  the  process  of 
 time  "  merely, — but,  as  it  is  given  in  the 
 marghi  of  our  Bibles,  "  at  the  end  of  the 
 days."'     The  latter  reading  we  prefer,  be- 
 
LORD'S  DAY. 
 
 461 
 
 cause,  while  the  former  convoys  but  an 
 indisthiet  idea  to  the  mind,  the  hitter  is 
 confirmed  by  one  of  the  oklest  versions  of 
 Scripture,  called  the  Septuagint.  Ikit  if 
 to  this  expression, — "  at  the  end  of  the 
 days,"  we  attach  any  meaning  at  all,  it 
 must  surely  signify  nt  the  end  of  the  six 
 days  of  labour,  that  is,  on  the  seventh  day, 
 previously  sanctified  by  the  Almighty, 
 When,  in  addition  to  this,  we  take  into 
 consideration  the  evil  character  of  Cain,  it 
 seems  less  probable  that  he  should  have 
 come  voluntarily  forward,  with  a  grateful 
 heart,  to  worship  his  Maker,  than  that  he 
 carelessly  complied  with  a  custom  to  Avhich 
 he  had  been  habituated  from  his  childhood : 
 he  came  to  sacrijice,  as  some  come  now  to 
 Church,  after  each  interval  of  six  days, 
 from  habit  rather  than  piety. 
 
 We  have  also  another  corroborating 
 evidence  in  favour  of  this  interpretation  of 
 our  text.  Holy  Job  is  generally  sup})osed 
 to  have  lived  before  the  time  of  Moses  ; 
 and  in  the  Book  of  Job  Ave  find  mention 
 made  of  "  the  day  on  which  the  sons  of 
 God  came  to  present  themselves  unto  the 
 Lord,"  ivliich  u-e  may  fairly  conclude  al- 
 ludes to  the  sabbath .  It  is  remarkable, 
 also,  that  we  find  some  traces  of  this  in- 
 stitution among  the  heathen,  for  two  of 
 their  oldest  poets,  Homer  and  Hesiod, 
 speak  of  the  seventh  as  being  a  sacred 
 day.  It  is  probable  that  in  the  same  man- 
 ner in  M'hich  they  obtained  the  notion  of  a 
 Deity,  namely,  by  tradition  from  father  to 
 son  of  a  revelation  made  to  Adam  and 
 Noah,  they  arrived  at  a  knowledge  which 
 gradually  died  aAvay,  of  this  sacredness  of 
 the  seventh  day. 
 
 But  w'hen  we  remember  that  this  rule 
 was  given  to  Adam,  and  was,  in  conse- 
 quence, binding,  twt  upon  a  chosen  few, 
 but  upon  all  his  descendants,  it  does  not 
 appear  likely  that  any  one  particular  day 
 was  designated,  but  merely  that  a  general 
 rule  was  laid  down  that  one  day  in  seven 
 should  be  dedicated  to  direct  offices  of 
 religious  duties  ;  for  it  would  have  been 
 impossible  for  men,  scattered,  as  they  were 
 soon  to  be,  over  all  the  face  of  the  earth, 
 to  observe,  all  of  them,  the  same  day,  since 
 the  beginning  of  every  day,  and  of  course 
 of  the  seventh,  must  have  been  eighteen 
 hours  later  in  some  parts  of  the  world 
 than  in  Eden  or  Palestine,  or  wherever  we 
 suppose  the  sabbath  to  have  been  first 
 established.  A  law  for  a  single  nation 
 may  be  particular ;  a  law  for  all  mankind 
 must  be  general :  the  ])rinciple  must  ])e 
 laid  down  and  enforced ;  the  particulars 
 nmst  depend  upon  circumstances.  Besides, 
 although  it  is  easy  to  demonstrate  that  the 
 
 Israelites  ought  to  have  set  apart  for  their 
 religious  duties  one  day  in  seven,  pre- 
 viously to  the  ceremonial  institution  of 
 the  sabbath  on  Mount  Sinai,  yet  it  is 
 equally  clear  that  they  did  not  keep  the 
 same  day  before  the  delivery  of  the  law, 
 as  they  did  afterwards.  For  although  in 
 the  IGth  chapter  of  Exodus,  previously  to 
 the  delivery  of  the  law,  the  sabbath  is 
 spoken  of  as  an  institution  well  knoAvn  to 
 the  Israelites,  yet  as  to  the  particular  day 
 on  which  it  Mas  kept  there  is  no  mention 
 made.  It  was  not  till  afterwards  that 
 one  certain  particular  day  was  appointed, 
 (namely,  that  on  which  they  came  out  of 
 Egypt,)  for  the  two-fold  purpose,  that  as 
 men  they  might  commemorate  the  creation, 
 and  as  Israelites  celebrate  their  deliver- 
 ance. Now  we  may  reasonably  infer  that 
 they  Avould  not  have  set  out  from  Egyj^t 
 on  the  sabbath  day,  and  that  consequently 
 their  sabbath  w^as  not  observed  at  the  same 
 time  before,  as  it  Avas  after,  its  re-institu- 
 tion on  Mount  Sinai. 
 
 That  Ave,  then,  together  Avith  eA'ery  hu- 
 man being,  are  bound  to  dedicate  one  day 
 in  seven  to  religious  duties,  is  evident,  be- 
 cause the  commandment  Avas  given,  not  to 
 Moses,  but  to  Adam  ;  not  to  the  Israelites, 
 but  to  all  the  descendants  of  Eve.  But 
 the  obserA^ance  of  that  one  inirticular  day 
 sanctified  to  the  Jcavs,  not  only  to  cele- 
 brate the  universal  love  of  God  in  the  cre- 
 ation of  the  Avorld,  but  his  special  loving- 
 kindness  to  their  individual  nation,  is  not 
 any  longer  obligatory  upon  us,  because  it 
 formed  part  of  the  ceremonial  laAv.  It 
 remains,  therefore,  noAV  to  inquire  on  Avhat 
 authority  it  is  that  Ave  observe  tlic  first  day 
 of  the  Aveek  in  preference  to  any  other,  or, 
 in  other  Avords,  by  Avhom  the  festival  of  the 
 Lord's  day  Avas  instituted. 
 
 That  Ave  in  the  present  age  keep  the  first 
 day  of  the  Aveek  as  a  holy-day  dedicated  to 
 the  service  of  our  Maker  and  Bedeemer 
 is  certain  ;  the  question  is,  whether  this 
 Avas  an  arbitrary  innovation,  introduced 
 Avhen  our  Church  Avas  corrui)ted  by  roj)ery, 
 and  retained  at  its  reformation  as  a  useful 
 institution,  or  Avhether  it  has  higher  claims 
 to  our  respect.  It  is  not  a  Po])ish  innova- 
 tion or  novelty,  because  Ave  find  it  men- 
 tioned by  our  great  divines  in  those  primi- 
 tive and  purer  ages  of  our  Church,  before 
 Popery  or  any  of  its  doctrines  Avere  in- 
 vented or  dreamt  of.  For,  in  examining 
 such  Avriters  as  lived  in  the  age  of  the 
 ai)Ostles,  or  those  immediately  succeeding, 
 Ave  find  them  alluding  to  the  fact,  (and 
 their  testimony  is  confirmed  by  contempo- 
 rary and  infidel  historians,)  that  Christians 
 Avere  always  accustomed  to  meet  on  the 
 
462 
 
 LORD'S  DAY. 
 
 LORD'S  PRAYER. 
 
 first  day  of  the  week  for  the  performance 
 of  their  religious  exercises.  If  Ave  examine 
 them  more  minutely,  we  find  that,  as  the 
 Jewish  sabbath  was  fixed  to  a  certain  day, 
 on  account  of  their  deliverance  from  Pha- 
 raoh, so  the  Christians  kept  this  festival  in 
 grateful  acknowledgment  of  the  mercies  of 
 the  Redeemer,  who,  as  on  this  day,  ac- 
 complished the  victory  over  the  grave,  by 
 rising  from  the  dead.  If  Ave  attend  them 
 yet  further,  Ave  find  those  Avho,  too  honest 
 to  deceive,  lived  too  near  the  apostolic  age 
 to  be  deceived,  asserting  that  this  festiA'al 
 was  instituted  by  the  apostles ;  and  if  by 
 the  apostles,  Avho  acted  under  the  imme- 
 diate direction  and  influence  of  the  Holy 
 Ghost,  then  of  course  Ave  may  conclude 
 that  the  institution  was  Divine. 
 
 Having  thus  far  shoAvn  Avhat  the  tradi- 
 tion is,  let  us  noAV  consult  our  Bibles,  to 
 ascertain  Avhether  it  be  confirmed  or  con- 
 tradicted, for  Avithout  this  it  will  be  of  no 
 avail.  NoAV,  that  the  gospel  does  not  ex- 
 press/!/ command  the  religious  observance 
 of  the  first  day  in  the  Aveek  must  be  con- 
 ceded. The  apostles  and  JcAvish  Christians 
 do  not  appear  to  have  neglected  the  JeAvish 
 sabbath.  As  long  as  the  temple  continued 
 standing,  they  kept  the  last  day  of  the  Aveek 
 as  a  fast;  the  first,  as  a  festival.  That 
 the  apostles  did  keep  the  first  day  of  the 
 week  as  a  festiA-al,  is  quite  clear.  St.  Paul, 
 Ave  are  told,  preached  at  Troas,  "  on  the  first 
 day  of  the  Aveek."  When  all  the  disciples 
 had,  as  they  Avere  in  the  habit  of  doing, 
 "  come  together  to  break  bread,"  that  is,  to 
 receive  the  holy  eucharist,  Avhich  ought 
 always  to  form  a  part  of  the  public  service, 
 he  gave  orders  also  to  the  Corinthians  to 
 make  a  collection  for  the  saints  at  Jerusa- 
 lem, Avhen,  according  to  their  custom,  they 
 assembled  together  on  the  first  day  of  the 
 week,  Avhich  day  is  expressly  called  by  St. 
 John  the  Lord's  day.  (Rev.  i.  10.)  But  if 
 the  testimony  of  7na7i  is  great,  the  testi- 
 mony of  God  is  greater.  Their  observance 
 of  this  festival  Avas  sanctioned  by  our  Lord 
 himself,  by  his  repeated  appearance  among 
 his  apostles  on  that  day ;  after  his  resurrec- 
 tion it  is  sanctioned  by  the  Holy  Ghost, 
 by  the  miraculous  effusion  of  the  Spirit 
 upon  the  apostles  Avhen  they  Avere  together 
 on  the  day  of  Pentecost,  Avhich  must,  that 
 year,  have  fallen  upon  the  first  day  of  the 
 Aveek.  NoAv,  take  these  facts  of  Scripture 
 (and  others  may  be  found)  and  compare 
 them  Avith  the  universal  tradition  to  Avhich 
 we  have  alluded,  and  surely  Ave  must  agree 
 Avith  one  of  tlie  most  celebrated  divines 
 Avho  have  appeared  in  modern  times,  Avhen 
 speaking  of  the  most  important  doctrine  of 
 our  religion,  that  of  the  Trinity,  "  if  what 
 
 appears  jyrobabli/  to  be  taught  in  Scripture 
 appears  certainly  to  have  been  taught  in 
 the  primitive  and  Catholic  Church,  such 
 probability,  so  strengthened,  carries  Avith 
 it  the  force  of  demonstration." 
 
 "We  may  perceive  from  this,  that  our 
 practice  of  keeping  holy  the  first  day  of 
 the  Aveek  is  sanctioned  by  the  apostles. 
 A\'liat  is  our  authority,  if  Ave  except  the 
 high  authority  of  the  Church,  for  not  ob- 
 serving the  last  day  of  the  Aveek  also,  it 
 Avere  hard  to  say.  ISut  if  the  authority  of 
 the  Church  is  to  be  received,  Ave  must 
 remember  that  what  she  teaches  is,  that 
 Ave  are  to  dedicate  at  least  a  seventh  por- 
 tion of  our  time  to  God.  But  this  Ave  do 
 not  do,  unless  every  moment  of  the  Sun- 
 day is  so  devoted.  And  yet  Avho  can  do 
 this  ?  Therefore  the  Church  also  requires 
 of  us  a  portion  of  Friday,  and  a  portion  of 
 the  saints'  days. 
 
 LORD'S  PRAYER.  The  prayer  Avhich 
 our  blessed  Lord  himself  hath  taught  us. 
 It  is  to  be  used  as  a  model  for  all  our  de- 
 A'otions,  our  blessed  Lord  saying,  (Matt. 
 A'i.  9,)  "  After  this  manner  pray  ye;"  and  it 
 is  to  be  used  in  express  Avords  ichencver 
 we  pray,  our  Lord  commanding  us,  (Luke 
 xi.  2,)  "When  ye  pray,  say.  Our  Father," 
 &c.  Therefore  the  Church  of  Christ  hath 
 used  from  the  first  to  begin  and  end  her  ser- 
 vices Avith  the  Lord's  Prayer.  This  being 
 the  foundation  upon  which  all  other  prayers 
 should  be  built,  therefore,  saith  Tertullian, 
 Ave  begin  Avitli  it,  that  so,  the  right  founda- 
 tion being  laid,  Ave  may  justly  proceed  to 
 our  ensuing  requests.  And  it  being  the 
 perfection  of  all  prayer,  therefore,  saith 
 St.  Augustine,  Ave  conclude  our  prayers 
 Avith  it.  Let  no  man,  therefore,  quarrel 
 AA'ith  the  Church's  frequent  use  of  the 
 Lord's  Prayer,  for  the  Catholic  Church 
 ever  did  the  same.  Besides,  as  St.  Cyprian 
 observes,  if  we  Avould  hope  to  have  our 
 prayers  accepted  of  the  Father  only  for 
 his  Son's  sake,  Avhy  should  Ave  not  hope  to 
 have  them  most  speedily  accepted  Avhen 
 they  are  offered  up  in  his  Son's  OAvn  Avords  ? 
 
 It  is  objected  by  some  persons  in  the 
 present  day,  (for  the  objection  Avas  unknoAvn 
 to  the  primitive  Church,)  that  our  Saviour 
 did  not  give  this  as  an  express  form  of 
 prayer,  but  only  as  a  pattern,  or  direction. 
 In  support  of  this  they  quote  the  passage, 
 Matt.  vi.  9,  &c.,  in  Avhich  it  is  introduced, 
 "  After  this  manner  pray  ye  ;  "  not  laying 
 so  much  stress  on  the  similar  passage, 
 Luke  xi.  2,  &c.,  Avhere  our  Saviour  ex- 
 pressly says,  "When  ye  pray,  say."  On 
 this  it  may  be  remarked,  that  Avhere  there 
 are  tAvo  texts  on  any  particular  doctrine, 
 or  practice,  the  one  Avorded  ambiguously. 
 
LORD'S  PRAYER. 
 
 463 
 
 as  in  that  of  St.  Matthew,  "  After  tliis  man- 
 ner," Szc,  (or  as  the  translation  would  more 
 properly  be,  "Pray  thus,'' and  the  ambi- 
 guity would  then  almost  vanish,)  and  the 
 other  dearly  expressed;  as  in  that  of  St. 
 Luke,  "  AVhen  ye  pray,  say,"  it  is  a  settled 
 and  a  natural  rule  of  interpretation,  that 
 the  doubtful  words  should  be  explained  by 
 those  which  are  clear.  Now  he  who  uses 
 .  these  very  words  as  a  form,  acts  in  evident 
 obedience  to  both  the  letter  and  the  spirit 
 of  the  one  precept,  and  yet  not  in  contra- 
 diction to  the  other.  But  he  who  rejects 
 this  as  a  form,  thouf^h  he  may  act  in  obedi- 
 ence to  the  spirit  of  the  one,  certainly  acts 
 in  disobedience  to  the  letter,  if  not  to  the 
 spirit  of  the  other,  "  When  ye  pray,  say,"  &c. 
 
 Had  not  our  Loud  given  this  as  a  settled 
 form  of  prayer,  he  would  have  been  very 
 likely  to  have  dilated  somewhat  on  the 
 various  subjects  it  embraces — of  adoration, 
 prayer,  and  praise :  and  perhaps  have  in- 
 troduced illustrations  according  to  his  cus- 
 tom ;  and  would  not  improbably  have  said, 
 *'  When  ye  pray,  address  yourselves  in  the 
 first  place  to  God  who  is  your  heavenly 
 Father,  but  forget  not  his  sovereignty, 
 and  ask  him  to  give  you,"  &c.  But  instead 
 of  this  he  dictates,  in  both  cases,  a  few 
 comprehensive  sentences,  convenient  for 
 all  persons,  and  under  all  circumstances, 
 and  of  which  the  eloquent  Tertullian  thus 
 rapturously  exclaims,  "  Li  this  compen- 
 dium of  few  words,  how  many  declarations 
 of  prophets,  evangelists,  and  apostles  are 
 contained !  How  many  discourses,  para- 
 bles, examples,  precepts  of  our  Lord  ! 
 How  many  duties  towards  God  are  briefly 
 expressed !  Honour  to  the  Fathp:r,  faith, 
 profession  in  his  name,  offering  of  obedi- 
 ence injiis  will,  expression  of  hope  in  his 
 kingdom  ;  petition  for  the  necessaries  of 
 life  in  the  bread,  confession  of  sins  in  the 
 supplication,  solicitation  against  tempta- 
 tions in  the  asking  of  protection.  What 
 wonder !  GoD  alone  could  teach  how  he 
 chose  to  be  prayed  to."  St.  Cyprian  says, 
 that  *'  it  is  so  copious  in  spiritual  virtue, 
 that  there  is  nothing  omitted  in  all  our 
 prayers  and  petitions  which  is  not  com- 
 j)rehended  in  this  epitome  of  heavenly 
 doctrine." 
 
 It  is  necessary  to  be  understood  that 
 the  transactions  mentioned  by  St.  Matthew 
 and  St.  Luke  were  not  one  and  the  same, 
 but  occurred  at  different  times,  and  on 
 different  occasions.  Our  Lord  first  intro- 
 duced this  form  of  prayer  uncalled  for, 
 in  the  sermon  on  the  mount,  at  the  com- 
 mencement of  his  commission,  compre- 
 hending a  doxology,  or  concluding  tribute 
 of  glory  and  praise.     But  he  gave  it  for 
 
 the  second  time,  after  an  interval  of  about 
 two  years  and  a  half,  as  is  clear  from  the 
 various  events  that  occurred,  and  that  are 
 enumerated  in  the  chapters  (Luke  vii. — 
 xi.)  Avhich  form  the  greater  part  of  the 
 acts  of  his  ministry. 
 
 It  is  not  impossible  that  the  disciples 
 themselves  did,  on  the  first  occasion,  re- 
 gard it  as  conveying  a  general  idea  only  in 
 what  terms  God  should  be  addressed,  and 
 therefore  not  having  used  it  as  a  common 
 prayer,  the  circumstance  of  our  Lord's 
 "  praying  in  a  certain  place"  induced  one 
 of  his  disciples,  "when  he  ceased,"  to  say, 
 "  Lord,  teach  us  to  pray,  as  John  also 
 taught  his  disciples  ; "  alluding  to  a  well- 
 known  custom  of  the  Hebrew  masters, 
 which  it  thus  appears  John  had  adopted,  of 
 teaching  their  scholars  a  particular  form  of 
 words  in  their  addresses  to  God,  varying, 
 no  doubt,  according  to  their  particular 
 sentiments.  Our  Lord's  disciples  here, 
 therefore,  ask  of  him  a  precise  form,  and 
 that  form  he  gives  them  in  compliance 
 with  their  wishes,  not  only  for  their  use, 
 but  for  the  use  of  all  who  should  embrace 
 the  profession  of  Christianity — "  AVhen  ye 
 pray,  say,"  &c. 
 
 It  is  supposed  by  some,  and  there  seems 
 much  reason  for  the  idea,  that  the  disciple 
 who  thus  asked  was  a  new  convert,  and  not 
 present  at  the  delivery  of  the  sermon  on 
 the  mount,  and  that  our  Lord  repeated 
 the  form  which  he  had  then  before  given. 
 Indeed,  if  that  which  was  first  given  had 
 not  been  considered  as  a  settled  form,  or  a 
 groundwork  for  it,  it  would  appear  extra- 
 ordinary that  it  should  be  repeated  in  so 
 nearly  the  same  words,  and  precisely  in  the 
 same  order  of  sentences.  Grotius  remarks 
 on  this  subject,  that  so  averse  was  our 
 Lord,  the  Lord  of  the  Church,  {fam  longe 
 abfnit  ipse Dominus ecclesice,)  to  unnecessary 
 innovation,  and  an  affectation  of  novelty, 
 that  he  "  Avho  had  not  the  Spirit  by  mea- 
 sure," but "  in  whom  were  all  the  hidden 
 treasures  of  wisdom  and  knowledge,"  se- 
 lected the  words  and  phrases  in  a  great 
 degree  from  forms  of  prayer  then  well 
 known  among  the  Jew;  as  in  his  doc- 
 trines he  also  made  use  of  proverbs  and 
 sayings  well  understood  in  that  age. 
 
 The  difference  between  the  form  given  in 
 the  sermon  on  the  mount  and  on  that  second 
 occasion  is,  that  to  the  latter  he  does  not 
 affix  the  doxology,  which  many  indeed 
 suppose  to  be  an  interpolation  ;  leaving 
 this  perhaps  to  be  added  according  to  the 
 occasion  and  to  the  zeal  of  the  worshipper. 
 It  cannot  be  imagined  that  either  the 
 disciples  of  our  Lord,  or  of  John,  had 
 hitherto  neglected  the  duty  of  prayer,  or 
 
464 
 
 LORD'S  PRAYER. 
 
 that  they  performed  it  in  an  uncertain  or 
 disorderly  manner,  as  they  had  set  forms 
 and  hours  of  prayer,  -which  all  the  devout 
 Jews  observed;  it  seems  therefore  obvious 
 that  a  particular  form  is  alluded  to  in  the 
 case  of  both,  and  the  request  to  our  Lord 
 was  made  in  pursuance  of  his  encouraging 
 direction,  "  Ask,  and  ye  shall  have,"  and 
 ■was  gratified  by  him  in  compliance  with 
 the  reasonable  and  well-known  existing 
 custom.  "Thus,"  as  the  learned  Mede 
 says  on  this  subject,  (see  his  discourse  on 
 Matt.  vi.  9,)  "their  inadvertency"  (in  not 
 understanding  it  the  first  time  as  a  form) 
 "  becomes  our  confirmation.  For,  as  Jo- 
 seph said  to  Pharaoh, '  the  dream  is  doubled 
 unto  Pharaoh,  because  the  thing  is  estab- 
 lished by  God,'  (Gen.  xli.  32,)  so  may  we 
 say  here,  the  delivery  of  this  prayer  was 
 doubled  unto  the  disciples,  that  they  pid 
 we  might  thereby  know  the  more  certainly 
 that  our  Sayioue,  intended  and  com- 
 mended it  unto  his  Church  for  a  set  form 
 of  prayer." 
 
 Our  blessed  Lord  appears  afterwards 
 to  refer  to  the  custom  now  adopted  by  his 
 disciples,  and  the  well-known  forms  used, 
 when  he  says,  "  And  when  ye  stand  pray- 
 ing, forgive,  if  ye  have  aught  against  any  : 
 that  your  Father  also  Avhich  is  in  heaven 
 may  forgive  you  your  trespasses "  (Mark 
 xi.  2d) ;  thus  pointedly  referring  to  two  of 
 its  principal  features,  couched  too  in  the 
 same  words.  The  apostle  St.  Peter  seems 
 to  make  the  same  allusion  when  he  says, 
 "  If  ye  call  on  the  Father,"  &c.  (1  Pet. 
 i.  17.) 
 
 Some  have  argued  that  this  prayer  is 
 to  be  considered  as  temporary  only,  and 
 not  of  perpetual  obligation,  because  we  do 
 not  in  it  ask  in  the  name  of  Christ,  ac- 
 cording to  his  direction  ;  but  a  transaction 
 may  be  opposed  to  this,  recorded  in  the 
 Acts  of  the  Apostles,  (iv.  24,)  in  which  it  is 
 seen,  unless  the  apostles  and  disciples  had 
 so  quickly  forgotten  the  direction  of  their 
 Lord,  that  prayers  may  be  considered  as 
 ofiered  up  in  the  name  of  Christ,  though 
 addressed  to  God  ;  for  there  the  disciples, 
 on  the  liberation  of  Peter  and  John  by  the 
 Jewish  council,  lift  up  their  voice  and  say, 
 "  Lord,  thou  art  God,  which  hast  made 
 heaven  and  earth,  and  the  sea,  and  all  that 
 in  them  is ;"  and  they  mention  Christ  as 
 his  holy  child  Jesus.  In  our  addresses  to 
 God,  our  heavenly  Father,  we  cannot 
 forget  him  through  whom  we  have  access 
 as  to  a  father, being  "  joint-heirs  with  him." 
 
 Another  objection  is  made,  that  it  does 
 not  appear  in  Scripture  that  the  apostles 
 used  this  prayer ;  but  to  this  it  may  be 
 remarked,  that  neither  does  it  a])pear  they 
 
 used  any  other  form,  and  yet  some  form  of 
 words  must  have  been  generally  known 
 and  used  by  them,  or  how  could  "  they 
 lift  up  their  voice  with  one  accord."  (Acts 
 iv.  24  ;  i.  14.) 
 
 Bishop  Jeremy  Taylor  justly  says,  "  That 
 the  apostles  did  use  the  prayer  their  Lord 
 taught  them,  I  think  need  not  much  to  be 
 questioned  ;  they  could  have  no  other  end 
 of  their  desire  ;  and  it  had  been  a  strange  . 
 boldness  to  ask  for  a  form  which  they  in- 
 tended not  to  use,  or  a  strange  levity  not 
 to  do  what  they  intended." 
 
 The  learned  Bingham  observes,  that  if 
 there  were  no  other  argument  to  prove  the 
 lawfulness  of  set  forms  of  prayer  in  the 
 judgment  of  the  ancients,  the  opinion  which 
 they  had  of  the  Lord's  Prayer,  and  their 
 practice  pursuant  to  this  opinion,  would 
 sufficiently  do  it;  and  he  remarks  that 
 they  unequivocally  looked  upon  it  as  a 
 settled  form  :  for  Tertullian  says  expressly 
 that  "  our  Lord  prescribed  a  new  form  of 
 prayer  for  the  new  disciples  of  the  New 
 Testament,  and  that  though  John  had 
 taught  his  disciples  a  form,  yet  that  he  did 
 this  only  as  a  forerunner  of  Christ,  so  that 
 when  Christ  was  increased,  ('  he  must  in- 
 crease, but  I  must  decrease,')  then  the 
 work  of  the  servant  passed  over  to  the 
 Lord.  Thus  the  prayer  of  John  is  lost, 
 while  that  of  our  Lord  remains,  that 
 earthly  things  may  give  way  to  hea- 
 venly." 
 
 In  similar  terms  speaks  Irenseus,  (who 
 had  himself  heard  Polycarp,  the  disciple  of 
 St.  John,)  Origen,  TertuUian,  St.  Cyprian, 
 St.  Cyril,  St.  Jerome,  St.  Chrysostom,  and 
 St.  Augustine.  The  last  says  expressly, 
 that  as  the  Church  always  used  this  prayer, 
 she  did  it  at  the  commandment  of  Christ. 
 "  He  said  to  his  disciples — he  said  to  his 
 apostles  and  to  us,  pray  thus."  St.  Chrysos- 
 tom refers  continually  to  the  Lord's  Prayer, 
 as  in  common  use  among  them  by  the 
 express  commandment  of  Christ,  and  ob- 
 serves, "  that  the  Father  well  knows  the 
 words  and  meaning  of  his  Son."  St.  Cy- 
 prian says,  "  Let  the  Father  recognise  in 
 your  ])rayers  the  words  of  the  Son  ; "  and 
 he  considers  it  as  a  peculiar  instance  of 
 mercy,  "  that  he  who  made  us  taught  us 
 how  to  pray  ;  that  whilst  we  speak  unto 
 the  Father  in  that  prayer  and  address 
 which  the  SON  taught  us,  we  may  the  more 
 easily  be  heard."  He  adds,  "  Since  we  have 
 an  Advocate  with  the  Father  for  our  sins, 
 we  should,  Avhenever  we  pray  for  pardon, 
 allege  unto  God  the  very  words  which 
 our  Advocate  has  taught  us.  "We  have  his 
 promise,  that  whatever  we  shall  ask  in  his 
 name  we  shall  receive :  and  must  we  not 
 
LOIID'S  PllAYER. 
 
 465 
 
 more  readily  obtain  our  desires,  when  we 
 not  only  use  his  name  in  asking,  but  in  his 
 very  words,  present  our  request  unto  God. 
 Our  Advocate  in  heaven  has  tauo-ht  us  to 
 say  this  prayer  upon  earth,  that  between 
 his  intercession  and  our  supplications  the 
 most  perfect  harmony  may  subsist."  The 
 judicious  Hooker  observes,  that  "  should 
 men  speak  with  the  tongues  of  angels,  yet 
 words  so  pleasing  to  the  ears  of  God,  as 
 those  which  the  Son  of  God  himself  has 
 composed,  it  were  not  possible  for  man  to 
 frame." 
 
 There  -was,  indeed,  hardly  any  office  in 
 the  primitive  Church  in  which  the  celebra- 
 tion of  this  prayer  did  not  make  a  solemn 
 part ;  so  that  at  length  it  was  called  the 
 Oratio  quotidiana,  the  daily,  the  common 
 prayer ;  the  Oratio  legitima^  the  establish- 
 ed prayer,  or  the  prayer  of  the  Christian 
 law  ;  the  "  epitome  of  the  gospel :"  and  St. 
 Augustine  even  terms  it,  ''  the  daily  bap- 
 tism," and  a  "  daily  purification,"  "  for," 
 says  he,  "  we  are  absolved  once  by  baptism, 
 but  by  this  prayer  daily."  "When  in  suc- 
 ceeding ages  some  of  the  clergy  in  Spain 
 occasionally  omitted  it  in  the  daily  service, 
 they  were  censured  by  a  council,  as  "  proud 
 contemners  of  the  Lord's  injunction ;  and 
 it  was  enacted,  that  every  clergyman  omit- 
 ting it  either  in  private  or  public  prayer 
 should  be  degraded  from  the  dignity  of  his 
 office."  It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  the 
 heathen  writer  Lvician,  nearly  contempo- 
 rary with  the  apostles,  makes  a  Christian, 
 in  one  of  his  dialogues,  speak  of  the  prayer 
 which  began,  "  Oiu*  Father." 
 
 The  early  Fathers  were  even  of  opinion, 
 that  the  making  use  of  this  prayer  was  of 
 vast  efficacy  to  incline  God  to  pardon  sins 
 of  infirmity,  especially  those  committed 
 through  want  of  fervour  and  sufficient  at- 
 tention in  our  other  prayers.  "  As  for  our 
 daily  and  slight  sins,"  says  St.  Augustine, 
 "  without  which  no  one  can  live,  the  daily 
 prayer  will  be  accepted  by  GoD  for  pardon 
 of  them  ;"  and  the  fourtli  Council  of  Toledo 
 enjoins  it  for  this  among  other  reasons. 
 This  doctrine  the  Papists  afterAvards  per- 
 verted, by  their  distinction  of  sins  into 
 venial  anil  mortal,  and  by  the  pure  opus 
 operatnm  of  repeating  the  I-ord's  l*rayer. 
 Of  this  abuse  there  is  happily  no  shadow 
 in  the  present  service  of  our  Church,  our 
 reformers  having  wholly  rejected  and 
 abolished  the  technical  repetition  of  it 
 (the  Paterjwsfcr)  with  chaplcts  and  ro- 
 saries, to  which  truly  '*  vain  repetitions " 
 the  Church  of  Kome  had  annexed  indul- 
 gences. 
 
 In  conclusion,  in  whatever  else  the  va- 
 rious liturgies  differ,  thev  all  agree  in  the 
 2  H     ' 
 
 constant  and  frequent  use  of  this  ])rayer. 
 ])r.  Featly  says,  "the  reformed  Churches 
 generally  conclude  their  prayers  before 
 sermon  with  the  Lord's  Prayer,  partly  in 
 opposition  to  the  Papists,  who  close  up 
 their  devotions  with  an  Ave  Maria,  partly 
 to  supply  all  the  defects  and  imperfections 
 of  their  own."  And  the  learned  Bingliam 
 pointedly  declares,  "  I  dare  undertake  to 
 prove,  that  ftn-  1500  years  together,  none 
 ever  disliked  the  use  of  the  Lord's  Prayer, 
 but  only  the  Pelagians ;  and  they  did  not 
 wholly  reject  the  use  of  it  neither,  nor 
 dislike  it  because  it  was  a  form,  but  for 
 another  reason,  because  it  contradicted 
 one  of  theu'  principal  tenets,  which  was, 
 that  some  men  were  so  perfect  in  this 
 world,  that  they  needed  not  to  pray  to 
 God  for  the  forgiveness  of  their  own  sins, 
 but  only  for  those  of  others." 
 
 For  these  reasons  we  cannot  but  pro- 
 test against  the  conclusion  of  the  following 
 ])aragraph  taken  from  the  works  of  ]\Ir. 
 Boston,  a  man  of  exemplary  ]Hety,  but,  as 
 it  would  seem,  of  strong  prejudices :  "  From 
 the  whole,  I  think  it  is  evident,  that  a 
 prayer  formed  upon  the  model  of  this  ex- 
 cellent pattern,  having  the  substance  of 
 the  several  petitions  interspersed  through 
 it,  though  ex])ressed  in  other  words,  is  a 
 true  Scriptural  prayer  "  (granted,  it  must 
 be  so) ;  "  and  that  there  is  no  necessity  to 
 conclude  with  the  Lord's  Prayer  "  (this  is 
 less  certain).  "  And,  therefore,  I  cannot 
 but  think  that  Papists,  and  many  Protest- 
 ants who  conclude  their  prayers  with  the 
 very  words  of  the  Lord's  Prayer,  make  a 
 very  superstitious  use  of  it;  causing  people 
 to  imagine  that  the  bare  recital  of  the 
 words  of  the  Lord's  Prayer  sanctifies  their 
 other  prayers ;  and  that  no  prayer  can  be 
 accepted  of  God  where  this,  I  cannot  but 
 call  it  vain,  repetition  is  omitted."  It  is  con- 
 fidently hoped  that,  if  what  is  collected  in 
 the  present  article  be  perused  with  atten- 
 tion, the  members  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
 land Mill  be  led  to  exclaim,  "  We  '  have  not 
 so  learned  CiiRlsT.' " 
 
 The  Lord's  Prayer  is  to  be  said  tvith  an 
 audible  voice. — It  was  an  ancient  custom 
 for  the  priest  to  say  some  parts  of  the  li- 
 turgy internally,  {secreto,  tv  lavTip,  or  fiva- 
 TiKw'g,)  in  an  unintelligible  whisper;  and 
 in  some  instances  the  people  joined  in  this 
 manner,  as  was  the  case  with  respect  to 
 the  Lord's  Prayer  and  the  creed.  This 
 unreasonable  practice  was  put  an  end  to 
 at  the  Reformation,  and  the  Lord's  Prayer 
 in  particular  Avas  directed  to  be  said  "  with 
 an  audible  voice,"  "  with  a  loud  voice ; " 
 probably  that  the  people  might  sooner 
 learn  this  most  essential  prayer;  a  prac- 
 
4G6 
 
 LORD'S  PIIAYER. 
 
 tice  from  which  the  ignorant  may  even 
 now  find  benefit. 
 
 The  flaming  ardency  of  the  seven  spirits, 
 and  of  all  the  heavenly  choir,  appears  in  the 
 intcnscness  and  loudness  of  their  songs, 
 "  To  him  all  angels  cry  aloud ! "  They  do 
 not  breathe  out  faint  or  forced  hallelujahs ; 
 their  songs  resemble,  as  St.  John  describes 
 them,  *'  the  voice  of  many  waters,"  and 
 "  the  voice  of  mighty  thunderings."  (Rev. 
 xix.  6.)  But  Avhere  are  the  least  tokens  of 
 this  seraphic  ardency  in  our  worship  here 
 on  earth  ?  The  sacrifice  of  this  our  public 
 service,  like  Elijah's,  is  put  in  excellent 
 order,  but  we  ourselves  "  put  no  fire  un- 
 der !"  On  the  contrary,  a  voluntary  cold- 
 ness runs  through  all  the  parts  and  offices 
 of  it,  like  the  Avater  poured  on  by  Elijah, 
 which  "ran  round  the  cJtar  and  filled  all  the 
 trenches."  And  it  is  next  to  a  miracle  if 
 God  accepts  such  cold  ofierings,  or  answers 
 us  from  heaven,  unless  with  the  fire,  not  of 
 acceptance,  but  of  vengeance. — JBisse  on 
 the  LorcVs  Prayer. 
 
 The  i^eople  are  to  repeat  it  with  the  p7-iest. 
 — "When  the  Lord's  Prayer  w^as  directed 
 to  be  said  with  an  audible  voice,  it  was, 
 in  the  Komish  Church,  said  by  the  priest 
 alone  ;  but  in  the  Greek  and  ancient  Gal- 
 ilean Churches,  by  the  priest  and  people 
 together — a  custom  which  the  Church  of 
 England  has  adopted  in  preference  to  the 
 Roman.  Until  the  review  of  1661,  the  min- 
 ister began  the  prayer,  and  went  through 
 it  alone  to  the  conclusion  of  the  last  peti- 
 tion, "but  deliver  us  from  evil,"  which  the 
 people  said ;  in  order,  as  Bishop  Sparrow 
 remarks,  that  they  might  not  be  inter- 
 rupted from  bearing  a  part  in  so  divine  a 
 prayer.  In  a  rubric  in  the  Communion 
 Service,  near  the  conclusion,  the  manner  in 
 which  the  Lord's  Prayer  should  be  used  is 
 clearly  laid  down.  "  Then  shall  the  priest 
 say  the  Lord's  Prayer,  the  people  repeat- 
 ing after  him  every  petition." 
 
 In  none  of  the  successive  editions  of  the 
 Prayer  Book  till  the  last  review,  was  there 
 any  direction  for  the  people  prefixed  to 
 the  fu'st  occurrence  of  the  Lord's  Prayer. 
 In  King  Edward's  First  Book  at  its  se- 
 cond recurrence,  after  the  creed,  the  latter 
 clause,  "  but  deliver  us  from  evil,"  was  in- 
 serted. This  was  altered  in  the  Second 
 Book  of  King  Edv/ard ;  and  the  direction, 
 "Then  the  minister,  clerks,  and  people," 
 6cc.,  inserted,  as  we  have  it  now.  In  the 
 Litany,  the  two  last  clauses  were  marked 
 as  verse  and  response,  till  the  last  review. 
 In  the  Communion  no  direction  was  given 
 for  the  people  ; — at  its  second  occurrence, 
 the  verse  and  response  were  marked,  as  in 
 the  Litany:  but  in  the  Second  Book,  the 
 
 l)eople  were  directed  to  repeat  after  him 
 every  petition,  as  now.  The  Scotch  Prayer 
 Book  (temp.  K.  Chas.  I.)  first  inserted  the 
 doxology,  at  both  its  occurrence  in  j\Iorn- 
 ing  and  Evening  Prayer,  and  at  its  last  in 
 the  Communion.  At  the  last  revicAV  the 
 doxology  was  inserted  at  its  first  occurrence 
 in  the  Morning  and  Evening  Prayer,  and  at 
 the  end  of  the  Communion  ;  and  the  ver- 
 sicular  arrangement  in  the  Litany  was 
 altered.  The  notation  of  the  vers'e  and 
 response,  Avith  their  })roper  cadences,  is  re- 
 tained in  the  old  choral  manuals. 
 
 Wheatly  remarks  that  "  the  doxology 
 was  appointed  by  the  last  revicAv  to  be 
 used  in  this  place,  partly,  he  supposes,  be- 
 cause many  copies  of  St.  Matthew  have  it, 
 and  the  Greek  Fathers  expound  it ;  and 
 partly  because  the  office  here  is  a  matter 
 of  praise,  it  being  used  immediately  after 
 the  absolution."  And  again,  in  the  Post 
 Communion,  "  the  doxology  is  here  an- 
 nexed, because  all  these  devotions  are  de- 
 signed for  an  act  of  praise,  for  the  benefits 
 received  in  the  holy  sacrament."  And  in 
 the  Churching  of  Women,  "  the  doxology 
 was  added  to  the  Lord's  Prayer  at  the 
 last  revicAv,  by  reason  of  its  being  an  office 
 of  thanksgiving." 
 
 In  the  Romish  service,  except  in  the 
 Mass,  the  priest  speaks  the  words,  "  Et  tie 
 nos,"  &c.,  "  Lead  us  not  into  temptation," 
 in  a  peculiar  tone  of  voice,  by  Avhich  the 
 people  are  apprized  of  its  being  the  time 
 for  them  to  answer,  "But  deliver  us  from 
 evil."  This  also  is  a  custom  at  the  end  of 
 every  prayer,  that  the  people  may  know 
 when  to  say  "  Amen."  In  the  Mosarabic 
 liturgy  the  priest  says  the  prayer  by  him- 
 self, and  the  people  answer  "Amen"  to 
 each  petition. 
 
 The  catechumens  and  the  energumens, 
 or  those  possessed  with  evil  spirits,  were 
 not  suffered  in  the  primitive  Church  to 
 join  in  the  tremendous  cry  sent  up  by  the 
 people,  but  only  boAved  their  heads  in  token 
 of  assent. 
 
 It  may  be  observed  that  the  several 
 paragraphs  of  the  Lord's  Prayer  are  made 
 to  begin,  in  our  Church  Prayer  Book,  Avith 
 a  capital  letter,  in  order,  most  probably,  to 
 mark  accurately  the  places  Avhere  the  peo- 
 ple should  take  up  their  parts ;  and  this 
 mctliod  is  adopted  in  the  confession  in  the 
 daily  service,  in  the  creeds,  the  Gloria  in 
 excclsis,  in  the  Communion  Service,  and  in 
 the  confession  and  deprecation  in  the  Com- 
 mination  Service  on  Ash  Wednesday. 
 
 But  it  must  likeAA'ise  be  observed,  that 
 this  method  does  not  seem  to  be  so  closely 
 foiloAved  in  the  Cambridge  as  in  the  Oxford 
 books,  the  former  combining  the  fourth 
 
LORD'S  PRAYER. 
 
 LOVE,  THE  FAMILY  OF. 
 
 4G7 
 
 and  fifth  paragraphs,  the  seventh  and 
 eighth,  and  the  eleventh,  twelftli,  and  thir- 
 teenth in  the  Loiiivs  I'rayer ;  and  yet  in 
 these  copies  the  ■svord"and"  is  retained 
 before  "  the  power,"  &c.,  but  di'opped  in 
 the  latter. 
 
 To  make  this  matter  clear,  however,  we 
 subjoin  the  prayer  as  printed  and  ])ointcd 
 in  the  sealed  books,  at  the  beginnings  of 
 Morning  and  Evening  Prayer. 
 
 Our  Father,  which  art  in  Heaven,  Hal- 
 lowed be  thy  Name.  Thy  Kingdom  come. 
 Thy  will  be  done  in  Earth,  As  it  is  in 
 Heaven.  Give  us  this  day  our  daily  bread. 
 And  forgive  us  our  trespasses.  As  we  for- 
 give them,  that  trespass  against  us.  And 
 lead  us  not  into  temptation  ;  But  deliver  us 
 from  evil :  For  thine  is  the  Kingdom,  the 
 Power,  And  the  Glory,  For  ever  and  ever. 
 Amen. 
 
 Here  and  before  the  Power  is,  in  all  the 
 collated  copies  of  sealed  books,  crossed  out 
 with  a  pen^  both  in  the  Morning  and  Even- 
 ing Prayer. 
 
 In  the  Post  Communion  Service,  there 
 is  some  difference  of  punctuation  and  of 
 t>T3e:  e.g. 
 
 Our  Father  which  art  in  heaven ;  Hal- 
 lowed be  thy  Name.  Thy  Kingdom  come. 
 Thy  will  be  done  in  earth,  As  it  is  in 
 heaven.  Give  us  this  day  our  daily  bread. 
 And  forgive  us  our  trespasses,  As  we  for- 
 give them  that  trespass  against  us.  And 
 lead  us  not  into  temptation :  But  deliver 
 us  from  evil.  For  thine  is  the  kingdom, 
 The  power  and  the  glory,  For,  ever  and 
 ever.     Amen. 
 
 Here  and  was  never  inserted  before  Tlie 
 power. 
 
 After  the  Creed,  the  punctuation  is  as 
 in  the  first  specimen,  except  a  colon  after 
 temptation,  and  a  full  stop  with  "Amen" 
 after  evil.  Heaven  and  Earth  do  not  begin 
 with  capitals.  The  same  in  the  Litany, 
 except  there  is  a  semicolon  after  temptation. 
 At  its  first  occurrence  in  the  Communion, 
 the  punctuation,  &c.  is  the  same  as  in  the 
 Post  Communion,  except  that  there  is  a 
 comma  after  temptation.  A  full  stop  and 
 "  Amen"  after  evil. 
 
 Demosthenes  said,  when  he  was  reproved 
 for  studying  his  orations,  that  it  argued  his 
 reverence  for  the  people  of  Athens.  So 
 doth  our  study,  in  making  exact  forms, 
 declare  our  esteem  for  Almighty  God. — 
 Comber.  And  we  have  this  sacred  form 
 from  the  AVonderful  Counsellor,  who  came 
 out  of  the  bosom  of  liis  Fattier,  and  knew 
 his  treasures,  as  well  as  our  wants ;  he 
 best  could  inform  us  what  was  fit  for  us 
 to  ask,  and  what  most  likely  for  him  to 
 grant :  he  was  to  go  to  heaven  to  be  our 
 2  H  2 
 
 advocate  there,  and  he  hath  taught  us  to 
 use  this  here,  that  there  may  be  a  harmony 
 between  our  requests  and  his.  For  which 
 cause  it  ought  to  be  united  to  all  our  ofiices 
 to  make  up  their  defects,  and  recommend 
 them  to  "  Our  heavenly  1'atiier,"  who 
 cannot  deny  us  when  we  speak  the  very 
 same  words  which  his  dear  Son  hath  put 
 in  our  mouths,  if  we  use  them  with  under- 
 standing and  devotion. — Ibid. 
 
 LOKJJ'S  SUPPEK.  An  ancient  name 
 for  the  sacrament  of  the  holy  cucharist. 
 The  name  occurs  in  1  Cor.  xi.  20 ;  but  in 
 that  passage  it  is  generally  supposed  by 
 the  most  learned  divines,  that  reference  is 
 made  to  the  love-feast,  ke])t  in  imitation  of 
 our  Lord's  last  supper,  which  was  previ- 
 ous to  the  original  eucharist.  Thus  much, 
 however,  says  Dr.  Waterland,  is  certain, 
 that  in  the  apostolical  times  the  love-feast 
 and  the  eucharist,  though  distinct,  went 
 together,  and  were  nearly  allied  to  each 
 other,  and  were  both  of  them  celebrated 
 at  one  meeting.  (See  Eucharist,  Af/apee, 
 and  Co7nmunion.) 
 
 As  by  the  sacrament  of  baptism  we 
 enter  into  the  Christian  covenant,  so  by 
 that  of  the  Lord's  supper  we  profess  our 
 thankful  continuance  in  it :  and  therefore 
 the  first  ansAver  of  our  catechism  concern- 
 ing this  ordinance  tells  us,  that  it  was 
 a])pointed  "  for  the  continual  remembrance 
 of  the  sacrifice  of  the  death  of  Christ, 
 and  of  the  benefits  which  we  receive 
 thereby." — Abp.  Seeker. 
 
 It  is  called  the  Lord's  supper  because 
 if  was  both  instituted  by  our  Lord  at 
 supper,  and  was  designed  to  succeed  into 
 the  place  of  the  paschal  supper  of  the 
 Jews.  (Matt.  xxvi.  26,  &c. ;  Mark  xiv. 
 22 ;  1  Cor.  xi.  23—25,  &c.)—Abp.  Wahe. 
 LOllD'S  TABLE.  One  of  the  names 
 given  to  the  altar  in  Christian  chui'ches. 
 (See  Altar.) 
 
 LOUD  VOICE.  A  term  in  our  liturgy 
 which  may  be  considered  technical ;  as  not 
 merely  meaning  audible,  (though  this  ex- 
 pression is  also  used,)  but  as  being  a  con- 
 tradistinction to  the  secret 0  of  the  unreform- 
 ed  service,  and  the  mystic  voice  {nvrrTiKCJo) 
 of  the  Greek  Church  :  certain  prayers  and 
 part  of  the  service  having  been  repeated  in 
 an  inaudible  whisper.  (See  Secreto,  and 
 Mi/stic  Voice,  also  Lord^s  Frai/er.) 
 
 LOVlvFEASTS.  {iiee  Apap(s.)  Feasts 
 held  in  the  apostolic  age  before  the  cele- 
 bration of  the  eucharist,  and  discontinued 
 on  account  of  the  abuse  of  them. 
 
 LOVE,  THE  FA^HLY  OF.  A  sect 
 of  enthusiasts,  which  arose  in  Holland,  and 
 being  ])ropagated  across  the  Channel,  ap- 
 peared in  England  about  the  year  1580. 
 
468 
 
 LOW  SUNDAY. 
 
 LUKE'S,  ST.,  GOSPEL. 
 
 These  sectaries  pretended  to  a  more 
 than  ordinary  sanctity,  which  gained  upon 
 tlie  affections  of  tlie  common  peo])le.  They 
 affirmed,  that  none  Mere  of  the  number  of 
 tlie  elect,  but  such  as  were  admitted  into 
 their  family,  and  that  all  the  rest  were 
 reprobate,  and  consioncd  over  to  eternal 
 damnation.  They  held,  likewise,  that  it 
 was  lawful  for  them  to  swear  to  an  un- 
 truth before  a  magistrate,  for  their  own 
 convenience,  or  before  any  person,  who 
 was  not  of  their  society.  In  order  to  pro- 
 pagate their  opinions,  they  dispersed  books, 
 translated  out  of  ])utcirinto  English,  en- 
 titled, 21ie  Gospel  of  the  Kiuf/dom.  Docu- 
 mental Sentences.  T/te  Prophecy  of  the 
 Spirit  of  Love.  The  Publishing  of  Peace 
 upon  Earth,  ^-c. 
 
 These  Familists  could  by  no  means  be 
 prevailed  upon  to  discover  their  author: 
 nevertheless  it  was  afterwards  found  to  be 
 Henry  Nicholas  of  Leyden,  who  blasphem- 
 ously pretended  that  he  partook  of  the 
 ])ivinity  of  GoD,  and  God  of  his  humanity. 
 Queen  Elizabeth  issued  a  proclamation 
 against  these  impious  sectaries,  and  or- 
 dered theu'  books  to  be  publicly  burnt. 
 
 LOW  SUNDAY.  Upon  the  octave 
 of  the  first  Sunday  after  Easter  day,  it 
 was  the  custom  of  the  ancients  to  repeat 
 some  part  of  tlie  solemnity  which  was 
 used  upon  Easter  day ;  whence  this  Sun- 
 day took  the  name  of  Low  Sunday,  being 
 celebrated  as  a  feast,  though  of  a  lower 
 degree  than  Easter  day  itself. 
 
 It  was  also  called  Dominica  in  alhis,  [or 
 rather,  post  albas  depositas,  according  to 
 some  ritualists,  as  "Wheatly  remarks,]  be- 
 cause it  was  the  day  on  which  those  who 
 had  been  baptized  on  Easter  eve  put  off 
 their  white  garments. 
 
 LUCIFEKIANS,  in  ecclesiastical  an- 
 tiquity, is  the  name  of  those  Christians 
 who  persisted  in  the  schism  of  Lucifer, 
 bishop  of  Cagliari,  the  capital  of  Sardinia. 
 
 Lucifer  lived  in  the  fourth  century,  and 
 was  famous  for  his  extraordinary  virtues 
 and  abilities.  He  was  deputed  by  the 
 pope  to  the  emperor  Constantius,  and 
 procured  the  calling  of  a  council  at  Milan 
 in  the  year  355,  by  which  he  himself,  and 
 the  rest  of  the  orthodox  prelates,  who 
 defended  Athanasius,  were  condemned  to 
 banishment.  He  was  recalled  from  his 
 exile  by  the  emperor  Julian,  in  361, 
 when,  coming  to  Antioch,  where  the 
 church  was  extremely  divided  between 
 the  folloAvers  of  Euzoius  the  Arian,  and 
 of  Meletius  and  Eustathius,  orthodox 
 bishops,  he,  to  put  an  end  to  the  schism, 
 ordained  Paulinus  bishop,  whom  neither 
 of  the  orthodox  parties  approved.     Euse- 
 
 bius  of  Vercelli,  whom  the  Council  of 
 Alexandria  had  sent  to  heal  the  divisions, 
 extremely  disapproved  this  ordination  ; 
 whereupon  ]-ucifer,  who  was  of  an  in- 
 flexible spirit,  broke  off  communion  with 
 him  and  the  other  prelates,  and  retired  to 
 Sardinia,  Avhere  to  his  death  he  persisted 
 in  his  separation,  and,  by  this  means,  gave 
 birth  to  a  schism,  which  caused  a  great 
 deal  of  mischief  to  the  Church.  It  con- 
 tinued to  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Theo- 
 dosius  the  Great,  after  which  time  authors 
 make  little  or  no  mention  of  it. 
 
 LUKE,  ST.,  THE  EVANGELIST'S 
 DAY.  A  festival  of  the  Christian  Church, 
 observed  on  the  18th  of  October. 
 
 St.  Luke  was  born  at  Antioch,  and  pro- 
 fessed physic.  It  is  not  agreed  whether  he 
 was,  by  birth,  a  Jew,  or  a  heathen.  Epi- 
 phanius,  who  makes  him  to  be  one  of  the 
 seventy  disci])les,  and  consequently  a  Jew, 
 thinks  he  was  one  of  those  who  left  Jesus 
 Christ  upon  hearing  these  words,  "He 
 who  eateth  not  my  flesh,  and  di-inketh  not 
 my  blood,  is  not  worthy  of  me ;"  but  that 
 he  returned  to  the  faith  upon  hearing  St. 
 Paul's  sermons  at  Antioch.  Some  authors 
 suppose  he  Avas  Cleopas's  companion,  and 
 went  with  him  to  Emmaus,  when  Jesus 
 Christ  joined  them. 
 
 St.  Luke  accompanied  St.  Paul  in  his 
 several  journeys ;  but  at  what  time  they 
 first  came  together  is  uncertain.  Some 
 think  he  met  St.  Paul  at  Antioch,  and 
 from  that  time  never  forsook  him.  Others 
 believe  they  met  at  Troas,  because  St. 
 Luke  himself  says,  "  immediately  we  en- 
 deavoured to  go  into  Macedonia,  from 
 Troas." 
 
 Some  think  he  survived  St.  Paul  many 
 years,  and  that  he  died  at  eighty-four 
 years  of  age  :  but  where,  authors  are  not 
 agreed.  Achaia,  Thebes  in  Boeotia,  Elea 
 in  the  Peloponnesus,  Ephesus,  and  Bithy- 
 nia,  are  severally  named  as  the  place  of 
 his  death.  Nor  are  authors  better  agreed 
 as  to  the  manner  of  it.  Some  believe 
 he  suffered  martyrdom ;  and  the  modern 
 Greeks  affirm  he  Avas  crucified  on  an  olive- 
 tree.  Others,  on  the  contrary,  and  among 
 them  many  of  the  moderns,  think  he  died 
 a  natural  death. 
 
 LUKE'S,  ST.,  GOSPEL.  A  canonical 
 book  of  {he  New  Testament.  Some  think 
 it  was  properly  St.  Paul's  Gospel,  and  that 
 when  St.  Paul  speaks  of  his  Gospel,  he 
 means  what  is  called  St.  Luke's  Gospel. 
 IrensBus  says  only,  that  St.  Luke  digested 
 into  writing  Avhat  St.  Paul  preached  to  the 
 Gentiles  ;  and  Gregory  Nazianzen  tells  us, 
 that  St.  Luke  wrote  with  the  assistance  of 
 St.  Paul. 
 
LUTHERANS. 
 
 4G9 
 
 This  evangelist  addresses  his  Gospel, 
 and  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  to  one  Theo- 
 philus,  of  ^vhonl  ^ve  have  no  knowledge  ; 
 many  of  the  ancients  have  taken  this  name, 
 in  an  appellative  sense,  for  any  one  who 
 loves  Gou. 
 
 LUTHER.\NS.  Those  Christians  who 
 follow  the  opinions  of  Martin  lAither. 
 
 This  sect  took  its  rise  from  the  just 
 offence  which  was  taken  at  the  indulgences 
 (see  ItHlnlyenccs)  Avhich,  in  1517,  were 
 granted  by  Pope  Leo  X.,  to  those  who 
 contributed  towards  the  finishing  St.  I'e- 
 ter's  church,  at  Kome.  It  is  said,  the 
 pope  at  first  gave  tlie  princess  Cibo,  his 
 sister,  that  branch  of  the  revenue  of  in- 
 dulgences which  were  collected  in  Saxony  ; 
 tliat  afterwards  these  indulgences  were 
 farmed  out  to  those  who  would  give  most 
 for  them ;  and  that  these  purchasers,  to 
 make  the  most  of  their  bargain,  pitched 
 upon  such  preachers,  receivers,  and  col- 
 lectors of  indulgences,  as  they  thought 
 proper  for  their  purpose,  who  managed 
 their  business  in  a  scandalous  manner. 
 The  pope  had  sent  these  indulgences  to 
 Prince  Albert,  archbishop  of  Mentz,  and 
 brother  to  the  Elector  of  l^randenburg,  to 
 publish  them  in  Germany.  This  prelate 
 put  his  commission  into  the  hands  of  John 
 Tetzel,  a  Dominican,  and  an  inquisitor, 
 who  employed  several  of  his  own  order  to 
 preach  up  and  recommend  these  indul- 
 gences to  the  people.  These  Dominicans 
 managed  the  matter  so  well,  that  the 
 people  eagerly  bought  up  all  the  indul- 
 gences. And  the  farmers,  finding  money 
 come  in  very  plentifully,  sjient  it  publicly 
 in  a  luxurious  and  libertine  manner. 
 
 John  Staupitz,  vicar-general  of  the 
 Augustines  in  Germany,  was  the  first  who 
 took  occasion  to  declare  against  these 
 abuses  ;  for  which  purpose  he  made  use 
 of  Martin  Luther,  the  most  learned  of  all 
 the  Augustines.  He  was  a  native  of  Eis- 
 leben,  a  town  of  the  county  of  Mansfeld, 
 in  Saxony ;  and  he  taught  divinity  at  the 
 university  of  AMttendierg.  This  learned 
 Augustine  mounted  the  pul])it,  and  de- 
 claimed vehemently  against  the  abuse  of 
 indulgences.  Nor  did  he  stop  here  ;  he 
 fixed  ninety-five  propositions  upon  the 
 church  doors  of  A\  ittemberg,  not  as  dog- 
 matical points  which  he  himself  held,  but 
 in  order  to  be  considered  and  examined 
 in  a  public  conference.  John  Tetzel,  the 
 Dominican,  immediately  published  106 
 propositions  against  them,  at  Erankfort 
 upon  the  Oder ;  and,  by  virtue  of  the 
 office  of  inquisitor,  ordered  those  of  Luther 
 to  be  burnt :  whose  adherents,  to  revetige 
 the  afi'ront  olfercd  to  Lutlier.  pid)licly  burnt 
 
 those  of  Tetzel  at  "NVittemberg.  Thus  Mar 
 Avas  declared  between  the  Dominicans  and 
 Augustines,  and  soon  after  between  the 
 IJonian  Catholics  and  the  Lutheran  party, 
 which  from  that  time  began  to  appear 
 o])enly  against  the  A\'estern  Church. 
 
 In  the  year  1518,  Eckius,  professor  of 
 divinity  at  Ligolstadt,  and  Silvester  Prie- 
 rius,  a  Dominican,  and  master  of  the  sa- 
 cred palace,  wrote  against  Luther's  Theses, 
 who  answered  them  in  a  tract,  which  he 
 sent  to  the  pope  and  the  bishop  of  Bran- 
 denburg, his  diocesan,  offering  to  submit 
 to  the  lloly  See  in  the  points  contested. 
 But  Prierius  having  published  a  discourse 
 full  of  extravagant  amplifications  of  the 
 pope's  j)ower,  Luther  took  occasion  from 
 thence  to  make  the  papal  authority  appear 
 odious  to  the  Germans.  In  the  mean  time, 
 the  process  against  Luther  going  on  at 
 Rome,  the  pope  summoned  him  to  appear 
 there  within  sixty  days :  but,  at  the  in- 
 stance of  the  duke  of  Saxony,  his  Holiness 
 consented  that  the  cause  should  be  exa- 
 mined in  Germany,  and  delegated  his  le- 
 gate. Cardinal  Cajetan,  to  try  it.  This 
 cardinal  gave  Luther  a  peremptory  order 
 to  recant,  and  not  to  appear  any  more  be- 
 fore him  unless  he  complied ;  upon  which 
 Luther,  in  the  night-time,  posted  up  an 
 appeal  to  the  pope,  and  retired  to  Wittem- 
 berg.  Afterwards,  fearing  he  should  be 
 condemned  at  Rome,  he  published  a  pro- 
 testation in  form  of  laAv,  and  appealed  to  a 
 general  council. 
 
 In  the  beginning  of  the  next  year,  1519, 
 the  emperor  Maximilian  dying,  and  the 
 Elector  of  Saxony,  who  protected  Luther, 
 being  vicar  of  the  empire  during  the  in- 
 terregnum, that  reformer's  interest  and 
 character  were  greatly  raised,  and  he  was 
 generally  looked  upon  as  a  man  sent  from 
 God  to  correct  the  abuses  which  had 
 crept  into  the  Roman  Church.  In  June, 
 the  same  year,  there  was  a  ftmious  con- 
 ference between  Luther,  Eckius,  and  Ca- 
 rolostadius,  at  Leipsic ;  in  which  they 
 agreed  to  refer  themselves  to  the  uni- 
 versities of  Erfurt  and  Paris.  The  ])oints 
 debated  upon  were,  free-will,  purgatory, 
 indulgences,  penance,  and  the  pope's  su- 
 premacy. 
 
 In  1520,  Luther  sent  his  book  De  Li- 
 hertate  Christiana  to  the  pope;  in  which 
 he  grounds  justification  upon  faith  alone, 
 without  the  assistance  of  good  works  ;  and 
 assei'ts,  that  Christian  liberty  rescues  us 
 from  the  bondage  of  human  traditions,  and 
 particularly  the  slavery  of  ])apal  imposi- 
 tions. Afterwards,  in  a  remonstrance  writ- 
 ten in  Higli  Dutcli,  he  proceeded  to  deny 
 the  authoritv  of  the  Church  of  Rome. 
 
470 
 
 LUTHERANS. 
 
 In  June  the  same  year,  the  pope  re- 
 solved to  apply  the  last  remedies  Avhich 
 the  Church  makes  use  of  against  her  ene- 
 mies, and  began  with  condemning  in  writ- 
 ing forty-one  propositions  extracted  from 
 Luther's  writings,  giving  him  sixty  days 
 to  recant :  but  Luther  refusing  to  comply, 
 the  pope  declared  him  excommunicated, 
 and  sent  the  bull  by  Eckius  to  the  Elector 
 of  Saxony  and  the'  university  of  Wittem- 
 berg,  who'  agreed  to  defer  the  publication 
 of  it.  In  the  mean  time  Luther  wrote 
 against  the  bull  with  great  warmth  and 
 freedom,  and  appealed  once  more  from  the 
 pope  to  a  general  council.  Besides  which, 
 he  caused  a  large  bonfire  to  be  made  with- 
 out the  walls  of  Wittemberg,  and  thrcAv 
 into  it  with  his  own  hands  the  pope's  bull, 
 together  with  the  decretals,  extravagants, 
 and  Clementines.  This  example  was  fol- 
 lowed by  his  disciples  in  several  other 
 towns. 
 
 The  emperor  Charles  V,  declared  against 
 Luther,  and  ordered  his  books  to  be  burnt. 
 Upon  the  opening  of  the  Diet  of  Worms, 
 in  1521,  Luther,  with  the  emperor's  per- 
 mission, appeared  there,  and  made  a  speech 
 in  defence  of  himself  and  his  opinions. 
 But,  when  the  diet  found  that  he  would 
 neither  stand  to  the  decisions  of  councils 
 nor  the  decrees  of  popes,  the  emperor  gave 
 him  twenty  days  to  retire  to  a  place  of 
 security,  and,  a  month  after,  published  his 
 imperial  edict,  by  which  Luther  was  put 
 under  the  ban  of  the  empire,  as  an  heretic 
 and  schismatic.  But  the  duke  of  Saxony 
 gave  private  orders  to  convey  Luther  to 
 the  castle  of  Wartburg,  where  he  was  con- 
 cealed three  quarters  of  a  year.  He  work- 
 ed hard  in  this  retirement,  A\hich  he  called 
 his  Isle  of  Patmos,  and  kept  up  the  spirit 
 of  his  party  by  writing  new  books  ;  among 
 which  were  his  "  Tracts  "  against  auricular 
 confession,  private  masses,  monastic  vows, 
 and  the  celibacy  of  the  clergy.  About  this 
 time  the  university  of  Paris,  to  which  he 
 had  appealed,  condemned  a  hundred  pro- 
 positions extracted  out  of  his  books :  and 
 King  Henry  VIII.  of  England  AATote  against 
 him  in  defence  of  the  seven  sacraments. 
 Luther  replied  both  to  the  Sorhonne  and 
 to  the  king  of  England,  but  in  a  very  rude 
 and  unmannerly  way. 
 
 Soon  after  he  broke  out  of  his  retire- 
 ment, and  was  so  hardy  as  to  publish  a 
 bull  against  the  pope's  bull  In  ccc.na  Do- 
 mini, calling  it  the  Bull  and  Reformation 
 of  Doctor  Luther.  About  this  time  he 
 published  part  of  his  translation  of  the 
 Bible,  in  which  he  departed  from  the 
 Vulgate,  so  long  authorized  and  received 
 by  the  Church. 
 
 The  Elector  of  Saxony,  who  all  along 
 favoured  and  protected  Luther,  now  gave 
 him  leave  to  reform  the  churches  of  Wir- 
 temberg  as  he  thought  fit.  The  reformer 
 proposed  likewise  a  regulation  concerning 
 the  patrimony  of  the  Church ;  which  was, 
 that  the  bishops,  abbots,  and  monks  should 
 be  expelled,  and  all  the  lands  and  revenues 
 of  the  bishoprics,  abbeys,  and  monasteries, 
 should  escheat  to  the  respective  princes ; 
 and  that  all  the  convents  of  Mendicant 
 friars  should  be  turned  into  public  schools 
 or  hospitals.  This  project  pleased  the 
 princes  and  magistrates,  who  began  to 
 relish  Luther's  doctrine  extremely ;  inso- 
 much that,  at  the  Diet  of  Wirtemberg  in 
 1523,  when  Pope  Adrian  VI.  insisted  upon 
 the  bull  of  Leo  X.  and  the  Edict  of 
 Worms  against  Luther,  he  could  not  pre- 
 vail with  the  princes  to  put  them  in  exe- 
 cution, but  vras  answered,  that  a  general 
 council  ought  to  be  called,  and  that  there 
 ought  to  be  a  reformation  of  the  ecclesi- 
 astics, and  especially  of  the  court  of  Rome. 
 This  year,  Luther  had  the  satisfaction  to 
 see  a  league  contracted  between  Gustavus, 
 king  of  Sweden,  and  Frederick,  king  of 
 Denmark,  who  both  agreed  to  establish 
 Lutheranism  in  their  dominions.  And 
 now  Luther's  persuasion,  which,  from  the 
 Upper  Saxony,  had  spread  itself  into  the 
 northern  provinces,  began  to  be  perfectly 
 settled  in  the  duchies  of  Lunenburg, 
 Brunswick,  Mecklenburg,  and  Pomera- 
 nia;  and  in  the  archbishoprics  of  Mag- 
 deburg and  Bremen ;  and  in  the  towns 
 of  Hamburg,  Wismar,  Rostock;  and  all 
 along  the  Baltic,  as  far  as  Livonia  and 
 Prussia, 
 
 About  this  time  Luther  left  off  the  habit 
 of  a  monk,  and  dressed  himself  like  a 
 doctor,  refusing  to  be  saluted  with  the  title 
 oi  reverend  father.  Erasmus  having  written 
 a  book  concerning  free-will,  [De  Libera  Ar- 
 hitrio,)  Luther  ansv.ered  it  in  another,  en- 
 titled De  Servo  Arhitrio.  In  1525,  Thomas 
 Miinzer  and  Nicholas  Store,  taking  their 
 leave  of  Luther,  put  themselves  at  the 
 head  of  the  Anabaptists  and  Fanatics. 
 About  this  time  Luther  married  a  nun, 
 called  Catharine  Boren,  exhorting  all  the 
 ecclesiastics  and  monks  to  follow  his  ex- 
 ample. In  1526,  Philip,  Landgrave  of 
 Hesse,  turned  Lutheran,  who  gave  great 
 life  and  spirit  to  that  party. 
 
 In  March,  1529,  the  Diet  of  Spire  de- 
 creed that  the  Catholics  should  not  have 
 the  liberty  to  change  their  religion :  that 
 the  Lutherans  should  be  tolerated  till 
 the  meeting  of  a  council,  but  not  allowed 
 to  molest  the  Catholics;  and  that  the 
 preachers  should  deliver  nothing  in  then* 
 
LUTHERANS. 
 
 471 
 
 sermons  contrary  to  the  received  doctrines 
 of  the  Church.  The  Lutheran  princes 
 entered  a  solemn  protestation  a<>;ainst  this 
 decree,  from  whence  came  the  name  of 
 Protestants,  taken  up  first  by  the  Luther- 
 ans, and  afterwards  received  amon<^  the 
 Calvinists. 
 
 The  bej^'inning  of  October,  this  year, 
 ■was  held  at  Marburg  the  conference  be- 
 tween liUther  and  Zwinglius,  in  relation 
 to  the  eucharist ;  the  latter  affirming  that 
 there  is  nothing  more  than  bread  and  wine 
 in  the  Lohd's  su])per,  which  elements  are 
 the  figm-e  and  re])rcsentation  of  his  body 
 and  blood;  and  Luther  asserting  that  his 
 body  and  blood  are  really  present,  but 
 under  the  substance  of  bread  and  wine, 
 and  that  only  in  the  act  of  receiving  the 
 sacrament;  after  which  he  did  not  ac- 
 knowledge the  continuance  of  this  pre- 
 sence. This  conference  broke  up  without 
 coming  to  any  accommodation. 
 
 In  looO,  the  Lutherans  or  Protestants 
 drew  up  a  Confession  of  Faith,  which  they 
 presented  to  the  Diet  of  Augsburg.  (See 
 Auf/sburq,  Cuffession  of.) 
 
 The  year  after,  the  Protestant  princes 
 made  the  famous  league  of  Sinalcalde, 
 which  obliged  the  emperor  to  grant  the 
 Lutherans  a  toleration,  till  the  difierences 
 in  religion  were  settled  by  a  council,  which 
 he  engaged  himself  to  call  in  six  months. 
 
 The  Lutheran  party  gaining  strength 
 every  day,  and  having  refused  the  bull  for 
 convening  a  council  at  Mantua,  the  em- 
 peror summoned  a  general  diet  atPatisbon, 
 where  a  scheme  of  religion  for  reconciling 
 the  two  parties  was  examined :  but,  after 
 they  had  examined  and  disputed  for  a 
 month  together,  the  divines  could  agree 
 upon  no  more  than  five  or  six  articles, 
 concerning  justification,  free-will,  oi'iginal 
 sin,  baptism,  good  works,  and  episcopacy ; 
 for,  when  they  came  to  other  points,  and 
 especially  the  eucharist,  the  Lutherans 
 •would  by  no  means  yield  to  the  other 
 party.  The  diet  ended  with  a  decree  of 
 the  emperor,  strictly  forbidding  the  Lu- 
 therans to  tamper  with  any  person  to  make 
 them  quit  their  old  religion,  and  at  the 
 same  time  suspending  all  the  edicts  pub- 
 lished against  them. 
 
 Martin  Luther  lived  to  see  the  opening 
 of  the  fomous  Council  of  Trent,  for  ac- 
 commodating the  difierences  in  religion ; 
 which  put  him  upon  acting  with  more 
 vigour  and  warmth  against  the  Church  of 
 Rome,  as  foreseeing  that  his  opinions 
 would  be  condemned  there.  In  short,  he 
 left  no  stone  imturned  to  engage  the  Pro- 
 testant princes  to  act  against  the  council ; 
 which  measures  he  continued  to  pursue 
 
 until  his  death,  which  happened  in  Febru- 
 ary, 1546. 
 
 jNIaurice,  the  Elector  of  Saxony,  having 
 taken  the  field  against  the  emperor,  and 
 concluded  a  peace  with  him  at  Passaw,  in 
 1.3o2,  it  v/as  stipulated  that  the  exercise 
 of  liUtheranism,  as  stated  by  the  Confession 
 of  Augsburg,  should  be  tolerated  all  over 
 the  empire ;  which  toleration  was  to  last 
 for  ever,  in  case  the  differences  in  religion 
 could  not  be  accommodated  within  six 
 months.  And  thus  Lutheranism  was  per- 
 fectly settled  in  Germany. 
 
 The  Lutherans  are  generally  divided 
 into  the  moderate  and  the  rif/id.  The  mo- 
 derate Lutherans  are  those  who  submitted 
 to  the  Interim,  published  by  the  emperor 
 Charles  V.  Melancthon  was  the  head  of 
 this  party.     (See  Interim.) 
 
 The  rioid  Lutherans  are  those  who  would 
 not  endure  any  alteration  in  any  of  Lu- 
 ther's opinions.  The  head  of  this  party 
 was  Matthias  Flacius,  famous  for  writing 
 the  Centuries  of  Magdehurg,  in  which  he 
 had  three  other  Lutheran  ministers  for  his 
 assistants. 
 
 To  these  are  added  another  division, 
 called  Luthero-Zivit2f/lians,  because  they 
 held  some  of  Luther's  tenets  and  some  of 
 Zwinglius,  yielding  something  to  each  side, 
 to  prevent  the  ill  consequence  of  disunion 
 in  the  I\<- formation. 
 
 The  Lutherans  retain  the  use  of  the 
 altar  for  the  celebration  of  the  holy  com- 
 munion, some  of  the  ancient  vestments, 
 and  the  mitre  and  pastoral  staff  for  their 
 bishops,  at  least  in  Sweden.  They  like- 
 wise make  use  of  lighted  tapers  in  their 
 churches,  of  incense,  and  a  crucifix  on  the 
 altar,  of  the  sign  of  the  cross,  and  of 
 images,  &c.  Several  of  their  doctors  ac- 
 knowledge that  such  materials  add  a  lustre 
 and  majesty  to  Divine  worship,  and  fix  at 
 the  same  time  the  attention  of  the  people. 
 
 The  Lutherans  retain  the  observance  of 
 several  solemn  festivals  after  their  reform- 
 ation. They  keep  three  solemn  days  of 
 festivity  at  Christmas.  In  some  Lutheran 
 countries,  the  ])eople  go  to  church  on  the 
 night  of  the  nativity  of  our  blessed  Saviouk 
 with  lighted  candles  or  wax  tapers  in  their 
 hands ;  and  the  faithful,  who  meet  in  the 
 church,  spend  the  whole  night  there  in 
 singing  and  saying  their  prayers  by  the 
 ligiit  of  them.  'Sometimes  they  burn  such 
 a  large  quantity  of  incense,  that  the  smoke 
 of  it  ascends  Tike  a  whirlwind,  and  their 
 devotees  may  properly  enough  be  said  to 
 be  wra])ped"up  in  it.  It  is  customary, 
 likewise,  in  Germany,  to  give  entertain- 
 ments at  such  times  to  friends  and  rela- 
 tions, and  to  send  presents  to  each  other, 
 
472 
 
 LUTHERANS. 
 
 MACEDONIANS. 
 
 especially  to  the  young  people,  whom  they 
 amuse  -with  very  idle  and  romantic  stories, 
 telling  them  that  our  blessed  Saviour 
 descends  from  heaven  on  the  night  of  his 
 nativity,  and  brings  with  him  all  kinds  of 
 playthings. 
 
 They  have  three  holidays  at  Easter,  and 
 three  at  "Whitsuntide,  as  well  as  those 
 before  mentioned  at  Christmas.  These 
 festivals  have  nothing  peculiar  in  them 
 with  respect  to  the  ceremonies  observed  at 
 those  times;  but  with  regard  to  some 
 particular  superstitions,  they  are  remark- 
 able enough;  as,  for  instance,  that  of  the 
 paschal  water,  which  is  looked  on  as  a 
 sovereign  remedy  for  sore  eyes,  and  very 
 serviceable  in  uniting  broken  limbs.  This 
 paschal  water  is  nothing  more  than  com- 
 mon river  water,  taken  up  on  Easter  Day, 
 before  the  rising  of  the  sun.  They  have 
 another  superstitious  notion  with  respect 
 to  their  horses:  they  imagine  that  the 
 swimming  them  in  the  river  on  Easter 
 Day,  before  the  sun  rises,  preserves  them 
 from  lameness. 
 
 The  other  festivals  observed  by  the 
 Lutherans  are.  New  Year's  Day,  or  the 
 Circumcision,  a  festival  not  near  so  an- 
 cient as  the  four  above  mentioned ;  the 
 festival  of  the  Three  Kings,  or,  otherwise, 
 the  Epiphany;  the  Purification  of  the 
 Blessed  Virgin,  or  Candlemas ;  and  Lady 
 Day,  or  the  Annunciation.  There  is  no 
 public  work  nor  service  devoted  to  the 
 Blessed  Virgin,  nor  are  there  any  pro- 
 cessions, or  other  ceremonies,  which  are 
 observed  by  the  Roman  Catholics  on  the 
 two  latter  festivals.  The  festival  of  the 
 Sacred  Trinity  is  solemnized  on  the  Sun- 
 day after  Whitsunday  ;  that  of  St.  John 
 Baptist,  on  the  24th  of  June ;  and  that  of 
 the  Visitation  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  on 
 the  2nd  of  July,  as  it  is  by  the  lloman 
 Catholics.  To  conclude,  the  festival  of 
 St.  Michael  the  Archangel,  or  rather  the 
 ceremonies  observed  by  the  Lutherans  on 
 that  day,  are  the  remains  only  of  an  an- 
 cient custom,  which  has  been  preserved 
 amongst  them,  although  somewhat  extra- 
 ordinary, as  the  members  of  their  commu- 
 nion retain  no  manner  of  veneration  for 
 angels. 
 
 In  1523,  Luther  drew  up  a  formulary 
 of  the  mass  and  communion  for  the  par- 
 ticular service  of  the  church  of  Wittem- 
 berg.  Without  attempting  to  particularize 
 the  various  parts  of  it,  it  may  be  observed 
 that  all  the  churches  where  Lutheranism 
 prevailed  were  obliged  entirely  to  conform 
 to  it.  However,  those  orders  were  never 
 punctually  obeyed.  Some  Lutheran  coun- 
 tries have  one  ritual,  and  some  another. 
 
 There  is  a  difference,  likewise,  in  their 
 liturgies,  though,  as  to  the  fundamental 
 articles,  thev  all  agree. — Brouqhton. 
 
 LYCH-GATE,  or  CORPSE -GATE. 
 From  Icich,  *'  a  dead  body  " — (hence  Leitch- 
 field).  A  gate  at  the  entrance  of  the  church- 
 yard, where  the  body  was  placed  before 
 burial.  These  are  of  frequent  occurrence 
 is  ancient  churchyards. 
 
 LYCHNOSCOPE.  A  narrow  window 
 near  the  ground,  very  frequently  found  at 
 the  south-west  end  of  a  chancel,  not  in- 
 frequently at  the  north-Avest,  and  some- 
 times, though  seldom,  in  other  parts  of  the 
 church.  The  name  was  given  on  the  as- 
 sumption, (which  is  now,  perhaps,  univers- 
 ally abandoned,)  that  its  use  was  to  watch 
 the  pasch-light  from  without  the  church. 
 The  theory  now  commonly  adopted,  and 
 at  least  in  part  proved,  is,  that  lychno- 
 scopes  were  confessionals.  The  last  and 
 fullest  exposition  and  examination  of  the 
 various  theories  of  the  use  of  these  win- 
 dows may  be  found  in  a  paper  by  Mr. 
 Lowe,  in  the  first  volume  of  the  "  Trans- 
 actions of  the  Northamptonshire,  Lincoln- 
 shire, and  other  Architectural  Societies." 
 In  this  paper  their  use  as  ventilators  is 
 
 MACCABEES.  There  are  two  books 
 of  this  name  in  the  Apocrypha,  both  of  an 
 uncertain  order.  They  are  called  Mac- 
 cabees, because  they  relate  the  patriotic 
 and  gallant  exploits  of  Judas  Maccabeus 
 and  his  brethren.  The  Jirst  book,  which 
 is  a  most  valuable  and  authentic  history, 
 contains  the  history  of  the  Jews  from  the 
 beginning  of  the  reign  of  Antiochus  Epi- 
 phanes  to  the  death  of  Simon,  a  period  of 
 about  thirty-four  years.  The  second  book, 
 which  is  far  less  valuable,  and  less  to  be 
 depended  upon,  and  which  is  in  some 
 places  at  variance  with  canonical  Scripture, 
 contains  the  history  of  about  fifteen  years, 
 A.  M.  3828  to  3843,  from  the  commission  of 
 Heliodorus  to  pillage  the  temple,  to  the 
 victory  of  Judas  Maccabeus  over  Nicanor. 
 These  two  books  are  accounted  canonical 
 by  the  Roman  Catholics  ;  but  there  are  be- 
 sides two  other  books,  called  the  third  and 
 fourth  books  of  Maccabees,  of  very  little 
 authority,  and  which  were  never  admitted 
 into  the  canon  by  any  Church.  The  Books 
 of  Maccabees  are  not  read  in  the  service 
 of  the  Church  of  England. 
 
 MACEDONIANS.  So  called  from 
 Macedonius,  a  bishop  of  Constantinople, 
 deposed  from  his  see  by  a  council  of  360, 
 and  also  Pneumatoinachians,  from  Trvevfia, 
 {Sjn'ritus,)  and  fxdxofiai,  {jyur/no,)  from  their 
 distinctive  error :   a  sect  of  heretics  who 
 
MAGDEBURG  CENTURIES. 
 
 MANICHEANS. 
 
 473 
 
 arose  in  the  fourth  century,  who  denied  the 
 separate  personality  of  the  Holy  Giiost. 
 They  -svere  condemned  by  the  second 
 n;eneral  council,  (of  Constantinoi)le,)  anno 
 381,  and  against  their  errors  the  expansion 
 of  the  latter  portion  of  the  Nicene  Creed 
 was  directed  :  "  I  believe  in  the  Holy 
 Ghost,  the  Loud  and  giver  of  life,  who 
 proceedeth  from  the  Father  and  the  Son, 
 who  with  the  Father  and  the  Son  to- 
 gether is  worshipped  and  glorified,  who 
 spake  by  the  prophets." 
 
 MAGDEBUKG  CENTURIES.  (Sec 
 Centuries.) 
 
 MAGISTRAL.  An  officer  in  cathedral 
 and  collegiate  churches  and  royal  chapels 
 in  Spain,  generally  a  canon,  whose  duty  it 
 was  to  preach  a  certain  course  of  sermons. 
 He  was  so  called,  as  it  was  necessary  for 
 him  to  be  a  master  (or,  as  Ave  should  call 
 it,  bachelor)  in  theology.  This  was  a  ^??t- 
 henda  de  opjMsitmic,  that  is,  it  was  conferred 
 upon  the  successful  candidate  in  a  public 
 disputation  so  called. 
 
 MAGNIFICAT.  The  song  of  the  bless- 
 ed Virgin  Mary,  which  is  appointed  to  be 
 said  or  sung  in  English  after  the  first 
 lesson  at  Evening  Prayer,  unless  the  90th 
 Psalm,  called  Cantnte  Domino,  is  used. 
 
 MALACHI,  THE  PROPHECY  OF. 
 A  canonical  book  of  the  Old  Testament. 
 
 The  author  of  the  Lives  of  the  Prophets, 
 and  the  Alexandrian  Chronicle,  say,  that 
 Malachi  was  of  the  tribe  of  Zebulun,  and 
 a  native  of  Sapha,  and  that  the  name  of 
 Malachi  was  given  him  because  of  his 
 am/elical  mildness ;  which  made  Origen 
 and  Tertullian  believe,  that  he  was  an 
 "angel  incarnate."  He  is  called  an  "angel" 
 by  most  of  the  Fathers,  and  in  the  version 
 of  the  Septuagint.  Some  think  that  Ma- 
 lachi is  no  other  than  Ezra,  or  Esdras,  and 
 this  is  the  opinion  of  the  ancient  Hebrews,  of 
 the  Chaldee  Paraphrast,  and  of  St.  Jerome. 
 
 Malachi  is  the  last  of  the  twelve  lesser 
 prophets.  He  prophesied  about  three 
 hundred  years  before  Christ,  reproving 
 the  Jews  for  their  wickedness  after  their 
 return  from  Babylon,  charging  them  with 
 rebellion,  sacrilege,  adultery,  profaneness, 
 and  infidelity,  and  condemning  the  priests 
 for  being  careless  and  scandalous  in  their 
 ministry.  At  the  same  time,  he  forgets 
 not  to  encourage  the  "  pious  remnant," 
 who,  in  that  coiTupt  age,  "  feared  the 
 Lord,  and  thought  upon  his  name." 
 
 This  prophet  distinctly  ])oints  at  the 
 Messiah,  who  was  "  suddenly  to  come  to 
 his  temple,"  and  to  be  introduced  by 
 Elijah  the  prophet,  that  is,  by  John  the 
 Baptist,  who  came  '*  in  the  spirit  and 
 power  of  Elias,"  or  Elijah. 
 
 The  Jews  pretend  that,  in  the  time  of 
 Darius,  son  of  Hystaspis,  there  was  held 
 a  general  assembly  of  the  heads  of  their 
 nation,  to  settle  the  canon  of  their  Scrip- 
 tures ;  that  Daniel,  Haggai,  Zechariah, 
 and  Malachi  presided  in  this  council, 
 and  that  Esdras  was  their  secretary,  liut 
 it  is  certain  Daniel  did  not  live  at  that 
 time.  They  add,  that  in  the  last  year  of 
 Darius,  died  the  })ro])hets  Haggai,  Zecha- 
 riah, and  ^Slalachi,  and  with  them  ceased 
 the  si)irit  of  prophecy  among  the  Israelites; 
 and  that  this  was  the  sealing  up  of  vision 
 and  pro])hecy,  s})oken  of  by  J)aniel. 
 
 'J'he  death  of  the  prophet  Malachi  is 
 placed,  in  the  Roman  martyrology,  on  the 
 14th  of  January. 
 
 MANASSES,  PRAYER  OF.  One  of 
 the  a])ocryphal  books  of  the  Old  Testa- 
 ment, which  is  rejected  as  spurious  even 
 by  the  Church  of  liome ;  and  though  in 
 the  list  of  the  apocryphal  books  contained 
 in  the  sixth  Article,  is  not  read  in  the 
 service  of  the  Church  of  England.  It 
 cannot  be  traced  to  a  higher  source  than 
 the  Vulgate  version ;  and  is  evidently  not 
 the  prayer  of  King  Manasseh,  mentioned 
 in  2  Chron.  xxxiii.  18,  19,  as  it  never  was 
 extant  in  the  Hebrew. — Home's  Intrud. 
 
 :\IANICH]^:ANS.  Christian  heretics, 
 who  took  their  name  from  one  Manes.  The 
 ancients  do  not  well  agree  as  to  the  time 
 of  this  heretic's  first  appearance.  But 
 S})anheim  says,  it  was  in  the  time  of  Pro- 
 bus,  a  little  before  Diocletian,  and  that  his 
 heresy  was  a  compound  of  the  Pythago- 
 rean, Gnostic,  and  jMarcionite  opinions. 
 According  to  the  accounts  given  by  the 
 Greeks,  (from  whom,  however,  the  Oriental 
 writers  diff"er  considerably,)  one  Terebin- 
 thus,  disciple  to  Scythianus,  a  magician, 
 finding  that  in  Persia,  whither  he  was 
 forced  to  retire  out  of  I'alestine,  the  priests 
 and  learned  men  of  the  country  did 
 strongly  oppose  his  errors  and  designs, 
 retired  into  a  widow's  house,  M'here  (it  is 
 said)  he  was  killed,  either  by  angels  or 
 by  demons,  as  he  was  engaged  in  incanta- 
 tions. This  woman,  being  heiress  to  the 
 money  and  books  of  Terebinthus,  bought 
 a  slave  named  Cul^ricus,  whom  she  after- 
 wards adopted,  and  caused  to  be  instructed 
 in  all  the  sciences  of  Persia.  This  man, 
 after  the  woman's  death,  changed  his 
 name,  to  obliterate  the  memory  of  his  first 
 condition,  and  assumed  that  of  Manes. 
 He  pretended  to  be  the  apostle  of  Christ, 
 and  that  he  was  the  Comforter  our  Sa- 
 viour promised  to  send.  He  promised 
 the  king  of  Persia  that  he  would  cure  his 
 son  ;  whereupon  the  father  sent  away  all 
 the  physicians,  and  the  patient  died  soon 
 
4Y4 
 
 MANICHEANS. 
 
 MARANATIIA. 
 
 after :  whereupon  Manes  was  imprisoned, 
 but  made  his  escape  ;  but  beinj^  soon  ap- 
 prehended anjain,  was  flayed  ahve,  and  his 
 carcass  thrown  to  tlie  Avikl  beasts. 
 
 Manes  hekl  that  there  Mere  two  prin- 
 ciples, the  one  good,  from  Avhence  pro- 
 ceeded the  good  soul  of  man,  and  the 
 other  bad,  from  whence  proceeded  the  evil 
 soul,  and  likewise  the  body  with  all  cor- 
 poreal creatures.  He  taught  his  disciples 
 to  profess  a  great  severity  of  life,  notwith- 
 standing which  they  were  able  to  wallow 
 in  all  impurity,  and  he  forbade  to  give  alms 
 to  any  that  were  not  of  his  own  sect.  He 
 attributed  the  motions  of  concupiscence  to 
 the  evil  soul ;  he  gave  out  that  the  souls 
 of  his  followers  went  through  the  elements 
 to  the  moon,  and  afterwards  to  the  sun, 
 to  be  purified,  and  then  to  GoD,  in  whom 
 they  did  rejoin ;  and  those  of  other  men, 
 he  alleged,  v.ent  to  hell,  to  be  sent  into 
 other  bodies.  He  alleged,  that  Christ 
 had  his  residence  in  the  sun  ;  the  Holy 
 Ghost  in  the  air ;  wisdom  in  the  moon ; 
 and  the  Father  in  the  abyss  of  light :  he 
 denied  the  resurrection,  and  condemned 
 marriage  ;  he  held  Pythagoras's  transmi- 
 gration of  souls  ;  that  Christ  had  no  real 
 body  ;  that  he  was  neither  dead  nor  risen, 
 and  that  he  was  the  Serpent  that  tempted 
 Eve,  He  forbade  the  use  of  eggs,  cheese, 
 milk,  and  wine,  as  creatures  proceeding 
 from  a  bad  principle ;  he  used  a  form  of 
 baptism  different  from  that  of  the  Church. 
 He  taught  that  magistrates  were  not  to 
 be  obeyed,  and  condemned  the  most  laAv- 
 ful  wars.  It  were  next  to  impossible  to 
 recount  all  the  impious  and  damnable 
 tenets  of  this  heresiarch,  insomuch  that 
 Leo  the  Great  said  of  him,  that  the  devil 
 reigned  in  all  other  heresies,  but  he  had 
 built  a  fortress  and  raised  his  throne  in 
 that  of  tlie  ^lanicheans,  v.ho  embraced  all 
 the  errors  and  impieties  that  the  spirit  of 
 man  was  capable  of ;  for  whatever  profan- 
 ation was  in  Paganism,  carnal  blindness 
 in  Judaism,  unlawful  curiosity  in  magic, 
 or  sacrilegious  in  other  heresies,  did  all 
 centre  in  that  of  the  Manicheans, 
 
 The  Manicheans  were  divided  into 
 hearers  and  the  elect :  of  the  elect,  twelve 
 were  called  masters,  in  imitation  of  the 
 twelve  apostles ;  and  there  was  a  thirteenth, 
 who  was  a  kind  of  jjope  amongst  them. 
 Authors  charge  them  with  ascribing  a 
 body  to  God,  and  alleging  that  he  was 
 substantially  in  everything,  though  never 
 so  base  as  mire,  dirt,  &c.,  but  was  separ- 
 ated from  them  by  the  coming  of  Christ, 
 and  by  the  Manicheans  eating  the  fruits  of 
 the  earth.  They  likewise  maintained,  that 
 there  had  been  a  great  combat  between 
 
 the  princes  of  darkness  and  light,  wherein 
 they  who  held  for  God  were  taken  pri- 
 soners, and  that  he  laboured  still  for  their 
 redemption.  Moreover,  he  held  that  the 
 sun  and  the  moon  were  ships,  that  the  soul 
 of  a  man  and  of  a  tree  Avere  of  the  same 
 substance,  and  both  of  them  a  part  of 
 God  ;  that  sin  was  a  substance,  and  not  a 
 quality  or  aflection,  and  therefore  natural, 
 and  that  acquired  by  the  fall ;  he  likewise 
 held  a  fatality,  and  denied  free-will.  The 
 emperors,  in  the  fourth  century,  made  laws 
 against  these  heretics,  who  renewed  their 
 opinions  in  Africa,  Gaul,  and  Pome,  where 
 a  council  was  held  against  them, — But 
 Manicheism  continued  to  exist  among  the 
 heretics  of  the  middle  ages. — See  burton. 
 A  u(/usti. 
 
 MANIPLE,  or  MANUPLE.  Origin- 
 ally a  narrow  strip  of  linen  suspended 
 from  the  left  arm  of  the  priest,  and  used 
 to  wipe  away  the  perspiration  from  the 
 face  :  gradually  it  received  embellishments, 
 it  was  bordered  by  a  fringe,  and  decorated 
 with  needle-work.  It  is  not  improbable 
 that  its  use  might  be  to  clean  the  sacred 
 vessels,  as  has  been  supposed  by  some,  for 
 in  the  eleventh  century  it  was  given  to 
 the  sub-deacons  as  the  badge  of  their 
 order.  It  is  distinguished  from  the  epi- 
 f/onato7i  by  being  worn  on  the  left  side. 
 The  maniple  is  not  retained  among  the 
 ecclesiastical  vestments  of  the  Church  of 
 England. 
 
 MANSE.  Mcmsio.  The  ancient  name 
 (as  appears  from  old  records)  for  an  eccle- 
 siastical residence,  whether  parochial  or 
 collegiate.  In  Scotland  it  was  peculiarly 
 appropriated  to  parsonage  houses  ;  and 
 now  designates  the  residences  of  the  min- 
 isters of  the  Presbyterian  establishment. 
 It  was  anciently  applied  also  to  the  pre- 
 bendal  houses  there, — See  il/'  Ure's  History 
 of  Glasqoiv. 
 
 '  MANSIONARIES,  The  permanently 
 resident  canons  in  some  Italian  cathedrals: 
 in  others  of  the  same  country  the  term  was 
 apjilied  to  certain  of  the  inferior  clergy. 
 
 MANUDUCTOP,  {Lat.,)  in  the  ancient 
 Christian  Church,  was  an  officer,  who,  fi'om 
 the  middle  of  the  choir,  where  he  was 
 placed,  gave  the  signal  to  the  choristers  to 
 sing,  marked  the  measure,  beat  the  time, 
 and  regulated  the  music.  He  was  so  call- 
 ed, because  he  led  or  guided  the  choir  by 
 the  motions  and  gesture  of  the  hand. 
 
 The  Greeks  called  the  same  kind  of 
 officer  3Iesochoros,  because  he  was  seated 
 in  the  middle  of  the  choii-. 
 
 MAllANATHA.  On  this  word,  which 
 is  added  by  St.  Paul  to  the  word  Anathema, 
 in  1  Cor,  xvi.  22,  Bingham,  who  has  col- 
 
MARCIONITES. 
 
 MARIOLATRY. 
 
 475 
 
 lected  the  authorities  of  the  Fathers,  tells 
 us  that  St.  Chrysostom  says  it  is  a  Hebrew 
 ■word,  signifying  The  LoRD  is  come:  and 
 he  particularly  applies  it  to  the  confusion 
 of  those  "Nvho  still  abused  the  privileges  of 
 the  gospel,  notwithstanding  that  the  Loud 
 was  come  among  them.  "  This  word," 
 says  he,  "  speaks  terror  to  those  who  make 
 their  members  the  members  of  an  harlot, 
 "who  offend  their  brethren  by  eating  things 
 offered  to  idols,  who  name  themselves  by 
 the  names  of  men,  who  deny  the  resurrec- 
 tion. The  Lord  of  all  is  come  down 
 among  us  ;  and  yet  ye  continue  the  same 
 men  ye  were  before,  and  persevere  in  your 
 sins."  St.  Jerome  says,  it  was  more  a 
 Syriac  than  a  Hebrew  word,  though  it  had 
 something  in  it  of  both  languages,  signify- 
 ing Our  Lord  is  come.  But  he  applies  it 
 against  the  perverseness  of  the  Jews,  and 
 others  who  denied  the  coming  of  Christ  : 
 making  this  the  sense  of  the  apostle,  "  If 
 any  man  love  not  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ, 
 let  him  be  Anathema,  the  Lord  is  come  ; 
 wherefore  it  is  superfluous  for  any  to  con- 
 tend with  pertinacious  hatred  against  him, 
 of  the  truth  of  whose  coming  there  is  such 
 apparent  demonstration."  The  same  sense 
 is  given  by  Theodoret,  by  Hilary  the 
 deacon,  and  Pelagius,  whose  writings  have 
 passed  under  the  names  of  St.  Ambrose 
 and  St.  Jerome  respectively.  And  it  is  re- 
 ceived by  Estius  and  Ur.  Lightfoot  as  the 
 truest  interpretation.  So  that,  according 
 to  this  sense,  Maranatha  could  not  be  any 
 part  of  the  form  of  excommunication,  but 
 only  a  reason  for  pronouncing  Anathema 
 against  those  who  expressed  their  hatred 
 against  Christ,  by  denying  his  coming ; 
 either  in  words,  as  the  Jews  did,  who  blas- 
 phemed Cpirist,  and  called  Jesus  Ana- 
 thema or  accursed ;  or  else  by  wicked  works, 
 as  those  who  lived  profanely  under  the 
 name  of  Christian.  But  Parkhurst  is  rather 
 inclined  to  derive  it  from  the  Hebrew, 
 miharem  atha,  signifying  cursed  art  thou ; 
 the  m  being  changed  into  n,  as  was  fre- 
 quent among  Hellenizing  Jews. 
 
 MARCIOXITES.  Heretics  of  the  se- 
 cond century,  so  called  from  Marcion. 
 He  was  born  at  Sinope,  in  Paphlagonia  or 
 lielenopontus,  on  the  coast  of  the  Pontus 
 Euxinus,  or  Black  Sea,  and  for  that  reason 
 is  sometimes  called  Ponticus.  He  studied 
 the  Stoic  philosophy  in  his  younger  years, 
 and  was  a  lover  of  solitude  and  poverty ; 
 but  being  convicted  of  uncleanness  with  a 
 virgin,  he  was,  by  his  father,  who  was  a 
 bishop,  expelled  the  Church.  After  this 
 he  went  to  Rome,  where  being  not  ad- 
 mitted into  Church  communion,  because 
 his  father  had  not  consented  to  it,  he  in 
 
 spite  embraced  Cordon's  heresy,  and  be- 
 came tiic  author  of  new  heresies,  about  A.  D. 
 L'i4.  He  held  with  Cordon  tMo  gods,  the 
 one  good,  the  other  bad  :  the  latter,  he 
 said,  was  the  author  of  the  world,  and  of 
 the  law ;  but  the  good,  he  said,  was  the 
 author  of  the  gospel  and  redeemer  of  the 
 world.  He  said  that  Christ  was  sent  on 
 purpose  to  abolish  the  law,  as  being  bad. 
 Origen  aflirms,  that  he  supposed  there  was 
 a  God  of  the  Jews,  a  God  of  the  Chris- 
 tians, and  a  God  of  the  Gentiles.  Tertul- 
 lian  wrote  against  him,  and,  more  curi- 
 ously than  anybody  else,  observes  the  rest 
 of  his  opinions,  as  that  he  denied  the  re- 
 surrection of  the  body,  condemned  mar- 
 riage, excluding  married  people  from  sal- 
 vation, whom  he  would  not  baptize,  though 
 he  allowed  of  three  sorts,  and  that  the 
 living  were  sometimes  baptized  for  the 
 dead.  In  his  sect,  the  women  commonly 
 administered  the  sacraments.  Ilhodon,  a 
 Greek  author,  quoted  by  Eusebius,  says, 
 the  disciples  of  this  heresiarch  added  many 
 other  errors  to  his  tenets ;  that  the  heresi- 
 arch meeting  Polycarp  in  the  streets  of 
 Home,  asked  him  whether  he  knew  him. 
 "  Very  well,"  answered  the  good  bishop, 
 "  I  know  you  very  well  to  be  the  firstborn 
 of  Satan."  Constantino  the  Great  pub- 
 lished an  edict  against  the  Marcionites 
 and  the  other  heretics,  in  3G6 ;  and  Theo- 
 doret, bishop  of  Cyrus,  converted  10,000 
 of  them  in  420. 
 
 MAIIIOLATRY.  (See  Amieh,  Idol-^ 
 atrij,  Popery,  Virr/in  Mary,  Mother  of 
 God.)  The  worshij)  of  the  Virgin  Mary : 
 one  of  the  sins  of  the  Church  of  Home, 
 for  defending  which  her  theologians  are 
 guilty  of  heresy.  The  fact  of  the  Ro- 
 manists praying  to  the  Virgin  ISIary  is  not 
 denied.  Their  manner  of  doing  so,  not 
 merely  seeking  her  intercession,  but  actu- 
 ally adchessing  her  in  terms  which  sound 
 very  like  blasphemy  to  those  whose  re- 
 ligion is  catholic  and  Scriptural,  may  be 
 seen  from  the  following  extracts  made 
 from  the  Psalter  of  Bonaventure. 
 
 Extract  from  the  "  Crown  of  the  Blessed 
 Virgin : "  * 
 
 "  O  thou,  our  governor,  and  most  be- 
 nignant Lady,  in  right  of  being  his  mother, 
 command  your  most  beloved  Son,  our 
 Lord  Jesus  Christ,  that  he  deign  to 
 raise  our  minds  from  longing  after  earthly 
 things  to  the  contem})lation  of  heavenly 
 things." 
 
 Extract  from  a  serious  parody  on  the  To 
 Deum,  by  the  same  writer  : 
 
 "A\'e  praise  thee,  Mother  of  GoD ;  we 
 
 *  Saucti  BonaventuraD  Opera,  torn.  vi.  part 
 ii.,  from  p.  46G  to  473.    Fob  Moguutiae,  160'J. 
 
i16 
 
 MARIOLATRY. 
 
 acknowledge  thee  to  be  a  virgin.  All  the 
 earth  doth  worship  thee,  the  spouse  of  the 
 eternal  Fatiikr.  All  the  angels  and  arch- 
 angels, all  thrones  and  powers,  do  faithfully 
 serve  thee.  To  thee  all  angels  cry  aloud, 
 with  a  never-ceasing  voice.  Holy,  holy, 
 holy,  Mary,  mother  of  GoD.  .  .  .  The 
 whole  court  of  heaven  doth  honour  thee 
 as  queen.  The  holy  Church  throughout 
 all  the  world  doth  invoke  and  praise  tliee, 
 the  mother  of  Divine  majesty.  .  .  .  Thou 
 sittest  with  thy  Son  on  the  right  hand  of 
 the  Father.  ...  In  thee,  sweet  Mary, 
 is  our  hope ;  defend  us  for  evermore. 
 Praise  hecometh  thee ;  empire  becometh 
 thee ;  virtue  and  glory  be  unto  thee  for 
 ever  and  ever." 
 
 Extract  from  a  parody  on  the  Atha- 
 nasian  CVeed,  by  the  same  writer : 
 
 "  AAHiosoever  will  be  saved,  before  all 
 things  it  is  necessary  that  he  hold  the 
 right  faith  concerning  ]Mary ;  which  faith, 
 except  every  one  do  keep  wliole  and  un- 
 defiled,  without  doubt  he  shall  perish 
 everlastingly.  ...  He  (Jesus  Christ) 
 sent  the  Holy  Spirit  upon  his  disciples, 
 and  upon  his  mother,  and  at  last  took  her 
 up  into  heaven,  where  she  sitteth  on  the 
 right  hand  of  her  Son,  and  never  ceaseth 
 to  make  intercession  with  him  for  us. 
 
 "  This  is  the  faith  concerning  the  Virgin 
 INIary,  which,  except  every  one  do  believe 
 faithfully  and  firmly,  he  cannot  be  saved." 
 
 Extract  from  a  work  by  Alphonso 
 Liguori,  called  "  The  Glories  of  Mary  :  "  * 
 
 "  During  the  pontificate  of  Gregory  the 
 Great,  the  people  of  Home  experienced 
 in  a  most  striking  manner  the  protection 
 of  the  Blessed  Vii'gin.  A  ft-ightful  pes- 
 tilence raged  in  the  city  to  such  an  extent, 
 that  thousands  were  carried  off,  and  so 
 suddenly,  that  they  had  not  time  to  make 
 the  least  preparation.  It  could  not  be 
 arrested  by  the  voavs  and  prayers  which 
 the  holy  pope  caused  to  be  ofiered  in  all 
 quarters,  until  he  resolved  on  having  re- 
 course to  the  ^Mother  of  God.  Having 
 commanded  the  clergy  and  people  to  go 
 in  procession  to  the  church  of  our  lady, 
 called  St.  Mary  Major,  carrying  the  jiic- 
 ture  of  the  holy  Virgin,  painted  by  St. 
 Luke,  the  miraculous  effects  of  her  in- 
 tercession were  soon  experienced  :  in  every 
 street  as  they  passed  the  plague  ceased, 
 and  before  the  end  of  the  procession  an 
 angel  in  human  form  was  seen  on  the 
 toM'er  of  Adrian,  named  ever  since  the 
 castle  of  St.  Angelo,  sheathing  a  bloody 
 sabre.  At  the  same  moment  the  angels 
 were  heard  singing  the  anthem,  '  Ilegina 
 
 *  "  The  Glories  of  Mary,  Mother  of  God ; 
 translated  from  the  Italian  of  blessed  Alphonsus 
 
 Cceli,'  'Triumph,  O  Queen,'  Hallelujah. 
 The  holy  poi)e  added,  '  Ora  ])ro  nobis 
 Deum,'  '  Pray  for  us,'  &c.  The  Church  has 
 since  used  this  anthem  to  salute  the 
 Blessed  Virgin  in  Easter  time." — True 
 Devotion  to  the  Blessed  Viir/ui,  p.  21. 
 
 Extract  from  the  Encyclical  Letter  of 
 Pope  Gregory  XVI. : 
 
 "Having  at  length  taken  possession  of 
 our  see  in  the  Lateran  Basilica,  according 
 to  the  custom  and  institution  of  our  pre- 
 decessors, we  turn  to  you  without  delay, 
 venerable  brethren ;  and  in  testimony  of 
 our  feeling  towards  you,  we  select  for  the 
 date  of  our  letter  this  most  joyful  day,  on 
 which  we  celebrate  the  solemn  festival  of 
 the  most  Blessed  Vu'gin's  triumphant  as- 
 sumption into  heaven ;  that  she,  who  has 
 been  through  every  great  calamity  our 
 patroness  and  protectress,  may  watch  over 
 us  writing  to  you,  and  lead  our  mind  by 
 her  heavenly  influence  to  those  counsels 
 which  may  prove  most  salutary  to  Christ's 
 flock.  .  .  .  But  that  all  may  have  a  suc- 
 cessful -and  happy  issue,  let  us  raise  our 
 eyes  to  the  most  Blessed  Virgin  Mary, 
 who  alone  destroys  heresies,  who  is  our 
 greatest  hope,  yea,  the  entire  ground  of 
 our  hope." 
 
 For  other  quotations  to  the  same  pur- 
 pose, see  the  very  useful  and  learned 
 volume  "  On  Roman  Fallacies  and  Catho- 
 lic Truths,"  by  the  Hex.  H.  T.  Powell. 
 
 The  adoration  of  the  Virgin  was  first  in- 
 troduced in  the  fourth  century,  and  Avas 
 regarded  as  a  heresy  by  the  Catholic 
 Church.  It  commenced  in  Arabia,  about 
 the  year  373,  and  seems  to  have  given 
 rise  to  the  opposite  heresy,  that  of  the 
 Antidicomarians,  who  spoke  iiTeverently 
 of  the  Blessed  Virgin.  AVe  learn  that  the 
 simple  and  misguided  persons  who  adopted 
 this  new  worship,  made  off'erings  of  cakes 
 to  the  Virgin,  from  which  they  were  called 
 Collyridians  (a  w'ord  which  signified  the 
 nature  of  the  offering).  There  is  no  evi- 
 dence that  they  separated  from  the  Church 
 or  its  worship,  or  refused  to  worship  God, 
 or  regarded  the  Virgin  as  equal  with  God. 
 They,  however,  off"ered  external  worship  to 
 the  Virgin,  and  were,  therefore,  regarded 
 as  heretics.  In  the  folloAving  century,  a 
 reaction  against  the  Nestorian  refusal  of 
 the  title  Theotokos  (Mother  of  God)  to  the 
 Blessed  Virgin,  tended  greatly  to  pave  the 
 way  for  the  Mariolatry  of  later  times.  (See 
 Nestorians,  Motlier  of  God.)  Our  great 
 Bishop  Bull  observes,  '*  We  abominate  the 
 impious  imposture  of  those  who  have  trans- 
 lated the  most  humble  and  holy  Virgin 
 
 Liguori,  and  carefully  revised  by  a  Catholic 
 Priest."    John  Coyne,  Dublin,  1833. 
 
MARK'S,  ST.,  DAY 
 
 MAIIONITES. 
 
 ■177 
 
 into  an  idol  of  pride  and  vanity,  and  repre- 
 sented her  as  a  vain-glorious  and  aspiring 
 creature ;  like  Lucifer,  (I  tremble  at  the 
 comparison,)  thirsting  after  Divine  wor- 
 shi])  and  honour,  and  seeking  out  super- 
 stitious men  and  Momen,  whom  she  may 
 oblige  to  her  more  especial  service,  and 
 make  them  her  perpetual  votaries.  For 
 what  greater  affront  than  this  could  they 
 have  ottered  to  her  humility  and  sanctity  P 
 How  fulsome,  yea,  how  jjerfectly  loath- 
 some to  us,  are  the  tales  of  those  that  have 
 had  the  assurance  to  tell  us  of  the  amorous 
 addresses  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  to  certain 
 persons,  her  devout  worshippers  ;  choosing 
 them  for  her  husbands,  bestowing  her 
 kisses  liberally  on  them,  giving  them  her 
 breasts  to  suck,  and  presenting  them  with 
 bracelets  and  rings  of  her  hair  as  love- 
 tokens  !  The  fables  of  the  Jewish  Talmud- 
 ists,  yea,  of  Mahomet,  may  seem  grave, 
 serious,  and  sober  histories,  compared  to 
 these  and  other  such  like  impudent  fic- 
 tions. Insomuch  that  wise  men  have 
 thought  that  the  authors  of  these  romances 
 in  religion  were  no  better  than  the  tools 
 and  instruments  of  Satan,  used  by  him  to 
 expose  the  Christian  religion,  and  render 
 it  ridiculous,  and  thereljy  to  introduce 
 atheism.  And  indeed  we  are  sure,  that 
 the  wits  of  Italy,  where  these  abominable 
 deceits  have  been  and  are  chiefly  counten- 
 anced, were  the  first  broachers  and  patrons 
 of  infidelity  and  atheism  in  Europe,  since 
 the  time  that  Christianity  obtained  in  it." 
 
 In  a  Avord,  such  is  the  worship  given  to 
 the  Blessed  Virgin  by  many  in  the  Church 
 of  Home,  that  they  deserve  to  be  called 
 Mdriani,  rather  than  Christiani,  &c. 
 
 MARK,  ST.,  THE  EVANGELIST'S 
 DAY.  A  festival  of  the  Christian  Church, 
 observed  on  the  2oth  of  April. 
 
 St.  Mark  was,  by  birth,  a  Jew,  and  de- 
 scended of  the  tribe  of  Levi.  He  was  con- 
 verted by  some  of  the  apostles,  probably 
 by  St.  Peter,  to  whom  he  was  a  constant 
 companion  in  all  his  travels,  supplying  the 
 place  of  an  amanuensis  and  interpreter. 
 He  was  by  St.  Peter  sent  into  Egypt,  fix- 
 ing his  chief  residence  at  Alexandi'ia,  and 
 the  places  thereabout :  where  he  was  so 
 successful  in  his  ministry,  that  he  convert- 
 ed multitudes  both  of  men  and  women. 
 He  afterwards  removed  westward,  toward 
 the  parts  of  Libya,  going  through  the 
 countries  of  Marmorica,  Pentapolis,  and 
 others  thereabouts ;  where,  notwithstand- 
 ing the  barbarity  and  idolatry  of  the  inha- 
 bitants, he  planted  the  gospel.  Upon  his 
 return  to  Alexandria,  he  ordered  the  af- 
 fairs of  that  Church,  and  there  suffered 
 martyrdom  in  the  following  manner.  About 
 
 Easter,  at  the  time  the  solcnmities  of  Se- 
 ra])is  were  celebrated,  the  idolatrous  peo- 
 ple, being  excited  to  vhidicate  the  honour 
 of  their  deity,  broke  in  upon  St.  Mark, 
 while  he  was  performing  Divine  service, 
 and,  binding  him  with  cords,  dragged  him 
 through  the  streets,  and  thrust  him  into 
 prison,  Avhere  in  the  night  he  had  the  com- 
 fort of  a  Divine  vision.  Next  day,  the 
 enraged  multitude  used  him  in  the  same 
 manner,  till,  his  spirits  faihng,  he  expired 
 under  their  hands.  Some  add,  that  they 
 burnt  his  body,  and  that  the  Christians 
 decently  interred  his  bones  and  ashes  near 
 the  place  where  he  used  to  preach.  This 
 happened  in  the  year  of  Christ  G8. 
 
 MARK'S,  ST.,  GOSPEL.  A  canon- 
 ical book  of  the  New  Testament.  (See  the 
 preceding  article.) 
 
 This  evangelist  wrote  his  Gospel  at 
 Rome,  whither  he  accompanied  St.  Peter 
 in  the  year  of  Christ  44.  Tertullian,  and 
 others,  pretend,  that  St.  Mark  was  no  more 
 than  an  amanuensis  to  St.  Peter,  who 
 dictated  this  Gospel  to  him.  Others  affirm 
 that  he  wrote  it  after  St.  Peter's  death. 
 
 MARONITES.  Certain  Eastern  Chris- 
 tians, so  called,  who  inhabit  near  jSIount 
 Lebanon,  in  Syria.  The  name  is  derived 
 either  from  a  town  in  the  country  called 
 3Iaronia,  or  from  St.  Moron,  who  built  a 
 monastery  there  in  the  fifth  century. 
 
 The  Maronites  hold  communion  with 
 the  Romish  Church.  Pope  Gregory  XIII. 
 founded  a  college  at  Rome,  where  their 
 youth  are  educated  by  the  Jesuits,  and 
 then  sent  to  their  own  country.  They 
 formerly  followed  the  errors  of  the  Jacob- 
 ites, Nestorians,  and  Monothelites;  but 
 these  they  renounced  for  the  errors  of 
 the  Roman  Church  in  the  time  of  Gregory 
 XIII.  and  Clement  VIII.  The  patriarch 
 of  the  Maronites  was  present  in  the  fourth 
 Lateran  Council,  under  Innocent  III.,  in 
 121,3. 
 
 Tiie  Maronites  have  their  patriarch, 
 archbishops,  bishops,  and  about  150  in- 
 ferior clergy,  who  are  so  o])pressed  by  the 
 Turks,  that  they  are  reduced  to  work  for 
 their  living.  They  keep  Lent  according 
 to  the  ancient  rigour,  eating  but  one  meal 
 a  day,  and  that  after  mass,  which  is  said 
 at  four  o'clock  in  the  afternoon.  Their 
 priests  are  distinguished  by  a  blue  scarf, 
 which  they  wear  about  their  caps.  Married 
 men  may  become  priests,  but  none  may 
 marry  after  he  is  in  orders.  They  wear 
 no  surplices,  observe  particular  fasts  and 
 feasts,  and  differ  in  many  other  things 
 from  the  Church  of  Rome. 
 
 The  patriarch  of  the  Maronites  is  a 
 monk  of  St.  Anthony,  claims  the  title  of 
 
478 
 
 MARRIAGE. 
 
 MARTYROLOGY 
 
 patriarch  of  Antioch,  and  is  always  called 
 Peter.  He  has  about  nine  bishops  under 
 him,  and  resides  at  Edem  Canohin,  a  mon- 
 astery built  on  a  rock.  They  read  their 
 service  both  in  the  vulgar  language  and 
 in  Latin,  and,  while  they  perforin  it,  turn 
 their  heads  sometimes  on  one  side,  and 
 sometimes  on  the  other,  pronouncing  the 
 word  Niim  or  Eynam^oh\y,  which  signifies 
 yes  or  yes  verily,  by  which  they  express 
 "their  assent  to  what  they  read.  They 
 have  so  great  a  veneration  for  their  bishops, 
 that  they  often  prostrate  themselves  before 
 them. 
 
 As  to  the  particular  tenets  of  the  Ma- 
 ronites,  before  their  adhesion  to  the  Church 
 of  Rome,  it  is  said,  they  denied  the  pro- 
 cession of  the  Holy  Ghost,  observed 
 Saturday  as  well  as  the  Lord's  day,  con- 
 demned fourth  marriages  as  unlawful; 
 held  that  all  souls  were  created  together, 
 and  that  those  of  good  men  do  not  enter 
 into  heaven  till  after  the  resurrection ;  that 
 they  administered  the  eucharist  to  children, 
 and  communicated  in  both  kinds. 
 
 In  1180,  the  Maro7iites  were  above 
 40,000  in  number,  and  very  valiant.  They 
 did  the  kings  of  Jerusalem  great  service 
 against  the  Saracens, 
 
 Besides  several  convents  of  Ifaronite 
 monks,  there  is  one  of  nuns,  who  are 
 highly  esteemed  for  their  sanctity.  This 
 edifice  is  no  more  than  a  church,  in  Avhich 
 the  nuns  are  shut  up  close,  like  pigeons  in 
 their  holes,  in  little  corners  or  cells,  which 
 are  so  low,  that  few  of  them  can  stand 
 upright,  or  turn  themselves  round  in  them. 
 MAKllIAGE.  (See  Matrimony.) 
 MAllTINMAS.  A  festival  formerly 
 kept  on  the  11th  of  November,  in  honour 
 of  St.  Martin,  bishop  of  Tours,  in  France, 
 who,  after  distinguishing  himself  by  de- 
 stroying the  heathen  altars  and  images  re- 
 maining in  his  day,  died  in  the  year  400, 
 having  been  bishop  about  twenty-six  years. 
 MAIlTYll.  One  who  lays  down  his 
 life,  or  suffers  death,  for  the  sake  of  reli- 
 gion. The  Avord  is  Greek,  and  properly 
 signifies  a  "witness."  It  is  applied,  by 
 way  of  eminence,  to  those  who  sufler  in 
 witness  of  the  truth  of  the  gospel. 
 
 The  Christian  Church  has  abounded 
 with  martyrs,  and  history  is  filled  with 
 surprising  accounts  of  their  singular  con- 
 stancy and  fortitude  under  the  most  cruel 
 torments  human  nature  was  capable  of 
 sufi'ering.  The  primitive  Christians  were 
 falsely  accused  by  their  enemies  of  paying 
 a  sort  of  Divine  worship  to  mart>TS.  Of 
 this  we  have  an  instance  in  the  answer  of 
 the  Church  of  Smyrna  to  the  suggestion 
 of  the  Jews,  who,  at   the  martvrdom  of 
 
 Polycarp,  desired  the  heathen  judge  not 
 to  suffer  the  Christians  to  carry  off  his 
 body,  lest  they  should  leave  their  crucified 
 master,  and  worship  him  in  his  stead.  To 
 which  they  answered,  "  We  can  neither 
 forsake  Christ,  nor  worship  any  other: 
 for  w'e  worship  him  as  the  Son  of  GoD, 
 but  love  the  martyrs  as  the  disciples  and 
 followers  of  the  Lord,  for  the  great  afi"ec- 
 tion  they  have  shown  to  their  King  and 
 Master."  A  like  answer  was  given  at  the 
 martyrdom  of  Fructuosus,  in  Spain ;  for 
 when  the  judge  asked  Eulogius,  his  deacon, 
 whether  he  would  hot  worship  Fructuosus, 
 as  thinking  that,  though  he  refused  to 
 worship  heathen  idols,  he  might  yet  be 
 inclined  to  worship  a  Christian  martyr, 
 Eulogius  replied,  "  I  do  not  worship  Fruc- 
 tuosus, but  him  whom  Fructuosus  wor- 
 ships." 
 
 The  first  martyr  in  the  Christian  Church 
 was  St.  Stephen.  His  memory  is  cele- 
 brated on  the  day  wdiich  bears  his  name. 
 In  the  collect  for  that  day,  he  is  expressly 
 named  the  "first  MartjT  St.  Stephen," 
 and  we  are  there  taught  to  pray  God,  that 
 we  may  "  learn  to  love  and  bless  our  per- 
 secutors, by  following  this  blessed  martyr's 
 example."  The  Church  loves  to  dwell  on 
 the  memory  of  those  who  have  yielded  up 
 even  their  lives  in  a  faithful  attachment  to 
 their  Redeemer,  and  who,  from  the  midst 
 of  the  fires,  could  rejoice  in  God,  and 
 trust  in  his  grace.  In  that  beautiful  hymn, 
 the  'Te  Deiim,  their  memory  is  celebrated 
 in  the  words, — "  The  noble  army  of  mar- 
 tyrs i^raise  thee."  And  well  may  they  be 
 counted  "  an  army^''  v.'hether  we  consider 
 their  numbers  or  their  valour ;  and  a 
 "  nohle  army,"  because,  as  true  soldiers  of 
 Christ,  these  have  fought  against  sin  with 
 their  lives  in  their  hands,  and,  in  the  apos- 
 tolic phrase,  "  have  resisted  unto  blood." 
 
 The  Church  of  England  can  boast  of  the 
 only  royal  martjT.  Our  glorious  martyr, 
 King  Charles  L,  having  been  dethroned  by 
 the  Presbyterians,  was  murdered  by  the 
 Independents. — Broiujhton. 
 
 MARTYRDOM.  '  The  death  of  a 
 martyr. 
 
 The  same  name  is  sometimes  given  to  a 
 church  erected  over  the  spot  wdiere  a  mar- 
 tyr has  suffered. 
 
 '  MARTYROLOGY,  in  the  Church  of 
 Rome,  is  a  catalogue  or  list  of  martyrs, 
 including  the  history  of  their  lives  and 
 suff'erings  for  the  sake  of  religion. 
 
 The  Martyroloyies  draw  their  materials 
 from  the  calendars  of  particular  churches, 
 in  which  the  several  festivals,  dedicated  to 
 them,  are  marked.  They  seem  to  be  de- 
 rived from  the  practice  of  the  ancient  Ro- 
 
MARTYROLOGY. 
 
 MASS. 
 
 479 
 
 mans,  who  inserted  the  names  of  heroes 
 and  great  men  in  their  Fasti,  or  i)uhlic 
 registers. 
 
 The  Marty roJogies  are  very  numerous. 
 Those  ascribed  to  Eusebius  and  St.  Jerome 
 are  reckoned  s])urious.  Bede  is  the  first 
 who,  in  the  eighth  century,  composed  two 
 Martyrologies,  one  in  prose,  and  the  other 
 in  verse.  Florus,  the  deacon  of  Lyons,  in 
 the  ninth  century,  enhirged  Bede's  "  Mar- 
 ty rology,"  and  put  it  ahnost  in  tlie  con- 
 dition it  is  at  present.  Vaklelbertus,  a 
 monk  of  the  diocese  of  Treves,  in  the  same 
 century,  wrote  a  martyrology  in  verse, 
 extracted  from  Bede  and  Florus,  and  now 
 extant  in  IJacherius's  Spicile(/.mm.  About 
 the  same  time,  Rabanus  Maurus,  arch- 
 bishop of  ]Mentz,  drcAV  up  a  martyrology, 
 ])ublished  by  Canisius,  in  his  Antiquce  Lec- 
 tio)ics.  After  these.  Ado,  archbishop  of 
 Vienne,  compiled  a  new  Martyrology,  while 
 he  was  travelling  in  Italy,  where,  in  a 
 journey  from  Rome  to  llavcnna,  A.  u.  857, 
 he  saw  a  manuscript  of  an  ancient  martyr- 
 ology, which  had  been  brought  thither 
 from  Aquileia. 
 
 In  the  year  870,  Usuardus,  a  monk  of 
 St.  Germain  des  Pres,  drew  up  a  much 
 larger  and  more  correct  martyrology  than 
 those  above  mentioned.  This  performance 
 was  well  received,  and  began  to  be  made 
 use  of  in  the  offices  of  the  ^\'^estern  Church. 
 About  the  beginning  of  the  next  century, 
 Notkerus,  a  monk  of  Switzerland,  di'ew  up 
 another  martyrology  from  Ado's  materials. 
 This  martyrology,  published  by  Canisius, 
 had  not  the  same  success  wath  that  of 
 Usuardus.  The  churches  and  monasteries, 
 which  used  this  last,  made  a  great  many 
 additions  and  alterations  in  it.  This  gave 
 rise  to  a  vast  number  of  different  martyr- 
 ologies during  the  six  following  centuries. 
 
 The  moderns,  at  last,  desirous  to  rectify 
 the  en'ors  and  defects  of  the  old  martyr- 
 ologies, compiled  new  ones.  Augustinus 
 Belinus,  of  Padua,  began  this  reform  in 
 the  fifteenth  century.  After  him,  Francis 
 Maruli  or  Maurolycus,  abbot  of  Messina, 
 in  Sicily,  drew  up  a  martyrology,  in  which 
 he  has  entirely  changed  Usuardus's  text. 
 John  Vander  Meulen,  known  by  the  name 
 of  Molanus,  a  doctor  of  Louvain,  restored 
 it,  with  alterations  and  very  learned  notes. 
 About  the  same  time,  Galesinus,  apostolic 
 prothonotary,  drew  up  a  martyrology,  and 
 dedicated  it  \o  Gregory  XIII. ;  but  this  was 
 not  approved  at  Home.  Baronius's  "  Mar- 
 tyrology," written  some  time  after,  with 
 notes,  was  better  received,  being  approved 
 by  Pope  Sixtus  Quintus,  and  has  since 
 passed  for  the  modern  martyrology  of  the 
 Roman  Church.     It  has  been  several  times  I 
 
 corrected,  and  was  translated  into  French 
 by  the  Abbot  Chatlain,  canon  of  Notre 
 Dame  at  Paris,  with  notes,  in  the  year 
 1701). 
 
 Tliere  are  very  ridiculous  and  even  con- 
 tradictory narratives,  in  these  several 
 martyrologies;  which  is  e?sily  accounted 
 for,  if  we  consider  how  many'forged  and 
 spurious  accounts  of  the  lives  of  saints 
 and  martyrs,  from  whence  the  martyr- 
 ologies were  compiled,  appeared  in  the  first 
 ages  of  the  Church  ;  and  which  tlie  legend- 
 ary writers  of  those  times  adoi)ted  without 
 examining  into  the  truth  of  them.  Those 
 of  later  ages,  who  have  written  the  lives 
 of  saints  and  martyrs,  either  through  pre- 
 possession, or  want  of  courage  to  contra- 
 dict received  opinions,  have  made  use  of  a 
 great  part  of  this  fabulous  stuff,  and  passed 
 it  off  for  genuine  history.  HoAvever,  some 
 good  critics  of  late  years  have  gone  a 
 great  way  towards  clearing  the  lives  of  the 
 saints  and  martjTS  from  the  monstrous 
 heap  of  fiction  they  laboured  under.  Of 
 this  number  are  M.  de  I.aunoy,  of  Paris, 
 M.  Baillot,  in  his  ''  laves  of  the  Saints," 
 ^I.  le  Nain  de  Tillemont,  and  others. — 
 BroiKjhton. 
 
 INIARY.  (See  Virgin  Mary  and  3Iari- 
 olatry.) 
 
 ^  MASORA.  A  term  in  Jewish  theology, 
 signifying  tradition.  It  includes  notes  of 
 all  the  variations  of  words,  letters,  and 
 points  which  occur  in  the  Hebrew  Scrip- 
 tures ;  an  enumeration  of  all  the  letters, 
 8zc. ;  in  short,  the  minutest  points  of  ver- 
 bal criticism,  and  pretends  to  an  immacu- 
 late accuracy.  The  authors  of  it  are  un- 
 known. Some  attribute  it  to  ]\Ioses ; 
 others  to  Ezra;  others  to  the  Masorites  of 
 Tiberias.  The  probability  is,  according  to 
 Bishop  AValton,  that  the  Masora  was  be- 
 gun about  the  time  of  the  Maccabees,  and 
 was  continued  for  many  ages. — See  Bishop 
 lFalto)i's  Prolegomejia  to  his  Polyglott 
 Bible. 
 
 MASORITES.  A  society  of  learned 
 Jews,  who  had  a  school  or  coDege  at  Ti- 
 berias. They  paid  great  attention  to  the 
 critical  study  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  ; 
 and  to  them  by  many  able  scholars,  as 
 "Walton,  Capellus,  &c.,  is  attributed  the 
 invention  of  the  vowel  points  now  used  for 
 the  guidance  of  the  pronunciation  in  read- 
 ing Hebrew. 
 
 MASS.  In  Latin,  3Iissa.  This  word  at 
 first  imported  nothing  more  than  the  dis- 
 missal of  a  Church  assembly.  By  degrees 
 it  came  to  be  used  for  an  assembly  and 
 for  Church  service;  and  from  signifying 
 Church  service  in  general,  it  came  at 
 length  to  denote  the  Communion  Service 
 
480 
 
 MASS. 
 
 in  particular,  and  so  that  most  emphati- 
 cally came  to  be  called  Mass.  Since  the 
 lleformation,  the  word  has  been  f^enerally 
 confined  to  express  the  form  of  celebrating- 
 the  holy  communion  in  the  Ilomish  Church. 
 But  in  the  First  Book  of  King  lulwardVI., 
 the  Communion  Service  is  thus  headed: 
 "  The  Supper  of  the  Lord,  and  the  Holy 
 Communion,  commonly  called  the  ]Mass." 
 
 Formerly  there  Avas  the  inissa  catechu- 
 menurum  and  the  missa  Jidelium,  not  be- 
 cause they  had  two  kinds  of  communion, 
 but  because  the  primitive  Christians  dis- 
 missed their  congregations  at  different 
 times,  first  sending  away  the  heathens  and 
 heretics,  then  the  catechumens  and  public 
 penitents,  after  having  prayed  ;  the  faith- 
 ful alone  being  suffered  to  remain  during 
 the  celebration  of  the  holy  communion. 
 The  practice  of  the  modern  Komish  Church 
 contrasts  strikingly  with  this  :  they  not 
 only  allow  catechumens  to  be  present  at 
 their  missa  JklcUum,  but  also  heretics  and 
 unbelievers,  and  make  a  profit  by  the  ex- 
 hibition :  in  this  again  the  English  Church 
 more  nearly  resembles  the  primitive 
 Church,  retaining  her  sensitive  seclusion 
 during  the  solemn  service. 
 
 The  mass,  almost  universally  adopted  in 
 the  churches  of  the  Ivoman  obedience,  is 
 contained  in  the  Roman  Missal,  and  a  de- 
 scription of  this  will  be  now  presented  to 
 the  reader.  Unless  in  very  particular  cir- 
 cumstances, such  as  times  of  persecution, 
 &c.,  mass  is  not  said  anyAvhere  bvit  in  a 
 church,  or  place  set  aside  for  public  wor- 
 ship. It  can  be  said  only  from  morning 
 dawn  till  mid-day,  at  least  in  ordinary 
 cases,  as  at  Christmas,  &c.  The  priest 
 who  says  it  must  be  fasting  from  the  mid- 
 night before,  "  out  of  respect  for  the  vic- 
 tim of  which  he  is  to  partake ;"  and,  in 
 general,  no  priest  can  say  more  than  one 
 mass  on  one  day.  AMien  the  priest  offici- 
 ates, he  is  attu-ed  in  sacred  vestments, 
 Avhich  are  understood  "  to  represent  those 
 with  Avhich  CiiRlST  Avas  clothed  in  the 
 course  of  his  bitter  passion ;"  and  also  to 
 be  the  emblems  of  those  virtues  Avith  Avhich 
 the  soul  of  a  priest  ought  to  be  adorned. 
 These  garments  are  intended  to  hide  the 
 littleness  of  man ;  to  make  him  forget  him- 
 self Avhile  clothed  in  the  robes  of  a  supe- 
 rior character ;  to  gain  the  respect  of  the 
 people,  AA'ho  no  longer  consider  on  that 
 occasion  Avhat  he  is,  as  a  man,  but  lose 
 sight  of  the  individual,  Avho  is  lost  in  the 
 character  of  Jesus  Christ,  Avhich  he  re- 
 presents. Mass  is  never  said  except  on  an 
 altar,  fixed  or  portable,  set  aside  for  that 
 particular  purpose  by  the  solemn  pra}er 
 and  benediction  of  a  bishop.     The  altar 
 
 is  ahvays  covered  Avith  linen  cloths,  and 
 generally  contains  relics  of  saints.  As  the 
 mass  is  commemorative  of  our  Saviour's 
 passion  and  death  upon  the  cross  ;  to  put 
 the  priest  and  people  in  mind  of  these, 
 there  is  ahvays  an  image  of  Christ  cru- 
 cified upon  the  altar.  There  are  also  tAvo 
 or  more  lighted  candles,  as  tokens  of  joy, 
 "  and  to  denote  the  light  of  faith."  In 
 solemn  masses  incense  is  used,  as  an  em- 
 blem of  prayer  ascending  to  God,  as  the 
 smoke  ascends  from  the  censer.  Incense 
 is  also  used  as  a  token  of  honour  to  the 
 thing  incensed.  Masses  are  divided  into 
 solemn  or  high  mass,  and  plain  or  low 
 mass ;  mass  sung,  or  said  ;  public  mass,  or 
 private  mass.  A  solemn  mass,  is  mass  of- 
 fered up  with  all  the  due  solemnities,  by 
 the  bishop  or  priest,  attended  by  a  deacon, 
 sub-deacon,  and  other  ministers,  each  offi- 
 ciating in  his  part.  Such  a  mass  is  ahvays 
 sung ;  and  hence  a  choir  of  singers  accom- 
 panies it,  with  an  organ,  if  possible ;  and, 
 at  times,  other  instrumental  music.  Mass, 
 Avhen  divested  of  all  these  solemnities,  and 
 in  Avhich  only  the  priest  officiates,  is  a 
 plain  or  hw  mass.  The  priest,  hoAvever, 
 may  either  sing  the  mass,  attended  by  the 
 choir,  or  say  it.  Hence  the  difference  be- 
 tAveen  mass  sang  and  said.  INIass  may 
 be  attended  by  a  croAvd  of  people,  or  it 
 may  be  said  Avith  fcAV  or  none  present,  ex- 
 cept the  clerk,  to  attend  the  officiating 
 priest.  When  the  mass  is  numerously  at- 
 tended, all,  or  many,  of  those  present  may 
 partake  of  the  sacrifice,  by  communion,  or 
 none  may  communicate  Avith  the  priest. 
 These  differences  make  the  mass  jmblic  or 
 ju'ivate,  and  it  is  admitted  that  private 
 masses  have  become  more  common  in  latter 
 ages.  The  priest  Avho  is  to  celebrate,  after 
 some  time  previously  spent  in  prayer  and 
 meditation,  by  way  of  preparation  for  the 
 solemn  mystery,  as  Avell  to  recollect  his 
 thoughts,  as  to  specify  the  intention  Avith 
 Avhich  he  offers  up  the  mass,  whether  it  be 
 for  any  individual,  living  or  dead,  for  the 
 Avhole  Church,  for  himself,  or  for  the  ne- 
 cessities of  the  congregation  present,  pro- 
 ceeds, Avith  the  deacon,  sub-deacon,  and 
 other  ministers,  to  put  on  the  sacred  vest- 
 ment. He  then  goes  in  procession  Avith 
 them  from  the  vestry  to  the  altar,  the 
 acolytes  carrying  incense  and  lights,  Avhile 
 the  choir  sing  the  anthem  and  psalm, 
 Avhich,  for  this  reason,  is  called  the  introif. 
 The  priest,  being  come  before  the  altar, 
 stops  at  the  foot  of  it,  boAvs,  confesses 
 generally  to  the  Almighty  God,  and  to  all 
 the  saints,  that  he  has  sinned  most  griev- 
 ously, and  that  in  every  w^ay,  both  by 
 thoughts,  words,  and  deeds,  and  through 
 
MASS. 
 
 481 
 
 his  own  most  o^nevous  fault.  This  beiiii^ 
 the  case,  he  bcf^s  all  the  saints  of  heaven, 
 whom  he  has  called  as  the  witnesses  of  his 
 sins,  to  be  also  intercessors  for  his  pardon, 
 and  to  pray  to  the  Loud  our  God  for  him. 
 The  minister  and  assistants  then,  in  like 
 manner,  on  behalf  of  the  peo})le,  repeat 
 the  same  confession  after  the  ])riest,  ac- 
 knowledojinp^  that  they  are  altogether  an 
 assembly  of  sinners,  who  have  come  to 
 implore  the  Divine  mercy,  because  they 
 stand  in  need  of  it.  This  confession  is  to 
 beg  of  God  pardon  for  daily  and  unknown 
 faults,  that  the  awful  mystery  may  be  cele- 
 brated with  all  imaginable  purity.  For 
 the  same  reason  Kyrie  elcison,  C/iriste  elei- 
 son,  are  several  times  repeated ;  being  ad- 
 di-essed  three  times  to  God  the  Father, 
 as  our  creator,  as  our  protector,  and  as  our 
 parent :  thrice  to  God  the  Son,  as  our 
 high  priest,  as  our  victim  of  atonement,  and 
 as  our  brother ;  and,  lastly,  to  the  Holy 
 Ghost,  as  the  author  of  grace,  the  in- 
 spii'er  of  prayer,  and  the  sanctifier  of  our 
 souls.  This  being  finished,  the  priest, 
 without  moving  from  his  place,  begins  the 
 Gloria  in  excchis,  which  is  called  the 
 Hymn  of  the  Angels,  because  the  first 
 words  of  it  were  sung  by  the  angels  at  our 
 Saviour's  birth.  As  this  is  a  canticle 
 of  joy  and  gladness,  the  Church,  when 
 in  mourning,  in  Lent,  in  Advent,  and  in 
 masses  for  the  dead,  forbids  the  use  of  this 
 hymn,  even  in  the  time  of  mass,  because 
 the  minds  of  the  congregation  should  then 
 be  wholly  occupied  with  afi"ections  of  grief, 
 melancholy,  or  sorrow,  for  our  Saviour's 
 passion,  for  our  own  sins,  or  the  sufferings 
 of  the  souls  for  whom  she  is  praying.  The 
 Gloria  being  ended,  the  priest,  kissing  the 
 altar,  and  turning  towards  the  people  with 
 extended  arms,  salutes  them  in  these  words : 
 "  Dominus  vohiscum"  "The  Lord  be  with 
 you."  The  people  answer,  by  applying  the 
 same  earnest  wish  to  him,  saying,  "And 
 with  thy  spirit."  The  arms  are  extended, 
 and  then  closed,  to  express,  by  that  ges- 
 ture, the  affection  with  which  he  embraces 
 his  flock.  The  priest  then  goes  up  to  the 
 altar  ;  bows  down  in  the  posture  of  humili- 
 ation ;  kisses  it  with  respect ;  makes  men- 
 tion of  the  saint  whose  relics  are  there ; 
 incenses  it ;  and  having  saluted  the  people, 
 immediately  turns  to  the  book,  and  reads 
 the  prayer  of  the  day.  On  great  festivals 
 there  is  only  one  ])rayer,  which  has  always 
 reference  to  the  solemnity  then  celebrating. 
 Thus,  at  Easter,  allusion  is  made  to  the 
 resurrection  of  our  Saviour;  at  Christ- 
 mas, to  his  nativity;  in  masses  for  the 
 dead,  mention  is  made  of  the  souls  prayed 
 for ;  and  on  the  feasts  of  saints,  we  com- 
 2  I 
 
 memorate  the  particular  virtues  for  which 
 they  were  each  distinguished.  In  Lent, 
 and  penitentiary  times,  there  are  other 
 prayers  beside  that  of  the  day,  still  bear- 
 ing some  allusion  to  the  circumstances  of 
 the  times.  The  sub-deacon  then  sings  (or, 
 in  low  masses,  the  ])riest  himself  reads)  a 
 lesson  of  the  Old  or  Ncav  Testament,  called 
 the  Epistle,  because  commonly  taken  from 
 the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul,  or  of  the  other 
 apostles.  This  is  followed  by  the  singing 
 of  Alleluias,  or  some  verses  of  the  Psalms, 
 called  the  Gradual  or  Tract. 
 
 In  Lent,  and  penitential  times,  instead 
 of  these  expressions  of  joy,  strains  of  the 
 deepest  compunction  and  regret  only  are 
 used.  These  being  concluded,  the  book  is 
 removed  to  the  other  side  of  the  altar, 
 when  all  the  people  rise  up,  to  show,  by 
 their  postures  of  standing,  their  eagerness 
 to  hear  the  gospel ;  the  priest  also,  as  he 
 passes  from  one  side  of  the  altar  to  the 
 other,  bows  down  in  the  middle,  and  the 
 deacon  prays  on  his  knees  that  God  would 
 make  him  worthy  to  announce  the  gospel ; 
 and,  after  having  received  the  priest's  bless- 
 ing, proceeds  to  the  place  appointed  for 
 the  solemn  recitation  of  it  accompanied  by 
 the  acolytes,  with  lights  and  incense.  As 
 soon  as  the  book  of  the  Gospel  appears,  all 
 rise  up,  and  continue  standing  while  it  is 
 read,  to  show  their  readiness  to  perform 
 what  is  there  taught.  In  naming  the 
 evangelist  from  which  the  Gospel  is  taken, 
 the  reader  signs  the  cross  upon  his  fore- 
 head, his  mouth,  and  his  breast.  On  his 
 forehead,  to  shoAV  that  he  is  not  ashamed 
 of  Christ's  doctrine ;  on  his  mouth,  to 
 show  his  readiness  to  proclaim  it  to  others  ; 
 and  on  his  breast,  to  show  that  he  enter- 
 tains a  sincere  afiection  for  it  in  his  heart. 
 When  the  Gospel  is  finished,  the  book  is 
 conveyed  to  the  priest,  Avho  kisses  it  as  a 
 token  of  respect.  After  the  Gospel,  foUoM's 
 the  Nicene  Creed,  which  is  immediately 
 recited  at  the  altar,  while  it  is  sung  by  the 
 choir ;  it  is  omitted  on  some  days,  parti- 
 cularly in  masses  for  the  dead.  In  low 
 masses,  the  priest  himself  reads  the  Gospel. 
 At  this  part  of  the  mass,  in  parish  churches, 
 and  sometimes  in  other  places,  a  discourse, 
 or  exhortation,  drawn  from  the  Gospel,  is 
 delivered  to  the  people.  Here  ends  the 
 first  part  of  the  mass. 
 
 The  second  part  commences  by  the  priest, 
 from  the  altar,  again  saluting  the  people, 
 and  then  making  an  oblation  to  (ioD,  of 
 bread  and  wine,  wliich  are  the  matters  of 
 the  sacrifice.  The  wine  is  first  mixed  with 
 a  little  water,  to  re])resent  the  Avater  which 
 flowed,  with  blood,  from  the  side  of  Christ, 
 — to  signify  the  union  of  the  Divine  and 
 
482 
 
 MASS. 
 
 human  nature  in  him,  and  of  the  faithful 
 with  Jesus  Christ.     Being  now  about  to 
 bless  these  offering's,  the  priest  bows  down 
 his  head,  in  a  spirit  of  humility,  then  lifts 
 up  his  hands  to  heaven,  whence  every  bless- 
 ing must  come,  and  makes  the  sign  of  the 
 cross  upon  the  oficrings,  and  says,  "  Come, 
 thou   Sanctifier,    and   bless   this  sacrifice, 
 which  is  prepared  for  thy  holy  name."    The 
 ])riest,  in  high  masses,  then  incenses  the 
 oblation.     After  this  he  proceeds  to  receive 
 the  offerings  of  the  people,  where  the  cus- 
 tom of  receiving  offerings  from  them  pre- 
 vails :  the  priest  then  proceeds  to  wash  his 
 hands,  begging  of  God  the  necessary  purity. 
 In  this  ceremony,  the  priest  only  washes 
 the  tips  of  his  fingers,  not  his  whole  hands, 
 to  signify,  that  the  purity  with  which  he 
 ought  to  approach  the  altar  should  be  not 
 only  from  larger  and  mortal  sins,  but  even 
 from  the  most  trivial  offences  or  affections 
 to  sin,  which  are  properly  enough  repre- 
 sented by  the  extremities  of  the  fingers  ; 
 then,   turning    about,   the    priest   recom- 
 mends himself  to  the  prayers  of  the  people. 
 This  is  the  last  time  that  the  priest  turns 
 to  the  people,  till  the  sacrifice  is  accom- 
 plished,   and    the    communion    received. 
 The  reason  of  this  is,  that  he  is  now  enter- 
 ing upon  the  most  solemn  part  of  the  mass, 
 which  requires  his  utmost  attention,  which 
 must  not,  henceforward,  be  distracted  by 
 turning   away  from  the  object ;  nor  does 
 the  priest  turn  his  back  towards  the  altar, 
 during  the  presence  of  the  sacrament  upon 
 it,  lest  he  might  appear  to  act  irreverently. 
 After  this  follows  the  Secret,  being  one  or 
 more  prayers,  always  said  in  silence,  cor- 
 responding to  the  collect  of  the  day,  and 
 which  immediately  precedes  the  preface, 
 by  which  the  second  part  of  the  mass  ends, 
 and  the  third  begins.     At  this  time  is  also 
 rung  a  little  bell,  to  give  notice  to  all  the 
 people,  that  the  priest  is  now  reciting  the 
 Holy  Canticle.     It   is   usual  also  for  the 
 people,  at  this  part  of  the  mass,  to  bow 
 down  their  heads  and  their  breasts.     With 
 hearts  thus   prepared,  and   minds   raised 
 above  earthly  things,  the  priest,  the  min- 
 isters, and  people,  proceed   to  attend  to 
 the  most  awful  part  of  the   mass,  in  the 
 Canon  or  rule  for  consecrating  the  eucha- 
 rist,  which   is   never  materially  changed, 
 whatever  be  the  office.     It  is  said  by  the 
 priest  in  a  low  voice,  to  express  the  silence 
 of  Christ  in  his  passion,  and  that  all  may 
 be  impressed  with  reverence  and  awe  for 
 the  sacred  mysteries.     It  consists  of  five 
 prayers.     In  the  first,  the  priest  prays  for 
 all   the    Church ;    and  by   name,    for  the 
 pope,  and  the  bishop  of  the  diocese ;  for 
 those    whom   he    desires    particularly   to 
 
 recommend,  for   all   the   assistants,   their 
 families,  &c.     He  makes  mention  of  the 
 Blessed  Virgin,   the   apostles,    and   some 
 martyrs,  in  order  to  express  the  union  be- 
 tween the  Church   militant  and  triumph- 
 ant, and  to  obtain  the  assistance  of  their 
 prayers.     Then    he    stretches    his    hands 
 over  the  oblation,  begging  that  it  may  be- 
 come acceptable  to  God,  by  becoming  the 
 body  and  blood  of  Jesus  Christ.     The 
 third  prayer  contains  the  history  of  the 
 institution  and  the  consecration  of  the  ele- 
 ments,  by  the    priest's   pronouncing  the 
 words  of  Jesus  Christ  himself.     AVe  have 
 already  seen  that  the  essence  of  the  sacri- 
 fice is  contained  in  the  consecration.     As 
 soon  as  the  words  of  the  consecration  are 
 pronounced,   the   priest   kneels  down    to 
 adore  Jesus  Christ  present ;  and  imme- 
 diately elevates  first  the  host,  and  then 
 the  chalice,  in  memory  of  Christ's  being 
 raised  upon  the  cross,  and  that  the  people 
 also  may  adore  him.     Having  laid  these 
 down  on  the  altar,  the  priest  kneels  again, 
 and  bows  his  head  in  a  second  act  of  ador- 
 ation.    During  this  ceremony,  the  server 
 tinkles  a  little  bell,  to  awaken  the  atten- 
 tion of  the  congregation.     In  the  mean 
 time,  the  people  also  bow  down  their  heads, 
 being  already  upon  their  knees,  and  strike 
 their  breasts.     He  then  continues  the  third 
 prayer,  making  a  commemoration  of  the 
 passion,  resurrection,  and  ascension  of  Je- 
 sus Christ,  and  beseeching  God  that  he 
 would  vouchsafe  to  receive  the  sacrifice 
 favourably,  as  he  did  those  of  Abel,  Abra- 
 ham, and  Melchisedech,  which  were  figures 
 of  it;  and  that  those  who  partake  of  it 
 may  be  replenished  with  every  heavenly 
 blessing.     The   attitude    of  the  priest  is 
 changed  when  he  comes  to  this  part.     Hi- 
 therto he  has  recited  the  prayers  of  the 
 canon  in  an  erect  posture,  with  his  hands 
 mostly  lifted  up  to  heaven  ;  but  now  he 
 joins  his  hands  before  his  breast,  and  bows 
 down  his  head  to  the  lowest  degree  that 
 the  altar  will  admit.     In  this  posture  of 
 prostrate  humility,  he  recites  the  prayer, 
 till,  towards  the  conclusion,  he  kisses  the 
 altar,  and  resumes  his  former  upright  pos- 
 ture.    In  the  fourth  prayer,  the  priest  re- 
 commends to  God  the  faithful  departed  in 
 general,  and  those  in  particular  for  whom 
 he  intends  to  pray.  "  Be  mindful,  O  LoRD, 
 of  thy  servants,  men  and  women,  who  are 
 gone  before  us  in  the  sign  of  faith,  and 
 have  rested  in  the  sleep  of  peace."     Hav- 
 ing said  these  words,  the  priest,  joining  his 
 hands  before  his  breast,  prays  a  few  mo- 
 ments for  them,  and  mentions  any  names 
 of  persons  for  whom  he  particularly  wishes 
 to  pray,  or  offer  up  the  mass.     Then,  ex- 
 
MASS. 
 
 tending  his  hands  again,  he  conchides  his 
 prayer  in  these  words  :  "  To  these,  O  Lord, 
 and  to  all  the  rest  in  Christ,  grant,  -sve 
 beseech  thee,  a  place  of  refreshment,  light, 
 and  peace."  In  the  lifth,  he  mentions 
 several  saints,  and  beating  his  breast,  begs 
 that  we  sinners  may  have  some  part  of 
 their  glory,  through  the  mercy  of  God. 
 In  fine,  he  lifts  the  host  over  the  chalice, 
 honouring  the  Blessed  Trinity,  acknow- 
 ledging the  Divine  goodness  to  us  through 
 Jesus  Christ,  and,  through  him,  offering 
 it  all  honour  and  glory.  During  the  eleva- 
 tion, all  the  ministers  kneel  in  profound 
 adoration,  and  either  themselves  hold  ta- 
 pers, or  others  are  introduced  bearing 
 lighted  torches.  Thus  finishes  the  third 
 part  of  the  mass. 
 
 The  fourth  part  begins  by  the  priest's 
 breaking  the  long  silence  he  has  observed 
 since  the  preface,  by  chanting,  or  reciting 
 aloud,  the  Lord's  Prayer,  which  is  followed 
 up  by  a  prayer  for  deliverance  from  evil, 
 and  for  peace  in  our  days.  At  the  con- 
 clusion of  this  prayer,  the  priest  kneels 
 down  to  adore  the  Blessed  Sacrament ;  he 
 then  breaks  the  host  into  three  pieces,  to 
 imitate  that  done  by  Jesus  Christ  him- 
 self, at  the  last  supper,  and  in  remem- 
 brance of  his  body  being  broken  on  the 
 cross  :  one  of  the  parts  he  drops  into  the 
 chalice,  to  signify  that  the  body  and  blood 
 of  Christ  are  but  one  sacrament :  he  then 
 once  more  begs  for  peace,  concord,  and 
 charity,  in  order  to  approach  the  spotless 
 Lamb.  For  a  token  of  this  peace,  in  so- 
 lemn masses,  the  clergy  embrace  each 
 other.  After  this  follow  three  prayers,  by 
 way  of  preparation  for  receiving  Jesus 
 Christ.  The  priest,  after  striking  his 
 breast,  and  declaring  himself  unAvorthy, 
 proceeds  to  communicate  himself,  in  both 
 kinds,  in  order  to  consume  the  sacrifice, 
 and  then  administers  the  communion,  in 
 the  species  of  bread,  to  such  of  the  as- 
 sistants as  may  be  disposed  to  partake  of 
 the  sacrifice.  The  prayer  used  by  the 
 priest  is  repeated  three  times,  and  at  each 
 repetition  the  little  bell  tinkles,  to  excite 
 the  attention  of  the  congregation ;  and  as 
 a  signal  to  the  laity,  who  intend  to  com- 
 municate, to  approach  the  sacred  table. 
 Having  made  the  sign  of  the  cross,  the 
 priest  immediately  receives  the  commu- 
 nion, and,  Avith  his  hands  joined  before 
 him,  stands  for  a  little  v\hlle  in  deep  but 
 silent  meditation  upon  what  he  has  done. 
 The  priest  then  proceeds,  by  an  ablution, 
 first  of  wine,  and  then  of  water,  to  remove 
 from  the  chalice  and  his  own  fingers  all 
 remains  of  the  consecrated  elements.  The 
 mass  concludes  with  a  vcrsical  thanksgiv- 
 '2  1  2 
 
 ing  out  of  the  Scriptures,  and  some  prayers 
 for  the  same  purpose,  some  of  them  bear- 
 ing a  reference  to  the  office  of  the  day, 
 and  analogous  to  the  collect ;  after  which 
 the  priest,  or  deacon  in  high  masses,  gives 
 the  people  leave  to  depart.  The  priest 
 gives  them  his  blessing  previous  to  their 
 de})arture,  and  reads  the  first  part  of  St. 
 John's  Gospel,  which  bears  such  ample  tes- 
 timony to  the  Divinity  and  incarnation  of 
 the  Son  of  God,  as  well  as  his  goodness  in 
 regard  to  man.  This  constitutes  the  chief 
 part,  if  not  the  whole,  of  the  morning  ser- 
 vice of  the  Church :  and,  in  all  this,  the 
 congregation  in  general  appear  to  be  little 
 interested  or  concerned  ;  for  though  they 
 are  "  taught  to  assist  at  mass,  with  the 
 same  disposition  that  a  good  Christian 
 would  have  cherished  at  the  foot  of  the 
 cross,"  they  are  left  at  liberty  to  accom- 
 pany the  priest  through  the  different  parts, 
 according  to  the  directions  contained  in 
 their  manuals,  or  "  to  exercise  their  souls 
 in  other  corresponding  prayers  ;"  and  the 
 consequence  is,  that  many,  it  is  too  appa- 
 rent, do  neither  the  one  nor  the  other. 
 And  though  the  mass  is  thus  celebrated, 
 at  least  every  Lord's  day,  the  present  dis- 
 cipline of  the  Church  requires  her  mem- 
 bers to  communicate  only  once  a  year  ; 
 and  while  comparatively  few  receive  much 
 oftener,  many,  it  is  feared,  are  not  even 
 annual  communicants.  They  are,  indeed, 
 instructed,  "  when  they  do  not  communi- 
 cate .  in  reality,  to  do  so  in  spirit,  by  fer- 
 vent desires  of  being  made  worthy  to 
 partake  of  the  sacred  mysteries,  acknow- 
 ledging their  own  unworthiness,  and  beg- 
 ging of  God  a  share  of  those  graces,  which 
 the  sacrifice  and  sacrament  so  plentifully 
 contain." 
 
 In  Picart's  "  Religious  Ceremonies  "  we 
 have  the  following  explanation  of  the  mass, 
 and  its  attendant  mystical  ceremonies, 
 which  is  offered  to  the  reader  as  an  ex- 
 ample of  the  awful  departure  of  the  apos- 
 tate Church  from  the  spirituality  and  sim- 
 plicity of  the  Christian  faith  and  worship. 
 
 1.  The  priest  goes  to  the  altar  in  refer- 
 ence to  our  Lord's  retreat  with  his  apos- 
 tles to  the  garden  of  Olives.  2.  Before 
 he  begins  mass,  he  says  a  prei)aratory 
 prayer ;  he  is  there  to  look  upon  himself 
 as  one  abandoned  of  GoD,  and  cbiven  out 
 of  paradise  for  the  sin  of  Adam.  3.  The 
 priest  makes  confession  for  himself  and  for 
 the  people,  in  which  it  is  required  that  he 
 be  free  from  mortal  and  vernal  sin.  4. 
 The  priest  kisses  the  altar,  as  a  token  of 
 our  reconciliation  with  GoD,  and  our 
 Lord's  being  betrayed  with  a  kiss.  5. 
 The  priest  goes  to  the  opposite  side  of  the 
 
^84 
 
 MASS,  SACRIFICE  OF  THE 
 
 altar,  and  thurifies  or  perfumes  it  \vith  in- 
 cense. Jesus  Christ  is  now  supposed  to 
 be  taken  and  bound !  C.  The  introif  is 
 said  or  suufz;,  appHcable  to  the  circum- 
 stances of  our  Lord's  being  taken  before 
 Caiaphas.  7.  The  priest  says  the  "  Kyrie 
 eleiso7i,'"  ("  Lord,  have  mercy  upon  us,") 
 in  allusion  to  Peter's  denying  our  Lord 
 thrice.  8.  The  priest,  turning  towards  the 
 altar,  says,  ^'  Dominus  vobiscinn,^  the  people 
 returning  the  salutation  by  "Mcum  spiri- 
 tu  tuo,'"  and  this  means,  Christ  looking  at 
 Peter.  9.  The  priest  reads  the  Ejiistle  re- 
 lative to  Jesus  being  accused  before  Pilate. 
 10.  The  priest,  bowing  before  the  altar, 
 says  "  Munda  cor"  and  the  devotion  is  di- 
 rected to  our  Saviour's  being  brought 
 before  Pilate,  and  making  no  reply.  11. 
 The  priest  reads  the  Gospel  in  which  Jesus 
 Christ  is  sent  from  Herod  to  Pilate  ;  the 
 Gospel  is  carried  from  the  right  of  the  altar 
 to  the  left,  to  denote  the  tender  of  the 
 gospel  to  the  Gentiles,  after  the  refusal  of 
 the  Jews.  12.  The  priest  uncovers  the 
 chalice,  and  this  means  the  stripping  of 
 our  Lord  in  order  to  be  scourged.  13. 
 The  oblation  of  the  host ;  the  priest  then 
 kisses  the  altar  and  offers  up  the  host,  to 
 represent  the  scourging  of  Christ.  14. 
 The  priest  elevates  the  chalice  and  then 
 covers ;  this  means  the  crowning  with 
 thorns.  15.  The  priest  washes  his  fingers, 
 as  Pilate  washed  his  hands ;  declares  Jesus 
 innocent,  blesses  the  bread  and  wine,  blesses 
 the  frankincense,  and  perfumes  the  bread 
 and  wine. 
 
 Can  it  be  necessary  to  go  further  into 
 this  singular  detail  to  say,  "that  the  priest, 
 spreading  out  his  arms  on  the  altar,  is  the 
 representation  of  the  cross  ;  that  he  lifts 
 the  host,  to  express  the  lifting  of  our 
 Lord  ;  that  he  adores  (for  such  is  the 
 word,  and  the  inconceivable  fact)  the 
 wafer  that  he  holds  in  his  fingers  as  the 
 very  God  ;  that  he  then  mingles  another 
 adoration  with  this,  and  prays  to  the  Vir- 
 gin Mary  and  the  saints  for  their  media- 
 tion ;  that  he  breaks  the  wafer,  to  repre- 
 sent Christ's  giving  up  the  ghost ;  that  a 
 fragment  of  this  wafer  put  into  the  chalice 
 figures  our  Lord's  descent  into  hell;"  till 
 the  series  of  these  representations,  amount- 
 ing in  the  whole  to  thirty-five,  is  closed  by 
 a  benediction  representing  the  blessings 
 of  the  descent  of  the  Holy  Ghost. — 
 ODonoqhue. 
 
 MASS,  SACRIFICE  OF  THE.  The 
 following  is  the  Romish  doctrine  on  the 
 subject :  "  I  profess  likewise,  that  in  the 
 mass  there  is  off'ered  to  GoD  a  true,  pro- 
 per, and  propitiatory  sacrifice  for  the  liv- 
 ing and  the  dead:  and  that  in  the  most 
 
 holy  sacrament  of  the  eucharist  there  is 
 truly,  really,  and  substantially,  the  body 
 and  blood,  together  with  the  soul  and  Di- 
 vinity, of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  ;  and 
 that  there  is  made  a  conversion  of  the  whole 
 substance  of  the  bread  into  the  body,  and 
 of  the  whole  substance  of  the  wine  into 
 the  blood  :  which  conversion  the  Catholic 
 Church  calls  transubstantiation.  I  also 
 confess,  that,  under  either  kind  alone, 
 Christ  is  received  whole  and  entire,  and 
 a  true  sacrament." — Pixs^s  Creed.  "AVho- 
 soever  shall  say,  that,  in  the  holy  sacra- 
 ment of  the  eucharist,  the  substance  of 
 bread  and  Mine  remains  together  Avith  the 
 substance  of  the  body  and  blood  of  our 
 Lord  Jesus  Christ, "and  shall  deny  that 
 wonderful  and  singular  change  of  the 
 whole  substance  of  the  bread  into  the 
 body,  and  of  the  whole  substance  of  the 
 wine  into  the  blood,  the  species  of  bread 
 and  wine  still  remaining,  which  change 
 the  Catholic  Church  very  fitly  calls  tran- 
 substantiation, let  him  be  accursed." — 
 Con.  Trid.  Sess.  XIII.  Can.  2. 
 
 It  is,  moreover,  decreed,  "  that,  after  the 
 consecration  of  the  bread  and  wine,  the 
 true  God  and  man  is  truly,  really,  and 
 substantially  contained  under  the  appear- 
 ance of  the  sensible  elements." — Id.  c.  1. 
 So  that  "  the  bread  and  Avine  which  are 
 placed  on  the  altar  are,  after  consecration, 
 not  only' the  sacrament,  but  also  the  true 
 body  and  blood  of  our  Lord  Jesus 
 Christ  ;  and  are,  sensually,  not  only  in 
 sacrament,  but  in  truth,  handled  and 
 broken  by  the  hands  of  the  priests,  and 
 bruised  by  the  teeth  of  the  faithful." — 
 Con.  Rom.  apud  Pop.  Nichol.  I.  And  the 
 Fathers  of  the  second  Xicene  Council  pro- 
 nounced, "  that  the  eucharist  is  not  the 
 mere  image  of  Christ's  body  and  blood, 
 but  that  it  is  Christ's  body  and  blood, 
 their  own  literal  and  proper  physical 
 selves." — Lahhe,  Con.  vol.  vii.  p.  448.  "  Nor 
 in  this  is  there  any  repugnance ;  that 
 Christ,  according  to  his  natural  manner  of 
 existence,  should  always  remain  in  heaven, 
 at  the  right  hand  of  his  Father  ;  and 
 that,  at  the  same  time,  he  should  be  pre- 
 sent with  us,  in  many  places,  really  but 
 sacramentally." —  Con.  Trid.  XIII.  c.  1. 
 And  "  if  any  one  says,  that  a  true  and 
 proper  sacrifice  is  not  offered  up  to  God 
 at  the  mass,  or  that  to  be  offered  is  any- 
 thing else  than  Jesus  Christ  given  to 
 be  eaten,  let  him  be  anathema." — Id.  Sess. 
 XXII.  Can.  1.  "  And  if  any  one  says, 
 that  the  sacrifice  of  the  mass  is  only  a 
 sacrifice  of  praise  and  thanksgiving,  or  a 
 bare  memorial  of  the  sacrifice  Avhich  was 
 completed  upon   the  cross,  and  that  it  is 
 
MASS,  SACRIFICE  OF  THE. 
 
 485 
 
 not  propitiatory,  nor  profitable  to  any  but 
 him  that  receives  it,  and  that  it  oug^ht  not 
 to  be  offered  for  tlie  living  and  for  the 
 dead,  for  their  sins,  their  ])unishmeiits, 
 their  satisfactions,  and  their  other  neces- 
 sities, let  him  be  accursed."  "  For  the 
 holy  synod  teaches  that  this  sacrifice  is 
 truly  projntiatory,  and  that  by  it  the  sins 
 we  commit,  however  enormous  they  be, 
 are  remitted." — hi.  Can.  3.  It  was  decreed 
 by  the  Council  of  Constance,  '•  that,  where- 
 as in  several  parts  of  the  world,  some  have 
 presumed  rashly  to  assert,  that  all  Chris- 
 tians ought  to  receive  the  holy  sacrament 
 of  the  eucharist  under  both  species  of 
 bread  and  Avine,  and  that,  also,  after  sup- 
 per, or  not  fasting,  contrary  to  the  laudable 
 custom  of  the  Church,  justly  api)roved  of, 
 which  they  damnably  endeavour  to  repro- 
 bate as  sacrilegious.  Hence  it  is,  that  this 
 holy  general  Council  of  Constance,  assem- 
 bled by  the  Holy  Ghost  to  provide  for 
 the  salvation  of  the  faithful  against  this 
 error,  declares,  decrees,  and  defines,  that 
 although  Christ  did  after  supper  institute 
 this  holy  sacrament,  and  administered  it  to 
 his  disciples  in  both  kinds  of  bread  and 
 wine ;  yet  this,  notwithstanding  the  laud- 
 able authority  of  the  sacred  canons,  and 
 the  approved  custom  of  the  Church,  has 
 fixed,  and  doth  fix,  that  this  sacrament 
 ought  not  to  be  consecrated  after  supper, 
 nor  received  by  the  faitliful,  except  fasting. 
 And  as  this  custom,  for  the  purpose  of 
 avoiding  certain  dangers  and  scandals,  has 
 been  rationally  introduced,  and  that  al- 
 though this  sacrament  was  received  by  the 
 faithful  under  both  kinds  in  the  primitive 
 Church,  it  was  afterwards  received  under 
 both  kinds  by  the  oflliciating  priest  only, 
 and  by  the  people  under  the  species  of 
 bread  only,  it  being  believed  most  cer- 
 tainly, and  nothing  doubted,  that  the  en- 
 tire body  and  blood  of  Christ  are  really 
 contained  as  well  under  the  species  of 
 bread  as  of  wine  :  this,  therefore,  being 
 approved,  is  now  made  a  law.  Like- 
 wise this  holy  synod  decrees  and  declares, 
 as  to  this  matter,  to  the  reverend  fathers 
 in  Christ,  patriarchs,  lords,  &c.,  that  they 
 must  eficctually  punish  all  such  as  shall 
 transgress  this  decree,  or  shall  exhort  the 
 people  to  communicate  in  both  kinds." — 
 Cune.  Gen.  XII.  100. 
 
 "  The  holy  synod  (of  Trent)  following 
 the  judgment  of  the  Church,  (as  pro- 
 nounced at  Constance,)  and  its  usage,  de- 
 clares and  teaches,  that  neither  laity  nor 
 unofficiating  clergy  are  bound,  by  any 
 Divine  command,  to  receive  the  sacrament 
 of  the  eucharist  under  both  species ;  and 
 that  it  cannot  be  doubted,  without  a  breach 
 
 of  faith,  that  communion  in  cither  kind 
 suffices  for  them.  For  though  Christ,  at 
 his  last  su])per,  instituted  this  venerable 
 sacrament  under  the  forms  of  bread  and 
 wine,  and  then  delivered  it  to  his  apostles, 
 yet  that  institution,  and  that  delivering, 
 do  not  show  that  all  the  faithful,  by  the 
 command  of  Christ,  are  bound  to  receive 
 both  kinds."— /S't's.s.  XXI.  c.  1.  "  And 
 though,  in  the  earlier  ages,  the  use  of  both 
 kinds  was  not  unfrequent,  yet  the  practice, 
 in  process  of  time,  being  widely  changed, 
 the  Church,  for  weighty  and  just  reasons, 
 approved  the  change,  and  ])ronounced  it  to 
 be  a  law,  which  no  one,  without  the  au- 
 thority of  that  Church,  is  allowed  to  reject 
 or  alter." — Id.  c.  2.  "  It  must  be  ac- 
 knowledged, that  the  whole  and  entire 
 Christ,  and  the  true  sacrament,  are  taken 
 under  eitlier  kind  ;  and  therefore,  as  to 
 the  fruit,  that  they  who  thus  receive  are 
 deprived  of  no  necessary  grace." — Id.  c.  3. 
 *'  And  if  any  one  shall  say,  that  all  Chris- 
 tians ought,  by  God's  command,  or  for  the 
 sake  of  salvation,  to  receive  the  most  holy 
 sacrament  of  the  eucharist  in  both  kinds, 
 let  him  be  accursed." — Id. 
 
 By  the  oth  Canon,  c.  8,  Sess.  XXII.,  of 
 the  Council  of  Trent,  it  is  exj)ressly  de- 
 clared, that  "we  are  toofter  up  to  the  honour 
 of  saints  and  angels  the  sacrifice  of  the 
 mass,  in  order  to  obtain  their  patronage 
 and  intercession  with  God." 
 
 "  If  any  one  shall  deny  that  the  body 
 and  blood  of  Christ  is  really  and  substan- 
 tially contained,  together  with  his  very 
 soul  and  Divinity,  in  the  sacrament  of  the 
 eucharist,  let  him  be  accursed." — Cone. 
 Trid.  Sess.  XIII.  Can.  1.  Or,  "If  he 
 shall  say  that  there  yet  remains  any  sub- 
 stance of  the  bread  and  Avine  in  conjunc-^ 
 tion  with  the  body  and  blood  of  our  LoRD 
 Jesus  Christ,  and  that  the  conversion  is 
 not  real  and  total,  let  him  be  accursed. — 
 Id.  Can.  2.  "  If  any  man  shall  deny  that 
 Christ  is  entirely  contained  under  either 
 species,  and  in  every  individual  portion  of 
 that  species,"  {Id.  Can.  3,)  or  "  that  Christ 
 is  only  spiritually  eaten,  and  not  really  and 
 substantiallv,  lot  him  be  accursed." — Id. 
 Can.  9. 
 
 Bishop  Hall's  remarks  on  this  doctrine 
 arc  as  follows :—  It  sounds  not  more  pro- 
 digiously that  a  priest  should  every  day 
 make  his  God,  than  that  he  should  sacrifice 
 him. 
 
 Antiquity  would  have  as  much  abhorred 
 the  sense,  as  it  hath  allowed  the  word. 
 Nothing  is  more  ordinary  with  the  Fathers 
 than  to  call  God's  table  an  altar ;  the  holy 
 elements,  an  oblation ;  the  act  of  celebra- 
 tion, an  immolation ;  the  actor,  a  priest. 
 
486 
 
 MASS,  SACRIFICE  OF   THE. 
 
 St.  Chrpostom  reckons  ten  kinds  of 
 sacrifice ;  and  at  last,  as  liaving  forgotten 
 it,  adds  the  eleventh  :  all  ^vhich  we  well 
 allow.  And,  indeed,  many  sacrifices  are 
 offered  to  God  in  this  one  :  but  "  a  true, 
 proper,  propitiatory  sacrifice  for  quick  and 
 dead,"  which  the  Tridentine  Fathers  would 
 force  upon  our  belief,  would  have  seemed 
 no  less  strange  a  solecism  to  the  ears  of 
 the  ancients,  than  it  doth  to  ours. 
 
 St.  Augustine  calls  it  a  designation  of 
 Christ's  oflering  upon  the  cross  ;  St.  Chry- 
 sostom,  and  Theophylact  after  him,  a  re- 
 membrance of  his  sacrifice  ;  Emissenus,  a 
 daily  celebration  in  mystery  of  that  Avhich 
 was  once  offered  in  payment ;  and  Lombard 
 himself,  a  memorial  and  representation  of 
 the  true  sacrifice  upon  the  cross. 
 
 That  which  Cassander  cites  from  St. 
 Ambrose  or  Chrysostom  may  be  instead  of 
 all.  "  In  Christ,  is  the  sacrifice  once  of- 
 fered, able  to  give  salvation.  What  do  we, 
 therefore?  Do  we  not  offer  every  day? 
 Surely,  if  we  offer  daily,  it  is  done  for  a 
 recordation  of  his  death." 
 
 This  is  the  language  and  meaning  of 
 antiquity ;  the  very  same  which  the  Tri- 
 dentine Synod  condemneth  in  us  :  "  If  any 
 man  shall  say  that  the  sacrifice  of  the  mass 
 is  only  a  sacrifice  of  praise  and  thanks- 
 giving, or  a  bare  commemoration  of  the 
 sacrifice  offered  upon  the  cross,  let  him  be 
 accursed." 
 
 How  plain  is  the  Scripture,  while  it  tells 
 us  that  our  High  Priest "  needeth  not  daily, 
 as  those  high  priests  "  under  the  law,  "  to 
 offer  up  sacrifice ;  first,  for  his  own  sins, 
 then  for  the  people :  for  this  he  did  once, 
 when  he  offered  up  himself! " — Heh.  vii.  27. 
 
 The  contradiction  of  the  Trent  Fathers 
 is  here  very  remarkable.  *'  Christ,"  say 
 they,  "  who,  on  the  altar  of  the  cross,  of- 
 fered himself  in  a  bloody  sacrifice,  is  now 
 this  true  propitiatory  sacrifice  in  the  mass, 
 made  by  himself.  He  is  one  and  the  same 
 sacrifice  ;  and  one  and  the  same  offerer  of 
 that  sacrifice,  by  the  ministry  of  his  priests, 
 w'ho  then  offered  himself  on  the  cross." 
 So  then  they  say,  that  Christ  offered  up 
 that  sacrifice  then,  and  this  now  ;  St.  Paul 
 says  he  offered  up  that  sacrifice,  and  no 
 more.  St.  Paul  says  our  High  Priest  needs 
 not  to  offer  daily  sacrifice ;  they  say  these 
 daily  sacrifices  must  be  offered  by  him. 
 St.  Paul  says,  that  he  offered  himself  but 
 once  for  the  sins  of  the  people ;  they  say 
 he  offers  himself  daily  for  the  sins  of  quick 
 and  dead.  And  if  the  apostle,  in  the 
 spii-it  of  prophecy,  foresaw  this  error,  and 
 would  purposely 'forestall  it,  he  could  not 
 speak  more  directly  than  when  he  saith, 
 "  We  are  sanctified  through  the  offering 
 
 of  the  body  of  Jesus  Christ,  once  for  all. 
 And  every  high  priest  standeth  daily  min- 
 istering and  offering  oftentimes  the  same 
 sacrifices,  which  can  never  take  away  sins  : 
 but  this  man,  after  he  had  oflered  one 
 sacrifice  for  sins,  for  ever  sat  down  on  the 
 right  hand  of  God  ;  from  henceforth  ex- 
 pecting till  his  enemies  are  made  his  foot- 
 stool. For,  by  one  offering,  he  hath  per- 
 fected for  ever  them  that  are  sanctified." — 
 Heh.  X.  10—14. 
 
 Now  let  the  vain  heads  of  men  seek 
 subtle  evasions  in  the  different  manner  of 
 this  offering  ;  bloody  then,  unbloody  now. 
 The  Holy  Ghost  speaks  punctually  of  the 
 very  substance  of  the  act,  and  tells  us  ab- 
 solutely there  is  but  one  sacrifice  once 
 offered  by  him,  in  any  kind ;  else  the  op- 
 position that  is  there  made  betwixt  the 
 legal  priesthood  and  his  should  not  hold, 
 if,  as  they,  so  he,  had  often  properly  and 
 truly  sacrificed. 
 
 That  we  may  not  say  they  build  herein 
 what  they  destroy,  for  an  unbloody  sacri- 
 fice, in  this  sense,  can  be  no  other  than 
 figurative  and  commemorative,  is  it  really 
 propitiatory  ?  "  Without  shedding  of  blood 
 there  is  no  remission."  (Heb.  ix.  22.)  If, 
 therefore,  sins  be  remitted  by  this  sacrifice, 
 it  must  be  in  relation  to  that  blood,  which 
 was  shed  in  his  true  personal  sacrifice  upon 
 the  cross :  and  what  relation  can  be  betwixt 
 this  and  that  but  of  representation  and 
 remembrance?  in  which  their  moderate 
 Cassander  fully  resteth. 
 
 In  reason  there  must  be  in  every  sacri- 
 fice, as  Cardinal  Bellarmine  grants,  a  de- 
 struction of  the  thing  offered :  and  shall 
 we  say  that  they  make  their  Saviour  to 
 crucify  him  again  ?  No ;  but  to  eat  him  : 
 for,  "  consumptio  sen  manducatio,  qua)  fit 
 cL  sacerdote,"  &:c. ;  "  The  consumption  or 
 manducation,  which  is  done  of  the  priest, 
 is  an  essential  part  of  this  sacrifice,"  saith 
 the  same  author;  "for,  in  the  whole  action 
 of  the  mass,  there  is,"  saith  he,  "  no  other 
 real  destruction  but  this." 
 
 Suppose  we,  then,  the  true  human  flesh, 
 blood,  and  bone  of  Christ,  God  and  man, 
 really  and  corporally  made  such  by  this 
 transubstantiation,  whether  is  more  hor- 
 rible, to  crucify  or  to  eat  it  ? 
 
 By  this  rule,  it  is  the  priest's  teeth,  and 
 not  his  tongue,  that  makes  Christ's  body 
 a  sacrifice. 
 
 By  this  rule  it  shall  be  hustia,  "  a  host," 
 when  it  is  not  a  sacrifice ;  and  a  reserved 
 host  is  no  sacrifice,  howsoever  consecrated. 
 And  what  if  a  mouse,  or  other  vermin, 
 should  eat  the  host,  (it  is  a  case  put  by 
 themselves,)  who  then  sacrificeth  ? 
 
 To  stop  all  mouths,  laics  eat  as  well  as 
 
MASTER. 
 
 MATRIMONY. 
 
 487 
 
 the  priest :  there  is  no  difference  in  their 
 manducation  :  but  laics  sacrifice  not.  And, 
 as  Sahneron  urges,  the  Scripture  distin- 
 guisheth  betwixt  the  sacrifice  and  the  par- 
 ticipation of  it :  "  Are  not  they,  which  eat 
 of  the  sacrifices,  partakers  of  the  altar?" 
 (1  Cor.  X.  18.)  And,  in  the  very  canon 
 of  the  mass,  "  Ut  quotquot,"  &c.,  the 
 prayer  is,  "  That  all  mo,  which,  in  the 
 participation  of  the  altar,  have  taken  the 
 sacred  body  and  blood  of  thy  Son,"  (fcc. 
 "  Wherein  it  is  plain,"  saith  he,  "  that 
 there  is  a  distinction  betwixt  the  host  and 
 the  eating  of  the  host." 
 
 Lastly,  sacrificing  is  an  act  done  to  God  : 
 if,  then,  eating  be  sacrificing,  the  priest 
 eats  his  GoD  to  his  GoD  :  "  Quorum  Ueus 
 venter." 
 
 Wliile  they,  in  vain,  study  to  reconcile 
 this  new-made  sacrifice  of  Christ  already 
 in  heaven,  with  "  Jube  ha^c  perferri,"  &c. 
 "  Command  these  to  be  carried  by  the 
 hands  of  thy  holy  angels  to  thy  high  altar 
 in  heaven,  in  the  sight  of  thy  Divine 
 Majesty,"  we  conclude  that  this  proper  and 
 propitiatory  sacrifice  of  the  mass,  as  a  new, 
 unholy,  unreasonable  sacrifice,  is  justly 
 abhorred  by  us  ;  and  we,  for  abhorring  it, 
 unjustlv  ejected. — Bp.  Hall. 
 
 MASTER.  The  designation  of  all  the 
 heads  of  colleges  at  Cambridge,  with  the 
 exception  of  two,  and  of  some  at  Oxford. 
 The  heads  of  some  ancient  hospitals,  as 
 Sherburn,  are  so  called.  It  is  recognised 
 by  the  42nd  and  43rd  Canons,  &c.,  as  one 
 of  the  names  of  governors  of  cathedi-al 
 and  collegiate  churches. 
 
 MASTER  OF  ARTS.  The  highest 
 degree  in  arts,  signifying  one  who  is  com- 
 petent to  teach,  answering  to  that  of  Doctor 
 m  other  faf^ulties  ;  conferred  in  all  uni- 
 versities, though  in  a  few  modern  instances 
 superseded  by  that  of  Doctor  of  Philoso- 
 phy. In  England,  the  jMasters  of  Arts 
 form  the  privileged  body  of  the  ancient 
 universities  there ;  and  there  are  many 
 offices  in  the  Church  to  which  none  are 
 eligible  but  those  who  have  at  least  taken 
 that  degree.  By  Canon  128,  surrogates 
 must  be  M.  A.  at  least ;  and  by  Canon  74, 
 M.  A.,  being  beneficed,  are  enjoined  to 
 wear  hoods  or  tippets  of  silk  or  sarcenet, 
 and  square  caps. 
 
 MASTER  OF  THE  CEREMONIES. 
 An  officer  in  many  foreign  cathedi-als, 
 whose  business  it  is  to  see  that  all  the 
 ceremonies,  vestments,  &c.,  peculiar  to 
 each  season  and  festival,  are  observed  in 
 the  choir. — Jchh. 
 
 MASTER  OF  THE  FACULTIES. 
 The  principal  officer  of  the  Court  of  Fa- 
 culties.    (See  Faculties.) 
 
 MASTERS  OF  THE  SCHOOLS. 
 Three  Masters  of  Arts,  in  the  university  of 
 Oxford,  annually  elected,  who  preside  over 
 certain  exercises  of  under-graduates.  Re- 
 fore  the  ancient  dis])utations  and  deter- 
 minations were  abolished,  their  office  was 
 much  more  onerous  than  at  ])resent. 
 
 MASTl'.R  OF  THE  SENT1':NCES. 
 The  name  commonly  given  to  the  cele- 
 brated Peter  I>ombard,  bishoj)  of  Paris, 
 one  of  the  founders  of  scholastic  divinity  ; 
 so  called  from  his  great  work  of  the  Sen- 
 tences, divided  into  four  books,  illustrative 
 of  doctrines  of  the  Churches,  in  sentences, 
 or  passages  taken  from  the  Fathers. — 
 Dupin. 
 
 iNIASTER  OF  THE  SONG.  A  name 
 for  the  instructor  of  the  choristers,  or 
 choir-master. 
 
 MASTER  OF  THE  TEMPLE.  The 
 principal  minister  in  the  Temple  Church, 
 in  London,  styled  also  the  Castas ;  who, 
 since  the  time  of  Henry  YIIL,  has  been 
 appointed  by  royal  letters  patent,  without 
 institution  or  induction.  This  is  a  post  of 
 great  eminence,  and  has  been  held  by 
 many  able  divines,  as  Hooker,  Bishop 
 Sherlock,  &c. 
 
 MATINS.  The  ancient  name  for  early 
 morning  prayers,  which  usually  began 
 aboTit  day-break. 
 
 The  hours  of  prayer  in  the  Church  of 
 England,  before  the  Reformation,  were 
 seven  in  number,  viz.  matins,  the  first  or 
 prime,  the  third,  sixth,  and  ninth  hours, 
 vespers,  and  compline.  The  office  of  ma- 
 tins, or  morning  prayer,  according  to  the 
 Church  of  England,  is  a  judicious  abridg- 
 ment of  her  ancient  services  for  matins, 
 lauds,  and  prime. 
 
 The  oflice  of  matins,  or  morning  prayer, 
 according  to  the  English  ritual,  may  be 
 divided  into  three  principal  parts.  First, 
 the  introduction,  which  extends  from  the 
 beginning  of  the  office  to  the  end  of  the 
 Lord's  Prayer :  secondly,  the  psalmody 
 and  reading,  which  extends  to  the  end  of 
 the  Apostles'  Creed :  and,  thirdly,  the  pray- 
 ers and  collects,  which  occupy  the  re- 
 mainder of  the  service. — Palmer. 
 
 MATRDIONY.     The  nui)tial  state. 
 
 The  State  in  England  has  declared  that 
 marriage  may  be  henceforth  regarded 
 merely  as  a  civil  contract ;  and,  so  far  as 
 the  cfiects  of  the  law  are  conccrned,.they 
 who  contract  marriage  by  a  merely  civil 
 ceremony,  will  undergo  no  disabilities, 
 their  children  will  not  be  illegitimate,  and 
 they  will  themselves  be  regarded,  to  all 
 intents  and  purposes,  as  man  and  wife. 
 Yet,  although  this  be  the  case,  the  Church, 
 (in  this  respect  opposed  to  the  State,  or 
 
488 
 
 MATRIMONY. 
 
 rather  the  State  havin<2f  placed  itself  in  op- 
 position to  the  Church,)  at  the  very  com- 
 mencement of  the  Marriage  Service,  de- 
 clares that  so  many  as  arc  coupled  together 
 otherwise  than  God's  Avord  doth  allow,  are 
 not  joined  together  by  God,  neither  is 
 their  matrimony  lawful :  it  is  not  lawful, 
 that  is  to  say,  in  the  eyes  of  God, — for  its 
 legality  in  the  eyes  of  the  State  cannot  be 
 questioned.  The  case  is  actually  this  :  the 
 State  says,  if  you  choose  to  consider  matri- 
 mony to  be  a  civil  contract,  the  law  of  the 
 land  will  pemiit  you  to  enter  into  the  mar- 
 riage state  by  a  civil  ceremony :  but  the 
 Church  has  not  as  yet  been  silenced,  and 
 she  affirms,  that  though  the  State  may  per- 
 mit this,  the  word  of  God  instructs  us 
 otherivise,  and  marriage  is  a  religious  con- 
 tract ;  therefore  do  not  avail  yourselves  of 
 the  permission  given  by  the  State. 
 
 That  such  is  the  doctrine  of  the  Church 
 now,  must  at  once  be  admitted;  and  equally 
 admitted  it  will  be,  that  it  was  so  at  the 
 Reformation  of  the  Church  of  England, 
 and  before  the  Reformation.  But  the 
 question  is,  "was  it  one  of  those  dogmas 
 introduced  in  the  Middle  Ages,  such  as 
 transubstantiation,  praying  to  the  saints, 
 worshipping  images,  and  certain  other  su- 
 perstitions which  distinguish  the  Church  of 
 Rome  from  the  Church  of  England  ?  And 
 we  may  answer  at  once  in  the  negative,  be- 
 cause we  find  allusion  to  the  sacred  nature 
 of  the  marriage  contract  in  the  writings  of 
 the  very  earliest  Christian  authors.  For 
 instance,  St.  Ignatius,  the  disciple  of  St. 
 John,  (who  was  afterwards  bishop  of  Ephe- 
 sus,  and  died  a  blessed  martyr,)  waiting 
 to  Polycarp,  bishop  of  Smyrna,  says  ex- 
 pressly :  "  It  becomes  those  Avho  marry,  and 
 those  that  are  given  in  marriage,  to  take 
 this  yoke  upon  them  with  the  consent  or 
 direction  of  the  bishop,  that  their  marriage 
 may  be  according  to  the  will  of  God,  and 
 not  their  own  lusts."  Another  early  Father 
 (Tertullian)  exclaims,  "  How  shall  I  suffi- 
 ciently set  forth  the  ha])piness  of  the  mar- 
 riage which  the  Church  brings  about  by 
 her  procurement,  Avhich  the  eucharist  con- 
 firms, which  angels  report  when  done,  and 
 the  Father  ratifies ! " 
 
 In  those  days  the  members  of  the  Church 
 were  in  much  the  same  situation  as  that  in 
 which  we  are  ourselves  now  placed.  The 
 law  of  the  land  regarded  marriage  as  a 
 civil  contract,  and  the  Church  did  not  an- 
 nul or  disallow  the  legality  of  such  mar- 
 riages, or  solemnize  them  again,  on  the 
 parties  becoming  converts  :  it  admitted  the 
 validity  of  the  act  when  done,  though  it 
 declared  it  to  be  done  unlawfully,  accord- 
 ing to  God's  law,  and  severely  censured 
 
 the  members  of  the  Church  whenever  they 
 were  married  without  the  sacerdotal  bene- 
 diction. The  practice  for  Christians  to  be 
 married  in  the  Church  appears  at  first  to 
 have  been  universal,  except  when  a  Chris- 
 tian was  unequally  yoked  with  an  unbe- 
 liever ;  he  was  then  obliged  to  have  re- 
 course to  the  civil  authorities,  because  the 
 Church,  censuring  the  alliance,  absolutely 
 refused  to  solemnize  the  marriage. 
 
 AMien  the  Church,  in  the  time  of  Con- 
 stantine,  became  allied  with  the  State,  and 
 religion  began  to  cool,  (the  laws  of  the  em- 
 pire still  remaining  the  same,)  some  Chris- 
 tians began  to  fall  ofi"  from  the  primitive 
 practice,  some  for  one  reason  and  some 
 for  another,  and  to  contract  marriages  ac- 
 cording to  the  civil  form.  To  correct 
 which  abuse  Charles  the  Great  enacted  in 
 the  eighth  century  for  the  AVestern  em- 
 pire, and  Leo  Sapiens  in  the  tenth  century 
 for  the  Eastern  empire,  that  marriages 
 should  be  celebrated  in  no  other  way,  ex- 
 cept with  the  sacerdotal  blessing  and  pray- 
 ers, to  be  succeeded  by  the  reception  of 
 the  eucharist  or  Lord's  supper.  And  this 
 continued  to  be  the  practice  in  our  own 
 country  until  the  usurpation  of  Cromwell, 
 when  marriage  was  declared  to  be  a  mere- 
 ly civil  contract.  At  the  Restoration  of 
 Charles  II.  marriage  was  again  regarded 
 as  a  religious  ordinance,  though  the  Church 
 no  longer  insisted  that  the  parties  married 
 should  receive  the  communion,  (a  regu- 
 lation which  had  in  practice  been  much 
 disregarded,)  but  contented  herself  with  re- 
 marking in  the  rubric  succeeding  the  or- 
 dinance, that  "  it  is  expedient  that  the  new- 
 married  couple  should  receive  the  holy 
 communion  at  the  time  of  their  marriage,  or 
 at  the  first  opportunity  after  their  marriage," 
 declaring  the  duty,  but  not  absolutely 
 compelling  its  observance ;  and  thus  things 
 continued  till  the  present  time.  Of  course, 
 all  churchmen  must  now  adhere  to  their 
 principle,  that  marriage  is  a  religious 
 contract,  and  that  those  marriages  only  are 
 lawful  in  the  sight  of  God  Avhich  are  con- 
 tracted in  his  name  and  by  his  ordinance. 
 
 And  for  thus  acting  we  have  the  high- 
 est authority  which  earth  and  heaven  can 
 afi'ord,  that  of  our  blessed  Lord  and  Sa- 
 viour Jesus  Christ  himself.  When  he 
 was  in  the  flesh,  marriage  was  regarded  by 
 Jews  and  Gentiles  as  a  mere  civil  contract, 
 and  that  of  no  very  binding  nature.  He 
 did  not  on  tJiis  account  declare  the  off- 
 spring of  such  marriages  to  be  illegitimate  ; 
 and  yet,  when  appealed  to,  he  assumed  the 
 fact  as  one  which  the  Scriptures  plainly 
 declared,  that  marriage  was  of  Divine  in- 
 stitution. (Matt.  xix.  4 — 9.)  The  Pharisees 
 
MATRIMONY. 
 
 489 
 
 camo  mito  him,  tempting  him,  r,ncl  saying 
 unto  him,  "  Is  it  kiwful  for  a  man  to  put 
 away  his  wife  for  every  cause?"  Now, 
 this  was  a  very  natural  question  for  those 
 to  ask  who  considered  marriage  as  a  mere 
 civil  contract.  AMiercver  such  is  the  case, 
 one  of  two  things  in  process  of  time  is 
 found  to  follow — polygamy,  or  the  allow- 
 ance of  frequent  divorce.  Men  soon  came 
 to  reason  tlius :  If  marriage  be  merely  a 
 bargain  between  two  ])arties  for  mutual 
 convenience,  why  should  not  the  bargain  be 
 dissolved  when  the  convenience  no  longer 
 exists  ?  and  why,  if  a  man  wishes  for  more 
 wives  than  one,  should  he  be  prevented 
 from  having  them,  provided  the  parties 
 making  the  contract  agree  that  the  first 
 wife  shall  have  the  pre-eminence,  and  her 
 children  be  the  heirs  of  the  family  ])ro- 
 ])crty?  It  is  all  a  matter  of  mere  civil 
 convenience  and  expediency.  The  Jews 
 thus  arguing  Jtad  permitted  polygamy; 
 they  did  ])ossess  many  wives,  and  now  they 
 entertained  the  question,  whether  these 
 wives  might  not  be  dismissed  for  almost 
 any  cause  whatever.  The  subject  being 
 much  under  discussion,  they  appealed  to 
 our  Lord,  and  how  did  he  meet  them  ? 
 By  arguments  against  the  expediency  of 
 jiolygamy,  or  frequent  divorce  ?  No  ;  but 
 by  assuming  at  once,  that,  according  to 
 Scri])ture,  marriage  is  not  a  mere  civil,  but 
 a  reliijious  contract.  "  Have  ye  not  read," 
 he  says,  thus  referring  to  Scripture,  "  that 
 he  which  made  them  at  the  beginning, 
 made  them  male  and  female,  and  said.  For 
 this  cause  shall  a  man  leave  father  and 
 mother  and  shall  cleave  to  his  v\'ife,  and 
 they  twain  shall  be  one  flesh.  Wherefore 
 they  are  no  more  twain,  but  one  flesh. 
 What,  therefore,  God  hath  joined  together 
 let  no  man  put  asunder."  The  permis- 
 sion of  divorce  is  out  of  the  jurisdiction  of 
 man,  because  the  ordinance  is  of  GoD.  If 
 the  contract  were  merely  a  civil  contract, 
 man  might  legislate  with  respect  to  it ;  but 
 man  may  not  legislate  for  it,  because  it  is 
 an  ordinance  of  God — a  religious,  and  not 
 a  mere  civil,  contract. 
 
 And  all  this  is  the  more  remarkable, 
 because  our  Lord,  in  his  reply  to  the 
 Herodians,  carefully  distinguishes  between 
 the  things  of  Caesar  and  the  things  of  God, 
 and  on  several  occasions  disclaims  all  in- 
 tention to  interfere  with  those  things  Avhich 
 had  reference  merely  to  the  civil  authority  ; 
 yet,  observe,  when  the  Pharisees  appeal  to 
 him  on  a  doubtful  disputation,  growing 
 out  of  their  allowance  of  divorce,  he  does 
 7iot,  as  on  another  occasion,  put  the  ques- 
 tion aside  by  asking  who  made  him  a  judge 
 in  such  matters,  but  he  instantlv  exercises 
 
 his  judicial  authority  without  reservation  ; 
 thereby,  in  that  very  fact,  declaring  that 
 God,  notCiesar,  or  the  State,  is  the  supreme 
 authority,  to  whose  tribunal  the  decision 
 with  respect  to  matrimony  belongs.  He 
 pronounces  the  vital  principle  of  marriage 
 to  be  the  making  twain  one  flesh,  and  ex- 
 pressly declares  that  it  is  by  God's  joining 
 them  together  that  this  blending  of  their 
 nature  takes  effect,  and  that  the  contract, 
 once  made,  is  on  this  account  inviolable ; 
 nay,  he  declares  it  to  be  an  exempt  juris- 
 diction reserved  by  God  exclusively  to 
 himself,  and  not  to  be  modified,  or  in  any 
 respect  invaded,  by  human  authority.  3Ian's 
 law  indeed  may  couple  male  and  female 
 together ;  but  as  the  Church  declares,  on 
 the  authority  of  our  Lord,  it  is  their  being 
 joined  together  by  God,  and  as  God's  law 
 doth  allow,  that  in  his  sight  makes  their 
 matrimony  lawful. 
 
 Indeed,  the  Scriptures  from  first  to  last 
 envelope    this  union  with   a   sacred   and 
 mysterious  solemnity.     The  first  marriage, 
 that  of  Adam  and  Eve,  God  himself  so- 
 lemnized, even  God,  who,  by  that  very  act, 
 instituted  the  ordinance,  and  stampetl  it  as 
 Divine,  and  not  a  mere  human  contract. 
 The  whole  proceeding,  with  respect  to  the 
 marriage   of  Adam   and   Eve,    is    related 
 under  circumstances  calculated  to  awaken 
 the  most  solemn  attention.  As  to  the  other 
 creatures  of  his  hand,  they  were  i)roduced 
 by  a  fiat  of  the  Almighty  will,  (male  and 
 female  of  every  species,)  a  cor])oreal  and 
 instinctive   adaptation    to   herd   together 
 being  the  bounds  of  their  perfection.     But 
 in  the  case  of  the  human  species,  a  very 
 different  course  was  observed.  ^lan  is  first 
 formed,  a  splendidly  gifted  creature,  who 
 soon  is  made  to  feel  his  social  wants,  (by  a 
 survey  of  all  God's  creatures  mated  except 
 himself,)   and  to  express,  by  a  plaintive 
 reference  to  his  OAvn  comparative  destitu- 
 tion, how  desolate  he  was  even  in  Paradise, 
 being  alone  in  the  garden  of  delights  ;  and 
 how  liopeless  was  the  search  for  a  helj)meet 
 for  him  throughout  the  whole  comjiass  of 
 hitherto  animated  nature.     Then  it  is  that 
 God  puts  his  last  finish  to  the  visible  uni- 
 verse  by  his  own  wonderful  counsel  for 
 su])plying  the  deficiency.     He  takes  from 
 man's    own  su1)stance  the    material  from 
 which  his   second  self  is  to  be   formed ; 
 as  the  term  emjiloyed  by  Moses  imj)orts, 
 he  works  ujjon  it  with  the  skill  of  a  pro- 
 found artificer ;    and   having  framed  and 
 modelled  out  of  it,  after  man's  own  image, 
 softened  and  refined,  but  still  retaining  its 
 Divine  similitude,  the  grace  of  social  life, 
 he  himself  brings  her  to    him  to  be  his 
 bosom  counsellor  and  partner  of  his  joys, 
 
490 
 
 MATRIMONY. 
 
 MATTHEW'S,  ST.,  GOSPEL. 
 
 (for  cares  and  sorrows  he,  as  yet,  had  none,) 
 knitting  them  together,  and  pouring  on 
 them  the  most  precious  benedictions.  Thus 
 was  the  marriage  first  solemnized  by  the 
 great  God  himself.  And  even  so  do  his 
 ambassadors  now;  they,  as  an  ancient 
 writer  observes,  they,  as  the  representatives 
 of  God,  come  forth  to  the  persons  Avho  are 
 to  be  joined  together,  to  confirm  this  their 
 sacred  covenant  by  the  offering  up  of  holy 
 prayers. 
 
 By  Canon  62,  it  is  enjoined  that  no 
 minister  shall  join  persons  in  marriage  in 
 any  private  place,  but  either  in  the  churches 
 or  chapels  where  one  of  them  dwelleth, 
 and  likewise  in  time  of  Divine  service. 
 (See  Banns.) 
 
 An  uniformity  of  principle  prevails 
 throughout  the  sacred  Scriptiu'es,  and  to 
 the  sacrcdness  of  the  marriage  contract 
 frequent  allusions  are  made.  Thus  Israel 
 is  said  to  have  been  married  to  the  Lord  ; 
 and  idolatry  (that  is,  the  following  of  the 
 gods  of  the  heathens)  is  represented  as 
 adultery,  a  breach  of  the  covenant  between 
 God  and  Israel.  God's  reproofs  to  them 
 for  their  infidelity  are  sharpened  by  the 
 recollection  of  their  marriage  relation  with 
 him.  The  state  of  believers  in  this  world 
 is  compared  by  the  apostle  Paul  to  the 
 time  that  used  to  elapse  between  the  be- 
 trothing and  the  actual  marriage  among 
 the  Jews;  nay,  St.  Paul  goes  further,  he 
 alludes  to  this  sacred  contract  as  a  iy^Q  or 
 representation  of  the  mysterious  love  of 
 Jesus  to  his  Church.  For  our  Lord  for- 
 sook his  heavenly  Father,  and  did  cleave 
 unto  our  nature,  becoming  one  flesh  with 
 us,  giving  to  the  Church  his  Spirit  for  a 
 dowry,  and  heaven  for  a  jointure,  feeding 
 her  at  his  table,  adorning  her  by  his  grace, 
 and  protecting  her  by  his  power ;  and  from 
 this  love  of  Christ  to  his  spouse,  the 
 Church,  are  many  converts  begotten  unto 
 God  through  the  gospel,  and  (born  again 
 of  water  and  the  Holy  Ghost)  they  be- 
 come heirs  of  glory.  Thus  honoui-ed  is 
 the  marriage  contract,  by  being  made  an 
 emblem  of  so  Divine  and  mysterious  a 
 mercy.  It  was  indeed  to  hallow  the  rite 
 by  this  application  that  St.  Paul  wrote, 
 since  in  the  passage  referred  to  he  was 
 arguing  against  certain  seducers  who  would 
 have  disfigured  Christianity  by  imputing  to 
 it  the  forbidding  of  its  disciples  to  marry. 
 He  shows,  on  the  contrary,  that  marriage, 
 so  far  from  having  any  discredit  cast  upon 
 it  by  the  gospel,  is  advanced  in  honour. 
 He  describes,  indeed,  the  ministerial  office 
 to  consist  in  espousing  the  Church  to 
 Christ  ;  and  St.  John,  in  the  Apocalypse, 
 depicts  the  consummation  of  all  things  as 
 
 the  marriage  of  the  Lamb  and  his  wife, 
 the  beatific  union  between  Christ  and 
 his  redeemed  ones,  between  God  and  the 
 Church,  when  the  Church  has  been  cleansed 
 and  sanctified,  and  become  a  glorious 
 Church,  without  spot  or  wrinkle,  or  any 
 such  thing. 
 
 MATTilEW,  ST.,  THE  EVANGEL- 
 IST'S DAY.  A  festival  of  the  Christian 
 Church,  observed  on  the  21st  of  September. 
 
 St.  INIatthew,  the  son  of  Alpheus,  was 
 also  called  Levi.  He  Avas  of  Jewish  ori- 
 ginal, as  both  his  names  discover,  and  pro- 
 bably a  Galilean.  Before  his  call  to  the 
 apostolate,  he  was  a  publican  or  toll- 
 gatherer  to  the  Romans  ;  an  office  of  bad 
 repute  among  the  Jews,  on  account  of  the 
 covetousness  and  exaction  of  those  who 
 managed  it.  St.  Matthew's  office  par- 
 ticularly consisted  in  gathering  the  cus- 
 toms of  all  merchandise  that  came  by  the 
 sea  of  Galilee,  and  the  tribute  that  pas- 
 sengers were  to  pay  who  went  by  water. 
 And  here  it  was  that  Matthew  sat  at  the 
 "receipt  of  custom,"  Avhen  our  Saviour 
 called  him  to  be  a  disciple.  It  is  probable, 
 that,  living  at  Capernaum,  the  place  of 
 Christ's  usual  residence,  he  might  have 
 some  knowledge  of  him  before  he  was 
 called. 
 
 Matthew  immediately  expressed  his  sa- 
 tisfaction, in  being  called  to  this  high 
 dignity,  by  entertaining  our  Saviour  and 
 his  disciples  at  a  great  dinner  at  his  own 
 house,  whither  he  invited  all  his  friends, 
 especially  those  of  his  own  profession, 
 hoping,  probably,  that  they  might  be  in- 
 fluenced by  the  company  and  conversation 
 of  Christ. 
 
 St.  jSIatthew  continued  with  the  rest  of 
 the  apostles  till  after  our  Lord's  ascen- 
 sion. For  the  first  eight  years  afterwards 
 he  preached  in  Judea.  Then  he  betook 
 himself  to  propagating  the  gospel  among 
 the  Gentiles,  and  chose  Ethiopia  as  the 
 scene  of  his  apostolical  ministry  ;  Avhere  it 
 is  said  he  suffered  martyrdom,  but  by  what 
 kind  of  death  is  altogether  uncertain.  It 
 is  pretended,  but  without  any  foundation, 
 that  H}Ttacus,  king  of  Ethiopia,  desiring 
 to  marry  Iphigenia,  the  daughter  of  his 
 brother  and  predecessor  ^glippus,  and 
 the  apostle  having  represented  to  him  that 
 he  could  not  lawfully  do  it,  the  enraged 
 prince  ordered  his  head  immediately  to  be 
 cut  off. 
 
 MATTHEW'S,  ST.,  GOSPEL.  A  ca- 
 nonical book  of  the  New  Testament.  (See 
 the  preceding  article.) 
 
 St.  Matthew  wTote  his  Gospel  in  Judea, 
 at  the  request  of  those  he  had  converted. 
 It  is  thought  he  began  this  work  about 
 
MATTHIAS'S,  ST.,  DAY. 
 
 MEANS  OF  GRACE. 
 
 491 
 
 the  year  4 1 ,  eight  years  after  our  Saviour's 
 resurrection,  Irenieus  thinks  he  -wrote  it 
 whilst  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul  were  preach- 
 m^  at  Pome.  It  was  written  (according 
 to  the  testimony  of  all  the  ancients)  in  the 
 Hebrew  or  Syriac  language,  which  was 
 then  common  in  Judca. 
 
 The  true  Hebrew  Gospel  of  St.  Matthew 
 is  no  longer  in  being  anywhere,  as  far  as 
 can  be  discovered.  Those  printed  by  Se- 
 bastian Munster,  and  du  Tillet,  are  modern, 
 and  translated  into  Hebrew  from  the  Latin 
 or  Greek. 
 
 The  Greek  version  of  St.  MattheAv's 
 Gospel,  and  which  at  this  day  passes  for 
 the  original,  is  as  old  as  the  apostolical 
 times.  The  author  is  unknown.  Some 
 ascribe  it  to  St.  Matthew  himself ;  others, 
 to  St.  James  the  less,  bishop  of  Jerusalem  ; 
 others,  to  St.  John  the  evangelist,  or  to  St. 
 Paul,  or  to  St.  Luke,  or  to  St.  Barnabas. 
 
 MATTHIAS'S,  ST.,  DAY.  A  festival 
 of  the  Christian  Church,  observed  on  the 
 24th  of  February. 
 
 St.  Matthias  was  an  apostle  of  Jesus 
 Christ,  but  not  of  the  number  of  the 
 twelve,  chosen  by  Christ  himself.  He 
 obtained  this  high  honour  upon  a  vacancy, 
 made  in  the  college  of  the  apostles  by  the 
 treason  and  death  of  Judas  Iscariot.  The 
 choice  fell  on  Matthias  by  lot;  his  com- 
 petitor being  Joseph  called  Barsabas,  and 
 surnamed  Justus. 
 
 Matthias  was  qualified  for  the  apostle- 
 ship,  by  having  been  a  constant  attendant 
 upon  om-  Saviour  all  the  time  of  his  min- 
 istry. He  was,  probably,  one  of  the  seventy 
 disciples.  After  our  Lord's  resurrection, 
 he  preached  the  gospel  first  in  Judea. 
 Afterwards  it  is  probable  he  travelled  east- 
 ward, his  residence  being  principally  near 
 the  iiTuption  of  the  river  Apsarus  and  the 
 haven  Hyssus.  The  barbarous  people 
 treated  him  with  great  rudeness  and  in- 
 humanity; and,  after  many  labours  and 
 sufferings  in  converting  great  numbers  to 
 Christianity,  he  obtained  the  crown  of 
 martyrdom ;  but  by  what  kind  of  death  is 
 uncertain. 
 
 The  observance  of  this  festival  among 
 us  has  been  attended  with  some  confusion. 
 The  Common  Prayer  Book  of  Queen  Eliza- 
 beth directs,  that,  in  Leap-years,  an  inter- 
 calarv  or  additional  day  shall  be  added 
 between  the  23rd  and  24th  days  of  Feb- 
 ruary. Hence  St.  Matthias's  day,  which, 
 in  common  years,  was  obsen-ed  on  the  24th 
 of  February,  was,  in  Leap-years,  observed 
 on  the  25th.  But,  in  the  review  of  our 
 liturgy,  it  was  thought  more  proper  to  add 
 a  29th  day  to  February,  bo  that  noAv, 
 there  being  no  variation  of  the  days,  this 
 
 festival  must  always  keep  to  the  24th  day. 
 But,  notwithstanding  tlie  case  is  so  clear, 
 some  almanack-makers  continued  to  follow 
 the  old  custom,  which  occasioned  the  day 
 to  be  variously  observed.  Archbishop 
 Sancroft  decided  the  matter  by  an  injunc- 
 tion, Feb.  5,  1G83,  requiring  "all  vicars 
 and  curates  to  take  notice,  that  the  feast 
 of  St.  Matthias  is  to  be  celebrated,  not 
 upon  the  25th  of  February,  (as  the  common 
 almanack-makers  boldly  and  eiToneously 
 set  it,)  but  upon  the  24th  of  February  for 
 ever,  whether  it  be  Leap-year  or  not,  as 
 the  calendar  in  the  liturgy,  confirmed  by 
 act  of  uniformitv,  appoints  and  enjoins." 
 
 MAUNDY  THUPSDAY.  The  Thurs- 
 day before  Easter,  being  the  day  on  which 
 our  Lord  instituted  the  holy  sacrament 
 of  his  body  and  blood.  The  name  of 
 ]\Iaundy,  Maunday,  or  jSIandate,  {Dies 
 3Iatidati,)  is  said  to  have  allusion  to  the 
 mandate  or  new  commandment  which,  on 
 this  day,  Christ  gave  to  his  disciples,  that 
 they  should  love  one  another,  as  he  had 
 loved  them.  It  has  also  been  su])posed  by 
 others,  that  the  name  arose  from  the 
 mamuh,  or  baskets  of  gifts,  which,  at  this 
 time,  it  was  an  ancient  custom  for  Chris- 
 tians to  present  one  to  another,  in  token  of 
 that  mutual  afiection  which  our  Lord  so 
 tenderly  urged,  at  this  period  of  his  suffer- 
 ings, and  as  a  remembrancer  of  that  "  in- 
 estimable gift"  of  Christ,  to  be  our  spi- 
 ritual food  in  the  sacrament  of  his  body 
 and  blood.  Says  a  writer  of  the  age  of 
 AYickliff,  "  Christ  made  his  maundy  and 
 said.  Take,  eat,"  &c. 
 
 On  this  day  it  was  customary  for  bishops, 
 sovereigns,  and  nobles,  to  wash  the  feet  of 
 the  poor,  a  ceremony  still  observed  in 
 many  places  abroad.  In  the  Hierurgice 
 Anglicana  (p.  282,  283)  is  given  an  account 
 of  the  ceremonial  observed  by  Queen  Eliza- 
 beth. King  James  II.  is  said  to  have 
 been  the  last  of  our  sovereigns  who  ])er- 
 formed  it.  It  is  still  the  custom  on  Maun- 
 dy Thursday  for  the  Lord  Almoner  to 
 distribute  certain  royal  donations  to  the 
 poor  in  the  lloyal  Chapel  at  AVliitehall. 
 This  service  consists  of  appropriate  psalms, 
 lessons,  anthems,  and  special  prayers.  It 
 is  performed  with  great  solemnity.  For 
 the  full  particulars  see  Stephens's  edition 
 of  the  Common  Prayer  Book. 
 
 MAY,  TAVENTY-NINTH  OF.  (See 
 Forms  of  Prai/cr.) 
 
 MEANS  OF  GPACE.  (See  Ordin- 
 ances and  Sacraments.)  The  sacraments 
 and  other  ordinances  of  the  Church, 
 through  which  grace  is  conveyed  to  souls 
 prepared  by  faith  and  penitence  to  receive 
 it. 
 
492 
 
 MEDIATOR. 
 
 MELETIANS. 
 
 MEDIATOR.  (See  Jesus,  Lord,  Christ, 
 Messiah.)  A  person  Avho  intervenes  be- 
 tween two  parties  at  variance.  Thus  our 
 blessed  Loud  and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ 
 is  the  Mediator  between  God  and  man. 
 
 This  appears  from  1  Tim.  ii.  o,  "  For 
 there  is  one  God,  and  one  Mediator  be- 
 tween God  and  men,  the  man  Christ 
 Jesus."  When  Me  call  him  a  _]SIediator, 
 we  call  him  so,  not  only  as  he  is  our  lle- 
 deemer,  but  also  as  he  is  our  Intercessor. 
 "  For,  if  any  man  sin,  we  have  an  advocate 
 with  the  Father,  Jesus  Christ  the  right- 
 eous." (1  Johnii.  1.) — Archdeacon  Welch- 
 man.  It  is  to  be  remembered,  however, 
 that  by  a  mediator  here  the  Church  means, 
 not  barely  an  intercessor  or  transactor  of 
 business  between  two  parties,  in  which 
 sense  Moses  was  a  mediator  between  GoD 
 and  the  Israelites  with  respect  to  the  cere- 
 monial law  ;  but  such  a  mediator,  inter- 
 cessor, and  transactor,  as  can  plead  the 
 merit  of  his  own  blood,  offered  up  in  man's 
 stead,  to  reconcile  an  offended  God  to 
 sinful  man.  In  this  sense  Christ  is  the 
 only  mediator  between  GoD  and  man, 
 being  both  God  and  man. — Dr.  Bennet. 
 
 It  has  been  already  proved  that  Christ 
 partook  both  of  the  Divine  and  human 
 nature :  and  St.  Paul  expressly  says, 
 "  There  is  one  mediator,"  &c.  Christ  is 
 represented,  both  in  the  Old  and  New 
 Testament,  as  the  only  redeemer  of  man- 
 kind, as  the  only  sacrifice  for  the  sins  of 
 the  whole  world.  His  merits  will  extend 
 to  all  who  lived  before  and  after  the  pro- 
 mulgation of  the  gospel.  "As  in  Adam 
 all  die,  so  in  Christ  shall  all  be  made 
 alive."  (1  Cor.  xv.  22.)  "  He  is  the  Lamb 
 which  was  slain  from  the  foundation  of  the 
 world."  (Rev.  xiii.  8.) — Bp.  Tomline. 
 
 MELCHITES.  The  name  which  is 
 given  to  the  Syriac,  Egyptian,  and  other 
 Christians  of  the  Levant ;  who,  though  not 
 Greeks,  follow  the  doctrines  and  ceremo- 
 nies of  the  Greek  Church,  and  submit  to 
 the  decisions  of  the  Coinicil  of  Chalcedon. 
 The  term  31elchites  is  borrowed  from  the 
 Hebrew  or  SjTiac  word  Melee,  which  sig- 
 nifies kimj.  So  that  Melchites  is  as  much 
 as  to  say  Royalists,  and  is  a  term  of  re- 
 proach, given  to  the  orthodox  by  the 
 Eutychians,  or  Jacobites,  on  account  of 
 their  implicit  submission  to  the  edicts  of 
 the  emperors,  for  the  publication  and  re- 
 ception of  the  above-mentioned  council. 
 
 The  Melchites,  excepting  some  fcAv 
 points  of  little  or  no  importance,  which 
 relate  only  to  their  ceremonies  and  eccle- 
 siastical discipline,  are  in  every  respect 
 professed  Greeks.  They  have  translations, 
 in  the  Arabian   language,   of  the    Greek 
 
 rituals;  but  their  versions  are  for  the 
 most  part  very  incorrect.  In  general,  the 
 Christians  of  the  Levant  are  so  far  from 
 being  just  and  correct  in  their  translations 
 of  the  Greek  authors,  that  they  imagine 
 they  have  a  right  to  make  them  speak  ac- 
 cording to  their  own  sentiments.  This  is 
 evident  in  the  Arabic  canons  of  the  Coun- 
 cil of  Nice,  in  which  the  Melchites  find 
 sufHcient  arguments  to  justify  their  no- 
 tions against  those  of  the  Jacobites ;  and 
 the  Jacobites,  on  the  other  hand,  by  the 
 very  same  canons,  vindicate  their  tenets 
 against  those  of  the  Melchites. 
 
 The  Melchites  are  governed  by  a  parti- 
 cular patriarch,  who  resides  at  Damascus, 
 and  assumes  the  title  of  Patriarch  of  An- 
 tioch.  The  great  difficulty  they  meet  with 
 in  finding  such  mhiisters  as  can  read  Greek, 
 is  said  to  be  the  true  reason  why  they  ce- 
 lebrate mass  in  the  Arabian  language : 
 and  even  those  who  are  acquainted  with 
 the  Greek  tongue,  yet  read  the  Epistle  and 
 Gospel  in  Arabic. 
 
 The  monks  among  the  Melchites  follow 
 the  rule  of  St.  Basil,  the  common  rule  of 
 all  the  Greek  monks.  They  have  four  fine 
 convents,  distant  about  a  day's  journey 
 from  Damascus.  They  never  go  out  of  the 
 cloister. 
 
 MELETIANS.  There  were  in  the 
 fourth  century  two  schisms  called  3Ieletian. 
 
 1 .  The  Meletians  of  Egypt  had  their  name 
 from  Meletius,  a  bishop  of  Lycopolis,  the 
 second  of  the  Egyptian  sees  in  dignity.  It 
 has  been  most  commonly  supposed  that 
 Meletius  sacrificed  to  the  heathen  gods  in 
 a  persecution  about  the  year  301,  or  per- 
 haps in  the  last  general  persecution  a  few 
 years  later.  But  there  seems  to  be  reason 
 for  supposing  that  the  occasion  of  his 
 schism  was  of  an  opposite  kind — that  he 
 objected  to  the  lenity  with  Avhich  Peter, 
 bishop  of  Alexandria,  treated  those  who 
 had  lapsed  in  the  persecution ;  and  this 
 explanation  agrees  better  with  the  charac- 
 ter of  the  sect,  who  rejected  all  from  their 
 connnunion,  who  in  time  of  persecution 
 fell  from  Christ,  though  they  afterwards 
 repented.  Meletius  proceeded  to  ordain 
 bishops,  and  at  one  time  had  nearly  thirty 
 of  these  in  his  commvmion.  He  was  pro- 
 hibited for  ever  to  ordain  by  the"  Council 
 of  Nice,  but  his  followers  were  admitted 
 to  communion  without  re-ordination.  He 
 submitted  to  this  at  first,  but  afterwards 
 resumed  his  practice  of  schismatical  ordin- 
 ations. The  Arians  attempted  to  draw 
 the  Meletians  into  a  connexion  with  them, 
 on  the  ground  of  their  common  enmity  to 
 the  orthodox  bishops  of  Alexandria ;  and 
 thus  the  schismatics  whose  original  differ- 
 
MENAION. 
 
 MENNONITES. 
 
 493 
 
 ence  with  the  Church  had  heen  limited  to 
 questions  of  discipline,  became  infected 
 with  heresy. 
 
 2.  The  Meletians  of  Antiochwere  so  called 
 from  Meletius,  -svho  in  360  was  a])pointed 
 to  the  bishopric  of  that  city.  Althoup^h 
 he  owed  his  appointment  to  the  Arians,  he 
 soon  showed  that  he  was  orthodox  ;  where- 
 upon he  was  deposed  and  banished.  lie 
 afterwards  recovered  his  see,  but  the  ad- 
 herents of  Eustathius,  Avho  had  been  de- 
 posed by  the  Arians  many  years  before, 
 refused  to  communicate  with  him ;  and 
 Lucifer,  bishop  of  Caghari,  by  ordaining 
 Paulinus  in  opposition  to  him,  contributed 
 to  exasperate  the  differences  of  the  ortho- 
 dox. The  schism  of  Antioch  was  not 
 finally  healed  until  the  year  415. 
 
 MENAION.  The  name  which  the 
 Greeks  give  to  the  twelve  volumes  of  their 
 Church  Service.  These  volumes  ansAver  to 
 the  twelve  months  in  the  year,  each  vo- 
 lume taking  in  a  month.  In  this  book  is 
 contained  the  offices  for  the  saints  of  every 
 day,  methodically  digested. 
 
 From  the  ^lenaion  is  drawn  the  Meno- 
 hr/ium,  (Menology,)  or  Greek  calendar,  in 
 which  the  lives  of  the  saints  in  short,  or 
 their  names  only,  are  cited.  The  Menaion, 
 therefore,  of  the  Greek  answers  to  the 
 Breviary  of  the  Latins,  and  the  Menology 
 to  the  Martyrology.  (See  Breviary  and 
 Miirtiirolofiy.) 
 
 MENDICANTS,  or  BEGGING 
 FEIARS.  There  are  several  orders  of 
 monks  or  friars,  in  Popish  countries,  who, 
 having  no  income  or  revenues,  are  sup- 
 ported by  the  charitable  contributions  of 
 others.  These,  from  their  manner  of  life, 
 are  called  Mendicants. 
 
 This  sort  of  friars  began  in  the  thirteenth 
 century,  when  Dominic  de  Guzman,  with 
 nine  more  of  his  companions,  founded  the 
 order  of  Preaching  Friars,  called  from 
 their  founder  Dominicans.  The  other 
 three  Mendicant  orders  are,  the  Francis- 
 cans, Augustines,  and  Carmelites. 
 
 These  monks  gave  great  disturbance  to 
 the  secular  clergy,  by  pretending  to  a  right 
 of  taking  confessions  and  granting  abso- 
 lution, without  asking  leave  of  the  parochial 
 priests,  or  even  the  bishops  themselves. 
 Pope  Innocent  IV.  restrained  this  licence, 
 and  prohibited  the  Mendicants  to  confess 
 the  faithful  without  leave  of  the  cure. 
 Alexander  IV.  restored  this  privilege  to 
 them.  And  Martin  IV.,  to  accommodate 
 the  dispute,  granted  them  a  permission  to 
 receive  confessions,  upon  condition  that 
 the  penitents,  who  applied  to  them,  should 
 confess  once  a  year  to  their  proper  pastor. 
 However,  this  expedient  falling  short  of 
 
 full  satisfaction,  Boniface  VIII.  ordered 
 that  the  superiors  of  religious  houses 
 should  make  a])plication  to  the  bisho])s, 
 for  their  permission  to  such  friars  as  should 
 be  commissioned  by  their  respective  abbots 
 to  administer  the  sacrament  of  penance. 
 And  upon  the  foot  of  this  constitution  the 
 matter  now  rests. 
 
 IMENGllELIANS.  Christians  of  the 
 Greek  religion,  converted  by  Cyrillus  and 
 ^Methodius,  They  baptize  not  their  children 
 till  the  eighth  year,  and  enter  not  into  the 
 Church  (the  men  especially)  till  the  sixtieth 
 (others  say  the  fortieth)  year,  but  hear  Di- 
 vine service  standing  without  the  temple. 
 ^  MENNONITES.  A  sect  of  Anabap- 
 tists in  Holland,  so  denominated  from  one 
 Mcnnon  Simonis  of  Frisia,  Avho  lived  in 
 the  sixteenth  century.  The  Protestants, 
 as  well  as  the  Pomanists,  confuted  them. 
 INIr.  Stoupp  explains  their  doctrine  thus  : 
 Mennon  is  not  the  first  of  the  Anabaptists ; 
 but  having  rejected  the  enthusiasms  and 
 revelations  of  the  first  Anabaptists  and 
 their  opinions,  concerning  the  new  king- 
 dom of  Jesus  Christ,  he  set  up  other 
 tenets,  which  his  followers  hold  to  this 
 time.  They  believe  that  the  New  Testa- 
 ment is  the  only  rule  of  our  faith  ;  that 
 the  terms  Person  and  Trinity  are  not  to 
 be  used  in  speaking  of  the  P\\TnEii,  Son, 
 and  Holy  Ghost  ;  that  the  first  men  were 
 not  created  just ;  that  there  is  no  original 
 sin  ;  that  Jesus  Christ  had  not  his  fiesh 
 from  the  substance  of  his  mother  Mary, 
 but  from  the  essence  of  his  Father  ;  that 
 it  is  not  lawful  for  Christians  to  swear,  or 
 exercise  any  office  of  magistracy,  nor  use 
 the  sword  to  punish  evil-doers,  nor  to 
 wage  war  upon  any  terms ;  that  a  Chris- 
 tian may  attain  to  the  height  of  perfection 
 in  this  life  ;  that  the  ministers  of  the  gos- 
 pel ought  not  to  receive  any  salary ;  that 
 children  are  not  to  be  baptized ;  that  the 
 souls  of  men  after  death  rest  in  an  un- 
 known })lace. 
 
 In  the  mean  time  these  Mennonites 
 broke  into  several  divisions,  for  very  in- 
 considerable reasons ;  many  among  them 
 embraced  the  opinions  of  the  Socinians,  or 
 rather  of  the  Arians,  touching  the  1  )eity  of 
 Christ  ;  and  they  were  all  for  moderation 
 in  religion,  not  thinking  that  they  might 
 lawfully  debar  from  their  assemblies  any 
 man  leading  a  pious  life,  and  that  owned 
 the  Scri])tures  for  the  word  of  God.  These 
 were  called  Galenites.  and  borrowed  their 
 name  from  a  physician  of  Amsterdam, 
 called  Galen.  Some  of  them  in  Holland 
 are  called  Collegiates,  because  they  meet 
 privately,  and  every  one  in  their  assembly 
 hath  the  liberty  to  speak,  to  expound  the 
 
494 
 
 MESSALIANS. 
 
 METHODISTS. 
 
 Scriptures,  to  pray,  and  to  sing  :  they  that 
 are  truly  CoUegiates  are  Trinitarians: 
 they  never  receive  the  communion  in  their 
 college,  but  they  meet  twice  a  year,  from 
 all  parts  of  Holland,  at  llhinsburg,  a  vil- 
 lage about  two  leagues  from  Leyden ; 
 there  they  receive  the  sacrament.  The 
 first  that  'sits  at  table  may  distribute  it  to 
 the  rest ;  and  all  sects  are  admitted,  even 
 the  lloman  Catholics,  if  they  would  come. 
 
 MESSALIANS,  or  MASSALIANS.  So 
 called  from  a  Chaldee  word,  which  signi- 
 fies to  pray,  as  does  the  Greek  evxofJiai, 
 from  which  these  sectaries  had  also  the 
 name  of  Euchites,  because  they  prayed 
 continiuilly,  and  held  nothing  necessary 
 to  salvation  but  prayer :  they  rejected 
 preaching  and  the  sacraments  :  they  held 
 that  the  supreme  God  was  visible  ;  and 
 that  Satan  was  to  be  worshipped  that  he 
 might  do  no  hurt :  they  pretended  to  cast 
 out  devils  ;  and  rejected  almsgiving.  This 
 heresy  prevailed  under  Valentinian  and 
 Yalens,  about  A.  D.  370. 
 
 MESSIAH  signifies  the  anointed.  (See 
 Christ,  Jesus,  and  Lord.)  It  is  the  title 
 given  by  way  of  eminence  to  our  blessed 
 Saviour,  meaning  in  Hebrew  the  same  as 
 Christ  in  Greek,  and  it  alludes  to  the 
 authority  he  possesses  to  assume  the  cha- 
 racters of  prophet,  priest,  and  king,  and  so 
 of  the  Saviour  of  the  world. 
 
 Christ  the  Messiah  ("  anointed ")  was 
 promised  by  God,  (Gen.  iii.  15 ;  xxi.  12,) 
 and  foretold  bv  the  prophets,  (Gen.  xlix. 
 10  ;  1  Sam.  ii.  10  and  35  ;  Ps.  ii.  2  ;  xlv. 
 7  ;  Micah  v.  2,  with  John  vii.  42 ;  Mai.  iii. 
 1,)  as  the  "  redeemer  "  of  Israel,  (Job  xix. 
 25;  Isa.  lix.  20;  Luke  xxiv.  21,)  and 
 "  the  desire  of  all  nations"  (Haggai  ii.  7). 
 He  who  was  born  in  the  days  of  Herod,  of 
 a  pure  virgin,  and  called  "  Jesus,"  accord- 
 ing to  prophecy,  (Luke  i.  31,)  is  that 
 "  Messiah,"  "  the  Christ,"  (John  i.  41  ; 
 Acts  ii.  36,)  as  he  declares  himself  to  be, 
 (John  X.  24,  25,)  whose  coming  was  then 
 expected  (Matt.  ii.  1,  2 ;  John  iv.  25,  29, 
 42).  Who  was  "  anointed,"  not  with  any 
 material  and  typifying  "  oil,"  as  were  those 
 who  preceded  him — his  types — but  with 
 "  the  Spirit  of  GoD,"  (Matt.  iii.  16  ;  John 
 i.  32,  33,)  "  the  Spirit  of  the  Lord,"  as  pro- 
 mised, (Isa.  xi.  2  ;  xlii.  1 ;  Matt.  xii.  18,) 
 a  spiritual  unction — "  the  oil  of  gladness, 
 above  his  fellows"  (Ps.  xlv.  7);  and  thus 
 was  he  consecrated  to  the  three  offices, 
 divided  in  others,  being  the  great  Prophet 
 predicted,  (Deut.  xviii.  15,  18,)  and  ac- 
 knowledged, (John  vi.  14;  vii.  40,)  the 
 eternal  High  Priest,  (Ps.  ex.  4 ;  Heb.  viii. 
 1  ;  x.  12,  14,)  and  universal  King  (Gen. 
 xHx.    10;  Num.  xxiv.  17  ;  Ps.  ii.  6 ;  Han. 
 
 vii.  14  ;  Zech.  xiv.  9  ;  Matt.  xxv.  34  ;  Rev. 
 xi.  15.)  And  this  Spirit  he  received  as  the 
 head,  (Heb.  i.  9,)  and  conveys  to  the  mem- 
 bers of  his  body  (2  Cor.  i.  21 ;  1  John 
 ii.  20). 
 
 MESSIANIC.  A  term  invented  by 
 modern  critics,  to  signify  those  Psalms  or 
 other  portions  of  Scripture  which  specially 
 relate  to  or  personify  the  Messiah. 
 
 METHODISTS,  POPISH.  Polemical 
 doctors,  who  arose  in  France  about  the 
 middle  of  the  seventeenth  century,  in 
 opposition  to  the  Huguenots,  or  French 
 Protestants. 
 
 METHODISTS.  This  is  the  distinc- 
 tive appellation  of  the  folloAvers  of  the  late 
 Mr.  John  Wesley,  who  was  born  in  1703, 
 and  died  in  1791. 
 
 Under  the  general  term  of"  Methodists" 
 are  comprehended  two  principal  and  several 
 subordinate  sections,  having  totally  distinct 
 ecclesiastical  organizations.  The  two  grand 
 sections  differ  from  each  other  upon  points 
 of  doctrine ;  one  professing  Arminian,  and 
 the  other  Calvinistic,  sentiments.  The 
 former  are  the  followers  of  John  Wesley, 
 and  from  him  are  called  "  Wesleyan  Me- 
 thodists ; " — the  latter  were  originated  by 
 the  labours  of  George  Whitfield,  but  their 
 founder's  name  is  not  perpetuated  in  their 
 title,  which  is  generally  that  of  "  Calvin- 
 istic Methodists."  Each  of  the  two  grand 
 sections  is  divided  into  several  smaller 
 sections,  differing  from  each  other  upon 
 points  of  Church  c/overnment  and  discipline : 
 the  Wesleyan  Methodists  comprise  the 
 "  Original  Connexion,"  the  *'  New  Con- 
 nexion," the  "  Primitive  Methodists,"  and 
 the  "  Wesleyan  Association  " — the  Calvin- 
 istic 3Iethodists  comprise  the  body  bearing 
 that  specific  name,  and  also  the  churches 
 belonging  to  what  is  known  as  "  The  Count- 
 ess of  Huntingdon's  Connexion." 
 
 the  original  connexion. 
 
 As  at  present  settled,  the  form  of  Church 
 government  somewhat  resembles  that  of 
 the  Scottish  Presbyterian  Churches  in  the 
 order  of  the  courts,  in  the  relation  they 
 bear  to  each  other,  and  in  their  respective 
 constitutions  and  functions.  The  diff'er- 
 ence  is  in  the  greater  degree  of  authority 
 in  spiritual  matters  exercised  by  the 
 Wesleyan  ministers,  who  preside  in  their 
 courts  not  as  mere  chairmen  or  moderators, 
 but  as  pastors.  This  is  said  by  them  to 
 secure  an  equitable  balance  of  power 
 between  the  two  parties,  lay  and  clerical, 
 in  these  courts,  and  thus  to  provide  against 
 abuse  on  either  side.  How  far  this  is 
 the  case  will  be  more  clearly  seen  by  a 
 description  of  these  various  courts,  tracing 
 
METHODISTS. 
 
 495 
 
 them  upwards  from  the  lowest  to  the 
 highest, — from  the  Class  to  the  Conference. 
 
 The  Classes  were  the  very  first  of  the 
 arrangements  introduced  by  Mr.  Wesley. 
 They  consist,  in  general,  of  about  12 
 persons ;  each  class  having  its  appointed 
 "leader,"  (an  experienced  Christian  lay- 
 man, nominated  by  the  superintendent 
 of  a  circuit,  and  appointed  by  a  leaders' 
 meeting,)  whose  duty  is  to  meet  his  class 
 once  every  week — converse  with  each  class 
 member,  hear  from  him  a  statement  of  his 
 spiritual  condition,  and  give  appropriate 
 counsel.  Every  member  of  a  class,  except 
 in  cases  of  extreme  poverty,  is  expected  to 
 contribute  at  least  a  penny  per  week  to- 
 wards the  funds  of  the  society.  Out  of  the 
 proceeds  of  this  contribution,  assisted  by 
 other  funds,  the  stipends  of  the  ministers 
 are  paid.  The  system  of  class  meetings 
 is  justly  considered  the  very  life  of  Me- 
 thodism. 
 
 The  pubhc  worship  of  these  societies  is 
 conducted  in  each  circuit  by  two  descriptions 
 of  preachers,  one  clerical,  the  other  lay. 
 The  clerics  are  separated  entirely  to  the 
 work  of  the  ministry — are  members  of,  or 
 in  connexion  with,  or  received  as  pro- 
 bationers by,  the  Conference — and  are 
 supported  by  funds  raised  for  that  purpose 
 in  the  classes  and  congregations.  From 
 one  to  four  of  these,  called  "  itinerant 
 preachers,"  are  appointed  annually  for  not 
 exceeding  three  years  in  immediate  succes- 
 sion to  the  same  circuit.  Their  ministry  is 
 not  confined  to  any  particular  chapel  in  the 
 circuit,  but  they  act  interchangeably  from 
 place  to  place,  seldom  preaching  in  the 
 same  place  more  than  one  Sunday  with- 
 out a  change,  which  is  effected  according 
 to  a  plan  generally  re-made  every  quarter. 
 Of  itinerant  preachers  there  are  at  present 
 about  915  in  Great  Britain.  The  lay,  or 
 "  local "  preachers,  as  they  are  denominated, 
 follow  secular  callings,  like  other  of  their 
 fellow  subjects,  and  preach  on  the  sabbaths 
 at  the  places  appointed  for  them  in  the 
 above-mentioned  plan  ;  as  great  an  interval 
 being  observed  between  their  appointments 
 to  the  same  place  as  can  be  conveniently 
 arranged. 
 
 The  public  services  of  Methodists  present 
 a  combination  of  the  forms  of  the  Church 
 of  England  with  the  usual  practice  of 
 Dissenting  Churches.  In  the  larger  chapels, 
 the  Church  Liturgy  is  used ;  and,  in  all, 
 the  sacrament  is  administered  according 
 to  the  Church  of  England  rubi*ic.  Inde- 
 pendently of  sabbath  worship,  love  feasts 
 are  occasionally  celebrated ;  and  a  mid- 
 night meeting,  on  the  last  day  of  each  year, 
 is  held  as  a  solemn   "  watch   nig-ht,    for 
 
 the  purpose  of  impressing  on  the  mind 
 a  sense  of  the  brevity  and  rapid  flight  of 
 time. 
 
 At  present  there  are  428  circuits  in 
 Great  Britain.  Besides  ])reaching  in  the 
 various  chapels  in  their  respective  circuits, 
 the  itinerant  preachers  administer  the  sa- 
 craments of  baptism  and  the  Lord's  sup- 
 per. One  or  other  of  them,  according  to 
 an  arrangement  amongst  themselves,  meets 
 every  class  in  his  circuit  once  in  every 
 quarter,  personally  converses  Avith  every 
 member,  and  distributes  to  all  such  as 
 have  throughout  the  past  three  months 
 walked  orderly  a  tickef,  which  authenti- 
 cates their  membership.  One  of  the  min- 
 isters in  every  circuit  is  called  the  *'  super- 
 intendent," whose  duties,  in  addition  to 
 his  ordinary  labours  as  a  travelling  preach- 
 er, are,  to  see  that  the  Methodist  disci- 
 pline is  properly  maintained, — to  admit 
 candidates  into  membership,  (subject  to  a 
 veto  by  a  leaders'  meeting,) — and  to  ex- 
 pel from  the  society  any  member  whom  a 
 leaders'  meeting  shall  pronounce  guilty  of 
 any  particular  offence.  Appeal,  however, 
 lies  from  his  decision  to  a  District  meet- 
 ing, and  ultimately  to  the  Conference. 
 There  is  also  a  "  circuit  steward,"  whose 
 duty  is  to  receive  from  the  society  stewards 
 the  contributions  of  class  members,  and  to 
 superintend  their  application  for  the  pur- 
 poses of  the  circuit. 
 
 The  Conference,  the  highest  Wesleyan 
 court,  is  composed  exclusively  of  ministers. 
 It  derives  its  authority  from  a  deed  of 
 declaration,  executed  by  Mr.  Wesley  in 
 1784,  by  which  it  was  provided  that,  after 
 the  decease  of  himself  and  his  brother 
 Charles,  100  persons,  named  in  the  deed, 
 *'  being  preachers  and  expounders  of  God's 
 holy  word,  under  the  care  and  in  con- 
 nexion with  the  said  John  Wesley,"  should 
 exercise  the  authority  which  Wesley  him- 
 self possessed,  to  appoint  preachers  to  the 
 ■  various  chapels.  Vacancies  in  the  "  hun- 
 dred "  were  to  be  filled  up  by  the  re- 
 mainder at  an  annual  Conference.  In 
 pursuance  of  this  deed,  a  Conference  of 
 100  ministers  meets  yearly  in  July,  with 
 the  addition  of  the  representatives  selected 
 by  the  district  meetings,  and  such  other 
 ministers  as  are  appointed  or  permitted  to 
 attend  by  the  district  committees.  The 
 custom  is,  for  all  these  ministers  to  share 
 in  the  proceedings  and  to  vote ;  though 
 all  the  decisions  thus  arrived  at  must  be 
 sanctioned  by  the  legal  "  hundred,"  ere 
 they  can  have  binding  force.  The  Con- 
 ference must  sit  for  at  least  five  days,  but 
 not  beyond  three  weeks.  Its  principal 
 transactions  are,  to  examine  the  moral  and 
 
496 
 
 METHODISTS. 
 
 ministerial  character  of  every  preacher — 
 to  receive  candidates  on  trial — to  admit 
 ministers  into  tlie  connexion — and  to  ap- 
 point ministers  to  particular  circuits  or 
 stiitions.  Independently  of  its  functions 
 under  this  deed  poll,  the  Conference  ex- 
 ercises a  general  superintendence  over  the 
 various  institutions  of  the  body;  including 
 the  appointment  of  various  committees,  as, 
 (1.)  The  Committee  of  Privileges  for  guard- 
 ing the  interests  of  the  AVesleyan  Con- 
 nexion ;  (2.)  The  Committee  for  the  man- 
 agement of  Missions  ;  (3.)  The  Committee 
 for  the  management  of  Schools  for  edu- 
 cating the  children  of  Wesleyan  minis- 
 ters ;  (4.)  The  General  Book  Committee 
 (for  superintending  the  publication  and 
 sale  of  "NVesleyan  v^orks) ;  (5.)  The  Chapel 
 Building  Committee  (without  whose  pre- 
 vious consent  in  writing  no  chapel,  whether 
 large  or  small,  is  to  be  erected,  purchased, 
 or  enlarged) ;  (6.)  The  Chapel  Kelief  Com- 
 mittee ;  (7.)  The  Contingent  Fund  Com- 
 mittee; (8.)  The  Committee  of  the  Aux- 
 iliary Fund  for  worn-out  ministers  and 
 ministers'  widoAvs  ;  and  the  committees  for 
 the  various  schools,  theological  institu- 
 tions, Szc. 
 
 The  Conference  has  also  assumed  to  it- 
 self the  power  of  making  new^  laws  for  the 
 government  of  the  Connexion :  provided 
 that,  if  any  circuit  meeting  disapprove 
 such  law%  it  is  not  to  be  enforced  in  that 
 circuit  for  the  space  of  one  year.  Any 
 circuit  has  the  power  of  memorializing 
 Conference  on  behalf  of  any  change  con- 
 sidered desirable,  provided  the  June  quar- 
 terly meeting  should  so  determine. 
 
 The  doctrines  held   by  the  Wesleyans 
 
 are  substantially  accordant  with  the  Arti- 
 cles of  the  Established  Church,  interpreted 
 in  their  Arminian  sense.  In  this  they 
 follow  Mr.  Wesley  rather  than  Arminius  ; 
 for  although  the  writings  of  the  latter  are 
 received  with  high  respect,  the  first  four 
 vohmies  of  "Wesley's  Sermons,  and  his 
 Notes  on  the  Ncav  Testament,  (Avhich  they 
 hold  to  be  "  neither  Calvinistic  on  the  one 
 hand  nor  Pelagian  on  the  other,")  are  re- 
 ferred to  as  the  standard  of  their  ortho- 
 doxy. The  continued  influence  of  their 
 founder  is  manifested  by  the  general  ad- 
 herence of  the  body  to  his  opinions  on  the 
 subject  of  attainment  to  Christian  perfec- 
 tion in  the  present  life — on  the  possibility 
 of  final  ruin  after  the  reception  of  Divine 
 grace — and  on  the  experience  by  every 
 convert  of  a  clear  assurance  of  his  ac- 
 ceptance with  God  through  faith  in  Jesus 
 Christ. 
 
 The  Census  Accounts  show  6579  cha- 
 pels in  England  and  Wales,  belonging  to 
 this  Connexion  in  March  1851 ;  contain- 
 ing (allowance  being  made  for  defective 
 returns)  accommodation  for  1,447,580  per- 
 sons. The  number  of  attendants  on  the 
 Census  Sundav  was:  Morning,  492,714; 
 Afternoon,  383,964;  Evening,  667,850: 
 including  an  estimate  for  133  chapels,  for 
 which  the  number  of  attendants  was  not 
 stated. 
 
 The  following  table  shows  the  prin- 
 cipal societies  and  institutions  for  religious 
 objects  supported  by  the  Wesleyan  Ori- 
 ginal Connexion.  Others,  in  part  sup- 
 ported by  Wesleyans,  are  mentioned  in 
 the  General  List  at  page  cxvii.  of  the 
 lieport. 
 
 Name  of  Society 
 
 OR 
 IXSTITUTION. 
 
 u 
 
 o  1:: 
 o  -^ 
 
 n 
 
 Annual 
 Income. 
 
 Name  of  Society 
 
 OR 
 
 Institution. 
 
 h 
 
 Annual 
 Income. 
 
 Contingent  Fund . 
 Auxiliary  Fund 
 The  Children's  Fund    . 
 Wesleyan  Theological  Insti- 
 tution    .... 
 General  Chapel  Fund  . 
 
 A.  D. 
 
 17oG 
 1813 
 1818 
 
 183-1 
 1818 
 
 £ 
 
 10,0G5 
 7,163 
 3,280 
 
 4,688 
 3,981 
 
 Wesleyan  Seamen's  Mission 
 
 Wesleyan    Missionary     So- 
 ciety          .         .         .         . 
 
 Kingswood     and      Wood-[ 
 house  Grove  School       .   I 
 
 Education  Fund 
 
 A.  D. 
 
 1843 
 
 1817 
 1748 
 1811 
 1837 
 
 £ 
 160 
 
 105,370 
 
 )     8,048 
 
 2,800 
 
 In  1839  was  celebrated  the  Centenary 
 of  the  existence  of  Wesleyan  Methodism  ; 
 and  the  gratitude  of  the  people  towards 
 the  system  under  which  they  had  derived 
 so  much  advantage  was  displayed  by  con- 
 tributions to  the  large  amount  of  £216,000, 
 which  sum  was  appropriated  to  the  estab- 
 lishment of  theological  institutions  in  York- 
 
 shire and  at  Richmond — the  purchase  of 
 the  "  Centenary  Hall  and  Mission  House" 
 in  Bishopsgate  Street— the  provision  of  a 
 missionary  ship — the  discharge  of  chapel 
 debts — and  the  augmentation  of  the  in- 
 comes of  the  Methodist  religious  societies. 
 Of  late  years  a  considerable  agitation 
 (to  be  more  particularly  mentioned  Avhen 
 
METHODISTS. 
 
 497 
 
 describing  "Wesleyan  Reformers")  has 
 diminished  to  a  great  extent  the  number 
 of  the  members  in  connexion.  It  is  stated 
 that  by  this  division  the  Original  Con- 
 nexion has  sustained  a  loss  of  100,000 
 members. 
 
 THE   METHODIST   NEW   CONNEXION. 
 
 For  some  time  after  Mr.  AVesley's  death 
 in  1791,  considerable  agitation  was  ob- 
 servable throughout  the  numerous  socie- 
 ties which,  under  his  control,  had  rapidly 
 sprung  up  in  every  part  of  England.  The 
 more  immediate  subjects  of  dis])ute  had 
 reference  to,  (1.)  "the  right  of  the  people 
 to  hold  their  public  religious  worship  at 
 such  hours  as  were  most  convenient,  with- 
 out being  restricted  to  the  mere  intervals 
 of  the  hours  appointed  for  service  in  the 
 Established  Church;"  and,  (2.)  "  the  right 
 of  the  people  to  receive  the  ordinances  of 
 Baptism  and  the  Lord's  supper  from  the 
 hands  of  their  own  ministers,  and  in  their 
 own  places  of  worship;"  but  the  principal 
 and  fundamental  question  in  dispute  con- 
 cerned the  right  of  the  laity  to  participate  in 
 the  spiritual  and  secular  government  of  the 
 body.  Wesley  himself  had,  in  his  life-time, 
 always  exercised  an  absolute  authority; 
 and  after  his  decease  the  travelling  preach- 
 ers claimed  the  same  extent  of  power. 
 A  vigorous  opposition  was,  however,  soon 
 originated,  M'hich  continued  during  several 
 years  ;  the  Conference  attempting  various 
 unsuccessful  measures  for  restoring  har- 
 mony. A  "  Plan  of  Pacification "  was 
 adopted  by  the  Conference  in  1795,  and 
 was  received  with  general  satisfaction  so 
 far  as  the  ordinances  were  concerned  ;  but 
 the  question  of  lay  influence  remained  un- 
 touched till  1797,  when  the  Conference 
 conceded  that  the  leaders'  meetings  should 
 have  the  right  to  exercise  an  absolute  veto 
 upon  tlie  aclniission  of  new  members  to  the 
 Society,  and  that  no  member  should  be  ex- 
 pelhd  for  immorality,  "  until  such  immo- 
 rality had  been  proved  at  a  leaders'  meet- 
 ing." Certain  lesser  rights  were  at  the 
 same  time  conceded  to  the  quarterly  meet- 
 ings, in  which  the  laity  were  represented 
 by  the  presence  of  their  stewards  and  class 
 leaders.  But  this  was  the  extent  of  the 
 concessions  made  by  the  preachers ;  and 
 all  propositions  for  lay  delegation  to  the 
 Conference  and  the  district  meetings  were 
 conclusively  rejected. 
 
 Foremost  amongst  many  who  remained 
 unsatisfied  by  these  concessions  was  the 
 Rev.  Alexander  Kilham,  who,  singularly 
 enough,  was  born  at  Epworth  in  Lincoln- 
 shire, the  birth-place  of  the  "SVesleys.  Mr. 
 Kilham,   first    acquiring    prominence    as 
 
 2    K 
 
 an  assertor  of  the  right  of  Methodists 
 to  meet  for  worship  in  church  hours,  and 
 to  receive  the  sacraments  from  their  own 
 ministers,  was  gradually  led  to  take  an 
 active  part  in  advocacy  of  the  princii)le  of 
 lay  participation  in  the  government  of  the 
 Connexion. 
 
 Originated  by  a  movement  for  a  certain 
 and  specific  alteration  in  the  con.stitutiun 
 of  "\A\^sleyan  ^lethodism,  the  New  Con- 
 nexion differs  from  the  parent  body  only 
 with  resi)ect  to  those  ecclesiastical  arrange- 
 ments wliich  were  then  the  subjects  of  dis- 
 pute. In  doctrines,  and  in  all  the  essential 
 and  distinctive  features  of  Wesleyan  Me- 
 thodism, there  is  no  divergence :  the 
 Arminian  tenets  are  as  firmly  held  by  the 
 New  as  by  the  Old  Connexion ;  and  the 
 outline  of  ecclesiastical  machinery — com- 
 prising classes,  circuits,  districts,  and  the 
 Conference — is  in  both  the  same.  The 
 grand  distinction  rests  upon  the  different 
 degrees  of  power  allowed  in  each  com- 
 munion to  the  laity.  It  has  been  shown 
 that,  in  the  "  Original  Connexion,"  all  au- 
 thority is  virtually  vested  in  the  preach- 
 ers: they  alone  compose  the  Conference 
 — their  influence  is  paramount  in  the  in- 
 ferior courts — and  even  when,  as  in  finan- 
 cial matters,  laymen  are  appointed  to  com- 
 mittees, such  appointments  are  entirely  in 
 the  hands  of  Conference.  The  "  New 
 Connexion,"  on  the  contrary,  admits,  in  all 
 its  courts,  the  principle  of  lay  participa- 
 tion in  Church  government:  candidates 
 for  membership  must  be  admitted  by  the 
 voice  of  the  existing  members,  not  by  the 
 minister  alone  ;  offending  members  cannot 
 be  expelled  but  with  the  concurrence  of  a 
 leaders'  meeting;  officers  of  the  body, 
 whether  leaders,  ministers,  or  stewards,  are 
 elected  by  the  Church  and  ministers  con- 
 jointly ;  and  in  district  meetings  and  the 
 annual  Conference  lay  delegates  (as  many 
 in  number  as  the  ministers)  are  present, 
 freely  chosen  by  the  members  of  the 
 Churches. 
 
 The  progress  of  the  New  Connexion 
 since  its  origin  has  been  as  folloAvs,  in  the 
 aggregate,  comprising  England,  Ireland, 
 and  the  colonies  : 
 
 Year. 
 
 Members. 
 
 1797   . 
 
 .   5.000 
 
 1803  . 
 
 5,280 
 
 1813   . 
 
 8.067 
 
 1823  . 
 
 10.794 
 
 1833 
 
 .  14,784 
 
 1840  . 
 
 21.836 
 
 1846   . 
 
 .  20,002 
 
 18o3  . 
 
 21,384 
 
 At  present  (1853)  the  state  of  the  Con- 
 
498 
 
 METHODISTS. 
 
 nexion,  In  Emjland  and  Walef^,  is  reported 
 to  be  as  follows  : 
 
 301 
 
 298 
 
 95 
 
 814 
 
 1,070 
 
 .      273 
 
 7,335 
 
 44,337 
 
 Chapels 
 Societies 
 Circuit  preachers 
 Local  preachers 
 !Mcml)ers 
 Sabbath  schools 
 Sabbath-school  teachers 
 Sabbath-school  scholars    , 
 
 Returns  have  been  received  at  the  Cen- 
 sus Office  from  297  chapels  and  stations 
 (mostly  in  the  northern  counties)  belong- 
 ing to  this  Connexion,  containing  accom- 
 modation, after  an  estimate  for  16  de- 
 fective returns,  for  96,964  persons.  The 
 number  of  atte?idants  on  the  Census  Sun- 
 da  v  Avas :  ^Morning,  36,801  ;  Afternoon, 
 22^620 ;  Evening,  "39,624  :  including  an 
 estimate  for  three  chapels,  the  attendance 
 in  which  was  not  stated. 
 
 In  1847  the  Jubilee  of  the  Connexion 
 was   celebrated,    and   it   was  resolved  to 
 
 raise  a  fund  of  £20.000,  to  be  appropri- 
 ated to  the  relief  of  distressed  chapels, 
 to  the  erection  of  a  theological  institution, 
 the  extension  of  home  and  foreio:n  mis- 
 sions, and  the  provision 
 retired  ministers. 
 
 for   aged  and 
 
 PRIMITIVE  METHODISTS. 
 About  the  commencement  of  the  pre- 
 sent century,  certain  among  the  "Wesleyans 
 (and  conspicuously  Hugh  Bourne  and 
 AVilliam  Clowes)  began  to  put  in  practice 
 a  revival  of  those  modes  of  operation, 
 which  had  by  that  time  been  abandoned 
 by  the  then  consolidated  body.  The  Con- 
 ference of  1807  affirmed  a  resolution  ad- 
 verse to  svich  unprescribed  expedients ; 
 and  the  consequence  of  this  disapproba- 
 tion was  the  birth  of  the  Primitive  Me- 
 thodist Connexion. — the  first  class  being 
 formed  at  Standley  in  Staffordshire  in 
 1810.  The  following  table,  furnished  by 
 the  Conference  itself,  will  show-  the  progress 
 made  by  the  Connexion  since  that  period. 
 
 Chapels. 
 
 Preachers. 
 
 Class 
 
 Sahbath  Schools. 
 
 Conncx- 
 ional. 
 
 Rented 
 
 Tra- 
 velling. 
 
 Lead- 
 
 Members. 
 
 Period. 
 
 Rooms, 
 &c. 
 
 Local. 
 
 ers. 
 
 Schools. 
 
 Teachers. 
 
 Scholars. 
 
 1810 
 
 10 
 
 1811 
 
 .   . 
 
 2 
 
 210 
 
 1820 
 
 .   , 
 
 202 
 
 1,435 
 
 7,842 
 
 1830 
 
 421 
 
 2  to 
 
 2,719 
 
 35,733 
 
 1840 
 
 1,149 
 
 487 
 
 6,550 
 
 73,990 
 
 11,968 
 
 60,508 
 
 1850 
 
 1,555 
 
 3,515 
 
 519 
 
 8,524 
 
 6,162 
 
 104,762 
 
 1,278 
 
 20,114 
 
 103,310 
 
 1853 
 
 1,789 
 
 3,565 
 
 568 
 
 9,594 
 
 6,767 
 
 108,926 
 
 1,535 
 
 22,792 
 
 121,394 
 
 These  statistics  refer  as  w^ell  to  the 
 foreign  stations  of  the  Connexion  as  to 
 England  and  Wales  ;  but  the  deduction  to 
 be  made  upon  this  account  will  not  exceed 
 two  or  three  per  cent,  of  the  above  figures. 
 The  number  of  chapels,  &c.  returned  by 
 the  Census  officers  was  only  2871,  so  that 
 many  of  the  above  must  probably  be  small 
 rooms,  which  thus  escaped  the  notice  of 
 the  enumerators.  The  number  of  con- 
 nexional  circuits  and  missions  is,  alto- 
 gether, 313,  of  which,  13  are  in  Canada, 
 2  in  South  Australia,  1  in  New  South 
 Wales,  1  in  Victoria,  and  3  in  New  Zea- 
 land. The  "  Missions,"  whether  abroad  or 
 at  home,  are  localities  in  which  the  labours 
 of  the  preachers  are  remunerated  not  from 
 local  sources,  but  from  the  circuit  contri- 
 butions, or  from  the  general  funds  of  the 
 Connexion  appropriated  to  missions. 
 
 The  doctrines^  held  by  the  Primitive 
 Methodists  are  precisely  similar  to  those 
 maintained  by  the  Original  Connexion, 
 and  the  outline  of  their  ecclesiastical  polity 
 
 is  also  similar,  the  chief  distinction  being 
 the  admission,  by  the  former  body,  of  lay 
 representatives  to  the  Conference,  and  the 
 generally  greater  influence  alloAved,  in  all 
 the  various  courts,  to  laymen. 
 
 Camp  meetings,though  occasionally  held, 
 are  much  less  frequent  now  than  formerly : 
 the  people,  it  is  thought,  are  more  accessi- 
 ble than  50  years  ago  to  other  agencies. 
 
 BIBLE   CHRISTIANS. 
 
 The  "  Bible  Christians "  (sometimes 
 called  Bryanites)  are  included  here  among 
 the  Methodist  communities,  more  from  a 
 reference  to  their  sentiments  and  polity 
 than  to  their  origin.  The  body,  indeed, 
 was  not  the  result  of  a  secession  from  the 
 Methodist  Connexion,  but  was  rather  the 
 origination  of  a  new  community,  which,  as 
 it  gi'ew,  adopted  the  essential  principles  of 
 Methodism. 
 
 The  founder  of  the  body  was  Mr.  William 
 O'Bryan,  a  Wesleyan  local  preacher  in 
 Cornwall,  who,  in' 1815,  separated   from 
 
METHODISTS. 
 
 499 
 
 the  Wesleyans,  and  began  himself  to  form 
 societies  upon  the  Methodist  ])kin.  In  a 
 very  few  years  considerable  advance  ■was 
 made,  and  throufj^hout  Devonsliire  and 
 Cornwall  many  societies  were  established ; 
 so  that,  in  1819,  there  were  nearly  30 
 itinerant  preachers.  In  that  year,  the  first 
 Conference  was  held,  when  the  Connexion 
 was  divided  into  1 2  circuits,  Mr.  O'Bryan 
 withdrew  from  the  body  in  1829. 
 
 In  doctrinal  profession  there  is  no  dis- 
 tinction between  "  Bible  Christians  "  and 
 the  various  bodies  of  Arminian  ^Methodists. 
 
 The  forms  of  public  worship,  too,  are  of 
 the  same  simple  character ;  but,  in  the 
 administration  of  the  sacrament  of  the 
 Lord's  supper,  ''  it  is  usual  to  receive  the 
 elements  in  a  sitting  posture,  as  it  is  be- 
 lieved   that    that   practice   is   more   con- 
 
 formable to  the  posture  of  body  in  which 
 it  was  at  first  received  by  Christ  s  apostles, 
 than  kneeling;  but  persons  are  at  liberty 
 to  kneel,  if  it  be  more  suitable  to  their 
 views  and  feelings  to  do  so."  , 
 
 According  to  the  Census  returns,  the 
 number  of  chapels  belonging  to  the  body 
 in  England  and  AVales  in  1851  was  482; 
 by  far  the  greater  number  being  situated 
 in  the  south-western  counties  of  England. 
 The  number  of  sittings,  (after  adding  an 
 estimate  for  42  im])erfect  returns,)  was 
 66,834.  The  attendance  on  the  Census 
 Sunday  was  :  3Iornitff/,  14,002;  Afternoon, 
 24,345  ;  Evcni)if/,  34,61 2 ;  an  estimate  being 
 made  for  eight  chapels  the  number  of  at- 
 tendants at  which  was  not  stated  in  the 
 returns.  The  Minutes  of  Conference  for 
 1852  present  the  follov\'ing  view: — 
 
 Chapels  . 
 
 Itinerant  Ministers 
 Local  Preachers 
 Members 
 
 In  Home 
 
 In  Circuits. 
 
 Missionary 
 Stations. 
 
 Total. 
 
 293 
 
 110 
 
 •103 
 
 61 
 
 52 
 
 113 
 
 711 
 
 315 
 
 1,0.39 
 
 10,146 
 
 .3,716 
 
 13,862 
 
 THE   WESLEYAN  METHODIST  ASSOCIATION. 
 
 In  1834  a  controversy  was  originated  as 
 to  the  propriety  of  the  proposed  establish- 
 ment of  a  Wesleyan  Theological  Institu- 
 tion ;  and  a  minister  who  disapproved  of 
 such  a  measure,  and  prepared  and  publish- 
 ed some  remarks  against  it,  was  expelled 
 from  the  Connexion.  Sympathizers  with 
 him  were  in  similar  manner  expelled. 
 
 The  "Association"  differs  from  the  "Old 
 Connexion"  only  Avith  regard  to  the  spe- 
 cific subjects  of  dispute  which  caused  the 
 rupture.  The  only  variations,  therefore, 
 are  in  constitutional  arrangements,  and 
 the  principal  of  these  are  as  follows  : — 
 
 The  Annual  Assembly  (answering  to  the 
 Old  Wesleyan  Conference)  is  distinguished 
 by  the  introduction  of  the  laity  as  represent- 
 atives. It  consists  of  such  of  the  itinerant 
 and  local  preachers,  and  other  official  or 
 private  members,  as  the  circuits,  societies, 
 or  churches  in  union  with  the  Association 
 (and  contributing  £50  to  the  support  of 
 the  ministry)  elect.  The  number  of  repre- 
 sentatives is  regulated  by  the  number  of 
 constituents.  Circuits  with  less  than  500 
 members  send  one  ;  those  with  more  than 
 500  and  less  than  1 ,000  send  two ;  and 
 such  as  have  more  than  1,000  send  three. 
 The  Annual  Assembly  admits  persons  on 
 trial  as  preachers,  examines  them,  receives 
 them  into  full  connexion,  appoints  them  to 
 their  circuits,  and  excludes  or  censures 
 2  K  2 
 
 them  when  necessary.  It  also  directs  the 
 application  of  all  General  or  Connexional 
 Funds,  and  appoints  a  committee  to  repre- 
 sent it  till  the  next  Assembly.  But  it  does 
 not  interfere  with  strictly  local  matters, 
 for  "  each  circuit  has  the  right  and  power 
 to  govern  itself  by  its  local  courts,  with- 
 out any  interference  as  to  the  management 
 of  its  internal  affairs." 
 
 As  was  to  be  expected  from  the  reason 
 of  its  origin,  the  Association  gives  more 
 influence  to  the  laity  in  matters  of  Church 
 discipline  than  is  permitted  by  the  Old 
 Connexion.  Therefore  it  is  provided,  that 
 "  no  member  shall  be  expelled  from  the 
 Association  except  by  the  direction  of  a 
 majority  of  a  leaders'  society  or  circuit 
 quarterly  meeting." 
 
 According  to  the  Minutes  of  the  17th 
 Annual  Assembly,  the  following  was  the 
 state  of  the  Association  in  England  and 
 Wales  in  1852,  no  allov>-ance  having,  how- 
 ever, been  made  for  several  incomplete 
 returns  : — 
 
 Itinerant  preaclicrs  and  mis- 
 sionaries ....  00 
 Local  preachers  .  .  .  1,016 
 Class  leaders  ....  1,353 
 Members  in  society  .  .  19,411 
 Cliapels  .  '.  .  .  329 
 Preaching  places,  rooms,  &c.  171 
 Sunday  schools  .  .  .  322 
 Sunday-school  teachers  .  6,842 
 Sunday-school  scholars  .         .  43,389 
 
500 
 
 METHODISTS. 
 
 The  Census  Returns  make  mention  of 
 419  chapels  and  preaching  rooms,  contain- 
 ing^ (after  an  estimate  for  the  sittings  in  34 
 cases  of  deficient  information)  accommoda- 
 tioi:^  for  98,813  persons.  /The  attendance 
 on  the  Census  Sunday  (making  an  allow- 
 ance for  five  chapels,  the  returns  from 
 which  are  silent  on  this  point)  was :  Morn- 
 inq,  32,308;  Afternoon,  21,140;  Evening, 
 46,655. 
 
 WESLEYAN   METHODIST   REFORMERS, 
 
 In  1849,  another  of  the  constantly  re- 
 curring agitations  with  respect  to  minis- 
 terial authority  in  matters  of  Church  disci- 
 pline arose,  and  still  continues.  Some 
 parties  having  circulated  through  the  Con- 
 nexion certain  anonymous  pamphlets  called 
 "  Fly  Sheets,"  in  which  some  points  of 
 Methodist  procedure  were  attacked  in  a 
 manner  offensive  to  the  Conference,  that 
 body,  with  a  view  to  ascertain  the  secret 
 authors,  (suspected  to  be  ministers,)  adopt- 
 ed the  expedient  of  tendering  to  every 
 minister  in  the  Connexion  a  "Declaration," 
 reprobating  the  obnoxious  circulars,  and 
 repudiating  all  connexion  with  the  author- 
 ship. Several  ministers  refused  submission 
 to  this  test,  as  being  an  unfair  attempt  to 
 make  the  offending  parties  criminate  them- 
 selves, and  partaking  of  the  nature  of  an 
 Inquisition.  The  Conference,  however, 
 held  that  such  a  method  of  examination 
 was  both  Scripturally  proper,  and  accord- 
 ant with  the  usages  of  Methodism ;  and 
 the  ministers  persisting  in  their  opposition 
 were  expelled.  This  stringent  measure 
 caused  a  great  sensation  through  the  va- 
 rious societies,  and  meetings  were  convened 
 to  sympathize  with  the  excluded  ministers. 
 The  Conference,  however,  steadily  pursued 
 its  policy — considered  all  such  meetings 
 violations  of  Wesleyan  order — and,  acting 
 through  the  superintendent  ministers  in  all 
 the  circuits,  ])unished  by  expulsion  every 
 member  -who  attended  them.  In  conse- 
 quence of  this  proceeding,  the  important 
 question  was  again,  and  with  increased 
 anxiety,  debated, — whether  the  admission 
 and  excision  of  Church  members  is  exclu- 
 sively the  duty  of  the  minister,  or  whether, 
 in^  the  exercise  of  such  momentous  disci- 
 pline, the  other  members  of  the  Church 
 liave  not  a  right  to  share. 
 
 The  agitation  on  these  questions  (and 
 on  some  collateral  ones  suggested  natur- 
 ally by  these)  is  still  prevailing,  and  has 
 grown  extremely  formidable.  It  is  calcu- 
 lated that  the  loss  of  the  Old  Connexion,  by 
 expulsions  and  withdraAvals,  now  amounts 
 to  100,000  members.  The  Reformers  have 
 not  yet  ostensibly  seceded,  and  can  there- 
 
 fore not  be  said  to  form  a  separate  Con- 
 nexion. They  regard  themselves  as  still 
 Wesleyan  Methodists,  illegally  expelled, 
 and  they  demand  the  restoration  of  all 
 preachers,  officers,  and  members  Avho  have 
 been  excluded.  In  the  mean  time,  they 
 have  set  in  operation  a  distinct  machinery 
 of  Methodism,  framed  according  to  the 
 plan  which  they  consider  ought  to  be 
 adopted  by  the  parent  body.  In  their  oAvn 
 returns  it  is  represented  that  they  had  in 
 1852,  2000  chapels  or  preaching  places, 
 and  2800  preachers. 
 
 At  the  time  of  the  Census,  in  March 
 1852,  the  movement  was  but  in  its  infancy; 
 so  that  the  returns  received,  though  pos- 
 sibly an  accurate  account  of  the  then  con- 
 dition of  the  body,  will  fail  to  give  an 
 adequate  idea  of  its  present  state.  From 
 these  returns  it  seems  there  were  at  that 
 time  339  chapels  in  connexion  with  the 
 movement ;  having  accommodation  (after 
 estimates  for  51  defective  schedules)  for 
 67,814  persons.  The  attendance  on  the 
 Census  Sunday  (making  an  allowance  for 
 five  cases  where  the  numbers  were  not 
 given)  was  as  follov.s :  Morning,  30,470 ; 
 Afternoon,  16,080  ;  Evening,  44',953. 
 
 CALYINISTIC   METHODISTS. 
 
 George  Whitfield,  born  in  1714,  the  son 
 of  an  innkeeper  at  Gloucester,  where  he 
 acted  as  a  common  drawer,  was  admitted 
 as  a  servitor  in  Pembroke  College,  Oxford, 
 in  1732.  Being  then  the  subject  of  re- 
 ligious impressions,  to  which  the  evil  cha- 
 racter of  his  early  youth  lent  force  and 
 poignancy,  he  naturally  was  attracted  to 
 those  meetings  for  religious  exercises  which 
 the  brothers  Wesley  had  a  year  or  tAvo  be- 
 fore originated.  After  a  long  period  of 
 mental  anguish,  and  the  practice,  for  some 
 time,  of  physical  austerities,  he  ultimately 
 found  relief  and  comfort ;  and,  resolving 
 to  devote  himself  to  the  labours  of  the 
 ministry,  was  admitted  into  holy  orders  by 
 the  bishop  of  Gloucester.  Preaching  in 
 various  churches  previous  to  his  embark- 
 ation for  Georgia,  whither  he  had  deter- 
 mined to  follow  Mr.  Wesley,  his  uncommon 
 force  of  oratory  was  at  once  discerned,  and 
 scenes  of  extraordinary  popular  commotion 
 were  displayed  wherever  he  appeared.  In 
 1737  he  left  for  Georgia,  just  as  Wesley 
 had  returned.  He  ministered  with  much 
 success  among  the  settlers  for  three  months, 
 and  then  came  back  to  England,  for  the 
 purpose  of  procuring  aid  towards  the 
 foundation  of  an  orphan  house  for  the 
 colony.  The  same  astonishing  sensation 
 was  created  by  his  preaching  as  before  ; 
 tlie  churches  overflowed  Avith  eager  audi- 
 
METHODISTS. 
 
 501 
 
 tors,  and  crowds  would  sometimes  stand 
 outside.  PerceivinfT  that  no  edifice  was 
 large  enough  to  hold  the  numbers  who 
 desired  and  pressed  to  hear  him,  he  began 
 to  entertain  the  thought  of  ])reaching  in 
 the  open  air  ;  and  Avhen,  on  visiting  IJristol 
 shortly  after,  all  tlie  pulpits  were  denied 
 to  him.  he  carried  his  idea  into  practice, 
 and  commenced  his  great  experiment  by 
 preaching  to  the  colliers  at  Kingswood. 
 His  hrst  audience  numbered  about  200  ; 
 the  second,  12000  ;  the  third,  4000  ;  and  so 
 from  ten  to  fourteen  and  to  twenty  thou- 
 sand. Such  success  encouraged  similar 
 attempts  in  London  ;  and  accordingly, 
 when  the  churchwardens  of  Islington  for- 
 bade his  entrance  into  the  pulpit,  which 
 the  vicar  had  offered  him,  he  preached  in 
 the  churchyard ;  and,  deriving  more  and 
 more  encouragement  from  his  success,  he 
 made  ]Moorfields  and  Kennington  Common 
 the  scenes  of  his  impassioned  eloquence, 
 and  there  controlled,  persuaded,  and  sub- 
 dued assemblages  of  thirty  and  forty  thou- 
 sand of  the  rudest  auditors.  He  again 
 departed  for  Georgia  in  1748,  foimded 
 there  the  orphan  house,  and,  requiring 
 funds  for  its  support,  again  returned  to 
 England  in  ITol. 
 
 Up  to  this  period,  Wesley  and  Whitfield 
 had  harmoniously  laboured  in  conjunc- 
 tion ;  but  there  now  arose  a  difference  of 
 sentiment  between  them  on  the  doctrine 
 of  election,  which  resulted  in  their  separa- 
 tion. Whitfield  held  the  Calvinistic  tenets, 
 Wesley  the  Arminian  ;  and  their  difference 
 proving,  after  some  discussion,  to  be  quite 
 irreconcilable,  they  thenceforth  each  pur- 
 sued a  different  path.  Mr.  Wesley  steadily 
 and  skilfully  constructing  the  elaborate 
 machinery  of  Wesleyan  Methodism  ;  and 
 Whitfield  following  his  plan  of  field  itiner- 
 ancy, with  a  constant  and  amazing  popu- 
 larity, but  making  no  endeavour  to  origin- 
 ate a  sect.  He  died  in  New  England  in 
 1769,  at  the  age  of  55. 
 
 His  followers,  however,  and  those  of 
 other  eminent  evangelicals  who  sympathized 
 with  his  proceedings,  gradually  settled 
 into  separate  religious  bodies,  principally 
 under  two  distinctive  a])pellations  ;  one,  the 
 "  Countess  of  Huntingdon's  Connexion," 
 and  the  other,  the  "  Welsh  Calvinistic 
 Methodists."  These,  in  fact,  are  now  the 
 only  sections  which  survive  as  individual 
 communities  ;  for  most  of  Whitfield's  con- 
 gregations, not  adopting  any  connexional 
 bond,  but  existing  as  independent  churches, 
 gradually  became  absorbed  into  the  Con- 
 gregational body. 
 
 THE   COUNTESS   OF   HUNTINGDON'S 
 CONNEXION. 
 
 Selina,  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Ferrers, 
 and  widow  of  the  Earl  of  Huntingdon,  was 
 one  of  those  on  whom  the  preaching  of 
 Whitfield  made  considerable  im])ression. 
 In  1748  he  l)ecame  her  chaplain;  and  by 
 his  advice  she  assumed  a  kind  of  leader- 
 ship over  his  followers,  erected  chapels, 
 engnged  ministers  or  laymen  to  ofHciate 
 in  them,  and  founded  a  college  at  Tre- 
 vecca  in  South  AVales,  for  the  education 
 of  Calvinistic  preachers.  After  her  death, 
 this  college  was,  in  1792,  transferred  to 
 Cheshunt,  (Herts,)  and  there  it  still  exists. 
 
 The  doctrines  of  the  Connexion  are  al- 
 most identical  with  those  of  the  Church  of 
 England,  and  the  form  of  Avorship  does  not 
 materially  vary ;  for  the  liturgy  is  gener- 
 ally employed,  though  extemporary  prayer 
 is  frequent. 
 
 Although  the  name  "Connexion"  is  still 
 used,  there  is  no  combined  or  federal  ec- 
 clesiastical government  prevailing.  The 
 Congregational  polity  is  practically  adopt- 
 ed ;  and  of  late  years,  several  of  the  con- 
 gregations have  become,  in  name  as  well 
 as  virtually.  Congregational  churches. 
 
 The  number  of  chapels  mentioned  in  the 
 Census  as  belonging  to  this  Connexion,  or 
 described  as  "  English  Calvinistic  Method- 
 ists," Avas  109,  containing  (after  an  allow- 
 ance for  the  sittings  in  five  chapels,  the 
 returns  for  which  are  defective)  accom- 
 modation for  38,727  persons.  The  attend- 
 ants on  the  Census  Sunday  (making  an 
 estimated  addition  for  seven  chapels,  the 
 returns  from  which  were  silent  on  the 
 point)  were:  3Iuniinf/,  21, 10'6  ;  Afternoon, 
 4380;  Evenhuj,  19,159. 
 
 WELSH   CALVINISTIC   METHODISTS. 
 
 The  great  revival  of  religion  commenced 
 in  England  by  Wesley  and  Whitfield  had 
 been  preceded  by  a  similar  event  in  AA^'ales. 
 The  principal  agent  of  its  introduction 
 there  was  Howel  Harris,  a  gentleman  of 
 Trevecca,  in  Brecknockshire,  who,  with  a 
 view  to  holy  orders,  had  begun  to  study 
 at  Oxford,  but,  offended  at  the  immorality 
 there  prevalent,  had  quitted  college,  and 
 returned  to  Wales.  He  shortly  afterwards 
 began  a  missionary  labour  in  that  country, 
 going  from  house  "to  house,  and  i)reaching 
 in  the  open  air.  A  great  excitement  was 
 l)roduced;  and  multitudes  attended  his 
 discourses.  To  sustain  the  religious  feel- 
 ing thus  awakened,  Mr.  Harris,  about  the 
 year  1730,  instituted  "  Private  Societies," 
 similar  to  those  which  Wesley  was,  about 
 the  same  time,  though  without  communi- 
 
502 
 
 METHODISTS. 
 
 cation,  forming  in  England.  By  17o9  he 
 had  established  about  300  such  societies 
 in  South  Wales.  At  first,  he  encountered 
 much  hostility  from  magistrates  and  mobs ; 
 but  after  a  time  his  -work  was  taken  up  by 
 several  ministers  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
 land ;  one  of  ^vhom,  the  lieverend  Daniel 
 llowlands,  of  Llangeitho,  Cardigan,  had 
 such  a  reputation,  that  "  persons  have 
 been  known  to  come  100  miles  to  hear 
 him  preach  on  the  sabbaths  of  his  ad- 
 ministering the  Lord's  sui)per;"  and  he 
 had  no  less  than  2000  communicants  m 
 his  church.  In  1742,  10  clergymen  were 
 assisting  in  the  movement,  and  40  or  50 
 lay  preachers.  The  first  chapel  was  erect- 
 ed' in  1747,  at  Builth  in  Brecknockshire. 
 
 In  the  mean  time.  North  Wales  began  to 
 be  in  similar  manner  roused  ;  and,  in  spite 
 of  considerable  persecution,  many  members 
 were  enrolled,  and  several  chapels  built. 
 The  Rev.  Thomas  Charles,  of  Bala,  one  of 
 the  founders  of  the  British  and  Foreign 
 Bible  Society,  was,  towards  the  termination 
 of  the  century,  a  prominent  instrument 
 in  effecting  this  result. 
 
 The  growth  of  the  movement,  both  in 
 North  and  South  Wales,  was  extremely 
 rapid ;  but  the  process  of  formation  into  a 
 separate  body  was  more  gradual  and  slow. 
 At  first,  as  several  of  the  most  conspicuous 
 labourers  were  clergymen  of  the  Established 
 Church,  the  sacraments  were  admmistered 
 exclusively  by  them ;  but,  as  converts 
 multiplied,  the  numlser  of  evangelical 
 clergymen  was  found  inadequate  to  the 
 occasion  :  many  members  were  obliged  to 
 seek  communion  with  the  various  dissent- 
 ing bodies;  till,  at  last,  in  1811,  12  among 
 the  Methodist  preachers  were  ordained,  at 
 a  considerable  Conference,  and  from  that 
 time  forth  the  sacraments  were  regularly 
 administered  by  them  in  their  own  chapels, 
 and  the  body  assumed  distinctly  the  appear- 
 ance of  a  separate  Connexion. 
 
 A  county  in  AYales  corresponds  with  a 
 Wesleyan  "  Circuit,''  or  to  a  Scottish 
 Presbytery.  All  the  Church  officers  with- 
 in a  county,  whether  preachers  or  leaders 
 of  private  societies,  are  members  of  the 
 "  Monthly  Meeting"  of  the  county.  The 
 province  of  this  meeting  is  to  superintend 
 both  the  spiritual  and  secular  condition  of 
 the  societies  within  the  county. 
 
 The  "  Quarterly  Association  "  performs 
 all  the  functions  of  the  Wesleyan  "  Confer- 
 ence," or  of  the  "  Synod"  amongst  Presby- 
 terians. There  are  two  meetings  held 
 every  quarter ;  one  in  North  Wales,  and 
 the  other  in  South  Wales.  The  Associa- 
 tion consists  of  all  the  preachers  and 
 leaders    of  private  societies  in  the    Con- 
 
 nexion. "  At  every  Association,  the  whole 
 Connexion  is  supposed  to  be  present 
 through  its  representatives,  and  the  de- 
 cisions of  this  meeting  are  deemed  sufficient 
 authority  on  every  subject  relating  to  the 
 body  through  all  its  branches.  It  has  the 
 j)rerogative  to  superintend  the  cause  of 
 Christ  among  the  Welsh  Calvinistic  Me- 
 thodists through  Wales  and  England,  to 
 inquire  into  the  affairs  of  all  the  private 
 and  monthly  societies,  and  to  direct  any 
 changes  or  alterations  which  it  may  think 
 requisite."  It  is  at  this  meeting  that  the 
 ministers  are  selected  who  are  to  administer 
 the  sacraments. 
 
 The  ministers,  among  the  Welsh  Calvin- 
 istic ISIethodists,  are  itinerant.  They  are 
 selected  by  the  private  societies,  and  re- 
 ported to  the  monthly  meetings,  which 
 examine  into  their  qualifications,  and  per- 
 mit them  to  commence  on  trial.  A  certain 
 number  only,  who  must  previously  have 
 been  preachers  for  at  least  five  years,  are 
 ordained  to  administer  the  sacraments, 
 and  this  ordination  takes  place  at  the 
 Quarterly  Associations.  The  preachers 
 are  ajjpointed  each  to  a  particular  county ; 
 but  generally  once  in  the  course  of  a  year 
 they  undertake  a  missionary  tour  to  distant 
 parts  of  Wales,  when  they  preach  twice 
 every  day,  on  each  occasion  at  a  different 
 chapel.  Their  remuneration  is  derived 
 from  the  monthly  pence  contributed  by  the 
 members  of  each  congregation ;  out  of 
 which  fund  a  trifling  sum  is  given  to  them 
 after  every  sermon.  In  1837,  a  college  for 
 the  education  of  ministers  was  established 
 at  Bala,  and  in  1842  another  was  establish- 
 ed at  Trevecca. 
 
 The  doctrines  of  the  Welsh  Calvinistic 
 Methodists  may  be  inferred  from  the 
 appellation  of  the  body,  and  be  said  to 
 be  substantially  accordant  with  the  Articles 
 of  the  Established  Church,  interpreted  ac- 
 cording to  their  Calvinistic  sense. 
 
 The  number  of  chapels  returned  at  the 
 Census  as  pertaining  to  the  body  was  828 ; 
 containing  (after  an  estimate  for  53  chapels 
 which  made  no  return  of  sittings)  accom- 
 modation for  211,951  persons.  The  at- 
 tendance on  the  Census  Sunday  was :  Morn- 
 imj,  79,728;  Afternoon,  59,140;  Evening, 
 125,244.  It  is  computed  that  the  body 
 have  expended  in  the  erection  and  repairs 
 of  their  chapels,  between  the  year  1747  and 
 the  present  time,  a  sum  amounting  to 
 nearly  a  million  sterling.  From  the 
 '■^  Dyddiadwr  MeiJiodistaidd^'  for  1853  we 
 learn  that  the  number  of  ministers  was 
 207,  and  of  preachers  234.  The  number 
 of  communicants  was  stated  on  the  same 
 authority  at  58,577. 
 
METROPOLITAN. 
 
 MILLENARIANS. 
 
 503 
 
 The  principal  societies  supported  by  the 
 Connexion  are  *hose  connected  with  Home 
 and  Foreign  Missions;  the  contributions 
 to  which  amount  to  about  £3000  a  year. 
 The  operations  of  the  Home  Mission  are 
 carried  on  among  the  English  population 
 inhabiting  the  borders  between  England 
 and  "Wales.  The  Foreign  Mission  has  a 
 station  in  Brittany  (north-west  of  France) 
 — the  language  of  that  country  being  a 
 sister  dialectof  the  Welsh— and  stations  at 
 Cassay  and  Sylhet  in  India,  the  presidency 
 of  Bengal. 
 
 METROPOLITAN.  (Sec  Archbishop, 
 Bishop.)  The  bishop  who  presides  over  the 
 other  bishops  of  a  province.  The  writers 
 of  the  Latin  Church  use  promiscuously  the 
 words  archbishop  and  metropolitan,  mak- 
 ing either  name  denote  a  bishop,  who,  by 
 virtue  of  his  see,  presides  over  or  governs 
 several  other  bishops.  Thus  in  England 
 the  archbishops  of  Canterbury  and  York, 
 and  in  Ireland  the  archbishops  of  Armagh 
 and  Dublin,  are  metropolitans.  But  the 
 Greeks  use  the  name  only  to  denote  him 
 whose  see  is  really  a  civil  metropolis. 
 There  are  some  bishops  in  our  Church  who 
 are  metropolitans  without  the  title  of  arch- 
 bishop, viz.  the  bishops  of  Calcutta  and 
 Svdnev. 
 
 "MICHAEL,  ST.,  AND  ALL  ANGELS. 
 A  festival  of  the  Christian  Church  ob- 
 served on  the  29th  of  September. 
 
 The  Scripture  account  of  ]Michael  is  ; 
 that  he  was  an  archangel,  who  presided 
 over  the  Jewish  nation,  as  other  angels  did 
 over  the  Gentile  world,  as  is  evident  of 
 the  kingdoms  of  Persia  and  Greece ;  that 
 he  had  an  army  of  angels  under  his  com- 
 mand ;  that  he  fought  with  the  dragon,  or 
 Satan  and  his  angels ;  and  that,  contend- 
 ing with  the  devil,  he  disputed  about  the 
 body  of  ]\Ioses. 
 
 As  to  the  combat  between  ISIichael  and 
 the  dragon,  some  authors  understand  it 
 literally,  and  think  it  means  the  expulsion 
 of  certain  rebellious  angels,  with  their 
 head  or  leader,  from  the  presence  of  God. 
 Others  take  it  in  a  figurative  sense,  and 
 refer  it,  either  to  the  contest  that  happened 
 at  Rome  between  St.  Peter  and  Simon 
 Magus,  in  which  the  apostle  prevailed  over 
 the  magician ;  or  to  those  violent  perse- 
 cutions, under  which  the  Church  laboured 
 for  three  hundred  years,  and  which  ha])- 
 pily  ceased  Avhen  the  powers  of  the  world 
 became  Christian. 
 
 The  contest  about  the  body  of  Moses  is, 
 likewise,  taken  both  literally  and  figur- 
 atively. Those  who  understand  it  liter- 
 ally are  of  opinion,  tliat  Michael,  by  the 
 order  of  God,  hid  the  body  of  Moses  after 
 
 his  death,  and  that  the  devil  endeavoured 
 to  discover  it,  as  a  fit  means  to  entice  the 
 people  to  idolatry  by  a  superstitious  wor- 
 ship of  his  relics.  But  this  dispute  is 
 figuratively  understood  to  be  a  controversy 
 about  rebuilding  the  temjjle,  and  restoring 
 the  service  of  God  among  the  Jews  at  Je- 
 rusalem, the  Jewish  Church  being  fitly 
 enougli  styled  "  the  body  of  Moses."  It 
 is  thought  by  some  that  this  story  of  the 
 contest  between  Michael  and  the  devil 
 was  taken  by  St.  Jude  out  of  an  apocryphal 
 book,  called  "  The  Assumption  of  Moses." 
 —  liroiKiJtton. 
 
 MILITANT.  (From  milifcms,  "fight- 
 ing.'') A  term  applied  to  the  Church  on  earth, 
 as  engaged  in  a  warfare  with  the  world,  sin, 
 and  the  devil ;  in  distinction  from  the 
 Church  triumpJtant  in  heaven.  It  is  used 
 in  the  prefatory  sentence  of  the  prayer 
 after  the  Ofibrtory  in  our  Communion 
 Service,  and  was  first  inserted  in  the 
 Second  Book  of  King  Edward  VI. 
 
 MILLENARIANS  and  :MILLENNI- 
 UM.  A  name  which  is  given  to  those 
 who  believe  that  Christ  will  reign  person- 
 ally for  a  thousand  years  upon  earth,  their 
 designation  being  derived  from  the  Latin 
 words,  mille,  "  a  thousand,"  and  annus,  "  a 
 year."  In  the  words  of  Greswell,  avc  may 
 define  their  doctrine  and  expectation,  ge- 
 nerally, as  the  belief  of  a  second  personal 
 advent  or  return  of  our  LoKD  Jesus 
 CiiiilsT,  some  time  before  the  end  of  the 
 present  state  of  things  on  the  earth  ;  a  re- 
 surrection of  a  part  of  the  dead  in  the 
 body,  concurrently  with  that  return  ;  the 
 establishment  of  a  kingdom,  for  a  certain 
 length  of  time,  upon  earth,  of  which  Jesus 
 Christ  will  be  the  sovereign  head,  and 
 good  and  holy  men  who  lived  under  the 
 Mosaic  dispensation  before  the  gospel  wra, 
 or  have  lived  under  the  Christian,  since, 
 Avhether  previously  raised  to  life,  or  found 
 alive  in  the  flesh  at  the  time  of  the  return, 
 will  be  the  subjects,  and  in  some  manner  or 
 other  admitted  to  a  share  of  its  privileges. 
 This  is  what  is  meant  by  the  doctrine 
 of  the  Millennium  in  general :  the  fact  of  a 
 return  of  Jesus  Christ  in  person  before 
 the  end  of  the  world  ;  of  a  first  or  particu- 
 lar resurrection  of  the  dead  ;  of  a  reign  of 
 Christ,  with  all  saints,  on  the  earth  ;  and 
 all  this  before  the  present  state  of  things 
 is  at  an  end,  and  before  time  and  sense, 
 whose  proper  period  of  being  is  commen- 
 surate with  the  duration  of  the  present 
 state  of  tilings,  have  given  place  to  spirit 
 and  eternity  in  heaven. 
 
 The  Millenarian,  says  the  same  learned 
 writer,  Mr.  Greswell,  expects  the  follow- 
 inir  events,  and  as  far  as  he  can  infer  their 
 
504 
 
 MILLENARIANS. 
 
 MINIMS. 
 
 connexion,  in  the  following  order,  though 
 that  is  not,  in  every  instance,  a  point  of 
 paramount  importance,  or  absolute  cer- 
 tainty, on  Avhich  room  for  the  possibility  of 
 a  different  succession  of  particulars  may 
 not  be  allowed  to  exist. 
 
 First,  a  personal  reappearance  of  the 
 prophet  Elijah,  before  any  second  advent 
 of  Jesus  Christ. 
 
 Secondly,  a  second  advent  of  Jesus 
 Christ  in  person,  before  his  coming  to 
 judgment  at  the  end  of  the  Avorld. 
 
 Thirdly,  a  conversion  of  the  Jews  to 
 Christianity,  collectively,  and  as  a  nation. 
 
 Fourthly,  a  resurrection  of  part  of  the 
 dead,  such  as  is  called,  by  way  of  distinc- 
 tion, "  the  resurrection  of  the  just." 
 
 Fifthly,  the  restitution  of  the  kingdom 
 to  Israel,  including  the  appearance  and 
 manifestation  of  the  Messiah  to  the  Jews, 
 in  the  character  of  a  temporal  monarch. 
 
 Sixthly,  a  conformation  of  this  king- 
 dom to  a  state  or  condition  of  society  of 
 Avhich  Christ  Avill  be  the  head,  and  faith- 
 ful believers,  both  Jews  and  Gentiles,  will 
 be  the  members. 
 
 A  distribution  of  rewards  and  dignities 
 in  it,  proportioned  to  the  respective  merits 
 or  good  deserts  of  the  receivers. 
 
 A  resulting  state  of  things,  which  though 
 transacted  upon  earth,  and  adapted  to  the 
 nature  and  conditions  of  a  human  society 
 as  such,  leaves  nothing  to  be  desired  for 
 its  perfection  and  happiness. 
 
 Bishop  Newton,  in  his  "  Dissertations  on 
 the  Prophecies,"  says,  with  reference  to  the 
 millennium,  when  these  great  events  shall 
 come  to  pass,  of  Avhich  we  collect  from  the 
 prophecies,  this  is  to  be  the  proper  order : 
 the  Protestant  witnesses  shall  be  greatly 
 exalted,  and  the  1260  years  of  their  pro- 
 phesying in  sackcloth,  and  of  the  tyranny 
 of  the  beast,  shall  end  together  ;  the  con- 
 version and  restoration  of  the  Jews  suc- 
 ceed; then  follows  the  ruin  of  the  Ottoman 
 empire  ;  and  then  the  total  destruction 
 of  Rome  and  of  antichrist.  When  these 
 great  events,  I  say,  shall  come  to  pass, 
 then  shall  the  kingdom  of  Christ  com- 
 mence, or  the  reign  of  the  saints  upon 
 earth.  So  Daniel  expressly  informs  us 
 that  the  kingdom  of  Christ  and  the  saints 
 Avill  be  raised  upon  the  ruins  of  the  king- 
 dom of  antichrist  (vii.  26,  27).  "  But  the 
 judgment  shall  sit,  and  they  shall  take  away 
 his  dominion,  to  consume  and  to  destroy 
 it  unto  the  end  ;  and  the  kingdom  and  do- 
 minion, and  the  greatness  of  the  kingdom 
 under  the  whole  heaven,  shall  be  given  to 
 the  people  of  the  saints  of  the  ]\Iost  High, 
 whose  kingdom  is  an  everlasting  kingdom, 
 and  all    dominions  shall   serve  and  obey 
 
 him."  So  likewise  St.  John  saith,  that,  upon 
 the  final  destruction  of  the  beast  and  the 
 false  prophet,  (Rev.  xx.,)  "  Satan  is  bound 
 for  a  thousand  years  :  and  I  saw  thrones, 
 and  they  sat  upon  them,   and  judgment 
 was  given  unto  them  ;  and  I  saw  the  souls 
 of  them  that  were  beheaded  for  the  witness 
 of  Jesus  Christ  and  for  the  word  of  God, 
 which  had  not  worshipped  the  beast,  nei- 
 ther his  image,  neither  had  received  his 
 mark  upon   their    foreheads   or   in   their 
 hands:  and  they  lived  and  reigned  with 
 Christ  a  thousand  years.     But  the  rest  of 
 the  dead  lived  not  again  imtil  the  thousand 
 years  were  finished.     This  is  the  first  re- 
 surrection."   It  is,  I  conceive,  to  these  great 
 events,  the  fall  of  antichrist,  the  re-estab- 
 lishment of  the  Jews,  and  the  beginning  of 
 the  glorious  millennium,  that  the  three  dif- 
 ferent dates  in  Daniel  of  1260  years,  1290 
 years,  and  1335  years,  are  to  be  referred. 
 And  as  Daniel  saith,  (xii.  12,)   "Blessed 
 is  he  that  waiteth  and  cometh  to  the  1335 
 years;"  so  St.  John  saith,    (Rev.  xx.  6,) 
 "  Blessed  and  holy  is  he  that  hath  part  in 
 the  first  resurrection."     Blessed  and  happy 
 indeed  will  be  this  period :  and  it  is  very 
 observable  that  the  martyrs  and  confessors 
 of  Jesus,  in  Papist  as  well  as  Pagan  times, 
 will  be  raised  to  partake  of  this  felicity. 
 Then  shall  all  those  gracious  promises  in 
 the  Old  Testament  be  fulfilled,  of  the  am- 
 plitude and  extent,  of  the  peace  and  pros- 
 perity, of  the  glory  and  happiness  of  the 
 Church  in  the  latter  days.     "  Then,"  in  the 
 full  sense  of  the  words,  (Rev.  xi.  15,)  "  shall 
 the  kingdoms  of  this  world  become  the 
 kingdoms  of  our  LoRD,  and  of  his  Christ, 
 and  he  shall  reign  for  ever  and  ever."     Ac- 
 cording to  tradition,  these  thousand  years 
 of  the  reign  of  Christ  and  the  saints  will 
 be  the  seventh  millenary  of  the  world  ;  for 
 as  God  created  the  world  in  six  days,  and 
 rested  on  the  seventh,  so  the  world,  it  is 
 argued,  will  continue  six  thousand  years, 
 and  the  seventh  thousand  Avill  be  the  great 
 Sabbatism,  or  holy  rest  of  the  people  of 
 God  ;  "  One  day  (2  Pet.  iii.  8)  being  with 
 the  Lord  as  a  thousand  years,  and  a  thou- 
 sand years  as  one  day."     According  to  tra- 
 dition,  too,  these  thousand  years  of  the 
 reign  of  Christ  and  the   saints  are  the 
 great "  day  of  judgment,"  in  the  morning  or 
 beginning  whereof  shall  be  the  coming  of 
 Christ  in  flaming  fire,  and  the  particular 
 judgment  of  antichrist  and  the  first  resur- 
 rection ;  and  in  the  evening  or  conclusion 
 whereof  shall  be  the  general  resurrection 
 of  the  dead,  "  small  and  great ;   and  they 
 shall  be  judged,  every  man,  according  to 
 their  works ! " 
 
 MINIMS.     A   religious  order,  in  the 
 
MINOR  CANONS. 
 
 505 
 
 Church  of  Rome,  whose  founder  was  St. 
 Francis  de  PauUi,  so  called  from  the  place 
 in  Calabria,  where  he  was  born  in  lilG. 
 
 He  composed  his  rule  in  1493,  and  it 
 was  approved  by  Pope  Alexander  VI.,  at 
 the  recommendation  of  the  king  of  France. 
 This  pontiff  changed  the  name  of  Hermits 
 of  St.  Francis,  which  these  monks  bore, 
 into  that  of  ^Minims,  (the  Leas*.)  because 
 they  called  themselves  in  humility  3Iini»n 
 Fr aires  Ercinitce,  and  gave  them  all  the 
 privileges  of  the  religious  mendicant  or 
 begging  friars.  In  1507,  the  holy  founder 
 of  this  order  died,  at  the  age  of  ninety-one 
 years,  and  was  canonized  by  Pope  Leo  X., 
 in  1519.  His  body  was  preserved  in  the 
 church  of  the  convent  of  Plessis,  until  the 
 Huguenots,  in  15(52,  dragged  it  out  of  its 
 tomb,  and  burnt  it  with  the  wood  of  a 
 crucifix  belonging  to  the  church.  His 
 bones,  however,  were  saved  out  of  the  fire 
 by  some  zealous  Catholics  who  mixed  with 
 the  Calvinist  soldiers,  and  were  distributed 
 afterwards  among  several  churches. 
 
 This  order  is  divided  into  thirty-one 
 provinces,  of  Avhich  twelve  are  in  Italy, 
 eleven  in  France  and  Flanders,  seven  in 
 Spain,  and  one  in  Germany.  It  has,  at 
 present,  about  450  convents.  The  Minims 
 have  passed  even  into  the  Indies,  where 
 there  are  some  convents  which  do  not  com- 
 pose provinces,  but  depend  immediately 
 on  the  general. 
 
 A'Miat  more  particularly  distinguishes 
 these  monks  from  all  others,  is  the  observ- 
 ation of  what  they  call  the  quadragesimal 
 life,  that  is,  a  total  abstinence  from  flesh, 
 and  everything  which  has  its  origin  from 
 flesh,  as  eggs,  butter,  cheese,  excepting  in 
 case  of  great  sickness.  By  this  means  they 
 make  the  year  one  continued  Lent  fast. 
 Their  habit  is  coarse  black  woollen  stuff, 
 with  a  woollen  girdle  of  the  same  colour, 
 tied  in  five  knots.  They  are  not  permitted 
 to  quit  their  habit  and  girdle  night  nor 
 day.  Formerly  they  went  barefooted,  but 
 for  these  last  hundi-ed  years  they  have 
 been  allowed  the  use  of  shoes. 
 
 :\IL\()]i  CANONS.  Priests  in  colle- 
 giate churches,  next  in  rank  to  the  canons 
 and  prebendaries,  but  not  of  the  chapter, 
 who  are  responsible  for  the  performance  of 
 the  daily  service.  In  cathedi-als  of  the  old 
 foundation,  they  are  not  often  found,  their 
 duties  being  generally  performed  there  by 
 priest-vicars.  There  are  minor  canons  at 
 St.  Patrick's,  Hereford,  and  Chichester, 
 and  formerly  were  at  Salisbury  ;  and  at  all 
 those  places  there  are  priest-vicars  also  : 
 twelve  minor  canons  at  St.  Paul's,  and 
 seven  at  Windsor,  where  there  are  only  lay- 
 vicars  besides.     It  appears  from  the  ori- 
 
 ginal statutes  of  St.  Patrick's  and  St. 
 I'aul's,  that  the  minor  canons  held  a  mid- 
 dle place  between  the  canons  and  vicars  ; 
 and  that  besides  their  attendance  on  the 
 daily  service,  they  were  required  to  take 
 the  place  of  the  major  canons  when  re- 
 quired. At  Hereford,  they  are  responsible 
 for  the  reading  of  the  daily  prayers,  the 
 vicars  choral  for  the  Litany  and  lessons ; 
 which  seems  to  mark  this  office  as  being 
 more  presbyteral  than  that  of  the  vicars. 
 
 As  the  number  of  minor  canons  is  ge- 
 nerally but  four  or  five,  (at  St.  Patrick's  sta- 
 tutably  six,  though  there  never  have  been 
 more  than  ibur,)  it  would  api)ear  as  if 
 these  oflices  were  originally  instituted  to 
 supply  the  place  of  the  four  junior  canons, 
 whose  proper  duty  it  was  to  ])erform  the 
 daily  service  of  the  choir.  Thus,  in  the 
 Causes  Celebrcs,  viii.  345,  on  remarking  on 
 the  constitution  of  the  cathedral  of  Ver- 
 dun, it  is  stated  that,  "  par  le  service  de 
 choDur,  on  entend  I'obligation  des  quati'e 
 chanonies  qui  sont  dans  les  ordres  sacres, 
 de  porter  la  chappe,  ct  de  faire  chocur  tons 
 les  jours  de  I'annee  a  leur  tour.  Cette 
 fonction  ])enible  a  deja  ete  retranchee ; 
 elle  a  ete  exercee  par  des  chapelains, 
 gages  par  les  nouveaux  chanonies,"  &c. 
 Chaplain  and  minor  canon  are  convertible 
 terms  in  many  churches  abroad,  as  at  St. 
 Peter's  at  Home,  Avhere  there  are  fifty 
 minor  canons  or  chaplains.  {Eustace's 
 Classical  Tour.  At  Kouen  there  were 
 eight  3Ioinclees  Chanonies.  They  were 
 elsewhere  called  semi  (or  demi)  prebend- 
 aries. 
 
 The  minor  canons  of  St.  Paul  and  of 
 St.  Patrick  form  corporate  bodies,  and  had 
 their  common  hall  and  collegiate  build- 
 ings in  ancient  times.  There  is  also  a 
 college  of  vicars-choral  at  St.  Patrick's. 
 At  Hereford  the  minor  canonries  are  held 
 by  priest-vicars ;  but  they  have  separate 
 estates,  as  minor  canons,  with  designa- 
 tion, like  prebendaries,  for  their  individual 
 stalls. 
 
 In  the  cathedrals  of  the  new  foundation 
 there  are  no  priest-vicars,  but  all  the  in- 
 ferior clerical  members  are  minor  canons. 
 They  ought  to  be  all  priests,  and  skilled 
 in  church  music,  according  to  the  statutes, 
 a  qualification  required  by  the  laws  of  all 
 cathedrals.  Formerly  the  minor  canons 
 were  more  numerous  than  now,  being  com- 
 mensurate to  the  number  of  the  prebend- 
 aries :  e.  g.  twelve  at  Canterbury,  twelve 
 at  Durham,  ten  at  AA'orcester :  a  number 
 by  no  means  too  great  for  the  due  and 
 solemn  performance  of  the  service.  They 
 were  in  fact,  but  not  in  name,  the  vicars 
 of  tlic  prebendaries. — Jcbh. 
 
oO( 
 
 MINISTER. 
 
 MIRACLE. 
 
 MINISTER.  This  is  the  Latin  term  to 
 designate  that  officer  who  is  styled  deacon 
 in  Greek.  The  term  was  applied  generally 
 to  the  clergy  about  the  time  of  the  great 
 rebellion,  since  which  time  it  has  been  used 
 to  denote  the  preacher  of  any  religion. 
 Joseph  Mede  protested  against  our  calling 
 presbyters  ministers  of  the  Church,  or  of 
 such  or  such  a  parish :  we  should  call 
 them,  he  observes,  ministers  of  God,  or 
 ministers  of  CiiKiST,  not  ministers  of  men, 
 because  they  are  only  God's  ministers,  who 
 sends  them,  but  the  people's  pastors,  to 
 teach,  instruct,  and  oversee  them.  Were  it 
 not  absurd  to  call  the  shepherd  the  sheep's 
 minister  ?  The  word  has,  however,  obtained 
 such  general  currency,  that  it  would  be 
 pedantic  to  refuse  to  use  it.  The  word 
 seems  generally  to  imply  an  assistant, 
 whether  presbyteral  or  diaconal,  in  Divine 
 service.  Thus  in  the  statutes  of  the  cathe- 
 drals of  the  new  foundation,  the  minor 
 canons  and  other  members  of  the  choir 
 are  called  minister.  These  represent  the 
 deacons,  readers,  chanters,  &c.  of  the  an- 
 cient Church. 
 
 Some  trace  of  the  division  of  the  service 
 between  the  superior  and  inferior  clergy, 
 (the  priest  and  the  deacon,)  is  perhaps  still 
 visible  in  our  liturgy.  The  word  minister 
 is  prefixed,  in  the  order  both  for  Morning 
 and  Evening  Prayer,  to  those  parts  of  the 
 service  only  where  there  is  exhortation,  or 
 in  which  the  people  audibly  join,  or  which 
 are  said  kneeling,  such  as  the  General 
 Confession,  Lord's  Prayer,  Apostles'  Creed, 
 and  Lesser  Litany.  Minister  also  occurs 
 in  one  of  the  rubrics  respecting  the  read- 
 ing of  the  lessons,  which  the  custom  of  the 
 Church,  both  Eastern  and  AYestern,  has 
 always  permitted  to  the  inferior  ministers. 
 The  word  priest  is  prefixed  to  the  absolu- 
 tion, and  to  all  those  prayers  which  the 
 clergyman  performs  standing ;  such  as  the 
 versicles  before  the  psalms,  beginning  at  the 
 Gloria  Patri,  and  those  before  the  collects. 
 To  the  collects  themselves  no  direction  is 
 prefixed.  There  are  a  few  exceptions 
 which  may  be  accounted  for. 
 
 MINOKESS.  A  nun  under  the  rule  of 
 St.  Clair. 
 
 MIRACLE.  An  efi"ect  that  does  not 
 follow  from  any  of  the  regular  laws  of 
 nature,  or  which  is  inconsistent  with  some 
 law  of  it,  or  contrary  to  the  settled  consti- 
 tution and  course  of  things :  accordingly, 
 all  miracles  pre-suppose  an  established 
 system  of  nature,  within  the  limits  of  which 
 they  operate,  and  with  the  order  of  which 
 they  disagree. 
 
 The  following  statement  is  true  beyond 
 controversy:— ?»lan  cannot,  in  the  present 
 
 constitution  of  his  mind,  believe  that  reli- 
 gion has  a  Divine  origin,  unless  it  be  ac- 
 companied with  miracles.  The  necessary 
 inference  of  the  mind  is,  that  if  an  Infinite 
 Being  act,  his  acts  will  be  superhuman  in 
 their  character ;  because  the  efi'ect,  reason 
 dictates,  will  be  characterized  by  the  nature 
 of  its  cause.  Man  has  the  same  reason  to 
 expect  that  God  will  perform  acts  above 
 human  power  and  knowledge,  that  he  has 
 to  suppose  the  inferior  orders  of  animals 
 will,  in  their  actions,  sink  below  the  poAver 
 and  wdsdom  which  characterize  human 
 nature.  For,  as  it  is  natural  for  man  to 
 perform  acts  superior  to  the  power  and 
 knoAvledge  of  the  animals  beneath  him,  so 
 reason  affirms  that  it  is  natural  for  God  to 
 develope  his  power  by  means  and  in  ways 
 above  the  skill  and  ability  of  mortals. 
 Hence,  if  God  manifest  himself  at  all — 
 unless,  in  accommodation  to  the  capacities 
 of  men,  he  should  constrain  his  manifesta- 
 tions within  the  compass  of  human  ability 
 — every  act  of  God's  immediate  power 
 would,  to  human  capacity,  be  a  mu-acle. 
 But,  if  God  were  to  constrain  all  his  acts 
 within  the  limits  of  human  means  and 
 agencies,  it  would  be  impossible  for  man 
 to  discriminate  between  the  acts  of  the 
 Godhead  and  the  acts  of  the  manhood. 
 And  man,  if  he  considered  acts  to  be  of  a 
 Divine  origin  w'hich  were  plainly  within 
 the  compass  of  human  ability,  would 
 violate  his  own  reason. 
 
 Suppose,  for  illustration,  that  God 
 desired  to  reveal  a  religion  to  men,  and 
 wished  them  to  recognise  his  character  and 
 his  benevolence  in  giving  that  revelation. 
 Suppose,  further,  that  God  should  give 
 such  a  revelation,  and  that  every  appear- 
 ance and  every  act  connected  with  its  in- 
 troduction were  characterized  by  nothing 
 superior  to  human  power;  could  any  ra- 
 tional mind  on  earth  believe  that  such  a 
 system  of  religion  came  from  God  ?  Im- 
 possible !  A  man  could  as  easily  be  made 
 to  believe  that  his  own  child,  who  possessed 
 his  own  lineaments,  and  his  own  nature, 
 belonged  to  some  other  world,  and  some 
 other  order  of  the  creation.  It  would  not 
 be  possible  for  God  to  convince  men  that 
 a  religion  was  from  heaven,  unless  it  was 
 accompanied  with  the  marks  of  Divine 
 power. 
 
 Suppose,  again,  that  some  individual 
 were  to  appear  either  in  the  heathen  or 
 Christian  world — that  he  claimed  to  be  a 
 teacher  sent  from  God,  yet  aspired  to  the 
 performance  of  no  miracles — that  he  as- 
 sumed to  do  nothing  superior  to  the  wisdom 
 and  ability  of  other  men.  Such  an  indivi- 
 dual, although  he  might  succeed  in  gaining 
 
MIRACLE. 
 
 MISSAL. 
 
 507 
 
 proselytes  to  some  ])articulai  view  of  a 
 religion  already  believed,  yet  he  could 
 never  make  men  believe  that  he  had  a 
 special  commission  from  Goi)  to  establish 
 a  new  religion,  for  the  simple  reason  that 
 he  had  no  groinids  more  than  his  fellows, 
 to  support  his  claims  as  an  agent  of  the 
 Almighty.  But  if  he  coidd  convince  a 
 single  individual  that  he  had  wrought  a 
 miracle,  or  that  he  had  power  to  do  so, 
 that  moment  his  claims  would  be  estal)- 
 lished  in  that  mind  as  a  commissioned 
 agent  from  Heaven.  So  certainly  and  so 
 intuitively  do  the  minds  of  men  rerere  and 
 expect  miracles  as  the  credentials  of  the 
 Divine  presence. 
 
 This  demand  of  the  mind  for  miracles, 
 as  testimony  of  the  Divine  presence  and 
 power,  is  intuitive  with  all  men  ;  and  those 
 very  individuals  who  have  doubted  the 
 existence  or  necessity  of  miracles,  should 
 they  examine  their  own  convictions  on  this 
 subject,  would  see  that,  by  an  absolute 
 necessity,  if  they  desired  to  give  the  world 
 a  system  of  religion,  whether  truth  or  im- 
 posture, in  order  to  make  men  receive  it 
 as  of  Divine  authority,  they  must  work 
 miracles  to  attest  its  truth,  or  make  men 
 believe  that  they  did  so.  Men  can  produce 
 doubt  of  a  revelation  in  no  way  until  they 
 have  destroyed  the  evidence  of  its  miracles  ; 
 nor  can  faith  be  produced  in  the  Divine 
 origin  of  a  religion  until  the  evidence  of 
 miracles  is  supplied. 
 
 The  conviction  that  miracles  are  the 
 true  attestation  of  immediate  Divine  agency, 
 is  so  constitutional  (allow  the  expression) 
 with  the  reason,  that  so  soon  as  men 
 persuade  themselves  they  are  the  special 
 agents  of  God  in  propagating  some  parti- 
 cular truth  in  the  world,  they  adopt  like- 
 wise the  belief  that  they  have  ability  to 
 work  miracles.  There  have  been  many 
 sincere  enthusiasts,  who  believed  that  they 
 were  special  agents  of  Heaven ;  and,  in  such 
 cases,  the  conviction  of  their  own  miracu- 
 lous powers  arises  as  a  necessary  concomi- 
 tant of  the  other  opinion.  Among  such, 
 in  modern  times,  may  be  instanced  Ema- 
 nuel Swedenborg,  and  Irving,  the  Scotch 
 preacher.  Impostors  also,  perceiving  that 
 miracles  were  necessary  in  order  that  the 
 human  mind  should  receive  a  religion  as 
 Divine,  have  invariably  claimed  miraculous 
 powers.  Such  instances  recur  constantly 
 from  the  days  of  Elymas  down  to  the 
 Mormon,  Joseph  Smith. 
 
 All  the  multitude  of  false  religions  that 
 have  been  believed  since  the  world  began, 
 have  been  introduced  by  the  power  of  this 
 principle.  Miracles  believed,  lie  at  the 
 foundation  of  all  religions  which  men  have 
 
 ever  received  as  of  Divine  origin.  No 
 matter  liow  degrading  or  rei)ulsive  to 
 reason  in  other  respects,  the  fact  of  its 
 establishment  and  proi)agation  grows  out 
 of  the  belief  of  men  that  miraculous 
 agency  lies  at  the  bottom.  This  belief  will 
 give  currency  to  any  system,  however 
 absurd ;  and,  without  it,  no  system  can  be 
 established  in  the  minds  of  men,  however 
 high  and  holy  may  be  its  origin  and  its 
 design. 
 
 Such,  then,  is  the  constitution  which  the 
 Maker  has  given  to  the  mind.  A\'hether 
 the  conviction  be  an  intuition  or  an  in- 
 duction of  the  reason,  God  is  the  primary 
 cause  of  its  existence ;  and  its  existence 
 puts  it  out  of  the  power  of  man  to  receive 
 a  revelation  from  God  himself,  unless  ac- 
 companied with  miraculous  manifestations. 
 If,  therefore,  God  ever  gave  a  revelation 
 to  man,  it  was  necessarily  accompanied 
 with  miracles,  and  with  miracles  of  such  a 
 nature,  as  would  clearly  distinguish  the 
 Divine  character  and  the  Divine  authority 
 of  the  dispensation. — Plan  of  the  Philo- 
 sophy/ of  Sal  ration. 
 
 MIRACLES,  or  MIRACLE-PLAYS. 
 (See  Moralities.) 
 
 MISCHNA,  or  MISNA.  A  part  of  the 
 Jewish  Talmud.  From  a  word  which 
 signifies  repetition :  i.  e.  a  secondary  law. 
 It  is  believed  by  the  Jews  to  be  the  tradi- 
 tion delivered,  unwritten,  to  Moses  by 
 God  ;  and  preserved  only  by  the  doctors  of 
 the  synagogue  till  the  time  of  Rabbi  Judas 
 the  Holy,  who  committed  it  to  writing 
 about  A.  D.  180.  It  is  in  fact  the  canon 
 and  civil  law  of  the  Jews ;  treating  of 
 tithes,  festivals,  matrimonial  laws,  mercan- 
 tile laAvs,  idolatry,  oaths,  sacrifices,  and 
 purifications.  The  heads  of  the  syna- 
 gogue who  are  said  to  have  preserved  the 
 ]\Iischna,  were  thought  to  have  had  the 
 privilege  of  hearing  the  Bath- Col,  or 
 oracular  voice  of  GoD.  (See  Bath- Col.) 
 The  INIischna  contains  the  text;  and  the 
 Gemara,  which  is  the  second  part  of  the 
 Talmud,  contains  the  commentaries ;  so 
 that  the  Gemara  is,  as  it  were,  a  glossary 
 to  the  INIischna. 
 
 MISERERE.  The  scat  of  a  stall,  so 
 contrived  as  to  turn  up  and  down,  accord- 
 ing as  it  is  wanted  as  a  su])port  in  long 
 standing,  or  as  a  seat.  Misereres  are 
 almost  always  carved,  and  often  very 
 richly  ;  more  often,  too,  than  any  other 
 part  of  the  wood-work,  with  grotesques. 
 
 MISSAL.  (See  3Iass.)  In  the  Romish 
 Cliurch,  a  book  containing  the  services  of 
 the  mass  for  the  various  days  of  the  year. 
 In  the  ancient  Church,  the  several  parts  of 
 Divine  service  were   arranjrcd  in  distinct 
 
508 
 
 MISSION. 
 
 MODUS  DECIMANDI. 
 
 books.  Thus  the  collects  and  the  inva- 
 riable portion  of  the  Communion  Office 
 formed  the  book  called  the  Sacramentanj. 
 The  lessons  from  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
 ments constituted  the  Lectionary,  and  the 
 Gospels  made  another  volume,  with  the 
 title  of  Evamielistafium.  The  Antipho- 
 nary  consisted  of  anthems,  &c.  designed 
 for  chanting. 
 
 About  the  eleventh  or  twelfth  century 
 it  M'as  found  convenient,  generally,  to  unite 
 these  books,  and  the  volume  obtained  the 
 name  of  the  Complete  or  Plenary  3Iissal, 
 or  Book  of  Missie.  Of  this  description 
 were  almost  all  the  liturgical  books  of  the 
 Western  Churcbes,  and  the  arrangement  is 
 still  preserved  in  our  own.  —  Palmer's 
 Origines  Liticnjicce. 
 
 MISSION.  A  power  or  commission  to 
 preach  the  gospel.  Thus  our  blessed  Lord 
 gave  his  disciples  and  their  successors  the 
 bishops  their  mission,  when  he  said,  "  Go 
 ye  into  all  the  world,  and  preach  the  gospel 
 to  every  creature." 
 
 It  certainly  is  essential  that  the  true 
 ministers  of  God  should  be  able  to  prove 
 that  they  have  not  only  the  power,  but  the 
 right,  of  performing  sa"cred  offices.  There 
 is  _  an  evident  difference  between  these 
 things,  as  may  be  seen  by  the  following 
 cases.  If  a  regularly  ordained  priest  should 
 celebrate  the  eucharist  in  the  church  of 
 another,  contrary  to  the  will  of  that  per- 
 son and  of  the  bishop,  he  would  have  the 
 jwwer  of  consecrating  the  eucharist,  it  ac- 
 tually would  be  consecrated ;  but  he  would 
 not  have  the  riyht  of  consecrating ;  or,  in 
 other  words,  he  would  not  have  mission  for 
 that  act.  If  a  bishop  should  enter  the 
 diocese  of  another  bishop;  and,  contrary  to 
 his  will,  ordain  one  of  his  deacons  to' the 
 priesthood,  the  intruding  bishop  would  have 
 the  power,  but  not  the  right,  of  ordain- 
 ing; he  would  have  no  mission  for  such 
 an  act. 
 
 In  fact,  mission  fails  in  all  schismatical, 
 heretical,  and  uncanonical  acts,  because 
 God  cannot  have  given  any  man  a  right 
 to  act  in  opposition  to  those  laws  which  he 
 himself  has  enacted,  or  to  those  which  the 
 apostles  and  their  successors  have  insti- 
 tuted, for  the  orderly  and  peaceable  regu- 
 lation of  the  Church  :  he  "  is  not  the  author 
 of  confusion,  but  of  peace,  as  in  all  the 
 churches  of  the  saints"  (1  Cor.  xiv.  33); 
 and  yet,  were  he  to  commission  his  minis- 
 ters to  exercise  their  offices  in  Avhatever 
 places  and  circumstances  they  pleased,  con- 
 fusion and  division  without  end  must  be 
 the  iiieyitable  result. 
 
 Mission  can  only  be  given  for  acts  in 
 accordance  with  the  Divine  and  ecclesias- 
 
 tical laws,  the  latter  of  which  derive  their 
 authority  from  the  former ;  and  it  is  con- 
 ferred by  valid  ordination.  It  would  be 
 easy  to  prove  this  in  several  ways ;  but  it 
 is  enough  at  present  to  say,  that  no  other 
 method  can  be  pointed  out  by  which  mis- 
 sion is  given.  Should  the  ordination  be 
 valid,  and  yet  uncanonical,  mission  does 
 not  take  effect  until  the  suspension  imposed 
 by  the  canons  on  the  person  ordained  is  in 
 some  lawful  manner  removed. 
 
 Mr.  Palmer,  from  whom  the  above  re- 
 marks are  taken,  shows,  in  his  Origines 
 Litun/iccp,  that  the  English  bishops  and 
 clergy  alone  have  mission  in  England. 
 
 MISSIONARY.  A  clergyman,  whether 
 bishop,  priest,  or  deacon,  deputed  or  sent 
 out  by  ecclesiastical  authority,  to  preach 
 the  gospel,  and  exercise  his  other  func- 
 tions, in  places  where  the  Church  has 
 hitherto  been  unknown,  or  is  in  the  in- 
 fancy of  its  establishment. 
 
 MITPE.  The  episcopal  coronet.  From 
 Eusebius  it  seems  that  St.  John  wore  an 
 ornament  which  many  have  considered  to 
 be  a  mitre  {-n-kToXov). 
 
 The  most  ancient  mitres  were  very  low 
 and  simple,  being  not  more  than  from  three 
 to  six  inches  in  elevation,  and  they  thus 
 continued  till  the  end  of  the  thirteenth 
 century.  In  the  fourteenth  century  they 
 gradually  increased  in  height  to  a  foot  or 
 more,  and  became  more  superbly  enriched ; 
 their  contours  also  presented  a  degree  of 
 convexity  by  which  they  were  distinguished 
 from  the  older  mitres.  The  two  horns  of 
 the  mitre  are  generally  taken  to  be  an 
 allusion  to  the  cloven  tongues  as  of  fire, 
 which  rested  on  each  of  the  apostles  on  the 
 day  of  Pentecost. 
 
 jNIitres,  although  worn  in  some  of  the 
 Lutheran  Churches,  (as  in  Sweden,)  have 
 fallen  into  utter  desuetude  in  England, 
 even  at  coronations.  They  were  worn 
 however  at  the  coronations  of  Edward  VI. 
 and  Queen  Elizabeth.  See  Hiereugia 
 Anglicana,  p.  81,  et  seq.  In  which  work, 
 however,  at  p.  89,  there  is  an  assertion  of 
 Dr.  Milner's,  which  is  incorrect,  viz.  that 
 they  were  worn  at  the  coronation  of 
 George  III.  In  the  detailed  accounts  of 
 that  ceremony  (see  e.  g.  the  Annual  Re- 
 gister for  1761)  the  bishops  are  described 
 as  carrying  their  square  caps,  and  putting 
 them  on  when  the  lay  peers  assumed  their 
 coronets.  The  mitre  is  now  merely  an 
 heraldic  decoration,  and,  as  such,  occa- 
 sionally carried  at  funerals. 
 
 MODUS  DECDIANDI.  This  is  when 
 lands,  or  a  yearly  pension,  or  some  money 
 or  other  thing,  is  given  to  a  parson  in  lieu 
 of  his  tithes. 
 
MONASTERIES. 
 
 509 
 
 MONASTERIES.  Convents  or  houses 
 built  for  those  who  profess  the  monastic 
 life,  whether  abbeys,  priories,  or  nunneries. 
 (For  the  origin  of  monasteries,  sec  Abbey 
 and  Monk.) 
 
 In  their  first  institution,  and  in  their 
 subsequent  uses,  there  can  be  no  doubt 
 that  monasteries  were  amongst  the  most 
 remarkable  instances  of  Christian  munifi- 
 cence, and  they  certainly  Avere  in  the  dark 
 ages  among  the  beneficial  adaptations  of 
 the  talents  of  Christians  to  pious  and  cha- 
 ritable ends.  They  were  schools  of  edu- 
 cation and  learning,  where  the  children  of 
 the  great  received  their  education ;  and 
 they  were  hospitals  for  the  poor :  they  af- 
 forded also  a  retirement  for  the  worn-out 
 servants  of  the  rich  and  noble ;  they  pro- 
 tected the  calmer  s])irits,  who,  in  an  age  of 
 universal  warfare,  shrunk  from  conflict, 
 and  desired  to  lead  a  contemplative  life. 
 But  the  evils  which  grew  out  of  those  so- 
 cieties seem  quite  to  have  counterbalanced 
 the  good.  Being  often  exempted  from  the 
 authority  of  the  bishop,  they  became  hot- 
 beds of  ecclesiastical  insubordination  ;  and 
 were  little  else  but  parties  of  privileged 
 sectaries  within  the  Church.  The  tem])ta- 
 tions  arising  out  of  a  state  of  celibacy,  too 
 often  in  the  first  instance  enforced  by  im- 
 proper means,  and  always  bound  upon  the 
 members  of  these  societies  by  a  religious 
 voAV,  were  the  occasion  of  great  scandal. 
 And  the  enormous  Avealth  Avith  which  some 
 of  them  were  endowed,  brought  with  it  a 
 greater  degree  of  pride,  and  ostentation, 
 and  luxury,  than  was  becoming  in  Chris- 
 tians ;  and  still  more  in  those  who  had 
 vowed  a  life  of  religion  and  asceticism. 
 
 The  dissolution  of  houses  of  this  kind 
 began  so  early  as  the  year  1312,  when  the 
 Templars  were  suppressed ;  and,  in  1323, 
 then*  lands,  churches,  advowsons,  and  li- 
 berties, here  in  England,  were  given  by 
 17  Edward  II.  stat.  iii.  to  the  prior  and 
 brethren  of  the  hospital  of  St.  John  of 
 Jerusalem.  In  the  years  1390,  1437,  1441, 
 1459,  1497,  1505,  1508,  and  1515,  several 
 other  houses  were  dissolved,  and  their  re- 
 venues settled  on  different  colleges  in  Ox- 
 ford and  Cambridge.  Soon  after  the  last 
 period,  Cardinal  Wolsey,  by  licence  of  the 
 king  and  pope,  obtained  a  dissolution  of 
 above  thirty  religious  houses  for  the  found- 
 ing and  endowing  his  colleges  at  Oxford 
 and  Ipswich.  About  the  same  time  a 
 bull  was  granted  by  the  same  pope  to 
 Cardinal  "Wolsey  to  suppress  monasteries, 
 where  there  were  not  above  six  monks,  to 
 the  value  of  eight  thousand  ducats  a  year, 
 for  endoAving  AVindsor  and  King's  College 
 in  Cambridge ;  and  two  other  bulls  were 
 
 granted  to  Cardinals  Wolsey  and  Cam- 
 peius,  Avhere  there  were  less* than  twelve 
 monks,  to  annex  them  to  the  greater 
 monasteries  ;  and  another  bull  to  the  same 
 cardinals  to  inquire  about  abbeys  to  be 
 suppressed  in  order  to  be  made  cathedrals. 
 Although  nothing  appears  to  have  been 
 done  in  consequence  of  these  bulls,  the 
 motive  which  induced  Wolsey  and  many 
 others  to  suppress  these  houses,  Avas  the 
 desire  of  promoting  learning  ;  and  Arch- 
 bishop Cranmer  engaged  in  such  suppres- 
 sion Avith  a  vicAV  of  carrying  on  the  reform- 
 ation. There  Avere  other  causes  that  con- 
 curred to  bring  on  their  ruin  :  many  of  the 
 monks  Avere  loose  and  vicious  ;  they  Avere 
 generally  thought  to  be  in  their  hearts  at- 
 tached to  the  pope's  supremacy  ;  their  re- 
 venues Avere  not  employed  according  to  the 
 intent  of  the  donors ;  many  cheats  in  images, 
 feigned  miracles,  and  counterfeit  relics,  had 
 been  discovered,  Avhich  brought  the  monks 
 into  disgrace ;  the  Observant  friars  had 
 opposed  the  king's  divorce  from  Queen 
 Catharine  ;  and  these  circumstances  oper- 
 ated, in  concurrence  Avith  the  king's  Avant 
 of  a  supply,  and  the  people's  desire  to  save 
 their  money,  to  forAvard  a  motion  in  par- 
 liament, that,  in  order  to  support  the  king's 
 state,  and  supply  his  Avants,  all  the  reli- 
 gious houses  Avhich  Avere  not  able  to  spend 
 above  £200  a  year,  might  be  conferred 
 upon  the  CroAvn  ;  and  an  act  Avas  passed  for 
 that  purpose,  27  Henry  VIII.  c.  28.  By 
 this  act  about  380  houses  Avere  dissolved, 
 and  a  revenue  of  ^^30,000  or  £32,000  a 
 year  came  to  the  CroAvn  ;  besides  about 
 £200,000  in  plate  and  jcAvels.  The  sup- 
 pression of  these  houses  occasioned  dis- 
 content, and  at  length  an  open  rebellion  : 
 Avhen  this  Avas  appeased,  the  king  resolved 
 to  suppress  the  rest  of  the  monasteries, 
 and  appointed  a  ncAV  visitation,  Avhich 
 caused  the  greater  abbeys  to  be  surren- 
 dered apace  ;  and  it  Avas  enacted  by  31 
 Henry  VIII.  c.  13,  that  all  monasteries 
 Avhich  had  been  surrendered  since  the  4tli 
 of  February,  in  the  tAventy-sevcnth  year  of 
 his  ^Majesty's  reign,  and  Avhich  thereafter 
 should  be  surrendered,  sliould  be  vested  in 
 the  king.  The  knights  of  St.  John  of  Jeru- 
 salem Avere  also  suppressed  l)y  the  32nd 
 Henry  VIII.  c.  24.  The  suppression  of 
 these  greater  houses  by  these  tAvo  acts 
 produced  a  revenue  to  the  king  of  above 
 £100,000  a  year,  besides  a  large  sum  in 
 plate  and  jcAvels.  The  last  act  of  dissolu- 
 tion in  this  king's  reign  Avas  the  act  of  37 
 Henry  VIII.  c.  4,  for  dissolving  colleges, 
 free  chapels,  chantries,  &c.,  Avhich  act  Avas 
 further  enforced  by  1  EdAvard  VI.  c.  14. 
 ]iy  this   act  Avere  suppressed  90  colleges, 
 
510 
 
 MONASTERIES. 
 
 MONASTERY. 
 
 110  hospitals,  and  2374  chantries  and  free 
 chapels. 
 
 Whatever  were  the  offences  of  the  race 
 of  men  then  inhabitinp^  them,  this  destruc- 
 tion of  the  monasteries  -svas  nothing  less 
 than  sacrilege,  and  can  on  no  ground  be 
 justified,  they  were  the  property  of  the 
 Church ;  and  if,  while  the  Church  cast  off 
 divers  errors  in  doctr"ne  which  she  had 
 too  long  endured,  .she  had  been  permitted 
 to  purge  these  institutions  of  some  prac- 
 tical errors,  and  of  certain  flagrant  vices, 
 they  might  have  been  exceedingly  ser^^ce- 
 able  to  the  cause  of  religion.  Cranmer  felt 
 this  very  forcibly,  and  begged  earnestly  of 
 Henry  VIII.  that  he  Avould  save  some  of 
 the  monasteries  for  holy  and  religious  uses  ; 
 but  in  vain.  Ridley  also  was  equally 
 anxious  for  their  preservation.  It  is  a 
 mistake  to  suppose  that  the  monasteries 
 were  erected  and  endowed  by  Papists. 
 Many  of  them  were  endowed  before  most 
 of  the  errors  of  the  Papists  were  thought 
 of :  and  the  founders  of  abbeys  afterwards 
 built  and  endowed  them,  not  as  Papists, 
 but  as  churchmen ;  and  when  the  Church 
 became  pure,  she  did  not  lose  any  portion 
 of  her  right  to  such  endowments  as  were 
 always  made  in  supposition  of  her  purity. 
 (See' Num.  xviii.  32;  Lev.  xxv.  23,  24; 
 Ezek.  xlviii.  14.) 
 
 Although  much  of  the  confiscated  pro- 
 perty was  profligately  squandered  and  con- 
 sumed by  the  Russells,  the  Cavendishes, 
 &c.,  still,  out  of  the  receipts,  Henry  VIII. 
 founded  six  new  bishoprics,  viz.  those  of 
 AVestminster,  (which  was  changed  by  Queen 
 Elizabeth  into  a  deanery,  Avith  twelve  pre- 
 bends and  a  school,)  Peterborough,  Ches- 
 ter, Gloucester,  Bristol,  and  Oxford.  And 
 in  eight  other  sees  he  founded  deaneries 
 and  chapters,  by  converting  the  priors  and 
 monks  into  deans  and  prebendaries,  viz. 
 Canterbury,  "Winchester,  Durham,  AVor- 
 cester,  Rochester,  Norwich,  Ely,  and  Car- 
 lisle. He  founded  also  the  colleges  of 
 Christ  Church  in  Oxford,  and  Trinity  in 
 Cambridge,  and  finished  King's  College 
 there.  He  likewise  founded  professorships 
 of  divinity,  law,  physic,  and  of  the  Hebrew 
 and  Greek  tongues  in  both  the  said  univer- 
 sities. He  gave  the  house  of  Greyfriars 
 and  St.  Bartholomew's  Hospital  to  the  city 
 of  London,  and  a  perpetual  pension  to  the 
 poor  knights  of  Windsor,  and  laid  out 
 great  sums  in  building  and  fortifying  many 
 ports  in  the  Channel.  It  is  observable  that 
 the  dissolution  of  these  houses  was  an  act, 
 not  of  the  Church,  but  of  the  State,  in  the 
 period  preceding  the  Reformation,  by  a 
 king  and  parliament  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
 communion  in  all  points  except  the  king's 
 
 supremacy ;  to  which  the  po])e  himself,  by 
 his  bulls  and  licences,  had  led  the  way. 
 
 Of  the  monasteries  which  had  been 
 attached  to  cathedrals  before  the  Reforma- 
 tion, the  heads  were  called  Priors,  (which 
 ansAvered  to  dean,)  never  Abbots ;  as  the 
 bishop  was  considered  as  virtually  the 
 abbot.  The  bishop  of  Ely  actually  occu- 
 pied, as  he  still  docs,  the  abbot's  place  in 
 the  choir,  (i.  e.  the  stall  usually  assigned 
 by  the  dean,)  as  he  did  since  the  Reform- 
 ation at  Carlisle,  though  in  the  latter 
 place  he  had  a  throne  also.  Christ  Church 
 monastery  in  Dublin,  which  had  always 
 been  a  cathedral  chapter,  was  also  secu- 
 larized at  the  Reformation. 
 
 MONASTERY.  In  architectural  ar- 
 rangement, monastic  establishments,  whe- 
 ther abbeys,  priories,  or  other  convents, 
 followed  nearly  the  same  plan. 
 
 The  great  enclosure,  (varying,  of  course, 
 in  extent  with  the  wealth  and  importance 
 of  the  monastery,)  and  generally  with  a 
 stream  running  beside  it,  was  surrounded 
 by  a  wall,  the  principal  entrance  being 
 through  a  gateway  to  the  west  or  north- 
 west. This  gateway  was  a  considerable 
 building,  and  often  contained  a  chapel, 
 with  its  altar,  besides  the  necessary  ac- 
 commodation for  the  porter.  The  almerj/, 
 or  place  where  alms  were  distributed, 
 stood  not  far  Avithin  the  great  gate,  and 
 generally  a  little  to  the  right  hand :  there, 
 too,  was  often  a  chapel  Avith  its  altar.  Pro- 
 ceeding ouAvards  the  west  entrance  of  the 
 church  appeared.  The  church  itself  Avas 
 ahvays,  Avhere  it  received  its  due  develop- 
 ment, in  the  form  of  a  Latin  cross  ;  a  cross, 
 i.  e.  of  Avhich  the  transepts  are  short  in 
 proportion  to  the  nave.  Moreover,  in 
 Norman  churches,  the  eastern  limb  ncA'er 
 approached  the  nave  or  Avestern  limb  in 
 length.  Whether  or  no  the  reason  of  this 
 preference  of  the  Latin  cross  is  found  in 
 the  domestic  arrangements  of  the  monastic 
 buildings,  it  was  certainly  best  adapted  to 
 it;  for  the  nave  of  the  church  AA'ith  one 
 of  the  transepts  formed  the  Avhole  of  one 
 side  and  part  of  another  side  of  a  quad- 
 rangle ;  and  any  other  than  a  long  nave 
 Avould  have  involved  a  small  quadi-angle, 
 Avhile  a  long  transept  would  leave  too  little 
 of  another  side,  or  none  at  all,  for  other 
 buildings.  Hoav  the  internal  arrangements 
 Avere  affected  by  this  adaptation  of  the 
 nave  to  external  requirements,  Ave  have 
 seen  under  the  head  Cathedral,  to  AA-hich 
 also  Ave  refer  for  the  general  description 
 of  the  conventual  church. 
 
 Southward  of  the  church,  and  parallel 
 with  the  south  transept,  Avas  carried  the 
 western  range  of  the  monastic  offices ;  but 
 
MONASTERY. 
 
 MONKS. 
 
 511 
 
 it  will  be  more  convenient  to  examine 
 their  arranj^ement  within  the  court.  We 
 enter  then  by  a  door  near  the  west  end 
 of  the  church,  and  passing-  through  a 
 vaulted  passage,  find  ourselves  in  the 
 cloister  court,  of  which  the  nave  of  the 
 church  forms  the  northern  side,  the  transe])t 
 part  of  the  eastern  side  and  other  build- 
 ings, in  the  order  to  be  presently  described, 
 complete  the  quadrangle.  The  cloisters 
 themselves  extended  around  the  whole  of 
 the  quadrangle,  serving,  among  other  i)ur- 
 poses,  as  a  covered  way  from  every  part 
 of  the  convent  to  every  other  part.  They 
 were  furnished,  perhaps  always,  with  lava- 
 tories, on  the  decoration  and  construction 
 of  which  much  cost  Avas  expended  ;  and 
 sometimes  also  with  desks  and  closets  of 
 Avainscot,  which  served  the  purpose  of  a 
 scriptorium. 
 
 Commencing  the  circuit  of  the  cloisters 
 at  the  north-west  corner,  and  turning 
 southward,  we  have  first  the  donnitorr/,  or 
 dorter,  the  use  of  which  is  sufficiently  in- 
 dicated by  its  name.  This  occupied  the 
 whole  of  the  western  side  of  the  quad- 
 rangle, and  had  sometimes  a  groined  pas- 
 sage beneath  its  whole  length,  called  the 
 ambulatory,  a  noble  example  of  which,  in 
 perfect  preservation,  remains  at  Fountains. 
 The  south  side  of  the  quadrangle  contained 
 the  refectory,  Avith  its  correlative,  the 
 coquina  or  kitchen,  AA'hich  Avas  sometimes 
 at  its  side,  and  sometimes  behind  it.  The 
 refectory  w'as  furnished  Avith  a  pulpit,  for 
 the  reading  of  some  portion  of  Scripture 
 during  meals.  On  this  side  of  the  quad- 
 rangle may  also  be  found,  in  general,  the 
 locutorium,  or  parlour,  the  latter  Avord 
 being,  at  least  in  etymology,  the  full  equi- 
 valent of  the  former.  The  abbot's  lodge 
 commonly  commenced  at  the  south-east  cor- 
 ner of  the  quadrangle ;  but,  instead  of  con- 
 forming itself  to  its  general  direction,  rather 
 extended  eastAvard,  Avith  its  OAvn  chapel, 
 hall,  parlour,  kitchen,  and  other  offices,  in 
 a  line  parallel  Avith  the  choir  or  eastern 
 limb  of  the  church.  Turning  northAvards, 
 still  continuing  Avithin  the  cloisters,  aa'c 
 come  first  to  an  open  passage  leading  out- 
 Avards,  then  to  the  chapter-house,  or  its 
 vestibule ;  then,  after  another  open  pas- 
 sage, to  the  south  transept  of  the  church. 
 Immediately  before  us  is  an  entrance  into 
 the  church,  and  another  occurs  at  the 
 end  of  the  Avest  cloister. 
 
 The  parts  of  the  establishment  especially 
 connected  Avith  setrerarje,  were  built  over 
 or  close  to  the  stream ;  and  we  may  re- 
 mark that,  both  in  cbainage,  and  in  the 
 supply  of  AA-ater,  great  and  laudable  care 
 was  ahvavs  taken. 
 
 The  stream  also  turned  the  abbeij  tnill, 
 at  a  small  distance  from  the  monastery. 
 Other  offices,  such  as  st(d)li's,  hrvw-houscs, 
 bah-e-houses,  and  the  like,  in  the  larger 
 establishments,  usually  occupied  another 
 court ;  and,  in  the  smaller,  Avere  connected 
 Avith  the  chief  buildings  in  the  only  quad- 
 rangle. It  is  needless  to  say  that,  in  so 
 general  an  account,  Ave  cannot  enumerate 
 exceptional  cases.  It  may,  however,  be 
 necessary  to  say,  that  the  greatest  diff'er- 
 ence  of  all,  that  of  placing  the  quadrangle 
 at  the  north  instead  of  the  south  side  of 
 the  church,  is  not  unknoAvn  ;  it  is  so  at 
 Canterbury  and  at  lancoln,  for  instance. 
 
 The  subject  may  be  folloAved  out  in 
 the  several  plans  of  monasteries  scattered 
 among  our  topogra])hical  Avorks,  and  in  a 
 paper  read  by  ]\lr.  Bloxam  before  the  Bed- 
 fordshire Architectural  Society,  and  pub- 
 lished in  their  Report  for  ISoO. 
 
 MONKS.  The  Avord  monk,  being  de- 
 rived from  the  Greek  fiovog,  solus,  signifies 
 the  same  as  a  solitary,  or  one  Avho  lives 
 sequestered  from  the  company  and  con- 
 versation of  the  rest  of  the  Avorld,  and  is 
 usually  applied  to  those  Avho  dedicate 
 themselves  Avholly  to  the  service  of  reli- 
 gion, in  some  monastery  (as  it  is  called)  or 
 religious  house,  and  under  the  direction  of 
 some  particular  statutes,  or  rule.  Those 
 of  the  female  sex  who  devote  themselves 
 in  like  manner  to  a  religious  life,  are  called 
 nuns.     (See  Ninis.) 
 
 There  is  some  difference  in  the  sentiments 
 of  learned  men  concerning  the  original  and 
 rise  of  the  monastic  life.  But  the  most 
 probable  account  of  this  matter  seems  to 
 be  as  folloAvs : 
 
 Till  the  year  250,  there  Avere  no  monks, 
 but  only  ascetics,  in  the  Church.  (See 
 Ascetics.) 
 
 In  the  Decian  persecution,  Avhich  Avas 
 about  the  middle  of  the  third  centmy, 
 many  persons  in  Egypt,  to  avoid  the  fury 
 of  the  storm,  fled  to  the  neighbouring 
 deserts  and  mountains,  where  they  not 
 only  found  a  safe  retreat,  but  also  more 
 time  and  liberty  to  exercise  themselves  in 
 acts  of  piety  and  Divine  contemplations ; 
 AA'hich  sort  of  life  became  so  agreeable  to 
 them,  that  Avhen  the  persecution  Avas  over, 
 they  refused  to  return  to  their  habitations 
 again,  choosing  rather  to  continue  in  those 
 cottages  and  cells  Avhich  they  had  made  for 
 themselves  in  the  Avilderness. 
 
 The  first  and  most  noted  of  these  soli- 
 taries Avere  Paul  and  Anthony,  tAvo  famous 
 Egyptians,  Avhom  therefore  St.  Jerome  calls 
 the' fathers  of  the  Christian  hermits.  Some 
 indeed  carry  \\\)  the  original  of  the  monas- 
 tic life  as  high  as  John  Baptist  and  Elias. 
 
512 
 
 MONKS. 
 
 But  learned  men  generally  reckon  Paul 
 the  Thebsean,  and  Anthony,  as  the  first 
 promoters  of  this  way  of  living  among  the 
 Christians. 
 
 As  yet  there  were  no  bodies  or  commu- 
 nities of  men  embracing  this  life,  nor  any 
 .monasteries  built,  but  only  a  few  single 
 persons  scattered  here  and  there  in  the 
 deserts  of  Egypt,  till  Pachomius,  in  the 
 peaceable  reign  of  Constantine,  procured 
 some  monasteries  to  be  built  in  Thebais  in 
 Egypt,  from  whence  the  custom  of  living  in 
 societies  was  followed  by  degrees  in  other 
 parts  of  the  world,  and  in  succeeding  ages. 
 Macarius  peopled  the  Egyptian  desert 
 of  Scetis  with  monks.  Hilarion,  a  dis- 
 ciple of  Anthony's,  was  the  first  monk  in 
 Palestine  or  Sp'ia.  Not  long  after,  Eusta- 
 thius,  bishop  of  Sebaste,  brought^  mona- 
 chism  into  Armenia,  Paphlagonia,  and 
 Pontus.  But  St.  Basil  is  generally  con- 
 sidered as  the  great  father  and  patriarch 
 of  the  Eastern  monks.  It  was  he  who  re- 
 duced the  monastic  life  to  a  fixed  state  of 
 uniformity,  who  united  the  Anchorets  and 
 Coenobite's,  and  obliged  them  to  engage 
 themselves  by  solemn  vows.  It  was  St.  Basil 
 who  prescribed  rules  for  the  government  and 
 direction  of  the  monasteries,  to  which  rules 
 most  of  the  disciples  of  Anthony,  Pacho- 
 mius, and  Macarius,  and  the  other  ancient 
 fathers  of  the  deserts,  submitted.  And  to 
 this  day,  all  the  Greeks,  Nestorians,  Mel- 
 chites,  Georgians,  ]\Iingrelians,  and  Ar- 
 menians, follow  the  rule  of  St.  Basil. 
 
 The  monastic  profession  made  no  less 
 progress  in  the  West.  Athanasius,  bishop 
 of  Alexandria,  retiring  to  Rome,  about 
 the  year  339,  with  several  priests,  and 
 two  Egyptian  monks,  made  known  to 
 several  pious  persons  the  life  of  Anthony, 
 who  then  lived  in  the  desert  of  Thebais ; 
 upon  which  many  were  desirous  to  em- 
 brace so  holy  a  profession.  To  this  eff'ect 
 several  monasteries  were  built  at  Home, 
 and  this  example  was  soon  followed  all 
 over  Italy.  Benedict  of  Nursia  appeared 
 in  that  country  in  the  early  part  of  the 
 sixth  century,  and  published  his  rule,  which 
 was  universally  received  throughout  the 
 West;  for  which  reason  that  saint  was 
 styled  the  patriarch  of  the  Western  monks, 
 as  St.  Basil  was  of  the  Eastern. 
 
 France  owes  the  institution  of  the  mon- 
 astic life  to  St.  Martin,  bishop  of  Tours, 
 in  the  fourth  century ;  who  built  the  mon- 
 asteries of  Luguge  and  Marmontier.  The 
 Council  of  Saragossa,  in  Spain,  anno  380, 
 which  condemns  the  practice  of  clergy- 
 men, Avho  affected  to  wear  the  monastical 
 habits,  is  a  proof  that  there  were  monks 
 in  that  kingdom  in   the   fourth   century, 
 
 before  St.  Donatus  went  thither  out  of 
 Africa,  with  seventy  disciples,  and  founded 
 the  monaster)'  of  Sirbita. 
 
 Augustine,  being  sent  into  England  by 
 Gregory  the  Great,  in  the  year  596,  to 
 preach  the  faith,  at  the  same  time  intro- 
 duced the  monastic  state  into  this  king- 
 dom. It  made  so  great  a  progress  here, 
 that,  within  the  space  of  200  years,  there 
 were  thirty  kings  and  queens  who  pre- 
 ferred the  religious  habit  to  their  crowns, 
 and  founded  stately  monasteries,  where 
 they  ended  their  days  in  retu-ement  and 
 solitude. 
 
 The  monastic  profession  was  also  carried 
 into  Ireland  by  St.  Patrick,  who  is  looked 
 upon  as  the  apostle  of  that  kingdom,  and 
 multiplied  there  in  so  prodigious  a  man- 
 ner, that  it  was  called  the  Island  of  Saints. 
 — Brou(jJiton. 
 
 The  monastic  life  soon  made  a  veiy 
 great  progress  all  over  the  Christian  world, 
 llufinus,  who  travelled  through  the  East  in 
 373,  assures  us  there  were  almost  as  many 
 monks  in  the  deserts,  as  inhabitants  in  the 
 cities.  From  the  wilderness  (contrary  to 
 its  original  institution)  it  made  its  way 
 into  the  towns  and  cities,  where  it  multi- 
 plied greatly  :  for  the  same  author  informs 
 us,  that,  in  the  single  city  of  Oxirinca, 
 there  Avere  more  monasteries  than  private 
 houses,  and  above  30,000  monks. 
 
 The  ancient  monks  were  not,  like  the 
 modern,  distinguished  into  orders,  and  de- 
 nominated from  the  founders  of  them  ;  but 
 they  had  their  names  from  the  places  where 
 they  inhabited,  as  the  monks  of  Scetis, 
 Tahennesm,  Nitria,  Canopus  in  Egypt,  &'C. 
 or  else  were  distinguished  by  theh'  difl'erent 
 ways  of  living.  Of  these  the  most  re- 
 markable were, 
 
 1.  The  anchorets,  so  called  from  their  re- 
 tiring from  society,  and  living  in  private 
 cells  in  the  wilderness.     (See  Anclwrets.) 
 
 2.  The  Coenobites,  so  denominated  from 
 their  living  together  in  common.  (See 
 Cocnohitcs.) 
 
 All  monks  were,  originally,  no  more  than 
 laymen  :  nor  could  they  well  be  otherwise, 
 being  confined  by  their  own  rules  to  some 
 desert  or  wilderness  where  there  could  be 
 no  room  for  the  exercise  of  the  clerical 
 functions.  Accordingly  St.  Jerome  tells 
 us,  the  office  of  a  monk  is,  not  to  teach,  but 
 to  mourn.  The  Council  of  Chalcedon  ex- 
 pressly distinguislies  the  monks  from  the 
 clergy,  and  reckons  them  with  the  laymen. 
 Gratian  himself,  who  is  most  interested  for 
 the  moderns,  owns  it  to  be  plain  from  ec- 
 clesiastical history,  that  to  the  time  of 
 Pope  Sircius  and  Zosimus,  the  monks  were 
 only  mere  monks,  and  not  of  the  clerg5% 
 
MONKS. 
 
 513 
 
 In  some  cases,  however,  the  clerical  and 
 monastic  life  were  capable  of  being  con- 
 joined; as,  first,  when  a  monastery  ha])- 
 pened  to  be  at  so  great  a  distance  from  its 
 })roper  church,  that  the  monks  could  not 
 ordinarily  resort  thither  for  Divine  service, 
 which  was  the  case  of  the  monasteries  in 
 Egypt  and  other  parts  of  the  East.  In 
 this  case,  some  one  or  more  of  the  monks 
 were  ordained  for  the  performance  of  di- 
 vine offices  among  them.  Another  case,  in 
 which  the  clerical  and  monastic  life  were 
 united,  was,  when  monks  were  taken  out  of 
 monasteries  by  the  bisliops,  and  ordained 
 for  the  service  of  the  Church.  This  Avas 
 allowed,  and  encouraged,  when  once  mon- 
 asteries were  become  schools  of  learning 
 and  pious  education.  In  this  case  they 
 usually  continued  their  ancient  austerities  ; 
 and  upon  this  account  the  Greeks  styled 
 them  ifooiuovaxoi,  clergy-monks.  Thirdly, 
 it  happened  sometimes  that  a  bishop  and 
 all  his  clergy  embraced  the  monastic  life 
 by  a  voluntary  renunciation  of  property, 
 and  enjoyed  all  things  in  common.  Euse- 
 bius  Vercellensis  was  the  first  who  brought 
 in  this  way  of  living,  and  St.  Augustine 
 lived  thus  among  the  clergy  of  Hippo. 
 And  so  far  as  this  was  an  imitation  of 
 coenobitic  life,  and  having  all  things  in 
 common,  it  might  be  called  a  monastic  as 
 well  as  a  clerical  life. 
 
 The  Coenobites,  or  such  monks  as  lived 
 in  communities,  were  chiefly  regarded  by 
 the  CImrch,  and  were  therefore  under  the 
 direction  of  certain  laM's  and  rules  of 
 government,  of  which  we  shall  here  give  a 
 short  account.     And, 
 
 First,  All  men  were  not  allowed  to  turn 
 monks  at  pleasure,  because  such  an  in- 
 discriminate permission  would  have  been 
 detrimental  both  to  the  Church  and  State. 
 Upon  this  account  the  civil  laAV  forbids 
 any  of  those  officers  called  cun'alcs  to 
 become  monks,  unless  they  parted  with 
 their  estates  to  others,  who  might  serve 
 their  country  in  their  stead.  For  the 
 same  reason  servants  were  not  to  be  ad- 
 mitted into  any  monastery  without  their 
 masters'  leave.  Indeed,  Justinian  after- 
 wards abrogated  this  law  ])y  an  edict  of 
 his  own,  which  fii'st  set  servants  at  liberty 
 from  their  masters,  under  pretence  of  be- 
 taking themselves  to  a  monastic  life.  The 
 same  precautions  were  observed  in  regard 
 to  married  persons  and  children.  The 
 former  were  not  to  embrace  the  monastic 
 life,  unless  with  the  mutual  consent  of  both 
 parties.  This  precaution  was  afterwards 
 broke  through  by  Justinian ;  but  the 
 Church  never  approved  of  this  innovation. 
 As  to    children,    the    Council  of  Gangra 
 
 2    L 
 
 decreed  that  if  any  such,  under  pretence 
 of  religion,  forsook  their  ])arents,  they 
 should  be  anathematized.  Ikit  Justinian 
 enervated  the  force  of  this  law  likewise, 
 forbidding  parents  to  hinder  their  children 
 from  becoming  monks  or  clerks.  And  as 
 children  were  not  to  turn  monks  without 
 consent  of  their  parents,  so  neither  could 
 parents  oblige  their  children  to  embrace  a 
 monastic  life  against  their  own  consent. 
 But  the  fourth  Council  of  Toledo,  A.  D.  633, 
 set  aside  this  precaution,  and  decreed  that, 
 whether  the  devotion  of  their  j)arcnts,  or 
 their  own  ])rofession,  made  them  monks, 
 both  should  be  equally  binding,  and  there 
 should  be  no  permission  to  return  to  a 
 secular  life  again,  as  was  before  allowable, 
 when  a  parent  off"ered  a  child  before  he 
 was  capable  of  giving  his  own  consent. 
 
 The  manner  of  admission  to  the  monastic 
 life  was  usually  by  some  change  of  habit 
 or  dress,  not  to  signify  any  religious  mys- 
 tery, but  only  to  express  their  gravity  and 
 contempt  of  the  world.  Long  hair  was 
 always  thought  an  indecency  in  men,  and 
 savouring  of  secular  vanity ;  and  there- 
 fore they  polled  every  monk  at  his  ad- 
 mission, to  distinguish  him  from  seculars  ; 
 but  they  never  shaved  any,  for  fear  they 
 should  look  too  like  the  priests  of  Isis. 
 This,  therefore,  was  the  ancient  tonsure,  in 
 opposition  to  both  these  extremes.  As  to 
 their  habit  and  clothing,  the  rule  was  the 
 same :  they  were  to  be  decent  and  grave, 
 as  became  their  profession.  The  monks 
 of  Tabennesus,  in  Thebais,  seem  to  have 
 been  the  only  monks,  in  those  early  days, 
 v>'ho  were  confined  to  any  particular  habit. 
 St.  Jerome,  who  often  speaks  of  the  habit 
 of  the  monks,  intimates  that  it  diff'ered 
 from  others  only  in  this,  that  it  Mas  a 
 cheaper,  coarser,  and  meaner  raiment,  ex- 
 pressing their  humility  and  contempt  of 
 the  world,  without  any  singularity  or  af- 
 fectation. The  father  is  very  severe 
 against  the  practice  of  some  Mho  appeared 
 in  chains  or  sackcloth.  And  Cassian  blames 
 others  w^ho  carried  M'ooden  crosses  con- 
 tinually about  their  necks,  M'hich  M-as  only 
 proper  to  excite  the  laughter  of  the  spec- 
 tators. In  short,  the  Western  monks  used 
 only  a  common  habit,  the  philosophic 
 pallium,  as  many  other  Christians  did. 
 And  Salvian  seems  to  give  an  exact  de- 
 scription of  the  habit  and  tonsure  of  the 
 monks,  M^hen,  reflecting  on  the  Africans 
 for  their  treatment  of  them,  he  says,  "  they 
 could  scarce  ever  see  a  man  with  short 
 hair,  a  pale  face,  and  habited  in  a  pallium, 
 M'ithout  reviling,  and  bestoM'ing  some  re- 
 proachful language  on  him." 
 
 A^'c  read  of  no  solemn  vom^,  or  profes- 
 
514 
 
 MONKS. 
 
 sion,  required  at  their  admission  :  but  they 
 underwent  a  triennial  probation,  during 
 which  time  they  were  inured  to  the  exer- 
 cises of  the  monastic  life.  If,  after  that 
 time  was  expired,  they  chose  to  continue 
 the  same  exercises,  they  were  then  ad- 
 mitted without  any  further  ceremony  into 
 the  community.  This  was  the  method 
 prescribed  by  Pachomius,  the  father  of  the 
 monks  of  Tabennesus,from  which  all  others 
 took  their  model. 
 
 Nor  was  there,  as  yet,  any  solemn  vow 
 of  poverty  required  ;  though  it  Avas  cus- 
 tomary for  men  voluntarily  to  renounce  the 
 world  by  disposing  of  their  estates  to  cha- 
 ritable uses,  before  they  entered  into  a 
 community,  where  they  were  to  enjoy  all 
 things  in  common.  Nor  did  they,  after 
 renouncing  their  own  estates,  seek  to  en- 
 rich themselves,  or  their  monasteries,  by 
 begging,  or  accepting,  the  estates  of  others. 
 The  W'estern  monks  did  not  always  adhere 
 to  this  rule,  as  appears  from  some  Imperial 
 laws  made  to  restrain  their  avarice.  But 
 the  monks  of  Egypt  were  generally  just  in 
 their  pretensions,  and  would  accept  of  no 
 donations  but  for  the  use  of  the  poor. 
 Some,  indeed,  did  not  wholly  renounce  all 
 property,  but  kept  their  estates  in  their 
 own  hands,  the  whole  yearly  revenue 
 of  which  they  distributed  in  charitable 
 uses. 
 
 As  the  monasteries  had  no  standing 
 revenues,  all  the  monks  w^ere  obliged  to 
 exercise  themselves  in  bodily  labour  to 
 maintain  themselves,  without  being  bur- 
 densome to  others.  They  had  no  idle  men- 
 dicants among  them  •  they  looked  upon  a 
 monk  that  did  not  work  as  no  better  than 
 a  covetous  defrauder.  Sozomen  tells  us, 
 that  Serapion  presided  over  a  monastery 
 of  ten  thousand  monks,  near  Arsinoe  in 
 Egypt,  who  all  laboured  with  their  own 
 hands,  by  which  means  they  not  only 
 maintained  themselves,  but  had  enough  to 
 relieve  the  poor. 
 
 The  monasteries  were  commonly  divided 
 into  several  parts,  and  proper  officers  ap- 
 pointed over  each  of  them.  Every  ten 
 monks  were  subject  to  one,  wlio  was  called 
 the  decanus,  or  dcat},  from  his  presiding 
 over  ten ;  and  every  hundred  had  another 
 officer  called  centenarius,  from  his  presiding 
 over  a  hundi'ed.  Above  these  Avere  the 
 patreSf  or  fathers  of  the  monasteries,  called 
 likewise  abhates,  ahhots,  from  the  Greek 
 «/i3/3oc,  which  signifies  father  ;  and  hc(iii- 
 vieni  {I'jfiovfiivoi)  2'residc7iis  ;  and  anhi- 
 jiuindrites,  from  nuindni,  a  sheep-fold.  The 
 business  of  the  deans  was  to  exact  every 
 man's  daily  task,  and  bring  it  to  the  ccco- 
 nomas,  or  steward,  who  gave  a  morthly 
 
 account  thereof  to  the  father,  or  abbot. 
 (See  Ahhot.) 
 
 To  their  bodily  exercises  they  joined 
 others  that  w^ere  spiritual.  The  first  of 
 these  was  a  perpetual  repentance.  Upon 
 which  account  the  life  of  a  monk  is  often 
 styled  the  life  of  a  7nonrncr.  And  in  allu- 
 sion to  this,  the  isle  of  Canopus,  near 
 Alexandi-ia,  formerly  a  place  of  great 
 lewdness,  was,  upon  the  translation  and 
 settlement  of  the  monks  of  Tabennesus 
 there,  called  Insulce  3Ietanoece,  the  Isle  of 
 Repentance. 
 
 The  next  spiritual  exercise  was  extra- 
 ordinary fasting.  The  Egyptian  monks 
 ke])t  every  day  a  fast  till  three  in  the 
 afternoon,  excepting  Saturdays,  Sundays, 
 and  the  fifty  days  of  I'entecost.  Some 
 exercised  themselves  with  very  great  aus- 
 terities, fasting  two,  three,  four,  or  five 
 days  together ;  but  this  practice  was  not 
 generally  approved.  They  did  not  think 
 such  excessive  abstinence  of  any  use,  but 
 rather  a  disservice  to  religion.  Pacho- 
 mius's  rule,  which  was  said  to  be  given 
 him  by  an  angel,  permitted  every  man  to 
 eat,  drink,  and  labour,  according  to  liis 
 bodily  strength.  So  that  fasting  was  a 
 discretionary  thing,  and  matter  of  choice, 
 not  of  compulsion. 
 
 Their  fastings  were  accompanied  with 
 extraordinary  and  frequent  returns  of  de- 
 votion. The  monks  of  Palestine,  Meso- 
 potamia, and  other  parts  of  the  East,  had 
 six  or  seven  canonical  hours  of  prayer. 
 Besides  which  they  had  their  constant 
 vigils,  or  nocturnal  meetings.  The  monks 
 of  Egypt  met  only  twice  a  day  for  public 
 devotion  ;  but,  in  their  private  cells,  whilst 
 they  were  at  work,  they  were  always  re- 
 peating psalms,  and  other  parts  of  Scrip- 
 ture, and  intermixing  prayers  with  their 
 bodily  labour.  St.  Jerome's  description 
 of  their  devotion  is  very  lively :  "  When 
 they  are  assembled  together,  (says  that 
 father,)  psalms  are  sung,  and  the  Scriptures 
 read :  then,  prayers  being  ended,  they  all 
 sit  down,  and  the  father  begins  a  discourse 
 to  them,  which  they  hear  with  the  pro- 
 foundest  silence  and  veneration.  His 
 Avords  make  a  deep  impression  on  them ; 
 their  eyes  overfloAv  Avith  tears,  and  the 
 .speaker's  commendation  is  the  Aveeping  of 
 his  hearers.  Yet  no  one's  grief  expresses 
 itself  in  an  indecent  strain.  But  A\'hen  he 
 comes  to  speak  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven, 
 of  future  happiness,  and  the  glory  of  the 
 Avorld  to  come,  then  one  may  observe  each 
 of  them,  with  a  gentle  sigh,  and  eyes  lifted 
 up  to  heaven,  say  Avithin  himself,  *  Oh  that  I 
 had  the  wings  of  a  dove,  for  then  Avould 
 I  flee  aAvav,  and  be  at  rest ! ' "     In  some 
 
MONKS. 
 
 MONOTHELITES. 
 
 515 
 
 places,  they  had  the  Scriptures  read  during 
 their  meals  at  table.  This  custom  was 
 first  resorted  to  in  the  monasteries  of  Caj)- 
 padocia,  to  prevent  idle  discourses  and 
 contentions.  But  in  Egypt  they  had  no 
 occasion  for  this  remedy ;  for  they  were 
 taught  to  eat  theii'  meat  in  silence.  Pal- 
 ladius  mentions  one  instance  more  of  their 
 devotion,  which  was  only  occasional  ; 
 namely,  their  psalmody  at  the  reception 
 of  any  brethren,  or  the  conducting  them 
 with  singing  of  psalms  to  their  habitation. 
 
 The  laws  did  not  allow  monks  to  interest 
 themselves  in  any  public  affairs,  either 
 ecclesiastical  or  civil ;  and  those  who  were 
 called  to  any  employment  in  the  Church, 
 were  obliged  to  quit  their  monastery  there- 
 upon. Nor  were  they  permitted  to  en- 
 croach upon  the  duties,  or  rights  and  pri- 
 vileges, of  the  secvdar  clergy. 
 
 By  the  laws  of  their  first  institution,  in 
 all  parts  of  the  East,  their  habitation  was 
 not  to  be  in  cities,  or  places  of  public  con- 
 course, but  in  deserts,  and  private  retire- 
 ments, as  their  very  name  implied.  The 
 famous  monk  Anthony  used  to  say,  "  That 
 the  Avilderncss  was  as  natural  to  a  monk, 
 as  water  to  a  fish ;  and  therefore  a  monk 
 in  a  city  was  quite  out  of  his  element,  like 
 a  fish  upon  dry  land."  Theodosius  en- 
 acted, that  all  who  made  profession  of  the 
 monastic  life  should  be  obliged  by  the 
 civil  magistrate  to  betake  themselves  to 
 the  Avilderness,  as  their  proper  habitation. 
 Baroiiius,  by  mistake,  reckons  this  law  a 
 punishment,  and  next  to  a  persecution  of 
 the  monks.  Justinian  made  laws  to  the 
 same  purpose,  forbidding  the  Eastern 
 monks  to  appear  in  cijies ;  but,  if  they 
 had  any  business  of  concern  to  be  trans- 
 acted there,  they  might  do  it  by  their 
 Apocrisarii  or  Responsales,  that  is,  then* 
 proctors  or  syndics,  which  every  monas- 
 tery was  allowed  for  that  purpose. 
 
 But  this  rule  admitted  of  some  excep- 
 tions. As,  first,  in  times  of  common  danger 
 to  the  faith.  Thus  Anthony  came  to  Alex- 
 andria, at  the  request  of  Athanasius,  to 
 confute  the  Ai'ian  heresy.  Sometimes 
 they  thou_^ht  it  necessary  to  come  and  in- 
 tercede with  the  emperors  and  judges  for 
 condemned  criminals.  Thus  the  monks 
 in  the  neighbourhood  of  Antioch  forsook 
 their  cells,  to  intercede  with  the  emperor 
 Theodosius,  who  was  highly  displeased 
 with  that  city  for  demolishing  the  impe- 
 rial statues.  Afterwards,  indeed,  this  prac- 
 tice grew  into  an  al)use,  and  the  monks 
 were  not  contented  to  petition,  but  would 
 sometimes  come  in  great  bodies  or  troops, 
 and  deliver  criminals  by  force.  To  repress 
 which  tumultuous  way  of  proceeding,  Ar- 
 2  L  2 
 
 cadius  published  a  kw,  forbidding  any 
 such  attem])ts  under  very  severe  penalties. 
 
 As  the  monks  of  the  ancient  Church 
 were  under  no  solemn  voav  or  ])rofession, 
 they  were  at  liberty  to  betake  themselves 
 to  a  secular  life  again.  Julian  himself  was 
 once  in  the  monastic  habit.  The  same  is 
 observed  of  Constans,  the  son  of  that  Con- 
 stantine,  who,  in  the  reign  of  lionorius, 
 usurped  the  empire  in  Britain.  The  rule 
 of  Tachomius,  by  which  the  Egyptian 
 monks  were  governed,  has  no  mention  of 
 any  vow  at  their  entrance,  nor  any  punish- 
 ment for  such  as  deserted  their  station 
 afterwards. 
 
 In  process  of  time,  it  was  thought  pro- 
 per to  inflict  some  punishment  on  such  as 
 returned  to  a  secular  life.  The  civil  law 
 excludes  deserters  from  the  privilege  of 
 ordination.  Justinian  added  another 
 punishment ;  which  was,  that  if  they  were 
 possessed  of  any  substance,  it  should  be  all 
 forfeited  to  the  monastery  which  they  had 
 deserted.  The  censures  of  the  Church 
 were  likewise  inflicted  on  deserting  monks 
 in  the  fifth  century. 
 
 MONOPHYSITES.  (From  hovoq,  only, 
 and  (phmg,  nature.)  A  general  name  given  to 
 all  those  sectaries  in  the  Levant  who  only 
 own  one  nature  in  our  blessed  Saviour^ 
 and  who  maintain  that  the  Divine  and 
 human  nature  of  Jesus  Ciihist  were  so 
 united  as  to  form  only  one  nature,  yet 
 Avithout  any  change,  confusion,  or  mixture 
 of  the  two  natures.     (See  Eutychitms.) 
 
 INIOXOTHELITES.  Christian  here- 
 tics in  the  seventh  century,  so  called  from 
 the  Greek  words  ^ovoq  [only)  and  OeXrjua 
 {icill),  because  they  maintained,  that, 
 though  there  were  two  natures  in  Jesus 
 Christ,  the  human  and  the  Divine,  there 
 was  but  one  will,  which  was  the  Divine. 
 
 The  author  of  this  sect  was  Theodore, 
 bishop  of  Pharan  in  Arabia,  in  626,  who 
 first  started  the  question,  and  maintained 
 that  the  manhood  in  Christ  was  so  united 
 to  the  Word,  that,  though  it  had  its  facul- 
 ties, it  did  not  act  by  itself,  but  the  Avhole 
 act  was  to  be  ascribed  to  the  Word,  which 
 gave  it  the  motion.  Thus,  he  said,  it  was 
 the  manhood  of  Christ  that  suffered  hun- 
 ger, thirst,  and  pain ;  but  the  hunger,  thirst, 
 and  pain  were  to  be  ascribed  to  the  AN'okd. 
 In  short,  the  Word  was  the  sole  author 
 and  mover  of  all  the  operations  and  wills 
 in  Christ. 
 
 Sergius,  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  was 
 of  tlie  same  sentiment ;  and  the  emperor 
 Ileraclius  embraced  the  party  so  much  the 
 more  willingly,  as  he  thought  it  a  means 
 of  reconciling  some  other  heretics  to  the 
 Church. 
 
51G 
 
 MONTANISTS. 
 
 MONUMENT. 
 
 Pope  Martin  I.  called  a  council  at  Home 
 in  649,  upon  the  question  about  the  two 
 operations  and  two  wills.  In  this  council, 
 at  which  were  present  105  Italian  bishops, 
 the  doctrine  of  the  Monothelites  was  gener- 
 ally condemned.  The  emperor  Constans, 
 who  looked  upon  this  condemnation  as  a 
 kind  of  rebellion,  caused  Pope  Martin  to 
 be  violently  carried  away  from  Rome,  and, 
 after  most'  cruel  usage,  banished  him  to 
 Chersona. 
 
 However,  this  heresy  was  finally  con- 
 demned in  the  sixth  general  council,  held 
 at  Constantinople,  under  Constantino  Po- 
 gonatus,  in  the  year  (380. 
 
 MONTANISTS.  Christian  heretics,  who 
 sprung  up  about  the  year  1 7 1 ,  in  the  reign 
 of  the  emperor  Marcus  Aurelius.  They 
 were  so  called  from  their  leader,  the  here- 
 siarch  Montanus,  a  Phrygian  by  birth, 
 whence  they  are  sometimes  styled  Phry- 
 gians and  Cataphrygians. 
 
 Montanus,  it  is  said,  embraced  Chris- 
 tianity in  hopes  of  rising  to  the  dignities 
 of  the  Church.  He  pretended  to  inspira- 
 tion, and  gave  out  that  the  Holy  Ghost 
 had  instructed  him  in  several  points  which 
 had  not  been  revealed  to  the  apostles. 
 Priscilla  and  Maximilla,  two  enthusiastic 
 women  of  Phrygia,  presently  became  his 
 disciples,  and  in  a  short  time  he  had  a 
 great  number  of  followers.  The  bishops 
 of  Asia,  being  assembled  together,  con- 
 demned his  prophecies,  and  excommuni- 
 cated those  who  dispersed  them.  After- 
 wards, they  wrote  an  account  of  what  had 
 passed  to  the  Western  Churches,  where  the 
 pretended  prophecies  of  Montanus  and  his 
 followers  were  likewise  condemned. 
 
 The  Montanists,  finding  themselves  ex- 
 posed to  the  censure  of  the  whole  Church, 
 formed  a  schism,  and  set  up  a  distinct 
 society,  under  the  direction  of  those  who 
 called  themselves  prophets.  Montanus,  in 
 conjunction  with  Priscilla  and  Maximilla, 
 was  at  the  head  of  the  sect. 
 
 These  sectaries  made  no  alteration  in  the 
 creed.  They  only  held  that  the  Holy 
 Si'iiiiT  made  Montanus  his  organ  for  de- 
 livering a  more  perfect  form  of  discipline 
 than  that  which  was  delivered  by  the 
 apostles.  They  refused  communion  for 
 ever  to  those  who  were  guilty  of  notorious 
 crimes,  and  believed  that  the  bishops  had 
 no  authority  to  reconcile  them.  They  held 
 it  unlawful  to  fly  in  time  of  persecution. 
 They  condemned  second  marriages,  allowed 
 the  dissolution  of  marriage,  and  observed 
 three  Lents. 
 
 The  Montanists  became  separated  into 
 two  branches,  one  of  which  were  the  dis- 
 ciples of  Proclus,  and  the  other  of  ^schines. 
 
 The  latter  are  charged  Avith  following  the 
 heterodoxy  of  Praxeas  and  Sabelhus  con- 
 cerning the  Trinity.  The  celebrated  Ter- 
 tullian  was  a  Montanist. 
 
 MONUMENT.  The  memorial  placed 
 over  the  body  of  a  Christian,  after  his 
 burial  in  consecrated  ground. 
 
 The  earliest  monuments  in  England 
 which  have  come  down  to  us  are,  periiaps, 
 not  older  than  the  Norman  Conquest ;  and 
 the  most  ancient  is  the  simplest  form.  A 
 stone  coffin  is  covered  with  a  single  stone 
 slab,  which  is  also  the  only  recipient  of  what- 
 ever device  may  be  designed  to  commemo- 
 rate the  tenant  of  the  narrow  dwelling  over 
 which  it  closes.  So  early  as  the  middle  of 
 the  ninth  century,  (840,)  Kenneth,  king  of 
 Scotland,  made  an  ordinance  that  such  cof- 
 fins should  be  adorned  with  the  sign  of  the 
 cross,  in  token  of  sanctity,  on  which  no  one 
 was  on  any  account  to  tread  ;  and,  per- 
 haps, there  were  none  but  purely  religious 
 emblems  employed  for  some  generations 
 after  this  time.  The  sign  of  the  cross  still 
 continued  for  centuries  the  most  usual 
 ornament  of  tombs,  but  by-and-by  it  be- 
 came associated  Avith  others  which  were 
 most  of  them  intended  to  designate  the  pro- 
 fession of  him  whose  dust  they  honoured. 
 Hence  we  have  the  crosier  and  mitre,  with 
 perhaps  a  chalice  and  paten,  upon  the 
 tomb  of  an  ecclesiastic,  of  an  abbot,  or  a 
 bishop  ;  the  knight  has  a  sword,  and  his 
 shield  at  first  plain,  but  afterwards  charged 
 with  his  arms  on  his  tomb.  Sometimes  an 
 approach  to  religious  allegory  is  discovered 
 on  monuments  even  of  these  very  early 
 ages,  such  as,  for  instance,  the  cross  or 
 crosier  stuck  into  the  mouth  of  a  serpent 
 or  cockatrice,  indicating  the  victory  of  the 
 cross  and  of  the  Church  over  the  devil. 
 These,  and  the  like  devices,  occurring 
 before  any  attempt  at  the  human  figure 
 was  made,  are  in  a  low  relief,  or  indented 
 outline. 
 
 By-and-by  the  human  figure  was  added, 
 recumbent,  and  arrayed  in  the  dress  of  the 
 individual  commemorated ;  and  this  figure 
 soon  rose  from  low  relief  to  an  effigy  in 
 full  proportions.  The  knight  and  the  ec- 
 clesiastic are  now  discovered  so  perfectly 
 attired  according  to  their  order  and  de- 
 gree, that  the  antiquary  gathers  his  know- 
 ledge of  costume  from  these  venerable 
 remains.  Some  affecting  lessons  of  mor- 
 tality are  noAV  forcibly  incidcated  by  cir- 
 cumstances introduced  into  the  sepulchre  ; 
 for  instance,  the  figure  of  the  deceased 
 appears  nearly  reduced  to  a  skeleton,  and 
 laid  in  a  shroud ;  a  few  instances  occur  in 
 which  the  corpse  thus  represented  is  below 
 a  representation  of  the  living  person.    An- 
 
MONUMENT. 
 
 MORALITIES. 
 
 517 
 
 other  interesting  intimation  of  the  charac- 
 ter of  the  deceased  a])pears  in  the  crossed 
 legs  of  those  who  had  vo^ved  a  pilgrimage 
 to  tlie  Holy  Land  ;  and  the  lion  is  fre- 
 quently found,  as  Avell  as  the  serpent,  at 
 the  feet  of  the  recumbent  hg\u-e,  ])erha]is 
 in  allusion  to  the  words  of  the  i)salmist, 
 '*  Thou  shalt  tread  u])on  the  lion  and  ad- 
 der :  the  young  lion  and  the  dragon  shalt 
 thou  tramjile  under  thy  feet." 
 
 All  this  time  the  tomb  has  been  gradu- 
 ally increasing  in  height  and  in  general 
 splendour,  the  sides  are  adorned  ■with 
 figures  in  several  compartments,  which 
 run  into  niches  or  ])anels,  according  to  the 
 advance  of  architectural  design,  and  at  last 
 they  are  surmounted  with  an  arch,  low  at 
 first  and  little  decorated,  but  afterwards 
 very  elaborately  wrought  into  a  rich  ca- 
 nopy, lieligious  allegories  become  more 
 complex  on  the  sides  of  the  tomb,  and  we 
 have  instances  of  some  which  have  since 
 been  borrowed  by  artists  of  name,  and 
 perhaps  accounted  new  by  many ;  for  in- 
 stance, it  is  not  rare  to  see  a  representa- 
 tion of  the  soul  of  the  dying  conveyed  to 
 heaven  by  angels,  Avhile  the  corpse  lies 
 upon  the  litter,  and  this  was  a  design 
 chosen  for  the  cenotaph  of  the  Princess 
 Charlotte.  The  relatives  of  the  deceased 
 are  sometimes  represented  by  many  small 
 statues  in  the  niches  ;  or  armorial  bearings 
 are  introduced,  sj)aring  at  first,  and  often, 
 as  on  the  tomb  of  Lionell  Lord  Wells,  in 
 Methley  church,  supported  on  the  breasts 
 of  angels.  Angels  also  frequently  support 
 the  head  of  the  recumbent  figure,  and  at 
 the  feet  are  sometimes  one  or  more  priests 
 with  an  open  book  in  their  hands.  The 
 space  in  the  wall  behind  the  tomb  and  be- 
 neath the  canopy  allows  of  allegorical  de- 
 vices, sometimes  in  fresco,  sometimes  in 
 mosaic.  But  what  most  demands  atten- 
 tion are  the  recumbent  figures  themselves, 
 generally  with  both  hands  raised  in  the 
 attitude  of  prayer ;  or,  if  they  be  bi.shops, 
 with  the  right  hand  as  if  giving  a  blessing. 
 The  effigies  of  the  man  and  his  wife  ap- 
 pear always  on  the  same  tomb,  lying  side 
 by  side,  and  in  the  same  pious  attitude ;  a 
 frequently  recurring  sight,  Avhich  inspired 
 the  lines  of  Piers  Plowman  : — 
 
 "  lti\\)Q\)tB  in  tfjcv  co«is>ancc  clatr  for  tfjc 
 
 nonce, 
 aUc  it  ftcmcb  scnutrs  iiaacvctr  opon  cvtfic, 
 :;an"ti  loticlo  latjlcs  yiuvoucjtjt  Irycu  by  ijcv 
 
 sitjcs." 
 
 And  surely  there  is  a  beauty  and  pro- 
 priety in  tliat  character  of  monuments  for 
 Christian  men  in  Christian  churches,  which 
 could  suggest  the  words, 
 
 "^\\e    it    0cmcti    scputcs    psncvcli   cpon 
 riH)r," 
 
 far  greater  than  we  recognise  in  the  vain- 
 glorious boastings  of  success  in  secular 
 l)ursuits,  ])erha])s  even  in  sinful  inidcr- 
 takings,  which  cumber  clun-ch  walls.  It 
 is  a  holier  thought  to  remember  what  was 
 sacred  in  the  Christian  man ;  who,  im- 
 perfect as  he  may  have  been,  was  yet,  as 
 lie  was  a  Christian,  in  some  sense  a  saint, 
 and  to  embody  it  in  some  pious  attitude 
 upon  his  tomb,  than  to  forget  everything 
 that  is  Christian,  and  to  celebrate  oiily  the 
 secular  or  the  vicious. 
 
 Gorgeous  as  some  of  these  tombs  are, 
 they  did  not  satisfy  the  splendour  of  that 
 age,  and  the  canojiy  swells  into  an  actual 
 chape!,  sometimes  in  tlie  body  of  the  larger 
 church,  as  that  of  William  of  Wykeham, 
 in  Winchester,  and  those  of  Cardinal 
 Beaufort,  and  Bishops  Waynflete  and  Fox, 
 in  the  same  cathedral.  Sometimes  the 
 chapel  is  a  building  complete  in  itself,  as 
 that  of  the  Beauchamps,  at  St.  Mary's 
 church,  AVarwick,  and  that  of  Henry  VII. 
 at  ^^"estminster. 
 
 IMOPvALlTIES,  MYSTEIUES,  and 
 MIRACLES.  A  kind  of  theatrical  re- 
 presentations, Avhich  were  made  by  the 
 monks,  friars,  and  other  ecclesiastics  of  the 
 middle  ages,  the  vehicle  of  instruction  to 
 the  jjcople.  Their  general  character  was 
 the  same,  but  the  mirachs  may  be  distin- 
 guished as  those  which  represented  the 
 miracles  wrought  by  the  holy  confessors, 
 and  the  sufferings  by  which  the  persever- 
 ance of  the  martyrs  was  manifested ;  of 
 which  kind  the  first  specified  by  name  is 
 a  scenic  representation  of  the  legend  of 
 St.  Catherine.  The  moralities  were  certain 
 allegorical  representations  of  virtues  or 
 vices,  ahvays  so  contrived  as  to  make 
 virtue  seem  desirable,  and  vice  ridiculous 
 and  deformed.  The  vu/steries  were  repre- 
 sentations often  of  gi-eat  length,  and  re- 
 quiring several  days'  performance,  of  the 
 Scripture  narrative,  or  of  several  parts  of 
 it,  as,  for  instance,  the  descent  of  Ciikist 
 into  hell.  Of  these  mysteries  two  complete 
 scries  have  lately  been  published  from  an- 
 cient manuscripts,  tJie  Tuirnlvj/  Jfi/sfcries^ 
 performed  by  the  monks  of  "Woodchurch, 
 near  Wakefield,  and  tlie  different  leading 
 companies  of  that  town  ;  and  the  Coventry 
 Mysteries,  performed  with  like  help  of  the 
 trades  in  Coventry,  by  the  Grey  Friars  of 
 that  ancient  city.  Both  of  these  collections 
 begin  with  the  creation,  and  carry  on  the 
 '  story  in  different  jiageants  or  scenes  until 
 the  judgment-day. 
 
 It  will  not  be  supposed  that  these  plays 
 are    free   from   the   deformities   of   every 
 
518 
 
 MORAVIANS. 
 
 MORMONISTS. 
 
 other  kind  of  literature  of  the  times  to 
 which  they  are  referred  ;  nor  that  the  per- 
 formance of  them  was  without  a  great  deal 
 more  of  the  coarseness  of  an  unrefined 
 age  than  would  be  tolerated  now  :  neither 
 need  it  be  concealed  that  the  theology 
 therein  embodied  was  sometimes  rather 
 Popish  than  Catholic. 
 
 On  the  whole  it  may  fairly  be  said,  that 
 these  miracles,  tnysterics,  and  tnoralities, 
 were  wholesome  for  the  times ;  and  that 
 though  they  afterwards  degenerated  into 
 actual  abuses,  yet  that  they  are  not  to  be 
 condemned  without  measure  and  without 
 mercy. 
 
 Their  history  and  character  are  interest- 
 ing, not  only  as  giving  a  fair  picture  of  the 
 character  of  remote  ages,  but  also  because 
 they  seem  to  be  the  original  from  which 
 arose  stage  plays  and  oratorios. 
 
 As  a  specimen  of  these  old  moralities 
 see  in  Dodsley's  collection  of  Old  Plays— 
 God's  Promises,  by  Bale,  bishop  of  Ossory, 
 which  cbamatizes  the  leading  events  of 
 the  Sacred  History.  It  was  printed  in  1538. 
 
 MOllAVIAXS,  or  UNITED  BRE- 
 THREN. A  sect  generally  said  to  have 
 arisen  under  Nicholas  Lev.is,  count  of 
 Zinzendorf,  a  German  nobleman  of  the 
 last  century,  and  thus  called  because  the 
 first  converts  to  the  system  were  some 
 Moravian  families.  According  to  the  so- 
 ciety's own  account,  however,  they  derive 
 their  origin  from  the  Greek  Church  in  the 
 ninth  century,  when,  by  the  instrument- 
 ality of  Methodius  and  Cyrillus,  two 
 Greek  monks,  the  lungs  of  Bulgaria  and 
 Moravia,  being  converted  to  the  faith, 
 were,  together  with  their  subjects,  united 
 in  communion  with  the  Greek  Church. 
 Methodius  was  their  first  bishop,  and  for 
 their  use  Cyrillus  translated  the  Scriptures 
 into  the  Sclavonian  language. 
 
 It  is  sometimes  supposed  that  because 
 the  Moravians  have  bishops,  they  are  less 
 to  be  blamed  than  other  dissenting  sects. 
 But,  to  say  nothing  of  the  doubt  that 
 exists  with  respect  to  the  validity  of  their 
 orders,  an  episcopal  church  may  be,  as  the 
 Moravians  and  Romanists  of  this  country 
 are,  in  a  state  of  schism.  And  the  very 
 fact  that  the  difi"erence  between  them  and 
 the  Church  is  not  great,  if  this  be  so,  makes 
 the  sin  of  their  schism,  in  not  conforming, 
 yet  greater. 
 
 Though  the  Brethren  acknowledge  no 
 other  standard  of  truth  than  the  s'acred 
 Scriptures,  they  in  general  profess  to  ad- 
 here to  the  Augsburg  Confession  of  Faith. 
 Both  in  their  Summary  of  Christian  Doc- 
 trine, which  is  used  for  the  instruction  of 
 their  children,    and   in  their   general  in- 
 
 structions and  sermons,  they  teach  the 
 doctrine  of  the  Trinity  ;  and  in  their 
 prayers,  hymns,  and  litanies  address  the 
 Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Ghost,  in  the 
 same  manner  as  is  done  in  other  Christian 
 Churches ;  yet  they  chiefly  direct  their 
 hearers  to  Jesus  Christ,  as  the  appointed 
 channel  of  the  Deity,  in  whom  God  is 
 known  and  made  manifest  unto  man. 
 They  dwell  upon  what  he  has  done  and 
 sufl"ered,  and  upon  the  glorious  descriptions 
 given  of  him  as  an  Almighty  Saviour. 
 They  recommend  love  to  him,  as  the  con- 
 straining principle  of  the  Christian's  con- 
 duct ;  and  their  general  manner  is  more 
 by  beseeching  men  to  be  reconciled  to  GoD, 
 than  by  alarming  them  with  the  terrors 
 of  the  law,  and  the  threatenings  against 
 the  impenitent,  which  they,  however,  do 
 not  fail  occasionally  to  set  before  their 
 hearers.  They  avoid,  as  much  as  possible, 
 everything  that  would  lead  to  controversy ; 
 and  "though  they  strongly  insist  upon  sal- 
 vation by  grace  alone  through  faith,  yet 
 they  will  not  enter  into  any  explanation, 
 or  give  any  decided  opinion,  concerning 
 particular  election.  They  have,  therefore, 
 been  considered  by  high  Calvinists  as  lean- 
 ing to  Arminianism,  and  by  others  as  Cal- 
 vinists ;  but  they  themselves  decline  the 
 adoption  of  either  name,  and  conceive  that 
 the  gospel  may  be  preached  by  both.  They 
 profess  to  believe  that  the  Idngdom  of 
 Christ  is  not  confined  to  any  party,  com- 
 munity, or  church ;  and  they  consider 
 themselves,  though  closely  united  in  one 
 body  or  visible  Church,  as  spiritually  joined 
 in  the  bond  of  Christian  love  to  all  who 
 are  taught  of  God,  and  belong  to  the  uni- 
 versal Church  of  Christ,  however  much 
 they  may  difier  in  forms,  which  they  deem 
 non-essentials. 
 
 See  Crantz's  History  of  the  Brethren ; 
 Spcmgenheufs  Exposition  of  Christian  Doc- 
 trine ;  Hatio  Disci])lince  Unit.  Fratrum,  by 
 Loretz,  &c. 
 
 MORMONISTS,  or  LATTER  DAY 
 SAINTS.  The  Census  Report  published  in 
 1854,  gives  the  following  account  of  these 
 enthusiasts.  Although,  in  origin,  the  Mor- 
 mon movement  is  not  English,  but  Ameri- 
 can, yet,  as  the  new  creed,  by  the  mission- 
 ary zeal  of  its  disciples,  has  extended  into 
 England,  and  is  making  some  not  incon- 
 siderable progress  with  the  poorer  classes 
 of  our  countrymen,  it  seems  desirable  to 
 give,  as  far  as  the  inadequate  materials 
 permit,  some  brief  description  of  a  sect, 
 the  history  of  whose  opinions,  sufierings, 
 and  achievements,  shows,  perhaps,  the 
 most  remarkable  religious  movement  that 
 has  happened  since  the  days  of  Mahomet. 
 
MORMONISTS,  OR  LATTER  DAY   SAINTS. 
 
 H9 
 
 Joseph  Smith,  the  pro]ihet  of  the  new 
 belief,  was  horn  in  humble  life  in  1805,  at 
 Sharon  in  the  state  of  Vermont,  from 
 whence  in  1815  he  removed  with  his 
 parents  to  Palmyra,  New  York.  AVhen 
 about  15  years  old,  Ijcinf^^  troubled  by  con- 
 victions of  his  spiritual  dan<;er,  and  ])er- 
 plexed  by  the  multitude  of  mutually  hos- 
 tile sects,  he  saw,  he  says,  M'hile  pray  in  p^ 
 in  a  grove,  a  vision  of  "  two  personap^es," 
 who  informed  him  that  his  sins  were  par- 
 doned, and  that  all  existinc^  sects  were 
 almost  equally  erroneous.  This  vision  was 
 repeated  three  years  afterwards,  in  1823, 
 when  an  anp^el,  he  reports,  informed  him 
 that  the  American  Indians  were  a  remnant 
 of  the  Israelites,  and  that  certain  records, 
 written  by  the  Jewisli  prophets  and  con- 
 taining history  and  prophecy,  had,  when 
 the  Indians  fell  into  depravity,  been  buried 
 in  the  earth  at  a  spot  Avliich  the  angel  in- 
 dicated. Smith  was  further  told,  that  he 
 had  been  selected  as  the  instrument  by 
 which  these  valuable  records  should  be 
 brought  to  light ;  the  revelations  they 
 contained  being  necessary  for  the  restor- 
 ation of  that  purity  of  creed  and  worship 
 from  which  all  the  modern  churches  had 
 alike  departed. 
 
 Accordingly,  upon  the  22nd  of  Septem- 
 ber, 1823,  Smith,  the  story  runs,  discovered 
 in  the  side  of  a  hill,  about  four  miles  from 
 Palmyra  in  Ontario  County,  a  stone  box, 
 just  covered  by  the  earth,  in  which  was 
 deposited  the  "  Record," — a  collection  of 
 thin  plates  of  gold,  held  together  by  three 
 golden  rings.  Part  of  this  golden  book 
 was  sealed,  but  the  portion  open  to  inspec- 
 tion was  engraven  thickly  with  "  lleformed 
 Egyptian  "  characters.  Together  with  the 
 book  he  found  two  crystal  lenses  "  set  in 
 the  two  rims  of  a  bow,"  apparently  re- 
 sembling an  enormous  pair  of  spectacles  ; 
 this  instrument  he  said  was  the  Urim  and 
 Thummim  used  by  ancient  seers. 
 
 The  simple  inspection  of  these  treasures 
 was  the  whole  extent  of  Smith's  achieve- 
 ments on  his  first  discovery  of  them  ;  he 
 was  not  permitted  by  the  angel  to  remove 
 them  until  four  years  afterwards,  on  the 
 22nd  of  September,  1827.  During  the  in- 
 terval he  received  occasional  instruction 
 from  his  sui)ernatural  visitant. 
 
 The  news  of  his  discovery  attracted  such 
 attention,  and  procured  him  so  much  ob- 
 loquy, that,  according  to  the  narrative  of 
 his  biographers,  he  was  exposed  to  per- 
 sonal violence,  and  was  obliged  to  fly  to 
 Pennsylvania,  carrying  his  golden  ])lates 
 concealed  in  a  baiTel  of  beans.  When 
 thus  in  some  security,  lie,  by  the  aid  of 
 the  Urim  and  Thummim,  set  to  work  upon 
 
 tlie  translation  of  the  unsealed  portion, 
 which,  when  complete,  com])osed  a  bidky 
 volume,  which  he  called  the  "  Book  of 
 Mormon  " — *'  Mormon  "  meaning,  he  ex- 
 plained, 7nore  (jood,  from  "  ???o/-,"  a  con- 
 traction for  more,  and  "  nion,''*  Egyptian 
 for  (/ood.  "  Mormon,"  too,  was  the  name  of 
 a  supposed  pro])het  living  in  the  fourth  or 
 fifth  century,  who,  after  tlie  principal  por- 
 tion of  the  American  Israelites  had  fallen 
 in  battle,  and  the  whole  of  them  become 
 degenerate,  engraved  on  ])lates  a  sum- 
 mary of  their  history  and  prophecies. 
 These  plates,  his  son,  Moroni,  in  the  trou- 
 blous times  which  followed,  hid  for  safety 
 in  a  hill  then  called  Cumora,  about  the 
 year  A.  D.  420. 
 
 Mormons  defend  the  authenticity  of  this 
 recital,  by  asserting  the  improbability  that 
 Smith,  an  illiterate  person,  could  invent 
 it,  and,  unaided,  write  so  large  and  pecu- 
 liar a  volume.  To  the  objection  that  the 
 golden  plates  are  not  i)roduced,  they  give 
 Smith's  own  reply  to  the  applications  made 
 to  him  by  his  disciples  for  a  view — that 
 such  an  exhibition  of  them  is  ])rohil)ited 
 by  special  revelation.  Nevertheless,  in 
 further  proof  of  Smith's  veracity,  three 
 "  witnesses  were  found  to  testify  that  they 
 liad  actually  seen  the  plates,  an  angel  hav- 
 ing shown  them  ;  and  a  similar  testimony 
 was  borne  by  eight  other  "  witnesses," — 
 four  of  those  belonging  to  a  family  named 
 Whitmer,  and  three  being  the  two  brothers 
 and  the  father  of  Smith.  The  utmost  that 
 Smith  did  towards  allowing  access  by  in- 
 different parties  to  the  plates,  Avas  to  give 
 to  one  of  his  inquiring  followers  a  copy 
 upon  paper  of  a  portion  of  the  plates  in 
 the  original  hieroglyphics,  viz.  the  "_  Re- 
 formed Egyptian."  This  Avas  submitted 
 by  the  yet  unsatisfied  disciple  to  I'rofessor 
 Anthon  of  Ncav  York,  Avho,  hoAvever,  did 
 not  recognise  the  characters  as  those  of 
 any  ancient  language  knoAvn  to  him.  The 
 Mormon  advocates  appear  to  think  these 
 evidences  irresistible.  —  Upon  the  other 
 hand,  it  is  asserted,  by  opjwnents  of  the 
 :Mormons,  that  about  tlie  years  1809-12,  a 
 person  of  the  name  of  Solomon  Sjiaulding, 
 Avho  had  been  a  clergyman,  conceived  and 
 executed  the  design  of  Avriting  a  religious 
 tale,  the  scenes  and  narrative  of  Avhich 
 should  be  constructed  on  tlie  theory  that 
 the  American  Indians  Avere  the  lost  ten 
 tribes  of  Israel.  This  work,  Avhen  finished, 
 he  entitled  "  7V/e  Ma)inscn)>f  found/'  and 
 the  purport  of  the  fiction  was,  to  trace  the 
 progress  of  the  tribes  from  Jerusalem  to 
 America,  and  then  describe  their  subse- 
 quent adventures  in  the  latter  country, — 
 "  Mormon"  and  his  son  "  Moroni"  being 
 
520 
 
 MORMONISTS,  OR  LATTER-DAY  SAINTS. 
 
 prominent  characters,  and  Nephi,  Lehi, 
 and  the  Lamanites  (names  frequently  oc- 
 currino^  in  the  Book  of  Mormon)  being 
 also  mentioned.  The  MS.  of  this  pro- 
 duction, it  is  further  stated,  found  its  way 
 into  the  hands  of  one  Sidney  Kigdon,  who 
 was  intimately  connected  with  Smith  from 
 the  commencement  of  his  career. 
 
 The  "  Book  of  Mormon  "  was  succeeded 
 by  a  "  Book  of  Doctrine  and  Covenants," 
 being  a  collection  of  the  special  revelations 
 made  to  Smith  and  his  associates  upon  all 
 points  connected  with  the  course  and  wel- 
 fare of  the  Church.  This  was  continually 
 enlarged  as  further  revelations,  consequent 
 upon  the  varying  fortunes  and  require- 
 ments of  the  body,  were  received.  Amongst 
 these  was  one  by  which  the  "  Aaronic 
 Priesthood"  was  revived  —  another  by 
 which  baptism  by  immersion  was  com- 
 manded—  a  third  for  the  institution  of 
 "  Apostles  " — and  others  for  the  temporal 
 regulation  of  the  Church  from  time  to 
 time.  In  these  productions  the  peculiar 
 phraseology  of  the  sacred  Scriptures  w^as 
 profusely  imitated. 
 
 It  appears  that  at  the  end  of  about  three 
 years  after  Smith's  announcement  of  him- 
 self as  a  prophet,  about  thirty  persons  were 
 convinced  of  the  reality  of  his  pretensions, 
 and  from  this  time  forward  converts  ra- 
 pidly increased.  Smith  removed  to  Kirt- 
 land  in  Ohio,  and  set  up  a  mill,  a  store, 
 and  a  bank. 
 
 It  was  not  without  opposition  that  this 
 progress  M'as  effected.  As  appears  to  be 
 usual  upon  the  rise  of  new  religious  sects, 
 the  ^Mormons  were  accused  of  holding 
 many  outrageous  and  immoral  doctrines, 
 and,  amongst  them,  that  of  a  community 
 of  wives.  The  popular  hostility  was  often 
 violently  manifested,  and  the  "  saints  "  Avere 
 subjected  to  much  ill-treatment.  Smith 
 himself,  in  1832,  was  tarred  and  feathered 
 by  a  midnight  mob ;  and,  in  the  folloAving 
 year,  the  whole  of  the  ]\Iormons  in  Mis- 
 souri (amounting  to  above  a  thousand 
 persons)  were  expelled  from  Independence, 
 Jackson  County,  which  had  been  de- 
 scribed by  Smith  as  the  Zion  apjiointed  by 
 revelation  for  the  resting-place  of  the 
 "  saints."  They  removed  to  Clay  County, 
 where,  in  1837,  they  were  joined  by  the 
 prophet  himself,  whose  bank  in  Kirtland 
 had  failed.  Meantime,  the  prejudice  against 
 the  Mormons  followed  them  to  their  new 
 habitation,  and,  in  1838,  after  several  san- 
 guinary outbreaks,  Jose])h  Smith  and  his 
 brother  Hyrum  were  imprisoned,  and  the 
 whole  community  of  Mormons  were  ex- 
 pelled from  their  possessions  in  Missouri. 
 They  took  refuge  in  the  neighbouring  state 
 
 of  Illinois.  Here,  in  1839,  their  prophet,  who 
 had  managed  to  escape  from  prison,  joined 
 them.  They  now  numbered  15,000  souls. 
 In  Illinois,  they  chose  the  village  of 
 Commerce  as  their  residence,  which  soon  be- 
 came converted  into  a  considerable  town,  of 
 Mhich  the  "  prophet"  Avas  appointed  mayor. 
 This  town  they  called  Nauvoo,  or  "  Beauti- 
 ful," according  to  the  language  of  the 
 Book  of  ]Mormon.  A  body  of  militia, 
 called  the  Xauvoo  Legion,  was  established 
 —Smith  being  "  General."  In  1841,  a 
 "  revelation  "  ordered  the  constniction  of 
 a  splendid  temple,  towards  which  object  all 
 the  ]Mormons  were  to  contribute  a  full  tithe 
 of  their  possessions.  It  is  said  that  they 
 expended  on  this  structure  nearly  a  million 
 of  dollars. 
 
 In  Nauvoo,  the  Mormons  seem  to  have 
 increased  and  prospered  greatly  :  the  town 
 extended  fast ;  the  temple  gradually  rose  ; 
 and  the  prophet  was  the  absolute  head 
 of  a  comparatively  poAverful  community, 
 which  hardly  recognised  the  ordinary  laws 
 of  the  state.'  In  1843  he  became  a  candi- 
 date for  the  presidency,  and  put  forth  a 
 statement  of  his  views.  In  1844,  however, 
 occurred  the  final  catastrophe  of  his  life. 
 A  Nauvoo  paper,  having  printed  certain 
 scandal  of  him,  was,  by  order  of  the  coun- 
 cil of  the  town,  suppressed,  and  its  office 
 razed ;  on  which,  the  editors  retired  to 
 Carthage,  and  obtained  a  warrant  against 
 Smith  and  his  brother.  This  warrant 
 Smith  refused  to  recognise  :  the  county 
 force  prepared  to  execute  it ;  and  the 
 "  saints  "  prepared  their  city  for  defence. 
 To  save  the  town,  however,  Smith  surren- 
 dered on  the  promise  of  protection  from 
 the  governor.  This  ])romise  proved  of 
 little  value  ;  for,  on  the  27th  of  June,  1844, 
 a  mob  broke  into  Carthage  prison,  and 
 Joseph  and  Hyrum  Smith  were  shot. 
 
 Upon  the  prophet's  death  there  were  two 
 competitors  for  the  vacant  supremacy — 
 Sidney  Bigdon  and  Brigham  Young.  The 
 former  was  the  earliest  associate  of  Smith, 
 and  professed  to  be  acquainted  with  "  all 
 his  secrets;"  but,  as  the  prominent  advo- 
 cate of  the  "Spiritual  Wife"  doctrine,  he 
 was  looked  upon  with  disfavour  as  the 
 virtual  author  of  much  of  the  suspicion 
 and  hostility  with  Avhich  the  Mormons 
 were  regarded.  Brigham  Young  succeeded 
 therefore  to  the  post  of  "  prophet,"  (which 
 he  still  retains,)  and  liigdon  was  expelled 
 from  the  community.  An  interval  of 
 j  scarcely  interrupted  progress  followed, 
 '  during  which  the  temple  was  completed ; 
 but  in  1845  the  troubles  were  renewed: 
 perpetual  conflicts,  in  which  blood  was 
 I  shed,  occurred,  and  the  city  of  Nauvoo 
 
MORMONISTS,  OR  I  ATTER  DAY  SAINTS. 
 
 621 
 
 itself  was  regularly  besieged.  At  length  the 
 Mormons,  conscious  of  their  inability  alone 
 to  cope  with  their  antagonists,  and  seeing 
 that  no  conhdence  could  be  reposed  upon 
 the  law  for  their  protection,  undertook 
 (since  nothing  less  would  satisfy  their 
 enemies)  that  they  would  altogether  quit 
 the  State  — commencing  their  departure  in 
 the  spring  of  1846. 
 
 This  time  it  was  no  mere  temporary, 
 neighbouring  refuge  which  the  jNIormons 
 sought.  The  elders  of  the  church,  aware 
 of  the  hostility  to  Avhich  it  would  be  con- 
 stantly exposed  in  any  portion  of  the  popu- 
 lated States,  resolved,  with  equal  policy 
 and  daring,  to  escape  entirely  from  the 
 settled  territory,  and  to  seek  far  oft',  beyond 
 the  llocky  Mountains,  some  secluded  and 
 unoccupied  retreat  in  which  they  could, 
 secure  from  molestation,  build  their  earthly 
 "Zion,*'  and,  by  gathering  thither  from  all 
 quarters  of  the  world  the  converts  to  their 
 faith,  become  a  thriving  and  a  powerful 
 community,  too  potent  to  be  further  in- 
 terfered with.  This  remarkable  pilgrimage, 
 involving  the  removal  of  some  thousands 
 of  men,  women,  children,  cattle,  and  stores, 
 over  thousands  of  untrodden  miles — across 
 wide  unbridged  rivers  —  by  the  difficult 
 passes  of  snow-capped  mountains  —  and 
 through  deserts,  prairies,  and  tribes  of  pre- 
 datory Indians— Avas  at  once  commenced. 
 A  party  of  pioneers  set  out  from  Nauvoo 
 in  February,  1846,  when  it  was  still  winter 
 — the  waggons  crossing  the  Mississippi  on 
 the  ice.  These  were  to  prepare  the  way 
 for  the  main  body  of  the  citizens,  who,  ac- 
 cording to  stipulation,  might  remain  in 
 Nauvoo  till  these  preparations  were  com- 
 pleted. Their  departure  was,  however, 
 hastened  by  the  fresh  hostility  of  their 
 opponents,  Avho  — concluding  from  the  pro- 
 gress still  continued  in  the  decorations  of 
 the  temple  that  the  ^Mormons  secretly  in- 
 tended to  elude  their  promise  and  return 
 —attacked  the  town  in  September,  1846, 
 and  expelled  the  whole  of  its  remaining 
 population.  These  then  followed  and  over- 
 took the  pioneering  party,  Avhich,  after 
 dreadful  suff'erings  from  cold  and  heat, 
 from  hunger  and  disease,  had,  finding  it 
 impossible  to  reach  their  destination  till 
 tlie  following  year,  encamped  upon  the 
 l)anks  of  the  Missouri,  on  the  lands  of  the 
 Omahas  and  Pottawatamies.  Here  they 
 had  sown  the  land  to  some  extent  with 
 grain,  the  crops  of  which  were  to  be  reaped 
 by  their  successors.  After  a  dreary  winter, 
 spent  in  this  location,  they  began  their 
 march  towards  their  final  settlement.  In 
 April,  1847,  the  first  detachment  of  143, 
 Avith  70  waggons,  crossed  the  llocky  Moun- 
 
 tains ;  arriving  at  the  basin  of  the  Great 
 Salt_  I.ake,  in  the  latter  portion  of  July, 
 in  time  to  sow  the  land  for  an  autumn 
 crop.  The  second  party  started  in  the 
 summer  Avith  oG6  Avaggons  and  a  great 
 suj)ply  of  grain.  The  others  foUoAved  in 
 the  course  of  1848 — their  passage  much 
 alleviated  by  the  tracks  ])rei)ared  by  their 
 ])redecessors,  and  the  harvests  left  for 
 them  to  gather. 
 
 The  valley  of  the  Great  Salt  Lake  is  a 
 territory  of  considerable  extent,  enclosed  on 
 all  sides  by  high  rocky  mountains.  The 
 Lake  itself  is  nearly  300  miles  in  circum- 
 ference, Avith  islands  rising  from  its  surface 
 to  an  elevation  of  some  thousand  feet :  its 
 shores  are  covered  in  some  places  Avith  the 
 finest  salt,  and  its  Avater  is  as  buoyant  as 
 the  Avaves  of  the  Dead  Sea.  Portions  of 
 the  land  are  desert ;  but  a  vast  expanse  is 
 Avondcrfully  fertile,  and  abounds  in  all 
 facilities  for  pasturage  and  cultivation. 
 Here  the  Mormons  have  noAV  firmly  fixed 
 themselves,  and  made,  since  1848,  con- 
 tinual progress.  Further  settlements  haA-e 
 been  established,  and  several  cities  found- 
 ed :  that  of  the  Great  Salt  Lake  itself  has 
 a  plot  of  several  acres,  destined  to  support 
 a  temple  Avhose  magnificence  shall  far  ex- 
 ceed the  splendour  of  the  former  Nauvoo 
 edifice,  llelying  on  the  inexhaustible  re- 
 sources of  the  region  to  sustain  innumer- 
 able inhabitants,  the  principal  endeavour 
 of  the  rulers  is  to  gather  there  as  many 
 immigrants  as  possible,  professing  the  same 
 faith.  They  calculate  that  thus,  establish- 
 ed in  an  almost  inaccessible  retreat,  Avith 
 numbers  continually  augmenting,  they  will 
 soon  be  able  to  defy  external  enmity,  and 
 rear  upon  a  lasting  basis  their  ecclesiasti- 
 cal republic.  Missionary  agents  are  de- 
 spatched to  almost  every  portion  of  the 
 Avorld  to  make  fresh  converts  and  facilitate 
 their  transit  to  America.  In  England 
 these  endeavours  have  been  folloAved  by  no 
 slight  success  :  it  is  computed  that  at  least 
 as  many  as  30,000  persons  in  this  country 
 belong  to  the  community,  and  nearly  20,000 
 have  already,  it  is  said,  departed  for  the 
 Great  Salt  Lake.  This  settlement  itself 
 has  noAv,  by  the  name  of  "  Utah,"  been 
 admitted  to'  the  United  States'  Confeder- 
 acy ;  but  it  seems,  from  a  report  of  the 
 judges  sent  there  by  the  recent  President, 
 that  the  authority  of  the  federal  govern- 
 ment is  virtually  set  at  nought  ;  the  laws 
 and  their  administration  being  ahvays 
 found  accordant  Avith  the  pleasure  of  the 
 Mormon  rulers. 
 
 A  ]n-inted  "Creed"  presents  the  follow- 
 ing summary  of  their  opinions,  but  omits 
 some  rather  material  points: — 
 
d22 
 
 MORMONISTS,  OR  LATTER  DAY  SAINTS. 
 
 "We  believe  in  God  the  eternal  Father, 
 and  his  Son  Jesus  Christ,  and  in  the  Holy 
 Gho^t. 
 
 "  AVe  believe  that  men  will  be  punished 
 for  their  own  sins,  and  not  for  Adam's 
 trans^i^ressions. 
 
 "  We  believe  that  through  the  atonement 
 of  Christ  all  mankind  may  be  saved,  by 
 obedience  to  the  laws  and  ordinances  of 
 the  Gospel. 
 
 "  We  believe  that  these  ordinances  are  : 
 1st,  Faith  in  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ.  2d, 
 Repentance.  3d,  Baptism  by  immersion 
 for  the  remission  of  sins.  4th,  Laying  on 
 of  hands  for  the  gift  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 
 5th,  The  Lord's  supper. 
 
 "  We  believe  that  men  must  be  called  of 
 God  by  inspiration,  and  by  laying  on  of 
 hands  by  those  who  are  duly  commissioned 
 to  preach  the  gospel  and  administer  in  the 
 ordinances  thereof. 
 
 "  We  believe  in  the  same  organization 
 that  existed  in  the  primitive  church,  viz. 
 apostles,  prophets,  pastors,  teachers,  evan- 
 gelists, &c. 
 
 "  We  believe  in  the  powers  and  gifts  of 
 the  everlasting  gospel,  viz.  the  gift  of 
 faith,  discerning  of  spirits,  prophecy,  reve- 
 lation, visions,  healing,  tongues  and  the 
 interpretation  of  tongues,  wisdom,  charity, 
 brotherly  love,  &c. 
 
 "  We  believe  in  the  word  of  God  record- 
 ed in  the  Bible.  We  also  believe  the 
 word  of  God  recorded  in  the  Book  of 
 Mormon  and  in  all  other  good  books. 
 
 "  AVe  believe  all  that  God  has  revealed, 
 all  that  he  does  now  reveal ;  and  we  believe 
 that  he  will  yet  reveal  many  more  great 
 and  important  things  pertaining  to  the 
 kingdom  of  God,  and  Messiah's  second 
 coming. 
 
 "  AV^e  believe  in  the  literal  gathering  of 
 Israel,  and  in  the  restoration  of  the  ten 
 tribes  ;  that  Zion  will  be  established  upon 
 the  AVestern  continent ;  that  Christ  will 
 reign  personally  upon  the  earth  a  thousand 
 years  ;  and  that  the  earth  will  be  renewed 
 and  receive  its  paradisaical  glory. 
 
 "  AVe  believe  in  the  literal  resurrection  of 
 the  body,  and  that  the  dead  in  Christ  M'ill 
 rise  first,  and  that  the  rest  of  the  dead  live 
 not  again  until  the  thousand  years  are 
 expired. 
 
 "  AVe  claim  the  privilege  of  worshipping 
 Almighty  God  according  to  the  dictates  of 
 our  conscience,  unmolested,  and  allow  all 
 men  the  same  privilege,  let  them  worship 
 how  or  Avhere  they  may. 
 
 "  AVe  believe  in  being  subject  to  kings, 
 queens,  presidents,  rulers,  and  magistrates, 
 in  obeying,  honouring,  and  sustaining  the 
 law. 
 
 "AVe  believe  in  being  honest,  true, 
 chaste,  temperate,  benevolent,  virtuous, 
 and  upright,  and  in  doing  good  to  all  men  ; 
 indeed,  we  may  say  that  we  follow  the 
 admonition  of  Paul,  —  we  *  believe  all 
 things,'  we  'hope  all  things,'  we  have 
 endured  very  many  things,  and  hope  to  be 
 able  to  'endure  all  things.'  Everything 
 virtuous,  lovely,  praiseworthy,  and  of  good 
 report  we  seek  after,  looking  forward  to 
 the  '  recompence  of  reward.' " 
 
 A  rather  more  specific  outline  of  some 
 points  of  their  belief  is  given  by  one  of 
 their  "  apostles."  According  to  him,  the 
 "  saints  "  believe  that  all  mankind,  in  conse- 
 quence of  Adam's  sin,  are  in  a  state  of  ruin: 
 from  this,  however,  they  are  all  delivered 
 by  the  sacrifice  of  Christ,  and  are  made 
 secure  of  everlasting  happiness,  unless  they 
 commit  any  actual  sin.  Infants,  therefore, 
 being  irresponsible,  will  be  eternally  re- 
 deemed; and  such  among  the  people  of 
 the  earth  as  have  not  had  the  benefit  of 
 revelation  Avill  receive  a  mitigated  punish- 
 ment. The  rest,  in  order  to  be  saved  from 
 endless  ruin,  must  comply  with  four  con- 
 ditions: — (1.)  they  must  believe  in  Christ's 
 atonement ;  (2.)  they  must  repent  of  their 
 transgressions ;  (3.)  they  must  receive 
 baptism  by  immersion  for  the  remission  of 
 sins,  administered  only  by  one  authorized 
 of  Christ;  and  (4.)  they  must  receive  the 
 laying  on  of  hands  for  the  gift  of  the  Holy 
 Ghost — this  ordinance  also  being,  like  that 
 of  baptism,  only  to  be  administered  by 
 duly  authorized  apostles  or  elders.  All 
 who  comply  with  these  conditions  obtain 
 forgiveness  of  their  sins  and  are  made 
 partakers  of  the  Holy  Ghost — enjoying, 
 too,  the  gifts  of  prophecy  and  healing, 
 visions  and  revelations,  and  the  power  of 
 working  miracles. 
 
 Among  the  prominent  opinions,  not  in- 
 cluded in  these  statements,  are  their  doc- 
 trines of  the  materiality  of  the  Deity,  and 
 of  the  two-fold  order  of  the  priesthood,  viz. 
 the  Alclchisedekian  and  the  Aaronic.  They 
 are  also  charged  by  their  opponents  with 
 the  practice  and  the  sanction  of  polygamy; 
 and  evidence  is  not  unplentiful  of  their 
 alloAvance  of  something  closely  similar ; 
 and  in  their  various  publications  very  pe- 
 culiar doctrines  on  the  subject  of  marriage 
 arc  propounded.  Their  standard  books, 
 however,  specially  denounce  the  crime. 
 
 In  England  and  AA^ales  there  were,  in 
 1851,  reported  by  the  Census  officers  as 
 many  as  222  places  of  worship  belonging 
 to  this  body  —  most  of  them  however 
 being  merely  rooms.  The  number  of  sit- 
 tings in  these  places  (making  an  allowance 
 for  53,  the  accommodation  in  which  was 
 
MORTAL  SIN. 
 
 MORTMAIN. 
 
 523 
 
 not  returned,)  was  30,783.  The  attendance 
 on  the  Census  Sunday  (making  an  esti- 
 mated addition  for  9  chapels  from  -which 
 no  intelligence  on  this  point  was  received) 
 ■was:  Monnnf/,  7,517;  Afternoon,  11,481; 
 Evening,  16,(328.  The  preachers,  it  ap- 
 pears, are  far  from  unsuccessful  in  their 
 eftbrts  to  obtain  discii)les :  the  surprising 
 confidence  and  zeal  with  which  they  ]n'o- 
 mulgate  their  creed — the  prominence  they 
 give  to  the  exciting  topics  of  the  speedy 
 coming  of  the  Saviour  and  his  personal 
 millennial  reign — and  the  attractiveness  to 
 many  minds  of  the  idea  of  an  infallible 
 church,  relying  for  its  evidences  and  its 
 guidance  upon  revelations  made  perpetu- 
 ally to  its  rulers, — these,  with  other  influ- 
 ences, have  combined  to  give  the  Mormon 
 movement  a  position  and  importance  wdth 
 the  working  classes,  which,  perhaps,  should 
 draw  to  it  much  more  than  it  has  yet 
 received  of  the  attention  of  our  public 
 teachers. 
 
 MOllTAL  SIN.     (See  Deadly  Sin.) 
 
 MORTIFICATION.  Any  severe  pen- 
 ance observed  on  a  religious  account. 
 The  mortification  of  sin  in  believers  is  a 
 duty  enjoined  in  the  sacred  Scriptures. 
 (Rom  viii.  13;  Col.  iii.  5.)  It  consists  in 
 breaking  the  league  with  sin  ;  declaration 
 of  open  hostility  against  it;  and  strong 
 resistance  to  it.  (Eph.  vi.  10,  &c. ;  Gal. 
 V.  24;  Horn.  viii.  13.) 
 
 :M0IIT:MAIN.  This  is  where  lands  are 
 given  to  some  spiritual  person  or  corpora- 
 tion and  to  their  successors ;  and  because 
 the  lands  were  never  to  revert  to  the  donor, 
 or  his  heirs,  and  by  that  means  the  ser- 
 vices and  other  profits  due  for  the  same 
 were  extinct,  therefore  it  was  called  a  gift 
 inortua  mami. 
 
 The  first  statute  against  mortmain  was 
 that  of  Magna  Charta,  (9  Hen.  III.  c.  3(5,) 
 which  declares,  "  that  if  any  one  shall 
 give  lands  to  a  religious  house,  the  grant 
 shall  be  void,  and  the  land  forfeited  to  the 
 lord  of  the  fee."  The  next  was  the  7  Edw. 
 I.  Stat,  ii.,  commonly  called  the  statute 
 "  De  lleligiosis,"  which  restrained  people, 
 at  the  time  of  their  death  or  otherwise, 
 from  giving  or  making  over  any  lands  or 
 rents  to  churches  or  religious  houses, 
 without  the  king's  leave  first  obtained. 
 This  is  called  the  statute  of  mortmain  ; 
 but  being  evaded,  the  13  of  Edw,  I.  was 
 passed,  and  afterwards  by  the  15  Rich.  II. 
 c.  5,  it  was  declared,  **  that  it  was  within 
 the  compass  of  the  statute  of  Edward  I,  to 
 convert  any  land  into  a  churchyard,  though 
 it  be  done  with  the  consent  or  connivance 
 of  the  ter-tenant,  and  confirmed  by  the 
 pope's  bull. 
 
 This  last  statute  extended  only  to  bodies 
 corporate,  and,  therefore,  by  the  23  Hen. 
 VIII.  c.  10,  it  is  enacted,  ''that  if  any 
 grants  of  lands  or  other  hereditaments 
 should  be  made  in  trust  to  the  use  of  any 
 churches,  chapels,  churchwardens,  guilds, 
 fraternities,  kc,  to  have  perpetual  obits, 
 or  a  continual  service  of  a  priest  for  ever, 
 or  for  sixty  or  eighty  years,  or  to  such 
 like  uses  or  intents,  all  such  uses,  intents, 
 and  purposes  shall  be  void  ;  they  being 
 no  corporations,  but  erected  either  of  de- 
 votion, or  else  by  the  common  consent  of 
 the  people  ;  and  all  collateral  assurances 
 made  for  defeating  this  statute  shall  be 
 void,  and  the  said  statute  shall  be  ex- 
 pounded most  beneficially  for  the  destruc- 
 tion of  such  uses  as  aforesaid." 
 
 Though  the  prohibition  by  the  statute 
 of  mortmain  in  the  Magna  Charta  was 
 absolute,  yet  a  royal  charter  of  licence 
 (18  Edw.  III.  Stat.  iii.  c.  3)  afforded  re- 
 laxation of  the  restraint,  and  by  the  17  Car. 
 II.  c.  3,  the  following  relief  was  granted : 
 — "  Every  owner  of  any  impro})riations, 
 tithes,  or  portion  of  tithes,  in  any  parish 
 or  chapelry,  may  give  and  annex  the  same, 
 or  any  part  thereof,  unto  the  parsonage 
 or  vicarage  of  the  said  parish  church  or 
 chapel  where  the  same  do  lie  or  arise ;  or 
 settle  the  same  in  trust  for  the  benefit  of 
 the  said  parsonage  or  vicarage,  or  of  the 
 curate  and  curates  there  successively, 
 where  the  parsonage  is  impropriate  and 
 no  vicar  endowed,  without  any  licence  of 
 mortmain. 
 
 '*  And  if  the  settled  maintenance  of  any 
 parsonage,  vicarages,  churches,  and  chapels 
 united,  or  of  any  other  parsonage  or 
 vicarage  with  cure,  shall  not  amount  to 
 the  full  sum  of  £100  a  year  clear  and 
 above  all  charges  and  reprises,  it  shall  be 
 lawful  for  the  parson,  vicar,  and  incumbent 
 of  the  same,  and  his  successors,  to  take 
 and  purchase  to  him  and  his  successors 
 lands  and  tenements,  rents,  tithes,  or  other 
 hereditaments,  without  any  licence  of  mort- 
 main." This  dispensing  power  was  carried 
 so  high  in  the  reign  of  King  James  II.,  that 
 by  the  1  Wm.  III.  sess.  ii.  c,  2,  it  was  enacted, 
 that  no  dispensation,  by  "non  ol)stante,"  to 
 any  statute  shall  be  allowed.  By  the  7  & 
 8  AYm.  III.  c.  37,  and  2  8z  3  Anne,  c.  11, 
 certain  relaxations  were  again  made ;  but 
 by  the  9  Geo.  II,  c,  36,  further  restraints 
 Avere  imposed,  which  render  it  impossible 
 for  the  Church  of  England  to  augment 
 poor  livings,  under  the  provisions  of  17 
 Car.  II.  c.  3,  already  recited. 
 
 By  12  &  13  Vict.  c.  49,  s.  4,  grants  of 
 land  for  sites  of  schools,  not  exceeding 
 five    acres,   made   by  owners   or   tenants 
 
524 
 
 MORTUARY. 
 
 MOTHER  OF  GOD. 
 
 in  tail  are  valid,  although  the  grantor  die 
 within  twelve  months. 
 
 MORTUARY,  {Mortuarium,)  in  the 
 English  ecclesiastical  law,  is  a  gift  left  by 
 a  man  at  his  death  to  his  parish  church, 
 in  recompence  of  personal  tithes  omitted 
 to  be  paid  in  his  life-time ;  or,  it  is  that 
 beast,  or  other  cattle,  which,  after  the 
 death  of  the  owner,  by  the  custom  of  the 
 place,  is  due  to  the  parson  or  vicar,  in 
 lieu  of  tithes  or  offerings  forgot,  or  not 
 well  and  truly  paid  by  him  that  is 
 dead. 
 
 Seldcn  tells  us,  it  was  usual  anciently 
 to  bring  the  mortuary  along  with  the 
 corpse,  when  it  came  to  be  buried,  and  to 
 offer  it  to  the  Church  as  a  satisfaction  for 
 the  supposed  negligence  and  omission  the 
 deceased  had  been  guilty  of  in  not  paying 
 his  personal  tithes;  and  from  thence  it 
 was  called  a  corse  present. 
 
 A  mortuary  is  not  properly  due  to  an 
 ecclesiastical  incumbent  from  any  but 
 those  of  his  own  parish ;  but  by  custom, 
 in  some  places,  they  are  paid  to  the  in- 
 cumbents of  other  parishes,  when  corpses 
 are  carried  through  them.  The  bishops  of 
 Bangor,  Landaff,  St.  David's,  &c.  had  for- 
 merly mortuaries  of  priests,  abolished  by 
 12  Anne,  stat.  ii.  c.  6.  And  it  was  cus- 
 tomary, in  the  diocese  of  Chester,  for  the 
 bishop  to  have  a  mortuary,  on  the  death 
 of  every  priest  dying  within  the  arch- 
 deaconry of  Chester,  of  his  best  beast, 
 saddle  and  bridle,  and  best  gown  or  cloak, 
 hat,  and  upper  garment  under  the  gown. 
 By  28  Geo.  II.  c.  6,  mortuaries  in  the 
 diocese  of  Chester  were  abolished,  and  the 
 rectorv  of  AVaverton  attached  to  the  see  in 
 lieu  thereof.  By  the  21  Hen.  YIII.  c.  6, 
 mortuaries  were  commuted  into  money 
 payments,  which  Mere  regulated  as  follows : 
 — "  No  parson,  vicar,  curate,  parish  priest, 
 or  other,  shall  for  any  person  dying  or 
 dead,  and  being  at  the  time  of  his  death 
 of  the  value  in  moveable  goods  of  ten 
 marks  or  more,  clearly  above  his  debts  paid, 
 and  under  the  sum  of  £^0,  take  for  a  mor- 
 tuary above  3s.  4.d.  in  the  whole.  And  for 
 a  person  dying  or  dead,  being  at  the  time 
 of  his  death  of  the  value  of  £30  or  above, 
 clearly  above  his  debts  paid,  in  moveable 
 goods,  and  under  the  value  of  £40,  there 
 shall  no  more  be  taken  or  demanded  for  a 
 mortuary,  than  6s.  8c/.  in  the  whole.  And 
 for  any  person  dying  or  dead,  having  at  the 
 time  of  his  death  of  the  value  in  moveable 
 goods  of  £40  or  above,  to  any  sum  what- 
 soever it  be  clearly  above  his  debts  paid, 
 there  shall  be  no  more  taken,  paid,  or 
 demanded  for  a  mortuary,  than  10s.  in  the 
 whole.    The  Welsh  bishoprics  and  the  dio- 
 
 cese of  Chester  were  excepted  from  the 
 operation  of  this  statute,  and  therefore 
 subsequent  acts  were  passed  with  respect 
 to  them. 
 
 MOTETT,  in  Church  music,  a  short 
 piece  of  music  highly  elaborated,  of  which 
 the  subject  is  taken  from  the  psalms  or 
 hymns  of  the  Church.  It  somewhat  resem- 
 bles our  anthems.  The  derivation  is  from 
 the  Italian  Moftctfn,  a  little  word  or  sen- 
 tence ;  originally  signifying  a  short  epi- 
 gram in  verse  ;  and  afterwards  applied  as 
 now  defined,  as  the  Mords  of  the  Motett 
 properly  consist  of  a  short  sentence  from 
 Holy  Scripture. — Jehb. 
 
 MOTHER  OF  GOD.  (See  Mariolatnj, 
 lli-gin  Mary,  Kestorknis.)  "  The  Virgin 
 ]\Iary,"  says  Pearson  on  the  Creed,  "  is 
 frequently  styled  the  Mother  of  Jesus  in 
 the  language  of  the  evangelists,  and  by 
 Elizabeth,  particularly,  the  Mother  of  her 
 Lord,  as  also,  by  the  general  consent  of 
 the  Church,  because  he  which  was  born  of 
 her  was  GoD,  the  Deipara  :  M'hich,  bein^  a 
 compound  title,  begun  in  the  Greek  Church, 
 was  resolved  into  its  parts  by  the  Latins, 
 and  so  the  Virgin  was  plainly  named  the 
 3Iofher  of  God!'' 
 
 We  admit  that  the  Virgin  Mary  is  the 
 mother  of  God  ;  but  we  protest  against 
 the  conclusion  that  she  is,  on  that  account, 
 to  be  treated  with  peculiar  honour,  or  to 
 be  worshipped;  for  this  expression  is 
 used  not  to  exalt  her,  but  to  assert  un- 
 equivocally the  Divinity  of  her  Son  :  He 
 whom  she  brought  forth  was  God,  and 
 therefore  she  is  a  bringer  forth  or  mother 
 of  God. 
 
 The  term  was  first  brought  prominently 
 forward  at  the  Council  of  Ephesus,  (a.  d. 
 43 1 ,)  the  third  of  those  four  general  councils, 
 the  decisions  of  which  are  authoritative  in 
 the  Church  of  England ;  and  it  was  adopted 
 as  a  formula  against  the  Nestorians.  The 
 Nestorian  controversy  originated  thus.  In 
 the  year  428,  Nestorius  was  bishop  of 
 Constantinople,  and  he  had  brought  with 
 him  from  Antioch,  Avhere  he  had  before 
 resided,  a  priest  named  Anastasius,  his 
 chaplain  and  friend;  this  person, preaching 
 one  day  in  the  church  of  Constantinople, 
 said,  "  Let  no  one  call  Mary  mother  of 
 God,  for  she  was  a  woman,  and  it  is  im- 
 possible that  God  should  be  born  of  a 
 human  creature."  These  words  gave 
 great  offence  to  many  both  of  the  clergy 
 and  laity;  for  they  had  ahvays  been  taught, 
 says  the  historian  Socrates,  to  acknow- 
 ledge Jesus  Chiust  as  God,  and  not  to 
 sever  him  in  any  way  from  the  Divinity. 
 Nestorius,  however,  declared  his  assent 
 to  what  Anastasius  had  said,  and  became, 
 
MOTHER  OF  GOD. 
 
 525 
 
 from  his  high  position  in  the  Church,  the 
 heresiarch. 
 
 When  the  heresy  had  spread  into  E<>jypt, 
 it  was  refuted  by  8t.  Cyril,  bishop  of 
 Alexandria,  in  a  pastoral  letter,  which  he 
 published  for  the  direclion  of  his  people. 
 "  I  Avonder,"  he  says,  "  how  a  question 
 can  be  raised,  as  to  whether  the  Holy 
 Virgin  should  be  called  mother  of  Gou ; 
 for  if  our  Lord  Jesus  Ciiuist  is  God, 
 how  is  not  the  Holy  Virgin,  his  mother, 
 the  mother  of  God?  This  is  the  foith 
 we  have  been  taught  by  the  apostles." 
 He  next  proves  that  he  who  was  born  of 
 the  Virgin  Mary  is  God  in  his  own  nature, 
 since  the  Nicene  Creed  says  that  the  only 
 begotten  Son  of  God,  of  the  same  sub- 
 stance with  the  Father,  himself  came 
 doAvn  from  heaven  and  Avas  incarnate ; 
 and  then  he  proceeds,  "  You  Avill  say, 
 perhaps,  is  the  Virgin,  then,  mother  of 
 the  Divinity?  We  answer.  It  is  certain 
 that  the  AVord  is  eternal,  and  of  the  sub- 
 stance of  the  Father.  Now,  in  the  order 
 of  nature,  mothers,  who  have  no  part  in 
 the  creation  of  the  soul,  are  still  called 
 mothers  of  the  whole  man,  and  not  of  the 
 body  only ;  for  surely  it  would  be  a  hy- 
 percritical refinement  to  say,  Elizabeth  is 
 mother  of  the  body  of  John,  and  not  of 
 his  soul.  In  the  same  v.ay,  therefore,  we 
 express  ourselves  in  regard  to  the  birth  of 
 Emmanuel,  since  the  Word,  having  taken 
 flesh  upon  him,  is  called  Son  of  Man." 
 In  a  letter  to  Nestorius  himself  he  enters 
 into  a  fuller  explanation  :  "  We  must 
 admit  in  the  same  Christ  two  generations : 
 first,  the  eternal,  by  which  he  proceeds 
 from  his  Father  ;  second,  the  temporal, 
 by  which  he  is  born  of  his  mother.  AVhen 
 we  say  that  he  suffered  and  rose  again,  we 
 do  nol  say  that  God  the  Word  suffered  in 
 his  own  nature,  for  the  Divinity  is  im- 
 passible ;  but  because  the  body  which  was 
 appropriated  to  him  suffered,  so  also  we 
 say  that  he  suffered  himself.  So  too  we 
 say  he  died.  The  Divine  AVoRD  is  in  his 
 own  nature  immortal.  He  is  life  itself; 
 but  because  his  own  true  body  suffered 
 death,  we  say  that  he  himself  died  for  us. 
 In  the  same  way,  when  his  flesh  is  raised 
 from  the  dead,  we  attribute  resurrection 
 to  him.  We  do  not  say  that  avc  adore 
 the  man  along  with  the  Word,  lest  the 
 phrase  '  along  with '  should  suggest  the 
 idea  of  non-identity ;  but  we  adore  him 
 as  one  and  the  same  person,  because  the 
 body  assumed  by  the  AVord  is  in  no  degree 
 external  or  separated  from  the  Word." — 
 Co)ic.  Eph.  part  i.  v.  8.  "  It  is  in  this 
 sense,"  he  says  afterwards,  "  that  the  Fa- 
 thers have  ventured  to  call  the  Holy  Vir- 
 
 gin mother  of  God,  not  that  the  nature  of 
 the  AVoRD,  or  his  Divinity,  did  receive  be- 
 ginning of  his  existence  from  the  Holy 
 A'irgin,  but  because  in  her  was  formed  and 
 animated  a  reasonable  soul  and  a  sacred 
 body,  to  which  the  Word  united  himself 
 in  hypostasis,  which  is  the  reason  of  its 
 being  said,  '  he  was  born  according  to  the 
 flesh.'" 
 
 It  was  jealousy  for  the  Lord  Jesus 
 Christ,  and  anxiety  to  maintain  his  honour, 
 and  to  assert  his  Divinity,  which  influenced 
 the  Fathers  at  the  Council  of  Ephesus,  and 
 not  any  special  regard  to  the  creature 
 through  whose  instrumentality  he  was 
 brought  into  the  world.  And  the  decisions 
 of  that  council,  because  they  can  be  proved 
 to  be  scriptural,  the  Church  of  England 
 accepts.  The  council  vindicated  this  title, 
 not  because  it  was  a  high  title  for  Mary, 
 but  because  to  deny  it  is  to  deny  that  he 
 is  God  whom  she  brought  forth.  The 
 heresy  of  Nestorius  related  to  the  incarn- 
 ation or  junction  of  the  two  natures  in 
 Christ,  which  he  affirmed  not  to  be  a 
 wiiun,  but  merely  a  connexioti ;  whereas 
 the  object  of  the  Council  of  Ejjhesus  was 
 to  assert  "  the  real  and  inseparable  union 
 of  the  two  natures  hi  Christ,  and  to  show 
 that  the  human  nature,  which  Christ 
 took  of  the  Holy  Virgin,  never  subsisted 
 separately  from  the  Divine  person  of  the 
 Son  of  God." 
 
 To  the  use  of  the  term,  however,  though 
 we  contend  for  its  propriety,  divines  of 
 the  Church  of  England  are  not  partial, 
 because,  by  the  subtilty  of  the  Komish 
 controversialists,  it  has  been  so  used,  or 
 rather  misused,  as  to  make  it  seem  to  con- 
 fer peculiar  honovu'  and  pi'ivileges  upon 
 the  Virgin  Mary.  The  primitive  Chris- 
 tians, like  ourselves,  were  contented  with 
 speaking  of  the  Virgin  as  "  the  mother  of 
 my  Lord  ; "  and  this  phrase  sufficed  until, 
 as  we  have  seen,  heretics  arose  who  under- 
 stood the  word  Lord  in  an  inferior  sense, 
 and  then  it  became  necessary  to  assert  that 
 God  and  Lord,  as  applied  to  our  blessed 
 Saviour,  are  synonymous  terms.  And 
 sound  theologians  will  still  occasionally 
 use  the  term  Mother  of  God,  lest  Nestori- 
 anism  should  be  held  unconsciously  by 
 persons  who  wish  to  be  orthodox,  and 
 people  forget  the  great  truth  expressed  by 
 St.  Paul,  that  "  God  purchased  the  Church 
 with  his  OAvn  blood  ; "  and  that  CllRiST  is 
 "  over  all,  God  blessed  for  ever." 
 
 The  Council  of  Ephesus  caused  the  Ni- 
 cene Creed,  and  several  passages  out  of 
 St.  Cyprian,  St.  Basil,  Athanasius,  Gregory 
 Nazianzen,  and  many  others,  to  be  read  in 
 council.     And  from  them  they  gathered, 
 
526 
 
 MOULDING. 
 
 MOYER'S  LECTURE. 
 
 and  therefore  pronounced,  that  according 
 to  the  Scriptures,  as  interpreted  by  the 
 catholic  Church,  Christ,  though  he  liave 
 t>Yo  natures,  yet  he  is  but  one  person,  and 
 by  consequence  that  the  Virgin  Mary 
 might  properly  be  called  QeoroKog,  because 
 the  same  person  Avho  -was  born  of  her  is 
 truly  God  as  well  as  man:  which  being 
 once  determined  by  an  universal  council 
 to  be  the  true  sense  and  meaning  of  the 
 Scriptures  in  this  point,  hath  been  ac- 
 knowledged by  the  universal  Church  ever 
 since,  till  this  time. — BiaJiop  Beverichje. 
 
 MOULDING.  An  ornamental  form 
 given  to  angles  and  edges  of  masonry  or 
 woodwork,  and  carried  uniformly  along  a 
 considerable  extent.  The  use  of  mould- 
 ings must  commence  with  the  earliest  at- 
 tempts at  ornament  in  masonry  or  car- 
 pentry. The  Saxon  mouldings,  so  far  as 
 we  can  collect  from  existing  sjDecimens, 
 were  extremely  rude  and  simple ;  but  with 
 the  Norman  mouldings  the  case  is  pre- 
 cisely the  reverse,  so  far,  at  least,  as  sim- 
 plicity is  concerned :  for  though  the  mould- 
 ings themselves  may  be  resolved  into  a 
 very  few  forms  and  combinations,  they 
 were  often  either  treated  as  if  themselves 
 broken  and  mitred  together  at  various 
 angles,  as  in  the  case  of  the  chevron  and 
 embattled  mouldings  ;  or  they  were  them- 
 selves decorated  with  forms  not  of  their 
 own  nature,  as  the  medallion,  beak  head, 
 and  other  like  mouldings,  which  are  how- 
 ever, strictly  speaking,  rather  decorations 
 of  mouldings,  than  themselves  mouldings. 
 It  would  far  exceed  our  limits  to  describe 
 the  several  mouldings  of  the  succeeding 
 styles.  We  must  be  content  with  saying, 
 in  general,  that  in  the  Early  English  they 
 reached  their  greatest  complexity  and 
 depth,  and  that  they  gradually  became 
 less  numerous,  and  shalloAver,  to  the  Per- 
 pendicular ;  the  happy  mean  being  reached 
 in  this,  as  in  almost  everything  else,  in  the 
 Geometrical.  The  particular  mouldings, 
 which  may  be  said  to  be  distinctive  of  a 
 style,  are  chiefly  the  ogee,  in  several  of  its 
 forms,  of  the  Decorated  ;  the  scroll  of  the 
 Decorated,  with  the  later  Geometric ;  the 
 wide  and  shallow  casement  or  hollow  of 
 the  Perpendicular.  The  hollows,  in  the 
 Early  English,  usually  separate  single 
 mouldings,  in  the  Decorated  groups  of 
 mouldings.  The  earlier  mouldings,  as 
 Norman  and  Early  English,  generally  oc- 
 cupy the  planes  of  the  wall  and  of  the 
 soffit ;  the  later,  especially  Perpendicular, 
 the  chamfer  plane  only.  *  To  be  at  all  ap- 
 preciated, the  subject  of  mouldings  must 
 be  studied  in  the  "  Oxford  Glossary,"  or 
 in  Paley's  "  Manual  of  Gothic  Mouldings ;" 
 
 and  to  be  mastered,  it  must  be  pursued, 
 pencil  in  hand,  in  our  ancient  ecclesiastical 
 edifices. 
 
 T^IOVEABLE  and  IMjNIOVEABLE 
 FEASTS.  The  feasts  kept  in  the  Chris- 
 tian Church  are  called  moveable  and  im- 
 moveable, according  as  they  fall  always  on 
 the  same  day  in  the  calendar  in  each  year, 
 — as  the  saints'  days  ;  or  depend  on  other 
 circumstances,— as  Easter,  and  the  feasts 
 calculated  from  Easter.  The  Book  of 
 Common  Prayer  contains  several  tables 
 for  calculating  Easter,  and  the  following 
 rules  to  know  when  the  moveable  feasts 
 and  holy-days  begin  : 
 
 "  Easter  i)ay,  on  which  the  rest  depend, 
 is  always  the  first  Sunday  after  the  full 
 moon  which  happens  upon,  or  next  after, 
 the  twenty-first  day  of  March ;  and  if  the 
 full  moon  happens  upon  a  Sunday,  Easter 
 Day  is  the  Sunday  after. 
 
 "  Advent  Sunday  is  always  the  nearest 
 Sunday  to  the  feast  of  St.  Andrew,  whe- 
 ther before  or  after. 
 
 Septuagesima 
 Sexagesima 
 Quinquagesima 
 Quadragesima 
 
 (  Nine      \  ^^^eok^ 
 Sunday  is     gf^'^    [before 
 
 \Six 
 
 Easter. 
 
 Rogation  Sunday  \  I  Five  Weeks    \     ,., 
 
 Ascension  Day      (  .    )  Forty  Days     f  %,  ^^ 
 
 Whit  Sundav         (  j  Seven  Weeks  (  f  ^^', 
 
 Trinity  Sunday     )  \  Eight  AVeeks  j 
 
 MOYER'S  LECTURE.  A  lecture 
 established  by  Lady  Moyer.  The  follow- 
 ing is  an  extract  from  the  will  of  the  Lady 
 ISIoyer,  or,  as  she  is  therein  styled,  "  Dame 
 Rebecca  Moyer,  late  of  the  parish  of  St. 
 Andrew,  Holborn,  in  the  county  of  jNIid- 
 dlesex,  widow." 
 
 "  ]My  now  dwelling-house  in  Bedford 
 Row,  or  Jockey  Field,  I  give  to  my  dear 
 child  Eliza  ]Moyer,  that  out  of  it  may  be 
 paid  twenty  guineas  a  year  to  an  able 
 minister  of  God's  word,  to  preach  eight 
 sermons  every  year  on  the  Trinity  and  Di- 
 vinity of  our  ever-blessed  Saviour,  begin- 
 ning with  the  first  Thursday  in  November, 
 and  to  the  first  Thursday  in  the  seven 
 sequel  months,  in  St.  Paul's,  if  permitted 
 there,  or,  if  not,  elsewhere,  according  to 
 the  discretion  of  my  executrix,  who  will 
 not  think  it  any  encumbrance  to  her 
 house.  I  am  sure  it  will  bring  a  blessing 
 on  it,  if  that  work  be  well  and  carefully 
 carried  on,  which  in  this  profligate  age  is 
 so  neglected.  If  my  said  daughter  should 
 leave  no  children  alive  at  her  death,  or 
 they  should  die  before  they  come  to  age, 
 then  I  give  my  said  house  to  my  niece, 
 Lydia  Moyer,  noAV  wife  to  Peter  Hartop, 
 Esq.,  and  to  her  heirs  after  her,  she  always 
 
MOZARABIC  LITURGY. 
 
 MYSTERY. 
 
 527 
 
 providing  for  that  sermon,  as  I  have  begun, 
 twenty  guineas  every  year." 
 
 There  is  a  list  of  the  preachers  of  this 
 lecture  at  the  end  of  Mr.  John  Berriman's 
 "Critical  Dissertation  on  1  Tim.  iii.  16," 
 (which  is  the  substance  of  tlie  lectures  he 
 preached,)  down  to  the  year  1740-1  :  and 
 in  a  copy  of  that  book  in  Sion  College 
 library,  there  is  a  continuation  of  the  list 
 in  MS.,  by  Mr.  John  Berriman,  to  the  year 
 1748.  In  the  year  1757,  they  were 
 preached  by  Mr.  William  Clements,  libra- 
 rian of  Sion  College,  but  he  did  not  publish 
 them  till  1797.  In  the  year  1704,  or 
 thereabouts,  the  preacher  was  Benjamin 
 Dawson,  LL.D.,  who  printed  them  under 
 the  title  of  "  An  Illustration  of  several 
 Texts  of  Scripture,  particularly  wherein 
 the  Logos  occurs,  1765."  Dr.  Thomas 
 Morell,  author  of  the  "  lliesaurus  Grcccce, 
 Poescos,"  is  supposed  to  have  been  the 
 last.  Mr.  Watts,  librarian  of  Sion  College, 
 (to  whom  the  reader  is  indebted  for  the 
 information  here  given,)  heard  him  preach 
 one  of  them  in  January,  1773.  One  of 
 these  lectures  Dr.  Morell  published,  tcith- 
 out  his  name,  in  April,  1774.  It  was  writ- 
 ten against  Lindsey,  and  entitled  "  The 
 Scripture  Doctrine  of  the  Trinity  justified." 
 In  the  "  Gentleman's  Magazine  for  1804," 
 p.  187,  mention  is  made  of  a  Mrs.  Moyer, 
 who  "  died  at  Low  Layton,  February, 
 1804,  the  widow  of  Benjamin  Moyer,  Esq., 
 son  of  Lawrence  Moyer,  merchant,  who 
 succeeded  as  heir  of  his  uncle,  Sir  Samuel 
 Moyer,  a  rich  Turkey  merchant,  sheriff  of 
 Essex  in  1698;  Bart.,  1701;  died,  1716. 
 His  widow  Kebecca,  sister  of  Sir  William 
 Jolliffe,  Knt.,  founded  the  lecture  for  a 
 limited  number  of  years."  This  does  not, 
 however,  appear  to  have  been  the  case,  no 
 limitations  being  mentioned  in  Lady  Moy- 
 er's  will.  But  since  there  is  no  compul- 
 sory obligation  in  the  will  to  perpetuate 
 the  lecture,  the  probability  is  that,  in 
 course  of  time,  (perhaps  immediately  after 
 Dr.  Morell's  turn  expired,)  the  property 
 fell  into  other  hands,  and  the  lecture  was 
 no  longer  continued. 
 
 MOZARABIC  LITURGY.  The  an- 
 cient liturgy  of  Spain  ;  the  name  Mozara- 
 bic  signifying  those  Christians  who  were 
 mixed  with,  or  lived  in  the  midst  of,  Arabs, 
 or  Moors.  Mr.  Palmer  considers  that 
 this  liturgy  was  derived  at  a  very  early 
 age  from  that  of  Gaul,  which  it  much  re- 
 sembles. It  was  abolished  in  1060  in 
 Arragon,  but  was  not  for  some  time  after- 
 wards relinquished  in  Navarre,  Castile,  and 
 Leon.  Cardinal  Ximcncs  founded  a  col- 
 lege and  chapel  in  Toledo  for  the  celebra- 
 tion of  this  rite :  the  only  place  perhaps  in 
 
 Spain  where    it   is   preserved.— Pa//»cr*s 
 O/vV/Zm,  Liturg. 
 MOZECTA,  MUZECTA,  INIOZZETTO. 
 
 An  ecclesiastical  vestment,  like  the  bishop's 
 colobrium  or  tunicle,  worn  by  the  canons 
 in  certain  cathedrals  of  Sicily. — Peiri  Si- 
 cilia  Sacra. 
 
 MULLION,  more  correctly  3Ionial.  The 
 upright  bars  dividing  a  traceried  window 
 into  lights. 
 
 MUSIC,  as  connected  with  the  Church 
 service,  is  sometimes  used  in  a  peculiar 
 and  technical  sense,  to  signify  the  accom- 
 paniment of  a  band  of  instrumental  music, 
 as  violins  and  wind  instruments,  not  the 
 organ  only.  A  service  in  music  abroad  is 
 understood  in  this  sense.  These  kind  of 
 accompaniments  are  foreign  to  the  genuine 
 spirit  of  the  Church  of  England,  Avhich,  as 
 a  general  rule,  recognises  the  organ  only. 
 Charles  II.  introduced  the  foreign  style  of 
 music  into  his  chapel,  which,  however,  was 
 but  short-lived.  Evelyn  in  his  Memoirs, 
 (Dec.  22,  1662,)  speaking  of  the  service  at 
 the  Chapel  Royal  when  he  was  present, 
 says,  "  Instead  of  the  ancient,  grave,  and 
 solemn  wind  music  accompanying  the 
 organ,  was  introduced  a  concert  of  24 
 violins  between  every  pause,  after  the 
 French  fantastical  light  way,  better  suiting 
 a  tavern  or  a  play-house  than  a  church." 
 The  only  stated  musical  service  in  the 
 Church  was  that  performed  annually  a  few 
 years  since  at  the  feast  of  the  sons  of  the 
 clergy  at  St.  Paul's.  The  instrumental 
 accompaniments  are  now  laid  aside.  At 
 what  are  called  musical  festivals  the 
 service  is  so  accompanied. 
 
 MUSIC  TABLE.  A  sort  of  Lectern, 
 with  three  sides,  round  which  the  choir 
 were  placed,  in  the  middle  of  Bishop  An- 
 dre vves's  chapel ;  as  ai)pears  by  the  plan 
 given  in  Cayiterhury^s  l)<)om,  1646. 
 
 MYNCHERY.  A  nunnery.  A  corrup- 
 tion of  ministere,  or  minster. 
 
 MYSTERY.  (From  iximv  to  aro^a,  to 
 shut  the  mouth  :  hence  nvart'ipiov,  mystery.) 
 Something  secret,  hidden  from  human 
 comprehension,  or  revealed  only  in  part. 
 The  term  is  applied  both  to  doctrines  and 
 facts.  By  the  usage  of  the  Church  it  also 
 denotes  that  inscrutable  union  in  the  sacra- 
 ment of  the  inward  and  spiritual  grace 
 with  the  outward  and  visible  sign.  Hence 
 in  the  early  Church  the  sacraments  were 
 denominated  "  mysteries,"  and  the  term 
 derived  a  still  greater  force,  from  the 
 secrecy  which  was  observed  in  the  admin- 
 istration of  those  ordinances.  More  espe- 
 cially, however,  was  the  holy  communion 
 thus  designated,  as  we  learn  from  the 
 ancient  Fathers,  who  speak  repeatedly  of 
 
528 
 
 MYSTERIES. 
 
 MYSTICS. 
 
 the  "  sacred  "  and  "  tremendous  mysteries," 
 in  allusion  to  this  sacrament.  AV^ith  this 
 application,  the  term  appears  in  our  own 
 Communion  Otlice,  where  Christ  is  said 
 to  have  '•  instituted  and  ordained  holy 
 mysteries,  as  pledges  of  his  love,  and  for 
 a  continual  remembrance  of  his  death." 
 T>'e  are  also  exhorted  so  to  prepare  our- 
 selves, that  we  may  be  "meet  partakers 
 of  those  holy  mysteries;"  and  after  their 
 reception,  thanks  are  rendered  to  God, 
 that  he  has  vouchsafed  to  "feed  us  who 
 have  duly  received  these  holy  mysteries, 
 with  the  spiritual  food  of  the  most  precious 
 body  and  blood  of  his  Son,  our  Saviour, 
 Jesus  Christ." 
 
 MYSTEIUES.  (See  Muralities.) 
 MYSTIC.  Sacredly  obscure. 
 MYSTIC  RECITATION.  Several  parts 
 of  the  Greek  liturgy  are  ordered  to  be  said 
 fivffTiicCiJg,  that  is,  in  a  low  voice,  or  whisper, 
 like  the  secreto  of  the  Roman  offices. — 
 Jehh. 
 
 MYSTICAL.  Having  a  hidden,  alle- 
 gorical, or  secret  meaning.  In  the  bap- 
 tismal offices  we  read,  "  Sanctify  this  water 
 to  the  mystical  washing  aAvay  of  sin : " 
 from  which  it  would  be  absurd  to  infer 
 that  the  mere  physical  application  of  water 
 can  remove  sin ;  and  yet,  on  the  other  hand, 
 the  fact  that  the  remission  of  sin  is  asso- 
 ciated with  baptism,  rests  on  Scriptural 
 authority.  There  is,  therefore,  a  secret 
 operation  of  God's  grace  in  cleansing  the 
 soul  linked  to  the  sacramental  application 
 of  water  to  the  body ;  and  the  concurrence 
 or  co-existence  of  these  the  Church  re- 
 gards as  a  "  mystical  Avashing  away  of  sin." 
 Again:  in  the  Communion  Office,  the 
 faithful  recipients  are  said  to  be  "  very 
 [true]  members  incorporate  of  the  mys- 
 tical body  of  Christ."  Now,  how  the  Church 
 can  constitute  "  the  body  of  Christ,"  will 
 appear  to  any  one  an  inscrutable  mj/steri/, 
 if  he  will  but  divest  himself  of  the  famili- 
 arity of  the  terms.  As  to  the  fact,  it  is 
 indisputable;  but  the  manner  is  beyond 
 our  full  comprehension,  partaking  in  some 
 measure  of  the  nature  of  allegory,  and 
 being  strictly  mystical.  It  is  worth  while 
 to  add,  that  the  Church  does  not  recognise 
 the  notion  of  an  invisible  Church,  as  con- 
 stituting this  "  mystical  body,"  composed 
 of  those  only  who  shall  be  finally  saved ; 
 for  she  goes  on  to  pray  for  the  assistance 
 of  God's  grace,  "that  we  may  contmne  in 
 that  holy  felloAvship,"  &c.,  a  petition 
 somewhat  irrelevant  if  such  an  hypothesis 
 be  adopted. 
 
 MYSTICS.  A  party  Avhich  arose  to- 
 wards the  close  of  the  third  century,  distin- 
 guished by  their  professing  pure,  sublime, 
 
 and  perfect  devotion.  They  excuse  their 
 fanatical  ecstasies  by  alleging  the  passage 
 of  St.  Paul,  "  The  Spirit  prays  in  us  with 
 sighs  and  groans  which  cannot  be  uttered." 
 They  contend  that,  if  the  Spirit  prays 
 within  us,  we  must  resign  ourselves  to  its 
 motions,  and  be  guided  and  swayed  through 
 its  impulse  by  remaining  in  a  state  of  mere 
 inaction.  The  principles  proceeded  from 
 the  known  doctrine  of  the  ITatonic  school, 
 which  Avas  also  adopted  by  Origen  and  his 
 disciples,  that  the  Divine  nature  Avas 
 diliused  through  all  human  souls ;  or  that 
 the  faculty  of  reason,  from  Avhich  proceed 
 the  health  and  vigour  of  the  mind,  Avas  an 
 emanation  from  GoD  into  the  human  soul, 
 and  comprehended  in  it  the  principles  and 
 elements  of  all  truth,  human  and  divine. 
 They  denied  that  men  could,  by  labour  or 
 study,  excite  this  celestial  flame  in  their 
 breasts  ;  and  therefore  they  disapproved 
 highly  of  the  attempts  of  those  Avho,  by 
 definitions,  abstract  theorems,  and  pro- 
 found speculations,  endeavoured  to  form 
 distinct  notions  of  truth,  and  to  discover 
 its  hidden  nature.  On  the  contrary,  they 
 maintained  that  silence,  tranquillity,  repose, 
 and  solitude,  accompanied  Avith  such  acts 
 as  might  tend  to  extenuate  and  exhaust 
 the  body,  Avere  the  means  by  which  the 
 hidden  and  internal  Avord  Avas  excited  to 
 produce  its  latent  virtues,  and  to  instruct 
 them  in  the  knoAvledge  of  Divine  things. 
 For  thus  they  reasoned :  Those  Avho 
 behold  Avith  a  noble  contempt  all  human 
 affairs ;  Avho  turn  aAvay  their  eyes  from 
 terrestrial  vanities,  and  shut  all  the  avenues 
 of  the  outAvard  senses  against  the  conta- 
 gious influences  of  a  material  Avorld,  must 
 necessarily  return  to  God  Avhen  the  spirit 
 is  thus  disengaged  from  the  impediments 
 that  prevented  that  happy  union ;  and  in 
 this  blessed  frame  they  not  only  enjoy  in- 
 expressible raptures  from  theu'  communion 
 Avith  the  Supreme  Being,  but  are  also  in- 
 vested Avith  the  inestimable  privilege  of 
 contemplating  truth  undisguised  and  un- 
 corrupted  in  its  native  purity,  while 
 others  behold  it  in  a  vitiated  and  delusive 
 form. 
 
 The  number  of  the  Mystics  increased 
 in  the  fourth  century,  under  the  influence 
 of  the  Grecian  fanatic,  Avho  gave  himself 
 out  for  Dionysiiis  the  Areopagite,  disciple 
 of  St.  Paul,  and  probably  lived  about  this 
 period;  and  by  pretending  to  higher  de- 
 grees of  perfection  than  other  Christians, 
 and  practising  greater  austerity,  their  cause 
 gained  ground,  especially  in  the  Eastern 
 provinces,  in  the  fifth  century.  A  copy  oi 
 the  pretended  Avorks  of  Dionysius  Avas 
 sent  by  Balbus  to  Louis  the  Meek,  in  the 
 
NAG'S  HEAD  FABLE. 
 
 NARTHEX. 
 
 529 
 
 year  824,  Avhich  kindled  the  holy  flame  of 
 mysticism  in  the  Western  ])rovinces,  and 
 filled  the  Latins  with  the  most  enthusiastic 
 admiration  of  this  new  relij^ion.  In  the 
 twelfth  century,  these  Mystics  took  the 
 lead  in  their  method  of  expoundinji;  the 
 Scriptures.  In  the  thirteenth  century  they 
 were  the  most  formidable  antag^onists  of 
 the  Schoolmen ;  and,  toAvards  the  close 
 of  the  fourteenth,  many  of  them  resided 
 and  propagated  their  tenets  in  almost  every 
 part  of  Europe. 
 
 Among  the  ISIystics  of  that  time  we 
 may  notice  the  Dominican  John  Tauler, 
 of  Strasburg,  A.  D.  1361  ;  Henry  Suso  of 
 Ulm,  A.  D.  1365 ;  and  especially  John 
 Ruysbroock,  called  Doctor  Ecstaticus, 
 A.  f).  1381,  who  of  all  the  Mystics  was  the 
 most  dreamy  and  enthusiastic.  Among 
 Protestants  there  have  been  and  are  many 
 Mystics,  but  they  have  not  formed  a  sect. 
 — Mosheim.     Gieseler. 
 
 NAG'S  HEAD  FABLE.  (See  Con- 
 secration of  Bishops.) 
 
 NAHUNi,  THE  PROPHECY  OF.  A 
 canonical  book  of  the  Old  Testament. 
 Nahimi  is  the  seventh  of  the  twelve  lesser 
 prophets;  a  native  of  Elkoshai,  a  little 
 village  of  Galilee,  the  ruins  of  which  were 
 still  to  be  seen  in  the  time  of  St.  Jerome. 
 The  particular  circumstances  of  this  pro- 
 phet's life  are  altogether  unknown. 
 
 Authors  are  divided  as  to  the  time  Avhen 
 Nahum  prophesied,  some  fixing  it  to  the 
 reign  of  Ahaz,  others  to  that  of  Manasseh, 
 and  others  to  the  times  of  the  captivity, 
 St.  Jerome  places  it  in  the  reign  of  Heze- 
 kiah,  after  the  war  of  Sennacherib  in 
 Egypt,  which  the  prophet  speaks  of  as  a 
 thing  passed. 
 
 The  subject  of  Xahum's  prophecy  is  the 
 destruction  of  Xineveh,  which  he  describes 
 in  the  most  lively  and  pathetic  manner ; 
 and  this  prophecy  was  verified  in  the  siege 
 of  that  city  bv  Astyages  in  the  year  of  the 
 world  3378,  before  Christ  622. 
 
 NAME.  (See  Christian  Naine.)  The 
 Christian  name  is  given  us  in  baptism. 
 All  things  being  prepared  for  the  bap- 
 tism of  the  child,  the  minister  is  now  to 
 "take  it  into  his  hands,"  and  to  ask  the 
 godfathers  and  godmothers  to  "  name " 
 it.  For  the  "  Christian  name"  being  given 
 as  a  badge  that  we  belong  to  Christ,  we 
 cannot  more  properly  take  it  upon  us, 
 than  when  we  are  enlisted  under  his 
 banner.  AVe  bring  one  name  into  the 
 world  with  us,  which  we  derive  from  our 
 parents,  and  Avhich  serves  to  remind  us  of 
 our  original  guilt,  and  that  we  are  born  in 
 sin  :  but  this  new  name  is  given  us  at  our 
 baptism,  to  remind  us  of  our  new  birth, 
 2  M 
 
 when,  being  washed  in  the  laver  of  rege- 
 neration, we  are  tliereby  cleansed  from 
 our  natural  impurities,  and  become  in  a 
 manner  new  creatures,  and  solemnly  dedi- 
 cate ourselves  to  GoD.  So  that  the  nam- 
 ing of  children  at  this  time  hath  been 
 thought  by  many  to  import  something 
 more  than  ordinary,  and  to  carry  with  it 
 a  mysterious  signification.  We  find  some- 
 thing like  it  even  among  the  heathens ; 
 for  the  Komans  had  a  custom  of  naming 
 their  children  on  the  day  of  their  lustra- 
 tion, (that  is,  when  they  were  cleansed 
 and  washed  from  their  natural  pollution,) 
 which  was  therefore  called  "Dies  Nomi- 
 nalis."  And  the  Greeks  also,  when  they 
 carried  their  infants,  a  little  after  their 
 birth,  about  the  fire,  (which  was  their 
 ceremony  of  dedicating  or  consecrating 
 them  to  their  gods,)  were  used  at  the 
 same  time  to  give  them  their  names. 
 
 And  that  the  Jews  named  their  chil- 
 dren at  the  time  of  circumcision,  the  Holy 
 Scriptures,  (Gen.  xxi,  3, 4  ;  Luke  i.  59,  60  ; 
 ii.  21,)  as  well  as  their  own  writers,  ex- 
 pressly tell  us.  And  though  the  rite  it- 
 self of  circumcision  was  changed  into  that 
 of  baptism  by  our  Saviour,  yet  he  made 
 no  alteration  as  to  the  time  and  custom  of 
 giving  the  name,  but  left  that  to  continue 
 under  the  new,  as  he  had  found  it  under 
 the  old  dispensation.  Accordingly  we  find 
 this  time  assigned  and  used  to  "this  pur- 
 pose ever  since ;  the  Christians  continuing 
 from  the  earliest  ages  to  name  their  chil- 
 cli'en  at  the  time  of  baptism. —  JFheath/. 
 
 NANTES,  EDICT  OF.  An  edict  of 
 toleration,  promulgated  by  Henry  IV.  of 
 France  in  1598,  which  restored  the  Pro- 
 testants to  all  the  favours  which  had  been 
 granted  them  in  former  reigns,  and  gave 
 them  the  liberty  of  serving  God  according 
 to  their  conscience,  and  a  full  participa- 
 tion in  all  civil  rights  and  privileges. 
 This_  edict  was,  at  the  instigation  of  the 
 Jesuits,  revoked  by  Louis  XIV.  in  the 
 year  1685. 
 
 NARTHEX.  {Or.  and  Lat.)  This  name 
 is  given  by  ancient  writers  to  a  part  of  the 
 fabric  of  the  Christian  church.  There  was 
 the  exterior  or  outward,  and  the  interior 
 or  inward,  Narthex. 
 
 The  exterior  narthex,  which  we  may  call 
 the  ante-tem])lc,  consisted  of  the  whole 
 circumference  of  the  outward  courts,  in- 
 cluding the  vestibulum  or  porch,  and  the 
 atrium  or  area  before  the  church. 
 
 The  interior  narthex,  or  ante-temple 
 within  the  church,  (tlie  only  part  properly 
 so  called.)  was  the  first  section  or  division 
 of  the  fiiliric,  after  entering  into  the  church, 
 and  was  peculiarly  allotted  to  the  monks 
 
;50 
 
 NATIONAL  COVENANT. 
 
 NEHEMIAH,  THE  BOOK  OF. 
 
 and  women,  and  used  for  the  offices  of  ro- 
 gations, supplications,  and  night  watches. 
 Here  likewise  they  placed  the  dead  corpses, 
 whilst  the  funeral  rites  were  performing. 
 This  lower  part  of  the  church  was  the 
 place  of  the  Enenjumens  and  the  Audi- 
 entes  :  and  hither  Jews,  heathens,  heretics, 
 and  schismatics  were  sometimes  allowed 
 to  come,  in  ho})es  of  their  conversion  by 
 hearing  the  Scriptures  read  and  sermons 
 preached. 
 
 Dr.  Beveridge  and  others  seem  to  place 
 here  the  font  or  baptistery,  as  in  our  mo- 
 dern churches.  But  it  is  certain  that,^  for 
 many  ages,  the  baptistery  was  a  distinct 
 place  from  tlie  body  of  the  church,  and 
 reckoned  among  the  Exedrce,  or  buildings 
 adjoining  to  the  church. 
 
 This  part  of  the  church  was  called  Nar- 
 thex,  because  being  long,  but  narrow,  and 
 running  across  the  front  of  the  church,  it 
 was  supposed  to  resemble  afenda,  that  is, 
 a  rod  or  staff ;  for  any  oblong  figure  was 
 by  the  Greeks  called  vop0ij£,  Narthex. 
 
 NATIONAL  COVENANT.  (See  Con- 
 fessions of  Faith.) 
 
 NAVE.  The  central  passage  of  the  church, 
 extending  from  the  west  end  to  the  tran- 
 sept or  choir.  The  derivation  of  this  word 
 has  been  a  matter  of  dispute.  Some  very 
 plausibly  derive  it  from  vaoq,  others  from 
 tiavis,  a  ship,  since  the  nave  resembles  the 
 hull  of  a  ship  turned  upside  down  ;  and 
 refer  both  this  term  and  vaog  also  to  the 
 ancient  Phoenicians,  Avhose  original  tem- 
 ples were  said  to  be  their  vessels  thus  re- 
 versed. At  all  events  it  is  remarkable  that 
 both  the  old  French  nef,  the  Italian  and 
 Spanish  nave,  and  the  Latin  nnvis,  all  sig- 
 nify a  ship  as  well  as  the  nave  of  a  church. 
 (See  Churches  and  Cathedral.) 
 
 NAVICULA;  ship,  or  ark.  A  vessel 
 formed  "  like  the  keel  of  a  boat,"  out  of 
 which  the  frankincense  was  poured  in 
 Bishop  Andi'ewes'  chapel,  and  Queen  Eli- 
 zabeth's chapel.  Canterbury's  Doojn,  1646, 
 See  Hiereiigia  Amjlicana,  pp.  4,  5,  and  9. 
 
 NAZARENES.  Christian  heretics,  so 
 called.  This  name  was  originally  given 
 to  all  Christians  in  general,  because  Jesus 
 Christ  was  of  the  city  of  Nazareth.  But 
 afterwards  it  was  restrained  to  a  sect  of 
 heretics,  who  affected  to  assume  it  rather 
 than  that  of  Christians.  Their  religion 
 was  a  strange  jumble  of  Judaism  and  Chris- 
 tianity :  for  they  were  Jews  by  birth,  were 
 circumcised,  kept  the  sabbath,  and  other 
 observances  of  the  Mosaical  law ;  and  at 
 the  same  time  received  the  New  Testament 
 as  well  as  the  Old,  acknowledged  Jesus 
 Christ  to  be  the  Messiah,  and  practised 
 the  Christian  baptism.     Theodoret  indeed 
 
 pretends  they  honoured  Jesus  Christ 
 only  as  a  just  and  good  man ;  and  he  places 
 the  beginning  of  their  heresy  about  the 
 time  of  Domitian.  St.  Augustine  makes 
 them  the  successors  of  those  whose  ob- 
 stinacy in  the  like  opinions  was  condemned 
 by  the  apostolical  Council  of  Jerusalem. 
 
 The  Nazarenes  (as  well  as  the  Ebion- 
 ites)  were  descended  from  those  Christians, 
 who  left  Jerusalem  a  little  before  the  siege, 
 and  retired  to  the  country  about  Jordan, 
 called  Perea  ;  Avhence  they  are  sometimes 
 called  Peratics.  There  were  some  of  them 
 remaining  in  the  time  of  St.  Augustine. 
 They  dwelt  about  Pella  in  Decapolis,  near 
 the  river  Jordan,  and  at  Berea,  a  city  of 
 Lower  Syria.  They  perfectly  understood 
 the  Hebrew  tongue,  in  which  they  read 
 the  books  of  the  Old  Testament. 
 
 These  heretics,  keeping  the  mean  be- 
 tween the  Jews  and  the  Christians,  pre- 
 tended to  be  friends  alike  to  both  :  never- 
 theless, the  Christians  treated  them  as 
 abominable  heretics,  and  the  Jews  detested 
 them  more  than  the  other  Christians,  be- 
 cause they  acknowledged  Jesus  Christ  to 
 be  the  Messiah.  Epiphanius  says,  they 
 cursed  and  anathematized  them  three  times 
 a  day  in  their  synagogues. — Broughton. 
 
 NEHEMIAH,  THE  BOOK  OF.  A 
 canonical  book  of  the  Old  Testament.  Ne- 
 hemiah  was  born  at  Babylon  during  the 
 captivity,  and  succeeded  Ezra  in  the  go- 
 vernment of  Judah  and  Jerusalem  ;  whither 
 he  came  with  a  commission  from  Arta- 
 xerxes  Longimanus,  authorizing  him  to 
 repair  and  fortify  the  city  in  the  same 
 manner  as  it  was  before  its  destruction  by 
 the  Babylonians. 
 
 Nehemiah  was  a  Jew,  and  was  promoted 
 to  the  office  of  cup-bearer  to  the  Persian 
 king  ;  and  the  opportunities  he  had  of 
 being  daily  in  the  king's  presence,  together 
 with  the  favour  of  Esther  the  queen,  pro- 
 cured him  the  privileges  he  obtained  for 
 building  the  city,  and  the  settlement  of  his 
 country.  When  he  came  to  Jerusalem,  he 
 finished  the  rebuilding  of  the  walls  in  fifty- 
 two  days,  and  dedicated  the  gates  of  the 
 city  with  great  solemnity.  Then  he  re- 
 formed some  abuses,  which  had  crept  in 
 among  his  countrymen,  particularly  the 
 extortion  of  the  usurers,  by  which  the  poor 
 were  so  oppressed,  as  to  be  forced  to  sell 
 their  lands  and  children  to  support  them- 
 selves and  their  families.  Then  he  return- 
 ed to  Persia,  and  came  back  again  with  a 
 new  commission,  by  virtue  of  which  he 
 regulated  everything  relating  both  to  the 
 state  and  religion  of  the  Jews.  The  history 
 of  these  transactions  is  the  subject  matter 
 of  this  Book  of  Nehemiah. 
 
NEOLOGIANS. 
 
 NICENE  CREED. 
 
 531 
 
 Nehemiah  died  at  Jerusalem,  having 
 governed  the  people  of  Judah  for  about 
 thirtv  vears. 
 
 NEOLOGIANS.  Gennan  Rationalists 
 are  so  designated ;  from  i4og,  new,  and  Xoyoc;, 
 doctrine.  They  are  distinguished  from 
 mere  deists  and  ])anthcists,  by  admitting 
 the  principal  facts  of  the  Bible,  though 
 they  attempt  to  explain  away  what  is  mi- 
 raculous, while  they  treat  the  Scriptures 
 with  no  more  of  reverence  than  they  would 
 show  to  any  other  ancient  book,  and  regard 
 our  Lord  himself  as  they  would  regard 
 anv  good  and  wise  philosopher. 
 
 NESTORIANS.  (See  3Iothcr  of  God.) 
 The  followers  of  Nestorius,  bishop  of  Con- 
 stantinople, Avho  lived  in  the  fifth  century. 
 They  believed  that  in  CniiisT  there  were 
 not  only  two  natures,  but  tAVO  persons ; 
 of  which  the  one  was  Divine,  even  the 
 Eternal  Word,  and  the  other,  which 
 was  human,  was  the  man  Jesus  ;  that 
 these  two  persons  had  only  one  aspect; 
 that  the  union  between  the  Son  of  God 
 and  the  Son  of  man  was  formed  in  the 
 moment  of  the  Virgin's  conception,  and 
 was  never  to  be  dissolved ;  that  it  was 
 not,  however,  an  union  of  nature  or  of 
 person,  but  only  of  will  and  affection ;  that 
 Christ  was  therefore  to  be  carefully  dis- 
 tinguished from  God,  who  dM-elt  in  him  as 
 in  his  temple  ;  and  that  Mary  was  to  be 
 called  the  mother  of  Christ,  and  not  the 
 mother  of  God. 
 
 This  heresy  was  condemned  by  the  fourth 
 general  council,  that  of  Ephesus,  A.  d.  431 ; 
 in  which  all  are  anathematized  Avho  refuse 
 to  call  the  Virgin  Mary  the  mother  of  God. 
 For  a  full  account  of  this  people,  see  Mr. 
 Badger's  Xestorians  and  their  Mituals. 
 
 NEWEL.  The  central  column  round 
 A^hich  the  steps  of  a  winding  stair  are  dis- 
 posed. They  are  sometimes  designed  with 
 considerable  taste,  and  carefully  executed. 
 NICENE  CllEED;  sometimes  called 
 the  Conatantinopolitan  Creed.  This  creed 
 was  chiefly  composed  by  the  orthodox  fa- 
 thers of  the  first  general  Council  of  Nice, 
 A.  D.  325,  to  define  the  Christian  faith,  in 
 opposition  to  the  heresy  of  Arius.  As 
 sanctioned  by  this  assembly  it  ended  with 
 "  I  believe  in  the  Holy  Ghost."  The  re- 
 mainder was  added  by  the  second  general 
 council,  held  at  Constantinople,  A.  D.  381, 
 in  which  the  heresy  of  Macedonius,  with 
 regard  to  the  Divinity  of  the  Holy  Spirit, 
 was  condemned.  In  the  fifth  century,  the 
 Western  churches  added  to  tliis  creed  the 
 yvordsJiliofj/He,  in  conformity  with  the  doc- 
 trine, that  the  Holy  Spirit  proceeds  from 
 the  Son,  as  Avell  as  from  the^FATiiER. 
 The  Church  for  three  hundi-ed  years  had 
 2  M  2 
 
 been  content  to  profess  in  her  creed,  that 
 Christ  was  the  Lord  ;  comprehending, 
 under  this  title,  the  highest  appellations 
 given  to  him  in  Scripture,  without  stating 
 minutely,  or  scrutinizing  too  narrowly,  a 
 doctrine  propose^  rather  to  us  as  an  object 
 of  faith  than  of  understanding.  Happy 
 had  it  been  for  the  ('hristian  world,  if  this 
 moderation  of  the  Church  had  been  suf- 
 fered to  continue ;  but  Arius,  a  discon- 
 tented ])riest  of  Alexandria  in  Egypt, 
 either  having  conceived  a  difi'erent  opinion, 
 or  wishing  to  bring  himself  into  notice  by 
 the  assertion  of  a  novelty,  took  u])on  him 
 to  maintain  that  Christ \vas  not  a  Divine 
 person,  in  the  highest  sense,  but  a  creature, 
 superior  indeed  to  human  nature,  but  not 
 a  partaker  of  the  supreme  Godhead. 
 
 The  publishing  of  this  opinion  raised  a 
 violent  ferment  and  schism  in  the  Church. 
 Constantino  the  Roman  emperor  sum- 
 moned a  council  at  Nice,  in  Bithynia,  to 
 settle  this  dispute ;  and  there,  in  the  year 
 325,  Arius's  doctrine  was  condemned  in 
 an  assembly  of  300  bishops,  and  that  creed 
 framed,  which  from  the  name  of  the  city 
 was  called  the  Nicene  Creed.  And  here  it 
 is  necessary  to  observe,  that  the  meaning 
 of  the  three  creeds  of  our  Church,  and  all 
 creeds  that  can  be  composed  on  gospel 
 principles,  is  nothing  more  than  a  declara- 
 tion of  the  sense  in  which  we  accept  the 
 profession  made  in  our  baptism.  By  bap- 
 tism we  are  admitted  into  the  Church  of 
 Christ  ;  by  the  command  of  Christ  we 
 are  baptized  "  in  the  name  of  the  Father, 
 and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost." 
 This  is  the  condition,  by  which  alone  we 
 can  partake  of  the  Christian  covenant; 
 this  is  the  mark  by  which  alone  we  are 
 distinguished  from  the  professors  of  every 
 other  religion  upon  earth. 
 
 When  we  repeat  a  creed,  therefore,  we 
 do  no  more  than  declare  our  repeated  as- 
 sent to  the  conditions  of  the  baptismal  co- 
 venant ;  and  it  would  be  sufl^icient  to  do 
 this  in  the  very  words  that  Christ  enjoins, 
 "  I  believe  in  the  Father,  the  Son,  and 
 the  Holy  Ghost,"  if  explanations  had  not 
 been  demanded,  to  show  Avhat  we  mean  by 
 this  declaration.  Creeds  then  do  not,  pro- 
 perly speaking,  contain  articles  of  faith, 
 but  an  explanation  of  the  sense  in  which 
 we  understand  the  primary  ])osition  of  our 
 religion.  And  this  view  of  the  matter  will 
 show  us  the  reason,  why  no  creed  is  pre- 
 scribed in  Scripture  ;  why  all  creeds  ever 
 have  been,  and  ever  must  be,  the  compo- 
 sition of  men. — Dean  Jlncent. 
 
 The  three  creeds,  which  are  the  three 
 barriers  of  the  faith  of  our  Church,  ex- 
 tracted from  the  Holy  Scripture  in  the 
 
532 
 
 NICENE  CREED. 
 
 purer  ages  of  Christianity,  thouj^h  vari- 
 ously expressed,  are  yet  the  same  in  sub- 
 stance ;  agreeable  to  each  other ;  and  all 
 agreeable  to  the  word  of  God,  and  ap- 
 proved all  along  by  the  Catholic  Church. 
 In  these  forms  she  calls  upon  her  members 
 to  declare  their  belief  to  be  consonant  to 
 that  of  the  Church  universal.  The  Apos- 
 tles' Creed,  as  the  plainest  and  shortest 
 form,  is  appointed  for  common  and  daily 
 use.  The  Athanasian,  for  festivals  which 
 relate  more  immediately  to  our  Saviour  ; 
 or  which  are  placed  at  such  convenient 
 distances  from  each  other,  as  that  none 
 may  be  wholly  ignorant  of  the  mysteries 
 therein  contained.  And  the  Nicene  Creed 
 is  to  be  repeated  whenever  the  eucharist 
 is  administered  according  to  the  institution 
 of  our  Lord,  whose  eternal  generation. 
 Godhead,  incarnation,  sufferings,  and  ex- 
 altation, are  therein  summarily  contained 
 and  acknowledged. — Archdeacon  Yardley. 
 
 It  is  called  "  the  Nicene  Creed,"  because 
 it  was  for  the  most  part  framed  at  the  great 
 Council  of  Nice.  But  because  the  great 
 Council  of  Constantinople  added  the  latter 
 part,  and  brought  it  to  the  frame  which  we 
 now  use,  therefore  it  is  called  also  "  the 
 Constantinopolitan  Creed."  This  creed 
 began  to  be  used  in  churches  at  the  Com- 
 munion Service  immediately  after  the  Gos- 
 pel, in  the  year  of  our  Lord  339.  [The 
 introduction  of  it  in  this  place  is,  however, 
 more  commonly  referred  to  Peter  the  Full- 
 er, bishop  of  Antioch,  about  A.  d.  471.] 
 Afterwards  it  was  established  in  the 
 churches  of  Spain  and  France,  after  the 
 custom  of  the  Eastern  Church,  by  the 
 Council  of  Toledo,  and  continued  down  to 
 our  times.  The  reason  w'hy  this  creed 
 follows  immediately  after  the  Epistle  and 
 Gospel,  is  the  same  that  was  given  for  the 
 Apostles'  Creed  following  next  after  the 
 lessons  at  morning  and  evening  prayer.  To 
 which  the  canon  of  Toledo  hath  added 
 another  reason  for  saying  it  here,  before  the 
 people  draw  near  to  the  holy  communion ; 
 namely,  that  the  breasts  of  those  who  ap- 
 proach to  those  dreadful  mysteries,  may 
 be  purified  by  a  true  and  right  faith. — Bp. 
 Sparrow. 
 
 The  creed  is  a  summary  of  the  doctrine 
 of  the  gospel,  and  here  is  placed  next  to 
 it,  because  it  is  grounded  upon  it.  In  the 
 gospel  we  "believe  Avith  our  heart  unto 
 righteousness  ; "  in  the  creed  we  "  confess 
 with  our  mouth  unto  salvation  "  (Kom.  x. 
 10) ;  for  all  the  people  ought  to  repeat  the 
 creed  after  the  minister.  It  doth  more 
 largely  condemn  all  heresies  than  the  Apos- 
 tles' Creed:  wherefore  it  is  fitly  enjoined 
 to  be  recited  by  all  before  the  sacrament, 
 
 to  show  that  all  the  communicants  are  free 
 from  heresy,  and  in  the  strictest  league  of 
 union  with  the  Catholic  Church ;  as  also 
 to  prepare  themselves  for  w^orthy  receiv- 
 ing, by  exercising  that  faith,  of  which  they 
 have  so  much  use  at  the  Lord's  table,  as 
 the  Council  of  Toledo  ordained  in  the  year 
 600  [589].  So  that  every  one  must  openly 
 profess  and  firmly  embrace  all  these  arti- 
 cles, before  he  can  be  fit  to  receive ;  yea, 
 and  while  he  repeats  them  with  his  lips, 
 he  must  resolve  to  show  forth  in  his  life, 
 that  he  doth  sincerely  believe  them,  by 
 strictly  living  according  to  them. — Dean 
 Comber. 
 
 As  in  the  Morning  Prayer,  so  in  the 
 Communion  Service,  for  the  same  reason, 
 after  reading  the  Scripture,  we  recite  the 
 creed :  only  then  we  have  that  of  the  an- 
 cient Latin  Church  ;  here  that  of  the  an- 
 cient Greek. — Abp.  Seeker. 
 
 Besides  the  general  reasons  for  repeat- 
 ing the  creed,  the  rehearsal  of  our  faith 
 before  the  receiving  of  the  holy  commu- 
 nion is  founded  on  these  two  special 
 grounds:  —  1.  It  is  meet  that  all  should 
 first  profess  the  same  faith,  who  partake  of 
 the  same  mysteries ;  for  surely,  if  "  no 
 stranger,  nor  uncircumcised  person,"  could 
 eat  of  the  passover,  that  tj^ical  sacrament, 
 (Exod.  xii.  43,  48,)  much  more  no  stranger 
 to  the  Christian  faith,  nor  unbeliever, 
 should  partake  of  the  real  sacrament  of 
 the  Lord's  supper.  2.  As  the  acknow- 
 ledgment of  the  articles  of  our  Christian 
 faith  is  part  of  the  vow  made  at  our  baptism, 
 so  ought  the  same  acknowledgment  to  be 
 repeated  at  the  Lord's  supper,  wherein  we 
 renew  that  vow. — Dr.  Bisse. 
 
 Add  to  this,  that  every  solemn  confes- 
 sion of  our  faith  must  be  looked  upon  as 
 giving  glory  and  honour  to  God,  in  recog- 
 nising his  essence  and  attributes,  and  the 
 blessings  which  flow  from  those  sources  on 
 mankind :  and  hence  it,  in  a  peculiar 
 manner,  befits  this  holy  service  of  thanks 
 and  praise.  In  this  w'e  imitate  the  most 
 ancient  liturgies  of  the  Church  ;  which, 
 when  this  holy  sacrament  was  celebrated, 
 had  an  eucharistical  form,  wherein  God's 
 power  and  goodness  were  acknowledged 
 in  the  creation,  preservation,  and  redemp- 
 tion of  the  world.  Thus  we,  though  in  a 
 shorter  form  of  undoubted  authority,  con- 
 fess to  the  holy  and  undivided  Trinity, 
 and  distinctly  OAvn  the  Divinity  of  each  per- 
 son. We  commemorate  the  creation  of  the 
 world  by  "  God  the  Father  Almighty." 
 We  acknowledge  Jesus  Christ  to  be  our 
 "  Lord  ; "  to  have  been  "  begotten  "  from 
 all  eternity,  to  be  "  of  one  substance  with 
 the  Father,"  and  wdth  him  Creator  of  all 
 
NICOLAITANS. 
 
 NOETIANS. 
 
 533 
 
 things :  that  "  for  our  salvation  he  came 
 down  from  heaven,  was  made  man,  suf- 
 fered, and  died  "  for  us.  We  commemor- 
 ate his  resurrection,  ascension,  and  sitting 
 at  God's  right  hand  :  exj)ress  our  exjiect- 
 ation  of  his  second  coming ;  and  declare 
 that  "  his  kingdom  shall  have  no  end." 
 We  confess  to  Gon,  that  he  hath  inspired 
 the  ])ro])hets ;  that  he  hath  built  a  Church 
 on  the  foundation  of  the  apostles  ;  that  he 
 hath  appointed  baptism  for  the  remission 
 of  sins ;  and  given  us  leave  to  "  look  for 
 the  resurrection  of  the  dead"  and  an  happy 
 eternity. 
 
 What  more  glorious  hymn  than  this 
 can  we  sing  to  the  honour  of  God  ?  Is  it 
 possible  to  mention  anything  else  that  can 
 so  much  redound  to  his  glory  ?  May  not 
 this  our  service  be  well  styled  the  euclia- 
 rist,  when  we  thus  give  praise  and  glory 
 to  Almighty  God  for  the  wonderful  mani- 
 festation of  his  attributes,  and  the  inestim- 
 able blessings  he  hath  bestoAved  upon  us  ? 
 Let  not  any  one  therefore  think,  that  re- 
 peating the  creed  is  barely  a  declaration 
 of  his  faith  to  the  rest  of  the  congregation  : 
 for,  besides  that,  it  is  a  most  solemn  act  of 
 worship,  in  which  we  honour  and  magnify 
 God,  both  for  what  he  is  in  himself,  and 
 for  what  he  hath  done  for  us.  And  let  us 
 all,  sensible  of  this,  repeat  it  with  rever- 
 ential voice  and  gesture ;  and  lift  up  our 
 hearts  with  faith,  thankfulness,  and  hum- 
 ble devotion,  whenever  we  say,  "  I  believe," 
 «&c. — A  rchdeacon  1  \tr(Uey. 
 
 The  Nicene  Creed  is  properly  sung  in 
 all  choirs.  Bishop  Beveridge  says,  "  We 
 stand  at  the  creeds ;  for  they  being  con- 
 fessions of  our  faith  in  God,  as  such  they 
 come  under  the  proper  notion  of  hymns  or 
 songs  of  praise  to  him."  The  rubric  sanc- 
 tions, that  is,  enjoins  in  choirs,  the  custom  : 
 and  such  has  been  the  usage  of  most  choirs 
 since  the  Reformation ;  an  usage  kept  up 
 throughout  the  AVestern  Church,  accord- 
 ing to  Mr.  Palmer,  since  the  year  1012.  It 
 is  not  adapted  to  chanting,  like  the  Psalms. 
 In  our  Prayer  Book  it  is  divided,  like  the 
 Apostles'  Creed  and  the  Gloria  in  ex- 
 celsis,  into  three  paragraphs,  of  which  the 
 central  one  has  special  reference  to  God 
 the  Son. — Jehb. 
 
 XICOLAITAXS.  Heretics  who  arose 
 in  the  Christian  Church  during  the  time 
 of  the  apostles,  (as  ap])ears  from  Rev.  ii.  6, 
 Id.)  and  are  taken  to  be  the  fathers  of  the 
 Gnostics.  Some  of  the  ancient  fathers  af- 
 firm that  Nicolas,  one  of  the  seven  first 
 deacons,  was  the  founder  of  this  sect ;  that 
 being  blamed  by  the  apostles  for  keeping 
 company  with  his  wife,  whom  he  had  left 
 before  to  live  in  continence,  he  invented 
 
 this  brutal  error  to  excuse  his  proceeding, 
 and  thought  that  impurity  was  a  necessary 
 means  to  attain  to  eternal  ha])piness: 
 others  say  that  the  holy  apostles,  re|)roaeh- 
 ing  him  for  being  jeahms  of  his  wife,  who 
 was  very  handsome,  he  sent  for  her,  and 
 in  a  great  assembly  gave  her  leave  to 
 marry  whom  she  i)leased :  upon  which 
 some  libertines  framed  a  heresy  of  their 
 own,  and  unjustly  called  it  by  his  name. 
 They  denied  the  Divinity  of  Christ  by  an 
 hypostatical  union,  saying,  the  ])ivine  in- 
 habited, but  was  not  united  to,  the  human 
 nature  ;  they  held  that  all  ])leasures  were 
 good,  and  that  it  was  lawful  to  eat  meats 
 offered  to  idols.  Becoming  too  much 
 known  by  this  name,  they  assumed  that  of 
 the  Gnostics,  and  divided  themselves  into 
 other  sects,  called  Phibionites,  Stratiotics, 
 Levities,  and  Barborites. 
 
 NIPTiai.  {Gr.  In  l^im,  imlUiivlum.) 
 The  ceremony  of  ivashiny  feet.  This  is 
 performed  by  the  Greek  Christians  on 
 Good  Friday,  in  imitation  of  our  Saviour, 
 who  on  that  day  washed  his  disciples'  feet 
 with  his  own  hands. 
 
 In  the  monasteries,  the  abbot  represents 
 our  Saviour,  and  twelve  of  the  monks  the 
 twelve  apostles.  Among  these  the  steward 
 and  porter  have  always  a  place  ;  the  former 
 acts  the  part  of  St.  Peter,  and  imitates  his 
 refusal  to  let  Jesus  wash  his  feet ;  the 
 latter  personates  the  traitor  Judas,  and  is 
 loaded  with  scoffs  and  derision.  The  office 
 used  on  this  occasion  is  extant  in  the 
 Eucholoqium. 
 
 NOCtURXS.  Services  anciently  held 
 during  the  night.  In  the  Breviary,  the 
 Psalter  is  divided  into  portions,  the  first  of 
 which  consists  of  fourteen  Psalms,  the 
 second  of  three,  and  the  third  of  three. 
 These  all  form  a  part  of  the  Sunday  office 
 of  matins,  each  of  which  portions  is  called 
 a  nocturn.  These  were  designed  to  be 
 read  at  these  nightly  assemblies,  with 
 other  services  appointed  in  order  for  the 
 various  nights. 
 
 X'^OETIAXS.  Christian  heretics  in  the 
 third  century,  followers  of  Xoetus,  a  phi- 
 losopher of  Ephesus,  who  pretended  that  he 
 was  another  Moses  sent  by  GoD,  and  that 
 his  brother  was  a  new  Aaron.  His  heresy 
 consisted  in  aflirming  that  there  was  but 
 one  person  in  the  GoDiiKAD,  and  that  the 
 Word  and  the  Holy  Spirit  were  but 
 external  denominations  given  to  GoD  in 
 consequence  of  different  operations:  that  ns 
 creator  he  is  called  Fathkr;  as  incarnate, 
 Son  ;  and  as  descending  upon  the  apostles, 
 the  Holy  Ghost. 
 
 This  hcrcsiarch,  being  summoned  to  ap- 
 pear before  the  assembly  of  the  Church  of 
 
534 
 
 NOMINALISTS. 
 
 NORTH  SIDE. 
 
 Ephesus,  to  give  an  account  of  his  doctrine, 
 made  a  very  catholic  profession  of  faith; 
 but  he  had  no  sooner  gained  a  dozen  fol- 
 lowers, than  he  began  publicly  to  teach 
 and  spread  his  opinions.  He  was  excom- 
 municated by  the  Church  of  E])hesus,  and 
 after  his  death  denied  ecclesiastical  burial. 
 
 Being  reprehended  by  his  superiors,  he 
 is  said  to  have  replied,  "  A^'hat  harm  have 
 I  done?  I  adore  one  only  GoD ;  I  own 
 none  but  him.  He  was  born,  suffered,  and 
 is  dead." 
 
 NOMINALISTS.  At  the  restoration 
 of  the  study  of  logic  in  the  eleventh  cen- 
 tury, many  disputes  took  place,  trivial  in 
 their  origin,  but  important  on  account  of 
 the  colour  which  they  gave  to  religious  con- 
 troversy, concerning  the  objects  of  logic. 
 Agreeing  that  the  essential  object  of  logic 
 was  the  discussion  of  tmiversals,  as  clis- 
 tinguished  from  imrticular  or  individual 
 things,  two  parties  were  formed  on  the 
 question  whether  universals  are  words  and 
 names  only,  or  things  and  real  essences. 
 Those  who  declared  them  to  be  only  names 
 and  words,  and  who  of  course,  therefore, 
 determined  that  logic  was  only  conversant 
 with  words,  were  called  Komijialists,  and 
 basing  their  philosophy  on  that  of  Aristotle, 
 were  principally  supported  by  the  talent 
 and  authority  of  Roscellinus.  Those  who 
 held  that  universals  were  real  existences, 
 and  so  that  logic  was  conversant  with 
 things  and  realities,  were  called  Realists. 
 They  supported  their  hypothesis  on  the 
 authority  of  Plato.  Johannes  Scotus  Eri- 
 gena,  in  the  ninth  century,  had  taught 
 this  doctrine,  but  without  leaving  behind 
 him  any  school  of  avowed  followers.  The 
 controversy  with  the  Nominalists  was  com- 
 menced in  the  eleventh  century,  and  in 
 the  thirteenth  the  greater  part  of  the  school- 
 men Avere  Realists. 
 
 NOMINATION.  This  is  the  offering 
 of  a  clerk  to  him  who  has  the  right  of  pre- 
 sentation, that  he  may  present  him  to  the 
 ordinary.  (For  form  of  Nomination,  see 
 Curacy.) 
 
 The  nominator  must  appoint  his  clerk 
 within  six  months  after  the  avoidance,  for, 
 if  he  does  not,  and  the  patron  presents  his 
 clerk  before  the  bishop  hath  taken  any 
 benefit  of  the  lapse,  he  is  bound  to  admit 
 that  clerk. 
 
 But  where  one  has  the  nomination,  and 
 another  the  presentation,  if  the  right  of 
 presentation  should  afterwards  come  to 
 the  queen,  it  has  been  held,  that  he  that 
 has  the  nomination  will  be  entitled  to  both, 
 because  the  queen,  who  is  to  present,  is 
 only  an  instrument  to  him  who  nominates, 
 and  it  is  not  becoming  the  dignity  of  a 
 
 queen  to  be  subservient  to  another;  but 
 the  nominator  should  name  one  to  the 
 lord  chancellor,  who,  in  the  name  of  the 
 queen,  should  present  to  the  ordinary. 
 
 And  as  the  presentation,  so  the  right  of 
 nomination,  may  be  forfeited  to  the  queen. 
 It  is  true,  if  the  patron,  upon  a  corrupt 
 agreement  unknown  to  the  nominator,  pre- 
 sents his  clerk,  this  shall  not  be  prejudicial 
 to  the  nominator  within  the  statute  of 
 simony ;  but  if  the  nominator  corruptly 
 agrees  to  nominate,  his  right  of  nomination 
 shall  be  forfeited  to  the  queen. 
 
 NONES.  A  term  employed  in  the  Ro- 
 man calendar,  inserted  in  all  correct  edi- 
 tions of  the  Prayer  Book.  The  nones 
 were  the  fifth  day  of  each  month,  except- 
 ing in  March,  May,  July,  and  October, 
 when  the  nones  fell  on  the  7th  day.  They 
 were  so  called  from  their  being  the  ninth 
 day  in  each  month  before  the  ides.  — 
 Stephens's  Book  of  Common  Prayer^  notes 
 on  the  Calendar,  p.  270. 
 
 NONJURORS.  Those  conscientious 
 men  who  refused  to  renounce  their  oath 
 of  allegiance  to  King  James  IL,  and  to 
 transfer  it  to  the  Prince  of  Orange.  What 
 v»'as  at  fu'st  a  necessary  separation  from 
 the  Church  of  England,  degenerated,  after 
 a  time,  into  a  wilful  schism.  The  history 
 of  the  Nonjurors  is  written  by  Lathbury 
 [London,  1845). 
 
 NORMAN.  The  highest  development 
 of  Romanesque  architecture  in  England, 
 Avhich  succeeded  the  Saxon  at  the  Con- 
 quest, and  admitted  the  pointed  arch  which 
 marks  the  Transition,  about  1 145.  It  must 
 be  observed,  however,  that  many  buildings, 
 generally  called  Norman,  and  which  agree 
 with  the  Norman  style  in  all  essential  par- 
 ticulars, except  in  the  accident  of  their 
 being  built  before  1066,  must,  architec- 
 turally, be  classed  with  this  style.  The 
 Norman  is  so  absolutely  distinguished  from 
 all  Gothic  orders  by  the  round  arch,  that  it 
 is  needless  to  enter  into  its  differentials. 
 Several  of  its  peculiarities  will  be  found 
 under  the  heads  Buttress,  Capital,  Cathe- 
 dral, Mouldinqs,  Pier,  Pillar. 
 
 NORTH  SIDE.  In  the  rubric  imme- 
 diately preceding  the  office  for  the  Holy 
 Communion,  the  priest  is  directed  to  stand 
 at  the  north  side  of  the  table.  As  this 
 work  is  not  a  Dictionary  of  the  English 
 language,  it  might  seem  beside  our  pur- 
 pose to  offer  any  explanation  of  those 
 words,  which  are  sufficiently  clear,  though 
 they  have  been  perplexed  by  the  unreason- 
 able scruples  of  some  of  our  generation. 
 Johnson  gives  the  following  as  one  of  the 
 definitions  of  side,  "  any  part  of  any  body 
 opposed  to  any  other  part : "  another  is, 
 
NOTES  OF  THE  CHURCH. 
 
 NO  V  ATI  AN  S. 
 
 53o 
 
 "right  or  left."  The  north  side  then  is 
 that  Avliich  is  opposed  to  the  south  ;  viz. 
 the  left  side  to  tliose  who  look  to  the  east, 
 ■where  the  holy  tahle  is  placed.  By  a  side 
 is  meant  that  which  is  lateral,  as  contra- 
 distinguished from  that  which  is  opjMsitc 
 or  vertical.  A  side  is  the  short  end  of  the 
 table,  and  so  the  Scotch  liturgy  understood 
 the  word,  "  the  north  side,  or  end  thereof^ 
 The  table  usually  in  English  churches 
 stands  at  the  end  of  the  chancel :  the 
 exceptions  are  so  few  as  clearly  to  prove 
 a  rule  ;  and  it  must  be  obvious  to  common 
 sense,  that  when  placed  diiferently,  the 
 priest's  position  there  should  be  the  same 
 relatively  to  the  church  as  if  the  table 
 stood  at  the  east ;  that  is,  at  the  left  side 
 of  those  who  look  towards  the  chancel 
 from  the  body  of  the  church.  Universal 
 custom  has  been  in  conformity  with  the 
 plain  meaning  of  the  rule ;  and  the  priest 
 always  has  stood  at  that  which  formed  the 
 north  or  left  side  of  the  square  tahle.  Had 
 the  intention  of  the  compilers  of  the  liturgy 
 been  different,  the  rubric  would  have  been 
 worded  in  some  such  way  as  this,  "the 
 priest  standing  at  the  north-west  corner,  or 
 anr/le,''^  or  "  left  a)i(/le.^^  An  angle,  or 
 corner,  is  not  a  side ;  and  could  never  be 
 so  interpreted,  unless  the  table  were  placed 
 diagonally.  The  following  authorities  are 
 explicit. 
 
 "  The  design  is,  that  the  priest  may  be 
 the  better  seen  and  heard,  which,  as  our 
 altars  are  now  placed,  he  cannot  be,  but 
 at  the  north  or  south  side.  And  as  Bishop 
 Beveridge  has  shoAvn,  that  Avhenever  in 
 the  ancient  liturgies  the  minister  is  di- 
 rected to  stand  before  the  table,  the  north 
 side  of  it  is  always  meant." —  Wheatli/. 
 
 "  This  seems  to  have  been  ordered,  for 
 the  purpose  of  avoiding  the  fashion  of  the 
 priest's  standing  with  his  face  tovsards  the 
 east,  as  is  the  Popish  practice."  —  Z' 
 Estrange. 
 
 As  to  the  words  in  the  rubric  preceding 
 the  Collect  for  the  Queen,  the  priest  stand- 
 inrj  as  before,  ^Ir.  Collis  observes,  that 
 these  mean  "  not  standing  as  he  rehearsed 
 the  Commandments  ;  for  if  that  were  de- 
 signed nothing  would  have  been  said  here. 
 But  standing  as  before,  namely,  as  he  stood 
 at  the  north  side  of  the  table,  before  he 
 ■was  ordered  to  turn  to  the  people.  When 
 the  Commandments  are  read  by  him,  he 
 directs  himself  to  the  people ;  when  he 
 comes  to  the  collect,  he  directs  himself  to 
 the  Almightv  by  ])raver." 
 
 NOTES  OF'  THE  CHURCH.  The 
 necessity  of  devising  some  general  notes 
 of  the  Church,  and  of  not  entering  at 
 once  on  controversial  debates  concerning 
 
 all  points  of  doctrine  and  discipline,  was 
 early  ])erceived  by  Christian  theologians. 
 Tertullian  a])peals,  in  refutation  of  the 
 heresies  of  his  age,  to  the  antiquity  of  the 
 Chin-ch  derived  from  the  apostles,  and  its 
 ])riority  to  all  heretical  connnunitics  ;  Ire- 
 nirus,  to  the  unity  of  the  Chmx-li's  doctrines, 
 and  the  succession  of  her  bishops  from  the 
 apostles ;  St.  Augustine,  to  the  consent  of 
 nations ;  St.  Jerome,  to  the  continued 
 duration  of  the  Church  from  the  apostles, 
 and  the  very  appellation  of  the  Christian 
 name.  In  modern  times,  Bellarmine  the 
 Romanist  added  several  other  notes,  such 
 as, — agreement  with  the  primitive  Church 
 in  doctrine;  union  of  members  among 
 themselves  and  with  their  head;  sanctity 
 of  doctrine  and  of  founders;  continuance 
 of  miracles  and  prophecy ;  confession  of 
 adversaries  ;  the  unhappy  end  of  those  who 
 are  opposed  to  the  Church,  and  the  tem- 
 poral felicity  conferred  on  it.  Luther  as- 
 signed as  notes  of  the  true  Church,  the 
 true  and  uncorrupted  preaching  of  the 
 gospel;  administration  of  bai)lism,  of  the 
 eucharist,  and  of  the  keys ;  a  legitimate 
 ministry,  ])ublic  service  in  a  known  tongue, 
 and  tribulations  internally  and  externally. 
 Calvin  reckons  only  truth  of  doctrine  and 
 right  administration  of  the  sacraments, 
 and  seems  to  reject  succession.  The 
 learned  theologians  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
 land adopt  a  different  view  in  some  re- 
 spects. Dr.  Field  admits  the  following 
 notes  of  the  Church :  truth  of  doctrine ; 
 use  of  sacraments  and  means  instituted  by 
 Christ  ;  union  under  lawful  ministers ; 
 antiquity  without  change  of  doctrine ; 
 lawful  succession,  i.  e.  with  true  doctrine ; 
 and  universality  in  the  su^rcssive  sense, 
 i.  e.  the  prevalence  of  the  Church  succes- 
 sively in  all  nations.  Bishop  Taylor  ad- 
 mits, as  notes  of  the  Church,  antiquity, 
 duration,  succession  of  bishops,  union 
 of  members  among  themselves  and  with 
 Christ,  sanctity  of  doctrine. 
 
 Palmer,  from  whom  this  account  is 
 abridged,  takes,  as  notes  of  the  Church, 
 what  the  Nicene,  or  Constantinopolitan, 
 Creed  gives,  as  the  Church's  attributes, 
 "One,  Holy,  Catholic  and  Apostolic." 
 
 NOVATIANS.  A  Christian  sect,  ■svhich 
 sprang  up  in  the  third  century;  occasioned 
 by  the  jealousy  which  Xovatian,  a  priest 
 of  Rome,  conceived  upon  seeing  Cornelius 
 raised  to  the  episcopate  of  the  Roman 
 Church,  to  which  he  himself  aspired.  En- 
 raged at  the  disappointment,  he  endea- 
 voured to  blacken  the  character  of  Cor- 
 nelius, by  charging  him  with  a  criminal 
 lenity  towards  those  who  had  apostatized 
 during   the   persecution   of   Decius.     He 
 
536 
 
 NOVATIANS. 
 
 NUMBERS,  THE  BOOK  OF. 
 
 maintained,  that  such  persons  ought  indeed  1 
 to  be  exhorted  to  repentance,  but  never 
 to  be  absolved  by  the  Church,  reserving 
 their  absolution  to  God  alone,  who  had 
 the  poAver  and  authority  to  remit  sins. 
 Hence  he  was  led  to  deny,  in  general,  that 
 the  Church  had  the  power  of  remitting 
 mortal  sins,  upon  the  offender's  repentance. 
 And  at  last  he  went  so  far  as  to  deny  that 
 apostates  could  ever  hope  for  pardon  even 
 from  God  himself:  a  doctrine  which  so 
 ten-ified  some  of  those  who  had  lapsed  and 
 repented,  that,  in  despair,  they  quite  ab- 
 jured Christianity,  and  returned  to  Pa- 
 ganism. 
 
 The  followers  of  Novatian  added  to 
 this  original  heresy  of  their  master  another, 
 which  was  the  unlawfulness  of  second 
 marriages ;  against  which  they  were  as 
 severe  as  against  apostates  ;  denying  com- 
 munion for  ever  to  such  persons  as  mar- 
 ried a  second  time  after  baptism,  and 
 treating  widows  who  married  again  as 
 adulteresses. 
 
 As  these  heretics  pretended  that  the 
 Church  w^as  corrupted  by  the  communion 
 it  granted  to  sinners,  it  is  no  wonder  they 
 rebaptized  those  they  gained  over  to  their 
 sect.  In  baptizing,  they  used  the  received 
 forms  of  the  Church,  and  had  the  same 
 belief  concerning  the  Father,  Son,  and 
 Holy  Ghost,  in  whose  name  they  bap- 
 tized. St.  Cyprian  rejected  their  baptism, 
 as  he  did  that  of  all  heretics ;  but  it  was 
 admitted  by  the  eighth  canon  of  the  Coun- 
 cil of  Nice. 
 
 The  Novatians  put  on  the  external  ap- 
 pearance of  great  piety  and  purity ;  and 
 though  they  did  not  refuse  the  title  of 
 Novatians,  they  assumed  the  proud  appel- 
 lation of  Catharii,  that  is,  the  Pure,  or 
 Puritans ;  and  like  the  Pharisees  among 
 the  Jews,  they  would  not  suffer  other  men 
 to  come  near  them,  lest  their  purity  should 
 be  defiled  thereby. 
 
 The  schism  which  Novatian  had  formed 
 in  the  lloman  Church  was  not  confined  to 
 Rome,  nor  to  Italy,  nor  even  to  the  West. 
 It  made  its  way  into  the  East,  and  sub- 
 sisted a  longtime  at  Alexandria,  in  several 
 provinces  of  Asia,  at  Constantinople,  in 
 Scythia,  and  in  Africa.  The  Novatians 
 abounded  particularly  in  Phrygia  and 
 Paphlagonia.  Constantine  seems  to  have 
 favoured  them  a  little  by  a  law  of  the 
 year  326 ;  which  preserves  to  them  their 
 churches  and  burying-places,  provided 
 they  never  belonged  to  the  Catholic  Church. 
 But  in  a  famous  edict  about  the  year  331, 
 he  sets  them  at  the  head  of  the  most  de- 
 testable of  all  heretics,  forbidding  them  to 
 hold  public  or  private  assemblies,  confis- 
 
 cating their  oratories  or  churches,  and 
 condemning  their  leaders  to  banishment. 
 It  is  pretended  this  edict  had  not  the 
 designed  efiect  as  to  the  Novatians,  by 
 means  of  Acesius  their  bishop,  who  re- 
 sided at  Constantinople,  and  was  in  great 
 esteem  with  the  emperor,  on  account  of 
 his  virtuous  and  irreproachable  life.  The 
 Novatian  sect  was  entirely  extinct,  or  at 
 least  reduced  to  a  very  inconsiderable  party, 
 about  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century. 
 
 NOVEMBER,  FIFTH  OF.  (See 
 Forms  of  Prayer,) 
 
 NOVICES,  in  countries  where  monach- 
 ism  prevails,  are  those  persons  who  are 
 candidates,  or  probationers,  for  a  religious 
 life.  The  time  of  their  probation  is  called 
 the  Noviciate;  after  which,  if  their  be- 
 haviour is  approved,  they  are  professed, 
 that  is,  admitted  into  the  order,  and  allowed 
 to  make  the  vows,  wear  the  habit,  i^c. 
 
 The  novices  among  the  Jesuits  are  dis- 
 ciplined in  a  very  peculiar  manner.  To 
 make  them  the  better  understand  the 
 nature  and  extent  of  the  obedience  they 
 owe  to  their  superiors,  they  have  certain 
 emblematical  pictures  in  their  chambers  or 
 studies.  For  example :  in  the  middle  of 
 the  canvass  is  a  boy  stooping  down  with  a 
 piece  of  timber  on  his  shoulders,  with  this 
 motto,  fortiter,  upon  it.  He  has  a  harp 
 in  his  hand,  to  intimate  the  cheerfulness  of 
 his  submission.  On  the  right  hand  is  a 
 little  dog  in  a  rising  posture,  to  show  that 
 the  novice  is  to  obey  with  despatch  and 
 expedition.  His  breast  is  open,  to  show 
 that  his  superiors  have  his  heart  as  well  as 
 his  limbs  at  their  service.  His  mouth  is 
 represented  shut,  to  show^  that  there  must 
 be  no  grumbling  or  contesting  the  point 
 with  his  superiors ;  and  his  ears  are  stop- 
 ped, to  intimate  that  he  must  submit  to 
 orders  however  unacceptable  to  that  sense. 
 
 If  a  novice  breaks  through  any  part  of 
 this  submission,  he  has  a  penance  enjoined 
 him  according  to  the  nature  of  his  misbe- 
 haviour. For  instance,  if  he  discovers  a 
 haughty  disposition,  he  is  ordered  to  go 
 into  the  infirmary  and  perform  the  coarsest 
 offices  to  the  sick  and  decrepit.  If  he  re- 
 fuses to  do  as  he  is  bid,. or  murmurs  at  it, 
 he  is  brought  into  the  refectory  at  dinner 
 or  supper  time,  and  obliged  to  confess  his 
 fault  upon  his  knees  before  all  the  com- 
 panv. 
 
 NUMBERS,  THE  BOOK  OF.  A  ca- 
 nonical book  of  the  Old  Testament.  It  is 
 the  fourth  book  of  the  Pentateuch  or  Five 
 Books  of  Moses,  and  receives  its  denomin- 
 ation from  the  numbering  of  the  families 
 of  Israel,  by  Moses  and  Aaron  ;  who  mus- 
 tered the  tribes,  and  marshalled  the  army 
 
NUMERALS. 
 
 NUNS. 
 
 637 
 
 of  the  Hebrews,  in  their  passage  through 
 the  wilderness. 
 
 A  great  part  of  this  Book  is  historical, 
 relating  several  remarkable  events  which 
 happened  in  that  journey;  as,  the  sedition 
 of  Aaron  and  ^liriam ;  the  rebellion  of 
 Korah  and  his  companions  ;  the  murmur- 
 ings  of  the  whole  body  of  tlic  people  ;  Ba- 
 laam's prophecy ;  the  miraculous  budding 
 of  Aaron's  rod,  &c.  It  gives  likewise  a 
 distinct  account  of  the  several  stages  of 
 journeyings  through  the  wilderness.  But 
 the  greatest  part  of  this  Book  is  spent  in 
 enumerating  the  several  laws  and  ordin- 
 ances, not  mentioned  in  the  preceding 
 books  ;  such  as,  the  office  and  number  of 
 the  Levites ;  the  trial  by  the  waters  of 
 jealousy ;  the  rites  to  be  observed  by  the 
 Nazarites ;  the  making  of  fringes  on  the 
 borders  of  their  garments ;  the  law  of  in- 
 heritance ;  of  vows ;  of  the  cities  of  re- 
 fuge, &c. 
 
 The  Book  of  Numbers  comprehends  the 
 history  of  about  thirty-eight  years,  though 
 most  part  of  the  things  related  in  it  fell  out 
 in  the  first  and  last  of  these  years,  and  it 
 docs  not  appear  when  those  things  were 
 done  which  are  related  in  the  middle  of 
 the  Book. 
 
 NUMERALS.  The  designation  of 
 tAvelve  priests,  in  the  cathedi'al  of  Nola  (in- 
 ferior to  the  canons). — Jehh. 
 
 NUNS.  Those  women  who  devote 
 themselves,  in  a  cloister  or  nunnery,  to  a 
 rehgious  life.     (See  31onks.) 
 
 There  were  women,  in  the  ancient 
 Christian  Church,  who  made  public  and 
 open  profession  of  virginity,  before  the 
 monastic  life,  or  name,  was  known  in  the 
 world;  as  appears  from  the  writings  of 
 Cyprian  and  Tertullian.  These,  for  dis- 
 tinction's sake,  are  sometimes  called  eccle- 
 siastical virgins,  and  were  commonly  en- 
 rolled in  the  canon  or  inatricula  of  the 
 Church.  They  differed  from  the  monastic 
 virgins  chiefly  in  this  —  that  they  lived 
 privately  in  their  fathers'  houses,  whereas 
 the  others  lived  in  communities.  But  their 
 profession  of  virginity  was  not  so  strict  as 
 to  make  it. criminal  in  them  to  marry  after- 
 wards, if  they  thought  fit. 
 
 In  the  following  ages,  the  censures  of 
 the  Church  began  to  be  inflicted  upon 
 professed  virgins  who  should  marry ;  and 
 these  censures  seem  to  have  grown  more 
 severe,  in  proportion  to  the  esteem  and 
 value  Christians  set  u])on  celibacy  and  the 
 monastic  life.  Yet  there  never  was  any 
 decree  for  rescinding  or  making  null  such 
 marriages. 
 
 Some  canons  allowed  virgins  to  be  con- 
 secrated at  twenty-five  years  of  age,  and 
 
 others  at  sixteen  or  seventeen;  but  time 
 quickly  showed,  that  neither  of  these  terms 
 were  so  conveniently  fixed  as  they  miglit 
 be.  Other  canons,  therefore,  required 
 virgins  to  be  forty  years  old,  before  they 
 were  veiled,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  Coun- 
 cils of  Agde  and  Saragossa.  And  the  im- 
 ])erial  la^s  decreed,  that,  if  any  virgin  was 
 veiled  before  that  age,  either  by  the  vio- 
 lence or  hatred  of  her  parents,  (which  was 
 a  case  that  often  happened,)  she  was  at 
 liberty  to  marry.  Hence  appears  a  wide 
 diflcrence  between  the  practice  of  the 
 ancient  Christian  Church  in  this  matter, 
 and  that  of  the  modern  Church  of  Kome. 
 
 As  to  the  consecration  of  virgins,  it  had 
 some  things  peculiar  in  it.  It  was  usually 
 performed  publicly  in  the  church  by  the 
 bishop.  The  virgin  made  a  public  j)rorcssion 
 of  her  resolution,  and  then  the  bishop  put 
 upon  her  the  accustomed  habit  of  sacred 
 virgins.  One  part  of  this  habit  was  a 
 veil,  called  the  sacrum  velamen  ;  another 
 was  a  kind  of  mitre,  or  coronet,  worn  on 
 the  head.  In  some  places  the  custom  of 
 shaving  professed  virgins  prevailed ;  as  it 
 did  in  the  monasteries  of  Syria  and  Egypt, 
 in  St.  Jerome's  time :  but  the  Council  of 
 Gangra  strongly  condemned  this  practice, 
 accounting  that  a  woman's  hair  was  given 
 her  by  GoD  as  a  mark  of  subjection. 
 Theodosius  the  Great  added  a  civil  sanc- 
 tion to  this  ecclesiastical  decree  :  whence 
 it  appears  that  the  tonsure  of  virgins  was 
 anciently  no  allowed  custom  of  the  Church, 
 however  it  came  to  prevail  in  the  contrary 
 practice  of  later  ages. 
 
 As  the  society  of  virgins  was  of  great 
 esteem  in  the  Church,  so  they  had  some 
 particular  honours  paid  to  them.  Their 
 persons  were  sacred,  and  severe  laws  were 
 made  against  any  that  should  presume  to 
 off'er  the  least  violence  to  them.  The 
 emperor  Constantino  charged  his  own 
 revenues  with  the  maintenance  of  them  ; 
 and  his  mother  Helena  often  entertained 
 them  and  waited  upon  them  at  her  own 
 table.  The  Church  gave  them  also  a 
 share  of  her  own  revenues,  and  assigned 
 them  an  honourable  station  in  the  churches, 
 whither  the  most  noble  and  religious  ma- 
 trons used  to  resort  with  earnestness  to 
 receive  their  salutations  and  embraces. 
 
 The  ancient  names  of  these  virgins  were 
 Nonncc,  Moniales,  Scoictimoniales,  and  As- 
 cctrifc  'i'he  term  Nonncc  (Irom  whence 
 our  J'mglish  word  nuns)  is,  according  to 
 Hospinian,  an  Egyptian  name  signifying  a 
 virgin. 
 
 In  the  Romish  Church,  Avhen  a  young 
 woman  is  to  be  professed,  that  is,  to  be 
 made  a  nun,  the  habit,  veil,  and  ring  of 
 
538 
 
 NUNC  DIMITTIS. 
 
 the  candidate  are  carried  to  the  altar,  and 
 she  herself,,  accompanied  by  her  nearest 
 relations,  is  conducted  to  the  bishop.  Two 
 ancient  venerable  matrons  attend  upon 
 her  as  bridewomcn.  When  the  bishop 
 has  said  mass,  the  arch-jiricst  chants  an 
 anthem,  the  subject  of  -which  is,  that  she 
 ought  to  have  her  lamp  lighted,  because 
 the  bridegroom  is  coming  to  meet  her. 
 Then  the  bishop  calls  her  in  a  kind  of 
 recitative,  to  which  she  answers  in  the 
 same  manner.  Being  come  before  the 
 prelate,  and  on  her  knees,  she  attends  to 
 the  exhortation  he  makes  to  her  with 
 regard  to  a  religious  life,  and  in  the  mean 
 time  the  choir  chants  the  Litanies.  Then 
 the  bishop,  having  the  crosier  in  his  left 
 hand,  pronounces  the  benediction.  She 
 then  rises  up,  and  the  bishop  consecrates 
 the  new  habit,  sprinkling  it  Avith  holy 
 •water,  Allien  the  candidate  has  put  on 
 her  religious  habit,  she  again  presents  her- 
 self before  the  bishop,  and  sings  on  her 
 knees,  Ancilla  Christi  sum,  &c.,  i.  e.  "  I  am 
 the  servant  of  Christ."  Then  she  receives 
 the  veil,  and  afterwards  the  ring,  by  which 
 she  is  married  to  Jesus  Christ;  and, 
 lastly,  the  crown  of  virginity.  AYhen  she 
 is  crowned,  an  anathema  is  denounced 
 against  all  who  shall  attempt  to  break  her 
 vows.  After  the  communion,  the  prelate 
 gives  her  up  to  the  conduct  of  the  abbess, 
 saying  to  her :  "  Take  care  to  preserve 
 pure  and  spotless  this  young  Avoman,  whom 
 God  has  consecrated,"  &c. — Brouqhton. 
 
 NUNC  Di:\nTTIS.  The  first  words 
 in  Latin  of  the  Song  of  Simeon,  "  Lord, 
 now  lettest  thou  thy  servant  depart  in 
 peace,"  appointed  as  one  of  the  hymns  to 
 be  used  after  the  second  lesson  at  even- 
 song. It  was  used  in  this  place  in  the 
 most  ancient  times.  It  is  found  in  the 
 Apostolical  Constitutions.  And  even  at 
 the  present  day  this  hymn  is  repeated  at 
 evening  prayer  in  the  patriarchate  of  Con- 
 stantinople. The  hymn  occurs  in  the  Latin 
 office  for  compline,  from  which,  and  from 
 the  vesper  service,  our  office  of  Evening 
 Prayer  was  compiled. 
 
 After  the  second  evening  lesson  out  of 
 the  Epistles  of  the  holy  apostles,  this  hymn 
 is  most  commonly  used.  The  author  of  it  is 
 supposed  to  be  that  holy  doctor  Avhom  the 
 Jews  call  Simeon  the  Just,  son  of  the 
 famous  Rabbi  Hillel,  a  man  of  eminent  in- 
 tegrity, and  one  who  opposed  the  then 
 common  opinion  of  the  Messiah's  temporal 
 kingdom.  The  occasion  of  composing  it 
 was  his  meeting  Christ  in  the  temple 
 when  he  came  to  be  offered  there,  Avherein 
 God  fulfilled  his  promise  to  him,  that  he 
 should  not  die  till  he  had  seen  the  Messiah : 
 
 taking  Jesus  therefore  in  his  arms,  inspired 
 with  joy  and  the  Holy  Ghost,  he  sang 
 this  "  Nunc  dimittis : "  and  though  we 
 cannot  see  our  Saviour  with  our  bodily 
 eyes  as  he  did,  yet  he  is,  by  the  writings 
 of  the  apostles,  daily  presented  to  the  eyes 
 of  our  faith  ;  and  if  we  were  as  much  con- 
 cerned for  heaven,  and  as  loose  from  the 
 love  of  this  world,  as  old  Simeon  Avas,  and 
 as  we  ought  to  be,  Ave  might,  upon  the 
 A'iew  of  Christ  in  His  holy  Avord  by  faith, 
 be  daily  ready  to  sing  this  hATiin ;  Avhich 
 was  indited  by  the  Spirit,  recorded  in  holy 
 AA^it,  and  is  adopted  into  the  public  service 
 of  all  Christian  Churches,  Greek  and  Latin, 
 Reformed  and  Roman,  and  used  to  be 
 sung  in  extraordinary  by  divers  saints  and 
 martyrs  a  little  before  their  death. — Dean 
 Comber. 
 
 This  hymn,  called  from  the  Latin  begin- 
 ning of  it  "  Nunc  dimittis,"  expresses  the 
 gratitude  of  good  old  Simeon,  "  a  just  man 
 and  devout,"  as  we  read  in  St.  Luke  ii. 
 25 — 32,  "  and  Avaiting  for  the  consolation 
 of  Israel ;  to  Avhom  it  Avas  revealed  that  he 
 should  not  die  till  he  had  seen  the  Lord's 
 Christ."  Accordingly,  "  he  came  by  the 
 Spirit  into  the  temple;  and  Avhen  the 
 parents  brought  in  the  child  Jesus,  he 
 took  him  up  in  his  arms,  (image  to  your- 
 seh'es  the  scene,  I  beg  you,)  and  blessed 
 God,  and  said.  Lord,  noAv  lettest  thou  thy 
 servant  depart  in  peace,"  that  is,  in  com- 
 fort, "  according  to  thy  Avord ;  for  mine 
 eyes  have  seen  thy  salvation,  Avhich  thou 
 hast  prepared"  to  set  "before  the  face  of 
 all  people."  And  the  folloAving  sentence 
 hath  a  strong  appearance  of  being  designed 
 by  the  Holy  Ghost  to  intimate,  (Avhether 
 the  speaker  of  it  perceived  the  design  or 
 not,)  that,  contrary  to  the  expected  and 
 natural  order  of  things,  Christ  should 
 first  "be  a  light  to  lighten  the  Gentiles;" 
 then,  afterAvards,  "  the  glory  of  God's 
 people  Israel."  To  perceive  the  fitness  of 
 Simeon's  thanksgiving  for  our  use,  it  needs 
 only  to  be  remembered,  and  ever  should 
 in  repeating  it,  that  Ave  also  "have  seen 
 the  Lord's  salvation."  For  though  we 
 have  not  yet  beheld  our  Saviour  Avith  our 
 bodily  eyes,  to  that  of  faith  he  is  exhibited 
 continually  in  the  gospel  history  and 
 sacraments :  v/e  may  meet  him  in  his 
 Church  ;  Ave  may  converse  Avith  him  in  our 
 private  meditations.  And  this  Ave  should 
 think  happiness  enough  for  us  here,  AA'hat- 
 ever  else  Ave  Avant  or  suffer  ;  and  be  ahvays 
 prepared,  and  ahvays  AA'illing,  to  "  bless 
 God,"  and  "depart  in  peace." — Abp.  Seeker. 
 
 This  hymn  comes  very  properly  after 
 the  second  lesson,  Avhich  is  always  taken 
 out  of  the   NcAV   Testament,   Avherein  is 
 
NUNCIO. 
 
 OBIT. 
 
 539 
 
 contained  and  delivered  to  us  that  gospel, 
 the  enjoyment  and  participation  of  which 
 is  the  ground  and  foundation  of  the  whole 
 hymn.  It  should  be  added,  that  this  hymn 
 is  addressed  to  God  ;  and  since  it  may  be 
 iised  as  the  personal  address  of  every 
 devout  Christian,  no  one  should  repeat  it 
 after  a  careless  manner;  but  consider  to 
 Avhom  it  is  repeated,  and  utter  the  -whole 
 after  a  suitable  manner. — Dr.  Bcnnet. 
 
 NUNCIO.  An  ambassador  from  the 
 pope  to  some  prince  or  state ;  or  a  person 
 •who  attends  on  the  pope's  behalf  at  a 
 congress,  or  at  an  assembly  of  several 
 ambassadors.  A  nuncio,  in  fact,  is  the 
 pope's  ambassador,  as  the  internuncio  is 
 his  envoy  extraordinary.  A  nuncio  has  a 
 jurisdiction,  and  may  delegate  judges  in 
 all  the  states  where  he  resides,  except  in 
 France,  Avhere  he  has  no  authority  beyond 
 that  of  a  simple  ambassador.  Sometimes 
 a  nuncio  is  invested  "with  the  functions  of 
 a  legatus  natus.  (See  Legate.) 
 
 OATHS.  "  As  we  confess  that  vain 
 and  rash  swearing  is  forbidden  Christian 
 men  by  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  and 
 James  his  apostle,  so  we  judge  that  the 
 Christian  religion  doth  not  prohibit,  but 
 that  a  man  may  swear  when  the  magistrate 
 requireth,  in  a  cause  of  faith  and  charity, 
 so  it  be  done  according  to  the  prophet's 
 teaching,  in  justice,  judgment,  and  truth." 
 — Article  xxxix.  The  first  oath  mentioned 
 in  the  Holy  Scriptures  is  that  of  Abraham, 
 Gen.  xiv.  22,  23. 
 
 The  Oath  of  Allegiance  is  as  follows : 
 — "I,  A.  B.,  do  sincerely  promise  and 
 swear,  that  I  will  be  faithful,  and  bear  true 
 allegiance,  to  her  Majesty,  Queen  Victoria. 
 So  help  me  God."  This  is  taken  by  Pro- 
 testant dissenting  ministers,  when  licensed 
 by  the  civil  magistrates  ;  as  is  also  the  fol- 
 lowing 
 
 Oath  of  Supremacy  :  —  "  I,  A.  B.,  do 
 swear,  that  I  do  from  my  heart  abhor, 
 detest,  and  abjure,  as  impious  and  heretical, 
 that  damnable  doctrine  and  position,  that 
 princes  excommunicated  or  deprived  by 
 the  pope,  or  any  authority  of  the  see  of 
 Kome,  may  be  deposed  or  murdered  by 
 their  subjects,  or  any  other  whatsoever. 
 And  I  do  declare,  that  no  foreign  prince, 
 person,  prelate,  state,  or  potentate,  hath  or 
 ought  to  have  any  jurisdiction,  power, 
 pre-eminence,  or  authority,  ecclesiastical 
 or  spiritual,  within  this  realm.  So  help 
 me  God." 
 
 OBADIAH,  THE  PROPHECY  OF. 
 A  canonical  book  of  the  Old  Testament. 
 This  prophecy  is  contained  in  one  single 
 chapter,  and  is  partly  an  invective  against 
 
 the  cruelty  of  the  Edomites,  who  mocked 
 and  derided  tlie  children  of  Israel,  as  they 
 passed  into  captivity,  and,  with  other 
 enemies  their  confederates,  invaded  and 
 oppressed  these  poor  strangers,  and  divided 
 the  sjioil  amongst  them ;  and  partly  a 
 prediction  of  the  deliverance  and  salvation 
 of  Israel,  and  of  the  victory  and  triumph 
 of  the  whole  Church  over  her  enemies. 
 
 The  time  when  this  prophecy  was  deli- 
 vered is  wholly  uncertain.  The  Hebrews 
 believe,  that  this  prophet  was  the  same 
 with  the  governor  of  Ahab's  house,  men- 
 tioned in  the  First  Book  of  Kings,  who  hid 
 and  fed  the  hundred  prophets,  whom 
 Jezebel  would  have  destroyed.  Some  say 
 he  was  that  Obadiah  whom  Josiah  made 
 overseer  of  the  works  of  the  temple.  But 
 most  writers  make  him  contemporary  with 
 Hosea,  Amos,  and  Joel, 
 
 OBIT.  An  office  performed  at  funerals, 
 when  the  cori)se  was  in  the  church  before  it 
 was  buried  ;  it  afterwards  came  to  be  per- 
 formed on  the  anniversary  of  the  death  of  a 
 benefactor.  Thus,  in  many  of  our  colleges, 
 the  obit  or  anniversary  of  the  death  of  the 
 founder  is  piously  observed.  (See  Comme- 
 moration.) The  obiit  Sundays  (once  a  quar- 
 ter) at  St.  George's  at  AVindsor,  Avere  cele- 
 brated formerly  with  great  magnificence, 
 and  are  to  a  certain  degree  still.  In  Ken- 
 net's  Kegister,  p.  765,  (as  quoted  in  the 
 Iliereugia  AngHcana,  p.  211,)  there  is  the 
 following  notice.  "  1662,  Sept.  10.— This 
 day  was  published  the  service  that  is  per- 
 formed in  the  King's  Free  Chapel  of  St. 
 George,  in  the  castle  of  Windsor,  upon 
 Obiit  Sunday  in  the  morning,  (that  is,  the 
 Sunday  before  every  quarter  day.)  and  at 
 the  offering  up  of  the  achievements  of  the 
 deceased  Knights  of  the  Garter. 
 
 The  Rubric.  The  service  is  the  same 
 that  is  appointed  in  the  Book  of  Common 
 Prayer,  until  you  come  to  the  Psalm  for 
 the  day  of  the  month,  instead  of  which 
 you  have  these  proper  Psalms,  xxi.,  cxlvi., 
 cxlvii.  After  the  Psalm  the  junior  canon 
 upon  the  place  cometh  out  of  his  stall  with 
 the  verger  before  him,  and  readeth  the 
 lesson  at  the  desk,  which  is  taken  out  of 
 the  forty-fourth  chapter  of  Ecclesiasticus. 
 After  the  lesson  Te  Deum  laudamus  is 
 sung.  After  the  Te  Deum  is  ended,  they 
 all  depart  out  of  the  quire  in  the  body  of 
 the  church  to  sermon.  After  sermon  is 
 ended,  the  canons  go  to  the  altar,  and  the 
 quire  go  to  their  stalls,  and  the  commu- 
 nion service  bcginneth.  The  I'pistle  is 
 taken  out  of  the  twenty-third  chajiter  of 
 Deuteronomy;  the  Gospel  in  the  fifth  of 
 St.  John,  beginning  at  the  twenty-fourth 
 and  ending  at  the  thirtieth  verse.     After 
 
540 
 
 OBLATION. 
 
 the  sacrament  (which  is  always  on  the 
 Obiit  Sunday)  is  ended,  and  the  blessing 
 given  at  the  altar,  the  canons  go  to  their 
 stalls,  and  these  following  prayers  are  read : 
 
 Priest.     O  Lord,  save  the  king. 
 
 Qim-e.  And  inercifully  hear  us  when 
 we  call  upon  thee. 
 
 Collect.  O  Lord,  our  heavenly  Father 
 and  merciful  Saviour,  we  praise  and  thank 
 thee,  O  Lord,  8zc. 
 
 God  save  our  gracious  sovereign,  and  all 
 the  companions  of  the  most  honourable 
 and  noble  Order  of  the  Garter. 
 
 Here  endeth  the  ohiit  service." 
 
 The  verse  and  response,  O  Lord,  save 
 the  queen,  &c.,  are  used  daily  after  the 
 anthem  in  St.  George's  Chapel. — Jehb. 
 
 OBLATION.     An  offering  to  God. 
 
 In  the  office  for  the  holy  communion  we 
 pray  God  to  ''  accept  our  alms  and  ob- 
 lations." The  word  oblations  was  added  to 
 this  prayer  for  the  Church  militant  here 
 on  earth,  at  the  same  time  that  the  rubric 
 enjoined,  that,  if  there  be  a  communion, 
 "  the  priest  is  then,"  just  before  this  prayer, 
 "  to  place  upon  the  table  so  much  bread 
 and  wine  as  he  shall  think  sufficient." 
 Hence  it  is  clearly  evident  that  by  that 
 word  we  are  to  understand  the  elements 
 of  bread  and  wine,  which  the  priest  is  to 
 offer  solemnly  to  GoD,  as  an  acknowledg- 
 ment of  his  sovereignty  over  his  creatures, 
 and  that  from  henceforth  they  may  be 
 peculiarly  his.  For  in  all  the  Jewish 
 sacrifices,  of  which  the  people  were  par- 
 takers, the  viands  or  materials  of  the  feast 
 were  first  made  God's  by  a  solemn  oblation, 
 and  then  afterwards  eaten  by  the  commu- 
 nicants, not  as  man's,  but  as  God's  pro- 
 vision, who,  by  thus  entertaining  them  at 
 his  own  table,  declared  himself  reconciled 
 and  again  in  covenant  with  them.  And 
 therefore  our  blessed  Saviour,  when  he 
 instituted  the  sacrament  of  his  body  and 
 blood,  first  gave  thanks,  and  blessed  the 
 elements,  i.  e.  offered  them  up  to  GoD  as 
 the  Lord  of  the  creatures,  as  the  most 
 ancient  Fathers  expound  that  passage ; 
 who  for  that  reason,  whenever  they  cele- 
 brated the  eucharist,  always  offered  the 
 bread  and  wine  for  the  communion  to  God 
 upon  the  altar,  by  this  or  some  such  short 
 ejaculation,  "  Lord,  we  offer  thine  own  out 
 of  what  thou  hast  bountifully  given  us." 
 After  Avhich  they  received  them,  as  it  were, 
 from  him  again,  in  order  to  convert  them 
 into  the  sacred  banquet  of  the  body  and 
 blood  of  his  dear  SON.  Consonant  to  this, 
 in  the  First  Common  Prayer  of  King  Ed- 
 ward VI.,  the  priest  was  ordered  in  this 
 place  to  set  the  bread  and  wine  upon  the 
 altar.     But  at  the  second  review,  to  con- 
 
 ciliate the  ultra-Protestants,  this  ancient 
 usage  appears  to  have  been  thrown  out. 
 It  was  however  restored  at  the  last  review 
 of  the  Prayer  l^ook  in  the  reign  of  Charles 
 IL,  when  it  was  ordered  that  the  bread 
 and  wine  should  be  placed  solemnly  on 
 the  table  by  the  priest  himself.  Whence 
 it  appears  that  the  placing  of  the  elements 
 upon  the  altar  before  the  beginning  of  the 
 morning  service,  by  the  hands  of  a  lay- 
 clerk  or  sexton,  as  is  sometimes  the  irre- 
 verent practice,  is  a  profane  breach  of  the 
 aforesaid  rubric. — Mcde.    Wheatly. 
 
 The  English  liturgy  is  not  without  a 
 verbal  oblation,  which  occurs  at  the  begin- 
 ning of  the  prayers  and  commemorations. 
 After  the  elements  have  been  placed  on 
 the  table,  and  thus  devoted  to  the  service 
 and  honour  of  God,  the  priest  prays  to 
 God  thus :  "  We  humbly  beseech  thee 
 most  mercifully  to  accept  our  alms  and  ob- 
 lations, and  to  receive  these  our  prayers, 
 which  we  offer  unto  thy  Divine  Majesty." 
 Here  three  species  of  sacrifice  or  oblation 
 are  verbally  offered :  first,  the  "  ri/;>?.s," 
 which  St.  iPaul  describes  as  a  sacrifice 
 well-pleasing  to  God  ;  secondly,  the  "  obla- 
 tions,^^ namely,  the  creatures  of  bread  and 
 wine ;  thirdly,  the  "prayers,'"  which,  accord- 
 ing to  St.  John,  are  offered  with  incense 
 on  the  heavenly  altar,  and  of  Avhich  the 
 holy  Fathers  speak  as  a  sacrifice  and  obla- 
 tion to  God. — Palmer. 
 
 In  a  more  extended  sense  of  the  word, 
 we  mean  by  oblations  whatever  religious 
 Christians  offer  to  God  and  the  Church, 
 whether  in  lands  or  goods.  It  is  probable 
 that  the  exam])le  of  St.  Paul  might  incite 
 the  primitive  Christians  to  offer  these  gifts 
 to  the  Churcli ;  for  he  appointed  every  one 
 of  the  Corinthians  and  Galatians  to  yield 
 something  to  GoD  for  the  saints  every 
 Lord's  day:  but  this  being  thought  too 
 often,  therefore  Tertullian  tells  us  it  was 
 afterwards  done  every  month,  and  then  ad 
 libitum  :  but  it  Avas  always  the  custom  for 
 communicants  to  offer  something  at  re- 
 ceiving the  sacrament,  as  well  for  holy 
 uses,  as  for  relief  of  the  poor,  which  custom 
 is,  or  ought  to  be,  observed  at  this  day. 
 
 In  the  first  ages  of  the  Church,  those 
 deposita  pietatis,  which  are  mentioned  by 
 Tertullian,  were  all  voluntary  oblations, 
 and  they  were  received  in  lieu  of  tithes ; 
 for  the  Christians  at  that  time  lived  chiefly 
 in  cities,  and  gave  out  of  their  common 
 stock,  both  to  maintain  the  Church,  and 
 those  Avho  served  at  the  altar. 
 
 But  when  their  numbers  increased,  and 
 they  were  spread  abroad  in  the  countries, 
 then  a  more  fixed  maintenance  was  neces- 
 sary for  the    clergy;    but   still   oblations 
 
OBLATION. 
 
 OCTAVE. 
 
 541 
 
 were  made  by  the  people,  wliich,  if  in  the 
 motlier  Chiirch,  then  the  bishoj)  had  half, 
 and  the  other  -vvas  divided  amongst  the 
 cler<i:y ;  but  if  ofi'ered  in  a  parish  church, 
 then  the  bishop  had  a  third  jjart,  and  no 
 more. 
 
 These  oblations,  Avhich  at  first  Avere 
 voluntary,  became  after^vards,  by  a  conti- 
 nual payment,  due  by  custom. 
 
 It  is  true  there  are  canons  Mhich  require 
 every  one  wlio  approaches  the  altar  to 
 make  some  oblation  to  it,  as  a  thing-  con- 
 venient to  be  done. 
 
 And  it  is  probable  that,  in  obedience  to 
 the  canons,  it  became  customary  for  every 
 man  Avho  made  a  will  before  the  lleforma- 
 tion,  to  devise  something  to  the  high  altar 
 of  the  church  -where  he  lived,  and  some- 
 thing likewise  to  the  mother  church  or 
 cathedral ;  and  those  who  were  to  be  buried 
 in  the  church  usually  gave  something  to- 
 wards its  reparations. 
 
 But  at  the  great  festivals  all  people  were 
 obliged  to  olfer  something,  not  only  as 
 convenient,  but  as  a  duty ;  but  the  pro- 
 portion was  left  to  the  discretion  of  the 
 giver ;  and  we  think,  with  great  reason, 
 for  the  bounty  of  the  Christians  in  those 
 ages  was  so  great,  that  men  would  build 
 churches  on  their  own  lands,  on  purpose 
 that  they  might  have  an  equal  share  of 
 those  oblations  with  the  clergy. 
 
 And  this  might  be  the  occasion  that 
 the  emperors  Constantine  and  Valentinian 
 made  laws  to  prohibit  such  excessive  gifts, 
 which  in  those  days  were  kept  in  store- 
 houses built  for  that  very  purpose. 
 
 But  in  succeeding  ages  there  Avas  little 
 occasion  for  such  laws,  for  the  zeal  of  the 
 people  was  so  considerably  abated,  that, 
 instead  of  those  repositories,  the  clergy  had 
 little  chests  to  contain  those  gifts,  till  at 
 last  they  dwindled  into  so  small  a  portion, 
 that  now,  as  a  quaint  writer  observes,  they 
 can  scarce  be  felt  in  the  parson's  pocket. 
 
 We  have  the  authority  of  Bishop  Patrick 
 to  show  that,  in  the  prayer  after  the  Offer- 
 tory, the  elements  are  specially  intended 
 by  the  word  oblations.  "  "We  humbly  be- 
 seech God,"  he  says,  "  to  accept  not  only 
 our  alms,  but  also  our  oblations.  These 
 are  things  distinct ;  and  the  former,  alms, 
 signifying  that  Avhich  was  given  for  the 
 relief  of  the  poor,  the  latter,  oblations,  can 
 signify  nothing  else  but  (according  to  the 
 style  of  the  ancient  Church)  the  bread  and 
 wine  presented  unto  God." —  Christian 
 Sacrifice,  p.  77.  But  it  is  no  less  unques- 
 tionable, (adds  a  note  in  Stephens's  edition 
 of  the  Common  Prayer  Book,  vol.  i.  p. 
 1 175,)  that  this  term  was  also  employed  to 
 signify  money,  intended  for  the  mainten- 
 
 ance of  the  clergy,  for  the  service  of  God, 
 for  merciful  works  of  the  more  spiritual 
 kind,  and  that  it  sometimes  even  denotes 
 the  alms  for  relief  of  tem])oral  necessities  ; 
 and  numerous  authorities  exist  to  ])rove 
 that,  ecclesiastically  speaking,  "  oblatiims" 
 were  not  to  be  confined  to  the  sacred  ele- 
 ments cxclusirr/i/  .•  although  oblations  are 
 ex])ressly  distinguished  from  alms. 
 
 The  ecclesiastical  meanings  of  the  word 
 oblation  may  be  illustrated  Irom  the  co- 
 ronation service  of  Queen  Victoria.  Her 
 "first  oblation"  was  a  pall  or  altar  cloth  of 
 gold,  and  an  ingot  of  gold:  the  next  a 
 sword  :  and  afterwards  at  the  Oftertory 
 were  two  "oblations  ;"  the  first  being  bread 
 and  icine  for  the  communion,  which  were 
 "by  the  archbishop  received  from  the 
 queen,  (who  Avas  kneeling,)  and  reverently 
 placed  upon  the  altar,  and  decently  covered 
 with  a  fine  linen  cloth : "  with  a  prayer, 
 "  Bless,  O  Loud,  we  beseech  thee,  these 
 thy  gifts,  and  sanctify  them  unto  their 
 holy  use,"  &c.  "  Then  the  queen,  kneel- 
 ing as  before,  makes  her  second  oblation, 
 a  purse  of  gold ; "  and  then  folloMS  a 
 prayer  to  God  "  to  receive  these  oblations." 
 
 Octave.  The  octave'is  the  eighth  day 
 after  any  principal  festival  of  the  Church. 
 In  ancient  times  it  was  customary  to  ob- 
 serve these  days  with  much  devotion,  in- 
 cluding the  whole  period  also  from  the 
 festival  to  the  octave.  It  was  thought 
 that  the  subject  and  occasion  of  these  high 
 festivals  called  for  their  being  lengthened 
 out  in  this  manner;  and  the  period  of 
 eight  days  was  chosen  because  the  Jews 
 celebrated  their  greater  feasts,  some  for 
 seven  days,  and  the  feast  of  Tabernacles 
 for  eight  days.  Such  JeM'ish  institutions 
 being  only  types  and  shadows,  the  Chris- 
 tians thought  it  fit  not  to  have  their  com- 
 memorations of  shorter  duration. 
 
 In  our  Prayer  Book  we  retain  the  ob- 
 servance of  the  octaves  of  Christmas, 
 Easter,  Ascension,  and  Whitsunday,  by 
 using,  for  seven  days  after  each  of  these 
 festivals,  an  appropriate  "  I'reface,"  in  the 
 Communion  Service,  if  that  sacrament  is 
 administered  on  any  of  these  days.  The 
 preface  for  Whitsunday  is,  however,  only 
 to  be  used  for  six  days  after,  because  the 
 seventh  (or  octave  of  Whitsunday)  would 
 be  Trinity  Sunday,  which  has  a  preface  of 
 its  own. 
 
 The  first  two  days  of  the  octaves  of 
 Easter  and  AVhitsunday  have  special  ser- 
 vices, and  in  some  cathedrals  are  observed 
 with  nearly  the  same  solemnity  as  the  fes- 
 tival itself.  It  api)ears  by  the  Pietas  Lon- 
 dincnsis,  published  in  1714,  that  in  the 
 church  of  St.  IJunstan  in  the  West,  the 
 
542 
 
 OFFERING  DAYS. 
 
 OPTION 
 
 holy  communion  was  administered  on  every 
 day  during  the  octaves  of  Christmas,  Easter, 
 and  Whitsuntide. — Jehh. 
 
 OFFERING  DAYS.  "The  four  ge- 
 neral offering  days,"  Bishop  Cosin  says, 
 "in  the  Church  of  England  enjoined  by 
 convocation  in  luoO,  [ought  to  be  1537,'] 
 were  Chi-istmas  Day,  St.  John  Baptist's 
 Day,  St.  Michael's  Day,  [Easter  Day.] 
 Which  order  is  in  some  places  still  ob- 
 served, and  the  king  and  queen  in  their 
 chapel  royal,  or  wherever  they  be  at  church 
 on  those  days,  never  omit  it,  l3ut  arise  from 
 their  seat  and  go  in  solemn  manner  to 
 present  their  offering  upon  their  knees  at 
 God's  altar.  And  then  is  read  by  the 
 priest  or  bishop  attending,  the  sentence 
 here  prescribed,  1  Cor.  ix." — Jehh. 
 
 OFFERTORY.  So  called,  because  it  is 
 that  part  of  the  Communion  Service  in  which 
 the  offerings  are  made.  The  custom  of 
 making  oblations  at  the  communion  is  cer- 
 tainly apostolical,  as  appears  from  1  Cor. 
 xvi.  2  :  "  On  the  first  day  of  the  week  let 
 every  one  lay  by  him  in  store  as  God  hath 
 prospered  him."  AVhich  custom  continued 
 doAvn  to  the  following  ages,  as  appears 
 from  different  passages  in  Justin  Martyr, 
 Tertullian,  St.  Cyprian,  St.  Ambrose,  and 
 other  ancient  writers.  Out  of  those  offer- 
 ings, which  were  not  always  in  money, 
 but  in  bread,  wine,  corn,  &c.,  were  taken 
 as  much  bread  and  wine  as  served  for  the 
 celebration  of  the  communion  at  the  time  ; 
 but  if  any  persons  were  under  public  in- 
 famy, by  reason  of  any  ill  actions  by  them 
 committed,  their  offerings  were  not  to  be 
 received.  These  offerings  in  the  primitive 
 times  were  so  considerable,  that  they  were 
 divided  into  four  portions ;  one  for  the 
 relief  of  the  poor;  the  second  the  bishop 
 retained  for  his  maintenance ;  the  third 
 was  for  the  maintenance  of  the  church 
 and  its  ornaments  ;  and  the  fourth  for  the 
 clerg}'.  The  office  of  the  Offertory  was 
 used  in  Walafrid  Strabo's  time,  who'  lived 
 in  the  middle  of  the  ninth  century  ;  and  it 
 was  so  long  before  his  time,  that  he  could 
 not  tell  to  whom  to  ascribe  its  original. — 
 Dr.  NichoUs.' 
 
 Formerly,  Mr.  Palmer  observes,  this 
 anthem  was  probably  sung  in  choirs.  The 
 sentences  at  the  Offertory  are  set  to  varied 
 melodies,  in  Marbeck's  book,  according  to 
 the  licence  given  in  King  EdAvard  VI.'s 
 First  Book,  either  to  sing  or  say  them. 
 This  licence  is  withdrawn  by  the  rubric  as 
 it  now  stands,  so  altered  in  King  Edward's 
 Second  Book,  since  the  saying  of  the  sen- 
 tences by  the  priest  is  expressly  enjoined. 
 Of  the  old  custom  a  vestige  is  preserved  in 
 the  ceremony  of  the  installation  of  Knights 
 
 of  the  Garter,  and  formerly  was  at  coron- 
 ations. 
 
 OFFICIAL.  The  official  is  the  person 
 to  whom  cognisance  of  causes  is  com- 
 mitted by  such  as  have  an  ecclesiastical 
 jurisdiction.  The  official  of  an  archdeacon 
 stands  in  like  relation  to  him  as  the  chan- 
 cellor does  to  the  bishop. 
 
 OGEE.  {Or/ire,  French.)  An  inflected 
 curve  ;  a  curve  formed  of  two  segments  of 
 a  circle,  one  struck  from  one  side,  and  the 
 other  from  the  other  side  of  the  same  right 
 line.  This  curve  occurs  chiefly  in  mould- 
 ings, and  is  principally  characteristic  of  the 
 I  )ecorated  style ;  but  it  occurs  in  other 
 styles  also,  and  has  several  variations  ac- 
 cording to  its  place  and  date.  The  word 
 is  used  in  French  as  a  generic  term  for 
 pointed  architecture. 
 
 OPHIT-^  (from  ufig,  a  serjyent) ;  also 
 called  Scrpentinians.  A  ridiculous  sort  of 
 heretics,  who  had  for  their  leader  a  man 
 called  Euphrates.  They  entertained  al- 
 most the  same  fantastic  opinions  that  were 
 holden  by  the  other  Egyptian  Gnostics 
 concerning  the  ceons,  the  eternal  matter,  the 
 creation  of  the  ivo7'ld  in  opposition  to  the 
 will  of  God,  the  I'ltlers  of  the  seven  planets 
 that  presided  over  this  Avorld,  the  tyranny 
 of  De)niurge,  and  also  concerning  CiiiiiST 
 united  to  the  man  Jesus,  in  order  to 
 destroy  the  empire  of  this  usurper.  But 
 besides  these,  they  maintained  the  follow- 
 ing particular  tenet  (whence  they  received 
 the  name  of  Ophites) :  "  That  the  Serpoit 
 by  which  our  first  parents  were  deceived, 
 was  either  CnrasT  himself,  or  Sojjhia, 
 [  Wisdom,']  concealed  under  the  form  of  that 
 animal ; "  and  in  consequence  of  this 
 opinion  they  are  said  to  have  nourished  a 
 certain  number  of  serpents,  which  they 
 looked  upon  as  sacred,  and  to  which  they 
 offered  a  sort  of  Avorship,  a  subordinate 
 kind  of  divine  honours.  There  is  some 
 curious  information  about  the  Ophitse  in 
 the  lately  discovered  Avork  of  Hippolytus. 
 
 OPTION.  An  archbishop  had  the  choice 
 or  option  of  any  one  dignity  or  benefice 
 in  the  gift  of  every  bishop  consecrated  or 
 confirmed  by  him,  which  he  may  confer  on 
 his  chaplain,  or  Avhom  else  he  pleases. 
 This  Avas  styled  his  oiition.  The  privilege 
 has  been  relinquished  by  English  arch- 
 bishops since  1845,  in  consequence  of  a 
 construction  put  on  some  Avords  in  the 
 cathecb-al  act  (3  &  4  Vict.  c.  113,  sect.  42). 
 "  That  it  shall  not  be  laAvful  for  any  spi- 
 ritual person  to  sell  or  assign  any  patron- 
 age or  presentation  belonging  to  him  by 
 virtue  of  any  dignity  or  spiritual  office 
 held  by  him." 
 
 Bishop  Sherlock,  on  his  appointment  to 
 
OPUS  OPERATUM. 
 
 ORATORY,  PRIESTS  OF  THE.    543 
 
 the  sec  of  London  in  1749.  liad  a  dispute 
 with  Archbishop  Herring  as  to  the  right  of 
 option.  A  compromise  took  pLice :  hut 
 the  bishop  printed  a  j)amphk't  on  the  sub- 
 ject in  11  oo.  It  never  Mas  })ublished,  and 
 but  50  copies  were  printed.  —  Ilei/liii's 
 Life  of  Bishop  Sherlock,  prefixed  to  his 
 Works,  voh  i.  Ix. 
 
 OPUS  OPEUATU^r.  An  expression 
 frequently  occurring  in  discussions  respect- 
 ing the  ethcacy  of  the  sacraments,  &c., 
 importing  a  necessary  spiritual  eflect  flow- 
 ing from  the  outward  administration,  (from 
 the  thing  done,)  irrespective  of  the  moral 
 qualities  of  the  recipient.  This  doctrine 
 is  alleged  as  one  of  the  corruptions  of  the 
 Church  of  Rome,  and,  if  carried  out,  would 
 obviously  equalize,  in  a  great  measure,  the 
 benefits  received  by  the  worthy  and  the 
 unworthy  who  approach  the  altar,  and 
 would  justify  the  administration  of  baptism 
 to  the  heathen.  S:c.,  not  only  on  consent, 
 but  by  the  application  of  physical  force. 
 
 In  a  certain  sense  it  is  unquestionably 
 true,  that  all  the  appointed  means  of  grace 
 have  an  eftect  ex  opere  operato,  inasmuch 
 as  the  act  itself,  though  inefficacious  in  its 
 own  nature,  is  a,n  institution  of  God,  and 
 consecrated  by  him  as  an  instrument  not 
 to  be  made  void  at  the  caprice  of  man. 
 Thus,  the  preaching  of  the  gospel  is  in- 
 evitably a  savour  of  life  or  of  death.  The 
 administration  of  baptism  is  invariably  an 
 admission  into  the  Church.  But  that  the 
 use  of  an  appointed  ordinance  goes  beyond 
 this,  and  results  in  all  cases  in  a  moral 
 efi'ect  on  the  individual,  and  in  the  insuring 
 of  higher  portions  of  Divine  grace  ex  ne- 
 cessitate, is  contrary  to  the  views  of  the 
 Church,  the  doctrine  of  Scripture,  and  the 
 preservation  of  man's  free  agency. 
 
 ORARIUM.     (Sec  Stole.) 
 
 ORATORIO.  In  Church  music,  a  mu- 
 sical drama,  of  which  the  subject  is  always 
 sacred,  and  intended  to  be  performed  in  a 
 church.  The  origin  of  this  kind  of  spi- 
 ritual and  musical  drama,  which  has  now 
 run  into  great  excesses,  is  found  in  the  plan 
 of  Filippo  Neri,  in  the  early  part  of  the 
 sixteenth  century,  to  arrest  the  attention 
 of  those  to  whom  he  preached,  by  procur- 
 ing the  execution  of  pieces  of  sacred  music 
 of  more  than  common  interest  before  and 
 after  his  sermon.  This  custom,  which 
 commenced  in  the  congregation  of  the 
 Oratory,  (whence  the  name  Oratorio,)  was 
 imitated  by  all  the  societies  of  the  same 
 foundation,  and  soon  became  so  popular, 
 that  the  best  masters,  ])oth  in  composition 
 and  in  execution,  were  found  to  take  a 
 part  in  it.  The  performance  in  the  time 
 of  Filippo  Neri  himself  was  scarcely  more 
 
 than  a  cantata,  but  it  soon  after  assumed 
 a  more  perfectly  dramatic  form,  being  dis- 
 tributed between  several  persons,  and  ac- 
 comjianied  with  action  and  scenic  repre- 
 sentation, so  as  to  present  much  of  the 
 character  of  a  musical  mystery.  (See  Moral- 
 ities.) In  this  way  many  sacred  subjects 
 were  performed,  such  as  Job  and  his 
 friends,  the  Good  Samaritan,  and  the  Pro- 
 digal Son. 
 
 Oratorio  derived  its  name  from  the 
 Oratorio,  or  chapel  in  the  church  of  St. 
 Girolamo  della  Carita  at  Rome,  where  Fi- 
 li])po  Neri's  confraternity  assembles.  (See 
 Priests  of  the  Oratory.) 
 
 In  England,  oratorios  have  been  much 
 used  in  our  catheckals.  Among  the  most 
 celebrated  oratorios  are  the  Messiah  of 
 Handel,  and  the  Crea/wn  of  Ilaydn. 
 
 ORATORY.  A  name  given  by  Chris- 
 tians to  certain  places  of  religious  worship. 
 
 In  ecclesiastical  antiquity,  tlie  term 
 houses  of  prayer,  or  oratories,  is  frequently 
 given  to  churches  in  general,  of  which 
 there  are  innumerable  instances  in  ancient 
 Christian  writers.  But  in  some  canons  the 
 name  oratory  seems  confined  to  private 
 chapels,  or  places  of  worship  set  up  for  the 
 convenience  of  private  fiimilies,  yet  still 
 depending  on  the  parochial  churches,  and 
 differing  from  them  in  this,  that  they  were 
 only  places  of  prayer,  but  not  for  cele- 
 brating the  communion ;  or,  if  that  were 
 at  any  time  allowed  to  private  families, 
 yet,  at  least,  upon  great  and  solemn  festi- 
 vals, they  were  to  resort  for  communion  to 
 the  parish  churches. — Brouqhton. 
 
 ORATORY,  PRIESTS  OF  THE. 
 There  are  two  congregations  of  monks, 
 one  in  Italy,  the  other  in  France,  which 
 are  called  by  this  name. 
 
 The  priests  of  the  oratory  in  Italy  had 
 for  their  founder,  Philip  de  Neri,  a  native 
 of  Florence,  who,  in  the  year  1548,  founded 
 at  Rome  the  Confraternity  of  the  Holy 
 Trinity.  This  society  originally  consisted 
 of  but  fifteen  poor  persons,  who  assembled 
 in  the  church  of  St.  Saviour  /«  camjyo, 
 every  first  Sunday  in  the  month,  to  prac- 
 tise the  exercises  of  piety  prescribed  by 
 the  holy  founder.  The  {)ope  gave  leave  to 
 assemble  in  the  church  of  St.  Girolamo 
 dell  Carita,  from  the  Oratorio  or  chapel  in 
 which  church  they  derived  their  name. 
 Afterwards,  their  number  increasing,  by 
 the  addition  to  the  society  of  several  per- 
 sons of  distinction,  Neri  proceeded  to 
 estal)lish  an  hos])ital  for  the  reception  of 
 poor  pilgi-ims,  who,  coming  to  Itome  to 
 visit  the  tombs  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul, 
 were  obliged,  for  want  of  a  lodging,  to  lie 
 in  the   streets,  and  at  the    doors  of  the 
 
o44    ORATORY,  PRIESTS  OF  THE. 
 
 ORDEAL. 
 
 churches.  For  this  charitahle  purpose, 
 Pope  Paul  IV.  gave  to  the  society  the  i)a- 
 rochial  church  of  !St.  Benedict,  close  by 
 which  church  was  built  an  hospital  so  large, 
 that,  in  the  Jubilee  year,  1600,  it  received 
 44,500  men,  and  25,600  women,  who  came 
 in  ])ilgrimage  to  liome. 
 
 Phili))  Neri,  besides  this  charitable  found- 
 ation for  pilgrims,  held  spiritual  confer- 
 ences at  Pome,  in  a  large  chamber  accom- 
 modated in  the  form  of  an  oratory  :  in 
 which  he  was  assisted  by  the  famous  Caro- 
 nius,  author  of  the  "  Ecclesiastical  Annals." 
 Here  were  delivered  lectures  of  religion 
 and  morality,  and  the  auditors  were  in- 
 structed in  ecclesiastical  history.  The 
 assembly  always  ended  with  prayers,  and 
 hymns  to  the  glory  of  God  ;  after  which, 
 the  founder,  and  his  companions,  visited 
 the  churches  and  hospitals,  and  took  care 
 of  the  sick.  And  now  it  was  that  this 
 religious  society  began  to  be  called  Priests 
 of  t/ie  Oratory. 
 
 In  1574,  the  Florentines  at  Rome,  with 
 the  permission  of  Pope  Gregory  XIIL, 
 built  a  very  spacious  oratory,  in  which 
 Xeri  continued  his  religious  assemblies. 
 The  pope  likewise  gave  him  the  parochial 
 church  of  Vallicella,  and,  the  same  year, 
 approved  the  constitutions  he  had  drawn 
 up  for  the  government  of  his  congregation, 
 of  which  St.  Philip  himself  was  the  first 
 general. 
 
 This  new  institute  soon  made  a  great 
 progress,  and  divers  other  establishments 
 were  made  on  the  same  model ;  particu- 
 larly at  Naples,  Milan,  Fermo,  and  Pa- 
 lermo. The  founder  having  resigned  the 
 office  of  general,  he  was  succeeded  therein 
 by  Baronius,  who  was  afterwards  pro- 
 moted to  the  dignity  of  a  cardinal.  Neri 
 died  the  25th  of  May,  1595,  and  was  ca- 
 nonized in  1G22  by 'Pope  Gregory  XV. 
 After  his  death,  this  congregation  made  a 
 further  progress  in  Italy,  and  has  produced 
 several  cardinals  and  eminent  writers,  as 
 Baronius,  Oderic  Hainaldi,  and  others. 
 
 The  priests  of  the  Oratory  in  France 
 were  established  upon  the  model  of  those 
 in  Italy,  and  oM'e  their  rise  to  Cardinal 
 Berulle,  a  native  of  Champagne  ;  who  re- 
 solved upon  this  foundation,  in  order  to 
 revive  the  splendour  of  the  ecclesiastical 
 state,  v.hich  Avas  greatly  sunk  through  the 
 miseries  of  the  civil  wars,  the  increase  of 
 heresies,  and  a  general  corruption  of  man- 
 ners. To  this  end  he  assembled  a  commu- 
 nity of  ecclesiastics,  in  1611,  in  the  suburb 
 of  St.  James,  Avhere  is  at  present  the 
 famous  monastery  of  Val-de-Grace.  They 
 obtained  the  king's  letters  patent  for  tlieiV 
 establishment ;  and,  in  1613,  Pope  Paul  V. 
 
 ai)provcd  this  congregation  under  the  title 
 of  the  Oratory  of  Jesus. 
 
 This  congregation  consisted  of  two  sorts 
 of  persons ;  the  one,  as  it  were,  incor- 
 porated, the  other  only  associates.  The 
 former  governed  the  houses  of  this  insti- 
 tute ;  the  latter  were  only  emjiloyed  in 
 forming  themselves  to  the  life  and  manners 
 of  ecclesiastics.  And  this  was  the  true 
 spirit  of  this  congregation,  in  which  they 
 taught  neither  human  learning,  nor  the- 
 ology, but  only  the  virtues  of  the  eccle- 
 siastical life. 
 
 After  the  death  of  Cardinal  Berulle, 
 which  happened  the  2nd  of  October, 
 1629,  the  priests  of  the  Oratory  made  a 
 great  progress  in  France  and  other  coun- 
 tries. This  order  had  eleven  houses  in  the 
 Low  Countries,  one  at  Liege,  two  in  the 
 county  of  Avignon,  and  one  in  Savoy, 
 besides  fifty-eight  in  France.  The  first 
 house,  which  was,  as  it  were,  the  mother 
 of  all  the  rest,  was  that  of  the  street  St. 
 Honore,  at  Paris,  where  the  general  re- 
 sided. The  priests  of  this  congregation 
 were  not,  properly  speaking,  monks,  being 
 obliged  to  no  vows,  and  their  institute 
 being  purely  ecclesiastical  or  sacerdotal. — 
 Broughton.  The  Oratorians  have  lately 
 appeared  in  England. 
 
 ORDEAL.  An  appeal  to  the  judgment 
 of  Almighty  GoD,  in  criminal  cases,  when 
 the  innocence  or  guilt  of  the  accused  rest- 
 ed on  insufficient  evidence. 
 
 Among  the  Saxons  and  Normans,  if 
 any  person  was  charged  with  theft,  adul- 
 tery, murder,  treason,  perjury,  &c.,  in  these 
 cases,  if  the  person  neither  pleaded  guilty, 
 nor  could  be  convicted  by  legal  evidence, 
 it  was  either  in  the  prosecutor's  or  judge's 
 power  to  put  him  upon  the  ordeal ;  and 
 provided  he  passed  through  this  test  un- 
 hurt, he  was  discharged ;  otherwise  he 
 was  put  into  the  hands  of  justice,  to  be 
 punished  as  the  law  directed,  in  case  he 
 had  been  cast  by  the  ordinary  forms  of 
 prosecution.  For  we  are  to  observe,  that 
 this  trial  by  ordeal  was  not  designed  for 
 the  punishment  of  those  in  whose  cases  the 
 ordinary  forms  had  miscarried  ;  the  inten- 
 tion of  it  was  rather  to  clear  the  truth, 
 where  it  could  not  be  otherwise  discover- 
 ed, and  make  way  for  the  execution  of 
 the  law. 
 
 There  are  several  sorts  of  this  inquiry  ; 
 the  trial  was  sometimes  made  by  cold,  and 
 sometimes  by  scalding,  water  ;  sometimes 
 by  ploughshares,  or  bars  of  iron,  heated 
 burning  hot;  sometimes  the  accused  purged 
 their  innocence  by  receiving  the  sacrament ; 
 and  sometimes  by  eating  a  piece  of  barley 
 bread  called  the  corsned. 
 
ORDEAL. 
 
 545 
 
 In  the  trial  by  cold  ^vater,  tlie  persons 
 suspected  were  thrown  naked  into  a  pond, 
 or  river :  if  they  sank  tliey  were  acquitted, 
 hut  if  they  iloated  upon  the  river  without 
 any  swimniinp^  postures  it  was  taken  for  an 
 evidence  of  guilt. 
 
 AVhen  scaldinfj^  water  Avas  the  test,  they 
 were  to  plun<;e  their  arm  in  a  tub,  or 
 kettle,  to  the  elbow ;  if  this  was  done 
 without  any  signs  of  pain,  or  marks  of 
 scalding,  the  person  was  discharged ;  but 
 if  there  was  the  least  complaint  under  the 
 operation,  or  any  scar  or  impression  to  be 
 seen,  it  was  taken  for  proof  against  him. 
 Slaves,  peasants,  and  people  of  mean  con- 
 dition, were  put  upon  this  water  ordeal. 
 
 Persons  of  figure  and  quality  were 
 generally  tried  by  the  burning  iron.  This 
 ordeal  had  different  circumstances  in  pro- 
 portion to  the  crimes  objected.  If  the 
 person  was  only  impeached  for  a  single 
 crime,  the  iron  was  to  weigh  but  one 
 pound :  but  if  he  was  prosecuted  upon 
 several  articles,  the  weight  of  the  iron  was 
 to  increase  proportionably ;  and  here  the 
 l)erson  impeached  was  either  to  hold  a 
 burning  ball  of  iron  in  his  hand,  and 
 move  with  it  to  a  certain  distance,  or  else 
 to  walk  barefoot  upon  heated  plough- 
 shares, placed  about  a  yard  from  each 
 other.  If  after  this  trial  his  hands  and 
 feet  Avere  untouched,  and  he  discovered 
 no  signs  of  feeling  any  pain,  he  was  dis- 
 cliarged  by  the  court ;  but  if  the  matter 
 fell  out  otherwise,  he  Avas  remitted  to  the 
 punishment  of  the  law. 
 
 Before  the  person  accused  Avas  brought 
 to  the  ordeal,  he  Avas  obliged  to  sAvear  his 
 innocence,  and  sometimes  receive  the  holy 
 eucharist. 
 
 The  Christians  of  this  age  had  a  strong 
 reliance  upon  this  Avay  of  trial,  not  in  the 
 least  doubting  but  that  God  Avould  sus- 
 pend the  force  of  nature,  and  clear  the 
 truth  by  a  supernatural  interposition.  If 
 Ave  may  believe  the  records  of  those  times, 
 Ave  shall  find  that  innocent  persons  Avere 
 frequently  rescued,  in  a  surprising  man- 
 ner, perhaps  by  some  skilful  management 
 on  the  part  of  the  authorities  aAvare  of  the 
 fact. 
 
 To  proceed  to  some  of  the  preliminaries 
 of  the  ordeal.  After  the  charge  Avas 
 legally  brought  in,  the  person  impeached 
 Avas  to  spend  three  days  in  fasting  and 
 prayer.  At  the  day  of  the  trial,  Avhich 
 Avas'  made  in  the  church,  the  priest,  ap- 
 pearir.g  in  the  habit  of  his  function,  took 
 up  the  iron  Avhich  lay  before  the  altar, 
 and,  repeating  the  hymn  of  the  Three 
 Children,  put  it  into  the  lire.  This  lieing 
 done,  he  proceeded  to  some  forms  of  bcne- 
 2  N 
 
 diction  over  the  fire  and  iron  ;  after  Avhich, 
 he  si)rinkled  the  iron  Avith  holy  Avater,  and 
 made  the  sign  of  the  cross  in  the  name  of 
 the  Blessed  Trinity  :  upon  Avhich  the  per- 
 son accused  passed  through  the  test. 
 
 The  ceremony  of  the  scalding  Avater 
 ordeal  Avas  much  the  same.  l?ut  Avhen  the 
 trial  Avas  to  be  made  by  cold  Avater,  the 
 three  days'  fast  and  the  other  religious 
 circumstances  being  premised,  the  person 
 suspected  drank  a  draught  of  holy  Avater, 
 to  Avhich  the  priest  added  an  im})recation 
 in  case  he  Avas  guilty  :  then  the  Avater,  into 
 Avhich  the  presumed  criminal  Avas  to  be 
 throAvn,  had  a  sort  of  exorcising  form  of 
 prayer  said  over  it ;  by  Avhich  the  element 
 AA'as,  as  it  Avere,  conjured,  by  the  most 
 solemn  expressions,  to  detect  the  guilty 
 and  discover  the  truth. 
 
 The  bread  called  the  corsned  Avas  an- 
 other Avay  of  trial.  The  person  prosecuted 
 took  an  ounce  of  it  fasting,  or  sometimes 
 the  same  quantity  in  cheese,  and  some- 
 times the  holy  eucharist.  Immediately 
 before  this  Avas  done,  the  priest  read  the 
 Litany  proper  to  the  occasion,  and  pro- 
 ceeded to  another  prayer,  in  which  he  de- 
 sired that  God  Avould  please  to  bring  the 
 truth  of  the  matter  in  question  to  light, 
 and  that  the  evil  spirits  might  have  no 
 poAver  to  perplex  the  inquiry,  and  prevent 
 the  discovery ;  that  if  the  person  Avas 
 guilty,  the  morsel  might  stick  in  his  throat 
 and  find  no  passage ;  that  his  face  might 
 turn  pale,  his  limbs  be  convulsed,  and  an 
 horrible  alteration  appear  in  his  Avhole 
 body ;  but  if  innocent,  he  desired  that 
 Avhich  the  party  received  might  make  its 
 Avay  easily  into  his  stomach,  and  turn  to 
 health  and  nourishment. 
 
 NotAvithstanding  the  commonness  of 
 this  custom  in  England,  and  other  parts 
 of  Christendom,  it  began  to  be  disliked  at 
 last,  and  fell  several  times  under  the  cen- 
 sure of  the  Church  and  State  :  thus  Louis, 
 and  Lotharius  his  successor,  emperors  of 
 Germany,  positively  forbade  the  ordeal  by 
 cold  Avater.  The  trial  likcAvise  by  scalding 
 Avater,  and  burning  iron,  Avas  condemned 
 by  Pope  Stephen  V.  It  is  probable  they 
 might  think  it  a  rash  Avay  of  proceeding, 
 and  a  tempting  of  God  ;  and  that  it  Avas 
 unreasonable  to  put  innocence  upon  super- 
 natural proof,  and  pronounce  a  mail  guilty, 
 unless  he  had  a  miracle  to  acquit  him.  The 
 first  public  discountenance  of  it  from  the 
 State  Avhich  Ave  meet  Avith  in  England,  Avas 
 in  the  third  year  of  King  Henry  III.  Most 
 of  the  judges  in  their  circuits  received  an 
 order  from  the  king  and  council  not  to  put 
 any  person  u|X)n  the  trial  ordeal,  in  regard 
 it  Avas  prohibited  by  the  court  of  Home. 
 
546 
 
 OllDER. 
 
 ORDERS,  HOLY. 
 
 This  order  of  tlie  king  and  council,  Sir 
 EdAvard  Coke,  as  Sir  Henry  Spelman  ob- 
 serves, mistakes  for  an  act  of  parliament. 
 It  is  true,  as  that  learned  antiquary  goes 
 on  to  say,  at  that  time  of  day,  a  public  re- 
 gulation, passed  in  council,  and  sealed  with 
 the  king's  seal,  had  the  force  of  a  law._  _  It 
 must,  however,  be  said,  this  prohibition 
 does  not  run  to  the  judges  of  all  the  cir- 
 cuits ;  but,  it  may  be,  the  rest  of  the  jus- 
 tices might  receive  the  same  instructions 
 another  way.  And  though  we  meet  with 
 no  express  law  afterwards  to  this  purpose, 
 yet  this  method  of  trial,  standing  con- 
 demned by  tlie  canons,  languished  by  de- 
 grees, and  at  last  grew  quite  out  of  practice. 
 
 OIIDER.  The  rules  or  laws  of  a  mon- 
 astic institution ;  and  afterwards,  in  _  a 
 secondary  sense,  the  several  monastics 
 living  under  the  same  rule  or  order.  Thus 
 the  Order  of  Chu/ni  signifies  literally  the 
 new  rule  of  disciphne  prescribed  by  Odo 
 to  the  Benedictines  already  assembled  in 
 the  monastery  of  Clugni ;  but  secondarily, 
 and  in  the  more  popular  sense,  the  great 
 body  of  monastic  institutions,  wherever 
 established,  w^hich  voluntarily  subjected 
 themselves  to  the  same  rule. 
 
 ORDERS,  HOLY.  (See  Bisliop,  Clergy, 
 Deacon,  Ordinal,  Ordination,  Presbyter, 
 Priest.)  "  It  is  evident  unto  all  men  dili- 
 gently reading  the  Holy  Scriptures  and  an- 
 cient authors,  that  from  the  apostles'  time 
 there  have  been  these  orders  of  ministers 
 in  Christ's  Church  ;  bishops,  priests,  and 
 deacons.  AYhich  offices  were  evermore  had 
 in  such  reverent  estimation,  that  no  man 
 might  presume  to  execute  any  of  them  ex- 
 cept he  were  first  called,  tried,  examined, 
 and  known  to  have  such  qualities  as  are 
 requisite  for  the  same  ;  and  also  by  public 
 prayer,  with  imposition  of  hands,  were  ap- 
 proved and  admitted  thereunto  by  lawful 
 authority.  And  therefore,  to  the  intent 
 that  these  orders  might  be  continued  and 
 reverently  used  and  esteemed,  in  the  united 
 Church  of  England  and  Ireland,  no  man 
 shall  be  accounted  or  taken  to  be  a  bishop, 
 priest,  or  deacon  in  the  united  Church  of 
 England  or  Ireland,  or  suffered  to  execute 
 any  of  the  said  functions,  except  he  be 
 called,  tried,  examined,  and  admitted  there- 
 unto, according  to  the  form  hereafter  fol- 
 lowing, or  hath  had  formerly  episcopal  con- 
 secration or  ordination." — Preface  to  the 
 English  Ordinal. 
 
 As  it  is  here  said,  in  the  ancient  Church 
 these  three  orders  of  ministry,  as  estab- 
 lished by  Christ  and  his  apostles,  uni- 
 versally prevailed.  But,  besides  the  bishops, 
 priests,  and  deacons,  there  were,  in  most 
 of  the  Churches,  other  ecclesiastical  per- 
 
 sons of  inferior  rank,  who  were  allowed  to 
 take  part  in  the  ministrations  of  religion. 
 These  constituted  what  are  called  the  /;/- 
 ferior  orders,  and  in  some  of  the  ancient 
 canons  they  have  the  name  of  "  clergy." 
 
 There  is  this  great  difference  between 
 the  three  holy  orders  and  the  others,  that 
 the  former  are  everywhere  mentioned  as 
 those  degrees  of  men  Avhose  ministrations 
 were  known  and  distinguished,  and  with- 
 out which  no  Church  was  looked  upon  as 
 complete ;  but  to  show  that  the  inferior 
 orders  were  never  thought  to  be  necessary 
 in  the  same  degree,  let  it  be  considered, 
 that  different  Churches,  or  the  same  Church 
 in  different  ages,  had  more  or  fewer  of  the 
 inferior  orders.  In  some  were  only  read- 
 ers ;  in  others,  snhdencons,  exorcists,  ajul 
 acolyths.  The  Apostolic  Canons  mention 
 only  subdeacons,  readers,  and  singers.  The 
 Laodicean  enumerate  these,  and  also  ex- 
 orcists and  ostiaries.  But  while  there  was 
 no  standing  rule  respecting  these  merely 
 ecclesiastical  orders,  the  three  essential 
 grades  of  the  ministry  were  found  in  all 
 parts  of  the  Church. 
 
 In  the  Church  of  England,  the  following 
 are  the  regulations  respecting  admission 
 to  Holy  Orders  observed  in  the  various 
 dioceses,  as  given  in  Hodgson's  "  Instruc- 
 tions." 
 
 Persons  desirous  of  being  admitted  as 
 candidates  for  deacon's  orders,  are  recom- 
 mended to  make  a  written  application  to 
 the  bishop,*  six  months  before  the  time  of 
 ordination,  stating  their  age,  college,  aca- 
 demical degree,  and  the  usual  place  of 
 their  residence ;  together  with  the  names 
 of  any  persons  of  respectability  to  whom 
 they  are  best  known,  and  to  whom  the 
 bishop  may  apply,  if  he  thinks  fit,  for  fur- 
 ther information  concerning  them. 
 
 The  following  six  papers  are  to  be  sent 
 by  a  candidate  for  deacon's  orders,  to  the 
 bishop  in  whose  diocese  the  curacy  which 
 is  to  serve  as  a  title  is  situate,  three  WTeks 
 before  the  day  of  ordination,  or  at  such 
 other  time  as  the  bishop  shall  appoint; 
 and  in  due  time  he  will  be  informed  by 
 the  bishop's  secretary  when  and  where  to 
 attend  for  examination. 
 
 1 .  Letters  testimonial  from  his  college  ; 
 and  in  case  the  candidate  shall  have  quitted 
 college,  he  must  also  present  letters  testi- 
 monial for  the  period  elapsed  since  he 
 quitted  college,  in  the  following  form, 
 signed  by  three  beneficed  clergymen,  and 
 countersigned  by  the  bishop  of  the  diocese 
 in  which  their  benefices  are  respectively 
 
 *  As  the  practice  may  not  be  alike  in  every 
 diocese,  application  should  be  made  by  a  candi- 
 date to  the  bishop's  secretary  for  instructions. 
 
ORDERS,  HOLY. 
 
 547 
 
 situate,  if  they  are  not  beneficed  in  tlie 
 diocese  of  the  bishop  to  whom  the  candi- 
 date api)lies  for  ordination. 
 
 2.  Form  of  letters  testimonial  for  orders. 
 
 "To  the  *  Right  Reverend ,  by  Di- 
 vine permission  Lord  Bishop  of 
 
 [^7/e  hishoj)  in  irhuse  diocese  the  curacy 
 conferring  the  title  is  situate]. 
 
 "\Vhereas  our  beloved  in  Christ,  A.  B., 
 
 bachelor  of  arts,  {or  other  dec/ree,)  of 
 
 college,  in  the  university  of ,  hath  de- 
 clared to  us  his  intention  of  offering  him- 
 self as  a  candidate  for  the  sacred  office  of 
 a  deacon,  and  for  that  end  hath  requested 
 of  us  letters  testimonial  of  his  good  life 
 and  conversation ;  we  therefore,  whose 
 names  are  hereunto  subscribed,  do  testify 
 that  the  said  A.  B.  hath  been  personally 
 
 known  to  us  for  the  space  off last 
 
 past;  that  we  have  had  opportunities  of 
 observing  his  conduct ;  that  during  the 
 whole  of  that  time  we  verily  believe  that 
 he  lived  piously,  soberly,  and  honestly; 
 nor  have  we  at  any  time  heard  anything 
 to  the  contrary  thereof ;  nor  hath  he  at 
 any  time,  as  lar  as  we  know  or  believe, 
 held,  -wTitten,  or  taught  anything  contrary 
 to  the  doctrine  or  discipline  of  the  united 
 Church  of  England  and  Ireland ;  and, 
 moreover,  we  believe  him,  in  our  con- 
 sciences, to  be,  as  to  his  moral  conduct,  a 
 person  worthy  to  be  admitted  to  the  sacred 
 order  of  deacons. 
 
 In  witness  whereof  we  have  hereunto 
 
 subscribed  our  names,  this day  of 
 
 ,  in  the  vear  of  our  Lord  18 — . 
 
 I C.  D.  rector  of . 
 
 E.  F.  vicar  of . 
 
 G.  H.  rector  of ." 
 
 [  Countersignature.'] 
 
 3.  Form  of  notice  or  "  Si  quis,"  and  of 
 the  certificate  of  the  same  having  been 
 published  in  the  church  of  the  parish 
 where  the  candidate  usually  resides, 
 to  be  presented  by  the  candidate  if  he 
 shall  have  quitted  college. 
 
 "  Notice  is  hereby  given,  that  A.  B., 
 
 bachelor  of  arts,  {or  other  dcf/ree,)  of  
 
 college,  Oxford,  [or  Cambridge,]  and  now 
 resident  in  this  parish,  intends  to  offer 
 himself  a  candidate  for  the  holy  office  of 
 a  deacon,  at  the  ensuing  ordination  of  the 
 
 *  It  is  to  be  observed  that  the  proper  address 
 to  an  archbisbop  is,  "  To  the  Most  Reverend 
 
 ,  by  Divine  Providence  Lord  Archbishop 
 
 of ;"  and  the  style  "Grace"  is  to  be 
 
 used  instead  of  "  Lordsbip."  Tbe  proper  ad- 
 dress to  the  bishop  of  Durham  is,  "  To  the 
 Right  Reverend ,  by  Divine  Providence 
 
 Lord  Bishop  of ;§  and  if  any  person 
 
 knows  any  just  cause  or  impediment  for 
 which  he  ought  not  to  be  admitted  into 
 holy  orders,  he  is  now  to  declare  the  same, 
 or  to  signify  the  same  forthwith  to  tlie 
 Lord  Bishop  of . 
 
 We  do  hereby  certify,  that  the  above 
 notice  was  publicly  read  by  the  under- 
 signed C.  ]).,  in  the  parish  church  of , 
 
 in  the  county  of ,  during  the  time  of 
 
 Divine  service  on  Sunday  the day  of 
 
 last  [or  instant],  and  no  impediment  was 
 alleged. 
 
 Witness    our   hands   this  day   of 
 
 ,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  18 — . 
 
 C.  D.  officiating  minister. 
 E.  F.  churchwarden." 
 
 4.  Certificate  from  the  divinity  profess- 
 or in  the  university,  that  the  candidate 
 has  duly  attended  his  lectures.  Also  a 
 certificate  from  any  other  professor  whose 
 lectures  the  candidate  may  have  been  di- 
 rected by  the  bishop  to  attend. 
 
 5.  Certificate  of  the  candidate's  baptism, 
 from  the  register  book  of  the  parish  where 
 he  was  baptized,  duly  signed,  by  the  offici- 
 ating minister,  to  show  that  he  has  com- 
 pleted his  age  of  twenty-three  years  ;  and 
 in  case  he  shall  have  attained  that  age,  but 
 cannot  produce  a  certificate  of  his  baptism, 
 then  his  father  or  mother,  or  other  compe- 
 tent person,  must  make  a  declaration,  be- 
 fore a  justice  of  the  peace,  of  the  actual 
 time  of  his  birth  :  and  here  it  may  be  ne- 
 cessary to  remark,  that  bv  an  act  of  the 
 44  Geo.  III.  c.  43,  intituled  "  An  Act  to 
 enforce  the  due  observance  of  the  canons 
 and  rubric  respecting  the  ages  of  persons 
 to  be  admitted  into  the  sacred  order  of 
 deacon  and  priest,"  it  is  enacted,  that 
 thenceforth  no  person  shall  be  admitted  a 
 deacon  before  he  shall  have  attained  the 
 age  of  three  and  twenty  years  complete ; 
 and  that  no  person  shall  be  admitted  a 
 priest  before  he  shall  have  attained  the 
 age  of  four  and  twenty  years  com])lete : 
 and  that  if  a  person  shall  be  admitted  a 
 deacon  before  he  shall  have  attained  the 
 age  of  twenty-three  years  complete,  or  a 
 priest  before  he  shall  have  attained  the 
 age  of  twenty-four  years  complete,  such 
 admission  shall  be  void  in  law ;  and  the 
 person  so  admitted  shall  be  incapable  of 
 holding  any  ecclesiastical  jireferment. 
 
 t  For  three  years,  or  such  shorter  period  as 
 may  have  elapsed  since  the  date  of  the  College 
 testimonial. 
 
 +  It  is  recommended  that  the  party  giving 
 the  title  be  not  one  of  the  subscribers. 
 
 §  The  bishop  in  whose  diocese  the  curacy  con- 
 ferring the  title  is  situate. 
 
 2  N   2 
 
548 
 
 ORDERS.  HOLY, 
 
 6.  The  form  of  a  nomination  to  serve  as 
 a  title  for  orders,  if  the  incumbent  is 
 non-resident. 
 
 To  the  liight  Reverend  ,  Lord 
 
 Bishop  of . 
 
 These  are  to  certify  your  lordship,  that 
 
 1,  C.  1).,  rector  [or  vicar,  &c.]  of ,  in 
 
 the  county   of  ,   and   your  lordship's 
 
 diocese  of ,  do  hereby  nominate  A.  B., 
 
 bachelor  of  arts,  {or  other  dec/ree,)  of 
 
 college    in  the   university   of  ,   to 
 
 perform  the  office  of  curate  in  my  church 
 
 of aforesaid  ;  and  do  promise  to  allow 
 
 him  the  yearly  stipend  of pounds,  to 
 
 be  jniid  by  equal  quarterly  payments,  [as 
 to  amount  of  stipend,  see  title  "  Stipends 
 2myahle   to    Curates,'"']    with   the   surplice 
 
 fees,  amounting  on   an    average  to  
 
 pounds  per  annum,  [if  they  are  intended  to 
 be  alloived,)  and  the  use  of  the  glebe-house, 
 garden,  and  offices,  which  he  is  to  occupy 
 {if  that  be  the  fact :  if  not,  state  the  reason, 
 and  name  where  and  ichat  distance*  from  the 
 church  the  curate  purposes  to  reside) :  and 
 I  do  hereby  state  to  your  lordship,  that 
 the  said  A.  B.  does  not  intend  to  serve,  as 
 curate,  in  any  other  parish,  nor  to  officiate  in 
 any  other  church  or  chapel  {if  such  be  the 
 fact,  other icise  state  the  real  fact) ;  that 
 the  net  annual  value  of  my  said  benefice, 
 estimated  according  to  the  act  of  parlia- 
 ment 1  &  2  Victoria,  c.   106,  sects.  8  and 
 
 10,  is  pounds,  and  the   population 
 
 thereof,  according  to  the  latest  returns  of 
 poi)ulation  made  under  the  authority   of 
 
 parliament,  is  .     That  there  is  only 
 
 one  church  belonging  to  my  said  benefice 
 {if  there  be  another  church  or  chapel,  state 
 the  fact ) ;  and  that  I  was  admitted  to  the 
 
 said  benefice  on  the day  of 18 — .f 
 
 "And  I  do  hereby  promise  and  engage 
 with  your  lordship  and  the  said  A.  B.,  that 
 I  will  continue  to  employ  the  said  A.  B., 
 in  the  office  of  curate  in  my  said  church, 
 until  he  shall  be  otherwise  provided  of 
 some  ecclesiastical  preferment,  unless,  for 
 any  fault  by  him  committed,  he  shall  be 
 lawfully  removed  from  the  same  ;  and  J 
 hereby  solemnly  declare  that  I  do  not 
 fraudulently  give  this  certificate,  to  entitle 
 the  said  A.  B.  to  receive  holy  orders,  but 
 with  a  real  intention  to  employ  him  in  my 
 said  chm-ch,  according  to  what  is  before 
 expressed." 
 
 Witness  my  hand  this day  of , 
 
 in  the  year  of  our  Lord  18 — , 
 
 [Signature  and  address  of]      C.  D." 
 
 *  See  76th  sect,  of  1  &  2  Victoria,  c.  106. 
 
 t  The  concluding  part  of  the  nomination, 
 
 Declaration  [to  be  icritten  at  the  foot  of  the 
 Nomination']. 
 
 "  We  the  before-named  C.  D.  and  A.  B. 
 
 do  declare  to  the  said  Lord  Bishop  of , 
 
 as  follows ;  namely,  I  the  said  C.  D.  do 
 declare  that  I  bond  fide  intend  to  pay,  and 
 I  the  said  A.  B.  do  declare  that  I  bondjide 
 intend  to  receive,  the  whole  actual  stipend 
 mentioned  in  the  foregoing  nomination 
 and  statement,  without  any  abatement  in  re- 
 spect of  rent  or  consideration  for  the  use  of 
 the  glebe-house,  garden,  and  offices  there- 
 by agreed  to  be  assigned,  and  without  any 
 other  deduction  or  reservation  whatsoever. 
 
 Witness  our  hands   this   day    of 
 
 ,  18— 
 
 [Siynatures  of]  C.  D. 
 
 A.  B." 
 
 6.   {a)  The  form  of  nomination  to  serve 
 
 as  a  title  for  orders,  if  the  incumbent 
 
 is  resident. 
 The  same  form  as  No.  6,  so  far  as 
 "  quarterly  payments  ; "  then  proceed  as 
 follows :— And  I  do  hereby  state  to  your 
 lordship,  that  the  said  A.  B.  intends  to  re- 
 side in  the  said  parish,  in  a  house  [describe 
 its   situation,  so  as  clearly  to   identify   it], 
 
 distant  from  my  church mile  [_if  A. 
 
 B.  does  not  intend  to  reside  in  the  imrish, 
 then  state  at  ivhat  jilace  he  intends  to  reside, 
 and  its  distance  from  the  said  church~]  ;  that 
 the  said  A.  B.  does  not  intend  to  serve,  as 
 curate,  any  other  parish,  nor  to  officiate  in 
 any  other  church  or  chapel  (//'  such  be  the 
 fact,  othertvise  state  the  real  fact)  ;  and  I 
 do  hereby  promise  and  engage  with  your 
 lordship,  and  so  on  [in  the  same  form  as 
 JVo.  6,  to  the  e7ul]. 
 
 Witness   my   hand    this   day    of 
 
 — ,  18-. 
 
 [Signature  and  address  of]     C.  D." 
 
 The  declaration  to  be  Avritten  at  the  foot 
 of  the  nomination  is  to  be  in  the  sam^e 
 form  as  No.  6,  so  far  as  the  word  "  state- 
 ment," after  which  proceed  as  follows : — 
 "  A^''ithout  any  deduction  or  reservation 
 whatsoever. 
 
 Witness    our  hands  this  day   of 
 
 ,  18-. 
 
 [Sir/natures  of]         C.  D. 
 A.  B." 
 
 It  is  proper  to  observe,  that  the  follow- 
 ing declaration  is  to  be  subscribed  previous 
 to  ordination,  in  the  bishop's  presence,  by 
 all  persons  who  are  to  be  ordained : — 
 
 "  I,  A.  B.,  do  willingly,  and  from  my 
 heart,  subscribe  to  the  thirty-nine  articles 
 
 within  inverted  commas,  is  not  to  be  used,  except 
 in  the  nomination  to  serve  as  a  title  for  orders. 
 
ORDERS,  HOLY. 
 
 19 
 
 of  religion  of  the  united  Church  of  Eng- 
 land and  Ireland,  and  to  the  three  articles 
 in  the  thirty-sixth  canon  ;  and  to  all  things 
 therein  contained." 
 
 N.  B. — The  following  are  the  three  ar- 
 ticles referred  to  : 
 
 "  1.  That  the  Queen's  majesty,  under 
 Gon,  is  the  only  supreme  governor  of  this 
 realm,  and  of  all  other  her  highness's  do- 
 minions and  countries,  as  "well  in  all  spi- 
 ritual or  ecclesiastical  things  or  causes,  as 
 temjjoral ;  and  that  no  foreign  jn'ince,  per- 
 son, prelate,  sl^ite,  or  potentate  hath,  or 
 ought  to  have,  any  jurisdiction,  power, 
 suj)eriority,  pre-eminence,  or  authority,  ec- 
 clesiastical or  spiritual,  within  her  majesty's 
 said  realms,  dominions,  and  countries. 
 
 ''  2.  That  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer, 
 and  of  ordering  of  bishops,  priests,  and 
 deacons,  containeth  in  it  nothing  contrary 
 to  the  word  of  God,  and  that  it  may  law- 
 fully so  be  used  ;  and  that  he  himself  will 
 use  the  form  in  the  said  book  prescribed, 
 in  public  prayer  and  administration  of  the 
 sacraments,  and  none  other. 
 
 "  3.  That  he  alloweth  the  book  of  articles 
 of  religion,  agreed  upon  by  the  archbishops 
 and  bishops  of  both  provinces  and  the  whole 
 clergy,  in  the  convocation  holden  at  Lon- 
 don, in  the  year  of  our  Lord  one  thousand 
 five  hundred  sixty  and  two ;  and  that  he 
 acknowledgeth  all  and  every  the  articles 
 therein  contained,  being  in  number  nine 
 and  thirty,  besides  the  ratification,  to  be 
 agreeable  to  the  word  of  God." 
 
 Oaths  to  he  taken  hy  those  icho  are  to  be 
 ordained,  at  the  time  of  Ordination. 
 
 THE   OATH   OF  ALLEGIANCE. 
 "I,    A.  B.,  do   sincerely    promise    and 
 swear,  that  I  will  be  faithful,  and  bear 
 true  allegiance  to  her  Majesty  Queen  Vic- 
 toria.    So  help  me  God." 
 
 THE  OATH  OF  SUPREMACY. 
 ''  I,  A.  B,,  do  swear,  that  I  do  from  my 
 heart  abhor,  detest,  and  abjure,  as  impious 
 and  heretical,  that  damnable  doctrine  and 
 ])osition,  that  princes  excommunicated  or 
 deprived  by  the  pope,  or  any  authority  of 
 the  see  of  Rome,  may  be  deposed  or 
 murdered  by  their  subjects,  or  any  other 
 whatsoever.  And  I  do  declare,  that  no 
 foreign  prince,  person,  prelate,  state,  or 
 potentate  hath,  or  ought  to  have,  any 
 jurisdiction,  power,  su])eriority,  pre-emi- 
 nence, or  authority,  ecclesiastical  or  spi- 
 ritual, within  this  realm.  So  help  me 
 God." 
 
 The  act  of  parliament  50  Geo.  IIL  c.  GO, 
 contains  directions  for  the  use  and  ijuid- 
 
 ance  of  candidates  for  orders  who  are  to 
 olHciate  as  clergymen  in  the  colonies,  or 
 for  her  Majesty's  foreign  possessions. 
 
 Instrncfions  as  to  Pries fs  orders.* 
 The  following  papers  are  to  be  sent  by  a 
 candidate  for  priest's  orders  to  the  bishoj), 
 threi'  Meeks  before  the  day  of  ordination, 
 or  at  such  other  time  as  the  bishoj)  shall 
 ap])oint,  and  in  due  time  he  will  be  in- 
 formed by  the  bishop's  secretary  when  and 
 where  to  attend  for  examination. 
 
 Where  a  candidate  applies  for  jiriest's 
 orders  to  the  same  bishop  who  ordained 
 him  deacon,  the  papers  1  and  2  only  are 
 required. 
 
 1.  Letters  testimonial  of  his  sound  doc- 
 trine, good  life,  and  behaviour,  for  the  time 
 elapsed  since  he  was  ordained  deacon, 
 signed  by  three  beneficed  clergymen,  and 
 countersigned  by  the  bishop  of  the  diocese 
 in  which  their  benefices  are  res])ectively 
 situate,  if  not  beneficed  in  the  diocese  of 
 the  bishop  to  whom  the  candidate  a])plies 
 for  ordination.  (See  For?n  of  Testimonial, 
 in  Instructions  as  to  Deacon^s  Orders, 
 No.  2.) 
 
 2.  Notice,  or  "  Si  quis,"  and  certificate 
 of  the  publication  thereof.  (See  Form 
 thereof,  in  the  Instructions  as  to  Deacon  s 
 Orders,  No.  3.) 
 
 In  case  the  candidate  was  ordained  dea- 
 con by  the  bishop  of  another  diocese,  he 
 must  produce  not  only  the  papers,  Nos.  1 
 and  2,  but  also  the  following  papers,  Nos. 
 3,  4,  and  5. 
 
 As  it  is  not  common  for  a  deacon  to  be 
 ordained  priest  by  any  other  than  the 
 bishop  who  admitted  him  to  deacon's  or- 
 ders, a  candidate  applying  to  the  bishop  of 
 another  diocese  must,  in  the  first  instance, 
 state  to  him  the  particular  circumstances 
 which  occasion  the  application,  the  curacy 
 which  he  served,  and  lor  what  j)criod. 
 
 3.  Letters  of  deacon's  orders. 
 
 4.  A  certificate  of  baptism. 
 
 5.  Nomination,  if  not  already  licensed. 
 
 The  same  subscriptions  and  oaths  are 
 made  and  taken  by  candidates  for  priest's 
 orders,  as  by  candidates  for  deacon's  orders. 
 
 With  respect  to  foreign  Protestants,  Pal- 
 mer observes  :  "  A\^e  are  not  bound  to  con- 
 demn Presbyterian  orders  in  every  case  : 
 for  instance,  the  a])pointment  of  ministers 
 by  the  Protestants  in  Germany  during  the 
 Keformation,  was  most  probably  inralid ; 
 and  yet,  considering  their  ditticulties,  the 
 lact  of  their  apjjcal  to  a  general  council, 
 their  expectation  of  reunion  witli  the 
 Church,  and  therefore  the  impossibility  of 
 
 *  It  is  not  usual  to  confer  priest's  orders  till 
 the  candidate  has  been  a  deacon  one  whole  year. 
 
550 
 
 ORDERS  OF  MONKS. 
 
 ORDINAL. 
 
 establishing  a  rival  hierarchy,  I  think  we 
 are  not  bound  to  condemn  their  appoint- 
 ments of  ministers,  as  many  learned  and 
 orthodox  writers  have  done  ;  who,  how- 
 ever, seem  not  to  have  observed  the  pecu- 
 liarities of  their  })osition,  and  to  have  sup- 
 posed that  they  were  at  once  definitively 
 separated  from  the  Koman  churches.  Cer- 
 tain differences  of  opinion,  then,  in  refer- 
 ence to  the  question  of  Presbyterian  or- 
 dinations, may  exist  without  any  material 
 inconvenience. 
 
 "  That  ordinations  by  mere  presbyters 
 are,  (however  excusable  under  circumstances 
 of  great  difficulty,)  in  fact,  unautliorized 
 and  invalid,  is  the  more  usual  sentiment  of 
 theologians,  and  is  most  accordant  with 
 Scripture,  and  with  the  practice  of  the 
 Catholic  Church  in  general,  and  of  our 
 Churches  in  particular,  which  do  not  re- 
 cognise any  such  ordinations." 
 
 OllDEIlS  OF  MOXKS.  The  several 
 orders  of  monks  are  distinguished  in  this 
 manner  by  their  habits.  The  White  Friars 
 are  canons  regular  of  the  order  of  St. 
 Augustine.  Grey  Friars  are  Cistercian 
 monks,  who  changed  their  black  habit  into 
 a  gi-ey  one.  The  Black  Friars  are  Bene- 
 dictines. 
 
 ORDINAL.  The  Ordinal  is  that  book 
 which  contains  the  forms  observed  in  the 
 Church  for  making,  ordaining,  and  conse- 
 crating, bishops,  priests,  and  deacons.  In 
 the  liturgy  established  in  the  second  year 
 of  King  Edward  VL,  there  was  also  a  form 
 of  consecrating  and  ordaining  of  bishops, 
 priests,  and  deacons,  not  much  differing 
 from  the  present  form.  Afterwards,  by 
 the  3  &  4  Edward  VI.  c.  10,  it  was  enacted 
 that  all  books  heretofore  used  for  the 
 service  of  the  Church,  other  than  such  as 
 shall  be  set  forth  by  the  king's  majesty, 
 shall  be  clearly  abolished  (s.  1).  And  by 
 the  5  «fc  6  Edward  VL  c.  1,  it  is  thus  en- 
 acted :  The  king,  with  the  assent  of  the 
 lords  and  commons  in  parliament,  has  an- 
 nexed the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  to  this 
 present  statute,  adding  also  a  form  and 
 manner  of  making  and  consecrating  of 
 archbishops,  bishops,  priests,  and  deacons, 
 to  be  of  like  force  and  authority  as  the 
 Book  of  Common  Prayer.  And,  by  Art. 
 36 :  "  The  book  of  consecration  of  archbi- 
 shops and  bishops,  and  ordering  of  priests 
 and  deacons,  lately  set  forth  in  the  time  of 
 Edward  VL,  and  confirmed  at  the  same 
 time  by  authority  of  parliament,  doth  con- 
 tain all  things  necessary  to  such  consecra- 
 tion and  ordering ;  neither  hath  it  any- 
 thing that  of  itself  is  superstitious  and 
 ungodly.  And  therefore  w^hosoever  are 
 consecrated  or  ordered    according  to  the 
 
 rites  of  that  book,  since  the  second  year 
 of  the  forenamed  King  Edward  unto  this 
 time,  or  hereafter  shall  be  consecrated  or 
 ordered  according  to  the  same  rites,  we 
 declare  all  such  to  be  rightly  ordered,  and 
 lawfully  consecrated  and  ordered."  And 
 by  Canon  8 :  "  Whosoever  shall  affirm  or 
 teach,  that  the  form  and  manner  of  making 
 and  consecrating  bishops,  priests,  and  dea- 
 cons, containeth  anything  that  is  repugnant 
 to  the  Avord  of  GoD  ;  or  that  they  who 
 are  made  bishops,  priests,  and  deacons,  in 
 that  form,  are  not  lawfully  made,  nor  ought 
 to  be  accounted  either  by  themselves  or 
 others  to  be  truly  either  bishops,  priests, 
 or  deacons,  until  they  have  some  other 
 calling  to  those  Divine  offices,  let  him  be 
 excommunicated,  ipso  facto,  not  to  be  re- 
 stored until  he  repent  and  publicly  revoke 
 such  his  Avicked  errors." 
 
 The  form  in  which  orders  are  conferred 
 in  our  Church  is  this  :  "  The  bishop,  w^ith 
 the  priests  present,  shall  lay  their  hands 
 severally  upon  the  head  of  every  one  that 
 receiveth  the  order  of  priesthood ;  the  re- 
 ceivers humbly  kneeling,  and  the  bishop 
 saying,  '  Receive  the  Holy  Ghost  for  the 
 office  and  work  of  a  priest,  in  the  Church 
 of  God,  vow  conunitted  unto  thee  by  the 
 imposition  of  our  hands.  AVliose  sins  thou 
 dost  forgive,  they  are  forgiven  ;  and  whose 
 sins  thou  dost  retain,  they  are  retained. 
 And  be  thou  a  faithful  dispenser  of  the 
 word  of  God,  and  of  his  holy  sacraments  : 
 in  the  name  of  the  Father,  and  of  the  Son, 
 and  of  the  Holy  Ghost.'  "  In  the  office 
 for  the  ordering  of  deacons,  the  bishop  lays 
 on  his  hands,  but  does  not  use  the  words, 
 "  Receive  the  Holy  Ghost,"  &c.,  or  grant 
 authority  to  forgive  or  retain  sins.  In  the 
 office  for  the  coiisecration  of  bishops,  the 
 form  is  thus  :  *'  Then  the  archbishop  and 
 bishops  present  shall  lay  their  hands  upon 
 the  head  of  the  elected  bishop,  kneeling 
 before  them  on  his  knees,  the  archbishop 
 saying,  '  Receive  the  Holy  Ghost  for  the 
 office  and  work  of  a  bishop  in  the  Church 
 of  God,  now^  committed  unto  thee  by  the 
 laying  on  of  our  hands,  in  the  name  of  the 
 Father,  and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy 
 Ghost.  Amen.  And  remember  that  thou 
 stir  up  the  grace  of  GoD  whicJi  is  r/ive7i  thee 
 BY  the  imjwsition  of  our  hands,  for  GoD  hath 
 not  given  us  the  spirit  of  fear,  but  of  power, 
 and  love,  and  soberness.' " 
 
 Several  Protestant  dissenting  communi- 
 ties have  taken  it  upon  themselves  to  lay 
 on  hands  when  a  person  is  elected  to  the 
 dissenting  ministry  ;  but  none,  that  we  are 
 aware  of,  have  ever  assumed  the  solemn 
 office  of  thus  conferring  the  grace  of  GoD 
 by  the  imposition  of  human  hands,  which 
 
ORDINANCES  OF  THE  CHURCH. 
 
 ORDINATION. 
 
 would  clearly  be  blasphemous,  except  there 
 existed  a  commission  from  God  to  do  so, 
 which  commission,  without  the  apostolical 
 succession,  cannot  be  proved,  unless  by 
 miracle.  This  form  has  given  great  offence 
 to  many  conscientious  ultra-Protestants. 
 Attempts  are  sometimes  made  to  explain 
 the  words  away ;  but  such  explanations 
 have  been  seldom  found  satisfactory,  ex- 
 cept to  those  whose  interest  it  is  to  be 
 satisfied.  It  is  evident  that  they  arc  to  be 
 understood  sim])ly,  clearly,  unequivocally, 
 to  express  that  the  grace  of  God  is  given 
 by  the  imposition  of  the  bishop's  hands  ; 
 and  that  if  we  speak  of  this  as  superstitious 
 or  ungodly,  we  are,  as  may  be  seen  from 
 the  36th  Article  and  the  8th  Canon,  under 
 the  anathema  of  our  Church.  On  the 
 other  hand,  the  comfort  is  indescribably 
 great  to  those  who  believe  that  grace  min- 
 isterial is  thus  conveyed  in  attending  the 
 ministry  of  the  Church  ;  the  efficacy  of  the 
 ministrations  of  whose  ministers  depends 
 not  on  the  merit  or  talent  of  the  indivi- 
 dual, but  on  the  grace  of  God,  of  which 
 he  is  the  authorized,  though  unworthy, 
 dispenser. 
 
 ORDINANCES  OF  THE  CHURCH. 
 Rites  ordained  by  GoD  to  be  means  of 
 grace,  such  as,  1.  Baptism  (Matt,  xxviii. 
 10);  2.  The  Lord's  supper  (jNIatt.  xxvi. 
 26  ;  I  Cor.  xi.  24,  8:c.) ;  S.  Preaching  and 
 reading  the  word  (iSIark  xvi.  15;  Rom. 
 x.  15) ;  4.  Hearing  the  gospel  (Mark  iv. 
 24;  Rom.  x.  17);  5,  Public  and  private 
 prayer  (1  Cor.  xiv.  15,  19;  Matt.  vi.  6; 
 Ps.  v.  1,  7) ;  6.  Singing  of  psalms  (Col. 
 iii.  16;  Eph.  v.  19);  7.  Fasting  (Matt. 
 ix.  15  ;  Joel  ii.  12) ;  8.  Solemn  thanksgiv- 
 ing (Ps.  ix.  14 ;  1  Thess.  v.  18).    See  Bi'fcs. 
 
 ORDINARY.  The  person  who  has 
 ecclesiastical  jurisdiction,  as  of  course  and 
 of  common  right,  in  ojiposition  to  persons 
 who  are  extraordinarily  appointed.  In 
 some  acts  of  parliament  we  find  the  bishop 
 called  ordinary,  and  so  he  is  taken  at  the 
 common  law,  as  having  ordinary  jurisdic- 
 tion in  causes  ecclesiastical  ;  albeit,  in  a 
 more  general  acceptation,  the  word  Ordin- 
 ary signifies  any  judge  authorized  to  take 
 cognizance  of  causes  in  his  own  proper 
 right,  as  he  is  a  magistrate,  and  not  by 
 wav  of  deputation  or  delegation. 
 
 ORDINATION.  (See  Orders.)  The 
 apostles  appointed  bishops,  priests,  and 
 deacons,  to  be  the  standing  guides  and 
 governors  of  the  Church ;  and  because 
 there  should  be  a  succession  of  them  con- 
 tinued in  all  ages,  for  the  peace  and  pre- 
 servation of  those  cliurches  which  thoy 
 had  planted,  therefore  it  is  necessary  that 
 there   should  be   a   power  lodged  some- 
 
 where, to    set  apart  some  distinct  orders 
 of  men  to  those  public  offices,  and  this  is 
 called  ordination.     Many  dissenting  sects 
 hold  it  necessary  that  there  should  be  such 
 a  power,  but   they   dispute   where   it   is. 
 Some  affirm  that  a  man  ought  not  to  take 
 upon  him  the   ministry  without  a  lawful 
 call,  which  is  very  true.      They  likewise 
 agree    that   ordination    ought  to  be  con- 
 tinued, and  they  define  it  to  be  a  solemn 
 setting  apart  of  some  person  to  a  church 
 office  ;  but  they  say  it  is  only  to  be  done 
 by  preaching  presbyters,  and   that   those 
 who  are  not  set  apart  themselves  for  the 
 work  of  the  ministry,  have  no  power  to 
 join  in  setting  apart  others  for  that  pur- 
 pose ;  and  this  form  of  ordination  Avas  pro- 
 posed to  the  parliament,  in  the  year  1643, 
 by  an  assembly  of  those  persons,  in  order  to 
 be  ratified.     There  is  another  sort  of  peo- 
 ple who  hold  that  Avhere  there  are  no  such 
 preaching  presbyters,  in  such  case,  other 
 persons,  sufficiently  qualified  and  approved 
 for  their  gifts  and  graces  by  other  minis- 
 ters, being  chosen  by  the  people,  and  set 
 apart  for  the  ministry,  by  prayer  and  fasting 
 in  the  congregation,  may  exercise  that  office, 
 so  that  some  place  the  power  of  ordination 
 in  simple  presbyters,  and  others  in  the  peo- 
 ple.    There  are  others  who  maintain  that 
 ordination  is  not  to  be  justified  by  Scrip- 
 ture, and  that  the  word  itself  signifies  a 
 lifting  up  of  hands,  and  is  used  in  Scrip- 
 ture for  giving  a  vote,  which  in  all  popular 
 assemblies  is  customary  even  at  this  day : 
 from  whence  they  infer  that  the  Christian 
 churches  were  at  first  democratical,  that 
 is,  the  whole  congregation  chose  their  pas- 
 tor ;  and  that  by  virtue  of  such  choice  he 
 did  not  pretend  to  any  peculiar  jurisdic- 
 tion distinct  from  others,  but  he  was  only 
 approved  by  the  congregation  for  his  parts, 
 and  appointed  to  instruct  the  people,  to 
 visit  the  sick,   and  to  perform  all  other 
 offices  of  a  minister,  and  at  other  times 
 he  followed  his  trade  ;  and  that  the  Chris- 
 tians in  those  days  had  no  notion  how  a 
 pastor  could  pretend  to  any  succession  to 
 qualify  him  for  the  ministry,  for  that  the 
 pretence  of  dispensing    divine  things  by 
 a  mere  human  constitution  was  such  an 
 absurdity  that  it  could  not  be  reconciled 
 to  reason. 
 
 This  and  many  more  such  calumnies 
 were  cast  on  ordination,  and  tlie  bisliops 
 themselves  were  called  ordination-mongers ; 
 but  it  was  by  those  who  alleged  that  the 
 purity  of  the  Christian  religion,  and  the 
 good  and  orderly  government  of  the  world, 
 liad  been  much  better  provided  for  with- 
 out any  clergy.  But  we  will  sliow  from 
 Scripture,  from    antiquity,   and   from  the 
 
552 
 
 ORDINATION. 
 
 ORGAN. 
 
 concurrent  testimony  of  tlie  Fathers,  that 
 bishops  had,  and  ought  to  have,  the  power 
 of  ordination. 
 
 When    our    Saviour    established    the 
 Christian   Church,  he  made   his  apostles 
 j^overnors  thereof,  and  vested  theni  ^yith  a 
 power  to  ordain  others  to  the  ministry; 
 and,  accordingly,  they  ordained  the  seven 
 deacons,  and  consecrated  St.  James  bishop 
 of  Jerusalem,  and  he  ordained  presbyters 
 of  that  church.     That  Timothy,  as  soon  as 
 he  was  made  bishop  of  Ephesus  by  the 
 great   apostle    of    the    Gentiles,  but    not 
 before,  had  this  power  of  ordination,  is 
 allowed  by  St.  Chrysostom  himself,  who 
 magnified 'the  poAver  of  presbyters  more 
 than  any  of  the  Fathers ;  and  he  proves  it 
 thus,  viz.  because  St.  Paul  gave  Timothy 
 a  caution,  not  to  admit  any  one  rashly  to 
 an  ecclesiastical  office.     It  is  true  he  like- 
 wise bid  him  not  to  despise  the  gift  which 
 was  given  to  him  by  prophecy,  with  laying 
 on  of  the  hands  of  'the  company  of  elders  ; 
 but  he  could  not  mean  by  those  words  an 
 assembly   of  ordinary   presbyters,   for   as 
 such  th'ey  could  not' have  conferred  any 
 extraordinary  commission,  especially  upon 
 Timothy,  because   he  was,  at   that   very 
 time,  a  'bishop,  and  ordained  by  St.  Paul 
 himself.  He  had  a  jurisdiction  over  all  the 
 presbyters  of  Asia;     for   he   had^  power 
 given' him  by  that  apostle  to  inquire  into 
 their  conversation  and  abilities,  and  then 
 to  admit  them  into  that  holy  office,  if  he 
 found  them  qualified,  and  not  otherwise. 
 Titus  had  the  same  power  throughout  that 
 populous  island  of  Crete ;  and  these  things 
 are  so    plain,  that   they   must    deny  the 
 authority  of  the  Scriptures,  v.ho  deny  the 
 power  o'f  ordination   to   be  originally  in 
 bishops :  and  therefore  they  have  invented 
 a    senseless    objection,   viz.    that    though 
 Timothy  and  Titus  were  superior  to  pres- 
 byters, yet  their  power  was  but  temporary  ; 
 for  they  were  chosen  by  the  apostles  at 
 that  time,  upon  a  particular  occasion,  to 
 preside  in  the  assemblies  of  presbyters,  to 
 moderate  the    affairs  of  those    churches, 
 which  power  was  to  determine  at  the  ex- 
 piration of  their   commission.     But   this 
 cannot  be  proved  by  history,  or  any  re- 
 cords.    It  is  a  mere  invention,  contrived 
 to  make  a  party  between  those  two  distinct 
 orders  of  men  ;  and  it  can  have  no  founda- 
 tion in  Scripture,  from  the  promiscuous  use 
 of  the  words  bishop  and  presbyter:    for 
 though  it  is  true  that  the  last  is  used  to 
 shoM-  the  humility  of  a  bishop,   yet  it  is 
 as  true  that  the  word  apostle  is  likev/ise 
 used  to  shoAV  his  superiority.     So  that,  in 
 the  primitive  times,  bishops  ordained  as 
 bishops,  and  not  as  presbyters ;  for  in  those 
 
 days,  as  it  has  been  already  observed, 
 bishops  and  presbyters  were  accounted 
 distinct  in  order,  whatever  has  of  late  years 
 been  advanced  to  the  contrary.  Therefore, 
 the  objec,tion  that  a  bishop  and  presbyter 
 were  neither  distinct  in  order  or  office; 
 that  though  the  apostles,  and  those  who 
 immediately  succeeded  them,  exercised  a 
 large  jurisdiction,  yet  it  was  granted  to 
 them  by  our  Saviour  as  they  were 
 apostles,  and  did  in  no  wise  concern  their 
 successors,  to  whom  he  gave  no  such 
 authority,  nor  any  manner  of  superiority 
 over  their  felloAV  presbyters, — these,  and 
 such  like,  are  doctrines  which  neither  agi-ee 
 with  the  Scripture,  nor  with  the  Fathers  ; 
 they  are  contrary  to  the  plain  and  constant 
 usage  in  the  Church  for  1600  years,  dur- 
 ing all  which  time  all  Christian  churches 
 were  governed  by  bishops. 
 
 By  the  31st  canon  of  the  Cliurch  of 
 England  it  is  ordained  :  "  Forasmuch  as 
 the  ancient  Fathers  of  the  Church,  led  by 
 the  example  of  the  apostles,  appointed 
 prayers  and  fasts  to  be  used  at  the  solemn 
 ordaining  of  ministers,  and  to  that  purpose 
 allotted  certain  times,  in  which  only  sacred 
 orders  might  be  given  and  conferred,  we, 
 following  their  holy  and  religious  example, 
 do  constitute  and  decree,  that  no  deacons 
 or  ministers  be  made  or  ordained,  but 
 only  on  Sundays  immediately  following 
 jejunia  guatuor  temporum,  commonly  called 
 Ember  Weeks,  appointed  in  ancient  time 
 for  prayer  and  fasting,  (purposely  for  this 
 cause  at  the  first  institution,)  and  so  con- 
 tinued at  this  day  in  the  Church  of  Eng- 
 land."    (See  Ember  Days.) 
 
 ORGAN.  The  greatest  of  all  instru- 
 ments of  music,  consisting  of  pipes,  or 
 flutes,  made  vocal  by  wind,  which  is  sup- 
 ])lied  by  bellows,  and  acted  on  by  keys 
 touched  by  the  hands  and  feet.  The  Latin 
 word  organnm^  means  an  instrument  in 
 general ;  (just  as  we  now  employ  the  word 
 organ :)  but  in  the  course  of  time  it  was 
 more  specially  applied,  in  a  more  limited 
 sense,  to  instruments  of  music,  and  spe- 
 cially to  that  great  vehicle  of  sound, 
 which  is  in  part  a  combination  of  many 
 instruments,  and  is  an  orchestra  in  itself. 
 The  first  organ  was  made  by  Ctesibius  of 
 Alexandria,  "about  200  years  b.  c,  (asap- 
 pears  from  Athena?us,  iv.  75,)  with  pipes 
 of  bronze  and  lead,  with  keys,  levers,  and 
 slides  :  the  wind  from  a  bellows,  in  which 
 the  pressure  of  water  supplied  the  place  of 
 the  weight  now  placed  on  the  bellows. 
 This  sort  of  organ  was  called  hydraulic  ; 
 and  continued  in  use  so  late  as  the  ninth 
 century.  An  epigram  of  Julian  the  Apos- 
 tate, in  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century, 
 
ORGAN. 
 
 553 
 
 describes  it  as  played  with  ihcjingers,  not 
 Avith  the^s^A-,  and  as  having  copjxn-  pipes. 
 {Bnaick,  Analecta  ii.  403.)  St.  Augustine 
 describes  it  as  "  grande,  et  i/iJiafafoHibus." 
 It  is  also  spoken  of  by  Ammianus  IMarccl- 
 linus ;  and  exactly  described  by  Claudian, 
 in  the  fourth  century  ;  and  Cassiodorus  (in 
 the  fifth  century)  defines  it  as  a  tower,  made 
 with  various  pipes,  inflated  by  bellows, 
 and  played  on  by  the  fingers,  and  as  hav- 
 ing great  sweetness  and  power.  It  was 
 never  used  in  the  Greek  Church.  Its  first 
 ecclesiastical  use  in  the  West  is  a  matter 
 of  obscurity.  Bellarmine  states,  though  on 
 doubtful  authority,  that,  in  660,  Pope  Yi- 
 talian  introduced  it  into  the  church  ser- 
 vice at  Kome.  1).  Rimbault,  in  his  very 
 interesting  notes  to  Roger  North's  Me- 
 moirs of  Music,  (p.  48,)  says,  that  it  was 
 introduced  into  the  English  service  by 
 Theodore  and  Adi'ian,  emissaries  of  Vita- 
 lian  ;  and  from  a  ])assage  in  the  writings 
 of  Adhelm,  bisho])  of  Sherborne,  who  died 
 in  709,  it  appears  that  the  external  case 
 Avas  gilt,  ('•  auratis  capsis,'^)  and  that  the 
 pipes  were  numerous :  *'  maxima  inillenis 
 organa  fhibris"  All  ecclesiastical  histo- 
 rians relate,  that  in  757  the  Eastern  em- 
 peror Constantino  Cojn-onymus  sent  an 
 organ  to  Pepin,  which  was  placed,  as 
 afiirmed  by  M.  Hamel,  (Manuel  des  Fac- 
 teurs  des  Orgues.)  in  a  church  at  Com- 
 piegne.  In  811,  ambassadors  from  Con- 
 stantinople brought  two  organs  to  Charle- 
 magne. However,  it  is  supposed  that  its 
 use  did  not  become  generally  known  in 
 France  till  826,  when  a  Venetian  priest 
 introduced  what  is  supposed  to  be  an 
 hydraulic  organ.  In  the  same  century, 
 Walafred  Strabo  says,  Louis  le  Debon- 
 naire  gave  an  organ  to  Aix  la  Chapelle. 
 In  994,  according  to  Petronius,  there  were 
 organs  at  Erfurt  and  Magdeburg.  In 
 951,  Wulstan  relates  that  Elphege,  bishop 
 of  Winchester,  gave  an  organ  to  Win- 
 chester with  400  pipes,  40  keys,  and  (if 
 his  meaning  is  clear)  26  pairs  of  bellows, 
 played  by  two  organists,  (See  Tumer^s 
 Anglo- Saxo7is,  book  ix.  c.  9.)  In  the  tenth 
 century,  Dunstan,  archbishop  of  Canter- 
 bury, gave  an  organ  to  Malmesbury,  de- 
 scribed by  William  of  Malmesbury  as  hav- 
 ing copper  pipes.  At  the  same  time  an 
 organ  was  given  to  Ramsey  church,  with 
 copper  pipes,  "  emitting  a  sweet  melody 
 and  far-resounding  peal,"  played  on  feast 
 days.  (See  Turner,  as  before.)  In  the 
 twelfth  century,  an  organ  is  mentioned  in 
 the  abbey  of  Fecamp.  And  Gervas  the 
 monk,  describing  Canterbury  cathedral  as 
 he  knew  it  before  the  fire  in   1172,  savs. 
 
 The  above  notices  suffice  to  show  the 
 error  of  Bingham's  statement,  that  organs 
 were  not  used  in  churches  till  after  Tliomas 
 Aquinas'  time  in  1250.  Aquinas  merely 
 s])ecifies  harps  and  psalteries,  as  not  used, 
 "  which  our  Church  does  not  assume,  lest 
 she  should  seem  to  judaize."  The  south 
 of  France,  as  also  the  south  of  Italy,  long 
 retained  Oriental  customs  in  their  churches ; 
 thus  at  I>yons  organs  were  for  a  long  time 
 unemployed.  Cardinal  Caietan  says,  the  or- 
 gan Mas  not  used  in  the  primitive  Church, 
 and  gives  this  as  a  reason  why  it  is  not 
 used  in  the  pope's  chapel.  A  tenacious 
 respect  for  antiquity  seems  to  be  the  only 
 reason  which  forbids  its  use  in  the  Greek 
 churches  :  since,  in  some  branches  of  that 
 communion,  as  in  Russia,  vocal  harmony 
 in  the  sacred  offices  is  carried  to  great 
 perfection.  IIos])inian,  an  ultra-Protest- 
 ant writer,  contends  against  the  use  of  it, 
 on  the  authority  of  St.  l*aul. 
 
 So  strongly  prejudiced  were  other  writers 
 of  the  ultra-Protestant  school  against  or- 
 gans that  Xewte,  in  his  preface  to  1  )odwell 
 on  ]\Iusic,  after  mentioning  the  rejiort  of 
 Bala?us,  that  organs  were  introduced  in  the 
 year  660,  adds,  "  or  rather  that  it  may  not 
 want  the  mark  of  the  beast  of  the  ]{evclation, 
 as  the  Magdeburg  continuators  say,  666.  It 
 is  difficult  to  understand  the  princijjle  of 
 the  objection.  The  ordering  of  the  instru- 
 mental as  well  as  oral  music  in  the  temple 
 was  a  matter,  be  it  remembered,  of  ]  )ivine 
 institution :  thus  in  2  Chron.  xxix.  25. 
 "  And  he  set  the  Levites  in  the  house  of 
 the  Lord  with  cymbals,  with  psalteries,  and 
 v.'ith  harps,  according  to  the  command- 
 ment of  IJavid,  and  of  Gad  the  king's  seer, 
 and  Nathan  the  prophet :  for  so  was  the 
 commamlnient  of  the  Lord  by  ?iis  2yro2)hets" 
 To  be  consistent,  all  oral  song,  nay,  the 
 words  of  the  sacred  songs  themselves,  ought 
 to  be  silenced  also. 
 
 At  the  time  of  the  Reformation,  organs 
 were  considered  as  among  the  vilest  rem- 
 nants of  Popery,  by  all  the  more  enthusi- 
 astic partisans  of  Protestantism.  And  by 
 those  who  carried  out  the  princij)les  of 
 ultra-Protestantism  to  their  legitimate  ex- 
 tent at  the  great  Rebellion,  organs  were 
 so  generally  demolished,  that  scarcely  an 
 instrument  could  be  found  in  England  at 
 the  Restoration  ;  and  foreigners  were 
 brought  over  to  play  on  some  of  those 
 which  were  then  erected.  It  is  satisfactory' 
 to  see  such  prejudices  wearing  away.  AVe 
 now  find  those  whose  horror  at  fasting,  or 
 at  self-denials,  or  at  turning  to  the  east  in 
 prayer,  or  at  preaching  in  a  surplice,  as 
 the  Prayer  Book  directs,  or  implies,  or  at 
 bowing  to  the  altar,  or  at  preferring  prayer 
 
554 
 
 ORGAN. 
 
 ORGANIST. 
 
 to  preaching,  &c.,  is  unfeigned,  and  who 
 see  in  these  observances  nothing  but  Po- 
 pery, nevertheless  expending  large  sums 
 of  money  to  erect  organs,  which  are  now 
 heard  to  sound  in  their  very  meeting- 
 houses. We  believe  the  Kirk  of  Scotland 
 is  alone  consistent  in  this  respect,  and  true 
 to  the  principles  of  their  ultra-Protestant 
 forefathers  ;  the  members  of  that  Estab- 
 lishment do  not  even  yet  tolerate  what 
 at  the  Reformation  was  called  "  a  squeak- 
 ing abomination." 
 
 The  organ  in  the  Anglican  Church  had 
 been  the  regular  accompaniment  of  the 
 choral  service  for  some  hundred  years  be- 
 fore the  Reformation.  It  is  still  used  in 
 cathedrals,  collegiate  and  royal  churches 
 and  chapels,  more  frequently  than  abroad  ; 
 where  it  is  more  employed  for  symphonies 
 than  for  an  accompaniment,  and  that  in 
 general  only  on  Sundays,  holy-days,  and 
 eves ;  whereas  in  regular  English  choirs  it 
 is  used  at  least  twice  daily,  accompanying 
 the  psalms,  canticles,  and  anthems,  and 
 those  parts  of  the  service  which  are  allowed 
 by  the  rubric  to  be  sung,  including  the  re- 
 sponses and  litanies  on  more  solemn  oc- 
 casions. In  ancient  times  (till  the  great 
 Rebellion)  organs  were  more  common  in 
 the  college  chapels  at  the  universities  than 
 now.  The  general  introduction  of  organs 
 into  London  parish  churches,  however,  did 
 not  take  place  till  after  the  Restoration. 
 Their  use  appears  never  to  have  been  very 
 general,  even  in  cathedrals,  in  Ireland ;  and 
 in  Scotland  it  is  supposed  that  they  were 
 not  introduced  till  the  loth  century. 
 
 The  phrase  pair  of  organs  occurs  in 
 many  old  books.  It  had  its  origin  proba- 
 bly in  the  two  stops  which  were  common 
 in  the  smaller  mediaeval  organs  :  possibly, 
 however,  to  the  tAvo  organs,  which  in  the 
 middle  ages,  as  now,  entered  into  the  con- 
 struction of  the  larger  instruments.  These 
 large_  organs  consist  in  reality  of  three  or 
 four  instruments,  each  having  its  separate 
 sound-board  and  set  of  keys ;  viz.  1 .  The 
 great  organ,  for  choruses  and  louder  pas- 
 sages :-  2.  The  choir  organ,  softer  than  the 
 former,  used  for  the  verse  passages,  &c.,  and 
 the  alternate  chant  of  the  psalms  ;  generally 
 placed  in  front  of  the  great  organ ;  not 
 called  from  chair,  as  some  suppose,  (as 
 being  placed  behind  the  organist's  chair,) 
 but  from  the  choir :  as  appears  from 
 l)uf/d.  iMon.  ed.  1830,  ii.  103,  "  when  in 
 the  loth  century  the  abbot  of  Croyland 
 gave  two  organs  to  his  chui'ch  ;  the  greater 
 one  being  placed  in  the  nave,  the  lesser  in 
 the  choir."  3.  The  swell,  an  Enghsh  in- 
 ventior,  formerly  the  third  manual,  played 
 what  was  called  the  echo ;  which  is  still 
 
 occasionally  found  abroad.  4.  The  pedal 
 organ,  or  that  which  is  played  by  the  feet. 
 Foreign  organs  have  frequently  four  rows 
 of  manuals,  and  two  of  pedals. 
 
 It  appears  from  Mr.  Hamel's  work,  al- 
 ready mentioned,  that  the  organ  of  the 
 middle  ages  was  by  no  means  so  small  as 
 is  commonly  imagined  by  those  who  have 
 been  misled  by  ancient  monuments  and 
 draAvings.  In  the  16tli  century  began  the 
 construction  of  those  enormous  machines, 
 for  Avhich  Germany  is  so  renoAvned  :  and 
 in  consequence  it  became  customary  in  the 
 north  of  Evirope  to  transfer  the  organ 
 from  one  side  of  the  choir  to  the  chancel 
 screen,  (the  Avorst  position  possible,)  or  the 
 west  end.  The  improvement  of  the  organ 
 has  been  progressively  advancing  ever 
 since. 
 
 It  may  be  considered  consistent  with  the 
 object  of  a  Church  Dictionary  to  conclude 
 this  long  article  Avith  some  observation 
 on  an  objection  often  made  to  the  employ- 
 ment in  sacred  music  of  Avhat  are  Avrongly 
 called  the  imitative  stops  of  the  organ. 
 In  reality  very  feAV  of  its  stops  are  imi- 
 tative. The  organ  is  properly  a  collection 
 of  several  instruments,  Avhich  a  most  com- 
 plicated machinery  enables  the  organist  to 
 play  at  the  same  time.  The  trumpet,  the 
 bassoon,  and  hautboy  stops,  for  example, 
 are  each  a  set  of  real  instruments  of  these 
 names,  differing  from  those  usually  so 
 called,  only  in  being  inflated  by  a  belloAvs, 
 not  by  the  mouth,  and  each  giAdng  but  one 
 note,  and  played  on  by  keys.  Thus  Avhen 
 the  psalmist  calls  on  us  to  praise  him  Avith 
 the  sound  of  the  trumpet,  it  is  a  literal  re- 
 sponse to  his  summons  to  accompany  the 
 voice  with  the  stop  of  that  name. 
 
 See  Ilamel,  Manuel  des  Facteurs  des 
 Orgues,  (comprehending  Bedos'  great 
 Avork  ;)  and  Roger  Norths  dieinoirs  of 
 3Iusic,  edited  hi/  JRimhaidt,  already  re- 
 ferred to;  Burnei/  and  Hairkin.s's  Histories 
 of  Music  ;  and  Burnet/s  Musical  lour. 
 
 The  Organ  mentioned  in  Scripture  as 
 the  invention  of  Jubal,  (Gen.  iv.  21,)  and 
 in  Job  xxi.  1 2,  and  Ps.  cl.  4,  is  in  the  He- 
 brcAV  Ilur/r/ah,  meaning,  as  Parkhurst  sup- 
 poses, a  fastening  or  joining  together.  It 
 is  supposed  by  Calmet  (see  3Iusic)  to  have 
 been  like  the  ancient  Pandean  pipes,  a  set 
 of  unequal  flutes  played  by  the  mouth.  As 
 used  in  Gen.  iv.  it  seems  to  indicate  Avind 
 instruments  generally ;  but  its  form  and 
 capacity  is  altogether  unknown. 
 
 OPtGANIST.  An  ecclesiastical  officer, 
 Avliose  business  it  is  to  play  upon  the 
 organ  in  churches.  In  ancient  times  there 
 Avas  no  stated  organist,  the  vicars  choral 
 being  responsible  for  this  duty  in  turn. 
 
ORIGINAL  SIN 
 
 555 
 
 In  cathedrals  and  cnoral  foundations,  ho 
 is,  or  ought  to  bo,  an  essential  member  of 
 the  colloi^iate  body.  The  duty  of  En<j^lish 
 catliedrai  organists  is  responsible,  ardu- 
 ous, and  of  a  sacred  character.  They  are 
 bound  to  attend  twice  every  day ;  and  in 
 order  to  be  efficient,  ought  to  be  skilful 
 musicians,  profound  harmonists,  versed  in 
 the  kno-vvledgc  of  both  instrumental  and 
 vocal  harmony,  and  endued  with  religious 
 feeling.  No  pains  ought  to  be  spared  by 
 the  governing  members  of  collegiate  bodies 
 to  render  the  office  not  only  respectable 
 and  efficient,  but  religious  also. 
 
 OUIGIXAL  SIN.  "  Original  sin  stand- 
 Gth  not  in  the  following  of  Adam  (as  the 
 Pelarjians  do  vainly  talk) ;  but  it  is  the 
 fault  and  corruption  of  the  nature  of 
 every  man  that  naturally  is  engendered  of 
 the  offspring  of  Adam ;  whereby  man  is 
 very  far  gone  from  original  righteousness, 
 and  is  of  his  own  nature  inclined  to  evil, 
 so  that  the  flesh  lusteth  always  contrary 
 to  the  spirit ;  and  therefore  in  every  per- 
 son born  into  this  world,  it  deserveth 
 God's  wrath  and  damnation.  And  this  in- 
 fection of  nature  doth  remain,  yea,  in  them 
 that  are  regenerated ;  whereby  the  lust 
 of  the  flesh,  called  in  the  Greek  jihronema 
 sarJcos,  which  some  do  expound  the  wisdom, 
 some  sensuality,  some  the  afiection,  some 
 the  desire  of  the  flesh,  is  not  subject  to 
 the  law  of  God.  And  although  there  is 
 no  condemnation  for  them  that  believe,  and 
 are  baptized,"  \_rcnatis,  i.  e.  born  again^  is 
 the  word  used  in  the  Latin  copy,]  "  yet 
 the  apostle  doth  confess,  that  concupiscence 
 and  lust  hath  of  itself  the  nature  of  sin." 
 — Article  ix.  This  article  was  intended  to 
 oppose  the  notion  of  the  School  divines, 
 Avho  maintained  that  the  infection  of  our 
 nature  is  not  a  mental,  but  a  mere  cor- 
 poreal taint ;  that  the  body  alone  receives 
 and  transmits  the  contagion,  while  the 
 soul  proceeds,  in  all  cases,  immaculate 
 from  the  hands  of  the  Creator.  Original 
 sin  they  directly  opposed  to  original  right- 
 eousness, and  this  they  considered,  not  as 
 something  connatural  with  man,  but  as  a 
 superinduced  habit,  or  adventitious  orna- 
 ment, the  removal  of  which  could  not 
 prove  detrimental  to  the  native  powers 
 of  the  mind.  Thus  the  School  divines 
 maintained,  in  opposition  to  our  Articles, 
 that  the  lapse  of  Adam  conveys  to  us 
 solely  imputed  guilt,  the  corporeal  in- 
 fection which  they  admitted,  not  being  sin 
 itself,  but  the  subject  matter  ;  not peccutu/n, 
 hut  fomes  peccati.  The  Lutherans  taught 
 that  original  sin  is  a  corruption  of  our 
 natm'e  in  a  general  sense,  the  depra^■ation 
 of  the  mental  faculties  and  the  corporeal 
 
 appetites.  The  Calvinists  maintain  that 
 lust  and  concupiscence  are  truly  and  pro- 
 ])erly  sin. 
 
 The  Scri])tures  teach  us  that  the  sin  of 
 Adam  not  only  made  liim  liable  to  death, 
 but  that  it  also  changed  the  upright  nature 
 in  which  he  was  originally  formed,  into 
 one  that  was  prone  to  M'ickedness ;  and 
 that  this  liability  to  death,  and  propensity 
 to  sin,  were  entailed  from  him  upon  the 
 whole  race  of  mankind  :  "  l?y  one  man  sin 
 entered  into  the  world,  and  death  l)y  sin  ; 
 and  so  death  passed  upon  all  men,  for  that 
 all  have  sinned."  (Kom.  v.  12.)  "As 
 by  the  offence  of  one,  judgment  came 
 upon  all  men  to  condemnation,  even  so, 
 by  the  righteousness  of  one,  the  free  gift 
 came  upon  all  men  unto  justification  of 
 life."  (ver.  18.)  "  By  one  man's  dis- 
 obedience many  were  made  sinners." 
 (ver.  19.)  "  Through  the  offence  of  one, 
 many  be  dead."  (ver.  15.)  "  By  one 
 man's  offence  death  reigned  by  one." 
 (ver.  17.)  "By  man  came  death."  (1 
 Cor,  XV.  21.)  "In  Adam  all  die."  (ver. 
 22.)  "  The  imagination  of  man's  heart 
 is  evil  from  his  youth."  (Gen.  viii,  21.) 
 "  There  is  no  man  that  sinneth  not,"  (1 
 Kings  viii,  46.)  "  God  made  man  up- 
 right, but  they  found  out  many  inven- 
 tions." (Ecc.  vii.  29.)  "  If  we  say  that 
 we  have  no  sin,  we  deceive  ourselves,  and 
 the  truth  is  not  in  us,"  (1  John  i.  8.) 
 "  The  heart  is  deceitful  above  all  things, 
 and  desperately  wicked."  (Jer.  xvii,  9.) 
 "The  flesh  is  weak,"  (Matt,  xxvi.  4L) 
 "  The  flesh  lusteth  against  the  spirit, 
 and  the  spirit  against  the  flesh,  and  these 
 are  contrary  the  one  to  the  other,  so  that 
 ye  cannot  do  the  things  that  ye  would," 
 (Gal.  V,  17.)  "I  see  another  law  in  my 
 members  warring  against  the  law  of  my 
 mind,  and  bringing  me  into  captivity  to 
 the  law  of  sin,  which  is  in  my  members." 
 (liom.  vii,  23.)  The  general  corruption  of 
 human  nature,  in  consequence  of  Adam's 
 disobedience,  was  acknowledged  by  the 
 ancient  Fathers  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 The  tenn  Original  Sin  Avas  first  used  by 
 Augustine,  and  before  his  time  it  was 
 called  the  old  guilt — the  ancient  wound 
 — the  common  curse — the  old  sin,  ice. — 
 2o7n/ine. 
 
 In  Scripture  this  is  called  "  the  sin  that 
 dwelleth  in  us"  (Uom.  vii,  17) ;  "  the  body 
 of  sin"  (vi.  6) ;  "the  law  of  sin  and  death" 
 (viii.  2) ;  "lust"  (vii.  7);  "the  sin  which 
 so  easilv  besets  us"  (Heb.  xii,  1);  "the 
 flesh"  (Gal,  v,  16) ;  "the  old  man"  (Eph. 
 iv.  22) ;  "  the  likeness  of  Adam  "  (Gen. 
 V.  3). 
 
 The  corruption   of  nature  called  "  ori- 
 
556 
 
 ORIGENISTS. 
 
 ginal  sin  "  is  derived  by  continual  descent 
 from  fatlicr  to  son ;  wherewith  all  the 
 powers  of  the  soul  and  body  are  infected, 
 and  tliat  in  all  men  equally.  And  then, 
 actual  sin  arising  from  hence,  the  under- 
 standing is  blinded  with  ignorance  and 
 infidelity.  The  memory  is  prone  to  forget 
 the  good  things  which  the  understanding 
 hath  conceived.  The  will  is  disobedient 
 to  the  will  of  God,  understood  and  re- 
 membered by  us,  (the  freedom  of  holiness, 
 which  it  had  at  the  first,  being  now  lost,) 
 and  is  wholly  bent  to  sin.  The  affections 
 arc  ready  to  overi-ule  the  will,  and  are 
 subject  to  all  disorder.  And  the  con- 
 science itself  is  distempered  and  polluted. 
 —  Usher. 
 
 Let  us  look  into  the  world,  let  us  look 
 into  ourselves,  and  we  shall  see  sufficient 
 proofs  of  this  original  corruption  ;  even  in 
 our  infancy  it  shows  itself  in  many  in- 
 stances of  obstinacy  and  perverseness ; 
 and  as  we  grow  up  it  increases  Mith  our 
 years  ;  and  unless  timely  checked  by  our 
 utmost  care  and  diligence,  (through  the 
 assistance  of  Divine  grace,)  produces  habits 
 of  all  manner  of  iniquity.  Let  the  proud 
 deist  boast  of  the  dignity  of  his  nature, 
 the  sufficiency  of  his  reason,  and  the  ex- 
 cellency of  his  moral  attainments ;  but  let 
 us  Christians  not  be  ashamed  to  own  our 
 own  misery  and  our  guilt ;  that  our  un- 
 derstandings are  darkened,  our  wills  cor- 
 rupted, and  our  whole  nature  depraved: 
 then  may  we  apply  to  the  Physician  of  our 
 souls  for  the  succours  of  his  grace,  which 
 alone  can  help  and  relieve  us. —  Waldo. 
 
 OIUGENISTS.  Heretics,  in  the  fourth 
 century,  so  called,  because  they  pretended 
 to  draw  their  opinions  from  the  writings 
 of  the  famous  Origen,  a  priest  of  Alex- 
 andria. 
 
 The  Origenists  made  their  first  appear- 
 ance in  Italy  in  397.  Rufinus  of  Aquileia, 
 a  priest  of  Alexandria,  had  studied  the 
 works  of  Origen  with  so  much  application, 
 that  he  adopted  that  writer's  Platonic 
 notions  for  Catholic  truths.  Full  of  these 
 ideas,  he  went  to  Jerusalem,  where  Origen 
 had  a  great  many  partisans.  There  he 
 made  his  court  to  Melania,  a  Roman  lady, 
 who  had  embraced  Origen's  opinions. 
 Afterwards  he  came  to  llome  with  this 
 lady,  who  was  greatly  esteemed  in  that 
 city.  Here  he  set  out  with  an  outward 
 show  of  simplicity,  and  pretended,  after 
 the  example  of  Origen,  an  universal  con- 
 tempt of  all  worldly  things.  This  made 
 him  looked  upon  as  one  who  lived  up  to 
 the  highest  Christian  perfection.  Rufinus 
 took  advantage  of  this  prejudice  in  his 
 favour  to  propagate  his  opinions,  in  which 
 
 him.  And  now  he  began  to  have  a  great 
 number  of  followers,  and  to  form  a  con- 
 siderable sect.  But  another  Roman  lady, 
 named  Marcella,  having  acquainted  Pope 
 Anastasius,  that  Rufinus  and  Melania  Avere 
 spreading  very  dangerous  opinions  in 
 Rome,  under  the  veil  of  piety,  the  holy 
 father  examined  into  the  fact,  and  forbade 
 them  to  teach  any  more.  Ruiinus  and 
 jSIelania  submitted  to  the  prohibition ; 
 Melania  returned  to  Jerusalem,  and  Ru- 
 finus to  Aquileia.  However,  the  opinions 
 they  had  broached  continued  to  be  main- 
 tained and  defended  by  many  learned 
 men,  who  were  therefore  distinguished  by 
 the  name  of  Origenists. 
 
 The  errors  ascribed  to  the  Origenists  are 
 in  number  nine,  and  are  as  follows : — 
 
 \.  The  souls  of  men  were  holy  intelli- 
 gences, who  enjoyed  the  presence  of  God  ; 
 but  being  tired  with  the  l)ivine  contempla- 
 tion, they  degenerated ;  and  as  their  first 
 fervour  was  greatly  abated,  the  Greeks 
 therefore  called  the  soul  vovq,  from  the 
 word  vofjEM,  which  signifies  to  slacken  or 
 grow  cold. 
 
 2.  Our  Saviour's  soul  was  united  to  the 
 Word,  before  his  conception,  and  before 
 he  Avas  born  of  the  Holy  Virgin. 
 
 3.  The  body  of  our  Saviour  Jesus 
 Christ  was  first  formed  entire  in  the  Vir- 
 gin's womb ;  and  afterwards  his  soul,  which 
 long  before  had  been  united  to  the  Word, 
 came  and  was  joined  to  it. 
 
 4.  The  Word  of  God  has  been  suc- 
 cessively united  with  all  the  angelical  na- 
 tures ;  insomuch  that  it  has  been  a  cherub, 
 seraph,  and  all  the  celestial  virtues,  one 
 after  another. 
 
 5.  After  the  resurrection,  the  bodies  of 
 men  will  be  of  a  spherical  figure,  and  not 
 of  their  present  erect  stature. 
 
 6.  The  heavens,  sun,  moon,  and  stars, 
 are  animated  bodies,  and  have  an  intelli- 
 gent soul. 
 
 7.  In  future  ages,  our  Saviour  Jesus 
 Christ  will  be  crucified  for  the  salvation 
 of  the  devils,  as  he  has  already  been  for 
 that  of  men. 
 
 8.  The  power  of  God  is  not  infinite, 
 and  was  so  exhausted  in  the  creation  of 
 things,  that  he  has  no  more  left. 
 
 9.  The  punishment  of  the  devils,  and  of 
 the  damned,  will  continue  only  for  a  cer- 
 tain limited  time. 
 
 These  nine  errors  are  distinctly  recited 
 by  the  second  Council  of  Constantinople, 
 at  the  end  of  a  letter  of  the  emperor 
 Justinian  against  Origen.  The  recital  of 
 them  is  immediately  followed  by  an  ana- 
 thema against  Origen,  and  all  who  main- 
 
ORNAMENTS  OF  THE  CHURCH. 
 
 657 
 
 tained  his  opinions  :  in  which  it  is  remark- 
 able, that  tlie  council  excommunicated 
 Origen  near  three  hundred  years  after  his 
 death. 
 
 The  heresy  of  the  Origenists  spread 
 widely  in  Ei^^ypt,  and  especially  amon<j^  the 
 monks.  Several  eminent  bishops  opposed 
 them,  particularly  Theophilus,  bishop  of 
 Alexandria,  who,  in  the  year  399,  assem- 
 bled a  council  in  that  city,  in  which  the 
 monks  inhabitin<i:  the  mountain  of  Nitria 
 were  condemned  as  Origenists. 
 
 Avitus,  a  Spanish  priest,  revived  the 
 errors  of  the  Origenists  in  Spain,  about 
 the  year  415  ;  and  probably  it  was  against 
 the  followers  of  this  Avitus,  that  the  Coun- 
 cil of  Toledo  M'as  held  in  G33. 
 
 OllXAMENTS  OF  THE  CHURCH. 
 The  common  feelings  of  our  nature  would 
 suggest  the  decent  adornment  of  the  house 
 of  our  God  :  "  Shall  we,"  in  the  words  of 
 our  homily,  "  be  so  mindful  of  our  common 
 base  houses,  deputed  to  so  low  occvipying, 
 and  be  forgetful  toward  that  house  of 
 God  wherein  be  administered  the  words 
 of  our  eternal  salvation ;  wherein  are  en- 
 treated the  sacraments  and  mysteries  of 
 our  redemption ;  the  fountain  of  the  re- 
 (jeneration  is  there  presented  unto  us  ;  the 
 partaking  of  the  body  and  blood  of  our 
 Saviour  Christ  is  there  offered  unto  us ; 
 and  shall  we  not  esteem  the  place  where 
 so  heavenly  things  are  handled  ?  " 
 
 The  following  are  the  chief  enactments 
 of  the  Church  and  the  State,  with  refer- 
 ence to  the  ornaments  of  the  church.  By 
 the  rubric  before  the  Common  Prayer,  as 
 also  by  the  1st  of  Elizabeth,  c.  2,  "  Such 
 ornaments  of  the  church,  and  of  the  minis- 
 ters thereof,  at  all  times  of  their  minis- 
 tration, shall  be  retained  and  be  in  use 
 as  were  in  this  Church  of  England,  by 
 authority  of  parliament,  in  the  second 
 year  of  the  reign  of  King  Edward  the 
 Sixth." 
 
 Rei/nolds.  "  The  archdeacons  shall  take 
 care  that  the  clothes  of  the  altar  be  decent 
 and  in  good  order ;  that  the  church  have 
 fit  books  both  for  singing  and  reading; 
 and  at  least  two  sacerdotal  vestments." 
 
 By  the  statute  of  Circtimspecte  w/atis, 
 13  Edward  I.  st.  iv.  "The  king  to  his 
 judges  sendeth  greeting: — Use  yourselves 
 circumspectly  in  all  matters  concerning  the 
 prelates,  where  they  do  punish  for  that 
 the  church  is  not  conveniently  decked :  in 
 which  case  the  spiritual  judge  shall  have 
 power  to  take  knowledge,  notwithstanding 
 the  king's  prohibition." 
 
 "  Not  conveniently  decked."  For  the 
 law  allows  the  ecclesiastical  court  to  have 
 cognizance  in  this  case,  of  providing  decent 
 
 ornaments  for  the  celel)ration  of  Divine 
 service. 
 
 Canon  85.  "  The  churchwardens  or 
 questmen  shall  take  care  that  all  things  in 
 the  church  be  ke])t  in  such  an  orderly  and 
 decent  sort,  without  dust,  or  anything  that 
 may  be  either  noisome  or  miseemly,  as 
 best  becometh  the  house  of  God,  and  is 
 prescribed  in  a  homily  to  that  effect." 
 
 Canon  82.  "  Whereas  we  have  no  doubt 
 but  that  in  all  churches  within  the  realm 
 of  England,  convenient  and  decent  tables 
 are  provided  and  })laced  for  the  celebration 
 of  the  holy  communion ;  we  appoint  that 
 the  same  tables  shall  from  time  to  time  be 
 kept  and  repaired  in  sufhcient  and  seemly 
 manner,  and  covered  in  time  of  Divine 
 service  with  a  carpet  of  silk  or  other  de- 
 cent stuff,  thought  meet  by  the  ordinary  of 
 the  place,  (if  any  question  be  made  of  it,) 
 and  with  a  fair  linen  cloth  at  the  time  of 
 the  ministration,  as  becometh  that  table, 
 and  so  stand,  saving  when  the  said  holy 
 communion  is  to  be  administered." 
 
 In  ancient  times,  the  bishops  preached 
 standing  upon  the  steps  of  the  altar.  After- 
 wards it  was  found  more  convenient  to 
 have  pulpits  erected  for  that  purpose. 
 
 And  by  Canon  83.  "  The  churchwar- 
 dens or  questmen,  at  the  common  charge 
 of  the  parishioners,  in  every  church,  shall 
 provide  a  comely  and  decent  pulpit,  to  be 
 set  in  a  convenient  place  within  the  same, 
 by  the  discretion  of  the  ordinary  of  the 
 place  (if  any  question  do  arise) ;  and  to 
 be  there  seemly  kept  for  the  preaching  of 
 God's  word." 
 
 Canon  82.  "And  likewise  a  conve- 
 nient seat  shall  be  made  at  the  charge  of 
 the  parish,  for  the  minister  to  read  ser- 
 vice in." 
 
 Canon  58.  "  Every  minister  saying  the 
 public  prayers,  or  ministering  the  sacra- 
 ments or  other  rites  of  the  Church,  shall 
 wear  a  decent  and  comely  surplice  with 
 sleeves,  to  be  provided  at  the  charge  of 
 the  parish.  And  if  any  question  arise 
 touching  the  matter,  decency,  or  comeliness 
 thereof,  the  same  shall  be  decided  by  the 
 discretion  of  the  ordinary." 
 
 Canon  81.  "  According  to  a  former  con- 
 stitution, (viz.  among  the  constitutions  of 
 1570,)  too  much  neglected  in  many  ])laces, 
 we  appoint,  that  there  shall  be  a  font  of 
 stone  in  every  church  and  chapel  where 
 baj)tism  is  to  be  ministered :  the  same  to 
 be  set  in  the  ancient  usual  places.  In 
 which  only  font  the  minister  shall  baptize 
 I)ublicly." 
 
 In  an  act  in  the  27  Henry  VIII.  it 
 was  enacted,  that  money  collected  for  the 
 poor  should  be  kept  in  the  common  coffer 
 
558 
 
 ORNAMENTS  OF  THE  CHURCH. 
 
 or  box  standing  in  the  church  of  every 
 1  arish. 
 
 And  by  Canon  84.  *'The  churchwar- 
 dens shall  provide  and  have,  within  three 
 months  after  the  publishing  of  these  con- 
 stitutions, a  strong  chest,  with  a  hole  in 
 the  upper  part  thereof,  to  be  provided  at 
 the  charge  of  the  parish,  (if  there  be  none 
 such  already  provided,)  having  three  keys ; 
 of  which  one  shall  remain  in  the  custody 
 of  the  parson,  vicar,  or  curate,  and  the 
 otlicr  two  in  the  custody  of  the  church- 
 •Nvardens  for  the  time  being ;  which  chest 
 they  shall  set  and  fasten  in  the  most  con- 
 venient place,  to  the  intent  the  parishioners 
 may  put  into  it  their  alms  for  their  poor 
 neighbours.  And  the  parson,  vicar,  or 
 curate  shall  diligently,  from  time  to  time, 
 and  especially  when  men  make  their  testa- 
 ments, call  upon,  exhort,  and  move  their 
 neighbours,  to  confer  and  give  as  they 
 may  well  spare  to  the  said  chest :  declar- 
 ing unto  them,  that  whereas  heretofore 
 they  have  been  diligent  to  bestov/  much 
 substance  otherwise  than  God  commanded, 
 upon  superstitious  uses,  now  they  ought  at 
 this  time  to  be  much  more  ready  to  help 
 the  poor  and  needy,  knowing  that  to  re- 
 lieve the  poor  is  a  sacrifice  which  pleaseth 
 God  :  and  that  also,  whatsoever  is  given 
 for  their  comfort,  is  given  to  Christ  him- 
 self, and  is  so  accepted  of  Him,  that  He 
 will  mercifully  rcAvard  the  same.  The 
 which  alms  and  devotion  of  the  people,  the 
 keepers  of  the  keys  shall  yearly,  quarterly, 
 or  oftener,  (as  need  requireth,)  take  out  of 
 the  chest,  and  distribute  the  same  in  the 
 presence  of  most  of  the  parish,  or  of  six  of 
 the  chief  of  them,  to  be  truly  and  faithfully 
 delivered  to  then-  most  poor  and  needy 
 neighbours." 
 
 Rubric.  "  Whilst  the  sentences  of  the 
 offertory  are  reading,  the  deacons,  church- 
 wardens, or  other  fit  persons  appointed 
 for  that  purpose,  shall  receive  the  alms  for 
 the  poor,  and  other  devotions  of  the  peo- 
 ple, in  a  decent  basin,  to  be  provided  by 
 the  parish  for  that  purpose." 
 
 This  offertory  was  anciently  an  oblation 
 for  the  use  of  the  priest ;  but  at  the  He- 
 formation  it  was  changed  into  alms  for 
 the  poor. 
 
 Canon  20.  "  The  churchwardens  against 
 the  time  of  every  communion  shall,  at  the 
 charge  of  the  parish,  with  the  advice  and 
 direction  of  the  minister,  provide  a  suffi- 
 cient quantity  of  fine  white  bread,  and  of 
 good  and  wholesome  wine  :  which  wine 
 we  require  to  be  brought  to  the  commu- 
 nion table  in  a  clean  and  sweet  standing 
 pot,  or  stoop  of  pewter,  if  not  of  purer 
 metal." 
 
 Winchelsea.  "  The  parishioners  shall  find 
 at  their  own  charge,  the  chalice,  or  cup,  for 
 the  wine." 
 
 AYliich,  says  Lyndwood,  "  although  ex- 
 pressed in  the  singular  number,  yet  is  not 
 intended  to  exclude  more  than  one,  where 
 more  are  necessary." 
 
 Winchelsea.  The  parishioners,  at  their 
 own  charge,  shall  find  hells  with  rojyes. 
 
 Wiyichelsea.  The  parishioners  shall  find, 
 at  their  oAvn  charge,  a  hier  for  the  dead. 
 
 "  If  any  parishes  be  yet  unfurnished  of 
 the  Bible  of  the  largest  volume,  the 
 churchwardens  shall,  within  convenient 
 time,  provide  the  same  at  the  charge  of 
 the  parish." 
 
 By  Canon  80.  '•  The  churchwardens  or 
 questmen  of  every  church  and  chapel 
 shall,  at  the  charge  of  the  parish,  provide 
 the  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  lately  ex- 
 plained in  some  fevv'  points,  by  his  Majesty's 
 authority  according  to  the  laws  and  his 
 Highness's  prerogative  in  that  behalf;  and 
 that,  with  all  convenient  speed,  but,  at  the 
 furthest,  within  tAvo  months  after  the  pub- 
 lishing of  these  our  constitutions." 
 
 By  the  1  Eliz.  c.  2.  The  Book  of  Com- 
 mon Prayer  shall  be  provided  at  the  charge 
 of  the  parishioners  of  every  parish  and 
 cathedral  church,     (s.  19.) 
 
 By  the  13  &  14  Charles  II.  c.  4.  "A 
 true  printed  copy  of  the  (present)  Book  of 
 Common  Prayer  shall,  at  the  costs  and 
 charges  of  the  parishioners  of  every  parish 
 church  and  chapelry,  cathedi'al,  church, 
 college,  and  hall,  be  provided  before  the 
 feast  of  St.  Bartholomew,  1662,  on  pain  of 
 £3  a  month  for  so  long  time  as  they  shall 
 be  unprovided  thereof."    (s.  2.) 
 
 Canon  80.  "  If  any  parishes  be  yet  un- 
 furnished of  the  Book  of  Homilies  allowed 
 by  authority,  the  churchwardens  shall, 
 within  convenient  time,  provide  the  same 
 at  the  charge  of  the  parish." 
 
 By  Canon  17.  "  In  every  parish  church 
 and  chapel  shall  be  provided  one  parch- 
 ment book  at  the  charge  of  the  parish, 
 wherein  shall  be  written  the  day  and  year 
 of  every  christening,  wedding,  and  burial 
 within  the  parish  ;  and  for  the  safe  keeping 
 thereof,  the  churchwardens,  at  the  charge 
 of  the  parish,  shall  provide  one  sure  coffer, 
 with  three  locks  and  keys,  whereof  one  to 
 remain  with  the  minister,  and  the  other 
 two  with  the  churchv.-ardens  severally." 
 
 Canon  99.  "  The  table  of  degrees  of  mar- 
 riages prohibited  shall  be,  in  every  church, 
 publicly  set  up  at  the  charge  of  the 
 parirh." 
 
 Canon  82.  "  The  Ten  Commandments 
 shall  be  set,  at  the  charge  of  the  parish, 
 upon   the  east  end  of  every  church  and 
 
OlINAMENTS  OF  THE  CHURCH. 
 
 odd 
 
 chapel,  where  the  peoi)le  may  best  see  and 
 read  the  same." 
 
 Canon  82.  "  And  other  chosen  senteyiccs 
 shall,  at  the  like  char<;e,  be  written  upon 
 the  walls  of  the  said  churches  and  chapels 
 in  ])laces  convenient." 
 
 Lord  Coke  says,  '*  Concerninp^  the  build- 
 in<i^  or  erectint^  of  tombs,  sepidclircs,  or 
 vioHuments  for  the  deceased  in  church, 
 chancel,  common  chapel,  or  church-yard, 
 in  convenient  manner,  it  is  lawful ;  for  it 
 is  the  last  work  of  charity  that  can  be 
 done  for  the  deceased;  who,  whilst  he 
 lived,  was  a  living  temple  of  the  Holy 
 Ghost,  with  a  reverent  regard  and  Chris- 
 tian hope  of  a  joyful  resurrection.  And 
 the  defacing  of  them  is  punishable  by  the 
 common  law,  and  those  who  build  or  erect 
 the  same  shall  have  the  action  during  their 
 lives,  and,  after  their  decease,  the  heir  of 
 the  deceased  shall  have  the  action.  But 
 the  building  or  erecting  the  sepulchre, 
 tomb,  or  other  monument,  ought  not  to 
 be  to  the  hinderancc  of  the  celebration  of 
 Divine  service." 
 
 OUjmve-stones,  (he  says,)  ivimUncj-sheets, 
 coats  of  arms,  poiuns,  or  other  ensir/ns  of 
 honour,  hung  up,  laid,  or  placed  in  memory 
 of  the  dead,  the  property  remains  in  the 
 executors ;  and  they  may  have  actions 
 against  such  as  break,  deface,  or  carry 
 them  away,  or  an  appeal  of  felony. 
 
 But  Sir  Simon  ])egge  says,  he  conceives 
 that  this  must  be  intended,  by  licence  of 
 the  bishop,  or  consent  of  the  parson  and 
 churchwardens. 
 
 Dr.  Watson  says,  this  is  to  be  under- 
 stood of  such  monuments  only  as  are  set 
 up  in  the  aisles  belonging  to  particular 
 persons ;  or  if  they  be  set  up  in  any  other 
 part  of  the  church,  he  supposes  it  is  to  be 
 understood  that  they  were  placed  there 
 wdth  the  incumbent's  consent. 
 
 And  Dr.  Gibson  observing  thereupon 
 says  thus  : — "  Monuments,  coat  armour, 
 and  other  ensigns  of  honour,  set  up  in 
 memory  of  the  deceased,  may  not  be  re- 
 moved at  the  pleasure  of  the  ordinary  or 
 incumbent.  On  the  contrary,  if  either 
 they  or  any  other  person  shall  take  away 
 or  deface  them,  the  person  who  set  them 
 up  shall  have  an  action  against  them 
 during  his  life,  and  after  his  death  the 
 heir  of  the  deceased  shall  have  the  same, 
 who  (as  they  say)  is  inheritable  to  arms, 
 and  the  like,  as  to  heir-looms :  and  it 
 avails  not  that  they  are  annexed  to  the 
 freehold,  though  that  is  in  the  parson. 
 But  this,  as  he  conceives,  is  to  be  under- 
 stood with  one  limitation  ;  if  they  were 
 set  up  with  consent  of  the  ordinary ;  for 
 though  (as  my  Lord  Coke  says)  tombs, 
 
 sepulchres,  or  monuments  may  be  erected 
 for  the  deceased,  in  church  or  chancel,  in 
 convenient  manner,  the  ordinary  nuist  be 
 allowed  the  proi)er  judge  of  that  conveni- 
 ency ;  inasmuch  as  such  erecting,  he  adds, 
 ought  not  to  be  to  the  hinderance  of  the 
 celebration  of  Divine  service.  And  if  they 
 arc  erected  without  consent,  and  upon  in- 
 quiry and  inspection  be  found  to  the  hin- 
 derance of  Divine  service,  he  thinks  it  Avill 
 not  be  denied  that  in  such  case  the  or- 
 dinary has  sufficient  authority  to  decree  a 
 removal,  without  any  danger  of  an  action 
 at  law." 
 
 If  any  si(pe7'stitious  2^i<^tures  are  in  a 
 window  of  a  church  or  aisle,  it  is  not  law- 
 ful for  any  to  break  them  without  licence 
 of  the  ordinary  :  and  in  Prickcfa  case, 
 AVray,  chief  justice,  bound  the  offender  to 
 good  behaviour. 
 
 Besides  Avhat  has  been  observed  in  par- 
 ticular, there  are  many  other  articles  for 
 which  no  provision  is  made  by  any  s])ecial 
 law,  and  therefore  must  be  referred  to  the 
 general  power  of  the  cimrchwardens,  with 
 the  consent  of  the  major  part  of  the  pa- 
 rishioners as  aforesaid,  and  under  the  di- 
 rection of  the  ordinary ;  such  as  the  erect- 
 ing f/alleries,  adding  new  hells,  (and  of 
 consequence,  as  it  seems,  salaries  for  the 
 ringers,)  oryans,  clock,  chimes,  khvfs  arms, 
 pulpit  cloths,  hearse  cloth,  I'ushes  or  tnats, 
 vestry  furniture,  and  such  like.  The  soil 
 and  freehold  of  the  church  and  church- 
 yard is  in  the  parson ;  but  the  fee  simple 
 of  the  glebe  is  in  abeyance.  And  if  the 
 walls,  windows,  or  doors  of  the  church  be 
 broken  by  any  person,  or  the  trees  in  the 
 church-yard  be  cut  down,  or  grass  there  be 
 eaten  up  by  a  stranger ;  the  incumbent  of 
 the  rectory  (or  his  tenant,  if  they  be  let) 
 may  have  his  actions  for  the  damages.  But 
 the  goods  of  the  church  do  not  belong  to 
 the  incumbent,  but  to  the  parishioners ; 
 and  if  they  be  taken  away  or  broken,  the 
 churcliAvardens  shall  have  their  action  of 
 trespass  at  the  common  law. 
 
 The  magnificence  of  the  first  Jewish 
 temple  was  acceptable  to  God  ;  and  the 
 too  sparing  contributions  of  the  people 
 towards  the  second,  was  severely  reproved ; 
 and  therefore  no  one  can  justly  complain, 
 that  the  ornaments  now  made  use  of  in 
 our  churches  are  too  many,  or  expensive. 
 Far  from  us  be  all  ornaments  unbecoming 
 the  worship  of  a  spirit,  or  the  gravity  of  a 
 church  ;  but  it  has  an  ill  aspect  when  men 
 think  that  well  enougli  in  God's  house, 
 which  they  would  not  endure  in  the  meanest 
 offices  of  their  own.  It  is  not  enough 
 barely  to  devote  cluirches  to  the  public 
 services   of  religion,  unless  they  are  set 
 
5G0 
 
 OllTHODOXY. 
 
 PACIFICATION,  EDICTS  OF. 
 
 apart  Avith  tlic  solemn  rites  of  a  formal  de- 
 dication. By  these  solemnities  the  founders 
 were  accustomed  to  surrender  all  the  right 
 they  had  in  them,  and  make  God  himself 
 the'  sole  owner.  And  whoever  gave  any 
 lands  or  endowments  to  the  service  of  God, 
 gave  it  in  a  formal  writing,  scaled  and 
 witnessed,  (as  is  noAV  usual  in  common 
 transactions,)  the  tender  of  the  gift  being 
 made  upon  the  altar,  by  the  donor  on  his 
 knees.  At  the  consecration  of  both  the 
 tabernacle  and  the  temple  of  the  Jews,  it 
 pleased  the  Almighty  to  give  a  manifest 
 sign  that  he  then  took  possession  of  them. 
 (Ex.  xl.  34;  1  Kings  viii.  10,  11.)  — 
 Whcatly. 
 
 Temples,  and  other  utensils  designed  by 
 God  himself,  are  holy  as  related  to  him  by 
 that  designation.  Temples,  utensils,  lands, 
 ^^c.  devoted  and  lawfully  separated  by  man, 
 for  holy  uses,  are  holy  as  justly  related  to 
 God  by  that  laAvful  separation.  To  say, 
 as  some  do,  that  they  are  indeed  conse- 
 crated and  separated,  but  not  holy,  is  to 
 be  ridiculously  wise  by  self-contradiction, 
 and  the  masterly  use  of  the  word  holy 
 contrary  to  custoin  and  terms.  ISIinisters 
 are  more  holy  than  temples,  lands,  or 
 utensils,  as  being  more  nearly  related  to 
 holy  things.  And  things  separated  by  GoD 
 himself  are  more  holy  than  those  justly  se- 
 parated by  man.  And  so  of  days. — Baxter. 
 
 Can  we  judge  it  a  thing  seemly  for  any 
 man  to  go  about  the  building  of  an  house 
 to  the  God  of  heaven,  with  no  other  ap- 
 pearance than  if  his  end  were  to  rear  up  a 
 kitchen,  or  a  parlour,  for  his  own  use  ? 
 or  when  a  work  of  such  a  nature  is  finished, 
 remaineth  there  nothing  but  presently  to 
 use  it,  and  so  an  end?  Albeit  the  true 
 worship  of  God  be  to  God  in  itself  accept- 
 able, who  respecteth  not  so  much  in  what 
 place,  as  with  what  affection  he  is  served ; 
 and  therefore  Moses  in  the  midst  of  the 
 sea.  Job  on  the  dunghill,  Ezekiah  in  bed, 
 Jeremy  in  mire,  Jonas  in  the  whale, 
 Daniel  in  the  den,  the  Children  in  the 
 furnace,  the  Thief  on  the  cross,  Peter  and 
 Paul  in  prison,  calling  unto  God  were 
 heard,  as  St.  Basil  noteth,  manifest  not- 
 wdthstanding  it  is,  that  the  very  majesty 
 and  holiness  of  the  place  where  God  is 
 worshipped  hath  in  regard  of  us  great 
 virtue,  force,  and  efficacy,  for  that  it 
 serveth  as  a  sensible  help  to  stir  up  devo- 
 tion.— Hooker. 
 
 The  reader  who  desires  to  possess  a  per- 
 fect knowledge  on  this  head,  is  referred  to 
 Bingham's  "  Origines  Ecclesiastica:^,"  or 
 Antiquitu'S  of  the  Christian  Church,  b.  viii. 
 
 OKTHOIJOXY.  ('Opeoe  and  ^ofcew.) 
 Soundness  of  doctrine. 
 
 Of  course  the  question  here  to  be  de- 
 cided is,  AVhat  is  soundness  of  doctrine  ? 
 If  two  men  take  Scripture  for  their  guide, 
 and  professing  to  have  no  other  guide, 
 come  to  opposite  conclusions,  it  is  quite 
 clear  that  neither  has  a  right  to  decide 
 that  the  other  is  not  orthodox.  On  this 
 principle  it  is  as  uncharitable  and  illogical 
 for  the  Trinitarian  to  call  the  Socinian 
 not  orthodox,  as  it  is  for  the  Socinian  to 
 predicate  the  same  of  the  Trinitarian.  But 
 if  we  interpret  Scripture  by  the  sense  of 
 the  Church,  then  Ave  may  consistently  call 
 those  orthodox  Avho  hold  the  doctrines 
 Avhich  she  deduces  from  Scripture,  and 
 those  heterodox  Avho  do  not  hold  those 
 doctrines.  So  that  orthodoxy  means 
 soundness  of  doctrine,  the  doctrine  being 
 I^roved  to  be  sound  by  reference  to  the 
 consentient  testimony  of  Scripture  and 
 the  Church.  Hence  perhaps  it  is,  that  as 
 those  loAV-churchmen,  Avho  repudiate  So- 
 cinian notions,  are  by  some  called  evan- 
 gelicals, so  high-churchmen  are  designated 
 orthodox.  Both  titles,  if  intended  to  be 
 applied  exclusively,  are  applied  incorrectly. 
 
 OKTLIBENSES.  {Lat.)  A  sect,  or 
 branch,  of  the  ancient  Yaudois  or  AVal- 
 denses. 
 
 The  Ortlibenses  denied  there  Avas  a 
 Trinity  before  the  nativity  of  Jesus  Christ, 
 Avho,  according  to  them,  Avas  not  till  that 
 time  the  Son  of  God.  To  these  tAvo  per- 
 sons of  the  Godhead  they  added  a  third, 
 during  the  preaching  of  Jesus  Christ  ; 
 namely,  St.  Peter,  Avhom  they  acknoAV- 
 ledged  to  be  the  Holy  Ghost.  '  They  held 
 the  eternity  of  the  Avorld ;  but  had  no 
 notion  of  the  resurrection  of  the  body,  or 
 the  immortality  of  the  soul.  NotAvith- 
 standing  Avhich,  they  maintained  (perhaps 
 by  Avay  of  irony)  that  there  Avould  be  a 
 final  judgment,  at  Avliich  time  the  pope  and 
 the  emperor  Avould  become  proselytes  to 
 their  sect. 
 
 They  denied  the  death  and  resurrection 
 of  Jesus  Christ.  His  cross,  they  pre- 
 tended, Avas  penance  and  their  oAvn  ab- 
 stemious Avay  of  life :  this,  they  said,  Avas 
 the  cross  our  Saviour  bore.  They  as- 
 cribed all  the  A'irtue  of  baptism  to  the 
 merit  of  him  Avho  administered  it.  They 
 Avere  of  opinion,  that  Jcavs  might  be  saved 
 Avithout  baptism,  provided  they  embraced 
 their  sect.  They  boldly  asserted,  that  they 
 themselves  Avere  the  only  true  mystical 
 body,  that  is  to  say,  the  Church  of  Christ. 
 
 PACIFICATION,  EDICTS  OF,  were 
 decrees  or  edicts,  granted  by  the  kings  of 
 France  to  the  Protestants,  for  appeasing 
 the  troubles  occasioned  by  their  persecution. 
 
PACIFICATION,  EDICTS  OF. 
 
 The  first  edict  of  pacification  was 
 granted  by  Charles  IX.,  in  January,  loG2, 
 permitting^  the  free  exercise  of  the  re- 
 formed relij^ion  near  all  the  cities  and 
 towns  of  the  realm.  ]March  19,  loGIi,  the 
 same  king  granted  a  second  edict  of  paci- 
 fication, at  Amboisc,  permitting  the  free 
 exercise  of  the  reformed  religion  in  the 
 houses  of  gentlemen  and  lords  high-justi- 
 ciaries (or  those  that  had  the  power  of  life 
 and  death)  to  their  families  and  depend- 
 ants only  ;  and  allowing  other  Protestants 
 to  have  their  sermons  in  such  towns  as 
 they  had  them  in  before  the  seventh  of 
 March ;  obliging  them  withal  to  quit  the 
 churches  they  had  possessed  themselves  of 
 during  the  troubles.  Another,  called  the 
 edict  of  I.onjumeau,  ordering  the  execution 
 of  that  of  Amboise,  was  published  March 
 27,  1558,  after  a  treaty  of  peace.  This 
 pacification  was  of  but  short  continuance  ; 
 for  Charles,  perceiving  a  general  insurrec- 
 tion of  the  Huguenots,  revoked  the  said 
 edicts  in  September,  1568,  forbidding  the 
 exercise  of  the  Protestant  religion,  and 
 commanding  all  the  ministers  to  depart 
 the  kingdom  in  fifteen  days.  But,  on  the 
 eighth  of  August,  1570,  he  made  peace 
 with  them  again,  and  published  an  edict 
 on  the  eleventh,  allowing  the  lords  high- 
 justiciaries  to  have  sermons  in  their  houses 
 for  all  comers,  and  granting  other  Protest- 
 ants two  public  exercises  in  each  govern- 
 ment. He  likewise  gave  them  four  cau- 
 tionary towns,  viz.  Rochelle,  Montauban, 
 Cognac,  and  La  Charite,  to  be  places  of 
 security  for  them  dm'ing  the  space  of  two 
 years.  Nevertheless,  in  August,  1572,  he 
 authorized  the  Bartholomew  massacre,  and 
 at  the  same  time  issued  a  declaration,  for- 
 bidding the  exercise  of  the  Protestant 
 religion. 
 
 Henry  HI.,  in  April,  1576,  made  peace 
 with  the  Protestants,  and  the  edict  of 
 pacification  was  published  in  ])arliament, 
 May  14,  permitting  them  to  build  churches, 
 and"  have  sermons  where  they  pleased. 
 The  Guisian  faction,  enraged  at  thi!?  ge- 
 neral liberty,  began  the  famous  league  for 
 defence  of  the  Catholic  religion,  which 
 became  so  formidable,  that  it  obliged  the 
 king  to  assemble  the  states  of  the  king- 
 dom at  Blois,  in  December,  1576  ;  where  it 
 was  enacted,  that  there  should  be  but  one 
 religion  in  France,  and  that  the  Protestant 
 ministers  should  be  all  banislied.  In  1577, 
 the  king,  to  pacify  the  troubles,  jiublished 
 an  edict  in  ])arliament,  October  8th,  grant- 
 ing the  same  liberty  to  the  reformed  which 
 they  had  before.  However,  in  July,  1585, 
 the*  league  obliged  him  to  publish  another 
 edict,  revoking  all  former  concessions  to 
 2  o 
 
 PALL. 
 
 561 
 
 the  Protestants,  and  ordering  them  to  de- 
 ]iart  the  kingdom  in  six  months,  or  turn 
 ]\apists.  This  edict  was  followed  ])y  more 
 to  the  same  purpose. 
 
 Henry  IV.  coming  to  the  crown,  ])ub- 
 lished  a  declaration,  July  4,  loin,  abol- 
 ishing the  edicts  against  the  Protestants. 
 This  edict  was  verified  in  the  parliament 
 of  Chalons ;  l)ut  the  troubles  prevented 
 the  veriiication  of  it  in  tlie  jKirliaments  of 
 the  other  provinces;  so  that  the  I'rotest- 
 ants  had  not  the  free  exercise  of  their 
 religion  in  any  ]dacc  but  where  thev  were 
 masters,  and '  had  banished  tlie  Jionn'sh 
 religion.  In  April,  1598,  the  king  pub- 
 hshed  a  new  edict  of  jiacilication  at  Nantes, 
 granting  the  Protestants  the  free  exercise 
 of  tlieir  religion  in  all  places  where  they 
 had  the  same  in  1596  and  1597,  and  one 
 exercise  in  each  bailiwick. 
 
 This  edict  of  Nantes  was  confirmed  by 
 Louis  XIH.  in  1610,  and  bv  Louis  XIV. 
 in  1652.  But  his  letter,  in  1685,  al)()lished 
 it  entu-ely ;  since  which  time  the  Protest- 
 ants ceased  to  be  tolerated  in  France  till 
 the  Revolution. — lirnuylitnn. 
 
 P.ED(3-BAPTLSM.  (From  walg,  a  child, 
 and  (BaTTTi^u),  to  hnptize.)  The  baptism  of 
 children.     (See  Baptism  of  Infants.) 
 
 PALL,  or  PALLIUM.  The  word  pal- 
 lium properly  signifies  a  cloak,  thrown  o\,  x 
 the  shoulders :  afterwards  it  came  to  de- 
 note a  sort  of  cape  or  tippet,  and  hence 
 the  ecclesiastical  designation  in  the  "West- 
 ern Church. 
 
 The  origin  of  the  pall,  which  has  been 
 generally  worn  by  the  Western  metropoli- 
 tans, is  disputed;  but  whoever  considers 
 the  ancient  figures  of  it  which  are  found 
 in  manuscripts,  &c.,  will  see  that  it  was 
 originally  only  a  stole  wound  round  the 
 neck,  with  the  ends  hanging  down  behind 
 and  before.  In  the  East  the  pall  is  called 
 onwphorion,  and  has  been  used,  at  least, 
 since  the  time  of  Chrysostom.  It  is  used 
 by  all  the  Eastern  bishops,  above  the  phe- 
 nolion  or  vestment,  during  the  eucharist ; 
 and,  as  used  by  them,  resembles  the  an- 
 cient pall  much  more  nearly  than  that  worn 
 by  the  Western  metropolitans. — Palmer. 
 
 The  pall  was  part  of  the  imperial  habit, 
 and  originally  granted  by  the  em})erors  to 
 the  patriarchs.  Thus  Constantine  gave 
 the  use  of  the  pall  to  the  bishop  of  Pome  ; 
 and  Anthimus,  patriarch  of  Constantinoi)le, 
 being  e\])elled  his  see,  is  said  to  have  re- 
 turned the  ]iall  to  the  emperor  Justinian  ; 
 which  im])lies  his  having  received  it  from 
 him.  And  the  reason  of  the  royal  consent 
 in  this  maimer  seems  to  be,  because  it  was 
 high  treason  to  wear  any  part  of  the  im- 
 perial haljit  without  licence. 
 
DG2 
 
 FJiLh. 
 
 PALM  SUNDAY. 
 
 In  after  ages,  when  the  see  of  Home 
 had  carried  its  authority  to  the  highest 
 pitch,  under  Pope  Innocent  III.,  that  pon- 
 tiff, in  the  Lateran  Council,  A.  D.  1215, 
 decreed  the  pall  to  be  a  mark  and  dis- 
 tinction, intimating  the  plenitude  of  the 
 a])ostolic  power,  and  that  neither  the 
 function  nor  title  of  archbishop  should  be 
 assumed  without  it;  and  this,  not  only 
 when  a  bishop  was  preferred  to  the  degree 
 of  archbishop,  but  likeAvise  in  case  of 
 translations,  when  an  archbishop  was  re- 
 moved from  one  see  to  another.  It  was 
 decreed,  likewise,  that  every  archbishop 
 should  be  buried  in  his  pall,  that  his  suc- 
 cessor might  make  no  use  of  it,  but  be  ob- 
 liged to  apply  to  the  pope  for  another.  By 
 these  means  the  court  of  Home  brought 
 vast  sums  of  money  into  its  exchequer. 
 
 In  the  llomish  Church  the  following  is 
 the  description  of  the  pall  as  given  by 
 Komish  writers.  The  pallium  is  a  part  of 
 the  pontifical  dress  worn  only  by  the  pope, 
 archbishops,  and  patriarchs.  It  is  a  white 
 woollen  band  of  about  three  fingers'  breadth; 
 made  round,  and  worn  over  the  shoulders, 
 crossed  in  front  with  one  end  hanging 
 doAvn  over  the  breast ;  the  other  behind  it 
 is  ornamented  with  purple  crosses,  and 
 fastened  by  three  golden  needles  or  pins. 
 It  is  made  of  the  wool  of  perfectly  white 
 sheep,  which  are  yearly,  on  the  festival  of 
 St.  Agnes,  offered  and  blessed  at  the  cele- 
 bration of  the  holy  eucharist,  in  the  church 
 dedicated  to  her  in  the  Nomentan  Way  in 
 liome.  The  sheep  are  received  by  two 
 canons  of  the  church  of  St.  John  Lateran, 
 who  deliver  them  into  the  charge  of  the 
 subdeacons  of  the  Apostolic  College,  and 
 they  then  are  kept  and  fed  by  them  until 
 the  time  for  shearing  them  arrives.  The 
 palliums  are  always  made  of  this  wool,  and 
 when  made  they  are  brought  to  the  church 
 of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul,  and  are  placed 
 upon  the  altar  over  their  tomb  on  the  eve 
 of  their  festival,  and  are  left  there  the 
 whole  night,  and  on  the  following  day  are 
 delivered  to  the  subdeacons,  whose  office 
 it  is  to  take  charge  of  them.  The  pope 
 alone  always  wears  the  pallium,  and  wher- 
 ever he  officiates,  to  signify  his  assumed 
 authority  over  all  other  particular  churches. 
 Archbishops  and  patriarchs  receive  it  from 
 him,  and  cannot  wear  it,  except  in  their 
 own  churches,  and  only  on  certain  great 
 festivals  when  they  celebrate  the  mass. 
 
 An  archbishop  in  the  Romish  Church, 
 although  he  be  consecrated  as  bishop,  and 
 have  taken  possession,  cannot  before  he 
 has  petitioned  for,  and  received  and  paid 
 for  the  pallium,  either  call  himself  arch- 
 bishop, or  perform  such  acts  as  belong  to 
 
 the  "  greater  jurisdiction  ; "  those,  namely, 
 which  he  exercises  not  as  a  bishop,  but  as 
 archbishop,  such  as  to  summon  a  council, 
 or  to  visit  his  province,  &c.  He  can,  how- 
 ever, Avhen  his  election  has  been  confirmed, 
 and  before  he  receives  the  pallium,  depute 
 his  functions,  in  the  matter  of  ordaining 
 bishops,  to  his  suffragans,  who  may  lawfully 
 exercise  them  by  his  command.  If,  how- 
 ever, any  archbishop  in  the  Pomish  Church, 
 before  he  receives  the  pallium,  perform 
 those  offices  Avhich  result  immediately  from 
 the  possession  of  it,  such  as,  for  instance, 
 those  relating  to  orders  and  to  the  chrism, 
 SiQ.,  the  acts  themselves  are  valid,  but 
 the  archbishop  offends  against  the  canons 
 and  laws  of  the  Church. 
 
 The  pall  is  still  retained  as  an  heraldic 
 ensign,  in  the  arms  of  the  archbishops  of 
 Canterbury,  Armagh,  and  Dublin,  and 
 formerly  constituted  those  of  the  arch- 
 bishop of  York  also. 
 
 Pall  is  also  used  for  a  covering ;  as  the 
 black  cloth  which  covers  the  coffin  at  fu- 
 nerals, and  sometimes  for  an  altar  cloth. 
 Thus  at  the  coronation,  the  sovereign  makes 
 an  oblation  of  a  pall,  or  altar  cloth  of  r/old. 
 
 PALM  SUNDAY.  The  Sunday  next 
 before  Easter,  so  called  from  palm  branches 
 being  strewed  on  the  road  by  the  mul- 
 titude, when  our  Saviour  made  his  tri- 
 umphal entry  into  Jerusalem. 
 
 This  week,  immediately  preceding  the 
 feast  of  Easter,  is  more  especially  designed 
 to  fit  us  for  that  great  solemnity ;  and,  to 
 that  end,  is  to  be  spent  in  more  than 
 ordinary  piety  and  devotion.  It  was  an- 
 ciently called  sometimes  the  Great  AVeek, 
 sometimes  the  Holy  Week,  because  it 
 hath  a  larger  service  than  any  other  week, 
 every  day  having  a  second  service  ap- 
 pointed for  it,  in  which  are  rehearsed  at 
 large  the  sufferings  of  CiiEiST,  as  they  are 
 described  by  the  four  evangelists  ;  that  by 
 hearing  and  reading  the  history  of  his 
 ])assion,  we  may  be  better  prepared  for 
 the  mystery  of  his  resurrection ;  that,  by 
 his  rising  from  the  dead,  we  may  be 
 quickened  to  newness  of  life.  This  day, 
 which  begins  this  holy  week,  is  called  by 
 the  name  of  Palm  Sunday,  being  the  day 
 on  which  our  SAVIOUR  entered  Jerusalem 
 with  great  joy;  some  spreading  their  gar- 
 ments, others  cutting  down  branches  of 
 palm,  carrying  them  in  their  hands,  and 
 strewing  them  in  the  Avay,  which  hath 
 been  remembered  with  great  solemnity. — 
 Dr.  Hole. 
 
 In  the  missals  this  Sunday  is  called 
 Palm  Sunday  ;  and  in  many  parts  of  Eng- 
 land it  still  retains  its  ancient  name.  On 
 this  day,  till  the  sera  of  the  Reformation, 
 
PANTHEISM. 
 
 the  people  in  solemn  j)rocession  carried  in 
 their  hands  palms,  or  branches  of  some 
 other  tree,  in  commemoration  of  Christ's 
 trium])hal  entry  into  Jerusalem  five  days 
 before  his  death.  The  palms  were  then 
 ])laced  on  the  altar  by  tlie  clerks,  l)efore 
 the  time  of  the  celebration  of  the  eucharist ; 
 and  numerous  benedictory  collects  -were 
 pronounced  over  them  by  the  priest. — 
 Shepherd. 
 
 The  collect  for  the  day  puts  us  in  mind 
 of  the  tender  love  of  God  towards  man- 
 kind, in  sendinc^  his  Sox,  not  only  to  take 
 upon  him  our  liesh,  but  to  suffer  in  it  the 
 death  of  the  cross  for  our  sins ;  to  the 
 intent,  "  that  all  mankind  should  follow 
 the  example  of  his  great  humility  ;"  and 
 thence  teaches  us  to  pray,  '*  that  we  may 
 both  follow  the  example  of  his  patience, 
 and  also  be  made  partakers  of  his  resur- 
 rection." 
 
 The  Epistle  for  the  day  presents  us  to 
 this  pui'pose  with  the  highest  and  best 
 pattern  for  our  imitation,  even  the  Son  of 
 God,  who  hath  done  and  suffered  all  these 
 great  things  for  us. 
 
 This  Gospel,  with  the  rest  that  follow 
 on  each  day  of  this  holy  week,  gives  us 
 an  ample  account  of  the  death  and  passion 
 of  our  blessed  Saviour,  together  with  the 
 many  circumstances  that  went  before  and 
 came  after  it. — Dr.  Hole. 
 
 PANTHEISM.  {Uav,  all;  Qthg,  God.) 
 A  subtle  kind  of  atheism,  which  makes 
 God  and  the  universe  the  same,  and  so 
 denies  the  existence  and  sovereignty  of 
 any  God  over  the  universe.  It  is  to  be 
 feared  that  much  of  the  mere  natural 
 religion  of  the  present  day  partakes  of  the 
 character  of  Pantheism. 
 
 PAPA.  (naTTTToc,  Greek.)  A  name 
 originally  given  to  the  bishops  of  the 
 Christian  Church,  though  now  it  is  become 
 in  the  West  the  pretended  prerogative  and 
 sole  privilege  of  the  pope,  or  bishop  of 
 Rome.  The  word  signifies  no  more  than 
 father. 
 
 Tertullian,  speaking  indefinitely  of  any 
 Christian  bishop  who  absolves  penitents, 
 gives  him  the  name  of  Benedictus  Papa. 
 Heraclas,  bishop  of  Alexandria,  has  the 
 same  title  given  him.  St.  Jerome  gives 
 the  title  of  Papa  to  Athanasius,  Epipha- 
 nius,  and  Paulinus ;  and,  writing  often  to 
 St.  Augustine,  he  always  inscribes  his 
 epistles  Bcatissiino  Papce  Aufjustino. 
 
 The  name  Papa  was  sometimes  given 
 to  the  inferior  clergy,  who  were  called 
 Papce  Pisinni,  that  i's,  little  fathers;  in 
 comparison  of  whom  Balsamon  calls  pres- 
 byters Protopapa,  i.  e.  chief  fathers. 
 
 The  Greek   Christians   have    continued 
 i  2  o  2 
 
 ( 
 
 PARABOLANI. 
 
 oG3 
 
 to  give  the  name  Papa  to  their  priests. 
 And  there  is,  in  all  Oriental  cathedrals, 
 and  at  Messina  in  Sicily,  (where  Oriental 
 customs  are  largely  retained)  thi-re  was 
 formerly  an  ecclesiastical  dignitary  styled 
 Profopapa.  who,  besides  a  jurisdiction  over 
 several  churches,  luul  a  particular  respect 
 paid  him  l)y  tlie  catliedral.  l'\)r,  u])on 
 A\'hitsun{lay,  the  ])rel)endaries  went  in  nro- 
 cession  to  the  Protopapas  chin-ch,  (called 
 the  Catholic,)  and  attended  liim  to  the  ca- 
 thedral, where  he  sang  solemn  Vespers, 
 according  to  the  Greek  rituals,  and  was 
 afterwards  waited  upon  back  to  his  own 
 church  with  the  same  pom])ous  respect. 
 The  Vespers,  and  the  E])istle  and  (iospel, 
 at^  Pentecost,  are  still  sung  by  Greek 
 priests. — Pirri-Sicilia  Sacra. "  (See  Pope.) 
 
 PAPISTS.  (See  Popery  and  liouian 
 Catholics.  For  the  form  of  reconciling 
 Pa]nsts  to  the  Church  of  England,  see 
 Alj/urafio7i.) 
 
 ^  PARABLE.  The  parabolical,  enigma- 
 tical, figurative,  and  sententious  way  of 
 speaking  was  the  language  of  the  Eastern 
 sages  and  learned  men  ;  and  nothing  was 
 more  insu])portable  than  to  hear  a  fool 
 utter  parables :  "  The  legs  of  the  lame  are 
 not  equal ;  so  is  a  parable  in  the  mouth  of 
 fools."     (Prov.  xxvi.  7.) 
 
 It  is  generally  applied,  as  in  the  New 
 Testament,  to  a  figurative  discourse,  or  a 
 story  with  a  typical  meaning  ;  but  in  the 
 Old  Testament,  it  sometimes  signifies  a 
 mere  discourse :  as  Job's  parable,  which 
 occu])ies  many  chapters  of  the  book  of  Job 
 (xxvi. — xxxi.  inclusive).  The  same  title 
 is  applied  by  its  inspired  com])oser  to  the 
 seventy-eighth  Psalm,  (ver.  2,)  which  is 
 historical,  not  deeply  mystical,  like  the 
 forty-ninth. 
 
 Our  Saviour  in  the  Gospel  seldom 
 speaks  to  the  people  but  in  parables : 
 thereby  verifying  the  prophecy  of  Isaiah, 
 (vi.  9,)  that  the  people  should  see  without 
 knowing,  and  hear  without  understanding, 
 in  tlie  midst  of  instruction.  Some  parables 
 in  the  New  Testament  are  supposed  to  be 
 true  histories.  In  others  our  Saviour 
 seems  to  allude  to  some  points  of  history 
 in  those  times ;  as  that  descril)ing  a  king 
 wlio  went  into  a  far  country  to  receive  a 
 kingdom.  This  may  hint  at  the  liistory 
 of  Archelaus,  who,  after  the  death  of  his 
 father,  Herod  the  Great,  went  to  Rome, 
 to  receive  from  Augustus  the  confirmation 
 of  his  father's  will,  by  which  he  had  the 
 kingdom  of  Judea  left  to  him. 
 
 PARABOLANI.  {Lat.)  In  the  ancient 
 Christian  Church  were  certain  officers,  de- 
 puted to  attend  upon  the  sick,  and  to  take 
 care  of  them  all  the  time  of  their  weakness. 
 
5G4 
 
 TARACLETE. 
 
 PARAPHRASE. 
 
 At  Alexandi-ia,  the  Parabolani  were  in- 
 corporated into  a  society,  to  the  number 
 of  500  or  600,  elected  by  the  bishop  of  the 
 place,  and  under  his  direction.  But  that 
 this  was  not  an  order  peculiar  to  the 
 Church  of  Alexandria  is  very  evident,  be- 
 cause there  is  mention  made  of  Parabolani 
 at  Ephesus  at  the  time  of  the  second 
 council  held  there,     (a.  d.  449.) 
 
 They  were  called  Parabolani  from  their 
 undertaking  a  most  dangerous  and  hazard- 
 ous office,  {7rapa(3oXov  (pyov,)  in  attending 
 the  sick,  especially  in  infectious  and  pesti- 
 lential diseases.  The  Greeks  used  to  call 
 those  7rapal3o\oi,  who  hired  themselves  out 
 to  fight  'with  wild  beasts  in  the  amphi- 
 theatre ;  for  the  word  7rapa(3a\\iiv  signifies 
 exposing  a  man's  life  to  danger.  In  this 
 sense,  the  Christians  were  often  called 
 Parabolani  by  the  heathens,  because  they 
 were  so  ready  to  expose  their  lives  to 
 martyrdom.  And,  upon  the  like  account, 
 the  name  Parabola )u  was  given  to  the 
 officers  we  are  speaking  of. 
 
 These  Parabolani,  being  men  of  a  bold 
 and  daring  spirit,  were  ready  upon  all 
 occasions  to  engage  in  any  quarrel  that 
 should  happen  in  Church  or  State,  as  they 
 seem  to  have  done  in  the  dispute  between 
 CjTil  the  bishop  and  Orestes  the  governor 
 of  Alexandi-ia.  AYherefore  the  emperor 
 Theodosius  put  them  under  the  inspection 
 of  the  Prsefectus  Augustalis,  and  strictly 
 prohibited  them  to  appear  at  any  public 
 shows,  or  in  the  common  council  of  the 
 city,  or  in  the  courts  of  judicature,  unless 
 any  of  them  had  a  cause  of  his  own,  or 
 appeared  as  syndic  for  the  whole  body. 
 Which  shows  that  the  civil  government 
 always  looked  upon  the  Parabolani  as  a 
 formidable  body  of  men,  and  kept  a  watch- 
 ful eye  over  them,  that,  while  they  were 
 serving  the  Church,  they  might  not  do  any 
 disservice  to  the  State. — Bi7}r/ham. 
 
 PARACLETE.  A  comforter  and  ad- 
 vocate ;  a  title  applied  to  God  the  Holy 
 Ghost.     (John  xv.  26.) — See  Ilobj  Ghost. 
 
 PARACLETICE,  (Gr.,)  among  the 
 Greek  Christians,  is  a  book  of  anthems,  or 
 h}Tnns,  so  called,  because  they  chiefly  tend 
 to  comfort  the  sinner,  or  because  they  are 
 partly  invocatory,  consisting  of  pious  ad- 
 dresses to  God  and  the  saints. 
 
 The  hymns  or  anthems  in  this  book  are 
 not  appropriated  to  particular  days,  but 
 contain  something  proper  to  be  recited 
 every  day,  in  the  mass,  vespers,  matins, 
 and  other  offices. 
 
 AUatius  finds  great  fault  with  this  book, 
 and  says  there  are  many  things  in  it  dis- 
 respectful to  the  Virgin  Mary,  and  many 
 things  ascribed  to  her  against  all  reason 
 
 and  equity  ;  that  it  affirms  that  John  the 
 Ba])tist,  after  his  death,  preached  Christ 
 in  hell ;  and  that  Christ  himself,  when  he 
 descended  into  hell,  freed  all  mankind  from 
 the  punishments  of  that  place  and  the 
 power  of  the  devil. 
 
 PARAPET.  A  low  wall  protecting  the 
 gutter  in  the  roof  of  churches  or  other 
 buildings.  Early  parapets  are  universally 
 plain,  but,  with  the  Decorated  style,  they 
 begin  to  be  panelled,  and  sometimes  pierced 
 with  various  patterns,  and  in  the  Perpen- 
 dicular they  are  very  frequently  crenel- 
 lated. 
 
 PARAPHRASE.  {Chaldaic.)  It  is 
 commonly  believed  that  the  first  transla- 
 tion of  the  holy  Bible  was  in  Chaldee,  and 
 that  the  ignorance  of  the  Jews  in  the 
 Hebrew  tongue,  after  the  Babylonish  cap- 
 tivity, was  the  occasion  of  that  version, 
 called  the  Targum,  or  Chaldee  paraphrase, 
 which  was  neither  done  by  one  author, 
 nor  at  the  same  time,  nor  made  upon  all 
 the  books  of  the  Old  Testament.  The 
 first  upon  the  Pentateuch  was  done  by 
 Onkelos,  a  proselyte,  who  lived  about  the 
 time  of  our  Saviour,  if  we  believe  the 
 Hebrew  authors;  the  second  upon  the 
 Pentateuch  is  attributed  to  Jonathan,  the 
 son  of  Uzziel,  who  is  not  the  same  with  the 
 Theodotion,  which  in  Greek  has  the  same 
 signification  as  Jonathan  in  Hebrew  ;  that 
 is,  the  gift  of  God.  The  third  upon  the 
 same  book  is  called  the  Targum  Hieroso- 
 lymitanum,  or  the  Jerusalem  paraphrase ; 
 the  author  of  Avhich  is  not  certainly  known, 
 nor  the  time  when  it  was  composed.  Schi- 
 kard  believes  it  to  bear  the  same  date  as 
 the  Targum  of  Jerusalem,  which  was 
 written  about  oOO  years  after  the  last  de- 
 struction of  the  temple,  burnt  in  the  seven- 
 tieth year  after  our  Lord's  incarnation. 
 There  are,  besides  these,  three  paraphrases 
 upon  the  books  of  jSIoses ;  another  upon 
 the  Psalms,  Job,  and  Proverbs ;  there  is 
 also  one  upon  the  Canticles,  Ruth,  Lament- 
 ations, Ecclesiastes,  and  Esther,  but  the 
 author  not  known  ;  and  we  have  a  Chaldee 
 paraphrase  u])on  Joshua,  Judges,  Kings, 
 and  the  Prophets,  by  Jonathan,  the  son  of 
 Uzziel,  who,  according  to  the  Jews,  had 
 before  written  the  paraphrase  upon  the 
 Pentateuch. 
 
 Several  learned  men  believe  that  all  the 
 rabbins  say  concerning  the  Chaldee  para- 
 phrase is  fabulous,  and  that  the  oldest  of 
 all  the  translations  is  that  of  the  Septua- 
 gint :  it  is  also  added  that  they  are  later 
 than  St.  Jerome,  who,  having  great  ac- 
 quaintance with  the  most  learned  rabbins, 
 and  having  written  so  much  upon  that 
 subject,  could  not  fail  of  speaking  of  th(j 
 
PARCLOSE. 
 
 Chaldee  paraphrases,  if  there  had  been  any 
 sucli  in  nis  time.  The  Jews  affirm  they 
 •were  composed  in  the  time  of  the  ])rophets, 
 and  they  have  them  in  so  <i^reat  veneration, 
 that  they  are  ohHged  to  read  in  their  syna- 
 g^op^ue  a  section  of  Onkelos'  para])hrase, 
 uhen  they  have  read  a  Hebrew  text  in 
 the  Bible. 
 
 PARCLOSE.  Screens  separatinf^  cha- 
 pels, especially  those  at  the  east  end  of  the 
 aisles,  from  the  body  of  the  church,  are 
 called  /)(ircl(>ses. 
 
 PARDONS.  {See  Liduli/mces.)  In  the 
 Romish  Church,  pardons  or  indtdr/oiccs  are 
 releasement  from  the  temporal  })unishment 
 of  sin  ;  the  power  of  granting  wliich  is  suj)- 
 posed  to  be  lodged  in  the  pope,  to  be  dis- 
 pensed by  him  to  the  bishops  and  inferior 
 clergy,  for  the  benefit  of  penitents  through- 
 out the  Church.  In  the  theory  of  par- 
 dons, the  point  is  assumed,  that  holy  men 
 may  accom])lish  more  than  is  strictly  re- 
 quired of  them  by  the  Divine  law ;  that 
 there  is  a  meritorious  value  in  this  over- 
 plus ;  that  such  value  is  transferable,  and 
 that  it  is  deposited  in  the  spiritual  treasury 
 of  the  Church,  sulyect  to  the  disposal  of 
 the  pope,  to  be,  on  certain  conditions,  aj)- 
 plied  to  the  benefit  of  those  whose  defi- 
 ciencies stand  in  need  of  such  a  compensa- 
 tion. A  distinction  is  then  drawn  between 
 the  temporal  and  the  eternal  punishment 
 of  sin ;  the  former  of  which  not  only  em- 
 braces penances,  and  all  satisfactions  for 
 sin  in  the  present  life,  but  also  the  pains  of 
 purgatory  in  the  next.  These  are  sup- 
 posed to  be  within  the  control  and  juris- 
 diction of  the  Church  ;  and,  in  the  case  of 
 any  individual,  may  be  ameliorated  or 
 terminated  by  the  imputation  of  so  much 
 of  the  overabundant  merits  of  the  saints, 
 &c.,  as  may  be  necessary  to  balance  the 
 deficiencies  of  the  sufferer. 
 
 The  privilege  of  selling  pardons,  it  is 
 well  known,  was  frequently  granted  by  the 
 pope  to  monastic  bodies  in  every  part  of 
 the  Church ;  and  the  scandals  and  disor- 
 ders consequent  upon  them,  was  one  of  the 
 first  moving  causes  of  the  Reformation. 
 Against  these  most  pernicious  and  soul- 
 destroying  errors,  the  Church  of  England 
 protests  in  her  twenty-second  Article : 
 "The  Romisli  doctrine  concerning  ])urga- 
 tory,  jxu'dons,  wor.shi})})ing,  and  atloration, 
 as  well  of  images  as  of  relics,  and  also  of 
 invocation  of  saints,  is  a  fond  thing,  vainly 
 invented,  and  grounded  ujjon  no  warranty 
 of  Scri])ture,  but  rather  repugnant  to  the 
 word  of  God." 
 
 In  treating  this  subject  we  will  first  show 
 what  the  Romish  doctrine  is,  and  then  how 
 repugnant  it  is  to  Scripture. 
 
 PARDONS. 
 
 5G5 
 
 As  for  the  first,  what  their  doctrine  con- 
 cerning i)ardons  is,  it  is  difficult  to  deter- 
 mine ;  they  have  had  so  manv  crotchetj* 
 about  it,  that  one  can  scarce  tell  where  to 
 find  them.  Wc  sliall  endeavour  to  explain 
 it  in  these  following  projjositions  : — 
 
 First,  They  assert,  as  JJellarmine  saith, 
 tliat  ''many  holy  men  have  suffered  more 
 for  God  and  righteousness'  sake  tl»:in  the 
 guilt  of  the  temjjoral  punishment,  ^\h^ch 
 tliey  were  obnoxious  to  for  faults  com- 
 mitted by  them,  could  exact." 
 
 Secondly,  Hence  they  say,  as  Johannes 
 de  Turrccremata,  "  That  one  can  satisfy  for 
 another,  or  one  can  acceptably  jjeribrni 
 satisfactory  ])unishn)ent  for  another,"  viz. 
 because  they  suffer  more  than  is  due  to 
 their  own  sins ;  and  seeing  all  sufferings 
 are  satisfactory,  what  they  undergo  more 
 than  is  due  to  their  own  is  satisfactory'  for 
 other  men's  sins." 
 
 Thirdly,  "  Seeing  they  who  thus  undergo 
 satisfiictory  punishments  for  others  do  not 
 appoint  the  fruit  of  this  their  satisfaction 
 to  any  ])articular  persons,  it  therefore,"  as 
 Roflensis  saitli,  "  becomes  profitable  to  tlie 
 whole  Church  in  connnon,  so  that  it  is  now 
 called  the  common  treasury  of  the  Church, 
 to  wit,  tliat  from  thence  may  be  fetched 
 Mhatsoever  any  others  lack  of  due  satis- 
 faction." 
 
 Fourthly,  "  This  common  treasure,"  saith 
 Bellarmine,  "is  the  foundation  of  jiardons." 
 So  that,  as  he  saith,  "  the  Church  hath 
 power  to  apply  this  treasure  of  satisfaction, 
 and  by  this  to  grant  our  ])ardons." 
 
 By  this,  therefore,  we  may  have  some 
 sight  into  this  great  mystery,  and  perceive 
 what  they  mean  by  pardons.  For  as  Lay- 
 manus  the  Jesuit  saith,  "  A  i)ardon  or  in- 
 dulgence is  the  remission  of  a  temporal 
 piniishment  due  to  God  without  the  sacra- 
 ment, by  the  application  of  the  satisfaction 
 of  Christ  and  the  saints."  Or,  as  Grego- 
 rius  de  Valentia  saith,  "  An  ecclesiastical 
 pardon  or  indulgence  is  a  relaxation  of  a 
 temporal  punishment  by  God's  judgment 
 due  to  actual  sins,  after  tiie  remission  of 
 the  fault  made  without  the  sacrament  (of 
 jjcnance),  by  the  apjjlication  of  the  super- 
 abundant satisfaction  of  CllHisr  and  the 
 saints,  by  him  who  hath  lawful  authority 
 to  do  it."  But  let  us  hear  what  a  nojje 
 himself  saith  concerning  these  pardons. 
 Leo  X.,  in  his  decretal,  ann.  lolH,  saith, 
 "  The  po])e  of  Rome  may,  for  reasonable 
 causes,  grant  to  the  same  saints  of  ClIUl.sT 
 who,  charity  uniting  them,  are  members 
 of  CiiKisT,  whether  they  be  in  tliis  life  or 
 in  purgatory,  pardons  out  of  the  supera- 
 l)undancy  of  the  merit.s  of  ClIUIsT  and  the 
 saints ;  and  that  be  used,  for  the  living  as 
 
566 
 
 PARDONS. 
 
 PARISH. 
 
 well  as  for  the  dead,  by  his  apostolic  power 
 of  granting  pardons,  to  dispense  or  dis- 
 tribute the  treasm-e  of  the  merits  of  Christ 
 and  the  saints,  to  confer  the  indulgence 
 itself,  after  the  manner  of  an  absolution, 
 or  transfer  it  after  the  manner  of  a  suf- 
 frage." So  that,  as  Durandus  saith,  "The 
 Church  can  communicate  from  this  treasure 
 to  any  one,  or  several,  for  their  sins,  in 
 part  or  in  Avholc,  according  as  it  pleases 
 the  Church  to  communicate  more  or  less 
 from  the  treasure."  And  hence  it  is  that 
 we  find  it  said  in  the  book  of  indulgences 
 or  pardons,  that  "  Pope  Sylvester  and  Gre- 
 gory, that  consecrated  the  Lateran  Church, 
 gave  so  many  pardons,  that  none  could 
 number  them  but  GoD;  Boniface  being 
 witness,  who  said,  *  if  men  knew  the  par- 
 dons of  the  Lateran  Church,  they  would 
 not  need  to  go  by  sea  to  the  holy  sepul- 
 chre. In  the  chapel  of  the  saints  are 
 twenty-eight  stairs  that  stood  before  the 
 house  of  Pilate  in  Jerusalem,  Whosoever 
 shall  ascend  those  stairs  with  devotion 
 hath,  for  every  sin,  nine  years  of  pardons ; 
 but  he  that  ascends  them  kneeling,  he  shall 
 free  one  soul  out  of  purgatory.' "  So  that 
 it  seems  the  pope  can  not  only  give  me  a 
 pardon  for  sins  past,  but  to  come ;  yea, 
 and  not  only  give  me  a  pardon  for  my  own 
 sins,  but  power  to  pardon  other  men's  sins, 
 else  I  could  not  redeem  a  soul  from  pur- 
 gatory. 
 
 We  have  been  the  larger  in  the  opening 
 of  this  great  llomish  mystery,  because  we 
 need  do  no  more  than  open  it ;  for,  being 
 thus  opened,  it  shows  itself  to  be  a  ridicu- 
 lous and  impious  doctrine,  utterly  repug- 
 nant to  the  Scriptures.  For  this  doctrine, 
 thus  explained,  is  grounded  upon  M'orks 
 of  supererogation  ;  for  it  is  from  the  trea- 
 sury of  these  good  works  that  the  Romish 
 Church  fetches  all  her  pardons.  Now  this 
 is  but  a  bad  foundation,  contrary  to  Scrip- 
 ture, reason,  and  Fathers ;  as  we  have  seen 
 in  the  fourteenth  Article.  And  if  the 
 foundation  be  rotten,  the  superstructure 
 cannot  be  sound.  Again,  this  doctrine 
 supposes  one  man  may  and  doth  satisfy 
 for  another ;  whereas  the  Scriptures  hold 
 forth  ''Christ  [as]  our  propitiation,"  (1 
 John  ii.  2,)  "Who  trode  the  wine-press 
 of  his  Father's  Avrath  alone"  (Isaiah 
 Ixiii.  8).  Lastly,  this  doctrine  supposes 
 that  a  pope,  a  priest,  a  finite  creature,  can 
 pardon  sins ;  whereas  the  Scripture  holds 
 forth  this  as  the  prerogative  only  of  the 
 true  God.  For  "  who  is  a  God  like  unto 
 thee,"  saith  the  prophet  Micah,  "that  par- 
 doneth  iniquities?"  (Mic.  vii.  18.)  And 
 therefore  the  scribes  and  Pharisees,  when 
 they  said,  "  Who  can  forgive  sins  but  GoD 
 
 alone?"  (Luke  v.  21,)  what  they  said, 
 though  wickedly  said  by  them,  not  ac- 
 knowledging Christ  to  be  God,  and  so 
 not  to  have  that  power,  yet  it  was  truly 
 said  in  itself:  for,  had  not  Christ  been 
 God,  he  wovdd  have  had  no  more  power 
 to  forgive  sins  than  the  pope. 
 
 And  whatsoever  the  doctors  of  the  Ro- 
 mish Church  now  hold,  we  are  sure  the 
 Fathers  of  old  constantly  affirmed  that  it 
 was  God  only  could  forgive  sin.  So  Chry- 
 sostom  saith,  "  For  none  can  pardon  sins 
 but  only  GoD."  Euthymius,  "  None  can 
 truly  pardon  sins,  but  he  alone  who  be- 
 holds the  thoughts  of  men."  Gregory, 
 "  Thou  who  alone  sparest,  who  alone  for- 
 givest  sins.  For  who  can  forgive  sins  but 
 God  alone  ?  "  Ambrose,  "  For  this  cannot 
 be  common  to  any  man  with  Christ  to 
 forgive  sins.  This  is  his  gift  only  who  took 
 away  the  sins  of  the  world."  Certainly 
 the  Fathers  never  thought  of  the  pope's 
 pardons,  when  they  let  such  and  the  like 
 sentences  slip  from  them.  Nay,  and 
 Athanasius  was  so  confident  that  it  was 
 God  only  could  pardon  sin,  that  he  brings 
 this  as  an  argument  against  the  Arians,  to 
 prove  that  Christ  was  God,  because  he 
 could  pardon  sin.  "  But  hoAv,"  saith  he, 
 "  if  the  Word  was  a  creature,  could  he 
 loose  the  sentence  of  God,  and  pardon  sin  ?  " 
 It  being  written  by  the  prophets  that  this 
 belongs  to  GoD;  for  "who  is  a  God  like 
 to  thee,  pardoning  sins,  and  passing  by 
 transgressions  ? "  For  GoD  said,  "  Thou 
 art  earth,  and  unto  earth  thou  shalt  re- 
 turn." So  that  men  are  mortal:  and  how 
 then  was  it  possible  that  sin  should  be 
 pardoned  or  loosed  by  creatures  ?  Yet 
 Christ  loosed  and  pardoned  them.  Cer- 
 tainly had  the  pope's  pardons  been  heard 
 of  in  that  age,  this  would  have  been  but  a 
 weak  argument.  For  Arius  might  easily 
 have  answered,  "  It  doth  not  follow,  that, 
 because  Christ  could  pardon  sin,  he  was 
 therefore  God  ;  for  the  pope  is  not  God, 
 and  yet  he  can  pardon  sin."  But  thus  we 
 see  the  Fathers  confidently  avemng,  it  is 
 God  only  can  pardon  sins,  and  therefore 
 that  the  pope  cannot  pardon  them  by  any 
 means  whatsoever,  unless  he  be  GoDj, 
 which  as  yet  they  do  not  assert.  And  so 
 that  the  Romish  "doctrine  concerning  par- 
 dons is  a  fond  thing,  repugnant  to  the 
 Scriptures. — Beveridge. 
 
 PARISH.  A  parish  is  that  circuit  o.^ 
 ground  which  is  committed  to  the  charge 
 of  one  parson  or  vicar,  or  other  ministe  ' 
 having  cure  of  souls  therein.  A  reputed 
 parish  is  where  there  is  a  parochial  chape], 
 with  all  parochial  rites  entirely  indepeno- 
 entof  the  mother-church, as  to  sacrament'', 
 
PARISH. 
 
 567 
 
 niaiTiages,  biu-ials,  repau's,  &'C.    (See  Cha- 
 
 The  word  parish  is  from  the  Greek 
 word  irapoiKia,  (jxiroic/iia,)  which  signifies 
 sojoiirnim/,  or  living  as  a  strant/cr  or  in- 
 mate ;  for  so  it  is  used  among  the  classical 
 Greek  writers.  The  Se])tuagint  translate 
 the  Hebrew  word  1:1,  {(h'r,)  jwref/n'ints,  by 
 TrapoiKog,  (Gen.  xv.  13,  ^:c.,)  and  the  word 
 nviD,  {JLu/or,)  j^ercyrinatio,  by  TrapotKi'a. 
 (Ps.  cxix.  54.) 
 
 The  jn-imitive  Christians  received  a  great 
 part  of  their  customs,  and  also  their  phrase- 
 ology from  the  Jews ;  who,  when  they 
 travelled  abroad,  and  many  of  tliem  were 
 settled  in  any  town,  either  built  them  a 
 synagogue,  or  else  j)rocured  a  large  room, 
 where  they  performed  tlieir  public  wor- 
 ship ;  and  all  that  were  strangers  in  that 
 place  met  there  at  the  times  of  public  de- 
 votion. This  brotherhood  of  Jews,  which 
 was  mixed  with  the  inhabitants  of  the 
 place,  they  called  the  TtaQoiKia,  or  the  so- 
 ciety of  the  sojourners.  At  the  beginning 
 of  Christianity,  the  Christians  were  in  the 
 same  condition  with  the  Jews,  they  being 
 themselves  either  Jews,  or  Jewish  prose- 
 lytes, or  living  in  a  retired  condition,  se- 
 questered from  the  world,  and  little  mix- 
 ing with  affairs.  Upon  which  account  St. 
 Peter  addresses  them  wg  irapoiKovg,  (kc,  as 
 stranyers  and  j)ilyri)ns.  (1  Pet.  ii.  11.) 
 This  number  of  strangers  in  the  heathen 
 cities  was  called  the  -irapoiKia,  over  which 
 there  was  set,  by  apostolical  authority,  a 
 bishop,  a  rrposffribg,  a  cazan,  (an  inspector,) 
 or  a  rhosh  cohel  (a  head  of  the  congrega- 
 tion) ;  all  which  names  denoted  the  episco- 
 pal authority,  and  which  in  little  time 
 centred  in  the  one  most  usual  name,  of 
 tTTtaKOTTog,  or  bishop,  as  is  plainly  seen  by 
 the  Ignatian  epistles.  So  that  the  tTriaKOTrog 
 and  TtapoiKia  became  relative  terms;  he 
 that  had  the  sui)erintendency  of  the  con- 
 gregation, whether  one  or  more,  was  called 
 the  bishop,  and  the  congregation  under  his 
 care  was  called  the  TrapoiKia.  Hence,  in 
 the  most  early  time  of  the  Greek  Church, 
 the  word  TrapoiKia  was  used  to  signify, 
 what  we  now  call  a  diocese ;  and  thus,  in 
 the  apostolic  canons,  a  bishop  that  leaves 
 his  diocese  {-TrapoiKiav)  for  another  is  to  be 
 reduced  to  lay-communion.  Hence  it  is 
 said,  "  The  bisho])  of  the  diocese  {-n-apoiKiag) 
 of  Alexandria  de])arted  this  life."  And 
 again,  "  the  glory  {TrapoiKiag)  of  tlie  diocese 
 of  Ciesarea."  The  Latins  took  up  tiie 
 same  way  of  expression,  from  the  Greek, 
 denoting  a  diocese  by  the  word  i)aruchia, 
 which  mode  of  exjjression  lasted  till  after 
 the  time  of  Charlemagne. 
 
 But  it  is  to  be  observed,  that  when  the 
 
 word  parochin  signified  a  diocese,  the  word 
 dioccsis  signiliecl  a  parisli.  So  in  the 
 Council  of  Agatha,  prrshytcr  dnm  diowsin 
 tenet,  "  whilst  the  ])resbyter  is  in  possession 
 of  his  living."  And  iii  the  third  Council 
 of  Orleans,  diocesis  is  the  same  with  ba- 
 silica, a  ])arish  church.  IJut  in  the  seventh 
 or  eiglith  century,  wlieii  ])arish  churches 
 began  frequently  to  l)e  founded  in  villages, 
 the  old  names  shifted,  aiul  dioccsis  was 
 used  to  denote  the  extent  of  the  bishoj)'s 
 jurisdiction  ;  nudjnirochia,  the  jjlace  where 
 the  presbyter's  care  was  limited. 
 
 Tliat  the  word  irapoiKia  was  not  exclu- 
 sively a])])lied  to  a  parish,  and  that  a 
 bishop's  diocese  was  not  anciently  confined 
 to  a  siny/c  parish,  as  it  has  been  asserted 
 by  the  advocates  for  Presl)yterianism,  see 
 lyiaurice's  "  Defence  of  Diocesan  Kpisco- 
 ]n\cy,"  and  Scater's  "  Original  Draught  of 
 the  ]*rimitive  Church." 
 
 llow  ancient  the  division  of  parishes  is, 
 may  at  present  be  diflicult  to  ascertain ; 
 for  it  seems  to  be  agreed  on  all  hands, 
 that,  in  the  early  ages  of  Christianity  in 
 this  island,  parishes  were  unknown,  or  at 
 least  signified  the  same  that  a  diocese  does 
 now.  There  was  then  no  api)ro])riation 
 of  ecclesiastical  dues  to  any  particular 
 Church ;  but  every  man  was  at  liberty 
 to  contribute  his  tithes  to  whatever  priest 
 or  church  he  pleased,  provided  only  that 
 he  did  it  to  some ;  or  if  he  made  no 
 special  appointment  or  appropriation 
 thereof,  they  were  paid  into  the  hands 
 of  the  bishop,  whose  duty  it  was  to  dis- 
 tribute them  among  the  clergy,  and  for 
 other  pious  purposes,  according  to  his  own 
 discretion.  Mr.  Camden  says,  England 
 was  divided  into  parishes  by  Archbishop 
 Honorius,  about  the  year  G30.  Sir  Henry 
 Hobart  lays  it  down,  that  parishes  were 
 first  erected  by  the  Council  of  Lateran, 
 which  was  held  A.  D.  1179.  Each  widely 
 differing  from  the  other,  and  both  of  them 
 perhaps  from  the  truth;  which  will  i)ro- 
 bably  be  found  in  the  medium  between 
 the  two  extremes:  for  Mr.  Selden  has 
 clearly  shown,  that  the  clergy  lived  in 
 common  without  any  division  of  iiarishes, 
 long  after  the  time  mentioned  by  Camden; 
 and  it  appears  from  the  Saxon  laws,  that 
 parishes  were  in  being  long  l)efore  tiie  date 
 of  that  Council  of  Lateran,  to  which  they 
 are  ascribed  1)y  Hobart. 
 
 Many  i)arisii  churches  were  founded  in 
 great  towns  and  villages  in  Italy,  Spain, 
 and  P'rance,  during  the  fourth,  fifth,  and 
 sixth  centuries,  under  the  cathedral  church 
 of  the  bishop  •  and  though  they  were  later 
 in  England,  yet  there  are  some  instances  as 
 early  as  the  year  700  :  for  about  that  time 
 
568 
 
 PARSON. 
 
 PASSION  WEEK. 
 
 Bede  relates,  that  the  bishop  of  Hexham 
 consecrated  a  parish  church  in  the  manor 
 of  one  Pach,  a  Saxon  carl,  and  not  lon<]^ 
 after  for  one  Addi.  Nay,  before  this  he 
 relates  of  Birinus,  first  bishop  of  the  AYest 
 Saxons,  that  he  built  and  dedicated  seve- 
 ral churches  in  his  diocese  of  Dorchester. 
 "When  Egbert,  archbishop  of  York,  made 
 his  constitutions,  about  the  year  160,  they 
 seem  to  be  growing  up  apace.  By  that 
 canon,  "  Unusquisque  sacerdos  ecclesiam 
 suam  cum  ovini  diluientia  cedijicet." — Spel- 
 man.  And  he  forbids  that  the  tithes  for- 
 merly ])aid  to  the  mother-church  should 
 be  paid  to  the  new-built  oratories.  By 
 the  time  of  Edward  the  Confessor  these 
 parishes  -were  grown  so  numerous,  that 
 complaint  was  made  that  the  clergy  were 
 impoverished  thereby.  After  which  time 
 the  division  of  parishes  was  not  much 
 altered;  for  the  survey  of  England  in 
 Doomsday  Book  is  not  very  difierent  from 
 our  later  ones. — KichoUs. 
 
 Before  the  establishment  of  parishes  in 
 England,  the  bishops  sent  out  their  clergy 
 (who  lived  Avith  them)  to  preach  to  the 
 people  as  occasion  required ;  but  as  Chris- 
 tianity extended,  and  the  number  of  con- 
 verts increased,  this  method  became  in- 
 convenient, and  a  resident  clergy  was 
 found  expedient.  Parishes  were  then 
 formed,  and  churches  were  built,  and  en- 
 dowed by  lords  of  manors  and  others ; 
 and  hence  arose  the  patronage  of  laymen. 
 
 The  cause  of  the  great  dilierence  in  the 
 extent  of  different  parishes  is  this :  that 
 churches  were  most  of  them  built  by  lords 
 of  the  manor  for  their  tenants  ;  and  so  the 
 parish  was  of  the  size  of  the  lord's  manor. 
 
 In  1520,  according  to  a  book  made  out 
 by  Cardinal  AYolsey,  the  number  of  parish 
 churches  is  reckoned  9407,  but  Chamber- 
 lain makes  them  9913.  Camden  reckons 
 9284.  The  number  of  charity  briefs  issued 
 was  according  to  an  account  in  Burns' 
 "Ecclesiastical  Law,"  10,489.  Formerly 
 Archdeacon  Plymley,  in  his  charge  to  the 
 clergy  of  Salop,  1793,  says  that,  from  the 
 "Liber  Regis,"  there  were  in  England  and 
 Wales  5098  rectories,  3687  vicarages,  and 
 2970  churches,  neither  rectorial  nor  vicari- 
 al;  in  all  11,755  churches  in  the  10,000 
 parishes.  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  add, 
 that  both  churches  and  parishes  have  much 
 increased  since  that  period. 
 
 As  to  divisions  and  consolidations  of 
 parishes,  sec  58  Geo.  III.  c.  45 ;  59  Geo. 
 HI.  c.  134 ;  8  &  9  Vic.  c.  70.  See  also  3 
 &  4  Vic.  c.  60,  sec.  6. 
 
 PARSON.  [Fersona  ecclesics.)  Parson 
 properly  signifies  the  rector  of  a  parish 
 church,  because,  during  the  time   of  his 
 
 incumbency,  he  represents  the  Church, 
 and  in  the  eye  of  the  law  sustains  the 
 2)erson  thereof,  as  well  in  suing  as  in  being 
 sued,  in  any  action  touching  the  same. 
 Parson  imparsonee  {persona  imperso7iata) 
 is  he  that,  as  lawful  incumbent,  is  in  actual 
 possession  of  a  parish  church,  and  with 
 whom  the  church  is  full,  whether  it  be 
 presentative  or  impropriate.  The  word 
 persona  is  however  applied  in  ancient 
 documents  to  others  besides  parochial  in- 
 cumbents, that  is,  to  ecclesiastical  olncers 
 who  had  a  personal  responsibihty  for  the 
 services  and  duties  proper  to  their  churches. 
 (See  Persona.) 
 
 PARSONAGE.  The  parson's  residence. 
 It  is  applicable  both  to  rectories  and  to  vicar- 
 ages, and  indeed  to  the  official  residences  of 
 all  incumbents  of  parishes,  parochial  dis- 
 tricts, or  chapelries.  As  to  giving  of  lands 
 for  parsonages,  see  oo  Geo.  III.  c.  147. 
 
 PAR  VISE.  A  chamber  over  a  church 
 porch.  The  parvise  was  most  likely  always 
 a  Idnd  of  domus  inclnsa  for  some  officer  of 
 the  church,  as,  for  instance,  the  sacristan ; 
 and  from  the  frequent  occurrence  of  an 
 altar  in  the  east  window,  we  may  presume 
 that  it  was  sometimes  a  temporary  lodging 
 for  a  priest. 
 
 PASCH.     The  festival  of  Easter. 
 
 PASCHAL.  Pertaining  to  the  Passover. 
 The  lamb  offered  in  this  JeAvish  festival 
 being  a  prominent  type  of  Christ,  the 
 terms  jjasckal  and  paschal  lamb  are  often 
 used  in  application  to  the  Redeemer.  An 
 example  occurs  in  the  proper  preface  for 
 Easter  Day,  in  the  Communion  Office,  thus : 
 "  Thy  Son  Jesus  Christ  our  Lord,  for  he 
 is  the  very  Paschal  LiSimb,  which  was  offered 
 ior  us,  and  hath  taken  away  the  sin  of  the 
 world,"  &c. 
 
 PASSALORYNCHITES,  or  PATTA- 
 LORYNCHIANS.  Certain  heretics,  the 
 followers  of  j\lontanus,  who  made  profes- 
 sion of  never  speaking,  and  for  that  pur- 
 pose always  held  their  fingers  upon  their 
 mouths,  grounding  it  upon  certain  words 
 of  the  140th  Psalm.  They  began  to  ap- 
 pear in  the  second  age ;  and  St.  Jerome 
 testifies,  that  even  in  his  time  he  found 
 some  of  them  in  Galatia,  as  he  travelled  to 
 Ancyra. 
 
 PASSING  BELL.  By  the  sixth  canon 
 it  is  enjoined,  "When  any  is  passing  out 
 of  this  life,  a  bell  shall  be  tolled,  and  the 
 minister  shall  not  then  slaclc  to  do  his  last 
 duty.  And  after  the  party's  death  (if  so 
 it  fall  out)  there  shall  be' rung  no  more 
 but  one  short  peal,  and  one  other  before 
 the  burial,  and  one  other  after  the  burial." 
 
 PASSION  WEEK.  So  we  denominate 
 the  week  immediately  preceding  the  fcs- 
 
PASSION  WEEK. 
 
 PASSOVER. 
 
 569 
 
 tival  of  Easter,  because  in  that  week  our 
 Saviour's  passion  and  death  hapjiened. 
 
 The  primitive  Christians  called  it  Heb- 
 domas  Maf/na,  or  the  Great  U'eek.  No 
 one  can  better  describe  it  to  us  than  St. 
 Chrysostom,  -who  says,  "  It  was  called  the 
 Great  Week,  not  because  it  consisted  of 
 lonp:er  days,  or  more  in  number,  than  other 
 weeks,  but  because  at  this  time  p:reat  thin<:;s 
 were  wrought  for  us  by  our  Lord.  For 
 in  this  week  the  ancient  tyranny  of.  the 
 devil  vras  dissolved,  death  was  extinct,  the 
 strong  man  was  bound,  his  goods  were 
 spoiled,  sin  was  abolished,  the  curse  was 
 destroyed,  paradise  was  opened,  heaven 
 became  accessible,  men  and  angels  were 
 joined  together,  the  middle  wall  of  parti- 
 tion was  broken  down,  the  barriers  were 
 taken  out  of  the  Avay,  the  God  of  peace 
 made  peace  between  things  in  heaven  and 
 things  in  earth ;  therefore  it  is  called  the 
 Great  Week.  And  as  this  is  the  head  of 
 all  other  weeks,  so  the  Great  Sahhath  is  the 
 head  of  this  week.  Therefore,  in  this  week, 
 many  increase  their  labours ;  some  adding 
 to  their  fastings,  others  to  their  watchings  ; 
 others  give  more  liberal  alms,  testifying  the 
 greatness  of  the  Divine  goodness  by  their 
 care  of  good  works,  and  more  intense  piety 
 and  holy  living.  As  the  Jews  went  forth  to 
 meet  Christ,  v.hen  he  had  raised  Lazarus 
 from  the  dead,  so  now  not  only  one  city, 
 but  all  the  world,  go  forth  to  meet  him, 
 not  with  palm  branches  in  their  hands,  but 
 with  alms-deeds,  humanity,  virtue,  fastings, 
 tears,  prayers,  watchings,  and  all  kinds  of 
 piety,  which  they  oft'er  to  Christ  their 
 Lord.  And  not  only  we,  but  the  em- 
 perors of  the  Avorld,  honour  this  week, 
 making  it  a  time  of  vacation  from  all  civil 
 business.  The  imperial  letters  are  sent 
 abroad  at  this  time,  commanding  all  pri- 
 soners to  be  set  at  liberty  from  their  chains. 
 For,  as  our  Lord,  when  he  descended  into 
 hell,  set  free  those  that  were  detained  by 
 death ;  so  the  servants,  according  to  their 
 power,  imitating  the  kindness  of  their 
 Lord,  loose  men  from  their  corporal  bonds, 
 when  they  have  no  power  to  relax  the 
 spiritual." 
 
 It  is  plain  from  hence,  that  the  ancient 
 Christians  paid  an  extraordinary  regard  to 
 this  Holy  Week,  and  that  this  consisted 
 in  additional  exercises  of  devotion,  longer 
 fastings,  more  liberal  alms,  vacation  from 
 all  civil  business,  and  a  general  release  of 
 prisoners,  some  particular  cases  of  criminals 
 only  excepted. 
 
 The  Thursday  in  this  week,  which  was 
 the  day  on  which  Christ  was  betrayed, 
 was  observed  with  some  jiecuHar  customs. 
 In  some  churches,  the  communion  was  ad- 
 
 ministered in  the  evening  after  sup])or,  in 
 imitation  of  the  communion  of  tlie  apostles 
 at  our  Lord's  last  sujjjjer.  On  this  day 
 the  Competcntes,  or  candidates  of  baptism, 
 publicly  rehearsed  the  creed  before  the 
 bishops  or  presbyters  in  the  church.  And 
 on  this  day  it  was  customary  for  servants 
 to  receive  the  communion.  The  modern 
 ritualists  call  this  day  Maundy  Thursday. 
 (See  Maundy  Thursday.) 
 
 The  Friday  was  called  Good  Friday,  or 
 Pasch  of  the  Cross,  in  oj)position  to  I'Mster, 
 or  the  Paseh  of  tlic  Itesurrection.  On  this 
 day,  not  only  ])enitents  were  absolved,  but 
 a  general  absolution  and  indulgence  was 
 proclaimed  to  all  the  people,  observing  the 
 day  with  fasting,  i)rayers,  and  contrition. 
 
 The  Saturday  of  this  week  was  known 
 by  the  name  of  the  Great  Sahhuth.  It  had 
 many  peculiarities  belonging  to  it.  For 
 this  was  the  only  Sabbath  throughout  the 
 year  that  the  Greek  chiu'clies,  and  some 
 of  the  Western,  kept  as  a  fast ;  all  other 
 Saturdays,  or  Sabbaths,  being  observed  as 
 festivals.  On  this  day  they  continued  to 
 fast,  not  only  till  evening,  but  till  cock- 
 crowing  in  the  morning,  which  was  the 
 supposed  time  of  our  Saviour's  resur- 
 rection. And  the  preceding  time  of  the 
 night  was  spent  in  Divine  service,  praying, 
 preaching,  and  baptizingsuch  of  the  "cate- 
 chumens as  presented  themselves.  A  rem- 
 nant of  which  custom  seems  still  to  be 
 kept  up  in  the  Latin  offices,  which  pre- 
 scribe the  reading  of  numerous  chapters 
 from  the  Holy  Scriptures,  called  prophe- 
 cies, with  prayers,  8cc.  interspersed.  Eusebi- 
 us  tells  us  that,  in  the  time  of  Constantine, 
 this  vigil  was  kept  with  great  pomp.  For 
 that  emperor  set  up  lofty  pillars  of  wax,  to 
 burn  as  torches  all  over  the  city,  so  that 
 the  night  seemed  to  outshine  the  sun  at 
 noonday.  The  fifth  Sunday  in  Lent  is 
 called  in  the  Iloman  office.  Passion  Sun- 
 day, that  name  being  applied  to  it  in  refer- 
 ence to  our  Lord's  prediction  on  that  day 
 of  his  approaching  passion.  And  some 
 persons  call  the  week,  of  which  Passion 
 Sunday  is  the  first  day,  Passion  Week; 
 and  the  real  Passion  A\'eek  they  call  Holy 
 Week.  This  is,  however,  a  piece  of  pe- 
 dantry, founded  on  a  mistake. 
 
 PASSOYEll.  {Pesach,  Heb.,  which  sig- 
 nifies a  leap,  a  passcye.)  {Pascha,  in  the 
 LXX.)  The  Passover  was  a  solemn  fes- 
 tival of  the  Jews,  instituted  in  commemor- 
 ation of  their  coming  out  of  Egypt,  be- 
 cause the  night  before  their  departure  the 
 destroying  angel,  that  slew  the  first-born 
 of  the  Egyptians,  passed  over  the  houses 
 of  the  Hebrews  without  entering  them, 
 because  they  were  marked  with  the  blood 
 
570 
 
 PASTOR. 
 
 PATIIIARCIIS. 
 
 of  the  lamb,  which  for  this  reason  was 
 called  the  paschal  lamb. 
 
 PASTOR.  Literally,  a  shepherd ;  figur- 
 atively, the  bishop  of  a  diocese,  or  the 
 priest  of  a  parish,  whose  people  are,  like- 
 wise, figuratively  called  their  flock.  It  is 
 emploved  in  this  sense  in  one  of  the  pray- 
 ers for  the  Ember  Week,  and  in  the  Ordin- 
 ation Services. 
 
 PASTORAL  STAFF.  (See  Crosier.) 
 It  is  mentioned  in  one  of  the  rubrics  of 
 King  Edward  VI.'s  First  Prayer  Book, 
 which  is  still  the  law  of  the  Church,  accord- 
 ing to  the  present  rubric  as  to  the  "  orna- 
 ment of  the  Church,"  which  prescribes  that 
 the  bishop  shall  in  his  public  ministrations, 
 besides  his  proper  vestments,  have  "  his 
 pastoral  staff  in  his  hand,  or  else  borne  or 
 holden  by  his  chaplain." 
 
 PATEN.  The  plate  on  which  the  sacred 
 bread  in  the  eucharist  is  laid.  The  original 
 word  signifies  a  wide  open  dish.  It  occurs 
 in  our  Communion  Ofifice,  at  consecration, 
 *'  here  the  priest  is  to  take  the  paten  into 
 his  hands." 
 
 PATRIARCHS.  (From  the  Greek 
 Trarpto,  family,  and  apxi>iv,  head  or  ruler.) 
 Patriarchs  among  Christians  are  ecclesi- 
 astical dignitaries,  or  bishops,  so_  called 
 from  their  ^.>a^enia/  authority  in  the 
 Church. 
 
 In  the  ancient  Christian  Church,  patri- 
 archs were  next  in  order  to  metropolitans 
 or  primates.  They  were  originally  styled 
 archbishops,  and  exarchs  of  a  diocese.  For 
 the  name  archbishop  was  anciently  a  more 
 extensive  title  than  now,  and  scarce  given 
 to  any  but  those  whose  jurisdiction  ex- 
 tended over  a  Avhole  imperial  diocese,  as 
 the  bishops  of  Rome,  Alexandria,  Antioch, 
 &c.  After  the  setting  up  the  patriarchal 
 power,  the  name  archbishop  was  appropri- 
 ated to  the  patriarchs. 
 
 The  first  time  m'c  meet  with  the  name 
 patriarch  given  to  any  bishop  by  public 
 authority  of  the  Church,  is  in  the  Council 
 of  Chalcedon,  which  mentions  the  most 
 holy  patriarchs,  particularly  Leo,  patriarch 
 of  great  Rome.  Among  i)rivate  authors, 
 the  first  who  mentions  patriarchs  by  name 
 is  Socrates,  who  wrote  his  history  about 
 the  year  440,  eleven  years  before  the 
 Council  of  Chalcedon.  But  though  we 
 cannot  trace  the  name  any  higher,  yet  the 
 power  itself  was  much  earlier.  The  Ro- 
 manists carry  it  up  to  the  time  of  the 
 apostles.  Others  fix  it  to  a  little  before  the 
 Council  of  Nice.  Others  ascribe  its  rise 
 to  that  very  council.  In  a  matter  so  ob- 
 scure, and  so  variously  controverted  among 
 learned  men,  it  is  no  easy  matter  to  deter- 
 mine where  the  right  lies.     But,  however 
 
 it  be,  the  fourth  century  affords  pregnant 
 proofs  of  the  establishment  and  growth  of 
 the  patriarchal  power. 
 
 The  power  of  patriarchs  was  not  one 
 and  the  same  precisely  in  all  churches,  but 
 differed  according  to  the  different  customs 
 of  places  and  countries,  or  the  pleasure  of 
 kings  or  councils.  The  patriarch  of  Con- 
 stantinople grew  to  be  a  patriarch  over 
 the  patriarchs  of  Ephesus  and  Csesarea. 
 And  the  prtriarch  of  Alexandria  had  some 
 prerogatives  which  no  other  patriarchs 
 besides  himself  enjoyed.  Such  was  the 
 right  of  consecrating  and  approving  every 
 single  bishop  under  his  jurisdiction. 
 
 The  general  privileges  of  the  patriarchate 
 were  these  following: — First,  the  patri- 
 archs ordained  all  the  metropolitans  under 
 them ;  but  they  themselves  were  to  be 
 ordained  by  a  diocesan  synod.  Secondly, 
 they  had  the  power  of  convening  all  their 
 metropolitans  and  provincial  bishops  to  a 
 diocesan  synod.  Thirdly,  they  had  the 
 privilege  of  receiving  appeals  from  metro- 
 politans and  provincial  synods,  and  re- 
 versing their  decrees.  In  the  fourth  place, 
 they  might  inquire  into  the  administration 
 of  metropolitans,  and  censure  them  in  case 
 of  heresy  or  misdemeanour.  By  virtue  of 
 this  power,  Chrysostom  deposed  Gerontius, 
 bishop  of  Nicomedia.  Fifthly,  a  patriarch 
 had  power  to  delegate,  or  send  a  metro- 
 politan into  any  part  of  his  diocese,  as 
 liis  commissioner,  to  hear  and  determine 
 ecclesiastical  causes  in  his  name.  Sixthly, 
 the  metropolitans  did  nothing  of  moment 
 without  consulting  the  patriarchs.  Se- 
 venthly, it  was  the  patriarch's  office  to 
 publish  both  ecclesiastical  and  civil  laws, 
 which  concerned  the  Church.  The  last 
 privilege  of  patriarchs  was,  that  they  were 
 all  co-ordinate  and  independent  of  one 
 another.  After  ages,  it  is  true,  made  great 
 alteration  in  this  matter. 
 
 Learned  men  reckon  up  thirteen  patri- 
 archs in  those  early  ages,  that  is,  one  in 
 every  capital  city  of  each  diocese  in  the 
 Romish  empu'e.  The  patriarchs  were  as 
 follows : — 
 
 The  patriarchs  of  Antioch  and  Ephesus, 
 in  Asia. 
 
 The  patriarch  of  Ca?sarea,  in  Cappa- 
 docia. 
 
 The  patriarch  of  Thessalonica,  in  Mace- 
 donia. 
 
 The  patriarch  of  Sirmium,  in  Illyricum. 
 The  patriarchs  of  Rome  and  Milan,  in 
 Italy. 
 
 The  patriarchs  of  Alexandria  and  Car- 
 thage, in  Egypt. 
 
 The  patriarch  of  Lyons,  in  France. 
 The  patriarch  of  Toledo,  in  Spain. 
 
PATRIARCHS. 
 
 The  patriarch  of  York,  in  Britain. 
 
 The  ])atriarch  of  Constant inoj)lo,  styled 
 the  (Ecwnenical,  or  Universal  Patriarch. 
 
 All  these  were  independent  of  one 
 another,  till  Home  by  encroachment,  and 
 Constantinople  by  \n\\,  gained  a  suj)eriority 
 over  some  of  the  rest.  The  subordinate 
 patriarchs,  nevertheless,  still  retained  the 
 title  of  exarchs  of  the  diocese,  and  con- 
 tinued to  sit  and  vote  in  councils. 
 
 The  title  of  patriarch  is  still  kept  \\\)  in 
 the  Greek  Church ;  the  supreme  head  of 
 which  is  the  patriarch  of  Constantinople, 
 who  pays  a  large  sum  (sometimes  ten, 
 sometimes  twenty,  thousand  crowns)  to 
 the  Grand  Seignor,  for  his  instalment.  His 
 revenue  amounts  to  near  forty  thousand 
 croMns  a  year,  arising  from  the  sale  of 
 bishoprics  and  other  benefices ;  besides 
 that  every  priest  in  Constantino])le  pays 
 him  a  crown  per  annum.  There  are  about 
 1 50  bishops  and  archbishops  dependent  on 
 this  patriarch. 
 
 After  the  patriarch  of  Constantinople, 
 the  richest  is  the  patriarch  of  Jerusalem. 
 The  patriarch  of  Antioch  is  the  poorest  of 
 them  all.  The  patriarch  of  Alexandria  is 
 very  powerful :  he  assumes  the  title  of 
 Grand  Judge  of  the  whole  world.  But 
 what  distinguishes  him  more  than  all  the 
 rest  from  the  patriarch  of  Constantinople 
 is,  his  being  less  exposed  to  the  avarice 
 and  resentments  of  the  Turks. 
 
 The  patriarch  of  Constantinople  is  elect- 
 ed by  the  archbishops  and  bishops,  with 
 the  consent  and  approbation  of  the  Grand 
 Seignor,  who  presents  the  new  patriarch 
 with  a  white  horse,  a  black  capuch,  a  cro- 
 sier, and  an  embroidered  caftan.  The 
 bishop  of  Heraclea,  as  chief  archbishop, 
 has  a  right  to  consecrate  him.  This  pre- 
 late, dressed  in  pontifical  robes,  conducts 
 the  patriarch  to  his  throne,  and  vests  him 
 with  the  cross,  mitre,  and  other  ornaments. 
 He  is  attended  to  the  church  by  some  of 
 the  officers  of  the  I'orte,  who  read  over 
 his  letters  patent  at  the  church  door,  with 
 a  strict  charge  to  the  people  to  own  him 
 as  their  head,  to  maintain  him  suitaljly  to 
 his  dignity,  and  to  pay  his  debts,  under 
 penalty  of  bastinado  and  confiscation  of 
 their  effects. 
 
 The  Jews  had  their  patriarchs,  who 
 were  governors  set  u])  upon  the  destruc- 
 tion of  Jerusalem.  Gue  of  these  had  his 
 residence  at  Tiberias,  and  another  at  Ba- 
 bylon ;  who  were  the  heads  of  the  Jews 
 dispersed  throughout  the  Itoman  and  l*er- 
 sian  empires.  I'hey  continued  in  great 
 power  and  dignity  till  the  latter  end  of 
 the  fourth  century,  about  M'hich  time  the 
 order  ceased. 
 
 PATRON. 
 
 571 
 
 PATRIMONY.  A  name  ancientlv  given 
 to  church  estates,  or  revenues.  Tbus  we 
 find  mentioned,  in  the  letters  of  St.  Gre- 
 gory, not  only  the  patrimony  of  the  Boman 
 Church,  but  those  likewise  of  the  Churches 
 of  ]{imini,  Milan,  and  Bavenna.  This 
 name,  therefore,  does  not  ])eculiarly  sig- 
 nify any  sovereign  dominion  or  jurisdic- 
 tion, belonging  to  the  Jtoman  Cliurcii,  or 
 the  ])ope. 
 
 Churches,  in  cities  whose  inliabitants 
 were  but  of  modern  subsistence,  had  no 
 estates  left  to  them  out  of  their  own  dis- 
 trict :  but  those  in  ini])erial  cities,  such  as 
 Home,  liavenna,  and  Milan,  where  sena- 
 tors, and  i)ersons  of  the  first  rank,  inhabit- 
 ed, were  endowed  with  estates  in  divers 
 parts  of  the  world.  St.  Gregory  mentions 
 the  patrimony  of  the  Church  of  Itavenna 
 in  Sicily,  and  another  of  the  Church  of 
 Milan  in  that  kingdom.  The  Itoman 
 Church  had  patrimonies  in  France,  Africa, 
 Sicily,  in  the  Cottian  Alps,  and  in  many 
 other  countries.  The  same  St.  Gregory 
 had  a  lawsuit  with  the  bishop  of  Jta- 
 venna  for  the  patrimonies  of  the  two 
 Churches,  which  afterwards  ended  by 
 agreement. 
 
 I'ATBIPASSIANS.  {A  patre  jmsso.) 
 A  denomination  that  arose  in  the  second 
 century.  Braxeas,  a  man  of  genius  and 
 learning,  denied  any  real  distinction  be- 
 tween the  Fatiikr.  Son,  and  Holy  (iiiosT, 
 and  maintained  that  the  Fatiikr,  sole 
 Creator  of  all  things,  had  united  to  himself 
 the  human  nature  of  Christ.  Hence  his 
 followers  were  called  Monarchians,  be- 
 cause of  their  denying  a  plurality  of  per- 
 sons in  the  Deity :  and  also  Batrij)assians, 
 because  they  believed  that  tlie  Father 
 was  so  intimately  united  with  the  man 
 Christ,  his  Son,  that  he  suffered  with 
 him  the  anguish  of  an  afflicted  life,  and 
 the  torments  of  an  ignominious  death.  It 
 does  not  appear  that  this  sect  formed  to 
 itself  any  separate  place  of  worshij),  or 
 removed  from  the  ordinary  assemblies  of 
 Christians. 
 
 IWTBOX.  The  person  who  has  the 
 right  to  present  to  a  benefice.  The  great- 
 est i)art  of  the  benefices  in  Kngland  are 
 ])resentative ;  the  thanes  or  lords,  \\\\o 
 built  and  endowed  churches,  having  first 
 agreed  with  the  bishops  that  they  should 
 have  the  privilege  of  j)resenting  fit  clerks 
 to  serve  and  receive  the  ])rofits  of  the 
 churches  founded  by  them  ;  which  right  i.s 
 cf)ntinued  to  their  ])osterity,  and  tlu)se  who 
 have  purchased  of  them.  See  the  14  <S:  1.3 
 \'ic.  c.  97,  for  a  new  legislative  right  of  ))a- 
 tronage  to  builders  and  endowers  of  new 
 churches. 
 
572  PAUL,  ST.,  THE  CONVERSION  OF. 
 
 PAX  VOBISCUM. 
 
 PAUL,  ST.,  THE  CONVERSION  OF. 
 
 A  festival  of  the  Chi'istian  Church,  ob- 
 served on  the  twenty-fifth  of  Junuary. 
 
 The  Cliurch  clioo.ses  to  commemorate 
 St.  Paul  by  his  Conversion,  because,  as  it 
 was  wonderful  in  itself,  and  a  miraculous 
 eflect  of  the  powerful  grace  of  God,  so 
 was  it  highly  beneficial  to  the  Church  of 
 Christ  :  for,  Avhile  the  other  apostles  had 
 their  particular  provinces,  he  had  the  care 
 of  all  the  Churches,  and  by  his  indefa- 
 tigable labours  contributed  very  much  to 
 the  propagation  of  the  gospel  througliout 
 the  world. 
 
 It  is  remarkable  of  this  great  apostle  of 
 the  Gentiles,  that,  after  his  conversion,  he 
 changed  his  name,  being  called  before 
 Saul,  a  name  famous  among  the  tribe  of 
 Benjamin  (to  which  he  belonged)  ever 
 since  the  first  king  of  Israel,  Saul,  v.as 
 chosen  out  of  that  tribe.  The  name  Paul, 
 which  he  afterwards  assumed,  related  to 
 the  Iloman  corporation  where  he  was  born ; 
 though  some  have  thought  it  was  in  me- 
 mory of  his  converting  Sergius  Paulus, 
 the  Eoman  governor. 
 
 Among  other  reasons  which  may  be 
 assigned  for  the  miraculous  conversion  of 
 St.  Paul,  the  most  considerable  seems  to 
 be,  that  this  might  add  the  greater  weight 
 and  authority  to  his  preaching  ;  which  was 
 necessary,  considering  the  great  share  he 
 was  to  have  in  planting  Christianity  in  the 
 world.  Add  to  this,  that  St.  Paul  appears 
 to  have  had  a  very  honest  mind,  and  to 
 have  been  influenced  with  a  regard  only 
 to  what  he  thought  truth ;  but  being  pre- 
 judiced by  education,  and  pushed  on  by 
 the  heat  of  his  natural  temper,  was  trans- 
 ported with  furious  zeal ;  and  therefore 
 God  was  pleased  to  "  show  mercy  to  him," 
 because  what  he  did  was  done  "  ignorantly, 
 in  unbelief;"  and  in  a  miracvdous  manner 
 to  convince  him  of  the  truth  of  that  reli- 
 gion which  he  persecuted. 
 
 PAUL'S,  ST.,  CROSS.    (See  Cross.) 
 
 PAULIANISTS.  The  Paulianists  de- 
 rive their  name  from  Paulus  Samosatensis, 
 who  was  elected  bishop  of  Antioch,  a.  d. 
 260.  He  maintained,  amongst  other  errors, 
 that  our  Lord  was  a  mere  man,  and  had 
 not  come  down  from  heaven.  He  was 
 condemned  and  deposed  by  a  council  at 
 Antioch,  A.  d.  272.  One  of  the  canons  of 
 Nice  required  the  Paulianists  to  be  re- 
 baptized,  because  in  baptizing  they  did  not 
 use  the  only  lawful  form  according  to  our 
 Saviour's  command. 
 
 PAULICIANS.  Heretics  in  the  seventh 
 century,  disciples  of  Constantino,  a  native 
 of  Armenia,  and  a  favourer  of  the  errors 
 of  Manes. 
 
 As  the  name  of  Manicheans  v.as  become 
 odious  to  all  nations,  he  gave  those  of  his 
 sect  the  title  of  Paulicians,  on  pretence  that 
 they  followed  only  tlie  doctrine  of  St.  Paul. 
 
 One  of  their  most  detestable  maxims  was, 
 not  to  give  alms  to  the  poor,  that  they 
 might  not  contribute  to  the  support  of 
 creatures  who  were  the  work  of  the  bad  god. 
 
 The  sect  of  the  Paulicians  did  not  spread 
 much  till  the  reign  of  the  emperor  Nice- 
 phorus,  who  began  to  reign  in  801.  The 
 protection  of  this  prince  drew  great  num- 
 bers to  their  party.  But  the  empress 
 Theodora,  regent  during  the  minority  of 
 ]Michel,  published  an  edict,  obliging  them 
 to  follow  the  Catholic  faith,  or  to  depart 
 out  of  the  empire.  Many  of  them  chose 
 rather  to  suff'er  death  than  to  obey ;  and 
 several,  who  lay  concealed,  afterwards  took 
 up  arms  against  the  emperor  Basil,  the 
 Macedonian. 
 
 PAX.  A  small  tablet  of  silver,  or  some 
 fit  material,  often  very  elaborately  orna- 
 mented, by  means  of  which  the  kiss  of 
 peace  was,  in  the  mediaeval  Church,  circu- 
 lated through  the  congregation.  It  was 
 introduced  when  the  primitive  kiss  of 
 peace,  which  used  to  circulate  throughout 
 the  Christian  assemblies,  was  discontinued 
 on  account  of  some  appearance  of  scandal 
 which  had  grown  out  of  it.  In  the  place 
 of  this,  a  small  tablet  of  silver  or  ivory,  or 
 some  appropriate  material,  having  first 
 received  the  kiss  of  the  priest,  was  pre- 
 sented by  him  to  the  deacon,  and  by  him 
 again  to  the  people,  by  all  of  whom  it  was 
 kissed  in  order  ;  thus  receiving  and  trans- 
 mitting from  each  to  all  the  symbol  of 
 Christian  love  and  unity,  without  any  pos- 
 sibility of  off"ence. 
 
 In  the  Syrian  churches,  the  following 
 seems  to  be  the  way  in  which  the  same 
 thing  is  symbolized.  In  a  part  of  the 
 prayers,  which  has  a  reference  to  the  birth 
 of  Christ,  on  pronouncing  the  words 
 "  Peace  on  earth,  good  will  towards  men," 
 the  attending  ministers  take  the  officiating 
 priest's  right  between  both  their  hands, 
 and  so  pass  the  ^;e«ce  to  the  congregation, 
 each  of  whom  takes  his  neighbour's  right 
 hand,  and  salutes  him  with  the  word  peace. 
 In  the  Romish  Church  the  Pax  is  still  used. 
 By  the  Chiu'ch  of  England  it  was  omitted 
 at  the  Reformation  as  a  useless  ceremony. 
 Though  the  paa:  as  an  ornament  is  found 
 among  the  ornaments  of  the  altar,  pre- 
 served in  many  churches  after  the  Reform- 
 ation.— See  Iliereuf/ta  Arn/Iicana. 
 
 PAX  VOBISCUM.  (Laf.)  In  English, 
 "  Peace  be  with  you."  A  form  of  saluta- 
 tion frequently  made  use  of  in  the  offices 
 of  the  ancient  Christian  Church. 
 
PECULIARS. 
 
 PELAGIANS. 
 
 •73 
 
 First,  It  -Nvas  usual  for  the  bishop  to 
 salute  the  people,  in  this  form,  at  his  first 
 entrance  into  the  church.  This  is  often 
 mentioned  by  St.  Chrysostom,  ^ho  derives 
 it  from  apostolical  practice. 
 
 Secondly,  The  reader  began  the  readinf^ 
 of  the  lessons  with  this  form.  St.  Cyprian 
 plainly  alludes  to  this,  when,  speakinj^^  of 
 a  new  reader,  whom  he  had  ordained  to 
 that  office,  he  says,  Auspicatus  est  Pacem, 
 (him  dedicat  Icctiunem  ;  he  began  to  use  the 
 salutation,  Peace  he  with  you,  when  he  first 
 began  to  read.  The  third  Council  of  Car- 
 thage took  away  this  privilege  from  the 
 readers,  and  gave  it  to  the  deacons,  or 
 other  superior  ministers  of  the  church. 
 
 Thirdly,  In  many  places,  the  sermon 
 was  introduced  with  this  form  of  saluta- 
 tion, and  often  ended  with  it. 
 
 Fourthly,  It  was  always  used  at  the 
 consecration  of  the  eucharist :  and, 
 
 Lastly,  At  the  dismission  of  the  congre- 
 gation. And,  whenever  it  was  said  by  the 
 officiating  minister,  the  people  always  an- 
 swered, uind  with  thy  spirit. 
 
 St.  Chrysostom  lays  open  the  original 
 intent  and  design  of  this  practice.  For  he 
 says,  it  was  an  ancient  custom  in  the  apos- 
 tles' days,  when  the  rulers  of  the  Church 
 had  the  gift  of  inspiration,  for  the  people 
 to  say  to  the  preacher,  Peace  he  with  thy 
 sjjirit ;  acknowledging  thereby  that  they 
 were  under  the  guidance  and  direction  of 
 the  Spirit  of  God. 
 
 In  our  own  liturgy  we  use  an  equiva- 
 lent salutation,  namely.  The  Lord  he  with 
 you  ;  to  which  the  people  answer,  (as  the 
 primitive  Christians  did,)  And  ivith  thy 
 spirit.  It  occurs  but  twice  in  our  Prayer 
 Book,  i.  e.  after  the  Creed  at  Morning  and 
 Evening  Prayer.  In  the  First  Book  of  King 
 Edward  it  followed  the  versicles,  immedi- 
 ately preceding  the  collect  for  the  day : 
 besides  being  used  more  than  once  in 
 other  offices. 
 
 PECULIARS.  Those  parishes  and 
 places  are  called  peculiars,  which  are  ex- 
 empted from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  proper 
 ordinary  of  the  diocese  where  they  lie. 
 These  exempt  jurisdictions  are  so  called, 
 not  because  they  arc  under  no  ordinary, 
 but  because  they  are  not  under  the  ordi- 
 nary of  the  diocese,  but  have  one  of  their 
 own.  They  are  a  remnant  of  Popery. 
 The  pope,  before  the  Ileformation,  by  a 
 usurped  authority,  in  defiance  of  the  canons 
 of  the  Church,  exemjitcd  them  from  the 
 jurisdiction  of  the  bishoj)  of  the  diocese. 
 At  the  Ileformation,  by  an  oversight,  they 
 were  not  restored  to  the  jurisdiction  of 
 the  diocesan,  but  remained  imder  the  sove- 
 reign, or  under  such  other  person,  as  by 
 
 custom  or  purchase  obtained  the  right  of 
 superintendence. 
 
 The  act  6  &  7  AVill.  IV.  c.  77,  which 
 constituted  the  ecclesiastical  commission, 
 emjjowered  the  commissioners  "to  jjropose 
 those  parishes,  churches,  or  chanelries 
 which  are  locally  situate  in  any  diocese, 
 but  subject  to  any  ])eculiar  jurisdiction, 
 other  than  the  jurisdiction  of  the  bisliop  of 
 the  diocese  in  which  the  same  are  locally 
 situate,  shall  be  only  su])ject  to  the  juris- 
 diction of  the  bishop  of  the  diocese  within 
 which  such  i)arishes,  churches,  or  cha})el- 
 ries  are  locally  situate."  (Sect.  10.)  In 
 consequence  of  recommendations  by  the 
 commissioners,  peculiars  have  been  abol- 
 ished in  most,  if  not  all,  dioceses  of  Eng- 
 land. 
 
 PELAGIANS.  Heretics  who  first  ap- 
 peared about  the  latter  end  of  the  fourth, 
 or  beginning  of  the  fifth,  century. 
 
 Pelagius,  author  of  this  sect,  was  a  Bri- 
 ton, being  born  in  Wales.  1 1  is  name,  in 
 the  British  language,  was  Morgan,  which 
 signifies  sea-born ;  from  whence  he  had 
 his  Latin  name  Pelagius.  lie  is  said  to 
 have  been  a  monk  by  profession  ;  but  j)ro- 
 bably  was  no  otherwise  such  than  as  those 
 were  so  called  who  led  stricter  lives  than 
 others  within  their  own  houses.  Some 
 of  our  ancient  historians  pretend  that  he 
 was  abbot  of  Bangor.  But  this  is  not 
 likely,  because  the  British  monasteries 
 (according  to  a  learned  author)  were  of  a 
 later  date.  St.  Augustine  gives  him  the 
 character  of  a  very  pious  man,  and  a  Chris- 
 tian of  no  vulgar  rank.  According  to  the 
 same  father,  he  travelled  to  Bome,  where 
 he  associated  himself  with  persons  of  the 
 greatest  learning  and  figure.  Here  he  in- 
 structed several  young  persons,  particularly 
 Ccclestius  and  Julianus  ;  as  also  Timasius 
 and  Jacobus,  who  afterwards  renounced 
 his  doctrine,  and  applied  themselves  to  St. 
 Augustine.  During  this  time  he  wrote  his 
 "  Commentaries  on  St.  Paul's  E])istles,''  and 
 his  Letters  to  Melania  and  Dcmetrias. 
 
 Pelagius,  being  charged  with  heresy, 
 left  Home,  and  went  into  Africa,  where 
 he  was  ])resent  at  the  famous  conference 
 held  at  Carthage,  between  the  Catholics 
 and  Donatists.  From  Carthage  he  tra- 
 velled into  Egypt,  and  at  last  went  to 
 Jerusalem,  Avhcre  he  settled.  He  was 
 accused  before  the  Council  of  l)iosi)olis  in 
 Palestine,  where  he  recanted  his  oi)inions ; 
 but  relapsing,  and  discovering  the  insin- 
 cerity of  his  recantation,  he  was  afterwards 
 coiulemned  l)y  several  councils  in  Africa, 
 and  by  a  synod  at  Antioch.  Pelagius  died 
 somewhere  in  the  I'ast,  but  where  is  un- 
 certain.    His  principal  tenets,  as  we  find 
 
574 
 
 PENANCE. 
 
 them  charged  upon  his  disciple  Ccelestius 
 by  the  Church  of  Carthage,  were  these : 
 
 I.  That  Adam  -was  by  nature  mortal, 
 and,  whether  he  had  sinned  or  not,  would 
 certainly  have  died. 
 
 II.  That  the  consequences  of  Adam's 
 sin  were  confined  to  his  person,  and  the 
 rest  of  mankind  received  no  disadvantage 
 therebv. 
 
 III. 'That  the  law  qualified  men  for  the 
 kingdom  of  heaven,  and  was  founded  upon 
 equal  promises  with  the  gospel. 
 
 IV.  That,  before  the  coming  of  our 
 Saviour,  some  men  lived  without  sin. 
 
 V.  That  new-born  infants  are  in  the 
 same  condition  with  Adam  before  his  fall. 
 
 VI.  That  the  general  resurrection  of  the 
 dead  does  not  follow  in  virtue  of  our 
 Saviour's  resurrection. 
 
 VII.  That  a  man  may  keep  the  com- 
 mands of  God  without  difficulty,  and  pre- 
 serve himself  in  a  perfect  state  of  inno- 
 cence. 
 
 VIII.  That  rich  men  cannot  enter  into 
 the  kingdom  of  heaven,  unless  they  part 
 with  all  theu'  estate. 
 
 IX.  That  the  grace  of  GoD  is  not 
 granted  for  the  performance  of  every  moral 
 act ;  the  liberty  of  the  will,  and  informa- 
 tion in  points  of  duty,  being  sufficient  for 
 this  purpose. 
 
 X.  That  the  grace  of  GoD  is  given  in 
 proportion  to  our  merits. 
 
 XI.  That  none  can  be  called  the  sons  of 
 God,  but  those  who  are  perfectly  free 
 from  sin. 
 
 XII.  That  our  victory  over  temptation 
 is  not  gained  by  God's  assistance,  but  by 
 the  liberty  of  the  will. 
 
 The  heresy  of  Pelagius,  notwithstanding 
 its  condemnation,  made  its  way  into 
 Britain,  where  its  author  was  born  ;  being 
 conveyed  thither  by  one  Agricola,  the  son 
 of  Severianus,  a  Pelagian  bishop  of  Gaul. 
 The  orthodox  party  were  very  diligent  in 
 opposing  its  progi-ess,  and  for  that  purpose 
 requested  the  Gallican  bishops  to  send 
 over  some  persons  of  eminence  to  manage 
 the  contest.  Those  chosen  for  this  pur- 
 pose were  Gcrmanus,  bishop  of  Auxerre, 
 and  Lupus,  bishop  of  Troyes ;  who,  arriving 
 in  Britain,  held  a  famous  conference  with 
 the  Pelagians  at  St.  Alban's,  in  which  the 
 latter  were  put  to  silence,  and  the  people 
 gave  sentence,  by  their  acclamations,  for 
 Germanus  and  Lupus.  The  Pelagian 
 error  respecting  original  sin  is  noticed  in 
 our  ninth  Article. 
 
 PENANCE.  {Pceiiitentia,  Latin.)  As 
 repentance  is  the  principle  and  inward 
 feeling  of  sorrow  for  sin,  which  we  are 
 determined  to  forsake,  so  penance  is  the 
 
 outward  profession  of  that  sorrow.  An 
 account  of  penance  in  the  primitive  Church 
 may  be  seen  in  Bingham,  and  more  con- 
 cisely in  Coleman,  from  whom  we  shall 
 quote  in  this  article.  Penance,  in  the 
 Chi'istian  Church,  is  an  imitation  of  the 
 discipline  of  the  Jewish  synagogue ;  or, 
 rather,  it  is  a  continuation  of  the  same  in- 
 stitution. Excommunication  in  the  Chris- 
 tian Church  is  essentially  the  same  as 
 expulsion  from  the  synagogue  of  the  Jews  ; 
 and  the  penances  of  the  offender,  required 
 for  his  restoration  to  his  former  condition, 
 were  not  materially  different  in  the  Jewish 
 and  Christian  Churches.  The  principal 
 point  of  distinction  consisted  in  this,  that 
 the  sentence  of  excommunication  affected 
 the  civil  relations  of  the  offender  under 
 the  Jewish  economy ;  but  in  the  Christian 
 Church  it  affected  only  his  relations  to 
 that  body.  Neither  the  spirit  of  the  pri- 
 mitive institutions  of  the  Church,  nor  its 
 situation,  nor  constitution  in  the  first  three 
 centuries,  was  at  all  compatible  with  the 
 intermingling  or  confounding  of  civil  and 
 religious  privileges  or  penalties. 
 
 The  act  of  excommunication  was,  at 
 first,  an  exclusion  of  the  offender  from  the 
 Lord's  supper,  and  from  the  w/apcp..  The 
 term  itself  implies  separation  from  the 
 communion.  The  practice  was  derived 
 from  the  injunction  of  the  apostle,  1  Cor.  v. 
 11,  "With  such  an  one  no  not  to  eaC 
 From  the  context,  and  from  1  Cor.  x.  16 
 — 18 ;  xi.  20 — 34,  it  clearly  appears  that 
 the  apostle  refers,  not  to  common  meals, 
 and  the  ordinary  intercourse  of  life,  but  to 
 these  religious  festivals. 
 
 ■  Examples  of  penitence  oj-  repentance 
 occur  in  the  Old  Testament ;  neither  are 
 there  wanting  instances,  not  merely  of 
 individuals,  but  of  a  whole  city  or  people, 
 performing  certain  acts  of  penance, — 
 fasting,  mourning,  &c.  (Nehem.  ix.  and 
 Jonah  iii.)  But  these  acts  of  humiliation 
 were  essentially  different,  in  their  relations 
 to  individuals,  from  Christian  penance. 
 
 We  have,  however,  in  the  New  Testa- 
 ment, an  instance  of  the  excommunication 
 of  an  offending  member,  and  of  his  restor- 
 ation to  the  fellowship  of  the  Church  by 
 penance,  agreeably  to  the  authority  of 
 St.  Paul,  1  Cor.  v.'l— 8  ;  2  Cor.  ii.  5—11. 
 This  sentence  of  exclusion  from  the  Church 
 was  pronounced  by  the  assembled  body,  and 
 in  the  name  of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ. 
 By  this  sentence,  the  offender  was  separ- 
 ated from  the  people  of  the  Lord,  with 
 whom  he  had  been  joined  by  baptism,  and 
 was  reduced  to  his  former  condition  as  a 
 heathen  man,  subject  to  the  power  of  Sa- 
 tan, and  of  evil  spirits.     This  is,  perhaps, 
 
PENANCE. 
 
 the  true  import  of  delivering  such  an  one 
 up  to  Satan. 
 
 A  similar  act  of  excommunication  is 
 described  briefly  in  1  Cor.  xvi.  22,  "  If 
 any  man  love  not  the  Lord  Jksus  Christ, 
 let  him  be  anathema  maranatha."  The 
 /iapdv  (i6a  corres])onds,  in  sense,  with  the 
 Hebrew  nnn,  and  denotes  a  thing  devoted 
 to  utter  destruction ;  (which,  however,  is 
 by  some  supposed  to  be  the  Syro-Chaldaic 
 nnK  NJ-iD,  ex])ressed  in  the  Greek  charac- 
 ter, meaning,  '*  The  Lord  cometh.")  (See 
 3Iaranatha.)  The  whole  sentence  im])lies 
 that  the  Church  leaves  the  subject  of  it  to 
 the  Lord,  who  cometh  to  execute  judg- 
 ment upon  him.  All  that  the  apostle  re- 
 quires of  the  Corinthians  is,  that  they 
 should  exclude  him  from  their  communion 
 and  fellowship  ;  so  that  he  should  no  longer 
 be  regarded  as  one  of  their  body.  He 
 pronounces  no  further  judgment  u])on  the 
 offender,  but  leaves  him  to  the  judgment 
 of  God.  "  What  have  I  to  do  to  judge 
 them  that  are  without?"  (ver.  12,)  i.  e. 
 those  Mho  are  not  Christians,  to  which  class 
 the  excommunicated  j^erson  would  belong. 
 "  Do  not  ye  judge  them  that  are  within  P" 
 i.  e.  full  members  of  the  Church.  But 
 them  that  are  without  GoD  judgeth  ;  or 
 rather  ^cill  judge,  kqivh,  as  the  reading 
 should  be.  It  appears  from  2  Cor.  li.  1 — 11, 
 that  the  Church  had  not  restored  such  to 
 the  privileges  of  communion,  but  were 
 willing  to  do  so  ;  and  that  the  apostle  very 
 gladly  authorized  the  measure. 
 
 It  is  important  to  remark  that,  in  the 
 primitive  Church,  penance  related  only  to 
 such  as  had  been  excluded  from  the  com- 
 munion of  the  Church.  Its  immediate 
 object  was,  not  the  forgiveness  of  the 
 offender  by  the  Lord  God,  but  his  recon- 
 ciliation with  the  Church.  It  could,  there- 
 fore, relate  only  to  open  and  scandalous 
 offences.  De  occultis  noti  jiiclicat  ecclcsia 
 — the  Church  takes  no  cognizance  of  secret 
 sins — was  an  ancient  maxim  of  the  Church. 
 The  early  Feathers  say  expressly,  that  the 
 Church  offers  pardon  only  for  offences 
 committed  against  her.  The  forgiveness 
 of  all  sin  she  refers  to  God  himself.  Om- 
 nia autcm,  says  Cyprian,  Ep.  55,  renu'smiis 
 Deo  omnipotent i,  in  cujus  potestatc  sunt 
 omnia  reservala.  Such  are  the  concurring 
 sentiments  of  most  of  the  early  writers  on 
 this  subject.  It  was  reserved  for  a  later 
 age  to  confound  these  Important  distinc- 
 tions, and  to  arrogate  to  the  Church  the 
 prerogative  of  forgiving  sins. 
 
 The  readmlsslon  of  penitents  into  the 
 Church  was  the  subject  of  frequent  con- 
 troversy with  the  early  Fathers,  and  an- 
 cient religious   sects.       Some   contended 
 
 PENANCE,  THE  SACRAMENT  OF.    575 
 
 that  those  who  had  once  been  excUuK-d 
 from  the  Church  for  their  crimes,  ,ni.rht 
 never  agam  to  be  received  to  iicr  fellow- 
 ship and  communion.  JJut  the  Church 
 generally  were  dIsj)osed  to  exercise  a  more 
 charitable  and  forgiving  sj)irit. 
 
 PEXA.NX'E.  In  the  law  of  England, 
 penance  is  an  ecclesiastical  i)unishment 
 or  penalty,  used  in  the  discii)line  of  the 
 Church  of  luigland,  by  which  an  of- 
 fender is  obliged  to  give  a  pu])llc  satis- 
 faction to  the  Church  for  scandal  done 
 by  his  evil  exam])le.  For  small  oll'cnces 
 and  scandals,  a  jjubllc  satisfaction  or  pen- 
 ance Is  required  to  be  made  before  the 
 minister,  churchwardens,  and  some  of  the 
 parishioners,  as  the  ecclesiastical  judge 
 shall  think  fit  to  decree.  These  penances 
 may  be  moderated  at  the  discretion  of  the 
 judge,  or  commuted  for  monev  to  be  de- 
 voted to  ])Ious  uses.  In  the  case  of  incest 
 or  Incontinency  the  offender  Is  sometimes 
 enjoined  to  do  public  penance  in  the  ca- 
 thedral, the  parish  church,  or  the  market- 
 place, bare-legged,  bare-headed,  and  in  a 
 white  sheet,  and  to  make  open  confession 
 of  his  crime  in  a  form  of  words  j)rescribed 
 by  the  judge.  This  sort  of  punisliment, 
 however,  being  contrary  to  the  spirit  of 
 the  age,  and  the  j)rolligate  being  found  to 
 make  j)artles  to  abet  the  offender,  it  has 
 fallen  into  desuetude. 
 
 PENANCE,  THi:  SACIIAMENT  OF. 
 Tlie  llomanists  define  penance  a  sacra- 
 ment, wherein  a  person,  who  has  the 
 requisite  dispositions,  receives  absolution 
 at  the  hands  of  the  priest,  of  all  sins  com- 
 mitted since  baptism.  (See  Auricular  Con- 
 fession, Satisfaction,  Purgatory,  Absolution.) 
 The  Council  of  Trent  (sess.  14,  can.  1) 
 has  expressly  decreed,  that  every  one  is 
 accursed  who  shall  affirm  that  ])enance  is 
 not  truly  and  properly  a  sacrament  insti- 
 tuted by  Christ  in  the  universal  Church, 
 for  reconciling  those  Christians  to  the  Di- 
 vine majesty  who  have  fallen  Into  sin  after 
 baptism;  and  this  sacrament,  it  is  declared, 
 consists  of  two  ])arts — the  matter  and  the 
 form  :  the  matter  Is  the  act  of  tiie  ])enitent, 
 IncludiDg  contrition,  confession,  and  satis- 
 faction ;  the  form  of  it  is  the  act  of  a))solu- 
 tion  on  the  ])art  of  the  priest.  Accordingly 
 it  is  enjoined,  that  it  is  the  duty  of  every 
 man,  who  hath  fallen  after  bai)tism,  to 
 confess  his  sins  once  a  year,  at  least,  to  a 
 priest;  that  this  confession  is  to  be  secret; 
 for  public  confession  is  neither  conmianded 
 nor  expedient ;  and  that  it  must  be  exact 
 and  paiticular,  including  every  kind  and 
 act  of  sin,  M'ith  all  the  circumstances  at- 
 tending it.  When  the  penitent  ha.s  so 
 done,  the  priest  pronounces  an  absolution, 
 
576    PENANCE,  THE  SACRAMENT  OF. 
 
 PENITENTIARIES. 
 
 which  is  not  conditional  or  declarative  only, 
 but  absolute  and  judicial.  This  secret  or 
 auricular  confession  ■svas  first  decreed  and 
 established  in  the  fourth  Council  of  Late- 
 ran,  under  Innocent  III.,  in  1215  (cap.  21). 
 And  the  decree  of  this  council  was  after- 
 wards confirmed  and  enlarged  in  the  Coun- 
 cil of  Florence,  and  in  that  of  Trent,  which 
 ordains  that  confession  was  instituted  by 
 Christ;  that,  by  the  law  of  God,  it  is 
 necessary  to  salvation,  and  that  it  has 
 ahvays  been  practised  in  the  Christian 
 Church.  As  for  the  penances  imposed  on 
 the  penitent  by  way  of  satisfaction,  they 
 have  been  commonly  the  repetition  of  cer- 
 tain forms  of  devotion,  as  Paternosters  or 
 Ave-Marias,  the  payment  of  stipulated 
 sums,  pilgrimages,  fasts,  or  various  species 
 of  corporeal  discipline.  But  the  most  for- 
 midable penance,  in  the  estimation  of  many 
 who  have  belonged  to  the  Koman  com- 
 munion, has  been  the  temporary  pains  of 
 purgatory.  But,  under  all  the  penalties 
 which  are  inflicted  or  threatened  in  the 
 llomish  Church,  it  has  provided  relief  by 
 its  indulgences,  and  by  its  prayers  or 
 masses  for  the  dead,  performed  professedly 
 for  relieving  and  rescuing  the  souls  that 
 are  detained  in  purgatory. 
 
 The  reader  need  scarcely  be  reminded 
 how  entirely  opposed  all  this  is  to  the 
 doctrine  of  the  Church  of  England.  The 
 Church  of  Rome  affirms  "penance  "to  be 
 a  "  sacrament,"  instituted  by  Christ  him- 
 self, and  secret  "confession"  to  be  one  of 
 its  constituent  parts,  instituted  by  the 
 Divine  law;  and  she  anathematizes  those 
 who  contradict  her: — the  Church  of  Eng- 
 land denies  "  penance  "  to  be  a  sacrament 
 of  the  gospel ;  afiirms  it  to  have  "  grown 
 of  the  corrupt  following  of  the  apostles  ; " 
 and  "  not  to  have  "  the  proper  "  nature  of 
 a  sacrament,"  as  "  not  having  any  visible 
 sign  or  ceremony  ordained  of  GoD ;  "  and 
 of  course  denies  the  sacramental  character 
 of  "  confession."  The  Church  of  Home 
 pronounces,  that,  by  the  Divine  law,  "  all 
 persons "  must  confess  their  sins  to  the 
 priest : — the  Church  of  England  limits  her 
 provisions  for  confession  to  "  sick  persons." 
 The  Church  of  Rome  pronounces  that  all 
 persons  are  "  bound  "  to  confess  :  —  the 
 Church  of  England  directs,  that  the  sick 
 "  be  moved "  to  make  confession.  The 
 Church  of  Rome  insists  upon  a  confession 
 of  "  all  sins  Avhatsoever :" —  the  Church  of 
 England  recommends  "a  special  confession 
 of  sins,"  if  the  sick  person  "  feel  his  con- 
 science troubled  with  any  weighty  matter." 
 The  Church  of  Rome  represents  penance 
 as  instituted  for  reconciling  penitents  to 
 God  "  as  often  as  they  fall  into  sin  after 
 
 baptism ;  "  and  imposes  confession  "  once  a 
 year  :  " — the  Church  of  England  advises  it 
 on  a  peculiar  occasion.  And  the  purpose 
 of  the  Church  of  England  in  so  advising  it 
 evidently  is  the  special  relief  of  a  troubled 
 conscience :  w^hereas  the  Church  of  Rome 
 pronounces  it  to  be  "  necessary  to  forgive- 
 ness of  sin  and  to  salvation  ; "  and  de- 
 nounces with  an  anathema  "  any  one  who 
 shall  say,  that  confession  is  only  useful  for 
 the  instruction  and  consolation  of  the 
 penitent."  And  let  it  be  observed,  in  the 
 first  place,  that  as  the  Church  of  England,  in 
 her  Commination  Service,  speaks  of  the 
 ancient  ordinance  of  ojjen  j^enance  as  "  a 
 discipline "  the  restoration  of  which  is 
 "  much  to  be  wished,"  she  hereby  recog- 
 nises the  ancient  systems  essentially  dif- 
 ferent from  that  of  Rome  :  namely,  ajnihlic 
 expression  of  sorrow  and  repentance,  to 
 satisfy  the  congregation,  scandalized  by 
 the  offence  ;  not  as  a  private  purchase  of 
 indemnity  to  the  individual :  and,  in  the 
 next  place,  when  she  uses  the  \;0Y(\.2^enance, 
 in  the  second  exhortation  in  the  same 
 service,  "  Seeking  to  bring  forth  worthy 
 fruits  of  penance,"  she  but  quotes  the  words 
 of  John  the  Baptist,  (St.  Luke  iii.  8,)  and 
 thus  identifies  penance  with  repentance, 
 HiTi'ivoia,  that  is,  change  of  mind  or  heart. 
 So  that  the  outM-ard  penance  is  the  mere 
 outward  s}Tnbol  of  the  inward  repentance. 
 PENITENTIAL.  A  collection  of  canons 
 in  the  Romish  Church,  which  appointed 
 the  time  and  manner  of  penance  to  be 
 regularly  imposed  for  every  sin,  and  forms 
 of  prayer  that  were  to  be  used  for  the  re- 
 ceiving of  those  who  entered  into  penance, 
 and  reconciling  penitents  by  solemn  abso- 
 lution ;  a  method  chiefly  introduced  in  the 
 time  of  the  degeneracy  of  the  Church. 
 
 PENITENTIAL  PSALMS.  (See 
 Psahns.) 
 
 PENITENTIARIES,  in  the  ancient 
 Christian  Church,  were  certain  presbyters, 
 or  priests,  appointed  in  every  church,  to 
 receive  the  private  confessions  of  the  peo- 
 ple ;  not  in  prejudice  to  the  public  dis- 
 cipline, nor  with  a  power  of  granting  ab- 
 solution before  any  penance  was  perform- 
 ed, but  to  facilitate  the  exercise  of  public 
 discipline,  by  acquainting  men  what  sins 
 the  laws  of  the  Church  required  to  be 
 expiated  by  public  penance,  and  by  direct- 
 ing them  in  the  performance  of  it ;  and 
 only  to  appoint  private  penance  for  such 
 private  crimes  as  were  not  proper  to  be 
 publicly  censured,  either  for  fear  of  doing 
 harm  to  the  penitent  himself,  or  giving 
 scandal  to  the  Church. 
 
 The  office  of  penitentiary  priests  was 
 abrogated  by  Nectarius,  bishop  of  Con- 
 
TENITENTS. 
 
 577 
 
 stantinople,  in  the  reign  of  Theodosius, 
 upon  a  certain  accident  that  ha])pcned  in 
 the  church.  A  gentlewoman,  coming  to 
 the  penitentiary,  made  a  confession  of  the 
 sins  she  had  committed  since  her  ha])tism. 
 The  penitentiary  enjoined  her  to  fiist  and 
 pray.  Soon  after  she  came  again,  and 
 confessed  that,  during  the  course  of  her 
 penance,  one  of  the  deacons  of  the  Church 
 had  defiled  her.  This  occasioned  the 
 deacon  to  be  cast  out  of  the  Church,  and 
 gave  great  offence  to  the  people.  AVhcre- 
 upon  the  bishop,  by  the  advice  of  a  presby- 
 ter named  Eudtemon,  took  away  the  peni- 
 tentiary's office,  leaving  every  one  to  his 
 own  conscience ;  this  being  the  only  way 
 to  free  the  Church  from  reproach.  — 
 Binfiham. 
 
 Nectarius's  example  was  followed  by  all 
 the  bishops  of  the  East,  who  took  away 
 their  penitentiaries.  However,  the  office 
 continued  in  use  in  the  Western  Churches, 
 and  chiefly  at  Home.  A  dignitary  in  many 
 of  the  foreign  cathedrals  is  so  called. 
 
 PENITENTS.  (See  Penayice.)  Penance 
 in  the  primitive  Church,  as  Coleman  from 
 Augusti  remarks,  was  wholly  a  voluntary 
 act  on  the  part  of  those  who  were  subject 
 to  it.  The  Church  not  only  would  not 
 enforce  it,  but  they  refused  even  to  urge 
 or  invite  any  to  submit  to  this  discipline. 
 It  was  to  be  sought  as  a  favour,  not  in- 
 flicted as  a  penalty.  But  the  offending 
 person  had  no  authority  or  permission  to 
 prescribe  his  own  duties  as  a  penitent. 
 When  once  he  had  resolved  to  seek  the  for- 
 giveness and  reconciliation  of  the  Church, 
 it  was  exclusively  the  prerogative  of  that 
 body  to  prescribe  the  conditions  on  which 
 this  was  to  be  effijcted.  No  one  could  even 
 be  received  as  a  candidate  for  penance, 
 without  permission  first  obtained  of  the 
 bishop,  or  presiding  elder. 
 
 The  duties  required  of  penitents  consist- 
 ed essentially  in  the  following  particulars  : 
 
 1.  Penitents  of  the  first  three  classes 
 were  required  to  kneel  in  worship,  whilst 
 the  faithful  were  permitted  to  stand. 
 
 2.  All  were  required  to  make  kno\Mi 
 their  penitential  sorrow  by  an  open  and 
 public  confession  of  their  sin.  This  con- 
 fession was  to  be  made,  not  before  the 
 bishop  or  the  priesthood,  but  in  the  pre- 
 sence of  the  whole  Church,  with  sighs,  and 
 tears,  and  lamentations.  These  expressions 
 of  grief  they  were  to  renew  and  continue 
 so  long  as  they  remained  in  the  first  or 
 lowest  class  of  jjcnitents,  entreating  at  the 
 same  time,  in  their  behalf,  the  prayers  and 
 intercessions  of  the  faithful.  Some  idea  of 
 the  nature  of  these  demonstrations  of  peni- 
 tence may  be  formed  from  a  record  of  them 
 
 2  V 
 
 contained  in  tlie  works  of  Cyprian.  Al- 
 most all  the  canons  lay  mucli  stress  upon 
 the  sighs  and  tears  accompanying  these 
 effusions. 
 
 3.  Throughout  the  whole  term  of  pen- 
 ance, all  expressions  of  joy  were  to  be  re- 
 strained, and  all  ornaments  of  dress  to  be 
 laid  aside.  'J'he  ])enitents  were  recjuircd, 
 literally,  to  wear  sackcloth,  and  to  cover 
 their  heads  with  ashes.  Nor  were  these 
 acts  of  humiliation  restricted  to  Ash  A\'ed- 
 nesday  merely,  but  then  especially  they 
 were  required. 
 
 4.  The  men  were  required  to  cut  short 
 their  hair,  and  to  shave  their  beards,  in 
 token  of  sorrow.  The  women  were  to 
 appear  with  dishevelled  hair,  and  wearing 
 a  peculiar  kind  of  veil. 
 
 o.  During  the  whole  term  of  ])enance, 
 bathing,  feasting,  and  sensual  gratifications, 
 alloMable  at  other  times,  were  prohibited. 
 In  the  spirit  of  these  regulations,  marriage 
 was  also  forbidden. 
 
 6.  Besides  these  restrictions  and  rules 
 of  a  negative  character,  there  were  certain 
 positive  requirements  with  which  the  peni- 
 tents were  expected  to  comply. 
 
 They  Avere  obliged  to  be  i)rcsent,  and  to 
 perform  their  part,  at  every  religious  as- 
 sembly, whether  ])ul:»lic  or  i)rivate  ;  a  regu- 
 lation which  neither  believers  nor  catechu- 
 mens were  required  to  ol^serve. 
 
 They  were  expected  to  abound  in  deeds 
 of  charity  and  benevolence,  particularly  in 
 almsgiving  to  the  ])Oor. 
 
 Especially  were  they  to  ])erform  the  du- 
 ties of  the  jHirahoIinii,  in  giving  attendance 
 upon  the  sick,  and  in  taking  care  of  them. 
 These  offices  of  kindness  they  were  ex- 
 pected particularly  to  bestow  upon  such  as 
 were  affected  with  contagious  diseases. 
 
 It  was  also  their  duty  to  assist  at  the 
 burial  of  the  dead.  The  regulations  last 
 mentioned  are  supposed  to  have  been 
 peculiar  to  the  Church  of  Africa. 
 
 These  duties  and  regulations  collectively 
 were  sometimes  included  under  tlie  general 
 term  iKofioXoyijmg,  confession.  By  this  was 
 understood  not  only  words,  but  works; 
 both,  in  connexion,  being  the  appropriate 
 means  of  manifesting  sorrow  for  sin,  and 
 the  i>ur])ose  of  amendment. 
 
 PKNITIONTS  IN  I'OPISir  COUN- 
 T1{II<:S.  There  are,  in  Poi)ish  countries, 
 ])articularlv  in  Italy,  several  fraternities 
 (as  thev  are  called)  of  penitents,  distin- 
 guislied  by  the  different  shape  and  colour 
 of  their  habits.  These  are  secular  so- 
 cieties, who  have  their  rules,  statutes,  and 
 churches;  and  make  pul)lic  processions 
 under  their  particular  cross  or  banner. 
 Of  these  there  arc  more  than  a  hundred  ; 
 
578 
 
 PENITENTS. 
 
 TERAMBULATION. 
 
 the  most  considerable  of  which  are  as 
 follows : — 
 
 I.  White  Penitents.  These  are  of  dif- 
 ferent sorts  at  Home.  The  most  ancient 
 is  that  of  Gonfalon,  instituted  in  12(54,  in 
 the  church  of  St.  Mary  Major :  in  imita- 
 tion of  which  four  others  were  established 
 in  the  church  of  Ara-Cceli ;  the  first  under 
 the  title  of  the  Nativity  of  our  Lord  ;  the 
 second  under  the  invocation  of  the  Holy 
 Virgin  ;  the  third  under  the  protection  of 
 the  Holy  Innocents  ;  and  the  fourth  under 
 the  patronage  of  St.  Helena.  The  brethren 
 of  this  fraternity,  every  year,  give  portions 
 to  a  certain  number  of  young  girls,  in 
 order  to  their  being  married.  Their  habit 
 is  a  kind  of  Avhite  sackcloth,  and  on  the 
 shoulder  is  a  circle,  in  the  middle  of  which 
 is  a  red  and  wliite  cross. 
 
 U.  Black  Penitents.  The  most  con- 
 siderable of  these  are  the  Brethren  of 
 Mercy,  or  St.  John  Baptist.  This  fra- 
 ternity was  instituted  in  1488,  by  some 
 Florentines,  in  order  to  assist  criminals  at 
 the  time  of  their  death,  and  during  their 
 imprisonment.  On  the  day  of  execution, 
 they  walk  in  procession  before  them,  sing- 
 ing the  seven  Penitential  Psalms,  and  the 
 Litanies  ;  and,  after  they  are  dead,  they 
 take  them  down  from  the  gibbet,  and  bury 
 them.  Their  habit  is  black  sackcloth. 
 There  are  others  whose  business  is  to  bury 
 such  persons  as  are  found  dead  in  the 
 streets.  They  wear  a  death's  head  on  one 
 side  of  their  habit. 
 
 III.  Blue  Penitents.    "|      All  these  are 
 
 IV.  Grey  Penitents.       remarkable  only 
 
 V.  lied  Penitents.      >  for  the  different 
 
 VI.  Green  Penitents,     colours  of  their 
 
 VII.  Violet  Penitents.  J  habits. 
 
 The  Church  of  Home  wrongly  renders 
 our  word  repentcmce  by  penance,  penance 
 being  an  attendant  on  repentance :  and 
 she  has  erred  in  making  penance  a  sacra- 
 ment in  the  same  sense  as  baptism  and 
 the  Lord's  supper.  This  our  Church 
 condemns,  but  she  speaks  of  the  ancient 
 discipline  of  the  Church  in  a  manner 
 which  greatly  shocks  ultra-Protestants. 
 "We  allude  to  the  following  address  in  the 
 Commination  Service  : — "  Brethren,  in  the 
 ])rimitive  Church  there  was  a  godly  dis- 
 cipline, and,  at  the  beginning  of  Lent, 
 such  persons  as  stood  convicted  of  noto- 
 rious sin  tceve  put  to  open  penance,  and 
 punished  in  this  world,  that  their  souls 
 mkfht  he  saved  in  the  day  of  the  Lord  ; 
 and  that  others,  admonished  by  their  ex- 
 ample, might  be  the  more  afraid  to  offend. 
 Instead  whereof  (until  the  said  discipline 
 may  be  restored  again,  which  is  much  to 
 be  wished)   it  is   thought   good,  that   at 
 
 this  time  (in  the  presence  of  you  all) 
 should  be  read  the  general  sentences  of 
 God's  cursing  against  impenitent  sinners, 
 gathered  out  of  the  seven  and  twentieth 
 chapter  of  Deuteronomy,  and  other  places 
 of  Scripture  ;  and  that  ye  should  answer 
 to  every  sentence.  Amen:  to  the  intent 
 that,  being  admonished  of  the  great  in- 
 dignation of  God  against  sinners,  ye  may 
 the  rather  be  moved  to  earnest  and  true 
 repentance,  and  may  walk  more  Avarily 
 in  these  dangerous  days,  fleeing  from  such 
 vices,  for  which  ye  affirm  with  your  own 
 mouths  the  curse  of  God  to  be  due.  (See 
 Penance.) 
 
 ^  PENTATEUCH,  from  two  Greek  words, 
 signifying  _/??•<;  hooks.  It  is  the  general  or 
 collective  designation  of  the  five  books  of 
 Moses.  The  Samaritan  Pentateuch,  dis- 
 covered and  brought  to  England  in  the 
 17th  century,  by  the  instrumentality  of 
 Archbishop  Usher  and  others,  is  the  He- 
 brew Pentateuch  written  in  the  ancient 
 Hebrew  letters.  It  is  supposed  by  many 
 learned  men  to  be  the  actual  text  of  the 
 Scriptures  used  by  the  Samaritans,  when 
 at  their  petition,  Shalmaneser,  king  of  As- 
 syria, appointed  one  of  the  Jewish  priests 
 to  dwell  at  Bethel  and  teach  them  how 
 they  should  fear  the  Lord.  (2  Kings  xvii. 
 28.)  The  copy  of  the  Scriptures  then  said 
 to  be  brought  by  this  priest,  contained  the 
 canon  of  Scripture,  as  it  then  existed  ;  and 
 the  Samaritans  never  recognised  any  other. 
 By  several  critics  the  text  is  supposed 
 more  correct  than  the  Hebrew ;  and  as  an 
 element  of  biblical  criticism  it  is  invalu- 
 able. 
 
 PENTECOST.  (From  UevrnKoark,  the 
 fiftieth.)  A  solemn  festival  of  the  Jcavs, 
 so  called  because  it  was  celebrated  fifty 
 days  after  the  feast  of  the  Passover.  (Lev. 
 xxiii.  15,  16.)  It  corresponds  with  the 
 Christian  Whitsuntide,  which  is  sometimes 
 called  by  the  same  name. 
 
 PENTECOSTALS.  These  were  obla- 
 tions made  by  the  parishioners  to  their 
 priest  at  the  feast  of  Pentecost,  which  are 
 sometimes  called  Whitsun-farthings ;  but 
 they  were  not  at  first  off"ered  to  their 
 priests,  but  to  the  mother-church  ;  and  this 
 may  be  the  reason  that  the  deans  and  pre- 
 bendaries in  some  cathedrals  are  entitled 
 to  receive  these  oblations,  and  in  some 
 places  the  bishop  and  archdeacons,  as  at 
 Gloucester. 
 
 PERAMBULATION.  Perambulations, 
 for  ascertaining  the  boundaries  of  parishes, 
 are  to  be  made  by  the  minister,  church- 
 wardens, and  parishioners,  by  going  round 
 the  same  once  a  year,  in  or  about  Ascen- 
 sion week.     The  parishioners  may  justify 
 
PERNOCTATIONS. 
 
 going  over  any  man's  land  in  their  per- 
 ambulations, according  to  usage  ;  and  it  is 
 said  may  abate  all  nuisances  in  their  way. 
 There  is  a  homily  appointed  to  be  used  be- 
 fore this  ceremony,  and  Queen  l^lizabeth's 
 injunctions  appointed  the  lO^rd  and  10 1th 
 Psalms  to  be  said  in  the  course  of  the  per- 
 ambulation. (Sec  liof/ation  Dai/s.)  The 
 perambulations  are  still  kci)t  u])  in  several 
 parishes  ;  but  have  lost  their  religious  cha- 
 racter. However,  they  have  been  observed 
 religiously  within  the  memory  of  some  old 
 persons  in  distant  parts  of  England. 
 
 PERNOCTATIONS,  watchingall  night, 
 — long  a  custom  Avith  the  more  pious 
 Christians,   especially  before  the    greater 
 
 I  PSf"!  Vfl  1  ^ 
 
 PERPENDICULAR.  The  last  style 
 of  pure  Gothic  architecture,  which  suc- 
 ceeded the  Decorated  about  1360.  It  is 
 most  readily  distinguished  by  its  window 
 tracery  (see  I'racenj) ;  but  the  use  of  the 
 four-centred  arch  (see  Arch)  is  a  more 
 important  character,  though  by  no  means 
 invariably  found  in  this  style.  Other  cha- 
 racteristics will  be  found  under  Capital, 
 Pillar,  VauUiiKi,  Mouhliiu]. 
 
 PERPETUAL  CURATE.  The  incum- 
 bent of  a  church,  chapel,  or  district,  which 
 is  within  the  boundaries  of  a  rectory  or 
 vicarage  ;  so  called  from  a  curate  assistant, 
 whose  office  expires  with  the  incumbency 
 of  the  person  who  em])lovs  him. 
 
 PERPETUALS.  Twenty  ministers  of 
 the  choir  at  Lyons,  so  called  from  being 
 bound  to  perpetual  service  there  : — like 
 our  vicars-choral. 
 
 PERSECUTION.  The  sufferings  which 
 are  inflicted  by  the  world  upon  the  Church 
 in  all  ages,  the  most  striking  of  which  were 
 those  which  are  designated  in  history  the 
 Ten  Persecutions,  and  which  raged  from 
 the  time  of  Nero,  A.  D.  64,  to  the  accession 
 of  Constantine,  under  the  successive  Roman 
 emperors,  Domitian,  (a.  d.  81 — 86,)  Trajan, 
 Adrian,  Aurelius,  Antoninus,  Severus, 
 Maximus,  Decius,  Valerian,  Diocletian, 
 and  Maximian,  under  the  last  of  whose 
 rule  the  persecution  raged  against  the 
 Church  in  East  and  "West  for  the  space  of 
 ten  years.  Each  of  these  periods  swelled 
 the  hst  of  the  nol)lc  army  of  martjTS. 
 Under  Nero,  the  apostles  St.  Peter  and 
 St.  Paul  suffered.  St.  Clement,  bishop  of 
 Rome ;  Simeon,  bishop  of  Jerusalem  ;  and 
 Ignatius,  bishop  of  Antioch,  were  put  to 
 death  in  the  reign  of  Trajan.  In  the 
 persecution  of  Aurelius,  Justin  Martyr, 
 Athenagoras,  Ajiollinaris,  and  Tatian  pre- 
 sented their  apologies,  as  did  Tcrtuliian  in 
 the  next  persecution  under  Sevenis  ('JOOV 
 Nicephorus,  an  ecclesiastical  historian,  tells 
 2  r  2 
 
 PERSEVERANCE,  FINAL. 
 
 70 
 
 us  that  it  were  easier  to  count  tlie  sands 
 upon  the  seashore  tlum  to  number  tlie  mar- 
 tyrdoms in  tlie  persecution  under  Decius 
 (2J0).  The  great  St.  Cyprian.  l)isho])  of 
 Carthage,  suliered  under  Valerian  (1 1th  of 
 September,  2.38). 
 
 Though  the  above  ten  are  the  most 
 memorable  of  the  jiersecutions  of  the  cross 
 of  Christ,  the  Church  has  ever  been  op- 
 l)oscd  by  the  world.  Thus  in  our  country, 
 during  the  Rebellion,  the  king  aiul  prinuito 
 underwent  martyrdom,  Mhile  thousaiuls  of 
 faithful  men  suffered  the  loss  of  all  things 
 for  tlie  name  of  Christ.  And,  even  in 
 this  day,  though  ])hysical  ])ersecution  is 
 forbidden  by  the  law,  moral  persecution  is 
 more  or  less  endured  by  every  self-deny- 
 ing Christian,  who  has  to  bear  taunts  and 
 nicknames  from  ungodlv  men. 
 
 PERSEVERANCE,  EINAL.  Accord- 
 ing to  the  Calvinistic  system,  the  elect  re- 
 ceive the  grace  of  perseverance,  so  that 
 when  grace  has  once  been  received,  they 
 cannot  finally  fall  from  it.  This  follows 
 from  their  view  of  election.  But,  according 
 to  the  Catholic  view  of  grace  and  of  c-lec- 
 tion,  men  may  fall,  and  fall  finally,  from 
 the  grace  they  have  once  received.  The 
 reader  is  requested  to  refer  to  the  article 
 on  Election ;  this  may  be  considered  a 
 continuation.  Since  the  reformed  Church 
 of  England  (with  the  primitive  and  Ca- 
 tholic) regards  election  as  an  admission 
 into  the  pale  of  the  visi])le  Church  Ca- 
 tholic, not  a  necessary  and  infallible  ad- 
 mission into  eternal  glory,  she  obviously 
 could  not  teach  the  doctrine  of  the  as- 
 sured final  pei*scvcrance  of  every  indi- 
 vidual among  the  elect ;  but,  annexing  a 
 totally  different  sense  to  the  word  elect 
 itself  from  that  which  is  jointly  advocated 
 by  Calvin  and  by  Arminius,  she  consist- 
 ently pronounces  that  the  elect,  as  she  un- 
 derstands the  teiTu,  mat/  finally  fall  away, 
 and  thence  may  everlastingly  ])erish. 
 
 To  this  moral  possibility  of  final  aj)osta.sy 
 the  Anglican  Church,  as  was  felt  l)y  the 
 Calvinistic  ])arty  in  the  conference  at 
 Hampton  Court,  alludes,  though  slie  docs 
 not  specifically  tliere  define  the  matter,  in 
 her  sixteenth  Article. 
 
 "  After  we  have  received  the  IIoLY 
 Ghost,  we  mav  depart  from  grace  given 
 and  fill!  into  sin  ;  and,  l)y  the  grace  of 
 Gou,  we  mav  rise  again,  and  amend  our 
 lives." 
 
 Here  it  seems  to  be  not  obscurely  inti- 
 mated, that  the  elect,  even  after  they  have 
 received  the  HoLV  Ghost,  may  so  depart 
 from  grace  given,  and  may  so  fall  into  sin, 
 that  they  either  may,  or  may  not,  be  re- 
 stored by  the  influential  grace  of  God. 
 
580        PERSEVERANCE,  FINAL. 
 
 PERSON. 
 
 Such,  accordingly,  was  doubtless  per- 
 ceived to  be  the  case  by  the  Calvinistic 
 party  ;  for  otherwise  it  is  impossil)le  to  ac- 
 count for  their  proi)osed  alteration  of  the 
 article,  which  would  have  made  it  speak 
 the  language  of  assured  personal  final  per- 
 severance. 
 
 They  moved  King  James,  that,  to  the 
 original  words  of  the  article,  "  after  we 
 have  received  the  Holy  Ghost,  we  may 
 depart  from  grace  given,  and  fall  into  sin," 
 might  be  subjoined  the  following  explana- 
 tory addition,  "  yet  neither  totally  nor 
 finally." 
 
 Had  this  addition  been  made,  the  seven- 
 teenth Article  would  doubtless  have  taught 
 the  doctrine  of  the  final  perseverance  of  all 
 the  elect.  The  wish  to  make  it  do  so  im- 
 ported a  consciousness  that  the  reformed 
 Anglican  Church  held  no  such  doctrine. 
 
 Nor  was  this  consciousness  ill-founded. 
 The  homily  on  "  Falling  from  GoD,"  as  we 
 might  antici})ate  from  its  very  title,  dis- 
 tinctly asserts,  in  both  its  parts,  the  moral 
 jiossibility,  in  the  elect,  of  finally  departing 
 from  grace  given,  and  of  thus  perishing 
 everlastingly. 
 
 The  doctrine  of  the  possibility  of  the 
 elect  finally  falling  aAvay,  says  Faber  in 
 his  work  on  "  Election,"  from  grace  to 
 perdition ;  a  doctrine  which,  in  truth,  is 
 nothing  more  than  the  inevitable  and  ne- 
 cessary result  of  that  ideality  of  election, 
 v;hich,  from  primitive  antiquity,  has  been 
 adopted  by  the  Anglican  Church,  is  very 
 distinctly  and  very  affectingly  propounded 
 also  in  her  admirable  and  sublime  burial 
 service. 
 
 "  Spare  us.  Lord  most  holy,  O  God  most 
 mighty,  O  holy  and  merciful  Saviour,  thou 
 most  worthy  Judge  eternal,  suffer  us  not, 
 at  our  last  hour,  for  any  pains  of  death,  to 
 fall  from  thee." 
 
 The  prayer  before  us  is  couched  in  the 
 pluraHzing  form,  and  the  persons  who  are 
 directed  concurrently  with  the  officiating 
 minister  to  use  it,  are  those  identical  per- 
 sons who,  having  been  chosen  in  the  course 
 of  Divine  providence,  and  brought  by  bap- 
 tism into  the  pale  of  the  visible  Church, 
 have  thence  been  declared  to  be  the  elect 
 people  of  God. 
 
 Consequently  those  who,  in  the  judgment 
 of  the  Church  of  England,  are  the  elect 
 people  of  God,  are  nevertheless  directed 
 to  pray,  that  the  Lord  would  not  suffer 
 them,  at  their  last  hour,  for  any  pains  of 
 death,  to  fall  from  him. 
 
 Hence,  as  the  English  Church  under- 
 stands the  term  elect,  it  is  possible,  from 
 the  very  necessity  of  such  a  prayer,  that 
 those  who  are  elect   may  not  only  for  a 
 
 season  fall  away  from  God  and  be  after- 
 ward renewed  by  repentance,  but  may  even 
 fall  awav  from  him  totally  and  finally. 
 
 PERSON.  (See  Trinity.)  On  the  awful 
 subject  of  the  persons  in  the  Trinity  we 
 shall  merely  quote  the  Athanasian  Creed. 
 "  The  Catholic  faith  is  this.  That  we  wor- 
 ship One  God  in  Trinity,  and  Trinity  in 
 Unity ;  neither  confounding  the  Persons, 
 nor  dividing  the  substance.  For  there  is 
 One  Person  of  the  Father,  another  of  the 
 Son,  and  another  of  the  Holy  Ghost. 
 
 "  But  the  Godhead  of  the  Father,  of 
 the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  is  all 
 One :  the  glory  equal,  the  majesty  co- 
 eternal." 
 
 The  application  of  the  term  "  Persons  " 
 to  the  sacred  Three  has  been  objected  to; 
 but  it  is  defensible  on  the  ground  of  the 
 impossibility  of  finding  a  phrase  equally 
 expressive,  and  less  objectionable.  Arch- 
 bishop Tillotson  well  says,  "  Because  we 
 find  the  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Ghost 
 spoken  of  in  Scripture  as  we  should  speak 
 of  three  Persons,  therefore  we  call  them 
 Persons ;  and  since  the  Holy  Spirit  of 
 God  in  Scripture  hath  thought  fit,  in 
 speaking  of  these  three,  to  distinguish 
 them  from  one  another,  as  we  use  in  com- 
 mon speech  to  distinguish  three  several  per- 
 sons, I  cannot  see  any  reason  why,  in  the 
 explication  of  this  mystery,  which  purely 
 depends  upon  Divine  revelation,  we  should 
 not  speak  of  it  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
 Scripture  doth."  Precision  in  speaking  of 
 objects  of  faith  seems,  beyond  this,  impos- 
 sible. That  the  Father,  Son,  and  Holy 
 Ghost  are  three,  distinguished  from  each 
 other  in  Scripture,  is  clear ;  as  it  is  also 
 that  there  is  but  one  God.  Why,  then, 
 refuse  the  word  "  Persons,"  used  with  due 
 reverence  and  humility,  by  which  we  only 
 understand  a  peculiar  distinction  in  each, 
 making,  in  some  way,  a  difference  from 
 the  other  two  ?  Indeed  the  objection  was 
 despised  as  a  bad  one  by  even  Socinus 
 himself. 
 
 But  in  fact  the  word  "  Person"  is  used 
 by  St.  Paul  as  applied  both  to  the  Father 
 and  the  Son  ;  to  the  former,  Heb.  i.  3 ;  to 
 the  latter,  2  Cor.  ii.  10,  and  also  iv.  6,  as 
 it  should  have  been  rendered. 
 
 The  word  was  used,  and  well  applied, 
 against  the  opinion  entertained  by  the 
 Sabcllians,  that  there  was  but  one  real 
 Person  in  the  Godhead  with  different 
 manifestations;  and  the  notion  of  three 
 hypostases  with  an  individual  unity  in  the 
 Divine  essence,  was  generally  received  in 
 the  Church  as  a  proper  mean  for  avoiding 
 the  opposite  heresies  of  Sabellius  and 
 Arius. 
 
PERSONA. 
 
 The  Latin  Church  understanding^  "  sub- 
 stance "  by  tlie  term  /ii//)()sf(isis,  a.s  used 
 by  the  Greek  Church,  and  denyin«;^  tliree 
 substances,  -woukl  not  readily'  use  that 
 term,  but  adopted  the  Avord  "  I'erson," 
 {Persona,)  to  characterize  the  three  dis- 
 tinct subsistencies  in  the  one  Divine  essence. 
 And  hence  has  arisen  a  cliarge,  (the  word 
 hi/postasis  beings  used  for  l^crsoti  in  the 
 Greek  copies  of  the  Creed,)  that  tlie  Nicene 
 and  Athanasian  Creeds  are  in  ojjposition 
 to  each  other ;  the  former  assertinjij  that 
 the  Son  "  is  of  one  substance  with  the 
 Father,"  whik^  according!;  to  the  latter, 
 there  is  one  substance  of  the  Fatiikr, 
 another  of  the  Son,  «Jcc.  But  as  the  word 
 is  rifijhtly  translated  in  our  version  "  Per- 
 son," from  the  original  Latin,  the  objec- 
 tion, which  is  still  repeated,  (the  passage 
 being  quoted  as  if  it  were  one  "  sub- 
 stance"— not  one  "Person — of  the  Fa- 
 ther," &:c.,)  is  persevered  in  under  a  mis- 
 take, if  it  be  not  a  wilful  misrepresentation. 
 — See  Bull  and  Waterlond. 
 
 PERSONA.  A  term  a])plied  in  ancient 
 cathedral  and  collegiate  churches  to  those 
 who  held  particular  offices,  not  necessarily 
 of  dignity,  or  of  jurisdiction,  but  involving 
 
 5)ersonal  responsibility,  and  strict  residence. 
 -w  England,  at  Salisbury  and  other  cathe- 
 di'als  of  the  old  foundation,  the  dignitaries, 
 as  the  dean,  precentor,  chancellor,  and 
 treasurer,  &c.,  were  called  l^ersonce  Pn'n- 
 cipales,  or  PrivUegiatfP,  as  having  each  a 
 peculiar  office,  connected  with  the  service 
 of  the  church.  At  St.  Paul's  the  four  arch- 
 deacons were  included  in  this  title,  though 
 somewhat  incorrectly.  —  Dvgdales  St. 
 Paul's,  p.  235.  In  other  places,  as  at  York, 
 and  Beverley,  the  inferior  priests  were  cal- 
 led Personie  Abroad  the  Personnate  Avere 
 chiefly  offices  of  the  inferior  collegiate 
 clergy,  generally  implying  some  individual 
 office,  as  sub-chanter,  sacristan,  ^-c.  &c. 
 —Jehh. 
 
 PETER-PENCE  was  an  annual  tribute 
 of  one  penny,  paid  at  Rome  out  of  every 
 family,  at  the  feast  of  St.  Peter.  This, 
 Ina,  the  Saxon  king,  when  he  went  in 
 pilgrimage  to  Rome,  about  the  year  740, 
 gave  to  the  po])e,  ])artly  as  alms,  and 
 partly  by  way  of  recompense  f(;r  a  house 
 erected  in  Rome  for  iMiglish  ])ilgrims.  It 
 continued  to  be  generally  paid  until  the 
 time  of  King  Henry  VIII.,  when  it  was 
 enacted,  that  henceforth  no  person  shall 
 pay  any  pensions,  Peter-pence,  or  other 
 impositions,  to  the  use  of  the  bishop  and 
 see  of  Rome. 
 
 PETER'S,  ST.,  DAY.  A  festival  of  the 
 Christian  Church,  observed  on  the  twenty- 
 ninth  of  June. 
 
 rETKR'S,  ST.,  DAY. 
 
 ^iSl 
 
 St.  Peter  was  born  at  Bethsaida,  a  town 
 situated  upon  the  banks  of  the  sea  of 
 Galilee.  He  was  originally  called  Simon, 
 or  Simeon,  to  which  our  Savioih,  after 
 his  conversion,  added  the  name  of  Cephas, 
 which,  in  the  vulgar  language  of  the  Jews, 
 signified  a  stone,  or  rock  :  from  thence  it 
 was  derived  into  the  Greek  Il/rpof,  (Tetrus.) 
 which  is  of  the  same  import.  Our  Loud 
 prol)al)ly  intended  to  denote  thereby  the 
 constancy  and  firmness  of  his  faith,  and 
 his  activity  in  l)uilding  up  the  Church. 
 
 St.  Peter  was  a  fisherman  by  trade,  and 
 brother  of  St.  Andrew,  who  first  brought 
 him  to  our  Savioir.  He  became  a  dis- 
 ci])le  and  follower  of  Christ,  upon  seeing 
 the  miracle  of  the  great  draught  of  fishes, 
 and  was  one  of  his  most  innnediate  com- 
 panions. He  is  by  the  ancients  styled  the 
 mouth  of  the  apostles,  because  he  was  the 
 first  and  forwardest,  on  all  occasions,  to 
 ])rofess  his  zeal  and  attachment  to  our 
 Saviour  ;  for  which  reason  our  Lord 
 pronounced  him  blessed.  But  it  does  not 
 a])])ear  that  our  Savioi'r  gave  any  per- 
 sonal prerogative  to  St.  Peter,  as  universal 
 pastor  and  head  of  the  Church.  He  is  first 
 ])laced  among  the  apostles,  because,  as 
 most  think,  he  was  first  called.  If  he  is 
 styled  "  a  rock,"  all  the  apostles  are  equally 
 styled  "  foundations  ; "  and  the  power  of 
 the  keys  is  promised  to  the  rest  of  the 
 apostles  as  well  as  to  St.  Peter. 
 
 This  apostle  became  a  great  exam])le  of 
 human  frailty,  in  his  behaviour  u])on  the 
 apjn'oach  of  our  Saviour's  suflerings.  It 
 is  well  known,  that,  for  fear  of  being  in- 
 volved in  the  punishment  with  which  his 
 Master  was  threatened,  he  disclaimed  all 
 knowledge  of  him,  and  denied  him  thrice. 
 But  he  soon  recovered  from  his  fall,  and 
 endeavoured  by  penitential  tears  to  wash 
 away  his  guilt. 
 
 St.  Peter's  first  mission,  after  our  Sa- 
 viour's ascension,  was  to  those  Chri.stians 
 Avhom  Phili])  the  deacon  had  converted  in 
 Samaria  ;  where  he  conferred  on  tiicm  the 
 gift  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  severely  re- 
 buked Simon  Magus,  for  imagining  the  gift 
 of  God  could  be  jjurehased  w'wh  UKmey. 
 Some  time  after,  he  had  a  sjjecial  vi.sion 
 from  heaven,  by  which  the  Divine  good- 
 ness removed  those  ])reju(lices  of  his  edu- 
 cation, which  the  Jews  had  entertained 
 against  the  Gentiles.  In  the  disi)ute  be- 
 tween the  Jewish  and  Gentile  converts,  he 
 declared  God's  acc(>ptanceof  the  Gentiles, 
 and  that  the  yoke  of  the  Jewish  rites  ought 
 not  to  l)e  laid  ui)on  them.  Yet  afterwards 
 he  dissembled  his  Christian  liberty,  and 
 thereby  confirmed  the  judai/.ing  Christians 
 in  their  errors;  for  which  he  siimds  justly 
 
382 
 
 PEWS. 
 
 rebuked  by  St.  Paul.  Being  imprisoned 
 by  Herod,  he  was  miraculously  delivered 
 by  an  angel,  who  knocked  off  his  chains, 
 and  conducted  him  to  a  place  of  safety. 
 
 St.  Peter,  afterwards,  preached  at  An- 
 tioch,  and  was  the  first  bishop  of  that 
 place.  He  likewise  preached  the  gospel 
 to  the  Jews  dispersed  m  Pontus,  Galatia, 
 Cappadocia,  and  Asia.  Towards  the  latter 
 end  of  his  life,  he  went  to  Rome,  about 
 the  second  year  of  the  emperor  Claudius, 
 where  he  laboured  in  establishing  Chris- 
 tianity, chiefly  among  the  Jews,  being  the 
 apostle  of  the  circumcision.  Here  he  set 
 himself  to  expose  the  impostures  of  Simon 
 Magus,  which  he  did  successfully,  by  work- 
 ing himself  those  wonders  that  Simon 
 falsely  boasted  of.  Particularly,  he  raised 
 to  life  a  kinsman  of  the  emperor,  which 
 the  magician  had  attempted  in  vain.  And, 
 when  Simon  Magus,  to  recover  his  reputa- 
 tion, pretended  to  fly  up  to  heaven  from 
 the  hill  of  the  Capitol,  by  the  prayers  of 
 St.  Peter  his  artificial  wings  failed  him, 
 and  falling  he  was  so  bruised,  that  in  a 
 short  time  he  died. 
 
 St.  Peter  sufl'ered  martyrdom  about  the 
 year  of  Christ  69,  under  the  emperor  Nero, 
 whom  he  had  provoked  by  his  success 
 against  Simon  Magus,  and  by  his  reducing 
 many  dissolute  women  to  a  sober  and 
 virtuous  life  ;  and  it  was  probably  in  that 
 persecution  when  the  emperor  burnt  Rome, 
 and  charged  the  Christians  with  the  guilt 
 and  punishment  of  it.  He  was  crucified 
 "vvith  his  head  downwards.  It  is  said,  his 
 body  was  embalmed  by  Marcellinus  the 
 presbyter,  and  buried  in  the  Vatican,  near 
 the  Triumphal  "SVay,  where  there  was  a 
 church  erected  to  his  memory,  now  the 
 famous  cathedral  of  St.  Peter's  at  Rome. 
 
 PE"\VS.  These  are  enclosed  seats  in 
 churches.  Pews,  according  to  modern 
 use  and  idea,  were  not  known  till  long 
 after  the  Reformation.  Enclosed  pews 
 were  not  in  general  use  before  the  middle 
 of  the  seventeenth  century  :  they  were  for 
 a  long  time  confined  to  the  family  of  the 
 patron. 
 
 There  were,  however,  long  before  there 
 were  enclosed  pews,  appropriated  seats : 
 and  as  concerning  seats  many  disputes 
 arise,  we  will  mention  what  the  law  is  as  | 
 to  these  particulars.  As  to  seats  in  the 
 body  of  the  church,  the  freehold  of  the 
 soil  is  in  the  incumbent,  and  the  seats  are 
 fixed  to  the  freehold  ;  yet,  because  the 
 church  itself  is  dedicated  to  the  service  of 
 God,  and  the  seats  are  built  that  the 
 people  may  more  conveniently  attend 
 Divine  service,  therefore,  where  there  is 
 any  contention  about  a  seat  in  the  body  of 
 
 the  church,  upon  complaint  made  to  the 
 ordinary,  he  may  decide  the  controversy 
 by  placing  that  person  in  it  whom  he 
 thinks  fit :  and  this  power  is  confeiTed 
 upon  him  by  law,  because  he  who  has  the 
 general  cure  of  souls  within  his  diocese,  is 
 presumed  to  have  a  due  regard  to  the 
 qualities  of  the  contending  parties,  and  to 
 give  precedence  to  him  who  ought  to  have 
 it.  And  though  the  seats  are  built  and 
 repaired  at  the  charge  of  the  parish ;  and 
 the  churchwardens  sliould  prescribe,  that, 
 by  reason  thereof,  they  have  used  to  dis- 
 pose them  to  such  persons  as  they  thought 
 fit,  yet  since  of  common  right  the  ordinary 
 has  the  disposal  thereof,  and  by  the  same 
 right  the  parishioners  ought  to  repair 
 them,  therefore  such  prescription  shall  not 
 be  allowed  against  his  jurisdiction.  But 
 this  jurisdiction  extends  only  to  placing 
 or  displacing  the  inhabitants  of  the  parish ; 
 for  the  ordinary  cannot  grant  a  seat  to  a 
 man  and  his  heirs,  because  a  seat  in  the 
 church  properly  belongs  to  some  house  in 
 the  parish,  and  not  to  the  person,  but  as 
 owner  of  the  house ;  and  if  such  grant 
 should  be  good  to  a  man  and  his  heirs, 
 they  would  have  the  seat,  though  they 
 lived  in  another  parish,  which  is  very  un- 
 reasonable, and  contrary  to  the  original 
 intention  of  building  seats  in  churches, 
 which  was  for  the  inhabitants  of  that 
 parish,  that  they  might  more  conveniently 
 attend  the  service  of  the  church  ;  and  cer- 
 tainly if  the  bishop  cannot  make  such  a 
 grant,  no  private  person  can  do  it,  for  the 
 reasons  before  mentioned. 
 
 But  where  there  is  no  contention,  and 
 the  ordinary  does  not  interpose,  because  • 
 there  is  no  complaint,  there  the  parson 
 and  churchwardens  have  power  to  place 
 the  parishioners  in  seats ;  and  in  some 
 places  the  churchwardens  alone  have  that 
 power  by  custom,  as  in  London.  If  a  seat 
 is  built  in  the  body  of  the  church,  without 
 the  consent  of  the  bishop,  the  church- 
 wardens may  pull  it  down,  because  it  was 
 set  up  by  a  private  person  without  the 
 licence  of  the  ordinary ;  but  it  hath  been 
 held,  that  if  in  removing  such  seat  they 
 cut  the  timber,  or  break  it,  an  action  of 
 trespass  lies  against  them.  This,  like 
 many  other  cases  reported  by  Mr.  Noy,  is 
 not  law :  for  the  freehold  of  the  church 
 being  in  the  incumbent,  Avhen  the  person 
 has  fixed  a  seat  to  it,  it  is  then  become 
 parcel  of  his  freehold,  and  consequently 
 the  right  is  in  him,  so  that  the  breaking 
 the  timber  could  not  be  prejudicial  to  the 
 other,  because  he  had  no  legal  right  to  , 
 
 the  materials  after  they  were  fixed  to  the  j 
 
 freehold.     And  because  seats  in  the  body  I 
 
PEWS. 
 
 583 
 
 of  the  church  are  to  be  disposed  by  the 
 parson  and  churchwardens,  therefore  it 
 was  formerly  held  that  a  man  cannot  ))re- 
 scribe  for  a  seat  there;  and  yet  he  mi<:;ht 
 prescribe  for  the  u])per  part  of  a  seat 
 there.  But  now  the  law  is  settled  as  to 
 this  matter,  viz.  that  one  may  i)rescribe 
 for  a  seat  in  the  body  of  the  church,  set- 
 ting forth  that  he  is  seised  of  an  ancient 
 house,  Sec,  and  that  he  and  all  those  whose 
 estate  he  hath  therein,  have,  time  out  of 
 mind,  used  and  had  a  seat  in  the  body  of 
 the  church  for  themselves  and  their  fami- 
 lies, as  belonging  to  the  said  house,  and 
 that  they  repaired  the  said  seat ;  and  the 
 reason  why  he  must  allege  that  he  repaired 
 it  is,  because  the  freehold  being  in  the 
 parson,  there  must  be  some  special  cause 
 shown  for  such  a  prescri])tion ;  but  as  to 
 this  matter  the  court  distinguished  be- 
 tween an  action  on  the  case  brought  against 
 a  disturber  and  a  suggestion  for  a  pro- 
 hibition :  for  in  the  first  case  you  need 
 not  allege  that  you  repair,  because  the 
 action  is  brought  against  a  wrong-doer ; 
 but  upon  a  suggestion  for  a  prohibition  it 
 must  be  alleged  that  you  repair,  because 
 otherwise  you  shall  not  divest  the  ordinary 
 of  that  right  which  properly  belongs  to 
 him.  Tenants  in  common  cannot  make  a 
 joint  prescription  to  a  seat  in  a  church, 
 but  they  may  prescribe  severally;  and  if 
 they  should  bring  an  action  jointly  for  a 
 disturbance,  and  upon  the  evidence  it 
 should  appear  they  are  tenants  in  common, 
 they  must  be  nonsuited,  because  such  evi- 
 dence will  not  maintain  the  title  upon 
 which  the  action  is  founded,  for  though  it 
 is  a  possessory  action,  yet  since  that  pos- 
 session must  be  maintained  by  a  title 
 derived  out  of  a  prescription,  they  must 
 prescribe  severally.  And  in  these  pre- 
 scriptions there  is  not  much  exactness  re- 
 quii'ed ;  for  if  an  action  on  the  case  is 
 brought  for  disturbing  the  ])laintiff,  S:c.,  it 
 is  not  sufficient  for  him  to  allege,  that  he 
 is  seised  in  fee  of  a  messuage,  &c.,  (with- 
 out saying  it  is  an  ancient  messuage,)  and 
 that  he,  and  all  those  whose  estate  he  hath 
 in  the  said  messuage,  had  (without  saying 
 time  out  of  mind)  a  seat  in  the  church, 
 which  they  used  to  re])air  as  often  as  there 
 was  occasion,  8:c.,  this  is  well  enough,  be- 
 cause the  action  is  founded  on  a  wrong 
 done  by  one  who  disturbed  him  in  his 
 possession  ;  in  which  action  the  plaintiff 
 will  recover  damages,  if  the  verdict  is 
 found  for  him.  It  is  true  he  may  libel  in 
 the  spiritual  court,  and  prescribe  there 
 for  a  seat,  &c.  ;  but  if  the  prescription  is 
 denied,  a  prohibition  will  be  granted  ;  if 
 it   is    not    denied,    then    that    court   may 
 
 l)roceed  to  sentence,  which,  if  it  happen 
 to  be  against  the  prescription,  in  such  case 
 also  a  i)rohil)ition  will  lie,  because  tiie 
 suit  being  upon  a  i)rescrij)tion,  the  pro- 
 ceedings in  it  M'cre  coram  non  judicc  in 
 that  court ;  but  tliis  seems  unreasonable, 
 for  it  can  be  only  to  discharge  the  person 
 of  the  costs  which  he  ought  to  |)ay.  As 
 to  seats  in  aisles  of  churches,  the  law  is, 
 that  if  a  man  has  a  house  in  a  ])arish,  an(l 
 a  seat  in  the  aisle  of  the  church  which  he 
 has  repaired  at  his  own  cliarge,  he  shall 
 not  be  dispossessed  by  a  bishoj) :  if  he 
 should,  he  may  have  a  prohibition,  be- 
 cause it  shall  be  intended  to  be  built  by 
 his  ancestors,  with  the  consent  of  parson, 
 ])atron,  and  ordinary,  and  a[)proi)riated  by 
 them  to  his  and  their  use  ;  and  if  he  is 
 disturbed  by  any  other  jierson  in  sitting 
 there,  he  may  have  an  action  on  the  case 
 against  him,  but  then  he  must  prove  that 
 he  repaired  it :  and  so  it  was  adjudged 
 between  Dawtree  and  Dee,  for  seats  in  a 
 little  clia])el  in  the  north  part  of  the 
 chancel  of  Petworth,  in  Sussex  ;  for  though 
 no  man  can  tell  the  true  reason  of  ])re- 
 scriptions.  yet  some  jirobable  reason  must 
 be  alleged  to  gain  such  a  ])eculiar  right, 
 and  none  is  more  ])robable  than  repairing 
 it.  And  this  will  entitle  a  man  to  a  seat 
 in  an  aisle,  though  he  lives  in  another 
 ])arish  ;  and  therefore,  where  the  jilaintitf 
 set  forth  that  he  had  an  ancient  messuage 
 in  the  parish  of  II.,  and  that  he  and  all 
 those  whose  estate  he  had  in  the  said 
 house,  had  a  scat  in  the  aisle  in  the  ])arish 
 church  of  B. ;  this  is  a  good  prescription 
 for  a  seat  in  the  aisle,  because  he  or  they 
 might  build  or  re])air  it,  though  it  is  not 
 a  good  prescription  to  have  a  seat  in  nave 
 ecclesifp.  of  another  parish.  As  to  the 
 chancel,  the  ordinary  hath  no  authority  to 
 j^lace  any  one  there,  for  that  is  the  free- 
 hold of  the  rector  ;  and  so  is  the  churcli ; 
 but  he  rejiairs  the  one,  but  not  the  other, 
 and  it  is  for  this  reason  that  an  imjjropria- 
 tor  hath  the  chief  seat  in  the  chancel.  But 
 yet  a  man  may  prescribe  to  have  a  seat 
 here,  as  belonging  to  ancient  messuage. 
 
 So  much  for  the  laws  of  pews:  the 
 history  of  their  gradual  introduction  into 
 churches  seems  to  be  as  follows  : — 
 
 Tlu-  first  mention  that  we  find  made  of 
 a  reading  jjcw  is  in  Bishoj)  Pnrkhurst's 
 Articles  of  Visitation  for  his  diocese  of 
 Norwich,  (loIH?,)  where  it  is  ordered,  "That 
 in  great  churches,  where  all  the  people 
 cannot  conveniently  hear  the  minister,  the 
 churchwardens  and  others,  to  whom  tiie 
 charge  doth  l)elong.  shall  ]>rovide  ami 
 support  a  decent  and  convenient  seat  in 
 the  body  of  the  church,   where   the   said 
 
584 
 
 PEWS. 
 
 PHILIP,  ST.,  AND  ST.  JAMES'S  DAY. 
 
 miuister  may  sit  or  stand,  and  say  the  whole 
 of  the  Divine  service,  that  all  the  congre- 
 gation may  hear  and  be  edified  therewith  ; 
 and  that  in  smaller  churches  there  be  some 
 convenient  seat  outside  the  chancel  door, 
 for  that  purpose." 
 
 Before  this  time,  the  appointed  place  for 
 the  priest  was  in  the  choir,  or,  as  appointed 
 in  the  Second  Book  of  King  Edward,  in 
 such  place  of  the  church,  chapel,  or  chancel, 
 as  the  j)eople  may  best  hear,  without  any 
 note  of  the  provision  of  a  pew,  or  any 
 mention  of  "  a  little  tabernacle  of  wain- 
 scot, ])rovided  for  the  ])urpose."  The  first 
 authority  for  the  setting  up  of  reading 
 desks  in  all  our  churches,  is  the  canon  of 
 1603. 
 
 The  earliest  pew  for  the  use  of  the  con- 
 gregation remaining,  whose  age  is  deter- 
 mined by  the  appearance  of  a  date,  is  in 
 the  north  aisle  of  Geddington  St.  INIary, 
 Northamptonshire,  and  has  the  following 
 inscription  : 
 
 Churchivardens,     William  Thorn, 
 
 John\yilkie, 
 3Iinister,  Thomas  Jones,  1602. 
 
 Another  pew  occurs  in  the  same  church, 
 dated  1604. 
 
 From  this  time  till  the  episcopate  of 
 Wren,  bishop  of  Hereford,  pews  seem  to 
 have  become  more  universal,  and  only 
 then  to  have  found  their  deserved  rebuke. 
 Among  other  questions  in  his  several 
 articles  of  visitation  we  find  the  following: 
 "  Are  all  the  seats  and  pews  so  ordered, 
 that  they  which  are  in  them  may  kneel 
 down  in  time  of  prayer,  and  have  their 
 faces  up  to  the  holy  table  ?  "  "  Ai'e  there 
 any  privy  closets  or  close  pews  in  your 
 church  ?  Are  any  pews  so  loftily  made, 
 that  they  do  any  way  hinder  the  prospect 
 of  the  church  or  chancel,  so  that  they 
 which  be  in  them  are  hidden  from  the  face 
 of  the  congregation  ?  " 
 
 The  last  question  points  at  another 
 objection  to  pews,  besides  their  destructive 
 effect  on  the  interior  of  a  church.  They 
 seem  to  have  originated  with  the  Puritans, 
 and  to  have  been  intended  to  conceal  the 
 persons  sitting  in  them,  that  they  might, 
 without  conviction,  disobey  the  rubrics  and 
 canons,  providing  for  a  decent  deportment 
 during  Divine  service.  The  injunctions 
 especially  avoided  under  cover  of  pews, 
 were  the  order  to  bow  at  the  name  of 
 Jesus,  and  the  rule  to  stand  at  the  Gloria 
 Patri. 
 
 It  would,  however,  be  equally  absurd 
 and  unjust  to  apply  such  remarks  to  the 
 present  times;  nor  shall  we  ofler  any 
 reasons    against    pews    instead    of    open 
 
 benches,  except  that  they  destroy  the  ec- 
 clesiastical character  of  a  church,  that  they 
 encourage  pride,  that  they  make  a  distinc- 
 tion where  no  distinction  ought  to  exist, 
 and  that  they  must  be  erected  at  a  loss  of 
 20  per  cent,  of  church  accommodation. — 
 See  the  Cambridge  Camden  Societi/^s  His- 
 tory of  Pews. 
 
 PHARISEES.  From  the  Hebrew  word 
 PhareZy  division,  or  separation.  (In  other 
 words,  secfa)-ians,  or  separatists.)  The 
 most  sanctimonious  sect  of  the  Jcavs,  form- 
 ing their  religious  world.  They  were  de- 
 nounced by  our  Lord  for  their  hypocrisy, 
 that  is  to  say,  the  hypocrisy  of  the  major- 
 ity. St.  Paul  was  originally  a  Pharisee  : 
 "  after  the  most  strictest  sect  {aiptaiv)  of 
 our  religion,  I  lived  a  Pharisee."  Acts 
 XX vi.  5. 
 
 PHILIP,  ST.,  AND  ST.  JAMES'S 
 DAY.  A  festival  of  the  Christian  Church, 
 observed  on  the  first  day  of  INIay. 
 
 I.  St.  Philip  was  a  native  of  Bethsaida, 
 in  Galilee,  and  probably  a  fisherman,  the 
 general  trade  of  that  place.  He  had  the 
 honour  of  being  first  called  to  be  a  dis- 
 ciple of  our  blessed  Satiour.  It  was  to 
 Philip  our  Saviour  proposed  that  question, 
 what  they  should  do  to  procui-e  so  much 
 bread  as  would  feed  the  vast  multitude 
 that  followed  him  ?  It  was  to  him  the 
 Gentile  proselytes  addressed  themselves, 
 when  desirous  to  see  Jesus.  And  it  was 
 with  Philip  our  Lord  had  that  discourse 
 concerning  himself  before  the  last  supper. 
 
 The  Upper  Asia  fell  to  this  apostle's  lot, 
 where  he  took  great  pains  in  planting  the 
 gospel,  and  by  his  preaching  and  miracles 
 made  many  converts.  In  the  latter  end  of 
 his  life,  he  came  to  Hierapolis  in  Phrygia, 
 a  city  very  much  addicted  to  idolatry,  and 
 particularly  to  the  worship  of  a  serpent  or 
 dragon  of  prodigious  bigness.  St.  Philip, 
 by  his  prayers,  procured  the  death,  or,  at 
 least,  the  disappearing,  of  this  monster,  and 
 convinced  its  worshippers  of  the  absurdity 
 of  paying  Divine  honours  to  such  odious 
 creatures.  But  the  magistrates,  enraged 
 at  Philip's  success,  imprisoned  him,  and 
 ordered  him  to  be  severely  scourged,  and 
 then  put  to  death ;  which,  some  say,  was 
 by  crucifixion  ;  others,  by  hanging  him  up 
 against  a  pillar. 
 
 St.  Philip  is  generally  reckoned  among 
 the  married  apostles;  and  it  is  said,  he 
 had  three  daughters,  two  whereof  perse- 
 vered in  their  virginity,  and  died  at  Hiera- 
 polis ;  the  third,  having  led  a  very  spiritual 
 life,  died  at  Ephesus.  He  left  behind  him  no 
 writings.  The  Gospel,  under  his  name,  was 
 forged  by  the  Gnostics,  to  countenance 
 their  bad  principles,  and  worse  practices. 
 
PHOTINIANS. 
 
 II.  St.  James  the  Less  is  styled,  in  Scrip- 
 ture, our  Lord's  brother  ;  and  by  Jose])hus, 
 eminently  skilful  in  matters  of  ji^enealo^y, 
 expressly  called  the  brother  of  Jesus 
 Christ  :  by  which  the  ancient  Fathers  un- 
 derstand, that  he  was  Joseph's  son  by  a 
 former  wife.  He  Avas  surnamed  the  Less,  to 
 distinj^uish  him  from  the  other  St.  James  ; 
 and  that  either  from  the  stature  of  his 
 body,  or  the  difference  of  his  a<^e.  But 
 he  acquired  a  more  honourable  a])pellatiou 
 from  the  piety  and  virtue  of  his  life  ;  which 
 was  that  of  St.  James  the  Just,  by  which 
 he  is  still  known. 
 
 After  our  Saviour's  ascension,  St.  James 
 was  chosen  bishop  of  Jerusalem.  St.  Paul, 
 after  his  conversion,  addressed  himself  to 
 this  apostle,  by  whom  he  was  honoured 
 with  the  right  hand  of  fellowship.  It  was 
 to  St.  James,  St.  Peter  sent  the  news  of 
 his  miraculous  deliverance  out  of  prison. 
 This  apostle  was  princi})ally  active  at  the 
 Synod  of  Jerusalem,  in  the  great  contro- 
 versy concerning  the  Jewish  rites  and  cere- 
 monies. He  was  of  a  meek  and  humble 
 disposition.  His  temperance  was  admir- 
 able ;  for  he  wholly  abstained  from  flesh, 
 and  drank  neither  wine  nor  strong  drink, 
 nor  ever  used  the  bath.  Prayer  was  his 
 constant  business  and  delight,  and  by  his 
 daily  devotions  his  knees  were  become  as 
 hard  and  brawny  as  camels. 
 
 St.  Paul  having  escaped  the  malice  of 
 the  Jews,  by  appealing  to  Caesar,  they  re- 
 solved to  revenge  it  ujion  St.  James,  who 
 was  accused  before  their  coinicil  of  trans- 
 gressing the  Law,  and  blas])heming  against 
 God.  The  scribes  and  Pharisees  endea- 
 voured, by  flattering  speeches,  to  engage 
 him,  at  the  confluence  of  the  paschal  so- 
 lemnity, to  undeceive  the  people  concern- 
 ing Jesus  Christ  ;  and,  that  he  might  be 
 the  better  heard,  they  carried  him  with 
 them  to  the  top  of  the  temple.  There 
 they  addressed  him  in  these  words  ;  "  Tell 
 us,  O  just  man,  what  are  we  to  believe 
 concerning  Jesus  Christ,  who  was  cruci- 
 fied?" He  answered  with  a  loud  voice; 
 "  He  sits  in  heaven  on  the  right  hand  of 
 the  Majesty  on  high,  and  will  come  again 
 in  the  clouds  of  heaven."  Enraged  at  this 
 reply,  they  threw  him  down  from  the  place 
 where  he  stood ;  and  being  very  much 
 bruised,  though  not  killed,  he  recovered 
 strength  enough  to  get  upon  his  knees, 
 and  pray  for  his  murderers,  who  loaded 
 him  with  a  shower  of  stones,  till  one  with 
 a  fuller's  club  beat  out  his  brains. 
 
 PHOTINIANS,  or  SUTLMANS.  He- 
 retics, in  the  fourth  century,  so  deno- 
 minated from  Photinus,  bishop  of  Simich, 
 a  person   of  great  accomplishments,  and 
 
 PIER. 
 
 )85 
 
 who,  in  the  first  years  of  iiis  administra- 
 tion of  that  see,  appeared  very  regular,  but 
 changed  suddenly  after  he  hiul  tauglit  the 
 l)eople  the  knowledge  of  the  true  (ion, 
 that  is,  attempted  to  corrupt  them,  says 
 Vincentius  Lirinensis,  by  his  detestalde 
 opinions  and  doctrine;  for,  not  contented 
 with  renewing  the  errors  of  Sal)ellius, 
 Paulus  Samosatenus,  Cerinthus,  and  Kbion, 
 he  added  to  their  impieties,  that  Jesus 
 Christ  was  not  only  mere  man,  but  began 
 to  be  the  Christ  when  the  JIoly  Ghost 
 descended  u])on  him  in  .Jordan. 
 
 PHYLACTJniY.  {<[H,\aKTi,piov.)  This 
 word  is  derived  from  the  Greek,  and  i)ro- 
 perly  denotes  a  prescrvafire,  such  as  ])agans 
 carried  about  them  to  preserve  them  from 
 evils,  diseases,  or  dangers ;  for  example, 
 they  were  stones,  or  j)ieces  of  metal,  en- 
 graved under  certain  aspects  of  the  planets. 
 The  Ivast  is  to  this  day  filled  witii  this 
 superstition ;  and  the  men  do  not  only 
 wear  phylacteries  for  themselves,  but  for 
 their  animals  also. 
 
 PICAKDS.  The  name  of  a  Christian 
 sect,  who  improved  the  mistakes  of  the 
 Adamites  to  the  extravagance  of  going 
 naked.  They  sprung  up  in  the  beginning 
 of  the  fifteenth  century,  and  were  deno- 
 minated from  one  Picard,  who  set  it  on 
 foot :  he  ordered  all  his  proselytes  to  go 
 naked,  called  himself  the  Son  of  God,  and 
 pretended  he  was  sent  into  the  world  as  a 
 new  Adam,  by  his  Father,  to  refresh  the 
 notion,  and  restore  the  ])ractice  of  the  law 
 of  nature,  which,  he  said,  consisted  prin- 
 cipally in  two  things,  the  community  of 
 women,  and  going  stark  naked.  And  one 
 of  the  principal  tenets  of  this  peoj)le  was, 
 that  their  party  were  the  only  free  jjcojile 
 in  nature,  all  other  men  being  slaves,  espe- 
 cially those  who  wore  any  clothes  uj)on 
 the  score  of  modesty. 
 
 PIE.  This  was  the  table  used  before 
 the  Reformation  to  find  out  the  service 
 belonging  to  each  day.  If  the  word  be  of 
 Greek  origin,  it  may  be  referred  to  Triva^ 
 or  -rrivaKuiov.  But  the  Latin  word  is  pica, 
 which  perha])s  came  from  tiie  ignorance  of 
 the  friars,  who  have  tlirust  in  many  bar- 
 barous words  into  the  liturgies.  Some  say 
 pie  is  derived  from  litcra  picafa,  a  great 
 black  letter  in  the  beginning  of  some  new 
 order  in  the  ])rayer,  and  among  printers 
 that  term  is  still  used,  the  ;'/<7/  Irttvr. 
 
 PII'^K.  The  solid  masses  of  masonry 
 between  arched  <)j)enings,  as  in  bridges, 
 and  between  windows  and  doors.  This 
 name  is  so  often  given  to  the  pillars  in 
 Gothic  architecture,  that  it  would  be  pe- 
 dantic entirely  to  disuse  it  in  that  sen.se ; 
 but  it  ouuht  in  strictness  to  be  confined  at 
 
586 
 
 PIETISTS. 
 
 riLLAE, 
 
 Pier,  Norwich. 
 
 least  to  those  wall-like  square  pillars, 
 which  are  found  in  Norman  architecture ; 
 as,  for  instance,  aUernatcly  with  proper 
 pillars  in  Durham  cathedral,  or  in  the 
 nave  of  Norwich. 
 
 PIETISTS.  A  set  of  zealous  but  mis- 
 guided meji  in  Germany,  the  followers  of 
 Philip  James  Spener,  who  attempted  the 
 revival  of  what  he  called  vital  religion  in 
 Germany  in  the  seventeenth  century,  and 
 to  that  end  assembled  around  him  those 
 like-minded  with  himself,  and  in  societies 
 which  he  formed,  commonly  called  Collef/es 
 of  Fief  I/,  laid  the  foundations  of  many  dis- 
 orders. His  disciples,  as  is  usual,  far  out- 
 ran the  more  measured  zeal  of  their 
 master ;  and  their  false  notions,  amount- 
 ing sometimes  to  principles  of  mutiny  and 
 sedition,  gave  rise  to  a  long  and  bitter 
 controvcrsv  in  Germany. 
 
 PILGUiMAGE.  A  kind  of  supersti- 
 tious discipline,  which  consists  in  making 
 a  journey  to  some  holy  place,  in  order  to 
 adore  the  relics  of  some  deceased  saint. 
 Pilgrimages  began  to  be  made  in  the 
 fourth  century,  but  they  were  most  in 
 vogue  after  the  end  of  the  eleventh  century, 
 when  every  one  was  for  visiting  places  of 
 devotion,  not  excepting  kings  and  princes  ; 
 and  even  bishops  made  no  difficulty  of 
 being  absent  from  their  churches  on  the 
 same  account. 
 
 PILLAIi.  The  isolated  support  of  an 
 arch,  including  base,  shaft,  and  capital,  in 
 Norman  and  Gothic  architecture.  There 
 were  great  variations  in  the  forms  of  pil- 
 lars during  the  progress  of  ecclesiastical 
 architecture.  The  Norman  pillar  is  often 
 a  square,  ])icr-iike  mass,  relieved  by  at- 
 tached semi-pillars,  or  by  three-quarter 
 shaft  in  retiring  angles,  as  in  the  accom- 
 panymg  example  from  Norwich;  or  it 
 IS  a  cylmdrical  shaft,  often  fluted,  or  cut 
 in  zigzags  or  other  diaper  patterns.  The 
 i^arly   English    pillar   frequently   consists 
 
 Pillar,  Norwicli. 
 
 of  a  central  bearing  shaft,  surrounded  by 
 smaller  detached  shafts ;  either  set  almost 
 close  to  the  central  shaft,  sometimes  even 
 within  hollows,  as  at  York,  so  as  to  lose 
 
 York. 
 
 the  effect  of  their  separateness,  or  at  a 
 very  considerable  distance  from  the  central 
 shaft,  as  at  Chichester  and  Elv. 
 
 Chichester. 
 
 Tlie  Geometrical  pillar  but  seldom  re- 
 tains the  detached  shaft.      Its  section  is 
 
PINNACLE. 
 
 PLYMOUTH  BRETHREN.        587 
 
 perhaps  more  usually  a  quatrcfoil  than  any 
 other  single  form ;  but  there  are  count- 
 less varieties,  the  mouldino^s  always  of 
 course  following  the  style  to  which  they 
 belong.  The  accompanying  example  is 
 from  St.  Asaph.  The  Decorated  pillar  is 
 equally  various  in  section ;  where  it  is 
 moulded,  the  ogee  usually  forms  part  of  it, 
 but  in  small  and  plain  examples  it  is  very 
 frequently  a  simple  octagon.     In  the  Per- 
 
 St.  Asaph. 
 
 pendicular  the  pillar  follows  the  general 
 poverty  of  the  style,  but  it  is  also  distin- 
 guished by  the  base  being  stilted  ;  by  the 
 outer  mouldings  being  continuous,  and  the 
 inner  order  only  being  carried  by  an  at- 
 tached shaft  with  a  capital ;  and  by  its 
 being  narrower  from  east  to  west  than 
 from  north  to  south.  The  exceptions,  how- 
 ever, to  all  these  rules  are  so  numerous, 
 that  they  could  only  be  represented  by 
 manv  illustrations. 
 
 PINNACLE.  A  small  spire-like  ter- 
 mination to  a  buttress,  or  to  any  decorative 
 shaft  rising  above  the  parapet.  In  but- 
 tresses, especially  flying  buttresses,  the 
 pinnacles  are  of  great  use  in  resisting  the 
 outward  pressure  by  their  weight.  They 
 do  not  occur  in  Norman  architecture  ;  they 
 are,  in  fact,  a  correlative  of  the  pointed 
 arch. 
 
 The  pinnacle  at  the  temple  at  Jerusalem 
 was  probably  the  gallery,  or  parapet,  or 
 wall  on  the  top  of  the  buttresses,  which 
 surrounded  the  roof  of  the  tem])le,  properly 
 so  called.  Josephus  tells  us  that  the  roof 
 of  the  temple  was  defended  by  pretty  tall 
 golden  spikes,  to  hinder  birds  from  alight- 
 ing thereon.  It  was  not  on  the  roof  of  the 
 temple  that  Jesus  Christ  was  ])laced,  but 
 on  the  wall  that  surrounded  the  roof. — 
 Calmet's  Diet,  of  the  Bible,  cd.  Tai/lor. 
 
 PISCINA.  Originally  signified  a  fish- 
 pond ;  and  in  a  secondary  sense,  any  vessel 
 for  holding  or  receiving  water.  A  water 
 drain,  usually  accompanied  with  decorative 
 features,  near  the  altar,  on  the  south  side. 
 The  piscina  is  often  the  only  remaining 
 indication  of  the  place  where  an  altar  has 
 been.  Some  churches  have  double  piscinas. 
 
 PISCIS,  PISCICULI,  and  \  ESICA 
 PISCIS.     The  fish  is  an  hieroglyphic  of 
 
 Jesus  Ciihist,  very  common  in  tlic  re- 
 mains of  Christian  art,  Ijoth  primitive  and 
 media}val.  The  origin  of  it  is  us  follows  : — 
 From  the  name  and  title  of  our  blessed 
 Loud, 'ifjfTor'c  XptffWig  Ofcv  'Ywij  i^djr/jp,  Je- 
 sus Christ,  the  Son  of  God,  the  Saviour, 
 the  early  Christians,  taking  the  first  letter 
 of  each  word,  formed  tlie  name  'IxeYl\ 
 Piscis,  a  fish.  I'^-om  this  name  of  our 
 blessed  Lord,  Christians  also  came  to  be 
 called  Piseicu/i,  fishes,  with  reference  to 
 their  regeneration  in  the  Maters  of  l)a])tism, 
 consecrated  to  that  efieet  by  our  blessed 
 Lord,  the  mystical  'IXOVi:.  Thus  Ter- 
 tullian,  speaking  of  Christians,  says,  "  for 
 we,  after  our  Lord  and  Saviour,  Jesus 
 Christ,  our  'IXBYS,  are  also  fishes,  and 
 born  in  the  water ;  nor  ai*e  we  otherwise 
 saved  but  by  remaining  in  the  water." 
 The  Vesica  Piscis,  which  is  the  figure  of 
 an  oval,  generally  pointed  at  either  end, 
 and  which  is  much  used  as  the  form  of  the 
 seals  of  religious  houses,  and  to  enclose 
 figures  of  Jesus  Christ,  or  of  the  saints, 
 also  has  its  rise  from  this  name  of  our 
 blessed  Lord  :  though  some  say,  that  the 
 mystical  Vesica  Piscis  has  no  reference,  ex- 
 cejjt  in  its  name,  to  a  fish,  but  represents 
 the  almond,  the  symbol  of  virginity  and 
 self-production.  Clement  of  Alexandria, 
 in  writing  of  the  ornaments  which  a  Chris- 
 tian may  consistently  wear,  mentions  the 
 fish  as  a  proper  device  for  a  ring,  and  says, 
 that  it  may  serve  to  remind  the  Christian 
 of  the  origin  of  his  spiritual  life. 
 PIUS  IV.  (See  Creed.) 
 PLANETA.  (See  Chasuble.) 
 PLENAllTY,  (from  the  word  plenas, 
 "  full,")  signifying  that  a  church  is  full,  or 
 provided  with,  an  incumbent. 
 
 PLUIIALITY.  This  is  where  the  same 
 person  obtains  two  or  more  livings  with 
 cure  of  souls.  There  are  various  canons 
 of  the  Church  against  the  i)ractice ;  and 
 the  authorities  of  the  Church  are  taking 
 promi)t  measures  to  abolish  it  in  the  Eng- 
 lish Church.  The  statute  1  &  2  Vic.  c. 
 lOG,  and  subsequently  the  13  and  14  Vic. 
 c.  98,  made  very  important  changes  in  the 
 law  of  I<2ngland  regarding  j)!uralities. 
 
 PLUVIALE.  Another  name  for  the 
 cope :  so  called  because  it  was  originally 
 a  cloak,  a  defence  from  the   rain.     (See 
 
 CojH'.) 
 
 PLYMOUTH  BRETHREN.  Of  this 
 sect,  who  call  themselves  the  Rrethren,  the 
 following  account  is  taken  from  tiie  Re- 
 gister-general's return. 
 
 "  Those  to  whom  this  appellation  is  a])- 
 plied  receive  it  only  as  descriptive  of  their 
 individual  state  as  Christians— not  as  a 
 name  by  which  they  might  be  known  col- 
 
588 
 
 PLYMOUTH  BRETHREN. 
 
 lectively  as  a  distinct  religious  sect.  It  is 
 not  from  any  common  doctrinal  peculiarity 
 or  definite  ecclesiastical  organization  that 
 they  have  the  appearance  of  a  separate 
 community ;  but  rather  from  the  fact  that, 
 "vvhile  ail  other  Christians  are  identified 
 with  some  particular  scciion  of  the  Church 
 of  God,  the  persons  known  as  '  Brethren ' 
 utterly  refuse  to  be  identified  with  any. 
 Their  existence  is,  in  fact,  a  protest  against 
 all  sectarianism ;  and  the  primary  ground 
 of  their  secession  from  the  diff'crent  bodies 
 to  Avhich  most  of  them  have  once  belonged, 
 is,  that  the  various  tests  by  which,  in  all 
 these  bodies,  the  communion  of  true  Chris- 
 tians with  each  other  is  prevented  or  im- 
 peded, are  unsanctioned  by  the  AVord  of 
 God.  They  see  no  valid  reason  why  the 
 Church  (consisting  of  all  true  believers) 
 which  is  realli/  one,  should  not  be  also 
 visihhj  united,  having  as  its  only  bond  of 
 fellowship  and  barrier  of  exclusion,  the  re- 
 ception or  rejection  of  those  vital  truths  by 
 which  the  Christian  is  distinguished  from 
 the  unbeliever.  Looking  at  existing 
 churches,  it  appears  to  them  that  all  are 
 faulty  in  this  matter;  natmial  Churches 
 by  adopting  a  too  lax — ch'ssetithu/  Churches 
 by  adopting  a  too  limited — criterion  of 
 membership.  The  former,  it  appears  to 
 Brethren,  by  considering  as  members  all 
 within  a  certain  territory,  mingle  in  one 
 body  the  believers  and  the  unbelievers ; 
 while  the  latter,  by  their  various  tests  of 
 doctrine  or  of  discipline,  exclude  from 
 their  communion  many  who  are  clearly 
 and  undoubtedly  true  members  of  the  uni- 
 versal Church.  The  Brethren,  therefore, 
 may  be  represented  as  consisting  of  all 
 such  as,  practically  holding  all  the  truths 
 essential  to  salvation,  recognise  each  other 
 as,  on  that  account  alone,  true  members  of 
 the  only  Church.  A  difference  of  opinion 
 upon  aught  besides  is  not  regarded  as  suf- 
 ficient ground  for  separation  ;  and  the 
 Brethren,  therefore,  have  withdrawn  them- 
 selves from  all  those  bodies  in  Avhich  tests, 
 express  or  virtual,  on  minor  points,  are 
 made  the  means  of  separating  Christians 
 from  each  other. 
 
 "  In  the  judgment  of  the  Brethren,  the 
 disunion  now  existing  in  the  general 
 Church  is  the  result  of  a  neglect  to  recog- 
 nise the  Holy  Spirit  as  its  all-sufficient 
 guide.  Instead,  they  say,  of  a  reliance  on 
 his  promised  presence  and  sovereignty  as 
 Christ's  vicar  on  earth,  ever  abiding  to 
 assert  and  maintain  his  lordship  in  the 
 Church  according  to  the  written  Word, 
 men,  by  their  creeds  and  articles,  have 
 questioned  the  sufficiency  of  Scripture  as 
 interpreted  to  all  by  him,  and,  by  their  J 
 
 ministerial  and  ritual  appointments,  have 
 assumed  to  specify  the  channels  through 
 which  only  can  his  blessings  be  communi- 
 cated. All  these  various  human  forms 
 and  systems  are  believed  by  Brethren  to 
 be  destitute  of  scriptural  authority,  and 
 practically  restrictive  of  the  Holy  Spirit's 
 operations. 
 
 "  Chiefly  with  regard  to  iminstjyaYeihes,e 
 opinions  urged ;  the  usual  method  of  or- 
 daining special  persons  to  the  office,  being 
 held  to  be  unscriptural  and   prejudicial. 
 They  conceive  that  Christians  in  general 
 confound  vu'instn/  (i.  e.  the  exercise  of  a 
 spiritual  gift)  with  local  charges,  as  elder- 
 ship, &c.     Such  charges,  they  infer  from 
 Scripture,  required  the  sanction  of  apostles 
 or  their  delegates,  to  validate  the  appoint- 
 ment (Acts  xiv.  23  ;  Titus  i.  5) ;  whereas 
 the  '  gifts '  never  needed  any  human  au- 
 thorization (Acts  xviii.  24 — 28  ;  Rom.  xii. ; 
 1   Cor.  xii. — xvi. ;  Phil.  i.  14  ;  1  Peter  iv. 
 9,    10).      Further,  they   urge  that   while 
 Scripture  warrants  the  Church  to  expect  a 
 2)erj)eti(ifj/  of  '  (jiffs,' — as  evangelists,  pas- 
 tors, teachers,  exhorters,  rulers,  &c., — be- 
 cause  they  are  requisite  for  the  work  of 
 the  ministry,  (Eph.  iv.  7 — 13,) — it  nowhere 
 (juarantces  a  ^jc;'w?f/»e»^  ordaining  potver, 
 without  Avhich  the  nomination  or  ordain- 
 ing of  elders  is  valueless.     All  believers 
 are,  it   is    affirmed,  true   spiritual  priests 
 capacitated  for  worship,  (Heb.  x.  19 — 25,) 
 and    all   who    possess    the    qualifications 
 from  the  Lord  are  authorized  to  evange- 
 lize the  world  or  instruct  the  Church  ;  and 
 such  have  not  alone  the  liberty,  but  also 
 an  obli(/atio7i  to  employ  whatever  gift  may 
 be  intrusted  to  their  keeping.     Hence,  in 
 their  assemblies.  Brethren  have  no  pre-ap- 
 pointed  person  to  conduct  or  share  in  the 
 proceedings ;  all  is  open  to  the  guidance 
 of  the  Holy  Ghost  at  the  time,  so  that 
 he  who  believes  himself  to  be  so  led  of  the 
 Spirit,  may  address  the  meeting,  6cc.  This 
 arrangement  is  considered  to  be  indicated 
 as  the  proper  order  in  1  Cor.  xiv., — to  flow 
 from  the  principle  laid  down  in  1  Cor.  xii., 
 — and  to  be  traceable  historically  in  the 
 Acts  of  the  Apostles.     By  adopting  it,  the 
 Brethren  think  that  they  avoid  two  evils, 
 by  which  all  existing  sects  are,  more  or 
 less,  distinguished  ;   the  first,  the  evil  of 
 not  em])loyiiig  talents  given  to  believers 
 for  the  Church's  benefit ;  the  second,  the 
 evil  of  appointing  as  the  Church's  teachers 
 men  in  whom  the  gifts  essential  for  the 
 work  have  not  yet  been  discovered.     The 
 Brethren,  therefore,  recognise  no  separate 
 orders  of  '  clergy '  and   '  laity '  —  all   are 
 looked  upon  as  equal  in  position,  (Matt, 
 xxiii.  8;  1   Cor.  x.  17;  xii.  12— 20,  &c.,) 
 
PGENULA. 
 
 POLITY,  ECCLESIASTICAL.        589 
 
 differing  only  as  to  '  gifts '  of  ruling, 
 teaching,  preaching,  and  the  Hke  (Horn, 
 xii.  4—8  ;  1  Cor.  xii.  18,  28,  S:c.).  The 
 ordinances,  consequently,  of  baptism,  when 
 administered,  and  the  Loiin's  supper, 
 which  is  celebrated  weekly,  need  no  special 
 person  to  administer  or  preside  (Acts  ix. 
 10—18  ;  X.  48  ;  XX.  7  ;  1  Cor.  xi.).  An- 
 other feature  of  some  imi)ortance  is,  that 
 wherever  gifted  men  arc  found  among  the 
 Brethren,  they,  in  general,  are  actively  en- 
 gaged in  preaching  and  expounding,  ike, 
 0)1  their  own  individual  respo)isihility  to  the 
 Lord,  and  quite  distinct  from  the  assembly. 
 So  that,  though  they  may  occasionally  use 
 the  buildings  where  the  Brethren  meet,  it 
 is  in  no  way  as  ministers  of  the  Brethren, 
 but  of  Christ. 
 
 "  The  number  of  places  of  worship  which 
 the  Census  officers  in  England  and  Wales 
 returned  as  frequented  by  the  Brethren 
 was  132;  but  probably  this  number  is 
 below  the  truth,  in  consequence  of  the  ob- 
 jection which  tliey  entertain  to  acknow- 
 ledge any  sectarian  appellation.  Several 
 congregations  may  he  included  with  the 
 number  (9G)  described  as  *  Christians  'only." 
 
 PCENULA.     (See  Chasuble.) 
 
 POLITY,  ECCLESIASTICAL.  By 
 this  is  meant  the  constitution  and  govern- 
 ment of  the  Christian  Church,  considered 
 as  a  society. 
 
 Scarce  anything  in  religion  (says  a 
 learned  author)  has  been  more  mistaken 
 than  the  nature  and  extent  of  that  power, 
 which  our  blessed  Saviour  established  in 
 his  Church.  Some  have  not  only  excluded 
 the  civil  magistrates  of  Christian  states 
 from  having  any  concernment  in  the  ex- 
 ercise of  this  power,  and  exempted  all 
 persons  invested  with  it  from  the  civil 
 courts  of  justice,  but  have  raised  their 
 supreme  governor  of  the  Church  to  a 
 supremacy,  even  in  civil  affairs,  over  the 
 chief  magistrate ;  insomuch  that  he  has 
 pretended,  on  some  occasions,  to  absolve 
 subjects  from  their  allegiance  to  their  law- 
 ful princes ;  and  others  have  run  so  far 
 into  contrary  mistakes,  as  either  to  derive 
 all  spiritual  power  wholly  from  the  civil 
 magistrate,  or  to  allow  the  exercise  thereof 
 to  all  Christians  without  distinction.  The 
 first  of  these  opinions  manifestly  tends  to 
 create  divisions  in  the  State,  and  to  excite 
 subjects  to  rebel  against  their  civil  govern- 
 ors :  the  latter  do  plainly  strike  at  the 
 foundation  of  all  ecclesiastical  power  ;  and 
 wherever  they  are  j)ut  in  practice,  not  only 
 the  external  order  and  disci])line,  but  even 
 the  sacraments  of  the  Church  must  ])e  de- 
 stroyed, and  its  whole  constitution  be 
 quite  dissolved. 
 
 The  nature  of  ecclesiastical  jwlity  will 
 be  best  understood  by  looking  back  to 
 the  constitution  of  the  ancient  Clmstiau 
 Church. 
 
 The  Church,  as  a  society,  consisted  of 
 several  orders  of  men.  Eusebius  reckons 
 three:  viz.  the  '^yov^itvoi,  Wmrut,  and 
 \^aTr]xovyLtvot,  i.  e.  rulers,  believers,  and  ca- 
 techunu-ns.  Origcn  reckons  five  orders  : 
 but  then  he  divides  the  clergy  into  three 
 orders,  to  make  uj)  tlie  number.  Both 
 these  accounts,  when  com])ared  together, 
 come  to  the  same  thing.  Under  the  'Hyou- 
 fievoi,  or  rulers,  are  comprehended  the 
 clergy,  bisho])s,  priests,  and  deacons ;  un- 
 der the  lliuTot,  or  believers,  the  baptized 
 laity;  and  under  the  KaTtjxovnivoi,  or  ca- 
 techumens, the  candidates  for  ba])tism. 
 The  believers  were  perfect  Christians  ; 
 the  catechumens  imperfect.  The  former, 
 having  received  baptism,  were  allowed  to 
 partake  of  the  eucharist ;  to  join  in  all  the 
 prayers  of  the  Church  ;  and  to  hear  dis- 
 courses u])on  the  most  ])rofound  mysteries 
 of  religion  :  more  particularly  tiie  use  of 
 the  Lord's  Prayer  was  the  sole  preroga- 
 tive of  the  believers,  whence  it  was  called 
 E/;;^?)  7n(TTu>v,  the  prayer  of  believers. 
 From  all  these  privileges  the  catechumens 
 were  excluded.     (See  Catechumens.) 
 
 The  distinction  between  the  laity  and 
 the  clergy  may  be  deduced  from  the  very 
 beginnings  of  the  Christian  Churcli ;  not- 
 withstanding that  lligaltius,  Sahnasius, 
 and  Selden  pretend  there  was  originally 
 no  distinction,  but  that  it  is  a  novelty,  and 
 owing  to  the  ambition  of  the  clergy  of  tlie 
 third  century,  in  which  Cyprian  and  Ter- 
 tullian  lived.     (See  Cleryij.) 
 
 The  clergy  of  the  Christian  Church 
 consisted  of  several  orders,  both  superior 
 and  inferior. 
 
 The  superior  orders  of  the  clergy  were, 
 1.  The  Bishops;  2.  The  Presbyters;  3. 
 The  ])eacons. 
 
 It  has  been  pretended  that  the  bishops 
 and  presbyters  were  the  same  ;  and  this 
 opinion  has  given  rise  to  the  sect  of  the 
 Presbyterians.  But  it  is  clearly  proved 
 against  them,  from  ecclesiastical  antiquity, 
 that  bishoi)s  and  presbyters  were  distinct 
 orders  of  the  clergy.  (See  Bishops,  Dea- 
 cons, Presbyters,  and  Presbyterians.) 
 
 Among  the  bisliops  there  was  a  sulv 
 ordination,  thev  being  distinguislu-d  into, 
 1.  Primate  Mc'tropoiitans  ;  2.  Patriarchs 
 or  Archl)ishops ;  ;{.  Diocesan  liishops;  4. 
 Chorepisco])i  or  Suffragan  Bishops.  (See 
 the  articles  Archbishops,  Chntpi.fcopi,  Dio- 
 cese, Patriarchs^  and  Primates.) 
 
 The  presbyters  were  the  second  order 
 of  the  superior  clergy,  and  besides  being 
 
590     POLITY,  ECCLESIASTICAL. 
 
 POLYGLOTT  BIBLES. 
 
 the  bishop's  assistants  in  his  cathedral 
 church,  had  the  care  of  the  smaller  dis- 
 tricts, or  parishes,  of  which  each  diocese 
 consisted.     (See  Parishes  and  Presbyters.) 
 
 The  deacons  were  the  third  order  of  the 
 superior  clergy,  and  were  a  kind  of  assist- 
 ants to  the  bishops  and  presbyters,  in  the 
 administration  of  the  eucharist,  and  other 
 parts  of  Divine  service.  There  were  like- 
 wise deaconesses,  or  female  deacons,  who 
 were  emi)loyed  in  the  service  of  the  women. 
 Out  of  the  order  of  deacons  was  chosen  the 
 archdeacon,  who  presided  over  the  deacons 
 and  all  the  inferior  officers  of  the  Church. 
 (See  the  articles  Archdeacons,  Deacons, 
 and  Deaconesses.) 
 
 The  inferior  orders  of  the  clergy  were, 
 1.  The  Sub-deacons;  2.  The  Acolyths  ; 
 3.  The  Exorcists ;  4.  The  Readers ;  5.  The 
 Door-keepers ;  6.  The  Singers ;  7.  The 
 Copiata?,  or  Fossarii ;  8.  The  Parabolani ; 
 9.  The  Catechists ;  10.  The  Syndics;  11. 
 The  Stewards.  (See  each  under  their 
 respective  articles.) 
 
 All  these  orders  of  the  clergy  were  ap- 
 pointed to  their  several  offices  in  the 
 Church  by  solemn  forms  of  consecration 
 or  ordination,  and  had  theu'  respective  pri- 
 vileges, immunities,  and  revenues.  And, 
 by  means  of  this  gradation  and  subordin- 
 ation in  the  hierarchy,  the  worship  and 
 discipline  of  the  primitive  Church  were 
 exactly  kept  up,  according  to  St.  Paul's 
 du-ection,  "  Let  everything  be  done  de- 
 cently, and  in  order." 
 
 I  low  far  the  constitution  of  our  own 
 Chui-ch  agrees  with,  or  has  departed  from, 
 this  plan  of  the  ancient  hierarchy,  may  be 
 seen  at  one  glance  of  the  eye.  We  have 
 the  general  distinction  of  bishops,  presby- 
 ters or  priests,  and  deacons.  Among  the 
 first  we  retain  only  the  distinction  of  arch- 
 bishops (with  the  title  likewise  of  primates) 
 and  bishops,  having  no  patriarchs  or  chor- 
 episcopi.  And  as  to  the  inferior  orders  of 
 the  clergy,  as  acolyths,  6cc.,  they  are  all 
 unknown  to  the  Church  of  England.  The 
 Ilomish  Church  has  retained  most  of  them, 
 but  it  were  to  be  Avished  she  came  as  near 
 to  the  faith  and  worship,  as  she  does  to 
 the  external  constitution,  of  the  hierarchy 
 of  the  ancient  Church. 
 
 But,  as  no  society  can  subsist  without 
 laws,  and  penalties  annexed  to  the  breach 
 of  them,  so  the  unity  and  worship  of  the 
 Christian  Church  were  secured  by  laws 
 both  ecclesiastical  and  civil.  The  eccle- 
 siastical laws  were,  either  rules  and  orders 
 made  by  each  bishop  for  the  better  regu- 
 lation of  liis  particular  diocese ;  or  laAvs 
 made,  in  provincial  synods,  for  the  govern- 
 ment of  all  the  diocese  of  a  province  ;  or. 
 
 lastly,  laws  respecting  the  whole  Christian 
 Church,  made  in  general  councils,  or  as- 
 semblies of  bishops  from  all  parts  of  the 
 Christian  world.     (See  Synods.) 
 
 The  civil  laws  of  the  Cliurch  were  those 
 decrees  and  edicts,  made  from  time  to  time 
 by  the  emperors,  either  restraining  the 
 power  of  the  Church,  or  granting  it  new 
 privileges,  or  confirming  the  old. 
 
 The  breach  of  these  laws  was  severally 
 punished  both  by  the  Church  and  State. 
 The  ecclesiastical  censures,  respecting  of- 
 fenders among  the  clergy,  were,  chiefly, 
 suspension  from  the  office,  and  deprivation 
 of  the  rights  and  privileges  of  the  order. 
 Those  respecting  the  laity  consisted  chiefly 
 in  excommunication,  or  rejection  from  the 
 communion  of  the  Church,  and  penance 
 both  public  and  private. 
 
 POLYGLOTT  BIBLES,  are  such  Bi- 
 bles, or  editions  of  the  Holy  Scriptures, 
 as  are  printed  in  various  languages,  at 
 least  three,  the  texts  of  which  are  ranged 
 in  opposite  columns.  Some  of  these  Po- 
 lyglott  editions  contain  the  whole  Bible, 
 others  but  a  part  of  it.  The  principal 
 Polyglotts  that  have  yet  appeared  are 
 these  following : — 
 
 1.  The  Bible  of  Francis  Ximenes,  car- 
 dinal of  the  order  of  St.  Francis.  It  was 
 printed  in  1514-17,  in  four  languages — 
 Hebrew,  Chaldee,  Greek,  and  Latin.  From 
 having  been  printed  at  Alcala,  in  Spain, 
 anciently  Conrjjhdum,  this  is  called  the 
 Compluiensian  Polyglott.  It  cost  Cardinal 
 Ximenes  50,000  ducats. 
 
 2.  The  Psalter  of  Justiniani,  bishop  of 
 Nebbio,  of  the  order  of  St.  Dominic.  It 
 appeared  in  1516,  in  five  languages;  He- 
 brew, Chaldee,  Greek,  Latin,  and  Arabic. 
 
 3.  The  Psalter,  by  John  Potken,  pro- 
 vost of  the  collegiate  church  of  St.  George, 
 at  Cologne,  published  in  1518,  in  four  lan- 
 guages—  Hebrew,  Greek,  Chaldee,  and 
 Latin. 
 
 4.  The  Pentateuch,  published  by  the 
 Jews,  at  Constantinople,  in  1546,  in  He- 
 brew, Chaldee,  Persian,  and  Arabic ;  with 
 the  commentaries  of  Solomon  Jarchi. 
 
 5.  The  Pentateuch,  by  the  same  Jews^ 
 in  the  same  city,  in  1547,  in  four  languages 
 — Hebrew,  Chaldee,  the  vulgar  Greek,  and 
 Spanish. 
 
 6.  An  imperfect  Polyglott,  containing 
 only  fragments  of  the  book  of  Genesis  and 
 of  the  Psalms  ;  the  Proverbs,  the  prophets 
 Micah  and  Joel,  with  part  of  Isaiah,  Ze- 
 chariah,  and  Malachi ;  pviblished  by  John 
 Draconitis,  of  Carlostad,  in  Franconia,  in 
 1563-5,  in  five  languages — Hebrew,  Chal- 
 dee, Greek,  Latin,  and  German. 
 
 7.  Christopher  Plantin's  Polyglott  Bible, 
 
POLYGLOTT  PRAYER  BOOK. 
 
 POPE,  THE. 
 
 691 
 
 published  by  order  of  Philip  II,,  kinj]:  of 
 Spain,  Antwerj),  in  \M\[),  ld~'2.  It  is  in 
 eight  volumes,  and  in  Hebrew,  C'haldee, 
 Greek,  and  Latin  :  Avith  tlie  Syriac  version 
 of  the  NeM-  Testament.  This  is  called  the 
 Antwerp  Polyglott. 
 
 8.  Yatablus's  Polyglott  Bible,  being:  the 
 Old  Testament  in  Hebrew  and  Greek,  with 
 two  Latin  versions,  one  of  St.  Jerome,  the 
 other  of  Sanctus  Pa^ninus ;  and  Yata- 
 blus's notes.  Tiie  editorsliip  is  attributed 
 to  II.  Stei)hens,  by  Bishop  Walton.  Dibdin 
 ascribes  it  to  Bertramus,  Hebrew  professor 
 at  Geneva.  It  appeared  at  Heidelberg,  in 
 1586. 
 
 9.  A  Bible  in  four  languages,  Hebrew, 
 Greek,  Latin,  and  German,  published  by 
 David  Wolder,  a  Lutheran  minister,  at 
 Hamburg,  in  lo9G. 
 
 10.  The  Polyglotts  of  Elias  Ilutter,  a 
 German.  The  hrst,  jn-inted  at  Nurem- 
 berg, in  1599,  contains  the  Pentateuch, 
 Joshua,  Judges,  and  Kuth,  in  six  lan- 
 guages; viz.  the  Hebrew,  Chaldee,  Greek, 
 Latin,  Luther's  German,  and  Sclavonian ; 
 or  French,  Italian,  or  Saxon  ;  the  copies 
 varying  according  to  the  nations  tiiey  were 
 designed  for. 
 
 This  author  published  the  Psalter  and 
 New  Testament,  in  Hebrew,  Greek,  Latin, 
 and  German.  But  his  chief  work  is  the 
 New  Testament  in  twelve  languages,  viz. 
 S)Tiac,  Greek,  Hebrew,  Italian,  Spanish, 
 French,  Latin,  German,  Bohemian,  Eng- 
 lish, Danish,  and  Polish.  This  was  printed 
 at  Nuremberg,  in  159i). 
 
 11.  M.  le  Jay's  Bible,  in  seven  lan- 
 guages, printed  at  Paris,  in  1645.  The 
 languages  are,  the  Hebrew,  Samaritan, 
 Chaldee,  Greek,  Syriac,  Latin,  and  Arabic. 
 
 12.  Walton's  Polyglott,  published  in 
 England,  in  1657.  In  nine  languages,  viz. 
 the  Hebrew,  Chaldee,  Greek,  Samaritan, 
 Syrian,  Arabic,  vEthiopic,  Persic,  and 
 Latin  ;  though  no  one  book  is  printed  in 
 so  many.  This  was  the  most  complete  and 
 perfect  Polyglott  ever  pul)lished.  It  con- 
 sists of  live  volumes,  with  prolegomena,  i)y 
 "Walton,  which  are  in  themselves  a  treasure 
 of  biblical  criticism,  some  treatises  in  the 
 first  volume,  several  new  Oriental  versions 
 in  the  fourth  and  fifth,  and  a  very  large 
 collection  of  various  readings  in  the  sixth. 
 
 13.  lleineccius',  or  the  Leipsic  Polyglott, 
 printed  at  Leipsic,  1753,  in  3  vols.,  in 
 Latin,  German,  Hebrew,  and  Greek:  a 
 cheap  and  conunodious  edition. 
 
 14.  Bagster's  Polyglott,  London,  1821, 
 4to  and  8vo,  in  five  languages,  Hebrew, 
 Greek,  Latin,  English.  Svriac. 
 
 POLYGLOTT  PliAYEll  BOOK.  The 
 English  Prayer    Book   was   jjublished  in 
 
 1819,  in  eight  languages,  English,  French, 
 Italian,  (uTman,  Simnish,  ancient  and 
 modern  (ireek,  and  Latin. 
 
 PONTIFICAL.  A  book  containing 
 the  olfici's  used  by  a  bisliop,  at  consecra- 
 tion of  churches,  IVe.  Thus  the  Boman 
 Pontifical  is  the  book  of  offices  for  a  l)ish()p, 
 according  to  the  rites  of  the  Roman 
 Church.  In  England  the  Pontifical  is  not 
 by  authority  published  sej)aratelv  from  the 
 liturgy,  so  that  it  is  never  calh-d  by  that 
 nanu' ;  though  the  offices  of  confirmation 
 and  ordination,  in  fact,  compose  the  Eng- 
 lish Pontifical.  For  the  consecration  of 
 churches  and  churciiyards  we  have  no 
 oifice  ai)i)ointed  by  sullicient  authority. 
 (See  Consicratinii  of  Churches.) 
 
 PONTIFICALIA.  Properly  the  en- 
 signs of  a  jiontitfs  or  bishop's  office  ;  but 
 the  term  is  loosely  used  for  any  ecclesias- 
 tical dress.  It  is  so  used  in  the  account 
 of  Bishop  Andrewes'  consecration  of  St. 
 Mary's,  Southamj)ton,  in  Sparrow's  collec- 
 tion :  "  Episcoj)us  caju'llam  statini  ingres- 
 sus  niduit  se  ])ontificalil)us." 
 
 POOil  ^L\N•S  1{()X  ;  or  Poor  Men's 
 Box.  Till  the  last  review,  it  was  directed 
 that  the  collection  at  the  oHi-rtory  should 
 be  put  into  the  l*oor  Man's  lios :  a  terra 
 which  (in  imitation  of  the  Scotch  liturg)') 
 was  altered  in  the  last  review  to  a  (Itcttit 
 l/nsin.  It  is  clear,  however,  from  many 
 documents,  that  basins  of  gold  and  silver, 
 and  other  metinal  were  used  in  the  Ciuirch 
 of  England  ever  since  the  Reformation. 
 In  Ireland  the  Poor  Man's  Box,  or  jH>or- 
 box,  as  it  is  generally  called,  is  still  in  ge- 
 neral use.  An  oval  box,  half  covered,  of 
 copper  or  wood,  with  a  long  handle.  The 
 Poor  Man's  Box  does  not  seem  to  l)e  the 
 same  as  the  Alms'  Chest.  j)rescribed  by 
 the  84th  canon.  So  Wheatly  observes: 
 "not,  I  ])resume,  into  that  fixed  in  the 
 church,  but  into  a  little  box  which  the 
 churchwardens,  or  some  other  projjcr  per- 
 sons, carried  about  with  them  in  tiuir 
 hands,  as  is  still  the  custom  at  the  Temple 
 Church  in  London." — Jihb. 
 
 POPE,  Til F.  The  sovereign  pontiff,  or 
 supreme  luad,  of  the  Ilomish  Church.  The 
 appellation  of  j)ope  {Pajxi)  was,  anciently, 
 given  to  all  Christian  bishops:  but,  about 
 the  latter  end  of  the  eleventh  century,  in 
 the  ])onlificate  of  Gregorv  YH.,  it  was 
 usurped  by  the  bishop  ot  Itonie,  whose 
 peculiar  title  it  has  ever  since  continued. 
 
 The  spiritual  monarchy  of  Rome  sj)rang 
 up  soon  after  the  declension  of  the  Roman 
 empire ;  and  one  great,  though  remote, 
 instrument,  in  j)ronioting  the  increase  of 
 this  monarchy,  so  i)ernicious  to  the  su- 
 preme civil  i)ower,  was,  the  barbarity  and 
 
692 
 
 POPE,  THE. 
 
 ignorance  which  from   that  time   spread 
 itself  over  the  Western  parts. 
 
 Rome  was  chosen  for  the  place  of  resi- 
 dence of  the  ecclesiastical  monarchy,  be- 
 cause this  city  had  the  particular  preroga- 
 tive of  being  the  capital  city  of  the  lloman 
 empire,  where  the  Christian  religion  had 
 its  first  rise  and  increase.  For  what  is 
 related  concerning  St.  Peter's  chair  is 
 nothing  but  a  vain  pretence,  which  may 
 easily  be  seen  from  hence,  that,  afterwards, 
 the  bishop  of  Constantinople  had  the  next 
 place  assigned  him  after  the  bishop  of 
 Home,  only  because  that  city  was  then  the 
 place  of  the  emperor's  residence,  and  called 
 New  Home.  And  when  afterwards  the 
 "Western  empire  was  come  to  decay,  and 
 the  city  of  Rome  had  lost  its  former  lustre, 
 the  bishop  of  Constantinople  disputed  the 
 precedency  with  the  Roman  bishop.  It 
 is  true  the  emperor  Phocas  granted  the 
 right  of  precedency  to  Boniface  III.,  then 
 bishop  of  Rome,  who  thereupon  took  upon 
 him  the  title  of  (Ecumenical  bishop :  but 
 this  did  not  imply  any  power  or  jurisdic- 
 tion over  the  rest ;  for  the  other  patriarchs 
 never  acknowledged  any.  So  that  here 
 are  no  footsteps  of  Divine  institution  to  be 
 found,  the  papal  power  being  purely  human, 
 and  an  usurpation  upon  the  rights  of  other 
 sees. 
 
 The  bishops  of  Rome  did  not  extend 
 their  power  over  the  Western  parts  all  at 
 once  ;  but  it  was  introduced  from  time  to 
 time,  by  degrees,  by  various  artifices,  and 
 under   various   pretences.     What    chiefiy 
 contributed  to  its  growth  was,  first,  the 
 emperors  choosing  other    places  of  resi- 
 dence besides  Rome  ;  for,  by  their  constant 
 presence  there,  they  might  easily  have  kept 
 under  the  ambitious  designs  of  the  bishops. 
 In  the  next  place,  the  AVestern  empire  was 
 divided  into  several  new  kingdoms,  erected 
 by  the  several  barbarous  and  pagan  na- 
 tions, and  these,  having   been  converted 
 to  the  Christian  faith  by  the  direction  of 
 the  Romish  Church,   thought  themselves 
 obliged  to  pay  her  the  profoundest  respect. 
 In  the  fifth  century,  the  bisho})s  on  this 
 side  the  Alps  began  to  go  to  Rome,  to 
 visit  the  sepulchres  of  St.  Peter  and  St. 
 Paul.     This  voluntary  devotion  insensibly 
 grew  into  a  necessity.     From  hence  it  was 
 easy  for  the  popes  afterwards  to  pretend, 
 that  the   bishops   ought  to  receive  their 
 confirmation  from  Rome.     Besides,  some 
 other    bishops   and    churches,    that   were 
 novices  in  comparison  of  the  ancient  Ro- 
 man Church,  used  to  refer  themselves  to, 
 and  ask  the  advice  of,  the  Church  of  Rome, 
 concerning  matters  of  great  consequence, 
 and  the  true  interpretation  of  the  canons. 
 
 Hence  the  bishops  of  Rome,  perceiving 
 their  answers  were  received  as  decisions, 
 began  to  send  their  decrees  before  they 
 were  demanded.  And  hence  they  set 
 themselves  up  as  judges  of  the  differences 
 arising  between  the  bishops,  and,  encroach- 
 ing on  the  right  and  jurisdiction  of  the 
 metropolitans,  proceeded  to  suspend  and 
 depose  whom  they  thought  fit.  At  the 
 same  time,  by  making  void  the  decisions 
 of  the  provincial  synods,  they  so  dimin- 
 ished their  authority,  that  by  degrees 
 they  were  quite  abolished.  Add  to  this, 
 that  Gregory  VII.  forced  the  bishops  to 
 take  an  oath  of  fealty  to  the  popes,  and  by 
 a  decree  enacted  that  none  should  dare  to 
 condemn  any  one,  who  had  appealed  to  the 
 pope.  Nor  did  they  forget  to  send  legates 
 or  nuncios  to  all  places,  whose  business 
 was  to  exercise,  in  the  pope's  name,  the 
 same  authority,  which  had  formerly  be- 
 longed to  the  bishops  and  provincial  sy- 
 nods.    (See  Legate.) 
 
 It  is  certain  that  many  Romish  bishops, 
 especially  among  those  on  this  side  the  Alps, 
 were  to  a  late  period  opposed  to  the  pope's 
 authority  ;  which  evidently  appeared  at  the 
 Council  of  Trent,  where  the  French  and 
 Spanish  bishops  insisted  very  strongly  to 
 have  it  decided,  that  bishops  are  obliged  to 
 residence  by  the  law  of  GOD  ;  the  conse- 
 quence of  which  was,  the  deriving  their  au- 
 thority from  God  alone.  The  pope  met  with 
 great  difficulty  before  he  could  surmount 
 this  obstacle ;  and  therefore  it  is  very 
 likely  this  will  be  the  last  council,  since 
 the  pope  will  scarce  put  his  grandeur  to 
 the  hazard  and  decision  of  such  another 
 assembly.  Not  to  mention  that  they  are 
 now  of  no  farther  use,  since  the  Jesuits 
 and  others  have  taught,  that  the  pope  is 
 infallible,  and  superior  to  councils.  How- 
 ever that  may  be,  the  bishops  are  obliged 
 for  their  own  sakes  not  to  withdi'aw  them- 
 selves from  the  pope's  jurisdiction,  since 
 thereby  they  would  fall  under  the  civil 
 poAver,  and  would  be  obliged  to  seek  pro- 
 tection from  their  sovereigns,  who  must 
 be  potent  princes,  if  they  could  protect 
 them  against  the  pope  ;  so  that  they  think 
 it  wiser,  of  two  evils  to  choose  the  least. 
 
 The  spiritual  monarchy  of  Rome  could 
 not  have  been  established,  had  its  bishops 
 continued  dependent  on  any  temporal 
 prince ;  and  therefore  the  popes  took  their 
 opportunity  to  exempt  themselves  from 
 the  jurisdiction  of  the  Greek  emperors, 
 whose  authority  was  mightily  decayed  in 
 Italy.  This  was  greatly  forwarded  by  the 
 dispute  concerning  the  use  of  images. 
 For  the  emperor  Leo  Isaurus  having  quite 
 ejected  them  out  of  the  churches,  Pope 
 
rOPE,  THE. 
 
 m) 
 
 Gregory  II.,  who  stood  up  Tor  the  images, 
 took  occasion  to  oppose  him,  and  stirred 
 up  the  Komans  and  Italians  to  refuse  to 
 pay  him  tribute;  by  which  means  the 
 power  of  the  Greek  emperors  was  hist  in 
 Italy,  and  these  countries  began  to  be 
 free  and  independent  of  any  foreign  juris- 
 diction. 
 
 The  pope,  having  freed  himself  from  the 
 authority  of  the  emperors  of  Constanti- 
 nople, and  being  in  danger  from  the  Lom- 
 bards, who  endeavoured  to  make  them- 
 selves masters  of  Italy,  had  recourse  for 
 protection  to  the  kings  of  France.  Pepin, 
 and  afterwards  Charles  the  Great,  having 
 entirely  subdued  the  Lombards,  these 
 princes  gave  to  the  papal  chair  all  that 
 tract  of  land,  which  had  been  formerly 
 subject  to  the  Greek  emperors.  To  obtain 
 this  gift,  it  is  said,  the  pope  made  use  of 
 a  fictitious  donation  of  Constantine  the 
 Great,  which,  in  those  barbarous  times, 
 was  easily  imposed  upon  the  ignorant 
 world.  By  virtue  of  this  grant,  the  popes 
 pretended  to  a  sovereign  jurisdiction  over 
 these  countries ;  Avhich  the  people  at  first  re- 
 fused to  submit  to,  thinking  it  very  strange, 
 that  the  pope,  who  was  an  ecclesiastical 
 person,  should  at  the  same  time  pretend 
 to  be  a  temporal  prince.  "When,  therefore, 
 the  Komans  mutinied  against  Leo  III.,  he 
 was  forced  to  seek  for  assistance  from 
 Charles  the  Great,  who  restored  the  pope. 
 On  the  other  hand,  the  pope  and  people 
 of  Rome  proclaimed  Charles  em])cror; 
 whereby  he  was  put  in  possession  of  the 
 sovereignty  of  that  part  of  Italy,  which 
 formerly  belonged  to  the  governors  of 
 liavenna,  and  the  other  remnants  of  the 
 "Western  empire ;  so  that  the  popes  after- 
 wards enjoyed  these  countries  under  the 
 sovereign  jurisdiction  of  the  emperor,  who 
 therefore  used  to  be  called  the  patron  and 
 defender  of  the  Church,  till  the  reign  of 
 the  emperor,  Henry  VI. 
 
 The  popes  at  length  began  to  grow 
 weary  of  the  imperial  protection,  because 
 the  emperor's  consent  was  required  in  the 
 election  of  a  pope,  and,  if  they  were  mu- 
 tinous, the  emperors  used  to  check  them, 
 and  sometimes  turn  them  out  of  the  chair. 
 The  popes,  therefore,  for  a  long  time, 
 employed  various  artifices  to  exempt 
 themselves  from  the  power  of  the  em- 
 perors. To  this  end,  they  frequently 
 raised  intestine  commotions  against  them. 
 But  the  reign  of  Ilem-y  IV.  furnisjied 
 them  with  an  oi)])ortunity  of  ])utting  their 
 designs  in  execution.  For  Poj)e  Gregory 
 VII.,  surnamed  ]Iildel)rand,  had  tlie  bold- 
 ness to  excommunicate  this  emperor,  on 
 pretence  that  he  made  a  traffic  of  cliurch 
 2  Q 
 
 benefices,  l)y  selling  them  to  all  sorts  of 
 l)ersons,  whom  he  in>^talled  before  they 
 had  taken  orders.  And,  not  satislied  with 
 this,  he  cited  the  em])eror  before  him,  to 
 answer  to  the  complaints  of  jjis  subjects, 
 and  declared  him  to  have  forfeited  all 
 right  and  title  to  the  emi)ire.  Tliis  obliged 
 the  emperor  to  renounce  the  right  of  con- 
 stituting l)ishops.  And  though  his  son, 
 Henry  V.,  endeavoured  to  recover  what 
 was  forcibly  taken  away  from  his  father, 
 and  made  Pope   I'aschal  a   ))risoner,  yet 
 
 dis- 
 
 were  the  whole  clergy  in  Furoj)e  so 
 satisfied,  that  he  was  obliged  at  last  to 
 resign  the  same  right  again  into  the  jjopc's 
 hands.  This  affair  gave  rise  to  tlie  factions 
 of  the  Guclfs  and  G/iibclines,  the  first  of 
 which  were  for  the  pojie,  the  latter  for  the 
 em])eror.  Tlie  succeeding  cm])erors  found 
 so  much  work  in  Germany,  that  they  wcro 
 not  in  a  condition  to  look  after '  Italy ; 
 whereby  the  pope  had  sufficient  leisure  to 
 make  himself  sovereign,  not  only  over  his 
 own  possessions,  but  over  all  possessions 
 pertaining  to  the  Church. 
 
 But  the  pope,  not  satisfied  with  this 
 degree  of  grandeur,  quickly  set  on  foot  a 
 pretension  of  far  greater  consequence. 
 For  now  he  pretended  to  an  authority  over 
 princes  themselves,  to  command  a  truce 
 between  such  as  were  at  war  together,  to 
 take  cognizance  of  their  ditfercnces,  to  put 
 their  kingdoms  under  an  interdict,  and, 
 if  they  refused  submission  to  the  see  of 
 liome,  to  absolve  their  subjects  from  their 
 allegiance,  and  to  deprive  them  of  their 
 crowns.  This  has  been  attemi)ted  against 
 many  crowned  heads,  and  put  in  execution 
 against  some  of  them.  And  for  this  abo- 
 minable pretension  they  pleaded  their  ficti- 
 tious decretals,  (sec  Decretals,)  which  grant 
 to  the  popes  an  unlimited  power  over  all 
 Christians  whatever.  Pope  Boniface  VHI. 
 gave  the  world  clearly  to  understand  his 
 meaning,  at  the  jubilee  kept  in  the  year 
 i;iO(),  when  he  a])peared  sometimes  in  the 
 hal;)it  of  an  emperor,  and  sometimes  in  that 
 of  a  jjope,  and  had  two  swords  carried 
 before  him,  as  the  ensigns  of  the  ecclesias- 
 tical and  civil  jiower. 
 
 But  the  popes  could  not  long  enjoy  this 
 intolerable  usurpation  in  quiet ;  for  it  was 
 often  called  in  question,  till  they  were 
 obliged  to  desist  in  i)art  from  their  pre- 
 tensions. In  particular,  Philip  the  Hand- 
 some, king  of  France,  gave  sevend  great 
 blows  to  the  jiapal  authority.  But^  the 
 ensuing  schisms,  and  the  double  elections, 
 when  the  oj^posite  factions  chose  two  dif- 
 ferent pojHs  at  the  same  time,  contributed 
 most  towards  weakening  the  jjower  of  the 
 holy  see.     Hence  an  occasion  was  taken 
 
594 
 
 POPE,  THE. 
 
 to  bridle  the  pope's  authority  by  general 
 councils,  which  often  proceeded  so  tar  as 
 to  depose  the  holy  fathers.  Therefore  it 
 is  not  to  be  wondered  that,  since  the 
 Council  of  Trent,  tlie  popes  have  been  very 
 averse  to  the  calling  of  general  councils, 
 and  seem  to  have  bid  adieu  to  tliem  for 
 ever.  To  this  may  be  added,  that  the 
 ti-anslation  of  the  papal  chair,  by  Clement 
 v.,  from  Home  to  Avignon,  where  the 
 popes  constantly  resided  for  seventy  years 
 together,  carried  along  with  it  several  in- 
 conveniences, which  proved  greatly  pre- 
 judicial to  the  ecclesiastical  monarchy. 
 Among  others,  the  pope's  authority  being 
 founded  upon  this  belief,  that  St.  Peter 
 had  been  at  Rome,  and  by  his  presence  had 
 communicated  a  particular  prerogative 
 and  holiness  to  that  chair,  it  was  very 
 much  questioned  whether  the  same  could 
 be  transferred  to  Avignon. 
 
 But,  when  the  ecclesiastical  monarchy 
 seemed  to  be  come  to  the  pinnacle  of  its 
 grandeur,  when  all  the  Western  parts  were 
 either  in  communion  with,  or  in  obedience 
 to,  the  Church  of  Rome,  by  the  influence  of 
 the  Reformation,  the  pope  became  only  the 
 spiritual  head  of  a  sect,  and  eventually,  as 
 a  civil  power,  of  very  slight  importance. 
 
 The  manner  of  the  election  of  a  pope  is 
 as  follows :  nine  or  ten  days  after  the 
 funeral  of  a  deceased  pope,  the  cardinals 
 enter  the  conclave,  which  is  generally  held 
 in  the  Vatican,  in  a  long  gallery,  where 
 cells  of  board  are  erected,  covered  with 
 purple  cloth,  one  for  each  cardinal.  (See 
 Conclave.) 
 
 The  election  is  made  by  scrutiny,  access, 
 or  adoration.  The  first  is,  when  each  car- 
 dinal writes  the  name  of  him  whom  he 
 votes  for,  in  a  scroll  of  five  pages.  On  the 
 first  is  written  by  one  of  his  servants,  that 
 the  cardinal  may  not  be  discovered  by  his 
 liand,  "  Eijo  eligo  in  snmminn  pontijicem 
 reverendum  dominum  ineum  cardinalem.'" 
 On  this  fold  two  others  are  doubled  down, 
 and  sealed  with  a  private  seal.  On  the 
 fourth  the  cardinal  writes  his  own  name, 
 and  covers  it  with  the  fifth  folding.  Then, 
 sitting  in  order  on  benches  in  the  chapel, 
 with  their  scrolls  in  their  hands,  they  go 
 up  to  the  altar  by  turns,  and,  after  a  short 
 prayer  on  their  knees,  throw  the  scroll  into 
 a  chalice  upon  the  table,  the  first  cardinal 
 bisliop  sitting  on  the  right  hand,  and  the 
 first  cardinal  deacon  on  the  left.  The 
 cardinals  being  returned  to  their  places, 
 the  cardinal  bishoj)  turns  out  the  scrolls 
 into  a  plate,  which  he  holds  in  his  left 
 hand,  and  gives  them  one  by  one  to  the 
 carcbnal  deacon,  who  reads  them  with  an 
 audible   voice,    while  the    cardinals    note 
 
 down  how  many  voices  each  person  has ; 
 and  then  the  master  of  the  ceremonies 
 burns  the  scrolls  in  a  chafing-dish,  that  it 
 may  not  be  known  for  whom  any  one  gives 
 his  voice.  If  two-thirds  of  the  number 
 present  agree,  the  election  is  made,  and 
 he,  on  whom  the  two-thirds  fall,  is  declared 
 l^ope. 
 
 When  the  choice  is  made  by  access,  the 
 cardinals  rise  from  their  places,  and,  ap- 
 proaching him  whom  they  would  have 
 elected,  say,  JE(/o  accede  ad  reverendissi- 
 viiwi  Dominum.  The  choice  by  adoration 
 is  much  after  the  same  manner,  only  the 
 cardinal  approaches  him  whom  he  would 
 have  chosen  with  the  profoundest  rever- 
 ence. But  both  the  one  and  the  other 
 must  be  confirmed  by  the  scrutiny. 
 
 There  has  been  another  way  of  choosing 
 a  pope,  namely,  by  compromise ;  that  is, 
 when  the  differences  have  risen  so  high 
 that  they  could  not  be  adjusted  in  the 
 conclave,  they  have  referred  the  choice  to 
 three  or  five,  giving  them  leave  to  elect 
 any  one,  provided  it  were  determined 
 within  the  time  that  a  candle  lighted  by 
 common  consent  should  last.  Sometimes 
 they  have  had  recourse  to  what  is  called 
 inspiration  ;  that  is,  the  first  cardinal  rises 
 up  in  chapel,  and,  after  an  exhortation  to 
 make  choice  of  a  capable  person,  imme- 
 diately, as  if  inspired,  names  one  himself: 
 to  which,  if  two-thirds  of  the  cardinals  pre- 
 sent agree,  he  is  reckoned  legally  chosen. 
 
 When  one  of  the  cardinals  is  chosen 
 pope,  the  master  of  the  ceremonies  comes 
 to  his  cell,  to  acquaint  him  with  the  news 
 of  his  promotion.  Whereupon  he  is  con- 
 ducted to  the  chapel,  and  clad  in  the  pon- 
 tifical habit,  and  there  receives  the  ador- 
 ation, or  the  respects  paid  by  the  cardinals 
 to  the  popes.  Then,  all  the  gates  of  the 
 conclave  being  opened,  the  new  pope  shows 
 himself  to  the  people,  and  blesses  them, 
 the  first  cardinal  deacon  proclaiming  aloud 
 these  words:  Annvntio  vohis gaudium mctg- 
 nwn  ;  Papam  hahemiis.  Reverendissimns 
 Dominus  Cardinalis — electus  est  in  summvni 
 Pontijicem,  et  eligit  sihi  nomen.  After  this, 
 he  is  carried  to  St.  Peter's  church,  and 
 placed  upon  the  altar  of  the  holy  apostles, 
 where  the  cardinals  come  a  second  time  to 
 the  adoration.  Some  days  after  is  per- 
 formed the  ceremony  of  his  coronation, 
 before  the  door  of  St.  Peter's  church, 
 where  is  erected  a  throne,  upon  which  the 
 new  pope  ascends,  has  his  mitre  taken  off, 
 and  a  crown  put  upon  his  head,  in  the 
 presence  of  the  people.  Afterwards  is  a 
 grand  cavalcade  from  St.  Peter's  church 
 to  St.  John  Lateran,  where  the  arch- 
 bishop of  that  church  presents  the  new 
 
POPE,  THE. 
 
 6\)5 
 
 pope  "svith  two  keys,  one  of  gold  the  other 
 of  silver. 
 
 It  is  probable  that,  in  the  first  a<?es  of 
 the  Church,  the  Koman  clergy  elected  the 
 pope  ;  and  some  think  the  people  had  a 
 share  in  the  election.  Afterwards,  Odoa- 
 cer,  king  of  the  Eruli,  and  Thcodoric,  king 
 of  the  Goths  in  Italy,  would  suifer  no  elec- 
 tion of  a  pope  to  be  made  without  their 
 consent.  13 ut  this  was  abolished  in  502, 
 under  Pope  Symmachus.  The  succeeding 
 princes,  hoAvcver,  reserved  to  themselves 
 a  right  to  confirm  the  newly  elected  pope, 
 who,  without  this  confirmation,  could  not 
 take  possession  of  the  pontificate.  The 
 tenth  century  saw  several  popes  elected 
 and  deposed  at  the  fancy  of  the  Koman 
 nobility  and  Italian  princes.  But,  since 
 the  election  of  Celestin  II.,  in  1443,  the 
 cardinals  have  retained  the  power  of  elec- 
 tion, independent  of  the  Iloman  people,  or 
 of  any  sovereign  prince  whatever. 
 
 It  is  a  general  maxim,  in  the  choice  of 
 a  pope,  to  elect  an  Italian  ;  which  is  done, 
 not  only  because  they  choose  rather  to 
 bestow  this  dignity  on  a  native  of  Italy 
 than  on  a  foreigner,  but  also  because  the 
 security  and  preservation  of  the  papal 
 chair  depends,  in  a  great  measure,  on  the 
 balance  which  is  to  be  kept  between  France 
 and  Spain :  but  this  is  not  to  be  expected 
 from  a  French  or  Spanish  pope,  who  would 
 quickly  turn  the  scale,  and,  by  granting 
 too  great  privileges  to  his  countrymen,  en- 
 deavour to  exclude  others  from  the  papal 
 chair.  It  is  also  a  sort  of  maxim,  to  choose 
 a  pope  who  is  pretty  far  advanced  in  years, 
 that  there  may  be  the  quicker  succession, 
 and  that  it  may  not  be  in  the  power  of  a 
 pope,  during  a  long  reign,  to  alter  their 
 customs,  or,  by  making  his  family  too 
 powerful,  to  entail,  as  it  were,  the  papal 
 chair  upon  his  house.  They  also  take  care 
 that  he  be  not  too  near  akin  to  the  de- 
 ceased pope,  that  the  vacant  church  bene- 
 fices may  not  be  engrossed  by  one  family. 
 It  often  happens,  that  one  is  chosen  poi)e, 
 of  whom  nobody  thought  before  ;  and  this 
 comes  to  pass,  when  the  cardinals  are 
 tired  out  by  so  many  intrigues,  and  are 
 glad  to  get  out  of  the  conclave.  It  is 
 also  observed,  that  a  pope  often  proves 
 quite  another  man,  when  he  comes  to  sit 
 in  the  chair,  than  that  he  was  before,  when 
 only  a  cardinal. 
 
 Ever  since  the  time  of  Pope  Sixtus  IV., 
 that  is,  since  the  year  1471,  the  popes  have 
 made  it  their  l)usiness  to  enrich  their 
 families  out  of  the  Church  revenues,  of 
 which  there  are  very  remarkable  instances. 
 For  it  is  related  that  Sixtus  V.,  during  a 
 reign  of  five  years,  l^estowed  upon  his  fa- 
 2  Q  2 
 
 mily  above  three  millions  of  ducats.  The 
 house  of  the  Iku-barini.  at  the  death  of 
 Urban  VIII.,  was  possessed  of  22"  ofiices 
 and  Church  benefices,  whereby  they  amass- 
 ed thirtv  millions  of  scudi. 
 
 Sergi'us  III.,  (a.  1).  904,)  or  Sergius  IV., 
 (a.  I).  1009,)  who  was  before  called  Os  Porci, 
 i.  e.  Swine-l^\ice,  is  said  to  have  been  the 
 first  pope  who  changed  his  name  upon  his 
 exaltation  to  the  ])oiitificate.  This  example 
 has  been  followed  by  all  the  ])opes  since 
 his  time,  and  they  assume  the  names  of 
 Iiuiocent,  Benedict,  Clement,  tVc. 
 
 AN'hen  a  ])ope  is  elected,  they  put  on 
 him  a  cassock  of  white  wool,  shoes  of  red 
 cloth,  on  which  is  embroidered  a  golil 
 cross,  a  mantle  of  red  velvet,  the  rochet, 
 the  white  linen  albe,  and  a  stole  set  with 
 pearls.  At  home,  his  ha])it  is,  a  white  silk 
 cassock,  rochet,  and  scarlet  mantle.  In 
 winter  his  Holiness  wears  a  fur  cap;  in 
 summer,  a  satin  one.  A\'hen  he  celebrates 
 mass,  the  colour  of  his  hal)it  varies  ac- 
 cording to  the  solemnity  of  the  festival. 
 At  Whitsuntide,  and  all  festivals  of  the 
 martyrs,  he  olHciates  in  red  ;  at  I'-aster, 
 and  all  festivals  of  virgins,  in  white  ;  in 
 Lent,  Advent,  and  eves  of  fasting  days, 
 in  violet ;  and  on  Faster-eve,  and  at  all 
 masses  for  the  dead,  in  black.  All  these 
 colours  are  typical :  the  red  expresses  the 
 cloven  tongue,  and  the  blood  of  the  mar- 
 t)TS ;  the  Avhite,  the  joy  caused  by  our 
 Saviour's  resurrection,  and  the  chastity 
 of  virgins  ;  the  violet,  the  pale  aspect  of 
 those  who  fast ;  and  the  black,  grief  and 
 mourning. 
 
 The  pope's  tiara,  or  crown,  is  a  kind  of 
 conic  cap,  Avith  three  coronets,  rising  one 
 above  the  other,  and  adorned  with  jewels. 
 Paul  II.  was  the  first  who  added  the  or- 
 naments of  precious  stones  to  his  crown. 
 The  jewels  of  Clement  VlII.'s  crown  were 
 valued,  they  say,  at  500,000  pieces  of  gold. 
 That  of  Martin  V.  had  five  pounds  and  a 
 half  weight  of  pearls  in  it.  "  Nor  is  there 
 anything  unreasonable  in  this,  (says  Father 
 Bonani,)  since  the  po])e  governs  the  king- 
 dom of  Christ  in  quality  of  his  viceroy; 
 now  this  kingdom  is  infinitely  superior  to 
 all  the  em])ires  of  the  universe.  The  high 
 in-iest  of  the  Jews  wore  on  his  head  and 
 breast  the  riches  which  were  to  represent 
 the  majesty  of  the  Supreme  Gon.  The 
 pope  rejiresents  tliat  of  the  Saviour  of 
 the  world,  and  nothing  better  expresses  it 
 than  riches."  AVe  must  not  omit,  that  the 
 two  strings  of  the  jmntitical  tiara  repre- 
 sent the  two  difh  rtnt  mannei-s  of  inter- 
 preting the  Scriptures,  the  mystical  and 
 the  literal. 
 
 The  i)()pe  has  two  .seals.     One  is  called 
 
596 
 
 POPE,  THE. 
 
 POPERY. 
 
 "  the  fisherman's  ring,"  and  is  the  im- 
 pression of  St.  Peter  hokling  a  line  with  a 
 bait  to  it  in  the  water.  It  is  used  for  those 
 briefs  that  are  sealed  with  red  wax.  The 
 other  seal  is  used  for  the  bulls  which  are 
 sealed  with  lead,  and  bears  the  figures  of 
 St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul,  with  a  cross  on  one 
 side,  and  a  bust,  with  the  name  of  the 
 reigning  pope,  on  the  other.  Upon  the 
 decease  of  a  pope,  these  seals  are  defaced 
 and  broken  by  the  cardinal  Camcrlengo, 
 in  the  presence  of  three  cardinals. 
 
 "When  the  pope  goes  in  procession  to  St. 
 Peter's,  the  cross  is  carried  before  him  on 
 the  end  of  a  pike  about  ten  palms  long. 
 "  Many  reasons,"  says  F,  Bonani,  "  au- 
 thorize this  custom.  It  is  a  monument  of 
 the  sufferings  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  of  the 
 pope's  adherence  to  the  Saviour  of  the 
 world.  It  is  the  true  mark  of  the  pontifical 
 dignity,  and  represents  the  authority  of 
 the  Church,  as  the  Roman  fasces  did  that 
 of  the  consuls."  At  the  same  time  two 
 grooms  bear  two  fans  on  each  side  of  his 
 Holiness's  chair,  to  drive  aAvay  the  flies. 
 This  (according  to  the  above-cited  author) 
 represents  the  seraphim  covering  the  face 
 of  God  with  their  wings. 
 
 The  custom  of  kissing  the  pope's  feet  is 
 very  ancient ;  to  justify  which  practice,  it 
 is  alleged,  that  the  pope's  slipper  has  the 
 figure  of  the  cross  upon  the  upper  leather  ; 
 so  that  it  is  not  the  pope's  foot,  but  the 
 cross  of  Christ,  which  is  thus  saluted. 
 
 There  are  but  few  instances  of  the 
 papal  power  in  England  before  the  Nor- 
 man Conquest.  But  the  pope,  having 
 favoured  and  sup])orted  \Yilliam  I.  in  his 
 invasion  of  this  kingdom,  made  that  a 
 handle  for  enlarging  his  encroachments, 
 and,  in  that  king's  reign,  began  to  send 
 legates  hither.  Afterwards  he  prevailed 
 with  King  Henry  I.  to  part  Avith  the  right 
 of  nominating  to  bishoprics  ;  and,  in  the 
 reign  of  King  Stephen,  he  gained  the  pre- 
 rogative of  a])pcals.  In  the  reign  of  Henry 
 II.  he  exempted  all  clerks  from  the  secu- 
 lar power.  This  king,  at  first,  strenuously 
 opposed  his  innovation  ;  but,  after  the 
 death  of  Becket,  who,  for  having  violently 
 opposed  the  king,  was  slain  by  some  of  the 
 royal  adherents,  the  pope  got  such  an  ad- 
 vantage over  the  king,  that  he  was  never 
 able  to  execute  the  laws  he  had  made.  Not 
 long  after  this,  by  a  general  excommunica- 
 tion of  the  king  and  his  peoi)le,  for  several 
 years,  King  John  was  reduced  to  such 
 straits,  that  he  surrendered  his  kingdoms 
 to  the  pope,  to  receive  them  again,  and 
 hold  them  of  him  under  a  rent  of  a 
 thousand  marks.  In  the  following  reign 
 of  Henry  III.,   partlv  from  the   profits   of 
 
 our  best  Church  benefices,  and  partly  from 
 the  taxes  imposed  by  the  pope,  there  went 
 yearly  out  of  the  kingdom  to  Pome  £70,000 
 sterling.  But  in  the  reign  of  Edward  I., 
 it  was  declared  by  the  parliament,  that  the 
 ])ope's  taking  upon  him  to  dispose  of  Eng- 
 lish benefices  to  foreigners,  was  an  en- 
 croachment not  to  be  endured ;  and  this  was 
 followed  by  the  statute  of  Provisors  against 
 popish  bulls,  and  against  disturbing  any 
 patron,  in  presenting  to  a  benefice  ;  which 
 was  afterwards  enacted  in  Ireland  also. 
 
 But  the  pope's  poAver  received  a  mortal 
 blow  in  England,  by  the  reformation  in 
 religion,  begun  in  the  reign  of  Henry 
 VIII. ;  since  which  time,  to  maintain  the 
 pope's  authority  here,  by  Avriting,  preach- 
 ing, Szc,  was,  till  lately,  made  a  premunire 
 upon  the  first  conviction,  and  high  treason 
 u])on  the  second. 
 
 POPERY.  (See  Church  of  Borne, 
 Council  of  Trent^  Romanism.)  By  Popery 
 we  mean  the  peculiar  system  of  doctrine, 
 by  adopting  which  the  Church  of  Rome 
 separates  herself  from  the  rest  of  the 
 Catholic  Church,  and  is  involved  in  the 
 guilt  of  schism.  The  Church  of  Rome, 
 or  Popery,  has  departed  from  the  apostles' 
 doctrine,  by  requiring  all  who  communi- 
 cate with  her  to  believe,  as  necessary  to 
 salvation, 
 
 1st,  That  that  man  is  accursed  who  does 
 not  kiss,  and  honour,  and  worship  the  holy 
 images. 
 
 2nd,  That  the  Virgin  Mary  and  other 
 saints  are  to  be  prayed  to. 
 
 ISrd,  That,  after  consecration  in  the 
 Lord's  supper,  the  bread  is  no  longer 
 bread,  and  the  Avine  no  longer  wine. 
 
 4th,  That  the  clergyman  should  be  ex- 
 communicated who,  in  the  sacrament  of 
 the  Lord's  supper,  gives  the  cup  to  the 
 people. 
 
 5th,  That  they  are  accursed  who  say 
 that  the  clergy  may  marry. 
 
 6th,  That  there  is  a  pvirgatory ;  that  is, 
 a  place  where  souls  Avhich  had  died  in  re- 
 pentance are  purified  by  sufiering. 
 
 7th,  That  the  Church  of  Rome  is  the 
 mother  and  mistress  of  all  churches. 
 
 8th,  That  obedience  is  due  from  all 
 Churches  to  the  bishop  of  Rome. 
 
 9th,  That  they  are  accursed  who  deny 
 that  there  are  seven  sacraments. 
 
 Erom  those  doctrines,  contrary  to  Scrip- 
 ture and  the  primitive  Church,  have  re- 
 sulted these  evil  practices. 
 
 Erom  the  veneration  of  images  has 
 sprung  the  actual  Avorship  of  them. 
 
 The  invocation  of  the  Blessed  Virgin, 
 and  of  other  saints,  has  given  rise  to  the 
 greatest  blasphemy  and  profaneness. 
 
rorpY  HEAD. 
 
 ru AUMATIC  SANCTION,  THE.   597 
 
 The  bread  in  the  eucharist  ha.s  been 
 worshijjped  as  though  itself  were  the  eter- 
 nal God. 
 
 From  the  doctrine  of  purgatory  has 
 sprung  that  of  indulgences,  and  the  prac- 
 tice of  persons  paying  sums  of  money  to 
 the  Romish  bisho])s  and  clergy,  to  release 
 the  souls  of  their  friends  from  the  fabulous 
 fire  of  purgatory. 
 
 Popery  is  a  corrupt  addition  to  the 
 truth,  and  we  can  give  the  very  dates  of 
 the  several  corruptions. 
 
 Attritkm,  as  distinguished  from  con- 
 trition, Avas  first  pronounced  to  be  suf- 
 ficient. 
 
 The  priest's  right  intention  -vvas  first  ]iro- 
 nounced  to  be  indispensable  to  the  valid 
 participation  of  the  sacraments,  and 
 
 Judicial  absolution  was  first  publicly 
 authorized,  by  the  Council  of  Trent,  A.  i). 
 1551. 
 
 Auricular  confessim  was  first  enjoined 
 by  Innocent  III.,  at  the  fourth  Council  of 
 Lateran,  A.  d.  1215. 
 
 Apocn/pha  received  as  canonical  first 
 at  the  Council  of  Trent,  A.  D.  1547. 
 
 Compulsory  cdibac.y  of  the  clergy,  first 
 enjoined  publicly  at  the  first  Council  of 
 Lateran,  A.  u.  1123. 
 
 Communion  in  one  kind  only,  first  au- 
 thoritatively sanctioned  by  the  Council  of 
 Constance,  a.  D.  1414. 
 
 Use  of  imayes  and  relics  in  religious 
 worship,  first  publicly  afiirmcd  and  sanc- 
 tioned in  the  second  Council  of  Nice,  A.  u. 
 787. 
 
 Invocation  of  saints,  first  taught  with 
 authority  by  the  fourth  Council  of  Con- 
 stantinople, A.  D.  754. 
 
 Papal  infallibility  was  utterly  unknoAvn 
 to  the  third  Council  of  Constantinople, 
 A.  D.  680. 
 
 Papal  supremacy,  first  publicly  asserted 
 by  the  fourth  Council  of  Lateran,  A.  D. 
 1215. 
 
 Prayers  in  a  foreiyn  tonyue,  first  deliber- 
 ately sanctioned  by  the  Council  of  Trent, 
 were  expressly  forbidden  by  the  fourth 
 Council  of  Lateran,  A.  d.  1215. 
 
 Puryatory  and  indulycnccs,  first  set 
 forth  by  the  Council  of  Florence,  A.  i). 
 14:38. 
 
 The  Roman  number  of  the  sacraments 
 was  first  taught  by  the  Council  of  Trent, 
 A.  I).  1545. 
 
 IVansubstanfidtion  was  first  ])ublicly  in- 
 sisted on  by  the  fourth  Council  of  Lateran, 
 A.  1..  1215. 
 
 rOPRY  HEAD.  The  oniamental 
 finial  of  a  stall  end.  In  design  the  poppy 
 heads  are  extremely  various  ;  but  tliey  are 
 almost   universally"  made  to    assume   the 
 
 outline  of  the  fieur-de-lis,  to*  which  not 
 oidy  foliage,  but  ligurcs,  fuct-s,  :m,l  \vhole 
 gr()u])s,  are  made  to  conform  tliemsi-lvcs. 
 
 PORCH.  A  part  of  the  church  in 
 whicli  anciently  considerable  jiortions  of 
 the  marriage  service  and  of  the  bajjtisnud 
 services  were  ])erformed.  lacing  com- 
 menced here  tliey  were  iinished  in  the 
 cluirch. 
 
 POSTILS.  A  name  anciently  given  to 
 sermons  or  homilies.  The  name  sj)rung 
 from  the  fact  that  these  were  usually  de- 
 livered immediately  after  reading  of  the 
 Gos])el  (quasi  post  ilia,  sc.  J'lranyelia). 
 Also,  in  ])rinted  expositions  of  Scripture, 
 from  tlie  text  being  first  exhiiuted,  and 
 post  ilia  (after  the  words  of  the  text)  the 
 ex])lication  of  the  writer. 
 
 PRAEMUNIRE,  in  law,  is  either  taken 
 for  a  form  of  writ,  or  for  the  oftence 
 whereon  the  writ  of  praemunire  is  granted. 
 The  writ  in  question  is  named  from  its 
 initial  words  Prceniunire  facias,  and  it  is 
 chiefly  known  in  ecclesiastical  matters  from 
 a  })crsecuting  use  to  which  it  is  applied  by 
 the  statute  of  25  Hen.  VIII.  c.  20,  winch 
 enacts,  that  if  the  dean  and  chapter  refuse 
 to  elect  the  person  nominated  by  the  king 
 to  the  vacant  bishopric,  or  if  any  arch- 
 bishop or  bishop  refuse  to  confirm  or  con- 
 secrate him,  they  shall  incur  the  j)eiudties 
 of  the  statutes  of  the  prai^munire.  These 
 penalties  are  no  less  than  the  following  : — 
 From  the  moment  of  conviction,  the  de- 
 fendant is  out  of  the  king's  protection,  his 
 body  remains  in  i)rison  during  the  king's 
 pleasure,  and  all  his  goods,  real  or  jier- 
 sonal,  are  forfeited  to  the  Crown.  He  can 
 bring  no  action,  nor  recover  damages,  for 
 the  most  atrocious  injuries,  and  no  man 
 can  safelv  give  him  comfort,  aid,  or  relief. 
 
 PRAGMATIC  SANCTION,  THE. 
 (From  Trpdyfia,  business.)  A  rescript  or 
 answer  of  the  sovereign,  declared  by  advice 
 of  his  council,  to  some  college,  order,  or 
 body  of  people,  upon  their  consulting  him 
 in  some  case  of  tlieir  connnunity.  — Jlatman. 
 
 Referring  to  the  exjjression  historically, 
 the  earliest  Pragmatic  Sanction  on  record 
 is  that  drawn  up  by  Louis  IX.,  king  of 
 France,  in  12(58,  against  the  encroachments 
 of  the  Church  and  Court  of  Rome.  It 
 related  chiefly  to  the  rights  of  theGallican 
 Church,  with" reference  to  the  elections  of 
 bishojjs  and  clergy.  It  was  sujjcTseded 
 in  1438  by  the  Pragmatic  Sanction  of 
 Charles  VI  i.,  which  was  drawn  uj)  at  Hour- 
 ges.  This  having  re-a>^^erte(l  the  right.s 
 and  j)rivilcges  claimed  for  the  (iallican 
 Church  under  Louis  IX..  it  accorded  with 
 the  Coinuil  of  IJasle,  at  that  time  sitting, 
 in  maintaining  that  a  general   council  is 
 
598 
 
 PRAISE. 
 
 PREACHING. 
 
 independent  of  the  pope,  and  in  asserting 
 that  all  papal  bulls  should  be  null  and 
 void  unless  they  received  the  consent  of 
 the  king.  It  withheld  also  the  payment 
 of  annates.  {See  Annates.)  Pope  Pius  II. 
 succeeded  in  obtaining  the  abrogation  of 
 this  sanction  for  a  time.  But  the  par- 
 liament of  Paris  refused  to  approve  the 
 conduct  of  Louis  XI.  in  setting  it  aside, 
 and  he  was  compelled  to  restore  it  to  its 
 original  influential  position.  It  accord- 
 ingly remained  in  full  force  up  to  the 
 year  1517,  when  it  was  supplanted  by  the 
 concordat,  which  was  agreed  upon  between 
 Francis  I.  and  Pope  Julius  II.  Although 
 by  the  concordat  privileges  were  given 
 and  received  on  both  sides,  yet  the  real 
 advantages  were  on  the  side  of  Rome; 
 which  advantages  it  has  ever  since  been 
 her  constant  aim  to  improve. 
 
 PliAISE.  A  reverent  acknowledgment 
 of  the  perfections  of  GoD,  and  of  the  bless- 
 ings flowing  from  them  to  mankind,  usu- 
 ally expressed  in  hjTuns  of  gratitude  and 
 thanksgiving,  and  especially  in  the  recep- 
 tion of  the  holy  eucharist — that  "  sacrifice 
 of  praise,  and  sublimest  token  of  our  joy." 
 (See  Eucharist.) 
 
 PRAXEANISTS.  (See  Patrijmssians.) 
 ^  PRAYER.  The  ofi"ering  up  of  our  de- 
 sires to  God  for  things  agreeable  to  his 
 will,  in  the  name  of  Christ,  by  the  aid  of 
 his  Spirit,  with  confession  of  our  sins,  and 
 thankful  acknowledgment  of  his  mercies. 
 The  necessity  of  prayer  is  so  universally 
 acknowledged  by  all  who  profess  and  call 
 themselves  Christians,  and  so  clearly  en- 
 joined in  Scripture,  that  to  insist  upon 
 this  duty — this  sacred  and  pleasant  exer- 
 cise to  the  renewed  in  heart — is  unneces- 
 sary. Prayer  is  either  private  or  public, 
 and  it  implies  faith  in  the  particular  pro- 
 vidence of  God.  The  general  providence 
 of  God  acts  through  what  are  called  the 
 laws  of  nature.  By  his  particular  pro- 
 vidence God  interferes  with  those  laws, 
 and  he  hath  promised  to  interfere  in  behalf 
 of  those  who  pray  in  the  name  of  Jesus. 
 As  we  are  to  shape  our  labours  by  ascer- 
 taining, through  the  circumstances  under 
 which  we  are  pro%'identially  placed,  what 
 is  the  will  of  God  with  reference  to  our- 
 selves ;  as,  for  example,  the  husbandman, 
 the  professional  man,  the  prince,  all  labour 
 for  difterent  things  placed  within  their 
 reach,  and  do  not  labour  for  that  which 
 God  evidently  does  not  design  for  them ; 
 so  we  are  to  regulate  our  prayers,  and  we 
 may  take  it  as  a  general  rule,  that  we  may 
 pray  for  that  for  which  we  may  lawfully 
 labour,  and  for  that  only.  And  when  we 
 pray  for  what  is  requisite  and  necessary 
 
 for  the  body  or  the  soul,  we  are  at  the  same 
 time  to  exert  ourselves.  Prayer  without 
 exertion  is  a  mockery  of  God,  as  exertion 
 without  prayer  is  presumption.  The  ge- 
 neral ])rovidence  of  God  requires  that  we 
 should  exert  ourselves,  the  particular  pro- 
 vidence of  God  that  we  should  pray. 
 
 (For  public  prayer,  see  Liturgy  and 
 Formulary.) 
 
 PRAYER  BOOK.  (See  Liturgy  and 
 Formulary.) 
 
 PREACHING.  Proclaiming  or  pub- 
 licly setting  forth  the  truths  of  religion. 
 Hence  the  reading  of  Scripture  to  the 
 congregation  is  one  branch  of  preaching, 
 and  is  so  denominated  in  Acts  xv.  21. 
 "  Moses  of  old  time  hath  in  every  city  them 
 that  lireach  him,  being  read  in  the  syna- 
 gogues every  sabbath  day."  See  Arch- 
 bishop King's  valuable  Treatise  On  the 
 Inventions  of  3Ien,  in  Avhich  he  demon- 
 strates the  extensive  sense  of  2)reachiny, 
 as  scripturally  used ;  showing  that  all 
 public  services  in  the  church  are,  in  a  certain 
 sense,  preaching.  The  term  is,  however, 
 generally  restricted  to  the  delivering  of 
 sermons,  lectures,  &c. 
 
 Article  XXIII.  "  It  is  not  lawful  for  any 
 man  to  take  upon  him  the  office  of  public 
 preaching,  or  ministering  the  sacraments 
 in  the  congregation,  before  he  be  lawfully 
 called  and  sent  to  execute  the  same.  And 
 those  we  ought  to  judge  lawfully  called 
 and  sent,  which  be  chosen  and  called  to 
 this  work  by  men  who  have  public  author- 
 ity given  unto  them  in  the  congregation, 
 to  call  and  send  ministers  into  the  Lord's 
 vineyard." 
 
 In  the  same  convocation  in  which  sub- 
 scription in  the  Thirty-nine  Articles  was 
 imposed  upon  the  clergy,  it  was  enjoined, 
 with  respect  to  preachers  :  "  In  the  fii'st 
 place,  let  jn-eachers  take  care  that  they 
 never  teach  anything  in  the  way  of  preach- 
 ing, which  they  wish  to  be  retained  religi- 
 ously and  believed  by  the  people,  except 
 what  is  agreeable  to  the  doctrine  of  the 
 Old  and  New  Testament,  and  what  the 
 catholic  fathers  and  ancient  bishops  have 
 collected  from  that  same  doctrine."  — 
 Cajion.  Fecks.  Amjl.  xix.  A.  D.  1571. 
 
 Canon  36.  "  No  person  shall  be  received 
 into  the  ministry,  nor  admitted  to  any 
 ecclesiastical  living,  nor  suff'ered  to  preach, 
 to  catechise,  or  to  be  a  lecturer  or  reader 
 of  divinity  in  either  university,  or  in  any 
 cathedral,  or  collegiate  church,  city,  or 
 market  toAvn,  parish  church,  chapel,  or  any 
 other  place  within  this  realm,  except  he 
 be  licensed  either  by  the  archbishop  or  by 
 the  bishop  of  the  diocese  where  he  is  to  be 
 placed,  under  their  hands  and  seals,  or  by 
 
PREACHING. 
 
 one  of  the  two  universities  under  their 
 seal  likewise;  and  exce])t  lie  shall  first 
 subscribe  to  the  three  articles  coiicerniui^ 
 the  kini2;'s  supremacy,  the  IJook  of  Coin- 
 nion  Prayer,  and  tlie  Thirty-nine  Articles 
 (see  Orders) :  and  if  any  bishop  shall 
 license  any  person  without  such  subscrip- 
 tion, he  shall  be  suspended  from  f^^ivin}:: 
 licences  to  preach  for  the  space  of  twelve 
 months.'' 
 
 And  by  the  31  Ehzabeth,  c.  6.  "If  any 
 person  shall  receive  or  take  any  money, 
 fee,  reward,  or  any  other  prolit,  directly 
 or  indirectly,  or  any  promise  thereof,  either 
 to  himself  or  to  any  of  his  friends,  (all  or- 
 dinary and  lawfully  fees  only  excepted,)  to 
 procure  any  licence  to  preach,  he  shall 
 forfeit  £40.'" 
 
 After  the  preacher  shall  be  licensed, 
 then  it  is  ordained  as  follows : 
 
 Canon  45.  *'  Every  beneficed  man,  al- 
 low'ed  to  be  a  preacher,  and  residing-  on 
 his  benefice,  havinj]^  no  lawful  impediment, 
 shall,  in  his  own  cure,  or  in  some  other 
 church  or  cha])cl  (where  he  may  conveni- 
 ently) near  adjoinino^,  where  no  preacher 
 is,  preach  one  sermon  every  Sunday  of  the 
 year :  wherein  he  shall  sol)erly  and  sin- 
 cerely divide  the  word  of  truth,  to  the 
 glory  of  God,  and  to  the  best  edification 
 of  the  people." 
 
 Canon  47.  "  Every  beneficed  man,  li- 
 censed by  the  laws  of  this  realm  (upon 
 urgent  occasions  of  other  service)  not  to 
 reside  upon  his  benefice,  shall  cause  his 
 cure  to  be  supplied  by  a  curate  that  is  a 
 sufficient  and  licensed  preacher,  if  the 
 worth  of  the  benefice  will  bear  it.  But 
 ■whosoever  hath  two  benefices  shall  main- 
 tain a  preacher  licensed,  in  the  benefice 
 where  he  doth  not  reside,  except  he  preach 
 himself  at  both  of  them  usually." 
 
 By  Canon  50.  "  Neither  the  minister, 
 churchwardens,  nor  any  other  oflicers  of 
 the  Church,  shall  suffer  any  man  to  preach 
 within  their  churches  or  chapels,  but  such 
 as  by  showing  their  licence  to  preach  shall 
 appear  unto  them  to  be  sufficiently  author- 
 ized thereunto,  as  is  aforesaid." 
 
 Canon  51.  "The  deans,  ])residents,  and 
 residentiaries  of  any  cathedral  or  collegi- 
 ate church  shall  suffer  no  stranger  to 
 preach  unto  the  peojde  in  their  churches, 
 except  they  be  allowed  by  the  archbislioj) 
 of  the  province,  or  by  the  bishop  of  the 
 same  diocese,  or  by  either  of  the  uni- 
 versities ;  and  if  any  in  his  sermon  shall 
 publish  any  doctrine  either  strange  or  dis- 
 agreeing from  the  word  of  Goi),  or  from 
 any  of  the  Thirty-nine  Articles,  or  from  the 
 Book  of  Conmion  Prayer,  the  dean  or 
 residents  shall  by  their  letters,  subscribed  ; 
 
 rilElJEND. 
 
 599 
 
 with  some  of  thiMr  hands  that  heard  him, 
 
 so  soon  as  may  be,  give  notice  of  llie  same 
 
 1  to  the  bishop  of  the  diocese,  that  he  may 
 
 !  determine  tiu'  matter,  and  take  such  order 
 
 j  therein  as  he  shall  think  convenii-nt." 
 
 i'anou  52.  "Tiuit  the  bisliop  may  under- 
 stand (if  occasion   so   require)  what    ser- 
 mons are  made  in  every  church  of  iiis  dio- 
 cese, and  who  ])resume'  to  preach  without 
 licence,  the  churchwardens  and  sidesmen 
 shall  see  that  tiie  names  of  all  ])reacher8 
 which    come    to    their    church    from    any 
 other  place  be  noted  in  a  book,  which  they 
 j  shall  have  ready  for  tliat  ])urpose,  wherein 
 j  every  preacher  shall  subscribe   liis  name, 
 I  the  day  when  he  ])reached,  and  the  name 
 I  of  the  bishop  of  whom  he  had  licence  to 
 preach." 
 
 Canon  53.  "  If  any  preacher  shall  in  the 
 pulpit  particularly,  or  namely  of  i)ur])Osc, 
 im})ugn  or  confute  any  doctrine  dcHveretl 
 by  any  other  ])reachcr  in  the  same  cinirch, 
 or  in  any  church  near  adjoining,  before  he 
 hath  acquainted  the  bishop  of  tlie  diocese 
 therewith,  and  received  order  from  him 
 wliat  to  do  in  that  case,  because  upon  such 
 public  dissenting  and  contradicting  there 
 may  grow  much  ofience  aiul  disquietnes.s 
 unto  the  peo])le,  the  churchwardens  or 
 party  aggrieved  shall  fortlnvith  signify  the 
 same  to  the  said  bishop,  and  not  suffer  the 
 said  preacher  any  more  to  occupy  that  place 
 wliicli  he  hath  once  abused,  except  he 
 faithfully  promise  to  forbear  all  such  mat- 
 ter of  contention  in  the  church,  until  the 
 bishop  hath  taken  further  order  therein  ; 
 who  shall  with  all  convenient  s])ced  so 
 proceed  therein,  that  public  satisfaction 
 may  be  made  in  the  congregation  where 
 the  ofience  Avas  given.  I'rovidcd,  that  if 
 either  of  the  parties  offending  do  appeal, 
 he  shall  not  be  suffered  to  preach  pendente 
 lite:' 
 
 Canon  oo.  "  Before  all  sermons,  lectures, 
 and  homilies,  the  preachers  and  ministers 
 shall  move  the  peo])le  to  join  with  them  in 
 ])rayer,  in  this  form,  or  to  this  effect,  as 
 briefiy  as  conveniently  they  nuiy  :  Yesliall 
 pray  for  Ciihist's  ll()ly  Catholic  Ciuirch," 
 «^-c.     (See  Biddinq  Prayer.) 
 
 PKEBENI).  '(Lat.  Prahenda.)  The 
 stipend  which  is  received  ])y  a  nrebendary, 
 from  the  revenues  of  the  cathedral  or  colle- 
 giate church  with  whicli  he  is  connected. 
 It  denoted  originally  any  stipend  or  re- 
 ward, given  out  of  the  ecclesiastical  re- 
 venues, to  a  ])erson  who  had  by  his  labours 
 ])rocure(l  })eiu  fit  to  the  Church  ;  and  the 
 gratuity  which  was  given  either  to  a 
 proctor  or  advocate,  or  any  other  person 
 of  the  like  kind.  When 'the  cathedral 
 churches  became  well  endowed,  the  y  left 
 
600 
 
 PREBENDARY. 
 
 PREDESTINATION. 
 
 off  receiving  the  income  of  their  lands  into 
 one  common  bank,  and  dividing  it  among 
 the  members,  but  parcelled  out  the  lands 
 into  several  shares,  appropriating  them  for 
 the  maintenance  of  each  single  clergyman 
 uho  resided  about  the  cathedral,  calling  it 
 Prahcnda,  or  Cotpiis  Pyahemke,  the  Corps 
 of  the  Prehend.  Hence  arose  the  differ- 
 ence between  a  prehend  and  a  caiwnry. 
 A  canonnj  was  a  right  which  a  person 
 had  in  a  church,  to  be  deemed  a  member 
 thereof,  to  have  the  right  of  a  stall  there- 
 in, and  of  giving  a  vote  in  the  chapter ; 
 but  a  prehend  was  a  right  to  receive  cer- 
 tain revenues  appropriated  to  his  place. 
 The  number  of  prebends  in  the  several 
 cathedral  churches  was  increased  by  the 
 benefactions  of  respective  founders  ;  often- 
 times out  of  the  revenues  of  the  rural 
 clergy,  and  oftentimes  by  exonerating  the 
 lands  of  prebends  from  paying  tithes  to  the 
 ministers  of  the  parishes  where  they  lay. 
 — NichoUs. 
 
 PKEBEXDARY.  A  clergyman  at- 
 tached to  a  cathedral  or  collegiate  church, 
 who  enjoys  a  prehe7id  in  consideration  of 
 his  officiating  at  stated  times  in  the  church. 
 (See  Dean  and  Chapter.) 
 
 In  Scotland,  there  were  established  by 
 the  respective  founders  in  the  colleges  of 
 St.  Salvador,  at  St.  Andrew's,  and  King's 
 College,  Aberdeen,  certain  "Prebendaries, 
 or  perpetual  chaplains,  to  sing  and  serve 
 in  the  choir"  of  the  chapel.  These  w^re, 
 in  fact,  the  same  as  chaplains  in  the  choral 
 colleges  of  England. 
 
 PKECENTOR.  The  leader  of  a  choir. 
 The  precentor  in  almost  all  cathedrals  of 
 old  foundation  in  England,  and  very  gener- 
 ally on  the  continent,  was  the  first  digni- 
 tary in  the  chapter,  ranking  next  to  the 
 dean.  In  some  few  instances  the  arch- 
 deacons preceded  him.  He  superintended 
 the  choral  service,  and  the  choristers  ;  and 
 in  Paris  the  precentor  of  Notre  Dame  had 
 the  supervision  of  the  lesser  schools  in  the 
 city,  as  the  chancellor  had  of  the  greater. 
 In  all  the  new  foundations,  except  Christ 
 Church  in  Dublin,  where  he  is  a  dignitary, 
 the  precentor  is  a  minor  canon :  an  ano- 
 malous and  modern  provision.  In  most 
 ancient  cathedrals  the  precentor  had  for 
 his  badge  of  office  a  silver  staff  or  bacidus. 
 In  choral  colleges  the  precentor  is  a  chap- 
 lain. At  Llandaff  and  St.  David's,  till 
 very  lately,  the  precentor  was  presbyteral 
 head  of  the  chapter. 
 
 PllECEPTOllIES  were  manors  or 
 estates  of  the  Knights  Tem])lars,  on  which 
 they  erected  churches  for  religious  service, 
 and  convenient  houses  for  habitation,  and 
 placed  some  of  their  fraternity  under  the 
 
 government  of  one  of  those  more  eminent 
 Templars,  who  had  been  by  the  grand 
 master  created  ^^  pt'ceceptores  templi"  to 
 take  care  of  the  lands  and  rents  in  that 
 place  and  neighbourhood :  these  precep- 
 tories  were  only  cells  to  the  Temple,  or 
 principal  house  of  the  knights,  in  London. 
 Preceptor  was  the  title  of  the  head  of  some 
 old  hospitals. 
 
 PIIECES.  A  general  word  for  prayers  ; 
 but  it  is  often  applied  in  a  technical  sense 
 to  the  shorter  sentences,  as  versicles  and 
 suffrages  which  are  said  in  the  way  of 
 verse  and  response.  In  the  English  choral 
 service  the  term  is  limited  to  those  versi- 
 cles (with  the  Gloria  Patri)  immediately 
 preceding  the  Psalms,  beginning  "  O  Loud, 
 open  thou  our  lips."  These  anciently 
 formed  a  regular  part  of  the  harmonized 
 services  for  cathedi'al  choirs,  which  were 
 set  to  music  by  an  earlier  musician. — Jehh. 
 (See  Responses,  Versicles,  and  Service.) 
 
 PREDESTINATION.  (See  Election ; 
 see  also  Calvinism  and  Arminianisin.)  Of 
 predestination  and  election  our  17th 
 Article  thus  speaks  :  "  Predestination  to 
 life  is  the  everlasting  purpose  of  GoD, 
 whereby  (before  the  foundations  of  the 
 world  were  laid)  he  hath  constantly  de- 
 creed by  his  counsel  secret  to  us,  to  deliver 
 from  curse  and  damnation  those  whom  he 
 hath  chosen  in  Christ  out  of  mankind, 
 and  to  bring  them  by  Christ  to  everlast- 
 ing salvation,  as  vessels  made  to  honour. 
 Wherefore  they  which  be  endued  with  so 
 excellent  a  benefit  of  God,  be  called  ac-  . 
 cording  to  God's  purpose,  by  his  Spirit 
 working  in  due  season  ;  they  through  grace 
 obey  the  calling  ;  they  be  justified  freely  ; 
 they  be  made  sons  of  GoD  by  adoption ; 
 they  be  made  like  the  image  of  his  only- 
 begotten  Son  Jesus  Christ;  they  walk 
 religiously  in  good  works  ;  and  at  "length, 
 by  God's  mercy,  they  attain  to  everlasting 
 felicity.  As  the  godly  consideration  of 
 predestination  and  our  election  in  Christ 
 is  full  of  sweet,  pleasant,  and  unspeakable 
 comfort  to  godly  persons,  and  such  as  feel 
 in  themselves  the  working  of  the  Spirit  of 
 Christ,  mortifying  the  works  of  the  flesh 
 and  their  earthly  members,  and  drawing 
 up  their  mind  to  high  and  heavenly  things, 
 as  well  because  it  doth  greatly  establish 
 and  confirm  their  faith  of  eternal  salvation 
 to  be  enjoyed  through  Christ,  as  because 
 it  doth  fervently  kindle  their  love  towards 
 God  :  so,  for  curious  and  carnal  persons 
 lacking  the  Spirit  of  Christ,  to  have  con- 
 tinually before  their  eyes  the  sentence  of 
 God's  predestination,  is  a  most  dangerous 
 downfal,  whereby  the  devil  doth  thrust 
 them    either    into    desperation,    or    into 
 
PREDESTINATION. 
 
 GOl 
 
 wretchlessness  of  most  unclean  livings,  no 
 less  perilous  than  desperation.  Further- 
 more, we  must  receive  God's  promises  in 
 such  wise,  as  they  he  generally  set  forth 
 to  us  in  Holy  Scripture :  and,  in  our  doings, 
 that  will  of  God  is  to  he  followed,  which 
 we  have  expressly  declared  unto  us  in  the 
 Word  of  God." 
 
 Such  is  the  barrier  which  the  Church 
 places  between  this  solemn  subject  and 
 irreverent  inquiries ;  but  the  Scripture 
 doctrine  of  predestination  may  be  further 
 stated  without  any  forgetfulness  of  the 
 spirit  here  inculcated.  We  are  told  indeed 
 by  the  Church,  that  "  the  godly  consider- 
 ation of  predestination  and  our  election  in 
 Chuist  is  full  of  sweet  and  unspeakable 
 comfort  to  godly  persons "  (Art.  xvii.) ; 
 and  it  is  certain  that  it  can  be  full  neither 
 of  profit  nor  of  comfort,  unless  we  meditate 
 upon  it.  And  if  it  be  among  the  things 
 "  hard  to  be  understood,"  (2  Pet.  iii.  16,) 
 this  is  no  reason  why  we  should  not  try 
 to  understand  it,  and,  by  understanding, 
 cease  to  be  "  unlearned  and  unstable,"  and 
 so  take  care  that  it  shall  not  be  wrested  to 
 our  destruction. 
 
 In  the  first  chapter  to  the  Ephesians, 
 we  find  that  there  are  certain  persons 
 whom  God  hath  chosen  in  Christ,  before 
 the  foundation  of  the  world ;  having  pre- 
 destinated them  unto  the  adoption  of 
 children  of  Jesus  Christ  to  himself,  not 
 on  account  of  their  good  works,  but  ac- 
 cording to  the  good  pleasure  of  his  will. 
 (Eph.  i.  4,  5.)  Again,  in  another  Epistle, 
 we  are  told  that  God  hath  "  called  us  with 
 a  holy  calling,  not  according  to  our  works, 
 but  according  to  his  own  purpose  and 
 grace,  which  was  given  us  in  Christ  Jesus 
 before  the  world  began."  (2  Tim.  i.  9.) 
 These  are  persons  whose  names  are  said  to 
 have  been  written  in  heaven,  in  the  book 
 of  Hfe,  called  the  Lamb's  book  of  life, 
 (Ilev.  XX.  15 ;  xxi.  27,)  because  the  first 
 among  God's  elect  is  he  who,  being  God 
 as  well  as  man,  is  the  Lamb  of  God,  slain 
 from  the  foundation  of  the  world  (Rev. 
 xiii.  8)  as  a  propitiation  for  sins.  (1  John 
 ii.  2;  iv.  10.)  Thus,  then,  we  see  that 
 there  are  persons  who,  in  the  words  of  St. 
 Paul,  are  "  vessels  which  GoD  hath  afore 
 prepared  unto  glory."     (Rom.  ix.  22 — 24.) 
 
 And  now  comes  the  question.  Who  are 
 those  who  are  thus  predestinated  to  the 
 glories  of  the  new  heaven,  the  new  earth, 
 the  new  Jerusalem,  which  is  to  come  down 
 from  above?  (Rev.  xxi.  2.)  Let  St.  Paul 
 give  the  answer :  "  AMiom  he  did  predes- 
 tinate, them  he  also  called"  (Rom.  viii. 
 30):  called  by  the  circumstances  under 
 which    he    providentially    placed     them. 
 
 either  by  the  appearance,  in  the  fh-st  ages, 
 of  an  ajjostle  or  an  evangelist ;  or,  as  is  the 
 case  with  us,  by  the  fact  of  our  being  born 
 in  a  Cliristian  laiul :  "  and  whom  he  called, 
 them  he  also  justified ;"  receiving  thein,  for 
 Christ's  sake,  as  his  own  children  in  holy 
 ba})tism,  he  justified,  or,  for  the  same 
 Saviour's  sake,  counted  as  holy,  those 
 who  as  yet  were  not  actually  so  :  "  and 
 whom  he  justified,  them  he  also  glorified." 
 He  glorified  them  l)y  regenerating  them, 
 and  making  them  temples  of  the  lIoLY 
 Ghost  (1  Cor.  vi.  11,  10);  than  which 
 what  greater  glory  can  pertain  to  the  sons 
 of  men  ? 
 
 The  foregoing  passage  furnishes  us  with 
 a  description  of  Christians,  of  baptized 
 persons ;  and  consequently  to  Christians 
 we  are  to  refer  those  other  passages  which 
 relate  to  God's  predestination  :  tliem  GoD 
 hath  predestinated  to  glory.  And  as  such, 
 as  God's  elect  people,  predestinated  not 
 merely  to  means  of  grace,  for  this  were 
 clearly  inadequate,  but  to  glory  in  the 
 kingdom  of  glory,  the  insj)ired  writers  were 
 wont  to  address  the  multitude  of  the  bap- 
 tized. Thus  the  apostle  addresses  the 
 Church  of  the  Thessalonians,  good  and  bad 
 commingled,  as  "  knowing  "  their  "  election 
 of  God."  (1  Thess.  i.  4.)  Thus  St.  Peter 
 speaks  of  "the  strangers  scattered  through- 
 out Pontus,  Galatia,  Cappadoeia,  Asia,  and 
 Bithynia,"  as  "  elect  according  to  the  fore- 
 knowledge of  God  the  Father"  (1  Pet.  i. 
 2) ;  and  he  speaks  of  them  afterwards  as 
 "  a  chosen  generation,  a  royal  priesthood, 
 a  holy  nation,  a  peculiar  people  ; "  and  St. 
 Paul,  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  ad- 
 dresses the  Hebrews,  meaning  those  who 
 had  made  profession  of  the  Christian 
 faith,  as  "  holy  brethren,  partakers  of  the 
 heavenly  calling."  Such,  then,  is  our 
 blessing,  our  privilege,  our  high  hope  as 
 Christians.  Li  the  temi)le  of  the  first 
 Jerusalem  there  was  a  variety  of  chamlHTs 
 or  mansions,  employed  for  different  pur- 
 poses, though  all  relating  directly  or  in- 
 directly to  the  services  of  the  sanctuary. 
 In  the  new  Jerusalem,  which  will  itself  be 
 the  temple  of  the  universe,  there  wdl  in 
 like  manner  be  "  many  mansions  "  or  cham- 
 bers :  but  if  so,  those  mansions  or  cluunbcrs 
 in  the  earthly  Jerusalem  having  been  m- 
 tended  for  a  Variety  of  different  offices,  we 
 may  conclude  tliat  offices  of  different  cha- 
 racters will  exist  in  the  new  Jerusalem. 
 It  is  verv  possible  tliat  we  are  not  only 
 each  of  us  predestined  to  heaven,  but  pre- 
 destined also  each  to  our  own  jjarticular 
 place  in  heaven,  that  our  very  mansion  is 
 fixed.  We  know  that  GoD  has  i)redes- 
 tinatcd   particular   persons   to    particular 
 
602 
 
 PREDESTINATION. 
 
 TREFACES. 
 
 offices  here  on  earth,  long  before  their  i 
 birth :  as,  for  example,  in  the  case  of 
 Jeremiah,  God  saith,  "  Before  1  formed 
 thee  in  the  belly,  I  knew  thee ;  and  before 
 thou  earnest  forth  of  the  wond),  I  sanctified 
 thee,  and  ordained  thee  a  prophet  unto  the 
 nation."  And  so  with  respect  also  to  St. 
 Paul,  we  are  told  that  it  "  pleased  GoD  to 
 separate  him  from  his  mother's  womb,  that 
 lie  might  ])reach  CiiiilsT  among  the  hea- 
 then." (Gal.  i.  lo,  16.)  Nay,  we  find  that 
 this  is  really  to  be  the  case  with  respect  to 
 the  next  Morld,  in  some  cases  at  least; 
 for  example,  when  the  Sox  of  man  shall 
 sit  on  the  throne  of  his  glory,  the  apostles 
 shall  sit  on  twelve  thrones,  judging  the 
 twelve  tribes  of  Israel  (Matt.  xix.  28) :  a 
 particular  office  is  allotted  to  them ;  to  a 
 particular  olhce  they  are  predestinated. 
 >Vhen  the  mother  of  Zebedee's  children 
 prayed  that  her  children  might  sit,  the  one 
 on  'the  right  hand,  and  the  other  on  the 
 left,  in  our  Lord's  kingdom  of  glory,  our 
 Lord  said,  "  to  sit  on  my  right  hand  and 
 on  my  left,  is  not  mine  to  give."  (Matt. 
 XX.  23.)  No.  These  places  are  designed 
 for  certain  persons  who  are  preparing,  or 
 shall  be  prepared,  to  fill  the  same.  This 
 is  already  fixed  in  the  counsels  of  God. 
 These  places,  therefore,  are  not  mine  to 
 give.  They  are  akeady  given.  Your 
 place  is  also  designated :  prepare  for  it  by 
 doing  your  duty.  We  know  that  some  of 
 the  saints  are  predestinated  to  a  mysteri- 
 ous office,  the  nature  of  which  we  cannot 
 understand,  but  they  will  judge  angels. 
 (1  Cor.  vi.  2,  3.)  And  at  the  last  day  shall 
 the  King  say  unto  them  that  are  on  his 
 right  hand,  "  Come,  ye  blessed  of  my  Fa- 
 ther, inherit  the  kingdom  prepared  for 
 you  from  the  foundation  of  the  world." 
 (Matt.  XXV.  34.) 
 
 But  this  predestination  to  glory  is,  like 
 our  election,  conditional.  AVe  shall  not 
 only  be  saved,  but  we  shall  occupy  a  pre- 
 destined post  of  glory,  if  we  escape  con- 
 demnation at  the  day  of  judgment ;  not 
 otherwise.  The  omission  of  all  reference 
 to  the  day  of  judgment  is  the  vice  of  the 
 Calvinistic  system.  The  man,  condemned 
 at  the  day  of  judgment,  will  find  an  addi- 
 tion to  his  pangs,  by  knowing  the  glory  to 
 which  he  had  been  ])redestined,  had  he 
 not  ])erverted  his  ways.  But  if  our  sins 
 are  then  found  blotted  out  by  the  blood  of 
 the  Lamb,  we  know  that  a  certain  ])lace 
 in  heaven  is  designed  for  us,  for  which  we 
 arc  shaped  and  prepared  by  the  circum- 
 stances under  which  we  are  placed  while 
 on  earth.  (See  Bishop  Pearson's  23  and  24 
 Lvtiioncs  "(/«  Pvccdcstinationc'"  in  ArcMea- 
 con  Chiirton's  edition  of  his  niinor  Works.) 
 
 PRE-EXISTENCE  OF  CHRIST,  OUR 
 L01U3.  (See  Generation.)  His  existence 
 before  he  was  born  of  the  Virgin  ^lary, 
 and  even  before  the  creation  of  the  Avorld 
 by  him.  The  fact  is  stated  thus  by  Bishop 
 Bull  in  his  "Defence  of  the  Nicene  Creed:" 
 — All  the  catholic  doctors  of  the  first  three 
 centuries  taught,  that  Jesus  Christ,  he 
 Avho  was  afterwards  so  called,  existed  be- 
 fore he  became  man,  or  before  he  was 
 bom,  according  to  the  fiesh,  of  the  Blessed 
 Virgin,  in  another  nature,  far  more  excel- 
 lent than  the  human  nature ;  that  he  ap- 
 peared to  holy  men,  giving  them  an  earnest, 
 as  it  were,  of  his  incarnation ;  that  he  al- 
 ways presided  over,  and  provided  for,  the 
 Church,  which  in  time  to  come  he  would 
 redeem  with  his  own  blood ;  and  of  conse- 
 quence that,  from  the  beginning,  the  whole 
 order  or  thread  of  the  Divine  dispensation, 
 as  TertuUian  speaks,  ran  through  him : 
 further  yet,  that  he  was  with  the  Father 
 before  the  foundations  of  the  world,  and 
 that  by  him  all  things  were  made. 
 
 PREFACES.  Certain  short  occasional 
 forms  in  the  Communion  Service,  which 
 are  introduced  by  the  priest,  on  particular 
 festivals,  immediately  before  the  anthem, 
 beginning,  "  Therefore  with  angels  and 
 archangels,"  &c.  This  anthem  is  a  song 
 of  praise,  or  an  act  of  profound  adoration, 
 equally  proper  at  all  times  ;  but  the  Church 
 calls  upon  us  more  especially  to  use  it  on 
 her  chief  festivals,  in  remembrance  of  those 
 events  which  are  then  celebrated.  Thus, 
 on  Christmas  Day,  the  priest  having  said — 
 "It  is  very  meet,  right,  and  our  bounden 
 duty,  that  we  should  at  all  times,  and  in 
 all  places,  give  thanks  unto  thee,  O  Lord, 
 Holy  Father,  Almighty,  everlasting  GoD," 
 — adds  the  })roper  preface  which  assigns 
 the  reason  for  peculiar  thankfulness  on 
 that  particular  day,  viz.  "  Because  thou 
 didst  give  Jesus  Christ,  thine  only  Son, 
 to  be  born  as  at  this  time  for  us ;  who,  by 
 the  operation  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  was 
 made  very  man,  of  the  Virgin  JNIary  his 
 mother,  and  that  without  spot  of  sin,  to 
 make  us  clean  from  all  sin  :  therefore,  with 
 angels,  SzcJ'  The  days  for  which  these  pre- 
 faces are  provided  are,  Christmas,  Easter, 
 Ascension,  and  seven  days  after  each  of 
 these  festivals ;  also  "Whitsunday,  and  six 
 days  after ;  together  with  Trinity  Sunday. 
 The  antiquity  of  such  prefaces  may  be 
 estimated  from  the  fact  that  they  are  men- 
 tioned and  enjoined  by  the  103rd  canon  of 
 the  African  code,  which  code  was  formed 
 of  the  decisions  of  many  councils  prior  to 
 the  date  of  418. 
 
 The  decay  of  devotion  let  fall  the  apos- 
 tolical  and    primitive   use   of    daily   and 
 
PREFACES. 
 
 003 
 
 weekly  communions,  and  the  ])eo|)le  in  the 
 later  ages  did  not  receive  but  at  the  greater 
 festivals :  upon  which  custom  there  were 
 added  to  the  general  ])retace  mentioned, 
 before  some  special  ])relaces  relating  to  tlie 
 peculiar  mercy  of  that  feast  on  wliich  they 
 did  communicate,  the  Church  thinking  it 
 fit,  that,  since  every  festival  was  instituted 
 to  remember  some  great  mercy,  therei'ore 
 they  who  received  on  such  a  day,  besides 
 the  general  praises  offered  for  all  (Jod's 
 mercies,  should  at  tlie  Loiiu's  table  make  a 
 special  memorial  of  the  mercy  proj)er  to 
 that  festival ;  and  this  seemed  so  rational 
 to  our  reformers,  that  they  have  retained 
 those  proper  prefaces  which  relate  to  Christ- 
 mas, Easter,  Ascension  Day,  AVhitsunday, 
 and  Trinity  Sunday,  so  as  to  praise  God 
 for  the  mercies  of  Christ's  birth,  resur- 
 rection, and  ascension,  for  the  sending  the 
 Holy  Ghost,  and  for  the  true  faith  of  the 
 holy  Tkixity. — Dean  Comber. 
 
 Our  Lord  himself,  before  he  brake  the 
 bread  and  distributed  it,  gave  thanks  ;  and 
 the  Chui'ch  has  thought  tit  to  do  the  same 
 thing.  But,  because  our  Lord  has  not 
 prescribed  any  set  form  for  this,  but  used 
 one  agreeable  to  the  thing  and  the  time, 
 the  Church  therefore,  as  matters  and  oc- 
 casion required,  has  accordingly  adapted 
 peculiar  forms  of  prayer  and  thanksgiv- 
 ing, suited,  as  St.  Augustine  says,  to  the 
 diversity  of  festival  dajs,  in  which  ditierent 
 benefits  are  commemorated. — Jip.  Cosin. 
 
 On  the  gi'eater  festivals  there  are  proper 
 prefaces  appointed,  which  are  also  to  be 
 repeated,  in  case  there  be  a  communion, 
 for  seven  days  after  the  festivals  them- 
 selves (excepting  that  of  "SMiitsunday, 
 which  is  to  be  repeated  only  six  days  after, 
 because  Trinity  Sunday,  which  is  the 
 seventh,  hath  a  preface  peculiar  to  itself)  ; 
 to  the  end  that  the  mercies  may  be  the 
 better  remembered  by  often  repetition,  and 
 also  that  all  the  people  (who  in  most  places 
 cannot  communicate  all  in  one  day)  may 
 have  other  opportunities,  within  those 
 eight  days,  to  join  in  praising  GoD  for 
 such  great  blessings. 
 
 2.  The  reason  of  the  Churcli's  lengthen- 
 ing out  these  high  feasts  for  several  days 
 is  plain  :  the  subject-matter  of  them  is  of 
 so  high  a  nature,  and  so  nearly  concerns 
 our  salvation,  that  one  day  woukl  be  too 
 little  to  meditate  upon  them,  and  praise 
 God  for  them  as  we  ought.  A  bodily  de- 
 liverance may  justly  require  one  day  of 
 thanksgiving  and  joy;  but  the  deliverance 
 of  the  soul  by  the  blessings  commemorated 
 on  these  times,  deserves  a  much  longer 
 time  of  praise  and  acknowledgment.  Since, 
 therefore,  it  would  be  injurious  to  Chris- 
 
 tians to  have  thi'ir  joy  and  thankfulness 
 for  such  mercies  contined  to  one  day,  the 
 Church.  u\)on  the  times  when  these  un- 
 speakable blessings  were  wrought  for  us, 
 invites  us.  by  her  most  seasonable  eoni- 
 inands  and  counsels,  to  fill  our  hearts  with 
 joy  and  thankfulness,  and  let  them  o\er- 
 ilow  eight  days  together. 
 
 JJ.  The  reason  of  their  being  fixed  to 
 eight  days  is  taken  from  the  practice  of 
 the  Jews,  who  by  God's  ajjpointment  ob- 
 served their  greater  festivals,  scnne  of  them 
 for  seven,  and  one,  namely,  the  feast  of 
 Tabernacles,  for  eight  days.'  And  therefore 
 the  primitive  Church,  thinking  that  the 
 observation  of  Christian  festivals  (of  which 
 the  Jewish  feasts  are  only  \\\)vs  and 
 shadows)  ought  not  to  come  short  of  them, 
 lengthened  out  their  higher  feasts  to  eight 
 days. — Bp.  Sparrow.      Wheafh/. 
 
 These  prefaces  are  very  ancient,  though 
 there  were  some  of  them,  as  they  stood  in 
 the  Latin  service,  of  later  date.  For  as 
 there  are  ten  in  that  service,  whereof  the 
 last,  concerning  the  Virgin  Mary,  was 
 added  by  Pojjc  Urban,  lOOo,  so  it  ibllow.s 
 that  the  rest  must  be  of  a  more  consider- 
 able antiquity.  Our  Church  has  only 
 retained  five,  and  those  upon  the  principal 
 festivals  of  the  year,  which  relate  only  to 
 the  persons  of  the  ever-blessed  Trinity,  and 
 not  to  any  saint. — Dr.  Nicholls. 
 
 Mr.  Palmer  remarks  that  "  the  repe- 
 tition by  the  people  of  the  portion  of  the 
 I'rcface;  beginning  '  therefore  with  angels,* 
 never  was  the  custom  of  the  ])rimitive 
 Church,  and  could  not  have  been  intended 
 by  those  who  revised  our  liturgy,  nor  is  it 
 warranted  by  the  nature  of  the  Preface 
 itself.  It  has  perha})s,''  he  adds,  "  arisen 
 from  the  custom  of  printing  the  latter  j)art 
 of  the  Preface  in  connexion  with  the 
 hymn  Tersanctus,  and  from  the  indistinct- 
 ness of  the  rubric,  which,  in  fact,  gives  no 
 special  direction  for  the  peo])le  to  join  in 
 repeating  the  hymn  Tersu7icius."  It  may 
 be  remarked  that  the  Tersaudus  is  marked 
 as  a  separate  paragraph  in  the  two  books 
 of  King  Pdward  \\. 
 
 AVith  respect  to  the  IVeface,  there  is  an 
 anil)iguity  in  our  rubrics,  but  none  what- 
 ever in  the  choral  usage,  w  Inch  is  in  accord- 
 ance with  the  universal  ])ractice  of  the 
 Church.  The  I'reface  is  that  part  recited 
 by  the  priest,  beginning  witii  ••  It  tjt  ten/ 
 inect,  rii/ht"  cVc,  ending  with  "evermore 
 ])raising  thee  and  saying."  It  is  commonly 
 imagined  that  the  choir  or  congregation 
 are  to  repeat  with  the  ])riest  the  words, 
 "Therefore  with  angels  and  arehangels." 
 &:c. ;  but  this  is  contrary  to  all  precedent. 
 The  choral  conirauuion  services,  and  the 
 
604 
 
 PRELATE. 
 
 PRE-SANCTIFIED. 
 
 one  of  Durham,  all  agree  in  beginning  the 
 hymn  at  the  words,  "  lioly,  holy,  holy,"  &c. 
 'i  he  rubric  merely  says,  "  Alter  each  of 
 ■which  Prefaces  shall  immediately  be  sung 
 or  said ;"  it  does  not  say  by  Avhom.  The 
 direction  is  as  indeterminate  as  that  of  the 
 Litany,  which,  like  the  passage  in  question, 
 is  sung  distributively  between  minister  and 
 ])eo|)le  in  sequence. — Jebb. 
 
 PKELATE.  An  ecclesiastic  having 
 jurisdiction  over  other  ecclesiastics.  The 
 title,  though  applicable  to  bishops,  is  not 
 confined  to  their  order.  Before  the  Ke- 
 formation  abbots  were  styled  prelates. 
 Archdeacons  are  prelates  in  this  sense  of 
 the  word.     (See  Episcopacr/,  Bishop.) 
 
 PKELECTOll.  A  Lecturer.  In  the 
 cathedral  of  Hereford,  one  of  the  preben- 
 daries is  elected  to  the  office  of  Prelector, 
 to  hold  it  till  he  succeeds  to  a  residentiary 
 canonry,  for  which  he  is  statutably  con- 
 sidered' to  have  a  claim  to  be  a  candidate. 
 His  duty  is  to  preach  on  Tuesdays,  or  else 
 on  any  holiday  which  may  occur  during 
 the  week  for  a  considerable  portion  of  the 
 year. 
 
 PREMOXSTRATENSES.  [Lat.)  Li 
 French,  Prcmontres.  A  religious  order, 
 founded  by  St.  Xorbert,  descended  from 
 a  noble  family  in  the  diocese  of  Cologne. 
 He  was  educated  suitably  to  his  quality, 
 and  lived  for  some  time  at  the  emperor 
 Henry  the  Fifth's  court.  At  about  thirty 
 years  of  age  he  was  ordained  deacon  and 
 priest ;  and,  soon  after,  entering  upon  a 
 very  strict  and  mortified  way  of  living,  he 
 resigned  his  church  preferments,  and  dis- 
 tril)uted  a  large  patrimonial  estate  to  tlic 
 poor.  Then  he  embraced  the  rule  of  St. 
 Augustine,  and  retiring  with  thirteen  com- 
 panions to  a  place  called  Premonstratum, 
 in  the  diocese,  of  Laon,  in  Picardy,  he 
 there  began  his  order,  about  the  year 
 1119.  This  ground,  with  the  chapel  of 
 St.  John  Baptist,  was  given  to  St.  Norbert 
 by  the  bishop  of  Laon,  with  the  ap])ro- 
 bation  of  Louis  le  Gros,  king  of  France, 
 who  gave  the  Premonstratenses  a  charter 
 of  privileges.  The  place  was  called  Pre- 
 monstratum, because  it  was  jiretcnded 
 the  Blessed  Virgin  herself  pointed  out 
 (premonstravit)  this  ])lace  for  the  prin- 
 cipal house  of  the  order,  and  at  the  same 
 time  commanded  them  to  wear  a  white 
 habit. 
 
 The  monks  of  this  order  were,  at  first, 
 so  poor,  that  they  had  nothing  they  could 
 call  their  own  but  one  poor  ass,'  which 
 served  them  to  carry  wood,  which  they 
 cut  down  every  morni'ng  and  sent  to  Laoii, 
 where  it  was  sold  to  purchase  bread.  But, 
 in  a  short  time,  they  received  so  manv 
 
 donations,  and  built  so  many  monasteries, 
 that,  thirty  years  after  the  foundation  of 
 this  order,  they  had  above  one  hundred 
 abbeys  in  France  and  Germany. 
 
 The  ])opes  and  kings  of  France  have 
 granted  many  privileges,  and  been  very 
 liberal,  to  the  Premonstratenses.  Besides 
 a  great  number  of  saints,  who  have  been 
 canonized,  this  order  has  had  several  per- 
 sons of  distinguished  birth,  who  have  been 
 contented  with  the  humble  condition  of 
 lay-brothers :  as,  Guy,  earl  of  Brienne ; 
 Godfrey,  earl  of  Namur,  &c.  It  has  like- 
 wise given  the  Church  a  great  number  of 
 archbishops  and  bishops. 
 
 The  order  of  Premonstratenses  increased 
 so  greatly,  that  it  had  monasteries  in  all 
 parts  of  Christendom,  amounting  to  1000 
 abbeys,  300  provostships,  a  vast  -number 
 of  priories,  and  500  nunneries.  These 
 were  divided  into  30  cyrcaries  or  pro- 
 vinces. But  this  number  of  houses  is 
 greatly  diminished ;  for,  of  Qo  abbeys  it 
 had  in  Italy,  there  is  not  one  remaining  at 
 present ;  not  to  mention  the  loss  of  all 
 their  monasteries  in  Sweden,  Norway, 
 Denmark,  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland. 
 
 These  monks,  vulgarly  called  White 
 Canons,  came  first  into  England  in  the  year 
 1146,  where  their  first  monastery,  called 
 New  House,  was  built  in  Lincolnshire,  by 
 Peter  de  Saulia,  and  dedicated  to  St. 
 Martialis.  In  the  reign  of  Edward  I., 
 when  that  king  granted  his  protection  to 
 the  monasteries,  the  Premonstratenses  had 
 twentv-seven  houses  in  this  kingdom. 
 
 PR'EROGATIVE  COURT.  The  Pre- 
 rogative Court  of  the  archbishops  of  Can- 
 terbury and  Armagh,  is  that  court  wherein 
 all  testaments  are  proved,  and  all  adminis- 
 trations granted,  when  a  party  dying  within 
 the  province  has  bona  notabilia  in  some 
 other  diocese  than  where  he  dies;  and  is 
 so  called  from  having  a  preroycifive  through- 
 out the  whole  province  for  the  said  pur- 
 poses.    (See  Canons  92,  93,  &:c,) 
 
 PRE-SANCTIFIED.  A  word  used  by 
 the  Greek  Church,  who  have  a  liturgy 
 Culled  that  of  the  Pre-sanctijied,  because 
 that  upon  those  days  they  do  not  consecrate 
 the  bread  or  wine,  but  receive  the  bread 
 which  Mas  consecrated  the  day  before. 
 This  service  is  observed  all  Lent  long, 
 except  Saturdays  and  Sundays,  and  the 
 Annunciation  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  wliich, 
 being  festivals,  are  exempt  from  fasting ; 
 the  Greeks  being  of  opinion  that  the 
 whole  communion  service  is  not  to  be 
 celebrated  on  fasting  days,  and  upon  this 
 account  charging  the  Latin  Church  with 
 breach  of  the  canons,  because  they  cele- 
 brate the  eucharist  in  Lent  time,  as  they 
 
PRESBYTER. 
 
 ()05 
 
 do  tlie  rest  of  the  year,  Good  Friday 
 excepted ;  for  on  tliat  day  tliis  liturgy  of 
 the  Pre-sanctitied  is  oH'ered  in  the  Latin 
 Church  ;  the  priest  then  consecratin«j  nei- 
 ther bread  nor  \vine,  but  niakinj^  use  of 
 the  bread  ■svhich  was  consecrated  the  day 
 before,  and  communicatinf]^  only  under 
 one  kind ;  for  the  wine  he  receives  is  only 
 for  ablution,  being  unconsecrated.  The 
 Greeks  do  the  same  thing,  from  whence 
 we  may  conclude  that  they  communicate 
 only  in  one  kind  during  Lent,  the  wine 
 that  they  then  receive  being  not  conse- 
 crated. The  Communion  of  the  Sick,  as  en- 
 joined by  the  First  Book  of  King  Fdward, 
 if  administered  on  any  day  of  pul^lic  com- 
 munion, was  a  liturgy  of  the  pre-sanctified  ; 
 as  the  elements  were  not  consecrated  in  the 
 private  house,  but  previously  in  the  church. 
 
 PPvESBYTER.  (See  Bishop,  Ucacon, 
 Priest,  Orders,  Clergij.)  The  name  Trpfcr- 
 ftvTfQOQ  {elder)  is  a  word  borrowed  from  the 
 Greek  translation  of  the  Old  Testament, 
 which  commonly  signifies  a  ruler  or  go- 
 vernor, being,  as  St.  Jerome  observes,  a 
 name  of  office,  not  a  mere  indication  of  a 
 man's  age ;  for  elders  were  chosen,  not  by 
 their  age,  but  by  their  merits  and  wisdom. 
 So  that,  as  a  senator  among  the  Romans, 
 and  an  alderman  in  our  own  language,  sig- 
 nifies a  person  of  such  an  order  and  station 
 without  any  regard  to  age,  in  like  man- 
 ner a  preshijter  or  elder  in  the  Christian 
 Church  is  one  who  is  ordained  to  a  certain 
 office,  and  authorized  by  his  quality,  not 
 his  age,  to  discharge  the  several  duties  of 
 that  office  and  station  in  which  he  is  placed. 
 In  this  large  and  extensive  sense,  bishops 
 were  sometimes  called  presbi/ters  in  the 
 New  Testament,  for  the  apostles  them- 
 selves did  not  refuse  that  title.  On  the 
 other  hand,  it  is  the  opinion  of  many 
 learned  men,  both  ancient  and  modern, 
 that  presbyters  were  sometimes  called 
 bishops,  while  bishops  who  were  properly 
 such  were  distinguished  by  other  titles,  as 
 that  of  chief  priests,  apostles,  &c.  Bing- 
 ham shows,  however,  that  those  who  main- 
 tained the  identity  of  the  names,  did  not 
 thence  infer  identity  of  offices,  but  always 
 esteemed  bishops  and  presbyters  to  be 
 distinct  officers. 
 
 We  know  not  the  exact  period  at  which 
 the  apostles  first  ordained  presbyters.  We 
 do  not  read  of  their  existence  before  A.  D. 
 4'i,  when  the  disciples  at  Antioch  sent 
 their  collections  to  the  presbyters  of  Judea. 
 About  A.  D.  56,  St.  Paul  sent  for  "the 
 presbyters  of  the  church "  of  Ephesus  ; 
 and  we  afterwards  read  of  Ijisliojjs  or  pres- 
 byters at  Philippi :  and  the  directions  to 
 Timothy  and  Titus  for  their  ordination  in 
 
 every  city  ;  the  cxhortaticm  of  St.  Peter  to 
 "the  preslnters;"  and  of  St.  James,  "is 
 any  one  sick  among  you,  let  him  send  for 
 the  pres1)yters  of  the  church;"  suffice  to 
 prove  the  general  ordination  of  i)resbyter8 
 by  the  ajjostles. 
 
 The  office  of  presbyters,  like  that  of 
 bishops,  consisted  in  "feeding  the  Church 
 of  (ioi),"  and  overseeing  it  ;  exhorting 
 and  convincing  the  gainsayers  by  sound 
 doctrine.  Being  invested  with  the  power 
 of  teaching,  they  also  possessed  authority 
 in  controversies.'  The  Ciiurch  of  Antioch 
 sent  to  Jerusalem  to  consult  the  apostles 
 and  "  presbyters  "  on  the  question  of  cir- 
 cumcision ;  and  we  find  afterwards  that 
 heretics  were  sometimes  condemned  by  the 
 judgment  of  j)resbyters,  as  well  as  by  bishops 
 in  council^.  They  possessed  in  their  de- 
 gree the  ])Ower  of  remitting  or  retaining 
 sins  by  absolution,  and  by  spiritual  cen- 
 sures. They  must,  even  at  the  beginning, 
 have  had  the  power  of  ])apti/ing  and  cele- 
 brating the  eucharist,  of  ])erforming  other 
 rites,  and  offering  up  public  prayers  in  the 
 absence  of  the  apostles,  or  by  their  per- 
 mission ;  and  the  institution  of  bishops  in 
 every  Church  by  the  apostles  only  restrain- 
 ed the  ordinary  exercise  of  these  powers. 
 We  know  in  particular  from  St.  James, 
 that  ])resbyters  had  authority  to  visit  tiie 
 sick  and  offer  prayers,  anointing  them  with 
 oil  for  the  recovery  of  their  health.  From 
 the  time  of  the  apostles,  the  office  of  pub- 
 lic teaching  in  the  Church,  and  of  ad- 
 ministering the  sacraments,  was  always 
 performed  by  the  bishop,  unless  in  cases 
 of  great  necessity.  The  ])ower  of  s])iritual 
 jurisdiction  in  each  Church,  of  regulating 
 its  affairs  generally,  and  especially  its  dis- 
 cipline, was  shared  by  the  bishoj)  with  the 
 presbyters,  who  also  instnicted  and  ad- 
 monished the  people  in  ])rivate.  The  ])res- 
 byters  sat  on  seats  or  thrones  at  the  cast 
 end  of  the  church,  and  the  bishop  on  a 
 higher  throne  in  the  midst  of  them.  In 
 some  churches  they  laid  their  hands  with 
 the  bishops  on  the  head  of  those  who  were 
 ordained  presl)yters,  and  in  others  admin- 
 istered confirmation. 
 
 The  wealth  and  temporal  power  of  bi- 
 shops during  the  middle  ages  may  have 
 induced  some  of  the  ignorant  to  su])pose 
 that  presbyters  were  exceedingly  inferior 
 to  bishops ;  but  the  Catholic  Church, 
 which  sees  with  the  eye  of  faith,  as  she 
 acknowledges  the  same  sacred  dignity  of 
 the  priesthood  in  cvcn»'  bishop,  whether 
 oppressed  with  extreme  i)overty.  or  whe- 
 ther invested  with  princely  dignity  and 
 wealth,  also  views  the  greatness  and  the 
 sanctity  of  the  office  of  presbyter  as  little 
 
PRESBYTERIANS. 
 
 PRESBYTERIUM. 
 
 inferior  to  those  even  of  the  chief  pastors 
 ■vvho  succeeded  the  apostles ;  and  the  Churcli 
 has  never  flourished  more,  nor  has  the 
 episcopate  ever  been  held  in  truer  rever- 
 ence, than  under  the  guidance  of  those 
 apostolical  ])relates  ^vho,  like  St.  Cyprian, 
 resolved  to  do  nothinji^  without  the  consent 
 of  the  cler<2:y,  and  who  have  sedidously 
 avoided  eveii  the  appearance  of  "being 
 lords  over  God's  heritage."'  The  spirit  of 
 a  genuine  Christianity  will  lead  the^  pres- 
 byters to  reverence  and  obey  the  bishops 
 as  their  fathers  ;  and  will  induce  bishops 
 to  esteem  the  presbyters  as  fellow-workers 
 together  with  them,  and  brethren  in  Jesus 
 Christ. — Bingham.     Palmer,     ylm/nsti. 
 
 The  word  preshi/ter  is  substituted  for 
 priest  in  the  Scotch  liturgy,  compiled  in 
 the  reign  of  King  Charles  I. 
 
 PKESBYTEKIAXS.  A  Protestant 
 sect,  which  maintains  that  there  is  no 
 order  in  the  Church  superior  to  presbyters, 
 and  on  that  account  has  separated  from 
 the  Catholic  Church.  This  sect  is  estab- 
 lished by  law  in  Scotland,  Avhere  there 
 nevertheless  exists  a  national  branch  of 
 the  Catholic  Church,  under  canonical 
 bishops.  The  establishment  of  a  sect 
 cannot,  of  course,  convert  that  sect  into  a 
 Church :  for  instance,  if  the  Socinian  sect 
 were  established  in  England,  it  would  not 
 be  a  whit  more  a  Church  than  it  is  at 
 present.     (See  Church  in  Scotland.) 
 
 The  Presbyterians  had  many  endowed 
 chapels  in  England,  but  the  trustees  and 
 ministers  having  become  Socinians,  these 
 endowed  chapels,  upwards  of  170  in  num- 
 ber, are  the  strongholds  of  Socinianism 
 and  Rationalism  in  this  country.  In  Eng- 
 land, Socinian  and  Presbyterian  have  thus 
 become  synonymous  terms.  These  ob- 
 servations do  not,  however,  apply  to  the 
 meeting-houses  in  England  of  the  Scotch 
 Presbyterians. 
 
 The  following  statement  is  taken  from 
 the  Registrar's  return : 
 
 "  The  Scottish  Kirk  adopts  theConfession, 
 Catechism,  and  Directory  prepared  by  the 
 Westminster  Assembly  as  its  standards  of 
 belief  and  worship.  Its  discipline  is  ad- 
 ministered by  a  series  of  four  courts  or 
 assemblies.  (1.)  The  Kirk  Session  is  the 
 lowest  court,  and  is  composed  of  the  min- 
 ister of  a  parish  and  a  variable  number  of 
 lay  elders,  appointed  from  time  to  time  bv 
 the  session  itself.  (2.)  The  Preshytery 
 consists  of  representatives  from  a  certain 
 number  of  contiguous  parishes,  associated 
 together  in  one  district.  The  representa- 
 tives are  the  ministers  of  all  such  parishes 
 and  one  lay  elder  from  each.  This  as- 
 sembly has  the  power  of  ordaining  minis- 
 
 ters and  licensing  probationers  to  preach, 
 before  their  ordination  :  it  also  investi- 
 gates charges  respecting  the  conduct  of 
 members,  approves  of  new  communicants, 
 and  pronounces  excommunication  against 
 offenders.  An  appeal,  however,  lies  to  the 
 next  superior  court ;  viz.  (3.)  The  Pro- 
 vincial  Synod,  which  comprises  several 
 presbyteries,  and  is  constituted  by  the 
 ministers  and  elders  by  whom  these  pres- 
 byteries themselves  were  last  composed. 
 (4.)  The  General  Asscmhly  is  the  highest 
 court,  and  is  composed  of  representatives 
 (ministers  and  elders)  from  the  presby- 
 teries, royal  burghs,  and  universities  of 
 Scotland,  to  the  number  (at  present)  of 
 363  ;  of  which  number  rather  more  than 
 two-fifths  are  laymen. 
 
 "  The  National  Church  of  Scotland  has 
 three  presbyteries  in  England  ;  that  of 
 Lo7idon,  containing  five  congregations, — 
 that  of  Liverpool  and  3Ianchester,  contain- 
 ing three  congregations, — and  that  of  the 
 North  of  jEny{a7id,  containing  eight  con- 
 gregations. 
 
 "  Various  considerable  secessions  have 
 from  time  to  time  occurred  in  Scotland 
 from  the  National  Church,  of  bodies  which, 
 while  holding  Presbyterian  sentiments, 
 dissent  from  the  particular  mode  in  which 
 they  are  developed  by  the  Established 
 Kirk,  especially  protesting  against  the 
 mode  in  which  Church  patronage  is  ad- 
 ministered, and  against  the  undue  inter- 
 ference of  the  civil  power.  The  principal 
 of  these  seceding  bodies  are, — the  '  United 
 Presbyterian  Church,'  and  the  'FreeChiirch 
 of  ScotUmd  : '  the  former  being  an  amal- 
 gamation (effected  in  1847)  of  the  'Se- 
 cession Church '  (Avhich  separated  in  1 732) 
 with  the  *  Relief  Synod '  (which  seceded 
 in  1752) ;  and  the  latter  having  been  con- 
 stituted in  1843. 
 
 "The  '  United  Preshyterian  Church'  has 
 five  presbyteries  in  England,  containing 
 seventy-six  congregations  ;  of  which,  how- 
 ever, fourteen  are  locally  in  Scotland,  leav- 
 ing the  number  locally  "in  England  62. 
 
 "  The  *  Free  Church  of  Scotland'  has  no 
 ramifications,  under  that  name,  in  Eng- 
 land ;  but  various  Presbyterian  congrega- 
 tions which  accord  in  all  respects  with  that 
 community,  and  which,  before  the  disrup- 
 tion of  1843,  were  in  union  with  the  Estab- 
 lished Kirk,  compose  a  separate  Presby- 
 terian body  under  the  appellation  of  the 
 '  Preshyterian  Church  in  England,'  having, 
 in  this  portion  of  Cn-eat  Britain,  seven 
 presbvteries  and  eighty-three  congrega- 
 tions.'' 
 
 PRESBYTERIUM,  or  PRESBY- 
 TERY, the  space  in  collegiate  and  large 
 
PRESENCE. 
 
 churches  between  the  easternmost  stalls  of 
 the  choir  and  the  altar  ;  answering  to  the 
 solea  of  the  ancient  basilicas. 
 
 PRESENCE.     (Sec  Roal  Presence.) 
 
 PRESENTATION,  (see  Patron  and 
 Benefice,)  is  the  oft'erinj:^  of  a  clerk  to  the 
 bishop  by  the  ])atr()n  of  a  benefice.  It 
 differs  from  nomination  in  this,  that  while 
 presentation  si<=^nities  the  olferin«2:  a  clerk 
 to  the  bishop  for  institution,  noniination 
 sip:niiies  offerinj^-  a  clerk  to  the  patron  in 
 order  that  he  may  be  i)resented. 
 
 PRIEST.  (See  Orders,  Ordinafion, 
 Preshi/(er,  Sacrijice,  and  Absolution.)  "Who 
 can  deny  that  our  word  priest  is  corrupted 
 of  presbyter  i  Our  ancestors,  the  Saxons, 
 first  used  preoster :  whence,  by  further 
 contraction,  came  presto  and  2)riest.  The 
 High  and  Low  Dutch  have  ^^vVs^cr  ,•  the 
 French,  prestre  [now  contracted  into  prc- 
 tre']  ;  the  Italian,  prefe ;  but  the  S])aniard 
 only  speaks  full,  presbj/tero. — Joseph  Mede. 
 
 The  Greek  and  Latin  words,  (Itpt/'c,  ^f- 
 cerdos,)  which  we  translate  ^^ priest,"  are 
 derived  from  words  that  signify  holy  :  and 
 so  the  word  priest,  according  to  the  ety- 
 mology, signifies  him  whose  mere  charge 
 and  function  is  about  holy  things ;  and 
 therefore  seems  to  be  a  most  proper  word 
 to  him  who  is  set  apart  to  the  holy  public 
 service  and  worship  of  GoD,  especially 
 when  he  is  in  the  actual  ministration  of 
 holy  things.  If  it  be  objected  that,  ac- 
 cording to  the  usual  acceptation  of  the 
 word,  it  signifies  him  that  offers  up  a  sa- 
 crijice,  and  therefore  cannot  be  allowed  to 
 a  minister  of  the  gospel,  who  hath  no  sa- 
 crifice to  ofter,  it  is  answered,  that  the 
 ministers  of  the  gospel  have  sacrifices  to 
 offer,  (1  Pet.  ii.  o,)  "Ye  are  built  up  a 
 spiritual  house,  an  holy  priesthood,  to  offer 
 up  spiritual  sacrifices"  of  prayer,  praises, 
 thanksgiving,  &:c.  In  respect  of  these,  the 
 ministers  of  the  gospel  may  safely,  in  a 
 metaphorical  sense,  be  called  priests  ;  and 
 in  a  more  eminent  manner  than  other 
 Christians,  because  they  are  taken  from 
 among  men  to  offer  up  these  sacrifices  for 
 others.  But  besides  these  spiritual  sacri- 
 fices mentioned,  the  ministers  of  the  gos- 
 pel have  another  sacrifice  to  offer,  viz.  the 
 "  unbloody  sacrifice,"  as  it  was  anciently 
 called,  the  commemorative  sacrifice  of  the 
 blood  of  CinilsT,  which  does  as  really  and 
 truly  show  forth  the  death  of  Ciiiust,  as 
 those  sacrifices  under  the  law  did  ;  and  in 
 respect  of  this  sacrifice  of  the  eucharist, 
 the  ancients  have  usually  called  those  that 
 offer  it  up,  priests. — Flndi/er's  Comm. 
 
 That  it  might  not  be  doubted  by  whom 
 the  form  of  absolution  may  be  jjronounced, 
 the  rubric  expressly  informs  us,  that  it  is 
 
 ruiEsr. 
 
 007 
 
 the  jn-iest  who  officiates.  Jiy  priest,  m 
 Church  language,  is  understood  a  person 
 who  is  advanced  in  the;  ecclesiastical  orders 
 to  the  dignity  of  a  presbyter;  and  no 
 person,  in  any  age  of  the  Church,  who  was 
 under  this  degree,  did  ever  jjretend,  as 
 of  right,  to  jjronounce  absolution.  The 
 penitentiaries,  in  the  ancient  and  more 
 modern  ages  of  the  Church,  were  always 
 of  this  degree.  It  was  adopted  into  an 
 axiom  in  the  canon  law,  "  ejus  est  absolrcre 
 cujus  est  !i(/tire."  No  one  could  pronounce 
 absolution  but  he  who  had  j)ower  to  ex- 
 communicate. In  the  body  of  that  law, 
 al)solutions  of  all  kinds  are  reserved  either 
 to  ])resbyters  <)rbish()])s;  and  in  our  pro- 
 vincial constitutions  it  is  strictly  enjoined, 
 "  do  p(vnitenti(i  j)rfC('ipinius  <pi<>d  t/iueoni 
 pa'nitentias  dure  uon  prcsu))uud,''  unless  the 
 ])riest  be  away  when  a  man  is  dying. — 
 Li/ndu'ood.  ()ur  Church,  in  the  last  review 
 of  the  liturgy,  has  chosen  to  put  in  the 
 word  priest  instead  of  7nitiister.  (which  was 
 in  King  Edward  YI.'s  Second  IJook,  and  in 
 Queen  Elizabeth's,)  to  the  end  that  no  one 
 might  ])retend  to  ])ronounce  this  l)ut  one 
 in  ])riest's  orders  ;  being  sensil)le  that  some 
 bold  innovations  have  hcvn  made  herein, 
 by  reason  of  some  persons  misunderstand- 
 ing or  misajiplying  the  word  minister. 
 But  the  first  compilers  of  the  Common 
 Prayer  understood  the  same  by  minister  as 
 we  do  now  by  priest,  that  being  the  ge- 
 neral acceptation  of  the  word  at  that  time. 
 The  compilers  of  the  Second  Book  of  Ed- 
 ward VI.  (in  which  the  Confession  and 
 Absolution  were  first  inserted)  ])ut  into 
 the  rubric,  "  to  be  ])ronounced  by  the 
 minister  "  (or  priest)  "  <done,"  to  avoid  the 
 imputation  which  the  Papists  had  charged 
 some  of  the  reformed  witii,  for  jiermitting 
 absolution  to  be  pronounced  by  persons  not 
 of  this  order.  For  in  the  ])rovincial  Council 
 of  Sens,  A.  D.  1528,  which  was  before  that 
 of  Trent,  and  twenty  years  before  the  com- 
 piling our  Common  Prayer,  we  find  the 
 Protestants  found  fault  with  for  affirming, 
 that  laics  and  women  among  them  might 
 in-onounce  absolution  ;  which  indeed  was 
 Luther's  opinion,  l)ut  only  so  (as  Chem- 
 nitius  explains  it)  that  in  case  of  extreme 
 necessity  they  might  use  it;  which  doc- 
 trine he  had  from  the  Papists  themselves. 
 —Xirhnlls.-  and  see  his  long  note  on  the 
 subject,  if  necessary,  in  his  "Commen- 
 tary on  the  Common  Prayer,"  Evening 
 Service. 
 
 In  the  diocese  of  Alexandria,  tiic  privi- 
 lege of  giving  absolution  to  great  criminals 
 and  scandalous  offenders  was  rcser\e(l  to 
 the  patriarch ;  as  aiii)ears  in  the  case  of 
 Lamponianus,   an  excommunicated   prcs- 
 
608 
 
 PRIEST. 
 
 PRIMATES. 
 
 byter.  "  Thous^h,"  says  he,  "he  expressed 
 his  repentance  with  tears,  and  the  people 
 interceded  for  him,  yet  I  refused  to  ab- 
 solve him  ;  only  assurinj:^  this,  that  if  he 
 should  be  in  manifest  danger  of  death,  any 
 ]n-esbyter  should  receive"  him  into  com- 
 munion by  mv  order."  And  in  ji^cneral, 
 in  the  primitive  Church,  the  granting  ab- 
 solution to  reconcile  penitents,  was  the 
 bishop's  sole  prerogative,  and  rarely  com- 
 mitted to  presbyters ;  but  never  to  deacons, 
 except  in  cases'  of  extreme  necessity,  Mhen 
 neither  bishop  nor  presbyter  was  at  hand. 
 — Bint/hniu. 
 
 The  privilege  was  also  allowed  in  times 
 of  persecution,  to  martyrs  and  confessors 
 in  prison ;  but  then  they  always  signified 
 what  they  had  done  to  the  bishop. —  See 
 Care'*-  Prim.  Ch. 
 
 At  the  last  review  of  the  Common 
 Prayer  Book,  a.  D.  1661,  the  Presbyterian 
 divines  requested  that  "  as  the  word 
 viinister,  and  not  priest  or  curate,  is  used 
 in  the  Absolution,  and  in  divers  other 
 places,  it  may  throughout  the  whole  book 
 be  so  used,  instead  of  those  two  words." 
 To  which  the  E})iscopalian  commissioners 
 replied,  that  "  it  is  not  reasonable  the  word 
 minister  should  be  only  used  in  the  li- 
 turgy. For  since  some  parts  of  the  liturgy 
 may  be  performed  by  a  deacon,  and  others, 
 such  as  absolution  and  consecration,  by 
 none  under  the  order  of  a  priest,  it  is  fit 
 that  some  such  word  as  priest  should  be 
 used  for  those  offices,  and  not  viinister, 
 which  signifies  at  large  every  one  that 
 ministers  in  that  holy  office,  of  what  order 
 soever  he  be."  Accordingly  the  word 
 **  priest,''  in  its  exclusive  sense,  and  in  con- 
 tradistinction to  the  word  deacon,  was 
 inserted,  and  the  sense  of  the  Church  of 
 England  on  this  subject,  ascertained 
 thi'ough  the  abjection  made  by  the  Pres- 
 byterian divines,  was  adopted  and  ratified 
 by  the  act  of  parliament. 
 
 In  the  jn-imitive  Church,  the  deacons 
 were  ranked  among  the  "  sacred  orders  ;  " 
 and  though  their  office  has  not  always 
 been  so  accurately  defined  as  that  of  the 
 presbyters,  or  priests,  yet  in  the  Church 
 of  England  they  are  to  most  purposes 
 considered  as  an  inferior  degree  of  "  the 
 priesthood.'"  Their  duties  are  laid  down 
 in  the  office  of  "  the  Form  and  Manner  of 
 making  Deacons  ;"  and,  "  for  the  resolution 
 of  all  doubts,"  the  preface  to  the  Book  of 
 Common  Prayer  has  wisely  directed,  that 
 "  the  parties  that  so  doubt,  or  diversely 
 take  anything,  shall  always  resort  to  the 
 bishop  of  the  diocese,  who  by  his  discretion 
 shall  take  order  for  the  quieting  and  ap- 
 peasing of  the  same;    so  that  the  same 
 
 order  be  not  contrary  to  anything  con- 
 tained in  this  book," 
 
 It  has  generally  been  customary  for  dea- 
 cons to  substitute  a  prayer  taken  from  the 
 liturgy,  which  has  been  usually  one  of 
 the  collects  in  the  conclusion  of  the  C'om- 
 munion  Service  ;  and  a  pious  commentator 
 (Mr.  Waldo)  countenances  this  by  saying, 
 "  a  deacon,  when  he  officiates,  is  never  to 
 use  it,  but  is  to  offer  up  some  short  prayer 
 in  its  stead."  But  this  is  improperly  said. 
 For  if  a  deacon,  an  officiating  minister 
 of  the  lowest  order,  may  be  considered  at 
 liberty  to  make  this  alteration  in  breach 
 of  the  act  for  uniformity,  Avhere  is  the 
 point  at  which  he  shall  stop  ?  What  in 
 this  case  he  should  do  seems  settled  by 
 the  authorities  referred  to  by  Shepherd. 
 
 "  If  a  deacon  is  neither  to  read  the  Ab- 
 solution, nor  to  substitute  a  prayer  in  its 
 room,  what  is  he  to  do  ?  The  rule  is  plain, 
 and  leaves  him  no  alternative.  After  the 
 confession,  he  is  to  remain  kneeling,  and 
 to  proceed  to  the  Lord's  Prayer.  This 
 always  appeared  to  me  to  be  the  necessary 
 and  only  conclusion  to  be  drawn  from  the 
 premises.  Susj^ecting,  however,  the  valid- 
 ity of  my  own  arguments,  I  requested  the 
 opinion  of  a  respectable  divine,  for  whose 
 modesty  I  have  such  regard,  that  I  dare 
 describe  him  only  as  having  been,  for 
 many  years,  the  confidential  and  intimate 
 friend  of  Bishop  Lowth.  By  his  judgment, 
 the  opiiiion  already  given  was  sanctioned 
 and  confirmed.  In  consequence  of  further 
 inquiry,  I  have  since  learned,  that  the 
 heads  of  a  cathedral  church  lately  recom- 
 mended the  same  practice.  It  is  the 
 business  of  priest  vicars,  I  understand, 
 in  some  cathedrals,  to  read  morning  and 
 evening  prayer ;  and  it  once  happened, 
 that  a  deacon  was  appointed  a  priest  vicar. 
 When  it  came  to  his  turn  to  officiate,  he 
 was  directed  to  omit  the  Absolution,  and 
 after  the  confession  to  say  the  Lord's 
 Prayer." —  Sh  epherd. 
 
 PRIEST'S  INTENTION.  (See  In- 
 tention.) 
 
 PRIMATES,  or  METROPOLITANS. 
 In  the  Christian  hierarchy,  or  scheme  of 
 Church  government,  are  such  bishops  of  a 
 province,  as  preside  over  the  rest. 
 
 Some  derive  the  original  of  primates  or 
 metropolitans  from  apostolical  constitution. 
 — Bingliam,  Oriy.  Eccles.  b.  ii.  c.  16.  But 
 it  may  be  doubted,  whether  the  apostles 
 made  any  such  general  settlement  in  every 
 province ;  and  the  records  of  the  original 
 of  most  churches  being  lost,  it  can  never 
 be  proved  that  they  did.  It  is  most  proba- 
 ble, that  this  order  of  bishops  commenced 
 not  long  after   the   apostolic  age,  when 
 
PRIMATES,  OR  METROI'OLITANS. 
 
 GOO 
 
 sects  and  schisms  began  to  break  in  apace, 
 and  controversies  multiplyinf}:  between 
 particular  bishops,  it  Mas  found  necessary 
 to  pitch  upon  one  in  every  province,  to 
 whom  the  decision  of  cases  miolit  be  re- 
 ferred, and  by  whom  all  common  and  ])ub- 
 lic  affairs  might  be  directed.  Or,  it  might 
 take  its  rise  from  that  common  respect 
 and  deference,  which  was  usually  ])aid  by 
 the  rest  of  the  bishops  to  the  bishoj)  of 
 the  metropolis,  or  capital  city,  of  each  j)ro- 
 vince :  which  advancing  into  a  custom, 
 was  afterwards  settled  by  a  canon  of  the 
 Council  of  Nice. — Cone.  jMc.  c.  6. 
 
 As  to  the  offices  and  ])rivileges  of  jiri- 
 mates  or  metropolitans,  they  were  as  fol- 
 lows. First,  they  were  to  regulate  the 
 elections  of  all  their  provincial  l)isho])s, 
 and  either  ordain,  or  authorize  the  ordin- 
 ation of  them :  and  no  election  or  ordin- 
 ation of  bishops  was  valid  without  their 
 approbation.  Nor  was  this  power  at  all 
 infringed  by  setting  up  the  patriarchs 
 above  them.  For,  though  the  metropo- 
 litans were  to  be  ordained  by  the  patri- 
 archs, yet  still  the  right  of  ordaining  their 
 own  suffragans  was  preserved  to  them.  It 
 is  to  be  observed,  that  this  power  Avas  not 
 arbitrary  :  for  the  primates  had  no  nega- 
 tive voice  in  the  matter,  but  were  to  be 
 determined  and  concluded  by  the  major 
 part  of  a  provincial  sjiiod. —  Cone.  Chaleed. 
 Act.  16. 
 
 Their  next  office  was,  to  preside  over 
 the  provincial  bishops,  and,  if  any  contro- 
 versies arose  among  them,  to  interpose 
 their  authority  to  end  and  decide  them : 
 also  to  hear  the  accusations  of  others,  who 
 complained  of  injury  done  to  them  by 
 their  own  bishops,  from  whom  there  was 
 always  liberty  of  appeal  to  the  metropolitan. 
 But  still  there  lay  an  appeal  from  the  me- 
 tropolitan to  a  provincial  synod,  of  which 
 he  was  only  the  president  or  moderator. 
 
 A  third  office  of  the  metropolitans  or 
 primates  was,  to  call  provincial  synods, 
 and  preside  in  them.  To  this  end,  their 
 circular  letters,  called  Sj/noc/iccp  and  Trac- 
 torifS,  were  a  legal  summons,  which  no 
 bishop  of  the  province  might  disobey  un- 
 der pain  of  suspension,  or  other  canonical 
 censure,  at  the  discretion  of  the  metro- 
 politan and  council. 
 
 Fourthly,  it  belonged  to  the  primates  to 
 publish  and  disperse  such  imperial  laws 
 and  canons,  as  were  made  either  by  the 
 emperors  or  the  councils,  for  the  common 
 good  of  the  Church.  This  gave  them  a 
 right  to  visit,  and  inquire  into  neglects, 
 abuses,  and  disorders,  committed  by  any 
 bishop  throughout  the  whole  province. 
 
 Fifthly,  bishops,  when  they  travelled 
 2  u 
 
 mto  foreign  countries  on  extraordinary 
 occasions,  iised  to  consult  the  primate, 
 and  take  his  Formatcr,  or  letters  of  com- 
 mendation. This  was  particidarlv  rcfjuircd 
 of  the  African  bishops  by  the  tliird  Coun- 
 cil of  Carthage. 
 
 A  sixth  branch  of  the  metropolitan 
 office  was,  to  take  care  of  all  vacant  sees 
 within  their  jn-ovincc,  by  administering 
 the  affairs  of  the  Church,  securing  the  re- 
 venues of  the  bishopric,  and  ])rocuring  a 
 speedy  election  of  a  new  bishop. 
 
 Seventhly,  it  belonged  to  the  metropoli- 
 tans, yearly  to  review  the  calculation  of 
 the  time  of  Easter,  and  give  notice  tci  their 
 suiiragans  of  it.  The  care  of  composing 
 the  cycle  was,  indeed,  by  the  Nicene  fa- 
 thers particularly  committed  to  the  bishop 
 of  Alexandria.  But  due  care  not  being 
 always  taken  in  this  matter,  the  metro- 
 l)olitan  in  every  province  was  concerned 
 to  settle  the  time,  and  acquaint  the  whole 
 province  with  it. 
 
 The  primate  of  Alexandria  was  the 
 greatest  metro})olitan  in  the  world,  both 
 for  the  absoluteness  of  his  ])ower,  and  the 
 extent  of  his  jurisdiction.  For  he  was  not 
 metro])olitan  of  a  single  province,  but  of 
 all  the  jirovinces  of  Egypt,  Eibya,  and 
 Penta])olis,  in  which  there  were  at  least 
 six  large  provinces,  out  of  which  above  an 
 hundred  bishops  were  called  to  a  provin- 
 cial synod. 
 
 liesides  an  actual  primacy  of  power, 
 there  was  likewise  a  ])rimacy  of  honour ; 
 that  is,  some  bishops  had  the  name  and 
 title  of  primates,  but  not  the  jurisdiction. 
 Of  these  there  were  three  sorts.  First, 
 the  senior  bishops  in  each  province,  next 
 to  the  metropolitan.  These  ])rimates  had 
 no  power  above  others,  except  when  the 
 metropolitans  were  some  w  ay  disabled,  or 
 disqualified  for  discharging  their  office, 
 by  irregularity  or  susj)ension.  In  this  case, 
 their  power  devolved  on  the  senior  bishop 
 of  the  province. 
 
 The  second  sort  of  honorary  primates 
 were  the  titular  metropolitans,  or  bishops 
 of  such  cities  as  had  the  luime  and  title  of 
 metropolis  bestowed  on  them  by  some 
 emi)eror,  without  the  ])rivileges,  which 
 were  still  continued  to  tlie  ancient  metro- 
 ])olis  of  the  nrovince.  Of  this  sort  were 
 the  cities  of  Chalcedon  and  Nice. 
 
 Thirdlv,  some  bisho])s  were  honoured 
 with  the 'title  of  primates,  in  regard  to  the 
 eniinency  of  their  stc,  being  some  mother- 
 church,  or  particularly  honoured  by  ancient 
 ])rescrij)ti()n.  This  was  the  case  of  the 
 Ijislion  of  Jerusalem,  in  consideration  of 
 its  beuig  the  mother-church  of  the  Chris- 
 tian world. 
 
GIO 
 
 PRIME. 
 
 nUMlTlVE  CHURCH. 
 
 The  division  of  England  into  two  pro- 
 vinces, Canterbury  and  York,  in  1152, 
 gave  occasion  to  the  introducing  primacies 
 among  us.  Canterbury,  which  before  was 
 the  metropolis,  gives  to  its  bishop  the  title 
 of  Primate  of  all  England;  York,  only 
 that  of  Primate  of  England.  Accordingly, 
 the  former  has  some  jurisdiction  over  all 
 England,  which  the  latter  has  only  in  his 
 own  province. 
 
 Tlie  archbishop  of  Armagh  is  primate 
 of  all  Ireland ;  of  Dubhn,  that  of  Ireland. 
 Until  the  late  mutilation  of  the  Irish  branch 
 of  the  Church,  the  archbishop  of  Cashel 
 was  primate  of  Munster;  of  Tuam,  pri- 
 mate of  Connaught.  The  archbishop  of 
 St.  Andrew's  was  primate  of  Scotland. 
 The  archbishop  of  Kheims  is  primate  of 
 France;  of  Kouen,  primate  of  Normandy; 
 of  Lyons,  primate  of  Gaul ;  of  Toledo, 
 primate  of  Spain,  8cc. 
 
 PlilME.  The  service  said  at  sunrising. 
 (See  Canonical  Hours.) 
 
 PRIMER.  {Primarius,  Lat.  A  book 
 of  primary  or  elementary  instruction.)  Dr. 
 Burton,  in  his  preface  to  King  Henly 
 VIII.'s  Three  Primers,  shows  that  the 
 word  was  in  use  at  least  as  far  back  as 
 1527,  when  a  Primer  of  the  Salisbury  use 
 was  printed :  and  that  it  was  "  applied  to 
 a  first  or  elementary  book,  which  was  put 
 into  the  hands  of  children.  The  term  was, 
 perhaps,  sometimes  applied  to  a  mere 
 spelling-book,  or  to  any  book  which  was 
 used  for  teaching  children  to  read  ;  but  it 
 seems  generally  to  have  conveyed  the  no- 
 tion of  religious  instruction.  The  lessons 
 were  taken  from  the  Creed,  the  Lord's 
 Prayer,  the  Ten  Commandments,  the  Ave 
 Maria,  or  from  some  other  common  formu- 
 lary, with  short  and  easy  explanations,  for 
 the  use  of  young  beginners,  or  for  private 
 devotion.  In  course  of  time,  the  word 
 came  to  have  a  still  more  limited  mean- 
 ing, as  ap])lied  to  offices  of  religion,  and 
 was  analogous  to  the  modern  term  Prayer 
 Book,  with  the  exception  that  a  Primer 
 was  not  confined  to  any  one  definite  set 
 of  prayers,  but  contained  different  selec- 
 tions, according  to  the  choice  of  the  com- 
 piler; though  the  Creed,  Pater  Noster, 
 and  Ave  ]\Iaria,  always  held  a  prominent 
 place  in  the  Primer." 
 
 The  earliest  Primer  printed  by  Dr.  Bur- 
 ton was  in  Henry  VIII.'s  reign,  in  1535: 
 "  A  goodly  Primer  in  English."  This  was 
 an  improved  edition  of  a  former  one,  and 
 was  one  of  the  first  overt  advances  to- 
 wards reformation,  though  containing 
 much  Romish  doctrine.  It  contains,  among 
 a  great  many  other  things,  an  exposition 
 of  the  Ten  Commandments,  and  the  Creed, 
 
 and  the  Offices  for  the  Seven  Hours,  main- 
 ly taken  from  the  old  offices.  In  1537 
 appeared  the  Institution  of  a  Christian 
 Man,  a  still  further  advance  ;  published  by 
 authority  of  convocation.  In  1539  ap- 
 peared a  Primer  by  Bp.  Hilsey  of  Roches- 
 ter, the  subject,  though  not  the  form, 
 being  much  the  same  as  in  the  first-men- 
 tioned Primer.  In  1545  King  Henry 
 VIII.'s  Primer  appeared.  The  services 
 for  the  Hours  in  this,  formed  the  basis  for 
 all  future  Primers,  and  were  much  the  same 
 as  in  Queen  Elizabeth's  of  1559.  In  Ed- 
 ward VI.'s  reign  appeared,  in  1547,  a  re- 
 print of  Henry  VIII.'s  Primer.  In  1549, 
 1551,  1552,  improved  editions,  with  omis- 
 sions of  the  superstitious  invocations  of  the 
 Virgin  INIary.  Queen  Elizabeth's  first 
 Primer,  1 559,  was  a  reprint  of  King  Ed- 
 ward's of  1551 ,  or  rather,  1552.  The  next, 
 in  1566,  was  altered  a  good  deal  from  the 
 form.  A  second  edition  was  published  in 
 1575.  All  these  had  the  services  of  the 
 Hours,  besides  Litanies,  and  other  prayers. 
 Some  the  catechism,  some  the  penitential 
 psalms,  &c.  A  Latin  Form  of  Prayer, 
 like  the  Primer,  w^as  published  by  author- 
 ity in  1560,  and  Preces  Privatse,  a  dis- 
 tinct, though  similar  publication,  in  1564. 
 The  last  Primer  which  appeared  (though 
 not  under  that  name)  was  L)r.  (afterwards 
 Bp.)  Cosin's  "  Collection  of  Private  Devo- 
 tions :  in  the  practice  of  the  ancient 
 Church,  called  the  Hours  of  Prayer;  as 
 they  were  after  this  manner  published  by 
 authority  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  1560,  &c." 
 This  was  published  in  1627,  by  command 
 of  King  Charles  I.  See  Mr.  Clay's  valu- 
 able edition  of  "  Private  Prayer"  &c., 
 durinff  the  reiyn  of  Elizabeth,  edited  for 
 the  Parker  Society;  and  Dr.  Burtoii's 
 Three  Primers. 
 
 PRIMICERIUS,  or  Primmicerius,  de- 
 fined by  Suicer  as  '*  qui  in  prima  cera 
 htrres  scriptus,"  one  who  is  designated  as 
 the  principal  heir.  Hence  it  came  to 
 signify  one  who  presided  over  any  par- 
 ticular department ;  the  chief  notary,  for 
 instance,  was  called  Trpt^ujUKc/'/pioc  voTapiijjv : 
 and  so  the  chief  reader,  the  chief  chanter, 
 &c.,  in  great  churches.  It  is  the  title  of  a 
 dignitary  in  several  Italian  cathedi-als,  and 
 is  supposed  to  answer  to  our  chancellor ; 
 a  name  riot  used  in  Italy  as  that  of  a 
 cathedral  officer.  The  precentor  of  Aber- 
 deen cathedral  was  anciently  called  Primi- 
 cerius,  as  Kennedy  states  in  his  Anyials  of 
 Aberdeen. 
 
 PRIMITIVE  CHURCH.  (See  Tradi- 
 Hon.)  The  Church  as  it  existed  in  the  ages 
 immediately  after  its  first  establishment. 
 From  its  near  connexion  with  the  apostles 
 
PRIOR. 
 
 and  other  inspired  men,  the  primitive 
 Church  enjoyed  many  advantao;es,  of  which, 
 at  later  periods,  it  was  de})rivod.  To  the 
 earhest  aj^es  we  naturally  look  for  illustra- 
 tions of  obscurities  in  the  New  Testament, 
 for  evidence  and  testimony  of  matter  of 
 fact,  for  sound  interi)retations  of  doctrine, 
 for  proofs  of  the  efficacy  of  the  f^ospcl,  and 
 for  examples  of  undaunted  Christian  hero- 
 ism. Hence  the  value  we  arc  accustomed  to 
 attach  to  the  writinj^s  which  have  come 
 down  to  us  from  the  lirst  three  centuries 
 after  Christ  ;  and  this  value  is  consider- 
 ably enhanced  by  the  fervour,  tlie  beau- 
 ty, and  the  surpassing  eloquence  which 
 adorned  the  Church  in  that  early  day,  and 
 in  the  ages  following.  These  were  fami- 
 liarly known  to  the  Reformers  of  the 
 Church  of  England ;  and,  having  taken  the 
 primitive  Church  as  their  model,  and  as 
 the  best  witness  of  Catholic  })rinciples  and 
 usages,  they  transfused  its  si)irit.  not  only 
 into  the  liturgy,  but  into  the  whole  frame- 
 work and  superstructure  of  that  venerable 
 fabric  they  aimed  to  restore.  IIow  well 
 they  succeeded,  is  evidenced  in  that  fear- 
 less appeal  which  Catholics  ever  make, 
 first  to  the  Apostolic  Church,  then  to  those 
 who  drew  tneir  i>rincij)les  from  it  along 
 with  their  infant  breath,  and  flourished 
 and  died  in  an  age  when  inspiration  itself 
 was  scarcely  extinct.  That  Church  has 
 nothing  to  dread  Avhich  can  lay  its  stand- 
 ards on  the  altar  of  antiquity,  and  return 
 them  to  her  bosom,  signed  with  the  glo- 
 rious testimony  of  a  Polycarp,  an  Ignatius, 
 a  Clement,  and  a  "  noble  army  of  martyrs ; " 
 nothing  has  she  to  dread  but  the  possibility 
 of  declension,  and   unfaithfulness  to  her 
 
 PRIOR.  (See  Monh.)  The  head  or 
 superior  of  a  convent  of  monks,  or  the 
 second  person  after  the  abbot,  correspond- 
 ing nearly  to  the  dean  in  churches  of  se- 
 cular canons. 
 
 PRIORY.  (See  Mmmsterif.)  A  house 
 occupied  by  a  society  of  monks  or  nuns, 
 the  chief  of  whom  was  termed  a  prior  or 
 prioress ;  and  of  these  there  were  two  sorts : 
 first,  where  the  prior  was  chosen  by  the 
 convent,  and  governed  as  independently 
 as  any  abbot  in  his  abbey ;  such  were  the 
 cathedral  priors,  and  most  of  those  of  the 
 Augustine  order.  Secondly,  'where  the 
 priory  was  a  cell  subordinate  to  some  great 
 abbey,  and  the  prior  was  placed  or  dis- 
 placed at  the  will  of  the  abbot.  But 
 there  was  a  considerable  difference  in  the 
 regulation  of  these  cells  ;  for  some  were 
 altogether  sul)ject  to  their  respective  ab- 
 bots, who  sent  what  officers  and  monks 
 they  pleased,  and  took  their  revenues  into 
 2  R  2 
 
 PRISCILUANISTS. 
 
 Cll 
 
 the  common  stock  of  the  abbcvs  ;  whilst 
 others  consisted  of  a  stated  miinber  of 
 monks,  under  a  jjrior  sent  to  them  from 
 the  superior  abbey,  and  liiose  i.riories 
 paid  a  i)ensi()n  yearly,  as  an  acknowledg- 
 ment of  their  subjection,  but  acted  in 
 other  matters  as  independent  bodies,  and 
 had  the  rest  of  the  revenues  for  their  own 
 use.  The  jjiiories  or  cells  were  always  of 
 the  same  order  as  the  abbeys  on  Which 
 they  dej)ended,  though  sometimes  tlieir 
 inmates  were  of  a  different  sex ;  it  being 
 usual,  after  the  Norman  Conquest,  for  the 
 great  abbeys  to  build  nunneries  on  some 
 of  their  manors,  which  should  be  subject 
 to  their  visitation. 
 
 Alien  priories  were  cells  or  small  re- 
 ligious houses  in  our  country,  dei)endent 
 on  large  foreign  monasteries.'  AViien  ma- 
 nors or  tithes  were  given  to  distant  reli- 
 gious  houses,  the  monks,  either  to  increase 
 the  authority  of  their  own  order,  or  per- 
 haps rather 'to  have  faithful  stewards  of 
 their  revenues,  built  convenient  houses  for 
 the  reception  of  small  fraternities  of  their 
 body,  who  were  deputed  to  reside  at  and 
 govern  those  cells. 
 
 PRISCILUANISTS.  Certain  heretics 
 whose  founder  was  Priscillian,  a  Si)aniard 
 of  noble  extraction,  very  wealthy,  and 
 endued  Avith  much  wit,  learning,  and  elo- 
 quence. Mark,  an  Egyptian  heretic,  hav- 
 ing sown  the  errors  of  Gnosticism  in  Gaul, 
 went  into  Spain,  where  carnal  ])leasure, 
 which  was  the  princi]Kd  article  of  his  doc- 
 trine, procured  him  qviickly  a  great  many 
 disciples,  the  chief  whereof  was  Priscillian', 
 who  covered  his  vanity  under  the  appear- 
 ance of  a  profound  humility.  He  taught, 
 besides  the  abominations  of  the  Gnostics, 
 that  the  soul  was  of  the  same  substance 
 with  God,  and  that,  descending  to  the 
 earth,  through  seven  heavens,  and  certain 
 other  degrees  of  princijjality,  it  fell  into 
 the  hands  of  the  evil  one,  who  put  it  into 
 the  body,  Avhich  he  made  to  consist  of 
 twelve  parts,  over  each  of  which  ])resided 
 a  celestial  sign.  He  condemned  the  eat- 
 ing of  the  flesh  of  animals,  and  mart-iage 
 as  an  unlawful  co))ulation,  and  se|)arated 
 women  from  their  hus])ands  without  their 
 consent;  and,  according  to  his  doctrine, 
 man's  will  was  subject  to  the  nower  of  the 
 stars.  He  confounded  the  holy  persons  in 
 the  TuiMTV,  like  Sabellius,  ordered  his 
 followers  to  fast  on  Sinulavs  and  Christmas 
 day,  because  he  believed  C'lIlUST  had  not 
 taken  true  flesh  upon  him.  Lying,  a  most 
 abominable  vice,  and  so  contrary  to  the 
 (joi)  of  truth,  was  a  thing  tolerated 
 amongst  his  followers.  There  wa-s  a  vo- 
 lume composed  by  them  called  Librae  be- 
 
012  PROCESSION  OF  THE  HOLY  GHOST. 
 
 PROCESSION. 
 
 cause  that  in  the  twelve  questions  in  it,  as 
 in  twelve  ounces,  their  whole  doctrine  was 
 explained.  Priscillian  broached  his  heresy 
 in  the  fourth  century.  He  was  put  to 
 death,  with  some  of  his  followers,  at  Treves, 
 in  385,  by  order  of  the  usurper  Maximus, 
 contrary  to  the  earnest  instance  of  St. 
 Martin,  bishop  of  Tours.  This  was  the 
 first  instance  of  the  infliction  of  death  for 
 heresy,  and  at  the  time  excited  universal 
 horror  among  Christians.  St.  Ambrose 
 refused  to  communicate  with  the  bishops 
 who  had  taken  part  in  it,  and  a  synod  at 
 Turhi  excommunicated  them. 
 
 PKOCESSION  OF  THE  HOLY 
 GHOST.  As  the  Father  is  eternal, 
 without  beo^innin<i:,  so  is  the  Son  without 
 beginning,  the  only  begotten  God  of  God, 
 Light  of  light,  being  very  God  of  very  God  : 
 in  like  manner  the  Holy  Ghost,  without 
 beginning,  has  proceeded  from  the  Father 
 and  the  Son.  This  is  one  of  the  mys- 
 teries which  must  be  always  incompre- 
 hensible, from  our  inability  to  comprehend 
 an  eternity  a  parte  ante.  In  all  discussions 
 relating  to  these  subjects,  we  may  quote 
 to  the  objector  the  wise  words  of  Gregory 
 Nazianzen :  "  Do  you  tell  me  how  the 
 Father  is  unbegotten,  and  I  will  then 
 attempt  to  tell  you  hoAv  the  Son  is  be- 
 gotten and  the  Spirit  proceeds." 
 
 We  will  first  give  the  doctrine  as  stated 
 in  the  Articles  and  Creed,  and  then  give 
 from  Dr.  Hey  the  history  of  the  contro- 
 versy which  has  long  subsisted  between 
 the  Eastern  and  the  Western  Church. 
 
 Of  the  Holy  Ghost  the  fifth  article 
 says,  "The  Holy  Ghost,  proceeding  from 
 the  Father  and  the  Son,  is  of  one  sub- 
 stance, majesty,  and  glory,  with  the  Father 
 and  the  Son,  very  and  eternal  God." 
 
 The  same  doctrine  is  declared  in  the 
 Nicene  and  Athanasian  Creeds. 
 
 In  the  Nicene  Creed  : 
 
 "I  believe  in  the  Holy  Ghost,  who 
 proceedeth  from  the  Father  and  the 
 Son." 
 
 In  the  Athanasian  Creed : 
 
 "The  Holy  Ghost  is  of  the  Father 
 and  of  the  Son,  neither  made  nor  created 
 nor  begotten,  but  proceeding." 
 
 In  the  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  centuries, 
 various  disputes  took  place  with  the  fol- 
 lowers of  Macetlonius  M'ith  respect  to  the 
 nature  and  procession  of  the  Holy  Ghost. 
 It  may  be  particularly  mentioned,  with  a 
 view  to  what  followed,  that  so  soon  as  the 
 years  430  and  431,  in  the  Councils  of 
 Alexanch'ia  and  Ephesus,  it  was  declared 
 that  the  Holy  Ghost  proceedeth  from 
 the  Son  as  well  as  from  the  P'ather.  In 
 order   to    terminate    these    disputes,   the 
 
 Church  in  general  made  a  sort  of  settle- 
 ment or  determination  what  should  be 
 accounted  Catholic  doctrine  ;  and,  to  avoid 
 further  adjustings  of  formularies,  agreed 
 that  nothing  should  from  that  time  be 
 added  to  those  then  under  consideration. 
 It  is  probable  that,  at  that  time,  the  ques- 
 tion whether  the  Holy  Ghost  should  be 
 spoken  of  as  proceeding  from  the  Father 
 and  the  Son,  {Filioque  is  the  famous  word,) 
 did  not  occur  to  men's  minds.  Filioque 
 was  not  in  the  creeds,  though  it  was  not 
 new.  The  students  in  the  A\'estern  Church 
 seem  ere  long  to  have  contracted  an 
 opinion,  that  it  was  proper  for  them  to 
 profess  in  a  creed,  that  the  Holy  Ghost 
 proceedeth  from  the  Son  ;  they,  therefore, 
 inserted  (or,  one  might  say,  restored) 
 Filioque,  meaning,  probably,  no  harm ;  and 
 then  the  Eastern  Church  thought  as  little 
 of  complaining  as  the  AVestern  of  offend- 
 ing. Afterwards,  hoAvever,  contentions 
 for  worldly  grandeur  produced  contentions 
 about  theological  truth.  Home  and  Con- 
 stantinople were  rivals,  not  only  for  im- 
 perial but  for  spiritual  pre-eminence.  The 
 patriarch  of  Constantinople  styled  himself 
 Fpiscopus  CEcumenicus.  Gregory  the 
 Great,  bishop  of  Rome,  was  more  lowly  in 
 the  title  he  assumed;  he  Avas  ^^  sere  us 
 servorum "  scilicet  Dei ;  but  in  his  pre- 
 tensions to  authority  he  Avas  equally  am- 
 bitious. The  patriarch  was  at  the  head 
 of  the  Eastern  Church,  the  pope  of  the 
 Western.  This  rivalship  made  the  Churches 
 seek  occasions  for  blaming  each  other, 
 and  thus  the  insertion  of  Filioque  came  to 
 be  complained  of  as  a  breach  of  faith.  It 
 Avas  defended  by  the  AVestern  Church, 
 because  the  Avord  contained  right  doctrifie  : 
 this  Avas  enough  to  make  the  Eastern 
 Church  dispute  the  doctrine  :  they  did  so, 
 and  the  dispute  still  subsists,  and  still 
 causes  a  separation  betAveen  the  Eastern 
 and  AVestern  Churches.  One  pope  (Leo 
 HI.)  did  once,  for  the  sake  of  peace,  order 
 Filioque  to  be  put  out  of  the  creed,  at  the 
 same  time  ratifying  the  doctrine  Avhich  it 
 comprehends;  but  he  could  only  prevail 
 in  those  churches  Avhich  Avere  under  his 
 immediate  sanction,  and  that  only  for  a 
 time.  The  obstinate  resistance  of  the 
 Greek  or  Eastern  Church  to  the  insertion 
 of  Filioque,  is  the  more  likely  to  be  OAving 
 to  some  Avorldly  consideration,  as  several 
 of  the  Greek  fathers  have  the  doctrine  in 
 their  Avorks  clearly  expressed. — Ilei/.  (See 
 Holt/  Ghost.) 
 
 PKOCESSION.  The  formal  march  of 
 the  clergy  and  the  people  putting  up 
 prayer. 
 
 The  first  processions  mentioned  in  ec- 
 
PROCTOR. 
 
 IMioriTIATION. 
 
 ()13 
 
 clesiastical  history  are  those  begun  at 
 Constantinople  by  St.  C'hrysostoni.  The 
 Arians  of  that  city  being  forced  to  hoUl 
 their  meetings  witliout  the  town,  went 
 thither  night  and  morning,  singing  an- 
 thems. Chrysostom,  to  prevent  tlieir  per- 
 verting the  Catholics,  set  u])  counter-pro- 
 cessions, in  which  the  clergy  and  peo})le 
 marched  by  night,  singing  prayers  and 
 hymns,  and  carrying  crosses  and  fiani- 
 beaux.  From  this  ])eriod,  the  custom  of 
 processions  was  introduced  among  the 
 Greeks,  and  afterwards  among  the  I-atins; 
 but  they  have  subsisted  longer,  and  been 
 more  fr.^quently  used,  in  the  \N'estern  than 
 in  the  Eastern  Church.  The  name  of  Pro- 
 cession was  formerly  sometinies  used  for 
 the  Lit  nil/.    (See  Lifaiii/,  Rix/afion  Dcn/s.) 
 
 PROCtOIl.  {ProcumfnrX-At.)  Proctors 
 are  officers  established  to  represent,  in 
 judgmeit,  the  parties  who  emjjower  them 
 (by  warrant  under  their  hands,  called  a 
 proxy)  to  appear  for  them  to  explain  their 
 rights,  to  manage  and  instruct  their  cause, 
 and  to  demand  judgment. 
 
 The  representatives  of  the  clergy  in  con- 
 vocation are  also  called  proctors. 
 
 The  same  name  is  given  to  university 
 officers,  whose  business  is  to  guard  the 
 morals  and  preserve  the  quiet  of  the  uni- 
 versity at  Oxford  and  Cambridge ;  to  ])re- 
 sent  candidates  in  arts  and  music  for  their 
 degrees;  and  (formerly  in  a  more  special 
 manner  than  at  present)  to  sui)erintend 
 their  public  exercises.  The  latter  is  now 
 the  prominent  practice  of  the  proctors  in 
 the  univ.'rsity  of  Dublin  :  the  senior  proc- 
 tor presiding  at  the  Masters'  exercises,  the 
 junior  at  the  Bachelors'.  They  are  two 
 in  number,  and  chosen  annually  by  the 
 several  colleges  in  cycle. 
 
 Procurators  were  officers  in  some  of  the 
 ancient  universities  of  Europe,  as  in  Paris ; 
 they  were  then  four  in  number,  elected  an- 
 nually, each  by  one  of  the  four  Nations  into 
 which  t'le  students  were  divided  :  and  the 
 rector,  the  deans  of  divinity,  law,  medicine, 
 and  the  four  j)roctors,  formed  the  standing 
 council  of  the  university  :  somewhat  analo- 
 gous to  the  ca/jiit  at  Caml)ridge.  The 
 (leans  were  the  proctors  of  their  n^spective 
 faculties.  Anciently  the  university  of  Ox- 
 ford was  divided  into  two  '•  nations,"  as 
 they  might  be  called,  each  of  which  was 
 represented  bv  a  ])roctor. 
 
 PllOCUKATION.  A  pecuniary  sum 
 or  composition  by  an  incumbent  to  an 
 ordinary  or  other  ecclesiastical  judge,  to 
 commute  f)r  the  ])ro\ision,  or  entertain- 
 ment, whic'i  he  was  formerly  ex])cctcd  to 
 provide  for  such  ordinary  at  the  time  of 
 visitation.     (See  Si/noda/.) 
 
 PPOFESSOK.  A  public  teacher  in  a 
 university. 
 
 PKOl'IUX'Y.  (From  7r(.o^.,,rfu,.)  The 
 prediction  of  future  things.  (See  Scrij>- 
 titrc,  Ins/iiration  of,  and  Mirar/,s.) 
 
 PR()PllESVL\(iS.  Pc.li|ri„„s  exer- 
 cises of  the  clergy  in  the  reign  of  (iuecn 
 Elizabeth,  instituted  for  the  purpose  of 
 promoting  knowledge  and  piety.  The 
 ministers  of  a  particular  division  at  a  set 
 time  met  together  in  some  church  of  a 
 market  or  other  large  town,  and  tliere 
 each  in  order  explained,  according  to  tlieir 
 abilities,  some  portion  ofScrijjture  allotted 
 to  them  before.  This  done,  a  moderator 
 made  his  observations  on  what  had  been 
 said,  and  determined  the  true  sense  of  the 
 place,  a  certain  sjnice  of  time  being  lixed 
 for  despatching  the  whole.  These  exer- 
 cises being  however  abused,  by  irregu- 
 larity, disputations,  and  divisions,  were 
 rcstraineil. — Canon  72. 
 
 I'KOl'HET.  One  who  foretells  future 
 events.  We  have  in  the  Old  Testament 
 the  writings  of  sixteen  j)roj)hets  ;  that  is, 
 of  four  greater  i)rophets,  and  twelve  les.ser 
 ])rophets.  The  four  greater  projjhets  are, 
 Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  I''.zekiel,  and  Daniel. 
 The  Jews  do  not  place  Daniel  among  the 
 proj)hets,  because  (they  say)  he  lived  in 
 the  sj)lendour  of  temporal  dignities,  and  a 
 kind  of  life  diH'erent  from  other  pronhet.s. 
 The  twelve  lesser  ])ro])hets  are,  llosca, 
 Joel,  Amos.  OlKuliah,  Micah.  Jonah.  Na- 
 hum,  llabakkuk,  Zephaniah,  llaggai,  Ze- 
 chariah.  and  Malachi. 
 
 IMiOITlTATlOX.  (Sec  Covenant  of 
 licdcmption,  Sacrifice,  Atonement,  Satis- 
 faction, Jesus.)  Propitiation  is  originally 
 a  Latin  word,  and  signifies  the  apjjcasing 
 of  the  wrath  of  Ooi),  or  doing  something 
 whereby  he  may  be  rendered  propitious, 
 kind,  or  merciful,  to  us,  notwithstanding 
 that  we  have  provoked  him  to  anger 
 by  any  sin  or  oH'ence  committed  against 
 him.  And  the  original  word,  i\«<r/iof, 
 is  used  by  the  (i reeks  exactly  in  the 
 same  sense,  as  might  easily  be  shown. 
 But  that  we  may  fully  understand  the 
 true  notion  of  the  word,  as  it  is  here 
 used,  our  best  way  will  be  to  consider 
 how  it  is  used  in  the  CJreek  translntion  of 
 the  Old  Testament,  made  long  before  St. 
 John's  time:  for  he,  writing  to  those  who 
 were  generally  accustomed  to  the  wordn 
 and  phra-ses  in  that  translntion.  it  cannot 
 be  supi)Ose(l  but  he  useth  this,  as  well  as 
 other  words,  in  the  same  sense  as  it  is  used 
 there:  for  otherwise  they  would  not  so 
 well  have  understood  him.  Now  there  we 
 find  that  WanKtnQai  and  HiXanaaOat  9.\\ 
 along  answer  to  the  -»D3,  which  signifies 
 
614 
 
 PROPITIATION. 
 
 to  appease,  to  pacify,  to  recmicile,  a  person 
 offended,  to  atone  or  make  him  at  one 
 again  with  the  offender.  So  both  the  He- 
 brew and  the  Greek  words  are  used,  where 
 it  is  said,  "  The  wrath  of  a  king  is  as  mes- 
 sengers of  death,  but  a  wise  man  will 
 pacifi/  it."  And  also  where  Jacob,  having- 
 sent  a  present  before  him  to  his  brother 
 Esau,  that  was  offended  with  him,  saith, 
 "  I  will  apjjease  him  with  the  presoit  that 
 goeth  before  me."  He  calls  his  present 
 nnjc,  a  word  commonly  used  for  offerings 
 to  God.  That  was  his  propitiation,  where- 
 by his  brother  was  reconciled  to  him.  So 
 were  the  sacrifices  of  the  Levitical  law  : 
 they  were  the  Wafffioi,  the  expiations,  or 
 propitiations,  whereby  God  was  atoned  or 
 appeased  towards  him  Avhich  brought  them ; 
 or,  as  it  is  there  expressed,  they  were  ac- 
 cepted for  him,  to  make  atonement  for 
 him.  And  when  a  man  had  thus  brought 
 his  offering,  and  the  priest  had  therewith 
 made  atonement  for  him,  for  the  sin  he 
 had  committed,  then  it  was  forgiven  him, 
 as  we  often  read.  In  all  which  places, 
 both  the  Hebrew  and  Greek  words  before 
 mentioned  are  used ;  the  first  by  Moses 
 himself,  the  other  by  the  Seventy  Avhich 
 translated  him.  And  therefore  we  cannot 
 doubt  but  that  the  Greek  word,  coming 
 from  the  same  root,  is  here  also  used  in 
 the  same  sense  for  such  a  jjropitiation,  or 
 propitiatory  sacrifice,  whereby  GoD  is  re- 
 conciled, or  rendered  propitious,  to  us,  and 
 our  sins  are  forgiven  us  ;  GoD  accepting, 
 as  it  were,  of  that  sacrifice,  instead  of  the 
 punishment  which  was  due  unto  us  for 
 them. 
 
 The  same  appears  also  from  several 
 words  derived  from  the  same  Hebrew 
 root,  as  ns3,  which  the  Seventy  sometimes 
 translate  Xvrpa,  or  Xinpov,  Avhich  signifies 
 a  ransom,  a  price  paid  for  the  redemption 
 of  man's  life,  that  was  forfeited  by  any 
 capital  crime,  something  given  in  recom- 
 pence  and  satisfaction  for  the  crime  where- 
 by it  was  done  away ;  sometimes  d\\ayi.ia, 
 commutation  or  propitiation,  as  the  vulgar 
 Latin  renders  it:  sometimes  TripiKaOapfjia, 
 *^  piacidu7n,"  or  a  sacrifice  offered  for  the 
 purging  or  expiating  some  heinous  crime ; 
 or  for  the  diverting  some  heavy  judgment 
 from  one  to  another,  as  in  Prov.  xxi.  18, 
 where  the  wise  man  saith,  "  The  wicked 
 shall  be  a  ransom  (as  we  translate  it)  for 
 the  righteous  ;"  that  is,  as  he  himself  else- 
 where explains  it,  "  The  righteous  is  de- 
 livered out  of  trouble,  and  the  wicked 
 Cometh  in  his  stead."  Sometimes  they 
 translate  it  t^tXaffjua,  jyropitiation,  exjiia- 
 tion.  ^  And  so  the  Jews  anciently  used  this 
 word  m  their  common  discourse*;  for  when 
 
 one  of  them  would  show  the  greatest  love 
 he  could  to  another,  he  would  say,  "n&3 
 ♦3in,  "  Behold,  let  me  be  his  expiation;" 
 that  is,  as  one  of  their  most  learned  writers 
 interprets  it,  "  Let  his  iniquities  be  upon 
 me,  that  I  may  bear  the  punishments  of 
 them,"  which  will  give  us  great  light  into 
 the  true  notion  of  the  word,  as  we  shall 
 see  anon. 
 
 Another  word  from  the  same  Hebrew 
 root  is  nnS2,  which  is  commonly  used 
 likewise  for  a  ransoyn,  ato7ie?nent,  expia- 
 tion, 2Jj'opitiatio7i,  or  the  like.  As  where 
 Ave  read  of  the  anssn  e^DS,  the  atonement 
 money,  the  Seventy  render  it  to  dpyvpiov 
 rfJQ  tia<popaQ,  the  tribute  money  that  every 
 man  was  to  give  for  the  ransom  of  his  life, 
 when  the  people  were  numbered — the  sin- 
 offering  of  atonement,  Tr]Q  i^i\das(t}g,  of  pro- 
 pitiation, as  the  Seventy  translate  it.  The 
 ram  of  the  atonemeyit,  in  the  Greek,  Kpibq 
 Tov  iXa(7/xov,  the  ram  of projntiation.  1\\  all 
 which  places  we  see  the  word  is  used  to 
 denote  something  offered  or  laid  down  for 
 the  pardon  of  a  man's  sins,  and  so  for  the 
 redemption  of  his  life  that  was  forfeited 
 by  them.  But  that  which  is  most  ob- 
 servable in  this  case  is,  that  the  great  day, 
 when  the  two  goats  Avere  chosen,  the  one 
 for  a  sin-offering,  with  the  blood  Avhereof 
 the  high  priest  made  atonement  for  the 
 people  in  the  most  holy  place  ;  and  the 
 other  for  the  scape-goat,  upon  the  head 
 Avhereof  he  confessed  and  laid  the  sins  of 
 the  people,  and  then  sent  him  aAvay  into 
 the  wilderness,  never  to  be  heard  of  more : 
 this  day,  I  say,  is  called  anssn  nv,  the 
 clay  of  atonement,  or,  as  the  Seventy  ren- 
 der it,  iiixkpa  TOV  iXadfjiov,  and,  AA'hich  is 
 the  same,  tov  t^tXaanov,  the  day  of  pro- 
 pitiation. To  which  Ave  might  also  add, 
 that  the  lid  or  cover  of  the  ark  Avhere  the 
 laAV  lay,  is  called  n'iSS,  w^hich  the  Seventy 
 translate  iXacrrjjptov,  ihe propitiatory,  we,  the 
 mercy-seat. 
 
 These  things,  I  confess,  may  seem  some- 
 thing too  nice  and  critical,  but  I  could  not 
 but  take  notice  of  them  for  the  satisfaction 
 of  myself,  and  of  all  that  understand  the 
 original  languages,  as  being  of  great  use 
 to  our  finding  out  AA-hat  the  apostle  here 
 means  by  jjrojntiation,  according  to  the 
 common  notion  of  the  Avord  he  useth  in 
 those  days,  and  among  those  to  Avhom  he 
 Avrote ;  for  hereby  Ave  may  perceive,  that, 
 by  the  Avord  propitiation  here  used,  is 
 meant  such  a  sacrifice  or  offering  made  to 
 God  for  the  sins  of  men,  Avhich  he  is 
 pleased  to  accept  of  as  a  sufficient  atone- 
 ment and  satisfaction  for  the  dishonour 
 and  injury  that  was  done  him  by  them,  so 
 as  not  to  require  the  punishments  which 
 
PROPROCTORS. 
 
 were  due  unto  him  for  them,  but  to  for- 
 give them  all,  and  to  become  again  as  kind 
 and  propitious  to  the  persons  that  otiended 
 him  as  if  he  had  never  been  otiended  by 
 them.  For  he  is  now  propitiated,  he  is 
 pacified,  and  reconciled  to  them :  he  receives 
 them  into  his  love  and  favour  again,  and  so 
 into  the  same  state  they  were  in  before  he 
 was  displeased  with  them. — Beveridqe. 
 
 PliOPROCTOKS.  Two  assistants  of 
 the  proctors  in  the  universities  nominated 
 by  them. 
 
 PROSES.  There  are  hymns  in  the  Ro- 
 man Church  which  are  called  Prosce,  Proses, 
 a  title  given  to  composition  in  rhyme,  in 
 which  the  law  of  measure  and  quantity 
 established  by  the. ancient  Greeks  and  Ro- 
 mans are  neglected.  These  being  sung 
 after  the  Gradual  or  Tracts,  were  likewise 
 called  Sequentice.  Of  this  kind  is  the  beau- 
 tiful Stahat  Matey.  (See  Sequences.)  The 
 use  of  prosing  began  at  the  latter  end  of 
 the  ninth  century. — See  Burnei/s  History 
 of  Music.  An  uncharitable  inference  having 
 been  drawn  from  the  epithet  "  beautiful " 
 having  been  applied  to  the  Stahat  3Iater, 
 as  if  the  idolatry  of  that  composition,  in 
 spite  of  the  contrary  principles  everywhere 
 prevailing  in  this  dictionary,  had  been  ap- 
 proved, it  is  necessary  to  state  that  the 
 epithet  has  reference  only  to  the  music. 
 
 PROTESTANT.  The  designation  of 
 Protestant  is  used  in  England  as  a  general 
 term  to  denote  all  who  protest  against 
 Popery.  Such,  however,  was  neither  the 
 original  acceptation  of  the  word,  nor  is  it 
 the  sense  in  which  it  is  still  applied  on  the 
 Continent.  It  was  originally  given  to  those 
 who  protested  against  a  certain  decree  is- 
 sued by  the  emperor  Charles  V.  and  the 
 Diet  of  Spires,  in  1529. — 3Iosheim. 
 
 On  the  Continent  it  is  applied  as  a  term 
 to  distinguish  the  Lutheran  communions. 
 The  Lutherans  are  called  Protestants  ;  the 
 Calvinists,  the  Reformed.  The  use  of  the 
 word  among  ourselves  in  a  sense  different 
 from  that  adopted  by  our  neighbours 
 abroad,  has  sometimes  led  to  curious  mis- 
 takes. The  late  Mr.  Canning,  for  instance, 
 in  his  zeal  to  support  the  ]iomanists,  and 
 not  being  sufficiently  well  instructed  in 
 the  principles  of  the  Church  of  England, 
 assumed  it  as  if  it  were  an  indis])uta]ile 
 fact,  that,  being  Protestants,  Ave  must  hold 
 the  doctrine  of  consubstantiation.  Having 
 consulted,  probably,  some  foreign  history 
 of  Protestantism,  he  found  that  one  of  the 
 tenets  which  distinguishes  the  "  Protest- 
 ant," i.  e.  the  Lutheran,  from  the  "Re- 
 formed," i,  e.  the  Calvinist,  is  that  the 
 former  maintains,  the  latter  denies,  the 
 dogma  of  consubstantiation. 
 
 I'UOTESTANT 
 
 Glo 
 
 It  is  evident  that  in  our  ap])licati(>n  of 
 the  word  it  is  a  mere  term  of  negalioii. 
 If  a  man  says  that  he  is  a  Protestant,  he 
 only  tells  us  that  he  is  not  a  Romanist  ; 
 at  the  same  time  he  may  be,  what  is 
 worse,  a  Socinian,  or  even  an  infidel,  for 
 these  are  all  united  under  the  conmiou 
 principle  of  _  protesting  against  Popery. 
 The  ai)pellation  is  not  given  to  us,  as  far 
 as  the  writer  knows,  in  any  of  our  for- 
 niularies,  and  has  chiefly  been  emi)h)yed 
 in  political  warfare  as  a  watchword  to 
 rally  in  one  band  all  who,  whatever  may 
 be  their  religious  differences,  are  i)repared 
 to  act  politically  against  the  aggressions 
 of  the  Romanists.  In  this  res])C'Ct  it  was 
 particularly  useful  at  the  time  of  the  Jie- 
 volution  ;  and  as  politics  intrude  tliem- 
 selves  into  all  the  considerations  of  an 
 Englishman,  either  directly  or  indirectly, 
 the  term  is  endeared  to  a  powerful  and 
 influential  party  in  the  state.  But  on  the 
 very  ground  that  it  thus  keeps  out  of 
 view  distinguishing  and  vital  princii)Ies, 
 and  unites  in  ap])arent  agreement  those 
 who  essentially  differ,  many  of  our  divines 
 object  to  the  use  of  the  word.  They  con- 
 tend, with  good  reason,  that  it  is  quite  i\h- 
 surd  to  speak  of  the  Protestant  rcli(/ion, 
 since  a  religion  must  of  course  be  dis- 
 tinguished, not  by  what  it  renounces,  but 
 by  what  it  professes  :  they  apprehend  that 
 it  has  occasioned  a  kind  of  sceptical  habit, 
 of  inquiring  not  how  much  we  ought  to 
 believe,  but  how  much  we  may  rejuse  to 
 believe  ;  of  looking  at  what  is  negative 
 instead  of  what  is  positive  in  our  religion  ; 
 of  fearing  to  inquire  after  the  truth,  lest 
 it  should  lead  to  something  which  is  held 
 by  the  Papists  in  common  with  ourselves, 
 and  which,  therefore,  as  some  ])ersons  seem 
 to  argue,  no  sound  Protestant  can  hold  ; 
 forgetting  that  on  this  princii)le  mc  ought 
 to  renounce  the  liturgy,  the  sacraments, 
 the  doctrine  of  the  TuixiTY,  the  J)ivinity 
 and  atonement  of  CiliusT, — nay,  the  very 
 Bible  itself.  It  is  on  these  grounds  that 
 some  writers  have  scru})le(l  to  use  the 
 Mord.  But  although  it  is  certaiidy  absurd 
 to  S])eak  of  the  Protestant  reiii/ion,  i.  e.  a 
 negative  religion,  yet  there  is  no  absurdity 
 in  speaking  of  tlie  Church  of  England,  or 
 of  the  Church  of  America,  as  a  Protestant 
 CJiureh  :  the  word  Church  conveys  a  jjosi- 
 tive  idea,  and  there  can  be  no  reason  why 
 we  should  not  liave  also  a  negative  api)cl- 
 lation.  If  we  admit  that  tiie  Church  of 
 liome  is  a  true,  though  a  corrupt  Church, 
 just  as  a  felon  is  a  man,  though  a  bad 
 man,  it  is  well  to  have  a  term  by  which  wo 
 may  alwavs  declare  that,  while  we  hold  in 
 common  with  her  all  that  she  has  which 
 
616 
 
 PROTEVANGELION. 
 
 PROVIDENCE. 
 
 is  catholic,  scriptural,  and  pure,  we  protest 
 for  ever  ag;ainst  ber  multijilied  corruptions. 
 Besides,  the  word,  whether  correctly  or 
 not,  is  in  general  use,  and  is  in  a  certain 
 sense  applicable  to  the  Church  of  England ; 
 it  is  surely,  therefore,  better  to  retain  it, 
 only  with 'this  understanding,  that  when 
 we  call  ourselves  Protestants,  avc  mean  no 
 more  to  jjrofess  that  we  hold  communion 
 with  all  parties  who  are  so  styled,  than 
 the  Church  of  England,  when  in  her 
 creeds  and  formularies  she  designates  her- 
 self not  as  the  Protestant,  but  as  the  Ca- 
 tholic Church  of  this  country,  intends  to 
 hold  communion  with  those  Catholic 
 Churches  abroad  which  have  infused  into 
 their  system  the  principles  of  the  Council 
 of  Trent.  Protestant  is  our  negative, 
 Catholic  our  definitive,  name.  We  tell 
 the  Papist,  that  with  respect  to  him  we 
 are  Protestant;  we  tell  the  Protestant 
 Dissenter,  that  with  respect  to  him  we  are 
 Catholic  ;  and  we  may  be  called  Protestant 
 or  Protesting  Catholics,  or,  as  some  of  our 
 writers  describe  us,  Anglo-Catholics. 
 
 PKOTEVAXGELION.  The  name  of 
 a  book  attributed  to  St.  James  the  apostle, 
 which  treats  of  the  birth  of  the  blessed 
 Virgin  and  of  that  of  our  Saviour.  It  was 
 brought  first  from  the  East  by  Postulus  in 
 Greek,  who  translated  it  into  Latin,  af- 
 firming that  it  is  publicly  read  in  the 
 Eastern  Church,  and  formerly  believed  to 
 have  been  written  by  St.  James,  first  bishop 
 of  Jerusalem  ;  but  the  fables,  of  which  it 
 is  full,  disprove  this. 
 
 PKOTHESIS.  The  place  in  a  church 
 on  which  the  elements  in  the  eucharist 
 are  placed,  previously  to  their  being  laid 
 as  an  oblation  on  the  altar.  Called  also 
 credence.  The  word  2)rotJiesis  {-TrpoOtaig) 
 is  derived  from  the  temple  service,  in 
 which  the  placing  of  the  shew-bread  was 
 called  /;  7rp60f  ate  'wv  cipTUJv,  and  the  bread 
 itself,  OL  oprot  rjjc  Trpo^tanog,  i.  e.  the  loaves 
 set  in  order  before  the  Lord. 
 
 PllOTHOXOTARY.  A  word  that 
 has  a  difierent  signification  in  the  Greek 
 Church  from  what  it  has  in  the  Latin ; 
 for  in  the  first  it  is  the  name  of  one  of  the 
 great  officers  of  the  Church  of  Constan- 
 tinople, who  takes  place  next  to  the  pa- 
 triarch, and  writes  all  despatches  he  sends 
 to  the  Grand  Seignor  ;  besides  which  he  is 
 empowered  to  have  an  inspection  over  the 
 professors  of  the  law,  into  purchases, 
 wills,  and  the  liberty  given  to  slaves  :  but 
 in  the  lloman  Church  they  Avere  formerly 
 called  prothonotaries  who'  had  the  charge 
 of  writing  the  acts  of  the  martvrs,  and  the 
 circumstances  of  their  death  ;  a  title  of 
 honour  whereunto  is  ascribed  many  pri- 
 
 vileges, as  legitimatizing  bastards,  making 
 apostolic  notaries,  doctors  of  divinity,  of 
 the  canon  and  civil  law :  they  are  twelve 
 in  number. 
 
 PPOTOPAPAS;  i.  e.  archpriest:  the 
 head  of  a  cathedral  in  the  Eastern  Church, 
 answering  to  our  dean. 
 
 PllOVERBS,  THE.  A  canonical  book 
 of  the  Old  Testament,  containing  the  Pro- 
 verbs, or  wise  sayings,  of  Solomon,  the  son 
 of  David,  king  of  Israel. 
 
 This  collection  is  but  a  part  of  the  pro- 
 verbs of  that  prince  :  for  we  are  told  that 
 "  he  spake  three  thousand  proverbs,  and 
 his  songs  were  a  thousand  and  five."  His 
 name  is  prefixed  to  the  whole  work.  In 
 the  twenty-fifth  chapter  it  is  observed,  that 
 the  following  Proverbs  belong  to  him, 
 but  that  they  were  collected  by  persons 
 appointed  by  Hezekiah  for  that  purpose. 
 The  thirtieth  chapter  is  entitled,  "  The 
 words  of  Agur,  the  son  of  Jakeh."  The 
 last  chapter  is  inscribed,  "  The  w'ords  of 
 king  Lemuel."  From  these  difi'erent  titles 
 it  is  concluded,  that  the  first  twenty-four 
 chapters  are  the  genuine  work  of  Solo- 
 mon ;  that  the  five  next  are  a  collection  of 
 several  of  his  Proverbs,  made  by  order  of 
 King  Hezekiah ;  and  that  the  two  last 
 chapters  were  added,  and  belong  to  differ- 
 ent, though  unknown,  authors. 
 
 The  JcAvs  are  of  opinion,  that  Solomon 
 wrote  the  Canticles  in  his  youth,  the  Pro- 
 verbs in  his  manhood,  and  the  Ecclesiastes 
 in  the  latter  end  of  his  life.  The  Hebrews 
 called  this  book  ]Mische,  Avhich  signifies  a 
 proverb,  or  allegory ;  the  Greeks  style  it 
 UapajSoXai,  and  the  Latins,  Proverhia ; 
 which  may  properly  be  rendered  sentences 
 or  maxims.  They  contain  rules  for  the 
 conduct  of  all  conditions  of  life  ;  for  kings, 
 courtiers,  masters,  servants,  fathers,  mo- 
 thers, children,  &c.  The  Greek  version  of 
 this  book  is  often  very  diff'erent  from  the 
 Hebrew,  and  adds  a  great  many  verses, 
 that  are  not  found  in  the  original.  In  the 
 ancient  Latin  editions  several  verses  are 
 added,  which  have  been  left  out  since  the 
 time  of  St.  Jerome. 
 
 This  proverbial  manner  of  speaking  and 
 writing  was  in  great  use  and  esteem  among 
 the  Hebrews,  and  in  all  the  countries  of 
 the  East.  Hence  it  was,  that  the  queen 
 of  Sheba  came  to  prove  Solomon  Mith 
 hard  questions,  or  parables.  Hiram,  king 
 of  Tyre,  they  say,  held  a  correspondence 
 by  letters  with  Solomon,  and  proposed 
 enigmatical  questions  to  him,  and  an- 
 swered those  that  were  proposed  to  him 
 by  Solomon. 
 
 PROVIDENCE.  The  superintendence 
 which  God   exercises  over   creation.      In 
 
PROVIDENCE. 
 
 the  very  notion  of  a  Creator  this  power  is 
 implied.  The  work  of  a  creature  may 
 continue  after  its  author's  death  :  because 
 the  work  of  a  creature  does  not  depend 
 upon  him  who  was  the  author  of  it.  but 
 upon  some  prc-existin<;  thino;s  which  were 
 not  created  by  him,  but  merely  combined. 
 While  the  pre-existin<;  thin<2;s  remain  in 
 combination,  the  work  lasts  ;  but  when  the 
 pre-existing  thinj?  or  things  are  removed, 
 the  work  perishes.  A  house  survives  the 
 architect  and  builder,  because  the  pre- 
 existing things,  the  stones  for  instance, 
 and  the  mortar,  remain  in  combination. 
 But  the  works  of  God  are  not  combina- 
 tions ;  they  are  creations ;  things  formed 
 out  of  nothing.  The  pre-existing  Being 
 on  whom  they  depend  is  God,  and  God 
 only.  If  God  be  removed  from  them  they 
 must  perish.  His  presence  is  their  sup- 
 port. But  when  God  is  present,  he  is  pre- 
 sent as  an  acting  and  intelligent  being. 
 Therefore  we  say,  that  what  in  his  wisdom 
 he  created,  that  by  his  providence  he 
 sustains. 
 
 The  general  providence  of  GoD  is  seen 
 in  the  laws  of  Nature.  The  universe 
 may  be  compared  to  a  great  machine,  the 
 whole  of  which  has  been  put  into  motion 
 by  the  Creator,  who  watches  over  his 
 works,  and  prevents  disorder  and  con- 
 fusion. According  to  these  laws,  the 
 earth  proceeds  in  its  annual  course,  the 
 moon  observes  its  regular  changes,  the 
 seasons  come  round  at  their  stated  periods, 
 and  the  tides,  in  all  their  variety,  keep 
 their  courses. 
 
 But  although,  to  a  certain  extent,  we 
 perceive  that  there  is  such  regularity  in 
 the  order  of  events,  that  Nature  may  be 
 said  to  be  bound  by  laws  ;  yet,  as  a  matter 
 of  fact,  we  find  that  there  is  an  occasional 
 and  not  unfrequent  interference  with  those 
 laws.  This  fact  is  ex])ressed  in  every  lan- 
 guage in  which  words  occur  equivalent 
 to  our  expressions  of  luck,  chance,  good 
 or  ill  fortune.  According  to  the  laws  of 
 Nature,  the  harvest  follows  the  seed-time ; 
 but  the  husbandman  is  sometimes  disap- 
 pointed in  his  just  hopes:  the  race  is  to 
 the  swift,  and  the  battle  to  the  strong,  ac- 
 cording to  the  laws  of  Nature  ;  but  acci- 
 dents so  frequently  occur,  that  we  find  that 
 the  race  is  not  always  to  the  swift,  nor  the 
 battle  to  the  strong.  These  deviations 
 from  the  laws  of  Nature,  the  Scrij)tures 
 teach  us  to  refer  to  an  interference  on  the 
 part  of  God,  and  this  interference  with  the 
 laws  of  Nature  we  regard  as  his  particular 
 providence. 
 
 Belying  on  his  f/eneral  providence,  we 
 labour  and  adopt  the  best  means  for  the 
 
 rUOVOST. 
 
 G17 
 
 furtherance  of  our  ends:  we  plant,  we 
 sow,  we  endeavour  to  be  swift  or  strong. 
 Believing  in  his  particular  i)rovidenee,  we 
 prav.     (See  l^rai/vr.) 
 
 PUOVINCK.'  The  limits  of  an  arch- 
 bishop's jurisdiction,  as  the  iliocvsc  is  the 
 limits  of  the  jurisdiction  of  a  bisho]) :  and 
 so  prociiicial  ronsfifu/ioHs,  prorinrial  courts, 
 provincial  si/iuxls,  jjrori/icial  canons,  are  the 
 canons,  synods,  courts,  and  constitutions, 
 which  have  authority  within  the  rule  of  a 
 single  archbishoj). 
 
 PROVISIONS.  An  oppressive  inven- 
 tion of  the  bisiiops  of  J{ome,  where])y  the 
 right  of  jKitronage  of  ecclesiastical  benefices 
 was  arbitrarily  suspended  by  the  l)oi)e, 
 that  he  might  ])resent  his  own  creatures, 
 and  niake  provision  in  the  Churdi  of  Eng- 
 land for  foreign  ecclesiastics.  Tiiis  usurj)- 
 ation  of  the  pone  occasioned  much  dis- 
 content in  the  Ciuirch  of  iMigUind ;  and 
 at  one  time  the  evil  had  become  so  in- 
 tolerable, that  it  occasioned  frightful  dis- 
 turbances. The  pope  ((Gregory  IX.)  had 
 granted  a  ])rovision  on  the  patronage  of 
 one  Sir  Kobert  Thwinge,  a  Vcnkshire 
 knight,  who  resented  it  so  highly  as  to 
 associate  with  himself  some  eighty' others, 
 who  had  received  the  like  treatment,  by 
 whom  the  persons  of  foreign  ecclesiastics 
 were  seized,  and  even  the  i)oi)e's  envoys 
 murdered.  The  king,  Henry  III.,  set  him- 
 self to  restore  peace ;  and  Thwinge,  be- 
 taking himself  to  Bome,  was  reconciled  to 
 the  pope,  and  recovered  his  right  of  pa- 
 tronage; and  the  pope  conceded  that  there 
 should  be  in  future  no  provisions,  except 
 in  benefices  in  the  patronage  of  ecclesi- 
 astical persons  or  bodies.  These  he  had 
 usually  found  more  defenceless,  and  there- 
 fore over  them  he  still  exercised  his  usurp- 
 ed authoritv. 
 
 PKOVOST.  The  designation  of  heads  of 
 some  colleges  in  our  universities.  It  was 
 also  the  title  given  to  the  heads  of  s.  vera! 
 collegiate  churches  in  iMigland,  suj)presse(l 
 at  the  Beformation,  and  was  their  usual 
 designation  in  Scotland,  excej)t  in  cathe- 
 drals. In  some  foreign  cathedrals  tiie  head 
 of  the  chaj)ter  is  the  prf)V()st,  though  there 
 be  a  dean  besides;  and  in  otiiers  the  dean 
 is  head,  tiie  provost  subordinate.  The 
 latter  was  formerly  the  case  in  i'wv  out  of 
 the  six  of  the  cathedrals  in  the  j)rovince  of 
 Tuam  :  the  name  is  still  retained  in  some; 
 in  others  it  has  been  exchanged  for  that  of 
 precentor.  Archdeacon  Cotton,  in  his 
 J-'asti  l^cclesia»  Hiberniir,  (j)art  ii.  114,) 
 savs  that  the  title  answered  to  that  of  chan- 
 cellor. This  observation  seems  strength- 
 ened by  the  fact,  that  the  dignity  of 
 chancellor  did  not  anciently  exist  in  the 
 
618 
 
 PSALMODY. 
 
 PSALTER. 
 
 province  of  Tuam.  Maillane,  in  his  Die- 
 tionnaire  de  Droit  Canonique,  says  that  the 
 provost  had  the  care  of  the  temporals,  the 
 dean  of  the  spirituals;  that  deans  were 
 established  to  take  care  of  the  discipline 
 of  the  church,  and,  in  many  chapters,  be- 
 came in  the  course  of  time  the  fh'st  in  rank. 
 In  Holland  and  elsewhere,  before  the  He- 
 formation,  the  provost  was  sometimes  a 
 kind  of  archdeacon. 
 
 PSALMODY.  The  art  or  act  of  sing- 
 ing psalms.  Psalmody  was  always  esteemed 
 a  considerable  part  of  devotion,  and  usually 
 performed  in  the  standing  posture;  and, 
 as  to  the  manner  of  pronunciation,  the 
 plain  song  was  sometimes  used,  being  a 
 gentle  inflection  of  the  voice,  not  much 
 different  from  reading,  like  the  chant  in 
 cathedrals ;  at  other  times  more  artificial 
 compositions  were  used,  like  our  anthems. 
 — Bimjham.  The  word  is  now  usually  limit- 
 ed to  the  singing  of  the  metrical  psalms, 
 but  properly  it  includes  chanting  also. 
 
 PSALMS.     The  Book  of  Hymns.     Our 
 word  Psalm  is  the  translation  of  two  very 
 different  licbrew  words.    The  first,   I'ehil- 
 lem,  properly  means  praises,  and    is   the 
 title  of  the  book.  The  other,  3Iizmor,  means 
 in  strictness,  a  poem.     Psalm   is  derived 
 from  a  Greek  verb,  i//aX\w,  which  means  to 
 play  or  sing  to  an  instrument,  being  very 
 appropriate  to  these  sacred  songs,  which 
 we  know  from  Holy  Scripture   were  sung 
 to  harps,  and  other  musical  instruments. 
 The  Book  of  Psalms  is   a   collection   of 
 hymns  or  sacred  songs  in  praise  of  God, 
 and  consists  of  poems   of  various  kinds. 
 They  are  the  production  of  different  per- 
 sons, but  are  generally  called  "  the  Psalms 
 of  David,"  because  a  great  part  of  them 
 was  composed  by  him,  and  David  himself 
 is  distinguished  by  the  name  of  the  Psalmist. 
 We  cannot  now  ascertain  all  the  psalms 
 written  by  David,  but  their  number  pro- 
 bably exceeds  seventy  ;  and  much  less  are 
 we  able  to  discover  with  any  certainty  the 
 authors  of  the  other  psalms,  or  the  occa- 
 sions upon  which  they  were  composed ;  a 
 few  of  them  were  written  after  the  return 
 from  the  Babylonian  captivity.     And  the 
 ninetieth  psalm,  as  its  title  in  the  original 
 in  our  Bible  translation  shows,  is  attributed 
 to  Moses.    There  is  no  subject  upon  which 
 learned  men  are  so  much  at  variance  as  the 
 authorship  of  the  Psalms,  and  the  meaning 
 of  their  titles.     It  is  clear,  however,  that 
 they  may  be  divided  into  the  following 
 classes  :  Psalms  of  David ;  Psalms  or  Songs 
 of  the  Sons  of  Korah  ;  Psalms  of  Asaph  ; 
 Songs  of  Degrees ;  and  again  into  Peni- 
 tential   Psalms,   Hallelujah   Psalms,   and 
 Historical  Psalms. 
 
 The  whole  collection  of  psalms,  usually 
 divided  into  five  books,  is  eminently  pro- 
 phetical of  the  Messiah.  The  first  book 
 begins  with  the  1st  and  ends  with  the 
 41st  psalm,  and  the  Hebrew  word  Le- 
 Daviil,  {of  or  concerning  David,  or  hi/  Da- 
 vid,) occurs  before  almost  every  psalm.  The 
 2nd  book  begins  with  the  42nd  psalm,  the 
 3rd  with  the  73rd  psalm,  the  4th  with  the 
 90th  psalm,  and  is  continued  to  the  l()6th. 
 The  5th  and  last  book  opens  with  the 
 107th.  The  seven  penitential  psalms  are, 
 6,  32,  38,  51,  102,  130,  143.  These  are 
 appointed  to  be  read  in  our  Church  on 
 Ash- Wednesday.  For  many  ages  they  had 
 been  used  in  the  Western  churches  in 
 token  of  special  humiliation,  {^ee  Alpha- 
 betical or  Acrostical  Psalm,  and  Sonr/s  of 
 Der/rees ;  Korah,  Psalms  of ;  Asaph,  Psalms 
 of:  and  Hallchijah.) 
 
 PSALTER.  ■  The  word  Psalter  is  often 
 used  by  ancient  writers  for  the  Book  of 
 Psalms,  considered  as  a  separate  book  of 
 Holy  Scripture.  It  afterwards  assumed  a 
 more  technical  meaning,  as  the  book  in 
 which  the  Psalms  are  arranged  for  the  ser- 
 vice of  the  Church.  The  Koman  Psalter, 
 for  instance,  does  not  follow  the  course  of 
 the  Psalms  as  in  Scripture  ;  they  are  ar- 
 ranged for  the  different  services,  in  the 
 several  accompaniments,  as  antiphons,  &c. 
 In  our  Psalter,  the  notice  of  the  divisions 
 for  the  days  of  the  month,  and  the  point- 
 ing in  the  middle  of  each  verse,  are  a  part 
 of  the  Psalter,  though  not  of  the  Psalms  ; 
 and  some  part  of  the  Psalms  unfit  for 
 recitation  are  omitted,  as  the  titles,  the 
 words  Selah,  Hiiif/aion,  &c.,  and  the  Hal- 
 lelujahs with  which  many  psalms  begin 
 or  end,  or  both.  The  division  of  the 
 Psalms  into  daily  portions,  as  given  in  our 
 Prayer  Books,  has  been  done  with  a  view 
 to  convenience.  Something  like  this  has 
 long  prevailed  in  the  Church,  but  Avithout 
 its  regularity  and  system.  Thus  in  Egypt, 
 at  first,  in  some  places,  they  read  60 
 psalms  ;  in  others,  50  ;  and  afterwards  they 
 all  agreed  to  recite  1 2  only.  Columbanus, 
 in  his  rule,  appointed  the  number  of  psalms 
 to  vary  according  to  the  seasons  of  the 
 year,  and  the  length  of  the  nights  ;  so  that 
 sometimes  75  were  sung.  In  the  monas- 
 teries of  Armenia  they  repeat  99  psalms 
 to  the  present  day.  In  the  Greek  Church, 
 the  Psalms  are  divided  into  cathismata,  or 
 portions,  so  that  the  whole  book  is  read 
 through  in  a  fortnight.  Previously  to  the 
 reform  of  our  offices,  the  English  Church 
 prescribed  12  psalms  for  the  nocturn ;  but 
 at  that  period  the  number  was  reduced  on 
 an  average  to  three,  by  the  division  of  the 
 119th,  and  by  reckoning  some  other  long 
 
ruBLic  woRsnir. 
 
 G19 
 
 psalms  as  each  more  than  one.  Under 
 the  present  arrangement  the  Psalms  are 
 divided  into  60  portions,  two  of  which  are 
 appointed  for  each  day  of  the  month. 
 Selections  are  also  set  forth  by  the  Ame- 
 rican Church,  which  may  he  used  instead 
 of  the  regularly  ai)])ointed  ])ortions. 
 
 The  Psalms  are  pointed  as  they  are  to  be 
 said  or  sung  in  churches ;  by  which  is 
 meant  the  colon  in  the  middle  of  each 
 verse,  indicating  the  pause  to  be  made,  not 
 only  in  the  chant,  but  also  in  tlie  recitation, 
 as  the  words  clearly  imply ;  a  direction 
 commonly  neglected  by  readers,  to  the 
 great  prejudice  of  distinct  enunciation. 
 
 The  custom  of  repeating  tlie  psalms 
 alternately,  or  verse  by  verse,  between 
 the  minister  and  the  people,  is  probably 
 designed  to  supply  the  phice  of  the  an- 
 cient antiphon,  or  the  responsive  chanting 
 of  the  psalms  by  two  distinct  choirs. 
 This  latter  practice  is  still  retained  in  the 
 cathedrals  of  England,  and  is  more  primi- 
 tive than  the  alternate  reading  now  pre- 
 vailing in  parish  churches. 
 
 The  Psalter,  properly  speaking,  is  a  se- 
 parate book  from  that  of  Common  Prayer ; 
 though  bound  up  in  the  same  volume,  and 
 equally  subscribed  toljyall  the  clergy.  The 
 title  page  of  the  Prayer  Book  announces 
 the  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  S:c.,  cVc,  to- 
 gether n-ifh  the  l^salter,  ^:c.  The  Prayer 
 I3ook  and  the  Psalter  were  not  included  in 
 the  title  page  till  the  last  review.  It  is  re- 
 markable, that  the  same  causes  have  had 
 the  same  effects  in  inHuencing  the  transla- 
 tion of  the  Psalter  both  in  the  Latin  and 
 the  English  Church.  In  the  former,  the 
 old  Italian  translation  had  become  so 
 familiar  to  the  people  that  St.  Jerome's 
 translation  from  the  Hebrew  was  never 
 adopted ;  but  the  old  version,  con'ected 
 considerably  by  St.  Jerome,  was  used  ; 
 a  less  correct  edition  by  the  Koman, 
 and  a  more  carefully  worded  one  l)y  the 
 GaUican  Church.  The  latter  was  in  the 
 course  of  time  adopted  l)y  all  the  Churches 
 in  communion  with  Rome  with  a  few  ex- 
 ceptions. In  like  manner,  the  English 
 Psalter  does  not  follow  the  last  translation, 
 (which  is  in  the  authorized  version  of  the 
 Bible,)  but  that  of  Coverdale's  l{il)le,  cor- 
 rected, which  had  become  familiar  to  the 
 people  from  constant  use. 
 
 PUBLIC  AVOKSlllP.  (See  Formti- 
 lari/.  Lituiy;/.)  The  9()th  Canon  ordains: 
 "  The  churchwardens  or  questmen  of  every 
 parish,  and  two  or  three  more  discreet 
 persons  to  be  chosen  for  sidesmen  or  as- 
 sistants, shall  diligently  see  that  all  the 
 parishioners  duly  resort  to  their  church 
 upon  all  Sundays  and  holy-days,  and  there 
 
 continue  the  whole  time  of  l)i\  iiu- service  ; 
 and  all  such  as  shall  be  found  slack  or  neg- 
 ligent in  resorting  to  the  church,  (having 
 no  great  or  \n-gent  cause  of  absence.)  they 
 shall  earnestly  call  upon  them  ;  and  after 
 due  monition,  (if  they  amend  not,)  they 
 shall  jiresent  them  to  the  ordinary  of  the 
 place." 
 
 Article  20.  "The  Church  hath  power  to 
 decree  rites  or  ceremonies"  that  are  not 
 "contrary  to  (ion's  word." 
 
 Article  31.  "  It  is  not  necessary  that 
 traditions  and  ceremonies  be  in  all  ])laces 
 one  or  utterlv  like;  for  at  all  times  they 
 have  been  divers,  and  may  be  changed 
 according  to  the  diversity  of  countries, 
 times,  and  nu'n's  manners  ;  so  that  nothing 
 be  ordained  against  CJod's  word,  ^^'h(>- 
 soever  through  his  private  judgnu-nt  will- 
 ingly and  jnirposely  doth  ()i)enly  break 
 the  traditions  and  ceremonies  of  the 
 Church,  which  be  not  rej)ugnant  to  the 
 Avord  of  Cioi),  and  be  ordained  and  a])- 
 proved  by  comuKm  authority,  ought  to  be 
 rebuked  openly,  (that  others  nuiy  fear  to 
 do  the  like,)  as  he  that  offends  against  the 
 common  order  of  the  Church,  and  hurtJi 
 the  authority  of  the  magistrate,  and  wounds 
 the  consciences  of  weak  brethren.  l-".very 
 particular  or  national  Church  hath  au- 
 thority to  ordain,  change,  aiul  abolish  the 
 ceremonies  or  rites  of  the  Church,  or- 
 dained only  by  man's  authority;  ro  that 
 all  things  be  done  to  edifying." 
 
 Canon  6.  "  Whoever  shall  aHirm,  that 
 the  rites  and  ceremonies  of  the  Church  of 
 England  by  law  established  are  wicked, 
 anti-christian,  or  superstitious  :  or  such  a.s, 
 being  commanded  by  lawful  authority,  men 
 who  are  zealously  and  godly  affecte<l  may 
 not  with  any  good  conscience  ap])rove  them, 
 use  them,  or,  as  occasion  recpnreth,  sul>- 
 scribe  unto  them;  let  him  be  exconnmi- 
 nicated  ij>so  facto,  ami  not  reston-d  until 
 he  repent,  and  i)ul)licly  revoke  8uch  hia 
 wicked  errors." 
 
 By  Canon  80.  "  The  churchwardens  or 
 ques'tmen  of  everv  church  and  chajul  shnll, 
 at  the  charge  (»f  the  parish,  nrovide  the 
 I'.ook  of  Conunon  I'rayer,  lately  explained 
 in  s(mie  few  j)oints  by  his  Miijesty'K  au- 
 thoritv,  according  to  the  laws  and  his  High- 
 ness's "prerogative  in  that  liehalf :  and  that 
 with  all  convenient  sjMcd,  but  at  the 
 furthest  within  two  months  after  the  pulv 
 lishing  of  these  our  constitulionH." 
 
 livery  dean,  can«>n.  and  prebendan.-.  of 
 every  cathedral  or  collegiate  church,  and 
 all  masters  and  other  heads,  fellows,  chaj>- 
 lains,  and  tutors  of  or  in  any  college,  hall, 
 hf»use  of  learning,  or  hospital,  and  every 
 pul)lic  profc».sor  and  rwider  in  cither  of  the 
 
620 
 
 PUBLIC  WORSHIP. 
 
 universities,  or  in  every  college  elsewhere, 
 and  every  parson,  vicar,  curate,  lecturer, 
 and  every  other  person  in  lioly  orders,  and 
 every  schoolmaster  keeping  any  })ublic  or 
 private  school,  and  every  person  instruct- 
 ing or  teaching  any  youth  in  any  house  or 
 private  family,  as  tutor  or  schoolmaster, 
 who  shall  be  incumbent,  or  have  possession 
 of  any  deanery,  canonry,  prebend,  master- 
 ship, headship,'  fellowship,  professor's  place, 
 or  reader's  jjlace,  parsonage,  vicarage,  or 
 any  other  ecclesiastical  dignity  or  promo- 
 tion, or  of  any  curate's  place,  lecture,  or 
 school,  or  shall  instruct  or  teach  any  youth, 
 as  tutor  or  schoolmaster,  shall  at  or  before 
 his  admission  to  be  incumbent,  or  having 
 possession  aforesaid,  subscribe  the  declara- 
 tion following :  I,  A.  B.,  do  declare,  that 
 I  will  conform  to  the  liturgy  of  the  Church 
 of  England,  as  it  is  now  by  law  established 
 (1 3  &  14  Charles  II.  c.  4,  s.  8 ;  and  1  William, 
 sess.  1,  c.  8,  s.  11).  And  no  form  or  order 
 of  common  prayers,  administration  of  sa- 
 craments, rites,  or  ceremonies,  shall  be 
 openly  used  in  any  church,  chapel,  or  other 
 place,  other  than  that  which  is  prescribed 
 in  the  said  books,  (s.  17.) 
 
 By  Canon  4.  "  Whosoever  shall  afSrm, 
 that  the  form  of  God's  worship  in  the 
 Church  of  England,  established  by  law, 
 and  contained  in  the  Book  of  Common 
 Prayer  and  Administration  of  Sacraments, 
 is  a  corrupt,  superstitious,  or  unlaAvful 
 worship  of  God,  or  containeth  anything 
 in  it  that  is  repugnant  to  the  Scriptures, 
 let  him  be  excommunicated  ipso  facto, 
 and  not  restored  but  by  the  bishop  of  the 
 place,  or  archbishop,  after  his  repentance 
 and  public  revocation  of  such  his  wicked 
 errors." 
 
 By  Canon  38.  "  If  any  minister,  after  he 
 hath  subscribed  to  the  Book  of  Common 
 Prayer,  shall  omit  to  use  the  form  of  prayer, 
 or  any  of  the  orders  or  ceremonies  pre- 
 scribed in  the  Communion  Book,  let  him 
 be  suspended ;  and  if  after  a  month  he  do 
 not  reform  and  submit  himself,  let  him  be 
 excommunicated  ;  and  then  if  he  shall  not 
 submit  himself  within  the  space  of  another 
 month,  let  him  be  deposed  from  the  min- 
 istry." 
 
 And  by  Canon  98.  "After  any  judge 
 ecclesiastical  hath  pronounced  judicially 
 against  contemners  of  ceremonies,  for  not 
 observing  the  rites  and  orders  of  the 
 Church  of  England,  or  for  contempt  of 
 public  prayer,  no  jvidge  ad  qiion  shall 
 allow  of  his  appeal,  unless  the  party  appel- 
 lant do  first  personally  promise  and  avow, 
 that  he  will  faithfully  keep  and  observe  all 
 the  rights  and  ceremonies  of  the  Church  of 
 England,  as   also   the   prescript  form  of 
 
 Common  Prayer,  and  do  likewise  subscribe 
 to  the  same." 
 
 By  the  13  &  14  Charles  II.  c.  4.  "In 
 all  places  where  the  proper  incumbent  of 
 any  parsonage,  or  vicarage,  or  benefice 
 with  cure,  doth  reside  on  his  living,  and 
 keep  a  curate,  the  incumbent  himself 
 in  person  (not  having  some  lawful  impedi- 
 ment to  be  allowed  by  the  ordinary  of  the 
 place)  shall  once  at  the  least  in  every 
 month  openly  and  publicly  read  the  Com- 
 mon Prayer  and  service  in  and  by  the  said 
 book  prescribed,  and  (if  there  be  occasion) 
 administer  each  of  the  sacraments  and 
 other  rites  of  the  Church,  in  the  parish 
 church  or  chapel  belonging  to  the  same,  in 
 such  order,  manner,  and  form  as  in  and  by 
 the  said  book  is  appointed,  on  pain  of  £o 
 to  the  use  of  the  poor  of  the  parish  for 
 every  offence,  upon  conviction  by  confes- 
 sion or  oath  of  two  witnesses,  before  tAvo 
 justices  of  the  peace;  and,  in  default  of 
 payment  AAithin  ten  days,  to  be  levied  by 
 distress  and  sale  by  warrant  of  the  said 
 justices,  by  the  churchwardens  or  overseers 
 of  the  poor  of  the  said  parish."  (s.  7.) 
 
 By  the  2  &  3  Edward  VI.  c.  1,  and  1 
 Elizabeth,  c.  2,  it  is  enacted  as  follows  :  "  If 
 any  parson,  vicar,  or  other  whatsoever 
 minister,  that  ought  or  should  sing  or  say 
 Common  Prayer  mentioned  in  the  same 
 book,  or  minister  the  sacraments,  refuse  to 
 use  the  said  Common  Prayers,  or  to  min- 
 ister the  sacraments  in  such  cathedral  or 
 parish  church,  or  other  places,  as  he  should 
 use  to  minister  the  same  in  such  order  and 
 form  as  may  be  mentioned  and  set  forth  in 
 the  said  book ;  or  shall,  wilfully  or  obsti- 
 nately standing  in  the  same,  use  any  other 
 rite,  ceremony,  order,  form,  or  manner  of 
 celebrating  the  Lord's  supper,  openly  or 
 privily,  or  matins,  even-song,  administra- 
 tion of  the  sacraments,  or  other  open 
 prayer,  than  is  mentioned  and  set  forth  in 
 the  said  book ;  or  shall  preach,  declare,  or 
 speak  anything  in  the  derogation  or  de- 
 praving the  said  book,  or  anything  therein 
 contained,  or  of  any  part  thereof ;  and  shall 
 be  thereof  lawfully  convicted,  according 
 to  the  laws  of  this  realm,  by  verdict  of 
 twelve  men,  or  by  his  own  confession,  or 
 by  the  notorious  evidence  of  the  fact,  he 
 shall  forfeit  to  the  king  (if  the  prosecution 
 is  on  the  statute  of  the  2  &  3  EdAvard 
 VI.)  for  his  first  ofi'ence,  the  profit  of  such 
 one  of  his  spiritual  benefices  or  promotions 
 as  it  shall  please  the  king  to  appoint,  com- 
 ing or  arising  in  one  Avhole  year  after  his 
 conviction,  and  also  be  imprisoned  for  six 
 months  :  and  for  his  second  offence  be  im- 
 prisoned for  a  year,  and  be  deprived,  ipso 
 focto,  of  all  his  spiritual  promotions,  and 
 
PUBLIC  WORSHIP. 
 
 the  patron  shall  present  to  the  same  as  if 
 he  were  dead  ;  and  for  the  third  otlence 
 shall  be  imprisoned  durino^  life.'' 
 
 Canon  18.  "  No  man  shall  cover  his  head 
 in  the  church  or  chapel  in  the  time  of 
 Divine  service,  excejjt  he  have  some  infirm- 
 ity; in  -which  case  let  him  wear  a  ni<;ht- 
 cap,  or  coif.  All  manner  of  persons  then 
 present  shall  reverently  kneel  njjon  their 
 knees,  when  the  general  confession.  Litany, 
 or  other  })rayers  are  read ;  and  shall  stan'(l 
 lip  at  the  sayintj;  of  the  lielief,  accordin^r  lo 
 the  rules  in  that  behalf  j)rescribed  in  tiie 
 Book  of  Common  Prayer.  And  likewise 
 when  in  time  of  Divine  service  the  ].()1U) 
 Jesus  shall  be  mentioned,  due  and  lowly 
 reverence  shall  be  done  by  all  ])erson's 
 present,  as  it  hath  been  accustomed  ;  testi- 
 fying- by  these  outward  ceremonies  and 
 gestures  their  inward  humility,  Christian 
 resolution,  and  due  acknowledgment  that 
 the  Loud  Jesus  Christ,  the  true  eter- 
 nal Son  of  God,  is  the  only  Saviour 
 of  the  Avorld,  in  whom  alone  all  the  mercies, 
 graces,  and  promises  of  God  to  mankind, 
 for  this  life  and  the  life  to  come,  are  fully 
 and  wholly  comjn-ised.  And  none,  either 
 man,  woman,  or  child,  of  what  calling 
 soever,  shall  be  otherwise  at  such  times 
 busied  in  the  church,  than  in  quiet  attend- 
 ance to  hear,  mark,  and  understand  that 
 which  is  read,  ])reached,  or  ministered  ; 
 saying  in  their  due  places  audibly  with  the 
 minister  the  Confession,  the  Lord's  l^rayer, 
 and  the  Creed,  and  making  such  otiier 
 answers  to  the  public  prayers  as  are  ap- 
 pointed in  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer : 
 neither  shall  they  disturb  the  service  or 
 sermon,  by  walking,  or  talking,  or  any 
 other  way ;  nor  depart  out  of  the  church 
 during  the  time  of  Divine  service  or  ser- 
 mon, without  some  urgent  or  reasonable 
 cause." 
 
 Canon  14.  "  The  Common  Prayer  shall 
 be  said  or  sung  distinctly  and  reverently, 
 upon  such  days  as  are  appointed  to  be  kept 
 holy  by  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  and 
 their  eves,  and  at  convenient  and  usual 
 times  of  those  days,  and  in  such  places  of 
 every  church  as  the  bishoj)  of  the  diocese 
 or  ecclesiastical  ordinary  of  the  place  shall 
 think  meet  for  the  largeness  or  straitness 
 of  the  same,  so  as  the  people  may  be  most 
 editied.  All  ministers  likewise  shall  ob- 
 serve the  orders,  rites,  and  ceremonies  pre- 
 scribed in  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  as 
 well  in  reading  the  Holy  Scriptures  and 
 saying  of  ])rayers,  as  in  administration  of 
 the  sacraments,  without  either  diminishing 
 in  regard  of  ])reaching,  or  in  any  other 
 respect,  or  adding  anytiiing  in  the  matter 
 or  form  thereof." 
 
 PUIIUATURY. 
 
 021 
 
 And  by  tiie  preface  to  the  B.juk  of  Com- 
 mon Prayer:  "All  jjriests  and  deaconn 
 are  to  say  daily  the  Morning  aiid  Kvcning 
 Prayer,  either  ])rivately  or  oi)cnly,  not  be- 
 ing let  by  sickness,  or  some  other  urgent 
 cause.  And  the  curate  that  ministereth 
 in  every  parish  church  or  c]uii)el,  being  nt 
 home,  and  not  Ijcing  otlicrwisf  reasonablv 
 hindered,  shall  say  tiie  same  in  the  i)arisli 
 church  or  chajjcl  where  he  ministereth ; 
 and  shall  cause  a  bell  to  be  tolled  there- 
 unto, a  convenient  time  before  he  begin, 
 that  the  jieople  may  conu'  to  liear  Gud'h 
 word,  and  to  j)ray  with  liim." 
 
 Pulpit.  Sennons  were  originally  de- 
 livered from  the  stejjs  of  the  altar,  which 
 was  sometimes  called  the  Pulpitum,  a  term 
 derived  from  the  ancient  tiu-atres.  The 
 .-/mio/jrs,  or  pulpits  of  the  i)riinitive  Church, 
 were  used  originally  for  n  ading  the  h-ssons 
 only.  In  later  times  j)ulj)its,  or  elevated 
 desks,  were  erected  sometimes  in  the  choir, 
 but  generally  in  the  mive,  for  the  purj)ose 
 of  sermons.  Li  our  Church  a  raised  desk, 
 called  a  j)ulpit,  is  ordered  in  every  church, 
 from  which  the  preacher  addresses  hin 
 flock.     (See  Ctnnn  H.'j.) 
 
 PUU(JAT()1{Y.  A  place  in  wliich  soub 
 are,  by  the  Pa])ists,  supposed  to  !)e  jiurged, 
 whether  by  fire  or  otherwise,  from  carnal 
 im])urities,  before  they  are  received  into 
 heaven.  The  first  authoritative  decree 
 concerning  ])urgator)-  is  to  ])e  found  in  the 
 Council  of  Florence,  (a.  D.  1439.)  in  which 
 council  endeavours  were  made  (and  with 
 momentary  success)  to  persuade  the  repre- 
 sentatives of  the  Greek  Church  to  adoj)!  the 
 lloman  innovations,  and,  amongst  others, 
 this  of  purgatory,  which  was  so  vague  and 
 undefined,  that  the  former  found  it  neces- 
 sary to  ask  what  it  was  that  tlu-y  meant  by 
 it.  This  inquiry  produced  the  following 
 synodical  definition  of  it  : 
 
 "  Since  you  have  demanded  to  have  the 
 faith  of  the  Boman  Church  expressed  con- 
 cerning the  truth  of  purgatory,  we  briefly 
 re])ly  in  these  writings,  'that  if  any  who 
 truly  repent  depart  from  life  before  that 
 by  worthy  fruits  of  rej)entance  they  have 
 niade  satisfaction  for  their  sins  of  comnii»- 
 sion  and  omission,  their  souls  are  purifii-<l 
 after  death,  and  to  the  relieving  thenc 
 jiains,  the  suffrages  of  the  faithful  who  are 
 alive,  to  wit.  the  sacrifices  of  masses,  pray- 
 ers, alms,  and  other  pious  works,  arc  pro- 
 fitable.* '  But  whether  mirgatory  in  a  fire, 
 or  a  mist,  or  a  whirlwind,  or  anytiiing  cUe, 
 we  do  not  dispute.'" 
 
 When  first  tliis  error  waj*  broached  by 
 indirulu'ils  it  is  not  eaxy  to  determine  ;  but 
 in  St.  .Vugusline's  time,  A.  D.  398,  it  ap- 
 pears to  have  been  new,  as  he  speaks  of  it 
 
622 
 
 PURGATORY. 
 
 as  a  thing  which  "  possibly  may  be  found 
 so,  and  possibly  never;"  and  so  our  Eng- 
 lish Bede,  "  not  altogether  incredible." 
 Its  novelty,  as  an  article  of  faith,  is  well 
 expressed  by  Fisher,  bishop  of  Rochester  : 
 *'  For  some  time  it  was  unknown ;  but 
 lately  knoAvn  to  the  Catholic  Church.  Then 
 it  was  believed  by  some  persons,  by  little 
 and  Httle,  partly  from  Scripture,  and  partly 
 from  revelations."  This  is  spoken  of  in 
 our  twenty-second  Article  as  "a  fond 
 thing,  vainly  invented,  and  grounded  on 
 no  warranty  of  Scripture,  but  rather  re- 
 pugnant to  the  word  of  GoD."  What  the 
 Romish  doctrine  concerning  purgatory  is, 
 cannot  be  better  explained  than  by  the 
 Romish  doctors  themselves,  who  tell  us 
 in  the  Council  of  Trent,  "If  any  one 
 say,  that,  after  the  grace  of  justification 
 received,  the  fault  is  so  pardoned  to  every 
 penitent  sinner,  and  the  guilt  of  temporal 
 punishment  is  so  blotted  out,  that  there 
 remains  no  guilt  of  temporal  punishment 
 to  be  done  away  in  this  world,  or  that 
 which  is  to  come  in  purgatory,  before  the 
 passage  can  be  opened  into  heaven,  let 
 him  be  accursed."  And  elsewhere  they 
 say,  "  There  is  a  purgatory,  and  that  the 
 souls  detained  there  are  helped  by  the 
 suffrages  of  the  faithful,  but  jirincipally 
 by  the  sacrifices  of  the  acceptable  altar." 
 So  that,  as  Bellarmine  saith,  "  Purgatory 
 is  a  certain  place,  in  which,  as  in  a  prison, 
 the  souls  are  purged  after  this  life,  which 
 were  not  fully  purged  in  this  life,  to  wit, 
 that  so  they  may  be  able  to  enter  into 
 heaven,  where  no  unclean  thing  enters  in." 
 Thus  we  sec,  in  a  few  words,  what  the 
 Romish  doctrine  concerning  purgatory  is. 
 
 Now  tliat  this  doctrine  is  a  "  fond  thing" 
 is  plain,  in  that,  by  the  confession  of  some 
 of  their  own  writers,  there  is  little  or  no 
 footing  for  it  in  the  Scriptures.  Nay,  if 
 we  examine  it  by  Scripture  light,  we  shall 
 find  it  so  far  from  being  grounded  upon 
 the  Scriptures,  that  it  is  directly  contrary 
 to  them.  For  the  Scriptures  say,  "  The 
 dead  know  not  anything,  neither  have 
 they  any  more  a  reward,  for  the  memory 
 of  them  is  forgotten.  Also  theu*  love 
 and  their  hatred  and  their  envy  are  now 
 perished ;  neither  have  they  any  more  a 
 portion,  for  ever,  in  anything  that  is  done 
 under  the  sun."  (Eccles\  ix.  5,  6.)  Where- 
 as this  doctrine  saith  quite  contrary,  that, 
 when  they  are  dead,  they  have  a  part  or 
 portion  in  the  prayers  of  the  faithful,  and 
 the  sacrifices  of  the  altar.  Again;  the 
 Scripture  makes  mention  but  of  a  two-fold 
 receptacle  of  souls  after  death,  the  one  of 
 happiness,  the  other  of  miserv.  (1  Sam. 
 XXV.  29;  Matt.  vii.  13,  14  :  viii.  11  ;  Luke 
 
 xvi.  22,  23.)  Whereas  this  doctrine  brings 
 in  a  third,  called  purgatory,  betwixt  heaven 
 and  hell,  half  happiness  and  half  misery. 
 Again  ;  the  Scripture  saith,  "  The  blood 
 of  Jesus  Chkist,  his  Son,  cleanseth  [or 
 purgeth]  us  from  all  sin"  (1  John  i.  7); 
 but  this  doctrine  w'ould  persuade  us,  there 
 are    some    sins  which  are    to   be    purged  j 
 
 away  by  the  prayers  and  good  works  of 
 others.  To  name  no  more,  the  Scripture 
 saith,  "  He  that  believeth  shall  not  come 
 into  condemnation,  but  pass  from  death  to 
 life  "  (John  v.  24)  ;  and  therefore  St.  Paul 
 saith,  "  I  am  in  a  strait  between  two,  having 
 a  desire  to  depart  and  to  be  with  CiiKlST." 
 (Phil.  i.  23.)  So  that  St.  Paul  reckoned 
 verily  upon  it,  that  so  soon  as  ever  he  was 
 dead,  he  .should  be  with  Christ  ;  no  sooner 
 "  absent  from  the  body  "  but  "  present  wath 
 the  Lord."  (2  Cor.  v.  8.)  Whereas  this 
 Romish  doctrine  about  purgatory  bids  him 
 not  to  be  so  hasty,  for  he  might  depart 
 and  yet  not  be  with  Christ  neither ;  he 
 might  pass  from  death,  and  yet  not  to  life  ; 
 he  might  and  must  be  absent  from  the 
 body  a  good  while  before  he  be  present 
 with  the  Lord  ;  he  might  go  from  earth, 
 yet  not  to  heaven,  but  to  purgatory,  a 
 place  St.  Paul  never  dreamt  of.  So  that 
 this  doctrine  directly  contradicts  the  Scrip- 
 ture. The  Scriptures  say,  "  We  shall  pass 
 from  death  to  life ;"  this  doctrine  saith, 
 we  shall  not  pass  from  death  to  life,  but  to 
 purgatory  :  the  Scriptures,  that  "  when  we 
 are  absent  from  the  body  we  are  present 
 with  the  Lord  ;"  but  this  doctrine,  when 
 we  are  absent  from  the  body  we  are  not 
 present  with  the  Lord  :  the  Scriptures, 
 that  "  when  we  depart  we  shall  be  with 
 Christ  ;"  this  doctrine,  that  when  we  de- 
 part we  must  be  in  purgatory :  the  Scrip- 
 tures, that  "  we  must  go  directly  from 
 earth  to  heaven  ;"  but  this  doctrine  saith, 
 that  we  must  go  about  by  purgatory,  first 
 going  from  life  to  death,  then  from  death 
 to  purgatory,  and  from  purgatory  to 
 heaven. 
 
 And  as  this  doctrine  herein  contra- 
 dicts the  Scriptures,  so  does  it  contradict 
 the  Fathers  too.  For  Origen  saith,  "  We, 
 after  the  labours  and  strivings  of  this 
 present  life,  hope  to  be  in  the  highest 
 heavens,"  not  in  purgatory.  And  so  Chry- 
 sostom,  "  For  those  that  truly  follow  virtue, 
 after  they  are  changed  from  this  life,  they 
 be  truly  freed  from  their  fightings,  and 
 loosed  from  their  bonds.  For  death,  to 
 such  as  live  honestly,  is  a  change  from 
 worse  things  to  better,  from  this  transitory 
 to  an  eternal  and  immortal  life  that  hath 
 no  end."  And  Macarius,  speaking  of  the 
 faithful,  "  A^Tien,"  saith  he,  '*  they  go  out  of 
 
PURIFICATION. 
 
 rUIlITANS. 
 
 623 
 
 tlieir  bodies,  the  choirs  of  unf^els  receive 
 theu'  souls  into  their  pro])er  ])laces,  to  the 
 ])ure  Avorld,  and  so  lead  them  to  tlie 
 Loud."  Whence  Athanasius  saith,  "  To 
 the  righteous  it  is  not  death,  but  only  a 
 change,  for  they  are  changed  from  this 
 world  to  an  eternal  rest.  And  as  a  man 
 comes  out  of  prison,  so  do  the  saints  go 
 from  this  troublesome  life  to  the  good 
 things  prepared  for  them."  Certainly  tliese 
 Fathers  were  no  purgatorians,  who  so  unan- 
 imously affirmed  the  souls  of  the  saints  to 
 go  directly  from  earth  to  heaven,  never 
 touching  upon  purgatory. 
 
 To  these  we  may  add  Gennadius,  who 
 assures  us,  that  *'  after  the  ascension  of 
 the  Lord  to  heaven,  the  souls  of  all  the 
 saints  are  with  Christ,  and  going  out  of 
 the  body  go  to  Christ,  excepting  the 
 resurrection  of  their  body."  And  to  name 
 no  more  in  so  plain  a  case.  Prosper  also 
 tells  us,  "  According  to  the  language  of 
 the  Holy  Scripture,  the  whole  life  of  man 
 upon  earth  is  a  temptation  or  trial.  Then 
 is  the  temptation  to  be  avoided  when  the 
 fight  is  ended  ;  and  then  is  the  fight  to  be 
 ended,  ■when  after  this  life  secure  victory 
 succeeds  the  fight,  that  all  the  soldiers  of 
 Christ,  who,  being  hel])ed  by  God,  have 
 to  the  end  of  this  present  life  unwcarily 
 resisted  their  enemies,  their  wearisome 
 travel  being  ended,  they  may  reign  hap- 
 pily in  their  country."  So  that  they  do 
 not  go  from  one  fight  here  to  another  in 
 purgatory,  but  immediately  from  the 
 Church  militant  on  earth  to  the  Church 
 triumphant  in  heaven.  From  hence  we 
 may  well  conclude,  that  "  the  Romish  doc- 
 trine about  purgatory  is  a  fond  thing  repug- 
 nant to  Scripture,"  yea,  and  Fathers  too. — 
 Bp.  Beveridqe. 
 
 PUIUFICATION  OF  THE  VIRGIN 
 MARY.  This  holy-day  is  kept  in  memory 
 of  the  presentation  of  Christ  in  the  temple, 
 and  is  observed  in  the  Church  of  England 
 on  the  second  of  February.  It  was  a  pre- 
 cept of  the  Mosaic  law,  that  every  first- 
 born son  should  be  holy  unto  the  Lord, 
 to  attend  the  service  of  the  temple  or 
 tabernacle,  or  else  to  be  redeemed  with 
 an  offering  of  money,  or  sacrifice.  The 
 mother,  also,  was  obliged  to  sej)arate  her- 
 self forty  days  from  the  congregation, 
 after  the  birth  of  a  male,  and  eighty  after 
 that  of  a  female  ;  and  then  was  to  present 
 a  lamb,  if  in  good  circumstances,  or  a 
 couple  of  pigeons,  if  she  was  poor.  All 
 this  was  exactly  performed  after  the  birth 
 of  our  Saviour,  who  came  to  fulfil  all 
 righteousness ;  and  was  willing,  in  all  par- 
 ticulars of  his  life,  that  a  just  obedience 
 should  be  paid  to  the  public  ordinances 
 
 of  religion.  The  olfcring  nuidi.'  in  this 
 case  is  an  undesigned  coincidence  attesting 
 the  poverty  of  his  parents.  Tliis  feast  is 
 of  considerable  antiquity.  St.  Chrysostom 
 mentions  it  as  celel)rated  at  his  'time  in 
 the  Church.  It  is  observed  as  one  of  the 
 scarlet  days  in  the  Universities  of  Cam- 
 bridge and  Oxford. 
 
 PURITANS.  A  name  assumed  by  the 
 ultra-Protestants  in  the  reigns  of  VA'v/.w- 
 beth,  James  L,  and  Ciiarles  1.,  who  called 
 themselves  pure,  though  their  doctrines 
 were  so  impure  as  to  lead  them  on  to  the 
 murder  of  their  archbishop  and  their  king. 
 A  violent  and  popular  outer}*  has  often 
 been  raised  against  tlie  Church,  because,  at 
 the  Restoration,  those  of  the  clergy  who 
 refused  to  conform  were  ejected  from'  their 
 benefices.  But  it  will  be  well  to  see  how 
 the  case  really  stands.  Seven  tliousand 
 EngHsh  clergymen,  having  refused  to  take 
 the  covenant  at  the  great  Rebellion,  were 
 ejected  from  their  livings,  their  j)laccs 
 being  supplied  by  dissenting  teacliers. 
 This  most  honourable  testimony  to  the 
 clergy  of  the  Church  of  Phigland  at  that 
 period  ouglit  never  to  be  forgotten.  At 
 the  Restoration  it  was  required,  that  all 
 those  persons  who  had  thus  become  ])os- 
 sessed  of  the  projierty  of  the  I'Jiglish 
 Churcli,  should  either  conform  to  the  re- 
 gulations of  the  Church,  or  resign.  Of  all 
 the  Puritan  clergy  then  in  possession,  only 
 two  thousand  thought  fit  to  resign  rather 
 than  comply.  And  these  two  thousand 
 were  ejected  from  what  ?  From  their 
 rights  ?  No  ;  but  from  their  usurjiations. 
 Five  thousand  conformed,  and  still  re- 
 tained possession  of  the  Church  property, 
 so  that  many  of  the  j)reviously  ejected 
 clergy  of  the  Church  of  England  who 
 hoped,  at  the  Restoration,  to  be  restored 
 to  their  own,  were  sorely  disajjpointed  and 
 cruelly  used.  This  treatment  of  the  Eng- 
 lish clergy  by  the  Puritans  is  worthy  of 
 notice,  and  is  an  instructive  commentary 
 on  the  spirituality  of  their  i)retensions,  and 
 the  tenderness  of  their  consciences. 
 
 "  The  taking  of  the  covenant  was  now 
 pressed  close  through  all  the  jKirliament 
 quarters,  which  Ijroiight  a  terrible  perse- 
 cution upon  the  loyaj  clergy.  Those  who 
 refused  to  comply  wi-re  turned  out  of 
 their  houses,  and  not  suffered  to  comimund 
 either  for  personal  or  real  estate.  Thia 
 rigour  forced  great  numbers  of  the  clergy 
 to  quit  their  benefices,  and  retire  to  places 
 under  the  king's  ])rotection.  These  vncati' 
 vies  were  ])artly  sui)j)lied  by  those  Preshy- 
 terums  who  had  formerly  been  UHurcrs  or 
 chaplains ;  ])artly  by  young  unqualified 
 students  from  tlie  universities;  to  which 
 
624 
 
 PYX, 
 
 QUAKERS. 
 
 we  may  add,  some  refugees  from  Scotland 
 and  New  Eiu/land,  who  came  in  for  their 
 share  of  preferment.  And  some  of  those 
 Puritans,  who  had  fomierly  declaimed  so 
 much  against  pluralities,  Mere  now  recon- 
 ciled to  the  holding  two  or  three  livings. 
 As  to  the  honest  clergy,  who  refused  to 
 join  the  rebellion,  or  revolt  from  the 
 Church,  they  were  sequestered  and  im- 
 prisoned, and  almost  every  way  harassed 
 and  undone.  From  the  year  1641  to  six 
 years  forward,  there  were  an  hundi'ed  and 
 fifteen  clergymen  turned  out  of  their 
 livings  within  the  bills  of  mortaliti/ ;  most 
 of  these  were  plundered,  and  their  wives 
 and  children  turned  out  into  the  streets. 
 By  these  barbarities  in  London,  the  reader 
 may  conjecture  the  greatness  of  the  ca- 
 lamity in  the  rest  of  the  kingdom.  They 
 had  another  way  of  reaching  the  ortho- 
 dox clergy  besides  the  covenant.  Some  of 
 them  were  sequestered  and  ejected  upon 
 pretence  of  scandal  and  immorality.  But, 
 to  show  the  iniquity  of  their  proceeding 
 upon  this  head,  it  may  be  observed,^/'s^, 
 that  some  of  the  crimes  charged  upon 
 them  were  capital ;  and,  therefore,  since 
 the  forfeiture  of  their  lives  was  not  taken, 
 we  may  reasonably  believe  the  proof  was 
 defective.  Secondly,  the  depositions  against 
 them  were  seldom  taken  upon  oath,  but  bare 
 affirmation  went  for  evidence.  TJiirdly, 
 many  of  the  complainants  were  apparently 
 factious  men,  who  had  deserted  the  Church 
 and  professed  an  aversion  to  the  hierarchy. 
 Fourthly,  many  of  these  pretended  crimi- 
 nals were  ignorantly,  if  not  maliciously, 
 charged  with  delivering  false  doctrine : 
 for  instance,  some  were  persecuted  for 
 preaching  that  bajytism  icashed  away  ori- 
 ginal sin:  and,  lastly,  many  were  ousted 
 for  maliytiancy ;  that  is,  for  being  true  to 
 their  allegiance.  In  short,  it  is  observed 
 there  were  more  turned  out  of  their  livings 
 by  the  Presbyterians  in  three  years,  than 
 were  deprived  by  the  Papists  in  Queen 
 Mary's  reign  ;  or  had  been  silenced,  sus- 
 pended, or  deprived  by  all  the  bishops 
 from  the  first  year  of  Queen  Elizabeth  to 
 the  time  we  are  upon." — Collier,  ii.  828. 
 
 PYX.  The  box  in  which  llomanists 
 keep  the  Host. 
 
 QUADRAGESIMA.  The  Latin  name 
 for  Lent.  It  was  formerly  given  to  the 
 first  Sunday  in  Lent,  from  the  fact  of  its 
 being  forty  days  before  Easter,  in  round 
 numbers. 
 
 QUAKERS  owe  their  origin  to  George 
 Fox,  in  1624.  The  following,  according 
 to  Mr.  Burder,  are  their  principal  articles 
 of  belief. 
 
 Every  one  who  leads  a  moral  life,  and 
 from  the  sincerity  of  his  heart  complies 
 with  the  duties  of  natural  religion,  must 
 be  deemed  an  essentially  good  Christian. 
 An  historical  faith  and  belief  of  some  ex- 
 traordinary facts,  which  the  Christians  own 
 for  truths,  are  the  only  real  difference  be- 
 tween a  virtuous  Pagan  and  a  good  Chris- 
 tian, and  this  faith  is  not  necessary  to  sal- 
 vation. 
 
 Christ  is  the  true  inward  light,  which 
 enlightens  all  men.  This  is  performed  by 
 an  immediate  inspiration,  and  not  by  the 
 outward  doctrine  of  the  gospel,  Avhich 
 Christ  has  preached  to  men  as  a  rule  of 
 their  belief  and  practice ;  which  outward 
 preaching  of  evangelical  truths  is  not  the 
 usual  and  ordinary  method  used  by  GoD 
 to  enlighten  mankind;  but  he  sends  to 
 each  person  interior  inspirations.  This 
 interior  light  is  the  true  gospel ;  it  is  to 
 be  adored,  as  being  Christ  himself  and 
 God  himself. 
 
 Scripture  is  not  the  true  rule,  the  real 
 guide  of  Christian  faith  and  moral  doc- 
 trine ;  this  is  a  prerogative  belonging  only 
 to  the  inward  light,  which  each  has  within 
 himself,  or  which  breaks  forth  in  the  as- 
 semblies of  the  brethren  or  friends.  The 
 dead  letter  of  the  sacred  writings  is  not  of 
 so  great  authority  as  the  preaching  of  the 
 authors  of  them:  the  particular  books 
 which  make  up  the  Scripture,  were  di- 
 rected to  private  churches  or  persons,  and 
 we  are  not  interested  them. 
 
 The  chief  rule  of  our  faith  is  the  inspir- 
 ation of  the  Holy  Ghost,  who  interiorly 
 teaches  us ;  and  the  Scripture  is  only  a 
 rule  subordinate  to  that  Spirit.  An  im- 
 mediate inspiration  is  as  necessary  to  us 
 as  to  the  apostles :  it  teaches  us  whatever 
 is  necessary  to  salvation.  The  promise 
 which  Christ  made  to  his  apostles,  to 
 teach  them  all  truth  by  his  Spirit,  and  that 
 the  Holy  Ghost  should  always  remain 
 with  them,  was  not  confined  to  the  apos- 
 tles only,  it  belongs  to  all  the  faithful ;  and 
 it  is  said  of  them  all,  that  the  unction  shall 
 teach  them  all  things. 
 
 All  true  ministers  of  Christ  are  as  in- 
 fallible in  what  they  teach,  as  the  prophets 
 and  apostles  were  ;  otherwise  the  Spirit  of 
 Christ  would  not  be  infallible.  All  those 
 who  are  filled  with  the  gifts  of  the  Spirit 
 are  equally  infallible,  without  which  the 
 infallibility  of  the  Holy  Ghost  must  be 
 divided  ;  there  is  no  exterior  way  of  teach- 
 ing, which  may  help  one  to  judge  of  the 
 truth  of  the  doctrine  which  he  preaches. 
 The  immediate  inspiration  is  sufficient  to 
 enable  a  minister  to  preach  without  Scrip- 
 ture, or  any  other  exterior  helps.     With- 
 
QUAKERS. 
 
 G26 
 
 out  this  particular  inspiration  all  those 
 who  pretend  to  argue  upon  or  explain  the 
 words  of  CiliusT,  are  false  prophets  and 
 deceivers.  The  Church  ought  to  have  no 
 other  ministers,  but  those  who  are  called 
 by  an  immediate  inspiration,  which  is  best 
 proved  by  interior  miracles,  of  which  the 
 outward  signs  were  only  a  representation 
 or  figure.  The  Quakers  do  not  preach  a 
 new  gospel,  and  therefore  need  not  work 
 miracles  to  prove  their  doctrine  ;  a  visible 
 succession  of  ministers,  ordained  or  other- 
 wise established,  is  likcAvise  of  no  use. 
 AYhoever  is  inwardly  called  to  the  minis- 
 terial functions,  is  sufficiently  qualified  for 
 that  post;  inward  sanctity  is  as  essentially 
 requisite  in  a  true  minister,  as  in  a  true 
 member  of  the  Church. 
 
 "Women  may  preach  with  as  much  au- 
 thority as  men,  and  be  ministers  of  the 
 Church ;  for  in  Christ  there  is  no  distinc- 
 tion of  male  and  female,  and  the  prophet 
 Joel  has  foretold  that  Avomen  should  have 
 the  gift  of  prophecy  as  well  as  men. 
 
 The  Scripture  nowhere  says,  that  the 
 Father,  the  Sox,  and  the  Holy  Ghost, 
 are  three  persons  ;  there  are  three  several 
 manifestations ;  but  three  persons  would 
 in  reality  be  three  Gods.  The  Scripture 
 being  silent  as  to  the  manner  of  the  unity 
 and  of  the  distinction  in  the  Trinity,  it  is 
 a  great  rashness  in  the  Christian  Churches 
 to  meddle  Avith  deciding  such  intricate 
 points.  The  distinction  of  persons  in  the 
 Godhead  is  a  speculative  subtlety,  not 
 calculated  to  mend  our  lives,  and  very 
 prejudicial  to  Christian  peace  and  charity. 
 To  draAV  up  an  exact  profession  of  faith, 
 it  is  necessary  to  adhere  closely  to  the 
 expressions  used  in  Scripture. 
 
 The  true  Christ  is  he  who  existed  be- 
 fore he  was  manifested  in  the  flesh,  and 
 who  has  never  been  seen  with  the  eyes  of 
 the  flesh.  Jesus  Christ,  as  God,  has  a 
 heavenly  humanity,  of  which  the  earthly 
 one  is  but  the  outward  garment,  the  type 
 or  figure.  Jesus  Christ,  the  Word  and 
 Son  of  God,  did  not  personally  unite  him- 
 self to  our  human  nature  ;  he  only  took  it 
 as  a  suit  of  clothes,  Avhich  he  was  to  put 
 on  for  a  while.  This  human  nature  was 
 inspired,  as  other  men,  but  in  a  sujierior 
 and  more  particular  degree.  Christ  could 
 not  be  united  to  a  corrupt  nature ;  his  in- 
 terior birth  within  men,  is  a  greater  mys- 
 tery than  his  outward  nativity.  The  faith 
 in  and  the  knowledge  of  Christ,  accord- 
 ing to  the  flesh,  and  of  his  mysteries,  were 
 but  the  first  elements  fit  for  the  infancy  of 
 Christianity,  which  being  over,  those  rudi- 
 mentsbecome  useless:  we  now  have  learned 
 to  be  in  Christ,  to  become  new  creatures, 
 2  s 
 
 to   let  old  things   pass  away  in  order  to 
 make  room  for  the  new. 
 
 The  ex])iation  of  our  sins  has  not  been 
 merited  bv  the  outward  spilling  of  Christ's 
 blood,  which  was  not  more  jjrecious  llian 
 that  of  any  other  saint:  neither  has  the 
 Church  been  redeemed  by  it ;  but  bv  an 
 inward  and  spiritual  blood,  which  ])unne.s 
 our  liearts  and  consciences,  of  wliich  the 
 Scri])ture  says,  it  Mas  s])ilt  for  our  justi- 
 fication ;  lastly,  of  which  Ciikist  hi'mself 
 says,  that  he  who  does  not  drink  his  blood 
 shall  not  have  life  in  him. 
 
 The  Scripture  does  not  say  that  ClIRIRT 
 satisfied  the  justice  of  God  for  our  sins. 
 As  God  may  without  any  injustice  forgive 
 our  sins  without  such  a  satisfaction,  it  was 
 not  necessary,  neither  can  it  be  reconciled 
 with  the  gratuitous  remission  of  our  sins : 
 and  moreover,  God's  punishing  liis  own 
 Son,  who  was  innocent,  is  contrary  to 
 Divine  justice. 
 
 Christ  did  not  go  up  to  heaven  with 
 the  body  which  he  had  on  earth,  which  is 
 not  now  in  heaven  at  the  riglit  hand  of 
 God.  It  is  an  erroneous  o])inion  to  think 
 or  believe  that  the  body  of  Christ,  w  hich 
 is  in  heaven,  occujiies  and  iills  any  parti- 
 cular limited  place:  the  body  of  t'liRlsT 
 is  wherever  his  Spirit  is ;  and  it  cannot 
 save  us,  if  distance  of  j)lace  separates  it 
 from  us :  whoever  preaches  a  doctrine 
 op])osite  to  these  propositions,  is  a  false 
 minister,  and  deceitful  teacher:  the  same 
 gift  of  discernment  in  the  examination  of 
 spirits,  which  was  bestowed  on  the  apos- 
 tles, remains  still  in  the  Church. 
 
 Our  sins  being  once  forgiven,  it  is  wholly 
 unnecessary  to  repent  of  tiiem  any  further, 
 or  to  go  on  in  asking  forgiveness  for  them. 
 AVe  cannot  become  God's  servants  unless 
 we  be  first  })urified. 
 
 Outward  baptism  is  not  an  ordinance  of 
 Christ,  or  at  least  not  to  be  observed  as 
 a  ])erpetual  law.  AN'hoever  ])rctends  that 
 Christ's  order  is  to  be  understood  of 
 Avater  baptism  adds  to  the  text,  Avhich 
 does  not  mention  Avater.  I'he  l)aptism 
 enjoined  by  CliHIST  is  a  baptism  of  spirit, 
 not  of  Avater.  Tiie  Avater  baptism  Avas  St. 
 John's,  and  has  been  abolished.  St.  I'aul 
 says  he  Avas  not  sent  to  baptize,  hut  to 
 preach.  A^'ater  baptism  Avas  used  by  the 
 apostles  only  as  a  toleration  for  the  A^cak- 
 ness  of  the  .Icavs,  but  it  can  do  no  good  to 
 the  soul.  lia])tism  l)y  inspersion  is  no- 
 Avhere  mentioned  in  Scrii)turc.  Water 
 baptism,  and  the  spiritual  baptism,  are 
 tAvo  entirely  difl'ercnt  liajitisms.  The  in- 
 ward baptism  alone  is  the  true  bapti.sm  of 
 Christ. 
 
 Chikhen  ought  not  to  be  baptized,  since 
 
G26 
 
 QUAKERS. 
 
 they  are  not  capable  of  taking  any  engage- 
 ment upon  themselves,  or  of  making  a 
 profession  of  faith,  or  of  answering  to  God 
 according  to  the  testimony  of  a  good  con- 
 science. 
 
 Taking  or  receiving  the  eucharist  is  not 
 a  perpetual  obligation;  it  was  instituted 
 heretofore  only  for  those  who  were  newly 
 converted  to  the  Christian  religion,  or  for 
 weak  Christians  in  the  beginning  of  their 
 Christianity. 
 
 Amongst  the  Quakers  the  spirit  is  w'hat 
 they  call  free,  and  does  not  submit  to  sy- 
 nods, nor  to  worldly  learning,  wisdom,  or 
 customs :  this  is  one  of  the  chief  and  most 
 essential  articles  of  their  religion.  All  the 
 members  of  the  Church  may  and  ought  to 
 concur  to  the  general  good  of  the  body ; 
 all  may  have  the  same  helps  from  the 
 Holy  Ghost,  and  feel  the  same  impres- 
 sions of  his  power ;  all  are  animated  and 
 fed,  like  our  bodily  members,  by  the  same 
 efficacy  and  in  the  same  manner;  all  by 
 consequence  ought  to  give  a  helping  hand 
 to  the  edification  of  the  mystical  body,  as 
 natural  members  contribute  to  the  welfare 
 of  human  bodies.  This  they  apply  to  the 
 evangelical  ministry :  the  Spirit,  say  the 
 Quakers,  notifies  by  its  impulse  what  is 
 wanting  to  the  Church,  and  obliges  those 
 members,  upon  whom  he  makes  that  im- 
 pulse, to  give  a  speedy  help  to  the  mysti- 
 cal body.  If  it  should  happen  that  out  of 
 laziness,  neglect,  or  distraction,  the  person 
 so  moved  should  not  be  sensible  of  the 
 impulse,  or  not  give  a  due  attention  to  the 
 defects  of  which  the  members  of  the  mys- 
 tical body  are  guilty,  then  they  ought  to 
 rouse  themselves  Avith  new  fervour,  and  by 
 a  perfect  recollection  make  a  trial  of  the 
 gifts  and  power  of  the  Spirit  of  life.  The 
 call  to  pastoral  functions  essentially  con- 
 sists in  this,  it  requires  no  pomp,  no  cere- 
 mony, no  improvement  of  the  mind,  no 
 preparation,  no  examination,  nor  any  of 
 the  means  used  in  other  Christian  soci- 
 eties, to  provide  churches  with  pastors  and 
 teachers.  Yet  if  after  this  inward  trial 
 any  one  be  moved  and  forcibly  drawn  by 
 the  Spirit  to  engage  in  the  ministry,  the 
 ecclesiastical  council  must  not  omit  the 
 formality  of  examining  whether  the  person 
 so  inspired  be  in  reality  fit  for  it,  and 
 ought  to  be  admitted  to  that  dignity ;  the 
 importance  of  which,  in  regard  to  himself, 
 and  to  the  whole  Church,  is  strongly  re- 
 presented to  him,  in  a  speech  or  exhorta- 
 tion made  to  that  end.  This  ceremony  is 
 sometimes  accompanied  by  the  letters  of 
 other  churches  and  societies  of  Quakers, 
 recommending  such  or  such  to  that  office. 
 Uhen  n-istalled,  they  are  maintained  by 
 
 voluntary  contributions  only,  without  any 
 settlement,  contract,  or  previous  agree- 
 ment. Each  Quaker  contributes  freely, 
 according  to  his  power,  and  the  minister 
 is  not  to  accept  of  their  benevolence, 
 further  than  is  necessary  for  a  sober  and 
 frugal  maintenance ;  but  if  he  be  reduced 
 to  poverty  for  want  of  such  contributions, 
 it  is  lawful  for  him  to  leave  the  congrega- 
 tion which  he  served  ;  he  may  even,  ac- 
 cording to  their  historian,  shake  the  dust 
 off  his  feet  against  that  Church,  as  Christ 
 ordered  his  apostles  to  do  against  those 
 who  would  not  receive  them. 
 
 The  Quakers  apply  equally  to  all  go- 
 vernments, or  pretended  governments,  and 
 do  not  seem  to  make  one  title  better  than 
 another ;  for,  to  use  their  own  words,  they 
 do  not  dispute  authority  with  any  man, 
 nor  question  forms  of  government,  nor 
 trouble  their  heads  what  becomes  of  the 
 world.  And,  in  consequence  of  this  prin- 
 ciple, they  seem  to  make  a  kind  of  merit 
 of  their  faithful  obedience,  under  all  the 
 usurpations  of  the  Rump  Parliament, 
 Cromwell,  &c. 
 
 Robert  Barclay,  one  of  the  most  learned 
 of  their  persuasion,  in  his  second  proposi- 
 tion affirms,  that  the  light  within,  or  the 
 Divine  inward  revelation,  is,  like  common 
 principles,  self-evident ;  and  therefore  it  is 
 not  to  be  subjected  either  to  the  examina- 
 tion of  the  outward  testimony  of  the  Scrip- 
 tures, or  of  the  natural  reason  of  man.  In 
 his  third  proposition  he  asserts,  that  the 
 Scriptures  are  not  the  princiijal  ground  of 
 all  truth,  nor  the  primary  rule  of  faith  and 
 manners,  they  being  only  a  secondary  rule 
 and  subordinate  to  the  Spirit  ;  by  the  in- 
 ward testimony  of  which  Spirit,  we  do 
 alone  know  them :  so  that,  by  this  reason- 
 ing, the  authority  of  the  Scriptures  must 
 depend  upon  the  inward  testimony  of  the 
 Spirit.  He  affii-ms  further,  that  the  de- 
 praved seed  of  original  sin  is  not  imputed 
 to  infants  before  actual  transgression. 
 (Prop.  4.)  Those  who  have  the  gift  of  the 
 light  within,  are  sufficiently  ordained  to 
 preach  the  gospel,  though  without  any 
 commission  from  churches,  or  any  assist- 
 ances from  human  learning  ;  whereas  those 
 who  want  the  authority  of  this  Divine  gift, 
 how  well  qualified  soever  in  other  respects, 
 are  to  be  looked  upon  as  deceivers,  and 
 not  true  ministers  of  the  gospel.  (Prop. 
 10.)  All  acceptable  worship  must  be  un- 
 dertaken and  performed  by  the  immediate 
 moving  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  which  is  nei- 
 ther limited  to  places,  times,  nor  persons  ; 
 and  therefore  all  outward  significations  of 
 Divine  worship,  unmoved  by  secret  inspira- 
 tion, which  man  sets  about  in  his  own  will, 
 
QUAKERS. 
 
 C27 
 
 and  can  both  begin  and  end  at  his  ])lea- 
 sure,  all  acts  of  worship  thus  mis-qualified, 
 consisting  either  in  prayers,  ])raises,  or 
 preaching,  prescribed,  premeditated,  or  ex- 
 tempore, are  no  better  than  superstitions, 
 will-worship,  and  abominable  idolatry  in 
 the  sight  of  God.  (Prop.  11.)  The' do- 
 minion of  conscience  belongs  only  to  Goi), 
 therefore  it  is  not  lawful  for  civil  magis- 
 trates to  punish  their  subjects,  either  in 
 fortune,  liberty,  or  person,  upon  the  score 
 of  difference  in  worship  or  opinions :  pro- 
 vided always  that  no  man,  under  pretence 
 of  conscience,  does  any  injury  to  his  neigh- 
 bour, relating  either  to  life  or  estate.  The 
 Quakers  are  charged  with  other  errors  of 
 a  very  bad  complexion,  drawn  especially 
 from  the  writings  of  those  who  were  first 
 of  their  persuasion  ;  but  these  tenets  the 
 modern  Quakers  seem  to  disown,  and  ap- 
 pear very  willing  to  ex})lain  and  reconcile 
 their  authors  to  a  more  orthodox  mean- 
 ing :  the  truth  is,  they  now  far  differ  from 
 what  they  were  originally,  not  only  in 
 principle,  but  even  their  external  dcmure- 
 ness  and  rigidity  seem  to  be  abated. 
 
 The  following  is  taken  from  the  Report 
 published  in  ISo-i  by  the  Kegistrar-ge- 
 neral, 
 
 "  The  whole  community  of  Friends  is  mo- 
 delled somewhat  on  the  Presbyterian  sys- 
 tem. Three  gradations  of  meetings  or 
 synods, — monthly,  quarterly,  and  yearly, 
 administer  the  affairs  of  the  Society,  in- 
 cluding in  their  supervision  matters  both 
 of  spiritual  discipline  and  secular  polity. 
 The  MONTHLY  MEETINGS,  composed  of  all 
 the  congregations  within  a  definite  circuit, 
 judge  of  the  fitness  of  new  candidates  for 
 membership,  supply  certificates  to  such  as 
 move  to  other  districts,  choose  fit  persons 
 to  be  Elders  to  watch  over  the  ministry, 
 attempt  the  reformation  or  pronounce  the 
 expulsion  of  all  such  as  walk  disorderly, 
 and  generally  seek  to  stimulate  their  menv 
 bers  to  religious  duty.  They  also  make 
 provision  for  the  poor  of  the  society,  (none 
 of  whom  are,  consequently,  ever  knoAvn  to 
 require  parochial  relief,)  and  secure  the 
 education  of  their  children.  Overseers 
 also  are  appointed  to  assist  in  the  promo- 
 tion of  these  olijects.  At  monthly  meet- 
 ings, also,  marriages  are  sanctioned  previous 
 to  their  solemnization  at  a  meeting  for 
 worship. — Several  monthly  meetings  com- 
 pose a  QUARTERLY  :\IEKTING,  to  which 
 they  forward  general  reports  of  their  con- 
 dition, and  at  which  appeals  are  heard 
 from  their  decisions. — The  yearly  meet- 
 ing holds  the  same  relative  position  to 
 the  quarterly  meetings  as  the  latter  do  to 
 the  monthly  meetings,  and  has  the  general 
 '2  s  2 
 
 superintendence  of  the  Society  ift  a  par- 
 ticular country  :  that  held  in  London  com- 
 ])rehends  the  quarterly  meetings  of  Great 
 Ih-itain,  by  all  of  which  representatives  are 
 appointed  and  reports  addressed  to  the 
 yearly  meeting.  Kcprescntatives  also 
 attend  from  a  yearly  meeting  for  Ireland 
 held  in  J  )ul)lin.  It  likeM'ise  issues  annual 
 epistles  of  advice  and  caution,  appoints 
 committees,  and  acts  as  a  court  of  ultimate 
 appeal  from  quarterly  and  monthly  meet- 
 ings. 
 
 "  A  similar  series  of  meetings,  under  re- 
 gulations framed  by  the  men's  ^arly 
 meeting,  and  contained  in  the  IJoOk  of 
 ]  )iscipline,  is  held  by  the  female  members, 
 Avhose  proceedings  are,  however,  mainly 
 limited  to  mutual  edification. 
 
 "  Connected  with  the  yearly  meeting  is  a 
 meeting  for  suffeuings,  composed  of 
 ministers,  elders,  and  members  chosen  by 
 the  quarterly  meetings.  Its  original  object 
 Avas  to  prevail  upon  the  government  to 
 grant  relief  from  the  many  injuries  to 
 which  the  early  Friends  were  constantly 
 exposed.  It  has  gradually  had  the  sphere 
 of  its  operations  extended,  and  is  now  a 
 standing  committee  representing  the  yearly 
 meeting  during  its  recess,  and  attending 
 generally  to  all  such  matters  as  affect  the 
 welfare  of  the  l)ody. 
 
 "  There  are  also  meetings  of  preachers 
 and  elders  for  the  pur])Ose  of  mutual  con- 
 sultation and  advice,  and  the  jireservation 
 of  a  pure  and  orthodox  ministry. 
 
 "  In  case  of  disputes  among  Friends,  they 
 are  not  to  appeal  to  the  ordinary  courts  of 
 law,  but  to  submit  the  matter  to  the  arbi- 
 tration of  two  or  more  of  their  fellow- 
 members.  If  either  party  refuses  to  ol)ey 
 the  award,  the  Monthly  Meeting  to  which 
 he  belongs  may  proceed  to  expel  him  from 
 the  Society. 
 
 "  From  the  period  of  the  Revolution  of 
 1688  the  Friends  have  received  the  benefits 
 of  the  Toleration  Act.  By  the  statutes  of 
 7  cK:  8  AVm.  III.  c.  34,  and  3  .\:  4  Wm. 
 IV.  c.  49,  their  solemn  alHrmations  are 
 accej)ted  in  lieu  of  oaths  ;  and  the  abroga- 
 tion of  the  Test  Act  renders  them  eligible 
 for  ])ublic  offices. 
 
 "  The  fh-st  assemblies  of  the  Friends  for 
 separate  public  worship  were  held  in 
 Leicestershire  in  1044.  In  lOo'i  the 
 Society  had  extended  itself  throughout 
 most  of  the  northern  counties,  and  before 
 the  Restoration,  meetings  were  established 
 in  nearly  all  the  Englisli  and  Welsh  coun- 
 ties, as  well  as  in  Ireland,  Scotland,  the 
 AVest  Indies,  and  the  British  provinces  of 
 North  America.  The  Society  in  the 
 United   Kingdom  is  not   now  increasing 
 
G28 
 
 QUAEE  IMPEDIT. 
 
 RATE. 
 
 its  numbers.  The  Friends  themselves 
 account  for  this,  in  part,  by  the  constant 
 emigration  of  members  to  America,  where 
 tlie  body  is  much  more  numerous  than  in 
 England.  But  they  do  not  hesitate  to 
 admit  that  much  is  attributable  to  the 
 feebler  endeavours  now  than  formerly  to 
 gain  proselytes.  Since  1 800  their  number, 
 if  computed  by  the  number  of  their  meet- 
 ing-houses, has  diminished.  In  1800  they 
 })ossessed  413  meeting-houses,  while  the 
 number  returned  to  the  Census  in  1851 
 was  only  371.  They  say,  however,  that 
 this  dpes  not  inevitably  indicate  a  smaller 
 number  of  professors  ;  since,  of  late,  there 
 has  been  a  considerable  tendency  amongst 
 them  to  migrate  from  the  rural  districts, 
 and  to  settle  in  the  larger  towns.  Small 
 communities  are  to  be  found  in  parts  of 
 France,  Germany,  Norway,  and  Australia." 
 
 Though  dissenters  are  frequently  chosen 
 as  churchwardens,  it  ap])ears  by  a  decision 
 of  ]3r.  Phillimore,  (1  Curteis,  447,)  that  a 
 Quaker  cannot  be  compelled  to  serve  the 
 ofhce. 
 
 QUARE  IMPEDIT,  is  a  writ  which 
 lies  where  one  has  an  advowson,  and  the 
 parson  dies,  and  another  presents  a  clerk, 
 or  disturbs  the  rightful  patron  in  his  right 
 to  present. 
 
 QUAKE  INCUMBRAVIT,  is  a  writ 
 which  lies  where  two  are  in  plea  for  the 
 advowson  of  a  church,  and  the  bishop  ad- 
 mits the  clerk  of  one  of  them  within  the 
 six  months  ;  then  the  other  shall  have  this 
 writ  against  the  bishop. 
 
 QUARE  NON  ADMISIT,  is  a  writ 
 which  lies  where  a  man  has  recovered  an 
 advowson,  and  sends  his  clerk  to  the  bishop 
 to  be  admitted,  and  the  bishop  will  not  re- 
 ceive him. 
 
 QUATRODECIMANI,  or  PASCHI- 
 TES.  A  name  given,  in  the  second  cen- 
 tury, to  some  of  the  Christians,  who  would 
 celebrate  the  feast  of  Easter  on  the  four- 
 teenth day  of  the  moon,  on  what  day  of 
 the  week  soever  it  happened. 
 
 QUEEN  ANNE'S  BOUNTY.  (See 
 Annates.) 
 
 QUERISTER,  or  QUIRISTER.  The 
 same  as  Chorister,  which  see. 
 
 QUIETISTS.  A  Christian  sect,  that 
 took  its  origin  in  the  seventeenth  century 
 from  Michael  Molinos,  a  Spanish  priest, 
 who  endeavoured  to  establish  new  doc- 
 trines in  Italy  ;  the  chief  of  which  was,  that 
 men  ought  to  annihilate  themselves,  in 
 order  to  be  united  to  GoD,  and  remain 
 afterwards  in  quietness  of  mind,  without 
 being  troubled  for  what  should  happen  to 
 the  body ;  and  therefore  his  followers  took 
 the  name  of  Quietists,  from  the  word  qiiies, 
 
 rest.  By  that  principle  he  pretended  that 
 no  real  act  was  either  meritorious  or  crimi- 
 nal, because  the  soul  and  its  faculties,  being 
 annihilated,  had  no  part  therein  ;  and  so 
 this  doctrine  led  people  to  transgress  all 
 laws,  sacred  and  civil.  The  doctrine  of 
 Molinos  in  1687  was  by  the  inquisitors  and 
 pope  declared  false  and  pernicious,  and 
 his  book  burnt.  He  himself  was  imprison- 
 ed after  he  had  recanted,  and  died  in  1692. 
 It  is  supposed  there  long  remained  many 
 of  this  sect.  Their  doctrine  also  crept 
 over  the  Alps  into  France ;  the  "  Maxims 
 of  the  Saints  explained,"  written  by  Fene- 
 lon.  Archbishop  of  Cambray,  having  some 
 tendency  that  way,  and  having  been  there- 
 fore condemned  by  the  pope  in  1699. 
 
 QUINQUAGESIMA.  A  Sunday  so 
 called,  because  it  is  the  Jiftieth  day  before 
 Easter,  reckoned  in  the  w^hole  numbers : 
 SiiROYE  Sunday. 
 
 QUINQUARTICULAR  CONTRO- 
 VERSY. The  controversy  between  the 
 Arminians  and  the  Calvinists  on  the  Five 
 Points.     (See  Five  Points.) 
 
 QUIRE.     (See  Choir.) 
 
 QUOD  PERMITTAT,  is  a  writ  granted 
 to  the  successor  of  a  parson,  for  the  re- 
 covery of  pasture,  by  the  statute  of  the 
 13  Edward  I.  c.  24. 
 
 QUESTMEN.  Persons  appointed  to 
 help  the  churchwardens.  In  the  ancient 
 episcopal  synods,  the  bishops  were  wont 
 to  summon  divers  men  out  of  each  parish 
 to  give  information  of  the  disorders  of  the 
 clergy  and  people,  and  these  in  process  of 
 time  became  standing  officers,  called  sy- 
 nod's men,  sidesmen,  or  questmen.  The 
 whole  of  the  office  of  these  persons  seems 
 by  custom  to  have  devolved  on  the  church- 
 wardens.    (See    Churchwardens.) 
 
 RANTERS.  A  denomination  which 
 arose  in  the  year  1645.  They  set  up  the 
 light  of  nature  under  the  name  of  Christ 
 in  men.  With  regard  to  the  Church, 
 Scripture,  ministry,  ^q.,  their  sentiments 
 were  the  same  as  the  Seekers.  The  sect 
 thus  instituted  is  noAv  extinct,  and  the 
 name  is  given  to  the  "  Primitive  jNIethod- 
 ists,"  as  a  branch  of  the  Methodists  are 
 denominated. 
 
 RATE.  [Church  Rates.)  The  greater 
 part  of  the  property  of  this  country  has 
 been  bought  and  sold  with  an  under- 
 standing that  the  church  of  the  parish  is 
 to  be  kept  and  repaired  by  the  owners  of 
 the  property.  Except  for  this  liability,  a 
 larger  sum  would  have  been  paid  for  the 
 property.  For  those,  therefore,  who  have 
 thus  profited  by  the  existence  of  a  church 
 rate,  to  refuse   that    rate,  and  so  appro- 
 
KATK 
 
 n-if) 
 
 priatc  to  themselves  what  docs  not  heh)n}; 
 to  them,  is  an  act  not  only  of  profancness 
 but  of  dishonesty. 
 
 Rates  for  the  repairs  of  the  church  arc 
 to  be  made  by  the  churcliwardens  -with 
 the  parishioners  assembled,  upon  pul)lic 
 notice  p:iven  in  the  church. 
 
 The  bishop  cannot  direct  a  commission 
 to  rate  the  ])arishioners,  and  a])point  Mhat 
 each  one  shall  pay:  this  must  be  done  i)y 
 the  churchwardens  and  parisliioners ;  and 
 the  spiritual  court  may  inflict  sj)iritual 
 censures  till  they  do.  Ihit  if  the  rate  l)e 
 illegally  imposed  by  such  commission  from 
 the  bishop,  or  otherwise,  without  the 
 parishioners'  consent,  yet  if  it  be  after  as- 
 sented to,  and  confirmed  by  the  major  part 
 of  the  parishioners,  that  Avill  make  it  good. 
 
 These  levies  are  not  chargeable  upon 
 the  land,  but  upon  the  person  in  res})ect 
 of  the  land,  for  the  more  equality  and 
 indifferency.  And  houses  as  well  as  lands 
 are  chargeable,  and  in  some  places  houses 
 only ;  as  in  cities  and  large  towns,  where 
 there  are  only  houses,  and  no  lands  to  be 
 charged. 
 
 A  rate  for  the  reparation  of  the  fabric 
 of  the  church  is  real,  charging  the  land, 
 and  not  the  person :  but  a  rate  for  orna- 
 ments is  personal,  upon  the  goods,  and 
 not  upon  the  land. 
 
 And  Sir  Simon  Degge  saith  thus:  There 
 hath  been  some  question  made,  whether 
 one  that  holds  lands  in  one  parish  and 
 resides  in  another,  may  be  charged  to  the 
 omaments  of  the  parish  where  he  doth 
 not  reside  ;  and  some  opinions  have  been, 
 that  foreigners  were  only  chargeable  to 
 the  shell  of  the  church,  but  not  to  the 
 bells,  seats,  or  ornaments.  But  he  says, 
 he  conceives  the  law  to  be  clearly  other- 
 wise ;  and  that  the  foreigner  that  holds 
 lands  in  the  ])arish,  is  as  much  obliged  to 
 pay  towards  the  bells,  seats,  and  ornaments, 
 as  to  the  repair  of  the  church  ;  otherwise 
 there  would  be  a  great  confusion  in  making 
 several  levies,  the  one  for  the  repair  of  the 
 church,  the  other  for  the  ornaments,  which 
 he  says  he  never  observed  to  be  practised 
 within  his  knowledge.  And  it  is  possible 
 that  all,  or  the  greatest  jDart  of  the  land  in 
 the  parish,  may  be  held  by  foreigners ;  and 
 it  were  unreasonal)le  in  such  case  to  lay 
 the  whole  charge  uj)on  the  inhal)itants, 
 which  may  be  but  a  poor  siieplierd.  The 
 reason  alleged  against  this  charge  uj)on  the 
 foreigners,  is  chiefly  because  the  foreigner 
 hath  no  benefit  by  tiie  bells,  seats,  and 
 ornaments ;  which  receives  an  answer  in 
 Jeffrey's  case,  (o  Co.  (57,)  for  there  it  is 
 resolved,  that  landholders  that  live  in  a 
 foreign  parish  are  in  judgment  of  law  in- 
 
 habitants and  parishioners,  as  well  in  the 
 l)arish  \yhere  ihcy  hold  lands,  as  where 
 they  reside,  and  may  come  to  the  ])arish 
 meetings,  and  have  votes  there  as  well  us 
 others.  I'or  autiiorities  in  the  case,  it  is 
 clear  by  the  canon  law,  that  all  landhold- 
 ers, whether  they  live  in  the  parish  or  out 
 of  it,  are  bound  to  contribute.  And  the 
 practice,  from  its  ease  and  convenience, 
 seems  now  generally  to  go  with  this  opinion. 
 
 StrafJ'onl.  All  persons,  as  well  religious 
 as  others  whatsoever,  ]ia\ing  possessions, 
 farms,  or  rents,  which  are  not  of  the  glebe 
 or  endowment  of  the  churches  to  be  re- 
 ])aired,  living  within  the  jjarish  or  else- 
 where, shall  i)e  bouiul  to  contribute  with 
 the  rest  of  the  parishioners  of  the  aforesaid 
 churches,  as  often  as  shall  be  needful,  to 
 all  charges  incumbent  uj)on  the  ])arishion- 
 ers  concerning  the  church  ami  the  orna- 
 ments thereof,  by  law  or  custom,  having 
 respect  unto  the  quantity  of  such  ])osscs- 
 sions  and  rents.  Whereupon,  so  often  as 
 shall  be  necessary,  the  ordinary  shall  com- 
 \)v\  them  by  ecclesiastical  censures  and 
 other  lawful  means. 
 
 If  a  person  inhabiteth  in  one  parish,  and 
 hath  land  in  another  jjarish,  wiiich  he  oc- 
 cupieth  himself  there,  he  shall  be  charged 
 for  this  land,  for  the  reparation  of  the 
 church  of  the  ])arish  in  which  the  land 
 lieth  ;  because  he  may  come  there  when  he 
 will,  and  he  is  to  be  charged  in  resj)ect  of 
 the  land.  And  such  occupation  of  land 
 maketh  the  person  occupying  a  parishioner, 
 and  entitles  him  to  come  to  the  assemblies 
 of  the  same  ])arish,  when  they  meet  to- 
 gether for  such  ])urposes. 
 
 Where  such  lands  are  in  farm,  not  the 
 lessor,  but  the  tenant,  shall  pay.  For  (as 
 it  was  determined  in  Jeffrey's  case  before 
 cited)  there  is  an  inhabit^mt  and  parishioner 
 who  may  be  charged  ;  and  the  receipt  of 
 the  rent  doth  not  make  the  lessor  a 
 parishioner. 
 
 It  is  said  that  the  patron  of  a  church, 
 as  in  right  of  the  founder,  may  prescribe, 
 that,  in  respect  of  the  foundation,  he  and 
 his  tenants  have  been  freed  from  tho 
 charge  of  rej)airing  the  church. 
 
 The  rectorv,  or  vicarage,  which  is  de- 
 rived out  of  It,  are  not  chargeable  lo  the 
 rei)air  of  the  body  of  tho  church,  steeple, 
 public  chai)els,  or  ornaments  ;  being  at  tho 
 whole  charge  f)f  rej)airing  the  chancel. 
 
 lUit  an  imi)roi)riafor  of  a  rector)-  or 
 ]>arsonago,  though  bound  to  repair  the 
 ehancel.  is  als.i  liouiul  to  contribute  to  the 
 reparations  of  the  cliureh,  in  case  he  hath 
 lands  in  the  jjarish  which  are  not  parcel  of 
 the  rectory. 
 
 The  inhabitants  of  a  precinct  where  there 
 
630 
 
 HATE. 
 
 READER. 
 
 is  a  chapel,  though  it  is  a  parochial  chapel, 
 and  though  they  do  repair  that  chapel,  are 
 nevertheless  of  common  right  contributory 
 to  the  repairs  of  the  mother-church.  If 
 they  have  seats  at  the  mother-church,  to  go 
 thither  when  they  please,  or  receive  sacra- 
 ments, or  sacramentals,  or  marry,  christen, 
 or  bury  at  it,  there  can  be  no  pretence  for 
 a  discharge.  Nor  can  anything  support 
 that  plea,  but  that  they  have  time  out  of 
 mind  been  discharged  (which  also  is  doubt- 
 ed whether  it  be  of  itself  a  full  discharge) ; 
 or  that,  in  consideration  thereof,  they  have 
 paid  so  much  to  the  repair  of  the  church, 
 or  the  wall  of  the  churchyard,  or  the  keep- 
 ing of  the  bell,  or  the  like  compositions 
 (which  are  clearly  a  discharge). 
 
 Every  inhabitant,  dwelling  within  the 
 parish,  is  to  be  charged  according  to  his 
 ability,  whether  in  land  or  living  within 
 the  same  parish,  or  for  his  goods  there  ; 
 that  is  to  say,  for  the  best  of  them,  but 
 not  for  both. 
 
 Every  farmer  dwelling  out  of  the  parish, 
 and  having  lands  and  living  within  the 
 said  parish  in  his  own  occupation,  is  to  be 
 charged  to  the  value  of  the  same  lands  or 
 living,  or  else  to  the  value  of  the  stock 
 thereupon ;  that  is,  for  the  best,  but  not 
 for  both. 
 
 Every  farmer  dwelling  out  of  the  parish, 
 and  having  lands  and  living  within  the 
 parish,  in  the  occupation  of  any  farmer  or 
 farmers,  is  not  to  be  charged ;  but  the 
 farmer  or  farmers  thereof  are  to  be 
 charged ;  in  particularity,  every  one  ac- 
 cording to  the  value  of  the  land  which  he 
 occupieth,  or  according  to  the  stock  there- 
 upon ;  that  is,  for  the  best,  but  not  for  both. 
 
 Every  inhabitant  and  farmer  occupying 
 arable  land  within  the  parish,  and  feeding 
 his  cattle  out  of  the  parish,  is  to  be  charged 
 with  the  arable  land  within  the  parish,  al- 
 though his  cattle  be  fed  out  of  the  parish. 
 
 Every  farmer  of  any  mill  within  the 
 parish,  is  to  be  charged  for  that  mill ;  and 
 the  owner  thereof  (if  he  be  an  inhabitant) 
 is  to  be  charged  for  his  hability  in  the 
 same  parish,  besides  the  mill. 
 
 Every  owner  of  lands,  tenements,  copy- 
 holds, or  other  hereditaments,  inhabiting 
 within  the  parish,  is  to  be  taxed  according 
 to  his  wealth  in  regard  of  a  parishioner, 
 although  he  occupy  none  of  them  himself; 
 and  his  farmer  or  farmers  also  are  to  be 
 taxed  for  occupying  only. 
 
 The  assessors  are  not  to  tax  themselves, 
 but  to  leave  the  taxation  of  them  to  the 
 residue  of  the  parish. 
 
 The  law  as  to  the  poM'er  of  making  and 
 levying  rates  for  church  purposes  cannot 
 be  said  to  be  definitively  settled  at  present. 
 
 as  there  have  been  conflicting  decisions, 
 and  some  points  of  great  importance  are 
 now  sub  judice,  so  far  as  regards  the  high- 
 est court  of  appeal  in  the  kingdom.  But 
 at  present  the  preponderance  of  authority 
 is  in  favour  of  these  two  points  :  1.  That 
 for  the  7iecessanj  repairs  of  the  church  the 
 churchwardens  may  and  ought  to  make 
 and  levy  a  rate,  even  though  it  be  op- 
 posed by  a  majority  of  rate-payers  in  ves- 
 try assembled.  2.  That  any  expense  con- 
 nected with  the  celebration  of  service  in 
 the  church,  even  to  the  salaries  of  pew 
 openers  and  organist,  may  be  levied  by 
 rate  from  the  whole  parish,  if  a  majority 
 of  rate-payers  in  vestry  assembled  have  as- 
 sented thereto. 
 
 RATIONALISM.  To  rationalize  is  to 
 ask  for  reasons  out  of  place ;  to  ask  im- 
 properly how  we  are  to  account  for  certain 
 things,  to  be  unAvilling  to  believe  them 
 unless  they  can  be  accounted  for,  i.  e.  re- 
 ferred to  something  else  as  a  cause,  to  some 
 existing  system  as  harmonizing  with  them, 
 or  taking  them  up  into  itself.  Again  ; 
 since  whatever  is  assigned  as  the  reason 
 for  the  original  fact  canvassed,  admits  in 
 turn  of  a  like  question  being  raised  about 
 itself,  unless  it  be  ascertainable  by  the 
 senses,  and  be  the  subject  of  personal  ex- 
 perience. Rationalism  is  bound  properly  to 
 pursue  onward  its  course  of  investigation 
 on  this  jmnciple,  and  not  to  stop,  till  it 
 can  directly  or  ultimately  refer  to  self  as  a 
 witness,  whatever  is  offered  to  its  accept- 
 ance. Thus  it  is  characterized  by  two  pe- 
 culiarities ;  its  love  of  systematizing,  and 
 its  basing  its  system  upon  personal  experi- 
 ence, on  the  evidence  of  sense.  In  both 
 it  stands  opposed  to  what  is  commonly 
 understood  by  the  word  faith,  or  belief  in 
 testimony ;  for  which  it  deliberately  sub- 
 stitutes system  (or,  what  is  popularly  called 
 reason)  and  sight.  Rationalism  is  con- 
 cerned with  Anthrojjolof/y,  Faith  with  The- 
 ology. 
 
 READER.  The  office  of  reader  is  one 
 of  the  five  inferior  orders  in  the  Romish 
 Church. 
 
 And  in  the  Church  of  England,  in 
 churches  or  chapels  where  there  is  only  a 
 very  small  endowment,  and  no  clergyman 
 will  take  upon  him  the  charge  or  cure 
 thereof,  it  has  been  usual  to  admit  read- 
 ers, to  the  end  that  Divine  service  in  such 
 places  might  not  altogether  be  neglected. 
 
 It  is  said,  that  readers  Avere  first  ap- 
 pointed in  the  Church  about  the  third  cen- 
 tury. In  the  Greek  Church  they  were  said 
 to  have  been  ordained  by  the  imposition 
 of  hands :  but  whether  this  was  the  prac- 
 tice of  all  the  Greek  Churches  has  been 
 
HEADER. 
 
 KKADINU  IN. 
 
 G:n 
 
 much  questioned.  In  the  Latin  Churcli  it 
 was  certainly  otherwise.  The  Council  of 
 Carthaj;e  s])eaks  of  no  other  ceremony,  but 
 the  bishop's  })uttinfi:  the  liible  into  his 
 hands  in  the  ])resence  of  the  peo])le,  with 
 these  words,  "  Take  this  book  and  be  thou 
 a  reader  of  the  word  of  God,  which  ofHce 
 if  thou  shalt  faithfully  and  profitably  ])er- 
 form,  thou  shalt  have  part  with  those  that 
 minister  in  the  word  of  GoD."  And,  in 
 Cyprian's  time,  they  seem  not  to  have  had 
 so  much  as  this  ceremony  of  deliverinj:^ 
 the  Bible  to  them,  but  were  made  readers 
 by  the  bishop's  commission  and  deputation 
 only  to  such  a  station  in  the  Church. — 
 JSinf/ham. 
 
 Upon  the  lleformation  here,  they  were 
 required  to  subscribe  to  the  folloMing- 
 injunctions: — ^^  Iinprinn's,  —  I  shall  not 
 preach  or  interpret,  but  only  read  that 
 which  is  appointed  by  public  authority : 
 — I  shall  not  minister  the  sacraments  or 
 other  public  rites  of  the  Church,  but  bury 
 the  dead,  and  purify  women  after  their 
 child-birth  :  —  I  shall  keep  the  register 
 hook  according  to  the  injunctions:  —  I 
 shall  use  sobriety  in  apparel,  and  espe- 
 cially in  the  church  at  common  prayer : — 
 I  shall  move  men  to  quiet  and  concord, 
 and  not  give  them  cause  of  oftence  : — 
 I  shall  bring  in  to  my  ordinary,  testimony 
 of  my  behaviour,  from  the  honest  of  the 
 parish  where  I  dAvcll,  Avithin  one  half  year 
 next  following : — I  shall  give  place  upon 
 convenient  warning  so  thought  by  the 
 ordinary,  if  any  learned  minister  shall  be 
 placed  there  at  the  suit  of  the  patron  of 
 the  parish : — I  shall  claim  no  more  of  the 
 fruits  sequestered  of  such  cure  where  I 
 shall  serve,  but  as  it  shall  be  thought 
 meet  to  the  wisdom  of  the  ordinary  : — I 
 shall  daily  at  the  least  read  one  chapter  of 
 the  Old  Testament,  and  one  other  of  the 
 New,  with  good  advisement,  to  the  in- 
 crease of  my  knowledge  : — I  shall  not 
 appoint  in  my  room,  by  reason  of  my 
 absence  or  sickness,  any  other  man ;  but 
 shall  leave  it  to  the  suit  of  the  ])arish  to 
 the  ordinary,  for  assigning  some  other 
 able  man  : — I  shall  not  read  but  in  poorer 
 parishes  destitute  of  incumbents,  excejjt 
 in  the  time  of  sickness,  or  for  other  good 
 considerations  to  be  allowed  by  the  or- 
 dinary : — 1  shall  not  o])enly  intermeddle 
 with  any  artificer's  occupations,  as  covet- 
 ously to  seek  a  gain  thereby,  having  in 
 ecclesiastical  living  the  sum  of  twenty 
 nobles  or  above  by  the  year." 
 
 This  was  resolved  to  be  ])ut  to  all  read- 
 ers and  deacons  ])y  the  respective  bishoj)s, 
 and  is  signed  by  both  the  archbisho])s,  to- 
 gether with  the  bishops  of  London,  Win- 
 
 chester, Ely,  Sarum,  Carlisle,  Chesti-r 
 Exeter,  liath  and  Wells,  and  Ciloucester. 
 — ^frj/j)rs  A iinaf.s. 
 
 By  the  foundation  of  divers  liosj)itals, 
 there  are  to  be  readers  of  pravers  there, 
 who  are  usuallv  licensed  hv  the" bishop 
 
 liEADIXG'DESK.  {iicc  Pew.)  The 
 reading  desk,  or  reading  pew,  ai)])t'ars  to 
 have  been  fretpiently  erected  at  tiie  same 
 time  as  the  puljjit,  wliicJi  was  ordered  ])y 
 the  canons  of  lijO'.i  to  be  placed  in  every 
 church  not  already  i)rovided  with  one. 
 The  reading  desk  is  only  once  recognised 
 in  our  Prayer  Book,  aiufthat  in  the  rul)ric 
 prefixed  to  the  Commination,  and  is  there 
 called  a  reading /;<»•;  and  it  is  remarkable 
 that  the  term  was  first  introduced  tiuTc  at 
 the  last  revision  of  the  Prayer  Book,  in 
 10(51:  it  is  not  found  in 'any  edition 
 printed  before  that  time,  liishop  Sparrow 
 tells  us,  that,  i)reviously  to  the  time  of 
 Cromwell,  the  reading  pew  liad  one  desk 
 for  the  Bible,  looking  towards  the  peoj)le 
 to  the  body  of  the  Church;  another  lor  the 
 Prayer  Book,  looking  tOAvards  the  cast,  or 
 upper  end  of  the  chancel.  And  very 
 reasonable  was  this  usage  :  for,  when  the 
 peoi)le  were  sj)oken  to,  it  was  fit  to  look 
 towards  them,  but  wiien  Goi)  was  spoken 
 to,  it  was  fit  to  turn  from  the  peoj)le.  And 
 besides,  if  there  be  any  part  of  the  world 
 more  honourable  in  the  esteem  of  men 
 than  another,  it  is  fit  to  look  that  way 
 when  we  pray  to  God  in  public,  that  the 
 turning  of  our  bodies  to  a  more  honourable 
 place  may  mind  us  of  the  great  honour 
 and  majesty  of  the  person  we  speak  to. 
 And  this  reason  St.  Augustine  gives  of  the 
 Church's  ancient  custom  of  turning  to  the 
 east  in  their  ])ublic  ])raycrs,  because  the 
 cast  is  the  most  honourable  i)art  of  the 
 world,  being  the  region  of  light,  whence 
 the  glorious  sun  arises. 
 
 lii:Al)ING  IX.  The  ceremony  of 
 reading  in,  which  is  required  of  every  in- 
 cumbent on  entering  upon  his  cure,  is  best 
 described  in  the  memorandum  to  be  signed 
 by  the  churchwardens,  or  other  inhabitants 
 of  the  ])arish,  of  its  having  been  j)erfornicd. 
 It  is  as  follows  :— 
 
 "  Memorandum,    that    on    Sunday,  the 
 
 day  of ,  in  tlie  year  of  our 
 
 Lord  '- — ,  the  Beverend  A.  J}.,  clerk, 
 
 rector,  or  vicar  of ,  in  the  county  of 
 
 ,  and  diocese  of .  did  nnd  in 
 
 his  church  of aforesaid,  the  articles 
 
 of  religion,  commonly  called  the  Thirty- 
 nine  Articles,  agreed  \ii)on  in  convocation, 
 in  the  year  of  our  LoKD  1.302,  and  did 
 declare  his  unfeigned  assent  and  consent 
 thereto ;  also,  that  he  did  i)ul)licly  and 
 openly,  on  the  day  and  year  aforesaid,  in 
 
632 
 
 REAL  PRESENCE. 
 
 the  time  of  Divine  service,  read  a  declara- 
 tion in  the  follo-sving  words,  viz.  '  I,  A.  B., 
 do  declare,  that  I  -will  conform  to  the 
 lituro^y  of  the  United  Church  of  England 
 and  Ireland,  as  it  is  now  by  law  established,' 
 together  with  a  certificate  under  the  hand 
 
 of  the  Eight  Reverend ,  by  Divine 
 
 permission  Lord  Bishop  of ,  of  his 
 
 having  made  and  subscribed  the  same 
 before  him  ;  and  also  that  the  said  A.  B. 
 did  read,  in  his  parish  church  aforesaid, 
 publicly  and  solemnly,  the  jMorning  and 
 Evening  Prayer  according  to  the  form  pre- 
 scribed in  and  by  the  book,  intituled  '  The 
 Book  of  Common  Prayer,  and  Administra- 
 tion of  the  Sacraments*  and  other  Rites  and 
 Ceremonies  of  the  Church,  according  to  the 
 use  of  the  Church  of  England ;  together 
 with  the  Psalter,  or  Psalms  of  David, 
 pointed  as  they  are  to  be  sung  or  said 
 in  Churches,  and  the  Form  and  Manner 
 of  making,  ordaining,  and  consecrating 
 Bishops,  Priests,  and  Deacons  ; '  and  that 
 immediately  after  reading  the  Evening 
 Service,  the  said  A.  B.  did,  openly  and 
 publicly,  before  the  congregation  there 
 assembled,  declare  his  unfeigned  assent 
 and  consent  to  all  things  therein  contained 
 and  prescribed,  in  these  words,  viz.  '  I, 
 A.  B.,  do  declare  my  unfeigned  assent  and 
 consent  to  all  and  everything  contained 
 and  prescribed  in  and  by  the  book,  inti- 
 tuled the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  and 
 Administration  of  the  Sacraments,  and 
 other  Rites  and  Ceremonies  of  the  Church, 
 according  to  the  use  of  the  Church  of 
 England ;  together  with  the  Psalter,  or 
 Psalms  of  David,  pointed  as  they  are  to  be 
 sung  or  said  in  Churches,  and  the  Form  and 
 Manner  of  making,  ordaining,  and  conse- 
 crating Bishops,  Priests,  and  Deacons.' 
 And  these  things  we  promise  to  testify 
 upon  our  corporal  oaths,  if  at  any  time  we 
 should  be  dvdy  called  upon  so  to  do.  In 
 witness  whereof  we  have  hereunto  set  our 
 hands,  the  day  and  year  first  above 
 written." 
 
 REAL  PRESENCE.  (See  Transuh- 
 stantiation,  Commumo7i,  Lord's  Supper, 
 Eucharist.)  The  Homily  on  the  Sacra- 
 ment expressly  asserts,  "  Thus  much  we 
 must  be  sure  to  hold,  that  in  the  supper  of 
 the  LoKD  there  is  no  vain  ceremony  or 
 bare  sign,  no  untrue  figure  of  a  tJibuj  absent  : 
 but  the  communion  of  the  body  and  blood 
 of  our  Lord  in  a  marvellous  incorpora- 
 tion, which,  by  the  operation  of  the  Holy 
 Ghost,  is  through  faith  wrought  in  the 
 souls  of  the  faithful."  In  the  order  for  the 
 Administration  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  the 
 elements  are  repeatedly  designated  as  the 
 body  and  blood  of  Christ,  and  after  the 
 
 reception  of  them  we  give  thanks  that  GoD 
 "  doth  vouchsafe  to  feed  us,  who  have  duly 
 received  these  holy  mysteries  M'ith  the 
 spiritual  food  of  the  most  precious  body  of 
 [His]  Son,  our  Saviour  Jesus  Christ." 
 In  the  exhortation  of  the  same  office,  men- 
 tion is  made  of  "  the  holy  communion  of 
 the  body  and  blood  of  Christ."  "  We 
 spiritually  eat  the  flesh  of  Christ,  and 
 drink  his  blood."  —  Ibid.  "Grant  us, 
 therefore,  gracious  Lord,  so  to  eat  the 
 flesh  of  thy  dear  Son  Jesus  Christ,  and 
 to  drink  his  blood,  that  our  sinful  bodies 
 may  be  made  clean  by  his  body,"  Sec. — 
 Prayer  before  Consecration.  "  Grant  that 
 we,  receiving  these  thy  creatures,  of  bread 
 
 and  Avine,  &c may  be  partakers 
 
 of  his  most  precious  body  and  blood." 
 —  Consecration.  The  catechism,  in  agree- 
 ment with  this,  defines  the  inward  part  of 
 this  sacrament  to  be  "  the  body  and  blood 
 of  Christ,  which  are  verily  and  indeed 
 taken  and  received  by  the  faithful  in  the 
 Lord's  supper."  The  28th  Article  asserts, 
 with  reference  to  the  holy  communion, 
 that  "  to  such  as  rightly,  worthily,  and 
 with  faith  receive  the  same,  the  bread 
 which  we  break  is  a  partaking  of  the  body 
 of  Christ,  and  likewise  the  cup  of  bless- 
 ing is  a  partaking  of  the  blood  of  Christ." 
 
 So  speaks  the  Church  of  England,  which 
 expressly  rejects  the  Romish  figment  of 
 transubstantiation.  Therefore,  the  Church 
 of  England  distinguishes  between  the  real 
 presence,  which  she  so  strongly  asserts, 
 and  the  Romish  error  which  has  led  to 
 Romish  heresy. 
 
 Bishop  Ridley,  our  great  reformer,  who 
 died  because  he  would  not  accept  the  fable 
 of  transubstantiation,  said,  addressing  his 
 judge,  "  ]My  lord,  you  know  that  where 
 any  equivocation,  which  is  a  word  having 
 two  significations,  is,  except  distinction  be 
 given,  no  direct  answer  can  be  made  ;  for 
 it  is  one  of  Aristotle's  fallacies,  containing 
 two  questions  under  one,  the  which  cannot 
 be  satisfied  with  one  answer.  For  both 
 you  and  I  agree  herein,  that  the  sacrament 
 is  the  very  true  and  natural  body  and 
 blood  of  Christ,  even  that  which  Avas  born 
 of  the  Virgin  ^lary,  which  ascended  into 
 heaven,  and  which  sitteth  at  the  right  hand 
 of  God  the  Father,  which  shall  come  from 
 thence  to  judge  both  the  quick  and  the 
 dead,  only  we  difi*er  in  modo,  in  the  way 
 and  manner  of  being ;  we  confess  all  one 
 thing  to  be  in  the  sacrament,  and  dissent 
 in  the  manner  of  being  there.  I,  being 
 fully  by  God's  word  thereto  persuaded, 
 confess  Christ's  natural  body  to  be  in  the 
 sacrament,  indeed  by  spirit  and  grace, 
 because  whosoever  receiveth  icorthiJy  that 
 
REAL  PRESENCE. 
 
 G33 
 
 bread  and  wine,  rcceivetli  effectually 
 CiimsT's  body  and  drinketh  his  l)lood ; 
 that  is,  he  is  made  effectually  jjartaker  of 
 his  passion  ;  and  you  make  a  grosser  kind 
 of  being,  enclosing  a  natural,  a  lively,  a 
 moving  body,  under  the  shape  or  form  of 
 bread  and  wine.  Now  this  difference 
 considered,  to  the  question  I  answer  :  that 
 in  the  sacrament  of  the  altar  is  the  natural 
 body  and  blood  of  Christ  vcre  ct  rcalitcr, 
 indeed  and  in  reality,  (f  you  take  those 
 terms,  indeed  and  realhj,  for  spirifual/i/  hi/ 
 grace  and  efficacy ;  for  so  every  loortlty 
 receiver  receiveth  the  very  true  body  of 
 Christ  :  but  if  you  mean  really  and  in- 
 deed, so  that  thereby  you  include  a  lively 
 and  a  moveable  body  under  the  forms  of 
 bread  and  wine,  then,  in  that  sense,  is  not 
 Christ's  body  in  the  sacrament,  really  and 
 indeed."  —  Jl'ordsirorth's  BloyrapJiy,  iii. 
 237.  The  ditference  is  strongly  pointed  out 
 by  Gloucester  Kidley.  "  With  reference 
 to  Bishop  llidley's  opinions,  he  and  those 
 associated  with  him  denied  the  presence 
 of  Christ's  body  in  the  natural  substance 
 of  his  human  and  assumpt  nature,  but 
 grant  the  presence  of  the  same  by  grace  ; 
 that  is, 'they  atffrmed  and  said,  tluxt  the 
 substance  of  the  natural  body  and  blood  of 
 Christ  is  only  remaining  in  heaven,  and 
 so  shall  be  until  the  latter  day,  when  he 
 shall  come  again  to  judge  the  quick  and 
 the  dead ;  but  by  grace  the  same  body  is 
 present  here  with  us,  as  we  say  of  the  sun, 
 which  in  substance  never  removeth  his 
 place  out  of  the  heavens,  is  yet  present 
 here  by  his  beams,  light,  and  natural  in- 
 fluence, when  it  shineth  upon  earth.  For 
 all  grant  that  St.  Paul's  words  require, 
 that  the  bread  which  we  break  should  be 
 the  communion  of  the  body  of  Christ,  and 
 that  the  cup  of  blessing  should  be  the  com- 
 munion of  the  blood  of  Christ." — liid/ry. 
 
 That  which  is  given  by  the  priest  in  this 
 sacrament  is,  as  to  its  substance,  bread 
 and  wine  ;  as  to  its  sacramental  nature  aiul 
 signification,  it  is  the  figure  or  rej)resenta- 
 tion  of  Christ's  body  and  blood,  which 
 was  broken  and  shed  for  us.  The  very 
 body  and  blood  of  Christ,  as  yet,  it  is  not ; 
 but,  being  with  faith  and  piety  received 
 by  the  communicant,  it  becomes  to  him, 
 by  the  blessing  of  God  aiul  the  gi-acc  of 
 the  Holy  Spirit,  the  very  body  and  blood 
 of  Christ  ;  as  it  entitles  him  to  a  part  in 
 the  sacrifice  of  his  death,  and  to  the  l)ene- 
 fits  thereby  ])rocured  to  all  his  faithful  and 
 obedient  servants. — Abp.  ll'ake. 
 
 These  words  (viz.  "  the  body  and  blood 
 of  Christ,  which  are  verily  and  indeed  taken 
 and  received  ")  are  intended  to  show,  that 
 our  Church  as  truly  believes  the  strongest 
 
 assertions  of  Scrij)ture  concerning  this 
 sacrament,  as  the  Church  of  Konie  doth, 
 oidy  takes  more  care  to  understand  thum 
 in  the  right  meaning:  which  is,  that 
 tliough,  in  one  sense,  all  connmniicants 
 equally  ])artake  of  what  Christ  calls  his 
 body  and  blood,  that  is,  the  outward  signs 
 of  them,  yet  in  a  much  more  important 
 sense,  "the  faithful"  only,  the  jjious  and 
 virtuous  receiver,  eats  his  flesh  and  drinks 
 his  blood,  shares  in  the  life  and  strength 
 derived  to  men  from  his  incarnation  and 
 death,  and,  through  faith  in  him,  becomes, 
 by  a  vital  union,  one  with  him ;  "  a 
 member,"  as  St.  Paul  expresses  it,  "of  his 
 flesh  and  of  his  bones "  (l^'ph.  v.  30) ; 
 certainly  not  in  a  literal  sense,  which  yet 
 the  Itonianists  might  as  well  assert,  as  that 
 Ave  eat  his  flesh  in  a  literal  sense,  but  in  a 
 figurative  and  spiritual  one.  In  aj)])ear- 
 ance,  the  sacrament  of  Christ's  death  is 
 given  to  all  alike  :  but  "  verily  and  iiuleed," 
 in  its  beneficial  effects,  to  none  besides  the 
 faithful.  Even  to  the  unworthy  commu- 
 nicant he  is  present,  as  he  is  wiierever  we 
 meet  together  in  his  name  ;  but  in  a  better 
 and  most  gracious  sense  to  the  worthy 
 soul,  becoming,  by  the  inward  virtue  of  his 
 Spirit,  its  food  and  sustenance. 
 
 This  real  ])resence  of  Christ  in  the 
 sacrament,  his  Church  hath  always  be- 
 lieved, liut  the  monstrous  notion  of  his 
 bodily  presence  was  started  700  years 
 after  his  death ;  and  arose  chiefly  from 
 the  indiscretion  of  preachers  and  writers 
 of  warm  imaginations,  who  instead  of  ex- 
 plaining judiciously  the  lofty  figures  of 
 Scripture  language,  heightened  them,  and 
 went  beyond  tlicm,  till  both  it  and  they 
 had  their  meaning  mistaken  most  aston- 
 ishingly. And  when  once  an  opinion  had 
 taken  root,  that  seemed  to  exalt  the  lioly 
 sacrament  so  mucli,  it  easily  grew  and 
 s])read;  and  the  more  for  its  wonderful 
 absurdity  in  those  ignorant  and  supersti- 
 tious ages  :  till  at  length,  500  years  ago, 
 and  1200  years  after  our  Savioik's  birtli, 
 it  was  established  for  a  gospel-truth,  by 
 the  pretended  authority  of  the  Komisli 
 Church ;  and  even  this  had  been  tolerable 
 in  comparison,  if  they  had  not  ndcled 
 idolatrous  ])ractice  to  erroneous  belief, 
 worshij)ping,  on  their  knees,  a  hit  of  hrend 
 for  the  Son  of  (JoD.  Xor  are  tliey  content 
 to  do  this  themselves,  but,  with  most  un- 
 christian cruelty,  curse  and  murder  those 
 who  refuse  it. 
 
 It  is  true  Me  also  kneel  at  the  sacrament 
 as  they  do,  but  for  a  very  different  pur- 
 pose; not  to  acknowledge  "any  corjmral 
 j)resence  of  Christ's  natural  flesh  and 
 blood,"    as   our    Church,   to    prevent   all 
 
634 
 
 REALISTS. 
 
 REDEMPTION. 
 
 possibility  of  misconstruction,  expressly 
 declares,  adding,  that  "  his  body  _  is  m 
 heaven,  and  not  here,"  but  to  worship  him 
 who  is  everywhere  present,  the  invisible 
 God,  And  this  posture  of  kneeling  we  by 
 no  means  look  upon  as  in  itself  necessary, 
 but  as  a  very  becoming  appointment,  and 
 very  fit  to  accompany  the  prayers  and 
 praises  which  we  offer  up  at  the  instant  of 
 receiving ;  and  to  express  that  inward 
 spirit  of  piety  and  humility,  on  which  our 
 partaking  worthily  of  this  ordinance,  and 
 receiving  benefit  from  it,  depend.^ — Abp. 
 Seeker. 
 
 At  the  end  of  the  whole  office  (of  the 
 Communion)  is  added  a  protestation  con- 
 cerning the  gesture  of  kneeling  at  the  sa- 
 crament of  the  Lord's  supper,  and  explain- 
 ing the  Church's  notion  of  the  presence  of 
 Christ's  body  and  blood  in  the  same.  This 
 was  fii'st  added  in  the  Second  Book  of 
 King  Edward,  in  order  to  disclaim  any 
 adoration  to  be  intended  by  that  ceremony, 
 either  unto  the  sacramental  bread  or  imiie 
 then  bodily  received,  or  unto  atiy  real  and 
 essential  presence  there  being,  of  Christ's 
 natural  flesh  and  blood.  But  upon  Queen 
 Elizabeth's  accession  this  was  laid  aside. 
 It  appears  no  more  in  any  of  our  Common 
 Prayers  till  the  last  review  :  at  which  time 
 it  was  again  added,  with  some  little  amend- 
 ment of  the  expressions  and  transposal  of 
 the  sentences  ;  but  exactly  the  same 
 throughout  as  to  the  sense  ;  excepting  that 
 the  words  real  and  essential  presence  were 
 thought  proper  to  be  changed  for  corporal 
 jpresence.  For  a  real  jn-esence  of  the  body 
 and  blood  of  Christ  in  the  eucharist,  is 
 what  our  Church  frequently  asserts  in  this 
 very  office  of  Communion,  in  her  Articles, 
 in  her  Homilies,  and  in  her  catechism 
 [as  quoted  above].  This  is  the  doctrine 
 of  our  Church  in  relation  to  the  real  pre- 
 sence in  the  sacrament,  entirely  different 
 from  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation, 
 which  she  here,  as  well  as  elsewhere,  dis- 
 claims :  a  doctrine  which  requires  so  many 
 ridiculous  absurdities  and  notorious  con- 
 tradictions to  support  it,  that  it  is  needless 
 to  offer  any  confutation  of  it,  in  a  Church, 
 which  allows  her  members  the  use  of  their 
 senses,  reason.  Scripture,  and  antiquity. — 
 Wheathf. 
 
 REALISTS.  The  Realists,  who  followed 
 the  doctrine  of  Aristotle  with  respect  to 
 universal  ideas,  Avere  so  called  in  opposition 
 to  the  Nominalists,  (see  JVominalisfs,)  who 
 embraced  the  hypothesis  of  Zeno  and  the 
 Stoics  upon  that  perplexed  and  intricate 
 subject.  Aristotle  held,  against  Plato, 
 that,  previous  to,  and  independent  of, 
 matter,  there  were  no  universal  ideas  or 
 
 essences  ;  and  that  the  ideas,  or  exemplars, 
 which  the  latter  supposed  to  have  existed 
 in  the  Divine  mind,  and  to  have  been  the 
 models  of  all  created  things,  had  been 
 eternally  imjjressed  upon  matter,  and  were 
 coeval  with,  and  inherent  in,  their  objects. 
 Zeno  and  his  followers,  departing  both 
 from  the  Platonic  and  Aristotelian  systems, 
 maintained  that  these  pretended  universals 
 had  neither  form  nor  essence,  and  were  no 
 more  than  mere  terms  and  nominal  repre- 
 sentations of  their  particular  objects.  The 
 doctrine  of  Aristotle  prevailed  until  the 
 eleventh  century,  when  Iloscelinus  em- 
 braced the  Stoical  system,  and  founded 
 the  sect  of  the  Nominalists,  whose  senti- 
 ments were  propagated  Avith  great  success 
 by  the  famous  Abelard.  These  tAvo  sects 
 differed  considerably  among  themselves, 
 and  explained,  or  rather  obscured,  their 
 respective  tenets  in  a  variety  of  ways. 
 
 RECANTATION.     (See  Abjuration.) 
 
 RECTOR.  (See  Vicar.)  A  term  ap- 
 plied to  several  persons  whose  offices  are 
 very  different,  as,  1.  The  rector  of  a  parish 
 is  a  clergyman  who  has  the  charge  and 
 care  of  a  parish,  and  possesses  all  t}\e  tithes, 
 8zc.  2.  The  same  name  is  also  given  to 
 the  head  in  some  of  our  colleges,  and  also 
 to  the  head-master  of  large  schools.  3. 
 Rector  is  also  used  in  several  convents 
 for  the  superior  officer  who  governs  the 
 house.  The  Jesuits  gave  this  name  to  the 
 superiors  of  such  of  their  houses  as  were 
 either  seminaries  or  colleges. 
 ^  RECUSANT.  A  Recusant,  in  general, 
 signifies  any  person,  whether  Papist  or 
 other,  who  refuseth  to  go  to  church  and  to 
 worship  God  after  the  manner  of  the 
 Church  of  England:  a  Popish  Recusant 
 is  a  Papist  who  so  refuseth ;  and  a  Popish 
 Recusant  convict  is  a  Pajiist  legally  con- 
 victed of  such  offence. 
 
 REDEEMER,  THE.  Our  Lord  and 
 Saviour  Jesus  Christ.  "  I  know  that 
 my  Redeemer  liveth,  and  that  he  shall 
 stand  at  the  latter  day  upon  the  earth." 
 (Job  xix.  25.)  "  The  Redeemer  shall 
 come  to  Sion."  (Isa.  lix.  20.)  "  Christ 
 hath  redeemed  us  from  the  curse  of  the 
 laAv,  being  made  a  curse  for  us."  (Gal.  iii. 
 13.)  "Redeemed  with  the  precious  blood 
 of  Christ."  (1  Pet.  i.  18,  19.)  "  Having 
 obtained  eternal  redemption  for  us."  (Heb. 
 ix.  12.  See  also  Job  xxxiii.  23,  24  ;  Matt, 
 xxvi.  28 ;  Rom.  iii.  24 ;  1  Cor.  i.  30 ;  Eph. 
 i.  7 ;  Rev.  v.  9.) 
 
 REDEMPTION  denotes  our  recovery 
 from  sin  and  death,  by  the  obedience  and 
 sacrifice  of  Christ,  who  on  this  account  is 
 called  the  "  Redeemer."  (Isaiah  lix.  20  ; 
 Job  xix.  25.)— (See  Covenant  of  Redemption.) 
 
REFORMATION. 
 
 G3.: 
 
 REFORMATION.  The  rescue  of  our 
 Church  from  the  usurped  dominion  of  the 
 pope,  and  its  restoration  from  the  corrup- 
 tions of  Popery  to  a  nearer  approach  to 
 primitive  purity,  which  took  phice  in  the 
 16th  century,  is  called  the  Reformation. 
 (See  Church  of  Eiu/lcoid,  and  Lu'thernnism.) 
 The  same  term  is  applied  to  the  contem- 
 poraneous Protestant  movement  on  the 
 Continent,  and  in  Scotland. 
 
 As  regards  the  separation  of  the  Church 
 of  England  from  the  corrui)t  Church  of 
 Rome,  it  began  in  the  reign  of  King  Henrv 
 VIIL,  and  was  fully  established  in  that  of 
 Queen  Elizabeth. 
 
 King  Henry  VIII.  was  at  first  a  great 
 stickler  for  the  see  of  Rome.  No  one  dis- 
 covered more  zeal  for  it  than  he  did  in 
 the  beginning  of  his  reign.  He  even  wrote 
 a  book  against  Luther,  entitled,  "Of. the 
 Seven  Sacraments;"  and  this  gained  him 
 the  new  title  of  "  Defender  of  the  Faith," 
 which  Pope  Leo  X.  bestowed  upon  him  by 
 a  bull,  and  which  his  successors  have  pre- 
 served ever  since  their  separation  from  the 
 Church  of  Rome,  But  this  zeal  for  the 
 see  of  Rome  Avas  greatly  cooled,  when  that 
 court  refused  to  grant  him  the  satisfaction 
 he  expected  with  regard  to  his  intended 
 divorce  from  Queen  Catherine.  This  seems 
 to  have  been  Henry's  first  motive  of  se- 
 paration from  that  Church. 
 
 Cranmer,  whom  the  king  had  raised  to 
 the  see  of  Canterbury,  in  compliance  with 
 Henry's  desire,  dissolved  his  marriage  by 
 a  sentence  pronounced  May  23,  1533,  with- 
 out waiting  for  the  sentence  of  the  court 
 of  Rome.  This  step  made  way  for  another. 
 For  the  parliament  passed  a  bill,  that  for 
 the  future  no  person  should  appeal  to  the 
 court  of  Rome,  in  any  case  whatever  ;  but 
 that  they  should  all  be  judged  within  the 
 realm  by  the  prelates :  that  neither  first- 
 fruits,  annates,  or  St.  Peter's  pence  should 
 any  more  be  paid ;  nor  palls,  or  bulls  for 
 bishoprics,  be  any  longer  fetched  from 
 Rome :  and  that  whoever  infringed  this 
 statute  should  be  severely  punished. 
 
 Clement  VII.,  at  that  time  pope,  threat- 
 ened Henry  with  excommunication,  in  case 
 he  refused  to  acknowledge  his  fault,  by 
 restoring  things  to  their  former  state,  and 
 taking  back  his  queen.  However  Francis 
 L,  king  of  France,  interposed,  and,  in  the 
 interview  Avhich  he  had  with  the  i)ope  at 
 Marseilles,  he  prevailed  with  him  to  sus- 
 pend the  excommunication,  till  such  time 
 as  he  had  employed  his  endeavours  to 
 make  Henry  return  to  the  obedience  of 
 the  holy  see.  To  this  purpose  he  sent  John 
 du  Bellay,  ])ishop  of  Paris,  to  King  Henry, 
 who  gave  him  some  hopes  of  his  submis- 
 
 sion, provided  the  pope  woidd  delay  the 
 excommunication.  Clement,  though  he 
 could  not  refuse  so  just  a  request,  yet 
 limited  the  delay  to  so  short  a  time,  that, 
 before  Henry  could  come  to  any  deter- 
 minate resolution,  the  time  was"  lapsed, 
 and,  no  news  coming  from  England,  ex- 
 communication was  pronounced  at  Rome, 
 and  set  up  in  all  the  usual  j)laces. 
 
 The  efiects  of  this  excommunication  were 
 very  fotal  to  the  see  of  l{ome.  The  po])e, 
 who  began  to  repent  of  his  over-hasty  ])ro- 
 cecdings,  found  it  impossible  to  appease 
 King  Henry.  For  that  monarch  now  threw 
 off  all  restraint,  and  o])cnly  se])arated  from 
 the  see  of  Rome.  The  parliament  declared 
 him  supreme  head  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
 land, and  granted  him  the  annates  and 
 first-fruits,  the  tenths  of  the  revenues  of  all 
 benefices,  and  the  power  of  nominating  to 
 all  bishoprics.  The  parliament  also  passed 
 another  act,  to  deprive  all  persons  charged 
 with  treason  of  the  privilege  of  sanctuary. 
 And  thus  ended  the  pope's  power  in  Eng- 
 land, A.  D.  1534. 
 
 The  king  met  with  little  or  no  opposi- 
 tion, in  the  prosecution  of  his  designs, 
 from  the  laity,  who  had  the  utmost  aver- 
 sion and  contempt  for  the  clergy,  and  were 
 extremely  scandalized  at  the  vicious  and 
 debauched  lives  of  the  monks.  But  these 
 latter  preached  Avith  great  vehemence 
 against  these  innovations,  and  the  priests 
 prevailed  with  the  peasants  in  the  North 
 of  England  to  rise.  However  the  muti- 
 neers accepted  of  a  general  pardon,  laid 
 down  their  arms,  and  took  them  up  again  ; 
 but  being  defeated,  and  most  of  their  lead- 
 ers executed,  they  were  obliged  to  submit. 
 John  Fisher,  bisho]:)  of  Rochester,  who  had 
 been  the  king's  tutor,  and  the  learned  Sir 
 Thomas  More,  lord  chancellor,  for  refusing 
 to  acknowledge  the  king's  supremacy,  were 
 beheaded. 
 
 As  to  King  Henry  himself,  though  he 
 abrogated  the  authority  of  the  see  of  Rome 
 in  I'higland,  yet  he  constantly  adhered  to 
 the  doctrines  and  principles  of  that  Church, 
 and  even  caused  some  Protestants  to  be 
 burned. 
 
 The  ruin  of  the  pai)al  authority  brought 
 on  a  reformation  in  the  doctrine,  worship, 
 and  discii)line  of  the  Church  of  I-lngland. 
 All  the  monasteries  were  dissolved,  and  the 
 monks  set  adrift.  The  Bible  was  jjriuted 
 in  JMiglish,  and  set  up  by  pul)lic  authority 
 in  all  tiie  churches  ;  and  the  ceremonies  of 
 the  Church  were  greatly  altered.  But  King 
 Henry,  dying  in  1547,  left  the  Reformation 
 imperfect',  and  as  it  were  in  its  infancy. 
 
 In  the  succeeding  reign,  Seymour,  duke 
 of  Somerset,  regent  and  protector  during 
 
636 
 
 REFUGE. 
 
 REGENERATE. 
 
 the  minority  of  Edward  VI.,  greatly  for- 
 warded the  lleformation,  in  which  the  par- 
 liament supported  him  with  all  their  power. 
 For  he  abolished  private  masses,  restored 
 the  cup  to  the  laity,  took  away  the  images 
 out  of  the  churches,  and  caused  the  Book 
 of  Common  Prayer  to  be  revised  and  cor- 
 rected. In  this  reign  the  Keformation  was 
 solemnly  confirmed  by  the  legislature,  and 
 had  the*  sanction  of  an  act  of  both  houses 
 of  parliament.  So  many  alterations  occa- 
 sioned great  disorders  in  the  kingdom. 
 The  common  people  having  now  not  so 
 easy  an  opportunity  of  getting  a  livelihood, 
 because  of  the  great  number  of  monks, 
 who  being  di'iven  out  of  the  suppressecl 
 monasteries  were  obliged  to  Avork ;  this 
 fomented  the  discontent,  insomuch  that 
 several  counties  of  England  took  up  arms. 
 But  the  rebels,  after  having  been  defeated 
 in  several  engagements,  accepted  of  the 
 general  pardon  that  was  offered  them. 
 
 The  Keformation  met  with  a  great  in- 
 terruption during  the  reign  of  Queen  Mary, 
 who,  being  a  bigoted  Roman  Catholic,  be- 
 gan her  reign  with  setting  at  liberty  the 
 Papists,  restoring  the  Popish  prelates  to 
 their  sees,  and  allowing  a  general  liberty 
 of  conscience  till  the  sitting  of  the  parlia- 
 ment, in  which  an  act  was  passed,  prohibit- 
 ing the  exercise  of  any  other  religion  but 
 the  Roman  Catholic.  Having  strength- 
 ened herself  by  a  marriage  with  Philip  II., 
 king  of  Spain,  she  called  a  new  parliament, 
 in  which  Philip  and  herself  presided.  Car- 
 dinal Pole  made  a  fine  speech  in  it ;  after 
 which,  both  houses  suppressed  the  reform- 
 ed religion,  and  restored  the  Church  to 
 the  same  state  it  was  in  before  the  divorce 
 of  King  Henry  VIII.  At  the  same  time 
 the  above-mentioned  cardinal  reconciled 
 the  nation  to  the  Church  of  Rome,  after 
 having  absolved  it  from  all  ecclesiastical 
 censures.  Great  numbers,  however,  still 
 adhered  to  the  profession  of  the  reformed 
 religion ;  whom  Queen  Mary  punished 
 with  great  severity,  and  burnt  some  hun- 
 dreds of  them,  among  Avhom  were  Cranmer, 
 archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  four  other 
 bishops. 
 
 The  death  of  Queen  INIaiy  made  way  for 
 the  accession  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  and,  dur- 
 ing her  reign,  the  reformation  of  the  Church 
 in  tliese  kingdoms  was  established. 
 
 REFUGE.     (See  Sanctuary.) 
 
 REFUGE,  CITIES  OF.  In  the  Levi- 
 tical  law  six  cities  were  appointed  by  the 
 command  of  God  as  cities  of  refuge  for 
 those  who  might  by  accident,  and  without 
 malice,  unhappily  slay  another.  There 
 they  were  to  dwell  tiil  the  death  of  the 
 high   priest;  and   if  caught   before    they 
 
 came  thither,  or  afterwards  away  from  the 
 city,  they  might  be  slain  by  the  avenger  of 
 blood.  (Exod.  XX.  13  ;  Numb.  xxxv. 
 11,  &c.) 
 
 REGALE,  in  the  French  ecclesiastical 
 law,  is  a  right  which  the  king  had  of  en- 
 joying the  revenues  of  vacant  bishoprics, 
 till  such  time  as  the  new  prelate  had  taken 
 and  registered  his  oath  of  fidelity  to  the 
 king ;  and  of  presenting  to  all  benefices, 
 dependent  on  the  see,  during  the  time  of 
 its  vacancy. 
 
 Some  of  the  French  writers  assert,  that 
 all  the  kings  of  France  of  the  first  race, 
 and  some  of  the  second,  have  had  the 
 entire  disposal  of  bishoprics  throughout 
 their  dominions.  This  right,  they  say, 
 was  given  to  the  kings  of  France,  by  way 
 of  recompence  for  their  protecting  the  or- 
 thodox faith ;  and  that  this  privilege  was 
 granted  to  Clovis,  the  first  Christian  king 
 of  France,  after  he  had  defeated  Alaric,  an 
 Arian  prince,  by  the  first  Council  of  Or- 
 leans. Other  authors  affirm,  that  this 
 privilege  is  not  founded  upon  grant,  but 
 comes  from  the  right  of  patronage,  which 
 the  king  has  over  all  the  churches  in  his 
 kingdom,  from  his  feudal  right  over  the 
 temporalities  of  benefices,  and  from  his 
 right  of  protection  of  ecclesiastics  and  the 
 goods  of  the  Church.  But,  however  the 
 kings  of  France  have  desisted  from  the 
 right  of  patronage  over  all  the  benefices 
 of  the  kingdom,  they  still  retain  the  right 
 of  appropriating  to  themselves  the  revenues 
 of  vacant  bishoprics  ;  and  this  is  what  they 
 call  the  Befiale. 
 
 This  right  takes  place  all  over  the  king- 
 dom, though  some  archbishoprics  and  bi- 
 shoprics have  pretended  to  an  exemption 
 from  it.  The  abbeys  Avere  formerly  aibject 
 thereto,  but  have  been  discharged. 
 
 REGENERATE.  (See  Cimversion, 
 Refieneration,  Henovatmi.)  Every  bap- 
 tized child  is  called  regeyieratc.  There 
 have  been  some  very  unreasonable  ex- 
 ceptions taken  against  this  expression  ; 
 as  if  all  persons,  who  are  baptized,  were 
 truly  converted,  whereas  several  of  them 
 prove  afterwards  very  wicked.  But  this 
 objection  is  grounded  upon  a  modern 
 notion  of  the  word  "  regeneration,"  which 
 neither  the  ancient  Fathers  of  the  Church, 
 nor  the  compilers  of  our  liturgy,  knew 
 anything  of.  Indeed,  some  writers  of  the 
 last  [17th]  century  ran  into  this  new-fan- 
 gled phrase,  to  denote  conversion,  or  a  re- 
 turning from  a  lapsed  state,  after  a  no- 
 torious violation  of  the  baptismal  covenant, 
 to  an  habitual  state  of  holiness.  But  no 
 ancient  writer,  that  I  know  of,  ever  ex- 
 pressed this  by  the  word  "  regeneration." 
 
REGENERATE. 
 
 r,37 
 
 Regeneration,  as  often  as  it  is  used  in  the 
 Scripture  books,  signifies  the  baptismal  re- 
 generation.    There  is  but  one  word  which 
 answers  to  this  in  the  New  Testament,  and 
 that  is,  TrnXiyyivtaia  ;  and  that  TraXtyytt'Kiia 
 refers  to  baptism  is  plain,  by  having  the 
 word  XovTpjLJV  joined  witli  it :  "  According 
 to  his  mercy  he  saved  us  by  the   irasliiiKj 
 of  regenora'tion.''''     (Tit.   iii.   o.)     Our   8.v- 
 viouii  indeed  made  use  of  the  like  ex])res- 
 sion,   before    the   apostle,  to  Nicodemus, 
 "  Except  a  man  be  born  again,  he  cannot 
 see  the  kingdom  of  God."     (John  iii.  3.) 
 But  what  he  means  by  being  horn  ar/ain 
 he  explains,  ver.  5,  by  directing  it  posi- 
 tively to  baptism,  "  Except  a  man  be  born 
 of  water  and  of  the  Spirit,  he  cannot  enter 
 into  the  kingdom  of  God."     "  Jiegenera- 
 tion,"  in  the  language  of  the  Fathers,  con- 
 stantly signifies  the    participation  of  the 
 sacrament  of  baptism.     The  Greeks  have 
 a  variety  of  words  to  express  regeneration 
 by :    not   only    dvayfvvrjmg,   which    is    an 
 exact  translation  of  it;  but  avaKaivirrfjog, 
 "  renovation  ;  "    avaKTKTig,   "  recreation  ;  " 
 avavemrrig,    "renewing;"    dvdaTanig,    "re- 
 surrection;"    fisraiSoM],    the    "change;" 
 fiiTa~oit](Tig,  the  "refitting;"   TroXtyytrfir/a, 
 the  being  "  born  again ; "  TruXivTOKta,  the 
 "  begetting  again  :  "  all  which  expressions 
 are  used  of  baptism,  and  seldom  or  never 
 of  the  rise  after  a  lapse.     The  language  of 
 the  Latin  Fatliers  is  the  same.     The  Latin 
 translator  of  Irenjrus,  which  undoubtedly 
 is  very  ancient,  expresses  the  Greek  c'lva- 
 ykvvTjmg    by    "  regeneration  :  "     "  baptism 
 which  is  a  regeneration  unto  God  :  "  and 
 so   likewise    calls   the   dvayswrj^ivoi,   the 
 baptized,  "  regenerati,"  the  "  regenerate." 
 St.    Ambrose,    speaking   of  baptism,   ex- 
 presses himself  thus  :  "  By  baptism  we  are 
 renewed,  by  which  also  we  are  born  again." 
 St.  Austin,  besides  innumerable  other  pas- 
 sages, within  the  compass  of  a  fcAV  lines 
 has  several  expressions  all  to  this  purpose  : 
 he  calls  baptism  "  the  spiritual  regenera- 
 tion ; "    he  says  the  ])aptized  person   "  is 
 born  again,  because  he  is  regenerated ; " 
 and  lastly  he  calls  baptism  "  the  sacrament 
 of  regeneration."  And  in  another  place  he 
 moves  a  question,  whether  the  ba])tism  of 
 the  schismatical  Donatists  docs  confer  re- 
 generation   or    not ;    but   never    doubted 
 whether  that  of  the  Catholics  did  so.   But, 
 when  any  of  the  ancients  have  occasion  to 
 express  a  returning  to  God  after  a  state 
 of  sin,  the  Greeks  use  the  word  fUTUftiXiia, 
 fierdvoia,  Hcc.  &c. ;  the  Latins,  pccmtcntia, 
 conversio.     The  language  of  tlie  schools  is 
 exactly  that  of  the  Latin  Fathers  in  this 
 point ;  they  make  the  ettect  of  baptism  to 
 be  a  "  regeneration,"  or  a  "  generation  to 
 
 a  si)iritual  life;"  but  the  turning  to  Gou 
 after    a    course   of  sin   they    call,    either 
 "penitence,"    or    "conversion   to    God." 
 The  most  eminent  divines  of  the  Reforma- 
 tion use  these  words  in  the  ancient  si-nse. 
 Peter    ]\Lirtyr    uses    "  regi'ncration "    for 
 baptism;    and  calls  the  turning  to  (ion, 
 after  a  state  of  sin,  the   "  convi-rsion  and 
 change  of  a  man."     Calvin,  where  he  de- 
 signs  to   sj)L'ak  with  exactness,  uses  "  re- 
 generation "  for  the  l)ai)tismal  renovation, 
 as  in  his  catechism  ;  though  sometimes  he 
 uses  it  to  signify  conversion  :  hut  this  is 
 but  seldom  ;  he  generally,  with  the  ancient 
 Latin   writers,  exnressinj,'   this   by   "  con- 
 version."   When  the  Quinciuarticiiiar  con- 
 troversy   arose,    and   long   treatises    M'ere 
 written  about  the  methods  of  converting 
 grace,  the    divines,   who   manaf^a-d    them, 
 being  willing  sometimes  to  vary  their  ex- 
 pressions, to  make   these  discourses,  (dry 
 enough  in  themselves,)  thereby  something 
 more   pleasant,  began   to  use   "  regenera- 
 tion" as  a  synonymous  word  with  "con- 
 version."   But  in  the  Synod  of  J)ort  itself, 
 though  in  some  of  the  particular  declara- 
 tions of  the  divines  of  the  several  coun- 
 tries   "  regeneration  "    and    "  conversion  " 
 are  used  reciprocally,  yet  in  the  synodical 
 resolutions    the     word     "conversion"    is 
 always  used.     \\\  the  sernu)ns  and  books 
 written  about   the  begimiing  of  the  late 
 civil  wars,    "  regeneration,"  for  "  repent- 
 ance"   or    "conversion,"    became    a    very 
 fashionable  word ;    but  sometimes   oddly 
 expressing  it  by  "  regeneration-work,"  iVc, 
 they  made  sj)ort  for  vain  peo])le.     How- 
 ever, by  frequent  use,  the  word  has  come 
 to    obtain    among    grave    and    judicious 
 writers,  though  the  use  of  it  Mas  so  very 
 modern  ;  insomuch  that  some  divines,  who 
 had  their  education  since  the  Quiiujuarti- 
 cular  controversy,  and  were  concerned  in 
 the  review  of  the   liturgy  at  the  liestora- 
 tion,  pretended  to  find  fault  with  the  Com- 
 mon Prayer  Book  for  using  the  word  "  re- 
 generation "  in  tlie  ancient  sense,  which  it 
 had  kept  for   KJOO  years,  in  opi)osition  to 
 theirs,  which  was  hardly  sixty  years  old. 
 And  this  is  sufiicient  to  justify  the  Com- 
 mon Prayer  Book  ex])ression  ;  and,  1  hoix", 
 to  silence  all  objections  upon  this  head. — 
 Dr.  Nicholls. 
 
 The  sense  of  the  Church  in  the  office  for 
 Baj)tism  is  so  plain,  that  n(»  more  would 
 need  to  be  added,  l)ut  only  that  some  with 
 Nicodemus  areaj)t  to  say,  "  How  can  these 
 things  be?  "  (John  iii.  9  :)  judging  it  impos- 
 sible that  so  great  a  matter  as  regeneration 
 can  be  effected  so  soon,  and  by  so  mean  an 
 instrument  as  they  account  it  :  whereas  the 
 efiect  is  to  be  a.scrii)ed  to  the  Divine  power 
 
638 
 
 REGENERATE. 
 
 of  the  author,  not  to  the  intrinsic  efficacy 
 of  the  outward  means.  Yet  in  regard  we 
 can  never  bless  God  heartily  for  a  mercy, 
 unless  we  believe  he  hath  bestowed  it,  we 
 must  labour  to  remove  these  scruples  by  a 
 fuller  account  of  this  baptismal  regenera- 
 tion, that  we  may  not  withhold  the  Divine 
 praises,  by  our  doubting  and  unbelief. 
 The  word  "  regeneration "  is  but  tv.dce, 
 that  I  knoAV  of,  used  in  Scripture :  first, 
 (Matt.  xix.  28,)  "  Ye  that  have  followed 
 me  in  the  regeneration : "  w^here,  though 
 by  altering  the  point,  "  Followed  me,  in 
 the  regeneration  when  the  Son  of  man," 
 &c.,  it  may  signify  the  resurrection ;  yet, 
 as  we  read,  it  signifies  the  renewing  of 
 men  by  the  gospel  and  baptism.  Secondly, 
 (Tit.  iii.  5,)  "  He  saved  us  by  the  washing 
 of  regeneration  and  renewing  of  the  Holy 
 Ghost,"  Avhich  is  a  paraphrase  upon  that 
 of  our  Saviour,  (John  iii.,)  "  Except  a 
 man  be  born  of  water  and  the  Spirit,  he 
 cannot  enter  into  the  kingdom  of  heaven," 
 (ver.  5). 
 
 And  because  persons,  come  to  age  before 
 their  conversion,  are  first  taught  and  per- 
 suaded by  the  word  of  GoD,  the  language 
 of  holy  writ  enlarges  the  metaphor,  and 
 saith,  such  are  "  heyotten  through  the  gos- 
 pel" (1  Cor.  iv.  15)  ;  and  then  horn  again 
 or  regenerated  in  baptism.  In  like  manner 
 speak  the  Fathers,  who  do  constantly  and 
 unanimously  affirm,  that  we  are  regener- 
 ated in  or  by  baptism.  So  that  we  must 
 next  inquire,  wherein  this  regeneration 
 doth  consist? 
 
 And  first,  whereas  both  children  and 
 those  of  riper  years  are  by  nature  dead  in 
 sin,  so  that  they  live  under  the  guilt  and 
 power  thereof,  our  gracious  Father  doth 
 here  in  baptism  seal  a  covenant  with  us, 
 wherein  he  promises  to  pardon  us ;  and, 
 when  this  deadly  load  is  removed,  the  soul 
 receives,  as  it  were,  a  new  life,  and  takes 
 new  hopes  and  courage,  being  restored  to 
 the  Divine  favour,  and  being  set  free  from 
 the  sad  expectations  of  condemnation  for 
 former  sin,  original  in  infants,  and  both  it 
 and  actual  in  those  of  riper  years.  Before 
 this  covenant  we  were  dead  in  law,  and  by 
 the  pardon  of  our  sins  we  are  begotten 
 again  to  a  lively  hope ;  and  herein  stands 
 the  first  particular  of -our  regeneration, 
 namely,  in  the  remission  of  sins :  where- 
 fore both  Scripture  and  antiquity  teach 
 us,  (Luke  iii.  8  ;  Acts  ii.  38 ;  xxii.  16,) 
 that  baptism  is  the  means  for  remission  of 
 sin;  and  hence  they  join  pardon  and  re- 
 generation commonly  together,  because 
 this  forgiveness  puts  us  into  a  new  estate, 
 and  an  excellent  condition,  in  comparison  of 
 that  which  our  natural  birth  had  left  us  in. 
 
 Secondly :  But  further,  by  baptism  we 
 gain  new  relations,  and  old  things  being 
 done  away,  all  things  become  new.  Hence 
 the  Jews  called  their  proselytes  "  new-born 
 children,"  because  they  forsook  all  their 
 heathen  kindred ;  so  we,  although  we  do 
 not  renounce  our  earthly  parents,  because 
 they  also  are  Christians,  yet  we  gain  new 
 alliances ;  for  GoD  hereby  doth  become 
 our  Father,  and  Jesus  our  Master,  and 
 all  the  saints  both  in  heaven  and  earth  our 
 brethren ;  so  that  it  is  as  if  we  were  born 
 over  again,  since  baptism  doth  entitle  us 
 to  this  celestial  kindi-ed. 
 
 But  this  is  not  all.  For,  thirdly,  our 
 corrupt  nature  is  changed  in  baptism,  and 
 there  is  a  renovation  effected  thereby,  both 
 as  to  the  mortification  of  the  old  affections, 
 and  the  quickening  of  the  new,  by  the 
 Holy  Spirit,  which  is  hereby  given  to  all 
 that  put  no  bar  or  impediment  unto  it. 
 This  was  the  ancients'  doctrine,  who  af- 
 firmed a  real  change  to  be  wrought,  and 
 believed  the  Spirit  to  be  therein  bestowed, 
 as  God  had  promised,  (Ezek.  xxxvi.  25, 
 26,)  "  That  he  would  sprinkle  clean  water 
 upon  them,  and  they  should  be  clean  from 
 all  their  filthiness,  and  then  a  new  heart 
 would  he  give  them,  and  put  a  new  spirit 
 within  them."  And  it  is  manifest,  that,  in 
 the  first  ages  of  the  Church,  there  was 
 abundance  of  gifts  and  graces  miraculously 
 bestowed  upon  Christians  in  their  baptism  : 
 and  no  doubt,  if  the  catechumens  of  our 
 days,  who  are  of  age,  would  prepare  them- 
 selves as  strictly  by  repentance,  fasting, 
 and  prayer,  as  they  of  old  did,  they  should 
 find  incomparable  effects  of  this  sacred 
 laver,  if  not  in  as  miraculous  measures,  yet 
 to  as  real  purposes;  that  is,  they  should 
 be  truly  regenerated,  and  their  hearts 
 changed  by  the  inffvience  of  the  Divine 
 Spirit.  But  some  may  doubt  whether 
 infants  be  regenerated  in  this  sense,  be- 
 cause they  are  not  capable  of  giving  any 
 evidences  of  their  receiving  the  Spirit  ; 
 nor  doth  there  any  immediate  eff'ect  of 
 their  regeneration  appear :  hence  the  Pe- 
 lagians denied  it ;  but  they  are  therefore 
 condemned  by  the  Milevitan  Council,  and 
 confuted  by  St.  Augustine.  It  is  con- 
 fessed they  can  show  no  visible  signs  of 
 spiritual  life  in  the  operations  thereof,  no 
 more  can  they  of  their  having  a  rational 
 soul,  for  some  time  ;  and  yet  Ave  know 
 they  have  the  power  of  reason  within  them : 
 and  since  all  infants  are  alike,  either  all  do 
 here  receive  a  principle  of  new  life,  or 
 none  receive  it ;  wherefore  I  see  no  reason 
 why  we  may  not  believe,  as  the  ancients 
 did,  that  God's  grace,  which  is  dispensed 
 according  to  the  capacity  of  the  suscipient, 
 
REGENERATION. 
 
 G:i9 
 
 is  here  given  to  infants  to  heal  tlieir  na- 
 ture, and  that  he  hcstowed  on  them  such 
 measures  of  his  Spirit  as  they  can  receive  ; 
 for  the  malignant  effects  of  the  first  Adam's 
 sin  are  not  larger  than  the  free  gift  ob- 
 tained by  the  second  Adam's  righteousness, 
 (llom.  V.  15, 18.)  And  if  it  be  asked,  how 
 it  comes  to  pass  then  that  so  many  children 
 do  afterwards  fall  off  to  all  impurity  ?  I 
 answer,  so  do  too  many  grown  persons 
 also  ;  and  neither  infants,  nor  men,  are  so 
 regenerated  in  this  life,  as  absolutely  to 
 extinguish  the  concupiscence  ;  for  the  ilesh 
 will  still  lust  against  the  Spirit ;  but  then 
 God  gives  the  Spirit  also  to  lust  against 
 the  flesh.  (Gal.  v.  17,  18.)  He  leaves  the 
 corruption  to  try  and  exercise  us,  but  so 
 that  he  engageth  to  enable  us  to  get  the 
 better,  through  this  new  nature  planted 
 in  us,  if  we  will  improve  it,  and  folloAV  the 
 dictates  of  his  Holy  Spirit ;  but  by  neglect, 
 or  wilful  complying  with  the  flesh,  Ave  may 
 lose  this  grace  again ;  our  gracious  Father 
 hath  already  done  his  part,  and  will  do  it 
 more  and  more,  as  the  child  shall  be  ca- 
 pable and  willing  to  receive  it.  And,  if 
 this  seems  strange  to  any  whose  opinions  are 
 taken  up  from  later  definitions  of  regener- 
 ation, let  them  dispute  with  holy  Cyprian, 
 not  with  me,  who  saith,  "The  grace  of 
 God  is  equally  distributed  in  baptism,  but 
 it  may  either  be  diminished  or  increased 
 afterward,  by  our  acts  and  conversation." 
 
 The  sum  is,  that  baptism  doth  seal  a 
 pardon  to  us  for  all  former  transgression, 
 and  begets  us  again  to  the  hope  of  eternal 
 life  ;  that  it  restores  us  to  the  favour  of 
 God,  and  gives  us  a  new  relation  to  him ; 
 and  finally  it  heals  our  nature  by  the 
 Spirit  hereby  conveyed  to  us  :  and, 
 though  all  this  be  upon  condition  of  our 
 keeping  our  part  of  the  covenant,  yet  that 
 makes  not  God's  mercy  less,  nor  ought  it 
 to  diminish  any  of  our  praises  ;  but  only  it 
 must  make  our  prayers  at  ])resent  more 
 earnest,  and  the  child's  care  more  strict 
 hereafter  to  make  this  its  calling  and  elec- 
 tion sure. 
 
 This  is,  I  hope,  the  sense  of  our  Church, 
 as  well  as  of  the  primitive  ;  and  if  so,  it 
 will  not  be  material  to  a  judicious  Chris- 
 tian for  any  to  say,  it  doth  not  agree  to 
 some  modern  svstems. — Dean  Comber. 
 
 IIEGEXERATIOX.  (See  Conversion 
 and  Renovation.)  A  Latin  word  signifying 
 new  birth,  or  being  born  again.  We  are 
 taught  in  the  catechism  that  "  a  sacrament 
 is  an  outward  and  visil)le  sign  of  an  inward 
 and  spiritual  grace  given  unto  us,  ordained 
 by  Christ  himself,  as  a  means  whereby  we 
 receive  the  same,  and  a  pledge  to  assure 
 us  thereof."     And  we  arc  taught  also  that 
 
 the  niward  and  spiritual  grace  given  to  us, 
 which  by  means  of  baj^tism  wo  receive,  is 
 "  a  death  unto  sin,  and  a  new  birth  unto 
 righteousness;  for  being  by  nature  born 
 ni  sin  and  the  children  of"  wrath,  we  are 
 hereby,"  i.  e.  by  ba])tism,  "  made  children 
 of  grace."  Hence  the  catechism  teaches 
 every  bai)tizcd  child  to  sj)eak  of  his  bap- 
 tism as  tliat  '*  wlierein  I  Mas  made  a  mem- 
 ber of  Christ,  the  child  of  God,  and  an 
 inheritor  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven." 
 Hence,  in  perfect  consistency  with  the 
 catechism,  the  minister,  immec'liately  after 
 the  administration  of  this  sacrament  to  a 
 child,^  addresses  the  congregation  thus  : 
 "  Seeing  now,  dearly  bdoved  brethren, 
 that  this  child  is  regenerate,  and  grafted 
 into  the  body  of  Christ's  Church,  let  us 
 give  thanks  unto  Almighty  God  for  these 
 benefits ;  and  with  one  accord  make  our 
 prayers  unto  him,  that  this  child  may  lead 
 the  rest  of  his  life  according  to  tliis  he- 
 winning."  And  he  returns  thanks  to  our 
 merciful  Father,  that  it  hath  ])leased  him 
 "  to  regenerate  this  infant  with  thy  Holy 
 Spirit."  In  the  office  of  Private  liaptism 
 of  Infants,  the  connexion  between  holy 
 bajitism  and  regeneration  is,  if  possible, 
 still  more  expressly  asserted,  for  the  priest, 
 with  reference  to  the  baptism  performed 
 in  private,  is  taught  to  say,  on  the  receiving 
 of  the  infant  into  the  Church,  "  seeing 
 now  that  this  child  is  by  ])aptism  regener- 
 ate, and  (/rafted  into  the  body  of  Christ's 
 Church."  In  the  office  for  the  liaptism  of 
 such  as  are  of  liiper  Years,  the  connexion 
 between  baptism  and  regeneration  is  as 
 closely  observed.  To  many  persons  this 
 doctrine  is  very  oflensive.  We  believe 
 that  it  is  repudiated  by  all  dissenters 
 except  the  Komish,  who,  amidst  their 
 many  errors,  retain  this  evangelical  truth. 
 As  an  answer  to  the  objections  urged 
 against  this  scriptural  doctrine,  we  shall 
 quote  the  words  of  the  late  Mr.  Simeon, 
 of  Cambridge ;  we  do  so,  because  we  have 
 seldom  seen  the  truth  more  briefly  vindi- 
 cated. The  following  passage  is  from  his 
 AVorks,  vol.  ii.  p.  259. 
 
 "  In  the  baptismal  service,  ire  thank  God 
 for  having  reriencrated  the  baptized  infant 
 by  his  llohf  Spirit.  Now  from  hence  it 
 a])])ears  that,  in  the  opinion  of  our  reform' 
 ers,  7'ef/ener<dion  and  remission  of  sins  did 
 acrotnpani/  baj)f!S)n.  Jhit  in  what  sense 
 did  they  hold  tliis  sentiment?  Did  they 
 maintaiii  that  there  was  no  need  for  the 
 seed  then  sown  in  the  heart  of  the  baptized 
 person  to  grow  up  and  to  bring  forth 
 fruit ;  or  that  he  couhl  be  saved  in  any 
 other  way  than  by  a  ])rogressive  renovation 
 of  his  soul  after  the  Divine  image?    Had 
 
640 
 
 REGENERATION. 
 
 they  asserted  any  such  doctrine  as  that,  it 
 Avould  have  been  impossible  for  any  en- 
 lightened person  to  concur  Avith  them. 
 But  nothing  can  be  conceived  more  re- 
 pugnant to  their  sentiments  than  such  an 
 idea  as  this ;  so  far  from  harbouring  such 
 a  thought,  they  have,  and  that  too  in  this 
 very  prayer,  taught  us  to  look  to  God  for 
 that  total  change,  both  of  heart  and  life, 
 Avhich  loug  since  their  daj/s  has  hc(]un  to  he 
 expressed  h\  the  term  regeneration.  After 
 thankinr/  GoD  for  reyenerating  the  infant  hxj 
 his  Hohj  Spirit,  Ave  are  taught  to  i)ray, 
 '  that  he,  being  dead  unto  sin,  and  living 
 unto  righteousness,  may  crucify  the  old 
 man,  and  utterly  abolish  the  whole  body 
 of  sin  ;'  and  then  declaring  the  total 
 change  to  be  the  necessary  mean  of  his 
 obtaining  salvation,  Ave  add, '  so  that  finally, 
 Avith  the  residue  of  thy  holy  Church,  he 
 may  be  an  inheritor  of  thine  everlasting 
 kingdom.'  Is  there  (I  Avould  ask)  any  per- 
 son that  can  require  more  ?  There  are  tAvo 
 things  to  be  noticed  in  reference  to  this 
 subject,  the  term  regeneration  and  the 
 thing.  The  term  occurs  but  tAvice  in  the 
 Scriptiu'cs ;  in  one  place  it  refers  to  bap- 
 tism, and  is  distinguished  from  the  rencAV- 
 ing  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  ivhich,  however, 
 is  represented  as  attendant  on  it;  and,  in 
 the  other  place,  it  has  a  totally  distinct 
 meaning,  unconnected  Avith  the  subject. 
 NoAV  the  term  they  use  as  the  Scripture 
 uses  it,  and  the  thing  they  require  as 
 strongly  as  any  person  can  require  it. 
 They  do  not  give  us  any  reason  to  imagine 
 that  an  adult  person  can  be  saved  Avitli- 
 out  experiencing  all  that  modern  divines 
 [idtra- Protestant  divines^  have  included  in 
 the  term  regeneration ;  on  the  contrary, 
 they  do,  both  there  and  in  the  liturgy,  in- 
 sist upon  a  radical  change  of  both  "heart 
 and  life.  Here,  then,  the  only  question 
 is,  not  '  AA'hether  a  baptized  person  can  be 
 saved  by  that  ordinance  Avithout  sanctifi- 
 cation,'  but  Avhether  God  does  ahvays  ac- 
 company the  sign  Avith  the  thing  signified  ? 
 Here  is  certainly  room  for  difference  of 
 opinion,  hut  it  cannot  he  jfositivelg  decided 
 ill  the  negative ;  because  Ave  cannot  knoAv, 
 or  even  judge,  respecting  it,  in  any  case 
 AA'hatever,  except  by  the  fruits  that  folloAv ; 
 and  therefore,  in  all  fairness,  it  may  be 
 considered  only  as  a  doubtful  point ;  and 
 if  Ave  appeal,  as  AA-e  ought  to  do,  to  the 
 Holy  Scriptures,  they  certainly  do,  in  a 
 very  remarhahle  ivay,  accord  ivith  the  ex- 
 pressions in  oar  liturgy.  St.  Paul  says, 
 '  By  one  Spirit  Ave  are  all  baptized  into  one 
 body,  Avhether  A\-e  be  Jcavs  or  Gentiles, 
 Avhether  aac  be  bond  or  free  ; 'and  have 
 been  all  made  to  drink  into  one  Spmt.' 
 
 And  this  he  says  of  all  the  visible  members 
 of  Christ's  body.  (1  Cor.  xii.  13,  27.) 
 Again,  speaking  of  the  Avhole  nation  of 
 Israel,  infants  as  Avell  as  adults,  he  says, 
 '  They  Avere  all  baptized  unto  ]Moses  in  the 
 cloud  and  in  the  sea,  and  did  all  eat  the 
 same  spiritual  meat,  and  did  all  drink  the 
 same  spiritual  cMnk ;  for  they  drank  of 
 that  spiritual  rock  that  folloAved  them,  and 
 that  rock  tvas  Chkist.'  (1  Cor.  x.  1 — 4.) 
 Yet,  behold,  in  the  very  next  verse  he  tells 
 us  that,  '  Avith  many  of  them  God  Avas  dis- 
 pleased, and  overthreAv  them  in  the  AA'il- 
 derness.'  In  another  place  he  speaks  yet 
 more  strongly  still  :  '  As  many  of  you,' 
 says  he,  '  as  are  baptized  into  Christ, 
 have  put  on  Christ.'  Here  Ave  see  Avhat 
 is  meant  by  the  same  expression  as  that 
 before  mentioned,  of  the  Israelites  being 
 '  baptized  into  Moses  (the  preposition  elg 
 is  used  in  both  places)  :  it  includes  all  that 
 had  been  initiated  into  his  religion  by  the 
 rite  of  baptism ;  and  of  them  universally 
 does  the  apostle  say,  '  they  have  pid  o?i 
 Christ.'  Noav  I  ask,  have  not  the  persons 
 Avho  scruple  the  use  of  that  prayer  in  the 
 baptismal  serA'ice,  eqvial  reason  to  scruple 
 the  use  of  these  different  expressions  ? 
 
 "  Again  ;  St.  Peter  says,  '  Repent  and 
 be  baptized  every  one  of  you /or  the  remis- 
 sion of  sins.'  (Acts  ii.  38.)  And  in  another 
 place, '  Baptism  doth  noAv  saAe  us.'  (1  Pet. 
 iii.  21.)  And  speaking  elscAvhere  of  bap- 
 tized persons  Avho  are  unfruitful  in  the 
 knoAvledge  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ, 
 he  says,  '  He  hath  forgotten  that  he  teas 
 purged  from  his  old  sins.'  (2  Pet.  i.  9.) 
 Does  not  this  very  strongly  countenance  the 
 IDEA  a;\^hich  our  reformers  enter- 
 tained, that  the  remission  of  our 
 sins  and  the  regeneration  of  our 
 souls,  is  attendant  on  the  baptismal 
 rite  ?  " 
 
 The  importance  of  holding  this  doctrine, 
 besides  its  being  scripturally  true,  must  be 
 at  once  apparent  to  those  AA'ho  reflect,  that 
 the  Avhole  moral  education  of  a  Christian 
 people  is  altered,  if  instead  of  teaching 
 them,  as  Ave  ought  to  do,  that  God  has 
 given  them  a  gift  Avhich  they  may  use  to 
 their  oaa-u  salvation,  but  for  losing  Avhich 
 they  Avill  be  aAvfully  punished, — if  instead 
 of  this  A\'e  tell  them  to  Avait  and  to  expect 
 the  gift  of  grace,  before  receiA'ing  Avhich 
 they  cannot  please  God.  The  orthodox 
 Avould  preach  to  all  baptized  persons,  tell- 
 ing them  that  they  may  and  can  serve 
 God  if  they  Avill :  the  heterodox  Avould 
 address  baptized  persons  as  heathens,  and 
 Avarn  them  that,  until  they  have  an  effect- 
 ual calling,  they  can  do  nothing.  It  is 
 easy  to  trace  much  of  the  evil  Avhich  dis- 
 
REGISTER. 
 
 641 
 
 graces  the  religion  of  the  present  day  to 
 the  prevalence  of  the  latter  notion. 
 
 At  the  Savoy  Commission,  1(561,  the  fol- 
 lowing are  among  llie  answers  of  the  bisho])s 
 to  the  exceptions  of  ministers. 
 
 "Receive  remission  of  sins  by  spiritual 
 regeneration."  Most  ])roi)er,  for  ba])tism 
 is  our  spiritual  regeneration,  (John  iii.  o,) 
 "  Unless  a  man  be  born  again  of  water  and 
 the  Spirit,"  S:c.  And  by  this  is  received 
 remission  of  sins,  (Acts  ii.  38,)  "llepent  and 
 be  baptized  every  one  of  you  for  the  re- 
 mission of  sins."  So  the  Creed:  "  our  bap- 
 tism for  the  remission  of  sins." 
 
 Seeing  that  God's  sacraments  have  their 
 effects,  where  the  receiver  doth  not ''  poncre 
 obicem,"  put  any  bar  against  them  (which 
 children  cannot  do) ;  we  may  say  in  fiiith 
 of  every  child  that  is  baptized,  that  it  is 
 regenerated  by  God's  Holy  Spirit  ;  and 
 the  denial  of  it  tends  to  Anabaptism,  and 
 the  contempt  of  this  holy  sacrament,  as 
 nothing  worthy,  nor  material  whether  it 
 be  administered  to  children  or  no. 
 
 [The  form  of  Confirmation]  supposeth, 
 and  that  truly,  that  all  children  were  at 
 their  baptism  regenerate  by  water  and  the 
 Holy  Ghost,  and  had  given  unto  them 
 forgiveness  of  all  their  sins ;  and  it  is 
 charitably  presumed,  that  notwithstanding 
 the  frailties  and  slijjs  of  their  childhood, 
 they  have  not  totally  lost  what  was  in 
 baptism  conferred  upon  them. —  Cardwell's 
 Mist,  of  Conferences,  pp.  356,  358. 
 
 REGISTER.  The  keeping  of  a  church 
 book  for  registering  the  age  of  those  that 
 should  be  born  and  christened  in  the  par- 
 ish began  in  the  thirtieth  year  of  Henry 
 VHI. 
 
 By  Canon  70.  "  In  every  parish  church 
 and  chapel  within  this  realm  shall  be  pro- 
 vided one  parchment  book  at  the  charge 
 of  the  parish,  Mherein  shall  be  written  the 
 day  and  year  of  every  christening,  wed- 
 ding, and  burial,  Avhich  have  been  in  the 
 parish  since  the  time  that  the  law  was 
 first  made  in  that  behalf,  so  far  as  the 
 ancient  books  thereof  can  be  procured, 
 but  especially  since  the  beginning  of  the 
 reign  of  the  late  queen.  And  for  the  safe 
 keeping  of  the  said  book,  the  church- 
 wardens, at  the  charge  of  the  parish,  shall 
 provide  one  sure  cotier,  and  three  locks 
 and  keys;  whereof  one  to  remain  with  the 
 minister,  and  the  other  two  with  the 
 churchwardens  severally  ;  so  that  neither 
 the  minister  without  the  two  cliurch- 
 wardens,  nor  the  churchwardens  without 
 the  minister,  shall  at  any  time  take  that 
 book  out  of  the  said  col'fer.  And  hence- 
 forth upon  every  sabbath  day  immediately 
 after  morning  or  evening  prayer,  the 
 2  T 
 
 minister  and  the  clun-cliwarclens  shall  take; 
 the  said  ])archment  book  out  of  the  said 
 coffer,  and  the  minister  in  the  jjresence  of 
 the  churchwardens  shall  write  and  record 
 in  the  said  book  the  names  of  all  ])crsons 
 christened,  together  \\\i\\  the  names  and 
 surnames  of  their  jiarents,  and  also  the 
 names  of  all  ])ersons  married  and  buried 
 in  that  ])arish  in  the  Meek  l)ef()re.  and  the 
 day  and  year  of  every  sueli  christening, 
 marriage,  and  burial ;  imd  that  done,  they 
 sliall  lay  up  the  book  in  the  coffer  as 
 before.  And  the  minister  and  church- 
 wardens, unto  every  jiage  of  that  book, 
 when  it  shall  be  filled  with  such  inscrip- 
 tions, shall  subscribe  their  names.  And 
 the  churchwardens  shall  once  every  year, 
 ■within  one  month  after  the  five  and 
 twentieth  day  of  March,  transmit  unto  the 
 bisho]!  of  the  diocese,  or  his  chancellor,  a 
 true  copy  of  the  names  of  all  ])ersons 
 christened,  married,  or  buried  in  their 
 jiarish  in  the  year  before,  (ended  the  said 
 five  and  twentieth  day  of  >Iarch,^  and  the 
 certain  days  and  months  in  which  cvcrv 
 christening,  marriage,  and  burial  was  had, 
 to  be  subscribed  to  with  the  hands  of  the 
 said  minister  and  churchwardens,  to  the 
 end  the  same  may  faithfully  ])e  ])reservcd 
 in  the  registry  of  the  said  bisho]) ;  which 
 certificate  shall  be  received  without  fee. 
 And  if  the  minister  and  churchwardens 
 shall  be  negligent  in  performance  of  any- 
 thing herein  contained,  it  shall  be  lawful 
 for  the  bishop,  or  his  chancellor,  to  con- 
 vent them,  and  proceed  against  ever)-  of 
 them  as  contemners  of  this  our  constitu- 
 tion." 
 
 The  Act  52  Geo.  III.  c.  146,  (a.d.  1812,) 
 directs  that  "registers  of  public  and  pri- 
 vate baptisms,  marriages,  and  burials, 
 solemnized  according  to  the  rites  of  the 
 United  Church  of  England  and  Ireland 
 .  .  .  shall  be  made  and  kept  by  the  rector, 
 vicar,  curate,  or  officiating  minister  of 
 every  ])arish  (or  of  any  chajjelry)  where  tlie 
 ceremonies  of  bajitism,  marriage,  and 
 burial,  have  been  usually,  and  may  accord- 
 ing to  law  be,  performed  for  the  time 
 being,  in  books  of  parchment,  or  of  good 
 and  dural)le  paper,  to  be  provided  by  his 
 Majesty's  ])rinter  as  occasion  may  require, 
 at  the  expense  of  the  respective  parishes 
 or  chapelries;  whereon  shall  be  jirinted, 
 ui)on  each  side  of  every  leaf,  the  heads  of 
 information  herein  required  to  be  entered 
 in  the  registers"  (agreeably  to  schedules 
 annexed  to  the  act).  Such  registers  should 
 be  kept  in  separate  l)ooks,  and  every 
 minister  shall  enter  the  baptism,  or  burial, 
 as  soon  as  possible,  and  shall  sign  the 
 same ;  "  and  in  no  case,  unless  prevented 
 
642 
 
 REGISTER. 
 
 by  sickness,  or  other  unavoidable  impedi- 
 ment, later  than  -within  seven  days  after 
 the  ceremony  of  any  such  baptism,  or 
 burial,  shall  have  taken  place."  (Sect.  3.) 
 
 "Whenever  the  ceremony  of  baptism, 
 or  burial,  shall  be  performed  in  any  other 
 place  than  the  parish  church,  or  church- 
 yard of  any  parish,  (or  the  chapel,  or 
 chapel-yard'of  any  chapelry,  providing  its 
 own  distinct  registers,)  and  such  ceremony 
 shall  be  performed  by  any  minister  not 
 being  the  rector,  vicar,  minister,  or  curate 
 of  any  such  parish  or  chapelry,  the  minis- 
 ter who  shall  perform  such  ceremony  of 
 baptism  or  burial  shall,  on  the  same,  or 
 on  the  next  day,  transmit  to  the  rector, 
 vicar,  or  other  minister  of  such  parish  or 
 chapelry,  or  his  curate,  a  certificate  of  such 
 baptism  or  burial  in  the  form  contained  in 
 the  schedule  (D.)  to  this  act  annexed,  and 
 the  rector,  vicar,  minister,  or  curate  of 
 such  parish  or  chapelry,  shall  thereupon 
 enter  such  baptism  or  burial  according  to 
 such  certificate  in  the  book  kept  pursuant 
 to  this  act  for  such  purpose  ;  and  shall 
 add  to  such  entry  the  following  words, 
 *  According  to  the  certificate  of  the  Rever- 
 end   ,  transmitted  to  me  on  the 
 
 day  of .'" 
 
 "  I  do  Jierehy  certify,  that  I  did  on  the 
 
 day  of baptize,  according  to  the 
 
 rites  of  the  United  Church  of  England  and 
 
 Ireland, ,son  [or  '■^  daughter "~\  of 
 
 and ,  his  icife,  by  the  name  of . 
 
 To  the  Rector  [or,  as  the  case  may  be,] 
 of . 
 
 " '  J  do  hereby  certify,  that  on  the 
 
 day  of A.  B.  of ,  aged ,  ivas 
 
 buried  in  [stating  the  place  of  burial],  and 
 that  the  ceremony  of  burial  ivas  performed 
 according  to  the  rites  of  the  United  Church 
 of  England  and  Ireland,  by  me, . 
 
 To  the  Rector  [or,  as  the  case  may  be,] 
 of .'"     (Sect.  4.) 
 
 Sect.  5  directs,  that  the  new  registers, 
 and  also  those  previously  existing,  shall  be 
 kept  by  the  minister  of  the  parish,  "  in  a 
 dry,  well-painted,  iron  chest,  to  be  pro- 
 vided, and  repaired  as  occasion  may  re- 
 quire, at  the  cost  of  the  parish  ;  which 
 chest  shall  be  constantly  kept  locked  in 
 some  dry,  safe,  and  secure  place  within 
 the  usual  place  of  residence  of  such  minis- 
 ter, or  in  the  parish  church  or  chapel." 
 
 Sect.  6  directs,  that  Avithin  two  months 
 after  the  expiration  of  every  year,  four 
 copies  of  the  registers  for  the  preceding 
 year  shall  be  made  on  parchment  by  the 
 clergyman,  "  or  by  the  churchwardens, 
 chapelwardens,  clerk,  or  other  person  duly 
 appointed  for  the  purpose,  under,  and  by 
 the  direction  of,  such  rector,  vicar,  curate, 
 
 or  other  resident  or  officiating  minister." 
 The  copies  are  to  be  verified  and  signed 
 by  the  clergyman  in  a  prescribed  form,  and 
 his  signature  is  to  be  attested  by  the 
 churchwardens  or  chapelwardens,  or  one 
 of  them.  These  copies  are  to  be  sent  by 
 post  to  the  diocesan  registrars.  (Sect.  7.) 
 In  case  of  the  minister's  neglecting  to 
 verify  the  copies,  the  churchwardens  shall 
 certify  his  default  to  the  registrar,  by 
 whom  it  shall  be  reported  to  the  bishop. 
 (Sect.  9.)  Any  person  convicted  of  falsi- 
 f}ing  a  register,  or  allowing  it  to  be  falsi- 
 fied, shall  be  subject  to  transportation  for 
 fourteen  years.     (Sect.  14.) 
 
 Sect.  16  provides,  that  the  act  shall  not 
 aff"ect  the  fees  payable  to  any  minister  for 
 giving  extracts  of  registers,  &c. 
 
 The  act  of  52  Geo.  III.  is  still  in  force 
 as  regards  the  registration  of  baptisms  and 
 burials  by  clergjTnen.  But  as  to  marriages, 
 an  alteration  has  been  made  by  the  acts 
 6  &  7  Will.  IV.  c.  80,  and  7  Will.  IV.,  and 
 1  Vic.  c.  22.  By  the  former  of  these  acts  the 
 general  civil  registry  was  instituted.  Sect. 
 30  orders,  that  the  Kegistrar-general  shall, 
 at  the  expense  of  the  parish  or  chapehy, 
 furnish  the  rector,  vicar,  or  curate,  of  every 
 church  and  chapel  in  which  marriages  may 
 lawfully  be  solemnized,  duplicate  register 
 books  and  forms  for  certified  copies  there- 
 of. Sect.  31,  that  every  clergyman,  im- 
 mediately after  every  ofiice  of  matrimony 
 solemnized  by  him,  shall  register  in  dupli- 
 cate the  several  particulars  relating  to  that 
 marriage,  according  to  a  new  form,  annexed 
 in  a  schedule  to  the  act.  Sect.  33,  (explain- 
 ed by  7  Will.  IV.,  and  1  Vic.  c.  22,)  that  the 
 clergyman  of  every  church  or  chapel  shall, 
 in  the  months  of  April,  July,  October,  and 
 January  respectively,  make  and  deliver  to 
 the  registrar  of  his  district  a  true  copy, 
 certified  by  him  under  his  hand,  of  all  the 
 entries  of  marriages  in  the  register  book 
 kept  by  him  for  the  three  months  preced- 
 ing, to  the  last  days  of  March,  June,  Sep- 
 tember, and  December  respectively;  and 
 if  there  shall  have  been  no  marriage  since 
 the  last  certificate,  shall  certify  the  fact 
 under  his  hand  ;  and  that  one  copy  of  each 
 duplicate  register  book  shall,  when  filled, 
 be  delivered  to  the  superintendent-regis- 
 trar of  the  district.  Sect.  27  of  the  act  of 
 1  Vic.  provides,  that  for  every  entry  in  the 
 quarterly  certified  copies  the  clergyman 
 shall  receive  sixpence  from  the  registrar, 
 which  sum  is  to  be  repaid  to  the  registrar 
 by  the  guardians  or  overseers  of  his  dis- 
 trict. 
 
 By  the  act  of  6  &  7  Will.  IV.  c.  86,  sect. 
 42, 43,  any  person  who  shall  refuse,  or  with- 
 out reasonable  cause  omit,  to  register  any 
 
REGIUM  DONUM  MONEY. 
 
 marriage  solemnized  by  him,  or  which  he 
 ought  to  register,  and  every  i)erson  having 
 the  custody  of  any  register  book,  who  shall 
 carelessly  lose  or  injure  the  same,  or  care- 
 lessly allow  the  same  to  be  injured  while 
 in  his  keeping,  shall  forfeit  a  sum  not  ex- 
 ceeding £60  for  every  such  ofiencc  ;  and 
 any  person  who  shall  wilfully  destroy, 
 injure,  or  in  any  way  falsify  any  regis- 
 ter book,  or  shall  wilfully  give  any  false 
 certificate  or  extract,  shall  be  guilty  of 
 felony. 
 
 REGIUM  DONUM  MONEY.  Money 
 allowed  by  government  to  the  Dissenters. 
 The  origin  of  it  was  in  the  year  1723.  As 
 the  Dissenters  ajiproved  themselves  strong 
 friends  to  the  House  of  Brunswick,  they 
 enjoyed  favour;  and,  being  excluded  all 
 lucrative  preferment  in  the  Church,  the 
 prime  minister  wished  to  reward  them  for 
 their  loyalty,  and,  by  a  retaining  fee,  to 
 preserve  them  steadfast.  A  considerable 
 sum,  therefore,  was  annually  lodged  with 
 the  heads  of  the  Presbyterians,  Independ- 
 ents, and  Baptists,  to  be  distributed  among 
 the  necessitous  ministers  of  their  congre- 
 gations. 
 
 REGULAR.  In  the  continental  churches 
 those  persons  are  called  reciulars  who  pro- 
 fess to  follow  a  certain  I'lUe  {ref/nla)  of  life, 
 and  observe  the  three  voavs  of  poverty, 
 chastity,  and  obedience ;  in  contradistinc- 
 tion to  the  seculars,  who  live  compara- 
 tively in  the  world.  The  canons  of  the 
 non-monastic  cathedi'als   were    called    sc- 
 
 Pll  I  f\  Y^ 
 
 RELICS.  In  the  Roman  Church,  the 
 remains  of  the  bodies  or  clothes  of  saints 
 or  martjTs,  and  the  instruments  by  which 
 they  were  put  to  death,  are  devoutly  ])re- 
 served,  in  honour  of  their  memory  ;  kissed, 
 revered,  and  carried  in  procession.  The 
 respect  which  Mas  justly  due  to  the  mar- 
 tyrs and  teachers  of  the  Christian  faith,  in 
 a  few  ages,  increased  almost  to  adoration  ; 
 and  at  length  adoration  was  really  paid 
 both  to  departed  saints,  and  to  relics  of 
 holy  men  or  holy  things.  The  abuses  of 
 the  Church  of  Rome  with  respect  to  relics 
 are  very  great  and  flagrant,  and  are  justly 
 censured  in  our  22nd  Article. 
 
 In  the  early  ages  of  the  gospel,  when  its 
 professors  v/ere  exposed  to  every  species 
 of  danger  and  persecution,  it  was  natural 
 for  Christians  to  show  every  mark  of  re- 
 spect, both  to  the  bodies  and  to  the 
 memory  of  those  who  had  suffered  death 
 in  its  cause.  They  collected  their  remains 
 and  buried  them,  not  only  with  decency, 
 but  with  all  the  solemnity  and  honour 
 which  circumstances  would  allow.  It  was 
 also  the  custom  for  Christians  to  hold  their 
 2  T  2 
 
 RELICS. 
 
 04;] 
 
 reliii^ious 
 
 meetings    at    tlio    place-?   when 
 
 their  martyrs  were  buried^  bV  whicli  tliev 
 seemed  as  it  were,  united  with  them:  anil 
 to  disi)lay  their  attachment  to  their  do- 
 l)arted  brethren  by  such  rites,  as  wore 
 dic-tated  by  the  fervour  of  their  devout 
 aflection,  and  were  consistent  with  the 
 principles  of  their  religion.  It  does  not 
 a])])ear  tiiat  this  l)oundary  was  ever  trans- 
 gressed in  the  three  first  centuries;  but  in 
 the  fourth  century,  when  the  pure  and 
 sim])le  worsliip  of  the  gospel  begun  to  be 
 debased  by  superstitious  practices,  we  find 
 strong  jn-oofs  of  an  excessive  love  for 
 everything  which  had  belonged  to  those 
 who  had  distinguislied  themselves  by  their 
 exertions  or  their  sufferings  for  the  truth 
 of  Christianity,  and  especially  for  any  ])art 
 of  their  garments,  hair,  or  bones.  Augus- 
 tine in  Africa,  and  \igilantius  in  Spain, 
 complained  loudly  of  this  culpable  fond- 
 ness for  relics,  which  they  sj)eak  of  as  a 
 new  corruption,  then  first  aijjjearing  in  the 
 Christian  world  ;  but  the  warm  disposition 
 of  Jerome  led  him  to  stand  forward  in 
 their  defence  witii  more  zeal  than  discre- 
 tion. However,  this  learned  Father,  even 
 while  he  leans  to  the  o))inion  that  miracles 
 were  sometimes  wrougjit  by  relics,  expli- 
 citly disclaims  all  idea  of  "offering  them 
 worsliip.  But,  w  hen  superstition  has  once 
 made  its  way  into  the  minds  of  men,  it 
 gradually  gains  ground  ;  and  it  is  difficult 
 to  set  limits  to  it,  jiarticularly  wlu-n  there 
 is  a  set  of  persons,  respected  for  their 
 piety,  who  are  studious  to  encourage  it. 
 Monks  can-ied  about  relics  ;  and  with 
 great  ease,  and  no  small  advantage  to 
 themselves,  persuaded  that  ignorant  age 
 of  their  value  and  importance.  Under 
 their  recommendation  and  patronage,  they 
 were  soon  considered  as  the  best  ])reserv- 
 atives  against  every  })0ssil)le  evil  of  soul 
 and  body  ;  and  when  the  worshi]ij)ing  of 
 images  came  to  be  established,  tlic  en- 
 shrining of  relics  was  a  natural  consequence 
 of  tliat  doctrine.  This  led  the  way  to  ab- 
 solute worship  of  relics,  which  was  now 
 ])reached  by  the  Romish  clergy  as  n  Chris- 
 tian duty.  livery  one  thought  it  necessary- 
 to  possess  a  relic  of  some  saint  or  martyr, 
 as  the  effectual  means  of  securing  his  care 
 and  ])rotection  ;  and  fraud  and  imj)osition 
 did  not  fail  to  furnisli  a  supj)ly  proi)ortion- 
 al)le  to  the  demand.  'I'he  discovery  of  the 
 catacombs  at  ]{ome  was  an  inexhaustible 
 source  of  relics;  and  thus  the  popes  them- 
 selves became  directly  interested  in  main- 
 taining this  superstitious  worship.  Thi- 
 Council  of  Trent  authorized  the  atloration 
 of  relics;  and  they  continue  in  high  esteem 
 among    the    Papists    of   the    present   day. 
 
644 
 
 RELIGIOUS. 
 
 REPAIRS  OF  CHURCHES. 
 
 What  has  been  ah'eady  said  is  amply  suf- 
 ficient to  point  out  the  absurdity  of  Avor- 
 shipping  relics.  It  is  a  doctrine  manifestly 
 '*  grounded  upon  no  warranty  of  Scrip- 
 ture :  "  it  is  "  a  fond  thing,"  that  is,  fooHsh 
 and  trifling,  in  the  extreme  ;  directly  con- 
 trary to  the  practice  of  the  primitive 
 Christians,  and  utterly  irreconcileable  with 
 common  sense. — Bp.   Tomline. 
 
 KELIGIOUS.  This  was  the  term  given 
 in  our  Church  before  the  Reformation  to 
 persons  engaged  by  solemn  vows  to  the 
 monastic  life.  It  is  still  used  in  this  sense 
 on  the  Continent,  and  among  the  Popish 
 llecusants. 
 
 REMONSTRANTS.  (See  Arminians.) 
 This  name  was  given  to  the  Arminians, 
 because  in  1610  they  presented  a  remon- 
 strance to  the  states-general  of  Holland 
 and  West  Friesland,  specifying  their  griev- 
 ances. 
 
 RENOVATION.  Regeneration  is  the 
 joint  work  of  water  and  the  Spirit,  or,  to 
 speak  more  properly,  of  the  Spirit  only; 
 renovation  is  the  joint  work  of  the  Spirit 
 and  the  man.  Regeneration  comes  only 
 once,  in  or  through  baptism.  Renovation 
 exists  before,  in,  and  after  baptism,  and 
 may  be  often  repeated.  Regeneration, 
 being  a  single  act,  can  have  no  parts,  and 
 is  incapable  of  increase.  Renovation  is, 
 in  its  very  nature,  progressive.  Regenera- 
 tion, though  suspended  as  to  its  effects 
 and  benefits,  cannot  be  totally  lost  in  the 
 present  life.  Renovation  may  be  often  re- 
 peated and  totally  lost.  Dr.  Waterland 
 distinguishes  between  regeneration  and 
 renovation  thus  : — 
 
 1.  Grown  persons  coming  to  baptism 
 properly  qualified,  receive  at  once  the  grace 
 of  regeneration ;  but,  however  well  pre- 
 pared, they  are  not  regenerate  without 
 baptism.  Afterwards  renovation  growS 
 more  and  more  within  them  by  the  in- 
 dwelling of  the  Spirit. 
 
 2.  As  to  infants,  their  innocence  and  in- 
 capacity are  to  them  instead  of  repentance, 
 which  they  do  not  want,  and  of  actual 
 faith,  which  they  cannot  have :  and  they 
 are  capable  of  being  born  again,  and 
 adopted  by  GoD,  because  they  bring  no 
 obstacle.  They  stipulate,  and  the  Holy 
 Spirit  translates  them  out  of  a  state  of 
 nature  into  a  state  of  grace,  favour,  and 
 acceptance.  In  their  case,  regeneration 
 precedes,  and  renovation  follows  after,  and 
 they  are  the  temple  of  the  SPIRIT  till  they 
 defile  themselves  with  sin. 
 
 3.  As  to  those  who  fall  off  after  regener- 
 ation, their  covenant  state  abides,  but 
 without  any  saving  effect,  because  without 
 present  renovation  :  but  this  saving  effect 
 
 may  be  repaired  and  recovered  by  repent- 
 ance. 
 
 4.  With  respect  to  those  who  receive 
 baptism  in  a  state  of  hypocrisy  or  impeni- 
 tency,  though  this  sacrament  can  only  in- 
 crease their  condemnation,  still  pardon  and 
 grace  are  conditionally  made  over  to  them, 
 and  the  saving  virtue  of  regeneration, 
 which  had  been  hitherto  suspended,  takes 
 effect,  when  they  truly  repent  and  un- 
 feignedly  believe  the  gospel. 
 
 RENUNCIATION.  In  holy  baptism, 
 the  persons  baptized,  or  in  the  case  of  in- 
 fants their  sponsors  in  their  name,  are 
 asked,  '*  Dost  thou  renounce  the  devil  and 
 all  his  works,  the  vain  pomp  and  glory  of 
 the  world,  with  all  covetous  desires  of  the 
 same,  and  the  carnal  desires  of  the  flesh, 
 so  that  thou  wilt  not  follow  nor  be  led  by 
 them  ?  "  And  their  answer  is,  "  /  renounce 
 them  all."  This  renunciation  is  of  very 
 great  antiquity,  so  great  indeed  that  its 
 beginning  cannot  be  traced,  nor  any  time 
 mentioned  when  it  was  not  used ;  so  that 
 it  is  probably  of  apostolic  origin. 
 
 REPAIRS  OF  CHURCHES.  An- 
 ciently the  bishops  had  the  whole  tithes 
 of  the  diocese  ;  a  fourth  part  of  which,  in 
 every  parish,  was  to  be  applied  to  the  re- 
 pairs of  the  church  ;  but,  upon  a  release  of 
 this  interest  to  the  rectors,  they  were  con- 
 sequently acquitted  of  the  repairs  of  the 
 churches. 
 
 And  by  the  canon  law,  the  repair  of  the 
 church  belongeth  to  him  who  receiveth 
 this  fourth  part ;  that  is,  to  the  rector,  and 
 not  to  the  parishioners. 
 
 But  custom  (that  is,  the  common  law) 
 transferreth  the  burden  of  reparation,  at 
 least  of  the  nave  of  the  church,  upon  the 
 parishioners  ;  and  likewise  sometimes  of 
 the  chancel,  as  particularly  in  the  city  of 
 London  in  many  churches  there. 
 
 But,  generally,  the  parson  is  bound  to 
 repair  the  chancel.  Not  because  the  free- 
 hold is  in  him,  for  so  is  the  freehold  of  the 
 church ;  but  by  the  custom  of  England, 
 which  hath  allotted  the  repairs  of  the 
 chancel  to  the  parson,  and  the  repairs  of 
 the  church  to  the  parishioners  :  yet  so, 
 that  if  the  custom  hath  been  for  the  parish, 
 or  the  estate  of  a  particular  person,  to 
 repair  the  chancel,  that  custom  shall  be 
 good. 
 
 As  to  the  vicars,  it  is  ordained  by  a 
 constitution  of  Archbishop  Winch elsea,  that 
 the  chancel  shall  be  repaired  by  the  rectors 
 and  vicars,  or  others  to  whom  such  repair 
 belongeth.  Whereupon  Lyndwood  ob- 
 serves, that  where  there  is  both  rector  and 
 vicar  in  the  same  church,  they  shall  con- 
 tribute in  proportion  to    their  benefice ; 
 
REPAIRS  OF  CHURCHES. 
 
 (ila 
 
 which  is  to  be  understood  where  there  is 
 not  a  certain  direction,  order,  or  custom, 
 unto  which  of  them  such  reparation  shall 
 appertain. 
 
 And  as  rectors  or  spiritual  persons,  so 
 also  impropriators,  are  bound  of  common 
 right  to  repair  the  chancels.  This  doctrine 
 (under  the  limitations  ex]>rcssed  in  the  fore- 
 going paragraphs)  is  clear  and  uncontested : 
 the  only  difficulty  hath  been  in  Avhat 
 manner  they  shall  be  compelled  to  do  it ; 
 whether  by  spiritual  censures  only,  in  like 
 manner  as  the  parishioners  are  compelled 
 to  contribute  to  the  repairs  of  the  church, 
 since  impropriations  are  now  become  lay 
 fees  ;  or  whether  by  sequestrations  (as  in- 
 cumbents, and,  as  it  should  seem,  spiritual 
 impropriators  of  all  kinds,  may  be  com- 
 pelled). 
 
 As  to  this,  it  is  said  to  have  been  the 
 opinion  of  the  court  of  Common  Pleas, 
 that  the  Spiritual  Court  may  grant  seques- 
 tration upon  an  impropriate  ])arsonage,  for 
 not  repairing  the  chancel  (^I.  29.  C.  2.  3 
 Keh.  829) ;  yet  by  another  book  it  is  said, 
 that  the  court  of  Common  Pleas  did  incline 
 that  there  could  be  no  sequestration ;  for, 
 being  made  a  lay  fee,  the  impropriation 
 was  out  of  the  jurisdiction  of  the  court 
 Christian,  and  they  were  only  to  proceed 
 against  the  person,  as  against  another  lay- 
 man, for  not  repairing  the  church.  (T.  22. 
 C.  2.  2  Vent.  35.)  And  by  the  same  case 
 as  reported,  (2  Mod.  157,)  it  is  said  that 
 the  whole  court,  except  Judge  Atkins, 
 were  of  that  opinion. 
 
 On  the  contrary.  Dr.  Gibson  observes, 
 that  impropriations,  before  they  became 
 lay  fees,  were  undoubtedly  liable  to  se- 
 questration ;  that  the  king  was  to  enjoy 
 them  in  the  same  manner  as  the  religious 
 had  done,  and  nothing  was  conveyed  to 
 the  king  at  the  dissolution  of  monasteries, 
 but  what  the  religious  had  conveyed ;  that 
 is,  the  profits  over  and  a])ove  the  finding 
 of  Divine  service,  and  the  repairing  of  the 
 chancel,  and  other  ecclesiastical  burdens : 
 and  the  general  saving  (he  says)  in  the 
 31  Henry  YIII.  c.  13,  may  be  Avell  ex- 
 tended to  a  saving  of  the  right  of  the  or- 
 dinary in  this  particular,  which  right  he 
 undoubtedly  had  by  the  law  and  the  prac- 
 tice of  the  Church,  which  said  right  is  not 
 abrogated  by  any  statute  whatsoever.  And 
 he  observes  further  these  things  :  1.  That 
 although  (as  was  expressly  alleged  in  tlie 
 tAvo  cases  above  referred  to)  this  power 
 had  been  frequently  exercised  by  tlie  spi- 
 ritual courts,  yet  no  instances  do  a])i)ear, 
 before  these,  of  any  ojiposition  made.  2. 
 That,  in  both  the  said  instances,  judgment 
 was  given,  not  upon  the  matter  or  point  in 
 
 hand,  but  upon  errors  found  in  tlie  i)ha(b 
 ings.  3.  That  one  argument  against  tlie 
 aUowing  the  ordinary  such  jurisdiction 
 was  ah  inconrenienti,  that  such  allowance 
 would  be  a  step  towards  giving  ordinaries 
 a  power  to  augment  vicarages,  as  they 
 miglit  have  done,  and  frequently  did,  be- 
 fore the  dissolution. 
 
 ^\llere  tliere  are  more  im])ro])riat()rs 
 than  one,  (as  is  frequently  the  case.)  and 
 the  ])rosecution  is  to  be  carried  on  by  the 
 churchwardens  to  compel  tliem  to  re|)air, 
 it  seemeth  advisable  for  the  churchwanh-ns 
 first  to  call  a  vestry,  and  there  (after  having 
 made  a  rate  for  the  re])air  of  the  church, 
 and  other  expenses  necessary  in  the  exe- 
 cution of  their  office)  that  the  vestry  make 
 an  order  for  the  churchwardens  to"  ])rose- 
 cutc  the  ini])ro])riators,  at  the  parish  ex- 
 ])ense  ;  in  which  jn-osecution  tlie  court  will 
 not  settle  tlie  jiroportion  amongst  the  ini- 
 ])ropriators,  l)ut  admonish  all  wIki  are  made 
 parties  to  the  suit,  to  rej^air  the  chancel, 
 under  ])ain  of  excommunication.  Nor  will 
 it  be  necessary  to  make  every  im])roj)riator 
 a  party,  but  only  to  j)rove  that  the  jiarties 
 jirosecuted  have  received  tithes  or  other 
 ])rofits  belonging  to  the  rectory,  sufficient 
 to  repair  it;  and  they  must  settle  the  pro- 
 portion among  themselves :  for  it  is  not  a 
 suit  against  tliem  for  a  sum  of  money,  ])ut 
 for  a  neglect  of  the  duty  which  is  incum- 
 bent on  all  of  them  ;  though  it  may  be  ad- 
 visable to  make  as  many  of  them  parties  as 
 can  be  come  at  with  certainty. 
 
 Repairing  of  the  chancel  is  a  discharge 
 from  contributing  to  the  rei)airs  of  the 
 church.  This  is  su])posed  to  be  the  known 
 law  of  the  Church,  in  the  gloss  of  John 
 de  Athon  upon  a  constitution  of  Othobon, 
 (hereafter  mentioned,)  for  the  rej)aration 
 of  chancels  ;  and  is  also  evident  from  the 
 ground  of  the  respective  obligations  upon 
 parson  and  ])arishioners  to  repair,  the  first 
 the  chancel,  the  second  the  church,  which 
 was  evidently  a  division  of  the  burden, 
 and  by  consequence  a  mutual  disengaging 
 of  each  from  that  i)art  which  the  other 
 took.  And  therefore  as  it  was  declared  in 
 Serjeant  Davie's  ca.se,  (2  liolFs  livp.  211,) 
 that  there  could  be  no  doubt  but  the  im- 
 propriator was  ratealile  to  the  church,  for 
 lands  Avhich  were  not  parcel  of  the  par- 
 sonage, notwithstanding  his  obligation  ns 
 parson  to  rejiair  the  chancel;  so,  when 
 this  i)lea  of  the  fanner  of  an  iniprojiriation, 
 (2  Krh.  730.  742.)  to  be  exempt  from  the 
 parish  rate  because  herejiaired  the  chancel, 
 was  refused  in  the  spiritual  court,  it  must 
 probably  have  been  a  plea  offered  to  ex- 
 empt other  ])ossessions  also  from  ehun  h 
 rates.— 6't7»i».  199,  200. 
 
646 
 
 REPAIRS  OF  CHURCHES. 
 
 If  there  be  a  chapel  of  ease  within  a 
 parish,  and  some  part  of  the  parish  have 
 used  time  out  of  mind,  alone,  without 
 others  of  the  parishioners,  to  repair  the 
 chapel  of  ease,  and  there  to  hear  service, 
 and  to  marry,  and  all  the  other  things,  but 
 only  they  bury  at  the  mother-church,  yet 
 they  shall  not  be  discharged  of  the  repara- 
 tion of  the  mother-church,  but  ought  to 
 contribute  thereto  ;  for  the  chapel  was  or- 
 dained only  for  their  ease. 
 
 So  in  the  said  case,  if  the  inhabitants 
 who  have  used  to  repair  the  chapel  pre- 
 scribe that  they  have  time  out  of  mind 
 used  to  repair  the  chapel,  and  by  reason 
 thereof  have  been  discharged  of  the  repara- 
 tion of  the  mother-church,  yet  this  shall 
 not  discharge  them  of  the  reparation  of  the 
 mother-church,  for  that  is  not  any  direct 
 prescription  to  be  discharged  thereof,  but 
 it  is,  by  reason  thereof,  a  prescription  for 
 the  reparation  of  the  chapel. 
 
 If  the  chapel  be  thi'ee  miles  distant  from 
 the  mother-church,  and  the  inhabitants 
 who  have  used  to  come  to  the  chapel,  have 
 used  always  to  repair  the  chapel,  and  there 
 marry  and  bury,  and  have  never  within 
 sixty  years  been  charged  to  the  repair  of 
 the  mother-church,  yet  this  is  not  any 
 cause  to  have  a  prohibition;  but  they 
 ought  to  show  in  the  spiritual  court  their 
 exemption,  if  they  have  any,  upon  the 
 endowment. 
 
 But  if  the  inhabitants  of  a  chapelry 
 prescribe  to  be  discharged  time  out  of  mind 
 of  the  reparation  of  the  mother-church, 
 and  they  are  sued  for  the  reparation  of 
 the  mother-church,  a  prohibition  lieth  upon 
 this  surmise. 
 
 If  two  churches  be  united,  the  repairs 
 of  the  several  churches  shall  be  made  as 
 they  were  before  the  union. 
 
 Othohon.  The  archdeacon  shall  cause 
 chancels  to  be  repaired  by  those  who  are 
 bound  thereunto. — Ath.  112. 
 
 Reynolds.  We  enjoin  the  archdeacons 
 and  their  officials,  that,  in  the  visitation  of 
 churches,  they  have  a  diligent  regard  to 
 the  fabric  of  the  church,  and  especially  of 
 the  chancel,  to  see  if  they  want  repair ; 
 and  if  they  find  any  defects  of  that  kind, 
 they  shall  limit  a  certain  time  under  a 
 penalty,  within  which  they  shall  be  re- 
 paired. Also,  they  shall  inquire  by  them- 
 selves or  their  officials  in  the  parish  where 
 they  visit,  if  there  be  aught  in  things  or 
 persons  which  wanteth  to  be  corrected : 
 and  if  they  shall  find  any  such,  they  shall 
 correct  the  same,  either  then,  or  in  the 
 next  chapter. — Lr/ndw. 
 
 The  fabric  of  the  church  consisteth  of 
 the  walls,  windoAvs,  and  covering. — Lijndw. 
 
 Where  the  penalty  is  not  limited,  the 
 same  is  arbitrary  (saith  Lyndwood) :  but 
 this  cannot  intend  here  (he  says)  the 
 penalty  of  excommunication  ;  inasmuch  as 
 it  concerneth  the  parishioners  vt  imirersos, 
 as  a  body  or  whole  society,  who  are  bound 
 to  the  fabric  of  the  body  of  the  church  : 
 for  the  pain  of  excommunication  is  not 
 inflicted  upon  a  whole  body  together, 
 although  it  may  be  inflicted  upon  every 
 person  severally  who  shall  be  culpable  in 
 this  behalf.  And  the  same  may  be  ob- 
 served as  to  the  penalty  of  suspension 
 which  cannot  fall  upon  the  parishioners  as 
 a  community  or  collective  body.  Yet  the 
 archdeacon  in  this  case,  if  the  defect  be 
 enormous,  may  enjoin  a  penalty,  that, 
 after  the  limited  time  shall  be  expired. 
 Divine  service  shall  not  be  performed  in 
 the  church,  vmtil  competent  reparation 
 shall  be  made ;  so  that  the  parishioners 
 may  be  punished  by  suspension  or  in- 
 terdict of  the  place.  But  if  there  are  any 
 particular  persons  who  are  bound  to  con- 
 tribute toAvards  the  repair,  and  although 
 they  be  able,  are  not  willing,  or  do  neglect 
 the  same,  such  persons  may  be  compelled 
 by  a  monition  to  such  contribution,  under 
 pain  of  excommunication,  that  so  the 
 church  may  not  continue  for  a  long  time 
 unrepaired,  through  their  default. — Lyndw. 
 
 But  this  was  before  the  time  that 
 churchwardens  had  the  special  charge  of 
 the  repairs  of  the  church  ;  and  it  seemeth 
 now  that  the  process  shall  issue  against 
 the  churchwardens,  and  that  they  may  be 
 excommunicated  for  disobedience. 
 
 Strafford.  Forasmuch  as  archdeacons 
 and  other  ordinaries  in  their  visitations, 
 finding  defects  as  Avell  in  the  churches  as 
 in  the  ornaments  thereof,  and  the  fences 
 of  the  churchyard,  and  in  the  houses  of 
 the  incumbents,  do  command  them  to  be 
 repaired  under  pecuniary  penalties ;  and 
 from  those  that  do  not  obey  do  exact  the 
 same  penalties  by  censures,  wherewith  the 
 said  defects  ought  to  be  repaired,  and 
 thereby  enrich  their  own  purses  to  the 
 damage  of  the  poor  people ;  therefore  that 
 there  be  no  occasion  of  complaint  against 
 the  archdeacons  and  other  ordinaries  and 
 their  ministers  by  reason  of  such  penal 
 exactions,  and  that  it  becometh  not  eccle- 
 siastical persons  to  gape  after  or  enrich 
 themselves  with  dishonest  and  penal  ac- 
 quisitions ;  we  ordain,  that  such  penalties, 
 so  often  as  they  shall  be  exacted,  shall  be 
 converted  to  the  use  of  such  repairs, 
 under  pain  of  suspension  ah  officio  which 
 they  shall  ipso  facto  incur,  until  they  shall 
 effectually  assign  what  was  so  received  to 
 the  reparation  of  the  said  defects. — Lyndw. 
 
REPAIRS  OF  CHURCHES. 
 
 By  Canon  86.  "  Every  dean,  dean  and 
 chapter,  archdeacon,  and  others  which 
 have  authority  to  hold  ecclesiastical  visit- 
 ations by  composition,  law,  or  prescrip- 
 tion, shall  survey  the  churches  of  his  or 
 their  jurisdiction  once  in  every  three 
 years,  in  his  own  person,  or  cause  the 
 same  to  be  done." 
 
 And  by  the  said  canon  they  w^ere  re- 
 quired, from  time  to  time,  to  certify  the 
 high  commissioners  for  causes  ecclesias- 
 tical, every  year,  of  such  defects  in  any 
 the  said  churches  as  he  or  they  should 
 find  to  remain  unrepaired,  and  the  names 
 and  surnames  of  the  parties  faulty  therein. 
 Upon  which  certificate  the  high  com- 
 missioners were  desired  by  the  said  canon, 
 ex  officio  mero,  to  send  for  such  parties, 
 and  compel  them  to  obey  the  just  and 
 lawful  decrees  of  the  ecclesiastical  ordi- 
 naries making  such  certificates.  But  by 
 the  16  Car.  I.  c.  11,  the  High  Commission 
 Court  Avas  abolished ;  so  that  the  cog- 
 nizance thereof  now  resteth  solely  upon 
 the  ecclesiastical  judge. 
 
 By  the  statute  of  Circwnspecte  agatis, 
 (13  Edward  I.  st.  iv.,)  "If  prelates  do  pun- 
 ish for  that  the  church  is  uncovered,  or  not 
 conveniently  decked,  the  spiritual  judge 
 shall  have  power  to  take  knowledge,  not- 
 withstanding the  king's  prohibition." 
 
 *'  The  Church."  This  is  intended  not 
 only  of  the  body  of  the  church,  which  is 
 parochial,  but  also  of  any  public  chapel 
 annexed  to  it ;  but  it  extendeth  not  to  the 
 private  chapel  of  any,  though  it  be  fixed 
 to  the  church,  for  that  must  be  repaired 
 by  him  that  hath  the  proper  use  of  it,  for 
 he  that  hath  the  profit  ought  to  bear  the 
 burden. 
 
 Canon  85.  "  The  churchwardens  or 
 questmen  shall  take  care  and  provide,  that 
 the  churches  be  well  and  sufticiently  re- 
 paired, and  so  from  time  to  time  kept  and 
 maintained,  that  the  windows  be  well 
 glazed,  and  that  the  floors  be  kept  paved, 
 plain,  and  even." 
 
 If  the  churchwardens  erect  or  add  any- 
 thing new  in  the  church,  as  a  new  gallery 
 where  there  Avas  none  before,  they  must 
 have  the  consent  of  the  major  part  of  the 
 parishioners,  and  also  a  licence  of  the 
 ordinary. 
 
 But  as  to  the  common  reparations  of  the 
 fabric  or  ornaments  of  tlie  church,  where 
 nothing  new  is  added  or  done,  it  doth  not 
 appear  that  any  consent' of  tlie  major  part 
 of  the  parishioners  is  necessary  ;  for  to  this 
 the  churchwardens  arc  bound  by  their  of- 
 fice, and  they  are  punishable  if  they  do  it 
 not.     (See  hoAvever  Rate.) 
 
 If  the  major  part  of  the  parishioners  of 
 
 REPENTANCE. 
 
 617 
 
 a  parish,  where  there  are  four  bells,  agree 
 that  there  shall  be  made  a  fifth  bell,"uid 
 this  is  made  accordingly,  and  they  make  a 
 rate  for  paying  the  same,  this  shall  bind 
 the  lesser  part  of  the  ])arisliioners,  althougli 
 they  agree  not  to  it :  for  otherwise  any 
 obstinate  persons  may  hinder  anytliing  in- 
 tended to  be  done  for  the  ornament  of  the 
 church. 
 
 And  although  churchwardens  are  not 
 charged  with  the  repairs  of  the  chancel, 
 yet  they  are  charged  with  tlie  supervisal 
 thereof,  to  see  that  it  be  not  permitted  to 
 dilapidate  and  fall  into  decay ;  and  when 
 any  such  dila])idations  shall  hajijjcn,  if  no 
 care  be  taken  to  repair  tlie  same,  they  are 
 to  make  presentment  thereof  at  the  next 
 visitation. 
 
 If  a  church  be  so  much  out  of  repair, 
 that  it  is  necessary  to  pull  it  down ;  or  so 
 small,  that  it  needs  to  be  enlarged  ;  the 
 major  part  of  the  parishioners,  having  Hist 
 obtained  the  consent  of  the  ordinary  to  do 
 what  is  needful,  and  meeting  upon  due 
 notice,  may  make  a  rate  for  new  building, 
 or  enlarging,  as  there  shall  be  occasion. 
 This  was  declared  in  the  29  Car.  II.  by  all 
 the  three  courts  successively,  notwithstand- 
 ing the  cause  was  much  laboured  by  a 
 great  number  of  Quakers,  who  opposed 
 the  rate. 
 
 And  the  proper  method  of  proceeding 
 in  such  case  seems  to  be  thus  :  namely, 
 that  the  churchwardens  first  of  all  take 
 care  that  public  notice  be  given  in  the 
 church  for  a  general  vestry  of  the  whole 
 parish  for  that  purpose ;  Avhich  notice 
 ought  to  be  attested  and  carefully  jire- 
 served,  as  being  the  foundation  of  all  the 
 subsequent  proceedings.  At  the  time  and 
 place  of  meeting,  the  minister  and  church- 
 wardens ought  to  attend ;  and  when  the 
 parishioners  are  assembled,  the  minister  is 
 proper  to  preside ;  and  he,  or  one  of  the 
 churchwardens,  or  such  person  as  shall  be 
 appointed  by  them,  ought  to  enter  the  or- 
 ders of  the  vestry,  and  tiien  have  them  read 
 and  signed.  And  agreeable  thereunto,  a 
 petition  to  the  ordinary  fur  a  faculty  (set- 
 ting forth  the  j)articulars)  should  be  drawn 
 up  and  signed  by  the  minister,  church- 
 wardens, and  parishioners  present,  and  aj)- 
 proving  thereof.  W'liereupon  the  ordinary 
 will  issue  a  monition  to  cite  all  jjcrsons 
 concerned  to  show  cause  why  a  faculty 
 should  not  he  granted.  Upon  the  return 
 of  which  citation,  if  no  cause,  or  not  suffi- 
 cient cause,  is  showed,  the  ordinary  will 
 proceed  to  grant  a  faculty  as  is  desired, 
 and  as  to  him  shall  seem  good. 
 
 JUoPENTANCE  (see  Pcnilenco,  Pen- 
 ance) signifies  a  sincere  sorrow  for  all  ])a.st 
 
648 
 
 REREDOS. 
 
 RESIDENCE. 
 
 transgressions  of  God's  laws,  an  unfeigned 
 disposition  of  mind  to  perform  the  'svill  of 
 God  better  for  the  future,  and  an  actual 
 avoiding  and  resisting  of  those  temptations 
 to  sin  bv  Avhich  we  have  been  overpowered. 
 
 KEKEDOS.  A  screen  behind  an  altar. 
 In  large  conventual  churches,  where  there 
 is  a  space  behind  the  high  altar,  this  was 
 the  universal  termination  of  the  ritual 
 presbytery ;  and  sometimes,  as  at  Win- 
 chester, St.  Alban's,  and  Durham,  this 
 screen  was  of  extreme  magnificence.  In 
 smaller  churches,  where  the  reredos  was 
 not  required,  the  altar  being  at  the  ex- 
 treme east,  it  is  seldom  found,  though  an 
 arcade,  or  other  enrichment  of  the  space 
 beneath  and  at  the  sides  of  the  east  win- 
 doAV,  sometimes  occurs. 
 
 RESIDE^'CE.  1.  Otho.  The  bishop 
 shall  provide,  that  in  every  church  there 
 shall  be  one  resident,  who  shall  take  care 
 of  the  cure  of  souls,  and  exercise  him- 
 self profitably  and  honestly  in  performing 
 Divine  service  and  administration  of  the 
 sacraments. — Atlion  36. 
 
 The  rule  of  the  ancient  canon  law  was, 
 that  if  a  clergyman  deserted  his  church  or 
 prebend,  without  just  and  necessary  cause, 
 and  especially  without  the  consent  of  the 
 diocesan,  he  should  be  deprived.  And 
 agreeable  hereunto  was  the  practice  in 
 this  realm ;  for  though  sometimes  the 
 bishop  proceeded  only  to  sequestration,  or 
 other  censm-es  of  an  inferior  nature,  yet 
 the  more  frequent  punishment  was  depriv- 
 ation.—  Gibson,  827.     • 
 
 2.  Regularly,  personal  residence  is  re- 
 quired of  ecclesiastical  persons  upon  their 
 cures ;  and  to  that  end,  by  the  common 
 law,  if  he  that  hath  a  benefice  with  cure 
 be  chosen  to  an  ofiice  of  bailiff,  or  beadle, 
 or  the  like  secular  office,  he  may  have  the 
 king's  writ  for  his  discharge. — 2  Inst.  625. 
 
 For  the  intendment  of  the  common  law 
 is,  that  a  clerk  is  resident  upon  his  cui'e  ; 
 insomuch  that  in  an  action  of  debt  brought 
 against  J.  S.,  rector  of  D.,  the  defendant 
 pleading  that  he  was  demurrant  and  con- 
 versant at  B.  in  another  county,  the  plea 
 was  overruled;  for,  since  the  defendant 
 denied  not  that  he  was  rector  of  the 
 church  of  I).,  he  shall  be  deemed  by  law 
 to  be  demurrant  and  conversant  there  for 
 the  cure  of  souls. — 2  Inst. 
 
 3.  By  the  statute  of  the  Articuli  cleri, 
 (9  £dw.  II.  St.  i.  c.  8,)  in  the  articles  ex- 
 hibited by  the  clergy,  one  is  as  follows: 
 Also  barons  of  the  king's  Exchequer, 
 claiming  by  their  privilege,  that  they 
 ought  to  make  answer  to  no  complainant 
 out  of  the  same  place,  do  extend  the  same 
 privilege  unto  clerks  abiding  there,  called 
 
 to  orders  or  unto  residence,  and  inhibit 
 ordinaries  that  by  no  means,  or  for  any 
 cause,  so  long  as  they  be  in  the  Exchequer, 
 or  in  the  king's  services,  they  shall  not 
 call  them  to  judgment.  "  Unto  which  it  is 
 answered,"  It  pleaseth  our  lord  the  king, 
 that  such  clerks  as  attend  in  his  service, 
 if  they  offend,  shall  be  correct  by  their 
 ordinaries,  like  as  other;  but  so  long  as 
 they  are  occupied  about  the  Exchequer, 
 they  shall  not  be  bound  to  keep  residence 
 in  their  churches.  And  this  is  added  of 
 new  by  the  king's  council :  The  king  and 
 his  ancestors,  since  time  out  of  mind,  have 
 used  that  clerks  which  are  employed  in  his 
 service,  during  such  time  as  they  are  in 
 service,  shall  not  be  compelled  to  keep  re- 
 sidence at  their  benefices  ;  and  such  things 
 as  be  thought  necessary  for  the  king  and 
 commonwealth,  ought  not  to  be  said  to  be 
 prejudicial  to  the  liberty  of  the  Church." 
 
 By  the  21  Hen.  VIII.  c.  13,  commonly 
 called  the  statute  of  Non-residence :  As 
 well  every  spiritual  person,  now  being 
 promoted  to  any  archdeaconry,  deanery,  or 
 dignity  in  any  monastery,  or  catheckal 
 church,  or  other  church  conventual  or 
 collegiate,  or  being  beneficed  with  any 
 parsonage  or  vicarage ;  as  all  and  every 
 spiritual  person  and  persons,  which  here- 
 after shall  be  promoted  to  any  of  the  said 
 dignities  or  benefices,  with  any  parsonage 
 or  vicarage,  shall  be  j^ersonally  resident 
 and  abiding  in,  at,  and  upon  his  said  dig- 
 nity, prebend,  or  benefice,  or  at  any  one 
 of  them  at  the  least;  and  in  case  he  shall 
 not  keep  residence  at  one  of  them  as 
 aforesaid,  but  absent  himself  wilfully  by 
 the  space  of  one  month  together,  or  by  the 
 space  of  two  months  to  be  at  several  times 
 in  any  one  year,  and  make  his  residence 
 and  abiding  in  any  other  places  by  such 
 time,  he  shall  forfeit  for  every  such  default 
 £10,  half  to  the  king,  and  half  to  him  that 
 will  sue  for  the  same  in  any  of  the  king's 
 courts  by  original  writ  of  debt,  bill,  plaint, 
 or  information,  in  which  action  and  suit  the 
 defendant  shall  not  wage  his  law,  nor  have 
 any  essoin  or  protection  allowed.    (S.  26.) 
 
 And  if  any  person  or  persons  shall  pro- 
 cure at  the  court  of  Rome,  or  elsewhere, 
 any  licence  or  dispensation  to  be  non- 
 resident at  their  said  dignities,  prebends, 
 or  benefices,  contrary  to  this  act ;  every 
 such  person,  putting  in  execution  any  such 
 dispensation  or  licence  for  himself,  shall 
 incur  the  penalty  of  £20  for  every  time  so 
 doing,  to  be  forfeited  and  recovered  as 
 aforesaid,  and  such  licence  or  dispensation 
 shall  be  void.    (S.  27.) 
 
 Provided  that  this  act  of  non-residence 
 shall  not  extend  nor  be  prejudicial  to  any 
 
RESIDENCE. 
 
 C^9 
 
 such  spiritual  person  as  sliall  eliaiice  to  l)e 
 in  llie  kinj^'s  service  beyond  the  sea,  nor 
 to  any  person  goinj;  to  any  ])ilL'rima};e  or 
 holy  place  beyond  tlie  sea,  durin<2^  the  time 
 that  they  shall  so  be  in  the  kin^^'s  service, 
 or  in  the  pil<i;rima<;e  goiny;  and  returning; 
 home  ;  nor  to  any  scholar  or  scholars  licini;- 
 conversant  and  abiding  tor  study,  without 
 fraud  or  covin,  at  any  university  Avitliin 
 this  realm  or  ^vithout ;  nor  to  any  of  tlie 
 chaplains  of  the  king  or  queen,  daily  or 
 quarterly  attending  and  abiding  in  the 
 king's  or  queen's  most  honouralile  house- 
 hold; nor  to  any  of  the  chaj)lains  of  the 
 prince  or  princess,  or  any  of  tlie  king's  or 
 queen's  children,  brethren,  or  sisters,  at- 
 tending daily  in  their  honourable  house- 
 holds, during  so  long  as  they  shall  attend 
 in  any  of  their  households  ;  nor  to  any 
 chaplain  of  any  archbishoj)  or  bislioji.  or  of 
 any  spiritual  or  temporal  lords  of  the  par- 
 liament, daily  attending,  abiding,  and  re- 
 maining in  any  of  their  honourable  house- 
 holds ;  nor  to  any  chaplain  of  any  duclicss, 
 marquess,  countess,  viscountess,  or  baron- 
 ess, attending  daily  and  abiding  in  any 
 of  their  honourable  households  ;  nor  to  any 
 chaplain  of  the  lord  chancellor,  or  trea- 
 surer of  England,  the  king's  chamberlain, 
 or  steward  of  his  household  for  the  time 
 being,  the  treasurer  and  comi)troller  of  the 
 king's  most  honourable  household  for  the 
 time  being,  attending  daily  in  any  of  their 
 honourable  households  ;  nor  to  any  chap- 
 lain of  any  of  the  knights  of  the  honour- 
 able order  of  the  Garter,  or  of  the  chief 
 justice  of  the  King's  liench,  warden  of  the 
 ports,  or  of  the  master  of  the  rolls,  nor  to 
 any  chaplain  of  the  king's  secretary,  dean 
 of  the  chapel,  amner  for  the  time  being, 
 daily  attending  and  dAvclling  in  any  their 
 households,  during  the  time  that  they  shall 
 so  abide  and  dwell  without  fraud  or  covin, 
 in  any  of  the  said  honourable  households  ; 
 nor  to  the  master  of  the  rolls,  or  dean  of 
 the  arches,  nor  to  any  chancellor  or  com- 
 missary of  any  archbishop  or  bishoj),  nor 
 to  as  many  of  the  twelve  masters  of  the 
 chancery  and  twelve  advocates  of  the 
 arches  as  shall  be  spiritual  men,  during  so 
 long  time  as  they  shall  occupy  their  said 
 rooms  and  offices  ;  nor  to  any  such  spirit- 
 ual persons  as  shall  hapj)en  by  injunction 
 of  the  lord  chancellor,  or  the  king's  coun- 
 cil, to  be  bound  to  any  daily  api)earance 
 and  attendance  to  answer  to  the  law,  during 
 the  time  of  such  injunction.    (S,  2S.) 
 
 Provided  also,  that  it  shall  be  lawful  to 
 the  king  to  give  licence  to  every  of  his 
 own  chaplains,  for  non-residence  upon 
 their  benefices  ;  anything  in  this  act  to  the 
 conti-ary  notwithstanding.    (S.  29.)  | 
 
 I'mvided  also,  that  every  duchess,  mar- 
 quess, countess,  baroness.'widows,  which 
 shall  take  any  husbands  umlcr  the  degree 
 of  a  baron,  may  takr  such  number  of  chai>- 
 lains  as  they  might  have  done  being 
 widows  ;  and  that  every  such  chaplain  may 
 have  like  liberty  of  non-residence,  ns  they 
 might  have  had  if  their  said  ladies  and 
 mistresses  had  kv\){  tlu-msdvi's  widows.  (S. 
 [iS.)  [This  statute  is  abstracted  from  Hum 
 in  order  to  show  the  iiistory  of  the  law  re- 
 garding residence,  but  it  was  rejjcaled  by 
 the  61  Geo.  Ill,  c.  91),  and  that  act  also 
 was  repealed,  and  the  whole  (piestion  re- 
 settled, in  iH.i.S,  i)y  1  \-  2  Vic.  c.  HK3,  which 
 is  abstracted  towards  the  eiul  of  thia 
 article.] 
 
 liy  the  2o  Urn.  VIII.  c.  \(k  Whereas  by 
 the  statute  of  the  21  Hen.  VIII.  o.  i;{,  it  was 
 ordained,  that  certain  honouraljle  ])ers(»ns, 
 as  well  sj)iritual  as  temjjoral,  shall  have 
 cha])lains  beneficed  with  cure  to  serve 
 them  in  their  honourable  houses,  which 
 chaplains  shall  not  incur  the  danger  of 
 any  penalty  or  forfeiture  made  or  declared 
 in  the  same  ])arliament,  for  non-residence 
 u])on  their  said  benefices;  in  which  act  no 
 ])roYision  was  made  for  any  of  the  king's 
 judges  of  his  high  courts,  commonly  called 
 the  King's  Bench  and  the  Common  Pleas, 
 exce])t  only  for  the  chief  judge  of  the 
 King's  ]}ench,  nor  for  the  chancellor  nor 
 the  chief  baron  of  the  king's  l'..\clie(pier, 
 nor  for  any  other  inferior  jier.sons  being  of 
 the  king's  most  honourable  council :  It  is 
 therefore  enacted,  that  as  well  every  judge 
 of  the  said  high  courts,  and  the  chancellor 
 and  chief  baron  of  the  Exchequer,  the 
 king's  general  attorney  and  general  soli- 
 citor, for  the  time  that  shall  be,  shall  and 
 may  retain  and  have  in  his  house,  or  at- 
 tendant to  his  j)erson,  one  chaplain  having 
 one  benefice  with  cure  of  souls,  which  may 
 be  al)sent  from  his  said  benefice,  and  not 
 resident  ujjon  the  same  ;  the  said  statute 
 made  in  the  said  one  and  twentieth  year, 
 or  any  other  statute,  act,  or  ordinance  to 
 the  contrary  notwithstanding. 
 
 By  the  2S  Jhii.  VIII.  c.  l.J.  Whereas 
 divers  persons,  under  colour  of  the  jjroviso 
 in  the  act  of  the  21  lien.  VIII.  c.  i;{..  which 
 exempteth  ])ersons  conversant  in  the  uni- 
 versities for  study,  from  the  ju'iialty  of 
 non-residence,  contained  in  the  said  net, 
 do  resort  to  the  universities,  where,  under 
 l)retence  of  study,  they  live  diRsoJutcly, 
 nothing  profiting  themselves  l)y  study  at 
 all.  but  consume  the  time  in  idleness  and 
 other  ])astinies  :  It  is  enacted,  that  all 
 persons  who  shall  he  to  any  benefice  or 
 benefices  promoted,  as  is  aforesaid,  being 
 above  the  age  of  forty  years,  (the  chancellor, 
 
650 
 
 RESIDENCE. 
 
 vice-chancellor,  commissary  of  the  said 
 universities,  wardens,  deans,  provosts,  pre- 
 sidents, rectors,  masters,  principals,  ami 
 other  head  rulers  of  colleges,  halls,  and 
 other  houses  or  places  corporate  within 
 the  said  universities,  doctors  of  the  chair, 
 (readers  of  divinity  in  the  common  schools 
 of  divinity  in  the  said  universities  only 
 excepted,)  shall  be  resident  and  abiding 
 at  and  upon  one  of  their  said  benefices, 
 according  to  the  intent  and  true  meaning 
 of  the  said  former  act,  upon  such  pain  and 
 penalties  as  be  contained  in  the  said  former 
 act,  made  and  appointed  for  such  beneficed 
 persons  for  their  non-residence ;  and  that 
 none  of  the  said  beneficed  persons,  being 
 above  the  age  aforesaid,  except  before 
 except,  shall  be  excused  of  their  non- 
 residence  upon  the  said  benefices,  for  that 
 they  be  students  or  resiants  within  the 
 said  universities  ;  any  proviso,  or  any  other 
 clause  or  sentence,  contained  in  the  said 
 former  act  of  non-residence,  or  any  other 
 thing  to  the  contrary  in  anywise  notwith- 
 standing. 
 
 And  further,  that  all  and  singular  such 
 beneficed  persons,  being  under  the  age  of 
 forty  years,  resiant  and  abiding  within  the 
 said  universities,  shall  not  enjoy  the  pri- 
 vilege and  liberty  of  non-residence,  con- 
 tained in  the  proviso  of  the  said  former 
 act,  unless  he  or  they  be  present  at  the 
 ordinary  lecture  and  lectures,  as  well  at 
 home  in  their  houses,  as  in  the  common 
 school  or  schools,  and  in  their  proper  per- 
 son keep  sophisms,  problems,  disputations, 
 and  other  exercises  of  learning,  and  be  op- 
 ponent and  respondent  in  the  same,  accord- 
 ing to  the  ordinance  and  statutes  of  the 
 said  universities;  anything  contained  in 
 the  said  proviso,  or  former  act,  to  the  con- 
 trary notM-ithstanding. 
 
 Provided  always,  that  nothing  in  this 
 act  shall  extend  to  any  person  who  shall 
 be  reader  of  any  public  or  common  lecture 
 in  divinity,  law  civil,  physic,  philosophy, 
 humanity,  or  any  of  the  liberal  sciences, 
 or  public  or  common  interpreter  or  teacher 
 of  the  Hebrew  tongue,  Chaldee,  or  Greek ; 
 nor  to  any  persons  above  the  age  of  forty 
 years,  who  shall  resort  to  any  of  the  said 
 univei'sities  to  proceed  doctors  in  divinity, 
 law  civil,  or  physic,  for  the  time  of  then- 
 said  proceedings,  and  executing  of  such 
 sermons,  disputations,  or  lectures,  which 
 they  be  bound  by  the  statutes  of  the  uni- 
 versities there  to  do  for  the  said  degrees  so 
 obtained. 
 
 By  the  33  lien.  VIII.  c.  28.  ^\Tiereas 
 by  the  act  of  the  21  Hen.  VIII.  c.  13,  it 
 was  ordained,  that  certain  honourable  per- 
 sons, and  other  of  the  king's  counsellors 
 
 and  officers,  as  well  spiritual  as  temporal, 
 should  and  might  have  chaplains  beneficed 
 with  cure,  to  serve  and  attend  upon  them 
 in  their  houses,  which  chaplains  shall  not 
 incur  the  danger  of  any  i)enalty  or  for- 
 feiture made  or  declared  in  the  said  act  for 
 non-residence  upon  their  said  benefices ;  in 
 which  act  no  provision  is  made  for  any  of 
 the  head  officers  of  the  king's  courts  of  the 
 duchy  of  Lancaster,  the  courts  of  augment- 
 ations of  the  revenues  of  the  Crow^i,  the 
 first-fruits  and  tenths,  the  master  of  his 
 jNIajesty's  wards  and  liveries,  the  general 
 surveyors  of  his  lands,  and  other  his  Ma- 
 jesty's court:  It  is  therefore  enacted,  that 
 the  chancellor  of  the  said  court  of  the  duchy 
 of  Lancaster,  the  chancellor  of  the  court  of 
 augmentations,  the  chancellor  of  the  court 
 of  first-fruits  and  tenths,  the  master  of  his 
 Majesty's  wards  and  liveries,  and  every  of 
 the  king's  general  surveyors  of  his  lands, 
 the  treasurer  of  his  chamber,  and  the  groom 
 of  the  stole,  and  every  of  them,  shall  and 
 may  retain  in  his  house,  or  attendant  unto 
 his  person,  one  chaplain  having  one  bene- 
 fice with  cure  of  souls,  which  may  be  absent 
 from  the  said  benefice,  and  non-resident 
 upon  the  same  ;  the  said  statute  made  in 
 the  said  twenty-first  year  of  his  Majesty's 
 reign,  or  any  other  statute,  act,  or  ordin- 
 ance to  the  contrary  notwithstanding. 
 
 Provided  always,  that  every  of  the  said 
 chaplains  so  being  beneficed  as  aforesaid, 
 and  dwelling  with  any  the  officers  afore- 
 named, shall  repair  twice  a  year  at  the 
 least  to  his  said  benefice  and  cure,  and 
 there  abide  for  eight  days  at  every  such 
 time  at  the  least,  to  visit  and  instruct  his 
 said  cure ;  on  pain  of  forty  shillings  for 
 every  time  so  failing,  half  to  the  king,  and 
 half  to  him  that  will  sue  for  the  same  in 
 any  of  the  king's  courts  of  record,  in  which 
 suit  no  essoin,  protection,  or  wager  of  law 
 shall  be  allowed. 
 
 And  here  the  question  comes  to  be  re- 
 considered. How  far  these  statutes,  taken 
 together,  do  supersede  the  canon  law,  so 
 as  to  take  away  tlie  power  which  the  ordin- 
 ary had  before,  of  enjoining  residence  to 
 the  clergy  of  his  diocese  ?  It  seems  to  be 
 clear,  that,  before  these  statutes,  the  bishops 
 of  this  realm  had  and  exercised  a  power  of 
 calling  their  clergy  to  residence:  but  more 
 frequently  they  did  not  exert  this  power, 
 Avhich  so  far  forth  was  to  the  clergy  a 
 virtual  dispensation  for  non-residence. 
 But  this  not  exerting  of  their  power  was 
 in  them  not  always  voluntary  ;  for  they 
 were  under  the  controlling  influence  of  the 
 pope,  who  granted  dispensations  of  non- 
 residence  to  as  many  as  would  purchase 
 them,  and  disposed  of  abundance  of  cede- 
 
RESIDENCE. 
 
 r>5l 
 
 siastical  preferments  to  foreigners  who 
 never  resided  here  at  all.  The  king  also, 
 as  appears,  had  a  power  to  require  the 
 service  of  clergymen ;  and  consequently  in 
 such  case  to  dispense  with  them  for  non- 
 residence  upon  their  benelices.  Tins 
 poAver  of  the  king  is  reserved  to  him  by 
 the  aforesaid  act  of  the  21  lien.  VIII.  c.  Ki. 
 But  it  is  the  poAver  of  dispensation  in  the 
 two  former  cases  Avhich  is  intended  to  be 
 taken  aAvay,  namely,  by  the  bishop  and  by 
 the  pope  ;  and  by  the  said  act  residence  is 
 enjoined  to  the  clergy  under  the  jienalty 
 therein  mentioned,  notwithstanding  any 
 dispensation  to  the  contrary,  from  the 
 court  of  Home  or  elscAvhere ;  with  a  pro- 
 viso nevertheless,  that  the  said  act  shall 
 not  extend  nor  be  prejudicial  to  the 
 chaplains  and  others  therein  specially 
 excepted.  It  is  argued,  that  this  act  being 
 made  to  rectify  what  had  been  insufficient 
 or  ineffectual  in  the  canon  law,  and  inilict- 
 ing  a  temporal  penalty  to  enforce  the 
 obligation  of  residence,  the  parliament  in- 
 tended that  the  said  act  should  be  from 
 thenceforth,  if  not  the  sole,  yet  the  princi- 
 pal, rule  of  proceeding  in  this  particular ; 
 and  consequently,  that  the  persons  ex- 
 cepted in  the  act  need  no  other  exemption 
 than  what  is  given  to  them  by  the  act  for 
 their  non-residence.  Unto  this  it  is  an- 
 swered, that  the  intention  of  the  act  was 
 not  to  take  aAvay  any  poAver  Avhich  the 
 bishop  had  of  enjoining  residence,  but  the 
 contrary ;  namely,  it  Avas  to  take  aAvay 
 that  poAver  Avliich  the  bishop  or  j)ope  ex- 
 ercised, of  granting  dispensations  for  non- 
 residence  ;  that  is  to  say,  the  act  left  to 
 them  that  poAver  which  Avas  beneficial,  and 
 only  took  from  them  that  Avhich  tended  to 
 the  detriment  of  the  Church  ;  and  conse- 
 quently, that  the  bishop  may  enjoin  re- 
 sidence to  the  clergy  as  he  might  before, 
 only  he  may  not  dispense  Avith  them  as  he 
 did  before  for  non-residence.  And  indeed, 
 from  anything  that  appears  uj)on  the  face 
 of  the  ict,  tlie  contrary  supposition  seemeth 
 to  bear  somcAvhat  hard  against  the  rule, 
 which  hath  generally  been  adhered  to  in 
 the  construction  of  acts  of  parliament,  that 
 an  act  of  parliament  in  the  afUrmative 
 doth  not  take  aAvay  the  ecclesiastical  juris- 
 diction, and  that  the  same  sliall  not  be 
 taken  away  in  any  act  of  parliament  but 
 by  express'words.  '  It  is,  therefore,  further 
 urged,  that  the  three  subsequent  acts  do 
 explain  this  act,  and  by  the  express  Avords 
 thereof  do  establish  the  aforegoing  inter- 
 pretation. In  the  first  of  the  three  it  is 
 said,  that  the  persons  therein  mentioned 
 may  retain  one  chaplain,  Avhich  may  be 
 absent  from  his  benefice,  and  not  resident 
 
 u]ion  the  same  ;  in  the  second  it  is  sjiid, 
 that  persons  above  forty  years  of  age 
 residing  in  the  universiiies'  shall  not  be 
 excused  of  their  non-residence  ;  and  again, 
 that  ])ersons  under  forty  years  of  age  shall 
 not  enjoy  the  privilege  of  non-residence, 
 contained  in  the  proviso  of  the  said  former 
 act,  unless  they  jji'rform  the  conunon  ex- 
 ercises there,  ami  the  like,  whieli  implies, 
 that,  if  they  ilo  this,  they  shall  enjoy  such 
 ]n-ivilege  ;  and  in  the  third  it  is  said,  that 
 the  i)ers()ns  therein  mentioned  may  retain 
 one  chaplain,  Avhich  may  be  absent  from 
 his  benefice,  and  non-resident  upon  the 
 same  ;  and  it  is  not  to  be  su])posed,  that 
 the  ])arliament  intended  a  greatir  privilege 
 to  the  chaplains  of  the  inferior  officcra 
 mentioned  in  the  said  last  act,  than  to  the 
 chajilains  of  the  royal  family  and  i)rincipal 
 nobility  mentioned  in  the  first  act.  Tnto 
 this  the  most  ap])osite  answer  seemeth  to 
 be,  that  it  is  not  expressed  absolutely  in 
 any  of  the  said  three  acts,  that  the  chap- 
 lains or  others  therein  mentioned  shall 
 enjoy  the  privilege  of  non-residence,  or 
 may  be  absent  from  their  benefices,  and 
 not  resident  upon  the  same  ;  but  only  this, 
 that  they  may  be  alisent  or  non-resident 
 as  aforesaid,  the  said  statute  made  in  the 
 said  twenty-first  year,  or  any  other  statute 
 or  ordinance  to  the  contrary  notwith- 
 standing. So  that  they  are  only  exempted 
 thereby  from  the  restraints  introduced  by 
 the  statute  laAV,  but  in  other  rcsj>ects  are 
 left  as  they  Averc  before.  But  conceniing 
 this,  although  it  is  a  case  likely  enough  to 
 happen  every  day,  there  hath  been  no  ad- 
 judication. 
 
 Peccham.  "NVe  do  decree,  that  rectors 
 Avho  do  not  make  jjcrsonal  residence  in 
 their  churches,  and  Avho  have  no  vicars, 
 shall  exhibit  the  grace  of  hos])itality  by 
 their  stcAvards  according  to  the  ability  of 
 the  church  ;  so  that  at  least  the  extreme 
 necessity  of  the  poor  ])arishioners  be  re- 
 lieved ;  and  they  Avho  come  there,  and  in 
 their  passage  preach  the  Avord  of  (Jon, 
 may  receive  necessary  sustenance,  that 
 the'  churches  l)e  not  justly  forsaken  of  the 
 preachers  through  the  violence  of  want ; 
 for  the  Avorkman  is  Avorthy  of  his  meat, 
 and  no  man  is  obliged  to  warfare  at  hiii 
 oAvn  cost. 
 
 By  the  13  FMz.  c.  'JO.  That  the  livingn 
 a])pointed  for  ecclesiastical  ministers  may 
 not  by  corrupt  and  indireet  dcalingh  be 
 transferred  to  other  uses,  it  is  enacted, 
 that  no  lease  to  be  made  of  any  benefice 
 or  ecclesiastical  promotion  with  cure,  or 
 any  part  thereof,  and  not  being  impro- 
 ])ri'ated,  shall  endure  any  longer  than 
 Avhile   the   lessor  shall   \ye   ordinarily  ro- 
 
652 
 
 RESIDENCE. 
 
 sident,  and  serving  the  cure  of  such  bene- 
 fice, without  absence,  above  fourscore  days 
 in  any  one  year ;  but  every  such  lease, 
 immediately  upon  such  absence,  shall  cease 
 and  be  void  ;  and  the  incumbent  so  of- 
 fending shall  for  the  same  lose  one  year's 
 profit  of  his  said  benefice,  to  be  distributed 
 by  the  ordinary  among  the  poor  of  the 
 l)arish  :  and  all  chargings  of  such  benefices 
 Avith  cure  uith  any  pension,  or  with  any 
 profit  out  of  the  same  to  be  yielded  or 
 taken,  other  than  rents  reserved  upon 
 leases,  shall  be  void.    (S.  1.) 
 
 Provided,  that  every  parson,  by  the 
 laws  of  this  realm  allowed  to  have  two 
 benefices,  may  demise  the  one  of  them, 
 upon  which  he  shall  not  then  be  most 
 ordinarily  resident,  to  his  curate  only  that 
 shall  serve  the  cure  for  him  ;  but  such 
 lease  shall  endure  no  longer  than  during 
 such  curate's  residence  without  absence 
 above  fortv  davs  in  any  one  vear.    (S.  2.) 
 
 H.  1724.  ^3IUls  and  Etheridcje.  Bill 
 by  the  lessee  of  Matthew  Hawes,  clerk, 
 setting  forth  his  lease  dated  Feb.  4,  1723, 
 of  the  tithes  for  1724  and  1725,  in  the 
 parish  of  Simpson,  in  the  county  of  Buck- 
 ingham. The  defendant  pleaded,  that  it 
 appears  by  the  plaintifi''s  bill,  that  his 
 lease  was  dated  Feb.  4,  1723;  then  pleads 
 the  statute  of  the  13  Eliz.  c.  20,  and  avers, 
 that  Matthew  Hawes  the  lessor  was  absent 
 from  his  benefice  eighty  days  and  more  in 
 one  year  since  the  lease,  and  before  the 
 filing  of  the  bill ;  that  the  church  of  Simp- 
 son is  not  impropriate ;  and  that  it  is  a 
 benefice  or  ecclesiastical  promotion  with 
 cure  ;  and  therefore,  by  such  non-residence, 
 and  by  virtue  of  the  said  act,  that  the  lease 
 was  void.  And  the  plea  was  allowed  :  and 
 it  was  determined  that,  there  is  no  neces- 
 sity to  aver  that  the  absence  was  volun- 
 tary, (for  if  it  was  otherwise,  it  lay  upon 
 the  plaintiff"  to  show  it,)  or  to  aver  that 
 the  absence  was  eighty  days  together. — 
 Bmih.  210. 
 
 The  same  plea  came  on  E.,  1726,  in  the 
 case  of  Quilter  and  Lmoules,  and  allowed 
 by  the  whole  court. — Bunh.  211. 
 
 But,  query,  says  the  reporter,  if  this  is 
 a  good  plea  if  the  rector  and  lessee  join ; 
 for  by  non-residence  before  sentence  he 
 only  forfeits  his  lease  and  rent,  not  his 
 tithes. — Atkinson  and  Prodyers  v.  Peasley. 
 Bunh.  211. 
 
 Bishops  are  not  punishable  by  the  sta- 
 tute of  the  21  Hen.  VIH.  for  non-residence 
 upon  their  bishoprics ;  but  although  an 
 archbishop  or  bishop  be  not  tied  to  be 
 resident  vipon  his  bishopric  by  the  statute, 
 yet  they  are  thereto  obliged  by  the  ec- 
 clesiastical law,  and  may  be  compelled  to 
 
 keep  residence  by  ecclesiastical  censures. 
 —  Watson,  c.  37. 
 
 Thus,  by  a  constitution  of  Archbishop 
 Langton,  bishops  shall  be  careful  to  reside 
 in  their  cathedrals,  on  some  of  the  greater 
 feasts,  and  at  least  in  some  })art  of  Lent, 
 as  they  shall  see  to  be  expedient  for  the 
 welfare  of  their  souls. — Lynd.  1 30. 
 
 And  by  a  constitution  of  Otho :  ^Vhat 
 is  incumbent  upon  the  venerable  fathers, 
 the  archbishops  and  bishops,  by  their  office 
 to  be  done,  their  name  of  dignity,  which  is 
 that  of  bishop  [episcopus)  or  superintend- 
 ent, evidently  expresseth.  For  it  properly 
 concerns  them  (according  to  the  gospel 
 expression)  to  watch  ovei*  their  flock  by 
 night.  And  since  they  ought  to  be  a  pat- 
 tern by  which  they  who  are  subject  to 
 them  ought  to  reform  themselves,  which 
 cannot  be  done  unless  they  show  them  an 
 example,  W'e  exhort  them  in  the  Lord,  and 
 admonish  them,  that,  residing  at  their 
 cathedral  churches,  they  celebrate  proper 
 masses  on  the  principal  feast  days,  and  in 
 Lent,  and  in  Advent.  And  they  shall  go 
 about  their  dioceses  at  proper  seasons,  cor- 
 recting and  reforming  the  churches,  con- 
 secrating and  sowing  the  word  of  life  in 
 the  Loed's  field.  For  the  better  perform- 
 ance of  all  which  they  shall  twice  in  the 
 year,  to  wit,  in  Advent  and  in  Lent, 
 cause  to  be  read  unto  them  the  profession 
 which  they  made  at  their  consecration. — 
 Athon,  55. 
 
 And  by  a  constitution  of  Othobon  :  Al- 
 though bishops  know  themselves  bound, 
 as  well  by  Divine  as  ecclesiastical  precepts, 
 to  personal  residence  with  the  flock  of  God 
 committed  to  them,  yet  because  there  are 
 some  who  do  not  seem  to  attend  hereunto, 
 therefore  we,  pursuing  the  monition  of 
 Otho  the  legate,  do  earnestly  exhort  them 
 in  the  Lord,  and  admonish  them  in  virtue 
 of  their  holy  obedience,  and  under  attesta- 
 tion of  the  Divine  judgments,  that,  out  of 
 care  to  theii*  flock,  and  for  the  solace  of  the 
 churches  espoused  to  them,  they  be  duly 
 present,  especially  on  solemn  days,  in  Lent 
 and  in  Advent,  unless  their  absence  on 
 such  days  shall  be  requu'ed  for  just  cause 
 by  their  superiors. — Athon,  118. 
 
 Canon  42.  "  Every  dean,  master,  or 
 warden,  or  chief  governor  of  any  cathedral 
 or  collegiate  church,  shall  be  resident  in 
 the  same  fourscore  and  ten  days  coujunc- 
 tini  or  divisim  in  every  year  at  the  least, 
 and  then  shall  continue  there  in  preaching 
 the  word  of  God,  and  keeping  good  hos- 
 pitality, except  he  shall  be  otherwise  let 
 with  weighty  and  urgent  causes,  to  be  ap- 
 proved by  the  bishop  of  the  diocese,  or  in 
 any  other  lawful  sort  dispensed  with." 
 
RESIDENCE. 
 
 C.>3 
 
 "  2'u  he  approved  hi/  the  hisliop.'' — \\y  the 
 ancient  canon  law,  personal  atti'ndance  on 
 the  bisho]),  or  study  in  the  university,  was 
 a  just  cause  of  non-residence ;  and  as  such, 
 notwithstanding-  the  non-residence,  entitlecl 
 them  to  all  profits,  except  quotidians. — 
 Gibson,  172. 
 
 Canon  44,  "Xo  prebendaries  nor  ca- 
 nons in  cathedral  or  colle<;iate  clun-ehes, 
 having  one  or  more  benefices  with  cure, 
 (and  not  being  resident iaries  in  the  same 
 cathedral  or  collegiate  churches.)  shall,  un- 
 der colour  of  their  said  jirebends,  absent 
 themselves  from  their  benefices  with  cure 
 above  the  space  of  one  month  in  the  year, 
 unless  it  be  for  some  urgent  cause,  and 
 certain  time  to  be  allowed  by  the  bishop 
 of  the  diocese.  And  such  of  the  said 
 canons  and  prebendaries,  as  by  the  or- 
 dinances of  the  cathedral  or  collegiate 
 churches  do  stand  bound  to  be  resident  in 
 the  same,  shall  so  among  themselves  sort 
 and  proportion  the  times  of  the  year,  con- 
 cerning residence  to  be  kept  in  the  said 
 churches,  as  that  some  of  them  always 
 shall  be  personally  resident  there  ;  and 
 all  those  who  be,  or  shall  be,  residentiaries 
 in  any  cathedral  or  collegiate  churcli, 
 shall,  after  the  days  of  their  residency 
 appointed  by  their  local  statutes  or  custom 
 expired,  presently  repair  to  their  benefices, 
 or  some  one  of  them,  or  to  some  other 
 charge  where  the  law  requireth  their 
 presence,  there  to  discharge  their  duties 
 according  to  the  laws  in  that  case  pro- 
 vided. And  the  bishop  of  the  diocese 
 shall  see  the  same  to  be  duly  performed 
 and  put  in  execution." 
 
 So  that,  besides  the  general  laws  direct- 
 ing the  residence  of  other  clergymen,  these 
 dignitaries  have  another  law  peculiar  to 
 themselves,  namely,  the  local  statutes  of 
 their  respective  foundations,  the  validity 
 of  which  local  statutes  this  canon  sup- 
 poseth  and  affirmeth.  And  with  respect 
 to  the  new  foundations  in  particular,  the 
 act  of  parliament  of  the  6  Anne,  c.  21, 
 enacteth,  that  their  local  statutes  shall  be 
 in  force,  so  far  as  they  are  not  contrary 
 to  the  constitution  of  the  Church  of  lOng- 
 land,  or  the  laws  of  the  land.  This  canon 
 is  undoubtedly  a  part  of  the  constitution 
 of  the  Church  ;  so  that  if  the  canon  in- 
 terfercth  in  any  respect  with  the  said 
 local  statutes,  the  canon  is  to  be  preferred, 
 and  the  local  statutes  to  be  in  torce  only 
 so  far  forth  as  they  are  modified  and  re- 
 gulated by  the  canon. 
 
 There  doth  not  appear  to  be  any  dif- 
 ference, either  l)y  the  ecclesiastical  or 
 temporal  laws  of 'this  kingdom,  between 
 the  case  of  a  rector  and  of  a  vicar  conccni- 1 
 
 ing  residence  ;  excent  only  that  the  vicar 
 is  sworn  to  reside,  (with  a  proviso,  uuloss 
 he  shall  be  otherwise  dispi'usrd  %\ithal  by 
 liis  diocesan,)  and  the  rector  is  not  sworn'. 
 And  the  reastm  of  this  ditrurence  was  this  : 
 in  the  Council  of  Lateran,  held  under 
 Alexander  III.,  and  in  another  Latrran 
 council  held  uiuler  Innocent  III.,  tliere 
 were  very  strict  canons  made  against  plu- 
 ralities: by  the  first  of  lliese  councils, 
 l)luralities  are  restrained,  and  every  person 
 admitted  ait  (cchsuim,  wl  vccUsia.sticum 
 niinififen'utn,  is  bound  to  reside  there,  and 
 j)ersonally  serve  the  cure ;  by  the  second 
 of  these  councils,  if  any  i)erson,  liavingone 
 benefice  with  cure  of  souls,  accept.s  of  a 
 second,  his  first  is  declared  void  intio  jure. 
 These  canons  were  received  in  J'lngland, 
 and  are  still  j)art  of  our  ecclesiastical  law. 
 At  the  first  aj)i)earance  of  these  canons, 
 there  was  no  doubt  made  but  they  obliged 
 all  rectors;  for  they,  according  to  the  lan- 
 guage of  the  law,  had  churciics  in  title, 
 and  had  hvmjiciutn  ecrlesiasticum  :  and  of 
 such  the  canons  spoke.  Hut  vicars  did 
 not  then  look  upon  themselves  to  be  bound 
 by  these  canons,  for  they,  as  the  gloss  upon 
 the  decretals  s])eaks,  had  not  tccUsuim 
 quoad  titulum  ;  and  the  text  of  the  law 
 describes  them  not  as  having  benefices, 
 but  as  bound  pcrso7iis  et  ecchsiis  dtservire : 
 that  is,  as  assistant  to  the  rector  in  his 
 church. 
 
 Upon  this  notion  a  ])ractice  was  founded 
 and  ])revailed  in  England,  which  eluded 
 the  canons  made  against  jiluralilies.  A 
 man  beneficed  in  one  church  coidd  not 
 accept  another,  without  avoiding  the  first ; 
 but  a  man  possessed  of  a  benefice  could 
 accept  a  vicarage  under  the  rector  in 
 another  church,  for  that  was  no  benefice 
 in  law,  and  therefore  not  within  the  letter 
 of  the  canon,  whicli  forl)ids  any  man  hold- 
 ing two  benefices. 
 
 The  way  then  of  taking  a  second  \\\\r\f^ 
 in  fraud  of  the  canon  was  this :  n  friend 
 was  presented,  who  took  the  institution, 
 and  had  the  church  </U(>ad  titulum  :  an  soon 
 as  he  was  j)ossessed,  he  constituted  the 
 ])erson  vicar  for  whose  benefit  he  took  the 
 living,  and  by  consent  of  the  dioctsiin  al- 
 lotted the  whole  ])rofit  of  the  living  for 
 the  vicar's  portion,  except  n  small  matter 
 reserved  to  himself. 
 
 This  vicar  went  and  resided  upon  his 
 first  living,  for  the  canon  renchetl  him 
 where  he  had  the  lienetice;  but  having  no 
 benefice  where  he  had  only  n  vicarage,  he 
 thought  himself  secure  against  the  said 
 canons  requiring  residence. 
 
 This  piece  of  management  gave  occa- 
 sion to  HcvcnU  papal  decrees,  and  to  the 
 
654 
 
 RESIDENCE. 
 
 following  constitution  of  Archbishop  Lang- 
 ton,  viz.  "  No  ordinary  shall  admit  any 
 one  to  a  vicarage,  who  will  not  personally 
 officiate  there." — Lyndwood,  64. 
 
 And  to  another  constitution  of  the  same 
 archbishop,  by  Avhich  it  is  enjoined,  that 
 vicars  who  will  be  non-resident  shall  be 
 deprived. — L  i/ndwood,  131. 
 
 But  the  abuse  still  continued,  and  there- 
 fore Otho,  in  his  legatine  constitutions, 
 applied  a  stronger  remedy,  ordaining,  that 
 none  shall  be  admitted  to  a  vicarage,  but 
 Avho,  renouncing  all  other  benefices  (if  he 
 hath  any)  with  cure  of  souls,  shall  swear 
 that  he  will  make  residence  there,  and 
 shall  constantly  so  reside :  otherwise  his 
 institution  shall  be  null,  and  the  vicarage 
 shall  be  given  to  another. — Athon,  24. 
 
 And  it  is  upon  the  authority  of  this 
 constitution  that  the  oath  of  residence  is 
 administered  to  vicars  to  this  day.  And 
 this  obligation  of  vicars  to  residence  was 
 further  enforced  by  a  constitution  of  Otho- 
 bon,  as  folio weth  :  If  any  shall  detain  a 
 vicarage  contrary  to  the  aforesaid  consti- 
 tution of  Otho,  he  shall  not  appropriate  to 
 himself  the  profits  thereof,  but  shall  restore 
 the  same  ;  one  moiety  whereof  shall  be 
 a]iplied  to  the  use  of  that  church,  and  the 
 other  moiety  shall  be  distributed  half  to 
 the  poor  of  the  parish  and  half  to  the  arch- 
 deacon. And  the  archdeacon  shall  make 
 diligent  inquiry  every  year,  and  cause  this 
 constitution  to  be  strictly  observed.  And 
 if  he  shall  find  that  any  one  detaineth  a 
 vicarage  contrary  to  the  premises,  he 
 shall  forthwith  notify  to  the  ordinary  that 
 such  vicarage  is  vacant,  who  shall  do  what 
 to  him  belongeth  in  the  premises ;  and  if 
 the  ordinary  shall  delay  to  institute  another 
 into  such  vicarage,  he  shall  be  suspended 
 from  collation,  institution,  or  presentation 
 to  any  benefices  until  he  shall  comply. 
 And  if  any  one  shall  strive  to  detain  a 
 vicarage  contrary  to  the  premises,  and 
 persist  in  his  obstinacy  for  a  month  ;  he 
 shall,  besides  the  penalties  aforesaid,  be 
 ipso  facto  deprived  of  his  other  benefices 
 (if  he  have  any) ;  and  shall  be  disabled  for 
 ever  to  hold  such  vicarage  Avhich  he  hath 
 so  vexatiously  detained,  and  from  obtain- 
 ing any  other  benefice  for  three  years. 
 And  if  the  archdeacon  shall  be  remiss  in 
 the  premises,  he  shall  be  deprived  of  the 
 share  of  the  aforesaid  penalty  assigned  to 
 him,  and  be  suspended  from  the  entrance 
 of  the  church  until  he  shall  perform  his 
 duty. — Athon,  95. 
 
 So  that,  upon  the  whole,  the  doubt  was 
 not,  whether  rectors  were  obliged  to  resi- 
 dence ;  the  only  question  was,  whether 
 vicars  were  also  obliged;  and  to  enforce 
 
 the  residence  of  vicars,  in  like  manner  as 
 of  rectors,  the  aforesaid  constitutions  were 
 ordained.— -S/ier/.  ibid.  20—22. 
 
 Canon  47.  "  Every  beneficed  man  li- 
 censed by  the  laws  of  this  realm,  upon 
 urgent  occasions  of  other  service,  not  to 
 reside  upon  his  benefice,  shall  cause  his 
 cure  to  be  supplied  by  a  curate  that  is  a 
 sufficient  and  licensed  preacher,  if  the 
 worth  of  the  benefice  will  bear  it.  But 
 whosoever  hath  two  benefices,  shall  main- 
 tain a  preacher  licensed  in  the  benefice 
 where  he  doth  not  reside,  except  he  preach 
 himself  at  both  of  them  usually." 
 
 And  by  the  last  article  of  Archbishop 
 Wake's  directions  it  is  required,  that  the 
 bishop  shall  take  care,  as  much  as  possible, 
 that  whosoever  is  admitted  to  serve  any 
 cure,  do  reside  in  the  parish  where  he  is 
 to  serve,  especially  in  livings  that  are  able 
 to  support  a  resident  curate  ;  and  where 
 that  cannot  be  done,  that  they  do  at  least 
 reside  so  near  to  the  place,  that  they  may 
 conveniently  perform  all  their  duties,  both 
 in  the  church  and  parish. 
 
 By  the  faculty  of  dispensation,  a  plu- 
 ralist is  required,  in  that  benefice  from 
 which  he  shall  happen  to  be  most  absent, 
 to  preach  thirteen  sermons  every  year; 
 and  to  exercise  hospitality  for  two  months 
 yearly ;  and,  as  much  as  in  him  lieth,  to 
 support  and  relieve  the  inhabitants  of  that 
 parish,  especiallv  the  poor  and  needv. 
 
 By  the  1  AVill.  &  Mar.  c.  26.  If  any 
 person  presented  or  nominated  by  either 
 of  the  universities  to  a  popish  benefice 
 with  cure,  shall  be  absent  from  the  same 
 above  the  space  of  sixty  days  in  any  one 
 year ;  in  such  case,  the  said  benefice  shall 
 become  void. — Abridged  from  Burn. 
 
 The  1  &  2  Vict.  c.  106  repeals  the  21 
 Hen.  VIII.  c.  13,  and  the  57  Geo.  III. 
 c.  99,  relating  to  residence,  and  provides 
 (s.  32)  that  every  spiritual  person  holding 
 any  benefice  shall  keep  residence  on  his 
 benefice,  and  in  the  house  of  residence  (if 
 any)  belonging  thereto;  and  if  any  such 
 person  shall  without  any  such  licence  or 
 exemption,  as  is  in  this  act  allowed  for 
 that  purpose,  or  unless  he  shall  be  resident 
 at  some  other  benefice  of  which  he  may 
 be  possessed,  absent  himself  from  such 
 benefice,  or  from  such  house  of  residence, 
 if  any,  for  any  period  exceeding  the  space 
 of  three  months  together,  or  to  be  ac- 
 counted at  several  times  in  any  one  year, 
 he  shall,  when  such  absence  shall  exceed 
 three  months,  and  not  exceed  six  months, 
 forfeit  one  third  part  of  the  annual  value 
 of  the  benefice  from  which  he  shall  so 
 absent  himself;  and  w^hen  such  absence 
 shall  exceed  six  months,  and  not  exceed 
 
RESIDENTIARY. 
 
 Goo 
 
 eight  months,  one  half  part  of  such  annual 
 value  ;  and  when  such  absence  shall  exceed 
 eight  months,  two  third  parts  of  such 
 annual  value  ;  and  when  such  absence  shall 
 have  been  for  the  whole  year,  three  fourth 
 parts  of  such  annual  value. 
 
 By  sect.  33,  the  bishop  may  give  licence 
 to  reside  out  of  the  usual  house  if  it  be 
 unfit,  or,  if  there  be  no  house,  in  some 
 convenient  house,  although  not  within  such 
 benefice. 
 
 By  sect.  34,  houses  purchased  by  go- 
 vernors of  Queen  Anne's  bounty,  to  be 
 deemed  the  lawful  houses  of  residence. 
 
 By  sect.  41,  the  incumbent  is  bound  to 
 keep  in  repair  the  house  of  residence, 
 whether  he  reside  in  it  or  not.  And  for 
 neglect  of  this  he  is  to  be  subject  to  all 
 the  penalties  of  non-residence.  For  various 
 excej)tional  cases,  in  which  non-residence 
 may  be  permitted,  see  sections  37,  38,  43, 
 44,  &c. 
 
 By  sect.  53,  it  is  enacted,  that  in  every 
 year  the  bishop  of  every  diocese  is  to  make 
 a  return  to  her  Majesty  in  council  of  the 
 name  of  every  benefice  within  his  diocese, 
 and  the  names  of  the  several  s])iritual 
 persons  holding  the  same  respectively,  dis- 
 tinguishing those  who  are  resident  and 
 those  who  are  not  resident,  and  stating 
 whether  they  have  exemption  or  not. 
 
 Sect.  59  contains  strong  provisions  for 
 the  punishment  of  any  one  Avho  holds  a 
 residence  belonging  to  a  benefice  which 
 has  been  let  to  him,  and  refuses  to  vacate 
 after  the  incumbent  is  ordered  to  reside, 
 and  for  enabling  the  incumbent  to  obtain 
 possession  of  his  residence  by  summary 
 means. 
 
 Sect.  76  provides,  that  the  curate  under 
 certain  circumstances  shall  be  required  to 
 reside. 
 
 This  statute  contains  many  provisions 
 for  enabling  the  ordinary  to  provide  a  resi- 
 dence where  none  exists. 
 
 RESIDENTIARY.  The  capitular  mem- 
 bers of  cathecb-als,  who  are  bound  to  re- 
 side at  the  cathedral  church,  to  perform 
 the  ordinary  duties  there,  and  to  attend 
 more  immediately  to  its  concerns.  In 
 England,  all  cathedrals  of  the  old  found- 
 ations have  residentiaries,  (canons  resi- 
 dentiary, as  they  are  usually  called,)  the 
 great  majority  of  prebendaries  l)eing  non- 
 residentiary.  '  Till  the  late  parliamentary 
 alterations,'  the  greatest  number  of  resi- 
 dentiaries was  nine,  the  smallest  four,  the 
 dean  being  always  one.  The  following  ac- 
 count of  residentiaries  is  abridged  from 
 Churton's  admiral)le  and  instructive  Life  of 
 Dean  Noicell,  (pp.  313,  ct  seq.) 
 
 We  learn  from  the  ancient  statutes  of 
 
 St.  Paid's,  that  it  was  customary  in  early 
 days  for  all  the  canons  or  prcbrndurii's  to 
 reside,  being  thirty  in  number;  and  when, 
 in  process  of  time,  many,  by  nnitual  conni- 
 vance, withdrew  themselves  to  their  curesor 
 avocations  elsewhere,  the  remaining  few 
 bound  themselves  by  a  new  oath,  to  reside, 
 and  attend  the  duties  of  the  Cinirch.  .  .  . 
 At  length  the  residentiaries  were  reduced  to 
 two  only.  .  .  .  Bishop  Braybrooke,  to  re- 
 medy this  abuse,  having  interposed  his 
 authority,  the  matter  was  referred  to  ar- 
 bitration of  the  Crown,  by  whom,  in  1399, 
 an  order  was  made  that  residence  should 
 thereafter  be  kejjt  according  tf)  the  form  of 
 the  Sarum  Missal.  ...  In  Dean  Colet's 
 time  the  statutes  were  revised,  and  it  was 
 ordered,  that  as  the  burdens  of  St.  Paul's 
 were  heavy,  and  the  ])atrimony  slender, 
 there  should  in  future  be,  under  the  dean 
 as  head,  four,  and  only  four,  canons  resi- 
 dent ;  eligible,  as  before,  out  of  the  senior 
 prel)endaries,  ofi"ering  themselves  and  j)ro- 
 testing  their  residence,  as  formerly,  at  one 
 of  the  quarterly  feasts  ;  when,  if  none  came 
 forward,  some  one  should  I)c  invited  to 
 accept  the  otlice,  and  in  case  of  refusal, 
 be  amerced  by  some  ])ecuniary  fine.  The 
 residentiaries  of  St.  Paul's,  (p.  312,)  though, 
 in  ])oint  of  form,  they  are  elective  by  the 
 dean  and  chapter,  are  virtually,  however, 
 as  is  well  known,  in  the  jjatronage  of  the 
 Crown;  and  upon  every  vacancy  that  occurs, 
 a  letter  missive  from  his  Majesty  recom- 
 mending some  clerk,  who  is  i)reviously  a 
 prebendary  by  the  collation  of  the  bishop 
 of  London,  is  as  certaiii  in  its  operation,  as 
 the  confjc  d'elire  for  the  election  of  a  bishop : 
 by  resistance,  in  one  case,  as  well  as  the 
 other,  a;;/w;/»oi<V<^  would  be  incurred.  Arch- 
 deacon Churton adds,  (p.  316,)  that  "in  the 
 cathedral  of  Lincoln,  the  custom,  in  an- 
 cient times,  was  similar  to  what  appears 
 to  have  been  the  rule  in  St.  Paul's.  Of 
 the  numerous  body  of  prebendaries,  mem- 
 bers of  that  church,  any  one  who  chose  it, 
 used  to  protest  in  chapter  his  intention  to 
 become  a  residentiary,  and  they  were 
 obliged  to  admit  him  accordingly,  upon 
 taking  the  usual  oath.  A  i)ractice  so 
 variable  and  uncertain  as  this,  being  found 
 inconvenient  in  many  respects,  it  was  set- 
 tled and  agreed  in  a  general  chapter,  about 
 three  hundred  years  ago,  with  the  con- 
 currence of  the  bishops,  that  the  number 
 of  residentiaries  should  be  limited  to  four, 
 who  were  to  be  the  four  principut  persons 
 (see  Persona)  of  the  church,  as  the  dean, 
 l)recentor,  chancellor,  and  subdean.  An 
 alteration  not  very  dissimilar  took  place 
 at  a  later  period,  'l(ii>7,  in  the  church  of 
 York;  when,  in  consequence  of  a  rej^rc- 
 
656 
 
 RESIGNATION. 
 
 sentation  from  the  dean  and  chapter,  the 
 number  of  residentiaries  was  reduced, 
 under  a  writ  of  privy  seal,  from  six  to 
 four,  now,  as  formerly,  in  the  nomination 
 of  the  dean." 
 
 To  these  observations  of  Archdeacon 
 Churton  may  be  added,  that  at  Chichester, 
 the  chapter  called  on  whom  they  pleased 
 to  reside,  generally  observing^  seniority. 
 The  same  rule  prevailed  at  Hereford,  where 
 the  residentiaries  are  still  elected  by  the 
 chapter.  In  most  cathedrals  residence  was 
 protested  (as  stated  above)  at  one  of  the 
 great  chaj)ters.  Forty  days'  notice  was 
 given  at  Lichfield.  (See  Dugdale's  Mo- 
 nasticon,  ed.  1830,  and  Dugdale's  St. 
 PauVs.)  The  present  number  of  residenti- 
 aries at  Exeter  was  fixed  by  Bishop  Ward, 
 in  1663. 
 
 From  the  ancient  documents  appended  to 
 Dugdale's  History  of  St.  Paul's,  it  appears 
 by  more  than  one  explicit  declaration,  that 
 all  the  residentiaries  Avere  required  to  re- 
 side together,  not  merely  dividing  the  year 
 between  them,  according  to  the  present 
 most  reprehensible  arrangement.  They 
 were  allowed  to  serve  no  other  church 
 whatever.  They  were  required  to  he  all 
 present  together  at  all  services  on  Sundays 
 and  greater  holidays,  and  so  to  manage  be- 
 tween themselves  on  ordinary  week  days, 
 that  one  at  least  should  be  present  at  each 
 one  of  them  [and  it  must  be  remembered 
 that  the  daily  services  were  then  more 
 numerous  than  now].  And  if  they  neg- 
 lected this  perpetual  residence,  from  which 
 only  occasional  absence,  as  to  parish  cler- 
 gymen from  their  cures,  was  permitted, 
 they  were  not  considered  as  entitled  to 
 their  emoluments  ;  and  their  neglect  is 
 censured  in  the  old  records,  in  terms  of  the 
 strongest  reprobation. 
 
 RESIGNATION.  1.  A  resignation  is, 
 where  a  parson,  vicar,  or  other  beneficed 
 clergyman,  voluntarily  gives  up  and  sur- 
 renders his  charge  and  preferment  to  those 
 from  whom  he  received  the  same. — Deg. 
 p.  i.  c.  14. 
 
 2.  That  ordinary  who  hath  the  power 
 of  institution,  hath  power  also  to  accept  of 
 a  resignation  made  of  the  same  church  to 
 which  he  may  institute ;  and  therefore  the 
 respective  bishop,  or  other  j)erson  who, 
 either  by  patent  under  him,  or  by  privilege 
 or  prescription,  hath  the  power  of  institu- 
 tion, are  the  proper  persons  to  whom  a 
 resignation  ought  to  be  made.  And  yet  a 
 resignation  of  a  deanery  in  the  king's  gift 
 may  be  made  to  the  king ;  as  of  the  dean- 
 ery of  Wells.  And  some  hold,  that  the 
 resignation  may  well  be  made  to  the  king 
 of  a  prebend  that   is  no   donative:   but 
 
 others,  on  the  contrary,  have  held,  that  a 
 resignation  of  a  prebend  ought  to  be  made 
 only  to  the  ordinary  of  the  diocese,  and 
 not  to  the  king  as  supreme  ordinary ;  be- 
 cause the  king  is  not  bound  to  give  notice 
 to  the  patron  (as  the  ordinary  is)  of  the 
 resignation ;  nor  can  the  king  make  a  col- 
 lation by  himself  without  presenting  to  the 
 bishop,  notwiihstanding  his  supremacy. — 
 2  RolVs  Ahr.  358.      Watson,  c.  4. 
 
 And  resignation  can  only  be  made  to  a 
 superior :  this  is  a  maxim  in  the  temporal 
 law,  and  is  applied  by  Lord  Coke  to  the 
 ecclesiastical  law,  when  he  says,  that  there- 
 fore a  bishop  cannot  resign  to  the  dean  and 
 chapter,  but  it  must  be  to  the  metropolitan 
 from  whom  he  received  confirmation  and 
 consecration. —  Gibson,  822. 
 
 And  it  must  be  made  to  the  next  imme- 
 diate superior,  and  not  to  the  mediate  ;  as 
 of  a  church  presentative  to  the  bishop, 
 and  not  to  the  metropolitan.  —  2  Holts 
 Ahr.  358. 
 
 But  donatives  are  not  resignable  to  the 
 ordinary  ;  but  to  the  patron,  who  hath 
 power  to  admit. —  Gibson,  822. 
 
 And  if  there  be  two  patrons  of  a  dona- 
 tive and  the  incumbent  resign  to  one  of 
 them,  it  is  good  for  the  whole. — Deg.  p.  i. 
 c.  14. 
 
 3.  Regularly  resignation  must  be  made 
 in  person,  and  not  by  proxy.  There  is  in- 
 deed a  writ  in  the  register,  entitled,  litera 
 procuratoria  ad  resignandum,  by  which  the 
 person  constituted  proctor  was  enabled  to 
 do  all  things  necessary  to  be  done  in  order 
 to  an  exchange ;  and,  of  these  things,  re- 
 signation was  one.  And  Lyndwood  sup- 
 poseth,  that  any  resignation  may  be  made 
 by  proctor.  But  in  practice  there  is  no 
 way  (as  it  seemeth)  of  resigning,  but  either 
 to  do  it  by  personal  appearance  before  the 
 ordinary,  or  at  least  to  do  it  elsewhere 
 before  a  public  notary,  by  an  instrument 
 du'ected  immediately  to  the  ordinary,  and 
 attested  by  the  said  notary  ;  in  order  to  be 
 presented  to  the  ordinary,  by  such  proper 
 hand  as  may  pray  his  acceptance.  In 
 which  case  the  person  presenting  the  in- 
 strument to  the  ordinary  doth  not  resign 
 nomine  prvcuratorio,  as  proctors  do ;  but 
 only  presents  the  resignation  of  the  person 
 already  made. — Gibson,  822.  Deg.  p.  i. 
 0.  14.      Watson,  c.  4. 
 
 4.  A  collateral  condition  may  not  be 
 annexed  to  the  resignation,  no  more  than 
 an  ordinary  may  admit  upon  condition,  or 
 a  judgment  bo  confessed  upon  condition, 
 which  are  judicial  acts. —  Watson,  c.  4. 
 
 For  the  words  of  resignation  have  always 
 been,  pure,  sponte,  absolute,  ct  simpliciter  ; 
 to  exclude  all  indirect  bargains,  not  only 
 
RESIGNATION. 
 
 657 
 
 for  money,  but  for  other  considerations. 
 And  therefore,  in  GayUm's  case,  E.  24 
 Eliz.,  where  the  resii^nation  was  to  the  use 
 of  two  persons  therein  named,  and  further 
 limited  with  this  condition,  that  if  one  of 
 the  two  was  not  admitted  to  the  benefice 
 resigjned  within  six  months,  the  resi^^nation 
 shoukl  be  void  and  of  none  effect ;  such 
 resignation,  by  reason  of  the  condition, 
 was  declared  to  be  absohitely  void. —  God. 
 277.     Gibs.  821.     1  ,S'//7/.  SM. 
 
 But  where  the  resignation  is  made  for 
 the  sake  of  exchange  only,  there  it  admits 
 of  this  condition,  viz.  if  the  exchange  shall 
 take  full  effect,  and  not  otherwise ;  as  ap- 
 pears by  the  form  of  resignation,  which  is 
 in  the  register. — Gibson,  821. 
 
 By  a  constitution  of  Othobon  :  Whereas 
 sometimes  a  man  resigneth  his  benefices 
 that  he  may  obtain  a  vacant  see  ;  and  bar- 
 gaineth  with  the  collator,  that  if  he  be 
 not  elected  to  the  bishopric,  he  shall  have 
 his  benefices  again ;  we  do  decree,  that 
 they  shall  not  be  restored  to  him,  but  shall 
 be  conferred  upon  others,  as  laAvfully  void. 
 And  if  they  be  restored  to  him,  the  same 
 shall  be  of  no  effect ;  and  he  who  shall  so 
 restore  him,  after  they  have  been  resigned 
 into  his  hands,  or  shall  institute  the  re- 
 signer  into  them  again,  if  he  is  a  bishop, 
 he  shall  be  supended  from  the  use  of  his 
 dalmatic  and  pontificals ;  and  if  he  is  an 
 inferior  prelate,  he  shall  be  suspended  from 
 his  office  until  he  shall  think  fit  to  revoke 
 the  same. — Aihon,  184. 
 
 5.  No  resignation  can  be  valid  till  ac- 
 cepted by  the  proper  ordinary  ;  that  is,  no 
 person  appointed  to  a  cure  of  souls  can 
 quit  that  cure,  or  discharge  himself  of  it, 
 but  upon  good  motives,  to  be  approved  by 
 the  superior  who  committed  it  to  him  ;  for 
 it  may  be  he  would  quit  it  for  money,  or 
 to  live  idly,  or  the  like.  And  this  is  the 
 law  temporal,  as  well  as  spiritual ;  as  ap- 
 pears by  that  plain  resolution  which  hath 
 been  given,  that  all  presentations  made  to 
 benefices  resigned,  before  such  acceptance, 
 are  void.  And  there  is  no  pretence  to  say, 
 that  the  ordinary  is  obliged  to  accept; 
 since  the  law  hath  appointed  no  known 
 remedy  if  he  will  not  accept,  any  more 
 than  if  he  will  not  ordain. — Gibs.  822,  1 
 Still.  334. 
 
 Lyndwood  makes  a  distinction  in  this 
 case,  between  a  cure  of  souls  and  a  sine- 
 cure. The  resignation  of  a  sinecure,  lie 
 thinks,  is  good  immediately,  without  the 
 superior's  consent;  because  none  l)ut  he 
 that  resigneth  hath  interest  in  that  case. 
 But  where  there  is  a  cure  of  souls  it^  is 
 otherwise ;  because  not  he  only  hath  in- 
 terest but  others  also  unto  whom  he  is 
 2  u 
 
 bound  to  i)reacli  the  word  of  God  ;  where- 
 fore in  this  case  it  is  necessary,  that  there 
 be  the  ratification  of  the  bisliop,  or  of  such 
 other  person  as  liatli  i)ower  bv  right  or 
 custom  to  admit  such  resignation.— r?//>- 
 soii,  823. 
 
 Thus  in  the  case  of  the  Marchinmss  nf 
 liockiiu/ham  and  Griffith,  Mar.  22,  1755, 
 ]>r.  Griffith  being  possessed  of  the  two 
 rectories  of  Leythley  and  Thurnsco,  in 
 order  that  he  might  be  caj)acitatcd  to 
 accept  another  living  which  became  va- 
 cant, to  wit,  the  rectory  of  Ilandsworth, 
 executed  an  instrument  of  resignation  of 
 the  rectory  of  Leytliley  aforesaid,  before 
 a  notary  public,  which  was  tendered  to 
 and  left  with  the  archbishoj)  of  York,  the 
 ordinary  of  the  i)lace  within  which  Levth- 
 ley  is  situate.  It  was  objected,  that  here 
 doth  not  appear  to  have  been  any  accept- 
 ance of  the  resignation  ])y  the  archl)ishon, 
 and  that  without  his  accej)tance  the  said 
 rectory  of  Leythley  could  not  become 
 void.  And  it  was  held  by  the  lord  chan- 
 cellor clearly,  that  the  ordinary's  accept- 
 ance of  the  resignation  is  absolutely  neces- 
 sary to  make  an  avoidance.  But  whether 
 in  this  case  there  was  a  ])roper  resignation 
 and  acceptance  thereof,  he  reserved  for 
 further  consideration  ;  and  in  the  mean 
 time  recommended  it  to  the  archbishoji,  to 
 produce  the  resignation  in  court.  After- 
 wards, on  the  17th  of  April,  1755,  the 
 cause  came  on  again  to  be  heard,  and  the 
 resignation  was  then  produced.  But  the 
 counsel  for  the  executors  of  the  late 
 marquis  declaring  that  they  did  not  intend 
 to  make  any  further  opposition,  the  lord 
 chancellor  gave  no  opinion  upon  the  re- 
 signation, or  the  effect  of  it ;  but  in  the 
 course  of  the  former  argument  he  held, 
 that  the  acceptance  of  a  resignation  by  the 
 ordinary  is  necessary  to  make  it  effectual, 
 and  that  it  is  in  the  power  of  the  ordinary 
 to  accept  or  refuse  a  resignation. 
 
 And  in  the  case  of  Heshct  and  Grey, 
 H,  28  Geo.  II.,  where  a  general  bond  of 
 resignation  was  put  in  suit,  and  the  de- 
 fendant pleaded  that  he  offered  to  resign, 
 but  the  ordinary  would  not  accept  the  re- 
 signation ;  the  court  of  King's  Bench  were 
 unanimously  of  opinion,  that  the  ordinary 
 is  a  judicial  officer,  and  is  intrusted  with 
 a  judicial  power  to  accept  or  refuse  a  re- 
 signation as  he  thinks  proper;  and  judg- 
 ment was  given  for  the  j)Iaintifr. 
 
 6.  After  accejjtance  of  the  resignation, 
 lapse  shall  not  run  but  from  the  time  of 
 notice  given  :  it  is  true  the  church  is  void 
 immediately  \\\>uw  acceptance,  and  the  pa- 
 tron may  present  if  he  please;  but  as  to 
 lapse,  the  general  rule  that  is  here  laid 
 
658 
 
 RESIGNATION. 
 
 RESPOND. 
 
 do^vn  is  the  unanimous  doctrine  of  all  the 
 hooks.  Insomuch  that  if  the  hishop  who 
 accepted  the  resignation  dies  before  notice 
 given,  the  six  months  shall  not  commence 
 till  notice  is  given,  by  the  guardian  of  the 
 spiritualities,  or  by  the  succeeding  bishop  ; 
 with  whom  the  act  of  resignation  is  pre- 
 sumed to  remain. —  Gibson,  823. 
 
 7.  By  the  31  Eliz.  c.  6,  s.  8.  If  any  in- 
 cumbent of  any  benefice  with  cure  of  souls 
 shall  corruptly  resign  the  same;  or  cor- 
 ruptly take  for  or  in  respect  of  the  resign- 
 ing the  same,  directly  or  indirectly,  any 
 pension,  sum  of  money,  or  other  benefit 
 whatsoever,  as  well  the  giver  as  the  taker 
 of  any  such  pension,  sum  of  money,  or  other 
 benefit  corruptly,  shall  lose  double  the 
 value  of  the  sum  so  given,  taken,  or  had ; 
 half  to  the  queen,  and  half  to  him  that  shall 
 sue  for  the  same  in  any  of  her  Majesty's 
 courts  of  record. — Ahridgedfrom  Burn. 
 
 On  the  subject  of  general  bonds  of  re- 
 signation, see  Simony. 
 
 The  following  are  the  forms  of  resigna- 
 tion now  in  use  : — 
 
 No.  1. 
 Act  of  Hesignaiion  to  be  executed  before  a 
 Notary  Public  and  credible  Witnesses. 
 In  the  name  of  God,  Amen.     Before 
 you,  a  notary  public,   and  credible  wit- 
 nesses here  present,  I  ■ ,  in  the  county 
 
 of ,  and  diocese  of- ,  for  certain 
 
 just  and  lawful  causes  me  thereunto  espe- 
 cially moving,  without  compulsion,  fraud, 
 or  deceit,  do  purely,  simply,  and  abso- 
 lutely resign  and  give  up  my  said , 
 
 and  parish  church  of ,  with  all  their 
 
 rights,  members,  and  appurtenances,  into 
 the  hands  of  the  Right  Reverend  Father  in 
 
 God  ,  by  Divine  permission  lord 
 
 bishop ,  or  of  any  other  whomsoever, 
 
 having  or  that  shall  have  power  to  admit 
 this  my  resignation.  And  I  totally  re- 
 nounce my  right,  title,  and  possession  of, 
 in,  and  to  the  same,  with  all  their  rights, 
 members,  and  appurtenances  heretofore 
 had,  and  hitherto  belonging  to  me  ;  I  quit 
 them,  and  expressly  recede  from  them  by 
 these  presents.  And  that  this  my  resigna- 
 tion may  have  its  full  effect,  I  do  hereby 
 
 nominate  and  appoint ,  jointly  and 
 
 severally  my  proctors  or  substitutes,  to 
 exhibit  this  my  resignation  to  the  said 
 right  reverend  father,  and  in  my  name  to 
 pray  that  his  lordship  would  graciously 
 vouchsafe  to  accept  thereof,  and  to  pro- 
 nounce, decree,  and  declare  the of 
 
 ,  aforesaid,  void  and  to  be  void  of 
 
 my  person  to  all  intents  of  law  that  may 
 follow  thereupon  :  and  to  decree,  if  requi- 
 site, that  intimation  of  the  said  avoidance 
 
 may  be  issued  to  the  patron  thereof.     In 
 witness  whereof  I  have   hereunto  set  my 
 
 hand  and  seal  this day  of  , 
 
 in  the  year  of  our  Lord  185 — . 
 
 Witnesses  present, 
 
 No.  2. 
 Attestation  of  the  Notary  Public. 
 On  the day  of ,  in  the  year 
 
 of  our  Lord   185 
 clerk, of 
 
 the   Rev. 
 
 — ,  in  the  county  of 
 
 ,  and  diocese  of ,  appeared 
 
 personally  before  me,  the  under- Avritten 
 notary  public,  and  resigned,  gave  up,  and 
 
 surrendered  his  said ,  and  appointed 
 
 • his  proctors,  jointly  and  severally 
 
 to  exhibit  his  resignation,  hereunto  an- 
 nexed, to  the  Right  Reverend  Father  in 
 
 God ,  lord  bishop  of ,  and  did 
 
 and  performed  all  other  things  as  in  his 
 said  resignation,  hereunto  annexed,  is  par- 
 ticularly specified   and   set  forth,  in  the 
 presence  of  witnesses  attesting  the  same. 
 Which  I  attest,  — — — 
 Notary  Public. 
 
 No.  3. 
 
 Acceptation  by  the  Ordinary  of  the  Resiyna- 
 tion. 
 
 We  accept  the  resignation  of  the , 
 
 in  the  county  of ,  and  our  diocese 
 
 of -,  as  it  is  exhibited  to  us  by , 
 
 one  of  the    proctors  therein  named,  and 
 
 we  do  declare  the  said void,  and  to 
 
 be  void  of  the  person  of  the  wdthin  named 
 
 ,  the  party  resigning,  to  all  intents 
 
 of  law  that  may  follow  thereupon,  and  do 
 decree  that  an  intimation  of  such  avoid- 
 ance, if  requisite,  be  issued  to  the  patron 
 thereof. 
 
 Dated  this day  of ,  in  the 
 
 year  of  our  Lord  185 — . 
 
 No.  4. 
 Copy  of  Letter  to  be  sent  to  the  Patron  of 
 the  Benefice  resigned,  if  it  is  not  in  the 
 Patronage  of  the  Bishop  himself. 
 
 185—. 
 I   am  desired  by  the  Lord  Bishop  of 
 
 to  inform  you,  that  his  lordship 
 
 accepted  the  Rev.  resignation  of 
 
 the  of ,  in  the  county  of 
 
 ,and  diocese  of ,  on  the 
 
 of- 
 
 ,  and  declared  the  same  void. 
 
 Please  to  acknowledge  the   receipt  of 
 this  notice. 
 
 I  have  the  honour  to  be, 
 
 Your  most  obedient  servant, 
 
 Secretary. 
 RESPOND.     Before  the  Reformation 
 a  short  anthem  was  so  called,  which  was 
 
RESPOND. 
 
 sung  after  reading  three  or  four  verses  of 
 a  chapter;  after  which  the  chapter  pro- 
 ceeded. 
 
 IIESPOND.  A  half  pillar  attached  to 
 a  wall,  to  support  one  side  of  an  arch,  of 
 which  the  other  side  rests  on  a  pillar.  It 
 has  its  name  from  responding  or  ansicer'unj 
 to  a  pillar. 
 
 KESPONSE.     In   the   Church  service, 
 an  answer  made  by  the  people  speaking 
 alternately   with   the   minister.     The  use 
 of  responses  is  not  to  be  viewed  as  a  mere 
 incidental  peculiarity  of  liturgical  services, 
 but  rather  as  a  fundamental  characteristic 
 of  Divine  worship.     Responses  were  not 
 made  for   liturgies,    but   liturgies  for  re- 
 sponses.    J\Iany  of  the   psalms  are    con- 
 structed on  the  responsive  model,  because 
 this  was  a  prior  trait  of  the  worship  of  the 
 sanctuary;  and  it  is  an  error  to  suppose 
 that  responses  were   introduced   because 
 these  psalms  happened  to  be  in  alternate 
 verses.     God's  worship  is  an  act  in  which 
 both  minister  and  people  are  concerned. 
 This  worship  the   Church  requires  to  be 
 both  mental  and  vocal,  and  has  ordered 
 her    ritual    accordingly, — not    degrading 
 the  priest  to  a  proxy,  nor  the  congregation 
 to  an  audience ;  but  providing  for  su])])li- 
 cations  and  thanksgivings,  which,  like  her- 
 self, shall   be  strong  because    united.     It 
 should  be  deemed  a  high  privilege  by  the 
 churchman,  that  he  is  permitted  to  lift  up 
 his  voice  in  prayer,  as  well  as  in  praise, 
 "  in    the    congregation    of   the    saints ; " 
 that  he  may  openly  profess  his  confidence 
 in  the  Father  of  all,  and  his  trust  in  the 
 "  Lamb  of  God  who  taketh  away  the  sin  of 
 the  world;"  that  he  may  join  aloud  in  the 
 "  solemn  litany,"  and  cry  for  grace  whereby 
 he  may  keep  God's  holy  law  for  the  time 
 to    come.     In    ages    past    the    privilege 
 was  prized.     Men  were  not  ashamed,    in 
 primitive  days,  to  confess  Christ  before 
 the   world,   and,   as  it  were,  to  rend   the 
 heavens  Avith  their  fervent  appeals.  Neither 
 was  it  by  an  ecclesiastical  fiction,  but  in 
 solemn  reality,  that  they  sung,  "  Therefore 
 with  angels  and  archangels,  and  Avith  all 
 the  company   of  heaven,   WE    LAUD  AND 
 MAGNIFY     THY     GLORIOUS     NAME."      May 
 the  time  come  when  such  devotion  shall 
 again  adorn  the  "  spacious  courts  "  of  Zion ; 
 when  the  vague  m\u-mur  of  confession,  and 
 the  languid  tones  of  penitence,  the  silent 
 creed,    and   the    smothered   prayer,    shall 
 give  place  to  the  earnest  and  nervous  ex- 
 pression of  spiritual  concern,  and  the  ani- 
 mating testimony  of  devout  gratitude! 
 
 It  was   a  very  ancient  ])ractice  of  the 
 Jews    to  recite  their  public    hymns    and 
 prayers  bv  course,  and  many  of  the  Fathers 
 2  u  2 
 
 llESPONSK. 
 
 Gd9 
 
 assure  us  that  tlxe  i)rinutive  Christians 
 mutated  them  therein;  so  that  there  is 
 no  ohl  liturgy  which  does  not  contain 
 such  short  and  devout  sentences  as  tlieso, 
 whercui  the  peopk>  answer  the  priest,  and 
 which  are  therefore  called  "responses." 
 This  ])riinitive  usage,  wliicli  is  now  exchidc^l 
 not  only  from  Popish  asscnil)Hes  by  their 
 praying  in  an  unknown  tongue,  but  also 
 from  those  of  our  Protestant  Dissenters  by 
 the  device  of  a  long  extempore  j)raver,  is 
 still  maintained  in  the  Churcli  of  J-lngland  ; 
 which  allows  the  people  their  ancient  right 
 of  bearing  part  in  tiie  service  for  these 
 good  reasons:  First,  hereby  the  consent 
 of  the  congregation  to  what  we  prav  Ibr  is 
 declared  ;  and  it  is  this  unity  of  mind  and 
 voice,  and  this  agreement  in'])rayer,  which 
 hath  the  promise  of  prevailing,  "(lloni.  xv. 
 6;  MaU.  xviii.  19.)  Secondly,  this  grate- 
 ful variety  and  different  manner  of  address 
 serves  to  quicken  the  people's  devotion. 
 Thirdly,  it  engages  their  attention,  which 
 is  apt  to  wander,  especially  in  sacred 
 things;  and,  since  they  have  a  duty  to 
 perform,  causes  them  to  be  expectant  and 
 ready  to  perforin  it.  Let  all  those,  then, 
 who  attend  the  public  service,  gratefully 
 embrace  the  privilege  which  the  Church 
 allows  them,  and  make  their  responses 
 gravely  and  with  an  audible  voice. — Dean 
 Comber. 
 
 But  it  must  be  remembered,  both  here 
 and  elsewhere,  when  our  prayers  to  GoD 
 are  divided  into  such  small  ])ortions  as  we 
 call  "  versicles,"  that  the  people  are  to  join 
 mentally  in  that  part  which  the  minister 
 utters,  as  well  as  in  that  which  they  are 
 directed  to  pronounce  themselves.  And 
 so  the  minister,  in  Hke  manner,  must  join 
 in  what  the  people  utter,  as  well  as  in  his 
 OAvn  part.  For  otherwise  they  do  not  join  in 
 prayer.  Besides,  if  this  be  not  done,  we 
 shall  frequently  ofi"er  to  GoD  that  which 
 has  but  an  imperfect  sense.  For  instance, 
 in  this  place,  these  words,  "  and  our  mouth 
 shall  show  forth  thy  praise,"  do  so  mani- 
 festly depend  upon  what  the  minister  spake 
 just  before,  that  the  sense  of  the  one  is  not 
 perfect  without  the  other.  It  is  true  the 
 Church  requires,  that  the  minister  shall  say 
 the  one,  and  the  peoj)lc  the  other  portion  ; 
 that  is,  the  one  portion  shall  be  vocally 
 uttered  by  the  mijiister,  and  the  other 
 portion  shall  be  vocally  uttered  by  the 
 people,  alternately  and  by  way  of  re- 
 sponses; l)ut  yet  both  the  minister  and 
 the  ])coi)le  ought  mentally  to  offer,  and  to 
 speak  to  God,  what  is  vocally  offered  and 
 spoken  by  the  other  party  respectively,  for 
 the  reasons  already  given.  And,  that  ])oth 
 the  minister  and  the  congregation  may  be 
 
6G0 
 
 RESPONSORIES. 
 
 RESURRECTION. 
 
 the  better  able  to  do  this,  they  should  re- 
 spectively take  care,  that  they  do  not  con- 
 found and  disturb  each  other  by  beginning 
 their  several  portions  too  soon.  The 
 minister's  first  versicle  should  be  finished, 
 before  the  people  utter  a  word  of  the 
 second  ;  and  the  people  should  have  time 
 enough  to  finish  the  second,  before  the 
 minister  begins  the  third,  &c.  :  so  that 
 both  the  minister  and  people  may  have 
 time  enough  deliberately  to  offer  every 
 portion,  and  make,  all  of  them  together, 
 one  continued  act  of  devotion.  The  same 
 rule  nuist  be  observed  in  all  those  psalms 
 and  hymns  which  are  used  alternately. — 
 iJr.  Bcnnet.    (See  Versicle.) 
 
 The  Responses,  or  Mespotisals,  as  some 
 writers  call  them,  may  be  said  to  be  of 
 four  kinds :  First,  those  which  consist  of 
 Amen  after  the  prayers :  Secondly,  those 
 which  follow  the  versicles  or  suffrages  : 
 Thirdly,  those  which  are  repetitions  of 
 what  the  minister  has  said,  as  in  the  con- 
 fession, some  parts  of  the  Litany,  &c. :  and 
 Fourthly,  the  short  prayers  or  anthems, 
 interposed  between  each  commandment  in 
 the  Communion  Service. 
 
 RESPOXSORIES,  or  RESPONDS. 
 These,  in  the  unreformed  ritual,  are  short 
 verses  from  Scripture,  repeated  as  verse 
 and  response,  after  the  lessons  at  matins. 
 Hence  perhaps  it  is  that  the  hymns  after 
 our  lessons  have  sometimes  incorrectly 
 been  called  respotises ;  a  term,  however, 
 which  in  this  sense  seems  nearly  obsolete. 
 It  is  to  these  responsories  that  allusion  is 
 made  in  the  Preface  "  concerning  the  Ser- 
 vice of  the  Church,"  in  our  Prayer  Book. 
 "  For  this  cause  he  cut  off  Anthems,  Re- 
 sponds, Invitations,  and  such  like  things 
 as  did  break  the  continual  course  of  the 
 reading  of  the  Scriptures."  Here  is  not 
 meant  responses  per  se ;  for  these  our  re- 
 formers most  carefully  retained;  not  an- 
 thems per  se,  as  these  are  prescribed  in 
 their  proper  places  ;  but  the  ancient  cus- 
 tom was  corrected,  which  after  every  three 
 or  four  verses  of  a  lesson  interposed  a 
 respond,  &c.,  so  as  to  interrupt  the  service  ; 
 the  sequel  being  taken  up  when  the  re- 
 spond was  finished. — Jehh. 
 
 RESTORATION.  The  name  generally 
 given  to  the  happy  return  of  the  Church 
 of  England  to  the  divinely  appointed  ec- 
 clesiastical polity,  and  to  their  allegiance 
 to  the  lawful  prince,  Charles  II.,  Vhich 
 took  place  in  1660  ;  a  happy  event,  for 
 whicli  Christian  people  cannot  be  too 
 thankful,  and  of  which,  and  all  the  dread- 
 ful evils  from  which  it  delivered  them,  they 
 cannot^  be  too  often  reminded.  It  has  been 
 accordingly  appointed  by  authority,  that 
 
 the  29th  of  May,  in  every  year,  shall  be 
 kept  with  prayer  and  thanksgiving  to 
 Almighty  God  for  these  unspeakable  mer- 
 cies. 
 
 RESURRECTION.  There  are  many 
 passages  in  the  Old  Testament,  which  either 
 obscurely  hint  at  the  resurrection,  or  im- 
 mediately refer  to  it.  (Job  xix.  23 — 27; 
 Dan.  xii.  2  ;  Isa.  xxv.  8  ;  xxvi.  19;  Hosea 
 vi.  2 ;  xiii.  14  ;  Ezek.  xxxvii.  1—14.)  It 
 follows,  indeed,  from  an  acceptance  of  the 
 promise  of  a  redeemer.  A  redeemer 
 was  promised  as  a  blessing  to  Adam  and 
 the  patriarchs;  but  when  Adam  and  the 
 first  patriarchs  died,  how  was  the  coming 
 of  the  Redeemer  to  be  a  blessing  to  them  ? 
 The  answer  is  given  by  Job :  "  I  know 
 that  my  Redeemer  liveth,  and  that  at  the 
 latter  day  he  shall  stand  upon  the  earth ; 
 whom  I  shall  see  for  myself,  and  mine  eyes 
 shall  behold;"  i.  e.  by  being  raised  from 
 the  dead.  The  doctrine  of  the  resurrection 
 of  the  dead  is  one  of  the  great  articles 
 of  the  Christian  faith.  We  believe  that 
 Jesus  died  and  rose  again ;  we  also  believe, 
 for  so  we  are  taught  in  the  New  Testa- 
 ment, that  "them  which  sleep  in  Jesus 
 will  God  bring  Avith  him,"  that  "  Christ 
 by  his  rising  became  the  first-fruits  of 
 them  that  slept,"  that  "  the  dead  shall  be 
 raised  incorruptible,"  that  "  the  grave  and 
 the  sea  shall  give  up  their  dead,"  that  at 
 this  resurrection  "  the  dead  in  Christ 
 shall  rise  first,"  that  the  Lord  Jesus 
 Christ  will  change  "  our  vile  body,  and 
 fashion  it  like  unto  his  glorious  body,  ac- 
 cording to  the  working  of  that  mighty 
 power  whereby  he  is  able  to  subdue  all 
 things  to  himself."  (1  Thess.  iv.  14—16  ; 
 1  Cor.  XV.  20—52;  Rev.  xx.  13;  Phil.  iii. 
 21.) 
 
 As  Christ,  the  "first-fruits  of  them 
 that  sleep,"  (1  Cor.  xv.  20,)  arose  from  the 
 dead,  so  shall  there  be  also  a  general  re- 
 surrection OF  the  body  ;  for  he  "  that 
 raised  up  Christ  from  the  dead  shall  also 
 quicken  our  mortal  bodies."  (Rom.  viii.  11.) 
 A  seeming  difliiculty,  however,  attends  the 
 latter  case,  which  does  not  the  former. 
 The  body  of  Christ  did  not  "  see  cor- 
 ruption ; "  but  we  know  that  in  our  case, 
 "  after  the  skin  worms  shall  destroy  the 
 body  itself,"  and  that  "vet  in  our  flesh 
 shall  we  see  God."  (Job  xix.  26.)  We 
 must,  therefore,  believe  that  this  resurrec- 
 tion, however  apparently  difficult,  is  not 
 impossible,  for  with  him  by  whom  we  are 
 to  be  raised  "all  things  are  possible." 
 We  know  that  by  him  "the  very  hairs  of 
 the  head  are  all  numbered ; "  and  he  "  who 
 measures  the  waters  in  the  hollow  of  his 
 hand,"  and   "  comprehends    the    dust  of 
 
EESURRECTION. 
 
 UEVELATION. 
 
 CGI 
 
 the  earth,"  (Isa.  xl.  12,)  whose  "eyes" 
 could  "  see  our  substance,"  "  made  in 
 secret,"  and  "yet  bcinj^  imperfect"  (Ps. 
 cxxxix.  15,  16,)  can  be  at  no  loss  to  dis- 
 tinajuish  the  different  i)articlcs  of  every 
 different  body,  whether  it  be  crumbkxl  into 
 dust,  or  dissipated  into  air,  or  sublimated 
 by  fire.  He,  too,  the  artificer  of  the  body 
 so  "fearfully  and  Avonderfully  made,"  (Ps. 
 cxxxix.  14,)  can  be  at  no  loss  to  reunite  the 
 innumerable  and  widely  scattered  atoms  ; 
 for  these  shall  not  perish ;  and  with  equal 
 ease  re-form  the  man,  as  he  originally 
 made  him. 
 
 The  union  of  the  immortal  soul  to  the 
 companion  made  for  it,  (then  become  more 
 pure  and  glorified,)  after  they  have  existed 
 together  in  this  transitory  life,  is  also 
 highly  probable ;  nor  is  it  less  so,  that 
 this  should  be  the  case  as  man  is  an  ac- 
 countable agent,  intended  to  enjoy  eternal 
 happiness,  or  suffer  eternal  misery — de- 
 creed to  "receive  the  things  done  in  the 
 body,  according  to  that  he  hath  done,  Avhe- 
 ther  it  be  good  or  bad."  (2Cor.  v.  10.)  It  is 
 also  typified  by  many  things  around  us : 
 the  constant  succession  of  death  and  re- 
 vivification— the  night  is  followed  by  a 
 new  day  —  the  winter,  the  death  of  the 
 year,  is  followed  by  the  spring,  and  the 
 renewal  of  vegetation;  the  "grain"  sown 
 is  not  requickened  except  it  first  "  die," 
 and  is  buried  in  the  ground  and  brought 
 to  corruption. 
 
 By  this  is  Reason  prepared  to  assent  to 
 Revelation ;  and  therefore,  as  it  has  been 
 prophesied  that,  notwithstanding  this  de- 
 struction of  the  body,  yet  in  our  "  flesh  " 
 shall  we  "  see  God,"  and  our  "  eves  shall 
 behold  him  "  (Job  xix.  26) ;  that  the  "  dead 
 meji  shall  live,"  and  with  the  "  dead  body, 
 arise ; "  for  "  the  earth  shall  cast  out  the 
 dead,"  (Isa.  xxvi.  19,)  and  that  they  that 
 "  sleep  in  the  dust  of  the  earth  shall  awake, 
 some  to  everlasting  life,  and  some  to  shame 
 and  everlasting  contempt,"  (Dan.  xii.  2,) 
 so  shall  it  be  accomplished :  "  there  shall 
 be  a  resurrection  of  the  dead  "  (Acts  xxiv. 
 15) ;  "the  hour  is  coming  when  the  dead 
 — all  that  are  in  the  grave — shall  hear  the 
 voice  of  the  Son  of  God,"  and  "  shall  come 
 forth  ; "  the  "  sea  "  and  "  death  and  hell " 
 (or  the  grave)  "  shall  deliver  up  the  dead 
 which  are  in  them"  (Rev.  xx.  l.'i). 
 
 This  our  Lord,  who  calls  himself  "  the 
 Resurrection  and  the  Life,"  (John  xi.  25,) 
 proved  to  the  Sadducees  from  the  Old 
 Testament ;  since  he  who  was  then  the 
 God  of  their  fathers  "  is  not  the  God  of 
 the  dead,  but  of  the  living."  (Matt.  xxii. 
 32.)  St.  Paul,  too,  confirms  the  doctrine 
 by  most  powerful   reasoning ;    declaring, 
 
 that  if  there  be  no  resurrection  of  the 
 dead,  then  is  "Christ  not  risen;"  and 
 then  is  tlu-ir  "  faith  "  vain  ;  and  he  shows, 
 in  answer  to  cavillers,  that,  as  Christ  is 
 risen,  "  the  first-fruits," — so  shall  "  all  be 
 made  alive,"  exemplifying  the  ])r()bal)ility 
 and  tlie  manner  of  this  by  a  familiar  illus- 
 tration.    (I  Cor.  XV.  12— 2;j,  :j5— 49.) 
 
 It  shall  be,  too,  a  resurrection  of  the 
 body,  every  one  his  own  body  as  it  "  hath 
 l)leased"  God  to  give  him:  although  the 
 "natural  body,"  "sown  in  corruption, — 
 in  dishonour, — and  in  weakness,"  shall  be 
 "  raised  a  spiritual  body, — in  incorruption, 
 in  glory,  and  in  j)ower."  The  "  earthly 
 house"  shall  have  "a  building  of  God" 
 (2  Cor.  V.  1) ;  the  "  corru])tible"  shall  "  put 
 on  incorruption  ; "  and  the  "  mortal,  im- 
 mortality." Those  that  do  "not  sk't'])" 
 shall  "  be  changed," — "  caught  up  in  the 
 clouds  to  meet  the  Lord."  (1  Thess.  iv.  17.) 
 
 We  believe  in  this  article,  as  the  great 
 truth  it  contains  is  for  the  glory  of  God's 
 eternal  government,  "  the  hand  of  the 
 Lord  shall  l)e  known  towards  his  servants, 
 and  his  indignation  towards  his  enemies" 
 (Isa.  Ixvi.  14);  as  it  proves  the  value  of 
 the  "  gospel,"  which  has  "  lirought  life  and 
 immortality  to  light"  (2  Tim.  i.  10) ;  as  it 
 consoles  us  under  "afflictions,"  which  are 
 "  but  for  a  moment :  "  since  we  know  that 
 our  "Redeemer  liveth;"  and  that  we 
 "  sorrow  not,"  therefore,  "  as  others  which 
 have  no  hope"  (1  Thess.  iv.  13,  with  14  — 
 18) ;  and  excites  us  "  to  have  always  a  con- 
 science void  of  offence  toAvard  God  and 
 toward  men"  (Acts  xxiv.  16,  with  15); 
 since  "  it  is  a  fearful  thing  to  fall  into  the 
 hands  of  the  living  God!"  (Heb.  x.  31) — 
 of  "  him  that  is  able  to  destroy  both  soul 
 and  body  in  hell!"  (Matt.  x.  28.)  There- 
 fore should  we  be  "  always  abounding  in 
 the  work  of  the  Lord  ;  forasmuch  as  we 
 know  that  our  labour  in  the  Lord  is  not 
 in  vain."    (1  Cor.  xv.  58.) 
 
 REVELATION.  (1 .)  The  Divine  com- 
 munication of  the  sacred  truths  of  religion. 
 (See  BiUe,  Scri])ture.) 
 
 (2.)  The  Apocalypse,  or  prophecy  of  St. 
 John,  revealing  future  things.  Tliis  is  the 
 last  book  of  Holy  Scrijiture,  and  it  con- 
 tains the  revelations  made  to  St.  John  at 
 Patmos.  It  is  quoted  as  an  inspired  book 
 by  Justin  Martyr,  Irena-us,  Clement  of 
 Alexandria,  Tertullian,  and  other  fathers 
 of  the  first  three  centuries.  Its  authen- 
 ticity and  genuineness  were  never  disputed 
 until  a  prejudice  was  excited  against  it  by 
 the  follies  of  certain  Millciuxrians,  who 
 thought  to  sujiport  their  conclusions  by  its 
 authority,  liut  the  Church  never  doubted 
 of  its  being  a  portion  of  Scripture,  or  of  it.s 
 
662 
 
 REVEREND. 
 
 RING. 
 
 Divine  origin.  Indeed,  few  books  of  the 
 New  Testament  have  more  complete  evi- 
 dence of  canonical  authority  than  the  Book 
 of  Revelation.  It  treats,  1.""  Of  the  things 
 which  were  then,"  (i.  19,)  i.  e.  of  the  state 
 of  the  Church  in  the  time  of  St.  John ; 
 and,  2.  "  Of  things  which  should  be  here- 
 after," or  of  the  history  of  the  Church,  its 
 propagation,  corruption,  reformation,  and 
 triumph. 
 
 KEVEREND.  Venerable,  deserving  awe 
 and  respect.  It  is  the  title  given  to  eccle- 
 siastics of  the  second  and  third  orders,  the 
 archbishops,  and  the  bishop  of  Meath, 
 being  styled  most  reverend,  and  the  bishops 
 rif/ht  reverend.  Deans  are  very  reverend. 
 In  foreign  churches,  where  females  are  or- 
 dained to  offices  in  the  Church,  abbesses 
 and  prioresses  are  called  reverend  mothers. 
 It  was  so  in  our  own  Church  before  the 
 Reformation,  but,  since  that  time,  the  cus- 
 tom of  consecrating  females  to  the  service 
 of  God,  except  so  far  as  all  lay  persons  are 
 so  consecrated  at  holy  baptism  and  at  con- 
 firmation, has  ceased.  The  more  zealous 
 Protestants  at  the  time  of  the  Reformation, 
 and  especially  during  the  Great  Rebellion, 
 very  strongly  objected  to  the  title  of  rever- 
 end, as  implying  too  much  to  be  given  to 
 a  mere  creature,  and  because  of  God  only 
 it  may  be  said  with  propriety,  "  Holy  and 
 reverend  is  his  name."  But  dissenting 
 preachers  are  in  these  days  ambitious  of 
 the  title,  and  few  clergymen  refuse  it.  The 
 title  of  reverend  was  frequently  given,  so 
 late  as  the  17th  century,  to  the  judges  of 
 England. 
 
 RIGHTEOUSNESS,  JUSTICE,  HO- 
 LINESS. (See  Justification  and  Sanctiji- 
 cation.) 
 
 RING,  in  holy  matrimony.  Immedi- 
 ately after  the  mutual  promises  or  stipula- 
 tions in  the  office  of  matrimony,  the  very 
 ancient  ceremony  occurs  of  placing  a  ring 
 on  the  finger  of  the  v.'oman.  The  object 
 of  this  is  stated  in  the  prayer  following,  to 
 be  "  a  token  and  pledge  "  of  the  vow  and 
 covenant  just  made  by  the  parties.  Ri- 
 tualists have  supposed,  that  the  ring  was 
 also  a  pledge  or  earnest  of  that  honourable 
 maintenance  and  participation  in  "  worldly 
 goods,"  which  are  promised  in  that  part  of 
 the  office  where  the  ceremony  takes  place. 
 It  has  also  been  considered  as  a  sign  or 
 seal  of  admittance  of  the  wife  to  "  the 
 nearest  friendship  and  highest  trust," 
 which  it  was  in  the  husband's  power  to 
 give.  It  is  probable  that  there  is  weight 
 in  all  these  opinions,  though  the  foi'mer 
 seems  to  be  the  prominent  one  in  the  view 
 of  the  Church. 
 
 Various  analogies  and  figurative  appli- 
 
 cations have  sprung  from  the  ceremony  of 
 the  ring,  some  of  which  are  thus  stated  by 
 Dean  Comber  and  "Wheatly.  The  matter 
 of  which  this  ring  is  made  is  gold,  to 
 signify  how  noble  and  durable  our  affection 
 is ;  the  form  is  round,  to  imply  that  our 
 respect  shall  never  have  an  end  ;  the  place 
 of  it  is  on  the  fourth  finger  of  the  left 
 hand,  where  the  ancients  thought  was  a 
 vein  w^iich  came  directly  from  the  heart, 
 and  where  it  may  be  always  in  view  ;  and, 
 being  a  finger  least  used,  where  it  may  be 
 least  subject  to  be  worn  out.  But  the 
 main  end  is  to  be  a  visible  and  lasting 
 token  and  remembrance  of  this  covenant, 
 which  must  never  be  forgotten  ;  and  if  in 
 ordinary  bargains  we  have  some  lasting 
 thing  delivered  as  an  earnest  or  pledge  and 
 memorial,  much  more  is  it  needful  here ; 
 and  to  scruple  a  thing  so  prudent  and 
 well  designed,  so  anciently  and  universally 
 used,  does  not  deserve  our  serious  con- 
 sideration. Indeed,  although  the  use  of  the 
 ring  in  marriage  used  to  be  regarded  as  a 
 remnant  of  Popery  by  ultra-Protestants,  it 
 seems  now  to  be  universally  tolerated. 
 
 Besides  the  pledge  of  our  truth,  there  is 
 a  visible  pledge  also,  namely,  the  ring, 
 which  being  anciently  the  seal  by  v>-hich 
 all  orders  Avere  signed,  and  all  choice 
 things  secured,  the  delivery  of  this  was  a 
 sign  that  the  party  to  whom  it  was  given 
 was  admitted  into  the  nearest  friendship 
 and  the  highest  trust,  so  as  to  be  invested 
 with  our  authority,  and  allowed  to  manage 
 our  treasure  and  other  concerns,  (Gen.  xli. 
 42,)  and  hence  it  came  to  be  a  token  of 
 love  (Luke  xv.  22)  ;  and  was  used  in 
 matrimony,  not  only  among  the  Jews  and 
 Gentiles,  but  the  Christians  also  ;  who,  in 
 Clemens  Alexandrinus's  time,  gave  their 
 spouse  a  ring,  to  declare  her  worthy  of  the 
 government  of  the  family ;  and  thus  it  hath 
 been  used  ever  since. — Dean  Comber. 
 
 The  ring  is,  by  positive  institution,  "  a 
 token  and  pledge  of  the  covenant  made  " 
 by  the  parties  contracting  marriage  ;  and, 
 as  it  is  a  permanent  monument  of  the  vows 
 and  promises  then  reciprocally  made,  so  it 
 ought  to  be  a  perpetual  monitor,  that  these 
 vows  be  religiously  observed,  and  these 
 promises  faithfully  performed. — Shepherd. 
 RING,  in  investitures.  A  ring  was 
 anciently  given  to  bishops  on  their  conse- 
 cration, with  these  v>'ords,  "  Accipe  annu- 
 lum,  discretionis  et  honoris,  fidei  signum  ; 
 ut  qu8B  signanda,  signes ;  et  qua?  aperienda 
 sunt,  aperias ;  quae  liganda  sunt,  liges  ; 
 quae  solvenda  sunt,  solvas."  It  was  worn 
 on  different  fingers,  most  frequently  on 
 the  middle  finger  of  the  right  hand ;  and 
 was  a  sign  of  the  bridegroom's  espousal 
 
RITES. 
 
 • 
 
 of  the  Church  in  her  representative,  tlie 
 bishop. 
 
 Investiture  with  the  rinjjf  and  staff, 
 which  signified  a  spiritual  character  and 
 office,  was  always  claimed  by  the  Churcli, 
 though  sometimes  unjustly  usurped  by 
 temporal  princes. 
 
 KITES.  (Lat.  ritus.)  lleligious  ob- 
 servances prescribed  by  competent  au- 
 thority. 
 
 It  is  very  visible,  that  in  the  Gospels  and 
 Epistles  there  are  but  few  rules  laid  down 
 as  to  ritual  matters.  In  the  Epistles  there 
 are  some  general  rules  given,  that  must 
 apply  in  a  great  many  cases  ;  such  as,  "  Let 
 all  things  be  done  to  e.lification,  to  order, 
 and  to  peace"  (Rom.  xiv.  19;  1  Cor.  xiv. 
 40) :  and  in  the  Epistles  to  Timothy  and 
 Titus  many  rules  are  given  in  such  gener- 
 al words,  as,  "  Lay  hands  suddenly  on  no 
 man,"  that,  in  order  to  the  guiding  of  par- 
 ticular cases  by  them,  many  distinctions 
 and  specialities  were  to  be  interposed,  to 
 making  them  practicable  and  useful.  In 
 matters  that  are  merely  ritual,  the  state 
 of  mankind  in  different  climates  and  ages 
 is  apt  to  vary ;  and  the  same  things,  that 
 in  one  scene  of  human  nature  may  look 
 grave,  and  seem  fit  for  any  society,  may  in 
 another  age  look  light,  and  dissipate  men's 
 thoughts.  It  is  also  evident,  that  there  is 
 not  a  system  of  rules  given  in  the  New- 
 Testament  about  all  these  ;  and  yet  a  due 
 method  in  them  is  necessary,  to  maintain 
 the  order  and  decency  that  become  Divine 
 things.  This  seems  to  be  a  part  of  the 
 gospel  "  liberty,"  that  it  is  not  "  a  law  of 
 ordinances  "  (Gal.  ii.  4;  iv.  9  ;  v.  1) ;  these 
 things  being  left  to  be  varied  according  to 
 the  diversities  of  mankind.  {See  Article  34.) 
 
 The  JeAvish  religion  was  delivered  to 
 one  nation,  and  the  main  parts  of  it  were 
 to  be  performed  in  one  place :  they  were 
 also  to  be  limited  in  rituals,  lest  they 
 might  have  taken  some  practices  from  their 
 neighbours  round  about  them,  and  so  by 
 the  use  of  their  rites  have  rendered  idola- 
 trous practices  more  familiar  and  accej)t- 
 able  to  them.  And  yet  tliey  had  many 
 rites  among  them  in  our  Saviour's  time, 
 which  are  not  mentioned  in  any  part  of 
 the  Old  Testament:  such  was  the  whole 
 constitution  of  their  synagogues,  with  alltlic 
 service  and  officers  that  belonged  to  them  ; 
 they  had  a  baptism  among  tliem,  besides 
 several  rites  added  to  the  paschal  service. 
 Our  Saviour  reproved  them  for  none  of 
 these  :  he  went  to  tlieir  synagogues  :  and, 
 though  he  reproved  tlicm  for  overvaluing 
 their  rites,  for  preferring  them  to  the  laws 
 of  God,  and  making  these  void  by  their 
 traditions,  yet  he  does  not  condemn  them 
 
 lUTUAL. 
 
 663 
 
 for  the  use  of  them.  And,  wliile  of  the 
 greater  precepts  he  says,  "  these  things  ye 
 ought  to  have  done,"  he  adds,  concern- 
 ing their  rites  and  lesser  matters,  "  and 
 not  to  have  left  the  other  undone."  (Matt, 
 xxiii.  23.) 
 
 If  tlien  sucli  a  liberty  was  allowed  in  so 
 limited  a  religion,  it  seems  highly  suitalde 
 to  the  sublimer  state  of  the  "Christian 
 liberty,  that  there  should  be  room  left  for 
 such  appointments  and  alterations  as  the 
 ditterent  state  of  times  and  places  should 
 require.  In  such  rules  we  ought  to  ac- 
 quiesce. Nor  can  we  assign  any  other 
 bounds  to  our  submission  in  this  case,  than 
 those  which  the  gospel  has  limited.  "  We 
 must  obey  God  rather  than  man  "  (Acts 
 V.  29) ;  and  we  must  in  the  first  place 
 "  render  to  God  the  things  that  are  Goo's," 
 and  then  "  give  to  Cit'sar  the  things  that 
 are  Ciusar's."  (Matt.  xxii.  21.)  So  that 
 if  either  Church  or  State  have  power 
 to  make  rules  and  laws  in  such  matters, 
 they  must  have  this  extent  given  them — 
 that,  till  they  break  in  upon  the  laws  of 
 God  and  the  gospel,  we  must  be  bound  to 
 obey  them.  A  mean  cannot  be  ])ut  here  ; 
 either  they  have  no  power  at  all,  or  they 
 have  a  ])ower  that  must  go  to  everything 
 that  is  not  forbid  by  any  law  of  GoD. 
 This  is  the  only  measure  that  can  be  given 
 in  this  matter. — J]j).  Burnet.  (See  Cere- 
 monies.) 
 
 IlITUAL.  A  book  or  manual  in  wliich 
 is  given  the  order  and  forms  to  be  ob- 
 served in  the  celebration  of  Divine  service, 
 the  administration  of  the  sacraments,  and, 
 in  general,  all  matters  connected  with  ex- 
 ternal order,  in  the  performance  of  sacred 
 offices. 
 
 Palmer  says,  the  English  ritual  resembles 
 that  of  the  Eastern  Church  in  the  circum- 
 stance of  combining  all  the  offices  of  the 
 Church  in  one  volume.  The  Euchologium, 
 or  ritual  of  the  Greeks,  now  comprises  the 
 offices  for  morning  and  evening  prayer,  the 
 liturgy  or  eucharist,  baptism,  litany,  orders, 
 8cc.  The  AVestern  Churches  have  more  com- 
 monly divided  these  offices  into  at  least 
 four  ])arts,  entitled,  the  hnrian/,  the 
 missal  or  liturgical  book,  the  ritual,  and 
 the  ponti/iral.  The  ritual  and  j)ontifical 
 correspond  to  that  part  of  the  JCnglish 
 ritual  which  begins  with  the  Office  of  Bap- 
 tism. The  ritual,  (termed  in  the  English 
 churches  of  Salisbury  and  York,  and  else- 
 where, nvtnual.)  coin])rised  all  those  occa- 
 sional offices  of  the  Church  which  a  pres- 
 byter could  administer.  The  jmntifical 
 contained  those  only  which  a  bishoj)  could 
 perform. 
 
 The  Eucholoiriuin,  or  ritual  of  the  Greek 
 
664 
 
 ROCHET. 
 
 ROMANISM. 
 
 Church,  illustrated  with  notes  by  Goar,  is 
 well  known  and  easily  accessible,  and  fur- 
 nishes abundant  information  Avith  regard 
 to  all  the  rites  of  the  Catholic  Chuixh  in 
 the  East.  The  baptismal  and  some  other 
 occasional  offices  of  the  Jacobites  or  Mo- 
 nophysites  of  Alexandria,  Antioch,  and 
 Armenia,  and  of  the  Nestorians,  have  been 
 published  by  Assemani  in  his  "Codex 
 Liturgicus."  *  Many  of  the  Oriental  offices 
 for  ordination,  as  well  as  all  the  Western, 
 are  to  be  found  in  the  learned  treatise  of 
 Morinus,  "  De  Ordinationibus."  The  most 
 valuable  collection  of  records  relative  to 
 the  occasional  offices  of  the  Western 
 Churches  has  been  published  by  Martene, 
 in  his  work,  "De  antiquis  Ecclesioe  Riti- 
 bus."  This  author,  with  indefatigable  in- 
 dustry, transcribed  and  edited  a  multitude 
 of  ancient  manuscripts,  and  collected  what- 
 ever had  previously  been  published.  So 
 that  tliere  is  scarcely  any  branch  of  ritual 
 knowledge  which  he  has  not  greatly  eluci- 
 dated. 
 
 ROCHET.  A  linen  garment  worn  by 
 bishops  under  the  chimere.  It  was  their 
 ordinary  garment  in  public  during  the 
 middle  ages.  The  word  rochet,  however, 
 is  not  of  any  great  antiquity,  and  perhaps 
 cannot  be  traced  further  back  than  the 
 thirteenth  century.  The  chief  difference 
 between  this  garment  and  the  surplice  v;as, 
 that  it  was  of  finer  material,  and  that 
 its  sleeves  were  narrower  than  those  of 
 the  latter ;  for  we  do  not  perceive  in  any 
 of  the  ancient  pictures  of  English  bishops 
 those  very  Avide  and  full  lawn  sleeves 
 which  are  now  used,  which  sleeves  are  now 
 improperly  attached  to  the  chimere  or 
 black  satin  robe. 
 
 Palmer  says,  therochette  is  spoken  of  in 
 the  old  "  Ordo  Romanus,"  under  the  title 
 of  lined  ;  and  has,  no  doubt,  been  very 
 anciently  used  by  bishops  in  the  Western 
 Church.  During  the  middle  ages  it  was 
 their  ordinary  garment  in  public. 
 
 Dr.  Hody  says,  that  in  the  reign  of 
 Henry  VIII.,  our  bishops  wore  a  scarlet 
 garment  under  the  rochette  ;  and  that,  in 
 the  time  of  Edward  VI.,  they  wore  a  scarlet 
 chimere,  like  the  doctors'  dress  at  Oxford, 
 over  the  rochette ;  which,  in  the  time  of 
 Queen  Elizabeth,  was  changed  for  the 
 black  satin  chimere  used  at  present. — Ilis- 
 toni  of  Convocations,  Y).  141.  (See  Chimere.) 
 
 The  chimere  seems  to  reseml)le  the  gar- 
 ment used  by  bishops  during  the  middle 
 ages,  and  called  manteltetum  ;  which  was 
 a  sort  of  cope,  with  apertures  for  the 
 arms  to  pass  through.  (See  Du  Camje's 
 Olossart/.) 
 In  some  foreign  cathedrals,  the  canons 
 
 wore  rochets,  as  well  as  other  episcopal 
 ornaments. 
 
 ROGATION  DAYS.  (So  called  from 
 rof/are,  "  to  beseech.")  They  are  three 
 days  immediately  before  the  festival  of 
 Ascension.  These  litanic  or  Rogation  days 
 were  first  instituted  by  Mamertus,  bishop 
 of  Vienne,  in  the  fifth  century.  Mamertus 
 was  not  the  originator  of  litanical  suppli- 
 cations, but  was  the  first  institutor  of  the 
 Rogation  fast,  and  the  first  who  applied 
 the  use  of  litanies  on  these  days,  accom- 
 panied with  public  processions,  which  con- 
 tinued till  the  aera  ofthe  Refomiation.  In 
 the  Church  of  England  it  has  been  thought 
 fit  to  continue  the  observance  of  these  days 
 as  private  fasts.  There  is  no  cffice,  or  order 
 of  prayer,  or  even  single  collect,  appointed 
 for  the  Rogation  days  in  the  Prayer  Book ; 
 but  among  the  homilies  there  is  one  de- 
 signed for  the  improvement  of  these  days. 
 (See  Peramhidation.)  The  requisitions  of 
 the  Church  are  "  abstinence "  and  "  ex- 
 traordinary acts  and  exercises  of  devotion." 
 Perambulations  were  in  many  parishes 
 observed  in  the  Rogation  days.  (See 
 Pcrainhiilation.) 
 
 ROMANISM.  (See  Pope  and  Popery, 
 Church  of  Pome,  Council  of  Trent.)  Ro- 
 manism consists  of  the  addition  of  certain 
 anti-scriptural  propositions  to  the  articles 
 of  the  ancient  catholic  faith. 
 
 In  addition  to  what  is  said  in  the  other 
 articles  referred  to,  we  may  state  the  tenets 
 of  Romanism  in  the  words  of  Morgan,  in 
 his  interesting  work  on  the  **  Verities  of 
 the  Church." 
 
 1 .  The  spiritual,  and,  by  the  Ultramon- 
 tane party,  the  temporal,  autocracy  of  the 
 Bishop  of  Rome. 
 
 2.  The  compulsory  celibacy  of  the  priest- 
 hood. 
 
 3.  Solitary  priestly  communion,  or  pri- 
 vate mass. 
 
 4.  The  denial  of  the  chalice,  or  the  cup 
 of  the  blood  of  our  Lord,  to  the  laity. 
 
 5.  Compulsory  auricular  confession. 
 
 6.  Mariolatry,  or  the  adoration  of  the 
 Blessed  Virgin. 
 
 7.  Hagiolatry,  or  the  adoration  of  canon- 
 ized saints. 
 
 8.  Transubstantiation. 
 
 9.  The  invention  of  purgatory. 
 
 10.  The  doctrine  of  supererogatory 
 merits. 
 
 11.  Limitation  of  the  Catholic  Church 
 of  Christ  to  one  episcopate. 
 
 12.  The  image  and  relic  system. 
 
 13.  The  doctrines  of  papal  pardons,  in- 
 dulgences, and  dispensations. 
 
 14.  The  interpolation  of  the  Apocrypha 
 into  the  rule  of  faith. 
 
ROMAN  CATHOLICS. 
 
 CG5 
 
 15.  Interdiction  of  the  reading:  of  tiie 
 Scriptures,  except  by  special  permission. 
 
 (For  the  form  of  reconciling  lioman  Ca- 
 tholics to  the  Catholic  Church  of  England, 
 see  Abjuration.) 
 
 IIOMAN  CATHOLICS.  Those  Chris- 
 tians ^vho  follow  the  doctrines  and  disci- 
 pline of  the  Church  of  Home, 
 
 The  doctrine  of  that  Church  may  be 
 seen  in  Pope  Pius's  Creed,  and  its  disci- 
 pline under  various  articles  relating  to  the 
 Christians.  (See  Church  of  Runic,  Bap- 
 tism, Eucharist,  &c..  Bishops,  Presbyters, 
 Deacons,  8:c.,  Sec,  &c.) 
 
 AVe  shall  here  unite  in  one  point  of  view 
 the  several  errors  of  the  llomish  Church, 
 and  its  deviations  from  the  practice  of  the 
 primitive  Church.     These  are  : 
 
 1.  The  granting  absolution  before  pe- 
 nance is  performed. 
 
 2.  The  worship  of  angels,  saints,  relics, 
 images,  the  cross,  and  the  host  in  the 
 eucharist. 
 
 3.  Appeals  to  the  bishop  of  Rome. 
 
 4.  Admitting  uncanonical  books  into  the 
 Scripture. 
 
 5.  The  absolute  necessity  of  baptism ; 
 and  the  ba])tizing  of  bells. 
 
 6.  The  celibacy  of  the  clergy,  and  their 
 exemption  from  the  power  of  the  civil 
 magistrate. 
 
 7.  The  exemption  of  children  from  the 
 power  of  their  parents. 
 
 8.  Auricular  confession,  and  confirm- 
 ation made  a  sacrament. 
 
 9.  The  administering  the  eucharist  in 
 one  kind  only. 
 
 10.  The  abuse  of  excommunication,  in 
 deposing  kings,  and  depriving  magistrates 
 of  their  civil  rights,  and  burning  heretics 
 under  pretence  of  discipline. 
 
 11.  The  consecration  of  the  eucharist  by 
 muttering  privately.  Hoc  est  corpus  meum, 
 instead  of  public  and  audible  prayer. 
 
 12.  The  use  of  interdicts  and  indul- 
 gences. 
 
 13.  Offering  of  a  lamb  at  Easter. 
 
 14.  Original  of  Lent,  and  changing  the 
 manner  of  fasting. 
 
 lo.  Exemption  of  monks  from  the  juris- 
 diction of  the  bishops. 
 
 16.  Allowing  of  mendicants. 
 
 17.  Disannulling  the  marriage  of  monks. 
 
 18.  Forbidding  the  marriage  of  spiritual 
 relations. 
 
 19.  Making  the  marriage  of  cousin- 
 germans  to  be  incest. 
 
 20.  Private  and  solitary  mass. 
 
 21.  Making  the  mass  a  sacrifice  for  the 
 quick  and  dead. 
 
 22.  Purgatory,  and  canonical  purgation. 
 
 23.  Prelatical  and  sacerdotal  power. 
 
 24.  Ordination  of  boys,  and  bishops, 
 witiiout  a  title. 
 
 2j.  Commutation  of  penance. 
 
 20.  Allowing  sanctuary  for  the  worst 
 of  criminals. 
 
 27.  Keeping  the  Scriptures  and  Divine 
 service  in  an  unknown  tongue. 
 
 2.S.  Swearing  ])y  the  creatures. 
 
 29.  The  doctrine  of  transul)stanti;iti<)ii. 
 
 30.  Using  unleavened  bread  and  wafers 
 in  the  eucharist. 
 
 31.  Necessity  of  a  visible  head,  and 
 subjection  to  the  pope  of  Rome. 
 
 'Ihe  following  is  the  return  regarding 
 Roman  Catholics  made  in  the  Registrar- 
 general's  Report  of  18j4. 
 
 '•The  Toleration  Act  of  1088,  by  which 
 the  Protestant  Dissenters  were  relieved 
 from  many  of  the  disabilities  that  pre- 
 viously attached  to  them,  procured  no 
 change  in  the  position  of  the  Roman 
 Catholics.  They  still  remained  subjected 
 to  the  penalties  inflicted  by  the  various 
 statutes  which,  since  Elizabeth's  accession, 
 had  been  passed  for  their  discouragement. 
 These  were  exceedingly  severe.  Apart 
 from  the  punishments  awarded  for  the 
 semi-political  offence  of  denying,  or  re- 
 fusing to  admit,  the  sovereign's  supremacy, 
 the  Acts  of  Recusancy  (1  Eliz.  c.  2,  and 
 23  Eliz.  c.  1)  exposed  them  to  considerable 
 fines  for  non-attendance  at  the  service  of 
 the  Established  Church ;  and  by  other 
 statutes  they  were  not  permitted  to  estab- 
 lish schools  in  England,  nor  to  send  their 
 children  to  be  taught  abroad — they  were 
 excluded  from  all  civil  and  military  ofiices, 
 from  seats  in  either  house  of  parliament, 
 and  from  the  practice  of  the  law, — they 
 were  not  allowed  to  vote  at  parliamentary 
 elections, — proselytes  to  Popery,  and  those 
 who  were  the  means  of  their  conversion, 
 were  subjected  to  the  penalties  of  treason, 
 — and,  by  various  oaths  and  tests,  as  well 
 as  by  express  provision,  they  were  hindered 
 in  the  exercise  of  their  religious  worship, 
 and  prevented  from  promulgating  their 
 doctrines.  Their  condition  was,  in  fact, 
 deteriorated  in  the  reign  of  AVilliam  III. 
 — some  enactments  of  especial  rigour  being 
 sanctioned. 
 
 "  Whether  from  the  effect  of  these  enact- 
 ments, or  from  the  natural  progress  of  the 
 principles  of  Protestantism,  it  is  certain 
 that  at  this  time  the  number  of  professing 
 Roman  Catholics  in  England,  who,  in  the 
 reign  of  Elizabetii,  were,  according  to  Mr. 
 IJutler,  a  majority,  or,  according  to  Mr. 
 Ilallam,  a  tiiird  of  the  jmpulation,  had 
 considerably  declined.  A  Report  pre- 
 sented to  "William,  divides  the  fnchoUlcrs 
 of  England  and  Wales,  as  follows — 
 
666 
 
 ROMAN  CATHOLICS. 
 
 ROOF. 
 
 Conformists 
 
 Nonconformists 
 
 Papists 
 
 2,477,254 
 
 108,676 
 
 13,856 
 
 2,599,786 
 
 And  the  number  of  persons  of  the  Roman 
 Catholic  faith  is  said  to  be  only  27,696. 
 This  statement,  allowing  for  all  probable 
 deficiencies,  sufficiently  exhibits  the  great 
 diminution  -which,  from  various  causes, 
 had  occurred  since  the  period  of  the  Re- 
 formation. 
 
 "  Not  much  alteration  in  the  position  of 
 the  Roman  CathoHcs  took  place  for  nearly 
 a  century  after  the  Revolution.  As  the 
 temper  of  the  times  gi'ew  milder,  many  of 
 the  penal  laws  were  not  enforced  ;  though, 
 while  the  throne  remained  exposed  to  the 
 pretensions  of  the  Stuart  family,  the  laws 
 themselves  continued  on  the  Statute  Book : 
 indeed,  some  further  measures  were  enacted 
 during  the  agitations  consequent  upon  the 
 Roman  Catholic  Rebellion  of  1715.  When, 
 however,  in  the  person  of  George  III.,  the 
 Brunswick  dynasty  was  finnly  settled  on 
 the  throne,  a  course  of  mitigating  legisla- 
 tion was  commenced,  which  gradually  re- 
 lieved the  Roman  Catholics  from  all  re- 
 straints upon  their  worship,  and  from 
 nearly  all  the  incapacities  attached  to  their 
 religion.  In  1778,  the  first  remedial  act 
 was  passed,  repealing  the  provision  in  the 
 10th  and  12th  of  Wllliam  III.,  by  which 
 the  Roman  Catholics  were  disabled  from 
 taking  lands  by  descent.  The  Gordon  riots 
 of  1780  rather  aided  than  retarded  the 
 advance  of  public  sentiment  towards  ad- 
 ditional relief;  and,  in  1791,  Mr.  Pitt, 
 (having  obtained  from  the  chief  continent- 
 al universities,  unanimous  opinions  that 
 the  pope  possessed  no  civil  authority  in 
 England,  that  he  cannot  absolve  the  sub- 
 jects of  a  sovereign  from  their  allegiance, 
 and  that  the  principles  of  the  Roman 
 Catholic  faith  do  not  excuse  or  justify  a 
 breach  of  faith  with  heretics,)  procured 
 the  passing  of  another  bill,  by  which,  upon 
 taking  a  fomi  of  oath  prescribed,  the  Ro- 
 man Catholics  were  secured  against  most 
 of  the  penalties  pronounced  by  former  acts. 
 They  were  left,  however,  still  subjected  to 
 the  Test  and  Corporation  Acts,  by  which 
 they  were  excluded  from  all  civil  and  mili- 
 tary offices,  were  prohibited  from  sitting 
 in  either  house  of  parliament,  and  were 
 disabled  from  presenting  to  advowsons. 
 The  removal  of  the  chief  of  these  remaining 
 disabilities  was  zealously  urged  upon  the 
 parliament  for  many  years  successively. 
 In  181:5  an  important  measure,  framed 
 with  this  intention,  was  defeated  in  the 
 
 majority  of  only  four  ; 
 I  bill  to  the  same  effect 
 
 Commons  by  a 
 while,  in  1821,  ; 
 passed  through  the  lower  House,  but  was 
 rejected  by  the  Peers.  At  length,  in  1828, 
 the  Test  and  Corporation  Acts  were  abro- 
 gated, and  in  1829  the  Roman  Catholic 
 Emancipation  Act  bestowed  on  Roman 
 Catholics  substantially  the  same  amount 
 of  toleration  which  was  granted  to  the 
 Protestant  Dissenters. 
 
 "  The  number  of  chapels  from  which  re- 
 turns have  been  received  at  the  Census 
 Office  is  570  ;  with  sittings  (after  an  allow- 
 ance for  48  chapels  making  no  return  upon 
 this  point)  for  186,111.  The  number  of 
 attetidants  on  the  Census  Sunday  (making 
 an  estimated  addition  for  27  chapels  the 
 returns  from  which  Avere  silent  on  this 
 point)  was  :  Morninq,  252,783  ;  Afternoo7i, 
 53,967;  Evening,  76,880.  It  will  be  ob- 
 served, that  in  the  morning  the  number 
 of  attendants  was  more  than  the  number 
 of  sittings :  this  is  explained  by  the  fact, 
 that  in  many  Roman  Catholic  chapels 
 there  is  more  than  one  morning  service, 
 attended  by  different  individuals." 
 
 ROOD  LOFT.  A  gallery  running  along 
 the  top  of  the  rood  screen,  which  in  parish 
 churches  usually  crossed  the  chancel  arch, 
 on  which  the  rood  (i.  e.  the  figure  of  our 
 Blessed  Lord  on  the  cross)  was  placed, 
 and  on  either  side  the  Blessed  Virgin  and 
 St.  John.  In  large  cross  churches,  the 
 rood  loft  with  its  screen  was  usually  of 
 stone,  and  sometimes  contained  a  chapel 
 and  altar  within  it.  These  more  sub- 
 stantial rood  lofts  have  been  almost  uni- 
 versally converted  into  organ  lofts. 
 
 liOOD  SCREEN.  A  screen  separating 
 the  chancel  from  the  nave,  on  which  was 
 formerly  the  rood  loft. 
 
 ROOF.  The  following  are  the  principal 
 terms  which  occur  in  the  description  of  a 
 timber  roof. 
 
 Beam. — A  horizontal  piece  connecting 
 the  principals  of  each  truss,  and  stiffening 
 and  tying  them  together.  According  to 
 its  position,  it  is  either  a  tie-heam,  extend- 
 ing from  wall  to  wall ;  a  coUar-heayn,  con- 
 necting the  principals  near  the  ridge  ;  or  a 
 hammer-heam,  extending  horizontally  from 
 the  wall,  (and  sometimes  again  from  the 
 principal  rafters,)  but  cut  off  before  it 
 reaches  the  opposite  side.  It  is  only  by  its 
 combination  with  other  timbers,  as  braces, 
 principal,  and  collar,  that  the  hammer- 
 beam  serves  the  purpose  of  a  beam  in 
 mechanical  construction. 
 
 Kinif-post.  The  middle  post  of  each 
 truss,  resting  upon  the  beam,  and  rising  to 
 the  ridge. 
 
 Rafters.     Timbers  rising  from  the  wall, 
 
ROSARY. 
 
 and  inclined  towards  each  other  till  they 
 meet  at  the  ridf/e.  The  principal  rafters 
 are  let  into  the  beam  at  their  lower  end, 
 and  into  the  king-post  at  their  upper,  and 
 too^ether  with  beam,  post,  and  braces, 
 where  they  occur,  form  the  truss,  which  is 
 the  whole  complication  of  carpentry,  bear- 
 ing the  vertical  weight  of  the  roof,  and 
 delivering  it  upon  the  wall. 
 
 Purlin.  A  longitudinal  piece  extending 
 from  truss  to  truss,  resting  on  the  princi- 
 pal, and  bearing  the  common  rafters. 
 
 Braces.  Curved  pieces  tenoned  into  the 
 main  timbers  in  various  places  and  direc- 
 tions, an( 
 together. 
 
 Wall-jjlate.  A  longitudinal  piece  laid  on 
 the  top  of  the  wall  to  receive  the  beams. 
 
 Wall-piece.  The  upright  piece  connect- 
 ing the  braces  beneath  a  hammer-beam 
 with  the  wall.  This  subject  should  be 
 studied  in  the  very  valuable  work  of  Mr. 
 Brandon,  "  On  the  Open  Timber  lioofs  of 
 the  Middle  Ages." 
 
 ROSARY,  among  the  Roman  Catholics, 
 is  a  pretended  instrument  or  help  to  piety, 
 being  a  chaplet,  consisting  of  five,  or  fif- 
 teen, decads  or  tens  of  beads,  to  direct  the 
 reciting  so  many  Ave  3Iarias  in  honour  of 
 the  Blessed  Virgin. 
 
 Before  a  person  repeats  his  rosary,  he 
 must  cross  himself  with  it :  then  he  must 
 repeat  the  Apostles'  Creed,  and  say  a  Fater 
 and  three  Aves,  on  account  of  the  three 
 relations  w^hich  the  Virgin  bears  to  the 
 three  persons  in  the  Trinity.  After  these 
 preliminaries  to  devotion,  he  passes  on  to 
 his  decads,  and  must  observe  to  let  himself 
 into  the  mysteries  of  each  ten  by  a  prayer, 
 which  he  will  find  in  the  books  treating  of 
 the  devotion  of  the  rosary. 
 
 Some  attribute  the  institution  of  the 
 rosary  to  ]3ominic:  but  it  was  in  use  in 
 the  year  1 100  ;  and,  therefore,  Dominic 
 could  only  make  it  more  celebrated.  Others 
 ascribe  it  to  Paulus  Libycus,  others  to  St. 
 Benedict,  others  to  Venerable  Bede,  and 
 others  to  Peter  the  Hermit. 
 
 ROSECRUCIAXS.  A  sect  of  philoso- 
 phers in  the  early  part  of  the  seventeenth 
 century,  who  combined  much  religious 
 error  and  mysticism  with  their  })hiloso- 
 phical  notions  of  transmutations,  and  of 
 the  chemical  constitution  of  things.  Their 
 name  is  derived  from  ros,  "  dew,"  which 
 they  held  to  be  the  most  powerful  solvent 
 of  gold  ;  and  crux,  the  "  cross,"  which  in 
 the  chemical  style  signifies  light,  because 
 the  figure  of  the  cross  exhibits  at  the 
 same  time  the  three  letters  in  the  word 
 hcv.  Now  light,  according  to  this  sect, 
 and  in  their  absurd  jargon,  is  the  mcn- 
 
 ROSECRUSIANS. 
 
 067 
 
 struum  of  the  red  (kagcm,  i.  e.  the  sub- 
 stance out  of  which  gold  is  produced. 
 The  Rosecrucians  then  were  alchemists, 
 who  sought  for  the  i)hilosoplier'8  stone 
 by  the  inter^-ention  of  dew  and  of  light. 
 These  absurdities  wore  associati-d  with 
 others  in  their  system  which  it  would  be 
 in  vain  to  collect ;  but  the  ruling  principle 
 of  their  society  seems  to  have  been  the 
 imposing  mystery  in  which  they  wrapj)ed 
 up  everything  wliich  they  knew,  or  pre- 
 tended to  know,  as  if  the  secrets  of  nature 
 were  made  known  to  them,  for  the  very 
 purpose  of  being  kept  secret  from  all 
 others.  Of  their  leaders  and  reh'gious 
 fancies  Mosheim  gives  the  following  sum- 
 mary : 
 
 At  the  head  of  the  fanatics  were  Robert 
 Fludd,  a  native  of  England,  and  a  man  of 
 surprising  genius ;  Jacob  Bchmcn,  a  shoe- 
 maker, who  lived  at  Goshtz ;  and  Michael 
 ]\Iayer. 
 
 These  leaders  of  the  sect  were  followed 
 by  John  Baptist  Ilelmont,  and  his  son 
 Francis  Chrir  .ian  Knorrius  de  Rosenroth, 
 Kuhlman,  Nollius,  Sperbcr,  and  many 
 others  of  various  fame.  An  uniformity 
 of  opinion,  and  a  spirit  of  concord,  seemed 
 scarcely  possi])le  in  sucli  a  society  as  this  ; 
 for  as  a  great  ])art  of  its  doctrine  is  derived 
 from  certain  internal  feelings  and  flights 
 of  imagination,  whicli  can  neither  be  com- 
 prehended nor  defined,  and  is  supported 
 by  testimonies  of  the  external  senses, 
 whose  reports  are  illusory  and  changeable, 
 so  it  is  remarkable  that,  among  the  more 
 eminent  writers  of  this  sect,  there  are 
 scarcely  any  two  who  adopt  the  same 
 tenets  and  sentiments.  There  are,  never- 
 theless, some  common  principles  that  are 
 generally  embraced,  and  which  serve  as  a 
 centre  of  union  to  the  society.  They 
 maintain,  that  the  dissolution  of  bodies, 
 by  the  power  of  fire,  is  the  only  way 
 through  which  men  can  arrive  at  true 
 wisdom,  and  come  to  discern  the  first 
 principle  of  things.  They  all  acknowledge 
 a  certain  analogy  and  harmony  between 
 the  powers  of  nature  and  the  doctrines  of 
 religion,  and  believe  tliat  the  Deity  go- 
 verns the  kingdom  of  grace  by  the  same 
 laws  with  which  he  rules  the  kingdom  of 
 nature ;  and  hence  it  is  that  tliey  employ 
 chemical  denominations  to  express  the 
 truths  of  religion.  Tliey  all  hold  that 
 there  is  a  sort  of  divine  energy,  or  soul, 
 diffused  through  the  frame  of  the  universe, 
 which  some  call  Archieus,  others  Universal 
 Sj)irit,  and  which  others  mention  under 
 dilferent  apj)ellations.  Thev  all  talk  in 
 the  most  obscure  and  superstitious  manner 
 of  what  they  call  the  signatures  of  things, 
 
668 
 
 RUBRICS. 
 
 RURAL  DEANS. 
 
 of  the  power  of  the  Ktars  over  all  corporeal 
 bein<Ts,  and  their  particular  influence  over 
 the  human  race,  of  the  efficacy  of  magic, 
 and  the  various  species  and  classes  of  de- 
 mons. In  fine,  they  all  agree  in  throwing 
 out  the  most  crude,  incomprehensible  no- 
 tions and  ideas,  in  the  most  obscure,  quaint, 
 and  unusual  expressions. 
 
 KUBllICS.  Rules  and  orders  directing 
 how,  when,  and  where  all  things  in  Divine 
 service  are  to  be  performed,  which  were 
 formerlv  printed  in  a  red  character,  (as 
 now  generally  in  an  Italic,)  and  therefore 
 called  Ilubrics,  from  the  Latin  ri(br tea  {pro 
 rubcrica,  a  rubra,  siibatid.  terra,  red  earth ; 
 thence  any  red  colour).  All  the  clergy  of 
 England  "solemnly  pledge  themselves  to 
 observe  the  rubrics. 
 
 The  rubric,  to  which  we  here  bind  our- 
 selves by  express  consent  and  promise,  is 
 upon  a   diff"erent  footing   from  all  other 
 ecclesiastical  laws.     For  without  consider- 
 ing it  as  statute,  and,  as  such,  only  upon 
 the   level  with   several  other  subsequent 
 acts   of  parliament  relating  to  our  occa- 
 sional  ministrations,   we   are   under  this 
 pecuHar  circumstance  of  obligation  to  ob- 
 serve it,  that  we  have,  by  our  subscrip- 
 tions at  both  ordinations,  by  one  of  our 
 vows  at  the  altar  for  the  order  of  priest- 
 hood, by  our  subscriptions  and  declarations 
 of  conformity   before   our   ordinary,   and 
 repetition  of  them  in  the  church  before 
 our   congregations,  and   likewise   by  our 
 declarations  of  assent  and  consent,  as  pre- 
 scribed by  the  Act  of  Uniformity  ;    I  say, 
 we  have  iii  all  these  several  ways  tied  our- 
 selves down  to  a  regidar,  constant,  consci- 
 entious performance  of  all  and  everything 
 prescribed  in  and  by  the  Book  of  Common 
 Prayer,  according    to   the  usage    of   the 
 Church  of  England.     And  seeing  it  hath 
 been  the  wisdom  of  our  Church  to  lay  us 
 under  these  engagements,  in  order  to  pre- 
 serve exact  uniformity  in  the  public  worship 
 and  all  the  liturgic  'offices ;    nay,  since  it 
 hath  been  judged  proper  to  carry  us  through 
 a  train  of  these  stipulations  before  we  can 
 get  possession  of  any   benefice ;    and  to 
 make  us  renew  them  again  and  again,  as 
 often  as  we  change  our  preferment,  or  ob- 
 tain any  new  promotion  ;  and  seeing  that 
 we  have  entered  (as  we  have  professed) 
 ex   animo    into    this    covenant  with    the 
 Church,  and  have  deliberately  renewed  it 
 as  often  as  there  hath  been  occasion  ;  how 
 frivolous  is  it  for  any  of  us  to  say,  that  the 
 connivance,  or  the  presumed  consent,  of 
 our  ordinary,  or  the  private  conveniency 
 of  ourselves  or  families,  or  the  obliging  of 
 any  of  our  parishioners,  or  the  apparent 
 inexpediency  of  adhering  to  the  letter  in 
 
 some  few  cases,  will  dissolve  this  our  obli- 
 gation to  conformity?  Surely  we  must 
 know,  that  these  and  the  like  allegations 
 are  quite  out  of  the  case ;  that,  however 
 our  Church  governors  may  dispense  with 
 our  breaches  of  the  rubric,  however  our 
 people  may  acquiesce  in  them  or  approve 
 of  them,  yet  the  question  is,  how  far  we 
 are  at  liberty  to  dispense  with  ourselves  on 
 account  of  the  forementioned  engagements, 
 to  which  God  and  the  Church  are  made 
 witnesses  in  as  solemn  a  manner  as  they 
 are  to  our  personal  stipulations  at  confirm- 
 ation or  matrimony  ;  or  whether  we  have 
 not  in  this  case  precluded  ourselves  from 
 all  benefit  of  such  exemption  or  dispens- 
 ation, as  might  perhaps  be  reasonably 
 alleged  in  several  other  merely  statutable 
 or  canonical  matters  ? 
 
 This  indeed  we  must  always  take  along 
 with  us,  that  our   obligations  to  observe 
 the  rubric,  how  indispensable  soever,  are 
 subject  to  this  proviso ;  namely,  that  the 
 rule  prescribed   be   a  thing  practicable  ; 
 which  perhaps  cannot  be  said  of  all  rubrics 
 in  all    churches,   or   in  all  places  of  the 
 kingdom ;  nay,  that  it  be  a  thing  which 
 falls  within  the  minister's  power,  so  that 
 he  be  not  deprived  of  his  liberty  in  acting, 
 or  restrained  in  it  by  the  previous  acts  of 
 other  people,  whereby  that  which  would 
 I  be  practicable   in  itself  is   rendered   not 
 practicable  by  him.     I  will  not  positively 
 say,  that  no  other  proviso  is  to  be  allowed 
 of   or  admitted ;   because  this  cannot  be 
 determined  absolutely,  or  otherwise  than 
 by  a  particular  consideration  of  each  rule 
 or   ini  unction  under  several  different  cir- 
 cumstances.   But  we  may  affirm  in  general, 
 that  we  are  under  higher  obligations  to 
 observe  the  rubric  than  any  other  eccle- 
 siastical law  whatsoever;  that   excepting 
 a  very  few  cases,  or  under  some  necessary 
 limitations  and  reservations,  we  are  bound 
 to  adhere  to  it  literally,  punctvially,  and 
 perpetually ;   and  that,  whosoever   among 
 the  clergy  either  adds  to  it,  or  diminishes 
 from  it,  or  useth  any  other  rule  instead  of 
 it,  as  he  is  in  the  eye  of  the  law  so  far  a 
 nonconformist,  so  it  behoves  him  to  con- 
 sider with  himself,  whether,  in  point  of 
 conscience,    he  be  not  a  breaker  of  his 
 word   and   trust,  and    an   eluder   of   his 
 engagements  to  the  Church. — Archdeacon 
 Sharpe. 
 
 KUKAL  DEANS.  The  office  of  rural 
 dean  is  an  ancient  office  of  the  Church, 
 which  is  mentioned  as  early  as  the  time  of 
 Edward  the  Confessor,  in  one  of  whose 
 laws  mention  is  made  of  the  dean  of  the 
 bishop. 
 
 The   proper  authority  and  jurisdiction 
 
RURAL  DEANS. 
 
 GG9 
 
 of  rural  deans,  perhaps,  may  be  best  un- 
 derstood from  the  oath  of  office  ^\•hich  in 
 some  dioceses  Avas  anciently  administered 
 to  them  ;  -which  was  this :  ''  I,  A.  15.,  do 
 swear,  diligently  and  fuitlifully  to  execute 
 the  office  of  dean  rural  within  the  deanery 
 of  D.  First,  I  will  diligently  and  faith- 
 fully execute,  or  cause  to  be  executed,  all 
 such  processes  as  shall  be  directed  unto 
 me  from  my  Lord  Bishop  of  C,  or  his 
 officers  or  ministers  by  his  authority. 
 Item,  I  will  give  diligent  attendance,  by 
 myself  or  my  de})uty,  at  every  consistory 
 court,  to  be  holden  by  the  said  reverend 
 father  in  GoD,  or  his  chancellor,  as  well  to 
 return  such  processes  as  shall  be  by  me 
 or  my  deputy  executed  ;  as  also  to  receive 
 others,  then  unto  me  to  be  directed. 
 Item,  I  will  from  time  to  time,  during  my 
 said  office,  diligently  inquire,  and  true 
 information  give  unto  the  said  reverend 
 father  in  God,  or  his  chancellor,  of  all  tlie 
 names  of  all  such  persons  within  the  said 
 deanery  of  D.  as  shall  be  openly  and  pub- 
 licly noted  and  defamed,  or  vehemently 
 suspected  of  any  such  crime  or  oftence,  as 
 is  to  be  punished  or  reformed  by  the 
 authority  of  the  said  court.  Item,  I  will 
 diligently  inquire,  and  true  information 
 give,  of  all  such  persons  and  their  names, 
 as  do  administer  any  dead  man's  goods, 
 before  they  have  proved  the  will  of  the 
 testator,  or  taken  letters  of  administration 
 of  the  deceased  intestates.  Item,  I  will 
 be  obedient  to  the  right  reverend  father 
 in  God  J.,  bishop  of  C,  and  his  chancellor, 
 in  all  honest  and  lawful  commands  ;  nei- 
 ther will  I  attempt,  do,  or  procure  to  be 
 done  or  attempted,  anything  that  shall  be 
 prejudicial  to  his  jurisdiction,  but  will 
 preserve  and  maintain  the  same  to  the 
 uttermost  of  my  power." — God.  Append. 
 
 From  whence  it  appears,  that  besides 
 their  duty  concerning  the  execution  of 
 the  bishop's  processes,  their  office  was  to 
 inspect  the  lives  and  manners  of  the 
 clergy  and  people  within  their  district, 
 and  to  report  the  same  to  the  bishop  ;  to 
 which  end,  that  they  might  have  knowledge 
 of  the  state  and  condition  of  their  re- 
 spective deaneries,  they  had  a  power  to 
 convene  rural  chapters. —  Gibson. 
 
 Whicli    chapters  were  made  up  of  all 
 the  instituted  clergy,  or  their  curates  as 
 proxies  of  them,  and  the  dean  as  president 
 or  prolocutor.    These  were  convened  either  j 
 upon  more  frequent  and   ordinary  occa-  j 
 sions,  or  at  more  solemn  seasons  for  the  < 
 greater  and  more  weighty  allairs.     Those  I 
 of  the  former  sort  were  held  nt  first  evrrj'  ' 
 three    weeks,  in    imitation  of  the   courts  i 
 baron,  which  run  generally  in  this  form, 
 
 from  tliree  weeks  to  three  weeks  ;  but 
 afterwards  they  were  most  commonly  lu-ld 
 once  a  month,  at  the  begiuiung  of  the 
 month,  ami  were  for  tliis  reason  culled 
 kalenda^,  or  monthly  meetings.  Jhit  their 
 most  solenm  and  ])rincipal  chajUers  were 
 assembled  once  a  quarter,  in  which  there 
 was  to  be  a  more  full  house,  and  matters 
 of  greater  im])ort  Avere  to  be  here  alone 
 transacted.  All  rectors  and  vicai-s,  or  their 
 capellanes,  were  bound  to  attend  these 
 chapters,  and  to  bring  information  of  all 
 irregularities  connnitted  in  their  respective 
 parishes.  If  the  deans  were  by  sickness 
 or  urgent  business  detained  from'  there  ap- 
 jiearing  and  jjresiding  in  such  convoca- 
 tions, they  had  power  to  constitute  their 
 subdeans  or  vicegerents.  The  j)lace  of 
 holding  these  cha])ters  was  at  first  in 
 any  one  church  within  the  district  where 
 the  minister  of  the  place  was  to  procure 
 for,  that  is,  to  entertain,  the  dean  and  his 
 immediate  officers.  But  because,  in  j)arishes 
 that  were  small  and  imfrequented,  there 
 was  no  fit  accommodation  to  be  had  for 
 so  great  a  concourse  of  people,  therefore, 
 in  a  council  at  London,  under  Archbishop 
 Stratford,  in  the  year  1342,  it  was  ordained 
 that  such  chapters  should  not  be  held  in 
 any  obscure  village,  but  in  the  larger  or 
 more  eminent  parishes. — Kennedy. 
 
 And  one  special  reason  why  they  seemed 
 to  have  been  formed  in  this  realm  after 
 the  manner  of  the  courts  baron  is,  because 
 we  find  nothing  of  rural  chapters  in  the 
 ancient  canon  law. —  Gibson. 
 
 In  pursuance  of  which  institution  of 
 holding  rural  chapters,  and  of  the  office  of 
 rural  deans  in  inspecting  the  manners  of 
 clergy  and  people,  and  executing  the 
 bishop's  processes  for  the  reformation 
 thereof,  we  find  a  constitution  of  Arch- 
 bishop Peccham,  by  which  it  is  required, 
 that  the  2^rivsts,  on  every  Sunday  imme- 
 diately foUoicing  the  holdiny  of  the  rural 
 chapter,  shall  expouyid  to  the  people  the 
 sentence  of  e.rconiniunication. 
 
 And  in  these  chaj)ters  continually  pre- 
 sided the  rural  deans,  until  that  Otho,  the 
 pope's  legate,  required  the  archdeacons  to 
 be  frequently  present  at  them  ;  who  being 
 su])erior  to  the  rural  deans,  did  in  effect 
 take  the  jjresidency  out  of  their  hands : 
 insomuch  that,  in  lulward  the  First's  reign, 
 John  of  Athon  gives  this  account  of  it : 
 "  liural  chaj)ters,"  says  he,  "  at  this  day 
 are  holden  by  the  archdeacon's  officials, 
 and  s()})H-fiinrs  ])\  the  rural  deans."  From 
 which  constitution  of  Otho  we  may  date 
 the  decav  of  rural  chaj)tcrs  ;  not  only  a.s 
 it  was  a  discouragement  to  the  rural  dean, 
 whose   peculiar  care  the  holding  of  them 
 
670 
 
 RURAL  DEANS. 
 
 SABBATARIANS. 
 
 had  been;  but  also,  as  it  was  natural  for 
 the  archdeacon  and  his  official  to  di'aw 
 the  business  that  had  been  usually  trans- 
 acted there,  to  their  own  visitation,  or, 
 as  it  is  styled  in  a  constitution  of  Arch- 
 bishop Langton,  to  their  own  chapter. — 
 Gibson. 
 
 And  this  office  of  inspectinpj  and  re- 
 porting the  manners  of  the  clergy  and 
 people  rendered  the  rural  deans  necessary 
 attendants  on  the  episcopal  synod  or  ge- 
 neral visitation,  which  was  held  for  the 
 same  end  of  inspecting,  in  order  to  reform- 
 ation. In  which  synods  (or  general  visita- 
 tion of  the  whole  diocese  by  the  bishop)  the 
 rural  deans  were  the  standing  represent- 
 atives of  the  rest  of  the  clergy,  and  were 
 there  to  deliver  information  of  abuses 
 committed  Avithin  their  knowledge,  and  to 
 propose  and  consult  the  best  methods  of 
 reformation.  For  the  ancient  episcopal 
 sjTiods  (which  were  commonly  held  once 
 a  year)  were  composed  of  the  bishop  as 
 president  and  the  deans-cathedral  or 
 archipresbyters  in  the  name  of  their  col- 
 legiate body  of  presbyters  or  priests,  and 
 the  archdeacons  or  deputies  of  the  inferior 
 order  of  deacons,  and  the  urban  and  rural 
 deans  in  the  name  of  the  parish  ministers 
 within  their  division ;  who  were  to  have 
 their  expenses  allowed  to  them  according 
 to  the  time  of  their  attendance,  by  those 
 whom  they  represented,  as  the  practice 
 obtained  for  the  representatives  of  the 
 people  in  the  civil  synods  or  parliament. 
 But  this  part  of  their  duty,  which  related 
 to  the  information  of  scandals  and  offences, 
 in  progress  of  time  devolved  upon  the 
 churchwardens  ;  and  their  other  office  of 
 being  convened  to  sit  as  members  of  pro- 
 vincial and  episcopal  synods,  was  trans- 
 ferred to  two  proctors  or  representatives 
 of  the  parochial  clergy  in  every  diocese  to 
 assemble  in  convocation,  where  the  cathe- 
 di-al  deans  and  archdeacons  still  keep  their 
 ancient  right,  whilst  the  rural  deans  have 
 given  place  to  an  election  of  two  only  for 
 every  diocese,  instead  of  one  by-standing 
 place  for  every  deanery. — Kejinech/. 
 
 At  the  Reformation,  in  the  "  Reformatio 
 Legum,"  it  was  proposed  to  invest  rural 
 deans  with  certain  legal  powers,  but  no- 
 thing was  done  in  this  respect.  In  the  pro- 
 vincial synod  of  convocation,  held  in  Lon- 
 don, April  3,  1571,  it  was  ordained,  that 
 "  the  archdeacon,  when  he  hath  finished 
 his  visitation,  shall  signify  to  the  bishop 
 what  clergjTnen  he  hath  found  in  every 
 deanery  so  well  endowed  with  learning 
 and  judgment,  as  to  be  worthy  to  instruct 
 the  people  in  sermons,  and  to  rule  and 
 preside  over  others ;  out  of  these  the  bi- 
 
 shop may  choose  such  as  he  will  have  to  be 
 rural  deans." 
 
 But  the  office  was  not  much  used  till  of 
 late  years,  when  in  most  dioceses  it  has 
 been  revived,  and  decanal  chapters  have 
 in  many  places  been  held  with  much  ap- 
 parent advantage. 
 
 In  many  foreign  churches,  archpresby- 
 ters,  or  provosts,  seem  to  have  discharged 
 much  the  same  function  as  the  rural  deans. 
 The  title  of  Dean  however,  as  employed 
 in  this  case,  is  very  common  in  Europe. 
 In  most  dioceses  of  Ireland  the  office  has 
 been  immemorially  operative. 
 
 RUTH,  THE  BOOK  OF.  A  canon- 
 ical book  of  the  Old  Testament. 
 
 This  book  is  a  kind  of  appendix  to  the 
 Book  of  Judges,  and  an  introduction  to  the 
 Books  of  Samuel,  and  is  therefore  properly 
 placed  between  them.  It  has  its  title  from 
 the  person  whose  story  is  here  principally 
 related.  The  Jews  make  but  one  book  of 
 this  and  the  Book  of  Judges,  and  probably 
 the  sam.e  person  was  the  author  of  both. 
 It  was  certainly  written  at  a  time  when 
 the  government  by  judges  had  ceased, 
 since  the  author  of  it  begins  with  observ- 
 ing, that  the  fact  came  to  pass  in  the  days 
 when  the  judges  ruled :  and  he  ends  his 
 book  with  a  genealogy,  which  he  carries 
 down  to  David.  Probably  it  was  com- 
 posed in  that  king's  time,  before  he  was 
 advanced  to  the  throne. 
 
 The  history  recorded  in  this  book,  is 
 that  of  Ruth,  a  Moabitish  woman,  who, 
 coming  to  Bethlehem,  and  being  married 
 to  Boaz  her  kinsman,  bare  to  him  Obed, 
 who  was  the  grandfather  of  David.  In 
 this  story  are  observable  the  ancient  rights 
 of  kindred  and  redemption,  and  the  man- 
 ner of  buying  the  inheritance  of  the  de- 
 ceased ;  Avith  other  particulars  of  great 
 note  and  antiquity. 
 
 It  is  difficult  to  determine  under  what 
 judge  the  history  of  Ruth  happened.  Some 
 place  it  in  the  government  of  Ehud  or 
 Shamgar ;  and  others  about  the  beginning 
 of  the  time  when  Eli  judged  Israel. 
 
 SABAOTH.  A  Hebrew  word,  signify- 
 ing liosts  or  armies.  Jehovah  Sabaoth 
 is  the  Lord  of  Hosts.  "  Holy,  holy,  holy. 
 Lord  God  of  Sabaoth." 
 
 SABBATARIANS,  are  so  called  from 
 their  keeping  the  seventh  day  of  the  week 
 as  the  sabbath  ;  whilst  Christians  in  ge- 
 neral keep  the  first  day  of  the  week,  or 
 Sunday,  in  memory  of  our  Saviour's 
 having  risen  that  day  from  the  dead.  On 
 the  continent  they  are  generally,  but  im- 
 properly, called  Israelites.  It  is  uncertain 
 when  they  first  made  their  appearance ; 
 
SABBATH,  REST. 
 
 SACRAMENT. 
 
 but  we  learn  from  Fuller  that  there  were 
 Sabbatarians  in  1633. 
 
 They  object  to  the  reasons  which  are 
 generally  alleged  for  keeping  the  first  day  ; 
 and  they  insist  that  the  change  of  the  sab- 
 bath from  the  seventh  to  the  first  day  of 
 the  week,  did  not  take  place  till  the  be- 
 ginning of  the  fourth  century,  when  it  was 
 effected  by  the  emperor  Constantine,  on 
 his  conversion  to  Christianity.  A  sunnnary 
 of  their  principles,  as  to  this  article  of  the 
 sabbath,  by  which  they  stand  distinguish- 
 ed, is  contained  in  the  three  following  pro- 
 positions : — 1.  That  God  has  required  the 
 observance  of  the  seventh,  or  last,  day  of 
 every  week,  to  be  observed  by  mankind 
 universally  for  the  weekly  sabbath.  2. 
 That  this  command  of  God  is  perpetually 
 binding  on  man  till  time  shall  be  no  more. 
 And  3.  That  this  sacred  rest  of  the  seventh 
 day  sabbath,  is  not  changed  by  Divine 
 authority,  from  the  seventh  and  last  to  the 
 first  day  of  the  week ;  or,  that  the  Scrip- 
 ture nowhere  requires  the  observance  of 
 any  other  day  of  the  week  for  the  weekly 
 sabbath,  but  the  seventh  day  only,  which 
 is  still  kept  by  the  Jews,  to  whom  the  law 
 on  this  subject  was  given.  These  are  much 
 more  consistent  in  their  rejection  of  all  the 
 subsidiary  helps  of  antiquity  in  interpret- 
 ing the  Scriptures,  than  those  Protestants 
 who  observe  the  fii'st  day  of  the  week  with 
 Judaical  strictness. 
 
 SABBATH,  KEST.  Sabbath  day,  the 
 day  of  rest.  The  sabbath  day,  strictly 
 speaking,  is  Saturday,  the  observance  of 
 which  is  not  considered  obligatory^  by 
 Christians.  But  the  term  is  sometimes 
 applied  to  the  Lord's  day,  which  is  re- 
 garded as  a  feast  by  the  Church  universal. 
 (See  LorcVs  Day.) 
 
 SABELLIANS,  were  so  called  from 
 Sabellius,  a  presbyter,  or,  according  to 
 others,  a  bishop  of  Libya,  who  was  the 
 founder  of  the  sect. 
 
 Sabellius  flourished  early  in  the  third 
 century,  and  his  doctrine  seems  to  have 
 had  niany  followers  for  a  short  time.  Its 
 growth,  however,  was  soon  checked  by  the 
 opposition  made  to  it  by  Dionysius,  bishop 
 of  Alexandi'ia,  and  the  sentence  of  con- 
 demnation pronounced  upon  its  author  by 
 Pope  Dionysius,  in  a  council  held  at 
 Rome,  A.  D.  263. 
 
 Sabellius  taught  that  there  was  but  one 
 person  in  the  Godhead  ;  and,  in  con- 
 firmation of  this  doctrine,  he  made  use  of 
 this  comparison :  as  a  man,  though  com- 
 posed of  body  and  soul,  is  but  one  person, 
 so  God,  though  he  is  Father,  Son,  and 
 Holy  Ghost,  is  but  one  person.  Hence 
 the  Sabellians  reduced  the  three  persons 
 
 in  the  Trinity  to  three  characters  or  re- 
 lations, and  maintained  that  tlio  Word 
 and  Holy  SrnuT  are  only  virtues,  emana- 
 tions, or  functions  of  the' Deity;  that  he 
 who  is  in  heaven  is  tlie  ]<\\'riiKK  of  all 
 things  ;  that  he  descended  into  the  Virgin, 
 became  a  child,  and  was  born  of  her  as  a 
 son  ;  and  that,  having  aecomi)lishe(l  the 
 mystery  of  our  redem])tion,  he  diffused 
 himself  upon  the  apostles  in  tongues  of 
 fire,  and  was  tlien  denominated  tlie  Holy 
 Ghost. 
 
 Between  the  system  of  Sabellianism  and 
 what  is  termed  the  {ndircl/i/i;/  scheme, 
 there  appears  to  be  a  considi'ral)le  resem- 
 blance, if  it  be  not  precisely  the  same,  dif- 
 ferently explained.  The  indwelling  seljeme 
 is  chiefly  founded  on  a  false  and  unauthor- 
 ized sense  of  that  passage  in  the  New  Tes- 
 tament, where  the  apostle,  sjjcaking  of 
 Christ,  says,  "In  him  dwelleth  all  the 
 fulness  of  the  Godhead  bodily."'  Dr. 
 Watts,  towards  the  close  of  his  life,  intro- 
 duced the  Sabcllian  heresy,  and  wrote 
 several  pieces  in  its  defence.  His  senti- 
 ments on  the  Trinity  appear  to  have  been, 
 that  "  the  Godhkad,  the  Deity  itself,  per- 
 sonally distinguished  as  the  Father,  was 
 united  to  the  man  Christ  Jesus,  in  con- 
 sequence of  which  union  or  indwelling  of 
 tlie  Godhead  he  became  pro})erly  God." 
 Mr.  Palmer  observes  that  Dr.  Watts  con- 
 ceived this  union  to  have  subsisted  before 
 the  Saviour's  appearance  in  the  flesh,  and 
 that  the  human  soul  of  Christ  existed  with 
 the  Father  from  before  the  foundation  of 
 the  world ;  on  which  ground  he  maintains 
 the  real  descent  of  Christ  from  heaven  to 
 earth,  and  the  whole  scene  of  his  humilia- 
 tion, which  he  thought  incompatible  with 
 the  common  opinion  concerning  him.  Dr. 
 Doddi'idge  is  supposed  to  have  entertained 
 the  same  sentiments. 
 
 SACKAMENT.  {See  Sevefi  Sacra- 
 ments.)  In  classical  writers,  observes 
 Bishop  Kaye,  in  his  learned  treatise  on 
 Tertullian,  the  word  sacramentum  means 
 an  oath  or  promise  ratified  by  a  sacred  or 
 religious  ceremony:  thus,  the  oath  taken 
 by  the  military  was  called  sacramrntum. 
 In  strict  conformity  with  this,  its  original 
 signification,  it  is  used  to  express  the  pro- 
 mise made  by  Christians  in  bajjlism.  From 
 the  oath  the  transition  was  easy  to  the 
 ceremony  by  which  it  was  ratified.  Thus 
 sacramentum  came  to  signify  any  religious 
 ordinance,  and  in  general  to  stand  for  that 
 which  in  Greek  is  exi)ressed  l)y  the  word 
 fit'iTTi)pinv  (niystcrv).  any  em])k'matical  no- 
 tion of  a  sacred  Import,  any  external  act 
 liaving  an  internal  or  secret  meaning.  If 
 the  word  is  understood  in  this  extended 
 
672 
 
 SACRAMENT. 
 
 sense,  the  Romanists  are  clearly  wrong  in 
 confining  the  title  to  only  seven  rites  or 
 ordinances.  The  first  Avho  did  this  was 
 probably  the  celebrated  Master  of  the  Sen- 
 tences [Peter  Lombard,  in  the  tMclt'th 
 century].  Certain  it  is  that  the  number  of 
 seven  sacraments  was  first  decreed  by 
 Eugenius  in  the  fifteenth  century,  that  the 
 first  provincial  council  which  confirmed 
 the  decree  was  one  convened  in  the  six- 
 teenth century,  and  that  the  first  council, 
 even  pretending  to  be  general,  that  adopted 
 it  with  an  anathema  was  the  Council  of 
 Trent. 
 
 This  is,  in  fact,  our  dispute  on  this  point 
 with  Rome.  If  the  Romanists  take  the 
 word  sacrament  in  its  enlarged  sense,  then 
 they  ought  not  to  confine  it,  as  they  do,  to 
 seven  rites ;  if  they  take  it  in  its  strict 
 sense,  then  they  ought  to  confine  it  to 
 two,  baptism  and  the  supper  of  the  Lord. 
 Taking  the  word  in  its  general  sense,  the 
 Church  of  England  directs  the  clergy  to 
 speak  to  the  people  of  matrimony  as  a 
 sacrament.  *'  By  the  like  holy  promise  the 
 sacrament  of  matrimony  knitteth  man  and 
 Avife  in  perpetual  love,"  &:c. — Homily  on 
 Siceariny,  part  i.  The  Church  of  England 
 in  this  sense  acknowledges  other  rites  to 
 be  sacraments  besides  baptism  and  the 
 eucharist.  (See  below,  the  extract  from 
 the  Homily,  Of  Cojnmon  Prayer  and  Sacra- 
 ments.) This  is  a  very  important  distinc- 
 tion :  "  Let  it  be  clearly  understood,"  says 
 Bishop  Jeremy  Taylor,  *'  it  is  none  of  the 
 doctrine  of  the  Church  of  England  that 
 there  are  two  sacraments  ooily,  but  that  of 
 those  rituals  commanded  in  Scripture, 
 which  ecclesiastical  use  calls  sacraments, 
 by  a  word  of  art,  two  only  are  yeneraUy 
 necessary  to  salvation ^ — Taylor^ s  Dissua- 
 sive, p.  240.  In  like  manner  Archbishop 
 Seeker  says,  "  As  the  word  sacrament  is 
 not  a  Scripture  one,  and  hath  at  diff'erent 
 times  been  difierently  understood,  our 
 catechism  doth  not  require  it  to  be  said 
 absolutely  that  the  sacraments  are  ttvo 
 only,  but  tico  only  necessary  to  salvation  ; 
 leaving  persons  at  liberty  to  comprehend 
 more  things  under  the  name  if  they  please, 
 provided  they  insist  not  on  the  necessity 
 of  them,  and  of  dignifying  them  with  this 
 title." — SecJu'7-'s  Lectures,  xxxv.  Of  JBap- 
 tism.  It  will  be  seen  that  this  is  in  ac- 
 cordance with  the  answer  in  the  catechism 
 to  the  question,  How  many  sacraments  has 
 Christ  ordained  in  his  Church  ?  the  an- 
 swer being  not  simply  tivo,  but  "  two  only 
 as  generally  necessary  to  salvation." 
 
 AVe  have  said  that* the  distinction  is  im- 
 portant, for  it  enables  us  to  take  high 
 ground  on  tliis   doctrine.     It  is   not   by 
 
 depressing  the  other  ordinances  of  the 
 Church  which  Cranmer  and  Taylor  call 
 sacramentals,  but  by  placing  baptism  and 
 the  eucharist  in  their  proper  place  and 
 dignity,  that  we  best  defend  the  English 
 Churcii  on  this  point.  If,  with  the  latitudi- 
 narians,  we  dc])ress  the  proper  sacraments 
 and  make  baptism  a  mere  ceremony,  and 
 the  eucharist  only  a  more  solemn  form  of 
 self-dedication  or  worship,  our  controversy 
 becomes  a  childish  dispute  about  words. 
 Not  so  if  we  distinguish,  with  the  Church 
 of  England,  baptism  and  the  eucharist 
 from  all  other  ordinances,  because  they 
 are,  what  the  others  arc  not,  necessary  for 
 salvation  to  all  men,  wherever  they  can  be 
 had.  Other  ordinances  may  confer  grace, 
 but  baptism  and  the  eucharist  alone  unite 
 with  Christ  himself.  "  By  baptism  we 
 receive  Christ  Jesus,  and  from  him  the 
 saving  grace  which  is  proper  to  baptism ; 
 by  the  eucharist  we  receive  him  also  im- 
 parting therein  himself,  and  that  grace 
 which  the  eucharist  properly  bestows." 
 Again ;  baptism  and  the  eucharist  are  what 
 none  of  the  other  ordinances  are,  federal 
 rites,  the  one  for  initiating,  the  other  for 
 renewing  the  covenant  of  grace,  instituted 
 for  a  reciiH'ocal  communion  between  GoD 
 and  man,  of  blessings  on  the  one  part  and 
 duty  on  the  other ;  they  are  not  merely  a 
 means  to  an  end,  but  they  are  actually  a 
 part  of  our  moral  and  Christian  holiness, 
 piety,  and  perfection  ;  "  as  much  a  part 
 of  virtue,"  says  Dr.  Waterland,  "  as  the 
 performance  of  any  moral  duty  is,  as 
 much  as  feeding  the  hungry,  clothing  the 
 naked,"  &c. 
 
 From  what  has  been  said  it  will  be  seen, 
 
 1.  That,  in  the  large  acceptation  of  the 
 word  sacrament,  there  are  many  more  sa- 
 craments than  seven. 
 
 2.  That,  in  the  strict  definition  of  the 
 word,  there  are  only  two,  baptism  and  the 
 eucharist. 
 
 But  we  may  sum  up  the  whole  in  the 
 words  which  the  Church  of  England  uses 
 in  one  of  the  homilies  :  "  You  shall  hear 
 how  many  sacraments  there  be,  that  were 
 instituted  by  our  Saviour  Christ,  and 
 are  to  be  continued,  and  received  of  every 
 Christian  in  due  time  and  order,  and  for 
 such  jourpose  as  our  Saviour  Christ  willed 
 them  to  be  received.  And  as  for  the  num- 
 ber of  them,  if  they  should  be  considered 
 according  to  the  exact  signification  of  a 
 sacrament,  namely,  for  visible  signs,  ex- 
 pressly commanded  in  the  New  Testament, 
 ivhereunto  is  annexed  the  projnise  of  for- 
 giveness of  our  sins,  and  of  our  holiness, 
 and  joining  in  Christ,  there  be  but  two, 
 namely,  baptism  and  the  supper  of  the 
 
SACRAMENT. 
 
 G73 
 
 Lord.  For,  although  nhsohtioH  hath  the 
 promise  of  foryiveness  of  siv,  yet  by  the 
 express  word  of  the  New  Testament  it 
 hath  not  this  promise  annexed  and  tied  to 
 the  visible  sio;n,  -which  is  imposition  of 
 hands.  For  this  visible  sign  (I  mean  layinji; 
 on  of  hands)  is  not  expressly  comniandecl 
 in  the  New  Testament  to  be  used  in  abso- 
 lution, as  the  visible  sign  in  bai)tism  and 
 the  Lord's  supper  are  ;  and  therefore  ab- 
 solution is  no  such  sacrament  as  ba])tism 
 and  the  communion  are.  And  though  the 
 ordering  of  ministers  hath  this  visible  sign 
 and  promise,  yet  it  lacks  the  promise  of 
 remission  of  sin  as  all  other  sacraments 
 besides  the  two  above-named  do.  Tliere- 
 fore  neither  it,  nor  any  other  sacrament 
 else,  be  such  sacraments  as  baptism  and 
 the  communion  are.  But  in  a  (/cncral  ac- 
 ceptation, the  name  of  a  sacrament  may  he 
 attributed  to  anytliimj  icherehy  an  holy  thiny 
 is  siynijied.  In  which  understanding  of 
 the  word,  the  ancient  writers  have  given 
 this  name,  not  only  to  the  other  five,  com- 
 monly of  late  years  taken  and  used  for 
 supplying  the  number  of  the  seven  sacra- 
 ments, but  also  to  divers  and  sundry  other 
 ceremonies,  as  to  oil,  washing  of  feet,  and 
 such  like,  not  meaning  thereby  to  rei)ute 
 them  as  sacraments,  in  the  same  significa- 
 tion that  the  two  forenamed  sacraments  are. 
 And  therefore  St.  Augustine,  weighing  the 
 true  signification  and  exact  meaning  of  the 
 word,  writing  to  Januarius,  and  also  in  the 
 third  book  of  Christian  doctrine,  afiirmeth, 
 that  the  sacraments  of  the  Christians,  as 
 they  are  most  excellent  in  signification,  so 
 are  they  most  few  in  number,  and  in  both 
 places  maketh  mention  expressly  of  tAvo, 
 the  sacrament  of  baptism  and  the  supper 
 of  the  Lord.  And  although  there  are  re- 
 tained by  order  of  the  Church  of  England, 
 besides  these  two,  certain  other  rites  and 
 ceremonies  about  the  institution  of  minis- 
 ters in  the  Church,  matrimony,  confirma- 
 tion of  children,  by  examining  them  of 
 their  knowledge  in  the  articles  of  the  faith, 
 and  joining  thereto  the  prayers  of  the 
 Church  for  them,  and  likewise  for  the  visit- 
 ation of  the  sick ;  yet  no  man  ought  to 
 take  these  for  sacraments  in  such  siyni- 
 Jication  and  incaniny  as  the  sacraments  of 
 baptism  and  the  Lord's  supper  are." — 
 Homily  of  Common  Prayer  and  Sacra- 
 ments. 
 
 A  sacrament  is  defined  in  the  catechism, 
 in  the  strict  sense,  as  "an  outward  and 
 visible  sign  of  an  inward  and  s])iritual  grace 
 given  unto  us,  ordained  by  Christ  himself 
 as  a  means  whereby  we  receive  the  same, 
 and  a  pledge  to  assixre  us  thereof." 
 
 1.  There  must  be  an  outward  and  visi- 
 2  X 
 
 ble  sign,  the  solemn  ai)])lication  of  some 
 bodily  and  sensible  thing  or  action  to  a 
 meaning  and  purpose  which  in  its  own 
 nature  it  hath  not.  In  common  life,  we 
 have  many  other  signs  to  express  our 
 meanings,  on  occasions  of  great  conse- 
 (luence,  besides  words.  And  no  wonder 
 tluMi  if,  in  religion,  we  liave  some  of  the 
 same  kind. 
 
 2.  In  a  sacrament,  tlie  outward  and 
 visible  sign  must  denote  "an  inward  and 
 spiritual  grace  given  unto  us;"  that  is, 
 some  favour  freely  bestowed  on  us  from 
 heaven,  by  whicli  our  inward  and  sj)iritual 
 condition,  the  state  of  our  soids,  is  made 
 better.  Most  of  the  significative  actions 
 that  we  use  in  religion  express  only  our 
 duty  to  God.  Thus,  kneeling  in  j)rayeri« 
 used  to  show  our  reverence  towards  him 
 to  whom  we  pray.  And  signing  a  cliild 
 with  tlie  cross,  after  it  is  baptized,  declares 
 our  obligation  not  to  be  ashamed  of  the 
 cross  of  Christ.  But  a  sacrament,  l)esides 
 expressing  on  our  part  duty  to  God,  ex- 
 presses on  his  part  some  grace  or  favour 
 towards  us. 
 
 3.  In  order  to  entitle  anything  to  the 
 name  of  sacrament,  a  further  requisite  is, 
 that  it  be  "ordained  by  CnuisT  iiimself." 
 AVe  may  indeed  use,  on  the  foot  of  human 
 authority  alone,  actions  that  set  forth  either 
 our  sense  of  any  duty,  or  our  belief  in 
 God's  grace.  For  it  is  certainly  as  lawful 
 to  express  a  good  meaning  by  any  other 
 proper  sign  as  by  words.  But  then,  such 
 marks  as  these,  which  we  commonly  call 
 ceremonies,  as  they  are  taken  up  at  plea- 
 sure, may  be  laid  aside  again  at  pleasure ; 
 and  ought  to  be  laid  aside  whenever  they 
 grow  too  numerous,  or  abuses  are  made  of 
 them  which  cannot  easily  be  reformed ;  and 
 this  hath  frequently  been  the  case.  But 
 sacraments  are  of  perpetual  obligation, 
 for  they  stand  on  the  authority  of  Christ, 
 who  hath  certainly  appointed  nothing  to 
 be  for  ever  observed  in  his  Church  but 
 what  he  saw  would  be  for  ever  useful. 
 
 Nor  doth  every  appointment  of  Christ, 
 though  it  be  of  perpetual  obligation,  de- 
 serve the  name  of  a  sacrament,  but  those, 
 and  no  other,  which  are,  4.  Not  only  signs 
 of  grace,  but  means  also,  whereby  we 
 receive  the  same.  None  but  our  blessed 
 Lord  could  ajijioint  such  means;  and 
 which  of  his  ordinances  should  be  such, 
 and  which  not,  none  but  himself  could  de- 
 tei-mine.  From  his  word,  therefore,  we 
 are  to  learn  it;  and  then,  as  we  hope  to 
 attain  the  end,  we  must  use  the  means. 
 But  when  it  is  said  that  the  sacraments  are 
 means  of  grace,  we  are  not  to  understand 
 either  that  the  j)erfonnance  of  the  mere 
 
674 
 
 SACRAMENT. 
 
 SACRIFICE. 
 
 outward  action  cloth,  by  its  oAvn  virtue, 
 produce  a  spiritual  eftbct  in  us,  or  that 
 God  hath  annexed  any  such  effect  to  that 
 alone  ;  but  that  he  will  accompany  the  ac- 
 tion with  his  blessing-,  provided  it  be  done 
 as  it  oug-ht,  with  those  qualitications  which 
 lie  requires.  And  therefore,  unless  we  ful- 
 fil the  condition,  we  must  not  expect  the 
 benefit. 
 
 Further,  callin<?  the  sacraments  means  of 
 g;race,  doth  not  signify  them  to  be  means 
 by  which  we  merit  grace ;  for  nothing 
 but  the  sufferings  of  our  blessed  Saviour 
 can  do  that  for  us ;  but  means  by  which 
 what  he  hath  merited  is  conveyed  to  us. 
 
 Nor  yet  are  they  the  only  means  of  con- 
 veying grace ;  for  reading,  and  hearing, 
 and  meditating  upon  the  word  of  God,  are 
 part  of  the  things  which  he  hath  appointed 
 for  this  end ;  and  prayer  is  another  part, 
 accompanied  with  an  express  promise,  that, 
 if  we  "  ask,  we  shall  receive."  (John  xvi. 
 24.)  But  these,  not  being  sucli  actions  as 
 figure  out  and  represent  the  benefits  which 
 they  derive  to  us,  though  they  are  means 
 of  grace,  are  not  signs  of  it,  and  therefore 
 do  not  come  under  the  notion  of  sacra- 
 ments. 
 
 But,  5.  A  sacrament  is  not  only  a  sign 
 or  representation  of  some  heavenly  favour, 
 and  a  means  whereby  we  receive  it,  but 
 also  "  a  pledge  to  assure  us  thereof."  Not 
 that  anything  can  give  us  a  greater  as- 
 surance, in  point  of  reason,  of  any  blessing 
 from  God,  than  his  bare  promise  can  do ; 
 but  that  such  observances,  appointed  in 
 token  of  his  promises,  affect  our  imagina- 
 tions with  a  stronger  sense  of  them,  and 
 make  a  deeper  and  more  lasting,  and  there- 
 fore more  useful,  impression  on  our  minds. 
 For  this  cause,  in  all  nations  of  the  world, 
 representations  by  action  have  ever  been 
 used,  as  well  as  words,  upon  solemn  occa- 
 sions ;  especially  upon  entering  into  and 
 renewing  treaties  and  covenants  with  each 
 other.  And  therefore,  in  condescension  to 
 a  practice  Avliich,  being  so  universal  among 
 men,  appears  to  be  founded  in  the  nature 
 of  man,  God  hath  graciously  added  to  his 
 covenant  also  the  solemnity  of  certain  out- 
 ward instructive  pcrfcn-mances,  by  which 
 he  declares  to  us,  that,  as  surely  as  our 
 bodies  are  washed  by  water,  and  nourished 
 by  bread  broken  and  wine  poured  forth 
 and  received,  so  surely  are  our  souls  puri- 
 fied from  sin  by  the  baptism  of  repentance, 
 and  strengthened  in  all  goodness  by  par- 
 taking of  that  mercy  which  the  wounding 
 of  the  body  of  Christ  and  the  shedding 
 of  his  blood  hath  obtained  for  us.  And 
 thus  these  religious  actions,  so  far  as  they 
 are  performed  by  God's  minister,  in  pur- 
 
 suance of  his  appointment,  are  an  earnest 
 or  pledge  on  his  part,  which  was  one 
 ancient  signification  of  the  word  sacra- 
 ment ;  and,  so  far  as  we  join  in  them,  they 
 are  an  obligation,  binding  like  an  oath  on 
 our  part,  which  was  the  other  primitive 
 meaning  of  the  word. — Abp.  Seeker. 
 
 SACilAMh^NTALS.  (See  Sacrament.) 
 A  name  conveniently  given  to  those  rites 
 which  are  of  a  sacramental  character, — 
 such  as  confirmation  and  matrimony, — but 
 are  not  sacraments  in  the  proper  and  strict 
 sense,  as  baptism  and  the  holy  eucharist. 
 
 SACKAMENTARY.  In  the  Ftomish 
 Church,  a  book  containing  the  collects, 
 together  with  the  canon,  i.  e.  that  part  of 
 the  Communion  Ofiice  which  is  invariable, 
 whatever  changes  might  occur  in  the  other 
 portions  of  the  service. 
 
 SACKIFICE.  (See  3Iass,  the  Sacrifice 
 of.)  An  offering  made  to  God.  In  strict- 
 ness of  speech,  there  has  been  but  one 
 sacrifice,  once  offered,  and  never  to  be  re- 
 peated, the  sacrifice  of  the  death  of  our 
 Lord  Jesus  Christ.  He  suffered  death 
 upon  the  cross  for  our  redemption,  and 
 there,  by  the  one  oblation  of  himself,  once 
 offered,  a  full,  perfect,  and  sufiicient  sacri- 
 fice, oblation,  and  satisfaction,  for  the  sins 
 of  the  whole  world,  was  once  made,  and. 
 once  for  all.  (See  Covenant  of  Redemption.) 
 But,  figuratively  speaking,  all  Divine  Avor- 
 ship  was  anciently  called  a  sacrifice — a 
 sacrifice  of  praise  and  thanksgiving ;  but 
 more  especially  has  this  term  been  applied 
 to  the  celebration  of  the  eucharist.  Justin 
 Martyr,  says  Dr.  Waterland,  is  the  fii'st 
 we  meet  with  who  speaks  of  the  eucharist 
 under  the  name  of  sacrifice  or  sacrifices. 
 But  he  does  it  so  often,  and  so  familiarly, 
 that  one  cannot  but  conceive  that  it  had 
 been  in  common  use  for  some  time  before ; 
 and  it  is  the  more  likely  to  have  been  so, 
 because  oblation  (which  is  near  akin  to  it) 
 certainly  was. 
 
 Irena?us,  of  the  same  [the  second]  cen- 
 tury, mentions  the  sacrifice  of  the  eucharist 
 more  than  once,  either  directly  or  oblique- 
 ly. Tertullian,  not  many  years  later,  does 
 the  like.  Cyprian  also  speaks  of  the  sacri- 
 fice in  the  eucharist,  understanding  it  in 
 one  particular  passage  of  the  lay-oblation. 
 This  is  not  the  place  to  examine  critically 
 what  the  ancients  meant  by  the  sacrifice  or 
 sacrifices  of  the  eucharist.  But,  as  oblation 
 anciently  was  understood  sometimes  of  the 
 lay-offering,  the  same  may  be  observed  of 
 sacrifice ;  and  it  is  plain  from  Cyprian. 
 Besides  that  notion  of  sacrifice,  there  was 
 another,  and  a  principal  one,  which  was 
 conceived  to  go  along  with  the  eucharist- 
 ical  service,  and  that  was  the  notion  of 
 
SACllinCE. 
 
 075 
 
 spintuul  sacrifice,  consisting  of  many  i)ar- 
 ticnlars,  and  it  ^vas  on  the  account  of  one, 
 or  both,  that  the  encharist  had  the  name 
 of  sacrifice  for  the  two  first  centuries.  But 
 by  the  middle  of  the  third  century,  if  not 
 sooner,  it  began  to  be  called  a  sacrifice,  on 
 account  of  the  grand  sacrifice  represented 
 and  commemorated  in  it ;  the  sign,  as  such, 
 now  adopting  the  name  of  the  thing  sig- 
 nified. In  short,  the  memorial  at  length 
 came  to  be  called  a  sacrifice,  as  well  as  an 
 oblation :  and  it  had  a  double  claim  to  be 
 so  called  ;  partly  as  it  was  in  itself  a  spirit- 
 ual service  or  sacrifice,  and  ])artly  as  it 
 was  a  representation  and  commemoration 
 of  the  high  tremendous  sacrifice  of  Christ 
 God-man.  This  last  view  of  it,  being  of 
 all  the  most  aAvful  and  most  endearing, 
 came  by  degrees  to  be  the  most  prevailing 
 acceptation  of  the  Christian  sacrifice,  as 
 held  forth  in  the  eucharist.  But  those 
 who  styled  the  eucharist  a  sacrifice  on  that 
 account  took  care,  as  often  as  need  was,  to 
 explain  it  oft'  to  a  memorial  of  a  sacrifice, 
 rather  than  a  strict  or  proper  sacrifice,  in 
 that  precise  view.  Cyprian  is  the  first  who 
 plainly  and  directly  styles  the  eucharist  a 
 sacrifice  in  the  commemorative  view,  and 
 as  representing  the  grand  sacrifice.  Not 
 that  there  was  anything  ncAV  in  the  doc- 
 trine, but  there  was  a  new  a})plication  of 
 an  old  name,  which  had  at  the  first  been 
 brought  in  upon  other  accounts. —  Water- 
 land. 
 
 Bishop  Burnet  remarks,  that  Christian 
 writers  called  the  eucharist  an  unbloodj/ 
 sacrifice,  as  being  a  sacrifice  of  praise  and 
 thanksgiving;  and  adds,  *' In  two  other 
 respects  it  may  be  also  more  strictly  called 
 a  sacrifice :  one  is,  because  there  is  an  ob- 
 lation of  bread  and  wine  made  in  it,  which 
 being  sanctified,  are  consumed  in  an  act  of 
 religion  :  to  this  many  passages  in  the  writ- 
 ings of  the  Fathers' do  relate.  Another 
 respect  in  which  the  eucharist  is  called  a 
 sacrifice  is,  because  it  is  a  commemoration 
 and  a  representation  to  God,  of  the  sacri- 
 fice that  CiimsT  off'ered  for  us  on  the 
 cross ;  in  which  we  lay  claim  to  that  as  to 
 our  expiation,  and  feast  upon  it  as  our 
 peace-offering,  according  to  that  ancient 
 notion,  that  covenants  were  by  a  sacrifice, 
 and  were  concluded  in  a  feast  on  the  sa- 
 crifice. Upon  these  accounts  we  do  not 
 deny,  but  tliat  the  eucharist  may  be  mcU 
 called  a  sacrifice ;  but  still  it  is  a  com- 
 memorative sacrifice,  and  not  jn'opitia- 
 torv,"  &c. — Ihirnet. 
 
 The  ancients,  says  Bishop  Cosin,  called 
 
 the   whole    communion    "the  sacrifice  of 
 
 praise,"  as  our  Church  doth :  whereas  the 
 
 Komanists  only  call  it  a  sacrifice,  without 
 
 2  X  2 
 
 any  other  addition.  But  it  is  not  the  sa- 
 crifice of  Christ  which  we  here  speak  of; 
 for  that  is  always  ])leasing  to  Gou,  and 
 was  absolutely  perfect:  but  it  is  our  own 
 peace-ollering,  in  commemoration  thereof, 
 in  which  there  have  been  many  failingR, 
 and  therefore  we  desire  and  beg  tluU  it 
 may  be  accepted  in  mercy. — Ikan  Ctnnhcr. 
 In  tliis  regard,  and  in  divers  others  also, 
 the  eucharist  may,  by  allusion  and  analogy, 
 be  fitly  called  "  a  sacrifice,"  and  the  ].oui)'s 
 table  "  an  altar  ;  "  the  one  relating  to  the 
 other,  though  neither  of  them  can  be 
 strictly  and  projjcrly  so  termed.  It  is  the 
 custom  of  Scrijjture  to  describe  the  service 
 of  God  under  the  New  Testament,  be  it 
 either  internal  or  external,  by  the  terms 
 which  otherwise  belonged  to  the  Old  :  as, 
 immolation,  offering,  sacrifice,  and  altar. 
 8o  tlie  evangelical  ]n-o])]iet  Isaiah,  fore- 
 telling the  glory  and  ami)]itude  of  the 
 Christian  Church,  spcaketh  of  God's  altar 
 which  shall  be  there,  upon  Mhich  "an 
 acceptable  ofi'ering  shall  bo  made."  (See 
 also  Rom.  xv.  16;  Phil.  ii.  17  ;  Heb.  xiii. 
 10.)  And  indeed  the  sacrament  of  the 
 eucharist  carries  the  name  of  a  sacrifice, 
 and  the  table,  whereon  it  is  celebrated,  an 
 altar  of  oblation,  in  a  far  higher  sense  than 
 any  of  their  former  sacrifices  did,  which 
 were  but  the  ty})cs  and  figures  of  those 
 services  that  are  performed  in  recognition 
 and  memory  of  Ciiiust's  one  sacrifice, 
 once  offered  u])on  the  altar  of  his  cross. 
 The  projihecy  of  Malachi  concerning  the 
 Church  under  the  New  Testament,  (see 
 Mai.  i.  10,)  applied  by  the  doctors  of  the 
 Iloman  Church  to  their  proper  sacrifice, 
 as  they  call  it,  of  the  mass,  is  interpreted 
 and  api^lied  by  the  ancient  Fathers,  some- 
 times in  general  to  all  the  acts  of  our 
 Christian  religion,  and  sometimes  in  ])ar- 
 ticular  to  the  eucharist :  that  is,  the  act  of 
 our  ])rayers  aiul  tlianksgiving  for  the  sa- 
 crifice of  CilKlsT  once  made  for  us  upon 
 the  cross,  as  here  we  use  in  the  Church 
 of  England.  The  Church  of  England 
 therefore  herein  followeth  the  Holy  Scrip- 
 ture and  the  ancient  l-'athers.  (.^ee  also 
 Heb.  xiii.  ir> ;  Bev.  viii.  .'{ ;  Ps.  cxli.  2.)— 
 Bp.  Cdsui. 
 
 Under  which  name  of  the  Christinn  sa- 
 crifice, says  Jose])h  Mede.  first  know,  that 
 the  ancient  Ciiurch  uiulerstood  not,  as 
 manv  su])j)ose,  tlie  mere  sacrament  of  the 
 body  and  blood  of  Christ,  but  the  whole 
 sacred  action  or  solemn  service  of  the 
 Church  assembled,  whereof  this  sacred 
 mystery  was  then  a  prime  and  principal 
 part,  and,  as  it  were,  the  pearl  or  jewel  of 
 this  ring,  no  public  service  of  the  Church 
 being  without  it.     Tliis  observed  and  re- 
 
676 
 
 SACRIFICE. 
 
 membered,  I  define  the  Christian  sacrifice, 
 ex  moile  antiqucp  ecclesio',  in  this  manner  : 
 An   oblation  of  thanksgivinj^  and  prayer 
 to  God  the  Father  throvigh  Jesus  Ciikist, 
 and   his   sacrifice   commemorated   in    the 
 creatures  of  bread  and  wine,  wherewith 
 God  had  first  been  agnized.     So  that  this 
 sacrifice,  as  you  see,  hath  a  double  object, 
 or  matter ;  first,  praise  and  prayer,  Mhich 
 you  may  call  aacri/icium  quod.     Secondly, 
 the    commemoration    Christ's    sacrifice 
 on  the  cross,  which  is  sacrijicium  quo,  the 
 sacrWice   whereby   the  other  is  accepted. 
 For  all  the   prayers,  thanksgivings,  and 
 devotions  of  a  Christian  are  tendered  up 
 unto  God  in  the  name  of  Jesus  Christ  cru- 
 cified.    According  Avhcreunto  we  are  wont 
 to   conclude    our  prayers   with  "through 
 Jesus  Christ  our  Lord."    And  this  is 
 the  specification,  whereby  the  worship  of  a 
 Christian  is  distinguished  from  that  of  the 
 Jew.     Now    that  which   we,    in    all   our 
 prayers  and  thanksgivings,  do  vocally,  when 
 we    say  per    lesum     Christum    Domi)ium 
 7wstru)n,  the  ancient  Church,  in  her  public 
 and  solemn  service,  did  visibly  by  repre- 
 senting him,  according  as  he  commanded, 
 in  the  symbols  of  his  body  and  blood:  for 
 there  he  is  commemorated  and  received  by 
 us  for  the   same   end  for  which   he  was 
 given  and  suff'ered  for  us ;   that  through 
 him  we  receiving  forgiveness  of  our  sins, 
 God  our  Father  might  accept  our  service 
 and  hear  our  prayers  we  make  unto  him. 
 "WHiat  time  then  so  fit  and  seasonable  to 
 commend  our  devotions  unto  GoD,  as  when 
 the  Lamb  of  God  lies  slain  upon  the  holy 
 table,  and  we  receive  visibly,  though  mys- 
 tically, those  gracious  pledges  of  his  blessed 
 body  and  blood.     This  was  that  sacrifice 
 of  the  ancient  Church,  which  the  Fathers  so 
 much  ring  in  our  ears.     The  sacrifice  of 
 praise  and  prayer  through  Jesus  Christ, 
 mystically  represented  in  the  creatures  of 
 bread  and  wine. 
 
 But  yet  there  is  one  thing  more  my 
 definition  intimates,  when  I  say,  "thrcugh 
 the  sacrifice  of  Jesus  Christ,  commemo- 
 rated in  the  creatures  of  bread  and  wine, 
 wherewith  GoD  had  first  been  agnized." 
 The  body  and  blood  of  Christ  were  not 
 made  of  common  bread  and  common  wine, 
 but  of  bread  and  wine  first  sanctified  by 
 being  offered  and  set  before  GoD  as  a 
 present,  to  agnize  him  the  Lord  and  giver 
 of  all:  according  to  that,  Domini  est  term 
 et  plenittido  ejus :  and  "  let  no  man  appear 
 before  the  Lord  empty."  Therefore,  as 
 this  sacrifice  consisted  of  two  parts,  as  I 
 told  you,  of  praise  and  prayer,  which,  in 
 respect  of  the  other,  I  call  sacrijicium  quod  ; 
 and   of  the    commemoration    of  CiiRiST 
 
 crucified,  which  I  call  sacrijiciayn  quo  ;  so 
 the  symbols  of  bread  and  wine  traversed 
 both,  being  first  presented  as  symbols  of 
 praise  and  thanksgiving  to  agnize  God  the 
 Lord  of  the  creature  in  the  sacrijicium 
 quod:  then,  by  invocation  of  the  Holy 
 Ghost,  made  the  symbols  of  the  body  and 
 blood  of  Christ  in  the  sacnjiciion  quo. 
 So  that  the  whole  service  throughout  con- 
 sisted of  a  reasonable  part  and  of  a  ma- 
 terial part,  as  of  a  soul  and  a  body ;  of 
 which  I  shall  speak  more  fully  hereafter, 
 when  I  come  to  prov :  this,  I  have  said,  by 
 the  testimonies  of  the  ancients. 
 
 Again,  the  Lord's  supper  is  a  sacrifice, 
 according  to  the  style  of  the  ancient 
 Church. 
 
 It  is  one  thing  to  say,  that  the  Lord's 
 supper  is  a  sacrifice,  and  another  to  say, 
 that  Christ  is  pro]:)erly  sacrificed  therein. 
 These  are  not  the  same ;  for  there  may  be 
 a  sacrifice,  which  is  a  representation  of 
 another,  and  yet  a  sacrifice  too  :  and  such 
 is  this  of  the  New  Testament,  a  sacrifice 
 wherein  another  sacrifice,  that  of  Christ's 
 death  upon  the  cross,  is  commemorated : 
 thus  the  Papists  gain  nothing  by  this  no- 
 tion of  antiquity,  and  our  asserting  the 
 same ;  for  their  tenet  is,  that  Christ  in 
 this  sacrifice  is  really  and  properly  sacri- 
 ficed, which  we  shall  show  in  due  time  that 
 the  ancients  never  meant. 
 
 To  begin  with  this  :  as  in  the  Old  Tes- 
 tament the  name  of  sacrifice  w^as  other- 
 while  given  to  the  whole  action  in  which 
 the  rite  was  used ;  sometimes  to  the  rite 
 alone ;  so  in  the  notion  and  language  of 
 the  ancient  Church,  sometimes  the  whole 
 action  of  Christian  service  (wherein  the 
 Lord's  supper  was  a  part)  is  comprehended 
 under  that  name  ;  sometimes  the  rite  of 
 the  sacred  supper  itself  is  so  termed,  and 
 truly,  as  you  shall  now  hear. 
 
 The  resolution  of  this  point  depends 
 altogether  upon  the  true  definition  of  a 
 sacrifice,  as  it  is  distinguished  from  all 
 other  offerings.  AMiich,  though  it  be  so 
 necessary,  that  all  disputation  without  it 
 is  vain,  yet  shall  we  not  find,  that  either 
 party  interested  in  this  question  hath  been 
 so  exact  therein  as  were  to  be  wished. 
 This  appears  by  the  differing  definitions, 
 given  and  confuted  by  divines  on  both 
 sides;  the  reason  of  which  defect  is,  be- 
 cause neither  are  deduced  from  the  notion 
 of  Scripture,  but  built  upon  other  concep- 
 tions :  let  us  see,  therefore,  if  it  may  be 
 learned  out  of  Scripture,  what  that  is  which 
 the  Scripture,  in  a  strict  and  special  sense, 
 calls  a  sacrifice. 
 
 Every  sacrifice  is  an  oblation  or  offering : 
 but   every   offering   is  not  a  sacrifice,  in 
 
SACRIFICATI. 
 
 that  strict  and  proper  acceptation  we  seek. 
 For  tithes,  first-fruits,  heavc-otlerings  in 
 the  h\w,  and  -whatsoever  indeed  is  conse- 
 crated unto  Gon,  are  oblations  or  otier- 
 ings  ;  but  none  of  them  sacrifices,  nor  ever 
 so  caUed  in  the  Old  Testament.  What 
 oflTerings  are  then  called  so  ?  1  answer, 
 burnt-offerings,  sin-oil'crings,  trespass-of- 
 ferings, and  peace-offerings.  These,  and 
 no  other,  arc  called  by  that  name. 
 
 Out  of  these,  therefore,  must  we  pick 
 the  true  and  proper  ratio  of  a  sacrifice :  it 
 is  true,  indeed,  that  these  sacrifices  Avere 
 offerings  of  beasts,  of  beeves,  of  sheej),  of 
 goats,  of  fowls :  but  the  ratio  of  anything 
 consists  not  in  the  matter  thereof ;  as  the 
 gowns  we  wear  are  still  the  same  kind  of 
 apparel,  though  made  of  diftering  stuffs  ; 
 these  sacrifices  also  were  slain,  ancl  ofiered 
 by  fire  and  incense :  but  neither  is  the 
 modus  of  anything  the  ratio  or  essential 
 form  thereof.  That  therefore  may  have 
 the  nature  and  formale  of  a  sacrifice  which 
 consists  of  another  matter,  and  is  offered 
 after  another  and  difiering  manner :  those 
 we  call  sacraments  of  the  Old  Testament, 
 circumcision  and  the  passover,  were  by 
 effusion  of  blood ;  ours  are  not,  and  yet 
 we  esteem  them  nevertheless  true  sacra- 
 ments ;  and  so  it  may  be  here. 
 
 To  hold  you,  therefore,  no  longer  in  sus- 
 pense, a  sacrifice,  I  think,  should  be  de- 
 fined thus  :  an  offering,  whereby  the  offerer 
 is  made  partaker  of  his  God's  table,  in 
 token  of  covenant  and  friendship  with 
 him,  &e. :  more  explicately  thus  :  an  offer- 
 ing unto  the  Divine  Majesty,  of  that  which 
 is  given  for  the  food  of  man  ;  that  the 
 offerer,  partaking  thereof,  might,  as  by 
 way  of  pledge,  be  certified  of  his  accepta- 
 tion into  covenant,  and  fellowshij)  Avith  his 
 God,  by  eating  and  drinking  at  his  table. 
 St.  Augustine  comes  toward  this  notion, 
 when  he  defines  a  sacrifice  (though  in  a 
 larger  sense)  ojms  quod  iJeo  nuncKpcanus, 
 reddimus,  et  dedicantus,  hoc  Jine,  ut  sanctd 
 societate  ipsi  adhcereamus  ;  for  to  have  so- 
 ciety and  fellowship  with  GoD,  what  is  it 
 else  but  to  be  in  league  and  covenant  with 
 him  ? 
 
 In  a  Avord,  a  sacrifice  is  ohlatio  /(jcdc rails. 
 — Jofipph  Mode. 
 
 SACIUFICATI.  Christians  Avho,  to 
 avoid  condemnation  before  a  heathen  tri- 
 bunal, off"ered  sacrifice  to  an  idol.  When 
 such  persons,  after  the  persecution  was 
 over,  returned  to  the  ])rofession  of  CiiKlsT. 
 they  Avere  obliged  to  undergo  a  very  rigid 
 penance  before  they  could  be  rc-admitted 
 into  the  Church.  It  must  be  observed 
 that  Sacrificati  is  their  denomination  as 
 penitents,  after  their  return  to  the  failli. 
 
 SAINT. 
 
 077 
 
 Those  Avho  continued  in  idoUdrv  Avere 
 simply  ai)ostates.  (See  Ldjcllatici  and 
 TliKilfirati.) 
 
 8ACJin.l<:GK.  The  act  of  violating 
 sacred  things,  or  subjecting  them  to  pro- 
 fanation ;  or  the  desecration  of  olijects 
 consecrated  to  GoD.  Thus  the  robbing 
 of  churches  or  of  graves,  the  al)iist'  of 
 sacred  vessels  and  altars,  l)y  em])l(>viiig 
 them  for  unhallowed  purposes,  the  plun- 
 dering and  misappropriation  of  alms  and 
 donations,  cVc.,  are  acts  of  sacrihge  which, 
 in  the  ancient  Church,  Avire  jjunished  with 
 great  severity. 
 
 SACiilSTAX.  The  ))crson  to  whose 
 charge  the  sacred  vestments,  \'C.,  in  a 
 church,  are  committed  ;  now  corrupted  to 
 sexton,  Avhich  see.  The  sacristan  is  a  dig- 
 nitary in  some  foreign  cathedrals,  as  was 
 formerly  the  case  at  Glasgow,  and  the 
 Chapel  Koyal  of  Stirling,  in  Scotland;  in 
 both  of  Avhich  ])laces  there  were  treasurers 
 also.  In  most  of  the  old  cathedrals,  Iioav- 
 ever,  the  sacrist  Avas  the  treasurer's  dej)uty, 
 and  a  vicar  choral.  In  those  of  tlie  new 
 foundation  the  sacrist  is  a  minor  canon, 
 and  has  often  the  s])ecial  cure  of  souls 
 Avithin  the  precinct.  In  Ireland  the  sa- 
 crist at  Klj)hin  Avas  a  dignitary,  noAV  usual- 
 ly styled  Trcdsuri-r. — Jvhh. 
 
 SACRISTY.  The  jilace  in  Avhich  sacred 
 vestments,  cVc.  are  kept,  ausAveriug  to  tlie 
 modern  vestry. 
 
 SADDUCEES.  A  famous  sect  among 
 the  JcAvs  ;  so  called,  it  is  said,  from  their 
 founder,  Sadoc.  It  began  in  the  time  of 
 Antigonus,  of  Socho,  president  of  the 
 Sanhedrim  at  Jerusalem,  and  teacher  of 
 the  laAv  in  the  princijial  divinity  school 
 of  that  city.  Antigoiuis,  having  often  in 
 his  lectures  incidcated  to  his  scholars  that 
 they  ought  not  to  serve  God  in  a  servile 
 manner,  but  only  out  of  filial  love  and 
 fear,  tAvo  of  his  scholars,  Sadoc  and 
 liaithus,  thence  inferred  that  there  Avcre 
 no  rcAvards  at  all  alter  this  life;  ami, 
 therefore,  se])arating  from  the  school  of 
 their  master,  they  thought  there  was  no 
 resurrection  nor  future  state,  neither  angel 
 nor  sjjirit.  (Matt,  xxii  2;J;  Acts  x.xiii.  H.) 
 They  seem  to  agree  «;ieatly  Avim  the  Kjii- 
 cureans ;  differing  however  in  this,  that 
 though  they  denied  a  future  state,  yet  they 
 alloAved  the  j)owcr  of  God  to  create  the 
 Avorld  ;  Avhereas  Uie  folloAvei-s  of  KpicuruH 
 denied  it.  It  is  said,  al.->o,  that  they  re- 
 jected the  Hil)li',  except  the  Pentateuch  ; 
 denied  predestination,  and  taught  that 
 (ioD  had  made  man  absolute  master  of  nil 
 his  actions,  without  a.s.sistance  to  good,  or 
 restraint  from  evil. 
 
 SAINT.      (Sec    Communion   of  Saints, 
 
G78 
 
 SAINT. 
 
 SAINTS'  DAYS. 
 
 Invocation  of  Saints.)  A  person  either  in 
 the  flesh  or  out  of  it,  who  is  maclp  holy  by 
 the  inchvelling  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  The 
 apostles  in  their  Epistles  use  this  word 
 simply  for  baptized  believers,  that  is,  for 
 all  Christians, 
 
 The  word  saints  is  of  the  same  meaning 
 with  the  word  holi/ ;  and,  tlierefore,  com- 
 prehends all  Christians  in  the  same  manner 
 as  has  been  already  explained.  Having 
 comnnoiion,  is  being  entitled  to  partake  of 
 benefits  and  kindnesses,  and  bound  to 
 make  suitable  returns  for  them.  And 
 thus  Christians,  or  saints,  have  communion 
 or  "fellowship"  with  "the  Fatiieh,  from 
 whom  cometh  down  every  good  and  per- 
 fect gift;"  with  his  Son  Jesus  Ciikist,  (1 
 John  i.  3  ;  James  i.  17,)  through  whom 
 forgiveness  and  mercy  is  conveyed  to  us  ; 
 with  the  Holy  Ghost,  whose  sanctifying 
 graces  are  conferred  on  such  as  duly  qua- 
 lify their  hearts  for  the  reception  of  them. 
 And  for  these  blessings  we  owe  all  thank- 
 fulness and  all  duty,  in  thought,  word,  and 
 deed.  Christians  have  also  communion 
 with  the  holy  angels,  as  these  "  are  minis- 
 tering spirits  sent  forth  to  minister  for 
 them  who  shall  be  heirs  of  salvation " 
 (Heb.  i.  14)  :  and  undoubtedly  we  ought 
 to  think  of  what  they  do  for  us,  with  an 
 inward  sense  of  gratitude  and  love.  But, 
 as  we  are  unacquainted  with  particulars, 
 we  can  make  no  particular  acknowledg- 
 ments :  nor  ought  we  to  make  any  general 
 ones,  by  outward  expressions  of  respect ; 
 since  "  worshipping  God  alone  "  is  com- 
 manded, (Matt.  iv.  10,)  and  worshipping 
 angels  condemned,  in  Scripture.  (Col. 
 ii.  18.) 
 
 With  respect  to  those  of  our  own  nature, 
 we  are  bound  so  far  to  hold  communion 
 even  with  the  worst  of  unbelievers,  as  not 
 only  to  do  them  every  kind  of  justice,  but 
 sincerely  to  wish,  and,  if  occasion  offer, 
 heartily  endeavour,  their  good,  both  in 
 body  and  soul.  But  to  all  "  who  have 
 obtained  the  like  precious  faith  with  our- 
 selves," (2  Pet.  i.  1,)  we  bear  a  still  nearer 
 relation ;  as  being,  in  a  peculiar  sense, 
 chilcben  of  the  same  Father,  disciples  of  the 
 same  Master,  animated  by  the  same  Spirit, 
 members  of  the  same  body.  And  these 
 things  oblige  us  to  the  utmost  care  of  pre- 
 serving, by  prudent  order  and  mutual 
 forbearance,  as  much  unity  in  the  Church 
 as  we  possibly  can. 
 
 Such,  indeed,  as  obstinately  deny  the 
 fundamental  doctrines,  or  transgress  the 
 fundamental  precepts  of  Christianity,  ought 
 to  be  rejected  from  Christian  communion. 
 But  to  renounce  communicating  Avith  any 
 others,  who  are  willing  to  admit  us  to  it 
 
 on  lawful  terms,  is  the  way  to  cut  off  our- 
 selves, not  them,  from  the  body  of  Christ  ; 
 who  yet,  we  doubt  not,  will  allow  those  on 
 both  sides  to  belong  to  his  Church,  who, 
 through  pardonable  passions  or  mistakes, 
 will  not  allow  one  another  to  do  so. 
 
 And,  as  we  should  maintain  communion 
 with  all  proper  persons,  we  should  show 
 our  disposition  to  it  in  all  proper  ways: 
 attend  on  the  public  instructions,  join  in 
 the  public  worship,  sacraments,  and  disci- 
 pline, which  our  Lord  hath  appointed,  and 
 keep  the  whole  of  them  pure  from  all  for- 
 bidden or  suspicious  alterations  or  mix- 
 tures ;  avoid,  with  great  care,  both  giving 
 and  taking  needless  offence,  in  respect  to 
 these  or  any  matters  ;  and  by  all  fit  means 
 "  edify  one  another  in  love "  (Rom.  xiv. 
 19;  Eph.  iv.  16):  "obeying  those  who 
 are  set  over  us  ; "  condescending  to  those 
 who  are  beneath  us ;  esteeming  and  hon- 
 ouring the  wise  and  virtuous;  teaching 
 and  admonishing  the  ignorant  and  faulty ; 
 bearing  with  the  weak,  relieving  the  poor, 
 and  comforting  the  affiicted. 
 
 Nor  have  we  communion  only  with  the 
 saints  on  earth,  but  are  of  one  city  and  one 
 family  with  such  as  are  already  got  safe 
 to  heaven.  Doubtless,  they  exercise  that 
 commiuiion  towards  us  by  loving  and  pray- 
 ing for  the  brethren  whom  they  have  left 
 behind  them.  And  we  are  to  exercise  it 
 towards  them,  not  by  addressing  petitions 
 to  them,  which  we  are  neither  authorized 
 to  offer,  nor  have  any  grounds  to  think 
 they  can  hear;  but  by  rejoicing  in  their 
 happiness;  thanking  GoD  for  the  grace 
 which  he  hath  bestowed  on  them,  and  the 
 examples  which  they  have  left  us  ;  holding 
 their  memories  in  honour,  imitating  their 
 virtues,  and  beseeching  the  Disposer  of  all 
 things,  that,  having  followed  them  in  holi- 
 ness here,  we  may  meet  them  in  happiness 
 hereafter ;  and  become,  in  the  fullest  sense, 
 "  felloAv-citizens  with  the  saints,  and  of 
 the  household  of  God"  (Eph.  ii.  19); 
 "  having,  with  all  those  that  are  departed 
 in  the  true  faith  of  his  holy  name,  our 
 perfect  consummation  and  bliss,  both  in 
 body  and  soul,  in  his  eternal  and  everlast- 
 ing glory,  through  Jesus  Christ  oyr 
 Lord,  Amen."  (See  Burial  Office.)  — 
 Ahp.  SecTxer. 
 
 SAINTS'  DAYS.  (See  Feasts.)  Two 
 of  the  most  ancient  monuments  of  eccle- 
 siastical history  that  we  possess,  except  the 
 New  Testament,  are  the  accounts  of  the 
 martyrdom  of  Ignatius  and  Polycarp,  both 
 disciples  of  St.  John,  written,  at  the  time 
 of  their  suffermg,  by  the  Churches  of 
 Antioch  and  Smyrna,  of  which  they  Avere 
 bishops :  and  in  those  they  mention,  as  of 
 
SAINTS'  DAYS. 
 
 SALUTATION. 
 
 G79 
 
 course,  their  purpose  of  celebrating  yearly 
 the   festival  of  their   birthdays,  of  their 
 entrance  into  a  better  lite,   for  the  com- 
 memoration of  their  excellent  graces,  and 
 the  incitement  of  others  to  imitate  them. 
 Thus  did  they  provide  that  the  "  rifi:hteous 
 should   be  in   everlastin<>^   remembrance," 
 (Ps.  cxii.  6,)  and  observed  the  more  parti- 
 cular direction  o^iven  to  that  intent  in  the 
 Epistle  to  the  IlebrcAvs,  "  llemcmber  them 
 which  have  (had)  the  rule  over  you,  who 
 have  spoken  unto  you  the  word  of  God  ; 
 whose  faith  follow,  considering^  the  end," 
 the  event,  "  of  their  conversation."    (Ileb. 
 xiii.  7.)  The  rest  of  the  primitive  Clmrches 
 appear  to  have  followed  the  same  rule  ; 
 and   each  to   have    honoured    the    more 
 eminent  of  their  own  martyrs,  who  had 
 been  usually  their  teachers  also,  by  anni- 
 versary assemblies  for  preserving  the  re- 
 verence due  to  their  characters,  and  offer- 
 ing up  thanks  to  God  for  their  examples. 
 But  the  increase  of  their  numbers,  and 
 the  adoption  of  the  sufferers  of  one  Church 
 into  the  liturgies  of  another,  and  the  ad- 
 mission of  eminently  good  persons,  who 
 had  "  not  resisted  unto  blood,"  (Heb.  xii. 
 4,)  and  the  frequent  grants  which  in  sub- 
 sequent ages  were  made,  of  so  high  a  dis- 
 tinction, with  little  care  of  previous  in- 
 quiry,   multiplied    the    returns    of    these 
 solemnities   very    improperly   and   incon- 
 veniently.    Then,  besides,  a  still  greater 
 evil  was,  that  praises  and  panegyrics  too 
 soon  grew  to  be  immoderate,  and  after- 
 wards  impious.      In    the    vehemence    of 
 national  encomiums  and  exclamations,  the 
 saint  was  called  upon  as  present,  until  at 
 length  he  was  thought  so  ;   and  what  at 
 first  was  merely  a  bold  and  moving  figure 
 of  speech,  became  at  length  in  good  earnest 
 a  prayer :  which  requested  of  a  dead  man, 
 who  was  not  able  to  hear  it,  not  only  that 
 he  would  intercede  with  God  on  behalf  of 
 his  fellow-servants,  but  that  he  would  him- 
 self bestow  such  blessings  upon  them,  as 
 PxO  creature  hath  in  his  power.      Things 
 being  found  in  this  condition  at  the  lie- 
 formation,  it  was  necessary  both  to  abolish 
 entirely  these  unlawful  addresses,  and  to 
 limit  the  original  sort  of  commemorations 
 to  a  moderate  list  of  persons,  indis])utal)ly 
 worthy  of  them.     Accordingly  no  day  is 
 appointed   by  our    Church    for   the   cele- 
 bration of  any  other   than   the   principal 
 saints  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament, 
 it  being  hard  to  stop,  if  more  were  added. 
 And   amongst  these,   St.  Stephen    is  the 
 only 'one  who  stands  solely  on  the  foot  of 
 being  a  martyr;   as  indeed  it  was  fit  that 
 the  foremost,' the  leader,  of  that  "noble 
 army"  should  be  distinguished,  and  chosen, 
 
 as   it  were,  to  represent  the  rest.— ^i/;». 
 
 Wlien  a  Sunday  and  a  saint's  day  coin- 
 cide, on  the  question  what  service  shall  be 
 used,  see  tlie  extracts  from  Sliepherd  and 
 Bisho))  Cosin  in  the  article  Lessons. 
 
 SALUTATION.  Having  all  repeated 
 our  creed  together,  and  thereby  given  good 
 proof  that  we  are  members  of  "the  Catholic 
 Cliurch,  and  such  as  have  a  right  to  join 
 in  the  prayers  thereof,  we  now  i)repare 
 ourselves  to  pray.  And  since  salutations 
 have  ever  been  the  expressions  and  badges 
 of  that  mutual  charity,  without  Avhich  we 
 are  not  fit  to  ])ray,  'tlierefbre  we  begin 
 with  an  ancient  form  of  salutation,  taken 
 out  of  Holy  Scrijjture:  tlie  minister  com- 
 mencing, salutes  the  ])eoi)le  with  "The 
 Loud  be  with  you,"  (lluth  ii.  4  ;  Ps.  cxxii. 
 8;  2  Thcss.  iii.  IG,)  and  they  return  it 
 with  a  like  prayer,  "  And  with'thy  spirit," 
 (2  Tim.  iv.  22,)'  which  words  have  been  of 
 early  use  in  the  Christian  liturgies  ;  and 
 indeed  the  jjhrase  is  the  very  words  of  St. 
 Paul ;  and  St.  John  forbids  us  to  say  to 
 any  heretic  "  God  speed."  (2  John,  ver.'  10, 
 11.)  But  when  the  minister  hath  heard 
 every  one  in  the  congregation  rejieat  his 
 faith,  and  seen,  by  their  standing  uj)  at  it, 
 a  testimony  of  their  assent  to  it,  he  can 
 now^  safely  salute  them  all  as  brethren  and 
 members  of  the  true  Church ;  and  surely, 
 as  difference  in  religion  creates  great  ani- 
 mosities, so  agreement  in  one  faith  is  an 
 excellent  means  to  beget  charity,  and  to 
 make  minister  and  people  heartily  jn-ay  for 
 one  another :  the  people  are  going  to  pray, 
 which  they  cannot  do  without  God's  helj), 
 and  therefore  the  minister  j)rays  that  "  the 
 Loud  may  be  with  them,"  to' assist  them 
 in  the  duty,  according  to  that  gracious 
 promise  of  our  Saviour,  that  when  two 
 or  three  are  met  to  pray,  he  will  be  with 
 them.  (Matt,  xviii.  20.)  And  since  the 
 minister  prays  for  all  the  people,  and  is 
 their  mouth  to  God,  they  desire  he  may, 
 heartily  and  devoutly,  ofter  uji  tliese  pray- 
 ers in  their  behalf,  saying,  "  The  J^OKD  be 
 with  thy  sj)irit." — Ihan  Conibt r. 
 
 By  a  man's  sjiirit  in  Scrij)ture  jihrasc  is 
 frequently  meant  the  man  himself.  So 
 that  the  jieoplc  do  in  reality  answer  thus : 
 May  God  be  with  tlicc,  as  thou  desircst  he 
 may  be  with  us,  in  the  oblation  of  our  joint 
 prayers.  In  tliis  sense  the  word  is  used  in 
 the  place  whence  tliis  form  is  l)orrowed. 
 (2  Tim.  iv.  22.)— Dr.  Jicimf. 
 
 Till  every  ])erson  has  finished  the  repe- 
 tition of  the  creed,  and  there  is  silence  in 
 tile  wliole  congregation,  the  minister  should 
 not  pronounce  tlie  words,  "The  Lord  be 
 witii  you."     These  words  ought  also  to  be 
 
680 
 
 SALVATION. 
 
 SAMARITANS. 
 
 pronounced  by  the  minister  in  a  standing 
 posture,  they  being  addressed  to  the  peo- 
 ple. And  after  the  people  have  returned 
 their  answer,  the  minister  should  still  stand 
 and  pronounce  these  words,  "  Let  us  pray ; " 
 and  then  give  the  people  time  enough  to 
 kneel  down,  that  there  may  not  be  the 
 least  noise,  and  every  person  may  be  per- 
 fectly composed,  and  ready  to  join,  when 
 the  minister  begins  the  prayers. 
 
 And  because  these  words,  "  The  Lord 
 be  wdth  you,''  and  the  reply  of  the  people, 
 *'  And  with  thy  spirit ; "  and  those  also, 
 "  Let  us  pray,"  are  all  of  them  directed 
 and  spoken,  not  to  Almighty  God,  but 
 only  to  men ;  namely,  by  the  minister  and 
 people  alternately  to  each  other ;  therefore 
 care  should  be  taken  that  a  difference  be 
 made  in  the  tone  of  voice  between  these 
 short  forms  of  mutual  compellation,  and 
 the  prayers  themselves. — Dr.  Bennet. 
 
 In  the  Romish  Church  the  angelical 
 salutation,  as  they  call  it,  consists  of  the 
 angel's  salutation,  and  that  of  Elizabeth. 
 It  runs  thus  :  Ave  3Iaria,  (jratice  plejia  : 
 JDominus  tecum  :  henedicta  tu  in  mulierihiis, 
 et  henedictus  fructus  ventris  tui.  Sancta 
 3Iaria,  mater  Dei,  ora  pro  nohis  peccatori- 
 bt(s,  nunc  et  in  liord  mortis  nostrce.    Amen. 
 
 The  latter  clause,  Sancta  3faria,  mater 
 Dei,  ora  pro  nohis  jieccatoribus,  was  added, 
 they  tell  us,  in  the  fifth  century ;  but  the 
 last  words,  7iunc  et  in  hord  ?)iortis  nostrce, 
 were  inserted  by  order  of  Pope  Pius  V. 
 
 Urban  II.  ordered  a  bell  to  be  tolled 
 three  times  a  day  to  put  the  people  in 
 mind  of  repeating  this  salutation,  that 
 God  might  prosper  the  Christian  arms  in 
 the  recovery  of  the  Holy  Land ;  which 
 custom,  having  continued  about  134  years, 
 fell  at  length  into  neglect;  till  Gregory 
 IX.  revived  it,  with  the  addition  of  a 
 constant  noon-bell. 
 
 The  repeating  of  this  salutation  at  the 
 beginning  of  the  sermon  was  first  enjoined 
 by  St.  Dominic,  or,  as  some  will  have  it, 
 by  Vincent  Ferrerius.  (See  Idolatry  and 
 Mariolatrrj .) 
 
 SALVATION  (see  Covenant  of  Re- 
 demption) is  taken  in  Scripture,  1.  For 
 deliverance  or  victory  over  outward  dan- 
 gers and  enemies.  (Exod.  xiv.  13;  1  Sam. 
 xiv.  45.)  2.  For  remission  of  sins,  true 
 faith,  repentance,  and  obedience,  and  other 
 saving  graces  of  the  Spirit,  which  are  the 
 way  to  salvation.  (Lvike  xix.  9.)  "  This 
 day  is  salvation  come  to  this  house."  3. 
 For  eternal  happiness  hereafter,  w^hich  is 
 the  object  of  our  hopes  and  desires.  Thus 
 it  is  said,  "  to  give  knowledge  of  salvation 
 to  his  people."  (Luke  i.  77.)  "Godly 
 sorrow  worketh  repentance  unto  salvation." 
 
 (2  Cor.  vii.  10.)  And  the  gospel  is  called, 
 the  "  gospel  of  salvation,"  (Eph.  i.  13,) 
 because  it  brings  the  good  news  that 
 salvation  is  to  be  had  ;  it  offers  salvation  to 
 lost  sinners ;  it  shows  upon  what  terms  it 
 may  be  had,  and  the  way  how  to  attain  it ; 
 it  also  fits  for  salvation,  and  at  last  brings 
 to  it.  4.  For  the  author  of  salvation.  (Ps. 
 xxvii.  1.)  "  The  Lord  is  my  light  and 
 my  salvation,"  he  is  my  counsellor  in  all 
 my  difficulties,  and  my  comforter  and 
 deliverer  in  all  my  distresses.  5.  For  the 
 person  who  is  the  Saviour  of  sinners. 
 (Luke  ii.  30.)  "  Mine  eyes  have  seen  thy 
 salvation,"  says  Simeon ;  I  have  seen  him 
 whom  thou  hast  sent  into  the  world,  to  be 
 the  author  and  procurer  of  salvation  to  lost 
 sinners.  6.  For  the  praise  and  benediction 
 that  is  given  to  GoD.  (Rev.  xix.  1.) 
 "  Alleluia,  salvation  and  glory  and  honour 
 and  power  unto  the  Lord  our  God."  The 
 Hebrews  but  rarely  made  use  of  concrete 
 terms  as  they  are  called;  but  often  of 
 abstracted.  Thus,  instead  of  saying,  GOD 
 saves  men,  and  protects  them,  they  say, 
 that  God  is  their  salvation.  Thus  the 
 word  of  salvation,  the  joy  of  salvation,  the 
 rock  of  salvation,  the  shield  of  salvation, 
 the  horn  of  salvation,  &c.,  is  as  much  as 
 to  say.  The  word  that  declares  deliverance ; 
 the  joys  that  attend  the  escaping  a  great 
 danger  ;  a  rock  where  any  one  takes  refuge, 
 and  where  he  may  be  in  safety  from  his 
 enemy ;  a  buckler,  that  secures  him  from 
 the  arm  of  the  enemy  ;  a  horn  or  ray  of 
 light,  of  happiness  and  salvation,  &c. — 
 Cruden's  Concord. 
 
 SAMARITANS.  These  were  a  mixed 
 people,  inhabiting  the  parts  of  Palestine 
 between  Galilee  and  Judea.  They  were 
 in  part  descended  from  the  remnant  of  the 
 ten  tribes,  most  of  whom  had  been  carried 
 away  by  the  Assyrians,  blended  v;ith  other 
 distant  nations,  and  settled  in  the  same 
 district  with  their  conquerors.  These 
 different  people,  Babylonians,  Cutheans, 
 and  other  idolaters,  for  some  time  retained 
 their  respective  forms  of  worship ;  but 
 finding  the  country  ravaged  by  wild  beasts, 
 they  thought  to  propitiate  the  god  of  the 
 country  by  restoring  his  worship;  and 
 one  of  the  priests,  whom  they  had  carried 
 away  from  Samaria,  came  and "  dwelt  at 
 Bethel,  and  taught  them  how  they  should 
 fear  the  Lord."  (2  Kings  xvii.  28.) 
 After  this,  they  were  delivered  from  the 
 plague  of  Avild  beasts,  and  embraced  the 
 law  of  INIoses,  wdth  which  they  mixed  a 
 great  part  of  their  ancient  idolatry.  Upon 
 the  return  of  the  Jews  from  the  Baby- 
 lonish captivity,  it  api)€ars  that  they  had 
 entirely  quitted  the  worship  of  their  idols, 
 
SAMUEL,  THE  BOOKS  OF. 
 
 But  though  tliev  ^vcre  united  in  religion, 
 they  wtre  not  so  in  atiection,  with  the  Jews ; 
 for  they  employed  various  calunniies  and 
 stratagems  to  hinder  their  rehuilding  the 
 temple  at  Jerusalem  ;  and  when  they  could 
 not  j)revail;  they  erected  a  temple  on 
 Mount  Gcrizim,  in  opposition  to  that  of 
 Jerusalem.  (I'lzra  iv.,  v.,  vi.)  The  Sama- 
 ritans at  present  are  few  in  number,  hut 
 pretend  to  great  strictness  in  their  ob- 
 servation of  the  law  of  Moses.  They  are 
 said  to  he  scattered,  some  at  Damascus, 
 some  at  Gaza,  and  some  at  Grand  Cairo 
 in  ]'lgv])t. 
 
 SAMUEL,  THE  BOOKS  OF.  Two 
 canonical  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  so 
 called,  because  they  are  usually  ascribed 
 to  the  proi)het  Samuel. 
 
 These  two  books  are  styled  jRcuina  in 
 the  Greek  version,  and  in  the  vulgar 
 Latin,  Kitujs  ;  but  in  the  Hebrew  they 
 are  styled  the  Books  of  Samuel.  But, 
 since  the  first  twenty-four  chapters  con- 
 tain all  that  relates  to  the  history  of 
 Samuel,  and  that  the  latter  part  of  the 
 First  Book,  and  all  the  Second,  include  the 
 relation  of  events  that  happened  after  the 
 death  of  that  prophet,  it  has  been  supposed 
 that  Samuel  was  author  only  of  the  first 
 twenty-four  cha])ters,  and  that  the  pro- 
 phets Gad  and  Nathan  finished  the  work. 
 This  is  the  opinion  of  the  Talmudists, 
 founded  upon  the  following  text  of  the 
 Chronicles  :  "  Now  the  acts  of  David,  first 
 and  last,  behold  they  are  written  in  the 
 book  of  Samuel  the  seer,  and  in  the  book 
 of  Nathan  the  prophet,  and  in  the  book 
 of  Gad  the  seer." 
 
 The  Books  of  Samuel  and  the  Books  of 
 Kings  are  a  continued  history  of  the 
 reigns  of  the  kings  of  Israel  and  Judah ; 
 for  which  reason,  the  Books  of  Samuel  are 
 likewise  styled  the  First  and  Second  Books 
 of  Kings  ;  and  the  tAvo  Books  of  Kings 
 are  also  called  the  Third  and  Fourth  Books 
 of  Kings. 
 
 The  First  Book  of  Samuel,  otherwise 
 called  the  First  Book  of  Kings,  comjire- 
 hends  the  transactions  under  the  govern- 
 ment of  Eli  and  Samuel,  and  under  Saul 
 the  first  king;  as  also  the  acts  of  David 
 whilst  he  lived  under  Saul ;  and  is  suji- 
 posed  to  include  the  space  of  about  101 
 years.  Here  we  read,  how  the  rej)ublic  of 
 Israel  was  changed  into  a  monarchy,  and 
 what  great  evils  they  suffered  in  conse- 
 quence thereof.  We  have  here  an  ac- 
 count of  the  deposition  of  their  first  king, 
 Saul,  on  account  of  his  profane  sacrificing, 
 and  his  wilful  disobedience  to  the  com- 
 mands of  Gou,  in  relation  to  the  destruc- 
 tion of  the  Amalekites ;  his  treachery  to 
 
 SANCTIFIC.\TION. 
 
 G81 
 
 David,  and  cruel  jmrsuits  of  him;  and, 
 astly,  the  tragical  death  of  liinisidf,  and 
 his  son  Jonathan,  on  Mount  (;ilbon. 
 
 The  Second  liook  of  Samuel,  otherwise 
 called  the  Second  liook  of  Kings,  contains 
 the  iiistory  of  about  forty  years,  and  iit 
 wholly  spent  in  relating  the'  transactions 
 ()f  King  J)avi(rs  reign;  the  military  cx- 
 l)l()its  of  that  prince,  and  his  administra- 
 tion both  of  the  Church  and  of  the  State. 
 M'ith  these  are  mixed  the  great  failings 
 and  miscarriages  of  David,  and,  in  con- 
 sequence  thereof,  the  many  distresse.H  he 
 met  with,  and  the  various  judL^ment.s  and 
 jilagues  infiicted  upon  him  and  his  people 
 by  God. 
 
 '  SANCTE  BELL.  A  small  bell  which 
 was  rung  when  the  "  Sauc/us,  .Sanrtus, 
 Sanctus  Ihtminus,  Ihus  Sahnoth  "  Mas  said, 
 to  j)repare  the  people  for  the  elevation  of 
 the  host. 
 
 Mr.  Todd,  in  his  additions  to  Johnson's 
 Dictionary,  quotes  from  Warlon's  Histor)' 
 of  Kiddington,  as  follows  :  "It  was  usu- 
 ally placed  where  it  might  l)e  heard  far- 
 thest, in  a  lantern  at  the  springing  of  the 
 steeple,  or  in  a  turret  at  tlie  angle  of  the 
 tower ;  and  sometimes,  for  the  conveni- 
 ence of  its  being  more  readily  and  exactly 
 rung,  within  a  pediment, or  arcade,  between 
 the  church  and  the  chancel  ;  the  rope,  in 
 this  situation,  falling  down  into  the  choir, 
 not  far  from  the  altar."  Thus  in  AN'alton's 
 Life  of  George  Herbert :  "  And  some  of  the 
 meaner  sort  of  his  parish  did  so  love  and 
 reverence  Mr.  Herbert,  that  they  would 
 let  their  plough  rest  wlien  Mr.  llerbcrt's 
 Saints'  hell  rung  to  prayers,  that  they 
 might  also  ofier  their  devotions  to  God 
 with  him  ;  and  would  then  return  back  to 
 their  jdough."  The  small  bell  at  Canter- 
 bury rung  before  service,  is  hung  high 
 in  the  central  tower,  and  seems  to  answer 
 to  the  ancient  Saints' bell.  Mr.  Todd  adds, 
 that  **  the  little  bell,  which  now  rings  im- 
 mediately before  the  service  begins,  is 
 corruptly  called,  in  many  j)laccs,  HiiucibeU^ 
 or  'S<unicc1)ilty 
 
 SANCTHTCATION.  (Sec  Jusfj/ica- 
 tinn.)  The  j)rogressive  conformity  of  the 
 heart  and  life  to  the  will  of  G«>l»,  or  our 
 inherent  righteousness,  as  distinguished 
 from  the  righteousness  of  justification.  To 
 say  that  we  detract  from  the  neccHhity  of 
 iniierent  righteousness,  or  what  is  cuUchI 
 the  righteousness  of  sanctification,  because 
 we  exclude  it  from  the  olHce  of  justifica- 
 tion, and  thus  demolish  the  whole  fabric  of 
 human  merit,  is  about  as  reasonable  as  to 
 say,  that  because  we  receive  food  by  the 
 mouth,  and  not  by  the  ear  or  the  eye,  the 
 eye  and  the  car  are  unnecessary  members 
 
682 
 
 SANCTIFICATION. 
 
 in  the  human  frame,  and  that  no  other  i 
 bodily  functions  are  requisite  to  the  life  of  I 
 man.  The  man  "will  die  if,  by  tetanus,  he 
 is  unable  to  open  his  mouth  ;  but  he  will 
 also  die  if,  havin<^  received  food  into  his 
 mouth,  he  is  unable  to  digest  it ;  and  yet 
 the  digestion  of  food,  and  its  mastication, 
 are  processes  entirely  distinct,  while  the 
 food  itself  is  a  gift  from  without.  It  is 
 one  thing  to  assert  that  a  Christian  must 
 have  inherent  righteousness,  and  another 
 to  assert  that  his  inherent  righteousness  is 
 the  ground  of  his  acceptance  with  a  right- 
 eous God. 
 
 We  may  refer  to  Hooker  for  a  clear 
 exposition  of  the  case  :  "  Concerning  the 
 righteousness  of  sanctification,  we  deny  it 
 not  to  be  inherent ;  Ave  grant  that,  unless 
 we  work,  we  have  it  not ;  only  we  dis- 
 tinguish it  as  a  thing  different  in  nature 
 from  the  righteousness  of  justification  : 
 we  are  righteous  the  one  way,  by  the  faith 
 of  Abraham ;  the  other  way,  except  we 
 do  the  works  of  Abraham,  we  are  ?iot  right- 
 eous. Of  the  one,  St.  Paul,  '  To  him 
 that  worketh  not,  but  believeth,  faith  is 
 counted  for  righteousness.'  Of  the  other, 
 St.  John,  *  He  is  righteous  which  worketh 
 righteousness.'  Of  the  one,  St.  Paul  doth 
 prove  by  Abraham's  example,  that  we  have 
 it  of  faith  without  works.  Of  the  other, 
 St.  James,  by  Abraham's  example,  that  by 
 works  we  have  it,  and  not  only  by  faith. 
 
 "  St.  Paul  doth  plainly  sever  these  two 
 parts  of  Christian  righteousness  one  from 
 the  other.  For  in  the  sixth  to  the  Romans 
 thus  he  writeth  :  Being  freed  from  sin,  a7id 
 made  servants  to  God,  ye  have  your  fruit  in 
 holiness,  and  the  end  everlastijig  life. 
 
 "  '  Ye  are  made  free  from  sin,  and  made 
 servants  unto  God  ; '  this  is  the  righteous- 
 ness of  justification. 
 
 "  *  Ye  have  your  fruit  in  holiness  ; '  this 
 is  the  righteousness  of  sanctification. 
 
 "  By  the  one  w^e  are  interested  in  the 
 right  of  inheriting  ;  by  the  other  we  are 
 brought  to  the  actual  possession  of  eternal 
 bliss ;  and  so  the  end  of  both  is  everlasting 
 life." 
 
 In  another  passage  of  the  same  discourse 
 Hooker  says :  '*It  is  a  childish  cavil  where- 
 with, in  the  matter  of  justification,  our  ad- 
 versaries do  so  greatly  please  themselves, 
 exclaiming,  that  we  tread  all  Christian 
 virtues  under  our  feet,  and  require  nothing 
 in  Christians  but  faith  ;  because  we  teach 
 that  faith  alone  justifieth  :  whereas,  by  this 
 speech,  we  never  meant  to  exclude  either 
 hope  or  charity  from  being  always  joined 
 as  inseparable  mates  with  faith  in  the  man 
 that  is  justified;  or  works  from  being 
 added  as  necessary  duties,  requii-ed  at  the 
 
 hands  of  every  justified  man :  but  to  show 
 that  faith  is  the  only  hand  which  putteth 
 on  Christ  unto  justification  ;  and  Chiiist 
 the  only  garment,  which,  being  so  put  on, 
 covereth  the  shame  of  our  defiled  natures, 
 liideth  the  imperfection  of  our  works,  pre- 
 serveth  us  blameless  in  the  sight  of  God, 
 before  whom  otherwise  the  weakness  of 
 our  faith  were  cause  sufficient  to  make 
 us  culpable,  yea,  to  shut  us  from  the  king- 
 dom of  heaven,  W'here  nothing  that  is  not 
 absolute  can  enter." 
 
 "  It  is  not  the  question,"  says  Bishop 
 Andre wes,  *'  whether  we  have  an  inherent 
 righteousness  or  no,  or  whether  God  will 
 accept  or  reward  it;  but  whether  that 
 must  be  our  righteousness  coram  rege 
 justo  judicium  faciente,  which  is  a  point 
 very  material,  and  by  no  means  to  be  for- 
 gotten ;  for,  Avithout  this,  if  we  compare 
 ourselves  with  ourselves,  what  heretofore 
 we  have  been,  or  if  we  compare  ourselves 
 with  others,  as  did  the  Pharisees,  we  may 
 take  a  fancy,  perhaps,  and  have  some  good 
 conceit  of  our  inherent  righteousness.  Yea, 
 if  we  be  to  deal  in  schools  by  argument  or 
 disputation,  Ave  may,  peradventure,  argue 
 for  it,  and  make  some  shoAV  in  the  matter. 
 But  let  us  once  be  brought  and  arraigned 
 coram  rege  justo  sedente  in  solio,  let  us 
 set  ourselves  there,  Ave  shall  then  see  that 
 all  our  former  conceit  shall  vanish  straight, 
 and  righteousness  in  that  sense  (that  is, 
 an  inherent  righteousness)  Avill  not  abide 
 the  trial." 
 
 "  The  Homilies  of  our  Church,"  as  I3r. 
 Waterland,  adoptmg  their  doctrine,  ob- 
 serves, *'  describe  and  limit  the  doctrine 
 thus :  '  Faith  doth  not  shut  out  repentance, 
 hope,  love,  dread,  and  the  fear  of  God,  to 
 be  joined  Avith  faith  in  every  man  that  is 
 justified :  but  it  sliutteth  them  out  from 
 the  office  of  justifying;'  that  is  to  say, 
 from  the  office  of  accepting  or  receiving  it ; 
 for  as  to  the  office  of  justifying  in  the 
 active  sense,  that  belongs  to  God  only,  as 
 the  same  homily  elseAvhere  declares.  The 
 doctrine  is  there  further  explained  thus : 
 '  Because  faith  doth  directly  send  us  to 
 Christ  for  remission  of  our  sins,  and  that, 
 by  faith  given  us  of  God,  Ave  embrace  the 
 promise  of  God's  mercy,  and  of  the  remis- 
 sion of  our  sins,  (Avhich  thing  none  other 
 of  our  virtues  or  Avorks  properly  doth,) 
 therefore  the  Scripture  useth  to  say,  that 
 faith  Avithout  works  doth  justify.'" 
 
 It  is  observed  by  Faber  "  that,  in  the 
 progress  of  a  Christian  man  from  his  ori- 
 ginal justification  to  his  final  salvation, 
 these  several  states  or  conditions  of  right- 
 eousness successively  appertain  to  him. 
 
 "  First  in  order  comes  the  forensic  right- 
 
SANCTIFY. 
 
 eousness  of  justification  ;  a  righteousness 
 reputativoly  liis,  through  faith,  and  on 
 account  of  the  perfect  meritoriousness  of 
 Christ. 
 
 "  Next  in  order  comes  the  inherent 
 righteousness  of  sanctiiication ;  a  righteous- 
 ness infused  into  him  by  the  lloLY  SPIKIT 
 after  he  has  ht*tn  justilied. 
 
 **  And  last  in  order  comes  the  complete 
 righteousness  of  glorification  ;  a  righteous- 
 ness acquired  by  him,  Avhen  this  corruptible 
 puts  on  incorruption,  and  this  mortal  puts 
 on  immortality. 
 
 "The  first  righteousness, being  the  right- 
 eousness of  Christ,  is  perfect,  but  not  in- 
 herent. 
 
 "  The  second  righteousness,  being  the 
 subsequently  infused  righteousness  of  a 
 justified  Christian  man,  is  inherent,  but 
 not  perfect. 
 
 "  The  third  righteousness,  being  the  ac- 
 quired righteousness  of  a  departed  Chris- 
 tian man  in  his  glorified  state  hereafter,  is 
 both  perfect  and  inherent." 
 
 SANCTIFY.  (See  Sandif  cation.)  To 
 make  holy,  to  treat  as  holy,  or  to  set  apart 
 for  holy  seryices.  (Exod.  xix.  10,  22,  23; 
 XXX.  29;  Deut.  y.  13;  Isa.  yiii.  13  ;  xxix. 
 23  ;  Eph.  y.  26  ;  1  Thess.  y.  23.) 
 
 SANCTUARY.  The  holy  of  holies 
 (Ley.  iy.  6)  ;  the  temple  at  large  (2  Chron, 
 XX.  8) ;  the  one  place  of  national  -worship 
 for  the  Israelites  (Deut.  xii.  5) ;  also  the 
 place  ■v\ithin  the  Septurn,  or  rails,  where 
 the  altar  stands  in  the  Christian  church. 
 
 By  sanctuary  is  also  meant  the  priyilege 
 of  criminals  Avho  haye  fied  to  certain  sacred 
 places,  to  haye  their  freedom  from  arrest 
 and  punishment,  except  ecclesiastical  disci- 
 pline, so  long  as  they  remain  therein.  This 
 custom  of  sanctuary,  -vyhich  is  no^v  almost 
 eyery^yherc  done  away  with,  for  the  abuse 
 to  Ayiiich  it  gaye  rise,  ^yas  deriyed  from  the 
 Leyitical  laAV  of  refuge,  by  Avhich,  at  God's 
 express  appointment,  six  cities  were  made 
 cities  of  refuge  for  the  inyoluntary  man- 
 slayer  :  and  the  altar  of  burnt-offerings  was 
 also  a  place  of  refuge  for  persons  who  had 
 undesignedly  committed  smaller  ofienccs. 
 (Deut.  xix.  11,  12;  Joshua  xx.)  In  this 
 Diyinc  law  the  object  seems  to  haye  been 
 to  mark  God's  hatred  of  sin,  ])y  showing 
 that  eyen  accidental  and  uni)remcditatcd 
 ofiences  were  forgiyen  only  by  an  especial 
 exercise  of  his  mercy.  The  corrupt  custom 
 of  sanctuary  in  the  middle  ages  was  ex-  ' 
 tended  to  the  protection  of  those  who 
 knowingly  and  willingly  committed  the 
 most  heinous  offences.     (See  Asi/lum.) 
 
 SANCTUS.     (See  Tcrsanctus.) 
 
 SANDl'.MANIANS,  or  GLASSITES. 
 A  dissenting  community,   which   had  its 
 
 SANIIKDRIM. 
 
 G83 
 
 origni  m  the  preaching  and  deposition  of 
 one  John  Glas,  jn-esbytirian  minister  of 
 the  parish  of  Tealing,'  near  Dundee,  in 
 1730.  His  pui)il,  Kobert  Sandeman, 
 brought  his  doctrine  into  England,  and 
 also  into  America,  ami  from  him  the  sect 
 deriyes  its  name,  though  in  Scotland  it  is 
 still  designated  after  it.s  lirst  founder.  The 
 Sandemanians  are  not  a  numerous  sect. 
 
 The  following  is  the  account  of  the 
 Sandemanians  in  the  Kegistrar-general's 
 Keturn. 
 
 "The  Sandemanians— sometimes  called 
 Glassites,  both  aj)pellations  being  derived 
 from  the  names  of  the  founders  of  the  sect 
 — first  came  into  notice  in  Scotland  about 
 1728  or  1720  ;  when  Mr.  Glass,  a  minister 
 of  the  Scottish  National  Church,  avowed 
 opinions  on  Church  govern nunt  aj)i)roach- 
 ing  very  nearly  those  maintained  by  Con- 
 gregationalists.  Kobert  Sandenuin  ap- 
 l)eared  in  advocacy  of  the  same  opinions 
 about  17o7,  and  formed  a  congi-egation  in 
 London  in  17G2. 
 
 "  The  prominent  doctrine  of  the  Sande- 
 manians, on  Avhich  they  difier  from  most 
 other  Churches,  relates  to  the  nature  of 
 justifying  faith,  which  Sandeman  main- 
 tained to  be  'no  more  than  a  simple  «A«e;j< 
 to  the  Divine  testimony,  passively  received 
 by  the  understanding.' 
 
 "  Sandemanians,  also,  observe  certain 
 peculiar  })ractices,  suj)posed  by  them  to 
 have  been  })reyalent  amongst  the  primitive 
 Christians,  such  as  weekly  sacraments, 
 love  feasts,  mutual  exhortation,  washing 
 each  other's  feet,  plurality  of  elders,  the 
 use  of  the  lot,  &c. 
 
 "  The  number  of  Sandemanian  congre- 
 gations in  England  rejjorted  by  the  Cen- 
 sus officers  was  six;  the  number  of  sittings 
 (after  an  estimate  for  two  chapels  where 
 the  information  was  not  given)  was  OOG; 
 and  the  number  of  attendants  on  the  Cen- 
 sus Sunday  was  :  Morning/,  -130  ;  Ajlir- 
 iioou,  25(5;   J-Ae)iinf/,  61. 
 
 SANHEDRIM,  or  SENATE.  A  cor- 
 rupted word,  from  the  Greek,  awtcpiov, 
 (See  St.  Mark  xiv.  oo ;  xv.  1  ;  St.  Luke 
 xxii.  66,  where  mention  is  made  of  the 
 ^'i/ncdrion :  St.  John  xi.  47;  Acta  iv. 
 lo.)  The  origin  of  the  Sanheilrim  is  not 
 without  ol)scurity  ;  for  the  council  of  the 
 seventy  elders  established  by  Moses  was 
 not  what  the  Hebrews  underhtood  by  the 
 name  of  Sajdiedrim.  Nor  can  we  |KTceive 
 this  establishnunt  under  Joshua,  the 
 Judges,  or  the  Kings.  We  find  nothing  of  it 
 after  the  captivity  till  the  time  of  Judas 
 Maccabeus.  The  tribunals  established  by 
 Gabinius  were  very  different  from  the  San- 
 hedrim.     This  wa.s  the  only  court  of  its 
 
684 
 
 SARUM. 
 
 SATISFACTION. 
 
 kind,  and  fixed  at  Jerusalem;  whereas, 
 Gabinius  established  five  tribunals  at  five 
 different  cities,  -which  tribunals  do  not  ap- 
 pear to  have  been  subordinate  one  to  an- 
 other. Lastly,  it  is  certain  that  this  senate 
 was  in  being  in  time  of  Jesus  Christ. 
 (Vide  supra.)  But  the  Jews  inform  us 
 themselves,  that  they  then  had  not  the 
 power  of  life  and  death.  (St.  John  xviii. 
 3l.)—CaImef,  cd.  'Ltylor.  The  chief  coun- 
 cil of  the  Jewish  nation,  composed  of  seventy 
 or  seventy-two  judges,  and  said  to  have 
 taken  its  rise  from  the  seventy  elders  ap- 
 pointed to  assist  Moses. 
 
 SAllUM.     (See  Use.) 
 
 SATxVX.  A  Hebrew  word,  \^v,  sig- 
 nifying an  adversary,  an  enemy,  an  ac- 
 cuser. It  is  often  translated  adversary  in 
 our  translation  of  the  Bible,  as  also  in  the 
 Septuagint  and  Vulgate.  For  example, 
 (1  Sam.  xxix.  4,)  the  princes  of  the  Philis- 
 tines say  to  Achish,  "  Send  back  David,  lest 
 in  the  battle  he  be  an  adversary  to  us,  and 
 turn  his  arm  against  us."  The  Lord  stirred 
 up  adversaries  to  Solomon  in  the  persons 
 of  Hadad  and  Rezon.  (1  Kings  xi.  14, 
 23,  &c.)  Sometimes  Satan  is  put  for  the 
 Devil ;  for  example,  Satan  presented  him- 
 self among  the  sons  of  God,  and  the  Lord 
 said  unto  Satan,  "  AMience  comest  thou  ?  " 
 (Job  i.  6,  7,  &c.)  And  in  Psalm  cix.  6, 
 it  is  said,  "Let  Satan  stand  at  his  right 
 hand;"  and  in  Zech.  iii.  1,  2,  it  is  said, 
 "  Satan  standing  at  his  right  hand ;  and 
 the  Lord  said  unto  Satan,  '  The  Lord  re- 
 buke thee,  O  Satan.'"  Li  the  books  of  the 
 New  Testament,  the  word  Satan  is  taken 
 both  in  the  sense  of  an  adversary,  and  also 
 for  the  Devil ;  for  example,  Christ  says 
 to  Peter,  (Matt.  xvi.  23,)  "  Get  thee  behind 
 me,  Satan,  thou  art  an  offence  unto  me;" 
 that  is.  Begone,  O  mine  adversary,  you 
 that  withstand  what  I  most  desire,  and 
 what  I  came  into  the  world  about.  But 
 most  commonly  Satan  is  taken  for  the 
 Devil.  (Matt.  xii.  26  ;  Mark  iii.  23.)  "  If 
 Satan  cast  out  Satan,  he  is  divided  against 
 himself."  And  in  the  lievelation,  (xx.  2,) 
 *'  He  laid  hold  on  the  dragon,  that  old  ser- 
 pent, Avhich  is  the  Devil  and  Satan,  and 
 bound  him  a  thousand  years."  (See  the 
 article  Devil.) 
 
 SATAN,  KIXGD0:M  OF.  In  the  Gos- 
 pel, (Matt.  xii.  26 ;  Mark  iii.  23,  and  Luke 
 xi.  18,)  our  blessed  Lord  represents  Satan 
 to  us  as  a  monarch,  who  has  other  subor- 
 dinate devils  obedient  to  him.  Beelzebub 
 is,  as  it  were,  then'  king.  "  If  Beelzebub," 
 says  he,  "  drives  out  devils,  his  kingdom  is 
 divided  against  itself;  he  labours  for  his 
 own  ruin  ;  which  is  by  no  means  credible  ; 
 it  is  therefore  false  that  I  drive  out  devils 
 
 in  the  name  of  Beelzebub."  St,  Paul  ac- 
 knowledges in  the  Acts,  (xxvi.  18,)  that 
 all  those  which  are  not  in  the  religion  of 
 Jesus  Christ,  are  under  the  empire  and 
 power  of  Satan.  St.  John  (Rev.  xx.  7) 
 says,  that,  after  a  thousand  years,  Satan 
 should  be  unbound,  should  come  forth 
 from  hell,  and  subdue  the  nations. 
 
 To  be  delivered  up  to  Satan  is  to  be 
 excommunicated,  and  surrendered  to  the 
 Devil  for  a  season,  who  visibly  possessed 
 this  sort  of  people,  that  had  deserved  this 
 punishment  for  their  crimes  or  errors.  St. 
 Paul  delivered  up  to  Satan  Hymeneus  and 
 Alexander,  (1  Tim.  i.  20,)  that  they  might 
 not  learn  to  blaspheme.  He  also  surren- 
 dered up  to  him  the  incestuous  person  of 
 Corinth,  (1  Cor.  v.  5,)  "  For  the  destruction 
 of  the  fiesh,  that  the  spirit  may  be  saved 
 in  the  day  of  the  Lord  Jesus." 
 
 When  Christ  sent  forth  his  disciples  to 
 preach  in  the  cities  and  villages  of  Judea, 
 they  returned  back  with  great  joy,  and  told 
 him,  saying,  "  Lord,  even  the  devils  are 
 subject  to  us  through  thy  name."  (Luke 
 X.  17,  18.)  Jesus  tells  them,  "  I  beheld 
 Satan  as  lightning  fall  from  heaven ; " 
 where  he  seems  to  allude  to  that  passage 
 of  Isaiah,  (xiv.  12,)  "How  art  thou  fallen 
 from  heaven,  O  Lvicifer,  son  of  the  morn- 
 ing;" and  by  which  he  insinuates  that 
 the  kingdom  of  the  Devil  was  coming  to  a 
 period  ;  that  Satan  should  soon  lose  his 
 power  and  dominion  in  the  world,  by  the 
 preaching  and  miracles  of  the  apostles ; 
 and  in  Luke  xxii.  31,  he  says,  "  Simon, 
 Simon,  behold,  Satan  hath  desired  to  have 
 you,  that  he  may  sift  you  as  wheat,  but  I 
 have  prayed  for  thee,  that  thy  faith  fail 
 not:"  showing  thereby  what  vain  efforts 
 the  Devil  would  make  to  destroy  the  infant 
 Church. 
 
 SATISFACTION.  (See  Atonement,  Co- 
 venant of  Redemption,  Jesus,  Projntiation.) 
 AVhatever  that  is,  which  being  done  or  suf- 
 fered by  an  offending  creature  himself,  or 
 by  another  person  for  him,  shall  secure 
 the  favour  of  the  Divine  government,  in 
 bestowing  upon  the  off'ender  pardon  and 
 happiness,  may  be  properly  called  a  satis- 
 faction or  atonement  made  to  God  for  him. 
 In  saying  this,  it  is  not  intended  to  assert 
 that  it  is  in  the  power  of  any  creature  to 
 satisfy  for  his  own  sins,  for  this  is  impos- 
 sible ;  but  only  to  show  what  we  mean 
 when  we  speak  of  his  doing  it. 
 
 Such  a  sense  of  the  Avord  satisfaction, 
 though  not  in  strict  propriety  of  speech 
 amounting  to  the  payment  of  a  debt,  is 
 agreeable  to  the  use  of  the  word  in  the 
 Roman  law  ;  w^here  it  signifies  to  contetit  a 
 jyerson  aygrieved,  and  is  put  for  some  valu- 
 
SATISFACTION. 
 
 SATISFACTION,  UOMISII.       GSo 
 
 aLle  consideration,  substituted  instead  of 
 ■what  is  a  proper  payment,  and  consistent 
 with  a  remission  of  that  debt  or  ofi'ence  for 
 which  such  supposed  satisfaction  is  made  : 
 which  is  a  circumstance  to  be  carefully  ob- 
 served, in  order  to  vindicate  the  doctrine 
 we  are  about  to  establish,  and  to  maintain 
 the  consistency  between  different  pai'ts  of 
 the  Christian  scheme. 
 
 Christ  has  made  satisfaction  for  the 
 sins  of  all  those  who  repent  of  their  sins, 
 and  return  to  God  in  the  way  of  sincere, 
 though  imperfect,  obedience. 
 
 1.  Although  Christ  was  innocent,  never- 
 theless he  endured  very  grievous  suffer- 
 ings, both  in  body  and  mind  (Tsa.  liii.  3  ; 
 Matt.  xxvi.  38) ;  and  he  did  this  sponta- 
 neously.    (Ileb.  X.  7,  9.) 
 
 2.  It  is  expressly  asserted  in  Scripture, 
 that  these  sufierings  were  brought  upon 
 Christ y*or  the  sake  o/"  sinful  men,  in  ichose 
 stead  he  is  also  said  to  have  suffered.  (Isa. 
 liii.  5,  6,  10;  Matt.  xx.  28;  Horn.  iii.  25; 
 V.  6,  8 ;  2  Cor.  v.  21  ;  Gal.  iii.  13 ;  Eph.  v. 
 2;  Heb.  vii.  27;  ix.  26;  x.  12;  1  Pet.  ii. 
 24 ;  iii.  18.) 
 
 3.  The  offers  of  pardon  and  eternal  sal- 
 vation are  made  in  Scripture  to  those  that 
 repent  and  return  to  God,  for  the  sake  of 
 what  Christ  has  done  and  suffered :  in 
 whom  they  are  therefore  declared  to  be  ac- 
 cepted by  God,  and  to  ivliuni  they  are  here- 
 upon taught  to  ascribe  the  glory  of  their 
 salvation.  (John  iii.  14 — 17  ;  Acts  x.  35, 
 36,  43;  ii.  38;  iii.  18,  19;  Kom.  iv.  25; 
 Col.  i.  20—22 ;  2  Cor.  v.  18,  20 ;  Eph.  i. 
 5,  7  ;  Heb.  ii.  3  ;  ix.  14  ;  x.  4,  10,  14  ;  Kev. 
 i.  5,  6;  V.  9,  10;  vii.  13,  14.) 
 
 4.  It  is  evident  that,  according  to  the 
 gospel  institution,  pardon  and  life  were  to 
 be  offered  to  all  to  whom  the  preaching  of 
 the  gospel  came,  without  any  exception. 
 (Mark  xvi.  15,  16;  Acts  xiii.  38,  39;  1 
 John  ii.  1,  2  ;  Isa.  liii.  6  ;  John  i.  29.) 
 
 5.  It  is  plain,  from  the  whole  tenor  of 
 the  epistolary  part  of  the  New  Testament, 
 as  well  as  from  some  particular  ])assages 
 of  it,  that  there  was  a  remainder  of  imper- 
 fection, generally  at  least,  to  be  found  even 
 in  the  best  Christians ;  notwithstanding 
 which  they  are  encouraged  to  rejoice  in 
 the  hope  of  salvation  by  Christ.  (Phil, 
 iii.  13;  Gal.  v.  17;  James  iii.  2;  1  John 
 i.  8,  10;  ii.  1,  2.) 
 
 6.  Whereas,  so  far  as  we  can  judge,  the 
 remission  of  sin,  without  any  satisfaction 
 at  all,  might  have  laid  a  foundation  for 
 men's  thinking  lightly  of  the  law  of  God, 
 it  is  certain  that,  by  the  obedience  and 
 sufferings  of  Christ,  a  vei7  great  honour 
 is  done  to  it;  and  mercy  communicated  to 
 us  as  the  purchase  of  liis  blood,  comes  in 
 
 BO  awful  as  well  as  so  endearing  a  maimer, 
 as  may  have  the  best  tendency  to  engage 
 those  who  embrace  the  gospel  to  a  life  of 
 holy  obedience. 
 
 SATISFACTION,  KOMISII.  This 
 lies  at  the  bottom  of  much  of  the  Komish 
 heresy.  It  directly  opposes  the  doctrine 
 of  justification  by  faitii  only,  and  is  closely 
 connected  with  the  Komis'ii  notion  of  the 
 merits  of  good  works.  The  following  is 
 the  eighth  chaj)ter  of  the  Council  of  Trent 
 upon  the  subject. 
 
 "  Lastly,  as  concerns  satisfaction,  which 
 of  all  the  narts  of  repentance,  as  it  has 
 been  at  all  times  recommended  by  our 
 fathers  to  the  Christian  people,  so  now,  in 
 our  time,  is  chieily  impugned,  uiuler  the 
 highest  ])retence  of  piety,  by  those  wlio 
 teach  a  form  of  godliness,  but  have  denied 
 the  power  thereof ;  the  holy  synod  declares 
 that  it  is  altogether  false,  and  contrary  to 
 the  word  of  GoD,  to  say  that  sin  is  never 
 remitted  by  the  Lord,  but  the  entire 
 punishment  is  also  pardoned.  For,  besides 
 l)ivine  tradition,  clear  and  illustrious  ex- 
 am])lcs  are  found  in  the  holy  books,  l)y 
 which  this  error  is  most  plainly  refuted. 
 In  truth,  even  the  })rinciple  of  Divine 
 justice  seems  to  demand  that  they  who 
 have  sinned  through  ignorance  before  bap- 
 tism should  be  received  by  him  into  grace, 
 after  a  difiercnt  manner  from  those  who, 
 having  been  once  freed  from  the  bondage 
 of  sin  and  Satan,  and  having  received  the 
 gift  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  have  not  been 
 afraid  knowingly  to  violate  the  temple  of 
 God,  and  to  grieve  the  Holy  Spirit  :  and 
 it  becometh  the  Divine  rnercy  that  our  sins 
 should  not  be  so  remitted  without  any 
 satisfaction,  lest  we  take  occasion  to  think 
 lightly  of  our  sins,  and  so,  injuring  and 
 insulting  the  IIoLY  SPIRIT,  we  fall  into 
 worse,  treasuring  up  unto  ourselves  wrath 
 against  the  day  of  wrath.  For,  beyond  all 
 doubt,  these  punishments  of  satisfaction 
 recall  the  i)enitents  very  much  from  sin, 
 and  restrain  them,  as  it  were,  with  a  bit, 
 and  make  them  more  cautious  and  watch- 
 ful for  the  future.  They  cure  also  the 
 remains  of  sins,  and  by  actions  of  oj)j)ositc 
 virtues,  destroy  vicious  habits  accpiircd 
 by  evil  living.  Nor,  in  truth,  wa.s  there 
 ever  any  way  considered  in  the  Church 
 more  sure  for  the  removal  of  the  impend- 
 ing  punishment  of  GoD,  liian  that  men, 
 with  real  grief  of  mind,  should  accustom 
 themselves  to  these  works  of  rei)cntancc. 
 To  this  mav  be  added,  that  while  we  suffer 
 ])V  making  satisfaction  for  sins,  we  arc 
 m'ade  like  unto  CliRlsT  Ji-srs,  who  made 
 satisfaction  for  our  sins,  from  whom  all 
 our   sufficiency   is    derived  ;    and   having 
 
G36       SATISFACTION,  ROMISH. 
 
 SAVOY  CONFERENCE. 
 
 hence,  also,  a  most  sure  covenant,  that,  if 
 Ave  suffer  with  him,  we  shall  be  also  glori- 
 fied together.  Nor,  in  truth,  is  this  satis- 
 faction which  we  pay  for  our  sins  in  such 
 sort  ours,  that  it  should  not  be  through 
 Christ  Jesus  ;  for  we  who  of  ourselves 
 can  do  nothing  as  of  ourselves,  can  do  all 
 things  by  the  assistance  of  him  who  com- 
 forteth  us ;  so  that  a  man  hath  not  where- 
 of he  may  boast ;  but  all  our  boasting  is 
 in  Christ,  in  whom  we  live,  in  whom  we 
 merit,  in  whom  we  make  satisfaction  ; 
 doing  worthy  fruits  of  repentance,  which 
 have  their  virtue  from  him,  by  him  are 
 offered  to  the  Father,  and  through  him 
 accepted  of  the  Father.  The  priests  of 
 the  Lord  therefore  ought,  according  to 
 the  suggestions  of  the  Spirit  and  their 
 own  prudence,  to  enjoin  wholesome  and 
 suitable  satisfaction,  proportioned  to  the 
 quality  of  the  crimes,  and  the  means  of 
 the  penitents:  lest,  haply,  they  become 
 partakers  in  other  men's  sins,  if  they  con- 
 nive at  sin,  and  deal  too  tenderly  with  the 
 penitents,  enjoining  trifling  works  for  the 
 most  grievous  crimes.  Let  them  have 
 also  before  their  eyes,  that  the  satisfaction 
 which  they  impose  is  not  only  for  a  de- 
 fence of  the  new  life,  and  a  remedy  for 
 infirmity,  but  also  a  revenge  and  punish- 
 ment for  past  sins  :  for  the  ancient  Fathers 
 believe  and  teach  that  the  keys  of  the 
 priests  were  given  not  only  for  loosing  but 
 also  for  binding.  Nor  did  they  therefore 
 think  that  the  sacrament  of  repentance  is 
 the  tribunal  of  anger  and  punishments ; 
 just  as  no  Catholic  has  ever  thought  that, 
 by  our  satisfactions  of  this  kind,  the  force 
 of  the  merit  and  satisfaction  of  our  Lord 
 Jesus  Christ  was  either  obscured  or 
 lessened  in  any  degree  :  which,  while  our 
 innovators  are  unwilling  to  understand, 
 they  teach  that  a  new  life  is  the  best  re- 
 pentance, that  they  may  destroy  altogether 
 the  virtue  and  use  of  satisfaction." 
 
 This,  says  Perceval  in  his  "Romish 
 Schism,"  is  a  remarkable  chapter.  The 
 repeated  expressions  of  reference  to  our 
 blessed  Lord,  "  in  whom  we  live,  in  whom 
 we  merit,  in  whom  we  make  satisfaction 
 when  we  perform  worthy  fruits  of  repent- 
 ance, which  from  them  have  power,  by  him 
 are  offered  to  the  Father,  and  through 
 him  are  accepted  of  the  Father,"  plainly 
 show  how  keenly  alive  the  Triclentine 
 Fathers  were  to  the  danger  of  men  con- 
 sidering their  own  penances  as  irrespective 
 of  oiu-  Lord's  death  and  mediation,  against 
 which  error  they  thus  endeavour  to  guard. 
 But  the  other  error  of  making  GoD,  or 
 God's  ministers  in  his  behalf,  through 
 vengeance  of  past  sins,  and  not  merely  for 
 
 the  correction  of  the  offence,  insist  upon 
 penal  satisfactions  from  those  who,  with 
 true  repentance,  and  with  faith  in  Christ, 
 have  forsaken  their  sins,  as  though  the 
 vicarial  punishment  inflicted  upon  the  Son 
 of  God  were  not  sufficient  to  satisfy  the 
 Divine  vengeance,  is  left,  and  must  needs  be 
 left,  untouched.  But  how  great  injury  this 
 does  to  the  full,  perfect,  and  sufficient 
 sacrifice  of  our  Lord,  and  how  great  in- 
 jury also  to  the  character  of  our  heavenly 
 Father,  there  need  no  arguments  to 
 prove.  The  passages  cited  by  the  pub- 
 lishers of  the  Tridentine  decrees,  (Gen. 
 iii.,  2  Sam.  xii.,  Num.  xii.  and  xx.,)  being 
 all  taken  from  the  old  dispensation,  can- 
 not be  pressed,  because  the  analogy  of 
 God's  dealings  before  and  after  the  suffer- 
 ings of  our  Lord  will  not  altogether  hold : 
 besides,  they  all  relate  to  cases  of  open  sin, 
 in  which,  for  the  edification  of  others,  tem- 
 poral punishment  was  inflicted,  from  which 
 no  argument  whatever  can  be  adduced  in 
 behalf  of  vindictive  penalties  for  secret 
 sins,  which  have  been  repented  of,  con- 
 fessed, and  forsaken,  with  faith  in  Christ. 
 It  Avould  seem  from  certain  expressions, 
 that  they  consider  the  practice  of  the  vir- 
 tues most  opposed  to  the  sins  committed 
 among  the  vindictive  penalties  for  sin.  A 
 strange  and  most  unhappy  light  in  which 
 to  regard  what  the  Scriptures  would  have 
 us  consider  our  highest  privileges  and  our 
 choicest  happiness.  That  the  practice  of 
 the  Church  of  Rome  is  in  accordance  with 
 this  is  placed  beyond  all  doubt,  when  it  is 
 known  that  the  repeating  a  certain  number 
 of  prayers  is  often  enjoined  as  a  penance 
 or  punishment  for  sin. 
 
 SAVIOUR.  (See  Jesus.)  One  who  deli- 
 vers from  danger  and  misery  ;  as  GoD  does 
 by  his  providential  care  (Psalm  cvi.  21  ; 
 Isa.  xlv.  15,  21 ;  Ixiii.  8 ;  Jer.  xiv.  8 ;  1 
 Tim.  iv.  10) ;  and  as  does  our  Lord  Jesus 
 Christ  (Luke  ii.  11 ;  John  iv.  42 ;  Acts  v. 
 31 ;  xiii.  23  ;  Eph.  v.  23  ;  Phil.  iii.  20).  He 
 saves  from  sin  (Matt.  i.  21) ;  from  the 
 thraldom  of  Satan  (Heb.  ii.  14 ;  1  John 
 iii.  8) ;  from  the  world  (Gal.  i.  4) ;  from 
 the  sting  of  death  (1  Cor.  xv.  55,  57) ; 
 from  the  grave  (1  Cor.  xv.  22,  23;  Phil, 
 iii.  20,  21);  from  hell  (1  Thess.  i.  10); 
 and  brings  to  the  enjoyment  of  eternal 
 bliss  in  heaven  (Matt.  xxv.  34  ;  1  Pet.  i. 
 3,  4  ;  2  Pet.  i.  11).  Christ  is  able  to  save 
 to  the  uttermost  (Heb.  vii.  25) ;  and  he  is 
 ivillinq  to  save  all  who  come  to  him  (Matt, 
 xi.  28 ;  John  vi.  37). 
 
 SAVOY  CONFERENCE.  A  confer- 
 ence held  at  the  Savoy,  in  London,  in 
 1661,  between  the  Catholic  divines  of  the 
 Church  of  England  and  the  Presbyterians  ; 
 
SAVOY  CONFERENCE. 
 
 08T 
 
 of  which  the  following  is  a  brief  account ; 
 The  object  was  to  ascertain  what  conces- 
 sions with  respect  to  the  liturgy  could  con- 
 ciliate the  Presbyterians,  or  Low  Church 
 party  of  that  day.  The  re])resentatives  of 
 that  body  demanded  the  discontinuance  of 
 all  responses  and  similar  divisions  in  tlie 
 Litany  ;  an  abolition  of  saints'  days  ;  an  in- 
 troduction of  extemporaneous  ])rayer  ;  a 
 change  as  to  several  of  the  l^pistlcs  and 
 Gospels,  which,  remaining  in  the  old  ver- 
 sion, contained  various  errors ;  the  length- 
 ening of  the  collects  ;  the  rejection  of  the 
 Apocrypha  ;  a  removal  from  the  baptismal 
 office  of  the  word  regenerated,  as  ap])lied 
 to  all  baptized  persons ;  and  a  similar  re- 
 jection of  the  giving  thanks  for  brethren 
 taken  by  God  to  himself,  as  embracing  all 
 alike  who  were  interred,  both  these  pln-ascs 
 being  held  incompatible  with  the  commi- 
 nation.  They  would  have  the  liturgy  be 
 more  particular,  and  the  catechism  more 
 explicit.  They  consented  to  give  uj)  the 
 Assembly's  Catechism  for  the  Thirty-nine 
 Articles  somewhat  altered ;  and  they  M-ound 
 up  their  expectations  with  the  old  re- 
 quest, that  the  cross,  ring,  surplice,  and 
 kneeling  at  the  sacrament  should  be  left 
 indifferent. 
 
 On  the  contrary,  the  Church  commis- 
 sioners maintained  that  bishops  already 
 performed  ordination  with  the  assistance 
 of  presbyters;  that  it  was  expedient  to 
 retain  a  certain  number  of  holy-days  for 
 the  reasonable  recreation  of  the  labouring 
 classes;  that  the  surplice  was  a  decent 
 emblem  of  that  purity  which  became  the 
 ministers  of  God  ;  that  its  high  antiquity 
 was  shown  by  St.  Chrysostom  in  one  of 
 his  homilies ;  and  that  it  received  a  sanc- 
 tion from  several  passages  in  the  ]ievela- 
 tion  (ch.  iii.  4,  5).  They  affii'med  that 
 Christ  himself  kept  the  feast  of  dedica- 
 tion, a  festival  of  human  appointment ; 
 that  the  sign  of  the  cross  had  l)een  always 
 used  "  in  immortaliJavacro ;  "  that  kneeling 
 was  an  ancient  and  decent  usage,  and  that 
 the  high  antiquity  of  liturgies  in  the  Church 
 is  indisputable.  To  the  demand  that  the 
 answers  of  the  people  should  be  confined 
 to  "  Amen,"  they  replied,  that  ])issenters 
 say  more  in  their  psalms  and  hymns ;  if 
 then  in  poetry,  why  not  in  jirose  ?  if  in 
 the  Psalms  of  Hopkins,  why  not  in  those  of 
 David?  and  if  in  a  Psalter,  why  not  in  a 
 Litany?  That  Scripture  contained  all  which 
 is  needful  for  salvation,  they  deemed  no 
 nlore  an  objection  to  the  Apocryjjha  than 
 to  preaching.  To  read  the  Communion 
 Service  at  the  communion  tal)le  was  main- 
 tained to  be  an  ancient  custom,  and  "  let 
 ancient  customs  be  observed,  unless  reason 
 
 demands  their  abolition,"  was  the  golden 
 rule  of  the  Council  of  Nice. 
 
 They  could  see  no  real  advantage  in 
 com])romise  and  concession.  What  had 
 the  former  alternate  preaching  of  regular 
 incuml)ents  and  puritanical  lecturers  ever 
 effected  but  the  sowing  of  jjcrpetual  dis- 
 sensions in  every  jKirish,  the  asjjcrsion  of 
 the  characters  and  defeating  of  the  use- 
 fulness of  regular  jjastors,  and  a  distraction 
 of  the  people's  minds  with  dilierent  winds 
 of  doctrine,  till  they  knew  not  what  to  be- 
 lieve ?  In  truth,  it  was  certain  that  what- 
 ever concessions  might  be  made,  so  long  as 
 the  love  of  novelty,  the  pride  of  argument- 
 ation, the  passion  for  holding  forth,  and 
 the  zeal  for  j)roselytizing,  continued  to  be 
 ])rinciples  in  the  liuman  heart,  no  conces- 
 sion would  ever  abolish  sects  in  religion  ; 
 while  the  Church  of  England,  by  departing 
 from  her  ancient  practice,  would  only  com- 
 promise her  dignity,  and  forfeit  her  title  to 
 due  reverence.  Yet,  since  some  fondly 
 conceived  that  all  parties,  tired  of  dissen- 
 sion and  disturbance,  were  now  eager  to 
 coalesce ;  and  that  to  concede  the  minor 
 points  of  difference  to  the  Presbyterian 
 ministers  would  afford  them  a  ])lausible 
 excuse  for  maintaining  harmony  without 
 violating  their  jjrinciples  ;  they  would  not 
 object  to  a  revision  of  the  liturgy,  they 
 would  even  give  up  the  ceremonies,  if  any 
 shadow  of  objection  could  be  brought  for- 
 ward on  the  score  of  their  sinfulness  or 
 impropriety.  Their  antagonists,  however, 
 refused  to  accept  this  cliallenge,  since  ad- 
 mitting them  to  be  neither  sinfid  nor  im- 
 proper, they  deemed  it  sufhcient  to  show- 
 that  a  positive  obligation  should  not  be 
 imposed  with  respect  to  things  indilfercnt. 
 On  this  question,  which  was  in  fact  the 
 point  at  issue,  as  the  i)arties  could  come 
 to  no  agreement,  the  conference,  like  the 
 former,  terminated  in  mutual  dissatisfac- 
 tion.— See  Cunhccirs  Ilistunj  of  the  Con- 
 ferences. 
 
 The  object  aimed  at  by  those  who  would 
 have  lowered  the  terms  of  conforniitv,  was, 
 in  itself,  inexpressibly  inviting.  It  was 
 their  hoj)e  to  see  the  great  body  of  nro- 
 fessing  Christians  in  JCngland  united  in 
 one  communion  :  so  to  annihilate  that 
 schism,  which,  in  the  judgnit-nl  (»f  both 
 parties,  had  been  the  great  blemish  of  the 
 English  Church,  from  almost  tlie  earliest 
 stage  of  the  Ueformation.  Hut,  allowing 
 ever>-  merit  to  the  intention,  can  wo.  at 
 this  dav,  refuse  Uie  jiraise  of  dtH-i)er  fore- 
 sight to  their  opponents  ;  who  argued,  that 
 if  some  things  were  changed,  in  order  to 
 please  the  party  then  apjilying,  succowive 
 parties  might  arise,  makmg  fresh  demand", 
 
688 
 
 SAXON. 
 
 SAYING  AND  SINGING. 
 
 and  inventing  as  good  reasons  for  the  se- 
 cond and  third  concessions,  as  had  been 
 urged  for  the  first  ?  ...  If  such  an  ecclesi- 
 astical modification  as  was  wished  for  by 
 Judge  Hale  and  his  associates  had  been 
 adopted,  general  pacification  could  not, 
 even  then,  have  been  attained;  and  the 
 discovery  of  new  grounds  of  dissent  would 
 have  made  the  prospect  more  and  more 
 hopeless.  In  the  mean  time,  the  English 
 Church  establishment  would  have  parted 
 with  some  of  its  most  distinguishing  cha- 
 racteristics ;  those  features,  in  particular, 
 which  are  derived  from  the  ancient  Church, 
 would  have  been,  in  a  great  measure,  de- 
 faced ;  and  of  course,  the  principle  of  ad- 
 hering, on  all  doubtful  points,  to  the  con- 
 currence of  Christian  antiquity,  could  have 
 been  insisted  on  no  longer.  Had  the 
 Church  of  England  thus  deserted  her  an- 
 cient ground,  where,  we  cannot  but  ask, 
 should  alteration  have  stopped  ?  A  prac- 
 tice once  originated  is  repeated  without 
 difficulty.  Can  we,  then,  entertain  a  doubt, 
 that  the  successive  endeavours  which  have 
 been  used,  at  one  time,  to  new-modify  the 
 forms  of  our  worship  ;  at  another,  to  abate 
 the  strictness  of  our  doctrinal  creed  ;  would 
 have  been  as  successful  as,  in  our  actual 
 circumstances,  they  have  proved  abortive  ? 
 To  nothing,  vnider  heaven,  can  we  so  rea- 
 sonably ascribe  the  defeat  of  all  such  ef- 
 forts, as  to  the  dread  of  disturbing  what 
 had  remained  so  long  substantially  unalter- 
 ed. Had  there  been  no  room  for  this  feel- 
 ing, other  considerations  might  not  have 
 been  available,  against  the  apparent  plausi- 
 bility of  what  was  asked,  or  the  persever- 
 ing ardour  of  the  applicants.  Had  the 
 work  of  demolition  once  begun,  its  pro- 
 gress would  have  been  both  certain  and 
 illimitable  ;  each  successive  change  would 
 have  been  the  precedent  for  another,  yet 
 more  substantial  and  vital.  —  Alexander 
 Knox,  Pref.  to  2nd  Ed.  of  Burnet's  Lives. 
 
 SAXON.  The  earliest  development  of 
 Romanesque,  as  applied  to  ecclesiastical 
 architecture  in  England,  is  so  called.  His- 
 torically this  style  ought  to  extend  from 
 the  coming  of  St.  Augustine  to  the  Con- 
 quest (1066)  ;  but  the  intercourse  of 
 England  with  Normandy  was  so  constant 
 before  that  time,  that  there  can  be  no 
 doubt  we  had  already  much  Norman  archi- 
 tecture. It  is  scarcely  less  to  be  doubted 
 that  many  more  ante-Conquest  buildings 
 yet  remain,  than  are  usually  accounted 
 Saxon.  The  characters  most  relied  on  to 
 determine  Saxon  work  are  the  long  and 
 short  work,  triangular  headed  doors  and 
 windows,  the  splaying  of  the  windows 
 externally  as  well  as  internally,  and  the 
 
 occurrence  of  baluster  shafts  in  the  win- 
 dows. These,  however,  are  not  constant 
 in  well-authenticated  Saxon  buildings,  nor 
 do  they  invariably  indicate  a  Saxon  date. 
 
 SAYING  AND  SINGING.  The  parts 
 of  the  service  directed  to  be  said  or  sang, 
 or  sung  or  said,  are,  the  Venite,  the  Psalms, 
 (in  the  title  page  of  the  Prayer  Book,) 
 the  Te  Deum,  (and  by  inference  and  ana- 
 logy,) the  Canticles;  the  Apostles'  Creed, 
 the  Litany,  the  Athanasian  Creed,  the 
 Easter  Anthem,  the  Nicene  Creed,  the 
 Sanctus,  the  Gloria  in  Excelsis,  the  psahn 
 in  the  Matrimonial  Service,  the  commen- 
 cing sentences  and  two  anthems  in  the 
 Burial  Service,  the  Communion  Service, 
 the  communion  service  in  the  Ordination  of 
 Deacons  and  Priests,  and  the  Veni  Creator 
 in  the  Ordination  of  Priests  and  Bishops. 
 These  two  phrases  have  no  difference  in 
 meaning,  since  the  Apostles'  Creed  is 
 directed  to  be  sung  or  said,  in  the  Morning 
 Service  ;  to  be  said  or  sung,  in  the  Evening. 
 It  appears  that  the  ecclesiastical  use  of  the 
 word  sag  is  two-fold:  (1.)  As  a  general 
 term,  including  all  methods  of  recitation, 
 with  or  without  note,  or  musical  inflection. 
 In  this  sense  it  is  used  in  our  Prayer  Book, 
 when  employed  alone.  (2.)  As  a  more 
 technical  and  restricted  term,  used  in  con- 
 tradistinction to  singiiig ;  and  yet  not  to 
 singing  in  the  general  sense,  but  in  one  or 
 more  of  its  restricted  senses. 
 
 For  the  word  sing,  as  is  well  known,  has 
 more  than  one  ecclesiastical  sense  ;  since 
 it  includes,  (1.)  all  that  is  recited,  in  what- 
 ever way,  in  a  musical  tone ;  in  which 
 sense  it  is  not  used  in  the  Prayer  Book ; 
 (2.)  that  which  is  chanted,  like  the  Psalms, 
 Athanasian  Creed,  and  Litany;  (3.)  that 
 which  is  sinig  anthem-wise,  like  the  An- 
 thems, Canticles,  Hymns,  and  Nicene 
 Creed.  In  these  tM'o  last  senses  it  is  con- 
 tradistinguished from  say  in  the  Prayer 
 Book. 
 
 The  phrase  sung  or  said  specifies  those 
 parts  of  the  service  only,  in  which,  when 
 said,  the  minister  has  a  distinctive  part, 
 whether  (1.)  leading  or  preceding  the  peo- 
 ple in  each  clause  ;  or  (2.)  reciting  alternate 
 verses  with  them  ;  or  (3.)  reciting  the  pas- 
 sage alone ;  but  which,  when  simg,  are 
 sung  by  the  minister  and  people,  or  choir, 
 all  together,  without  any  distinctive  part 
 being  assigned  to  him.  And  it  may  be 
 added,  these  parts  may  be,  and  usually 
 are,  sung  to  the  organ.  The  phrase  never 
 applies  to  those  parts  of  the  service  which 
 are  always  to  be  repeated  by  the  minister 
 alone  in  the  versicle,  and  by  the  people  in 
 the  response. 
 
 The  instance  given  above  of  the  com- 
 
SAYING  AND  SINGING. 
 
 munion  service  in  the  Ordination  of  Priests 
 and  Bishops,  is  the  only  direction  to  which 
 this  rule  does  not  appear  exactly  ap])lical)le. 
 But  here,  from  the  nature  of  the  case,  the 
 Communion  Service  is  spoken  of  in  a 
 general  way ;  and  we  are,  of  course,  re- 
 ferred to  its  special  rubrics  in  their  ])ro])er 
 places.  All  that  is  meant  is  this,  tliat  the 
 service  shall  be  performed  chorally  or 
 parochially,  according  as  circumstances 
 may  allow  or  require. 
 
 With  respect  to  the  Apostles'  Creed,  that 
 is  the  only  instance  in  which  the  permis- 
 sion or  injunction  of  the  rubric  to  sing 
 this  part  of  the  service,  (that  is,  to  sing  it 
 anthem-wise,  or  to  the  organ,)  has  never 
 been  acted  on.  This  rubric  was  altered  to 
 its  present  form  at  the  last  review  ;  as 
 before  it  had  merely  been  directed  to  be 
 said.  The  words  "  or  sung  "  seem  to  have 
 been  inserted  in  order  to  preserve  the 
 analogy  between  this  creed  and  the  Nicene, 
 which  it  resembles  in  its  construction. 
 
 But  this  is  only  apparent.  For  the 
 Litany  may  seem  an  exception  to  the  rule. 
 When  said,  it  is  repeated  alternately,  as 
 verse  and  response,  by  the  minister  and 
 people.  ]3ut  the  regular  choral  usage  is, 
 not  that  tJte  minister,  or  a  priest,  but  two 
 chanters  should  sinrj  together  those  parts 
 which  the  minister  reads  in  a  parish  church, 
 and  which  in  some  old  choral  books  are 
 here  called  vcrsicles,  as  far  as  the  liORD's 
 Prayer  exclusive.  And  this,  not  with  the 
 common  intonation  and  inflection  used  in 
 prayers  and  versicles,  (which  have  come 
 under  the  denomination  of  sinr/inr/,)  but 
 with  the  modulation  of  a  regular  chant ; 
 which  in  some  parts  of  the  Litany  (the  in- 
 vocation e.  g.)  these  two  chanters  sing 
 throughout ;  while  in  others  they  form  the 
 first  part  of  the  chant,  the  response  of  the 
 choir  forming  the  second.  This  particular 
 service  has  often  been  set  to  artificial 
 music,  both  before  and  after  the  last  re- 
 view. No  notice  of  Minister  (or  Priest) 
 and  Anstcer  are  -pre^xed  to  the  former  part 
 of  the  Litany ;  while  in  the  latter  part, 
 when  there  are  such  notices,  the  sufirages 
 are  always  recited  by  one  minister,  and 
 answered  by  the  choir  or  peoj)le. 
 
 Now  if  in  a  choir  the  minister  were  to 
 read,  or  simply  intone,  the  versicles  of  the 
 fii-st  part  of  the  Litany,  that  service  would 
 then  not  be  sting,  but  said,  according  to  the 
 meaning  of  the  rubric,  even  though  the 
 responses  were  chanted  ;  the  word  singing 
 including  the  whole  portion  of  the  service 
 then  specified,  not  a  part  only.  And  this 
 is  probably  the  reason  why  the  ancient 
 harmonized  Litanies  by  various  composers 
 are  generally  set  to  music  in  the  former  part 
 2  Y 
 
 SCHISM. 
 
 689 
 
 only;  the  sup])lications,  or  latter  part,  being 
 customarily  sung  in  choirs  to  the  ordinary 
 chant. 
 
 l?ut  the  rul)rics  by  no  means  interfere 
 with,  and  indeed  do  not  allude  to,  the 
 chanting  of  prayers  and  responses  imme- 
 morialiy  used  in  choirs;  the  singing  wljich 
 the  rubrics  specify  l)eing  a  dillcrenl  thing 
 from  choral  or  responsional  recitation.  Tlie 
 responses  were,  and  are  still,  frequently 
 sung  to  the  organ.  But  singing  (as  used 
 in  the  Prayer  Book)  never  has  reference 
 to  a  mere  response.  In  fact,  the  word 
 answer  is  an  ecclesiastical  term,  which  in 
 choirs  always  implies  singijig,  (in  it.s  com- 
 mon and  general  sense,)  as  attention  to  the 
 older  documents  on  Mhich  our  Prayer 
 Book  was  based  will  show. — Jthh. 
 
 SCAllF.  A  piece  of  silk  or  other  stuff 
 which  iiangs  from  the  neck,  and  is  worn 
 over  the  rochet  or  surplice.  It  is  not 
 mentioned  in  the  rubric  of  the  English 
 ritual,  but  is  worn  by  our  bishops  and  dig- 
 nitaries of  the  Chu'rch.  It  is  used  from 
 long  custom,  and  may  be  referred  to  the 
 ancient  ])ractice  of  the  Church,  according 
 to  which  i)resbyters  and  bishops  wore  a 
 scarf  or  stole  in  the  administration  of  the 
 sacraments,  and  on  some  other  occasions. 
 The  stole  has  been  used  from  the  most 
 l)rimitive  ages  by  the  Christian  clerg)-.  It 
 was  fastened  on  one  shoulder  of  tiie  dea- 
 con's all),  ai\d  hung  do-«ni  before  and  be- 
 hind. The  priest  had  it  over  both  shoulders, 
 and  the  ends  of  it  hung  down  in  front. 
 Thus  simply  were  the  dresses  of  the  priests 
 and  deacons  distinguished  from  each  other 
 in  ])rimitive  times. 
 
 SCEPTICS.  (From  the  Greek  word 
 nKtiTTOfiai,  to  looh  about,  to  deliberate.)  This 
 word  was  a])plied  to  an  ancient  sect  oi 
 })hilosophers  founded  liy  Pvrrho,  who  de- 
 nied the  real  existence  of  all  (jualities  in 
 bodies  except  those  which  are  essential  to 
 })rimary  atoms,  and  referred  everything 
 else  to  the  perceptions  of  the  mind  pro- 
 duced by  external  objects;  in  other  word*, 
 to  appearance  and  o])inion.  In  modern 
 times,  the  word  has  been  aj)i)lied  to  Deistn, 
 or  those  who  doubt  of  the  truth  and  au- 
 thenticity of  the  sacred  Scrij)tures. 
 
 SCHISM,  in  the  ecclesiastical  sense  of 
 the  word,  is  a  l)reaking  olf  from  commu- 
 nion with  the  Churcii.  on  account  of  some 
 disagreement  in  matters  of  faith  or  disci- 
 j)line.     The  word  is  of  Greek  original,  and 
 
 ^nifies  jijisk 
 We  shall  ei 
 
 e  snail  easily  leurn  what  the  ancients 
 meant  J)y  the  unity  of  the  Church  and 
 schism,  if  wu  consider  the  following  par- 
 ticulars : — 1.  That  there  were  ditTerent  de- 
 grees of  unity  and  schism,  according  to 
 
690 
 
 SCHISM. 
 
 SCHOOLS. 
 
 the  proportion  of  which  a  man  was  said  to 
 be  more  or  less  united  to  the  Church,  or 
 divided  from  it.  2.  That  they  who  re- 
 tained faith  and  baptism,  and  the  com- 
 mon form  of  Christian  worship,  were  in 
 those  respects  at  unity  with  the  Clnirch; 
 though,  in  other  respects,^  in  which  their 
 schism  consisted,  they  might  be  divided 
 from  her.  3.  That  to  give  a  man  the  de- 
 nomination of  a  true  Catholic  Clii'istian, 
 absolutely  speaking,  it  was  necessary  that 
 he  should  in  all  respects,  and  in  every  kind 
 of  unitv,  be  in  ])crfect  and  full  communion 
 with  the  Church;  but  to  denominate  a  man 
 a  schismatic,  it  was  sufficient  to  break  the 
 unity  of  the  Church  in  any  one  respect ; 
 though  the  malignity  of  the  schism  was  to 
 be  interpreted,  more  or  less,  according  to 
 the  degrees  of  separation  he  made  from 
 her.  Because  the  Church  could  not  or- 
 dinarily judge  of  men's  hearts,  or  of  the 
 motives  that  engaged  them  in  error  and 
 schism,  therefore  she  was  forced  to  proceed 
 by  another  rule,  and  judge  of  their  unity 
 with  her  by  their  external  communion  and 
 professions. 
 
 And  as  the  Church  made  a  distinction 
 between  the  degrees  of  schism,  so  did  she 
 between  the  censures  inflicted  on  schis- 
 matics ;  for  these  were  proportioned  to  the 
 quality  and  heinousness  of  the  offence. 
 Such  as  absented  themselves  from  church 
 for  a  short  time  (which  was  reckoned  the 
 lowest  degree  of  separation)  were  punished 
 with  a  few  weeks'  suspension.  Others, 
 Avho  attended  only  some  part  of  the  ser- 
 vice, and  voluntarily  withdrew  when  the 
 eucharist  was  to  be  administered:  these, 
 as  greater  criminals,  were  denied  the  pri- 
 vilege of  making  any  oblations,  and  ex- 
 cluded for  some  time  from  all  the  other 
 holy  offices  of  the  Church.  But  the  third 
 sort  of  separatists,  who  are  most  properly 
 called  schismatics,  being  those  who  with- 
 drew totally  and  universally  from  the  com- 
 munion of' the  Church,  and  endeavoured 
 to  justify  the  separation;  against  these  the 
 Church '  ])roceeded  more  severely,  using 
 the  highest  censure,  that  of  excommuni- 
 cation, as  against  the  professed  enemies 
 and  destroyers  of  her  peace  and  unity. 
 
 Ecclesiastical  history  presents  us  with  a 
 view  of  several  considerable  schisms,  in 
 which  whole  bodies  of  men  separated  from 
 the  communion  of  the  Catholic  Church. 
 Such  were,  in  the  fourth  century,  the 
 schisms  of  the  Donatists,  and  the  many 
 heretics  that  sprung  up  in  the  Church, 
 as  the  Arians,  Photinians,  Apollinarians, 
 &c. ;  the  schism  of  the  Church  of  Antioch, 
 occasioned  by  Lucifer,  bishop  of  Cagliari, 
 in   Sardinia ;    in    the    fifth    centurv,   the 
 
 schism  of  the  Church  of  Rome,  between 
 Laurentius  and  Symmachus ;  in  the  ninth 
 century,  the  separation  of  the  Greek 
 Church  from  the  Latin ;  but,  particularly, 
 the  grand  schism  of  the  popes  of  liome 
 and  Avignon,  in  the  fourteenth  century, 
 which  lasted  till  the  end  of  the  Council  of 
 Pisa,  1409. — Bimiham. 
 
 It  is  a  causeless  separation  from  such 
 governors  in  the  Church  as  have  re- 
 ceived their  authority  and  commission 
 from  Jesus  Christ.  If  there  be  a  suf- 
 ficient cause,  then  there  may  be  a  separa- 
 tion, but  no  schism.  But  if  there  be  no 
 sufficient  ground  for  the  separation,  it  is 
 schism,  that  is,  a  culpable  separation,  which 
 was  ahvays  reckoned  a  sin  of  a  very  hein- 
 ous nature.  For  St.  Paul  charges  the 
 Ephesians  to  keep  the  unity  of  the  SPIRIT 
 in  the  bond  of  peace,  because  there  is  but 
 one  God,  one  faith,  one  baptism,  and  one 
 body  of  Christ.  The  same  doctrine  is 
 taught  in  the  writings  of  the  first  Fathers 
 of  the  Church,  particularly  St.  Ignatius 
 and  St.  Cyprian  ;  and  schism  was  reputed  a 
 great  sin  by  them,  even  before  the  Church 
 and  State  were  united,  and  when  the 
 meetings  of  the  schismatics  were  as  much 
 tolerated  by  the  State  as  the  assemblies  of 
 the  Catholics.  For  toleration  does  not 
 alter  the  nature  of  schism.  Such  laws 
 only  exempt  the  j^ersons  of  schismatics 
 from  any  penal  prosecution.  Donatism 
 and  Novatianism  were  counted  as  damn- 
 able schisms,  under  the  reigns  of  those 
 emperors  who  granted  toleration  to  them, 
 as  under  the  reigns  of  those  Avho  made 
 laws  against  them. — Nelson. 
 
 SCHOOLS.  The  word  was  anciently 
 of  larger  application  than  at  present,  and 
 signified  places  of  instruction  not  only  for 
 childi'en,  but  for  those  of  more  advanced 
 age.  It  was  applied  generally  to  what  are 
 noAv  called  universities.  Thus  Shakspeare, 
 in  Hamlet,  speaks  of  being  at  school  at 
 Wittenberg,  that  is,  at  the  university.  The 
 places  in  the  universities  where  exercises 
 for  degrees  are  performed,  and  lectures 
 read,  are  still  called  schools,  both  in  Eng- 
 land, and  at  least  in  the  older  universities 
 of  Europe :  and  academical  degrees  were 
 often  called  degrees  qfscJiooL 
 
 But  taking  the  terra  in  its  usual  modern 
 acceptation,  as  places  of  education  for  the 
 young,  it  may  be  convenient  in  these  days 
 to  have  a  concise  history  of  schools.  The 
 following,  therefore,  is  given  from  Dr. 
 Burn  and  other  writers  of  authority : — 
 
 The  determinations  in  the  courts  of  law 
 relative  to  schools  at  the  time  Dr.  Burn 
 wrote,  had  not  been  delivered  with  that 
 precision  which  w^as  usual  in  other  cases. 
 
SCHOOLS. 
 
 C91 
 
 And  indeed,  excepting  in  an  instance  or 
 two  in  the  coiirt  of  Chancery,  the  general 
 law  concerning  scliools  did' not  seem  to 
 have  been  considered  as  yet  n])on  full  and 
 solemn  arguments.  And,  therefore,  he 
 says,  a  liberty  of  animadversion  is  taken  in 
 some  of  the  following  ])articulars,  whieli 
 would  not  be  allowable  in  matters  which 
 had  been  finallv  adjudged  and  settled. 
 
 By  the  7  &  8  AVill.  111.  c.  37.  AVhereas 
 it  would  be  a  great  hinderance  to  learning 
 and  other  good  and  charitable  works,  if 
 persons  well  inclined  may  not  be  permitted 
 to  found  schools  for  the  encouragement  of 
 learning  or  to  augment  the  revenues  of 
 schools  akeady  founded,  it  shall  be  law- 
 ful for  the  king  to  grant  licences  to  aliene, 
 and  to  purchase  and  hold  in  mortmain. 
 
 But,  by  the  9  Geo.  II.  c.  30,  after 
 June  24,  1736,  no  manors,  lands,  tene- 
 ments, rents,  advowsons,  or  other  heredi- 
 taments, corporeal  or  incorporeal,  nor  any 
 sum  of  money,  goods,  chattels,  stocks  in 
 the  public  funds,  securities  for  money,  or 
 any  other  personal  estate  whatsoever,  to 
 be  laid  out  or  disposed  of  in  the  purchase 
 of  any  lands,  tenements,  or  hereditaments, 
 shall  be  given  or  any  ways  conveyed  or 
 settled,  (unless  it  be  hond  fide  for  full  and 
 valuable  consideration,)  to  or  upon  any 
 person  or  persons,  bodies  politic  or  cor- 
 porate, or  otherwise,  for  any  estate  or  in- 
 terest whatsoever,  or  any  ways  charged  or 
 encumbered,  in  trust  or  for  the  benetit  of 
 any  charitable  uses  whatsoever;  unless 
 such  appointment  of  lands,  or  of  money, 
 or  other  personal  estate,  (other  than  stocks 
 in  the  public  funds,)  be  made  by  deed 
 indented,  sealed,  and  delivered  in  the 
 presence  of  two  witnesses,  twelve  calendar 
 months  at  least  before  the  death  of  the 
 donor,  and  be  enrolled  in  Chancery  within 
 six  calendar  months  next  after  the  execu- 
 tion thereof ;  and  unless  such  stock  in  the 
 public  funds  be  transferred  in  the  public 
 books  usually  kept  for  the  transfer  of 
 stocks,  six  calendar  months  at  least  before 
 the  death  of  the  donor ;  and  unless  the 
 same  be  made  to  take  effect  in  possession 
 for  the  charitable  use  intended,  immedi- 
 ately from  the  making  thereof,  and  be 
 without  power  of  revocation.  And  any 
 assurance  otherwise  made  shall  be  void. 
 
 By  Canon  77.  "No  man  shall  teach 
 either  in  public  school  or  ])rivate  house, 
 but  such  as  shall  be  allowed  by  the  bishop 
 of  the  diocese,  or  ordinary  of  the  place, 
 under  his  hand  and  seal ;  being  found 
 meet,  as  well  for  his  learning  and  dexterity 
 in  teaching,  as  for  sober  and  honest  con- 
 versation, and  also  for  right  understanding 
 of  God's  true  religion  :  and  also  except  he 
 2  Y  2 
 
 first  subscribe  simnly  to  the  lirst  and  third 
 articles  in  the  SOtli  canon,  concerning  tlie 
 king's  sujjrcmacy,  and  tlie  Thirtv'^Nine 
 Articles  of  Religion,  and  to  tlic  two  first 
 clauses  of  the  second  article,  concerning 
 the  Hook  of  Connnon  l*rayer,  viz.  that  it 
 containeth  nothing  contrary  to  the  word 
 of  (ioi),  and  may  lawfully  l/e  used." 
 
 And  in  the  case  of  Cory  and  Pcppir,  T. 
 30  Car.  II.,  a  consultation  was  granted  in 
 the  court  of  King's  liench,  against  one  who 
 taught  without  licence  in  contempt  of  the 
 canons ;  and  (the  reporter  says)  the  reason 
 given  by  the  court  was,  that  the  canons  of 
 1G03  are  good  by  the  statute  of  the  25 
 Hen.  VIII.,  so  long  as  they  do  not  impugn 
 the  common  law,  or  tiie  prerogative  royal. 
 —2  Lev.  222.      Gibs.  9'Jo. 
 
 But  tliis  is  unchronological  and  abstird; 
 and  as  the  olHce  of  a  schoohnaster  is  a  lay- 
 olHce  (for  where  it  is  supplied  by  a  cler- 
 gyman, that  is  only  accidental,  and  not  of 
 any  necessity  at  all) ;  it  is  clear  enough, 
 that  the  canon  by  its  own  strength  in  this 
 case  is  not  obligatory. 
 
 Therefore  we  must  seek  out  some  other 
 foundation  of  the  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction ; 
 and  there  are  many  quotations  for  this 
 purj)ose  fetched  out  of  the  ancient  canon 
 law,  [Gihs.  1099.)  which,  although  perhaps 
 not  i)erfectly  decisive,  yet  it  rau.<rt  be  owned 
 they  bear  that  way. 
 
 The  argument  in  C'ox'.v  case  seems  to 
 contain  the  substance  of  what  has  been 
 alleged  on  both  sides  in  this  matter,  and 
 concludes  in  favour  of  the  ecclesiastical 
 jurisdiction;  which  was  thus:  M.  1700. 
 In  the  Chancery  :  Cox  was  libelled  against 
 in  the  s})iritual  court  at  I'xeter,  for  teach- 
 ing school  without  licence  from  the  bishop: 
 And  on  motion  before  tiic  lord  chancellor 
 an  order  was  made,  that  cause  should  be 
 shown  why  a  ])rohihition  should  not  go, 
 and  that  in  the  mean  time  all  things  should 
 stay.  On  showing  cause,  it  was  moved  to 
 discharge  the  said  order,  alleging,  that 
 before  the  Beformation  this  was  certainly 
 of  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  :  AWiglit,  lord 
 keejjer,  decided  that  both  courts  may  have 
 a  concm-rent  jurisdiction  ;  and  a  crime  may 
 be  punishable  both  in  the  one  and  in  the 
 other :  The  canons  of  a  convocation  do  not 
 bind  the  laity  without  an  act  of  parlia- 
 ment :  But  I  always  was,  and  still  am  of 
 opinion,  that  keej)ing  of  school  is  by  the 
 ohl  laws  of  Knghuul  of  ecclesiastical  cog- 
 nizance :  and  therefore  let  the  order  for  n 
 prohibition  be  discharged.  Whcreui)on  it 
 was  moved,  that  this  libel  was  for  teaching 
 school  generally,  without  showing  what 
 kind  of  school ;  and  the  court  Christian 
 could    not    have   jurisdirtion    of  writing 
 
692 
 
 SCHOOLS. 
 
 schools,  reading  schools,  dancing  schools, 
 or  such  like  ;  to  which  the  lord  keeper 
 assented  ;  and  thereu])on  granted  a  pro- 
 hibition as  to  the  teaching  of  all  schools, 
 except  grammar  schools,  uhich  he  thought 
 to  be  of  ecclesiastical  cognizance. 
 
 ]iy  act  of  parliament  the  case  stands 
 thus:  By  the  23  l-^liz,  c.  1,  If  any  person 
 or  persons,  body  politic  or  corporate,  shall 
 keep  or  maintain  any  schoolmaster  Avhich 
 shall  not  repair  to  some  church,  chapel,  or 
 usual  place  of  common  prayer,  or  be  al- 
 lowed by  the  bishop  or  ordinary  of  the 
 diocese  where  such  schoolmaster  shall  be 
 so  kept,  he  shall,  upon  conviction  in  the 
 courts  at  "Westminster,  or  at  the  assizes, 
 or  quarter  sessions  of  the  peace,  forfeit  for 
 every  month  so  keeping  him  £10;  one- 
 third  to  the  king,  one-third  to  the  poor, 
 and  one-third  to  him  that  shall  sue :  and 
 such  schoolmaster  or  teacher,  presuming 
 to  teach  contrary  to  this  act,  and  being 
 thereof  lawfully  convict,  shall  be  disabled 
 to  be  a  teacher  of  youth,  and  suffer  im- 
 j)risonment  Vtithout  bail  or  mainprise  for 
 one  year. 
 
 By  the  1  Jac.  I.  c.  4,  s.  9.  No  person 
 shall  keep  any  school,  or  be  a  schoolmas- 
 ter, out  of  any  of  the  universities  or  colleges 
 of  this  realm,  except  it  be  in  some  public 
 or  free  grammar  school,  or  in  some  such 
 nobleman's  or  gentleman's  house  as  are  not 
 recusants,  or  where  the  same  schoolmaster 
 shall  be  specially  licensed  thereunto  by 
 the  archbishop,  bishop,  or  guardian  of  the 
 spiritualities  of  that  diocese ;  upon  pain 
 that,  as  well  the  schoolmaster,  as  also  the 
 party  that  shall  retain  or  maintain  any 
 such  schoolmaster,  shall  forfeit  each  of 
 them  for  every  day  so  wittingly  offending 
 40s. ;  half  to  the  king,  and  half  to  him  that 
 shall  sue. 
 
 And  by  the  13  &  14  Car.  II.  c.  4.  Every 
 schoolmaster  keeping  any  public  or  private 
 school,  and  every  person  instructing  or 
 teaching  any  youth  in  any  house  or  pri- 
 vate family  as  a  tutor  or  schoolmaster, 
 shall,  before  his  admission,  subscribe  the 
 declaration  following,  viz.  "  I,  A.  B.,  do 
 declare,  that  I  will  conform  to  the  liturgy 
 of  the  Church  of  England,  as  it  is  now  by 
 law  established."  AVhich  shall  be  sub- 
 scribed before  the  archbishop,  bishop,  or 
 ordinary  of  the  diocese ;  on  pain  that 
 every  person  so  failing  in  such  subscrip- 
 tion shall  forfeit  his  school,  and  be  utterly 
 disabled,  and  ipso  facto  deprived  of  the 
 same,  and  the  said  school  shall  be  void  as 
 if  such  person  so  failing  were  naturally 
 dead. 
 
 And  if  any  schoolmaster,  or  other  per- 
 son, instructing  or  teaching  youth  in  any 
 
 private  house  or  family  as  a  tutor  or 
 schoolmaster,  shall  instruct  or  teach  any 
 youth  as  a  tutor  or  schoolmaster  before 
 licence  obtained  from  the  archbishop, 
 bishop,  or  ordinary  of  the  diocese,  accord- 
 ing to  the  laws  and  statutes  of  this  realm, 
 (for  which  he  shall  pay  12(/.  only,)  and  be- 
 fore such  subscription  as  aforesaid,  he 
 shall  for  the  first  offence  suffer  three 
 months'  imprisonment,  Avithout  bail ;  and, 
 for  every  second  and  other  such  offence, 
 shall  suffer  three  months'  imprisonment, 
 without  bail,  and  also  forfeit  to  the  king 
 the  sumof  £o.     (S.  8,9,  10,  1.) 
 
 M.  9  G.  II.  T/ie  Kinr/  against  the  Bishop 
 of  Lichjield  and  Covoitnj.  A  mandamus 
 issued  to  the  bishop  to  grant  a  licence  to 
 llushworth  a  clergyman,  who  was  nomin- 
 ated usher  of  a  free  grammar  school  within 
 his  diocese.  To  which  he  returned,  that 
 a  caveat  had  been  entered  by  some  of  the 
 principal  inhabitants  of  the  place,  with 
 articles  annexed,  accusing  him  of  drunk- 
 enness, incontinency,  and  neglect  of  preach- 
 ing and  reading  prayers ;  and  that  the 
 caveat  being  warned,  he  was  proceeding 
 to  inquire  into  the  truth  of  these  things 
 when  the  mandamus  came  ;  and  therefore 
 he  had  suspended  the  licensing  him.  And 
 without  entering  much  into  the  arguments, 
 whether  the  bishop  hath  the  power  of 
 licensing,  the  court  held,  that  the  return 
 should  be  allowed  as  a  temporary  excuse  ; 
 for  though  the  act  of  the  13  &  14  Car.  II. 
 c.  4,  obligeth  them  only  to  assent  to  and 
 subscribe  the  declaration,  yet  it  adds,  "  ac- 
 cording to  the  laws  and  statutes  of  this 
 realm ; "  which  presupposeth  some  neces- 
 sary qualifications,  which  it  is  reasonable 
 should  be  examined  into. 
 
 And  by  Canon  137.  "Every  schoolmaster 
 shall,  at  the  bishop's  first  visitation,  or  at 
 the  next  visitation  after  his  admission,  ex- 
 hibit his  licence,  to  be  by  the  said  bishop 
 either  allowed,  or  (if  there  be  just  cause) 
 disallowed  and  rejected." 
 
 By  the  11  &  12  Will.  III.  c.  4.  If  any 
 Papist,  or  person  making  profession  of  the 
 Popish  religion,  shall  keep  school,  or  take 
 upon  himself  the  education  or  government 
 or  boarding  of  youth,  he  shall  be  adjudged 
 to  perpetual  imprisonment  in  such  place 
 within  this  kingdom  as  the  king  by  advice 
 of  his  privy  council  shall  appoint. 
 
 In  Bates's  case,  M.  21  (Jar.  II.,  it  was 
 held,  that  where  the  patronage  of  a  school 
 is  not  in  the  ordinary,  but  in  feofiees  or 
 other  patrons,  the  ordinary  cannot  put  a 
 man  out ;  and  a  prohibition  was  granted  ; 
 the  suggestion  for  which  was,  that  he  came 
 in  by  election,  and  that  it  was  his  freehold. 
 
 Upon  which  Dr.  Gibson  justly  observes, 
 
SCHOOLS. 
 
 GD.'J 
 
 that  ifthis  beany  bar  to  his  hc'm^  dei)rivc(l 
 by  ordinary  authority,  the  ])resentation 
 to  a  benefice  by  a  lay  patron,  and  the 
 parson's  freeliokl  in  that  beneiice,  woidd 
 be  as  good  a  ])lea  against  the  deprivation 
 of  the  parson  l)y  the  like  authority.  And 
 yet  this  plea  hath  been  always  rejected  by 
 the  temporal  courts.  And  in  one  circum- 
 stance at  least,  the  being  deprived  of  a 
 school,  notwithstanding  the  notion  of  a 
 freehokl,  is  more  naturally  supposed,  than 
 deprivation  of  a  benefice  ;  because  the 
 licence  to  a  school  is  only  during  pleasure, 
 whereas  the  institution  to  a  benefice  is 
 absolute  and  unlimited. —  G'ihson,  1110. 
 
 By  Canon  78.  *'  In  what  jiarish  church 
 or  chapel  soever  there  is  a  curate,  which 
 is  a  master  of  arts,  or  bachelor  of  arts,  or 
 is  otherwise  well  able  to  teach  youth,  and 
 ■will  willingly  so  do,  for  the  better  increase 
 of  his  living,  and  training  up  of  children 
 in  principles  of  true  religion,  we  will  and 
 ordain  that  a  licence  to  teach  youth  of  the 
 parish  where  he  serveth  be  granted  to 
 none  by  the  ordinary  of  that  place,  but 
 only  to  the  said  curate :  provided  always, 
 that  this  constitution  shall  not  extend  to 
 any  parish  or  chapel  in  country  towns, 
 where  there  is  a  public  school  founded 
 already ;  in  which  case  we  think  it  not 
 meet  to  allow  any  to  teach  grammar,  but 
 only  him  that  is  allowed  for  the  said  public 
 school." 
 
 By  Canon  79.  "  All  schoolmasters  shall 
 teach  in  English  or  Latin,  as  the  children 
 are  able  to  bear,  the  larger  or  shorter 
 catechism,  heretofore  by  public  authority 
 set  forth.  And  as  often  as  any  sermon 
 shall  be  upon  holy  and  festival  days, 
 within  the  parish  where  they  teach,  they 
 shall  bring  their  scholars  to  the  church 
 where  such  sermons  shall  be  made,  and 
 there  see  them  quietly  and  soberly  behave 
 themselves,  and  shall  examine  them  at 
 times  convenient  after  their  return,  what 
 they  have  borne  away  of  such  sermons. 
 Upon  other  days,  and  at  other  times,  they 
 shall  train  them  up  with,  such  sentences  of 
 Holy  Scriptures,  as  shall  be  most  expe- 
 dient to  induce  them  to  all  godliness.  And 
 they  shall  teach  the  grammar  set  forth  by 
 King  Henry  VIII.,  and  continued  in  the 
 times  of  King  Edward  VI.  and  Queen  l'>li- 
 zabeth  of  noble  memory,  and  none  other. 
 And  if  any  schoolmaster,  being  licensed, 
 and  having  subscribed  as  is  aforesaid,  shall 
 offend  in  any  of  the  premises,  or  either 
 speak,  write,  or  teach  against  anything 
 whereunto  he  hath  formerly  sul)scril)ed,  if 
 upon  admonition  by  the  ordinary  he  do 
 not  amend  and  reform  himself,  let  him  be 
 suspended  from  teaching  school  any  longer. 
 
 "  The  larger  or  siiortcr  catccinsni."— The 
 shorter  is  that  in  the  liook  of  Common 
 Prayer;  the  larger  was  a  catechism  set 
 fintii  by  King  Ivlward  VI..  whieli  lie  by 
 his  letters  patents  commanded  to  be  tawht 
 in  all  schools;  which  was  examined,  "^re- 
 viewed, aiul  corrected  in  the  convoeation 
 of  1  jG2,  and  ])ublishcd  with  those  inijirove- 
 ments  in  l.J7().  to  be  a  guide  to  the  yoiujger 
 clergy  in  the  study  of  divinity,  us  contain- 
 ing the  sum  and  substance  of  our  reformed 
 religion. —  (I'ihson,  ;}74. 
 
 ''Shall  bring  their  seholars  to  the  church." 
 — E.  KKVllW.  n>  fr/,a,n,  and  Jiarminlia- 
 to)i.  The  chief  question  was,  whether  a 
 schoolmaster  miglit  l)e  prosecuted  in  the 
 ecclesiastical  court  for  not  bringing  his 
 scholars  to  church,  contrary  to  this  canon. 
 And  it  was  the  opinion  of  the  court  that 
 the  schoolmaster,  being  a  layman,  wa.s  not 
 bound  by  the  canons. 
 
 "  Grammar." — Compiled  and  set  forth  liy 
 AVilliam  Lily  and  others  specially  aj>- 
 pointed  by  his  Majesty ;  in  the  j)rcface  to 
 which  book  it  is  declared,  that,  "  as  for  the 
 diversity  of  grammars,  it  is  well  and  pro- 
 fitably taken  away  by  the  king's  Majesty's 
 wisdom  ;  who  foreseeing  the  inconvenience, 
 and  lavourably  ])roviding  the  remedy, 
 caused  one  kind  of  grannnar  by  sundry 
 learned  men  to  be  diligently  drawn,  anil 
 so  to  be  set  out  only  ;  everywhere  to  be 
 taught  for  the  use  of  learners,  and  for 
 avoiding  the  hurt  in  changing  of  school- 
 masters." 
 
 By  the  43  E.li/.  c.  4.  Where  lands,  rents, 
 annuities,  goods,  or  money,  given  for  main- 
 tenance of  free  schools  or  schools  of  learn- 
 ing, have  been  misa])j)lied,  and  there  are 
 no  special  visitors  or  governors  ajipointcd 
 by  the  founder,  the  lord  chancellor  may 
 award  commissions  under  the  great  seal, 
 to  inquire  and  take  order  therein. 
 
 "Whether  a  mandamus  lieth  for  restoring 
 a  schoolmaster  or  usher,  when  in  fact  they 
 have  been  deprived  by  the  local  visitors, 
 is  doubtfully  spoken  of  in  the  books  of 
 common  law  ;  and  the  pleadings  ujmn  them 
 seem  not  to  touch  the  jjnxent  j)oint.  but 
 to  turn  chiefiy  ujmn  this,  whether  they 
 arc  to  be  accounted  oHices  of  a  public  or 
 private  nature. —  (iihsnn,  1 1 10.  ^ 
 
 Thus,  in  the  case  of  The  King  against 
 the  liitUiJf's  of  Mnr/H-th,  a  mandamus  was 
 granted,  to  restore  a  man  to  the  office  of 
 under-sclioolmaster  of  a  grammar  school 
 at  Morjjcth,  founded  by  King  Edward  VI. 
 The  .same  being  of  a  j)ublic  nature,  being 
 derived  from  the  Crown. 
 
 And  the  distinction  seems  to  be  this:  If 
 they  shall  be  deemed  of  a  public  nature, 
 as  constituted  for  public  government,  they 
 
694 
 
 SCHOOLS. 
 
 shall  be  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
 king's  coui'ts  of  common  law ;  but  if  they 
 be  judged  matters  only  of  private  charity, 
 then  they  are  subject  to  the  rules  and  j 
 statutes  which  the  founder  ordains,  and  to 
 the  visitor  whom  he  appoints,  and  to  no  | 
 other. 
 
 In  the  case  of  colleges  in  the  univer- 
 sities, whether  founded  by  the  king  or  by 
 any  other,  it  seemeth  now  to  be  settled 
 that  they  are  to  be  considered  as  private 
 establishments,  subject  only  to  the  founder 
 and  to  the  visitor  whom  he  appointeth; 
 and  it  doth  not  seem  easy  to  discern  any 
 difference  between  schools  and  colleges  in 
 this  respect. 
 
 H.  1725.  Eden  and  Foster.  The  free 
 grammar  school  of  Birmingham  was  found- 
 ed by  King  Edward  VI.,  who  endowed 
 the  said  school,  and  by  his  letters  patent 
 appointed  perpetual  governors  thereof,  who 
 were  thereby  enabled  to  make  laws  and 
 ordinances  for  the  better  government  of 
 the  said  school,  but  by  the  letters  patent 
 no  express  visitor  was  appointed,  and  the 
 legal  estate  of  the  endowment  was  vested 
 in  these  governors.  After  a  commission 
 had  issued  under  the  great  seal  to  inspect 
 the  management  of  the  governors,  and  all 
 the  exceptions  being  already  heard  and 
 overruled,  it  was  now^  objected  to  this 
 commission  that  the  king,  having  ap- 
 pointed governors,  had  by  implication 
 made  them  visitors  likewise  :  the  conse- 
 quence of  which  was,  that  the  Crown  could 
 not  issue  a  commission  to  visit  or  inspect 
 the  conduct  of  these  governors.  Tlie  matter 
 first  came  on  before  Lord  Chancellor  Mac- 
 clesfield,  and  afterwards  before  Lord  King, 
 who  desired  the  assistance  of  Lord  Chief 
 Justice  Eyre  and  Lord  Chief  Baron  Gil- 
 bert ;  and  accordingly  the  opinion  of  the 
 court  was  now  delivered  seriatim,  that  the 
 commission  was  good.  1.  It  w^as  laid 
 down  as  a  rule,  that  where  the  king  is 
 founder,  in  that  case  his  Majesty  and  his 
 successors  are  visitors  ;  but  v.'here  a  private 
 person  is  founder,  there  such  private  person 
 and  his  heirs  are  by  implication  of  law- 
 visitors.  2.  That  though  this  visitatorial 
 power  did  result  to  the  founder  and  his 
 heirs,  yet  the  founder  might  vest  or  sub- 
 stitute such  visitatorial  right  in  any  other 
 person  or  his  heirs.  3.  They  conceived  it 
 to  be  unreasonable,  that  where  governors 
 are  appointed,  these  by  construction  of 
 law  and  without  any  more  should  be 
 visitors,  and  should  have  an  absolute  power, 
 and  remain  exempt  from  being  visited 
 themselves.  And,  therefore,  4.  "That  in 
 those  cases  where  the  governors  or  visitors 
 are  said  not  to  be  accountable,  it  must  be 
 
 intended,  where  such  governors  have  the 
 power  of  government  only,  and  not  where 
 they  have  the  legal  estate  and  are  intrusted 
 with  the  receipt  of  the  rents  and  profits 
 (as  in  the  present  case) ;  for  it  would  be 
 of  the  most  pernicious  consequence,  that 
 any  persons  intrusted  with  the  receipt  of 
 the  rents  and  profits,  and  especially  for  a 
 charity,  though  they  misemploy  never  so 
 much  these  rents  and  profits,  should  yet 
 not  be  accountable  for  their  receipts  :  this 
 would  be  such  a  privilege,  as  might  of 
 itself  be  a  temptation  to  a  breach  of  trust. 
 5.  That  the  word  governor  did  not  of  itself 
 imply  visitor ;  and  to  make  such  a  con- 
 struction of  a  word,  against  the  common 
 and  natural  meaning  of  it,  and  when  such 
 a  strained  construction  could  not  be  for 
 the  benefit,  but  rather  to  the  great  preju- 
 dice, of  the  charity,  would  be  very  unrea- 
 sonable ;  besides,  it  would  be  making  the 
 king's  charter  operate  to  a  double  intent, 
 which  ought  not  to  be.  And  the  commis- 
 sion under  the  great  seal  was  resolved  to 
 be  well  issued.— 2  P.  Will.  325. 
 
 The  following  case  relates  particularly 
 to  a  church  ;  but  is  equally  applicable  to, 
 and  far  more  frequently  happeneth  in,  the 
 case  of  schools.  It  is  that  of  Waltham 
 church,  H.  1716.  EdAvard  Denny,  earl  of 
 Norwich,  being  seized  by  grant  from  King 
 EdAvard  VL,  of  the  site  and  demesnes  of 
 the  dissolved  monastery  of  AValtham  Holy 
 Cross,  and  of  the  manor  of  Waltham,  and 
 of  the  patronage  of  the  church  of  Waltham, 
 and  of  the  right  of  nominating  a  minister 
 to  officiate  in  the  said  church,  it  being  a 
 donative,  the  abbey  being  of  royal  found- 
 ation by  his  will  in  1636,  amongst  other 
 things  tiie  said  earl  devised  a  house  in  AVal- 
 tham,  and  a  rent-charge  of  £100  a  year, 
 and  ten  loads  of  wood  to  be  annually  taken 
 out  of  the  forest  of  Waltham,  and  his 
 right  of  nominating  a  minister  to  officiate 
 in  the  said  church,  to  six  trustees  and 
 their  heirs,  of  which  Sir  Kobert  Atkins 
 was  one,  in  trust  for  the  perpetual  main- 
 tenance of  the  minister,  to  be  from  time 
 to  time  nominated  by  the  trustees  ;  and 
 directed  that  when  the  trustees  were  re- 
 duced to  the  number  of  three,  they  should 
 choose  others.  It  so  fell  out,  that  all  the 
 trustees,  except  Sir  Robert  Atkins,  were 
 dead ;  and  he  alone  took  upon  him  to 
 enfeoff  others  to  fill  up  the  number  ;  and 
 now  the  surviving  trustees  (of  the  said 
 Sir  Robert's  appointment)  did  nominate 
 Lapthorn  to  officiate ;  and  the  Lady  Floyer 
 and  Campion,  who  were  owners  of  the 
 dissolved  monastery  and  of  the  manor, 
 claimed  the  right  of  nomination  to  the 
 donative,  and  had  nominated  Cowper  to 
 
SCHOOLS. 
 
 695 
 
 officiate  there,  and  he  was  orot  into  posses- 
 sion. The  bill  was,  that  Lapthorn  might 
 be  admitted  to  officiate  there,  and  to  be 
 quieted  in  the  possession,  and  to  have  an 
 account  of  the  profits.  ]Jy  the  defendants 
 it  was  among-st  other  things  insisted,  that 
 the  trustees  having  neglected  to  convey 
 over  to  others,  when  they  were  reduced  to 
 the  number  of  three,  and  the  legal  estate 
 coming  only  to  one  single  trustee,  he  had 
 not  power  to  elect  others  ;  but  by  that 
 means  the  right  of  nomination  resulted 
 back  to  the  grantor,  and  belonged  to  the 
 defendants,  who  had  the  estate,  and  stood 
 in  his  place ;  or  at  least  the  court  ought  to 
 appoint  such  trustees  as  should  be  thought 
 proper.  By  Cowper,  Lord  Chancellor:  It 
 is  only  directory  to  the  trustees,  that  when 
 reduced  to  three,  they  should  till  up  the 
 number  of  trustees ;  and,  therefore,  al- 
 though they  neglected  so  to  do,  that  woidd 
 not  extinguish  or  determine  their  right ; 
 and  Sir  Kobert  Atkins,  the  only  surviving 
 trustee,  had  a  better  right  than  any  one 
 else  could  pretend  to,  and  might  well  con- 
 vey over  to  other  trustees ;  it  was  but  what 
 he  ought  to  have  done :  and  it  was  decreed 
 for  the  plaintiff  with  costs,  and  an  account 
 of  profits  ;  but  the  master  to  allow  a  rea- 
 sonable salary  to  Cowper,  whilst  he  offici- 
 ated there. 
 
 .  By  the  43  Eliz.  c.  2,  all  lands  within 
 the  parish  are  to  be  assessed  to  the  poor 
 rate.  But  by  the  annual  acts  for  the  land 
 tax  it  is  provided,  that  the  same  shall  not 
 extend  to  charge  any  masters  or  ushers  of 
 any  schools,  for  or  in  respect  of  any  stipend, 
 wages,  rents,  or  profits,  arising  or  growing 
 due  to  them,  in  respect  of  their  said  places 
 or  employments. 
 
 Provided  that  nothing  herein  shall  ex- 
 tend to  discharge  any  tenant  of  any  the 
 houses  or  lands  belonging  to  the  said 
 schools,  who  by  their  leases  or  other  con- 
 tracts are  obliged  to  pay  all  rates,  taxes, 
 and  impositions  whatsoever  ;  but  that  they 
 shall  be  rated  and  pay  all  such  rates, 
 taxes,  and  impositions.  And  in  general 
 it  is  provided,  that  all  such  lands,  revenues, 
 or  rents,  settled  to  any  charitable  or  ])ious 
 use,  as  were  assessed  in  the  fourth  year  of 
 William  and  Mary,  shall  be  liable  to  be 
 charged ;  and  that  no  other  lands,  tene- 
 ments or  hereditaments,  revenues,  or  rents 
 whatsoever,  then  settled  to  any  charitalile 
 or  pious  uses  as  aforesaid,  shall  be  charged. 
 — Burn. 
 
 The  4  &  o  Vict.  c.  :}8,  12  &  13  Vict. 
 c.  49,  and  14  <^'  15  Vict.  c.  24,  facilitate 
 the  granting  of  land  as  sites  for  schf»ols. 
 
 From  the  year  1818,  owing  to  the  in- 
 quiries of  the  commissioners  appobitcd  to 
 
 examine  into  public  charities,  mucli  was 
 done  with  resjjcct  to  schools  founded  for 
 the  l)enefit  of  ])articular  localities.  At 
 length,  in  1840,  was  passed  tiie  statute  of 
 3  tS:  4  Vict.  c.  77,  of  which  the  preamble 
 states  the  facts  as  they  then  stood.  It  is 
 as  follows  : — "  AVhereas  there  are  in  Ting- 
 land  and  Wales  many  endowed  schools, 
 both  of  roval  and  ])rivate  foundation,  for 
 the  education  of  boys  or  youth  wholly  or 
 I)rincipally  in  grammar;  and  the  term 
 '  grammar '  has  been  understood  by  courts 
 of  equity  as  having  reference  only  to  tlie 
 dead  languages,  that  is  to  say,  Greek  and 
 liatin  :  and  whereas  such  education,  at 
 the  ])eriod  when  such  schools,  or  the 
 greater  i)art,  were  founded,  was  su])])osed, 
 not  only  to  be  sulHcient  to  ([ualify  boys  or 
 youth  for  admission  to  tlie  universities,  with 
 a  view  to  the  learned  professions,  but  was 
 also  necessary  for  preparing  them  for  the 
 superior  trades  and  mercantile  business : 
 and  whereas,  from  the  change  of  times, 
 and  other  causes,  such  education,  without 
 instruction  in  other  branches  of  literature 
 and  science,  is  now  of  less  value  to  those 
 who  are  entitled  to  avail  tiiemselves  of 
 such  charital)le  foundations,  whereby  such 
 schools  havi?,  in  many  instances,  ceased  to 
 aflbrd  a  substantial  fulfilment  of  the  in- 
 tentions of  the  founders,  and  the  system  of 
 education  in  such  grammar  schools  ought, 
 therefore,  to  be  extended  and  rendered 
 more  generally  ])eneficial,  in  order  to 
 afford  such  fulfilment ;  but  the  patrons, 
 visitors,  and  governors  thereof  are  ge- 
 nerally unable,  of  their  own  authority,  to 
 establish  any  other  system  of  education 
 than  is  expressly  provicled  for  by  the  found- 
 ation, and  her  iNIajesty's  courts  of  law  and 
 equity  are  frequently  unable  to  give  ade- 
 quate relief,  and  in  no  case  but  with  con- 
 siderable expense;  and  whereas,  in  con- 
 sequence of  changes  which  have  taken 
 place  in  the  population  of  particular  di.s- 
 tricts,  it  is  necessary,  for  the  ])urpose 
 aforesaid,  that  in  some  cases  the  advantages 
 of  such  grammar  schools  should  be  ex- 
 tended to  boys  other  than  those  to  whom 
 by  the  terms 'of  the  foundation,  or  the  ex- 
 isting statutes,  the  same  is  now  limited, 
 and  that  in  other  cases  some  restriction 
 should  be  imposed,  either  with  reference 
 to  the  total  nundjer  to  be  admitted  into 
 the  school,  or  as  regards  their  prtjficiency 
 at  the  time  when  they  may  demand  ad- 
 mission ;  but  in  this  respect  also  the  said 
 patrons,  visitors,  and  governors,  and  the 
 courts  of  equity,  are  frecpu-ntly  without 
 sulHcient  authority  to  make  such  exten- 
 sion or  restriction :  and  whereas  it  is  ex- 
 pedient  that   in   certain   cases    grammar 
 
696 
 
 SCHOOLS. 
 
 schools  in  the  same  place  shoiiklbe  united." 
 The  act,  having  recited  these  circum- 
 stances, proceeds  to  enable  her  Majesty's 
 courts  of  equity,  when  questions  relating 
 to  these  schools  come  before  them,  upon 
 information  or  petition,  or  in  other  pro- 
 ceedings, to  establish  schemes  for  the  ap- 
 plication of  the  revenues  of  these  schools, 
 having  regard  to  the  intention  of  the 
 founder. 
 
 The  24th  section,  however,  provides 
 that  nothing  in  the  act  shall  prejudice  the 
 rights  of  the  ordinary ;  and  it  also  exempts 
 the  universities,  and  the  more  important 
 public  schools,  such  as  Eton,  Winchester, 
 Harrow,  Rugby,  &c.,  from  the  operation  of 
 the  act. 
 
 The  following  succinct  and  lucid  history 
 of  public  education  for  the  poor  in  Eng- 
 land was  given  by  the  bishop  of  Glou- 
 cester and  Bristol,  in  his  visitation  charge 
 of  1847:- 
 
 "  The  system  of  mutual  instruction  was 
 fii'st  promulgated  in  this  island  by  Dr. 
 AndrcAv  Bell,  exactly  half  a  century  from 
 the  present  time;  and  that  invention, 
 when  generally  known,  drew  people's 
 minds  to  the  subject  of  schools  for  the 
 childi-en  of  the  poor ;  for  it  was  thought, 
 that  a  method  by  which  one  person  could 
 inspect  the  instruction  of  great  numbers 
 would  reduce  so  materially  the  expense,  as 
 to  render  it  no  longer  hopeless  to  procure 
 some  education  for  all  the  inhabitants  of 
 the  country.  In  the  early  years  of  the 
 nineteenth  century,  this  became  the  sub- 
 ject of  earnest  discussion  and  controversy  : 
 and  with  good  reason ;  for  it  seemed  an 
 obvious  consequence,  that  a  machinery  by 
 which  large  numbers  could  be  instructed 
 together,  would  place  in  the  hands  of  those 
 who  directed  that  instruction  a  powerful 
 moral  engine  to  affect  the  minds  of  the 
 rising  generation.  The  sectaries  were  not 
 slow  in  availing  themselves  of  that  engine  ; 
 and  as  the  religious  differences  of  dissent- 
 ing parents  were,  by  some,  considered  a 
 reason  against  their  children  using  the 
 catechism  of  the  Church,  it  was  main- 
 tained by  them,  that  nothing  should  be 
 taught  in  those  large  seminaries  except 
 such  truths  as  all  Christians,  of  every  com- 
 plexion and  denomination,  could  agree  to 
 accept.  Many  faithful  ministers  of  the 
 Church  felt  that  they  would  not  be  jus- 
 tified before  God  or  man  in  abdicating 
 one  of  their  most  essential  functions,  that 
 of  watching  the  instruction  of  their  young 
 parishioners,  and  they  recoiled  from  any 
 proposal  of  compromising  Di^dne  truths ; 
 accordingly,  they  were  found  strenuously 
 to  resist  that  scheme.     With  the  view  of 
 
 directing  the  education  of  the  poor  in  the 
 principles  of  the  National  Church,  in  the 
 year  1812  was  established  the  National 
 Society,  an  institution  which  has  ever 
 since,  by  various  methods,  assisted  our 
 schools  —  by  contributions  towards  their 
 erection  —  by  training  teachers — by  im- 
 parting advice  and  information — and  by 
 maintaining  consistency  and  efficiency  in 
 an  extensive  and  rather  compHcated  sys- 
 tem. It  was,  I  believe,  about  thirty  years 
 ago  that  this  momentous  subject  acquired 
 increased  importance  in  the  public  eye,  by 
 the  reports  of  an  Education  Committee  of 
 the  House  of  Commons ;  and  it  was  then 
 first  suggested,  that  an  object  of  such  vast 
 consequence  as  national  education  claimed 
 the  direct  assistance  of  the  State,  and  that 
 nothing  less  than  aid  from  the  public  purse 
 could  ever  compass  the  great  object  of  uni- 
 versal instruction.  But  it  was  not  until 
 the  year  1833,  that  the  least  assistance  was 
 rendered  by  the  government  or  parliament 
 towards  that  work.  Schools  had  indeed 
 increased  in  number,  and  the  public  mind 
 had  become  more  and  more  favourable  to 
 the  undertaking.  But  the  countenance 
 then  fii'st  given  to  popular  education  by 
 parliament,  seems  to  have  originated  in 
 political  considerations.  The  population 
 of  the  country  had  increased  with  sur- 
 prising rapidity ;  and  the  vast  numbers  of 
 poor  congregated  in  towns,  particularly  in 
 the  manufacturing  and  mining  districts, 
 left  far  behind  them  ail  the  efforts  of  pri- 
 vate benevolence.  At  the  same  time,  a 
 fearful  increase  was  observed  in  the  amount 
 of  crime ;  and  an  examination  of  the  un- 
 happy inmates  of  prisons  proved  that  a 
 great  majority  were  destitute  of  every 
 kind  of  instruction :  on  the  other  hand,  of 
 the  educated  part  of  the  poorer  classes, 
 very  few  were  discovered  in  the  criminal 
 ranks.  Such  considerations  showed  the 
 extreme  danger  of  suffering  masses  of  the 
 people  to  grow  up  in  ignorance  of  moral 
 and  religious  duties,  and  weighed  with 
 parliament  to  make  a  grant  towards  build- 
 ing school-rooms.  The  amount  was  indeed 
 trilling,  compared  with  the  demand,  being 
 only  £20,000  for  England  and  Wales  : 
 but  the  like  sum  was  repeated  for  five 
 successive  years  ;  and,  niggardly  as  these 
 grants  have  been  generally  called,  it  would 
 be  ungrateful  not  to  acknowledge  that 
 they  did  cause  a  great  extent  of  good 
 throughout  the  country.  The  money  grant- 
 ed by  the  treasury  being  proportioned  to 
 the  sums  advanced  by  private  subscrip- 
 tions, was  effectual  in  stimulating  a  large 
 amount  of  individual  charity,  and  thus 
 called  into  being  a  multitude  of  schools 
 
SCHOOLS. 
 
 697 
 
 that  could  not  otherwise  have  had  exist- 
 ence. The  treasmy  j^rants  bein^  conveyed 
 through  the  National  Society  to  Church 
 schools,  and  throu<]:h  the  British  and 
 Foreign  Society  to  ])iss(>ntiiig  schools,  to 
 meet  the  sums  respectively  subscribed,  the 
 result  was,  that  lu)  less  "than  live-sixths 
 of  the  whole  were  allotted  to  the  former; 
 thereby  giving  a  signal  i)roof  of  the  greater 
 zeal  in  the  cause  of  education  which  ani- 
 mated Churchmen. 
 
 "  However,  the  experience  of  so  many 
 years  too  plainly  showed  that  the  edu- 
 cation, if  such  it  could  be  called,  which 
 was  given  to  the  ])oor,  Avas  inadequate 
 and  unsatisfactory.  The  system  of  mutual 
 instruction,  though  to  a  certain  extent 
 useful  when  judiciously  directed,  was 
 found  not  to  be  capable  of  those  wonder- 
 ful effects  upon  which  sanguine  minds 
 had  calculated.  Besides,  the  early  age  at 
 which  children  were  generally  deprived  of 
 school  instruction,  through  the  necessities 
 or  the  cupidity  of  their  parents,  perpetual- 
 ly disappointed  the  hopes  of  their  intel- 
 lectual proficiency.  But,  above  all,  the  in- 
 adequate qualification  of  the  masters  and 
 mistresses  of  National  Schools  precluded 
 all  prospect  of  such  an  education  as  might 
 elevate  the  mind.  The  smallness  of  their 
 salaries,  mainly  depending  upon  pi'ecarious 
 subscriptions,  almost  excluded  persons  of 
 ability  and  energy  from  situations  in  which 
 those  qualities  are  peculiarly  required. 
 Frequently  the  instructors  of  the  rising 
 generation  were  persons  who  had  been 
 unsuccessful  in  their  endeavours  to  obtain 
 a  livelihood  in  other  lines  of  life,  who  had 
 never  turned  their  attention  to  the  subject 
 of  education,  and  were  destitute  of  the 
 temper,  discernment,  and  love  of  the  pro- 
 fession, which  should  be  combined  in  a 
 good  teacher  ;  and  a  few  weeks'  attendance 
 in  the  central  school  (when  funds  could 
 be  found  for  that  purpose)  was  seldom 
 sufficient  to  remedy  previous  ina))titude,  or 
 to  confer  appro])riate  habits  and  address. 
 Against  these  difficulties,  the  clergy,  feel- 
 ing that  upon  them  the  responsibility  was 
 cast,  long  struggled  with  exemjdary  zeal 
 and  patience;  a  state  of  things  which  still 
 continues.  ^Sfany  are  the  cases  where  the 
 whole  pecuniary  supjiort  of  a  school,  be- 
 yond the  weekly  jience  of  the  children, 
 rests  with  the  minister ;  and  whatever  is 
 of  any  value  in  the  teaching,  jiroceeds 
 from  himself,  or  the  members  of  his  family. 
 
 "  From  observation  of  these  and  other 
 defects  in  our  system,  and  from  a  deep 
 sense  of  the  duty  of  a  Christian  nation  to 
 bring  up  its  people  in  Christian  i)rinciples, 
 the  National  Society  promulgated  a  new 
 
 and  comprehensive  j-lan,  thu  object  of 
 winch  was  to  establish,  in  every  dioi-csc, 
 tranung  schools  for  teachers,  to  combine 
 them  with  seminaries  for  the  children  of 
 the  middU'  classes,  (who  had  before  been 
 unaccountably  overlooked  in  our  schemcH 
 of  national  education.)  and  to  give  i)orma- 
 nence  to  these  institutions  bv  connecting 
 them  with  the  cathedral  estal)lisluncnts  ; 
 while  it  was  hoped,  that  all  Churchmen  of 
 influence  and  education  might  be  inter- 
 ested in  the  care  and  promotion  of  the 
 system,  by  the  formation  of  diocesan 
 boards  of  education.  Tliis  important 
 movement  took  i)lace  in  the  year  1838; 
 and  though  the  results,  as  far  as  it  ha.s 
 ojjerated.  iuive  been  l)eneficial  to  the  cause 
 of  education,  yet  it  nuist  be  confessed,  that 
 tlie  success  of  the  scheme  has  not  equalled 
 the  anticij)ations  of  its  benevolent  and 
 enlightened  projectors.  The  pecuniary 
 sui)port  which  it  has  met  with  has  not 
 been  hitherto  sufficient  to  carry  into  exe- 
 cution the  contemi)lated  objects  to  the 
 required  extent :  the  effect,  however,  has, 
 on  the  whole,  been  considerable :  and  the 
 conviction  universally  produced  on  the 
 l)ublic  mind  seems  to  be,  that  without  an 
 a])jn-o])riate  education  to  be  given  to  the 
 teachers,  qualifying  them  to  comluct  the 
 moral  culture  of  the  youthful  mind,  all 
 efforts  at  useful  instruction  of  the  poor 
 will  be  illusory  ;  and  that  this  is  an  object 
 Avhich  must,  at  all  risks  and  all  cost,  he 
 ke])t  in  view.  Nevertheless,  no  one  can 
 fail  to  see  the  difiiculty  which  the  circum- 
 stances of  this  country  cast  in  the  way  of 
 any  training  system:  in  jiarticular,  the 
 acquirements  of  the  ])upils  being  of  such 
 a  nature  as  will  qualify  them  for  many 
 other  employments  better  remuiu'rated 
 than  the  mastershij)  of  a  charity  school,  it 
 is  always  to  be  feared  that  the  best  and 
 ablest  ])roficicnts  may  be  tem])ted  to  desert 
 the  profession  for  which  they  have  been 
 educated,  to  embark  in  one  more  Incrative 
 and  alluring. 
 
 "In  the  following  year  the  government 
 made  an  attempt  to' take  into  their  own 
 hands  the  guidance  of  national  education. 
 This  was  to  have  been  effected  by  vnriouH 
 steps,  by  the  establishment  of  a  model 
 school,  and  of  a  school  for  instructors,  ifor 
 Normal  school,  as  it  was  ternie<l.)  under 
 the  authority  and  dircctitm  of  a  Committee 
 of  the  J'rivy  Council,  who  were  constituted 
 a  i)oard  of  education,  with  a  great  latitude 
 of  discretion,  'i'he  former  rule  of  appro- 
 priating grants  of  ])ublic  money  in  n  just 
 proportion  to  voluntary  donations  was  to 
 be  no  longer  ol)served ;  but  a  centmlize<l 
 system  of  government  inspection  of  RchooU 
 
698 
 
 SCHOOLS. 
 
 and  of  the  course  of  instruction  was  an- 
 nounced. As  these  measures  were  pro- 
 posed by  statesmen  who  had  always  avowed 
 themselves  advocates  and  supporters  of 
 what  is  termed  the  British  and  Foreign 
 system,  as  they  opened  a  door  to  the 
 introduction  of  a  course  of  education  in 
 which  religion  might  have  little  or  no  share, 
 and  as  they  were  joyfully  hailed  by  that 
 party  in  the  country  Avhich  avowed  hos- 
 tility to  the  Church,  there  could  be  little 
 doubt  on  the  mind  of  anybody  as  to  their 
 tendency.  Though  the  operation  might 
 have  been  gradual,  yet  no  long  time  would 
 have  passed  before  the  Church  was  de- 
 posed from  one  of  its  most  important 
 functions,  and  that  upon  Avhich  its  ulterior 
 usefulness  among  the  poorer  classes  mainly 
 depends — the  early  instruction  of  their 
 youth.  This  must  be  regarded  as  the 
 great  crisis  of  the  education  question,  in 
 which  the  sentiments  of  all  who  had 
 thought  or  interested  themselves  in  the 
 matter  found  expression.  The  govern- 
 ment plan  was  upheld  by  those  who  wished 
 for  schools  in  which  instruction  might  be 
 confined,  as  in  those  of  France,  to  secular 
 knowledge — as  well  as  by  those  who  ad- 
 vocated the  notion  of  dividing  religious 
 instruction  into  general  and  special,  and 
 wished  to  communicate  the  former  in 
 schools,  but  to  exclude  the  latter,  as 
 bringing  into  collision  conflicting  opinions. 
 The  prevailing  judgment  of  the  public 
 was  indicated  by  petitions  to  parliament, 
 of  which  about  3000  were  against  the 
 proposals,  and  about  100  in  their  favour. 
 The  measure  was  only  carried  in  the 
 House  of  Commons,  with  all  the  weight 
 of  ministerial  influence,  by  a  majority  of 
 two,  while  in  the  Upper  House  resolutions 
 condemnatory  of  it  were  voted  by  a 
 majority  of  no  less  than  111;  and  an 
 address  was  carried  up  to  the  throne  by 
 the  whole  House,  praying  her  Majesty  not 
 to  enforce  a  system  which  interfered  with 
 the  province  of  the  Established  Church. 
 It  rarely  happens  that  upon  any  ques- 
 tion the  preponderance  of  public  opinion 
 throughout  all  classes  has  been  expressed 
 so  decidedly,  and  at  the  same  time  so 
 deliberately.  Its  first  result  was  of  a 
 very  remarkable  character.  The  distin- 
 guished and  eloquent  statesman,  the  founder 
 of  the  British  and  Foreign  School  Society, 
 who  had  signalized  the  whole  of  his  public 
 life  by  a  zealous  and  energetic  advocacy 
 of  the  comprehensive  system  of  education, 
 was  so  convinced  of  the  hopelessness  of 
 overcoming  the  prevalent  feeHng  in  favour 
 of  the  Church  as  general  instructress, 
 that  he  published  a  pamphlet,  to  persuade 
 
 those  who  had  co-operated  with  him  for 
 thu'ty  years  in  that  course  to  acquiesce 
 in  the  decision  which  public  opinion,  as 
 well  as  parliament,  had  pronounced  against 
 them  ;  and  urged,  with  his  usual  force  of 
 argument,  that  they  would  best  show 
 themselves  the  sincere  and  patriotic  ad- 
 vocates for  the  diffusion  of  knowledge,  by 
 agreeing  at  once  to  a  '  Church  Education 
 Bill.' 
 
 "  It  is  gratifying  to  contemplate  the 
 moderation  with  which  the  Church  used 
 the  triumph  of  opinion  declared  in  her 
 favour,  and  the  substantial  proof  which 
 she  gave  of  the  sincerity  of  her  zeal  for 
 intellectual  improvement.  The  deplorable 
 ignorance  in  which  multitudes  were  suf- 
 fered to  grow  up  in  the  populous  manu- 
 facturing and  mining  districts,  and  the 
 inadequacy  of  any  voluntary  efforts  in 
 their  favour,  had  been  used  as  the  great 
 argument  for  devolving  all  care  of  them 
 and  their  instruction  upon  the  State  ;  ac- 
 cordingly, a  special  fund  was  immediately 
 subscribed,  and  intrusted  to  the  National 
 Society,  for  maintaining  schools  in  those 
 populous  districts,  amounting  to  not  less 
 than  £150,000,  five  times  the  sum  voted 
 at  the  time  by  parliament  for  the  whole 
 kingdom.  A  disposition  was  likewise 
 shown  to  meet,  as  far  as  possible,  the 
 views  of  the  government  in  regard  to 
 schools  whose  erection  had  been  aided  by 
 parliamentary  grants ;  it  being  agreed 
 that  they  should  be  open  to  government 
 inspection,  on  condition  that  the  inspectors 
 of  Church  schools  were  to  be  persons 
 recommended  by  the  archbishops  of  the 
 respective  provinces. 
 
 "  J3uring  the  last  seven  years  the  system 
 of  inspection  has  been  in  progress,  and,  I 
 think,  with  singular  benefit  to  the  cause 
 of  education.  The  examination  of  a  num- 
 ber of  schools  by  able  and  intelligent 
 observers  (and  such  qualifications  the  in- 
 spectors eminently  display)  has  thrown 
 much  light  upon  a  subject  in  which  there 
 must  ever  be  some  practical  difficulty. 
 Through  a  comparison  of  difterent  cases, 
 it  becomes  evident  what  methods  are  most 
 successful  in  practice  ;  and  it  can  be  satis- 
 factorily ascertained  in  which  instances 
 failure  is  attributable  to  the  plan,  and  in 
 which  to  the  execution.  The  inspectors' 
 reports,  comprising  a  mine  of  valuable  in- 
 formation, will  be  found  in  the  volumes 
 of  the  Committee  of  Council,  which  also 
 communicate  a  variety  of  plans  for  school- 
 rooms and  school-houses,  directions  use- 
 ful for  building  and  conducting  schools, 
 improvements  introduced  from  time  to 
 time,  and  a  large  body  of  economics  con- 
 
SCHOOLS. 
 
 699 
 
 ducive  to  the  improvement  of  humble 
 education.  Amonj^  all  the  truths  which 
 have  been  established  upon  this  interesting 
 subject,  the  most  important  is,  that  the 
 instructor  should  himself  have  received 
 early  training:,  not  merely  that  he  may  be 
 qualified  to  conduct  the  mechanical  ])ro- 
 cess  of  a  school,  but  may  have  such  ac- 
 quaintance -with  the  tem])ers  and  characters 
 of  children,  and  such  skill  in  mana^in<^ 
 them,  as  experience  alone  can  confer. 
 Above  all,  it  is  necessary  that  he  should 
 himself  be  thoroug'hly  imbued  with  re- 
 lip^ious  princi})les,  without  which  there  is 
 little  chance  of  his  im])arting  that  tone  of 
 Christian  discipline  which  should  ])ervade 
 the  whole  of  his  intercourse  with  the 
 scholars.  That  there  may  not  be  wantinu^ 
 a  supply  of  fit  and  able  persons  to  fill 
 these  stations,  it  is  particularly  desirable 
 that,  M'henever  a  boy  is  distinguished  in  a 
 national  school  for  ability  and  good  dis- 
 position, he  should  be  retained  beyond 
 the  usual  age,  both  for  his  own  improve- 
 ment and  for  the  service  of  the  school ; 
 and  if  means  can  be  found  to  constitute 
 him  a  stipendiary  monitor,  the  real  be- 
 nefits of  the  monitorial  system  will  be 
 perceived,  without  the  objections  to  which 
 it  has  been  found  liable.  Such  a  pupil 
 may  have  further  instruction  after  school 
 hours,  and,  if  his  manners  and  con- 
 duct correspond  with  his  ability,  may  be- 
 come an  apprentice  teacher  ;  he  will  then 
 be  qualified  as  a  recijiient  of  the  higher 
 instruction  communicated  at  a  training 
 establishment  for  schoolmasters,  or,  as  it 
 is  the  fashion  to  call  it,  a  normal  school." 
 Mr.  Johnston,  in  his  "  England  in  the 
 Middle  of  the  Nineteenth  Century,"  pub- 
 lished 1851,  after  quoting  this,  proceeds 
 to  say,  "  The  hopes  which  the  good  bishop 
 entertained  of  a  continued  cordiality  of 
 co-operation  between  the  National  Society, 
 as  the  organ  of  the  Church,  and  the  Com- 
 mittee of  ^ri^T  Council  as  the  educational 
 department  of  the  civil  government,  have 
 not  been  quite  fulfilled.  The  parlia- 
 mentary grants  of  public  money  in  sup- 
 port of  education  were  indeed  increased, 
 having  been,  from  1839  to  1842,  £:i(),()0() 
 a-vcar;  in  1843  and  1844,  £40,000  a-vear; 
 in*  1845,  £75,000;  in  1840,  £100,000 ';  and 
 in  1847  and  1848,  £125,000  a-year;  but 
 in  1846  the  Committee  of  Privy  Council 
 began  to  insist  upon  certain  conditions  of 
 management  in  the  Church  of  ICngland 
 schools  assisted  with  public  money,  which 
 led  to  a  correspondence  with  the  National 
 Society,  extending  over  a  ])eriod  of  three 
 years,  and  terminating  in  a  resolution  of 
 the  Society  not  to  rcconmiend  to  promoters 
 
 of  schools  to  accept  the  nmnageuu'nt 
 clauses  nisisted  ujion  by  the  Conuniltce  of 
 Privy  Council.  Tlie  convspondi-nce  on 
 both  sides  is  distinguished  by  considtTuble 
 caution  and  much  courtcsv.  In  si-venil 
 l)oints  the  Committee  of  'Privy  Council 
 readily  conceded  what  was  required  by 
 the  National  Society,  but  in  the  main 
 l)oints  of  imi)osiiig  more  restriction  upon 
 the  promoters  of  schools  than  the  National 
 Society  thought  desirable,  and  in  refusing 
 to  allow  the  bishop  to  exercise  authority 
 over  the  Church  of  J-'ngland  schools,  ex- 
 cept in  what  concerned  directly  the  re- 
 ligious instruction  of  the  pupils,  'the  Com- 
 mittee of  Privy  Council  continued  to 
 ojjpose  the  views  of  the  Church.  The 
 actual  and  officially  recognised  difference 
 between  the  state  of  affairs  as  regards  thin 
 subject,  at  the  time  the  Hisho])  of  Glou- 
 cester delivered  his  charge  and  at  the 
 present  time  (1850),  is  this, — that  whereas 
 the  Committee  of  the  National  Society  in 
 1846  and  1847  agreed  with  the  Committee 
 of  Privy  Council  jointly  to  recommend 
 certain  management  clauses  to  promoters 
 of  schools,  they  now  have  declined  to 
 recommend  such  clauses,  and  this  they 
 have  done  on  the  following  grounds  : — la 
 times  past  the  Committee  of  the  National 
 Society  never  interfered  with  the  con- 
 stitution of  schools,  but  left  them  to  be 
 determined  by  the  promoters.  It  wa.s 
 found,  however,  that  in  very  numerous 
 instances  the  constitution  chosen  by  the 
 promoters  Avas  defective.  At  the  time 
 mentioned  the  Committee  of  Privy  Council 
 asked  the  National  Society  to  rvcumnuud 
 certain  clauses,  to  which  the  Society  as- 
 sented, with  this  proviso — that  ])romoters 
 of  schools  should  have  the  same  liberty  of 
 choice  as  had  hitherto  been  conceded  to 
 them  by  the  Committee  of  Privy  Council 
 and  the  National  Society.  The  Society, 
 however,  found,  in  the  beginning  of  181K, 
 that  by  recommendation  the  Committee  of 
 Privy  Council  meant  enforcemenf,  and  that 
 no  new  school  would  be  aided  by  the 
 Committee  of  Privy  Council  in  the  build- 
 ing, which  would  not  receive  one  of  the 
 four  management  clauses  ;  and  not  only 
 that,  but  the  one  particular  clause  out  of 
 the  four  which  the  Committee  of  Privy 
 Council  thought  best  for  that  ])aiiiculnr 
 school.  Upon  this  the  Committee  of  the 
 National  Society  remonstrated  against 
 what  they  consid'ered  an  infringement  of 
 reasonable  libertv,  and  they  also  remarked 
 upon  several  points  in  the  clauses  which 
 in  their  ojiinion  would  be  made  better  by 
 alteration.  On  most  of  these  points  the 
 Committee  of  Privy  Council   gave    v^ay; 
 
700 
 
 SCHOOLS. 
 
 SCHOOLMEN. 
 
 but  on  the  question  of  liberty,  that  Com- 
 mittee would  not  give  way,  and  they  still 
 continue  to  enforce  one  of  these  manage- 
 ment clauses  where  public  money  is 
 granted,  and  that  one  selected  by  them- 
 selves. Therefore  the  Committee  of  the 
 National  Society  declined  to  continue  to 
 recommend  the  clauses  ;  but  they  have 
 not  ceased  to  give  the  same  proportion  of 
 aid  out  of  their  funds  to  all  cases  of 
 school  building,  whether  aided  by  the 
 Committee  of  Council  or  not ;  and  there- 
 fore whether  adopting  one  of  the  manage- 
 ment clauses  or  not.  The  actual  and 
 formal  breach  between  the  National  So- 
 ciety and  the  Committee  of  Privy  Council 
 has  not  gone  beyond  this.  In  respect  to 
 general  matters  the  same  interchange  of 
 communication  as  heretofore  goes  on  be- 
 tween the  government  department  and 
 the  National  Society.  The  training  in- 
 stitutions supported  by  the  Society  are,  as 
 in  times  past,  examined  by  her  Majesty's 
 inspectors  of  schools,  and  certificates  of 
 merit  awarded  to  the  pupils  therein. 
 Payments  are  also  made  to  these  insti- 
 tutions out  of  the  parliamentary  grant 
 in  pursuance  of  such  certificates,  and  the 
 annual  grant  of  £1000  towards  the  sup- 
 port of  those  institutions  is  still  paid  by 
 the  Committee  of  Council." 
 
 Thus  matters  stood  until  1852,  w^hen 
 the  sum  granted  by  parliament  to  be  ap- 
 plied in  aid  of  schools  by  the  Committee 
 of  Council  was  £160,000  for  the  year.  At 
 the  same  time  the  lords  of  the  council 
 made  an  alteration  in  the  minutes  go- 
 verning the  appropriation  of  aid  to  the 
 building  or  enlarging  of  Church  of  Eng- 
 land schools  ;  leaving  it  optional  with 
 founders  who  petitioned  for  aid,  either  to 
 take  it  upon  such  conditions  as  previously 
 existed,  or  upon  certain  neAV  conditions. 
 These  new  conditions  give  the  clergyman 
 of  the  parish  or  district  more  direct  au- 
 thority over  the  religious  and  moral  in- 
 struction of  the  pupils  than  was  expressed 
 in  the  previous  conditions,  and  they  en- 
 able him  to  prohibit,  (on  religious  or  moral 
 grounds,)  the  use  of  any  book,  and  to  sus- 
 pend the  teacher  from  his  functions,  pending 
 the  decision  of  the  question  by  the  bishop 
 of  the  diocese,  whose  decision  is  to  be  final. 
 
 The  new  minutes  of  1852  were  not  main- 
 tained by  the  succeeding  government.  The 
 grant  for  public  education  in  1853  was 
 £260,000,  and  in  1854,  £263,000,  exclu- 
 sive of  the  grant  for  Ireland.  In  1852,  by 
 the  15  &  16  Vic.  c.  49,  the  acts  referred  to 
 in  this  article  relating  to  sites  of  schools, 
 were^  extended  ta  sites  for  theological 
 training  colle^^es. 
 
 SCHOOLMEN.  The  title  given  to  a 
 class  of  learned  theologians  who  flourished 
 in  the  middle  ages.  They  derive  their 
 name  from  the  schools  attached  to  the 
 cathedrals  or  universities  in  which  they 
 lectured.  Some  make  Lanfranc  (William 
 the  Conqueror's  archbishop  of  Canterbury) 
 the  first  author  of  scholastic  theology ; 
 others,  the  famous  Abelard  ;  others,  his 
 master  Roscelinus ;  and  others  again  his 
 pupil  Peter  Lombard.  But  the  most  dis- 
 tinguished of  the  Schoolmen  lived  in  the 
 next  century.  The  scholastic  theology  was 
 the  first  attempt  at  forming  a  systematic 
 theology.  Their  first  step  towards  a  sys- 
 tematic theology  was  to  collect  the  sen- 
 tences of  the  Fathers  ;  the  next  step  was  to 
 harmonize  them  by  reducing  them  to  prin- 
 ciples. This  could  only  be  done  by  the 
 application  of  philosophy  to  divinity,  for 
 philosophy  unfolds  the  princijDles  of  rea- 
 soning. The  Schoolmen,  therefore,  had 
 recourse  to  the  reigning  philosophy,  that 
 of  Aristotle ;  and  Thomas  Aquinas,  in  his 
 Secimda  Seciindce,  i.  e.  the  second  part  of 
 the  second  division  of  the  "  Sum  of  The- 
 ology," has  given  the  best  and  clearest 
 exposition  of  Aristotle's  Ethics  to  be  met 
 with  out  of  Aristotle  himself.  The  great 
 error  of  the  Schoolmen,  which  has  occa- 
 sioned the  ruin  of  their  theology,  was  this, 
 that,  instead  of  taking  the  Bible  only  for 
 their  basis,  they  took  the  Church  for  their 
 first  authority,  and  made  the  Bible  only  a 
 part  of  the  Church's  teaching. 
 
 The  doctrine  of  the  Schoolmen,  of  our 
 deserving  grace  of  congruity,  is  censured 
 in  our  13th  Article. 
 
 The  Schoolmen  were : 
 
 1 .  Albertus  Magnus,  a  Dominican  friar, 
 born  in  Suabia.  He  was  educated  in  the 
 university  of  Paris,  and  was  Thomas  Aqui- 
 nas's  master.  Pope  Alexander  IV.  sent 
 for  him  to  Home,  where  he  officiated  as 
 master  of  the  sacred  palace :  and  Urban 
 IV.  forced  him  to  accept  of  the  bishopric 
 of  Ratisbon.  He  died  at  Cologne,  in  the 
 year  1280.  Albert  wrote  a  great  number 
 of  books  ;  and,  in  those  days  of  ignorance, 
 was  accused  of  magic,  and  of  having  a 
 brazen  head,  which  gave  him  answers. 
 
 2.  Bonaventure,  surnamed  the  Seraphic 
 Doctor,  born  at  Bagnarea,  a  city  of  Tus- 
 cany, in  1221.  He  entered  into  the  order 
 of  the  Minims,  in  1233,  and  followed  his 
 studies  in  the  university  of  Paris,  where 
 he  afterwards  taught  divinity,  and  took  his 
 doctor's  degree  with  St.  Thomas  Aquinas 
 in  1255.  Next  year  he  was  elected  general 
 of  his  order  ;  and  Gregory  X.  made  him  a 
 cardinal  in  1272,  He  assisted  at  the  first 
 sessions  of  the  General  Council  of  Lyons, 
 
SCHOOLMEN. 
 
 held  in  1279,  and  died  before  it  was  ended. 
 His  works  are  very  numerous,  and  equally 
 replete  with  piety  and  learning. 
 
 3.  Thomas  Aquinas,  suniamcd  the  An- 
 gelical  Doctor,  was  descended  of  tlie  kini>s 
 of  Sicily  and  Aragon,  and  was  born  in  the 
 year  1224,  in  the  castle  of  Aquin,  which  is 
 in  the  territory  of  Lahore  in  Italy.  After 
 having  been  educated  in  the  monastery  of 
 Mount  Cassino,  he  was  sent  to  Xaplcs, 
 where  he  studied  Humanity  and  Philoso- 
 phy, In  1244,  he  went  to  Cologne  to 
 study  under  Albertus  jNIagnus.  From 
 thence  he  went  to  Paris,  where  he  took  his 
 doctor's  degree  in  12o<5.  He  returned  into 
 Italy  in  1263  ;  and,  after  having  taught 
 Scholastic  Divinity  in  most  of  tlie  uni- 
 versities of  that  country,  he  settled  at  last 
 at  Naples.  In  1274,  being  sent  for  by 
 Gregory  X.,  to  assist  in  the  Council  of 
 Lyons,  he  fell  sick  on  the  road,  and  died 
 in  the  monastery  of  Fossanova,  near  Ter- 
 racina.  Among  the  great  number  of  his 
 works,  which  make  seventeen  volumes  in 
 j  folio,  his  Summa  is  the  most  famous,  being 
 j  a  large  collection  of  theological  questions. 
 !  4.  Scotus,  or  John  Duns   Scotus,  sur- 
 
 named  the  Suhtile  Doctor,  was  a  Scotch- 
 man by  birth,  and  came  to  Paris  about  the 
 year  1300,  where  he  took  his  degrees,  and 
 taught  in  that  city.  He  particularly  taught 
 the  immaculate  conception  of  the  Blessed 
 Virgin.  From  Paris  he  went  to  Boulogne, 
 where  he  died  soon  after,  in  1303.  Ac- 
 cording to  the  custom  of  the  times,  he  wrote 
 many  philosophical  and  theological  works, 
 in  which  he  valued  himself  upon  maintain- 
 ing opinions  contrary  to  those  of  Thomas 
 Aquinas.  This  gave  rise  to  the  opposite 
 sects  of  the  Scotists  and  Thomists. 
 
 5.  "William  Ocham,  surnamed  the  Sinf/u- 
 lar  Doctor,  was  born  in  a  village  of  that 
 name,  in  the  county  of  Surrey,  in  England. 
 He  was  the  head  of  the  sect  called  the 
 Nominalists.  He  flourished  in  the  uni- 
 versity of  Paris,  in  the  beginning  of  the 
 fourteenth  century,  and  wrote  a  book  con- 
 cerning the  power  of  the  Church  and  of  the 
 State,  to  defend  Philij)  the  Fair  against 
 Pope  Boniface  VIII.  He  was  one  of  the 
 grand  adversaries  of  Po])e  Jolin  XXII.,  wlio 
 excommunicated  him  for  taking  ])art  with 
 the  anti-pope  Peter  of  Corbario.  He  ended 
 his  days  at  Munich,  tlie  court  of  the  Elec- 
 tor of  Bavaria,  who  had  received  him 
 kindly. 
 
 6.  Raymond  Lully,  descended  of  an 
 illustrious  family  in  Catalonia,  was  born  in 
 tlie  island  of  Majorca  in  123G.  He  was 
 of  the  order  of  the  Minims,  and  had  ac- 
 quired a  great  knowledge  of  tlie  Oriental 
 languages.      He  invented  a  new  method 
 
 SCRIPTURE. 
 
 rol 
 
 of  reasoning,  but  could  not  obtain  leave 
 from  Honorius  IV.  to  teach  it  ut  Home. 
 Then  he  resolvod  to  execute  the  design  lie 
 had  long  formed  of  endeavcniring  the  con- 
 version of  the  Mohammedans.  Having 
 gone  to  Tunis,  he  had  a  conference  with 
 the  Saracens,  in  which  he  run  the  risk  of 
 his  life,  and  escaped  only  upon  condition 
 he  would  go  out  of  Africa.  He  came  to 
 Naples,  where  he  taught  his  method  till 
 the  year  1200.  At  Genoa  he  wrote  several 
 books.  From  thence  he  went  to  Paris, 
 where  he  taught  his  art.  After  several 
 travels  and  adventures,  he  returned  to  Ma- 
 jorca, from  whence  he  went  over  into 
 Africa,  where  he  was  imjirisoned  by  the 
 Saracens,  and  so  ill-treated,  that  he'  died 
 of  his  wounds.  He  had  found  out  the 
 secret  of  making  a  jargon  ])roper  to  dis- 
 course of  everything,  without  learning  any- 
 thing in  i)ar'ticular,  by  ranging  cerium 
 general  terms  under  different  classes. 
 
 7.  Durandus,  surnamed  the  Most  re- 
 soJviiH/  Doctor,  was  of  St.  Pourcain,  a 
 village  in  the  diocese  of  Clermont,  in  Au- 
 vergne,  and  flourished  in  the  university  of 
 Paris  from  1313  to  1318,  in  which  year  he 
 was  named  by  the  pope,  bishoj)  of  Puy, 
 from  whence  he  was  transferred  to  the 
 bishojiric  of  Meaux,  which  he  governed  to 
 the  time  of  his  death. 
 
 8.  To  these  may  be  added,  Giles,  arch- 
 bishop of  Bourges,  surnamed  the  Doctor 
 who  had  a  f/ood  Fowtdution ;  Peter  Aure- 
 olus,  archbishop  of  Aix,  styled  the  Eloquent 
 Doctor;  Augustin  Trium])hus,  of  Ancona, 
 who  wrote  the  Mil/clo(ji(i>i»t  of  St.  Augus- 
 tin ;  Albert  of  Padua  ;  Francis  Mairon,  of 
 Digne  in  Provence;  Kobert  Holkot,  an 
 English  divine;  Thomas  Bradwardin,  an 
 Englishman,  surnamed  the  Profound  Duc- 
 tor,  author  of  a  treatise  de  Causa  Dei 
 against  Pelagius  ;  and  Gregory  of  Kimini, 
 author  of  two  commentaries  on  the  First 
 and  Second  Books  of  Sentences. 
 
 SCOTLAND.  (See  Church  in  Scotland.) 
 SCBEEN.  Any  separation  of  one  part 
 of  a  church  from  another,  generally  of 
 light  construction,  tabernacle  work,  open 
 arcading,  or  wood  tracery.  The  screens 
 separating  side  chaj)els  from  the  chancel, 
 nave,  or  transe])t,  are  usually  called  par- 
 clo  es.     (See  Jioo<l-/oft  and  lirredos.) 
 
 SCUIPTUUE.  (See  Jiihie.)  "Holy 
 Scri])ture  containeth  all  things  necessary 
 to  salvation  ;  so  that  whatsoever  is  not 
 read  therein,  nor  may  be  proved  thereby, 
 is  not  to  be  required  of  any  man,  that  it 
 should  be  believed  ns  an  article  of  the 
 faith,  or  be  thought  recpiisite  or  necessar)* 
 to  salvation.  In  the  name  of  the  Holy 
 Scripture   we   do    understand    those    ca- 
 
702 
 
 SCRIPTURE. 
 
 nonical  books  of  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
 ment, of  whose  authority  was  never  any 
 doubt  m  the  Church. 
 
 "  Of  the  Karnes  awl  Number  of  the 
 Canonical  Books. 
 Genesis. 
 Exodus. 
 Leviticus. 
 Numbers. 
 Deuteronomy. 
 Joshua. 
 Judges. 
 Ruth. 
 
 The  First  Book  of  Samuel. 
 The  Second  Book  of  Samuel. 
 The  First  Book  of  Kin^s. 
 The  Second  Book  of  Kings. 
 The  First  Book  of  Clironicles. 
 The  Second  Book  of  Chronicles. 
 The  First  Book  of  Esdras. 
 The  Second  Book  of  Esdi-as. 
 The  Book  of  Esther. 
 The  Book  of  Job. 
 The  Psalms. 
 The  Proverbs. 
 Ecclesiastes,  or  Preacher. 
 Cantica,  or  Songs  of  Solomon. 
 Four  Prophets  the  Greater. 
 Twelve  Prophets  the  Less. 
 
 "And  the  other  Books  (as  Hierome 
 saith)  the  Church  doth  read  for  example 
 of  life,  and  instruction  of  manners;  but 
 yet  doth  it  not  apply  them  to  establish  any 
 doctrine  :  such  are  these  following  : 
 
 The  Third  Book  of  Esdras. 
 
 The  Fourth  Book  of  Esdi-as. 
 
 The  Book  of  Tobias. 
 
 The  Book  of  Judith. 
 
 The  rest  of  the  Book  of  Esther. 
 
 The  Book  of  Wisdom. 
 
 Jesus,  the  Son  of  Sirach. 
 
 Baruch  the  Prophet. 
 
 The  Song  of  the  Three  Children. 
 
 The  Story  of  Susanna. 
 
 Of  Bel  and  the  Dragon. 
 
 The  Prayer  of  Manas ses. 
 
 The  First  Book  of  ^Maccabees. 
 
 The  Second  Book  of  Maccabees. 
 
 All  the  Books  of  the  New  Testament,  as 
 they  are  commonly  received,  we  do  re- 
 ceive, and  account  them  canonical."  — 
 Article  VI. 
 
 The  Jews  acknowledge  the  Books  of  the 
 Old  Testament  only,  Avhich  both  Jews  and 
 Christians  agree  were  collected  into  one 
 body,  except  the  Book  of  Malachi,  by 
 Ezra.  They  had  been  preserved  during 
 the  Babylonish  captivity,  and  the  collec- 
 tion was  made  by  him  on  the  return  from 
 it.     He  divided  the  Bible,  {n'^pt^)  tm'kra, 
 
 lesso7i,  lecture,  or  Scripture,  BiftXog,  {the 
 Book,)  into  three  parts  :  1.  The  Law,  con- 
 taining the  Pentateuch,  or  five  books  of 
 Moses  ;  2.  The  Prophets,  containing  thir- 
 teen books ;  and  3.  The  Hagiographa, 
 four  books,  making  in  the  whole  twenty- 
 two,  the  number  of  letters  in  the  Hebrew 
 alphabet,  but  which  the  Jews  now  make 
 twenty-four. 
 
 The  first  (the  Law)  was  divided  into 
 fifty-four  sections,  for  the  several  sabbaths, 
 (Avith  the  intercalated  month,)  and  these 
 sections  into  verses.  The  division  into 
 chapters,  which  were  originally  subdivided 
 by  letters,  not  figures  as  now,  is  of  late 
 date,  and  was  done  to  facilitate  the  use  of 
 concordances. 
 
 Some  Books  are  cited  in  the  Old  Tes- 
 tament which  are  now  lost,  unless  the 
 same  as  others,  under  different  names ;  as, 
 
 I.  "The  Book  of  Jasher"  (Josh.  x.  13; 
 2  Sam.  i.  18) ;  2.  "  The  Book  of  the  Wars 
 of  the  Lord  "  (Numb.  xxi.  14) ;  3.  "  The 
 Book  of  Chronicles  or  Days,"  containing 
 the  annals  of  the  kingdoms  of  Israel  and 
 Judah,  frequently  cited  in  the  Books  of 
 Kings  and  Chronicles  ;  4.  The  remainder 
 of  Solomon's  "  three  thousand  proverbs," 
 and  "  a  thousand  and  five  songs,"  and  the 
 whole  of  his  writings  on  natural  history, 
 "  of  trees,"  "  of  beasts,  and  of  fowl,  and  of 
 creeping  things,  and  of  fishes"  (1  Kings 
 iv.  32,  33) ;  and  5.  Probably  the  Lament- 
 ations of  Jeremiah  on  the  death  of  Josiah, 
 as  this  subject  seems  not  included  in  the 
 book  now  extant.  Some  think  that  the 
 first,  the  Book  of  Jasher,  is  the  same  as  the 
 second ;  others,  the  Books  of  Moses  ;  and 
 others  think  the  first  three  are  the  same, 
 and  were  public  records  deposited  in  the 
 house  of  God.  It  is  very  probable  that 
 the  references  to  these  books,  from  the 
 sense  of  them,  were  subsequent  introduc- 
 tions. 
 
 Hebrew  was  the  language  of  the  Old 
 Testament  generally,  but  Ezra,  ch.  iv.,  from 
 verse  8  to  ch.  vi.  verse  19,  and  ch.  vii., 
 from  verse  12  to  27,  Jeremiah,  ch.  x.  verse 
 
 II,  and  Daniel,  from  ch.  ii.  verse  4,  to  end 
 of  ch.  vii.,  are  in  Chaldee.  The  Books  of 
 the  New  Testament  were  -wTitten  in  Greek, 
 except,  only,  it  has  been  questioned  whe- 
 ther St.  Matthew  did  not  write  in  Hebrew, 
 or  Syriac,  the  language  then  spoken  in 
 Judea ;  and  St.  Mark  in  Latin ;  and  whether 
 the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  was  not  first 
 written  in  Hebrew. 
 
 Vrhether  the  art  of  writing  had  its 
 origin  in  the  communication  of  God  with 
 Moses  on  Mount  Sinai,  is  doubtful.  Some 
 imagine  that  the  passage,  Gen.  xxiii.  17, 
 is  an  actual  abridgment  of  the  conveyance 
 
SCRIPTURE. 
 
 of  the  field  of  Ephron  made  to  Abraham. 
 It  is  certainly  not  improbable  that  tlie 
 patriai*chs  might  have  com])iled  records  of 
 their  time,  and  that  by  ins])iration  ;  and 
 that  Moses  might  coHect  these,  as  l-lzra 
 did  in  after-times.  And  this  is  argued  by 
 some  from  a  supposed  ditierence  of  style. 
 Moses  himself  was  expressly  directed  to 
 write  by  way  of  record ;  a  custom  which 
 continued  under  the  Judges  and  the  Kings, 
 some  of  the  latter  of  whom  collected  and 
 arranged  the  books  then  existing  ;  as  it  is 
 clear  Hezekiah  did  the  proverbs  of  Solo- 
 mon. The  projihecies  of  Jeremiah,  we 
 know,  were  publicly  read  ;  and  when  Ezra 
 made  his  collection,  the  number  of  copies 
 was  great,  and  the  difference  existing  be- 
 tween them  is  supposed  to  form  the 
 marginal  readings,  amounting  in  all  to 
 840.  It  was  after  his  time  that  transla- 
 tions began  to  be  made. 
 
 The  preservation  of  the  sacred  Scrip- 
 tures, and  of  the  genuineness  and  integrity 
 of  the  text,  seems  almost  miraculous.  It 
 was  in  order  to  this  that  the  Masora  was 
 composed,  by  which  was  ascertained,  with 
 stupendous  labour,  the  number  of  verses, 
 of  M'ords,  and  even  of  letters,  contained  in 
 the  tAventy-four  books  of  the  Old  Testa- 
 ment, and"  in  every  section  and  subdivi- 
 sion ;  and  also  the  words  supposed  to  be 
 changed,  superfluous  letters,  repetitions  of 
 verses  and  words,  significations  diflerent  or 
 analogous,  mute  letters,  and  various  other 
 particulars  and  mysteries. 
 
 The  Targum  (explanation)  is  the  Chal- 
 dee  Paraphrase ;  being  this  rather  than 
 literal  translations  of  the  books  of  the 
 Old  Testament,  and  by  which,  when  the 
 Hebrew  text  was  read  in  the  synagogue, 
 it  was  explained  to  the  people.  The  first 
 Targum  was  that  of  Jonathan,  about  thirty 
 years  before  Christ,  on  the  greater  and 
 lesser  Prophets.  The  next  is  that  of 
 Onkelos,  nearly  contemporary,  or  some- 
 thing later,  on  the  Books  of  Moses  only, 
 short  and  simple,  and  the  most  esteemed. 
 The  Targum  of  Joseph  the  lilind,  on  the 
 Hagiographa,  is  more  modern,  in  a  corrujjt 
 Chaldee,  and  less  regarded.  The  Targum 
 of  Jerusalem,  on  the  Pentateuch  only,  is 
 very  imj)erfect,  and  su])posed  by  some  to 
 be  only  a  fragment.  Besides  these  there 
 is  a  Targum  falsely  ascribed  to  Jonathan, 
 on  the  Pentateuch,  evidently  not  older 
 than  the  7th  century  :  the  Targums  on  Ec- 
 clesiastcs,  Canticles,  Lamentations,  Kuth, 
 Esther:  three  Targums  on  Esther,  and  a 
 Targum  on  the  Chronicles,  discovered  in 
 ]  680  :  all  these  arc  of  late  date,  not  earlier 
 than  the  6th  century.  On  Daniel,  Ezra, 
 and  Nehemiah,  there  is  no  Targum. 
 
 SCRIPTURE,  CANON  OF 
 
 ro3 
 
 Most  of  the  MSS.  of  the  Hebrew  liihle 
 at  present  in  existence  were  collulod  hv 
 and  for  ])r.  Kcnnicott,  250  bv  hininclf, 
 and  '650  by  another,  l)i'ing  froin  4H()  to 
 800  years  ohl.  Since  tliis  more  than  -lOO 
 others,  of  tlic  7th  or  8th  centurv,  have 
 been  discovered.  Dr.  Rossi  followed  up 
 Dr.  Kennicott's  work. 
 
 The  first  ]>rinted  edition  of  the  whole 
 Bible  was  in  1488  ;  the  first  Eatin  trann- 
 lation  was  by  Muuster,  in  15.'H.  The 
 Septuagint  was  j)robably  the  first  Greek 
 version;  to  which  foHowed  those  of  Svm- 
 maclius  and  Tlieodotion,  with  tliree  othcni 
 by  unknown  autliors.  The  Septuagint, 
 (a  traushition  supposed  to  have  been  by 
 seventy-two  Jews.)  caUed  for  conciseness 
 "  the  Seventy,"  was  made  in  tlie  reign  of 
 Ptolemy  Pliiiadel])hus,  b.  c.  *J77,  at  an  ex- 
 pense of  al)ove  £i;36.()00.  There  are  four 
 principal  modern  editions  :  tlie  Comphitcn- 
 sian,  .\.  D.  1514— 1517;  the  Aldine.  1518; 
 the  Roman  of  Sixtus  V.,  1587  :  and  (Jrabe's, 
 printed  at  Oxford.  1707—1720.  In  1708, 
 Dr.  Holmes  began  j)ublishing  an  edition 
 at  Oxford,  carried  on  since  his  death  bv 
 Mr.  Parsons,  on  the  plan  of  KennicottS 
 Hebrew  Bible  with  the  various  readings 
 in  tlie  margin. 
 
 Tlie  first  edition  of  the  New  Testament  in 
 Greek  was  the  Comjilutcnsian,  1514 — 1517, 
 though  not  published  till  1522.  Next  that 
 of  Erasmus,  in  1516.  The  editions  of  the 
 Stephenses  (1546 — 1550)  are  admirable  for 
 their  beauty.  The  editions  of  Beza,  1565 
 — 1598,  and  Elzevir,  1024,  are  also  to  be 
 noticed.  The  celebrated  edition,  with  vari- 
 ous readings,  of  the  Rev.  Jolin  Mill,  was 
 published  at  Oxford  in  1707,  after  the 
 labour  of  thirty  years,  and  the  readings 
 amounted  to  3()'.()6o !  That  of  Wctstein,  at 
 Amsterdam,  in  1751,  with  a  far  greater 
 number;  and  that  of  Griesbach,  at  Halle, 
 in  1775 — 1777,  with  a  select  collection  of 
 these  readings. 
 
 With  this  great  number  of  variou.s 
 readings  may  i)e  mentioned  the  increase 
 of  ])arallel  passages,  in  the  English  edi- 
 tions of  the  Bible;  being,  from  tlie  edition 
 1611,  when  they  were  first  introduced,  to 
 Bishop  Wilson's  Bihle,  A.  D.  1785,  from 
 8080  to  66.055.  And  these  in  the  "Con- 
 cordance of  Parallels."  published  after- 
 wards by  the  Rev.  C.  Cruttwell,  the  editor 
 of  this  hist  Bil)l(',  are  probably  three  or 
 four  times  tiic  number. 
 
 SCJilPTCRE,  CA.VOX  OF.  The  pre- 
 sent canon  of  the  Roman  Church  was  made 
 in  the  fourth  session  of  the  Council  of 
 Trent,  at  which,  besides  cardinals,  there 
 were  present  no  more  than  four  arch- 
 bislioj)s     and    thirty-three     bishops  ;     of 
 
704 
 
 SCRIPTURE,  CANON  OF. 
 
 SCRIPTURES,  INSPIRATION  OF. 
 
 which  number  all   but  eight  were   Itali- 
 ans. 
 
 These  men,  who  were  as  ill  qualified  by 
 their  learning  as  by  their  numbers  to  rule 
 so  great  a  question,  were  not  even  unanim- 
 ous in  the  conclusion  which  they  adopt- 
 ed. Some  contended  that  the  books  ought 
 to  be  placed  in  separate  classes;,  the  one  to 
 be  used  for  piety,  the  other  for  the  estab- 
 lishment of  doctrine,  which  is  the  rule  of 
 the  EngHsh  Church.  Scripando,  the  most 
 learned  of  the  cardinals  present,  even 
 wrote  a  book  to  maintain  this  view ;  while 
 nearly  half  the  members  of  the  council 
 were '  opposed  to  the  anathema  by  which 
 the  decree  is  enforced. 
 
 The    main  authority   which    has  been 
 urged  in  favour  of  the  Roman  canon,  is 
 that  of  the  Council  of  Carthage.     It  is  not 
 however  agreed  when  this  synod  was  held ; 
 and,  whatever  date  may  be  assigned,  its 
 decrees  have  no  authority  beyond  the  pro- 
 vince of  Africa,  having  never  been  incor- 
 porated in  the  universal  code.     To  use  the 
 words  of  Bishop  Cosin,  "  the  question  is, 
 whether  ever  any  Church  or  ancient  author, 
 during  these  first  ages,  can  be  showed  to 
 have  professedly  made  such  a  catalogue  of 
 the  true  and  authentic  books  of  Scripture, 
 as  the  Council  of  Trent  hath  lately  ad- 
 dressed  and   obtruded   upon  the  world : 
 which  will  never  be  done.      In  the  mean 
 while  they  all  speak  so  perspicuously  for 
 our  Church  canon,  that  there  can  be  no 
 denial  of  their  agreement  herein  with  us." 
 The  Apostolical  Constitutions, which  some 
 writers  assign  to  Clement,  bishop  of  Rome, 
 and  which  were  undoubtedly  written  very 
 early,  do  not  admit  in  the  canon  those 
 books  which  Ave  call  apocry])hal.     In  the 
 second  century  we  find  that  Justin  MartjT 
 never  cites   them  for   Scripture.     Origen 
 and  Tertullian,  in  the  third,  agree  in  re- 
 jecting them.     In  the  fourth,  we  have  a 
 multitude  of  the  greatest  writers,  who  are 
 clearly  against  the  Church  of  Rome  on 
 this  point ;    such  as  Athanasius,  Cp'il  of 
 Jerusalem,  Hilary,  Epiphanius,  Basil,  Gre- 
 gory Nazianzen,  Chrysostom,  and  Jerome  ; 
 besides  the  Council  of  Nice  at  the  begin- 
 ning of  the  century,  and  towards  the  close 
 of  it  the  Council  of  Laodicea,  whose  canons 
 were  incorporated  among  those  of  the  uni- 
 versal Church.      The    great  Churches  of 
 Jerusalem  and  Alexandi'ia,  of  Antioch  and 
 Constantinople,  pronounced  on  the  same 
 side ;  and  even  in  the  Roman  Church  it- 
 self we   have   the   same   testimony   from 
 Gregory  I.,  as  well  as  of  many  others  who 
 are  held  to  be  its  chief  authorities.     Car- 
 dinal Caietan,  who  died  only  a  few  years 
 before  the  meetin"^  of  the  council,  follow- 
 
 ing St.  Jerome,  maintained  the  distinction 
 between  the  canonical  and  apocryphal 
 books,  and  the  influence  of  his  opinion 
 was  very  considerable,  even  at  Trent.  But 
 the  use  of  the  Apocrypha  was  well  known 
 to  be  indispensable  to  Roman  theologians, 
 and  if  it  were  not  admitted  to  form  part 
 of  Scripture,  no  Divine  sanction  could  be 
 pleaded  for  purgatory,  the  canonization  of 
 saints,  or  the  worship  of  images  and  relics. 
 In  this,  as  well  as  many  other  instances, 
 the  Roman  Church  has  not  scrupled  to 
 violate  primitive  tradition,  in  order  to 
 maintain  its  uncatholic  doctrines  and  prac- 
 tices. 
 
 SCRIPTURES,  INSPIRATION  OF. 
 (See  BiUe,  ReveJation.)  "  All  Scripture," 
 we  are  told,  "  is  given  by  inspiration  of 
 God."  To  understand  which  expression 
 we  would  remark,  that  Divine  inspiration, 
 or  the  supernatural  influence  of  GoD  upon 
 the  mind,  to  form  it  for  intellectual  im- 
 provement, may  be,  1.  An  inspiration  of 
 siiperintendency,  by  which  GoD  preserves 
 a  writer  commissioned  by  him  to  commu- 
 nicate his  will,  from  eiTor  in  those  points 
 u-hich  relate  to  his  commission.  It  does  not 
 follow  that  the  writer  shall  be  preserved 
 from  error  in  what  relates  to  grammar,  or 
 natural  philosophy ;  but  he  is  preserved 
 from  error  in  all  that  GoD  has  commis- 
 sioned him  to  reveal.  2.  An  inspiration 
 of  suggestion,  which  precedes  the  former, 
 and  takes  place  when  God  doth,  as  it  were, 
 speak  directly  to  the  mind  of  the  inspired 
 person,  making  such  discoveries  to  it  as  it 
 could  not  but  by  miracle  obtain.  This  has 
 been  done  in  various  ways,  by  immediate 
 impression  on  the  mind,  by  di'eams  and 
 visions  represented  to  the  imagination ;  at 
 other  times  by  sounds  formed  in  the  air, 
 or  by  visible  appearances. 
 
 The  New  Testament  was  written  by  a 
 supcrijitendent  inspiration.  The  apostles 
 were,  according  to  Christ's  promise,  furn- 
 ished with  all  necessary  powers  for  the 
 discharge  of  their  office,  by  an  extraor- 
 dinary effusion  of  the  Holy  Spirit  upon 
 them  at  the  day  of  Pentecost  (Acts  ii.  4, 
 &c.) ;  and  a  second  time  (Acts  iv.  31). 
 
 We  may  assure  ourselves  that  they  were 
 hereby  competently  furnished  for  all  those 
 services  which  were  of  great  importance 
 for  the  spread  and  edification  of  the  Church, 
 and  of  so  great  difficulty  as  to  need  super- 
 natural assistance. 
 
 Considering  how  uncertain  a  thing  oral 
 tradition  is,  and  how  soon  the  most  public 
 and  notorious  facts  are  corrupted  by  it,  it 
 Avas  impossible  that  the  Christian  religion 
 could  be  preserved  in  any  tolerable  degree 
 of  purity,  without  a  written  account  of  the 
 
SCRIPTURES,  INSPIRATION  OF. 
 
 facts  and  doctrines  preached,  by  the  apos- 
 tles ;  and  yet,  on  the  other  haiid,  -sve  can 
 hardly  suppose  that  God  would  sutler  a 
 doctrine  introduced  in  so  extraordinary  a 
 manner  to  be  corru]itcd  and  lost. 
 
 The  discourses  of  C'tikist  were  several 
 of  them  so  long-,  and  some  likewise  of  so 
 curious  and  delicate  a  nature,  that  it  is 
 not  to  be  imagined  the  apostles  should 
 have  been  able  exactly  to  record  them, 
 especially  so  many  years  after  they  were 
 delivered,  and  amidst  such  a  variety  of 
 cares  and  dangers,  without  such  extraor- 
 dinary Divine  assistance,  or  without  an 
 inspiration  of  superintendency. 
 
 ^lany  of  the  doctrines  which  the  apostles 
 delivered  in  their  writings  were  so  sublime 
 and  so  new,  that  as  they  could  not  have 
 been  known  at  first  otherwise  than  by  an 
 inspiration  of  suggestion,  so  they  would 
 need  an  inspiration  of  superintendency 
 in  delivering  an  accurate  account  of 
 them. 
 
 There  is  reason  to  believe,  from  the  pro- 
 mise of  Chri:>T,  that  such  parts  of  the 
 New  Testament  as  were  written  by  the 
 apostles  were  written  by  an  inspiration  of 
 superintendency. 
 
 It  is  not  to  be  thought  that  persons,  so 
 eminent  for  humility,  piety,  humanity,  and 
 other  virtues,  as  the  a])ostles  were,  would 
 have  spoken  of  their  writings  as  the  rcords 
 and  the  commands  of  the  Lord  as  the  test 
 of  truth  and  falsehood,  and  gloried  so  much 
 in  being  under  the  direction  of  the  Spirit, 
 if  they  had  not  certainly  known  themselves 
 to  be  so  in  their  writings,  as  well  as  in 
 their  preaching ;  and  the  force  of  this 
 argument  is  greatly  illustrated,  by  recollect- 
 ing the  extraordinary  miraculous  powers 
 with  which  they  were  honoured,  while 
 making  exhortations  and  pretensions  of 
 this  kind,  as  was  hinted  above. 
 
 There  was  an  ancient  tradition  that  St. 
 Mark  and  St.  Luke  were  in  the  number  of 
 the  seventy  disciples  who  were  furnished 
 with  extraordinary  powers  from  CllRlST, 
 and  received  from  him  promises  of  assist- 
 ance much  resembling  those  made  to  the 
 apostles  (compare  Luke  x.  D,  10,  19); 
 and  if  it  were  so,  as  the  arguments  used 
 to  prove  both  the  understanding  and  in- 
 tegrity of  the  apostles  may  be  in  great 
 measure  applied  to  them,  we  may,  on  the 
 principles  laid  down,  conclude  that  they 
 also  had  some  inspiration  of  superintend-  | 
 ency.  But  there  is  much  reason  to  regard  | 
 that  received  and  ancient  tradition  in  the  I 
 Christian  Church,  that  St.  Mark  wrote 
 his  Gospel  instructed  by  St.  Peter,  and 
 St.  Luke  his  by  St.  Paul's  assistance ; 
 which,  if  it  be  allowed,  their  writings  will 
 2  z 
 
 stand  nearly  on  the  same  footing  with 
 those  of  Peter  and  Paul. 
 
 It  may  not  be  improper  here  just  to 
 mention  the  internal  marks  of  a  Divine 
 original  in  Scripture.  The  excellence  of 
 its  doctrines,  the  s|)irituality  and  ele- 
 vation of  its  design,  the  niaj(!sty  and  sim- 
 plicity of  its  style,  the  agreenii-nt  of  its 
 ])arts,  and  its  elHcacy  \\\wn  the  ht-arls  and 
 consciences  of  men,  concur  to  give  us  a 
 high  idea  of  it,  and  corroliorate  the  ex- 
 ternal arguments  for  its  being  written  by 
 a  su])erintendent  insj)iration  at  least. 
 
 There  has  been  in  tjje  Ciiristian  Church, 
 from  its  earliest  ages,  a  constant  tradition, 
 that  these  books  were  written  by  the  ex- 
 traordinary assistance  of  the  Sri  KIT,  which 
 must  at  least  amount  to  superintendent 
 inspiration. 
 
 AN'ith  respect  to  the  Old  Testament,  the 
 books  we  have  inherited  from  the  Jews  were 
 always  regarded  by  them  as  authentic  and 
 inspired.  And  our  blessed  LoUD  and  his 
 apostles  were  so  far  from  accusing  the 
 Jews  of  su])erstition,  in  the  regard  which 
 they  paid  to  the  writings  of  the  Old  Testa- 
 ment, or  from  charging  the  scribes  and 
 Pharisees  (whom  CllUlsT,  on  ail  proi)cr 
 occasions,  censured  so  freely)  with  having 
 introduced  into  the  sacred  volume  mere 
 human  compositions,  that,  on  the  contrary, 
 tliey  not  only  recommend  the  diligent  and 
 constant  perusal  of  them,  as  of  the  greatest 
 importance  to  men's  eternal  happiness,  but 
 speak  of  them  as  Divine  oracles,  and  as 
 written  by  an  extraordinary  influence  of 
 the  Divine  Spirit  upon  the  minds  of  the 
 authors.  (Vide  John  v.  ?>\) ;  x.  Wb  ;  Mark 
 xii.  24  ;  Matt.  iv.  4,  7,  10  ;  v.  17,  IH  ;  xxi. 
 42;  xxii.  29,  31,  4.i;  xxiv.  15;  xxvi.  54, 
 56  ;  Luke  i.  67,  69,  70 ;  x.  26,  27  ;  xvi. 
 31  ;  Acts  iv.  25  ;  xvii.  11  ;  xviii.  24—28; 
 Kom.  iii.  2  ;  xv.  4  ;  xvi.  26  ;  Gal.  iii.  8  ; 
 1  Tim.  V.  17,  IH;  2  Tim.  iii.  14—17; 
 James  ii.  8;  iv.  5;  1  Pet.  i.  10—12;  2 
 Pet.  i.  19—21.)  To  this  list  mav  be  added 
 many  other  ])laces, — on  the  wliole,  more 
 than'  five  hundred,— in  which  the  sacred 
 writers  of  the  New  Testament  <juote  and 
 argue  from  tho.se  of  the  Old.  in  such  a  man- 
 ner as  thev  would  surely  not  have  done,  if 
 thev  had  apprehended  tiiere  were  room  to 
 allege  that  it  contained  at  lea.st  a  mixture  of 
 what  was  spurious  and  of  no  authority. — 
 Loirtlt  on  Inspiration.  I'illotson's  ikitnons. 
 Doddridqes  I.ect nres. 
 
 The  argument  of  the  Divine  inspiration 
 of  Scripture  as  an  induction  from  iu 
 adaptation  to  the  nature  of  man— even  oh 
 regards  tjiose  parts  of  the  Old  Tcwlamenl 
 which  have  l)een  most  obnoxious*  to  cavil — 
 is  ably  maintained  in  the  Bampton  Lectures 
 
?06    SCRIPTUllES,  INSPIRATION  OF. 
 
 SEALED  BOOKS. 
 
 of  1817,  preached  by  the  Rev.  John  Miller, 
 from  which  the  followino^  is  extracted  : 
 — "  Although  Scripture  presents  the  most 
 humiliating  portraiture  of  human  nature, 
 and  that  intentionally,  to  lead  man  into  a 
 knowledge  of  himself,  as  the  subject  of  its 
 operation  ;  it  should  be  added  that  the 
 Bible  does  not  exhibit  an  vnnitxcd  image 
 of  evil,  inasmuch  as,  if  it  did,  it  Avould  not 
 be  that  exact  resemblance  of  the  character 
 of  man,  which  it  is  now  affirmed  to  he. 
 Nor  do  I,  in  subjoining  this  qualification, 
 feel  a  consciousness  either  of  having  carried 
 the  main  proposition  unreasonably  far,  to 
 countenance  a  partial  construction,  or  of 
 now  adding  any  such  inconsistent  exception 
 as  may  neutralize  or  destroy  its  force. 
 
 "  The  representation  of  evil  was  intended, 
 and  is  necessary,  for  the  analysis  of  doctrine. 
 We  hold  the  opinion,  that  a  man  is  a  being, 
 '  very  far  gone  from  an  original  righteous- 
 ness,' in  which  he  was  created.  And  it  is 
 maintained  that  the  whole  substance  of 
 Scripture  so  fully  justifies  this  doctrine  as 
 to  be  quite  inexplicable,  and  therefore,  as 
 a  record  of  Divine  wisdom,  inadmissilDle, 
 without  it. 
 
 "  It  is,  however,  contended  also,  that  icith 
 this  doctrine,  found  to  be  involved  in  the 
 substance  of  its  histories,  and  harmonizing 
 with  the  end  of  its  great  provisions,  Scrip- 
 ture commends  itself,  in  a  peculiar  manner, 
 to  our  belief  and  acceptation,  as  a  record 
 which,  while  it  extends  to  the  very  root 
 of  our  disease,  and  so  alone  points  out  the 
 true  method  of  recovery  from  it,  falls  in 
 thereby  with  the  observations  of  our  own 
 personal  experience. 
 
 "  Ikit  such  involvement  of  a  general  truth 
 by  no  means  necessarily  fixes  or  defines 
 the  measm-e  or  degree  of  sin  in  individuals 
 acting  in  various  stages  of  moral  respon- 
 sibility, and  subject  to  the  influences,  not 
 only  of  rational  motives,  but  (as  would 
 seem,  more  or  less  even  from  the  begin- 
 ning) to  those  of  an  infused  grace !  And 
 it  may  confidently  be  maintained,  that  the 
 two  several  propositions  now  affirmed  of 
 Holy  Writ,  viz.  that  it  gives  a  most  humi- 
 liating view  of  man,  and  yet  not  one  of 
 unmixed  evil,  are  not  only  not  inconsist- 
 ent, but  explanatory  one  of  the  other. 
 The  one  is  specially  profitable  for  '  doc- 
 trine,' the  other  for  *  instruction  in  right- 
 eousness.' For  Scripture  not  to  have 
 discovered  a  full  and  intimate  acquaintance 
 with  the  extent  and  quality  of  evil  itself, 
 would  have  substracted  from  our  sure  per- 
 suasion of  its  perfect  insiglit  into  truth. 
 Upon  the  other  hand,  to  have  displayed 
 the  ^  operation  of  that  evil  otherwise  than 
 as  it  is  seen    practically    existing  in   its 
 
 effects,  would  not  have  been  to  give  that 
 real  likeness  of  ourselves,  which  we  have 
 a  claim  to  look  for  in  a  record  off'ering  it- 
 self to  be  our  faithful  guide.  Hence,  in  the 
 first  case,  without  the  darker  lineaments 
 of  the  Bible,  how  could  we  rightly  have 
 arrived  at  that  true  doctrinal  statement, 
 which  now  affirms  the  general  existence 
 of  an  extreme  unsoundness  in  the  consti- 
 tution of  human  nature,  if  that  which  is  in 
 man  can  only  be  developed  adequately,  or 
 inferred  correctly,  through  scrutiny  of  the 
 worst  deeds  which  man  has  done  ?  How, 
 in  the  second — while  we  consent  entirely 
 to  the  truth  of  this  broad  abstract  state- 
 ment of  the  nature  of  man  —  could  we 
 consent  with  willing  minds  to  take  our 
 sole  or  only  chief  instruction  in  the  ways 
 of  righteousness,  from  guidance  which 
 should  represent  us  all  as  being  just  alike, 
 at  any  or  at  every  moment  of  our  lives, 
 when  w'e  are  certain  that  the  practical  ap- 
 pearances of  evil  show  very  many  grada- 
 tions, and  put  on  very  difi"erent  aspects,  in 
 the  condition  of  different  individuals  ? 
 *  *  *  If  Scripture  does  indeed  thus  show 
 us  to  ourselves,  and  we  cannot  deny  the 
 truth  of  the  resemblance ;  if  it  neither 
 conceals  deformity  to  tempt  us,  nor  yet 
 drives  us  into  extremity,  so  as  to  over- 
 whelm us ;  if  it  neither  threatens  nor  pro- 
 mises too  much,  could  it  have  proceeded 
 either  from  one  that  did  not  know  us,  or 
 from  one  that  did  not  love  us  ?  " 
 
 SEALED  BOOKS.  By  the  Act  13  & 
 14  Car.  II.  (which  ratified  the  last  re- 
 vision of  the  Prayer  Book,)  c.  4,  sect.  28, 
 it  Avas  enacted  that  the  dean  and  chapter  of 
 every  cathedral  and  collegiate  church, 
 should  obtain  under  the  great  seal  of  Eng- 
 land a  true  and  perfect  printed  copy  of  the 
 above-mentioned  Act  and  Prayer  Book, 
 to  be  kept  by  them  in  safety  for  ever,  and 
 to  be  produced  in  any  court  of  record  when 
 required  ;  and  that  like  copies  should  be 
 delivered  into  the  respective  courts  of 
 AVestminster,  and  the  Tower  of  London : 
 which  books  so  to  be  exemplified  under 
 the  great  seal,  were  to  be  examined  by 
 persons  appointed  by  the  king,  and  com- 
 pared with  the  original  book  annexed  to 
 the  Act:  these  persons  having  power  to 
 correct  and  amend  in  writing  any  error ; 
 certifying  the  examination  and  collation 
 under  their  hands  and  seals  :  "  which  said 
 books,  and  every  one  of  them,  shall  be 
 taken,  adjudged,  and  expounded  to  be 
 good,  and  available  in  the  law  to  all  in- 
 tents and  purposes  whatsoever,  and  shall 
 be  accounted  as  good  records  as  this  book 
 itself  heretofore  annexed,"  8zc. 
 
 Mr.  Stephens,  in  his  late  edition  of  the 
 
SECONDARIES. 
 
 Common  Prayer  Book,  witli  notes,  has 
 given  a  foe-simile  text  of  the  original  black 
 letter  Prayer  Books,  i)ublishe(l  after  tlie 
 last  Review,  with  all  the  corrections  of 
 the  commissioners  carefully  marked.  The 
 sealed  books  which  he  collated  for  this 
 purpose,  are  those  for  the  Chancery,  Queen's 
 Bench,  Common  Pleas,  Exchequer,  St. 
 Paul's,  Christ  Church  Oxford,  Ely,  and  the 
 Tower  of  London. 
 
 SECONDARIES.  A  general  name  for 
 the  inferior  members  of  cathedrals,  as 
 vicars  choral,  &c.  :  the  clerivi  secundfP 
 formce,  that  is,  of  the  second  or  lower 
 range  of  stalls,  called  the  has  chocur  in 
 France.  The  priest  vicars  and  minor 
 canons  were  sometimes  included  in  the 
 superior  form.  Some  of  the  lay  singers 
 at  Exeter  are  so  called.  Sometimes  the 
 term  was  applied  to  the  assistant  priest  in 
 course,  even  though  not  of  the  second 
 form.  At  Hereford  the  second  vicar  who 
 assists  in  chanting  the  Litany  is  the 
 "  secondary.''^ 
 
 SECT.  '  (From  seeo,  Lat.,  to  cut ;  being 
 analogous  to  the  word  schism,  derived 
 from  the  Greek  (t\'(^w,  which  has  the  same 
 meaning.)  A  religious  community  follow- 
 ing some  particular  master,  instead  of 
 adhering  to  the  teaching  of  the  Catholic 
 Church.  Thus  Calvinists  are  the  sect  fol- 
 lowing Calvin ;  Wesleyans  the  sect  fol- 
 lowing Wesley.  We  are  to  remember  that 
 we  are  expressly  forbidden  in  Scripture 
 thus  to  call  any  man  master :  one  is  our 
 master,  Jesus  Christ,  the  righteous. 
 
 SECULAR  CLERGY.  In  those  Churches 
 in  which  there  are  monasteries,  the  clergy 
 attached  to  those  monasteries  are  called 
 Regulars,  the  other  clergy  are  styled 
 Seculars.  In  our  Church,  before  the  Re- 
 formation, the  number  of  Regulars  was 
 very  great ;  but,  since  the  Reformation,  Ave 
 have  only  had  Secular  clergy.  The  canons 
 of  such  cathedrals  of  the  old  foundation  as 
 were  not  monastic,  were  called  Secular. 
 
 SEDILIA.  Seats  near  an  altar,  almost 
 universally  on  the  south  side,  for  the  min- 
 isters officiating  at  the  holy  eucharist. 
 They  are  generally  three  in  number,  for 
 the  celebrant,  epistoler,  and  gospeller,  but 
 vary  from  one  to  five. 
 
 SEE.  (Latin,  sedes.)  The  seat  of  epis- 
 cojial  dignity  and  jurisdiction,  where  the 
 bishop  has  his  throne,  or  cathedra. 
 
 SELAII.  An  untranslated  Hebrew 
 word,  recurring  several  times  in  the  Psalms, 
 and  in  Habakkuk  iii.,  on  the  meaning  of 
 w^hich  there  are  many  opinions.  It  is  most 
 probably  a  direction  to  raise  the  voice,  or 
 make  some  change  in  the  instrumental 
 performance  at  certain  passages,  and  is 
 2  z  2 
 
 SEMINARIES. 
 
 707 
 
 merely  a  musical  notation,  connected  how- 
 ever, as  all  i)ropcr  musical  expression  must 
 be,  with  the  sense. 
 
 SKMI-AklAXS.  The  Arian  sect  wa» 
 divided  into  two  principal  parties  ;  the  one 
 of  which  adhering  more  closely  to  the 
 opinion  of  their  master,  maintained  that 
 the  Son  of  (ion  was  unlike  the  E.vthkk, 
 'Aro/joiof,  and  of  this  party  was  Ilunoniius: 
 the  other  party  refused  to"  receive  the  word 
 consubstantial,  yet  acknowledged  the  Son 
 of  (ioi)  'OfMoiovrrioQ,  of  a  like  substance  or 
 essence  with  the  F.\thi;k,  and  therefore 
 were  called  Semi-Arians,  that  is.  half 
 Arians;  this  parly  ma(l(>  the  majority  in 
 the  Councils  of  J{imini  and  Seleucia. 
 
 SEMI  -  PELAGLWS,  or  MASSHJ- 
 ENSl^S.  A  sect  of  heretics,  who  en- 
 deavoured to  find  a  medium  betwi.vt  the 
 Pelagians  and  the  orthodox;  they  had  their 
 origin  al)out  4.'30  in  I'rance,  (hence  the 
 name  Massilic?is,  from  Massilia,  now 
 Marseilles).  Tiieir  j)rinci])al  favourers  were 
 Cassianus,  a  disciple  of  Chrysostoni;  Fau.s- 
 tus,  abbot  of  Lirinum  ;  Vincentius.  a  Gallic 
 writer,  whom  St.  I'rosper  answered,  cVc. 
 Their  agreement  with  the  Pelagians  was  in 
 the  power  of  free-will,  at  least  as  to  the 
 l)eginning  of  faith  and  conversion,  and  to 
 the  co-o])eration  of  Goi)  and  man,  grace 
 and  nature,  as  to  j)rcdestination,  from  fore- 
 knowledge and  universal  grace,  and  the 
 ])ossibility  of  the  apostasy  of  the  saints. 
 Some  of  them  also  Avould  modify  those 
 opinions,  and  maintained  only  the  predes- 
 tination of  infants  from  a  foreknowledge 
 of  the  life  they  would  lead.  The  great 
 opposers  of  this  heresy  were  St.  Augustine, 
 Fulgcntius,  Sec.  The  original  of  the  prp- 
 dcstinarian  heresy  in  this  age  is  denied  by 
 Jansenius  and  others, as  well  as  Protestants, 
 and  looked  upon  as  a  fiction  of  the  Semi- 
 Pelagians. 
 
 SEMI-PREBENDARIES.  (See  Demi- 
 Prebendaries.) 
 
 SEMINAlilES,  in  I'opish  coimtries, 
 are  certain  colleges,  appointed  for  the  in- 
 struction and  education  of  young  person.s, 
 destined  for  the  sacred  ministry.  The 
 first  institution  of  such  places  is  ascribed 
 to  St.  Augustine.  And  the  Council  of  Trent 
 decrees,  that  children,  exceeding  twelve 
 vears  of  age,  shall  be  brought  uj),  and  in- 
 structed in  conmion,  to  nualify  them  for 
 the  ecclesiastical  state  ;  nn(l  tljat  there  shall 
 be  a  seminary  of  such  belonging  to  each  ca- 
 thedral, under  the  directioti  of  the  bishoj). 
 
 Iti  the  seminaries  of  l*'rance  none  are 
 taken  in  but  young  persons,  ready  to  study 
 theology,  and  to  be  ordained.  And  for 
 the  maintenance  of  the«e  seminaries  cer- 
 tain   benefices   are   allotted,   or   else   the 
 
(08 
 
 SEMINARIES. 
 
 SEPTUAGINT, 
 
 clergy  of  the  diocese  are  obliged  to  main- 
 tain them.  These  colleges  are  furnished 
 with  halls  for  the  public  exercises,  and 
 little  chambers  or  cells,  -where  each  student 
 retires,  studies,  and  prays  apart.  Such  is 
 the  seminary  of  St.  Suli)icius  at  Paris. 
 
 In  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  the 
 Roman  Catholics  projected  the  founding 
 English  seminaries  abroad,  that  from 
 thence  they  might  be  furnished  -with  mis- 
 sionaries to  perpetuate  and  increase  their 
 communion.  Accordingly  the  college  of 
 Douay  was  founded  in  io69,  at  the  ex- 
 pense of  Philip  II.,  king  of  Spain ;  and 
 Dr.  William  Allen,  an  Englishman,  was 
 made  head  of  it.  In  the  year  1579,  a  col- 
 lege was  founded  at  Kome  for  the  same 
 ])urj)0se,  by  Gregory  XIII.,  who  settled 
 4000  crowns  i)er  annum  for  the  subsistence 
 of  the  society.  The  famous  Robert  Par- 
 sons, an  English  Jesuit,  was  rector  of  this 
 college.  King  Philip  founded  another  of 
 these  nurseries  at  Valladolid  in  the  year 
 1589,  and  one  at  Seville  in  1593.  The 
 same  prince  founded  St.  Omers  in  Artois, 
 A.  D.  1596.  In  the  next  century  more 
 seminaries  were  established,  at  Madi'id, 
 Louvain,  Liege,  and  Ghent. 
 
 The  two  colleges  of  Douay  and  Rome 
 received  such  great  encouragement,  that 
 some  huntlreds  of  priests  were  sent  off  from 
 thence  into  England.  And  to  engage  the 
 members  of  these  societies  more  firmly, 
 they  obliged  them,  at  their  admission,  to 
 take  the  folloAving  oath :  "  I,  A.  B.,  one 
 bred  in  this  English  college,  considering 
 how  great  benefits  God  hath  bestowed 
 u])on  me,  but  then  especially  when  he 
 brought  me  out  of  my  own  country,  so 
 infected  with  heresy,  and  made  me  a 
 member  of  the  Catholic  Church ;  as  also 
 desiring  with  a  thankful  heart  to  improve 
 so  great  a  mercy  of  God  ;  have  resolved  to 
 offer  myself  wholly  up  to  Divine  service, 
 as  much  as  I  may,  to  fulfil  the  end  for 
 which  this  our  college  was  founded,  I 
 promise,  therefore,  and  swear,  in  the  pre- 
 sence of  Almighty  GoD,  that  I  am  pre- 
 pared from  mine  heart,  with  the  assistance 
 of  Divine  grace,  in  due  time  to  receive 
 holy  orders,  and  to  return  to  England,  to 
 convert  the  souls  of  my  countrymen  and 
 kindred,  when,  and  as  often  as,  it  shall 
 seem  good  to  the  superior  of  this  college." 
 As  a  further  encouragement,  Pope  Pius  V. 
 sent  his  brief  to  the  students  of  these  col- 
 leges, for  undertaking  the  mission  into 
 England.  And  that  they  might  act  with- 
 out clashing,  and  with  the  better  harmony, 
 he  put  them  all  under  the  direction  of  Dr. 
 Allen,  afterwards  Cardinal. 
 
 By  a  statute  of  Queen  Elizabeth  it  is 
 
 made  a  praemunire  to  contribute  to  the 
 maintenance  of  a  Popish  seminary.  And 
 by  one  of  King  James  I.,  no  persons  are 
 to  go,  or  be  sent,  to  Popish  seminaries,  to 
 be  instructed  or  educated,  under  divers 
 penalties  and  disabilities  mentioned  in  the 
 statute. 
 
 The  houses  of  the  society  De  Projjacjandd 
 Fide,  established  for  the  preparing  eccle- 
 siastics for  missionaries  among  infidels  and 
 heretics,  are  also  called  seminaries.  The 
 principal  of  these  is  that  at  Rome,  called 
 the  Apostolic  College  or  Seminary,  or  the 
 seminarv  De  Propaqanda  Fide. 
 
 SEPtUAGESIMA.  The  Sunday  which 
 in  round  numbers  is  70  days  before  Easter : 
 hence  the  name.  There  being  exactly  50 
 days  between  the  Sunday  next  before  Lent 
 and  Easter  day  inclusive,  that  Sunday  is 
 termed  Quinquagesima,  i.  e.  the  50th. 
 And  the  two  immediately  preceding  are 
 called  from  the  next  round  numbers,  Sexa- 
 gesima  and  Septuagesima,  60th  and  70th. 
 The  Church  thus  early  begins  to  look  for- 
 ward to  Easter,  the  queen  of  festivals.  She 
 would  call  back  our  minds  from  the  re- 
 joicing season  of  Christmas,  and,  by  reflec- 
 tions on  the  humiliating  necessity  there 
 was  for  Messiah's  advent,  prepare  us  for 
 that  solemn  season  in  Lent ;  in  which,  if 
 with  deep  contrition  and  lively  faith  we 
 follow  Christ  in  his  snfferinas,  we  may 
 rejoice  with  him  here,  and  humbly  hope 
 to  reign  with  him  hereafter  in  his  glory. 
 The  observance  of  these  days  and  the 
 weeks  following,  appears  to  be  as  ancient 
 as  the  time  of  Gregory  the  Great.  Some 
 of  the  more  devout  Christians  observed  the 
 whole  time  from  the  first  of  these  Sundays 
 to  Easter,  as  a  season  of  humiliation  and 
 fasting,  though  the  ordinary  custom  Avas  to 
 commence  fasting  on  Ash-Wednesday. 
 
 SEPTUAGINT.  The  Greek  version  of 
 Scripture,  which  was  received  both  by  the 
 JcAvs  and  the  primitive  Christians.  The 
 first  account  which  we  have  of  the  origin 
 of  the  Septuagint,  is  that  which  is  given  us 
 by  Aristeas.  It  is  to  this  effect.  Ptolemy 
 Philadelphus,  by  the  advice  of  Demetrius 
 Phalereus,  having  determined  to  enrich 
 his  library  at  Alexandria  with  a  translation 
 of  the  books  of  the  Jewish  law,  sent  Aris- 
 teas, his  minister,  accompanied  by  Andrew, 
 a  person  of  celebrity,  to  Eleazar  the  high 
 priest  of  the  Jews,  that  he  might  obtain 
 both  a  copy  of  the  original,  and  persons 
 duly  qualified  to  render  it  into  Greek. 
 The  request  was  complied  with.  A  copy 
 of  the  Mosaic  law  written  in  golden  letters 
 was  sent,  with  seventy-two  men,  six  from 
 each  tribe,  to  translate  it.  The  translators, 
 persons  skilled  both  in  Hebrew  and  Greek, 
 
SEPTUAGINT 
 
 :()'J 
 
 were  honourably  received  by  the  king  of 
 Egj-pt,  and  by  him  were  sent  to  the  isle  of 
 Pharos ;  and  there,  in  the  s])ace  of  seventy- 
 two  days,  they  completed  their  work,  mu- 
 tually assisting  each  other,  and  dictating 
 their  translation  to  Demetrius.  This  ver- 
 sion was  afterwards  read  in  an  assembly 
 consisting  of  Jewish  priests  and  other 
 learned  men,  and  being  stam])ed  by  their 
 approbation,  was  placed  in  the  library  of 
 Alexandria. 
 
 This  account,  given  us  by  Aristeas,  is 
 sometimes  appended  to  the  editions  of  Jo- 
 sephus,  and  is  also  edited  se])arately.  It  is 
 worthy  of  remark,  that  in  this  description 
 nothing  of  the  marvellous  is  introduced, 
 and  it  would  clearly  seem  that  the  refer- 
 ence is  to  the  Pentateuch,  and  to  that  only. 
 
 Josephus,  in  the  twelfth  book,  s.  1,  of 
 his  *'  Antiquities,"  for  the  most  part  agrees 
 with  this  account  by  Aristeas.  But  in  the 
 life  of  Moses,  by  Philo-Judipus,  we  find 
 both  variations  and  additions.  Agreeing 
 with  Aristeas  in  his  assertion,  that  certain 
 learned  Jews  were  sent  from  Jerusalem 
 to  Alexandria  to  translate  the  books  of 
 Moses,  and  that  they  were  lodged  by 
 Ptolemy  in  the  isle  of  Pharos,  he  tells  us 
 in  addition,  that  all  the  translators  were 
 kept  apart  from  each  other  ;  but  that,  not- 
 withstanding this,  their  translations,  ui)on 
 comparison,  were  found  exactly  to  corre- 
 spond, as  it  were,  by  Divine  inspiration. 
 From  Justin  Martyr  we  find,  that  in  his 
 time  the  story  was  that  the  seventy-two 
 translators  were  shut  up  each  in  a  separate 
 cell,  where  no  intercourse  could  possibly 
 take  place  ;  but  that  the  translations,  when 
 produced,  were  found  to  agree  not  only  in 
 sense  but  verbally,  not  varying  even  in  a 
 single  syllable.  Here  we  certainly  find  a 
 miracle  implied  ;  and  in  the  time  of  Justin 
 the  story  must  have  been  well  established, 
 since  he  mentions  his  having  seen  the  cells 
 himself.  AVith  respect  to  the  number  of 
 the  cells,  however,  there  must  have  been, 
 as  there  easily  might  be,  some  uncertainty, 
 for  Epiphanius  mentions  only  thirty-six. 
 But  the  story  had  been  made  to  shape  itself 
 according  to  the  fiict;  and  it  was  reported 
 in  his  time,  that,  instead  of  a  cell  being 
 allotted  to  each  translator,  two  were  shut 
 up  in  each  cell,  avIio  having  been  emjjloyi'd 
 from  sunrise  till  the  evening,  translated  in 
 order,  not  merely  the  Pentateuch,  but 
 each  of  the  books'  of  the  Old  Testament, 
 and  they  so  completed  their  work,  that 
 there  was  not  lo  be  found  the  slightest 
 difference  in  any  of  the  thirty-six  versions  ; 
 an  astonishing  harmony,  in  which  a  sin- 
 gular miracle  of  Divine  ])rovidence  could 
 not  fail  to  be  traced. 
 
 Xow,  if  to  these  statements  imjjlicit 
 credit  be  given,  the  question  is  decided  as 
 to  the  miraculous  origin  and  consequent 
 inspiration  of  the  Se])tuagint.  But  to 
 these  stories  there  are  several  obvious  ob- 
 jections. We  do  not  for  a  moment  assent 
 to  the  princijjle  of  that  oljjfction  which  is 
 urged  by  the  learned  and  candid  Dupin, 
 who,  among  the  lionianists,  is  almost  sin- 
 gular in  oj)i)Osing  the  Divine  origin  of  the 
 LXX.,  when  he  asks  why  there  should  be 
 seventy-two  translators  when  twelve  would 
 have  sufficed  ?  For  this  is  the  very  spirit 
 of  rationalism:  "/  do  not  hcc  why  such, 
 should  have  been  the  case ;  and  therefore 
 it  was  not  the  case."  To  such  an  objection 
 the  answer  of  the  equally  learned  Dr. 
 Brett,  among  Protestants  the  chief  vindi- 
 cator of  the  Divine  origin  of  the  Septuagint, 
 is  more  than  sufficient,  when  he  urges  that 
 we  might  as  well  deny  that,  on  our  author- 
 ized English  version,  fifty-two  persons  were 
 employed,  when  by  twelve,  or  even  by  two, 
 the  work  might  have  been  accomplished. 
 Nor  would  he  insist,  with  Dean  I'rideaux, 
 that  the  stories  must  be  rejected,  because 
 the  Se])tuagint  is  written  in  the  Alexan- 
 drian dialect;  and  that,  therefore,  it  could 
 not  have  been  ett'ected,  according  to  the 
 supposition,  by  Jews  sent  from  Judea  ; 
 for  there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  the 
 Greek  spoken  in  Palestine  was  much  dif- 
 ferent from  that  used  in  Egypt,  that  lan- 
 guage having  been  introduced  into  both 
 countries  only  about  fifty  years  before  by 
 the  same  people— the  Macedonians.  In- 
 deed, a  comparison  of  the  language  of  the 
 New  Testament  with  that  of  the  Septua- 
 gint will  disarm  this  objection  of  its  force. 
 We  may,  indeed,  afiord  to  give  uj)  aiu)ther 
 objection,  which  has  very  ])lausil)ly  been 
 urged,  though  its  character  is  rationalistic, 
 viz.  that  to  collect  six  leariu'd  men  from 
 each  tribe  would  have  been  difficult,  if  lot 
 impossible,  the  ten  tribes  having  been  dis- 
 persed after  the  takhig  of  Samariu ;  for 
 we  know  that  many  individuals  belonging 
 to  these  tribes  were  ineorj)orated  with  the 
 Jews,  and  there  may  have  been  means  still 
 left  for  distinguishiiig  tiieni.  But,  after  all 
 these  allowances,  there  is  strong  internal 
 evidence  against  these  stories,  arising  from 
 the  difference  of  the  manner  and  the  Htyle 
 in  which  the  several  books  are  translated. 
 In  some  the  Hebraisms  are  said  to  I )C  pre- 
 served, in  others  not ;  some  books  (the 
 Pentateuch  for  instance,  the  Proverbs, 
 l^zekiel,  Amos,  Judges,  Kings,  and  many 
 of  the  I'salms)  are  well  executed,  while 
 the  translation  of  Isaiah  is  bad,  and  that 
 of  Daniel  was  so  decidedly  incorrect,  that 
 it   was  rejected  by  Origen,  and  il,s  place 
 
710 
 
 SEPTUAGINT. 
 
 supplied  by  the  version  of  Theodotion. 
 Now,  is  it  probable  that,  if  the  Septuagint 
 had  been,  according  to  the  accounts  already 
 given,  the  work  of  the  same  men,  at  the 
 same  time,  and  acting  under  a  miracul- 
 ous inspiration,  such  very  material  dif- 
 ference should  exist  between  the  several 
 books?  Our  own  authorized  version, 
 though  made  by  different  persons,  and 
 though  some  of  the  books  may  be  more  cor- 
 rectly rendered  than  others,  nevertheless 
 preserves  a  uniformity  of  style  which  stamps 
 it  as  being  all  the  work  of  the  same  age. 
 And  the  fact  that  this  is  not  the  case  with 
 respect  to  the  Septuagint,  is  a  presumption 
 against  its  being  the  work  of  the  same  men 
 living  at  the  same  time.  And  this  is  a 
 consideration  which  pre])ares  us  to  regard 
 the  external  evidence  with  some  suspicion. 
 When,  indeed,  we  look  to  the  external 
 evidence,  we  find  that  the  authority  which 
 was  at  first  assumed  only  for  the  Penta- 
 teuch is  gradually  assumed  for  all  the  books 
 of  the  Old  Testament.  In  Aristeas  we 
 read  of  no  miracle  :  the  miracle  was  evi- 
 dently gradually  introduced  and  enlarged 
 upon,  until  subsequent  writers  believed  it 
 to  be  a  fact.  And  we  are  always  and  most 
 justly  suspicious  of  a  story  which  thus 
 
 "  Mobilitate  viget  viresque  acquirit  evmclo." 
 
 Each  successive  writer  has  added  to  the 
 marvellous.  And  we  are,  therefore,  jus- 
 tified in  deducting  from  the  account  each 
 marvellous  addition.  And  when  we  have 
 done  this,  what  is  the  result  ?  "VVe  find 
 the  simple  fact,  that,  about  the  time  of 
 Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  and  under  the  di- 
 rection of  Demetrius  Phalereus,  a  transla- 
 tion into  Greek  of  the  Mosaic  books  was 
 made  by  persons  sent  from  Judea.  We 
 must  indeed  go  a  step  further,  and  deduct 
 from  the  original  statement,  the  assertion 
 that  the  translation  Mas  made  "6?/  the  direc- 
 tion of  Demetrius  Phalereus  ; "  for  though 
 Demetrius  was  in  great  credit  at  Alex- 
 andria till  the  death  of  Soter,  he  was,  im- 
 mediately after  that  event,  "  disgraced  by 
 Philadelphus,  and  perished  in  confinement." 
 We  cannot,  therefore,  attribute  more  than 
 the  original  suggestion  to  Demetrius.  But 
 that,  with  this  necessary  deduction,  we  may 
 fau-ly  admit  this,  or  at  least  the  historical 
 fact  that  it  embodies,  appears  from  the  im- 
 probability of  these  stories  having  no  found- 
 ation, and  from  the  fact  that  both  ^lian 
 {Var.  Hist.  iii.  17)  and  Plutarch  {0pp.  t. 
 ii.  p.  189)  inform  us  that  Demetrius  was 
 appointed  by  one  of  the  Ptolemies  to  pre- 
 side over  the  drawing  up  of  a  code  of  laws, 
 and  had  advised  his  sovereign  to  collect 
 all  the  books  he  could  which  treated  of 
 
 political  subjects,  and  in  which  doctrines 
 Avere  laid  down  which  even  their  most 
 familiar  friends  would  not  dare  to  mention 
 to  kings.  It  derives  strength  also  from 
 the  circumstance,  that  the  Samaritans  con- 
 tended with  the  Jews  for  the  honour  of 
 being  the  authors  of  the  Septuagint ;  pre- 
 tending that  Ptolemy,  having  heard  of  the 
 disagreement  between  the  two  nations, 
 caused  a  translation  to  be  made  of  the  Sa- 
 maritan copy  of  the  Septuagint,  which  he 
 preferred  to  the  copy  he  received  from  Je- 
 rusalem. Although  this  story  is  not  corro- 
 borated, it  is  not  impossible  that  a  collation 
 of  the  two  copies  may  have  taken  place,  care 
 having  evidently  been  taken  to  procure  as 
 good  a  version  as  possible.  It  may  be  pro- 
 per to  mention,  that  by  Clemens  Alexan- 
 drinus  and  by  Eusebius,  a  quotation  from 
 an  Alexandrian  Jew  and  Peripatetic  philo- 
 sopher named  Aristobulus  has  been  pre- 
 served, in  which  he  affirms  that  a  Greek 
 translation  of  the  Old  Testament  was  in 
 existence  anterior  to  the  Septuagint,  of 
 which  Plato  and  other  Greek  philosophers 
 availed  themselves.  That  some  small  por- 
 tions of  the  ancient  Scriptures  may  have 
 been  translated  is  far  from  impossible ; 
 but  we  cannot  attach  any  weight  to  the 
 unsupported  testimony  of  a  person  who 
 lived  only  175  years  before  the  Christian 
 sera,  and  adduced  in  support  of  what  was 
 at  the  time  a  favourite  theory  with  the 
 Jews.  His  testimony,  however,  is  of  some 
 importance,  as  proving  that  the  Greek  ver- 
 sion of  the  Old  Testament,  which  was  then 
 in  use,  was  universally  referred  to  the  age 
 of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus. 
 
 After  taking  into  consideration  all  these 
 various  circumstances,  all  that  we  can 
 satisfactorily  say  of  the  Septuagint  is, 
 that  the  Mosaic  books  were  translated 
 into  Greek  about  285  years  before  Christ, 
 to  which  the  other  books  were  added  from 
 time  to  time,  especially  when,  on  occasion 
 of  the  prohibition  by  Antiochus  Epiphanes 
 to  read  the  law,  the  prophets  used  to  be 
 read  publicly  in  the  synagogues,  and  on 
 the  restoration  of  the  law  became  "  a 
 second  lesson."  It  is  generally  admitted 
 that  the  work  was  completed  in  the  main 
 parts  prior  to  the  middle  of  the  second 
 century,  before  the  birth  of  our  Saviour  ; 
 that  it  was  used  as  a  sort  of  authorized 
 version  by  the  Jews  of  Alexandria,  and 
 by  the  Hellenistic  Jews  in  general ;  and 
 that  as  such  it  is  expressly  quoted  nearly 
 eighty  times  in  the  writings  of  the  New 
 Testament,  being  indirectly  referred  to 
 much  more  frequently.  And  thus,  to 
 adopt  the  very  beautiful  and  pious  lan- 
 guage  of   Dr.   Lightfoot,   "  the  greatest 
 
SEPTUM. 
 
 SERMONS. 
 
 711 
 
 authority  of  this  transh^tion  ap))car('th  in 
 that  the  holy  Greek  of  the  New  Testament 
 doth  so  much  follow  it.  For  as  God  usetli 
 this  translation  as  a  harbin<;er  to  the  fetch- 
 ing in  of  the  Gentiles,  so  when  it  Avas 
 grown  into  authority  by  tlie  time  of 
 Christ's  coming,  it  seemed  good  to  his 
 infinite  wisdom  to  add  to  its  authority 
 himself,  the  better  to  forward  the  building 
 of  the  Church.  And  admirable  it  is  to 
 see  with  what  sweetness  and  harmony  the 
 New  Testament  doth  follow  this  translation 
 sometimes  beside  the  Old,  to  show  that  he 
 who  gave  the  Old  can  and  may  best  ex- 
 pound it  in  the  New." —  irorls,  iv.  32.  See 
 Owen  0)1  the  Svptuatiint :  Ilodius  de  Bib. 
 Textihus  On'(/i)in/ihus. 
 
 SEPTUM".  The  enclosure  of  the  holy 
 table,  made  by  the  altar  rails. 
 
 SEPULCHRE.  A  niche,  generally  at 
 the  north  side  of  the  altar,  used  in  the 
 scenic  representations  of  our  SAVlorirs 
 burial  and  resurrection,  on  Good  Friday 
 and  Easter,  before  the  Reformation,  and 
 representing  our  Lord's  tomb,  is  called 
 the  Holy  Sepulchre.  It  is  sometimes  quite 
 plain,  sometimes  gorgeously  adorned  ;  the 
 general  subjects,  where  it  is  much  decorated, 
 being  the  Roman  soldiers  sleeping,  on  the 
 base,  and  angels  censing  at  the  top.  There 
 is  a  remarkably  fine  series  of  these  in  the 
 churches  of  Lincolnshire,  and  in  Lincoln 
 cathedral,  perhaps  the  most  beautiful  in 
 the  kingdom. 
 
 SEQUESTRATION.  This  is  a  separ- 
 ating the  thing  in  controversy  from  the 
 possession  of  both  the  contending  parties. 
 
 When  a  living  becomes  void  by  the 
 death  of  an  incumbent  or  otherwise,  the 
 ordinary  is  to  send  out  his  sequestration, 
 to  have  the  cure  supplied,  and  to  preserve 
 the  profits  (after  the  expenses  deducted) 
 for  the  use  of  the  successor.  Sometimes 
 a  benefice  is  left  under  sequestration  for 
 many  years  together,  namely,  when  it  is 
 of  so  small  value  that  no  clergyman,  fit 
 to  serve  the  cure,  will  be  at  the  charge  of 
 taking  it  by  institution  :  in  this  case,  the 
 sequestration  is  committed  sometimes  to 
 the  curate  only,  sometimes  to  the  curate 
 and  churchwardens  jointly. 
 
 Sometimes  the  i)rofits  of  a  living  are 
 sequestered  for  neglect  of  duty  :  but  that 
 kind  of  sequestration  most  generally  known 
 and  understood,  because  applicable  to 
 civil  affairs,  is  upon  the  queen's  writ  to 
 the  bishop  to  satisfy  the  debts  of  the 
 incumbent. 
 
 This  is  where  a  judgment  has  been 
 obtained  in  the  law  courts  against  a  cler- 
 gyman ;  and  upon  a  Jicri /(icias  directed 
 to    the    sheriff    to    levy    the    debt    and 
 
 damages,  he  makes  his  return  that  the 
 defendant  in  a  clerk  beneficed,  having  no 
 lay  fee.  Whereupon  a  levari  facias  is 
 directed  to  the  bisliop  to  levy  tiie  same  of 
 his  ecclesiastical  goods,  and  by  virtue 
 thereof  the  property  of  the  benefice  sliall 
 be  sequestered.  \\\  this  case,  the  bisiiop 
 may  name  the  sequestrators  himself,  or 
 may  grant  the  sequestration  to  sudi  i)er- 
 sons  as  sliall  be  named  by  the  party  who 
 obtaiiu>d  the  writ. 
 
 Tliere  are  several  other  circumstances 
 mentioned  in  books  of  ecclesiastical  law, 
 under  which  sequestration  may  take  i)lace  ; 
 but  it  may  be  stated  generally  that,  for 
 any  damages  to  which  an  incund)ent  may 
 be  made  liable  by  civil  action,  the  pro- 
 ])erty  of  the  benefice  may  also  be  made 
 answerable  by  the  jirocess  of  se(juestration. 
 Rut  it  seems  that  the  bishop  is  the  party 
 through  whom  this  confiscation  for  the 
 ])enefit  of  the  creditor  must  take  place. 
 The  sequestration  is  his  act,  to  which  he 
 is  bound  by  the  queen's  writ ;  and  it  has 
 been  held  that  a  bill  filed  in  ecpiity  against 
 sequestrators  only  was  insufficient  for 
 want  of  parties.  The  l)ishop  should  be 
 a  party,  for  the  sequestrator  is  accountable 
 to  him  for  what  he  receives. 
 
 SERAPHIM  denotes  an  order  of  angels 
 who  surround  the  throne  of  the  Lord. 
 Derived  from  a  Hebrew  word,  which  sig- 
 nifies./?^r?/.     (See  Anf/els.) 
 
 SERMONS  are  orations  or  discourses, 
 delivered  by  the  clergy  of  the  Chri^ian 
 Church  in  their  religious  assemblies. 
 
 In  the  ancient  Church,  immediately 
 after  the  reading  of  the  psalms  and 
 lessons  out  of  the  Scriptures,  before  the 
 catechumens  were  dismissed,  followed  the 
 sermon,  which  the  bishop,  or  some  other 
 appointed  by  him,  made  to  the  people. 
 This,  being  done  in  the  presence  of  the 
 catechumens,  was  therefore  reckoned  a 
 part  of  the  3Iissa  Cottc/noncnonnn  or 
 ante-communion  service.  Such  discourses 
 were  cojunionly  termed  homilies,  from  the 
 Greek  o^iXini,  which  signifies  inditfercntly 
 any  discourse  of  instruction  to  the  i)Coj)ie. 
 Among  the  Latins  tluy  were  frequently 
 called  fnidafus,  and  the  preachers  frac- 
 t(i  tores. 
 
 Preaching,  anciently,  was  one  of  the 
 chief  offices  of  a  bishop ;  insomuch  that, 
 in  the  African  Churches,  a  jjrcsbyter  was 
 never  known  to  jireach  before  a  bishop  in 
 his  cathedral  church,  till  St.  Austin'.^ 
 time.  In  the  Eastern  Church,  jiresbyters 
 Avere  indeed  allowi-d  to  preach  before  the 
 bislu)]);  but  this  A\as  not  to  discliarge  him 
 of  the  duty,  for  still  he  preached  a  ser- 
 mon at  the' same  time  after  them.     \n  the 
 
712 
 
 SERMONS. 
 
 lesser  churches  of  the  city  and  country, 
 the  office  of  preaching  \^'as  devolved  upon 
 the  presbyters  ;  but  deacons  never  were 
 allowed  to  perform  it.  There  are  num- 
 berless passages  in  the  writings  of  the 
 Fathers,  which  speak  of  preaching  as  a 
 duty  indispensably  incumbent  on  a  bisho]). 
 Many  canons  of  councils  either  suppose 
 or  enjoin  it.  And  in  the  imperial  laws 
 there  are  several  edicts  of  the  secular 
 power  to  the  same  purpose.  Particularly 
 in  the  Theodosian  code,  there  is  one  jointly 
 made  by  the  three  emperors  Gratian, 
 Valentinian,  and  Theodosius,  which  bears 
 this  title,  De  munere  sen  officio  episco- 
 jwrum  hi  ^n-cedicando  verho  Dei,  "  of  the 
 duty  and  office  of  bishops  in  preaching 
 the 'word  of  GoD." 
 
 It  has  been  a  question,  whether  laymen 
 were  ever  allowed  by  authority  to  make 
 sermons  to  the  people.  It  is  certain  they 
 did  it  in  a  private  way,  as  catechists,  in 
 theh  catechetic  schools  at  Alexandria  and 
 other  places  ;  but  this  was  a  different  thing 
 from  public  j^reaching  in  the  church. 
 Sometimes  the  monks,  who  were  only  lay- 
 men, took  upon  them  to  preach ;  but  this 
 was  censured  and  opposed,  as  an  usurp- 
 ation of  an  office  that  did  not  belong  to 
 them.  Yet  in  some  cases  a  special  com- 
 mission was  given  to  a  layman  to  preach  ; 
 as  in  the  case  of  Origen,  who  was  licensed 
 by  Alexander,  bishop  of  Jerusalem,  to 
 preach  and  expound  the  Scriptures  in  the 
 church,  before  he  was  in  orders.  As  to 
 women,  whatever  gifts  they  could  pretend 
 to,  they  were  never  allowed  to  preach 
 publicly  in  the  church;  agreeably  to  the 
 apostolical  rule,  "  Let  your  women  keep 
 silence  in  the  churches,"  &c.  But  they 
 might  teach  those  of  then*  own  sex,  as 
 private  catechists,  and  to  prepare  them  for 
 baptism.  And  this  was  the  office  of  the 
 deaconesses.  The  Montanists  Avere  a 
 noted  sect  for  giving  the  liberty  of  preach- 
 ing to  women,  under  pretence  of  inspira- 
 tion by  the  Spirit  ;  for  they  had  their 
 prophetesses,  their  women-bishops,  and 
 women -presbyters. 
 
 Next  to  the  persons,  the  manner  in 
 which  the  office  of  preaching  was  executed, 
 comes  to  be  considered.  And,  first,  it  is 
 observable,  that  they  had  sometimes  tAvo 
 or  three  sermons  preached  in  the  same 
 assembly,  first  by  the  presbyters  and  then 
 by  the  bishop.  AVhen  two  or  more  bishops 
 happened  to  be  present  in  the  same  as- 
 sembly, it  was  usual  for  several  of  them 
 to  preach  one  after  another,  reserving  the 
 last  place  for  the  most  honourable  person. 
 In  some  places  they  had  sermons  every 
 day,  especially  in  Lent,  and  the  festival 
 
 days  of  Easter.  St.  Chrysostom's  homilies 
 Avere  evidently  preached  in  Lent,  one  day 
 after  another ;  and,  in  St.  Augustine's 
 homilies,  there  are  frequent  references  to 
 the  sermon  made  heri  and  hesterno  die. 
 In  many  places  they  had  sermons  twice 
 a  day  for  the  better  edification  of  the 
 people.  But  this  is  chiefly  to  be  under- 
 stood of  cities  and  large  churches.  For 
 in  the  country  parishes  there  Avas  not  such 
 frequent  preaching. 
 
 The  next  thing  to  be  observed  is,  their 
 diflerent  sorts  of  sermons,  and  different 
 Avays  of  preaching.  These  are  distin- 
 guished into  four  kinds;  L  Expositions 
 of  Scripture.  2.  Panegyrical  discourses 
 upon  the  saints  and  martyrs.  3.  Sermons 
 upon  particular  times,  occasions,  and  fes- 
 tivals. 4.  Sermons  upon  particular  doc- 
 trines, or  moral  suljjects.  There  are 
 examples  of  all  these  kinds  in  St.  Chry- 
 sostom's  and  St.  Augustine's  homilies,  the 
 two  great  standards  of  preaching  in  the 
 Greek  and  Latin  Churches.  But  though 
 most  of  these  were  studied  and  elaborate 
 discourses,  penned  and  composed  before- 
 hand, yet  some  Avere  also  extempore, 
 spoken  without  any  previous  composition, 
 and  taken  cloAvn  in  short-hand  from  the 
 mouth  of  the  preacher.  Origen  was  the 
 first  that  began  the  Avay  of  extempore 
 preaching  in  the  church.  The  catechet- 
 ical discourses  of  St.  Cyril  are  thought  to 
 be  of  this  kind ;  for  at  the  beginning  of 
 every  one  almost  it  is  said  in  the  title  to  be 
 axt^f-aaOtiaa,  Avhich  the  critics  translate  an 
 extempore  discourse.  Instances  of  this  sort 
 Avere  very  frequent  among  the  Fathers  of 
 the  ancient  Church.  And,  in  regard  to 
 this,  they  are  Avont  frequently  to  mention 
 the  assistance  of  the  Spirit  in  composing 
 and  preaching  their  sermons ;  by  Avhich 
 they  did  not  mean  any  kind  of  enthusiasm, 
 but  only  the  concurrence  of  the  Sphit  of 
 God  Avith  their  honest  endeavours,  as  a 
 blessing  on  their  labours  and  studies. 
 
 Upon  this  account  it  Avas  usual  for  the 
 preacher  to  usher  in  his  discourse  Avith  a 
 short  prayer  for  such  Divine  assistance. 
 In  this  sense  Ave  are  to  understand  St. 
 Chrysostom,  Avhen  he  says,  Ave  must  first 
 pray,  and  then  preach.  Sometimes,  before 
 they  began  to  preach,  they  used  the  com- 
 mon salutation.  Pax  vohis,  Peace  he  with 
 you ;  to  Avhich  the  people  ansAvered,  Ajid 
 ivith  thy  spirit.  And  sometimes  they  pre- 
 faced the  sermon  Avith  a  short  form  of 
 benediction,  especially  in  times  of  calamity 
 and  distress,  or  of  happy  deliverances  out 
 of  them.  Sometimes  they  preached  with- 
 out any  text,  and  sometimes  upon  more 
 texts  than  one.     Nor  did  they  entertain 
 
SERMONS. 
 
 SEVEN  SACRAMENTS. 
 
 713 
 
 their  auditory  witli  light  and  ludicrous  mat- 
 ters, or  fabulous  and  romantic  stories,  such 
 as  those  with  which  ju'eacliiuii;  so  much 
 abounded  in  the  aoc  before  the  lleform- 
 ation.  Their  subjects,  as  Gregory  Nazi- 
 anzen  describes  the  choice  of  them,  were 
 commonly  such  as  these  :  of  the  world's 
 creation,  and  the  soul  of  man  ;  of  angels  ; 
 of  providence  ;  of  the  formation  of  man, 
 and  his  restoration;  of  ClllllST's  first  and 
 second  coming,  his  passion,  Sec. ;  of  the  re- 
 surrection and  judgment,  &:c. 
 
 And  as  they  were  careful  in  the  choice 
 of  their  subject,  so  were  they  in  the  man- 
 ner of  dressing  it  up,  and  delivering  it, 
 that  they  might  answer  the  true  ends  of 
 preaching.  St.  Augustine  has  laid  down 
 excellent  rules  for  the  practice  of  Chris- 
 tian eloquence  ;  and  if  we  will  take  his 
 character  of  the  ancient  preachers,  it  was 
 in  short  this :  and  their  discourses  were 
 always  upon  weighty  and  heavenly  mat- 
 ters, and  their  style  answerable  to  the 
 subject,  being  plain,  elegant,  majestic,  and 
 nervous  ;  fitly  adapted  to  instruct  and  de- 
 light, to  convince  and  charm  their  hearers. 
 It  was  no  part  of  the  ancient  oratory  to 
 raise  the  affections  of  the  auditory,  either 
 by  gesticulations,  or  the  use  of  external 
 shows  and  representations  of  things  in 
 their  sermons,  as  is  now  very  common  in 
 the  Romish  Church.  As  to  the  length  of 
 their  sermons,  scarce  any  of  them  would 
 last  an  hour,  and  many  not  half  the  time. 
 And  among  those  of  St.  Augustine  there 
 are  many  which  a  man  may  pronounce 
 distinctly,  and  deliver  decently,  in  eight 
 minutes.  They  always  concluded  their 
 sermons  with  a  doxology  to  the  Holy 
 Trinity.  And  it  is  further  observable, 
 that  the  preacher  usually  delivered  his 
 sermon  sitting,  and  the  people  heard  it 
 standing  ;  though  there  was  no  certain  rule 
 about  this,  but  the  custom  varied  in  dif- 
 ferent Churches. 
 
 It  was  a  peculiar  custom  in  the  African 
 Church,  when  the  preacher  chanced  to 
 cite  some  remarkable  text  in  the  middle  of 
 his  sermon,  for  the  people  to  join  with 
 him  in  repeating  the  close  of  it.  St.  Au- 
 gustine takes  notice  of  this  in  one  of  his 
 sermons,  where  having  begun  those  words 
 of  St.  Paul,  The  end  of  the  coynmandnient 
 
 is  ,  the  people  all  cried  out,  chariti/ 
 
 out  of  a  pure  heart.  But  it  was  a  mucli 
 more  general  custom  for  the  people  to  tes- 
 tify their  esteem  for  the  i)reac]ior,  and 
 approbation  of  his  sermon,  by  pul)lic  ap- 
 plauses and  acclamations  in  the  cliurcli. 
 Thus  we  are  told  the  people  applauded 
 St.  Chrysostom's  sermons,  some  by  tossing 
 their  gannents  and    waving   their   hancl- 
 
 kcrchiefs.  Many  auditors  practised  the 
 art  of  notaries,  and  took  down  the  sermons 
 word  for  word  as  they  were  delivered. 
 Hence  we  j)ossess  copies  of  sermons  de- 
 livered extempore. — Bintputnt. 
 
 The  sermon  in  the  Church  of  England  is 
 enjoined  after  the  Nicene  Creed,  according 
 to  ancient  custom :  but  nowhere  else ; 
 although  it  is  mentioned  as  discretionary 
 in  the  marriage  service,  for  which  an  ex- 
 hortation, there  given,  may  l)e  sul)stituted. 
 lUit  evening  sermons  liavebeen  customary 
 time  out  of  mind  in  some  duirches,  as  at 
 St.  Paul's,  e.  g.  and  some  other  great 
 churches.  The  sermon  in  Queen  Eliza- 
 beth's time  was  preached  at  the  chapel 
 royal  in  the  afternoon,  in  order  tliat  it 
 might  not  interfere  with  St.  Paul's  Cross 
 sermon.  —  St  type,  Annals,  Pn-f.  Book  i. 
 ch.  xxiii..  Anno  1561. 
 
 SERVICE.  "The  common  prayers  of 
 tlie  Cliurch,  commonly  called  Divine  ser- 
 vice."'— I've  fare  to  the  Hook  of  Common 
 Prayer.  All  Divine  offices  celebrated  in 
 the  church  constitute  i)art  of  the  Divine 
 service  :  that  is,  the  outward  worsliip  which 
 all  God's  servants  render  him.  The  term 
 however  is  now  used  in  a  technical  sense 
 peculiar  to  the  English  Church,  to  signify 
 those  stated  parts  of  the  Eiturgy  wliich  are 
 set  to  music,  as  distinguished  from  those 
 anthems,  the  words  of  wliich  are  not  a 
 matter  of  settled  regulation.  Tlie  term  is 
 now  generally  restricted  to  the  Te  Deum, 
 and  other  canticles  in  Morning  and  I'Lven- 
 ing  Prayer  ;  and  all  the  parts  of  the  Com- 
 munion Service  oppointed  to  be  sung, 
 including  also  the  responses  to  the  Com- 
 mandments. The  early  Church  musicians, 
 however,  set  the  whole  service  to  music  ; 
 (and  hence  the  term  ;)  that  is,  the  j)ieces, 
 (or  versicles  before  the  Psalms,)  the  Venite, 
 one  or  more  chants  for  the  Psalms,  the 
 Te  Deum  and  canticles,  the  versicles  and 
 responses  after  the  Creed,  the  Aniens,  the 
 Litany,  and  the  Communion  Office.  The 
 most  perfect  service,  in  the  enlarged  and 
 proper  sense,  which  exists  in  the  Church 
 of  England,  is  Tallis's,  published  in  Dr. 
 Boyer's  Cathedral  Music,  and  since  repub- 
 lished and  corrected  by  a  second  Edition. 
 Services  are  as  old  as  tlie  Reformation, 
 and  have  ever  constituted  an  integral  part 
 of  the  choral  system  as  oliserved  in  cathe- 
 dral churches  and  coHeges. — Jthb. 
 
 SICVEN  SACUAMi:XTS.  (Sec  Sa- 
 cramenf.)  Tlie  Paj-ists  extend  and  enforce 
 the  word  sacrament  to  five  ordinances 
 which  are  not  sacraments  in  the  strict 
 sense.  Against  these  our  2oth  Article  is 
 directed,  which  is  as  follows  : 
 
 "  Sacrament.s  ordained  bv  CllUIsxbc  not 
 
714 
 
 SEVEN  SACRAMENTS. 
 
 only  badges  or  tokens  of  Christian  men's 
 professions,  but  rather  they  be  certain  sure 
 witnesses  and  effectual  signs  of  grace  and 
 God's  good  will  towards  us,  by  the  which 
 he  doth  work  invisibly  in  us,  and  doth  not 
 only  quicken,  but  also  strengthen  and  con- 
 finn,  our  faith  in  him. 
 
 "  There  are  two  sacraments  ordained  of 
 Christ  our  Lord  in  the  gospel ;  that  is  to 
 say,  baptism  and  the  supper  of  the  Lord. 
 "  Those  five,  commonly  called  sacra- 
 ments, that  is  to  say,  confirmation,  penance, 
 orders,  matrimony,  and  extreme  unction, 
 are  not  to  be  counted  for  sacraments  of  the 
 gospel,  being  such  as  have  grown,  partly 
 of  the  corrupt  following  of  the  apostles, 
 partly  are  states  of  life  allowed  in  the 
 Scriptures ;  but  yet  have  not  the  like  nature 
 of  sacraments  M'ith  baptism  and  the  Lord's 
 supper,  for  that  they  have  not  any  visible 
 sign  or  ceremony  ordained  of  God. 
 
 "  The  sacraments  were  not  ordained  of 
 Christ  to  be  gazed  upon,  or  to  be  carried 
 about,  but  that  we  should  duly  use  them. 
 And  in  such  only  as  worthily  receive  the 
 same  they  have  a  wholesome  effect  or 
 operation  :  but  they  that  receive  them  un- 
 worthily purchase  to  themselves  damna- 
 tion, as  the  apostle  St.  Paul  saith." 
 
 Peter   Lombard   saying,  that   baptism, 
 confii'mation,  the  blessing  of  bread,  pen- 
 ance,  extreme  unction,   orders,   and   ma- 
 trimony, are  sacraments  of  the  New  Testa- 
 ment, the  Papists  have  thence  gathered, 
 and  ever  since  held,  that  there  are  seven 
 sacraments  instituted  by  Christ,  truly  and 
 properly  so  called ;  insomuch  that,  in  the 
 Council   of  Trent,  they   determined   that 
 whosoever  said  there  are  more  or  less,  should 
 be  accursed.     Now  our  Church,  not  much 
 fearing   their   curse,   hath  here   declared, 
 that  only  two  of  them,  to  wit,  baptism  and 
 the  eucharist,  are  properly  sacraments  of 
 the  New  Testament,  and  that  the  other 
 five  are  not  to  be  accounted  so ;  not  but 
 that,  as  the  word  sacrainent  was  anciently 
 used  for  any  sacred  sign  or  ceremony,  it 
 may,  in  some  sense,  be  applied  to  these 
 also ;   but,  as  it  is  here  expressed,  those 
 five  have  not  the  like  nature  of  sacraments 
 with   baptism   and    the    Lord's    supper. 
 They  may  call  them   sacraments  if  they 
 please ;  but  they  are  not  such  sacraments 
 as  baptism  and  the  Lord's  supper  are, 
 and  therefore  not  sacraments  properly  so 
 called.     For  that  these  two  are  sacraments 
 properly   so   called,  is   acknowledged   on 
 both  sides ;  and  therefore,  Mhatsoever  is  a 
 sacrament  properly  so  called,  must  have 
 the  like  nature  with  them,  so  as  to  agree 
 with  them  in  all  those  things  wherein  their 
 sacramental  nature  consisteth,  that  is,  in 
 
 such  things  wherein  they  two  most  nearly 
 agree  with  one  another :  for  tliat  wherein 
 the  species  do  most  nearly  agree  with  one 
 another,  must  needs  be  their  general 
 nature.  Now,  there  are  several  things 
 wherein  these  two  do  so  agree ;  for  they 
 are  both  instituted  by  Christ.  They  have 
 both  external  signs  and  symbols  deter- 
 mined in  the  gospel,  which  represent  in- 
 ward and  spiritual  grace  unto  us ;  yea, 
 and  they  have  both  promises  annexed  to 
 them  :  whereas  the  other  five  agree  with 
 these  in  none  of  these  things,  or,  howso- 
 ever, none  of  them  agree  in  all  of  them, 
 and,  by  consequence,  cannot  be  sacraments 
 properly  so  called. 
 
 I.  First,  They  do  not  agree  with  them 
 in  their  institution  from  Christ.  That 
 baptism  and  the  Lord's  supper  were  in- 
 stituted by  Christ,  they  cannot  deny ;  but 
 that  the  other  were,  we  do. 
 
 L  As,  first,  for  confinnation,  which  we 
 confess  was  a  custom  anciently  used  in  the 
 Church  of  Christ,  and  still  ought  to  be 
 retained,  even  for  children  after  baptism 
 to  be  oftered  to  the  bishop,  that  they  might 
 receive  the  Holy  Ghost  by  prayers,  and 
 the  laying  on  of  hands.  But  some  of  the 
 Papists  themselves  acknowledge,  that  this 
 was  never  instituted  and  ordained  by 
 Christ  as  the  other  sacraments  were ; 
 neither  did  the  Fathers  use  this  as  any 
 distinct  sacrament  of  itself,  but  as  the 
 perfection  and  consummation  of  the  sacra- 
 ment of  baptism ;  and  the  chrism  or  oint- 
 ment which  they  used  was  only  a  ceremony 
 annexed  to  baptism  also,  as  the  cross  and 
 other  ceremonies  were. 
 
 2.  And  as  for  iienunce^  which  they  define 
 to  be  a  sacrament  of  the  remission  of  sins 
 which  are  committed  after  baptism,  I 
 would  willingly  know  where  or  when 
 Christ  ever  instituted  such  a  sacrament  ? 
 What  though  he  commanded  all  men  to 
 repent,  is  every  command  of  Christ  the 
 institution  of  a  sacrament  ?  Or  is  it  out- 
 ward penance  that  is  here  commanded  ? 
 Or,  rather,  is  it  not  inward  and  true 
 repentance?  And  what  though  Christ 
 said,  *'  Those  sins  that  you  forgive,  they 
 are  forgiven  ; "  what  matter  what  form, 
 what  signs  of  sacrament,  were  appointed 
 and  instituted  in  these  words  ? 
 
 3.  And  so  for  orders,  or  the  ordination  of 
 ministers,  we  know  it  is  a  thing  instituted 
 of  Christ  :  must  it  needs  be,  therefore,  a 
 sacrament,  or  instituted  as  a  sacrament? 
 Because  Christ  ordained  that  bishops, 
 priests,  and  deacons  should  be  ordained, 
 doth  it  therefore  follow  that  he  intended 
 and  instituted  their  ordination  as  a  sacra- 
 ment ? 
 
SEVEN  SACRAMENTS. 
 
 710 
 
 4.  And  as  for  matrimomj,  wc  know  their 
 corrupt  translation  has  it,  "  And  this  is  a 
 great  sacrament,  (Eph.  v,  32,)  instead  of 
 '*  this  is  a  great  mystery,"  or  secret,  as  the 
 Syriac  and  Arabic  read  it ;  and  shall  their 
 false  translation  of  tlie  Scripture  be  a 
 sufficient  ground  for  Christ's  institution 
 of  a  sacrament  ? 
 
 5.  And,  lastly,  for  extreme  unction, 
 ■which  Bellarmine  tells  us  "  is  truly  and 
 properly  a  sacrament,  wherein  tlie  organs 
 of  the  senses,  the  eyes,  nostrils,  lips,  liands, 
 feet,  and  reins,  in  those  that  are  about  to 
 die,  are  anointed  with  exorcised  oil,'' 
 What  institution  have  we  for  tliis  sacra- 
 ment in  the  gospel?  Yes,  say  they,  the 
 apostles  anointed  with  oil  many  tliat  were 
 sick,  and  healed  them.  (Mark  vi.  13.)  It 
 is  very  good ;  the  apostles'  practice  and 
 example  were  the  institution  of  a  sacra- 
 ment. By  this  rule,  whatsoever  the 
 apostles  did  must  be  a  sacrament ;  and  so 
 plucking  off  the  ears  of  corn  must  be  a 
 sacrament  too  at  length.  But  certainly, 
 if  example  must  be  the  ground  of  institu- 
 tion, anointing  the  eyes  of  the  blind  with 
 clay  and  spittle  must  be  much  more  a 
 sacrament  than  the  anointing  of  the  sick 
 with  oil ;  for  it  was  the  apostles  only  that 
 did  this,  but  it  was  our  Saviour  himself 
 that  did  that.  (John  ix.  6.)  But  the 
 apostle  saith,  "  Is  any  one  sick  amongst 
 
 you 
 
 ?    let  him  call  for  the  elders  of  the 
 
 Church,  and  let  them  pray  over  him, 
 anointing  him  with  oil,  in  the  name  of  the 
 LoKD."  (James  v.  14.)  It  is  true :  but  what 
 analogy  is  there  betwixt  this  anointing  of 
 the  apostles  and  the  extreme  unction  of  the 
 Papists?  This  was  to  be  applied  to  any 
 that  were  sick,  "  Is  any  one  sick  amongst 
 you?"  but  theirs  only  to  such  as  are  past 
 all  hopes  of  recovery  :  the  apostles'  was  to 
 be  done  by  several  elders ;  tlie  Papists' 
 only  by  one  priest :  the  apostles'  was  to  be 
 performed  with  simple  oil ;  the  Papists' 
 with  consecrated  and  exorcised  oil.  So 
 that  the  Papists'  extreme  unction  cannot 
 possibly  lay  claim  to  any  institution  from 
 that  place,  as  Cajetan  himself  acknow- 
 ledged. 
 
 II.  And  as  for  external  signs  and  symbols, 
 analogically  representing  inward  sj)iritual 
 grace,  which  constitute  the  very  iorm  of 
 the  sacraments  of  bajjtism  and  the  Lord's 
 supper,  it  is  in  vain  to  look  for  the  like  in 
 the  other  sacraments,  falsely  so  called,  as 
 is  observed  in  the  Article  itself.  For  ex- 
 ample :  what  is  the  sign  in  penance  ?  Or, 
 if  there  be  a  sign,  what  is  the  grace  that  is 
 analogically  represented  by  it?  I  know 
 they  cannot  agree  amongst  themselves, 
 what  is  the  form  or  sign  in  this  sacrament  ? 
 
 Some  say  the  words  of  abs(,hition,  others 
 absolution  itself,  others  imposition  of 
 hands  ;  but  whichsoever  of  these  we  take, 
 they  cannot  be  such  signs  or  symbols  a.s 
 are  in  ba])tism  an<l  tlie  I.oui/s  supper. 
 For  there  is  water,  and  i)rea(l,  and  wine, 
 all  substances ;  whereas  these  are  all 
 actions,  and  so  accidents.  The  like  may 
 be  said  also  of  confirmation  and  onlem, 
 which  have  no  such  visible  sign,  howsoever 
 not  ajipointed  by  Christ.  And  bo  for 
 matrimony  too,  there  is  no  visible  sign  of 
 any  invisible  grace  can  j)ossibly  be  fastened 
 ui)on  it.  To  say  that  the  priest's  wordu, 
 or  the  parties'  mutual  consent,  is  the  fonn 
 or  sign,  is  a  mere  evasion  :  for  the  parties' 
 consent  is  an  invisible  thing,  and  therefore 
 cannot  be  a  visible  sign  :  the  words  of  the 
 priest  arc  mere  words,  which  may  be  heard 
 indeed,  but  cannot  be  seen,  and  so  cannot 
 be  any  visible  sign.  Neither  are  words 
 significative  elements,  as  bread  and  wine 
 are,  and  therefore  cannot  be  tlie  signs  of 
 such  sacraments  as  tliev  be.  And  for 
 extreme  unction,  there  is,  I  confess,  an 
 external  sign  in  it,  even  unction  ;  but  what 
 analogy  hath  this  external  sign  to  any 
 internal  grace  ?  Two  things,  they  sav,  are 
 represented  by  it.  bodily  health  and  for- 
 giveness of  sins  ;  but  is  bodily  health  an 
 mward  grace  ?  Or,  sujjpose  it  was,  what 
 similitude  is  there  betwixt  that  and  oil, 
 or  unction  ?  Forgiveness  of  sins,  I  know, 
 is  a  spiritual  grace ;  but  none  of  them 
 durst  ever  yet  undertake  to  show  the 
 analogy  betwixt  the  outward  sign  and  this 
 invisible  grace.  And  seeing  there  is  no 
 analogy  betwixt  the  oil  and  remission  of 
 sins,  that  cannot  be  looked  uj)on  as  any 
 sacramental  sign  or  symbol,  as  water  and 
 wine  are  in  the  other  sacraments,  exactly 
 representing  the  inward  spiritual  grace 
 that  is  signified  by  them.  To  all  which 
 we  might  add  also,  that  it  is  the  nature  of 
 a  sacrament  to  have  ])romises  annexed  to 
 them — ])romises  of  spiritual  things.  And 
 what  promises  do  we  find  in  Scrijiture 
 made  to  matrimony,  to  confirmation,  to 
 orders,  and  the  rest. 
 
 But  whatsoever  other  things  the  PupiKts 
 would  obtrude  upon  us  as  sacraments,  it  is 
 certain  that  we  find  ourS.vvioiR  solemnly 
 instituting  two.  and  but  two.  sacranientA 
 in  the  New  Testament ;  to  wit,  ihese  here 
 mentioned,  baiitismaiid  theLuui/s  Hupper. 
 And,  therefore,  when  the  ai)ostle  compares 
 the  law  with  the  gosnel,  he  in^tancl•s 
 these  two  sacraments  only,  and  none  else : 
 '*  And  were  all  baptized  into  .Moses  in  liie 
 cloud,  and  in  the  sea ;  and  did  all  eat  the 
 same  spiritual  meat."  (1  Cor.  x.  2,  3.) 
 And  he  again  joins  these  two  together, 
 
■16 
 
 SEXAGESIMA. 
 
 SHEWBREAD. 
 
 saying,  "For  by  one  Spirit  are  we  all 
 baptized  into  one  body,  whether  we  be 
 Jews  or  Gentiles,  whether  we  be  bond  or 
 free  ;  and  have  been  all  made  to  drink 
 into  one  spirit."  (xii.  13.)  And  thus  do 
 the  Fathers  observe  how,  when  one  of  the 
 soldiers  pierced  our  Saviour's  side,  and 
 there  came  out  blood  and  water,  (John 
 xi.x.  34,)  the  two  sacraments  of  the  New 
 Testament  were  thereby  intimated  to  us. 
 — Beveridqe. 
 
 SEXAGESIMA.     (See  Septiiafiesima.) 
 
 SEXTON;  from  Sacristan.  The  sex- 
 ton was  originally  regarded  as  the  keeper 
 of  the  holy  things  devoted  to  Divine  wor- 
 ship :  he  is  appointed  by  the  minister  or 
 parishioners  according  to  custom  ;  and 
 his  salary  is  according  to  the  custom  of 
 each  parish,  or  is  settled  by  the  parish 
 vestry.  In  the  case  of  Olive  v.  Ingram  it 
 was  held,  that  a  woman  is  as  capable  of 
 being  elected  to  this  office  as  a  man,  and 
 that  women  may  have  a  voice  in  the  elec- 
 tion. The  duty  of  a  sexton  is  to  keep  the 
 church  and  pews  cleanly  swept  and  suf- 
 ficiently aired ;  to  make  graves,  and  open 
 vaults  for  the  burial  of  the  dead ;  to  pro- 
 vide (under  the  churchwarden's  direction) 
 candles,  &c.  for  lighting  the  church  ;  bread 
 and  wine,  and  other  necessaries,  for  the 
 communion,  and  also  water  for  baptisms  ; 
 to  attend  the  church  during  Divine  ser- 
 vice, in  order  to  open  the  pew  doors  for 
 the  parishioners,  keep  out  dogs,  and  pre- 
 vent disturbances,  &c.  It  has  been  held 
 that  if  a  sexton  be  removed  without  suffi- 
 cient cause,  a  mandamus  will  lie  for  his 
 restitution.  But  where  it  appeared  that 
 the  office  was  held  only  during  pleasure, 
 and  not  for  life,  the  court  refused  to  inter- 
 fere. The  salary,  however,  generally  de- 
 pends on  the  annual  vote  of  the  parish- 
 ioners. 
 
 SHAFT.  The  central  portion  of  a 
 piUar,  resting  on  the  base,  and  supporting 
 the  capital.     (See  Pillar.) 
 
 SHAKERS.  A  party  of  enthusiasts 
 left  England  for  America  in  1774,  and 
 settled  in  the  province  of  New  York,  where 
 the  society  soon  increased,  and  received 
 the  ludicrous  denomination  of  Shakers, 
 from  the  practice  of  shaking  and  dancing. 
 They  affected  to  consider  themselves  as 
 forming  the  only  true  Church,  and  their 
 preachers  as  possessed  of  the  apostolic  gift : 
 the  wicked,  they  thought,  would  only  be 
 punished  for  a  time,  except  those  who 
 should  be  so  incorrigibly  depraved  as  to 
 fall  from  their  Church.  They  disowned 
 baptism  and  the  eucharist,  not  as  in  them.- 
 selvcs  wrong,  but  as  unnecessary  in  the 
 new  dispensation,  which  they  declared  was 
 
 opening  upon  mankind ;  and  this  was  the 
 MiUenninm,  in  which,  however,  they  ex- 
 pected that  Christ  would  appear  per- 
 sonally only  to  his  saints.  Their  leader 
 was  Anna  Leese,  whom  they  believed  to 
 be  the  woman  mentioned  in  the  Apoca- 
 lypse, as  clothed  with  the  sun,  and  the 
 moon  under  her  feet,  and  upon  her  head  a 
 crown  of  twelve  stars.  The  successors  of 
 this  elect  bodij  have  been,  they  say,  as  per- 
 fect as  she  was,  and  have  possessed,  like 
 her,  unreserved  intercourse  with  angels 
 and  departed  spirits,  and  the  power  of  im- 
 parting spiritual  gifts. 
 
 SHECHINAII.  {Hehr.)  By  this  word 
 the  Hebrews  meant  the  visible  manifest- 
 ation of  the  Divine  presence  in  the  temple 
 of  Jerusalem.  It  was  a  bright  cloud, 
 resting  over  the  propitiatory  or  mercy- 
 seat  ;  from  whence  GoD  gave  forth  his 
 oracles  with  an  articulate  voice,  when  he 
 was  consulted  by  the  high  priest  in  favour 
 of  the  people.  Hence  God  is  often  said 
 in  Scripture  to  sit  upon  the  cherubims,  or 
 between  the  cherubims,  because  the  cheru- 
 bims shadowed  with  their  wings  the  mercy- 
 seat,  over  which  the  Shechinah  resided. 
 
 The  Rabbins  tell  us,  that  the  Shechinah 
 first  resided  in  the  tabernacle  prepared  by 
 Moses  in  the  wdlderness,  and  that  it  de- 
 scended therein  on  the  -day  of  its  conse- 
 cration. From  thence  it  passed  into  the 
 sanctuary  of  Solomon's  temple,  on  the  day 
 of  its  dedication  by  that  prince ;  where  it 
 continued  to  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem 
 and  the  temple  by  the  Chaldeans,  and  was 
 never  after  seen. 
 
 The  Mohammedans  pretend  the  She- 
 chinah was  hi  the  shape  of  a  leopard ;  and 
 that,  in  time  of  war,  when  the  ark  of  the 
 covenant,  over  which  it  resided,  Mas  car- 
 ried into  the  field  of  battle,  it  raised  itself 
 up,  and  sent  forth  such  a  dreadful  cry,  as 
 threw  the  enemy  into  the  utmost  confusion. 
 Others  of  them  imagine  it  to  have  had  the 
 figure  of  a  man,  and  say,  that,  when  it 
 was  caii'ied  into  the  army,  it  stood  up  upon 
 its  feet,  and  came  forth  hke  a  vehement 
 wind,  which,  rushing  upon  the  enemy,  put 
 them  to  flight. 
 
 SHEWBREAD.  The  name  given  to 
 those  loaves  of  bread  which  the  Hebrew 
 priests  placed,  every  sabbath  day,  upon 
 the  golden  table  in  the  sanctuary.  The 
 Hebrew  literally  signifies  bread  (yf  faces, 
 these  loaves  being  square,  and  having,  as 
 it  were,  four  faces,  or  four  sides.  They 
 are  called  shewhread  by  the  Greek  and 
 Latin  interpreters,  because  they  were  ex- 
 posed to  public  view  before  the  ark.  The 
 table  on  which  they  were  placed  was  called 
 the  table  of  sheivbread. 
 
SHRINE. 
 
 The  shewbread  consisted  of  twelve  loaves, 
 according  to  the  number  of  the  tribes. 
 These  were  served  up  hot  on  the  sabbath 
 day,  and  at  the  same  time  the  stale  ones, 
 which  had  been  exposed  durinp;  the  whole 
 week,  were  taken  away.  It  was  not  lawful 
 for  any  one  to  eat  of  these  loaves,  but  the 
 priests  only.  David,  indeed,  com]iellcd  by 
 uro^ent  necessity,  broke  through  this  re- 
 striction. This  ottering  was  accom])anied 
 with  salt  and  frankincense,  which  was  burnt 
 upon  the  table  at  the  time  when  they  set 
 on  fresh  loaves. 
 
 Authors  are  not  agreed  as  to  the  manner 
 in  which  the  loaves  of  shewln-ead  were 
 ranged  upon  the  table.  Some  think  there 
 were  three  piles  of  them,  of  four  in  each  ; 
 others  say,  there  were  but  two  piles,  of 
 six  loaves  in  each.  The  l{ab])ins  toll  us 
 that,  between  every  two  loaves,  there  were 
 two  golden  pipes,  supported  by  forks  of 
 the  same  metal,  whose  ends  rested  upon 
 the  ground,  to  convey  air  to  the  loaves,  to 
 hinder  them  from  growing  mouldy. 
 
 SHllIXE.  The  places  where  something 
 sacred,  or  a  relic,  is  deposited. 
 
 SH11RT5.     To  administer  confession. 
 
 SHROVE  TUESDAY.  The  day  before 
 Ash  Wednesday,  so  called  in  the  Church 
 of  England  from  the  old  Saxon  word 
 shrive,  shrif.  or  shrove,  which,  in  that  lan- 
 guage, signifies  to  confess ;  it  being  our 
 duty  to  confess  our  sins  to  God  on  that 
 day,  in  order  to  receive  the  blessed  sacra- 
 ment of  the  eucharist,  and  thereby  qualify 
 ourselves  for  a  more  religious  observance 
 of  the  holy  time  of  Lent  immediately 
 ensuing. 
 
 SICK,  COMMUNION  OF.  (See  Com- 
 munion of  the  Sick.) 
 
 SICK,  VISITATION  OF.  By  Canon 
 76,  "  When  any  person  is  dangerously 
 sick  in  any  parish,  the  minister  or  curate, 
 having  knowledge  thereof,  shall  resort 
 unto  him  or  her,  (if  the  disease  be  not 
 known,  or  probably  suspected,  to  be  in- 
 fectious,) to  instruct  and  comfort  them  in 
 their  distress,  according  to  the  order  of  the 
 communion  book  if  he  be  no  preacher,  or 
 if  he  be  a  preacher,  then  as  he  shall  think 
 most  needful  and  convenient."  And  by  the 
 rubric,  before  the  ottice  for  the  Visitation 
 of  the  Sick,  *'  \\'hen  any  ])erson  is  sick, 
 notice  shall  be  given  thereof  to  the  min- 
 ister of  the  parish,  who  shall  go  to  the 
 sick  person's  house,  and  use  the  ottice  there 
 appointed.  And  the  minister  shall  ex- 
 amine the  sick  person  whether  he  repent 
 him  truly  of  his  sins,  and  be  in  charity 
 with  all  the  world ;  exhorting  him  to  for- 
 give, from  the  bottom  of  his  heart,  all 
 persons  that  have  ott"ended  him  ;  and  if  he 
 
 ST.  SIMON  AND  ST.  JUDE'S  DAY.    717 
 
 hath  ofl^ended  any  other,  to  ask  them  for- 
 giveness; and  where  he  hath  done  injury 
 or  wrong  to  any  man,  that  he  may  make 
 amends  to  the  utmost  of  his  ])ower.  And 
 if  he  hath  not  before  disposed  of  his  goods, 
 let  him  then  be  admonished  to  make  his 
 will,  and  to  declare  his  debts  what  he 
 oweth.  and  what  is  owing  to  him,  for  the 
 better  discharge  of  his  conscience,  and 
 the  quietness  of  his  executors,  liut  men 
 should  often  be  j)ut  in  remembrance  to 
 take  order  for  the  settling  of  their  temporal 
 estates,  while  they  are  in  health.  And 
 the  minister  should  not  omit  eamestlv  to 
 move  such  sick  ])ersons,  as  arc  of  al)ility, 
 to  be  liberal  to  the  poor."  (See  Ahsnltttiou, 
 Conimunitm  of  Sick,   Visitation  of  Sick.) 
 
 SlDESMl-iX.  It  was  usual  ibr  ])is!ioi)s 
 in  their  visitations,  to  summon  some  cre(lil)le 
 ])ersons  out  of  every  parish,  whom  they 
 examined  on  oath  concerning  the  condition 
 of  the  church,  and  other  attairs  relating 
 to  it.  Afterwards  these  persons  became 
 standing  otticers  in  several  ])laces,  espe- 
 cially in  great  cities;  and  when  ])ersonal 
 visitations  were  a  little  disused,  and  when 
 it  became  a  custom  for  the  jiarishioners 
 to  repair  the  body  of  the  church,  which 
 began  about  the  ttfteenth  century,  these 
 otticers  were  still  more  necessary,  and  then 
 they  were  called  Testes  Sipunhiles  or  Ju- 
 ratorcs  Si/ nodi ;  some  called  them  synods- 
 men,  and  now  they  are  corruj)tly  called 
 sidesmen.  They  are  chosen  every  year, 
 according  to  the  custom  of  the  ])lace.  and 
 their  business  is  to  assist  the  churchwardens 
 in  inquiring  into  things  relating  to  the 
 church,  and  making  presentment  of  such 
 matters  as  arc  ])unishable  by  the  ecclesia.s- 
 tical  laws.  Hence  they  are  also  called 
 Questmen  ;  but  now  the  whole  ottice  for 
 the  most  part  is  devolved  \\\)o\\  the  church- 
 wardens, though  not  universally.  (See 
 Churchwardens.) 
 
 SIGNIFICAVIT.  The  writ  de  ex- 
 communicato  capiendo  was  called  a  siijuiji- 
 cavit  from  the  word  at  the  beginning  of 
 the  writ :  Itex  vicecomiti  L.  salutcm.  Sig- 
 NIFIC.WIT  7U)his  venerahilis  Pater,  11.  L. 
 I'linscopns,  isc. 
 
 vST.  SIMON  AND  ST.  JUDE'S  DAY. 
 A  holy-day  appointed  by  the  Church  for 
 the  commemoration  of  these  saints,  ob- 
 served in  our  Church  on  the  28th  Oc- 
 tober. 
 
 The  first  is  St.  Simon,  surnamed  the 
 Canaanite  and  Zelotes,  which  two  names 
 are,  in  fact,  the  same;  for  the  Hebrew 
 term,  Canaan,  signifies  a  zealot. 
 
 There  was  a  sect  of  men  called  Zealots, 
 about  the  time  of  CliiiIsT,  in  Judea,  who, 
 out  of  a  pretended  zeal  for  God's  honour, 
 
718 
 
 SIMONY. 
 
 SIN, 
 
 would  commit  the  most  grievous  outrages : 
 they  would  choose  and  ordain  high  priests 
 out  of  the  basest  of  the  people,  and  murder 
 men  of  the  highest  and  most  illustrious 
 extraction.  And  it  is  highly  probable  that 
 this  Simon,  before  his  conversion  and  call, 
 was  one  of  this  hot-headed  sect ;  or,  at 
 least,  that  there  was  some  fire  or  fierceness 
 conspicuous  in  his  temper  that  occasioned 
 his  being  distinguished  by  that  warm  name. 
 He  was  one  of  the  twelve  apostles,  and  a 
 relation  of  our  blessed  Lord;  either  his 
 half-brother,  being  one  of  Joseph's  sons 
 by  another  wife,  or  a  cousin  by  his  mother's 
 side. 
 
 The  other  saint  this  day  commemorated, 
 was  likewise  one  of  the  twelve  apostles, 
 and  James's  brother,  and  consequently  of 
 the  same  degree  of  consanguinity  to  our 
 blessed  Saviour. 
 
 He  had  two  surnames,  viz.  Thaddeus, 
 which  seems  to  be  nothing  more  than  a 
 diminutive  of  the  term  Judas,  as  it  is  de- 
 rived from  the  same  Hebrew  root ;  and 
 Lebbeus,  which  is  derived  from  another 
 Hebrew  root,  signifying  little  heart. 
 
 SIMONY.  The  corrupt  presentation  of 
 any  one  to  an  ecclesiastical  benefice  for 
 money,  gift,  or  reward.  It  is  so  called 
 from  the  sin  of  Simon  ]Magus,  who  thought 
 to  have  purchased  the  power  of  conferring 
 the  gift  of  the  Holy  Ghost  for  money 
 (Acts  viii.  19)  ;  though  the  purchasing 
 holy  orders  seemed  to  approach  nearer  to 
 his  ofi'ence.  It  is  by  the  canon  law  a  very 
 grievous  ofi'ence  ;  and  is  so  much  the  more 
 odious,  because,  as  Sir  Edward  Coke  ob- 
 serves, it  is  ever  accompanied  with  per- 
 jury ;  for  the  presentee  is  sworn  to  have 
 committed  no  simony. 
 
 Canon  40,  "  to  avoid  the  detestable  sin 
 of  simony,"  provides  this  declaration  upon 
 oath,  to  be  taken  by  every  person  on  being 
 instituted  to  a  benefice  ;  "  I  do  swear  that 
 I  have  made  no  simoniacal  payment,  con- 
 tract, or  promise,  directly  or  indirectly,  by 
 myself,  or  by  any  other  to  my  knowledge 
 or  with  my  consent,  to  any  person  or  per- 
 sons whatsoever,  for  or  concerning  the  pro- 
 curing or  obtaining  of  this  ecclesiastical 
 place,  preferment,  office,  or  living,  nor  will 
 1  at  any  time  hereafter  perform  or  satisfy 
 any  such  kind  of  payment,  contract,  or 
 promise,  made  by  any  other  without  my 
 knowledge  or  consent:  so  help  me  God 
 through  Jesus  Christ." 
 
 And  by  statute  31  Eliz.  c.  6,  for  the 
 avoiding  of  simony  and  corruption,  it  is 
 provided  that  all  presentations  made  for 
 such  consideration  as  is  described  in  the 
 above-quoted  canon,  shall  be  utterly  void  ; 
 and  any  person  or  body  politic  or  cor- 
 
 porate, presenting  to  a  benefice  for  such 
 consideration,  shall  forfeit  two  years'  value 
 or  profits  of  the  benefice,  and  the  person 
 procuring  himself  to  be  so  presented  shall 
 be  for  ever  disabled  from  holding  that 
 benefice ;  and  any  person  who  shall  take 
 any  reward,  other  than  the  usual  fees  for 
 admitting  or  inducting  to  a  benefice,  shall 
 forfeit  two  years'  profits  of  such  benefice ; 
 and  the  admission  or  induction  shall  be 
 void,  and  the  patron  may  present  again  as 
 if  the  person  so  inducted  or  admitted  were 
 naturally  dead. 
 
 In  the  great  case  of  the  Bishop  of 
 London  and  Leivis  Disney  Ffytche,  Esq., 
 in  the  year  1780,  the  rectory  of  the  parish 
 church  of  Woodham  Walter  in  Essex 
 being  vacant,  Mr.  Ffytche  presented  his 
 clerk,  the  Rev.  John  Eyre,  to  the  bishop 
 for  institution.  The  bishop  being  inform- 
 ed that  the  said  John  Eyre  had  given  his 
 patron  a  bond  in  a  large  penalty  to  resign 
 the  said  rectory  at  any  time  upon  his  re- 
 quest, and  the  said  John  Eyre  acknow- 
 ledging that  he  had  given  such  a  bond, 
 the  bishop  refused  to  institute  him  to  the 
 living. 
 
 Thereupon  Mr.  Ffytche  brought  a  quare 
 impedit  against  the  bishop  in  the  court  of 
 Common  Pleas.  The  cause  was  decided 
 against  the  bishop  in  that  court,  and,  sub-, 
 sequently,  in  the  court  of  Queen's  Bench  ; 
 but  upon  appeal  to  the  House  of  Lords, 
 after  much  debate,  and  the  opinions  of 
 the  judges  being  called  for,  the  decision 
 of  the  courts  below  was,  upon  the  motion 
 of  Lord  Thurlow,  reversed.  The  lords, 
 however,  divided  upon  the  question,  and 
 the  numbers  were  nineteen  to  eighteen  for 
 reversing  the  decision  of  the  inferior  law 
 courts,  all  the  bishops  present  voting  in 
 the  majority.  But  that  decision  of  the 
 House  of  Lords,  though  much  objected  to 
 by  lawyers  at  the  time,  is  now  held  to  be 
 settled  law.  The  ground  of  the  decision 
 was,  that  the  bond  to  the  patron  to  resign 
 was  a  benefit  to  the  said  patron,  and  there- 
 fore the  presentation  was  void.  The  law 
 upon  this  matter  will  be  found  in  the  opi- 
 nions of  the  judges  given  to  the  House  of 
 Lords,  in  1826,  in  the  case  Fletcher  v.  Lord 
 Sondes.  See  Bingham's  Reports,  iii.  501. 
 The  decision  in  this  case  led  to  the  passing 
 of  the  Act  7  «fe  8  Geo.  IV.  c.  25,  and  was 
 followed  by  the  Act  9  Geo.  IV.  c.  94,  by 
 which  bonds  of  resignation  in  certain 
 cases  are  rendered  legallv  valid. 
 
 SIN,  DEADLY  SIN,  AND  SIN 
 AGAINST  THE  HOLY  GHOST.  Our 
 sixteenth  Article,  headed  "Of  Sin  after 
 Baptism,"  runs  thus :  "  Not  every  deadly 
 sin  wilUngly  committed  after  baptism,  is 
 
SIN. 
 
 19 
 
 sin  against  the  Hoi-Y  Ghost,  and  uni)ar- 
 donable  ;  wherefore  tlie  grant  of  repent- 
 ance is  not  to  be  denied  to  such  as  fall 
 into  sin,  after  baptism.  After  wc  have  re- 
 ceived the  Holy  Giidst  \.c  may  depart 
 from  grace  given,  and  fall  into  sin,  and  by 
 the  grace  of  God  (we  may)  arise  again, 
 and  amend  our  lives ;  and  therefore  they 
 arc  to  be  condemned  that  say  they  can  no 
 more  sin  as  long  as  they  live  here,  or  deny 
 the  place  of  forgiveness  to  such  as  truly 
 repent." 
 
 This  Article  is  levelled  against  the  doc- 
 trine of  the  Novatians  of  old,  who  held 
 every  sin  committed  after  bajitism  to  be 
 unpardonable.  This  doctrine  being  revived 
 by  some  of  the  Anabaptists,  or  other  enthu- 
 siasts, who  sprang  up  at  the  beginning 
 of  the  lleformation,  it  is  not  improbable 
 that  the  compilers  of  the  Articles  had  an 
 eye  likewise  upon  their  heterodoxy.  For, 
 as  the  Papists  were  wont  maliciously  to 
 impute  the  wild  doctrines  of  all  the  several 
 sorts  of  enthusiasts  to  all  Protestants,  so 
 it  was  thought  here  convenient  to  defend 
 our  Church  against  the  imputation  of  any 
 such  opinion. — Dr.  XichoUs. 
 
 In  the  preceding  .\i-ticle  (of  the  XXXIX.) 
 notice  was  taken  of  a  sect  of  Christians 
 who  maintain  the  peccability  of  Ciiuisx ; 
 and  in  this  we  have  to  argue  against  those 
 who  contend  for  the  impeccability  of  man. 
 — Bp.  lotn/ine. 
 
 By  "  deadly  sin  "  in  this  Article  we  are 
 not  to  understand  such  sins  as,  in  the 
 Church  of  Kome,  are  called  "  mortal,"  in 
 opposition  to  others  that  are  "  venial:"  as 
 it  some  sins,  though  offences  against  God, 
 and  violations  of  his  law,  could  be  of  their 
 own  nature  such  slight  things,  that  they 
 deserved  only  temporal  punishment,  and 
 were  to  be  expiated  by  some  piece  of 
 penance  or  devotion,  or  the  communica- 
 tion of  the  merits  of  others.  The  Scrip- 
 ture nowhere  teaches  us  to  think  so 
 slightly  of  the  majesty  of  God,  or  of  hi-s 
 law.  There  is  a  "  curse  "  upon  every  one 
 "  that  continueth  not  in  all  things  which 
 are  Avritten  in  the  ])ook  of  the  law  to  do 
 them"  (Gal.  iii.  10) ;  and  the  same  curse 
 must  have  been  on  us  all,  if  CiiuisT  had 
 not  redeemed  us  from  it :  "  the  wages  of 
 sin  is  death."  And  St.  James  asserts,  that 
 there  is  such  a  complication  of  all  the  pre- 
 cepts of  the  law  of  God,  both  with  one 
 another,  and  with  the  authority  of  the 
 Lawgiver,  that  "  he  who  offends  in  one 
 point  is  guilty  of  all."  (James  ii.  10,  11.) 
 So  since  God  has  in  liis  word  given  us 
 such  dreadful  apjjrehensions  of  his  wrath, 
 and  of  the  guilt  of  sin,  we  dare  not  soften 
 these  to  a  degree  below  the  majesty  of  the 
 
 eternal  God.  and  the  dignitv  of  his  most 
 holy  laws.  IJut  after  all,  we' are  fur  from 
 the  conceit  of  the  Stoies,  who  made  all 
 sms  alike.  We  ackiiowlecl-e  that  some  sins 
 ot  Ignorance  and  inlinnilv  muv  consiHt 
 with  a  state  of  grace  ;  which  is  eit'lu-r  ijuite 
 destroyi>d,  or  at  least  much  eclipsed  and 
 chuuled,  by  other  sins,  that  are  more 
 heinous  in  their  nature,  and  more  deliber- 
 ately gone  a])out.  It  is  in  this  sense  that 
 the  word  '•  deadly  sin  "  is  to  be  understood 
 in  the  Article  ;  for  though  in  the  strielnesH 
 of  justice  every  sin  is  "deadly,"  yet  in  the 
 disj)ensation  of  the  gospel  those'sins  only 
 are  "  deadly "  that  do  tleeply  wound  the 
 conscience,  and  that  drive  away  grace.— 
 Up.  liurnvt. 
 
 Every  sin  is  in  its  nature  deadly,  since 
 "the  wages  of  sin  is  death"  (Koni.  vi. 
 23):  and  every  sin  is  committed  against 
 the  Holy  Ghost,  as  well  as  against  the 
 Fatiiku  and  the  Son  ;  but  still  pardon- 
 able, if  it  be  not  that  sin  wliich  is  empha- 
 tically styled  "  the  sin  against  the  HoLY 
 Ghost  ;"  and  that  is  "  blasphemy  against 
 the  Holy  Ghost."  (Matt,  xii.'^l,  32; 
 Mark  iii.  28—30.)  Of  which  sin  St. 
 Jerome  says,  that  "  they  only  are  guilty, 
 Avho,  though  in  miracles  they'see  the  very 
 work  of  God,  yet  slander  them,  and  Ray 
 that  they  are  done  by  the  devil ;  and 
 ascribe  to  the  operation  of  that  evil  spirit, 
 and  not  to  the  Divine  jjower,  all  those 
 mighty  signs  and  wonders  which  were 
 wrought  for  the  conlirniation  of  the  gos- 
 ])el."  In  relation  to  all  other  sins,  we  are, 
 as  Clement  of  ]{ome  observes,  "  to  fix  our 
 eyes  on  the  blood  of  Chuist,  which  was 
 shed  for  our  salvation,  and  hath  obtained 
 the  grace  of  repentance  for  the  whole 
 world." — A rchdvacon    Wclchmun. 
 
 And  **  the  doors,"  says  Clement  of  Alex- 
 andria, "  are  open  to  every  one,  who  in 
 truth,  and  with  his  whole  heart,  returns  to 
 God  ;  and  the  Fathku  most  willingly  re- 
 ceives a  son  who  truly  repents.  Thin  is 
 the  general  tenor  of  Scrij)ture,  in  which 
 all  men  are  invited  to  rejjentance  without 
 any  discrimination  or  exception.  .\nd  wo 
 are  told,  even  under  the  Mosaic  di>i)ensa. 
 tion,  that  "  though  our  sins  be  o-h  scarlet, 
 they  shall  be  a-s  white  as  snow  ;  though 
 they  be  red  like  crimson,  they  shall  be  as 
 wool."  (Isaiah  i.  IH.)  And  the  exhorta- 
 tions to  amendment  and  reformation,  con- 
 tained in  the  lM)istles,  are  all  addressed  to 
 persons  who  luul  been  already  baptized,  and 
 who  had  been  guilty  of  faulLs  or  sins  hu1>- 
 sequent  to  their  i)aptism. — lip.  Tumlinc. 
 
 The  Church  of  Konie,  in  order  to  estab- 
 lish its  dangerous  doctrine  of  the  merit 
 of  good  works,  which  is  eqtiaily  opposed 
 
720 
 
 SIN. 
 
 SITTING. 
 
 to  Scripture  and  to  fact,  divides  sin  into 
 two  classes :  mortal  sin,  that  sin  which  is 
 in  its  nature  gross,  and  is  committed  know- 
 ingly, wilfully,  deliberately;  and  venial 
 sin,  under  which  head  are  classed  all  sins 
 of  ignorance  and  negligence,  and  such  as 
 are  considered  small  in  their  nature. 
 
 It  is  dithcult  to  distinguish,  in  some  in- 
 stances, between  mortal  sins  and  venial 
 sins.  But  they  form  two  distinct  classes 
 of  sin,  differing  not  merely  in  degree,  but 
 in  genus  or  kind. 
 
 Mortal  sins  render  the  transgressors 
 children  of  wrath  and  enemies  of  GoD  ; 
 but  it  is  in  regard  to  venial  sins  that  the 
 en-or  or  heresy  is  propounded.  It  is  stated 
 that  in  this  mortal  life  even  holy  and  jus- 
 tified persons  fall  into  daily  venial  sins, 
 which,  nevertheless,  do  not  in  any  way 
 affect  or  detract  from  their  holy  character, 
 "and  Avhich  do  not  exclude  the  trans- 
 gressor from  the  grace  of  God." 
 
 It  is  here  to  be  observed  that  we  do  not 
 deny  that  a  distinction  is  to  be  made  be- 
 tween sins  of  greater  or  less  enormity. 
 But  the  error  of  the  Romanist  is  this — that 
 he  makes  the  two  classes  of  sin  to  differ 
 not  only  in  enormity  and  degree,  which 
 we  admit  to  be  the  case,  but  also  in  their 
 nature  and  kind.  ]>^o  amount  of  venial 
 sins,  according  to  Bellarmine,  M'ould  ever 
 make  a  mortal  sin. 
 
 AVe  also  make  a  distinction  of  sins :  we 
 call  some  sins  deadly,  and  others  infirm- 
 ities ;  we  consider  the  commission  of  some 
 sins  as  not  inconsistent  with  a  state  of 
 grace,  whereas  by  others  the  Holy  Spirit 
 may  be  grieved,  done  despite  unto,  and 
 quenched,  so  that  the  sinner  shall  be  spi- 
 ritually dead :  he  shall  die  a  second  death. 
 But'  here  is  the  difference  between  us 
 and  the  Komanists  :  although  we  speak  of 
 some  sins  as  of  less,  and  of  others  as  of 
 greater  enormity,  we  consider  every  sin  to 
 be  in  its  nature  mortal;  that  by  many 
 little  sins  a  man  may  be  damned,  even  as 
 a  ship  may  be  sunk  by  a  weight  of  sand  as 
 well  as  by  a  weight  of  lead  ;  and  that  they 
 are  not  damnable  to  as,  only  from  the  con- 
 stant intercession  of  CllRlsT.  Whereas 
 negligences  and  ignorances,  and  sins  of 
 lesser  enormity,  are  by  the  Komanists  not 
 regarded  as  sins  at  all,  in  the  proper  sense 
 of  the  word. 
 
 Hence  ive  are  for  ever  relying  directly 
 upon  Christ  for  pardon  and  for  mercy, 
 while  they  rely  upon  their  own  merits. 
 They  appeal  to  the  justice  of  GoD ;  we, 
 knowing  that  by  his  justice  we  must  be 
 condemned,  confide  in  his  mercy.  They 
 say  that  venial  sin  is  not  in  itself  mortal ; 
 tee  regard  all  sin  as  mortal  in  itself,  but 
 
 rejoice  to  know  that  "  if  any  man  sin"  (any 
 man  in  a  state  of  justification,  and,  on  that 
 account,  not  sinning  habitually  and  wil- 
 fully) "  we  have  an  advocate  with  the 
 Father,  Jesus  Christ  tlie  righteous,  and 
 he  is  the  propitiation  for  our  sins." 
 
 The  doctrine  of  the  Church  of  England 
 leads  men  to  Christ,  and  nails  them  pros- 
 trate to  the  foot  of  the  cross  ;  whereas  the 
 Romish  doctrine,  though  taking  men  to 
 Christ  in  the  first  instance,  soon  removes 
 them  from  the  only  rock  of  salvation,  and 
 induces  them  to  rely  upon  an  arm  of  flesh. 
 Our  doctrine  lays  low  in  the  dust  all 
 human  pride,  it  annihilates  every  notion 
 of  human  merit,  and  exalts  the  Saviour 
 as  our  all  in  all;  the  Ilomish  doctrine, 
 establishing  the  idea  of  human  merit  and 
 supererogatory  works,  di'ives  some  to  de- 
 spair, and  inflames  others  with  spiritual 
 pride,  while  it  terminates  in  practical  idol- 
 atry. Our  doctrine  is  primitive,  catholic, 
 and  scriptural,  as  Avell  as  Protestant,  ever 
 reminding  us  that  "  there  is  one  God, 
 and  one  Mediator  between  God  and  men, 
 the  man  Christ  Jesus  ; "  while  their  doc- 
 trine is  mediaeval,  scholastic,  heretical,  and 
 opposed  to  the  truth  as  it  is  in  Jesus. 
 
 SI  QUIS.  (See  Orders,  Ordination.) 
 In  the  Church  of  England,  before  a  person 
 is  admitted  to  holy  orders,  a  notice  called 
 the  "  Si  quis  "  (from  the  Latin  of  the  words 
 if  any  ^^erson,  occurring  in  the  form)  is 
 published  in  the  church  of  the  parish  where 
 the  candidate  usually  resides,  in  the  fol- 
 lowing form :  "  Notice  is  hereby  given, 
 that  A.  B.,  now  resident  in  this  parish, 
 intends  to  offer  himself  a  candidate  for  the 
 holy  office  of  a  deacon  [or  priest]  at  the 
 ensuing  ordination  of  the  Lord  Bishop  of 
 
 ;  and  if  any  person  knows  any  just 
 
 cause  or  impediment,  for  which  he  ought 
 not  to  be  admitted  into  holy  orders,  he  is 
 now  to  declare  the  same,  or  to  signify  the 
 same  forthwith  to  the  bishop." 
 
 This  is  a  proper  occasion,  of  which  the 
 conscientious  layman  would  take  advan- 
 tage, of  testifying,  if  he  knows  anything 
 which  unfits  the  candidate  for  the  sacred 
 office  to  which  he  aspires :  if  no  objection 
 be  made,  a  certificate  is  forwarded  to  the 
 bishop,  of  the  publication  of  the  Si  quis, 
 with  no  impediment  alleged,  by  the  offici- 
 ating minister  and  the  churchwardens. 
 
 In  the  case  of  a  bishop,  the  Si  quis  is 
 affixed  by  an-  officer  of  the  Arches  on  the 
 door  of  Bow  Church,  and  he  then  also 
 makes  three  proclamations  for  opposers  to 
 appear,  &c. 
 
 SITTING.  This  posture  is  allowed  in 
 our  Church  at  the  reading  of  the  lessons 
 in  the  Morning  and  Erening  Prayer,  and 
 
SOCIETIES. 
 
 7J1 
 
 also  of  the  fii-st  lesson  or  Epistle  In  the 
 Communion  Service,  but  at  no  other  time 
 except  durino;  the  sermon.  Even  thus  ^ve 
 have  somewhat  relaxed  the  rule  of  the 
 primitive  Church,  in  which  the  people 
 stood,  even  to  hear  sermons.  Some  ultra- 
 Protestant  sects  have  irreverently  used  sit- 
 ting as  the  posture  of  receivinii;  the  Lord's 
 supper,  which  ought  to  be  accounted  the 
 act  of  deepest  devotion.  Some  Arians  in 
 Poland  have  done  this  even  for  a  worse 
 reason :  i.  e.  to  show  that  they  do  not  be- 
 lieve Christ  to  be  God,  but  only  their 
 fellow-creature. 
 
 SOCIETIES.  The  Church  itself  is  the 
 proper  channel  for  the  circulation  of  the 
 Bible  and  Prayer  Book,  for  the  establish- 
 ment of  missions,  and  the  erection  of  sanc- 
 tuaries ;  the  Church  acting  under  her  bi- 
 shops, and  by  her  representatives  in  synod. 
 But,  under  the  existing  circumstances  of 
 the  Church  of  England,  not  only  convoca- 
 tions, but  diocesan  synods  have  been  for 
 many  years  suspended  :  had  not  this  been 
 the  case,  all  our  plans  for  the  circulation  of 
 the  Scriptures,  the  institution  of  missions, 
 and  so  forth,  would  have  been  conducted 
 by  committees  of  the  convocation,  in  the 
 name  and  by  the  avowed  authority  of  the 
 Church.  At  present  we  are  obliged  to 
 promote  these  great  objects  by  means  of 
 voluntary  associations.  A  society,  to  be  a 
 Church  society,  must  be  confined  exclu- 
 sively to  members  of  the  Church.  If  Dis- 
 senters are  admitted  to  its  government,  it 
 is  as  much  a  Dissenting  society  as  a  Church 
 society,  i.  e.  it  ceases  to  be  a  Church  so- 
 ciety, strictly  speaking,  since  by  a  Church 
 society  we  mean  a  society  distinguished 
 from  a  Dissenting  society.  (See  the  article 
 on  Scltistn.) 
 
 But,  admitting  that  we  are  to  unite  for 
 religious  pur])oses  with  Churchmen  only, 
 are  laymen  by  themselves,  or  laymen  as- 
 sisted by  deacons  or  presbyters,  com])etent 
 to  organize  a  religious  society  ?  And  on 
 the  authority  of  the  text,  "  ()l)cy  them  that 
 rule  over  you,"  we  give  our  answer  in  the 
 negative.  There  is  in  every  Church,  and 
 every  diocese  of  a  Church,  a  higher  au- 
 thority, to  which  presbyters,  deacons,  and 
 laymen  are  to  defer :  the  archbishop  of 
 the  i)rovince  and  all  his  sutiragans,  in 
 matters  relating  to  the  Church  of  the  pro- 
 vince generally ;  the  diocesan,  in  matters 
 relating  to  a  particular  diocese.  So  the 
 first  Christians  always  understood  the 
 passage  to  which  we  have  referred.  "  Let 
 no  one,"  says  Ignatius,  the  contem])orary 
 of  the  apostles  and  the  disciple  of  St.  John, 
 "  do  any  of  the  things  ]KTtaining  to  the 
 Church  separately  from  the  bishop."    "  Let 
 
 3    A 
 
 presbyters  and  deacons."  sav  the  .Vposlolic 
 Canons,  "attempt  nothing  without  thi* 
 bishops  allowance,  for  it  is  lie  to  whom 
 the  Lord's  ])eoj)lo  are  committi'd."— Ca- 
 tion  :i9.  Quotations  migiit  be  inulliplied 
 to  the  same  etl'ect, 
 
 AVe  may  here,  then,  discover  another 
 ])rinciple.  In  forming  our  institutions  we 
 ougiit  to  have  the  episcojjal  suiiction  f<.r 
 what  we  do.  Indeed  it  .scfnis  ri(licuh)UH 
 to  call  ourselves  Episcoj)aIians,  and  then 
 to  act  contrary  to  this  law :  though  by  the 
 way,  in  the  very  first  ages  of  the  Church, 
 some  there  were  who  did  so.  "Some," 
 says  St.  Ignatius,  the  (liscij)le  of  St.  John, 
 to  whom  we  have  l)efore  alhi(k*d.  "call 
 him  bishop,  and  yet  do  all  things  witiiout 
 him  ;  but  these  seem  not  to  me  to  have  a 
 good  conscience,  but  rather  to  be  hypo- 
 crites and  scorners."  AVe  ought  not  to  be 
 surprised,  therefore,  at  this  inconsistency 
 in  our  OMn  age,  when  even  the  apostolical 
 times  were  not  exem|>t  from  it.  But  here 
 observe,  it  is  not  the  sanction  of  a  bishop, 
 or  the  sanction  of  two  or  three  bishops, 
 that  sufiices.  but  the  sanction  of  the  ])ishop, 
 the  diocesan.  A  bishop  may  intrude  into 
 another  man's  diocese,  and  thus  violate 
 the  canons  of  the  CJjurch,  and  be  him.self 
 lial)le  to  canonical  censures:  his  examj)le 
 is  rather  to  be  avoided  than  followed.  Yet 
 it  is  necessary  to  mention  this,  because 
 some  persons  think  that  all  must  be  right 
 if  they  obtain  for  a  favourite  society  the 
 names  of  one  or  two  bishoj)s,  whik*  they 
 set  aside  the  authority  of  the  diocesan, 
 against  whom,  jjcrhaps,  they  are  acting. 
 This  is  in  fact,  when  we  come  to  examine 
 the  case,  rather  a  sjjccious  evasion  than 
 an  observance  uf  the  system  of  the  Church, 
 which  would  lead  us  to  place  every  insti- 
 tution under  the  government  of  the  dio- 
 cesan. 
 
 But  bishops  arc  only,  like  ourselves, 
 fallible  men;  and  therefore  we  are  not  to 
 su]ipose  that  the  converse  of  this  proposi* 
 tion  must  be  true,  that  because  no  society, 
 except  such  as  has  the  diocesan  at  its 
 head,  can  be  worthy  of  a  churchman's 
 support,  therefore  every  soci<'ty  which 
 has  a  diocesan's  sanction  nnist  have  a 
 claim  upon  each  inhabitant  of  that  diocese. 
 The  Church  defers  to  her  bishoj)s  as  the 
 executive  power,  but  she  does  not  regard 
 them  as  irresimnsible,  or  infallible,  or 
 despotic.  She  does  not  intend  that  the^' 
 should  transgress  Scripture,  and  lord  it 
 over  (ioD's  heritage.  To  them,  as  well  as 
 us,  the  principles  of  the  Church  are  to  be 
 a  giiide  ;  and  they,  like  ourselves,  may  err 
 occasionally  in  the  anplication  of  these 
 principles.'  And    in   deciding   whether  a 
 
722 
 
 SOCINIANS. 
 
 SON  OF  GOD. 
 
 society  is  conducted  on  Church  principles, 
 it  is  not  to  the  diocesan,  hut  to  the  society 
 itself,  that  we  are  to  refer.  And  the  ques- 
 tion is,  not  merely  -whether  the  diocesan 
 belongs  to  it,  but  also  whether  the  society 
 places  the  diocesan  in  his  rio-ht  position  ? 
 AVc  are  to  vindicate  the  rights  of  the  dio- 
 cesan, even  though  the  diocesan  do  him- 
 self neglect  them,  for  these  rights  pertain, 
 not  to  him  personally,  but  to  the  Church. 
 We  are  therefore  to  ascertain,  whether  he 
 is  recognised  by  the  society  as  the  diocesan, 
 as  the  spiritual  ruler  presiding  of  right 
 over  the  society ;  so  recognised  as  that,  if 
 he  refused  to  sanction  its  proceedings,  it 
 would  retire  from  the  field;  Avhether  it 
 receives  him  out  of  deference  to  his 
 spiritual  character,  or  only  out  of  respect 
 for  his  temporal  rank;  where,  as  in  this 
 country,  temporal  rank,  a  circumstance  of 
 minor  consideration,  not  indeed  worthy  of 
 notice,  is  conceded  to  him  ?  If  the  society 
 does  not  do  this,  it  is  not  one  whit  im- 
 proved, so  far  as  its  constitution  is  con- 
 cerned, though  a  diocesan  may  peradven- 
 ture  be  one  of  its  members.  Here  then 
 we  come  to  another  principle,  and  we  may 
 sum  up  what  has  been  said,  by  asserting 
 that  a  religious  society,  conducted  on 
 strictly  Church  principles,  should  consist 
 of  churchmen  only,  and  should  be  under 
 the  superintendence,  if  instituted  for  ge- 
 neral purposes,  of  the  archbishops,  and  all 
 the  bishops  of  both  provinces  of  the  Church 
 of  England  ;  if  for  diocesan  purposes,  of 
 the  diocesan ;  if  for  parochial  purposes, 
 of  the  parochial  clergy,  who  act  as  the 
 bishop's  delegates. 
 
 SOCINL\NS.  (See  Unitarians.)  A  sect 
 of  heretics,  so  called  from  their  founder, 
 Faustus  Socinus,  a  native  of  Sienna  in 
 Italy,  born  in  1539.     Their  tenets  are, 
 
 I.  That  the  eternal  Father  was  the 
 one  only  God  ;  that  the  AVoRD  was  no 
 more  than  an  expression  of  the  Godhead, 
 and  had  not  existed  from  all  eternity  ;  and 
 that  Jesus  Christ  was  God,  no  otherwise 
 than  by  his  superiority  above  all  creatures, 
 who  w^ere  put  in  subjection  to  him  by  the 
 Father. 
 
 II.  That  Jesus  Christ  was  not  a  me- 
 diator between  God  and  men,  but  sent 
 into  the  world  to  serve  as  a  pattern  of 
 their  conduct ;  and  that  he  ascended  up  to 
 heaven  only,  as  it  were,  to  take  a  journey 
 thither. 
 
 III.  That  the  punishment  of  hell  will 
 last  but  for  a  certain  time,  after  which  both 
 body  and  soul  will  be  destroyed.     And, 
 
 IV.  That  it  is  not  lawful  for  princes  to 
 make  war. 
 
 These  four  tenets  were  what  Socinus  de- 
 
 fended with  the  greatest  zeal :  in  other 
 matters,  he  Avas  a  Lutheran,  or  a  Calvinist. 
 The  truth  is,  he  did  but  refine  upon  the 
 errors  of  all  the  Anti-Trinitarians  who  had 
 gone  before  him. 
 
 The  Socinians  spread  extremely  in  Po- 
 land, Lithuania,  and  Transylvania.  Their 
 chief  school  Avas  at  Racow,  and  there  all 
 their  first  books  were  published.  Their 
 sentiments  are  explained  at  large  in  their 
 catechism,  printed  several  times,  under  the 
 title  of  Catechesis  Ecclesiarum  Polouicarum 
 iinum  Deum  patrem,  illinsqiie  filimn  uni- 
 (/euitian,  uno  cum  Sa)icto  Spiritu,  ex  sacra 
 script ura  conjitentium.  They  Avere  exter- 
 minated out  of  Poland  in  1655  ;  since 
 Avhich  time  they  have  l)cen  chiefly  shelter- 
 ed in  Holland  ;  where,  though  their  public 
 meetings  have  been  prohibited,  they  find 
 means  to  conceal  themselves  under  the 
 names  of  Ai-minians  and  Anabaptists. 
 
 SOFFIT.  The  under-surface  of  an  arch. 
 In  the  nomenclature  of  mouldings,  the 
 soffit-plane  is  the  plane  at  right  angles  Avith 
 the  face  of  the  Avail,  Avhich  is  the  direction 
 of  the  soffit  in  its  simplest  form.  Courses 
 of  mouldings  occupying  the  soffit-p>lane  and 
 the  zvall-plane,  to  the  exclusion  of  the 
 cJiainfer-jihtJte,  indicate  Norman  or  Early 
 English  Avork. 
 
 SOLFIDIANS.  Tliose^  Avho  rest  on 
 faith  alone  for  salvation,  Avithout  any  con- 
 nexion Avith  works ;  or  Avho  judge  them- 
 selves to  be  Christ's  because  they  believe 
 they  are. 
 
 SOMPNOUR.  {Chaucer.)  An  officer 
 employed  to  summon  delinquents  to  ap- 
 pear in  ecclesiastical  courts ;  now  called  an 
 aj^paritor. 
 
 SON  OF  GOD.  (See  Jesus,  Lord.) 
 "  The  Son,  Avhich  is  the  Word  of  the 
 Father,  begotten  from  everlasting  of  the 
 Father,  the  very  and  eternal  God,  and  of 
 one  substance  AA-ith  the  Father,  took  man's 
 nature  in  the  Avomb  of  the  Blessed  Virgin, 
 of  her  substance  ;  so  that  tAvo  Avhole  and 
 perfect  natures,  that  is  to  say,  the  Godhead 
 and  Manhood,  Avere  joined  together  in  one 
 person,  never  to  be  divided,  Avhereof  is  one 
 Christ,  very  God  and  very  Man ;  Avho 
 truly  suffered,  Avas  crucified,  dead,  and 
 buried,  to  reconcile  his  Father  to  us,  and 
 to  be  a  sacrifice,  not  only  for  original  guilt, 
 but  also  for  actual  sins  of  men." — Article 
 II.  He  is  the  true,  proper,  and  only  Son 
 of  God  ;  begotten  "from  the  beginning;" 
 "before  the  foundation  of  the  Avorld"  (1  Pet. 
 i.  20 ;  1  John  i.  1) ;  as  he  "  came  down 
 from  heaven,"  (John  vi.  38,)  Avhere  he  had 
 "  glory  Avith  the  Father,"  "  before  the 
 Avorld  Avas  "  (John  xvii.  5) ;  as  he  is  him- 
 self called  God,  "  one  "  Avith  the  "  Father," 
 
SONG. 
 
 (John  X.  30,)  being  of  the  same  Divine 
 essence  communicated  to  him,  (Matt.  xi. 
 27;  Johnv.  2G;  xiii.  8 ;  xvi.  lo  ;  Rom. 
 xiv.  9,)  and  exercising  a  po-vver  above  that 
 of  all  created  beings.  (Kph.  i.  21 ;  lleb.  i, 
 2,  13;  1  Pet.  iii.  22.)  l}y  him  the  world 
 and  "  all  things  were  made,"  (John  i.  3, 
 10;  Col.  i.  16;  lleb.  i.  2,  10,)  "by  whom 
 are  all  things,"  (1  Cor.  viii.  6,)  for  "He 
 is  before  all  things,  and  by  him  all  things 
 consist."  (Col.  i.  17.)  "All  things  are  j)ut 
 in  subjection  under  his  feet,"  and  "  nothing 
 is  left  that  is  not  ])ut  under  him."  (lleb.  ii. 
 8  ;^  Ps.  viii.  6  ;  1  Cor.  xv.  27  ;  Kph.  i.  22.) 
 Of  the  manner  and  nature  of  this  gener- 
 ation we  are  ignorant,  and  must  not  en- 
 deavour to  be  wise  above  what  is  written. 
 AVe  find  our  Lord  declared  by  ])roi)hecy 
 to  be  a  "  son  begotten,"  (Ps.  ii.  7,)  and  ac- 
 knoAvledged,  by  inspiration,  as  '•  the  only 
 begotten  Son."'  (John  iii.  16  ;  i.  14  ;  1  John 
 iv.  9.)  That  he  is  "  the  image  of  the  in- 
 visible God,  the  first-born  of  (or  before) 
 every  creature,  for  by  him  were  all  things 
 created"  (Col.  i.  15,  16);  and  who  thus 
 "  being  in  the  form  of  God,"  "  the  bright- 
 ness of  his  glory,  and  the  express  image  of 
 his  person,"  (Heb.  i.  3,)  was  without 
 "robbery  equal  to  God."  (Phil.  ii.  6.) 
 That  he  "is  in  the  bosom  of  the  Fatiiek," 
 (John  i.  IS,)  and  is  "  one "  with  him. 
 (John  X.  30.)  Many  similes  were  ima- 
 gined by  the  ancients  to  elucidate  this  :  as 
 the  sun  producing  light  —  a  fountain  its 
 streams,  &c. ;  but  too  much  caution  can- 
 not be  used  on  this  subject,  lest  things  are 
 conceived  or  uttered  by  us  derogatory  to 
 the  inefiable  nature  and  peculiar  attributes 
 of  the  Divine  majesty. 
 
 He  was  foretold  in  Scripture  as  "the 
 Sox  of  God,"  (Luke  i.  35,]  and  acknow- 
 ledged on  earth — by  men  insj)ired  (Matt, 
 xvi.  16;  John  i.  34;  xx.  31;  Acts  ix, 
 20) ;— by  devils  (Matt.  viii.  29 ;  Mark  iii, 
 11;  Luke  iv.  41); — and  by  the  Avorld 
 (Matt,  xiv.  33 ;  John  i.  49  ;  xi.  27,)  as  he 
 shall  be  in  heaven  (Rev.  ii.  18).  There- 
 fore he  addresses  GoD  as  his  "  Father," 
 (Mark  xiv.  36,  &c.,)  and  claims  to  him- 
 self the  title  from  men,  (John  v,  18,  22 — 
 25  ;  ix,  35  with  37,)  though  for  this  he 
 was  accused,  by  the  Jews,  of  blas])hemy 
 (John  X.  3() ;  xix,  7).  He  is  the  oidy 
 Son,  also,  by  reason  of  his  resurrection 
 from  the  dead,  there  lieing  none  but  him 
 begotten  by  such  generation. 
 
 SOXG.  As  applied  to  sacred  subjects, 
 it  is  one  of  the  classes  of  vocal  praise  men- 
 tioned in  Scripture :  according  to  the  enu- 
 meration of  the  apostle,  (Kph.  v,  19,)  »//«\- 
 finlg,    Kal     vfivoig,    Kal     ti'iCalg     TTvtVfiaTiKoiQ. 
 
 (Psalms,  and  hymns,  and  spiritual  songs, 
 3  A  2 
 
 SOUTIICOTTIANi 
 
 23 
 
 or  odes.)  Wolfius,  in  his  note  on  l':i)h. 
 v.  14,  quotes  an  opinion  of  llcuuuiumus,  \\\ 
 his  Pacile  (ii.  lib.  iii.  frug.  ;{<»(),)  ihut  thin 
 verse  of  the  apostle's,  "  Awukc,  thou  that 
 sleepest,  and  arise  Ironi  tiie  dead,  and 
 Chuist  shall  give  thee  life,"  is  a  fragment 
 ol  an  ancient  Christian  hvmn  or  hplritual 
 song:  and  remarks  that  there  is  a  nulural 
 rhythm  in  the  original  : 
 
 tyiipai  a  Ka^ivoum, 
 
 Kal  dvd(TTa  tK  Tuiu  vtuputv, 
 
 Kal  iiri<\)av<Tii  aoi  o  x^'^tov. 
 
 However  this  may  be,  it  is  to  be  hoped 
 that  the  recent  disco\eries  of  early  Chris- 
 tian hymns  in  the  Syriac  language  may 
 throw  light  on  this  subject ;  and  here  Dr. 
 Purgess's  late  translation  of  the  hymns  of 
 Kphrem  Svrus  may  be  consulted  with  ad- 
 vantage, 'fhe  livening  Hymn  of  the  first 
 or  second  century,  jjieserved  by  St.  Pasil, 
 and  given  in  liouf/i's  livlujuicc  iacrcr,  is  an 
 interesting  illustration  of  the  ancient  Chris- 
 tian songs. 
 
 The  word  son(/  in  tlie  Old  Testament  is 
 in  the  Hebrew  Is/u'r.  Many  of  tiie  l^alms 
 are  so  denominated  :  sometimes  siini)ly 
 S/iir,  at  other  times  Mizmur  Shir  (Psulm- 
 Song),  or  Shir  Mizmor  (Song-Psalm).  It 
 is  not,  pcrha])s,  possible  to  distinguish 
 them  in  style  or  subject  from  other  Psalms. 
 The  word  appears  by  comjjarison  of  ditfer- 
 ent  passages  of  Scrij)lure  to  mean  anything 
 sung  to  instrumental  music,  as  these  in- 
 struments are  called  in  Scripture  instru- 
 ments of  Shir,  i,  e,  accompanying  vocal 
 musiq.     See  2  Chron,  v,  13, 
 
 SONGS  OF  DKGKKKS.  (See  Dc- 
 (jrecs,  and  Psalms.) 
 
 SOKTKS.  A  method  of  divination 
 borrowed  by  some  superstitious  Christians 
 from  the  heathen,  and  condemned  by  sever- 
 al councils.  The  heathen,  (jjiening  Virgil 
 at  hazard,  took  the  first  words  thev  found 
 as  indicating  future  events,  and  this  pro- 
 cess they  called  Sorfcg  ]'ir(jili<incc.  The 
 superstitious  imitators  of  this  custom  used 
 the  Pible  in  the  same  way,  and  called  their 
 divinations  Sortcs  sacrer. 
 
 SOUTHCOTTIANS,  The  deluded 
 followers  of  one  Johanna  Southcot,  a  ser- 
 vant girl  at  Kxeter,  who,  towards  the  close 
 of  the  last  century,  gave  herself  out  as  the 
 woman  in  the  wildenuss,  mentioned  in 
 the  Apocalypse,  and  declared  that  she  held 
 converse  with  sjurits,  good  and  bad,  and 
 with  the  Holy  Ghost  himself.  She  gave 
 sealed  papers,  which  were  called  her 
 "  seals,"  to  her  f«)llowers,  which  were  to 
 protect  them  from  all  evil  of  this  life 
 and  the  next.  In  1814,  having  fallen  from 
 indulgence  and  want  of  exercise  into  a 
 habit  of  body  which  gave  her  the  appear- 
 
724 
 
 SPANDRIL. 
 
 SPONSORS. 
 
 ance  of  i)regnancy,  she  announced  herself 
 the  mother  of  the  approaehinf^  Shiloh. 
 She  died,  however,  and  her  hody  was 
 opened,  revealing  the  real  cause  of  her 
 ajipearance  ;  hut  her  death  and  burial  did 
 not  undeceive  her  followers,  though  no  re- 
 surrection of  their  leader  has  yet  taken 
 place. 
 
 SPANDRIL.  The  triangular  portion 
 of  Avail  between  two  arches,  or  an  arch 
 and  the  adjoining  wall ;  or  between  the 
 side  of  an  ai-ch  and  the  square  panel  in 
 which  it  is  set.  The  latter  is  a  remarkable 
 feature  in  perpendicular  doorways,  being 
 often  richly  ornamented  Avith  figures,  fo- 
 liage, or  heraldic  shields. 
 
 SPIRE.  The  high  pyramidal  capping 
 or  roof  of  a  tower.  The  earliest  spires 
 still  existing  in  England  are  Early  English ; 
 and  in  this  style,  as  well  as  in  the  next,  or 
 Geometric,  it  is  generally  of  the  form  called 
 a  broach.  In  the  Decorated,  the  broach  and 
 the  parapetted  spire  occur  indifferently; 
 in  the  Perpendicular,  the  latter  almost 
 exclusively,  though  there  is  a  large  portion 
 of  Leicestershire  and  Northamptonshire 
 in  which  Perpendicular  broaches  are  not 
 uncommon.  Many  of  our  loftiest  spires 
 were  formerly  of  timber,  covered  with 
 lead :  such  was  the  spire  of  St.  Paul's 
 cathedi'al,  the  highest  in  the  kingdom ; 
 such  is  still  the  remarkable  twisted  spire 
 of  Chesterfield.  Several  smaller  spires  of 
 this  kind  remain  in  the  southern  counties, 
 but  the  perishablcness  of  the  material  has 
 led  to  the  destruction  of  by  far  the  greater 
 number  of  them. 
 
 SPLAY.  The  slanting  expansion  in- 
 wards of  windows,  for  the  wider  diff'usion 
 of  light.  This  is  usually  very  great  in 
 Norman  windows,  where  the  external 
 aperture  is  small. 
 
 SPONSORS.  In  the  administration  of 
 baptism,  these  have  from  time  immemorial 
 held  a  distinguished  and  important  place. 
 Various  titles  have  been  given  them  sig- 
 nificative of  the  position  they  hold,  and 
 the  duties  to  which  they  are  pledged. 
 Thus  they  are  called  sponsors,  because  in 
 infant  baptism  they  respond  or  answer  for 
 the  baptized.  They  are  sureties,  in  virtue 
 of  the  security  given  through  them  to  the 
 Church,  that  the  baptized  shall  be  "vir- 
 tuously brought  up  to  lead  a  godly  and  a 
 Christian  life."  And  from  the  spiritual 
 affinity  here  created,  by  which  a  respon- 
 sibility almost  parental  is  undertaken  by 
 the  sureties,  in  the  future  training  of  the 
 baptized,  the  terms  (jodfather  and  (jod- 
 mother  have  taken  their  rise. 
 
 (For  the  rubrics  and  canons  on  this  sub- 
 ject see  Godf(dlier.) 
 
 In  the  ancient  Church  they  reckoned 
 three  sorts  of  sponsors:  1.  For  children, 
 who  could  not  renounce,  or  profess,  or 
 answer  for  themselves.  2.  For  such  adult 
 persons,  as  by  reason  of  sickness  or  in- 
 firmity were  in  the  same  condition  as 
 children,  incapable  of  answering  for  them- 
 selves, o.  For  all  adult  persons  in  general. 
 
 The  sponsors  for  children  Avere  obliged 
 to  answer  to  all  the  interrogatories  usually 
 made  in  baptism,  and  then  to  be  the 
 guardians  of  their  Christian  education. 
 In  most  cases,  parents  Avere  sponsors  for 
 their  OAvn  children  ;  and  the  extraordinary 
 cases  in  Avhich  they  Avere  presented  by 
 others  Avere  such,  where  the  parent  could 
 not  or  Avould  not  perform  that  kind  office 
 for  them ;  as  Avhen  slaves  Avere  presented 
 for  baptism  by  their  masters  ;  or  children, 
 Avhose  parents  Avere  dead,  Avere  brought  by 
 any  charitable  persons,  Avho  Avould  take 
 pity  on  them ;  or  children  exposed  by 
 their  parents,  Avho  Avere  sometimes  taken 
 up  by  the  holy  virgins  of  the  Church,  and 
 by  them  presented  unto  baptism.  In  these 
 cases,  Avhere  strangers  became  sureties  for 
 childi-en,  they  Avere  not  obliged,  by  virtue 
 of  their  suretyship,  to  maintain  them ;  but 
 the  Chiu'ch  Avas  charged  Avith  this  care, 
 and  they  were  supported  out  of  the  com- 
 mon stock.  All  that  Avas  required  of  such 
 sponsors  Avas,  fu'st,  to  ansAver  to  the  scA'eral 
 inteiTogatories  in  baptism  ;  and,  secondly, 
 to  take  care,  by  good  admonitions  and 
 instructions,  that  they  performed  their 
 part  of  the  covenant  they  engaged  in. 
 
 The  second  sort  of  sponsors  Avere  to 
 ansAver  for  such  adult  persons  as  were  in- 
 capable of  answering  for  themselves.  These 
 were  such  as  Avere  suddenly  struck  speech- 
 less, or  seized  Avith  a  frenzy  through  the 
 A'iolence  of  some  distemper,  and  the  like. 
 And  they  might  be  baptized,  if  their 
 friends  could  testify  that  they  had  before- 
 hand desired  baptism.  In  Av'hich  case  the 
 same  friends  became  sponsors  for  them, 
 making  the  very  same  answers  for  them 
 that  they  did  for  children. 
 
 The  third  sort  of  sponsors  Avere  for  such 
 adult  persons  as  were  able  to  ansAver  for 
 themselves  ;  for  these  also  had  their  sure- 
 ties, and  no  persons  anciently  were  bap- 
 tized Avithout  them.  It  Avas  no  part  of 
 the  office  of  these  sponsors  to  answer  to 
 the  interrogatories  made  in  baptism :  the 
 adult  persons  Avere  to  answer  for  them- 
 selves, according  to  that  plain  sentence 
 of  the  gospel,  "  He  is  of  age,  let  him  an- 
 SAver  for  himself."  The  only  business  of 
 sponsors,  in  this  case,  Avas  to  be  guardians 
 of  their  spiritual  life,  and  to  take  care  of 
 their  instruction  and  morals,  both  before 
 
SQUINCII. 
 
 and  after  baptism.  This  office  was  cliiefly 
 imposed  upon  tlic  deacons  for  the  men, 
 and  the  deaconesses  for  tlie  women. 
 
 Anciently,  there  was  no  ])roliihition  of 
 any  sorts  of  men  from  ])erforminp^  this 
 charitable  office;  exceptinji^  only  cate- 
 chumens, energumens,  heretics,  and  pe- 
 nitents ;  that  is,  })ers()ns  wlio  as  yet  were 
 never  in  full  communion  witli  the  Ciiurch, 
 or  such  as  had  forfeited  the  privileges  of 
 baptism  and  Church  communion  by  their 
 crimes  or  errors ;  such  persons  being 
 deemed  incapable  of  assisting  others,  who 
 stood  in  need  of  assistance  themselves. 
 In  the  time  of  Charles  the  Great,  the 
 Council  of  Mentz  forbade  fi\thers  to  be 
 sponsors  for  their  own  children  :  and  this 
 Avas  the  first  prohibition  of  this  sort. 
 
 It  is  observable,  that  anciently  no  more 
 than  one  sponsor  Avas  required,  namely,  a 
 man  for  a  man,  and  a  woman  for  a  woman. 
 In  the  case  of  infants,  no  regard  was  had 
 to  the  difference  of  sex:  for  a  virgin  might 
 be  sponsor  for  a  male  child,  and  a  father 
 for  his  children,  whether  male  or  female. 
 This  practice  was  confirmed  by  the  Council 
 of  Mentz,  upon  a  reason  which  is  some- 
 thing peculiar :  for  they  concluded,  that, 
 because  there  is  but  one  Goi),  one  faith, 
 and  one  baptism,  therefore  an  infant  ought 
 to  have  but  one  sponsor. — JiiiK/Jiain. 
 
 SQUIXCII.  More  properly  Pcndentive. 
 A  small  arcli  thrown  across  the  angle  of  a 
 square  tower,  to  receive  one  of  the  sides 
 of  an  octagonal  spire  or  lantern.  In 
 broach  spires  the  external  slant  over  this 
 arch  is  also  called  a  squinch. 
 
 STALLS.  In  a  cathedral  or  collegiate 
 chiu'ch,  and  often  in  parish  churches,  cer- 
 tain seats  constructed  for  the  clergy  and 
 other  members  of  the  Church,  and  intend- 
 ed for  their  exclusive  use.  These  stalls 
 are  placed  in  that  portion  of  the  building 
 called  the  choir,  or  the  part  in  which  Di- 
 vine service  is  usually  performed. 
 
 In  ancient  times,  all  members  of  the 
 cathedral,  including  lay  clerks  or  vicars, 
 had  their  stalls  :  though  the  inferior  mem- 
 bers had  not  always  fixed  stalls  a])proj)ri- 
 ated  to  each  individual.  Uidess  when  the 
 community  was  very  small,  there  was  an 
 u])per  and  lower  range  of  stalls,  called  the 
 ]>riina  et  sccii/nlafonnn,  (or  gradus,)  the 
 upper  appro])riated  to  the  canons  or  pre- 
 bendaries, (and  sometimes  the  ])riest  vicars 
 or  minor  canons,)  the  lower  to  the  other 
 members.  The  designation  of  tlie  re- 
 spective dignitaries  and  canons  were  writ- 
 ten on  their  stalls  ;  in  some  few  instances, 
 those  of  the  minor  canons  or  priest  vicars 
 also.  The  destruction  of  the  ancient  stalls, 
 as  at  Canterbury,  and  of  the  lower  range 
 
 STOLE.  725 
 
 of  stalls,  as  in  many  places,  i^  n  barbarism 
 much  to  be  lamented. 
 
 The  same  word  is  also  used  t(.  signify  any 
 benefice,  wliich  gives  the  person  lioldlnir  i*t 
 a  seat,  or  stall,  with  the  chapter,  in  a  ca- 
 thedral or  collegiate  church. 
 
 STANDING.  The  nosture  enjoined 
 by  the  Church  at  several  parts  of  hivine 
 service,  as,  for  iiistance,  at  the  exhortation 
 ;  with  which  the  service  of  morning  and 
 evening  commences,  and  at  the  ecclesiasti- 
 I  cal  hymns.  In  the  ])rimitive  Church  the 
 sermon  was  listened  to  standing;  and  in 
 some  churches  the  j)eoi)le  stood  jmiving  on 
 the  Loud's  day,  and  during  the  fil\y  days 
 after  Easter,  because  it  was  not  tllen  kg 
 fitting  to  look  downwards  to  the  earth,  as 
 upwards  to  their  risen  and  ascended  Lord. 
 
 STATIONS.  The  weekly  fasts  of  Wed- 
 nesday ami  Friday.  Not  long  after  Jus- 
 tin Martyr's  time,  the  Church  observrd  the 
 custom  of  meeting  solemidy  for  ])ivine 
 worshi])  on  AVednesdays  and  l-'ridays, 
 which  days  are  common'iy  called  the  nhi- 
 tioudri/  <l(i>/s,  because  they  continued  their 
 assemblies  on  those  days  to  a  great  length, 
 till  tliree  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  :  for 
 which  reason  they  had  also  the  name  of 
 scmi-jcjnnid,  or  half  fasts,  in  onnosition  to 
 the  Lent  fasts,  which  always  held  till  even- 
 ing.— BiiKiham.  Shifinn,  in  the  Uomish 
 Church,  denotes  certain  churches  in  which 
 indulgences  are  granted  on  certain  days. 
 It  is  also  a  ceremony  wherein  the  clergy  go 
 out  of  the  choir  and  sing  before  an  image. 
 
 STEEPLE.  The  tower  of  a  church 
 with  all  its  a])])endages,  as  turret,  octagon, 
 and  spire.  It  is  often  incorrectly  con- 
 founded with  the  spire. 
 
 STI«:P11EN\S,  ST.,  ])AY.  a  festival 
 of  the  Christian  Chiu'ch,  observed  on  the 
 20th  of  ])ccembcr,  in  honour  of  the  proto- 
 martvr,  St.  Stejihen. 
 
 SfirENDIAKIES.  Members  of  col- 
 legiate  choirs,  who  do  not  possess  an  inde- 
 l)endent  estate,  but  are  ])aid  stipend^.  At 
 Christ  Church  in  Dublin  there  arc  both 
 vicars  choral  and  stipendiaries,  the  latter 
 generally  succeeding  to  vacant  vicarages. 
 There  were  also  formerly  five  stij)endiaric.«» 
 at  Tuam  :  and  four  at  the  now  ruined  ca- 
 thedral of  Enachdune. — JImnss  If'arc. 
 ( \,tf nil's  Fadi  Kcvl.  Ilih. 
 
 STOLE,  or  OJiAIilCM.  A  ion- and 
 narrow  scarf  with  fVin',''ed  extremities,  that 
 crossed  the  breast  to  the  prdle,  an<l  tiience 
 descended  in  front  on  l)oth  sijles  a«  low  os 
 the  knees.  The  deacon  wore  it  over  tho 
 left  shoulder,  and  in  the  Latin  Church 
 joined  under  the  rigiit  arm,  but  in  the 
 (ireek  Church  with  its  two  extremities, 
 one  in  front  and  the  ftln-r  hanging  down; 
 
726 
 
 STOUP. 
 
 SUCCENTOR, 
 
 his  back.  The  word  ^ytoc  was  sometimes 
 thrice  embroidered  on  it  instead  of  crosses. 
 It  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  vestments 
 used  by  the  Christian  clergy,  and  in  its 
 mystical  signification  represented  the  yoke 
 of  Christ. — Palmer. 
 
 STOUP.  A  bason  to  receive  holy  water, 
 often  remaining  in  porches,  or  in  some 
 other  place  near  the  entrance  of  the  church, 
 and  towards  the  riglit  hand  of  a  person 
 entering. 
 
 SUB  CHANTER.    (See  Succentor.) 
 
 SUBDEACOXS.  An  inferior  order  of 
 clergy  in  the  Christian  Church,  so  called 
 from  their  being  employed  in  subordina- 
 tion to  the  deacons. 
 
 The  first  notice  we  have  of  this  order 
 in  any  writers,  is  about  the  middle  of  the 
 third  century,  when  Cyprian  lived,  who 
 speaks  of  subdeacons  as  settled  in  the 
 Church  in  his  time  The  author  of  the 
 "  Constitutions "  refers  them  to  an  aposto- 
 lical institution,  and  brings  in  St.  Thomas 
 the  apostle,  giving  directions  to  bishops  for 
 their  ordination.  But  in  this  he  is  singular, 
 it  being  the  general  opinion  that  subdeacons 
 are  merely  of  ecclesiastical  institution. 
 
 As  to  their  office,  it  was  to  fit  and 
 prepare  the  sacred  vessels  and  utensils  of 
 the  altar,  and  deliver  them  to  the  deacons 
 in  the  time  of  Divine  service ;  but  they 
 were  not  allowed  to  minister  as  deacons  at 
 the  altar ;  no,  not  so  much  as  to  come 
 within  the  rails  of  it,  to  set  a  paten  or  cup, 
 or  the  oblations  of  the  people,  thereon. 
 Another  of  their  offices  was,  to  attend  the 
 doors  of  the  church  during  the  Commu- 
 nion Service.  Besides  which  offices  in  the 
 church,  they  had  another  out  of  the 
 church,  which  was,  to  carry  the  bishop's 
 letters  or  messages  to  foreign  Churches. 
 As  to  their  ordination,  it  was  performed 
 without  imposition  of  hands ;  and  the 
 ceremony  consisted  in  their  receiving  an 
 empty  paten  and  cup  from  the  hands  of 
 the  bishop,  and  an  ewer  and  towel  from 
 the  archdeacon. 
 
 The  singularity  of  the  CTiurch  of  Rome 
 was  remarkable  in  keeping  to  the  exact 
 number  of  seven  subdeacons  ;  whereas  in 
 other  Churches  the  number  was  indefinite. 
 
 The  employment  of  the  subdeacons  in 
 the  Romish  Church  is,  to  take  care  of  the 
 holy  vessels,  to  prepare  and  pour  water 
 upon  the  wine  in  the  chalice,  to  sing  the 
 Epistle  at  solemn  masses,  to  bring  and  hold 
 the  book  of  the  Gospels  to  the  deacon,  to 
 give  it  the  priest  to  kiss,  to  carry  the  cross 
 in  processions,  and  to  receive  the  oblations 
 of  the  people.  The  bishop,  when  he  con- 
 fers the  order  of  subdeacon,  causes  the 
 candidate  to  lay  his  hands  on  a  cup  and 
 
 paten,  both  empty,  saying  to  him  at  the 
 same  time,  "  Videte  cujus  ministcrium  vobis 
 traditur,"  &c.  *'  Take  care  of  the  ministry 
 which  is  committed  to  your  charge,  and 
 present  yourself  unto  God  in  such  a 
 manner  as  may  be  agreeable  to  him." 
 After  which,  the  candidate  lays  his  hand 
 on  the  Epistles,  and  the  bishop  says, 
 "  Receive  this  book,  and  the  power  of 
 reading  the  Epistles  in  the  holy  Church  of 
 God."  The  person  to  be  ordained  must 
 present  himself  clothed  in  a  white  albe, 
 and  holding  a  lighted  taper  in  his  right 
 hand.  After  the  litanies,  &c.,  the  bishop 
 clothes  him  with  the  amict,  saying,  "Ac- 
 cipe  amictum,  per  quem  designatur  casti- 
 gatio  vocis,"  that  is,  "  Receive  the  amict, 
 which  denotes  the  bridle  of  speech."  He 
 then  puts  the  maniple  on  his  left  arm, 
 telling  him  that  it  signifies  the  fruit  of 
 good  works  ;  and  clothes  him  with  the 
 dalmatica,  letting  him  know  that  it  is  the 
 garment  of  joy. 
 
 The  office  of  subdeacon  does  not  subsist 
 in  the  Church  of  England.  It  is,  how- 
 ever, mentioned  in  the  statutes  of  Henry 
 the  Eighth's  foundations,  and  is  considered 
 to  be  identical  with  Epistoler.  The  four 
 subdeacons  at  Hereford  are  lay  clerks. — 
 Binqham. 
 
 SUBDEAN.  An  officer  in  cathedrals, 
 who  assists  the  dean  in  maintaining  the 
 discipline  of  the  Church.  In  some  ca- 
 thedrals of  the  old  foundation  he  was  a 
 permanent  dignitary:  in  others,  a  minor 
 canon  or  vicar  choral,  and  then  his  juris- 
 diction was  merely  over  the  inferior  mem- 
 bers.    (See  Vice  Deati.) 
 
 SUBINTRODUCT^.     (See  Ar/apetcc.) 
 
 SUBLAPSARIAXS.  Those  who  hold 
 that  God  permitted  the  first  man  to  fall 
 into  transgression  without  absolutely  pre- 
 determining his  fall ;  or  that  the  decree  of 
 predestination  regards  man  as  fallen,  by 
 an  abuse  of  that  freedom  which  Adam  had, 
 into  a  state  in  which  all  were  to  be  left  to 
 necessary  and  unavoidable  ruin,  who  were 
 not  exempted  from  it  by  predestination. 
 (See  Supralapsariayis.) 
 
 SUBSTANCE.  In  relation  to  the  God- 
 head, that  which  forms  the  Divine  essence 
 or  being — that  in  which  the  Divine  attri- 
 butes inhere.  In  the  language  of  the 
 Church,  and  agreeably  with  holy  writ, 
 Christ  is  said  to  be  of  the  same  substance 
 with  the  Father,  being  hex/otten,  and 
 therefore  partaking  of  the  Divine  essence ; 
 not  made,  as  was  the  opinion  of  some  of 
 the  early  heretics.  (See  IIo?nooiision, 
 Perso7i,  and  Trinity.) 
 
 SUCCENTOR.  ■  The  precentor's  deputy 
 in   cathedral   churches.      Sometimes   this 
 
SUCCESSION,  ArOSTUl.lCAl, 
 
 727 
 
 officer  was  a  dignitary,  as  at  York  still  and 
 formerly  at  Glasp,ow,  Aberdeen,  Paris,  ^:c. ; 
 and  at  York  he  is  called  Siicccnlor  Cammi- 
 conim,  to  distinguish  him  from  the  other 
 subchanter,  -who  is  a  vicar  choral.  In  most 
 churches  however  the  subchanter  is  a  vicar 
 or  minor  canon,  as  at  St.  Paul's,  Hereford, 
 Lichfield,  St.  Patrick's,  S:c. 
 
 SUCCESSIOX.  Al'OSTOLICAI.,  or 
 UNINTEHRUPTED.  ^  (See  Apostolical 
 Succession.)  The  doctrine  of  a  regular  and 
 continued  transmission  of  ministerial  au- 
 thority, in  the  succession  of  bisho})s,  from 
 the  apostles  to  any  subsequent  period. 
 To  understand  this,  it  is  necessary  to  pre- 
 mise, that  the  powers  of  the  ministry  can 
 only  come  from  one  source  —  the  great 
 Head  of  the  Church.  \\\  his  innnediate 
 act  the  apostles  or  first  bishops  were  con- 
 stituted, and  they  were  empowered  to  send 
 others,  as  he  had  sent  them.  Here  then 
 was  created  the  first  link  of  a  chain  which 
 was  destined  to  reach  from  Christ's  ascen- 
 sion to  his  second  coming  to  judge  the 
 world.  And  as  the  ordaining  power  was 
 confined  exclusively  to  the  apostles,  (see 
 Episcopacy,)  no  other  men  or  ministers 
 could  possibly  exercise  it :  from  them 
 alone  was  to  be  obtained  the  authority  to 
 feed  and  govern  the  Church  of  all  futiu-e 
 ages.  By  the  labours  of  the  apostles,  the 
 Church  rapidly  spread  through  the  then 
 known  world,  and  with  this  there  grew  up 
 a  demand  for  an  increase  of  pastors.  Ac- 
 cordingly, the  apostles  ordained  elders  or 
 presbyters  in  all  churches  ;  but  the  powers 
 given  to  these  terminated  in  themselves ; 
 they  could  not  communicate  them  to  others. 
 A  few  therefore  Avere  consecrated  to  the 
 same  rank  held  by  the  apostles  themselves, 
 and  to  these  the  full  authority  of  the  Chris- 
 tian ministry  was  committed,  qualifying 
 them  to  ordain  deacons  and  presbyters, 
 and,  when  necessary,  to  impart  their  full 
 commission  to  others.  Here  was  the  second 
 link  of  the  chain.  For  example  :  Paul  and 
 the  otlier  apostolic  bishops  were  the  first. 
 Timothy,  Titus,  and  others.  Mho  succeeded 
 to  the  same  ministerial  j)o\vers,  formed  the 
 second.  A  third  series  of  bishops  were  in 
 like  manner  ordained  by  the  second,  as 
 time  advanced,  and  a  fourth  series  by  the 
 third.  And  here  the  reader  will  perceive 
 Avhat  is  meant  by  loii/ifcrrupfcd  succession, 
 vi/.  a  perfect  and  iud)rokcn  transmission 
 of  the  original  ministerial  commission  from 
 the  apostles  to  their  successors,  l)y  tlie  ])ro- 
 gressive  and  perpetual  conveyance  of  their 
 powers  from  one  race  of  bishoj)s  to  anotiier. 
 The  process  thus  esta1)lished  was  faithfidly 
 carried  on  in  every  branch  of  the  universal 
 Chui'ch.    And  as  the  validitv  of  the  minis- 
 
 try dt-'pended  altogether  on  the  logitimaev 
 of  its  derivation  from  the  apostles,  infinite 
 care  was  taken  in  the  consecnition  »)f 
 bishops,  to  see  that  the  ecclesia.sticul  pedi- 
 gree of  their  consecrators  was  regular  and 
 indisputable.  Jn  case  that  any  nuui  broke 
 in  upon  the  apostolical  succession,  by 
 "  climbing  up  some  other  way,"  he  was 
 instantly  deposed.  A  great  part  of  the 
 ancient  canons  were  made  for  regulating 
 ordinations,  especially  those  of  bishops,  by 
 ])roviding  that  none  should  be  ordainccf, 
 exci'pt  in  extraordinary  cases,  l)y  less  than 
 three  bishops  of  the  same  province  ;  that 
 strange  bishoj)s  should  not  oe  admitted  to 
 join  with  those  of  the  ])rovince  on  such 
 occasions,  but  those  only  who  Were  neigh- 
 bours and  well  known,  and  the  validity  of 
 Avhose  orders  was  not  disputed.  The  care 
 thus  taken  in  the  early  ages  to  preserve 
 inviolate  tlie  succession  from  the  apostles, 
 has  been  maintained  in  all  Churches  down 
 to  the  present  day.  There  arc  in  exist- 
 ence, catalogues  of  bishoi)s  from  our  own 
 time  back  to  the  day  of  Pentecost.  These 
 catalogues  are  ])roofs  of  the  importance  al- 
 ways attaclied  by  the  Church  to  a  regular 
 genealogy  in  her  bishops.  And  they,  a.s 
 well  as  the  living  bisliops  themselves,  are 
 proofs  of  the  reality  of  an  apostolical  suc- 
 cession. It  has  been  well  remarked,  that 
 Christ  Jesus  has  taken  more  al)undant 
 care  to  ascertain  tlie  succession  of  pastont 
 in  his  Church,  than  ever  was  taken  in  re- 
 lation to  the  Aaronical  priesthood.  For, 
 in  this  case,  the  succession  is  transmitted 
 from  seniors  to  juniors,  by  the  most  public 
 and  solemn  action,  or  rather  series  of  ac- 
 tions, that  is  ever  performed  in  a  Chrirtian 
 Church  ;  an  action  done  in  the  face  of  the 
 sun,  and  attested  by  great  numbers  of  the 
 most  authentic  witnesses,  as  consecrations 
 always  were.  And  we  ))rcsunie  it  cannot 
 bear  any  dispute,  but  that  it  is  now  more 
 easily  to  be  proved  that  the  archbishoo  of 
 Canterbury  was  canonically  ordained,  than 
 that  any  person  now  living  is  the  son  of 
 him  who  is  called  his  father;  and  that  the 
 same  might  have  been  said  of  any  arch- 
 bisho])  or  bishop  that  ever  sat  in  that  or 
 any  other  episcopal  sec,  during  tlie  time  of 
 his  being  bisliop. 
 
 Such  then  is  uninterriij)ted  Huccession ; 
 a  fact  to  which  every  bishop,  priest,  and 
 deacon,  in  the  wide'worhl.  looks  as  the 
 ground  of  validity  in  his  orders.  Without 
 this,  all  distinction  between  a  clergyman 
 and  a  layman  is  utterly  vain,  for  no  se- 
 curity exists  that  heaven  will  ratily  the 
 acts  of  an  illegally  constituted  minister  on 
 earth.  Without  it,  ordination  confers  none 
 but  humanly  derived  powers. 
 
r28 
 
 SUFFRAGANS. 
 
 SUNDAY. 
 
 The  following  acute  observation  occm-s 
 in  Morgan's  "  Verities  :" 
 
 The  succession  of  Canterbury  from  Au- 
 gustine, A.  D.  597,  to  Tillotson,  1691,  m- 
 cludes  seventy-nine  archbishops,  giving 
 each  an  average  reign  of  less  than  fourteen 
 years.  The  xiev,-  in  which  some  persons, 
 opposed  to  the  indispensability  of  the  apos- 
 tolic succession,  try  to  place  it — as  a  single 
 chain  of  single  links,  from  some  one  single 
 apostle,  of  which  one  link,  wanting  or 
 broken,  breaks  the  succession — if  very  con- 
 trary to  the  facts  to  be  illustrated,  is  yet 
 very  original.  Grant  each  apostle  to  have 
 founded  twenty  churches,  here  are  at  least, 
 ab  nriijine,  two*  hundred  and  forty  succes- 
 sions apostolically  commenced.  Consider- 
 ing how  these  have  reproduced  themselves 
 a  thousand-fold,  and  that  each  episcopal 
 link  succeeded  the  last  as  publicly  as  kings 
 their  predecessors,  the  "  one  chain  "  is  not 
 a  very  fortunate  comjjarison. 
 
 SUFFRAGANS.  The  word  properly 
 signifies  all  the  provincial  bishops  who  are 
 imder  a  metropolitan,  and  they  are  called 
 his  sufii-agans,  because  he  has  power  to 
 call  them  to  his  provincial  synods  to  give 
 their  suffrages  there. 
 
 The  name  is  also  used  to  denote  a  class 
 resembling  the  chorepiscopi,  or  country 
 bishops,  of  the  ancient  Church.  (See  Chor- 
 episcopus.) 
 
 In  the  very  beginning  of  the  Reforma- 
 tion here,  viz.  an.  26  Henry  VIII.  c.  14, 
 an  act  passed  to  restore  this  order  of  men 
 under  the  name  of  suffragan  bishops.  The 
 preamble  recites,  thai  good  laws  had  been 
 made  for  electing  and  consecrating  arch- 
 bishops and  bishops,  but  no  provision  was 
 made  for  suffragans,  which  had  been  ac- 
 customed here  for  the  more  speedy  ad- 
 ministration of  the  sacraments,  and  other 
 devout  things.  Sec. ;  therefore  it  was  enacted 
 that  the  places  following  should  be  the 
 sees  of  bishops  suffragans  :  Bedford,  Ber- 
 wick, Bridgewater,  Bristol,  Cambridge, 
 Colchester,  Dover,  St.  Germain,  Guildford, 
 Gloucester,  Grantham,  Hull,  Huntingdon, 
 Isle  of  Wight,  Ipswich,  Leicester,  Marl- 
 borough, Moulton,  Nottingham,  Penrith, 
 Southampton,  Shaftesbury,  Shrewsbury, 
 Taunton,  Thetford.  The  bishop  of  each 
 diocese  shall  by  petition  present  two  per- 
 sons to  the  king,  whereof  he  shall  allow 
 one  to  be  the  suftragan,  and  thereupon 
 direct  his  mandate  to  the  archbishop  to 
 consecrate  him,  which  was  to  be  done 
 after  this  manner :  fu'st  it  recites  that  the 
 bishop,  having  informed  the  king  that  he 
 wanted  a  suffragan,  had  therefore  pre- 
 sented two  persons  to  him  who  were 
 qualified  for  that  office,  praying  that  the 
 
 king  would  nominate  one  of  them  ;  there- 
 upon he  nominated  P.  S.,  being  one  of  the 
 persons  presented,  to  be  suffragan  of  the 
 see  of  Ipswdch,  requiring  the  archbishop 
 to  consecrate  him.  The  bishop  thus  con- 
 secrated was  to  have  no  greater  authority 
 than  what  was  limited  to  him  by  com- 
 mission from  the  bishop  of  the  diocese, 
 and  was  to  last  no  longer.  This  act  was 
 repealed  by  1  &  2  Philip  &  Mary,  cap.  8 ; 
 but  it  was  revived  by  1  Elizabeth,  and 
 during  the  reign  of  that  sovereign  we  find 
 notices  of  suti'ragans  at  Dover  and  else- 
 where. Bishop  Gibson  mentions  Dr.  Stean, 
 suffi-agan  of  Colchester  about  1606,  as 
 among  the  last  of  these  suffragans.  But, 
 although  the  law  has  not  been  acted  on  iu 
 later  times,  it  is  still  unrepealed. 
 
 SUFFRAGE.  A  vote,  token  of  assent 
 and  approbation,  or,  as  in  public  worship, 
 the  united  voice  and  consent  of  the  people 
 in  the  petitions  offered. 
 
 The  term  is  also  used  in  the  Prayer 
 Book  to  designate  a  short  form  of  petition, 
 as  in  the  Litany.  Thus,  in  the  Order  for 
 the  Consecration  of  Bishops,  we  read  that 
 in  the  Litany  as  then  used,  after  the  words, 
 "  That  it  may  please  thee  to  illuminate 
 all  bishops,"  &c.,  the  proper  suffrage  shall 
 be,  "  That  it  may  please  thee  to  bless  this 
 om*  brother  elected,"  &c.  The  versicles 
 immediately  after  the  creed,  in  INIorning 
 and  Evening  Prayer,  are  also  denominated 
 suffrages,  as  in  the  instance  quoted  by 
 Johnson,  "The  suffrages  next  after  the 
 creed  shall  stand  thus.  Common  Prayer, 
 Form  of  Thanksgiving  for  3Iay  29."  (See 
 Versicle.) 
 
 The  Litany  in  "  the  Ordering  of  Dea- 
 cons "  is  headed  the  Litany  and  Suffrages. 
 By  suffi-ages  here  seems  to  be  meant  the 
 latter  part  of  the  Litany,  called  the  suppli- 
 cation. (See  Wheatly  in  loc.  and  Supplica- 
 tions.)  In  some  old  choral  books  these 
 are  called  the  seco7id  suffrages. 
 
 SUNDAY.  (See  Lord's  Bay.)  The 
 ancients  retained  the  name  Sunday,  or 
 Dies  Solis,  in  compliance  wdth  the  ordinary 
 forms  of  speech ;  the  first  day  of  the  week 
 being  so  called  by  the  Romans,  because  it 
 was  dedicated  to  the  worship  of  the  sun. 
 Thus  Justin  Martyr,  describing  the  worship 
 of  the  Christians,  speaks  of  the  day  which 
 is  called  that  of  the  sun. 
 
 Besides  the  most  solemn  parts  of  Chris- 
 tian worship,  which  were  always  performed 
 on  Sundays,  this  day  was  distinguished  by 
 a  peculiar  reverence  and  respect  expressed 
 towards  it  in  the  observation  of  some 
 special  laws  and  customs.  Among  these 
 we  may  reckon,  in  the  first  place,  those 
 imperial  laws,  which  suspended  all  pro 
 
SUNDAY. 
 
 cecdings  at  law  on  this  clay,  cxcoi)ting  only 
 such  as  -were  of  absolute  necessity,  or 
 eminent  charity,  such  as  the  manumission 
 of  slaves,  and  the  like.  This  was  the  same 
 respect  that  the  old  Roman  laws  ])aid  to 
 the  heathen  festivals,  which  were  cxem])ted 
 from  all  other  juridical  business,  exce])t  in 
 cases  of  necessity  or  charity.  Neitlier  was 
 it  only  business  of  the  law',  but  all  secuhir 
 and  servile  employments  that  were  super- 
 seded on  this  day,  still  exce])tinp^  acts  of 
 necessity  and  mercy.  Constantine,  indeed, 
 allowed  works  of  husbandry,  as  earing'  and 
 harvest,  to  be  done  on  Sundays :  but  this 
 jiermission  was  never  well  ajijn-oved  of  by 
 the  Church,  which  endeavoured  to  observe 
 a  just  medium  in  the  observation  of  tlie 
 Lord's  day,  neither  indul<j;inp;  C'liristians 
 in  unnecessary  works  on  that  day,  nor 
 wholly  restraining  them  from  working,  if 
 a  great  occasion  required  it. 
 
 Another  thing  which  the  Christian  laws 
 took  care  of,  to  secure  the  honour  and 
 dignity  of  the  Lord's  day,  was,  that  no 
 ludicrous  sports  or  games  should  be  fol- 
 lowed on  this  day.  There  are  two  famous 
 laws  of  the  two  Theodosiuses  to  this  pur- 
 pose, expressly  forbidding  the  exercises 
 of  gladiators,  stage-plays,  and  horse-races 
 in  the  circus,  to  be  exhibited  to  the  Chris- 
 tians. And  by  the  ecclesiastical  laws, 
 these  sorts  of  diversions  M'ere  universally 
 forbidden  to  all  Christians,  on  account  of 
 the  extravagances  and  l)las])hemies  that 
 were  committed  in  them.  But  all  such 
 recreations  and  refreshments,  as  tended  to 
 the  preservation  or  conveniency  of  the  life 
 of  man,  were  allowed  on  the  Lord's  day. 
 And  therefore  Sunday  was  always  a  day 
 of  feasting,  and  it  was  never  allowable  to 
 fast  thereon,  not  even  in  Lent. 
 
 The  great  care  and  concern  of  the  pri- 
 mitive Christians,  in  the  religious  ol^serv- 
 ation  of  the  Lord's  day,  ajjpears,  first, 
 from  their  constant  attendance  upon  all 
 the  solemnities  of  ])ublic  worship,  from 
 which  nothing  but  sickness,  imprisonment, 
 banishment,  or  some  great  necessity,  could 
 detain  them :  secondly,  from  their  zeal  in 
 frequenting  religious  assemblies  on  this 
 day,  even  in  times  of  the  hottest  persecu- 
 tion, when  they  were  often  beset  and 
 seized  in  their  meetings  and  congregations: 
 thirdly,  from  their  studious  observation  of 
 the  vigils,  or  nocturnal  assemblies,  that 
 preceded  the  Lord's  day :  fourthly,  from 
 the  eager  attendance  on  sermons  —  in 
 many  places,  twice  on  this  day ;  and  their 
 constant  resorting  to  evening  nrayers, 
 where  there  was  no  sermon :  lastly,  from 
 the  severe  censures  inflicted  on  those  who 
 violated  the  laws  concerning  the  religious 
 
 SUPEUKltociATlOX. 
 
 720 
 
 observation  of  this  dav  ;  Huch  persons 
 hcmg  usually  punislunl  with  exonnnuui- 
 cation,  as  api)ears  fn,ni  the  Ai)()st..lieal 
 C  onstitutions,  and  the  canons  of  several 
 councils. 
 
 In  the  llomish  lireviary  and  other 
 ortices,  we  meet  with  a  distinction  of  Sun- 
 days into  those  of  the  first  and  second 
 class.  Sundays  of  the  first  class  are, 
 Palm  Sunday,  Ivister  Dav,  Advent,  Whit- 
 sunday, \c.  Tiiose  of  the  second  class 
 are  the  common  Sundays  of  the   year. — 
 
 SUPKREItOGATIOX.  Li  the  Romish 
 Church,  works  of  suj)ererogation  are  those 
 good  deeds  which  are  sui)i)osed  to  have 
 been  performed  by  saints,  over  aud  ahorc 
 what  is  reciuired  for  their  own  salvation. 
 These  constitute  an  inexhaustible  fund,  on 
 which  the  ])ope  has  the  power  of  drawing 
 at  i)leasure,  for  the  relief  of  thi-  Church, 
 by  the  a])i)lication  of  some  portion  of 
 this  superabundant  merit,  to  meet  a  defi- 
 ciency in  the  spiritual  worth  of  any  of  its 
 members. 
 
 On  this  doctrine  of  the  Church  of  Rome 
 our  Church  thus  speaks  in  the  fourteenth 
 Article  : — "  Voluntary  works  besides,  over 
 and  above  God's  commandments,  which 
 they  call  works  of  supererogation,  cannot 
 be  taught  without  arrogancy  and  imi)iety  ; 
 for  by  them  men  do  declare,  that  they  do 
 not  only  render  unto  (ioD  as  much  as 
 they  are  bound  to  do,  but  that  they  do 
 more  for  his  sake  than  of  bounden  duty 
 is  required  ;  whereas  Christ  saith  plainly, 
 *  AVhen  ye  have  done  all  that  are  com- 
 manded to  you,  say,  We  are  unprofitable 
 servants.' "' 
 
 The  works  here  mentioned  are  called 
 in  the  Romish  Church  likewise  by  the 
 name  of  "counsels"  and  "evangelical  i)er- 
 fections."  They  are  defined  by  their 
 writers  to  be  "  good  works,  not  com- 
 manded by  Christ,  but  recommended;" 
 rules  which  do  not  oblige  all  men  to 
 follow  them,  under  the  pain  of  sin  ;  but 
 yet  are  useful  to  cany  them  on  to  a 
 sublimer  degree  of  perfection  tiian  is  ne- 
 cessary in  order  to  their  salvation.  IJut 
 there  are  no  such  counsels  of  perfection  in 
 the  gos])el ;  all  the  rules,  set  to  us  in  it, 
 are  in  the  style  and  form  of  |)recej)tH ; 
 and,  though  there  may  be  sonn-  actions  of 
 more  heroical  virtue  and  more  sublime 
 l)iety  than  others,  to  which  all  m<n  are 
 not  obliged  by  equal  and  general  rules; 
 yet  such  men,  to  whose  circumstances  and 
 station  they  belong,  are  strictly  obliged 
 by  them,  so  that  \\\vy  should  sin  if  tluy 
 did  not  j)ut  them  in  practice. —  I>r.  Sirhulls. 
 lip.  Ihinut. 
 
730 
 
 SUPPLICATIONS. 
 
 SUPPvEMACY. 
 
 SUPPLICATIONS.  The  following?  part 
 of  this  Litany  [beginning  with  the  Lord's 
 Prayer]  we  call  the  Supplications,  which 
 were  first  collected  and  put  into  this  form, 
 when  the  barbarous  nations  first  began  to 
 overrun  the  empire  about  six  hundred 
 years  after  Christ  :  but,  considering  the 
 troubles  of  the  Church  militant,  and  the 
 many  enemies  it  always  hath  in  this  world, 
 this  part  of  the  Litany  is  no  less  suitable 
 than  the  former  at  all  times  whatsoever. — 
 Wheatb/.  (See  Litany  and  Suffra(/e.)  In 
 many  choirs  and  at  the  universities  this 
 latter  part  of  the  Litany  is  performed  by 
 a  difi'erent  minister  from  the  former :  in  ap- 
 parent compliance  with  the  rubric,  which 
 before  the  Lord's  Prayer  directs  that  the 
 Priest  shall  say  it.  And  when  the  Litany 
 is  sung  to  the  organ,  it  is  usual  to  sing  the 
 responses  in  the  Supplications  without  that 
 accompaniment. 
 
 SUPIIALAPSARLVNS.  The  way  in 
 which  they  understand  the  Divine  decrees, 
 has  produced  two  distinctions  of  Calvin- 
 ists,  viz.  Sublapsarians  and  Supralapsari- 
 ans.  The  former  term  is  derived  from 
 two  Latin  words,  siih,  below  or  after,  and 
 lapsus,  the  fall ;  and  the  latter  from  supra, 
 above,  and  lapsus,  the  fall.  The  Sublap- 
 sarians assert,  that  God  had  only  permitted 
 the  fi-rst  man  to  fall  into  transgression, 
 without  absolutely  predetermining  his  fall ; 
 their  system  of  decrees,  concerning  elec- 
 tion and  reprobation,  being,  as  it  were, 
 subsequent  to  that  event.  On  the  other 
 hand,  the  Supralapsarians  maintained  that 
 God  had,  from  all  eternity,  decreed  the 
 transgression  of  man.  The  Supralapsarian 
 and  Sublapsarian  schemes  agree  in  assert- 
 ing the  doctrine  of  predestination,  but  Avith 
 this  diff"crence,  that  the  former  supposes 
 that  God  intended  to  glorify  his  justice  in 
 the  condemnation  of  some,  as  well  as  his 
 mercy  in  the  salvation  of  others ;  and  for 
 that  purpose  decreed  that  Adam  should 
 necessarily  fall,  and  by  that  fall  bring  him- 
 self and  all  his  ofi'spring  into  a  state  of 
 everlasting  condemnation.  The  latter 
 scheme  supposes,  that  the  decree  of  predes- 
 tination regards  man  as  fallen  by  an  abuse 
 of  that  freedom  which  Adam  had,  into  a 
 state  in  w^hich  all  were  to  be  left  to  neces- 
 sary and  unavoidable  ruin,  who  were  not 
 exempted  from  it  by  predestination. 
 
 SUPREMACY.  Lord  Chief  Justice 
 Hale  says,  The  supremacy  of  the  Crown 
 of  England  in  matters  ecclesiastical  is  a 
 most  indubitable  right  of  the  Crown,  as 
 appeareth  by  records  of  unquestionable 
 truth  and  authority. — 1  H.  H.  Id. 
 
 Lord  Chief  Justice  Coke  says.  That,  by 
 the  ancient  laws  of  this  realm,  this  king- 
 
 dom of  England  is  an  absolute  empire  and 
 monarchy,  consisting  of  one  head,  which  is 
 the  king;  and  of  a  body,  consisting  of  se- 
 veral members,  which  the  laAv  divideth  into 
 two  parts,  the  clergy  and  laity,  both  of 
 them,  next  and  immediately  under  God, 
 subject  and  obedient  to  the  head. — 5  Co. 
 8.  40.  Caudrej/s  case. 
 
 By  the  jiarliament  of  England,  in  the 
 16  Kich.  11.  c.  5,  it  is  asserted,  that  the 
 Crown  of  England  hath  been  so  free  at  all 
 times,  that  it  hath  been  in  no  earthly  sub- 
 jection, but  immediately  subject  to  God 
 in  all  things  touching  the  regality  of  the 
 same  Crown,  and  to  none  other. 
 
 And  in  the  24  Hen.  VIII.  c.  12,  it  is 
 thus  recited :  "  By  suntUy  and  authentic 
 histories  and  chronicles  it  is  manifestly 
 declared  and  expressed,  that  this  realm  of 
 England  is  an  empire,  and  so  hath  been 
 accepted  in  the  world,  governed  by  one 
 supreme  head  and  king,  having  dignity 
 and  royal  estate  of  the  imperial  crown  of 
 the  same ;  unto  whom  a  body  politic,  com- 
 pact of  all  sorts  and  degrees  of  people, 
 divided  in  terms  and  by  names  of  spiritu- 
 ality and  temporality,  been  bounden  and 
 owen  to  bear,  next  unto  God,  a  natural 
 and  humble  obedience ;  he  being  also 
 furnished  by  the  goodness  and  sufi"erance 
 of  Almighty  God,  with  plenary,  whole,  and 
 entire  power,  pre-eminence,  authority,  pre- 
 rogative, and  jurisdiction,  to  render  and 
 yield  justice  and  final  determination  to  all 
 manner  of  persons,  resiants  within  this 
 realm,  in  all  cases,  matters,  debates,  and 
 contentions,  without  restraint  or  provoca- 
 tion to  any  foreign  princes  or  potentates 
 of  the  world ;  in  causes  spiritual  by  judges 
 of  the  spirituality,  and  causes  temporal  by 
 temporal  judges." 
 
 Again,  25  Hen.  VIII.  c.  21.  The  realm 
 of  England,  recognising  no  superior  under 
 God  but  only  the  king,  hath  been  and  is 
 free  from  subjection  to  any  man's  laws, 
 but  only  to  such  as  have  been  devised, 
 made,  and  obtained  within  this  realm  for 
 the  wealth  of  the  same,  or  to  such  other  as, 
 by  sufi'erance  of  the  king,  the  people  of 
 this  realm  have  taken  at  their  free  liberty 
 by  their  own  consent  to  be  used  amongst 
 them,  and  have  bound  themselves  by  long 
 use  and  custom  to  the  observance  of  the 
 same,  not  as  to  the  observance  of  the 
 laws  of  any  foreign  prince,  potentate,  or 
 prelate ;  but  as  to  the  customed  and 
 ancient  laws  of  this  realm,  originally  estab- 
 lished as  laws  of  the  same  by  the  said 
 sufi'erance,  contents,  and  custom,  and  none 
 otherwise. 
 
 The  Church  of  England  declares,  Can.  1, 
 "  As  our  duty  to  the  king's  most  excellent 
 
SUPREMACY 
 
 •31 
 
 Majesty  requireth,  \vc  first  decree  and 
 ordain,  that  the  arclibishop  from  time  to 
 time,  all  bishops,  deans,  archdeacons,  par- 
 sons, vicars,  and  all  other  ecclesiastical 
 persons,  shall  faithfully  keep  and  observe, 
 and  as  much  as  in  them  lieth  shall  cause 
 to  be  observed  and  kept  of  others,  all  and 
 singular  laws  and  statutes  made  for  re- 
 storinji^  to  the  Crown  of  this  kingdom  the 
 ancient  jurisdiction  over  the  state  ecclesi- 
 astical, and  abolishing  of  all  foreign  ])ower 
 repugnant  to  the  same.  Furthermore,  all 
 ecclesiastical  persons  having  cure  of  souls, 
 and  all  other  preachers,  and  readers  of 
 divinity  lectures,  shall,  to  the  uttermost  of 
 their  wit,  knowledge,  and  learning,  ])urely 
 and  sincerely,  (without  any  colour  of  dis- 
 simulation,) teach,  manifest,  open,  and 
 declare,  four  times  every  year  at  the 
 least,  in  their  sermons  and  other  collation 
 and  lectures,  that  all  usurped  and  foreign 
 power  (forasmuch  as  the  same  hath  no 
 establishment  nor  ground  by  the  law  of 
 God)  is  for  most  just  causes  taken  away 
 and  abolished,  and  that  therefore  no  man- 
 ner of  obedience  or  subjection  within  his 
 Majesty's  realms  and  dominions  is  due 
 unto  any  such  foreign  power;  but  that 
 the  king's  power,  within  his  realms  of 
 England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland,  and  all 
 other  his  dominions  and  countries,  is  the 
 highest  power  under  GoD,  to  whom  all 
 men,  as  well  inhabitants  as  born  within  the 
 same,  do  by  God's  laws  owe  most  loyalty 
 and  obedience,  afore  and  above  all  other 
 powers  and  potentates  in  the  earth." 
 
 Canon  2.  "Whoever  shall  affirm,  that 
 the  king's  Majesty  hath  not  the  same  au- 
 thority in  causes  ecclesiastical  that  the 
 godly  kings  had  amongst  the  Jcavs  and 
 Christian  emperors  of  the  primitive  Church, 
 or  impeach  any  part  of  his  regal  supremacy 
 in  the  said  causes  restored  to  the  crown, 
 and  by  the  laws  of  this  realm  therein 
 established,  let  him  be  excommunicated 
 ipso  facto,  and  not  restored  but  only  by 
 the  archbishop,  after  his  repentance  and 
 public  revocation  of  those  his  wicked 
 errors." 
 
 Canon  26.  "  No  person  shall  be  received 
 into  the  ministry,  nor  admitted  to  any  ec- 
 clesiastical function,  exce])t  he  shall  first 
 subscribe  (amongst  others)  to  this  article 
 following:  that  the  king's  Majesty,  under 
 God,  is  the  only  supreme  governor  of  this 
 realm,  and  of  all  other  his  Higimess's  do- 
 minions and  countries,  as  well  in  all  spi- 
 ritual or  ecclesiastical  things  or  causes  as 
 temporal;  and  that  no  foreign  prince, 
 person,  prelate,  state,  or  potentate  hath  or 
 ought  to  have  any  jurisdiction,  power,  su- 
 periority, pre-eminence,  or  authority,  eccle- 
 
 siastical or  sniritual,  within  his  Majesty's 
 said  realms,  dominions,  and  countries." 
 
 And  the  37th  Article  declares,  that 
 '^  The  queen's  Majesty  hatii  liie  chief  power 
 in  this  realm  of  Kngland.  and  other  her 
 dominions  ;  unto  whom  the  chief  govern- 
 ment of  all  estates  of  this  realm,  whether 
 they  be  ecclesiastical  or  civil,  in  all  causes 
 doth  a])))ertain ;  and  is  not,  nor  ought  to 
 be,  subject  to  any  foreign  jurisdiction. 
 J  hit  when  we  attribute  to  the  queen's 
 Majesty  the  chief  goveriunent,  we  give  not 
 thereby  to  our  princes  tile  ministering,  cither 
 of  (iod's  word  or  of  the  sacraments ;  l)ut 
 that  only  prerogative  which  we  see  to  have 
 been  given  always  to  all  godly  princes  in 
 Holy  8crij)ture  by  God  himself,  that 
 is,  that  they  should  rule  all  estates  and 
 degrees  committed  to  their  charge  l)y  (iod, 
 whether  they  be  ecclesiastical  or  temporal, 
 and  restrain  with  the  civil  sword  the  stub- 
 born and  evil-doers.  The  bishop  of  Jioine 
 hath  no  jurisdiction  in  this  realm  of  Mng- 
 land."     ^ 
 
 I^y  the  1  Eliz.  c.  1,  it  is  enacted  as 
 follows,  viz.  that  no  foreign  prince,  per- 
 son, prelate,  state,  or  potentate,  spiritual 
 or  temj)oral,  shall  use,  enjoy,  or  exercise 
 any  manner  of  ])ower,  jurisdiction,  su- 
 ])eriority,  autlnn-ity,  ])re-eminence,  or  pri- 
 vilege, spiritual  or  ecclesiastical,  ^\ithin 
 this  realm,  or  any  other  her  Majesty's  do- 
 minions or  countries,  but  the  same  shall 
 be  abolished  thereout  for  ever  ;  any  statute, 
 ordinance,  custom,  constitutions,  or  any 
 other  matter  or  cause  whatsoever  to  the 
 contrary  notwithstanding.  (S.  16.) 
 
 And  such  jurisdictions,  privileges,  su- 
 periorities, and  pre-eminence,  sjiiritual  and 
 ecclesiastical,  as  by  any  spiritual  or  eccle- 
 siastical ])Ower  or  authority  have  hereto- 
 fore been,  or  may  lawfully  be,  exercised  or 
 used  for  the  visitation  of  the  ecclesiastical 
 state  and  j)ersons,  and  for  reformation, 
 order,  and  correction  of  the  same,  and  of 
 all  manner  of  errors,  heresies,  schisms, 
 abuses,  offences,  contempts,  and  enormities, 
 shall  for  ever  be  united  and  annexed  to 
 the  imperial  crown  of  this  realm.  (S.  17.) 
 
 And  if  any  person  shall  by  urUintj, 
 pn'Htiii(/,  teach itui,  pveuchimj  express  icordn^ 
 deed  or  act,  advisedly,  maliciously,  and 
 directly  affirm,  hold,  stand  witJi,  set  forth, 
 maintain,  or  defend  tiie  authority,  pre- 
 eminence, power,  or  jurisdiction,  spiritual 
 or  ecclesiastical,  of  any  foreign  prince, 
 ])relate,  person,  state,  or  potentate  whatso- 
 ever, heretofore  claimed,  used,  or  usurped 
 within  this  realm,  or  any  other  her  Ma- 
 jesty's dominions  or  countries;  or  shall 
 advisedly,  maliciously,  and  directly  i)ut  in 
 use,  or  execute,  anything  for  the  extolling. 
 
732 
 
 SUPREMACY. 
 
 advancement,  setting  forth,  maintenance, 
 or  defence  of  any  such  pretended  or 
 usurped  jurisdiction,  power,  pre-eminence, 
 and  authority,  or  any  part  thereof;  he, 
 his  abettors,  aiders,  procurers,  and  coun- 
 sellors shall,  for  the  iirst  offence,  forfeit 
 all  his  goods,  and  if  he  hath  not  goods  to 
 the  value  of  £20  he  shall  also  be  imprisoned 
 for  a  year,  and  the  benefices  of  every 
 spiritual  person  oflending  shall  also  be 
 void ;  for  the  second  offence  shall  incur  a 
 prcTmunire;  and  for  the  third  shall  be 
 guilty  of  high  treason.    (S.  27—30.) 
 
 But  no  person  shall  be  molested  for 
 any  offence  committed  only  by  preaching, 
 teaching,  or  words,  unless  he  be  indicted 
 within  one  half  year  after  the  offence  com- 
 mitted. (S.  31.) 
 
 And  no  person  shall  be  indicted  or  ar- 
 raigned but  by  the  oath  of  two  or  more 
 witnesses ;  which  witnesses,  or  so  many  of 
 them  as  shall  be  living,  and  within  the 
 realm  at  the  time  of  the  arraignment,  shall 
 be  brought  face  to  face  before  the  party 
 arraigned,  if  he  require  the  same.  (S.  37.) 
 If  any  person  shall  by  writing,  cypher- 
 ing, printing,  preaching,  or  teaching,  deed 
 or  act,  advisedly  and  wittingly,  hold  or 
 stand  with,  to  extol,  set  forth,  maintain  or 
 defend  the  authority,  jurisdiction,  or  powxr 
 of  the  bishop  of  Kome  or  of  his  see,  here- 
 tofore claimed,  used,  or  usurped,  within 
 this  realm,  or  in  any  of  her  Majesty's  do- 
 minions ;  or  by  any  speech,  open  deed,  or 
 act,  advisedly  and  wittingly  attribute  any 
 such  manner  of  jurisdiction,  authority,  or 
 pre-eminence  to  the  said  see  of  Rome,  or 
 to  any  bishop  of  the  same  see  for  the  time 
 being ;  he,  his  abettors,  procurers,  and 
 counsellors,  his  aiders,  assistants,  and  com- 
 forters, upon  purpose  and  to  the  intent  so 
 set  forth,  further  and  extol  the  said  usurped 
 power,  being  indicted  or  presented  within 
 one  year,  and  convicted  at  any  time  after, 
 shall  incur  a  praemunire. — 5  Eliz.  c.  1,  s.  2. 
 And  the  justices  of  assize,  or  two  jus- 
 tices of  the  peace,  (one  whereof  to  be  of 
 the  quorum,)  in  their  sessions,  may  inquire 
 thereof,  and  shall  certify  the  presentment 
 into  the  King's  Bench  in  forty  days,  if  the 
 term  be  then  open  ;  if  not,  at  the  iirst  day 
 of  the  full  term  next  following  the  said 
 forty  days:  on  pain  of  £100.     (S.  3.) 
 
 And  the  justices  of  the  King's  Bench, 
 as  well  upon  such  certificate  as  by  inquiry 
 before  themselves,  shall  proceed  thereupon 
 as  in  cases  of  proemunire.     (S.  4.) 
 
 But  charitable  giving  of  reasonable  alms 
 to  an  offender,  without  fraud  or  covin, 
 shall  not  be  deemed  abetting,  procuring, 
 counselling,  aiding,  assisting,  or  comfort- 
 ing.     (S.  18.) 
 
 The  papal  encroachments  upon  the  king's 
 sovereignty  in  causes  and  over  persons 
 ecclesiastical,  yea,  even  in  matters  civil, 
 under  that  loose  pretence  of  in  ordine  ad 
 spiritunlia,  had  obtained  a  great  strength 
 and  long  continuance  in  this  realm,  not- 
 withstanding the  security  the  Crown  had 
 by  the  oaths  of  fealty  and  allegiance  ;  so 
 that  there  was  a  necessity  to  unrivet  those 
 usurpations,  by  substituting  by  authority 
 of  parliament  a  recognition  by  oath  of  the 
 king's  supremacy,  as  well  in  causes  eccle- 
 siastical as  civil ;  and  thereupon  the  oath 
 of  supremacy  was  framed. — 1  II.  II.  75. 
 
 "Which  oath,  as  finally  established  by  the 
 1  Will.  III.  c.  8,  is  as  follows :  "  I  A.  B. 
 do  swear,  that  I  do  from  my  heart  abhor, 
 detest,  and  abjure,  as  impious  and  here- 
 tical, that  damnable  doctrine  and  position, 
 that  princes,  excommunicated  or  deprived 
 by  the  pope  or  any  authority  of  the  see  of 
 Home,  may  be  deposed  or  murdered  by 
 their  subjects,  or  any  other  whatsoever. 
 And  I  do  declare,  that  no  foreign  prince, 
 person,  prelate,  state,  or  potentate,  hath 
 or  ought  to  have  any  jurisdiction,  power, 
 superiority,  pre-eminence,  or  authority,  ec- 
 clesiastical or  spiritual,  within  this  realm : 
 so  help  me  God." 
 
 But,  lastly,  the  usurped  jurisdiction  of 
 the  pope  being  abolished,  and  there  being 
 no  longer  any  danger  to  the  liberties  of 
 the  Church  or  State  from  that  quarter ; 
 and  divers  of  the  princes  of  this  realm 
 having  entertained  more  exalted  notions 
 of  the  supremacy,  both  ecclesiastical  and 
 civil,  than  were  deemed  consistent  with 
 the  legal  establishment  and  constitution ; 
 it  was  thought  fit  at  the  Revolution  to  de- 
 clare and  express,  how  far  the  regal  power, 
 in  matters  spiritual  as  well  as  temporal, 
 doth  extend ;  that  so,  as  w^ell  the  just  pre- 
 rogative of  the  Crown  on  the  one  hand,  as 
 the  rights  and  liberties  of  the  subject  on 
 the  other,  might  be  ascertained  and  secured. 
 Therefore  by  the  statute  of  the  1  W.  III. 
 c.  G,  it  is  enacted  as  followeth : 
 
 "  Whereas  by  the  law  and  ancient  usage 
 of  this  realm,  the  kings  and  queens  thereof 
 have  taken  a  solemn  oath  upon  the  evan- 
 gelists at  their  respective  coronations,  to 
 maintain  the  statutes,  laws,  and  customs  of 
 the  said  realm,  and  all  the  people  and  in- 
 habitants thereof  in  their  spiritual  and 
 civil  rights  and  properties  ;  but  forasmuch 
 as  the  oath  itself,  on  such  occasion  ad- 
 ministered, hath  heretofore  been  framed  in 
 doubtful  words  and  expressions,  Avith  rela- 
 tion to  ancient  laws  at  this  time  unknoAvn  ; 
 to  the  end  therefore  that  one  uniform  oath 
 may  be  in  all  times  to  come  taken  by  the 
 kings  and  queens  of  this  realm,  and  to 
 
taem  respectively  administered,  at  the  times 
 of  their  and  every  of  their  coronation,  it  is 
 enacted  that  the  followingr  oath  sliall  be 
 administered  to  every  king-  or  (luecn  -vvlio 
 shall  succeed  to  the  imperial  crown  of  this 
 realm,  at  their  respective  coronations,  by 
 one  of  the  archbishops  or  bisho])s  of  tliis 
 realm  of  England  for  the  time  being,  to 
 be  thereunto  appointed  by  such  king  or 
 queen  respectively,  and  in  the  i)resence  of 
 all  persons  that  shall  be  attending,  assist- 
 ing, or  otherwise  present  at  such  their  re- 
 spective coronations  :  that  is  to  say, 
 
 "The  archbishop  or  bishop  sliall  say, 
 
 *  'Will  you  solemnly  ])romise  and  swear,  to 
 govern  the  people  of  tlie  kingdom  of  l''ng- 
 land,  and  the  dominions  thereto  ])elong- 
 ing,  according  to  the  statutes  in  parliament 
 agreed  on,  and  the  laws  and  customs  of 
 the  same  ? '    The  king  or  queen  shall  say, 
 
 *  I  solemnly  promise  so  to  do.' 
 
 "  Archbishop  or  bishop :  '  AVlll  you  to 
 your  power  cause  law  and  justice  in  mercy 
 to  be  executed  in  all  your  judgments  ?* 
 The  king  and  queen  shall  answer,  '  I  will.' 
 
 ^^  Archbishop  or  bishop:  'Will  you  to 
 the  utmost  of  your  power  maintain  the 
 laws  of  God,  the  true  profession  of  the 
 gospel,  and  Protestant  reformed  religion 
 established  by  law  ?  And  will  you  ])re- 
 serve  unto  the  bishops  and  clergy  of  this 
 realm,  and  to  the  churches  committed  to 
 their  charge,  all  such  rites  and  privileges 
 as  by  law  do  or  shall  appertain  unto  them 
 or  any  of  them  ? '  The  king  or  queen 
 shall  answer,  '  All  this  I  promise  to  do  : ' 
 after  this,  laying  his  or  her  hand  upon  the 
 holy  Gospels,  he  or  she  shall  say,  '  The 
 things  which  I  have  here  before  promised, 
 I  will  perform  and  keep :  so  help  me 
 God  : '  and  shall  then  kiss  the  book." 
 
 By  the  Act  of  Union  of  the  two  kingdoms 
 of  England  and  »Scotland,  5  Anne,  c.  8,  it  is 
 enacted,  that  after  the  demise  of  her  Ma- 
 jesty Queen  Anne,  the  sovereign  next  suc- 
 ceeding, and  so  for  ever  afterwards  every 
 king  or  queen  succeeding  to  the  royal  go- 
 vernment of  the  kingdom  of  Great  liritain, 
 at  his  or  her  coronation,  shall  in  the  pre- 
 sence of  all  persons  who  shall  be  attending, 
 assisting,  or  otherwise  then  and  there  i)re- 
 sent,  take  and  subscribe  an  oath  to  main- 
 tain and  preserve  inviolably  the  settlement 
 of  the  Church  of  England,  and  the  doctrine, 
 worship,  discipline,  and  government  tliereof 
 as  by  law  established,  within  tlie  kingdoms 
 of  England  and  Ireland,  and  the  dominion 
 of  Wales  and  town  of  lierwick-upon-Tweed 
 and  the  territories  thereunto  belonging. 
 
 And  shall  also  swear  and  subscribe, 
 that  they  shall  inviolably  maintain  and 
 preserve  the  settlement  of  the  true  Pro- 
 
 SUPREMACY. 
 testant 
 
 '33 
 
 )enig  over  all 
 causes,    cccksins- 
 
 _  rt'hgion,  wall  the  government, 
 worship  (bscq  hue,  right,  and  privileges 
 of  the  (  hurdi  of  Scotland,  as  then  estab- 
 hshed  by  the  laws  of  that  kingdom.  (The 
 foregoing    authorities    are    (pioled    from 
 
 }h  the  Church  of  Englan.l,  the  kovc- 
 reign  is  thus  regarded  as  bt 
 ])ersons,  and  o\er  a 
 tical  as  Avell  as  civil,  supreme.  On  tills 
 head  an  objection  is  raised  against  tlio 
 Church  of  JMigland,  as  if  her  ministers 
 derived  their  authority  from  the  Crown. 
 This  objection  is  thus  ansAvered  by  I'ahn- 
 er:  1.  We  must  insist  ujjon  it  that  the 
 principles  of  the  Church  of  EniiUmd,  witji 
 reference  to  the  authority  of  the  civil 
 magistrate  in  ecclesiastical  affairs,  cannot 
 be  determined  in  any  way  by  the  opinions 
 of  lawyers,  or  the  preambles  of  acts  of 
 parliament.  We  nowhere  subscribe  to 
 either  one  or  the  other.  2.  The  oi)inion 
 of  the  temporal  jiower  itself  as  to  its  own 
 authority  in  ecclesiastical  aH'airs,  ami  its 
 acts  in  accordance  with  such  ojiinions,  are 
 perfectly  distinct  from  the  i)rincij)les  of 
 the  Church  of  England  on  these  points. 
 \\Q^  are  not  bound  to  adopt  such  opinions, 
 or  a])prove  such  acts  of  temporal  rulers, 
 nor  even  to  ajiprove  every  ])oint  of  the 
 existing  law.  ;i.  The  clergy  of  England, 
 in  acknowledging  the  su])remacy  of  the 
 king,  A.  D.  loiH,  did  so.  as  Hurnet  ])roves, 
 with  the  important  proviso,  "  tpiantuni  per 
 Christi  letjcm  licet ; "  which  oriijinal  con- 
 dition is  ever  to  be  supposed  in  our  acknow- 
 ledgment of  the  royal  supremacy.  Con- 
 sequently we  give  no  authority  to  the 
 prince,  except  what  is  consistent  Mith  the 
 maintenance  of  all  those  rights,  liberties, 
 jurisdictions,  and  spiritual  powers,  "which 
 the  law  of  Cjiuist  confers  on  his  Church." 
 4.  The  Church  of  England  believes  the 
 jurisdiction  and  commission  of  her  clergy 
 to  come  from  God,  by  ajiostolical  suc- 
 cession, as  is  evident  from  the  ordination 
 service,  and  has  been  proved  by  the  Papist 
 Milner  himself  ("  Letters  to  a  Prebendary," 
 Let.  8) ;  and  it  is  decidedly  the  doctrine 
 of  the  great  majority  of  her  theologians, 
 o.  The  acts  of  English  monarchs  have 
 been  objected  in  proof  of  their  views  on 
 the  sul)ject.  We  are  not  bound  to  sub- 
 scribe to  those  views.  If  their  act-s  were 
 wrong  in  any  case,  we  never  ajjprovctl 
 them,  though  we  may  have  ])ecn  ol)liged 
 by  circumstances  to  submit  to  intrusions 
 and  usurjiations.  But  since  this  is  a 
 fiivourite  topic  with  Romanists,  let  us 
 view  the  matter  a  little  on  another  side. 
 I  ask,  then,  whether  the  parlianient.s  of 
 France  did  not,  for  a  long  scries  of  years, 
 
734 
 
 SUPREMACY. 
 
 exercise  jurisdiction  over  the  administra- 
 tion of  the  sacraments,  compeUing  the 
 Roman  bishops  and  priests  of  France  to 
 give  the  sacrament  to  Jansenists,  whom 
 they  believed  to  be  heretics  ?  Did  they 
 not  repeatedly  judge  in  questions  of  faith, 
 viz.  as  to  the  ol)ligation  of  the  bull 
 "  Unu/cnitus?^'  Did  they  not  take  cog- 
 nizance of  questions  of  faith  and  discipline 
 to  such  a  degree,  that  they  were  said  to 
 resemble  "a  school  of  theology?"  I  ask 
 whether  the  clergy  of  France  in  theu* 
 convocations  were  not  icJwlly  under  the 
 control  of  the  king,  who  could  prescribe 
 ■their  subjects  of  debate,  prevent  them 
 from  debating,  prorogue,  dissolve,  &c.  ? 
 
 Did  they  not  repeatedly  beg  in  vain 
 from  the  kings  of  France,  for  a  long  series 
 of  years,  to  be  permitted  to  hold  provin- 
 cial synods  for  the  suppression  of  immo- 
 rality, heresy,  and  infidelity  ?  Is  not  this 
 liberty  still  withheld  from  them,  and  from 
 every  other  Roman  Church  in  Europe? 
 I  further  ask  whether  the  emperor  Joseph 
 II.  did  not  enslave  the  Churches  of  Ger- 
 many and  Italy?  Whether  he  did  not 
 suppress  monasteries,  suppress  and  unite 
 bishoprics  ?  Whether  he  did  not  sus- 
 pend the  bishops  from  conferring  orders, 
 exact  from  them  oaths  of  obedience  to 
 all  his  measures  present  and  future, 
 issue  royal  decrees  for  removing  images 
 from  churches,  and  for  the  regulation  of 
 Divine  worship  down  to  the  minutest 
 points,  even  to  the  number  of  candles  at 
 mass?  Whether  he  did  not  take  on  himself 
 to  silence  preachers  who  had  declaimed 
 against  persons  of  unsound  faith  ?  Whether 
 he  did  not  issue  decrees  against  the  bull 
 "  Unif/enitus,"  thus  interfering  with  the 
 doctrinal  decision  of  the  whole  Roman 
 Church?  I  ask  whether  this  conduct  was 
 not  accurately  imitated  by  the  grand  duke 
 of  Tuscany,  the  king  of  Naples,  the  duke 
 of  Parma  ;  whether  it  did  not  become  pre- 
 valent in  almost  every  part  of  the  Roman 
 Chm-ch ;  and  whether  its  effects  do  not 
 continue  to  the  present  day?  I  again  ask, 
 whether  *'  Organic  Articles  "  were  not  en- 
 acted by  Buonaparte  in  the  new  Galilean 
 Church,  which  placed  everything  in  eccle- 
 siastical affairs  under  the  government? 
 Whether  the  bishops  were  not  forbidden 
 by  the  emperor  to  confer  orders  without 
 the  permission  of  government;  whether 
 the  obvious  intention  was  not  to  place  the 
 priests,  even  in  their  spiritual  functions, 
 under  the  civil  powers?  And,  in  fine, 
 whether  these  obnoxious  "Organic  Ar- 
 ticles "  are  not,  up  to  the  present  day,  in 
 almost  every  point  in  force  ?  I  again  in- 
 quu-e   whether  the    order  of  Jesuits  was 
 
 not  suppressed  by  the  mere  civil  powers, 
 in  Portugal,  Spain,  France,  Italy,  &c. ; 
 whether  convents,  monasteries,  confrater- 
 nities, friars,  and  monks,  and  nuns,  of 
 every  sort  and  kind,  were  not  extinguished, 
 suppressed,  annihilated  by  royal  commis- 
 sion, and  by  the  temporal  power,  in  France, 
 Germany,  Austria,  Italy,  Sicily,  Spain, 
 Portugal,  &c.,  and  in  opposition  to  the 
 petitions  and  protests  of  the  pope  and  the 
 bishops  ?  I  again  ask,  whether  the  king  of 
 Sicily  does  not,  in  his  "  Tribunal  of  the 
 Monarchy,"  up  to  the  present  day,  try 
 ecclesiastical  causes,  censure,  excommuni- 
 cate, absolve  ?  Whether  this  tribunal  did 
 not,  in  1712,  give  absolution  from  episco- 
 pal excommunications  ;  and  whether  it  was 
 not  restored  by  Benedi(;t  XII.  in  1728? 
 
 Is  there  a  Roman  Church  on  the  conti- 
 nent of  Europe,  where  the  clergy  can 
 communicate  freely  with  him  whom  they 
 regard  as  their  spiritual  head ;  or  Avhere 
 all  papal  bulls,  rescripts,  briefs,  &c.  are 
 not  subjected  to  a  rigorous  surveillance 
 on  the  part  of  government,  and  allowed  or 
 disallowed  at  its  pleasure  ?  In  fine,  was 
 not  Gregory  XVI.  himself  compelled,  in 
 his  encyclical  letter  of  1832,  to  utter  the 
 most  vehement  complaints  and  lament- 
 ations, at  the  degraded  condition  of  the 
 Roman  obedience?  Does  he  not  confess 
 that  the  Church  is  "  subjected  to  earthly 
 co)isideratio?is"  " reduced  to  a  base  servi- 
 tude" "  the  rights  of  its  bishops  trampled 
 on  2'  "  These  are  all  certain  facts :  I  appeal 
 in  proof  of  them  to  the  Roman  historians, 
 and  to  many  other  writers  of  authority; 
 and  they  form  but  a  part  of  what  might  be 
 said  on  this  subject.  Romanists  should 
 blush  to  accuse  the  Church  of  England 
 for  the  acts  of  our  civil  rulers  in  ecclesi- 
 astical matters.  They  should  remember 
 those  words,  "  Thou  hypocrite,  first  cast 
 out  the  beam  out  of  thine  own  eye,  and 
 then  shalt  thou  see  clearly  to  cast  out  the 
 mote  out  of  thy  brother  s  eye." 
 
 But  it  will  be  objected,  all  this  Avas 
 contrary  at  least  to  the  principles  of  the 
 Roman  Church,  while  English  theologians, 
 on  the  contrary,  exaggerate  the  authority 
 of  the  civil  magistrate  in  ecclesiastical 
 afhiirs.  We  admit  unequivocally,  that 
 some  of  our  theologians  have  spoken  un- 
 advisedly on  this  subject.  But  what  of 
 that?  Can  they  have  gone  further  than 
 the  whole  school  of  Galilean  Avriters,  of 
 modern  canonists,  and  reforming  theolo- 
 gians, in  the  Romish  Church,  whose  object 
 is  to  overthrow  the  papal  power,  and 
 render  the  Church  subservient  in  all  things 
 to  the  State  ?  Do  Romanists  imagine  that 
 we  are  ignorant  of  the  principles  of  Pithou 
 
SUPREMACY,  PAPAL. 
 
 •35 
 
 and  the  Galilean  Sehool,  of  Giannone,  Van 
 Espcn,  Zalhvein,  ])e  Hontheini,  Kicei, 
 Eybel,  Sioeh,  Keehberger,  Oberhauser, 
 Riegger,  Cavallari,  Tamburini,  and  tiftv 
 others,  who  ^vcre  tinged  ^vitil  the  very 
 ]n-mciples  imputed  to  us  ?  Do  they  forget 
 that  their  clenjij  in  many  parts  have  ])eti- 
 tioned  princes  to  remove  the  canonical  law 
 of  celibacy?  In  line,  is  it  not  well  known, 
 that  there  is  a  conspiracy  among  many  of 
 their  theologians,  to  sidiject  the  discipline 
 of  the  Church  to  the  civil  magistrate  ?  It 
 is  really  too  much  for  Ilomanists  to  assail 
 us  on  the  very  point  Avhere  they  arc  them- 
 selves most  vulnerable,  and  where  they 
 are  actually  most  keenly  suffering.  Our 
 Churches,  though  subject  to  some  incon- 
 venience, and  lately  aggrieved  by  the  sup- 
 pression of  bishoprics  in  Ireland,  contrarv 
 to  the  solemn  protests  of  the  bishops  and 
 clergy,  are  yet  in  a  far  more  respectable 
 and  independent  position  than  the  lioman 
 Churches.  Those  amongst  us  who  main- 
 tain the  highest  principles  of  the  spiritual 
 jurisdiction  of  the  Church,  have  reason  to 
 feel  thankful  that  we  have  not  yet  fallen 
 to  the  level  of  the  Church  of  Rome. 
 
 SUPREMACY,  PAPAL.  The  fourth 
 Lateran  Council,  in  the  year  1215,  is  the 
 first  of  those  called  general  which  recog- 
 nised the  authority  of  the  Roman  sec  as 
 supreme  over  the  Church.  In  the  fifth 
 canon  the  Roman  Church  is  said  to 
 have  "a  principality  of  power  over  all 
 others,  as  the  mother  and  mistress  of  all 
 Christian  believers ; "  and  all  other  patri- 
 archs are  required  to  receive  their  palls 
 from  the  Roman  pontiff".  The  titles  of 
 universal  pope  and  universal  patriarch, 
 first  used  by  the  bishops  of  Constantinople, 
 and  afterwards  applied  indiff"erently  to  the 
 bishops  of  Rome  and  Constantinojjle,  as 
 a])pears  by  the  letters  of  the  emperor 
 Constantine  Pogonatus,  in  Labbe  and  Cos- 
 sart,  vol.  vi.  pp.  598,  599,  were  titles  of 
 honour,  and  did  not  imply  universal  juris- 
 diction. There  was  no  allusion  to  it  in 
 any  former  general  council ;  so  that,  up  to 
 1215,  it  was  free  for  a  man  to  think  how 
 he  pleased  concerning  it.  And  not  only 
 were  men  free  to  deny  the  jiapal  supre- 
 macv,  they  were  bound  to  resist  and  re- 
 ject it,  in  all  places  where  it  could  not  be 
 proved  to  have  been  from  the  beginning. 
 For  so  it  was  decreed  by  the  third  general 
 council,  which  was  assembled  at  l-'i)hesus, 
 A.  D.  431,  "  that  none  of  the  bishoj)s,  most 
 beloved  of  God,  do  assume  any  other  pro- 
 vince that  is  not,  and  was  not  formerly, 
 and  from  the  beginning,  subject  to  him,  or 
 those  who  were  his  predecessors,  liut  if 
 any  have  assumed  any  church,  that  he  be 
 
 forced  to  restore  it,  that  so  the  canons  ,.f 
 the  fathers  be  not  tnins-ress(.d.„„r  wcrhlly 
 pride  be  introduced  under  the  mask  of  this 
 sacred  function.  The  holv  geiicral  svnod 
 hath  therefore  decreed,  that  the  right  of 
 every  province,  formerly,  and  from  the 
 beginning,  belonging  to  it,  be  jjrrscrved 
 clear  and  inviolable."  This  decree  wan 
 ]Kisse(l  on  ihe  occasion  of  an  attemj)!  by 
 the  ])atriarch  of  Antiodi  to  usurp  authority 
 over  the  churches  of  the  ishmd  of  Cy|)riis, 
 which  had  not  been  form-.-rly  under  his 
 jurisdiction,  and  is  worthy  of  hotitc  to  the 
 members  of  the  Churches' of  Mngland  and 
 Ireland.  For  as  it  is  beyond  denial,  from 
 the  conduct  of  the  liritish  and  Irish  bi- 
 shops, that  the  Churches  in  these  islands 
 knew  no  subjection  to  Rome  uj)  to  the 
 close  of  the  sixth  century,  it  is  certain  that 
 every  exercise  of  jurisdiction  which  the 
 bishop  of  Rome  practised  afterwards  for  a 
 time  in  this  kingdom,  was  in  viohition  of 
 the  decrees  of  the  Catliolic  Church,  and 
 that  the  Churches  here  were  merely  acting 
 in  obedience  to  those  decrees,  when,  after 
 having  made  trial  of  that  cruel  bondage, 
 they  were  enabled  to  release  themselves 
 from  it.  There  is  one  other  thing  not  un- 
 Morthy  of  notice  as  concerns  tliis  ])oint. 
 By  the  creed  of  Pope  IMus,  all  communi- 
 cants in  the  Church  of  Rome  are  required 
 to  acknowledge  as  \y.\ri  of  that  "  faith 
 without  which  no  man  can  be  saved," 
 "  the  holy  Catholic,  Apostolic  Roman 
 Church,  for  the  mother  and  mistress  of  all 
 Churches."  It  should  lie  known  that  the 
 Fathers  assembled  in  the  second  general 
 council,  Constantinople,  A,  n,  381,  gave 
 the  title  which  is  here  claimed  for  Rome  to 
 the  Church  of  Jerusalem,  as  ajjpears  from 
 their  synodical  ejiistle.  "  We  acknowledge 
 the  most  venerable  Cyril,  most  beloved 
 of  God,  to  be  bishoj)  of  the  Church  of 
 Jerusalem,  which  is  the  mother  of  all 
 Churches." — See  Cone,  ii,  900.  Thus  then 
 it  a])pears,  that  in  order  to  obtain  com- 
 munion in  Rome,  it  is  necessary  to  record 
 an  opinion  directly  at  variance  with  that 
 of  a  general  council  universally  acknow- 
 ledged. 
 
 The  following  has  been  abbreviated  from 
 Mr.  Sanderson  Robins's  very  a])le  treatise 
 on  the  Evidence  of  Scripture  against  the 
 Claims  of  the  Church  of  Kome. 
 
 "  The  earlier  popes  knew  notliing  of  the 
 modern  view  which  makes  I*eter  and  his 
 alleged  successors  to  be  the  supreme  j)as- 
 tors,  and  all  other  bishoj)s  subordinate  and 
 deriving  authority  from  them,  Eaunoy 
 cites  no  fewer  than  forty  who  emplov  the 
 term  fellow-bishoj),  and  fellow-})ricst  ; 
 which  utterly  contradicts  the  opinion  of 
 
•736 
 
 SUPREMACY,  PAPAL. 
 
 Bellarmine  and  his  school.  The  very 
 formula  which  indicates  the  invasion  of 
 episcopal  independence,  '  By  the  grace  of 
 the  apostolic  see,'  is  not  to  be  traced 
 farther  back  than  the  middle  of  the  thir- 
 teenth century.  Yet  Duval  argues  that 
 because  the  jurisdiction  of  bishops  can  be 
 limited  or  taken  away  by  the  pope,  it  is  not 
 derived  immediately  from  Christ.  The 
 converse  is  the  true  proposition  ;  because 
 it  is  derived  immediately  from  Christ,  it 
 cannot  be  limited  or  taken  away  by  the 
 pope- 
 
 "  The  interpretation  which  assigns  su- 
 preme poAver  to  the  pope  as  Peter's  suc- 
 cessor, would  make  him  universal  bishop, 
 and  leave  nothing  but  vicarial  power  to 
 all  other  bishops,  which  is  exactly  the 
 conclusion  so  strenuously  resisted  by  Gre- 
 gory the  Great,  when  he  feared  the  grow- 
 ing importance  of  the  see  of  Constanti- 
 nople. Bellarmine  admits  the  title  to  be 
 antichristian  and  profane;  but  when  he 
 attempts  to  draw  a  distinction  in  favour  of 
 the  powers  claimed  for  the  bishop  of  Rome, 
 he  reasons  illogically,  as  Launoy  has  abund- 
 antly proved. 
 
 "The  witness  of  the  Bible  remains,  in 
 spite  of  all  efforts  to  conceal  or  pervert  its 
 meaning  by  those  who  are  interested  in 
 defending  an  adverse  system.  It  repre- 
 sents the  office  of  CiiRlST  as  incommunica- 
 ble and  unapproachable.  He  is  the  Koot, 
 from  Avhich  the  branches  derive  life  and 
 strength;  the  Shepherd,  who  knoAvs  his 
 sheep,  and  is  knoAvn  of  them  ;  the  heaven- 
 ly Bridegroom,  to  AA'hom  the  Church  is 
 espoused.  So,  again,  he  is  '  the  Head  OA^er 
 all  things  to  the  Church,  Avhich  is  his  body, 
 the  fulness  of  him  that  filleth  all  in  all.' 
 When  the  title  is  ascribed  to  another,  there 
 is  insurmountable  difficulty  involved.  If 
 Peter,  or  the  bishop  of  Rome,  is  the  head, 
 then  the  Church  must  in  the  same  sense 
 be  his  body,  which  no  one  ventures  to  say. 
 The  distinction,  again,  betAveen  a  visible 
 and  an  invisible  head  has  not  the  least 
 show  of  Scripture  proof,  and  is  no  better 
 than  an  invention  to  meet  an  obAious  diffi- 
 culty. Nor  is  it  of  any  avail  to  speak,  as 
 some  do,  of  CiiiiiST  as  the  essential,  and 
 Peter  as  the  ministerial  head,  because  Avhat- 
 ever  relation  to  the  Church  is  represented 
 by  the  figure,  can  exist  only  under  the 
 former,  that  is,  by  the  union  of  believers 
 to  Christ,  Avhich  is  maintained  through 
 the  ministry  of  the  Avord  and  sacraments. 
 
 "  There  is  an  utter  and  hopeless  disagree- 
 ment, and  on  a  point  Avhich  involves  su- 
 preme government.  It  is  no  secondary 
 question,  but  one,  as  Dupin  reminds  us, 
 Avhich  includes  all  ecclesiastical  discipline. 
 
 And  yet,  Avhether  pope  is  superior  to  coun- 
 cil, or  the  rcA'erse  ;  and  whether  the  pope 
 enjoys  his  prerogatives  by  Divine  right, 
 or  ecclesiastical,  has  ncA^er  been  defined, 
 though  the  decision  is  above,  all  things  re- 
 quired.    In  the  Council  of  Trent,  Avhere 
 the  delivery  of  a  clear,  intelligible  doctrine 
 might  have  been  reasonably  expected,  there 
 Avas,  instead,  a  prohibition  of  all  discussion 
 on  the  subject.      It   is   not  even  settled 
 whether,  by  disagreement  on  the  question, 
 persons  incur  the  peril  of  heresy ;  Gerson 
 holds  the  affirmative,  and   Bossuet  sides 
 Avith  him,  Avhile  Duval  and  others  maintain 
 the  negative.     The  truth  is,  that  the  Ro- 
 man Church  has  authorized  tAvo  opposite 
 conclusions,  Avhich  have  been  enforced  as 
 the  one  party  or  the  other  prevailed.     It 
 is  not  the  mere  contention  of  private  doc- 
 tors, whose  judgment  might  on  either  side 
 be  disavoAA'ed,  but  it  is  the  Church  itself 
 which  speaks  inconsistently  by  its  synod- 
 ical  decisions.      It  has,  indeed,  been  de- 
 manded unreasonably,  and  sometimes  in- 
 cautiously alloAved,  that  no  statements  of 
 doctrine  should  be  attributed  to  the  Roman 
 Church  as  authoritative,  but  such  as  are 
 contained  in  the  decrees  of  the  Council  of 
 Trent,  in  the  creed  of  Pius  IV.,  and  in  the 
 catechism.    But  it  is  to  be  observed,  in  the 
 first  place,  that  the  decisions  of  the  council 
 a\"0Avedly  do  not  extend  beyond  such  points 
 as  had  been  brought  into  question  by  Pro- 
 testants, and,  at  the  same  time,  had  not 
 been   disputed    among    Romanists   them- 
 selves, for  it  Avas  expressly  enjoined  that 
 no  deffiiition  should  be  made  about  any 
 matter    controverted    among    '  Catholics ' 
 themselves.     The  creed  and  the  catechism 
 have  no  more  than  the  authority  of  the 
 individual  pope,  by  Avhom  they  were  pro- 
 mulgated.    It  is  true  that  this  office  Avas 
 remitted  to  the  bishop  of  Rome  by  the 
 members  of  the  council,  but  they  possessed 
 no  such  poAver  of  delegation.    They  might 
 have  adopted  any  decree  of  the  pope,  and 
 have  given  it  synodical  sanction  ;  but  their 
 consent  previous  to  the  consideration,  or 
 even  knoAvledge  of  its  contents,  could  not 
 afford  any  Aveight  additional  to  that  Avhich 
 the  pope  alone  could  give.     And,  in  the 
 next  place,  the  index  of  books,  the  cate- 
 chism, the  breviary,  and  the  missal,  possess 
 equal  authority,  for  they  are  enumerated 
 together  in  the  decree  passed  at  the  close 
 of  the   council ;   that  is,  they  possess  as 
 much  authority  as  the  decree  of  a  pope 
 could  give  them,  and  less  than  that  Avhich 
 belongs  to  the  decree  of  a  council  Avhich 
 has  papal  confirmation.     It  is  true  that,  in 
 the  last  of  the  articles  Avhich   Pius  IV. 
 added  to  the  creed  of  the  Church  Catholic. 
 
SUPREMACY,  PAPAL. 
 
 there  is  a  profession  of  adherence  to  the 
 decrees  of  general  councils ;  but  then  no 
 Romanist  can  tell  what  is  and  what  is  not 
 a  general  council.  It  depends  on  the 
 school  to  which  he  belongs,  and  on  wliich 
 side  of  the  mountains  he  hap]icns  to  live. 
 Some  so-called  general  coimcils,  as  Bcllar- 
 mine  tells  us,  are  received,  some  are  re- 
 jected, and  some  partly  approved  and 
 partly  reprobated  ;  which,  as  Leslie  says 
 truly,  *  is  going  through  all  the  degrees  of 
 uncertainty.'  The  chief  diihculty  arises 
 from  those  which  flatly  contradict  each 
 other,  and  which  yet,  from  indispensable 
 considerations,  the  Roman  Church  is 
 obliged  to  acknowledge ;  they  are  chiefly 
 such  as  pronounce  upon  this  question  of 
 the  supreme  authority.  At  Pisa,  and 
 Constance,  and  Basle,  the  superiority  of  a 
 council  was  distinctly  and  absolutely  af- 
 firmed ;  and  obedience  required  from  all 
 persons  of  whatever  dignity,  including  the 
 pope.  In  the  Council  of  Florence  it  was 
 decreed  that  the  pope,  as  the  successor  of 
 Peter,  and  as  the  vicar  of  Christ,  is  head 
 of  the  whole  church,  the  father  and  teacher 
 of  all  Christians,  and  that  plenary  power 
 from  Christ  was  given  him,  in  the  person 
 of  St.  Peter,  to  feed  the  universal  flock. 
 The  Lateran  Council  under  Leo  X.  de- 
 creed that  the  pope  has  full  authority  over 
 all  councils,  to  summon,  transfer,  and  dis- 
 solve them.  It  is  to  be  observed,  that 
 these  conflicting  decisions  of  great  Roman 
 councils  are  no  more  than  the  embodying 
 in  decrees  the  opposite  interpretations  of 
 that  text  which  forms  the  main  Scripture 
 authority  for  all  papal  assumptions.  No 
 Latin  council  is  to  be  compared  Avith  that 
 of  Constance  for  importance  or  dignity ; 
 and  by  its  acts,  accepted  and  confirmed 
 through  the  whole  "Western  Church,  it  re- 
 jected the  exposition  which  Romanists  are 
 now  trying  to  enforce.  M,  de  Maistre,  the 
 chief  papal  champion  in  the  present  cen- 
 tury, disposes  of  the  difficulty  in  a  very 
 characteristic  way.  "\Mien  pressed  with 
 the  Decrees  of  Constance,  he  says  that  the 
 answer  is  easy  :  the  council  talked  non- 
 sense, like  the  English  Long  Parliament,  or 
 the  Constituent  Assembly,  or  the  National 
 Convention,  c^-c. 
 
 "  Our  opponents  boast  that  their  Church 
 is  the  same  everywhere ;  but  we  cross  the 
 Alps,  and  find  the  whole  system  of  eccle- 
 siastical doctrine  changed.  The  very  term, 
 ultramontane,  which  is  universally  recog- 
 nised as  the  distinction  of  a  school,  l)ears 
 witness  that  diversities  have  not  only  sub- 
 sisted at  diflcrcnt  periods,  but  exist  at  the 
 same  time  in  diflcrcnt  places.  The  Galli-  | 
 can  Church  has,  doubtless,  been  the  strong- 
 3  B 
 
 SUUl'LICK. 
 
 :J7 
 
 hold  of  those  who  donv  the  ab-ohitc  powor 
 of  the  pope  ;  l)ut  tlu'y  have  had  their  ad- 
 vocates among  distinguislied  members  of 
 the  Roman  communion  in  all  countries. 
 Panormitan  represented  them  in  Italy, 
 Cardinal  de  Cusa  in  Germany,  and  in  Spain 
 Ali)honso  Tostato,  of  whom  Ik'llannine 
 says  that  he  was  the  wonder  of  tlie  world 
 for  his  learning.  Nay,  even  in  the  univer- 
 sity of  Paris,  and  among  the  doctors  of  the 
 Sorbonne,  we  find  the  contest  raging  with 
 the  utmost  violence,  and  the  great  teachers 
 in  vehement  antagonism.  Sometimes  we 
 see  the  rc])resentative  of  the  poju'  brought 
 into  collision  with  the  theological  ])rofeRs- 
 or;  as  when  llicher  maintained  the  pre- 
 valent o])inions  of  his  Church  against  Car- 
 dinal du  Perron,  who,  being  a  convert 
 from  1^-otestantism,  was,  of  course,  extra- 
 vagant on  the  other  side.  Then,  at  the 
 close  of  the  century,  we  have  Roccaberti, 
 archbishop  of  Valentia,  unsparing  in  his 
 condemnation  of  tlie  Gallicans,  aiul  calling 
 on  the  pope  to  put  them  down.  "Wliile 
 Bossuet,  on  the  other  hand,  atlirms  that 
 the  doctrine  which  he  maintained  had 
 always  been  held  in  the  Church  ;  though 
 he  does  not  attempt  to  prove  that  there  had 
 not  been  another  distinct  line  of  teaching." 
 
 SURCINGLE.  The  belt  by  which  the 
 cassock  is  fastened  round  the  waist. 
 
 SURETY.     (See  Sponsors.) 
 
 SURPLICE.  A  white  linen  garment, 
 worn  ])y  the  Christian  clergy  and  other 
 ministers  of  the  Church,  in  the  celebration 
 of  Divine  services,  and  also,  on  certain 
 days,  by  members  of  colleges,  whether 
 clerical  or  lay.  It  is,  in  Latin,  sii/jcrpe/ticeuni, 
 a  name  which  Cardinal  Bona  says  was  not 
 older  than  600  years  before  his  time,  (the 
 middle  of  the  seventeenth  century,)  and 
 was  so  called  from  the  white  garment 
 which  was  placed  by  ecclesiastics,  sii^m- 
 jyclles,  over  the  garments  of  dressed  skins 
 worn  by  the  northern  nations. 
 
 This  habit  seems  to  have  been  originally 
 copied  from  the  vestments  of  the  JcM-ish 
 priests,  avIio,  by  God's  own  apjiointnicnt, 
 were  to  put  on  a  white  linen  ephod  at  the 
 time  of  ])ublic  service.  And  its  antiquity 
 in  the  Christian  Church  may  l)e  seen  from 
 Gregory  Nazianzen,  who  advised  the  priests 
 to  purity,  because  a  little  sjmt  is  soon  seen 
 in  a  white  garment  ;  but  more  expressly 
 from  St.  Jerome,  who,  reprovin*?  the  need- 
 less scruples  of  such  as  oj)posea  the  use  of 
 it,  says,  "  what  oirence  can  it  be  to  GoD, 
 for  a  bishop  or  priest  to  jiroceed  to  the 
 communion  in  a  white  garment  ? "  The 
 ancients  called  this  gannent,  from  its  co- 
 lour, Alhu,  the  Alhc,  a  word  in  later  times 
 applied  to  a  surplice  with  close  sleeves. 
 
738 
 
 SURPLICE  DAYS. 
 
 SURROGATE. 
 
 The  surplice  is  white,  to  represent  the 
 innocence  and  righteousness  with  which 
 God's  ministers  ought  to  be  clothed.  As 
 for  the  shape  of  it,  it  is  a  thing  so  perfectly 
 indifferent,  that  no  reason  need  to  be  as- 
 signed for  it ;  though  Durandus  has  found 
 out  one  :  for  that  author  observes,  that,  as 
 the  garments  used  by  the  Jewish  priest- 
 hood were  girt  tight  about  them,  to  signify 
 the  bondage  of  the  law ;  so  the  looseness 
 of  the  surplices  used  by  the  Christian 
 priests  signifies  the  freedom  of  the  gospel. 
 
 It  is  objected  by  dissenters  fi'om  the 
 Church  of  England,  against  the  use  of  the 
 surplice,  that  it  is  a  rag  of  Popery,  and  has 
 been  abused  by  the  Papists  to  superstitious 
 and  idolatrous  uses.  But  this  is  no  just 
 objection  against  it ;  for,  if  the  surplice,  or 
 some  such  white  garment,  was  in  use  among 
 the  primitive  Christians,  the  Church  is 
 justified  in  following  their  example,  not- 
 withstanding the  abuses  thereof  by  those 
 of  the  Eomish  or  any  other  communion. 
 
 AVhether  tlie  surplice  should  be  worn  by 
 the  preacher  in  the  pulpit  is  a  question 
 which  has  given  rise,  of  late  years,  to  much 
 unprofitable  controversy.  On  the  side  of 
 wearing  the  surplice,  it  is  said  that  the 
 preacher  is  nowhere  in  the  Prayer  Book 
 directed  to  change  his  dress  ;  and  therefore 
 his  dress  should  be,  as  before  prescribed, 
 the  surplice.  On  the  other  hand  it  has 
 been  shown  that,  before  the  Peformation, 
 the  preachers  were  accustomed  to  wear 
 their  ordinary  diess  in  the  pulpit,  except 
 in  cathedrals  and  collegiate  churches,  which 
 custom  has  come  down  to  us ;  and  to 
 adhere  to  inherited  customs  is  to  act  on 
 the  catholic  principle.  On  these  facts  it 
 is  obvious  to  remark,  fii'st,  that  the  ultra- 
 Protestants  who  are  very  violent  against 
 the  use  of  the  surplice  by  the  preacher, — 
 are,  in  this  instance,  the  llomanizers  ;  and 
 secondly,  that  if  the  surplice  be  not  worn, 
 since  no  preacher's  di-ess  is  appointed  by 
 the  Church,  the  preacher  would  be  more 
 correct  who  should  appear  in  his  ordinary 
 costume.  But  those  who  are  wive  on 
 either  side,  will,  in  regard  to  a  thing  so 
 purely  indifferent,  follow  the  customs  of  the 
 place  in  which  they  are  called  to  officiate. 
 
 SUllPLICE  DAYS,  or  tvnes.  Accord- 
 ing to  the  ITtli  canon,  "all  masters  and 
 fellows  of  colleges  or  halls,  and  all  the 
 scholars  and  students  in  either  of  the  uni- 
 versities, shall  in  their  churches  and  cha- 
 pels, upon  all  Sundays,  holy-days,  and  their 
 eves,  f;t  the  time  of  Divine  service,  wear 
 surplices  according  to  the  order  of  the 
 Church  of  England  ;  and  such  as  are  gra- 
 duates, shall  agreeably  wear  with  their  sur- 
 plices such  hoods  as  do  severally  apper- 
 
 tain unto  their  degrees."  Saturday  evening, 
 it  is  to  be  observed,  as  the  eve  of  Sunday, 
 has  always  been  considered  as  comins: 
 within  this  rule.  The  colleges  in  the  uni- 
 versities of  Cambridge  and  Dublin  con- 
 strue this  rule  as  applying  to  all  their 
 members  ;  those  of  Oxford,  Christ  Church 
 excepted,  to  the  foundation  members  only; 
 and  there  noblemen  are  deprived  of  the 
 privilege  of  wearing  the  surplice.  By  the 
 2oth  canon,  the  use  of  the  surplice  is  pre- 
 scribed daily  to  the  dean,  masters,  heads 
 of  collegiate  churches,  canons,  and  prebend- 
 aries. The  short  surplice  adopted  in  the 
 Poman  Church  is  a  corruption,  as  Cardi- 
 nal Bona  confesses.  He  says  that  "  Ste- 
 phen of  Tonmay,  Avho  lived  A.  D.  1180, 
 shows  that  the  surplice  formerly  reached 
 to  the  feet;  and  so  likewise  "Honorius 
 de  Vestibus  Clericorum  :"  and  that  in  the 
 course  of  time  it  was  shortened,  as  it  ap- 
 pears from  the  Council  of  Basle,  sess.  21, 
 which  commanded  the  clergy  to  have  sur- 
 plices reaching  bciovv'^  the  middle  of  the 
 leg.  He  adds,  that  they  are  now  so  much 
 shortened  as  scarcely  to  reach  to  the  knee. 
 Hence  it  is  evident  that  the  Church  of 
 England  retains  the  correct  and  ancient 
 fashion. — Jebb. 
 
 SURROGATE.  Surrogate  is  one  who 
 is  substituted  or  appointed  in  the  room  of 
 another.  Thus  the  office  of  gi-anting 
 licences  for  marriage  in  lieu  of  banns,  being 
 in  the  bishop  of  the  diocese  by  his  chancel- 
 lor, the  inconvenience  of  a  journey  to  the 
 seat  of  episcopal  jurisdiction  is  obviated  by 
 the  appointment  of  clergymen  in  the  ])fin- 
 cipal  towns  of  the  diocese  as  surrogates, 
 with  the  pov>-er  of  granting  such  licences, 
 and  of  granting  probates  of  wills.  Sec. 
 
 By  canon  128,  "  No  chancellor,  commis- 
 sary, archdeacon,  official,  or  any  other  per- 
 son using  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction,  shall 
 substitute  in  their  absence  any  to  keep 
 court  for  them,  unless  he  be  either  a  grave 
 minister  and  a  graduate,  or  a  licensed  public 
 preacher,  and  a  beneficed  man  near  the 
 place  where  the  courts  are  kept,  or  a  ba- 
 chelor of  law,  or  a  master  of  arts  at  least, 
 who  hath  some  skill  in  the  civil  and  eccle- 
 siastical law,  and  is  a  favourer  of  true  re- 
 ligion, and  a  man  of  modest  and  honest 
 conversation ;  under  pain  of  suspension, 
 for  every  tim.e  that  they  offend  therein, 
 from  the  execution  of  their  offices  for  the 
 space  of  three  months  totics  qunties :  and 
 he  likewise  that  is  deputed,  being  not 
 qualified  as  is  before  expressed,  and  yet 
 shall  presume  to  be  a  substitute  to  any 
 judge,  and  shall  keep  any  court  as  afore- 
 said, shall  undergo  the  same  censure  in 
 manner  and  form  as  is  before  expressed." 
 
SURSUM  CORDA 
 
 srsrisXsiON. 
 
 And  by  the  statute  of  the  26  Geo.  II. 
 c.  83,  No  surrofj^ate,  deputed  by  any  ec- 
 clesiastical judge,  who  hath  power  to  *^rant 
 licences  of  marriage,  shall  grant  any  such 
 licence  before  he  hath  taken  an  oath  before 
 the  said  judge,  faithfully  to  execute  his 
 office  according  to  law,  to  the  best  of  his 
 knowledge  ;  and  halh  given  security  by 
 his  bond  in  the  sum  of  £100  to  tlie  bishop 
 of  the  diocese,  for  the  due  and  faithful 
 execution  of  his  office. 
 
 SURSUM  CORDA.  {Lift  up  your 
 hearts.)  Cyi)rian,  in  the  third  century, 
 attests  the  use  of  the  form  *'  Lift  up  your 
 hearts,"'  and  its  response,  in  the  liturgy  of 
 Africa.  Augustine,  at  the  beginning  of 
 the  fifth  century,  speaks  of  these  words  as 
 being  used  in  all  cluirches.  And  accord- 
 ingly we  find  them  placed  at  the  beginning 
 of  the  Anaphora,  or  canon,  (or  solemn 
 prayers,)  in  the  liturgies  of  Antioch  and 
 Ccesarea,  Constantinople  and  Rome,  Africa, 
 Gaul,  and  Spain.  How  long  these  intro- 
 ductory sentences  have  been  used  in 
 England  it  would  be  in  vain  to  inquire : 
 we  have  no  reason,  however,  to  doubt  that 
 they  are  as  old  as  Christianity  itself  in 
 these  countries.  The  Gallican  and  Italian 
 churches  used  them,  and  Christianity  with 
 its  liturgy  probably  came  to  the  British  isles 
 from  one  or  other  of  those  churches.  "We 
 may  be  certain,  at  all  events,  that  they 
 have  been  used  in  the  English  liturgy  ever 
 since  the  time  of  Augustine,  archbishop  of 
 Canterbmy,  in  o9o. 
 
 It  appears  that  these  sentences  were 
 preceded  by  a  salutation  or  benediction  in 
 the  ancient  liturgies.  According  to  Theo- 
 doret,  the  beginning  of  the  mystical 
 liturgy,  or  most  solemn  prayers,  was  that 
 apostolic  benediction,  "The  grace  of  our 
 Lord  Jesus  Christ,  and  the  love  of  God, 
 and  the  fellowship  of  the  Holy  Ghost, 
 be  with  you  all."  The  same  was  also  al- 
 luded to  by  Chrysostom,  when  he  was  a 
 presbyter  of  the  Church  of  Antioch.  'Wq 
 find  "that  this  benediction,  with  the  re- 
 sponse of  tlie  people,  "  And  with  thy 
 spiiit,"  has  all  along  ])rescrved  its  place  in 
 the  East ;  for  in  the  liturgies  of  Ca?sarea, 
 Constantinople,  Antioch,  and  Jerusalem, 
 it  is  uniformly  placed  at  the  beginning  of 
 the  Anaphora,  iv\ii\.  before  the  form,  "Lift 
 up  your  hearts."'  In  Egypt,  Africa,  and 
 Italy,  the  apostolic  benediction  was  not 
 used  at  this  place,  but  instead  of  it  the 
 priest  said,  "  The  Lord  be  with  you,"  and 
 the  people  replied,  "  and  with  thy  spirit." 
 In  Spain,  and  probably  Gaul,  as  now  in 
 England,  there  was  no  salutation  before 
 the  inti'oductory  sentences. 
 
 3  D  2 
 
 /  rtcst.  Lift  up  your  Sacerdos.       Suisuuj 
 
 hearts.  conlu. 
 
 yl/i«?rfr.Weliftthcm  Itrspons.    IIubimuH 
 
 up  unto  the  Loiin.  ml  Domiuum. 
 
 I'ricst.   Lot   us   give  Sannlox.       G  rut  ins 
 
 thanks  unto  our  Loiin  npainus    Domino    Deo 
 
 God.  nostro. 
 
 Ansirer.  It    is  meet  Ji't-sjums.  Dipnum  tt 
 
 and  right  so  to  do.  justuni  i-st. 
 
 Palmer. 
 
 SUSANNAH,   THE    HISTORY    OF. 
 
 An  a])ocryi)hal  l)ook  (or  rather  chajjlcr)  of 
 the  Rible,  containing  the  story  of  one 
 Susannah,  daugliter  of  Chclciasi  and  the 
 wife  of  Joacliim,  of  the  tribe  of  Judah, 
 who  lived  at  Bal)ylon,  being  carried  thither 
 captive  with  her  luisljand,  j)rohably  at  the 
 same  time  with  Daniel,  that  is,  in  the  vcar 
 of  the  world  o.JUB,  before  Christ  GOL 
 The  story  is  well  known,  being  allowed  to 
 be  read,  among  other  apocryphal  books, 
 for  the  instruction  of  manners. 
 
 This  history  makes  part  of  the  book  of 
 Daniel  in  the  Greek,  but  is  not  fotnnl  in 
 the  Hebrew.  Many  therefore  have  dis- 
 puted, not  only  the  canonicalness,  but  even 
 the  truth  of  it ;  imagining  it  to  be  no  more 
 than  a  pious  fable,  invented  as  an  ex- 
 ample of  a  chaste  and  loyal  wife.  Julius 
 Africanus  was  of  this  opinion  ;  and  St. 
 Jerome  in  some  places  censures  it  as  a 
 mere  fi\ble ;  though,  in  others,  he  tells  us 
 that  not  only  the  Greeks  and  Latins,  but 
 the  Syrians  and  Egyjitians  also,  received 
 and  admitted  it  as  Scripture.  Origen 
 wrote  expressly  in  defence  of  it.  The 
 Church  of  Rome  allows  it  to  be  of  equal 
 authoritv  with  the  Book  of  Daniel. 
 
 SUSPENSION.  In  the  laws  of  the 
 Church  we  read  of  two  sorts  of  suspen- 
 sion ;  one  relating  solely  to  the  clergy,  the 
 other  extending  also  to  the  laity.  That 
 which  relates  solely  to  the  clergy  is  sus- 
 ])ension  from  office  and  benefice  jointly,  or 
 from  office  or  benefice  singly  ;  and  may  be 
 called  a  temporary  degradation,  or  de- 
 privation of  botli.  And  the  penalty  upon 
 a  clergyman  officiating  after  suspension, 
 if  he  shall  persist  therein  after  a  reproof 
 from  the  l)ishop,  (by  the  ancient  canon 
 law.)  that  he  shall  be  excommunicated  all 
 manner  of  ways,  and  every  person  who 
 communicates  with  him  shall  be  excom- 
 municated also.  The  other  sort  of  sus- 
 iiension,  which  extends  also  to  the  laity, 
 is  susjK'nsion  ah  mr/ri'ssu  ecdcst'er,  or  from 
 the  hearing  of  Divine  service,  and  re- 
 ceiving the  holy  comnuniion;  which  may 
 therefore  be  called  a  temj>orary  excommu- 
 nicalion.  \\h:ch  two  sorts  of  f;us])ension, 
 the  one  relating  to  the  clerg)-  alone,  and 
 the  other  to  the  laity  also,  do  herein  agree, 
 that  both  are  inflicted  for  criraca  of  an 
 
740 
 
 SWEDENBORGIANS. 
 
 inferior  nature,  such  as  in  the  first  case 
 deserve  not  deprivation,  and  such  as  in 
 the  second  case  deserve  not  excommuni- 
 cation ;  that  both,  in  practice  at  least,  are 
 temporary  ;  both  also  terminate  either  at  a 
 certain  time,  when  inflicted  for  such  time, 
 or  upon  satisfaction  given  to  the  judge 
 when  inflicted  until  something  be  per- 
 formed which  he  has  enjoined  ;  and  lastly, 
 both  (if  unduly  performed)  are  attended 
 wdth  further  penalties  ;  that  of  the  clergy 
 with  irregularity,  if  they  act  in  the  mean 
 time ;  and  that  of  the  laity  (as  it  seems) 
 with  excommunication,  if  they  either  pre- 
 sume to  join  in  conmiunion  during  their 
 suspension,  or  do  not  in  due  time  perform 
 those  things  which  the  suspension  was 
 intended  to  enforce  the  performance  of. 
 
 SAVEDENBORGIANS.  This  body  of 
 Christians  claims  to  possess  an  entirely 
 new  dispensation  of  doctrinal  truth  de- 
 rived from  the  theological  writings  of 
 Emanuel  Swedenborg ;  and,  as  the  name 
 imports,  they  refuse  to  be  numbered  with 
 the  sects  of  which  the  general  body  of 
 Christendom  is  at  present  composed. 
 
 Emanuel  Baron  Swedenborg  was  born 
 at  Stockholm  in  1688,  and  died  in  London 
 in  1772.  He  was  a  person  of  great  intel- 
 lectual attainments,  a  member  of  several 
 of  the  learned  societies  of  Europe,  and  the 
 author  of  very  voluminous  philosophical 
 treatises.  In  1745  he  separated  himself 
 from  all  secular  pursuits,  relinquished 
 his  official  labours  in  the  Swedish  State, 
 and  commenced  the  career  which  led  to  a 
 religious  movement.  In  that  year,  and 
 thenceforth,  he  w\^s  favoured,  he  reports, 
 wdth  continual  communications  from  the 
 spiritual  world,  being  oftentimes  admitted 
 into  heaven  itself,  and  there  indulged  with 
 splendid  visions  of  angelic  glory  and  felicity. 
 The  power  was  given  him  to  converse  wdth 
 these  celestial  residents ;  and  from  their 
 revelations,  sometimes  made  directly  to 
 himself  and  sometimes  gathered  by  him 
 from  the  course  of  their  deliberations,  he 
 obtained  the  most  important  of  his  doc- 
 trines. His  OAvn  account  of  the  matter  is 
 thus  stated  in  a  letter  to  a  friend : — "  I 
 have  been  called  to  a  holy  office  by  the 
 Lord  himself,  who  most  graciously  mani- 
 fested himself  before  me,  his  servant,  in 
 the  year  174-3,  and  then  opened  my  sight 
 into  the  spiritual  world,  and  gave  me  to 
 speak  with  spirits  and  angels,  as  I  do  even 
 to  this  day.  From  that  time  I  began  to 
 publish  the  many  arcana  which  I  have 
 either  seen,  or  which  have  been  revealed 
 to  me,  concerning  heaven  and  hell,  con- 
 cerning the  state  of  man  after  death,  con- 
 cerning true  Divine  worship,  and  concern- 
 
 ing the  spiritual  sense  of  the  Word,  besides 
 other  things  of  the  highest  importance, 
 conducive  to  salvation  and  wisdom." 
 
 The  general  result  of  these  communica- 
 tions was  to  convince  the  baron  that  the 
 sacred  writings  have  two  senses — one  their 
 natural,  the  other  their  spiritual,  sense  ;  the 
 latter  of  which  it  was  his  high  commission 
 to  unfold.  The  natural  sense  is  that  which 
 is  alone  received  by  other  Christian 
 churches — the  words  of  Scripture  being 
 understood  to  have  the  same  signification 
 (and  no  other)  which  they  bear  in  ordinary 
 human  intercourse ;  the  spiritual  sense  is 
 that  which,  in  the  judgment  of  the  New 
 Church,  is  concealed  within  the  natural 
 sense  of  these  same  words,  each  word  or 
 phrase  possessing,  in  addition  to  its  ordi- 
 nary meaning,  an  interior  significance  cor- 
 responding with  some  spiritual  truth. 
 
 The  principal  tenets  he  deduced  from 
 this  interior  meaning  of  the  Holy  Word, 
 and  which  his  followers  still  "maintain,  are 
 these:  That  the  last  judgment  has  al- 
 ready been  accomplished  (viz.  in  1757)  ; 
 that  the  former  "  heaven  and  earth  "  are 
 passed  away ;  that  the  "  New  Jerusalem," 
 mentioned  in  the  Apocalypse,  has  already 
 descended,  in  the  form  of  the  "  New 
 Church;"  and,  that,  consequently,  the  se- 
 cond advent  of  the  Lord  has  even  now 
 been  realized,  in  a  spiritual  sense,  by  the 
 exhibition  of  his  power  and  glory  in  the 
 New  Church  thus  established. 
 
 The  usual  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  is  not 
 received ;  the  belief  of  the  New  Church 
 being,  "  that  the  Father,  Son,  and  Holy 
 Spirit  are  one  in  the  person  of  our  Lord 
 Jesus  Christ,  comparatively  as  soul,  body, 
 and  proceeding  operation  are  one  in  every 
 individual  man." 
 
 The  New  Church  also  rejects  the  doc- 
 trine of  justification  by  faith  alone,  and 
 the  imputed  righteousness  of  Christ:  sal- 
 vation, it  inculcates,  cannot  be  obtained 
 except  by  the  combination  of  good  Avorks 
 with  faith.  "  To  fear  God,  and  to  work 
 righteousness,  is  to  have  charity ;  and 
 whoever  has  charity,  whatever  his  religious 
 sentiments  may  be,  will  be  saved." 
 
 The  resurrection,  it  is  believed,  will  not 
 be  that  of  the  material  body,  but  of  a  spi- 
 ritual body  ;  and  this  will  not  immediately 
 pass  into  a  final  state  of  being,  but  be  sub- 
 ject to  a  kind  of  purgatory,  where  those 
 who  are  interiorly  good  will  receive  truth 
 corresponding  with  their  state  of  goodness, 
 and  thus  be  fitted  for  heaven  ;  while  those 
 who  are  interiorly  evil  will  reject  all  truth, 
 and  thus  be  among  the  lost. 
 
 The  sacraments  of  baptism  and  the 
 Lord's    supper    are  administered    in    the 
 
SYMBOL. 
 
 SYNOD. 
 
 711 
 
 New  Church.  The  former  is  believed  to 
 be  "a  sign  and  a  mcdivim,  attended  with  a 
 Divine  influence  of  introduction  into  the 
 Lord's  Church  ;  and  it  means  tliat  the  Lord 
 will  jnirify  our  minds  from  wicked  desires 
 and  bad  thoughts,  if  we  are  obedient  to 
 his  holy  word."  The  latter  is  believed  to 
 be  "  a  sign  and  a  medium,  attended  with  a 
 Divine  influence,  for  introducing  the  l.ord's 
 true  children,  as  to  their  sjjirits.  into  heaven  ; 
 and  it  means  that  the  Lord  feeds  their  souls 
 with  his  Divine  goodness  and  truth." 
 
 The  mode  of  worship  adopted  by  the 
 followers  of  Swedenborg  resembles  in  its 
 general  form  that  of  most  other  Christian 
 bodies  ;  the  distribution  of  subjects  in  their 
 liturgy,  and  the  composition  of  their 
 hymns  and  prayers,  being,  of  course,  spe- 
 cial ;  but  no  particular  form  is  considered 
 to  be  binding  on  each  society. 
 
 The  general  affairs  of  the  New  Church 
 (which  is  the  name  assumed  by  the  Sweden- 
 borgian  sect)  are  managed  by  a  conference, 
 which  meets  yearly,  composed  of  ministers 
 and  laymen  in  conjunction  ;  the  proportion 
 of  the  latter  being  determined  by  the  size 
 of  the  respective  congregations  which  they 
 represent :  a  society  of  from  12  to  oO  mem- 
 bers sending  one  representative,  and  socie- 
 ties of  from  50  to  100  members,  and  those 
 of  upwards  100  members,  sending  each 
 two  and  three  representatives  respectively. 
 There  is  nothing,  however,  in  Sweden- 
 borg's  writings  to  sanction  any  ])articular 
 form  of  Church  government. — llcyistrar- 
 generaVs  Report. 
 
 SYMBOL,  or  SYMBOLUM.  A  title 
 anciently  given  to  the  Apostles'  Creed, 
 and  for  which  several  reasons  have  been 
 assigned.  Two  of  these  have  an  appear- 
 ance of  probability,  viz.  that  (1.)  which 
 derives  it  from  a  Greek  word,  signifying  a 
 throwing  or  casting  together,  and  alleges 
 that  the  apostles  each  contributed  an 
 article  to  form  the  creed,  forming  their 
 joint  opinion  or  counsel  in  an  al)ridged 
 form;  and  (2.)  the  opinion  that  this  creed 
 was  used  in  times  of  persecution  as  a 
 watchword  or  mark  whereby  Christians 
 (like  soldiers  in  the  army)  were  distin- 
 guished from  all  others.  This  latter  is 
 the  sense  given  in  the  short  catechism  of 
 Edward  VL,  15o2,  where  we  read,  "3/. 
 AVhy  is  this  abridgment  of  the  faith  termed 
 a  sijinhol .''  S.  A  symbol  is,  as  much  as  to 
 say,  a  sign,  mark,  ])rivy  token,  or  watch- 
 word, whereby  the  soldiers  of  the  same 
 camp  are  known  from  their  enemies.  For 
 this  reason  the  al)ridgment  of  the  faith, 
 whereby  the  Christians  are  known  from 
 them  that  are  no  Christians,  is  rightly 
 named  a  symbol." 
 
 The  trrm  symbol,  importing  an  uniblem 
 or  sensible  representation,  is  also  applii-d 
 in  the  holy  eucharist  to  the  sacnd  de- 
 ments, which  there  set  forth  the  bodv  and 
 blood  of  ("uiusT.     (Si«c  also  E mhlnii .) 
 
 S\MP110XY.  In  music,  an  instru- 
 mental conij)osition  in  the  fonn  of  an  over- 
 ture, lVc.  The  term  is  ijojiularly  ai)plii'd 
 to  short  introductory  movements  on  the 
 organ,  before  anthems  and  other  j)irci's; 
 also  to  any  jjortion  i)erfonni(l  by  the  in- 
 strument without  the  voices,  including 
 preludes,  interludes,  and  j)Ost hides,  i.  c. 
 strains  before,  in  the  uiidsf,  and  at  the  end 
 of  psalmody,  and  other  church  music. 
 
 The  word  suniphunea  occurs  in  Daniel  iii. 
 o,  7,  10,  \o;  being  evidently  the  (ireek 
 word  rrv^fpuji'ln,  Written  in  Hebrew  or  Chal- 
 dee  letters,  like  other  words  in  the  same 
 sentence,  as  Kaitheros,  KiOnpa,  (iuu-p,)  sal)- 
 beca,  rif^ii^rKt],  (sacbut,)  j)santerin,  xl/uXrij- 
 pwv,  (jisalfcr}-,)  and  which  do  not  occur  in 
 the  older  Hebrew  Scrij)lures,  It  is  trans- 
 lated in  our  liible  (/u/rinur.  Ilardouin 
 (in  his  note  on  Plinii  Hist.  Nat.  ix.  §  8) 
 considers  it  to  mean  a  musical  instrument. 
 But  the  majority  of  scholars,  and  of  class- 
 ical authorities,  give  as  its  meaning,  a  con- 
 cert or  combination  of  voices  or  instru- 
 ments. 
 
 SYNOD.  This  is  a  meeting  of  ecclesi- 
 astical ])ersons  for  the  puriroses  of  religion, 
 and  it  comjjrehends  the  provincial  synods 
 of  every  metroj)olitan,  aiul  the  diocesan 
 of  every  bishop  within  their  limits.  And 
 these  are  not  of  the  same  authority  as 
 general  councils,  nor  do  their  canons  oblige 
 the  whole  Christian  Church,  but  only  that 
 nation,  province,  or  diocese  where  they 
 were  made ;  but  if  such  canons  are  agree- 
 able with  the  Scrijjtures.  and  confirmed  by 
 general  councils,  they  are  in  force  every- 
 where. The  most  famous  synods  have 
 been  held  in  Africa,  Britain.  Lrance.  Ger- 
 many, Italy,  Spain.  It  would  make  a  very 
 large  volume  to  treat  particularly  of  those 
 synods  which  have  been  hi'ld  in  each  of 
 those  places,  therefore  we  will  refer  to  those 
 which  were  assembled  here  in  Britain  ;  and 
 as  to  that  matter,  we  find  that  a  synod  was 
 held  here  at  Winchester,  in  the  time  of 
 King  Kdgar.  in  which  Archi)ishoj)  Dunstan 
 was  president.  In  this  synod  the  nuirriage 
 of  the  clergy  was  j)rohil)iled.  There  was 
 another  held  at  Oxford,  wherein  Arch- 
 l)isJiop  Langton  was  president,  who  divided 
 the  Bible  into  c]uii)lers ;  and  in  this  synod 
 many  constitutions  were  made  for  the  bet- 
 ter government  of  the  church.  Another 
 at  Clarendon,  under  Archbishop  Becket, 
 in  the  reign  of  Henry  II.,  in  which  some 
 decrees  were  made  concerning  the  prcroga- 
 
742 
 
 SYNOD. 
 
 SYNODALS. 
 
 tives  mf  the  Crown  and  the  privileges  of 
 the  clergy.  Two  in  the  reign  of  Edward 
 VI.  And  here  we  may  notice  that  pro- 
 vincial synods  were  to  be  held  twice  in 
 every  year  ;  this  appears  by  the  apostolical 
 canons,  and  likewise  by  those  made  in  the 
 Council  of  Nice.  But  this  being  found  too 
 hard  a  task  for  bishops,  (who  were  usually 
 men  in  years,)  especially  where  the  pro- 
 vinces were  large,  it  was  disused  about  the 
 middle  of  the  fifth  century :  so  that  some 
 canons  were  made  for  synods  to  be  held 
 once  in  a  year,  but  not  abrogating  the 
 ancient  custom  to  hold  them  oftener ;  and 
 this  continued  for  many  ages  :  but  at  last 
 this  came  in  like  manner  to  be  neglected, 
 and  thereupon,  about  the  middle  of  the 
 fourteenth  century,  another  canon  was 
 made  in  the  Council  of  Basil,  for  a  trien- 
 nial synod  of  all  the  bishops  of  every  pro- 
 vince ;  and  in  the  same  council  there  was 
 another  canon  for  every  bishop  to  hold  a 
 diocesan  synod  once  in  a  year.  And  even 
 here  in  Britain,  by  the  ancient  constitution 
 of  this  Church,  a  synod  was  to  be  held 
 once  a  year,  which  is  now  discontinued, 
 and  thus  the  authority  of  examining  things 
 through  the  province  devolved  on  the 
 archdeacon.  In  a  diocesan  synod  the  bi- 
 shop always  presided,  and  he  usually  sum- 
 moned septem  e  pkbe  in  every  parish  in  his 
 diocese,  to  whom  he  administered  an  oath 
 to  inquire  into  the  state  and  condition  of 
 each  parish  relating  to  ecclesiastical  af- 
 fairs, which  were  called  testes  si/uodales, 
 and  these  men  made  their  presentments  in 
 writing,  or  vim  voce  in  the  synod.  (See 
 Coi'.nciis.) 
 
 The  form  of  holding  these  diocesan  sy- 
 nods was  as  follows : — The  clergy,  in  solemn 
 procession,  came  to  the  church  assigned, 
 at  the  time  appointed  by  the  bishop,  and 
 seated  themselves  according  to  the  priority 
 of  their  ordinations.  Then  the  deacons 
 and  laity  were  admitted.  The  bishop,  or 
 in  his  alDsence  the  vicar,  when  the  office 
 for  the  occasion  was  over,  made  a  solemn 
 exhortation  to  the  audience.  Then  a  ser- 
 mon was  preached  ;  after  wdiich,  if  the 
 clergy  had  any  complaints  to  make,  or  any- 
 thing else  to  offer,  they  were  heard  by  the 
 synod.  The  complaints  of  the  clergy  being 
 over,  the  laity  made  theirs.  Then  the 
 bishop  proposed  his  diocesan  constitutions 
 to  them.  After  which,  if  nothing  remain- 
 ed to  be  done,  he  made  a  synodical  ex- 
 hortation, by  way  of  injunction,  to  the 
 clergy ;  and  all  concluded  with  solemn 
 prayers  suited  to  the  business.  The  form 
 at  the  conclusion  of  the  first  day,  called 
 Betiedictio  priincp.  diet,  was  this  :  "Qui  dis- 
 persos  Israel  congregat,  ipse  vos  hie  et 
 
 ubique  custodiat.  Amen.  Et  non  solum 
 vos  custodiat,  sed  ovium  suarum  custodes 
 idoneos  efficiat.  Amen.  Ut  cum  summo 
 pastore  Christo  de  gregum  suarum  pas- 
 tione  gaudeat^s  in  coelo.  Amen.  Quod 
 ipse  parare  dignetur,"  &c.  The  benedic- 
 tions of  the  other  days  were  much  to  the 
 same  purpose. 
 
 The  common  time  allowed  for  despatch- 
 ing the  business  of  these  synods  was  three 
 days ;  and  a  rubric  was  settled,  to  direct 
 the  proceedings  in  each  of  them.  But,  if 
 the  business  could  be  despatched  in  a 
 shorter  time,  the  assembly  continued  no 
 longer  than  was  necessary. 
 
 The  first  thing  done  in  these  diocesan 
 synods,  was  the  bishop's  making  his  synod- 
 ical inquiries,  of  which  the  ancient  forms 
 are  still  extant.  Next,  the  synodical  causes 
 were  heard.  Then  the  bishop  reported  to 
 his  clergy  Avhat  had  been  decreed  in  large 
 provincial  synods.  And,  lastly,  he  pub- 
 lished his  own  diocesan  constitutions,  Avhich 
 being  read,  and  agreed  to  by  the  synod, 
 were  from  that  time  in  force  within  the 
 diocese,  provided  they  were  not  contrary 
 to  the  decrees  of  some  superior  council  of 
 the  province.  Of  these  we  have  several 
 collections  published  in  the  volumes  of  the 
 English  councils,  and  many  more  are  still 
 remaining  in  the  bishops'  registers. 
 
 These  diocesan  synods  were  continued 
 in  England  till  the  reign  of  Henry  VIIL, 
 that  is,  till  the  commencement  of  the  Re- 
 formation. 
 
 Provincial  synods  are  still  held  pro  forma 
 in  Ireland,  by  the  archbishop  of  Dublin,  as 
 they  were  by  his  predecessor,  at  the  trien- 
 nial visitations  of  his  province.  The  con- 
 stituent number  are  the  same  as  for  con- 
 vocations, being  the  bishops  of  the  province, 
 deans,  archdeacons,  capitular  and  other 
 proctors,  &c.  But  the  synods  have  no 
 power  to  make  canons. 
 
 SYNODALS  and  SYNOD ATICUM,  by 
 the  name,  have  a  plain  relation  to  the 
 holding  of  synods  ;  but  there  being  no 
 reason  why  the  clergy  should  pay  for  their 
 attending  the  bishop  in  synod,  pursuant 
 to  his  own  citation,  nor  any  footsteps  to 
 be  found  of  such  a  payment  by  reason  of 
 the  holding  of  synods,  the  name  is  sup- 
 posed to  have  grown  from  this  duty  beiug 
 usually  paid  by  the  clergy  when  they 
 came  to  the  synod.  And  this  in  all  pro- 
 bability is  the  same  which  was  anciently 
 called  cafhedraficiim,  as  paid  by  the  pa- 
 rochial clergy  in  honour  to  the  episcopal 
 chair,  and  in  token  of  subjection  and  obe- 
 dience thereto.  So  it  stands  in  the  body 
 of  the  canon  law,  "No  bishop  shall  de- 
 mand anything  of  the  churches  but  the 
 
TALEKNACLE. 
 
 honour  of  the  cathedraticum,  that  is,  two 
 shillings"  (at  the  most,  saith  the  Gloss, 
 for  sometimes  less  is  given).  And  the 
 duty  which  we  call  synodals  is  generally 
 such  a  small  i)ayment,  uhich  payment  was 
 reserved  by  the  bisho])  upon  settling  the 
 revenues  of  the  respective  churches  on  the 
 incumbents ;  whereas  before  those  reve- 
 nues were  paid  to  the  bishop,  who  had  a 
 right  to  part  of  them  for  his  own  use,  and 
 a  right  to  apply  and  distribute  the  rest  to 
 such  uses  and  in  such  pro})ortions  as  the 
 laws  of  the  Church  directed. —  Gibson. 
 
 Synodals  are  due  of  common  right  to 
 the  bishop  only,  so  that,  if  they  be  claimed 
 or  demanded  by  the  archdeacon,  or  dean 
 and  chapter,  or  any  other  i)erson  or  per- 
 sons, it  must  be  on  the  foot  of  composition 
 or  prescription. — Id. 
 
 And  if  they  be  denied  where  due,  they 
 are  recoverable  in  the  spiritual  court. 
 And,  in  the  time  of  Archbishop  Whitgift, 
 they  were  declared  upon  a  full  hearing  to 
 be  spiritual  profits,  and  as  such  to  belong 
 to  the  keeper  of  the  spiritual  see  vacant. 
 — Id. 
 
 Constitutions  made  in  the  provincial  or 
 diocesan  synods  were  also  sometimes  called 
 synodals,  and  were  in  many  cases  required 
 to  be  published  in  the  parish  churches :  in 
 this  sense  the  word  frequently  occurs  in 
 the  ancient  directories. 
 
 TABERXACLE.  Among  the  Hebrews, 
 a  kind  of  building,  in  the  form  of  a  tent, 
 set  up  by  the  express  command  of  God, 
 for  the  performance  of  religious  worship, 
 sacrifices,  &rc.     (Exod.  xxvi.,  xxvil.) 
 
 TABERNACLES,  FEAST  OF.  A 
 solemn  festival  of  the  Hebrews,  observed 
 after  harvest,  on  the  fifteenth  day  of  the 
 month  Tisri,  instituted  to  commemorate 
 the  goodness  of  GoD,  who  protected  the 
 Israelites  in  the  wilderness,  and  made  them 
 dwell  in  booths  when  they  came  out  of 
 Egypt.  The  pj/x,  or  box  in  which  the  re- 
 served host  is  ])laccd  on  Romish  altars,  is 
 called  in  the  Missal  the  Tabernacle. 
 
 TALMUD.  (Signifying  doctrine.)  A 
 collection  of  the  doctrines  of  the  religion 
 and  morality  of  the  Jews.  It  consists  of 
 two  parts  :  1.  The  3Ii^na,  or  text ;  literally 
 repetition  :  that  is,  a  repetition  or  supple- 
 ment to  the  ])ivine  law;  which  they  jire- 
 tend  was  delivered  to  Moses  on  the  mount,  i 
 and  transmitted  from  him  to  the  members  j 
 of  the  Sanhedrim.  2.  The  d'emnra,  (per- 
 fection, or  completion,)  which  is  the  com- 
 mentary. The  origin  of  this  work  is  as 
 follows  : — 
 
 Judah  the  Holy  had  no  sooner  com- 
 pleted the  3Iima,'  but  one  Rabbi  Chiia, 
 
 TALMUD. 
 
 743 
 
 jealous  of  his  glory,  ptiblislud  quite  con- 
 trary traditions;  a  collection  of  which  was 
 niade  under  the  title  of  Krtrarof/nnfs,  and 
 inserted  with  the  3Iisnn,  in  order  to  com- 
 pose one  and  the  same  bodv  of  law. 
 
 Notwithstanding  that  'the  collection 
 made  by  Judah  seemed  to  be  a  complete 
 work,  yet  two  considerable  faidts  were 
 observed  in  it :  one,  that  it  was  very  con- 
 fused, the  author  having  reported  the 
 opinions  of  dillerent  doctors,  without 
 naming  them,  and  determining  which  of 
 these  o])inions  deserved  the  preference : 
 the  other,  (which  rendered  this  body  of 
 canon  law  almost  useless,)  that  it  was 
 too  short,  and  resolved  but  a  small  part  of 
 the  doubtful  cases  and  questions  that 
 began  to  lie  agitated  among  the  Jewsv 
 
 To  remedy  these  inconveniences,  j^ 
 chanan,  witli  the  assistance  of  Rab  and 
 Samuel,  two  disciples  of  Judah  the  Holy, 
 wrote  a  commentary  uj^on  their  master's 
 work.  This  is  called  the  Talmud  of  Jeru- 
 salem ;  either  because  it  was  comj)osed  in 
 Judea,  for  the  use  of  the  Jews  that  re- 
 mained in  that  country,  or  because  it  was 
 written  in  the  common  language  spoken 
 there.  The  Jews  are  not  agreed  about 
 the  time  that  this  part  of  the  G'cniara, 
 which  signifies  Perfection,  was  made. 
 Some  believe  it  was  two  hundred  years 
 after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  ;  others 
 reckon  but  a  hundred  and  fifty ;  and 
 maintain  that  Rab  and  Samuel,  quitting 
 Judea,  went  to  Babylon,  in  the  two  hun- 
 dred and  nineteenth  year  of  the  Christian 
 a^ra.  However,  these  are  the  heads  of 
 the  second  order  of  doctors,  called  Gemar- 
 ists,  because  they  composed  the  Gemara. 
 (See  Gemara.) 
 
 There  was  also  a  defect  in  the  Jeru- 
 salem Talmud,  for  it  contained  the  opinions 
 of  but  a  small  number  of  doctors.  For 
 this  reason  the  Gemarists,  or  comment- 
 ators, began  a  new  ex])lication  of  the 
 traditions.  Rabbi  Asa,  who  kcjjt  a  school 
 at  Sora,  near  Babylon,  wiiere  he  taught 
 forty  years,  produced  a  commentary  unon 
 Judah's  Misna.  He  did  not  finish  it ;  but 
 his  sons  and  scholars  put  the  last  hand  to 
 it.  This  is  called  the  Gemara,  or  Talmud, 
 of  Babylon,  which  is  preferred  before  that 
 of  Jerusalem.  It  is  a  very  large  collection, 
 containing  the  traditions,  the  canon  law  of 
 the  Jews,  and  all  the  questions  relating  to 
 the  Law. 
 
 In  these  two  Talmuds  is  contained  the 
 whole  of  the  Jewish  religion  as  it  is  now 
 possessed  by  that  people,  who  esteem  it 
 equal  with  the  law  of  GoD.  Some  Cliris- 
 tians  set  a  great  value  upon  it,  whilst 
 others  condenm   it  as  a  detestable  book, 
 
744 
 
 TARGUM. 
 
 and  full  of  blasjihemies  ;  but  a  third  sort 
 observe  a  just  medium  between  these  op- 
 posite opinions. 
 
 Though  the  Talmud  was  received  with 
 general  applause  by  the  Jews,  yet  there 
 started  up  a  new  order  of  doctors,  who 
 shook  its  authority  by  their  doubts.  These 
 were  called  Sebarim,  or  opiniative  doctors, 
 and  were  looked  upon  by  the  Jews  as  so 
 many  sceptics,  because  they  disputed  with- 
 out coming  to  a  determination  upon  any- 
 thing. 
 
 TARGUM.  So  the  Jews  call  the  Chal- 
 dee  paraphrases,  or  expositions,  of  the 
 Old  Testament  in  the  Chaldee  language  ; 
 for  the  Jewish  doctors,  in  order  to  make 
 the  people  understand  the  text  of  the 
 Holy  Scripture,  (after  the  captivity,)  which 
 was  read  in  Hebrew  in  their  synagogues, 
 were  forced  to  explain  the  laAV  to  them  in 
 a  language  they  understood  ;  and  this  was 
 the  Chaldean,  or  that  used  in  Assp-ia. 
 
 The  Targums  that  are  now  remaining 
 w^ere  composed  by  different  persons,  upon 
 different  parts  of  Scrijiture,  and  are  in 
 number  eight. 
 
 1.  The  Targum  of  Onkelos  upon  the 
 five  books  of  Moses. 
 
 2.  The  Targum  of  Jonathan  Ben  Uzziel, 
 upon  the  Prophets,  that  is,  upon  Joshua, 
 Judges,  the  two  Books  of  Samuel,  the  two 
 Books  of  Kings,  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel, 
 and  the  twelve  Minor  Prophets. 
 
 3.  The  Targum  ascribed  to  Jonathan 
 Ben  Uzziel,  upon  the  Law. 
 
 4.  The  Jerusalem  Targum,  upon  the 
 Law. 
 
 5.  The  Targum  on  the  five  lesser  books, 
 called  the  Megilloth,  that  is,  Kuth,  Esther, 
 Ecclesiastes,  the  Song  of  Solomon,  and  the 
 Lamentations  of  Jeremiah. 
 
 6.  The  second  Targvmi  upon  Esther. 
 
 7.  The  Targum  of  Joseph  the  Blind, 
 upon  the  Book  of  Job,  the  Psalms,  and  the 
 Proverbs. 
 
 8.  The  Targum  upon  the  First  and  Se- 
 cond Books  of  Chronicles. 
 
 Upon  Ezra,  Nehemiah,  and  Daniel,  there 
 is  no  Targum  at  all.  Indeed,  a  great  part 
 of  Daniel  and  Ezra  is  written  originally  in 
 Chaldee  ;  and  therefore  there  was  no  need 
 of  a  Chaldee  paraphrase  upon  them :  but 
 Nehemiah  is  written  Avholly  in  the  Hebrew 
 tongue,  and  no  doubt  anciently  there  were 
 Chaldee  paraphrases  upon  all  the  Hebrew 
 parts  of  those  books,  though  they  are  now 
 lost. 
 
 The  Targum  of  Onkelos  is,  without 
 doubt,  the  most  ancient  that  is  now  extant. 
 He  was  certainly  older  than  Jonathan  Ben 
 Uzziel,  the  author  of  the  second  Targum, 
 who  is  supposed  to  have  lived  in  our  Sa- 
 
 Yiom's  time,  and  who  could  have  no  rea- 
 son to  omit  the  LaAv  in  his  paraphrase,  but 
 that  he  found  Onkelos  had  done  this  work 
 with  success  before  him.  No  Chaldee 
 writing,  now  extant,  comes  nearer  the 
 style  of  what  is  Avritten  in  that  language 
 by  Daniel  and  Ezra,  than  the  Targum  of 
 Onkelos,  which  is  a  good  argument  for  its 
 antiquity.  It  is  rather  a  version  than  a 
 paraphrase ;  for  the  Hebrew  text  is  render- 
 ed word  for  word,  and  for  the  most  part 
 with  great  exactness. 
 
 The  Targum  of  Jonathan  Ben  Uzziel, 
 upon  the  Prophets,  is  next  to  that  of 
 Onkelos  in  the  purity  of  its  style,  but  not 
 in  the  manner  of  its  composure ;  for  Jo- 
 nathan takes  the  liberty  of  a  paraphrast,  by 
 enlarging  and  adding  to  the  text,  and  by 
 inserting  several  stories  and  glosses  of  his 
 own,  which  are  no  reputation  to  the  work. 
 The  Jews  not  only  give  him  the  preference 
 to  all  the  disciples  of  Hillel,  but  equal  him 
 even  to  Moses  himself. 
 
 The  Targum  ascribed  to  Jonathan  Ben 
 Uzziel,  upon  the  Law,  is  none  of  his,  as 
 appears  by  the  style.  Who  was  the  true 
 author  of  it,  or  when  it  was  composed,  is 
 utterly  unknown.  It  seems  to  have  lain 
 long  in  obscurity  among  the  Jews  them- 
 selves ;  for  no  notice  was  taken  of  it  till 
 it  was  published  at  Venice,  about  a  hun- 
 dred and  fifty  years  since  ;  and  the  name 
 of  Jonathan,  it  is  probable,  was  jirefixed  to 
 it  for  no  other  reason  than  to  give  it  the 
 more  credit,  and  the  better  to  recommend 
 it  by  that  specious  title. 
 
 The  Jerusalem  Targum,  upon  the  Law, 
 was  so  called,  because  it  was  written  in 
 the  Jerusalem  dialect.  There  Avere  three 
 dialects  of  the  Chaldean  language.  The 
 first  was  spoken  in  Babylon,  the  metropohs 
 of  the  Assyrian  empire.  The  second  was 
 the  Commagenian,  or  Antiochian,  being 
 that  spoken  in  Commagena,  Antioch,  and 
 the  rest  of  Syria.  The  third  was  the  Je- 
 rusalem dialect,  Avhich  was  spoken  by  the 
 Jews  after  the  captivity.  The  Babylonian 
 and  Jerusalem  dialects  were  written  in 
 the  same  character ;  but  the  Antiochian 
 Avas  in  a  different,  and  is  the  same  with 
 Avhat  Ave  call  the  Syriac.  The  purest  style 
 of  the  Jerusalem  dialect  is,  first,  in  the 
 Targum  of  Onkelos,  and  next,  in  that 
 of  Jonathan  ;  but  the  Jerusalem  Targum 
 is  Avritten  in  a  most  barbarous  style,  inter- 
 mixed Avith  a  great  many  foreign  Avords, 
 taken  from  the  Greek,  Latin,  and  Persian 
 languages.  This  Targum  is  not  a  con- 
 tinued paraphrase,  but  only  upon  some 
 parts  here  and  there,  as  the  author  thought 
 the  text  most  AA'anted  an  explication  ;  and 
 sometimes  Avhole  chapters  are  omitted.    It 
 
TE  DEUM  LAUDAMUS. 
 
 ■was  written  by  an  unknown  hand,  and  pro- 
 bably some  time  after  the  tliird  centm-y. 
 
 The  Hl'th  Tar<;\un,  which  is  that  on'the 
 Megilloth,  and  the  sixth,  which  is  the 
 second  Targ-um  on  tlie  book  of  ]']sther,  are 
 written  in  the  corrupted  Chaklee  of  the 
 Jerusalem  dialect ;  but  tlie  author  of  these 
 is  unknown.  The  seventh,  which  is  upon 
 Job,  the  Psalms,  and  tlie  Prophets,  is 
 equally  corrupt,  and  said  to  be  written  by 
 Joseph  the  Blind,  who  is  as  unknown  as 
 the  author  of  the  other  two.  The  second 
 Targum  on  Esther  is  twice  as  large  as  the 
 first,  and  seems  to  have  been  written  the 
 last  of  all  the  Targums,  by  reason  of  the 
 barbarity  of  its  style.  There  is  also  a 
 third  Targum  on  Esther.  Tlie  first  Targum 
 upon  Esther  is  a  part  of  the  Targum  upon 
 ^legilloth,  which  makes  mention  of  the 
 Babylonish  Talmud,  and  therefore  must 
 have  been  written  after  the  year  of  Christ 
 500.  The  last  Targum,  upon  the  I'^irst  and 
 Second  Books  of  Chronicles,  Avas  not  known 
 till  the  year  1680,  when  Beckius,  from  an 
 old  manuscript,  published,  at  Augsburg 
 in  Germany,  that  part  Mhich  is  upon  the 
 First  Book :  the  paraphrase  upon  the  Se- 
 cond he  published  three  years  afterwards, 
 at  the  same  place. 
 
 TE  DEUM  LAUDAMUS.  ("We 
 praise  Thee,  O  God,"  i^-c.)  This  sublime 
 composition  has  been  referred  to  several 
 different  authors.  Some  have  ascribed  it 
 to  Ambrose  and  Augustine,  others  to  Am- 
 brose alone ;  others,  again,  to  Abondius, 
 Nicetius,  bishop  of  Triers,  or  Hilary  of 
 Poictiers.  In  truth,  it  seems  that  there  is 
 no  way  of  determining  exactly  who  was  the 
 author  of  this  hymn.  Archbishop  Usher 
 found  it  ascribed  to  Nicetius,  in  a  very  an- 
 cient Galilean  Psalter,  and  the  Benedictine 
 editors  of  the  Avorks  of  Hilary  of  Poictiers 
 cite  a  fragment  of  a  manuscript  epistle  of 
 Abbo  Floriacensis,  in  which  Hilary  is  un- 
 hesitatingly spoken  of  as  its  author  ;  but 
 Abbo  lived  five  or  six  centuries  after  that 
 prelate,  and  therefore  such  a  tradition  is 
 most  doul)tful.  Some  reasons,  however,  ap- 
 pear to  justify  the  opinion,  that  Te  Deum 
 was  composed  in  the  Galilean  Church, 
 from  which  source  we  also  derive  the  in- 
 estimable creed  bearing  the  name  of  Atha- 
 nasius.  The  most  ancient  allusions  to  its 
 existence  are  found  in  the  Rule  of  Ciesa- 
 rius,  bishop  of  Aries,  who  lived  in  the  fifth 
 century,  and  in  that  of  his  successor  Au- 
 relian.'  Ithasbeen  judged  from  this,  that 
 the  Te  Deum  may  i)robably  have  been 
 composed  by  some  member  of  the  cele- 
 brated monastery  of  Lerins,  which  was  not 
 far  from  Aries;  or  perhaps  by  Hilary  of 
 Aries,  who   seems  to  have  composed  the 
 
 THMl'LAIi< 
 
 "tio 
 
 Athanasian  Creed  iu  the  (ifth  ci-nturv. 
 Another  i)resumption  in  favour  of  tile 
 same  notion  is  deducible  from  the  wording 
 ot  this  hymn.  'J"he  verse,  "  Vouchsafe,  O 
 Loup,  to  keep  us  this  day  without  sin," 
 ("Dignaiv,  Domine,  die  isto  sine  peccnto 
 nos  custodire,")  gives  reason  to  think  tlmt  it 
 was  originally  composed  for  the  nuitiu,  and 
 not  for  the  nocturnal  office,  for  it  a|)pears 
 that  the  day  is  supposed  to  have  actually 
 commenced.  Now  Cirsarius  and  Aurelian 
 both  ajipoint  Te  Deum  to  be  sung  in  the 
 morning,  while  Benedict  directed  it  to  be 
 sung  in  the  nocturnal  office  on  Sundays ; 
 and  thence  we  may  observe  that  the  former 
 appear  to  have  adhered  closer  to  the  in- 
 tentions of  the  author  of  this  hvmn  than 
 tlie  latter:  that  therefore  they  were  better 
 acquainted  with  the  author's  design  than 
 Benedict ;  and  therefore  the  hymn  was 
 probably  not  composed  in  Italv,  but  in 
 Gaul. 
 
 In  the  office  of  matins  this  hymn  occu- 
 pies the  same  ])lace  as  it  always' has  done, 
 namely,  after  the  reading  of  Scripture. 
 The  ancient  offices  of  the  English  Church 
 gave  this  hymn  the  title  of  the  "  Psalm 
 Te  Deum,"  or  the  "  Song  of  Ambrose 
 and  Augustine,"  indilferently.  As  used 
 in  this  place,  it  may  be  considered  as  a  rc- 
 sponsory  psalm,  since  it  follows  a  lesson  ; 
 and  here  the  ]n-actice  of  the  Church  of 
 England  rcseml)les  that  directed  by  the 
 Council  of  Laodicea,  which  decreed  that 
 the  psalms  and  lessons  should  be  read 
 alternately. 
 
 In  the  Boman  office  it  is  only  used  on 
 Sundays  and  certain  festivals ;  but  even 
 on  these  omitted  at  certain  seasons  of  the 
 year.  In  the  Church  of  England  it  is  pre- 
 scribed lor  daily  use ;  but  the  Btneihcitc 
 mav  be  sul)stituted  for  it. 
 
 TEMIM.ABS,  Tl'MPLEKS,  or 
 KNIGHTS  OF  THE  Ti:>n*LE.  A  re- 
 ligious order  instituted  at  Jerusalem,  in 
 the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  century,  for 
 the  defence  of  the  holy  se])ulchre,  and  the 
 protection  of  Christian  ])ilgrims.  They 
 were  first  called  thv  Vinimf  tin-  lloh/  Ci/i/, 
 and  afterwards  assunud  the  aj)pcllation  of 
 Trmjihirs,  because  their  house  was  near 
 the  temple.  The  order  uus  founded  1)V 
 IJaldwin  II.,  then  king  of  Jerusalem,  with 
 the  concurrence  of  the  l>one ;  and  the 
 ))rincipal  articles  of  their  rule  were,  that 
 they  shouhl  hear  the  holy  otiicc  through- 
 out every  day;  or  that,  when  their  mihtary 
 duties  should  ])revent  tiiis,  they  should 
 suj)ply  it  l)y  a  certain  number  of  Pater- 
 nosters ;  that  thev  should  abstain  from 
 fiesh  lour  days  in  (Uv  week,  and  on  Friday 
 from    eggs   and   milk    meaU ;    that   each 
 
716 
 
 TEMPLE. 
 
 TERSANCTUS. 
 
 knight  might  have  three  horses  and  one 
 squire,  and  that  they  shoukl  neither  hunt 
 nor  fowl.  After  the  ruin  of  Jerusalem, 
 about  11 86,  they  spread  themselves  through 
 Germany,  and  other  countries  of  Europe, 
 to  which  they  were  invited  by  the  liberality 
 of  the  Christians.  In  the  year  1228,  this 
 order  acquired  stability  by  being  confirmed 
 in  the  Council  of  Troyes,  and  subjected  to 
 a  rule  of  discipline  cbawn  up  by  St.  Ber- 
 nard. In  every  nation  they  had  a  par- 
 ticular governor,  called  Master  of  the 
 Temple,  or  of  the  INIilitia  of  the  Temple. 
 Their  grand-master  had  his  residence  at 
 Paris.  The  order  of  Templars  flourished 
 for  some  time,  and  acquired,  by  the  valour 
 of  its  knights,  immense  riches,  and  an  emi- 
 nent degree  of  military  renown.  But  as 
 their  prosperity  increased,  their  vices  were 
 multiplied  ;  and  their  arrogance,  luxury, 
 and  cruelty  rose  at  last  to  such  a  great 
 height,  that  the  order  was  suppressed  in 
 13r2. 
 
 TEMPLE.  In  the  Bible,  this  title 
 generally  refers  to  that  house  of  prayer 
 which  Solomon  built  in  Jerusalem,  for  the 
 honour  and  worship  of  God.  The  name 
 of  temple  is  now  properly  used  for  any 
 church  or  place  of  worship  set  apart  for 
 the  service  of  Almighty  GoD.  Thus  the 
 services  of  the  Church  are  frequently  in- 
 troduced by  the  words,  "  The  Lord  is  in 
 his  holy  temple  ;  let  all  the  earth  keep 
 silence  before  him."  Here,  by  the  word 
 "  temple,"  allusion  is  made  to  the  church 
 in  which  we  have  met  together  to  offer  our 
 prayers  and  praises  to  the  ?dcsT  High. 
 
 The  church  called  the  Temple  Church 
 in  London,  was  built  by  the  Knights-Tem- 
 plars in  1185:  and  the  circular  vestibule 
 was  built  after  the  fashion  of  the  church 
 of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  at  Jerusalem  :  as 
 also  the  church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  at 
 Cambridge,  and  a  few  others. 
 
 TERMINATOR.  A  sort  of  master  of 
 the  ceremonies  in  some  of  the  cathedrals 
 of  Sicilv. — Pints  Sicilia  Sacrd. 
 
 TERRIER.  By  Canon  87,  "  the  arch- 
 bishops and  all  bishops  within  their  several 
 dioceses  shall  procure  (as  much  as  in  them 
 lies)  a  true  note  and  terrier  of  all  the 
 glebes,  lands,  meadows,  gardens,  orchards, 
 houses,  stocks,  implements,  tenements,  and 
 portions  of  tithes  lying  out  of  their 
 parishes,  which  belong  to  any  parsonage, 
 vicarage,  or  rural  prebend,  to  be  taken  by 
 the  view  of  honest  men  in  every  parish,  by 
 the  appointment  of  the  bishop,  whereof 
 the  minister  to  be  one ;  and  to  be  laid 
 up  in  the  bishop's  registry,  there  to  be  for 
 a  perpetual  memory  thereof.  It  may  be 
 convenient    also  to"  have  a   copy  of'  the 
 
 same  exemplifiecl,  to  be  kept  in  the  church 
 chest. 
 
 These  terriers  are  of  greater  authority 
 in  the  ecclesiastical  courts,  than  they  are 
 in  the  temporal;  for  the  ecclesiastical 
 courts  are  not  allowed  to  be  courts  of 
 record ;  and  yet  even  in  the  temporal 
 courts  these  terriers  are  of  some  weight, 
 when  duly  attested  by  the  registrar. 
 
 Especially  if  they  be  signed,  not  only 
 by  the  parson  and  churchwardens,  but 
 also  by  the  substantial  inhabitants ;  but  if 
 they  be  signed  by  the  parson  only,  they 
 can  be  no  evidence  for  him;  so  neither 
 (as  it  seemeth)  if  they  be  signed  only  by 
 the  parson  and  churcliAvardens,  if  the 
 churchwardens  are  of  his  nomination. 
 But  in  all  cases  they  are  certainly  strong 
 evidence  against  the  parson.  (See  Burn, 
 Eccl.  Law,  under  this  head,  for  the  form 
 of  a  terrier,  which  is  given  at  great  length. 
 It  is,  however,  merely  an  inventory  of  the 
 matters  enumerated  in  the  above-quoted 
 canon.) 
 
 TERSANCTUS.  The  Latin  title  of 
 the  hymn  in  the  liturgy,  beginning  "  AVith 
 Angels  and  Ai-changels,"  &c.  This  cele- 
 brated anthem  is  probably  the  most 
 ancient  and  universally  received  of  all 
 Christian  songs  of  praise.  Its  position  in 
 the  established  liturgies  has  always  been 
 (as  in  the  Prayer  Book)  a  little  antecedent 
 to  the  prayer  of  consecration ;  and  the 
 hymn  itself  does  not  appear  in  any  other 
 office  than  that  of  the  Communion.  The 
 antiquity  of  the  Tersanctus,  and  its  preva- 
 lence in  the  liturgies  of  the  Eastern  and 
 ^^"estern  Churches,  naturally  lead  to  the 
 conclusion  that  it  was  derived  from  the 
 apostolic  age,  if  not  from  the  apostles 
 themselves.  It  is  remarked  by  Palmer, 
 that  no  liturgy  can  be  traced  to  antiquity, 
 in  which  the  people  did  not  unite  Avith  the 
 invisible  host  of  heaven  in  chanting  these 
 sublime  praises  of  the  Most  High  God. 
 From  the  testimony  of  Chrysostora  and 
 Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  we  find  that  the 
 seraphic  hymn  was  used  in  the  liturgy  of 
 Antioch  and  Jerusalem  in  the  fourth  cen- 
 tury. The  Apostolical  Constitutions  enable 
 us  to  carry  it  back  to  the  third  century  in 
 the  East.  It  is  also  spoken  of  by  Grego- 
 ry Nyssen,  Cyril  of  Alexancbia,  Origen, 
 Hilary  of  Poictiers,  Isidore,  and  other 
 Fathers,  as  having  formed  a  part  of  the 
 liturgy.  In  the  liturgy  of  Milan  it  has 
 been  used  from  time  immemorial,  under 
 the  name  of  Trisof/ion  ;  in  Africa  we  learn 
 from  Tertullian,  that  it  was  customarily 
 used  in  the  second  century.  As  has  already 
 been  observed,  (see  Preface,)  the  preface 
 ends  just  before  the  words    "  Holy,  holy, 
 
TESTAMENT,  THE  OLD  AND  NEW. 
 
 holy  : "  and  the  congrof::ation  or  dioir 
 oufj^ht  not  to  aiulibly  join  their  voices  with 
 the  priest  till  this  hymn  begins, 
 
 testajniExNt,  "the    old    and 
 
 THE  NEAV.  The  title  of  the  Old  Tes- 
 tament is  given  to  those  hooks  Avhieli  the 
 Hebrews  received  as  sacred  and  inspired 
 before  the  coming  of  our  Lord,  in  order 
 to  distinguish  tliem  from  those  sacred 
 books  which  contain  the  doctrines,  pre- 
 cepts, and  promises  of  the  Cliristian  re- 
 ligion, which  are  distinguislied  by  the 
 ajipellation  of  the  New  testament.  The 
 ap])ellation  of  Testame)it  is  derived  from 
 2  C'or.  iii.  6,  14,  in  Avhich  place  the  word 
 t)  YlaXaia  AtaOijKT]  and  //  Kaivi)  AiaOijKr],  are 
 by  the  old  Latin  writers  renderecl  Anfi- 
 quuin  Tvsfamcntum  and  Xorum  Tesfamvn- 
 tum.  Although  the  appellation  of  New 
 Testament  is  not  given  by  ])ivine  com- 
 mand to  the  writings  of  "the  evangelists 
 and  apostles,  yet  it  was  adopted  in  a  very 
 early  age,  (according  to  Bisho])  ^Lirsli, 
 in  the  second  century).  The  title  "  New 
 Covenant"  signifies  the  book  which  con- 
 tains the  terms  of  the  New  C'ovenarit, 
 upon  Avhich  God  is  pleased  to  offer  salva- 
 tion to  mankind,  through  the  mediation 
 of  Jksus  Christ.  But  the  Avord  2\'st(i- 
 mod  seems  to  have  been  preferred,  as  im- 
 plying that  the  Christian's  redemption  is 
 sealed  to  him  as  a  son  and  heir  of  God  ; 
 and  because  the  death  of  Christ  as  testa- 
 tor is  related  at  large  and  applied  to  our 
 benefit.  (See  Canon  of  Scripture,  Bible, 
 Scripture.) 
 
 TESTIMONIAL.  A  testimonial  of  good 
 conduct  from  his  college,  or  from  three 
 beneficed  clergymen,  required  of  every  one 
 that  seeks  to  be  admitted  into  holy  orders, 
 is  among  the  safeguards  which  the  Church 
 has  appointed  for  the  purity  of  her  minis- 
 try. The  testimonial  is  directed  to  the 
 bishop  to  whom  a])plication  is  made  for 
 orders,  and  is  as  follows  : 
 
 "  AVhereas  our  well-beloved  in  Christ, 
 A.  B.,  hath  declared  to  us  his  intention  of 
 offering  himself  as  candidate  for  the  sacred 
 ofhce  of  [a  deacon],  and  for  that  end  hath 
 requested  of  us  letters  testimonial  of  his 
 learning  and  good  behaviour ;  we,  there- 
 fore, whose  names  are  hereunto  subscribed, 
 do  testify  that  the  said  A.  B.,  having  been 
 previously  known  to  us  for  the  space  of 
 [three]  years  last  past,  hath  during  that 
 time  lived  piously,  soberly,  and  honestly, 
 and  diligently  applied  himself  to  his  stu- 
 dies ;  nor  hath  he  at  any  time,  so  far  as  we 
 know  or  believe,  held,  written,  or  taught 
 anything  contrary  to  the  doctrine  or  dis- 
 cipline of  the  united  Church  of  England 
 and  Ireland :    and,  moreover,  we   believe 
 
 TESTIMONIAL. 
 
 47 
 
 hun  \\\  our  consciences  to  be  a  j)erson  wor- 
 thy to  be  admitted  to  the  sacred  order  of 
 [deacons].     In  witness  whereof,"  cVc. 
 
 It  is  needless  to  add,  that  no  conscien- 
 tious man  can  sign  such  a  document, 
 without  well  weighing  its  terms,  and  tlie 
 solemnity  of  the  occasion  on  which  it  is 
 required. 
 
 The  apostle  having  laid  it  down  as  a 
 standing  canon  in  the  Churcli,  that  "  a 
 bishoj)  must  be  blameless,  and  have  a  good 
 rei)(nt  of  them  that  are  without,"  (1  Tim. 
 iii.  2,  7,)  thence  the  Ciun-ch  of  God  has, 
 in  all  ages,  taken  e.sj)ecial  care  to  require 
 a  suthcient  satisfaction,  that  all  persons 
 Mho  are  to  be  admitted  into  that  or  any 
 other  inferior  order  of  the  clergy,  have 
 such  a  good  report  for  a  ])ious  and  virtu- 
 ous conversation.  This  'J'ertullian  men- 
 tions as  a  very  singular  honour  of  the 
 Christian  priesthood.  In  pursuance  of 
 w  hich  practice  of  the  ancient  Church,  our 
 Church  of  h'ngland  has  foriudden  the  bishop 
 to  admit  any  person  into  sacred  orders, 
 "  except  he  shall  then  exhibit  letter  testi- 
 monial of  his  good  life  and  conversation, 
 uiuler  the  seal  of  some  college  in  Cam- 
 bridge or  Oxford,  where  before  he  re- 
 mained, or  of  three  or  four  grave  ministers, 
 together  with  the  subscription  and  testi- 
 mony of  other  credible  ])ersons,  who  have 
 known  his  life  and  behaviour  by  the  sjiace 
 of  three  years  next  before." — Can.  33.  'i'he 
 same  is  further  ])rovided  for  by  our  statute 
 law :  "  None  shall  be  made  minister,  unless 
 he  first  bring  to  the  bishop  of  tliat  diocese, 
 from  men  known  to  the  bishop  to  be  of 
 sound  religion,  a  testimonial  both  of  his 
 honest  life,  and  of  his  ])rofessing  the  doc- 
 trine cx])ressed  in  the  said  articles,"  13  J^liz. 
 chap.  xii. — Dr.  XicJiolls. 
 
 Such  as  sign  these  testimonials  have  it 
 put  into  their  power  to  discover  evil  men, 
 and  commend  only  tho.se  that  are  worthy: 
 wherefore,  since  so  great  a  trust  is  rejjosed 
 in  them,  they  ought  never  to  sign  any 
 testimonial  which  they  know  to  i)e  false ; 
 yea,  which  they  do  not  know  to  be  true; 
 lest  they  become  guilty  of  i)earing  false 
 witness,  and  mislead  the  bishoj).  wlio  can- 
 not see  all  things  with  his  own  eyes,  nor 
 hear  all  with  his  own  ears,  and  so  must 
 rely  on  others  to  direct  his  choice.  And 
 let  him  be  ever  so  desirous  to  keep  out 
 wicked  pastors,  an  iiyj)ocrite  commended 
 ])y  eminent  hands  may  deceive  him  ;  and 
 then  the  dishonour  of  (JoD  and  mischief  to 
 souls,  which  are  the  sad  consequence  of 
 such  misinformation,  are  to  l>c  charged 
 only  upon  those  who,  for  fear,  favour,  or 
 negligence,  signed  the  false  certificate; 
 who  deserve  a  .severe  j)unishraent  in  this 
 
748 
 
 TEXT. 
 
 THANKSGIVING,  THE  GENERAL. 
 
 world,  if  our  law  did  allow  it :  however, 
 they  shall  certainly  answer  for  it  in  the 
 next  world.  And  I  heard  a  most  reverend 
 and  worthy  prelate  (Archbishop  Dolben) 
 charge  his  clergy,  "not  to  im})ose  upon 
 him  by  signing  testimonials  Avhich  they 
 did  not  know  to  be  true,  as  they  would 
 answer  it  to  him  at  tlie  dreadful"  day  of 
 judgment."  AA'hich  being  duly  considered 
 will,  I  hope,  prevent  that  evil  custom  of 
 giving  men's  hands,  out  of  custom  or  com- 
 pliment, to  mere  strangers,  or  to  oblige  a 
 friend  that  we  know  doth  not  deserve  it. — 
 Dean  Comber. 
 
 A  sham  testimonial  of  life  and  manners, 
 doth  not  only  deceive  the  bishop  in  a  point 
 of  the  nicest  concernment,  both  with  regard 
 to  his  office  and  his  reputation,  but  does 
 an  injury  to  the  Church  itself,  and  aflects 
 the  interests  and  credit  of  the  ministry  at 
 large.  And  therefore,  to  attest  worthy 
 characters  of  unworthy  persons,  in  order 
 to  bring  them  into  a  situation  where  they 
 may  expose  themselves  and  their  functions, 
 do  public  mischief,  and  give  open  scandal, 
 is  destitute  of  any  justifiable  pretence ; 
 and  I  wish  I  could  add  it  were  equally 
 destitute  of  any  precedent. 
 
 I  must  acknowledge  that  human  respects, 
 and  solicitations  of  acquaintance,  and  other 
 mere  social  regards,  are  great  temptations 
 Avith  people  of  kind  dispositions,  to  too 
 easy  a  compliance  in  granting  this  favour  ; 
 and  such  persons  may  be  sometimes  cbawn 
 into  the  signing  of  testimonials,  when  their 
 judgment  doth  not  concur  with  their  good 
 nature.  I  am  loth  to  blame  any  friendly 
 or  neighbourly  qualities,  yet  sometimes 
 they  do  deserve  blame,  as  in  this  case  in 
 particular ;  where  they  are  the  occasions 
 of  a  mischief  which  much  better  qualities 
 cannot  repair,  or  make  sufficient  amends 
 for. — Archdeacon  Sharp. 
 
 TEXT.  The  letter  of  the  sacred 
 Scriptures,  more  especially  in  the  original 
 languages.  In  a  more  limited  sense,  the 
 word  text  is  used  for  any  short  sentence 
 out  of  the  Scripture,  quoted  in  proof  of  a 
 dogmatic  position, — as  an  auctoritee,  as  it 
 was  formerly  called,  —  or  taken  as  the 
 subject  or  motto  of  a  discourse  from  the 
 pulpit.     Thus  Chaucer  has — 
 
 "  He  ncedeth  not  to  spcken  but  of  game, 
 And  let  auctont^s  in  Guddes  name 
 To  preching,  and  to  scolc  eke  of  clergie." 
 
 And  so  a  sermon  is  called  "  Expositio 
 aucioritatis." 
 
 The  custom  of  taking  a  text  for  a 
 sermon  is  probably  coeval  with  that  of 
 preaching  set  discourses  ;  and  it  is  need- 
 less to_  remark,  that  the  use  of  texts  as 
 authority  in  doctrinal  points  is  of  the  very 
 
 essence  of  true  theology,  and  was  ever  the 
 custom  even  of  those  who,  professing  the 
 name  of  Christians,  denied  the  truth  of 
 Christ.  Even  the  most  abominable  and 
 shameless  heretics  quoted  Scripture  for 
 their  worst  tenets.  A  simple  Christian, 
 therefore,  may  well  be  on  his  guard  against 
 receiving  everything  for  which  a  text  is 
 quoted,  remembering  that  the  "  inspired 
 writings  are  an  inestimable  treasure  to 
 mankind,  for  so  many  sentences,  so  many 
 truths.  But  then  the  true  sense  of  them 
 must  be  known ;  otherwise,  so  many  sen- 
 tences, so  manv  authorized  falsehoods." 
 
 THANKSGIVING.  Giving  of  thanks 
 is  an  essential  part  of  Divine  worship,  as 
 St.  Paul  expressly  declares  to  St.  Timothy, 
 (1  Tim.  ii.  1,)  and  has  ever  formed  a  part 
 of  the  service  both  of  Jews  and  Christians. 
 In  our  own  Book  of  Common  Prayer  there 
 are  many  forms  of  thanksgiving,  particu- 
 lar and  general :  as  especially  the  general 
 thanksgiving,  which  was  added  (being 
 composed,  as  is  conjectured,  by  Bishop 
 Sanderson)  at  the  last  review,  and  ap- 
 pointed for  daily  use  ;  and  the  eucharistic 
 hymn,  always  used  in  the  holy  communion, 
 sometimes  with  an  appropriate  preface, 
 and  introduced  with  the  versicles, 
 
 "  Let  us  give  thanks  unto  our  LoiiD  GoD. 
 
 "  It  is  meet  and  right  so  to  do. 
 
 "  It  is  very  meet,  right,  and  our  bounden 
 duty,  that  we  should  at  all  times  and  in 
 all  places  give  thanks,"  &c. 
 
 But  there  are,  besides,  particular  thanks- 
 givings appointed  for  deliverance  from 
 drought,  rain,  famine,  war,  tumult,  and 
 pestilence ;  and  there  is  an  entire  service 
 of  thanksgiving  for  women  after  childbirth, 
 (see  Churching  of  Women,)  and  certain 
 days  on  which  we  commemorate  great 
 deliverances  of  our  Church  and  nation, 
 are  marked  also  with  a  solemn  service  of 
 thanksgiving.     (See  Forms  of  Prai/er.) 
 
 THANKSGIVING,  THE  GENERAL. 
 The  general  thanksgiving  may  perhaps,  to 
 some,  appear  superfluous,  after  we  have 
 thanked  and  praised  God  in  the  use  of  the 
 psalms  and  hymns.  But  it  was  inserted  at 
 the  Kestoration,  because  others  complained 
 it  Avas  Avanting. — Ahp.  Seeker. 
 
 After  the  general  intercession,  there 
 folloAvs  likeAvise  a  general  thanksgiving. 
 For  though  in  the  psalms  and  hymns  after 
 the  lessons,  Avith  the  several  doxologies 
 interspersed,  Ave  have  everyAvhere  "  set 
 forth  God's  most  Avorthy  praise,"  yet  it 
 seemed  meet  also,  in  a  distinct  and  appro- 
 priate form  of  thanksgiving,  "  to  render 
 thanks  for  the  great  benefits  Ave  have  re- 
 ceived at  his  hands,"  Avhich,  according  to 
 the  first    exhortation,    v,e    therefore    do, 
 
TIIEOLOGAL. 
 
 beginnino;  witli  that  original  blessing, 
 "our  creation,"  then  "preservation,"  at- 
 tended with  all  these  secondary  benefits 
 and  "blessings  of  life,''  "but  above  all," 
 because  the  greatest  of  all,  "  our  redemp- 
 tion," attended  -with  all  "  the .  means  of 
 grace  and  ]\o\)c  of  glory,"  thus  ascending 
 gradually  through  the  long  scale  of  bless- 
 ings received  at  God's  hand,  from  tem- 
 poral to  spiritual,  from  the  first  to  the 
 last,  from  our  coming  forth  to  our  return- 
 ing to  him  again. — Dr.  Bissc. 
 
 Indeed,  this  is  a  more  methodical  sum- 
 mary of  the  several  mercies  of  (JoD  "  to 
 us  and  to  all  men,"  than  we  had  before : 
 it  furnishes  an  opj^ortunity  of  thanking 
 him  more  expressly  for  the  late  instances 
 of  his  loving-kindness  to  the  members  of 
 our  own  congregation  ;  and  besides,  as  we 
 cannot  be  too  thankful  to  God,  the  ac- 
 knowledgments, which  we  offered  up  at 
 the  beginning  of  the  service,  are  very 
 properly  repeated  at  the  end.  For  surely 
 we  ought  to  ask  nothing  of  GoD,  without 
 remembering  Avhat  we  have  received  from 
 him :  which  naturally  excites  both  our 
 faith  and  resignation,  and  prepares  the 
 way  for  that  admirable  collect,  with  which 
 we  conclude. — Ahj).  Seclier. 
 
 After  enumerating  the  blessings  for 
 which  we  return  our  humble  and  hearty 
 thanks,  the  form  from  eucharistic  becomes 
 petitionary.  We  beseech  God  to  make  us 
 truly  sensible  of  his  mercies,  and  really 
 thankful  for  them,  that  we  may  show  our 
 gratitude,  and  promote  his  glory,  not  only 
 by  celebrating  his  praises  day  by  day  in 
 the  public  assembhes  of  the  "Church,  but 
 by  walking  in  the  paths  of  holiness  and 
 righteousness  all  our  lives.  These  peti- 
 tions wc  enforce  through  the  merits  of 
 Jesus  Christ  ;  and  we  conclude  the 
 whole  with  a  doxology,  in  which  we 
 ascribe  to  the  Son,  with  the  Fatiiku  and 
 the  Holy  Ghost,  all  honour  and  glory, 
 world  without  end.     Amen. —  Shepherd. 
 
 TPIEOLOGAL.  An  officer  in  some 
 foreign  cathedrals,  generally  a  canon,  often 
 a  dignitary,  whose  business  it  was  to  pro- 
 fess theologv. 
 
 THEOLOGY,  (From  o«6c,  Ood,  and 
 XayoQ,  a  discourse.)  A  discourse  concerning 
 God,  it  being  the  business  of  this  science 
 to  treat  of  the  Deity.  The  heathens  had 
 their  theologues  or  divines,  as  well  as  the 
 Christians  ;  and  Eusebius  and  Augustine 
 distinguished  the  theology  of  the  heathens 
 into  three  sorts :  first,  the  fiibulous  and 
 poetical  ;  secondly,  natural,  which  was 
 explained  by  philosophy  and  physics  ;  the 
 third  was  political  or  civil,  which  last  con- 
 sisted chiefly  in  the  solemn  service  of  the 
 
 THOMAS,  ST..  CIIUISTIANS  OF. 
 
 It) 
 
 gods,  and  in  the  belief  which  they  had  in 
 oracles  and  divinations,  togrtjjer'with  the 
 ceremonies  wherewith  their  worship  wan 
 performed. 
 
 1  )ivinity  among  the  Christians  is  divided 
 nito  ])ositive  and  scholastical  ;  tlie  first 
 being  founded  upon  fact  a.ul  institution, 
 having  the  Scriptures,  councils,  and  I'athers 
 for  its  l)ott()m  aiul  foundation,  and,  properlv 
 sjieaking,  tliis  is  true  divinity:  the  other, 
 called  scholastical.  is  ])rincij)ally  sujjported 
 by  reason,  which  is  made  use  of  to  show, 
 that  the  Christian  theology  contains  no- 
 thing inconsistent  with  natural  light;  and 
 M-ith  this  view  it  is  that  Thomas  Aquinas 
 makes  use  of  the  authority  of  j)hilosophers, 
 and  arguments  from  naiural  reason,  be- 
 cause he  was  engaged  with  philosophers, 
 who  attacked  tlie  Christian  religion  with 
 arguments  from  those  to])ics. 
 
 THKOPIIOKl.  (Ot6ff  and  ^;pu,.)  Sec 
 Christapliori. 
 
 THOMAS'S,  ST.,  DAY.  A  festival  of 
 the  Christian  Church  obsened  on  the  'J  1st 
 of  December,  in  commemoration  of  St. 
 Thomas  the  apostle. 
 
 THOMAS,  ST.,  CHRISTIANS  OF, 
 who  are  of  the  Chalda'an  and  Xestorian 
 sect,  notwithstanding  the  several  attempt.s 
 made  to  reform  them,  remain  firm  to  their 
 ancient  customs,  and  if  they  sometimes 
 comply  with  the  Poj)ish  missionaries,  it  is 
 but  in  outward  a])i)earance  :  when  they  are 
 desired  to  sul)mit  to  the  Church  of  Home, 
 they  answer,  that  as  St.  Peter  was  chief  of 
 that  Church,  so  St.  Thomas  was  head  of 
 theirs,  and  both  Churches  were  independ- 
 ent one  of  another,  and  they  stand  sted- 
 fast  in  acknowledging  the  ])atriarch  of 
 Babylon,  without  minding  the  jjope  :  they 
 hold,  as  Moreri  relates,  Xestorius's  ojiinion, 
 receive  no  images,  and  do  not  nuich  re- 
 verence the  cross.  They  hold  that  the 
 souls  of  saints  do  not  see  GoD  before  the 
 day  of  judgment.  They  allow  three  sacra- 
 ments, viz.  baptism,  orders,  and  the  cu- 
 charist :  but  even  in  these  they  do  not 
 agree,  there  being  several  forms  of  hnntisni 
 in  the  same  Church:  they  abhor  auncular 
 confession  ;  and  for  their  consecration  make 
 use  of  small  cakes,  made  with  oil  and 
 salt ;  the  wine  they  use  is  nothing  but 
 water  in  which  they  steep  raisins :  they 
 oljserve  no  age  for  orders,  but  make  priests 
 at  seven,  eighteen,  twenty,  etc.,  who  may 
 marry  as  of^ten  as  their  wives  die.  Thcv 
 administer  no  sacrament  without  then- 
 fees  or  reward,  and,  as  for  marriage,  they 
 make  use  of  the  first  priest  they  meet 
 with.  They  have  all  an  extraordinary  re- 
 spect for  the  patriarch  of  Babylon,  chief 
 of  the  Nestorians,  and   cannot   abide  to 
 
750 
 
 THRONE. 
 
 TIPPET. 
 
 hear  the  pope  named  in  their  churches, 
 where,  for  the  most  part,  they  neither  have 
 curate  nor  vicar,  but  the  eldest  presides  : 
 it  is  true  they  go  to  mass  on  Sundays,  not 
 that  they  think  themselves  obliged  in  con- 
 science to  do  so,  or  that  they  would  sin  mor- 
 tally if  they  did  not.  Their  children,  unless 
 it  be  in  case  of  sickness,  are  not  baptized  till 
 the  fiftieth  day.  At  the  death  of  friends, 
 the  kindi-ed  and  relations  keep  an  eight 
 days'  fost  in  memory  of  the  deceased  :  they 
 observe  the  times  of  Advent  and  Lent,  the 
 festivals  of  our  Lord,  and  many  of  the 
 saints'  days,  those  especially  that  relate  to 
 St.  Thomas,  the  Dominica  in  Albis,  or 
 Sunday  after  Easter,  in  memory  of  the 
 famous  confession  which  St.  Thomas  on 
 that  day  made  of  CllRlST,  after  he  had 
 been  sensibly  cured  of  his  unbelief;  another 
 on  the  1  st  of  June,  celebrated  not  only  by 
 Christians,  but  by  Moors  and  Pagans.  The 
 people  who  come  to  his  sepulchre  on  pil- 
 grimage, carry  away  a  little  of  the  red 
 earth  of  the  place  where  he  was  interred, 
 which  they  keep  as  an  inestimable  treasure, 
 and  believe  it  to  be  a  sovereign  remedy 
 against  diseases :  their  priests  are  shaven 
 in  fashion  of  a  cross ;  but  Simon  does 
 not  charge  them  with  so  many  errors  as 
 Meneses  does,  from  whom  this  account  is 
 taken. 
 
 THRONE.  The  bishop's  principal  seat 
 in  his  cathedral.  At  St.  Paul's  the  bishop 
 has  two  thrones ;  that  at  the  end  of  the 
 stalls  probably  representing  the  episcopal 
 thi'one,  properly  so  called,  which  he  as- 
 sumed at  the  more  solemn  part  of  the  ser- 
 vice ;  that  more  westerly  his  ordinary  seat, 
 or  stall.  In  old  times  the  bishop  of  Lon- 
 don often  occupied  the  stall  usually  as- 
 signed to  the  dean,  as  is  still  the  custom 
 at  Ely  and  Carlisle.  The  bishop's  throne 
 in  the  ancient  basilicas  and  churches  was 
 at  the  apex  of  the  apsis,  a  semicircle 
 behind  the  altar.  The  marble  chair  of  the 
 archbishop  at  Canterbury,  in  which  he  is 
 enthroned,  formerly  occupied  a  place  be- 
 hind the  altar;  a  remnant  of  the  old 
 arrangement,  as  appears  from  Darl's  Can- 
 terbury. The  cumbrous  pew  occupied  by 
 the  doctors  and  university  officers  at  St. 
 Marv's,  Cambridge,  is  called  the  throne. 
 
 THUNDERING  LEGION.  (See 
 Leqion,) 
 
 THURIFICATI.  In  times  of  persecu- 
 tion Christians  who  were  brought  to  be 
 examined  before  the  heathen  tribunal, 
 were  permitted  to  escape  punishment  by 
 casting  frankincense  on  an  altar  dedicated 
 to  an  idol.  This  was  of  course  an  act  of 
 idolatry,  and  amounted  to  open  and  un- 
 reserved aposta^iy :    some  hovrevcr  there 
 
 were  who  were  betrayed  into  this  act  by 
 present  fear,  rather  than  a  real  wish  to 
 deny  Christ,  and  who  sought  afterwards, 
 by  a  rigid  penance,  the  peace  of  the  Church. 
 These  were  called  Thnrijicati.  (See  Li- 
 hcllntici  and  Sacrf/icati.) 
 
 TIARA.  The  name  of  the  pope's  triple 
 crown.  The  tiara  and  keys  are  the  badges 
 of  the  papal  dignity,  the  tiara  of  his  civil 
 rank,  and  the  keys  of  his  jurisdiction  ;  for 
 as  soon  as  the  pope  is  dead,  his  arms  are 
 represented  with  the  tiara  alone,  without 
 the  keys.  The  ancient  tiara  was  a  round 
 high  cap.  John  XIII.  first  encompassed 
 it  with  a  crown  ;  Boniface  VIII.  added  a 
 second  crown  :  and  Benedict  XIII.  a  third. 
 
 TILES.  The  use  of  ornamented  tiles 
 in  churches  is  at  least  as  old  as  the  Nor- 
 man {era,  and  was  never  discontinued  till 
 the  fall  of  Gothic  art.  A  very  valuable 
 paper  on  the  arrangement  of  tiles,  by  Lord 
 Alwyne  Compton,  will  be  found  in  the 
 first  number  of  the  collected  papers  of  the 
 Northamptonshire  and  other  architectural 
 
 SOCl'^tlGS 
 
 TIPPET.  In  the  74th  canon,  in  which 
 decency  in  apparel  is  enjoined  to  ministers, 
 it  is  appointed  that  "  All  deans,  masters  of 
 colleges,  archdeacons,  and  prebendaries,  in 
 cathedral  and  collegiate  churches,  (being 
 priests  or  deacons,)  doctors  in  divinity, 
 law,  and  physic,  bachelors  in  divinity,  mas- 
 ters of  arts,  and  bachelors  of  law,  having 
 any  ecclesiastical  living,  shall  usually  wear 
 gowns  with  standing  collars  and  sleeves 
 straight  at  the  hands,  or  wide  sleeves,  as 
 is  used  at  the  universities,  with  hoods  or 
 tippets  of  silk  or  sarsenet,  and  square  caps. 
 And  that  all  other  ministers  admitted,  or 
 to  be  admitted,  into  that  function  shall 
 also  usually  wear  the  like  apparel  as  is 
 aforesaid,  except  tippets  only.  (See  "The 
 Tippets  of  the  Canons  Ecclesiastical,"  by 
 G.  I.  French,  London,  1850.)  And  in  the 
 58th  canon  :  "  It  shall  be  lawful  for  such 
 ministers  as  are  not  graduates  to  wear 
 upon  their  surplices,  instead  of  hoods, 
 some  decent  ti2:2iet  of  black,  so  it  be  not 
 silk."  See  Mr.  Gilbert  French's  ingenious 
 treatise  on  the  Tippets  of  the  Canons  Eccle- 
 siastical :  from  which  it  would  appear  that 
 the  present  black  scarf  worn  by  some  of 
 the  English  clergy  represents  three  things  : 
 1.  The  stole;  2.  the  chaplain's  scarf;  3. 
 the  choir  tippet.  The  chaplain's  scarf  is  a 
 remnant  of  the  ancient  badges,  or  liveries, 
 worn  by  the  members  of  noblemen's  house- 
 holds, their  chaplains  included.  The  choir 
 tippet  grew  out  of  the  ancient  almutium, 
 or  amice,  that  is,  a  vesture  which  covered 
 the  shoulders,  and  included  the  hood  :  the 
 Uripipium,  or  pendent  part  of  the  hood, 
 
TITHES. 
 
 TITLK. 
 
 sometimes  hanginp^  sinj^ly  behind,  (as  in 
 our  modern  hoods,)  sometimes  in  duplicate 
 before,  like  the  scarf.  In  process  of  time 
 the  hood  became  separated  from  this  pfcnd- 
 ent  part  in  front,  and  hence  the  choir 
 ti])pet.  It  is  certain  that  the  tippet  so 
 called,  often  made  of  sables  or  furs,  Avas 
 ■worn  in  the  form  of  the  scarf,  by  dij^ni- 
 taries  of  the  Church  and  State  for  many 
 a<;cs  in  England.  The  scarf  has  been 
 called  a  tipjx't  immemorially  in  Ireland, 
 and  within  memory  in  many  ])arts  of  Kn<i^- 
 land.  The  law  of  the  Church  therefore 
 seems  to  be  this,  that  all  ecclesiastics 
 (whether  priests  or  deacons)  beiufj^  ])rebend- 
 arles  or  of  hii;her  rank  in  cathedral  and 
 collegiate  churches,  and  all  priests  or  dea- 
 cons being  Masters  of  Arts  or  of  higher 
 degree,  may  wear  either  hoods  or  tippets 
 of  silk :  and  all  non-graduate  ministers 
 (whether  priests  or  deacons)  may  not  wear 
 hoods,  but  only  tippets  not  of  silk.  AMience 
 the  tippet  is  tote  worn  by  all  clergymen. 
 The  58th  canon  however  is  explicit  as  to 
 the  use  of  hoods  by  graduates,  l^y  the 
 constant  usage  of  cathedrals,  both  hood 
 and  scarf  are  worn  by  all  capitular  gradu- 
 ates.— Jehh. 
 
 TITHES,  in  the  religious  application 
 of  the  phrase,  is  a  certain  portion,  or  al- 
 lotment, for  the  maintenance  of  the  priest- 
 hood, being  the  tenth  ]iart  of  the  produce 
 of  land,  cattle,  or  other  l)ranches  of  wealth. 
 It  is  an  inconie,  or  revenue,  common  both 
 to  the  Jewish  and  Christian  priesthood. 
 
 The  priests  among  the  Jews  had  no 
 share  allowed  them  in  the  division  of  the 
 land,  that  they  m.ight  attend  wholly  upon 
 Divine  service,  and  not  have  their  thoughts 
 diverted  by  the  business  of  tillage,  or  feed- 
 ing cattle,  or  any  other  secular  employ- 
 ment. Their  maintenance  arose  chiefly 
 from  the  lirst-fruits,  offerings,  and  tithes. 
 
 The  ancient  Christians,  it  is  generally 
 tliought,  held  the  Divine  rif/ht  of  tithes, 
 that  is,  that  the  pajTnent  of  tithes  was  not 
 merely  a  ceremonial  or  political  command, 
 but  of  moral  and  perj^etual  obligation ; 
 though  Bellarmine,  Selden,  and  others 
 place  them  upon  another  foot.  St.  Jerome 
 says  expressly,  tliat  the  law  about  tithes 
 (to  which  he  adds  first-fruits)  was  to  be 
 understood  to  continue  in  its  full  force 
 in  the  Christian  Church.  And  both  Ori- 
 gen  and  St.  Augustine  confirm  the  same 
 opinion. 
 
 But  why,  then,  were  not  tithes  exacted 
 by  the  apostles  at  first,  or  by  the  fathers 
 in  the  ages  immediately  following  ?  P'or 
 it  is  generally  agreed,  that  tithes  were 
 not  the  original  maintenance  of  ministers 
 under  the  gospel.      It  is  answered,  first, 
 
 that   tithes  were   paid   to  tiu'  pricst.s  and 
 Levites,  in  tiie  time  of  Ciiuisr  and   his 
 apostles ;    and    the    synagogue    must    be 
 buried,  before  these  thinj^s  could  be  or- 
 derly brought    into   use    \\\   the   Church. 
 I  Secondly,  in  the  times  of  the  Ni-w   Tes- 
 I  tament,  there  was  an  extraordinary  main- 
 j  tenance,  by  a  community  of  all    things  ; 
 ,  which  su])i)lied  the  want  of  tithes.  Thirdly, 
 I  Jiaying  titiies,  as  tiie  circumstances  of  tl'ie 
 Church  then  stood,  could  not  conveniently 
 be  ])ractised ;  for  this  requires  that  some 
 whole    state    or    kingdom    profess    Chris- 
 tianity, and  the  Church  be  under  tiie  pro- 
 tection of  the  magistrates  ;  wliich  was  not 
 the  case  in  the  ajiostolical  times.    Ik'sides, 
 the  inhabitants  of  the  country,  from  whom 
 the  tithes  of  fruits  must  come,  were  the 
 latest  converts  to  Christianity. 
 
 The  common  oj)inion  is,  that  tithes 
 began  first  to  be  generally  settled  upon 
 the  Church  in  the  fourth  century,  when 
 the  magistrates  j)rotected  the  Church,  and 
 the  emj)ire  Avas  generally  converted  from 
 heathenism.  Some  think  Constantine  set- 
 tled them  by  a  law  upon  the  Church  ;  but 
 there  is  no  law  of  that  emperor's  now 
 extant,  that  makes  express  mention  of  any 
 such  thing.  However,  it  is  certain  tithes 
 were  paid  to  the  Church  before  the  end  of 
 the  fourth  century,  as  Mr.  Selden  has 
 proved  out  of  Cassian,  Eugijijjius,  and 
 others.  The  reader  may  see  this  whole 
 matter  historically  deduced,  through  many 
 centuries,  by  that  learned  author. 
 
 The  custom  of  paying  tithes,  or  offering 
 a  tenth  of  what  a  man  enjoys,  is  not  so 
 peculiar  to  the  Jewish  and  Christian  law, 
 but  that  we  find  some  traces  of  it  even 
 among  the  heathens.  Xenophon  has  pre- 
 served an  inscrip>tion  ui)on  a  column  near 
 a  temple  of  Diana,  wherel)y  the  peojjle 
 were  admonished  to  ofler  the  tenth  part 
 of  their  revenues  every  year  to  the  god- 
 dess. And  Eestus  assures  us,  the  ancients 
 gave  tithe  of  everything  to  their  gods. 
 
 Before  the  pronmlgation  of  the  law, 
 Abraham  set  the  examjile  of  paving  tithes, 
 in  giving  the  tenth  of  the  sj)oils  to  Mel- 
 chisedech,  king  of  Salem,  at  his  return 
 from  his  exjjedition  against  Chcdorlaomer 
 and  the  four  confederate  kings.  And  Ja- 
 cob imitated  the  piety  of  his  grandfather 
 in  tliis  respect,  when  he  vowed  to  tlie 
 Loud  the  tithe  of  all  the  substance  he 
 I  might  acquire  in  Mesopotamia.  (Sec  7u  rc- 
 I  mies,  Krck'siastical.) 
 
 TITLE,  (See  Orders.)  Canon  3.3.  "  It 
 has  been  long  since  jirovided  by  many 
 decrees  of  the  ancient  Fathers,  that  none 
 should  be  admitted,  either  deacon  or  jiriest, 
 who  had  not  first  some  certain  place  where 
 
752 
 
 TOBIT,  THE  BOOK  OF. 
 
 TOLERATION. 
 
 he  might  use  his  function :  according  to 
 which  examples  v,'e  do  ordain,  that  hence- 
 forth no  person  shall  be  admitted  into  sa- 
 cred orders,  except  (1.)  he  shall  at  that 
 time  exhibit  to  the  bishop,  of  whom  he  de- 
 sireth  imposition  of  hands,  a  presentation 
 of  himself  to  some  ecclesiastical  preferment 
 then  void  in  the  diocese  ;  or  (2.)  shall  bring 
 to  the  said  bishop  a  true  and  undoubted 
 certificate,  that  either  he  is  provided  of 
 some  church  within  the  said  diocese  where 
 he  may  attend  the  cure  of  souls,  or  (3.)  of 
 some  minister's  place  vacant  either  in  the 
 cathedral  church  of  that  diocese,  or  in 
 some  other  collegiate  church  therein  also 
 situate,  where  he  may  execute  his  minis- 
 try ;  or  (4.)  that  he  is  a  fellow,  or  in  right 
 as  a  fellow^  or  (5.)  to  be  a  conduct  or  chap- 
 lain in  some  college  in  Cambridge  or  Ox- 
 ford ;  or  (6.)  except  he  be  a  ]Master  of  Arts 
 of  five  years'  standing,  that  liveth  of  his 
 own  charge  in  either  of  the  universities ; 
 or  (7.)  except  by  the  bishop  himself  that 
 doth  ordain  him  minister,  he  be  shortly 
 after  to  be  admitted  either  to  some  bene- 
 fice or  curateship  then  void.  And  if  any 
 bishop  shall  admit  any  person  into  the 
 ministry  that  hath  none  of  these  titles,  as 
 is  aforesaid,  then  he  shall  keep  and  main- 
 tain him  with  all  things  necessary,  till  he 
 do  prefer  him  to  some  ecclesiastical  living  ; 
 and  if  the  said  bishop  refuse  so  to  do, 
 he  shall  be  suspended  by  the  archbishop, 
 being  assisted  with  another  bishop,  from 
 giving  of  orders  by  the  space  of  a  year." 
 The  same  rules  apply  to  the  Irish  portion 
 of  the  united  Church. 
 
 TOBIT,  THE  BOOK  OF.  An  apo- 
 cryphal book  of  Scripture,  so  called.  To- 
 bit,  whose  history  is  related  therein,  was 
 of  the  tribe  of  Nephthali,  and  one  of  those 
 whom  Salmanassar,  king  of  Assyria,  car- 
 ried away  captive,  when  he  took  Samaria, 
 and  destroyed  the  kingdom  of  Israel.  This 
 happened  in  the  fourth  year  of  the  reign 
 of  Hoshea,  king  of  Israel,  and  the  sixth  of 
 Hezekiah,  king  of  Judah.  The  tribe  of 
 Nephthali  was  indeed  carried  away  before 
 by  Tiglath-Pileser,  king  of  Assyria ;  but 
 this  was  not  a  general  captivity,  there  be- 
 ing several  still  left  behind. 
 
 The  Book  of  Tobit  was  written  in  Chal- 
 dee,  by  some  Babylonian  Jew,  and  seems, 
 in  its  original  draught,  to  have  been  the 
 memoirs  of  the  family  to  which  it  relates, 
 first  begun  by  Tobit,  then  continued  by 
 Tobias,  and  finished  by  some  other  of  the 
 family ;  and  afterward  digested  by  the 
 Chaldee  author  into  that  form  in  which 
 we  now  have  it.  It  was  translated  out  of 
 the  Chaldee  into  Latin  by  St.  Jerome,  and 
 his  translation  is  that  Avhich  we  have  in 
 
 the  Vulgar  Latin  edition  of  the  Bible.  But 
 there  is  a  Greek  version  much  ancienter 
 than  this,  from  which  was  made  the  Syriac 
 version,  and  also  that  which  w^e  have  in 
 English  among  the  apocryphal  writers,  in 
 our  Bible.  But  the  Chaldee  original  is 
 not  now  extant.  The  Hebrew  copies  of 
 this  book,  as  well  as  of  that  of  Judith, 
 seem  to  be  of  a  modern  composition.  It 
 being  easier  to  settle  the  chronology  of 
 this  book  than  that  of  the  Book  of  Judith, 
 it  has  met  with  much  less  opposition  from 
 learned  men,  and  is  generally  looked  upon, 
 both  by  Jews  and  Christians,  as  a  genuine 
 and  true  history ;  though,  as  to  some  mat- 
 ters in  it,  (particularly  that  of  the  angel's 
 accompanying  Tobias,  in  a  long  journey, 
 under  the  shape  of  Azarias,  the  story  of 
 Raguel's  daughter,  the  frightening  away 
 of  the  devil  by  the  smoke  of  the  heart  and 
 liver  of  a  fish,  and  the  curing  of  Tobit's 
 blindness  by  the  gall  of  the  same  fish,)  it 
 is  much  less  reconcilable  to  a  rational  cre- 
 dibility. These  things  look  more  like  po- 
 etical fictions  than  the  writings  of  a  sacred 
 historian,  and  aflbrd  an  objection  against 
 this  book,  Avhich  does  not  lie  against  the 
 other. 
 
 This  book  is  very  instructive,  full  of  re- 
 ligious and  pious  thoughts,  and  written  in 
 a  plain,  natural,  and  easy  style.  Tobit 
 lived  an  hundi*ed  and  two  years ;  lost  his 
 sight  at  fifty-six  years  of  age,  and  recover- 
 ed it  in  the  sixtieth.  Before  his  death,  he 
 foretold  the  destruction  of  Nineveh,  which 
 happened  under  Nebuchadnezzar  and  Aha- 
 suerus,  that  is,  under  Astyages  and  Nabo- 
 palasar. 
 
 TOLERATION.  Johnson  defines  this 
 word  as  "  the  allowance  given  to  that 
 which  is  not  approved."  The  Church,  as 
 the  depository  and  dispenser  of  religious 
 truth,  cannot  bring  M'ithin  the  range  of  its 
 theory  the  allowance  of  that  Avhich  it  holds 
 to  be  error.  The  Church  of  England  holds 
 (see  Art.  VI.)  that  it  is  not  to  be  re- 
 quired of  any  man,  that  anything  should 
 be  believed  as  an  article  of  the  faith,  or  be 
 thought  requisite  or  necessary  to  salvation, 
 Avhich  is  not  read  in  Holy  Scripture,  nor 
 may  be  proved  thereby.  But  if  any  man 
 profess  what  is  clean  contrary  to  that 
 which  the  Church  has  laid  down  as  an 
 article  of  the  faith,  then,  in  the  Church's 
 view,  he  professes  what  is  contrary  to  the 
 Scripture,  and  there  can  be  no  warrant 
 for  allowing  that  which  is  contrary  to  the 
 Scripture.  The  Church,  however,  while 
 refusing  any  allowance  to  error,  may 
 refrain  from  denunciation  and  persecution 
 of  those  who  profess  and  maintain  erro- 
 neous doctrines;   and  in  this  respect  the 
 
TOLERATION. 
 
 loii 
 
 Church  of  England  is  conspicuously  more 
 charitable  than  the  Churcli  of  Rome  :  that 
 Church,  M'hich   dares  not   venture  to  say 
 that  she  requires  nothing  to  be  believed 
 but  that  which  may  be    found    in    Holy  ' 
 Scripture,    or   may  '  be    proved    thereby,  | 
 nevertheless,  wherever  she  has  the  powcV, 
 punishes  those  who  refuse  assent  to  her  ' 
 theories,  and  makes  them  personally  an- 
 swerable for  the  heterodoxy  of  their  'prin- 
 ciples.    Such  is  not  the  practice  of  the 
 Church  of  England. 
 
 The  State  or  political  government  in 
 England,  admits  toleration,  in  the  sense  of 
 the  Avord  as  defined  by  Johnson.  Although 
 the  Church  is  united  with  the  State,  and 
 the  State  must  be  held  to  approve  of  the 
 doctrines  of  the  Church,  yet  it  allows,  and 
 to  a  certain  extent  supports,  religious 
 teaching  which  the  Church  holds  to  be 
 erroneous.  AVhether  this  be  done  upon 
 the  principle  that  the  State  docs  not  hold 
 itself  competent  to  decide  between  truth 
 and  error  in  religion,  but  acts  merely  as 
 the  head  of  a  community,  in  which  a 
 variety  of  conflicting  doctrines  arc  main- 
 tained, or  whether  it  be  done  upon  the 
 ground  of  expediency,  or  what  Dr.  Paley 
 calls  "  general  utility,"  (see  his  '*  Moral 
 Philosophy,"  book  vi.  ch.  x.,)  it  is  not 
 necessary  here  to  inquire. 
 
 Previouslv  to  the  vcar  1688,  the  statute 
 law  (see  35  Eliz.  and  22  Car.  II.  c.  1)  for- 
 bade the  public  exercise  of  other  religions 
 than  that  of  the  Church  of  England.  But 
 the  statute  of  1  W.  &  M.  c.  18,  commonly 
 called  the  Toleration  Act,  recognised  and 
 admitted  the  public  profession  of  the 
 religion  of  Protestant  Dissenters,  (except 
 those  who  denied  the  doctrine  of  the 
 Trinity,)  while  it  confirmed  all  the  seve- 
 rities, then  upon  the  statute  book,  against 
 the  religion  of  Papists.  This  act,  hoAvever, 
 did  not  relieve  Dissenters  from  the  opera- 
 tion of  the  Corporation  Act,  13  Car.  II. 
 c.  1,  nor  from  that  of  the  Test  Act,  2.5 
 Car.  II.  c.  2.  These  acts,  which  made  it 
 necessary  that  all  members  of  the  corpor- 
 ations of  towns,  and  all  ])ersons  holding 
 office  under  the  Crown,  sliould  receive  the 
 sacrament  of  the  Lord's  su])per  according 
 to  the  usage  of  the  Church  of  England, 
 continued  in  force  until  the  year  1828,  when 
 thev  were  repealed  bv  tlie  9  Geo.  IV.  c.  17. 
 
 By  the  Toleration  Act  of  1  AV.  &  M. 
 c.  18,  it  was  provided,  that  no  law  or  sta- 
 tute of  the  realm,  jnade  against  Papists  or 
 Popish  recusants,  should  extend  to  ])crsons 
 dissenting  from  the  Church  of  England,  | 
 who  should  take  the  oaths  of  allegiance 
 and  supremacy,  and  make  and  subscribe 
 the  declaration  against  Po])erv.  j 
 
 3  0 
 
 Section  8,  provides  tliat  no  person  dis- 
 sentmg  from  the  Church  of  iMighmd,  in 
 holy  orders,  or  nretendcd  liolv  orders,  or 
 pretending  to  holy  orders,  nor  any  ])reacluT 
 or  teacher  of  any  congregation  of  dissent- 
 nig  Protestants,  that  shall  make  and 
 subscrd)e  the  declaration  aforesaid,  and 
 take  the  said  oaths  at  the  general  or 
 quarter  sessions  of  the  peace,  to  be  held 
 for  the  county,  town,  parts,  or  division 
 where  such  person  lives,  which  court  is 
 hereby  emjjowered  to  administer  tlie  same, 
 and  sliall  also  declare  his  approbation  of 
 and  sul)scribe  the  Articles  of  Jteligioii 
 mentioned  in  the  statute  made  in  the  13th 
 of  Queen  VAh.,  except  the  31th.  3oth,  and 
 36th,  and  tliese  words  in  the  2()th  Article, 
 viz.  "  t/ic  Church  hath  power  to  decree  riU's 
 or  cercmo))ics  and  aidhorifi/  in  cotdroversi'es 
 r/Z/a/V//,"  shall  be  liable  to  any  of  the  pain.s 
 or  penalties  mentioned  in  former  acts. 
 
 Section  17,  provides  that  neither  this 
 act,  nor  any  clause,  article,  or  thing  herein 
 contained,  shall  extend  or  l)e  construed  to 
 extend  to  or  give  any  ease,  benefit,  or  ad- 
 vantage to  any  Papist  or  Popish  recusant 
 whatsoever,  or  any  person  tliat  shall  deny 
 in  his  preaching  or  writing  the  doctrine  of 
 the  blessed  Tiunity,  as  it  is  declared  in 
 the  aforesaid  Articles  of  Religion. 
 
 By  the  19  Geo.  III.  c.  44,  it  was  recited, 
 that  certain  Protestant  Dissenters  had  an 
 objection  to  the  declaration  in  favour  of 
 the  articles  set  forth  in  sect.  8  of  the 
 Toleration  Act ;  and  it  was  jjrovidcd  that, 
 in  lieu  of  that  declaration,  the  following 
 might  be  made: — "I,  A.  //.,  do  solemnly 
 declare,  in  the  face  of  Almighty  God,  that 
 I  am  a  Christian  and  a  Protestant,  aiul,  as 
 such,  that  I  believe  that  the  Scrij)tures  of 
 the  Old  and  Xew  Testament,  as  commonly 
 received  among  Protestant  Churches,  do 
 contain  the  revealed  word  of  GoD,  and 
 that  I  do  receive  the  same  as  the  rule  of 
 mv  doctrine  and  ])ractice." 
 
 'In  1813,  by  53  Geo.  III.  c.  160,  the 
 clause  of  the  Toleration  Act,  excepting 
 those  ])ersons  who  denied  the  doctrine  of 
 the  Trinity,  was  re])eale(l. 
 
 As  to  Roman  Catholics,  the  severity  of 
 the  laws  against  them  was  relaxed  in  1778, 
 and  again  in  17'S0.  Eurther  di-jabilities 
 were  removed  in  1793,  and  at  subsequent 
 periods;  but  still  they  were exchuled  from 
 parliament,  and  from  all  imj)ortant  civil 
 offices,  till  1H29,  when  the  Roman  Catholic 
 Emancijiation  .\ct  was  nasscd  (10  Cico.  IV. 
 c.  7) ;  and.  in  regard  to  all  civil  and 
 political  rights  and  privileges,  t!iey  were 
 placed  upon  the  same  footing  as  Protest- 
 ants. Since  then  they  have  endeavoured, 
 in  respect  to  ecclesiastical  matters,  to  as- 
 
754 
 
 TONSURE. 
 
 TRACERY. 
 
 sert  an  independence  of  the  Crown  of  Great 
 Britain,  to  which  the  Church  of  Enghmd 
 itself  does  not  lay  claim.  This  attempt 
 has  been  met  by  the  14  &  15  Vict.  c.  GO. 
 
 TONSURE.  The  having  the  hair  clipped 
 in  such  a  fashion  as  the  cars  may  be  seen 
 and  not  the  forehead,  or  a  shaved  spot  on 
 the  crown  of  the  head.  A  clerical  tonsure 
 was  made  necessary  about  the  fifth  or  sixth 
 century.  No  mention  is  made  of  it  before, 
 and  it  is  first  sjDoken  of  with  decided  dis- 
 approbation. 
 
 The  ancient  tonsure  of  theWestern  clergy 
 by  no  means  consisted  in  shaven  croicns : 
 this  was  expressly  forbidden  them,  lest  they 
 should  resemble  the  priests  of  Isis  and 
 Serapis,  who  shaved  the  crowns  of  their 
 heads.  But  the  ecclesiastical  tonsure  %vas 
 nothing  more  than  polling  the  head,  and 
 cutting  the  hair  to  a  moderate  degree. 
 
 The  rituals  tell  us,  the  tonsure  is  a  mark 
 of  the  renunciation  of  the  world  and  its 
 vanities ;  but  the  hair  that  is  left  denotes 
 with  what  sobriety  the  person  tonsured 
 ought  to  use  the  things  of  this  world. 
 
 THACERY.  The  system  of  ornamental 
 frame-work  in  a  Avindow,  or  in  a  compart- 
 ment of  panelling  or  screen-work.  The 
 first  form  of  tracery  w^as  doubtless  sug- 
 gested by  the  pierced  circle  often  found 
 between  the  heads  of  two  lancets,  and  con- 
 nected with  them  by  a  single  hood.*  For 
 some  time  the  form  thus  suggested  {Jig.  1.) 
 
 Avas  rigidly  adhered  to ;  even  the  number 
 of  lights  being,  in  a  great  majority  of  cases, 
 either  two,  four,  or  eight,  the  square  and 
 cube  of  two,  and  the  simple  two-light 
 window  was  multiplied  into  itself  once  or 
 
 *  Mr.  Sharpe,  in  his  work  on  "  Decorated 
 Window  Tracery,"  goes  back  one  step,  to  the 
 occnrrenco  of  a  round  window  in  the  apex  of  a 
 semi-Norman  fafade^oAertwo round  head-lights. 
 If  we  were  in   search  of  Avhat  might  suggest 
 
 twice,  as  in  [fg.  2.),  so  that  the  pattern 
 may  be  expressed  by  a  geometrical  series 
 «',  a-,  a^.  Windows  of  three  or  other  odd 
 numbers  of  lights  Avere  less  frequent  and 
 less  successful ;  and  the  reduplication  Avas 
 eftected  by  arithmetical  rather  than  geo- 
 metrical progression,  the  six-light  AvindoAvs 
 being  of  tv.o   three-light  AvindoAVS,   Avith 
 
 the  addition  of  a  centre  piece  {^ee  Jigs.  3. 
 and  4.).  Throughout  the  AvindoAVs  of  this 
 early  style  of  tracery,  all  is  effected  by 
 simple  reduplication,  no  attempt  being 
 yet  made  to  extend  a  single  composition 
 throughout  the  space  to  be  filled.  Circles, 
 Avhen  of  a  considerable  size,  were  filled 
 Avith  smaller  circles  (see  fig.  2.)  or  Avith 
 
 cusping  {Jig.  4.)  designed  after  the  same 
 laAVs.  But  Ave  must  omit  for  the  future 
 all  consideration  of  cusping,  (see  Cusping,) 
 and  eA'erything  but  the  mere  pattern  of 
 the  tracery. 
 
 ti'acery,  we  might  go  back  still  further,  to  the 
 panels  often  occurring,  even  in  early  Norman 
 triforium  arcades,  as  at  Rochester;  and  some- 
 times, as  at  Peterborough,  in  groups  of  tliree  or 
 four,  and  deeply  sunk. 
 
TRACERY. 
 
 55 
 
 The  exclusive  use  of  circles  led  to  great 
 sameness  of  character,  and  the  first  effort 
 to  avoid  this  was  by  the  introduction  of 
 convex-sided  triangles,  sometimes  alone 
 {Jiff.  5.),  sometimes  enclosed  in  or  accom- 
 panying circles  {/i(/.  3).  Later  still  this  tri- 
 angle is  resolved  into  a  three-lol)ed  hgure, 
 of  "which,  however,  the  triangle  is  still  the 
 ruling  form  {Ji(/.  6.).    All  these  charactcr- 
 
 istics  belong  to  the  earlier  class  of  Geome- 
 trical tracery,  which  is  called  concentric, 
 because  each  perfect  figure  is  either  itself 
 a  circle,  or  is  composed  of  circles  or  parts 
 of  circles  struck  from  centres  within  the 
 resultant  figure,  and  themselves  in  the 
 circumference  of  a  circle,  whose  centre  is 
 the  centre  of  the  whole  system.  Thus  in 
 fir/.  2.  ei^ht  circles  are  struck  either  from 
 the  same  centre,  or  pomts  ui  tJie  circum- 
 ference of  a  circle  concentric  with  the  con- 
 taining cii'cle.  In  ^/ii/s.  3.  and  o.  the  tri- 
 angles are  composed  of  parts  of  circles,  of 
 w^hich  the  centres  are  the  opposite  angles, 
 and  as  the  triangles  are  ccpiilateral,  all  the 
 centres  are  in  the  circumference  of  the 
 circle  whose  centre  is  the  centre  of  the 
 triangle.  This  may  be  called  the  first  law 
 of  the  concentric  Geometrical.  It  has  two 
 corollaries,  1.  that  each  line  forms  a  part 
 of  one  figure,  only,  and,  2.  that  each 
 circle,  or  part  of  a  circle,  touches,  or  cuts, 
 but  never  flows  into,  another.  As  this 
 law  is  broken,  its  consequences  also  are 
 reversed;  and  we  get  an  cxcentric  Geome- 
 trical, in  which  there  is  no  one  ruling 
 centre  within  the  figure ;  but,  on  the 
 contrary,  the  spirit  of  the  style  consists  in 
 having  curves  struck  from  centres  alter- 
 nately within  and  without  the  resulting 
 figure,  as  in  the  accompanying  trilobate 
 and  tricuspidate  triangle  (_////.  7.) ;  but  still 
 the  lines  cut  or  touch,  and  never  flow  into 
 
 one  anotlicr.  In  >/.  H.  nv^  luivc-  lines 
 each  forming  parts  i)f  two  figures,  which 
 IS  the  same  as  //V/.  r,.,  ^jth  the  omis- 
 sion of  the  lower  side  of  each  triangle, 
 and  the  consequent  rejection  of  n  centre 
 of  construction,  i.  c.  from  cnncnitric  the 
 figure  has  become  cxcentric.     This  makes 
 
 a  very  near  approach  to  the  flowing  De- 
 corated, which  indeed  it  l)ecomes  by  the 
 reversal  of  the  last  remaining  rule,  i.  e.  by 
 suffering  the  curves  which  are  struck  from 
 circles  within  and  Mithout  the  resulting 
 figure,  and  which  already  form  part  of 
 two  figures,  to  flow  into  another,  instead  of 
 cutting  or  touching,  liy  this  ])r()cess,y/V/.  4. 
 is   altered   into   the   ordinary   reticulated 
 
 tracery  of  the  flowing  Decorated  {Jifi.  9.)  ; 
 and  y/y.  10.,  instead  of/V/.  1.,  becomes  a 
 normal  form. 
 
 fig-  10. 
 
 This  introduction  of  curves  of  contrary 
 flexure  is  the  ruling  principle  of  flowing 
 tracery,  and  its  results  are  far  too  various 
 to  be  pursued  here.  We  nuist,  however, 
 observe,  that  in  Kngland  the  resulting 
 forms  have  a  great  tendency  to  l)econie 
 pear-shaped,  i.e.  with  thelowirend  pointed 
 and  the  ujjpcr  round  and  turned  down- 
 ward;  whereas,  on  the  Continent,  while 
 our  Decorated  was  stiffening  into  the  Per- 
 pendicular, their  Geometrical  was  waving 
 upward  in  their  IMamboyant,  which  diflers, 
 as  to  mere  pattern  of  tracery,  from  our 
 flowing,  in  having  both  ends  of  each  figure 
 acutely  pointed,  and  the  upper  point  with 
 an  additional  curve  upward.  Our  own 
 Per})endicular   is   scarcely  worthy   U)    Ix* 
 
 3  c  2 
 
756 
 
 TRACERY. 
 
 TRADITION. 
 
 called  tracery ;  its  normal  form  is  repre- 
 sented by  mere  intersections  of  vertical 
 and  horizontal  lines  ^Jig.  11.). 
 
 We  have  at  present  described  only  the 
 component  fig-ures  of  tracery.  The  cha- 
 racter of  ■windows  is  further  altered  by 
 several  other  means  common  to  all  the 
 styles,  consistent  with  every  form  here 
 described.  Thus,  for  instance,  tracery  is 
 grouped  in  these  three  ways  :  a  large 
 and  prominent  centre-piece  is  carried  by 
 two  independent  arches  {^fig.  2.) ;  or  it  is 
 divided  into  two  windows,  as  it  were,  by 
 two  main  arches,  of  the  same  curvature 
 with  the  window  arch  {J^gs.  3.  and  11.) ;  or 
 it  fills  the  whole  window  head  with  no 
 such  equal  division  of  its  parts  *  {figs.  5., 
 8.,  9.) ;  or,  again,  it  is  divided  into /o«7 
 and  foiled  tracery,  the  latter  being  the 
 ordinary  form,  the  first  that  of  tracery, 
 which  itself,  in  its  principal  bars,  follows 
 the  direction  of  foils,  without  a  circuni^ 
 
 fig.  12. 
 
 scribing  arch  {fig.  12.);  or,  again,  ac- 
 cording as  the  surface  of  the  tracery  bar 
 which  traces  the  pattern  is  a  fillet,  an 
 edge,  or  a  roll,  it  is  fillet,  edge,  or  roll 
 tracery ;  or,  again,  if  it  is  only  a  plate  of 
 stone,  pierced,  without  being  moulded,  it 
 is  plate  tracery.  Flowing  tracery  is  con- 
 vergent, or  divergent,  or  reticulated.  But 
 the  greatest  source  of  beauty  next  to  cusp- 
 ing  is  the  due  subordination  of  mould- 
 ings, M'hich  is  itself  sufficient  to  remedy  the 
 apparent  sameness  of  pattern  in  the  con- 
 centric Geometrical,  and  which  adds  in- 
 finite grace  to  the  flowing  tracery,  in  which, 
 hoAvever,  it  is  too  seldom  found.  The 
 student  of  ecclesiastical  architecture  will 
 do  well  to  pursue  the  subject  of  this  ar- 
 ticle in  Sharpe's  "Decorated  Windows," 
 
 *  See  Sharpe's  "  Decorated  Window  Tracery," 
 p.  93.  "^' 
 
 and  in  Freeman's  "  Essay  on  the  Origin 
 and  Development  of  Window  Tracery." 
 
 TRACT,  in  the  Roman  Missal,  is  an 
 anthem,  generally  taken  from  the  Psalms, 
 following,  and  sometimes  substituted  for, 
 the  Gradual,  (i.  e.  the  anthem  after  the  Epis- 
 tle,) during  penitential  seasons,  as  the 
 third  Sunday  in  Advent,  the  three  Sun- 
 days before  Lent,  Sundays,  ]Mondays, 
 Wednesdays,  and  Fridays  in  Lent,  Easter 
 Saturdays,  and  Easter  Even,  and  certain 
 holidays.  Cardinal  Bona  says  it  is  so 
 called,  "  a  trahcndo  :  quia  tractim  et  gra- 
 viter,  et  prolixo  descensu  cantatur,"  be- 
 cause it  is  sung  in  a  protracted  or  slow 
 manner, — Jebh. 
 
 TRADITIOX,  (See  Fathers.)  The 
 doctrine  which  has  been  delivered  or 
 handed  down  from  one  age  to  another. 
 The  great  deference  paid  by  the  Church 
 of  England  as  a  branch  of  the  Catholic 
 Church  to  tradition,  is  so  misrepresented 
 by  the  wicked,  and  so  misunderstood  by 
 the  weak,  that  we  quote  the  following 
 passage  from  Palmer's  "  Treatise  on  the 
 Church."  Speaking  of  those  who  calum- 
 niate us  for  our  use  of  this  doctrine,  he 
 says :  "  The  various  methods  which  these 
 men  employ  in  endeavova'ing  to  prevent 
 any  appeal  to  the  tradition  of  the  Church, 
 may  be  classed  under  the  folio Aving  heads  : 
 
 "1.  Systematic  misrepresentation.  AVe 
 do  not  appeal,  in  proof  of  Christian  doc- 
 trine, to  the  ancient  Christian  writers  as 
 in  any  way  infallible.  Our  sentiments  on 
 this  head  are  well  known ;  they  have  been 
 repeatedly  explained.  We  hold  that  the 
 doctrine  of  any  Father,  however  great  and 
 learned  he  may  have  been,  e.  g.  that  of 
 Augustine,  Athanasius,  Ambrose,  or  Basil, 
 is  to  be  rejected  in  any  point  Avhcre  it 
 contradicts  Scripture.  We  consider  all 
 these  writers  as  uninspired  men,  and 
 therefore  liable  to  mistakes  and  errors 
 like  other  theologians.  Therefore  it  in- 
 volves a  studied  misrepresentation  of  our 
 meaning  and  principle,  when  we  are  met 
 by  assertions  or  proofs  that  particular 
 Fathers  have  taught  errors  in  faith  or  mo- 
 rality—  that  they  were  credulous  —  that 
 their  writings  are  in  some  points  obscure 
 ^that  their  criticisms  or  interpretations 
 of  Scripture  are  sometimes  mistaken  — 
 that  they  invented  scholastic  doctrines 
 and  were  tinged  with  false  philosophy — 
 that  the  later  Fathers  were  better  theo- 
 logians than  the  earlier — that  there  are  Fa- 
 thers against  Fathers,  and  councils  against 
 councils,  on  some  points.  This  is  all  cal- 
 culated merely  to  excite  prejudice  against 
 an  appeal  to  the  doctrine  of  the  Churcli, 
 by  misrepresenting  our  design  and  prin- 
 
TllADiriOX. 
 
 ciplo  in  makinjij  it.  Our  answer  to  all 
 these  arguments  is,  that  ■\ve  do  not  appeal 
 to  the  Fathers  as  inspired  and  authoritative 
 ■writers,  but  as  competent  witnesses  of  the 
 faith  held  by  Christians  in  their  days.  If 
 they  arc  not  to  be  trusted  in  this,  they 
 are  not  to  be  trusted  in  their  testimony  to 
 the  facts  of  Christianity,  and  the  external 
 evidence  of  revelation  is  subverted. 
 
 "2.  Pretended  respect  for  religion.  Un- 
 der this  head  may  be  classed  that  mode  of 
 argument  which  rejects  any  api)eal  to  the 
 doctrine  of  the  Christian  Church,  inulcr 
 pretence  that  the  Word  of  Gon  alone 
 ought  to  be  the  rule  of  our  faith,  in  o])- 
 position  to  all  the  doctrines  of  man  ;  that 
 the  Scripture  constitutes  a  perfect  rule  of 
 fiiith,  needing  nothing  else ;  that  it  must 
 necessarily  be  plain  in  all  essential  points, 
 and  that  it  is  its  own  interpreter.  The 
 end  of  all  this  pretended  reverence  for 
 Scripture  is,  to  obtain  an  milimited  liberty 
 of  interpreting  it  according  to  our  own 
 reason  and  judgment,  even  in  ojijiosition 
 to  the  belief  of  all  Christians  from  the 
 beginning.  But  in  asserting  this  liberty 
 to  all  men,  it  follows  inevitably  that  no 
 particular  interpretation  of  Scri])turc  is 
 necessary  to  salvation  ;  that  Scripture  has 
 no  Divine  meaning;  that  it  is  vot  a  rere- 
 hition.  In  short,  tradition  is  throAvn  aside, 
 under  pretence  of  veneration  for  the  Scrip- 
 ture, in  order  that  men  may  be  enabled  to 
 distort,  or  misinterpret,  and  to  destroy  that 
 very  Scripture. 
 
 "The  same  may  be  observed  of  that  pre- 
 tended zeal  for  the  defence  of  the  Ke- 
 formation,  which  infidels,  Unitarians,  and 
 other  enemies  of  the  doctrine  and  disci])line 
 of  the  Church  allege  as  a  plea  for  rejecting 
 all  appeal  to  the  doctrines  of  the  universal 
 Church.  '  The  doctrines  of  the  Reform- 
 ation,^ they  say,  '  cannot  be  defended  if 
 this  appeal  is  allowed  ;  Popenj  must  tri- 
 umph.' Excellent  men  !  Tliey  will  main- 
 tain the  Ileformation  at  all  hazards ;  all 
 evidence  shall  be  pronounced  worthless  if 
 it  be  opposed  to  the  interests  of  that 
 sacred  cause  !  But  what  is  the  end  sought 
 by  all  this  pretended  devotion  ?  It  is, 
 that  every  man  may  be  permitted,  without 
 any  check,  to  interpret  Scripture  in  such 
 a  manner  as  to  sithrtn-t  all  the  doctrines  of 
 the  Keformation,  whether  positive  or  ne-  ; 
 gative,  to  prove  the  Reformation  itself 
 needless,  erroneous,  bigoted,  equally  ab- 
 surd as  the  system  to  which  it  was  oji- 
 posed,  and  more  inconsistent.  I  charge 
 these  men  with  the  grossest  hypocrisy. 
 Never  was  there  a  more  daring  attemjjt 
 to  palm  an  im])osture  on  the  credulous  I 
 and  unthinking,  than  this  effort  of  deists  j 
 
 and  heretics  to  set  asidr  tradition  under 
 pretence  of  zeal  for  the  Keformation. 
 They  arc  the  o])p()nents  of  the  Beform- 
 ation.  They  are  the  re])resentatives  of 
 those  whom  the  BefiuMuation  condemned. 
 They  reject  its  doctrines,  they  charge  it 
 with  ignorance,  bigotry,  intolerance,  errors 
 as  gross  as  those  of  Popery.  Thev  have 
 separated  from  its  reformed  institiitions, 
 as  (tnfi-('1irtst{(ins,  and  oidv  exist  bv  a 
 ])erpetual  attack  upon  them.  The  Keform- 
 ation has  no  connexion  with  these  men  : 
 its  defence  belongs  exclusively  to  those 
 who  maintain  its  doctrines  antl  adhere  to 
 its  institutions,  and  they  alone  are  j)roper 
 judges  of  the  mode  of  argument  suited  to 
 its  interests. 
 
 "  3.  Statements  directly  untrue.  Uiuler 
 this  head  may  be  included  the  })ahnary 
 argument  employed  by  all  sect,s  against 
 any  appeal  to  the  tradition  of  the  Cliurch 
 universal,  namely,  that  it  was  the  prin- 
 ciple of  the  Keformation  to  reject  any  such 
 appeal  ;  and  its  ])rinci|)le  was,  *  the  Bible 
 alone  is  the  religion  of  Protestants.'  Nothing 
 can  be  more  untrue  than  this  assertion  ; 
 the  Beformation  as  a  whole  acknowledged 
 and  a])j)caled  to  the  authority  of  Catliolic 
 tradition,  though  it  denied  the  infallibility 
 of  particular  Fathers  and  councils.  With 
 equal  veracity  it  is  asserted  that  the  Ciun-ch 
 of  England  rejects  tradition  in  her  sixth 
 Article  of  Ptcligion,  when  it  is  manifest  that 
 her  object  is  simply  to  maintain  the  ne- 
 cessity'of  Scriptural  proof  for  articles  of 
 faith ;'  while  our  canons,  our  rituals,  and 
 the  whole  body  of  our  theologians,  so  no- 
 toriously uphold  the  authority  of  tradition, 
 that  it  "is  a  subject  of  unmeasured  com- 
 ])laint  on  the  part  of  those  who  disbelieve 
 the  doctrines  of  the  Cliurch.  The  nature 
 of  these  various  arguments  testifies  suffi- 
 ciently that  the  doctrine  of  the  universal 
 Church  is  ojiposed  to  those  who  emjjloy 
 them.  It  could  be  nothing  but  a  feeling 
 of  despair  on  this  point,  which  could  have 
 induced  men  to  resort  to  perj)etual  mis- 
 representation, to  fiUsc  ])retences,  and  to 
 untruths.  The  employment  of  these  wca- 
 ])ons  by  all  sects,  in  order  to  prevent  any 
 apneal'to  universal  tradition,  proves  two 
 points.  First,  as  the  sole  fundamental 
 princii)le  on  which  they  all  agree  is.  the 
 rejection  of  an  a])i)eal  to  the  doctrines  of 
 the  Church  as  a  check  on  the  interjireta- 
 tion  of  Scripture,  and  the  assertion  of  an 
 unlimited  right  of  private  interpretation; 
 this  princii)ie  is  the  source  of  all  their 
 divisions  and  contradictions,  and  therefore 
 must  be  radically  false.  Secondly,  the 
 doctrine  of  the  universal  Church  from  the 
 be'nnnin":  must  condemn  that  of  all  modern 
 
758  TRADITIONS  OF  THE  CHURCH. 
 
 TRANSUBSTANTIATION. 
 
 sects,  in  every  point  in  which  they  diifer 
 from  our  Catholic  and  apostolic  Churches ; 
 and  therefore,  on  every  such  point,  they 
 are  in  error,  and  misinterpret  Scripture, 
 and  the  Church  is  in  the  right." 
 
 TKADITIONS  OF  THE  CHURCH. 
 (See  Ceremo7iy.)  "  It  is  not  necessary  that 
 traditions  and  ceremonies  be  in  all  places 
 one,  and  utterly  like  ;  for  at  all  times  they 
 have  been  divers,  and  may  be  changed 
 according  to  the  diversities  of  countries, 
 times,  and  men's  manners,  so  that  nothing 
 be  ordained  against  God's  word.  Whoso- 
 ever, through  his  private  judgment,  will- 
 ingly and  purposely,  doth  openly  break  the 
 traditions  and  ceremonies  of  the  Church, 
 which  be  not  repugnant  to  the  word  of 
 God,  and  be  ordained  and  approved  by 
 common  authority,  ought  to  be  rebuked 
 openly,  (that  others  may  fear  to  do  the 
 like,)  as  he  that  offendeth  against  the  com- 
 mon order  of  the  Church,  and  hurteth  the 
 authority  of  the  magistrate,  and  woundeth 
 the  consciences  of  the  v>'eak  brethren^ 
 
 "Every  particular  or  national  Church 
 hath  authority  to  ordain,  change,  and 
 abolish,  ceremonies  or  rites  of  the  Church 
 ordained  only  by  man's  authority,  so  that 
 all  things  be  done  to  edifying." — Article 
 XXXIV. 
 
 The  word  "  tradition "  is  not  here  used 
 in  the  same  sense  in  which  it  was  used  in 
 the  explanation  of  the  sixth  Article.  It 
 there  signified  unwritten  articles  of  faith, 
 asserted  to  be  derived  from  Christ  and 
 his  apostles :  in  this  Article  it  means  cus- 
 toms or  practices,  relative  to  the  external 
 w^orship  of  God,  which  had  been  delivered 
 down  from  former  times ;  that  is,  in  the 
 sixth  Article,  traditions  meant  traditional 
 doctrines,  of  pretended  Divine  authority  ; 
 and  in  this  it  means  traditional  2)7-acticcs 
 acknowledged  to  be  of  human  institution. 
 — Bp.  Tomline. 
 
 The  word  means  the  same  as  is  express- 
 ed immediately  by  the  Avord  "  ceremonies," 
 which  is  only  explanatory ;  and  which  the 
 Church  afterwards  calls  "  rites,"  supposing 
 them  the  same  with  ceremonies. — Dr. 
 Bentiet. 
 
 TRADITORS.  Persons  who  in  times 
 of  persecution  delivered  the  sacred  Scrip- 
 tures and  other  ecclesiastical  records  to 
 their  persecutors,  were  thus  called,  and 
 were  subjected  to  severe  censures. 
 
 TRANSEPT.     (See  Cathedral.) 
 
 TRANSITION.  About  the  year  1145, 
 the  use  of  the  pointed  arch  was  introduced 
 into  English  architecture,  and  with  this  so 
 many  constructive  changes  in  the  fabric, 
 that  though  Norman  decorations  were  long 
 retained,  and   even  the  round  arch  was 
 
 used,  except  in  the  more  important  con- 
 structive portions,  a  style  equally  distinct 
 from  Norman  and  from  Early  English  was 
 the  result,  and  this  style  is  called  Semi- 
 Norman,  or  Transition.  Before  the  close 
 of  the  twelfth  century,  the  round  arch  had 
 entirely  disappeared,  and  the  Early  English, 
 or  Lancet,  style  was  fully  developed  about 
 1190. 
 
 TRANSLATION.  The  removal  of  a 
 bishop  from  the  charge  of  one  diocese  to 
 that  of  another,  in  which  case  the  bishop  in 
 his  attestations  writes  "  anno  translationis 
 nostree,"  not  "  anno  consecration  is  nostrse." 
 
 Also,  in  literature,  the  rendering  of  a 
 work  from  the  original  into  another  lan- 
 guage. All  the  scriptural  portions  of  the 
 Prayer  Book  are  not  derived  from  the 
 translation  in  common  use.  Eor  example, 
 the  Psalter  is  from  the  great  English  Bible 
 set  forth  and  used  in  the  time  of  Henry 
 VIII.  and  Edward  VI. 
 
 Translation  of  festivals.  In  the  Ro- 
 man Church,  when  two  festivals  of  a  cer- 
 tain class  concur  on  the  same  day  with 
 other  festivals  of  the  same  or  similar  class, 
 the  celebration  of  one  or  other  of  these 
 festivals  is  transferred  to  some  future  day, 
 according  to  rules  which  are  given  in  the 
 Breviary  and  ISIissal.  This  is  called  a 
 translatioti. — Jebb. 
 
 TRANSOM.  A  horizontal  mullion,  or 
 cross-bar,  in  a  windov/  or  in  panelling. 
 The  transom  first  occurs  in  late  Decorated 
 windows,  and  in  Perpendicular  v/indows  of 
 large  size  it  is  of  universal  occurrence. 
 
 TRANSUBSTANTIATION.  The  pre- 
 tended miraculous  conversion  or  change  of 
 the  bread  and  wine  into  the  very  body  and 
 blood  of  our  Lord,  which  the  Romanists 
 suppose  to  be  wrought  by  the  consecration 
 of  the  priest.  This  false  doctrine  is  con- 
 demned by  the  Church  of  England  in  her 
 28th  Article.  "  The  supper  of  the  Lord  is 
 not  only  a  sign  of  the  love  that  Christians 
 ought  to  have  among  themselves  one  to 
 another,  but  rather  it  is  a  sacrament  of  our 
 redemption  by  Christ's  death :  insomuch 
 that  to  such  as  rightly,  worthily,  and  with 
 faith  receive  the  same,  the  bread  which 
 we  break  is  a  partaking  of  the  body  of 
 Christ  ;  and  likewise  the  cup  of  blessing 
 is  a  partaking  of  the  blood  of  Christ. 
 
 Transubstantiation,  (or  the  change  of 
 the  substance  of  bread  and  wine,)  in  the 
 supper  of  the  Lord,  cannot  be  jjroved  by 
 holy  writ :  but  it  is  repugnant  to  the  plain 
 words  of  Scripture,  overthroweth  the  nature 
 of  a  sacrament,  and  hath  given  occasion  to 
 many  superstitions. 
 
 "  The  body  of  Christ  is  given,  taken, 
 and  eaten  in  the  supper,  only  after  an 
 
TIIANSUBSTANTIATION. 
 
 ToU 
 
 heavenly  and  spiritual  manner.  And  the 
 mean  whereby  the  body  of  Christ  is  re- 
 ceived and  eaten  in  the  supper  is  faith. 
 
 ''The  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  su})pcr 
 was  not  by  Christ's  ordinance  reserved, 
 carried  about,  lifted  uj),  or  v.orshipped." 
 
 liishop  Beveridi^e  has  the  following-  re- 
 marks on  this  article,  from  Scripture  and 
 the  Fathers : 
 
 "  Scripture  and  Fathers  holding-  forth  so 
 clearly,  that  whosoever  worthily  receives 
 the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  supper  doth 
 certainly  partake  of  the  body  and  blood  of 
 Christ,  the  devil  thence  took  occasion  to 
 draw  men  into  an  opinion,  that  the  bread 
 which  is  used  in  that  saci;amcnt  is  the  very 
 body  that  was  crucified  upon  the  cross'; 
 and  the  wine  after  consecration  the  very 
 blood  that  gushed  out  of  his  pierced  side. 
 The  time  when  this  opinion  was  first 
 broached  was  in  the  days  of  Gregory  IIL, 
 pope  of  Eome.  The  persons  that  were 
 the  principal  abettors  of  it  were  Damascen 
 in  the  Eastern,  and  afterwards  Amalarius 
 in  the  AVestern  Churches.  It  was  no  sooner 
 started  in  the  East,  but  it  was  opposed  by 
 a  famous  council  at  Constantinople,  con- 
 sisting of  338  bishops,  the  famous  opposcrs 
 of  idol  worship.  But  afterwards,  in  the 
 second  Council  of  Nice,  it  was  again  de- 
 fended, and  in  particular  by  Epiphanius 
 the  deacon,  who  confidently  affirmed  that, 
 *  after  the  consecration,  the  bread  and 
 wine  are  called,  are,  and  are  believed  to 
 be,  properly  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ.' 
 Li  the  West  also,  Amalarius  having 
 broached  this  opinion,  Paschasius  Iladber- 
 tus  readily  swallowed  it  down.  But  llaba- 
 nus  Maurus,  llatramnus  or  Bertramnus,  (of 
 whom  more  presently,)  as  also  Johannes 
 Scotus  Erigena,  not  only  stuck  at  it,  but 
 refused  it,  and  wrote  against  it  as  a 
 poisonous  error.  And,  after  them,  Beren- 
 garius  too,  who  was  not  only  written 
 against  by  Lanfranc,  archbishop  of  Canter- 
 bury, but  condemned  for  it  in  a  council 
 held  at  Verceli,  (where  the  book  of 
 Johannes  vScotus  of  the  eucharist  was  also 
 condemned.)  and  at  another  council  held 
 at  Kome  about  the  same  time.  And 
 though  he  did  recant  his  opinion  at  a 
 council  held  at  Tours,  and  another  at 
 liome,  as  some  think,  so  as  never  to  hold 
 it  more,  yet  his  followers  would  never  re- 
 cant what  they  had  h-arncd  of  liim.  liut 
 in  the  Lateran  Council,  held  a.  d.  1215, 
 the  opinion  of  the  real  or  carnal  presence 
 of  Christ  was  not  only  confirmed,  but  the 
 word  transuJtstantiatcd  was  newly  coined 
 to  express  it  by  ;  that  council  determining 
 that  '  there  is  one  universal  Church  of  the 
 faithful,  without  which  there  is  none  saved  ; 
 
 m  which  JKsrs  Christ  himself  is  lu.th 
 in-icst  and  sacrifice,  whoso  Ixxly  and  l)lo()d 
 in  the  sacrament  of  tiie  altai-  arc  truly 
 contamed  under  the  sha])es  of  bn-ad  and 
 wnie;  the  bread  being  transubstantiated, 
 or  substantially  changed  into  his  body,  and 
 the  wine  into  his  blood,  by  the  jjower  of 
 God  ;  that  for  tlie  i)erfecting  the  mystery 
 of  our  union,  we  might  receive  of  hini  wluit 
 he  had  received  of  us.'  And  ever  since 
 this  Mord  was  thus  forged  by  this  council, 
 the  abettors  of  this  oj)inion  have  made  use 
 of  it  to  declare  their  minds  bv  concerning 
 this  great  mystery  ;  still  holding  with  the 
 Council  of  Trent. 'that  by  the  consecration 
 of  the  bread  and  vine  is  made  a  change 
 of  the  whole  substance  of  bread  into  the 
 substance  of  the  body  of  Christ  our 
 Lord,  and  of  the  whole  substance  of  the 
 wine  into  the  substance  of  his  blood; 
 which  change  is  aptly  and  projicrly  called 
 by  the  holy  Catholic  Church  ird  .luh- 
 stantjation'  So  that,  according  to  this 
 opinion,  the  bread  and  wine,  which  before 
 are  projicrly  bread  and  wine  only,  and  i.ot 
 the  body  and  blood  of  Christ,  are  after 
 consecration  as  properly  the  body  and 
 blood  of  Christ,  only,  and  not  liread  and 
 wine ;  the  bread  being  changed  by  the 
 words  of  consecration  into  tlie  ven.-  body 
 of  Christ  that  hung  u])on  tlie  cross ;  and 
 the  wine  into  the  very  blood  that  ran  in 
 his  veins,  and  afterwards  issued  forth  out 
 of  his  side. 
 
 "Now  the  doctrine  delivered  in  the 
 former  part  of  this  article  being  so  much 
 abused,  that  they  should  take  occasion 
 from  that  great  truth  to  fall  into  tliis 
 desperate  error,  so  as  to  say  the  bread  and 
 wine  are  really  changed  into  the  body  and 
 blood  of  Christ,  because  he  doth  really  par- 
 take of  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ,  that 
 rightly  receives  the  bread  and  the  wine; 
 that  truth  is  no  sooner  delivered  ])ut  this 
 error  is  jiresently  opjiosed.  It  being  no 
 sooner  declared  that  the  bread  we  break  is 
 a  partaking  of  the  body,  and  the  cuj)  we 
 bless  a  partaking  of  the  blood,  of  CllRlsT, 
 but  it  is  immediately  subjoined,  that,  not- 
 withstanding the  truth  of  that  assertion, 
 yet  transubstantiation.  or  the  change  of 
 the  bread  and  wine  into  the  liody  and 
 blood  of  Christ,  is  to  be  rejected  upon 
 a  fourfold  account,  l-'irst.  l)ecause  it  cannot 
 be  proved  by  the  Scriptures.  Secondly,  it 
 is  repugnant  to  them.  Tliirdly,  it  o\er- 
 throweth  the  nature  of  the  sacrament. 
 Fourthly,  it  hath  given  occasion  to  manv  su- 
 perstitions.   Of  which  in  their  order  })ru  fly. 
 
 "  \.  As  for  \.\\Q  first,  that  this  doctrine  (»f 
 transubstantiation  cannot  be  proved  from 
 the    Holy   Scriptures,  is   plain    from    the 
 
f60 
 
 TRANSUBSTANTIATION. 
 
 insufficiency  of  those  places  -which  arc 
 usually  and  principally  alleged  to  prove 
 it;  and  they  are  the  sixth  of  St,  John's 
 Gospel,  and  the  words  of  institution.  In 
 the  sixth  chapter  of  St.  John's  Gospel,  we 
 find  our  SAVioru  saying-,  '  My  flesh  is 
 meat  indeed,  and  my  blood  is  drink  in- 
 deed.' (John  vi.  55.)  And  many  such 
 like  expressions  hath  he  there  concerning 
 our  eating  of  his  flesh,  and  drinking  of  his 
 blood.  From  whence  they  gather,  that 
 the  bread  and  Avine  are  really  turned  into 
 the  body  and  blood  of  CiiiiiST ;  not  con- 
 sidering,' first,  that  our  Saviour  said  these 
 words  at  the  least  a  year  before  the  sacra- 
 ment of  the  Lord's  supper  was  instituted. 
 For  when  Christ  spake  these  words,  it  is 
 said,  that  '  the  passover  was  nigh,'  (ver.  4,) 
 whereas  the  institution  of  the  sacrament 
 was  not  until  the  passover  following  ;  and 
 it  is  very  unlikely  that  he  should  preach 
 concerning  that  sacrament  before  it  was 
 instituted.  To  which  we  may  also  add, 
 that  our  Saviour  here  saith  concerning 
 the  flesh  and  blood  here  spoken  of,  'Ex- 
 cept ye  eat  the  flesh  of  the  Son  of  man, 
 and  drink  his  blood,  ye  have  no  life  in 
 you '  (ver.  53) ;  whereas  it  is  manifest  that 
 a  man  may  be  deprived  of  the  sacramental 
 bread  and  wine,  and  yet  have  life  in  him  ; 
 for  otherwise  all  that  die  before  they  re- 
 ceive the  sacrament  must  of  necessity  be 
 damned.  And,  therefore,  though  the  thing 
 signified,  even  the  flesh  and  blood  of 
 Christ,  is  here  to  be  understood,  yet  the 
 signs  themselves  of  the  sacrament  cannot. 
 And  so  this  place,  not  intending  the  bread 
 and  wine  in  the  sacrament,  cannot  be  a 
 sufficient  foundation  to  ground  the  transub- 
 stantiation  of  that  bread  and  wine  into  the 
 body  and  blood  of  Christ.  And,  secondly, 
 suppose  this  place  was  to  be  understood  of 
 the  sacrament,  when  our  Saviour  saith, 
 *  My  flesh  is  bread  indeed,  and  my  blood 
 is  drink  indeed  : '  this  might  prove  indeed 
 that  Christ's  body  and  blood  Avere  turned 
 into  bread  and  drink,  but  not  at  all  that 
 [that]  bread  and  drink  are  turned  into  his 
 body  and  blood.  Thirdly,  it  is  plain  that 
 in  these  words  our  Saviour  doth  not  mean 
 any  external  or  bodily,  but  internal  and 
 spiritual,  feeding  upon  him.  So  that  who- 
 soever thus  feedeth  upon  him  shall  never 
 die,  (ver.  50,)  but  live  for  ever  (ver.  51). 
 Yea,  '  He  that  eatetli  my  flesh,  and  drink- 
 eth  my  blood,  dwelleth  in  me  and  I  in  him  ' 
 (ver,  56).  So  that,  as  Origen  observeth. 
 No  wicked  man  can  eat  of  this  bread  here 
 spoken  of;  Mhercas  it  is  as  clear  as  the 
 noon-day  sun,  that  sinners,  as  well  as 
 saints,  the  worst  as  well  as  the  best  of 
 men,  mav   eat  the   bread   and  drink  the 
 
 wine  in  the  sacrament.'  And  as  the  sixth 
 of  St.  John's  Gospel  doth  not,  so  neither 
 do  the  words  of  institution,  'This  is  my 
 body,'  prove  the  transubstantiation  of  the 
 bread  into  the  very  body  of  Christ.  For 
 he  that  saith,  because  our  Saviour  said, 
 '  This  is  my  body,'  the  bread  is  therefore 
 changed  into  his  body,  may  as  well  say 
 that,  because  Joseph  said,  '  The  seven  good 
 kine  are  seven  years,  and  the  seven  good 
 ears  are  seven  years,'  (Gen.  xli.  26,)  there- 
 fore the  seven  good  kine,  and  the  seven 
 good  ears,  were  all  changed  into  seven 
 years.  And  because  Daniel  said  to  Ne- 
 buchadnezzar, '  Thou  art  this  head  of  gold/ 
 (Dan.  ii.  38,)  tlj.erefore  Nebuchadnezzar 
 must  needs  be  changed  into  a  head  of 
 gold ;  whereas  it  is  plain  that  in  Scripture 
 that  is  often  said  to  be  a  thing  which  is 
 only  the  sign  of  it :  as  God  is  pleased  to 
 explain  himself  when  he  said  of  circum- 
 cision, '  This  is  my  covenant,'  (Gen.  xvii. 
 10,)  and  in  the  next  verse,  'And  it  shall 
 be  a  sign  or  token  of  the  covenant  be- 
 twixt me  and  you'  (ver.  11).  And  what 
 sense  the  Most  High  explains  himself  by 
 in  that  sacrament  we  may  well  understand 
 him  in  this.  "When  he  said,  '  This  is  my 
 covenant,'  he  tells  us  v.'hat  he  meant  by 
 that  phrase,  even  '  This  is  the  sign  of  my 
 covenant:'  and  so  here,  when  Christ 
 said,  '  This  is  my  body,'  according  to  his 
 own  explication  of  himself  before,  it  is 
 no  more  than  if  he  should  have  said,  '  This 
 is  the  sign  or  token  of  my  body.'  And 
 therefore  saith  Augustine,  '  For  if  sacra- 
 ments should  not  have  a  certain  resem- 
 blance of  the  things  whereof  they  are  sa- 
 craments, they  v.ould  not  be  sacraments  at 
 all ;  but  from  this  resemblance  they  often 
 receive  the  names  of  the  things  themselves. 
 Therefore,  as  after  a  certain  manner  the 
 sacrament  of  Christ's  body  is  the  body 
 of  Christ,  and  the  sacrament  of  the  blood 
 of  Christ  is  the  blood  of  Christ  ;  so  the 
 sacrament  of  faith  (baptism)  is  faith.'  So 
 that  the  words,  '  This  is  my  body,'  prove 
 no  more  than  that  the  bread  Avas  the  sign 
 or  sacrament  of  his  body  ;  not  at  all  that 
 it  is  really  changed  into  his  body.  But 
 that  this  doctrine  of  transubstantiation 
 cannot  be  proved  from  the  Scriptures,  is 
 further  evident  in  that  it  is  contrary  to 
 them. 
 
 "  2.  And  this  is  the  second  thing  here 
 asserted  of  transubstantiation,  that  it  is 
 '  repugnant  to  the  plain  words  of  the  Holy 
 Scriptures;'  which  to  prove  I  need  go  no 
 further  than  to  show,  that  the  Scripture 
 doth  still  assert  them  to  be  bread  and 
 Avine  after  as  Avell  as  before  consecration. 
 And  this  one  might  think  Avas  plain  enough, 
 
TRANSU13STANTI ATION. 
 
 ■Gl 
 
 in  the  first  place,  even  from  the  words  of 
 inslitution  themselves;  for  the  Scripture 
 saith.  'And  as  they  uere  eating  Je.sus 
 took  bread  and  hlessed  it,  and  gave  it  to 
 the  discii)lcs,  and  said.  Take,  eat,  this  is 
 my  body.'  (Matt.  xxvi.  26.)  So  that  that 
 ■svliich  Jksvs  took  Avas  bread,  that  Avhich 
 Jesus  blessed  was  bread,  that  -which  Jesls 
 gave  to  his  disci])les  was  bread  ;  and  there- 
 fore that  of  Avhich  he  said,  *  This  is  my 
 body,'  must  needs  be  bread  too,  as  the 
 Fatliers  long  ago  acknowledged.  And  truly 
 in  reason  it  cannot  be  denied  ;  for  there  is 
 no  other  antecedent  to  the  pronoun  '  this' 
 but  'bread;'  for  the  'body'  of  Ciiuist, 
 that  Cometh  after  it,  cannot  possibly  be  the 
 antecedent  to  it.  For,  according  to  the 
 principles  of  our  adversaries  themselves 
 that  hold  this  opinion,  the  bread  is  not 
 changed  into  the  body  of  Ciiuist  before 
 consecrated,  nor  is  it  consecrated  until  the 
 Avords,  '  This  is  my  body,'  be  all  pro- 
 nounced ;  so  that  when  the  priest  saith, 
 *  This,'  there  is  no  such  thing  as  the  body 
 of  Christ  present,  that  not  coming  in  till 
 both  that  and  the  following  words  too  are 
 perfectly  uttered ;  and  therefore  the  body 
 of  Christ  can  by  no  means  be  looked  upon 
 as  the  antecedent  to  this  pronoun  ;  but 
 that  it  is  bread  and  bread  only  that  it  hath 
 reference  to.  So  that  '  This  is  my  body,' 
 is  as  much  as  to  say,  '  This  bread  is  my 
 body,  this  bread  that  I  have  taken,  and 
 blessed,  and  give  unto  you,  is  my  body.' 
 Xow,  as  Bellarmine  himself  acknowledged, 
 this  proposition,  '  This  bread  is  my  body,' 
 cannot  possibly  be  taken  any  other  ways 
 than  significatively,  so  as  that  the  sense 
 should  be,  '  This  bread  signifies  my  body,' 
 is  a  sic/n  or  sacrament  of  it ;  it  being  abso- 
 lutely impossible  that  bread  should  be  the 
 very  body  of  Christ  :  for  if  it  be  l)read, 
 and  yet  the  very  l)ody  of  Christ  too,  then 
 bread  and  the  body  of  Christ  would  be 
 convertible  terms.  So  that  the  very  words 
 of  institution  themselves  are  sufficient  to 
 convince  any  rational  man,  whose  reason 
 is  not  darkened  by  prejudice,  that  that  of 
 which  our  Saviour  said, '  This  is  my  body,' 
 was  real  bread,  and  so  his  body  only  in  a 
 figurative  or  sacramental  sense ;  and  ])y 
 consequence  that  the  bread  was  not  turned 
 into  his  body,  but  his  body  was  oidy  re- 
 presented by  the  bread.  IJut  if  this  will 
 not  do,  we  may  consider,  in  tlie  second 
 place,  the  institution  of  the  other  ])art  of 
 the  sacrament ;  for  it  is  said,  *  And  he  took 
 the  cup,  and  gave  thanks,  and  gave  it  to 
 them,  saying,  J)rink  ye  all  of  it ;  for  this  is 
 my  l)lood  of  the  new  testament,  which  is 
 shed  for  manv  for  the  remission  of  sins.' 
 (Matt.  xxvi.  27,  28.)     ^\'here  these  last 
 
 words,  '  for  this  is  my  blood.'  \c.,  bi-iug 
 the  words  of  consecration:  and  (tnr  Sa- 
 viour having  given  them  the  cuj)  before, 
 and  bidden  them  t(j  drink  all  of  it  ;  it 
 could  not  possibly  be  meant  of  anvthing 
 else  than  the  wine  in  the  cup  of  wh'ich  he 
 said  these  words.  To  which  we  may  ulso 
 ol)serve  what  follows,  even  af\er  the  words 
 of  consecration:  '  Ihit  1  say  unto  you.  I 
 will  not  driidv  henceforth  of  this  fruit  of 
 the  vine,  until  that  day  wlien  I  drink  it 
 new  with  you  in  mv  Fatiier's  kingdom.' 
 (Matt.  xxvi.  20.)  \Vhence  we  see  our 
 Saviour  himself,  even  after  he  liad  con- 
 secrated the  wine,  still  calls  it  the  7/////  of 
 the  vine;  and  in  saying  that  he  A\ill  drink 
 no  more  of  the  fruit  of  the  vine,  plainly 
 shows  that  it  was  the  fruit  of  the  vino 
 which  he  before  drank.  So  that  tlie  very 
 wine  of  which  he  said,  '  this  is  my  blood,' 
 was  wine  still,  and  the  fruit  of  tlie  vine ; 
 which  I  ho])e  none  of  our  adversaries  will 
 say  the  very  blood  of  ClllMST  is.  Ihit, 
 thirdly,  this  may  be  discovered  also  from 
 the  words  of  the  apostle  :  '  The  cup  of 
 blessing  which  we  bless,  is  it  not  the  com- 
 munion of  the  blood  of  CiiRlsT?  The 
 bread  which  we  break,  is  it  not  the  com- 
 munion of  the  body  of  Christ?'  (1  Cor. 
 X.  ]()) ;  where  we  may  take  notice  of  two 
 things.  First,  that  he  here  calleth  the 
 sacramental  elements  still  '  a  cup,'  or  wine, 
 and  bread,  'the  bread  which  we  break;' 
 so  that  it  is  still  bread :  and,  secondly, 
 that  the  cup  of  blessing  is  the  communi(»n 
 of  the  blood,  and  the  bread  broken  the 
 communion  of  the  body,  of  Christ.  Now, 
 if  the  bread  be  the  communion  of  his 
 body,  and  the  cup  the  communion  of  his 
 blood,  it  cannot  be  that  the  cuj)  should  be 
 his  real  blood,  and  the  l)read  his  real 
 body  ;  for  then  it  would  be  as  much  as  if 
 he  should  have  said.  '  The  l)l()od  of  Christ 
 is  the  communion  of  the  blood  of  CliRlsT, 
 and  the  body  of  Christ  the  connnunion 
 of  the  body  of  Christ;'  and  so  the  body 
 of  Christ  must  be  the  communion  of  it- 
 self, which  is  impossible ;  to  which  we 
 might  also  add  the  several  places  where 
 the  apostle  calls  the  elements  still  bread 
 and  w;ne,  or  the  cup ;  as,  '  For  as  oft  or 
 ye  eat  this  bread  and  drink  tins  cup.' 
 (1  Cor.  xi.  2(3.)  "  Whosoever  slnill  eat 
 this  bread  and  drink  this  cup  of  the  l.oRl) 
 unworthily,"  cVc.  (Ver.  27.)  '  Hut  let  n 
 man  examine  himself,  and  so  let  him  eat 
 of  that  bread  and  drink  of  that  cujk'  (Ver. 
 2H.)  From  whence  it  is  manifest,  that 
 that  which  we  eat  nt  the  Kacramenl  is 
 bread,  and  not  the  very  body  of  Christ  ; 
 that  which  we  drink,  the  cup  or  wine,  and 
 not  the  verv  blood  of  ClIRlsT;  and  there- 
 
762 
 
 TRANSUBSTANTIATION. 
 
 fore,  that  to  say  it  i.s  not  bread  nor  wine, 
 but  the  very  body  and  blood  of  CiiiiiST, 
 is  repugnant  to  the  plain  words  of  the 
 Scripture. 
 
 "  '3.  The  third  thing  is,  that  it '  overthrow- 
 eth  the  nature  of  the  sacrament,'  which  I 
 need  not  spend  many  words  to  prove ;  for 
 in  a  sacrament  it  is  required,  first,  that 
 there  be  some  outward  sign  representing 
 spiritual  grace  ;  whereas  if  the  bread  be 
 really  changed  into  the  body  of  CURIST, 
 there  is  no  outward  sign  at  all  in  the 
 sacrament,  there  being  nothing  else  but 
 the  body  and  blood  of  Christ,  which  are 
 not  signs,  but  the  thing  signified.  Nay, 
 as  Augustine  observes,  '  The  signs  them- 
 selves are  the  sacraments,'  and  therefore 
 where  there  is  no  sign  there  can  be  no 
 sacrament.  And  so,  by  depriving  this 
 sacred  ordinance  of  its  outward  signs,  they 
 degrade  it  from  being  a  sacrament,  making 
 it  to  have  nothing  of  the  nature  of  a  sacra- 
 ment in  it.  And  therefore,  if  they  will 
 still  hold,  that  by  the  words  of  conse- 
 cration the  bread  and  wine  are  substan- 
 tially changed  into  the  body  and  blood  of 
 Christ,  let  them  cease  to  call  that  holy 
 action  any  longer  a  sacrament,  but  name 
 it  '  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ  ; '  for, 
 according  to  their  opinion,  there  is  nothing 
 in  it  but  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ. 
 So  that  it  is  plain  that,  by  this  doctrine, 
 the  nature  of  a  sacrament  in  general  must 
 be  destroyed,  or  this  sacrament  in  particu- 
 lar must  be  expunged  out  of  their  catalogue 
 of  sacraments. 
 
 "4.  The  fourth  and  last  thing  here  ob- 
 jected against  this  doctrine  of  transubstan- 
 tiation  is,  that  it  '  hath  given  occasion  to 
 many  superstitions,'  which  any  one  that 
 ever  observed  their  customs  and  practices 
 cannot  but  acknowledge.  For  this  fond 
 opinion  possessing  their  brains,  that  the 
 bread  is  the  real  body  of  Christ  hung 
 upon  the  cross,  and  pierced  for  their  sins, 
 oh !  how  zealous  are  they  in  wrapping  it 
 up  neatly  in  their  handkerchiefs,  laying  it 
 up  in  their  treasures,  carrying  it  about  in 
 their  processions  ;  yea,  and,  at  the  length, 
 in  worshipping  and  adoring  it  too  ! " 
 
 This  learned  and  orthodox  bishgp  pro- 
 ceeds to  show  how  inconsistent  this  tenet 
 is  with  the  teaching  of  the  Fathers.  We 
 add  a  few  quotations  upon  the  subject 
 from  other  orthodox  divines. 
 
 "  The  article  next  condemns  the  Popish 
 doctrine  of  transubstantiation,  or  the 
 change  of  the  substance  of  bread  and  wine 
 into  the  real  substance  of  Christ's  body 
 and  blood,  in  the  administration  of  the 
 Lord's  supper.  The  idea  of  Christ's 
 bodily  presence  in  the  eucharist  was  first 
 
 started  in  the  beginning  of  the  eighth  cen- 
 tury, and  it  owed  its  rise  to  the  indis- 
 cretion of  preachers  and  writers  of  -«arm 
 imaginations,  who,  instead  of  explaining 
 judiciously  the  lofty  figures  of  Scripture 
 language  upon  this  subject,  understood 
 and  urged  them  in  their  literal  sense. 
 Thus  the  true  meaning  of  these  expres- 
 sions was  grossly  perverted :  but  as  this 
 conceit  seemed  to  exalt  the  nature  of 
 the  holy  sacrament,  it  was  eagerly  received 
 in  that  ignorant  and  superstitious  age;  and 
 was  by  degrees  carried  farther  and  farther, 
 by  persons  still  less  guarded  in  their  ap- 
 plication of  these  metaphorical  phrases. 
 This  has  always  been  a  lavourite  doctrine 
 of  the  Church  of  Home,  as  it  impressed 
 the  common  people  with  higher  notions 
 of  the  power  of  the  clergy,  and  therefore 
 served  to  increase  their  influence.  It  met 
 however  with  opposition  upon  its  original 
 introduction,  particularly  from  Bertram 
 and  John  Scot ;  and  again  at  the  first 
 daAvn  of  the  Reformation,  both  upon  the 
 Continent  and  in  this  country.  It  was  ob- 
 jected to  by  the  Waldenses  ;  and  there  are 
 strong  expressions  against  it  in  some  parts 
 of  Wickliff 's  works.  Luther,  in  contradic- 
 tion to  the  other  reformers,  only  changed 
 transubstantiation  into  consubstantiation, 
 which  means  that  the  substance  of  Christ's 
 body  and  blood  is  present  in  the  holy 
 sacrament  with  the  substance  of  the  bread 
 and  wine ;  and  his  perseverance  in  this 
 opinion  was  a  principal  cause  of  the 
 division  among  the  reformed  churches. 
 He  was  opposed  by  Zuingle  and  Calvin, 
 but  the  Confession  of  Augsburg,  which 
 was  drawn  up  by  Melancthon,  favours 
 consubstantiation.  There  is,  however,  con- 
 siderable doubt  concerning  the  real  sen- 
 timents of  Melancthon  upon  this  subject, 
 especially  in  the  latter  part  of  his  life. 
 Some  of  our  early  English  reformers  were 
 Lutherans,  and  consequently  they  were  at 
 first  disposed  to  lean  towards  consubstan- 
 tiation ;  but  they  seem  soon  to  have  dis- 
 covered their  error,  for  in  the  articles  of 
 1552  it  is  expressly  said,  "  A  faithfid  man 
 ought  not  either  to  believe  or  openly  con- 
 fess the  real  and  bodily  presence,  as  they 
 term  it,  of  Christ's  flesh  and  blood  in  the 
 sacrament  of  the  Lord's  supper."  This 
 part  of  the  article  was  omitted  in  15G2, 
 probably  with  a  view  to  give  less  offence 
 to  those  who  maintain  the  corporal  pre- 
 sence, and  to  comprehend  as  many  as 
 possible  in  the  Established  Church. — Bj). 
 lomline. 
 
 In  arguing  against  this  doctrine  we 
 may  first  observe,  that  it  is  contradicted 
 bv  our  senses,  since  we  see  and  taste  that 
 
TRANSUDSTANTIATION. 
 
 the  bread  and  -wine  after  consecration,  and 
 when  we  actually  receive  them,  still  con- 
 tinue to  be  bread  and  wine,  without  any 
 change     or     alteration    whatever.       And 
 again,  was  it  possible  for  Christ,  when  he 
 instituted  the  Lord's  supper,  to  take  his 
 own  body  and  his  own  blood  into  his  own 
 hands,  and  deliver  them  to  every  one  of 
 his   apostles?    or  was  it  possible   for    the 
 apostles  to  understand  our  Saviour's  com- 
 mand  to  drink  his  blood  literally,  when 
 they  were  forbidden,  under   the  severest 
 penalties,   to  taste   blood  by  the   law    of 
 Moses,  of  which  not  only  they  themselves, 
 but  Christ  also  had  been  a  strict  observer  ? 
 They  expressed  not  the  slightest  sur])rise 
 or   reluctance  when   Christ  delivered  to 
 them  the  bread  and  wine,  Avhicli  could  not 
 have    been  the  case,  had  they  conceived 
 themselves    commanded    to    eat   the   real 
 body  and  drink  the  real   blood  of  their 
 Lord  and  Master.     The  bread  and  wine 
 must  have  been    considered  by  them   as 
 symbolical,  and  indeed  the  whole  transac- 
 tion   was    evidently   figurative   in   all   its 
 parts  ;  it  was  instituted  when  the  Jews,  by 
 killing  the  paschal  lamb,  commemorated 
 their  deliverance  from  Kgy])tian  bondage 
 by  the  hand  of  Moses,  which  was  typical  of 
 the   deliverance  of  all  mankind  from  the 
 bondage  of  sin  by  the  death  of  Christ, 
 "  the  Lamb  slain   from  the  foundation  of 
 the    world :  "    and    as   the    occasion    was 
 typical,  so  likewise  were  the  words  used  by 
 our  Saviour  :  "  This  is  my  body  which  is 
 broken,"  and  "  this   is  my  blood  which  is 
 shed,"     But  his  body  was  not  yet  broken, 
 nor  Avas  his  blood  yet  shed ;  and  therefore 
 the  breaking  of  the  bread,  and  the  pouring- 
 out  of  the  wine,  were  then  figurative  of 
 what  was  about  to  happen,  as  they  are  now 
 figurative  of  what  has  actually  ha])pcned. 
 He  also  said,  "  This  cup  is  the  new  testa- 
 ment in  my  blood"  (1  Cor.  xi.  2o) ;  which 
 words  could  not  be  meant  in  a  literal  sense  ; 
 the  cup  could  not  be  changed  into  a  cove- 
 nant, though  it  might  be  a  representation 
 or  memorial  of  it.     Our  Saviour  called 
 the    wine,  after   it  was  consecrated,  "  the 
 fruit  of  the  vine,"  (Matt.  xxvi.  29,)  Avhich 
 implied  that  no  cliange  had  taken  place  in 
 its   real    nature.     Since    then    the    words, 
 "  This  is  my  body,"  and  "This  is  my  blood," 
 upon  which  the  I'apists  pretend  to  sujjport 
 this  doctrine,  were   manifestly  used  in   a 
 figurative  sense,  and  must  have   been  so 
 understood  by  the  apostles,  to  whom  they 
 were  originally  addressed,  we  may  safely 
 pronounce  that  "  transubstantiation,  or  the 
 change   of    the    substance    of  l)read   and 
 wine,  in  the  sup])er  of  the  T>ord,  cannot 
 be  proved  by  Holy  Writ."     That  the  early  | 
 
 TREASURER. 
 
 703 
 
 Christians  understood  our  Saviour's  words 
 in  a  figurative  sense,  appears  from  the 
 writmgs  of  more  tlian  twenty  Fathers, 
 without  a  single  auliiority  on  the  opposite 
 side. — Bp.  Tomline. 
 
 L  That  transubstantiation  is  "repug- 
 nant to  the  ])lain  words  of  Scripture." 
 ajipears  from  St.  I'aul's  saying,  "  we  are  all 
 partakers  of  that  one  l)read"(l  Cor.  x. 
 17)  ;  and,  "as  often  as  ye  cat  this  bread" 
 (1  Cor.  xi,  26);  so  that  i't  is  bread,  and  not 
 Christ's  flesh,  even  when  we  eat  and 
 l)artake  thereof.  Parity  of  reason  jjroves 
 the  same  of  the  wine.  '  2.  That  transvd)- 
 stantiation  "overthroweth  the  nature  of  a 
 sacrament "  is  evident,  because  it  supposes 
 what  we  eat  and  drink  to  he,  not  the  sign, 
 but  the  thing  signified.  ;i.  It  has  also 
 "given  occasion  to  many  suj)erstitions." 
 Tliat  it  has  given  occasion  to  ahomiiuihle 
 idolatry  is  evident  from  the  adoration  of 
 the  host,  which  is  grounded  on  it.  lUit, 
 though  idolatry  is  worse  than  su])erstition, 
 yet  it  is  different  from  it.  AN'iierefore,  for 
 the  proof  of  this  branch  of  the  proposition, 
 let  it  be  considered,  that,  in  cases  of  immi- 
 nent danger  or  great  calamities,  the  host  is 
 exposed  by  the  Papists,  to  ai)pease  Cioi/s 
 anger,  and  ])revent  or  remove  his  judg- 
 ments :  or  reference  may  be  had  to  the 
 provisions  made  in  the  liomish  Church,  in 
 the  event  of  anv  acciilent  happening  to  the 
 consecrated  elements.  Our  reformers 
 were  too  Avell  acquainted  with  tiiese  su- 
 perstitions :  though,  blessed  be  GoD,  we 
 have  not  instances  ready  at  hand. — Dr. 
 Bennet. 
 
 TllAVERSE.  A  seat  of  state  with  a 
 canopy,  formerly  placed  at  the  uj)per  enil 
 of  the  clioir  in  the  royal  chapels,  and  tem- 
 porarily in  cathedrals,  for  tlie  use  of  the 
 sovereign. 
 
 TREASURER.  A  dignitary  formerly 
 existing  in  all  cathedrals  and  collejjiatc 
 churches  of  old  foundation  in  England, 
 and  in  Ireland  and  Scotland  in  such 
 churches  as  followed  the  English  model. 
 The  treasurer  was  not  the  bursar,  but 
 rather  the  chief  sacristan.  He  had  the 
 care  of  the  jilate,  vestments,  furniture,  ne- 
 cessaries of  Divine  service;  the  control  of 
 the  sacristan  and  inferior  oflicers,  of  the 
 bells,  and  the  general  superintendence 
 of  the  fal)ric.  In  many  foreign  churches 
 the  ])lace  of  treasurer  was  discharged  by  a 
 dignitary  called  a  sacristan  ;  but  in  others, 
 as  at  Glasgow,  and  the  royal  chapel,  Stir- 
 ling, there  was  a  treasurer  and  a  sacristiiu, 
 botli  dignitaries.  In  cathedrals  of  the 
 new  foundation,  the  treasurer  is  merely 
 the  bursar  ;  the  canons  taking  this  office  in 
 annual  rotation. — Jibh. 
 
764 
 
 TRENT,  COUNCIL  OF. 
 
 TRENT,  COUNCIL  OF.  (See  rwrnan 
 Catholic  Church,  Popery,  Conncil  of  Trent.) 
 This  important  council  mot  in  1545,  and 
 vas  dissolved  in  1563.  Its  nominal  period 
 extended  over  eighteen  years,  but  its  actual 
 sessions  occupied  less  than  five.  Protestants 
 from  the  days  of  Luther  had  been  urgent 
 for  the  convocation  of  a  free  synod.  They 
 had  reiterated  the  demand  at  Nuremberg, 
 and  Katisbon,  and  Spires.  There  were  in- 
 deed on  both  sides  earnest  and  pious  per- 
 sons Avho  were  anxious  that  the  questions 
 at  issue  should  be  settled  by  competent 
 authority.  The  evil  lives  of  the  clergy, 
 and  the  general  disorders  of  the  Church, 
 afforded  another  strong  reason  by  "which 
 many  Avere  influenced.  At  the  same  time, 
 the  endless  extortions  of  the  papal  chancery 
 had  raised  disputes  in  every  European  state, 
 which  there  seemed  no  other  hope  of  allay- 
 ing. It  was  the  great  object  of  the  pope 
 and  his  adherents  to  condemn  Lutheran 
 doctrine,  and  to  avoid  definition  on  points 
 disputed  in  the  Roman  Church.  Clement 
 \11.  had  promised  that  a  general  council 
 should  be  held  in  Italy  for  raising  sub- 
 sidies against  the  Turks,  and  for  the  sup- 
 pression of  heresy,  but  he  really  used  his 
 influence  to  prevent  its  assembling.  On 
 his  death  in  1534  his  successor,  Paul  III., 
 published  a  bull  of  convocation.  Various 
 difficulties  however  arose,  partly  on  ac- 
 count of  the  proposed  place  of  meeting, 
 and  partly  through  the  war  between  the 
 emperor  and  the  king  of  France,  and  in- 
 terposed a  delay  of  some  years.  The  city 
 of  Trent  in  the  Tyrol,  on  the  confines  of 
 Italy  and  Germany,  and  now  in  the  do- 
 minions of  Austria,  was  at  length  selected, 
 the  summons  was  issued,  and  the  council 
 was  opened  December  13,  1545.  The 
 meeting  had  been  so  long  deferred,  that 
 when  a  few  ecclesiastics  and  others  assem- 
 bled, it  was  hardly  believed  that  the  synod 
 was  really  convened  ;  and  the  importance 
 of  the  movement  was  not  jjerceived  until 
 somewhat  later. 
 
 The  first  three  sessions  were  occupied  by 
 preliminary  matters,  after  which  the  actual 
 business  commenced.  The  constitution  of 
 the  assembly,  as  well  as  the  form  of  pro- 
 cedure, was  governed  by  arbitrary  rules. 
 The  legates  presided  as  the  representatives 
 of  the  po])e  ;  who  also  appointed  the  secre- 
 taries and  other  officers.  P>ishops  alone 
 were  allowed  to  vote,  but  an  excei)tion  was 
 made  in  the  case  of  certain  abbots  and 
 generals  of  orders,  for  whose  admission  no 
 precedent  could  however  be  alleged,  but 
 such  as  Mould  be  equally  availing  for  all 
 presbyters.  Proxies  were  generally  re- 
 fused, although  some  were  alloMcd  bv  the 
 
 sole  authority  of  the  pope.  All  discussions 
 were  confined  to  previous  congregations, 
 and  in  the  sessions  which  followed  there 
 was  no  deliberation,  but  only  the  accept- 
 ance or  rejection  of  the  proposed  conclu- 
 sions. The  judgments  of  the  council  were 
 embodied  partly  in  decrees  which  profess 
 to  contain  the  Catholic  doctrine  on  the 
 points  in  question,  partly  in  canons  by 
 which  the  contrary  opinions  are  anathema- 
 tized as  heretical. 
 
 In  the  fourth  session,  which  was  held 
 April  5,  1546,  somewhat  less  than  fifty  bi- 
 shops being  present,  it  was  decreed  that 
 the  canon  of  Scripture  includes  the  books 
 commonly  called  apocryphal,  and  that 
 tradition  is  to  be  received  as  of  equal  au- 
 thority with  the  written  Word  ;  that  the 
 Vulgate  is  to  be  taken  for  the  standard 
 text,  and  no  interpretation  allowed  but 
 such  as  the  Church  has  affixed.  In  the 
 fifth  session  the  decree  on  original  sin  was 
 passed  ;  in  the  sixth,  that  on  justification  ; 
 and  in  the  seventh,  that  on  the  sacraments 
 in  general,  and  baptism  and  confirmation 
 in  particular.  In  the  eighth  session,  the 
 removal  to  Bologna  was  appointed,  where 
 the  two  following  sessions  were  held  ;  but 
 no  decrees  were  passed,  and  in  Se])tember, 
 1547,  the  council  was  prorogued.  The 
 translation  to  an  Italian  city  had  been 
 made  under  a  bull  of  Paul  III.,  when  the 
 German  bishops  were  urgent  for  reforma- 
 tion, and  there  seemed  no  other  escape.  A 
 disease  which  broke  out  at  Trent  was  the 
 alleged  excuse.  In  1551  the  council  was 
 again  convened  by  Julius  III.,  who  had 
 been  present  at  a  former  period  as  legate. 
 The  eleventh  and  twelfth  sessions  were 
 spent  in  formal  business  :  in  the  thirteenth 
 the  sacrament  of  the  eucharist  Avas  treated ; 
 in  the  fourteenth,  the  sacraments  of  penance 
 and  extreme  unction  ;  in  the  fifteenth,  a 
 safe-conduct  was  granted  to  the  Protest- 
 ants ;  and  in  the  sixteenth,  which  was  held 
 in  April,  1552,  the  prorogation  of  the  coun- 
 cil for  two  years  was  decreed.  Paul  IV. 
 was,  hoAvever,  resolutely  opposed  to  its  re- 
 vival, on  the  ground  that  his  authority 
 was  higher  than  that  of  a  synod,  Avhicli 
 Avas  therefore  needless  ;  and  by  the  tkrcat 
 of  secular  reformation  he  deterred  some 
 princes  from  urging  the  reassembling  of 
 the  council,  Avhich  did  not  take  place  till 
 January,  1562,  Avhen  the  seventeenth  ses- 
 sion Avas  held  under  Pius  IV.  In  the 
 eighteenth,  certain  of  the  fathers  Avere  ap- 
 pointed to  prepare  an  index  of  prohibited 
 books,  and  at  the  same  time,  the  safe-con- 
 duct Avas  removed ;  in  the  eighteenth  and 
 nineteenth  no  business  Avas  transacted ;  in 
 the  tAventv-first,  the  communion  under  one 
 
TRENT,  COUNCIL  OF 
 
 T«)5 
 
 kind  was  enjoined  for  all,  exce])t  the  cele- 
 brant ;  in  the  twenty-second,  the  sacrifice 
 of  the  mass  was  declared  to  be  a  true  and 
 Catholic  doctrine  ;  in  the  twenty-third,  the 
 snbject  handled  was  the  sacrament  of  or- 
 der ;  in  the  twenty-fourth,  the  sacrament 
 of  matrimony  ;  and  in  the  twenty-tifth,  de- 
 crees were  passed  on  purgatory,  the  invo- 
 cation of  saints,  the  worsliip  of  relics  and 
 imai^es,  indulj^ences,  fastinj,',  the  index  of 
 prohibited  books,  the  catecliism,  the  bre- 
 viary, and  the  missal.  After  which,  the 
 decrees  passed  under  Paul  111.  and  Julius 
 III.  Avere  read,  and  the  council  was  dis- 
 solved. 
 
 In  reviewinjy  the  history  of  this  remark- 
 able assembly,  it  is  imixissible  to  overlook 
 the  M'ant  of  unity  both  in  purpose  and 
 opinion  among  its  members.  Tiie  repre- 
 sentatives of  the  emperor  of  Germany,  of 
 the  kings  of  France  and  Spain,  of'  the 
 duke  of  Bavaria,  and  of  other  secular 
 princes,  urgently  demanded  the  reforma- 
 tion of  the  Church,  while  the  partisans  of 
 the  Iloman  court  were  desirous  only  to 
 suppress  Protestantism.  There  were  none 
 but  Italians  on  whom  the  pope  could  en- 
 tirely depend,  for  even  the  Sjjanish  pre- 
 lates wished  his  power  to  be  restrained, 
 and  that  of  other  bishops  to  be  enlarged. 
 The  Germans  and  French  demanded  the 
 restoration  of  the  cuj),  and  the  marriage 
 of  the  clergy,  while  the  Spaniards,  who 
 opposed  them  on  these  points,  were  united 
 with  them  on  some  others  against  the  ]  to- 
 man faction.  One  great  party  was  urgent 
 that  the  later  sessions  should  be  declared 
 a  continuation  of  the  earlier,  while  another 
 vehemently  opposed  the  declaration  ;  and 
 the  council  never  ventured  to  rule  the  ques- 
 tion either  way.  There  were  endless  con- 
 flicts between  the  bishops  and  the  monastic 
 orders,  and  of  Franciscans  and  ])ominicans, 
 with  each  other.  AVhether  the  Plessed 
 Virgin  was  conceived  without  sin  ;  what  is 
 the  true  nature  of  transubstantiation  ;  whe- 
 ther Christ  offered  himself  in  the  holy 
 supper ;  whether  the  apostles  were  or- 
 dained priests  at  that  time  or  previously, — 
 were  among  the  topics  of  vehement  con- 
 tention. On  the  subject  of  the  great  doc- 
 trine of  justification  by  faith,  the  members 
 of  the  council  were  far  from  being  agreed, 
 and  it  is  ])eyond  denial  that  some  of  them 
 held  the  Protestant  view.  Even  the  scanty 
 number,  who  ventured  to  decide  on  the 
 canon  of  Scripture,  and  on  tradition,  were 
 at  variance  among  tliemselvcs.  Some  dis- 
 putes lasted  throughout  tlie  whole  pcriotl, 
 such  as  whether  the  council  should  be  said 
 to  represent  the  universal  Church  ;  whe- 
 ther the  legates  should  have  the  privilege 
 
 ot  proposing  all  matters  f„r  dibatc  ;  and 
 Nvhether  doctrine  should  precede  ref..ru>a- 
 tion.  The  (piestion  of  ihe  residence  of 
 bishops,  that  is,  whetlier  it  is  binding  by 
 IHvine  ordinance,  or  l)y  tin-  law  i,i'  the 
 Church,  in  which  imiiorlant  consideratiouH 
 were  involved,  excited  long  and  angry  cim- 
 flicts.  Day  after  day.  throu^^h  ueeks  and 
 months  of  the  most  critical  period,  the  din- 
 pute  was  renewed.  The  legates  tluniselvi*** 
 were  divided  ;  and  at  one  time  the  dissolu- 
 tion of  the  council  seemed  inevitable. 
 
 There  are  many  controverted  pointn  on 
 which  the  council  gives  no  information, 
 and  they  are  the  very  (piestions  which  it 
 was  most  important  to  decide.  \o  one 
 can  leani  from  its  decrees,  for  instance, 
 what  is  the  sound  doctrine  about  iiurga- 
 tory,  nor  in  what  due  veneration  for  nnagcH 
 consists,  nor  which  is  the  sacramental  fonn 
 in  ])enance,  or  matrimony,  nor  what  is  the 
 nature  of  original  sin,  nor  what  is  the  pro- 
 l)er  definition  of  a  sacrament.  There  were 
 some  sul)jects  debated  more  than  ruIK- 
 ciently,  but  left  at  last  undecided  ;  and 
 there  were  some  positions  which  the  coun- 
 cil could  not  renounce,  because  this  would 
 have  contradicted  the  decrees  of  former 
 l)opes  and  councils,  and  which  they  could 
 not  afiirm,  because  they  were  opposed  by 
 ])owerful  members  of  the  existing  Church. 
 
 In  spite,  however,  of  the  imi)erfect  and 
 contradictory  statements  of  the  Fathers  of 
 Trent,  they  had  no  hesitation  in  pro- 
 nouncing judgment  on  what  they  esteemed 
 Lutheran  oj)inions.  We  can  indeed  find 
 no  parallel  for  the  ])rodigality  of  their 
 curses,  unless  we  go  back  to  the  days  »)f 
 the  Donatist.s.  They  reach  not  only  to 
 those  whom  the  Church  of  all  ages  ha.s 
 called  blessed,  but  to  many  also  of  the 
 doctors  most  esteemed  in  the  Roman  com- 
 munion itself.  If  any  one,  for  examj)le, 
 denies  that  the  works'of  justified  nersons 
 are  truly  meritorious  of  eternal  hfe,  or 
 that  the  mass  is  a  true  and  propitiatory 
 sacrifice,  or  that  the  custom  of  confessing 
 privately  to  a  priest  has  existed  from  ihc 
 apostolic  age,  or  that  the  Church  has  |Kmer 
 to  change  an  institution  of  CllltlsT,  he 
 falls  under  the  imi)recation  of  the  council. 
 In  the  decree  of  the  last  sejision  on  the 
 invocation  of  saints,  and  the  use  of  imngeii 
 and  relics,  an  anathema  is  pronounci-d.  not 
 only  against  those  who  teach,  but  those 
 who  even  think  dilfenntly.  Antl  >et  the 
 synod  which  spoke  with  so  much  Loidniiui 
 had  no  claim,  c  ither  from  numbers  or  cha- 
 ractcr,  to  be  taken  as  the  re|)reHentative  of 
 the  Catholic  Church.  In  the  first  seven 
 sessions  laid  luuler  Paul  HI.,  ^hcn  the 
 ground  was  laid   for  maintaining  all  the 
 
(66 
 
 TRENT,  COUNCIL  OF. 
 
 errors  and  corruptions  of  the  lloman 
 Church,  less  than  sixty  bishops  were  pre- 
 sent. In  the  thirteenth,  under  Julius  III., 
 when  transuhstantiation  and  the  worship 
 of  the  host  were  defined,  only  forty-five 
 bishops  and  two  cardinals  were  assembled. 
 And  in  the  ninth  session  there  were  only 
 thirty-five  collected,  who  yet  presumed  to 
 take  the  title  of  an  Ecumenical  Council. 
 In  the  later  sessions  held  under  Pius  IV., 
 there  was  a  greater  number  of  bishops  at 
 Trent;  but  the  chief  subjects  in  dispute 
 had  been  ruled  in  the  earlier  periods  of 
 the  council,  and  the  deficiency  of  numbers 
 was  not  remedied  by  any  subsequent  con- 
 firmation. Of  those  who  were  present,  the 
 chief  part  were  Italians  ;  some  were  bishops 
 of  inconsiderable  sees,  and  some  mere 
 titulars.  There  were  among  them  not  a 
 few,  who  subsisted  on  pensions  granted  by 
 the  pope. 
 
 The  council  was  in  no  sense  the  free  as- 
 sembly to  which  Luther  and  others  had 
 appealed,  for  it  was  guided  throughout  by 
 papal  influence  ;  and,  as  the  Protestants 
 complained  in  1546,  it  was  not  convened 
 in  a  neutral  place,  while  the  pope,  who 
 was  the  great  delinquent  on  trial,  was  al- 
 lowed to  be  the  judge  in  his  own  cause. 
 There  were  external  causes  at  work,  which 
 prevented  the  freedom  of  debate.  At  the 
 very  time  when  the  doctrine  of  justification 
 was  under  review,  a  league  was  formed 
 between  the  pope  and  the  emperor,  for 
 putting  down  the  Protestants  ;  and  while 
 the  council  was  debating,  the  bishop  of 
 Rome  was  sending  his  contingent  of  troops. 
 In  the  council  itself,  the  legates  assumed 
 unreasonable  authority,  and  their  inter- 
 ruptions were  the  subject  of  continual  com- 
 plaint. During  the  later  sessions,  the  In- 
 quisition was  in  full  force,  and  there  were 
 persons  present  in  the  council  who  had 
 been  sufferers.  The  assembly  was  over- 
 borne by  Italian  prelates.  At  one  time, 
 when  very  important  subjects  were  under 
 discussion,  there  were  no  more  than  two 
 bishops  to  represent  the  Church  of  France. 
 On  another  occasion,  forty  bishops  were 
 sent  by  the  Roman  court  for  the  purpose 
 of  carrying  a  particular  point,  by  outvoting 
 the  Spanish  bishops,  by  whom  it  was  op- 
 posed. We  find  the  ambassadors  of  secu- 
 lar princes  expressing  in  the  strongest  lan- 
 guage their  sense  of  the  tyranny  under 
 which  the  council  was  held,  and  by  which 
 its  freedom  was  annihilated. 
 
 No  one  who  considers  these  circum- 
 stances can  wonder  that  the  beneficial  re- 
 forms of  the  Church  did  not  result,  which 
 had  been  so  long  expected  and  so  anxious- 
 ly desired.     They  had  been  demanded,  but 
 
 I  in  vain,  by  the  emperor,  and  other  great 
 I  princes,  as  well  as  by  diets  and  other  as- 
 ;  semblies  of  the  empire.  Even  as  late  as 
 i  1j63,  the  French  ambassador  delivered  a 
 list  of  thirty-four  articles  of  required  re- 
 formation. After  the  twenty-second  ses- 
 sion we  find  the  Imperialists  affirming  that 
 iT^e  of  the  desired  changes  had  been  pro- 
 posed. And  just  before  the  close  of  the 
 council,  the  Spanish  ambassador  came  to 
 the  legates  with  a  written  complaint,  that 
 the  principal  things  for  which  it  was  as- 
 sembled had  been  omitted,  and  the  rest 
 carried  with  precipitation.  The  French 
 envoy  filled  the  letters  which  he  addressed 
 to  his  court  with  similar  testimony.  What- 
 ever beneficial  changes  in  the  administra- 
 tion of  Church  affairs  seemed  to  have  been 
 made,  were  neutralized  by  the  terms  in 
 which  the  rights  of  the  see  of  Rome  were 
 reserved,  and  which  were  vague  enough 
 to  admit  every  abuse,  the  pope  himself 
 being  constituted  judge  in  each  case,  and 
 possessing  also  a  dispensing  power. 
 
 The  last  session  was  brought  hastily  to 
 a  close,  partly  through  the  diplomatic  skill 
 of  the  legate  INIorone  ;  but  chiefly  on  ac- 
 count of  the  illness  of  the  pope,  because 
 everybody  knew  that  if  he  died  during 
 the  sitting  of  the  assembly,  a  schism  was 
 inevitable. 
 
 The  history  of  the  council  was  written, 
 in  1619,  by  Sarpi,  and  forty  years  later  by 
 Cardinal  Pallavicini.  The  former  was  the 
 most  learned  person  of  the  age,  a  states- 
 man and  historian  as  well  as  a  divine  ;  the 
 latter  is  chiefly  known  as  an  apologist  of 
 the  court  and  Church  of  Rome.  His  work 
 has  been  described  as  more  injurious  to 
 papal  interests  than  that  of  his  prede- 
 cessor ;  because  if  the  one  has  shown  how 
 much  may  be  said  against  the  Council  of 
 Trent,  the  other  has  made  it  equally  plain 
 how  little  can  be  alleged  in  its  defence. 
 
 The  decrees  of  the  council  were  signed 
 by  only  255  members :  four  of  these  were 
 legates  of  the  papal  see ;  two,  cardinals  ; 
 three,  patriarchs ;  twenty-five,  archbishops ; 
 one  hundred  and  sixty-eight,  bishops ; 
 thirty-nine,  deputies  of  absent  prelates  ; 
 seven,  abbots ;  and  seven  were  generals  of 
 religious  orders.  The  Greek  Church  and 
 the  English  Chiu'ch  were  not  represented. 
 It  was  subscribed  on  separate  schedules, 
 by  the  ambassadors  of  the  sovereigns  who 
 still  adhered  to  the  Romish  system. 
 
 The  following  are  the  anathemas  of  the 
 council. 
 
 1.  The  sacred  oecumenical  and  general 
 s\iiod  of  Trent,  lawfully  assembled  in  the 
 Holy  Ghost,  and  presided  over  by  the 
 three  legates  of  the  aiiostolic  see,  having 
 
TRENT,  COUNCIL  ur 
 
 iOl 
 
 it  constantly  in  view  that,  by  the  removal 
 of  errors,  the  gospel,  which,  proniised  afore- 
 time in  the  Holy  Scrii^tures  by  the  \)vo- 
 ])hets,  CllliIST  himself  tirst  pul)lished  with 
 his  own  mouth,  and  then  commanded  iiis 
 apostles  to  preacli  to  every  creature,  as  the 
 source  of  all  saving  truth  and  instruction 
 of  manners,  should  be  preserved  pure  in  the 
 Church;  and  clearly  perceiving  that  tliis 
 truth  and  this  instruction  are  contained 
 in  Avritten  books  (uul  uiiicn'tfcfi  tnulitions, 
 which  traditions  have  been  received  by  the 
 apostles  from  the  mouth  of  Christ  hiinsclf, 
 or  dictated  by  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  by 
 the  apostles  handed  down  even  to  us,  re- 
 ceives and  reverences,  conformably  to  the 
 example  of  the  orthodox  Fathers,  with  the 
 same  pious  regard  and  veneration,  all  the 
 books  as  well  of  the  Old  as  of  the  New 
 Testament — both  having  God  for  their 
 .author,  and  the  traditions  relatiiuj  both  to 
 faith  and  practice,  inasmuch  as  these  tradi- 
 tions were  cither  delivered  h/  word  of  nunith, 
 from  Christ,  or  dictated  by  the  Holy 
 Ghost,  and  preserved  by  uninterrujited 
 succession  in  the  Catholic  Church.  The 
 books  received  by  this  council  are,  of  the 
 Old  Testament,  the  five  books  of  Moses,  viz. 
 Genesis,  &:c.,  Joshua,  Judges,  liuth,  four 
 of  Kings,  two  of  Chronicles,  first  of  I'.sdras, 
 second  of  Esdras,  called  Nehemias,  Tobias, 
 Judith,  Esther,  Job,  Psalms  of  David, 
 consisting  of  loO,  Proverbs,  Ecclesiastes, 
 Cantica,  "Wisdom,  Ecclesiasticus,  Isaiah, 
 Jeremiah,  with  Baruch,  Ezekiel,  ])aniel, 
 twelve  minor  prophets,  viz.  Hosea,  iicc, 
 the  first  and  second  of  Maccabees.  Of 
 the  New  Testament,  the  four  Gospels,  the 
 Acts  of  the  Apostles,  the  Epistle  of  St. 
 Paul  the  Apostle  to  the  Romans,  two  to 
 the  Corinthians,  one  to  the  Galatians,  one 
 to  the  Ephesians,  one  to  the  Philij)])ians, 
 one  to  the  Colossians,  two  to  the  Thes- 
 salonians,  two  to  Timothy,  one  to  Titus, 
 one  to  Philemon,  one  to  the  Hebrews,  the 
 Epistle  catholic  of  St.  James,  the  two  ]^j)is- 
 tles  of  St.  Peter,  the  three  I'^pistlcs  of  St. 
 
 wisdom,  shall  presume  to  ptrvi-rt  and  in- 
 teri)ret  Holy  Scripture  to  his  own  sinse, 
 in  matters  of  faitli  and  manturs.  jHTtain- 
 ing  to  the  edification  of  ChriNiian  doctrine, 
 contrary  to  the  sense  wlii,!,  hath  Uvn  and 
 IS  maintained  by  the  holy  moihcr  Church, 
 to  Mlioin  it  belongs  to  jud;,'e  of  the  true 
 meaning  and  interpretation  of  the  Holy 
 Scrii)tures,  or  contrary  to  the  unanimoua 
 consent  of  the  Fathers,  even  if  nueh  inter- 
 prelations  should  never  he  made  public. 
 (See  Fathers  and  Tradition.) 
 
 HI.  Wliosoever  shall  say,  that  tlie  sacrn- 
 ments  of  tlie  New  Faw  were  not  all  in- 
 stituted l)y  Jksis  CilulsT  our  LoicD.  or 
 that  they  are  more  or  less  in  nund)er  than 
 seven ;  that  is  to  say,  bajjlism,  confirma- 
 tion, the  Lord's  su|)pir,  jjenance,  extreme 
 unction,  orders,  and  matrimony;  or  that 
 any  one  of  these  seven  is  not  tnily  and 
 
 )roperly  a  sacrament :  let  him  be  accursed. 
 
 See  Seren  Sacraincnts.) 
 
 IV.  Whosoever  shall  say,  that  ])y  the 
 sacraments  of  the  New  Law,  grace  is  not 
 conferred  ta/  the  mere  performance  tf  t/ie 
 act,  but  that  faith  alone  in  the  Divine  pro- 
 mise is  sufficient  to  obtain  grace  :  let  him 
 be  accursed.     (See  Ojnis  Ojxratum.) 
 
 V.  Whosoever  shall  say,  that  it  is  not 
 requisite  that  the  ministers,  when  cele- 
 brating the  sacraments,  should  have,  at 
 least,  the  intention  (f  doiny  that  trhich  the 
 Church  doeth  :  let  hun  be  accursed.  (See 
 Intention,  Priesfs\) 
 
 VI.  Wliosoever  shall  say,  that  the  free 
 will  of  man,  after  the  sin  of  Adam,  was 
 lost  and  extinguished :  let  him  be  ac- 
 cursed.    (See  Free  Will.) 
 
 VII.  The  formal  cause  of  justification  i« 
 the  righteousness  of  Goi) :  not  that  wh<'re- 
 by  he  is  himself  righteous,  but  that  where- 
 by he  maketh  us  righteous ;  that  with 
 which  we,  being  by  him  endowed,  are  re- 
 newed in  the  spirit  of  our  mind,  and  are 
 not  only  accounted,  but  are  truly  called, 
 and  are  righteous,  each  of  us  leeeiving 
 into   hhnseif  righteousness,  accordinjf  to 
 
 John,   the   Ei)istle   of  St.  Jude,  and  the     the  measure  whereby  the  Spirit 
 
 Kevelations  of  St.  John. 
 
 Whosoever  shall  not  receive  these  books 
 entire  with  all  their  parts,  (i.  e.  the  Apo- 
 crypha as  Avell  as  the  canonical  books,)  as 
 they  are  used  to  be  read  in  the  (lloman) 
 Cathohc  Church,  and  are  contained  in  the 
 ancient  Vulgate  Latin  edition,  for  sacred 
 and  canonical,  and  shall  knowingly  and 
 wilfully  contemn  the  aforesaid  traditions : 
 let  hini  be  accursed.  (See  liible,  Scripture, 
 Apocrypha.) 
 
 II.  Moreover,  in  order  to  repress  the 
 arrogant  and  self-sufficient,  the  council 
 decrees,  that  no  one,  relying  on  his  own 
 
 rdnifr 
 divine 
 
 th 
 
 to  every  man  severallv  as  he  will,  and  ao- 
 cording  to  every  man  s  disjiosjiion  and  co- 
 operation.    (See  Sancti/iratinn.) 
 
 VHL  Whosoever  shall  say,  that  the  un- 
 I  godly  is  justified  by  faith  alone,  so  iw  to 
 ]  unde'rstand  that  no"thing  else  in  required 
 to  co-operate  in  obtaining  the  gnicc  of 
 \  justification  ;  and  that  it  is  by  no  means 
 j  necessary  that  he  should  be  pre|mr«l  and 
 I  disposed  by  the  motion  of  his  own  will : 
 I  let  him  be  accursed.  (See  Justification.) 
 I  IX.  Whosoever  shall  kov,  that  in  the 
 ]  maM  there  is  not  a  true  and  nrojxir  sa- 
 crifice offered  uj)  to  GoD,  and  that  the 
 
768 
 
 TRENT,  COUNCIL  OF. 
 
 offering  up  is  no  more  than  the  giving  us 
 Christ  to  eat :  let  him  be  accursed.  (See 
 Satisfaction ,  HomisJi . ) 
 
 X.  Whosoever  shall  say,  that  by  these 
 words,  "  This  do  in  remembrance  of  me," 
 Christ  did  not  ordain  the  a])ostles,  priests, 
 or  that  he  did  not  ap])oint  that  they  and 
 other  priests  should  otter  up  his  body  and 
 blood  :  let  him  be  accursed.    (See  Orders.) 
 
 XL  Whosoever  shall  say,  tliat  the  sa- 
 crifice of  the  mass  is  one  only  of  praise  and 
 thanksgiving,  or  a  bare  commemoration 
 of  the  sacrifice  made  on  the  cross,  but  not 
 a  propitiatory  sacrifice,  or  that  it  is  profit- 
 able only  to  the  partaker,  and  that  it  ought 
 not  to  be  ofiered  up  for  the  quick  and  the 
 dead  for  sins,  pains,  satisfactions,  and 
 other  necessities :  let  him  be  accursed. 
 (See  JIass,  Sacrifice  of.) 
 
 XII.  Whosoever  shall  deny,  that  in  the 
 most  holy  sacrament  of  the  eucharist,  the 
 body  and  blood,  together  with  the  soul 
 and' Divinity,  of  our  Lord  Jesis  Christ, 
 and,  consequently,  the  whole  of  Christ, 
 are  truly,  really,  and  substantially  con- 
 tained ;  but  shall  say  that  they  are  there 
 only  s}nnbolically,  figuratively,  or  virtually : 
 let  him  be  accursed.  (See  Heal  Presence 
 and  Iran.suhstantiatioii.) 
 
 XIII.  Whosoever  shall  say,  that  in  the 
 holy  sacrament  of  the  eucharist,  the  sub- 
 stance of  bread  and  wine  remains,  together 
 with  the  substance  of  the  body  and  blood 
 of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  and  shall  deny 
 that  wonderful  and  singular  change  of  the 
 whole  substance  of  the  bread  into  the 
 body,  and  of  the  whole  substance  of  the 
 wine  into  the  blood,  the  species  of  bread 
 and  wine  still  remaining,  which  change  the 
 (Iloman)  Catholic  Church  very  fitly  calleth 
 Transubstantiation :  let  him  be  accursed. 
 (See  Transuhsfantiation.) 
 
 XIV.  Whosoever  shall  say,  that  Christ 
 exhibited  in  the  eucharist  is  only  spirit- 
 ually eaten,  and  not  also  sacramentally 
 and  really:  let  him  be  accursed.  (See 
 £ucharist.) 
 
 XV.  Whosoever  shall  say,  that  in  the 
 most  holy  sacrament  of  the  eucharist, 
 Christ,  the  only-begotten  Son  of  God,  is 
 not  to  be  adored  with  the  worship  called 
 Latria  even  outAvardly ;  nor  honoured  by 
 a  peculiar  festival,  nor  solemnly  carried 
 about  in  processions,  according  to  the 
 praiseworthy  and  universal  rite  and  usage 
 of  the  holy  Church,  nor  exposed  publicly 
 to  the  people  to  be  worshipped,  and  that 
 its  worshippers  are  idolaters :  let  him  be 
 accursed.     (See  Corjms  Cliristi.) 
 
 XVI.  A^^losoever  shall  say,  that  the 
 holy  eucharist  ought  not  to  be  reserved 
 in  a  sacred  place,  but  is  immediately  after 
 
 consecration  necessarily  to  be  distributed 
 to  those  present,  or  that  it  ought  not  to  be 
 carried  in  a  respectful  manner  to  the  sick : 
 let  him  be  accursed.  (See  Elevation  of  the 
 Host.) 
 
 XVII.  Whosoever  shall  say,  that  it  is 
 the  commandment  of  GoD,  or  necessary  to 
 salvation,  that  all  and  every  faithful  Chris- 
 tian should  receive  the  most  holy  sacra- 
 ment of  the  eucharist,  under  both  kinds  : 
 let  him  be  accursed.  (See  Cojnmiinion  in 
 One  Kind.) 
 
 XVIII.  Whosoever  shall  say,  that  the 
 holy  Catholic  Church  hath  not  been  moved 
 by  just  cause  and  reason  to  administer  the 
 bread  only  to  the  laity,  and  even  to  the 
 clergy  not  officiating,  or  that  it  is  in  error 
 in  so  doing :  let  him  be  accursed.  (See 
 Cup.) 
 
 XIX.  AVhosoever  shall  deny,  that  the 
 whole  of  Christ,  the  source  and  author 
 of  all  grace,  is  received  in  the  bread,  be- 
 cause, as  some  falsely  affirm,  according  to 
 Christ's  own  institution,  he  is  not  re- 
 ceived under  one  and  each  kind :  let  him 
 be  accursed.  (See  Communion  in  One 
 Kind.) 
 
 XX.  "\Miosoever  shall  say,  that  the 
 mass  ought  to  be  performed  only  in  the 
 vulgar  tongue  :  let  him  be  accursed.  (See 
 Liturfiy.) 
 
 XXi.  The  Catholic  Church,  instructed 
 by  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  in  conformity  to 
 the  Holy  Scriptures,  and  the  ancient  tra- 
 dition of  the  Fathers,  hath  taught  in  its 
 sacred  councils,  and,  lastly,  in  this  (Ecu- 
 menical synod,  that  there  is  a  purgatory, 
 and  that  the  souls  detained  therein  are 
 assisted  by  the  prayers  of  the  faithful,  and 
 more  especially  by  the  acceptable  sacrifice 
 of  the  altar.     (See  Piirf/atory.) 
 
 XXII.  AVhosoever  shall  say,  that  after 
 receiving  the  grace  of  justification,  any 
 penitent  sinner  hath  his  offence  so  remitted, 
 and  his  obnoxiousness  to  eternal  punish- 
 ment so  blotted  out,  as  to  render  him  no 
 longer  obnoxious  to  temporal  punishment, 
 to  be  undergone  either  in  this  world  or  in 
 the  future  in  purgatory,  before  an  entrance 
 can  be  opened  to  the  kingdom  of  heaven : 
 let  him  be  accursed.     (See  Purgatory.) 
 
 XXIII.  This  holy  synod  enjoins  all 
 bishops  and  others  who  undertake  the 
 office  of  teaching,  to  instruct  the  faithful, 
 that  the  saints  who  reign  together  with 
 Christ  offer  up  their  prayers  to  God  for 
 men,  that  it  is  good  and  profitable  to  in- 
 voke them  in  a  supplicating  manner,  and 
 that,  in  order  to  procure  benefit  from 
 God  through  his  Son  Jesus  Christ  our 
 Lord,  who  is  our  only  Hedeemer  and 
 Saviour,  we  should  have  recourse  to  their 
 
TRENT,  COUNCIL  OF. 
 
 prayers,  help,  and  assistance ;  and  tluit 
 those  persons  hold  im])ious  ojiinions  ^vho 
 deny  that  the  saints  enjoyini;  eternal  hap- 
 piness in  heaven  are  to  be  invoked  ;  or 
 Avho  atlirm,  that  the  saints  do  not  ])ray  for 
 men,  or  that  the  invokinj;-  them  that  they 
 may  pray  ever  for  every  one  of  us  in  par- 
 ticular, is  idolatry,  or  is  reijuj^nant  to  the 
 word  of  God,  and  contrary  to  the  honour 
 of  the  one  Mediator  between  God  and 
 men,  Jesus  Ciiiust,  or  that  it  is  foolish 
 to  supplicate  orally  or  mentally  those 
 who  reign  in  heaven.  (See  I/i vara f ion  of 
 Saints.) 
 
 XXIV.  Also  the  bodies  of  the  holy  mar- 
 t\Ts  and  others  living  Avitli  Ciiuisr,  having 
 been  lively  members  of  Christ  and  tem- 
 ples of  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  to  be  raised 
 again  by  him  to  eternal  life  and  glory,  are 
 to  be  reverenced  by  the  faithful,  as  by 
 them  many  benefits  are  bestowed  by  God 
 on  men ;  so  that  they  who  affirm  that 
 reverence  and  honour  are  not  due  to  the 
 reliques  of  saints,  or  that  it  is  useless  for 
 the  faithful  to  honour  them  or  other  sacred 
 monuments,  and  a  vain  thing  to  celebrate 
 the  memory  of  the  saints,  for  the  ])urpose 
 of  obtaining  their  assistance,  are  wholly  to 
 be  condemned,  as  the  Church  hath  before 
 condemned  and  now  condemns  them.  The 
 images  of  Christ,  and  of  the  Virgin  Mother 
 of  God,  and  of  the  other  saints,  are  to  be 
 set  up  and  retained,  especially  in  churches, 
 and  due  honour  and  reverence  to  be  paid 
 unto  them.  (See  Image  Worship,  Mario- 
 latri/,  and  Ilelics.) 
 
 XXV.  Since  the  power  of  granting  in- 
 dulgences hath  been  bestowed  by  Christ 
 upon  the  Church,  and  such  power  thus 
 l^ivinely  imparted  hath  been  exercised  by 
 her  even  in  the  earliest  times ;  this  holy 
 synod  teaches  and  enjoins  that  the  use  of 
 indulgences,  as  very  salutary  to  Christian 
 people,  and  approved  of  by  the  sacred 
 councils,  be  retained  in  the  Church,  and 
 pronounces  an  anathema  on  such  as  shall 
 affirm  them  to  be  useless,  or  deny  the 
 power  of  granting  them  to  be  in  the 
 Church.     (See  Lu/idf/cnces.) 
 
 XXVI.  The  holy  synod  exhorts  and 
 adjures  all  ])astors,  by  the  coming  of  our 
 Lord  and  Saviour,  that  as  good  soldiers 
 they  enjoin  the  faithful  to  observe  all 
 things  which  the  holy  Roman  Church,  tlie 
 mother  and  mistress  of  all  Churches,  hath 
 enacted,  as  well  as  such  things  as  have 
 been  enacted  by  this  and  other  cccumenical 
 councils.     (See  C'/inrch  of  Home.) 
 
 XXVII.  The  chief  pontifis,  by  virtue  of 
 the  supreme  authority  given  them  in  liie 
 universal  Church,  have  justly  assumed  the 
 power  of  reserving  some  graver  criminal 
 
 3d 
 
 TUUoiaiM. 
 
 ;()9 
 
 causes  to  their  own  peculiar  judLMiient. 
 (See  ^upremarif,  Vapal.) 
 
 XXVIII.  Tiu«  niort'  weiglitv  criuiinnl 
 cliarges  agamst  l)ish(.ps  which  di'siTve  de- 
 position and  deprivation  may  be  judgi-U 
 and  determined  onlv  by  the  Hupreme  llo- 
 maii  poiititf.     (See  )'ojn.) 
 
 XXIX.  This  holy  synod  enjoins  all  pa- 
 triarclis,  j)riinates,  arcliljisjiops,  bisliops, 
 and  all  others  who,  by  right  or  custom, 
 ought  t()  assist  at  a  provincial  council,  that 
 in  the  first  jji-ovincial  synod  that  may  be- 
 holden after  the  conclusion  of  the  present 
 council,  they  do  ojjenly  receive  all  and  each 
 of  the  things  which  have  been  defined  and 
 enacted  by  this  holy  synod  ;  also  that  they 
 do  ])roinise  and  profess  true  obedience  to 
 the  suj)reme  Roman  jjontitl",  and  at  the 
 same  time  publicly  detest  and  anathematize 
 all  heresies  condemned  by  the  sacred  ca- 
 nons, the  general  councils,  and  especially 
 by  this  jiresent  synod.     (See  Popery.) 
 
 XXX.  Whosoever  shall  sav,  that  the 
 clergy  in  holy  orders,  or  regulars  having 
 made  a  solemn  profession  of  chastity,  may 
 contract  marriage,  and  that  a  marriage  so 
 contracted  is  valid,  notwithstanding  the 
 ecclesiastical  law  or  vow ;  and  that  to 
 maintain  the  contrary  is  nothing  else  than 
 to  condemn  matrimony,  and  that  all  may 
 contract  marriage  who  do  not  feel  them- 
 selves to  have  the  gift  of  continence,  even 
 though  they  should  have  made  a  vow  of 
 it :  let  him  be  accursed;  since  C»oi)  denies 
 it  not  to  such  as  rightly  ask  it,  nor  will  he 
 suffer  us  to  be  tempted  above  what  we  are 
 able.     (See  Cetibucj/.) 
 
 XXXI.  Whosoever  shall  say,  that  the 
 state  of  matrimony  is  to  be  preferred  to 
 the  state  of  virginity  or  single  life,  and 
 that  it  is  not  better  or  more  blessed  to 
 continue  in  virginity  or  single  life  :  let 
 him  be  accursed.     (See  Matrimoiuj.) 
 
 TRKNTAL.  A  service  of  thirtv  ma-vsea 
 for  the  dead,  usually  celebrate(i  on  oa 
 manv  difierent  davs. 
 
 TRICAXALK."  "  A  round  ball  with  a 
 screw  coin  for  the  water  of  mixture,"  at 
 the  holy  communion  in  Bishop  Andrewcs's 
 cha])el,  and  in  Canterbury  cathedral. 
 C(inft'rbtiri/\s  J)om.,  KJKJ,  and  Xi  ale's  J  list. 
 of  (he  I'uritaiis,  vol.  ii.  pp.  2J.J,  Ul'l.— 
 JiU. 
 
 TRIFORIUM.  Any  paRsago  in  the 
 walls  of  a  church,  hut  generallv  restricted 
 in  it,s  use  to  the  passage  imniomnt«-ly  over 
 the  arches  of  the  great  arca<i  "in 
 
 Norman  and  Karly  Knglish,  :  m 
 
 arcade  of  its  own.  It  is  so  cm.  .i  ,i.  m mg 
 in  most  ca.ses  a  trii)le  aperture,  opening  to 
 the  nave.  In  the  Geometrical  style,  the 
 Triforium  in  Kometimen  treated  a«  a  mere 
 
770 
 
 TRINITY 
 
 decorative  arcade,  connected  in  compo- 
 sition with  the  clerestory ;  and  in  the  De- 
 corated it  sinks  still  lower  into  a  course 
 of  panels,  pierced  at  intervals;  while  in 
 the  Perpendicular  it  either  wholly  disap- 
 pears, or  is  a  mere  lengthening  of  the  mul- 
 lions  of  the  clerestory  windows. 
 
 TRINITY.  (See  'Person,  God,  Jesus, 
 Christ,  3Iessiah,  Son  of  God,  Holy  Ghost.) 
 Of  Faith  in  the  Jlo/i/  Trinity.  —  "  There 
 is  but  one  living  and  true  GoD,  everlast- 
 ing, without  body,  parts,  or  passions:  of 
 infinite  power,  wisdom,  and  goodness  ;  the 
 jNIaker  and  Preserver  of  all  things,  both 
 visible  and  invisible.  And  in  unity  of  this 
 Godhead  there  be  three  persons,  of  one 
 substance,  power,  and  eternity ;  the  Fa- 
 ther, the  Son,  and  the  Holy  Ghost." 
 — Article  1. 
 
 "  Whosoever  will  be  saved :  before  all 
 things  it  is  necessary  that  he  hold  the 
 Catholic  faith.  AA'hicii  faith,  except  every 
 one  do  keep  whole  and  undefiled,  without 
 doubt  he  shall  perish  everlastingly.  And 
 the  Catholic  faith  is  this  :  That  we  worship 
 one  God  in  Trinity,  and  Trinity  in  Unity  : 
 neither  confounding  the  Persons,  nor  di- 
 viding the  substance." — Athanasian  Creed. 
 
 Here  it  is  said,  that  in  the  unity  of  the 
 Godhead  there  be  three  persons ;  that  is, 
 though  there  be  but  one  living  and  true 
 God,  yet  there  be  three  persons,  who  are 
 that  one  living  and  true  GoD.  Though 
 the  true  God  be  but  one  in  substance,  yet 
 he  is  three  in  subsistence  ;  and  so  three  in 
 subsistence,  as  still  to  be  but  one  in  sub- 
 stance. And  these  three  persons,  every 
 one  of  which  is  God,  and  yet  all  three  but 
 one  God,  are  really  related  to  one  an- 
 other ;  as  they  are  termed  in  Scripture, 
 one  is  a  Father,  the  other  a  Son,  the 
 other  a  Holy  Ghost.  The  first  is 
 Father  to  the  second,  the  second  is  Son 
 to  the  first,  the  third  is  neither  Father 
 nor  Son,  but  the  issue  or  spirit  of  both. 
 The  first  was  a  Father  from  eternity,  as 
 well  as  God  ;  the  second  was  God  from 
 eternity,  as  well  as  a  Son  ;  the  third  was 
 both  lioLY  Ghost  and  God  from  eternity, 
 as  well  as  either  of  them.  The  Father 
 is  the  first  person  in  the  Deity ;  not  be- 
 gotten, nor  proceeding,  but  begetting  ;  the 
 Son,  the  second,  not  begetting,  nor  pro- 
 ceeding, but  begotten  ;  the  Holy  Ghost, 
 the  third,  not  begotten,  nor  begetting,  but 
 proceeding.  The  first  is  called  the  Father, 
 because  he  begot  the  second ;  the  second 
 is  called  the  Son,  because  he  is  begotten 
 of  the  Father;  the  third  is  called  the 
 Holy  Ghost,  because  breathed  both  from 
 the  Father  and  the  Son. 
 
 And  though  these  be  thus  really  amongst 
 
 themselves  distinct  from  one  another,  yet 
 are  they  not  distinct  in  the  Divine  nature ; 
 they  are  not  distinct  in  essence,  though 
 they  be  distinct  in  the  manner  of  their 
 subsisting  in  it.  The  Father  subsists  as 
 a  Father,  the  Son  as  a  Son,  the  Holy 
 Ghost  as  a  Spirit,  and  so  have  distinct 
 subsistences  ;  yet  have  all  the  same  nume- 
 rical substance.  We  say  numerical  or  in- 
 dividual substance ;  for  otherAvise  they 
 might  have  all  tlie  same  Divine  nature,  and 
 yet  not  be  the  same  God.  As  Abraham, 
 Isaac,  and  Jacob  were  three  distinct  per- 
 sons, and  had  all  the  same  human  nature ; 
 yet  they  could  not  all  be  called  one  man ; 
 because,  though  they  had  but  one  human 
 nature,  yet  they  had  it  specifically,  as  dis- 
 tinguished into  several  individuals ;  not 
 numerically,  so  as  to  be  the  same  indi- 
 vidual man  ;  and,  therefore,  though  they 
 had  but  one  specifical,  they  had  several 
 numerical,  natures,  by  which  means  Abra- 
 ham was  one  man,  Isaac  another,  Jacob  a 
 third.  And  upon  the  same  account  is  it, 
 that,  amongst  the  angels,  Gabriel,  Michael, 
 liaphael,  though  they  have  the  same  an- 
 gelical nature,  yet  they  are  not  the  same 
 angel.  But  here  the '  Father,  Son,  and 
 Holy  Ghost  have  not  only  the  same 
 Divine  nature  "  in  specie,"  but  "  in  nu- 
 mero  ; "  and  so  have  not  only  one  and  the 
 same  nature,  but  are  one  and  the  same 
 God.  The  Father  is  the  self-same  indi- 
 vidual God  with  the  Son  ;  the  Son  is  the 
 self-same  indiyidual  GoD  with  the  Father; 
 and  the  Holy  Ghost  is  the  self-same  in- 
 dividual God  with  them  both.  We  say,  in- 
 dividual God,  for  the  Divine  nature  is  not 
 divided  into  several  Gods,  as  the  human 
 is  into  several  men,  but  only  distin- 
 guished into  several  persons,  every  one 
 of  which  hath  the  same  undivided  Divine 
 nature,  and  so  is  the  same  individual  God. 
 And  thus  it  is,  that  in  the  unity  of  the 
 Godhead  there  be  three  persons,  Father, 
 Son,  and  Holy  Ghost  ;  which  great  mys- 
 tery, though  we  be  not  able  adequately  to 
 conceive  of  it,  yet  the  Scriptures  give  a 
 sufficient  testimonial  to  it. — Beveridge. 
 
 The  sublime  mystery  of  the  Trinity  in 
 Unity  is  taught  by  revelation  —  not  by 
 reason ;  although  it  is  not  in  contradiction 
 to  this,  rightly  exercised,  nor  more  unin- 
 telligible than  many  of  the  "  things  hard 
 to  be  understood  "  in  Holy  Scripture.  A 
 plurality  in  the  Godhead  is  indicated  by 
 the  language  of  the  very  earliest  revela- 
 tions ;  which  plurality  is  plainly  expressed 
 under  the  Gospel  dispensation — a  sacred 
 Three  being  enumerated  by  mutual  relation 
 in  the  form  of  baptism,  and  by  name  in  the 
 apostolic  benediction ;  which  Three  are  also 
 
TRINITY. 
 
 frequently  mentioned  toj>ether  elsewhere, 
 though  not  in  terms  so  clear. 
 
 The  doctrine  may  })erha])s  be  gleaned 
 as  much  from  the  economy  of  creation,  as 
 from  that  of  redemption  ;  and  iierein  may 
 be  observed,  that  in  the  very  ct)mmence- 
 ment  of  the  sacred  history,  the  ])i:ity  is 
 mentioned  under  a  term  ()f  plural  si<>:nifi- 
 cation ;  and  "svhen  man,  the  more  eminent 
 ■work,  is  to  be  made,  and  is  afterwards 
 spoken  of,  a  Divine  council  seems  imj)lied  : 
 "  Let  us  make  man,"  »5i:c.,  "  the  man  is  l)e- 
 come  as  one  of  us.'"  This  jieculiar  fact 
 seems  referred  to,  and  corroborated  by, 
 the  introduction  to  St.  John's  Gospei ; 
 which  declares  that  the  "  Word  was  in 
 the  beginning  with  God."  Again,  each 
 of  the  sacred  Three  is  noticed  as  acting 
 separately  in  the  work.  With  respect  to 
 the  Father  this  is  clear  from  innumerable 
 passages,  in  which  the  Lord  God  is  men- 
 tioned as  the  Creator,  mdess  in  such  a 
 Trinity  be  implied,  which  tlien  shortly  de- 
 cides the  point  at  issue.  Of  the  Son  it  is 
 said,  "all  things  were  made  by  him;"  and 
 expressly,  "  without  him  was  not  anything 
 made  that  was  made."  (John  i.  3 ;  Col.  i. 
 16.)  And  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  that  by 
 him  are  made  and  created  both  man  and 
 beast.  (Job  xxxiii.  4  ;  Ps.  civ.  30.)  Thus 
 is  that  passage  intelligible,  "  By  the  word 
 of  the  Lord  were  the  heavens  made  :  and 
 all  the  host  of  them  by  the  breath  of  his 
 mouth."  (Ps.  xxxiii.  (3.)  The  mode  of 
 operation  in  the  work  of  redemption  has 
 been  before  noticed.  To  all  these  may  be 
 added,  that  the  sacred  Tiiri:e  are  men- 
 tioned equally  as  sending  and  instructing 
 the  prophets  and  teachers,  (Jer.  vii.  25 ; 
 Matt.  ix.  38;  x.  5;  Acts  xxvi.  16—18; 
 Isa.  xlviii.  16;  Acts  xiii.  2,  4;  xx.  28,)— 
 and  equally  speaking  by  them.  (Ileb.  i.  1  ; 
 2  Cor.  xiii.  3;  Mark  xiii.  11.)  Each,  too, 
 f^ives  life — raises  the  dead — and  is  joined 
 in  the  form  of  baptism,  and  Christian 
 benediction. 
 
 The  word  Elohim  is  a  plural  noun 
 (Gods)  ;  and  as  that  was  the  first  term 
 used  in  the  Divine  revelation,  it  seems  in- 
 tended to  indicate  that  jjlurality — the  holy 
 Trinity — afterwards  more  ])lainly  reveal- 
 ed. And  it  is  to  lie  noticed,  that  by  this 
 word  {Elohim)  was  the  earliest  revelation 
 made  to  man.  In  this  was  the  faith  of  the 
 patriarchs  expressed,  as  ])articidariy  in 
 Gen.  xxviii.  20—22;  and  by  this  name 
 God  expressly  declares  he  a|)])eari'd  unto 
 them,  when  by  his  "name  Jehovah"  he 
 was  "not  known."  (Ex.  vi.  3.)  Indeed 
 this  latter  term  seems  for  a  time  to  have 
 been  used  less  as  a  name,  than  as  a  cha- 
 racter, of  the  Elohim,  since  it  was  subse- 
 3  u  2 
 
 quently  that  it  was  announced  as  the 
 "name"- 1  AM  — by  which  thi-  Divine 
 phirahty  was  to  be  known  in  unity  (Ex 
 Jii.  14;  vi.  2.)  Jehovah  (ioi,  hath  not 
 been  "seen  at  any  tinu-;"  whereas,  of  the 
 Elohim,  one,  at  least— ilie  ui.j^'el  Jehovah 
 in  prelude  to  his  incarnation— condescend- 
 ed  frequently  to  aj)j)ear,  and  talk  with 
 man.  The  translation  of  Jehovah  by 
 Adomii  (or  Lords)  is  also  remarkable; 
 with  the  coincidence  to  be  found  in  the 
 mode  adojjted  by  the  heathen,  of  spenking 
 of  their  gods;  as  in  the  name  of  Haalim 
 for  Baal.    (Judges  ii.  11  ;  Jlosea  xi.  2.) 
 
 That  I'^Johim  inqjlies  plurality  secmfl 
 evident,  from  the  construction  of  «uch  a 
 passage  as  Gen.  xx.  13,  where  it  is  said, 
 "  when  they,  I'^ohim,  caused  me  to  wan- 
 der." Again,  (xxxv.  7,)  when  "  they  ap- 
 l)carcd  unto  him,"  at  Bethel.  And  (JohK. 
 xxiv.  19)  "the  I'dohim  are  holy."  In  Ph. 
 Iviii.  11,  the  I''lohim  are  called  "judges;" 
 in  Ps.  cxlix.  2  ;  Isa.  xliv.  2,  and  liv.  6, 
 "makers"  and  "kings;"  in  Ecd.  xii.  1, 
 "creators;"  and  in  Jer.  xxiii.  30,  "the 
 living  Gods."  Other  places  are  mentioned 
 by  Parkhurst ;  as  Gen.  xxxi.  53  ;  Deut.  iv. 
 7  ;  V.  23,  or  26 ;  1  Sam.  iv.  8 ;  2  Sam.  vii. 
 23 ;  Isa.  vi.  8 ;  Jer.  x.  10,  cVc. 
 
 In  perfect  accordance  with  this  is  the 
 first  great  commandment  given  from  -Mount 
 Sinai:  "I  am  the  Lord  thy  (ioD,"  {Jeho- 
 vah EhiJiim,)  thou  "  shalt  have  no  other 
 gods  before  me  ; "  more  i)lainly  set  forth 
 in  the  baptismal  "name  — the  Eathku, 
 the  Son,  and  the  Holy  Gho>t,  a  "  holy, 
 blessed,  and  glorious  Trinity,"  in  insepar- 
 able Unity,  and  ])erfect  co-equality,  as  may 
 be  most  safely  concluded,  from  the  various 
 passages  in  which  the  sacred  Tiikkk  are 
 mentioned  in  ditierent  order — the  Fathee 
 first,  in  Matt,  xxviii.  11>,  — the  SoN  first,  in 
 2  Cor,  xiii.  14,— and  the  Holy  Ghost 
 first,  in  1  Cor.  xii.  4—6;  Eph.  iv.  4—6, 
 and  Luke  i.  35. 
 
 The  laws  and  ordinances  of  the  Jews 
 were  ])eculiarly  adapted  to  guard  the  pun- 
 worship  against  heathen  idolatry;  there- 
 fore, when  the  legislator,  in  hpeakinjf  of 
 (iOD,  uses  a  term  implying  pluralitv,  which 
 he  does,  with  verbs  and  persons  lingular, 
 above  thirty  times,  this,  too,  in  the  Deca- 
 logue, aiul  in  the  repetition  of  Iuwk,  and 
 fre(|uently  jirefnced  by  an  adilres»,  de- 
 mandim,'  attention,— "  Hear,  ()  Inrnfl!" 
 "Thus  saith  the  Loud!*'  it  could  not  hut 
 be  that  plurality  in  the  G(>I)HhL\I)  waj»  in- 
 tended to  be  announced.  Thiw  is  »trongly 
 corroliorated  by  such  exnrcssions  as  "  holy 
 (iods,"  "thy  Crcatorw,'  bcinp  used  by 
 Joshua  and  Solomon  ;  Uie  one  an  eminent 
 type  of  ChulsT,  the  other  inspired  with 
 
772 
 
 TRINITY  SUNDAY. 
 
 learning  in  an  extraordinary  degree. — See 
 Bishop  Iliintimiford's  "  Thoiu/hts  on  the 
 Trinity"  xxii.,  xxiii.  And  we  may  be 
 rather  confimied  in  the  opinion,  by  the 
 futile  attempts  of  the  Jewish  liabbins,  to 
 make  tolerable  sense  of  the  peculiar  phrase- 
 ology adopted,  while  denying  the  implica- 
 tion of  a  plurality. 
 
 The  doctrine  of  a  Trinity,  and  this  in 
 Unity,  is  not  then  an  arbitrary  assumption, 
 or  ail  attempt  to  be  wise  "  above  that 
 which  is  ^^ritten  ;"  but  it  necessarily  arises 
 out  of  certain  Scriptural  expressions  and 
 passages,  which  though  ap])arently,  or  to 
 human  sense,  contradictory  to  each  other, 
 must  in  reality  be  consistent :  and  the 
 Catholic,  or  orthodox  system,  framed  on 
 the  whole  of  these,  reconciles  them  in  a 
 more  easy  and  natural  manner  than  any 
 other  scheme  offered. 
 
 The  word  "  Trinity,"  it  is  confessed, 
 docs  not  occur  in  Holy  Scripture ;  nor  does 
 the  word  "  Unity,"  as  applied  to  the  Deity. 
 But  neither  do  the  words  "omnipresence" 
 and  "  omniscience  ; "  and  as  the  use  of  these 
 has  never  been  objected  to  in  speaking  of 
 the  attributes  of  Him  who  is  everywhere 
 present,  and  "  knoweth  all  things,"  so  may 
 the  others  be  used  with  equal  propriety  to 
 express  the  distinct  existence  of  Father, 
 Son,  and  Holy  Ghost,  and  the  simple 
 oneness  of  God  !  The  use  is  admissible,  to 
 prevent  circumlocution ;  and  irreverence 
 may  be  deprecated  where  language  is  in- 
 efficient. The  word  Trinity  was  used  by 
 the  Greek  and  Latin  Fathers,  in  the  middle 
 of  the  second  century,  in  a  way  that  indi- 
 cated it  was  not  then  a  novel  expression  ; 
 and  was  considered  by  the  orthodox  so 
 unobjectionable,  as  to  be  employed  without 
 reserve  in  their  opposition  to  the  Sabellian 
 heresy. 
 
 Indeed,  the  primitive  Fathers  appear  to 
 have  indulged  an  idea,  that  without  a  dis- 
 tinction of  hypostases  in  the  Godhead,  it 
 is  difficult  to  imagine  that  ai/rap/ctta,  or 
 self-sufficiency,  and  perfect  bliss,  which 
 seems  to  have  arisen  from  a  ])ivine  society, 
 as  in  Prov.  viii.  22,  23,  particularly  30, 
 and  elsewhere.  Indeed,  the  notion  of  a 
 Trinity  has  prevailed  immemorially,  long 
 before  the  term  was  adopted  ;  and  is  found 
 in  the  heathen  Avorshij),  as  well  as  in  the 
 Church  ;  both,  no  doubt,  having  it  from  a 
 common  original. 
 
 TKINITY  SUNDAY.  The  solemn 
 festivals,  which  in  the  foregoing  parts  of 
 our  annual  service  have  propounded  to  our 
 consideration  the  mysterious  work  of  man's 
 redemption,  and  the  several  steps  taken  to 
 accomplish  it,  naturally  lead  us  up  to,  and 
 at  last   conclude   with,  that   of  the   Tri- 
 
 nity. The  incarnation  and  nativity,  the 
 passion  and  resurrection  of  the  blessed 
 Jesus,  demonstrate  how  great  things  the 
 Son  of  God  hath  condescended  to  do  for 
 us.  The  miraculous  powers  with  which 
 the  first  disciples  were  endued,  and  the 
 sanctifying  graces  with  which  all  the  faith- 
 ful are  assisted,  do  prove  how  great  and 
 how  necessary  a  part  the  "Holy  Spirit" 
 bore  in  this  work,  both  for  publishing  the 
 salvation  of  the  world,  and  for  rendering 
 it  effectual.  And  all  agree  in  representing 
 to  us  the  inestimable  love  of  the  "  Father," 
 by  whom  that  "  Son  "  was  sent,  and  that 
 "  Spirit"  so  wonderfully  and  so  plentifully 
 shed  abroad.  Most  justly,  therefore,  after 
 such  informations  how  fit  a  subject  this 
 is  for  our  wonder  and  adoration,  does  the 
 Church  on  this  day  call  upon  us  to  cele- 
 brate the  mystery  of  those  "  three  "  per- 
 sons in  the  unity  of  the  Godhead  ;  each 
 of  whom  hath  so  kindly,  and  so  largely, 
 contributed  to  this  united  and  stupendous 
 act  of  mercy,  upon  which  the  whole  of  all 
 our  hopes  and  happiness  depends. — Dean 
 Stanhope. 
 
 Notwithstanding  on  each  day,  and  espe- 
 cially Sundays,  the  Church  celebrates  the 
 praises  of  the  Trinity,  in  her  doxologies, 
 hymns,  creeds,  &c. ;  yet  the  wisdom  of  the 
 Church  thought  it  meet,  that  such  a  mys- 
 tery as  this,  though  part  of  the  meditation 
 of  each  day,  should  be  the  chief  subject 
 of  one,  and  this  to  be  the  day.  For  no 
 sooner  had  our  Lord  ascended  into  heaven, 
 and  God's  Holy  Spirit  descended  upon 
 the  Church  ;  but  there  ensued  the  notice 
 of  the  glorious  and  incomprehensible  Tri- 
 nity, which  before  that  time  was  not  so 
 clearly  known.  The  Church  therefore, 
 having  solemnized  in  an  excellent  order 
 all  the  high  feasts  of  our  Lord,  and  after 
 that  of  the  descent  of  God's  Spirit  upon 
 the  apostles,  thought  it  a  thing  most  sea- 
 sonable to  conclude  these  great  solemnities 
 with  a  festival  of  full,  special,  and  express 
 service  to  the  holy  and  blessed  Trinity. 
 — Bp.  Sparrow. 
 
 This  mystery  was  not  clearly  delivered 
 to  the  Jews,  because  they,  being  always 
 surrounded  by  idolatrous  nations,  would 
 have  easily  mistaken  it  for  a  doctrine  of 
 plurality  of  Gods ;  but  yet  it  was  not  so 
 much  hidden  in  those  times,  but  that  any 
 one  with  a  spiritual  eye  might  have  dis- 
 cerned some  glimmerings  of  it  dispersed 
 through  the  Old  Testament.  The  first 
 chapter  in  the  Bible  seems  to  set  forth 
 three  persons  in  the  Godhead  ;  for,  be- 
 sides the  "  Spirit  of  GoD  "  which  "  moved 
 upon  the  face  of  the  waters,"  (ver.  2.)  we 
 find  the  great  Creator  (at  the  26th  verse) 
 
TRISAGION, 
 
 TRUMPETS,  FEAST  OF. 
 
 773 
 
 consultiiio:  with  others  about  the  <;rcatost 
 work  of  liis  creation,  the  niakin«;  of  man, 
 of  which  Ave  may  be  assured  the  WoKD  or 
 Son  of  God  was  one,  since  "  all  thinj^^s 
 wei*e  made  by  him,  and  without  him  was 
 not  anythin<i^  made  that  was  made.''  So 
 that  those  two  verses  fully  ])ointinfif  out 
 to  us  the  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  (Jiiost, 
 make  this  a  very  proper  lesson  for  the 
 solemnity  of  the  day.  The  reason  of  the 
 choice  of  the  other  first  lesson  is  as  ol)- 
 vious :  it  records  tlic  a])])oarance  of  the 
 great  Jehovah  to  Abraliain,  whom  the 
 patriarch  acknowled<:;es  to  be  tlie  '*Jud<;e 
 of  all  the  earth;"  and  who  therefore,  by 
 vouchsafing  to  appear  with  two  others  in 
 his  company,  might  design  to  rej)resent  to 
 him  the  "  Trinity  of  Persons."  lint  this 
 sacred  mystery  is  nowhere  so  plainly  ma- 
 nifested as  in  the  second  lesson  for  the 
 morning,  which  at  one  and  the  same  time 
 relates  the  ba])tism  of  the  Son,  the  voice 
 of  the  Father,  and  the  descent  of  the 
 Holy  Ghost  :  which,  though  they  are  (as 
 appears  from  this  chapter)  three  distinct 
 persons  in  number,  yet  the  second  lesson 
 at  evening  shows  they  arc  but  one  in  es- 
 sence.—  lilteat/tj. 
 
 The  Epistle  and  the  Gospel  are  the 
 same  that  were  anciently  assigned  for  the 
 Octave  of  Pentecost ;  the  Epistle  being 
 the  vision  of  St.  John  (Kev.  iv.) ;  and  the 
 Gospel,  the  dialogue  of  our  Loui)  M'ith 
 Nicodemus  ;  and  the  mention,  which  we 
 findtherein,  of  baptism,  of  the  Holy  Stikit 
 and  the  gifts  of  it,  though  it  might  then 
 fit  the  day  as  a  repetition,  as  it  were,  of 
 Pentecost,  so  is  it  no  less  fit  for  it  as  a 
 feast  of  the  blessed  Trinity'.  The  mission 
 of  the  Holy  Ghost  brings  with  it,  as 
 aforesaid,  more  light  and  clearness  to  the 
 doctrine  of  the  TiUNlTY :  and  when  more 
 fit  to  think  of  the  gifts  of  the  SriRiT,  than 
 on  a  solenni  day  of  ordination,  as  this  is 
 one,  when  men  are  consecrated  to  si)iritual 
 offices  ?  But,  besides  this,  we  have  in  the 
 Gospel  set  i)efore  us  all  the  three  ])ersons 
 of  the  sacred  Trinity,  and  the  same  like- 
 wise represented  in  the  vision,  which  the 
 Epistle  speaks  of,  with  an  hymn  of  ])raise, 
 *'  Holy,  holy,  holy,  Lord  God  Almighty," 
 ike.  :  which  expressions,  by  ancient  inter- 
 pretation, relate  to  the  Holy  Trinity,  as  is 
 above  said. — Jij).  S/xtrroir. 
 
 In  the  Roman  Church  the  Sundays  be- 
 tween Whitsiuiday  and  Advent  are  reck- 
 oned from  Pentecost  :  in  our  Churcli,  fol- 
 lowing the  old  English  custom  in  the 
 unreformed  office,  we  count  from  Trinity 
 Sundav. 
 
 TRISAGIOX.     (See  Tcrsanctus.) 
 
 TliUCE    OF    GOD.     In    the   French, 
 
 yVcrc  (If  Dien :  in  modern  Eatin,  Tirvia, 
 Trriin'a,  Trcnijn,  or  Truii<i  Dei. 
 
 In  the  eleventh  century,  when  the  dis- 
 orders and  licences  of  ])ri\  ate  wars,  between 
 particular  lords  and  i'amilics,  were  a  great 
 disturbance  to  the  j)eace  of  the  kingdom 
 of  l''rancc,  the  bishoj)s  took  upon  them  to 
 publish  injunctions,  forbidding  acts  of  vio- 
 lence, within  certain  times,  under  canoni- 
 cal i)ains.  These  jjrohibitions  were  called 
 Tniccnfdinl :  a  j)hrase  frecpiently  to  be  met 
 with  in  the  councils  held  al)out  that  time. 
 
 The  first  regulation  of  this  kind  was  in  a 
 synod,  held  in  the  diocese  of  J'^lno  in  Kou- 
 sillon,  A.  I).  1027  ;  where  it  was  enacted, 
 that,  throughout  that  countrv',  no  ])erson 
 shoidd  attack  his  enemy,  from  the  hour  of 
 nones  on  Saturday  to  that  of  j)rimes  on 
 Moiulay,  that  Sunday  might  have  its  jjrojjcr 
 celebration  :  that  no  person  should,  at  any 
 time,  attack  a  religious  or  ])riest  walking 
 iMiarmed  ;  nor  any  person  going  to,  or  re- 
 turning from,  churcli  :  that  nf)bo(ly  should 
 attack  a  duirch,  or  any  house  within 
 thirty  jiaces  round  it :  all  this  uiuler  penalty 
 of  exconnniniication. 
 
 TRUMPETS,  FEAST  ()!■.  An  an- 
 nual festival  of  the  Jews,  exjiressly  en- 
 joined ])y  the  law  of  Moses,  and  observed 
 u])on  the  first  day  of  the  seventh  month, 
 called  Tisri,  whicii  was  the  beginning  of 
 the  civil  year. 
 
 This  festival  is  expressly  called  a  sab- 
 bath, and  was  a  very  solemn  day,  on  which 
 no  servile  work  was  to  l)e  done  ;  only  \iro- 
 vision  made  for  tiieir  meals,  which  were 
 usiudly  very  ])lentiful  at  this  time.  Among 
 other  dishes  they  served  un  a  ram's  head, 
 in  memory  of  that  ram  which  was  sacrificed 
 in  the  room  of  Isaac;  which  they  fancy 
 was  done  ujion  this  day. 
 
 All  the  festivals  of  the  Jews,  it  is  true, 
 were  introduced  by  the  soinul  of  trumpets  : 
 but  this  was  attended  with  more  than 
 usual  solemnity.  For  they  began  to  blow 
 at  sunrising.  and  continued  till  sunset, 
 lie  who  sounded,  began  with  the  usual 
 prayer:  "Blessed  be  (JoD.  who  hath  sanc- 
 tified us  with  his  j)recej)ts,"  \c.,  subjoining 
 these  words:  "  Blessed  be  (JoD.  who  hath 
 hitherto  nreserved  us  in  life,  and  brought 
 us  unto  this  tinu."  At  the  conclusion,  the 
 l)eo])le  said  with  a  loiul  voice  these  words 
 of  the  I'salmist  :  •'  lilessed  is  the  people 
 that  know  the  joyful  sound:  they  shall 
 walk,  ()  Loud,  in  the  light  of  thy  coun- 
 tenance." And  whereas,  in  other  places, 
 the  beginning  of  the  year  was  sounded 
 with  a  trum])et  of  ram's  or  sheej/s  horn, 
 at  the  temnle  thev  used  two  silver  truni- 
 ])ets,  and  the  Levites  ujmn  that  day  sung 
 the  eighty-first  psidni. 
 
m 
 
 TUNICLE. 
 
 UNIFORMITY,  ACTS  OF. 
 
 This  festival  is  called  a  memorial  of 
 blowing  of  tl'umpets  :  but  it  is  not  so  easy 
 to  determine  what  this  blowing  of  trumpets 
 was  a  memorial  of.  Maimonides  will  have 
 it  to  be  instituted  to  awaken  the  people 
 out  of  sleep,  and  call  to  repentance ; 
 being  intended  to  put  them  in  mind  of  the 
 great  day  of  expiation,  which  followed 
 nine  days  after.  Basil  imagined,  that  by 
 these  soundings  the  people  were  put  in 
 mind  of  that  day,  wherein  they  received 
 the  Law  from  ]M*ount  Sinai  with  blowing 
 of  trumpets.  Others  think  it  more  pro- 
 bable, that,  since  all  nations  made  great 
 shouting,  rejoicing,  and  feasting  in  the  be- 
 ginning of  the  year,  at  the  first  ncAV-moon, 
 in  hopes  that  the  rest  of  the  year  by  this 
 means  would  prove  more  prosperous,  God 
 was  pleased  to  ordain  this  festival  among 
 his  people,  in  honour  of  himself,  upon  the 
 day  of  the  first  new-moon,  to  preserve 
 them  from  idolatry,  and  to  make  them 
 sensible  that  he  alone  gave  them  good 
 years.  Others  again  imagine,  that  God 
 marked  this  month  with  a  peculiar  honour, 
 because  it  was  the  seventh  ;  that,  as  every 
 seventh  day  was  a  sabbath,  and  every 
 seventh  year  the  land  rested,  so  every 
 seventh  month  of  every  year  should  be  a 
 kind  of  sabbatical  month :  and  upon  that 
 account  the  people  might  be  awakened  by 
 this  blowing  of  trumpets,  to  observe  this 
 festival  with  the  proper  ceremonies.  Lastly, 
 others  explain  this  blowing  of  trumpets  to 
 be  a  memorial  of  the  creation  of  the  world, 
 which  was  in  autumn.  Upon  this  account 
 it  was  that  they  anciently  began  their  years 
 at  this  time,  as  the  eastern  people  do  at 
 this  day.  By  this  means  they  also  con- 
 fessed the  Divine  goodness  in  blessing  the 
 year  past,  and  bringing  them  to  the  begin- 
 ning of  a  new  year,  which  they  prayed 
 that  God  would  make  happy  and  propitious 
 to  them. 
 
 TUNICLE.  An  ecclesiastical  garment 
 mentioned  in  the  rubrics  of  King  Edward 
 VI.'s  First  Book,  to  be  worn  by  the  assist- 
 ant ministers  at  the  holy  communion.  It 
 is  the  same  as  the  tunic  or  the  daln^atic, 
 which  was  also  an  episcopal  garment. 
 Originally  it  had  no  sleeves ;  and  was 
 the  same  with  the  Greek  cololDion.  The 
 sleeves  were  added  in  the  west  about  the 
 fourth  century  ;  and  then  the  vestment 
 was  called  a  dalmatic.  The  tunicle  in  the 
 Roman  Church  is  proper  to  subdcacons. — 
 Palmer.      Goar. 
 
 TURRET.  A  small  tower  appended  to 
 a  tower,  or  the  angle  or  other  part  of  any 
 component  portion  of  a  building  for  sup- 
 port, or  to  carry  stairs,  or  for  ornament. 
 Like  the  tower,  it  is  often  finished  with  a 
 
 high  conical  capping,  which  is  then  called 
 a  s])iret  or  pinnacle. 
 
 TYl'E.  An  imjiression,  image,  or  re- 
 presentation of  some  model,  which  is 
 termed  the  antitf/jje.  In  this  sense  we 
 often  use  the  word  to  denote  the  prefigur- 
 ation  of  the  great  events  of  man's  re- 
 demption by  persons  or  things  in  the  Old 
 Testament. 
 
 UBIQUITARIANS.  A  sect  of  here- 
 tics, so  called  because  they  maintained  that 
 the  body  of  Jesus  Christ  is  {uhique)  every- 
 where, or  in  every  place. 
 
 Brentius,  one  of  the  earliest  reformers, 
 is  said  to  have  first  broached  this  error,  in 
 Germany,  about  the  year  I06O.  jNIelanc- 
 thon  immediately  declared  against  it,  as 
 introducing  a  kind  of  confusion  in  the  two 
 natures  of  Jesus  Christ.  On  the  other 
 hand,  it  was  espoused  by  Flacius  Illp-icus, 
 Osiander,  and  others.  The  universities  of 
 Leipsic  and  AVirtemburg  in  vain  opposed 
 this  heresy,  which  gained  ground  daily. 
 Six  Ubiquitarians,  viz.  Smidclin,  Selneccer, 
 Musculus,  Chemnitius,  Chytra?us,  and 
 Cornerus,  had  a  meeting,  in  1577,  in  the 
 monastery  of  Berg,  and  composed  a  kind 
 of  creed,  or  formulary  of  faith,  in  which 
 the  Ubiquity  of  Christ's  body  was  the 
 leading  article.  However,  the  Ubiqui- 
 tarians M'ere  not  quite  agreed  among  them- 
 selves ;  some  holding  that  Jesus  CllRlST, 
 even  during  his  mortal  life,  was  every- 
 where, and  others  dating  the  Ubiquity  of 
 his  body  from  the  time  of  his  ascension 
 onlv. 
 
 ULTRA-PROTESTANT.  (See  Via 
 3Iedia.) 
 
 UNCTION.     (See  Extreme  Unction.) 
 
 UNIFORMITY,  ACTS  OF.  The  Acts 
 of  Uniformity  are  1  Eliz.  c.  2,  and  14  Car. 
 II.  The  Irish  Acts  of  Uniformitv  are  also 
 2  Eliz.  cap.  2,  and  17  and  18  Car.  II. 
 See  Stephens's  Edition  of  both  the  English 
 and  Irish  Prayer  Book.  By  stat.  1  Eliz.  c. 
 2,  s.  4 — 8,  If  any  parson,  vicar,  or  other 
 minister  that  ought  to  use  the  Common 
 Prayer,  or  to  minister  the  sacraments,  shall 
 refuse  to  do  the  same,  or  shall  use  any 
 other  form,  or  shall  speak  anything  in  de- 
 rogation of  the  same  book,  or  of  anything 
 therein  contained,  he  shall,  on  conviction 
 for  the  first  offence,  forfeit  to  the  queen  one 
 year's  profit  of  all  his  spiritual  promotions, 
 and  be  imprisoned  for  six  months  ;  for  the 
 second  ofl'ence,  shall  be  deprived  of  all  his 
 spiritual  promotions,  and  be  imprisoned 
 for  a  year  ;  and,  for  the  third  offence,  shall 
 be  deprived  of  all  his  spiritual  j^romotions, 
 and  be  imprisoned  during  life.  And  if  he 
 has  no  spiritual  promotion,  he  shall,  for  the 
 
UNIGENITUS,  THE  BULL. 
 
 first  offence,  be  imprisoned  for  a  year  ;  and, 
 for  the  second,  during  life. 
 
 And  by  the  same  act,  if  any  person  shall 
 in  plays,  son«;s,  or  by  otlier  open  words, 
 speak  anything;  in  dero«::ation  of  the  same 
 book,  or  anytliin<jj  therein  contained  ;  or 
 shall,  by  open  fact,  cause  or  procure  any 
 minister  in  any  place  to  say  Connnon 
 Prayer  openly,  or  to  minister  any  sacra- 
 ment in  other  form,  or  shall  interrupt  or 
 let  any  minister  to  say  the  said  Comnion 
 Prayer,  he  shall  (beinji;  indicted  for  the 
 same  at  the  next  assizes)  forfeit  to  the 
 queen  for  the  first  offence  100  marks,  and 
 for  the  second  400  marks,  Avhich,  if  not 
 paid  in  six  weeks  after  conviction,  lie  shall 
 suffer  six  months'  imprisonment  for  the 
 first  offence,  and  twelve  months'  fm-  the 
 second,  and  for  the  third  offence  shall  for- 
 feit all  his  floods  and  chattels,  and  be  im- 
 prisoned during^  life. 
 
 By  Stat.  13  cK:  14  Car.  IL  c.  4,  Where 
 an  incumbent  resides  upon  his  living  and 
 keeps  a  curate,  the  incinnbent  himself, 
 (not  having  lawful  imi)ediment,  to  be  al- 
 lowed by  the  bisho]),)  slu^ll  at  least  once  a 
 month  openly  and  j)ublicly  read  the  Com- 
 mon Prayer,  and  (if  there  be  occasion)  ad- 
 minister the  sacraments  and  other  rites  of 
 the  Church. 
 
 UNIGENITUS,  THE  BULL.  The  in- 
 strument issued  by  Pope  Clement  XL,  in 
 1713,  against  the  French  translation  of  the 
 New  Testament,  with  notes,  by  Pasquier 
 Quesnel,  priest  of  the  Oratory,  and  a  cele- 
 brated Jansenist.  The  book,  having  occa- 
 sioned considerable  disputes,  had  already 
 been  condemned  by  the  court  of  Pome  in 
 1708  ;  but  this  step  being  found  inelfectual, 
 Clement,  who  had  privately  s])oken  of  it 
 in  terms  of  rapture,  declaring  it  to  be  an 
 excellent  book,  and  one  which  no  person 
 resident  at  Pome  was  capable  of  v.riting, 
 proceeded  to  condemn  one  hundred  and 
 one  propositions  of  the  notes ;  such  as — 
 grace,  the  effectual  principle  of  all  good 
 ■works ;  faith,  the  first  and  fountain  of  all 
 the  graces  of  a  Christian  ;  the  8crij)turcs 
 should  be  read  l)y  all,  ^c.  This  bull,  pro- 
 cured by  Louis  and  the  Jesuits,  occasion- 
 ed great  commotion  in  France.  l'"orty 
 Gallican  bishops  acce])ted  it  ;  i)ut  it  was 
 opposed  by  m;iny  others,  cs])ecially  by 
 Noailles,  archbishoj)  of  Paris,  Many  of 
 the  prelatos,  and  other  persons  eminent 
 for  piety  and  learning,  aj)pealed,  on  tlie 
 subject. "from  the  ])ni)al  authority  to  that 
 of  a  general  council,  but  in  vain. 
 
 UNION,  11  Yl'OSTATlCAL,  (see  Jt^/.s 
 Lord,  Christ,  Messiah,  Mcdintor,)  is  the 
 union  of  the  human  nature  of  ClluiST  with 
 the  Divine,  constituting  two  natures  in  one 
 
 UNIIWKIANS.  775 
 
 person.  Not  Cimsnhafantial/,/,  as  the  tlirce 
 persons  in  the  (Joi.iiii.M) ;  uur  jtfit/sUalt,/, 
 as  soul  and  body  uniti-d  in  oui-  piTNon  ;  not 
 tni/sfint/lt/,  as  is  lUv  union  betwct-n  ClIUlsT 
 and  believers;  but  so  as  that  the  manhood 
 subsist  in  the  second  jhtsou,  yet  without 
 making  confusion,  both  making  but  one 
 person.  It  was  miraculoun.  (Luke  i.  31, 
 3,). J  C<niij)U-ft'  and  real :  ClluisT  look  u 
 real  human  body  and  soul,  and  not  in  nj)- 
 peariincf,  InscparaUe.  (Ileb.  vii,  2o,)— 
 See  Jturftin. 
 
 UNITAUIANS.  A  title  which  certain 
 heretics,  who  do  not  worsjiip  the  true  CiOU, 
 assume  nn)st  unfairly,  to  convey  the  im- 
 pression that  those  who  worshii)  the  one 
 and  oidy  GoD  do  not  hold  the  (foctrine  of 
 the  Divine  Unity.  Christians  worshij)  Uic 
 TuiMTV  in  Unity,  and  the  U.mty  in 
 Trinity. 
 
 This  name  includes  all,  whether  ArianB 
 of  old,  or  more  lately  Sociuians,  and  other 
 Deists,  who  deny  the  Divinity  of  Ji:sis 
 Christ,  and  the  separate  personality  of 
 the  Holy  Gikkst.  They  are  not  vcr)- 
 numerous  in  England,  although  most  of 
 the  old  Ijiglish  Presbyterian  congrega- 
 tions have  fallen  into  Unitarianisni. 
 
 These  persons  made  little  jirogress  in 
 England  till  the  o])ening  of  the  eighteenth 
 century,  when  many  of  the  old  Presby- 
 terian ministers  embraced  oj)inions  adverse 
 to  the  Trinitarian  doctrine.  A  noticeable 
 controversy  on  the  subject  was  begun  in 
 17P>,  in  the  A\'est  of  England,  and  two 
 Presbyterian  ministers,  in  con.secjuence  of 
 their  participation  in  these  sentiments, 
 were  removed  from  their  pastoral  charges. 
 Nevertheless,  the  Pres1)yterian  clergy  gra- 
 dually became  impregnated,  although  for 
 sometime  thev  gave  no  particular  exprw- 
 sion  from  their  jjuljiits  to  their  views  in 
 this  respect.  In  course  of  little  time,  how- 
 ever, their  congregations  cither  came  to 
 be  entirely  assimilated  with  ihemselvei*  in 
 doctrine,  or  in  j)art  seceded  to  the  Inde- 
 pendent body.  Thus,  the  ancient  I'rcsby- 
 terian  chapels  and  endowments  have,  in 
 great  degree,  become  the  property  of  Uni- 
 tarians, whose  origin,  as  a  distinct  com- 
 munity in  lOngland,  may  he  dated  from 
 tile  first  occurrence  of  such  virtual  trans- 
 fers, viz.  from  about  the  iwriod  just  subse- 
 quent to  1730. 
 
 Persons  denying  the  doctrine  of  the  Tri- 
 nity were  excepted  from  lJ>e  lK-nef>U  of 
 the  Toleration  Act,  and  remained  so  until 
 1S13,  when  the  section  in  that  statute 
 which  affected  tlum  wu.h  abrogated  by  the 
 o3  Geo.  HI.  c.  KiO,  winch  vjis  cxUnded 
 to  Ireland  by  67  (ieo.  HI.  c.  70.  Since 
 that   period  they  liave  been  exactly  in  the 
 
776 
 
 UNITED  BRETHREN. 
 
 URIM  AND  THUMMIM. 
 
 same  position  as  all  other  Protestant  Dis- 
 senters with  respect  to  their  political  im- 
 munities. These  persons  do  not  object  to 
 the  form  of  attestation,  "  on  the  true  faith 
 of  a  Christian,"  thousjh  denying  the  prin- 
 cipal doctrines  of  Christianity  as  recog- 
 nised by  the  Catholic  Church. 
 
 The  form  of  ecclesiastical  government 
 adopted  by  the  Unitarians  is  substantially 
 "  congregational ; "  each  individual  con- 
 gregation ruling  itself  without  regard  to 
 any  courts  or  synods. 
 
 lieturns  have  been  received  at  the  Cen- 
 sus OtHce  from  229  congregations  con- 
 nected Avith  this  bodv. 
 
 UNITED  BKETHREN.  (See  3fora- 
 viaus.) 
 
 UNI\"ERSALISTS.  Those  who,  con- 
 trary to  the  express  word  of  God,  deny 
 the  eternal  punishment  of  the  wicked. 
 
 UNIVEliSITY.  University,  as  Johnson 
 observes,  originally  meant  a  community  or 
 corporation  ; — it  afterwards  came  to  be  re- 
 stricted to  those  communities  for  divine  and 
 secular  learning,  which  were  originally  call- 
 ed studia  generalia,  schools,  ^^j^f/a^/o^ie-S',  (as 
 St.  Andrew's,)  ocade?nies,  &c.  In  all  of 
 these,  the  four  great  branches  of  knoAvledge 
 were  professed,  divinity,  law,  medicine,  and 
 the  liberal  arts  and  sciences.  In  the  twelfth 
 century,  degrees  were  conferred,  (see  De- 
 grees,) first  in  canon  and  civil  law,  after- 
 wards in  theology  and  philosophy  ;  though 
 all  these  branches  of  learning  had  long 
 been  taught.  The  universities  were  gra- 
 dually endowed  with  important  privileges. 
 For  ages  they  had  been  regarded  in  England 
 as  great  and  influential,  with  corporate 
 titles  though  not  with  corporate  privileges. 
 These  were  formally  given  to  them  by 
 Queen  Elizabeth  ;  under  whose  auspices 
 the  third  university  of  Dublin,  endowed 
 with  like  privileges,  w-as  founded. 
 
 It  is  foreign  to  the  object  of  a  Church 
 Dictionary  to  notice  those  corporations  for 
 mere  secular  learning,  to  which  in  Eng- 
 land the  title  of  University,  though  with  a 
 novel  meaning,  has  of  late  years  been  le- 
 gally given.  The  term,  as  formerly  under- 
 stood in  England,  Ireland,  and  Scotland, 
 as  throughout  Europe  for  ages,  compre- 
 hended Divine  learning  as  an  essential 
 and  crowning  part  of  the  system.  The 
 old  universities  are  connected  with  the 
 Church  by  the  closest  ties.  Their  disci- 
 pline is  recognised  by  the  canons,  (the 
 xvi.,  xvii.,  and  xxiii.,  for  example.)  and 
 their  degrees  are  essential  qualifications 
 for  many  Church  preferments ;  these  also 
 are  conferred  under  the  invocation  of  the 
 Holy  Trinity  ;  all  their  solemn  assemblies 
 are  accompanied  with  the  prayers  of  the 
 
 Church ;  and  the  foundation  within  the 
 universities,  upon  which  their  infiuence 
 and  very  existence  depend,  has  been  made 
 with  the  plain  and  obvious  understand- 
 ing that  these  great  corporations  are  the 
 nurseries  of  the  Church  ;  that  those  who 
 partake  of  their  privileges  are  to  be  edu- 
 cated as  her  generic  children. 
 
 It  is  beyond  the  object  of  this  work  to 
 give  any  detailed  account  of  their  consti- 
 tution. It  may  suffice  to  observe,  that  the 
 English  system  of  having  many  colleges 
 Avithin  the  precincts  of,  and  subordinate  to, 
 the  greater  corporation,  though  forming 
 each  a  minor  corporation  in  itself,  is  not 
 ])eculiar  to  this  country.  Such  was  the 
 system  of  the  most  ancient  universities, 
 Bologna,  Paris,  and  Salamanca;  and  of 
 many  more  modern  ones,  as  Louvain,  &c. 
 Paris  had  anciently  fifty-three  colleges,  (in- 
 cluding eight  for  the  religious  order.)  and 
 up  to  the  devolution  had  twenty-three,  (of 
 which  fifteen  were  not  monastic,)  several 
 of  the  secular  ones  having  been  amal- 
 gamated by  Louis  XIV.  Besides  these, 
 each  faculty  had  its  corporate  assembly ; 
 and  over  all  the  rector,  assisted  by  three 
 deans  and  four  proctors,  presided.  The 
 constitution  at  Louvain  was  similar,  Avhere 
 there  Avere  tAventy  colleges.  The  college 
 system  is  the  best  auxiliary  to  the  univer- 
 sity, and  greAV  up  from  the  obvious  neces- 
 sity of  securing  to  the  younger  students  a 
 proper  domestic  discipline,  and  to  the 
 elder  the  means  of  pui'suing  theii'  matui'er 
 studies. 
 
 URIM  AND  THUMMIM.  So  the 
 Hebrews  called  a  certain  oracular  manner 
 of  consulting  GoD  ;  Avhich  Avas  done  by 
 the  high  priest,  di'essed  in  his  robes,  and 
 having  on  his  pectoral,  or  breastplate. 
 
 Concerning  the  Urim  and  Thummim, 
 various  have  been  the  sentiments  of  learn- 
 ed men.  Josephus,  and  others  after  him, 
 have  maintained,  that  Urim  and  Thummim 
 meant  the  precious  stones  set  in  the  high 
 priest's  breastplate ;  Avhich,  by  some  ex- 
 traordinary lustre,  made  knoAvn  the  will 
 of  God  to  those  who  consulted  him. 
 Spencer,  in  his  dissertation  on  these  Avords, 
 believes  they  Avere  tAVO  little  golden 
 figures,  shut  up  in  the  pectoral,  as  in  a 
 purse,  Avhich  gave  responses  Avith  an  arti- 
 culate voice.  In  short,  there  are  as  many 
 opinions  concerning  the  Urim  and  Thum- 
 mim, as  there  are  authors  that  hn\e  AAritten 
 about  them.  The  safest  opinion  seems  to 
 be,  that  the  Avords  Urim  and  Thummim 
 signify  some  divine  virtue  and  poAver  an- 
 nexed to  the  breastplate  of  the  high  priest, 
 by  Avhich  an  oracular  ansAver  Avas  obtained 
 from  God,  Avhen  he  Avas  consulted  by  the 
 
URIM  AND  THUMMIM. 
 
 USE. 
 
 high  priest ;  and  that  this  was  called  Urim 
 and  Thummini,  to  ex])vess  the  clearness 
 and  perfection  which  these  oracular  answers 
 always  carried  with  them ;  for  Urim  signifies 
 U(jht,  and  Thummim,  perfection.  These  an- 
 swers were  not  enigmatical  and  ambiguous, 
 like  the  heathen  oracles,  but  clear  and  evi- 
 dent ;  and  never  fell  short  of  perfection, 
 either  with  regard  to  fulness  in  the  answer, 
 or  certainty  in  the  event. 
 
 The  use  made  of  the  Urim  and  Thum- 
 mim was,  to  consult  GoD,  in  difhcult  and 
 momentous  cases,  relating  to  the  whole 
 state  of  Israel.  For  this  purpose  the  high 
 priest  put  on  his  robes,  and  over  them  the 
 breastplate,  in  which  the  Urim  and  Thum- 
 mim were ;  and  then  presented  himself 
 before  God,  to  ask  counsel  of  him.  But 
 he  was  not  to  do  this  for  any  private 
 person  ;  but  only  for  the  king,  for  the 
 president  of  the  Sanhech-im,  for  the  general 
 of  the  army,  or  for  some  other  great  per- 
 sonage ;  nor  for  any  private  affairs,  but 
 such  only  as  related  to  the  public  interest 
 of  the  nation,  either  in  Church  or  State. 
 The  place  where  he  presented  himself 
 before  GoD,  was  before  the  ark  of  the 
 covenant ;  where  standing  with  his  robes 
 and  breastplate  on,  and  his  face  turned 
 directly  towards  the  ark,  and  the  mercy- 
 seat  over  it,  upon  which  the  Divine  pre- 
 sence rested,  he  proposed  what  he  wanted 
 to  be  resolved  about ;  and  directly  behind 
 him,  at  some  distance  without  tlie  holy 
 place,  stood  the  person,  upon  whose  ac- 
 count God  was  consulted,  and  there,  with 
 all  humility  and  devotion,  expected,  the 
 answer  that  should  be  given. 
 
 It  seems  plain  from  Scripture,  that  the 
 answer  was  given  by  an  audible  voice  from 
 the  mercy-seat,  which  was  within,  behind 
 the  veil.  There  it  was  that  Moses  went  to 
 ask  counsel  of  God  in  all  cases  ;  and  from 
 thence  he  was  answered  by  an  audil)le  voice. 
 In  the  same  way  did  God  afterwards 
 communicate  his  will  to  the  governors  of 
 Israel,  as  often  as  he  was  consulted  by 
 them  ;  only  with  this  difference,  that  where- 
 as Moses,  through  extraordinary  indul- 
 gence, had  immediate  access  to  the  Divine 
 ])resence,  and  God  communed  with  him,  as 
 it  were,  face  to  face,  no  other  person  was 
 admitted  thither  to  ask  counsel  of  God 
 but  through  the  mediation  of  the  high 
 ]n"iest,  who,  in  his  stead,  asked  counsel  for 
 him  by  Urim  and  'J'hummim.  There  are 
 many  instances  in  Scripture  of  God's  being 
 consulted  this  way  ;  and  the  answer,  in 
 most  of  them,  is  introduced  with,  "  the 
 Lord  said."  And  when  the  Israelites 
 made  a  peace  with  the  Gibeonites,  they  are 
 blamed  because  they  did  not  ask  counsel 
 
 at  the  mouth  of  God  :  both  which  phrases 
 seem  ])lainly  to  imj)ly  a  vocal  answer. 
 And  for  this  reason  it  is  that  the  holv  of 
 holies,  the  place  where  the  ark  and'tiie 
 mercy-seat  stood,  from  whence  this  answer 
 was  given,  is  so  often  in  Scripture  called 
 the  oracle  ;  because  from  thence  the  1  )ivine 
 oracles  of  GoD  were  delivered  to  such  as 
 asked  counsel  of  him. 
 
 It  is  variously  conjectured  by  learned 
 men,  when  this  Urim  and  Thummim  en- 
 tirely ceased:  it  is  certain  there  is  no 
 instance  of  it  in  Scrij^ure  iluring  the  first 
 temple;  and  it  was  wholly  wanting  in  the 
 second.  And  hence  came  that  saying 
 among  the  Jews,  that  the  Holy  Spirit 
 spake  to  the  Israelites  during  the  taber- 
 nacle, by  Urim  and  'J'hummim  ;  under  the 
 first  temple,  by  the  prophets ;  and,  under 
 the  second,  bv  Bath-Col. 
 
 UllSULIXES.  An  order  of  nuns, 
 founded  originally  by  St.  Angeli,  of 
 Brescia,  in  the  year  1537,  and  so  called 
 from  St.  Ursula,  to  whom  they  are  dedi- 
 cated. 
 
 USE.  In  former  times  each  bishop  had 
 the  power  of  making  some  improvements 
 in  the  liturgy  of  his  church  :  in  process  of 
 time,  different  customs  arose,  and  several 
 became  so  established,  as  to  receive  the 
 names  of  their  respective  churches.  Thus 
 gradually  the  "  Uses  "  or  customs  of  York, 
 Sarum,  Hereford,  Bangor,  Lincoln,  Aber- 
 deen, &c.,  came  to  be  disthiguished  from 
 each  other. 
 
 The  missals  and  other  ritual  books  of 
 York  and  Hereford  have  been  printed; 
 but  we  have  inquired  in  vain  for  the  names 
 of  the  bishops  who  originated  the  unes- 
 sential peculiarities  which  they  contain. 
 Their  rubrics  are  sometimes  less  definite 
 than  those  of  the  Sarum  "  USE,"  and  they 
 contain  some  few  ofhces  in  commemoration 
 of  departed  prelates  and  saints,  which  are 
 not  found  in  other  missals.  ^:c.  The  "  Use  " 
 or  custom  of  Sarum  di-rives  its  origin 
 from  Osmund,  bishoj)  of  that  see  in  A.  D. 
 1078,  and  chancellor  of  I'lngiand.  We 
 are  informed  by  Simeon  of  Duriiani,  that 
 about  the  year  lOS.'J,  King  William  the 
 Conqueror  appointed  Thurstan.  a  Norman, 
 ab])ot  of  Glastonbury.  Thurstan,  despis- 
 ing the  ancient  Ciregorian  chanting,  which 
 had  been  used  in  England  fnnn  the  sixth 
 century,  attem))ted  to  introduce  in  its 
 ])lace  a  modern  style  of  chanting  invented 
 ])y  \\'illiam  of  Eescamp,  a  Xorman.  The 
 nionks  resisted  the  innovaticms  of  their 
 abbot,  and  a  scene  of  violence  and  1)lood- 
 shed  ensued,  which  was  terminated  by 
 the  king's  sending  back  Thurstan  to  Nor- 
 mandy.    This  circumstance  may  ver)-  pro- 
 
m 
 
 USE. 
 
 VALENTINIANS. 
 
 bably  have  turned  the  attention  of  Os- 
 mund to  the  reguhation  of  the  ritual  of 
 his  church.  We  are  informed  that  he 
 built  a  new  cathedral ;  collected  together 
 clergy,  distinguished  as  -well  for  learning 
 as  for  a  knowledge  of  chanting ;  and  com- 
 posed a  book  for  the  regulation  of  eccle- 
 siastical offices,  wliich  was  entitled  the 
 "Custom"  book.  The  substance  of  this 
 was  probably  incor})orated  into  the  missal 
 and  other  ritual  books  of  Sarum,  and  ere 
 long,  almost  the  whole  of  England,  Wales, 
 and  Ireland,  adopted  it.  When  the  arch- 
 bishop of  Canterbury  celebrated  the  li- 
 turgy in  the  presence  of  the  bishops  of  his 
 province,  the  bishop  of  Salisbury  (pro- 
 bably in  consequence  of  the  general  adop- 
 tion of  the  "  Use "  of  Sarum)  acted  as 
 2)}'ecentor  of  the  college  of  bishops,  a  title 
 which  he  still  retains.  The  churches  of 
 Lincoln  and  Bangor  also  had  peculiar 
 "  Uses ; "  but  we  are  not  aware  that  any 
 of  their  books  have  been  printed.  A  IMS. 
 pontifical,  containing  the  rites  and  cere- 
 monies performed  by  the  bishop,  still  (we 
 believe)  remains  in  the  church  of  Bangor ; 
 it  is  said  to  have  belonged  to  Anianus, 
 who  occupied  that  see  in  the  tliirteenth 
 century.  The  church  of  Aberdeen  in 
 Scotland  had  its  own  rites  ;  but  whether 
 there  was  any  peculiarity  in  the  missal  we 
 know  not,  as  it  has  never  been  published. 
 The  breviary  of  Aberdeen,  according  to 
 Zaccaria,  was  printed  in  a.  d.  1609  (qu. 
 1509?).  Independently  of  these  rites  of 
 particular  churches,  the  monastic  societies 
 of  England  had  many  different  rituals, 
 which,  however,  all  agreed  substantially, 
 having  all  been  derived  from  the  sacra- 
 mentary  of  Gregory.  The  Benedictine, 
 Carthusian,  Cistertian,  and  other  orders, 
 had  peculiar  missals.  Schultingius  nearly 
 transcribes  a  very  ancient  sacramentary 
 belonging  to  the  Benedictines  of  England ; 
 Bishop  Barlow,  in  his  MS.  notes  on  the 
 lloman  missal,  ^eaks  of  a  missal  belonging 
 to  the  monastery  of  Evesham ;  and  Zac- 
 caria mentions  a  MS.  missal  of  Oxford, 
 written  in  the  thirteenth  or  fourteenth 
 century,  which  is  in  the  library  of  the 
 canons  of  S.  Salvator  at  Bologna.  This 
 last  must  probably  be  referred  to  some  of 
 the  monastic  societies,  who  had  formerly 
 houses  in  Oxford ;  as  the  bishopric  or 
 church  of  Oxford  was  not  founded  till  the 
 sixteenth  century. 
 
 It  may  be  remarked  in  general  of  all 
 these  missals  and  rituals,  that  they  differed 
 very  little;  the  sacramentary  of  Gregory 
 Avas  used  every  where,  with  various  small 
 additions.  However,  the  rites  of  the 
 churches  tliroughout  the   British  empire 
 
 were  not  by  any  means  uniform  at  tlie 
 middle  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  needed 
 various  corrections  ;  and  therefore  the  me- 
 tropolitan of  Canterbury,  and  other  bisho})s 
 and  doctors  of  the  holy  Catholic  Church, 
 at  the  request  and  desire  of  King  Edward 
 VL,  revised  the  ritual  books  ;  and  having 
 examined  the  Oriental  liturgies,  and  the 
 notices  which  the  orthodox  fathers  supply, 
 they  edited  the  English  ritual,  containing 
 the  common  prayer  and  administration  of 
 all  the  sacraments  and  rites  of  the  Church. 
 And  although  our  liturgy  and  other  offices 
 were  corrected  and  improved,  chiefly  af- 
 ter the  example  of  the  ancient  Gallican, 
 Spanish,  Alexandrian,  and  Oriental,  yet 
 the  greater  portion  of  our  prayers  have 
 been  continually  retained  and  used  by  the 
 Church  of  England  for  more  than  1200 
 years. — Palmer. 
 
 VALENTINIANS.  Heretics,  who  sprang 
 up  in  the  second  century,  and  were  so 
 called  from  their  leader,  Valentinus. 
 
 This  sect  was  one  of  the  most  famous 
 and  most  numerous  amongst  the  ancients. 
 Valentinus,  who  was  the  author  of  it,  was 
 an  Egyptian,  and  began  there  to  teach 
 the  doctrine  of  the  Gnostics.  His  merit 
 made  him  aspire  to  the  episcopacy;  but 
 another  having  been  preferred  before  him, 
 Valentinus,  enraged  at 'this  denial  and  re- 
 solved to  revenge  himself  of  the  aflront 
 given  him,  departed  from  the  doctrine  of 
 the  Chm-ch,  and  revived  old  errors.  He 
 began  to  preach  his  doctrine  in  Egypt, 
 and  from  thence  coming  to  Rome,  under 
 the  pontificate  of  Pope  Hyginus,  he  there 
 spread  his  errors,  and  continued  to  dog- 
 matize till  the  pontificate  oi  Aiiicctus,  i.  e. 
 from  the  year  140  to  160. 
 
 Of  ail  the  Gnostics,  none  formed  a  more 
 regular  system  than  Valentinus.  His  no- 
 tions were  drawn  from  the  principles  of 
 the  Platonists.  The  .^ons  were  attributes 
 of  the  Heity,  or  Platonic  ideas,  which  he 
 realized,  or  made  persons  of  them,  to  com- 
 pose thereof  a  complete  deity,  Avhich  he 
 called  Pleroma,  or  Plenitude  ;  under  which 
 was  the  Creator  of  the  world,  and  the 
 angels,  to  whom  he  committed  the  govern- 
 ment of  it.  The  most  ancient  heretics 
 had  already  established  those  ])rinciples, 
 and  invented  genealogies  of  the  -^ons  :  but 
 Valentinus,  refining  upon  what  they  had 
 said,  placed  them  in  a  new  order,  and 
 thereto  added  many  fictions.  His  system 
 was  this  : 
 
 The  first  principle  is  Bythos,  i.  e.  depth  : 
 it  remained  for  many  ages  unkno'\ni,  having 
 with  it  Ennoia,  i.  e.  Thought,  and  Slge,  i.  e. 
 Silence.     From  these  sprung  the  Nous,  or 
 
VALENTIN  I ANS. 
 
 79 
 
 Intelligence,  which  is  tlie  only  son,  equnl 
 to  it  alone,  and  capable  of  comprehending 
 it ;  -Nvhose  sister  is  Alefhcia,  i.  e.  Trutli. 
 This  is  the  first  quaternity  of  -^Eons,  -which 
 is  the  source  and  original  of  all  the  rest. 
 For  Nous  and  Aletheia  produced  the  IFord 
 and  the  Liy'e :  and  from  these  two  pro- 
 ceeded 3I(in  and  the  Church.  This  is  the 
 second  quaternity  of  the  eight  princijial 
 -iEons.  The  Word  and  the  1-ife,  to  glorify 
 the  Father,  produced  five  couple  of  ^Eons  : 
 man  and  the  Church  formed  six.  These 
 thirty  ^Eons  bear  the  name  of  attributes 
 and  compose  the  Pleroma,  or  Plenitude  of 
 the  Deity.  Sojjhid,  or  Wisdom,  the  last 
 of  these  iEons,  being  desirous  to  arrive  at 
 the  knowledge  of  Bythos,  gave  herself  a 
 great  deal  of  uneasiness,  which  created  in 
 her  anger  and  fear,  of  which  was  born 
 matter.  But  the  Jloros,  or  Bounder,  stop- 
 ped her,  preserved  her  in  the  Pleroma,  and 
 restored  her  to  perfection.  Then  she  pro- 
 duced the  Christ  and  the  Holy  Spirit  ; 
 Avhich  brought  the  ^ons  to  their  last  per- 
 fection, and  made  every  one  of  them  con- 
 tribute their  utmost  to  form  the  Saviour. 
 Her  E)ithiimese,  or  Thought,  dwelling  near 
 the  Pleroma,  perfected  by  the  Christ, 
 produced  everything  that  is  in  the  world, 
 by  its  divers  passions.  The  Christ  sent 
 into  it  the  Saviour,  accompanied  with 
 angels,  who  delivered  it  from  its  passions, 
 without  annihilating  it ;  and  from  thence 
 was  formed  corporeal  matter,  which  was  of 
 two  sorts ;  the  one  bad,  arising  from  the 
 passions  ;  the  other  good,  proceeding  from 
 conversion,  but  subject  to  the  passions. 
 
 There    are    also   three    substances,   the 
 material,  the    animal,   and   the    spiritual. 
 The  Demiurgus,  or  maker  of  the  world,  liy 
 w^hom  the  Enthymese  formed  this  world, 
 is  the  animal  substance  :    he  formed  the 
 terrestrial  man,  to  whom  the  Enthymese 
 gave  a  spirit :    the  material  part  perished 
 necessarily ;    but   that  which   is  spiritual 
 can  suff"cr  no  corruption ;  and  that  which 
 is  animal   stood  in  need  of  the   spiritual 
 Saviour,  to  hinder  its  con-uption.      This 
 Saviour  or  Christ  passed  through  the 
 womb  of  the  Virgin,  as  through  a  canal, 
 and  at  his  baptism  the  Saviour  of  the  Ple- 
 roma descended  u])on  him  in  the  form  of 
 a  dove.     He  sufl"ered  as  to  his  animal  part, 
 which  he  received  from  iJemiurgus,  but  I 
 not  as  to  his  spiritual  part.      There  arc  ^ 
 likewise  three  sorts  of  men,  the  spiritual, 
 material,  and  animal.     These  three   sub-  | 
 stances  were  united  together  in   Adam  ;  ' 
 but   they   were    divided  in    his   cliildren.  I 
 That  which  was  spiritual  Avent  into  Seth,  | 
 the  material  into  Cain,  and  the  animal  into  i 
 Abel.      The   spiritual  men   shall   be   im-  I 
 
 mortal,  whatever  crimes  thev  commit ;  the 
 material,  on  the  contrarv,  shall  be  anni- 
 hilated, whatever  good  thev  do :  the  ani- 
 mal shall  be  in  a  ])lace  of  refrcshnunt,  if 
 they  do  good ;  and  shall  be  annihilated,  if 
 they  do  evil.  The  end  of  the  world  shall 
 come,  when  the  spiritual  men  shall  have 
 been  formed  and  i)eriected  by  the  Nous. 
 Then  the  Enthymese  shall  ascend  up  to 
 the  Pleroma  again,  and  be  re-united  with 
 the  Saviour.  The  spiritual  men  shall  not 
 rise  again  :  but  shall  enter  with  the  En- 
 thymese into  the  Pleroma,  and  shall  be 
 married  to  the  angels,  who  are  with  the 
 Saviour.  The  Demiurgus  shall  pass  into 
 the  region  where  his  mother  was,  and  shall 
 be  folloAved  by  the  animal  men,  who  have 
 lived  well ;  where  they  shall  have  rest.  In 
 fine,  the  material  and  animal  men,  who 
 have  lived  ill,  shall  l)e  consumed  by  the 
 fire,  which  will  annihilate  all  matter. 
 
 The  disci])les  of  Valentinus  did  not 
 strictly  confine  themselves  to  liis  system. 
 They  took  a  great  deal  of  liberty,  in  ranging 
 the  ^ons  according  to  their  diti'erent  ideas, 
 without  condemning  one  another  ujjon  that 
 account.  ]kit  what  is  most  abominable  is, 
 that  from  these  chimerical  princij)les  they 
 drew  detestable  conclusions  as  to  moral- 
 ity :  for,  because  spiritual  beings  could  not 
 perish,  being  good  by  nature,  hence  they 
 concluded  that  they  might  freely  and  with- 
 out scruple  commit  all  manner  of  actions, 
 and  that  it  was  not  at  all  necessary  for 
 them  to  do  good ;  but  above  all,  they  be- 
 lieved continence  to  be  useless.  We  have, 
 in  Clemens  Alexandrinus,  an  extract  of  a 
 letter  of  Valentinus,  in  which  he  main- 
 tains, that  God  does  not  require  the  mar- 
 tyrdom of  his  children,  and  that,  whether 
 they  deny  or  confess  Christ  before  ty- 
 rants, they  shall  be  saved.  If  they  be- 
 lieved that  good  works  were  necessary,  it 
 Avas  only  for  animal  men.  Some  believed 
 that  baptism  by  water  was  superfiuous ; 
 others  baptized  in  the  name  of  the  un- 
 known Father,  of  the  truth  the  mother  of 
 all,  of  him  who  descended  in  Jksus,  of 
 the  light,  redemption,  and  community  of 
 powers.  Many  rejected  all  outward  cere- 
 monies. 
 
 In  fine,  the  errors  of  the  Valentinians 
 were  wholly  incompatible  with  the  Chris- 
 tian doctrine.  If  they  did  not  destroy  the 
 unity  of  (ioD,  they  made  of  him  a  mon- 
 strous composition  of  difi'erent  beings.  They 
 attributed  the  creation  to  another  princi- 
 ple :  they  set  up  good  and  bad  substances 
 by  nature.  Ji:sus  Christ,  according  to 
 tliem,  was  but  a  man.  on  whom  the  celes- 
 tial Chuist  descended.  The  HoLY  GiiosT 
 was  but  a  simple  Divine  virtue.     There  is 
 
780 
 
 VALESIANS. 
 
 VENI,  CREATOR  SPIRITUS. 
 
 no  resurrection  of  the  body.  Spiritual 
 men  do  not  merit  eternal  life ;  it  is  due  to 
 them  by  their  nature ;  and  do  what  they 
 will  they  can  never  miss  of  it ;  as  material 
 men  cannot  escape  annihilation,  although 
 they  live  an  unblameable  life. 
 
 VALESIANS.  Christian  heretics,  dis- 
 ciples of  Valesius,  an  Arabian  philosoi)hcr, 
 who  appeared  about  the  year  250,  and 
 maintained  that  concupiscence  acted  so 
 strongly  upon  man,  that  it  was  not  in  his 
 power  to  resist  it,  and  that  even  the  grace 
 of  Gt)D  was  not  sufficient  to  enable  him  to 
 get  the  better  of  it.  Upon  this  principle 
 he  taught  that  the  only  way  for  a  man  to 
 be  saved  was  to  make  himself  an  eunuch. 
 The  Origenists  afterwards  fell  into  the 
 same  error ;  but  it  was  Valesius  who  gave 
 birth  to  it.  The  bishop  of  Philadelphia 
 condemned  this  philosopher,  and  the  other 
 (lurches  of  the  East  followed  his  ex- 
 ample. 
 
 The  maxims  of  the  Valesians  were  very 
 cruel.  They  were  not  satisfied  to  mutilate 
 those  of  their  sect,  but  they  had  the  bar- 
 barity to  make  eunuchs  of  strangers  who 
 chanced  to  pass  by  where  they  lived.  This 
 heresy  spread  greatly  in  Arabia,  and  espe- 
 cially in  the  territory  of  Philadelphia. 
 
 VAUDOIS.     (See  IFaldenses.) 
 
 VAULT.  An  arched  roof,  so  construct- 
 ed as  to  be  supported  by  mutual  compres- 
 sion. Vaulting  and  Gothic  architecture 
 are  so  intimately  connected,  that  the  latter 
 has  been  defined  as  "  the  truthful  elabor- 
 ation of  vaulted  structure  ; "  and  vaulting 
 has  been  called  "  the  final  cause  of  Gothic 
 architecture,  that  to  which  all  its  members 
 subserve,  for  which  everything  else  is  con- 
 trived, and  without  which  the  whole  appa- 
 ratus would  be  aimless  and  unmeaning.'"  * 
 To  enter  into  the  science  of  vaulting  would 
 be  quite  beyond  our  present  purpose  ;  we 
 can  only  very  loosely  assign  the  various 
 forms  of  vaults  to  the  respective  styles  to 
 which  they  belong. 
 
 The  earliest  and  simplest  vault  is  that 
 called  the  tcaggon  vault,  i.  e.  a  simple 
 semi-cylindrical  vault,  one  side  of  which 
 rests  throughout  on  each  wall  of  the  span 
 to  be  vaulted.  This  vault  was  used  by 
 the  Romans,  and  for  a  while  in  our  Ro- 
 manesque :  but  it  was  very  soon  discon- 
 tinued for  one  in  which  the  whole  space 
 to  be  vaulted  was  divided  into  equal 
 squares,  and  a  semi-cylinder  being  supposed 
 to  be  thrown  over  each  square  in  each 
 direction,  the  one  crossing  and  cutting  the 
 other,  the  points  at  which  they  would  cut 
 were  taken  as  the  groins,  and  all  below 
 
 *  Garbct's  "  Rudimentary  Treatise  ;"  a  work 
 well  worth  much  study. 
 
 these  parts  being  removed,  an  arched  way 
 was  Iclt  in  either  direction.  This  formed 
 a  simple  quadripartite  vault,  but  as  yet  of 
 very  rude  construction.  Some  of  the  de- 
 fects of  this  were  remedied  by  su])plying 
 ril)s  at  the  groins,  which  not  only  strength- 
 ened the  vault,  but  also  served  in  a  great 
 degree  to  conceal  its  defects  of  form.  By 
 and  by  the  compartments  were  also  separ- 
 ated by  a  rib,  springing  transversely  over 
 the  space  to  be  vaulted.  The  introduction 
 of  bosses  at  the  intersection  of  the  diagonal 
 ribs,  and  the  various  moulding  of  the  ribs 
 themselves,  was  as  far  as  the  Normans  pro- 
 ceeded with  this  kind  of  vault,  except 
 that  they  had  various  methods  of  bring- 
 ing the  apex  of  the  intersecting  cylinders 
 into  the  same  plane,  by  stilting  or  de- 
 pressing them,  where  they  were  obliged  to 
 apply  loAv  vaults  to  rectangles  with  un- 
 equal sides. 
 
 In  the  Early  English,  the  pointed  arch  was 
 applied  to  the  vault,  as  well  as  to  all  other 
 arched  constructions,  and  groining  ribs 
 were  never  omitted;  still  the  transverse  rib, 
 or  that  separating  two  bays,  is  by  no  means 
 invariably  found.  The  ribs  were  multi- 
 plied as  architecture  advanced ;  and,  during 
 the  Geometrical  period,  we  have  often,  in 
 addition  to  the  diagonal  and  transverse 
 ribs,  a  rib  along  the  apex  of  the  vault,  both 
 longitudinal  and  transverse,  and  sometimes 
 two  or  more  additional  ribs  rising  from  the 
 vaulting  shaft  to  the  ridge  rib.  In  the 
 later  Decorated,  these  ribs  are  often  tied 
 together  by  little  cross  ribs,  at  various 
 angles,  and  the  vault  thus  formed  is  called 
 a  Heme  vanlt :  this  was  continued  into  the 
 Perpendicular  period ;  its  complexity  ra- 
 ther than  richness  gradually  increasing 
 with  the  multiplication  of  ribs  and  bosses. 
 It  is  a  long  process  to  arrive  at  the  exact 
 office  of  each  rib ;  but  there  is  in  each  case 
 a  constructive  reason  for  its  adoption. 
 
 The  later  architects  of  England  adopted 
 a  more  gorgeous,  and,  in  some  respects,  a 
 more  scientific  vault  than  any  of  those  men- 
 tioned, which,  from  the  equal  radiation  of 
 its  numerous  ribs  over  the  whole  surface  of 
 the  inverted  conoids,  of  which  the  whole 
 surface  consists,  is  called  fan  vaulting ;  a 
 system  really  more  simple  and  perfect  than 
 any  of  the  others,  though  to  the  eye  so  ex- 
 ceedinglv  elaborate. 
 
 VENIAL  SIN.  The  Church  of  Rome, 
 following  the  schoolmen,  represents  some 
 sins  as  pardonable,  and  others  not.  The 
 first  they  call  venial,  the  second,  mortal, 
 sins.  Thomas  Aquinas  makes  seven  dis- 
 tinctions in  sin.     (See  Sin.) 
 
 VENI,  CREATOR  SPIRITUS.  A 
 hymn  to  the  Holy  Ghost.     The  Holy 
 
VENITE. 
 
 781 
 
 Ghost  is  that  person  of  the  Blessed  Tri- 
 nity, to  Avhich  the  distributino-  of  tlie  se- 
 veral offices  in  the  Church,  and  quahfyinp; 
 the  persons  for  them,  is  o^enerally  ascribed 
 in  Scripture.  (Acts  xiii.  2,  4 ;  xx.  28  ; 
 1  Cor.  xii.  11.)  And  upon  that  ground  it 
 is  fit  that  a  particuhir  address  be  made  to 
 the  Spirit  before  the  ordination,  -which  avc 
 do  by  this  hymn.  It  is  said  to  have  ])een 
 com})osed  by  St.  Ambrose,  and  is  ])hiced 
 among  his  works  as  an  liymn  for  Pentecost ; 
 and  on  that  day  it  is  annually  used  in  the 
 Koman  Church,  and  was  so  of  old.  It  was 
 inserted  into  the  ofiice  for  consecrating  a 
 bishop  as  early  as  the  year  1 100  ;  and  with 
 a  later  hand  ])ut  into  the  ordination  of  a 
 priest  about  500  (620)  years  ago  in  the 
 lioman  Church,  and  so  it  stands  there  to 
 this  day.  And  the  Protestants  have  so 
 well  a])proved  of  it,  that  the  Lutheran 
 Churches  begin  their  office  with  the  same 
 hymn.  And  our  reformers  translated  it 
 into  metre  in  the  larger  way  in  King 
 EdAvard  the  Sixth's  first  ordinal.  Since 
 which  time  (namely,  in  the  review  of  the 
 Common  Prayer  under  King  Charles  the 
 Second,  Dr.  XichoUs)  it  hath  been  abbre- 
 viated, and  put  into  fewer  words,  but  to 
 the  same  case,  as  it  stands  foremost  here. 
 — Dean  Comber . 
 
 Though  the  words  of  these  hymns  have 
 lost  something  from  time,  the  prayer  is  too 
 serious,  too  important,  ever  to  be  forgotten. 
 AVe  are  not  so  enthusiastic  as  to  expect 
 an  extraordinary  communicatiqji  of  the 
 Spirit  to  any  minister  of  the  gospel. 
 Neither  are  we  so  void  of  spiritual  feeling 
 as  to  imagine  that  the  Divine  influence, 
 which  God  himself  has  promised,  and  an 
 innumerable  host  of  Christians  have  dis- 
 played by  their  conduct,  cannot  touch  our 
 hearts.  We  do  truly  believe  that  it  is  the 
 grace  of  God,  operating  with  our  spirit, 
 which  enables  us  to  fulfil  our  duty  in  so 
 arduous  a  situation.  We  may  "  resist  and 
 quench  the  Spirit"  (Acts  vii.  o\ ;  1  Thess. 
 V.  19)  ;  and  we  may  "  grow  in  grace." 
 (2  Pet.  iii.  18.)  From  these  expressions 
 we  are  taught,  to  leave  our  hearts  open  in 
 the  one  case,  and  in  the  other  to  aim  at 
 gi'eater  perfection.  In  both  our  connexion 
 with  the  Spirit  is  made  manifest ;  for,  "  if 
 we  have  not  the  Spirit  of  Christ,  we  are 
 none  of  his."  (Rom.  viii.  9.)  May  the 
 Spirit  of  Divine  grace  "visit  our  minds," 
 and  "  inspire  our  souls "  with  holy  afiec- 
 tions,  that  we  may  improve  those  "  mani- 
 fold gifts,"  which  alone  give  stability  to 
 the  Church  of  Christ,  and  are  derived 
 from  him,  "  the  fountain  and  the  spring  of 
 all  celestial  joy." — lircicater. 
 
 VENITE.  The  9jth  Psalm.  The  Psalm- 
 
 ist here  calls  ujjon  us  with  this  arousing 
 exhortation,  "  O  come,  let  us  sing  unto  the 
 Lord!"  and  the  apostle  to  the  same  pur- 
 pose wills  us  to  "admonish  (me  another 
 ni  psalms,  hymns,  and  s])iritiial  songs, 
 sniging  and  making  melody  in  your  liearts 
 unto  God."  (Col.  iii.  1(5.)  Where  he  seems 
 to  quicken  our  backwardness,  and  to  stir 
 us  uj)  to  a  due  sense  of  the  Divine  favour 
 and  goodness.  And  this  is  to  be  done, 
 both  outwardly  with  the  voice,  by  singing 
 unto  the  Lord;  and  inwardly  with  the 
 heart,  by  heartily  rejoicing  in  GoD,  who  is 
 "the  strength  of  our  salvation."  It  is  by 
 his  power  that  our  salvation  is  eHected, 
 and  ujjon  his  mercy  alone  all  our  hopes 
 of  it  are  founded,  and  therefore  both  our 
 heart  and  tongue  are  to  become  the  instru- 
 ments of  his  prai.se. — Hole. 
 
 Whenever  we  repeat  this  psalm,  we 
 should,  if  we  wish  to  improve  and  be  edi- 
 fied by  it,  always  make  some  sucli  reflec- 
 tions as  these  that  follow.  The  wandering 
 of  the  Israelites  through  the  wilderness 
 represents  our  travelling  through  tiiis 
 world  ;  their  earthly  Canaan,  or  promised 
 land,  being  a  type  or  figure  of  heaven,  of 
 that  blessed  country,  to  which  we  are  all 
 invited,  and  where,  if  it  be  not  our  own 
 fault,  we  may  all  one  day  arrive.  The 
 same  Divine  providence  which  once  guided 
 and  protected  them,  now  watches  over  and 
 defends  us ; — "  they  did  all  eat  the  same 
 spiritual  meat,  and  did  all  drink  the  same 
 spiritual  drink."  (1  Cor.  x.  .'3,  4.)  The 
 manna,  with  which  they  were  miraculously 
 sustained,  was  an  emblem  of  the  true 
 "  bread  of  life,  which  came  down  from 
 heaven,"  for  the  support  of  our  souls  ;  and 
 the  water,  which  they  di-ank  out  of  the 
 rock,  prefigured  the  graces  of  the  Holy 
 Spirit,  which  we  receive  from  the  true 
 fountain  of  life  ;  for  "  that  rock  was 
 Christ," — that  is,  it  represented  Christ. 
 Now  if  they,  through  their  infidelity  and 
 disobedience,  notwithstanding  all  the  sig- 
 nal favours  they  enjoyed,  fell  short  of  the 
 promised  rest,  and  perished  in  the  wilder- 
 ness, so  shall  we,  who  are  blessed  with  still 
 higher  privileges,  if  we  tread  in  their  stejjs, 
 most  assuredly  fail  of  our  eternal  inlierit- 
 ance  in  the  heavenly  Canaan,  and  be 
 doomed  to  everlasting  destruction.  "  Take 
 heed,"  therefore,  "  brethren,"  as  the  apos- 
 tle justly  infers,  "  lest  there  be  in  any  of 
 you  an  evil  heart  of  unbelief,  in  departing 
 from  the  living  GoD.  But  exhort  one  an- 
 other daily,  while  it  is  called  to-day,  lest 
 any  of  you  be  hardened  through  the  de- 
 ceitfulness  of  sin."  (Heb,  iii.  12,  l.'i.)  Let 
 us  not  rest  in  a  bare  speculative  belief,  but 
 endeavour  to  obtain  and  preserve  a  lively 
 
782 
 
 VERGER. 
 
 VESTRY. 
 
 faith  and  hearty  trust  in  the  promises  of 
 God  made  to  us  in  the  gospel.  This,  and 
 this  only,  will  support  us  in  our  pilgrim- 
 age here  on  earth,  and  carry  us  safe  to 
 our  eternal  rest  in  heaven. —  Waldo.^ 
 
 According  to  ancient  use  in  the  AVestern 
 Church,  the  Venite  always  precedes  the 
 Morning  Psalm,  except  on  Easter  Day, 
 when  another  anthem  is  appointed. 
 
 Yl':RGEli.  (From  r//r/«,  a  rod.)  lie  who 
 carries  the  mace  before  the  dean  or  canons 
 in  a  cathetb-al  or  collegiate  church.  In 
 some  cathedrals  the  dean  has  his  own 
 verger,  the  canons  theirs :  in  others  the 
 verger  goes  before  any  member  of  the 
 church,  whether  capitular  or  not,  when  he 
 leaves  his  place  to  perform  any  part  of  the 
 service.     An  officer  of  a  similar  title  pre- 
 
 pre 
 iflisl 
 
 cedes  the  vice-chancellor  in  the  English 
 universities. 
 
 VERSE.  A  line  or  short  sentence, 
 generally  applied  to  poetry,  but  also  ap- 
 plicable to  prose,  as  Cicero  employs  it.  See 
 Facciolati  in  voc.  Hence  it  came  to  mean 
 a  short  sentence.  It  has,  in  an  ecclesiasti- 
 cal sense,  these  several  meanings  : 
 
 1.  The  short  paragraphs,  numbered  for 
 the  sake  of  reference,  into  which  the  Bible 
 is  at  present  divided,  are  called  verses. 
 These  divisions  were  introduced  into  the 
 Old  Testament  by  Rabbi  Nathan,  in  the 
 fifteenth  century.  Those  in  the  New  were 
 introduced  by  Robert  Stephens  in  1551. 
 
 2.  The  short  sentence  of  the  minister, 
 which  is  followed  by  the  response  of  the 
 choir  or  people,  in  the  Latin  ritual.  These 
 are  marked  V.  &  R.  It  is  something  like 
 the  versicles  in  our  service,  but  is  fre- 
 quently longer. 
 
 3.  A  sentence  or  short  anthem,  as  in  the 
 Introits  of  the  Latin  service. 
 
 4.  Verse  in  the  English  choral  service 
 means  those  passages  in  the  hymns  or 
 anthems  which  are  sung  by  a  portion  only 
 of  the  choir,  sometimes  by  a  single  voice, 
 as  contradistinguished  from  the  full  parts, 
 or  chorus.  Thus  we  have  full  and  verse 
 anthems. 
 
 VERSICLES.  Short  or  diminutive 
 verses,  said  alternately  by  the  minister  and 
 people  ;  such,  for  example,  as  the  follow- 
 ing : — 
 
 3Iui.  O  Lord,  show  thy  mercy  upon  us ; 
 A7ts.  And  grant  us  thy  salvation. 
 3Iin.  O  God,  make  clean  our  hearts  within 
 
 us  ; 
 Ans.  And  take  not  thy  HoLY  Spirit  from 
 
 us. 
 The  versicles,  properly  so  called,  (with 
 their  responses,)  are  in  most  instances  pas- 
 sages from  the  Psalms,  and  are  thus  dis- 
 tinguished from  other  suffrages,  which  are 
 
 neither  verses  from  the  Psalms,  nor  form 
 in  each  petition  and  response  a  continuous 
 sentence.  In  the  Litany  the  two  versicles 
 Avith  their  responses,  "  O  Lord,  deal  not 
 with  us  after  our  sins,"  and  "  O  Lord,  let 
 thy  mercy  be  showed  upon  us,"  are  dis- 
 tinguished from  the  other  suffrages  (in  the 
 Litany)  by  having  the  words  Priest  and 
 Anstcer  prefixed ;  and  by  being  each  a 
 verse  from  the  Psalms.  To  which  may  be 
 added,  that  till  the  last  Review,  these  had 
 been  always  prefaced  in  the  English  Litany, 
 since  the  Reformation,  by  the  words  "  the 
 versicles." 
 
 VESICA  PISCIS.     (See  Piscis.) 
 
 VESPERS,  or  EVENSONG,  is  men- 
 tioned by  the  most  ancient  Fathers,  and  it 
 is  probable  that  the  custom  of  holding  an 
 assembly  for  public  worship  at  this  time 
 is  of  the  most  primitive  antiquity.  Cer- 
 tainly in  the  fourth  century,  and  perhaps 
 in  the  third,  there  was  public  evening 
 service  in  the  Eastern  Churches,  as  we 
 learn  from  the  Apostolical  Constitutions ; 
 and  Cassian,  in  the  beginning  of  the  fifth 
 century,  appears  to  refer  the  evening  and 
 nocturnal  assemblies  of  the  Egyptians  to 
 the  time  of  St.  jMark  the  Evangelist. 
 
 VESTMENTS.  (See  Ornaments.)  The 
 vestinent  mentioned  in  the  rubric  of  King 
 Edv.-ard  VI.'s  first  Prayer  Rook,  is  the 
 same  as  the  Chasuble.     (See  CliasuUe.) 
 
 VESTRY.  (Anciently  Revestry  or 
 Sacrist ij.)  A  room  attached  to  a  church 
 for  the  %eping  of  the  vestments  and  the 
 sacred  vessels.  The  most  usual  place  for 
 the  vestry  was  at  the  north  side  of  the 
 chancel,  at  the  east  end.  There  was  not 
 infrequently  an  altar  in  the  vestry;  and 
 sometimes  it  was  arranged  with  an  addi- 
 tional chamber,  so  as  to  form  a  clomiis 
 inclusa  for  the  residence  of  an  officiating 
 priest. 
 
 And  from  their  meeting  in  this  room, 
 certain  assemblies  of  the  parishioners,  for 
 the  despatch  of  the  official  business  of  the 
 parish,  are  called  vestries  or  vestry  meet- 
 ings. It  is  not,  however,  essential  to  the 
 validity  of  the  meeting,  that  it  should  be 
 held  in  the  vestry  of  the  church.  It  may  be 
 convened  in  any  place  in  the  parish,  pro- 
 vided the  parishioners  have  free  access  to 
 it,  even  though  the  place  fixed  on  be 
 private  property.  Notice  of  meeting  must 
 be  given  thi'ee  days  previously,  by  affixing 
 on  or  near  the  doors  of  all  churches  or 
 chapels  within  the  parish,  a  printed  or 
 written  notice.  The  incumbent  is  ex  ojpcio 
 chairman  of  the  meeting.  All  persons 
 rated  to  the  relief  of  the  poor,  whether 
 inhabitants  of  the  parish  or  not,  are  entitled 
 to  attend  the  vestry  and  vote  thereat ;  and 
 
VESTRY. 
 
 "83 
 
 this  right  is  also  extended  to  all  inhabitants 
 coming  into  the  parish  since  the  last  rate 
 for  the  relief  of  the  poor,  if  they  consent  to 
 be  rated.  Bnt  no  person  is  entitled  to 
 vote,  who  shall  have  neglected  or  refused 
 to  pay  any  rate  which  may  be  due,  and 
 shall  have  been  demanded  of  him,  nor  is 
 he  entitled  to  be  present  at  any  vestry 
 meeting.  A  motion  to  adjourn  the  vestry 
 for  six  or  twelve  months,  or  for  any  time, 
 with  a  view  to  defeat  the  object  of  the 
 meeting,  is  illegal,  and  therefore  no  such 
 motion  shoidd  be  received  by  the  chairman. 
 
 The  functions  of  vestries  arc,  to  take 
 due  care  for  the  maintenance  of  the  edifice 
 of  the  church,  and  the  due  administration 
 of  Divine  service ;  to  elect  churchwardens, 
 to  present  for  appointment  tit  persons  as 
 overseers  of  the  poor,  to  administer  the 
 property  of  the  parish,  and  (if  so  appointed 
 under  local  acts)  to  superintend  the  paving 
 and  lighting  of  the  parish,  and  to  levy 
 rates  for  those  purposes. 
 
 The  remedy  for  neglect  of  duty  by  a 
 vestry  is  a  mandamus  from  the  court  of 
 Queen's  Bench,  directed  to  the  officer 
 whose  duty  it  would  be  to  perform  the 
 particular  act,  or  in  some  cases  by  an 
 ordinary  process  against  him,  or  by  a 
 process  against  the  churchwardens  out  of 
 the  ecclesiastical  courts. 
 
 In  the  year  1818  was  passed  the  58 
 Geo.  III.  c.  G9,  making  general  regula- 
 tions for  the  holding  of  vestries,  and  this 
 act  was  amended  next  year  by  the  59 
 Geo.  III.  c.  85.  In  the  same  year  was 
 passed  the  59  Geo.  III.  c.  12,  commonly 
 called  Sturges  Bourne's  Act,  authorizing 
 the  formation  of  select  vestries  for  the 
 management  of  the  relief  of  paupers  ;  but 
 that  is  superseded  by  the  Poor  Law  Amend- 
 ment Act  of  1834. 
 
 The  1  &  2  Wm.  IV.  c.  20  is  an  im- 
 portant act  relating  to  vestries,  commonly 
 called  Hobhouse's  Act.  It  authorizes, 
 upon  the  petition  of  a  certain  number  of 
 parishioners  paying  rates,  the  formation  of 
 a  representative  select  vestry.  To  1000 
 ratepayers  12  representatives  are  allowed  ; 
 above 'lOOO,  24;  above  2000,36;  and  so 
 on,  allowing  12  additional  representatives 
 for  every  additional  1000  ratepayers,  ujitil 
 the  number  of  the  select  vestry  reaches 
 120,  which  is  the  limit  of  elected  members. 
 There  are  others  ex  officio,  including  the 
 clergy  of  the  district.  Section  40  of  this 
 act  saves  all  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction,  and 
 provides  that  the  act  shall  not  invalidate 
 or  avoid  any  ecclesiastical  law  or  constitu- 
 tion of  the  Church  of  England,  save  as 
 concerns  the  appointment  of  vestries. 
 
 A  series  of  church-building  acts,  eighteen 
 
 in  numl)cr,  were  passed  between  1818  and 
 1848,  beginning  with  the  58  Geo.  IJI., 
 and  ending  with  the  11  cV  12  Vict.  They 
 contained  clauses  which  i^rovided  for  tlie 
 formation  of  select  vestries  iu  the  new 
 ecclesiastical  districts  constituted  bv  those 
 acts.  In  1851  came  the  14  cV:  15  Vict, 
 c.  97,  Avhich  enumerates  all  these  acts, 
 and  by  section  20  not  only  forbids  the 
 formation  of  select  vestries  in  new  districts 
 to  be  formed,  l)ut  abolishes  all  those  which 
 had  been  formed  under  the  acts  enumer- 
 ated. 
 
 By  the  Metropolitan  Burials  Acts  of  1 852, 
 (15  (k:  10  Vict.  c.  85,  amended  and  extended 
 by  16  \:  17  Vict.  c.  134,)  new  and  import- 
 ant duties  were  thrown  upon  vestries.  It 
 is  therein  provided,  that,  \\\\o\\  the  requisi- 
 tion in  writing  of  ten  or  more  ratej)ayers 
 of  any  parish  in  the  metropolis  in  which 
 the  place  or  places  of  burial  sliall  appear 
 to  such  ratepayers  insufficient  or  danger- 
 ous to  health,  (and  whether  any  order  in 
 council  in  relation  to  any  l)urial  ground 
 in  such  parish  has  or  has  not  been  made,) 
 the  churchwardens  or  other  persons  to 
 whom  it  belongs  to  convene  meetings  of 
 the  vestry  of  such  parish,  shall  convene  a 
 meeting  of  the  vestry,  for  the  special 
 purpose  of  determining  whether  a  burial 
 ground  shall  be  provided  under  this  act 
 for  the  parish  ;  and  public  notice  of  such 
 vestry  meeting,  and  the  ])lace  and  hour  of 
 holding  the  same,  and  the  special  purpose 
 thereof,  shall  lie  given  in  the  usual  manner 
 in  which  notices  of  the  meetings  of  the 
 vestry  are  given,  at  least  seven  days  liefore 
 holding  such  vestry  meeting ;  and  if  it 
 be  resolved  by  the  vestry  that  a  burial 
 ground  shall  be  provided  under  this  act 
 for  the  parish,  a  copy  of  such  resolution, 
 extracted  from  the  minutes  of  tlie  vestry, 
 and  signed  by  the  chairman,  shall  be  sent 
 to  one  of  her  Majesty's  principal  secretaries 
 of  state. 
 
 In  case  of  such  resolution  as  aforesaid, 
 tlie  vestry  shall  appoint  not  less  than 
 three,  nor  more  than  nine  persons,  being 
 ratepayers  of  the  ])arisli,  to  be  the  burial 
 board  of  such  ])arish,  of  whom  one  third, 
 or  as  nearly  as  may  be  one  third,  (to  be 
 determined  amon<^  themselves.)  shall  go 
 out  of  office  yearly,  at  such  time  as  shall 
 be  from  time  to  time  fixed  by  the  vestry, 
 but  shall  be  eligible  lor  immediate  re- 
 a])pointment :  jirovided  always,  that  the 
 incuml)ent  of  the  parish  shall  be  eligible 
 to  be  appointed  and  re-appointed  from 
 time  to  time  as  one  of  the  members  of  the 
 said  board,  although  not  a  ratepayer  of 
 the  parish  ;  provided  also,  that  any  mem- 
 ber of  the  board  mav  at  anv  time  resign 
 
(S4 
 
 VESTRY. 
 
 his  office,  on  giving  notice  in  writing  to 
 the  churchwardens  or  ])ersons  to  whom  it 
 belongs  to  convene  meetings  of  the  vestry. 
 
 Any  vacancies  in  the  board  may  be  filled 
 up  bv  the  vestry  when  and  as  the  vestry 
 shall' think  fit. 
 
 The  board  shall  meet  at  least  once  in 
 every  month  at  their  ofiice.  or  some  other 
 convenient  ])lace,  previously  publicly  noti- 
 fied, and  the  said  board  may  meet  at  such 
 other  time  as  at  any  previous  meeting 
 shall  be  determined  upon  ;  and  it  shall  be 
 at  all  times  competent  for  any  two  mem- 
 bers of  the  board,  by  writing  under  their 
 hands,  to  summon,  with  at  least  forty-eight 
 hours'  notice,  the  board  for  any  special 
 purpose  mentioned  in  such  writing,  and  to 
 meet  at  such  times  as  shall  be  appointed 
 therein. 
 
 At  all  meetings  of  the  board,  any  num- 
 ber not  less  than  three  members  of  such 
 board  shall  be  a  sufficient  number  for 
 transacting  business,  and  for  exercising  all 
 the  powers  of  the  board. 
 
 The  board  shall  appoint,  and  may  re- 
 move at  pleasure,  a  clerk,  and  such  other 
 officers  and  servants  as  shall  be  necessary 
 for  the  business  of  the  board,  and  for  the 
 purposes  of  their  burial  ground  ;  and,  with 
 the  approval  of  the  vestry,  may  appoint 
 reasonable  salaries,  wages,  and  allowances 
 for  such  clerk,  officers,  and  servants,  and, 
 when  necessary,  may  hire  and  rent  a  suf- 
 ficient office  for  holding  their  meetings 
 and  transacting  their  business. 
 
 Entries  of  all  proceedings  of  the  board, 
 with  the  names  of  the  members  who  attend 
 each  meeting,  shall  be  made  in  books  to 
 be  provided  and  kept  for  that  purpose, 
 under  the  direction  of  the  board,  and  shall 
 be  signed  by  the  members  present,  or  any 
 two  of  them  ;  and  all  entries  purporting 
 to  be  so  signed  shall  be  received  as  evi- 
 dence, without  proof  of  any  meeting  of  the 
 board  having  been  duly  convened  or  held, 
 or  of  the  presence  at  any  such  meeting  of 
 the  persons  named  in  any  such  entry  as 
 being  present  thereat,  or  of  such  persons 
 being  members  of  the  board,  or  of  the 
 signature  of  any  person  by  whom  any 
 such  entry  purports  to  be  signed,  all  which 
 matters  shall  be  presumed  until  the  con- 
 trary be  proved  ;  and  the  board  shall  pro- 
 vide and  keep  books  in  which  shall  be 
 entered  ti'ue  and  regular  accounts  of  all 
 sums  of  money  received  and  paid,  for  or 
 on  account  of  the  purposes  of  this  act  in 
 the  parish,  and  of  all  liabilities  incui'red  by 
 them  for  such  purposes,  and  of  the  several 
 purposes  for  which  such  sums  of  money 
 are  paid  and  such  liabilities  incurred. 
 
 All  such  books  shall,  at  all  reasonable 
 
 times,  be  open  to  the  examination  of  every 
 member  of  such  board,  churchwarden, 
 overseer,  and  ratepayer,  without  fee  or 
 reward,  and  they  respectively  may  take 
 copies  of,  or  extracts  from,  such  books,  or 
 any  part  thereof,  without  paying  for  the 
 same ;  and  in  case  the  members  of  such 
 board,  or  any  of  them,  or  any  of  the 
 officers  or  servants  of  such  board  having 
 the  custody  of  the  said  books,  being  there- 
 imto  reasonably  requested,  refuse  to  per- 
 mit or  do  not  permit  any  church Avarden, 
 overseer,  or  ratepayer  to  examine  the 
 same,  or  take  any  such  copies  or  extracts, 
 every  such  member,  officer,  or  servant  so 
 ofl'ending  shall  for  every  such  offence,  upon 
 a  summary  conviction  thereof  before  any 
 justice  of  the  peace,  forfeit  any  sum  not 
 exceeding  five  pounds. 
 
 The  vestry  shall  yearly  appoint  two 
 persons,  not  being  members  of  the  board, 
 to  be  auditors  of  the  accounts  of  the 
 board,  and  at  such  time  in  the  month  of 
 March  in  every  year  as  the  vestry  shall 
 appoint,  the  board  shall  produce  to  the 
 auditors  their  accounts,  with  sufficient 
 vouchers  for  all  monies  received  and  paid, 
 and  the  auditors  shall  examine  such  ac- 
 counts and  vouchers,  and  report  thereon  to 
 the  vestry. 
 
 The  expenses  incurred,  or  to  be  incurred, 
 by  the  burial  board  of  any  parish  in 
 carrying  this  act  into  execution,  shall  be 
 chargeable  upon  and  paid  out  of  the  rates 
 for  the  relief  of  the  poor  of  such  parish  ; 
 the  expenses  to  be  so  incurred  for  or  on 
 account  of  any  parish  in  providing  and 
 laying  out  a  burial  ground  under  this  act, 
 and  building  the  necessary  chapel  or 
 chapels  thereon,  not  to  exceed  such  sum 
 as  the  vestry  shall  authorize  to  be  ex- 
 pended for  such  purpose  ;  and  the  over- 
 seers or  other  officers  authorized  to  make 
 and  levy  rates  for  the  relief  of  the  poor  in 
 any  parish  shall,  upon  receipt  of  a  certifi- 
 cate under  the  hands  of  such  number  of 
 members  of  the  burial  board  as  are  author- 
 ized to  exercise  the  powers  of  the  board, 
 of  the  sums  required  from  time  to  time 
 for  defraying  any  such  expenses  as  afore- 
 said, pay  vsuch  sums  out  of  the  rates  for 
 the  relief  of  the  poor,  as  the  board  shall 
 direct. 
 
 Provided  always,  that  it  shall  be  lawful 
 for  the  board,  with  the  sanction  of  the 
 vestry  and  the  approval  of  the  commis- 
 sioners of  her  Majesty's  treasury,  to  bor- 
 row any  money  required  for  providing 
 and  laying  out  any  burial  ground  under 
 this  act,  and  building  a  chapel  or  chapels 
 thereon,  or  any  of  such  purposes,  and  to 
 charge  the  future  poor  rates  of  the  parish 
 
VESTRY. 
 
 785 
 
 with  the  payment  of  such  money  and 
 interest  thereon  ;  provided  that  there  shall 
 be  paid  in  every  year,  in  addition  to  the 
 interest  of  the  money  borrowed  and  un- 
 paid, not  less  than  one-twentieth  of  the 
 principal  sum  borrowed,  until  the  whole  is 
 discharged. 
 
 The  commissioners  for  carrying  into 
 execution  an  act  of  the  session  holden  in 
 the  14th  and  15th  years  of  her  Majesty, 
 c.  23,  "  to  authorize  for  a  further  ])e- 
 riod  the  advance  of  money  out  of  the 
 consolidated  fund  to  a  limited  amount 
 for  carrying  on  public  works  and  iisheries 
 and  employment  of  the  poor,"  and  any  act 
 or  acts,  amending  or  continuing  the  same, 
 may  from  time  to  time  make  to  the  burial 
 board  of  any  parish  for  the  purposes  of 
 this  act  any  loan  under  the  provisions  of 
 the  recited  act,  or  the  several  acts  therein 
 recited  or  referred  to,  upon  security  of  the 
 rates  for  the  relief  of  the  poor  of  the 
 parish. 
 
 The  money  raised  for  defraying  such 
 expenses,  and  the  income  arising  from  the 
 burial  ground  provided  for  the  parish,  ex- 
 cept fees  payable  to  the  incumbent,  clerk, 
 and  sexton  of  the  parish,  and  the  other 
 fees  herein  directed  to  be  otherwise  paid, 
 shall  be  applied  by  the  board  in  or  towards 
 defraying  the  expenses  of  such  board  un- 
 der this  act ;  and  whenever,  after  repay- 
 ment of  all  monies  borrowed  for  the  pur- 
 poses of  this  act  in  or  for  any  parish,  and 
 the  interest  thereof,  and  after  satisfying  all 
 the  liabilities  of  the  board  with  reference 
 to  the  execution  of  this  act  in  or  for  the 
 parish,  and  providing  such  a  balance  as 
 shall  be  deemed  by  the  board  sufficient  to 
 meet  their  probable  liabilities  during  the 
 then  next  year,  there  shall  be  at  the  time 
 of  holding  the  meeting  of  the  vestry  at 
 which  the  yearly  report  of  the  auditors 
 shall  be  produced,  any  surplus  money  at 
 the  disposal  of  the  board,  they  shall  pay 
 the  same  to  the  overseers,  in  aid  of  the  rate 
 for  the  relief  of  the  poor  of  the  parish. 
 
 The  vestries  of  any  parishes  which  shall 
 have  respectively  resolved  to  provide  burial 
 grounds  under  this  act,  may  concur  in  pro- 
 viding one  burial  ground  for  the  common 
 use  of  such  parishes,  in  such  manner,  not 
 inconsistent  with  the  provisions  of  this  act, 
 as  they  shall  mutually  agree ;  and  may 
 agree  as  to  the  proportions  in  which  the 
 expenses  of  such  burial  ground  shall  be 
 borne  by  such  parishes,  and  the  propor- 
 tion for  each  of  such  parishes  of  such  ex- 
 penses shall  be  chargealde  upon  and  paid 
 out  of  the  monies  to  be  raised  for  the  re- 
 lief of  the  poor  of  the  same  respective 
 parish  accordinglv ;  and,  according  and 
 3  E 
 
 subject  to  the  terms  which  sliall  have  been 
 so  agreed  on,  the  burial  boards  ai)pointed 
 for  such  parishes  respcctivclv  sluill.  for  tiie 
 purpose  of  providing  and  managing  such 
 one  burial  ground,  and  taking  and  hold- 
 ing land  for  the  same,  act  as  one  joint 
 burial  board  for  all  such  i)anshes,  and 
 may  have  a  joint  office,  clerk,  and  olKcers, 
 and  all  the  j)rovisions  of  this  act  sliall  ap- 
 ])ly  to  such  joint  burial  board  accordingly; 
 and  the  accounts  and  vouchers  of  such 
 board  sliall  be  examined  and  rej)orted  on 
 by  the  auditors  of  each  of  such  jiarishes; 
 and  the  surplus  money  at  the  disposal  as 
 aforesaid  of  such  board,  shall  be  jjaid  to 
 the  overseers  of  such  ])arishes  respectively 
 in  the  same  proportions  as  those  in  wiiieh 
 such  parishes  shall  be  liable  to  such  ex- 
 penses. 
 
 For  the  more  easy  execution  of  the 
 purposes  of  this  act,  the  burial  board  of 
 every  parish  api)ointed  under  this  act 
 shall  be  a  body  corporate,  by  the  name  of 
 "  The   Burial    Board   for   the    Parish    of 
 
 ,  in  the  County  of ,"  and  by 
 
 that  name  shall  have  perpetual  succession 
 and  a  common  seal,  and  shall  sue  and  be 
 sued,  and  have  power  and  authority  (with- 
 out any  licence  in  mortmain)  to  take,  pur- 
 chase, and  hold  land  for  the  purposes  of 
 this  act ;  and  where  the  burial  boards  of 
 two  or  more  parishes  act  as,  and  form,  one 
 joint  burial  board  for  all  such  jjarishes  for 
 the  purposes  aforesaid,  such  joint  board 
 shall  for  such  purposes  only  be  a  body  cor- 
 porate, by  the  name  of  "  The  Burial  Board 
 
 for  the  Parishes  of and ,  in 
 
 the  County  of ,"  and  by  that  name 
 
 shall  have  perpetual  succession,  and  a  com- 
 mon seal,  and  shall  sue  and  be  sued,  and 
 have  power  and  authority  as  aforesaid  to 
 take,  purchase,  and  hold  land  for  the  pur- 
 poses of  this  act. 
 
 Every  burial  board  shall,  with  all  con- 
 venient speed,  proceed  to  provide  a  burial 
 ground  for  the  jjarish  or  parishes  for  which 
 they  are  appointed  to  act,  and  to  make 
 arrangements  for  facilitating  interments 
 therein ;  and  in  providing  such  burial 
 ground,  the  board  shall  have  reference  to 
 the  convenience  of  access  thereto  from  the 
 parish  or  parishes  for  which  the  same  is 
 provided ;  and  any  such  burial  ground 
 may  be  provided  either  within  or  without 
 the'  limits  of  the  ])arish,  or  all  or  any  of 
 the  ])arishes,  for  which  the  same  is  pro- 
 vided ;  but  no  ground  not  already  used  as 
 or  a])i)ropriated  for  a  cemetery,  shall  be 
 a])proi)riatcd  as  a  burial  ground,  or  as  an 
 addition  to  a  burial  ground,  under  this 
 act,  nearer  than  200  yards  to  any  dwelling 
 house,  without  the  consent  in  writing  of 
 
786 
 
 VIA  MEDIA. 
 
 the  owner,  lessee,   and  0CL'U})icr  of  such 
 dwellinoj  house. 
 
 For  the  providing  such  burial  ground, 
 it  shall  be  lawful  for  the  burial  board, 
 with  the  approval  of  the  vestry  or  vestries 
 of  the  parish  or  respective  parishes,  to 
 contract  for  and  purchase  any  lands  for 
 the  purpose  of  forming  a  burial  ground, 
 or  for  making  additions  to  any  burial 
 ground  to  be  formed  or  purchased  under 
 this  act,  as  such  board  may  think  fit,  or 
 to  purchase  from  any  company  or  persons 
 entitled  thereto  any  cemetery  or  ceme- 
 teries, or  part  or  parts  thereof,  subject  to 
 the  rights  in  vaults  and  graves,  and  other 
 subsisting  rights,  which  may  have  been 
 previously  granted  therein  :  provided  al- 
 ways that  it  shall  be  lawful  for  such  board, 
 in  lieu  of  providing  any  such  burial  ground, 
 to  contract  with  any  sucli  company  or 
 persons  entitled  as  aforesaid  for  the  inter- 
 ment in  such  cemetery  or  cemeteries,  and 
 either  in  any  allotted  part  of  such  cemetery 
 or  cemeteries  or  otherwise,  and  upon  such 
 terms  as  the  burial  board  may  think  fit,  of 
 the  bodies  of  persons  who  would  have  had 
 rights  of  interment  in  the  burial  grounds  of 
 such  parish  or  respective  parishes. 
 
 VIA  MEDIA.  The  i)osition  occupied 
 in  the  Christian  world  by  the  Anglican 
 Church.  There  are  three  parties  at  present 
 dividing  the  kingdom — the  Church,  the 
 Romanist,  the  ultra-Protestant;  of  tliese 
 the  Church  occupies  the  middle,  Romanism 
 and  ultra-Protestantism  the  extreme  posi- 
 tions. AVere  the  Chm'ch  withdrawn  or 
 forced  from  this  central  position,  the  two 
 extremes  would  soon  collide  in  civil  and 
 religious  contention  and  rancour.  The 
 Church  is  the  peace-preserving  power  in 
 the  home  empire;  her  advantages  and 
 resources  in  this  respect  are  singularly 
 her  own.  As  far  as  the  Roman  is  a 
 Church,  she  agrees  with  Rome  :  educated 
 Romanists,  however  much  they  regret  the 
 disunion  of  the  sees  of  Rome  and  Can- 
 terbury, respect  her  ecclesiastical  and 
 apostolic  character.  As  far  as  the  renun- 
 ciation of  errors  dangerous  to  salvation 
 constitutes  Protestantism,  she  is  thoroughly 
 Protestant;  learned  and  sober  Noncon- 
 formists, therefore,  have  always  considered 
 her  as  the  bulwark  of  the  reformed  re- 
 ligion. iShe  possesses  what  Rome  does 
 not,  to  conciliate  the  Nonconformist ;  she 
 possesses  what  ultra-Protestantism  does 
 not,  to  attract  the  esteem  of  the  P^oman 
 Catholic.  She  has  wherewith  to  conciliate 
 to  herself  these  two  extremes,  totally  irre- 
 concileable  with  each  other.  Were  all  re- 
 ligious parties  in  the  realm  to  meet  at  this 
 moment  to   draw  up  a  national  form  of 
 
 Christianity  consistent  with  both  Scri])ture 
 and  Catholic  antiquity,  the  vast  majority, 
 we  doubt  not,  would  conscientiously  prefer 
 the  liturgy  and  articles  of  the  Church  to 
 any  form  or  articles  propounded  by  any 
 one  sect  out  of  the  Church.  AVithout  the 
 Church,  again,  ultra-Protestantism  would 
 prove  but  a  ro])e  of  sand  to  oppose  the 
 subtle  machinations  and  united  movement 
 of  the  ])apal  hierarchy.  With  her,  at  peace 
 with  both,  though  not  in  communion  with 
 either,  these  hostile  schemes  have  as  yet 
 been  prevented  from  committing  the  na- 
 tion to  the  horrors  of  intestine  commotion. 
 The  statesman  who  would  undermine  or 
 debilitate  this  passive  supremacy — for  to 
 all  aggressive  or  domineering  purposes  it 
 is  entirely  passive — on  the  chance  that 
 conflicting  sects  M'ould  extend  to  each 
 other  the  mild  toleration  which  now  under 
 the  Church  all  impartially  enjoy,  must 
 have  studied  religious  passions  and  re- 
 ligious history  to  little  profit. 
 
 The  great  mass  of  Protestant  communi- 
 nities  sends  each  individual  to  the  Bible 
 alone  ;  thence  to  collect,  as  it  may  hap- 
 pen, truth  or  falsehood,  by  his  own  inter- 
 pretation, or  misinterpretation,  and  thence 
 to  measure  the  most  Aveighty  and  mysteri- 
 ous truths  by  the  least  peculiar  and  appro- 
 priate passages  of  sacred  Scripture.  The 
 Church  of  Rome  sends  her  chikb'en  neither 
 to  the  Bible  alone,  nor  to  tradition  alone ; 
 nor  yet  to  the  Bible  and  tradition  con- 
 jointly, but  to  an  infallible  living  expositor: 
 which  expositor  sometimes  limits,  and 
 sometimes  extends,  and  sometimes  contra- 
 dicts, both  the  written  word  and  the  lan- 
 guage of  Christian  antiquity.  The  Church 
 of  England  steers  a  middle  course.  She 
 reveres  the  Scripture  :  she  respects  tra- 
 dition. She  encourages  investigation  :  but 
 she  checks  presumption.  She  bows  to  the 
 authority  of  ages  :  but  she  owns  no  liv- 
 ing master  upon  earth.  She  rejects  alike 
 the  wild  extravagance  of  unauthorized  opi- 
 nion, and  the  tame  subjection  of  com- 
 pulsory belief.  Where  the  Scripture  clearly 
 and  freely  speaks,  she  receives  the  dictates 
 as  the  voice  of  God.  When  Scripture  is 
 neither  clear  nor  explicit,  or  when  it  may 
 demand  expansion  and  illustration,  she 
 refers  her  sons  to  an  authoritative  standard 
 of  interpretation,  but  a  standard  which  it 
 is  their  privilege  to  apply  for  themselves. 
 And  when  Scripture  is  altogether  silent, 
 she  provides  a  supplementary  guidance : 
 but  a  guidance  neither  fluctuating  nor  arbi- 
 trary ;  the  same  in  all  times,  and  under  all 
 circumstances ;  which  no  private  interest 
 can  warp,  and  no  temporary  prejudice  can 
 lead  astray.     Thus,  her  appeal  is  made  to 
 
VIATICUM. 
 
 YICAR. 
 
 past  ages,  against  every  possible  error  of 
 the  present.  Thus,  thougli  the  great  mass 
 of  Christendom,  and  even  though  the  vast 
 majority  of  oiu'  own  national  Church,  were 
 to  depart  from  the  purity  of  Christian  faith 
 and  practice,  yet  no  Avell-taught  member 
 of  that  Church  needs  hesitate  or  tremble. 
 His  path  is  plain.  It  is  not  merely  his 
 o"\vn  judgment,  it  is  not  by  any  means  the 
 dictatorial  mandate  of  an  ecclesiastical  di- 
 rector, Avhich  is  to  silence  his  scruples,  and 
 dissolve  his  doubts.  Ilis  resort  is,  that 
 concurrent,  universal,  and  undeviating 
 sense  of  pious  antiquity,  -which  he  has 
 been  instructed,  and  should  be  encouraged, 
 to  embrace,  to  follow,  and  to  revere. — 
 Bishop  Jehh. 
 
 VIATICUM.  The  provision  made  for 
 a  journey.  Hence,  in  the  ancient  Church, 
 both  baptism  and  the  eucharist  were  called 
 Jlatica,  because  they  were  equally  esteem- 
 ed men's  necessary  provision  and  proper 
 armour,  both  to  sustain  and  conduct  them 
 safe  on  their  Avay  in  their  passage  through 
 this  world  to  eternal  life.  The  adminis- 
 tration of  baptism  is  thus  spoken  of  by 
 St.  Basil  and  Gregory  Nazianzen,  as  the 
 giving  to  men  their  viaticum  or  provision 
 for  their  journey  to  another  world ;  and 
 under  this  impression  it  was  frequently  de- 
 layed till  the  hour  of  death,  being  esteem- 
 ed as  a  final  security  and  safeguard  to 
 future  happiness.  ^lore  strictly,  however, 
 the  term  viaticum  denoted  the  eucharist 
 given  to  persons  in  immediate  danger  of 
 cleath,  and  in  this  sense  it  is  still  occasion- 
 ally used.  The  13th  Canon  of  the  Nicene 
 Council  ordains  that  none  "  be  deprived 
 of  his  perfect  and  most  necessary  viaticum, 
 when  he  departs  out  of  this  life."  Several 
 other  canons  of  various  councils  are  to  the 
 same  effect,  providing  also  for  the  giving 
 of  the  viaticum  under  peculiar  circum- 
 stances, as  to  persons  in  extreme  weak- 
 ness, delirium,  or  subject  to  canonical  dis- 
 cipline. 
 
 VICAR.  In  order  to  the  due  under- 
 standing of  this  office,  as  distinguished 
 from  those  of  rector  and  perpetual  curate, 
 it  will  be  necessary  to  describe  in  this  arti- 
 cle the  three  several  offices  in  their  order. 
 
 The  a])pellation  of  rector  is  synonymous 
 •with  that  of  parson,  which  latter  term, 
 although  frequently  used  incbscriminately, 
 as  applicable  also  to  vicars  and  even  cu- 
 rates, is,  according  to  lilackstone,  the  most 
 legal,  beneficial,  and  honourable  title  that 
 a  parish  priest  can  enjoy.  Parson,  in  the 
 legal  signification,  is  taken  for  the  rector 
 of  a  church  parochial:  he  is  said  to  be 
 seised  in  jure  ccclesitr.  Such  an  one,  and 
 he  only,  is  said  viccm  sou  personam  ccclesim 
 3  E  2 
 
 ciercrc.  He  is  called  parson  [persona)  be- 
 cause by  his  person  the  Chm-eh,  which  is 
 an  invisible  body,  is  represented  ;  and  he 
 is  in  himself  a  body  corporate,  in  order 
 to  protect  and  defend  tlie  rights  of  the 
 CHiurch  (which  he  personates)  by  a  pcr- 
 jietual  succession.  And,  as  Lord  Coke 
 says,  tlie  law  had  an  excellent  end  therein, 
 viz.  that  in  his  ])erson  the  Church  might 
 sue  for  and  defend  her  right.  A  ])arson, 
 therefore,  is  a  corporation  sole,  aiul  has 
 during  his  life  the  freehold  in  himself  of 
 the  parsonage  house,  the  glebe,  tlie  tithe, 
 and  other  dues. 
 
 But  these  are  sometimes  aj)i)roi)nated ; 
 that  is  to  say,  the  benefice  is  perjietually 
 annexed  to  some  spiritual  corporation, 
 either  sole  or  aggregate,  being  the  patron 
 of  the  living,  which  the  law  esteems  equal- 
 ly ca])ablc  of  providing  for  the  service  of 
 the  Church  as  any  single  j)rivate  clergy- 
 man. This  contrivance  seems  to  have 
 sprung  from  the  policy  of  the  monastic  or- 
 ders. At  the  first  esta])lisliment  of  paro- 
 chial clergy,  tlie  tithes  of  the  jiarish  were 
 distributed  in  a  four-fold  division  :  one  for 
 the  use  of  the  bishop,  another  for  main- 
 taining the  fabric  of  the  church,  a  third 
 for  the  poor,  and  the  fourth  to  provide  for 
 the  incumbent.  When  the  sees  of  the 
 bishops  became  otherwise  amj)ly  endowed, 
 they  were  prohibited  from  demanding 
 their  usual  share  of  these  tithes,  and  the 
 division  Avas  into  three  parts  only ;  and 
 hence  it  was  inferred  by  the  monasteries, 
 that  a  small  part  was  sutficicnt  for  the 
 officiating  jn-iest,  and  that  the  remainder 
 might  well  be  ajijilied  to  the  use  of  their 
 own  fraternities,  (the  endowment  of  which 
 was  construed  to  be  a  Avork  of  the  most 
 exalted  piety,)  sulyect  to  the  burden  of  re- 
 pairing the  church,  and  providing  for  its 
 constant  supply.  And  therefore  they  liegged 
 and  bought  for  masses  and  obits,  and  some- 
 times even  for  money,  all  the  advowsons 
 within  their  reach,  and  then  appropriated 
 the  benefices  to  the  use  of  their  own  cor- 
 poration. But  in  order  to  coinjilete  such 
 appropriation  effectually,  the  king's  licence 
 and  consent  of  the  bishop  must  first  have 
 been  obtained  ;  because  both  the  king  and 
 the  bisho])  may,  some  time  or  other,  ha.ve 
 an  interest,  by  lapse,  in  the  jircsentation 
 to  the  benefice,  which  can  never  hajipen  if 
 it  be  ap])ropriated  to  the  use  of  a  corpora- 
 tion which  never  dies,  and  also  because 
 the  law  rejioses  a  confidence  in  them  that 
 they  will  not  consent  to  anything  that  shall 
 lie  io  the  jirejudice  of  the  Church.  The 
 consent  of  the  patron  also  is  necessarily 
 implied,  because  (as  was  before  ol)sorved) 
 the  apjiropriation  can  be  originally  made 
 
788 
 
 VICAR. 
 
 to  none  but  to  such  spiritual  corporation  as 
 is  also  the  patron  of  the  Church  ;  the  whole 
 being,  indeed,  nothing  else  but  an  allow- 
 ance for  the  patrons  to  retain  the  tithes  and 
 glebe  in  their  own  hands,  without  present- 
 ing any  clerk,  they  themselves  undertaking 
 to  provide  for  the  service  of  the  church. 
 
 The  terms  appropriation  and  impropria- 
 tion are  now  so  commonly  used  indis- 
 criminately, that  it  has  become  almost 
 unnecessary  to  mention  the  distinction  be- 
 tween them  ;  but  apjn-opriation,  in  contra- 
 distinction to  impropriation,  means  the 
 annexing  a  benefice  to  the  proper  and 
 perpetual  use  of  some  spiritual  corporation 
 either  sole  or  aggregate,  being  the  patron 
 of  a  living,  which  is  bound  to  provide  for 
 the  service  of  the  church,  and  thereby 
 becomes  perpetual  incumbent,  the  Avhole 
 appropriation  being  only  an  alloAvance  for 
 the  spiritual  patrons  to  retain  the  tithes 
 and  glebe  in  their  own  hands,  without 
 presenting  any  clerk,  they  themselves  un- 
 dertaking to  provide  for  the  service  of  the 
 church ;  while  impropriation  is  supposed 
 to  be  properly  used  when  the  profits  of 
 the  benefice  are  held  in  lay  hands,  as 
 being  improperly  so.  But,  in  truth,  the 
 correctness  of  the  distinction,  even  ori- 
 ginally, seems  doubtful :  they  are  used 
 as  synonymous  in  statutes  in  the  times  of 
 Elizabeth,  of  Mary,  and  of  Charles  II.  ; 
 and  even  prior  to  the  Reformation,  in  a 
 petition  to  parliament  in  the  time  of 
 Henry  VIII.,  the  term  used  is  "impro- 
 pried."  Both  terms  were  borrowed  from 
 the  form  of  the  grant,  "  in  proprios  usus," 
 and  they  are  peculiar  or  principally  con- 
 fined to  this  country.  Blackstone  says, 
 that  appropriations  can  be  made  to  this 
 day;  upon  which  ^Nlr.  Christian  observes, 
 "  It  cannot  be  supposed  that  at  this  day  the 
 inhabitants  of  a  parish,  Avho  had  been  ac- 
 customed to  pay  their  tithes  to  their  offi- 
 ciating minister,  could  be  compelled  to 
 transfer  them  to  an  ecclesiastical  corpor- 
 ation, to  which  they  might  be  perfect 
 strangers,"  and  that  "  there  probably  have 
 been  no  new  appropriations  since  the  dis- 
 solution of  monasteries."  Upon  this  same 
 proposition,  Mr.  Justice  Coleridge  observes, 
 alluding  to  the  opinion  of  Mr.  Christian, 
 "  The  truth  of  this  position  has  been  ques- 
 tioned, and  the  doubt  is  not  likely  to  be 
 solved  by  any  judicial  decision.  But  I  am 
 not  aware  of  any  principle  which  should 
 prevent  an  impropriation  from  being  now 
 legally  made,  supposing  the  spiritual  cor- 
 poration already  seised  of  the  advoAvson  of 
 the  church,  or  enabled  to  take  it  by  grant. 
 The  power  of  the  king  and  the  bishop  re- 
 main undiminished." 
 
 This  appropriation  may  be  severed,  and 
 the  church  become  disappropriate,  m  two 
 ways ;  as,  first,  if  the  patron  or  appro- 
 priator  presents  a  clerk,  who  is  instituted 
 and  inducted  to  the  parsonage  ;  for  the 
 incumbent  so  instituted  and  inducted  is, 
 to  all  intents  and  ]>urposes,  completed  par- 
 son :  and  the  appropriation,  being  once 
 severed,  can  never  be  re-united  again, 
 unless  by  a  repetition  of  the  same  solem- 
 nities. And  when  the  clerk  so  presented 
 is  distinct  from  the  vicar,  the  rectory  thus 
 vested  in  him  becomes  what  is  called  a 
 sinecure,  because  he  had  no  cure  of  souls, 
 having  a  vicar  under  him,  to  whom  that 
 cure  is  committed.  Also,  if  the  corpora- 
 tion Avhich  has  the  appropriation  is  dis- 
 solved, the  parsonage  becomes  disappro- 
 priate at  common  law  ;  because  the  perpe- 
 tuity of  person  is  gone,  Avhich  is  necessary 
 to  support  the  appropriation.     ^ 
 
 These  sinecure  rectories  here  spoken  of 
 had  their  origin  in  the  following  manner : 
 The  rector,  with  proper  consent,  had  a 
 poAver  to  entitle  a  vicar  in  his  church  to 
 officiate  under  him,  and  this  was  often 
 done ;  and  by  this  means  tAVO  persons 
 Avere  instituted  to  the  same  church,  and 
 both  to  the  cure  of  souls,  and  both  did 
 actually  officiate.  So  that  hoAvever  the 
 rectors  of  sinecures,  by  having  been  long 
 excused  from  residence,  are  in  common 
 opinion  discharged  from  the  cure  of  souls, 
 (Avhich  is  the  reason  of  the  name,)  and 
 hoAvever  the  cure  is  said  in  the  laAV  books 
 to  be  in  them  habitualiter  only,  yet,  in  strict- 
 ness, and  Avith  regard  to  their  original  in- 
 stitution, the  cure  is  in  them  actualiter,  as 
 much  as  it  is  in  the  vicar,  that  is  to  say, 
 Avhere  they  come  in  by  institution  ;  but  if 
 the  rectory  is  a  donative,  the  case  is  other- 
 Avise  ;  for  coming  in  by  donation,  they  have 
 not  the  cure  of  souls  committed  to  them. 
 And  these  are  most  properly  sinecures,  ac- 
 cording to  the  genuine  signification  of  the 
 Avord. 
 
 But  no  church,  where  there  is  but  one 
 incumbent,  is  properly  a  sinecure.  If 
 indeed  the  church  be  down,  or  the  parish 
 become  destitute  of  parishioners,  Avithout 
 Avhich  Divine  offices  cannot  be  performed, 
 the  incumbent  is  of  necessity  acquitted 
 from  all  public  duty  ;  but  still  he  is  under 
 an  obligation  of  doing  this  duty  Avhenever 
 there  shall  be  a  competent  number  of  in- 
 habitants, and  the  church  shall  be  rebuilt. 
 And  these  benefices  are  more  properly 
 depopulations  than  sinecures. 
 
 But  sinecure  rectors  and  rectories  are 
 noAv  in  the  course  of  gradual  suppression, 
 and  Avill  soon  have  entirely  })assed  aAvay ; 
 for  it  is  declared  by  the  stat.  3  &  4  Vict. 
 
VICAR. 
 
 rsi) 
 
 c.  113,  that  all  ecclesiastical  rectories, 
 M'ithout  cure  of  souls,  in  the  sole  ])atroiia<Te 
 of  her  Majesty,  or  of  any  ecclesiastical 
 corporation,  aggregate  or  sole,  where  there 
 shall  he  a  vicar  endowed  or  a  perpetual 
 curate,  shall,  as  to  all  such  rectories  as 
 may  he  vacant  at  the  passing  of  that  act, 
 immediately  upon  its  so  passing,  and  as  to 
 all  others  immediately  upon  the  vacancies 
 thereof  respectively,  be  suj)prcsscd ;  and 
 that  as  to  any  such  ecclesiastical  rectory 
 without  cure  of  souls,  the  advowson  where- 
 of, or  any  right  of  patronage  wherein, 
 shall  belong  to  any  person  or  persons,  or 
 body  corporate,  other  than  as  aforesaid, 
 the  ecclesiastical  commissioners  for  Eng- 
 land shall  be  authorized  and  empowered 
 to  purchase  and  accept  conveyance  of 
 such  advowson  or  right  of  patronage,  as 
 the  case  may  be,  at  and  for  such  price 
 or  sum  as  may  be  agreed  upon  between 
 them  and  the  owner  or  owners  of  such 
 advowson  or  right  of  patronage,  and  may 
 pay  the  purchase  money,  and  the  expenses 
 of  and  attendant  upon  such  jmrchase,  out 
 of  the  common  fund  in  tlieir  hands  ;  and 
 that  after  the  completion  of  such  i)urchase 
 of  any  such  rectory,  and  upon  the  first 
 avoidance  thereof,  the  same  shall  be  sup- 
 pressed ;  and  that  upon  the  suppression  of 
 any  such  rectory  as  aforesaid,  all  ecclesias- 
 tical patronage,  belonging  to  the  rector 
 thereof  as  such  rector,  shall  be  absolutely 
 transferred  to,  and  be  vested  in,  the  ori- 
 ginal patron  or  patrons  of  such  rectory. 
 
 The  office  of  vicar,  as  distinct  from  that 
 of  rector,  would  sufficiently  a})pear  from 
 what  has  been  already  said  of  the  latter. 
 The  vicar  was  origijially  little  more  than 
 a  stipendiary  curate  of  the  present  day, 
 being  a  minister  deputed  or  sul)stituted  by 
 the  spiritual  corporation,  who  held  the  re- 
 venues of  the  benefice,  to  perform  the  ec- 
 clesiastical duties  in  their  stead.  Usually, 
 though  not  always,  he  was  one  of  their  own 
 body  ;  and  his  stipend  was  entirely  at  their 
 discretion,  and  he  was  removable  at  their 
 caprice.  The  evil  results  of  such  a  jirac- 
 tice  are  apparent ;  and  an  eflectual  attempt 
 to  arrest  the  evil  was  made  by  a  statute  in 
 the  reign  of  Kichard  II. ;  but  this  was 
 found  to  be  insufficient ;  and  accordingly 
 it  was  enacted  by  statute  4  Ilein-y  1\'. 
 c.  12,  that  the  vicar  should  be  a  secular 
 ecclesiastic  ;  perpetual ;  not  removable  at 
 the  caprice  of  the  monastery ;  that  he 
 should  be  canonically  institutt-d  and  in- 
 ducted ;  that  he  should  be  sufficiently  en- 
 dowed at  the  discretion  of  tlie  ordinary  to 
 do  JJivine  service,  to  inform  the  neojjle, 
 and  to  keep  hospitality.  It  is  under  this 
 latter  statute,  therefore,  that  our  vicarages 
 
 in  their  prrs(>ni  form  came  into  existence, 
 and  the  endowments  of  them  have  usually 
 l)een  by  a  jjortion  of  the  glel)e  or  land  be- 
 longing to  the  i)arsonage;  and  a  jjarticular 
 share  of  the  tithes  whicli  the  approprialors 
 found  it  most  troublesome  to  collect,  and 
 which  are  therefore  generally  called  privy 
 or  small  tithes,  the  greater  or  priedial 
 tithes  being  still  reserved  to  tlieir  own  use. 
 liut  one  and  the  same  rule  was  not  obser\ed 
 in  the  eiulowment  of  all  vicarages.  Hence 
 some  are  more  liberally,  and  some  more 
 scantily,  endowed;  and  lience  tlie  tithes  of 
 many  things,  as  wood  in  particular,  are  in 
 some  parishes  rectorial,  and  in  some,  vi- 
 carial tithes. 
 
 The  distinction,  therefore,  between  a 
 rector  and  a  vicar,  at  the  present  day,  is 
 this,  that  the  rector  has  generally  the 
 whole  right  to  all  the  ecclesiastical  dues 
 within  his  parish ;  the  vicar  is  entitled 
 only  to  a  certain  portion  of  those  ])rofits, 
 the  best  part  of  which  are  absorbed  by  the 
 ai)pro])riator,  to  whom,  if  a])i)ropriations 
 had  continued  as  in  their  origin,  he  would 
 in  effect  be  perpetual  curate  with  a  fixed 
 salary. 
 
 The  parson,  and  not  the  ])atron  of  the 
 parsonage,  is  of  common  right  the  patron 
 of  the  vicarage.  The  ])arson,  by  making 
 the  endowment,  acquires  the  j)atronage  of 
 the  vicarage.  For,  in  order  to  the  appro- 
 priation of  a  parsonage,  the  inheritance  of 
 the  advowson  was  to  be  transferred  to  the 
 corporation  to  Avhich  the  church  was  to  be 
 approjiriatcd  ;  and  then  the  vicarage  being 
 derived  out  of  the  parsonage,  the  parson, 
 of  common  right,  must  be  patron  thereof. 
 8o  that  if  the  ])arson  makes  a  lease  of  the 
 parsonage,  (without  making  a  special  re- 
 servation to  himself  of  the  right  of  pre- 
 senting to  the  vicarage,)  the  j)atr()nage  of 
 the  vicarage  passeth  as  incident  to  it.  lUit 
 it  was  held  in  the  21  James  I.,  that  the 
 parishioners  may  jjrescribe  for  the  choice 
 of  a  vicar.  And  before  that,  in  the  IG 
 James  I.,  in  the  case  of  .S'/j/r/r// and  Tm- 
 (IcrJii/l,  it  was  declared  by  the  court,  that 
 though  the  advowson  of  the  vicarage  of  ^ 
 common  right  is  ai)])endant  to  the  rectory, 
 yet  it  may  be  ai)i)endant  to  a  nninor,  as 
 having  been  reserved  si)ecially  upon  the 
 ap])ropriation. 
 
 And  if  there  be  a  vicar  and  jjarson  nj>- 
 propriate,  the  ordinary  and  parson  apjiro- 
 l)riate  may,  in  time  of  vacation  of  the 
 vicarage,  rc-unite  the  vicarage  to  the  par- 
 sonage. 
 
 From  what  has  been  already  obscn'cd 
 of  the  distinction  between  rector  and  vicar, 
 it  will  be  easy  to  anticipate  what  remains 
 to  be  said  of  a  jxrpctuul  curate ;    for  a 
 
•90 
 
 VICAR. 
 
 perpetual  curate  is,  in  many  things,  in  the 
 same  position  as  was  a  vicar  previous  to 
 the  statute  of  Henry  IV.  before  mentioned. 
 The  fact  is,  that  certain  cases  were  ex- 
 empted from  the  operation  of  that  statute  ; 
 for  if  the  benefice  was  given  ad  inoisam 
 monacJionim,  and  so  not  appropriated  in 
 the  common  form,  but  granted  by  way  of 
 union  pleno  jure,  it  was  aUowed  to  be 
 served  by  a  curate  of  their  own  house, 
 consequently  not  a  secular  ecclesiastic  ; 
 and  the  like  exemption  from  the  necessity 
 of  appointing  a  vicar  was  sometimes  also 
 granted  by  dispensation,  or  on  account  of 
 the  nearness  of  the.  church. 
 
 At  the  dissolution  of  the  monasteries, 
 when  appropriations  were  transfei*red  from 
 spiritual  societies  through  the  king  to  sin- 
 gle lay  persons,  to  them  also,  for  the  most 
 part,  was  transferred  the  appointment  of 
 the  vicars  in  the  parishes  where  they  were 
 the  appropriators,  and  in  places  where,  by 
 means  of  exemptions,  there  was  no  regu- 
 larly endowed  vicar ;  and  as  they  were 
 appropriators  of  the  whole  ecclesiastical 
 dues,  the  charge  of  providing  for  the  cure 
 was  laid  on  them ;  for  neither  in  fact,  nor 
 in  presumption  of  law,  nor  hahitimliter, 
 could  a  lay  rector  as  such  have  cure  of 
 souls ;  they  were  consequently  obliged  to 
 nominate  some  particular  person  to  the 
 ordinary  for  his  licence  to  serve  the  cure ; 
 and  such  curates  thus  licensed  became  per- 
 petual, in  the  same  manner  as  vicars  had 
 been  before,  not  removable  at  the  caprice 
 of  the  appropriator,  but  only  by  due  revo- 
 cation of  the  licence  of  the  ordinary. 
 
 A  perpetual  curacy  was  formerly  ad- 
 judged not  to  be  an  ecclesiastical  benefice, 
 80  that  it  was  tenable  with  any  other  bene- 
 fice ;  but  now  perpetual  curacies  are  ex- 
 pressly declared  to  be  benefices  within 
 the  meaning  of  that  word  in  the  Benefices 
 Pluralities  Act,  and  a  perpetual  curate  is 
 consequently  liable  to  its  restrictions  in 
 the  same  manner  as  any  other  incumbent ; 
 and  it  has  been  recently  determined  that 
 perpetual  curates,  or  tlieir  representatives, 
 are  hable  to  be  sued  in  an  action  for  di- 
 lapidations in  the  same  manner  as  other 
 incumbents. 
 
 In  some  cases  it  might  be  a  matter  of 
 considerable  difficulty  to  determine  whe- 
 ther a  place  is  a  perpetual  curacy  or  a 
 chapelry  only ;  and  the  more  so,  since,  for 
 most  practical  purposes,  the  question  would 
 be  quite  immaterial,  and  therefore  less 
 likely  to  have  been  judicially  determined; 
 but  as  an  aid  in  deciding  certain  other 
 questions  which  might  arise,  it  might  be 
 important :  and  the  follov/ing  are  the  rules 
 laid  down  by  Lord  Ilardwicke  for  deter- 
 
 mining whether  it  is  a  perpetual  curacy 
 or  not. 
 
 To  determine  this,  he  says,  "  consider  it 
 first  as  to  the  rights  and  privileges  appear- 
 ing to  belong  to  the  chapel  itself;  next,  as 
 to  the  right  of  the  inhabitants  within  the 
 district ;  thirdly,  as  to  the  rights  and  dues 
 belonging  to  the  curate  of  the  chapeh'y. 
 If  all  these  rights  concur  to  show  the  na- 
 ture of  a  perpetual  curacy,  that  must  de- 
 termine it. 
 
 "  As  to  the  first  consideration,  it  appears 
 this  is  a  chapel  belonging  to  a  country 
 toAvn.  It  has  belonging  to  it  all  sorts  of 
 parochial  rights,  as  clerk,  warden,  &c.,  all 
 rights  of  performing  Divine  service,  bap- 
 tism, sepulture,  &c.,  Avhich  is  very  strong 
 evidence  of  itself  that  this  is  not  barely  a 
 chapel  of  ease  to  the  parish  to  which  it 
 belongs,  but  stands  on  its  own  foundation, 
 capella  j^ciyocJiialis,  as  it  is  called  in  Ho- 
 bart ;  and  this  differs  it  greatly  from  the 
 chapels  in  London,  which  are  barely  chapels 
 of  ease,  commencing  within  time  of  me- 
 mory, which  have  not  baptism  or  sepul- 
 ture ;  all  which  sort  of  rights  belong  to  the 
 mother-church,  and  the  rector  or  vicar  of 
 the  parish,  who  has  the  cure  of  souls,  has 
 the  nomination,  as  the  rector  of  St.  James's 
 or  St.  Martin's  has,  but  they  have  no  pa- 
 rochial rights,  which  clearly  belong  to  this 
 chapel.  Nor  have  any  of  the  inhabitants 
 of  this  chapeh-y  a  right  to  bury  in  the 
 parish  church  of  Northop,  and  that  right 
 of  sepulture  is  the  most  strong  circum- 
 stance, as  appears  from  3  Selden's  History, 
 Tithes,  fob  column  1212,  to  show  that  it 
 differs  not  from  a  parish  church. 
 
 "  The  next  circumstance  to  determine 
 this  question  is  the  right  of  the  inhabitants, 
 viz.  to  have  service  performed  there,  and 
 baptism  and  christening,  and  having  no 
 right  to  resort  to  the  parish  church  of 
 Northop  for  these  purposes,  nor  to  any 
 other  place,  if  not  here ;  nor  are  they  or 
 have  they  been  rateable  to  the  parish 
 church  of  Northop.  It  was  determined  in 
 the  case  of  Castle  Bii'midye,  Hob.  66,  that 
 the  having  a  chapel  of  ease  will  not  ex- 
 empt the  inhabitants  within  that  district 
 from  contributing  to  repairs  of  the  mother- 
 church,  unless  it  was  by  prescription,  which 
 would  then  be  a  strong  foundation,  that  it 
 must  be  considered  as  a  curacy  or  chapelry. 
 
 "  Next,  as  to  the  rights  and  dues  of  the 
 curate.  All  these  concur  to  show  it  to  be 
 a  i)erpetual  curacy,  and  not  at  all  at  the 
 wdll  and  pleasure  of  the  vicar ;  for  the 
 curate  has  always  enjoyed  the  small  tithes 
 and  surplice  fees,  nor  is  there  any  evidence 
 to  show  that  the  vicar  has  received  the 
 small  tithes." 
 
VICARS  CHORAL. 
 
 (91 
 
 A  nomination  to  u  perpetual  curacy 
 may  be  by  parol.  "  Most  regularly,^' 
 Lord  Harchvicke  says,  "  it  ought  to  be  in 
 ■writing  ;  "  but,  he  adds,  •'  I  do  not  know 
 that  it  has  been  determined  that  it  is 
 necessary.  A  presentation  to  a  church 
 need  not  be  in  writing,  but  may  be  by 
 parol ;  if  so,  I  do  not  see  why  a  nomina- 
 tion to  a  perpetual  curacy  may  not  be  by 
 parol." 
 
 A  perpetual  curate  has  an  interest  for 
 life  in  his  curacy,  in  the  same  manner  and 
 as  fully  as  a  rector  or  vicar ;  that  is  to  say, 
 he  can  only  be  deprived  by  the  ordinary, 
 and  that  in  proper  course  of  law  ;  and,  as 
 Lord  Hardwicke  observes,  it  would  be  a 
 contradiction  in  terms  to  say  that  a  ])er- 
 petual  curate  is  removable  at  will  and 
 pleasure. 
 
 The  ministers  of  the  new  churches  of 
 separate  parishes,  ecclesiastical  districts, 
 consolidated  chajjclries,  and  district  cha- 
 pelries,  are  perpetual  curates,  so  that  they 
 are  severally  bodies  politic  and  corporate, 
 with  perpetual  succession,  and  conse- 
 quently may  accept  grants  made  to  them 
 and  their  successors ;  and  they  are  to  be 
 licensed  and  to  be  removable  in  the  same 
 manner  as  other  perpetual  curates.  This 
 is  also  the  case  with  those  ministers  who 
 are  appointed  to  new  districts  or  parislies 
 under  the  Chiu'ch  Endowment  Act ;  and 
 as  licence  operates  to  all  such  ministers  in 
 the  same  manner  as  institution  would  in 
 the  case  of  a  presentative  benefice,  it 
 would  render  voidable  any  other  livings 
 which  such  ministers  might  hold,  in  the 
 same  manner  as  institution. 
 
 VICAIIS  CHORAL.  The  assistants  or 
 deputies  of  the  canons  or  prebendaries  of 
 collegiate  churches,  in  the  discharge  of 
 their  duties,  especially,  thougli  not  ex- 
 clusively, those  performed  in  the  choir  or 
 chancel,  as  distinguished  from  those  be- 
 longing to  the  altar  and  pulpit. 
 
 The  vicars  choral,  as  their  name  implies, 
 were  originally  appointed  as  the  de])uties 
 of  the  canons  and  prebendaries  for  Church 
 purposes  ;  that  is,  to  j)rovide  for  the  al)- 
 sence  or  incapacity  of  the  great  body  of 
 capitular  members  :  the  clerical  vicars  to 
 chant  in  rotation  the  ])rayers  at  matins  and 
 evening,  ice,  and  tlie  whole  body  to  form 
 a  sufficient  and  permanent  choir  for  the 
 performance  of  the  daily  service ;  a  duty 
 vv'hich  the  canons  were  originally  required 
 to  j)erform  in  person.  The  presliyteral 
 members  were  usually  four,  being  the  vi- 
 cars of  the  four  dignitaries,  pcrso)ifC  princi- 
 pales  (see  Persona).  Sometimes  tiiey  were 
 five;  the  rest  were  deacons,  and  in  minor 
 orders,  in  later  times  cliielly  laymen. 
 
 Tl 
 
 Ihis  nistitution  was  most  salutary  ; 
 since,  were  every  canon  required  to  have 
 the  peculiar  qualifications  recpiired  from 
 vicars,  viz.  a  i)ractical  knowledge  of  ec- 
 clesiastical music,  men  of  more  essen- 
 tial and  higher  qualities  would  of  neces 
 sity  be  often  excluded  from  the  canonical 
 stalls.  Li  fact,  the  appointment  of  deacons 
 and  inferior  ministers  to  this  jx-iuliar  otiice, 
 whicli  we  do  not  find  establislied  till  the 
 beginning  of  the  fourth  century,  (i.e.  the 
 KavoviKoi  xpaXral,  vide  Biiujliaui,  iii.  7,)  bcrs 
 a  striking  analogy  to  the  regulation  of  the 
 Jewish  temple;  where  sf)me  of  the  Levites, 
 the  deacons  of  the  elder  Cliurch,  were 
 newly  appointed  by  David  to  the  musical 
 service.  .  .  .  Originally  the  vicars  choral 
 were  commensurate  with  the  capitular 
 members,  each  of  these  havin,L>:  ^  vicar,  ap- 
 pointed by  himself,  and  hohilng  iiis  j)lacc 
 only  so  long  as  liis  princijjal  lived.  The 
 numbers  have  now  greatly  diminished.  At 
 York,  they  were  at  one  time,  .'iG ;  at  Lin- 
 coln, 2o;'at  Hereford,  20.  At  St.  Pa- 
 trick's each  vicar  is  still  denominated  from 
 a  dignitary  or  prebendary,  twenty-six  in 
 number ;  but  one  vicar  is  in  many  in- 
 stances the  representative  of  two  stalls ; 
 and  he  is  designated  from  both,  as  "  the 
 prebendary  of  A  and  B,  vicar." 
 
 \n  all  cathedrals  of  the  old  foundation 
 in  England,  and  in  L-eland,  where  there 
 were  clioirs,  the  vicars  choral  formed  a 
 minor  corporation,  in  some  way  under  the 
 control  of  the  dean  or  chapter,  but  with 
 separate  estates,  with  collegiate  buildings, 
 halls,  chapels,  some  of  which  still  subsist. 
 Those  at  Hereford  were  incorporated  in 
 the  loth  century,  those  at  Exeter  in  Henry 
 IV.'s  time.  At  Southwell  they  formerly 
 formed  a  college,  till  the  Keformation. 
 These  presidents  were  styled  custos,  or 
 warden,  sub-dean,  sub-ch:  nter,  provost,  or 
 procurator.  Li  Ireland,  but  twelve  of  the 
 cathedrals  have  had  foundations  for  vicars 
 choral,  as  far  as  any  record  remains,  and  in 
 some  of  these  their  very  sufficient  endow- 
 ments had  been  suffered  by  a  long  course 
 of  neglect  and  abuse  to  be  diverted  from 
 their  original  ])urposc.  and  were  a  few 
 years  ago  alienated  by  law. — A  better  spi- 
 rit has  happily  arisen  of  late  years. — In 
 Scotland  it  does  not  ajipear  that  vicars 
 choral  were  attached  to  all  catiicdrals. 
 IJisho])  El])hinston  endowed  twenty  vicars 
 choral  or  minor  canons  at  Aberdeen,  in 
 loOO  ;  at  Glasgow,  vicars  of  the  choir  were 
 founded  in  14.>.j;  Elgin  cathedral  modelled 
 on  that  of  Lincoln,  in  1221,  had  twenty- 
 two  vicars  choral,  commensurate  with  the 
 cha|)ter. 
 
 In  cathedrals  of  the  new  foundation,  the 
 
792 
 
 VICAR  GENERAL. 
 
 VIGIL. 
 
 term  vicar  choral  was  generally  super- 
 seded by  that  of  Minor  Canon  for  the 
 clergy,  and  Lay-clerk  for  the  laity.  (See 
 3Iinor  Canon.) 
 
 The  term  was  occasionally  used  in  a  less 
 strict  sense,  to  signify  a  choral  ])riest  or 
 chaplain.  Thus  the  church  of  St.  Nicholas 
 in  Galway  was  founded  in  1501,  for  a 
 warden  and  eight  vicars  choral,  (or  sing- 
 ing vicars,  as  they  were  sometimes  called.) 
 who  served  that  church.  The  corporation 
 is  styled  in  some  ancient  documents,  IFar- 
 dianus  et  Capitulum.  A  few  vicars  are 
 still  maintained,  who  serve  the  church  in 
 turn,  hut  discharge  no  choral  duty. 
 
 In  all  foreign  cathedrals,  there  are  inferior 
 choral  members,  though  the  designations 
 vary  much ;  they  consist  of  priests,  dea- 
 cons, clergy  of  the  inferior  orders,  and  lay- 
 men.— See  Jehh  on  Choral  Sercice. 
 
 VICAR  GENERAL.  An  ecclesiastical 
 officer,  who  assists  the  bishop  in  the  dis- 
 charge of  his  office,  as  in  ecclesiastical 
 causes  and  visitations ;  much  the  same  as 
 the  chancellor.  The  archbishop  of  Canter- 
 bury has  his  vicar  general ;  and  this  is  the 
 designation  of  the  bishop's  principal  official 
 in  Ireland,  where  the  diocesan  title  of  chan- 
 cellor is  unknoMn. 
 
 In  the  reign  of  Henry  VIIL,  when  the 
 rejection  of  papal  usurpation  led  for  a 
 time  to  a  recoil  of  a  very  Erastian  charac- 
 ter, Thomas  Cromwell,  afterwards  Earl  of 
 Essex,  was  appointed  the  king's  vicar 
 general,  vicegerent,  and  special  and  prin- 
 cipal commissary ;  with  powers  of  visitation 
 and  correction  over  all  the  spirituality ;  an 
 anomalous  office,  which  could  not  exist 
 but  in  times  of  confusion.— Vide  CoUin^s 
 JEccl.  Hiatory,  and  CromicelVs  Cummissioji 
 in  vol.  ii..  Appendix,  p.  21. 
 
 VICAR  PENSIONARY.  Certain  cler- 
 gymen appointed  at  a  fixed  stipend  to  serve 
 churche^s,  the  titles  of  which  belonged  to  a 
 collegiate  foundation :  as  at  St.  Salvador's 
 College,  St.  Andrews. — Vide  Lyons^  His- 
 tory of  St.  Andrews. 
 
 VICE-DE.\N,  or  SUBDEAN.  In  ca- 
 thedrals of  the  new  foundation,  one  of  the 
 canons  is  annually  chosen  to  represent  the 
 dean  in  his  absence ;  and  as  such  he  ranks 
 next  to  him  in  the  choir  and  chapter. 
 
 VIDAME  :  Vicedominus.  The  vicege- 
 rent, or  official  of  a  bishop  in  temporals. 
 A  dignitary  in  a  fcAV  foreign  cathedrals  is 
 thus  called :  a  sort  of  subdean. 
 
 VIGIL.  The  night  or  evening  before 
 certain  holy -days  of  the  Church.  In  former 
 times  it  was  customary  to  have  religious 
 services  on  these  eves,  and  sometimes  to 
 spend  a  great  part  of  the  night  in  praver 
 and  other  devotions,  to  qualify  the  soul  for 
 
 the  better  observance  of  the  festival  itself 
 on  the  morroAv.  These  nights  thus  spent 
 were  called  vicjils  or  tcatchinys,  and  are 
 still  professedly  observed  in  the  Church  of 
 England. 
 
 This  term  originated  in  a  custom  of  the 
 early  Christians,  who  fasted  and  watched 
 the  whole  night  previous  to  any  great  fes- 
 tival ;  hence  Viyilice,  Vigils,  or  watchings, 
 from  Jlyilo,  to  watch. — As  a  military  cus- 
 tom this  was  most  ancient.  The  Jews  seem 
 originally  to  have  divided  the  night  into 
 three  watches;  but  in  the  New  Testa- 
 ment we  read  of  "  the  fourth  watch  of 
 the  night,"  (Mark  vi.  48,)  a  custom,  per- 
 haps, introduced  by  their  conquerors,  the 
 Romans,  who  divided  their  night  into  four 
 vigils.  The  primitive  Christians  might 
 have  been  inclined  to  this  custom  from 
 various  references  to  it  in  the  Gospel ; 
 particularly  in  the  close  of  the  parable  of 
 the  ten  virgins  ;  though  it  is  not  improba- 
 ble that  the  secrecy  with  which  they  were 
 obliged  to  meet,  "  for  fear  of  the  Jews," 
 (John  XX.  19,)  and  other  persecutors,  went 
 far  towards  establishing  it.  This,  like 
 many  other  innocent  or  necessary  cere- 
 monies, having  been  at  length  abused, 
 the  nocturnal  vigils  were  abolished,  about 
 the  year  420,  and  turned  into  evening 
 fasts,  preparatory  to  the  principal  festival. 
 But  it  appears  that  a  vigil  was  observed  on 
 All  Hallows  Day,  by  watching  and  ringing 
 of  bells  all  night  long,  even  till  the  year 
 1545,  when  Henry  VIIL,  in  his  letter  to 
 Cranmer,  as  to  "  creeping  to  the  cross," 
 &c.,  desired  it  might  be  abolished. 
 
 It  is  not  every  festival  which  has  a  vigil 
 preceding  it.  Those  appointed  by  the 
 Church  are  as  follows  : — 
 
 Before  the  Nativity  of  our  Lord. 
 
 the  Purification  and  Annunciation 
 
 of  the  Blessed  Virgin. 
 Easter  Day. 
 Ascension  Day. 
 Pentecost. 
 St.  Matthias. 
 St.  John  Baptist. 
 St.  Peter. 
 St.  James. 
 St.  Bartholomew. 
 St.  Matthew. 
 St.  Simon  and  St.  Jude. 
 St.  Thomas. 
 St.  Andrew. 
 All  Saints. 
 
 It  has  been  given  as  a  reason  why  the 
 other  holy-days  have  no  vigils  before  them, 
 that  they  generally  happened  betAveen 
 Christmas  and  the  Purification,  or  betAveen 
 Easter  and  Whitsuntide,  seasons  of  joy 
 
VIRGIN  MARY. 
 
 793 
 
 which  the  Church  did  not  think  fit  to 
 break  into  by  fostinp^  and  humiliation. — 
 See  fully  on  Uiis  suljjcct,  IVhcatly  on  the 
 Conwion  Prayer. 
 
 VIRGIN  MARY.  (See  3Iarwhtry  and 
 Mother  of  God.)  The  mother  of  our  Blessed 
 Lord  and  Saviour,  Jesus  Christ.  AMuit 
 follows  is  from  the  celebrated  Bishop  Bull. 
 "  She  was  of  all  the  women,  of  all  the  vir- 
 gins in  Israel,  elected  and  chosen  by  God 
 to  be  the  instrument  of  bringing  into  the 
 world  the  long-desired  Messias.  All  the 
 virtuous  daughters  of  Jacob,  a  good  while 
 before  the  revelation  of  our  Saviour,  but 
 especially  in  the  age  when  he  apj)eared, 
 (the  time  wherein  they  saw  the  more  ])unc- 
 tual  and  remarkable  pro])hecies  concern- 
 ing the  coming  of  the  Mkssias  fulfilled,) 
 desired,  and  were  not  without  hopes,  each 
 of  them,  that  they  might  have  had  this 
 honour  done  unto  them.  But  it  wa.s  grant- 
 ed to  none  of  all  these  holy  -women  and 
 virgins,  but  to  the  Virgin  ']Mary.  And 
 therefore  *  all  generations  shall  call  her 
 blessed.' 
 
 "  The  Blessed  Virgin  Mary  was  the  only 
 woman  that  took  off  the  stain  and  dis- 
 honour of  her  sex,  by  being  the  instru- 
 ment of  bringing  that  into  the  world, 
 wdiich  should  repair  and  make  amends  for 
 the  loss  and  damage  brought  to  mankind 
 by  the  transgression  of  the  first  woman. 
 Eve.  By  a  woman,  as  the  ])rincipal  cause, 
 we  were  first  undone ;  and  by  a  Avoman, 
 as  an  instrument  under  God,  a  Saviour 
 and  a  Redeemer  is  born  to  us.  And  the 
 Blessed  Virgin  Mary  is  that  woman.  Hence 
 Irena?us,  in  his  fifth  book,  makes  a  com- 
 parison between  the  virgin  Eve,  (for  such 
 the  ancients  believed  her  to  be  till  after 
 her  transgression,)  and  the  Virgin  INIary. 
 '  Seductionem  iUam  solidam,'  &:c.,  i.  e.  'That 
 seduction  being  dissolved,  whereby  the 
 virgin  Eve  designed  for  man  was  unhap- 
 pily seduced ;  the  Virgin  Mary,  espoused 
 to  man,  by  the  truth,  happily  received  the 
 glad  tidings  from  an  angel.  For  as  the 
 former  was  seduced  by  the  speech  of  an 
 angel  to  flee  from  God,  having  transgress- 
 ed his  commandments :  so  the  latter,  by 
 the  word  also  of  an  angel,  received  the 
 good  news,  ut  portarct  I3p:um,  that  she 
 should  bear  God  within  her,  being  obe- 
 dient to  his  word.  And  as  the  former  was 
 seduced  to  flee  from  God,  so  the  latter 
 was  persuaded  to  obey  God.  So  that  the 
 Virgin  Mary  became  the  comforter  of  the 
 virgin  Eve.'  "Where  the  last  words  of  the 
 holy  martyr  are  grossly  misinterj)reted  by 
 the  Latin  "translator,  and  have  given  to  the 
 Papists  to  conclude  from  tiiem,  that  Eve 
 was  saved  by  the  intercession  of  the  Virgin 
 
 Mary.  A  most  absurd  conceit,  unworthy 
 of  the  learned  and  holy  Father,  or  indeed 
 of  any  man  else  of  common  sense;  for 
 who  knows  not  that  Eve  was  jjast  all  need 
 of  intercession,  before  ever  tlie  Blessed 
 Mary  could  be  cajjable  of  nmking  inter- 
 cession for  her  ?  Doubtless  the  Greek  word 
 used  by  Irenanis  here  was  7rap(J(cX»,Toc, 
 which,  as  it  signifies  *an  advocate,' so  it 
 also  as  frecjuently  signifies  'a  comforter/ 
 and  so  ought  to  have  been  rendered  here. 
 But,  you  will  say,  how  did  I-'.ve  receive 
 comfort  from  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary?  I 
 answer,  in  that  gracious  promise  delivered 
 by  God  himself  in  the  sentence  jmssed  on 
 the  serpent,  after  love's  seduction  by  him, 
 where  it  is  said,  '  that  the  seed  of  the 
 woman  should  })ruise  the  serpent's  head.' 
 Every  man  now  knows  that  the  seed  there 
 spoken  of  is  Christ;  and,  consequently, 
 that  the  individual  woman,  whose  innne- 
 diate  seed  he  was  to  ])e,  is  the  Blessed 
 Virgin  Mary.  The  holy  ^■irgin  was  the 
 hapi)y  instrument  of  tlie  saving  incaniation 
 of  the  Son  of  God,  who  hath  etfectually 
 crushed  the  old  serpent,  the  devil,  and  de- 
 stroyed his  power  over  all  those  that  be- 
 lieve on  himself,  and  thereby  slie  became 
 the  instrument  of  comfort  to  Eve  and  nil 
 other  sinners.  This  is  certainly  all  the 
 good  Father  intended  by  that  expression. 
 
 "The  Blessed  Virgin  was  consecrated 
 to  be  a  temple  of  the  Divinity  in  a  singu- 
 lar manner.  For  the  eternal  SoN  of  GoD, 
 by  an  ineftable  conjunction,  united  him- 
 self to  that  human  nature,  which  was  mi- 
 raculously conceived  and  formed  in  her, 
 even  whilst  it  was  within  her ;  and  so  he 
 that  was  born  of  her,  at  the  very  time 
 that  he  was  born  of  her,  Mas  QiaiUptoTrog, 
 God  and  Man.  O  astonishing  coiulescen- 
 sion  of  the  SoK  of  G'oD  !  ()  wonderful  ad- 
 vancement of  the  Blessed  Virgin  !  and 
 therefore  we  daily  sing  in  our  Te  Deum, 
 'Thou  art  the  King  of  Glory,  O  Cniiisi; 
 Thou  art  the  everlasting  Son  of  the 
 Father.  When  thou  tookest  unon  thcc 
 to  deliver  man,  thou  didst  not  abhor  the 
 Virgin's  womb.'  Upon  which  account, 
 the  fathers  of  the  third  CJeneral  Council  at 
 ]*'phesus,  convened  against  Nestorius,  aj>- 
 proved  the  title  of  Oforocof.  '  the  Mother 
 of  God,'  given  to  the  Blessed  Virgin." 
 
 A  little  afterwards  he  says.  "  I  will  men- 
 tion some  few  instances  of  cxlra\npnnt 
 honour  which  the  Papists  give,  but  which 
 we  of  the  Church  of  I'.nglnnd  utterly  rcfu-ne 
 to  yield  to  the  Blessed  \irgin,oul  of  a  true 
 zeal  to  the  honour  of  GoD. 
 
 "  We  will  not  give  her  lavish  and  exces- 
 sive attril)Utes,  beyond  what  the  Holy 
 Scriptures  allow  her,  and  the  holy  men  of 
 
794 
 
 VIRGIN  MARY 
 
 the  priiiiitive  Church  afforded  her.  AVe 
 will  call  her  '  blessed,'  as  the  mother  of 
 our  Lord  in  the  sense  above  explained. 
 But  we  dare  not  call  her  '  queen  of  heaven,' 
 '  queen  of  angels,  patriarchs,  prophets,  and 
 apostles,'  '  source  of  the  fountain  of  grace,' 
 '  refuge  of  sinners,'  '  comfort  of  the  afflict- 
 ed,' '  advocate  of  all  Christians,'  as  she  is 
 called  in  that  Litany  of  our  Lady,  still 
 used  in  their  devotions.  For  we  have  no 
 instance  of  such  attributes  given  to  the 
 Blessed  Virgin  in  the  Holy  Scriptures,  and 
 they  are  too  big  for  any  mere  creature. 
 
 "  "We  will  not  ascribe  those  excellencies 
 to  her  that  she  never  had  nor  could  have  ; 
 as  a  fulness  of  habitual  grace,  more  grace 
 than  all  the  angels  and  archangels  of  GoD 
 put  together  ever  had ;  that  she  was  born 
 without  original  sin,  and  never  committed 
 any  the  least  actual  sin,  and  consequently, 
 never  needed  a  saviour.  These  are  wild 
 things,  which  very  many  of  the  Papists, 
 di'unk  with  superstition,  say  of  her. 
 
 "  We  will  not  give  her  the  honour  of  in- 
 vocation, or  praying  to  her,  as  all  the 
 Papists  do,  for  the  unanswerable  reasons 
 above  mentioned.  Indeed,  as  long  as  that 
 one  text  of  Scripture  remains  in  our 
 Bibles,  which  we  read,  (1  Tim.  ii.  5,) 
 'There  is  one  God,  and  one  Mediator 
 between  God  and  men,  the  ^Man  Christ 
 Jesus,'  we  shall  never  be  persuaded, 
 by  any  sophistry  or  subtle  distinctions  of 
 our  adversaries,  to  betake  ourselves  to  the 
 mediation  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  much 
 less  of  any  other  saint.  Much  more  do 
 we  abhor  the  impiety  of  those  among  the 
 Papists,  who  have  held  it  disputable, 
 whether  the  milk  of  the  Blessed  Virgin, 
 or  the  blood  of  her  Son,  be  to  be  pre- 
 ferred; and  at  last  could  pitch  upon  no 
 better  resolution  than  this,  that  the  milk 
 and  blood  should  be  mixed  together,  and 
 both  compound  a  medicine  for  their  souls. 
 
 "  We  abhor  to  divide  the  Divine  king- 
 dom and  empire,  giving  one-half,  the 
 better  half,  the  kingdom  of  mercy,  to  the 
 Blessed  Virgin,  and  leaving  only  the  king- 
 dom of  justice  to  her  Son.  This  is  down- 
 right treason  against  the  only  universal 
 King  and  Monarch  of  the  world, 
 
 "  AVe  are  astonished  at  the  doxology 
 which  some  great  and  learned  men  of  the 
 Church  of  Rome  have  not  been  ashamed 
 to  close  their  printed  books  with,  'Laics 
 1  )E0  Deiparcsque  Virgini :  '  '  Praise  be  to 
 Cod,  and  the  Virgin-mother.' 
 
 "  We  should  tremble  every  joint  of  us, 
 to  offer  any  such  recommendation  as  this 
 to  the  Virgin  Mary.  Hear,  if  you  can 
 without  horror,  a  prayer  of  theirs  to  her. 
 It  is  this :  '  O  my  Lady,  holy  Mary,  I  re- 
 
 commend myself  into  thy  blessed  trust  and 
 singular  custody,  and  into  the  bosom  of 
 thy  mercy,  this  night  and  evermore,  and  in 
 the  hour  of  my  death,  as  also  my  soul  and 
 my  body ;  and  I  yield  unto  thee  all  my 
 hope  and  consolation,  all  my  distress  and 
 misery,  my  life  and  the  end  thereof,  that  by 
 thy  most  holy  intercession,  and  by  thy 
 merits,  all  my  works  may  be  directed  and 
 disposed,  according  to  thine  and  thy  Son's 
 will.  Amen.'  What  fuller  expressions 
 can  we  use  to  declare  our  absolute  affi- 
 ance, trust,  and  dependence  on  the  eternal 
 Son  of  God  himself,  than  they  here  use  in 
 this  recommendation  to  the  Virgin  ?  Yea, 
 who  observes  not,  that  the  will  of  the 
 Blessed  Virgin  is  expressly  joined  with 
 the  Mill  of  her  Son,  as  the  rule  of  our 
 actions,  and  that  so  as  that  her  will  is 
 set  in  the  first  place.  A  plain  smatch 
 of  their  old  blasphemous  impiety,  in  ad- 
 vancing the  ]Mother  above  the  Son,  and 
 giving  her  a  commanding  power  over  him. 
 Can  they  have  the  face  to  say,  that  all  this 
 is  no  more  than  desiring  the  Blessed  Virgin 
 to  pray  for  them,  as  we  desire  the  prayers 
 of  one  another  on  earth  ?  And  yet  this 
 recommendation  is  to  be  seen  in  a  Manual 
 of  Prayers  and  Litanies,  printed  at  Antwerp 
 no  longer  ago  than  1671,  and  t\i?ii  j^cnnissu 
 snper'iorum,  in  the  Evening  Prayers  for 
 Friday.  A  book  it  is,  to  my  knowledge, 
 commonly  to  be  found  in  the  hands  of  our 
 English  Papists  ;  for  I  had  it  from  a  near 
 relation  of  mine,  (who  had  been  perverted 
 by  the  emissaries  of  Rome,  but  is  since 
 returned  again  to  the  communion  of  the 
 Church  of  England,)  who  assured  me  that 
 she  used  it  herself,  by  the  direction  of  her 
 confessor,  in  her  private  devotions." 
 
 No  instance  of  Divine  honour  paid  to 
 IMary  (remarks  Coleman  from  Augusti) 
 is  recorded  of  an  earlier  date  than  the  fifth 
 century.  Cyril  of  Alexandi'ia,  and  Proklus 
 of  Constantinople,  were  the  first  to  pay 
 these  honours  to  her.  Festivals  to  her 
 memory  began  to  be  held  about  the  year 
 431,  but  were  not  generally  observed 
 until  the  sixth  century.  From  this  time 
 until  the  sixteenth  century,  they  were  ge- 
 neral in  all  the  Western  Churches,  though 
 differing  in  number  and  in  rank,  in  the 
 several  countries  of  Europe.  The  Greek 
 Church  observes  only  three  great  festivals 
 of  this  description. 
 
 The  following  is  a  brief  enumeration  of 
 the  principal  festivals  in  question. 
 
 1.  The  festival  of  the  Purification.  Can- 
 dlemas, Feb.  2,  instituted  in  the  sixth 
 century. 
 
 2.  Of  the  Annunciation,  popularly  styled 
 Lady  Day,  March  25th,  an  early  festival, 
 
VISITATION. 
 
 iVd 
 
 styled  by    St.   Bernhard,    radix    om)iiiun 
 fcstonim. 
 
 3.  Of  the  Visitation  of  Mary  to  Eli2a- 
 bcth,  instituted  by  Urban  VI.  1389. 
 
 4.  Of  the  Assumption  of  Mary  into 
 Heaven,  Aup:.  loth,  early  instituted.  Mary 
 was  the  tutelary  divinity  of  France  ;  anil 
 for  this  reason  tliis  day  Mas  observed  with 
 peculiar  care.  It  was  also  tiie  birthday 
 of  Napoleon,  and  accordin<;ly  was  ob- 
 served under  his  dynasty  as  the  jj^reat  fes- 
 tival of  the  nation. 
 
 5.  Of  the  Nativity  of  ]Mary,  Sept.  8th, 
 instituted  in  the  Eastern  Church  in  the 
 seventh  century;  in  the  AVcstern,  in  the 
 eleventh  or  twelfth. 
 
 6.  Of  the  Naming  of  Mary,  A.  D.  1513. 
 
 7.  Of  Conception.  This  feast,  accord- 
 ing to  Bellarmine,  Mas  not  necessarily  de- 
 pendent upon  the  question  so  fiercely 
 discussed  in  the  tM-elfth  and  thirteenth 
 centuries  respecting  the  immaculate  con- 
 ception. 
 
 VISITATION.  This  is  that  office  M-hich 
 is  performed  by  the  bishop  usually  once  in 
 three  years,  or  by  his  archdeacon  every 
 year,  by  visiting  the  churches  throughout 
 the  diocese.  It  is  the  duty  of  a  com- 
 missary to  summon  the  churciiM-ardens  and 
 sidesmen  to  a  visitation,  but  he  luis  no 
 authority  to  summon  any  other  persons ; 
 but  if  he  does  summon  those  persons,  and 
 they,  refusing  to  appear,  should  be  excom- 
 municated for  this  contempt,  a  prohibition 
 would  be  granted.  (A'o//,  122.)  Two 
 tilings  are  requisite  in  these  visitations : 
 1st,  The  charge.  2nd,  The  inquiry.  The 
 charge  consists  of  such  things  as  the  visitor 
 thinks  proper  to  impart  to  tlie  clergy ;  but 
 usually  it  is  to  put  them  in  mind  of  their 
 duty,  and  to  persuade  them  to  perform  it. 
 The  inquiry  formerly  consisted  of  several 
 articles  taken  out  of  the  canons ;  and  the 
 bishop's  visitation  being  accounted  an  epis- 
 copal synod,  there  were  at  that  time  cer- 
 tain persons  who  attended  it,  and  who 
 were  called  Testes  Si/tuxlales,  or  Juratores 
 Synodi,  and  they  were  to  i)resent  those  Avho 
 were  negligent  in  performing  religious 
 offices,  or  any  irregularities  amongst  the 
 clergy,  })oth  in  rcs])ect  to  their  morals  and 
 behaviour,  and  likewise  all  dila])idations, 
 and  generally  what  they  found  to  be  amiss 
 in  the  diocese.  The  bishop  at  first  exer- 
 cised this  jurisdiction  alone;  it  was  what 
 was  implied  in  his  very  ofKce  ;  and  this  he 
 was  to  do  in  every  parish  throughout  liis 
 diocese  once  a  year,  there  to  examine  the 
 minister  and  the  people,  which  he  might 
 do  with  more  ease  at  that  time,  because 
 pai-ish  churches  were  not  so  numerous  then 
 as   afterwards.     AVhen  this  was  disused, 
 
 then  ecclesiastical  persons  were  to  be  as- 
 sembk'd  in  a  certain  place,  and  inipiirv  was 
 made,  upon  oath,  concerning  the  stale  of 
 the  clergy,  and  at  this  place  ihev  were  all 
 bound  to  a])])ear. 
 
 Afterwards,  when  bishops  ranv  to  lio 
 ministers  of  state,  and  to  attend  the  courts 
 of  kings,  which  began  in  the  Norman 
 reigns,  then  archdeacons  Mere  vested  \\'\\\\ 
 this  jurisdiction  under  the  bishop-^,  and 
 visited  in  those  years  Mherein  the  bishops 
 did  not.  Ihit  still  the  bishons  Mere  to 
 visit  owQQ  in  three  years,  and  being  then 
 the  king's  barons  and  statesmen,  they  came 
 M-ith  very  great  equipage,  insomuch  that, 
 by  the  Council  of  Lateran,  their  nuniber 
 Mas  limited  according  to  their  qualities, 
 viz.  if  the  visitor  Mas  an  archbishop,  he  was 
 not  to  have  above  fifty  horses  in  his  re- 
 tinue ;  if  a  bisho]),  he  Mas  not  to  exceed 
 thirty ;  if  a  cardinal,  then  tMenty-fivc ;  if 
 an  archdeacon,  he  was  to  have  no  more 
 than  seven,  and  a  dean  but  two ;  and  if 
 they  respectively  exceeded  those  numbers, 
 then  no  ])rocuration  Mas  due  for  the  main- 
 tenance of  the  supernumeraries.  But  even 
 this  was  very  chargeal)le  to  the  parochial 
 clergy,  for  the  visitor  Mas  to  l)e  main- 
 tained at  their  expense  a  day  and  night  in 
 every  parish  ;  and,  therefore,  it  m  as  thought 
 fit  to  turn  that  charge  into  a  certain  sum, 
 Mhich  is  now  called  procurations,  and  this 
 is  paid  to  archdeacons  in  that  very  year 
 M'herein  bishops  visit,  for  it  is  by  some 
 affirmed  to  be  due  to  them  rntiime  officii  ; 
 and  some  say  it  is  due  to  them  by  virtue 
 of  the  statute  of  33  Henry  VIII.  c.  o,  by 
 Mhich  these  duties  are  made  ])ension8. 
 The  first  of  these  opinions  is  contrary  to 
 several  canons,  which  not  only  enjoin  j)er- 
 sonal  visitations,  but  exjjressly  forbid  any 
 ])rocurations  to  be  j)aid  Mhere  tlie  arch- 
 deacon himself  did  not  visit  in  person. 
 But  notwithstanding  those  canons,  cus- 
 tom has  so  far  i)revailed,  that  the  arch- 
 deacons receive  these  fees  in  the  bishop'i 
 triennials,  Mhen  they  do  not  visit  in  per- 
 son ;  but  instead  of  that  they  hold  two 
 chaj)ters  about  Kaster  and  Michaelmas, 
 and  there,  by  themselves  or  th-  ir  oflicials, 
 they  formally  iiu]uire  into  the  state  and 
 condition  of' the  Church,  which  inquire*  in 
 now  called  a  visitation,  and  for  which  ihcy 
 arc  entitled  to  these  fees. 
 
 Visitation,  as  commonly  undcrstJ>od,  de- 
 notes the  act  of  the  bishop,  or  other  ordin- 
 ary, going  his  circuit  through  his  dioccHc 
 or' district,  witli  a  full  noMer  of  in()uiry 
 into  such  matters  as  relate  to  church  go- 
 vernment and  discipline.  By  the  canon 
 law  visitations  were  to  he  once  a  year, 
 but  that  wa«  intended  of  parochial  visit- 
 
796 
 
 VISITATION. 
 
 ations,  or  a  personal  repairing  to  every 
 church,  as  appears  not  only  from  the  as- 
 signment of  procurations,  but  also  by  the 
 indulgence,  where  every  church  cannot  be 
 conveniently  repaired  to,  of  calling  to- 
 gether the  clergy  and  laity  from  several 
 parts  into  one  convenient  place,  that  the 
 visitation  of  them  may  not  be  postponed. 
 From  this  indulgence  and  the  great  ex- 
 tent of  the  dioceses  grew  the  custom  of 
 citing  the  clergy  and  people  to  attend  visit- 
 ations at  particular  places.  But  as  to 
 parochial  visitation,  or  the  inspection  into 
 the  fabrics,  mansions,  utensils,  and  orna- 
 ments of  the  church,  that  care  has  long 
 devolved  upon  the  archdeacons,  who,  at 
 their  fii'st  institutions  in  the  ancient  church, 
 were  only  to  attend  the  bishops  at  their 
 ordination  and  other  public  services  in 
 the  cathedral,  but  being  afterwards  oc- 
 casionally employed  by  them  in  the  exer- 
 cise of  jurisdiction,  not  only  the  work  of 
 parochial  visitation,  but  also  the  holding 
 of  general  synods  or  visitations,  when  the 
 bishop  did  not  visit,  came  by  degrees  to 
 be  known  and  established  branches  of  the 
 archdiaconal  office  as  such,  which  by  this 
 means  attained  to  the  dignity  of  ordinary, 
 instead  of  delegated  jurisdiction ;  and  by 
 these  degrees  came  on  the  present  practice 
 of  triennial  visitations  by  bishops ;  so  as 
 the  bishop  is  not  only  not  obliged  by  law 
 to  visit  annually,  but  is  actually  restrained 
 from  it. 
 
 *'  By  the  137th  canon  it  is  enjoined,  that 
 forasmuch  as  a  chief  and  principal  cause 
 and  use  of  visitation  is,  that  the  bishop, 
 archdeacon,  or  other  assigned  to  visit,  may 
 get  some  knoAvledge  of  the  state,  suffi- 
 ciency, and  ability  of  the  clergy  and  other 
 persons  whom  they  are  to  visit,  we  think 
 it  convenient  that  every  parson,  vicar, 
 curate,  schoolmaster,  or  other  person  li- 
 censed whatsoever,  do  at  the  bishop's  first 
 visitation,  or  at  the  next  visitation  after  his 
 admission,  show  and  exhibit  unto  him  his 
 letters  of  orders,  institution,  and  induc- 
 tion, and  all  other  his  dispensations,  li- 
 censes, of"  faculties  whatsoever,  to  be  by 
 the  said  bishop  either  alloAved  or  (if  there 
 be  just  cause)  disallowed  and  rejected, 
 and,  being  by  him  approved,  to  be  "(as  the 
 custom  is)  signed  by  the  registrar,  and 
 that  the  whole  fees  accustomed  to  be  j^aid 
 in  the  visitations  in  respect  of  the  premises, 
 be  paid  only  once  in  the  whole  time  of 
 every  bishop,  and  afterwards  but  half  of 
 the  said  accustomed  fees  in  every  other 
 visitation  during  the  said  bishop's  continu- 
 ance." 
 
 Gibson  says,  that  none  but  the  bisliop 
 or    other  person  exercising   ecclesiastical 
 
 authority  by  commission  from  him,  has 
 right  de  jure  comniuni  to  require  these 
 exhibits  of  the  clergy;  therefore,  if  the 
 archdeacon  require  it,  it  must  be  on  the 
 foot  of  custom,  the  beginning  whereof,  he 
 says,  has  probably  been  encroachment, 
 since  it  is  not  likely  that  any  bishop  should 
 give  to  the  archdeacon  and  his  official  a 
 power  of  allowing  or  disallowing  such  in- 
 struments as  have  been  granted  by  himself 
 or  his  predecessors.  The  canon  last  men- 
 tioned appears  to  be  in  observance  now, 
 for  it  is  the  practice  for  each  clergyman  to 
 exhibit  these  letters  of  orders,  &:c.  on  his 
 first  attendance  at  the  bishop's  visitation, 
 and  on  the  first  appointment  to  an  office, 
 &c.  in  any  diocese,  as  well  as  upon  several 
 other  occasions. 
 
 By  a  constitution  of  Othobon  it  is  or- 
 dained, that  archdeacons  visit  the  churches 
 profitably  and  faithfully  by  inquiring  of 
 the  sacred  vessels  and  vestments,  and  how 
 the  service  is  performed,  and  generally  of 
 temporals  and  spirituals,  and  what  they 
 find  to  want  correction  that  they  correct 
 diligently.  And  it  was  further  ordained 
 by  this,  as  well  as  by  other  constitutions, 
 that  they  should  not  extort  money  by  giv- 
 ing sentence  unjustly. 
 
 By  a  constitution  of  Archbishop  Rey- 
 nolds, it  was  enjoined  that  archdeacons  and 
 their  officials  in  the  visitation  of  churches 
 have  a  diligent  regard  of  the  fabric  of  the 
 church,  and  especially  of  the  chancel,  to 
 see  if  they  want  repair  ;  and  if  they  find 
 any  defects  of  that  kind,  limit  a  certain 
 time  under  a  penalty  within  which  they 
 shall  be  repaired. 
 
 By  a  constitution  of  Archbishop  Lang- 
 ton,  archdeacons  in  theii'  visitation  are  to 
 see  that  the  offices  of  the  church  are  duly 
 administered,  and  shall  take  an  account  in 
 writing  of  all  the  ornaments  and  utensils 
 of  chiu'ches,  and  of  the  vestments  and 
 books,  and  shall  require  them  to  be  pre- 
 sented before  them  every  year,  that  they 
 may  see  what  has  been  added  and  what 
 lost. 
 
 It  is  said  that  the  archdeacon,  although 
 there  be  not  a  cause,  may  visit  once  a  year; 
 and  if  there  be  a  cause,  he  may  visit 
 oftener ;  and  that  where  it  is  said  in  the 
 canon  law,  he  ought  to  visit  from  three 
 years  to  three  years,  this  is  to  be  under- 
 stood so  that  he  shall  visit  from  three 
 years  to  three  years  of  necessity,  but  that 
 he  may  visit  every  year  if  he  will. 
 
 At  these  archdiaconal  visitations  the 
 churchwardens  are  to  make  presentments ; 
 and  though  their  duty  in  that  particular 
 has  become  in  practice,  to  a  great  extent, 
 obsolete,  yet  it  may  be  well  to  state  the 
 
VISITATION. 
 
 797 
 
 law  of  the  Church  upon  the  subject.  The  fol- 
 lowing canons  relate  to  these  ])resentments. 
 
 Canon  113.  "  Because  it  often  cometh  to 
 pass,  that  churchwardens,  sidemen,  quest- 
 men, and  such  other  persons  of  the  laity  as 
 are  to  take  care  for  the  su])pressing  of  sin 
 and  wickedness,  as  much  as  in  them  lieth, 
 by  admonition,  reprehension,  and  denun- 
 ciation to  their  ordinaries,  do  forbear  to 
 discharge  their  duties  therein,  either 
 through  fear  of  their  superiors,  or  through 
 negligence,  more  tlian  were  fit,  the  licen- 
 tiousness of  these  times  considered,  we  do 
 ordain,  that  hereafter  every  j)arson  and 
 vicar,  or  in  the  lawful  absence  of  any  parson 
 and  vicar,  then  their  curates  aiul  substitutes, 
 may  join  in  every  presentment  with  the 
 said  churchwardens,  sidemen,  and  the  rest 
 above  mentioned,  at  the  times  of  visitation, 
 if  they  the  said  churchwardens  and  the 
 rest  will  present  such  enormities  as  are 
 apparent  in  the  parish ;  or  if  they  will  not, 
 then  every  such  parson  and  vicar,  or,  in 
 their  absence  as  aforesaid,  their  curates, 
 may  themselves  present  to  their  ordinaries 
 at  such  times,  and  when  else  they  think  it 
 meet,  all  such  crimes  as  they  have  in 
 charge  or  otherwise,  as  by  them  (being 
 the  persons  that  should  have  the  chief 
 care  for  the  suppressing  of  sin  and  impiety 
 in  their  parishes)  shall  be  tliought  to  re- 
 quire due  reformation.  Provided  always, 
 that  if  any  man  confess  his  secret  and 
 hidden  sins  to  the  minister,  for  the  un- 
 burdening of  his  conscience,  and  to  receive 
 spiritual  consolation  and  ease  of  mind  from 
 him,  we  do  not  any  way  bind  the  said 
 minister  by  this  our  constitution,  but  do 
 straitly  charge  and  admonish  him,  that 
 he  do  not  at  any  time  reveal  and  make 
 known  to  any  person  whatsoever  any 
 crime  or  offence  so  committed  to  his  trust 
 and  secrecy,  (except  they  be  such  crimes 
 as  by  the  laws  of  this  realm  his  own  life 
 may  be  called  in  question  for  concealing 
 the  same,)  under  pain  of  UTcgularity." 
 
 Canon  116.  "  It  shall  be  lawful  for  any 
 godly-disposed  person,  or  for  any  ecclesi- 
 astical judge,  upon  knowledge  or  notice 
 given  unto  him  or  them,  of  any  enormous 
 crime  within  his  jurisdiction,  to  move  the 
 minister,  clun-chwardens,  or  sidemen,  as 
 they  tender  tlie  glory  of  God  and  reform- 
 ation of  sin,  to  i)resent  the  same,  if  they 
 shall  find  sufficient  cause  to  induce  them 
 thereunto,  tliat  it  may  be  in  due  time 
 punished  and  reformed." 
 
 Canon  119.  *'  For  the  avoiding  of  such 
 inconven.iences  as  heretofore  have  happen- 
 ed, by  tlie  hasty  making  of  bills  and  j)rc- 
 sentments  upon  the  days  of  visitation  and 
 synods,  it  is  ordered,  that  always,  hereafter, 
 
 every  chancelli)r,  archdeacon,  conmiissary, 
 and  every  otlier  person  having  ccch-si- 
 astical  jurisdiction,  at  the  ordinary  time 
 when  the  cliurciiwanUns  are  sworn,  and 
 the  archbishoj)  and  bishops,  vlu-n  lie  or 
 they  do  sununon  their  visitation,  shall 
 deliver  or  cause  to  be  delivered  to  the 
 churchwardens,  questmen,  and  sidenu-n  of 
 every  parisli,  or  to  some  of  Iheni.  such 
 books  of  articles  as  ihcy  or  any  of  them 
 shall  require  (for  tlie  year  folhnvinjz)  tlie 
 said  churchwardens,  questmen,  and  side- 
 men  to  ground  their  iiresentnients  ujion, 
 at  such  times  as  they  arc  to  exhibit  them. 
 In  whieli  book  shall  be  contained  the 
 form  of  the  oath  which  must  be  taken  im- 
 mediately before  every  such  presentment ; 
 to  the  intent  that,  having  beforeiiand  time 
 sufficient,  not  only  to  jieruse  and  consider 
 what  their  said  oath  shall  be,  but  the 
 articles  also  whereu])on  they  are  to  ground 
 their  presentments,  they  may  frame  them 
 at  home  both  advisedly  and  truly,  to  the 
 discharge  of  their  own  consciences,  (after 
 they  are  sworn,)  as  becometh  honest  and 
 godly  men." 
 
 Canon  11  j.  "Whereas,  for  the  reform- 
 ation of  criminous  jiersons  and  disorders 
 in  every  parish,  the  churchwardens,  quest- 
 men, sidemen,  and  other  such  church  offi- 
 cers are  sworn,  and  the  minister  charged, 
 to  present  as  well  the  crimes  and  disorders 
 committed  by  the  said  criminous  persons,  as 
 also  the  common  fame  which  is  spread 
 abroad  of  them,  whereby  they  are  often 
 maligned,  and  sometimes  troubled,  by  the 
 said  delinquents  or  their  friends ;  we  do 
 admonish  and  exhort  all  judges,  both  ec- 
 clesiastical and  temporal,  as  they  regard 
 and  reverence  the  fearful  judgment- seat  of 
 the  highest  Judge,  that  they  admit  not  in 
 any  of  their  courts  any  complaint.  ])lea, 
 suit  or  suits,  against  any  such  church- 
 wardens, questmen,  sidemen,  or  other 
 church  officers,  for  making  any  such  pre- 
 sentments, nor  against  any  minister  for 
 any  presentments  that  he  shall  make :  all 
 the  said  presentments  tending  to  the  re- 
 straint of  shameless  impiety,  and  consider- 
 ing that  the  rules  both  of  charity  and  go- 
 vernment do  presume  that  tlieydid  nothing 
 therein  of  malice,  but  for  the  discharge  of 
 their  consciences." 
 
 Canon  110.  '*Xo  churchwardens,  quest- 
 men, or  sidemen  of  any  j)arish  shall  be  en- 
 forced to  exhibit  their  presentments  to 
 any  having  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  above 
 once  in  every  year  where  it  hath  been  no 
 oftener  used,  nor  above  twice  in  every 
 diocese  whatsoever,  except  it  be  at  the 
 bishop's  visitation  :  provided  always,  that, 
 as  good  occasion  shall  require,  it  shall  be 
 
^98 
 
 VISITATION. 
 
 lawful  for  every  minister,  churchwardens, 
 and  sidemen,  to  present  offenders  as  oft  as 
 they  shall  think  meet :  and  for  these  volun- 
 tary presentments  no  fee  shall  be  taken." 
 
 Canon  117.  "  No  churchwardens,  quest- 
 men, or  sidemen,  shall  be  called  or  cited, 
 but  only  at  the  said  time  or  times  before 
 limited,  to  appear  before  any  ecclesiastical 
 judge  whatsoever,  for  refusing  at  other 
 times  to  present  any  faults  committed  in 
 their  parishes,  and  punishable  by  eccle- 
 siastical laws.  Neither  shall  they  or  any 
 of  them,  after  their  presentments  exhibited 
 at  any  of  those  times,  be  any  further  trou- 
 bled for  the  same,  except  upon  manifest 
 and  evident  proof  it  may  appear  that  they 
 did  then  willingly  and  wittingly  omit  to 
 present  some  such  public  crime  or  crimes 
 as  they  knew  to  be  committed,  or  could 
 not  be  ignorant  that  there  was  then  a  pub- 
 lic fame  of  them,  or  unless  there  be  very 
 just  cause  to  call  them  for  the  explanation 
 of  their  former  presentments :  in  which 
 case  of  wilful  omission,  their  ordinaries 
 shall  proceed  against  them  in  such  sort  as 
 in  causes  of  wilful  perjury  in  a  court  eccle- 
 siastical it  is  already  by  law  provided." 
 
 Canon  118.  "The  office  of  all  church- 
 wardens and  sidemen  shall  be  reputed  to 
 continue  until  the  new  churchwardens  that 
 shall  succeed  them  be  sworn,  which  shall 
 be  the  first  week  after  Easter,  or  some 
 week  following,  according  to  the  direction 
 of  the  ordinary;  which  time  so  appointed 
 shall  always  be  one  of  the  two  times  in 
 every  year  when  the  minister,  and  church- 
 wardens, and  sidemen  of  every  parish 
 shall  exhibit  to  their  several  ordinaries 
 the  presentments  of  such  enormities  as 
 have  happened  in  their  parishes  since 
 their  last  presentments.  And  this  duty 
 they  shall  perform  before  the  newly 
 chosen  churchwardens  and  sidemen  be 
 sworn,  and  shall  not  be  suffered  to  pass 
 over  the  said  presentments  to  those  that 
 are  newly  come  into  that  office,  and  are 
 by  intendment  ignorant  of  such  crimes, 
 under  pain  of  those  censures  Avhich  are 
 appointed  for  the  reformation  of  such 
 dalliers  and  dispensers  with  their  own 
 consciences  and  oaths." 
 
 Canon  116.  "For  the  presentments  of 
 every  parish  church  or  chapel,  the  registrar 
 of  any  court  where  they  are  to  be  exhibited 
 shall  not  receive  in  one  year  above  4(/., 
 under  pain,  for  every  offence  therein,  of 
 suspension  from  the  execution  of  his  office 
 for  the  space  of  a  month,  toties  qiioties." 
 
 Canon  26.  "No  minister  shall  in  any 
 wise  admit  to  the  receiving  of  the  holy 
 communion  any  churchwardens  or  side- 
 men,  who,  having   taken  their   oaths   to 
 
 present  to  their  ordinaries  all  such  public 
 offences  as  they  are  particularly  charged 
 to  inquire  of  in  their  several  parishes,  shall 
 (notwithstanding  the  said  oaths,  and  that 
 theii'  faithful  discharge  of  them  is  the  chief 
 means  whereby  public  sins  and  offences 
 may  be  reformed  and  punished)  wittingly 
 and  Avillingly,  desperately  and  irreligiously, 
 incur  the  horrible  crime  of  perjury,  either 
 in  neglecting  or  in  refusing  to  present 
 such  of  the  said  enormities  and  public 
 offences  as  they  know  themselves  to  be 
 committed  in  their  said  parishes,  or  are 
 notoriously  offensive  to  the  congregation 
 there,  although  they  be  urged  by  some 
 of  their  neigiibours,  or  by  their  minister, 
 or  by  the  ordinary  himself,  to  discharge 
 their  consciences  by  presenting  of  them, 
 and  not  to  incur  so  desperately  the  said 
 horrible  sin  of  perjury." 
 
 Canon  121.  "In  places  where  the  bishop 
 and  archdeacon  do,  by  prescription  or  com- 
 position, visit  at  several  times  in  one  and 
 the  same  year,  lest  for  one  and  the  self- 
 same fault  any  of  his  Majesty's  subjects 
 should  be  challenged  and  molested  in 
 divers  ecclesiastical  courts,  Ave  do  order 
 and  appoint,  that  every  archdeacon  or  his 
 official,  within  one  month  after  the  visita- 
 tion ended  that  year  and  the  presentments 
 received,  shall  certify  under  his  hand  and 
 seal,  to  the  bishop  or  his  chancellor,  the 
 names  and  crimes  of  all  such  as  are  de- 
 tected and  presented  in  his  said  visitation, 
 to  the  end  the  chancellor  shall  henceforth 
 forbear  to  convent  any  person  for  any 
 crime  or  cause  so  detected  or  presented 
 to  the  archdeacon.  And  the  chancellor, 
 within  the  like  time  after  the  bishop's 
 visitation  ended  and  presentments  re- 
 ceived, shall,  under  his  hand  and  seal, 
 signify  to  the  archdeacon  or  his  official 
 the  names  and  crimes  of  all  such  persons, 
 which  shall  be  detected  or  presented  unto 
 him  in  that  visitation,  to  the  same  intent 
 as  aforesaid.  And  if  these  officers  shall 
 not  certify  each  other  as  is  here  prescribed, 
 or  after  such  certificate  shall  intermeddle 
 with  the  crimes  or  persons  detected  and 
 presented  in  each  other's  visitation,  then 
 every  of  them  so  offending  shall  be  sus- 
 pended from  all  exercise  of  his  jurisdiction 
 by  the  bishop  of  the  diocese  until  he 
 shall  repay  the  costs  and  expenses  which 
 the  parties  grieved  have  been  at  by  that 
 vexation." 
 
 As  to  legal  proof:  in  case  the  party 
 presented  denies  the  fact  to  be  true,  the 
 making  good  the  truth  of  the  presentment, 
 that  is,  the  furnishing  the  court  with  all 
 proper  evidences  of  it,  undoubtedly  rests 
 upon  the  person  presenting.     And  as  the 
 
VISITATION  OF  THE  SICK. 
 
 (90 
 
 spiritual  court  in  such  case  is  entitled  hy 
 law  to  call  upon  churchwardens  to  support 
 their  presentments,  so  are  churchwardens 
 oblii^ed,  not  only  by  law,  (Dr.  Gibson 
 says.)  but  also  in  conscience,  to  see  the 
 presentment  etiectually  supported  ;  be- 
 cause, to  deny  the  court  those  evidences 
 which  induced  them  to  ])rcsent  upon  oath, 
 is  to  desert  their  presentment,  and  is  Httle 
 better,  in  point  of  conscience,  than  not  to 
 ]n-esent  at  all,  inasmucli  as,  throui;h  tlieir 
 default,  the  presentment  is  rendered  in- 
 effectual as  to  all  purposes  of  removini^ 
 the  scandal,  or  reforming?  the  offender. 
 And  from  hence  he  takes  occasion  to  wisli 
 that  the  parishioners  would  tliink  them- 
 selves bound  (as  on  many  accounts  they 
 certainly  are  bound)  to  su])port  their 
 churchwardens  in  seeinjjf  tliat  their  i)re- 
 scntments  are  rendered  effectual.  In  any 
 point  which  concerns  tlie  repairs  or  orna- 
 ments of  churches,  or  the  providinji^  con- 
 veniences of  any  kind  for  the  service  of 
 God,  when  such  defects  as  these  are  ])rc- 
 sented,  the  spiritual  judge  immediately, 
 and  of  course,  enjoins  the  churchwarden 
 presenting  to  see  the  defect  made  good, 
 and  supports  him  in  rejiaying  liimself  by 
 a  legal  and  reasonable  rate  upon  the  j)ar- 
 ish.  But  what  he  intends  is,  the  su])- 
 porting  the  churchwardens  in  the  pro- 
 secution of  such  immoral  and  unchristian 
 livers  as  they  find  themselves  obliged  by 
 their  oath  to  present,  as  fornicators,  adul- 
 terers, common  swearers,  drunkards,  and 
 such  like,  whose  exam})le  is  of  pernicious 
 consequence,  and  likely  to  bring  many 
 evils  upon  the  parish. 
 
 It  is  customary  for  the  archdeacon  at 
 his  visitation,  to  call  upon  one  of  his  clergy 
 to  preach  what  is  called  a  visitation  ser- 
 mon ;  and  although  it  a])pears  that  for- 
 merly it  Avas  the  duty  of  the  visitor  him- 
 self to  preacli  this  sermon,  it  seems  to  be 
 doubtful  whether  the  clergyman  so  called 
 upon  l)v  the  arcluleacon  may  refuse. 
 
 VISITATION  OF  THE  SICK.  In 
 so  uncertain  a  world,  where  sickness  some- 
 times interrupts  the  very  joys  of  marriage, 
 it  is  no  wonder  that  the  sad  office  should 
 be  placed  next  to  matrimony ;  for  all 
 people  in  all  conditions,  of  all  ages  and 
 sexes,  are  subject  to  diseases  continually; 
 so  that  when  any  person  falls  sick,  those 
 that  are  in  health  must  "  remember  them, 
 as  being  themselves  also  in  the  body," 
 (Ileb.  xiii.  3,)  and  lialde  to  the  same 
 calamities  ;  and  all  Christians  arc  com- 
 manded to  visit  their  neighbours  in  this 
 estate,  and  arc  promised  they  shall  ])e 
 rewarded  by  God  for  so  doing.  (Ps.  xli. 
 1,  2;    Matt.  XXV.  34,  30;    James  i.   27; 
 
 l-lcclus.  vii.  35.)  And  in  the  primitive 
 times  they  were  famous  for  this  pii-ce  of 
 charity.  lUit  it  is  esju-ciallv  the  duty  of 
 the  clergy  to  visit  the  sick,  a  duty  insti- 
 tuted and  enjoined  by  (Jod  himseif:  "Is 
 any  sick  among  you*?  let  him  call  for 
 the  elders  of  the  Church,  and  let  them 
 pray  over  him,  anointing  him  witii  oil 
 in  the  name  of  the  l.oith';  and  the  prayer 
 of  faith  shall_  save  the  sick,  and  the  Lo'ui) 
 shall  raise  him  uj),  atul  if  he  have,  com- 
 mitted sins,  they  shall  be  forgiven  him." 
 (James  y.  14,  l.j.)  In  whicii  words  (being 
 the  original  and  foundation  of  this  oHice) 
 we  may  note,  first,  that  the  duty  is  en- 
 joined by  Divine  authority,  and  therefore 
 it  is  not  barely  a  jmint  of  civility,  but  an 
 act  of  religion,  ancl  a  necessary  duty  which 
 God  recpiires  from  us.  Secondly,  the 
 time  to  perform  it  is,  "  when  any  are  sick 
 among  us ; "  for  then  the  ])arties  have 
 most  need  of  comfort,  atlvice,  and  i)ray('rH 
 to  sujjport  them  and  j>rocure  help  for 
 them,  as  also  to  prepare  them  for  their 
 last  and  great  account  ;  and  then  these 
 religious  exercises  will  do  us  most  good, 
 because  sickness  embitters  the  world  and 
 endears  heaven  to  us,  making  us  nray 
 devoutly,  and  hearken  willingly  to  holy 
 advice ;  so  that  this  hai)py  opj)ortunity 
 must  not  be  lost ;  nor  nuiy  it  be  deferred 
 till  the  sick  ]iersons  be  very  weak  and 
 nigh  to  death,  for  then  tlu'y  are  incapable 
 either  to  join  in  the  olfice,  or  to  receive 
 the  main  benefits  thereof;  and  the  word 
 in  St.  James  is,  "  if  any  be  infirm  '*  (vcr. 
 14) ;  to  note,  this  should  be  done  in  the 
 beginning  of  sickness,  and  not  \)u\.  off  till 
 the  physicians  give  men  over.  'Hiirdly, 
 as  to  the  manner  of  performing  this  du- 
 ty ;  the  sick  man  (or  his  friends)  must 
 "send  for"  the  priest,  who  else  may  either 
 not  know  of  his  sickness,  or  when  it  may 
 be  seasoiuible  to  visit;  and  if  he  come 
 unsent  for,  it  is  more  than  he  is  obliged 
 to  do;  but  yet  it  is  an  act  of  great  charily, 
 because  GoD  requires  the  elders  of  the 
 Cluu-ch  shall  do  this  duty.  The  sick  man 
 must  i)ray  for  himself  (ver.  13);  nml  his 
 neighbours  may  pray  with  him  and  for 
 him  (ver.  16);  but  neither  of  these  »uf- 
 ficeth ;  he  must  send  for  the  minister  be- 
 sides, who,  now  the  Church  is  settle<l, 
 lives  not  far  from  him,  and  he  is  mo«t 
 able  to  give  counsel,  and  most  likely  to 
 ])revail,  because  GoD  requires  him  to  jht- 
 form  this  office,  which  is  described  in  St. 
 James.  1.  Hy  "  praying  over  him,"  that 
 is,  beside  him,  in  the  house  where  he  liea 
 sick.  And  since  (ion  enjoins  pmycr  shall 
 be  made,  and  doth  not  prc'^cribc  the  form  ; 
 as  all  other  Churches  have  made  proper 
 
800      VISITATION  OF  THE  SICK. 
 
 VULGAR  TONGUE. 
 
 forms,  so  hath  ours  also  composed  this, 
 which  is  the  most  full  and  useful  office 
 on  this  occasion  extant  in  the  world.  2. 
 In  St.  James's  time,  and  as  long  as  the 
 miraculous  gift  of  healing  continued,  they 
 "anointed  the  sick  with  oil  also  in  the 
 name  of  Jesus,"  not  to  convey  any  grace 
 to  the  soul,  (as  the  Papists  now  pretend 
 to  do  by  their  extreme  unction,  lately 
 made  a  sacrament,)  but  to  work  a  mi- 
 raculous cure,  which  was  the  usual  effect 
 in  those  ages.  But  the  power  and  gift 
 being  noAv  ceased,  the  reformed  Churches 
 left  off  the  oil,  which  was  the  sign,  because 
 the  thing  signified  w'as  now  taken  away. 
 But  yet  we  retain  all  the  substantial  parts 
 of  this  office.  3.  Here  are  by  St.  James 
 set  down  "  the  benefits "  which  may  be 
 obtained  by  it,  which  are  annexed  to  the 
 "  prayer  of  faith,"  the  part  wliich  was  not 
 ceremonial,  and  Avhich  continues  still  as 
 the  benefits  also  shall  do,  namely,  this 
 shall  be  a  means  "  to  save  the  sick ; "  and 
 more  particularly,  1.  "  The  Lord  shall 
 raise  him  up,"  that  is,  if  GoD  see  that 
 health  be  good  for  him,  the  devout  per- 
 forming of  this  office  shall  contribute  to 
 his  recovery ;  or,  2.  However,  (because 
 men  are  mortal  and  must  die  at  some 
 time,)  it  shall  be  a  means  to  procure  "  for- 
 giveness "  of  the  sins  he  "  hath  commit- 
 ted ; "  not  the  priest  only  will  absolve  him 
 upon  his  penitent  confession,  but  God 
 will  seal  his  pardon,  and  then,  whether 
 life  or  death  follow,  the  man  shall  be  hap- 
 py. Wherefore,  as  we  love  our  friends, 
 or  our  own  souls,  all  care  must  be  taken 
 that  this  necessary  and  profitable  office  be 
 not  neglected.  The  method  of  perform- 
 ing which  in  this  Church  may  be  thus  de- 
 scribed :  The  usual  office  contains,  1 .  Sup- 
 plications to  avert  evil,  in  the  salutation 
 and  short  litany.  2.  Prayers  to  procure 
 good  chings,  in  the  Lord's  Prayer  and  the 
 two  collects.  3.  Exhortations  prescribed 
 in  the  large  form  of  exhortation  ;  and  di- 
 rections in  the  rubric,  to  advise  the  sick 
 man  to  forgive  freely,  to  give  liberally,  to 
 do  justice  in  settling  his  estate,  and  to  con- 
 fess his  sins  humbly  and  ingenuously  unto 
 God's  minister  now  with  him.  4.  Conso- 
 lations, in  the  absolution,  the  prayer  to  God 
 to  confirm  it;  in  the  71st  Psalm,  and  the 
 concluding  benedictions. 
 
 Secondly,  there  are  added,  1.  Extraor- 
 dinary prayers  for  a  sick  child,  for  one  past 
 recovery,  for  a  dying  person,  and  for  one 
 troubled  in  conscience.  2.  The  manner 
 of  administering  the  communion  to  the 
 sick. — Dean  Comber. 
 
 _As  to  the  form  of  prayer  to  be  used  on 
 this  occasion,  it  is  left  to  the  prudence  of 
 
 the  Church ;  since  GoD  hath  only  in  ge- 
 neral ordered  prayers  to  be  made,  but  not 
 prescribed  any  particular  words,  therefore 
 several  Churches  have  made  and  used 
 several  forms  proper  for  the  occasion. 
 The  Greek  Church  hath  a  very  large  office 
 in  their  Euchologion  ;  Avhich  seems  to  have 
 been  much  corrupted  by  the  superstitious 
 additions  of  later  ages,  though  some  of 
 the  ancient  prayers  may  yet  be  discerned 
 there.  The  most  ancient  of  the  Western 
 Church  are  those  which  bear  the  names 
 of  St.  Ambrose  and  St.  Gregory ;  and 
 that  which  Cardinal  Bona  cites  with  this 
 title,  "  Pro  infirmis,"  written  about  900 
 (1040)  years  ago,  and  supposed  to  be  part 
 of  the  old  Galilean  service.  And  upon 
 the  lieformation,  the  several  Protestant 
 Churches  had  their  several  forms,  which 
 are  in  use  amongst  them  at  this  day.  But 
 this  office  of  the  Church  of  England  may 
 be  thought  to  excel  all  that  are  now  ex- 
 tant in  the  world ;  and  it  exactly  agrees 
 with  the  method  of  the  primitive  visitation 
 of  the  sick  in  St.  Chrysostom's  time.  — 
 Dean  Comber. 
 
 VISITATORIAL  POWER.  Every 
 corporation,  w^hether  lay  or  ecclesiastical,  is 
 visitable  by  some  superior ;  and  every  spi- 
 ritual person  being  a  corporation  sole,  is 
 visitable  by  the  ordinary.  There  is,  how- 
 ever, in  our  ecclesiastical  polity,  an  excep- 
 tion to  this  rule  ;  for,  by  composition,  the 
 archbishop  of  Canterbury  never  visits  the 
 bishop  of  London.  During  a  visitation, 
 all  inferior  jurisdictions  are  inhibited  from 
 exercising  jurisdiction  :  but  this  right,  from 
 the  inconvenience  attending  the  exercise 
 of  it,  is  usually  conceded  ;  so  that  the  ex- 
 ercise of  jurisdiction  in  the  inferior  court 
 is  continued  notwithstanding. 
 
 VOLUNTARY.  A  piece  of  music  played 
 on  the  organ,  usually  after  the  Psalms, 
 sometimes  after  the  second  lesson.  This 
 Mas  formerly  more  usual  than  now ;  and 
 was  practised  in  many  cathedrals,  where  it  is 
 now  laid  aside,  as  at  St.  Paul's,  and  Christ 
 Church  in  Dublin.  In  the  latter  place  it 
 is  transferred  to  another  interval  of  the 
 service.  The  name  is  derived  from  its  per- 
 formance not  being  obligatory,  but  op- 
 tional with  those  who  are  in  authority. 
 Pieces  of  music  played  at  other  intervals 
 of  the  service  are  properly  called  sympho- 
 nies. Lord  Bacon  approves  of  voluntaries 
 as  affording  time  for  meditation. 
 
 VULGAR  TONGUE.  This  expression 
 in  the  baptismal  office  stood  formerly  "  in 
 the  English  tongue."  The  alteration  was 
 made  in  compliance,  as  it  should  seem, 
 with  a  suggestion  of  Bishop  Cosin,  that 
 "suppose,  as  it  often  falls  out,  that  chil- 
 
VULGATE. 
 
 WAFERS. 
 
 SOI 
 
 dren  of  strangers,  ^vhich  never  intend  to 
 stay  in  England,  be  brought  there  to  be 
 baptized,"  it  -would  be  excei)tionable  that 
 "  they  also  should  be  exhorted  and  en- 
 joined to  learn  those  ])rinciples  of  religion 
 in  the  English  tongue." 
 
 VULGATE.  The  name  given  to  what 
 is  called  the  vulgar  Latin  translation  of 
 the  liiblc.  It  Avas  a  name  anciently  a])i)lied 
 to  any  pojndar  ediiion ;  and  the  Scptuagint, 
 as  ])r.  Hody  remarks,  was  sometimes  so 
 called  by  St.  Jerome.  This  is  the  most 
 ancient  version  of  the  whole  Scriptures 
 into  Latin  now  extant,  and  the  only  one 
 which  the  Church  of  Home  acknowledges 
 to  be  authentic. 
 
 The  Vulgate  of  the  Old  Testament  was 
 translated,  almost  word  for  word,  from 
 the  Greek  of  the  Scptuagint ;  the  author 
 of  it  is  not  known,  or  so  much  as  guessed 
 at.  It  was  a  long  time  known  by  the 
 name  of  the  Italic  version,  as  being  of 
 very  great  antiquity  in  the  Latin  Church. 
 (See  Italic  Version})  It  was  commonly  in 
 use,  before  St.  Jerome  made  a  new  one 
 from  the  Hebrew.  St.  Austin  preferred 
 this  Vulgate  before  all  the  other  Latin 
 versions,  as  rendering  the  words  and  sense 
 of  the  sacred  text  more  closely  and  justly 
 than  any  of  the  rest.  It  was  since  corrected 
 from  the  emendations  of  St.  Jerome  ;  and 
 it  is  the  mixture  of  the  ancient  Italic 
 version  with  the  corrections  of  St.  Jerome, 
 that  is  now  called  the  Vulgate,  and  which 
 the  Council  of  Trent  has  declared  to  be 
 authentic.  The  version  of  St.  Jerome, 
 however,  forms  the  main  part  of  the  Vul- 
 gate, with  the  exception  of  some  of  the 
 apocr}-phal  books,  and  the  Psalter.  The 
 translation  of  the  latter  from  the  Hebrew 
 was  not  adopted  publicly  by  the  Western 
 Church,  though  still  to  be  found  in  his 
 works.  The  Psalter  was  twice  corrected 
 by  him  from  the  old  Italic  version;  the 
 first  recension  was  for  a  long  time  used  in 
 the  Koman  Church,  the  latter  was  iirst 
 adopted  by  the  Churches  of  Gaul  and 
 Britain,  and  was  finally  adopted  by  the 
 Western  Church  by  an  ordinance  of  Pius 
 V.  The  old  lloman  Psalter  being  still, 
 however,  used  at  the  Vatican,  at  St.  Mark's, 
 Venice,  and  in  part  of  the  diocese  of 
 Britain. 
 
 A  revision  of  the  Vulgate  was  made  by 
 order  of  Sixtus  V.,and  i)ublished  at  Home 
 in  1590.  But  this,  though  pronounced  by 
 papal  authority  to  bo  authentic,  became 
 such  an  ol)jcct'of  ridicule  among  the  learn- 
 ed from  its  gross  inaccuracies,  that  his 
 successor,  Gregoiy  XIV.,  caused  it  to  be 
 suppressed,  and  another  nnthcntic  Vulgate 
 was  published  in  lo92,  bv  Clement  VIII. 
 •3  r       ' 
 
 —  WaUons  Prolcf/omoia.     Ilodius  ik  Bihl. 
 text,  oritj.     llorm-s  Introd. 
 
 The  Vulgate  of  the  New  Testament  is, 
 by  the  Komanists,  generally  preferred  to 
 the  connnon  Greek  text.  The  ])riest.s 
 read  no  other  at  tlie  altar ;  the  preachers 
 quote  no  other  in  the  ])ulj)it,  nor  the 
 divines  in  the  schools.     (See  Bihlc.) 
 
 WAFERS.  The  bread  which  is  used 
 in  the  eucliarist  by  the  Komanists,  and  by 
 Lutheran  Protestants  in  the  Lokd's supper, 
 is  so  designated.  In  the  ancient  Church, 
 so  long  as  the  people  continued  to  make 
 oblations  of  bread  and  wine,  the  elementH 
 for  the  n.se  of  the  eucharist  were  usually 
 taken  out  of  them  ;  and,  consequently,  so 
 long,  the  bread  was  that  common  lea>  ened 
 bread,  which  they  used  upon  other  occa- 
 sions ;  and  the  use  of  wafers,  and  un- 
 leavened bread,  was  not  known  in  the 
 Church  till  the  eleventh  or  twelfth  cen- 
 turies. This  is  now  acknowledged  by  the 
 most  learned  writers  of  the  Jlomish  com- 
 munion. The  school  divines,  who  main- 
 tain that  the  primitive  Cliurch  always 
 consecrated  in  unleavened  bread,  argue 
 that  we  must  suppose  they  followed  the 
 example  of  our  Savioi'II,  who  celebrated 
 his  last  supper  with  unleavened  bread, 
 lint  ecclesiastical  history,  and  the  writings 
 of  the  ancient  Fathers,  unanimously  testily 
 the  contrary ;  audit  is  noted  by  Epipha- 
 nius,  as  a  peculiar  rite  of  the  l!bioiiile 
 heretics,  that  they  celelirated  the  eucharist 
 with  unleavened  bread  and  Mater  only. 
 
 How  the  change  in  this  matter  was 
 made,  and  the  exact  time  when,  is  not 
 easily  determined.  Cardinal  Bona's  con- 
 jecture seems  probable  enough  ;  that  it 
 cre])t  in  u})on  the  j)eoj)le's  leaving  off  to 
 make  their  oblations  m  common  bread  ; 
 which  occasioned  the  clergy  to  pr()\i(le  it 
 themselves,  and  they,  under  jiretence  of 
 decency  and  respect,  ])rought  it  from 
 leaven  to  unleaven,  and  from  a  loaf  of 
 common  bread,  that  might  be  broken,  to 
 a  nice  and  delicate  wafer,  formed  in  tlie 
 figure  of  a  Denarius,  or  penny,  to  re- 
 present the  pence,  for  which  our  S.vvioiii 
 was  betrayed  ;  and  then  also  the  people, 
 instead  of  offering  a  loaf  of  bread,  as  for- 
 merly, were  ordered  to  offiT  a  i)rnny, 
 which  was  either  to  be  given  to  the  poor, 
 or  to  be  expended  u]u)n  something  per- 
 taining to  the  sacrifice  of  the  altar. 
 
 This  alteration  in  the  euchariKtical  bread 
 occasioned  great  disjjutes  between  the 
 r'.astern  and  Western  Cliurches,  which 
 divided  about  it;  for  the  Western  Church 
 ran  so  far  into  an  extreme,  as  almost  to 
 lose  the  nature  of  the  sacramental   ele- 
 
802 
 
 WAGER. 
 
 WHITSUNDAY. 
 
 ment,  by  introducing  a  thing  that  could 
 hardly  be  called  bread,  instead  of  that 
 common  slafl'  of  life,  Avhich  our  Lord  had 
 appointed  to  be  the  representative  of  his 
 body  in  the  eucharist.  But  there  wanted 
 not  some  discerning  and  judicious  men, 
 who  complained  of  this  abuse,  as  soon  as 
 it  began  to  be  introduced. 
 
 The  first  Common  Prayer  Book  of  King 
 Edward  VI.  enjoins  unleavened  bread  to 
 be  used  throughout  the  whole  kingdom, 
 for  the  celebration  of  the  eucharist.  It 
 was  ordered  to  be  round,  in  imitation  of 
 the  wafers,  used  by  the  Greek  and  lloman 
 Churches  ;  but  it  was  to  be  ivithout  all 
 manner  of  print,  the  wafers  usually  having 
 the  impression  either  of  a  crucifix  or  the 
 holy  lamb;  and  something  more  large  and 
 thicker  than  the  wafers,  which  \\exe  of  the 
 size  of  a  penny.  This  rubric,  aff'ording 
 matter  for  scruple,  was  set  aside  at  the  re- 
 view of  the  liturgy  in  the  fifth  of  King 
 Edward  ;  and  another  inserted  in  its  room, 
 by  which  it  was  declared  sufficient,  that 
 the  bread  he  such  as  is  usually  eaten  at  the 
 table  ivith  other  meats.  By  the  injunctions 
 of  Queen  Elizabeth,  wafer  bread  seems  to 
 have  been  again  enjoined,  for  among  other 
 orders  this  was  one,  "  For  the  more  rever- 
 ence to  be  given  to  these  holy  mysteries — 
 the  sacramental  bread,  &c.,  made  and 
 formed  plain  without  any  figure  thereupon, 
 of  the  same  fineness  and  fashion  round, 
 though  somewhat  bigger  in  compass  and 
 thickness,  as  the  usual  bread  and  wafers, 
 heretofore  called  singing  cakes,  which 
 served  for  the  use  of  private  mass." 
 
 WAGER.     (See  Battle  and  Ordeal.) 
 
 WAKE.     (See  Dedication.) 
 
 WALDENSES.  (See  Albigenses.) 
 Some  difficulty  exists  as  to  the  origin  and 
 history  of  the  sect  to  which  this  name  has 
 been  attached.  According  to  Mosheim, 
 the  sect  originated  with  Peter  Waldo,  a 
 merchant  of  Lyons,  about  the  year  1160. 
 They  flourished  chiefly  in  the  valleys  of 
 Piedmont ;  and  hence,  rather  than  from 
 Petor  Waldo  or  Valdo,  it  is  supposed  by 
 some  that  they  acquired  the  name  of  Val- 
 denses  or  Vaudois.  From  the  perusal  of 
 the  Scriptures  and  other  writings,  and 
 from  comparing  the  doctrines  of  Scripture 
 with  the  superstitions  and  practices  of  the 
 age  in  which  he  lived,  Waldo  perceived 
 the  corruption  of  the  existing  mediaeval 
 Church,  and,  in  advance  of  his  age,  became 
 a  reformer.  He  shared  the  fate  of  those 
 who  are  so  circumstanced.  He  had  many 
 followers,  and  exposed  both  himself  and 
 them  to  suspicion  and  persecution.  It  is 
 probable  that,  in  attacking  error,  the 
 Waldenses  themselves  sometimes  became 
 
 erroneous.  They  are  accused  of  having 
 maintained  the  unlawfulness  of  oaths  and 
 of  infant  baptism,  and  of  being  seditious. 
 These  charges  were  easily  made,  but 
 writers  of  celebrity  have  undertaken  to 
 confute  them.  The  marvel  is,  that,  when 
 every  attempt  was  made  to  blacken  their 
 character,  the  success  of  their  accusers  was 
 not  greater  than  it  has  proved  to  be.  It  is 
 certain  that  they  were  austere,  if  not  mo- 
 rose, in  their  ])ractice  ;  that  they  prohibit- 
 ed wars  and  hnv  suits,  penal  punishments, 
 and  all  attempts  to  acquire  wealth. 
 
 Those  of  them  who  dwelt  in  the  valleys 
 of  Piedmont  in  the  seventeenth  century, 
 were  subjected  by  the  Church  of  Rome  to 
 the  most  barbarous  and  inhuman  persecu- 
 tions, especially  in  the  years  1655,  1656, 
 and  1696.  The  most  horrible  scenes  of 
 violence  and  bloodshed  were  exhibited  in 
 this  theatre  of  papal  tyranny,  and  the 
 Waldenses  at  last  owed  their  existence 
 and  support  to  the  interference  of  the  Eng- 
 lish and  Dutch  governments. 
 
 WARBURTONIAN  LECTURE.  A 
 lecture  founded  by  Bishop  Warburton,  to 
 prove  the  truth  of  revealed  religion  in 
 general,  and  the  Christian  in  particular, 
 trom  the  completion  of  the  prophecies  in 
 the  Old  and  New  Testament  which  relate 
 to  the  Christian  Church,  especially  to  the 
 apostasy  of  papal  Rome.  To  this  found- 
 ation we  owe  the  admirable  discourses  of 
 Hurd,  Halifax,  Bagot,  Davison,  and  many 
 others. 
 
 WARDEN.  The  head  of  some  col- 
 leges, and  the  superior  of  some  conventual 
 churches,  in  which  the  chapter  remains,  is 
 called  a  warden.  The  head  of  the  collegiate 
 church  of  Galway  is  called  warden :  as 
 was  the  case  at  Manchester,  till  the  erec- 
 tion of  the  collegiate  church  there  into  a 
 cathedral. 
 
 WEDNESDAY.  This  day  has  been 
 marked  in  many  cases  by  the  Church  with 
 an  especial  religion.  Thus  it  was  often 
 added  to  Friday  as  a  weekly  fast,  and  in 
 our  own  Church  it  is  numbered  among 
 the  rogation  and  ember  days  ;  besides 
 which,  throughout  the  year  the  Litany  is 
 appointed  to  be  sung  or  said  on  Wednes- 
 day, as  well  as  on  Sunday  and  Friday 
 after  Morning  Prayer. 
 
 WESLEYANS.     (See  Methodists.) 
 
 WESTMINSTER  ASSEMBLY.  (See 
 Assembly  of  Divines.) 
 
 WESTMINSTER  CONFESSION. 
 (See  Confessions  of  Faith.) 
 ^^^AVHltSUNDAY.  One  of  the  great 
 festivals  of  the  Church,  held  in  comme- 
 moration of  the  descent  of  the  Holy 
 Ghost  on  the  day  of  Pentecost.  It  occurs 
 
AVHITSUXDAY. 
 
 f'O" 
 
 ten  days  after  Holy  Thursday,  or  Ascension 
 Day.  The  reason  of  this  day  heinj;  called 
 AVTiitsunday,  or  more  jiroperly  A\'iiitesun- 
 day,  is,  because  on  this  day,  being  a  re- 
 markable time  for  baptism,  the  catechu- 
 mens, Avho  were  then  baptized,  as  well  as 
 those  who  had  been  baptized  before  at 
 Easter,  appeared  in  the  ancient  Church  in 
 white  garments.  It  has  also  been  thought 
 that  the  name  was  symbolical  of  those 
 vast  diffusions  of  liglit  and  knowledge 
 which  were  then  shed  ujion  the  a])os- 
 tles,  in  order  to  the  enlightening  of  a 
 world  then  in  the  darkness  of  superstition 
 and  idolatry. 
 
 This  day  the  Holy  Ghost  came  down 
 from  heaven  upon  his  Church,  as  the 
 Epistle  tells,  according  to  the  promise  of 
 the  Gospel;  in  honour  of  whom  and  of 
 his  gifts  we  keep  this  holy  day.  —  Bp. 
 Sparrow. 
 
 As  to  the  name,  the  most  received  opi- 
 nion is,  that  the  word  is  at  length  "  White- 
 sunday ; "  so  called  from  the  white  gar- 
 ments worn  by  the  persons  baptized  in 
 the  ancient  Church.  For  the  adminis- 
 tering of  which  sacrament,  Easter,  and 
 this,  and  the  Sundays  between,  were  the 
 most  solemn  seasons.  Particularly  on  this 
 day,  the  last  of  those  Sundays,  (when  that 
 solemnity  determined,  and  the  prepara- 
 tion for  it  had  been  extended  to  the  ut- 
 most length,)  as  well  on  that  account,  as 
 for  the  deserved  veneration  due  to  so  great 
 a  festival,  vast  numbers  offered  themselves 
 to  be  received  to  baptism.  And,  in  token 
 of  their  being  cleansed  from  all  past  sins, 
 as  well  as  for  an  emblem  of  that  inno- 
 cence and  purity,  to  which  they  then 
 obliged  themselves,  they  were  clad  in 
 white;  and  from  the  multitude  of  such 
 vestments  then  put  on,  are  supposed  to 
 have  given  occasion  for  this  Lord's  day 
 being  distinguished  by  that  name. — Dean 
 Stanhope. 
 
 The  reason  why  this  time  was  of  old  ap- 
 pointed for  solemn  baptism,  was,  1.  lie- 
 cause  this  day  the  apostles  were  i)aptized 
 with  the  Holy  Ghost  and  fire  (Acts  ii. 
 3).  2.  Because  this  day  3000  were  bai)- 
 tized  by  the  apostles  (Acts  ii.  41).  In 
 memory  of  which,  the  Church  ever  after 
 held  a  solemn  custom  of  baptizing  at  this 
 feast. — Bp.  Sparrow. 
 
 Some  conclude  from  St.  Paul's  earnest 
 desire  of  being  at  Jerusalem  at  this  time, 
 that  the  observation  of  it  as  a  Christian 
 festival  is  as  old  as  the  apostles;  but, 
 whatever  St.  Paul's  design  was,  we  are 
 assured  tliat  it  hath  been  universally  ol)- 
 served  from  the  very  first  ages  of  Chris- 
 tianitv. —  Wheathj. 
 
 3  I   2 
 
 Ihis  dav  IS  called  Pentecost,  because 
 there  are  fifty  days  betwixt  the  true  pnss- 
 oyer  and  AVhitsinuhiy.  As  there  were 
 fifty  days  from  the  Jlws'  passover  to  the 
 giving  of  the  law  to  Mosis  in  Mount 
 Sinai,  which  law  was  written  witli  ihe 
 finger  of  Gon  (for  from  the  fourteenth 
 day  of  the  first  month,  the  day  of  the 
 passover,  to  the  third  dav  of  tlic  third 
 month,  the  day  of  the  law's  givitig,  Kxod. 
 xix.  1,  1(),  are  fifty  days)  ;  so  from  the 
 true  passover,  which  was  cclcbrati'tl  when 
 CiiitisT  was  offered  uj)  for  U'j,  are  fifty 
 days  to  this  tinu',  when  the  Holy  (inosT 
 came  down  ui){)n  the  Ciuirch.  to  write  the 
 new  law  of  charity  in  their  hearts.  Upon 
 this  meditation,  St.  Augustine  breaks  out 
 thus  :  "  Who  would  not  jm-fer  the  joy 
 and  pleasure  of  these  mysteries,  ])cforc  nfl 
 the  empires  of  the  world?  Do  you  not 
 see,  that  as  the  two  seraphim  cry  one  to 
 another.  Holy,  holy,  holy,"  (Isu!  vi.  3,) 
 "  so  the  two  Testaments,'  Old  and  New, 
 faithfully  agreeing,  evince  the  sacred  tiiith 
 of  God  ?  "  It  should  be  noted,  tiiat  we 
 must  not  count  the  fifty  days  from  the 
 very  day  of  tlie  passover,  but  from  the 
 Sunday  following ;  and  so  God  directed 
 the  Jews,  (Lev.  xxiii.  lo.)  speaking  of 
 their  l*entecost  or  Feast  of  "W  ceks,  "and 
 ye  shall  count  from  the  morrow  afU-r  the 
 sabbath  ;  from  that  day  seven  weeks  shall 
 be  complete." — lip.  Sjxirrow. 
 
 Tiie  first  lesson  for  the  morning  con- 
 tains the  law  of  the  Jewish  Pentecost,  or 
 Feast  of  Weeks,  which  was  a  type  of  ours; 
 for  as  the  law  was  at  this  time  given  to 
 the  Jews  from  Mount  Sinai,  so  also  the 
 Christians  u])on  this  day  received  the  new 
 evangelical  law  from  heaven,  by  the  ad- 
 ministration of  the  HoLV  Ghost.  The 
 first  lesson  for  the  evening  is  a  jirophccy 
 of  the  conversion  of  the  Gentiles  to  the 
 kingdom  of  Chi;ist,  through  the  inspira- 
 tion of  the  apostles  by  the  Spirit  of  GoD  ; 
 the  comj)letion  of  which  i)roi)hccy  is  re- 
 corded m  both  the  second  lessons,  but 
 es])ccially  in  the  nortion  of  Scrij)ture  for 
 the  Ejjistle,  whicli  contains  a  particular 
 description  of  the  first  wonderful  descent 
 of  the  Holy  Ghost  u\Mn  the  aj>ostlc<«, 
 who  were  "assembled  together  m  one 
 place,"  in  expectation  of  that  blfwuKl 
 Sjjirit,  according  to  the  promise  of  our 
 SavioI'R  mentioned  in  the  Go8|)cl.  — 
 Whi-athf. 
 
 The  same  harmony  of  F.nistlo,  GohocI, 
 and  collect,  and  lessons,  and  Psalms,  tiiat 
 has  been  observed  upon  Christmas,  and 
 Ivister,  and  Ascension,  may  with  plea- 
 sure be  mentioned  ui>on  this  day. — Up. 
 Sparrow.     It  is  ohscncd  as  a  Scarlet  day 
 
804 
 
 WICLIFITES. 
 
 WORKS. 
 
 at  the  universities  of  Oxford  and  Cam- 
 bridge ;  and  at  several  eathedi'als  on  this 
 day,  as  on  the  two  following,  the  service 
 is  performed  in  a  more  solemn  manner 
 than  usual,  as  at  Christmas  and  Easter. 
 
 AYICLIFITES.     The  followers  of  John 
 AViclif.      He  was   of  Mcrton    college  in 
 Oxford,  where  he  took  his  doctor's  degree 
 with  great  reputation.     He  was  once  sent 
 ambassador  by  Edward  III.  to  the  pope. 
 He   preached   against  the  real  presence, 
 pilgrimages,  purgatory,  Sec,  so  strenuously 
 at  Oxford,  that  the  monks  prevailed  with 
 ISimon    Sudbury,   Archbishop   of  Canter- 
 bury, to  silence  him.     He  was  rector  of 
 Lutterworth   in    Leicestershire,  much  fa- 
 voured by  the  great  men  in  his  time,  and 
 is  justly  reckoned  the  first  reformer.     The 
 fame  of  him  reached  to  Home,  and  occa- 
 sioned Pope    Gregory    XL    to   write   to 
 llichard  II.  to  assist  the  bishops  in  sup-  | 
 pressing    Wiclif   and  his    folloAvers.       In 
 Henry   IV.'s   time,  his  books   were  con- 
 demned at  Oxford ;  and  at  last,  w^hen  the 
 Council   of  Constance   met,   about    1428, 
 they  condemned  him,  with  this  sentence : 
 "That    John   Wiclif,    being  a  notorious 
 heretic,  and  obstinate,  and  dying  in  his 
 heresy,  his  body  and  bones,  if  they  may 
 be    discerned   from   the   bodies    of  other 
 faithful  people,   should  be   taken  up   out 
 of  the  ground,  and  thrown  away  far  from 
 the  burial  of  the   Church."     The  bishop 
 of  Lincoln    executed   this    sentence,    and 
 forty-one  years  after  his  burial  he  burnt  the 
 remains,  (which  was  more  than  the  sentence 
 commanded,)  and  cast  them  into  a  neigh- 
 bouring brook  called  the  Swift.      The  fol- 
 loM-ers   of    Wiclif   Avere   called   Lollards. 
 Wiclif 's   notions  were:    "The  Scriptures 
 ought  to  be  in  the  vulgar  tongue,  contain 
 all  things  necessary  to  salvation,  may  be 
 understood  by   every  well-disposed  man  : 
 he  declared  against  traditions,  the  pope's 
 authority,    their  pov>'er   over   the   tempo- 
 ralities of  kings,  and  pronounced  the  pope 
 to  be  the  chiefest  antichrist.     He  taught 
 that  the   Church  of  Rome  may   err;    he 
 rejected   merit  of  works,  transubstantia- 
 tion,  and  owned  but  two  sacraments ;  he 
 was  against  images,  auricular  confession, 
 pardons,  indulgences,  and  monastic  vows  ; 
 he  approved  the  marriage  of  priests." 
 WILL,  FREE.     (See  Free  Will) 
 WISDOM,   THE    BOOK    OF.       An 
 apocryphal  book  of  Scripture ;   so  called, 
 on  account  of  the  wise  maxims  and  useful 
 instructions  contained  therein. 
 
 The  Book  of  Wisdom  is  commonly 
 ascribed  to  King  Solomon,  either  because 
 the  author  imitated  that  king's  manner  of 
 writing,  or  because  he  sometimes  speaks 
 
 in  his  name.  It  is  certain  Solomon  was 
 not  the  author  of  it ;  for  it  was  not  written 
 in  Hebrew,  nor  was  it  inserted  in  the 
 Jewish  canon,  nor  is  the  style  like  Solo- 
 mon's :  and  therefore  St.  Jerome  observes 
 justly,  that  it  smells  strongly  of  the 
 Grecian  eloquence ;  that  it  is  composed 
 Avith  art  and  method,  after  the  manner  of 
 the  Greek  philosophers,  very  different 
 from  that  noble  simplicity,  so  full  of  life 
 and  energy,  to  be  found  in  the  HebreAV 
 books.  It  has  been  attributed  by  many 
 of  the  ancients  to  Philo,  a  Jcav,  but  more 
 ancient  than  he  Avhose  Avorks  are  noAV 
 extant.  But  it  is  commonly  ascribed  to 
 an  Hellenistical  JeAv,  Avho  lived  since 
 Ezra,  and  about  the  time  of  the  Maccabees. 
 It  may  properly  be  divided  into  tAvo 
 parts :  the  first  is  a  description  and  en- 
 comium of  Avisdom  ;  the  second,  beginning 
 at  the  tenth  chapter,  is  a  long  discourse  in 
 the  form  of  prayers,  wiierein  the  author 
 admires  and  extols  the  Avisdom  of  God, 
 and  of  those  Avho  honour  him ;  and  dis- 
 covers the  folly  of  the  Avicked,  who  have 
 been  the  professed  enemies  of  the  good 
 and  virtuous  in  all  ages  of  the  Avorld. 
 
 WORD,  THE.  (See  Jesus.)  The  only- 
 begotten  Son  of  the  Father,  tne  uncreated 
 Wisdom,  the  second  person  of  the  most 
 Holy  Trinity,  equal  and  consubstantial 
 Avith  the  Father.  St.  John  the  Evangelist, 
 more  expressly  than  any  other,  has  opened 
 to  us  the  mystery  of  the  Word  of  God,  Avhen 
 he  teUs  us,  "In  the  beginning  Avas  the 
 Word,  and  the  AVord  was  with  God,  and 
 the  Word  Avas  God.  The  same  was  in 
 the  beginning  Avith  God.  All  things  Avere 
 made  by  him,  and  Avithout  him  Avas  not 
 anything  made  that  Avas  made."  The 
 Chaldee  paraphrasts,  the  most  ancient 
 JeAvish  Avriters  extant,  generally  use  the 
 name  Memra,  or  Word,  Avhere  Moses  puts 
 the  name  Jeiioyah.  In  effect,  according 
 to  them,  it  Avas  Memra  Avho  created  the 
 Avorld ;  Avho  appeared  to  Abraham  in  the 
 plain  of  Mamre ;  and  to  Jacob  at  Bethel. 
 It  Avas  jSIemra  to  Avhom  Jacob  appealed 
 to  Avitness  the  coA'enant  bet  Ave  en  him  and 
 Laban.  The  same  Word  appeared  to 
 Moses  at  Sinai ;  gave  the  laAV  to  the 
 Israelites;  spoke  face  to  face  Avith  that 
 laAvgiver;  marched  at  the  head  of  that 
 people ;  enabled  them  to  conquer  nations, 
 and  Avas  a  consuming  fire  to  all  Avho 
 violated  the  laAv  of  the  Lord.  All  these 
 characters,  Avhere  the  paraplrrast  uses  the 
 Avord  Memra,  clearly  denote  Almighty 
 God.  This  Word  therefore  Avas  God, 
 and  the  Hebrews  were  of  this  opinion  at 
 the  time  that  the  Targum  Avas  composed. 
 WORKS.      (See    Good    Works,   Justi- 
 
woRsiiir. 
 
 805 
 
 fcation,  and  Sancfi/icafion.)  The  doctrine 
 of  our  Church  on'tlie  suljject  of  works  is 
 contained  in  the  following  articles  : 
 
 "  XI.      0/  tJtc  Jusfijication  of  Man. 
 
 "We  are  accounted  righteous  hefore 
 God  only  for  the  merit  of  our  Loud  Jests 
 Christ,  by  faith,  and  not  for  our  own 
 works  or  deservings ;  wherefore,  that  we 
 are  justified  by  faith  only  is  a  most  wiiole- 
 some  doctrine,  and  very  full  of  comfort, 
 as  more  largely  is  expressed  in  the  Homily 
 of  Justification. 
 
 illed    th 
 
 "  XII.  Of  Good  Works. 
 **  Albeit  that  good  works,  which  are  the 
 fruits  of  foith,  and  follow  after  justifi- 
 cation, cannot  put  away  our  sins,  and 
 endure  the  severity  of  God's  judgment; 
 yet  are  they  pleasing  and  acceptable  to 
 God  in  CiniisT,  and  do  spring  out  ne- 
 cessarily of  a  true  and  lively  faith ;  in- 
 somuch that  by  them  a  livelV  faith  may 
 be  as  evidently  known  as  a  tree  discerned 
 by  the  fruit. 
 
 "  XIII.     Of  Works  hefore  Justification. 
 
 "  Works  done  before  the  grace  of  Christ, 
 and  the  inspiration  of  his  Spirit,  are  not 
 pleasant  to  GOD,  forasmuch  as  they  spring 
 not  of  faith  in  Jesus  Christ  ;  neither  do 
 they  make  men  meet  to  receive  grace,  or 
 (as  the  school  authors  say)  deserve  grace 
 of  congruity  :  yea  rather,  for  that  they  are 
 not  done  as  God  hath  willed  and  com- 
 manded tliera  to  be  done,  we  doubt  not 
 but  they  have  the  nature  of  sin." 
 
 WOllSIIIP.    Besides  the  usual  applica- 
 tion of  this  term  to  the  supreme  homage  and 
 devotion  due  only  to  the  Divine  IJeinc;, 
 it  is  occasionally  used  in  the  Bible  and 
 Prayer  Book,  to   denote  honour,  res])ect, 
 and  reverence  given   to  men.      Thus,   in 
 the  84th  Psalm,  it  is  said  that  "  the  Lord 
 Avill  give  grace  and  icorship  (favour  and 
 dignity)  to   them  that  live  a  godly  life." 
 In  Luke  xiv.  10,  we  read  that  the  humble 
 guest  "shall  have  icorship  in  the  presence 
 of  those  who  sit  at  meat  with  him."     And 
 in  1  Chron.  xxix.  20,  it  is  said,  that  all  the 
 congregation   "  bowed  down  their  heads, 
 and  xcor shipped  the  Lord  and  the  king." 
 In  the  Order  of  Matrimony  in  the  I'nglish 
 Prayer   Book,   the    husband    ])romises    to 
 tcorship  his  wife,  that  is,  to  render  to  her 
 all  that  respect  and  honour  to  which  she  is 
 entitled  ])y  the  command  of  God,  and  the 
 station  she  holds. 
 
 For  the  better  understanding  of  this 
 phrase  we  must  know,  that  anciently  there 
 were  two  sorts  of  wives,  one  whereof  was 
 
 ca  led  me  pnmary  or  hnvful  wife,  the 
 other  >vas  caUed  the  ludf-Nsife,  «,r  concu- 
 bme.  llie  diliVieiice  betwixt  these  two 
 was  only  ni  the  difh-rin-  purpose  of  the 
 man,  betaking  himself  to  the  one  or  the 
 other  :  if  his  puri)osc  was  only  fellowshij), 
 there  grew  to  the  woman  bv  this  meuiiH 
 no  worsliij)  at  all.  l)ut  rather  "tiie  contrun*. 
 In  professing  that  his  intent  was  to  add  by 
 his  jjerson  honour  and  worship  unto  hers, 
 he  took  her  plainly  and  clearly  to  be  his 
 wife,  not  his  concubine.  This'it  is,  which 
 the  civil  law  doth  mean,  when  it  niakcK  a 
 wife  diller  from  a  concubine  in  dignity. 
 The  worship  that  grew  unto  her,  ]>ein'g 
 taken  with  declaration  of  this  intent,  wan, 
 that  her  children  became  l)y  this  means 
 free  and  legitimate  heirs  to  their  father, 
 (Gen  XXV.  o,  (),J  and  herself  was  made  a 
 mother  over  his  family.  Lastly,  she  re- 
 ceived such  advancement  of  stated  as  thinj^s 
 annexed  to  his  j)erson  might  augment  her 
 with  :  yea,  a  right  of  participation  was 
 thereby  given  her,  both  in  him.  and  even 
 in  all  things  w  Inch  were  his ;  and  there- 
 fore he  says  not  only,  *'with  my  body  I 
 thee  worshin,"  but  also,  "  with  all  my 
 worldly  goods  I  thee  endow."  The  former 
 branch  having  granted  the  principal,  the 
 latter  granteth  that  which  is  annexed 
 thereto.~//oo/.fv. 
 
 The  Jew  s  anciently  used  the  same  j)hra.'ie : 
 "  Be  unto  me  a  wife,  and  ],  according  to 
 the  word  of  God,  will  uorship,  honour, 
 and  maintain  thee,  according  to  the  manner 
 of  husbands  among  the  Jews,  who  trurship, 
 honour,  and  maintain  tiieir  wives."  And 
 that  no  man  quarrel  at  this  hamdeRs 
 plirase,  let  him  take  notice,  that  to  tror- 
 sliip  here  signifies,  to  make  trorahipful  or 
 honoftnih/e,  as  you  may  see,  1  Sam.  ii.  30. 
 For  where  our  last  translation  reads  it, 
 '*  him  that  honours  me,  I  will  honour;"  in 
 the  old  translation,  which  f)ur  Common 
 Prayer  Book  uses,  it  is,  "  him  that  tn>rxhi/>a 
 me,  I  will  wnrshi/i,'"  that  is,  I  will  make 
 worshij)ful ;  for  that  way  only  can  GoD  be 
 said  to  worship  man.-  7//).  Sparroir. 
 
 Tiiese  words  are  objected  to  by  our  ad- 
 versaries, as  a  great  crime  in  our  Church, 
 for  obliging  the  briilegroom  to  make  an 
 idol  of  his  bride,  and  to  declare,  in  the 
 most  extravagant  strain  of  all  complimentJi, 
 
 that  he  worships  her.    But  thi-  • •     n 
 
 is  owing  to  the  want  of  a  just  (  :i 
 
 of  the  j)urport  of  the  old  I'.i;^..  ..  \w  :d 
 "  worshij),"  which  signifies  an  honoumble 
 regard,  as  is  yet  to  be  seen  in  our  u«unl 
 expressions  still  retained  in  common  di»- 
 coursc,  as  Your  Worsliij).  \Vorshipful,  Arc. 
 And  so  King  James,  in  the  conference  at 
 Hampton  Court,  told  Dr.  Iloynoldx,  who 
 
806 
 
 XEROrHAGIA. 
 
 ZEALOTS. 
 
 made  this  objection.  For  our  Church  is 
 not  only  content  that  the  ^vife  should  he 
 endoAved  -with  a  ishare  of  the  husband's 
 goods,  but  that  the  husband  should  obhge 
 himself  to  promote  his  spouse  to  the 
 dignity  of  the  uxorial  honour,  for  she 
 v/ould  not  have  the  men  joined  to  concu- 
 bines by  this  religious  solemnity ;  and, 
 therefore,  she  ties  the  man  to  make  pro- 
 fession, tluit  he  is  willing  to  have  the  per- 
 son he  marries  not  only  to  be  a  partner  in 
 his  bed,  but  that  she  should  have  all  the 
 dignity  of  a  Avife  allowed  her.  And  that 
 is  the  meaning  of  these  words,  "  with  my 
 body  I  thee  worship : "  I  not  only  give 
 thee  a  right  in  my  body,  but  that  in  the 
 honourable  and  worshipful  way  of  a  wife. 
 For,  by  the  old  Roman  laAV,  this  was  the 
 difference  between  a  wife  and  a  concubine : 
 that  the  husband  before  marriage  promised 
 that  he  designed  to  promote  the  woman  he 
 was  married  to,  to  the  honour  of  mater- 
 fami/ias,  or  mistress  of  the  family. — Dr. 
 Nicholls. 
 
 The  first  right  accruing  to  the  vrife  by 
 marriage,  is  honour ;  and,  therefore,  the 
 man  says,  "  with  my  body  I  thee  worship ; " 
 that  is,  "with  my'body"^!  thee  honour:" 
 for  so  the  word  signifies  in  this  place  ;  and 
 so  Mr.  Selden,  and  before  him  Martin 
 Buccr,  who  lived  at  the  time  when  our 
 liturgy  was  compiled,  have  translated  it. 
 The  design  of  it  is  to  express  that  the 
 w^oman,  by  virtue  of  this  marriage,  has  a 
 share  in  all  the  titles  and  honours  which 
 are  due,  or  belong  to,  the  person  of  her 
 husband.  It  is  true  the  modern  sense  of 
 the  word  is  somewhat  diff'erent :  for  which 
 reason,  I  find,  that  at  the  review  of  our 
 liturgy,  after  the  restoration  of  King 
 Charles  II.,  '•  worship "  was  promised  to 
 be  changed  for  "  honour."  How  the  alter- 
 ation came  to  be  omitted  I  cannot  dis- 
 cover ;  but  so  long  as  the  old  word  is 
 explained  in  the  sense  that  I  have  given  of 
 it,  one  would  think  no  objection  could  be 
 urged  against  using  it. —  JVheuthj. 
 
 XEROPHAGIA.  {^ri^o^ayia,  from 
 KnpoQ.,  dry,  ^dyM,  to  eat.)  Fast  days  in 
 the  first  ages  of  the  Christian  Church,  on 
 which  they  ate  nothing  but  bread  and  salt, 
 the  word  signifying  so  much  as  to  eat  dry 
 things  ;  afterwards  there  were  pulse,  herbs, 
 and  fruits  added.  This  great  fast  was  kept 
 th^  six  days  of  the  holy  week  for  devo- 
 tion, and  not  by  obligation ;  so  that  the 
 Church  condemned  the  Montanists,  who  of 
 their  own  private  authority,  would  not 
 only  oblige  all  people  to  observe  the  Xero- 
 phagia  of  the  holy  week,  but  also  other 
 fasts  that  they  had  established,  as  well  as 
 
 several  Lents.  The  Essenes,  whether  they 
 were  Jews  or  the  first  Christians  of  the 
 Church  of  Alexandria,  observed  Xero- 
 I)hagia  on  certain  days ;  for  Philo  says, 
 they  })ut  nothing  to  then-  bread  and  water 
 but  salt  and  hyssop. 
 
 YEAR,  ECCLESIASTICAL.  (See  Ad- 
 vent, Calendar,  and  Feasts.) 
 
 YULE.  An  old  word  signifying  festi- 
 val, and  still  in  use  to  designate  the  festi- 
 val of  Christmas.  The  yule  of  Atiyust 
 anciently  signified  Lammas.    See  Johnson 
 
 ZEALOTS.  An  ancient  sect  of  the 
 Jews,  so  called  from  their  pretended  great 
 zeal  for  God's  laws,  and  the  honour  of 
 religion.  They  were  a  branch  of  the  Pha- 
 risees, though  some  account  them  a  dis- 
 tinct sect.     (See  Pharisees.) 
 
 The  Zealots  were  a  most  outrageous  and 
 ungovernable  people,  and,  on  pretence  of 
 asserting  the  honour  of  God's  laws,  and 
 the  strictness  and  purity  of  religion,  as- 
 sumed a  liberty  of  questioning  notorious 
 ofl'enders,  without  staying  for  the  ordi- 
 nary formalities  of  law  :  nay,  when  they 
 thought  fit,  they  executed  capital  punish- 
 ments upon  them  with  their  own  hands. 
 Thus,  when  a  blasphemer  cursed  GoD  by 
 the  name  of  any  idol,  the  Zealots,  who 
 next  met  him,  immediately  killed  him, 
 without  ever  bringing  him  before  the  San- 
 hedrim. They  looked  upon  themselves  as 
 the  true  successors  of  Phinehas,  who,  out 
 of  a  great  zeal  for  the  honour  of  God, 
 did  immediate  execution  upon  Zimri  and 
 Cozbi ;  which  action  was  so  pleasing  to 
 God,  that  he  made  with  him,  and  his  seed 
 after  him,  the  covenant  of  an  everlasting 
 priesthood.  In  imitation  of  Phinehas,  these 
 men  took  upon  them  to  execute  judgment 
 in  extraordinary  cases ;  and  not  only  by  the 
 connivance,  but  with  the  permission  both 
 of  the  rulers  and  the  people  ;  till,  in  after- 
 times,  under  this  pretence,  their  zeal  de- 
 generated into  all  manner  of  licentiousness 
 and  extravagance.  And  they  not  only 
 became  the  pests  of  the  commonwealth  at 
 home,  but  opened  the  door  for  the  Romans 
 to  break  in  upon  the  Jews,  to  their  final  and 
 irrecoverable  ruin  ;  for  they  were  continu- 
 ally encouraging  the  people  to  throw  off 
 the  Roman  yoke,  and  assert  their  native 
 liberty. 
 
 They  made  no  scruple  of  robbing,  plun- 
 dering, and  killing  the  principal  of  the 
 nobility,  under  pretence  of  holding  corre- 
 spondence with  the  Romans,  and  betraying 
 the  liberty  of  their  country ;  and,  upon  the 
 merit  of  this,  they  assumed  to  themselves 
 
ZUINGLIANS. 
 
 807 
 
 the  titles  of  benefactors  and  r,aviours  of 
 the  people.  They  abrogated  the  succession 
 of  ancient  families,  thrusting  ignoble  and 
 obscure  persons  into  the  office  of  the  liigh 
 priesthood,  that  by  this  means  they  might 
 draw  over  the  most  infamous  villains  to 
 their  party.  And,  not  contented  to  allront 
 men,  they  injured  the  majesty  of  heaven, 
 and  proclaimed  defiance  to  the  ])ivinity 
 itself,  by  breaking  into  and  profaning  the 
 most  holy  place. 
 
 Many  attempts  were  made,  cs])ecially 
 by  Annas  the  high  priest,  to  reduce  them 
 to  order  ;  but  neither  force  of  arms,  nor 
 fair  and  gentle  methods,  could  prevail 
 upon  them.  They  persisted  in  these  vio- 
 lent proceedings,  and,  joining  with  the  Idu- 
 means,  committed  all  manner  of  outrage, 
 and  slew  many  of  the  high  priests  them- 
 selves ;  and  even  Mhen  Jerusalem  was  be- 
 sieged by  the  Roman  army,  they  never  left 
 off  to  promote  tumults  and  distractions, 
 till  their  intestine  quarrels  ended,  at  last, 
 in  the  sacking  of  the  citv. 
 
 ZUINGLIAXS.  The  disciples  of  Zuin- 
 glius,  whose  opinion  was  that  Luther's 
 scheme  of  lleformation  fell  very  short  of 
 the  extent  to  which  it  ought  to  have  been 
 carried.  Under  this  impression,  and  with 
 a  view,  as  he  termed  it,  of  restoring  the 
 Church  to  its  original  purity,  Zuingle 
 sought  to  abolish  many  doctrines  and  rites 
 of  the  lloman  Catholic  Church,  Mhich 
 Luther  had  retained.     In  some  points  of 
 
 doctnne  ho  also  dilTered  liom  Luther,  nnd 
 his  oninion  on  the  real  jiresence  made  u 
 comi)lete  separation  l)el\veen  them.  Lu- 
 ther held  that,  together  with  the  broad  and 
 wiiie,  the  body  and  blood  of  CniusT  were 
 really  present  in  the  eucharist.  Zuingle 
 held,  tliat  the  bread  and  wine  were  only 
 si't/ns  and  symbols  of  the  abMiU  body  and 
 blood  of  CilKlsT;  so  that  the  eucharistic 
 rite  was  merely  a  pious  ond  solemn  cere- 
 mony, to  bring  it  to  the  remembrance  of 
 the  faithful.  Tiie  oninions  of  Zuingh'  were 
 adopted  in  Switzerhuul,  and  several  neigh- 
 bouring nations.  They  gave  rise  to  the 
 most  violent  animosities  l)elween  their  fa- 
 vourers and  the  discij)Ies  of  Luther.  Kre- 
 (pient  advances  to  peace  were  made  by 
 tlie  Zuinglians  ;  Luther  uniformly  rejected 
 them  with  sternness.  He  declared  an 
 union  to  be  impossible ;  he  called  them 
 "  ministers  of  Satan."  "When  they  en- 
 treated him  to  consider  them  as  brothers, 
 "  What  fraternity,"  he  exclaimed,  "  do  you 
 ask  with  me,  if  you  persist  in  your  belief.'" 
 On  one  occiision,  tiie  ingenuity  of  Bucer 
 enabled  him  to  frame  a  creed,  which  each 
 party,  constructing  the  words  in  his  own 
 sense,  might  sign.  This  cfTccted  a  tempo- 
 rary truce  ;  but  the  division  soon  broke 
 out  with  fresh  animosity.  "  Hapjjy,"  ex- 
 claimed Luther,  "  is  the  man  who  has  not 
 been  of  the  Council  of  the  Sacramento- 
 rians ;  who  has  not  walked  in  the  woys  of 
 the  Zuinglians." 
 
 Till-:    KND. 
 
JOHN    CHILDS    AND    SON,    BUNGAY. 
 
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 April,  1854. 
 
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 I 
 
LIST  OF  WORKS 
 
 BARROW'S  (The  late  Sir  John)  Autobiographical  Memoir,  in- 
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12 
 
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 Battle  of  Marathon.  i.„.j^ 
 
 Vols  V  —VI  —Persian  War  and  Invasion  of  Greece  by  Xerxes.  I  eriod 
 between  the  l'er>ian  and  the  Peloponnesian  Wars,  Peloponnesian 
 War  down  lo  the  Expedition  of  the  Athenians  n^'"'''^' =;">";^"'';;; ,„. 
 
 Vols.  VII.— VIII.— The  Peace  of  Nikias  down  to  the  Battle  of  KnIdUB 
 (B.C.  421  to  394).     Socrates  and  the  Sophists. 
 
 Vols  IX.— XI. -From  the  Kestoration  of  the  Democracy  at  Athens  down 
 to  the  Death  of  Philip  of  Mactdon  (b.c.  403-35'Jj. 
 
14  LIST  OF  WORKS 
 
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20 
 
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22 
 
 LIST  OF  WORKS 
 
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 Sister,  Lady  Anne  Barnard.    3  Vols.  Svo.    42s. 
 
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24 
 
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 NiMROD    ON    THE    TlRF.      1«.  6(/.  I.ICAS    0>    IIlSroHT.      (".<<. 
 
 Oliphant'b  Nepaul.    -2s.f,d.  \     Beauties  or  Btron.    is. 
 
 MUSIC  AND  DRESS.    Two  Essays  reprinted  from  the  "  Quarterly 
 
 Review."     Fcap.  8vo.     Is. 
 
 NAUTICAL   ALMANACK   (The).     {Published  by  Order  of  the 
 
 LordsCommissionersof  the  Admiralty.)     Royal  8vo.     2s.  (M. 
 
 NAVY  LIST  (The   Royal).    {Published  Quarterly,  hy  Authority.) 
 
 12mo.    2s.  6d. 
 
 NEALE'S  (E.  V.)  Feasts  and  Fasts  :  an  Essay  on  the  Rise,  Pro- 
 gress, and  Present  .State  of  the  Laws  relating  to  Sundays  and  oilier 
 Holidays,  &c.    Fcap.  8vo.  9s.  6d. 
 
26 
 
 LIST  OF  WORKS 
 
 NEVILLE'S  (Hon. E.G.) Saxon  Obsequies;  illustrated  by  Ornaments 
 and  Weapons  discovered  in  a  Cemetery  near  Little  Will)rahan],  Cam- 
 bridgeshire. With  short  Descriptions.   Illustrated  by  40  Plates.  4to.  84s. 
 
 NEWBOLD'S  (Lieut.)  Straits  of  Malacca,  Penang,  Malacca,  and 
 
 Singapore.    2  Vols.  8vo.    26s. 
 
 KIMROD  On  the  Chace— The  Turf— and  The  Eoad.     Reprinted 
 
 from  the  "  Quarterly  Review."     Woodcuts.    Fcap.  Svo.    3s.  6d. 
 
 NORTON'S  (Hon.  Caroline)  Letters  from  Sierra  Leone.  By  a  Lady, 
 ■WTitten  to  Friends  at  Home.    Edited  by  Mrs.  Norton.    Post8vo.    5s. 
 
 O'BYRNE'S  (W.  R.)  Naval  Biographical  Dictionary,  comprising 
 the  Life  and  Services  of  every  Living  Officer  in  H.  M.  Navy,  from  the 
 Eank  of  Admiral  to  that  of  Lieutenant.  Compiled  from  Authentic  and 
 Family  Documents.    Koyal  8vo.    42s. 
 
 O'CONNOR'S  (R.)  Field  Sports  of  France  ;  or,  Hunting,  Shooting, 
 and  Fishing  on  the  Continent.    Woodcuts.    12mo.    7s.  6d. 
 
 OLIPHANT'S  (Laurence)  Journey  to  Katmandu,  with  Yisit  to 
 the  Camp  of  the  Nepaulese  Ambassador.    Fcap.  Svo.    2s.  6d. 
 
 OXENHAM'S  (Rev.  W.)  English  Notes  for  Latin  Elegiacs  ;  designed 
 
 for  early  Proficients  in  the  Art  of  Latin  Versification,  with  Prefatory 
 Rules  of  Composition  in  Elegiac  Metre.     Second  Edition.    12mo.    4s. 
 
 PAGET'S  (John)  Hungary  and  Transylvania,  With  Remarks  on 
 their  Condition,  Social,  Political,  and  Economical.  Second  Edition. 
 Woodcuts.    2  Vols.  Svo.    24s. 
 
 PALLTSER'S  (John)  Solitary  Rambles  and  Adventures  of  a  Hunter 
 in  the  Prairies.     Woodcuts.     Post  Svo. 
 
 PARISH'S  (Sir  Woodbine)  Buenos  Ayres  and  the  Provinces  of  the 
 Rio  de  la  Plata.  Their  First  Discovery  and  Conquest,  Present  State, 
 Trade,  Debt,  &.c.    Second  Edition.    Map  and  Woodcuts.    Svo.     15s. 
 
 PARIS'S  (T.  C.)  Letters  from  the  Pyrenees  during  Three  Months' 
 
 Pedestrian  Wanderings  amidst  the  Wildest  Scenes  of  the  French  and 
 Spanish  Pyrenees.    Woodcuts.    Post  Svo.    10s.  M. 
 
 PARKYNS'  (Mansfield)  Personal  Narrative  of  Three  Years'  Resi- 
 dence and  Adventures  in  Abyssinia.    Woodcuts,    2  Vols.    Svo.    30s. 
 
 PEILE'S  (Rev.  Dr.)  Agamemnon  of  ^schylus.  A  New  Edition 
 of  the  Text,  with  Notes,  Critical,  Explanatory,  and  Philological,  for 
 the  Use  of  Students.    Second  Edition.    8vo.    9s. 
 
 Choephorae  of  ^schylus.    A  New  Edition  of  the  Text, 
 
 with   Notes,  Critical,    Explanatoiy,   and  Philological,   for  the   Use  of 
 Students.    Second  Edition.    Svo.    9s. 
 
 PELLEW'S   (Dean  of  Norwich)  Life   of  Lord   Sidmouth, 
 his  Correspondence.    Portraits.    3  Vols.    Svo.    42s. 
 
 with 
 
 PENN'S  (Richard)  Maxims  and  Hints  for  an  Angler,  and  the 
 Miseries  of  Fishing.  To  which  is  added,  Maxims  and  Hints  for  a 
 Chess-player.     Second  Edition.    Woodcuts.    Fcap.  Svo.    6s. 
 
 (Granville)  Bioscope ;  or,  Dial  of  Life  Explained.     To 
 
 ■which  is  added,  a  Translation  of  St.  Paulinu.s'  Epistle  to  Celantia  on 
 the  Rule  of  Christian  Life  ;  and  an  Elementary  View  of  General  Chro- 
 nology.   Second  Edition.    With  Dial  Plate.    12mo.    12s. 
 
PUBLISHED  BY  MR.  MURRAY.  27 
 
 PENROSE'S  (Rev.  John)  Lives  of  Vice-Adiniral  Sir  C.  V.  PcnroHc, 
 and  Captain  James  Trcvonen.     I'ortraits.    «vi).     lo.s.  fxl. 
 
 Sermons  for  Households,  or  Fifty-four  Sermons  Written 
 
 for  Sunday  Kcailiiii,'  in  Funiilii's.    Svo,  lO.v.  (!,/. 
 
 (F.  C.)  Principles  of  Athenian  Architeeture,  and  the 
 
 Optical  KelinonuMits  i-xliiliitfd  in  the  C.instnicti.iu  of  tlif  Anricnt 
 Buildinf,'s  at  Athens,  from  a  Survey.  With  JO  IMates.  1-olio.  6/.  6s. 
 (Piihlis/iid  u/uitr  the  diffct'um  oj  tfu  Dihttnnti  Sorirti/.) 
 
 PENNINGTON  (G.  J.)  On  the  Pronunciation  of  the  Greek  Lan- 
 g'iaf,'e.    Svo.    8.S-.  Gd. 
 
 PHILLIPS'  (John)  Memoirs  of  William  Smith,  LL.IX,  (the  Geo- 
 logist).   Portrait.    Svo.    7s.  6d. 
 
 Geology  of  York.shire.      The  Yorkshire  Coast,  and  the 
 
 Mountain-Limestone  District.  Plates  4to.  Parti.,  31s.  G<i.  — Part  II  , 
 52s.  6d. 
 
 Rivers,  ]\[ountains,  and  Sea  Coast  of  Yorkshire ;  with 
 
 Essays  on  the  Climate,  Scenery  and  Ancient  Inhabitants  of  the  County. 
 Plates.    Svo.    15s. 
 
 PHILOSOPHY  IN  SPORT   MADE   SCIENCE   IN  EARNEST; 
 
 or,  the  First  Principles  of  Natural  Philosophy  inculcated  by  aid  of  the  Toys 
 and  Sports  of  Youth.     S>:vinth  Kditiou.    Woodcuts.     Pciip.  Hvo.    T.*.  (W. 
 
 PHILPOTT'S  (Bishop)  Letters  to  the  late  Charles  Butler,  on  the 
 Theological  parts  of  his  ''  Book  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  ;  "  with 
 Keniarks  on  certain  Works  of  Dr.  Milner  and  Dr.  Lintjard,  and  on  some 
 parts  of  the  Evidence  of  Dr.  Doyle.    Secoiui  Edition.    Svo.     16s. 
 
 PHIPPS*  (Hon.  Ei>munI')  ]\Iemoir,  Correspondence,  Literary  and 
 Unpublished  Diaries  of  Robert  Plumer  Ward.  Portrait.  2  Vols.  Svo.  2Ss. 
 
 POOLE'S  (R.  S.)  Horae  Egyptiacse  :  or,  the  Chronolog}-  of  Ancient 
 Egypt,  discovered  from  Astronomical  and  Hieroglyphic  Records  upon 
 its  Monuments.    Plates.    Svo.     lO.s-.  6d. 
 
 (Rev.  G.  a.)   Handbook  for  the  Cathedrals  of  England. 
 
 Containing  Descriptions  of  each.    Woodcuts.     Post  Svo.    In  the  J'rr.i.i. 
 
 POPE'S  (Alexander)  WORKS.  An  entirely  New  Edition.  Edited 
 by  the  Right  Hon.  Jon.v  Wilson  Cruker  and  Peter  Clnni.nuiiam, 
 F.S.A.    6  vols.    Svo.    In  the  I^ress. 
 
 PORTER'S  (G.  R.)  Progress  of  the  Nation,  in  its  various  Social  and 
 Economical  Relations,  from  the  beginning  of  the  Nineteenth  Century. 
 Third  Edition.    Svo.    24s. 
 
 (Mrs.  G.  R.)  Rational  Arithmetic  for  Schools  and  for 
 
 Private  Instruction.     12mo.     3s.  6</. 
 
 POWELL'S  (Rev.  W.  p.)  Latin  Grammar  simplified.    12mo.  S^.Gd. 
 
 PRAYER-BOOK  (The),  Illuminated  with  1000  Illustrations  of  Bor- 
 ders, Initials,  Vignettes,  &c.     Medium  Svo.     Cloth,  21»'.;  Calf,  31.v.  (i/. 
 
 Morocco,  42s. 
 
 PROGRESS  OF  RUSSIA  IN  THE  EAST.  An  Historical  Som- 
 mary,  continued  to  the  Present  Time.  With  Map  by  Arrowsmihi. 
 Third  Edition.     Svo.     6s.  &l. 
 
 PUSS  IN  BOOTS.     Suited  to  the  Tastes  of  Little  and   Grown 
 
 Children.     By  Otto  Spkckter.    Second  Edition.     Plates.    16mo.    6^. 
 
 QUARTERLY  REVIEW  (The).     Svo.    6^. 
 
 RANKE'S   (Leopold)  Political   and  Ecclesiastical  History-  of  the 
 
 Popes  of  Rome,  during  the  Sixteenth  and  Seventeenth  Centuries.  Trnnit- 
 lated  from  the  German  by  Mrs.  Ai'stin.  Third  Edition.  2  Vols.  Svo.  24s. 
 
 History  of  Prussia;  or.  Memoirs  of  the  House  of  Bran- 
 
 denburgh.  Translated  from  the  German  by  Sib  Alexa.ndeb  Dvrr 
 GoEDON  Bakt.    3  Vols.  Svo.   36*. 
 
28 
 
 LIST  OF  WORKS 
 
 RAWLIXSON'S  (Rev.  George)  Herodotus.  A  New  English 
 Version.  Translated  from  the  Text  of  Gaisford,  and  Edited  with 
 Notes,  ilhistrating  the  History  and  Geogi-aphy  of  Herodotus,  from  the 
 most  recent  sources  of  infonnation,  embodying  the  chief  Results, 
 Historical  and  Ethnographical,  which  have  been  arrived  at  in  the  pro- 
 gress of  Cuneiform  and  Hieroglyphical  Discovery.  Assisted  by  Colonel 
 Kawlixson,  and  8iu  J.  G.  Wilkinson.    4  Vols.    8vo.    In  the  Press. 
 
 REJECTED  ADDRESSES  (The).  By  James  and  Horace  Smith. 
 With  Biographies  of  the  Authors,  and  additional  Notes.  Twenty-second 
 Edition.    Portraits,    Fcap.  8vo.    5s. 
 
 RICARDO'S  (David)  Political  Works.  With  a  Notice  of  his 
 Life  and  Writings.    By  J.  R.  M'Culloch.    New  Edition.    8vo.    16s. 
 
 RIDE  on  Horseback  to  Florence  through  France  and  Switzerland. 
 Described  in  a  Series  of  Letters.    By  a  Lady.    2  Vols.    Pest  8vo.    18s. 
 
 RIPA'S  (Father)  Memoirs  during  Thirteen  Years'  Residence  at  the 
 
 Court  of  Peking,  in  the  Service  of  the  Emperor  of  C'liina.     Translated 
 from  tlie  Italian.     By  Fortuxato  Pkaxdi.     Post  8vo.    2s.  Qd. 
 
 ROBERTSON'S  (Lord)  Leaves  from  a  Journal,  and  other  Fragments 
 in  Verse.    Crown  8vo.    7s.  M. 
 
 — (Rev,  J.  C)  History  of  the  Christian  Church,  to 
 
 the  Pontificate  of  Gregory  the  Great:  a  ]\Ianual  for  general  Readers  as 
 well  as  for  Students  in  Theology.    8vo.    12s. 
 
 ROMILLY'S  (Sir  Samuel)  Memoirs  and  Political  Diary.     By  his 
 
 Sons.     Third  Edition.    Portrait.    2  Vols,  Fcap.  8vo,    12s. 
 
 ROSS'S  (Sir  James)  Voyage  of  Discovery  and  Research  in  the 
 Southern  and  Antarctic  Regions  during  the  years  1839-43.  Plates. 
 2  Vols.  8vo.    36s. 
 
 ROYAL    SOCIETY    OF    LITERATURE   (The).     Transactions. 
 
 Plates.    Vols.  I.  to  III.    8vo.    12s.  each. 
 
 RUNDELL'S  (Mrs.)  Modern  Domestic  Cookery,  founded  onPrinciples 
 of  Economy  and  Practice,  and  adapted  for  Private  Families,  New  a7id 
 Cheaper  Edition.    Woodcuts.     Fcap.  8vo.     5s. 
 
 RUXTON'S  (George   F.)  Travels   in    Mexico ;   with    Adventures 
 
 among  the  Wild  Tribes  and  Animals  of  the  Prairies  and  Rocky  Moun- 
 tains,   Post  8vo.    5s. 
 
 SALE'S  (Lady)  Journal  of  the  Disasters  in  Affghanistan.     Eiglith 
 
 Edition.    Post  8vo,    12s. 
 
 (Sir  Robert)  Brigade  in  Affghanistan,  With  an  Account  of 
 
 the  Seizure  and  Defence  of  Jellalabad.  By  Rev.G.R.Gleig.  Post  8vo.2s.6d. 
 
 SAXON  (The)  in  Ireland,  Being  Notes  of  the  Rambles  of  an 
 Englishman  in  the  AVest  of  Ireland,  in  search  of  a  Settlement.  Second 
 Edition.    Fcap.  8vo. 
 
 SCROPE'S  (William)  Days  of  Deer-Stalking  in  the  Forest  of  Atholl ; 
 with  some  Account  of  the  Nature  and  Habits  of  the  Red  Deer,  Third 
 Edition.    Woodcuts.    Crown  8vo,    20s, 
 
 Days  and  Nights  of  Salmon  Fishing  in  the  Tweed ; 
 
 with  a  short  Account  of  the  Natural  History  and  Habits  of  the  Salmon. 
 Second  Edition.    Woodcuts.    Royal  8vo. 
 
 (G.  P.)  Memoir  of  Lord  Sydenham,  and  his  Administra- 
 tion in  Canada.    Second  Edition.    Portrait,    Svo,    9s,  6d. 
 
PUBLISHED  BY  MR.  MURRAY.  29 
 
 SENTENCES  FKOM  THE  PROVERBS.  In  English,  French, 
 Itiilian,  and  Ueriuaii.  For  the  Daily  Uho  of  Young  IVrsons.  IJy  A  1.  m.v* 
 l(>nio.    3*-.  tid. 
 
 SERMONS.  Preached  during  the  Visitation  of  the  lii^hop  of 
 Exeter  in  1845.     I'liblishcd  by  Kc<iuost.     12nio.    G.s-. 
 
 SEWELL'S  (Rev.  W.)  Evidences  of  Christianity ;  or,  Dialogues 
 between  a  IJrahmin  and  a  Cbristian.     Fcap.  Svo.     7s.  (?</. 
 
 SHAW'S  (Tnos.  13.)  Outlines  of  English  Literature,  fur  the  Use  of 
 Younj;  Students.    Post  Svo.     l'2s. 
 
 SIDMOUTirS  (Lord)  Life  and  Correspondence.  By  the  Hun.  and 
 Rev.Gkoiiuk  rKi.i.Ew,  Dkan  ok  Nouwk  m.    I'nrtraits.  3  VoIs.Svo.    4-J.». 
 
 SIDNEY'S  (Rev.  Edwin)    Life  of  Lord   Hill,      Second    Edition. 
 
 Portrait.    Svo.    12s. 
 
 SIERRA  LEONE ;  Described  in  a  Series  of  Letters  to  Friends  at 
 
 Home.     By  A  Lady.     Edited  by  Mus.  Noktun.     Po.st  Svo.    5.<. 
 SMITH'S   (\Vm.,  LL.D.)  Dictionary   of  (ircek    and   Roman  Anti- 
 quities.   St-cond  Edition.    With  500  Woodcuts.    Svo.   42s. 
 
 Smaller  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Antiquities, 
 
 abridged  from  tlie  above  Work.     Second  Edition.     With  200  W.-udcuts. 
 Crown  Svo.     7s.  (id. 
 
 Dictionary  of   Greek  and    Roman    Biography  and  ^ly- 
 
 thology.     With  500  Woodcuts,    3  Vols.    Svo.    5/.  15s.  (id. 
 
 Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Geography.    Woodcuts. 
 
 Vol.  I.    Svo.     3(>s.    (To  be  completed  in  2  Vols  ) 
 
 Classical  Dictionary  for  Schools.      Compiled  from  the 
 
 above  works.     Sn-ond  Edition.    Svo.  15s. 
 
 Smaller  Classical  Dictionary.      Second  Edition.     With 
 
 200  Wood'cuts.  'Crown  Svo.   7s.  6d. 
 
 New  Latin-English  Dictionary,  founded  on  the  best  and 
 
 most  recent  authorities.    Svo.    ///  I'npnnttiou. 
 
 Edition   of  Gibbon's  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman 
 
 Empire.    With    Notes  by  Milma.s   and  Guizut.     Portrait  and  Map. 
 8  Vols.    Svo.    7s.  6'i.  each. 
 
 (Wm.   Jas.)  Grenville    Letters   and    Diaries,    including 
 
 Mr.  Guexville's    Diauv  ok    P^ilitical  Events,  while  Eir.st  Lord   of 
 the  Treasury.     Edited   with   Notes.    4  Vols.      Svo.    (J4s. 
 
 (James  &  Horace)  Rejected   Addresses.      Txoenty-second 
 
 Edition.    Portrait.    Ecap.  Svo.    5s. 
 SOMERVILLE'S  (Mary)    Physical    Geography.      Third  Edition. 
 
 Portrait.    2  Vols.     Fcap.  Svo.     12s. 
 Connexion    of    the    Physical    Sciences.       Eijlilh 
 
 Edition.    Plates.    Fcap.  Svo.     10s.  Qd. 
 SOUTHEY'S  (Robert)  Book  of  the  Church  ;  with  Notes  contain- 
 ing the  Authorities,  and  an  index.    Sixth  Edition.  8vci.  12*. 
 
 Lives  ofJohnBunyan&  Oliver  Cromwell.  Post  Svo.  2w.G</. 
 
 SPECKTER'S  (Otto)  Puss  in  Boots  ;  or,  the  Story  of  the  Marquis  of 
 
 Carabas.     Illustrated.     Stcottd  Edition.    IGnio.    6«. 
 Charmed  Roe;  or,  the  Story  of  the  Little  Brother  and 
 
 Sister.    Illustrated.     16mo.    6s. 
 STANLEY'S    (Ei.ward,  D.D..   Bp.  of    Norwich)    Addhkssks    and 
 
 CuAUfiES.     With  a  Memoir  of  his  Life.     IJy  Ilis  So.v.    Second  Editv>n. 
 
 Svo.     lOs.  6d. 
 (Arthur  P.)  St.  Paul's   Epistles   to  the    Corinthians. 
 
 Edited  with  Critical  Notes  aud  Dissertatioud,  &c.   Svo.    Jn  ihe  7Vu<«. 
 
30 
 
 LIST  OF  WORKS 
 
 ST.  JOHN'S  (Charles)  Field  Notes  of  a  Sportsman  and  Naturalist 
 in  Sutherland.    Woodcuts.    2  Vols.    Post  8vo.    18s. 
 
 Wild  Sports  and  Natural  History  of  the  Highlands. 
 
 Post  8vo.    5s. 
 
 (Bayle)  Adventures  in  the  Libyan  Desert  and  the 
 
 Oasis  of  Jupiter  Ammon.    Woodcuts.    Post  8vo.    2s.  6d. 
 
 STAUNTON'S  (Sir  George)  Miscellaneous  Notices  relating  to 
 China,  and  our  Commercial  Intercourse  with  that  Country.  Including  a 
 few  Translations  from  the  Chinese  Lanpuiige,  and  some  Observations 
 on  our  Intercourse  with  that  Country.     Third  Edition.    8vo.    10s.  6d. 
 
 STEPHENS'  (J.  L.)  Incidents  of  a  First  and  Second  Visit  to 
 Central  America  and  Yucatan.    New  Edition.    Post  8vo.    In  Preparation. 
 
 STEVENS'  (Wm.,  M.D.)  Observations  on  the  Healthy  and  Diseased 
 Properties  of  the  Blood.    8vo.    15s. 
 
 STISTED'S  (Mrs.  Henry)  Letters  from  the  Bye- Ways  of  Italy. 
 Plates.    8vo.    18s. 
 
 STOTHARD'S  (Thos.,  R.  A.)  Life.  With  Personal  Reminiscences. 
 By  Mrs.  Bray.     With  Portrait,  and  60  Woodcuts.    4to.    21s. 
 
 STRIFE  FOR  THE  MASTERY.  Two  Allegories.  With  Illus- 
 trations.   Crown  8vo.   6s. 
 
 SUNLIGHT   THROUGH    THE    MIST;     or,    Practical    Lessons 
 
 dra^Ti  from  the  Lives  of  Good  Men,  intended  as  a  Sunday  Book  for 
 Children.    By  A  Lady.    16mo.    3s.  6d. 
 
 SUTTON  (Hon.  H.  Manners).  Some  Account  of  the  Courts  of 
 London  and  Vienna,  at  the  end  of  the  Seventeenth  Century,  extracted 
 from  the  Official  and  Private  Correspondence  of  Robert  Sutton  (late 
 Lord  Lexington)  while  British  Minister  at  Vienna,  1694-98.   8vo.    14s. 
 
 SUVERN'S    ARISTOPHANES.      The    Birds    and    the    Clouds. 
 
 Translated  by  W.  R.  Hamilton,  F.R.S.    2  Vols.    Post  8vo.    9s. 
 SWIFT'S    (Jonathan)    Works.      New    Edition,   based    upon    Sir 
 
 Walter  Scott's  Edition,  entirely  revised.    8vo.     Iti  the  Press. 
 SYDENHAM'S   (Lord)    Memoirs.     With  his    Administration   in 
 
 Canada.  By  G.PouletSceope,  M.P.  Second  Edition.  Portrait.  8vo.  9s.6c?. 
 TAIT'S    (Dean)    Suggestions    to  the   Theological   Student   under 
 present  Difficulties.     Post  8vo.    Qs.  &d. 
 
 TALBOT'S  (H.  Fox)  English  Etymologies.     8vo.    12*. 
 
 TAYLOR'S  (Henry)  Notes  from  Life  and  Books.     Third  Edition. 
 
 2  Vols.    Post  8vo.    15s. 
 (J.  E.)  Fairy  Ring.     A  Collection  of  Stories  for  Young 
 
 Persons.    From  the  German.    With  Illustrations  by  Richard  Doyle. 
 
 Second  Edition.    Woodcuts.    Fcap.  8vo.    7s.  M. 
 
 Michael   Angelo    considered  as  a   Philosophic   Poet. 
 
 Second  Edition.    Post  8vo.  5s. 
 
 TENNENT'S  (Sir  J.  E.)  Christianity  in  Ceylon.  Its  Introduction 
 and  Progress  under  the  Portuguese,  Dutch,  British,  and  American  Mis- 
 sions. With  an  Historical  Sketch  of  the  Brahmanical  and  Buddhist 
 Superstitions.    Woodcuts.    8vo.  14s. 
 
 THEOPHILUS'  Essay  upon  Various  Arts;  forming  an  Encyclo- 
 paedia of  Christian  Art  of  the  11th  Century.  Translated  with  Notes, 
 by  Robert  Hendrie.    8vo.     21s. 
 
 THORNTON'S  (Wm.  T.)  Plea  for  Peasant  Proprietors;  with  the 
 Outlines  of  a  Plan  for  their  Establishment  in  Ireland.    Post  8vo.    7s.  Qd. 
 
THREE-LEAVED  MANUAL  OF  FAMILY  PRAYER  ;  nrranped 
 so  as  to  save  the  trouble  of  turning  tlie  I'ages  Imckwanls  and  forw  iirds. 
 Royal  8vo.     2s. 
 
 THRESHOLD  (The)  OF  LIFE.     A  Series  of  Letters  addressed  to 
 
 a  Son  on  liis  Kntrance  into  the  World.     Fcap.  8vo.     In  thr  IWt$. 
 
 TICKNOR'S  (George)  History  of  Spanish  Literature.  With  Criti- 
 cisms on  jnirticular  Works,  and  Hiuj^raphical  Notices  of  Prominent 
 Writers.    3  Vols.  8vo.    42a-. 
 
 TREMENHEERE'S  (H.  S.)  Political  Experience  of  the  Ancients, 
 
 in  its  bearing  on  Modern  Times.     Fc.ip.  8vo.    2.s-.  G<i. 
 
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 BBAOBURY   AMD   KVAJfS,   FBIKlERa,   WHITBrBIAXS. 
 
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