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LIBRARY  OF  THE  THEOLOGICAL  SEMINARY 
 
 PRINCETON,  N.  J. 
 
 PRESENTED  BY 
 
 IVI  r"5.  Ci~\c7\r-la-S  &0=c  i^oool  . 
 
 Section. 
 
Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
 in  2016 
 
 https://archive.org/details/lifeinancientind00mann_0 
 
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 IIAJ 
 
 3M<dr&9 
 
 U4 
 
 J*CWalk»ri4lho 
 
LIFE 
 
 V///. 
 
 IN 
 
 ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 BY 
 
 MRS.  SPEIR. 
 
 SSSitlj  a iDiap,  aniJ  Illustrations  trafan  on  EHooli  bg 
 
 GEORGE  SCHARF,  JUN.,  F.S.A. 
 
 “Es  ist  iminer  das  Land  der  Sehnsucht  gewesen,  und  erscheint  iins  noeh  als  ein 
 Wunderreich,  als  eine  verzauberte  Welt.” — Hegel,  Thilosophie  der  Geschichte:  Indien. 
 
 LONDON : 
 
 SAIITH,  ELDER,  AND  CO.,  CORNHILL. 
 SMITH,  TAYLOR,  AND  CO.,  BOMBAY. 
 1856. 
 
PRINTED  BY 
 
 JOHN  EDWARD  TAYLOR,  LITTLE  QUEEN  STREET, 
 LINCOLN’S  INN  FIELDS. 
 
 \^The  Riffht  of  Tramlntion  is  reserved^ 
 
TO 
 
 11.  H.  WILSON,  M.A.,  F.R.S., 
 
 BODEX  PKOFESSOE  OF  SANSKRIT  IN  THE  VNIVEBSiTT  OF  OXFORD, 
 
 iZrfjis  Folumc  is  QctiicatelJ 
 
 AS  A 
 
 MARK  OF  RESPECT  AND  OBLIGATION 
 
14(E]^'ACE. 
 
 The  idea  of  writiug  a little  Book  on  Aneient  India  first 
 oeeurred  to  me  whilst  residing  for  a few  years  with  my 
 late  husband  in  Caleutta.  The  interest  we  felt  in  the 
 eountry  and  its  inhabitants  led  us  to  study  this  subject 
 in  standard  European  works;  but  from  day  to  day  disco- 
 veries were  being  made  of  coins,  inscriptions,  and  manu- 
 scripts, which  quite  changed  the  leading  features  of  all 
 extant  histories,  and  at  the  same  time  ti’anslations  from 
 Eastern  sources  continually  appeared,  attracting  English 
 readers  to  their  study.  Since  that  period  the  ‘ Indische 
 Alterthumskunde  ’ of  Professor  Lassen  has  brought  under 
 review  the  researches  of  the  present  age  in  Indian  Archaeo- 
 logy ; but  whilst  voluminous  in  facts  and  rich  in  scientific 
 analysis,  his  volumes  offer  no  specimens  or  translations  of 
 the  ancient  literature  of  India,  the  charm  of  which  has 
 induced  some  of  the  first  European  scholars  to  devote 
 their  lives  to  its  study  and  elucidation.  When  therefore. 
 
vni 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 after  an  interval  of  many  years,  I recurred  to  the  studies 
 wliich  I had  formerly  shared  with  Mr.  Spcir,  I did  not 
 attempt  to  translate  Lassen’s  Work,  but  aimed  rather  at 
 making  generally  known  whatever  had  been  most  attrac- 
 tive to  myself,  hoping  thus  to  diffuse  the  interest  I felt, 
 and  notify  the  sources  from  which  further  information 
 might  be  drawn. 
 
 In  fulfilling  this  design  many  friends  have  assisted  me  ; 
 and  although  I can  mention  here  but  few  of  those  friends,  I 
 trust  that  all  wdll  believe  me  thankful.  From  the  Libraries 
 of  the  Asiatic  Society  and  the  East  India  House  I have 
 been  liberally  supplied  with  books  for  reference.  To  the 
 kindness  of  Mr.  II.  T.  Prinsep,  Dr.  Royle,  and  Mr.  Norris 
 I am  indebted  for  encouragement  and  assistance  in  various 
 ways ; and  for  the  valuable  information,  advice,  and  correc- 
 tion w hich  Professor  Wilson  has  most  kindly  given,  I can 
 Imt  imperfectly  express  my  thanks. 
 
 My  obligations  to  amateur  artists  are  more  obvious,  and 
 will  be  especially  acknowledged  by  all  those  who  appre- 
 ciate the  sketches  of  my  accomplished  friend  j\lr.  William 
 Prinsep. 
 
 (xloticesier  Terrace,  Hyde  Parle, 
 August,  185G. 
 
 c.  s. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Introduction 
 
 1 
 
 BOOK  I. 
 
 CHAPTEE  I. 
 
 Tlie  Vedas. — Sir  W.  Jones. — ColeLrooke. — Valuable  Essays. — New 
 Translations  of  Vedas. — Address  to  the  Sun. — Various  Versions. 
 — Deities  in  Eig- V eda.  ■ — • Sun.  — Dawn . — Agni.  — W orsbip  of 
 Light.  — Horse-Sacrifice.  — Indra.  — Soma-juice.  — Festivals.  — 
 Plant. — Hindus  at  the  period  of  the  Eig-Veda. — Forest.^ — Moun- 
 tains.— Plains. — Enemies. — Dark-coloured  Aborigines. — Fields 
 of  Barley. — Arts. — Weaving. — Metals. — Trade. — Ships.— Wo- 
 men.— Medicine. — Quackery. — The  Aswins. — Poetry. — Bards. — 
 Priests. — Five  Castes  or  Classes 41 
 
 CHAPTEE  II. 
 
 Changes. — Four  Castes  or  Classes. — Brahmans. — Eeligious  Ideas. — 
 Creation. — Sacrifice. — Universal  Soul. — Immortality  . . . fi2 
 
 CHAPTEE  III. 
 
 Location  of  Brahmanical  Hindus.  — Code  of  Mauu.  — Sacrificial 
 Thread. — Education. — Marriage. — Ascetic  Seclusion. — Death. — 
 Kings  and  Government fio 
 
X 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER  IV. 
 
 Epic  Poems. — Ramayaua. — .Kings.' — Courts. — City  of  Ayodliya. — 
 A'oimg  Princes. — Travels. — IIimala3'a. — Prince  Rama. — Marriage. 
 — Banisliment. — Grief  of  the  old  King. — Stor}'  of  his  youth. — 
 Death.  — Rama  in  the  Forest. — Wife  captured.  — War. — Wife 
 rescued  from  King  of  Ceylon. — Return  to  Ayodhya. — Mytho- 
 logy.— Reflections 98 
 
 CHAPTER  V. 
 
 Second  Epic. — Mahabharata. — Brahman  offended. — King  in  peril.— 
 Education  of  Princes. — Tournament.  — Princess.  — Swayambara. 
 — Affray. — Marriage. — Peace. — Installation  of  Chief  Raja. — War. 
 — Eighteen  days’  Fighting. — Victor’s  disgust.- — Indra’s  Heaven. — 
 Mahabharata  less  Brahmanical  than  the  Ramayana  . . . 121 
 
 CHAPTER  VI. 
 
 Poems  and  Code. — Kings  and  Brahmans. — Divisions  of  Castes  : 
 of  Races. — Customs  and  Deities  of  Aborigines.  — Brahmanical 
 Government. — Village  Communities  free  Corjmrations  . . 140 
 
 CHAPTER  VII. 
 
 Agriculture . — Iron. — S teel . — Granite . — AVeaving. — Commerce. — 
 King  Solomon. — Mount  Ophir. — Caravans. — Bivouac  of  Mer- 
 chants disturbed  by  wild  elephants.  — Insurance  on  Freight. — 
 Pledges,  Money 151 
 
 CHAPTER  VIII. 
 
 Women  in  the  Rig- Veda : in  Upanishads  : in  Code  : in  Poems.— 
 Nala  and  Damayanti. — Earth-Goddess. — Son  of  blind  Ascetic. — 
 King’s  daughter. — Love  conquers 166 
 
 CHAPTER  IX. 
 
 Philosophy. — V^edas  superseded.- — Systeni  of  Kapila. — Aphorisms. 
 — Soul. — Nature. — Intellect. — Nyaya  System. — Atoms,  Ether, 
 Substance,  Quality.  — A^edanta  System.  — Dliarma  (virtue). — 
 Brahme,  Primordial  Soul. — Vedanta.  — Buddhi  (Intellect)  and 
 Brahma. — Om. — Isicava. — Conclusions  184 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 xi 
 
 BOOK  II. 
 
 CHAPTEE  I. 
 
 Recapituiation.  — Vedic  Period,  b.c.  1200.  — Brahraanical  Period, 
 B.c.  800. — Language. — Religion. — Government  fully  developed. — 
 B.c.  334,  Expedition  of  Alexander  the  Great.  — b.c.  327,  Greeks 
 crossed  the  Indus. — Greek  Satraps  and  Eoreign  Colonies  left  in 
 Bactria  and  the  Punjab. — Consolidation  of  Kingdoms  in  India. — 
 Greek  Accounts  199 
 
 CHAPTER  II. 
 
 Hindu  History  without  dates  until  assisted  by  Greek  Histor}-. — 
 Indian  Kings  mentioned  by  Greek  Authors.  — Greek  Kings 
 meutioued  in  Indian  Documents. — -Inscriptions  in  unknown  cha- 
 racter deciphered  by  James  Priusep. — Important  residts  , 221 
 
 CHAPTEE  III. 
 
 First  Readings  of  Inscriptions  revised.  — Wilson’s  Testimony  to 
 James  Prinsep. — King  Piyadasi’s  Edicts  inscribed  on  Rocks. — 
 Resemblance  between  Piyadasi  and  King  Asoka. — Inscription  at 
 Dhauli. — Inscriptions  on  Columns  ; on  a small  Stone  at  Bhabra, 
 containing  the  words  Sangha  and  Buddha  230 
 
 CHAPTER  IV. 
 
 The  Edicts  of  King  of  Piyadasi,  the  earliest  written  testimony  to 
 Buddhism. — Buddhist  Literature  more  recent  and  semi-fabulous. 
 — Buddhist  Books  of  Ceylon  and  Hipal : their  Character.— How 
 discovered.  — Sjjecimens.  — Sakya-Muni’s  previous  Existences. — 
 His  Birth  upon  Earth. — Childhood. — Education. — Attainment  of 
 Buddhahood 248 
 
 CHAPTEE  V. 
 
 Sakya-Muui  a real  Person. — His  various  Names. — Character. — 
 Teaching. — Buddhist  Sutras 2f57 
 
XU 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 chaptp:e  VI. 
 
 Closing  years  of  Sakya-Muni’s  Life. — King  Ajatasatra. — iVee  Town 
 of  Vesali. — Death  of  Sakya. — Reflections 280 
 
 CHAPTER  VII. 
 
 Buddliist  Council  or  Convocation. — Insubordination  in  Vibaras. — 
 Second  Assembly. — King  Asoka. — Ceylon 290 
 
 CHAPTER  VIII. 
 
 King  Asoka’s  Progress  in  Buddhism. — Erects  Dagobas. — His  Son 
 and  Daughter  Devotees. — Buddhism  taught  in  Kashmere : in 
 Ceylon. — Relics  sent. — King  Asoka’s  Old-Age. — Viharas. — Regu- 
 lations and  Prosperity 306 
 
 CHAPTER  IX. 
 
 Division  of  Asoka’s  Kingdom.  — Demetrius  and  other  Greeks  in 
 India. — ^Coins. — Objects  of  Worship. — Scythians  under  Azes. — 
 Sahs  of  Surashtra. — Ahi-chi  Scythians  under  Kanerki. — Bud- 
 dhist Assembly  in  Kashmere. — Books  revised. — Nagarjuna  321 
 
 CHAPTER  X. 
 
 Chinese  Buddhists  visit  India. — Ea-Hian  in  the  Fifth  Century,  A.n. 
 — Hwan-Tsang  in  the  Sixth  Century 332 
 
 CHAPTER  XI. 
 
 Buddhist  Architecture. — Four  Divisions. — Funeral  Mounds  adopt- 
 ed from  Scythic  tribes.  — Tombs  in  Etruria.  — Cromlechs  in 
 Great  Britain. — Memorial  Pillars  and  Towers.— Viharas  or  Con- 
 vents peculiarly  Buddhist. — Temples  or  Chaitya  Caves  . . 349 
 
 CHAPTER  XII. 
 
 Conclusion. — Buddhism  rejected  by  Sanskrit  or  Arian  races. — Little 
 Elevating. — Made  popular  by  Foreign  Art. — IVant  of  truth  and 
 feeling  in  Buddhist  Literature. — Relation  of  Buddhism  to  Chris- 
 tianity   363 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Xlll 
 
 BOOK  III. 
 
 CHAPTEE  I. 
 
 Brahmanism  from  the  period  of  Alexander  the  Great.- — Gods  of  the 
 Vedas  nearly  obsolete. — Siva  and  Vishnu. — King  Vihramaditya. — 
 Literature. — Poems  of  Kalidasa. — “ Birth  of  the  War  God.” — 
 Sivn’s  Character  and  History. — Siva’s  Marriage. — Beauty  and 
 Incongruity  of  Ideas 373 
 
 CHAPTEE  II. 
 
 Siva  adojited  by  Indo-Scythians  and  Brahmans. — A New  Name  for 
 an  Old  Idea. — Siva  the  Highest  Member  of  the  Brahmanical 
 Trimurti. — “ The  Cloud  Alessenger.” — ■“  The  Death  of  Love.” — 
 Drama  native  to  India. — “ The  Hero  and  Nymph”  . . . 391 
 
 CHAPTEE  III. 
 
 Drama  continued. — “ Sakoontala.”- — Social  Life  in  Ougein. — “ Toy- 
 Cart.” — Dramas  by  Bhavabhuti. — Other  Dramas  of  later  date  405 
 
 CHAPTEE  IV. 
 
 Succession  of  Dynasties. — Brahman . — Buddhist. — Greek. — Saurash- 
 trian. — Gupta.  — Vallabhi,  a.d.  319. — Vishnu- Worshi]!. — Eama. 
 — Krishna. — “ Bhagavat  Gita,”  or  “ Song  of  the  Lord,”  poem  of 
 Seventh  or  Eighth  Century,  a.d 422 
 
 CHAPTEE  V. 
 
 Puranas. — Stories  of  Vishnu  as  Krishna  and  as  the  Self-Existent  435 
 CHAPTEE  VI. 
 
 Effects  of  Brahmanical  Schemes.  — Institution  of  Four  Castes  a 
 failure. — Effect  of  Brahmanical  Law  on  Women. — Free  AVomeii 
 of  India. — Idolatry. — Art. — Science. — Eeligion. — Eetrospect  452 
 
ILLUSTRATIONS, 
 
 DRAWN  ON  WOOD  BY  GEORGE  SCHARF,  .lUN.,  F.S.A.,  FROM  ORIGINAI. 
 SKETCHES,  PAINTINGS,  ETC. 
 
 Title-page  ; — Sculptured  Niclie  in  Temple  at  BaroUi,  from  a Drawing 
 by  Ghassi  in  Colonel  Tod’s  Collection  in  the  Library  of  the 
 Koyal  Asiatic  Society. 
 
 Temples  on  a Eiver  (W.  Prinsep) 1 
 
 Travellers  in  a Forest  (E.  R.  Prinsep) 40 
 
 Sun-worsliip  (W.  Prinsep) 41 
 
 Bamboo  Chum  (W.  Prmsep) 61 
 
 Teacliing  under  a Banyan- tree  (E.  R.  Prinsep) 62 
 
 Peepul-tree  growing  out  of  a Ruin  (W.  Prinsep) 80 
 
 River  with  wooded  banks  (W.  Prinsep) 98 
 
 Ghat  on  a River  (E.  R.  Prinsep) 120 
 
 Jumnotri  and  Gungotri  Peaks  in  the  Himalaya  (H.  T.  Prmsep)  . . 139 
 
 Cottage  and  Cows  (E.  R.  Prinsep) 150 
 
 Ploughmg  (W.  Prinsep) 151 
 
 Merchants’  Caravan  (W.  Prinsep) 165 
 
 Women  at  a Ghat  (W.  Prinsep)  166 
 
 Leaf-sculpture,  Temple  (Colonel  Tod) 195 
 
 Title  of  Boole  II. : — Sakya  Sinha,  or  Buddlia,  teacliing  in  a Temple, 
 from  copies  of  paintings  in  the  Caves  of  Ajunta,  deposited  by  the 
 Hon.  East  India  Company  m the  Crystal  Palace  at  Sydenham  . 197 
 
 Bust  of  Alexander  the  Great,  from  a Terminal  Bust  in  the  Louvre, 
 
 engraved  hi  Viseonti’s  ' Iconographie  Grecque’ 199 
 
Xvi  ILLUSTHATIONS. 
 
 Page 
 
 Lotus  and  Iloueysuc-klc  from  the  Pillar  at  Allahabad 220 
 
 Lion-Pillar  at  Bakri,  from  the  Journal  of  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Ben- 
 gal, vol.  iv 221 
 
 Kock  Inscription  at  Dhauli,  in  Cuttack,  from  the  Journal  of  the  Asiatic 
 
 Society  of  Bengal,  vol.  vii 229 
 
 Buddhist  Banner  (Journal  of  Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal,  vol.  vi.)  . . 230 
 
 Lotus  after  the  Petals  have  fallen,  from  Wight’s  ‘ Indian  Botany’  . 217 
 
 Old  Man  with  Infant  Buddha,  from  Paintings  in  the  Caves  of  Ajunta 
 
 (Crystal  Palace) 248 
 
 Elephant  with  Six  Tusks,  from  tlie  Caves  of  Ajunta 266 
 
 Buddha  with  a Mole  on  his  Forehead,  Scidptures  on  a Temple  at 
 
 Sarnath,  from  Kitto’s  drawings  in  the  East  India  House  . . . 267 
 Buddha  when  young  drawing  the  Bow,  from  the  Caves  of  Ajunta  . 279 
 
 Pliilosophieal  Disputation,  from  the  Caves  of  Ajunta 280 
 
 Holy  Men  and  Elephant,  from  the  Caves  of  Ajunta 290 
 
 Conquest  of  Ceylon  by  Sinhala,  from  Paintings  in  the  Caves  of  Ajmita 
 
 (Ciystal  Palace) 303 
 
 King  paymg  homage  to  a Buddhist  Teacher,  from  Paintings  in  tlie 
 
 Caves  of  Ajunta 305 
 
 Lion-Hunt  in  Ceylon,  copies  of  Paintings  from  the  Caves  of  Ajimta  . 313 
 
 Conveymg  Relics  to  Ceylon,  from  a drawing  by  Lieutenant  Massey  : 
 
 Tope  at  Sanchi,  Left  Pillar,  East  Gate 320 
 
 Silver  Coin  of  Demetrius 321 
 
 Gold  Casket,  Buddlia  and  Disciples,  found  in  a Tope  near  JeUalabad, 
 
 from  Wilson’s  ‘ Ariana,’  pi.  iv 326 
 
 Lotus-flower  engraved  on  the  bottom  of  a Casket,  ihid.  pi.  iv.  . . . 331 
 
 Solitary  Tomb,  from  BeU’s  ‘ Circassia  ’ 352 
 
 Dagoba  with  Festoons  and  Umbrella,  from  a drawing  by  Lieutepant 
 
 IMassey 351 
 
 Verandah,  Buddhist  Cave  in  Cuttack,  from  Journal  of  Asiatic  Society 
 
 of  Bengal,  vol.  vii 356 
 
 Yihara,  Caves  of  Ajunta,  from  Fergusson’s  ‘Rock-cut  Temples’  . . 359 
 
 Temple  at  Karli,  from  Lady  CaUcott’s  ‘Journal  of  a Residence  in 
 
 India  ’ 360 
 
 Ground-plan  of  Cells  and  Chaitya,  from  Daniell’s  ‘ Excavations  at 
 
 Ellora  ’ 361 
 
 Holy  Buddhists  floating  through  the  Air,  from  Paintings  in  the  Caves 
 
 of  Ajunta 370 
 
ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 xvii 
 
 Page 
 
 Title : — Reading  Puranas  at  a Slirine  of  the  Sacred  Plant  Tulsie 
 
 (W.  Prinsep) 371 
 
 Siva  with  Eight  Arms,  Wreath  of  Skulls  (Colonel  Tod,  Library  of 
 
 the  Royal  Asiatic  Society) 373 
 
 Female  Figm’e  from  a Temple  (Colonel  Tod) 390 
 
 Siva-coin,  from  Wilson’s  ‘ Ariana’ 391 
 
 Trimurti  (Colonel  Tod) 392 
 
 Vase  (Colonel  Tod) 404 
 
 Peacock  Panel,  Temple  in  Rajasthan  (Colonel  Tod) 405 
 
 Snake  Charmers  (W.  Prinsep) 421 
 
 Vishnu  with  Four  Arms,  from  a Painting  in  the  Library  of  the  Royal 
 
 Asiatic  Society 422 
 
 Krishna  as  a Child  crawling,  from  a Bronze  in  the  Museum  of  the 
 
 Honourable  East  India  Company 435 
 
 Krishna  trampling  on  a Snake,  from  a Bronze  in  the  Museum  of  the 
 
 Honourable  East  India  Company 446 
 
 Krishna  playing  the  Flute,  from  a Bronze  in  the  Museum  of  the 
 
 Honourable  East  India  Company 451 
 
 Balcony  at  Benares  (James  Prinsep) 452 
 
 Panel  Ornament,  Temple  in  Rajasthan  (Colonel  Tod) 459 
 
 Observatory  at  Delhi,  from  Daniell’s  ‘ Oriental  Scenery  ’ 460 
 
 Finis  : — Panel  (Colonel  Tod) 464 
 
 b 
 
• 
 
“ To  the  cast  a lovely  country  wide  extends, 
 
 India,  whose  borders  the  wide  Ocean  bounds  : 
 
 On  this  the  Sun,  new  rising  from  tlie  main. 
 
 Smiles  pleased,  and  sheds  its  radiant  beam.” 
 
 India,  the  land  of  gold  and  sunshine,  has  ever  been 
 regarded  as  a region  of  Romance.  In  the  tales  of 
 our  childhood  magicians  and  jugglers  move  amid 
 scenes  oppressed  by  the  luscious  scents,  gay  with  the 
 flowers,  and  sparkling  with  the  precious  gems  and  fabrics  of 
 India.  In  the  classic  page,  India  is  the  mysterious  bourn 
 to  whicb  point  tbe  fabulous  expeditions  of  Bacchus  and 
 Sesostris ; and  when  history  emerges  from  primeval  haze, 
 we  see  India  as  the  gorgeous  eastern  boundary  of  Eartli, 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 B 
 
2 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 where  princes  enthroned  on  elephants  offer  tribute  in  solid 
 gold.  Nor  is  there  less  romance  in  India’s  natural  history 
 and  geography ; in  the  golden  ant-hills  of  Herodotus,  in 
 the  tree  he  notes  as  sheltering  ten  thousand  troops,  or  his 
 rivers  too  wide  for  the  eye  to  reach  across.  Romance  is 
 inherent  in  the  country,  steeping  even  the  science,  meta- 
 physics, and  mythology  of  this  wonderful  country  in  its 
 rainbow-tinted  hues. 
 
 The  name  India  is  not  that  by  which  it  is  known  to  its 
 own  inhabitants,  but  is  first  met  with  in  Herodotus  and 
 other  Greek  writers.  It  comes  from  the  Sanskrit,  Shiclhu. 
 ocean.  First,  the  name  was  transferred  from  the  ocean  to 
 the  river,  and  then  to  the  country  and  the  people  border- 
 ing the  river,  on  the  hanks  of  which  the  first  Hindu  set- 
 tlements were  made.  Indus,  Ind,  or  Sindh,  therefore  sig- 
 nifies the  river  and  adjacent  country  forming  the  western 
 boundary  of  India.  The  Persians  wrote  the  word  with  an 
 II,  but  the  Greeks  omitted  the  aspirate;  and  at  present 
 \\c  use  both  forms,  only  geographers  and  historians  con- 
 sider it  more  correct  to  limit  Hindustan  to  that  part  of  the 
 country  which  lies  to  the  north  of  the  Vindhya  Mountains, 
 and  to  apply  the  name  of  India  to  the  country  north  and 
 south,  from  the  Himalaya  to  Cape  Comorin.  The  Arabians, 
 not  aware  that  Sindh  and  Hind  were  the  same  word  in 
 different  languages,  thought  they  were  two  descendants  of 
 Noah,  who  extended  their  settlements  in  this  direction,  and 
 gave  each  his  name  to  his  own  respective  territories.* 
 
 To  the  north,  India  is  bounded  by  the  Himalaya  Moun- 
 tains, to  the  west  by  the  Indus,  and  to  the  cast  by  the 
 Brahmaputra,  but  not  strictly,  for  some  of  the  Bengal  pro- 
 
 * Lassen,  ‘ Inrtische  Alterthimiskinulc,’  ’vol.  i.  pp.  2,  3. 
 
GEOGRAPHICAL  DIVISIONS. 
 
 3 
 
 vinces  stretch  beyond ; to  the  south  it  is  a peninsula  jut- 
 ting out  into  the  ocean.  This  vast  territory  is  exceedingly 
 varied^  and  details  of  its  physical  features,  inhabitants,  and 
 governments,  would  furnish  most^  interesting  subjects  for 
 investigation ; but  a very  slight  sketch  is  alone  admissible 
 at  present,  and,  in  making  this,  we  find  it  an  assistance  to 
 separate  India  into  four  sections. 
 
 I.  The  Punjauh,  Sindh,  Rajputana,  Malwa,  Guzerat,  and 
 the  Nerhudda  River. 
 
 II.  The  Peninsula. 
 
 III.  Plains  of  the  Ganges. 
 
 lY.  Bengal. 
 
 This  must  be  acknowledged  to  be  a somewhat  arbitrary 
 proceeding,  but  it  has  the  advantage  of  introducing  us, 
 first,  to  the  earliest  haunts  of  the  Sanskrit-speakers ; se- 
 cond, to  the  coasts  and  forests  earliest  known  to  Hindu 
 commerce  and  literature;  third,  to  the  scenes  of  most 
 ancient  Brahmanical  celebrity;  and  fourth,  to  the  focus  of 
 modem  British  wealth  and  government. 
 
 It  might  assist  us  in  remembering  these  divisions,  if  we 
 imagined  India  sketched  out  as  the  mde  outline  of  a hu- 
 man figm’e ; such  a figure  as  that,  for  instance,  of  Orion  or 
 Aldebaran,  in  the  maps  of  the  stars.  The  Himalaya  jMoun- 
 tains  would  be  the  head;  Sindh,  Malwa,  etc.  would  be  a 
 bare  right  arm,  with  projecting  ornaments  and  weapons ; 
 the  Peninsula  would  give  the  bony  legs,  partially  visible, 
 as  the  Ghats  of  Southern  India;  the  basin  of  the  Ganges 
 would  represent  smooth  folds  of  di-apery  falling  over  the 
 left  arm ; and,  lastly,  Bengal,  with  the  Ganges  divided  into 
 many  streams,  would  be  the  hand  of  our  figure,  with  ex- 
 tended fingers. 
 
 R 
 
 2 
 
4 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 I.  The  Punjaub  down  to  the  Nerbudda. 
 
 We  begin  then  with  the  Pnnjauh^  the  horder-laud  be- 
 tween India  and  many  other  countries ; as  India  and  As- 
 
 * 
 
 syria^  India  and  Persia,  India  and  Bactria,  and,  we  may 
 almost  say,  between  India  and  Tartary.  At  the  present 
 day  it  is  occupied  by  a border  population,  made  up  of  many 
 races,  with  a mixed  religion,  half  Hindu  and  half  iMoham- 
 medan.  The  name  Punjaub  comes  from  punj,  five,  and  ab, 
 waters, — five  rivers  fiowing  through  this  district.  Below 
 the  Punjaub  the  five  streams  unite  as  the  Indus,  which  flows 
 through  Sindh,  attended  by  a border  of  fertility,  and  form- 
 ing a productive  delta  at  its  junction  with  the  sea.  Barren 
 sand  is  however  the  characteristic  not  only  of  Sindh  but 
 of  the  contiguous  countries  towards  the  East.  Here  we 
 find  Jessalmere  shining  out  as  a green  favoured  island,  and 
 the  fertile  strip  of  Cutch  stretching  like  a bridge  between 
 Sindh  and  Guzerat.  A salt  river,  called  the  Looni,  en- 
 riches IVIarwar,  and,  after  a coimsc  of  three  hundred  miles, 
 is  lost  in  the  Run  of  Cntch,  a fen  formed  by  its  deposits 
 and  those  of  other  salt  streams  from  tlie  desert  of  Dhat. 
 This  Run,  or  marsh,  which  is  a hundred  and  fifty  miles  in 
 length  and  about  seventy  in  breadth,  has  but  one  green 
 spot  for  the  refreshment  of  travellers  or  their  camels.  In 
 the  dry  season  it  is  one  great  glaring  sheet  of  salt,  full  of 
 quicksands,  and  subject  to  mirage,  called  “ winter  castles” 
 by  the  Rajpoot  inhabitants.  During  the  rains  the  dazzling 
 crystal  melts,  and  presents  a dreary  spectacle  of  dirty 
 water,  through  which  the  camels  wade,  even  to  their  sad- 
 dle-girths. 
 
 To  the  eastward  again  of  these  deserts  Ave  find  the' 
 
CENTRAL  INDIA. 
 
 O 
 
 Aravalli  Hills,  and  immediately  in  front  of  the  broadest 
 part  stands  the  noble  mountain  of  Aboo,  rising  as  abruptly 
 from  the  sandy  plain, says  !Mr.  Fefgussou,  “ as  an  island 
 from  the  ocean.  It  seems,^’  he  continues,  “ one  vast  bubble 
 of  granite,  that  has  boiled  up  from  the  bottom  of  what  then 
 was  the  sea,  the  summit  of  which,  in  cooling,  has  sunk  back 
 on  itself,  forming  a valley  on  its  summit,  six  or  eight  miles 
 long,  which  offers  a most  enchanting  contrast  to  the  deserts 
 below.’^  Our  author  doubts,  indeed,  if  the  whole  world 
 contains  another  spot  so  exquisitely  beautiful  as  the  little 
 “ Jewel  Lake”  on  the  summit  of  Mount  Aboo.* 
 
 Sir  John  Malcolm  has  gathered  all  the  lands  imme- 
 diately eastward  of  Sindh  into  a group,  which  he  calls 
 Central  India.  It  comprehends  nearly  eight  degrees  of 
 latitude  and  nine  of  longitude,  and  has  a superficial  area 
 of  350,000  square  miles.  Jessalmere  and  JMarwar  are  the 
 level  portions,  whilst  Ajmere,  Oodeypore,  and  Malwa,  etc., 
 form  a table-land  2000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  of 
 which  the  Aravalli  Hills  are  the  western  and  the  Vindhyas 
 the  southern  rampart.  This  lofty  plateau  has  two  declivi- 
 ties ; one  from  west  to  east,  towards  the  Betwa  River,  and 
 the  other  from  south  to  north,  towards  the  Jumna.  The 
 Aravalli  chain,  so  distinguished  a feature  in  Central  India, 
 is  remarkable  for  its  peaks  of  rose-coloured  quartz,  and  the 
 dazzling  slates  and  schists,  Avhich  furnish  roofs  for  houses 
 and  temples.  The  insulated  hills  in  the  same  district  are 
 formed  of  sandstone,  capped  with  ironstone  and  basalt. 
 Sangor,  Chittore,  Ajmere,  etc.,  are  natural  fortresses  of 
 this  description,  requiring  little  aid  from  art  beyond  a low 
 parapet  round  the  top  3 and  sandstone  is  so  abundant,  that 
 
 * Fergusson’s  ‘Aiieieut  Arcliitecture  of  Ilinchistan,’  p.  39. 
 
G 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 whole  towns  may  be  seen  in  which  the  poorest  houses  are 
 built  of  pure  white  fi’eestone. 
 
 The  climate  of  this  lofty  region  is  remarkable  for  salu- 
 brity, the  air  dry  and  invigorating,  and  the  precious  annual 
 rains  secured  by  intercepting  hills  and  towns.  From  the 
 earliest  times  Malwa  has  produced  luxuriant  crops  of  cotton, 
 wheat,  sugar,  vegetable  oils,  and  ginger ; and  to  these  may 
 now  be  added  tobacco  and  opium.  In  1847-8  the  produce 
 of  opium  was  1,638,000  lbs.,  and  in  1848-9  this  quantity 
 was  nearly  doubled,  or  about  three  million  pounds.*  But 
 many  as  are  the  attractions  of  Central  India,  it  was  until 
 lately  but  little  known.  Bishop  Heber  found  many  parts 
 destitute  of  roads,  or,  if  any  road  had  been  attempted,  it  was 
 a mere  track,  impassable  for  wheeled  carriages,  and  leading 
 through  such  deep  gullies  and  steep  ravines,  as  rendered 
 roads  impossible.  The  perpetual  w arfare  and  law  less  con- 
 dition of  its  inhabitants  presented  yet  greater  difficulties  to 
 a traveller;  and  the  country  w^as  becoming  year  by  year 
 more  desolate,  until,  in  1818,  Sir  John  Malcolm  undertook 
 its  government.  Then  within  five  years  the  whole  aspect 
 of  things  changed : “ it  was  made  worth  while  to  acquire 
 industrious  habits,”  and,  says  Bishop  Heber,  “fi’om  a wil- 
 derness it  was  changed  into  a garden.” 
 
 The  same  happy  effect  has  followed  from  good  govern- 
 ment in  Mairwara,  a district  of  Ajmere,  lying  in  the  Ara- 
 valli  Hills,  to  the  north  of  Mount  Aboo.  About  one  hun- 
 dred miles  in  length  and  twenty-five  or  thirty  in  breadth, 
 IMairwara,  though  small,  has  become  justly  celebrated  as  the 
 theatre  of  noble  and  successful  experiments.  'When  first  it 
 came  into  the  possession  of  the  British,  it  was  the  abode  and 
 
 * M'Culloc'li’s  Commoreial  Dictionary,  article  Opium. 
 
CENTRAL  INDIA. 
 
 resort  of  lawless  fi'eebooters, — a place  iii  whicli  female  in- 
 fants were  destroyed,  wives  and  widowed  mothers  sold  by 
 husbands  and  sons,  and  where  life  and  property  required 
 the  proteetion  of  arms  and  fortifications.  In  unequal 
 portions  it  Avas  divided  between  the  East  India  Company, 
 Jodpore,  and  Oodeypore,  and  the  consent  of  the  two  na- 
 tive States  Avas  necessary  before  it  could  be  placed  under 
 British  management.  Happily  this  Avas  obtained,  and  Co- 
 lonel Hall  AA'as  appointed  to  the  charge  of  the  district  in 
 1822.  His  first  measure  Avas  to  form  a local  battaliou,  in 
 Avhich  tlie  youthful  iMaii’s  learned  discipline,  and  to  attach 
 themselves  to  a Government  which  treated  them  with  con- 
 fidence and  kindness.  This  body  of  native  troops,  ready 
 to  coerce  the  refractory,  added  materially  to  Colonel  Hall’s 
 good  influence;  predatory  habits  were  reformed,  infanti- 
 cide ceased,  and  the  slavery  of  Avomen  greatly  decreased. 
 One  of  Mairwara’s  chief  misfortunes  was  deflciency  of 
 Avater ; haA'iug  no  river,  it  depends  entirely  upon  the  annual 
 rains,  Ailiich  come  doAvn  from  the  hills  in  torrents.  These 
 Avere  soon  exhausted,  and  the  crops,  in  consequence,  most 
 precarious.  To  remedy  this  eAul,  Colonel  Hall  had  seven 
 great  tanks  made  or  repaired;  but  in  1835  his  labours  were 
 interrupted  by  ill-health,  and  he  quitted  India.  His  suc- 
 cessor was  Colonel  Dixon,  under  Avhose  beneficent  superin- 
 tendence improvements  have  yet  more  abounded.  He  in- 
 duced the  people  to  sink  wells,  to  throw  earthen  embank- 
 ments across  hollows,  to  erect  stone  dykes  to  retain  the 
 rain-water  on  the  soil,  and  to  cultivate  waste  lands.  T\'ithin 
 tAvelve  years  jungles  were  cleared,  one  hnndred  and  six  new 
 hamlets  located  in  their  place,  a town  called  Nya  Nugger 
 built  as  a mart  for  commerce,  an  annual  fair  established. 
 
8 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 and  wells  and  waterworks  innumerable  completed,  some  of 
 these  being  works  of  considerable  skill  and  expense.  The 
 contiguous  little  state  of  Ajmere  has  shared  in  these  im- 
 provements, sympathy  becoming  established  between  the 
 authorities  and  the  cultivators,  litigiousness  ceasing,  and 
 industry  generally  prevailing;  so  that  in  1848  Ajmeer  was 
 no  longer  an  abode  of  banditti,  but  bidding  fair  to  rival 
 Mail’ war  a in  peace  and  prosperity.  The  minute  attention 
 here  bestowed  upon  these  districts  is  out  of  all  proportion 
 to  the  momentary  glance  given  to  larger  territories ; but 
 the  temptation  is,  that  Malwa  under  Sir  John  Malcolm, 
 and  Mairwara  under  Colonel  Dixon,  stand  out  as  most 
 encouraging  examples  of  what  Anglo-Saxon  government 
 and  Christian  civilization  can  effect  in  the  wildest  parts  of 
 India. 
 
 We  must  now  proceed  to  Guzerat,  a province  conside- 
 rably varied  in  appearance.  The  eastern  coast  of  Kattiwar 
 is  strewn  with  boulders  of  granite,  rounded  as  by  the 
 action  of  water ; amongst  these  some  light-coloured  granite 
 peaks  arise,  which  are  supposed  to  mark  the  site  of  the  ce- 
 lebrated missing  city  of  Valabhi.  After  flourishing  under 
 the  Gupta  kings  for  some  centuries  since  our  era,  it  was 
 swallowed  up  by  the  sea,  and,  owing  to  volcanic  action,  its 
 remains  are  now  discovered  further  inland  than  its  original 
 site. 
 
 Trees  are  deficient  in  this  sandy  district,  the  chief  pro- 
 duce of  which  is  the  coarse  kinds  of  grain,  upon  which 
 horses  thrive,  the  Kattiwar  horses  being  much  in  demand 
 for  the  British  cavalry.  In  the  western  portion  of  this 
 peninsula  vegetation  is  luxuriant,  and  the  banyan-trees  gi- 
 gantic, especially  that  famous  specimen  called  the  Cubbeer 
 
CENTRAL  INDIA. 
 
 9 
 
 Burr,  which  has  a circumference  measuring  eighteen  hun- 
 dred feet.  Mangoes  are  abundant,  and  particular  ledges  of 
 rock  at  Girnar  are  named  the  ‘^One  Thousand^’  and  the 
 “ Hundred  Thousand,”  from  the  numbers  of  their  mango- 
 trees.  Guzerat  is  also  rieli  in  cities  and  in  a sea-coast  fa- 
 vourable to  eommerce,  and  has  such  resources,  that  in  the 
 reign  of  the  Emperor  Akber  (a.d.  1556  to  1586)  it  main- 
 tained 67,375  cavalry  and  8900  infantry. 
 
 We  have  now  arrived  at  the  seenes  of  most  interesting 
 ineidents  in  the  Mahratta  wars,  and  it  is  very  tempting 
 to  touch  upon  modern  history,  but  we  must  refrain ; An- 
 cient India  is  our  appointed  subject,  and  our  present  ram- 
 ble is  merely  permitted  as  an  introduction  to  the  country 
 in  which  old  Veda  worshippers,  venerable  Brahmans,  and 
 original  Buddhists  once  lived  and  flourished.  We  want 
 at  present  to  learn  geographical  features,  and  must  not 
 therefore  omit  to  note  that  the  lord  of  the  floods  in  Cen- 
 tral India  is  the  Chumbul,  which,  rising  in  IMalwa,  flows 
 toward  the  north.  It  is  at  first  much  impeded  by  rocks  and 
 shallows,  but,  after  breaking  through  the  Mokundra  range 
 into  Harrowti,  it  becomes  a fine  deep  stream,  and  runs  a 
 course  of  above  five  hundred  miles.  Malwa  is  bounded  to 
 the  south  by  the  Vindhya  Hills,  which  stretch  all  across  the 
 centre  of  India,  separating  the  peninsula  from  Hindustan. 
 This  mountain-chain  seldom  rises  higher  than  2000  feet, 
 and  several  cities  in  Malwa  have  been  built  nearly  at  this 
 height,  Indore  being  1998  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea, 
 and  Neemuteh  1476  feet ; but  at  the  south  the  declivity  is 
 precipitous,  and  gives  the  hills  the  character  of  a buttress 
 or  rampart  protecting  Malwa,  at  the  bottom  of  which  flows 
 the  river  Nerbudda  (or  Narmada,  from  narma,  pleasure, 
 
10 
 
 LIFE  IX  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 and  da,  she  who  bestows) . This  is  a lieaiitiful  stream,  with 
 Avihl  romantic  banks  of  wliite  marble,  sandstone,  and  other 
 craggy  rocks,  which  sometimes  impede  its  course  and  send 
 it  foaming  down  in  cataracts.  The  Nerbudda  is  much 
 loved  by  the  Hindus,  and  not  being  navigable,  the  super- 
 stitions attached  to  it  remain  unshaken  by  the  tide  of  com- 
 mercial enterprise.  Colonel  Sleeman,  who  w'as  long  resi- 
 dent at  Jubbulpore,  observed  a marked  difference  between 
 the  degree  of  enlightenment  of  the  natives  worshipping  the 
 Nerbudda  and  those  living  near  the  Ganges,  and  observed 
 that,  whilst  the  Ganges  yearly  loses  somewhat  of  its  sacred 
 character,  the  Nerbudda  as  constantly  gains  increase  of 
 sanctity,  and  the  stories  told  seventy  years  ago  by  Forbes 
 are  repeated  by  Sleeman  as  the  favourite  traditions  of  the 
 present  period.  One  of  these  is  not  without  beauty  and 
 interest,  as  exhibiting  the  playful  fancy  and  vivid  personi- 
 fication pervading  the  religious  conceptions  of  the  region. 
 It  is  briefly  as  follows: — 
 
 The  river  Sone  courted  the  Nerbudda  in  the  high  lands 
 of  Omerkuntuk,  in  which  they  both  take  their  rise.  The 
 rii’crs  slowly  advanced  to  meet  each  other,  ivhen  tlie  Ner- 
 budda, getting  impatient,  sent  the  little  stream  Jhola,  the 
 liarber’s  daughter,  to  report  upon  the  appearance  of  the 
 bridegroom.  The  Sone  supposed  Jhola  to  be  the  bride, 
 and  fell  in  love  with  her  accordingly,  whereat  the  Nerbudda 
 became  enraged,  and  turning  sliort  round  to  the  west,  has 
 flowed  ever  since  in  that  direction,  forming  splendid  cata- 
 racts sometimes  four  hundred  feet  in  depth ; at  times  she 
 expands  into  a broad  stream,  and  then  again  contracts  her- 
 self within  walls  not  more  than  a hundred  feet  apart.  As 
 she  approaches  the  sea  her  turbulence  is  calmed,  and,  flow- 
 
THE  DEKKAX. 
 
 1] 
 
 ing  placidly  through  Guzerat,  she  reaches  the  ocean  in  the 
 Gulf  of  Cambay ; whereas  had  she  joined  her  false  suitor, 
 the  Sone,  she  would  with  him  have  joined  the  Ganges  near 
 Patna,  and  thus  have  made  her  way  to  the  Bay  of  Bengal. 
 This  river  is  still  talked  of  and  thought  of  by  Hindus  as  a 
 real  being, — “ not,”  Colonel  Sleeman  observes,  “ as  a repre- 
 sentation of  Deity,  hut  as  itself  a power  and  intelligence ; 
 and,”  he  adds,  “ it  is  only  in  India  that  we  can  understand 
 how  every  individual  of  a whole  communitj^  of  many  mil- 
 lions can  address  a fine  river  as  a liGng  being,  a sovereign 
 princess,  Avho  hears  and  understands  all  they  say,  and  ex- 
 ercises a kiird  of  local  superintendence  over  their  affairs, 
 without  a single  temple  in  which  her  image  is  worshipped, 
 or  a single  priest  to  profit  by  the  delusion.”* 
 
 Both  the  Vindhya  and  the  lower  range  called  the  Sat- 
 poora  Hills  contain  extensive  beds  of  coal  and  iron  beneath 
 sandstone,  thns  offering  faeilities  for  the  spirit  of  engineer- 
 ing that  distinguishes  our  era.  The  valleys  are  rich  with  a 
 soil  of  decomposed  basalt,  much  of  which  is  unfortunately 
 washed  away  each  year  by  the  rains  and  lost  in  the  sea. 
 
 II.  The  Peninsula. 
 
 We  have  now  entered  upon  our  second  section  or  di- 
 vision, the  wliole  eountry  below  the  Yindhya  Hills  being 
 reckoned  by  geographers  as  the  Peninsula.  This  is  called 
 by  the  Hindus  themselves  Dekkan,  meaning  in  Sanskrit 
 south  {Dakshin)  ; but  in  common  European  discourse  the 
 word  Dekkan  is  now  more  frequently  restricted  to  the  • 
 high  table-land,  the  centre  of  the  peninsula  between  the 
 river  Tapti  and  the  Kistnah.  This  peninsula,  or  Dekkan, 
 
 * Eainbles  and  RecoUeL'tions,  rol.  i.  cli.  3. 
 
12 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 is  di\ided  from  the  north  by  well-marked  boundaries.  We 
 have  already  noticed  the  Vindhya  Hills,  and  the  river  Ner- 
 budda  at  their  base.  To  the  south  of  the  Nerbudda  rise 
 the  Satpoora  Hills,  and  to  the  south  of  this  second  range 
 flows  the  river  Tapti,  thus  completing  the  fourfold  gii’dle 
 thrown  around  the  waist  of  India.  The  Satpoora  Moun- 
 tains are  scarcely  so  lofty  as  the  Vindhya,  and  are  similar 
 in  geological  structure,  but  have  a bolder  outline,  and  rise 
 into  peaks,  the  highest  of  which,  “ about  2500  feet  above 
 the  sea,  consists  of  amygdaloid  and  greenstone  (which  com- 
 poses more  than  half  the  hill),  and  at  the  top  basalt.”* 
 This  same  formation  of  basalt,  obtruded  into  older  strata, 
 extends  from  the  Aravalli  Hills,  a little  south  of  Agra, 
 through  Central  India  and  the  Peninsula,  down  to  Cape 
 Comorin. 
 
 It  is  a marked  feature  of  Southern  India  that  the  coast 
 on  each  side  is  bordered  by  lofty  mountains,  from  4000  to 
 0000  feet  in  height.  They  rise  with  abrupt  declivities  one 
 above  another,  like  a succession  of  Avails  or  terraces,  with 
 bold  Avell-defined  outlines.  This  appearance  of  gigantic 
 steps  leading  from  the  table-laud  of  the  interior  down  to 
 the  sea-coast,  has  given  the  hills  the  name  of  Ghats,  because 
 they  resemble  the  handsome  flight  of  steps  called  Ghats 
 Avhich  are  built  on  the  banks  of  rivers  and  tanks  for  the 
 convenience  of  Hindu  daily  Avorship.  On  the  western  coast 
 the  Ghats  are  higher,  and  here  they  approach  Avithin  forty 
 or  fifty  miles  of  the  sea.  The  narroAV  strip  of  country  thus 
 , left  along  the  coast  is  di\ided  into  several  distinct  districts. 
 From  Surat  to  a distance  beloAV  Bombay  it  is  called  the 
 Northern  and  Southern  Concans;  beloAV  these  Ave  find 
 
 * Hamilton’s  Gazetteer,  vol.  ii.  p.  510. 
 
THE  DEKKAN. 
 
 13 
 
 Canara,  containing  the  famous  Portuguese  settlement  of 
 Goa.  It  is  about  this  point,  midway  between  Cambay 
 and  Travancore,  that  the  hills  attain  their  greatest  elevation 
 of  6000  feet;  and  in  the  alpine  region  of  Coorg,  above 
 INIangalore,  grows  the  finest  sandal-wood,  equally  prized  in 
 modern  as  in  ancient  times.  The  Sandal  is  an  elegant  tree, 
 whieh  can  be  eultivated  in  the  plains,  where  it  attains  a 
 eonsiderable  size,  but  the  wood  is  inferior,  and  has  little 
 seent  eompared  with  that  produeed  upon  the  hills. 
 
 To  the  south  of  Canara  the  Malabar  coast  extends  until 
 it  is  lost  in  the  distriet  of  Coehiu ; sometimes  indeed  the 
 whole  western  eoast  is  called  Malabar,  but  not  when  aim- 
 ing at  geographical  accuracy.  The  elimate  of  this  eoast 
 is  delightfully  eooled  by  sea-breezes;  and  Baroche,  Surat, 
 Bombay,  Mangalore,  Tellicherry,  etc.  are,  in  eonsequence, 
 favourite  places  of  European  residence.  Calicut  and  Po- 
 nani,  in  the  south,  are  among  the  towns  from  which  con- 
 siderable exports  are  made,  chiefly  of  pepper,  which  is  ex- 
 tensively cultivated,  the  vines  being  trained  over  mango 
 and  jaek-fruit  trees  on  the  lower  ledges  of  the  hills.  In  the 
 plains  rice  is  grown,  and  far  up  the  mountains,  at  a height 
 of  from  2000  to  4000  feet,  grows  the  best  teak  timber,  far 
 above  any  town  or  village,  and  diffieult  to  remove  after  it 
 has  been  felled.  The  woodeutters  are  obliged  to  spend  the 
 winter  and  the  early  part  of  the  year  in  these  lonely  forests, 
 that  the  timber  may  be  ready  for  the  rains  of  June  and 
 July,  this  being  the  only  period  at  whieh  the  mountain- 
 streams  are  suffieiently  full  to  float  it  down.  A break  oe- 
 eurs  in  the  hiUs  at  Ponani,  through  whieh  the  river  Ponaui 
 takes  its  eourse,  and  is  joined  by  many  smaller  streams  and 
 torrents  whieh  eome  directly  from  the  teak  distriet.  The 
 
14 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 same  forests  produce  a variety  of  other  large  timber-trees 
 the  names  and  qualities  of  which  are  not  fully  known,  al- 
 though some  of  them  are  occasionally  used  by  the  Cahcut 
 ship-builders;  but  the  present  opinion  is  that  teak  alone 
 fully  repays  all  the  difficulty  and  expense  of  export  to  other 
 countries. 
 
 South  of  Ponani  the  Ghats  again  rise,  extending  their 
 chain  through  Cochin  and  Travancore  to  the  extreme  point 
 of  Cape  Comorin.  The  scenery  of  this  southern  district 
 is  generally  beautiful,  but  of  Anjengo  and  Quilon  Forbes* 
 writes  in  perfect  raptui’es ; the  hills,  the  woods,  the  flowers, 
 all  contributing  to  the  enchantment,  and  even  the  abun- 
 dance of  land-crabs  and  of  lizards,  with  bright  scarlet  caps, 
 assisting  to  give  it  a peculiar  character.  Amongst  flowers 
 Forhes  particularly  mentions  the  Gloriosa  super ba  as  grow- 
 ing everywhere  like  a weed  which  cannot  be  exterminated. 
 This  magnificent  creeper  is  found  in  the  forests  of  the 
 AVestern  as  well  as  of  the  Eastern  Ghats  ; its  flowers,  when 
 first  blown,  are  of  a pale  greenish  colour,  wliich  the  next 
 day  changes  to  a splendid  scarlet.  Although  a hly,  with 
 reflex  petals  like  the  Turk’s-cap,  it  climbs  to  the  tops  of 
 lofty  trees,  and  is  one  of  the  most  striking  objects  in  an 
 Indian  forest. 
 
 The  ports  of  Cochin  and  Allapee  are  chiefly  important 
 ow  ing  to  their  ship-building  and  exportation  of  teak  timber. 
 These  are  the  only  towns  of  any  consideration  in  the  ex- 
 treme south,  over  which  great  forests  full  of  elephants  and 
 other  wild  animals  appear  and  spread ; but  less  is  known  of 
 this  corner  of  the  land  than  even  of  other  parts  of  India. 
 
 Returning  then  to  Ponani,  we  shall  find  that  where  the 
 
 * Forbes,  ‘ Oriental  Meuioii's.’ 
 
CEYLON. 
 
 15 
 
 Western  Ghats  break  away  from  the  south  they  retreat,  as 
 it  were,  baekwards,  and  join  the  hills  whieh  have  come 
 down  the  eastern  coast  of  the  peninsula,  as  if  Ponani  had 
 once  been  intended  to  be  the  southern  limit  of  India,  or  as 
 if  an  earthquake  had  broken  oif  Cape  Comorin  and  patched 
 it  on  again  below  the  Nilgherry  and  Wynaad  Mountains, 
 which  form  the  southern  extremity  of  the  Eastern  Ghats. 
 These  hills  are  further  removed  from  the  sea  than  those  on 
 the  west  coast,  and  leave  room  for  the  plains  of  the  Carnatic, 
 which  are  hotter  than  any  other  place  in  India ; but  as  they 
 present  a soil  peculiarly  favourable  for  the  cultivation  of 
 rice,  they  were  early  inhabited  by  Hindus  from  Northern 
 India,  and  the  whole  country  is  rich  in  ruins  of  ancient 
 magnificence,  which  existed  many  centuries  before  the  un- 
 fortunate Nabobs  of  Arcot  and  Nellore  had  commenced 
 the  acquisition  or  display  of  that  distinguished  wealth  which 
 caused  their  ruin. 
 
 To  the  south-east  of  the  Carnatic  lies  the  island  of 
 Ceylon,  said  to  be  composed  almost  exclusively  of  primitive 
 rocks,  and  to  show  no  traces  of  a volcano ; it  abounds  in 
 rivers,  and  is  celebrated  for  its  cinnamon  gardens  and  for 
 the  size  and  profusion  of  its  cocoas  and  talipot  palms.  The 
 climate  is  so  moderate  that  roses,  mignonette,  and  piidcs 
 are  almost  as  sweet  as  in  England,  whilst  all  the  splendid 
 lilies  of  the  tropics  grow  wild.  Coffee  plantations  succeed 
 well,  and  coflfee-trees  of  great  age  and  size  are  numerous : 
 they  were  introduced  into  the  island  by  the  Dutch,  and 
 were  at  first  cultivated  for  their  flowers. 
 
 In  the  earliest  days  Ceylon  was  celebrated  for  its  pearl- 
 fishery,  the  pearls  being  whiter  tlian  those  in  the  Gulf  of 
 Ormuzd ; but  for  eight  years  past  there  have  been  no  pearls, 
 
16 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 aud  apparently  in  consequence  of  ivliat  was  intended  as 
 a boon.  Between  Ceylon  and  the  coast  of  India  runs  a 
 reef  of  rocks,  some  of  which  being  below  water,  allow  un- 
 loaded ships  to  sail  over  them ; but  since  it  was  very  incon- 
 venient to  unload  and  reload,  or  to  make  the  circuit  of  the 
 island,  instead  of  going  through  the  Straits  of  Manaar, 
 it  was  proposed  to  blast  the  rocks  and  deepen  the  passage. 
 This  commenced,  and  the  oysters  appeared  to  receive  it  as 
 a signal  to  quit,  for  never  since  have  pearls  been  found  on 
 llama’s  Bridge ; but  a more  matter-of-fact  interpretation  is 
 that  the  fisheries  had  been  too  frequent,  and  the  exhausted 
 oysters  ceased  in  consequence  to  form  pearls.  Three  years 
 is  ascertained  to  be  the  shortest  allowable  interval ; and  so 
 long  as  this  rule  is  adhered  to,  it  is  not  believed  that  the 
 passage  of  ships  through  the  Straits  will  at  all  interfere 
 with  the  prosperity  or  productiveness  of  the  oyster  colony. 
 
 To  the  north  of  Madras  and  Nellore  is  the  mouth  of  the 
 Kistnah,  the  river  upon  which  Haiderabad  is  placed ; and 
 above  this  flows  the  Godavery,  the  source  of  which  is  far 
 away  on  the  other  side  of  India,  making  the  town  of  Nassik 
 a place  of  peculiar  sanctity.  To  the  north  of  Godavery 
 extends  the  province  of  Oidssa,  in  which  we  shall  find  the 
 black  pagodas  and  the  temple  of  Juggunnat;  and  to  the 
 west  of  Orissa,  on  the  high  land  between  the  Ghats,  is  the 
 province  of  Gondwana,  a great  part  of  which  consists  of 
 dense  forests  j^et  unreclaimed.  From  Gondwana  we  pass 
 into  Bundelkund,  a division  of  Allahabad,  and  thus  we  ar- 
 rive at  the  third  of  our  arbitrary  sections  of  India. 
 
 But  before  entering  upon  the  more  open,  civilized,  and 
 cultivated  lands  of  Upper  India  and  Bengal,  we  must  notice 
 the  remnants  of  primitive  inhabitants  which  still  linger  in 
 
FIRST  INHABITANTS. 
 
 17 
 
 the  woods  and  fastnesses  of  Central  India  and  the  Penin- 
 sula. Schlegel  observes  that  “in  the  background  of  old, 
 miglity,  and  civilized  nations  we  can  almost  always  trace 
 tlie  primeval  inhabitants  of  the  country,  who,  dispossessed 
 of  their  territory,  have  been  reduced  to  servitude  by  their 
 conquerors,  or  have  gradually  been  incorporated  with  them. 
 These  primitive  inhabitants,  when  compared  with  their  later 
 or  more  civilized  conquerors,  appear  in  general  rude  and 
 barbarous ; though  we  find  among  them  a certain  number  of 
 ancient  customs  and  arts  which  by  no  means  tend  to  con- 
 firm the  notion  of  an  original  and  universal  savage  state  of 
 nature.”  Such  people  may  still  be  seen  in  India,  sometimes 
 half  hidden  by  the  hills  and  forests,  “ hanging  like  a fringe,” 
 as  Professor  Lassen  says,  “upon  the  borders  of  the  culti- 
 vated plains.”  Small  in  stature,  with  little  eyes  and  flat 
 noses,  they  have  no  caste,  although  extensively  divided  and 
 subdivided  into  clans  and  tribes,  and  no  idols,  although  their 
 superstitions  are  various.  They  are  not  without  industry 
 and  ingenuity,  and  their  mountain-huts  often  possess  a 
 considerable  air  of  comfort.  They  are  a people  ivithout  a 
 history  and  without  a formed  language ; and,  having  been 
 obliged  to  recede  before  the  superior  force  and  intelligence 
 of  the  Hindus,  or  Aryan  race,  they  have  taken  refuge  in 
 dense  forests  or  on  barren  rocks,  and  have  fallen  in  many 
 cases  far  below  the  grade  to  which  they  had  previously  at- 
 tained. This  race  is  now  widely  scattered  and  divided,  and 
 the  Gonds,  the  Bheels,  the  Koolies,  and  the  other  people  of 
 whom  it  is  composed,  have  nothing  in  common,  and  cannot 
 understand  each  other’s  dialect  or  jargon.  The  Koolies  in 
 Guzerat  are  a tall,  athletic  race  particularly  .black.  The 
 Bheels  in  Malwa  are  also  black,  but  short  in  stature,  with 
 
 c 
 
18 
 
 LIFK  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 thick  nigged  hair  and  beards.  The  Bhecls  are  the  most 
 important  and  nnmerous  of  all  the  aboriginal  tribes,  and 
 are  mentioned  by  Sir  John  iVIalcolm*  with  much  consider- 
 ation. He  regrets  that  their  dispersion  over  “ rugged  moun- 
 tains, their  extreme  ignorance  and  prejudices,  and  theii’  re- 
 pugnance to  confidential  intercourse  with  all  but  their  oavu 
 tribe,”  have  prevented  oiu’  obtaining  any  full  or  correct 
 knowledge  of  their  history.  When  conquered  and  driven 
 south  hj  the  Rajputs,  some  became  desperate  freebooters ; 
 but  others  quietly  submitted,  and  live  now  amongst  their 
 conquerors,  partly  as  cultivators  of  the  soil  and  partly  as  vil- 
 lage watchmen.  Their  chief  religion  seems  to  consist  in  pro- 
 pitiatory offerings  and  sacrifices  to  the  minor  Hindu  deities, 
 whom  they  especially  invoke  to  save  them  from  small-pox. 
 They  eat  the  flesh  not  only  of  buffaloes,  but  also  of  cows 
 when  it  can  be  obtained,  and  are  particularly  fond  of  in- 
 toxicating drinks ; often  however  both  food  and  di’ink  are 
 wholly  derived  from  the  floAvers  and  fruit  of  the  IMahua-tree 
 [Bassiu  latlfolia),  a timber-tree  of  moderate  size,  whieh 
 abounds  in  the  forests  of  Mahva.  The  flowers  are  of  a pale 
 pink  colour,  and  when  dried  resemble  raisins  in  flavour  and 
 appearance.  The  fruit — a small  nut,  containing  an  astrin- 
 gent oil — is  palatable  when  roasted,  and  the  fleshy  calyx 
 is  pressed  and  fermented  into  a spirituous  liquor.f  The 
 Bhcels  have  among  themselves  many  traces  of  former  im- 
 portanee,  and  assert  that  their  leaders  have  been  as  much 
 distinguished  by  character  as  by  wealth.  At  Neemuch, 
 Bishop  Hebcr  says,  the  Rajputs  virtually  acknowledge  that 
 most  of  their  principal  cities  and  fortresses  were  founded 
 
 * Malcolm’s  Central  India. 
 
 t Eli)liin.stone’s  History  of  India,  pp.  6,  ID.I. 
 
THE  HILL  TRIBES. 
 
 19 
 
 by  Bheel  chiefs ; and  a custom  is  said  to  exist,  by  which 
 a Rajput  on  attaiuing  power  or  office  is  marked  in  the 
 forehead  with  blood  taken  from  the  heel  or  thumb  of  a 
 Bheel.  Owing  to  various  changes  in  their  condition  they 
 are  now  divided  into  several  classes,  more  or  less  cmlized. 
 Some  lead  a half-savage  life,  shooting  from  amongst  the 
 long  grass  with  bows  and  airows,  which  they  hold  with 
 their  feet.  Tlieii’  bows  are  made  of  split  bamboos,  and  the 
 arrows  are  the  same,  but  with  iron  heads;  of  bamboos 
 also  they  construct  theii’  huts,  with  neat  projecting  roofs, 
 and  doors  with  hinges  similar  to  the  lid  of  a basket.  Al- 
 though very  uncultivated,  and  often  a di’unken,  thie\ish  set. 
 Sir  John  !Malcolm  gives  them  credit  for  some  ^■irtues  in 
 which  the  pobshed  Hindus  are  deficient : theii’  word  is 
 more  to  be  depended  on,  and  the  position  of  their  women 
 is  superior.  In  all  the  recent  reforms  the  Bheel  women 
 have  acted  a prominent  part,  and  have  invariably  been  the 
 advocates  of  order  and  industi-y.  In  Guzerat  Bheels  and 
 Koolies  are  uniformly  prefeiTed  for  the  service  of  the 
 police,  and  as  durwans  to  watch  at  the  gates  of  gentle- 
 men’s honses  and  gardens.  There  are  Bheels  also  in 
 Candeish,  south  of  the  Nerbudda ; and  this  tribe  had  the 
 good  fortune,  between  1825  and  1835,  to  be  under  the 
 civilizing  influences  of  Colonel  Outram,  who,  after  suffi- 
 cient severity  to  conrince  them  of  British  strength,  went 
 amongst  them  unarmed,  and  excited  their  enthusiasm 
 by  his  skill  and  actirity  in  hunting;  and  lastly,  in  con- 
 junction with  Colonel  Ovens,  he  taught  them  to  obey  law, 
 and  submit  to  be  trained  into  a reg-ularly  organized  local 
 militia. 
 
 In  Gondwana  and  south  of  the  Nerbudda  we  find  the 
 
 c 2 
 
20 
 
 LIFE  I\  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 Goncls,  Avho  inhabit  the  rocky  banks  of  rivers  and  forests 
 Avhich  are  almost  inaceessible.  They  are  jet-black,  dirty, 
 and  forbidding  in  appearance,  short  in  stature,  with  small 
 noses,  thick  lips,  broad  foreheads,  and  little  deep-set  red 
 eyes,  black  teeth  and  hair,  Avhich  is  described  as  in  some 
 cases  long  and  black,  but  occasionally  red,  and  almost 
 woolly;  making  a near  approach  to  the  Negro  type  of  the 
 Austral-Indians  and  the  natives  of  the  Andaman  Islands. 
 Some  of  the  Gonds  are  quite  uncovered,  others,  living  in 
 the  neighbourhood  of  a more  advanced  people,  become  a 
 little  civilized ; but  in  general  they  lead  a life  of  poverty, 
 dwelling  in  miserable  huts,  surrounded  by  their  swine,  and 
 buffaloes  if  so  fortunate  as  to  possess  them,  and  povdtiy, 
 in  the  rearing  of  which  they  excel.  They  are  said  to  be  a 
 quiet  people,  inoffensive,  with  the  exception  of  their  occa- 
 sional custom  of  child-stealing ; their  rude  perverted  notion 
 of  religion  seeming  to  consist  in  nothing  beyond  the  worship 
 of  demons,  to  Avhom  children  were  supposed  to  be  a neces- 
 sary offering.  They  have  no  priests,  and  pay  no  reverence 
 to  Brahmans. 
 
 Gondwana  verges  on  Orissa,  parts  of  which  are  inhabited 
 by  three  different  tribes  of  Aborigines, — Khonds,  Koles, 
 and  Sourahs.  With  the  Khonds  of  the  hills  the  British 
 Government  first  came  into  close  contact  in  1835,  when 
 waging  war  with  the  rebellious  Rajah  of  Goomsur.  When 
 the  Ai  ar  ceased.  Captain  Maepherson  u as  employed  to  make 
 surveys ; and  being  at  a subsequent  period  ajipointed  to 
 suppress  human  sacrifices  amongst  the  Khonds,  he  was 
 enabled  to  acquire  accurate  and  detailed  information  con- 
 cerning their  dreadful  superstitions,  and  this  he  has  em- 
 bodied in  a valuable  contribution  to  the  Royal  Asiatic 
 
THE  HILL  TRIBES. 
 
 21 
 
 Society’s  Journal^  published  in  the  spring  of  1852.  Cap- 
 tain Macpherson  takes  away  all  tlie  softening  veils  which 
 ignorance  usually  interposes  between  ourselves  and  the  re- 
 ligions customs  of  rude  heathens,  and  exhibits  human  saeri- 
 fiee  and  female  infantieide  as  parts  of  a long-established 
 worship ; reeognizing  first  a Supreme  Deity,  and  secondly, 
 a female  spirit  created  by  the  Supreme  Deity,  but  which 
 had  turned  evil,  had  rebelled  herself,  and  had  indueed 
 mankuid  to  rebel,  and  to  worship  her  with  human  saerifice. 
 The  ^detims  offered  to  this  e\il  goddess  are  called  !Meriahs  : 
 they  must  be  the  absolute  property  of  those  who  offer 
 them,  and  are  usually  stolen,  or  bought  whilst  ehildreu 
 from  other  aboriginal  tribes,  or  from  impoverished  Hin- 
 dus ; but  some  instances  oceur  in  which  the  Khonds  them- 
 selves sell  their  ehildren.  The  Hctims  are  led  blindfold 
 into  the  village,  and  lodged  at  the  house  of  the  ehief — in 
 fettei's,  if  grown-up,  but  if  ehUdi’en  they  are  allowed  to  go 
 free ; and  there  are  usually  so  many  of  them  as  to  give 
 each  a reasonable  hope  that  he  may  never  be  requii’ed  in 
 saerifiee.  These  unfortunate  youths  are  reared  with  every 
 indidgence,  being  eonsidered  as  more  divine  than  human, 
 and  few  eases  oceur  of  their  attempting  to  escape ; because 
 whilst  the  chances  are  fearfully  against  success,  they  are 
 taught  that  if  they  die  as  victims  they  are  certain  of  hap- 
 piness hereafter,  but  if  they  escape  they  are  certain  to  die 
 by  dire  disease  and  to  have  no  future  bhss.  These  horrid 
 saerifiees  are  only  made  on  oecasions  of  unusual  calamity : 
 they  are  accompanied  by  drunken  feasting  and  frantic 
 dances  ; and  “ in  some  pai’ts'of  Goomsur  where  tliis  prac- 
 tice prevails,  small  rude  images  of  beasts  and  birds  in  clay 
 and  wood  are  made  in  great  numbers  for  this  festival  and 
 
LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 stuck  on  poles, — a practice  the  origin  or  meaning  of  which 
 is  not  at  all  clear.’’* 
 
 The  “ ]\Ieriahs/’  or  victims,  may  be  either  boys  or  girls, 
 and  of  any  race,  except.  Captain  Macpherson  thinks.  Brah- 
 mans, who  are  supposed  to  have  been  already  devoted  to  the 
 gods.  !Many  of  the  pleasing,  intelligent  little  girls  in  Mrs. 
 Wilson’s  Orphan  Refnge  School,  near  Calcntta,  had  been 
 rescued  by  the  British  army  from  this  dreadful  fate,  and  the 
 daring  escape  of  others  has  been  the  theme  of  song.  One 
 sect  amongst  the  Khonds  abhors  human  sacrifice,  but  equally 
 with  the  other  tribes  believes  in  Boora  Pennu,  the  supreme 
 god ; and  in  Tari  Pennu,  the  perverse  earth-goddess,  who 
 is  jealous  of  the  human  race,  impedes  the  government  of 
 Boora  Pennu,  causes  every  description  of  e\  il,  and  must  be 
 invoked  with  deep  awe  and  reverence. 
 
 ]More  gentle  forest  tribes  are  described  as  inhabiting 
 the  southern  extremity  of  the  Peninsula.  Mr.  Taylor,  of 
 ^Madras,  mentions  several  in  the  Dindigul  district  who  pos- 
 sess bows  and  aiTows,  but  appear  to  live  chiefiy  on  roots, 
 honey,  and  reptiles;  and  the  eminent  botanist  Roxburgh 
 alludes  to  equally  poor  denizens  of  the  neighbouring  Wy- 
 naad  hills,  whose  clothing  is  made  from  the  bark  of  a tree 
 named  Sterculia  guttata.-\  But  the  most  interesting  and 
 pleasing  of  all  the  Indian  aborigines  are  the  Tndas,  in- 
 habiting the  Nilgherry  Hills,  where  they  were  discovered 
 about  thfrty  years  ago.  The  unwholesome  jungle  at  the 
 base  of  these  hills  probably  prevented  their  being  earlier 
 explored,  for  although  in  1819  j\Ir.  Lescheiihault  succeeded 
 in  ascending  fi’om  the  Coimbatore  side  to ' the  west  near 
 Ponani,  he  speaks  of  the  route  as  scarcely  practicable, 
 owing  to  thorny  shrnbs,  tigers,  bears,  and  wild  dogs. 
 
 * J.  K.  A.  S.  vol.  xiii.  part  2,  p.  217.  t Koxb.  voL  iii.  p.  148. 
 
THE  HILL  TRIBES. 
 
 23 
 
 Ilaniig  ouce  got  through  these  savage  lines  of  defence^ 
 he  no  sooner  found  himself  in  the  upper  regions  than  he 
 was  astonished,  as  all  other  travellers  have  been,  by  “ the 
 noble  race  of  natives”  inhabiting  the  Xaad  district.  They 
 are  called  Tudas,  or  Tomwars,  or  Thodawars.  They  are  a 
 tall,  athletic  people,  with  fine  symmetric  features,  described 
 as  Roman,  but  some  amongst  them  are  said  to  have  a 
 Jewish  cast  of  features.*  Dwelling  at  a height  of  7000 
 or  8000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  in  an  atmosphere 
 cooled  and  refreshed  by  the  monsoon,  they  enjoy  a climate 
 of  pei-petual  spring ; and  the  consequent  great  salubrity  is 
 supposed  to  account,  in  some  degree,  for  their  superior 
 physical  appearance,  which  is  unexampled  amongst  tribes 
 not  boasting  of  Sanskrit  (Aryan  or  Hindu)  origin.  Unfor- 
 tunately the  tribe  is  very  small,  and  constantly  diminish- 
 ing, and  does  not  appear  to  number  above  six  hundred 
 men.  They  keep  fiocks  and  herds,  the  men  attending  to 
 the  dairy ; and  they  till  the  ground,  raising  crops  of  wheat, 
 barley,  oats,  and  several  other  kinds  of  grain. 
 
 Other  travellers  speak  of  the  Tudas  as  having  large  full 
 speaking  eyes,  pleasing  form,  and  long  fine  hair,  parted 
 on  the  crown  of  the  head  and  falling  on  all  sides  in  na- 
 tural locks,  a grave,  composed  bearing,  cheerful  temper, 
 and  herculean  strength.f  The  Chola  and  other  Xilgherry 
 tribes  look  np  to  the  Tudas  as  their  lords  and  superiors ; 
 and  the  Curumbars,  who  are  a wretched-looking  people, 
 of  small  statm’e,  thin  bail’,  and  watery  eyes,  ai’e  said  to 
 be  nearly  allied  in  race,  and  to  derive  their  present  abject 
 appearance  from  misery  caused  by  the  oppression  of  more 
 fortunate  tnbes.  The  Cm’umhars  thus  exhibit  the  condi- 
 tion of  a people  fallen  from  comparati\  e civilization,  which 
 * Hougli’s  Letters,  p.  63.  t llarkncss. 
 
24 
 
 LIFE  IX  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 is  the  worst  fate  that  history  depicts,  for  people  thus  fallen 
 are  usually  exhausted  and  hopeless ; and  this  is  in  general 
 true  of  all  the  aboriginal  tribes  in  India.  One  peculia- 
 rity observed  amongst  the  Tudas  is  their  tumuli,  of  which 
 we  shall  have  occasion  to  speak  hereafter : some  of  these 
 are  marked  by  circles  of  nide  stones  on  a level  with  the 
 ground,  whilst  around  others  the  stones  are  larger,  and 
 raised  two  or  three  feet ; similar  tombs  are  often  met  with, 
 where  there  is  no  remnant  of  either  people  or  towns  to 
 which  they  can  be  traced,  and  we  can  only  suppose  that 
 they  are  monuments  of  races  in  some  degree  allied  to  the 
 yet  existing  Gonds  and  Tudas.  There  are  still  current  in 
 the  Peninsula  of  India  several  languages  which,  although 
 largely  intermixed  with  Sanskrit  terms  in  consequence  of 
 Hindu  conquest  and  civilization,  are  nevertheless  of  a dis- 
 tinct family  of  language.  They  are  chiefly  the  Tamid,  the 
 Telinga,  the  Karnata,  and  the  IMalaya : collectively  they 
 are  called  Tamul  languages  ; and  the  growing  opinion  of 
 our  guides  in  ethnology  and  plidolog}'  is,  that  the  rude 
 remnant  of  hill  and  forest  tribes,  and  the  comparatively 
 ci\'ilized  inhabitants  of  Xagpore  and  the  !Malabar  coast, 
 etc.,  may  be  classed  together  as  people  who  did  not  speak 
 Sanskrit,  and  had  not  the  Aryan  and  Indo-European  con- 
 formation ; people,  in  fact,  more  nearly  allied  with  Scyths 
 than  with  Hindus. 
 
 III.  Plains  of  the  Ganges. 
 
 But  we  are  lingering  too  long  in  woods  and  Mulds,  and 
 must  hasten  to  travel  up  to  the  open  country  intervening 
 between  the  Himalaya  and  the  Yindhya  Hills,  where  he  the 
 fertile  plains,  which  we  ventured  to  represent  as  smooth 
 
25 
 
 • PLAINS  OF  THE  GANGES. 
 
 folds  of  di’apery,  coYering  the  left  arm  of  our  ideal  India. 
 These  rich  plains  are  well  watered  by  the  Ganges,  its  allies 
 and  tributaries,  and  are  free  comparatively  from  wood  or 
 jungle;  although  they  have  been  under  cultivation  probably 
 two  thousand  years,  they  are  still  luxuriant,  and  their 
 productiveness  requires  little  aid  from  art.  Amongst  the 
 crops  now  raised  are  wheat  and  rice,  indigo  and  ginger, 
 sugar  and  cotton,  roses,  jessamine,  and  sweet  gi’asses ; and 
 the  trees  are  the  oleandei’,  magnolia,  Butea  frondosa,  Ery- 
 thrina,  and  others  innumerable,  of  equal  scent  or  beauty. 
 
 In  these  highly  favoui’ed  plains,  we  do  not  look  in  vain 
 for  signs  of  ancient  India’s  most  prosperous  towns,  some 
 of  which  were  on  sites  now  occupied  by  Oude,  on  the  river 
 Gogra ; Kanoge,  sixty-five  miles  west-north-west  fr’om  Luck- 
 now ; Delhi,  on  the  J umna ; and  Allahabad,  at  the  point 
 where  the  Jumna  and  the  Ganges  join ; and  then  descending 
 the  Ganges,  Ave  come  to  Benares,  early  celebrated  as  a school 
 of  learning,  and  a little  lower  down  to  Patna  (the  ancient 
 Pahbothra),  not  far  from  the  junction  of  the  Sone  with  the 
 Ganges,  and  to  Rajagriha  in  Bahar,  a district  famous  for 
 hot  springs  and  holy  shrines  throughout  Hindustan.  One 
 chief  attraction  of  a town  or  lillage  is  a large  and  hand- 
 some tank,  haAT.ng  in  the  centre  of  each  side  a wide  flight 
 of  steps,  surmounted  by  a portico.  The  porticoes  are  lofty 
 covered  gates,  and  with  the  steps  attached  are  called 
 Ghats,  and  are  not  only  ornamental,  hut  almost  necessary 
 to  Hindu  worship.  Worshippers  are  required  to  bathe  daily 
 once  or  oftener,  and  after  being  exposed  in  the  water  to 
 the  full  rays  of  a vertical  sun,  they  seek  the  shelter  of  the 
 portico  to  recite  their  prayers.  To  the  Ghat  also  women 
 come  at  noon  and  eventide,  to  fill  their  water-jars;  and 
 
20 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 here  they  congregate,  and  enjoy  a daily  laugh  and  chat,  so 
 that  a Ghat  in  India  might  almost  be  said  to  represent  the 
 village-green  of  England,  as  the  place  at  which  the  neigh- 
 bom’hood  holds  its  social  gatherings  or  conversations.  A- 
 mongst  the  singularities  of  Indian  produce  are  the  w'ater- 
 plants,  which  overspread  the  lakes  and  tanks ; one  of  these, 
 flowering  in  the  rainy  season,  is  called  Singhara  ;*  it  has 
 long  stringy  leaves  and  pure  white  flowers,  which,  like  the 
 Victoria  regina,  only  expand  late  in  the  afternoon.  The  nuts 
 or  seeds  of  this  plant  are  Avholesome  food,  and  so  highly 
 esteemed  by  the  natives,  that  tanks  in  which  it  grow's  let 
 for  j610  or  .€14  per  annum.  The  birds  and  flowers,  the 
 mountains,  the  animals,  the  rivers  and  the  boats  belonging 
 to  this  region,  are  scarcely  less  interesting  than  its  trees 
 and  towns.  The  little  flycatcher  sparkles  in  the  sunshine 
 as  though  its  feathers  were  a glossy  fabric  shot  with  green 
 and  gold ; peacocks  flock  into  evei'y  cornfield,  and  in  the 
 same  scene  with  birds  of  brilliant  plumage,  splendid  flowers, 
 sAveet-scented  grasses,  and  colossal  trees,  Ave  have  the  ele- 
 phant and  the  rhinoceros,  the  camel  and  the  buffalo,  and 
 Ave  might  add  the  tortoise,  the  lizard,  and  the  monkey. 
 In  the  middle  ground  of  our  landscape  stretches  a dense 
 line  of  forest,  beneath  which  the  fantastic  epiphytes  and  air- 
 plants  sport  their  fairy  forms ; and  above  the  forest,  rising 
 apparently  in  endless  ranges,  are  seen  the  summits  of  the 
 Himalaya,  bearing  their  perpetual  snowy  mantles  from 
 20,000  to  30,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.f 
 
 * Mrs.  Hervey  notices  these  plants  as  growing  for  miles  together,  in  the 
 lakes  of  Kashmir.  Sing,  she  says,  means  horn,  these  water-nuts  being 
 horned. — Adycntures  in  Tartary,  vol.  i.  pp.  234-8.  Trapa  hispinosa,  Koxb., 
 vol.  i.  p.  428. 
 
 t Sleeman’s  ‘Kambles  and  Recollections,’  vol.  i.  p.  101. 
 
BENGAL. 
 
 IV.  Bengal. 
 
 Gradually  the  plains  of  Hindustan  lose  their  dry,  free, 
 open  eharacter.  In  Bengal,  the  Rajmahal  Hills  intrude, 
 standing  like  piquets  in  advance  of  their  main  body,  the 
 Vindhya  range ; and  here  also  the  Ganges  separates  into 
 several  streams,  thx’ee  of  which,  the  Jellinghy,  the  Bhagi- 
 rathi,  and  the  Martabanga,  required  at  one  time  the  con- 
 stant attention  of  an  engineer,  who  w'as  called  “ Superin- 
 tendent of  the  three  Rivers,”  and  whose  annual  occupa- 
 tion it  was  to  repair  the  damage  caused  by  the  rains.  The 
 varying  courses  of  the  rivers  is,  indeed,  one  of  the  most 
 striking  features  of  Indian  geography.  In  the  rainy  sea- 
 son a boat  may  sail  over  fields  which  but  lately  produced 
 crops  of  cotton  or  indigo,  and  which  the  next  season  wdl 
 probably  produce  the  same;  lands  subject  to  inundation 
 are  even  preferred  for  indigo-crops,  although  risk  is  run 
 that  the  rains  may  come  too  soon  and  wash  the  whole 
 away.  Moisture,  as  well  as  heat,  promotes  the  growth  of 
 this  little  trefoil;  but  the  perfection  of  its  seed  requires 
 a drier  atmosphere  than  that  of  Bengal,  and  planters  are 
 in  the  habit  of  using  seed  ripened  in  the  more  westerly 
 provinces.  Below  the  Rajmahal  Hills,  Bengal  is  a perfect 
 flat ; and  strictly  speaking  this  district  is  rrot  included  in 
 Hindustarr,  but  still  less  does  it  belong  to  the  Dekkan.  It 
 is  a moist,  alluvial  soil,  through  which  the  Ganges  flows 
 in  innumerable  separate  streams,  one  of  these  being  the 
 Hoogly,  upon  which  Calcutta  stands.  All  around  the  Bay 
 of  Bengal,  for  forty  or  fifty  miles  inland,  the  general  cha- 
 racter of  the  country  is  that  of  marshes,  through  which  the 
 mouths  of  the  Ganges  poirr  themselves  into  the  sea.  But 
 
28 
 
 LIFE  IX  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 tliese  marshes  are  not  like  marshes  in  Europe,  merely  over- 
 grown with  reeds  and  rushes  : the  reeds  of  the  Sunderbunds 
 are  bamboos,  seventy  feet  high,  lightly  feathering  above 
 lofty  trees  of  rieh  and  hea^’y  foliage,  and  thiekly  hemmed 
 in  below  by  an  overgrown  brushwood,  infested  by  tigers. 
 In  some  parts  the  ground  is  eleared  for  the  manufaeture 
 of  saltpetre  and  eommon  salt,  Avith  which  the  whole  soil 
 is  strongly  impregnated,  the  basis  being  sand,  Anth  a sub- 
 stratum of  clay  and  salt.  Advancing  inland,  plantations 
 of  rice  begin  to  appear,  and  the  rivers,  branching  into 
 numerous  streams  called  Nullahs,  make  it  easy  to  lay  the 
 fields  periodically  under  water,  and  give  the  irrigation 
 necessary  for  rice-crops.  All  vegetable  produce  is  most 
 abuudant,  and  the  lofty  cocoa-nut,  tamarind,  jack-fruit, 
 and  many  others,  yielding  the  natives  daily  food,  groAV 
 freely  by  the  wayside.  The  plantain,  Avith  its  broad  leaves 
 torn  by  the  Avind,*  and  the  picturesque  custard-apple,  sur- 
 round the  native  huts,  Avhilst  melons,  gourds,  and  French 
 beaus  overgroAV  the  thatched  roofs,  and  cover  them  with 
 floAvers.  In  Hindustan  the  native  huts  are  built  on  open 
 ground  in  compact  towns  or  villages,  and  with  tiled  roofs  ; 
 but  in  Bengal  the  roofs  are  covered  with  thatch,  and  whilst 
 each  cottage  is  separate,  the  Avhole  village  usually  straggles 
 through  a jungle  or  thicket,  the  approach  to  which  is  by 
 a narroAV  Avinding  path,  AAith  high  banks  and  hedges  on 
 each  side,  keeping  out  the  little  air  that  may  be  stirring, 
 but  so  contrived  apparently  in  order  to  prevent  intrusion. 
 These  huts  are  very  picturesque  when  seen  singly,  peep- 
 ing from  amongst  their  plantains  and  papaws  and  rose- 
 apples,  etc. ; but  in  the  outskirts  of  Calcutta,  where  they 
 
 * Called  by  the  ^irabs,  ostrich  feathers. 
 
TREES. 
 
 29 
 
 are  necessarily  crowded  together,  they  look  poor  and  com- 
 fortless, and  are  subject  to  continual  conflagrations,  which 
 may  be  seen  in  the  hot  weather,  illuminating  the  sky  for 
 seven  or  eight  miles’  distance. 
 
 Bengal  is  little  mentioned  in  ancient  Sanskrit  literature; 
 for  the  earliest  Hindu  merchants  had  their  seaports  on  the 
 eastern  coast,  and  the  earliest  learned  Brahmans  held  their 
 schools  or  fixed  their  huts  within  sight  of  the  mighty  Hi- 
 mavat.  Bengal  cannot  therefore  boast  of  ancient  build- 
 ings ; but  it  has  both  temples  and  ruins  in  abundance,  for 
 a very  few  years  will  suffice  to  produce  venerable-looking 
 ruins  in  so  moist  an  atmosphere ; and  these  temples,  some 
 extensive,  and  others  consisting  of  a single  shrine,  some 
 shining  in  white  plaster  at  the  head  of  steps  leading  down 
 to  the  river,  and  others  placed  in  the  picturesque  seclu- 
 sion of  a grove,  add  greatly  to  the  beauty  of  Bengal,  which 
 is  a province  by  no  means  deficient  in  interest;  but  as 
 it  claims  no  special  attention  to  archaeology  or  ethnologj^, 
 mineralogy  or  zoology,  it  leaves  us  free  to  note  in  passing 
 the  noble  character  of  Indian  trees.  The  most  beautiful, 
 and  one  of  the  best  beloved  both  in  ancient  and  modern 
 times,  is  the  Jonesia  Asoka,  which  grows  all  over  Hindustan, 
 but  may  be  seen  in  several  gardens  near  Calcutta,  and  in 
 the  highest  perfection  in  the  Botanic  Gardens,  opposite 
 Garden  Reach.*  It  is  the  height  of  a moderate  horse- 
 chestnut,  thick  in  foliage,  and  literally  covered  with  heads 
 of  red  flowers  resembling  the  Ixora ; only  the  colour  is 
 
 * Mr.  Fortune,  in  liis  second  voyage  to  the  East,  saw  the  Jonesia  Asoka 
 in  the  Botanic  Garden  of  Calcutta,  and  admired  it  more  even  than  the 
 splendid  Amlierstia,  and  is  sure  that,  were  it  well  known  in  England,  fine 
 specunens  would  he  pi’oduced  at  our  metropohtan  flower-shows. — Tea 
 Districts  of  China,  p.  300. 
 
30 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 more  brilliant  than  even  that  of  the  Iwora,  for  it  is  not  a 
 fixed  red,  but  every  petal  shades  fi’om  searlet  into  orange, 
 and  from  the  eentre  of  eaeh  floret  issue  long  red  tassel- 
 like anthers.  The  floivers  are  fragi’ant  at  night,  whieh  the 
 Hindu  poets  do  not  fail  to  note,  and  they  are  so  pre-emi- 
 nently radiant,  that  for  a gem  to  sparkle  as  the  asoka-flower 
 is  not  an  uneommon  image  in  Sanskrit  poetry. 
 
 Another  tree  eommon  all  over  India,  bearing  delicious- 
 seented  white  flowers,  is  ealled  by  the  natives  Bakula, 
 and  by  botanists  Mimusops  Elenyi.  It  grows  in  many 
 gardens  near  Caleutta,  and  also  on  the  noble  Barraek- 
 pore  road  made  by  Lord  Wellesley,  where  splendid  speci- 
 mens of  flowering-trees  may  be  seen  on  either  side.  The 
 Adansonia,  celebrated  as  the  largest  tree  the  world  pro- 
 duces, may  also  be  seen  in  the  Calcutta  Botanic  Gardens, 
 where  a tree  not  more  than  twenty-five  years  old  was 
 eighteen  feet  in  cii’cumfereuce.  These  trees  bear  long 
 flowers,  snowy  white,  shaped  like  the  Datura,  but  larger, 
 which  look  most  lovely,  hanging  as  they  do  from  the  thick 
 branches  of  a prodigious  tree  of  soft  wood,  and  of  such 
 awkward  and  clumsy  aspect  that  the  natives  call  it  yudd 
 (donkey) . The  teak,  the  sandalwood,  the  mahogany,  and 
 most  of  the  trees  for  which  India  is  famed,  may  be  seen 
 within  the  compass  of  this  beautiful  garden ; but  hone  of 
 these  timber-trees  are  indigenous  in  Bengal,  and  it  seems 
 doubtful  whether  so  moist  a climate  will  ever  produce 
 timber  equal  to  that  grown  on  the  hills.  Bengal  is  not, 
 hoAvever,  deficient  in  vegetation ; and  a Flora  Bengalensis 
 would  be  rich  in  trees  and  flowers  of  all  shapes  and  sizes, 
 from  passion-flowers  little  larger  than  a wafer,  up  to  the 
 Dillenia,  Avhich  may  be  said  to  look  as  a Spanish  chestnut 
 
TREES. 
 
 31 
 
 might  if  covered  witli  a shower  of  magnificent  white  water- 
 lilies.* 
 
 The  banyan,  which  is,  perhaps  more  than  any  other 
 tree,  eharacteristic  of  India,  grows  as  freely  in  Bengal  as 
 elsewhere : its  branehes  are  iisnally  the  haunt  of  monkeys 
 and  the  large  bats  called  flying  foxes,  which  feed  upon  its 
 berries.  A reeollection  of  evening  in  Bengal  brings  these 
 creatures  to  one’s  mind,  flying  in  a single  heavy  file  about 
 a mile  in  length  across  the  transient  glow  succeeding  sun- 
 set.f The  Peepal-tree  is  also  of  the  fig  tribe  {Ficus  rdigi- 
 osa),  and  is  scarcely  less  noble  in  appearanee.  The  leaf  is 
 heart-shaped,  with  a long  taper  point  and  a slender  leaf- 
 stalk, rustling  in  the  nfind.  The  roots  of  the  peepal  spread 
 horizontally  near  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  old  peepal- 
 trees  often  exhibit  a great  extent  of  bare  roots,  owing  to 
 the  ground  having  been  washed  awny  the  trunks  also  lose 
 their  roundness  with  age,  and  become  so  full  of  ridges  as 
 to  look  like  several  trunks  united : this  tree  is  remarkable 
 for  the  faeility  with  which  its  seeds  germinate,  springing 
 up  in  every  erevice  of  briekwork,  to  whieh,  if  not  speedily 
 removed,  their  rapid  growth  eauses  great  destruction.  In 
 India,  in  consequence,  ruins  and  the  peepal  are  as  much 
 associated  in  the  mind  as  ruins  and  ivy  are  in  England. 
 And  not  only  in  brickwork  does  it  spring  unbidden,  but 
 its  sprouts  are  often  seen  on  other  trees,  and  espeeially  on 
 
 * To  watch  for  the  flowering  of  the  trees,  and  observe  the  many  fi’eaks 
 and  endless  varieties  of  vegetation,  is  one  of  the  best  pleasures  of  hfe  in 
 Calcutta,  especially  for  those  who  have  had  the  happiness  of  knowuig 
 the  late  Dr.  WaUich,  and  have  enjoyed  the  privilege  of  visiting  the  Botanic 
 Gardens  in  his  company. 
 
 + At  a distance  they  might  be  casually  mistaken  for  a flight  of  rooks  ; 
 but  then’  length  of  wing  is  much  greater,  six  feet  being  sometimes  the 
 measm’e  between  the  extended  points. 
 
32 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 the  summit  of  the  palmyra,  where  its  berries  or  seeds  are 
 frequently  dropped  by  birds.  The  peepal  then  sends  its 
 roots  down  outside  the  palmyra  stem,  round  which  they 
 gradually  form  a case,  until  at  length  nothing  is  seen  of 
 the  palmyra  except  the  head,  which  appears  to  be  growing 
 in  the  midst  of  a peepal  tree.  When  this  occurs  the  joint 
 tree  becomes  a very  sacred  object,  modern  Hindus  re- 
 garding it  as  a divine  marriage.  Trees  in  India  also  grow 
 together  by  simple  contact,  and  trees  half  peepal  and  half 
 banyan,  or  half  peepal  and  half  mango,  are  by  no  means 
 uncommon  ; and  in  some  cases  the  union  is  even  purposely 
 effected, — a notion  at  present  prevailing  in  the  central  parts 
 of  India,  that  the  fruit  of  a new  mango  plantation  must 
 not  be  tasted  until  an  imaginary  marriage  has  been  per- 
 formed betw'cen  the  mangoes  and  some  other  tree ; and 
 money  must  be  spent  and  feasting  carried  on  to  as  great  an 
 extent  as  if  the  marriage  were  a real  one.* 
 
 Let  us  now  imagine  one  of  our  countrymen  making 
 his  first  voyage  to  these  Eastern  territories,  his  mind  well 
 informed  with  all  that  the  hints  and  the  story-telling  of 
 classic  and  Indian  history  afford.  As  he  enters  the  Bay 
 
 * Sleeman’s  ‘ Eambles  and  Recollections,’  vol.  i.  pp.  41-43.  The  Peepal 
 (Ficus  religiosa)  and  the  India-rubber  tree  (Ficus  elastica)  resemble  the 
 Banyan  (which  is  Ficus  Indica)  in  having  a power  of  tlrrowing  out  roots 
 from  the  stem  and  branches.  In  the  banyan  these  roots  usually  proceed 
 from  the  outer  branches,  reach  the  ground,  and  become  supports,  giving 
 occasionally  to  a smgle  tree  the  effect  of  a httle  forest ; in  the  peepal  they 
 are  oftener  seen  danghng  fi’om  the  mam  stem  ; but  both  these  and  the 
 Incha-rubber  are  alike  in  their  tendency  to  throw  out  roots  from  the  main 
 stem  as  well  as  from  the  branches,  and  in  the  tendency  which  these  roots 
 have  to  run  down  the  surface  of  the  trunk  and  cohere  either  with  it  or  with 
 each  other,  giving  a sculptm-al  appearance  wliich  is  extremely  picturesque. 
 This  is  described  by  the  late  lameutedbotanist,  Mr.  GrritRth  (of  the  East  India 
 Company’s  medical  service),  in  a very  interesting  report  on  the  caoutchouc 
 
FIRST  IMPRESSIONS. 
 
 33 
 
 of  Bengal  lie  looks  eagerly  for  the  submerged  city  of  Bali, 
 and  about  thirty-five  miles  to  the  south  of  Madras  a beau- 
 tiful pagoda  stands  out  upon  a little  peninsula  of  land. 
 In  passing  the  coast  of  Orissa  he  sees  black  specks,  which 
 he  knows  to  be,  first,  the  Temple  of  Juggunath,  and  se- 
 condly, the  Blaek  Pagoda;  and  he  longs  to  see  the  more 
 interesting  and  more  ancient  Temple  of  Bobaneswar,  within 
 fifteen  miles  of  the  town  of  Cuttack.  The  next  land  which 
 meets  the  eye  of  the  voyager  is  the  island  of  Saugor,  and 
 then  he  knows  that  he  has  entered  the  broad  mouth  of 
 the  river  Hoogly,  and  that  the  dark  lines  on  the  horizon 
 are  the  heavy  w'oods  wliich  fringe  its  banks.  • Immediately 
 he  feels  transported  into  unreal  life;  scenes  of  a play,  or 
 dreams  of  Arabian  Nights,  or  passages  from  Scripture, 
 seem  to  be  enacting  in  his  presence.  He  sees  Rebecca  at 
 the  well,  the  sheep  folloAving  the  shepherd,  two  women 
 grinding  at  one  mill,  etc.  Presently  signs  of  British  u'ealth 
 and  energy  appear : on  his  left  hand  the  Botanic  Garden, 
 dear  to  all  lovers  of  fiowers  as  having  been  the  residence 
 of  Roxburgh  and  Wallich,  for  a short  time  also  of  the  la- 
 mented Griffith,  and  now  of  Dr.  Thomson.  Immediately 
 
 tree  of  Assam.  “ Very  generally,”  lie  says,  “ this  species,  as  well  as  some 
 others,  vegetates  in  other  trees,”  the  roots  descend  and  form  a network 
 round  the  tree  ; “ and  at  last  a nearly  solid  and  excessively  firm  cyhnder  is 
 formed,  wliich  encloses,  as  it  were  in  a case,  the  tree  which  originally  pro- 
 tected the  young  seedlmg  ; in  such  a case  the  fig-tree  has  no  trunk;”  since 
 what  answers  the  purpose  of  a trunk  “ is  an  aggregation  and  coherence  of 
 roots,  or  growth  in  a descending  direction.  One  may  readily  imagine  such 
 trees  overtopping  others,  for  if  they  vegetate  on  a tree  sixty  feet  from  its 
 base,  it  is  at  once  obvious  that  this  distance  is  an  actual  gam  in  height 
 over  all  the  others.  Such  instances  are  perhajis  the  only  ones  in  which 
 epiphytes  destroy  the  plants  on  which  they  grow.”  One  of  these  trees 
 measured  seventy-four  feet  round  the  trunk,  and  was  about  one  hmidrcd 
 feet  in  height. — J.  A.  S.  B.,  Feb.  1818. 
 
34 
 
 LIFE  IX  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 above  these  gardens  stands  the  Bishop’s  College,  of  which 
 the  learned  Dr.  Mill  was  Principal ; and  now  the  opposite 
 bank  is  adorned  with  the  beautiful  villas  of  Garden  Reach ; 
 then  passing  Kidderpore,  the  plain  called  the  IMaidan  and 
 its  shaded,  well-watered  roads,  to  which  every  imaginable 
 description  of  vehicle — barouche,  palki,  buggy,  mail-coach, 
 kranchy — bring  their  owners  to  enjoy  the  evening  breeze, 
 or  “ cat  the  air,”  in  native  phrase.  Nor  less  varied  are 
 the  boats,  the  panchways,  dinghies,  budgerows,  schooners, 
 cutters,  steamboats,  through  which  a ship  from  England 
 makes  (or  used  to  make)  its  way,  until  the  impatient  pas- 
 sengers at  length  escaped,  and,  if  they  arrived  in  sunshine, 
 were  carried  in  palanquins  up  the  steps  of  Chandpaul  Ghat, 
 having  already  caught  sight  of  Government  House,  the 
 Town-hall,  the  Cathedral,  and  the  Ochterlony  monument. 
 
 A former  Governor- General  is  said  to  have  declared  that 
 he  had  learned  more  of  India  during  the  one  day  spent 
 in  sailing  up  the  Hoogly,  than  in  all  his  previous  years 
 of  Eastern  study ; and  no  doubt  there  is  in  India  an  at- 
 mosphere of  richness,  producing  a tranquillity  which  can 
 neither  be  expressed  nor  imparted.  Quietude  is  as  charac- 
 teristic of  the  Hindu  as  actirity  of  our  northern  races.  To 
 smoke  the  semi-intoxicating  bang,  or  datura,  is  to  them 
 the  highest  happiness, — a professional  story-teller,  with 
 dreamy  eye,  often  entrancing  the  attention  of  a reclining 
 audience,  all  smoking  or  chewing  betel.  Merchants,  pos- 
 sessing stores  of  wealth,  sit  all  day  upon  their  shop-coun- 
 tc'rs  smoking  hubble-bubbles.  Native  noblemen  go  about 
 clothed  in  two  wide  strips  of  muslin,  or  rather  they  go  little 
 about,  but  sleep  and  smoke,  and  enjoy  incense  and  perfumes 
 within  unfurnished  palaces  and  formal  gardens,  content 
 
CHARACTER  OE  THE  PEOPLE. 
 
 35 
 
 without  newspapers  or  current  literature,  and  often  igno- 
 rant of  political  changes,  even  when  living  at  the  very  seat 
 of  government.  After  dwelling  for  a time  in  India,  it  is 
 discovered  that  although  great  capacity  lies  inherent  in 
 the  Hindu  character,  and  is  shown  at  times  in  individuals, 
 Hindus  have  not  usually  ready  sympathy  with  Europeans 
 and  European  modes  of  thought ; and  that  the  learned  and 
 generous  Rammohun  Roy,  and  the  sagacious  and  open- 
 minded  Dvvarkanath  Tagore,  are  no  more  average  speci- 
 mens of  Hindus  than  Robert  Burns  or  Robert  Bloomfield 
 are  of  British  ploughmen.  The  mass  of  the  people  appear 
 inert,  without  wants  and  without  energy,  and  a stranger  is 
 tempted  to  believe  that  their  ideas  have  been  stereotyped 
 from  generation  to  generation  for  countless  ages  past ; but 
 he  remembers  that  these  same  Hindus  are  the  people  whose 
 heroism  was  admired  by  Alexander  the  Great,  and  whose 
 philosophy  and  manufactures  are  celebrated  by  Greek  his- 
 torians. He  remembers  also  what  he  has  read  of  the  classic 
 Sanskrit  language  and  literature ; and  as  soon  as  the  dream 
 of  delight  attending  his  first  arrival  has  subsided,  he  seeks 
 eagei’ly  to  learn  which  of  all  the  motley  groups  around  are 
 real  Hindus  of  ancient  classical  descent.  Not  the  Moham- 
 medans,— that  point  is  easily  determined,  as  their  first  in- 
 cursion into  the  country  was  no  earlier  than  a.d.  1000,  a 
 date  too  recent  to  admit  of  mystification.  The  same  re- 
 mark applies  to  those  of  Portuguese  descent,  at  present 
 numerous  in  Calcutta,  and  also  to  the  Chinese ; but  be- 
 sides these,  some  thick-featured,  black-skinned  people  may 
 be  seen  working  in  sewers,  or  serving  as  boats’  crews,  who 
 are  aborigines  from  the  lulls  and  forests;  and,  Avith  these 
 exeeptions,  he  is  told  that  all  the  native  population  he  be- 
 
 u 
 
36 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 holds  may  he  considered  generally  as  genuine  Hindus. 
 The  Bahoos,  or  native  merchants,  are  Hindus;  the  Bn- 
 neahs,  or  bankers,  are  Hindus ; and  the  Zemindars  and 
 Ryots,  -who  are  respectively  owners  and  cultivators  of  land, 
 — the  sepoys,  or  soldiers,  and  the  Rajputs,  and  the  np- 
 conntry  men  who  stand  in  pink  or  red  turbans  as  durwans 
 and  chokecdars  at  the  gates  of  gentlemen’s  houses, — these 
 arc  all  Hindus,  and  so  also  are  Brahmans  of  every  grade ; 
 those  of  highest  rank  who  live  in  learned  ease,  those  less 
 wealthy  or  Avell-born  who  officiate  in  temples,  and  those 
 still  poorer  who  beg  for  a subsistence,  are  all  descendants 
 of  the  original  Hindus, — the  people  who  possess  a language 
 and  a history,  and  whose  ancestors  at  some  remote  and 
 unknown  period  brought  the  religion  of  theVedic  Hymns 
 from  lands  beyond  the  Indus.  But  to  trace  the  thread  of 
 Hindu  histoiy,  from  the  present  period  through  the  inter- 
 mediate labyrinths,  was  found  to  be  a task  which  Hindus 
 themselves  had  not  performed.  Their  genius  ever  increases 
 the  volume  of  the  labyrintluue  mazes,  but  gives  no  clue 
 whereby  to  reach  the  solution  of  the  mystery.  Nor  did 
 our  predecessors,  the  French,  the  Dutch,  or  the  Portuguese, 
 much  concern  themselves  about  antiquity ; and  conse- 
 quently when  in  the  middle  of  the  last  century  the  East 
 India  Company’s  factories  became  settled  in  Bengal,  very 
 little  more  was  knoAvn  of  the  country  than  had  been  related 
 by  the  Greeks  three  hundred  years  before  the  Christian 
 era ; to  the  series  of  labours  which  then  commenced  we 
 must  now  apply  our  best  attention. 
 
 The  first  inquirers  were  little  more  than  pioneers  break- 
 ing up  the  ground  for  those  who  followed.  Ruined  cities, 
 temples,  and  most  astonishing  excavations  were  discovered. 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 37 
 
 the  origin  of  which  tradition  vaguely  hinted  at  as  lost  in 
 periods  too  remote  for  history.  The  gods  and  goddesses  of 
 the  existing  idolatry  were  vainly  compared  with  those  of 
 Greece  and  Egypt^  and  many  theories  were  erected,  to  he 
 as  quickly  overthrown ; everywhere  curiosity  was  excited, 
 hut  nowhere  could  it  meet  with  satisfaction.  Chronicles 
 and  records  were  discovered,  but  they  were  all  in  Sanskrit, 
 and  Sanski’it  was  “the  language  of  the  gods,”  which  it 
 was  sacrilege  to  communicate  to  foreigners  and  heretics. 
 Added  to  the  difficulty  thus  raised  by  superstition,  was 
 that  of  the  very  complex  structure  of  the  Sanskrit  tongue ; 
 but  difficulties  only  increased  the  ardour  of  the  studious, 
 and  Adelung  mentions  that,  in  thirty  years,  seven  hundred 
 uorks  were  published  upon  this  new  subject.*  But  these 
 labours  did  not  resolve  the  difficulty,  and,  although  the 
 language  was  attained  and  the  records  explored,  the  search 
 for  history  was  baffled;  in  vain  Sir  William  Jones  and  his 
 fellow-labourers  strove  to  reconcile  dates  and  harmonize 
 events,  and  it  was  at  length  discovered  that,  as  a fancy 
 artist  deals  with  towns  or  churches,  trees  or  hills,  and  places 
 them  near  or  far  according  to  pictorial  effect,  so  had  the 
 Hindu  annalist  treated  events ; and  whilst  picturesque  re- 
 moteness was  granted  to  one  sovereign,  the  deeds  of  his 
 posterity  were  grouped  around  another.  The  study  of  San- 
 skrit was  not  however  abandoned,  for  the  religious  uTitiugs, 
 although  inaccurate  in  dates  and  names,  gave  indications 
 of  sublimity.  The  law-books  bore  internal  evidence  of 
 antiquity,  and  offered  most  interesting  pictures  of  manners 
 and  customs ; the  heroic  poems  shared  this  merit,  and  also 
 proved  themselves  rich  in  poetry ; the  dramas  and  later  effu- 
 * Hist.  Sketch  of  Sanscrit  Literature.  (Talboys,  Oxford.) 
 
38 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 sioiis  glitterccl  with  fanciful  imagery,  and  only  works  com- 
 paratively modern  were  found  encumbered  by  impure  ido- 
 latry or  puerile  extravagance. 
 
 It  is  not  surprising  that,  in  the  first  enthusiasm  of  these 
 discoveries,  the  merits  of  Sanskrit  literature  should  have 
 been  exaggerated.  Many  learned  Europeans  expected  a re- 
 generation in  letters  similar  to  that  produced  by  the  revi- 
 \ al  of  Greek  in  the  fifteenth  century ; others  hoped  for  the 
 happiest  effects  from  its  religious  spirit ; and  others  again 
 fixed  their  admiration  rather  on  the  language  than  on  the 
 literature  it  contained.  One  scholar  after  another  proved 
 its  dates  fictitious,  and  its  facts  enveloped  in  fable ; but  it 
 dawned  upon  them  that  the  very  construction  of  the  lan- 
 guage itself  would  afford  a date  or  fixed  point,  from  which 
 the  successive  variations  of  its  forms  and  alphabets  might 
 be  contemplated. 
 
 This  hope  has  not  been  disappointed,  for  by  researches 
 into  the  structure  and  affinities  of  language,  the  learned 
 have  not  only  been  assisted  in  their  labour  of  marshalling 
 Sanskrit  writings  into  chronological  groups,  but  they  have 
 become  convinced  that  the  Sanskrit  language  is  the  parent 
 of  all  other  classic  tongues.  Somewhere  in  Central  Asia 
 they  place  a primeval  nursery,  or  great  cradle,  in  which 
 infant  nations  lisped  in  infant  Sanskrit.  From  age  to  age 
 emigrants  or  colonies  wandered  forth  from  this  depot,  and, 
 as  centuries  rolled  on,  were  fashioned  into  Greeks,  Latins, 
 Slaves,  Celts,  etc.,  each  developing  its  own  peculiar  language 
 from  the  original  Sanskrit  germ.  At  length  Persians  and 
 Hindus  alone  w ere  left  to  cultivate  their  common  language, 
 and  bear  the  name  of  Aryan, — a name  which  the  Persians 
 long  retained,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  inscriptions  at  Nakshi 
 
LITERATURE . 
 
 39 
 
 Rustam.  Lastly,  the  Hindus  quitted  the  original  Aryuvurta, 
 or  home  of  Aryans,  travelled  to  the  East,  and  settled  them- 
 selves in  India. 
 
 Some  years  ago  the  possessors  of  the  oldest  Aryan  lan- 
 guage woidd  have  been  allowed  undisputed  claim  to  the 
 earliest  civilization ; hut  now  Egypt  claims  a pre-Mosaic 
 history,  and  Scythic  Nineveh  dates  her  prosperity  Hi?,  previous 
 to  2231  B.c.  India  must  therefore  limit  her  pretensions 
 to  being  the  earliest  heathen  nation  in  the  field  of  litera- 
 ture. Sanskrit  hymns  are  extant  in  rude  and  rugged  lan- 
 guage, which  the  Pentateuch  alone  surpasses  in  antiquity ; 
 cut  away  from  the  mainland  of  Hindu  literature,  these  col- 
 lected hymns,  called  Vedas,  loom  ont  of  the  distance,  like 
 headland  rocks  which  the  sea  has  separated  from  the  neigh- 
 bouring coast.  Mixch  beauty  or  sublimity  must  not  be 
 expected  in  this  unearthed,  insular  kind  of  literature,  but 
 it  tells  of  customs  and  modes  of  worship  nowhere  else  ex- 
 plained, and  it  is  therefore  indispensable  to  a right  appre- 
 ciation of  the  genius  of  antiquity. 
 
 Upon  leaving  the  Vedas  we  must  leap  over  several  cen- 
 turies, and  then  plunge  into  the  Brahmanical  literature  so 
 much  admired  by  Sir  William  Jones.  The  ancient  Brah- 
 mans are  well  known  to  have  shown  no  small  favour  to  class 
 interests ; bnt  although  selfish  they  were  philosophic,  full 
 of  deep  thought,  poetry,  and  a sublime  belief  in  immortality. 
 Beneath  their  jealous  infiuence  kings  had  little  power,  vil- 
 lages governed  themselves,  learnirig  and  the  industrial  arts 
 flourished,  and  even  religion  possessed  a freedom  and  energy 
 unknown  to  India’s  later  days.  This  sidjject  will  be  treated 
 in  successive  chapters,  elucidating  life  in  old  Brahmanical 
 India,  by  a reference  to  the  literature  which  preceded  the 
 Macedonian  invasion. 
 
40 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 Book  II.  treats  of  Buddhism,  a religion  which  bears  an 
 external  perverted  kind  of  resemblance  to  Christianity, 
 giving  a peculiar  interest  to  the  circumstances  under  which 
 it  was  developed.  Originating  in  India  as  a reform,  it  pro- 
 duced no  general  sensation  until  about  three  centuries  after 
 the  death  of  its  founder,  when,  during  one  long  prosperous 
 reign,  it  was  adopted  as  the  state  religion.  To  Brahmans 
 liow'ever  ive  shall  find  it  was  utterly  repulsive;  through 
 their  influence  it  was  ultimately  banished  from  its  native 
 country,  and  to  this  day  it  is  rejected  by  every  Aryan 
 nation. 
 
 Book  III.  returns  to  Brahmanism,  giving  a notice  of  the 
 Poems,  Dramas,  and  Puranas, — beautiful,  absurd,  fanciful, 
 — wdiich  w ere  produced  subsequent  to  the  era  of  Alexander 
 the  Great.  This  brings  our  review  down  to  the  time  Avhen 
 the  jVIohammcdans  began  their  conquests  in  the  country, 
 at  which  period  this  Work  concludes,  after  a short  inquiry 
 as  to  the  success  which  attended  Brahmanical  regulations 
 and  Buddhist  theories. 
 
BOOK.  I 
 
 INDIA  PREVIOUS  TO  ALEXANDER  THE  GREAT. 
 
 “ Zeus  was  uot  an  invention  of  Homer,  Jupiter  was 
 not  borrowed  from  Greece.  . . . Long  before  the  Arians 
 immigrated  into  Greece  and  Italy  they  worshipped  the 
 same  God  under  the  same  name.  . . . Brahmans  who  mi- 
 grated towards  the  south  invoked  him  along  the  rivers  of  the 
 Punjab.” — Dr.  Hax  Mvller,  Edin.  Eeview,  Oct.  1851. 
 
I would  not  harslilv  scorn,  lest  even  there 
 I spm-n’d  some  element  of  Cliristian  prayer, 
 
 An  aim,  though  erring,  at  a world  ayont : 
 Acknowledgment  of  good,  of  man’s  futUity, 
 
 A sense  of  need  and  weakness,  and  indeed 
 
 That  very  tiling  so  many  Christians  want — Humility. 
 
 Thomas  IIood. 
 
 AViien  first  the  British  went  to  India^  religious  Hiutlus 
 thought  it  sacrilege  to  allotv  uubelieviiig  Christians  even 
 to  look  upon  their  sacred  books,  and  in  consequence  the 
 A edas  long  enjoyed  that  mysterious  reputation  which  ap- 
 
42 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 pertains  to  unseen  authorities.  Sir  William  Jones  pene- 
 trated little  hejmnd  modern  versions  of  particular  passages ; 
 and  even  Mr.  Colebrooke,  who  did  much  towards  winning 
 the  confidence  of  the  Pundits,  was  far  from  obtaining  any 
 complete  knowledge  of  these  works.  Nevertheless  up  to  a 
 very  recent  period  Mr.  Colebrooke  has  been  the  first  autho- 
 rity upon  this  subject,  and  his  Essays  are  referred  to  and 
 quoted  by  every  writer  on  the  Vedas,  whether  in  India, 
 Germany,  France,  or  England.  He  has  translated  short 
 fragments  and  made  abstracts  of  larger  portions,  which  are 
 highly  valued,  as  being  accurate  and  free  from  unjust  bias, 
 lie  does  not  adopt  Scripture  language  to  convey  the  mean- 
 ing of  the  Sanskrit  words ; nor  does  he,  on  the  other  hand, 
 view  these  early  religious  impressions  through  the  me- 
 dium of  European  prejudice,  an  error  of  which  the  mis- 
 sionary author,  Mr.  M^ard,  cannot  be  acquitted.  Gradually 
 complete  copies  of  these  venerable  books  were  obtained  in 
 India,  and  lodged  in  the  public  libraries  of  London,  Ox- 
 ford, France,  and  Germany,  where,  for  a long  series  of 
 years,  they  have  in  each  country  received  the  attention  of 
 distinguished  scholars.  The  four  Vedas  were  formerly  sup- 
 posed to  be  equally  old  and  equally  original ; but  now  it  is 
 ascertained  that  whilst  the  hymns  of  which  the  Rig-Veda 
 consists  rank  “as  amongst  the  oldest  extant  records  of 
 the  ancient  world,”*  the  Sama  Veda  merely  gives  extracts 
 from  these  hymns  arranged  for  w'orship,  the  Yajur  Veda 
 contains  hymns  of  later  date,  mixed  with  repetitions  of  the 
 early  specimens,  and  the  Atharva  Veda  is  a much  later 
 compilation,  consisting  of  formularies  required  on  certain 
 rare  occasions. 
 
 Rig-Yefla  Sanhita,  II.  II.  Wilson,  Introd.,  ji.  xlviii. 
 
THE  VEDAS. 
 
 !3 
 
 The  language  used  iu  the  Vedas  differs  very  cousiderahly, 
 as  already  noticed^  from  the  Sanskrit  of  general  literature ; 
 and  Mr.  Stevenson,  of  Bombay,  notieed  in  the  Sama  Veda 
 two  thousand  words  not  admitted  in  the  second  edition  of 
 Wilson’s  Sanskrit  dictionary.*  The  use  of  an  eight-syllable 
 metre  is  also  adduced  as  a sign  of  antiquity  ;f  and  for  these 
 and  other  reasons  the  age  attributed  to  the  Rig- Veda  is 
 1200  or  1400  b.c.  What  religious  opinions  prevailed  at  so 
 remote  a period  was  long  a mystery ; but  the  early  enthu- 
 siasts for  Sanskrit  conceived  that  monotheism  was  India’s 
 first  belief.  Sir  William  Jones  was  told  that  the  daily 
 prayer  called  Gayatri  was  an  address  to  the  Sun,  taken 
 from  the  V edas ; and  obtaining  a copy  and  explanations 
 from  a Pundit  (or  learned  Hindu),  he  gave  the  following 
 rendering,  heading  it — 
 
 “ The  Indian  Philosophers’  Belief. X 
 “ Let  us  adore  the  supremacy  of  that  divine  Sun  (opposed  to  the 
 visible  luminary),  the  Godhead  who  illuminates  all,  who  recreates 
 all,  from  whom  all  proceed,  to  whom  all  must  return,  whom  we  in- 
 voke to  direct  our  rmderstandings  aright  in  our  progress  towards 
 his  holy  seat.” 
 
 This  may  happily  give  the  views  of  rare  philosophers,  such 
 as  the  lamented  Rammohun  Roy,  but  it  is  not  the  doctrine 
 of  the  ancient  Vedas;  and  of  this  all  students  will  soon  be 
 competent  to  judge,  for  translations  of  the  several  Vedas 
 are  in  progress  iu  England,  France,  and  Germany. 
 
 Mr.  Colebrooke  gives  the  Gayatri  thus  : — 
 
 “ Let  us  meditate  on  the  adorable  light  of  the  divine  Euler  (Savi- 
 tri).  May  it  guide  our  intellects  ! Desirous  of  food,  we  solicit  the 
 
 * Mr.  Stevenson’s  Introduction  to  the  Sama  Veda, 
 f Elphinstone,  Hist.  India,  p.  37  ; Hist.  Sketch  of  Sanskrit,  7,  09. 
 t Works  of  Su’  W.  Jones,  vol.  vi.  quarto. 
 
44 
 
 LIl'E  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 gift  of  the  splendid  Sun  (Savitri),  who  should  bo  studiously  wor- 
 shipped. Venerable  men,  guided  by  the  understanding,  salute  the 
 divine  Sun  (Savitri)  with  oblations  and  praise.”* 
 
 Dr.  Stevenson  presents  the  following  from  the  Saraa 
 Veda ; — 
 
 “We  arc  sustained  by  the  superexcellent  provisions  furnished  us 
 by  the  resplendent  Sun.  May  he  prosper  our  sacred  rites  ! ”f 
 
 And  lastly,  Professor  Wilson  translates  it : — 
 
 “ Let  us  meditate  on  the  sacred  light  of  that  divine  Sun,  that  it 
 may  illuminate  our  minds.” 
 
 And  this  last  rendering  may  he  considered  as  correct,  both 
 in  text  and  translation,  as  human  sagacity  can  make  it. 
 It  recognizes  spiritual  light,  but  it  is  vague  and  indistinct. 
 Sir  William  Jones  assumed  too  much,  and,  amid  the  wil- 
 ful confusion  of  the  dates  given  to  him  by  his  Pundits, 
 could  not  always  distinguish  the  limits  of  India’s  first  or 
 Vedic  era;  but  now  correct  translations  and  comments 
 have  thrown  open  the  subject,  and  such  inaccuracy  would 
 no  longer  be  excusable. 
 
 Professor  Wilson  observes  that  the  Sun,  Surya  or  Savi- 
 tri, occupies  a less  conspicuous  place  in  Hindu  worship  than 
 might  have  been  anticipated ; only  three  Suktas  in  the 
 First  Book  are  addressed  to  him  individually,  and  these 
 “ convey  no  very  strikingly  expressive  acknowledgment  of 
 his  supremacy.”  § But  although  Sun-worship  was  not  pro- 
 minent, the  Hindus  loved  light  and  even  warmth,  and  the 
 Sun,  the  ray-diffuser,”  and  Agni,  as  light,  heat,  and  fire, 
 call  forth  their  liest  affections.  The  expressions  of  the 
 Hindu  poets  in  their  hymns  to  these  deities  show  careful 
 
 * Colebrooke’s  Essays,  vol.  i.  p.  30.  f Introduction  to  tlic  Saina  Veda, 
 t Oxford  Lectures,  p.  15.  § Rig- Veda,  Tntrod.  p.  xxxii. 
 
THE  RIG-VEDA. 
 
 4-5 
 
 and  loAHiig  observation  of  Nature ; “ -white  as  the  sun”  gives 
 a truth  vrhich  can  scarcely  be  appreciated  by  those  -who 
 have  not  experienced  the  striking  absence  of  colour  in  the 
 intense  light  of  a summer  day  in  India.  The  solar  ray 
 is  called  “ deep- quivering,  life-besto-wing  j ” and  the  Sun  is 
 “ bright-haired”  and  golden-handed,”  that  is,  the  giver  of 
 abundance,  Agni  is  the  “golden-haired,”  and  both  alike 
 are  regarded  as  emblems  of  purity.  The  Sun,  Sa\-itri,  is 
 said  to  come  “from  a distance,  removing  all  sins;”*  or  the 
 divine  Sun  is  entreated  to  remove  the  “ sickness  of  the 
 heart”  and  “the  yellowness  of  the  body.”  The  following 
 address,  translated  by  INIr.  Griffith  of  Oxford,  may  be  taken 
 as  a fair  specimen  of  the  higher  spiritual  perceptions  proper 
 to  this  era. 
 
 HYMN  TO  THE  SUN. 
 
 “ Eisen  in  majestic  blaze, 
 
 Lo  ! the  Universe’s  eye, 
 
 Vast  and  wondrous,  host  of  rays, 
 Sliinetli  brightly  in  the  sky. 
 
 Soul  of  all  that  moveth  not. 
 
 Soul  of  all  that  moves  below ; 
 Lighteth  he  earth’s  gloomiest  spot, 
 .iVnd  the  heavens  are  all  aglow ! 
 
 “ See ! he  foUoweth  the  dawn, 
 BriUiant  in  her  path  above : 
 
 As  a youth,  by  beauty  drawn. 
 Seeks  the  maiden  of  liis  love ! 
 Holy  men  and  pious  Sages 
 Worship  now  the  glorious  Sun ; 
 For  by  rites,  ordain’d  for  ages , 
 Shall  a good  reward  be  won. 
 
 * Hymn  xxxv.,  p.  98. 
 
4G 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 III. 
 
 “ Look ! his  horses,  mounted  high, 
 Good  of  limb,  and  swift  and  strong. 
 In  the  forehead  of  the  sky. 
 
 Bun  their  course  the  heavens  along ! 
 Praises  to  his  steeds  be  given, 
 Eacing  o’er  the  road  of  heaven  ! 
 
 IV. 
 
 “ Such  the  majesty  and  power. 
 
 Such  the  glory  of  the  Sun : 
 
 AMieu  he  sets  at  evening  hour. 
 
 The  worker  leaves  his  task  undone. 
 His  steeds  are  loosed,  and  over  all 
 Spreadeth  Night  her  gloomy  pall. 
 
 “ When  he  rides  in  noontide  glow. 
 Blazing  in  the  nation’s  sight. 
 
 The  skies  his  boundless  glory  show. 
 And  his  majesty  of  hght ; 
 
 And  when  he  sets,  his  absent  might 
 Is  felt  in  thickening  shades  of  night. 
 
 VI. 
 
 “ Hear  us,  O ye  Gods,  this  daj^ ! 
 
 Hear  us  graciously,  we  pray  ! 
 
 As  the  Sun  his  state  begins. 
 
 Free  us  from  all  heinous  sins. 
 
 IMitra,  Yarun,  Aditi! 
 
 Hear,  O hear  us  graciously ! 
 
 Powers  of  ocean,  earth,  and  air. 
 
 Listen,  hsten  to  our  prayer ! ” 
 
 The  charm  of  a fresh  morning  after  a night  in  India 
 is  expressed  by  a personification  of  Sunrise,  or  Dawn,  as 
 Ushas.  ^‘Born  in  the  eastern  quarter  of  the  firmament, 
 she  displays  a banner  of  rays  of  light ; ” “ The  noble  and 
 
THE  RIG-VEDA. 
 
 47 
 
 all-pervading  Ushas  has  risen  from  darkness^  bringing 
 health  to  human  habitations;”  '‘Thebeloved  Ushas  scat- 
 ters darkness  from  the  sky;”  "The  many-tinted  Dawn 
 opens  our  doors,  makes  our  riches  manifest ; ” " The  ex- 
 pansive Ushas  has  given  back  all  regions.” 
 
 *•  She  hath  dwelt  in  heaven  of  old, 
 
 May  we  now  her  light  behold ! 
 
 Which,  dawning  brightly  from  afar, 
 
 Stirreth  up  the  harness’d  car, 
 
 Like  as  merchant-folk  for  gain 
 Send  their  ships  across  the  main. 
 
 “ Morning  comes,  the  nurse  of  all, 
 
 Like  a matron,  at  whose  call 
 All  that  dwell  the  house  within 
 Their  appointed  task  begin.”* 
 
 IMore  than  once  it  is  observed  that  the  dawning  of  Ushas 
 wakens  the  birds ; and,  lastly,  it  " causes  the  sacred  fire  to 
 be  kindled,  and  men  to  prepare  for  sacrifice.”  And  this 
 brings  us  to  the  reverence  paid  to  fire  in  these  hymns.  The 
 first  act  of  a pious  Hindu,  Avhen  awakened  in  the  morning, 
 was  to  invoke  "the  smoke-bannered  Agni  (fire);”  "The 
 protector  of  the  worship  of  the  worshipper  at  the  break  of 
 day.”  The  earliest  w'ord  for  God,  we  must  remember,  ex- 
 pressed light  above,  and  in  accordance  with  this  feeling  Ave 
 find  "resplendent  Agni”  regarded  as  a type  or  form  of 
 deity.  The  sacrificial  fire  was  kindled  and  cherished  as 
 heavenly  light  come  down  to  dwell  Avith  man.  " The  Gods 
 left  Agni,”  says  one  of  their  hymns,  "as  a dear  fi’iend 
 amongst  the  human  races,  present  in  the  chamber  of  sacri- 
 
 * Specimens  of  Old  Indian  Poetry,  by  E.  T.  GrifHtli,  vol.  i.,  Hymn  xlviii. 
 of  Rig-Veda. 
 
48 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 fice.’^*  Agni  is  like  a “ benevolent  man : be  gives  “ hap- 
 
 piness in  a dwelling  like  a son  (newly  born) ; he  abides  on 
 earth  like  a prince  with  bis  faithful  friends;”  and  “men 
 sit  in  his  presence  like  sons  in  the  dwelling  of  a parent 
 Agni  is  also  more  refined  than  many  of  the  deities  of  this 
 era.  In  purity  he  resembles  an  irreproachable  and  be- 
 loved wife,  and  with  exquisite  grace  he  is  described  as 
 ornamenting  the  chamber  of  sacrifice  as  a woman  adorns  a 
 dwelling. 
 
 But  Agni,  although  much  beloved,  was  nevertheless  but 
 a vague  indefinite  idea.  Sometimes  simply  as  fire  he 
 tosses  about  his  flames  like  rushing  rivers,  and  roaring  like 
 the  resounding  billows  of  the  ocean;  often  he  is  a mes- 
 senger between  earth  and  heaven,  sent  as  a prince  who  has 
 become  a friend  sends  an  ambassador  to  his  more  powerful 
 conqueror.  At  one  time  he  sustains  the  earth,  and  studs 
 the  sky  with  constellations;  at  another  he  is  born  from 
 dry  wood,  or  created  by  rubbing  one  piece  of  wood  upon 
 another ; — 
 
 “ Thou  to  whom  the  wood  gives  birth, 
 Tliou  that  callest  Gods  to  earth, 
 
 Call  tliem  that  we  may  adore  tliem, 
 Sacred  gi’ass  is  ready  for  them. 
 
 “ ^Messenger  of  Gods  art  thou ; 
 
 Call  them,  Agni,  call  them  now ! 
 
 Fain  our  offerings  would  they  taste  ; ■ 
 Agni,  hid  them  come  in  haste. 
 
 * Eig-Veda,  vol.  ii.  pp.  11,  7 ; Ibid.  vol.  {.  pp.  123,  78,  297. 
 t Wilson’s  Eig-Ycda,  vol.  ii.  p.  280. 
 t Ibid.  vol.  i.  pp.  18-1,  191,  195,  179. 
 
 ■\.  * 
 
AGXI. 
 
 J<) 
 
 “ Brilliant  Agni ! lo,  to  thee 
 Pour  vre  ofierings  of  ghee ; 
 
 Oh,  for  this  consume  our  foes 
 ho  on  demons’  aid  repose ! 
 
 “ Praise  him  iu  the  sacrifice, 
 
 Agni,  ever  young  and  wise ! 
 
 Glorious  in  his  light  is  he. 
 
 Healer  of  all  malady. 
 
 • “ Purifying,  brilliant  Fire  ! 
 
 Hear,  great  Agni,  our  desire ! 
 
 Be  thy  care  the  Gods  to  bring 
 Hither  to  our  offering.”* 
 
 Agui  was,  as  we  have  seen,  a very  variable  eharacter, 
 sometimes  acting  the  part  of  Hotri,  as  he  calls  the  Gods 
 to  sacrifice ; sometimes  accepting  offerings  on  his  own  be- 
 half, but  also  indicating  powers  of  piu-ity,  remo\ing  sin  and 
 granting  health,  and  strengthening  our  affection  for  the 
 Gods  of  Light. 
 
 Connected  with  Sun-worship  are  two  hymns  in  honour 
 of  the  Horse  Sacrifice,  called  Aswamedha.  The  horse  is  a 
 mystical  horse,  “ sprung  from  the  Gods,”  “ fabricated  from 
 the  sun.”  The  actual  sacrifice  w'as  probably  a custom 
 belonging  to  the  Hindus’  earlier  home  iu  Northern  Asia, 
 where  the  Scythians  and  !Massagetse  are  known  to  have 
 offered  horses  to  the  sun;  and  later,  when  treated  as  an 
 emblematic  ceremony,  the  mythical  horse  typified  the  Sun, 
 and  the  Sun  typified  the  universal  soul.  The  hymns  de- 
 scribe the  horse  as  “ bathed  and  decorated  with  rich 
 trappings,  the  variously- coloured  goat  going  before  him.” 
 Tliree  times  he  is  led  round  the  sacrificial  fire ; he  is  bound 
 
 V 
 
 * Spepimens  of  Old  Indian  Poetry,  by  R.  T.  Griffith. 
 
 E 
 
50 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 to  a post  ami  immolated  l)y  an  axe,  and  the  flesh  is  roasted 
 on  a spit,  boiled,  made  into  balls  and  eaten,  and  finally — 
 
 “ Tlie  horse  proceeds  to  that  assembly  ivhich  is  most  excellent : 
 
 To  the  presence  of  his  father  and  his  mother  (heaven  and  earth). 
 Go  (horse,)  today  rejoicing  to  the  Gods,  that  (the  sacrifice)  may 
 yield  blessings  to  the  donor.”* 
 
 This  eeremony  was  afterwards  performed  symbolieally, 
 and  is  alluded  to  in  Upanisliads  and  Brabmanas  (wliieh  are 
 treatises  attaebed  to  tlie  Vedas),  as  a ceremony  of  peeuliar 
 solemnity  and  deep  significance,  and  one  wbicb  is  supposed 
 to  procure  universal  dominion.  In  the  very  much  later 
 Avritings  called  Puranas  the  rite  is  altogether  travestied  : 
 a mortal  rajah  there  performs  the  sacrifice  in  oi’der  to  de- 
 throne the  God  Indra;  and  it  is  upon  this  version  of  the 
 story,  that  Southey  constructed  his  ‘ Curse  of  Kehama,’ — 
 correctly  enough.  Professor  Wilson  observes,  according  to 
 the  authorities  Avhich  he  folloAved,  “ but  the  main  object 
 of  the  ceremony,  the  deposal  of  Indra  from  the  throne  of 
 Swarga  and  the  elevation  of  the  Sacrificer  after  a hun- 
 dred celebrations  to  that  rank,  are  fictions  of  a later  date, 
 uncountenanced  by  the  Veda.”t 
 
 The  Avorship  of  Light,  Avith  which  this  ceremony  was  first 
 connected,  began  before  the  Hindus  entered  India ; Avhereas 
 Indra  Avas  a local  deity  of  strictly  Indian  origin.  Indra 
 is  a “ personification  of  the  phenomena  of  the  firmament, 
 particularly  in  the  capacity  of  sending  doAvn  rain.”  He 
 personifies  the  sky  or  the  atmosphere,  and  may  be  called 
 the  God  of  Clouds  and  Storms.  He  is  iiiAmkcd  to  strike 
 the  demon  Vritra,  avIio  Avithholds  the  periodical  rains,  upon 
 Avhich  the  fertility  of  the  country  depends. 
 
 * Kifj-Vecla,  vol.  ii.  p.  112.  f Ihid.,  vol.  ii.,  Tiitrocl.  p.  xii. 
 
INDRA. 
 
 5] 
 
 In  the  month  of  INIay  the  heat  in  India  becomes  intense  : 
 vegetation  is  dried  up,  the  crops  cannot  be  sown,  the  cattle 
 droop,  and  milk  and  butter  become  scarce.  Famine  or 
 plenty  depends  upon  the  expected  rains,  and  the  daily  ga- 
 thering of  the  sky  is  watched  with  intense  anxiety;  hut 
 although  the  array  of  clouds  is  constantly  enlarging,  there 
 is  no  rain  until  a rattling  thunderstorm  charges  the  ranks 
 and  the  broken  clouds  let  loose  the  impetuous  showers 
 “This,”  says  the  Veda,  “is  Indra,  who  comes  Houd  shout- 
 ing ’ in  his  car,  and  hurls  his  thunderbolt  at  the  demon  (or 
 demon-shaped  cloud,  called)  Vritra.” 
 
 “ He  strikes  off  the  head  of  the  earth-shaking  Vritra  with  liis 
 rain-causing,  hundred-spiked  Vagra  (thunderbolt).  His  might  has 
 been  gloriously  displayed,  and  Indra  rolls  up  and  spreads  out  both 
 heaven  and  earth  as  men  do  a skin  carpet.”* 
 
 To  do  full  justice  to  Indra’s  battle  with  Vritra  a storm 
 should  be  witnessed  from  a lofty  hill  in  Western  India,  the 
 thick  black  clouds  coursing  over  the  distant  plains,  the  light- 
 ning darting  into  them  from  the  electric  vapour  above,  and 
 the  torrents  of  rain  discharged  in  consequence.  These  be- 
 neficent storms  are  always  preceded  by  sudden  wind,  an- 
 nounced by  rushing  sounds  and  whirlwinds  of  dust,  which 
 are  Indra’s  attendant  allies  the  Maruts,  “ at  whose  roaring 
 every  dweller  upon  earth  shakes.” 
 
 Indra  recovered  the  cattle  of  the  “ Sacrificers  ” when  the 
 robber  Vala  had  hidden  them  in  a cave ; and  other  rough 
 deeds  he  performed  for  his  worshippers,  who  praise  him 
 for  being  “ strong  as  a twice-twisted  rope ; ” they  represent 
 him  as  young  and  handsome,  with  a beautiful  nose  or  chin, 
 
 * Stevenson,  Sama-Veda,  p.  251  anr^  note. 
 
 E 2 
 
52 
 
 LIFE  IN  AXCIENT  IXDIA. 
 
 wearing  two  golden  earrings,  ever  joyous,  and  delighting  in 
 exhilarating  draughts  of  the  Soma-jiiice. 
 
 “Eejoice,  ludra!  open  thy  jaws,  set  wide  th}' throat,  be  pleased 
 with  our  oblations ! 
 
 “ Drinker  of  the  Soma-juice,  wielder  of  the  thunderbolt ! bestow 
 upon  us  abundance  of  cows  with  projecting  jaws  ! 
 
 “ Thy  swift  horses,  Indra,  have  uttered  a loud  sound  announcing 
 rain ; the  level  earth  anxiously  expects  its  fiill. 
 
 “ The  mighty  Indra  has  shattered  the  guileful  Vritra  reposing  in 
 the  cloud : heaven  and  earth  shook,  alarmed  at  the  thundering  bolt 
 of  the  showerer.  Drinking  the  Soma-juice,  he  (Indra)  baffled  the 
 devices  of  the  guileful  Danava. 
 
 “ Drink,  hero,  Indra,  drink  the  Soma  ! 
 
 “ Indra,  hero,  exulting  in  the  solemn  rites,  quaff  the  Soma-juice, 
 and,  repeatedly  shaking  it  from  thy  heard,  repair  to  the  drinking  of 
 the  effused  libation.” 
 
 Some  of  the  ^^edic  hymns  would  lead  one  to  suppose  that 
 to  kindle  fire  on  the  altar  was  the  duty  to  which  man  first 
 awoke;  but  other  passages  speak  of  fire  as  “constantly 
 kindled”  in  the  house  of  a pious  worshipper,  and  it  is 
 therefore  probable  that  he  only  gave  “ fresh  vital  air”  to  the 
 flames  at  sunrise,  and  then  made  his  offering  of  ghee  or 
 butter  to  whichever  God  he  desired  to  invoke ; but  when 
 the  soma-juice  was  presented,  a public  ceremonial  called  a 
 Soma-yaga  appears  to  have  been  held.  On  these  occasions 
 an  additional  fire  was  kindled,  by  means  of  a species  of 
 cburn  made  of  acacia,  called  arani  wood  : one  piece  of  the 
 wood  was  drilled  into  the  other,  and  the  upright  piece 
 pulled  by  a loose  string,  after  the  fashion  by  which  Hindus 
 make  butter.  In  one  address  to  Indra  he  is  entreated  to 
 come  “when  they  bind  the  churuing-staft’  (with  a cord), 
 like  reins  to  restrain  (a  horse) .”  A large  shed  was  con- 
 structed, called  the  Yajna-sdid.  Seven  priests  attended. 
 
OFFElUNCi  OF  SOMA-JUICE. 
 
 53 
 
 each  having  a distinct  title  and  office;  the  Rishi,  or  Raja^ 
 at  whose  expense  the  festival  was  given^  acting  as  Hotri,  or 
 invoker.  At  a daily  morning  sacrifice  only  two  persons  arc 
 mentioned  as  officiating, — the  Purohita,  who  superintended, 
 and  the  Hotri,  who  invoked  the  Gods.  The  Sama-Veda 
 gives  hymns  from  the  Rig- Veda,  arranged  in  a ritual,  to 
 be  used  on  these  occasions,  and  the  priests  arc  exhorted  to 
 sing  the  birth  of  the  Gods  and  the  praise  of  the  Gods  in 
 alternate  lays,  with  a sound  as  regular  as  that  of  the  drip- 
 ping of  the  soma-juice.  Very  little  allusion  is  made  to  ani- 
 mal sacrifices,  but  they  were  probably  not  unknown,  for  the 
 priests  are  to  make  as  much  noise  as  “ dogs  driven  away 
 hungry  from  a sacrifice.”  The  soma-juice  was  at  any  rate 
 the  more  important  portion  of  the  offering;  the  plants 
 were  gathered  on  the  hills  by  moonlight,  and  brought  home 
 in  carts  drawn  by  rams.  “ Indra,”  it  is  said,  “ found  this 
 treasure  from  heaven,  hidden  like  the  nestlings  of  a bird  in 
 a rock,  amidst  a pile  of  vast  rocks,  enclosed  by  bushes ;” 
 the  stalks  are  bruised  with  stones,  and  placed  with  the 
 juice  in  a strainer  of  goats’ -hair,  and  are  further  squeezed 
 by  the  priest’s  ten  fingers,  ornamented  by  rings  of  flattened 
 gold.  Lastly,  the  juice,  mixed  with  barley  and  clarified 
 butter,  ferments,  and  is  then  drawn  off  in  a scoop  for  the 
 Gods,  and  a ladle  for  the  priests,  and  then  they  say  to  Indra, 
 “ Thy  inebriety  is  most  intense,  nevertheless  thy  acts  are 
 most  beneficent.” 
 
 Sometimes  Indra  is  addressed  in  a more  spiritual  strain. 
 “ One  man,”*  says  Agastya,  “propitiates  him  with  sacri- 
 fice, another  worships  with  mind  averted  : to  the  first  he  is 
 like  a lake  to  a thirsty  traveller ; to  the  other,  like  an  ever- 
 * Rig- Veda,  vol.  ii.  p.  165. 
 
54 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 lengthening  road.”  Indra  does  not  vary  so  much  in  cha- 
 racter as  Agni,  but  he  also  is  sometimes  recognized  as 
 Creator  of  the  universe,  as  “ he  who  fixed  firm  the  moving 
 earth,  who  tranquillized  the  incensed  mountains,  who  spread 
 the  spacious  firmament,”*  or  “ fixed  the  heaven  in  unsup- 
 ported (space) ,”  and  “ measured  the  eastern  (quarters)  with 
 measures  like  a chamber  ;”f  but  in  this  grand  hymn  the 
 individuality  of  Indra  is  retained  by  the  closing  words  of 
 each  verse : “ In  the  exhilaration  of  the  Soma,  Indra  has 
 done  these  deeds.” 
 
 Indra  is  occasionally  called  upon  to  share  his  “ soma  ^vine” 
 and  “ sacrificial  food”  with  his  allies  the  Maruts  (winds) ; 
 but  to  this  he  objects,  asking,  “ Who  attracts  them,  w'an- 
 dering  like  kites  in  the  mid-air  ?”  “ Sacred  rites,”  Indra 
 
 continues,  ^^are  mine;  pi’aises  give  me  pleasure,  libations 
 are  for  me ; I am  fierce  and  strong  and  mighty,  and  have 
 bowed  down  all  mine  enemies  with  death-dealing  shafts ;” 
 — the  Maruts  assert  that  it  was  with  their  aid,  and  thus  au 
 innovation  or  dissent  from  the  older  worship  is  implied.  J 
 
 But  whether  pi’esented  to  Indra  alone,  or  to  Indra  and 
 the  Maruts  conjointly,  soma  wine  was  the  coveted  offering, 
 and  this  is  an  important  fact  in  determining  the  locality 
 of  the  Hindus  in  the  time  of  the  Rig-Veda.  The  Soma 
 is  a round,  smooth,  twining  plant,  not  to  be  found  in  rich 
 soils,  as  we  learn  from  Dr.  Royle,  but  is  peculiar  to  tlic 
 mountains  in  the  west  of  India,  the  desert  to  the  north 
 of  Delhi,  and  the  mountains  of  the  Bolan  Pass.§  The  Rig- 
 
 * Rig-Vecla,  vol.  ii.  p.  236.  Tlie  scholiast  explains  that  he  “ quieted  the 
 mountains,  going  liither  and  tliither  as  long  as  they  had  w-ings  : Inth’a  cut 
 them  oil'.” 
 
 t Rig-Veda,  vol.  ii.  p.  245.  t Ih/d.,  vol.  ii.  p.  146. 
 
 § Lecture  on  the  Results  of  the  Great  Exhibition,  p.  456,  nofe. 
 
FIRST  LOCATION  OF  THK  HINDUS. 
 
 DO 
 
 ^'^eda  could  not  therefore  have  been  composed  upon  the 
 Ganges ; its  hymns  tell  moreover  of  dense  forests  through 
 whieh  a path  is  made  by  the  “ fierce-blazing  Agni/’  who, 
 rushing  rapidly,  “leaves  a blaekened  track.’’ 
 
 “ Excited  by  the  wind,  and  roaring  loudly,  Agni  penetrates  amongst 
 the  timber.” 
 
 “ He  traverses  the  woods,  and  shears  the  hairs  of  the  earth.” 
 
 “ The  flame-weaponed  and  breeze-excited  Agni,  assailing  the  im- 
 exhaled  moisture  (of  the  trees),  rushes  triumphant  like  a bull ; all 
 are  afraid  of  him  as  he  flies  along.”* 
 
 Here  we  see  newly-arrived  settlers  setting  fire  to  the 
 woods  in  jMorth  American  fashion ; and  entering  from  the 
 north-west,  we  imagine  them  to  have  made  their  way  down 
 the  left  bank  of  the  Indus,  and  to  have  possessed  themselves 
 of  lauds  stretching  eastward  to  the  Aravalli  HiUs,  and 
 southward  to  the  sea : such  a location  appears  to  fulfil  the 
 conditions  required  by  the  hymns,  where  we  have  Prinee 
 Bhavyaf  “dwelling  upon  the  banks  of  the  Sindhuj”  and 
 within  sight,  undoubtedly,  were  mountains  and  caves  not 
 far  distant,  in  which  Vala  hid  the  eows  of  the  worshippers. 
 Indra,  in  battle,  wearing  armour,  is  said  to  “shine  like 
 the  peak  of  a mountain  seen  afar;”  his  impetuosity  is  com- 
 pared to  the  “rush  of  Avaters  down  a preeipice,”  and  his 
 golden  thunderbolt,  hurled  against  the  foe,  “ slept  not  on 
 the  mountain the  “ graceful  spotted  deer”  and  “ thirsty 
 deer”  also  iudieate  the  neighbourhood  of  hills,  whilst  the 
 prominent  place  which  these  singers  give  to  horses  is  ac- 
 counted for  by  their  possession  of  the  level  plains  of  Sindh 
 and  Kattiwar.  J The  Gods  are  compared  to  horses  : “ Indra 
 
 * Eig-Yeda,  vol.  i.  p.  156.  t Ihid.,  vol.  ii.  p.  17  ; vol.  i.  p.  320. 
 
 X The  horse  of  the  coiuitry  along  the  Ganges  is  a very  inferior  animal, 
 and  never  could  have  furnished  the  illustrations  of  the  Veda. — II.  II.  \V. 
 
oG 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 becomes  furious  as  a horse’s  tail,”  or  Agni  goes  to  re- 
 ceive offerings,  “delighted  as  a horse  goes  to  battle;”  and 
 distinction  is  made  between  “ rider-bearing  steeds”  and 
 “quick-moving,  prancing  steeds,  rapid  as  hawks,”  which 
 fly  through  the  air  yoked  to  cars.  Cars  and  chariots  are 
 continually  mentioned,  but  we  do  not  meet  with  official  cha- 
 rioteers. Indra  himself  drives  his  “ long-maned  steeds,” 
 and  Agni  harnesses  “ his  glossy-backed  coursers whereas 
 in  later  Sanskrit  literature  we  find  the  king  always  ac- 
 companied by  a driver,  according  to  the  Assyrian  custom 
 depicted  on  the  marbles  from  Nineveh.  One  passage  is 
 thought  to  indicate  that  their  horses  had  no  saddles,  and 
 another  that  they  had  the  Tatar  practice  of  milking  the 
 marcs.  “ A hundred  vigorous  steeds”  is  not  an  unusual 
 present  from  a generous  prince  to  a holy  man,  or  Rishi ; 
 one  of  whom  says  “he  accepted  gold,  horses,  and  bulls,” 
 and  then  proceeds,  “ Ten  chariots  drawn  by  bay  steeds,  and 
 carrying  my  wives,  stood  near  me ;”  “ Forty  bay  horses 
 harnessed  to  the  chariots,  lead  the  procession  in  front  of  a 
 thousand  followers :”  and  on  this  occasion  the  great  man’s 
 kinsmen  “ rub  down  the  high-spirited  steeds,  decorated 
 with  golden  trappings.”* 
 
 We  observe  a perpetual  dread  of  enemies  of  a race  unlike 
 their  own,  for  they  not  only  call  them  “ spider-like  sons  of 
 Danu,”  and  Dasyas  (robbers),  but  a “ /;/«c/c-sprung  host” 
 and  “ black  Asuras these  enemies  had  cities  and  kings, 
 and  worshipped  a god,  Nirritti,  who  is  dreaded  even  by  the 
 “ ?/’///7e-complexioncd  friends  of  Indra.” 
 
 “ Let  not  the  most  powerful  and  indesti’uctible  Nirritti  destroy 
 us  ; let  lier  perisli  with  our  (evil)  desires.” 
 
 * Rig- Veda,  vol.  ii.  ]i.  18;  vol.  i.  pp.  210,  211,  214. 
 
CIVILIZATION'. 
 
 Ot 
 
 “ Keep  far  from  us  Kirritti  with  unfriendly  looks,  and  liberate  us 
 from  whatever  sin  we  may  have  committed.”* 
 
 The  Hindus  call  themselves  Aryas,  and  although  less  is 
 said  of  cities  of  the  Arvas  than  of  cities  of  the  Dasyas, 
 they  Avere  not  a nomadic  people,  for  they  ‘‘mea.sure  the 
 land  with  a rod/^  “ plough  the  earth  for  barley/’  and  “ bring 
 home  the  produce  of  th.e\r  fields  in  carts.”-\  "We  also  find, 
 through  their  poetical  similes,  that  they  practised  many 
 of  the  arts  of  ci\olized  society.  A holy  man  at  the  bottom 
 of  a Avell  cries  out,  “ Cares  consume  me,  as  a rat  gnaws  a 
 weaver’s  thi’eads.”  In  other  passages,  “ Day  and  night, 
 like  two  famous  female  weavers,  interweave  the  extended 
 thread  or,  Night  envelopes  the  extended  (world)  like  (a 
 Avoman)  AveaA'ing  a garment.”  Earrings  and  finger-rings, 
 and  wheels  and  yokes  of  chariots,  are  made  of  gold ; and 
 gold  is  the  fuA'cimte  simile  for  the  rising  sun,  and  for  the 
 hair  of  Agni ; nor  were  they  less  acquainted  with  the  use 
 of  iron,  for  a singer  praises  ludra  as  eagerly  “ as  a carpen- 
 ter bends  the  pliant  metal  round  the  wheel/’  and  when 
 ’i  ispala,  wife  of  Khela,  had  her  foot  cut  oflP  “ like  the  Aving 
 of  a bu’d  in  an  engagement  by  night,”  the  Aswins  “ gave 
 her  an  iron  leg  that  she  might  walk,  the  hidden  treasure 
 of  the  enemy  being  the  object  of  the  conflict.” § 
 
 Nothing  is  said  of  money,  but  they  seem  to  have  used 
 coAvrie-shells  as  dice,  a frightened  man  being  compared  to  a 
 gamester,  who  fears  his  adversary  holding  the  four  coAvries, 
 until  they  are  throAvn.  Their  riches  they  “ hid  in  a chest, 
 a hill,  or  a well.”  This  is  still  the  custom  in  Western  India, 
 and  Avhen  the  English  took  possession  of  Poonah,  ten  lacs 
 of  rupees  belonging  to  the  Peshwa  AA'ere  found  built  into 
 
 * Eig-Yeihi,  vol.  i.  pp.  6'2,  107.  J Hid.,  vol.  ii.  p.  21K. 
 
 t Ibid.,  vol.  i.  pp.  56,  2S4-.  § Ibid.,  vol.  i.  p.  311. 
 
58 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 the  side  of  a well.  They  transacted  trade^  and  entreated 
 Indra  not  to  take  advantage’^  of  his  worshippers^  “like 
 a dealer.’^  Merchants  are  also  mentioned^  “ covetons  of 
 gain/^  whose  ships  “ crowd  the  ocean  but  no  foreign 
 products  appear  to  have  been  in  use.  \Yomen  are  but 
 casually  mentioned,  hut  enough  is  said  to  show  that  their 
 condition  was  free  and  natural  : the  wife  of  a chief  accom- 
 panies him  to  a midnight  foray ; the  wife  of  a hunter  “ cuts 
 up  and  divides  the  birds the  first  rays  of  morning  come 
 like  a matron,  awaking  the  household  to  their  duties.  From 
 other  passages  we  learn  that  women  appeared  in  public,  as 
 where  lightning  is  compared  to  a “splendidly  attired  wife 
 of  a man  of  rank,”  and  the  “ bushes  ” are  said  to  “ wave  to 
 and  fro  like  a woman  in  a chariot.”  A \drtuous  maiden 
 who  grows  old  in  her  father’s  house  claims  from  him  her 
 support.  “Thieves  are  frequently  mentioned,  debts  and 
 debtors  are  adverted  to,  and  reverses  of  fortune.”  Another 
 sign  of  social  progress  we  gain  from  their  knowledge  of 
 herbs  and  modes  of  medical  treatment ; “ ambrosia,”  says 
 a son  of  Kanwa,  “ is  in  the  waters  ;”  “ all  medicaments  arc 
 in  the  waters  ;”  thus  anticipating  some  three  thousand  years 
 ago  the  hydropathic  doctrine  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
 The  sick  man  however  expects  the  god  Agni  to  co-operate 
 with  the  waters : he  exclaims,  “ Take  away  whatever  sin  has 
 licen  found  in  me  ;”  “ May  Agni  abiding  in  the  waters  fill 
 me  with  vigour  !”*  The  \drtue  of  herbs  was  also  acknow- 
 ledged ; and  praying  to  Rudra,  called  the  chief  physician 
 amongst  physicians,  the  worshipper  says  : — 
 
 “ Nourished  by  tlie  sanatory  vegetables  bestowed  by  thee,  may 
 I live  a hundred  winters  !”f 
 
 Rig- Veda,  vol.  i.  p.  58. 
 
 t Ihkl.,  vol.  ii.  i>.  290. 
 
THE  ASWINS. 
 
 59 
 
 Rudra  is  an  uncertain  sort  of  deity,  sometimes  identified 
 appai’ently  A\  itli  Indra ; but  in  general,  medicine  is  practised 
 by  two  grotesque  personages,  called  the  Asudus ; they  are 
 brothers,  sons  of  the  Sun ; they  travel  in  a three-cornered, 
 tliree-wlieeled  car,  drawn  by  asses,  and  with  their  long  arms 
 concern  themselves  in  every  odd  legend  of  which  the  Veda 
 makes  mention  : half-comic  and  half-serious,  to  a holy  man 
 who  was  beheaded  for  revealing  to  them  forbidden  science, 
 they  gave  a horse’s  head,  and  stuck  it  on  his  shoulders  in 
 place  of  his  own ; the  lame  they  enabled  to  w’alk,  and  the 
 blind  to  see  j an  “ aged  man  they  restored  to  youth,  as  a 
 wheelwright  repairs  a worn-out  car one  man  they  brought 
 up  from  a Avell  of  water  in  which  he  lay  like  a jar  of  buried 
 gold ; “ another,  who  was  scorched  by  fire,  they  relieved 
 with  snow ; an  emaciated  cow  they  made  to  give  milk,  and 
 a field  of  barley  they  caused  to  be  soAvn.”  For  Yispala 
 they  made  an  iron  foot ; to  King  Pedu  they  gave  a white 
 horse  ensuring  victory,  and  from  the  hoof  of  another  steed 
 they  produced  a hundred  jars  of  wine.  For  their  friend 
 Divodasi  they  yoked  the  bull  and  the  tortoise,  and  carried 
 food  and  treasure  to  his  dwelling  in  a ear.*  Xot  less 
 strange  was  their  manner  of  assisting  Bhujyu,  aa  Iio  “ sailed 
 ill  a hundred- oared  ship he  Aveut  to  sea,  and  was  nearly 
 droAvned ; “ when  there  Avas  nothing  to  give  support,  nothing 
 to  rest  upon,  nothing  to  cling  to,”  then  AA^ent  the  AsAvins, 
 and  brought  him  back  “ in  vessels  of  their  oavu,  draAvn  by 
 six  horses  along  the  dry  bed  of  the  ocean. ”f  Our  con- 
 clusion is,  that  these  youthful  jirofessors  of  the  heahng 
 art  Avere  the  direct  progenitors  of  the  jugglers,  magieiaiis, 
 barbers,  and  quacks,  who  in  all  ages  have  been  celebrated 
 * Rig- Veda,  vol.  i,,  Hymns  cxii.  cxix.  t Ibid.,  a’oI.  i.  p.  307. 
 
GO 
 
 LIKE  IX  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 for  combining  drollery  and  sleight  of  hand,  i\itli  skill  in 
 surgery  and  knowledge  of  medicaments. 
 
 In  poetry  the  Hindus  undoubtedly  excelled,  but  the  mis- 
 fortune is,  that  those  who  cannot  read  Sanskrit  are  by  no 
 means  in  a position  to  do  them  justice.  The  third  book 
 of  the  llig-Yeda  is  said  to  be  incomparably  the  finest, 
 and  this  Professor  Wilson  has  not  yet  translated,  besides 
 which,  this  primitive  poetiy  is  said  to  have  a peculiar  faci- 
 lity of  escaping  under  the  process  of  translation  : perhaps 
 we  need  two  versions,  one  given  with  critical  accuracy, 
 and  another  in  the  imaginative  spirit  of  the  original.  To 
 sing  praises  was  early  an  ofticial  occupation,  and  to  “ recite 
 like  a bard  ” used  as  a simile.  Sacred  hymns  however  are 
 composed  by  Risbis  (holy  men),  chiefs,  or  patriai’chs,  whose 
 families  are  noted  in  Sanskrit  literature  even  down  to  the 
 Puranas,  two  thousand  years  later,  as  Angiras  and  the 
 Angirascs,  Kanwa  and  the  Kanwas,  Yiswamitra,  Yasishta, 
 and  others.  These  men  were  not  Brahmans,  nor  even  priests, 
 for  during  the  Rig-Yeda  period  division  of  caste  had  not 
 commenced.  We  find  neither  Kshatriyas,  nor  Yaisyas,  nor 
 Sudras;  and  although  Brahmans  are  mentioned,  they  are 
 merely  one  amongst  seven  orders  of  priests,  wlio  minister 
 under  a king  or  patriarch  at  a solemn  sacrifice.  Society 
 is  always  said  to  consist  of  five  classes  of  men,  an  expres- 
 sion which  Brahmanical  scholiasts  explain  to  mean  the 
 Aborigines,  in  addition  to  the  four  Castes ; but  this  is  a 
 gratuitous  supposition,  for  the  whole  tone  of  the  Rig-Yeda 
 implies  a free  condition  of  society,  quite  different  from  that 
 uhich  afterwards  prevailed  under  Brahmanical  regulation. 
 We  there  find  new  settlers,  snrronndcd  by  enemies  of  dif- 
 ferent race,  remembering  the  deities  and  customs  of  tbeir 
 
STATE  OF  SOCIETY. 
 
 61 
 
 fatherland,  though  adopting  modes  of  worship  suited  to 
 tlieir  new  locality.  Languishing  in  the  arid  sands  of  Sindh, 
 they  rejoiced  to  discover  the  acid  soma-plant  upon  the 
 neighbonriug  hills ; panting  for  rain,  they  entreated  ludra 
 to  quaff  the  exhilarating  beverage,  and  to  rend  the  clouds 
 asunder,  and  let  loose  the  reviving  floods.  The  blessings 
 prayed  for  are  chiefly,  as  expressed  by  Professor  Wilson, 
 “ of  a temporal  and  personal  description, — wealth,  food,  life, 
 posterity,  cattle,  cows,  horses,  protection  against  enemies'” 
 — selfish  and  often  puerile  petitions;  but  self-forgetting 
 aspirations  also  find  utterance,  and  a few  indications  there 
 are  “ of  a hope  of  immortality,  hatred  of  untruth,  and  ab- 
 horrence of  sin;”*  and  many  an  old  Hindu,  we  may  hope, 
 has  stood  by  his  fire-altar  at  daybreak,  offering  up  fervent 
 adoration  to  the  “ God  nvitten  in  the  heart,”  of  which  the 
 altar  flames  were  to  him  the  beloved  household  representa- 
 tion. 
 
 * Kig-Tecla,  vol.  i.,  Introcl.  p.  xxv. 
 
CHAPTER  II. 
 
 “ Let  wild  creeds  come  and  go  . . . 
 
 On  nought  but  One,  in  Godhead  infinite 
 
 And  infinite  in  might, 
 
 Can  deathless  being  lay  its  fever’d  brow.” — Williavis. 
 
 Sketches  of  a nation’s  infancy  bear  some  resemblance  to 
 a modern  album  or  note-book,  where  many  pages  are  blank, 
 whilst  others  arc  crowded  tvith  graphic  detail ; where  a few 
 highly-finished  drawings  are  found  amongst  nnmerous  slight 
 outlines,  and  where  fragments  of  eloquent  poetry  are  inter- 
 sjterscd  with  dry,  prosaic  autographs.  Or  we  may  vary  the 
 image,  and  eompare  the  earliest  attainable  views  of  Hindu 
 life  to  a series  of  tableaux  vivans,  the  first  of  which  showed 
 us  the  Patriarchs  on  the  Indus  writing  hymns,  invoking 
 the  Gods,  and  making  war  on  their  predatory  neighbours  ; 
 
THE  UIIAHMAXS. 
 
 03 
 
 whilst  five  classes  of  men  filled  up  the  frame.  This  five- 
 fold division  is  not  explained  in  the  Veda,  and  commenta- 
 tors are  not  agreed  upon  the  subject ; but  it  was  evidently 
 headed  by  tlie  patriarch  kings  or  chieftains,  who  united  in 
 themselves  the  office  of  high-priest  and  sovereign  ; the  se- 
 cond class  was  probably  formed  of  warriors  riding  and  dri- 
 \dng  horses ; the  third  was  in  this  case  a class  of  priests ; 
 the  fourth  comprised  those  following  agriculture,  trade,  and 
 mechanics;  and  the  fifth  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  ab- 
 original race,  who  stole  eattle,  but  who  possessed  fields, 
 cities,  and  gold,  tempting  the  intruders  to  aggression.  We 
 have  no  means  of  adding  to  what  we  may  thus  learn  from 
 the  ancient  hymns,  for  the  Hindus  have  no  other  writings 
 of  the  same  era,  and  neither  Persia  nor  China  afford  chro- 
 nicles referring  to  contiguous  countries  of  such  remote  anti- 
 quity ; and  consequently  when  the  Rig- Veda  lets  the  curtain 
 fall,  a pause  ensues  of  about  six  centuries. 
 
 At  length  tlie  same  people,  with  their  Vedas  and  their 
 Sanskrit,  come  again  upon  the  stage ; but  the  scenery  has 
 changed,  and  we  now  behold  them  occupying  the  broad 
 lands  of  the  Ganges,  and  possessing  important  towns  in 
 Oude  and  Tirhut.  But  Ave  cannot  at  present  advert  to 
 their  political  acquisitions,  for  our  attention  is  at  once 
 riveted  by  a group  of  venerable  persons  upon  Avhom  the 
 chief  light  of  the  picture  is  made  to  fall.  They  are  sitting 
 upon  sacred  kusa  grass ; their  hair  is  sha^nd,  their  looks 
 composed,  and  they  are  clothed  in  religious  raiment  pecu- 
 liar to  themselves ; kings  humbly  take  off  their  tiaras  as 
 they  hoAV  to  tlie  feet  of  the  holy  men  ; the  merchant  class 
 make  obeisance  at  a respectful  distance;  and  the  fourth 
 and  lowest  class  sweep  the  roads,  uphold  umbrellas,  and 
 
64 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 wave  the  fans  and  fly-flappers.  In  this  seeond  picture 
 we  note  great  ehanges  to  have  taken  plaee,  and  espeeially 
 the  sharp  separation  whieh  has  been  efieeted  between  civil 
 and  religious  offices.  The  King,  no  longer  permitted  to 
 invoke  the  Gods,  has  resigned  the  first  place  of  honour 
 to  the  Brahmans,  Avho  are  a new  and  sacred  class,  seeking 
 to  monopolize  learning,  power,  and  religion.  The  process 
 by  which  this  great  change  was  efieeted  remains  hidden 
 behind  the  scenes,  and  we  can  only  conjecture  that  many 
 struggles  and  failures  occurred  before  Brahmans  succeeded 
 in  establishing  their  claims  to  dinne  origin  and  the  sole 
 right  of  performing  religious  functions,  and  of  exercising 
 spiritual  dominion.  But  at  the  same  time,  we  believe  that 
 the  very  word  Brahman  originated  in  philosophical  spe- 
 culation. In  a passage  of  great  eloquence.  Dr.  INIuller 
 describes  man  in  the  hymns  of  the  Rig- Veda  striving  to 
 solve  the  riddle  of  this  world.  He  stares  at  the  tent  of 
 heaven  and  asks  who  supports  it ; he  gives  names  to  all 
 the  powers  of  nature ; he  invokes  them ; but  still  he  feels 
 that  within  his  own  breast  there  is  a Power  that  wants 
 a name,  “ a Power  nearer  to  him  than  all  the  Gods  of 
 Nature;  a Power  that  is  never  mute  when  he  prays,  never 
 absent  when  he  fears  and  trembles  : it  seems  to  inspire  his 
 prayers,  and  yet  to  listen  to  them  ; it  seems  to  live  in  him, 
 and  yet  to  support  him  and  all  around  him.  The  only 
 name  he  can  find  for  this  mysterious  power  is  Brahme,  for 
 Brahme  means  originally  force,  will,  wish,  and  the  propul- 
 sive power  of  creation.”  Brahmans  we  imagine  to  have 
 been  men  distinguished  by  their  knowledge  of  Brahme,  who 
 gradually  became  the  most  powerful  section  of  the  Hindu 
 people.  Colonel  Sykes  has  shown  that  the  word  Brahman 
 
THE  VEDIC  HYMXts. 
 
 05 
 
 is  not  a mere  designation  of  offiee,  but  signifies  a raee, 
 family,  or  tribe,  bearing  peeuliar  cliaracteristics ; a family, 
 or  clan,  we  infer,  who  gained  permanent  aseendeney  by  the 
 force  of  their  intellectual  endowments.  Although  this  as- 
 cendency was  not  accomplished  in  the  period  of  the  Rig- 
 A’eda,  the  intellectual  meditation  which  led  to  it  was  then 
 commenced;  and  “thei’e  are  hymns,  though  few  in  num- 
 ber, in  the  Veda,”  says  Dr.  Muller,  “ so  full  of  thought 
 and  speculation,  that  at  this  early  period  no  poet  in  any 
 other  nation  could  have  conceived  them.”  It  should  how- 
 ever be  stated  that  these  hymns  are  confined  to  the  10th 
 iNIandala,  the  whole  tenour  of  which  shows  that  it  u'as  very 
 long  posterior  to  the  other  nine  and  to  the  complete  orga- 
 nization of  Caste.  The  following  is  from  Colebrooke’s 
 translation  of  the  129th  hymn  of  the  tenth  book  : — 
 
 “ Then  there  was  no  entity,  nor  nonentity, 
 
 No  world  nor  sky,  nor  aught  above  it : 
 
 Nothing  anywhere  . . . 
 
 Nor  water  deep  and  dangerous. 
 
 Death  was  not. 
 
 Nor  then  was  Immortality, 
 
 Nor  distinction  of  the  day  or  night ; 
 
 But  That  breathed  without  afflation  . . . 
 
 Darkness  there  was  ; 
 
 This  universe  was  enveloped  i)i  darkness. 
 
 And  was  undistinguishable  water.  . . . 
 
 Who  knows  and  shall  declare  whence  and  wliy 
 This  creation  (ever)  took  place  ? 
 
 Tlie  Gods  are  subsecpient  to  the  production  of  this  world  : 
 Who  then  ca)i  know  from  whence 
 This  varied  world  uprose  ? . . . 
 
 He  who  in  the  highest  heaven  is  rider,  does  know. 
 
 But  not  another  can  possess  that  knowledge.”  * 
 
 * Colebrooke,  Essays,  vol.  i.  p.  33. 
 
 T 
 
G6 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 At  this  period  of  Brahmanical  literature,  the  word  That 
 [Tad)  is  often  used  to  iudieate  the  Eternal  Source  of 
 Being,  as  in  the  following  hymn,  or  Mantra,  from  the 
 Yajur-A^cda  : — 
 
 “ Fire  is  That : the  Sun  is  That : 
 
 The  air,  the  moon,  so  also  that  pure  Brahme, 
 
 Waters  and  the  Lord  of  creatures  (Prajapati). 
 
 W ^ W ^ 
 
 He,  prior  to  whom  nothing  Avas  horn, 
 
 And  who  became  all  beings  . . . 
 
 Produced  the  sim,  moon,  and  fire. 
 
 To  what  God  should  we  offer  oblations. 
 
 But  to  Him  who  made  the  fluid  sky  and  solid  earth. 
 
 Who  fixed  the  solar  orb  . . . and  framed  the  drops  of  rain  ? 
 To  what  God  shoidd  we  offer  sacrifice 
 But  to  Him  whom  heaven  and  earth 
 Contemplate  mentally  ? . . . 
 
 The  wise  man  views  that  mysterious  (Being) 
 
 In  whom  the  universe  perpetually  exists. 
 
 Besting  upon  that  sole  support. 
 
 In  Him  is  this  world  absorbed  ; 
 
 From  Him  it  issues  ; 
 
 In  creatures  is  He  twined  and  wove,  in  various  forms. 
 
 Let  the  wise  man,  conversant  with  holy  writ, 
 
 Promptly  celebrate  that  immortal  Being 
 Who  is  the  mysteriously  existing,  various  abode.”  * 
 
 The  hymn  is  continued  in  the  same  mystical  strain, 
 continually  losing  all  idea  of  a Creator  as  separable  from 
 the  world  created,  but  including  both  ideas  under  the  ex- 
 pressions Tad  and  Brahme. 
 
 The  struggling  forth  of  the  universe  from  darkness  and 
 from  water  Avas  a favourite  idea  of  the  Brahmans,  who 
 delighted  in  the  sublimity  of  this  primeval  chaos,  and  kneiv 
 that  there  was  a “ beginning,”  when  “ darkness  was  upon 
 
 * C'olebrookc,  vol.  i.  p.  57. 
 
THE  TEDIC  HYMNS. 
 
 67 
 
 the  face  of  the  deep,  and  the  spirit  of  God  moved  upon  the 
 face  of  the  waters hut  it  was  the  flash  of  an  intuition, 
 striking  momentary  light  across  dark  and  puerile  specu- 
 lation. 
 
 In  the  hymn  uhich  commences,  “ Waters  alone  there 
 were,’^  the  Lord  of  creation  moves  in  the  waters,  “ as- 
 suming the  form  of  a boar.”*  Sometimes  the  Supreme 
 Spirit  produces  an  egg,  and  from  the  egg  the  universe  is 
 evolved,  t Another  prevalent  notion  is,  that  the  universal 
 sold  became  manifest  as  a horse  named  Viraj,  who  is  thus 
 described : 
 
 “ Morning  is  his  head, 
 
 The  sun  his  eye, 
 
 Air  his  breath,  the  moon  his  ear. 
 
 The  world  his  intellect,  the  earth  his  feet ; 
 
 The  celebrated  Veda  is  his  speech.”;}; 
 
 And  through  the  instrumentality  of  this  horse  Viraj,  all 
 human  forms  and  animal  beings  were  produced.  But  these 
 are  mere  hints  at  Brahmanical  accomits  of  the  creation, 
 for  such  passages  as  are  translated  contain  many  tedious  re- 
 petitions, and  a great  many  passages  are  left  untranslated, 
 because  the  translators  feel  the  details  to  be  too  coarse  and 
 unpleasant  to  present  to  English  readers.  The  approaches  of 
 these  people  towards  God  are  intensely  interesting,  mark- 
 ing how  much  and  how  little  man’s  unassisted  reason  can 
 divine.  They  launch  out  conjectures  upon  the  sublimest 
 and  abstrusest  subjects,  and  sometimes,  like  rockets,  then’ 
 thoughts  shoot  up  into  infinity,  and  break  into  a thousand 
 coruscations  of  coloured  light;  but  when  we  pm’sue  the 
 thought  after  its  transient  brilliancy  has  passed,  we  find  it 
 
 * Colebrooke,  vol.  i.  p.  75.  t Cole,  MS.  cli.  i. 
 
 + Colebrooke,  toI  i.  p.  62,  and  Earn.  Koy,  p.  32. 
 
G8 
 
 UFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 like  the  expiring  rocket,  a feeble  spark  tied  to  a dead  stick, 
 or  we  find  the  stick  alone,  and  that  dragged  through  the 
 dirt. 
 
 Mraj  figures  in  many  of  their  histories  of  creation  as 
 a link  connecting  the  darkness  ivhich  preceded,  with  the 
 visible  world,  at  length  produced ; and  they  endeavour  to 
 express  a vague  feeling  that  sacrifice  has  been  the  imme- 
 diate cause  of  life  to  men  and  animals.  Viraj,  or  Praja- 
 pati  (Lord  of  creatures),  gave  himself  to  be  sacrificed  by 
 the  Demigods,  and  the  universe  was  created  from  his  sub- 
 stance : thus,  in  one  of  the  hymns  translated  by  j\Ir.  Cole- 
 brooke  from  the  tenth  book  of  the  Rig- V eda,  we  read, — 
 
 “ That  victim  who  was  wove  with  threads  on  every  side 
 And  stretched  by  the  labours  of  one  hundred  and  one  gods, 
 
 Tlie  fathers,  wlio  wove  and  framed 
 Aiid  placed  the  warp  and  woof. 
 
 Do  worship.”* 
 
 And  the  hymn  proceeds  to  state,  that  by  that  universal 
 sacrifice  was  produced  sages  and  men,  the  sun  and  moon, 
 and  the  holy  verse  called  Gayatri ; and  it  concludes  with 
 saying  that  the  seven  inspired  sages  wisely  practise  the  per- 
 formance of  sacrifice,  in  imitation  of  these  primeval  saints. 
 In  the  earlier  hymns,  the  usual  ofterings  were  butter,  rice, 
 and  soma-juice,  but  animals  ivcrc  also  offered  upon  certain 
 rare  occasions.  It  is  probable  that  different  tribes  had  dif- 
 ferent customs,  and  that  whilst  some  were  gentle  and  con- 
 templative, and  made  vegetable  oflerings,  others  sacrificed 
 horses  and  cattle. 
 
 Allusion  is  even  made  to  human  sacrifice,  and  the  hymns 
 by  Sunahsepas  are  said  to  have  been  uttered  whilst  he 
 
 * Colebrooke,  vol.  i.  )>.  31. 
 
STORY  OF  SUNAHSEPAS. 
 
 69 
 
 Avas  bound  as  a victim  to  the  stake.  No  explanation  is 
 given  in  the  Veda  itselfj  hut  from  an  appended  Brahmana 
 we  gather  the  folloAving  particulars. 
 
 A king,  named  Harischandra,  had  one  hundred  wives, 
 hut  no  son,  and  this  was  to  him  an  intolerable  affliction, 
 because  a sage  named  Narada  assured  him,  that  if  he  had 
 no  son  he  would  have  no  existence  after  death,  but  that 
 “ a father  avIio  beholds  the  face  of  a living  son  discharges 
 his  debt  (to  his  forefathers),  and  obtains  immortality.^’ 
 The  king  therefore,  acting  under  the  adviee  of  the  sage, 
 prayed  to  Varuna,  and  said,  “ Let  a son  be  horn  unto  me, 
 and  Avith  him  I Avill  sacrifice  to  you.”  A son  accordingly 
 Avas  horn,  and  named  llohita,  and  ^*aruna  claimed  him  as 
 a sacrifice ; hut  the  father  said  he  Avas  yet  too  young,  and 
 Varuna  consented  to  delay ; hut  each  year  Varuiia  claimed 
 the  child,  and  the  father  still  deferred,  until  his  son,  hearing 
 of  the  fate  intended  for  him,  escaped  to  the  Avoods,  and  the 
 king,  his  father,  Avas  struck  with  leprosy  in  consequence. 
 At  length  Rohita  heard  of  the  afflietion  Avliich  had  be- 
 fallen his  father  in  consequence  of  his  not  fidfilling  his 
 vow  of  offering  him  in  sacrifice,  and  instead  of  giving  him- 
 self up  as  a victim,  went  to  a distressed  Brahman,  named 
 Ajigartta,  aud  promised  him  a hundred  cows  if  he  Avonld 
 give  one  of  his  sons  to  he  sacrificed  in  his  place.  Ajigartta 
 agreed  that  he  should  have  his  second  son,  named  Sunali- 
 sepas.  Rohita  then  Avent  to  his  father,  saying,  “ Rejoice, 
 father,  for  Avith  this  youth  I shall  redeem  myself.”  The 
 day  for  the  sacrifiee  Avas  appointed,  and  the  ceremony 
 commenced,  hut  there  was  no  one  eompetent  to  the  office 
 of  binding  the  victim  to  the  stake;  Avhereupon  Ajigartta 
 said,  “ If  von  Avill  aive  me  another  hundred  cows.  I Avill 
 
70 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 perform  the  duty.”  This  was  done,  tlie  victim  was  hound, 
 and  the  priests  walked  round  him,  bearing  burning  brands 
 of  sacred  grass.  But  still  there  was  no  immolator  amongst 
 the  ministering  Brahmans,  and  Ajigartta,  the  father  of  the 
 victim,  once  more  said  he  would  perform  the  service  needed 
 for  another  hundred  cows,  and  his  offer  being  accepted  he 
 went  forth  to  sharpen  his  knife.  In  the  interval  thus  af- 
 forded, the  victim  at  the  stake  began  to  tbink  of  escape, 
 and  saying  to  himself,  “ These  people  will  put  me  to  death 
 as  if  I were  not  a man,  but  an  animal,”  he  perceived  that 
 his  only  hope  was  in  Divine  succour,  and  praying  heartily 
 to  all  the  Gods  in  turn,  his  bonds  at  length  fell  off,  and  he 
 became  free,  and  the  king  w'as  cured  of  his  complaint. 
 
 The  most  remarkable  part  of  this  story  is  the  end,  in 
 which  Sunahsepas  refuses  to  return  to  his  father,  saying, 
 “ All  present  saw  you  with  the  instrument  of  immolation  in 
 your  hand : such  a sight  was  never  beheld  even  amongst 
 Sudras meaning,  that  even  a Sudra  would  not  sacrifice 
 a son,  but  his  father’s  officiating  at  all  in  the  capacity  of 
 immolator  showed  a vile  Sudra  disposition,  which  Sunah- 
 sepas considered  unpardonable,  and  he  therefore  renounced 
 his  own  family,  and  became  the  adopted  son  of  Viswamitra, 
 who  had  officiated  as  chief-priest  on  the  occasion.  Fifty 
 of  Viswamitra’s  sons  objected  to  this  proceeding,  and  w’ere 
 in  consequence  degraded  to  the  condition  of  the  barbarous 
 tribes,  whilst  the  other  fifty  acceded  to  their  father’s  wishes, 
 and  w'elcomed  his  newly  adopted  son,  saying,  “We  give 
 thee,  Sunahsepas,  precedence,  and  acknowledge  ourselves  to 
 lie  subordinate  to  thee.”*  From  this  story  we  infer,  first, 
 
 * Oil  Umiian  Sacrifices,  by  Professor  WUsou  ; J.B.A.S.,  part  i,  vol.  xiii. 
 
SACRIFICES. 
 
 71 
 
 that  Brahmans  who  could  or  would  perform  the  offiee  of 
 immolator  Avere  feiv  iu  number,  and  held  in  disrespect ; se- 
 condly, that  Brahmans  generally  regarded  animal  sacrifice 
 as  a vile  Sudra  practice,  or  a custom  belonging  to  inferior 
 races ; and  thirdly,  that  a difference  of  opinion  on  this  sub- 
 ject gave  rise  to  dissensions  and  divisions  amongst  the  de- 
 scendants of  the  Vedic  patriarchs  and  sages. 
 
 iSIany  similar  legends  occur  in  Brahmanical  literatm’e, 
 the  sacrifice  never  being  proposed  as  a propitiation  of  evil 
 beings,  but  merely  as  an  offering  to  benevolent  deities  of 
 an  object  precious  to  the  worshipper ; and  a man  is  never 
 sacrificed,  but  a substitute  taken  in  his  place.  The  horsc- 
 sacrifice  was  probably  adopted  by  the  Hindu  race  from  the 
 Scythians,  before  they  crossed  the  Indus ; and  human  sa- 
 crifice they  probably  Avitnessed  amongst  the  inferior  race 
 whom  they  found  as  aborigines  in  India ; but  the  Brahmans 
 recoiled  from  both  the  customs,  and  as  they  could  not  at 
 once  sweep  away  the  popular  ceremonies  and  festivals,  they 
 endeavoured  to  invest  them  with  symbolic  meanings.  jMr. 
 Colebrooke  gives  this  opinion  of  the  Asivamedha  (horse- 
 sacrifice),  and  the  Purnshamedha  (human  sacrifice),  as  de- 
 scribed in  a Brahmana,  or  treatise,  appended  to  the  Yajur- 
 Veda.  For  the  first  of  these  festivals,  a certain  number  of 
 animals  were  tied  to  posts,  but  after  prayers  had  been 
 offered  up  they  were  let  loose  Avithout  injmy.  In  the  se- 
 cond festival  men  were  hound  as  victims,  and  prayers  and 
 hymns  recited,  alluding  to  the  allegorical  immolation  of 
 Viraj,  in  Avhich  solemn  sacrifice  “ spring  was  the  butter, 
 summer  the  fuel,  and  sultry  weather  the  oblation.’^  As 
 soon  as  the  prescribed  prayers  and  hymns  were  con- 
 cluded, the  Auctims  AA'ere  set  free,  and  an  offering  of  butter 
 throAvn  upon  the  sacrificial  fire. 
 
LIKE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 Whether  these  mysterious,  vague  ideas  received  any  im- 
 pulse from  recollections  of  primeval  revelation  we  cannot 
 determine,  hut  the  more  obvious  source  is  Brahmanical 
 contemplation,  striving  to  elevate  religion  from  the  less 
 civilized  views  and  customs  prevailing  in  the  country.  For 
 this  object  the  Brahmanical  philosophers  Avithdrew  fi’om 
 society  and  gave  themselves  up  to  religious  contemplation  : 
 and  such  meditation  under  the  skies  and  groves  of  India 
 becomes  an  intense  abstraction,  scarcely  to  be  conceived  by 
 the  active  inhabitants  of  northern  climes.  The  glorious 
 world  on  Avhich  they  looked,  and  the  unclouded  sun  on 
 which  man  cannot  look  direct,  convinced  them  that  Power 
 and  Purity  were  not  ephemeral,  although  these  outivard  and 
 N’isible  signs  would  perish  ; and  gradually  they  evolved  the 
 doctrine,  that  worldly  views  and  practices  could  procure 
 nothing  beyond  mere  uorldly  advantages,  but  that  man 
 might  reach  the  Eternal  by  casting  the  whole  force  of  his 
 thoughts  and  his  affections  upon  the  abstraction  Brahme. 
 “ What  is  Brahme?”  is  the  usual  theme  of  their  Upani- 
 shads.  Bhrigu  asked  this  question  of  ^'aruna ; and  Varuna 
 answered,  that  food,  mind,  speech  iverc  Brahme,  and  that 
 Brahme,  in  fact,  is  that  liy  whicli  all  beings  are  produced 
 and  supported,  and  towards  Avhich  they  all  tend.  But 
 Bhrigu  is  not  satisffed  until  Yaruna  further  explains  that 
 life,  intellect,  meditation,  and  joy  are  also  Brahme.*  On 
 another  occasion,  five  persons  conversant  with  holy  writ 
 go  from  one  authority  to  another,  trying  to  determine  the 
 questions,  “What  is  our  soul?”  and  “Who  is  Brahme?” 
 I'lie  only  person  capable  of  giving  the  necessary  instruction 
 is  a king,  called  Aswapati,  son  of  Kaikeya ; and  he  would 
 take  no  notice  of  them  until  they  cainc  in  the  humble  guise 
 * Colcbrooke,  vol.  i.  j).  77. 
 
EAULY  RELIGIOUS  BELIEF. 
 
 73 
 
 of  pupils,  each  bearing  a log  of  fire-wood.  The  king  then 
 addressed  his  visitors  in  turn,  saying,  “ Whom  dost  thon 
 Avorship  as  the  Soul  The  first  said,  “ Heaven.”  “ That,” 
 said  the  king,  “is  merely  the  head.”  The  second  said, 
 “The  Sun,”  and  is  told  it  is  merely  the  eye.  The  third 
 said,  “ Air,”  Avhich  is  merely  the  breath  ; and  a fourth 
 answered,  “ Earth,”  which  he  is  told  is  the  feet  of  the 
 universal  Soul.  Certain  advantages  are  admitted  to  result 
 from  offerings  to  these  individual  objects  of  worship,  but 
 they  are  mere  earthly  benefits,  and  sueh  offerings  are  like 
 fuel  thrown  on  ashes,  Avhereas  knowledge  of  the  universal 
 Soul  is  like  the  tip  of  dry  grass  cast  into  the  fire.* 
 
 These  Brahmanical  notions  are  very  different  from  the 
 views  usually  expressed  in  the  llig-Vcda,  where  the  sun  and 
 fire  are  the  highest  symbols  of  the  Godhead,  and  where 
 on  two  occasions  worshippers  attain  the  condition  of  Gods 
 without  losing  their  individuality.  In  the  first  instance, 
 men  of  the  family  of  Bhrigu  “ cherished  Agni”  (fire),  and  in 
 consequence  were  “born  as  gods;”f  in  the  second  case, 
 the  Ribhus  retired  to  the  forest,  to  perform  penance  and 
 worship  Savitri,  and  the  effect  of  their  devotion  ivas,  that 
 “being  yet  mortals  they  acquired  immortality.” j;  Subse- 
 quent hymns  I'epresent  both  Bhrigus  and  Ribhus  as  asso- 
 ciating Avith  Indra  and  other  celestials,  and  like  them  re- 
 ceiving offerings  of  praise  and  the  usual  oblations  of  butter 
 and  the  soma-juiee.  Let  us  noAv  observe  the  difference  hc- 
 tAveen  these  two  stages  of  belief.  In  the  Vedic  hymns  of 
 about  B.c.  1400  devout  Avorshippers  make  offerings  to  the 
 sun  and  fire,  and  receive  “ a divine  birth,”  beyond  AA  hich 
 there  is  no  happiness  conceivable  for  mortals.  In  the 
 
 * Colebrooke,  i.  81.  t Kig-t^eda,  Iviii.  6 J IhuL,  cx.  1,  2. 
 
74 
 
 LIKE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 Brahmanas  and  Upanisliads  of  about  b.c.  800  Bralimans 
 look  upon  fire-worsliip  as  procuring  a renewal  of  merely 
 perishable  life,  and  upon  tlie  Gods  as  enjoying  merely  a 
 limited  term  of  existence.  Beyond  Agni  and  beyond  the 
 snn  they  perceive  a sublimer  object  of  adoration  in  Brahme, 
 the  universal  Soul.  But  Brahme  had  no  personality,  and 
 could  receive  no  worship.  Brahme  pervaded  the  universe, 
 and  in  proportion  as  any  individual  succeeded  in  approach- 
 ing to  the  state  of  Brahme,  he  also  lost  his  personality. 
 The  Brahmans  had  no  idea  of  God  as  the  creator  and  go- 
 vernor of  the  world,  their  sublimest  notion  being  that  of 
 eternal  essence  universally  diffused ; plants,  animals,  men, 
 and  gods,  all  partook  of  this  effusion  of  soul ; but  all  visible 
 life  was  mere  illusion,  and  that  which  was  held  in  common 
 by  all  existence  was  the  only  reality.  Brahmanical  philo- 
 sophy, in  fact,  confuses  and  puts  to  flight  ordinary  notions 
 of  reality  by  the  very  vehemence  with  which  it  struggles  to 
 escape  from  illusion.  Birth  or  life  was  the  entanglement 
 of  a portion  of  Brahme  within  the  net  of  illusion,  and  from 
 this  entanglement  not  even  death  was  an  escape,  for  no 
 sooner  did  one  illusory  existence  elose  than  another  equally 
 illusory  commenced.  The  portion  of  soul  which  was  dis- 
 engaged by  death,  took  possession  of  some  other  earthly 
 tenement,  it  might  be  of  an  infant  man,  but  it  might  ^vith 
 equal  ease  and  probability  be  that  of  an  animal  or  vege- 
 table form.  This  appeared  to  the  philosophical  Brahmans 
 as  a necessary  and  logieal  deduction  from  their  doctrine  of 
 the  universal  Soul,  and  they  did  not  shrink  from  admit- 
 ting the  fact,  although  not  at  once  anticipating  all  the  con- 
 sequences. The  doctrine  of  Transmigration  is  touched 
 upon  in  the  Upanisliads,  and,  although  further  developed 
 
EARLY  RELIGIOUS  BELIEF. 
 
 75 
 
 ill  the  Code  of  Mann,  does  not  appear  in  its  full  detail 
 and  extravagance  earlier  than  the  Buddhist  Sutras^  written 
 chiefly  since  our  era^  and  the  Brahmanical  Puranas  of 
 modern  Brahmanism,  commencing  about  a.d.  900.  Moral 
 retribution  was  from  the  first  combined  with  transmigra- 
 tion ; and  it  was  assumed  that  whilst  men  of  the  highest 
 devotion  had  a chance  of  absorption  into  Brahme,  or  of 
 being  born  again  as  inferior  gods,  bad  men  would  become 
 beasts  or  reptiles,  and  that  all  would  be  born  and  reborn, 
 until  the  necessary  penance  had  been  made  and  the  neces- 
 sary perfection  acquired,  and  all  that  was  finite  became 
 merged  into  the  infinite. 
 
 An  interesting  illustration  of  these  opinions  will  be  found 
 in  the  following  abstract  of  the  Katha  Upanishad,  which 
 has  been  translated  by  that  distinguished  and  learned  native 
 of  India,  the  late  Bammohun  Roy  : — 
 
 A learned  Brahman,  named  Vajasravasa,  performed  a sa- 
 crifice, at  which  he  distributed  his  whole  property ; but  the 
 cows  which  he  presented  on  the  occasion  as  fees  to  the 
 ministering  priests  were  old  and  infirm,  and  this  greatly 
 distressed  his  son,  the  young  Prince  Nachiketa,  who  knew 
 that  whoever  gave  worn-out  cows  to  priests  was  carried 
 to  the  mansion  where  there  is  no  felicity  whatever.  He 
 begged  therefore  that  his  father  would  consign  him  in  lieu  of 
 the  cows,  and  persisted  iu  asking  to  whom  his  father  would 
 consign  him.  The  father,  provoked  at  the  boy’s  importu- 
 nity, said  hastily  he  would  give  him  to  Yama.  This  asto- 
 nished the  dutiful  Nachiketa,  for  Yama  was  God  of  Death, 
 and  he  wondered  whether  his  father  had  had  a previous  en- 
 gagement to  this  effect,  or  whether  he  spoke  unawares  in 
 auger ; but  when  the  father  recovered  his  self-possession. 
 
76 
 
 LIFE  IX  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 and  was  afflicted  to  think  of  the  words  which  he  had  used, 
 Nachiketa  woidd  not  allow  him  to  retract,  saying,  “Life 
 is  too  short  to  make  it  worth  while  to  gain  advantages  hy 
 means  of  falsehood  and  breach  of  promise.” 
 
 Nachiketa  proeeeded  therefore  to  the  habitation  of  Yama ; 
 but  the  God  of  Death  being  absent  from  his  dwelling,  the 
 youth  I’eraained  three  days  unnoticed.  Yama  then  returned, 
 and  was  told  by  his  family  that  for  three  days  a Brahman 
 had  been  his  guest  without  receiving  hospitality.  Such  an 
 accident  usually  involved  families  in  misfortune,  for  a Brah- 
 man guest  is  like  fire,  and  good  householders  extinguish 
 his  anger  hy  offering  water,  a seat,  and  food.  Yama  is  in 
 haste  to  offer  every  reparation  in  his  power,  and,  in  order 
 “ that  bliss  may  attend  him,”  begs  that  his  guest  will  allow 
 liim  to  grant  three  favours  in  atonement  for  the  pain  which 
 he  liad  caused  him.  Nachiketa  is  readily  conciliated,  and 
 makes  the  first  of  his  three  wishes  a request  that  his  fa- 
 thei’’s  distress  may  be  removed,  and  his  anger  extinguished. 
 To  this  Yama  replied,  “Thy  fatlier  shall  have  the  same  re- 
 gard for  thee  as  before  ; and  being  assured  of  thy  existence, 
 he  shall,  through  my  power,  repose  the  remaining  nights 
 of  his  life  free  from  sorrow.”  The  young  man  next  begs 
 for  knowledge  respeeting  fire,  by  which  heaven  is  attained, 
 where,  he  says,  “ there  is  no  fear,  and  where  even  thou, 
 Yama,  canst  not  always  exercise  thy  dominion.”  Yama 
 consents,  and  proceeds  to  explain  the  nature  of  fire  as  the 
 support  of  the  world  and  yet  residing  in  the  body,  and  gives 
 also  particnlars  of  the  hricks  which  are  requisite  in  forming 
 and  preserving  sacred  fire.  Yama,  gratified  at  the  atten- 
 tive manner  in  which  his  instruction  is  received,  ])romiscd 
 that  in  future  sacred  fire  should  he  called  after  the  name  of 
 
STORY  OF  PIUXCE  NACHIKETA.  77 
 
 Nachiketa,  and  presenting  oif  the  oecasion  ^yith  “ a vari- 
 ously-coloured necklace/’  assured  him  that  a wise  Avorship- 
 per  of  sacred  fire  attains  the  highest  fruition  after  death, 
 concluding,  “Now,  O Nachiketa,  make  thy  third  request.” 
 But  the  pupil’s  third  request  was  to  he  instructed  in  the 
 nature  of  the  soul;  and  at  this  Yama  demurred,  saying, 
 “ Even  Gods  have  doubted  and  disputed  on  this  subject, 
 which  being  obscure  never  can  be  thoroughly  compre- 
 hended. Ask,  O Nachiketa,  some  other  favour  instead 
 of  this.”  But  Nachiketa  replied  that  no  other  object  was 
 so  desirable,  and  no  instructor  equal  to  Yama  could  be 
 found.  Btill  Yama  begs  him  to  withdraw  this  wish,  and 
 not  to  take  advantage  of  his  promise.  “ Request,”  says  he, 
 “ sons  and  grandsons,  each  to  live  a hundred  years ; request 
 cattle,  elephants,  gold,  horses,  long  life,  and  empire  upon 
 earth,”  anything,  in  fact,  however  difficult  of  acquisition, 
 in  the  mortal  world.  “ Ask,”  Yama  begins  again,  “ for 
 beautiful  women,  with  elegant  equipages,  and  musical  in- 
 struments such  as  no  man  can  acquire  without  our  aid.” 
 But  the  young  philosopher  is  not  to  be  dissuaded,  and  replies 
 calmly,  that  such  enjoyments  as  Yama  has  been  offering 
 are  short-lived,  destroying  the  strength  of  the  senses,  and 
 that  the  life  even  of  the  Gods  is  comparatively  short.  “ Let 
 therefore  thy  equipages  and  thy  dancing  and  miAsic  remain 
 Avith  thee ; no  man  can  be  satisfied  with  riches.  . . . The 
 only  object  I deshe  is  Avhat  I have  already  begged  of  thee.” 
 “ Do  thou  insti’uct  us,”  he  continues,  “ in  that  knoAvledge 
 which  removes  doubts  respecting  existence  after  death;  I, 
 Nachiketa,  cannot  ask  any  other  favour  than  this.” 
 
 Yama,  although  God  of  Death,  at  length  consents,  say- 
 ing, “ Knowledge  Avhich  leads  to  absorption  is  one  thing. 
 
78 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 and  rites  which  have  fruition  for  tlieir  object  another; 
 each  of  these,  producing  different  consequences,  holds  out  to 
 man  inducements  to  follow  it : the  man  who  of  these  two 
 chooses  knowledge,  is  blessed ; and  he  who  for  the  sake  of 
 reward  practises  rites,  is  excluded  from  the  enjoyment  of 
 eternal  beatitude.’^  Yama  enlarges  further  upon  this  idea, 
 and  expresses  admiration  at  Nachiketa’s  having  refused  to 
 adopt  practices  which  lead  mei’ely  to  riches  and  other  perish- 
 able gratifications,  to  which  men  in  general  are  attached ; 
 and  he  makes  this  curious  confession,  that  he  had  himself 
 performed  the  worship  of  the  sacred  fire  in  order  to  pro- 
 cure his  present  sovereignty  of  long  duration,  although  he 
 knew  that  all  fruition  obtained  by  means  of  rites  was  perish- 
 able. Yama  then  endeavours  to  explain  the  nature  of  the 
 soul,  saying,  it  is  “ that  which  is  difficult  to  be  comprehend- 
 ed, . . . veiled  by  the  ideas  acquired  through  the  senses,  . . . 
 does  not  depart  even  in  great  danger,  and  exists  unchange- 
 able. A wise  man,  knowing  the  resplendent  soul  through  a 
 mind  abstracted  from  worldly  objects,  . . . neither  rejoices 
 nor  does  he  grieve.^^  Yama  endeavours  further  to  exjdain 
 the  nature  of  the  soul  as  unborn,  eternal,”  “ not  injured  by 
 the  hurt  which  the  body  may  receive : if  any  one  ready  to 
 kill  another  imagine  he  can  destroy  his  soul,  and  the  other 
 tliink  that  his  soul  shall  suffer  destruction,  they  both  know 
 nothing  ; for  neither  does  it  kill,  nor  is  it  killed.”  Some  of 
 Yama’s  assertions  respecting  the  soul  are  given  in  antithesis, 
 as,  “ Tlie  soul  is  the  smallest  of  the  small,  and  greatest  of 
 the  great.  The  soul,  althougli  without  motion,  seems  to 
 go  to  farthest  space ; thougii  it  resides  in  the  body  at  rest, 
 yet  it  seems  to  move  everywhere.”  * The  soul  moreover 
 
 * Referring  to  this  passage,  Dr.  E.  Roer  remarks,  that  “ the  I’paiiishads 
 
SPECULATIONS  ON  THE  SOUL. 
 
 79 
 
 “ resides  in  fire,  walks  on  the  earth,  enters  like  a guest  into 
 sacrificial  vessels ; dwells  in  man,  in  gods,  in  sacrifices ; moves 
 throughout  the  sky,  seems  to  be  boim  in  water.”  A man 
 who  has  this  knowledge  escapes  from  grief,  and  acquires  ab- 
 sorption ; but  those  who  are  ignorant  of  the  universal  Soul 
 are  bom  again  as  animals  or  trees.  This  was  not  however 
 the  fate  of  Nachiketa,  for  he  acquired  the  divine  doctrine, 
 became  freed  from  the  consequences  of  good  and  evil  acts, 
 and  acquired  in  consequence  absorption  into  Brahme.* 
 
 Thus  vaguely  do  these  interesting  speculations  terminate. 
 To  be  absorbed  into  an  infinite  abstraction  was  the  rare  pri- 
 vilege of  the  few  who  attained  the  highest  knowledge ; but 
 for  men  in  general  the  promise  of  future  life  was,  to  be 
 born  again  as  trees  or  beasts,  as  kings  oi’  gods,  but  only  for 
 a time  of  short  duration.  It  may  be  said  that  the  Hindu 
 gasped  for  immortality,  and  that  at  a distance  he  beheld  the 
 blessed  vision  ; but  when  he  strained  every  nerve  to  bring 
 it  near  and  realize  it  to  himself,  the  vision  changed,  and 
 it  was  not  immortality,  but  transmigration.  The  Hindu’s 
 belief  in  immortality  is  chained  to  transmigration  like  the 
 rocket  to  the  blackened  stick,  and  when  it  leaves  the  stick 
 it  explodes  into  total  darkness.  The  Hindu  believed, 
 not  that  man  shall  live  again,  but  that  man  shares  in  a soul 
 which  cannot  die. 
 
 “ Though  a hundred  bodies  like  iron  chains  hold  me 
 down,”  says  one  of  their  Upanishads,  “ yet  like  a falcon  I 
 quickly  rise.”f 
 
 generally  represent  tlie  difTiculty  of  understanding  the  infinite  sold  by  assign- 
 ing to  it  contradictory  predicates.” — Bibliotheca  Indica,  Bribad  Aranyaba, 
 p.  73. 
 
 * Eammobun  Roy,  ‘ Translation  of  Passages  from  the  Vedas,’  p.  59. 
 
 t Colebrooke,  vol.  i.  p.  51,  Aitarcya  Aranya. 
 
so 
 
 CHAPTER  HI. 
 
 “ As  little  chiklmi  lisp  and  tell  of  heaven, 
 
 So  thoughts  beyond  their  thought  to  those  high  Bards  were  given." 
 
 IvEHnE. 
 
 Whilst  the 
 narrow  sti’ip 
 of  laiifl  on 
 the  Saraswati 
 was  the  especial 
 residence  of  studi- 
 ous Brahmans,  all 
 the  fertile  plains 
 of  the  Ganges,  including  in  fact 
 the  whole  country  hetween  the  Hima- 
 laya and  the  Yindhya  hills,  was  considered 
 the  fitting  abode  of  Hindus  under  Brahmanical 
 guidance.  Between  these  mountains  “ lies  the  tract  which 
 the  wise  have  named  Aryavarta,”  says  the  Law-book ; 
 Aryavarta  meaning  the  abode  of  Ary  as,  or  respectable  men. 
 On  a tributary  of  the  Ganges,  called  the  river  Gogra,  to  the 
 •south-east  of  this  district,  was  placed  the  oldest  or  earliest 
 
THE  CODE  OF  JIANU. 
 
 81 
 
 Hiuclu  city,  Ayodhya,  occupying  nearly  the  same  site  as  the 
 modern  city  of  Oude,  where  remains  of  the  ancient  build- 
 ings are  yet  visible. 
 
 The  first  king  who  reigned  at  Ayodhya  was  Vaivaswata, 
 a descendant  of  the  sun,  ealled  in  eonsequence  the  founder 
 of  the  Solar  raee.  One  of  his  posterity,  named  Ikshwaku, 
 was  Raja  of  Mithila,  a kingdom  nearly  corresponding  with 
 the  modern  Tirhut ; and  other  monarchs  of  the  Solar  line 
 were  established  at  Vesali,  in  the  district  now  known  as 
 Little  Tirhut.  The  branch  of  the  royal  family  called  the 
 Lunar  dynasty  colonized  more  adventurously,  beginning  witli 
 Benares  and  extending  their  kingdoms  across  the  Vindhya 
 hills  to  Berar,  along  the  Nerbudda  to  Guzerat,  and  thence 
 northwards  to  Mathura  on  the  Jumna,  and  to  Hastinapura 
 on  the  Ganges.*  The  Lunar  dynasties  however  appear  to 
 have  had  more  of  Scythian  manners,  and  less  of  Brahma- 
 nical  civilization,  than  the  Solar  line  of  Ayodhya. 
 
 In  the  time  of  King  Vaivaswata,  Caste  had  not  become 
 hereditary,  for  it  is  reported  that  whilst  some  of  his  sons 
 were  Kshatriyas  and  kings,  one  founded  a tribe  of  Brah- 
 mans, one  was  a Vaisya,  and  another  a Sudi’a.  Some  of 
 the  early  kings  are  distinguished  as  having  themselves 
 established  Caste  amongst  their  subjects,  and  instances 
 are  even  recorded  of  Brahmanical  families  proceeding  from 
 Kshatriya  races  or  families.  By  degrees  however  Brah- 
 mans propounded  their  scheme  of  Hereditary  Caste  with 
 great  authority,  as  recorded  in  their  Law-book,  called  the 
 Code  of  Maim.  This  Code  is  a later  composition  than  the 
 Upanishads,  and  adopts  the  same  religious  doctrine,  with 
 additions,  giving  new  links  to  the  chain  by  which  they  con- 
 * H.  H.  Wilson,  Vishnu  Parana,  Introd.,  pp.  lx.vii.-lxLx. 
 
S2 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 iiect  the  visible  world  witli  the  self-existent  universal  Soul. 
 First,  Brahme  created  the  waters  and  placed  in  them  a seed, 
 which  became  an  egg ; and  in  that  egg,  “ bright  as  gold 
 and  blazing  like  the  luminary  uith  a thousand  beams,”* 
 Brahma  was  born ; Brahmii  being  as  it  were  an  isolated 
 portion  of  Brahme,  assuming  individuality  in  order  lo  create 
 the  world ; this  was  not  however  accomplished  by  any  di- 
 rect process,  for  Brahma  produced  Viraj,  and  then  retired 
 into  inactivity.  Viraj  in  like  manner  produced  ]\Ianu,  and 
 upon  him  devolved  the  further  duty  of  creation.  Maim 
 produced  the  llishis,  or  Sages,  of  the  Rig- Veda,  Angiras, 
 Bhrigu,  etc.,  ten  in  number.  The  ten  Rishis  produced  semi- 
 divine beings  of  various  degrees,  and  the  whole  vegetable 
 and  animal  creation,  endowed  with  internal  consciousness, 
 and  sensible  of  pleasure  and  pain  by  means  of  past  actions. f 
 The  work  of  creation  was  thus  nominally  attributed  to 
 many  agents  ; but  practically  the  scheme  of  the  Code  makes 
 Brahme  give  place  to  the  more  active  Brahma,  and  Viraj 
 retire  to  make  room  for  his  successor,  Mann. 
 
 This  celebrated  Law-book  commences  in  the  following 
 strain  of  dignity  : — “ IManu  sat  reclined  with  his  attention 
 fixed  ; the  divine  sages  approached,  and  making  salutations 
 delivered  the  following  address  : ‘ Deign,  sovereign  ruler,  to 
 apprise  us  of  the  sacred  law  s in  their  order,  as  they  must 
 be  followed  by  the  four  classes.’”  Thus  solicited,  Manu 
 replied,  that  for  the  sake  of  preserving  the  universe  Brahma 
 had  produced  four  classes  of  men,'  and  allotted  separate 
 duties  to  each.  These  four  classes  w^ere  Brahmans,  Ksha- 
 triyas,  Vaisyas,  and  Sudras,  wdio  sprang  respectively  from 
 the  mouth,  tbe  arm,  the  thigh,  and  the  foot  of  Brahma.J 
 * Code  of  Manu,  i.  9.  t iZiiW.,  iv.  49.  X 87. 
 
THE  roUK  CASTES. 
 
 83 
 
 Manu  makes  no  allusion  to  the /'ye  classes  of  the  Rig- Veda, 
 says  nothing  of  any  changes,  nothing  of  Brahma  as  a new 
 object  of  worshi]),  or  of  kings  having  once  had  equal  rights 
 with  Brahmans  to  minister  in  sacrifice;  but  he  enunci- 
 ates Brahmanical  supremacy  as  a fact  coeval  with  creation. 
 The  duties  of  the  four  Castes  are  thus  defined  : — Brahmans 
 are  to  read  the  Veda  and  to  teach  it,  to  sacrifice,  to  con- 
 duct sacrifices  for  others,  to  give  alms  if  rich,  and  to  receive 
 gifts  when  poor ; Kshatriyas  are  to  defend  the  people,  give 
 alms,  and  read  tlie  Veda;  Vaisyas  are  to  keep  cattle,  carry 
 on  trade,  lend  at  interest,  and  cultivate  the  land ; whilst  to 
 Sudras  one  principal  duty  is  assigned,  namely,  to  serve  the 
 before-mentioned  classes. 
 
 fifiie  education  of  the  first  three  Castes  is  most  sagaciously 
 consigned  to  Brahmans,  and  a scries  of  auspicious  acts  pre- 
 scribed, which  commence  even  before  a child  is  born.  In 
 the  first  or  third  year  of  his  infant  life  he  must  be  tonsured ; 
 and  in  his  eighth  year  for  a Brahman,  or  later  for  the  two 
 other  Castes,  or  at  any  age  up  to  sixteen  for  Brahmans,  and 
 twenty-two  and  twenty-four  for  Kshatriyas  and  Vaisyas, 
 he  must  be  invested  with  the  mark  of  the  Caste  to  which  he 
 owes  his  birth.*  This  is  a most  important  cei’emony,  con- 
 ferring, in  Brahmanical  language,  a second  birtli  ; it  is  per- 
 formed by  passing  Avhat  is  called  a sacrificial  thread  about 
 the  neck  and  beneath  one  shoulder  of  the  youth  ; whilst  the 
 Brahman  teacher,  called  Acharya,  pronounces  the  sacred 
 Gayatri,  preceded  by  the  mysterious  triliteral  syllable  Om, 
 the  import  of  which  will  be  considered  when  the  systems 
 of  Brahmanical  philosophy  become  the  object  of  our  study. 
 Until  this  investiture  or  second  birth  has  taken  place,  the 
 * Corle  of  Mtinu,  ii.  2fi-36.- 
 
 G r2 
 
84 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 young  man  is  unable  to  read  tbe  sacred  Vedas,  or  to  per- 
 form sacrifice  ;*  and  if  investiture  is  delayed  beyond  the 
 age  of  sixteen  for  a Brahman,  or  a few  years  later  for  tlie 
 other  classes,  the  youths  become  outcasts,f  to  whom  Brah- 
 mans must  not  teach  the  Veda,  and  with  whom  they  must 
 have  no  connection.  The  sacrificial  cord  is  in  fact  the  dis- 
 tinction between  a twice-born  man  and  a Sudra ; all  who 
 wear  this  token  of  having  received  Brahmanical  instruction 
 are  of  the  privileged  Castes,  and  all  who  are  without  it  are 
 Sudras.  The  term  'sacrificial  cord’  means  a cord  which 
 entitles  the  wearer  to  the  privilege  of  sacrifice.  Certain  ce- 
 remonies are  performed  for  girls  as  well  as  boys,  but  nei- 
 ther girls  nor  women  are  invested  with  the  cord,  and  have 
 in  consequence  no  right  to  sacrifice.  The  Brahman  from 
 whom  a youth  receives  investiture  becomes  his  Acharya,  or 
 teacher,  and  a pupil  is  taught  to  regard  such  a teacher  with 
 even  greater  reverence  than  his  natural  parents,  “ because 
 a second  or  divine  birth  ensures  life  both  in  this  w'orld  and 
 hereafter  eternally.’’ J Even  a little  child  teaching  holy 
 texts  from  the  Veda  to  his  uncles,  is  entitled  to  call  them 
 “ little  sons for  holy  sages  have  always  said  " Child”  to 
 an  ignorant  man,  and  "Father”  to  a teacher  of  Scripture.  § 
 Tlie  sanctity  attached  in  the  Code  to  the  Vedic  hymns  (or 
 Veda  Sanhita)  is  somewhat  remarkable,  for  already  the  lan- 
 guage in  which  they  are  written  was  becoming  obsolete, 
 the  Vedic  Gods  superseded,  and  the  organization  of  society 
 entirely  difierent.  The  Code  never  quotes  them,  although 
 it  refers  with  pride  of  ancestry  to  Angiras  and  Bhrigu  and 
 other  Vedic  Rishis ; but  the  only  text  of  which  it  shows 
 any  knowledge  is  the  address  to  the  divine  light  of  the  sun 
 * Code,  ii.  721.  t ii.  38.  % Ihid.,  ii.  146-169.  § Ibid.,  ii.  151-153. 
 
EDUCATION  OE  A BRAHMAN. 
 
 85 
 
 for  guidance,  which  is  the  holy  Gayatri  stiU  in  daily  use. 
 Indeed  Mr.  Colebrooke’s  observations  on  the  superstitious 
 modes  in  which  Hiudus  now  repeat  the  Vedas  seem  to  ap- 
 ply even  to  the  early  period  of  tlie  Code.  Pupils  must  leai’n 
 accurately  the  name  of  the  Rishi  by  whom  the  verses  were 
 first  uttered ; but  the  verses  may  be  repeated  baekwards  or 
 forwards,  joined  or  disjoined.*  The  sons  of  Rajas  appear 
 to  have  received  instruetiou  from  a preeeptor  resident  at 
 eourts,  and  the  children  of  Kshatriyas  and  Vaisyas  probably 
 attended  their  teachers  daily ; but  the  sons  of  Brahmans 
 went  to  reside  with  their  spiritual  father,  and  performed  for 
 him  menial  serviee,  sueh  as  eoUecting  wood  for  the  holy 
 fire,  sw'eeping  the  floor,  and  fetching  the  water  required 
 for  daily  use.  The  noviciate  of  a young  Brahman  required 
 abstinence  from  pleasure  and  luxury ; he  must  refrain 
 from  honey,  flesh-meat,  perfumes,  chaplets  of  flowers,  black 
 powder  for  his  eyes,  sandals,  umbrellas,  dancing,  music,  and 
 gaming.f  Brahman  pupils  still  live  with  their  teachers, 
 and  are  still  restricted  to  the  simplest  fare ; but  this  ap- 
 pears now  as  mueh  the  dietate  of  neeessity  as  of  principle, 
 for  the  teachers  are  usually  extremely  poor.  The  course  of 
 instruction  indicated  in  the  Code  comprises  the  Upanishads, 
 grammar,  prosody,  and  astronomy  ; and  whilst  the  teacher 
 is  advised  to  use  sweet  gentle  speech  and  give  no  pain,  of 
 the  pupil  it  is  said, — 
 
 “ As  he  who  digs  witli  a spade  comes  to  a spring  of  water,  so  the 
 student  who  humbly  serves  his  teacher  attains  the  knowledge  which 
 lies  deep  in  his  teacher’s  mind.”J 
 
 The  Code  of  Manu  ranks  reverence  for  Aeharyas  as 
 one  of  the  first  of  virtues,  and  requires  a pupil  “ to  stand 
 * Colebrooke,  i.  20.  f Code,  ii.  177.  J Ibid.,  ii.  218. 
 
80 
 
 1 IKE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 witli  the  palms  of  his  bauds  joined^  looking  at  the  face  of 
 his  preceptor  •”  in  his  presence,  to  “ keep  his  right  arm  un- 
 covered, to  eat  less,  to  wear  a coarser  mantle,”  and  show 
 endless  tokens  of  respect. 
 
 “ AVheu  his  teacher  is  uigh,  let  his  couch  or  his  bench  be  always 
 placed  low  ; when  his  preceptor’s  eye  can  observe  him,  let  him  not 
 sit  carelessly  or  at  case. 
 
 “ Let  hun  never  pronounce  the  mere  name  of  his  tutor,  even  in  his 
 absence ; nor  even  mimic  his  gait,  his  speech,  or  his  manner. 
 
 “ In  whatever  place  either  true  but  censorious,  or  false  and  de- 
 famatory, discourse  is  held  concerning  his  teacher,  let  him  there 
 cover  his  ears  or  remove  to  another  place. 
 
 “ By  censuring  his  preceptor,  though  justly,  he  wiU  be  born  an 
 ass ; by  falsely  defaming  him,  a dog ; by  using  his  goods  without 
 leave,  a small  worm ; by  envying  his  merit,  a larger  insect  or  rep- 
 tile.”* 
 
 A pupil  is  forbidden  to  give  presents  during  the  period  of 
 residence  in  a teacher’s  house ; but  when  the  course  of  in- 
 struction is  concluded,  he  may  “ give  the  venerable  man 
 some  valuable  thing  to  the  best  of  his  power, — a field,  or 
 gold,  a cow,  an  umbrella,  a pair  of  sandals,  or  even  any  very 
 excellent  vegetable ; thus  will  he  gain  the  affectionate  re- 
 membrance of  his  instructor.”  t 
 
 The  first  duty  of  a twice-born  man,  who  has  performed 
 his  ablution  with  stated  ceremonies  and  has  returned  home, 
 is  to  espouse  a wife  of  the  same  class  with  himself.j;  But 
 he  must  not  marry  into  a family  which  omits  pi’escribed 
 acts  of  religion,”  nor  into  one  remarkable  for  ill-health,  be 
 they  ever  so  great,  or  rich  in  kine,  goats,  sheep,  gold,  or 
 grain ; nor  must  he  marry  a girl  with  reddish  hair,  . . . 
 nor  one  immoderately  talkative,  nor  one  udth  inflamed  eyes, 
 
 * I'odo,  ii.  UIS-201.  t ii.  21fi.  + iii.  l-lo. 
 
DUTIES  OE  A mtAUMAN. 
 
 87 
 
 nor  one  with  the  name  of  a constellation,  tree,  river  of  a 
 l)arbarous  nation,  a winged  creature,  a snake; 
 
 “ But  let  him  choose  for  his  wife  a f^irl  whose  form  has  no  defect, 
 
 . . . who  walks  gracefully,  like  a flamingo  or  a young  elephant.” 
 
 After  a Brahman  has  married  a Avife  of  rank  equal  to  his 
 own,  he  is  to  spend  this  second  portion  of  his  life  as  a happy 
 householder,  making  daily  offerings  to  fire,  Avith  some  ad- 
 ditional ceremonies  at  the  close  of  each  fortnight,  and  a 
 moonplant  festival  at  the  end  of  each  year.*  If  he  has  not 
 sufiicient  wealth,  he  may  attend  on  cattle  or  apply  himself 
 to  agriculture;  but  keeping  herds  is  preferable,  because 
 “ tillage  gives  pain  to  sentient  creatures,  and  is  dependent 
 upon  the  labour  of  bulls.^’f  JNIany  occupations  ai’e  spe- 
 cified as  Avholly  inconsistent  with  Brahmanical  sanctity  ; 
 amongst  these  are  playing  with  dice,J  singing,  striking  his 
 arm,  and  dancing,  § dealing  in  tila  seeds,  which  produce  oil 
 required  in  holy  rites,  and  holding  them  back  in  hope  of 
 greater  gain.||  Strict  warnings  are  given  against  holding 
 intercourse  Avith  people  Avho  do  not  believe  in  the  Veda, 
 people  “ Avho  subsist  like  cats,”  or  “ live  like  rapacious 
 Avater-birds  he  must  not  reside  in  a city  governed  by  a 
 Sudra  king,  nor  “ long  upon  a inountain,”**  which  looks 
 very  much  as  if  the  hill-tribes  Avere  then  as  noAv  beyond 
 Brahmanical  control.  One  of  the  Avorst  sins  hoAvever 
 which  a Brahman  could  commit  was  to  impart  knowledge 
 of  sacrifice  or  of  Scripture  to  Sudras,  or  to  receive  a pre- 
 sent from  a king  not  born  in  the  Kshatriya  Caste  ;tt  this 
 enactment  being  necessary  to  the  preservation  of  strict 
 hereditary  caste.  But  beyond  this  a higher  mark  Avas 
 
 * Code,  iv.  35.  ^ Ibid.,  iv.  74.  ||  Ibid.,  x.  90.  **  Ibid.,  iv,  60,  61. 
 
 t Ibid.,  X.  HI.  § Ibid.,  iv.  64.  I"  Ibid.,  iv.  30.  tt  Ibid.,  iv,  84. 
 
88 
 
 LIl’K  I.\  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 aimed  at,  for  according  to  the  Code  it  degraded  a Brah- 
 man to  receive  gifts  from  an  avaricious  or  irreligious  king ; 
 and  even  if  the  giver  of  the  gifts  were  unexceptiouable,*  a 
 Brahman  must  avoid  the  habit  of  taking  them,  “ since  by 
 taking  many  gifts  his  divine  light  soon  fades.”  t 
 
 “ Let  him,  then,  who  knows  the  law  be  fearful  of  presents  ; . . . 
 since  an  ignorant  man,  even  by  a small  gift,  may  become  helpless  as 
 a cow  in  a bog.” 
 
 A Brahman  was  to  be  distinguished  for  learning  and 
 virtue;  and  if  such  a one  pronounced  texts  for  the  sake 
 of  gain  he  was  “ a covetous  wretch,  who  displays  the  flag 
 of  virtue,  a pretender,  a deluder  of  the  people,”  J and  the 
 giver  of  gifts  to  so  hypocritical  a person  shared  in  this  pu- 
 nishment, for — 
 
 “ As  he  who  tries  to  pass  over  deep  water  in  a boat  of  stone  sinks 
 to  the  bottom,  so  those  two  ignorant  men,  the  receiver  and  the  giver, 
 sink  to  a region  of  torment.  Ӥ 
 
 In  the  translation  of  the  Code  by  Sir  William  Jones,  the 
 word  priest  is  used  throughout  as  corresponding  precisely 
 with  the  term  Brahman ; but  to  this  it  is  objected,  that  to 
 perform  the  offices  of  religion  w as  only  one  of  a Brahman^s 
 occupations,  and  one  which  he  considered  inconsistent  with 
 
 * Code,  iv.  87.  t Ibid.,  iv.  186.  X Ibid.,  iv.  191. 
 
 g Code,  iv.  194.  Some  of  the  acts  forbidden  to  Brahmans  are  both 
 curious  and  unaccountable,  as  “ he  must  not  gaze  on  the  sun,  whether  rising 
 or  setting,  or  eehpsed  or  reflected  m water.”  lie  must  not  “ run  whilst  it 
 rains.”  He  must  not  “ look  on  his  own  image  in  water.”  When  he  sees  the 
 bow  of  Indra  in  the  sky,  he  must  not  show  it  to  any  man.  He  must  not 
 step  over  a strmg  to  winch  a caK  is  tied,  and  he  must  uot  interrupt  a cow 
 when  she  is  di’inking ; and  he  must  not  wash  liis  feet  in  a pan  of  mixed 
 metal.”  Tlicse  and  many  other  curious  particulars  will  be  found  in  the 
 fourth  eliapter  of  the  Code. 
 
OLD-AGE  OF  A BRAHMAN. 
 
 89 
 
 the  highest  sanctity  a wealthy  Brahman  always  employ- 
 ing, therefore,  professional  priests  to  perform  religious  cere- 
 monies oi’  minister  for  him  in  sacrifice.  To  give  instruc- 
 tion in  the  sacred  books,  to  give  political  counsel,  and  to  ad- 
 minister justice,  were  the  occupations  prefen’ed  by  a Brah- 
 man during  middle  life.  No  asceticism  is  then  required : 
 he  is  even  desired  not  to  waste  himself  with  hunger,  nor  to 
 wear  old  and  sordid  clothes;  but  with  his  hair  and  beard 
 properly  trimmed,  his  passions  subdued,  and  his  mantle 
 Avhite,  “ let  him  carry  a staff  of  Venu,  a ewer  with  water 
 in  it,  a handfid  of  ^wsa-grass,  or  a copy  of  the  Vedas,  with 
 a pair  of  bright  golden  rings  in  his  ears.”t 
 
 But  when  middle  life  is  past,  and  he  has  paid,  as  the  law 
 directs,  his  debts  to  the  Sages,  to  the  Manes,  and  to  the 
 Gods,  the  Brahman  may  resign  all  to  his  son,  and  retire  to 
 some  solitary  place  to  meditate  on  the  divine  natm’e  of  the 
 soul.j; 
 
 We  need  not  suppose  that  this  rule  of  retiring  from  active 
 life  in  middle  age  was  ever  the  universal  custom  of  the 
 Brahman  caste ; but,  doubtless,  those  who  aimed  at  great 
 learning  or  spiritual  perfection  did  adopt  the  practice,  and 
 through  their  self-denying  struggles  and  moi’tifications  ob- 
 tained that  paramount  influence  which  is  so  remarkable  a 
 featiu’e  in  early  Sanskrit  literature.  The  language  of  the 
 Code  upon  tliis  subject  is  so  beautiful  and  expressive,  that 
 the  (piotation  of  a few  verses  from  the  commencement  of 
 the  sixth  chapter  is  irresistible : — 
 
 “ Having  thus  remained  in  the  order  of  a housekeeper  as  the  law 
 ordains,  let  the  tudee-hom  man  who  had  before  completed  his 
 
 * Elphiustone,  Hist,  of  India,  pp.  13,  14,  and  note. 
 t Code,  iv.  34,  35.  J Ibid.,  iv.  :io7,  258. 
 
LIl’E  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 ')() 
 
 studentship  dwell  in  a forest,  his  faith  being  firm  and  his  organs 
 wholly  subdued. 
 
 “ When  the  father  of  a family  perceives  his  muscles  becoming 
 flaccid  and  his  hair  grey,  and  sees  the  child  of  his  child,  let  him  then 
 seek  refuge  in  a forest. 
 
 “ Abandoning  all  food  eaten  in  towns  and  all  his  household  uten- 
 sils, let  him  repair  to  the  lonely  wood,  committing  the  care  of  his 
 wife  to  her  sons,  or  accompanied  by  her. 
 
 “ Let  him  take  up  his  consecrated  fire,  and  all  his  domestic  imple- 
 ments for  making  oblations  to  it,  and,  departing  from  the  town  to  the 
 forest,  let  him  dwell  in  it  with  complete  power  over  his  organs. 
 
 “With  many  sorts  of  pure  food,  such  as  holy  sages  used  to  eat, 
 with  green  herbs,  roots,  and  fruit,  let  him  perform  the  five  great 
 sacraments.  . . . 
 
 “ Let  him  wear  a black  antelope’s  hide,  or  a vesture  of  bark  ; let 
 him  bathe  evening  and  morning  ; let  him  suffer  the  hairs  of  his  head, 
 his  beard,  and  his  nails  to  grow  continually. 
 
 “ From  such  food  as  himself  may  eat,  let  him  to  the  utmost  of  his 
 power  make  offerings  and  give  alms  ; and  with  presents  of  water, 
 roots,  and  fruit,  let  him  honour  those  who  visit  his  hermitage. 
 
 “ Let  him  be  constantly  engaged  in  reading  the  Veda  ; patient  of 
 all  extremities,  universally  benevolent,  with  a mind  intent  on  the 
 Supreme  Being  ; a perpetual  giver,  but  no  receiver  of  gifts  ; with 
 tender  affection  for  all  animated  bodies. 
 
 “ Let  him,  as  the  law  directs,  make  oblations  on  the  hearth  with 
 three  sacred  fires,  not  omitting  in  due  time  the  ceremonies  to  be 
 performed  at  the  conjunction  and  opposition  of  the  moon.” 
 
 The  hermit’s  food,  like  that  of  a Bralimaii  pupil,  was  eoii- 
 siderably  restrieted  : no  honey,  no  flesh-meat,  no  mush- 
 rooms, no  fruit  or  roots  produced  in  a town ; but  green 
 herbs  produced  iu  earth  or  water,  oils  formed  in  fruits,  and 
 “ pure  grains,  the  food  of  ancient  sages.”  This  pure  grain, 
 brought  home  by  himself,  he  may  boil  or  make  into  cakes, 
 and,  as  the  law  ordains,  present  oblations. 
 
 “ He  may  eat  what  is  mellowed  by  fire,  and  he  may  eat  what  is 
 ripened  by  time ; and  either  let  him  break  hard  fruits  with  a stone, 
 or  let  his  teeth  serve  as  a pestle. 
 
CLOSE  OF  A brahman’s  LIFE. 
 
 91 
 
 “ Either  let  him  pluck  enough  for  a clay,  or  let  him  gather  eiiougli 
 for  a month,  or  let  him  collect  enough  for  six  months,  or  lay  up 
 enough  for  a year.”* 
 
 By  degrees  the  severity  of  the  hermit’s  self-denial  is  in- 
 creased^ and  absolute  suffering  is  prescribed  in  order  to  sub- 
 due the  bodily  frame  and  enable  the  spirit  to  escape  from 
 time  and  mingle  with  eternity.  “ To  slide  backwards  and 
 forwards  on  the  ground  ; to  stand  a whole  day  on  tiptoe ; 
 to  sit  in  the  hot  season  exposed  to  five  fires,  and  stand  un- 
 covered during  the  rains,”  are  amongst  the  trials  recom- 
 mended ; that  by  “ enduring  harsher  and  harsher  mortifi- 
 cations, he  may  dry  up  his  bodily  frame,”  and  enter  upon 
 the  fourth  and  closing  period  of  a Brahman’s  life,  when, 
 
 “ Having  reposited  his  holy  fires,  as  the  law  directs,  in  his  mind, 
 let  him  live  without  external  fire,  without  a mansion,  wholly  silent, 
 feeding  upon  roots  and  fruits. ”t 
 
 When  the  hermit  assumes  a state  of  silence  and  gives 
 up  the  use  of  fire,  he  becomes  a Sanyasi,  M'ho  must  eat 
 little,  and  ask  but  once  in  the  day  for  food. 
 
 “ At  the  time  when  the  smoke  of  kitchen  fires  has  ceased,  when 
 the  pestle  hes  motionless,  when  the  burning  charcoal  is  extinguished, 
 when  people  have  eaten,  and  when  dishes  are  removed,  let  the 
 Sanyasi  beg  for  food.J 
 
 “For  missing  it  let  him  not  be  sorrowful,  nor  for  gaining  it  let 
 him  be  glad ; let  him  care  only  for  a sufficiency  to  support  life.” 
 
 Indifference  is  the  state  which  he  must  endeavour  to  ac- 
 quire, and  “ by  the  absence  of  hate  and  affection,  and  by 
 giving  no  pain  to  sentient  creatures,”  to  become  fit  for  im- 
 mortality. His  means  of  showing  kindness  totvards  living 
 
 * Code  of  Manu,  vi.  17.  This  had  been  done  by  a Hermit  in  the 
 Hitopadesa,  but  a rat  discovers  liis  little  store.  “ Hiranyaka,  the  prince  of 
 mice,”  was  for  ever  eating  the  food  of  Churakarna,  a religious  mendicant, 
 who  had  ai-eumulatcd  a hoard  in  a liole. — Hitopadesa,  eh.  i.,  fables  v.,  vi. 
 
 t Code,  vi.  111.  Ihid.,  vi.  56,  57. 
 
92 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 creatures  are  extremely  limited ; but  for  the  sake  of  pre- 
 serving minute  animals,  he  must  never  ■walk  without  look- 
 ing on  the  ground ; and  for  fear  of  destroying  inseets,  he 
 mnst  not  drink  water  until  it  has  been  strained.'^ 
 
 The  Sanyasi  is  pointedly  warned  against  explaining 
 omens  and  prodigies,  or  showing  skill  in  palmistry  or  as- 
 trology, to  whieh  occupations  his  reputation  for  sanetity 
 would  expose  him.  He  is  even  desii’ed  to  clip  his  hair,  his 
 nails,  and  his  beard,  in  order  perhaps  to  excite  less  atten- 
 tion ; and  the  only  occupation  suitable  to  his  situation  is 
 meditation, t — meditation  upon  the  transmigration  of  men 
 caused  by  their  sinful  deeds  ; on  their  separation  from  those 
 whom  they  love,  and  their  union  with  those  whom  they 
 bate;  on  their  strength  overpowered  by  old-age;  on  their 
 liodies  racked  by  disease,  and  their  agonizing  departure  from 
 this  corporeal  frame  and  on  “ the  progress  of  this  in- 
 ternal spirit  through  various  bodies  high  and  low,”  which 
 is  admitted  to  he  a progress  hard  to  be  discerned  “ by  men 
 of  unimproved  intellect.”^ 
 
 AVe  dwell  with  particular  pleasure  on  the  jiicture  of  a 
 tranquil  philosopher  who  attains  equanimity  towards  all 
 creatures,  ivho  can  bear  a reproachful  speech  with  patience,  || 
 and  who  wishes  neither  for  life  nor  death,  but  expects  his 
 appointed  time  as  a hired  servant  expects  his  wages  and 
 we  could  almost  envy  the  Brahman  the  indifference  with 
 which  he  anticipates  leaving  his  body,  “ a mansion  with 
 bones  for  its  rafters  and  beams,”  a mansion  “ infested  by 
 age  and  sorrow,  . . . incapable  of  standing  long.”  “ Such 
 a mansion,”  says  the  Brahman,  “ let  the  vital  soul  cheer- 
 fully quit ; as  a tree  leaves  the  bank  of  a river,  or  as  a bird 
 
 * Code,  vi.  68-46.  J Ibid.,  vi.  61.  ||  Ibid.,  vi.  -17. 
 
 + Ibid.,  vi.  50,  52.  § Ibid.,  yi.  73.  ^ Ibid.,  vi.  45. 
 
DUTIES  OF  KINGS. 
 
 93 
 
 leaves  the  braneh  of  a tree  . . . thus  is  he  who  leaves  his 
 body  delivered  from  the  ravening  shark  of  the  world.”* 
 But  we  must  not  lose  sight  of  the  cutting  line  which  these 
 philosophers  drew  between  what  is  good  for  this  life,  and 
 what  is  good  for  life  hereafter.  Our  Brahman  thought 
 it  better  to  meditate  upon  eternity  than  to  contend  with 
 the  ravening  shark  of  the  world ; but  he  never  thought  of 
 taming  the  shark ; or,  supposing  its  ravening  propensities 
 unalterable,  he  never  thought  of  defending  society  from  its 
 incursions,  or  of  finding  happiness  and  blessedness  in  pro- 
 moting the  happiness  and  blessedness  of  others.  Neverthe- 
 less the  Brahman’s  view  of  old-age  and  death  is  very  beau- 
 tiful, and,  as  far  as  we  know,  comes  nearer  to  the  pathos  and 
 sublimity  of  Hebrcvv  Scripture  than  any  other  ante-(>hris- 
 tian  record. 
 
 Turning  from  the  Brahmans  to  the  Kings,  we  feel  re- 
 minded that  Brahmans  were  the  authors  of  the  Code ; for 
 alas  ! the  earnest  eloquence,  ease,  and  graphic  detail  which 
 we  have  been  admiring,  vanish  when  kings  become  the  sub- 
 ject ; and  in  pompous  words  a mere  superficial  view  is  given 
 of  what  Brahmans  apparently  intended  to  be  mere  super- 
 ficial authority.  The  very  word  for  King  in  Sanskrit,  Raja, 
 signifies  to  shine  as  well  as  to  rule,  and  the  Brahmans  took 
 pains  to  make  their  king — 
 
 “ As  glorious  as  the  autumn’s  evening  sky, 
 
 Bright  with  the  moon,  and  set  with  radiant  stars.  ”f 
 
 A part  of  his  daily  duty  was  to  enter  his  hall,  or  hold  his 
 court  in  “ decently  splendid  attire,”  and  stand  there  to 
 gratify  his  subjects  with  kind  words  and  looks.  In  the 
 afternoon  he  is  to  gratify  his  warriors  in  the  same  way,  by 
 going  forth  completely  arrayed  to  review  his  troops,  cle- 
 * Code,  vi.  76-78.  f Hindrf  Theatre,  vol.  ii.  p.  231. 
 
94 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 phants,  horses,*  cars,  etc.  In  fact,  one  reads  of  kings  in 
 the  Code  with  a feeling  that  they  are  puppets  in  an  imagi- 
 nary pageant ; hut  the  regulations  concerning  them  are  ne- 
 vertheless worth  studying,  for  although  never  fully  realized 
 they  arc  alluded  to  and  partially  recognized  in  general 
 Sanskrit  literature.  The  King  is  exhorted  to  conduct  him- 
 self with  humility  towards  Brahmans  learned  in  the  three 
 Vedas,  to  avoid  idleness  and  vice,  and  to  appoint  seven  or 
 eight  ministers  versed  in  the  holy  books,  skilled  in  the  use 
 of  weapons,  and  whose  lineage  is  noble.  He  must  also  have 
 a very  learned  Brahman  as  a confidential  adviser,  and  va- 
 rious other  ministers,  usually  Brahmans,  who  assist  in  the 
 council  which  the  King  meets  every  morning ; “ ascending 
 up  the  back  of  a mountain,  or  going  privately  to  a terrace, 
 a bower,  a forest,  or  a lonely  place,”  that  he  may  consult 
 them  unobserved,  for  it  is  said  that  “ that  prince  of  Avhose 
 weighty  secrets  all  assemblies  of  men  are  ignorant,  shall  at- 
 tain dominion  over  the  whole  earth.”  The  secrecy  required 
 in  these  Brahmanical  councils,  in  Ayodhya  and  the  other 
 early  kingdoms  of  Ilindostan,  offers  a striking  contrast  to 
 the  public  assemblies  of  the  Rajputs  in  Guzerat  and  at 
 Mathura,  as  recorded  in  after-years.  From  this  council 
 ‘ with  closed  doors’  the  Code  requires  that  all  blind,  deaf, 
 and  decrepit  persons  should  be  removed,  because  those  who 
 arc  suficring  in  this  world  for  sins  committed  in  previous 
 births,  are  apt  to  betray  counsel ; and  for  the  same  reason 
 talking  birds,  and  above  all,  women  must  be  excluded.  An 
 account  of  the  subjects  on  which  a council  deliberates  oc- 
 cupies a lai’ge  portion  of  tbe  chapter  assigned  to  the  King’s 
 duties.  The  whole  question  of  war  and  negotiation  is  dis- 
 cussed, and  the  qualifications  required  in  an  ambassador : 
 * Code,  vii.  U5,  Ufi,  222. 
 
DUTIES  IN  WAR. 
 
 95 
 
 he  must  liave  a pure  hand  and  a pure  heart ; he  must  lie 
 handsome,  intrepid,  eloquent,  have  an  excellent  memory, 
 and  be  well  acquainted  ivith  countries  and  times ; but  it  is 
 also  essential  that  he  understand  external  signs  and  hints, 
 that  he  may  discover  the  arts  of  a foreign  prince  through 
 the  acts  of  his  confidential  servants.  By  the  aid  of  this  il- 
 lustrious ambassador  and  his  secret  negotiations  the  enemy 
 is  to  be  reduced  by  internal  dissension,  and  by  well-applied 
 gifts  all  such  leaders  are  to  be  gained  as  can  be  safely 
 brought  over.  For  this  purpose  spies  of  five  descriptions 
 are  I’ecommended ; as,  “ active  and  artful  youths,  degraded 
 anchorites,  distressed  husbandmen,  decayed  merchants,  and 
 fictitious  penitents,”  who  are  all  to  be  seen  and  ]iaid  in 
 private.  Intrigue  is  no  disgrace,  and  prudence  a cardinal 
 virtue;  the  Code  giving  its  highest  commendation  to  the 
 king  who  foresees  the  good  and  evil  to  ensue  from  his  mea- 
 sures, and  so  arranges  his  affairs  that  no  ally,  neutral  prince, 
 or  enemy,  ever  gets  an  advantage  over  him.  On  the  other 
 hand,  there  is  no  praise  for  heroic  daring,  or  hopeless  valour, 
 or  generous  defence  of  country,  home  and  hearth.  The 
 negative  duty  of  not  turning  his  face  from  battle  is  tbe  only 
 military  duty  inculcated  upon  kings  and  soldiers,  and  the 
 rules  of  war  in  general  are  tame  and  dull ; although  they 
 read  very  like  rules  for  preserving  peace,  they  do  not  excite 
 respect  and  confidence,  because  they  have  the  air  of  being 
 drawn  up  in  seclusion,  by  students  who  had  never  seen  or 
 felt  the  troubles  and  difficulties  of  actual  warfare  or  politi- 
 cal contention ; and,  on  the  other  hand,  one  is  irresistibly 
 inclined  to  attribute  them  to  learned  men,  anxious  to  be 
 independent  of  the  Military  Caste.  The  most  pleasing  part 
 of  the  subject  is  the  mercy  required  in  the  choice  of  wea- 
 pons, and  also  towards  captives ; these  rules  have  fortu- 
 
96 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 nately  been  translated  in  metre,  whieh  gives  a most  oppor- 
 tune relief  to  this  unusually  prosaie  prose : 
 
 “ Let  the  soldier,  good  in  battle,  never  guilefully  conceal 
 (\Mierewithal  to  smite  the  unwary)  in  his  staff  the  treacherous 
 steel ; ■ 
 
 Let  him  scorn  to  barb  his  javelin ; let  the  valiant  ne’er  anoint 
 With  fell  poison-juice  his  arrows,  ne’er  put  fire  upon  the  point. 
 
 In  his  car,  or  on  his  war-horse,  should  he  chance  his  foe  to  meet. 
 Let  him  smite  not  if  he  find  him  lighted  down  upon  his  feet ; 
 
 Let  him  spare  one  standing  suppliant,  with  his  closed  hands  raised 
 on  high. 
 
 Spare  him  w’hom  his  long  hair  loosen’d  blinds  and  hinders  from 
 to  fly,— 
 
 Spare  him  if  he  sink  exhausted ; spare  him  if  for  life  he  crave  ; 
 Spare  him  crying  out  for  mercy,  ‘ Take  me,  for  I am  thy  slave.’ 
 StiU  remembering  his  duty,  never  let  the  soldier  smite 
 One  unarm’d,  defenceless,  mourning  for  one  fallen  in  the  fight ; 
 Never  strike  the  sadly  wounded ; never  let  the  brave  attack 
 One  by  sudden  terror  smitten,  turning  in  base  flight  his  back.”* 
 
 The  Law-book  mentions  so  few  names  of  places,  kings,  or 
 kingdoms,  that  we  may  almost  suspect  it  of  wishing  to  avoid 
 identifying  itself  with  any  particular  time  or  place : it  is 
 written  for  all  time  and  for  all  Hindus,  and  in  consequence 
 gives  very  few  data  enabling  us  to  judge  how  far  Hindus 
 and  Brahmans  had  penetrated.  They  do  not  however  ap- 
 pear to  liave  been  confined  to  the  plains  of  the  Ganges, 
 which  the  Code  calls  Aryavarta,  for  allusions  are  made  to 
 most  desirable  forts  on  hills,  which  one  hundred  bowmen 
 can  defend  against  ten  thousand.  Such  natural  defences 
 would  be  difficult  to  find  near  the  Ganges ; but  Gwalior  and 
 Dowlatabad  and  other  basaltic  rocks  of  iMalwa  and  llajpu- 
 tana  answer  well  to  the  description.  iMathura  is  likewise 
 mentioned ; the  men  of  IMathura  being  tall  and  light,  and 
 therefore  good  soldiers  for  the  van  of  an  army.  The  coun- 
 
 * R.  T.  Griffith,  Specimens  of  Indian  Poetry,  p.  0. 
 
KINGS  IN  THE  CODE. 
 
 97 
 
 try  was  divided  into  a number  of  small  unequal  states,  of 
 whicb  the  weaker  sought  the  protection  of  the  stronger ; 
 and  the  conquest  of  foreign  States  appears  to  be  alluded  to, 
 for  it  is  recommended  that  the  deities  and  virtuous  priests 
 of  a conquered  country  be  respected,  but  we  can  only  sup- 
 pose that  this  refers  to  slight  varieties  amongst  Hindu 
 States.  It  may  be  a recommendation  to  kings  of  the  Solar 
 race  to  be  tolerant  towards  the  usages  of  the  Lunar  dynas- 
 ties, or  to  Hindus  settled  in  Oude  to  be  liberal  towards 
 Rajputs  in  jialwa,  or  Saurashtrians  in  modern  Guzerat ; 
 but  it  is  not  probable  that  despotic  and  exclusive  Brahmans 
 recommended  positive  toleration  towards  the  religions  of 
 people  whom  they  called  Sudras,  robbers,  or  barbarians.  If 
 they  conquered  Scythian  tribes  in  the  northern  mountains, 
 whom  they  called  Hunas  and  Sakas,  they  did  not  attempt 
 to  hold  them  or  govern  them,  because  this  was  apparently 
 impossible  to  the  philosophic  theones  of  the  Brahmans, 
 which  affected  the  Court  and  capital,  but  made  very  little 
 impression  on  the  people  as  a nation.  It  may  be  for  want 
 of  knowing  how  to  extract  the  information  required,  but 
 with  mere  ordinary  apparatus  for  this  purpose  the  Code  is 
 far  from  satisfactory  upon  the  subject  of  the  Kshatriya,  or 
 Military  Caste  : if  it  gave  mere  law  we  could  not  complain, 
 but  whilst  we  are  told  that  a king’s  displeasure  is  worse  than 
 lightning,  and  consumes  whole  families  by  its  destructive 
 violence,  and  that  Abundance  rises  on  her  lotus-leaf  when- 
 ever a king  is  well  pleased  and  gracious,  we  get  no  facts 
 to  show  in  what  manner  a king  ever  has  or  ever  can  exer- 
 cise individual  enterprise  in  promoting  the  welfare  or  im- 
 provement of  his  kingdom. 
 
 II 
 
CHAPTER  IV. 
 
 THE  EAMAYANA. 
 
 “ TIic  lark  soars  upwards  and  is  gone  ; 
 
 His  voice  is  heard,  but  body  there  is  none. 
 
 * * * * 
 
 So  poets’  songs  are  with  us,  though  they  die, 
 
 Ajid  earth  inherits  the  rich  melody.” — Hood. 
 
 Hitherto  we  have  been  like  voyagers  sailing  towards  an 
 unkuoAvu  land,  striving  to  catch  glimpses  through  a tele- 
 scope of  the  leading  features  of  the  country,  hut  baffled  by 
 twilight  when  hoping  to  make  more  detailed  observations. 
 Now  that  we  are  about  to  look  upon  the  gi’aphic  pages  of 
 epic  poetry,  we  shall  feel  a change  in  our  sensations,  as  if 
 when  nearing  our  port  at  dusk  the  coast  should  suddenly 
 appear  illuminated  by  a revolving  lighthouse,  and  a palace, 
 a procession,  a sacrifice,  or  a tournament  were  for  a mo- 
 ment Hsible  in  the  rich  red  light,  or  in  the  succeeding  clear 
 Avhitc  rays  of  the  lofty  beacon.  Such  are  the  transitory 
 high-coloured  views  of  life  in  Ancient  India,  Avhich  we  get 
 from  the  portions  of  the  Sanskrit  Epics  which  have  been 
 
THE  RAMAVANA. 
 
 99 
 
 translated ; and  it  is  more  especially  upon  the  kings  and 
 courts,  so  slighted  in  the  Code,  that  they  delight  to  shed 
 their  glowing  gleams. 
 
 The  Ramayana  is  the  more  ancient,  and  also  the  more 
 connected  of  these  poems,  and  commences  with  the  history 
 of  a King  of  Ayodhya,  an  ancient  city  on  the  river  Gogra, 
 then  called  the  Srayu  (tributary  to  the  Ganges).  King 
 of  Ayodhya  is  his  title,  although  Ayodhya  was  merely  the 
 capital  of  the  province  of  Kosala,  corresponding  nearly  Avith 
 the  modern  province  of  Glide.  Ayodhya  held  in  fact  nearly 
 the  same  position  as  the  modern  city  of  Oude,  where  re- 
 mains of  old  buildings  are  still  visible.*  “ The  streets  and 
 alleys  of  this  city  were  admirably  disposed,  and  the  princi- 
 pal streets  well  watered.  It  was  beautified  ivith  gardens, 
 fortified  ivith  gates,  . . . croivded  with  charioteers  and 
 messengers  furnished  ivith  arms,  adorned  with  banners, 
 filled  with  dancing  girls  and  dancing  men,  crowded  with 
 elephants,  horses,  and  chai’iots,  merchants  and  ambassadors 
 from  various  countries.  It  resembled  a mine  of  jewels,  or 
 the  residence  of  Srz,  the  walls  were  variegated  with  divers 
 sorts  of  gems  like  the  divisions  of  a chess-boai’d,t  the  houses 
 formed  one  continued  roiv  of  equal  height,  resounding  with 
 the  music  of  the  tabor,  . . . the  twang  of  the  bow,  and  the 
 sacred  sound  of  the  Veda.  It  ivas  perfumed  ulth  incense, 
 chaplets  of  flowers,  and  articles  for  sacriflee,  by  their  odour 
 cheering  the  heart. 
 
 In  this  city  of  ivell-fed  happy  people  no  one  practised  a 
 
 * Oude  is  seventy-uine  miles  from  Luetnow,  and  adjoins  Fyzabad. 
 t This  expression  seems  to  indicate  that  in  Incha,  as  in  Assyria,  Avails 
 were  omameuted  in  mosaic.  See  Fergnsson. 
 
 J Cary,  vol.  i.  pp.  95-98. 
 
 H .2 
 
100 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 calling  not  his  own  ; none  were  without  relations ; the  men 
 loved  their  wives^  the  women  were  faithful  and  obedient  to 
 their  husbands ; no  one  w'as  wdtl^out  earrings ; no  one  went 
 unperfumed ; no  Brahman  was  without  the  eonstant  fire, 
 and  no  man  gave  less  than  a thousand  rupees  to  the  Brah- 
 mans. This  city  was  guarded  by  warriors  as  a mountain  den 
 by  lions^  filled  with  horses  from  Kamboja  and  other  places, 
 and  elephants  from  the  Vindhya  and  Himalaya  mountains, 
 and  governed  as  Indra  governs  his  city,  by  Dasaratha,  chief 
 of  the  race  of  Ikshwaku.* 
 
 This  King  was  perfectly  skilled  in  the  Vedas  and  Ve- 
 dangas,  beloved  by  his  people,  a great  charioteer,  and  con- 
 stant in  sacrifice.  His  courtiers  were  wise,  capable  of  un- 
 derstanding a nod,  and  constantly  devoted  to  him.  Eight 
 Brahmans  are  mentioned  as  chief  counsellors,  two  as  chosen 
 jn'iests,  and  these  appear  to  have  been  his  prime  ministers ; 
 six  others  were  also  in  office.  “ Surrounded  by  all  these 
 counsellors,  learned,  faithful,  eminent,  seeking  by  wise 
 counsels  the  good  of  the  kingdom,  Dasaratha  shone  resplen- 
 dent as  the  sun  irradiating  the  world.’^f 
 
 But  even  Dasaratha,  King  of  Ayodhya,  had  a grief, — he 
 pined  because  he  had  no  son  ; and  consulting  his  Brahmans, 
 they  brought  a Rishi,  or  eminent  devotee,  to  com’t,  to  per- 
 form the  Aswamedha,  or  horse  sacrifice,  supposed  to  ensure 
 the  lioon  desired  by  him  who  performs  it  with  sufficient 
 magnificence  and  liberality.  The  sacrifice  succeeded,  the 
 divinities  were  propitiated,  and  the  King’s  three  wives  be- 
 came the  mothers  of  four  sons.  The  first  and  favourite 
 
 * Tlic  above  is  given  nearly  t'crbatim,  -with  Cary’s  translation,  only 
 oinittuig  repetitions  and  rednndaneies. 
 
 t Cary,  vol.  i.  ]).  3. 
 
KINGS  AND  COURTS. 
 
 101 
 
 wife  had  two  sons^  Rama  and  Lakshman ; Rama  being  the 
 eldest  of  the  four,  and  destined  by  his  father  to  assist  him 
 in  his  advancing  years,  and  succeed  to  the  throne  at  his 
 demise.* 
 
 Nothing  is  said  of  the  young  princes  during  their  in- 
 fancy ; hut  when  they  are  on  the  verge  of  manhood,  a Rishi 
 named  Viswamitra  appears  at  court,  soliciting  the  King  to 
 allow  Rama  to  go  with  him  to  his  hermitage  in  the  hills, 
 and  clear  it  from  tormenting  fiends,  who  destroyed  all  his 
 attempts  at  a ten-night  sacrifice  by  sprinkling  the  altar  with 
 blood.  The  King  is  distracted  by  contending  feelings,  his 
 reverence  for  the  Sage  and  his  love  for  his  son  being  equally 
 unbounded.  After  trembling,  fainting,  and  recovering,  he 
 says  that  his  Rama,  the  lotus-eyed,  has  not  yet  attained  his 
 sixteenth  year,  and  says  he  will  himself  go.  He  is  an 
 archer  invincible ; “ as  long  as  life  remains  will  I maintain 
 the  combat  with  these  night-wanderers,  . . . the  sacrifice 
 shall  be  effectually  protected,  . . . but  Rama  thou  must  not 
 take ; he  is  a child,  . . . unable  to  bear  arms,  . .’ . inca- 
 pable of  coping  with  the  wily  Rakshasas ; . . . thou  must 
 not  take  my  Rama ; ...  by  me,  an  old  man,  are  these  sons 
 begotten,  . . . dearer  to  me  than  life  itself.” 
 
 This  pathetic  remonstrance  kindles  anger  in  the  breast 
 of  the  Sage,  at  which  the  whole  earth  was  moved,  and  “ fear 
 seized  even  the  Gods.”  The  prime  minister  interposes,  the 
 King  gives  way,  and  his  two  sons,  Rama  and  Lakshman,  are 
 sent  away  with  Viswamitra.f  To  qualify  Rama  for  the 
 enterprise  was  the  first  consideration : travelling  along  the 
 south  bank  of  the  river,  the  Sage  bids  him  touch  the  water 
 whilst  receiving  instruction,  which  shall  make  him  proof 
 * Carj-j  vol.  i.  p.  232  f Hid.,  p.  251. 
 
102 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 against  fatigue,  disease,  or  change  of  form,  and  give  him 
 such  strength  of  arm  that  no  one  in  the  three  worlds  shall 
 he  his  equal.*  The  next  day  Yiswamitra  and  his  pupils 
 crossed  the  river,  and  heard  the  mighty  sound  of  waters 
 caused  by  the  confluence  of  the  Surayu  and  the  Jahnavi ; 
 and  after  defeating  a female  demon,  who  infested  a forest 
 “ dark  as  a cloud,”  Rama  was  presented  with  celestial 
 weapons.  Thus  prepared,  the  party  proceeded  to  the  her- 
 mitage, and  in  “ dreadful  combat”  Rama  encountered  and 
 destroyed  the  “ night-w'andcring  Rakshasas.”t 
 
 The  point  to  which  the  holy  guide  next  conducted  his 
 young  pupils  ivas  ISIithila,  where  a certain  king  named 
 Janaka  resided,  ndiose  daughters  and  nieces  would,  he 
 thought,  prove  desirable  wives  for  the  four  young  princes. 
 The  King  of  INIithila  received  the  travellers  with  much  so- 
 lemnity : joining  his  hands  together  he  said  to  the  Rishi, 
 “ O thou  Godlike,  take  a place  among  the  great  sages ;” 
 and  having  seated  the  holy  man  he  drew  near  with  joined 
 palms,*  sajdng,  “ O thou  heavenly  one,  today  am  I blessed 
 with  the  water  of  immortality;”  and  then  turning  to  his 
 young  companions,  asked  who  were  “ those  noble  youths,  of 
 majestic  gait  like  the  elephant,  courageous  as  tlie  tiger  and 
 huffalo  . . . with  eyes  like  the  lotus,  of  godlike  aspect  and 
 hearing  the  scimitar  and  the  quiver?”  Yisuamitra  replies 
 that  they  are  the  sons  of  the  King  of  Ayodhya,  come  to 
 INIithila  to  inquire  after  King  Janaka’s  great  bow.J  The 
 bow  was  at  once  sent  for,  and  brought  in  an  eight-wheeled 
 carriage  drawn  by  eight  hundred  men.  To  the  man  who 
 could  draw  this  how  the  King  had  promised  his  most  lovely 
 
 * Cary,  vol.  i.  p.  259.  t Ibid.,  p.  111. 
 
 J Can-,  vol.  i.  p.  548.  See  also  Heeren,  vol.  ii.  p.  152. 
 
THE  king’s  vow. 
 
 103 
 
 daughter,  Sita.  Rama  alone  eould  either  lift  or  hend  the 
 weiglity  weapon,  and  he  with  one  hand  snapped  it  asunder 
 with  a crash  like  that  of  a falling  mountain. 
 
 The  lovely  Sita  was  therefore  to  become  the  hride  of  Rama, 
 and  his  brothers  were  to  marry  the  three  other  princesses 
 of  !Mithila ; and  as  Ayodhya  was  only  a four  days’  journey 
 distant,  the  old  King  Dasaratha  came  with  his  councillors 
 to  attend  the  celebration  of  his  sons’  nuptials.  Rare  and 
 costly  presents  of  shawls  and  silks,  deer-skins  and  precious 
 stones,  costly  vehicles,  were  made  upon  the  occasion,  and 
 then  the  whole  party  returned  to  Ayodhya,  where  Dasara- 
 tha’s  wives  were  eager  to  embrace  the  beautiful  brides  of 
 their  sons;  and  “all  these  ladies,  sumptuously  clad  in  silk, 
 and  entertaining  each  other  with  agreeable  conversation, 
 hastened  to  the  temples  of  the  Gods  to  offer  incense.”* 
 
 Dasaratha  now  made  preparations  for  the  public  ac- 
 knowledgment of  Rama  as  destined  to  be  the  next  king- 
 in  regular  succession,  and  as  permitted  during  his  father’s 
 lifetime  to  share  with  him  the  honours  and  fatigues  of 
 royalty ; but  this  happiness  was  all  destroyed  by  the  in- 
 trigues of  Dasai’atha’s  second  wife,  who  was  jealous  of  Rama, 
 and  determined  that  her  son  Bharata  slioidd  he  the  future 
 king.  Unfortunately  Dasaratha  had  once  given  a promise 
 to  Bharata’s  mother  that  he  would  grant  any  two  boons  she 
 pleased  to  ask.  The  promise  had  been  made  in  yeai-s  gone 
 by,  when  he  had  been  dangerously  wounded  in  battle,  and 
 carefidly  attended  by  this  wife,  Kaikeyi ; and  amongst  Hin- 
 dus a promise  was  irrevocable,  and  therefore  the  wretched 
 King  felt  compelled  to  yield,  although  the  first  boon  re- 
 quired was  to  banish  Rama  for  a period  of  fourteen  years, 
 * Carr,  toI.  i.  p.  627. 
 
104 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 and  the  second  to  declare  Bharata  the  heir-apparent.*  No 
 one  thinks  of  remonstrating,  and  llama  and  liis  lovely  wife 
 and  his  brother  depart  for  the  forests ; but  the  exiles  ivere 
 no  sooner  gone  than  the  aged  monarch  drooped  in  sadness. 
 “ Six  days  he  sat  and  mourned,  and  pined  for  Rama  all 
 that  Aveaiy  time.”  In  the  middle  of  the  seventh  night  a 
 crime,  inadvertently  committed  in  his  youth,  rose  up  in  his 
 mind ; he  sought  sympathy  from  Kausalya,  his  first  wife, 
 the  mother  of  the  banished  llama,  and  asked  her  to  listen 
 to  his  tale,  for  to  this  he  attributed  his  present  affliction. 
 “ Every  deed,”  he  says,  “ whether  good  or  evil,  brings  in 
 time  its  proper  fi’uit,”  and  men  are  foolish  in  cherishing  the 
 gay  blossoms  of  the  Palasa,f  whilst  they  neglect  the  fruit- 
 bearing AmraJ  because  its  flowers  are  insignificant.  King 
 Dasaratha  then  relates  that  when  his  wife  was  still  unwed, 
 in  virgin  bloom,”  and  he  “ in  youth’s  delicious  prime,”  and 
 the  first  rains  of  summer  were  commencing,  there  came — 
 
 “ A day  of  summer  rain-time,  filling  my  young  soul  with  love ; 
 
 The  great  sun  had  dried  the  earth-dews  with  his  hot  beams  from 
 above, 
 
 And  in  highest  heaven  turning,  journey’d  on  his  southward  road. 
 
 Racing  towards  the  gloomy  region,  the  Departed’s  sad  abode : 
 
 Balmy  cool  the  air  was  breathing,  welcome  clouds  were  floating  by. 
 
 Humming  liees  with  joyfid  music  swell’d  the  glad  wild  peacock’s 
 cry; 
 
 Their  wing-feathers  wet  with  bathing,  birds  slow  flying  to  the 
 trees. 
 
 Rested  in  the  topmost  branches,  fann’d  by  the  soft  summer 
 breeze ; 
 
 Like  the  Great  Deep,  many  twinkhng,  gold-shot,  with  gay  pea- 
 cock’s sheen, 
 
 * Hindu  Drama,  vol.  i.  p.  281,  II.  II.  Wilson. 
 
 + Butea  frondosa.  J Mango. 
 
DEATH  OF  YAJNADATTA. 
 
 105 
 
 Gleaming  with  the  fallen  rain-drops,  sea-bright  all  the  lulls  were 
 seen; 
 
 Whilst  like  serpents,  winding  swiftly,  torrents  from  the  moimtaiu- 
 side 
 
 Hiss’d  along,  some  bright  and  flashing,  turbid  some  and  ochre- 
 dyed.”* 
 
 The  first  showers  of  May  and  June  were  giving  a reprieve 
 from  the  intense  heat  of  the  previous  months,  and  with  bow- 
 in  hand  the  youthful  monarch  left  the  city  for  the  woods 
 which  skirt  Sm’ayu’s  flood,  intending  to  try  his  skill  as  an 
 archer  upon  the  beasts  of  the  forest,  who  come  dowm  to  tlie 
 river  to  drink  in  the  cool  of  the  evening.  W'hilst  lying 
 in  ambush  by  the  river’s  reedy  side,  he  heard  the  gurgling 
 sound  of  a water-cruse  being  slowly  filled  : this  he  mistook 
 for  the  noise  made  by  an  elephant  in  drinking ; it  was  dark, 
 and  eager  to  secure  the  game  he  drew  forth  a glittering 
 shaft,  but  scarcely  had  the  arrow  flown  when  he  heard  the 
 bitter  wail  of  a human  voice,  exclaiming,  “ Ah  me  ! ah  me !” 
 in  dying  agony  ; — 
 
 “ Writhing  on  the  bank  in  anguish,  with  a plaintive  voice  cried  he, 
 
 ‘ Ah!  wherefore  has  this  arrow  smitten  a poor  harmless  devotee  ? ’ ” 
 
 The  King’s  arrow  had  fatally  wounded  a youth  who  had 
 come  down  to  the  river  to  draw  water  for  his  parents,  who 
 were  recluses  in  the  forest,  and  w'ho  is  at  a loss  to  imagine 
 why  any  murderer  should  seek  his  life.  “ Who,”  he  says, 
 “ should  slay  a hermit  living  upon  roots  and  fruits  ? Does 
 he  want  my  vestm’e  ? Little  will  he  gain  from  my  deerskin 
 mantle  and  coat  of  bark.”  But  it  is  not  for  his  death,  he 
 says,  that  he  is  pained,  but  for  the  destitution  in  which  he 
 will  leave  his  aged  parents.  Horror  seized  the  King,  as  in 
 the  stilly  calm  of  evening  he  heard  this  piteous  moan ; and 
 * E.  T.  Griffith,  Speeuneus  of  Indian  Poetry,  p.  11. 
 
106 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 rushing  through  the  reeds  and  bushes,  perceived  a young 
 Ascetic  lying  transfixed  by  an  arrow,  his  hair  dishevelled, 
 his  pitcher  cast  aside,  and  the  life-blood  fast  ebbing  from 
 his  wound.  The  dying  youth  fixed  his  eyes  upon  Dasaratha 
 and  recognized  him  as  the  King ; but  still  wondering  what 
 offence  he  can  have  given,  he  adds : 
 
 “ ‘ Ah  ! I am  not  tliine  only  victim.  Cruel  King  ! thy  heedless  dart 
 Pierces  too  a father’s  bosom,  and  an  aged  mother’s  heart. 
 
 They,  my  parents  blind  and  feeble,  from  this  hand  alone  can  drink. 
 When  I come  not.  thirsting,  hopmg,  sadly  to  the  grave  they  ’ll 
 sink.’  ” 
 
 Fruitless  now,  he  continues,  arc  his  Yeda  studies,  and 
 fruitless  his  father’s  ascetic  merit ; for  even  were  his  father 
 present,  he  would  be  powerless  to  save,  “ as  a tree  can  never 
 rescue  from  the  axe  the  doomed  tree.”  But  although  his 
 father  was  powerless  to  save,  he  knew  that  he  was  mighty 
 to  curse  ; and  the  gentle  spirit  of  the  sufi’erer  recoiled  from 
 the  thought  that  the  King,  the  son  of  Raghu,  would  be 
 blasted  by  that  curse.  He  bids  him  therefore  hasten  to  de- 
 precate his  father’s  consuming  wrath,  by  being  himself  the 
 bearer  of  the  evil  tidings ; but  begs  first  to  have  the  arrow 
 taken  fi’om  his  side,  that  he  may  be  released  from  agony. 
 Dasaratha  hesitated,  and  the  youth,  rightly  interpreting 
 his  hesitation,  assures  him  that,  although  withdrawing  the 
 shaft  will  occasion  death,  he  need  not  fear,  for  that  he  is 
 not  a Brahman. 
 
 “ ‘ Let  not  thy  sad  heart  be  troubled  for  thy  sin  if  I should  die  ; 
 Lessen’d  he  thy  grief  and  terror,  for  no  twice-born.  King,  am  I ; 
 Fear  not ; thou  may’st  do  my  bidding,  guiltless  of  a Brahman’s 
 death : 
 
 Wedded  to  a A^aisya  father,  Sudra  mother  gave  me  breath.’ 
 
 Thus  he  spake,  and  I down  kneeling  drew  the  arrow  from  his  side ; 
 Then  the  hermit,  rich  in  ])cnance,  fix’d  his  eyes  on  me,  and  died.” 
 
DEATH  OF  YAJNADATTA. 
 
 107 
 
 The  punishment  -which  the  Code  of  Manu  awards  to  the 
 slayer  of  a Brahman  was  to  he  branded  in  the  forehead 
 with  the  mark  of  a headless  corpse^  and  entirely  banished 
 from  society  this  being  apparently  commutable  for  a 
 fine.  The  poem  is  therefore  in  accordance  with  the  Code 
 regarding  the  peculiar  guilt  of  killing  Brahmans;  but  in 
 allo-vring  a hermit  who  was  not  a Dwija  (twice-born)  to  go 
 to  heaven,  tlie  poem  is  far  in  advance  of  the  Code.  The 
 youth  in  the  poem  is  allowed  to  read  the  Veda,  and  to 
 accumulate  merit  by  his  own  as  well  as  biis  father’s  pious 
 acts ; whereas  the  exclusive  Code  reserves  all  such  privi- 
 leges to  Dwyas,  invested  with  the  sacred  cord.  ]\Iany 
 such  inconsistencies  are  met  with,  showing  that  the  Code 
 never  was  in  universal  practice. 
 
 The  King  stood  for  a time  motionless  Avith  sorrow ; but 
 as  soon  as  he  recovered  himself  he  filled  the  pitcher  with 
 W'ater  from  the  stream,  and  taking  the  path  which  had  been 
 directed,  he  soon  reached  the  loAvly  cottage  of  the  poor  old 
 sightless  couple,  who  were  sitting  like  two  birds  with  clipped 
 wings,  helpless,  with  none  to  guide  them.  The  next  scene 
 will  admit  of  no  abridgment. 
 
 “ Sadly,  slowly  I approach’d  them,  by  my  rash  deed  left  forlorn  ; 
 
 Crush’d  with  terror  was  my  spirit,  and  my  mind  with  anguish 
 torn ; 
 
 At  the  sound  of  coming  footsteps  thus  I heard  the  old  man  say, 
 
 ‘ Dear  son,  bring  me  water  qiiickly,  thou  hast  been  too  long  away. 
 
 Bathing  in  the  stream,  or  playing,  thou  hast  stay’d  so  long  from 
 home ; 
 
 Come,  thy  mother  longeth  for  thee ; come  in  quickly,  dear  child, 
 come ! 
 
 Be  not  angry,  mine  own  darling ; keep  not  in  thy  memory 
 
 Any  hard  word  from  thy  mother,  any  hasty  speech  from  me ; 
 
 * Code,  ix.  237. 
 
108 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 Tliou  art  thy  poor  parents’  succour,  eyes  art  thou  unto  the  blind  ; 
 
 Speak ! on  thee  our  lives  are  resting — why  so  silent  and  unkind  ?’ 
 
 Thus  I heard  ; yet  deeper  grieving,  and  in  fresh  augmented  woe, 
 
 Spake  to  the  bereaved  father,  with  words  faltering  and  slow, 
 
 ‘ Not  thy  child,  O noble-minded;  Dasaratha,  Sage!  am  I, 
 
 By  a deed  of  sinful  rashness  plunged  with  thee  in  misery.’  ” 
 
 The  unhappy  King  then  tells  his  tale,  and  entreats  par- 
 don ; and  the  hermit,  who  can  scarcely  speak  for  weeping, 
 tells  him  that  had  he  concealed  this  sin  its  fruits  would 
 have  fallen  upon  his  head  ten  thousand-fold,  and  had  it 
 been  intentional,  the  whole  race  of  Raghu  would  have  pe- 
 rished ; and  before  saying  more,  he  begs  that  they  may  be 
 conducted  to  the  fatal  place,  and  be  enabled  once  more  to 
 fold  their  darling  in  their  arms.  The  lamentations  uttered 
 by  the  side  of  the  “death-cold  clay”  are  very  touching, 
 especially  where  the  father  urges  the  son,  no  longer  living, 
 to  speak  to  his  parents  : 
 
 ‘‘  ‘ Come,  dear  child,  embrace  thy  father,  put  tliy  little  hand  in  muie ; 
 
 Let  me  hear  thee  sweetly  prattle  some  fond  playful  word  of  thine. 
 
 Ah ! who  ’U  read  me  now  the  Vedas,  fdling  my  old  heart  with  joy  ? 
 
 TVTio,  when  evening  rites  are  over,  cheer  me  mourning  for  my  boy  ? 
 
 Who  win  bring  me  fruits  and  water,  roots  and  wild  herbs  from  tlie 
 wood  ? 
 
 WTio  supply  the  helpless  hermit,  like  a cherish’d  guest,  with  food  ? 
 
 Can  I tend  thine  aged  mother  till  her  weary  life  is  done  ? 
 
 Can  I feed  her,  soothe  her  sorrow,  longing  for  her  darling  son?’  ” 
 
 The  father’s  thoughts  then  turn  to  the  blissful  mansion 
 which  his  son  shall  attain  in  heaven,  where  he  shall  be  wel- 
 come to  those  Avho  fell  nobly  in  battle,  and  dwell  in  Indra’s 
 Paradise  with  good  people  who  loved  their  Acharyas,  or 
 spiritual  teachers,  and  tended  the  sacred  fire,  and  studied 
 the  Veda,  and  performed  penance;  but  he  denounces  sor- 
 row on  the  wretch  by  whose  rash  hand  he  fell.  Whilst  the 
 
DEATH  OF  KING  DASARATHA. 
 
 109 
 
 parents  Avere  occupied  in  sorrow’s  last  duties  over  the  body 
 of  their  son,  he  addressed  them  from  a heavenly  chariot  in 
 the  sky,  saying  that  his  filial  devotion  had  won  for  him  su- 
 preme bliss,  and  that  they  must  not  grieve,  but  follow  to 
 partake  his  joy.  The  old  hermit  is  nevertheless  quite  un- 
 able to  forgive,  and  lays  his  curse  upon  the  humbled  King, 
 and  says  to  him — 
 
 “ ‘ Thy  breast  shall  know 
 
 Something  of  the  pangs  I suffer — a bereaved  father’s  woe  : 
 
 Thus  I lay  my  curse  upon  thee,  for  this  thing  that  thou  hast  done — 
 As  I mourn  for  my  beloved,  thou  shalt  sorrow  for  a son.’  ” 
 
 The  aged  pair  then  ascended  the  funeral  pile  of  their  son, 
 and  there  expired.  And  this  youthful  folly,  Dasaratha  says, 
 is  the  cause  of  his  present  distress,  it  is  the  fulfilment  of  the 
 ancient  hermit’s  curse.  He  bids  Kausalya,  his  affectionate 
 uife,  farewell,  and  sinks  in  anguish  for  his  banished  Rama. 
 He  feels  his  eyes  darkened  and  his  memory  overcast,  and 
 knows  that  this  is  the  awful  summons  of  the  dark  mes- 
 sengers of  Death.  His  last  words  are  for  Rama,  envying 
 those  who  will  see  him  return  in  triumph  after  his  exile, 
 and  saying,  “ Ah,  Rama  ! ah,  my  son  !” 
 
 This  beautiful  episode  was  published  in  Paris  in  1826, 
 with  a translation  by  jM.  Chezy,  and  a literal  version  in 
 Latin  by  M.  Rommouf.  There  is  also  a very  pleasing  trans- 
 lation in  verse  by  the  Rev.  Dean  IMilman,  but  the  quota- 
 tions and  abstract  above  are  taken  almost  wholly  from  the 
 later  translation  by  Mr.  Griffith. 
 
 Funeral  ceremonies*  for  King  Dasaratha  Avere  performed 
 in  Ayodhya  uith  very  great  pomp.  The  body  of  the  de- 
 ceased King  Avas  wrapped  in  silk,  placed  on  a bier,  and 
 committed  to  the  flames ; his  wiA-es  were  not  burned  Avith 
 * Heeren,  vol.  ii.  p.  155. 
 
110 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 hitrij  altliougli  a passage  occurs  in  uliicli  his  favourite  uife, 
 Kausalya^  is  said  to  entertain  the  idea  and  uish  to  do  so ; 
 liut  the  practice  of  widows  actually  bru’ning  themselves  on 
 their  husbands’  funeral  pile  is  believed  to  belong  to  a much 
 later  period  of  Hindu  history.  A great  feast  and  sacrifice 
 was  made,  at  which  animals  were  sacrificed  and  flesh  dis- 
 tributed and  then  foUow's  a lively  description  of  the  poets, 
 panegyrists,  parasites,  etc.,  resident  at  an  Indian  Court,  and 
 details  concerning  Court  customs  and  amusements,  which 
 were  all  abandoned  out  of  respect  for  the  deceased  Raja. 
 “ At  other  times  the  town  resounded  with  the  noise  and 
 bustle  of  men  and  women,  like  the  shout  of  contending 
 armies  ; the  great  men  ever  going  to  and  fro  upon  chariots, 
 elephants,  and  prancing  steeds.”  Now  the  pleasure-gardens 
 were  abandoned,  the  tables  for  sacrificial  offerings  empty, 
 the  flower-shops  closed,  and  bankers  and  merchants  absent.f 
 The  State  was  Avithout  a king ; and  although  the  poet  is  elo- 
 quent upon  the  disasters  to  which  this  exposed  it,  we  may 
 doubt  whether  Brahman  poets  or  Brahman  ministers  con- 
 sidered in  their  hearts  that  this  Avas  any  great  misfortune. 
 At  any  rate  the  principal  Brahman,  Yasishta,  assumed  the 
 conduct  of  affairs,  and  assembled  the  Council,  Avho  agreed 
 that  Bharata,  the  son  of  the  intriguing  second  Avife,  Kaikeyi, 
 must  be  sent  for  and  invited  to  occupy  the  vacant  throne. 
 Bharata  was  residing  aa  ith  his  maternal  grandfather ; but 
 although  he  obeyed  the  summons  and  returned  immediately 
 to  Ayodhya,  he  refused  to  accept  the  insignia  of  royalty, 
 
 * Sec  Col.  Sykes,  .T.  E.  A.  S.  No.  xii.  Mav,  1841.  At  page  269  he  gives  a 
 note  referring  to  the  Kamaynna,  book  ii.  see.  61,  sayuig  that  a cow  and  calf 
 were  saerifieed  at  Dasaratha’s  funeral,  and  ghee,  oil,  and  Jlesh  distributed. 
 
 t Hecren,  vol.  ii.  p.  267  ; Kaniayana,  iii.  98. 
 
bharata’s  journey. 
 
 1]1 
 
 which  according  to  Hindu  law  was  the  heritage  of  his  elder 
 brother.*  We  are  not  told  how  his  mother  behaved  when 
 he  thus  refused  to  aid  her  wicked  schemes  for  his  advance- 
 ment ; but  the  Couneil  resolved,  that  if  he  would  not  he 
 king  himself,  he  must  go  in  pursuit  of  Rama,  and  persuade 
 him  to  return  and  assume  the  sovereignty.  Bharata  ac- 
 cordingly set  out  with  a splendid  retinue  of  soldiers  and 
 attendants.  His  ordinary  night  encampments  are  not  re- 
 eorded ; hut  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Allahabad  he  met  a 
 renowned  Sage,  bearing  the  Vedic  name  of  Bharadwaja,  who 
 insisted  upon  making  a feast,  not  only  for  Bharata  himself, 
 but  for  his  entire  army.  This  Sage  possessed  powers  of  en- 
 chantment, by  whieh  he  compelled  the  forest  and  the  rivers 
 to  bring  contributions  of  venison,  peaeoeks,  partridges, 
 mutton,  the  flesh  of  the  wild  hog,  sauces,  and  potent  spirits. 
 The  entertainment  was  served  in  a magnificent  palace  pro- 
 duced for  the  oecasion ; thousands  of  beautiful  damsels  were 
 sent  down  by  the  God  Brahma,  and  celestial  music  floated 
 in  the  ah’,  until  at  the  approach  of  daybreak  Bharadwaja 
 dissolved  the  spell  and  the  whole  seene  disappeared.  This 
 famous  dinner  of  venison  and  peacocks  may  he  contrasted 
 with  the  repast  given  to  Viswamitra  and  his  retainers,  where 
 the  dishes  were  piled  mountains  high  with  honey,  sugar- 
 cane, and  other  dainties  for  lieking,  ehewing,  and  drinking. 
 The  explanation  is  that  Viswamitra  and  his  followers  were 
 Brahmans,  whilst  Bharata  was  a Kshatriya,  accompanied 
 by  Avarriors,’to  which  Caste  flesh-meat  appears  to  have  been 
 habitual. 
 
 Bharata’s  journey  was  impeded  by  the  want  of  roads ; hut 
 able  carpenters  and  diggers  and  labourers,  with  carts,  ac- 
 * Heereii,  toI.  ii.  pp.  155,  156. 
 
112 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 companied  him,  breaking  through  rocks,  building  bridges, 
 digging  -vrells,  and  even  making  canals,*  and  penetrating 
 apparently  into  unexplored  country,  crossing  the  Vindhya 
 Hills  in  the  direction  of  Indore,  and  at  length  discovering 
 llama,  with  his  brother  and  his  wife  Sita,  in  the  forests  of 
 the  Dekkan. 
 
 The  meeting  between  the  brothers  shows  the  utmost 
 delicacy  and  generosity  of  feeling;  Bharata  lamenting  his 
 mother’s  ill  conduct,  and  entreating  Rama  to  return ; Rama 
 declining,  because  unless  he  keep  his  father’s  vow  he  can- 
 not secure  his  father’s  happiness  in  heaven  ; he  therefore 
 adjures  his  brother  to  return  to  Ayodhya  and  “ console  the 
 people  and  the  twice-born.  I with  Sita  and  Lakshman  will 
 enter  the  forest  of  Dandaka.  Be  thou  the  king  of  men,  I 
 will  be  sovereign  of  wild  beasts.  Let  the  umbrella  shade 
 thy  head,  I wiR  take  refuge  in  the  shade  of  the  woods.”f 
 Bharata  makes  a pathetic  remonstrance;  but  at  length 
 Rama  embraced  him,  “ sobbing  like  a staggering  duck,” 
 and  put  an  end  to  the  discussion  by  saying,  “ Though  the 
 rising  of  the  cool  moon  should  cease  to  be  pleasing ; though 
 Himavat  should  abandon  its  snow';  ...  I will  not  relin- 
 quish my  promise ; . . . the  sea  may  oi'erflow  its  shore,  but 
 I will  never  relinquish  my  father’s  engagement.”  In  sign 
 of  obedience  to  Rama’s  wishes,  Bharata  then  begs  him  to 
 put  on  the  golden  shoes,  wliich  he  had  brought.  Rama 
 docs  so,  and  returns  them  to  his  brother.  Bharata  then, 
 bowing  to  the  shoes,  says,  “ For  fom’teen  years  I will  assume 
 the  matted  hair  and  the  habit  of  a devotee,  and  feed  on 
 fruits  and  roots.  Waiting  thy  return,  I w ill  reside  without 
 the  city  . . . committing  the  kingdom  to  thy  shoes.”  The 
 * Cary,  vol.  iii.  p.  228.  + Cary,  vol.  iii.  p.  429. 
 
RAMA  IN  THE  FOREST. 
 
 113 
 
 brothers  embrace,  and  Rama’s  last  words  are,  “ Cherish  thy 
 mother  Kaikeyi,  be  not  angry  with  her ; to  this  thou  art 
 adjured  by  both  me  and  Sita.”* 
 
 After  Bharata’s  departure,  Rama  came  accidentally  into 
 collision  with  the  rude  people  of  the  wild  country  in  which 
 he  was  located.  A woman  of  their  race,  unfortunately,  made 
 love  to  him  and  his  brother,  and  they,  as  a sign  of  their 
 displeasure,  cut  otf  her  nose  and  her  ears;t  but  the  woman 
 had  powerful  relatives  possessed  of  demoniacal  power,  and 
 knew  how  to  take  vengeance  on  her  foes.  Finding  other 
 plans  fail — for  in  open  warfare  Rama  always  gained  the 
 ascendency — she  called  in  aid  her  power  of  sorcery,  and 
 bewitched  her  bi’other  Ravana,  the  demon-king  of  Lanka 
 (Ceylon),  to  be  in  love  with  Rama’s  wife,  the  lovely  Sita. 
 Ravana,  finding  it  in  vain  to  hope  to  succeed  without  the 
 aid  of  stratagem,  took  with  him  an  assistant  sorcerer,  dis- 
 guised as  a deer ; and  as  Rama  took  great  pleasure  in  the 
 chase,  it  was  not  difficult  for  the  deer  to  lure  him  fi’om  his 
 cottage  in  pursuit.  He  did  not  leave  his  beloved  Sita  with- 
 out charging  Lakshmau,  his  brother,  to  remain  in  charge ; 
 but  the  wily  deer  knew  how  to  defeat  his  precaution,  and 
 wdien  transfixed  by  Rama’s  arrow  he  cried  out  in  the  voice 
 of  Rama,  “ Oh,  Lakshman,  save  me  !”  Sita  heard  the  cry, 
 and  entreated  Lakshman  to  fly  to  his  brother’s  rescue.  He 
 was  nmvilling  to  go,  but  yielded  to  her  earnestness,  and  she 
 was  left  alone.  This  being  the  state  of  affairs  which  Ravana 
 desired,  he  now  left  his  hiding-place  and  came  forward  as 
 an  Ascetic,  in  a red  threadbare  garment,  with  a single  tuft 
 of  hair  upon  his  head,  and  three  sticks  and  a pitcher  in 
 his  hand.  All  creation  shuddered  at  his  approach ; birds, 
 * Cary,  pp.  472,  473.  t H.  II.  Wilson,  Hindu  Theatre,  i.  281. 
 
 1 
 
114 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 beasts,  and  flowers  were  motionless  with  dread  ; the  summer 
 wind  ceased  to  breathe,  and  a shiver  passed  over  the  bright 
 waves  of  the  river.  Havana  stood  for  awhile  looking  at  his 
 victim,  as  she  sat  weeping,  and  musing  over  the  unknown 
 cry ; hut  soon  he  approaehed,  saying  :* 
 
 “ ‘ O thou  that  shincst  like  a tree  with  summer  blossoms  overspread. 
 
 Wearing  tliat  woven  l-itsa  robe,  aud  lotus  garland  on  thy  head ! 
 
 Why  art  tliou  dwelling  hero  alone,  here  in  this  dreary  forest’s 
 shade, 
 
 Wliere  range  at  will  all  beasts  of  prey,  and  demons  pi’owl  in  every 
 glade  ? 
 
 Wilt  thou  not  leave  thy  cottage-home,  and  roam  the  world  which 
 stretches  wide. 
 
 See  the  fair  cities  which  men  build,  and  all  their  gardens  and  their 
 pride  ? 
 
 Why  longer,  fair  one,  dwell’st  thou  here,  feeding  on  roots  and 
 sylvan  fare, 
 
 Wlie-n  thou  might’s!  dwell  in  palaces,  and  earth’s  most  costly  jewels 
 wear  ? 
 
 Fearest  thou  not  the  forest  gloom,  which  darkens  round  on  every 
 side  ? 
 
 Who  art  thou,  say  ! and  whose  and  whence,  and  wherefore  dost 
 thou  here  abide  ?’ 
 
 When  first  these  words  of  Eavana  broke  upon  sorrowing  Sita’s 
 ear. 
 
 She  started  up,  and  lost  herself  in  wonderment  and  doubt  and 
 fear ; 
 
 But  soon  her  gentle  loving  heart  threw  off  suspicion  and  surmise, 
 
 And  slept  again  in  confidence,  lull’d  by  the  mendicant’s  disguise. 
 
 ‘ Hail,  holy  Brahman  !’  she  exclaim’d ; and  in  her  guileless  purity 
 
 She  gave  a welcome  to  her  guest  with  courteous  hospitality. 
 
 Water  she  brought  to  wash  his  feet,  and  food  to  satisfy  his  need, 
 
 Full  little  dreaming  in  her  heart  what  fearful  guest  she  had  re- 
 ceived.” 
 
 Slie  even  tells  him  her  whole  story,  how  Rama  had  won 
 
 * Westminster  Review,  October,  lSt8,  p.  45. 
 
KAAIA  IN  THE  FOUEST. 
 
 15] 
 
 ' lier  for  his  bride  and  taken  her  to  his  father^s  home,  and 
 
 I 
 
 liow  the  jealous  Kaikeyi  had  cast  them  forth  to  roam  the 
 I ivoods;  and  after  dwelling  fondly  on  her  husband’s  praise, 
 
 I she  invited  her  guest  to  tell  his  name  and  lineage,  and  what 
 
 j had  induced  him  to  leave  his  native  land  for  the  wilds  of 
 
 1 the  Dandaka  forest,  inviting  him  to  await  her  husband’s 
 
 i return,  for  ^“^to  him  are  holy  wanderers  dear.”  Suddenly 
 Ravana  declares  himself  to  be  the  demon-monarch  of  the 
 I earth,  “at  whose  name  Heaven’s  armies  flee.”  He  has  come, 
 he  says,  to  woo  Sita  for  his  queen,  and  to  carry  her  to  his 
 palace  in  the  island  of  Ceylon.  Then  burst  forth  the  wrath 
 of  Rama’s  wife  ; 
 
 i Me  wouldst  thou  woo  to  be  tliy  cpieen,  or  dazzle  with  thine  em- 
 
 pire’s shine  ? 
 
 And  didst  thou  dream  that  Rama’s  wife  could  stoop  to  such  a 
 prayer  as  thine  ? 
 
 I,  who  can  look  on  Rama’s  face,  and  know  that  there  my  husband 
 stands, — 
 
 My  Rama,  whose  high  chivalry  is  blazon’d  through  a hundred 
 lands ! 
 
 j What ! shall  the  jackal  think  to  tempt  the  lioness  to  mate  with 
 
 ; him  ? 
 
 Or  did  the  King  of  Lanka’s  isle  build  upon  such  an  idle  dream  ?’  ” 
 Ravana’s  only  ansiver  was  to  throw  off  his  disguise,  and 
 I with  brows  as  dark  as  the  storm-cloud  in  the  sky,  he  carried 
 off  the  shrieking  Sita  as  an  eagle  bears  a snake,  mounting 
 up  aloft  and  flying  with  his  burden  through  the  sky.  The 
 1 unhappy  Sita  calls  loudly  upon  Rama,  and  bids  the  floweiy 
 bowers,  and  trees,  and  river,  all  tell  her  Rama  that  Ra- 
 vana has  stolen  his  Sita  from  his  home.  Here  our  atten- 
 tion is  again  called  to  the  beauty  of  a river  running  between 
 groves  of  trees.  On  the  former  occasion,  the  Surajui  river 
 (or  the  Gogra),  on  which  Ayodhya  stands,  was  freipiented 
 
 I 2 
 
 I 
 
116 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 by  Avater-foivl,  who  clipped  tlieir  iviiigs  into  its  cooling  flood 
 and  then  flew  to  the  topmost  branches  of  the  trees  to  catch 
 the  faintest  movement  of  the  breeze,  whilst  the  soothing 
 hum  of  bees  tempered  the  glad  cry  of  the  gay  peacock.  The 
 river  which  the  unhappy  Sita  loved  was  a tributary  to  the 
 Godavery,  running  through  the  dense  forests  and  wild  dis- 
 tricts not  yet  entirely  explored,  which  lie  to  the  north  of 
 Bombay  and  stretch  away  towards  Orissa.  The  plash  of  the 
 water-fowl  bathing  in  the  bright  waters  of  the  Godavery 
 is  the  most  cheerful  feature  of  the  scene ; but,  uuhke  the 
 Gogra,  it  is  skirted  by  no  “ sea-bright  hills”  with  flashing 
 torrents,  but  hemmed  in  by  the  weary  woods  of  “ the  path- 
 less Daudaka,”  * where  twining  creeper-plants  hanging  and 
 climbing  from  bough  to  bough,  and  the  rich  blossoms 
 of  the  lofty  trees,  alone  relieve  the  forest  gloom. f This  is 
 the  district  at  present  inhabited  by  Khoiids  and  Koles,  of 
 whose  human  sacrifices  and  other  uncivilized  practices  Cap- 
 tain iMacpherson  has  published  full  particulars.  J In  Rama’s 
 time  the  woods  were  not  haunted  by  Gonds,  Khonds,  and 
 Koles,  but  by  demons  and  monkeys ; and  as  he  did  not  feel 
 strong  enough  to  recover  Sita  single-handed,  he  entered 
 
 * This  country  appears  to  be  still  “ the  pathless  Danclaka  for  a “Friend 
 of  India”  wi-ites  hi  the ‘Times’  newspaper  (Thursday,  October  27,  1853), 
 “ If  one-half  tlie  money  that  has  been  expended  in  endeavouilng  to  improve 
 tlie  quahty  of  tlie  cotton  of  India  liad  been  invested  hi  improving  tlie  navi- 
 gation of  tlie  Godavery,”  slave-labour  would  become  a drug  in  America. 
 And  Colonel  Cotton  states,  “ There  seems  no  reason  why  the  Godavery  may 
 not  become  the  line  of  a trade  of  a million  tons  a year,  when  once  the  pent- 
 up  treasures  of  its  basin  effect  a breach  in  the  harriers  which  have  hitherto 
 shut  it  up.  . . . Mlicat  might  be  manufactured  hito  flour  by  the  abimdant 
 water-power  of  the  Godavery,  and  conveyed  to  England  by  hmidreds  of 
 thousands  of  tons.” 
 
 •f  Westminster  Eeview,  Oct.  1818,  pp.  47,  48. 
 
 J J.E.A.S.  vol.  xhi.  p.  216  ; and  also  the  same  Journal  for  IMay,  1842. 
 
RAMA  IN  THE  FOREST. 
 
 117 
 
 into  alliance  with  the  monkeys.  First,  the  monkey-king 
 Sngriva  despatched  emissaries  in  all  directions  to  ascertain 
 ■where  Sita  was  concealed;  and  when  the  monkey-general 
 Hanuman  ascertained  that  she  was  in  a palace  in  Ceylon, 
 Rama  and  all  the  allied  forces  marched  down  to  the  Coro- 
 mandel coast,  and  making  a bridge  by  casting  rocks  into 
 the  sea  passed  quickly  into  Lanka.'^  Vestiges  of  Rama’s 
 bridge  may  still  be  seen,  occasioning  much  inconvenience 
 to  navigators,  who  are  obliged  to  lighten  heavy-burdened 
 vessels  before  they  can  pass  the  rocks  and  sandbanks  of 
 the  Straits  of  Manaar.  After  fighting  a few  battles,  the 
 Rakshasas  (demons)  were  defeated,  Ravana  put  to  death  by 
 Rama,  and  Sita  rescued  from  her  palace-prison.  Rama 
 Mill  however  have  nothing  to  say  to  his  recovered  wife 
 until  she  shall  have  gone  through  the  ordeal  of  fire  : but  as 
 she  passed  through  the  blazing  pile  unhurt,t  and  Brahma 
 and  other  Gods  attested  her  fidelity,  her  husband  once  more 
 received  her  with  afiection ; and  the  term  of  exile  over, 
 the  whole  party  returned  in  happiness  to  Ayodhya. 
 
 This  story  evidently  refers  to  a real  expedition  through 
 the  Peninsula  of  India,  and  to  real  vietories  in  the  South ; 
 but  the  Hindus  did  not  then  retain  conquests  or  make  set- 
 tlements in  Ceylon,  for  at  a subsequent  period,  about  b.c. 
 546,  the  island  was  still,  in  poetic  phrase,  inhabited  by  de- 
 mons, whom  the  Hindu  Vijaya  then  eonquered.  Rama’s 
 expedition  left  more  permanent  traees  amongst  the  “ Mala- 
 bars”  of  the  neighbouring  coast,  where  the  name  of  Rama’s 
 
 * Hindu  Drama,  vol.  i.  p.  283. 
 
 t When  witnesses  cannot  be  obtained,  the  Code  of  Mann  directs  the  judge 
 to  cause  the  party  accused  to  “ hold  fire,  or  to  dive  under  water.  He  whom 
 the  blazing  fire  bums  not,  whom  the  water  soon  forces  not  up  . . . must  be 
 held  veracious.” — Code,  ch.  viii.  114,  115. 
 
118 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 ancestor,  Ikslnvaku,  or  Okkaaku,  is  still  borne  by  ancient 
 families.* 
 
 No  certain  date  ean  be  assigned  to  the  Epic  Poems,  and 
 from  tlieir  length  and  mode  of  structure  they  may  well  be 
 supposed  to  stretch  across  many  centuries.  The  legends 
 and  facts  upon  which  they  arc  founded  belong  to  the  ear- 
 liest periods  disclosed  by  Sanskrit  literature,  but  these  are 
 given  with  a colouring  from  the  arts,  customs,  and  mytho- 
 logies prevailing  one  or  two  centmies  before  our  era.  We 
 may  therefore  consider  the  Epics  as  aftbrding  sure  types  of 
 the  earliest  national  character,  but  not  of  the  earliest  na- 
 tional customs  of  ancient  Brahmanical  India.  The  reputed 
 author  of  the  llamayana  is  A almiki ; its  style  and  language 
 are  those  of  an  early  heroic  age  ; and  there  are  signs  of  its 
 having  been  popular  in  India  at  least  three  centuries  b.c. 
 Bccognition  of  the  beauty  of  natm’al  scenery,  and  readiness 
 to  attribute  earthly  phenomena  to  Divine  influence,  are 
 amongst  the  charms  of  this  beautiful  poem.  It  gives  free 
 expression  to  the  thoughts  of  all  hearts,  and  adds  supersti- 
 tions peculiar  to  itself,  and  much  probably  that  is  wrong  in 
 c\ cry  way  ; but  genuine  love  for  nature  and  genuine  human 
 affection  is  not  suppressed,  and  never  is  counterfeit  affecta- 
 tion substituted  for  hearty  human  emotion.  The  original 
 sulijcct  of  the  poem  is  sometimes  considered  as  mythologi- 
 i‘al,  and  sometimes  as  heroic  ; bnt  the  mythological  portions 
 stand  apart  and  have  the  air  of  an  afterthought,  intended  to 
 give  a religious  and  philosophical  tone  to  what  was  at  first 
 a tale  rehearsed  at  festivals  in  praise  of  the  ancestors  of 
 kings. 
 
 The  mytliulogical  introduction  states  that  Lanka,  or 
 * Turnoiu’,  Epitome  oi'CVUon  Uiston  . 
 
CHARACTER  OF  THE  POEM. 
 
 119 
 
 CeyloH,  had  fallen  under  the  dominion  of  a prince  named 
 Havana,  who  was  a demon  of  such  power  that  by  dint  of 
 penance  he  had  extorted  from  the  God  Brahma  a promise 
 that  no  mortal  should  destroy  him.  Such  a pi’omise  was  as 
 relentless  as  the  Greek  Bates,  from  which  J ove  himself  could 
 not  escape  ;*  and  Ravana,  now  invulnerable  to  man,  gave 
 up  asceticism  and  tyrannized  over  the  whole  of  southern 
 India  in  a fearful  manner.  At  length  even  the  Gods  in 
 heaven  were  distressed  at  the  destruction  of  holiness  and 
 oppression  of  virtue  consequent  upon  Havana’s  tyrannies ; 
 and  they  called  a council  in  the  mansion  of  Brahma,  to 
 consider  how  the  earth  could  be  relieved  from  such  a fiend. 
 To  this  council  came  the  “ God  Vishnu,  riding  on  the  eagle 
 V^ainataya,  like  the  sun  on  a cloud,  and  his  discus  and 
 his  mace  in  hand.”  The  other  Gods  entreat  him  to  give 
 his  aid,  and  he  promises  in  consequence  to  be  born  on  earth, 
 and  to  accomplish  the  destruction  of  the  terrifie  Havana. 
 A superhuman  Hishi  is  then  found  to  perform  a sacrifice  for 
 the  King  of  Ayodhya,  w'hich  is  followed  by  his  becoming 
 the  father  of  Hama  and  his  three  brothers ; all  his  four 
 sons  being  incarnations  of  Vishnu  after  a fashion,  but  Rama 
 was  Vishnu  himself  in  mortal  form.  The  same  kind  of 
 tone  is  given  to  the  visit  the  youths  made  to  Viswamitra’s 
 hermitage ; instead  of  their  going  for  the  ordinary  purpose 
 of  learning  accomplishments  from  learned  Brahmans,  it 
 is  the  Brahmans  who  require  the  assistance  of  the  divine 
 Rama  to  defeat  the  evil  spirits.  The  next  feat  was  bending 
 the  gi’eat  bow,  which  it  was  easy  to  exaggerate  into  a bow 
 requiring  eight  hundred  men  to  drag  along  : and  after  this 
 Hama  conducts  himself  very  much  like  other  mortals,  until 
 * tVestminster  Keview,  Oct.  1818,  p.  41. 
 
120 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 his  term  of'  bauishmeut  expired,  when  he  and  his  wife  and 
 brother  having  rapidly  returned  to  Ayodhya,  and  Bharata 
 having  Avillingly  resigned  the  government  in  his  favour,  he 
 declares  that  the  object  of  his  being  born  is  accomplished ; 
 and  instead  of  reigning  on  earth,  he  and  all  his  company  re- 
 turn to  heaven,  his  real  abode. 
 
CHAPTER  V. 
 
 THE  HAHABHAEATA. 
 
 “ Tlie  verse  adorn  again  : 
 
 Pierce  War  and  faitliful  Love, 
 
 And  Truth  severe,  by  fairy  fiction  ch’est. 
 
 In  buskiu’d  measures  move ; 
 
 Pale  Grrief  and  pleasing  Pain, 
 
 With  Horror,  tyrant  of  the  throbbing  breast.” — G-bat. 
 
 The  Mahabharata  is  the  second  great  Sanskrit  epic,  and  is 
 a work  containing  so  many  episodes,  referable  to  various 
 periods,  that  it  has,  with  some  reason,  been  designated  a 
 Cycle  of  Poems.  The  wars  of  the  two  rival  families,  known 
 as  the  Pandus  and  the  Kurus,  constitute  the  main  subject, 
 and  this  portion  Akbar  the  Great  thought  worthy  of  trans- 
 lation into  Persian ; but  the  appearance  of  the  Gods  upon 
 earth,  their  consultations  in  heaven,  and  the  episodes,  are  all 
 omitted  in  the  Persian  copy.* 
 
 The  Pandus  and  the  Kurus  were  descendants  of  a king 
 named  Bharata,  much  respected,  but  apparently  quite  dis- 
 tinct from  him  whom  we  left  to  reign  at  Ayodhya.  In  the 
 Mahabharata  the  scene  of  government  is  Hastinapura,  to 
 the  north  of  Delhi ; and  for  this  ancestral  inheritance  we 
 * Ileemi,  vol.  ii.  p.  159;  Ayin  Akbari,  ii.  lOOsg'g'. 
 
122 
 
 Lll'li  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 find  the  rival  families  contciidiiig.  The  right  of  the  Pandas 
 to  priority  would  have  been  unquestioned,  hut  that  their 
 father  was  a leper,  and  before  his  death  obliged  to  resign 
 in  favour  of  his  brother ; and  the  sous  of  this  brother  (the 
 Kurus)  grow  up  in  consequence  ambitious  of  securing  the 
 kingdom  to  themselves,  and  jealous  of  their  orphan  cousins 
 (the  Pandus).  There  were  five  young  Pandus,  and  a hun- 
 dred young  Kurus,  all  residing  at  Ilastinapura  ; and  having 
 arrived  at  an  age  when  the  King,  the  Pandus’  uncle  and  the 
 Kurus’  father, — 
 
 “ Deem’d  the  time  arrived 
 ’\^'hell  the  brave  scions  of  each  royal  house 
 Of  Kuril  and  of  Pandu  should  improve 
 Their  growing  years  in  exei’cise  of  arms  ; 
 
 With  sage  deliberation  long  lie  scanu’d 
 A suitable  preceptor  for  their  youth, 
 
 AVho  to  meet  skill  in  war  and  arms  should  join 
 Intelligence  and  learning,  lofty  aims. 
 
 Religious  earnestness,  and  love  of  truth.”* 
 
 And  then  we  are  introduced  to  a Brahman  named  Drona, 
 who  occupies  a prominent  place  throughout  the  story. 
 Drona  was  no  ascetic  philosopher ; and  having  in  child- 
 hood shared  the  lessons  and  sports  of  the  royal  heir  of  the 
 neighbouring  kingdom  of  Panchala,t  he  felt  inclined  to 
 live  again  at  that  Court,  now  that  his  old  playfellow  had 
 become  king.  Never  doubting  of  a hearty  welcome,  he  pre- 
 sented himsef  to  Draupada  quite  unceremoniously,  merely 
 saying,  “ Behold  in  me  your  friend  !”  Ilis  reception  was 
 however  totally  ditferent  from  what  he  anticipated : 
 
 * Professor  \\  ilson.  Oriental  Magazine,  vol.  iii.  p.  134. 
 
 + Panehala  was  between  Dellii  and  the  Punjab,  and  a^iparently  descended 
 as  low  as  Ajinere. — 11.  II.  W.,  Or.  Mag.  vol.  ii.  p.  231. 
 
THE  MAHAHHARATA. 
 
 lr>3 
 
 “ The  monai’cli  sternly  view’d 
 Tlie  Sage,  and  bent  his  brows,  and  with  disdain 
 His  eyeballs  redden’d  ; silent  awhile  he  sat, 
 
 Tlien  arrogantly  spoke  : ‘ Brahman  ! methinks 
 Thou  showest  little  wisdom,  or  the  sense 
 Of  what  is  fitting,  when  thou  call’st  me  friend. 
 
 WTiat  friendship,  weak  of  judgment,  can  subsist 
 Between  a luckless  pauper  and  a king?’  ” 
 
 The  King  of  Pauchala  starts  at  the  idea  of  friendship  be- 
 tween a learned  Brahman  and  one  to  whom  the  Vedas  are 
 a mystery,  or  between  a warrior  and  one  who  cannot  guide 
 a chariot  through  the  ranks  of  war,  and  continues : 
 
 “ He  to  whose  high  mandate  nations  bow 
 Disdains  to  stoop  to  friends  beneath  the  throne  ; 
 
 Hence,  then,  with  idle  dreams ! dismiss  the  memory 
 Of  other  days  and  thoughts  : I know  thee  not !” 
 
 Drona  was  too  much  astonished  to  speak,  but  he  in- 
 stantly withdrew  from  Pauchala  to  Hastinapura,  where  he 
 was  most  reverentially  welcomed,  and  at  once  entrusted 
 with  the  instruction  of  the  five  young  Pandu  and  the  hun- 
 dred young  Kuru  princes. 
 
 The  King  of  Pauchala  in  the  meantime  was  in  terror  to 
 think  of  the  awful  calamities  to  which  he  had  exposed  him- 
 self by  his  contumacious  conduct  to  a Brahman,  and  his 
 first  anxiety  was  to  secure  a son  for  his  protection.  He  re- 
 sorted to  the  usual  Hindu  plan  of  performing  an  expensive 
 sacrifice,  aided  and  guided  by  powerful  Brahmans,  and  be- 
 came in  consequence  the  parent  of  one  son  and  one  daughter. 
 Of  the  son  very  little  is  related,  but  the  daughter  becomes 
 the  hei’oine  of  the  poem.  She  is  of  dark  complexion,  but 
 of  exceeding  loveliness ; and  the  only  wish  we  have  for  hci' 
 is,  that  we  could  change  her  name  Draupadi,  for  it  is  al- 
 
124 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 most  beyoud  the  power  of  art  to  invest  a heroine  having  so 
 uncouth  an  appellation  with  the  poetic  charm  belonging  to 
 her  in  the  Sanskrit.  For  the  present,  leaidng  Draupadi  to 
 grow  in  loveliness  at  Panchala,  we  must  return  to  Drona  and 
 his  numerous  pupils  at  Hastinapiira. 
 
 Drona  had  in  youth  been  equally  instructed  in  wisdom 
 and  in  arms,  and  he  taught  the  young  princes  “ to  rein  the 
 steed,  to  guide  the  elephant,  to  drive  the  chariot,  launch  the 
 javelin,  hurl  the  dart,  wield  the  battle-axe,  and  ivhirl  the 
 mace.”  The  Pandu  or  Pandava  princes  are  the  favourites 
 of  the  poets,  and  are  always  represented  as  both  more  ami- 
 able and  more  heroic  than  their  cousins  the  Knrus.  Yn- 
 dhishthira,  the  eldest  Pandu,  is  a calm,  inflexible  person, 
 who  leads  and  supports  his  younger  brothers ; Bhima,  the 
 second,  is  remarkable  for  strength;  and  Arjuna,  the  third, 
 is  full  of  enthusiasm  and  affection,  excelling  in  every  mar- 
 tial exercise,  and  winning  all  hearts.  Even  in  the  boyish 
 sports  of  their  childhood  it  was  always  Arjuna  that  won  the 
 prize ; nor  less  conspicuous  were  his  peaceful  virtues — 
 
 “ Submissive  ever  to  bis  teacher’s  will ; 
 
 Contented,  modest,  affable,  and  mild.” 
 
 Drona  already  prophesied  that  he  would  be  an  unequalled 
 archer  amongst  the  sons  of  men.* 
 
 AVhen  these  youthful  princes  had  all  become  expert  in  the 
 use  of  arms,  their  great  preceptor  proposed  to  the  King  that 
 a public  trial  of  their  skill  should  take  place.  A level  plain 
 was  consequently  chosen,  on  which  the  pious  Drona  reared  an 
 altar  for  an  offering  to  the  Gods,  and  a tall  pavilion,  in  which 
 rich  seats  were  prepared  for  the  King  and  his  Queens,  the 
 courtiers  and  the  court  ladies.  The  archery  is  described 
 * Professor  Wilson,  Oriental  Magazine,  vol.  iii.  p.  138. 
 
A TOURNAMENT. 
 
 125 
 
 Avith  great  animation,  and  from  this  and  other  passages  we 
 learn,  in  Professor  Wilson’s  words,  “ that  the  Hindus  eul- 
 tiA-ated  archery  most  assiduously,  and  AA'ere  very  Parthians 
 in  the  use  of  the  bow  on  horseback.”  The  spectators  were 
 perfectly  dazzled  by  the  fearful  shower  of  arrows  which  the 
 archers  let  fly,  sometimes  Avhilst  standing  on  the  ground, 
 sometimes  whilst  “ on  generous  steeds  in  rapid  circles 
 borne.”  At  the  close  of  the  combat  Drona  called  for  Ar- 
 juna,  who  modestly  came  forward  in  his  radiant  armour 
 “as  glorious  as  a cloud  at  set  of  sun,”  Avhilst  the  gazing 
 croAvd  uprose  and  greeted  lum  AV'ith  “ the  clang  of  shells 
 and  trumpets,  and  loud  shouts  of  admiration.”  The  favou- 
 rite hero,  being  thus  as  it  were  encored,  made  further  exhi- 
 bitions of  his  skill ; he  leapt  from  his  chariot  and  vaulted 
 into  it  again  whilst  it  was  whirling  along  at  full  speed.  He 
 also  shot  flve  arrows  at  once  from  his  chariot  into  the  jaws 
 of  a wild  boar.  A pause  then  ensued,  during  Avhich  the 
 opposing  parties  sought  repose ; but  suddenly  “ a clamour 
 rending  heaven”  w'as  heard  behind  the  barrier,  and  Kerna, 
 a new  combatant,  Avas  announced.  His  ears  shone  with 
 gorgeous  pendants,  and  Avith  boAV  in  hand  he  advanced 
 proudly  like  a moving  moiAiitain.  This  new  hero  was 
 anxious  to  enter  the  lists  with  Arjuna,  and  offered  to  per- 
 form every  feat  which  Arjuna  had  achieved ; but,  unknown 
 to  themselves,  Kerna  and  Arjuna  Avere  brothers  ; and  their 
 mother,  Avho  w'as  amongst  the  spectators,  in  agony  at  see- 
 ing them  “ on  hostile  thoughts  intent,”  strove  to  prevent 
 “ the  horrid  strife  ;”  but  she  fainted,  and  the  combat  would 
 have  commenced  had  not  another  diflficultj’^  occurred.  It 
 was  necessary,  according  to  Hindu  laws  of  chivalry,  that 
 each  warrior  should  declare  his  name  and  lineage;  but 
 
I.IFK  IN'  AXCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 Kerna,  having  been  brought  up  by  a charioteer  in  ignorance 
 of  bis  real  parents,  could  say  nothing  : be  bung  bis  bead, 
 “ as  when  surcharged  ivitb  dew  the  blooming  lotus  bows  its 
 fragrant  blossom.”  And  on  tins  occurrence  tbe  sports  were 
 suddenly  concluded.* 
 
 Tbe  jealousy  and  hatred  of  tbe  Kurus  towards  tbe  Pan- 
 dus  only  increased  as  they  grew  to  manhood  ; and  at  no 
 long  period  after  the  trial  of  arms,  tbe  Kurus  caused  tbe 
 bouse  inhabited  by  tbe  five  Pandus  to  be  set  on  fire.  Tbe 
 Pandus  escaped,  but  a woman  of  low  caste  and  her  five  sons 
 having  been  accidentally  in  tbe  bouse  and  involved  in  tbe 
 flames,  the  discovery  of  their  bodies  led  to  a general  belief 
 that  the  five  Pandus  and  their  mother  bad  perished.  In 
 tbe  meantime  tbe  brothers  wandered  in  tbe  woods,  lived  on 
 game,  dressed  themselves  in  tbe  skins  of  tbe  animals  they 
 shot,  and  met  with  a variety  of  adventures,  never  entering 
 courts  or  capitals,  until  news  reached  them  that  Draupadi, 
 tbe  daughter  of  Draupada  tbe  King  of  Pancbala,  was  about 
 to  bold  a Swayambara, — wbicb  means,  that  her  father  was 
 inviting  company  to  bis  Court,  amongst  whom  she  was  to 
 choose  her  future  husband.  Draupada  still  dreaded  that 
 Drona  would  one  day  resent  tbe  insult  wbicb  be  bad  offered, 
 and  be  exceedingly  wished  to  strengthen  himself  against  this 
 formidable  foe,  by  procuring  an  alliance  with  tbe  Pandus ; 
 but  as  tbe  Pandus  were  missing,  and  be  knew  not  bow  to 
 find  them,  bis  only  plan  was  to  give  a public  entertainment 
 and  take  bis  chance  of  their  attending.  Fortunately  the 
 five  brothers  were  no  longer  in  tbe  woods,  but  on  the  road 
 leading  to  Pancbala ; inquiring  of  some  Brahmans  tbe  cause 
 of  the  unusual  throngs  of  people,  they  learned  that  “ princes 
 * Oriental  Magazine,  vol.  iii.  p.  1 lU. 
 
THE  SAVAYAMBARA. 
 
 127 
 
 Avith  throbbing  hearts”  AA  ere  hastening  to  attend  Draupadi’s 
 SAvayamharaj  and  AA'ere  recommended  to  go  also  and  share 
 in  the  gifts  distributed ; or,  continued  the  Brahmans, — 
 
 “ To  behold,  if  so  your  youth  prefer, 
 
 The  joyous  revelry  that  gilds  the  scene  ; 
 
 For  thither  mummers,  mimes,  and  gleemen  throng. 
 Athletes,  vho  the  prize  of  strength  or  skill 
 Contend  in  wrestling  or  the  gauntlet’s  strife  ; 
 
 Minstrels  with  sounding  lutes,  and  hards  Avho  chant 
 Their  lords’  high  lineage  and  heroic  deeds.”* 
 
 The  brothers  accepted  the  proposal,  and  accompanied  the 
 band  of  Brahmans,  travelling  through  smiling  groves  and 
 by  the  margin  of  limpid  lakes,  and  often  loitering  to  mark 
 the  beauties  of  each  grateful  scene.  When  they  arrived  at 
 Panchala  they  took  up  their  abode  under  the  lowly  roof  of 
 a potter,  and  Avent  out  daily  as  mendicants  to  gather  alms. 
 
 The  King  of  Panchala,  in  Ins  an.viety  to  have  a Pandu 
 prince  for  his  son-in-laAv,  caused  a ponderous  boAv  to  be 
 framed  with  magic  skill,  requiring  such  strength  as  he  be- 
 lieved a Pandu  alone  possessed,  and  for  a mark  he  hung  a 
 metal  plate  which  revolved  upon  an  axle ; and  then  made 
 proclamation  that  he  Avho  could  hit  with  an  arrow  the  centre 
 of  the  plate  should  aaIii  the  princess.  The  site  chosen  was 
 outside  the  city,  and  was  enclosed  by  a deep  ditch  and  lofty 
 walls.  Glittering  paA'ilions  were  erected  for  illustrious  spec- 
 tators, and  the  crowd  who  pressed  without  the  barriers 
 found  places  upon  scalFolds  and  lofty  housetops.  All  the 
 hundred  sons  of  the  King  of  Hastinapura,  and  Kerna,  and 
 innumerable  other  chiefs,  attended  as  candidates,  whilst 
 kings  sat  around  the  throne  of  Draupada,  on  lofty  seats  em- 
 blazoned with  gems  and  gold.  Then  the  trumpets  brayed, 
 
 * Oriental  Magazine,  rol.  iv.  p.  142. 
 
128 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 and  the  entertainments  commenced  with  games  of  skill, 
 music,  dancing,  and  displays  of  the  dramatic  art : thus  six- 
 teen days  were  passed ; and  then,  as  every  chief  of  note 
 was  present  except  the  Pandus,  who  were  unknown  in  their 
 disguise,  Draupada  felt  that  he  had  no  longer  any  fair  plea 
 for  further  delaying  his  daughter’s  choice.  So  the  lovely 
 Draupadi  was  brought  into  the  arena,  ready  to  throw  her 
 garland  upon  the  successful  candidate. 
 
 “ Then  came  the  Princess  fortli,  in  royal  garb 
 Array’d,  and  costly  ornaments  adorn’d  ; 
 
 A garland  interwove  with  gems  and  gold 
 Her  delicate  hands  sustain’d  ; from  the  pure  hath 
 With  heighten’d  loveliness  she  tardy  came. 
 
 And  blushing  in  the  princely  presence  stood. 
 
 Next  in  the  ring  the  reverend  priest  appear’d, 
 
 And  strew’d  the  holy  grass,  and  pour’d  the  oil. 
 
 An  offering  to  the  God  of  Fire,  with  prayer 
 Appropriate.”* 
 
 And  now  the  competitors  came  forward,  and  each  endea- 
 voured to  bend  the  bow,  hut  all  in  vain.  Some  made  such 
 ^^olent  efforts  that  they  fell  back  on  the  gi’ound,  exciting- 
 peals  of  laughter  from  the  spectators ; others  freed  them- 
 selves from  their  royal  robes  and  diamond  chains  and  dia- 
 dems, and  unfettered  put  forth  their  strength  ; hut  it  was 
 in  vain,  and  the  how  defied  them  all,  until  Kerua  eame,  and 
 he  “ the  yielding  bowstring  drew  and  ponderous  shafts 
 applied,”  and  drew  forth  shouts  of  aeelamations  from  the 
 multitude.  But  the  unfortunate  Kerna,  being  the  reputed 
 son^of  a charioteer,  was  no  fitting  match  for  the  Princess  of 
 Panchala.  Kerna’s  real  father  was  the  Sun  ; hut  this  fact 
 Avas  unknown,  and  availed  him  nothing  : 
 
 * Oriental  Magazine,  vol.  iv.  p.  1 13. 
 
CHIVALRY. 
 
 129 
 
 The  timid  Draupadi  in  terror  cried, 
 
 ‘ I wed  not  with  the  base-born  !’  Eema  smiled 
 In  bitterness,  and  upwards  turn’d  his  eyes 
 To  his  great  sire  the  Smi ; then  cast  to  earth 
 The  bow  and  shafts,  and  sternly  stalk’d  away.” 
 
 Amazement  spread  through  the  crowd  -at  finding  all  the 
 noble  suitors  foiled^  but  just  at  this  moment  Arjuna  ad- 
 vanced. The  Brahmans  thought  him  a student  of  their 
 tribe,  and  tried  to  hold  him  back  from  certain  failure,  but 
 in  vain ; and  some  who  observed  his  strength,  like  that  of 
 an  elephant,  and  his  lion  port  and  his  self-collected  soid,  had 
 hopes  of  his  success. 
 
 “Unlieeding  praise  or  censure,  Arjima* 
 
 Pass’d  to  the  field : with  reverential  steps 
 He  round  the  weapon  circled,!  next  address’d 
 A silent  prayer  to  ilahadeo,  and  last 
 With  faith  inflexible  on  Krishna  dwelt. 
 
 One  hand  the  bow  upbore,  the  other  drew 
 The  sturdy  cord,  and  placed  the  pointed  shafts ; 
 
 They  flew — the  mark  was  hit — and  sudden  shouts 
 Burst  from  the  crowd  long  silent ; fluttering  waved 
 The  Brahman  scarfs,  and  drum  and  trumpet  bray’d. 
 
 And  bard  and  herald  sang  the  hero’s  triumph.” 
 
 The  King  and  his  daughter  liked  the  appeai’ance  of  the 
 disguised  Arjuna,  and  were  very  well  contented  at  his  suc- 
 cess, but  the  rage  of  the  princely  suitors  knew  no  bounds ; 
 “ Behold,”  they  cried,  “ the  King  regai’ds  us  no  more  than 
 straws,  and  deigns  to  wed  his  daughter  to  a Brahman  boy 
 whose  craft  has  humbled  royalty.”  And  the  lightest  pu- 
 
 * Oriental  Magazine,  vol.  iv.  p.  146. 
 
 t Walking  romid  an  object  of  veneration  is  an  act  of  worship  amongst 
 Hindus ; it  is  not  miknown  to  Yu’gil  as  a pm-ificatory  rite,  and  is  fi-e- 
 quently  practised  in  Eoman  Catholic  countries. — See  note,  H.  H.  Wilson, 
 Or.  Mag.  vol.  iv.  p.  147. 
 
 K 
 
130 
 
 LIFE  IX  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 iiislimeiit  they  can  assign  for  such  an  offence  is  to  kill  the 
 King  of  Panchala  and  all  his  race,  and  to  throw  the  damsel 
 lierself  into  the  flames,  unless  she  prefer  choosing  a royal 
 lord.  Their  gleaming  swords  were  brandished,  and  Draupada 
 turned  in  terror  to  the  Brahmans.  Arjuna  rushed  to  his 
 side ; Bhima  tore  up  a tree  and  stood  ready  for  the  fight ; 
 and  for  awhile  the  kings  and  warriors  were  so  amazed  at 
 this  novel  daring  of  the  priestly  tribe  that  they  stood  still, 
 admii’ing;  but  soon — 
 
 “ Like  elephants, 
 
 With  passion  maddening,  headlong  on  they  rush’d ; 
 
 Like  elephants  the  brothers  met  their  might.” 
 
 And  now  Kerna  and  Arjuna  really  met  in  fight ; but 
 when  Kerna  felt  the  power  of  his  youthful  adversary,  he 
 was  astonished,  and  paused  to  express  his  wonder  and  ad- 
 miration. “No  Brahman,”  he  says,  “ could  have  displayed 
 such  skill  in  arms;  nor  breathes  the  man  who  could  my 
 strength  defy,  save  Arjuna.”  Arjuna  does  not  however 
 declare  himself,  and  the  kings  are  compelled  to  retire,  be- 
 lieving themselves  conquered  by  a set  of  Brahmans,  from 
 whose  bands  shouts  of  triumph  fill  the  air,  whilst  the  trem- 
 bling hand  of  Dranpadi  now  ventm-es  to  fling  the  marriage 
 chaplet  around  the  neck  of  Arjuna. 
 
 The  Pandus  then  make  themselves  known ; a portion 
 of  their  hereditary  kingdom  is  given  up  to  them,  and  for  a 
 period  they  appear  to  have  enjoyed  peace  and  prosperity. 
 Yudhishthira,  the  eldest  Pandu,  exercised  the  sovereignty, 
 and  built  for  liimself  a beautiful  city  called  Indraprastha, 
 on  the  site  of  the  modern  Delhi,  which  rivalled  the  old  capi- 
 tal in  splendour ; and  nothing  need  have  heen  wanting  for 
 Pandn  happiness  if  in  the  pride  of  his  heart  Yudhishthira 
 
A TNIVERSAL  KING. 
 
 131 
 
 had  not  determined  to  celebrate  the  Eajasiiya  sacrifice 
 which  was  an  assumption  of  paramount  authority^  and  of 
 course  excited  jealousy  and  opposition  amongst  the  contem- 
 porary kings  of  India.*  In  preparation  for  the  gi’and  cere- 
 mony, Yudhishthira  sent  his  brothers  in  all  dii’ections  to 
 compel  the  different  princes  to  acknowledge  his  pretensions 
 and  pay  tribute ; and  the  details  of  these  expeditions  fiu’- 
 nish  much  curious  information  concerning  the  geographical 
 and  political  di^■isions  of  India,  at  a period  a little  anterior 
 to  that  at  which  Herodotus  wrote  very  similar  accounts. 
 When  the  brothers  returned  successful,  the  Kurus  professed 
 their  acquiescence ; and  Krishna,  the  great  friend  and  ally 
 of  the  Pa:idiis,  promised  his  warm  and  hearty  concurrence, 
 and  the  ministers  and  priests  made  active  preparations,  and 
 invited  guests  from  eveiy  quarter.  The  ceremony  is  de- 
 scribed with  much  minuteness ; the  abhisheka,  sprinkling 
 from  a sacred  stream,  being  the  essential  part  of  it.  Kings 
 bring  a variety  of  rich  tribute,  and  even  perform  menial 
 sendee  upon  the  occasion.  But  whilst  outwardly  rendering 
 the  required  homage,  the  jealous  Kurus  were  secretly  plot- 
 ting to  destroy  their  rivals,  which  they  couti'ived  by  en- 
 gaging the  newly  inaugurated  King  in  a desperate  game  at 
 draughts. t Yudhishthfra  seems  to  have  been  afflicted  with 
 a most  unfortunate  love  of  gambling,  and  was  led  on  from 
 stake  to  stake  until  he  pledged  his  kingdom  ; and  losing  this 
 
 * H.  II.  'Wilson,  Xotes  on  the  Sabha  Purra  of  the  Mahabharata. — 
 J.  E.  S.  A.,  Xo.  xiii. 
 
 t The  Index  prefixed  to  the  Persian  translation  notes  these  events  as 
 follows  : — “ Yudishter  sends  his  brothers  into  all  parts  to  make  conquests. 
 Tlie  Kurus  arrange  a sacrificial  feast  in  order  to  play  at  di’aughts.  Pre- 
 parations for  the  same.  The  Pandus,  having  lost  at  play,  retire  into  the 
 desert,  where  they  continue  twelve  years.” — Heeren,  vol.  ii.  p.  160,  note. 
 
 K 2 
 
\32 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 last  desperate  ventui’e  he  was  forced  to  agree  that  he  and  his 
 brothers  would  resign  the  kingdom  for  twelve  years,  and 
 spend  that  time  in  exile.  Several  beautiful  episodes  are  in- 
 troduced during  this  period  of  exde,  and  to  some  of  these 
 we  shall  refer  hereafter ; at  present  we  must  follow  the  stoiy 
 of  the  Pandu  brothers,  who  when  the  twelve  years  had 
 elapsed  returned  to  Delhi,  and  demanded  the  restoration  of 
 their  sovereignty.  The  Kuru  monarch  answered  them  with 
 scorn,  saying,  they  should  not  have  so  much  of  the  soil  as  the 
 point  of  a needle  could  cover,  and  war  was  the  only  alter- 
 native. The  Paudus  then  made  a gathering  of  the  friends 
 amongst  whom  they  had  spent  their  exile  ; and  the  Kurus 
 also  summoning  theii’  allies,  there  was  no  chief  of  note  be- 
 tween the  Himalaya  and  the  ocean  but  was  ranged  on  one 
 side  or  the  other.  Droua  was  still  the  implacable  enemy 
 of  the  King  of  Panchala,  with  whom  the  Paudus  had  become 
 allied  by  marriage ; and  although  attached  to  Arjuna  and 
 his  brothers  when  hoys,  this  did  not  prevent  him  from  act- 
 ing zealously  as  commander-in-chief  of  the  Kuru  forces. 
 Yudhishthii’a  appears  liimself  to  have  had  the  chief  com- 
 mand over  the  Paudus;  and  Krishna,  the  never-failing 
 friend  of  the  Pandu  brothers,  took  his  place  by  the  side  of 
 Arjuna  as  his  charioteer,  wliilst  at  the  request  of  Yudhish- 
 thira  the  ape-emblazoned  banner  was  raised  in  the  van  of 
 the  troops.*  As  the  hosts  on  either  side  advanced,  “ a 
 sudden  tumult  filled  the  sky,  . . . sands  upcurled  to  heaven 
 
 * Oriental  Magazine,  vol.  ii.  p.  250,  note.  Aijuna’s  bannerb  ore  a figure 
 of  the  monkey-general  Hanuman.  Having  solicited  the  aid  of  tliis  Demi- 
 god in  battle,  he  had  received  permission  to  moimt  the  monkey’s  figure 
 on  liis  bamier,  with  the  assm-anee  that  it  woidd  be  accompanied  by  his  pro- 
 tection. This  is  one  of  the  few  references  in  the  Mahabharata  to  the  earlier 
 poem  of  the  Eaiuayana. 
 
COMBATS. 
 
 133 
 
 and  spread  a veil  before  the  sun,  . . . shrill-screaming  kites 
 and  vultures  uinged  the  darkling  air,  . . . angry  lightnings 
 dashed  across  the  gloom,  or  blazing  meteors  fearful  shot  to 
 earth.^^  But  all  regardless  of  these  signs,  the  chiefs 
 pressed  on  to  mutual  slaughter.”  Twice,  “ like  clouds 
 scattered  before  the  gale,”  were  the  Paudus  driven  back  by 
 Drona,  who  appeared  ever  in  the  front,  in  a car  hy  art  im- 
 mortal framed,  although  his  place  as  Commander-in-chief 
 was  “ in  the  rear  to  march  secm’e  ;”  whilst  the  gallant  Kerna 
 “ led  his  faithful  bands.”  But  Drona  was  impetuous ; ‘‘  ter- 
 ror hovered  over”  his  com’se,  and  the  sanguinary  plain 
 Avas  strewn  Avith  broken  cars  and  elephants  and  steeds. 
 Then  Yudhishthfra  ^'called  upon  his  brother  Aijuna  to 
 lead  his  choicest  squadrons  to  restore  the  day;”  Arjuna 
 obeyed,  and  the  enemy  was  checked ; but  Drona  became 
 furious,  and  forgetting  his  years,  the  arrows  of  the  veteran 
 chief  flew  about  with  such  unerring  aim  that  the  soil  was 
 sodden  “ A\dth  the  crimson  stain  of  the  men,  steeds,  and  ele- 
 phants whom  Drona’s  shafts  to  Yama’s  halls  consigned.”* 
 YhAdhishthira  was  dismayed  ; but  the  noble  Arjuna  soothed 
 his  terror,  and  plighted  his  faith  to  brave  the  arm  of  Drona. 
 jSIany  single  combats  are  described,  in  one  of  Avhich  the 
 brave  son  of  Arjuna  A\'as  distinguished ; and  in  another, 
 Bhima  and  the  King  of  iNIadraf  rushed  at  each  other  like 
 two  butting  elephants.  But  Drona  Avas  still  bent  upon  a 
 personal  Auctory  over  Yudhishthira,  and,  driAung  his  chariot 
 full  upon  him,  struck  his  bow  from  his  hand;  but  Arjuna 
 stood  fearless  by,  until  the  arrows  flew  so  thick  that  heaven 
 Avas  hid  and  earth  was  darkened : — 
 
 * Oriental  Magazine,  toI.  iv.  p.  251. 
 
 t A country  about  Ghuzni,  or  Ghor,  the  site  of  the  ancient  Mardi. — Or. 
 Mag.  A'ol.  ii.  p.  254,  note. 
 
131 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 Precur.^or  of  nocturnal  shades  ; for  now 
 Tlie  son  behind  the  western  mountains  sank 
 And  gloom  profound  ensued  ; nor  friend  nor  foe 
 Coidd  longer  be  distinguish’d.  Drona  then 
 Commanded  conflict  cease,  and  Arjuna 
 Eestrain’d  his  now  re-animated  troops  : 
 
 Each  to  their  tents  withdrew.” 
 
 This  fearful  battle  raged  for  eighteen  days,  uhen,  the 
 eliiefs  of  tlie  Kuru  party  being  killed,  victory  was  declared 
 to  he  in  favour  of  the  Pandus  j and  it  became  the  duty  of 
 Yudhishthira  to  mareh  into  Ilastinapura  and  perform  fu- 
 neral ceremonies  for  the  King  Duryodhana,  his  enemy  and 
 relative.  The  chivalrous  tone  of  feeling  Avhieh  pervades  this 
 poem,  and  the  similarity  of  some  of  the  practices  described 
 to  those  of  Europe  in  the  Yliddle  Ages,  has  not  eseaped 
 observation.*  The  eharacter  of  Kcrna  is  one  which  seems 
 especially  to  belong  to  days  of  chivalry ; feeling  the  degra- 
 dation of  doubtful  parentage,  he  indulges  in  no  mean  or 
 cowardly  ill-will,  but  meets  mortifications  with  generous 
 self-devotion  and  heroism.  Several  touching  episodes  re- 
 late to  him ; in  one  of  which  we  arc  told,  that  on  the  eve  of 
 one  of  these  last  battles  the  mother  of  the  Pandus  Avent  to 
 him,  and  disclosing  that  he  also  Avas  her  son,  born  previous 
 to  her  marriage  AA’ith  Pandu,  she  implored  him  to  leave 
 Duryodhana,  the  Kuru  chief,  and  join  his  brothers  in  their 
 rightful  cause.  But  Kerna  had  already  A'owed  fidelity  to 
 their  opponents  ; and  although  he  knew  by  prophecies  and 
 omens  that  they  Avould  perish,  he  firmly  and  sorrowfully 
 abided  by  his  plighted  troth. t 
 
 A liattle  Avhieh  lasted  eighteen  days  may  Avell  be  supposed 
 
 * Oi'ieutal  Magazine,  vol.  iii.  p.  131. 
 
 + Westniinster  Review,  October,  1818,  j).  53. 
 
.TOURNEY  TO  HEAVEN. 
 
 135 
 
 to  have  made  dreadi’ul  havoc  both  with  Mends  and  foes ; 
 and  the  victorious  Yudhishthii’a  is  represented  as  feeling  un- 
 mixed sorrow'  and  disgust.  As  soon  therefore  as  the  funeral 
 obsequies  were  concluded^  he  installed  younger  members  of 
 the  family  upon  the  thrones  of  Hastinapura  and  Indra- 
 prastha^  and  determined  with  his  brothers  to  set  forth  on 
 a long  gloomy  journey  to  Mount  IMeru,  to  seek  in  Indra’s 
 heaven  that  rest  which  seemed  denied  to  them  on  earth. 
 j\Ir.  Marshmau  thinks  that  they  retired  with  their  relative 
 Krishna  to  Dwaraka,  in  Guzerat ; and  that  Krishna  being 
 soon  after  put  to  death  by  the  Bheels,  they  resolved  to  leave 
 India,  and  passed  through  Sciude  to  the  Himalaya  moun- 
 tains.* The  view  given  by  the  poet  is  more  ideal,  hut  quite 
 consistent  with  Brahmanical  philosophy. 
 
 “•  Having  heardf  Yudhislithira’s  resolve,  and  seen  the  destruction  of 
 Krishna, 
 
 The  five  brothers  set  forth,  and  Draupadi ; and  the  seventh  was 
 a dog  that  followed  them. 
 
 Yudhishthira  himself  was  the  last  that  quitted  Hastinapura  ; 
 
 And  aU  the  citizens  and  the  court  followed  them  on  them  way. 
 
 But  none  felt  able  to  say  unto  him  ‘ Return 
 
 And  at  length  they  all  went  back  into  the  city. 
 
 Then  the  high-souled  sons  of  Paudu  and  far-famed  Draupadi 
 
 Pimsued  their  way,  fasting,  and  with  their  faces  turned  towards 
 the  east. 
 
 Resolved  upon  separation  from  earth,  and  longing  for  release  from 
 its  laws ; 
 
 They  roamed  onward  over  many  regions,  and  to  many  a river  and 
 sea. 
 
 A'udhishthira  went  before,  and  Bhima  followed  next  behind  him. 
 
 And  Aijuna  came  after  him,  and  then  the  twin  sons  of  Madri, 
 
 And  sixth  after  them  came  Draupadi,  with  her  fair  face  and  lotus 
 ej'es, 
 
 * Hist.  India,  p.  29.  t Westminster  Review,  Oct.  1848,  p.  57. 
 
136 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 And  last  of  all  followed  the  dog,  as  they  wandered  on  till  they  came 
 to  the  ocean.  . . . 
 
 And  as  they  jornmeyed  onwards  and  came  unto  the  west, 
 
 There  they  beheld  the  old  city  of  Krishna,  now  washed  over  by  the 
 ocean-tide. 
 
 Again  they  turned  to  the  north,  and  still  they  went  on  in  their  way. 
 
 Circumambulating  roimd  the  continent  to  find  separation  from 
 earth ; 
 
 Then,  with  their  senses  subdued,  the  heroes,  having  reached  the 
 north. 
 
 Beheld  with  their  heaven-desiring  eyes  the  loftymountain  Himavat, 
 
 And  having  crossed  its  height,  they  beheld  the  sea  of  sand  ; 
 
 And  next  they  saw  rocky  Mem,  the  kmg  of  mountains. 
 
 And  while  they  were  thus  faring  onwards,  in  eager  search  for 
 separation, 
 
 Draupadi  lost  hold  of  her  hope,  and  fell  on  the  face  of  the  earth.” 
 
 Bhima  inquires  of  Yuclliislitliira  why  she  fell,  who  had 
 (lone  no  act  of  evil : he  replies,  “ Too  great  was  her  love 
 for  Arjiina and  thus  speaking,  he  went  onwards,  not  look- 
 ing back,  gathering  up  his  soul  into  himself  in  his  uiistoop- 
 ing  wisdom  and  justice.  Next  the  fair  Sahadeva  fell  upon 
 the  face  of  the  earth ; and  when  Nakula  saw  the  fall  of 
 Draupadi  and  his  brother,  he,  full  of  love  for  his  kindred, 
 fell  down  in  his  grief  like  them  to  earth.  Still  Yudhish- 
 thira,  the  stern  God  of  Justice,  went  on  ; hut  when  Arjiina 
 beheld  so  many  fallen  behind,  he  too,  the  great  conqueror, 
 fell,  his  sold  pierced  through  ivitli  sorrow ; and  lastly 
 Bhima  fell;  but  still  the  mighty  King  went  on,  nor  looked 
 behind,  and  now  none  followed  but  the  dog,  ivhen 
 
 *•  Suddenly*  with  a sound  which  ran  through  heaven  and  earth, 
 
 Indra  came  riding  on  his  chariot,  and  he  cried  to  the  King, 
 
 ‘ Ascend !’ 
 
 'I'/ien  indeed  did  the  lord  of  justice  look  back  to  his  fallen  brothers, 
 
 * t\'estminster  Review,  October,  1848,  p.  (JO. 
 
indra’s  heaven. 
 
 137 
 
 And  tlius  unto  Iiidra  he  spoke  a sorrowful  heart : 
 
 “ Let  my  brothers,  who  yonder  lie  fallen,  go  with  me  ; 
 
 Not  even  into  thy  heaven  woidd  I enter  if  they  were  not  there  ; 
 
 And  yon  fair-faced  daughter  of  a king,  Draupadi,  the  all-deserving. 
 
 Let  her  too  enter  with  us  ! O Indra,  approve  my  prayer !’  ” 
 
 Indra  says  that  he  will  find  his  brothers  and  Draupadi 
 there  before  him^  they  having  first  thrown  aside  their 
 mortal  vestment,  whilst  Yudhishthira  alone  is  permitted 
 to  enter  in  his  body  of  flesh.  The  King  next  begs  that  the 
 dog  may  be  allowed  to  go  with  him,  but  Indra  says  he  must 
 he  contented  with  having  obtained  his  fellowship  and  a 
 place  in  his  heaven,  and  give  up  the  dog  3 and  Yudhishthira 
 being  still  unwilling  to  “ abandon  the  faithful,”  I ndra  says 
 more  decidedly,  “ My  heaven  hath  no  place  for  dogs  : they 
 steal  our  oficrings  on  earth.”  But  nothing  that  Indra 
 urges  alters  Yudhishthira’s  determination ; “ Never,”  he 
 says,  “ will  I abandon  yon  poor  creature,  which  in  fear  and 
 distress  hath  trusted  in  my  power  to  save.”  Indra  says  he 
 has  forsaken  his  brothers,  why  not  then  forsake  the  dog  ? 
 to  which  subterfuge  Yudhishthira  replies  with  dignity  : — 
 
 “ Mortals,  when  they  are  dead,  are  dead  to  love  or  hate  ; . . . 
 
 I could  not  bring  them  back  to  life,  but  while  they  lived  I never 
 left  them. 
 
 To  oppress  the  supphant,  to  kill  a wife,  to  spoil  a Brahman,  to  be- 
 tray one’s  friends. 
 
 These  are  the  four  great  crimes ; and  to  forsake  a dependant  I 
 count  equal  to  them.” 
 
 This  dog*  was  Yama,  king  of  death,  in  disguise;  and 
 praising  Yudhishthira,  he  now  relieved  him  from  his  diffi- 
 culty by  showing  himself  in  his  real  character.  But  there 
 was  still  another  trial  to  be  encountered  ; for  upon  entering 
 
 Ward’s  Hindus,  vol.  ii.  p.  448. 
 
188 
 
 LIFE  lx\  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 Indra’s  heaven  Yudliishtlhra  beheld  his  cousins  the  Kurus, 
 init  looked  in  vain  for  his  brothers : he  at  once  refused  to 
 remain  without  them,  and  a messenger  was  sent  with  him 
 to  the  Indian  liell.  Here  he  proudly  resolves  to  share  their 
 sorrows  rather  than  live  in  heaven  without  them.  But  the 
 whole  scene  was  a mere  illusion  to  prove  his  virtue,  and  the 
 hell  is  quickly  changed  into  heaven,  where  the  brothers  are 
 left  ■with  Indra  enjoying  boundless  bliss.  And  thus  a tale 
 of  feud  and  bloodshed  is  closed  by  a melodious  strain  of 
 Brahmanical  philosophy. 
 
 In  comparing  the  IMahabharata  with  the  earlier  epic, 
 the  Kamayaua,  we  find  the  same  freedom  of  character  and 
 expression ; courage,  generosity,  and  devoted  affection  are 
 appreciated  ; faults  and  vices  meet  their  natural  conse- 
 (juences ; and  we  are  not  disgusted  by  seeing  charaeters 
 screwed  up  or  pressed  down,  according  to  some  artificial 
 standard,  after  a fashion  exhibited  by  certain  later  Indian 
 literature.  The  general  customs  prevailing  in  either  poem 
 are  also  similar.  Brahmans  instruct  princes  in  the  arts  of 
 war  as  well  as  peace ; youthful  heroes  win  their  brides  by 
 feats  of  strength,  and  injuries  or  affronts  to  holy  men  are 
 punished  by  death  or  loss  of  kingdom.  But  a difference  is 
 also  noticeable  between  the  poems.  The  Kamayaua  is  a 
 tale  of  the  Solar  races,  the  IMahabharata  of  the  Lunar  races  ; 
 and  we  are  inclined  to  believe  that  Brahmanical  dominion 
 was  far  more  pow  erful  with  the  Solar  kings  at  Ayodhya 
 than  it  ever  became  with  Lunar  dy  nasties.  In  the  Rama- 
 yana.  Solar  kings  reign  in  the  orderly  manner  prescribed  by 
 the  Code ; Brahmans  guiding  political  councils,  and  Kings 
 commanding  armies.  But  in  the  Mahabharata,  on  the  other 
 hand,  the  Lunar  tribes  at  Ilastinapura  and  IlHaraka  carry 
 
■SCYTIIIC  CVSTOMS. 
 
 139 
 
 Oil  'ivar  at  the  pleasure  of  the  kings  and  people  with  little 
 or  no  reference  to  Brahmans.  We  seem  in  this  second 
 poem  to  have_,  in  a measiu’e^  lost  the  Brahmanieal  civi- 
 lization previously  attained,  and  to  be  thrown  back  upon 
 the  Yedic  period,  when  priests  were  waiTiors  and  warriors 
 priests,  and  when  cows  and  horses  were  actually,  not  typi- 
 cally, Idlled  and  eaten  in  their  sacrifices.  The  marriage 
 of  the  heroine,  Draupadi,  to  the  five  Pandu  brothers,  is  a 
 sign  of  yet  ruder  manners  adopted  from  the  Scythic  tribes 
 of  India,  and  is  a circumstance  odious  to  Brahmanieal 
 eoininentators,  and  quite  uncountenanced  by  Brahmanieal 
 institutions. 
 
CHAPTER  VI. 
 
 For  a’  that,  and  a’  that, 
 
 Our  toil’s  obscure,  and  a’  that ; 
 
 The  rank  is  but  the  guinea’s  stamp. 
 
 The  man’s  the  gowd  for  a’  that.” — BrBNS. 
 
 Having  now  disposed  of  the  Brahmans  and  the  Kshatriyas, 
 onr  next  inquiry  must  be  into  the  laws  which  the  Brah- 
 mans endeavoured  to  impose  upon  the  rest  of  the  commu- 
 nity. All  punishment  is  supposed  to  be  adjudged  by  the 
 King 
 
 “ Let  the  King  prepare  a just  compensation  for  the  good,  and  a 
 just  punishment  for  the  had : the  rule  of  strict  justice  let  him  never 
 transgress.” 
 
 “ If  the  King  were  not,  without  indolence,  to  pimish  the  guilty,  the 
 stronger  would  roast  the  weaker  hke  fish  upon  the  spit.  . . . 
 
 “ The  crow  would  peck  the  consecrated  oflering  of  rice ; the  dog 
 woidd  hek  the  clarified  butter ; ownership  would  remain  to  none, 
 the  lowest  woidd  overset  the  highest.” 
 
 “ A king,  desirous  of  inspecting  judicial  proceedings,  must  enter 
 his  court  of  justice  composed  and  sedate  in  his  demeanour,  together 
 with  Brahmans  and  counsellors  who  know  how  to  give  him  advice.”* 
 
 The  dignity  and  weight  which  the  Code  attaches  to  jus- 
 tice are  worthy  of  the  high  tone  of  its  philosophy. 
 
 * Code  of  Manu,  oh.  vii. 
 
ADMINISTRATION  OF  JUSTICE. 
 
 141 
 
 “ 'UTicn  justice,  having  been  wounded  by  iniquity,  approaches  the 
 court,  and  the  judges  extract  not  the  dart,  they  also  shall  be 
 wounded  by  it.” 
 
 “ The  only  firm  friend  who  follows  even  after  death  is  justice,  all 
 others  are  extinct  with  the  body.”* 
 
 The  King,  or  his  judge,  is  to  enter  on  the  trial  of  eauses 
 “ properly  elothed,’^  " his  mind  attentively  fixed  •”  and  he 
 is  then  direeted  to  see  through  the  thoughts  of  men  hy 
 external  signs,  by  their  voice,  eolour,  countenance,  limbs, 
 signs,  and  actions  ■,  for  from  “ the  gesticulations,  the  speech, 
 the  changes  of  the  eye  and  the  face,  are  discovered  the  in- 
 ternal Morkings  of  the  mind.” 
 
 “ As  a hunter  traces  the  lair  of  a wounded  beast  by  the  drops  of 
 blood,  thus  let  a king  investigate  the  true  point  of  justice  by  deli- 
 berative arguments. 
 
 “ Let  him  fully  consider  the  nature  of  truth,  the  state  of  the  case, 
 and  his  own  person ; . . . the  witnesses,  the  place,  the  mode,  the 
 time.”t 
 
 So  far  the  Code  appears  to  speak  in  earnest ; but  when 
 we  pass  on  to  an  enumeration  and  description  of  the  pu- 
 nishments decreed,  the  tone  entirely  changes.  A witness 
 M’ho  does  not  give  true  ei'idcnce  must  go  “ naked  and  shorn, 
 tormented  with  hunger  and  thirst,  and  deprived  of  sight,” 
 to  beg  his  food  at  his  enemy’s  door.  Whilst  a witness,  who 
 gives  an  imperfect  account  of  a transaction,  is  compared  to 
 a man  “ u lio  eats  fish  with  eagerness  and  swallows  the  sharp 
 bones.”  INIany  of  the  punishments  might  indeed  better  be 
 attributed  to  a court-buffoon  than  to  a sedate  judge,  as — 
 If  a once-born  man  insidt  a twice-born,  he  shall  have  his 
 tongue  slit.  If  a once-born  man  offer  instruction  to  a pi'iest, 
 hot  oil  shall  be  poured  into  his  mouth.  If  a man  steal 
 
 * Code,  ch.  viii. 
 
 + Ibid.,  cl'i.  viii. 
 
LIFE  IN  ANCIKXT  INDIA. 
 
 I4r> 
 
 gold  from  a Bralimaiij  he  shall  have  sore  fingers ; if  he  steal 
 dressed  grain,  dyspepsia;  if  he  steal  holy  words,  or  is  an 
 unauthorized  reader  of  the  Vedas,  dumbness  ; if  he  steal  a 
 lamp,  blindness  ; if  a horse,  lameness  ; and  this  is  followed 
 by  the  reflection  that — . 
 
 “ Thus  according  to  the  diversity  of  actions  are  born  men  despised 
 by  the  good  ; stupid,  dumb,  blind,  deaf,  deformed.”* 
 
 The  punishments  aAvarded  to  murder  are  not  less  fanciful, 
 hut  graduated  according  to  the  rank  of  the  sufferer.  If 
 the  person  killed  be  a Kshatriya,  the  penance  is  a fourth, — 
 if  a Vaisya,  an  eighth, — if  a Sndra,  a sixteenth  paid  of  that 
 which  is  ordained  for  the  murder  of  a Brahman.  But  if  a 
 Brahman  kill  a Sndra,  he  only  pays  the  fine  awarded  for 
 killing  a cat,  dog,  lizard,  or  erow.f 
 
 In  a similar  strain  are  the  punishments  referring  to  a 
 futni’e  life,  as — ‘^^If  a man  steal  grain  in  the  husk,  he  shall 
 be  horn  a rat ; if  a mixed  yelloAv  metal,  a gander ; ...  if 
 cxcpiisitc  perfumes,  a musk-rat , if  potherbs,  a peacock ; if 
 raw  grain,  a hedgehog.^’  This  jesting  character  never  could 
 have  obtained  in  a code  of  daily  use,  and  may  be  viewed  as 
 strong  evidence  that  Brahmanical  arrogance  assumed  more 
 than  it  performed,  and  did  not  positively  crush  the  general 
 population. 
 
 The  Code  reserves  hanking,  agriculture,  and  all  lucrative 
 occupations  for  the  third  Caste,  invested  Avith  the  sacred 
 thread,  and  called  Vaisyas ; but  riches  proverbialljr  have 
 Avings,  and  Brahmans  utterly  failed  in  trying  to  chain  them 
 to  their  privileged  orders.  The  laws  they  made  for  that 
 purpose  Avorked  just  in  the  opposite  direction  ; for  Avhilst 
 minute  and  vexatious  regulations  deadened  enterprise  in  the- 
 
 * Code,  ch.  viii.  t rbid.,  cli.  riii. 
 
SUDKAS. 
 
 143 
 
 Vaisyas,  freedom  from  these  hiudrances  enabled  the  mipri- 
 Aoleged  multitude  to  follow  industrial  eallings  with  suecess. 
 
 Beneath  the  Vaisya  easte  was  a Sudra  easte^  and  a Sudra 
 Ave  have  just  seen  reckoned  in  the  Code  as  a sixteenth  part 
 of  the  value  of  a Brahman.  Sudras,  says  the  Code,  are  the 
 oflFspring  of  Brahma’s  foot  ! From  his  mouth  sprang  Brah- 
 mans, from  his  arm  Kshatriyas,  from  his  thigh  Vaisyas,  and 
 then  from  his  foot  came  Sudras,  to  wait  upon  these  superior 
 castes : this,  having  been  the  aet  of  Brahma,  is  irrevocable 
 and  not  even  by  his  master  can  a S\idra  be  released  from 
 a state  of  servitude  which  is  natural  to  him.”*  Exclusion 
 from  religious  pri\dlege  follows  as  a necessary  consequenec, 
 as  a Sudra  cannot  wear  the  sacred  thread.  A man  un- 
 invested with  the  sacred  thread  cannot  make  a fire  sacri- 
 fice, and  one  who  does  not  saerifice  with  fire  cannot  obtain 
 absorption. 
 
 “ The  three  twice-born  classes  are  the  Sacerdotal,  tlie  Military, 
 and  the  Commercial ; hut  the  fourth,  or  Servile,  is  once-born,  tliai 
 is,  he  has  no  second  hirth  from  the  Gayatri,  and  wears  no  thread ; 
 nor  is  there  a fifth  pure  class. ”f 
 
 To  read  the  Veda,  or  even  to  hear  the  Veda  read,  is  for- 
 bidden to  Sudras ; not  until  a man  is  invested  with  the 
 sacred  thread  may  he  read  these  sacred  books ; and  sinee 
 Sudras  were  for  ever  exeluded  from  investitm’e,  it  Avas  a sin 
 for  a tAviee-born  man  to  read  the  Veda  even  to  himself  if 
 a Sudra  should  be  present.  For  a Brahman  to  teach  the 
 Veda  to  Sudras  was  of  course  a greater  sin,  and  to  receive 
 money  for  doing  so  yet  more  unpardonable,  and  to  receive 
 money  from  a Sudra,  under  any  circumstances,  highly  un- 
 becoming in  a Brahman. 
 
 * Code,  i.  81,  91. 
 
 t Jb/d.,  X.  4. 
 
144 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 “ They  who  receive  property  from  a Sudra  for  the  performance  of 
 rites  to  consecrated  fii’c,  are  contemned  as  ministers  of  the  base  bj’ 
 all  such  as  pronounce  texts  of  the  Vedas.” 
 
 “ Of  those  ignorant  priests  who  serve  the  holy  fire  for  the  wealth 
 of  a Sudra,  the  giver  shall  always  tread  on  the  foreheads,  and  thus 
 pass  over  miseries  in  the  gloom  of  death.” 
 
 Sudras  are  permitted  to  offer  dressed  grain,  and  to  give 
 praise  and  salutation  without  ''any  holy  text;”*  whieh  means 
 that  they  may  perform  rites  proeuring  a limited  amount  of 
 future  hliss,  but  not  such  sacrifice  as  leads  to  absorption  or 
 unlimited  beatitude.  Menial  sei’vice  is  the  only  occupation 
 entirely  approved  off  for  a Sudra ; but  if  he  fail  in  procuring 
 such  sernce,  he  may  follow  mechanical  arts,  with  always  this 
 proviso  : — 
 
 “No  superfluous  collection  of  wealth  must  be  made  by  a Sudra, 
 even  though  he  has  the  power  to  make  it ; since  a servile  man,  who 
 has  amassed  riches,  becomes  proud,  and  by  his  insolence  or  neglect 
 gives  pain  even  to  Bi’ahmans.”$ 
 
 Such  is  the  audacious  language  of  the  Code;  assuming 
 no  less  than  the  exclusion  of  moi’e  than  a fourth  part  of 
 God’s  creatures  from  any  chance  of  admission  to  the  upper 
 ranks  of  society,  Avhether  in  this  world  or  the  next.  M'e  do 
 not  understand  that  Sudras  were,  or  ever  had  been,  in 
 this  degraded  condition,  but  rather  see  a desire  and  design 
 that  for  the  future  they  should  be  suppressed.  Even  in 
 the  Code  many  passages  indicate  that  the  Sudra  condition 
 had  once  been  different ; as  when  a king  is  told  that  if  he 
 " stupidly  look  on  whilst  a Sudra  decides  causes,  his  king- 
 dom will  be  embarrassed  like  a cow  in  deep  mire  and 
 again,  good  men  must  not  reside  in  " cities  governed  by 
 
 * Code,  X.  126,  127. 
 t Ihid.,  xi.  42,  43. 
 
 + lUd.,  X.  129. 
 § Ibid.,  viii.  21. 
 
SUDRAS. 
 
 145 
 
 Sudra  kings  passages  clearly  showing  that  Sudra  judges 
 and  Sudra  kings  were  not  unknown.  We  even  find  the 
 Code  tracing  Sudra  pedigree  up  to  the  most  holy  sage 
 Vasishta.  Pitris,  it  says,  are  sons  of  ISIarichi  and  other 
 Pitris  j and  there  are  five  classes  of  Pitris,  amongst  which 
 are  Atri^  the  ancestor  of  Daityas,  Danavas,  Uragas^  and 
 Rakshasas  ; Bhrigu,  the  ancestor  of  Brahmans ; Angiras^ 
 the  ancestor  of  Kshatriyas ; and  Vasishta,  the  ancestor  of 
 Sudras.*  This  passage  is  followed  by  directions,  that  the 
 ground  upon  which  oblations  are  offered  to  Pitris  should 
 slope  towards  the  south,  and  the  worshipper  is  moreover 
 directed  to  tirrn  his  face  towards  the  south  or  south-west 
 whilst  performing  the  ceremony.  Obviously  there  had  been 
 a time  in  which  Sudras  were  not  viewed  as  slaves  or  serfs.f 
 Originally,  in  common  with  other  aboriginal  tribes,  they 
 had  faced  the  Hindus  in  war,  and  taught  them  religious 
 superstitions  in  peace.  Their  Goddess  Nirritti,  in  the  Big- 
 Veda,  is  entreated  to  keep  afar  off  with  her  unfriendly  looks, 
 and  not  to  destroy  Hindu  worshippers ; but  in  the  Code  we 
 find  Nirritti  called  the  “ Patroness  of  the  South-west,’^  the 
 same  quarter  as  that  to  which  oblations  to  forefathers  were 
 to  he  addressed.  The  probable  explanation  is,  that  the 
 Code  was  written  in  BraJimavarta,  to  the  north  of  Delhi ; 
 and  that  looking  to  the  south-west  was  looking  to  the  ear- 
 lier settlements  down  the  Indus.  Under  certain  circum- 
 stances the  Code  dii’ects  a sinner,  even  though  he  should 
 be  Hvice-hom,  “ to  walk  in  a direct  path  towards  the  south- 
 west, or  the  region  of  Nirritti,  until  he  fall  dead  on  the 
 ground.”  And  for  another  specified  offence,  an  orthodox 
 Hindu  is  directed  to  “ sacrifice  a black  or  one-eyed  ass,  by 
 * Code,  iii.  192,  198.  t Hid.,  iii.  206,  87,  91,  214,  215. 
 
 L 
 
146 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 Avay  of  meat-offering,  to  Nirritti,  patroness  of  the  south- 
 west, by  night,  in  a plaee  where  four  ways  meet.”* 
 
 These  passages  tell  moi’e  of  alliance  than  of  antipathy  be- 
 tween the  rii'al  races ; and  more  recently,  in  the  poem  called 
 IMahabharata,  Professor  Wilson  calls  attention  to  Sudras 
 being  mentioned  with  respect.  When  King  Yudhishthira 
 incites  kings  and  tribes  from  all  quarters  to  assist  at  his 
 inauguration,  Sudras  are  among  the  guests,  and  for  them, 
 equally  as  for  others,  food,  dwellings,  and  entertainments 
 are  provided.f  This  may  perhaps  corroborate  the  opinion 
 expressed  in  our  last  Chapter,  that  the  Mahabharata  Avas  not 
 written  wholly  under  Brahmanical  influence.  The  real  state 
 of  affairs  seems  to  haA'e  been  that  Hindus  and  Aborigines 
 were  much  inclined  to  coalesce;  and  that  Brahmans  pro- 
 pounded their  laAvs  on  Caste,  in  order  to  scA’er  such  alliances 
 and  preserve  their  race  and  their  religion  from  degradation. 
 
 In  an  article  on  the  Aboriginal  Races  of  India,  written 
 in  1852,  General  Briggs  notifies  elcA^en  distinctions  betAveen 
 Hindus  and  Aborigines,  and  nearly  all  these  differences 
 liaA'e  occLUTed  subsequent  to  the  Rig- Veda.  1.  “Hindus 
 are  divided  into  castes but  they  Avere  not  so  divided,  as 
 we  have  already  seen,  until  subsequent  to  the  Rig-^'^eda. 
 2.  “ Hindu  Avidows  are  forbidden  to  marry  ;”  this  prohibi- 
 tion is  distinctly  shoAvii  by  Professor  Wilson  to  have  no 
 place  in  the  Rig-A"eda.  3.  “ The  Hindus  venerate  the  cow, 
 and  abstain  from  eating  beef;”  in  the  Rig-Yeda  cows  were 
 sacrificed  and  eaten.  4.  “ The  Hindus  abstain  from  the  use 
 of  fermented  liquors ;”  fermented  soma-juice  is  drunk  in  the 
 Rig-\  eda.  5.  “ The  Hindus  eat  of  food  prepared  only  by 
 those  of  their  oavu  Caste ;”  on  this  point  we  ha\  e no  exact 
 * Code,  xi.  105,  119.  + J.  R.  A.  S.,  May,  1842  ; art.  Sahha  Parca. 
 
THE  TAMUL  RACES. 
 
 147 
 
 cvideucCj  but  the  regulation  is  not  likely  to  have  preeedecl 
 the  Brahmanical  arrangement  of  Caste.  6.  “The  Hindus 
 abhor  the  spilling  of  blood  but  in  the  Big- Veda  animals 
 are  saerificed  and  enemies  killed.  7.  “ The  Pliudus  have  a 
 Brahmanical  priesthood  in  the  Rig- Veda  kings  perform 
 sacrifices,  and  Brahmans  are  one  amongst  many  classes 
 of  priests.  8.  “ The  Hindus  burn  their  dead the  dead 
 are  certainly  buried  in  the  Rig- Veda,  although  sometimes 
 preHously  burned.  9.  “ The  Hindu  ciAol  institutions  are 
 all  municipal,  the  abonginal  institutions  all  patriarchal 
 the  veneration  of  Pitris,  forefathers,  and  the  performance 
 of  sacrifice  by  kings  and  householders,  looks  as  if  the  pa- 
 triarchal had  preceded  the  municipal  amongst  Hindus. 
 10.  “ The  Hindus  have  their  courts  of  justice  composed  of 
 equals  how  early  these  courts  were  instituted  we  know 
 not.  11.“  The  Hindus  brought  with  them  (more  than  three 
 thousand  years  ago)  the  art  of  writing  and  science whilst 
 General  Briggs  continues,  “ The  indigenes  are  not  only  illi- 
 terate, but  it  is  forbidden  for  the  Hindus  to  teach  them.’’ 
 Whether  the  Aborigines  possessed  bterature  in  the  days  of 
 "N^edic  song,  is  not  to  be  known ; but  that  portion  of  their 
 population  which  retired  to  the  Peninsula  must  undoid)t- 
 edly  have  cultivated  a literature  for  which  they  were  not 
 beholden  to  Hindus  or  Brahmans.  Mr.  Elphinstone  cites 
 the  existence  of  this  Tamul  literature  as  eHdence  that  so- 
 ciety in  the  south  of  India  had  made  considerable  progress 
 in  civilization  before  the  Hindus  colonized  there,  and  mo- 
 nopolized learning  as  the  exclusive  privilege  of  Brahmans. 
 When  at  length  Brahmans  did  settle  in  the  south,  they 
 translated  Sanskrit  literature  into  the  Tamul  languages; 
 and  this  again  is  a testimony  to  the  cultivation  of  the  Ta- 
 
148 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 niul  inhabitants;  for  Brahmans  would  not  have  bestowed 
 their  precious  literature  upon  indigenes  or  un-Brahmanical 
 tribes,  unless  eonvinced  that  the  newly  subdued  people  eould 
 not  be  kept  in  subjection  by  mere  force,  and  that  it  was 
 politic  to  put  public  opinion  under  Brahmanical  influence 
 by  an  infusion  of  Sanski'it  legends  and  philosophy. 
 
 We  must  therefore  give  up  the  idea  that  the  population 
 of  India  was  ever  divided  into  four  distinct  Castes.  Rather 
 Ave  imagine  Brahmans  only  to  have  been  omnipotent  in  a 
 few  luxurious  towns  or  celebrated  hermitages,' whilst  the 
 country  at  large  was  inhabited  by  people  of  mixed  Caste,  left 
 very  much  at  liberty  to  govern  themselves.  The  Code  states 
 that  the  internal  administration  of  the  country  is  carried 
 on  by  the  lords  of  single  toAvnships,  the  lords  of  ten  towns 
 (or  villages),  the  lords  of  a hundred,  and  the  lords  of  a thou- 
 sand towns.  These  officers  are  all  appointed  by  the  King, 
 and  are  directed  to  report,  each  to  his  immediate  superior, 
 such  robberies  or  tumults  as  he  is  unable  to  suppress.  The 
 lord  of  a single  town  receives  in  compensation  “ the  food, 
 drink,  wood,  and  other  articles”  to  which  the  King  is  en- 
 titled from  that  town ; the  lord  of  ten  towns  receives  “ the 
 produce  of  two  plough-lands,  or  as  much  ground  as  can  be 
 tilled  by  two  ploughs,  each  drawn  by  six  bulls;  the  lord 
 of  twenty,  that  of  five  plough-lands ; the  lord  of  a hundred, 
 that  of  a village  or  small  town  ; the  lord  of  a thousand,  that 
 of  a large  toAvui.”  These  officers  were  to  be  under  the  su- 
 perintendence of  a still  higher  minister  of  the  crown,  “ dis- 
 tinguished as  a planet  amongst  stars,”  whose  special  duty 
 was  to  defend  the  people  from  the  rapacity  of  the  inferior 
 officers,  who,  the  Code  says  (Aii.  115),  “ are  generally  knaves, 
 Avho  seize  what  belongs  to  other  men.” 
 
VILLAGE  GOVERNMENT. 
 
 149 
 
 The  headman*  of  a \-illage  is  in  some  places  called  Patel 
 or  Patil,  in  others  Chaudhari  and  Mandal : he  is  the  suc- 
 cessor of  the  lord,  whom  Mann  mentions  as  an  agent  of  the 
 King ; the  office  has  noiv  become  hereditaiy,  and  in  point 
 of  fact  he  is  more  the  representative  of  the  people  than  an 
 officer  of  the  King,  although  he  is  regarded  still  in  that  ca- 
 pacity ; and  the  Government  often  exercises  the  power  of 
 determining  which  individual  out  of  the  privileged  family 
 shall  succeed  to  the  office.  The  headman  of  the  village 
 still  receives  a certain  allowance  from  the  King  or  govern- 
 ment, but  the  greater  part  of  his  income  is  now  derived 
 fr’om  fees  paid  by  the  rillagers  ; this  system  is  supposed  by 
 General  Briggs  to  have  accompanied  Hindus  into  every 
 settlement  they  have  made,  whether  in  India  or  beyond  its 
 confines.  There  ai'e  three  things  which  he  considers  inse- 
 parable, viz.  the  Sanskrit  language,  serfdom,  and  municipal 
 institutions ; and  although  this  system  is  no  longer  found  in 
 !Malwa,  or  in  great  part  of  the  ^Madras  Presidency,  yet  there 
 is  reason  to  bebeve  that  it  did  once  exist  throughout  the 
 country ; each  village  haring  its  own  registrar,  Avatchman, 
 cai’tAvright,  washerman,  barber,  goldsmith,  and  poet,  Avho 
 also  seiwed  as  schoolmaster.!  And  in  further  evidence  that 
 the  institution  travelled  with  the  language,  we  have  the 
 statement  of  Sir  Stamford  Raffies,  that  Bali,  an  island  to  the 
 east  of  Java,  possesses  municipal  institutions,  the  Sanskrit 
 language,  and  the  Brahmanical  religion;  and  again  in  Java 
 there  are  A illage  associations  bearing  the  Indian  name  Xagri, 
 which  ^Ir.  Crawfurd  mentions  as  corporations  governed  by 
 
 ♦ Elphinstone,  Hist.  India,  Appendix  v.  p.  2-19. 
 
 t These  officers  sign  their  documents  with  the  figm’es  of  the  tools  which 
 they  employ.  See  Dr.  Hoyle’s  Lecture  on  the  Great  Exhibition. 
 
150 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 officers  of  their  oavii  election.  This  system  is  still  character- 
 istic of  India,  where  “ A’illage  communities”  are  noted  as 
 the  indestructible  atoms  from  which  empires  are  formed.” 
 “ ^ illagc  communities,”  says  Sir  Charles  Metcalfe,  “ are 
 little  republics,  liaAmig  nearly  eveiything  they  can  want 
 Avithin  themseh'es ; they  seem  to  last  where  nothing  else 
 lasts.  Dynasty  after  dynasty  tumbles  doAvn.  Hindu,  Patau, 
 Mongol,  iVIahratta,  Sikh,  English,  arc  all  masters  in  turn, 
 hut  the  Aullage  commmiity  remains  the  same.  In  times  of 
 trouble  they  arm  and  fortify  themsehes,  . . . collect  their 
 cattle  Avithin  their  AA'alls,  and  let  the  enemy  pass  unproA  oked . 
 If  plunder  and  dcA'astation  be  directed  against  themselves, 
 and  the  force  employed  be  irresistible,  they  flee  to  friendly 
 villages ; hut  Avhen  the  storm  has  passed  over,  they  return 
 and  resume  their  occupations.”* 
 
 Thus,  instead  of  finding  India  all  divided  betAveen  lords 
 and  slaves,  Ave  discover  a rich  material  of  middle  class,  which, 
 from  the  earliest  ages,  has  maintained  an  amount  of  inde- 
 pendence most  encouraging  to  those  benevolent  reformers 
 and  hopefid  governors,  avIio  fi’om  time  to  time  spring  up  to 
 bless  and  regenerate  our  perplexing  Indian  empire. 
 
 * Elphinstone,  Hist,  of  India,  p.  63  ; and  Sir  C.  T.  Metcalfe,  Report  of 
 Select  Committee  of  House  of  Commons,  1832,  vol.  iii.  Appendix  84,  p.  331. 
 
CHAPTER  VII. 
 
 “ Nature,  a mother  kind  alike  to  aU, 
 
 StUl  grants  her  bliss  at  labom-’s  earnest  caU  ; 
 
 From  Art,  more  yarious  are  the  blessings  sent. 
 Wealth,  commerce,  honom-,  hberty,  content.” 
 
 Goldsjiith. 
 
 Agriculture  has  floui’ished  iu  India  under  aU  changes  of 
 dominion,  and  was  practised  even  in  the  early  period  of  the 
 Rig -Veda,  where  fields  are  frequently  mentioned  and  the 
 produce  carried  home  in  carts.  jSIodels  of  ancient  ploughs 
 Avere  exhibited  at  the  Great  Exhibition  of  1851,  and  a 
 species  of  drill-plough  is  attributed  by  Dr.  Royle*  to  the 
 ante -Christian  centuries  of  which  we  are  treating.f  And 
 not  only  of  seed  were  these  ancient  farmers  economical. 
 
 * Lectm-e  on  the  Results  of  the  Great  Exliibition,  p.  455. 
 t A plough  of  tills  description  may  be  seen  in  bas-relief  on  Lord  Aber- 
 deen’s Black  Stone  : it  is  figiued  in  Fergusson’s  ‘ Nineveh,’  p.  298  ; the  date 
 is  supposed  to  be  shortly  before  the  time  of  Nebuchadnezzar, 
 
152 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 but  also  of  the  soil^  solving  plants  which  require  trans- 
 plantation in  the  same  field  with  rice-plants,  wliich  mature 
 in  sixty  days  •”*  and  sowing  mudga  and  masha  beneath  a 
 tall  cereal,  called  in  the  Code  barley,  but  which  is  in  fact 
 a millet  [Holcus  Sorghum,  Linn.)  this  plan  is  stdl  prac- 
 tised. The  tall  grain  rises  quickly,  and  by  its  shade  keeps 
 the  soil  cool  and  moist  for  the  smaller  and  slower-grow- 
 ing mudga  and  masha,  which  are  known  to  Europeans  as 
 the  gram  with  which  they  feed  then’  horses.  Rotation  of 
 crops  is  also  practised  by  the  native  farmers,  who  alternate 
 the  pulses,  which  improve  the  land,  with  the  eereal  grasses, 
 which  exhaust  it ; and  to  India  Dr.  Roxbiu’gh  believes  the 
 western  world  to  he  indebted  for  this  system.  In  a coun- 
 try so  luxuriant  in  cocoa-nuts  and  other  fniits,  edible  roots, 
 and  water-plants,  it  bespeaks  considerable  civilization  to 
 make  laws  in  favour  of  agi’icultm’e ; and  we  therefore  read 
 with  interest  that — 
 
 “ If  the  land  be  injured  by  the  fault  of  the  farmer  himself,  as  if  be 
 fail  to  sow  it  in  due  time,  be  shall  be  fined  ten  times  as  much  as  the 
 King’s  share  of  the  crop  that  might  otherwise  have  been  raised.”^ 
 
 And  again,  a Vaisya  must  be  skilled  in  seeds,  and  in  the 
 bad  or  good  qualities  of  land,  and  “the  correct  modes  of 
 measuring  and  weighing.”  § 
 
 Indigo  refers  itself  to  India  by  the  name  which  it  has 
 certainly  borne  in  Europe  since  the  time  of  Pliny  j in  its  own 
 country  it  is  called  or  blue.  It  is  supposed  to  have 
 been  early  exported  to  Ai’abia,  Tyre,  and  Egypt,  and  to 
 have  been  adulterated  or  imitated  ; for  Pliny  writes,  “ Cast 
 the  right  indico  upon  live  coals,  it  yieldeth  a flame  of  most 
 
 * Code,  ix.  38,  39.  % Code,  Tiii.  243. 
 
 + Eoxburgh,  Flora  Indica,  toI.  iii.  p.  295.  § TbUL,  ix.  330. 
 
MANUFACTURES. 
 
 153 
 
 excellent  purple.”*  Indigo  is  a common-looking  little  plant, 
 Avith  a bluish-green  juice,  and  is  oidy  converted  into  a hand- 
 some colour  and  a permanent  dye  by  a process  of  oxy- 
 genation ; and  Bancroft  thinks  it  wonderful  that  so  many 
 thousand  years  ago,  the  natives  of  India  should  have  dis- 
 covered means  by  which  the  colom’able  matter  of  the  plant 
 “ might  be  extracted,  oxygenated,  and  precipitated  from  all 
 the  other  matters  combined  with  it.” 
 
 In  the  manufacture  of  iron  and  its  conversion  into  steel 
 the  early  Hindus  showed  the  same  proficiency.  Dr.  Boyle 
 expresses  astonishment  that  “ a primitive  people  could  have 
 overcome  the  difficvdties  of  smelting  iron  and  of  forging 
 steel  ;”t  and  that  these  difficulties  were  overcome  at  a very 
 remote  period  we  have  eridence;  for  Dan  and  Javan  car- 
 ried Indian  iron  to  Tyre,  and  the  Hindus  of  the  Rig-Yeda 
 made  iron  tires  to  their  wheels,  as  also  various  tools  and 
 weapons.  It  has  lately  been  discovered  that  the  far-famed 
 Damascus  blades  were  of  Indian  steel  manufactm’ed  in  the 
 west  of  India.  Mr.  Wilkinson  has  proved  that  the  figuring 
 of  these  swords  depends  upon  the  peculiar  crystallization  of 
 the  wootz,  the  name  by  which  manufactm'ed  steel  is  known 
 in  India.  It  is  prepared  by  breaking  up  the  ore  and  throw- 
 ing it  into  a charcoal  furnace,  from  whence  it  issues  in  a 
 malleable  state;  it  is  then  beaten  uith  a stone  hammer 
 on  a stone  amil,  into  what  is  called  “an  unpromising”- 
 looking  bar ; and  this  bar  being  cut  into  small  pieces  is  put 
 
 * The  W est  Indies  had  for  a time  the  honour  of  exclusively  supplying 
 Europe  with  indigo,  for  the  manufacture  had  been  neglected  in  the  East, 
 whilst  hi  A.D.  17I7  it  was  eultivated  in  the  West ; but  in  1779  Mr.  Prinsep, 
 then  a merchant  in  Calcutta,  restored  the  trade  to  India. 
 
 t Lectm’e  on  the  Eesults  of  the  Great  Exhibition,  or  Lecture  on  the 
 Arts  and  Manufacture  of  India,  p.  464. 
 
154 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 into  a crucible  with  dried  branehes  of  trees  and  the  green 
 berries  of  various  shrubs,  much  importance  being  attached 
 to  the  effect  of  different  kinds  of  wood  in  producing  dif- 
 ferent kinds  of  iron  and  steel.  The  erucibles  are  made  of 
 clay,  and  closed  at  the  mouth  with  clay ; after  they  have 
 been  exposed  to  the  blast  for  two  hours  and  a half,  they  are 
 removed  from  the  furnace,  and  the  wootz,  or  steel,  being 
 allowed  to  eool  in  the  crueible,  the  particles  arrange  them- 
 selves in  the  crystalline  forms,  which  produce  the  peculiar 
 watering,  or  jowhur,  of  the  Damascus  blades.*  This  Hindu 
 plan  of  boiling  iron  and  green  leaves  and  wood  together  in 
 a closed  crucible  appears  to  excel  even  the  methods  most 
 approved  at  Glasgow  and  Sheffield,  for  Mr.  Heath  says 
 that  “ iron  is  converted  into  east  steel  by  the  natives  of 
 India  in  two  hours  and  a half,  while  at  Sheffield  it  requires 
 at  least  four  hours  to  melt  blistered  steel.”  t The  iron  and 
 steel  made  in  jMysore  has,  at  present,  equal  fame  with  that 
 of  Cutch ; but  in  ancient  times,  iron  is  always  mentioned 
 in  connection  with  the  Indus.  King  Porus  presented  Alex- 
 ander the  Great  with  about  thirty  pounds  of  steel,  as  a jire- 
 cious  production  of  his  country ; and  this  steel  was  so  much 
 valued  by  the  Persians,  that,  in  their  language,  “ to  give  an 
 Indian  answer,”  meant  to  give  a cut  with  an  Indian  sword. 
 From  the  eountries  on  the  Indus  also  came  some  of  the 
 most  beautiful  specimens  of  arms  exhibited  in  the  Crystal 
 Palace  in  1851,  where  “a  dagger  with  pearls  let  into  the 
 centre  of  its  blades,”  “ a dagger  containing  another  within 
 it,”  and  “ a dagger  opening  with  five  blades,”  were  aU  sent 
 
 * J.  K.A.  S.,  Feb.  16,  1839. 
 
 t Dr.  Royle,  Lecture  on  the  .Li-ts  and  Manufactures  of  India,  pp.  466- 
 468.  Mr.  Heath,  managing  director  of  tlie  India  Iron  and  Stt'el  Company. 
 
AKTS. 
 
 155 
 
 by  the  Rajah  of  Pattiala,  •which  is  a Sikh  principality  witliin 
 the  province  of  Delhi.* 
 
 It  is  interesting  to  tiu’ii  from  the  steel  and  iron  factories 
 to  the  silent  quarries  of  Bijanugm',  twenty-nine  miles  from 
 Bellary,  above  the  Southern  Ghats.  Here  the  granite  rocks 
 still  show  distinctly  marks  of  the  chisels  that  hewed  out 
 the  huge  blocks  with  which  the  gi’andest  of  old  Indian  cities 
 was  constructed.  The  streets  of  Bijanugur  were  paved 
 with  flags  of  granite ; its  walls,  pillars,  arches,  and  even  flat 
 roofs  and  beams,  all  made  of  gi’anite,  some  blocks  being  fif- 
 teen feet  in  breadth  and  some  monolith  statues  seventeen 
 feet  in  height.  The  tools  employed  were  chisels,  wedges, 
 levers,  and  hammers : the  chisels  .small,  pencil-shaped,  of 
 steel  or  iron,  with  highly-tempered  points ; the  wedges  of 
 iron,  from  two  to  three  and  a half  inches  long ; the  ham- 
 mers of  wood,  or,  if  iron  hammers  were  used,  a hollow 
 was  made  in  the  striking  face,  and  filled  with  lead  or  soft 
 iron,  to  diminish  the  Gbration  and  save  the  edge  of  the 
 chisel.  In  working  a gi’auite  quarry,  the  Hindus  make 
 a series  of  small  holes  about  an  inch  square,  of  different 
 depths ; whilst  working  these  water  is  used,  to  preserve  the 
 temper  of  the  chisels,  and  when  finished,  iron  Avedges  are 
 introduced  into  the  holes,  and  the  continued  simultaneous 
 striking  of  the  hammer  splits  the  granite  into  the  required 
 masses.  The  Hindus  are  also  acquainted  with  the  use  of 
 fire  in  quarrying ; and  by  covering  a convex  plateau  or  boss 
 of  granite  -with  dry  thorny  acacia-wood  and  setting  it  on  fire, 
 they  cause  it  to  split  off  in  a flake,  which  is  easily  detached 
 by  wedges  and  a lever. 
 
 * Dr.  Eoyle,  Lectm’e  on  the  Arts  and  Manufectuivs  of  India,  p.  470,  and 
 lUus.  Cat.  part  iv.  p.  912.  A reference  to  this  lecture  show  that  tui 
 and  metallic  alloys  were  early  known  in  India. 
 
156 
 
 LIFE  I\  AXCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 For  the  antiquity  of  weaving  we  have  evidence  in  the 
 Rig-Yeda,  where  we  read  of  the  rat  gnawing  the  “ weaver’s 
 threads and  again  in  the  Code,  where  the  weaver  is  re- 
 quired to  return  in  the  woven  fabric  a gi’eater  weight  than 
 he  received  in  the  raw  cotton  ;*  the  reason  being  that  he  is 
 obliged  to  keep  his  threads  immersed  in  rice-water,  which 
 necessarily  increases  their  weight.  iSIoist  air  facHitates 
 weaving,  and  is  indispensable  for  the  finest  quahties ; it  is 
 on  this  account  that  !Masulipatam  and  Dhacca  maintained 
 theu’  pre-eminence,  and  could  only  he  rivalled  in  the  dry 
 north-west  by  the  contrivance  of  underground  workshops. 
 The  strange  appearance  of  an  Indian  spinning-wheel,  made 
 of  richly  carved  wood  and  bound  round  by  unsightly  threads, 
 was  explained  by  the  late  Professor  Cowper,  who  discovered 
 that  the  clumsy-looking  threads  give  a “ tension  and  elas- 
 ticity” not  to  be  procm’ed  in  any  other  way.  These  wheels 
 are  now  silenced  by  the  machinery  of  ^Manchester,  and  the 
 time  may  soon  amve  when  it  will  appear  incredible  that  a 
 fabric  of  ten  yards  in  length  and  one  yard  wide  should  weigh 
 only  3 oz.  2 dwts.,  and  pass  readily  thi’ough  a small  ring. 
 Similar  to  this  must  have  been  the  “ woven  au”  of  San- 
 skrit hterature,  and  the  robe  in  which  a woman  exhibited 
 herself  in  Buddhist  stoiy  and  was  punished  for  going  about 
 unclad.  The  muslin  had  been  sent  to  Kosala  as  a present 
 from  the  King  of  Kalinga.f 
 
 The  products  of  India  are  traced  to  Greece  in  the  time 
 of  Homer,  and  to  Jerusalem  in  the  days  of  King  Solomon. 
 The  genealogy  of  the  words  for  ivory  and  elephant  is  said 
 to  prove  that  Greece  got  ivory  from  India,  through  the  men 
 of  Tyre,  in  which  case  the  celebrated  bed  of  !Menelaus  was 
 carved  fr’om  the  tusks  of  elephants  once  roaming  in  Hiudo- 
 * Code,  viii.  356.  t Asiatic  Ecsearches,  rol.  sx.  p.  85. 
 
COMMERCE. 
 
 157 
 
 Stan.  There  was  no  word  in  Greek  for  elephant,  and  when 
 Herodotus  first  saw  the  animal  he  called  it  ivory,  using  the 
 Sanskrit-derived  word  by  which  the  tusks  were  known  in 
 commerce.  King  Solomon’s  apes  and  peacocks,  in  like 
 manner,  bear  Sanskrit-derived  names,  and  the  algum-wood, 
 of  which  he  made  ceilings,  screens,  and  balconies,  is  sup- 
 posed to  be  the  sandal-wood  of  India.  The  precious  stones 
 of  King  Hiram’s  cargo  still  lie  in  the  hills  to  the  west  of 
 Ajmere,  rich  in  garnets,  amethysts,  chrysolites,  and  metals ; 
 and  also  in  the  hdls  of  Guzerat,  where  agates,  mocha-stones, 
 and  carnehans  are  found  about  thirty  feet  below  the  surface 
 of  the  sod.  Kard  and  bdellium,  calamus  and  cassia,  were 
 also  products  of  India.  Nard,  or  spikenard,  grows  in  the 
 Himalaya,  being  a plant  with  small  hairy  roots,  compared 
 by  the  Arabs  to  ermines’  tails ; bdellium  is  a fi’agi’aut  gum 
 from  Kattiwar ; calamus,  either  the  delicious  lemon-grass, 
 grown  in  Kew  Gardens,  or  that  Avhich  yields  the  fragrant 
 grass-oil ; and  the  cassia  of  Scripture  is  the  tamala  of  San- 
 skrit literature.*  The  names  of  these  products  are  not 
 the  only  words  which  Professor  Lassen  remarks  as  Sanskrit 
 words  early  introduced  into  Hebrew  by  the  means  of  trade, 
 and  the  inference  is,  that  the  “ Ophir”  of  Scripture  must 
 have  been  in  India,  and  probably  on  the  IMalabar  coast, 
 the  Sanskrit  words  in  question  bearing  terminations  cha- 
 racteristic of  the  Dekkan.  Native  narigators  are  supposed 
 to  have  shipped  the  goods  from  the  Indus  to  some  port 
 to  the  south  of  Bombay,  whence  they  were  fetched  by  the 
 Arabs  or  Phoenicians. 
 
 The  disastrous  enterprise  of  poor  Bhuja,  son  of  Tugra, 
 
 * Pepper,  altliough  uot  mentioned  in  King  Hiram’s  cargo,  must  not  be 
 omitted  when  speaking  of  the  undoubted  products  of  India. 
 
158 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 shows  that  the  singers  of  the  Yeclie  hymns  had  heard  of 
 voyages  in  waters  where  no  land  could  be  seen.  The  Rig- 
 A'eda  thus  stands  as  a witness  within  India  to  the  an- 
 cient Hindus  haHug  been  a maritime  people^  whilst  their 
 settlements  in  Java  furnish  indisputable  eridence  from 
 without;  though  commerce  by  land  seems  to  have  been 
 more  congenial  to  the  general  Asiatic  character,  and  cara- 
 vans of  merchants  may  be  ranked  as  one  of  those  essential 
 features  of  oriental  scenery  which  equally  characterize  all 
 ages. 
 
 “ In  the  thirty-seventh  chapter  of  Genesis/’  says  Dr. 
 Mncent,  “the  brethren  of  Joseph,  when  about  to  leave 
 him  to  perish,  saw  a company  of  Ishmaelite  or  [Midianite 
 merchants  approach,  to  whom  they  resolved  to  sell  their 
 brother  as  a slave.  . . . Here,  upon  opening  the  oldest  his- 
 tory in  the  world,  we  find  the  Ishmaelites  from  Gilead  con- 
 ducting a caravan  of  camels  loaded  with  the  spices  of  India. 
 The  date  of  this  transaction  is  more  than  seventeen  cen- 
 turies prior  to  the  Christian  era ; and  notwithstanding  its 
 antiquity,  it  has  all  the  genuine  features  of  a caravan  cross- 
 ing the  desert  at  the  present  hour.”  The  Hindus  proba- 
 bly conducted  their  goods  as  far  as  Persia,  and  were  there 
 met  by  the  Midianites.*  Queen  Esther’s  “ white  and  blue 
 hangings,”  at  Persepolis,  are  at  any  rate  attributed  to  In- 
 dia, and  the  word  Jccnyas,  used  in  the  book  of  Esther,  is 
 the  Sanskrit  name  of  cotton. t Fairs  were  national  amuse- 
 
 * Dr.  Tincent  believes  the  earavans  to  have  passed  througli  Basra  to 
 Medina,  and  through  Petra  to  Egyjit  and  Tyre,  previous  to  the  call  of 
 Abraham,  and  that  this  is  the  oldest  line  of  road  in  the  universe. — Periplus, 
 part  ii.  book  iii.  p.  328. 
 
 t Cotton  reached  Eiu-ope  apparently  m the  time  of  the  Crusades,  through 
 the  medium  of  Arabia,  the  Arab  word  kutn  becoming  our  cotton.  See 
 
COMMERCE. 
 
 159 
 
 ments  in  India.  Tribute  was  paid  in  kind,  and  kings  were 
 ill  the  habit  of  bolding  great  festivals,  at  which  they 
 collected  all  ^^the  nobles  and  princes  of  the  proiinces.” 
 An  interesting  account  of  snch  a festival  is  given  in  the 
 iNIahabharata,  mentioning  the  kings  who  attended  and  the 
 oflFerings  which  they  made.  From  Balkh  (in  Bactria)  was 
 presented  a war-chariot  inlaid  with  gold ; to  this  another 
 hill-rajah  harnessed  a pair  of  white  horses,  a third  attended 
 to  the  step  or  fender  of  the  car,  and  a fourth  king  held  the 
 banner.  From  Kamboja  were  brought  cloths  of  wool,  and 
 skins  of  animals  that  live  in  holes,  also  horses  “ partridge- 
 spotted”  and  “ parrot-nosed.”  From  beyond  the  O.vus 
 came  vessels  of  iron,  and  swords  with  liilts  of  ivory ; other 
 mountaineers  brought  shawls  of  goats’  hair,  and  silk  of 
 thread  spun  by  worms ; and  silk  garments  we  have  already 
 noticed  as  worn  at  Hama’s  marriage  and  at  Dasaratha’s 
 funeral.  From  Tibet  were  sent  the  bushy  tails  of  the  yak, 
 some  white  and  some  black,  as  is  still  the  case,  and  valued 
 by  King  Yudhishtliira,  as  in  the  present  day,  for  chowries, 
 or  fly-flappers  : two  of  King  Yudhishthira’s  brothers  waved 
 these  chowi’ies  over  the  monarch,  whilst  two  others  fanned 
 him  with  pmikahs,  and  his  friend  Krishna  held  the  sa- 
 cred chank  and  poured  upon  his  head  the  water  of  inau- 
 guration. Sacred  chanks  are  shells  opening  to  the  left  in- 
 stead of  the  right;  and  these,  with  gems,  coral,  and  “heaps 
 of  pearls,”  were  the  offering  fr’om  Ceylon,  whilst  fi’om  the 
 Carnatic  came  sandal-wood,  sandal-ointment  in  vases  of 
 gold,  and  the  fragrant  agallachum*  shown  by  Dr.  Boyle 
 
 Book  of  Esther,  ch.  i.  r.  6,  and  Dr.  Boyle’s  Lecture  on  the  Eesults  of  the 
 Great  Exhibition,  1851,  p.  487. 
 
 * Notes  on  the  Sabha  Burra  of  the  Mahabharata,  by  Professor  Wilson, 
 J.  K.  A.  S.,  No.  xiii.  May,  1842. 
 
160 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 to  be  the  tree  agala,  or  eagle- wood^*  most  used  when  iu  a 
 state  of  decay. 
 
 A caravan  with  freights  of  this  description  is  described 
 iu  the  story  of  Nala  and  Damayanti  :f — 
 
 “A  caravan  of  merchants,  elephants  and  steeds,  and  cars. 
 
 And  beyond  a pleasant  river  with  its  waters  cool  and  clear; 
 
 ’Twas  a quiet  stream  and  waveless,  girt  about  with  spreading 
 canes ; 
 
 There  the  cuckoo,  there  the  osprey,  there  the  red  geese  clamour- 
 ing stood ; 
 
 Swarmed  the  turtles,  fish,  and  serpents ; there  rose  many  a stately 
 isle.” 
 
 Damayanti  is  a lovely  princess,  wandering  forlorn  in 
 search  of  her  husband ; the  merchants  take  her  for  a spii’it 
 and  are  unwilling  to  speak,  but  she  entreats  assistance  in  her 
 search  for  her  lost  husband.  The  chief  says  that  hitherto 
 he  has  encountered  only  “ elephants,  tigers,  buffaloes,  and 
 bears,”  but  he  consents  that  Damayanti  shall  travel  to  the 
 next  city  under  his  protection,  and  the  caravan  proceeds 
 until — 
 
 “ A lake  of  lovehest  beauty,  fragrant  with  the  lotus  fiowers. 
 
 Saw  those  merchants,  wide  and  pleasant,  with  fresh  grass  and  shady 
 trees ; 
 
 Flowers  and  fruits  bedecked  its  borders,  where  the  birds  melo- 
 dious sang : 
 
 In  its  clear,  deheious  waters,  soul-enchanting,  icy-cool. 
 
 With  their  horses  all  o’er-wearied,  thought  they  there  to  plunge 
 and  bathe.” 
 
 The  captain  gave  a signal  and  they  encamped,  but  in  the 
 dead  of  the  night  down  came  a herd  of  wild  elephants  to 
 the  lake  for  water ; for  a moment  they  stood  amazed  at  the 
 
 * Illustrated  Catalogue  of  Great  Exhibition,  part  iv.  Colonies,  p.  878. 
 t Poems  by  Deaji  MOman,  vol.  hi. 
 
CARAVANS. 
 
 161 
 
 sliimberiiig  caravan,  but  presently,  scenting  the  tame  ele- 
 phants,— 
 
 " Forward  rash  they,  fleet  and  furious,  . . . 
 
 Irresistible  the  onset  of  the  rushing  ponderous  beasts.  . . . 
 
 Strewn  was  all  the  way  before  them  with  the  boughs  and  trunks 
 of  trees. 
 
 On  they  crashed  to  where  the  travellers  slumbered  by  the  Lotus 
 L^e; 
 
 Trampled  down  without  a struggle,  helpless  on  the  earth  they  lay; 
 
 ‘ Woe,  oh  woe  I ’ shrieked  out  the  merchants ; wildly  some  began 
 to  fly. 
 
 In  the  forest  thickets  plunging ; some  stood  gasping,  blind  with 
 sleep. 
 
 And  the  elephants  down  beat  them  with  their  tusks,  their  trunks, 
 their  feet. 
 
 Many  saw  their  camels  dying,  mingling  with  the  men  on  foot, 
 
 Amd.  in  frantic  tumult  rushing,  wildly  struck  each  other  down ; 
 
 Many,  miserably  shrieking,  cast  them  down  upon  the  earth; 
 
 Many  climbed  the  trees  in  terror ; on  the  rough  ground  stumbled 
 some. 
 
 Thus,  in  various  wise  and  fatal,  by  the  elephants  assailed. 
 
 Lay  that  caravan  so  wealthy,  scattered  all  about  or  slain. 
 
 Such,  so  fearful  was  the  tumult,  the  three  worlds  seemed  aU  ap- 
 palled. 
 
 'T  is  a Are  amid  the  encampment, — save  ye,  fly  ye  for  your  lives  ! 
 
 Lo ! vour  precious  pearls  ve  trample ; take  them  up,  why  fly  so 
 fast  ? ’ 
 
 Save  them,  ’tis  a common  venture  I” 
 
 The  poor  Princess  was  suspected  of  being  in  some  way 
 the  eause  of  the  calamity,  and  threatened  with  death  from 
 clods  and  bamboos  j but  happily  some  “ Teda-reading 
 Brahmans”  smwived  the  scattered  host,  and  took  her  in 
 charge. 
 
 We  must  now  conclude  the  subject  of  manufactures  and 
 commerce,  by  noticing  the  place  which  Commerce  holds  in 
 the  Law  Book. 
 
 M 
 
162 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 Travelling  with  racrchaudise”*  was  an  occupation  fit 
 only  for  those  whom  the  “twice-born’^  despise;  but  “lend- 
 ing at  interest”  was  a virtuous  mode  of  subsisteucCj  espe- 
 cially recommended  to  the  third  Caste  (Vaisyas),  although 
 not  available  for  Kshatriyas  and  Brahmans.  Neither 
 might  the  two  first  Castes  receive  interest  on  loans;  but 
 they  might  borrow,  if  for  a pious  use.  Money-lending 
 is  carefidly  treated  in  the  Code,  which  thus  exhibits  the 
 financial  system  of  their  commerce. 
 
 The  first  regulation  is  one  attributed  to  Vasishta,  which 
 we  remember  as  the  name  of  the  prime  minister  of  Dasa- 
 ratha,  the  King  of  Ayodhya: — 
 
 “ A lender  of  money  may  take,  in  addition  to  his  capital,  ...  an 
 eightieth  part  of  a hundred  by  the  month; 
 
 “ Or  he  may  take  two  in  the  hundred  by  remembering  the  duty 
 of  good  men  ; for,  by  taking  two  in  the  hvmdi’ed,  he  becomes  not  a 
 sinner  for  gain ; 
 
 “ He  may  thus  take,  in  the  direct  order  of  the  classes,  two  in  the 
 hundred/l'om  a Brahman,  three  from  a soldier,  four  from  a Vaisya, 
 and  five  from  a mechanic  or  Sudra,  but  never  more,  as  mterest  by 
 the  month.  ”t 
 
 The  subject  of  pledges  is  much  considered ; as,  if  a man 
 use  an  article  given  in  pledge  Avithout  the  owner’s  consent, 
 he  must  give  up  his  whole  interest.  Neither  a pledge 
 nor  a deposit  are  lost  by  lapse  of  time ; but  in  general  if 
 the  owmer  sees  any  chattel  enjoyed  “by  others  for  ten 
 years  while,  though  present,  he  says  nothing,  that  chattel 
 he  shall  not  recover.”  “ Grain,  fruit,  avooI,  hail’,  and  beasts 
 of  burden,”  are  named  amongst  the  articles  on  which  it  Avas 
 usual  to  raise  money;  but  in  all  cases  five  per  cent,  is  con- 
 sidered sufficient  interest,  and  more  than  this  “ the  Avise 
 
 t Ibid.,  viii.  140,  141, 142. 
 
 * Code  of  Mami,  x.  44!. 
 
MONEY. 
 
 163 
 
 call  usui'ious.’’  Special  regulations  are  made  for  the  insur- 
 ance of  goods  travelling  either  by  land  or  by  sea^  as  : — 
 
 “ A lender  at  interest,  on  the  risk  of  safe  carriage,  who  has  agreed 
 on  the  place  and  time,  shall  not  receive  such  interest,  if  % accident 
 the  goods  are  not  carried  to  the  place,  or  within  the  time. 
 
 “Whatever  interest,  or  price  of  the  risk,  shall  be  settled  between 
 the  parties,  by  men  weU  acquainted  with  sea  voyages  or  journeys 
 by  land,  with  times  and  with  places,  such  interest  shall  have  legal 
 force.”* 
 
 “ For  a long  passage,  the  freight  must  be  proportioned  to  places 
 and  times ; but  this  must  be  imderstood  of  passages  up  and  down 
 rivers  : at  sea  there  can  be  no  settled  freight.”t 
 
 The  part  which  the  Code  assigns  to  the  King  in  reference 
 to  commerce  is  too  laborious,  Ave  imagine,  to  have  been 
 usually  fulfilled  by  kings ; but  we  may  understand  it  to  mean 
 that  either  King,  or  Brahman,  or  Patel,  as  the  case  might 
 be,  must — 
 
 “ Establish  rules  for  the  sale  and  purchase  of  all  marketable  things, 
 having  duly  considered  whence  they  come  and  whither  they  must  be 
 sent,  how  long  they  have  been  kept,  what  may  be  gained  by  them, 
 and  what  has  been  expended  on  them. 
 
 “ Once  in  five  nights,  or  at  the  close  of  every  half-month,  accord- 
 ing to  the  nature  of  the  commodities,  let  the  Eing  make  a regulation 
 for  market  prices  in  the  presence  of  those  experienced  men. 
 
 “ Let  all  weights  and  measures  be  weU  ascertained  by  him ; and 
 once  in  six  months  let  him  examine  them.”j; 
 
 The  money  used  was  speeified  Aveights  of  gold,  silver,  and 
 copper ; one  seed  of  gunga,  or  hemp,  Avas  the  weight  called 
 ractica ; five  racticas  of  gold  Avere  one  masha,  sixteen  such 
 mashas  one  suverna,  four  suvernas  one^;aZe. 
 
 Two  racticas  of  silver  made  one  mashaca,  and  sixteen 
 mashacas  a sib’er  dharana  ov  purana. 
 
 * Code  of  ilanu,  viii.  156,  157.  f Ibid.,  viii.  406. 
 
 Ibid.,  viii.  401,  402,  403. 
 
 M 2 
 
164 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 A kars/ia*  or  eighty  racticas^  of  copper  were  a pana  or 
 karshapana ; aud  this  piece  of  copper,  weighing  eighty 
 hempseeds,  was  the  lowest  wages  per  day  for  a servant,  he 
 being  entitled  in  addition  to  two  cloths  for  apparel  each 
 half-year,  and  to  a drona  of  grain  each  month  : one  pana 
 was  also  the  toll  at  a ferry  for  an  empty  cart ; half  a pana 
 for  a man  with  a load ; but — 
 
 “ Waggons,  filled  with  goods  packed  up,  shall  pay  toll  in  propor- 
 tion to  their  value ; for  empty  vessels  and  bags,  and  for  men  ill- 
 apparelled,  a very  small  toll  shall  be  demanded.”! 
 
 The  King  also  appears  to  have  claimed  a share  in  all  ‘ trea- 
 sm’e  trove to  old  hoards  deposited  in  the  ground,  which 
 any  one  discovers,  or  to  precious  minerals  J he  is  entitled  to 
 half ; and  the  following  passage  from  the  Drama  of  ‘ Sacon- 
 tala^  would  make  it  appear  that  the  money  of  shipwrecked 
 merchants,  dying  without  heirs,  also  passed  to  the  King. 
 
 The  chief  minister  says,  “ I have  carefully  stated  a case 
 which  has  arisen  in  the  city,  and  accurately  committed  it 
 to  writing  : let  the  King  deign  to  consider  it.’^§  The  King 
 says  immediately,  " Give  me  the  leaf,^^  and  reads — Be  it 
 presented  at  the  footstool  of  the  King,  that  a merchant  . . . 
 who  had  extensive  commerce  at  sea,  Avas  lost  in  a late  ship- 
 wreck ; he  had  no  child  born,  and  has  left  a fortune  of 
 many  millions,  which  belong,  if  the  King  commands,  to  the 
 royal  treasury.^’  The  King  does  not  claim  the  property, 
 but  says,  that  “ when  any  of  his  subjects  lose  a kinsman,  he 
 AAull  supply  the  place  of  that  kmsman.” 
 
 The  slight  facts  here  collected  shoAv  the  commercial  class 
 bearing  a relation  towards  the  king  and  the  learned  aristo- 
 
 * Code  of  Manu,  134,  135,  136.  t viii.  4-04,  405. 
 
 J Ibid.,  viii.  39.  § Works  of  Sir  W.  Jones,  vol.  vi. 
 
MERCHANTS. 
 
 165 
 
 cracy,  not  altogether  peculiar  either  to  India  or  to  centuries 
 preceding  our  era.  The  sovereign  and  his  court  enjoyed 
 foreign  luxuries^  and  claimed  tribute  from  the  profits  of 
 trade.  Industrial  occupations  were  encouraged  and  nomi- 
 nally held  in  honour ; hut  practically,  the  working  of  the 
 law  excluded  all  who  engaged  in  arts  or  commerce  from 
 aristocratic  rank  and  privilege.  Amongst  other  restrictions 
 it  was  decreed  that  if  a Vaisya  married  a Sudra  his  children 
 ceased  to  be  Vaisyas,  and  if  he  married  a woman  of  the 
 higher  caste  the  children  became  outcasts.  Cumbersome 
 enactments  as  to  where  he  might  go,  and  what  he  might 
 eat,  and  what  he  might  do,  were  also  inconsistent  with 
 the  enterprise  and  freedom  necessary  to  commercial  suc- 
 cess ; and  the  result  was,  that  whilst  banking  and  money- 
 lending  were  regarded  as  orthodox  and  gentlemanly  occu- 
 pations, the  more  adventurous  parts  of  commerce  were  per- 
 formed by  men  free  from  hereditary  rank  and  conventional 
 restrictions, — often  “ sons  of  the  twice-born,  said  to  be 
 degraded, — who  are  considered  as  low-born,  and  subsist  by 
 such  employments  as  the  twice-born  despise.”* 
 
 * Code  of  Manu. 
 
t 
 
 CHAP'J'ER  VIII. 
 
 WOMEN. 
 
 “ T tlioiight  on  a’  the  tales,  Alice, 
 
 O’  woman’s  love  and  faith  ; 
 
 Of  Truth  that  smiled  at  fear,  Ahce, 
 
 And  Love  that  conquer’d  death  ; 
 
 Affection  blessing  hearts  and  homes, 
 
 AYhen  joy  was  far  awa’, 
 
 ^And  Fear  and  Hate  ; but  Love,  O Love  ! 
 
 Ahoon  and  over  a’ !”  Nicoll. 
 
 A THOUSAND  years  b.c.  Hindu  Avomeii  appear  to  have  Iteen 
 as  free  as  Trojan  dames  or  the  daughters  of  Judtea  : hymns 
 in  the  Kig-Veda  mention  them  with  respeet  and  aflfeetion, 
 eomparing  the  goodness  of  the  God  Agni  to  that  of  a 
 “ lu’other  for  his  sisters,”  and  the  brightness  of  this  God  to 
 the  shining  of  a woman  in  her  home ; women  moreover  go 
 out  adorned  for  festivals,  or  mingle  in  the  midnight  foray. 
 Even  in  the  succeeding  phase  of  Hindu  life,  wdien  Bi’ah- 
 mans  contemplated  the  soul  beneath  the  shadow  of  Hima- 
 vat,  Avomen  attended  their  discourses  and  took  part  in  their 
 
 0> 
 
 A 
 
AVOMEN. 
 
 1G7 
 
 discussions.  We  find  in  one  of  the  Upanishads  a king 
 holding  a solemn  sacrifiee,  and  inviting  liis  chief  guests  to 
 state  their  opinions  on  theology,  and  amongst  these  guests 
 “ a learned  female  named  Garga’^*  is  conspicuous.  A 
 more  pleasing  instance  of  women’s  interest  in  holy  themes 
 is  afforded  by  a conversation  between  Yajnyawalcya  and  his 
 wife  Maitreya  :f  the  sage  announces  his  intention  of  aban- 
 doning the  world  and  entering  upon  the  life  of  seclusion 
 and  asceticism  which  the  Code  preseribes  for  Brahmans  in 
 advancing  years;  he  tells  her  that  he  Avill  divide  his  pro- 
 perty between  her  and  his  second  Avife,  hut  INIaitreya  asks, 
 “ Should  I become  immortal  if  this  Avhole  earth  full  of  riches 
 were  mine?”  No,”  replies  her  husband,  “riches  seiwe 
 for  the  means  of  living,  but  immortality  is  not  attained 
 through  wealth.”  IMaitreya  declares  that  she  has  then  no 
 use  for  riches,  and  entreats  her  husband  to  communieate 
 the  knowledge  Avhich  leads  to  immortality.  “ Dear  wert 
 thou  to  me,”  Yajnyawalcya  replies,  “ and  a pleasing  senti- 
 ment dost  thou  make  knoAvn ; come,  sit  down,  I will  ex- 
 pound ; do  thou  endeavour  to  comprehend :”  and  then  a 
 discourse  follows,  shoAviug  that  abstraetiou  procures  immor- 
 tality, because  affections  relate  to  the  soul,  and  the  Avor- 
 shipper  mixst  learn  to  contemplate  the  soul  alone,  “ since 
 everything  is  soul and  whatever  objects  are  beheld,  the 
 aim  must  be  to  merge  all  thought  and  feeling  into  the  uni- 
 A'ersal  Soul. 
 
 In  the  Code,  women  in  the  abstract  are  put  upon  a level 
 Avith  Sudras,  children,  and  pupils. 
 
 “ Three  persons, — a wife,  a son,  and  a slave, — are  declared  by  law 
 to  have,  in  general,  no  wealth  exclusively  their  own : the  wealth 
 
 * Colebrooke’s  Essays,  vol.  i.  p.  70.  f Ihul.,  p.  ()(>. 
 
168 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 whicli  they  earn  is  regularly  acquired  for  the  man  to  whom  they 
 belong.”* 
 
 “ A wife,  a son,  a servant,  a pupil,  and  a younger  whole  brother 
 may  be  corrected  when  they  commit  faults,  with  a rope,  or  the  small 
 shoot  of  a cane.”t 
 
 “For  women,  children,  persons  of  crazy  intellect,  the  old,  the 
 poor,  and  the  infirm,  the  king  shall  order  punishment  witli  a whip, 
 a twig,  or  a rope.”J 
 
 “ To  attain  the  celestial  world  is  denied  to  Sudras  ; but  a woman 
 or  a Sudra  may  perform  acts  leading  to  temporal  good.Ӥ 
 
 Women  necessarily  hold  this  suhsertient  position  because 
 they  are  not  “ invested  with  the  sacrificial  string  it  being 
 ordained  that  the  “ nuptial  ceremony”  shall  be  “ the  com- 
 plete institution  of  women,”  and  hold  the  place  of  the  se- 
 cond birth  received  by  men  of  rank.  ||  This  being  the  case, 
 it  is  a man’s  duty  “ to  give  his  daughter  in  marriage”  “ to 
 an  excellent  and  handsome  youth  of  the  same  class,”  even 
 though  she  have  not  attained  eight  years  of  age  and  if 
 the  father  neglect  this,  she  may  by  the  time  she  is  eleven 
 years  old  choose  a bridegroom  for  herself,  proidded  she 
 choose  one  of  equal  rank.  We  have  already  had  an  in- 
 stance of  how  this  was  effected  in  the  Sw’ayambara,  at 
 Panchala,  which  concluded  by  the  lovely  Draupadi  throwing 
 the  marriage  garland  over  the  heroic  Arjuna.  We  shall 
 find  that  Brahmans  awarded  love,  admiration,  amusements, 
 jewels,  and  ornaments,  most  liberally  to  women  as  wives; 
 the  only  peculiarity  of  their  system  being,  that  a woman 
 could  have  nothing  of  her  own.  “ Hear  now  the  laws  con- 
 cerning women,”  says  the  Code  :** — 
 
 “ By  a girl,  or  by  a young  woman,  or  by  a woman  advanced  in 
 
 * Code,  viii.  16.  J Ibid.,  ix.  230. 
 
 + Ibkl.,  290.  § Ibid.,  ii.  223. 
 
 **  Ibid.,  146,  151,  153,  156. 
 
 II  Ibid.,  ii.  67. 
 Ibid.,  ix.  88. 
 
WOMEN. 
 
 169 
 
 years,  nothing  must  he  done,  even  in  her  own  dwelling-place,  ac- 
 cording to  her  mere  pleasure. 
 
 “ In  childhood  must  a female  be  dependent  on  her  father ; in 
 youth,  on  her  husband ; her  lord  being  dead,  on  her  sons.  ...  A 
 woman  must  never  seek  independence  : 
 
 “ Never  let  her  wish  to  separate  herself  from  her  father  or  her 
 sons,  for  by  a separation  from  them  she  exposes  both  families  to 
 contempt : 
 
 “ She  must  always  live  with  a cheerful  temper,  with  good  manage- 
 ment in  the  affairs  of  the  house,  with  great  care  of  the  household 
 furniture,  and  with  a frugal  hand  in  all  her  expenses  : 
 
 “ Him  to  whom  her  father  has  given  her,  or  her  brother  with  the 
 paternal  assent,  let  her  obsequiously  honour  while  he  Hves ; and 
 when  he  dies,  let  her  never  neglect  him. 
 
 “ When  the  husband  has  performed  the  nuptial  rites  with  texts  of 
 the  Teda,  he  gives  bliss  continually  to  his  wife  here  below,  and  he 
 wih  give  her  happiness  in  the  next  world. 
 
 “ Though  imobservant  of  approved  usages,  or  enamoured  of  an- 
 other woman,  or  devoid  of  good  qualities,  yet  a husband  must  be 
 constantly  revered  as  a god  by  a virtuous  wife. 
 
 “No  sacrifice  is  allowed  to  women  apart  from  their  husbands,  no 
 religious  rite,  no  fasting ; as  far  only  as  a wife  honours  her  lord,  so 
 far  she  is  exalted  in  heaven. 
 
 “A  faithful  wife  who  wishes  to  attain  in  heaven  the  mansion 
 of  her  husband,  must  do  nothing  unkind  to  him,  be  he  living  or 
 dead.” 
 
 Obedience  to  her  husband  is  the  beginning  and  the 
 middle  and  the  end  of  female  duty.  If  a wife  neglect  her 
 husband  because  he  drinks  or  gambles,  she  must  be  pu- 
 nished and  deprived  of  her  ornaments ; but  if  she  drinks  or 
 acts  immorally,  she  may  be  superseded  by  another  wife.* 
 If  a good  wife  dies  before  her  husband,  he  wlU  procure  life 
 for  her  in  another  world  by  sacrifice,  and  then  “ light  again 
 the  nuptial  fire.”  If  the  husband  die  first,  the  wife  must 
 continue  till  death  “performing  harsh  duties”  and  “prac- 
 
 * Code,  ix.  78,  81. 
 
170 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 tising  the  iuconiparable  rules  of  virtue,  followed  by  women 
 devoted  to  one  husband.”  A seeond  marriage  would  make 
 her  despicable,  whilst  death  would  procure  certain  bliss ; 
 but  the  Code  gives  no  hint  of  its  being  desirable  that 
 Avidows  should  be  burned  with  the  husband’s  corpse : still 
 less  is  this  custom  advocated  by  the  E-ig-Yeda;  in  which  a 
 passage  supposed  to  inculcate  this  barbarity  is  found  by 
 Professor  Wilson  to  have  an  entirely  different  meaning.  A 
 Avoman  cannot  even  inherit  rank,  that  is,  she  cannot  trans- 
 mit her  own  inherited  rank  to  her  children  : if  she  marry  a 
 Dwija,  or  man  invested  witli  the  sacred  thread,  the  children 
 Avill  have  their  father’s  rank ; but  if  she,  the  daughter  of  a 
 DAvija,  marry  a Sudra,  or  any  uninvested  person,  her  chil- 
 dren fall  beneath  the  rank  of  the  father,  and  the  son  of  a 
 Sudra  by  a Brahman  woman  is  the  lowest  of  mortals.  Tlie 
 same  rule  does  not  altogether  hold  regarding  men,  only  a 
 man  of  rank  (a  Dwija)  must  not  make  a Sudra  woman  his 
 first  Avife ; and  the  reason  for  this  is,  that  his  sacrifices  to 
 the  Gods,  and  oblations  to  the  Manes,  and  hospitalities  to 
 strangers,  must  be  supplied  by  her,  and  neither  Gods  nor 
 INIanes  would  be  propitiated  by  such  offerings.*  No  punish  - 
 ment attaches  to  marriage  between  tAvice-born  men  and 
 women  of  a rank  below  them,  but  the  children  of  such  a 
 marriage  do  not  appear  to  have  been  legally  entitled  to  iu- 
 Acstitiu’e  with  the  sacred  thread. f 
 
 From  these  extracts  it  is  eAddeut  that  “woman’s  rights” 
 Avere  wholly  ignored  by  the  Brahmanical  code;  but  as 
 daughters  and  AAives  arc  often  too  happy  to  require  rights, 
 Ave  usually  lose  sight  of  this  unpleasant  truth,  and  find 
 ample  reason  to  admire  Hindu  representations  of  domestic 
 * Code,  iii.  18.  t Ibid.,  s.  6. 
 
WOMEN. 
 
 171 
 
 Ijliss.  Where  females  are  honoured,  there  the  deities  are 
 pleased,”  says  the  Code ; but  if  they  are  dishoiioiired  and 
 “ projiouuce  an  imprecation  on  a house,  that  house  with  all 
 that  belongs  to  it  will  utterly  perish.”* 
 
 There  can  scarcely  be  a more  pleasing  picture  of  an  affec- 
 tionate wife  than  that  given  of  our  friend  Damayanti,  who 
 was  discovered  alone  in  the  gloomy  forest.  In  an  earlier 
 part  of  the  stoiy,  she  is  descriljed  as  very  lovely,  and  the 
 only  daughter  of  Bhima,  King  of  Vidarbha,  supposed  to 
 mean  Berar.  Nala  was  the  youthful  monarch  of  Nishadha, 
 at  no  great  distance  from  ^hdarbha,  and  although  these  two 
 young  people  had  never  met,  they  fell  in  love  by  merely 
 hearing  of  each  other’s  beauty  and  merit.  King  Nala  im- 
 parts his  wishes  to  the  sacred  birds  called  Hansa,  and  a 
 flock  of  these  wild  geese  take  flight  in  consequence  for  Yi- 
 darbha,  and  discover  the  lovely  Damayanti  in  a garden  at- 
 taehed  to  her  father’s  palace  and  surrounded  by  her  hun- 
 dred damsels.  The  Hansa  allure  her  to  a little  distance 
 from  her  attendants,  and  there,  by  judicious  discourse,  suc- 
 ceed in  making  the  young  princess  fully  participate  her 
 lover’s  emotions.  From  this  moment  poor  Damayanti  is 
 observed  to  pine,  and  her  father  determines  that  she  shall 
 hold  her  Swayambara,  or  chose  her  husband  amongst  at- 
 tendant suitors. 
 
 As  soon  as  this  is  announced,  Nala  contrives  to  procure 
 a private  interview,  fearing  lest  his  intended  bride  might 
 not  recognize  him  amongst  the  numerous  chiefs  and  nobles 
 whom  such  an  invitation  would  assemble.  YHien  the  anti- 
 cipated day  arrived,  elephants,  steeds,  and  chariots  brought 
 all  the  lords  of  earth  as  suitors ; they  came  wearing  fra- 
 * Code,  iii.  56,  58. 
 
173 
 
 LIFE  IX  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 grant  garlands  and  rich  earrings,  and  entered  the  eourt 
 through  the  golden  columns  of  the  portal  arch. 
 
 But  amongst  the  eartldy  suitors  appeared  four  Gods,  each 
 of  whom,  knowing  Damayanti’s  inclination,  assumed  the 
 form  of  Nala.  The  damsel  knew  that  four  out  of  the  five 
 Nalas  present  must  be  Gods,  and  she  perfectly  appreciated 
 the  honour  they  intended  for  her ; but  her  heart  was  fixed 
 on  the  real  human  Nala,  and  instead  of  rejoicing  in  celes- 
 tial homage,  she  was  distracted  at  finding  it  impossible  to 
 distinguish  her  earthly  lover.  In  this  dilemma  she  appealed 
 to  the  Gods  themselves,  entreated  their  compassion  and  im- 
 plored their  aid.  The  Gods  are  amazed  to  find  themselves 
 rejected,  but,  in  pity  for  the  maiden’s  anguish,  show  signs  of 
 their  di\dnity;  Damayanti  chooses  him  she  loves,  and  Nala 
 becomes  the  happy  bridegroom.  After  the  nuptial  cere- 
 mony, the  newly-married  pair  reside  at  Nishadha,  have  two 
 children,  and  enjoy  supreme  felicity,  until  Nala  has  a spell 
 cast  over  him  by  a certain  evil  spirit.  The  King  is  described 
 as  a most  virtuous  monarch,  well-read  in  the  four  Vedas 
 and  the  Puranas,  gentle  to  all  living  creatures,  true  in  word 
 and  strict  in  vow ; but  in  marrying  Damayanti  he  excited 
 the  jealousy  of  the  demon  Kali,  who  had  himself  wished 
 for  the  damsel’s  love,  and  Kali  in  consequence  was  for  ever 
 haunting  the  palace,  and  watching  for  some  unguarded 
 moment  in  which  to  throw  his  e^dl  spirit  into  the  unhappy 
 King.  Negligence  of  a trifling  prescribed  ceremony  gave,  at 
 length,  the  wished-for  opportunity,  and  the  virtuous  Nala, 
 now  possessed  by  a demon,  gave  himself  up  to  gambling. 
 
 For  months  he  continued  to  throw  the  dice  with  iU  suc- 
 cess, his  wife  venturing  now  and  then  a sad  remonstrance, 
 and  his  wise  counsellors  saying  that  he  is  no  longer  himself ; 
 
WEDDED  LOVE. 
 
 173 
 
 but  Xala,  like  other  desperate  gamblers,  will  listen  to  no 
 advice.  Damayanti  then  convenes  the  council  in  bis  name, 
 and  gets  leave  to  send  the  children  with  a trusty  charioteer 
 to  her  father’s  court  at  Vidarbha,  where  alone  she  feels  they 
 wiU  be  safe.  The  infatuated  King  stakes  his  jewels,  his 
 garments,  and  even  his  kingdom,  and  all  are  lost.  The 
 demon  strives  hard  to  make  him  stake  his  wife,  but  does 
 not  succeed;  even  in  madness,  the  King’s  virtue  and  affec- 
 tion were  proof  against  that  trial : but  he  was  houseless 
 and  penniless,  for  his  adversary  decreed  death  to  whoever 
 should  befriend  him,  and  chased  him  from  his  palace; 
 the  dethroned  monarch  went  forth  into  the  woods,  but 
 not  alone,  for  the  faithful  Damayanti  followed.  Too  des- 
 perate to  be  soothed,  her  husband  felt  her  gentle  pre- 
 sence as  an  aggravation  of  his  misery,  and  instead  of  de- 
 siring her  companionship  he  showed  where  ran  the  road 
 conducting  to  her  father’s  home.  She  understood  the  sign, 
 but  said  that  with  her  afflicted,  breaking  heart  and  sinking 
 limbs  she  could  not  leave  him : she  wished  to  soothe  his 
 weariness,  and  said  all  physicians  owned  that  in  sorrow 
 there  was  no  healing  herb  or  balsam  equal  to  a wife ; there- 
 fore if  she  went  to  Yidarbha,  he  must  go  also.  But  that 
 was  an  insupportable  idea,  for  he  could  not  endure  to  be 
 seen  by  Bhima  in  his  base  extremity.  At  night  they  seek 
 the  refuge  of  a forest  hut,  and  three  times,  whilst  Dama- 
 yanti sleeps,  he  resolves  upon  escape  : he  thinks  that  if  he 
 were  aways  he  would  go  to  her  father,  mother,  and  chil- 
 dren, but  that  while  he  remains  there  is  only  misery  for  all. 
 
 “ And  departing,  still  departing,  he  returned  again,  again. 
 
 Dragged  away  by  that  bad  demon, — ever  by  Ins  love  drawn  back.” 
 
 And  after  thus  oscillating  ” like  a swing,”  he  is  torn  away 
 by  Kali,  and  flies  afar. 
 
174 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 Wlien  Damayanti  wakes,  she  finds  herself  deserted,  and 
 wanders  hither  and  thither  until  she  meets  the  earavan  of 
 merchants,  with  whom  we  have  already  seen  her.  After 
 the  catastrophe  of  the  elephants,  she  escaped  with  some 
 Brahmans,  wlio  conducted  her  to  a town  called  King 
 Chedi’s  City  : here  she  enters,  disturbed,  emaciate,  wretch- 
 ed, her  hair  dislievelled,  the  boys  of  the  place  folloMing 
 her  footsteps.  The  mother  of  the  King,  seated  on  a lofty 
 terrace,  is  struck  hy  her  appearance,  and  sends  a eonfideu- 
 tial  servant,  called  a nurse,  to  bring  in  the  sorrowful  wan- 
 derer : to  this  high  lady  Damayanti  tells  her  story,  and 
 is  persuaded  to  remain  with  her  at  Chedi,  only  making  the 
 condition  that  she  shall  not  eat  broken  'idctuals  or  ” wash 
 feet,”  w hich  w’ould  have  been  Sudra  sendee ; and  that  slie 
 shall  he  protected  from  all  suitors. 
 
 After  a time,  this  poor  wanderer  is  discovered  by  messen- 
 gers from  Yidarbha,  and  taken  to  her  father’s  court  and  re- 
 united to  her  children;  and  then  her  anxiety  to  win  hack 
 her  husband  becomes  irrepressible;  but  tedious  was  her 
 search,  and  numerous  her  schemes,  before  she  succeeded. 
 
 Nala  had  become  charioteer  to  a King  of  Ayodhya,  who 
 taught  him  the  secrets  of  dice  in  return  for  a knowledge 
 of  horses ; for  it  seems  as  if  Nala’s  fault  had  consisted  in 
 being  ignorant  of  that  science,  whereas  in  the  knowledge 
 of  hoi’ses  he  excelled.  As  soon  as  Rituparna,  the  King  of 
 Ayodhya,  had  fully  imparted  to  his  charioteer  the  science 
 of  dice,  Kali  w'as  defeated,  the  spell  broken,  and  the  evil 
 spirit  leaving  him  entered  a tree,  which  perished  instantly. 
 At  this  juncture  a friendly  Naga  king  (or  king  of  snakes) 
 offered  to  restore  Nala  to  his  former  appearance,  and  he 
 might  then  have  returned  to  his  kingdom  and  his  wife,  but 
 
WEDDED  LOA'E. 
 
 175 
 
 news  arrived  at  Ayodhya  that  Damavanti  was  about  to  hold 
 another  Swavambaraj — which  was  a stratagem  contrived  by 
 his  deserted  wife^  in  order  to  rouse  up  her  missing  lord  and 
 lead  to  their  reunion.  Damayauti’s  ceaseless  inquiries  had 
 led  her  to  suspect  that  the  King  of  Ayodhya’s  skilful  cha- 
 rioteer was  no  other  than  King  Nala^  and  to  Ayodhya  there- 
 fore (hut  to  no  other  place)  she  sent  intimation  that  on  the 
 dawn  of  the  succeeding  day  Damayanti  was  about  to  choose 
 a second  lord.  Rituparnaj  King  of  Ayodhya,  wishes  to  at- 
 tend, and  says  literally  to  his  charioteer ; — 
 
 “ This  woman,  having  bound  us,  attracts  by  her  good  qualities ; 
 
 TVho  (thus)  drawn  bj'  a woman  (can  say)  nay  ? 
 
 The  assembly — such  the  announcement — is  tomorrow ; 
 
 Thus  our  way  by  measurement  is  one  hundred  yojanas.” 
 
 One  hundred  yojanas  may  be  five  hundred  miles  or  it  may 
 be  nine  hundred,  and  as  Ayodhya  stands  for  Oude,  and  Yi- 
 dai’bha  is  supposed  to  mean  Berar,  we  must  accept  the  ex- 
 tension, and  whether  four  hundred  or  nine  hundred  makes 
 small  difference,  the  distance  being  in  either  case  an  antici- 
 pation of  railway  power  and  speed. 
 
 At  the  King’s  request,  poor  “Xala’s  heart  was  torn  with 
 anguish,”  hut  still  he  desii’ed  to  be  present  liimself,  and 
 promised  that  his  master  should  an’ive  within  the  time ; 
 and  his  wonderful  proficiency  in  the  science  of  horses  en- 
 abled him  to  perfonn  the  prodigious  feat.  Damayanti 
 knew  at  once  the  pecidiar  tramp  of  his  steeds,  and  mounted 
 to  the  palace-roof  to  behold  once  more  her  “ Kala,  prince 
 of  men.” 
 
 Damayanti’s  mother  was  the  only  person  in  her  secret ; 
 her  father.  King  Bhima,  knew  nothing  of  her  stratagem, 
 and  was  astonished  at  the  arrival  of  a guest,  whilst  the  guest 
 
176 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 and  his  charioteer  were  equally  astonished  to  find  no  pre- 
 ]iaration  for  a marriage  festival.  All  however  keep  their 
 counsel  with  becoming  dignity^  and  leave  Damayanti  to 
 pursue  her  schemes  without  disturbance ; whilst  she,  baffled 
 by  Nala’s  persevering  incognito,  has  some  difficulty  in  bring- 
 ing about  a successful  denouement.  She  at  length  persuades 
 her  mother  to  allow  her  to  have  a secret  intendew  with  the 
 mysterious  charioteer ; and  then  she  works  upon  his  feel- 
 ings, forcing  him  to  acknowledge  himself  to  be  her  husband 
 Nala,  and  with  great  difficulty  conrincing  him  that  the  idea 
 of  a second  marriage  had  never  for  a moment  been  really 
 entertained,  but  that  she  “ imagined  the  subtle  wile”  to 
 lure  him  to  her.  The  sun,  moon,  and  winds  coming  for- 
 ward to  give  testimony  to  her  truth,  her  husband  at  length 
 gives  up  his  jealous  doubts,  resumes  his  proper  form,  and  is 
 happily  reunited  to  his  loving  wife. 
 
 In  this  beautiful  little  poem  we  find  more  independence 
 of  action  than  the  Code  would  willingly  have  accorded  to 
 women;  but  it  occurs  as  an  episode  in  the  Mahabharata, 
 which  is  essentially  an  heroic  poem,  describing  more  of  the 
 Kshatriya  than  of  the  Brahman  class.  Damayanti’s  mar- 
 riage at  the  commencement  is  a similar  festival  to  that  held 
 in  Panchala  for  Draupadi ; but  it  is  only  amongst  princes 
 and  princesses  that  we  read  of  such  marriages,  and  no  in- 
 stance is  given  of  a marriage  in  the  Brahman  Caste.  The 
 storj’  of  Nala  is  told  to  Yudliishthii’a,  to  console  him  on 
 the  occasion  of  his  having  lost  his  kingdom  at  a game  of 
 draughts  ; but  neither  the  one  nor  the  other  of  these  gam- 
 bling monarchs  is  blamed  by  the  poet  in  accordance  with 
 the  precepts  of  !Manu,  and  on  all  occasions  the  tone  of  the 
 Epics  is  so  much  more  free  than  that  of  the  Code,  that  they 
 
PRECEPTS  AGAINST  GAMBLING. 
 
 177 
 
 give  one  the  impression  of  having  had  Brahman  editors 
 rather  than  Brahman  authors.  Gambling  is  a viee  pai’ti- 
 eularly  reprehended  in  the  Code,  ivhich  gives  the  following 
 remarkable  verses  referring  to  it : — 
 
 “ Gaming,  either  with  inanimate  or  with  animated  things,  let  the 
 King  exclude  wholly  from  his  realm  : both  those  modes  of  play  cause 
 destruction  to  princes : 
 
 “ Such  play  with  dice,  or  by  matches  between  rams  and  cocks, 
 amounts  to  open  theft ; and  the  King  must  ever  be  vigilant  in  sup- 
 pressing both  modes  of  play. 
 
 “ Gaming  with  lifeless  things  is  known  among  men  by  the  name 
 of  dynta  ; but  samalmaya  signifies  a match  between  living  creatures. 
 
 “Let  the  King  punish  corporally  at  discretion  both  the  gamester 
 and  the  keeper  of  a gaming-house,  whether  they  play  with  inanimate 
 or  animated  things.  . . . 
 
 “ Gamesters,  public  dancers,  and  singers,  ...  let  him  instantly 
 banish  from  the  town.”* 
 
 And  gambling  is  still  further  discouraged  by  the  decree 
 that  “money  lost  at  play”  cannot  be  recovered  from  the 
 son  of  a debtor  or  surety.f 
 
 In  another  episode  of  the  Mahabharata,  ive  find  the 
 Pandu  brothers  roaming  in  and  arriving  at  a village ; they 
 are  kindly  welcomed  by  a family  of  poor  Brahmans,  who 
 prove  to  be  in  great  affliction,  because  a human  victim  is 
 required  from  them  as  an  oftering  to  the  local  deity.  We 
 cannot  but  think  that  this  deity  was  the  earth-goddess, 
 Tari  Pennu,  and  that  her  worship  resembled  the  systems 
 of  human  sacrifice  about  which  Captain  INIacpherson  has 
 fiuTiished  so  much  valuable  information.  J Whilst  repos- 
 ing in  an  inner  apartment,  the  five  brothers  overhear  the 
 father,  mother,  and  daughter  of  this  simple  forest  family, 
 
 * Code,  ix.  221-225.  f Hid.,  viii.  159. 
 
 J E.  A.  S.  I.,  vol.  xiii.  part  ii.  p.  216. 
 
 N 
 
178 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 each  urging  a separate  claim  to  be  allmved  to  suftcr  for  the 
 rest. 
 
 The  father  commences,  saying,  that  never  would  he  be  so 
 base  as  to  give  a victim  from  his  house  and  consent  himself 
 to  live ; but  still  he  expresses  great  anxiety  at  not  knowing 
 how  to  provide  a place  of  refuge  for  his  wife,  daughter,  and 
 little  sou  after  his  removal.  He  cannot,  he  says,  surren- 
 der his  faithful  wife,  the  sweet  friend  given  to  him  by  the 
 Gods ; nor  his  daughter,  whom  Brahma  made  to  be  a bride 
 and  the  mother  of  heroes  ; nor  yet  his  son ; but  if  he  offer 
 himself,  sorrow  will  pursue  him  in  the  world  to  come,  and 
 his  abandoned  wife  and  children  w ill  be  unable  to  live  with- 
 out him. 
 
 The  wife  next  speaks,  and  chides  her  husband  for  yield- 
 ing to  grief  like  one  of  lowly  caste  : for,  “ who  the  Vedas 
 know,  must  know — 
 
 “ Fate  inevitable  orders,  all  must  jdeld  to  death  in  turn  : 
 
 IIe7ice  the  doom,  the  irrevocable,  it  beseems  not  thee  to  mourn. 
 !Man  hath  wife,  and  son,  and  daughter,  for  the  joy  of  his  own  heart ; 
 Vlierefore  wisely  check  thy  sorrow  ; it  is  I must  hence  depart : 
 ’Tis  the  wife’s  most  holy  duty, — law  on  earth  without  repeal, — 
 That  her  life  she  offer  freely,  when  demands  her  husband’s  weal.’ 
 
 She  goes  on  to  argue  that  he  can  support  and  guard  the 
 children  when  she  is  gone,  but  that  she  would  have  no 
 power  to  guard  and  support  them  without  him.  Deprived 
 of  his  protection,  “ rude  and  reckless  men,”  she  says,  woidd 
 come  seeking  their  blameless  daughter;  and  helpless  and 
 beset  on  every  side,  she  would  be  unable  to  check  the  suit 
 of  Sudra  lovers.  She  concludes  by  saying  that  her  ho- 
 noured husband  will  find  another  w ife,  to  whom  he  will  be 
 as  gentle  and  kind  as  he  has  been  to  her. 
 
FAMILY  AFFECTIOX. 
 
 179 
 
 Hearing  thus  his  wife,  the  husband  foudly  clasp’d  her  to  his 
 breast, 
 
 And  their  tears  they  pour’d  together,  by  their  mutual  grief  op- 
 prest.” 
 
 When  the  daughter  overheard  the  troubled  diseourse  of  her 
 parents^  she  put  in  her  claim  to  be  the  offered  victim ; for 
 if  they  died  before  her  she  would  sink  to  bitterest  misery, 
 but  if  she  died  to  preserve  them,  she  Avould  “ then  become 
 immortal  and  partake  of  bliss  dinne.” 
 
 * Whilst  they  were  all  thus  weeping,  the  little  son  opened 
 wide  his  eyes,  and  lisped  out  in  broken  accents : — 
 
 “ ‘ Weep  not,  father ! weep  not,  mother ! O my  sister,  weep  not  so !’ 
 
 First  to  one  and  then  to  the  other,  smiling  went  he  to  and  fro  ; 
 
 Then  a blade  of  spear-grass  lifting,  thus  in  bolder  glee  he  said, 
 
 ‘ With  this  spear-grass  wdl  I kill  him,  this  man-eating  giant, 
 dead.’ 
 
 Though  o’erpower’d  by  bitterest  sorrow,  as  they  heard  their  prat- 
 tling boy. 
 
 Stole  into  the  parents’  bosom  mute  and  inexpressive  joy.”* 
 Happily  the  child’s  chivahy  was  not  required,  for  the 
 Pandu  brothers  went  forth  and  conquered  the  spii’it  of  evil, 
 whether  in  the  form  of  “man-eating  giant”  or  “earth- 
 goddess.” 
 
 Whilst  occupied  with  these  beautiful  Sansknt  tales,  u e 
 feel  tempted  to  exalt  Hinduism  above  all  other  heathen  in- 
 stitutions ; but  Avhen  hereafter  we  may  have  occasion  to 
 follow  Hindu  women  into  later  centuries,  and  to  consider 
 in  matter-of-fact  prose  to  what  results  the  legal  regulations 
 tended,  we  may  perhaps  limit  our  admiration  to  the  poets, 
 Avho  exhibit  the  universal  affections  of  human  natiu’e. 
 W omen  in  the  poems  appear  as  forest-trees,  flowering  in 
 Avild  luxuriance ; Avhilst  Avomen  in  real  life  resemble  floAAcr- 
 * Translated  by  H.  Milman,  Dean  of  St.  Paul’s. 
 
 N 2 
 
180 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 iiig  pears  and  peaches  nailed  against  the  Avail.  In  compa- 
 ring ancient  India  with  other  early  countries,  you  cannot 
 fail  to  note  the  absence  of  queens  or  of  women  in  any  way 
 conspicuous ; you  meet  Avith  no  Semiramis  or  Cleopatra, 
 no  IMiriam  or  Sappho,  no  Deborah,  not  even  AA'ith  a witch 
 of  Endor.  This  thoroughly  domestic  character  of  Avomen  is 
 undoubtedly  the  happiest,  proAided  it  he  the  effect  of  com- 
 pleteness in  home  happiness,  and  as  such  it  is  represented 
 in  the  beautiful  episodes  Avhich  Ave  have  been  considering ; 
 and  as  at  present  our  attention  is  limited  to  the  heroic  age, 
 all  moralizing  maybe  suspended  Avhilst  avc  fully  yield  to  the 
 enjoyment  of  concluding  this  Chapter  Avith  one  more  tale 
 from  the  ]\Iahabharata. 
 
 A king  named  Aswapati  sighed  for  offspring,  and,  after 
 praying  in  vain  for  eighteen  years,  the  gods  of  heaven  sent 
 him  a daughter,  who  greAV  up  so  “ bright  in  her  surpassing 
 beauty”  that  she  appeared  like  a child  of  the  immortals, 
 and  the  princes  around  AA'ere  so  dazzled,  that  none  sought 
 her  for  a bride  j this  distressed  her  father,  and  he  said  that 
 she  must  go  now  and  make  choice  herself. 
 
 “ Meekly  bow’d  the  modest  maiden  with  her  eyes  upon  the  ground. 
 
 And  departed  as  he  bade  her,  with  attendants  troop’d  aromid  : 
 
 Many  a hermitage  she  traversed,  riding  in  a gold-bright  car, 
 
 ]\Iany  a wilderness  and  forest,  holj^  places  near  and  far.” 
 
 And  Avhen  she  came  hack  she  told  her  father  that  she  had 
 found  a blind  old  king  Avho  had  been  driven  from  his  throne 
 by  a ruthless  kinsman,  and  who  Avitli  his  beloved  AAdfc  had 
 taken  refuge  in  a hermit  grove  and  therein  passed  his  life ; 
 and  then  she  says  that  it  is  his  brave  son,  Satyavan,  Avhom 
 her  heart  has  chosen, — “ Satyavan  has  all  my  love.”  At 
 this  announcement  a holy  man  named  Narad,  Avho  hap- 
 
woman's  love. 
 
 181 
 
 pened  to  be  present,  exclaims  in  grief  that  she  little  kuon’s 
 what  care  and  ■woe  she  chooses  in  choosing  Satyavan ; and 
 in  answer  to  her  father’s  inquiries  Narad  allows  that  the 
 young  man  is — 
 
 “ Learned  as  the  Gods’  own  teacher,  glorious  as  the  sun  is  he  ; 
 With  the  earth’s  unth’ing  patience,  and  great  Indra’s  bravery.” 
 
 And  in  answer  to  further  questions,  says,  he  is  noble, 
 
 “ True,  and  great  of  soul ; 
 
 Bountiful  is  he,  and  modest, — every  sense  does  he  control ; 
 
 Gentle,  brave,  all  creatures  love  him,  keeping  in  the  righteous 
 way. 
 
 Number’d  "with  the  holy  hermits,  pure  and  virtuous  as  they.” 
 
 But  all  these  ■virtues  lie  under  a cloud,  which  makes  them 
 profitless,  for  in  a year,  counting  from  this  day,  “ Satyavan 
 ■\vill  die.”  “ Go  then,  my  dearest  child,”  says  the  King, 
 “ and  choose  again but  the  daughter  answers, 
 
 “ Be  he  virtuous  or  worthless,  many  he  his  days  or  few. 
 
 Once  for  aU  I choose  my  husband  ; to  that  choice  will  I be  true.” 
 
 The  sage  and  her  father  give  way  to  her  decided  wishes, 
 and  in  due  time  the  young  couple  are  married,  and  live 
 in  great  happiness  with  the  hermits  in  the  grove.  Savitri 
 put  aside  her  jewels,  and  wore  the  coarse  raiment  itsually 
 adopted  by  hermits,  and,  by  her  meekness  and  affection,  won 
 the  hearts  of  all  with  whom  she  dwelt. 
 
 “ Sadly,  sadly,  as  she  counted,  day  by  day  flew  swiftly  by. 
 
 And  the  fated  time  came  nearer  when  her  Satyavan  must  die. 
 
 Yet  three  days  and  he  must  perish,  sadly  thought  the  loving  wife ; 
 And  she  vowed  to  fast,  unresting,  for  his  last  three  days  of  hfe.” 
 
 Her  husband’s  father  feared  that  the  trial  would  be  too 
 great  for  her,  but  she  answered,  '“’Firm  resolve  has  made 
 me  vow  it, — firm  resolve  will  give  me  strength.”  She  kept 
 
182 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 her  VOAV  and  maintained  her  fast ; and  when  the  third  day 
 dawned,  and  the  fire  of  worship  was  kindled,  and  the  morn- 
 ing rites  performed,  she  reverently  saluted  the  aged  Brah- 
 mans and  her  hushand’s  honoured  parents,  but  still  refused 
 food.  Presently  her  husband  took  his  axe  upon  his 
 shoulder  to  go  to  the  Avood,  but  she  begged  him  to  let  her 
 go  also ; he  rejilies  : — 
 
 “ ‘ All  unknown  to  thee  the  forest,  rough  the  path  and  weary  thou  ; 
 
 How  then  will  thy  feet  support  thee,  fainting  from  thy  fasting 
 vow  ?’ 
 
 ‘ IN^ay,  I sink  not  from  my  fasting,  and  no  weakness  feel  today  ; 
 
 I have  set  my  heart  on  gomg,  oh,  forbid  me  not,  I pray.’  ” 
 
 Savitri  has  ahvays  kept  her  sad  seeret  from  her  husband, 
 and  he  has  therefore  no  idea  of  her  real  reason  for  wishing 
 to  aceompany  him ; he  however  eonsents,  calls  her  atten- 
 tion to  the  lovely  Avoods,  stately  peacoeks,  and  floAvers  of 
 brilliant  hue,  hut  she  can  look  only  upon  him  and  mourn 
 him  as  one  about  to  die.  She  gathers  cooling  fruits,  and 
 he  makes  the  Avood  resound  Avith  the  strokes  of  his  hatchet ; 
 but  soon  a thrilling  agony  shoots  through  his  temples.  She 
 sits  doAvn  upon  the  ground,  and  resting  his  hand  upon  her 
 breast  he  sleeps,  but, — 
 
 “ Sudden,  lo ! before  Savitri  stood  a great  and  awful  one. 
 
 Bed  as  blood  was  bis  apparel,  bright  and  glowing  as  the  sun  ; 
 
 In  his  hand  a noose  was  hanging : he  to  Satyavan  stood  nigh. 
 And  Aipon  the  weary  sleeper  fix’d  his  fearful  glittering  eye.” 
 
 This  aAvfiil  apparition  Avas  Yam  a,  God  of  Death,  come  to 
 bind  and  take  the  spirit  of  Satyavan : having  done  this  he 
 moved  towards  the  south,  Savitri  closely  folloAA'ing.  Yama 
 tries  to  persuade  her  to  go  back,  but  she  says.  No,  Avher- 
 CA'cr  her  husband  goes  there  she  will  go  also.  Yama  praises 
 her  sAveet  speech,  and  offers  her  any  boon  except  the  life  of 
 
WOMAN^S  LOVE. 
 
 183 
 
 Satyavau ; and  she  begs  that  the  blind  king,  her  father-in- 
 law,  may  be  restored  to  sight,  but  without  relinquishing  her 
 first  request.  Yama  tries  again  and  again  to  get  rid  of  her, 
 and  says  she  will  faint : — 
 
 “Can  I faint  when  near  my  husband?  where  he  goes,  my  path 
 shall  be  : 
 
 I will  follow  where  thou  leadest : listen  once  again  to  me.” 
 
 Nothing  can  induce  her  to  return  without  Satyavau,  and  at 
 length  love  conquers  death : Yama  relents;  the  happy  wife 
 hastens  to  where  her  husband^s  body  lay,  and,  leaning  upon 
 her  faithful  bosom,  he  awakes  again  to  sense  and  life.  A 
 very  touching  conversation  follows,  during  which  he  gra- 
 dually recovers  his  recollection;  but  his  udfe,  avoiding  any 
 full  explanation  of  what  had  been  occurring,  says  ; — 
 
 “ Night’s  dark  shadows  round  us  fall ; 
 When  the  morrow’s  light  returneth,  dearest,  I will  teU  thee  aU ; 
 
 Up,  then,  and  away,  I pray  thee,  come  unto  thy  parents’  love  ! 
 
 See ! the  sun  long  time  has  vanish’d,  and  the  night  grows  black 
 above.” 
 
 And  accordingly  they  return  to  the  hermitage,  where  Sa- 
 tyavan  finds  his  father  no  longer  blind,  and  every  kind  of 
 happiness  awaits  them.* 
 
 * ‘ Savitri,  or  the  Faitlifiil  Wife,’  translated  from  the  oi'igmal  Sanskrit  into 
 English  verse,  by  K.  T.  II.  Griffith,  Oxford.  See  also  an  article  in  the 
 ‘ Westminster  Keview,’  Oct.  1818,  on  Indian  Epic  Poetry,  which  most  m- 
 tcresting  paper  is  attributed  to  Mr.  Cowell. 
 
184 
 
 CHAPTER  IX. 
 
 PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 “ Wliere  is  the  sweet  repose  of  lieart’s  repenting, 
 
 The  deep  calm  sky,  the  sunshine  of  the  soul  ? 
 
 Now  heaven  and  earth  are  to  oim  bliss  consenting. 
 
 And  all  the  Godliead  joins  to  make  us  whole.” — Keble. 
 
 In  all  Bralimanical  literature  we  meet  tvith  anxious  ques- 
 tioning coneerning  man’s  soul  and  the  universal  soul,  and 
 the  means  Ity  whieh  perpetual  transmigration  maj"^  be  cs- 
 eaped.  This  knowledge  was  taught  in  Upanishads,  Avhieh 
 professed  great  reverenee  for  the  old  Vedas,  but  started 
 diseussions  upon  subjeets  quite  beyond  their  range : of 
 this  we  had  some  specimens  in  our  Second  Chapter,  where 
 Nachiketa  went  to  the  abode  of  Yama,  God  of  Death,  and 
 entreated  him  to  impart  that  “ knowledge  which  leads  to 
 absorption.”  By  degrees  philosophers  discovered  that  the 
 teaching  of  the  Upanishads  nas  contrary  to  that  of  the 
 \"edas,  and,  enrolling  their  new  views  into  systems,  they 
 avowed  themselves  critics  and  opponents  of  the  ancient 
 books.  Three  systems  obtained  celebrity,  the  Sankhya, 
 the  Nyaya,  and  the  Vedanta ; and  each  system  being  divided 
 into  two  parts,  six  schools  of  philosoj)hy  arose,  somewhere 
 
SANSKRIT  PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 185 
 
 between  700  and  600  b.c.,  wliieli  systems  are  still  in  foree, 
 and  studied  at  Benares.  The  Saukhya  system  was  the 
 earliest  of  these^  and  also  the  most  sehismatie,  for  it  starts 
 with  deelaring  that  the  Vedas  have  failed  to  eommunicate 
 means  of  absolute  and  final  liberation.  Indra  and  other  Gods, 
 it  says,  declare  that  by  drinking  soma-juice  they  have  be- 
 come immortal ; but  in  another  place  they  say  that,  “ ]\Iany 
 thousands  of  Indras  and  other  Gods  have  passed  away  in 
 successive  ages  a different  method  is  therefore  necessary, 
 “consisting  in  a discriminative  knowledge  of  perceptible 
 principles,  and  of  the  imperceptible  one,  and  of  the  think- 
 ing soul.”* 
 
 The  Saukhya  system  originated  with  a philosopher  named 
 Kapila,  who  had  migrated  through  many  states  of  existence, 
 and  remembered  the  Vedas  in  one  of  his  former  lives.  He 
 ventured  nevertheless  to  think  that  the  soma-draughts, 
 fire-worship,  and  the  sacrifices  enjoined  by  the  Vedas,  pro- 
 cured only  happiness  of  limited  duration,  and  he  expounded 
 aphorisms  to  secure  eternal  liberation. 
 
 Kapila’s  aphorisms  are  still  extant ; but  either  it  was  his 
 habit  to  explain  orally,  or  his  written  explanations  have 
 perished,  for  the  aphorisms  alone  are  wholly  unintelhgible. 
 His  pupils  made  and  collected  commentaries,  and  put  the 
 whole  in  verse,  called  Karika;  and  the  Saukhya  Karika,  or 
 memorial  verses  of  the  Saukhya,  is  the  chief  source  from 
 which  we  now  derive  a knowledge  of  this  curious  anticipa- 
 tion of  modern  metaphysics. t Its  leading  principles  are, 
 that  knowledge  discriminates  twenty-five  principles : the 
 Soul,  which  is  unchangeable,  is  one;  Nature,  the  material 
 of  creation,  another ; Intellect,  Buddhi,  a fourth ; Egotism, 
 Wilson’s  ' Sankliya  Karika,’  p.  IL.  f Ibid.,  pp.  17,  80,  52. 
 
186 
 
 lU'E  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 or  self-cousciousne.sSj  a fifth ; then  follow  the  five  subtle 
 elements  which  produce  our  senses,  eleven  organs,  and  five 
 gross  elements.  Nature,  or  Prakriti,  has  three  qualities, 
 the  good,  the  bad  or  perturbed,  and  the  dark.  The  good 
 quality  is  explained  as  “ kindliness,  restraint  of  the  organs, 
 correct  judgment,  attainment  of  knowledge,  and  superna- 
 tural power;  the  bad,  or  impetuous,  as  passion,  anger,  co- 
 vetousness, sternness,  discontent and  the  dark,  as  “ mad- 
 ness, intoxication,  atheism,  sloth,  and  other  vices. These 
 three  qualities  are  moreover  described  by  their  effects,  as 
 pleasure,  pain,  and  iiidiftercnce,  and  said  to  co-operate  like 
 a lamp,  by  union  of  contraries,  that  is,  “ as  a lamp,  which 
 is  composed  of  the  opposites,  a wick,  oil,  and  flame,  illu- 
 minates objects,  so  the  qualities  of  goodness,  foulness,  and 
 darkness,  although  contrary  to  one  another,  effect  a com- 
 mon purpose.  Buddhi  (the  intellect),  which  is  produced  by 
 Nature  (Prakriti),  partakes  of  these  qualities.  If  it  be  good, 
 its  properties  are  virtue  {dharma),  knowledge,  calm  self- 
 control,  and  supernatural  power,  called  aiswarya.  The  last- 
 mentioned  property  enables  a man  to  make  his  way  into  a 
 solid  rock,  to  sail  to  the  sun  on  a sunbeam,  touch  the  moon 
 with  the  tip  of  his  finger,  expand  so  as  to  occupy  all  space, 
 and  swim,  dive,  or  float  upon  the  earth  as  readily  as  in  water: 
 through  goodness,  in  fact,  the  Intellect  (Buddhi)  attains 
 the  “absolute  subjugation  of  Nature,”  so  that  “whatever 
 the  will  proposes,  that  it  obtains.”*  The  other  chief  pro- 
 duct of  Nature  is  Egotism;  “but,”  says  Dr.  Ballantyne,t 
 “ egotism,  thus  employed,  is  not  to  carry  with  it  the  fami- 
 liar import  of  bustling  vanity,”  for  one  who  would  escape 
 
 * Wilson's  ‘ Saiikhya  Karika.’ 
 
 t LlvIuiv  on  the  Sankliyn  Philosojtlu , Xo.  52;  Benares,  1850, 
 
SANSKRIT  PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 187 
 
 the  charge  of  ahan-kara  (egotism)  is  not  merely  to  avoid 
 talking  about  himself,  but  must  not  even  distingnisb  him- 
 self from  other  things,  or  other  things  from  himself.  Self- 
 consciousness  is  the  organ  by  n hich  the  impression  of  indi- 
 viduality is  conveyed  to  the  soulj  it  produces  the  senses  and 
 all  ideas  conveyed  by  the  senses,  and  so  far  resembles  the 
 Ego,  or  I,  of  Fichte.  But  here  Dr.  Ballantyne  remai’ks  a 
 “striking  difference  between  the  European  and  the  Ori- 
 ental theory,”  for,  whilst  European  philosophers  assume 
 self-consciousness  as  the  certain  indication  of  soul,  Kapila 
 declares  it  to  be  no  property  of  soul,  and  to  be  regarded 
 such  only  through  delusion.  Fichte  calls  what  is  outside 
 ourselves  real  only,  inasmuch  as  out  of  it  arises  duty  and 
 the  feeling  of  ‘Thou  shalt;’  whereas  with  Kapila  the  dis- 
 tinctness of  Soul  from  Nature  is  a “radical  fact.”  Fichte 
 excluded  a twofold  nature,  because  it  rendered  unity  of 
 exposition,  and  consequently  all  philosophy,  impossible;* 
 Kapila  looked  upon  soul  as  the  unchangeable,  idtimate 
 reality,  Avhich  can  only  be  perceived  when  the  transitory  is 
 destroyed.  Hindu  philosophers  describe  it  by  negations, 
 and  it  appears  therefore  cold,  inert,  and  lifeless;  but  from 
 the  intensity  with  which  these  idealists  yearned  to  cast 
 away  illusmy  existence,  we  may  suppose  that  they  felt  as 
 the  poet,  who  speaks  of  the  mai'vels  of  night,  to  which 
 sunshine  makes  us  blind,  and  then  sublimely  indicates  the 
 greater  glories  hidden  from  us  by  life  ;f 
 
 “ do  we  then  shun  death  with  anxious  strife  ? 
 
 If  light  can  thus  deceive,  wherefore  not  hfe  ?” 
 
 Kapila’s  doctrine  however  n as  cold  and  rigid ; he  makes 
 the  soul  a passive,  uuimpressible  spectator  of  joy,  sorrow, 
 
 * Ballautjiie,  Lecture  on  the  Sankliya  Philosoplij.  t Blanco  Wliite. 
 
188 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 duty,  power,  and  knowledge,  and,  elotlicd  in  subtile  matter, 
 it  extends  “ over  the  space  of  the  heart  the  size  of  a finger,” 
 or,  “ invested  in  subtile  matter,”  it  hovers  over  a man  like 
 “the  flame  of  a lamp  over  its  wick.”*  Thus,  where  Yama 
 expounds  to  Nachiketa  the  nature  of  the  soul,  he  says  that 
 it  “ resides  within  that  space  of  the  human  heart  which  is 
 as  large  as  a finger,”  and  he  directs  him  by  firmness  of 
 mind  to  separate  it  from  his  body,  “ in  the  same  manner  as 
 the  pith  is  removed  from  the  plant  So  also  in 
 
 the  story  of  Savitri,  told  in  the  preceding  Chapter,  Y^ama 
 comes  to  Satyavan  with  a noose  in  his  hand,  and,  forcing 
 out  the  vital  being  as  it  were  a finger’s  length,  bound  it  in 
 his  cord.J  When  the  spirit,  “ big  as  the  thumb,”  § has 
 quitted  the  body,  pain  ceases,  and  therefore  the  great  busi- 
 ness of  life  is  to  acquire  immunity  from  further  lives  and 
 transmigrations.  Self-consciousness  and  its  associates  must 
 learn  the  nothingness  of  phenomena;  then  Soul  becomes 
 satisfied  and  allows  Nature  to  repose;  by  which  is  meant, 
 that  for  such  a man  finite  existence  is  no  longer  neccssaiy, 
 and  he  is  therefore  permitted  to  shrink  to  the  small  di- 
 mensions of  his  “ subtile  body,”  and,  departing  through 
 “ the  hundred  and  first  tube,”  proceeding  from  the  heart, 
 he  acquires  emancipation  or  absorption.  || 
 
 This  school  represents  the  first  division  of  the  Sankhya 
 system;  the  second  division  is  that  of  Kapila’s  pupil, 
 Patanjali,  ivho  teaches  Y^oga^  (concentration)  as  a means 
 wdiereby  to  “ cast  off  ignorance.”  The  pupil  is  desired  to 
 
 * Colebrooke,  vol.  i.  p.  216.  § Wilson’s  ‘Sankhya  Karika.’ 
 
 t Katha  Upanishacl.  ||  Katha  Upanishad. 
 
 J Clrillltli’s  Indian  Poetry,  p.  27. 
 
 •y  rroinj/«/,  to  keep  the  mind  fixed  in  abstract  meditation. 
 
SANSKRIT  PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 189 
 
 fix  liis  attention  upon  that  description  of  soul  which  is 
 called  Iswara ; this  word,  translated  Lord,  means  a person 
 possessing  power,  and  is  a term  used  to  any  one  in  office ; 
 but,  like  our  own  word  Lord,  it  also  designates  Divinity,  and 
 in  sacred  writings  we  shall  find  it  usually  preceded  by  the 
 sacred  syllable  Om.  Patanjali’s  Yoga  school  was  therefore 
 looked  upon  as  theistic,  whilst  Kapila’s  ivas  considered 
 atheistic  : but  it  is  not  theistic  in  a very  satisfactory  sense, 
 for  Iswara,  the  Lord,  instead  of  being  the  end  of  devotion,  is 
 a means  assisting  the  devotee  to  accomplish  that  intense 
 meditation  which  is  “without  a seed”  (securing  the  body 
 from  reproduction)  : then,  the  soul  is  “ alone,  pure,  eman- 
 cipated.”* Yoga  seems  to  have  suited  Hindus  better  than 
 active  virtue,  for  we  find  it  adopted  by  all  sects  from  the 
 time  of  the  Upanishads  down  to  the  present  day,  when 
 Yogis  are  seen  standing  or  sitting  in  fixed  positions,  w’rapt 
 in  abstraction. 
 
 The  second  system  of  philosophy  is  the  Nyaya.  The 
 first  division  treats  upon  Physics,  the  second  upon  Meta- 
 physics : the  first  is  called  Vmseshika,  Particular ; the 
 second  Nyaya,  Reasoning.t  The  physical  division  claims 
 Kiinada  as  its  author,  and  teaches  the  doctrine  of  Atoms ; 
 but  the  theory  is  greatly  superior  to  that  of  Democritus, 
 because  the  atoms  are  conceived  as  units  of  matter  without 
 extent,  and  merely  occupy  a subordinate  place  in  the  re- 
 search. J It  is  curious  to  find  ether  mentioned  in  this  trea- 
 tise as  a substance  which,  equally  with  time,  place,  and 
 soul,  is  pervading  and  infinite;  even  in  the  Upanishads, 
 
 * Ballantjne,  p.  28  ; Aphorisms  of  the  Yoga,  p,  GO. 
 
 t Colebrooke,  vol.  i.  p.  261. 
 
 t Bibhotheca  Inclica,  Dr.  Boer,  August,  1850. 
 
190 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 which  are  earlier  than  the  Sehools,  ether,  together  with 
 air,  fire,  water,  earth,  is  represented  as  an  element.  Ele- 
 ments are  substanee,  and  the  sehools  differ  in  their  opinion 
 upon  substanee,  but  all  agree  in  distinguishing  substanee 
 from  its  qualities,  and,  like  Bishop  Berkeley,  they  make 
 the  reality  of  substance  to  depend  upon  its  qualities  as  per- 
 ceived by  mind. 
 
 In  the  Nyaya  system  a man  must  possess  dharma,  and 
 also  knowledge  of  substances,  qualities,  etc.  But  although 
 professing  to  embrace  the  universe,  this  system  neglects  in 
 fact  all  that  forms  the  subject-matter  of  the  physical 
 sciences,  and  Hindu  philosophers  look  down  in  consequence 
 with  self-complacent  superiority  upon  those  who  devote 
 themselves  to  physical  or  practical  science.*  But  whilst 
 weak  in  physics,  tlie  Nyaya  is  strong  in  dialectics,  leading 
 Dr.  Roer  to  remark,  that  “ the  philosophical  researches  of 
 the  Hindus  are  as  worthy  of  attention  as  those  of  the 
 Greeks.”  He  allows  that  they  are  less  easy  to  be  under- 
 stood by  foreigners,  owing  to  their  neglect  of  analysis;  but 
 this  fault,  he  says,  they  «hare  with  many  other  teachers 
 of  philosophy,  including  even  Spinoza.  “ The  Hindus  are 
 dogmatical : they  commence  synthetically  with  a statement 
 of  their  principles,  but  do  not  condescend  to  unfold  the 
 train  of  thought  which  has  led  to  them.”  Consequently 
 “ the  same  doctrines  which  might  have  been  instrumental 
 in  enlightening  thousands  are  now  forgotten,  or  in  the  pos- 
 session of  a few  who  are  hardly  able  to  comprehend  them.”t 
 But  Avhatcver  the  deficiencies  of  the  Nyaya,  it  must  have 
 
 * Synopsis  of  Science,  Benares,  1852,  advertisement  ix. 
 
 t Introduction  to  Nyaya  Pliilosojiliy,  Bibliotheca  Tndiea,  Calcutta,  Au- 
 gust, 1850. 
 
SANSKRIT  PHILOSOPHA'. 
 
 191 
 
 great  inti’insic  merit ; for,  in  eonstructing  a Synopsis  for  the 
 Benares  College,  Dr.  Ballantyne  has  made  it  his  “ stand- 
 point.” He  was  refleeting  upon  Hindu  notions  regarding 
 iuduetion,  when  he  reeeived  a letter  from  Professor  ^Yilson, 
 suggesting  that  a translation  of  the  seetion  on  inferenee  in 
 the  Nyaya  would  be  very  aeceptable  to  the  logieiaus  of  Eu- 
 rope. Dr.  Ballantyne  examined  the  work  in  eonsequenee, 
 and  was  surprised  at  the  resemblanee  whieh  he  found  “ be- 
 tween the  turn  of  thought  and  expression  in  the  writer,  and 
 in  Mr.  John  Stuart  Mill’s  work  on  Logie,”  which  was  a 
 work  Dr.  Ballantyne  was  already  using  with  good  prospect 
 of  advantage  in  his  college  classes.* 
 
 The  third  system  is  the  ^’edauta  : its  first  division,  the 
 Purva  Mimansa,”  is  attributed  to  Jaimiui,  it  is  strong  in 
 praise  of  dharma  (virtue)  ; but  the  system  is  better  known 
 by  the  second  division,  the  “Uttara  Mimansa,”  taught  by' 
 Badayarana  (commonly  called  Vyasa).f  This  system  was 
 promulgated  for  the  purpose  of  correcting  the  materialism 
 of  its  precursors.  The  Sankhya  says,  that  Nature,  distinct 
 from  Soul,  produced  the  universe  : the  Vedanta  denies 
 this,  and  declares  Brahme  (primordial  soul)  to  be  the  oidy 
 axis,  centre,  root,  or  origin  of  the  phenomena.  The  San- 
 khya recognizes  two  powers, — inactive  Soul  and  active 
 Nature  : the  Vedanta  calls  this  dualism  ; and  asserts,  that 
 nature  or  matter,  and  all  consequent  phenomena,  are  ne- 
 cessary attributes  of  Brahme.  The  "Wda,  as  Sruti,  that 
 Avhich  has  been  heard,  is  appealed  to  in  confirmation  of  this 
 assertion;  by  Veda  being  here  meant  some  of  the  Upani- 
 shads.  'When  the  Veda  says  That,  or  the  Self- existent,  it 
 
 * Ballantyne,  Synopsis,  aclvt.  xxvi. 
 
 t Lecture  on  the  Teclanta,  Benares,  1851. 
 
19.2 
 
 LIFE  IX  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 means  Bralime,  and  not  Nature.  When  the  Veda  says  that 
 embodied  souls  acquire  absorption,  it  means  absorption  into 
 Brahme,  not  into  Nature;  otherwise  there  Avould  be  this 
 absurd  contradiction,  that  the  intelligent  would  become  ab- 
 sorbed into  the  unintelligent.  And  again,  wlieu  the  Veda 
 speaks  of  “ The  One  that  consists  of  joy,’’  it  means  Brah- 
 me; in  support  of  which Panini  is  quoted.*  “That  which 
 is  within  the  Sun  and  the  eye,”  “breath  of  life,”  and 
 “ light,”  also  mean  Bi’ahme ; and  this  is  made  e\ddent  by 
 tlie  holy  verse  called  Gayatri.f  So  much  is  taught  in  Avhat 
 are  called  the  “Vedanta  Sutras,”  or  “Brahma  Sutras;” 
 Sidra  being  a word  for  thread,  often  used  as  synonymous 
 with  Aphorism.  On  one  occasion  the  editor  of  a book  of 
 xVphorisms  says,  “ Like  that  funambulist,  the  spider,  which 
 runs  on  a thread”  so  he  relies  upon  the  sutras  (threads), 
 and  not  upon  commentaries.  J 
 
 For  a fm’ther  development  of  Vedanta  doctrine  we  turn 
 to  a Tract  called  the  Vedanta  Sara,  essence  of  the  Vedanta. 
 It  starts  from  the  point  that  Brahme  is  the  Eternal  Uni- 
 versal Soul,  aud  proceeds  to  show  man’s  relation  towards 
 Brahme.  Human  souls  are  a portion  of  the  L niversal  Soul, 
 “ deposited  in  a succession  of  sheaths,  enveloping  one  an- 
 other like  the  coats  of  an  onion ;”  and  the  aim  of  life  must 
 be  to  free  the  soul  from  these  eucumbermeuts.  This  is  to 
 be  done  by  knowledge,  or  by  learning  that  Buddhi  (intellect) 
 and  all  human  faculties  are  ignorance  and  delusion  : Bud- 
 
 * Amongst  Dr.  Ballantyne’s  valuable  works  at  Benares,  Professor  Wilson 
 refers  to  liis  “ pubUeation  of  this  great  source  of  all  Sanskrit  grammar,” 
 the  ilaha  Bhasliya,  or  great  Commentary  on  the  Aphorisms  of  Panini. — 
 Leetm’c  on  Oriental  Literature,  Jan.  1852,  J.  E.  A.  S.,  vol.  xiii.,  part  2. 
 
 t Translations  of  this  Adch’ess  to  Light  are  given  in  Chapter  I.,  ante. 
 
 ;j;  The  Aphorisms  of  the  Taisesliika,  Benares,  1851. 
 
SANSKRIT  PIllLOSOrHV. 
 
 193 
 
 dhi  (iutellect)  takes  the  chief  part  in  this^  divesting  itself 
 of  its  enveloping  sheaths,  and  then  discriminating  that  “ all 
 is  God  only.”*  All  that  is  not  Brahnie  it  perceives  to  be 
 ignorance,  and  ignorance  is  nothing ; therefore  the  act  of  the 
 understanding,  -which  rightly  recognizes  the  “ ludmsible” 
 (Brahine),  is  itself  a nonentity,  and  disappears  in  the  act  of 
 recognition.  The  consequence  is  that  man  has  no  indivi- 
 duality ; for  so  long  as  he  perceives  his  own  existence  he  is 
 in  “ ignorance.”  The  removal  of  ignorance  is  like  the  re- 
 moval of  a mirror  in  Avliich  a countenance  was  reflected ; 
 remove  the  mirror  and  nothing  remains  but  the  counte- 
 nance, or  Brahme.  And  thns.  Dr.  Ballantyne  observes,  when 
 a man,  with  all  his  Avits,  is  Avide  awake,  he  is  furthest  removed 
 from  the  state  in  Avhicli  he  ought  to  be  ; but  Avhen  he  falls 
 asleep  and  dreams,  he  shuffles  off  the  outermost  coil  of  his 
 ignorance.f  In  pi'oportion  as  he  succeeds  in  casting  this 
 oflF,  he  becomes  convinced  that  nothing  exists  besides  the 
 “ IndiA'isible”  (Brahme)  ; and  that  inasmuch  as  he  exists, 
 he  liimself  is  the  “ Indivisible.”  Finally,  he  must  “ get  rid 
 of  the  habit  of  making  even  himself  a habit  of  thought ; 
 there  must  be  no  object ; the  subject  alone  must  remain, — 
 a thought,  a joy,  an  existence, — and  the  only  one.”  The 
 Tract  concludes  by  directing  the  worshipper  towards  means 
 for  the  attainment  of  this  end.  Amongst  these  is  the  medi- 
 tation called  Samddhi ; the  contemplation  called  Dhyana  ; 
 the  postures  spoken  of  as  padma  and  svastika,  and  suppres- 
 sions  of  the  breath. 
 
 We  have  no av  reviewed  the  three  great  systems, — 1.  The 
 Sankhya,  Avhich  recognizes  soul  as  Purusha,  but  derives  the 
 universe  from  Nature ; 2.  The  Nyaya,  Avhich  holds  similar 
 
 * Vedanta  Sara,  Benares.  t Ihid.,  p.  82. 
 
 O 
 
194 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 doctrine^  but  is  chiefly  noted  for  its  logic ; and  lastly,  the 
 Vedanta,  which  denies  duality,  allows  no  independent  power 
 to  IS  ature,  and  declares  Brahme,  the  supreme  Soul,  to  he  the 
 only  true  existence.  The  Saukhya  was  undoubtedly  the 
 earliest  of  these  systems,  hut  it  is  impossible  to  fix  on  a 
 precise  date  for  either  of  them.  Hindu  philosophers  disre- 
 garded dates  on  principle : their  idea  of  philosophy  is  ob- 
 served by  Dr.  Roer  to  be  something  “raised  above  change,”* 
 unconnected  therefore  with  the  state  of  society  or  the  par- 
 ticular time  in  which  it  was  first  promulgated ; and  con- 
 sequently we  find  the  teachings  of  successive  centuries 
 hopelessly  intertwined.  Philosophers  made  their  diseourses 
 orally,  and  if  eminent,  their  statements  were  written  down 
 in  Sutras,  or  aphorisms.  These  wei’e  too  concise  to  be  in- 
 telligible without  explanation,  and  in  consequence  we  gather 
 our  ideas  of  Upauishads,  written  it  may  be  n.c.  800,  and 
 Sutras,  written  b.c.  GOO,  from  commentators  of  subsequent 
 centuries.  A rude  outline  is  therefore  all  that  can  be  at- 
 tempted in  the  chronology  of  Hindu  philosophy.  In  the 
 hymns  of  the  Rig-Veda,  men  are  supposed  to  become  super- 
 human by  dint  of  penance  and  rites ; and  the  existence  of 
 Universal  Soul  is  alluded  to.  The  Upanishads  develope  the 
 doctrine  of  soul,  and  teach  that  knowledge  of  soul  emanci- 
 pates from  transmigration.  In  the  Sankhya  system  nature 
 is  interposed  between  man  and  soul ; the  Nyaya  follows  the 
 Sankhya,  and  then,  after  an  interval,  the  Vedanta  system 
 endeavours  to  bring  baek  belief  in  soul  as  Brahme,  to  cor- 
 rect the  tendency  to  materialism  given  by  the  Sankhya  s}'s- 
 tem.  The  Code  of  Manu  seems  conversant  both  Avith  the 
 l^panishads  and  the  Aphorisms;  for  it  frequently  rccom- 
 * liibliothoea  Iiulica,  Aiigu?t,  1850. 
 
CONCLUSION . 
 
 195 
 
 mends  suppressions  of  the  breathy  makes  use  of  the  sacred 
 triliteral  syllabic  Om  (explained  in  the  Yoga  Aphorisms  as 
 Iswara,  the  Lord),  and  objects,  like  the  Vedanta,  to  duality. 
 To  exchange  the  perishable  for  the  eternal  is  equally  the 
 aim  of  all  philosophers;  but  ivhilst  the  Sankhyas  believe 
 phenomena  to  he  a product  of  nature,  Yedantists  look  upon 
 “ the  phenomenal  world  as  the  garb  or  vesture  of  God.^^ 
 The  garb  is  hoAvever  inseparable,  and  the  Brahme  which  it 
 invests  is  inactive ; and  this  school  also  was  in  consequence 
 wholly  without  belief  in  God  as  a creative,  governing,  al- 
 mighty 'Will.  In  each  system  the  most  ambitious  reasoner 
 is  obviously  the  worst  theologian.  In  the  first  and  second, 
 belief  in  Brahme  is  extinguished  by  the  argument  that  re- 
 ality depends  upon  “ perceiving  intellect and  in  the  third, 
 Brahme  being  assumed  to  be  the  only  real  existence,  it  is 
 argued  that  man’s  intellect  is  but  a portion  of  Brahme,  and 
 that  man  is  in  a delusion  so  long  as  he  perceives  within 
 liimsclf  a separate  identity. 
 
 4 . 
 
CHAPTER  I. 
 
 “ How  beautiful  was  Greece  ! — how  marvellous 
 In  polit)-,  and  chasten’d  grace  severe  !” — At-FORO. 
 
 Here  let  us  pause.  The  scroll  of  ancient  India’s  history 
 lies  uni’olled  before  us,  partly  deciphered.  It  bears  no 
 dates  and  chronicles,  no  dynasties ; but  it  records  generous 
 thought  and  feeling,  poetry,  philosophy,  religious  aspiration, 
 and  such  progress  in  judicature,  arts,  manufactures,  and 
 even  sciences,  that  we  feel  almost  justified  in  our  juveiiile 
 enthusiasm  for  the  affluent  East. 
 
 The  Vedic  period,  commencing  about  b.c.  1400,  forms  as 
 it  were  an  antique  rustic  porch  leading  to  the  fine  old  tem- 
 ple of  Brahmanical  grandeur.  In  the  porch  we  find  kings 
 and  priests  standing  side  by  side.  One  hymn  is  written  by 
 a king  and  another  by  a Brahman  ; and  one  son  of  a king 
 succeeds  to  the  throne,  whilst  another  becomes  a Brahman. 
 But  when  we  pass  into  the  period  of  Brahmanical  gran- 
 deur, we  perceive  Brahmans  standing  aloof,  whilst  kings. 
 
200 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 soldiers,  and  the  multitude  pay  them  homage.  By  degrees 
 the  priesthood  became  hereditary,  and  only  one  or  two  in- 
 stances are  there  recorded  in  Avhich  kings,  by  force  of  pe- 
 nance, succeeded  in  obtaining  Brahmanical  rank.  The  less 
 learned  and  less  wealthy  of  the  Brahman  Caste  perform  the 
 public  offices  of  religion,  whilst  those  of  higher  rank  and 
 superior  attainments  spend  their  lives  in  learned  ease  and 
 literature,  or  else  in  teaching  pupils,  or  in  assisting  the 
 counsels  of  royalty  and  administering  justice. 
 
 Brahmans,  as  a class  or  caste,  were  entitled  to  a provi- 
 sion from  the  public  funds  for  their  life,  and  to  facilities  for 
 obtaining  happy  transmigration,  or  still  happier  emancipa- 
 tion in  the  life  to  come ; other  Castes  had  no  power  of  at- 
 taining these  blessings  Avithout  the  aid  of  Brahmans,  and  it 
 Avas  against  the  law  for  Brahmans  to  give  their  aid  to  any 
 but  those  Avhose  birth  entitled  them  to  iiiA^estiture  Avith  the 
 sacrificial  thread.  It  Avas  long  before  any  disadvantage  was 
 discovered  in  this  exclusive  system.  At  first  it  seemed  na- 
 tural, and  merely  involved  that  those  Avho  Avere  best  quali- 
 fied should  guide  the  rest ; and  hoAvcA  er  great  and  danger- 
 ous the  faults  and  errors,  Ave  nevertheless  find  the  era  in 
 AA'hich  Brahmans  first  attained  supremacy  to  have  been  a 
 period  of  singular  richness  and  prosperity.  The  general 
 literature  probably  commenced  about  b.c.  700 ; the  Brah- 
 mauas,  Avith  the  Upanishads  and  philosophic  Sutras,  being 
 followed  by  the  LaAvs  of  Manu,  and  these  succeeded  by  the 
 heroic  poems.  This  is  a literature  which  Ward,  the  mis- 
 sionary, exceedingly  condemns,  Avhich  Sir  William  Jones 
 enthusiastically  commends,  and  of  Avhich  Mr.  Elphinstone 
 says,  referring  to  the  poems,  “ their  beauties  have  been 
 most  felt  by  those  Avhose  oavu  productions  entitle  their  judg- 
 
GENEUAL  SURVEA’. 
 
 201 
 
 ment  to  most  respect.”*  Judging  of  it  through  transla- 
 tions Ave  find  faults  indeed  of  every  description,  but  re- 
 deemed by  a light,  uhich  glows  at  times  as  if  it  were  a re- 
 flection from  primeval  revelation,  and  which,  lingering  like 
 a summer  sunset,  is  seen  athwart  the  rising  clouds  of 
 selfish  superstition  and  dead  formalism. 
 
 The  ancient  Hindus  excelled  in  all  that  could  be  attained 
 by  contemplation  ; and  thus  in  grammar,  logic,  astronomy, 
 and  medicine,  they  appear  to  have  been  in  advance  of  con- 
 temporary nations.  But  their  language,  uoav  so  celebrated, 
 did  not  attain  its  perfection  until  the  age  of  Pericles  and 
 Demosthenes  had  already  passed.  And  their  Wonderful 
 rock-cut  temples,  Dagobas,  and  columns  belong  to  a later 
 period  than  that  which  we  have  been  studying ; the  Par- 
 thenon and  Temple  of  Theseus  haAuug  been  for  centmaes 
 enthroned  upon  the  rocks  of  Athens,  before  the  caves  of 
 Ellora  and  Elephanta  Avere  excavated  from  the  rocks  of 
 Western  India. 
 
 During  this  first  Brahmanical  period  of  Hindu  history, 
 we  can  detect  no  foreign  influence ; and  we  find  but  slight 
 or  doubtful  recognition  of  India  in  foreign  chronicles.  We 
 believe  indeed  that  Solomon’s  apes  and  peacocks,  ivory  and 
 almug-Avood,  came  from  India ; and  we  knoAA"  by  the  hymns 
 of  the  Big-Veda  that  merchants  at  that  early  period  had 
 ships  croAvding  the  ocean;”  but  we  do  not  knoAv  whether 
 they  went  beyond  the  IMalabar  coast ; Ave  do  not  knoAv 
 Avhether  Hindus  ever  visited  the  Holy  Land,  or  whether 
 those  cunning  workmen  avIio  carved  in  Avood  and  overlaid 
 pillars  with  gold  for  King  Solomon,  ever  foAind  their  way  to 
 India.  We  must  not  indeed  forget  that  Hindus  Avere  theni- 
 * Historj-  of  India,  p.  155. 
 
20.2 
 
 UFE  IX  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 selves  a foreign  clement  in  India,  coming  from  the  central 
 nursery  of  Aryans,  and  liringing  with  them  tlic  Sanskrit 
 language,  and  many  religious  ideas  and  customs,  some  of 
 which  they  had  lield  in  common  with  the  moi’C  or  less  civi- 
 lized ancestors  of  the  Persians,  and  their  nomadic  neigh- 
 bours the  Scythians.  Professor  Lassen  calls  tliem  “ San- 
 skrit people,”  after  their  language,  whilst  Benfey  designates 
 them  Aryans,  after  their  race  ; but  the  simpler  term  Hindu 
 will  serve  our  purpose,  and  will  signify  the  people  who  at 
 first  drove  chariots  and  loved  horses,  and  worshipped  Indra 
 down  the  course  of  the  Indus;  who  afterwards  studied 
 philosophy  and  improvised  poetry  within  sight  of  the  Hi- 
 malaya ; who  founded  cities  under  Brahmanical  guidance 
 through  out  the  length  and  breadth  of  the  Gangetic  plains, 
 and  who  lived  almost  Avholly  undisturbed  and  uninfluenced 
 by  foreign  nations  until  the  arrival  of  the  Greeks.  Not  that 
 a positive  opinion  can  be  pronounced  upon  the  question  ; 
 but  as  the  commercial  intercourse  is  supposed  to  have  been 
 indirect,  and  as  the  expeditions  of  Bacchus  and  Semiramis 
 to  India  are  reputed  fabulous,  and  as  Cyrus  never  ivent  be- 
 yond the  Punjab,  and  soon  lost  again  what  he  conquered 
 there,  it  is  not  until  the  time  of  Darius  that  we  meet  with 
 any  ivell  authenticated  foreign  invasion.  Darius  Hystaspes 
 produced  but  very  slight  effect  on  India,  but  his  campaigns 
 deserve  attention;  for  he  aimed  at  something  more  than 
 conquest,  and  endeavoured,  by  studying  the  customs  of 
 new  territories,  to  attach  them  to  his  government.  He 
 conquered  eastern  Kabul,  the  Punjab,  and  part  of  Sindh. 
 It  is  mentioned  that  a great  variety  of  Indians  came  to 
 his  court,  and  that  with  the  fair-complexioned  he  could 
 converse,  but  that  with  the  dark- coloured  he  required  an 
 
THE  PERSIAN  EMPIRE. 
 
 203 
 
 interpreter.*  Darius  distributed  the  Persian  empire  into 
 twenty  satrapies^  one  of  which  uas  India.  The  nineteen 
 otlier  satrapies  paid  tribute  in  silver  according  to  the 
 Babylonian  or  larger  talent/’  the  sum  from  the  uliole 
 nineteen  amounting  to  about  £2,964^000  sterling ; “ from 
 the  Indians,  who  alone  paid  in  gold,  there  Avas  received  a 
 sum  equal  to  about  £1,290,000  sterling,”  a sum  equal  to 
 two-fifths  of  that  received  from  the  other  nineteen.  This 
 statement  is  supposed  to  prove  that  northern  India  Avas  at 
 that  time  very  rich  in  gold.t  Darius  did  not  himself  go 
 beyond  the  Punjab,  but  by  his  direction  the  naAugation  of 
 the  Indus  Avas  explored ; and  under  his  orders,  Skylax,  a 
 Greek  from  the  south  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  sailed  doAvn 
 its  stream  into  the  Indian  Ocean  round  the  peninsula  of 
 Arabia  and  up  the  Red  Sea  to  Egypt.  J This  happened 
 about  B.c.  fOO,  and  almost  immediately  aftenvards  com- 
 menced that  series  of  events  which  ended  by  liringing  the 
 Greeks  to  India. 
 
 The  lonians  were  a Greek  colony  settled  in  Asia,  and  had 
 long  paid  tribute  to  Persia,  but  they  still  felt  draAvn  towards 
 their  mother  country ; and  when  a quarrel  arose  between 
 them  and  their  Persian  superiors,  it  Avas  Greece  they  sued 
 for  succour.  Athens  at  once  sent  tAventy  ships  ; Avhereupon 
 the  lonians  grew  confident,  and  in  the  year  b.c.  499  dared 
 to  take  possession  of  the  city  of  Sardis.  This  Avas  in  itself 
 an  act  meriting  punishment  from  the  great  King  Darius ; 
 but  the  case  Avas  soon  rendered  more  desperate  by  the  folly 
 
 * Lassen,  Indische  Alterthumskunde,  vol.  ii.  pp.  112,  114.  Indians  are 
 again  mentioned  in  the  army  with  wliich  Xerxes  invaded  Greece. 
 
 t See  Grote’s  History  of  Greece,  vol.  iv.  p.  315. 
 
 t Grote’s  History  of  Greece,  vol.  iv.  p.  300. 
 
204- 
 
 life  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 of  an  Ionian  soldier,  Avho  set  fire  to  a house,  and  the  city, 
 being  built  of  wood,  was  in  consequence  reduced  to  ashes. 
 When  Darius  learned  that  not  only  Sardis  was  biu’ned,  but 
 that  the  Athenians  were  assisting  the  revolt,  he  determined 
 upon  immediate  vengeance  against  the  Greeks.  He  col- 
 lected his  troops,  and  made  preparations  in  his  usual  mag- 
 nificent style ; but  Aristides,  Themistocles,  and  IMiltiades 
 were  then  the  strength  of  Athens;  and  although  Darius 
 readily  reduced  the  i.slands  in  the  ^Egean  Sea,  his  generals 
 no  sooner  fought  on  i^ttic  ground  than  the  Persian  warriors 
 were  defeated  in  the  celebrated  battle  of  IMarathou,  b.c.  490. 
 Five  years  later  Darius  died,  but  Persia  continued  her  at- 
 tacks on  Greece  until  b.c.  334,  wheu,  during  the  I’eign  of 
 Darius  Codomannus,  Alexander  the  Great  took  the  initia- 
 tive, and  carried  his  troops  into  the  heart  of  Asia.  This 
 great  undertaking  was  not  merely  warlike,  but  stands  on 
 record  as  the  first  scientific  expedition  ever  made.*  Alex- 
 ander was  accompanied  by  naturalists,  suiweyors,  historians, 
 philosophers,  artists,  and  jioets,  and  Avas  urged  forward  not 
 merely  by  selfish  ambition  or  an  irresistible  thirst  for  con- 
 quest, but  by  a desire  to  bring  distant  nations  into  friendly 
 relations;  and  he  imagined  Greek  influence  capable  of 
 draAving  the  Avhole  of  Asia  Avithin  a magic  ring.  He  gave 
 therefore  Greek  municipal  institutions  to  his  Macedonian 
 colonies,  and  established  so  vigorous  a system  of  interna- 
 tional policy  betAveen  Greece  and  Asia  that  it  Avas  only  ef- 
 faced by  the  religion  and  conquests  of  ^Mohammed  and  the 
 Arabs.t 
 
 Enough  of  foreign  influence  is  perceptible  in  India,  after 
 this  epoch,  to  make  it  desirable  that  avc  should  attend 
 
 * Lassen,  vol.  ii.  p.  116.  f Finlay,  Greece  under  the  Romans. 
 
Alexander’s  campaigns. 
 
 205 
 
 closely  to  the  movements  of  Alexander  and  his  followers 
 pi'evious  to  their  entei’ing  India;  for  even  if  no  arts  or 
 legends  can  positively  be  ascribed  to  Greece,  Syria,  Baby- 
 lonia, or  Scythia,  we  shall  be  able  to  conjecture  with  more 
 satisfaction  on  the  Ninevite  character  of  Buddhist  architec- 
 ture and  a few  other  Buddhist  mysteries,  if  we  have  touched 
 previously  upon  the  principal  points  of  the  great  Alexan- 
 der’s campaigns.  The  Hellespont  was  crossed  in  March, 
 15. c.  33I,  two  years  spent  in  successful  battles  and  marches 
 throughout  Asia  "Minor,  Damascus  taken,  several  towns  of 
 Phoenicia  subdued,  and  the  celebrated  siege  of  Tyre  com- 
 menced, on  the  pretext  of  requu’ing  to  worship  the  Sun- 
 god  Melkart,  identified  with  Hercules.  After  seven  months’ 
 severe  struggle.  Tyre  was  taken  and  the  sacrifice  performed. 
 Alexander  then,  accepting  the  submission  of  the  Jews, 
 marched  into  Egypt,  where  he  sacrificed  to  the  local  Gods, 
 and  founded  the  city  of  Alexandria ; he  then  crossed  the 
 Libyan  Desert,  to  consult  the  oracle  of  Jupiter  Ammon,  in 
 imitation  of  his  reputed  ancestors,  Perseus  and  Hei’cules ; 
 the  oracle  assured  bim  that  his  career  would  be  one  of 
 uninterrupted  victory.*  His  next  campaign  in  Asia  was 
 distinguished  by  the  decisive  battle  of  Arbela,  after  which 
 both  Babylon  and  Susa  surrendered. t Babylon  he  entered 
 in  triumph,  rested  during  thirty-four  days,  conversed  with 
 Chaldieans,  and  made  sacrifice  to  Belus ; he  then  went  to 
 Susa,  Avhere  he  received  a large  reinforcement  of  about 
 fifteen  thousand  men — Macedonians,  Greeks,  and  Thracians, 
 
 * Grote,  vol.  xii.  p.  190 ; Aiiian,  p.  64. 
 
 t Ou  this  occasion  the  distinguished  liistorian  of  Greece  observes  As 
 far  as  we  can  follow  the  dispositions  of  ^tlexander,  they  appear  the  most 
 signal  example  recorded  in  antiquity  of  mUitary  genius  and  sagacious  com- 
 bination” (vol.  xii.  p.  228). 
 
20G 
 
 LIKE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 botli  cavalry  aiul  infantry,  and  “ fifty  Macedonian  youths 
 of  noble  family,  soliciting  admission  into  Alexander’s  corps 
 of  pages.”  He  then  went  to  Persepolis,  where  he  bears  the 
 odium  of  setting  fire  to  the  magnificent  palace  of  Xerxes. 
 But  we  will  hope  that  on  this  and  on  many  other  occasions 
 Alexander  might  justly  complain  of  his  historians, — that 
 the  Greeks  were  jealous,  that  the  Macedonians  could  not 
 write,  and  that,  in  the  ivords  of  Mr.  Prinsep,  “the  only 
 justice  done  to  him  is  in  the  affix  of  the  title  ' Great,’  which 
 his  name  will  carry  with  it  to  all  times.”* 
 
 In  the  year  b.c.  330  a traitorous  conspiracy  was  formed 
 against  Darius,  uho  had  escaped  from  the  Macedonians, 
 and  he  fell  eventually  by  the  hands  of  Bessus,  one  of  his 
 own  officers.  Far  from  hailing  this  event  with  joy,  Alex- 
 ander was  enraged  at  its  baseness,  and  abandoned  all  other 
 schemes  in  order  to  pursue  the  traitor ; this  led  him  a 
 second  time  to  Bactria,  “ the  battle-field  of  every  tribe  and 
 nation  that  has  risen  to  dominion  in  the  East ;”  and  in 
 August  or  September  of  this  year,  he  founded  the  still 
 famous  city  of  Herat. f He  then  passed  through  a country 
 in  which  his  troops  “ suffered  exceedingly  from  want,  snow, 
 and  cold  ■”  this  being  the  hill-route  from  Herat,  where  the 
 British  troops  were  so  much  distressed  by  cold  in  January, 
 1811.  The  winter  was  passed  at  “Alexandria  apud  Cau- 
 casum,”  supposed  to  be  Beghram,  thirty  or  foi’ty  miles  to 
 the  north  of  Kabul. J In  the  spring,  ii.c.  329,  Alexander 
 recrossed  the  mountains  and  pursued  the  traitor  Bessus 
 
 ♦ Hist.  Kesults,  II.  T.  Prmsep,  pp.  S,  I. 
 
 t The  site  T)f  Alexandria  is  not  precisely  determined.  Sec  Hist.  Kesults, 
 p.  15  ; W ilson’s  Ariaua,  p.  180. 
 
 :J:  Ihid.,  or  Hist.  Results,  ]).  15. 
 
Alexander’s  campaigns. 
 
 207 
 
 beyond  the  river  Oxus : lie  was  now  in  a country  of  Scy- 
 thians, of  whom  Spitanienes  was  king  or  chief,  and  here,  at 
 Nantika,  Bessus  was  captured.  Alexander  was  too  wise  a 
 General  to  advance  amongst  these  unknown  and  quick- 
 moving  tribes  Avithout  precautions,  and  whilst  he  sent  for- 
 ward exploring  parties  he  often  remained  himself  with  his 
 main  force,  establishing  colonies  and  Avell-garrisoned  tou  ns 
 fitted  to  secure  a safe  retreat.  The  wild  chief,  Spitanienes, 
 soon  justified  his  prudence ; for  although  he  had  refused  to 
 protect  Bessus,  neither  would  he  submit  to  be  conquered, 
 and  no  sooner  had  Alexander  gone  through  the  country 
 and  gained  a battle  on  the  northern  banks  of  the  Jaxartes, 
 than  Spitamenes  fell  upon  his  rear  and  endeavoured  to 
 possess  himself  of  Samarcand ; but  the  Greek  garrison  was 
 firm,  and  he  only  succeeded  in  cutting  off  some  troops  sent 
 as  a reinforcement. 
 
 It  was  at  this  period  that  the  twenty  Scythian  ambassa- 
 dors waited  upon  Alexander  and  made  the  speech  which  may 
 be  still  admired,  ivhether  we  attribute  it  to  the  Scythians 
 or  to  their  historian,  Quintus  Curtins.  “ You,”  say  they, 
 “ Avho  boast  of  coming  to  exterminate  robbers,  are  yourself 
 the  greatest  robber  in  the  world,  for  you  have  plundered  all 
 the  nations  you  have  subdued.  Are  not  even  those  ivho  live 
 in  woods  to  be  exempted  from  knoiving  you  and  from  feeling 
 your  violence  V If  you  are  a god,  you  should  do  good  to 
 mankind ; if  yon  are  a man,  you  ought  to  hearken  to  the 
 dictates  of  reason  and  humanity.”  Some  places  are  men- 
 tioned in  these  campaigns  which  cannot  confidently  be  iden- 
 tified ; but  it  seems  probable  that,  at  the  close  of  the  year, 
 he  rccrossed  the  river  Oxus,  and  spent  the  ivinter  b.c.  329- 
 328  in  cantonments  at  Hazarasp,  and  that  whilst  there  he 
 
208 
 
 LIFK  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 received  a mission  from  the  banks  of  the  \’olga.*  Early  in 
 the  spring,  he  took  the  field  in  five  divisions,  and  overran 
 the  "fl’hole  countiy  north  and  east  of  Kabul.  Spitameues 
 n as  subdued  and  slain  ; but  by  another  mountain  tribe, 
 also  called  Scythians,  Alexander  was  received  with  respect 
 and  magnificence,  and  in  consequence  fell  in  love  with  the 
 King’s  daughter,  Roxana,  and  made  her  his  wife.  The 
 Greek  kingdom  of  Ractria  comprehended  both  divisions 
 of  Scythians,  and  the  chiefs  of  mountain  tribes  in  that 
 quarter  still  claim  to  be  descended  from  Iskander,  mean- 
 ing Alexander,  “ a tradition,”  observes  Professor  Wilson, 
 “ which  singularly  preserves  the  memory  of  a time  when 
 these  coimtries  tiere  subject  to  princes  sprung  from  the 
 countrymen  of  the  Macedonian  conqueror.”t  Alexander 
 spent  altogether  three  years  in  Bactria,  and  the  Greek 
 power  being  now  firmly  established,  he  turned  his  atten- 
 tion towards  India,  a country  he  had  long  desired  to  reach 
 and  to  possess  ; but  he  would  have  deemed  a march  into  the 
 Punjab  unsafe,  if  not  impracticable,  had  not  Bactria  been 
 first  subdued,  “ so  as  to  prevent  Bessus  and  the  Scythians 
 from  breaking  in  upon  the  line  of  communication  with 
 Media  and  Greece.”  j; 
 
 In  the  spring  of  b.c.  327  the  Kabul  valley  was  reduced, 
 and  heralds  sent  to  call  upon  the  kings  of  the  neighbouring 
 districts  to  submit.  The  most  important  result  of  this  pro- 
 ceeding was,  that  ISIophis  of  Taxila  (thence  called  Taxiles) 
 
 * Prinsep,  Hist.  Results,  p.  17. 
 
 t Wilson’s  Ariana,  p.  169.  The  assertion  is  made  by  travellers  of 
 various  periods,  from  llareo  Polo  down  to  ^Ir.  Elphinstone  and  Sir  A. 
 Bunies. 
 
 J Prinsep,  Hist.  Results,  p.  12. 
 
A I,EX  A N D E R ’ S CAXr  P A I G X S . 
 
 209 
 
 became  an  important  ally,  and  conducted  Alexander's  Ge- 
 nerals, Hephfestion  and  Perdiccas,  along  the  southern  hank 
 of  the  river  Kophen,  thi’ongh  Jellalahad,  to  Attok  on  the 
 Indus.  Alexander  himself  went  through  the  Kaiber  Pass, 
 and  crossed  the  Indus,  in  Apidl,  b.c.  327,  on  a bridge  of 
 boats,  which  he  found  prepared  for  him  by  Hepheestion  and 
 Taxiles.  The  most  interesting  event  of  this  year  was  the 
 encounter  between  Alexander  and  Porus,  a king  or  chief 
 upon  the  river  Jhilum  : he  appears  to  have  held  but  a small 
 territory,  but  his  bravery,  shown  equally  in  battle  and  de- 
 feat, has  made  Porus  the  favourite  of  all  historians.*  Alex- 
 ander at  once  restored  his  lands,  only  claiming  certain  ser- 
 vices and  tribute,  and  these  two  kings,  Taxiles  and  Porus, 
 continued  his  allies  till  death. 
 
 ^Miilst  Alexander  Avas  still  in  the  Punjab,  his  folloAvers 
 Averc  seized  Avith  an  invincible  home-sickness  ; “ they  com- 
 plained that  they  found  their  King  always  attempting  one 
 toil  after  another,  and  plunging  himself  and  them  into  new 
 hazards  after  he  had  got  clear  of  the  old  ones;”t  and 
 nothing  appears  to  have  made  them  more  impatient  than 
 the  long-continued  heavy  rain  of  the  periodical  rainy  sea- 
 son. ^Vhen  ncAvs  of  the  discontent  reached  head-quarters, 
 Alexander  called  a council  and  made  a speech,  but  all 
 Avithout  avail,  and,  ardently  as  he  desired  to  press  fonvards 
 to  the  Ganges,  he  Avas  sadly  compelled  to  yield  to  the 
 clamour  for  returning  home.  Although  deeply  mortified, 
 he  made  his  preparations  Avith  chai’acteristic  energv',  and 
 his  shipwrights  Avere  at  once  instructed  to  construct  a fleet. 
 
 * Droysen  lias  given  details  of  this  battle  with  much  picturesque  effect. 
 See  Lassen,  vol.  ii.  p.  117. 
 
 t AiTian’s  Hist.  Ales.  Ex.,  p.  146. 
 
 r 
 
210 
 
 LIFE  IX  ANCIENT  INIHA. 
 
 But  first  he  ordered  twelve  altars  to  he  erected,  equal  in 
 . height  to  so  mauy  fortified  towns,  and  on  these  he  offered 
 sacrifices  to  the  Gods,  giving  thanks  for  liis  past  victories, 
 and  concluding  the  ceremonies  with  a celehi’ation  of  gym- 
 nastic and  equestrian  games.* 
 
 Whilst  tlie  ships  were  building,  Alexander  made  incur- 
 sions into  the  neighhouring  states,  of  which  many  little 
 circumstances  are  related.  Some  states  were  republics,  in 
 which  Brahmans  were  not  honoured,  and  where  the  women’s 
 manners  were  “ Bacchanalian one  nation, called  Kathieans, 
 is  noted  for  choosing  their  chief  or  king  for  his  personal 
 beauty,  and  for  destroying  all  weakly  children : these  peo- 
 ple are  supposed  to  spring  from  Kshatriya  women  who  had 
 married  Sudras.  A king  named  Sopeithes,  in  the  south  of 
 Sindh,  presented  Alexander  with  hunting  dogs,  for  ivliich 
 the  country  is  famous;  and  another  brought  a precious 
 offering  of  three  hundred  pounds  of  wootz,  or  Indian  steel. 
 One  single  town  of  Brahmans  is  recorded,  and  they  are  said 
 to  have  been  most  hostile  to  Alexander,  as  a king  of  bar- 
 barians and  heretics. 
 
 At  length  all  things  were  ready  for  the  voyage,  and  much 
 is  said  by  Strabo  and  Arrian  of  the  sacrifices  to  the  God.'^ 
 and  libations  to  the  rivers  with  which  it  was  commenced. 
 Arrian  describes  the  great  order  which  was  observed ; the 
 ships  moving  on  a signal  given  by  sound  of  trumpet,  the 
 store-ships  required  to  keep  at  a certain  distance  from  the 
 ships  which  carried  horses,  “ and  these  from  the  shqis  of 
 Avar,  lest,  if  they  proceeded  Avithout  due  order,  they  should 
 be  dashed  one  against  another ; nor  were  the  best  sailers 
 suffered  to  go  out  of  their  ranks,  nor  the  sloAvest  to  lag 
 * Arrian,  ]).  151.  f Lassen,  ii.  157. 
 
ALEXANDER  S CAMPAIGNS. 
 
 211 
 
 behind  ; it  was  wonderful,”  continues  Arrian,  “ to  liear  the 
 clashing  of  the  oars  of  such  a mighty  number  of  ships  at 
 the  same  instant,  as  also  the  shouts  of  the  rowers,  and  the 
 commands  of  their  officers,  which  the  banks,  often  higher 
 than  the  ships  themselves,  and  the  thick  woods  on  each 
 side  of  the  river,  so  increased  by  compression  and  repercus- 
 sion” that  the  inhabitants  (politely  called  by  Arrian  “ bar- 
 barians”) were  struck  with  amazement,  and  their  wonder 
 was  increased  by  seeing  horses  embarked  on  board  a fleet. 
 On  the  fifth  day  they  arrived  at  the  junction  of  the  Hy- 
 daspes  and  Ascesines,  where,  the  banks  being  close  and  the 
 channel  narrow,  the  current  is  extremely  rapid,  causing 
 prodigious  eddies,  and  a loud  noise  heard  at  a vast  distance. 
 When  they  escaped  from  these  straits  they  took  refuge  in 
 a sort  of  bay,  where  the  ships  were  all  gathered  together  to 
 be  refitted.* 
 
 When  the  voyage  was  resumed,  the  King  of  Patala  sent 
 to  offer  submission  and  allegiance,  and  at  Patala  the  !Mace- 
 douians  made  a long  and  peacefid  halt ; but  exactly  where 
 the  place  is  situated  is  a question  wliich  has  occasioned 
 many  learned  pages  of  discussion.  Professor  Wilson  gives 
 excellent  reasons  why  Patala  was  not  Tatta,  but  more  pro- 
 bably to  the  north  of  Haiderabad,  but  thinks  we  need  not 
 lock  for  a perfect  identification,  because  “ the  channels  of 
 the  lower  part  of  the  Indus  are  perpetually  shifting,  and  it 
 may  be  doubted  if  any  one  of  them  now  follows  precisely 
 the  same  direction  that  it  took  when  the  vessels  of  Alex- 
 ander floated  down  the  stream.”  The  name  our  Professor 
 thinks  undoubtedly  Indian,  and  probably  derived  from 
 Potdlaya  or  Potdid,  a harbour,  and  he  observes  that  the 
 * Arrian,  book  vi.  ch.  3,  4. 
 
 P 2 
 
212 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 name  Potala,  liarboiiT,  is  given  in  Biulclhist  writings  to  a 
 eity  in  tlie  delta  of  the  Indus^  in  which  the  Sakyas  are 
 said  to  have  lived  before  their  migration  to  Kapila-vastu^* 
 in  Rohilcund. 
 
 Whilst  the  fleet  reposed  at  Patala,  occasional  expeditions 
 were  made  into  the  surrounding  country,  which  is  generally 
 described  as  peaceful  and  prosperous,  occupied  by  an  agri- 
 cultural population,  governed  by  kings  and  Brahmans.  It 
 was  in  one  of  these  expeditions  that  Alexander  first  beheld 
 the  ocean ; he  and  his  Greek  and  Macedonian  companions 
 had  seen  no  sea  except  the  Mediterranean,  in  which  there 
 are  no  tides,  and  their  surprise  at  beholding  this  phenomenon 
 is  amusingly  described  by  Arrian.  They  sailed  down  the 
 Indus  from  Patala  in  light  ships,  and  “ when  they  arrived 
 at  the  place  where  it  is  full  two  hundred  furlongs  wide, 
 namely  at  its  month,  the  wind  blowing  hard  from  the  sea 
 and  the  waves  rising  so  high  as  to  hinder  them  from  ma- 
 naging their  oars,  they  again  put  into  a certain  bay,  which 
 their  pilots  showed  them,  for  shelter.  While  they  con- 
 tinued in  that  situation,  an  accident  happened  which  asto- 
 nished them,  namely  the  ebbing  and  flowing  of  the  waters, 
 like  as  in  the  great  ocean,  insomuch  that  the  ships  were 
 left  upon  dry  ground,  which  Alexander  and  his  friends 
 having  never  perceived  before  were  so  much  the  more  sur- 
 prised at : but  what  increased  their  astonishment  was  that 
 the  tide,  returning  a short  while  after,  began  to  heave  the 
 ships  up,  so  that  those  which  stuck  in  the  mud  Avere  raised 
 gently  and  set  afloat  again,  without  receiving  any  damage.^t 
 
 * Wilson’s  Ariana,  p.  211,  and  J.  A.  S.  B.,  August,  1833;  Origin  of 
 Sakya  Race,  Csoma  Korosi, 
 
 f AiTian,  book  yi.  ch.  18,  19, 
 
Alexander’s  campaigns. 
 
 213 
 
 Alexander  explored  the  mouths  of  the  Indus^  founded  one 
 or  more  seaports,  returned  to  Patala,  and,  leaving  Nearchus 
 to  command  the  fleet,  set  forth  upon  his  homeward  route. 
 His  orders  u ere,  that  Nearchus  shoidd  sail  in  the  north- 
 Avest  monsoon,  i.e.  in  Xovemher  or  December;  but  no  sooner 
 had  the  great  conqueror  departed  than  the  inhabitants 'rose 
 against  the  foreign  force,  and  Nearchus  deemed  it  prudent 
 to  Avait  no  longer  than  the  9th  of  September,  b.c.  326, 
 although  the  south-AA  Cst  Aviud  Avas  stiU  prevailing.  Arrian 
 marks  the  line  of  countiy  through  Avhich  Alexander  started 
 by  describing  the  plants  peculiar  to  it.  In  the  deserts  of  the 
 Gedrosi,  he  tells  us,  are  myrrh-trees  taller  than  elscAA'liere ; 
 also  trees  groAving  Avhere  the  tide  floAVS  among  them  thirty 
 cubits  in  height,  Avith  leaves  like  the  laurel  and  Avhite  floAvers 
 SAveeter  than  violets ; and  another  plant,  AA’liich  produces 
 strong  prickles  and  has  a thick  juice  more  acrid  than  the  fig.* 
 
 Whilst  Alexander  Avas  in  Karmania,  ncAvs  reached  him 
 that  one  of  the  Satraps  Avhom  he  had  left  in  the  Punjab 
 had  been  murdered  by  his  paid  soldiery  : his  commands  on 
 the  occasion  AA  cre,  that  Eudemos  and  Taxiles  should  take 
 the  management  of  affairs  until  he  should  send  another 
 Satrap,  thus  shoAving  that  Taxiles,  the  Hindu  chief,  con- 
 tinued to  enjoy  his  confidence.  Porus  is  also  mentioned 
 from  time  to  time  as  receiving  accessions  of  ten’itory  from 
 Alexander;  probably  also  Porus  may  have  occasionally 
 taken  the  territories  of  refractor}'  chieftains  upon  his  oaaii 
 respousibihty,  for  after  the  lapse  of  four  or  five  years  Ave 
 find  his  dominions  reaching  to  the  mouth  of  the  Indus. 
 
 * These  tlu-ee  plants  are  identified  by  the  late  Dr.  Stocks  as  growing 
 within  twenty  or  tliirty  miles  of  KmTachee.  See  letter  fi-om  Dr.  Stocks  to 
 Dr.  Koyle,  read  to  tlie  Plulosopliical  Club  of  the  Eoyal  Society  in  1850. 
 
214 
 
 LIFF:  IX  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 Alexander  died  in  the  spring  of  b.c.  323,  and  then  com- 
 meneed  ceaseless  wars  amongst  his  Satraps.  Eumenes,  of 
 Cappadocia,  defeated  and  slew  Crater  us  u.c.  322 ; Antigo- 
 nous  took  the  field  against  Eumenes  b.c.  320,  and  whilst 
 Avar  Avas  fiercely  carried  on  amongst  the  rival  Greeks,  India 
 shared  in  the  general  agitation.  For  ten  years  the  Greeks 
 held  dominion  in  the  Punjab;  but  in  b.c.  317  Eudemos 
 caused  Porus  to  be  assassinated,  and  then  marched  into 
 Bactria,  carrying  AAlth  him  one  hundred  and  tAventy  ele- 
 phants AA'hich  had  belonged  to  the  Hindu  king.  This  igno- 
 ble murder  of  their  gi’eatest  Raja  exasperated  the  people  of 
 the  Indus,  and  gave  a favourable  opening  for  the  schemes 
 of  a Hindu  adAXiiturer,  whom  the  Greeks  call  Sandracottus. 
 This  young  man  was  connected  Ai-itli  the  reigning  royal 
 familj"  at  Patna,  but  there  Avas  no  place  upon  the  throne  for 
 him,  and  he  Avandered  about  ready  to  take  advantage  of  any 
 tumult.  The  Greeks  mention  his  haAniig  once  visited  the 
 Court  of  Alexander,  and  say,  that  after  the  mm’der  of  Porus 
 he  fought  his  Avay  from  one  territory  to  another  until  he 
 acquired  not  only  the  lands  of  Porus,  but  also  the  kingdom 
 of  Patna,  and  acquired  so  much  importance  and  stability 
 that,  Avheu  Selencus  came  to  restore  order,  he  risked  but  one 
 engagement  Avith  Sandracottus,  and  then  judged  it  desirable 
 to  make  peace,  accepting  elephants,  and  giving  in  return, 
 some  say,  his  daughter  in  marriage.*  After  this  Seleucus 
 
 * TliLs  seems  to  be  an  inference  from  an  expression  in  Strabo,  who  says 
 that  Seleucus  received  from  Sandi-acottus  fifty  elephants  and  “ contracta 
 cum  eo  alfinitate.”  See  Preface  to  the  Drama  of  iludra  Eakshasa,  by  Pro- 
 fessor Wdson,  where  it  is  observed  that  Seleucus  rehnquished  territories 
 beyond  the  Indus,  and  is  said  to  have  formed  a matrhnonial  alliance  with 
 Sandracottus  : “ we  have  no  trace  of  this  in  Iluidu  writera,  but  it  is  not  at 
 all  improbable.” — Hindu  Theatre,  vol.  ii.  p.  131. 
 
GREEK  ACCOUNTS  OF  INDIA. 
 
 215 
 
 scut  a Greek  named  Megastheucs  to  reside  at  Patna^  as  his 
 representative  or  charge  d’affaires,  and  chiefly  through  the 
 accounts  of  ]\Iegasthenes  do  we  learn  what  the  Greeks  ob- 
 served and  thought  of  India  at  the  date  of  280  years  before 
 oiu’  era.  Megasthenes  wrote  full  descriptions^  but  unfor- 
 tunately only  fragments  have  been  preserved,  and  these 
 are  chiefly  met  with  in  the  works  of  Strabo.  Arrian  fol- 
 lows Megasthenes  and  Nearchus,  ealling  them  ‘Gwo  famous 
 well-approved  authors,”  and  in  addition  to  these  we  have 
 the  general  descriptions  of  the  observing  Herodotus.  These 
 writers  speak  of  Hindu  costume  as  just  what  we  see  it  in 
 the  present  day,  consisting  of  two  garments,  one  of  which 
 reaches  to  the  middle  of  the  leg  and  the  other  covering  part 
 of  the  head  and  shoulders  : these  dresses  were  sometimes 
 of  bright  colours  and  flowered  patterns ; their  slippers  were 
 ornamented,  and  various  ornaments  of  gold  and  joAvels  were 
 worn,  earrings  being  particularly  mentioned.  Dyeing  the 
 eyebrows  with  henna  is  a practiee  alluded  to  in  the  Code, 
 hut  the  Greeks  tell  of  beards  dyed  with  henna  and  indigo, 
 “ insomuch  that  some  of  them  appear  white,  others  black, 
 some  red,  some  purple,  and  others  green.”  This  is  stated 
 on  the  authority  of  Nearchus,  and  is  accounted  for  by  Mr. 
 Elphinstone  on  the  supposition  that  mistakes  in  the  mix- 
 ture, or  time  of  application,  had  the  same  effect  then  as  in 
 modern  days.*  Great  people  had  umbrellas  earried  over 
 them  when  they  walked,  but  are  represented  as  also  riding 
 in  chariots  whicli  were  drawn  by  horses  in  war  and  by  oxen 
 during  a march,  and  on  state  occasions  they  rode  on  richly 
 caparisoned  elephants.  Arrian’s  f account  of  the  catching 
 and  training  of  elephants  is  so  graphic  and  true  to  the  pre- 
 * tlistory  of  India,  p.  241.  f Arrian,  ch.  svi. 
 
216 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 sent  mode,  that  it  might  have  been  iiiTitten  for  the  ‘ Asiatic 
 Researches.’  The  account  which  Herodotus  gdves  of  fero- 
 cious ants  would,  on  the  other  hand,  have  a somewhat 
 strange  effect  in  a modern  publication ; he  declares  them  to 
 be  such  dangerous  creatures,  that  the  bravest  men,  mounted 
 on  the  fleetest  camels,  are  sent  to  seize  the  gold  which  these 
 ants  dig  up.  Nearchus  mentions  the  same  story,  saying 
 that  he  had  never  seen  one  himself,  but  that  many  of  the 
 soldiers  had  seen  the  skins  of  these  ants  brought  into  camp. 
 Ctesias  adds,  that  the  Kings  of  Persia  had  the  ants  them- 
 selves in  their  menageries;  and  !Megasthenes  accounts  for 
 the  fact  by  suggesting  that  the  ants  do  not  dig  the  gold  out 
 of  the  earth  “ for  the  sake  of  the  metal,  but  to  prepare  holes 
 wherein  to  shelter  themselves,”  and  ants,  in  India,  “ being- 
 bigger  than  foxes”  in  Greece,  “ make  burrows  proportioned 
 to  their  bulk.”  All  these  stories  are  referred  by  Professor 
 AVilson  to  the  word  pippilika,  “ ant-gold,”  being  the  name 
 in  common  use  for  lumps  of  gold  collected  in  the  plains  of 
 Little  Thibet ; the  name  was  originally  given  from  a notion 
 that  colonies  of  ants,  by  clearing  away  the  sand  or  soU,  left 
 the  ore  exposed,  and  this  was  the  origin  of  all  the  Greek 
 marvels.*  The  plant  which  “ instead  of  fruit  produces  wool, 
 of  which  the  Indians  make  their  clothes,”  was  also  striking 
 to  the  Greeks ; Arrian  says  it  is  “ flax,  or  rather  indeed 
 something  much  whiter  and  finer  than  flax.” 
 
 The  village  form  of  government  did  not  escape  Greek 
 notice,  for  Strabo  speaks  of  places  in  which  the  land  Avas 
 cultivated  in  common  by  all  the  inhabitants  of  a village ; 
 and  he  gives  accounts  of  the  measurement  of  fields,  of  irri- 
 gation, of  roads,  and  of  trades  as  under  the  superintendence 
 * Notes  on  the  Sablia  I’iUTa,  J.  R.  A.  S.  No.  xiii.  pji.  137,  113. 
 
GREEK  ACCOI'NTS  OF  INDIA. 
 
 217 
 
 of  village  functionaries.  The  police  n as  thought  excellent, 
 and  the  Greeks  record  with  admiration  that  not  more  than 
 fc3  sterling  was  stolen  daily  in  the  camp  of  Sandracottus. 
 The  revenue  appears  to  have  been  collected  on  the  principle 
 laid  down  in  the  Code  of  iNIanu,  the  King’s  share  of  pro- 
 duce amounting  to  about  a fourth.  Supervisors,  or  in- 
 quisitors, are  mentioned  by  Arrian,  “ who  inquire  into  all 
 transactions  as  well  in  the  cities  as  in  the  fields,^’  and  re- 
 port to  the  King  if  they  live  under  regal  government,  or 
 to  the  chief  magistrate  if  in  a free  city,  and  “ may  not  be 
 guilty  of  falsehood ; but  indeed  none  of  the  Indians  were 
 ever  accused  of  that  crime.”  Arrian  makes  particular  men- 
 tion of  the  division  of  Caste,  and  of  its  being  unlawful  for 
 the  upper  ranks  “ to  marry  a wife  out  of  his  own  class 
 and  none,  he  says,  “ are  suffered  to  exercise  two  distinct 
 trades,  or  to  leave  off  one  and  take  up  another  ; that  is,  he 
 may  not  leai  e off’  husbandry  and  turn  shepherd,  nor  leave 
 off  keeping  sheep  and  become  an  artificer.  Only  a Sophist 
 is  allowed  to  exercise  what  employment  he  pleases ; but 
 then  their  lives  are  not  easy,  but  vastly  laborious.”*  By 
 Sophists  they  probably  meant  Yogis  and  other  ascetic  and 
 philosophical  Brahmans,  for  they  are  described  as  “ the 
 most  honoured  class,  exempt  from  all  burdens,  and  only 
 contributing  their  prayers  to  the  support  of  the  State.” 
 Some  asceites  are  described  as  adopting  ostentatious  morti- 
 fications ; and  Alexander  being  curious  to  see  these  persons, 
 requested  their  attendance,  but  they  refused  to  come,  and 
 he  then  sent  Onesicritus,  who  found  fifteen  men  uncovered 
 and  exposed  to  a burning  sun,  “ some  sitting,  some  stand- 
 ing, some  lying,  but  all  remaining  immovable  from  niorn- 
 * Arrian,  liicl.  Hist.,  cli.  xi. 
 
218 
 
 LIFE  IX  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 ing  till  evening.”  Two  Sophists  are  also  descrilied  by  Aris- 
 tobnlus,  one  yonng  and  one  old,  botli  Brahmans : he  met 
 with  them  at  Taxila.  The  elder  was  shaved,  the  younger 
 wore  his  hair,  and  botli  Avere  followed  by  disciples.  “ As 
 they  passed  through  the  streets  they  were  received  Avith 
 reverence,  people  pouring  oil  of  sesamum  upon  them,  and 
 offering  them  cakes  of  sesamum  and  honey.  EAcn  Avhen 
 they  came  to  Alexander’s  table  to  sup  in  his  company,  they 
 gave  a lesson  of  resolution,  AvithdraAving  to  a neighboui’iug 
 spot,  Avhere  the  elder  lay  doAvn  exposed  to  the  sun  and  rain, 
 and  the  younger  stood  still  all  day  leaning  on  a staff.” 
 “ Other  accounts  describe  ascetics  as  going  about  the 
 streets  helping  theuiselAes  to  figs  and  grapes,  and  to  oil  for 
 anointing  themselA'CS,  etc.”*  These  Avere  doubtless  dcA  otees 
 of  the  A'arious  Brahinauical  schools,  the  membei’s  of  which 
 distinguished  themselAXS  by  particular  fashions  of  tonsure. 
 They  are  not  likely  to  have  been  Buddhists,  because  al- 
 though Buddhism  had  commenced  it  Avas  not  publicly  ho- 
 noured ; and  moreover  Buddhists  never  Avent  unclothed, 
 and  did  not  approve  of  self-torture.  There  arc  more  signs 
 of  Buddhism  about  the  Indians  mentioned  by  Herodotus, 
 Avho  “ put  no  animal  to  death,  soav  no  grain,  have  no  fixed 
 habitations,  and  live  solely  upon  vegetables;”  they  lived 
 chiefly  on  a grain  the  size  of  millet,  “ protected  by  a calyx, 
 the  whole  of  AA'hich  they  baked  and  ate,”  by  Avhich  Ave 
 under.staud  young  cobs  of  ludian-corn.  'When  “ these  In- 
 dians are  sick,”  he  says,  “ they  retire  to  some  solitude  and 
 there  remain,  no  one  expressing  the  least  concern  about 
 them  during  their  illness  or  after  their  death. ”t  But  this 
 
 * Elpliiustoue,  History  of  India,  pp.  236-212. 
 
 t lleloe's  Herodotus,  vol.  ii.  p.  277. 
 
GREEK  ACCOUNTS  OF  INDIA. 
 
 219 
 
 (lescriptioii  applies  equally  to  Brahmauical  ascetics  of  vari- 
 ous schools. 
 
 The  Greeks  mention  no  temples,  palaces,  or  other  large 
 buildings ; but,  according  to  Arrian,  their  towns  were  too 
 numerous  to  be  reckoned,  and  very  probably  as  near  toge- 
 ther as  those  described  by  Colonel  Edwardes  in  Sindh. 
 Arrian  remarks  that  towns  near  the  sea  or  any  river  were 
 built  of  wood,*  because  no  liuildings  of  brick  would  last 
 long ; not  merely  owing  to  the  “ violence  of  the  rains,  hut 
 also  of  the  rivers,  which,  overflowing  their  banks,  cause  an 
 annual  inundation  over  all  the  flat  country ; but  the  cities 
 which  are  seated  on  an  eminence  are  frequently  built  of 
 brick  and  mortar.”  He  then  goes  on  to  speak  of  Pali- 
 bothra,  the  chief  city  of  India,  “ in  the  confines  of  the 
 Prasii,  near  the  confluence  of  the  two  great  rivers  the 
 Erannoboas  and  the  Ganges,”  which  means  Patna,  near  the 
 confluence  of  the  Sone  and  the  Ganges.  On  the  authority 
 of  Megasthenes,  Palibothra  is  said  to  be  eight  miles  long 
 and  one  and  a half  broad,  “ surrounded  by  a ditch  which 
 takes  up  six  acres  of  ground  and  is  thirty  cubits  deep  ; the 
 walls  are  adorned  with  five  hundred  and  seventy  towers 
 and  sixty-four  gates.”  They  reckon  the  length  of  India 
 “ along  the  road  called  the  King’s  Road,”  and  they  also 
 mention  milestones.  Numerous  conjectures  are  made  con- 
 cerning the  size  of  India ; Ctesias  affirming  it  to  be  equal 
 in  bigness  to  all  the  rest  of  Asia,”  whilst  Onesicritus  thinks 
 it  only  one-third  as  large;  and  Nearchus  asserts  that  the 
 flat  country  extends  to  four  months’  journey.  But  they 
 
 * This  mode  of  building  is  still  adopted  on  the  Indus,  nliere  the  liouscs 
 are  raised  on  platforms  twelve  or  thirteen  feet  from  the  ground.  Tlie  houses 
 at  Eangoon,  on  the  Irawaddy,  are  similarly  constructed. 
 
220 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 were  aware  that  they  knew  very  little  about  it ; and  Arrian 
 says,  “ even  !Megasthenes  himself  seems  to  me  not  to  have 
 travelled  over  much  of  India.”*  They  all  agree  in  calling 
 Palibothra,  or  Patna,  the  chief  city  of  the  Indians ; and 
 Strabo  describes  the  magnificent  processions  of  its  festivals 
 in  terms  ivliich  remind  us  of  Alexander’s  entrance  into 
 Babylon  : — elephants  adorned  with  gold  and  silver,  chariots 
 with  four  horses,  carriages  drawn  by  oxen,  well-appointed 
 troops,  gilded  vases,  tables,  thrones,  goblets  set  with  eme- 
 ralds and  other  precious  stones,  garments  of  various  colours 
 embroidered  in  gold,  tame  lions  and  panthers,  singing  birds; 
 also  liirds  remarkable  for  their  plumage,  sitting  on  trees 
 transported  on  large  w'aggons.t 
 
 * Arrian,  ch.  ii.,  iii.,  v. 
 
 + Elpliiiistoue,  History  of  India,  p.  243. 
 
CHAPTER  II. 
 
 “ What  e3'e  can  trace  thj-  mystic  lore, 
 
 Lock’d  up  in  characters  as  dark  as  night  ?” — Eogeus. 
 
 The  IMacedonian  invasion  adds  another  scene  to  onr  dio- 
 rama, for  ne  now  perceive  the  armies  of  Alexander  tra- 
 versing the  whole  of  Asia,  gathering  followers  in  Syria, 
 Chaldtea,  Scythia,  and  Bactria,  and  pouring  the  hetero- 
 geneous multitude  into  India.  From  this  time  forward 
 the  historians  of  the  western  world  may  he  appealed  to 
 for  aid  in  disentangling  the  perplexed  narratives  of  the 
 East ; but  there  was  a hindrance.  Hindu  Kings  had  no 
 dates,  and  the  Greek  version  of  their  names  was  not  re- 
 cognizable ; consequently  it  was  impracticable  to  adjust 
 the  era  of  Alexander  with  that  of  any  Indian  potentate. 
 Porus,  Taxiles,  and  Sandracottus  had  no  place  in  Sanskrit 
 literature,  although  Strabo  and  others,  who  follow  !Me- 
 gasthenes,  represent  the  last  as  the  most  successful  and 
 powerful  Raja  of  the  period  succeeding  Alexander’s  death. 
 
222 
 
 LIFE  I\  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 He  was,  they  say,  a militaiy  adventurer,  who  succeeded  in 
 fighting  his  way  to  the  chief  throne  in  India,  and  lield  his 
 court  at  Palibothra,  on  the  Ganges.  But  Sanskrit  names 
 translated  into  Greek  baffled  all  coujectui’e,  until  about  the 
 year  a.d.  1780,  when  it  happily  occurred  to  Sir  'Wilham 
 Jones  that  the  Sandracottus  of  the  Greeks  might  be  the 
 Chandragupta  of  the  Hindus ; and  then  it  was  observed 
 that  the  Greeks  often  wrote  the  name  Xandra  Coptus,  and 
 that  the  Hindus  in  a similar  manner  wrote  Chandra  Gupta, 
 — Chandra  being  the  moon,  and  Gupta,  protected  by  the 
 family-name  of  several  dynasties  which  flourished  at  vari- 
 ous eras. 
 
 It  was  a happy  day  for  Indian  history  when  this  discover}' 
 was  made,  for  one  date  being  fixed  there  was  hope  of  ad- 
 justing the  rest;  but  very  much  had  to  be  done,  for  San- 
 skrit literature  had  opened  upon  scholars  as  a sea  without 
 landmarks.  The  Gods  and  the  Kings  floated  free  upon  the 
 waters,  unfixed  by  dates,  \'ishnu  and  Siva  side  by  side  with 
 Indra  and  Agni,  Buddhism  taking  precedence  of  Brahman- 
 ism, and  Buddha  figuring  as  a Negro,  b.c.  2000.  But  now 
 the  drifting  history  began  to  find  safe  anchorage,  and  gra- 
 dually Indra  and  Agni,  Brahme  and  Brahma  were  ranged 
 in  chronological  order ; whilst  Vishnu  and  Siva  were  forced 
 to  give  up  their  claims  to  remote  antiquity.  The  Greek 
 invasion  and  the  reign  of  Chandragupta  were  as  strong- 
 holds, either  before  or  after  which  all  names  and  facts  were 
 to  take  their  ifiaces ; and  it  was  on  coins,  and  in  inscrip- 
 tions, or  columns,  rocks,  temples,  and  statues,  that  names 
 and  facts  were  to  he  sought  for. 
 
 In  A.D.  1787  Sir  "William  Jones  founded  the  Asiatic  So- 
 ciety, in  Calcutta,  and  particularly  invited  attention  to 
 
OLn  INSCRIPTIONS. 
 
 223 
 
 inscriptions.  The  Society  commenced  its  publications  in 
 quai'to  volumes,  much  occupied  with  questions  of  pi'iority, — 
 not  only  the  priority  of  the  Gods  in  the  Yedas  and  Gods  in 
 the  Puranas,  hut  the  priority  of  Pagodas  in  the  east  or  of 
 excavations  in  the  west  of  the  Peninsula,  and  many  other 
 questions  nmv  long  settled.  Some  errors  were  proved,  and 
 much  interesting  detached  information  was  recorded ; but 
 progress  generally  was  slow,  until  the  year  1828,  when  the 
 late  ]\Ir.  James  Prinsep  plunged  into  the  subject  with  all 
 the  ardour  of  youth  and  genius.  Professor  Wilson  ivas 
 happily  at  that  time  still  in  India,  and  lent  the  essential 
 aid  of  his  cautious  judgment  and  profound  knowledge  of 
 Eastern  languages.  Thus  supported,  Mr.  Prinsep  and  his 
 enthusiastic  young  friends  studied  and  collected  coins  until 
 they  established  the  fact  that  coins  subsequent  to  Alexan- 
 der bore  inscriptions  which  were  Hindu,  but  not  Sanskrit. 
 The  Oriental  scholars,  not  only  of  India,  but  of  Paris  and 
 Germany,  applied  themselves  in  earnest  to  decipher  these 
 legends.  In  1834  Dr.  jMill  succeeded  in  reading  some  ob- 
 solete characters  on  a pillar  at  Allahabad,  and  this  prepared 
 the  way  for  the  decipherment  of  the  still  older  character  of 
 the  coins. 
 
 To  collect  coins  and  study  inscriptions  became  the  rage  ; 
 and  as  it  was  obvious  that  history  could  not  be  reached  in 
 any  other  way,  it  was  a most  justifiable  occupation.  In  all 
 these  researches  James  Prinsep  was  the  leader : he  com- 
 menced with  veiy  little  knowledge  of  Oriental  languages, 
 but  his  generous  ardour  brought  him  every  required  assist- 
 anee.  His  was  a spirit  free  from  jealousj^  and  vanity  : he 
 worked  openly  himself,  and  invited  and  welcomed  every 
 contribution  from  others  with  a genuine,  hearty  love  for 
 truth  and  progress. 
 
224 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 A Lat,  or  pillar^  at  Delhi^  was  observed  to  bear  a very 
 long  inscription  in  the  most  ancient  cbaracter  of  the  coins, 
 that  is,  in  tbe  oldest  Nuyari.  Presently  a second  inscrip- 
 tion on  tbe  eolnnin  at  Allahabad  was  found  to  be  precisely 
 similar;  and  in  October,  1831,  Mr.  Hodgson  sent  notice 
 of  three  more  such  pillars  east  of  the  Ganges,— at  Bakra, 
 iMathiab,  and  Radbiah, — all  inscribed  in  the  same  unread- 
 able cbaraetcr.  Facsimiles  were  attempted  of  some  of  these 
 inscriptions,  and  copies  sent  to  Europe.  Professor  Lassen 
 at  Bonn,  and  Jacquet  at  Paris,  entered  heartily  into  com- 
 munication with  James  Prinsep  at  Calcutta,  aiding  him  by 
 their  sympathy  and  their  suggestions,  sometimes  antieipa- 
 ting  a step  in  the  proecss,  and  sometimes  arriving  simul- 
 taneously at  a similar  result;  hut  it  was  only  in  India,  im- 
 bued with  the  spirit  of  the  people  and  the  country,  that  the 
 discovery  could  he  completed.  Those  who  w'erc  in  Cal- 
 cutta between  the  years  1835  and  1839,  will  never  forget 
 the  enthusiasm  prevailing  in  the  monthly  meetings  of  the 
 Asiatic  Society,  of  which  James  Prinsep  was  the  secretary, 
 or  in  the  pages  of  its  Journal,  of  which  he  Avas  the  editor. 
 No  fatigue  or  trouble  Avas  spared  in  procuring  correct  fac- 
 similes of  inscriptions,  or  in  discovering  ancient  monuments 
 and  sending  draAvings  to  Prinsep  for  his  Journal.” 
 
 In  the  Journals  for  1835  and  1836  various  notices  are 
 given  of  Mr.  Prinsep’s  success  in  deciphering ; and  at 
 length,  in  the  Journal  for  June,  1837,  he  gAes  a full  ac- 
 count in  Mahva  of  his  discoA'ery.  Captain  E.  Smith  had 
 sent  him  facsimiles  of  short  detached  sentences,  eut  irregu- 
 larly on  the  pillars  or  rail  surrounding  a mound  (a  Tope  or 
 Dagoha)  at  Sanchi,  in  Mahva,  so  correct  that  “ every  Avord 
 ean  be  read,  except  Avherc  the  stone  is  actually  cut  aAvay.” 
 
JAJIES  TRINSEP. 
 
 225 
 
 Some  of  these  were  “ apparently  trivial  fragments  of  rude 
 handwriting/’  but  it  was  precisely  those  short  detached  sen- 
 tences which  proved  most  useful ; each  sentence  terminated 
 with  the  same  two  letters.  Now  INIr.  Prinsep  knew  that 
 in  the  Buddhist  temples  of  Ava  it  was  the  custom  to  place 
 flag-staffs,  and  images,  etc.,  bearing  the  donors’  names,  in 
 the  space  which  surrounds  the  chief  monument,  or  Da- 
 goba;  this  gave  him  the  idea  that  these  short  inscriptions 
 must  be  records  of  gifts.  He  modestly  says  therefore  that 
 “ accident  rather  thaii  study  had  the  merit  of  solving  the 
 enigma  which  so  long  baffled  the  learned  /’  but  it  was  an  ac- 
 cident which  could  not  have  happened  to  one  less  well  pre- 
 pared, and  which  would  have  been  useless  unless  zealously 
 followed  up.  In  the  com’se  of  a few  minutes  he  found  him- 
 self possessed  of  the  whole  alphabet,  including  the  letters 
 previously  gained  from  coins,  and  he  now  I’ead, — 
 
 “ The  gift  of  the  mother  of  Dharmagirika.” 
 
 “ The  gift  of  Sobhagaya,  the  fireman  or  blacksmith.” 
 
 “ The  gift  of  Kacla,  the  poor  man.”  . 
 
 “ The  gift  of  Sethin’s  deceased  daughter.” 
 
 Many  similar  records  were  read,  but  these  have  been  se- 
 lected as  most  opposed  to  Brahmanical  custom  and  most 
 characteristic  of  Buddhism. 
 
 It  would  be  pleasant  to  give  further  extracts  from  the 
 Journals  of  1836-37,  but  sufficient  has  been  produced  to 
 show  the  character  of  the  discoveries  then  made,  and  the. 
 great  zeal  with  which  they  were  pursued.  It  would  be  quite 
 out  of  character  uith  the  spirit  of  J ames  Prinsep  anxiously 
 to  weigh  the  exact  proportion  of  his  work,  and  that  of  others, 
 in  these  decipherments.  Such  anxiety  would  be  desecra- 
 tion to  the  memory  of  one  who  simply  did  all  he  could,  and 
 
 Q 
 
226 
 
 LIFE  IX  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 welcomed  and  encouraged  from  others  all  they  could  con- 
 tribute. There  was  no  measm’C  in  his  love  for  truth  or  his 
 love  for  man,  and  in  eonsequeuce  his  influence  was  genial, 
 like  the  warm  west  wind,  at  whose  coming  the  huds  and 
 flowers  hastened  to  expand.  We  shall  now  therefore  attend 
 more  to  the  results  than  to  the  proeess  of  the  diseoveries 
 made  in  strange  new  alphabets. 
 
 xkll  the  short  inscriptions  recording  gifts,  and  especially 
 gifts  from  poor  people  or  women,  showed  strong  evidenee 
 of  Buddhism  as  now  existing  in  Ava  and  Ceylon,  and  them 
 being  Buddhist  was  confirmed  when  the  longer  inseription 
 over  the  principal  gateway  at  Saiichi  ivas  deciphered  •,  it 
 begins  thus 
 
 “ To  the  all-respected  Sramauas,  . . . who  hy  deep  meditation  have 
 subdued  their  passions.” 
 
 A seeond  inseription  on  the  side  of  the  gate  reeords  the 
 name  of  a lady,  who  leaves  money  to  devotees  ivho  shall 
 offer  up  prayers  for  her  deeeased  father  and  mother,  and 
 also  money  to  the  poor ; and  further, — 
 
 “In  the  ratna  griha'  (jewel-house,  treasuiy,)  “also  are  depo- 
 sited three  dinars.  AVith  the  interest  of  these  three  dinai-s,  . . . 
 day  hy  day  three  lamps  are  to  be  lighted  ...  at  the  shrines  of  the 
 foim  Buddhas.” 
 
 This  and  another  inscription  on  the  side  of  the  eastern 
 gate  were  evidently  eut  after  the  gateways  ivere  finished ; 
 and  it  was  therefore  no  disappointment  to  find  them  eom- 
 paratively  modern,  probably  about  a.d.  400.  But  the 
 Agathocles  eoin  proved  that  these  newly  deeiphered  eha- 
 racters  were  used  in  the  third  eentury  before  oim  era ; and 
 IMr.  Prinsep  was  most  impatient  to  apply  “ the  master-key” 
 with  which  they  furnished  him,  for  the  unlocking  of  the 
 
JAMES  PRINSEP.# 
 
 long  inscription  on  the  columns,  which  Avas  already  sus- 
 pected of  teaching  the  tenets  of  some  reformer  in  rehgion. 
 He  was  now  acquainted  with  five  such*columns,  each  hear- 
 ing an  inscription  consisting  of  many  parts  or  paragraphs, 
 and,  with  slight  exceptions,  all  alike.  At  Delhi,  in  addition 
 to  those  on  the  sides,  there  is  one  which  goes  round  the 
 piUar,  and  at  Allahabad  there  are  fi^'e  hues  more  than  are 
 to  be  found  elsewhere ; the  language  is  nearly  the  same 
 as  that  of  the  short  fragments  on  the  rails  at  Sanchi,  and 
 this  proved  to  he  not  Sanskrit,  but  a variety  or  derivation 
 resembling  the  Pali  of  the  Buddhist  books  in  Ceylon.  It 
 also  much  resembled  parts  of  Sanski’it  dramas,  where  it  is 
 spoken  by  women  or  the  lower  classes ; whilst  well  educated 
 Kings,  Princes,  and  Brahmans  speak  Sanskrit.  From  this 
 it  was  conjectured  that,  at  a time  when  Sanskrit  was  the 
 language  of  the  learned  in  Hindustan,  Pali  Avas  the  dialect 
 in  common  use  ; and  IMr.  Prinsep  inferred  that  the  inscrip- 
 tion was  the  work  of  Buddhists,  who,  “ like  all  sects  who 
 have  appealed  to  the  common  sense  of  the  people  against 
 the  learning  and  priestcraft  of  the  schools,  made  use  of  the 
 vernacular.’’  But  Avhilst  the  pillar  inscriptions  were  still 
 under  investigation,  similar  engraArugs  Avere  found  upon 
 rocks.  These  were  first  observed  upon  a rock  at  Girnar,  in 
 Guzerat ; and  whilst  !Mr.  Prinsep  was  endeavouring  to  make 
 out  a facsimile  sent  to  him  in  1837,  Lieutenant  Kittoe  dis- 
 covered a long  series  in  a similar  character  on  the  other 
 side  of  India,  at  Dhauli,  in  Cuttack.  “ I had  just  gvoped 
 my  way  through  the  Girnar  text  and  proved  it,”  !Mr.  Piiu- 
 sep  says,  “ to  be  like  that  of  the  pillars,  a series  of  edicts, 
 . . . Avhen  I took  up  the  Cuttack  inscriptions,  . . . and  to 
 my  surprise  and  joy  discoA'ered  that  the  greater  part  . . . was 
 
228 
 
 LIF^  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 identical  with  the  inscription  at  Girnar.  And  thus,  as  I 
 liad  five  copies  of  the  pillar  inscription  to  collate,  chance 
 had  now  thrown  in  my  way  two  copies  of  the  rock  edicts.” 
 
 A third  rock  inscription  has  since  been  found,  also 
 similar  in  sense,  but  diftering  in  alphabet.  The  two  first, 
 those  from  Guzerat  and  Cuttack,  were  deciphered  by  Mr. 
 Prinsep ; but  the  third  was  not  found  until  illness  had  de- 
 prived him  of  the  power  of  further  efforts : it  is  in  a very 
 peculiar  character,  of  a Hebrew  or  Phoenician  cast.  It  is 
 called  Arianian,  and  was  first  deciphered  by  Mr.  Norris,  in 
 1848,  when  he  felt  almost  disappointed  at  its  containing 
 nothing  more  than  a third  edition  of  the  proelamations  of 
 Girnar  and  Dhauli. 
 
 Eight  copies  of  nearly  similar  proclamations  have  thus 
 been  deciphered,  five  upon  columns  and  three  upon  rocks, 
 all  alike  in  language,  with  a dialect  varying  a little  accord- 
 ing to  the  province.  The  Punjab  inscription,  at  Kapur  di 
 Giri,  which  is  written  in  a character  particularly  unlike 
 Sanskrit,  has  more  of  the  Sanskrit  idiom  and  inflections 
 than  any  of  tlie  others.  This  may  be  accounted  for  on  the 
 principle  that  the  English  of  the  Highlanders  in  Scotland 
 is  much  freer  from  local  idioms  than  that  of  the  lowland 
 Scotch  the  lowland  Scotch,  like  the  people  of  Cuttack 
 and  Guzerat,  having  a vernaeular  of  their  own ; whilst  the 
 Scotch  highlanders  and  the  Punjab  highlanders  spoke  a 
 totally  different  language,  whether  Gaelic,  Phoenician,  or 
 Pahylonian,  and  in  either  case  the  Government  proclama- 
 tions would  be  made  in  the  eourt-dialect  used  at  the  seat  of 
 Government.  The  purport  of  this  proclamation  proved  to 
 he  mainly  an  exhortation  from  the  King  pai’amount  to  his 
 people,  requiring  them  to  live  according  to  the  rules  of 
 
BUDDHIST  PROCLAMAflONS. 
 
 229 
 
 Dharma.  We  have  already  made  acquaintance  witli  Dlmrma 
 as  a legitimate  end  of  existence  in  the  philosophical  writ- 
 ings of  the  Sankhyas  ; but  there  are  two  reasons  why  these 
 Pali  proclamations  could  not  he  the  work  of  Brahmans : 
 firstj  because  Brahmans  refused  to  instruct  any  but  men 
 invested  with  the  sacred  thread,  and  therefore  leaimcd  in 
 Sanskrit ; and  second,  because  a Brahmanical  King  would 
 have  left  instruction  to  Brahmans,  and  was  not  likely  to 
 teach  Dharma  in  his  own  name  without  even  referring  to 
 Rishis  (saints),  or  8ruti  (what  has  been  heard),  or  Smriti 
 (what  has  been  remembered) . We  will  however  first  inspect 
 the  series  of  Edicts,  and  reserve  further  discussion  until 
 their  contents  have  fairly  occupied  our  minds. 
 
CHAPTER  III. 
 
 “ Day  broke  ; the  morning  of  a mighty  year 
 
 Came  forth  and  smiled.” — Babet  Coeitwaxl. 
 
 James  Prinsep’s  first  joyful  renderings  of  tlie  inscriptions 
 on  the  rocks  have  been  revised  by  "Wilson  fully,  and  partially 
 by  Lassen,  and  more  lately,  Prinsep,  Wilson,  and  Lassen’s 
 translations  Mere  revised  by  Burnouf.  These  Icaracd  men 
 bad  the  advantage  not  only  of  mutual  assistance  and  of  new 
 transcripts,  but  also  of  a new  original,  for  the  inscription  at 
 Kapur  di  Giri  was  not  deciphered  during  the  lifetime  of 
 James  Prinsep.  Professor  Wilson  offered  bis  new  read- 
 ings as  “ subject  to  correction  in  every  page,”  and  as  given 
 not  in  opposition,  but  in  continuation  of  the  ■work  already 
 effected.  Indeed  the  testimony  of  so  great  a scholar  to 
 the  merits  of  bis  young  coadjutor  is  too  interesting  to  be 
 omitted.  “ With  regard,”  be  says,  “ to  the  ti’anslations 
 •wbicb  we  OAve  to  the  learning  and  ingenuity  of  the  late 
 James  Prinsep,  u e must  remember  that  they  u ere  the  first 
 attempts  to  convey  a knowledge  of  the  purport  of  docu- 
 ments in  a new  character  and  unknoAvn  language;  . . . 
 copies  bad  been  published  for  many  years,  bxit  bad  baffled 
 
EDICTS  OF  PIYADASI. 
 
 231 
 
 the  most  eminent  scholars,  and  remained  nndeciphered  until 
 James  Priusep  discovered  their  real  nature  and  rendered 
 them  readable;  . . . ivhatever  may  he  objected  to  particular 
 passages  . . . ivill  not  invalidate  his  claims  to  our  acknow- 
 ledgment and  admiration  for  what  he  has  accomplished 
 with  unequalled  labour,  incomparable  ingenuity,  and  un- 
 rivalled success.”*  Not  less  graceful  is  M.  Burnouf’s 
 manner  of  introducing  his  corrections.  “ Si  je  vieus  h mon 
 tour,  apres  de  si  savans  hommes,  proposer  mon  interpreta- 
 tion, c’est  que  comme  personne  ne  pent  se  flatter  d’arriver 
 du  premier  coup  a Pintelligence  definitive  de  ces  monu- 
 meus  difiiciles,  il  u’y  a personne  non  plus  qui  ne  puisse  se 
 flatter  d’aider  h leur  interpretation.” 
 
 "We  shall  first  consider  the  foui’teen  Edicts  on  the  rocks, 
 of  which  Professor  Wilson  has  collated  fom’  copies.  These 
 Edicts  were  issued  in  the  twelfth  and  fom’teenth  years  of 
 the  reign  of  a King  who  calls  himself  Piyadasi,  the  beloved 
 of  the  Gods;  and  there  are  many  reasons  for  belieiing 
 that  the  person  so  designated  is  the  great  Buddhist  King 
 Asoka,  who  reigned  from  b.c.  260  to  220. 
 
 TABLET  I. 
 
 This  is  the  Edict  of  the  beloved  of  the  Gods,  the  Eaja  Piyadasi. 
 The  putting  to  death  of  animals  is  to  be  entirely  discontinued,  and  no 
 convivial  meeting  is  to  be  held,  for  the  beloved  of  the  Gods,  Eaja 
 Piyadasi,  remarks  many  faults  in  such  assemblies.  There  is  but  one 
 assembly  indeed  which  is  approved  of  by  tlie  Eaja,  . . . which  is  that 
 of  the  great  kitchen  of  Eaja  Piyadasi ; every  day  hundreds  of  thou- 
 sands of  animals  have  been  slaughtered  for  virtuous  purposes,  but 
 now  although  this  pious  Edict  is  proclaimed  that  animals  may  be 
 killed  for  good  purposes,  and  such  is  the  practice ; yet  as  the  prac- 
 tice is  not  determined,  these  presents  are  proclaimed,  that  hereafter 
 they  shall  not  be  killed.f 
 
 * Eock  Inscriptions,  Feb.  1819,  J.  E.  A.  S.,  xii.  p.  251. 
 
 + tVilson,  .1.  E.  A.  S.,  xii. 
 
232 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 The  literal  expression  is  that  hundreds  of  thousands  of  ani- 
 mals were  killed  daily  to  make  soap  in  the  King's  kitchen, 
 but  that  this  was  done  before  the  King  had  become  reli- 
 gious. According  to  the  Brahmauical  Code  of  Mann,  pious 
 people  must  avoid  flesh-meat^  and  “ feel  tender  affection  for 
 all  animated  bodies/’  occasioning  “ not  even  the  smallest 
 dread  to  sentient  creatures.”*  And  with  the  same  feel- 
 ing the  Saukhya  philosophers  objected  to  the  Yedic  mode 
 of  “ putting  an  end  to  pain”  (obtaining  absorption  after 
 death),  because  it  involved  sacrifice  or  was  “ attended  by 
 the  slaughter  of  animals.”  The  Brahmans  had  therefore 
 already  taught  the  virtue  of  respecting  animal  life,  but  a 
 Brahmauical  King  would  not  have  practised  this  virtue 
 whilst  he  remained  king ; instead  of  proclaiming  it  as  a 
 rule  of  life  for  universal  acceptation,  he  would  have  alidi- 
 cated  his  throne,  and  have  performed  his  fasts  and  asceti- 
 cisms in  seclusion. 
 
 TABLET  II. 
 
 In  all  the  conquered  territories  of  the  Eaja  Piyadasi,  even  unto 
 the  ends  of  the  earth,  as  in  Chola,  in  Pida  (the  kingdom  of  Satya- 
 putra),+  in  Keralaputra  (or  Malabar),  and  in  Tamhapanni  (or  Cey- 
 lon), and  to  Antiochus  the  Youa  Eaja,  and  to  those  Princes  who 
 are  allied  with  him,  it  is  proclaimed  that  two  designs  have  been  che- 
 rished by  Piyadasi, — one  regarding  men,  and  one  relating  to  ani- 
 mals,— that  everywhere  wholesome  vegetables,  roots,  and  fruit-trees 
 shall  be  cultivated,  and  that  on  the  roads  wells  shall  be  dug  and 
 trees  planted,  to  give  enjoyment  for  both  men  and  animals. 
 
 The  above  reading  of  Tablet  II.  is  taken  partly  from  Wil- 
 son and  partly  from  Lassen ; it  was  however  iMr.  Prinsep 
 who  first  explored  its  contents  and  discovered  the  name  of 
 
 * Code  of  Mann,  vi.  11,  viii.  40. 
 
 t Satyaputra  means  “ Son  of  Truth.”  Lassen  considers  it  the  Buddhist 
 name  of  the  King  of  Pida,  a place  near  Areot. 
 
EDICTS  OF  PIYADASI. 
 
 233 
 
 Antiochus,  -wliicli  he  had  hailed  with  characteristic  ardour. 
 Indian  antiquities  excited  but  little  attention,  he  observed, 
 so  long  as  they  illustrated  mere  Indian  history ; “ but  the 
 moment  any  name  or  event  turns  np,  . . . offering  a point 
 of  connection  between  the  legends  of  India  and  the  histories 
 of  Greece  and  Rome,  ...  a spreading  interest  is  aroused. 
 Such  was  the  engrossing  interest  which  attended  the  iden- 
 tification of  Sandracottus  with  Chandragvpta,  in  the  days 
 of  Sir  William  Jones ; such  the  ardour  with  which  the 
 Sanskrit  was  studied,  and  is  still  studied,  by  philologists  at 
 home,  after  it  was  discovered  to  bear  an  intimate  relation  to 
 the  classical  languages  of  Europe.  ...  I have  now’  to  bring 
 to  the  notice  of  the  Society  another  link  of  the  same  chain 
 of  discovery,  which  will,  if  I do  not  deceive  myself,  create 
 a still  stronger  degree  of  general  interest  in  the  labours, 
 and  of  confidence  in  the  deductions,  of  our  antiquarian 
 members,  than  any  that  has  preceded  it.  I feel  it  so  im- 
 possible to  keep  this  highly  singular  discovery  to  myself, 
 that  I risk  the  imputation  of  bringing  it  foiuvard  in  an 
 immature-  shape.’’*  This  name  Antiochus  Mr.  Priusep  had 
 already  observed  in  four  different  places,  sometimes  with 
 and  sometimes  without  the  addition  of  Yona  or  Yavana 
 Raja.  Professor  Lassen  supposes  this  King  to  have  been 
 Antiochus  II.,  who  died  b.c.  247,  twelve  years  after  the  in- 
 auguration of  Asoka. 
 
 TABLET  III. 
 
 King  Priyadasif  says  : — Tliis  was  ordained  by  me  when  I had 
 
 * J.  A.  S.  B.,  Feb.  1838,  p.  156. 
 
 t In  tlie  last  discovered  inscriptions  at  Kapur  di  Ghi,  in  the  Punjab, 
 Professor  Wdson  observes  that  this  name  has  “ the  more  correct  Sanskrit 
 form  of  Priya,  instead  of  the  Pah  Ph/adasi.”  The  speUing  is  consequently 
 different  iii  the  different  tablets. 
 
23i 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 been  twelve  years  inaugurated  in  the  conquered  country ; that 
 amongst  those  united  in  the  law,  whether  strangers  or  my  own  suh- 
 jeets,  quinquennial  expiation  shall  he  held  for  the  enforcement  of 
 moral  obligations,  as, — duty  to  pai’outs,  friends,  children,  relations. 
 Brahmans,  and  Sramans.  Liberality  is  good,  non-injury  of  living 
 creatures  is  good,  abstinence  from  prodigality  and  slander  is  good. 
 The  Assembly  itself  will  instruct  the  faithful  in  the  virtues  here 
 enumerated,  both  by  explanation  and  bj'  example.* 
 
 ]\I.  Buruouf  observes  that  this  last  sentence  is  more  lite- 
 rally, “ ' D’apres  la  cause  et  d’apres  la  lettre h pen  pres 
 comme  quancl  on  clit,  au  fond  et  dans  la  forme.” f 
 
 TABLET  IV. 
 
 In  past  times,  during  many  hundreds  of  years,  there  have  pre- 
 vailed destruction  of  life  and  the  injury  of  living  beings,  want  of 
 respect  for  kindred.  Brahmans  and  Sramans.  But  now  King  Pri- 
 yadasi  practises  the  Law,  the  drum  sounds,  and  the  Law  is  proclaimed 
 by  processions  of  cars  and  elephants,  and  displays  of  fireworks. 
 That  which  had  not  heen  seen  for  centuries,  is  now  seen,  ...  in  con- 
 sequence of  King  Priyadasl’s  commands  that  the  Law  be  practised 
 
 And  Priyadasi  will  cause  the  observance  of  the  Law  to  increase  ; and 
 the  sons  and  grandsons  and  great-grandsons  of  Priyadasi  will  cause 
 its  observance  to  increase  until  the  Katpa  of  destruction.! 
 
 A sentence  here  occurs  which  is  understood  hy  Biu’nouf 
 to  signify  that  outward  conformity  is  not  sufficient : “ Cette 
 observation  meme  de  la  loi  n’existe  pas  pour  cehii  qui  n’a 
 pas  de  morale.”  The  concluding  words  state  that  the  pre- 
 sent Edict  was  written  in  the  twelfth  year  since  the  inau- 
 guration of  King  Priyadasi. 
 
 Burnouf  reads  the  commencement  of  Tablet  Y.  as 
 
 Virtue  is  difficult  of  performance,”  therefore  Priyadasi 
 
 * Wilson,  J.  K.  A.  S.,  xii. 
 
 t Appendix  to  ‘ Le  Lotus  de  la  Bonne  Loi,’  x.  738. 
 
 I In  transcribing  these  Tablets,  words  and  sentences  arc  omitted  when 
 they  appear  unnecessary  to  the  sense. 
 
EDICTS  OF  PIYADASI. 
 
 235 
 
 and  his  posterity  must  adhere  to  the  law.  “ Vice  is  easily 
 committed^  therefore  Dharma  Mahamatra  (or  great  oflBccrs 
 of  morals)  are  appointed  by  me  in  the  thii’teenth  year  of  my 
 inauguration/’  whose  business  it  will  he  to  preside  over 
 the  law  and  cause  it  to  spread  amongst  people  of  all  the 
 Pashandas,  and  amongst  the  people  of  Kamboja  (eastern 
 Kabulistan),  Gandhara  (Candahar)^  and  Naristika  (Rash- 
 tika  or  Guzerat),  and  also  to  Pitenika,  a place  unknown. 
 Pashanda  has  been  shown  by  Professor  Wilson  to  mean  the 
 pious  of  various  sects.  We  shall  give  the  remainder  of  the 
 Tablet  in  the  Professor’s  words,  hut  he  offers  it  as  “ subject 
 to  very  great  reservation.”* 
 
 TABLET  v. 
 
 They  (the  Mahamatra)  shall  also  be  spread  among  the  warriors, 
 the  Brahmans,  the  mendicants,  the  destitute,  and  others,  without 
 any  obstruction,  for  the  happiness  of  the  well-disposed,  in  order  to 
 loosen  the  bonds  of  those  who  are  bound,  and  liberate  those  who  are 
 confined,  through  the  means  of  holy  wisdom  disseminated  by  pious 
 teachers,  and  they  will  proceed  to  the  outer  cities  and  fastnesses  of 
 my  brother  and  sister,  and  wherever  are  any  other  of  my  kindred ; 
 and  the  ministers  of  morals,  those  who  are  appointed  as  superin- 
 tendents of  morals,  shall,  wherever  the  moral  law  is  established,  give 
 encouragement  to  the  charitable  and  those  addicted  to  virtue.  With 
 this  intent  this  Edict  is  written,  and  let  my  people  obey  it. 
 
 For  Tablet  VI.  we  shall  avail  ourselves  of  Lassen’s 
 version.f 
 
 TABLET  VI. 
 
 Hitherto  attention  has  not  been  given  to  reports  and  affau’s  inces- 
 santly, or  at  aU  times,  and  on  this  account  I decree  that  at  all  times, 
 — even  when  I take  recreation  in  the  apartments  of  the  women  and 
 children,  or  in  conversation,  or  in  riding,  or  in  gardens,  in  aU  places, — 
 thei’e  shall  be  informers  {Prcdivadaka)  to  make  known  to  me  the 
 wishes  of  the  people ; and  everywhere  I will  occupy  myself  with  the 
 
 * Wilson,  .J.  K.  A.  S.,  xii.  p.  187. 
 
 t Lassen,  ii.  p.  255,  note. 
 
236 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 welfare  of  the  people  ; and  whatever  I declare,  or  whatever  the 
 Mahamatra  shall  declare,  shall  he  referred  to  the  Council  for  de- 
 cision. Thus  shall  reports  be  made  to  me.  This  have  I everywhere 
 and  in  every  place  commanded,  for  to  me  there  is  not  satisfaction  in 
 the  pursuit  of  worldly  affairs  ; the  most  worthy  jmrsuit  is  the  pro- 
 sperity of  the  whole  world.  My  whole  endeavour  is  to  be  blameless 
 towards  all  creatures,  to  make  them  happy  here  below,  and  enable 
 them  hereafter  to  attain  Swarga.  With  this  view  this  moral  Edict 
 has  been  written  : may  it  long  endure  ; and  may  my  sons  and  gi’eat- 
 grandsons  after  me  also  labour  for  the  universal  good ; but  this  is 
 difficult  without  extreme  exertion. 
 
 Burnoiif  gives  the  last  sentenee  as  “ Mais  eela  est  difficile 
 !l  faire  si  ce  n’est  par  un  lieroi'sme  superieur.”* 
 
 TABLET  VII. 
 
 The  beloved  of  the  Gods,  the  llaja  Priyadasi,  desires  that  the 
 ascetics  of  all  the  different  beliefs  (the  Pashanda)  may  everywhere 
 dwell  (unmolested) : they  all  aim  at  moral  restraint  and  purity  of 
 disposition ; but  men  have  various  opinions  and  various  desires,  and 
 the  ascetics  obtain  either  all  or  merely  a part  (of  what  they  want). 
 However,  even  for  him  who  does  not  obtain  a large  gift  or  alms, 
 purity  of  disposition,  gratitude,  and  steady  devotion,  is  desirable. t 
 
 This  is  the  general  meaning  attributed  to  Tablet  VII.  by 
 Burnouf,  Avbo  adopts  the  interpretation  of  Pashanda  from 
 Professor  Wilson.  Tablet  VIII.  is  given  from  Wilson.  J 
 
 TABLET  VIII. 
 
 In  past  times  Kings  were  addicted  to  travelling  about,  to  com- 
 panions, to  going  abroad,  to  hunting,  and  similar  amusements ; but 
 Piyadasi,  the  beloved  of  the  Gods,  having  been  ten  years  inaugu- 
 rated, by  him  easily  awakened,  that  moral  festival  is  adopted  (which 
 consists)  in  seeing  and  bestowing  gifts  on  Brahmanas  and  Sramanas, 
 in  seeing  and  giving  gold  to  Elders,  and  overseeing  the  countiy  and 
 the  people  ; the  institution  of  moral  laws  and  the  investigation  of 
 morals.  Such  are  the  devices  for  the  removal  of  apprehension,  and 
 
 * Burnouf,  Appendix,  x.  651.  f Appendix,  x.  '75t. 
 
 X Wilson,  J.  R.  A.  S.,  xii.  202. 
 
EDICTS  OF  PIYADASI. 
 
 237 
 
 such  are  the  different  pursuits  of  the  favourite  of  the  Gods,  King 
 Piyadasi.* 
 
 In  this  Edict  we  may  suppose  the  King  to  have  had  in  his 
 mind  the  Brahmanical  type  of  excellence  for  Kings,  as  in 
 the  Code  of  iNIanu ; — 
 
 “ Hunting,  gaming,  sleeping  by  day,  . . . singing,  dancing,  useless 
 travel,  a King  must  shim  ; because  he  only  who  ‘ has  the  victory  over 
 his  own  organs  . . . can  keep  his  people  firm  to  their  duty.’  ”f 
 
 TABLET  IX. 
 
 The  beloved  of  the  Gods,  the  Eaja  Piyadasi,  thus  says : — Every 
 man  that  is,  celebrates  various  occasions  of  festivity,  as, — on  the  re- 
 moval of  encumbrances,  on  invitations,  on  marriages,  on  the  birth  of 
 a son,  or  on  settmg  forth  on  a journey, — on  these  and  other  occa- 
 sions a man  makes  various  rejoicings.  Such  festivals  are  fruitless — 
 are  vain  ; but  the  festival  that  bears  great  fruit  is  the  festival  of 
 duty  (the  dJiarma  inangcila),  such  as  the  respect  of  the  servant  to 
 liis  master  ; reverence  for  holy  teachers  is  good ; liberality  to  Brah- 
 mans and  Sramanas  is  good.  These  and  other  such  acts  constitute 
 verily  the  festival  of  duty,  and  this  is  to  be  cherished  as  a father  by 
 a son,  or  a dependant  by  his  master ; . . . for  the  establishment  of 
 this  object  vmtuous  donations  are  made,  for  there  is  no  donation  equal 
 to  the  gift  of  duty ; . . . benevolence  contracted  between  friends  . . . 
 is  mere  chaff : ...  by  these  means  let  a man  seek  Swarga-X 
 
 TABLET  X. 
 
 The  beloved  of  the  Gods,  the  Prince  Piyadasi,  does  not  esteem 
 glory  and  fame  as  of  great  value  ; and  besides,  for  a long  tune  it  has 
 been  my  fame  and  that  of  my  peoj)le  that  the  observance  of  moral 
 duty  and  the  service  of  the  virtuous  should  be  practised,  for  this  is  to 
 be  done.  This  is  the  fame  that  the  beloved  of  the  Gods  desires  ; and 
 inasmuch  as  the  beloved  of  the  Gods  excels,  (he  holds)  all  such  repu- 
 
 * Burnouf  reads,  tliat  Piyadasi,  after  being  ten  years  inaugurated, 
 “obtint  la  science  coinplfete  de  la  BocUii,  oil  la  connaissance  de  ee  qu’enseigue 
 le  Buddha.”  This  he  understands  from  a correction  of  the  inscription  made 
 by  Captain  Jacobs  ; the  word  is  Bodliitena,  not  Buddhena. 
 
 t Code  of  Maun,  vii.  47,  45,  44. 
 
 7 WUson,  J.  K.  A.  S.,  xii.  See  also  Biirnouf,  Appendix,  p.  665. 
 
238 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 tation  as  no  real  reputation,  but  such  as  may  be  that  of  the  uu- 
 righteous, — pain  and  chaff;  for  it  may  be  acquired  by  crafty  and 
 unworthy  persons,  and  by  whatever  further  effort  it  is  acquired  it 
 is  worthless  and  a source  of  pain.* 
 
 TABLET  XI. 
 
 Tims  says  the  beloved  of  the  Gods,  King  Priyadasi : There  is  no 
 gift  like  the  gift  of  virtue,  whether  it  be  the  praise  of  virtue,  the 
 apportionment  of  virtue,  or  relationship  of  virtue.  This  (gift)  is 
 the  cherishing  of  slaves  and  dependants,  pious  devotion  to  mother 
 and  father,  generous  gifts  to  friends  and  kinsmen,  Brahmanas  and 
 Sramanas. 
 
 Thus  far  is  Wilson’s  version ; the  remainder  is  given  from 
 Burnouf. 
 
 Respect  for  the  life  of  ci’eatures  is  good ; this  is  what  ought  to 
 be  said  by  a father,  by  a sou,  by  a brother,  by  a friend,  by  an 
 acquaintance,  by  a relation,  and  even  by  mere  neighbours : this  is 
 well ; this  is  to  be  done.  He  who  acts  thus  is  honoured  in  this 
 world,  and  in  the  other  world  infinite  merit  results  from  this  gift  of 
 the  Law. 
 
 Burnouf  gives  '‘gift  of  the  law,”  where  in  Wilson  we  have 
 “ gift  of  virtue  ;”t  the  original  word  being  dharma  dana, 
 which  in  the  Sankhya  Karika  means  money  given  to  pious 
 people  who  promote  dharuia.  The  commentator  of  the 
 Karika  explains  “ dana,  gift,  as  when  a person  assists  holy 
 men  by  donations  of  a dwelling,  of  herbs,  of  a staff,  etc.,” 
 and  in  requital  reeeives  knowledge  leading  to  liberation.  J 
 
 TABLET  XII. 
 
 Priyadasi,  the  beloved  of  the  Gods,  honours  all  forms  of  religious 
 
 * Burnouf  gives  the  last  sentence  as  “ it  is  difficult  to  work  for  the 
 hereof ler  (that  is  the  future  state),  whether  In  high  or  in  low  station  ; unless 
 by  supreme  heroism  a man  abandons  all  (becomes  an  ascetic),  and  that  is 
 difficidt  for  a man  in  high  station.” — Appendis  to  Lotus,  p.  659. 
 
 t The  word  dharma  might  mean  ‘ the  law  but  as  it  is  explained  ui  the 
 EtUct  itself  it  is  moral  merit,  or  goodness. 
 
 1;  Sankhya  Karika  Bhashya,  p.  156. 
 
EDICTS  OF  PlYADASI. 
 
 239 
 
 belief,  whether  professed  by  ascetics  or  by  householders,  both  by 
 giving  alms  and  by  other  modes  of  showing  respect.  But  the  be- 
 loved of  the  Gods  does  not  esteem  alms  and  marks  of  respect  so 
 highly  as  the  increase  of  that  which  is  the  essence  of  renown.  Wow 
 the  increase  of  that  which  is  essential  for  all  forms  of  belief  is  of 
 many  kinds,  but  nevertheless  the  base  of  it  is,  for  each  of  them, 
 praise  m words.  Further,  a man  must  honour  his  own  faith  without 
 blaming  that  of  another,  and  thus  will  but  httle  that  is  VTOug  occur. 
 There  are  even  circumstances  under  which  the  faith  of  others  should 
 be  honoured,  and  in  acting  thus,  according  to  circumstances,  a mail 
 increases  his  own  faith  and  injures  that  of  others.  He  who  acts  dif- 
 ferently diminishes  his  own  faith  and  injures  that  of  others  ; he,  who- 
 ever he  may  be,  who  honours  his  own  faith  and  blames  that  of  others 
 out  of  devotion  to  his  own,  and  says  moreover.  Let  us  make  our  faith 
 conspicuous  ; the  man,  I say,  who  acts  thus  merely  injures  the  faith 
 he  holds  : concord  alone  therefore  is  desirable.  Further,  let  men 
 listen  to  each  law  and  follow  it  with  submission,  for  such  is  the  de- 
 sire of  tlie  King,  beloved  of  the  Gods.  Further,  may  men  of  all 
 faiths  abound  in  knowledge  and  prosper  in  virtue ! And  those  who 
 have  faith  in  this  or  that  religion  should  repeat  this  : — The  King, 
 beloved  of  the  Gods,  does  not  value  alms  or  marks  of  respect  so 
 much  as  the  increase  of  that  whicli  is  the  essence  of  renown  and 
 the  multiplication  of  aU  behefs.  To  this  end  great  ministers  of  law, 
 and  superintendents  of  women,  . . . and  other  officers  are  appointed, 
 and  the  fruit  of  this  institution  will  be  the  speedy  increase  of  all  re- 
 ligions, as  well  as  the  illumination  of  the  law.* 
 
 The  above  interpretation  is  given  wholly  from  Burnouf, 
 ■who  acknowledges  the  great  assistance  he  derives  from 
 Wilson’s  rendering  of  pashanda  ; the  varieties  of  religion 
 included  under  that  word  being  the  chief  subject  of  the 
 Edict,  which  had  no  meaning  so  long  as  pashanda  was  un- 
 derstood to  mean  heretic. 
 
 This  twelfth  Edict  is  the  most  remarkable  of  the  whole 
 series,  and  it  is  therefore  unfortunate  that  it  is  only  found 
 at  Girnar,  and  that  no  second  copy  existsw  herewith  the 
 
 Appendix,  x.  761. 
 
240 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 first  might  be  collated.  Some  expressions  remain,  in  con- 
 sequence, undetermined,  but  the  general  bearing  is  the  same 
 as  that  of  the  seventh  Tablet,  which  is  repeated  both  at 
 Dhauli  and  at  Kapur  di  Giri : it  awards  respect  to  the  fol- 
 lowers of  all  pashandas  (religious  sects),  and  desires  the  fol- 
 lowers of  dharma  (the  law)  to  be  respectful  towards  those 
 with  whom  they  differ.  In  the  twelfth  Tablet  it  is  further 
 stated  that  neither  dana,  gifts,  nor  pnja,  Avorship,  can  be 
 compared  in  A'alue  with  the  increase  of  that  ivhich  is  essen- 
 tial: this  being  apparently  analogous  to  the  Brahmanical 
 doctrine  of  the  Code,  where,  so  soon  as  a devotee  has  be- 
 come “ passion-subdued,’^  and  has  learned  to  fix  his  mind 
 upon  “^Ghe  spirit,”  he  is  exempt  from  “ceremonial  acts.”* 
 A passage  to  the  same  effect  occurs  in  the  commentary  on 
 the  Sankhya  Karika,  where,  after  alluding  to  the  twenty- 
 five  principles  of  Kapila,  as  the  knowledge  which  destroys 
 pain,  it  is  added,  “ He  who  knows  the  twenty-five  princi- 
 })les,  Avhatever  order  of  life  he  may  have  entered,  and  ivlie- 
 ther  he  Avear  braided  hair,  a top-knot  only,  or  be  shaven, 
 he  is  lilieratcd  : of  this  there  is  no  doubt.”  t 
 
 The  thirteenth  Tablet  is  too  imperfect  to  admit  of  a con- 
 tinuous translation,  but  it  is  of  importance  from  its  mention 
 of  four  or  five  Greek  Kings,  avIio  are  supposed  to  be  An- 
 tiochus  II.  (who  died  b.c.  247),  Ptolemy  II.  (avIio  reigned 
 in  Egypt  till  b.c.  246),  Antigonus  Gonatas  (who  reigned  in 
 ^lacedonia  till  b.c.  239),  and  Magas  of  Cyrene  (avIiosc  date 
 is  quite  unmanageable,  for  he  died  b.c.  258,  previous  there- 
 fore to  the  era  aAvarded  to  the  Edicts). J At  Kapur  di  Giri 
 there  is  also  a name  supposed  to  be  that  of  Alexander  the 
 
 * Code,  vi.  49,  54,  95.  J Lassen,  vol.  ii.  p.  212. 
 
 + Sanlihya  Karika.  Sec  ante,  Book  I.  Cli.  IX. 
 
INSCRIPTIONS. 
 
 241 
 
 Great ; the  only  explanation  being  that  cominunieation  was 
 at  that  time  but  slow  between  Eastern  and  Western  Asia, 
 and  that  in  the  careless  and  magnificent  Eastern  fashion, 
 these  names,  ha\fing  formerly  appeared  in  State  documents, 
 were  again  inserted  to  add  dignity  to  the  list,  although 
 half  a century  had  elapsed  since  any  token  had  been  given 
 of  their  bearers  still  ha\dng  a place  among  the  li\dng.* 
 
 The  fourteenth  Tablet  is  in  the  form  of  a conclusion,  sta- 
 ting that,  by  command  of  this  King,  the  text  of  the  Law 
 has  been  given  in  a short  form,  in  a medium  form,  and  in 
 a developed  form,  and  if  it  contains  repetitions,  it  is  owing 
 to  the  importance  of  the  thing  repeated,  and  if  it  contains 
 errors,  it  is  owing  to  the  mistakes  of  the  engraver. 
 
 We  have  now  before  us  the  first  series  of  those  wonderful 
 inscriptions,  which,  startling  as  volcanic  irruptions,  intrude 
 abruptly  into  the  history  of  Ancient  India,  and  show  no 
 veiy  close  alliance  either  with  the  early  Brahmanical  sy- 
 stems or  ufith  the  Buddhism  afterwards  developed.  The 
 dharma  (law,  or  virtue,)  which  they  inculcate  is  not  at 
 variance  with  the  dharma  of  Brahmanical  books ; but  to 
 teach  this  in  the  vernacular  is  an  innovation  : for  a King  to 
 teach  or  exhort  his  subjects  is  also  new ; and  to  teach  all 
 men,  irrespective  of  caste,  is  a still  more  daring  innovation. 
 It  is  evident  that  the  King,  by  whom  these  Edicts  were  pro- 
 mulgated, was  no  longer  a slave  to  Brahmanical  restrictions 3 
 but  neither,  on  the  other  hand,  had  he  adopted  the  modes 
 of  reverence  peculiar  to  the  Buddhist  books.  He  (or  the 
 rehgion  which  he  represents)  was  apparently  in  a transition 
 state, — emancipated  from  old  Brahmanism,  but  not  arrived 
 at  developed  Buddhism. 
 
 * Edwin  Norris,  J.  K.  A.  S.,  vol.  xii. 
 
 R 
 
242 
 
 Lli’E  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 The  King-  issues  his  Edicts  in  the  twelfth  and  fourteenth 
 years  of  his  reign^  and  begins  by  saying,  that  formerly  hun- 
 dreds of  thousands  of  animals  were  slaughtered  daily  for  his 
 soup-kitchen,  but  that  he  had  discontinued  these  convivial 
 meetings  because  he  had  observed  many  faults  in  such  as- 
 semblies. Now  supposing  Piyadasi  to  be  another  name  for 
 Asoka,  this  is  explained  by  the  ‘ Mahawanso,'  in  which  his- 
 tory we  read  that,  during  the  first  ten  years  of  his  reign, 
 Asoka  used  to  regale  sixty  thousand  Brahmans  daily  in  the 
 court  of  his  palace,  but  that,  being  disgusted  “ with  the  de- 
 spicable proceedings  of  these  persons,”  which  he  witnessed 
 from  his  “ upper  pavilion,”  he  desired  his  ministers  to  be- 
 stow alms  with  greater  discrimination.  He  then  caused 
 “ministers  of  all  religions  separately”  to  be  brought  to 
 him,  and  having  seated  them  “ he  discussed  their  tenets,”* 
 and  then,  as  we  infer  from  the  Edicts,  gave  commands  that 
 all,  according  to  their  views,  should  be  examples  of  virtue, 
 and  should  dwell  unmolested,  and  receive  respect  within  the 
 limits  of  his  dominion. 
 
 The  Mahawanso  further  informs  us  that  at  a later  period, 
 when  “ enjoying  the  breezes  in  his  upstairs  pavilion,”  Asoka 
 observed  a Sramana  (Buddhist  ascetic)  passing  the  palace 
 square ; and  being  delighted  with  his  sanctified  deportment, 
 he  caused  him  to  be  called  in,  and  desired  him  to  take 
 whichever  seat  best  suited  him  : the  King  was  startled  by 
 the  Sramana’ s sitting  at  once  upon  the  throne;  but  he 
 nevertheless  listened  with  reverence  to  his  discourse,  and 
 liccame,  in  consequence,  a devout  convert  “ to  the  religion 
 of  the  vanquisher.”  At  this  era  we  may  suppose  his  good 
 works  to  have  eonnneneed. 
 
 * Malmwanso,  cli.  v. 
 
EDICTS  OF  PIYADASI. 
 
 ai3 
 
 Tablet  I.  protects  life.  II.  commauds  supplies  of  vege- 
 table food  for  mail  and  beast.  III.  institutes  quinquen- 
 nial e.x.piations.  IV.  makes  proclamation  of  tlharma  by  the 
 beat  of  the  drum.  V.  institutes  ministers  of  morality, 
 dharma  mahamatra.  VI.  institutes  informers  on  morals, 
 to  whom  the  King  promises  audience  at  all  hours.  VII. 
 desires  the  new  officers  not  to  molest  pious, ascetics  of  other 
 persuasions.  The  four  next  Tablets  touch  chiefly  upon  the 
 King^s  personal  conduct.  In  VIII.  he  gives  up  limiting 
 and  other  amusements.  In  IX.  lie  gives  up  all  festivals 
 except  dharma.  In  X.  he  gives  up  all  ambition,  except  as 
 touching  dharma.  In  XI.  he  pi’omises  gifts  to  dharma, 
 but  in  XII.  he  says,  that  gifts  are  worth  less  than  concord, 
 and  that  even  religious  persons  who  do  not  receive  dharma 
 must  not  be  molested. 
 
 At  Dhauli,  in  Cuttack  (south  of  Calcutta),  there  are  two 
 additional  Edicts,  detached  from  the  general  series ; they 
 also  bear  the  name  of  Piyadasi,  but  belong  apparently  to  a 
 later  stage  of  Buddhist  progress.  The  first  is  addressed  to 
 the  Mahamatra,  or  great  ministers,  of  Tosali,  a town  in 
 Cuttack  : it  declares  that  the  Stupa  of  commandment  pre- 
 pared for  the  benefit  of  thousands  of  living  creatures  is 
 offered  as  a gift,  in  the  same  manner  as  a bouquet  of  flowers 
 is  presented  to  a person  of  importance.  Good  men,  Piya- 
 dasi says,  are  his  sons,  and  for  his  sons  he  desires  every 
 advantage,  not  only  here  but  hereafter;  therefore  this  Stupa 
 has  been  erected  to  instruct  the  whole  proGnce  submitted 
 to  his  rule,  and  upon  it  the  moral  law  is  inscribed,  which 
 forbids  murder,  violence,  and  idleness;  “^'Aiid  this  Edict 
 must  be  read  in  the  month  called  Nakchatra  Tichya,  and 
 thus  promote  the  interest  of  the  Sanyhu  (Assembly)  until 
 
 R 2 
 
244 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 the  end  of  time.”*  The  Dhanna-matra,  or  ministers,  and 
 the  jjrince  royal  of  Oiiyein  are  then  exhorted  to  hold  quin- 
 quennial confessions,  but  during  their  performance  the 
 people  must  not  abandon  their  customary  trades  and  occu- 
 pations. 
 
 The  second  of  these  detached  Edicts  is  less  readable  than 
 even  the  first,  but  M.  Burnouf  distinctly  makes  out  the 
 following  : — “ The  Stupa  of  Dhauli  will  secure  to  me  bliss 
 hereafter  till  the  end  of  time;”  and,  let  this  “ Stupa  of  com- 
 mandment be  read  every  four  months  by  the  Sangha ; in 
 the  interval  it  may  be  read  by  individuals,  and  thus  will 
 the  good  of  the  Assembly  be  secured  till  the  end  of  time.” 
 
 We  Avill  now  turn  to  the  corresponding  series  of  Edicts 
 inscribed  upon  the  five  columns  at  Delhi,  Allahabad,  Bakra, 
 INlathiah,  and  Radhiah,  which  profess  to  be  issued  in  the 
 twenty-seventh  year  of  Piyadasi’s  reign ; each  column  has 
 four  tablets,  facing  the  four  points  of  the  compass : in  the 
 north  tablet  he  proclaims  that  his  government  shall  be 
 guided  by  the  law,  which  is  compassion,  alms,  truth,  and 
 purity,  which  he  practises;  but  he  interrupts  himself  with 
 the  remark,  that  it  is  easier  to  record  one’s  good  actions 
 than  one’s  sins,  for  “ violence,  cruelty,  pride,  envy,  etc.  will 
 not  raise  a voice  against  themselves.”  The  western  tablet  in- 
 stitutes officers  called  Rojaka,  who  are  to  soften  the  rigours 
 of  justice,  and  be  as  careful  of  the  people  as  a nurse  is  of  a 
 a child  : the  meaning  is  not  fully  made  out,  but  the  King 
 appears  no  longer  to  require  the  protection  of  his  army,  the 
 Rujaka  guarding  him  instead : the  tablet  concludes  Avith 
 granting  three  days’  reprieve  to  criminals  condemned  to 
 death,  for  the  very  singular  reason,  that  by  the  virtue  of 
 * Burnouf,  Lotus  of  Good  Law,  Appendix  x.,  p.  G55. 
 
EDICTS  OF  PIYADASI. 
 
 215 
 
 fasts  they  may  be  enabled  to  eai’n  bliss  in  a future  state. 
 The  soutliern  tablet  contains  an  enumeration  of  the  animals 
 whom  Piyadasi  has  saved  from  slaughter,  and  forbids  the 
 death  of  any  animal  during  the  three  four -monthly  periods, 
 and  states  in  conclusion : “ Furthermore,  in  the  twenty- 
 seventh  year  of  my  reign,  tliis  present  time,  twenty- five 
 prisoners  are  set  at  liberty.”  The  eastern  tablet  is  very 
 doubtful ; Priusep  thought  it  repented  of  tlie  Edict  issued 
 in  the  twelfth  year,  but  this  reading  requires  confirmation. 
 
 Circling  round  the  column  at  Delhi,  there  is  another 
 inscription,  unknown  to  either  of  the  other  columns ; it 
 states  that  Piyadasi  has  planted  banyan-trees  for  shade,  and 
 mango-trees  for  fruit,  and  has  dug  wells  along  the  road, 
 and  that  former  kings  had  conferred  similar  enjoyments 
 upon  mankind;  and  further,  he  hopes  that  his  good  works, 
 or  " attachment  to  law,”  will  incite  those  who  follow  him 
 to  do  the  same,  and  with  this  view  Let  stone  pillars  be 
 prepared,  and  let  this  Edict  of  dharrna  be  engraven  thereon, 
 that  it  may  endure  unto  remote  ages.” 
 
 Since  the  death  of  Mr.  James  Prinsep,  yet  another  in- 
 scription has  been  discovered  with  the  name  of  Piyadasi ; 
 it  is  not  written  on  a pillai’,  but  on  a block  of  granite,  not 
 more  than  two  and  a half  feet  square  by  one  and  a half  in 
 depth,  and  this  was  discovered  at  a place  called  Byrath,  six 
 miles  from  Bhabra,  and  on  the  route  to  Jaypur:  the  dia- 
 lect made  use  of  is  the  ancient  Magadhi,  which  was  doubt- 
 less the  language  of  the  capital  and  the  government  at 
 that  period.  A translation  was  attempted  in  Calcutta  in 
 1840,  by  which  it  appeared  to  be  another  Edict  issued 
 by  the  King  Piyadasi,  but  given  on  this  occasion  on 
 the  authority  of  Buddha ; so  much  of  this  translation  was 
 
246 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 liowever  philologically  improbable,  that  Professor  AA'^ilson 
 Avaitecl  for  verifieations  of  the  original  before  admitting  it 
 as  evidenee.  In  1853  a translation  by  ^I.  Burnouf  was 
 published  amongst  his  posthumous  papers,  whieh  was  much 
 less  strange  than  that  made  in  Calcutta ; but  as  it  did  not 
 place  the  iiiseriptiou  altogether  in  keeping,  either  with  the 
 Piyadasi  of  the  former  Edicts  or  with  the  Asoka  of  Buddhist 
 history,  a new  translation  by  Professor  Wilson,  made  from 
 a corrected  transcript,  is  particularly  welcome.  These  new 
 readings  differ  on  several  points  from  those  of  Burnouf,  and 
 although  based  entirely  upon  grammatical  considerations, 
 without  any  reference  to  historical  probability,  they  virtually 
 remove  all  discrepancies. 
 
 TRANSLATION  OF  THE  BHABRA  INSCRIPTION, 
 
 BY  PROFESSOR  WILSON. 
 
 Piyadasi,  tlie  King,  to  the  venerable  Assembly  of  IMagadha,  com- 
 mands the  infliction  of  little  pain  and  indidgence  to  animals. 
 
 It  is  verily  known,  I proclaim,  to  what  extent  my  respect  and 
 favour  (are  placed)  in  Buddha,  and  in  the  Law,  and  in  the  Assembly. 
 
 Whatsoever  (words)  have  been  spoken  by  the  divine  Buddlia. 
 they  have  all  been  well  said,  and  in  them  verily  I declare  that  ca- 
 pability of  proof  is  to  be  discerned  ; so  that  the  pure  law  (which 
 they  teach)  will  be  of  long  duration,  as  far  as  I am  worthy  (of  being 
 obeyed). 
 
 For  these  I declare  are  the  precepts  of  the  Law  of  the  principal 
 discipline  (Vinaya),  having  overcome  the  oppressions  of  the  Aryas 
 and  future  perils,  (and  refuted)  the  songs  of  the  Munis,  the  Sutras 
 of  the  Munis,  (the  practices)  of  inferior  ascetics,  the  censure  of  a 
 light  world,  and  (all)  false  doctrines. 
 
 These  things,  as  declared  by  the  divine  Buddha.  I proclaim,  and 
 I desire  them  to  be  regarded  as  the  precepts  of  the  Law. 
 
 And  that  as  many  as  there  may  be,  male  and  female  mendicants, 
 may  hear  and  observe  them,  as  well  also  as  male  and  female  fol- 
 lowers (of  the  laity). 
 
EDICTS  OF  PIYADASI. 
 
 247 
 
 These  things  I affirm,  and  have  caused  this  to  be  written  (to  make 
 known  to  you)  that  such  will  be  my  intention. 
 
 Thus  corrected  the  Bhabra  inscription  becomes  a con- 
 sistent portion  of  the  long  series  of  Edicts  previously  in- 
 scribed by  Piyadasi.  At  the  commencement  the  King- 
 honours  Dharma,  the  Law;  at  a later  period  he  respects 
 the  Sangha,  or  Assembly ; and  here,  in  the  maturity  of  his 
 faith,  he  reverences  Buddha,  the  Law,  and  the  Assembly. 
 
CHAPTER  IV. 
 
 “ What  noble  vanities,  what  moral  flights,  . . . 
 
 Q-httering  through  their  romantic  wisdom’s  page. 
 
 Make  us  at  once  despise  them  and  admire : 
 
 Fable  is  flat  to  these  high-season’d  sires.” — Young. 
 
 The  inscriptions  upon  rocks  and  pUlars^  being  now  fully 
 established  as  the  work  of  a Buddhist  King,  stand  out  be- 
 fore us  as  an  exhiljition  of  Avhat  Buddhism  was  subsequent 
 to  Alexander  the  Great,  but  coeval  with  the  Greek  rule  of 
 Bactria.  The  Allahabad  pillar  bears  a Avreath  of  Grseco- 
 Assyrian  lotus  and  honeysuckle;*  the  form  of  letter  used  in 
 the  inscriptions  is  identical  with  that  of  the  Greek  eoin 
 legends,  and  the  name  of  Antioehus,  the  “ Yona-rajah,'^  is 
 given  more  than  once  distinctly  Avritten.  Piyadasi^s  Edicts 
 serve  therefore  as  a fixed  buttress  on  Avhich  to  hang  the 
 long  loose  threads  of  Buddhist  literature,  connecting  them 
 on  one  side  with  the  dim  origin  of  Buddhism,  and  on  the 
 
 * Sec  vignette  at  the  close  of  Book  II.  Chap.  I. 
 
BUDDHIST  LITEUATUIIE, 
 
 249 
 
 other  side  with  the  phenomena  which  Buddhism  exhibits  in 
 modern  times.  Some  of  the  interpretations  now  proposed 
 may  possibly  be  swept  away  by  the  next  critical  batteiy,  for 
 our  best  authorities  put  forward  their  suggestions  “ sub- 
 ject to  very  great  reservation  where  Wilson  finds  Piya- 
 dasi  speaking  of  “ Sutras  and  Agamas/'  Buruouf  makes 
 him  “ wish  much  knowledge  and  virtue  •”  where  Lassen  and 
 Prinsep  say,  “Let  the  Rajaka  abide  around  the  banyan- 
 trees,”  Burnouf  gives,  “ Let  the  Rajaka  (royal  officers)  act 
 without  uneasiness  or  fear  ” and  many  similar  discrepan- 
 cies might  be  cited.  But  although  critics  differ  in  the  ren- 
 dering of  particidar  phrases,  they  are  all  agreed  as  to  the 
 general  import  of  the  Inscriptions,  and  accept  them  as  a 
 record  of  the  religion  prevailing  in  the  chief  kingdom  of 
 India  about  the  middle  of  the  third  century  before  Christ, 
 or  from  b.c.  247  to  220.  More  earnest  and  honest  than 
 modern  Buddhists,  they  are  too  independent  of  the  Divine 
 Spirit  for  contemporary  Brahmans;  and  again,  whilst  too 
 liberal  and  philanthropic  for  Brahmanism  of  any  age,  they 
 are  too  free  from  aflFectation  and  hyperbole  for  Buddhists  of 
 even  two  centuries  later.  No  Buddhist  literature  appears 
 to  have  been  written  previous  to  the  Inscriptions ; but  it 
 is  this  doubtful  and  comparatively  recent  literature  which 
 alone  pretends  to  give  the  history  of  Sakya-muni,  wdio 
 founded  Buddhism,  and  of  the  Kings  by  whom  he  was  che- 
 rished and  protected.  Written  as  it  is  by  enthusiasts,  some 
 two  or  three  centuries  after  the  events  recorded,  we  must 
 receive  it  with  considerable  reserve,  remembering  that  but 
 little  of  it  has,  as  yet,  received  that  full  philological  cri- 
 ticism which  was  contemplated  by  the  enlightened  and 
 lamented  M.  Burnouf;  much  however  he  did  perform,  and 
 
250 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 we  thus  learn  tliat  the  Northern  Books  may  be  separated 
 generally  into  three  or  four  classes,  as : — 1.  Simple  Sutras, 
 written  in  prose,  which  are  imagined  to  give  the  words  of 
 Buddha,  as  remembered  by  his  disciples  and  preserved  by 
 oral  teaching,  and  in  which  he  appears  as  a human  teacher 
 with  a human  audience;  2.  Developed  Sutras,  in  which 
 Buddha  claims  to  be  heaven-descended,  and  tells  long  sto- 
 ries of  his  former  births  in  previous  ages  of  the  universe, — 
 his  audience  chiefly  composed  of  men  who  had  become  fly- 
 ing Bodhisattavas  through  the  force  of  Buddhism.  These 
 vaipulya,  or  developed  Sutras,  are  ivi’ittcn  either  in  verse, 
 or  in  prose  mixed  with  verse,  in  a barbarous  dialect,  which 
 confuses  Sanskrit,  Pali,  and  Prakrit  forms  of  grammar  : 
 this,  amongst  other  reasons,  leads  M.  Burnouf  to  believe 
 that  some  of  them  were  composed  or  recomposed  in  K ash- 
 mere  or  the  Punjab,  where  Buddhism  flourished  about  the 
 Christian  era,  and  where  Sanskrit  was  a foreign  tongue. 
 The  third  class  contains  the  transcendental  doctrines,  which 
 are  Brahmauical  metaphysics,  carried  to  an  extreme;  and 
 the  fourth,  which  is  not  very  strictly  divided  from  the 
 third,  is  made  up  of  transcendental  metaphysics  mingled 
 with  Siva  practices ; but  this  corruption  was  ultimately 
 rejected  by  respectalile  Buddhists  in  the  north,  and  never 
 extended  to  Ceylon. 
 
 The  Ceylon  books  are  also  divided  into  Simple  Sutras, 
 Developed  Sutras,  and  Metaphysics ; but  the  writings  now 
 most  read  in  Ceylon  are  commentaries  on  these  earlier 
 Avorks,  Avritten  a.d.  tOO,  by  a learned  Buddhist  named  Bud- 
 dhaghoso,  from  the  Gauges ; and  a compendium  also  of 
 his  composition ; to  Avhich  books  may  be  added  a history 
 of  Ceylon,  called  the  ' MahaAvanso,’  composed  by  a native 
 
BUDDHIST  LITERATURE. 
 
 251 
 
 of  Ceylon  named  Mahanamo,  out  of  the  materials  which 
 Buddhaghoso  had  recently  revised.  The  Mahawanso  was 
 finished  a.d.  490.  Another  most  popular  i-eligious  work  in 
 Ceylon  is  the  ‘ Miliuda  Prasua/  recording  conversations  be- 
 tween a King  and  a Buddhist  sage,  or  hierarch,  who  lived  in 
 northern  India  during  the  first  century  a.d.  ; and  the  re- 
 mainder of  Singhalese  literature  consists  of  modern  com- 
 pendiums  and  compilations. 
 
 The  first-named  series,  the  books  of  Nipal,  arc  written  in 
 Sanskrit,  those  of  Ceylon  in  Pali : hut  neither  collection 
 is  translated  from  the  other ; each  appears  independent, 
 but  taken  equally  from  Pali  oral  tradition.  The  Burmah 
 books  are  translated  from  the  Pali  of  Ceylon ; the  Tibetan 
 and  Mongolian  from  the  Sanskrit  of  Nipal,  and  thus  we 
 have  the  Nipal  and  Ceylon  collections  as  joint  authorities. 
 These  facts  have  been  elicited  by  a long  series 'of  laborious 
 efforts,  much  of  which  necessarily  sink  into  the  ground  like 
 piles  into  a quaking  bog,  lost  to  sight,  but  preparing  a foun- 
 dation for  subsequent  exertion.  When  the  learned  Bemu- 
 sat  and  Schmidt  thought  Buddhism  as  old  as  the  Deluge, 
 they  had  little  to  guide  them  beyond  the  popular  legends 
 written  in  Mongolian  and  Chinese;  for  neither  Sanskrit 
 books,  Pali  books,  nor  inscriptions  had  been  then  disco- 
 vered. In  1828  Mr.  Hodgson  announced  his  discovery  of 
 Buddhist  libraries  in  the  mountains  of  Nipal,  and  in  1830 
 sent  twenty-six  volumes  home  to  London  ; in  1836  he 
 forwai’ded  copies  to  Paris,  where  the  indefatigable  M.  Bur- 
 nouf  at  once  commenced  their  examination.  About  1830  a 
 learned  Hungarian,  Csoma  Korosi,  fortunately  visited  Tibet 
 and  acquired  that  difficult  language ; and  going  afterwards 
 to  Calcutta,  was  gladly  engaged  by  Mr.  H.  H.  Wilson,  then 
 
252 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 Secretary  of  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal,  on  the  part  of  the 
 Society,  to  make  an  analysis  of  the  Tibet  Buddhist  books. 
 For  this  his  knowledge  of  Tibetan  eminently  qualified  him, 
 and  the  result  proved  the  Tibetan  to  be  copies  of  the  San- 
 skrit discovered  by  Mr.  Hodgson.  Whilst  these  discoveries 
 were  being  cftected  in  the  north,  the  late  Hon.  George 
 Turnour,  resident  at  Colombo,  in  Ceylon,  was  equally  suc- 
 cessful in  the  south.  Obtaining  the  confidence  of  influ- 
 ential Buddhist  priests,  he  induced  them  to  disclose  their 
 whole  treasure  of  sacred  literature,  of  which  they  knew' 
 very  little  themselves,  but  were  willing  to  assist  Mr.  Tur- 
 nour in  obtaining  the  knowledge  of  Pali  necessary  for  its 
 investigation.  Had  these  Singhalese  Pali  books  been  met 
 with  in  the  days  of  Colebrooke,  they  would  probably  have 
 been  cast  aside,  for  Pali  was  then  esteemed  “ a provincial 
 jargon.”  When  Wilson  published  his  dramas,  its  charac- 
 ter was  raised,  for  in  his  preface  he  praises  its  ‘G’ichness 
 both  in  structure  and  metrical  code,”  and  shows  that  it 
 must  have  been  cultivated  before  the  Christian  era ; and 
 this  prepared  the  public  to  receive  James  Prinsep’s  dis- 
 covery, that  Pali  in  different  forms  was  the  language  of  the 
 Edicts  and  of  all  the  early  inscriptions  upon  rocks  and 
 temples.  Books  in  Pali  were  therefore  more  allied  to  Pi- 
 yadasi’s  edicts  than  books  in  Sanskrit,  and  ]\Ir.  Tumour’s 
 communications  at  once  excited  the  deep  interest  to  wdiich 
 they  w'ere  entitled ; they  have  not  however  realized  all  the 
 expectations  of  their  discoverer,  for,  although  written  in  the 
 language  in  which  Buddhism  w'as  first  taught,  they  are  in 
 general  of  less  authority  than  the  Sanskrit  writings  in  Nipal. 
 The  explanation  is,  that  Buddhists  w'rote  nothing  for  four 
 or  five  centuries,  and  then,  writing  in  India,  they  made  use 
 
BUDDHIST  LITERATURE. 
 
 253 
 
 of  Sanskrit  as  the  language  of  learned  literature ; hut  in 
 Ceylon,  where  Pali  ivas  not  the  vernacular,  but  the  sacred 
 language,  in  which  the  new  religion  had  been  first  taught, 
 it  was  esteemed  most  suitable  for  sacred  records.  In  a va- 
 luable memoir  on  Buddha  and  Buddhism,  Professor  Wilson 
 shows  that  the  great  body  of  the  Buddhist  literature  of  all 
 countries  was  translated  from  the  language  which  the  Chi- 
 nese call  Fau,  and  Fan  he  proves  to  be  Sanskrit.  A learned 
 Chinese  who  travelled  to  India  in  the  sixth  century,  to 
 study  original  Buddhist  documents,  gives  a description  of 
 its  grammatical  peculiarities,  mentioning  the  dual  number ; 
 and  “all  this,”  Professor  Wilson  says,*  “is  Sanskrit;  and, 
 what  is  more  to  the  point,  it  is  not  Magadhi,  the  proper 
 designation  of  the  dialect  termed  in  the  south  Pali.  No 
 form  of  Prakrit,  Pali  included,  has  a dual  number,  and  the 
 terminations  of  the  cases  of  the  noun  are  in  several  respects 
 entirely  distinct.”  The  Law  of  Buddha  was  not  therefore 
 recorded  in  the  language  commonly  spoken.  In  India, 
 where  this  was  Pali,  the  books  are  all  in  Sanskrit ; and  in 
 Ceylon,  where  Pali  was  a foreign  tongue,  Sanskrit  was 
 translated  into  Pali,  with  commentaries  in  Singhalese ; but 
 whether  in  Sanskrit  or  Pali,  these  books  are  all  the  product 
 of  artificial  conventual  regulations,  written  under  the  gui- 
 dance of  a formal  religious  assembly,  “ apres  coup,”  as  Bur- 
 nouf  says,  “dans  le  loisir  d’un  Vihara”  (or  convent),  and 
 wanting  therefore  entirely  in  the  fresh  genuine  feeling,  right 
 or  wrong,  and  free  imagination  which  are  so  charming  in  the 
 early  Brahmanical  literature. 
 
 The  most  popular  portions  of  these  vast  Buddhist  libra- 
 ries, both  in  the  north  and  the  south,  are  developed 
 
 * Lecture  on  Buddha  and  Buddhism,  read  at  the  R.  A.  S.,  April  8,  1854. 
 
254 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 Sutras,  relating  the  history  of  Buddha.  His  biography 
 commences  witli  the  countless  ages  during  which  he  sub- 
 mitted to  birth  and  death  previous  to  being  born  on  earth. 
 Not  contented,  like  the  Brahmans  when  narrating  the  his- 
 tory of  their  Sage,  Kapila,  with  merely  stating  so  incom- 
 prehensible a fact,  the  Buddhists  go  boldly  into  detail, 
 and  tell  us  that  when  Sakya  (Buddha)  was  a king  upon 
 earth,  he  established  peace  in  the  universe,  and  had  a thou- 
 sand sons,  all  virtuous  and  brave ; that  after  he  was  born 
 in  heaven  he  lived  as  Indra  for  thirty-six  million  five  hun- 
 dred thousand  years,  but  that,  desirous  of  saving  men,  he 
 came  to  earth,  and  gave  his  body  to  a hungry  tiger ; and 
 at  length,  having  amassed  the  necessary  amount  of  virtue, 
 he  approached  the  bosom  of  his  mother  on  a white  ele- 
 phant. His  destined  mother,  who  was  wife  to  the  Raja 
 Suddhodhana  (in  Rohilcund),  dreams  that  this  white  ele- 
 phant filled  the  universe  with  light ; awaking  frightened, 
 she  tells  the  King  her  dream,  and  soothsayers  being  con- 
 sulted, predict  that  a child  will  be  horn  to  her,  who  shall 
 attain  cither  worldly  or  spiritual  greatness.  This  is  one 
 amongst  many  sketches  of  Buddha’s  origin;  sometimes 
 histories  are  given  of  twenty-four  Buddhas  who  preceded 
 Sakya  (the  only  Buddha  known  to  history),  and  the  three 
 last  of  these  imaginary  Buddhas  arc  thus  mentioned  : — 
 
 “ The  twenty-second  was  manifested  in  a pure  Brahman 
 tribe.  He  issued  from  the  ivomb  of  his  mother  like  a fiame 
 of  fire  from  a golden  furnace,  and  lived  the  life  of  a layman, 
 maintaining  domestic  relations  for  four  thousand  years.  He 
 had  three  palaces,  and  an  establishment  of  thirty  thousand 
 females.  When  he  left  his  home  to  assume  the  religious 
 character,  he  went  in  liis  state-car,  drawn  liy  six  high-bred 
 
BUDDHIST  LITERATURE. 
 
 horses ; and  in  pursuance  of  his  example,  forty  thousand 
 persons  also  entered  the  priesthood.”  The  sacred  tree  of 
 this  Buddha  was  the  Acacia.  During  his  reign,  or  Bud- 
 dhahood,  the  historical  Buddha  was  a king  who  presented 
 the  twenty-second  Buddha  with  alms,  dishes,  robes,  sandal- 
 wood, and  medical  drugs.  The  twenty-third  Buddha  lived 
 in  the  domestic  relations  of  a layman  for  three  thousand 
 years,  had  three  palaces,  and  left  his  home  mounted  on  an 
 elephant : his  sacred  tree  was  the  Ficus  glomerata ; his  sta- 
 ture was  thirty  cubits,  and  “ he  was  invested  with  a golden 
 glory,  like  the  flames  issuing  from  a blacksmith’s  forge.” 
 The  twenty-fourth  Buddlia  “ bestowed  largely  in  alms  : his 
 sacred  tree  was  the  Banyan  ; in  stature  he  was  twenty 
 cubits,  dazzling  like  the  lightning  in  the  skies,  and  reful- 
 gent as  the  full  moon ; and  the  term  of  his  existence  was 
 twenty  thousand  years.”  The  twenty-fifth  Buddha  was  the 
 real  man  with  whom  Buddhism  originated  : he  had  existed 
 one  hundred  thousand  ages,  had  attained  the  necessary  at- 
 tributes, and  had  made  the  earth  quake  seven  times  hy  the 
 merit  of  his  charities ; and  when  the  period  arrived  for  his 
 translation  to  earth,  “the  Dewas  with  loosened  top-knot 
 and  dishevelled  hair,  wiping  their  tears  ivith  their  hands, 
 clad  in  red  vestments,  and  assuming  revolting  forms,” 
 wandered  through  the  world,  to  make  the  announcement 
 that  in  one  hundred  thousand  years  the  world  would  be  de- 
 stroyed. Then  at  length  ludra,  the  great  King  of  Dewas 
 and  other  Gods,  and  the  great  Brahma  assembled  toge- 
 ther, and  repairing  to  the  Buddha  elect,  said,  “ Blessed  ! by 
 thee  the  ten  probationary  courses  have  been  fulfilled,  not 
 for  the  purpose  of  realizing  the  beatitude  of  a Sakra  (Indra) , 
 a Brahma,  or  other  deity  j the  state  of  omniscience  has 
 
25G 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 been  sought  by  thee  for  the  purpose  of  redeeming  the  world, 
 by  attaining  Buddhahood.’’  They  therefore  request  him  to 
 submit  to  be  born ; and  he  begins  reflecting  upon  where  and 
 when  and  all  the  particulars,  and  finally  determines  that 
 he  must  bo  born  at  Kapila-vastu,  in  the  north  of  India, 
 in  a Kshattriya  family ; and  that  the  Raja  Suddhodhana 
 must  be  his  father,  and  the  Princess  ^laya  his  mother.  His 
 future  mother  is  then  described  as  “ exalted  by  the  gift 
 vouchsafed  to  her,  enjoying  perfect  health  and  free  from 
 fainting  fits.”  When  the  time  for  her  child’s  birth  drew 
 near,  she  was  seized  with  a longing  to  repair  to  the  city  of 
 her  own  family ; and  her  husband,  signifying  his  consent, 
 ordered  the  road  to  be  smoothed  and  decorated  with  arches 
 of  plantain-trees  and  areca  flowers,  foot-cloths,  etc.,  along 
 which  the  Queen  travelled  in  a newly-gilt  palanquin.  !Mid- 
 way  she  entered  a forest,  wherein  was  a hall  of  recreation, 
 resorted  to  by  the  inhabitants  of  both  cities.  The  trees 
 were  cov^ered  ndtli  blossoms,  the  woods  were  ringing  with 
 the  melody  of  the  sweet-toned  Coil  and  in  this  enchant- 
 ing scene  the  Buddha  elect  was  born.  Extricating  himself 
 immediately  from  the  hands  of  nurses,  he  made  seven  paces 
 towards  the  north,  and  at  the  seventh  step  he  stopped  and 
 “ shouted  forth  with  the  voice  of  a lion,  ‘ I am  the  most  ex- 
 alted in  the  world,  I am  the  most  excellent  in  the  world; 
 this  is  my  last  existence,  henceforth  there  is  no  regeneration 
 for  me.’  ”t  By  which  he  meant  he  was  emancipated  from 
 future  transmigration.  The  child  and  his  mother  were  then 
 
 * The  Indian  cuckoo  ; but  the  note  is  totally  unlike  that  of  oiu-  cuckoo, 
 being  a rich  loud  ringing  strain,  like  the  high  eager  tone  in  which  nightin- 
 gales occasionally  shig. 
 
 t J.  A.  S.  B.,  vol.  rii.  Sept.  1838. 
 
LEGENDS  OF  BUDDHA. 
 
 257 
 
 conducted  back  to  Kapila-vastu ; and  tlie  mother  died,  as 
 previously  predicted.  The  child  was  entrusted  to  the  care 
 of  his  aunt  Gotami,  and  canned  to  a temple  to  do  homage 
 to  the  God  L’ha  (say  the  Tibetans) ; but  instead  of  receiving 
 worship,  the  idol  rose  and  showed  reverence  to  the  infant.* 
 At  this  time  a Sage,  or  retired  Brahman,  living  on  the 
 Mountain  of  Perfumes,  was  disturbed  in  the  night  by  the 
 quaking  of  the  heavens  and  the  earth  ; he  saw  a great  fire, 
 the  blaze  of  which  extended  fi'om  Kapila-vastu  to  the  moun- 
 tain on  which  he  dwelt.  In  the  middle  of  the  fire  was  a 
 flower,  and  out  of  the  flower  came  the  lord  of  lions,  who 
 made  seven  steps  and  roared ; and  birds,  beasts,  and  insects 
 hid  themselves  in  terror.  Guided  by  this  light  the  Sage 
 flew  through  the  air  towards  it ; but  when  svithin  a short 
 distance  of  the  palace  he  approached  on  foot,  to  show 
 respect  for  the  newly-born  future  Buddha.f  IVhen  the 
 SageJ  arrived,  he  was  reverentially  welcomed  by  the  Raja, 
 who  sent  for  his  infant,  intending  it  to  do  homage  to  the 
 holy  man ; but  this  could  not  be  accomplished  with  the 
 Sage  any  better  than  with  the  idol.  The  child  no  sooner 
 appears  than  the  holy  man  falls  down  in  worship,  and  the 
 infant  puts  his  feet  upon  his  hoary  head.  The  tapasa  (holy 
 man)  smiled  and  said,  “ This  is  the  wonderful  mortal  •” 
 and  he  wept  when  he  reflected  that  he  should  not  live  to 
 see  him  attain  Buddhahood.  In  consequence  of  these  and 
 other  signs  of  the  child’s  future  greatness,  he  is  named 
 Siddhartha,  the  ‘ establisher’  of  faith.  But  whilst  the  wise 
 men  of  the  court  think  this  his  probable  destiny,  they  also 
 predict  that  if  he  were  to  lead  the  life  of  a layman  he  would 
 
 * Csoma  Korosi,  As.  Res.  vol.  xx.  p.  289.  f Remusat,  Chin-tin. 
 
 X The  Chinese  call  him  a “ Doctor  of  Reason.” 
 
258 
 
 LIFE  IX  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 become  a chakravarti,  or  supreme  monarch  ; and  this  pre- 
 diction so  much  e.xcited  the  Raja’s  ambition  that  he  spared 
 no  pains  to  fit  his  son  for  the  duties  of  royalty,  and  to  pre- 
 serve him  fi’om  the  severities  of  a religious  life.*  He  was 
 instructed  in  sixty-four  different  alphabets,  amongst  which 
 are  mentioned  the  Yavana  and  the  Huna.f  When  he  was 
 sixteen,  “ the  Raja  built  for  him  three  palaces,  adapted  to 
 the  three  seasons, — one  of  nine,  another  of  seven,  and 
 the  third  of  five  stories ; the  edifices  were  nevertheless  of 
 the  same  height,  but  the  stories  constructed  on  different 
 plans.”  The  Raja  then  sent  leaves  (despatches)  to  all  the 
 Sakya  Princes,  announcing,  “ My  son  is  of  age ; I am 
 causing  him  to  he  installed  with  me  in  the  sovereignty. 
 Let  all  send  from  their  own  homes  their  grown-up  daugh- 
 ters to  this  house.”  But  the  Princes  objected,  that  al- 
 tliough  the  young  Prince  had  personal  beauty,  he  Avas  “ un- 
 taught in  a single  martial  accomplishment,  and  incapable 
 of  controlling  women.”  Hearing  this,  the  Buddha  elect 
 offered  to  exhibit  his  proficiency  in  every  exercise  they 
 might  propose.];  He  strung  the  bow  which  requires  the 
 strength  of  a thousand  persons,  and  let  the  arrow  fly  uith 
 a noise  like  that  of  thunder,  and  he  pierced  a horsehair, 
 from  which  Avas  suspended  a fi’uit  at  the  distance  of  a 
 yojana.  After  this  triumph  the  Sakya  tribes  sent  their 
 daughters  superbly  decorated,  and  the  young  Prince’s  pa- 
 lace AA'as  furnished  A\ith  “ forty  thousand  dancing  and  sing- 
 ing girls,”  amongst  whom  aa  as  Yasodhara,  avIio  became  chief 
 of  the  Zenana,  and  mother  of  his  son  Rahula.  The  Raja 
 
 * .1.  X.  S.  B.,  vol.  vii.  p.  803. 
 
 t (^soina  KorOsi,  .Vs.  Kes.  vol.  xx.  }>.  220. 
 
 X 3.  A.  S.  B.,  vol.  vii.  p.  801. 
 
LEGJENDS  OF  ISUDDHA. 
 
 259 
 
 is  indefatigable  in  his  efforts  to  divert  liis  son  from  any 
 thoughts  of  a religions  life,  but  the  young  Prince  early 
 shon  s an  interest  in  disease,  decrepitude,  and  death ; and 
 notwithstanding  all  his  father’s  earnest  precautions,  he  en- 
 counters three  predicted  signs ; and  all  the  charms  of  his 
 pleasure-gardens  and  bands  of  female  musicians  cannot 
 withhold  him  from  reflection.  At  the  moment  of  his  hav- 
 ing encountered  the  third  of  the  appointed  signs,  and  of  his 
 having  resolved  in  consequence  to  abandon  domestic  life, 
 a messenger  arrived  to  tell  him  that  his  wife  Yasodhara* 
 had  become  the  mother  of  a son.  He  quitted  his  pleasm’e- 
 garden,  mounted  his  chariot,  drove  back  to  his  superb,  en- 
 chanting palace,  and  spent  the  night  in  contemplation.  His 
 most  beautiful  women  croAvded  round  and  endeavoured  to 
 delight  him  ndth  their  singing  and  musical  instruments,  but 
 when  they  perceived  his  indifference,  they  said,  “Why  should 
 we  fatigue  ourselves?”  and  went  to  sleep.  When  the  Buddha 
 elect,  sitting  cross-legged  on  his  couch,  perceived  “these 
 sleeping  females,  some  in  ungraceful  attitudes,  some  Avith 
 dishevelled  hair,  some  gnashing  thoir  teeth,  some  mutter- 
 ing,” he  “became  the  more  thoroughly  confirmed  in  his 
 abhorrence”  of  his  lay  life.  “ Unto  him  the  sjAlendid 
 and  charming  palace,  like  unto  the  mansion  of  Indra,  be- 
 came, as  it  were,  a disgusting  object,  filled  Avith  loathsome 
 corpses,”  and  he  resolved  that  on  that  very  day  his  final 
 separation  from  lay  connections  should  take  place.  Rising 
 at  once,  he  Aveut  to  the  door  of  the  apartment  and  called, 
 “Who  is  there?”  Channa,  who  had  been  born  the  same 
 day  Avith  the  Buddha  elect,  Avas  sleeping  on  the  threshold, 
 and  replied,  “ Prince,  it  is  I,  Channa.”  The  Buddha  elect 
 * J.  A.  S.  B.,  vol.  vii.  p.  805. 
 
260 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 then  said,  “ This  very  day  am  I resolved  to  effect  my  great 
 final  deliverance  : without  uttering  a word  bring  me  a swift 
 sindhaxua  (steed) Channa  replied,  “Sadhu  (well).  Lord;” 
 and  seeing  the  superb  charger  Kanthaka  standing  under 
 a canopy  decorated  with  jessamine  flowers,  he  said,  “ It 
 is  proper  that  this  charger  should  be  caparisoned  today 
 for  the  final  deliverance  of  my  master.”  Unwilling  to  go 
 without  seeing  his  new-horn  infant,  the  young  father,  the 
 Buddha  elect,  proceeded  “ to  the  chamber  of  the  mother  of 
 Rahula,  and  gently  opened  the  door.  At  that  moment  a 
 silver  lamp,  lit  with  fragrant  oil,  was  shedding  its  light  on 
 the  interior  of  the  chamber,  and  the  mother  of  Rahula  was 
 slumbering,  with  her  hand  resting  on  the  head  of  her  infant, 
 who  ivas  reposing  under  a superb  canopy.  The  elect,  his 
 foot  still  resting  on  the  threshold,  and  intently  gazing,  thus 
 meditated  : ^ If  I remove  the  hand  of  the  Princess,  to  take 
 up  my  child  (and  embrace  him),  she  Avill  be  awakened,  and 
 thus  an  impediment  will  be  produced  to  my  departure. 
 Let  me  then,  after  I have  attained  Buddhahood,  return  and 
 see  my  son.’  He  then  descended  from  the  upper  apart- 
 ments of  the  palace  and  sprang  upon  his  steed,  saying,  ‘ Do 
 thou,  my  cherished  Kanthaka,  in  one  night  translate  me.’ 
 He  would  have  had  some  difficulty  in  getting  through  the 
 guarded  gates  of  the  town,  but  his  tutelary  Dewata  came 
 to  his  aid.  In  the  course  of  the  night  he  traversed  three 
 kingdoms,  and  performed  a march  of  thirty  yojanas,^  and 
 reached  a river,  over  which  his  horse  leaped  and  lauded  him 
 in  a bed  of  sand  on  the  opposite  bank.  The  Buddha  elect 
 then  said,  ‘ Channa,  my  friend,  take  thou  my  regal  orna- 
 
 * A yojana  is  sometimes  four  miles  and  a half,  sometimes  five,  but  it 
 seems  to  be  most  frequently  reckoned  ns  a distance  of  nine  miles. 
 
LEGENDS  OF  BUDDHA. 
 
 261 
 
 ments  and  my  charger,  and  depart ; I am  about  to  enter 
 into  the  religious  life.’  Channa  entreated  permission  to 
 do  the  same,  but  was  not  allowed.  Kanthaka,  the  charger, 
 took  the  parting  still  more  to  heart,  and,  after  proceeding 
 a certain  distance  and  finding  the  Buddha  elect  no  longer 
 visible,  unable  to  endure  his  grief,  expired,  and  was  repro- 
 duced in  the  form  of  a Dewa  in  the  Tatwatinsa  heavens.” 
 The  Buddha  elect  then  passed  seven  days  in  a mango-grove, 
 “in  the  enjoyment  of  sacerdotal  happiness,  dazzlnig  in  his 
 yellow  raiment,  like  the  sun  under  the  blazing  clouds  of  a 
 glaring  sunset,”  etc.  After  a time  he  crossed  the  Ganges, 
 and  entered  the  city  of  Raj  agriha,  celebrated  for  its  superb 
 palace,  I’esplendent  with  gems,  and  here  he  at  once  com- 
 meneed  the  Buddhist  practice  of  begging  alms  from  house 
 to  house.  The  inhabitants  were  awe-struck  by  his  remark- 
 able and  godlike  appearance,  and  when,  having  collected 
 scraps  sufficient,  he  went  outside  the  gate  to  eat  his  unin- 
 viting repast.  King  Bimbisara  himself  repaired  to  the  spot, 
 and  held  “ intercourse  with  him  as  refreshing  as  the  inter- 
 course of  relations but  although  the  Buddha  elect  en- 
 joyed the  King’s  conversation,  he.  resisted  his  entreaties 
 to  remain  and  accept  wealth  and  luxuries.  “ jNIaharaja,” 
 replied  he,  “to  me  there  is  no  longer  need  either  of  the 
 enjoyment  of  wealth  or  the  gratification  of  the  passions ; 
 severed  from  the  domestic  and  lay  ties,  my  aspirations  are 
 directed  to  the  attainment  of  supreme  omniscience.”* 
 
 The  Buddha  elect  next  sought  the  Brahmauical  schools 
 which  were  held  on  the  hills  near  Gaya : he  first  became 
 the  pupil  of  Arada  Kalama,  and  afterwards  of  Rudraka ; but 
 after  acquiring  all  the  knowledge  these  teachers  could  com- 
 * J.  A.  S.  B.,  vol.  vii.  p.  809. 
 
262 
 
 LIFE  IX  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 municate,  he  appears  to  liave  been  convinced  that  Upani- 
 shads  and  aphorisms,  whether  of  Kapila  or  Kanada,  etc., 
 were  insufficient  to  produce  the  state  of  exaltation  at  which 
 he  aimed ; he  therefore  left  Rudraka  and  took  with  him  five 
 pupils,  who,  being  of  the  Sakya  tribe,  had  attached  them- 
 selves to  him.*  For  six  years  he  gave  himself  up  to  ascetic 
 seclusion,  meditation,  and  hardship,  and  carried  fasting  to 
 such  an  extreme  that  he  reduced  himself  to  a skeleton,  and 
 his  complexion,  which  had  been  of  a fine  golden  hue,  be- 
 came black.  But  this  emaciated  condition  of  body  he  found 
 weakening  to  the  mental  powers,  and,  convinced  that  this 
 could  not  be  the  means  by  which  to  attain  Buddhahood, 
 he  left  his  retreat,  and  making  alms-pUgrimages  through 
 the  neighbouring  rillages,  obtained  a full  supply  of  food. 
 By  this  means  he  regained  his  health  and  his  complexion, 
 but  he  lost  his  pupils,  who  gave  him  up  as  a person  whose 
 resolution  had  failed,  and  went  to  live  by  themselves  at  a 
 hermitage  near  Benares. 
 
 After  this  the  Buddha  elect  went  alone  into  a forest,  and 
 contended  with  powers  of  darkness.  INIara,  called  God  of 
 Death,  is  represented  as  jealous  lest  Prince  Siddhartha  (the 
 Buddha  elect)  should  overthrow  his  dominion.  A strange 
 scene  is  described,  in  which  iNIara  advances  against  him 
 with  all  his  legions,  making  an  uproar  as  if  bursting  the 
 earth,  which  was  heard  from  a distance  of  a thousand 
 yojanas.  ]\Iara,  mounted  on  his  tusked  elephant,  and  ac- 
 companied by  his  army,  equipped  Avith  swords,  axes,  jaA  elins, 
 bows,  arroAvs,  spikes,  clubs,  rings,  Avheels,  and  assuming  the 
 faces  of  deer,  lions,  bears,  monkeys,  serpents,  cats,  oaaIs, 
 buffaloes,  etc.,  and  Avith  terrific  unnatural  forms  of  men, 
 
 * Lassen,  toI.  ii.  p.  69. 
 
LEGENDS  OF  BUDDHA. 
 
 263 
 
 deraonSj  and  spirits,  continued  rusliing  towards  the  spot  on 
 which  tlie  Buddha  elect  was  seated  at  the  foot  of  the  Bodhi 
 tree  [Pipal).  Indi’a,  Brahma,  and  other  celestials  who  had 
 been  in  attendance  upon  the  Buddha  elect,  all  fled  at  the 
 terrifie  appi’oach  of  jNIara,  “ the  great  mortal,  as  if  he  were 
 ^laha  Brahma  himself,  alone  retaining  his  position.”  Crash- 
 ing storms  and  awful  earthquakes,  and  every  other  imagi- 
 nable dertce,  were  alike  resistless,  and  by  the  power  of  his 
 meiats  the  great  mortal  overcame  the  efforts  of  iNIara,  and 
 during  the  course  of  the  night  attained  omniscience  and 
 realized  sanctification ; and  having  thus  acquired  in  perfec- 
 tion the  virtues  (inherent  in)  all  the  Buddha,  he  chanted 
 forth  the  Hymn,  u hich  is  the  established  thanksgirtng  of  a 
 Buddha  (on  the  achievement  of  Buddhahood). 
 
 “ Performing  my  pilgrimage  through  the  (sansara)  eternit3’^  of 
 coimtless  existences,  in  sorrow  have  I unremittingly  sought  in  vain 
 the  artificer  of  the  abode  (of  the  passions),  >.  e.  the  human  frame. 
 Now,  O artificer  ! thou  art  found.  Henceforth  no  receptacle  of  sin 
 shalt  thou  form ; thy  frames  (hterally,  ribs)  broken,  thy  ridge-pole 
 shattered:  the  sold  (or  mind)  emancipated  from  liabdity  to  rege- 
 neration (by  transmigration)  has  annilidated  the  dominion  of  the 
 passions.”* 
 
 After  tliis  victorious  consummation  of  his  trials,  he  re- 
 mained for  seven  weeks  in  a sort  of  trance,  dui’ing  which 
 time  he  was  supported  entirely  by  his  miraculous  attributes ; 
 on  the  forty-ninth  day  he  washed  his  face  and  eleansed  his 
 teeth  with  the  t\rtgs  of  the  Nagalata  creeper,  and  accepted 
 parched  rice  and  honey  from  two  travelling  traders ; but 
 still  he  lingered  in  the  forest,  reluctant  to  commence  his 
 great  undertaking,  and  doubtful  apparently  whether  he  was 
 suffieiently  qualified.  “ Alas,”  he  exelaimed,  “ that  dharma 
 * ,T.  A.  S.  B.,  vol.  vii.  p.  813. 
 
264 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 should  devolve  on  me  to  be  established ! ” Brahma  and 
 other  divinities  are  then  represented  as  saying,  “ The  world 
 is  assuredly  about  to  perish ; Bhagavan  (lord),  vouchsafe  to 
 propound  the  dharma.”  From  this  moment  his  resolution 
 never  failed  him;  and  considering  where  he  should  com- 
 mence, he  remembered  the  services  formerly  rendered  to 
 him  by  his  five  pupils,  and  determined  that  to  them,  in  the 
 deer-forest  near  Benares,  he  would  first  proclaim  the  su- 
 premacy of  dharma.  The  time  is  supposed  to  have  been 
 April  or  May,  b.c.  588.  He  approached  the  Isapatana,  or 
 holy  residence,*  and  his  former  pupils  recognized  him  in 
 the  distance ; hut  they  said  one  to  another,  “ Here  is  the 
 Srarnana  Gotama  (or  Sakya),  who  having  indulged  in  good 
 things  and  recovered  his  stoutness  of  person,  acuteness  of 
 senses,  and  brilliancy  of  complexion,  comes  hither;  but  we 
 will  not  bow  down  to  him,  we  will  only  prepare  a seat.^’ 
 Bhagavan,  divining  their  design,  manifested  toward  them 
 such  an  amount  of  benevolence  that  they  were  wholly  un- 
 able to  cany  their  intention  into  effect ; and  bowing  down, 
 they  rendered  him  every  mark  of  reverence.  Thereupon 
 announcing  to  them  his  attainment  of  Buddhahood,  and 
 taking  a suitable  seat,  he  expounded  to  them  a discourse 
 upon  dharma. 
 
 There  is  beauty  and  truth,  as  well  as  absurdity,  to  be 
 detected  in  these  tales;  and  the  superficial  resemblance 
 which  they  bear  to  parts  of  Christian  Scripture  is  such  as 
 to  make  one  thoughtful.  In  truth.  Buddhism  still  lies  en- 
 tangled in  a net ; and  the  time  has  not  yet  arrived  when, 
 like  the  lion  in  the  fable,  the  nibble  of  a mouse  can  set  it 
 free.  We  do  not  know  whether  these  resemblances  should 
 
 * Literally  tlic  city  of  Siva,  which  Benares  has  been  always  designated. 
 
REFLECTIONS. 
 
 265 
 
 be  attributed  wholly  to  the  similarity  of  human  vanity  and 
 human  hopes  in  all  ages  of  the  world ; hut  we  eould  almost 
 imagine  that^  before  God  planted  Christianity  upon  earth, 
 he  took  a braneh  from  the  luxuriant  tree  and  threw  it  down 
 to  India.  It  was  from  the  Tree  of  Truth,  and  therefore  it 
 taught  true  morality  and  belief  in  future  life ; but  it  was 
 never  planted,  therefore  it  never  took  root  and  never  greu’ 
 into  full  proportions ; and  it  was  thrown  upon  earth,  not 
 brought,  and  though  man  perceived  it  heaven-born,  he  knew 
 not  how  to  keep  it  alive.  When  its  green  leaves  drooped, 
 he  stiffened  them  and  stifled  them  with  vai’nish ; and  soon, 
 although  bedizened  with  tinsel,  it  shrank  into  formal  athe- 
 ism or  dead  idolatry.  It  is  difficidt  wholly  to  suppress  dis- 
 eussion  of  this  kind,  even  when  eonvinced  that  it  is  but 
 little  to  the  purpose,  because  the  subject  to  be  discussed 
 has  so  little  distinctness.  Sometimes  the  artificial  character 
 of  the  tales  is  sufficiently  conspicuous,  as  when  we  find  a 
 number  of  Buddhas  aU  made  according  to  one  pattern,  and 
 the  three  last  born  like  flame,  or  resplendent  like  fire  or 
 gems  ; occasionally  we  may  also  detect  a legend  at  various 
 stages  of  its  growth,  as  in  the  story  of  the  holy  man  who 
 visited  the  infant  Buddha.  The  Ceylon  books  represent 
 him  as  going  out  of  respect  to  the  Raja  to  wish  him  joy  on 
 the  birth  of  a son  ; but  the  Chinese  version  adds  miracu- 
 lous signs,  and  a bright  light  which  guided  the  Sage  fi’om 
 his  home  on  the  mountain  to  the  King’s  palace  in  the  city. 
 So  also  in  reference  to  Buddha’s  birth,  the  Ceylon  books 
 relate  that  his  mother  dreamed  that  an  elephant  from 
 Chadanta  rubbed  her  side  whilst  she  was  pregnant,  and 
 state  that  Chadanta  was  a lake  in  the  Himalaya  celebrated 
 for  its  breed  of  elephants ; and  since  elephants  were  much 
 
266 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 esteemed,  there  was  nothiug  unnatural  in  supposing  that 
 the  Queen  received  this  mark  of  affection  from  her  ele- 
 phant as  a sign  of  future  greatness  in  her  child.  The  Tibet 
 translation  gives  a very  different  aspect  to  the  tale,  saying 
 that  the  Buddha  elect  entered  the  womb  of  his  mother  as 
 a six-tusked  elejihant.  Mr.  Tumour  accounts  for  this  by 
 supposing  that  the  Tibetans  translated  chadanta  literally  as 
 six-tusked,  instead  of  giving  it  as  the  name  of  a place.*  In 
 Pegu  the  story  took  a different  tuni.  Such  are  the  legends 
 now  current  amongst  northern  Buddhists,  and  yet  Csoma 
 Korosi  says  their  sacred  books  contain  no  mention  of  the 
 virginity  of  Buddha’s  mother.f  The  individual  threads  of 
 Buddhist  literature  are  indeed  of  doubtful  character,  many- 
 coloured,  tangled,  and  confused ; but  nevertheless  we  may 
 conclude  as  we  began,  that,  whether  more  or  less  fictitious, 
 they  are  an  indispensable’  link  between  the  edicts  of  Piya- 
 dasi  and  existing  Buddhism. 
 
 * Tumour,  J.  A.  S.  B.,  vol.  vii. 
 
 t Csoma  Korosi,  .Analysis  of  tiie  Bulwa  ; As.  Soc.  xx.  ji.  299. 
 
CHAPTER  V. 
 
 “ Dim  echoings, 
 
 Not  of  the  truth,  but  witnessing  the  truth.” 
 
 Sydney  Yendys. 
 
 Professor  Lassen  speaks  of  Buddhist  tales  as  shells  of 
 fietion  enclosing  kernels  of  truth ; and  what  we  gather  as 
 truth  from  the  shell  of  fiction  just  exhibited  is,  that  Buddha 
 was  a man,  and  not  a myth,  as  the  Chinese  Tien-ti  of  the 
 nineteenth  century  is  said  to  be.  Buddha’s  personal  bearaty, 
 and  the  portraits  and  images  given  as  likenesses  of  him, 
 were  myths,  or  rather  mere  abstracts  of  Hindu  conven- 
 tional ideas  of  beauty ; and  the  names  given  to  his  father 
 and  mother,  himself  and  his  native  city,  are  all  shown  by 
 Professor  Wilson*  to  be  allegorical,  and  thus  the  semi- 
 fictitious  character  of  the  literature  is  confirmed ; but  as 
 smoke  betokens  fire,  so  the  floating  gaseous  wreaths  of 
 Buddhist  story  may  be  believed  to  spring  from  a fact,  the 
 
 * Buddha,  Buddhism,  p.  19. 
 
268 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 existence  of  a man  of  individual  and  decided  character  who 
 lived  between  the  years  640  and  560  before  our  era.  He 
 was^  as  we  have  seen,  the  son  of  a King,  wlio  chose  to  pass 
 through  the  severe  noviciate  of  study  and  hardship  required 
 only  of  the  highest  order  amongst  Brahmans,  and  so  soon  as 
 his  probation  was  concluded  he  announced  himself  a Teacher, 
 as  was  the  custom  u ith  learned  Brahmans ; but,  unUke  the 
 Brahmans,  he  gathered  his  pupils  as  freely  from  the  unpri- 
 vileged races  as  from  the  high-born.  In  the  Brahmanical 
 Sutras  we  must  seek  an  explanation  of  the  doctrine  which 
 he  announced,  and  we  there  find  that  the  full  attainment 
 of  Buddhi  (intelligence)  endows  its  possessor  with  aiswara 
 (supernatural  power)  .*  But  Buddhi  was  not  mere  intel- 
 lectual superiority,  it  was  to  be  acquired  through  dharma, 
 duty,  goodness  j therefore  when  the  princely  ascetic  believed 
 that  by  the  force  of  dharma  he  had  attained  Buddhi,  and 
 become  possessed  of  aiswara,  he  believed  no  more  than  was 
 deducible  from  his  Brahmanical  education : he  believed,  in 
 other  words,  that  his  long-continued  ascetic  privations  and 
 his  strenuous  course  of  study  had  so  expanded  his  intellect 
 that  he  had  become  omniscient.  So  far  he  was  not  unbrah- 
 manical ; his  peculiarity  was  not  in  his  metaphysical  appre- 
 hensions, but  in  the  enlarged,  definite,  practical  conclusions 
 which  he  drew  from  philosophic  data : he  overlooked  dis- 
 
 * The  Brahmans  derived  the  word  aisivara  from  Iswara,  tire  Supi-eme 
 Spirit,  and  called  those  who  attained  it  Isis,  or  Eisliis.  Speaking  of  super- 
 natm-al  power  conferred  bv  science  and  holiness,  M.  de  St.  Hdaire  says, 
 “ Les  k^endes  sont  pleines  de  ces  superstitions  et  de  ces  extravagances,  qui 
 sont  a I’usage  des  Brahmaues  longtemps  avant  que  le  Bouddhisme  ne  les 
 adopte  et  les  sanetioune  a son  tour. — Yoir  mon  Premier  Memoire  stir  le 
 Saiikhya,  dans  les  Mcinoires  dc  I’Acadthnie  des  Scierrees  ilorales  ct  Poli- 
 tiques,”  p.  208,  note. 
 
CHARACTER  OF  SAKYA-MUNI. 
 
 2G9 
 
 tinctions  of  caste,  and  Ijclieved  that  what  was  truth  for 
 one  man  was  trutli  for  all,  and  taught  that  self-denial  and 
 unworldliness  were  not  good  merely  for  hoys  and  elderly 
 dwijas  (persons  invested  with  the  sacred  thread),  but  that 
 men  of  all  ages  and  races,  aiid  also  women,  might  attain 
 blessedness  after  death,  by  mercy,  charity,  mendicity,  and 
 hardship  whilst  on  earth. 
 
 This  liberal  doctrine  met  with  opposition  from  the  Brah- 
 mans, whose  monopoly  it  invaded,  but  with  encouragement 
 fr'om  the  cultivators,  merchants,  and  other  classes,  whose 
 rights  it  advocated,  and  was  generally  favoured  by  the  con- 
 temporary Kings,  who  were  glad  of  its  indirect  support 
 against  Brahmanical  domination.  The  new  teacher  seems 
 to  have  abandoned  his  name  Siddhartha  as  soon  as  he  be- 
 came a religious  character,  and  to  have  been  thenceforth 
 called  either  Buddha  (the  enlightened),  Gotama,  or  Sakya; 
 Gotama  being  the  favourite  name  in  the  south  and  Sakya 
 in  the  north — wherefore  is  not  stated,  but  - if  the  northern 
 books  were  compiled  under  Scythian  patronage,  as  seems 
 probable,  this  name  will  have  been  a compliment  to  the 
 rulers,  implying  that  the  Buddha  sprang  from  a family  re- 
 lated to  their  race : in  the  Ceylon  books  the  name  Gotama 
 is  almost  always  preferred,  but  as  this  is  also  the  name 
 of  a distingvdshed  Brahmanical  philosopher  (author  of  the 
 Nyaya  school  of  philosophy),  it  will  be  less  jjerplexiug  to 
 call  Buddha  usually  by  some  of  his  other  names.  Muni, 
 saint  or  holy  man,  is  often  added  to  Sakya,  making  Sakya- 
 muni,  and  this  the  Tartars  read  as  Chingemuni,  who  fi- 
 gures as  chief  object  of  worship  amongst  the  Buraets  on  the 
 Selinga  river;*  Sakya  and  Gotama  are  therefore  equally 
 
 * Erman,  Travels  in  Siberia. 
 
270 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 names  of  the  Buddha^  “ he  by  whom  truth  is  known’^* ; 
 and  in  the  books  he  bears  likewise  a variety  of  epithets,  as 
 Bliagavat,  Sugata,  and  Tatliagata.  We  will  now  note  some 
 incidents  in  the  life  of  this  remarkable  individual,  as  given 
 by  Buddhist  writers,  always  keeping  in  mind  that,  although 
 the  events  narrated  occurred  about  b.c.  600,  the  narrative 
 usually  communicates  opinions  and  a tone  of  thought  not 
 earlier  than  b.c.  200,  and  sometimes  of  a considerably  later 
 date. 
 
 The  rainy  season  commenced  soon  after  Sakya’s  arrival 
 at  Benares,  and,  as  this  puts  a stop  to  travelling,  he  re- 
 mained with  his  former  pupils  in  the  deer-forest,  in  the 
 edihce  “ near  which  no  living  creature  could  be  deprived 
 of  life  and  he  then  began  to  teach  dharma,  or  “ turn  the 
 wheel  of  the  Law,”J  and  gained  many  converts,  especially 
 amongst  the  Vriji  of  Vesali.  One  of  his  first  friends  was 
 Bimbisara,  King  of  Magadha,  and  this  was  an  hereditary 
 friendship,  their  fathers  having  also  been  great  allies.  Ra- 
 jagriha  being  at  this  time  Bimbisara’s  capital  and  usual 
 place  of  residence,  he  presented  Sakya,  “ the  great  ascetic,” 
 with  a residence,  or  Vihara,  in  a bamboo-grove  adjoining, § 
 and  here,  during  the  first  year  of  his  teaching,  he  was  joined 
 by  his  two  chief  disciples,  Shariputra  and  INIogalana ; Sha- 
 ripntra  being  the  disciple  of  his  right  hand 'and  Mogalana 
 of  his  left  hand, II  whilst  his  cousin  Ananda  became  his  per- 
 
 * Professor  Wilson  observes  that  “ much  erroneous  speculation  has  ori- 
 ginated in  confounding  ‘ Buddha’  with  Budlia,  the  son  of  Soma  and  regent 
 of  the  planet  Mercurj-.” — Vishnu  Purana,  note,  p.  393. 
 
 t Tumour,  J.  A.  S.  B.,  vol.  viii.  p.  815.  % Lassen,  vol.  i.  p.  810. 
 
 g This  Vihara  was  called  Kalandaka,  after  the  name  of  a bird. 
 
 II  Csoiua  Ivorosi,  Anal.  Dulwa  : Trans.  As.  Soc.,  vol.  xx.  p.  51,  and 
 .1.  A.S.B.,  vol.  vii.  pp.  810,  817. 
 
TEACHING  OF  SAKYA-MUNI. 
 
 27\ 
 
 sonal  and  constant  attendant.  He  is  described  as  moving 
 about  attended  by  these  and  numerous  other  disciples,  “ as 
 the  moon  amongst  planets,^’  or  “ the  elephant  amongst 
 beasts,”  etc.,  just  as  a Brahman  or  a Raja  in  the  epic 
 poems  moves  amongst  his  followers.  He  seems  to  have 
 held  public  discussions  in  various  places,  and  is  said  to  have 
 been  visited  by  a King  near  Ougein,  who  was  dissatisfied 
 with  the  teaching  of  “ a Gymnosophist  Brahman.”  The 
 King  came  with  a pompous  train  of  attendants,  and  found 
 Sakya-muni  in  a grove ; the  conversation  was  chiefly  car- 
 ried on  between  Buddha’s  disciples  and  the  Brahman,  and 
 turned  upon  the  usual  subjects  of  emancipation  and  deli- 
 verance.* 
 
 On  another  oceasion  a Brahman  disputant  came  from  the 
 Dekkan,  where  he  had  been  studying : he  found  Sakya 
 sitting  in  the  centre  of  his  disciples,  who  formed  a curve  on 
 each  side  of  him,  like  the  horns  of  the  moon,  while  Shari- 
 putra  stood  behind  with  a chowrie,  or  coAV-tail,  flapping  away 
 flies.  The  Brahman  starts  his  objections  to  Buddha’s  doc- 
 trine, but  is  told  that  his  state  of  feeling  is  the  consequence 
 of  “ attachment,”  and  he  is  directed  to  strive  to  acquire  a 
 state  free  from  “attachment,”  and  further  instructed  as  fol- 
 lows : — 
 
 “ This  gross  and  material  body  is  formed  by  the  union  of  five 
 great  elements.  A disciple  should  dwell  upon  the  idea  that  the  body 
 is  constantly  subject  to  birth  and  death;  he  must  dwell  on  the  idea 
 of  freedom  fi’om  attachment,  on  annihilation  and  abandonment.  If 
 a respectable  disciple  has  reflected  on  these  things,  then  love,  attach- 
 ment, aflection,  etc.  are  conquered,  and  no  longer  exist.” 
 
 This  is  the  old  Sankhya  doctrine  of  fi^'e  elements,  and  of 
 
 * C'soma  Korosi,  Anal.  Dulwa,  p.  416. 
 
272 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 man’s  liberation  (from  transmigration)  being  effected  by 
 liis  perception  of  the  “ nothingness”  of  everything  ! But 
 Buddha’s  discourse  does  not  even  refer  to  Prakriti  (eternal 
 nature)  or  Purusba  (universal  soul),  it  merely  urges  the 
 acquisition  of  indifference,  because  all  sensations,  whether 
 pleasant  or  unpleasant,  will  cease  at  death.* 
 
 The  converts  most  frequently  mentioned  are  Kings  and 
 merchants,  as  in  the  following  little  story  of  the  King  of 
 lloruka,  which,  whether  partly  true  or  wholly  fictitious, 
 gives  a distinct  picture  of  the  manner  in  which  Buddhism 
 is  supposed  to  have  been  promulgated. 
 
 Kudrayana,  who  was  King  of  Roruka,  sent  to  Bimbisara, 
 the  King  of  Magadha,  a eoat  of  armour  endowed  with  won- 
 derful properties  and  covered  with  jewels.  Bimbisara  was 
 at  a loss  for  a present  of  sufficient  value  to  send  in  ac- 
 knowledgment, so  taking  the  armour  he  bowed  do\vn  his 
 head  to  the  feet  of  Buddha  and  begged  advice.  Buddha  told 
 him  to  get  a piece  of  cloth,  and  have  represented  on  it  the 
 image  of  a Tathagata,  meaning  himself;  the  artist  began 
 his  task,  but  every  time  he  looked  at  Buddha  he  felt  fasci- 
 nated and  unable  to  continue  his  work.  Buddha  then 
 threw  his  shadow  on  the  cloth,  and  desired  the  painter  to 
 fill  up  the  outline  and  write  beneath  it  the  Buddhist  for- 
 mula of  refuge.  The  following  version  is  in  verse,  and 
 translated  by  j\I.  Burnouf : — 
 
 “ Commence,  depart  (from  your  home) ; apply  yoiu'self  to  the  Law 
 of  BuddJia ; 
 
 Annihilate  the  army  of  death,  as  an  elephant  upsets  a cottage  of 
 reeds. 
 
 He  who  walks  without  distraction  under  the  discipline  of  this  Law, 
 
 Burnouf,  p.  457. 
 
SAKYA-SINHI’S  TEACHING. 
 
 273 
 
 Escaping  from  birth  and  the  revolution  of  worlds,  puts  an  end  to 
 sorrow.” 
 
 “ If  any  one  asks  what  are  these  sentences,  the  reply  is : the  first 
 is  the  introduction  ; the  second,  the  instruction  ; the  tliird,  the  revo- 
 lution of  the  world ; the  fomdh,  the  effort.” 
 
 The  artist  having  written  this  from  the  dictation  of  Buddha, 
 he  then  desired  Bimhisara  to  address  the  following  letter 
 to  King  Rndrayana  : — 
 
 “ Dear  friend, — I send  yon  as  a present  the  most  precious 
 thing  in  all  the  three  worlds : you  must  have  the  road  de- 
 corated for  two  yojanas  and  a half,  and  go  out  yom’self  to 
 receive  it  at  the  head  of  your  army,  composed  of  four  de- 
 scriptions of  troops  : you  must  place  it  in  a wide  open  place, 
 and  not  uncover  it  until  you  have  paid  it  worship  and  every 
 kind  of  honour.  Attention  to  what  I recommend  will  se- 
 cure to  you  a great  amount  of  merit.” 
 
 When  Rudrayana  read  this  letter  he  felt  angry  impa- 
 tience, and  assembling  his  council  proposed  calling  out  his 
 army  to  lay  waste  the  dominions  of  the  King  who  sent  it ; 
 but  his  counsellors  persuaded  him  that  Bimhisara,  being  a 
 magnanimous  King,  would  not  trifle  with  him,  and  that  the 
 better  course  would  be  to  obey  his  instructions  to  the  letter, 
 and  then,  if  dissatisfied,  means  of  vengeance  would  not  be 
 wanting.  The  road  was  therefore  made,  and  honours  ren- 
 dered as  prescribed,  and  then  the  covering  publicly  re- 
 moved. Now  it  so  happened  that  some  merchants  from 
 iNIadhyadesa  (including  Magadha)  were  at  this  time  in  the 
 town  of  Romka,  and  the  njoment  they  beheld  the  portrait 
 they  exclaimed,  “Adoration  to  Buddha  !”  When  the  King 
 heard  the  name  Buddha,  of  whom  no  one  had  spoken  to 
 him  before,  he  felt  his  hair  to  stand  on  end,  and  tuniing  to 
 
 T 
 
274 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 the  merchants  said,  “ AVho  is  it  that  you  call  Buddha  ?” 
 To  which  the  merchants  replied,  Great  King,  it  is  the 
 Prince  of  the  Sakya  race,  born  on  the  banks  of  the  River 
 Bhagirathi,  near  the  Hermitage  of  the  Rishi  Kapila,  of 
 whom  it  was  predicted  that  if  he  remained  at  home  he 
 would  become  a Chakravarti  Raja  (supreme  monarch) ; hut 
 that  if  he  shaved  his  hair,  put  on  yeUow  garments,  and 
 abandoned  home  for  a religious  life,  he  would  be  a Tatha- 
 gata  (complete  and  perfect  Buddha).”  After  this  explana- 
 tion, King  Rudrayana  readily  comprehended  the  precepts 
 and  causes  of  existence,  etc.,  and  “ laying  aside  all  worldly 
 affairs,  seated  himself  with  his  legs  crossed,  his  body  erect, 
 his  mind  collected,  to  meditate  on  the  causes  of  successive 
 existence;  and,  cleanng  with  the  thunderbolt  of  science 
 the  mountain  of  ignorance,  he  saw  before  him  the  state 
 Srota-apatti and  when  he  had  learned  the  four  truths  he 
 repeated  the  following  stanza  : — 
 
 “ My  perception  of  knowledge  has  been  purified  by  Buddha,  who 
 is  the  jewel  of  the  world : adoration  to  that  good  physician,  to  whom 
 my  cure  must  undoubtedly  be  due.”* 
 
 This  story  bears  the  marks  of  an  ancient  legend  with  later 
 additions.  It  is  old,  because  the  scene  is  on  earth  and 
 Sakya-muni  is  a man  amongst  men ; but  the  intermixture 
 of  verse  is  a sure  sign  of  later  addition,  and  the  introduction 
 of  Tathagata  and  Bhagavat  as  appellations  of  Sakya-mimi 
 are  also  suspicious.  Tathagata  means.  He  who  has  come 
 (or  has  gone)  in  like  manner  ;f  meaning  that  Sakya-muni 
 was  one  of  a succession  of  Buddhas  : but  whilst  there  is  no 
 
 * Burnouf,  pp.  340— i,  from  the  ‘Dirya  Avadana.’ 
 
 t Tumour,  Mahawanso,  Introd.,  pp.  106-8,  and  Klaproth,  note  to  Fa- 
 liian,  p.  191. 
 
BUDDHIST  SUTRAS. 
 
 275 
 
 proof  that  this  doctrine  was  a part  of  original  Buddhism, 
 there  are  many  reasons  for  supposing  it  to  have  been  an 
 afterthought.  So  also  with  the  epithet  Bhagavat,  whieh 
 means  the  divider,  the  distrilmtor,  or  ruler ; it  is  an  old 
 Sanskrit  word,  but  not  used  in  the  sense  of  Deity  until  after 
 the  Christian  era.  A third  sign  of  comparatively  late  date 
 may  be  suspected  in  the  fixed  attitude  assumed  by  the  new 
 convert,  the  Vedanta  mode  of  “eonquering  ignorance”  by 
 the  aid  of  posture  being  more  recent  than  Kapila’s  doctrine 
 of  Buddhi  and  five  elements. 
 
 Sakya-muni  is  represented  as  living  all  the  earlier  part 
 of  his  eareer  in  Magadha,  the  kingdom  of  Bimbisara ; but, 
 with  the  consent  of  this  Raja,  he  aecepted  an  invitation 
 from  Prasenajit,  the  King  of  Kosala,  whose  chief  eity  was 
 Sravasti.*  This  kingdom  was,  like  the  Panchala  of  the 
 Pandus,  a part  of  the  country  since  known  as  Oude. 
 Sravasti  and  the  Viharas,  or  convents,  in  the  neighbour- 
 hood are  the  scene  of  many  of  the  Buddhist  tales.  Great 
 dissatisfaction  is  said  to  have  been  caused  by  the  King  of 
 Kosala’s  adoption  of  Buddhism,  all  his  offerings  of  lamps, 
 incense,  garlands,  and  perfumes  going  now  to  Bhagavat. 
 A set  of  devotees  called  Tirthyas  showed  open  hostility, 
 complaining  that  before  the  “ great  ascetic”  came,  they 
 were  honoured  by  kings,  ministers.  Brahmans,  and  housc- 
 keepei’s,  and  received  from  them  clothing,  food,  seats,  me- 
 dicines, and  other  things,  but  that  now  none  but  Sra- 
 mana  Gotama  and  his  assembly  received  these  things.  The 
 
 * Professor  Lassen  calls  Bimbasara  King  of  Kosala,  and  Prasenajit  King 
 of  Sravasti,  which  is  apparently  an  oversight,  Bimbisara  being  King  of  Ma- 
 gadha, with  Rajagriha  for  his  capital,  and  Prasenajit  being  King  of  Kosala, 
 with  Sravasti  his  capital.  Indische  Alterthumskunde,  vol.  ii.  p.  17. 
 
 T 2 
 
276 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 Tirthyas  are  described  as  men  “ who  did  not  knoAV  all,  but 
 who  thought  they  knew  everything.”  The  original  meaning 
 of  the  word  was  “ one  wdio  makes  the  round  of  the  sacred 
 tanks  •”  but  they  made  themselves  so  conspicuous  by  their 
 hostility  to  Buddhism,  that  in  Buddhist  literatiu’e  a Tirthya 
 usually  means  a factious  opponent.* 
 
 A story'  is  told  of  six  Tirthyas  persuading  King  Prasenajit 
 to  allow  them  to  tiy'  their  strength  in  public  against  Sakya- 
 muni.  The  great  ascetic  was  then  at  Rajagi’iha,  but  he 
 accepted  the  challenge,  bid  his  folloAvers  wash  and  mend 
 their  vestments,”  and  started  with  them  for  Sravasti.  A 
 long  hall  is  said  to  have  been  erected  for  the  occasion,  with 
 a tlu’one  for  Bhagavat  and  a mantapa  (tower  or  spire). 
 After  sending  a messenger  flying  tkrough  the  air,  Bhagavat 
 entered  into  a meditation  so  intense  that  a flame  issued 
 from  the  lock  of  the  door  and  set  the  whole  edifice  on  fire, 
 but  before  rvater  could  be  procured  the  fire  had  extinguished 
 itself  without  injuring  the  building.  At  length  Indra  and 
 Brahma  and  many  hundred  thousands  of  gods  came  to 
 assist,  and  amongst  them  two  Naga  Kings,  who  presented 
 a thousand-leaved  lotus,  the  size  of  a cart-wheel,  all  of  gold, 
 with  a stalk  of  diamond.  Bhagavat  placed  himself  upon 
 the  lotus,  his  legs  crossed,  his  body  ei’ect,  and  his  mind 
 concentrated,  and  then  created  an  endless  mass  of  similar 
 Buddhas,  reaching  up  to  the  heaven  Akanichtas,  some  of 
 whom  were  repeating,  “ Commence,  depart,”  etc.  The  effect 
 was  so  triumphant  that  the  chief  Tirthya  drowned  himself  in 
 the  next  pond.t  The  remaining  Tirthyas  fled  in  dismay  to 
 
 * Buniouf,  pp.  200  and  163  ; p.  158,  note. 
 
 t Burnouf,  p.  190,  Legend  of  ilendliaka.  In  a note  to  the  ‘ Lotus  of 
 Good  Law,’  Burnouf  supposes  tliis  city  to  be  Pandiikara,  a town  of  Berar. 
 Lotus,  p.  689. 
 
BUDBHIST  SUTRAS. 
 
 4!  / 
 
 a distant  city,  where  they  persuaded  the  inhabitants  to  re- 
 fuse admission  to  Bhagavat.  There  happened  however  to  be 
 in  tliis  town  tiie  daughter  of  a Brahman  fi’om  Sakya-muni’s 
 native  place,  and  this  woman,  getting  a lamp,  descended  the 
 city  wall  at  night,  and  went  to  render  homage  to  the  great 
 ascetic;  he,  perceiving  her  favourable  disposition,  taught 
 her  the  four  truths,  so  that  she  acquired  faith  in  the  for- 
 mula of  refuge ; he  then  bade  her  go  to  a man  in  the  tOAvn 
 named  Mendhaka,  and  tell  him  that  Bhagavat  had  come 
 to  that  place  upon  his  account,  and  that  the  fine  which  the 
 town  awarded  to  all  who  should  visit  him  should  he  paid 
 out  of  the  purse  carried  by  Meudhaka’s  son,  and  that  how- 
 ever many  fines  were  paid  it  woidd  still  continue  full.  As 
 soon  as  Mendhaka  received  the  message,  he  paid  the  fine, 
 went  to  Bhagavat,  learned  the  four  truths,  and  saw  before 
 him  the  state  which  leads  to  nirvana. 
 
 The  “four  truths,’^*  so  frequently  mentioned  in  the 
 Sutras,  are  worthy  of  partieular  attention,  as  ineorporating 
 some  of  the  most  ancient  Buddhist  doctrine.  The  first 
 states  that  all  existence  is  grief ; the  second,  that  existence 
 is  caused  by  the  passions ; the  third,  that  the  passions  may 
 be  extinguished ; and  the  fourth  gives  the  means  of  aecom- 
 plislung  this  extinetion;  the  whole  together  constituting 
 Sakya-muni’s  answer  to  the  inquiries  of  ascetic  Brahmans 
 as  to  his  mode  of  dealing  with  the  evils  of  birth,  old-age, 
 sickness,  and  death.  The  same  idea  is  expressed  in  the 
 popular  stanza  commencing,  “ Ye  dharma  hetuprabhavds 
 the  translation  of  which  is, — 
 
 “ Those  duties  which  originate  in  cause  ; 
 
 Thch  causes  the  Tath^ata  has  declared : 
 
 * liurnouf,  ‘Lotus  of  Grood  Law,’  Appendix,  v.,  p.  517. 
 
278 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 What  is  the  counteractiou  of  those  (causes), 
 
 The  great  Sramaua  has  equally  explained.” 
 
 A summary  of  this  occurs  in  the  Life  of  Buddha  (Lalita 
 Vistara). 
 
 “ Birth  being  no  more,  old-age  and  death  are  not;  therefore  by 
 annihilation  of  birth,  old-age  and  death  are  annihilated  ; and  as 
 ignorance  is  the  ultimate  cause  of  existence,  then  by  the  removal  of 
 ignorance  all  its  consequences  are  arrested,  and  existence  ceases;  by 
 which  means  old-age,  death,  wretchedness,  sorrow,  pain,  anxiety,  and 
 trouble,  the  whole  mass  of  suffering  becomes  for  ever  extinct.”* 
 
 This  stanza  was  first  observed  upon  the  pedestal  of  a 
 mutilated  statue  of  Buddha,  dug  up  amongst  some  ruins 
 near  Bakra ; but  it  has  sinee  been  discovered  upon  endless 
 statuettes  at  Sarnatli,  and  also  in  the  books  both  of  Ceylon 
 and  the  north.  In  some  of  the  Sutras  it  is  followed  by  the 
 Buddhist  exhortation  or  invitation  given  above : — 
 
 “ Arise  ! depart  (from  your  house),  apply  yourself  to  the  law  of 
 Buddha.  Annihilate  the  army  of  death,  as  an  elephant  upsets  a cot- 
 tage of  reeds.  He  who  walks  without  distraction  under  the  disci- 
 pline of  the  law,  escaping  from  birth  and  the  revolution  of  worlds, 
 puts  an  end  to  sorrow.” 
 
 U nfortunately  this  diseipline  of  the  Law  was  supposed  to 
 require  quieseence  in  a diseiple ; and  another  verse  expresses 
 that  ignorance  (or  vice)  causes  action,  that  transmigration 
 is  the  eonscquence  of  action,  and  that  he  only  who  abstains 
 from  action  escapes  from  its  effect. 
 
 M.  Burnouf  has  taken  mueh  jiains  to  ascertain  wliether 
 tlie  Pali  or  the  Sanskrit  version  is  the  original,  and  his 
 conclusion  is,  tliat  the  Pali  form  of  the  Ceylon  hooks  is 
 older  than  the  Sanskrit  of  the  north ; but  that  neither  the 
 
 II.  II.  Wilson,  Memoir  on  Buddlia,  Buddhism,  p.  17. 
 
BUDDHIST  SUTRAS. 
 
 279 
 
 one  nor  the  other  can  be  identified  as  precisely  the  original 
 formula  of  the  first  Buddhists.  He  only  determines  that^ 
 metrically  and  grammatically,  it  shows  itself  to  have  been 
 current  in  a popular  dialect  before  being  fashioned  into  a 
 classical  form. 
 
CHAPTER  VI. 
 
 “ Horizon  there  was  none. 
 
 But  vast  infinitude 
 
 Spread  over  and  below.” — Alfoed. 
 
 To  follow  Sakya-muiii  through  all  the  tales  which  have  been 
 recorded,  would  oidy  be  to  mystify  the  subject ; but  we  shall 
 do  well  to  note  how  he  is  said  to  have  passed  his  life  under 
 the  protection  of  contemporary  kings,  and  then  to  rehearse 
 shortly  the  closing  scenes  of  his  life,  as  related  in  the 
 legends  and  poetry  of  Buddhist  religious  romance. 
 
 Sakya-munTs  friend  and  patron,  Bimbisaraof  Rajagriha, 
 was  murdered  by  his  son  Ajatasatra,  and  the  new  King 
 commencing  his  reign  in  hostility  to  Buddhists,  the  “ great 
 ascetic’^  left  his  dominions  and  lived  almost  entirely  at 
 Sravasti,  in  Kosala.  Prasenajit,  the  King  of  Kosala,  was 
 a friend,  and  probably  connection,  of  Sakya-muni’s  father, 
 and  through  his  friendly  mediation  Sakya  was  induced 
 once  more  to  visit  his  native  place.  A large  Vihara  was 
 
SAKYA-SINHA. 
 
 281 
 
 erected  in  a banyan  grove  for  tlie  occasion^  and  each  family 
 of  the  Sakya  tribe  sent  one  member  as  a disciple  or  fol- 
 lower. This  is  only  related  as  a passing  visit ; and  Sakya- 
 muni  appears  to  have  lived  again  at  Kosala,  until  King 
 Frasenajit  was  dethroned  by  his  son,  and  the  new  King- 
 made  war  upon  Sakya’s  native  city,  Kapila-vastu.  He  re- 
 turned to  Magadha,  in  which  country  Frasenajit  had  taken 
 refuge ; but  this  King  died  soon  afterwards,  from  eating 
 immoderately  of  turnips,  and  then  indulging  too  freely  in 
 draughts  of  spring  water.*  Ajatasatra,  the  King  of  Ma- 
 gadha, had  now  relaxed  his  hostility  to  Buddhism ; and  it 
 seems  suddenly  to  have  occurred  to  him  that  the  sagacious 
 Sakya-muni  might  assist  in  manoeuvring  him  into  posses- 
 sion of  the  neighbouring  town  of  Vesali.  To  effect  this 
 object  he  sent  his  prime  minister  to  visit  Sakya,  and  the 
 conversation  which  ensued  is  given  in  detail.  Vesali  was 
 a city  famed  for  the  beauty  of  its  gardens,  its  baths,  jewels, 
 horse-fnrniture  and  sports.f  The  government  was  carried 
 on  by  a confederation  called  Lichhawi  Rulers  (or  Vriji 
 Princes),  and  its  constitution  was  something  peculiar  to 
 itself.  Marriage  was  forbidden,  and  high  rank  attached  to 
 the  lady  who  held  office  as  Chief  of  Courtesans.  The  af- 
 fairs of  government  were  discussed  in  Assemblies  of  Elders, 
 governed  by  traditional  laws  and  books,  as  in  other  Hindu 
 republics ; but  the  criminal  proceedings  differed.  If  the 
 Council  convicted  any  one  of  crime,  they  sent  him  to  the 
 Mahamatra,  or  chief  officer  of  justice ; and  if  this  second 
 authority  thought  him  innocent,  he  was  acquitted;  but  if 
 the  Mahamatra  confirmed  the  decision  of  the  Council,  he 
 
 * Csoma  Korosi,  As.  Ees.,  vol.  xx.,  p.  87. 
 
 t J.  A.  S.  B.,  vol.  vii.,  p.  992. 
 
282 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 was  given  over  to  the  Professor  of  Law  and  four  other  of- 
 ficers in  succession,  tlie  final  verdict  resting  with  the  King.* 
 By  this  we  may  understand  that,  like  all  republics  in  India, 
 they  paid  taxes  to  the  King  who  “ protected  them  •”  and  to 
 this  King  appeal  was  made  in  cases  of  emergency.  Ajata- 
 satra  wished  however  to  obtain  more  complete  dominion 
 over  Vesali,  and  concocted  a plan  with  Sakya-muni  for 
 producing  internal  dissension,  which  led  ultimately  to  the 
 accomplishment  of  his  wishes. 
 
 The  great  ascetic  felt  now  that  his  life  was  drawing  to 
 a close ; and  soon  after  his  interview  with  the  King’s  mi- 
 nister he  assembled  the  members  of  the  Yihara  in  which  he 
 was  liilng,  on  the  Vulture  ^Mountain,  near  Rajagriha,  and 
 made  them  farewell  discourses  in  preparation  of  his  moving 
 to  the  place  in  which  it  was  destined  lie  should  die,  or,  in 
 Buddhist  language,  obtain  nirvana.  At  Patna,  then  no  more 
 than  a ^■illage,  he  was  lodged  in  the  new  Rest-house,  built 
 by  Ajatasatra  for  the  accommodation  of  his  messengers.! 
 When  he  arrived  at  Vesali  he  was  lodged  in  a garden  be- 
 longing to  the  Chief  of  Courtesans,  and  received  a Ausit 
 from  this  grand  lady,  who  drove  out  to  see  him,  attended 
 by  her  suite  in  stately  carriages.  Having  approached  and 
 Iiowed  down,  she  took  her  seat  on  one  side  of  him  and 
 listened  to  a discourse  on  dharma.  She  then  requested 
 him  to  accept  a repast  which  she  would  prepare  the  next 
 day  for  him  and  his  disciples ; and  having  obtained  his 
 consent,  signified  by  silence,  she  rose  from  her  seat,  bowed 
 down,  walked  three  times  round  him,  and  departed.  On 
 entering  the  town  she  met  the  Rulers  of  Vesali,  gorgeously 
 
 * J.  A.  8. 13.,  vol.  vii.  p.  993,  note ; Lasseu,  vol.  ii.  p.  80. 
 
 t Such  Best -houses  are  still  iu  use  in  the  Bihar  districts. 
 
ILLNESS  or  SAKYA. 
 
 283 
 
 apparelled } but  their  equipages  made  way  for  hers.  They 
 asked  her  to  resign  to  them  the  honour  of  entertaining 
 Sakya-muni ; but  she  refused,  and  the  great  man  himself, 
 when  solicited  by  the  Rulers  in  person,  also  refused  to  break 
 his  engagement  with  the  lady. 
 
 It  Avas  now  the  season  of  Varsha,  or  rains ; and  telling 
 his  followers  to  accept  invitations  from  the  neighbouring- 
 inhabitants,  Sakya-muni  retired  with  Ananda  to  the  Cocks- 
 foot Vihara,  not  far  from  Vesali.  Whilst  there  he  was 
 seized  with  illness,  and  although  he  in  a great  measure  re- 
 covered, he  felt  that  at  his  advanced  age  and  with  his  infir- 
 mities he  could  not  long  survive.  He  called  the  members 
 of  the  Vihara  together,  and  told  them  that  within  three 
 months  he  should  realize  nirvana ; and  then  exhorted  them 
 to  renounce  passion,  keep  their  thoughts  under  subjection, 
 adhere  to  dharma,  and,  “ escaping  the  eternity  of  trans- 
 migration, achieve  the  extinction  of  misery.”  A little  to 
 the  north  of  Vesali,  he  visited  a place  called  Pawa,  where 
 Chundo,  a goldsmith,  lodged  him  in  a mango-grove  ; and, 
 according  to  the  Ceylon  narrative,  he  there  ate  pork  at  his 
 own  particular  request,  and,  according  to  his  own  predic- 
 tion and  expectation,  was  taken  dl,  and  felt  it  necessary  to 
 hasten  his  journey  to  Kusinara,  a town  on  the  Bhagirathi, 
 near  which  he  wished  to  breathe  his  last.  When  he  reached 
 the  forests  of  Tirhut  (to  this  day  famous  for  their  timber), 
 “ the  Saul-trees  shed  flowers,  although  it  was  not  the  season 
 for  them  to  be  in  blossom,  the  air  rang  with  heavenly 
 music,  and  perfumes  were  showered  from  the  sky.  The 
 aged  teacher  laid  himself  on  his  left  side,  and  desired  the 
 disciple  who  stood  in  front  fanning  him  to  stand  aside,  be- 
 cause the  Bevatas  of  ten  thousand  worlds,  who  hovered  in 
 
LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 :^8t 
 
 the  air  to  watch  and  lament,  should  not  have  their  ^'icw 
 of  him  intercepted.”*  Crowds  of  men  as  well  as  Devatas 
 were  in  attendance,  some  disciples  of  his  old  master,  Arada 
 Kalama,  amongst  the  rest;  and  he  breathed  his  last  (or 
 achieved  nirvana),  whilst  discoursing  upon  dharma  and  dis- 
 cussing the  relative  merits  of  different  religious  systems. 
 
 Bhagavat  is  represented  as  himself  giving  minute  direc- 
 tions that  the  ceremonies  attending  his  funeral  should  be 
 conducted  in  a manner  precisely  similar  to  those  performed 
 for  a Chakravarti  Raja ; these  appear  to  have  been  such 
 as  are  described  in  the  Mahabharata,  at  the  funeral  of 
 Dasaratha,  but  whether  really  performed  for  Sakya-muni, 
 or  invented  afterwards,  may  be  doubted.  At  length,  whilst 
 lying  beneath  the  Saul-trees,  he  says  to  his  followers,  I 
 am  exhorting  you  for  the  last  time ; transitory  things  are 
 perishable : without  procrastination  qualify  yourselves  for 
 nirvana”  These  were  the  last  words  of  Tathagata.  “At 
 this  moment  the  earth  quaked,  the  music  of  the  gods  rang 
 in  the  air,  and  gods  and  men  sang  hymns.”  Brahma  said  :t 
 
 “ AH  things  gathered  in  this  world  must  be  relinquished.  The 
 man  who  had  no  equal,  Tathagata,  who  had  great  powers  and  clear 
 eyes,  at  last  has  died  ! ” 
 
 Indr a sang : 
 
 “ A compound  thing  is  not  lasting,  all  things  subject  to  reproduc- 
 tion must  assuredly  perish : it  is  a happiness  for  such  to  be  at  rest 
 (or  arrive  at  extinction).” 
 
 The  disciple  Anaraddha  said  : 
 
 “ He  who  with  a firm  mind  was  a protector,  he  who  had  fountl 
 steadiness  and  tranquillity,  no  longer  indicates  inspiration  and  respi- 
 
 .*  J.  A.  S.  13.,  vol.  vii.,  j).  1005. 
 
 t Csoma  Xoriisi,  Anal.  Diilwa,  As.  Res.,  vol.  xx.  p.  30t). 
 
DEATH  or  SAKYA. 
 
 285 
 
 ration.  The  immacnlate  5Iuni,  whose  aim  was  nirvana,  has  expired. 
 He  endured  the  agonies  of  death  in  the  full  possession  of  his  facul- 
 ties. His  mental  faculties  expired  like  the  extinction  of  a lamp.” 
 
 The  disciple  Ananda  had  not  vet  attained  that  state  of  con- 
 viction or  of  knowledge  which  was  called  becoming  an 
 Arhat,  and  to  him  the  death  of  Bhagavat  was  in  conse- 
 quence very  appalling ; he  said  : 
 
 “ When  the  all-perfect  Buddha  Supreme  expired,  then  was  there 
 great  terror;  then  stood  the  hair  on  end.” 
 
 So  also  the  other  disciples  who  had  not  attained  arahathood 
 wept  aloud,  with  uplifted  arms,  or  rolled  upon  the  ground, 
 exclaiming,  “ Too  soon  has  Bhagavat  expired  j too  soon  has 
 the  Eye  {chakka)  closed  upon  the  world.”  But  the  Arhats 
 sat  tranquil  and  composed,  saying,  “ Transitory  things  are 
 perishable ; how  in  this  world  shall  we  gain  pennanency,^’ 
 etc. 
 
 Anuradha,  being  the  chief  disciple  present,  then  took  the 
 direction  of  the  rest,  and,  after  spending  the  remainder  of 
 the  night  in  discoursing  with  Ananda  upon  dharma,  he  de- 
 sired Ananda  to  go  eaidy  in  the  morning,  with  his  begging- 
 dish  in  hand,  to  annoxmce  the  death  of  Bhagavat  to  the 
 !Mallians,  who  inhabited  Kusinara.  Ceremonies  for  the 
 funeral  are  then  arranged,  and  the  corpse  of  Buddha  cai’- 
 ried  into  the  city  in  a grand  procession  ; not  only  the  Ku- 
 sinara !Mallians,  but  also  Devatas  assisted,  and  so  much 
 of  the  divine  !Maudara,  or  Coral-flower,  fell  from  heaven 
 on  the  occasion  that  the  whole  town  was  covered  with  it. 
 [Many  other  details  are  given  of  the  offerings  made  and  the 
 honom’s  paid,  but  these  are  recited  in  a very  extravagant 
 and  artificial  tone,  and  need  not  be  particularized.  The 
 concluding  ceremony  of  setting  fire  to  the  corpse  was  de- 
 
286 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 layed  until  Kasyapa  could  arrive.  He  had  become  chief 
 disciple  since  the  death  of  Mogala,  and  Shariputra  had 
 remained  at  Rajagriha^  endeavouring  to  confirm  the  faith 
 of  Ajatasatru,  wlio  had  but  recently  begun  to  listen  to  Bud- 
 dhist doctrine.  The  quaking  of  the  earth  gave  Kasyapa 
 notice  of  the  moment  at  which  Bhagavat  expired ; he  also 
 perceived  meteors,  and  heard  the  sound  of  drums  beaten  by 
 the  Devas;  he  knew  therefore  that  Bhagavat  was  delivered 
 entirely  from  pain,  and  said  calmly,  “ This  is  the  case  with 
 every  compound  thing.”*  But  Ajatastara,  having  “ a faith 
 without  roots,”  would,  he  knew,  be  in  consternation  at  the 
 melancholy  news,  and  he  feared  that  the  effect  would  be  to 
 cause  the  King  to  vomit  blood  and  die ; he  therefore  di- 
 rected Yarchat,  one  of  the  chief  ministers  at  Raj  agriha,  to 
 go  into  the  King’s  garden,  and  cause  a series  of  pictures  to 
 be  painted,  representing  how  Sakya-muui  descended  from 
 the  heaven  called  Tushita  into  the  womb  of  his  mother, 
 being  in  the  shape  of  an  elephant ; how  at  the  foot  of  the 
 pipal-tree  he  attained  Buddhahood ; how  at  Varanasi  (Be- 
 nares) he  turned  the  wheel  of  the  Law  of  twelve  kinds ; 
 how  at  Sravasti  he  displayed  great  miracles ; how  at  some 
 other  town  he  descended  from  the  heaven  to  which  he  had 
 gone  to  instruct  his  mother ; and  how,  after  having  tamed 
 and  instructed  men,  he  went  to  his  last  resting-place  in 
 Kusinara. 
 
 After  this  Kasyapa  directed  Yarchat  to  take  seven  long 
 liasins,  or  troughs,  filled  with  fresh  butter,  and  one  filled 
 with  the  powder  of  sandal-wood,  and  place  them  in  the  gar- 
 den. The  King  was  then  to  be  induced  to  come  into  the 
 garden  and  observe  the  pictures,  and  when  he  fainted,  as  he 
 * As.  Ees.,  vol.  XX.  p.  309. 
 
FUNERAL  OF  SAKYA. 
 
 287 
 
 would  on  discovering  Buddha’s  death,  Yarchatwas  to  place 
 him  in  a trough  of  butter,  and  as  soon  as  the  first  melted 
 he  was  to  be  removed  to  the  seeond,  until  he  had  passed 
 through  the  seven  troughs  of  butter,  and  lastly,  he  was  to 
 be  laid  in  the  powdered  sandal-wood,  which  would  complete 
 his  restoration.* 
 
 Having  made  these  arrangements,  Kasyapa  set  out  for 
 Kusinara,  and  at  Pawa  met  a man  carrying  some  of  the 
 celestial  coral-flowers  which  had  fallen  from  heaven  at  Bha- 
 gavat’s  death.  As  soon  as  he  arrived  at  the  Mallian  Coro- 
 nation Hall,  he  walked  three  times  round  the  funeral  pile, 
 and  then,  making  an  opening  at  the  bottom,  bowed  domi 
 his  head  at  the  feet  of  Bhagavat,  and  immediately  the  fu- 
 neral pile  spontaneously  ignited.  For  some  days  the  Ku- 
 sinara Mallians  sprinkled  scented  water  on  the  ashes,  and 
 then  Ajatasatra,  and  the  Vriji  Princes  of  Vesali,  and  the 
 Sakyas  of  Kapila-vastu,  and  others,  sent  to  beg  for  the  cor- 
 poreal remains,  as  relics.  The  different  claimants  seeming 
 likely  to  go  to  war  on  the  occasion,  a Brahman,  with  a 
 measure  called  a drona  in  his  hand,  reminded  them  that 
 Buddha  had  been  patient,  and  had  praised  the  virtue  of 
 patience,  and  that  it  would  be  highly  unheeoming  to  raise 
 a contest  over  his  remains.  “ Rather  let  us,”  he  said,  “ di- 
 vide the  relics  into  eight  portions.”  The  relics  were  there- 
 fore measured  in  the  drona,  and  lastly,  the  drona  served  as 
 a ninth  relic.  The  nine  dagopas  cannot  however  be  traced, 
 and  none  of  those  yet  existing  can  be  dated  earlier  than  the 
 age  of  Asoka.f 
 
 * The  effect  of  sanclal-wood  as  a refrigeratoi'  occurs  also  in  the  Legend  of 
 Purna,  where  a man  trembles  and  sliivers  in  consequence  of  carrying  a log 
 of  this  wood  upon  his  shoulders.  Burnouf,  vol.  i.  p.  235. 
 
 t As.  Ees.,  vol.  XX.  p.  312. 
 
288 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 And  here  we  pause  to  draw  a long  breath,  or  heave  a 
 sigh.  We  believe  that  Sakya-muni  lived  and  died  true  to 
 his  type  of  excellenee,  and  it  is  impossible  to  dwell  ear- 
 nestly upon  his  career  without  feeling  a deep  interest  and  a 
 strong  wish  to  reconcile  the  contradiction  presented  by  the 
 sublimity  of  the  man  and  the  poverty  of  the  religion.  Spe- 
 culations upon  this  subject  are  not  perhaps  quite  prudent, 
 but  they  can  scarcely  be  avoided,  and  are  therefore  given, 
 although  with  an  apology. 
 
 Sakya-muni  felt,  as  earnest  men  in  every  age  have  felt, 
 dissatisfied  with  all  that  is  finite,  and  he  believed,  as  ivas 
 the  custom  of  his  age  and  country,  that  years  of  meditation 
 in  seclusion  could  raise  him  even  above  the  condition  of 
 the  demi-divine  Bhrigus  and  Ribhus  of  Sanskrit  literature. 
 Sakya  sought  for  God,  although  he  knew  not  that  it  was 
 for  God  he  sought,  and,  with  all  the  power  and  energy  of 
 which  man  is  capable,  he  devoted  his  whole  being  to  the 
 pursuit ; and  he  found  God  in  a degree  far  exceeding  that 
 usually  vouchsafed  to  man,  but  it  was  unconsciously.  He 
 knew  that  there  was  something  better  than  earth  could  give; 
 he  knew  that  benevolence  and  duty  were  better  than  human 
 reward,  whether  in  this  world  or  in  a future  state ; and  he 
 knew  that  he  was  aspiring  above  all  the  Gods  and  the  Demi- 
 gods of  the  popular  creed ; but  he  knew  not  the  voice  that 
 taught  him ; he  knew  not  that  “ God  drew  him,”  therefore 
 he  did  not  teach  his  disciples  to  watch  and  seek  as  he  had 
 done;  therefore  he  used  no  prayer,  and  taught  no  prayer, 
 and  bade  his  disciples  look  no  higher  than  himself ; and 
 therefore,  no  sooner  was  his  influence  removed,  than  the 
 whole  sj'stcm  began  to  degenerate  into  self-glorification  and 
 lying,  liypocritical  cant. 
 
REFLECTIONS. 
 
 289 
 
 Had  Sakya-muni  known  that  duty  was  the  law  of  God, 
 and  that  the  nirvana  for  which  he  yearned  was  going  home 
 to  God,  he  might  have  saved  millions  of  men  from  idolatry; 
 but  such  knowledge  was  utterly  beyond  his  reach.  We 
 may  believe  that  his  unconditional  surrender  of  himself  to 
 duty  gave  him  a clear  perception  of  right  and  wrong : he 
 never  thought  of  reward  for  himself,  and  abandoned  every 
 lighter  wish  for  that  which  he  believed  to  be  right,  and, 
 as  we  believe,  he  trusted  implicitly  that  this  would  lead  to 
 eternal  union  with  the  Eternal  Essence  of  the  Universe : 
 hut  this  was  not  what  he  taught.  True  to  the  conceit  and 
 self-sufficiency  of  his  age  and  country,  he  believed  that  he 
 had  wrested  a secret  from  the  Eternal : his  clear  and  fresh 
 perception  of  right  and  wrong  he  looked  upon  as  a spell, 
 which  he  could  commimicate  to  others,  and  thus  enable  his 
 followers  to  attain  the  advantages  he  had  gained,  without 
 enduring  the  painful,  tedious,  self-denying  probation  which 
 he  had  endured. 
 
 u 
 
CHAPTER  VII. 
 
 “ Moaiiwliilc  tlic  winged  heralds,  by  command 
 And  trumpet’s  sound,  throughout  the  host  proclaim 
 A solemn  council  forthwith  to  be  held.” — Milton. 
 
 The  progress  of  Buddhism  after  Sakya-muni’s  death  has 
 been  agreeably  recorded  in  the  Ceylon  Chronicles^  trans- 
 lated by  Mr.  Tumour;  and  from  these  we  gather  that 
 Kasyapa  claimed  to  be  Leader  of  the  Assembly,  because 
 Buddha  had  said  to  him,  “ Kasyapa,  thou  shalt  wear  my 
 hempen  robes.”*  And  it  was  soon  apparent  to  the  new 
 chief,  or  hierarch,  that  decided  measures  were  required  for 
 
 * Tumour,  J.  A.  S.  B.,  vol.  vii.  pp.  1007,  1011. 
 
BUDDHIST  COUNCIL. 
 
 291 
 
 holding  the  community  together ; an  old  dotard  was  work- 
 ing insubordination^  saying,  “Weep  not,  bewail  not;  we 
 are  happily  rid  of  that  ascetic,  . . . who  kept  us  in  subjec- 
 tion, saying,  this  is  permissilile  and  that  is  not  permissilile ; 
 . . . now  whatever  we  may  desire  that  we  can  do.^^*  And 
 Kasyapa,  fearing  that  the  teachings  of  the  divine  teacher 
 might  become  extinct,  determined  to  convene  a general  as- 
 sembly for  the  purpose  of  preserving  the  words  of  Buddha. 
 He  wished  to  have  five  hundred  members,  and  he  wished 
 particularly  to  have  Ananda  amongst  them,  because  he  had 
 been  more  constantly  with  Buddha  than  any  other  dis- 
 ciple ; but  it  so  happened  that  Ananda  had  not  yet  attained 
 that  state  of  conversion  called  by  Buddbists  Arhathood ; 
 whereas  the  four  hundred  and  uinty-nine  other  members 
 wereArhats.  Nevertheless  Ananda  was  elected.  It  was  next 
 determined  that  the  five  hundred  should  meet  at  Baja- 
 griha  for  the  rainy  season,  and  that  no  other  Bhikshus,  that 
 is,  no  other  Buddhist  mendicants,  should  be  admitted  to  the 
 city  during  that  period.  These  arrangements  being  made, 
 Kasyapa  said  to  them,  “ Beloved  ! ye  have  leisure  now  for 
 forty  days,  after  which  time  no  excuses  will  be  admitted, 
 neither  in  reference  to  father  or  mother,  or  getting  a re- 
 fection-dish or  robe  made ; ...  do  therefore  what  requires 
 to  be  done.”t  • 
 
 The  disciples  then  dispersed  all  over  India,  and  at  the 
 commencement  of  the  rains  the  five  hundred  met  at  Raja- 
 griha.  Their  first  anxiety  was  to  get  the  Viharas  repaired, 
 which  had  been  neglected  and  untenanted  for  more  than  a 
 twelvemonth.  With  this  object,  a deputation  placed  itself 
 
 * Turnour,  J.  A.  S.  B.,  vol.  vi.  p.  512  ; 2 Kings,  ii.  13. 
 
 + Ibid.,  vol.  vi.  p.  515. 
 
 u 2 
 
292 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 at  tlie  palace-gate,  petitioned  the  King,  and  obtained  a 
 promise  of  artificers.  Wlien  the  Viharas  were  finished, 
 they  again  sought  the  King,  and  begged  for  his  aid  in  ap- 
 propriating a eave  in  the  neighbourhood  as  a Hall  of  As- 
 sembly. The  King  was  again  propitious,  and  a suitable  hall 
 was  prepared  and  “ adorned,  as  if  by  Viswakarma,  the  diidne 
 artificer  himself.^^  And  now  when  all  was  readj%  and  the 
 assembly  on  the  eve  of  being  eonvened,  Ananda  was  in 
 great  distress  at  being  still  “ defieient  in  sanetifieation.  He 
 spent  the  whole  night  in  peripatetie  meditation,  and  re- 
 flected that  Buddha  had  told  him  that  by  perseveranee  he 
 woidd  be  shortly  sanetified.  Since  then,  he  thought,  a 
 deelaration  of  Buddha  admits  no  qualifieatiou,  my  own 
 exertion  must  be  over-anxious.^^  Endeavouring  therefore 
 to  feel  more  trust  he  sought  repose,  and  “ whilst  in  the 
 aet  of  reclining  . . . his  mind  extricated  itself  from  the  do- 
 minion of  sin,’’  and  he  attained  Arhathood;  and  “with  a 
 countenance  full  of  sanctity,  purity,  brilliancy,  and  splen- 
 dour,” he  attended  the  meeting  with  the  other  Bhikhus.* 
 At  this  meeting,  whilst  Kasyapa  presided,  Upali  rehearsed 
 the  discourses  relating  to  discipline ; and  Ananda  those 
 whieh  referred  to  morals  and  general  eonduet.  Different 
 portions  of  these  discourses  were  eonsigned  to  the  disciples 
 of  different  eminent  Elders  as  their  espeeial  eharge  ; a cer- 
 tain number,  for  instance,  “ to  the  diseiples  of  the  deceased 
 Shariputra,”  and  others  to  the  pupils  of  Anuraddha.  This 
 is  reeorded  as  the  first  Buddhist  eonvoeation  held  at  Raja- 
 griha,  at  the  elose  of  the  rainy  season,  in  the  autumn  of  the 
 year  b.c.  543. 
 
 After  this  period  the  prineipal  Rajas  for  several  centuries 
 * J.  A.  S.  B.,  vol.  vi.  p.  518. 
 
SUBORDINATION. 
 
 293 
 
 were  unfavourable  to  tlie  new  religion,  and  it  made  but  little 
 progress  in  wealth  or  power.  jNIorals  were  apparently  more 
 than  usually  corrupt  in  India ; for  not  only  Ajatasatru  but 
 three  succeeding  kings  of  jVIagadha  obtained  the  throne  by 
 murdering  their  fathers,  and  then  at  length  the  populace 
 cried  out  and  said  they  would  have  no  more  of  the  “ parri- 
 cidal race  and  deposing  the  reigning  Raja,  they  installed 
 the  eminently  wise  minister  named  Susanaga,  who  reigned 
 eighteen  years.* * * §  Susanaga  had  the  reputation  of  being  the 
 child  of  the  unmamed  lady  who  held  office  at  Vesali,  where 
 the  Vriji  determined  “ that  it  w ould  be  prejudicial  to  the 
 prosperity  of  their  capital  if  they  did  not  keep  up  the  office 
 of  ‘ Chief  of  Courtesans.’  ” Susanaga  was  a most  accom- 
 plished person,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Kalasoka,  or 
 Kakavarnin,t  who  removed  his  capital  from  Rajagriha  to 
 Patna,  called  Pushpapura  (city  of  flowers),  and  first  called 
 Patah-pura  and  later  Pataliputra.j;  This  is  the  towm  in 
 which  Ajatasatru  was  building  forts  a century  previous, 
 when  Buddha  passed  through  it  shortly  before  his  death, 
 and  at  that  time  it  was  a mere  village. 
 
 During  the  reign  of  Kalasoka,  or  Kakavarnin,  insubor- 
 dination was  observed  in  a Vihara  at  Vesali,  into  which  ill- 
 disposed  people  had  insinuated  themselves  for  the  sake  of  a 
 subsistence.  “ These  shameless  ministers  of  religion,”  saj's 
 the  Ceylon  Chronicle,  “ pronounced  the  following  ten  in- 
 dulgences allowable  — 
 
 * Mabawanso,  iv.  16. 
 
 t Kakavarna  means  “black  as  a raven,”  and  was  tbe  name  or  epithet 
 usually  applied  to  Kalasoka  by  Brabmanieal  liist  orians. — Lassen,  vol.  ii.p.83. 
 
 J Wilson,  quoted  by  Lassen,  vol.  ii.  p.  82,  note. 
 
 § ‘Mabawanso,’  translated  from  tbe  Pali  by  Mr.  Tumour.  Tbe  ‘Maba- 
 wanso’ is  a bistory  of  Ceylon,  written  by  a Buddhist  resident  at  a Vibara  in 
 Ceylon,  about  a.d.  400. 
 
294 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 1.  Tlie  preservation  of  salt  in  horn.* 
 
 The  rule  being,  that  salt  could  only  be  kept  seven  days; 
 and  the  innovation,  that  in  horn  it  might  be  kept  longer. 
 
 2.  The  allowance  of  two  inches. 
 
 Buddhists  are  forbidden  to  take  food  after  midday ; the  in- 
 novation allows  two  inches’  shadow  of  the  declining  sun. 
 
 3.  Indulgence  in  the  country. 
 
 Which  means,  taking  in  the  country  what  is  denied  in  the 
 Vihara. 
 
 4.  Ceremonies  in  sacerdotal  residences. 
 
 Performing  ceremonies  in  private  houses,  which  should  be 
 observed  in  the  appointed  Hall. 
 
 5.  Obtaining  subsequent  consent. 
 
 Whereas  consent  of  Elders  ought  to  precede  religious  acts. 
 
 6.  Conformity  to  example. 
 
 No  example  is  an  excuse  for  a forbidden  act. 
 
 7.  Acceptance  of  whey. 
 
 But  whey,  equally  with  milk  and  other  food,  is  forbidden 
 after  twelve  o’clock. 
 
 8.  Acceptance  of  toddy  resembling  water. 
 
 Whereas  no  fermented  beverage  is  admissible. 
 
 9.  The  use  of  seats  covered  with  cloths  without  fringes. 
 
 No  costly  covers,  whether  with  or  without  fringes,  are  al- 
 lowed. 
 
 10.  The  acceptance  of  silver  and  gold. 
 
 All  precious  metals  are  prohibited. 
 
 * Tumour,  J.  A.  S.  B.,  vol.  vi.  p.  728,  from  Biuldhagosa’s  Commentary, 
 written  about  A.n.  400. 
 
SECOND  COUNCIL. 
 
 295 
 
 An  eminent  Buddhist^  named  Yasas,  hearing  in  the  course 
 of  his  pilgrimage  that  these  ten  indulgences  were  being 
 propagated  at  Vesali^  felt  it  necessary  for  the  preservation 
 of  dharma  that  he  should  endeavour  to  suppress  them.  He 
 went  therefore  and  took  up  his  abode  at  the  Vihara  indi- 
 cated; but  finding  it  impossible  to  suppress  the  schism 
 without  assistance,  he  Avent  into  the  hills  beyond  the  Gan- 
 ges to  consult  other  eminent  elders.  These  all  agreed  that 
 an  aged  Buddhist  named  Eevata  was  the  . person  to  whom 
 they  should  refer  as  chief  authority,  or  hierarch,  of  the 
 community.  To  the  Sthavira  (elder)  Revata  of  Soreya, 
 therefore  they  applied,  and  he  expressed  his  willingness  to 
 accompany  them  to  Vesali;  but  being  infirm,  he  travelled 
 slowly  and  by  water.  At  one  of  their  evening  halting- 
 places  an  embassy  from  the  schismatics  appeared,  with 
 presents  for  Revata ; but  the  offerings  were  declined,  and 
 the  ^‘messengers  of  the  sinful  fraternity”  being  dismissed 
 by  the  holy  Revata,  made  their  way  to  Patna,  and  gaining 
 admission  to  the  presence  of  the  Raja  Kalasoka,  they  en- 
 treated his  protection  against  the  designs  and  aggressions  of 
 certain  priests  resident  in  the  provinces,  who  were  hasten- 
 ing to  take  possession  of  their  Vihara.  Kalasoka,  suppos- 
 ing them  really  oppressed,  promised  them  redress,  and  sent 
 messengers  to  remonstrate  with  Revata ; but  in  the  night 
 he  had  a dream,  and  thought  he  was  thrown  into  a place  of 
 torture  after  death.  The  King’s  sister  was  a gifted  Bud- 
 dhist, and  possessing  the  usual  Buddhist  accomplishment 
 of  flying  through  the  air,  she  came  instantly  to  the  aid 
 of  her  brother,  told  him  that  he  had  offered  to  assist  the 
 wrong  party,  and  that  he  must  unite  himself  with  Revata  and 
 uphold  true  dharma ; and,  “ by  adopting  this  course,”  she 
 
296 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 concluded,  “ peace  of  mind  will  be  restored  to  thee.’^  As 
 soon  therefore  as  day  dawned,  the  King  proeeeded  to  the 
 Vihara;  and  having  assembled  and  examined  all  the  dis- 
 putants, he  perceived  that  Revata  and  Yasas  were  upholding 
 true  dharma,  and  to  them  he  promised  his  royal  protection. 
 Revata  then  advaneed  into  the  middle  of  the  assembly,  and 
 eaused  the  rules  to  be  read,  and  by  these  rules  selected 
 eight  persons,  himself  being  one,  for  the  purpose  of  examin- 
 ing into  these  eontroverted  indulgences.  The  eight  per- 
 sons seleeted  then  withdrew  to  a Vihara,  “ free  from  the 
 strife  of  men,”  and  so  secluded  that  not  even  the  note  of  a 
 bird  could  be  heard  in  it.  Having  determined  that  all  the 
 indulgenees  were  inadmissible,  they  returned  to  the  chief 
 Vihara;  and  seleeting  seven  hundred  out  of  the  twelve 
 hundred  who  had  been  colleeted  by  Yasas,  a second  convo- 
 cation was  held,  under  the  guidance  of  Revata  and  the  pro- 
 teetion  of  the  King  Kalasoka.*  The  system  of  diseipline 
 was  purified,  and  the  whole  of  dharma  and  Vinaya,  or  mo- 
 rals and  discipline,  were  revised,  and  the  sitting  was  brought 
 to  a elose  in  eight  months.  This  seeond  convocation  was 
 held  at'Vesali,  at  the  elose  of  the  first  eentury  after  Bud- 
 dha’s death,  b.c.  443. 
 
 After  Kalasoka,  the  Magadha  dynasty  beeomes  exceed- 
 ingly confused : he  was  in  fact  succeeded  by  Kings  who 
 were  approved  of  neither  by  Brahmans  nor  Buddhists,  and 
 in  eonsequenee  their  history  is  nowhere  told  intelligibly ; 
 but  the  general  version  is,  that  the  “ nine  Nandas”  reigned 
 about  this  time,  and  that  one  or  more  of  these  brothers  was 
 the  sovereign  of  Patna,  when  Alexander  the  Great  made 
 his  way  aeross  the  Indus,  and  that  when,  after  Alexander’s 
 * Mahawanso,  ch.  iv. ; Lassen,  vol.  ii.  p.  85. 
 
ASOKA. 
 
 297 
 
 retreat,  the  west  of  India  was  agitated  by  the  murder  of 
 Porus,  tlie  weak  government  of  the  Nandas  was  usurped 
 by  the  adventurous  Chandragupta  and  his  clever  compa- 
 nion Chanakya.  Chandragupta  reigned  thirty-four  years ; 
 his  son  Bindusara  twenty-eight  years ; Bindusara  leaving 
 one  hundred  and  one  sons,  “ the  issue  of  sixteen  different 
 mothers.”  Amongst  these  sons  w'as  the  celebrated  Asoka, 
 who  was  so  wild  and  turbulent  in  his  youth  that  his  father 
 thought  him  safest  at  a distance,  and  sent  him  to  reign 
 as  viceroy  at  Ougein.  Whilst  administering  that  govern- 
 ment he  formed  an  attachment  to  the  lovely  and  youthful 
 daughter  of  SiSetthi,  or  president  of  corporation,  at  Ougein.* 
 This  lady  was  the  mother  of  Asoka’s  two  celebrated  children, 
 the  Prince  Mahendra  and  the  Princess  Sanghamitta ; and 
 with  them  and  his  wife  he  continued  at  Ougein,  or  Avanti, 
 until  messengers  arrived  with  “ a leaf,”  announcing  that  his 
 father  was  upon  his  death-bed.  Asoka  started  instantly, 
 leaving  his  children  behind : their  mother  sent  them  after- 
 wards to  Patna,  but  remained  herself  with  her  father. 
 When  Asoka  arrived,  the  ministers  rubbed  him  with  saffron 
 and  lac,  boiled  in  an  iron  pot,  for  what  purpose  is*not  ex- 
 plained ;t  but  we  are  elsewhere  told  that  Asoka  had  a re- 
 markably rough  skin,  so  that  we  may  suspect  the  ministers 
 of  wishing  to  make  it  appear  smooth  at  any  rate,  when 
 the  dying  King  w'as  in  such  a state  that  scarcely  any  life 
 was  left,  Asoka,  “ decorated  with  all  sorts  of  ornaments,” 
 was  presented  to  his  father,  although  Susima  was  the  son 
 
 * Maliawanso,  v.,  xiii.  f Asoka  Avaclana,  Buniouf,  p.  363. 
 
 t “ And  Rebekah  . . . put  the  skins  of  . . . goats  upon  his  hands,  and  upon 
 the  smooth  of  his  neck ; . . . and  Isaac  said  unto  Jacob,  Come  near,  I pray 
 thee,  that  I may  feel  thee,  whether  thou  be  my  very  son  Esau  or  not.” — Book 
 of  Genesis,  xxvii. 
 
298 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 for  whom  he  had  asked  and  whom  he  had  wished  to  nomi- 
 nate as  his  successor. 
 
 As  soon  as  Biudusara  died,  Asoka  raised  the  chatta  (um- 
 brella) of  universal  dominion ; and,  by  way  of  extirpating 
 “ all  disaffected  persons,”  put  ninety-nine  of  his  father’s  sons 
 to  death,  only  reserving  Tissa,  who  was  bom  of  the  same 
 mother  as  himself.  No  record  is  given  of  the  first  years  of 
 his  reign ; but  as  his  dominion  extended  much  further  than 
 that  of  prenous  sovereigns,  we  may  suppose  that  he  was 
 engaged  in  war  or  diplomacy.  “ In  the  fourth  year  of  his 
 accession  to  his  sole  sovereignty  ” he  caused  his  inaugura- 
 tion to  be  solemnized,  on  which  occasion  the  Ceylon  his- 
 torian records  that  Deioatas,  as  well  as  men,  combined  to 
 do  him  honoiu’.  iNIangos,  saffron,  medicinal  substances,  and 
 tooth-cleaners  were  brought  from  the  Himalaya;  yellow 
 cloths,  woven  without  seams,  Avere  brought  by  the  Nagas ; 
 but  more  extraordinary  offerings  were  “the  elk,  udld  hog, 
 and  winged  game,  Avhich  went  to  the  royal  kitchen  of  their 
 own  accord  and  then  expired ; herds  of  cattle  led  forth  by 
 tigers,  and  loads  of  paddy  brought  by  parrots.  IMice  husked 
 the  paddy,  and  boars  worked  in  the  royal  arsenal  with  ham- 
 mers.” So  much  for  the  historical  simplicity  of  the  !Maha- 
 wanso,*  never  backAvard  in  the  invention  of  marvels  in  the 
 honour  of  pious  Buddhists ! Asoka’s  eldest  brother,  Su- 
 sima,  Avhom  he  had  depi’ived  of  life,  left  a aa  idoAv  and  infant 
 son ; and  thinking  her  child  unsafe  near  the  court,  this 
 poor  Avoman  Avent  out  to  live  in  a neighbouring  village  of 
 outcasts  called  Chandalas.  Whilst  in  this  retreat  the  child 
 Avas  noticed  by  a Buddhist  as  worthy  of  Buddhist  training, 
 or,  in  Buddhist  language,  as  “ possessing  the  requisites  for 
 * Mahnwanso,  cli.  v. 
 
ASOKA. 
 
 299 
 
 Arhathood.”  The  little  Nigrodha  was  consequently  brought 
 up  in  a Vihara  in  Patna,  and  happened  just  to  have  attained 
 Arhathood  at  a time  when  King  Asoka  was  feeling  dis- 
 gusted with  the  greediness  of  Brahmans.  Following  the 
 example  of  previous  reigns,  sixty  thousand  Brahmans  were 
 regaled  daily  at  his  palace ; “ but  noticing  from  his  upper 
 pavilion  the  despicable  proceedings  of  these  persons,  . . . the 
 King  enjoined  his  ministers  to  bestow  alms  with  greater 
 discrimination,  . . . and  caused  to  be  brought  to  him  minis- 
 ters of  all  religions  separately”  (meaning,  probably,  of  the 
 various  Brahmanical  schools) ,“  and  having  seated  them 
 and  discussed  their  tenets  and  given  them  alms,  allowed 
 them  to  depart.”  Whilst  reflecting  upon  their  conduct 
 and  doctrine  as  he  enjoyed  the  air  in  his  lofty  apartment, 
 he  observed  an  ascetic  crossing  the  palace-square,  whose 
 sanctified  deportment  w'as  most  ediBdng  to  him.  This 
 stranger,  although  unknown  to  Asoka,  was  his  nephew,  by 
 name  Nigrodha.  The  King  desired  that  he  should  be 
 brought  into  his  presence ; and  although  his  visitor  seated 
 himself  upon  the  throne  and  exacted  homage  from  the  King, 
 his  discourse  was  so  impi’essive  that  Asoka  undertook  fr’om 
 that  day  to  provide  rice  daily  for  Buddhist  priests;  and 
 no  long  time  elapsed  before  both  the  King  and  the  people 
 generally  were  established  in  the  tenets  of  Buddhism. 
 
 From  this  period  the  affairs  of  Ceylon  are  so  inter- 
 woven with  those  of  India,  that  it  becomes  necessary  to 
 know  something  of  that  island^s  history.  According  to  the 
 old  Sanskrit  poem,  the  Ramayana,  Ceylon  or  Lanka  was 
 oi’iginally  inhabited  by  an  evil-disposed  demoniacal  race ; 
 and  although  conquered  by  Rama,  they  retained  possession 
 of  their  island,  and  appear  again  in  history  about  b.c.  500, 
 
300 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 when  ^"ijaya  and  a little  band  of  Hindus  set  foot  upon 
 Ceylon.  The  story  is  told  in  the  IMahawanso  “ under  the 
 veil  of  fables and  the  veil  being  removed,  we  find  that  a 
 lady  of  royal  birth,  in  the  north  of  India,  brought  shame 
 upon  her  family  by  marrying  a man  of  low  birth  named 
 Sin/ia  (lion) ; and  the  lady  and  the  lion,  being  banished  from 
 eourt  eircles,  took  refuge  on  the  southern  eoast.  Their  son 
 ^ ijaya  seomed  the  obseure  life  which  he  was  forced  to  lead 
 with  his  parents,  and  made  his  way  to  Ceylon,  where  his 
 adventures  so  much  resemble  those  of  Ulysses  with  Circe, 
 that  had  the  works  of  Homer  been  accessible  in  Ceylon, 
 the  author  of  the  IMahawanso  must  have  been  convicted  of 
 plagiarism,  says  Mr.  Tumour.  Vijaya  and  his  companions 
 had  no  sooner  landed,  than  the  Queen,  or  chief  of  the  female 
 demons,  sent  hei’  servant  to  them  in  the  form  of  a dog. 
 The  stratagem  succeeded, — “ dogs  are  only  found  where 
 there  are  inhabited  villages,”  say  the  men, — and  following 
 the  dog,  seven  hundred  of  them  fell  into  the  power  of  the 
 sorceress,  ^"ijaya,  alarmed  at  the  prolonged  absence  of  his 
 companions,  followed  them,  seized  the  demon,  and  threat- 
 ened to  put  her  to  death ; but  she  restored  the  missing  men, 
 transformed  herself  into  a beautiful  bride,  and  assisted  him 
 to  kill  the  King  and  seize  the  government.  Two  years 
 afterwards  Vijaya’s  Hindu  followers  were  anxious  to  have 
 him  regularly  installed  as  sovereign;  and  as  that  could  not 
 be  done  unless  he  married  a princess  of  rank  equal  to  his 
 own,  they  sent  a deputation  to  Southern  Madura,  to  request 
 King  Pauduwo  to  send  his  daughter.  The  King  consented, 
 and  his  daughter  embarked,  accompanied  by  seven  hundred 
 daughters  of  the  nobility.  ^A’hen  she  arrived,  Vijaya  dis- 
 missed his  native  wife,  promising  her  a maintenance  of  bali 
 (offerings) . 
 
SINHALA. 
 
 301 
 
 This  story  is  told  with  some  variation  by  the  Chinese 
 traveller  Fa-Hian.  A merehant,  named  Sinhala,  went 
 mth  five  hundred  eompanions  to  an  island  inhabited  by 
 demons,  for  the  purpose  of  procuring  pearls  and  precious 
 stones  ; the  demons  inhabiting  the  island  assumed  the  form 
 of  beautiful  women,  and  allured  them  into  their  town, 
 which  was  called  the  Iron  Town.  In  the  night  Sinhala  had 
 a dream,  showing  him  into  what  danger  he  had  fallen. 
 Rousing  his  companions,  they  all  escaped  to  the  sea-shore, 
 where  a wonderful  horse  stood  ready  to  transport  them 
 across  the  sea.  When  the  demons  found  themselves  aban- 
 doned, they  complained  to  the  King ; and  although  Sinhala 
 warned  him  of  the  true  nature  of  the  beautiful  Ogress,  he 
 and  all  his  family  fell  victims  to  her  snares.  The  morning 
 after  the  sorceress  had  been  admitted  to  the  palace,  the 
 ministers  went  to  obtain  audience,  and  found  nothing  left 
 but  bones.  No  one  could  explain  the  calamity,  until  en- 
 lightened by  Sinhala ; and  the  relation  of  his  sagacity  and 
 courage  so  struck  the  people  that  they  forthwith  made  him 
 their  King.  Sinhala  then  collected  troops,  and  embarking 
 them  in  boats,  fought  the  female  demons  until  they  either 
 sank  in  the  sea  or  sought  refuge  in  another  island.  Sin- 
 hala destroyed  the  Iron  City,  and  settlers  quickly  coming 
 from  various  quarters,  he  soon  established  a kingdom,  called 
 after  himself,  Sinhala.* 
 
 This  is  e\udently  a northern  adaptation  of  the  story  in 
 the  Mahawanso,  and  is  related  in  nearly  the  same  manner 
 in  a Nipal  book,  ‘ Karunda  Vyuha,’  or  “Construction  of 
 the  Basket  of  Qualities,”  of  Avalokiteswara,  it  being  ex- 
 
 * Note  by  Landi'cssc ; Fa-Hian,  p.  338,  from  a Chinese  work,  called 
 ‘ Pian-i-tian.' 
 
302 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 plaiucd  that  Sinhala  was  Buddha  iu  one  of  his  former  births, 
 and  that  Avalokiteswara  was  the  horse  which  saved  him. 
 AVith  this  saint  of  lengthy  name  we  shall  have  to  make  fur- 
 ther acquaintance  hereafter,  and  he  is  only  mentioned  here 
 in  order  to  explain  the  accompanying  outline  of  a painting 
 from  the  Caves  of  Ajunta,  in  which  Sinhala  and  his  com- 
 panions arrive  in  boats  to  fight  the  female  demons ; and,  vic- 
 tory being  accomplished,  worship  is  offered  to  the  Saint  in 
 the  form  of  a horse,  and  the  King  receives  consecration. 
 
 Sinhala,  or  rather  Yijaya,  was  succeeded  on  the  throne 
 by  his  descendants;  and  contemporary  with  Asoka  we  find 
 a King  Alutasiva,  whom  Asoka  vainly  endeavoured  to  con- 
 vert to  Buddhism.* 
 
 AVe  must  now  return  to  the  affau’s  of  the  Buddhist  con- 
 vents, or  A^iharas,  at  Patna,  on  the  Ganges,  which  were 
 thrown  into  disorder  by  some  of  the  old  Tirthyas,  wbo  con- 
 trived to  get  admission  and  to  introduce  heretical  doctrine. 
 This  so  much  distressed  the  aged  Alogalaputra,  who  then 
 presided,  that  he  gave  up  his  charge  to  a younger  man,  and 
 went  to  a mountain  beyond  the  Ganges,  to  reflect  in  soli- 
 tude on  measures  for  averting  the  dangers  which  threatened 
 his  religion.  AA’hen  the  Hierarch  was  gone,  the  disorder 
 increased,  and  the  Assembly  felt  it  impossible  to  perform 
 the  Upasathas.  The  suspension  of  this  rite  was  reported 
 to  the  King,  who,  ignorant  of  the  reason  for  its  suspension, 
 sent  over  his  officers  to  command  its  performance  : the  pre- 
 siding priest  still  refiised,  and  the  officer  cut  off  his  head ; 
 
 * Mutasiva  sent  to  Asoka  gems,  cliank-shclls,  eight  descriptions  of  pearls, 
 etc.  Asoka  sent  various  things  in  return,  amongst  wliich  were  costly  hand- 
 towels,  wliich  are  cleaned  by  being  passed  through  the  lire,  and  a message 
 announcing  his  conversion  to  Buddhism. — Mahawanso,  xi. 
 
Escape  and  Coronation  of  Sinhala.  (Painting  from  the  Caves  of  Ajunta.) 
 
% 
 
 \ 
 
THIRD  COUNCIL. 
 
 305 
 
 this  occurred  several  times,  until  the  King’s  brother  rushed 
 to  the  presidential  chair  and  prevented  further  carnage. 
 The  King  was  appalled  when  the  cireumstanees  were  made 
 known  to  him,  and  in  great  distress  of  mind  sent  a deputa- 
 tion to  the  aged  Mogalaputra.  After  repeated  solicitations, 
 the  venerable  man  at  length  consented ; as  he  was  infirm,  a 
 boat  with  a state  canopy  was  sent  for  his  accommodation. 
 The  King  received  him  with  the  greatest  reverence,  gave 
 him  a pavilion  in  his  own  garden,  and  held  frequent  con- 
 versations with  him.  After  expelling  the  sixty  thousand 
 Tirthyas,  Mogalaputra  selected  one  thousand  of  the  right- 
 believing  as  members  of  an  Assembly,  wdiich  sat  in  convo- 
 cation for  nine  months,  and  restored  dharma  to  purity  in 
 the  eighteenth  year  of  Asoka’s  reign,  b.c.  241  or  245. 
 
 x 
 
306 
 
 CHAPTER  VIII. 
 
 “ Wliere  now  tlie  lianghty  empire  that  was  spread 
 With  such  fond  hope  ? Her  very  speech  is  dead.” 
 
 WOEDSWOETH. 
 
 Mogalaputra  exerted  great  influence  over  King  Asoka^ 
 and  this  circumstance  probably  accounts  for  the  difference 
 wbicb  ^ e have  already  observed  between  the  two  series  of 
 the  stone-cut  Edicts.  In  the  first  series  the  King  speaks 
 with  equal  respect  of  Brahmans  and  Sramanas,  and  makes 
 no  reference  to  Buddhist  institutions;  in  the  second  series 
 he  commands  the  observance  of  the  three  sacred  days  and 
 of  the  upasatha  ceremonies,  and  shows  other  symptoms  of 
 progress  in  Buddhist  doctrine.*  The  Books  affirm  that  he 
 had  become  the  obedient  and  enthusiastic  disciple  of  his 
 venerable  guest,  and  although  we  cannot  entirely  unriddle 
 the  puzzle  of  the  King’s  two  names  of  Piyadasi  and  Asoka, 
 or  explain  all  the  dates  satisfactorily,  there  is  a general  and 
 undeniable  coincidence  in  his  history  as  developed  in  the 
 
 * In  the  recently-published  work  of  M.  Barthelemy  St.  Hilaire  he  makes 
 nearly  the  same  observation;  “On  peut  reinarquer  que  Piyadasi  met  dans 
 ses  edits  les  Brahmanes  avant  les  Sramanes  ; mais  dans  eeux  qui  ont  ete 
 promulgues  apres  le  concile  il  met  toujours  les  Sramanes  avant  les  Brah- 
 manes.”— Du  Bmiddhisme,  p.  109,  noie. 
 
asoka’s  works. 
 
 307 
 
 Edicts  and  related  in  the  Books : not  indeed  that  any  elose 
 I’esemblanee  could  be  established,  or  need  even  be  expected, 
 between  short  inseriptions  and  lengthy  poems.  The  first 
 are  a record  of  the  very  words  in  which  an  actual  procla- 
 mation has  been  made,  whilst  the  second  are  amplifieations 
 worked  up  at  leisure,  aceording  to  the  fancy  or  genius  of 
 the  artist.  Possibly,  if  some  future  Rawliuson  should  deci- 
 pher stone  records  of  the  Siege  of  Troy,  we  should  find  that 
 the  original  Heetor  or  Agamemnon  bore  about  the  same 
 relation  to  his  prototype  in  Homer  as  the  Piyadasi  of  the 
 Ediets  does  to  the  Asoka  of  Buddhist  literature.  Never- 
 theless Buddhist  books  must  not  be  negleeted,  for  these 
 Sutras  and  legends  and  poems  are  the  basis  upon  whieh  all 
 modern  Buddhism  has  been  erected  ; and  it  is  only  by  ac- 
 quaintance with  the  foundation,  that  we  can  hope  rightly  to 
 understand  the  superstructure.  Taking  therefore  that  most 
 tedious  and  extravagant  of  legends,  the  Asoka  Avadana,’* 
 and  sifting  the  facts,  we  find  that  the  King  accompanied 
 !Mogalaputra  on  a pilgrimage  to  all  the  places  rendered  holy 
 or  remarkable  by  the  events  of  Buddha^s  life.  At  the  tree 
 under  which  he  had  attained  Buddhahood,  a monument,  or 
 chaitya,  was  to  he  erected,  and  persons  engaged  to  live  on 
 the  spot  and  preserve  the  tree.  A monument,  or  dagoba, 
 was  also  to  be  erected  on  the  spot  where  Buddha  died ; and 
 after  all  the  places  connected  with  Buddha  had  been  reve- 
 rently worshipped,  the  King  expressed  a wish  to  do  honour 
 to  Buddha^s  first  disciples,  and  to  raise  dagobas  to  the  me- 
 mory of  Shariputra  and  IMogalana.  The  legend  says,  the 
 
 * Legend  of  Asoka  in  the  ‘ Divya  Avadana.’  M.  Burnouf  explains  Ava- 
 dana  as  legends  which  explain  present  actions  hr  events  in  previous  states 
 of  existence,  p.  11. 
 
 X 2 
 
308 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 King  raised  these  dagobas  at  Jetavana  (meaning  Kosala, 
 near  Fyzaliad),  where  old  bricks  and  rubbish  show  that 
 much  masonry  lias  perished.  At  Sanchi  dagobas  to  Sba- 
 riputra  and  Mogalana  actually  exist;*  and  when  once  it  was 
 established  as  an  act  of  merit  to  erect  monuments  to  de- 
 ceased Buddhist  saints,  the  most  distinguished  saints  woidd 
 inevitably  have  many  dagobas  in  various  places  and  of  various 
 ages.  The  King  was  next  persuaded  by  his  venerable  guide 
 to  allow  his  eldest  son,  Mahcndra,  to  become  a Sthavira 
 (elder)  in  the  Buddhist  hierarchy.  Mogalaputra  persuaded 
 him  that  a son  and  daughter  were  the  best  offerings  he 
 could  make  to  Buddha ; and  as  Agnibrahma,  his  daughter’s 
 husband,  had  already  become  a Buddhist  and  abandoned  his 
 wife,  the  King  consented  that  the  Prince  Mahendra  and  his 
 sister  Saughamitta  should  enter  the  Buddhist  community, 
 making  the  usual  vows  of  celibacy  and  going  through  all 
 appropriate  ceremonies  with  the  utmost  pomp.f  Mogala- 
 putra then,  “ reflecting  on  futurity,  perceived  that  the  time 
 had  arrived  for  the  establishing  of  the  religion  of  Buddha 
 in  foreign  countries,  and  despatched  Sthaviras  into  foreign 
 parts.”  J Perhaps  this  is  a second  edition  of  the  despatch- 
 ing of  dharma  muhamatras  to  the  dominion  of  Antiochus, 
 etc.,  recorded  in  the  Edicts  ; or  perhaps  Mogalaputra  looked 
 upon  Asoka’s  dharma  mahamatra  as  mere  lay  teachers,  in 
 nowise  lessening  the  necessity  that  w'ell-instructed  Sthaviras 
 should  give  instruction  in  those  benighted  regions.  It  is 
 at  any  rate  well  authenticated  that  Buddhist  missions  were 
 
 * J.  R.  A.  S.,  vol.  xiii.  p.  110.  ‘Topes  of  Central  India,’  by  Major  A. 
 Cunningham. 
 
 t Mahawanso,  cli.  v.  p.  39  (small  edition). 
 
 t Mahawanso,  ch.  xii. 
 
BUDDHIST  MISSIONS. 
 
 309 
 
 at  this  time  made,  and  that  Asoka’s  son,  Mahendra,  was  ap- 
 pointed to  Ceylon.  “ Tlie  profoundly  sapient  great  Mahen- 
 dra  was  enjoined  by  his  preceptor,  the  son  of  Moggali,  to 
 convert  the  land  of  Lanka;”*  but  thinking  it  would  be  best 
 to  wait  until  after  the  death  of  the  old  King  Mutasiva, 
 Mahendra  went  in  the  meantime  to  visit  his  mother,  near 
 Ougein  : this  lady^s  name  was  Chetiya ; she  is  described  as 
 living  in  a city  called  Chetiyagiri,  and  the  remains  of  her 
 city  are  supposed  to  be  still  visible  in  tbe  extensive  and  in- 
 teresting ruins  of  Sancbi.f  She  was  overjoyed  at  the  arri- 
 val of  her  son,  and  established  him  in  the  Chetiya  Vihara, 
 built  by  herself ; and  whilst  he  spent  six  months  preaching 
 to  his  maternal  relations,  and  converting  Bhandu,  the  son 
 of  his  mother’s  younger  sister’s  daughter,”  we  must  follow 
 the  proceedings  of  the  Buddhist  missionaries  in  other  quar- 
 ters. To  Kashmere  and  Kandahar  Mogalaputra  sent  Maj- 
 jhantiko.  To  Maharashtra  and  to  the  Yona  country  and  to 
 Aparantaka  he  sent  Sthaviras  named  Rakkiio.  But  to  the 
 Himalaya  he  sent  Majhima  and  Kassapa,  which  are  most 
 welcome  names,  for  the  reason  that  in  the  dagobas  at  Sancbi 
 Major  Cunningbam  has  discovered  a relic  “ of  the  emanci- 
 pated Majhima also  relics  of  the  emancipated  Kassapa, 
 son  of  Koti,  and  of  Hay'itiputra,  the  son  of  Hariti;  a 
 certain  Yakho  in  the  Himavanta,  “ together  with  his  wdfe 
 Harita,”  being  commemorated  in  the  Mahawanso  as  having 
 attained  the  first  stage  of  sanctification,  etc.  At  Sanchi 
 also  there  are  relics  and  inscriptions  to  Mogalaputra,  thus 
 showing  that  the  Books  and  the  Dagobas  are  agreed  as  to 
 who  were  the  eminent  people  contemporary  with  and  sub- 
 sequent to  Asoka,  and  also  in  some  cases  as  to  the  precise 
 
 * Mahawanso,  ch.  xiii.  f J.  R.  A.  S.,  vol.  xiii.  p.  114, 
 
310 
 
 LIKE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 place  in  which  their  celebrity  was  acquired.  Kasiyapa  is 
 said,  in  the  iSIahawanso,  to  have  accompanied  iNIajhima,  and 
 ^lajhima  is  twice  mentioned  in  the  Sanchi  inscriptions  as 
 having  been  an  acharya  to  Himavat.  Kashmere  and  Can- 
 dahar,  and  the  neighbouring  regions  are  mentioned  in  the 
 ^laliawanso  as  afflicted  by  thunderstorms,  which  destroyed 
 their  crops,  and  which  they  attributed  to  the  power  of  nayas 
 (snakes),  whom  they  worshipped.  In  the  time  of  Alexander 
 the  Great,  two  snakes  ivere  kept  at  Taxila  for  worship,  and 
 the  ^lahabharata  also  makes  allusion  to  the  snake-worship- 
 pers of  the  north-west  of  India ; but  there  is  still  a mystery 
 about  the  Nagas,  to  which  we  shall  have  further  occasion  to 
 allude.  On  this  occasion  the  Nagas  became  most  willing 
 converts  to  Buddhism;  the  SthaGra  said,  “ Do  not,  as  for- 
 merly, give  way  ...  to  anger ; . . . but,  evincing  your  solici- 
 tude for  the  happiness  of  living  creatures,  abstain  from  the 
 destruction  of  crops,  . . . live,  protecting  mankind.’’  And 
 the  Naga  king  being  convinced  by  this  discourse,  “placing 
 the  SthaGra  on  a gem-set  throne,  respectfully  stood  by 
 fanning  him.”  And  after  recording  how  many  discourses 
 were  preached,  and  how  many  thousands  of  persons  were 
 converted,  the  historian  adds,  that  “ from  that  period  to 
 the  present  day  the  people  of  Kasmira  and  Gandhara  have 
 been  fervently  devoted  to  the  three  branches  of  faith,  and 
 the  land  has  glittered  with  yellow  robes.”* 
 
 The  mission  to  Ceylon  was  still  more  important  and  last- 
 ing in  its  effects ; for,  even  to  our  “ present  day,”  in  the 
 nineteenth  century,  the  “ yellow  robes”  glitter,  and  the  re- 
 ligion of  Buddha  prevails,  but  veiy  little  altered  fi*om  what 
 it  was  when  carried  there  by  !Mahendra,  about  b.c.  2 16. 
 
 * Maliawanso,  oh.  xii. 
 
BUDDHISM  IN  CEYLON. 
 
 311 
 
 Devanipiatisso  had  become  sole  sovereign  in  Ceylon,  and 
 ^lahendra  meditated,  The  period  has  arrived  for  under- 
 taking the  mission  enjoined  by  my  father.^^  Accompanied 
 by  other  devotees,  he  then  made  the  journey,  “ rising  aloft 
 into  the  air,  . . . and  instantaneously  alighting  on  the  su- 
 perb Missa  Mountain,”*  which  means  Mehentele,  a hill 
 rising  abruptly  from  the  wooded  plains  about  eight  miles  to 
 the  north  of  Anuradhapura,  where  the  remains  of  Buddhist 
 temples,  steps,  walls,  and  cells  may  still  be  seen.  These 
 flying  saints  happened  to  arrive  during  the  celebration  of  a 
 “ Salila”  festival  for  the  amusement  of  the  inhabitants  of 
 the  capital,  when  the  King,  with  a retinue  of  forty  thou- 
 sand men,  engaged  in  an  elk  hunt,  and  in  the  course  of  the 
 pursuit  came  to  IMeheutele,  or  the  ^lissa  Mountain,  upon 
 w'hich  jMahendra  had  alighted. 
 
 “ A certain  Beva  of  that  mountain,”  says  the  Maha- 
 wanso,  “ being  desirous  of  exhibiting  the  theros,f  having 
 assumed  the  form  of  an  elk,  stationed  himself  there  in  that 
 neighbourhood,  grazing.  The  sovereign  descrying  him,  and 
 saying,  ‘ It  is  not  fair  to  shoot  him  standing,’  sounded 
 his  bowstring ; the  elk  fled,  . . . the  King  gave  chase,” 
 and  came  upon  the  Buddhist  priests.  Mahendra  rendered 
 himself  alone  visible,  considering  that  the  King  might  be 
 alarmed  if  too  many  persons  presented  themselves.  The 
 King’s  name  was  Devanampiatisso  [tisso,  “ well-pleasing 
 to  the  Gods”),  but  Mahendra  addresses  him  simply  as 
 Tisso,  and  says,  that  he  has  come  from  Jamlmdwipa  (India) 
 to  teach  him  the  faith  of  Buddha.  The  King  remembered 
 
 ■*  Mahawanso,  ch.  xiii. 
 
 + Thero  is  the  Pali  Ibnn  of  St/iavira,  and  means  elder,  ov  a Buddhist 
 priest  of  experience. 
 
312 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 the  communication  ■which  Asoka  had  made  upon  this  sub- 
 ject (during  tlie  reign  of  his  father),  and  “ laying  aside 
 his  bow  and  arrow,”  and  approaching  this  “ Rishi,”  and 
 conversing  graciously,  he  seated  himself  near  him.  These 
 appear  to  be  the  scenes 'depicted  in  the  picture  from  the 
 Caves  of  Ajunta,  of  which  a tracing  is  given  on  the  page 
 opposite  : the  only  difference  being,  that  the  northern  artist 
 represents  the  friendly  Beva  in  the  form  of  a lion,  which 
 stands  proudly  near  the  saints,  one  of  Avhom  is  eoucealing 
 himself  beneath  the  trees. 
 
 On  the  right  hand  we  see  the  next  scene,  in  whieh  the 
 King  sits  conversing  with  the  pious  Mahendra ; and  above 
 are  depicted  men,  women,  and  children,  sitting  in  the  stables. 
 This  also  accords  with  the  Ceylon  history,  whieh  speaks  of 
 the  Prineess  Annula  and  her  five  hundred  wmmen  as  very 
 early  converts ; and  after  saying  that  these  females  at- 
 tained the  first  stage  of  sanctification,”  it  continues,  “ The 
 inhabitants  of  the  town  heai'ing  of  the  pre-eminent  piety  of 
 the  tharo  from  those  who  had  seen  him  the  day  previous, 
 and  becoming  impatient  to  see  him,  assembled  and  cla- 
 moured at  the  palace-gate.  Their  sovereign  hearing  this 
 commotion,  inquired  respecting  it ; and,  learning  the  cause 
 thereof,  desirous  of  gratifying  them,  thus  addressed  them  : — 
 ‘ For  all  of  you  (to  assemble  in)  this  palace  is  insufficient ; 
 prepare  the  great  stables  of  the  state-elephants,  there  the 
 inhabitants  of  the  eapital  may  see  these  theros.’  Having 
 purified  the  elephant  stables,  and  quickly  ornamented  the 
 same  w ith  cloths  and  other  deeorations,  they  prepared  seats 
 in  due  order.”* 
 
 Here  again  the  northern  artist  makes  a slight  alteration, 
 * Maliawanso,  di.  xv. 
 
Buddhism  cai-ried  to  Ceylou.  (Painting  from  the  Caves  of  Ajunta.) 
 
I 
 
 i'  ^ 
 
HUDDHISM  I\  CEYLON. 
 
 315 
 
 substituting  horses  for  elephants.  At  the  bottom  of  the 
 picture^  to  the  rights  a man  appears  to  be  suffenng  punish- 
 mentj  a cii’cumstance  to  -which  no  allusion  is  made  in  the 
 INIahawanso. 
 
 After  the  Princess  and  her  ladies  had  attained  the  second 
 stage  of  sanctification,  they  were  anxious  to  enter  the  order 
 of  priesthood ; and,  as  iVIahendra  explained  that  men  could 
 not  ordain  women,  the  Ceylon  monarch  took  his  ad\ice  and 
 sent  messengers  to  India,  requesting  King  Asoka  to  send 
 liis  daughter,  the  renowned  Priestess  Sanghamitta,  and  to 
 send  also  in  her  charge  the  right-hand  branch  of  the  sacred 
 Bo-tree.  Diu’ing  the  voyage  Nagas  came  and  endeavoured 
 to  obtain  possession  of  this  treasure ; and  Sanghamitta, 
 yielding  to  their  importunity,  permitted  them  to  take  it  to 
 their  Naga  King,  and  retain  possession  of  it  for  sev^en  days. 
 
 The  next  great  event  in  Ceylon  was  the  erection  of  relic- 
 shrines,  called  Dagobas,  and  as  these  required  relics,  ano- 
 ther deputation  was  sent  to  King  Asoka  begging  for  Bud- 
 dha’s right  canine-tooth  and  right  collar-bone.  This  re- 
 quest Avas  granted,  and  the  bones  arrived  in  safety ; but  at 
 a later  period,  when  a King  of  Ceylon,  celebrated  by  the 
 name  of  Dushtagamini,  sent  for  relics,  they  w'ere  waylaid 
 by  Nagas ; and  this  piratical  reverence  and  worship  of  the 
 Nagas  is  probably  the  subject  of  the  bas-relief  at  Sanchi.f 
 
 IMahendra’s  latest  works  appear  to  have  been  the  insti- 
 tution of  Yiharas  or  convents  at  Anuradhapm’a,  and  oii 
 the  neighbouring  hill  of  Mehentele,  upon  which  he  usually 
 resided.  We  read  of  “ sixty-eight  rock  cells”  and  “ thirty- 
 two  sacred  edifices.”* 
 
 * Mahawanso,  eh.  xvi. 
 t See  woorleut  at  the  elose  of  this  Chapter. 
 
316 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 The  pious  King  Devanampiatisso  was  succeeded  liy  his 
 equally  pious  brother  Uttiyo,  in  the  eighth  year  of  whose 
 reign  jMahendra  died^  and  in  the  tenth  year  he  died  him- 
 self, on  which  occasion  the  Buddhist  historian  makes  the 
 following  characteristic  observations,  with  which  we  must 
 conclude  our  notice  of  Ceylon  Rajas  : — “ This  monarch, 
 Uttiyo,  reigned  ten  years;  thus  this  mortality  subjects 
 all  mankind  to  death.  If  mortal  man  would  but  compre- 
 hend the  relentless,  the  aU-powerful,  irresistible  principle 
 of  mortality,  relinquishing  (the  hopeless  pursuit  of)  San- 
 sara*  (eternity),  he  would,  thus  secured,  neither  adhere  to  a 
 sinful  course  of  life  nor  abstain  from  leading  a pious  one. 
 This  (principle  of  mortality) , finding  he  had  “ attained  this 
 (state  of  sanctity),  would  be  paralyzed,  and  its  power  (over 
 him)  utterly  extinguished.”t 
 Previous  to  these  events  the  poor  old  King  Asoka,  in 
 India,  had  fallen  into  many  afflictions.  His  good  wife,  ivho 
 gave  mango-trees  to  the  Buddhists,  died,J  and  he  unfortu- 
 nately “ raised  to  the  dignity  of  queen-consort  a malicious 
 and  vain  creature,”  who  was  jealous  of  the  presents  he 
 made  to  the  sacred  tree,  and  tried  to  poison  it  with  the 
 fang  of  a toad.§  Still  worse  was  her  jealousy  of  Asoka’s 
 son,  Kumala,  whose  eyes  she  caused  to  be  put  out,  but  was 
 herself  burnt  to  death  in  consequence.  Asoka  is  repre- 
 sented as  growing  childish  in  his  later  days,  weakly  giving 
 all  he  possessed  to  the  Kukkuti  ^ ihara,  until  restrained  by 
 his  grandson,  Sarapadi,  who  acted  as  Vice- King  at  Patna  ;|| 
 
 * Professor  Wilson  explains  this  word  as  not  eternity,  but  perpetual 
 succession  or  revolving  of  births, 
 t Mabawanso,  cb.  xx. 
 
 X J.  A.  S.  B.,  vol.  vi.  p.  9t)7. 
 
 § Mabawanso,  eb.  xx. 
 II  Bumouf,  426. 
 
VI  HARAS. 
 
 317 
 
 at  length,  three  years  after  his  disastrous  marriage,  he  died, 
 B.c.  226,  after  a reign  of  thirty-seven  years.* 
 
 The  reign  of  Asoka  appears  to  have  been  the  noonday  of 
 Buddhist  prosperity,  during  which  the  devotees  became  a 
 powerful  body,  with  well-organized  Viharas,  or  convents,  in 
 which  luxury  was  prohibited  and  the  sacred  records  studied 
 and  preserved.  The  holy  men  were  not  allowed  seats  of 
 costly  cloth,  nor  umbrellas  made  of  rich  material,  with 
 handles  adorned  with  gems  and  pearls;  nor  might  they 
 use  fragrant  substances,  or  fish-gills  and  bricks  for  rubbers 
 in  the  bath,  except  indeed  for  their  feet.  Garlic,  toddy, 
 and  all  fermented  liquors  were  forbidden,  and  no  food 
 permitted  after  midday.  Music,  dancing,  and  attendance 
 upon  such  amusements  were  forbidden.  Nor  were  they 
 allowed  seal-rings  or  stamps  of  gold ; but  stamps  of  a baser 
 metal  they  might  have,  proGded  the  design  were  “ a circle, 
 with  two  deer  on  opposite  sides,  and  below  the  name  of 
 the  Vihara.”t  This  regulation  was  probably  made  in  re- 
 ference to  mythological  emblems  employed  by  the  Bactrian 
 Greeks,  and  it  is  only  in  the  northern  books  that  we  meet 
 with  it.  In  Ceylon  it  was  an  act  of  merit  to  enrich  the 
 Vihara  in  every  way  possible.  A pious  King  (Dushtaga- 
 mini)  consoled  himself  on  his  dying  bed  by  rehearsing  his 
 good  deeds,  and  amongst  others  mentions  the  woollen  car- 
 pets which  he  gave  to  the  Vihara,  and  the  golden  ladle 
 which  he  substituted  for  the  cocoa-nut  commonly  in  use.J 
 Some  inscriptions,  discovered  on  the  walls  of  the  ruined 
 Viharas  at  Mehentele,  give  us  further  insight  into  the 
 wealth  and  importance  to  which  these  wonderful  institu- 
 
 * Lassen,  vol.  ii.  p.  271.  t Csoma  Korosi,  As.  Res.  vol.  xx.  pp.  86,  87. 
 t Mahawanso,  ch.  xxvii.,  p.  161. 
 
318 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 tions  occasionally  attained;*  the  date  being  a.d.  262,  and 
 the  language  nhat  Mr.  Tumour  calls  “ the  abstruse  idiom 
 and  phraseology  employed  in  regal  and  sacred  documents.^t 
 
 The  devotees  are  to  rise  at  dawn,  to  meditate  on  the  ‘ 
 four  preservative  principles,  to  perform  ablutions,  to  attire 
 themselves  in  yellow  robes,  to  resort  to  a neighboui’ing 
 convent  to  perform  religious  offices,  to  partake  of  conjee 
 (rice-water)  and  rice,  and  duly  to  serve  such  members  as 
 are  prevented  attending  through  sickness.  Twelve  cells  are 
 assigned  to  those  who  expound  the  Abhidharma,  seven  to 
 those  who  preach  the  Sutras,  and  five  to  the  students  of  the 
 Vinaya.  The  regulations  regarding  property  pro\dde  that 
 donations  made  to  devotees  shall  not  he  appropriated  other- 
 wise, but  that  all  lands  and  products  shall  be  enjoyed  in 
 common  and  not  possessed  individually.  The  regulations 
 regarding  servants  require  that  no  retainer  shall  be  dis- 
 missed without  the  concurrence  of  the  whole  community ; 
 and  amongst  these  retainers  we  find,  overseers  of  villages, 
 cooks,  writers  of  accounts,  and  receivers  of  income.  If 
 the  servants  attached  to  daageys,  bogeys,  and  pilemageys 
 embezzle  the  offerings,  they  are  to  be  punished  by  hard 
 work : daageys  being  houses  or  sheds  in  which  offerings 
 to  a neighbouring  Dagoba  are  placed ; bogeys  being  similar 
 houses,  placed  under  a Bo-tree,  to  receive  the  offerings  to 
 the  tree ; and  pilemagey  being  a similar  house  Avith  the  ad- 
 dition of  an  idol  or  idols.  J Some  regulations  have  in  view 
 the  protection  of  tenants  upon  temple-lands,  from  whom 
 
 * Eastern  Monacliism,  p.  156. 
 
 t Epitome  History  in  Ceylon  Almanac,  1832. 
 
 J These  are  the  words  used  in  Mr.  Armour’s  translation,  and  belong 
 probably  to  the  local  Temacular. 
 
VIHARAS. 
 
 319 
 
 fees  must  not  be  exacted,  nor  their  cattle  compelled  to 
 labour  for  the  Vibara : hereditary  service  fields  shall  not 
 be  resumed,  and  palm-trees,  mee-trees,  and  other  fruit- 
 bearing trees  shall  not  be  felled  without  consent  of  the 
 tenant.  All  temple-lands  pay  certain  fees;  but  some  lands 
 are  wholly  set  aside  for  the  benefit  of  the  Vihara,  and  the 
 revenues  of  these  lands,  after  paying  the  allotted  wages, 
 shall  be  entered  in  books,  so  that  the  whole  may  be  under 
 inspection.  The  items  in  these  accounts  were,  expenditure 
 on  account  of  the  Maha  Patera  (great  bowl),  hired  servants, 
 repairs. 
 
 Those  who  acted  inconsistently  with  their  yellow  gar- 
 ments, by  destroying  life  in  the  chase  or  otherwise,  were  to 
 be  expelled. 
 
 A second  inscription  of  the  same  date,  but  upon  a sepa- 
 rate rock,  specifies  the  exact  sums  to  be  given  to  Vihara 
 servants,  and  is  interesting  from  shoAving  the  services  re- 
 quired; priests  reading  hana  (sacred  books)  during  the 
 rainy  season ; priests  reading  hana  at  the  conclusion  of  the 
 rains ; cook,  florist,  plasterer,  scavenger,  maker  of  sandals, 
 one  that  spreads  cloths  on  the  ceiling,  ditto  on  the  floor, 
 one  who  furnishes  a water- strainer  monthly,  one  Avho  fur- 
 nishes incense,  oil,  flowers  for  offerings ; painters,  carpen- 
 ters, braziers,  stone-cutters,  goldsmiths,  blacksmiths,  lime- 
 burners,  washers  of  vestments  and  bed  linen. 
 
 More  than  one  hundred  persons*  are  enumerated  as  ser- 
 vants to  this  monastery,  and  amongst  these  are  a physician 
 and  a surgeon.  In  the  time  of  Asoka,  w^e  are  told  that  a 
 devotee  suffered  dreadfully  from  a thorn  in  his  foot,  and 
 that  Asoka,  hearing  of  this,  reflected  that  a timely  applica- 
 * Eastern  Monachism,  p.  156. 
 
320 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 tion  of  a palmful  of  butter  might  have  saved  a dangerous 
 ulcer,  and  decreed  that  in  future,  medicines  should  be  dis- 
 pensed daily  at  the  four  gates  of  the  town  of  Patna.  Whe- 
 ther or  not  this  was  the  commencement  of  medical  prac- 
 tice in  Viharas  need  not  be  decided,  but  it  is  at  any  rate 
 well  ascertained  that  Buddhist  devotees  early  studied  the 
 art  of  healing,  and  that  the  chief  merit  of  the  still-exist- 
 ing Viharas,  or  Lamasarais,  in  Tibet,  is  their  knowledge  of 
 herbs,  drugs,  and  surgery. 
 
 Relics  carried  from  India  to  Ceylon  intercepted  by  Nagas. 
 
CHAPTER  IX. 
 
 “ So  roll,  tliou  ancient  Chronicle, 
 
 The  ages’  mist  away.” — Alfoed. 
 
 The  best  Chroniclers  of  the  ages  succeeding  King  Asoka  in 
 Northern  India  are  coins,  and  from  these,  and  from  such 
 scant  facts  as  are  incidentally  supplied  by  native  and  foreign 
 histories,  tve  learji  that  after  the  death  of  Asoka  his  large 
 dominions  fell  into  three  divisions,  each  son  or  grandson 
 becoming  King  of  the  province  of  which  he  tvas  previously 
 the  viceroy.  Sampadi,  at  Patna,  and  Kumala,  at  Taxila, 
 were  Buddhists,  but  Jaloka,*  in  Kashmere,  adopted  Saiva 
 worship.  Buddhists  he  persecuted,  and  Viharas  he  pulled 
 down,  lentil  arrested  by  the  apparition  of  a threatening  God- 
 dess, at  wliose  suggestion  he  restored  the  ruined  edifices ; 
 but  so  soon  as  he  gained  a victory  over  Euthydemus,  then 
 invading  India,  he  instituted  a festival  of  thanksgivingf  to 
 
 * Lassen  suggests  that  Jaloka,  written  probably  for  Jayaloka,  means 
 “ Conqueror  of  the  world,”  and  is  another  name  for  the  Northern  King 
 whom  the  Greeks  call  Sophagasenas. — Lassen,  vol.  ii.  p.  273. 
 t Lassen,  vol.  ii.  p.  274. 
 
32.2 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 his  favourite  God  Siva.  Thenceforward  we  find  but  little 
 mention  of  Hindu  monarchs,  and  must  take  what  facts  ive 
 can  fi-om  the  coins  and  notices  of  Gneco-Bactrians.  An- 
 tiochus  the  Great  advanced  to  take  vengeance  upon  Euthy- 
 dcmus,  who  had  declared  himself  an  independent  King  in 
 Bactria  ; but  the  great  King  was  conciliated  by  Demetrius, 
 the  handsome  son  of  Euthydemus,  and  a marriage  took 
 place  between  this  youth  and  a daughter  of  Antiochus.  The 
 great  King  then  pushed  forward  into  India,  and  “reneived 
 with  Sophagasenas  the  treaty  made  with  his  predecessor 
 which  is  understood  to  mean,  that  Antiochus  renewed  with 
 Jaloka  the  treaty  prevdously  made  with  Asoka  (or  Piyadasi), 
 to  which  allusion  is  made  in  the  Edicts.*  This  treaty  did 
 not  however  deter  Demetrius  from  subsequently  invading 
 India,  and  it  is  in  token  of  successes  in  that  country  that 
 he  wears  the  elephant’s  head  upon  his  helmet. 
 
 Whilst  Demetrius  was  absent,  Bactria  was  conquered  by 
 Eucratides,  the  Greek  governor  of  Sogdiaua.  Castor  and 
 Pollux  mounted,  beautifully  executed,  are  the  prevailing 
 device  on  the  reverse  of  his  coins.  Those  which  arc  square 
 have  a bilingual  inscription,  Arianian  on  one  face,  Greek 
 barbarized  on  the  other.  About  fifty  years  later,  Agatho- 
 clcs,  who  reigned  where  the  grape-vine  flourishes  in  the 
 valleys  of  the  Hindu  Kush,  wreathes  vine-leaves  round  his 
 head,  fastens  his  fillet  with  a thyrsus,  and  has  a vine  and 
 panther  on  the  reverse  of  coins  which  bear  a bilingual 
 legend,  the  equivalent  of  the  Greek  being  an  alphabet  of 
 genuine  Indian  famil\^  On  a second  series  of  Agathoclcs 
 coins  the  legend  is  Greek  only;  on  the  reverse  Jupiter 
 holds  in  his  outstretched  hand  a little  three-headed  Moon- 
 
 Laspcn,  vol.  ii.  p,  273. 
 
MIXED  SYMBOLS. 
 
 323 
 
 Goddess,*  whilst  the  clumsy  square  copper  coins  of  this 
 same  King  bear  on  the  reverse  a woman  dressed  like  an 
 Indian  dancing-girl,  with  a legend  in  old  Indian  (Pali) 
 characters,  “Nania,^’  showing  that  she  is  the  Anaites, 
 Nanania,  Ashtoreth,  or  Astarte,  of  Assyria.  The  eoins  of 
 Menander  give  similar  indications ; but  we  must  tarry  no 
 longer  amongst  the  Greek  Kings,  whose  numerous  coins 
 have  all  to  find  a plaee  within  little  more  than  one  hun- 
 dred years,  for  b.c.  120  they  are  dethroned  liy  a Seythian 
 named  Mayes,f  calling  himself  King  of  Bactria,  and  imi 
 tating  wdth  his  best  endeavours  the  beautiful  Greek  coin- 
 age. This  King  and  his  successors  are  supposed  to  have 
 held  long  contests  with  Menander  and  others,  on  whose 
 coins  are  insciibed  Soter  (Saviour),  in  record  of  occasional 
 success  against  the  new  intruders.  About  this  same 
 period,  and  contemporary  both  with  Greeks  and  Scythians, 
 another  series  of  Kings  or  rulers  has  been  discovered, 
 through  the  medium  of  coins  and  rock  inscriptions : these 
 are  the  Sabs  of  Sm’ashtra,  or  Guzerat,  who  flourished  from 
 B.c.  157  down  to  b.c.  57.  Their  coins  are  not  without 
 traces  of  fine  workmanship,  but  one  set  of  features  is  made 
 to  serve  for  the  whole  series,  and  although  the  face  is  in 
 profile  the  eye  is  full-fronted  : the  features,  mustachios, 
 and  earrings  arc  of  Indian  character,  whilst  the  reverse 
 exhibits  the  heavenly  bodies,  a three- coned  pyramid,  and 
 a waving  line.J  The  pyramid  has  been  supposed  to  be 
 Mount  Meru,  and  a waving  line  symbolizes  w'ater,  so  that 
 the  whole  might  typify  “Mitra,  Varuna,  Aditi;  Ocean, 
 Earth,  Heaven,”  the  invocation  witli  which  the  Vcdic  hard 
 
 * Wilson’s  Ariana,  pp.  209,  297,  299.  f Lassen,  vol.  ii.  p.  371. 
 
 J Wilson’s  Ariana,  p.  411. 
 
 Y 2 
 
324 
 
 LIFE  IX  AXCIEX’T  INDIA. 
 
 Kutsa  invariably  concludes  his  hymns.  But  it  is  more  pro- 
 bable that  the  Sabs  combined  the  symbols  of  several  diverse 
 faiths,  according  to  the  prevailing  spirit  of  the  age. 
 
 Suddenly  Greeks,  Sabs,  and  Scjdliians  vanish,  and  Yi- 
 kramaditya,  of  Sanskrit  celebrity,  oecupies  the  nliole  stage 
 of  AYestern  India.  This  King’s  reign  belongs  to  our  Thud 
 Book,  ivbeu  Brahmanism  gains  the  ascendency  over  Bud- 
 dhism ; the  interruption  it  makes  is  very  short,  for  about 
 the  year  b.c.  24  the  nhole  territory  was  once  more  under 
 foreign  sway.  Seythians  again  descended  ft’om  the  table- 
 lands of  Asia,  but  Scythians  of  a different  stamp  fi’oin  the 
 barbarous  hordes  of  King  Azes.  The  Chinese  call  them 
 Yu-chi,  and  they  are  supposed  to  be  one  with  the  YTiite 
 Huns  of  history  and  the  Jats  of  modern  India  : evidently 
 they  were  people  of  intellect,  and  ivorthy  of  descent  from 
 the  original  Zoroaster.  All  their  eoins  exhibit  objects  of 
 worship ; the  earlier  ones  indicate  Persian  firc-worshiji, — 
 flames  issue  from  the  shoulders  both  of  busts  and  standing 
 figures,  and  the  legend  is  Ardethro,  God  of  Light ; the  word 
 Korano  follows  the  name  of  the  King,  a word  supposed  to 
 indieate  an  elected  King,  it  having  been  Scythian  custom 
 to  choose  from  amongst  the  late  King’s  sons  the  one  most 
 worthy  to  sueceed  him.*  On  later  eoins,  the  King’s  name 
 and  titles  are  written  in  ill-exeeuted  Greek  characters, 
 without  any  second  legend  in  Ai’iauian ; and  on  the  reverse 
 appears  Siva  leaning  upon  his  bull  Nandi,  his  trident  in 
 hand,  and  his  hair  drawn  up  to  a point  like  a flame ; or  in- 
 stead of  the  flame  he  wears  a cap  surmounted  by  a erescent 
 moon.  On  the  reverses  are  inscribed, — Helios,  the  Sun- 
 god,  Mao,  the  ]\Iooii-god,  Nanaia,  the  Moon-goddess,  and 
 * Lassen,  vol.  ii.  p.  827. 
 
KANERKI. 
 
 325 
 
 Athro,  or  Ardethro,  the  god  of  Fire.  Nauaia  we  have  al- 
 ready noticed  upon  the  coins  of  Agathocles;  she  is  the 
 goddess  mentioned  in  the  Apocrypha,  in  whose  temple  Antio- 
 chus  Avas  slain.*  Her  worship  seems  to  have  taken  strong 
 hold  of  the  people  of  the  Kashmerian  provinces  with  which 
 we  are  at  present  occupied : her  memory  is  still  eherished 
 in  Afghanistan,  Hindus  and  Mohammedans  both  invoking 
 her  as  Bihi  Nani,  Lady  Nani.  Amongst  other  devices  upon 
 these  eoins,  there  is  a running  fignre  holding  a large  trans- 
 parent veil,  in  whieh  he  seems  about  to  envelope  himself, 
 whilst  from  his  head  radiate  sunbeams ; Oado  is  the  legend, 
 by  some  interpreted  as  AVind,  but  the  appearance  is  mueh 
 more  in  favour  of  his  being  the  Sunf  rnnning  through  his 
 daily  course  until  eiweloped  in  the  veil  of  night.  A figure 
 holding  a lance  and  having  a nimbus  with  the  legend  Pharo 
 is  identified  as  an  Iranian  God  of  Rain.J  Many  others 
 shoAv  Saiva  attributes ; the  figure,  sometimes  a man,  some- 
 times a Avoman,  the  dress  Indian,  the  form  occasionally 
 classic,  but  oftener  disfigured  by  four  arms,  or  even  six 
 arms  and  three  heads. 
 
 Thns  far  Ave  find  these  Yu-ehi  Scythians  adopting  Greek 
 coinage,  and  oceasionally  a Greek  God  or  device,  bnt  lean- 
 ing religiously  toAvard  the  Avorship  of  fire  and  the  heavenly 
 bodies.  But  as  their  rule  upon  the  eonfines  of  India  be- 
 eame  more  established,  Ave  reach  the  fact  on  which  our 
 present  interest  in  them  is  grounded.  Upon  the  coins  of 
 a King  Kanerki  appears  the  image  of  Sakya  Sinha,  or 
 
 * “For  when  the  leader  was  come  into  Persia,  and  the  army  with  him, 
 that  seemed  invincible,  they  were  slain  in  the  Temple  of  Nania,  by  the  de- 
 ceit of  Nania’s  priests.” — 2 Maccabees  iv.  13.  Wilson’s  Ariana,  p.  363. 
 
 + Wilson,  p.  362.  X Lassen,  vol.  ii.  pp.  827,  842. 
 
32G 
 
 LIFK  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 Buddha^  this  name  being  apparently  a variety  of  the  name 
 Kanishka,  who  was  a King  well  known  both  to  Brahmani- 
 cal  and  Buddhist  literature  as  a zealous  protector  and  pro- 
 moter of  Buddhism.  On  a copper  cylinder  foimd  in  an 
 adjacent  tope,  the  name  is  Kanishka^  and  also  in  the  in- 
 scription on  a great  stone  covering  the  relic-cell  in  this 
 tope.*  The  coins  bearing  the  name  of  Kanerki  are  very 
 numerous,  the  same  probalily  belonging  to  several  succes- 
 sive kings,  and  the  whole  series  is  known  consequently  as 
 the  Kanerki  coins.  Upon  those  of  Ocrki  the  words  Adi 
 Bnddhat  have  been  detected,  and  at  this  epoch  Buddha’s 
 
 Gold  Cup.J 
 
 image  is  often  represented  with  flames  at  the  shoulder,  in 
 imitation  of  ^lagian  symbolism  ; an  image  of  this  kind, 
 found  in  Tirhut,  is  figured  in  the  fourth  volume  of  tlie 
 
 * Lassen,  vol.  ii.  p.  1177. 
 
 t Adi  Buddha  simply  means  First  Buddha,  the  doctrine  Adlii  Buddlia, 
 the  Supreme,  belongs  to  a later  period. — Lassen,  vol.  ii.  p.  117G. 
 
 ^ Wilson’s  .\riana,  plate  iv. 
 
KAXERKI. 
 
 327 
 
 ‘ Bengal  Journal/  A large  head  of  Buddha  with  snakes* 
 on  his  head  may  he  seen  in  the  same  Journal,  and  on  a 
 gold  cup  found  in  the  ^lanikyala  Tope  we  see  Buddha’s 
 head  surmounted  by  flames.  At  this  stage  of  symbolism, 
 lions  and  snakes  are  used  as  couches  and  footstools,  either 
 for  Sivas  or  Buddhas,  and  Siva  doctrine  and  formulas  of 
 luagic  are  intruded  amongst  the  Buddhist  sacred  hooks. 
 This  demoralizing  confusion  was  not  however  permitted 
 to  prevail  entirely  unchecked,  and  although  the  coinage 
 of  the  Kanerki  princes  gives  e\'idence  of  wide  latitudi- 
 uarianism,  Buddhist  hierarchs  at  length  obtained  an  as- 
 cendency ; this  is  admitted  even  iii  a Brahmanical  San- 
 skrit history  called  the  ‘ Raja  Tarangini,’  where  it  is  said 
 that  three  kings  of  Turushka  descent  reigned  in  Kashmere, 
 each  of  whom  founded  a town  which  bore  his  name;  they 
 were  protectors  of  \Trtues,  and  built  viharas,  schools,  and 
 chaityas  (topes  or  dagobas) ; during  the  long  period  of  their 
 rule  the  whole  of  Kashmere  Avas  the  enjoyment  of  Bud- 
 dhists, and  Nagarjuna  was  the  spiritual  lord.  From  the 
 Chinese  we  learn  that  these  Turushka  Princes  were  so  for- 
 midable that  young  Princes  from  China  were  sent  to  them 
 as  hostages : the  Court  residing  in  Aviuter  in  India,  in  the 
 spring  aud  autumn  at  Candahar,  and  during  the  heat  of 
 summer  up  in  the  mountains  to  the  north  of  Kabul.  “ Aud 
 now,”  says  the  Ceylon  history,  “ the  yellow  robes  glittered 
 (again)  in  Kashmere,  and  Hushka,  Jushka,  and  Kanishka 
 . . . founded  colleges  aud  chaityas.”  The  Xagas  of  this 
 country  Avere  converted,  it  wiU  he  remembered,  in  the  reign 
 of  Asoka,t  hut  the  numerous  topes  aud  architectural  re- 
 mains Avith  which  it  abounds  appear  to  be  referable  to 
 
 * Lassen,  vol.  v.  p.  181.  t Mahawanso,  eh.  xii. 
 
328 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 the  rule  of  the  Kanerkis.  They  consist  of  tumuli  common 
 to  many  ancient  nomadic  tribes,  under  the  protection  of  a 
 mound  or  dagoba  characteristic  of  Buddhism,  and  accom- 
 panied by  fragments  of  the  architecture  and  sculpture  of 
 VTliaras,  exhibiting  beauty  unaccountable  unless  explained 
 in  the  same  way  as  ive  account  for  the  good  workmanship  of 
 the  coins,  by  supposing  that  when  the  Greeks  were  forced 
 to  abandon  the  country  they  left  workmen  who  had  profited 
 by  their  instruction.  Judging  by  their  coins,  these  Scythic 
 kings  wavered  for  a time  between  Mithraic  worship,  Saiva 
 worship,  and  Buddhism,  but  finally  united  the  three,  ta- 
 king jMithraic  symbols  of  flame  and  the  heavenly  bodies 
 and  belief  in  Swayambhava,  joined  with  the  general  forms 
 and  doctrines  of  the  Buddhists.  Uuring  the  reign  of  Kan- 
 ishka,  a great  Buddhist  assembly  or  convocation  was  held 
 in  Kashmere,  which  repudiated  many  Sivaite  compositions-; 
 some  objectionable  Tantras  were  however  retained,  unwill- 
 ingly as  Burnouf  thinks,  even  hierarchs  not  haxing  power 
 to  exclude  compositions  which  had  liecome  so  popular. 
 The  leader  of  this  fourth  Buddhist  assembly  was  Nagar- 
 juna,  or  Nagasena,  the  name  being  spelt  in  both  ivays : 
 he  was  born  in  Berar  (Vidharba),  and  is  supposed  to  have 
 been  sixty  years  old  when  he  put  forth  his  celebrated  ])hi- 
 losophical  system,  known  as  the  Madhyamika.*  His  de- 
 light was  in  transcendentalism^ — “ Wisdom  arrived  at  the 
 other  shore,”  and  his  w orks  are  still  popular  in  Ceylon, 
 although  his  doctrine  is  called  by  Burnouf  “scholastic 
 nihilism,”  for  he  doubts  everything,  and  to  this  circum- 
 stance his  school  is  supposed  to  ow’e  its  name,  Madhyamika, 
 intermediate,  'fhe  following  arc  examples  of  his  negative 
 * Lassen,  vol.  ii.  p.  1103,  7wte. 
 
NAGAKJUNA. 
 
 329 
 
 inode  of  argument : — “ Thonglit  does  not  see  thought ; it 
 is  like  the  blade  of  a sword,  which  cannot  cut  that  blade  ; 
 it  is  as  the  extremity  of  a finger  which  cannot  touch  that 
 finger.  . . . Thought  or  mind  is  the  object  to  be  examined  : 
 that  which  is  not  apprehended  (by  the  senses)  is  not  per- 
 ceived ; that  which  is  not  perceived  is  neither  past,  future, 
 nor  present ; that  which  is  neither  past,  future,  nor  present 
 has  no  proper  nature  ; that  which  has  no  proper  nature  has 
 no  origin ; that  which  has  no  origin  has  no  distinction.” 
 And  again  it  is  asserted  that  Buddha  himself  is  nothing, — 
 a word',  an  illusion,  a dream.”*  Herein  Nagarjuna  differs 
 essentially  from  the  Brahman  philosophers,  who,  as  Ave  have 
 seen,  assert  “ the  perpetuity  of  the  subject.”  The  book 
 containing  this,  and  much  more  to  the  same  effect,  claims 
 to  have  been  Avritten  by  Nagarjuna,  and  Nagarjuna  claims 
 to  have  been  the  friend  and  spiritual  adviser  of  Kanishka. 
 Possibly  Nagarjuna  taught,  like  the  Greek  philosophers,  one 
 doctrine  for  the  initiated  and  another  for  the  public ; for  his 
 name  is  appended  to  a Tantra  work  on  magic  circles,  Avhich 
 is  described  as  “ miserable  in  doctrine,  odious  and  degra- 
 ding in  principle.”t  Or  perhaps  the  Kanerkis  allowed  him 
 to  direct  Viharas  and  colleges,  but  reserved  to  themselves 
 the  privilege  of  worshipping  universally.  We  might  even 
 imagine  that  they  worshipped  Nagarjuna  himself;  for  on 
 some  of  the  later  coins  of  the  series  the  obverse  (where  a 
 figure  of  the  King  usually  appears)  is  occupied  by  a holy 
 personage,  who  sits  upon  snakes,  Avith  one  hand  elevated, 
 in  the  act  of  teaching.  J This  looks  very  much  as  though 
 
 * Burnouf,  Introduction,  pp.  561,  562. 
 
 t Ibid.,  p.  558. 
 
330 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 Lama  worship  had  then  begun^  Tvagarjuna  being  tbe  Lama, 
 or  Teacher,  and  the  snakes  an  allusion  to  his  name.  !Man- 
 jusri  of  Xipal  is  another  saint,  who  acts  a similar  part. 
 He  was  born  twice  for  the  benefit  of  mankind : on  the 
 first  occasion  b.c.  200,  when  he  peopled  Xipal;  the  second 
 time  in  the  first  centurj'^  of  onr  era,  when  he  taught  the 
 celebrated  formula  “ Om  mani  padma  hiim.’^  Om  being  tbe 
 mysterious  tri-literal  monosyllable  sacred  to  Brahmans 
 before  Buddhism  existed ; Mani  meaning  jewel,  padme, 
 lotus,  and  horn  or  hum,  something  analogous  to  Amen.  In 
 Xipal  iMaujusri  is  still  worshipped ; but  in  Tibet  the  invo- 
 cation “ Om  mani”  is  addi’essed  to  Padmasri,  a saint  or  deity 
 who  has  no  human  history  or  name.  He  is  represented  a-s 
 a graceful  youth,  bearing  in  his  hands  a jewel  and  a lotus  ; 
 but  in  the  sacred  books  his  name  is  Avalokiteswara,  and 
 his  history  is  given  in  a legend  called  ‘ The  Basket  of  the 
 Good  Qualities  of  the  Saint  Avalokiteswara.’  In  this  work 
 he  is  shown  to  be  tbe  same  with  Padma-pani,  and  declared 
 to  be  the  Buddha  of  this  era ; which  is  in  itself  the  Lama 
 doctrine  of  successive  divdne  hierarchs.  A second  version 
 of  this  legend  in  verse  is  much  more  in  detail,  and  contains 
 the  important  addition  of  “ Adi-buddha.”  “ At  the  com- 
 mencement,” it  says,  “ Adibuddha,  the  Self-Existent,  called 
 Swayambhu,  appeared  in  the  form  of  a flame.  From  the 
 spirit  of  Adibuddha  . . . emanated  Avalokiteswara,”  and 
 also  five  Dhyani  Buddhas,  white,  yellow,  red,  blue,  green. 
 The  whole  vault  of  heaven  is  filled  with  Buddhas,  Dhyani 
 Buddhas,  Pratyeka  Buddhas,  Bodhisatwas,  Arhats,  Aryas, 
 and  Sramanas,  Adibuddha  being  seated  on  the  summit. 
 The  date  assigned  to  the  poem  is  about  a.d.  1200.  Dhyani 
 Buddhas  may  have  sprung  into  notice  sonic  centuries  ear- 
 
ADDITIONS  TO  BUDDHISM. 
 
 331 
 
 Her,  but  they  were  peculiar  to  Nipal,  and  never  recognized 
 in  the  mythologies  of  other  Buddhist  countries.* 
 
 Vi'e  have  now  traced  the  outline  of  the  course  Mhich 
 Buddhism  took  in  northern  India,  when  checked  in  the 
 more  central  provinces,  our  object  being  to  watch  the 
 variations  adopted  when  it  encountered  foreign  faiths.  In 
 Ceylon,  where  it  was  insulated,  it  has  retained  the  Indian 
 stamp ; but  even  there  a periodical  succession  of  Buddhas 
 is  believed  in,  and  statues  are  raised  to  iNIaitreya,  as  the 
 Buddha  who  will  next  be  born  on  earth.  This  is  a very 
 slight  sketch  of  a very  complicated  subject ; but  to  fill  it 
 up  Mould  be  alu  ays  tedious  and  often  impossible,  and  it 
 must  suffice  if  it  but  indicate  the  relation  which  Sakya 
 Sinha’s  original  movement  bears  to  the  cumbrous  Buddhism 
 of  later  ages. 
 
 * Wilson.  Buddha  and  Buddhism,  p.  27. 
 
332 
 
 CHAPTER  X. 
 
 “ The  evidence  of  others  is  not  comparable  to  personal  experience  ; nor  is 
 ‘ I heal'd’  so  good  as  ‘ I saw.’  ” — Chinese  Maxims,  J.  F.  Datis. 
 
 During  seven  or  eight  eenturies  after  the  Christian  era, 
 Buddhists  tvere  in  turn  patronized,  neglected,  and  perse- 
 cuted by  the  Kings  of  India.  At  one  period  a long  series 
 of  coins  exhibits  Buddhist  symbols ; at  another  time  we  find 
 Buddhist  Yiharas  and  Ascetics  tolerated  in  a Sanskrit  Brah- 
 manical  drama ; and,  in  other  ways,  tve  learn  that  Bud- 
 dhists chased  from  the  Ganges  took  refuge  in  Nipal,  or  we 
 discover  them  amongst  the  volcanic  hills  of  the  Dekkan, 
 where  we  shall  have  occasion  to  notice  their  wonderful  ex- 
 cavations. But  before  taking  up  the  subject  of  Buddhist 
 architecture,  it  will  be  interesting  to  learn  in  what  condi- 
 tion the  religion  appeared  to  Chinese  Buddhists  visiting 
 India  during  the  early  centuries  of  our  era.  Fortunately 
 the  Chinese  had  not  only  the  enterprise  to  come  and  see, 
 but  intelligence  sufficient  for  recording  their  observations. 
 “ Depuis  le  quatrieme  siecle  de  notre  ere  jusqu’au  di.xieme,” 
 says  M.  Stanislas  Julien,  “les  pelerins  Chinois  qui  sont 
 alles  dans  les  contrees  situees  h I’ouest  de  la  Chine,  et  par- 
 ticulierement  dans  Fludc,  pour  etudier  la  doctrine  du  Baud- 
 
CHINESE  lUDDHISTS. 
 
 333 
 
 dha  et  rapporter  les  livres  qui  la  renfermeiit,  ont  public  iiii 
 grand  nombre  de  relations,  dbtineraires,  et  de  descriptions 
 plus  ou  moins  etendues  des  pays  qu’ils  ont  visites/’  Ge- 
 nerals and  magistrates  sent  on  Government  missions  u ere 
 also  in  the  habit  of  recording  what  they  observed,  for  the 
 interests  of  war,  polities,  and  commei’ce ; one  of  these  works 
 Ijeing  in  sixty  volumes,  with  forty  books  of  drawings  and 
 maps ; but  unfortunately  this  valuable  collection,  and  most 
 of  the  other  works,  are  lost  or  hidden,  and  only  known 
 through  the  mention  made  of  them  in  Chinese  Encyclopae- 
 dias.* The  earliest  book  of  Chinese  Travels  extant  is  what 
 Remusat  calls  “ Fo-koue-ki,  ou  Relation  des  Royaumes 
 Bouddhiques.”  It  is  the  work  of  a Chinese  Buddhist, 
 named  Fa-Hian,  who  left  the  western  capital  of  China 
 A.D.  399.  He  writes  in  the  third  person,  and  commences, 
 “ Formerly  Fa-Hian  was  afflicted  to  see  the  precepts  and 
 the  theological  woi’ks  on  the  verge  of  destruction,  and  al- 
 ready injured  l)y  omissions.  For  this  reason  he  departed, 
 accompanied  by  several  companions,  to  seek  in  India  the 
 laws  and  precepts  of  the  religion.”!  He  gives  a striking 
 description  of  the  “river  of  sand,”  which  is  the  desert 
 where  our  contemporaries,  IMM.  Hue  and  Gabet,  suffered 
 so  much  from  burning  -nlnds,  they  having  started  precisely 
 in  the  same  direction ; but  as  in  the  time  of  Fa-Hian  Lhassa 
 had  not  attained  Buddhist  celebrity,  he  and  his  companions 
 crossed  the  “Montague  de  Graiidpere  Blanc”  further  to 
 the  west,  and  visited  Khotau,  where  they  witnessed  the  cere- 
 monies performed  on  the  first  day  of  the  fourth  moon.  The 
 streets  were  swept,  watered,  and  decorated.  Curtains  were 
 
 * Stanislas  Julien,  Preface  to  Trans.  Hiouen-Thsang,  p.  111. 
 
 t Remusat’s  translation. 
 
334 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 hung  before  the  gates.  The  King  and  the  Queen  and  a 
 company  of  beautiful  women  were  seated  on  a pa\-ilion  above 
 the  principal  gate.  Presently  a great  procession  of  images 
 approached,  the  images  being  placed  within  pavilions  di’awn 
 upon  cars  : when  the  procession  ivas  within  a hiuidred  paces 
 of  the  gate,  the  King  descended  to  give  it  welcome.  He 
 took  off  his  tiara,  put  on  new  clothes,  and  ivith  naked  feet 
 prostrated  himself  before  the  chief  image,  and  paid  ho- 
 mage by  scattering  flowers  and  burning  incense.  As  the 
 images  passed  through  the  gate,  the  ladies  on  the  pavilion 
 above  threw  down  so  great  a profusion  of  flowers  as  to 
 cover  the  car.  Festivals  of  this  description  were  numerous, 
 each  haHng  appropriate  cars,  and  each  Temple  making  its 
 omi  distinct  procession.  The  travellers  were  lodged  in  a 
 Vihara  (or  convent)  built  in  a square,  where  all  the  occu- 
 pants took  their  repast  in  common;  no  noise  was  heard 
 from  basins  or  platters,  and  no  word  was  uttered  during 
 meals.  The  religious  buildings  of  this  town  are  described 
 as  peculiarly  magnificent : one  temple  was  eighty-four  years 
 in  building,  occupying  three  kings’  reigns.  Sculptures  are 
 particularized,  and  gold  and  silver  images  decorated  with 
 precious  stones,  also  gilded  windows  and  doorposts  of  gold. 
 
 Wliilst  amongst  these  mountains,  probably  at  Ladak,  the 
 five-yearly  Assembly  took  place,  to  which  Buddhists  from 
 all  quarters  came  and  assemhled  like  clouds,  with  pomp  and 
 gravity.  The  Hall  of  Assembly  was  decorated  with  ban- 
 ners and  hangings,  a throne  of  rich  silk  adorned  with  gold 
 and  silver  lotus-flowers,  and  below  the  throne  elegant  seats. 
 The  King  and  his  ministers  were  in  attendance,  and  per- 
 formed their  devotions  according  to  the  law.  This  cere- 
 mony is  usually  held  in  spring,  and  lasts  one,  two,  or  three 
 
TRAVELS  OF  FA-HIAN. 
 
 335 
 
 months;  and  \vhen  it  is  over,  Fa-Hian  remarks  that  the 
 King,  his  ministers,  and  other  persons  of  distinction,  give 
 their  horses,  shawls,  and  whatever  they  have  of  value  to 
 the  Sramanas  (priests)  or  Assembly,  and  afterwards  pm’chase 
 them  all  back  again.  This  counti’y  is  so  cold  that  grain  is 
 ripened  with  difficulty ; but  as  it  was  observed  that  the  snow 
 never  came  on  nntd  the  Sramanas  were  provided  for,  the 
 King  forbade  them  to  receive  their  annual  supplies  untd  the 
 whole  harvest  was  gathered  in.  The  devotees  of  this  region 
 are  remarked  by  Fa- Ilian  as  using  praying- wheels  or  cy- 
 linders. He  also  ohseiwes  that,  in  travelling  towards  the 
 west,  each  kingdom  has  a different  language,  all  barbarous  ; 
 but  that,  although  a barbarous  vernacular  is  the  spoken 
 language,  the  sacred  books  are  written  in  the  language  of 
 India,  which  is  studied  in  the  numerous  convents,  where 
 strangers  are  warmly  welcomed,  entertained  for  thi’ee  days, 
 and  then  dismissed.  He  sees  the  gigantic  statue  of  !Mai- 
 trya,  which  on  certain  occasions  glistens  with  light,  and  he 
 visits  the  scenes  of  all  the  extravagant  legends  of  Buddha’s 
 sacrifices,  and  sees  the  Pillars  set  up  in  commemoration. 
 Proceeding  fm’ther  east,  he  comes  to  the  town  where  the 
 begging-dish  of  Sakya  Siidia  refused  to  be  stolen  by  the 
 King  of  the  Yu-chi ; he  put  it  on  an  elephant,  but  the  ele- 
 phant would  not  move ; he  put  it  in  a car,  but  the  car  could 
 not  be  stirred ; so  the  King  turned  devotee,  raised  a dagoba 
 to  hold  the  dish,  and  built  a \*ihara  for  seven  hundred  holy 
 men.  A little  before  midday  these  holy  men,  all  dressed 
 in  wliite,  take  the  precious  dish  from  its  enclosure,  pay 
 homage,  burn  perfumes,  and  in  the  evening  put  it  back  into 
 its  shrine.*  That  white  should  be  the  dress  adopted  in  this 
 * Fa-IIian,  eh.  xii.  p.  77. 
 
336 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 couveut  is  worthy  of  remark,  because  the  holy  men  repre- 
 sented in  the  paintings  from  the  Caves  of  Ajnnta*  are 
 mostly  in  Avhite ; Avhereas  Buddhist  literature  gives  white  as 
 the  dress  of  laymen,  and  yellow  as  the  distinguishing  colour 
 of  religious  robes. 
 
 In  another  town,  probably  Jellalabad,  he  speaks  of  the 
 bones  of  Buddha’s  skull,  guarded  by  eight  royal  ministers, 
 each  of  Avhom  daily  affixes  his  seal  to  the  door  of  the  da- 
 goba  in  Avhich  they  are  enshrined.  Every  morning  this 
 relic  is  placed  upon  a throne,  the  King  and  Court  come  to 
 offer  flowers  and  perfumes,  and  priests  mounted  on  an  ele- 
 vated pavilion  sound  drums,  conch-shells,  and  copper  cj'm- 
 bals.  In  India,  the  places  of  Buddha’s  birth  and  of  all  the 
 remarkable  events  of  his  life,  are  \dsited,  and  legends  of  the 
 utmost  extravagance  or  development  are  recounted ; snakes 
 or  nagus  are  also  mentioned  with  reverence  ; and  a story  is 
 told  of  elephants  who  did  temple-service  in  an  abandoned 
 Vihara,  w here  “ the  elephants  are  seen  to  come  taking  w ater 
 in  their  trunks  to  w ater  the  ground this  may  possibly  ex- 
 plain the  dcAuce  on  the  pillars  at  Ken  nary,  where  elephants 
 sprinkle  Avater  npon  dagobas.f  The  Avoods,  he  says,  are 
 filled  with  monuments,  but  he  could  not  visit  them  from 
 their  being  so  much  infested  by  tigers  and  white  elephants ; 
 from  Avhich  Ave  may  infer  that  the  present  formidable  Tarai, 
 or  jungle,  Avas  even  then  beginning  to  encroach  upon 
 human  habitations. 
 
 At  another  place,  apparently  in  Oude,  a little  snake,  or 
 
 * See  pictures  now  in  the  Crystal  Palace,  Sydenham, 
 t Fergusson,  Rock-cut  Temples,  p.  36.  It  is  also  the  subject  of  a bas- 
 relief  on  the  eastern  gate  of  the  Bhilsa  Topes. — Major  A.  Cunningham, 
 
 p.  212. 
 
TRAVELS  OF  FA-HIAN. 
 
 337 
 
 naga,  Avliose  ears  were  edged  with  white,  was  fed  and  wor- 
 shipped daily.  In  this  neighbourhood  also  Fa-Hian  visited 
 the  “ Grove  of  Restored  Sight.”  The  legend  is,  that  five 
 hundred  bhnd  men  had  taken  up  their  abode  here  ; that 
 Buddha  preaehed  the  law  in  their  favour ; that  they  re- 
 eovered  their  sight ; that  eaeh  man  stuck  his  staff  in  the 
 ground  and  turned  in  adoration  towards  the  temple,  and 
 that  when  they  looked  round  again  their  staves  had  all 
 taken  root  and  were  growing  into  trees.  Fa-Hian  found 
 the  devout  inhabitants  of  the  neighbouring  Yihara  in  the 
 habit  of  resorting  to  this  grove  for  contemplation  after 
 dinner. 
 
 When  Fa-Hian  reached  the  kingdom  of  Magadha  he 
 found  Buddhism  held  in  great  respect.  Kings  and  nobles 
 had  given  fields,  houses,  gardens,  orchards,  farms,  and 
 cattle  to  the  Viliaras,  and  recorded  their  donations  upon 
 plates  of  iron ; and  the  Buddhist  communities  being  thus 
 proHded  with  houses,  lands,  food,  and  clothing,  constantly 
 occupied  themselves  with  good  works  and  the  study  of  their 
 sacred  books.  Some  of  the  Viharas  adhered  to  the  simple 
 Sutras  3 but  generally  Fa-Hian  found  what  he  calls  la 
 grande  translation  very  much  preferred.  The  colleges,  he 
 says,  are  built  in  a grave  majestic  style,  and  Sramanas 
 from  all  quarters  of  the  globe  make  them  their  resort. 
 Hospitals  were  also  established,  at  wliich  the  poor,  the 
 lame,  and  the  sick  of  the  surrounding  country  received 
 food  and  medical  relief.  No  wine  was  drunk  in  these 
 Buddhist  countries,  and  neither  wine-houses  nor  shambles 
 were  found  within  their  towns.  Garlic  and  onions,  pork 
 and  poultry  were  forbidden ; and  the  only  people  allowed 
 to  hunt  or  sell  meat  were  Chandalas,  Avhose  very  name 
 
 z 
 
338 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 Fa-Hian  explains  as  “odious;”  “ their  dwellings,”  he  says, 
 “ are  separate  from  those  of  other  men ; and  when  they 
 enter  a town  or  market  they  are  obliged  to  strike  on  a 
 piece  of  wood  to  announce  their  presence.”  This  custom 
 is  still  in  force  in  southern  India;  the  more  favoured  races 
 requiring  the  unhappy  outcasts  to  give  sufficient  warning  to 
 enable  them  to  escape  all  contact. 
 
 The  Kings  of  these  prosperous  districts  took  off  their 
 tiaras  to  do  homage  to  the  priests ; and  both  Kings  and 
 nobles  gave  food  with  their  own  hands  to  the  Sramanas, 
 and  then  sat  near  them  on  a carpet,  hut  never  occupied  a 
 raised  seat  if  a priest  w'ere  present.  Capital  punishments 
 were  not  allowed,  hut  fines  resorted  to  instead,  or,  in  ex- 
 treme cases,  the  right  hand  was  amputated.  The  only 
 money  mentioned  by  the  Chinese  journalist  is  cowrie-shells. 
 “ In  the  kingdom  of  Magadha,”  says  Fa-Hian,  “ the  towns 
 and  villages  are  large  ; the  people  rich,  fond  of  discussion, 
 but  compassionate  and  just  in  action ; and  the  paintings 
 and  sculptures  such  as  this  age  could  not  produce.”  He 
 then  proceeds  to  describe  a grand  annual  festival,  when  a 
 tower  of  lances  is  erected  upon  cars,  which  are  covered  \Hth 
 hangings  representing  images  of  all  the  celestial  divinities. 
 These  hangings  are  so  arranged  that  each  corner  is  attached 
 to  a little  image  of  Buddha  surrounded  by  Bodhisatwas. 
 On  these  occasions  the  streets  are  crowded,  and  the  people 
 entertained  with  theatrical  representations  and  gymnastic 
 exhibitions ; flowers  and  perfumes  are  scattered  in  profusion, 
 and  when  night  falls  the  whole  scene  is  illuminated  by 
 lanterns.  Fa-Hian  mentions  a pillar  on  which  is  inscribed, 
 “ The  great  Asoka  gave  ...  to  the  religious  of  the  four 
 quarters : he  ransomed  it  from  them  for  money,  and  this 
 
TRAVELS  OF  FA-HIAN. 
 
 339 
 
 he  did  three  times.”  At  a town  called  Nili  he  saw  another 
 pillar  surmounted  by  a lion,  with  an  inscription  recording 
 the  foundation  of  the  town.  Fa-Hian  was  altogether  so 
 much  delighted  with  Magadha,  and  with  the  grave  sedate 
 deportment  of  the  Sramanas,  that  he  remained  three  years 
 in  the  kingdom ; and  hoped  if  in  future  he  should  become 
 Buddha  he  might  be  born  in  Magadha,  and  not  on  the 
 eastern  frontier,  where  the  Sramanas  “neglected  the  pre- 
 cepts and  transgressed  in  their  devoirs.”* 
 
 Fa-Hian’s  companions  returned  from  Magadha  to  China; 
 but  his  first  desire  being  that  the  precepts  should  penetrate 
 the  Land  of  Han,  he  embarked  on  the  Ganges,  arrived  in 
 sadness  at  Tamlouk,  and  proceeded  to  Ceylon,  which  he 
 calls  the  “ Island  of  Lions.”  He  there  finds  bana  (the 
 Law,  or  sacred  books)  being  read  publicly  three  times 
 every  month,  halls  being  erected  at  every  four  crossway  for 
 the  purpose.  But  image-worship  was  also  fully  established ; 
 and  an  image  of  blue  jasper,  holding  in  its  hand  a pearl  of 
 inestimable  value,  w^as  to  our  traveller  “ dazzling  and  ma- 
 jestic beyond  expression.”  Many  years  had  now  elapsed 
 since  Fa-Hian  had  quitted  his  native  country ; and  always 
 speaking  in  the  third  person  he  says,  “ The  people  with 
 whom  he  had  had  intercourse  had  all  been  people  of  strange 
 countries.  The  mountains,  the  rivers,  the  herbage,  the 
 trees,  all  that  met  his  eyes  was  new  to  him.  And  of  those 
 with  whom  he  had  first  started,  some  had  separated  from 
 him,  others  had  remained  behind,  and  others  were  dead. 
 In  reflecting  on  the  past  his  heart  was  fiUed  with  thought 
 and  sadness.  Suddenly,  by  the  side  of  the  jasper  figure  he 
 saw  a merchant  making  an  ofiering  to  the  statue  of  a Fan  of 
 
 z 
 
 * Ch.  xxxvi. 
 
340 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 white  silk  from  the  country  of  Tsiii  (China) ; although  un~ 
 perceived,  this  caused  him  so  much  emotion  that  tears  ran 
 down  his  cheeks.” 
 
 Fa-Hian  also  found  the  tooth -relic  enjoying  a full  mea- 
 sure of  popular  esteem,  and  thus  describes  a festival  held  in 
 its  honour  : — “ Ten  days  previously,  the  King  having  care- 
 fully chosen  a large  elephant,  a preacher  arrayed  in  royal 
 robes  mounts,  and,  striking  the  drum,  proclaims  Buddha’s 
 chief  merits  as, — ‘ He  abandoned  the  Queen  his  wife ; he 
 tore  out  his  eyes  to  give  them  to  another  man ; he  cut  his 
 desh  to  ransom  a pigeon;  he  threw  his  body  to  a hungry 
 tiger ; he  spared  neither  his  marrow  nor  his  bones : it 
 
 is  thus  by  practising  austerities  and  macerations  for  all 
 linng  beings  that  he  succeeded  in  becoming  Buddha.’  ” Ten 
 days  afterwards  the  tooth  is  carried  to  Mehenteli,  pictures 
 of  the  five  hundred  manifestations  of  Buddha  being  placed 
 upon  the  sides  of  the  road.  Amongst  these  manifestations 
 are  mentioned  his  transformation  into  “ Lightning,”  into 
 “ the  King  of  the  Elephants,”  and  into  the  Wonderful 
 Horse.”  Dm’ing  its  whole  progress  the  tooth  is  surrounded 
 by  successive  crowds  of  worshippers,  and  when  it  arrives  at 
 the  mountain  of  IMeheuteli  it  is  carried  up  to  the  haU  of 
 Buddha,  where  thick  clouds  arise  fi’om  burning  perfumes, 
 and  where  lamps  are  kept  lighted,  and  religious  acts  are 
 practised  uninterruptedly  for  ninety  days  and  nights.* 
 
 * The  tooth-relic  is  scarcely  less  honoured  now  than  it  was  hi  the  days 
 of  Fa-IIian,  only  it  follows  the  Coui-t,  and  has  migrated  with  the  Royal 
 family  from  Anaradhapura  to  Kandy.  Images  are  also  universal  in  Ceylon, 
 and  often  of  gigantic  size,  and  a building  erected  for  the  occupation  of  an 
 image  is  usually  well  buht,  and  covered  with  tiles ; in  Burmah  these  are 
 gilded,  but  even  in  Ce3  lon  the  house  of  the  image  is  made  moi’c  costly  than 
 the  houses  for  priests. 
 
HWAN  TS.VNG. 
 
 341 
 
 About  two  centuries  latei’^  another  eminent  Chinese 
 undertook  this  difficult  pilgrimage,  safely  returned  to  his 
 native  land,  and  handed  down  to  posterity  a record  of  his 
 impressions.  Hwan  Tsang  was  the  son  of  a much-esteemed 
 man  of  letters,  who  lived  a life  of  study  in  retirement. 
 Hwan  Tsang  describes  his  father  as  tall,  with  kindly  eyebrows 
 and  brilliant  eyes,  wearing  ample  vestments  and  a broad 
 girdle,  which  gave  him  the  air  of  one  of  the  literati.  Hwan 
 Tsang  was  the  youngest  of  four  sons,  grave  from  ehildhood, 
 and  showing  wonderful  intelligence ; one  of  his  elder  brothers 
 took  liim  with  him  to  his  convent,  thinking  him  well  suited 
 to  become  a teacher  of  the  doctrine  of  Buddha.  The  Em- 
 peror published  a decree  that  twenty-seven  members  of  this 
 convent  should  be  ordained,  and  although  Hwan  Tsang  was 
 too  young  to  be  a candidate,  he  was  selected  on  account  of 
 his  distinguished  ability.  He  was  at  tbis  time  only  thirteen 
 years  of  age,  but  he  studied  with  ardour,  comprehended 
 quickly,  and  never  forgot  what  he  had  once  acquired.  Po- 
 litical disturbances  interrupting  study  in  the  capital,  the 
 brothers  retired  to  the  country  where  they  shed  tears  of  joy 
 at  meeting  two  renowned  teachers  from  the  Avest. 
 
 As  soon  as  he  has  attained  his  twentieth  year,  Hwan 
 Tsang  is  fully  admitted  as  a monastie  member,  and  during 
 the  following  summer  he  studies  the  books  ealled  the  Vi- 
 naya,  the  Sutras,  and  the  Shastras.  He  sometimes  meets 
 with  passages  which  he  cannot  understand,  and  seeks  help 
 from  the  studious  at  other  convents.  He  is  however  eon- 
 stantly  called  upon  to  take  a part  in  religious  discussions, 
 from  which  he  uniformly  retires  victorious  : he  nevertheless 
 perseveres  in  trying  to  get  his  ow^n  difficulties  solved,  and 
 as  the  sacred  books  themselves  arc  proved  to  contain  many 
 
342 
 
 LlIE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 contradictory  texts,  he  resolves  to  travel  to  the  West,  in 
 imitation  of  Fa-Hian  : he  is  told  that  the  route  is  ditficult 
 and  full  of  peril,  but  he  sounds  his  heart  and  satisfies  him- 
 self that  his  courage  is  equal  to  the  undertaking.  The  Go- 
 vernment forbids  his  journey,  and  he  is  obliged  to  depart 
 seeretly  and  alone.  He  prays  to  the  statue  of  Maitreya  for 
 a guide,  and  a guide  appears  ; his  guide  afterwards  fails  him 
 and  he  meets  with  various  adventures,  until  he  reaches  the 
 sandy  desert ; he  is  perishing  for  w'ant  of  water,  and  does 
 not  know  his  way,  but  he  prays  without  ceasing  to  Avalo- 
 kiteswara,  saying : “ Hwan  Tsang  seeks  neither  riches  nor 
 profit,  praise  nor  reputation,  his  only  aim  is  the  acquire- 
 ment of  superior  intelligence  and  of  the  eorreet  law.  I feel, 
 O Bodhisattwa ! that  your  afleetionate  heart  is  constantly 
 occupied  with  delivering  creatures  from  the  pains  of  life, 
 and  never  were  there  more  cruel  pains  than  those  I sufter. 
 Canst  thou  he  ignorant  of  them?”  He  thus  prayed  until 
 the  middle  of  the  fifth  night,  when  suddenly  he  was  re- 
 freshed by  a eooling  breeze;  a voice  spoke,  a Hsion  ap- 
 peared, his  horse  took  a difi'erent  direction,  and  he  arrived 
 in  fertile  pastm-es  and  beside  sweet  waters.*  Hwan  Tsang 
 took  a more  northerly  course  than  Fa-Hian,  and  visited 
 I-gou,  a place  identified  as  Hami,  or  Khamil : here  the 
 King  strives  to  attach  him  to  his  ser\dce,  and  his  anxiety 
 to  retain  a learned  Buddhist  at  his  Court  is  so  great  that 
 when  Hwan  Tsang  declines  he  uses  compulsion,  absolutely 
 forbidding  his  departure.  The  Sage  is  firm,  and  steadily 
 refuses  food,  until  on  the  fourth  day  the  King  gives  way, 
 but  makes  two  requests ; first,  that  on  his  retm’n  he  u ill  live 
 
 * These  deserts  were  still  haunted  bj  spirits  in  the  days  of  Marco  Polo. 
 See  Preface  Stan.  Julien,  p.  xli. 
 
TRAVELS  OF  HWAN  TSAXG. 
 
 313 
 
 at  his  Court  three  years ; and  seeondly,  that  when  he  is  born 
 again  as  Buddha,  he,  the  King  of  I-gou,  shall  he  his  patron, 
 as  Bimbisara  and  Praesnajit  were  of  Sakya  Sinha.  Hwan 
 Tsang  spent  a month  Avith  this  zealous  King,  holding  con- 
 ferences and  teaching  and  receiving  profound  homage. 
 When  the  conferences  are  concluded,  the  King  presents 
 the  Chinese  travellers  with  Avarm  dresses,  masks,  gloA'es, 
 and  boots  to  defend  them  from  the  cold  they  were  about  to 
 encounter : he  also  gave  HAvan  Tsang  satin,  silk,  horses, 
 and  servants,  and  twenty-four  letters  of  recommendation 
 to  the  Khans,  or  Kings,  whose  territories  he  wished  to  tra- 
 verse, each  letter  being  accompanied  by  a piece  of  rich  satin. 
 Hwan  Tsang  feeling  overcome  by  such  great  hberality,  ad- 
 dressed a letter  of  gratitude  to  the  King,  which  commences  : 
 “Hwan  Tsang  has  heard  that  Avhoever  desires  to  traverse  a 
 great  river  or  a deep  ocean  has  need  of  a boat  and  oars,”  and 
 he  proceeds  to  show  at  great  length  that  Buddha  has  fur- 
 nished such  a boat,  and  that  his  doctrine  had  reached  China 
 more  than  six  hundred  years  ago,  but  that,  OAviug  to  the 
 great  distance  from  the  country  of  Buddha,  the  translations 
 and  interpretations  of  texts  had  become  incorrect  and  con- 
 tradictory, and  that  on  this  account  he  had  undertaken  to 
 visit  the  scenes  in  which  Buddha  first  promulgated  the  Law. 
 He  concludes  Avith  compliments  to  the  King,  on  the  bless- 
 ings which  he  secures  to  his  kingdom  of  I-gou,  and  also 
 to  the  countries  of  Leou-lau  and  Yu-chi.  Once  returned 
 to  China,  he  says,  “ I will  translate  the  Books,  I Avill  pro- 
 mulgate the  unknown  truths,  I will  hew  down  the  forest  of 
 error,  I will  destroy  false  doctrine,  I wiU  restore  omissions 
 in  the  doctrine  of  the  Elephant ; perhaps  by  these  poor 
 merits  I may  respond  to  your  immense  benefits.  Tomorrow 
 
344 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 I must  take  leave  of  your  INIajesty,  and  my  heart  is  torn 
 by  the  idea  of  the  separation.” 
 
 From  Khamil  our  traveller  still  pursued  a vestern  route, 
 going  to  the  north  of  Lake  Lob  and  crossing  the  mountain 
 now  called  Mussur  Durban,  the  snowy  scenery  of  which  he 
 describes  with  great  effect.  After  much  suffering  from  cold 
 and  hunger  he  descends  upon  the  borders  of  the  vast  Lake 
 Issikid,  or  Temourton ; and  here  they  find  a Khan,  rich  in 
 horses,  occupied  in  hunting,  and  wearing  a green  satin 
 mantle  and  a bandeau  of  ribbon  with  long  ends  fastened 
 at  the  back  of  his  head,  like  the  Tartar  and  Parthian  kings 
 in  Wilson’s  ‘ Ariana.’  He  was  suiTouuded  by  officers  dressed 
 in  brocade  mantles,  with  their  hair  twisted  or  plaited,  and 
 a troop  of  men  mounted  on  camels  or  horses,  with  garments 
 of  fine  wool  or  fur,  and  bearing  long  lances,  bows  and  ar- 
 rows, and  banners.  The  royal  residence  was  a tent  orna- 
 mented with  flowers  of  gold  and  protected  in  front  by  mats. 
 But  although  this  Khan  was  a barbarian,  living  in  a tent  of 
 felt,  it  was  impossible,  says  our  traveller,  not  to  regard  him 
 with  admiration  and  respect.  These  people  adored  fire,  and 
 would  not  sit  upon  wood  because  wood  contained  fire : 
 they  were  very  conviHal,  enjoyed  noisy  music,  and  regaled 
 themselves  with  wine,  mutton,  veal,  rice,  cream,  sugar, 
 etc.  After  the  repast  was  over,  Hwan  Tsang  was  requested 
 to  explain  the  Law  : he  taught  them  the  ten  wtues,  love  for 
 living  creatures,  and  the  means  of  arriving  at  the  other 
 shore,  or  final  deliverance.  The  Khan  lifted  his  hands, 
 threw  himself  on  the  ground,  and  declared  that  he  received 
 this  instruction  ivitli  faith.  He  then  endeavoiu’ed  to  per- 
 suade his  guest  not  to  go  further.  “ India,”  he  said,  “ is 
 very  hot,  their  tenth  moon  resembling  our  fifth  moon,  and 
 
TRAVELS  OF  HWAN  TSAXG. 
 
 345 
 
 to  judge  by  your  appearance  you  vould  be  dissolved.  The 
 inhabitants  are  nearly  naked,  have  no  respect  for  propriety, 
 and  do  not  deserve  your  presence.”  Hwan  Tsang  again 
 expresses  his  ardent  desire  to  seek  the  Law  of  Buddha  and 
 trace  his  steps  amongst  the  monuments  of  antiquity ; and 
 the  Khan  then  made  search  in  his  army  for  a good  hnguist 
 and  with  his  help  prepared  letters  of  recommendation,  and 
 on  parting  presented  Hwan  Tsang  with  a red  satin  rehgious 
 di’ess  and  fifty  pieces  of  silk.  After  passing  through  a de- 
 sert where  heaps  of  bones  are  the  only  sign-posts,  the  tra- 
 vellers arrive  in  Samarkand,  where  the  inhabitants  worship 
 fire,  do  not  believe  in  Buddha,  and  are  inhuman  savages, 
 imtil  Hwan  Tsang  teaches  them  the  Law  and  induces  them 
 to  abandon  all  their  barbarous  customs.  From  Samarkand 
 he  goes  through  a Pass  called  the  Gates  of  Iron,  the  preci- 
 pitous rocks  of  which  contain  u’on  and  are  surmounted  by 
 bells  of  wrought-iron  and  east-iron. 
 
 He  now  crosses  the  Oxus  and  arrives  at  Balk,  where  he 
 is  charmed  with  its  magnificent  site,  commanding  a view 
 of  universally  fertile  plains  and  villages.  He  mentions  one 
 hundred  convents  within  the  town,  and  many  other  monu- 
 ments eonnected  with  Buddliism.  Here  he  resided  above 
 a month,  receiving  much  honour  from  Kings  and  priests ; 
 and  again  erossiug  snowy  mountains  he  ai’rives  at  Bamian, 
 where  the  King  inHtes  him  to  his  palace.  The  objeets  of 
 interest  in  this  town  are  numerous,  and  he  remains  a fort- 
 night ; then  loses  his  way,  blinded  by  a snow-storm,  in  the 
 hills,  and  meets  with  hunters  who  guide  him  to  Kabul. 
 All  the  members  of  the  one  hundred  Viharas,  with  the 
 King  at  their  head,  come  out  to  receive  and  invite  him ; 
 and  he  is  perplexed  to  know  which  to  prefer,  until  one 
 
346 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 Convent  urges  the  irresistible  claim  of  having  been  origin- 
 ally built  for  the  accommodation  of  a Chinese  Prince  (sent 
 as  a hostage) . The  memory  of  this  Prince  was  held  in 
 great  honour,  and  his  image  represented  upon  all  the  walls 
 of  the  building.  He  had  emdched  the  convent  in  many 
 ways ; and  in  anticipation  of  its  requmng  repairs,  had  de- 
 posited gold  under  the  right  foot  of  a statue  of  Buddha. 
 This  money  was  now  required,  the  cupola  of  a stupa  or 
 dagoba  haring  fallen  into  ruins,  but  the  money  could  not 
 be  got,  the  earth  groaning  and  trembling  terrifically  when- 
 ever any  one  approached  the  spot.  Hwan  Tsang  is  en- 
 treated to  lend  his  influence : he  burns  perfumes  before 
 the  statue  and  makes  a petition,  promising  himself  to  Aveigh 
 the  treasure  and  prevent  imnecessary  expenditure.  He 
 then  commands  the  workmen  to  dig,  and  at  a depth  of 
 about  seven  or  eight  feet  a copper  vase  is  found  containing 
 several  hundred  pounds’  weight  of  gold,  and  a quantity  of 
 carbimcles.* 
 
 On  all  occasions  Hwan  Tsang  shoivs  great  reverence  for 
 relics,  giving  at  one  time  fifty  pieces  of  gold,  one  thou- 
 sand pieces  of  silver,  fom’  banners  of  silk,  two  pieces  of 
 brocade,  and  two  religious  dresses,  after  Avhich  he  scattered 
 a profusion  of  flowers.f  He  alludes  to  all  the  legends 
 mentioned  by  Fa-Hiaii  and  others  in  addition,  but  these  it 
 is  unnecessary  to  repeat.  To  dwell  upon  his  accm’ate  geo- 
 graphical descriptions  woidd  be  more  interesting,  but  in- 
 consistent with  our  present  purpose.  We  will  therefore 
 merely  notice  that  in  Kashmere  he  studies  the  works  of 
 a disciple  of  iSagarjuna,  refers  to  the  conversion  of  the 
 Nagas  (or  inhabitants  of  the  comitry),  and  to  the  great 
 * Hwan  Tsang,  74.  t Ibid.,  78. 
 
TRAVELS  OF  HWAN  TSANG. 
 
 347 
 
 council  called  by  King  Kanislika  for  the  revision  of  tlie 
 Buddhist  books.* * * §  On  this  oceasion  he  says  sacred  texts 
 were  engraved  on  sheets  of  copper,  enclosed  in  a cell  of  stone, 
 sealed,  ornamented  with  an  inscription,  and  surrounded  and 
 surmounted  by  a stupa.f  In  Kashmere  our  traveller  re- 
 mained two  years,  and  then  proceeded  to  the  Ganges  : he 
 sees  great  numbers  of  Yiharas  and  Buddhist  monuments ; 
 sometimes  the  Y ihara  is  sixty  feet  high,  and  the  monument 
 a cupola  of  stone  over  a statue  of  wood.  In  Shravasti  (in 
 Oude)  the  buildings  were  in  ruins ; and  in  Kapila-vastu, 
 the  kingdom  of  Sakya  Sinha’s  father,  ten  deserted  towns 
 are  noted.  At  Baja-griha,  in  Magadha,J  or  Behar,  he  saw 
 many  memorials  of  the  King  Asoka,  and  esteemed  himself 
 fortunate  in  being  received  into  a convent  where  an  aged 
 man  resided  who  had  been  favoured  by  a personal  interview 
 with  the  celestial  beings  known  as  Avalokiteswara,  Man- 
 djusri,  and  Maitreya. 
 
 He  speaks  of  the  religious  edifices,  of  Nalanda,  a neigh- 
 bouring village,  as  surpassing  those  in  other  parts  of  India. 
 The  dwelling-houses,  or  Yiharas,  have  four  stories;  and  the 
 pavilions  (Chaityas,  or  temples)  are  adorned  with  pillars, 
 paintings,  sculptures,  and  precious  stones.  The  sectarians 
 of  the  eighteen  schools,  he  says,  are  collected  in  the  Samg- 
 haramas  of  Nalanda, § where  they  study  every  kind  of  work, 
 from  “ les  livres  vulgaires,  les  Yedas,”  up  to  works  on  me- 
 dicine, the  occult  sciences,  and  arithmetic. 
 
 After  an  absence  of  seventeen  years  Hwan  Tsaug  returned 
 
 * Hwan  Tsang,  95.  f Ibid.,  96. 
 
 J Magadha  is  that  portion  of  Behar  which  lies  to  the  south  of  the 
 
 Ganges. — Hwan  Tsang,  Preface,  p.  lx. 
 
 § Hwan  Tsang,  151. 
 
348 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 across  the  mountains  to  China,  where  he  is  reeeived  with 
 great  honour  by  the  Emperor,  wdio  wished  to  make  him  his 
 prime  minister ; but  the  sagacious  Traveller  objeets,  that  he 
 is  unqualified,  hanng  never  studied  Confucius,  the  soul  of 
 administration,  and  that  a religious  life  is  liis  desire.  The 
 Emperor  wishes  he  would  aecompany  his  army ; but  Hwan 
 Tsang  says  that  his  prineiples  forbid  eombats  and  bloodshed, 
 aud  at  length  obtains  leave  to  retire  to  a eonvent  amongst 
 the  hills  far  away  from  the  sounds  of  markets  and  villages, 
 where  he  may  translate  in  peace  the  six  hundred  sacred 
 books  brought  with  him  from  India. 
 
CHAPTER  XI. 
 
 AECHITECTUEE. 
 
 “ And  some  in  marble  mould 
 
 Have  ton’d  vrith  form  and  mien 
 That  unportrayed  image  to  unfold, 
 
 And  named  some  fabled  tiling  unseen — 
 
 Something  they  know  not,  yet  would  love, 
 
 ApoUo,  Pallas,  Jove, — 
 
 Then  turn  away  ; ’t  is  in  the  bosom  pent. 
 
 And  all  that  art  can  do  is  vain  and  impotent.” 
 
 WlltlAMS. 
 
 Heathens,  no  less  tEan  Christians,  feel  a yearning  of  the 
 heart  for  something  beyond  the  gratification  of  worldly 
 wants  and  vanities.  This  yearning  Buddhists  mainly  sought 
 to  express  by  memorial  monuments.  They  were  philoso- 
 phers ; they  did  not  ascend  hill-tops  like  the  Persian,  and 
 prostrate  themselves  before  the  infinity  of  God’s  horizon; 
 they  did  not,  like  their  fathers,  watch  for  the  rising  sun  as 
 the  emblem  of  “ aU  that  has  been  or  will  be,”  nor,  like 
 their  Vedic  ancestors,  did  they  kindle  sacred  fire,  sending 
 flames  up  as  messengers  to  Deity.  They  were  philosophers. 
 
350 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 and  neither  sun-worship^  nor  fire-worship,  nor  Indra-wor- 
 ship  satisfied  their  wants  : they  felt  all  these  ceremonies  as 
 superficial  tinsel,  or  cumbersome  coverings  to  the  inner 
 coi’e  of  truth.  But,  like  Thomas  in  the  Tale  of  the  Tub, 
 in  trying  to  tear  off  the  gold-lace  they  also  tore  away  the 
 coat ; or,  to  change  the  metaphor,  they  rejected  every  com- 
 ponent of  the  religious  atmosphere  until,  under  the  painful 
 pressure  of  a vacuum,  they  welcomed  a mirage  and  adored 
 their  Teacher’s  Relic-shrine. 
 
 We  have  already  had  occasion  to  observe  that  Buddhism 
 was  an  attempt  to  make  general,  doctrines  hitherto  re- 
 stricted to  learned  and  priidleged  classes.  But  the  public 
 cannot  accept  abstractions,  and  the  more  vague  and  nega- 
 tive the  doctrine,  the  more  absolute  its  demand  for  visible 
 types  and  images ; and  consequently  in  every  country  the 
 foot-prints  of  Buddhism  are  gigantic  monuments,  pillars, 
 towers,  caves,  and  temples.  This  architecture  is  divided 
 into  four  classes  : — 
 
 1.  Funeral  Mounds  and  Relic-shrines. 
 
 2.  Pillars  and  Towers  to  commemorate  events. 
 
 3.  Convents  or  Viharas. 
 
 4.  Chaitya,  Caves,  or  Temples. 
 
 Of  these  by  far  the  most  conspicuous  class  is  that  first- 
 named,  and  monuments  of  this  description,  have  so  con- 
 stantly accompanied  Buddhism  that  an  inclination  has  arisen 
 to  treat  all  traces  of  analogous  mounds  or  monuments  as 
 indications  of  Buddhism.  But  this  assumes  too  much;  for 
 although  we  know  that  Buddhists  made  memorial  moimds 
 and  monuments,  we  are  far  from  knowing  that  all  memo- 
 rial mounds  and  monuments  were  made  by  Buddhists. 
 The  fact  is,  that  our  earliest  evidence  of  such  monuments  in 
 
TOMBS. 
 
 351 
 
 India  dates  about  two  hundred  years  b.c.  ; uhereas  Tumuli 
 are  found  all  over  the  u orld,  giving  traces  of  the  first  wan- 
 derers on  the  face  of  the  earth,  or  recording  names  the  ear- 
 liest known  to  histoi’y.  In  the  high  plains  of  Asia,  and  in 
 the  Peninsula  of  India,  in  ancient  Lydia  and  Greece,  in 
 Etruria  and  Sardinia,  and  in  Scandinavia  and  Great  Britain 
 may  such  remains  he  seen.  The  tomb  is  usually  circular, 
 with  inner  chambers  and  an  entrance,  the  outside  occasion- 
 ally ornamented  Avith  steles,  like  the  tomb  of  Alyattes  in 
 Sardis ; and  the  inner  tomb  being  sometimes  concealed 
 and  closed  by  another  built  outside  it,  as  the  Regulini  Ga- 
 lassi  tomb  in  Etruria. 
 
 The  original  cell  is  usually  square,  composed  of  six  flat 
 stones,  Avith  earth  heaped  up  around  in  the  form  of  a cir- 
 cular mound ; and  on  certain  occasions  the  whole  is  raised 
 upon  a hill  or  artificial  platform,  and  surrounded  by  one  or 
 more  circles  of  upright  stones  or  pillars.  Sometimes  how- 
 ever hundreds  of  uncovered  stone  sepulchres  are  found  in 
 secluded  valleys  and  groves.  Captain  NcAA’bold  describes 
 such  tombs  as  scattered  throughout  southern  India, — left 
 in  secluded  spots  by  races  of  whom  tradition  is  silent.  “ It 
 is  certain,”  he  says,  “ that  they  are  not  the  sepulchres  of 
 any  of  the  sects  of  Buddha,  lines wara,  or  Brahma,  or  of 
 the  snake -worshippers  who  preceded  them.  Whose  bones 
 then  do  these  huge  blocks  of  granite  cover  ? Throw  down 
 one  of  the  side  slabs,  Avith  its  circular  aperture,  and  we 
 have  the  cromlech  or  dolmen.  Clear  away  the  Cyclopean 
 superstructure,  and  we  behold  the  Lruidical  circles  and  the 
 cairn.  If  we  turn  our  eyes  northerly  to  the  mountains  of 
 Circassia,  we  there  start  with  surpiise  on  seeing  an  abso- 
 IxAte  facsimile  of  the  mysterious  tombs  of  southern  India, 
 
352 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 with  the  circular  aperture  whieh  tomb  is  thus  figured 
 in  Bell’s  work.f 
 
 It  is  hidden  in  a forest,  and  nothing  is  known  of  its  his- 
 tory. The  dimensions  of  its  prototypes  in  India  are  about 
 five  feet  by  nine  for  the  side-slabs,  Avith  a roof  measuring 
 thirteen  feet  by  twelve.  The  aneient  tombs  deseribed  by 
 Pallas,  south  of  the  Yenisee,  in  Siberia,  “ of  enormous  size, 
 usually  surrounded  by  flat  or  upright  stones,”  are  also  left 
 by  unknown  people  who  have  vanished.  Similar  to  these 
 are  the  monuments  of  our  own  native  Isles,  formerly  ealled 
 Druidieal,  as,  The  Ring  of  Stennis  in  the  Island  of  Ork- 
 ney, a prostrate  cromleeh,  lying  “ beside  the  gigantie  ruins 
 of  the  eircle  whieh  once  enclosed  it  •”  and  the  cromlech  or 
 circle  in  Lamlash  Bay.  The  antiquity  of  these  northern  re- 
 mains is  in  many  cases  attested  by  their  lying  beneath  an 
 accumulation  of  slowly-formed  peat-moss.J  Sometimes  the 
 encircling  stones  are  connected  by  flat  stones,  as  at  Stone- 
 henge ; but  this  appears  to  have  been  a modification  of  the 
 older  custom  of  single  pillars,  or  monoliths.  And  almost 
 universally  the  ancient  cairns,  cromlechs,  tumuli,  and  tombs 
 
 * J.  R.  A.  S.,  vol.  xiii.  pp.  90-  94.  f Bell’s  Circassia,  p.  282. 
 
 X Arcliseology  and  Prc-llistoric  Annals  of  Scotland. — D.  Wilson. 
 
TOMBS. 
 
 353 
 
 are  traced  to  people  who  were  not  of  the  Sanskrit-speaking 
 races^  from  whom  we  derive  our  origin,  but  of  the  mysterious 
 people  whieh  preeeded  Hindus  in  India,  Greeks  in  Greece, 
 Romans  in  Italy,  and  Celts  in  Seandinavia  and  Great 
 Britain.  The  subjeet  deserves  and  requires  much  more 
 researeh,  but  it  seems  evident  that  eromlechs,  cairns,  and 
 effigies  of  serpents  travelled  westward  with  Tiuanian  tribes 
 who  were  often  metal-workers ; and  that  people  of  allied 
 raee  in  India  (often  called  Nagas)  made  similar  tombs 
 independent  of  Buddhism,  and  previous  to  the  rise  of 
 that  religion.  The  people  inhabiting  the  hills  to  the  north 
 of  Sylhet  make  monuments  of  this  deseription  at  the 
 present  time,  and  they  appear  to  be  a people  allied  in  raee 
 with  the  Gonds,  Koles,  and  other  Aborigines  of  India ; and, 
 like  the  tomb-makers  in  Areot  and  ScandinaGa,  the  iidia- 
 bitants  of  the  Khasiya  hills  are  metal-workers.  Mr.  Wal- 
 ters speaks  of  “two  or  three  thousand  monuments,  great 
 and  small.”*  And,  further  to  the  north-east.  Dr.  Hooker 
 sees  at  Nurtiuug  “ several  acres  covered  with  gigantic, 
 generally  cireular,  slabs  of  stone,  from  ten  to  twenty-five 
 feet  broad,  supported  five  feet  above  the  ground  upon  other 
 blocks.”  These  monuments  he  mentions  as  a curious  fea- 
 ture in  the  seenery  of  the  mountains  and  in  the  habits  of 
 their  savage  population. 
 
 It  seems  therefore  not  unreasonable  to  conjecture  that 
 Buddhism  adopted  funeral  mounds  and  monuments  from 
 the  Turanian  people,  who  were  at  aU  times  its  most  nume- 
 rous and  euthusiastie  supporters. 
 
 A most  eoufusing  variety  of  names  has  been  given  to 
 these  Buddhist  monuments : — Tope  and  Stupa,  meaning 
 
 * As.  Res.,  vol.  xvii.  p.  500. 
 
 2 A 
 
354 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 that  they  are  lofty  pyramiclical  structures;  Dagoba,  refer- 
 ring to  their  office  as  relic-sliriues ; and  Chaityaj  a word  for 
 sacred  inoiiuments  of  any  kind,  whether  funereal  or  other- 
 wise. Tlie  large  Tope  at  Sanchi  (Central  India),  described 
 in  Major  Cunningham’s  valuable  work,  is  pi’obably  one  of 
 
 Dagoba,  with  festoons  and  vimbrella. 
 
 the  oldest  yet  remaining.  It  stands  on  the  western  edge 
 of  a hill,  enclosed  by  a court  one  hundred  and  fifty  yards 
 by  one  hundred,  which  is  entered  by  lofty  gates  facing 
 north,  south,  cast,  and  Avest.  At  three  of  the  corners  ivere 
 small  Topes,  and  at  the  fourth  a small  temple.  The  large 
 Tope  is  a solid  dome  of  brick  and  masonry,  one  hundred 
 and  six  feet  in  diameter  and  forty-two  feet  in  height,  rising 
 from  a plinth  of  fourteen  feet,  which  served  as  a terrace  for 
 
View  of  the  Lanka  Rama,  a Dagoba  to  the  north  of  An-oradhap-ora,  m Ceylon, 
 from  a Sketch  by  Captain  I.  J.  Chapman,  F.R.S.,  of  the  Royal  Artillery. 
 
 “ Lanka-Ramo  is  situated  to  the  north-west  of  the  Mahawihara.  It  was  erected  by 
 King  Abha  Sen,  or  Tisso,  whose  reign  commenced  a.d.  231.  In  1829  it  was  in  excellent 
 preservation,  having  been  repaired  within  the  last  century.  The  Dagoba  was  then 
 coated  with  chunam^  a most  excellent  kind  of  white  cement,  which  has  a resemblance  to 
 marble  \ and  the  pillars  on  the  raised  platform  which  sustains  the  dome  had  generally 
 retained  their  places.  The  whole  suggested  how  magnificent  the  others  must  have  been 
 in  the  days  of  their  glory.*’ — Captain  I.  J.  Chapman^  Hemarks  on  the  City  of  Anurd‘ 
 dkapura,  (Journ.  R.  As.  Soc.  xiii.) 
 
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MON't'MEXTS. 
 
 355 
 
 the  convenience  of  Avorshippers.  The  tallest  of  the  Topes 
 in  the  Punjab  is  nearly  double  this  height,  and  is  also  so- 
 lid, with  the  exception  of  chambers  for  relics  at  different 
 heights.  Of  the  same  description  are  the  celebrated  ruins, 
 called  temples,  in  Ceylon  : the  Jetawana  and  the  Thupa- 
 Rama  at  Anuradhapura,  and  the  beautiful  ruin  which  cro^ms 
 ^lehenteli,  are  all  alike  mere  relic-shrines,  the  Jetawana 
 being  a mass  of  brick-work  sufficient  for  building  a wall 
 ninety-seven  miles  long,  twelve  feet  high,  and  two  feet 
 broad.  In  Tibet,  where  first  a conception  of  Adibnddha, 
 the  Supreme,  and  then  of  linng  Buddhas,  has  been  added 
 to  original  Buddhism,  dagobas  are  nnimportant;  but  in 
 Burmah,  where  (as  in  Ceylon)  Buddhism  retains  its  first 
 low  level,  we  are  startled  to  find  that  the  grand  edifice 
 called  the  Shwe-dagon,  tkree  hundred  feet  in  height,  is 
 not  a temple  in  which  to  worship,  but  a solid  pyramid,  and 
 itself  the  object  to  be  worshipped. 
 
 The  second  form  of  Bitddhist  architecture  consists  of 
 Towers  and  Pillars  set  up  to  commemorate  an  event  or  do 
 honour  to  a building.  When  Jacob  took  a stone  and  set 
 it  up  as  a pillar,  in  token  that  the  place  wherein  he  had 
 dreamed  was  “ the  Gate  of  Heaven,”  he  adopted  this  pri- 
 mitive  mode.  Such  pillars,  carved  or  uncarved,  are  com- 
 mon all  over  the  world,  but  we  do  not  meet  with  them 
 in  India  cai’lier  than  the  Buddhist  King  Asoka.  And  al- 
 ways supposing  that  Asoka  is  one  and  the  same  with  Pi- 
 yadasi,  he  set  up  six  or  seven  of  these  Laths,  or  columns, 
 whereon  to  inscribe  his  Edicts.  The  capitals  of  these  pil- 
 lars are  of  the  usual  lotus-form,*  and  are  encircled  either 
 
 * Suggested,  we  imagine,  from  the  appearance  of  a Lotus  pericavp  and 
 stamens,  after  tlie  fall  of  the  petals.  See  Vignette,  ante,  p.  247. 
 
 2 A 2 
 
35t) 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 with  the  reed  and  ball^  or  with  the  honeysuckle  and  lotus, 
 which  are  the  architectui’al  ornaments  of  Greece  and  As- 
 syria, whilst  they  are  surmounted  hy  lions  or  griffins,  also 
 significant  of  Assyria.  These  pillars  are  snpposed  to  have 
 stood,  like  the  Jachin  and  Boaz  of  King  Solomon,  in  front 
 of  some  holy  edifice,  and  one  such  pillar  yet  remains, 
 watching  like  a sentinel  at  the  entrance  of  the  Yiswakarma, 
 Karli,  and  other  celebrated  Cave-Temples  of  western  India. 
 
 Of  towers  erected  Avith  the  same  intent,  the  Tower  of 
 Babel  was  probably  the  earliest  instance ; but,  although  not 
 uncommon  at  very  early  periods  in  western  Asia,  Buddhists 
 appear  first  to  have  introduced  them  into  India.  Fcav  of 
 these  erections  now  remain ; but  happily  the  custom  sur- 
 vived when  Buddhism  became  extinct,  and  tw'O  beautiful 
 'foAvers  of  ^'ictory  may  be  seen  in  Central  India,  the  one 
 erected  in  the  eighth  and  the  other  in  the  eleventh  cen- 
 tury.* 
 
 \'iharas,  or  convents,  constitute  our  next  division ; and 
 these  may  be  regarded  as  more  radically  Buddhist  than  any 
 other  form  of  Buddhist  architecture.  Sakya-muni  himself 
 
 * See  Fergusson’s  Illustrations  of  Arehiteeture  in  llindostan,  j)l.  xi.  8. 
 
M HARAS. 
 
 357 
 
 required  eonventual  residences,  with  numerous  cells  for  his 
 followers,  and  a central  hall  wherein  to  address  them . Re- 
 ligious Brahmans  had  long  heeii  accustomed  to  dwell  in 
 hermitages  apart  from  the  hustle  of  life,  and  the  Brahma- 
 varti,  of  the  Code  of  !Manu,  was  a district  celebrated  for  such 
 asramas.  But  the  genius  of  Buddhism  required  dwellings 
 on  a larger  scale,  and,  as  we  have  already  remarked,  it  soon 
 began  to  seek  rehef  in  the  magnificence  of  architectiu’e  for 
 the  deadness  of  its  worship. 
 
 The  structural  Yiharas  have  all  perished  in  India,  but 
 the  Caves,  which  were  fashioned  in  imitation  of  those  wooden 
 prototypes,  yet  remain  to  exhibit  the  stages  by  which  their 
 ultimate  perfection  was  attained.  The  outline  given  above 
 is  from  a Cuttack  Cave  of  the  simplest  form, — a mere 
 verandah  added  to  a natural  cavern.  In  such  cases,  the 
 preaching-hall  was  a wooden  building  erected,  when  required, 
 for  periodical  readings  of  the  sacred  hooks.  By  degrees 
 the  Verandahs  became  more  decorated,  and  the  sleeping- 
 cells  were  arranged  around  a central  hall  and  at  last  we 
 find  twenty  beautiful  pillars  supporting  this  hall,  and  its 
 walls  adorned  by  ])aintings, — copies  of  which  adorn  the 
 Indian  Court  at  Sydenham. 
 
 At  Anuradhapura,  in  Ceylon,  may  be  seen  the  remains 
 of  a grand  Yihara,  erected  b.c.  161  by  King  Dushtaga- 
 mini,  called  the  Loha  prasada,  oi’,  Loha  maha  paya,  from 
 loha,  iron,  its  roof  haring  been  of  metal.  It  had  nine 
 stories,  each  containing  one  hundred  apartments  j the  whole 
 was  supported  upon  pillars  of  stone,  and  Baldseus  honours 
 it  by  marking  Anuradhapura  on  his  map  as  “ the  place  of 
 the  thousand  pillars.”*  It  is  fidly  described  in  the  iVIaha- 
 * iIaha\yanso,  ch.  xsrii.  p.  164. 
 
358 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INPIA. 
 
 waiiso,  and  Lassen  dwells  upon  this  description  with  great 
 interest,  because  he  considers  it  the  most  ancient  authentic 
 description  of  an  Indian  building  extant.*  The  embeUish- 
 inents  may  be  those  of  a later  jieriod,  but  we  need  not 
 hesitate  to  admit  that  the  dimensions  arc  given  correctly, 
 and  that  the  middle  of  the  building  was  occupied  by  a ball 
 supported  on  pillars.  The  upper  stories  of  this  nine-storied 
 building  w ere  of  timber,  and  required  frequent  renewal,  and 
 sometimes  the  nine  stories  were  reduced  to  five  stories; 
 but  the  thousand  pillars  lived  through  all  vicissitudes,  and 
 were  still  in  wonderful  preservation  when  seen  by  Captain 
 Chapman  in  1 820.t 
 
 The  third  class  of  Buddhist  architecture  is  the  Chaitya 
 Cave.  “ These,”  Mr.  Fergusson  observes,  “ arc  the  temples 
 or  (if  I may  use  the  expression)  churches  of  the  series,  and 
 one  or  more  of  them  is  attached  to  every  set  of  caves  in 
 the  west  of  India,  though  none  exist  in  the  eastern  side.” 
 “ Unlike  the  Viharas,”  he  continues,  “ the  plan  and  arrange- 
 ment of  all  these  caves  is  exactly  the  same,  and  though  the 
 details  and  sculpture  vary  with  the  age  in  which  they  were 
 executed,  some  strong  religious  feeling  seems  to  have  at- 
 tached the  Buddhists  to  one  particular  form  for  their  places 
 of  worship.  In  the  Viharas  we  can  trace  the  progress 
 from  the  simple  cavern  to  the  perfect  monastery,  but  these 
 seem  at  once  to  have  sprung  to  perfection,  and  the  Karli 
 .Cave,  the  most  perfect,  is,  I believe,  also  the  oldest  in 
 India.”  iSIr..  Fergusson  looks  upon  them  as  cojiies  of  the 
 interior  of  structural  buildings,  and  adds,  that  “ it  is  not 
 one  of  the  least  singular  circumstances  attached  to  their 
 
 * Lassen,  vol.  ii.  p.  420. 
 
 + Transactions  It.  A.  S.  vol.  lii. ; also  J.  R.  A.  S.  vol.  xiii.  p.  170. 
 
Interior  of  Vrhara  at  Ajiinta.  (Fergusson,  No.  17.) 
 
4r 
 
 4 
 
 # 
 
yaip 
 
 A Ghaityu  Gave. 
 
Interior  of  the  Karli  Cave. 
 
TEMPLES. 
 
 361 
 
 history  that  no  trace  of  such  buildings  exists  in  India,  nor 
 I believe  in  Ceylon,  nor  in  the  Buddhist  countries  beyond 
 the  Ganges.”* 
 
 The  Chaitya  Caves  are  very  imposing,  and  are  described 
 \vith  enthusiasm  by  Lady  Calcott,  Captain  Seely,  Lord 
 ]\Iunster,  and  every  one  who  \dsits  them,  Avhether  learned 
 or  unlearned.  “They  consist  of  an  external  porch,  or 
 music-gallery,  an  internal  gallery  over  the  entrance,  and  a 
 centre  aisle,  . . . twice  the  length  of  its  breadth,  roofed  by 
 a plain  waggon- vault ; to  this  is  added  a semi-dome  termi- 
 nating the  nave,  under  the  centre  of  which  always  stands  a 
 Dagoba  or  Chaitya.”  A narrow  aisle  surrounds  the  inte- 
 rior, separated  from  the  centre  aisle  by  a range  of  massive 
 columns,  and  this  smaller  aisle  or  passage  is  usually  flat- 
 roofed.  A very  interesting  part  of  the  arrangement  was 
 the  manner  in  which  the  Cave  was  lighted : across  the 
 front  there  is  a screen,  in  which  there  are  three  doors, — the 
 largest,  in  the  centre,  opening  to  the  nave,  the  otliers  to 
 
 * Rock-cut  Temples,  p.  6. 
 
362 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 the  side  aisles ; over  the  screen  the  whole  front  is  a great 
 window,  usually  in  the  horseshoe  form,  as  seen  in  the  ex- 
 terior of  the  "V^iswakarma ; the  whole  light  thus  falls  upon 
 the  Chaitya  or  Dagoba,  and  the  effect  from  the  dark  colon- 
 nade is  described  as  most  remarkable. 
 
 Architecture  thus  confirms  our  previous  observations, 
 that  although  Buddhism  originated  in  India,  and  was  based 
 upon  Hindu  philosophy,  it  was  mainly  fostered  and  deve- 
 loped liy  people  who  were  not  Hindus.  Its  architectural 
 forms  are  those  of  other  countries,  and  it  owes  its  success, 
 not  to  Hindus,  but  to  the  underlying  Turanian  population 
 who  became  enthusiastic  converts  both  in  India,  Ceylon, 
 and  in  Northern  Asia.  These  people  had  a natural  love 
 for  raising  mounds;  and  from  the  foreign  artists  and  archi- 
 tects who  came  in  the  wake  of  Alexander  they  learned  to 
 elevate  mounds  into  monuments,  verandahs  into  Viharas, 
 and  image-cells  into  temples. 
 
303 
 
 CHAPTER  XII. 
 
 “Earnest  sympatliizing  meditations  upon  the  actual  efforts  of  men  to 
 discover  the  secret  of  their  life,  and  the  ends  for  which  they  hve,  contain 
 equal  encouragements  to  hiundity  and  to  hope.” — F.  D.  Maueice. 
 
 Let  us  now  look  down  the  long  vista  up  which  tve  have 
 been  toiling,  and  try  to  gather  up  a connected  outline  of 
 the  shifting  phantom  known  as  Buddhism.  AYe  have  stu- 
 died it  in  royal  Edicts,  in  Literature,  in  Coins,  Sculptures, 
 and  Symbols,  in  the  Journals  of  the  Chinese,  and  in  Archi- 
 tecture. The  Edicts  of  Piyadasi  we  look  upon  as  its  earliest 
 reliable  manifestation,  and  we  feel  that  the  teacher  under 
 whose  influence  they  oi’iginated  was,  in  Buddhist  language, 
 “ a man  both  wise  and  great one  who  preached  grandly 
 on  the  sin  of  destroying  life,  the  excellence  of  kindness, 
 the  instability  of  riches,  and  the  blessedness  of  abstraction 
 fi’om  the  pleasures  of  sense.  This  doctrine  the  King,  in  the 
 Edicts,  rehearses  : he  comes  forth,  as  it  were,  in  sackcloth; 
 he  repents  of  indulgence  in  travelling  and  hunting,  and 
 rejoicings  at  births  and  marriages,  and  in  the  destructive 
 hospitality  of  his  soup-kitchen ; and  he  causes  the  drums 
 to  beat,  and  fireworks  to  be  displayed,  and  a great  proces- 
 sion to  be  made,  for  the  public  proclamation  of  clharma, 
 which  is  virtue  as  inculcated  by  Buddha.  These  Edicts  do 
 
364 
 
 UFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 not  touch  upon  religion ; they  are  moral  enactments,  good 
 in  themselves,  but  far  less  beautiful  if  viewed  as  abstract 
 truth  than  portions  of  the  Brahmanical  Code.  Their  pecu- 
 liarity is,  that  they  are  addressed  to  all  mankind  without 
 restriction, — a liberality  unknown  to  Brahmans ; and  that 
 they  breathe  an  earnest  purpose  of  imposing  Moral  Law 
 upon  the  Universe, — an  exertion  wholly  inconsistent  with 
 Brahmanical  pride  and  indolence. 
 
 But  if  Buddhism  was  a sincere  effort  to  advance  man’s 
 general  welfare,  and  if,  even  in  its  degenerate  form,  it  en- 
 courages less  vice  than  other  idolatry,  why,  it  may  be  asked, 
 was  it  so  distasteful  to  Aryan  (or  Sanskrit-speaking)  races, 
 and  so  little  elevating  to  its  Scythic-derived  converts  ? Be- 
 cause, we  answer,  Buddhist  morals  are  like  gathered  blos- 
 soms,— flowers  cut  away  from  the  root  of  morals.  A Bud- 
 dhist teacher  acknowledges  no  superior ; and  if  the  Edicts 
 are  too  liberal  for  Brahmans,  they  are  also  too  independent 
 of  Almighty  pow'er.  Brahmans  taught  in  the  name  of 
 Brahma,  and  looked  reverently  on  the  Sun  and  the  Dawn, 
 on  the  Fire  and  the  Flood,  as  tokens  of  Supreme  and  uni- 
 versal Soul.  But  the  Edicts  claim  nO  higher  authority  than 
 that  of  the  King  who  proclaims  them  : he  has  cast  aside 
 the  gods  of  the  Vedas,  and  has  not  yet  deified  the  memory 
 of  Buddha.  All  previous  worship  had  been  swept  away,  and 
 teaching  alone  offered  in  its  place.  No  Agni,  no  Indra,  no 
 Iswara,  under  any  name  was  worshipped;  for  Buddhism,  not 
 content  with  proclaiming  the  equality  of  men,  imagined  the 
 same  equality  to  pervade  the  Universe.  This  scheme  makes 
 infinite  space  one  vast  republic,  peopled  by  gods  and  men,  who 
 alike  enjoy  infinite  equality  and  are  ahke  subject  to  end- 
 less successions  of  perishable  life.  From  time  to  time  a chief 
 arises  who,  by  his  personal  qualities,  attains  omniscienc 
 
REFLECTIONS. 
 
 365 
 
 and  a modified  supremacy,  and  such  a chiefship  was  claimed 
 by  Sakya-Muni.  Buddhists  believe  that  whilst  on  earth  he 
 held  spiritual  dominion,  and  that  when  he  died  he  passed 
 away  into  unknow  n and  inaccessible  regions,  where  for  some 
 he  exists  merely  as  a memory,  for  others  as  a being  with 
 power  to  enforce  his  precepts,  but  for  none  as  a power  ruling 
 beyond  the  influence  of  Buddhism. 
 
 Sakya-Muni,  striving  to  be  independent  of  divinity,  re- 
 minds one  of  the  air-plants  of  his  native  jungles.  Like  the 
 Dendrobium,  which  disdains  to  cast  its  roots  into  the  soil. 
 Buddhism  strives  to  owe  nothing  to  extrinsic  powei’,  and, 
 like  the  graceful  Dendrobium,  it  becomes  an  epiphyte.  The 
 first  support  of  Buddhism  Avas  the  philosophy  of  the  Brah- 
 mans, but  when  cut  adrift  from  Brahmanical  learning  and 
 spirituality,  this  would  have  proved  insufficient,  but  for  al- 
 liance with  foreign  faiths,  and  the  adoption  of  foi’eign  arts 
 and  customs.  The  first  feeling  of  popular  Buddhism  seems 
 to  have  implied  a cry  of  “ Dmvn  with  the  Brahmans  ! all 
 beings  are  equal ! let  gods  and  men  start  fair  ! ” And  next 
 we  find  Buddhists  learning  from  the  unknown  makers  of 
 cairns  and  cromlechs  to  erect  mounds  in  memory  of  Bud- 
 dha; and  these  mounds  not  being  sepulchres,  relics  were 
 placed  within,  and  the  structure  called  a Dagoba,*  shrine 
 of  a relic.  In  further  imitation  of  their  nomadic  coiwerts, 
 they  placed  circles  of  stones  around  their  monuments, 
 standing  like  worshippers,  who  do  homage  to  a sacred  ob- 
 ject by  walking  round  it.  Foreigners,  from  Assyria  appa- 
 rently, taught  them  to  erect  single  pillars  to  commemorate 
 events,  and  to  make  halls  supported  by  central  columns, 
 and  to  raise  many-storied  buildings  upon  a thousand- 
 
 * Mr.  Fergusson  derives  tliLs  word  from  dkafu,  relie,  and  gabha  or  garha, 
 slirine  or  womb.  Illust.  Handbook  of  Architecture,  vol.  i.,  p.  8. 
 
LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 yoG 
 
 pillared  base.  Who  gave  the  model  for  their  beautiful 
 Chaitya  Caves,  where  the  Dagoba  disfigures  the  pillared 
 aisles  and  vaulted  roof,  is  not  decided;  but  on  the  one  hand 
 it  is  shown  that  the  Temple  of  Solomon  had  much  in  com- 
 mon with  Assjuian  architectm’e,  and  on  the  other  hand,  a 
 close  connection  is  discovered  between  Buddhist  architec- 
 ture and  that  of  Assyria.* 
 
 And  contemporary  with,  or  rather  earlier  than,  the  dates 
 assigned  to,  the  splendid  Buddhist  excavations,  we  meet 
 with  what  may  be  called  touches  and  snatches  of  Hebrew 
 recollections  incoi’jiorated  in  the  Buddhist  Sutras.  As, 
 for  instance,  in  the  Asoka  legend,  where  the  old  King  wants 
 to  make  his  eldest  son  his  heir;  but  his  ministers  prefer 
 Asoka,  and  softening  his  rough  skin  with  safiron  and  lac, 
 take  him  to  his  dying  father  and  deceive  him  as  effectually 
 as  Rachel  deceived  old  Israel.  In  another  story,  giving 
 a last  morsel  of  food  to  a holy  person  dm’ing  a di’ought  is 
 followed  by  clouds  and  shoivers  of  food.  A money-bag 
 used  for  the  promotion  of  Buddhism  is  as  unfailing  as  the 
 widow’s  cruise ; and  like  Elijah,  Buddha  transfers  his  au- 
 thority to  his  successor  by  bidding  him  wear  his  ascetic 
 mantle.  The  stories  of  Buddha’s  birth  belong  exclusively  to 
 the  second  and  later  periods  of  Buddhist  literature,  and  thus 
 it  is  quite  possible  that  their  authors  should  have  had  an 
 indirect  and  remote  knowledge,  not  only  of  Jewish  prophecy 
 but  of  the  Christian  Gospels  ; but  a reference  to  Christian 
 teaching  is  most  decided  in  the  later  Buddhism  of  Tibet. 
 
 And  now  if  we  retire  a little  from  the  easel,  what  is  the 
 outline  we  find  traced  upon  our  canvas  ? 
 
 1st.  We  have  the  Edicts  so  liberal  and  pure  that  we  are 
 
 * rergussoii,  Xiiievt'h  and  Porsepolis,  pp.  113,  319,  and  Roek-cnt  Tem- 
 ples, p.  17. 
 
KEFLECTIOXS. 
 
 3Gr 
 
 ready  to  exclaim,  “This  is  God’s  writing  on  the  wall  !”  but 
 the  Daniel  was  wanting  to  interpret,  and  they  degenerated 
 into  egotistical  formahsm. 
 
 2nd.  "We  have  the  Buildings,  Columns,  Excavations,  and 
 Coins,  showing  that  art — glorious  art  from  Assyria  and 
 Greece ! — gave  to  hidden  Buddhism  the  torch  which  has 
 made  her  conspicuous  to  the  Universe  and  attractive  to  the 
 populace. 
 
 3rd.  AYe  have  Buddhist  Literature, — and  this  is  positively 
 repulsive  : a formal,  conceited,  extravagant  tone  pervades 
 the  whole.  Xo  sentiment  comes  from  the  heart  or  goes  to 
 the  heart.  Good  moral  maxims  are  at  times  rehearsed,  but 
 there  is  no  freshness  of  feeling  and  no  simphcity  of  cha- 
 racter. Eternal  rest,  or  nirvana,  is  to  he  obtained  by  the 
 extinction  of  natural  emotions.  "We  entirely  lose  there- 
 fore the  generous  love  and  devotion  of  the  Brahmauical 
 tales ; lierc  there  is  no  love  conquering  death,  or  brethren 
 emulous  of  suffering  for  each  other.  One  incident  follows 
 another  uith  inexhaustible  invention,  but  arranged  accord- 
 ing to  a preconceived  rule;  something  in  the  fashion  of 
 musical  airs  with  variations,  fugues,  acrostics,  or  anagrams. 
 There  is  in  fact  no  freedom,  no  swelling  thought  too  big 
 for  utterance.  A Buddhist  Teacher  is  never  himself  a 
 learner, — his  sole  object  is  to  prove  and  explain.  A vigor- 
 ous modern  thinker  writing  of  art  as  the  answer  which  the 
 human  spirit  makes  to  the  Supreme,  says,  “ Some  nations 
 have  called  theii'  poets  Finders.  The  countenance  of  the 
 true  poet,  while  at  work,  is  that  of  one  listening  or  receiv- 
 ing.”* To  the  Sanskrit  bards  this  attitude  is  not  un- 
 known; hut  Buddhists  never  listen  and  never  “look  up.” 
 The  first  act  of  their  infant  Buddha,  according  to  their  ad- 
 * A.  J.  Scott,  Piscourse  on  the  Range  of  Christianity,  p.  42- 
 
3G8 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 miring  Chronicle,  was  to  take  seven  steps  upon  the  earth 
 and  shout  forth,  “ I am  the  most  exalted  on  the  earth.”* 
 And  it  was  in  the  same  spirit  that  the  Singhalese  priest 
 answered  Bishop  Heher’s  question  of  “ Do  you  worship  the 
 Gods?”  by  “ No,  the  Gods  worship  me.”f  In  Buddhism, 
 temples  for  universal  worship,  and  precepts  for  general  ac- 
 ceptance, dazzle  you  for  an  instant  like  a heavenly  vision ; 
 but  when  you  look  again  the  gleam  of  glory  has  passed,  and 
 the  stars  of  heaven  can  no  longer  be  distinguished  from  the 
 false  lights  of  the  morass. 
 
 And  yet,  tricked  out  in  borrowed  trappings.  Buddhism  has 
 been  imagined  capable  of  accounting  for  Christianity.  It 
 is  painful  to  find  any  honest  mind  giving  such  undue  value 
 to  supei-ficial  resemblanees,  and  only  one  such  instance 
 shall  be  noted.  The  writer  to  whom  we  allude  assumes 
 that  Buddhism  is  “ Christianity  without  Christ.”  As  well 
 might  he  call  it  “ Judaism  without  God.”  The  argument 
 runs  thus  J : — “ To  a mind  already  impressed  with  Buddhis- 
 tic belief  and  Buddhistic  doctrines,  Christianity  was  no  ab- 
 juration of  an  old  faith,  . . . but  a mere  qualification  of  an 
 existing  belief,  by  the  incorporation  into  it  of  the  iNIosaic 
 account  of  the  ereation,  and  original  sin,  and  the  fall  of 
 man.”  This  means,  that  a Jew  in  adopting  Buddhism 
 produced  Christianity  j therefore  that  the  Gospels  of  the 
 New  Testament  are  fictions,  more  groundless  than  Buddhist 
 Sutras ; for  the  Buddha  of  the  Buddhist  w ritings  was  a real 
 historical  person ; wdiereas  if  Christianity  be  derived  from 
 Buddhism  there  has  been  no  Christ,  and  the  Gospels  are 
 
 * Pali  Annals,  J.  A.  S.  B.,  Sept.,  1838,  p.  801. 
 
 t ‘ Ceylon  Friend,’  for  1838,  vol.  ii. ; Printed  Eeport  of  Schools,  p.  5. 
 
 J ‘ Liverpool  Journal,’  1852.  Tlie  article  is  reprinted  from  the  ‘ Kea- 
 soner,’  Ko.  293,  and  is  based  upon  an  abstract  of  Hue’s  Travels  in  Tibet 
 and  Tartarv. 
 
niETENSlOXS  OF  BUDDHISM. 
 
 369 
 
 tales  invented  in  imitation  of  those  Avhich  relate  the  birth, 
 life,  and  death  of  Sakya-Muni,  whom  we  call  Buddha. 
 
 Such  an  idea  cannot  be  dragged  too  fully  into  daylight. 
 It  can  only  be  harmful  when  whispered  in  carelessness  or 
 ignorance,  and  listened  to  by  ignorance.  So  far  from  Bud- 
 dhism accounting  for  Christianity,  it  seems  to  me  that  a 
 careful  consideration  of  its  merits  and  defects  leads  strongly 
 to  an  opposite  result.  Buddha  lived  when  morals  were  ex- 
 tremely corrupt,  and  with  honest  energy  and  self-denial  he 
 induced  men  to  give  up  luxuries  and  live  in  communities 
 apart  from  worldly  aims,  occupying  themselves  in  acts  of 
 kindness  and  ascetic  self-denial.  Were  it  possible  for  a man 
 to  produce  a Divine  religion,  here  was  the  man.  He  did 
 not  countenance  the  fanaticism  of  contemporary  ascetics 
 who  went  about  half-starved,  unclothed,  and  with  unwashed, 
 matted  hair,  but  he  required  his  followers  to  proride  simply 
 for  the  wants  of  this  life,  and  look  for  eternal  I’cst  beyond. 
 Thus  far  we  may  believe  that  he  made  himself  servant  to 
 what  his  soul  recognized  as  right  and  true.  But  he  was 
 too  weak  to  be  able  to  sepai’ate  his  intuitions  from  himself, 
 and  he  bade  his  converts  follow  him  and  become  a part 
 of  the  machinery  which  he  had  constructed;  and  thus  he 
 closed  for  them  the  access  by  which  himself  had  risen.  He 
 was  not  to  blame  for  sharing  in  the  intellectual  errors  of 
 his  day,  but  for  seeking  to  stereotype  them  upon  the  minds 
 of  his  disciples.  To  Sakya-Muni  the  body  and  the  ma- 
 terial world  were  eorrupt  illusions,  and  “escape”  was  in 
 consequence  his  watchuord.  No  expression  of  joy  in  the 
 beauty  of  creation,  no  delight  in  human  affection,  no  anti- 
 cipation of  universal  love,  Avhether  on  earth  or  in  heaven, 
 is  ever  attributed  to  him.  Buddhist  precepts  and  hopes  are 
 
370 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 all  confined  to  negatives  : — Not  to  injure  living  creatures  ; 
 Not  to  indulge  in  luxury  ; Not  to  drink  fermented  liquors  : 
 Not  to  marry  or  live  in  families:  Not  to  enjoy  the  sights 
 and  sounds  of  nature  : Not  to  encounter  future  birth  or  life. 
 
 Such  arc  the  duties  and  the  hopes  of  Buddhists;  and 
 therefore  he  who  does  least  harm  and  feels  least  joy  realizes 
 the  highest  type  of  excellence,  and  he  who  escapes  from 
 perishable  illusion  realizes  the  highest  type  of  happiness. 
 Buddhist  transcendentalism  is  indeed  a dreary  Avaste 
 through  which  you  Avander,  feeling  as  though  you  had 
 fallen  into  Jean  Paul’s  dream,  Avhere  the  Bell  of  the  Uni- 
 verse tolls,  mankind  awakes  in  consternation,  and  Christ 
 deelares  that  he  has  been  in  Heaven  and  in  Hell,  hut  can- 
 not find  the  Father  : there  is  no  God  ! there  is  no  God  ! 
 
BOOK  III 
 
 INDIA  SUBSEQUENT  TO  BUDDHISM. 
 
 The  great  body  of  the  present  religious  pracHces  of  the  Hindus  are  subsequent  iu 
 time  and  foreign  in  tenor  to  those  that  were  enjoined  by  the  authorities  which  they  pro- 
 fess  to  regard  as  the  foundations  of  their  3ystem.”-H.  H.  WiLSOif,  Oxford  Lectures. 
 
 2 B 2 
 
CHAPTER  I. 
 
 “ In  every  country  where  there  are  national  legends  they  are  always  deeply 
 and  vividly  impressed  with  a feeling  of  the  magnificence  or  loneliness  m the 
 midst  of  which  they  have  arisen.” — Guesses  at  Truth. 
 
 In  the  Mahabharata,  Siva  is  the  god  of  the  Himalaya 
 mountains,  its  summits  his  brow,  its  lofty  crags  and  forests 
 his  hair.  The  Ganges  could  not  descend  to  earth  until  he 
 consented  to  receive  its  waters  on  his  head.  When  he  was 
 propitiated,  and  Gauga  heard  the  word  “descend  !” 
 
 “ Full  of  wrath,  the  mandate  heard  Himavan’s  majestic  daughter, 
 To  a giant’s  stature  soaring,  and  intolerable  speed, 
 
 F rom  heaven’s  height  down  rushed  she,  pouring  upon  Siva’s  sacred 
 head.” 
 
 But  with  such  pride  aud  impetuosity  she  came,  that  the 
 
374 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 God  grew  angry^  and  locked  up  her  straggling  floods  amid 
 his  labyrinthine  hair,  until,  being  again  propitiated,  he 
 permitted  the  waters  to  burst  forth  and  find  their  way  to 
 the  plains  of  India  by  seven  separate  streams. 
 
 AVe  first  hear  of  Siva  worship  about  ii.c.  300,  some  cen- 
 turies after  the  first  promulgation  of  Buddhism,  but  be- 
 fore Buddhism  had  become  the  Court  religion.  At  that 
 time  Alexander  the  Great  was  dead  : Selcucus  held  Bactria 
 and  Babylon,  and  his  ambassador  Megasthenes  dwelt  witli 
 Hindu  Rajas  at  Patna,  on  the  Ganges.  Brahmanical  phi- 
 losophy had  before  this  time  made  war  upon  the  Vedas; 
 Rain  and  Fire-worship  had  become  obsolete,  and  Sacrifice 
 typical ; the  Greeks  were  not  therefore  likely  to  see  Soma- 
 festivals,  or  to  hear  of  offerings  to  Indra  and  Agni ; and  as 
 the  philosophic  Brahmans  reserved  their  religious  doctrine 
 for  the  privileged  few,  the  only  obvious  religions  were  those 
 of  the  populace,  which  Alegasthenes  describes  as  Siva  wor- 
 ship on  the  hills  and  Vaishnaiva  worship  in  the  plains. 
 The  first  was,  he  says,  celebrated  in  tumultuous  festivals, 
 the  worshippers  anoiiitiug  their  bodies,  iveariug  crowns  of 
 flowers  and  sounding  bells  and  cymbals.  From  this  the 
 Greeks  conjecture  that  Siva  worship  must  be  derived  from 
 Bacchus  or  Dionysus,  and  have  been  carried  to  the  East 
 in  the  traditionary  expedition  which  Bacchus  made  in  com- 
 pany with  Hercules.  This  view  was  confirmed  by  finding 
 that  the  wild  vine  grew  in  some  of  the  very  districts  wdicre 
 this  worship  flourished.  But  these  conjectures  are  treated 
 by  Professor  Lassen  as  pure  invention,  and  all  that  he 
 accepts  from  the  observations  of  Megasthenes  is,  that  Siva 
 worship  was  prevalent  in  the  hills  of  India  previous  to  the 
 reign  of  Chandragupta. 
 
SIVA. 
 
 375 
 
 For  a time  the  Brahmans  resisted  this  innovation^  and 
 refused  their  patronage  both  to  Siva  and  liis  worshippers ; 
 but  the  popular  current  was  too  strong  for  their  A U’tue, 
 it  swept  away  their  breakAvaters,  and  left  them  in  danger 
 of  unimportance  and  neglect.  Then  perceiving  their  selfish 
 errors,  and  looking  for  a selfish  remedy,  the  old  Brahmans 
 resolved  to  consecrate  the  people’s  hai’bours,  or,  in  other 
 AA'ords,  to  adopt  the  people’s  gods.  Unable  to  stand  like 
 iNIoses,  firmly  promulgating  a laAv  Avhich  they  declai’ed  Di- 
 vine, they  took  the  part  of  Aaron  and  presided  over  Avor- 
 ship  to  the  Golden  Calf.  From  this  era  the  morality  and 
 grandeur  of  ancient  Brahmanism  degenerated.  Brahmans 
 still  Avrote  beautiful  poems,  but  with  an  obAdous  motive  of 
 connecting  the  ncAver  gods  Avith  the  older  mythology.  One 
 of  these,  on  Siva,  is  the  work  of  Kalidasa,  who  is  supposed 
 to  have  IKed  b.c.  56. 
 
 At  that  period  Yikramaditya  reigned  at  Ougein,  in  ]\IalAva, 
 and  invested  his  country  Avith  such  brilliaucy  that  he  and 
 his  Court  have  never  ceased  to  be  a favourite  theme  Avith 
 Sanskrit  bards  and  dramatists.  Nine  poets  are  described 
 as  nine  jcAvels  sparkling  around  his  throne,  and  amongst 
 these  jewels  Kalidasa  Avas  pre-eminent.  It  is  indeed  pos- 
 sible that  Yikramaditya’s  poets  may,  like  King  Artluu’’s 
 knights,  partake  of  a traditionary  character,  and  have  lived 
 not  all  contemporary,  but  in  successive  centindes.  But  this 
 does  not  disturb  the  maui  fact  that,  nearly  coeval  with  the 
 Christian  era.  Buddhism  was  subdued  and  its  asceticism 
 interrupted  by  the  victorious  career  of  a Hindu  King  who 
 honoured  Brahmauical  literature  and  Brahmauical  religion. 
 
 The  poem  alluded  to  above  is  entitled  The  Birth  of  the 
 ^Yar-God.’  It  is  incomplete,  for  it  gives  the  history  of 
 
376 
 
 LIFE  IX  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 the  War-God’s  fatlier  and  mother,  and  their  espousals,  hut 
 finishes  before  his  hirth.  The  scene  is  in  the  mountains 
 always  spoken  of  as  Siva’s  dwelling-place,  and  the  poem 
 opens  with  an  allegorical  description  of  Himalaya  as  a proud 
 mountain-king  with  his  diadem  of  snow,  who — 
 
 “ Lifting  high 
 
 His  towery  summits  till  they  cleave  the  sky, 
 
 Spans  the  wide  land  from  east  to  western  sea, 
 
 Lord  of  the  Hills,  instinct  with  Deity.” 
 
 Gems  and  gold  and  sparkling  ores  are  described  as  the 
 inherent  riches  of  the  realm,  amongst  whose  wilds  “ the 
 eager  hunters  roam,  tracking  the  lion  to  his  dreary  home.” 
 Around  its  zone  are  dark  shadows  which  the  sylphs  love  ; — 
 
 “ Till  the  big  rain-drops  fright  them  from  the  plains 
 To  those  high  peaks  where  sunshine  ever  reigns ; 
 
 There  hirch-trees  wave,  that  lend  their  friendlj'  aid 
 To  tell  the  passion  of  the  love-horn  maid. 
 
 So  quick  to  learn  with  metal  tints  to  mark 
 Her  hopes  and  fears  upon  the  tender  bark.”* 
 
 In  the  caves  and  valleys  winds  resound,  w hich  are  descrilicd 
 as  a glorious  hymn  led  by  Himalaya ; and  within  the  mossy 
 caverns  magic  herbs  pour  forth  a streaming  light;  whilst 
 through  the  forests  the  wild  kine  roam  with  “tails  out- 
 spread and  bushy  streaming  hair.” 
 
 Himalaya,  thus  rich  and  powerful,  was  the  father  of  one 
 lovely  damsel  whom  he  married  to  Siva,  but  Siva  had 
 not  then  apparently  acquired  importance;  for  Himalaya 
 treated  his  son-in-law  with  scorn,  and  the  “tender  soul” 
 of  his  daughter  was  so  torn  with  anguish  at  seeing  her 
 
 * Specuncns  of  Old  ludian  Poetry,  by  Ealph  T.  Griffiths,—'  Birth  of  the 
 War-God  Kalidasa.’ 
 
SIVA. 
 
 377 
 
 luisbaud  contemned,  that  ‘^lier  angered  spirit  left  its  mortal 
 cell:”  in  other  words,  she  died;  and  from  that  moment 
 Siva  knew  no  love.  Clad  in  a rude  eoat  of  skin,  lie  lived 
 for  nouglit  hut  prayer  and  solitary  thought.  His  followers 
 inhahited  the  clefts  of  the  hills,  their  bodies  tinted  with 
 mineral  dyes,  with  mantles  foi’med  of  the  hark  of  trees, 
 and  red  garlands  twined  around  their  hair.  High  up  on 
 the  mountains,  with  only  these  eompanions,  the  mournful 
 Siva  dwelt. 
 
 “ The  holy  Bull  before  his  master’s  feet 
 Shook  the  hard-frozen  earth  with  echoing  heat ; 
 
 And  as  he  heard  the  lion’s  roaring  swell 
 In  distant  anger  from  the  rocky  dell. 
 
 In  angry  pride  he  raised  his  voice  of  fear, 
 
 And  from  the  mountain  drove  the  startled  deer. 
 
 Bright  fire — a shape  the  God  woidd  sometimes  wear, 
 
 Who  takes  eight  various  forms — was  glowing  there  ; 
 
 Then  the  great  Deity  who  gives  the  prize 
 Of  penance,  prayer,  and  holy  exercise. 
 
 As  though  to  earn  the  meed  he  grants  to  man. 
 
 Himself  the  penance  and  the  pain  began.” 
 
 ^Vhilst  Siva  thus  lived  in  stern  seclusion,  his  lovely 
 and  lamented  nife  was  horn  again,  and  was  as  before  the 
 daughter  of  Himalaya.  She  was  more  beautiful  than  ever, 
 and  her  father  could  never  “ satisfy  the  thirsty  glances  of  a 
 parent’s  eye.”  She  was  decidedly  a new  existence  with  an 
 individuality  of  her  own,  hut — 
 
 “As  herbs  beneath  the  darksome  shades  of  night 
 Collect  again  their  scattered  rays  of  light ; 
 
 So  dawired  upon  the  maiden’s  waking  mind 
 The  far-off  memory  of  her  life  resigned, 
 iknd  all  her  former  learning  in  its  train, 
 
 Feelings  and  thoughts  and  knowledge  came  again.” 
 
3/8 
 
 LIFE  IX  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 And  therefore  the  one  fixed  desire  of  her  life  was  to  win 
 the  love  of  Siva.  Her  beauty  was  so  remarkable  that  no 
 enterprise  could  appear  too  great  for  her  achievement. 
 
 ••  Tliero  was  a glory  bcamiug  from  her  face, 
 
 With  love’s  own  light,  and  every  youthful  grace  . . . 
 llright  as  a Lotus,  springing  where  slie  trod. 
 
 Her  glowing  feet  shed  radiance  o’er  the  sod  : 
 
 That  arching  neck,  the  step,  the  glance  aside. 
 
 The  proud  swans  taught  her  as  thej’  steiuined  tlie  tide ; 
 ^Miilst  of  the  maiden  they  would  fondly  learn 
 Her  anklets  pleasant  music  in  return.  . . . 
 
 ^^’llat  thing  of  beauty  may  the  poet  dare 
 
 \^'ith  the  smooth  wonder  of  those  limbs  com])are  r 
 
 I'lie  3'oung  tree  springing  bj'  the  brooklet’s  side. 
 
 The  wounded  trunk,  the  forest-monarch’s  pride  ? 
 
 Oh  no  ! too  cold,  too  chilling  cold  the  tree,  . . . 
 
 This  too  unyielding  for  such  rivalry'.” 
 
 I Icr  voice  was  sweeter  than  the  voice  of  the  Koil^  the 
 glance  of  her  “ soft  liquid  eye,  tremulous,  like  lilies  when 
 tlie  breezes  sigh. 
 
 “ Whicli  learnt  it  first — so  winning  and  so  mild — 
 
 The  gentle  fawn,  or  Mena’s  gentler  child  ? ” 
 
 Kortiiiiately  it  suited  the  schemes  of  all  the  Hrabmaiiieal 
 Gods  that  this  beautiful  and  love-lorn  damsel  should  be- 
 come Siva’s  wife,  for  they  were  jealous  of  Siva’s  coutiiiiicd 
 penance,  which  tended  to  give  him  supreme  dominion  in 
 the  mythological  realms  ; and  moreover  a mighty  fiend  was 
 abroad  who  deprived  them  of  their  offerings,  and  this 
 enemy,  named  Tarak,  was  destined  to  be  conquered  by  no 
 other  than  a sou  of  Siva.  It  was  therefore  decreed  that 
 the  lovely  l^ma  should  be  taken  to  the  retreat  of  Siva. 
 She  presented  herself,  and — 
 
SIVA. 
 
 379 
 
 “ Tlie  lleniiit  welcomed  with  a courteous  brow 
 That  gentle  enemy  of  hermit  vow  ; 
 
 The  still  pure  breast,  where  Contemplation  dwells. 
 
 Defies  the  charmer  and  the  charmer’s  spells  : 
 
 Calm  and  unmoved  he  viewed  the  wondrous  maid. 
 
 And  hade  her  all  his  pious  duties  aid. 
 
 She  culled  fresh  blossoms  at  the  God’s  command. 
 
 Sweeping  the  altar  with  a careful  hand  : 
 
 The  holy  grass  for  sacred  rites  she  sought.” 
 
 liut  she  made  no  progress  until  Kaina^  God  of  Love,  was 
 sent  to  her  aid.  A beautiful  picture  is  thus  drawn  of  the 
 coming-  of  Love,  accompanied  by  his  comrade  Spring;  — 
 
 How  fair  was  Spring ! to  lill  the  heart  with  love, 
 
 And  lure  the  Hermit  from  his  thoughts  above. 
 
 In  that  pure  grove  he  grew  so  heavenly  bright 
 That  Kama’s  envy  wakened  at  the  sight.  . . 
 
 Then  from  its  stem  the  red  Asoka  threw 
 Full  buds  and  flowerets  of  celestial  hue, 
 
 Nor  waited  for  the  maiden’s  touch,  the  sweet 
 Beloved  pressure  of  her  tinkling  feet.  . . . 
 
 How  sighed  the  spirit  o’er  that  loveliest  flower 
 That  boasts  no  fragrance  to  enrich  its  dower  ! 
 
 For  Nature,  wisest  mother,  oft  prefers 
 To  part  more  fairly  those  good  gifts  of  hers  : 
 
 There  from  the  tree  Palasa  blossoms  spread. 
 
 Curved  like  the  crescent  moon,  their  rosiest  red. 
 
 With  opening  buds  that  looked  as  if  young  Spring 
 Had  pressed  his  nails  there  in  his  dallying.  . . . 
 
 “ The  cool  gale  speeding  o’er  the  shady  lawns 
 Shook  down  the  sounding  leaves,  while  startled  fawns 
 Ran  wildly  at  the  viewless  foe,  all  blind 
 With  pollen  wafted  by  the  fragrant  uind. 
 
 Sweet  was  the  Koil’s  voice — his  neck  still  red 
 With  mango-buds  on  which  he  just  had  fed — 
 
 Twas  as  the  voice  of  Love  to  bid  the  dame 
 
 Spurn  her  cold  pride,  nor  (piench  the  gentle  ilanio.  . . 
 
 E’en  the  pure  Hermit  owned  the  secret  power 
 
380 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 Of  warm  Spring  coming  in  unwonted  hoiu’ ; 
 
 ^\'liilc  Lore’s  delightful  witcherv  gently  stole 
 With  strong  sweet  influence  o’er  the  samtly  soul.” 
 
 The  bees,  the  elephants,  the  goats,  the  flowers,  the  trees,  the 
 birds, — all  feel  the  “ glowing  toueh,”  save  Siva,  for 
 
 “No  charmer’s  spell  may  check  the  firm  control, 
 
 Won  by  the  Holy,  o’er  the  impassioned  soul.” 
 
 Therefore  when  Love  and  Spring  arrived  at  the  mighty 
 Hermit’s  door,  his  servant  went  to  them  with  his  finger  on 
 his  lip,  saying  : 
 
 “ Peace  ! be  stiU  ! 
 
 Nor  mar  the  quiet  of  this  holy  hill. 
 
 He  spake,  no  dweller  of  tlie  forest  stirred, 
 
 No  wild  bee  murmured,  hushed  was  every  bii’d, — 
 
 StiU  and  unmoved,  as  in  a jiicture,  stood 
 All  life  that  breathed  within  the  waving  wood.” 
 
 Siva,  with  his  three  eyes,  looked  i^ery  awful,  sitting  on  a 
 tiger’s  skin  beneath  a pine-tree  upon  a mound.  He  was 
 absorbed  in  thought,  his  shoulders  bent,  his  feet  beneath 
 him,  and  his  hands  pressed  upon  his  breast.  In  each  ear 
 was  a double  rosary,  serpents  were  wreathed  in  his  hair,  his 
 neck  was  a bright  blue,  and  his  dark  eyebrows  bent  sternly 
 with  a terrible  frown.  His  eyes  glared  fiercely,  but  were 
 fixed  in  devotion’s  meditating  gaze. 
 
 “ C'ahn  as  a fuU  cloud  resting  on  a hill, — 
 
 A waveless  lake  when  every  breeze  is  still ; 
 
 Like  a torch  burning  in  a sheltered  spot — 
 
 So  still  was  he,  unmoving,  breathing  not.  . . . 
 
 At  all  the  body’s  ninefold  gates  of  sense 
 He  had  barred  in  the  pure  intelligence, 
 
 To  ponder  on  the  Soid  which  Sages  call 
 Eternal  Spirit,  highest,  over  all.” 
 
SIVA. 
 
 381 
 
 Kama  was  perfectly  friji;hteiicd  at  the  awful  sights  and  hid 
 himself  amongst  the  tangled  flowers  and  clustering  trailers, 
 and  even  dropped  his  sweet  arrows  in  despair,  until  the 
 lovely  damsel  Uma  came,  adorned  with  all  the  brightest 
 flowers  of  spring.  As  she  approaches,  led  by  Love,  Siva 
 
 “ Breathes,  he  moves,  the  earth  begins  to  rock  ; 
 
 The  snake,  her  bearer,  trembling  at  the  shock.” 
 
 The  beautiful  Uma  bent  so  low  that  the  flowers  in  her  ears 
 fell  to  the  ground,  whilst  with  brow  relaxed, 
 
 “ ‘ Sweet  maid,’  cried  Siva,  ‘ surely  thou  shalt  be 
 Blessed  with  a husband  who  loves  none  but  thee  !’  . . . 
 
 Like  the  moon’s  influence  on  the  sea  at  rest 
 Came  Passion,  stealing  o’er  the  Hermit’s  breast, 
 
 TNTiile  on  the  maiden’s  lip  that  mocked  the  d}’e 
 Of  ripe  red  fruit,  he  bent  his  melting  eye  ; 
 
 And  oh  ! how  showed  the  lady’s  love  for  him. 
 
 The  heaving  bosom,  and  each  quivering  limb  ! 
 
 Like  young  Kadambas,  when  the  leaf-buds  swell. 
 
 At  the  wann  touch  of  Spring  they  love  so  well : 
 
 But  still  with  downcast  eyes  she  sought  the  groimd. 
 
 And  durst  not  tium  their  buiming  glances  round.” 
 
 Kama  thought  the  moment  had  arrived  when  he  might 
 surely  aim  a successful  shaft,  but  instantly  Siva  recovers 
 his  self-possession  ; he  is  unwilling  to  lose  the  benefit  of 
 his  accumulated  amount  of  penance;  and  quelling  the 
 storm  of  passion  in  his  troubled  breast,  he  looks  round  to 
 seek  the  cause  of  this  unusual  tempest  in  his  soul ; and  dis- 
 covering the  bold  young  archer,  Love,  he  bends  upon  him  a 
 look  so  fiery  that  poor  Kama  is  instantly  burnt  to  ashes; 
 and  having  thus  blasted  the  hinderer  of  his  v ow,  Siva  and 
 all  his  train  Avithdraw  to  solitudes  in  which  woman's  face 
 
 IS  never  seen. 
 
382 
 
 LIFE  1\  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 ••  2sow  woe  to  Uiiia  ! for  young  Love  is  slain, 
 
 Her  Lord  hatli  left  her,  and  her  hope  is  vain  ; 
 
 AYoe,  woe  to  Uma  ! how  the  mountain-maid 
 Cursed  her  bright  beauty  for  its  feeble  aid  ! . . . 
 
 Penance  must  aid  her  now,  or  how  can  she 
 "S^’in  the  cold  heart  of  that  stem  Deity  ? 
 
 Penance,  long  penance, — for  that  power  alone 
 Can  make  such  love,  so  high  a Lord,  her  own.” 
 
 But  the  idea  of  penance  was  most  distressing  to  Uma’s 
 mother,  who  kissed  her  child,  wept,  sighed,  and  prayed ; 
 hnt  the  daughter’s  will  is  stronger  than  the  mother’s 
 prayers,  and  the  resolute  maiden  sends  to  her  father  to  beg 
 him  to  grant  her  some  solitude,  in  which  she  might  give 
 her  whole  soul  to  penance  and  to  prayer ; and  the  great 
 Himalaya  gives  her  in  consequence  that  hill  whicli  the  pea- 
 cocks love,  and  which  is  known  to  all  ages  by  her  name. 
 
 “ Still  to  her  pui'pose  resolutely  true 
 
 Her  string  of  noble  pearls  aside  she  threw,  . . . 
 
 And  clad  her  in  a hemiit  coat  of  bark  . . . 
 
 With  zone  of  grass  the  A'otaress  was  bound, 
 
 'Wdiicli  reddened  the  fair  form  it  girdled  round.  . . . 
 
 Alas  ! her  weary  vow  has  caused  to  fade 
 The  lovely  colours  that  adoimed  the  maid ; 
 
 Pale  is  her  hand,  and  her  long  finger-tips 
 Steal  no  more  splendour  from  her  paler  lips.  . . . 
 
 “ The  maid  put  off,  but  onlj’  for  awhile. 
 
 Her  passioned  glances  and  her  witching  smile  ; 
 
 She  lent  the  fawn  her  morning  melting  gaze. 
 
 And  the  fond  creeper  all  her  winning  ways.  . . . 
 
 Her  gentleness  had  made  the  fawns  so  tame. 
 
 To  her  kind  hand  for  fresh  sweet  grain  they  came ; 
 
 And  let  the  maid  before  her  friends  compare 
 Her  own  with  eyes  that  shone  as  softly  there.” 
 
 Many  hermits  came  to  see  her,  and  found  the  fires  of  wor- 
 ship  kindled,  no  rite  forgot,  and  the  grove  so  jnire  tliat  even 
 
UAIA  AM)  SIVA. 
 
 383 
 
 savage  monsters  lived  together  in  love  and  peace ; bnt 
 Uma  feared  that  her  penance  ivas  too  mild  to  yield  the 
 need  she  sought,  and  now, 
 
 “ Full  in  the  centre  of  four  blazing  piles 
 Sate  the  fair  lady  of  the  winning  smiles, 
 
 While  on  her  head  the  mighty  God  of  Day 
 Shot  all  the  fury  of  his  summer  ray  : 
 
 Yet  her  first  gaze  she  turned  upon  the  skies 
 And  quenched  his  splendour  with  her  brighter  eyes. 
 
 To  that  sweet  face,  though  scorched  by  rays  from  heaven. 
 Still  was  the  beauty  of  the  Lotus  given  ; 
 
 Yet,  worn  by  watching,  round  those  orbs  of  light 
 A blackness  gathered  like  the  shades  of  night.” 
 
 After  spending  the  summer  scorched  by  the  heat  of  fire,  she 
 was  drenched  in  autumn  by  the  annual  rains,  and  in  winter 
 she  lay  upon 
 
 “ the  cold  damp  ground. 
 
 Though  blasts  of  winter  hurled  their  snows  around.” 
 
 At  length  her  penance  exceeded  that  of  the  most  renowned 
 anchorites,  and  she  earned  the  glorious  title  of  Aparana — 
 Jjady  of  the  unbroken  fast ! Then  came  to  her  a hermit  of 
 the  first  rank  in  sanctity, — 
 
 “ With  coat  of  skin,  with  staff  and  matted  hair, 
 
 His  face  was  radiant  and  he  spake  her  fair. 
 
 Up  rose  the  maid  the  holy  man  to  greet. 
 
 And  humbly  bowed  before  the  Hermit’s  feet : 
 
 Tliough  meditation  fill  the  pious  breast. 
 
 It  finds  a welcome  for  a glorious  guest. 
 
 The  sage  received  the  honour  didy  paid. 
 
 And  fixed  Ids  earnest  gaze  upon  the  maid. 
 
 While  through  her  frame  unwonted  vigour  ran  ; 
 
 Thus  in  his  silver  speech  the  blameless  saint  began.” 
 
 lie  asked  how  her  tender  frame  could  jicrform  her  firm 
 
381 
 
 LIl’E  IX  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 spirit’s  task,  and  bring  the  grass  and  I'uel  and  water  required 
 for  the  daily  offerings.  He  then  noticed  her  careful  tending 
 of  the  flowers,  “ Till  like  thy  lip,”  he  says,  “ each  ruddy 
 tendril  glows he  observes  also  how — 
 
 “ With  loving  glance  the  timid  fawns  draw  nigh; 
 
 Say,  dost  thou  still  witli  joy  their  wants  supply  ? 
 
 For  thee,  O Lotus-eyed  ! their  glances  shine, 
 
 -Mocking  the  brightness  of  each  look  of  thine. 
 
 C)  Mountain-Lady  ! it  is  tinly  said 
 
 That  heavenly  charms  to  sin  have  never  led  ; 
 
 For  even  Penitents  may  learn  of  thee 
 
 How  pure,  how  gentle,  Beaut)'’s  self  may  he.  . . . 
 
 Purest  of  motives,  Duty  leads  thy  heart, 
 
 Interest  and  pleasure  there  may  claim  no  pari . 
 
 O noble  maiden  ! holy  sages  tell. 
 
 Friendship  may  soon  in  gentle  bosoms  dwell, 
 
 Seven  steps  together  bind  the  lasting  tie  ; 
 
 Tlien  bend  on  me,  dear  saint,  a gracious  eye  1 
 Fain,  lovely  Uma,  would  a Brahman  learn 
 What  noble  guerdon  would  thy  Penance  earn.” 
 
 The  Hermit  iii’gcs  this  question  in  various  ways,  asking 
 what  can  move  one  so  faultless  “to  dwell  in  solitude  and 
 prayer  apart.”  Can  it  he,  he  suggests  at  last,  that  she 
 desires  a husliand  ? — 
 
 “ Oh  forbear  the  thought! 
 
 A priceless  jewel  seeks  not,  but  is  sought’: 
 
 Maiden,  tlo'  deep  sighs  tell  it  is  so.” 
 
 And  then  the  gallant  anchoret  expresses  great  surprise  that 
 any  one  could  have  looked  upon  her  with  indifference. 
 “ Surely,”  he  continues, 
 
 “ Thy  loved  one,  vain  in  beaut3’’s  pride. 
 
 Dreamed  of  himself  when  wandering  at  thy  side. 
 
 Or  he  would  count  him  blest  to  be  the  mark 
 Of  that  dear  ej'e,  so  soft,  so  lusti’ous  dark  !” 
 
UMA  AND  SIVA. 
 
 385 
 
 He  however  consoles  her  by  saying  that  he  has  himself  a 
 rich  store  of  merits  Avon  by  a year  of  penance,  and  that  she 
 shall  have  the  half,  name  her  secret  purpose,  and  give  up 
 stern  hardships. 
 
 A beautiful  passage  folloAvs,  in  Avhich  the  fair  Uma  makes 
 her  attendant  tell  the  story  of  her  love,  and  the  attendant 
 then  explains  that,  as  the  Lotus  disdained  all  gods  except 
 the  God  of  Hay,  so  Uma  had  disdained  all  love  except  the 
 love  of  Siva  : — 
 
 “For  him  alone,  the  trident-wielding  God, 
 
 The  thorny  paths  of  Penance  hath  she  trod  ; 
 
 But  since  that  mighty  one  hath  Kama  slain, 
 
 Fain  every  hope,  and  every  effort  vain.  . . . 
 
 Alas,  poor  maid ! she  knows  no  comfort  now. 
 
 Her  soul ’s  on  fire,  her  wild  locks  hide  her  brow.  . . . 
 
 Oft  as  the  maidens  of  the  minstrel  throng 
 To  hymn  great  Siva’s  praises  raised  the  song. 
 
 The  love-lorn  lady’s  sobs  and  deep-drawn  sighs 
 Drew  tears  of  pity  from  their  gentle  eyes.” 
 
 At  length  in  despair  she  came  to  this  holy  grove,  but  alas  ! 
 although  since  then  “ The  fruit  hath  ripened  on  the  spread- 
 ing bough,  no  fruit  hath  croAvned  her  holy  vow.”  When 
 the  maiden  ceased,  the  Brahman  turned  in  secret  joy  to 
 Uma,  and  asked  if  this  Avas  indeed  the  darling  secret  of 
 her  breast.  “ She  clasped  the  rosary  in  her  quivering  hand,” 
 and  replied, — 
 
 “ ‘ O holy  sage,  learned  in  the  Vedas’  lore, 
 
 ’T  is  even  thus  Great  Siva  I adore  ; 
 
 Thus  would  my  steadfast  heart  his  love  obtain. 
 
 For  this  I gladly  hear  the  toil  and  pain  ; 
 
 Siirely  the  strong  desire,  the  earnest  will, 
 
 May  win  some  fa\'our  from  his  mercy  still.’ 
 
 2 c 
 
LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 38(j 
 
 ‘ Lady,’  cried  he,  ‘ that  mighty  Lord  I know. 
 
 Ever  his  presence  bringeth  care  and  woe. 
 
 And  wouldst  thou  still  a second  time  prepare 
 The  sorrows  of  his  fearful  life  to  share  ? 
 
 Deluded  maid,  liow  shall  thy  tender  hand. 
 
 Decked  with  the  nuptial  bracelet’s  jewelled  band. 
 
 Be  clasped  in  his,  when  fearful  serpents  twine 
 In  scaly  horror  round  that  arm  divine  ? . . . 
 
 On  Siva’s  heart  the  fimeral  ashes  rest. 
 
 Say,  gentle  lady,  shall  they  stain  thy  breast. 
 
 Where  the  rich  tribute  of  the  Sandal-trees 
 Sheds  a pure  odour  on  the  amorous  breeze 
 
 She,  he  says  further,  should  ride  upon  the  king  of  ele- 
 phants, and  eould  she  bear  the  scorn  of  being  borne  by 
 Siva’s  bull?  Siva  is  of  unknown  ancestry,  poor,  dressed 
 in  the  vilest  garb, — 
 
 “ ‘ No  charms  hath  he  to  win  a maiden’s  eye  : 
 
 Cease  from  thy  Penance,  hush  the  fruitless  sigh. 
 
 Not  ’mid  the  gloomy  tombs  do  sages  raise 
 The  holy  altar  of  their  prayer  and  praise.’ 
 
 Impatient,  Uma  listened ; the  quick  blood 
 Rushed  to  her  temples  in  an  angry  flood  ; 
 
 Her  quivering  lip,  her  darkly-flashing  eye. 
 
 Told  that  the  tempest  of  her  wrath  was  nigh. 
 
 Proudly  she  spoke  : ‘ How  couldst  thou  tell  aright 
 Of  one  like  Siva,^ — perfect,  inflnite ! 
 
 ’Tis  ever  thus,  the  Mighty  and  the  Just 
 Are  scorned  by  souls  that  grovel  in  the  dust. 
 
 Their  lofty  goodness  and  their  motives  wise 
 Shine  all  in  vain  before  such  blinded  eyes. 
 
 Say,  who  is  greater,  he  who  strives  for  power, 
 
 ( )r  he  who  succours  in  misfortune’s  hour  ? 
 
 Ivefuge  of  Worlds,  oh  how  should  Siva  deign 
 To  look  on  men  enslaved  to  paltry  gain  ? 
 
 The  spring  of  wealth  himself,  he  eareth  nought 
 For  the  vile  treasures  that  mankind  have  sought ; 
 llis  (lwelling-])lace  amid  the  tond)s  may  be. 
 
UMA  AND  SIVA. 
 
 387 
 
 Yet  monarch  of  the  three  great  worlds  is  he. 
 
 What  though  no  love  his  outward  form  may  claim, 
 
 The  stout  heart  trembles  at  his  awful  name ! 
 
 Who  can  declare  the  wonders  of  his  might, 
 
 The  Trident-wielding  God.  who  knows  aright  ? 
 
 AVhether  around  him  deadly  serpents  twine. 
 
 Or  if  his  jewelled  wreaths  more  brightly  shine  ? 
 
 Whether  in  rough  and  wrinkled  hide  arrayed. 
 
 Or  silken  robe  in  glittering  folds  displayed ; 
 
 If  on  his  brow  the  crescent  moon  he  bear. 
 
 Or  if  a shrunken  skull  be  withering  there?’  ” 
 
 The  conclusion  of  Uma’s  eloquent  defence  of  Siva  is 
 remarkable,  for  she  says,  that  in  calling  him  of  ancestry 
 unknown,  there  had  been  one  word  of  truth  amid  the  slan- 
 derous speech,  for — 
 
 “ How  should  mortal  man 
 Count  when  the  days  of  Brahma’s  Lord  began  ? 
 
 But  cease  these  idle  words  ; though  all  be  true, 
 
 His  failings  many  and  his  virtues  few, 
 
 Stdl  clings  my  heart  to  him,  its  chosen  lord. 
 
 Nor  fails  nor  falters  at  thy  treacherous  word.” 
 
 And  forthwith  she  desires  her  attendant  to  send  away  the 
 evil-speaking  Hermit ; for  although  he  is  most  guilty  who 
 begins  such  faithless  speech,  yet  he  who  stays  to  listen  also 
 sins. 
 
 “ She  turned  away,  with  wrath  her  bosom  swelling. 
 Its  vest  of  bark  in  angry  pride  repelling, — 
 
 But  sudden,  lo  ! before  her  wandering  eyes 
 In  altered  form  she  sees  the  sage  arise ; 
 
 ’Tis  Siva’s  self  before  the  astonished  maid. 
 
 In  all  his  gentlest  majesty  displayed. 
 
 She  saw,  she  trembled,  like  a river’s  course 
 Checked  for  a moment  in  its  onward  force 
 By  some  huge  rock  amid  the  torrent  hurled, 
 "Wlierc  erst  the  foaming  waters  madly  curled  ; 
 
 .2  c 2 
 
388 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 One  foot  uplifted — shall  she  tiu’u  away  'i 
 Unmoved  the  other — shall  the  maiden  staj'  ? 
 
 The  silver  moon  on  Siva’s  forehead  shone, 
 
 While  softly  spake  the  God  in  gracious  tone  : — 
 
 ‘ O gentle  maiden,  wise  and  true  of  soul ! 
 
 Lo  ! now  I bend  heueath  thy  sweet  control ! 
 
 on  by  thy  penance,  and  thy  holy  vows. 
 
 Thy  wiUiug  slave,  Siva,  before  thee  bows  ! ’ ” 
 
 The  remainder  of  this  poem  is  painfully  incongruous. 
 Taken  as  a narrative  of  earthly  love  it  presents  beautiful 
 pictures  of  father,  mother,  daughter,  husband,  and  bride ; 
 but  details  of  domestic  bliss,  which  are  in  themselves  most 
 pleasing,  and  even  holy,  become  irreverent  and  shocking 
 when  related  of  a being  proclaimed  to  be  a manifestation 
 of  the  Supreme  and  Triune  God.  This  irreverent  mingling 
 of  the  divine  and  human  is  far  less  felt  in  Greek  mytho- 
 logy ; for  not  only  are  the  Greek  gods  less  human,  and 
 less  occupied  on  earth  with  all  the  atfections  and  interests 
 of  men ; but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  Greeks  never  reached 
 the  sublimity  which  the  Brahmans  of  all  ages  have  occa- 
 sionally attained  in  their  conceptions  of  Supreme  Deity. 
 The  passages  of  this  poem,  which  inculcate  faith,  and 
 attrilmte  supremacy  to  Siva,  may  possibly  be  additions 
 belonging  to  a subsequent  development  of  religious  doc- 
 trine ; and  for  the  present  setting  these  aside,  the  poem  may 
 be  enjoyed  as  a charming  and  fanciful  tale  in  which  the 
 gloomy,  auful  Siva  is  won  to  love  and  happiness  by  the 
 liright  daughter  of  the  snow-crowned  Himalaya.  Conti- 
 nuing the  history,  then,  Siva  had  no  sooner  avowed  his  love 
 than  the  gentle  Uma  entreated  him  to  ask  her  father’s 
 sanction.  An  august  deputation  of  heavenly  powers  waits 
 in  consequence  upon  Himalaya,  who  receives  them  in  the 
 
UMA  AND  SIVA. 
 
 389 
 
 presence  of  his  wife  and  daughter  ; she,  whilst  the  messen- 
 gers were  speaking, 
 
 “ Bent  her  head 
 To  hide  her  cheek,  now  blushing  rosy  red, 
 
 And  numbered  o’er  with  seeming  care  the  while 
 Her  Lotus-petals,  in  sweet  maiden  gude. 
 
 With  pride  and  joy  Himalaya’s  heart  beat  high, 
 
 Yet  ere  he  spake  he  looked  to  ilena’s  eye  ; 
 
 Full  well  he  knew  a mother’s  gentle  care 
 
 Learns  her  child’s  heart  and  love’s  deep  secret  there  : 
 
 And  this  the  hour,  he  felt,  when  fathers  seek 
 Her  eye  for  answer,  or  her  changing  cheek. 
 
 His  eager  look  Himalaya  scarce  had  bent 
 Y'hen  Mena’s  eye  beamed  back  her  glad  assent ; — 
 
 O gentle  wives,  3'our  fondest  wish  is  still 
 To  have  with  him  jmu  love  one  heart,  one  will !” 
 
 A gorgeous  description  is  given  of  the  royal  city  on  the 
 day  of  the  wedding,  when  crowds  of  noble  dames  were 
 seated  under  canopies  upheld  by  pillars  decked  with  gems 
 and  gold.  The  bride’s  hair  was  graced  with  featheiy  grass 
 and  wild  flowers,  amid  which  a glittering  arrow  was  intro- 
 duced, and  behind  each  ear  was  placed  an  ear  of  barley. 
 We  must  forbear  to  touch  upon  her  beauty,  or  on  that 
 of  Siva,  whose  head-ornament,  the  “ withering  skidl,”  be- 
 came as  a bright  coronal whilst  his  “ mid-eye”  beamed 
 softly,  as  a mark  of  gloiy,  and  his  “ twining  serpents” 
 changed  into  ornaments  set  with  blazing  gems.  At  the 
 moment  when  he  is  permitted  by  his  chamberlains  to  be- 
 hold his  bride  arrayed  in  all  her  loveliness, — 
 
 “ His  lotus-ej'es 
 
 Flashed  out  the  raptm’e  of  his  proud  sui’prise  ; 
 
 Then  calm  the  current  of  his  spirit  la\' 
 
 Like  the  world  basking  in  an  autumn  day. 
 
 They  met,  and  true  love’s  momentary  shame 
 
390 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 O’er  the  blest  bridegroom  and  his  darling  came  ; 
 Eye  looked  to  eye, — but  quivering  as  they  met, 
 Scarce  dared  to  trust  the  rapturous  gazmg  yet.  . . . 
 Thrice,  at  the  bidding  of  the  priest,  they  came 
 With  swimming  eyes  around  the  holy  flame  ; 
 
 Then,  at  his  word,  the  bride  in  order  due 
 Into  the  blazing  fire  the  parched  grain  threw. 
 
 And  toward  her  face  the  scented  smoke  she  drew  ; 
 While  softly  wreathing  o’er  her  cheek  it  Imng. 
 
 And  round  her  ears  in  flower-like  beauty  clung. 
 
 ‘ This  flame  be  witness  of  your  wedded  life  ; 
 
 Be  just,  thou  husband,  and  be  true,  thou  wife  ! ’ 
 Such  was  the  priestly  blessing  on  the  bride. 
 
 Eager  she  listened,  as  the  earth,  when  dried 
 By  parching  summer  suns,  drinks  deeply  in 
 The  first  soft  droppings  when  the  rains  begin  : — 
 
 ‘ Look,  gentle  Uma ! ’ cried  her  lord,  ‘ afar 
 Secst  thou  the  brightness  of  yon  polar  star  ? 
 
 Like  that  unchanging  ray  thy  faith  must  shine  ! ’ 
 Sobbing  she  whisper ’d,  ‘ Yes,  for  ever  thine !’  ” 
 
CHAPTER  II. 
 
 “ For  spirits,  when  they  please, 
 
 Can  either  sex  assume,  or  both.” — Miltox. 
 
 When  Kanerki  and  the  Indo- Scythians  became  settled  in 
 India  they  inscribed  Okro  on  their  coins,  thereby  indicating 
 Siva  by  one  of  his  Sanskrit  epithets,  Ugro,  “ The  Fierce 
 and  later  in  the  series  Okro  becomes  Ordokro,  and  this  it  is 
 conjectured  means  haIf-Ok.vo,  or  half-man,  half-woman,  and 
 accounts  for  the  female  form  so  frequently  invested  ■nith 
 Siva  attributes.  The  coin  etched  at  the  head  of  the  pre- 
 sent Chapter  bears  on  its  obverse  the  head  of  King  Kad- 
 phises  j*  but  on  other  coins  of  the  same  series  Siva  appears 
 as  an  elegant  male  figure,  his  hair  drawn  up  to  a point 
 ending  in  flame,  but  still  leaning  on  a humped  bull.  The 
 later  coins  frequently  give  four  arms  to  the  god  or  goddess, 
 each  hand  holding  a weapon  of  war ; but  the  barbarism  of 
 a third  eye  is  not  introduced  on  coins.  Professor  Lassen t 
 alludes  to  some  with  three  heads.  Siva  being  thus  repre- 
 sented as  the  highest  God  of  a Trimurti, — as  also  to  be 
 
 * Wilson’s  Ariana,  p.  356,  plate  10,  fig.  17  ; and  Lassen,  vol.  ii.  pp.  844, 
 1089. 
 
 t Yol.  ii.  pp.  847,  1092. 
 
392 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 seen  in  the  seulptures  at  Elephanta,  Elloraj  and  other  tem- 
 ples,— it  is  supposed  that  different  seets  adopted  different 
 forms ; some  Siva  as  tlu’eefold,  others,  Siva  as  symbolized 
 
 by  flame.  In  Kashmere  vestiges  yet  remain  of  temples  in 
 which  Siva  was  worshipped  as  flame  or  Swayamblm. 
 
 In  the  poem  which  we  have  just  been  considering,  Siva 
 is  the  supreme  deity,  and  fire  one  of  his  eight  shapes.  In 
 the  Introduction  it  is  Brahma,  “ whose  face  turns  every 
 way,”  and  ivlio  bodies  forth  the  mystic  three,”  and  “ fills 
 three  persons but  when  toward  the  conclusion  Siva  pre- 
 sents himself  to  the  other  Gods  and  announces  his  wish 
 to  ived  the  daughter  of  Himalaya,  the  ancient  sages  above 
 the  moon  address  him  as  the  “World’s  Great  Father,” 
 and  entreat  him  to  tell  his  wondrous  nature  ; for,  although 
 they  see  his  outward  form,  they  have  no  means  of  knowing 
 him  as  he  should  be  known,  and  are  at  a loss  whether  to 
 consider  him  as  a creator,  preserver,  or  destroyer.  No 
 very  definite  answer  is  given  to  this  inquiry ; but  on  occa- 
 sion of  the  wedding  the  three  Gods  are  thus  described  : — 
 
POEMS. 
 
 898 
 
 “ Brakma  came  on — Creator,  Lord  of  Might, — 
 
 And  Visluiu  glowing  from  the  realms  of  light.  . . . 
 
 In  those  three  persons  the  one  God  was  shown ; 
 
 Each  first  in  place,  each  last, — not  one  alone  : 
 
 Of  Siva,  Vishnu,  Brahma,  each  may  be 
 First,  second,  third,  among  the  Blessed  Three.”* 
 
 And  this  is,  in  few  M ords,  nearly  all  that  need  be  said  about 
 the  religion  of  India  in  the  early  centuries  of  the  Christian 
 era.  A threefold  Almighty  power  became  more  distinctly 
 recognized ; in  some  localities  and  at  certain  epochs  Siva 
 was  this  Ponder.  Often  gloomy  and  ungainly,  riding  an 
 awku'ard  bull  and  delighting  in  sad  symbols,  but  free  from 
 the  odious  attributes  assigned  to  him  in  later  times,  Kali- 
 dasa’s dramas  all  begin  with  an  invocation  to  Siva ; and 
 in  his  celebrated  poem,  called  the  ' Cloud  Messenger,’  the 
 town  of  Ougein  is  especially  mentioned  as  the  head-quar- 
 ters of  Siva  worship.  The  story  is  as  follows  ; — Amongst 
 the  hills  of  the  Himalaya  reigned  Kuvera,  a demigod,  ce- 
 lebrated for  his  wealth  : his  Court  u as  held  at  the  rich 
 city  of  Alaka;  and  here  an  unfortunate  demigod  (called 
 a Yaksha)  had  suffered  Indra’s  elephant  to  trespass  upon 
 a garden  placed  under  his  charge.  His  sentence  of  pu- 
 nishment was  banishment  for  a tn^elvemonth  to  the  Dek- 
 kan,  the  peninsula  of  India;  and  there  the  poem  finds 
 him,  grievously  lamenting  his  separation  from  the  beloved 
 wife  who  was  pining  for  him  in  his  home  at  Alaka.  Eight 
 weai’y  months  had  he  been  suffering  exile,  and  he  was  non*  so 
 worn  and  shrunk  that  his  golden  braeelets  slipped  from  off’ 
 his  arm.  It  M'as  the  month  of  July,  Avhen  the  rainy  season 
 commences,  and  all  travellers  start  in  haste  for  their  homes, 
 eager  to  take  advantage  of  the  first  cool  showers,  and  equally 
 
 * Page  73. 
 
394 
 
 LIFE  IX  AXCIEXT  INDIA. 
 
 anxious  to  escape  the  coming  floods  which  render  travel- 
 ling impossible.  Sadly  the  exile  looks  at  the  lowering  sky, 
 which  all  other  men’s  wives  will  hail  Avith  joy  as  the  sign 
 of  the  absent  husband’s  return ; but  suddenly  it  occurs 
 to  him  that  a cloud,  “the  friend  of  Indra,”  going  to  his 
 home  in  Alaka  would  take  a message  to'  the  partner  of  his 
 Avoes.  Gathering  floAvers  he  makes  an  offering  and  invokes 
 sympathy.  Leading  a painful  life,  counting  the  moments 
 of  the  lingering  year,  “ she  still  lives,”  he  says ; “ for  female 
 hearts,  though  fragile  as  the  ffower,  are  firm  when  hope 
 supports  them.”  The  blessings  attendant  on  the  prayers  of 
 the  Cloud  are  then  noticed,  as,  the  languid  jessamine  lifts 
 its  head,  natm’c  revives,  the  buds  open,  and  at  last 
 
 “ Earth’s  blazing  woods  in  incense  shall  arise, 
 
 And  warbling  birds  with  mnsie  fill  the  skies.”* 
 
 Ongein  Avas  not  in  the  direct  northern  route ; but  it  is 
 proposed  that  the  Cloud  shall  make  a slight  dcA-iation, 
 and  pay  homage  there  to  Siva,  “ the  God  whom  earth  and 
 Heaven  and  Hell  obey.”  This  beautiful  city  Avas  greatly  in 
 Avaut  of  so  refreshing  a A'isitor ; for  its  river  Avas  wasted  to 
 a thread  not  bigger  than  a braid  of  hair,  and  was  bleached 
 Avith  the  Avithered  foliage  rudely  shoAvered  from  the  over- 
 hanging trees.  The  Cloud’s  next  resting-place  Avas  to  be 
 the  poor  exile’s  home,  the  mountain-city  of  Alaka,  Avhere  he 
 describes  his  house  as  a boAver,  made  conspicuous  by  the 
 beauty  of  its  flowers ; whilst  a 
 
 “ Golden  column  on  a crystal  base, 
 
 Begirt  with  jeAvels,  rises  o’er  the  place.” 
 
 But  the  messenger  is  entreated  not  to  present  himself 
 to  the  lieloved  occupant  until  he  has  disguised  his  aAvful 
 
 * Meghaduta,  by  Kalidasa,  translated  by  Professor  II.  II.  Wilson. 
 
POEMS. 
 
 395 
 
 size.  His  poor  wife,  he  says,  is  nipped  by  ehill  sorrow,  her 
 dear  lips  dried  by  parching  sighs,  and  her  pallid  cheek 
 resting  sadly  on  her  hand.  Her  favourite  bird,  the  tuneful 
 Sarika,”  is  with  her,  and  she  strives  to  soothe  her  own  grief 
 by  mourning  over  her  feathered  prisoner’s  kindred  fate. 
 Her  lute,  or  vina,  lies  idle,  for  she  cannot  sing  for  tears,  and 
 tears  also  have  corroded  its  silver  strings.  She  sits  in  her 
 beauty  and  loveliness — 
 
 “ Kot  wholly  waking  nor  resigned  to  sleep  ; 
 
 Her  heavy  eyelids  languidly  unclose, 
 
 ■ To  where  the  moon  its  silverj^  radiance  throws 
 Mild  through  the  chamber  ; once  a welcome  hght, 
 
 Avoided  now  and  hateful  to  her  sight.” 
 
 Having  thus  e.xcited  the  sympathy  of  his  aerial  messenger, 
 the  exiled  husband  sends  this  message  to  his  wife, — that  she 
 must  bow  to  fate,  and  learn  courage  from  her  husband’s 
 firmness,  remembering  that  “ very  few  are  always  wretched 
 or  always  blessed.” 
 
 “ Life,  like  a wheel’s  revolving  orb,  turns  roimd, 
 
 How  whirled  in  air,  now  dragged  along  the  ground.” 
 
 And  he  concludes  by  expressing  confidence  in  the  benevo- 
 lence of  the  Cloud,  who  will  answer  his  wishes  not  in  deeds, 
 but  words.  “ To  thee,”  he  says,  “ the  thirsty  Chataca* 
 looks  up,  and  thy  answer  is  a falling  shower.”  And  in  the 
 present  case  the  Cloud  so  well  performed  its  embassy,  that 
 the  Gods  in  Alaka  relented,  the  husband  was  quickly  re- 
 stored to  his  beloved  wife,  and  both  were  thenceforth  blest 
 with  ceaseless  joy. 
 
 * The  Chataca  is  a poetical  bird,  supposed  to  hve  wholly  upon  rain- 
 water. 
 
396 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 Whatever  may  have  been  the  condition  of  women,  as 
 women,  in  Ancient  India,  it  is  quite  evident  that  the  matri- 
 monial relation  was  often  one  of  great  honom-  and  deep 
 affection.  In  both  these  poems  the  wife  is  as  necessaiy  to 
 the  husband  as  the  husband  to  the  wife.  When  Siva  is 
 widowed  he  turns  ascetic;  when  the  Yaksha  is  banished, 
 the  sole  cause  of  his  “ wild  despair”  is  his  separation  from 
 his  wife ; and,  on  the  other  hand,  when  poor  Kama,  the 
 God  of  Love,  is  blasted  by  the  lightning  of  Siva’s  angry 
 eye,  it  is  his  darling  wife  that  sings  a lament  for  him  ; at 
 first  she  swooned  away,  but 
 
 “ Too  soon  her  gentle  soul  returned  to  know 
 The  pangs  of  widowhood,— that  word  of  woe  ! . . , 
 
 ‘ Speak  to  me,  Kama ! why  so  silent  ? give 
 One  word  in  answer, — doth  lu}'  Kama  live  ? 
 
 There  on  the  turf  his  dumb  cold  ashes  la3% — 
 
 That  fieiy  flash  has  scorched  the  soul  away.  . . . 
 
 Sure  woman’s  heart  is  strong,  for  can  it  be 
 That  I still  live  while  this  is  all  of  thee  ?’  ” 
 
 And  she  consoles  herself,  in  Indian  fa.shion,  by  thinking  that 
 she  will  throw  herself  on  his  burning  funeral  pile,  and  be 
 again  united  with  him  in  a future  world,  before  Heaven’s 
 maids  have  been  able  to  throw  their  winning  glances  over 
 him.  A slight  difficulty  however  occurs ; for  Kama  having 
 been  annihilated  by  a glance,  both  soul  and  body  i anished 
 in  the  Gewless  air,  and  it  is  difficult  to  know  how  to  pre- 
 pare the  funeral  rites.  Her  lament  on  this  occasion  is  too 
 beautiful  to  be  omitted  : — 
 
 “ ‘ As  dies  a torch  when  winds  sweep  rouglJj'  bj-. 
 
 So  is  my  light  for  ever  fled,  and  I, 
 
 The  lamp  his  cheering  ra3’s  no  more  illume. 
 
 Am  wrapt  in  darkness,  misery,  and  gloom. 
 
POEMS. 
 
 397 
 
 Fate  took  my  love  aud  spared  the  widow’s  breath, 
 
 Yet  fate  is  guilty  of  a double  death  ; 
 
 Y’hen  the  wild  monster  tramples  on  the  ground 
 The  tree,  some  ci’eeper  garlands  closely  round, 
 
 Keft  of  the  guardian  which  it  thought  so  true. 
 
 Forlorn  and  withered,  it  must  perish  too. 
 
 Then  come,  dear  friend  ! the  time  one’s  pile  prepare. 
 
 And  send  me  quickly  to  my  husband  there  ; 
 
 Call  it  not  vain  ; the  mourning  lotus  dies 
 
 When  the  bright  moon,  her  lover,  quits  the  skies.  . . . 
 
 Set  water  near  us  in  a single  urn, 
 
 AVe’ll  sip  in  Heaven  from  the  same  in  turn. 
 
 And  to  his  spirit  let  thine  offering  be 
 Spraj’s,  fresh  and  lovely  from  the  mango-tree, 
 
 Culled  when  the  round  young  buds  begin  to  swell, 
 
 For  Kama  loved  those  fragrant  blossoms  well.’  ” 
 
 This  melancholy  consummation  is  happily  averted  Ity  a 
 heavenly  voice,  which  breathes  around  the  mourning  Avidow, 
 and  tells  her  that  Kama  wdll  come  again  so  soon  as  Siva 
 has  been  Avon  by  Uma;  and  the  raging  of  her  Avild  despair 
 being  thus  soothed, 
 
 “ She  watched  a\N  ay  the  hours,  so  sad  and  slow, 
 
 That  brought  the  limit  of  her  weary  woe, 
 
 As  the  pale  moon,  quenched  by  the  conquering  hght 
 Of  garish  day,  longs  for  its  OAvn  dear  night.” 
 
 In  the  dramas  Avhich  belong  to  this  period,  a little  more 
 of  domestic  life  is  revealed,  and  Ave  shall  find  that  the 
 Hindu  arrangements  in  matrimony  Avere  not  exactly  sa- 
 tisfactory to  all  parties,  even  in  the  palmy  days  of  Indian 
 chivalry.  The  Drama  extends  over  many  centuries ; but 
 the  finest  Plays  belong  to  our  present  era,  in  which  Siva 
 Avas  chief  diAunity  and  Kalidasa  chief  poet.  Fortunately 
 Professor  Wilson  has  enabled  English  readers  to  enjoy 
 much  of  the  literary  thought  and  poetic  merit  by  Avhich 
 
398 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 these  productions  are  characterized.  Translations  of  a few 
 dramas  have  also  appeared  from  other  hands,  and  all  are 
 welcome,  not  merely  for  their  intrinsic  freshness  and  un- 
 common imagery,  hut  as  pictures  of  life,  “ Life  in  India,” 
 and  especially  Life  in  Ougein,  when  native  princes  reigned 
 in  peace,  and  when  prosperous  Brahmans  were  tolerant  of 
 powerful  Buddhist  institutions.  The  Hindu  drama  claims 
 to  be  entirely  of  native  growth ; neither  Persia,  Arabia,  nor 
 Egypt  appear  to  have  possessed  a theatre ; and  although 
 Greece  and  China  both  delighted  in  the  stage,  the  Hindus 
 must  be  allowed  the  merit  of  originality,  for  theii’  Plays 
 “ exhibit,”  says  Professor  Wilson,  “ characteristic  varieties 
 of  conduct  and  construction  nhich  strongly  endeuce  both 
 original  design  and  national  development.”*  The  gi’eater 
 part  of  each  Play  is  written  in  Sanskrit,  although  Sanskrit 
 had  ceased  to  be  a living  language ; and  thus,  like  the  Latin 
 Plays  annually  represented  at  Westminster  in  the  present 
 day,  they  were  hut  imperfectly  understood  by  the  audience 
 and  were  wanting  in  dramatic  effect.  iUl  the  droU  parts 
 however  were  given  in  the  language  of  common  life,  and 
 the  puns  and  jokes  will  have  been  universally  appreciated. 
 The  general  rule  is  to  make  only  the  great  people  talk 
 Sansla’it,  and  to  allow  buffoons  and  women  to  discourse  in 
 the  vernacular.  Kalidasa’s  Play  of  the  ‘ Hero  and  the 
 Nymph’  commences  by  the  Manager’s  coming  forward  to 
 make  an  invocation  to  Siva  : — 
 
 “ May  that  Siva  who  is  attainable  by  devotion  and  faith,  ...  to 
 whom  alone  the  name  of  Iswara  is  applicable,  and  who  is  sought 
 with  suppressed  breath  by  those  who  court  final  emancipation,  be- 
 stow upon  you  final  felicity  !” 
 
 * Hindu  Theatre,  II.  II.  Wilson,  vol.  i.  preface,  p.  12. 
 
DRAMAS. 
 
 399 
 
 Suddenly  a cry  of  ‘‘Help!  help!’'’  is  heard  behind  the 
 scenes : a troop  of  heaveidy  nymphs  enter  in  the  air,  the 
 King  Pururavas  meets  them,  driving  an  aerial  car  from 
 the  opposite  side.  The  nymphs  entreat  him  to  rescue  their 
 friend,  the  graceful  Urvasi,  nlio  has  been  torn  from  them 
 by  a haughty  Danava.  The  King  w'aits  but  an  instant  to 
 ask  “Which  path  pursued  the  wretch?^’  and,  urging  the 
 rapid  steeds  to  swiftest  flight,  before  the  ear  divides  the 
 scattering,  clouds  like  dust,  ndiilst  the  whirling  wheel  de- 
 ceives the  eye  and  seems  to  circle  double  round  the  axle : 
 the  waving  chowrie*  which  ornaments  the  horses’  heads 
 points  backnard,  and  backward  streams  the  banner  from 
 the  breeze.  This  rapid  driving  soon  overtakes  the  foe,  and 
 presently  the  “deer-emblazoned  banner”  of  the  King  is 
 again  seen  advancing ; hut  he  now  drives  slowly,  the  fair 
 nymph  Urvasi  having  fainted  in  his  car.  This  does  not 
 prevent  the  King  from  falling  violently  in  love ; and  the 
 damsel  was  already  in  the  same  predicament,  for  she  no 
 sooner  recovers  her  power  of  speech  than  she  says  apart, 
 “ What  thanks  I owe  the  Danava”  (for  making  this  hero 
 my  deliverer,  being  understood) ; hut  whilst  the  -whole  party 
 is  iiululging  in  sweet  emotions,  a rushing  sound  of  chariots 
 is  heard  from  the  east,  and  a messenger  appears  to  recall 
 the  nymphs  to  Swarga,  their  heavenly  home,  and  thus  the 
 lovers  for  a time  are  parted. 
 
 In  Act  II.  the  scene  is  the  Palace  Garden,  the  King’s 
 confidential  hufib  friend  Manava  eutei’s  and  says, — 
 
 “ It  is  mighty  inconvenient  for  a Brahman  like  myself,  one  so 
 much  sought  after  and  subject  to  such  frequent  invitations,  to  be 
 burdened  with  tlie  King’s  secret ! Going  so  much  into  company 
 
 * 1'Up  white  husliy  tail  of  the  Yak,  or  Tibet  eow,  fixed  on  a gold  shaft. 
 
lOO 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 as  I do,  I shall  never  be  able  to  sot  a guard  upon  my  tongue.  I 
 must  be  prudent,  and  will  stay  bei’e  by  myself  in  this  retired  temple 
 until  my  royal  friend  comes  forth  from  the  council-chamber.” 
 
 Whilst  he  is  sitting  in  a corner  with  his  face  hid  in  his 
 hands,  the  Queen’s  confidential  attendant  comes  in,  saying 
 to  herself,  that  her  mistress  is  sure  that  since  the  King’s 
 return  from  the  regions  of  the  Sun  he  is  changed,  and  must 
 have  left  his  heart  behind  him.  So  she  determines  to  get 
 the  truth  out  of  Miinava,  sure  that  “ a secret  can  rest  no 
 longer  in  his  breast  than  morning  dew  upon  the  grass.” 
 
 And  accordingly,  the  woman  gets  the  better  of  the  man, 
 and  it  is  confessed  that  if  the  King  has,  in  an  absent  fit,  been 
 calling  his  Queen  by  the  name  of  Urvasi,  why  then  Urvasi 
 must  be  the  name  of  the  King’s  new  love.  Whilst  this  scene 
 is  going  on,  the  Warder  proclaims  the  sixth  watch,  which 
 answers  lo  the  hour  of  two,  a period  set  apart  for  royal 
 recreation,  and  immediately  the  King  leaves  his  council - 
 chamber  and  comes  to  the  garden-bower  to  indulge  in 
 thoughts  of  Urvasi.  Whilst  thus  occupied,  he  feels  his 
 eyes  twinkle,  and  hails  it  as  a token  that  his  moon-faced 
 nymph  is  hovering  near;  and  at  last  the  heavenly  damsel, 
 no  longer  able  to  restrain  herself,  drops  a leaf  inscribed 
 with  words  of  love.  The  King  is  in  an  ecstasy  of  happi- 
 ness, until  his  Queen,  coming  into  the  garden,  hapjjens  to 
 get  a sight  of  this  leaf,  and  her  grief  and  indignation  throw 
 perplexity  upon  his  bliss.  Miinava  (the  buflb)  proposes  that 
 her  Majesty  should  order  dinner,  and  so  put  an  end  to  all 
 discomfort ; but  the  Queen’s  feelings  arc  too  deep  cither  to 
 be  diverted  by  a joke,  or  soothed  by  the  idle  protestations 
 with  which  the  King  endeavours  to  secure  peace.  The 
 Queen  withdraws  in  silent  dignity,  and  in  the  evening 
 
1)11  A MAS. 
 
 401 
 
 sends  her  chamberlain  with  a message,  which  he  delivers 
 as  follows : — 
 
 “ Glory  to  the  King  ! So  please  your  Grace,  her  Majesty  expresses 
 a wish  to  be  honoured  with  your  presence  on  the  teiTace  of  the  pa- 
 vilion of  gems,  to  witness  from  it  the  entrance  of  the  moon  into  the 
 asterism  Ilohini.” 
 
 The  King  obeys,  expecting  to  find  her  repenting  her 
 petnlance  and  seeking  a rene^val  of  his  love.  The  scene 
 must  have  been  one  of  considerable  dramatic  effect.  The 
 Queen  has  laid  aside  all  her  ornaments,  and  looks  very 
 lovely  in  the  simple  white  dress  of  a devotee.  She  presents 
 trays  of  sweetmeats  and  perfumes  and  flowers  to  Manava 
 and  the  chamberlain,  and  then,  after  making  similar  offer- 
 ings to  the  King,  she  throws  herself  at  his  feet,  and  calls 
 upon  the  “ Moon  and  his  favourite  Eohiui”  to  hear  and 
 attest  the  promise  which  she  makes  her  husband, — 
 
 “ Whatever  nymph  attract  my  lord’s  regard, 
 
 .4ud  share  with  him  tlie  mutual  bonds  of  love, 
 
 I henceforth  treat  with  kindness  and  complacency.” 
 
 Before  leaving,  she  states  that  her  object  has  been  to  pro- 
 mote his  happiness  by  sacrificing  her  onm,  and  she  then 
 withdraws  to  lead  a life  of  secluded  devotion,  and  is  no 
 more  seen  upon  the  stage. 
 
 The  discarded  Queen  looked  so  divine  in  her  adversity, 
 that  Urvasi,  who  was  hovering  near  invisible,  felt  slightly 
 jealous ; but  no  sooner  did  the  King  venture  to  invoke  her 
 presence  than  she  playfully  came  behind  him,  covering  his 
 eyes  with  her  hands.  All  is  then  resigned  to  love,  the  King- 
 abandons  his  capital,  throw's  up  the  reins  of  government, 
 and  spends  his  whole  time  Avith  Urvasi  in  loneliest  groves. 
 One  day  however  he  cast  a momentary  glance  upon  an- 
 
 2 I) 
 
40.2 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 other  nymph ; Urvasi  was  jealous  on  the  instant,  pushed 
 him  from  her,  and,  forgetting  in  her  ill-humour  that  women 
 were  forbidden  aeeess  to  a neighbouring  grove,  she  fled 
 aeross  the  preseribed  boundary  and  was  ehaiiged  into  a vine 
 for  her  temerity.  Her  distracted  lover  followed,  and  day 
 and  night  searched  all  the  woods  in  vain. 
 
 Act  IV.  has  much  the  character  of  a melodrama.  It 
 opens  Avith  a chorus  of  nymphs,  lamenting  the  loss  of  their 
 beloved  companion  Urvasi : — 
 
 “ The  swans  along  the  stream  that  sail 
 A fond  companion’s  loss  bewail ; 
 
 V'ith  murmuring  songs  they  soothe  their  grief, 
 
 Or  find  from  tender  tears  relief.” 
 
 Presently  the  seene  ehauges  to  another  part  of  the  forest, 
 Avhere  invisible  voices  sing, — 
 
 “ The  lord  of  the  elephant  train 
 
 Now  wanders  afar  from  his  mate, 
 
 And  franticly  comes  to  complain 
 To  the  AA  Oods  of  his  desolate  state. 
 
 Distraction  his  vigour  consumes. 
 
 As  he  plunges  amid  the  dark  bowers ; 
 
 A\’hilst  o’er  his  vast  bulk  sweetly  blooms 
 The  garland  of  wild  forest-flowers.” 
 
 This  song  is  interrupted  by  the  hasty  appearance  of  tlic 
 King,  in  dress  disordered  and  Avith  mind  unhinged  by  grief. 
 At  one  moment  he  believes  some  fiend  to  have  carried  off 
 his  bride,  and  he  calls  upon  him  to  suspend  his  flight.  Hail 
 and  rain  fall,  and  he  finds  it  is  no  fiend  that  he  is  address- 
 ing, hut  a friendly  Cloud  : — 
 
 “ The  cooling  rain-drops  fall,  not  barbed  shafts, 
 
 And  I mistake  the  lightning  for  my  loA’e. 
 
 [jper/w/s,  (tnd  recii'ing  sings, — 
 
DRAMAS. 
 
 403 
 
 “ I madly  thought  a fiend  conveyed 
 Away  from  me  my  fawn-eyed  maid : 
 
 ’T  was  but  a Cloud  that  rained  above, 
 
 With  the  young  lightning  for  its  love.” 
 
 He  then  wanders  on^  making  poetical  and  moral  reflections, 
 and  asking  all  the  birds  and  beasts  if  they  have  seen  his 
 love.  The  peacock  gives  him  no  reply,  but  heats  a merry 
 measure,  pleased  to  show  his  glories  unrivalled  by  the  float- 
 ing tresses  of  the  lovely  Urvasi.  He  next  observes  the 
 Koil  cowering  amid  the  shady  branches  of  the  Jamhu. 
 “ She,  of  the  bii’ds,  is  wisest  famed,”  he  says,  and  he  thus 
 addresses  her : — 
 
 “ Say,  nursling  of  a stranger  nest. 
 
 Say,  hast  thou  chanced  my  love  to  see 
 Amidst  these  gardens  of  the  blest, 
 
 W anderiug  at  liberty. 
 
 Or  warbling  with  a voice  divine 
 
 Melodious  strains  more  sweet  than  thine  ? . . . 
 
 M4iy  did  she  leave 
 
 One  so  devoted  to  her  will  ? 
 
 [And  then,  as  if  in  reply,  he  continues,  turning  to  his  left : 
 
 In  wrath 
 
 She  left  me  ; but  the  cause  of  anger  lives  not 
 In  my  imagination : the  fond  tyranny 
 That  women  exercise  o’er  those  who  love  them 
 Brooks  not  the  sbghtest  show  of  disregard. 
 
 How  now ! the  bird  has  flown.  ’T  is  ever  thus 
 All  coldly  listen  to  another’s  sorrows.” 
 
 He  wanders  past  the  elephants  beneath  tlie  Kadamba- 
 tree  and  the  lake  upon  which  swans  and  the  lotus-plants 
 were  floating,  and  reaches  a mountain-cliff,  adown  the  rocky 
 sides  of  which  rush  glistening  springs.  Pie  calls  “ Pbwasi,” 
 and  hears  a reply, — it  was  but  the  echo  of  his  words. 
 
 2 D 2 
 
101- 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 Overcome  by  fatigue,  he  sits  exhausted  by  the  bank  of  the 
 stream,  saying, — 
 
 “ Fatigue  has  overcome  me.  I will  rest 
 Upon  the  borders  of  this  mountaiu-torrent.  . . . 
 
 Whilst  gazing  on  the  stream,  whose  new-swoln  waters 
 Yet  turbid  flow,  what  strange  imaginings 
 Possess  my  sold,  and  fill  it  with  delight ; 
 
 The  rippling  wave  is  like  her  arching  brow. 
 
 The  fluttering  line  of  storks  her  timid  tongue.” 
 
 Yet  further  he  wanders,  singing  verses  of  eonsiderahle 
 beauty,  until  at  length  his  steps  are  arrested  by  the  sight 
 of  a ruby ; but  what  could  he  do  with  the  gem,  now  that 
 she  is  gone  u liose  brow  it  would  have  best  adorned  ? “ Why 
 distain  the  ruby  with  my  tears?”  Whilst  thus  eonsidering, 
 a voice  in  the  air  tells  him,  that  by  virtue  of  that  gem  he 
 shall  recover  his  lost  bride.  He  then  takes  it,  saying,  he 
 will  wear  it  on  his  diadem,  and  hold  it  dear  to  him  as  to 
 Iswara,  his  crescent-moon.  Immediately  a mysterious  emo- 
 tion on  the  sight  of  a vine  induces  him  to  earess  the  cling- 
 ing plant,  and  at  his  touch  it  changes  into  Urvasi. 
 
CHAPTER  III. 
 
 “ Tlie  audience  are  motionless  as  statues,  ... 
 
 What  subject  shall  we  select  for  representation 
 That  we  may  ensure  a continuance  of  their  favour  ? ” 
 
 Prologue  to  SaJcoontala. 
 
 Sakoontal.4.,  another  work  by  Kalidasa^  is  a drama  long 
 since  introduced  to  European  Orientalists  by  their  distin- 
 guished leader  Sir  William  Jones.  But  his  translation,  al- 
 though valuable  not  only  as  the  first  Sanskrit  drama  that 
 appeared  in  English,  but  also  for  its  intrinsic  merit,  was 
 made  before  correct  Sanskrit  manuscripts  were  accessible. 
 The  corrupt  and  modern  text  weakens  “ the  bold  and 
 nervous  phraseology  of  Kalidasa,”  clothes  “ his  delicate  ex- 
 pressions of  refined  love  in  a meretricious  dress,”  and  di- 
 lutes by  repetition  “ideas  grand  in  their  simplicity.”  For 
 these  reasons  a new  translation*  is  a most  welcome  addi- 
 
 * Sakoontala,  translated  from  the  Sanskrit  of  Kalidasa  by  Monier  Wil- 
 liams, Professor  of  Sanskrit  at  Ilaileybury. 
 
406 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 tioii  to  our  literature,  and  the  more  so  beeause  Professor 
 Williams  gives  in  metre  those  portions  which  are  poetiy  in 
 the  original.  Like  the  beautiful  verses  already  quoted,  here 
 again  is  poetry  fit  to  tempt  an  English  reader  to  study 
 Sanski’it ; but  as  Kalidasa  has  already  engaged  much  atten- 
 tion, only  a few  short  passages  can  be  admitted. 
 
 Sakoontala,  about  to  leave  her  childhood’s  home,  grieves 
 at  parting  from  the  little  faAvn  which  she  had  nurtm’ed  : her 
 revered  and  beloved  guardian  says, — 
 
 “ W eep  not,  my  daughter,  check  the  gathering  tear 
 That  lurks  beneath  thine  eyelid,  ere  it  flow 
 And  weaken  thy  resolve  ; be  fh’m  and  true — 
 
 True  to  thyself  and  me  ; the  path  of  life 
 
 Will  lead  o’er  hill  and  plain,  o’er  rough  and  smooth. 
 
 And  all  must  feel  the  steepness  of  the  way ; 
 
 Though  rugged  be  thy  course,  press  boldly  on.” 
 
 Different  in  character,  but  not  less  beautiful,  are  the  reflec- 
 tions of  a King  who  has  “ attained  the  objects  of  his  aspira- 
 tions,” and  finds  that  his  troubles  then  bef/in. 
 
 “ ’Tis  a fond  thought,  that  to  attain  the  end 
 And  object  of  ambition  is  to  rest ; 
 
 Success  doth  only  mitigate  the  fever 
 Of  anxious  expectation  ; soon  the  fear 
 Of  losing  what  we  have,  the  constant  care 
 Of  guarding  it,  doth  weaiy.  Ceaseless  toil 
 ]\Iust  be  the  lot  of  him  who,  with  his  hands. 
 
 Supports  the  canopy  that  shields  his  subjects.” 
 
 Heralds  behind  the  scenes  cry,  May  the  King  be  victori- 
 ous !”  and  one  comes  forward,  saying,— 
 
 “ Honour  to  him  who  labours  day  by  day 
 For  the  world’s  weal,  forgetful  of  his  own ; 
 
 Like  some  tall  tree  that,  with  its  stately  head. 
 
DRAMAS. 
 
 W7 
 
 Endures  the  solar  beam,  while  underneath 
 It  3delds  refreshing  shelter  to  the  weary.”* 
 
 The  effect  of  pathetic  music  on  a sensitive  person  is  tlius 
 described 
 
 King.  Strange  ! that  song  has  filled  me  uith  a most 
 peculiar  sensation.  I seem  to  yearn  after  some  long-for- 
 gotten object  of  affection. 
 
 “ Not  seldom  in  our  hours  of  ease, 
 
 'Mlien  thought  is  still,  the  sight  of  some  fair  form. 
 
 Or  mournful  fall  of  music,  breathing  low, 
 
 Will  stir  strange  fancies,  thrilling  all  the  soul 
 With  a mysterious  sadness,  and  a sense 
 Of  vague,  yet  earnest,  longing.  Can  it  he 
 That  the  dim  memor}’  of  events  long  past. 
 
 Or  friendships  formed  in  other  states  of  being. 
 
 Flits  like  a passing  shadow  o’er  the  spirit  ?”t 
 
 It  is  with  regret  one  leaves  so  attractive  a poet  as  Ka- 
 lidasa^  but  we  must  now  tnrn  our  attention  to  the  “ Toy- 
 Cart,”  a lively  drama,  giving  pictures  of  daily  familj^-life  in 
 India,  probably  before  the  Christian  era.J  It  commences 
 with  an  invocation  to  Sanibhu,  or  Siva,  “ as  he  sits  rumina- 
 ting with  suspended  breath,  whilst  his  serpents  coil  around 
 his  knees.” 
 
 The  scene  of  this  drama  is  the  famous  city  of  Ougein, 
 in  iNIalwa,  and  the  state  of  society  it  represents  “ suffici- 
 ently § advanced,”  says  Professor  Wilson,  “ to  be  luxurious 
 and  corrnpt.”  The  heroine,  Vasanta,  belongs  indeed  to  the 
 
 * Page  124.  f Page  121. 
 
 X Hindu  Theatre,  H.H.  Wilson,  vol.  i.  p.  9. 
 
 § By  some  this  Play  is  attributed  to  the  second  century  b.c.,  a century 
 previous  therefore  to  the  reign  of  Yiki’amaditya.  Professor  Lassen,  on  the 
 other  hand,  assigns  the  two  first  centuries  after  Clu-ist  as  the  earliest  era  of 
 the  drama.  See  Introduction  to  Sakoontala,  M.  WUliams,  p.  6,  and  Las- 
 sen’s Alterthumskunde,  vol.  ii.  pp.  1113,  1147. 
 
40S  LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 class  of  courtesans  countenanced  by  existing  Bralimanical 
 governments.  She  is  a lady  of  spirit  and  generosity,  and 
 evidently  holds  a station  not  esteemed  degrading.  The 
 hero,  Charudatta,  is  a Brahman,  reduced  to  poverty  by  his 
 munificence  : he  has  an  affectionate  wife  and  darling  son ; 
 but,  according  to  Vasanta’s  notions,  this  presents  no  reason 
 against  her  falling  in  loA’e  with  him.  Nor,  on  his  part, 
 does  he  regard  the  possession  of  a virtuous  wife  as  an  im- 
 pediment to  the  indulgence  of  a new  affection.  His  friend, 
 the  simple-hearted  shrewd  Maitreya,  has  more  misgivings 
 on  the  sidiject ; but  his  doubts  relate  to  the  possible  cha- 
 racter of  the  new  love,  not  to  the  rights  or  comfort  of  the 
 wife.  On  onr  first  introduction  to  Charudatta,  we  find  him 
 lamenting  that,  instead  of  those  rich  offci’ings  which  he 
 formerly  pi’esented  to  the  Gods,  he  is  now'  reduced  to  a 
 “ scant  tribute  to  the  insect  tribe.’’  “ To  die,”  he  says, 
 “ is  transient  suffering ; to  be  poor,  interminable  anguish,” 
 because  “the  guest  no  longer  seeks  the  dwelling,”  “the 
 love  of  friends  hangs  all  unstrung;  and  from  poverty 
 comes  disrespect,  and  fi’om  disrespect  does  self-dcpcn- 
 deucc  fail.”  He  says,  he  would  have  given  up  the  Avorld 
 and  become  an  ascetic,  but  that  he  had  not  liked  to  impose 
 such  hardship  upon  his  Avife.  Suddenly  a tumult  is  heard 
 in  the  street,  to  Avhich  Charndatta’s  house  has  a side  or  back 
 entrance  (the  approach  to  the  main  entrance  being  through 
 a court),  and  flying  doAvn  the  street  appears  Vasanta  pur- 
 sued by  a dissolute  Prince  and  his  companions.  “ Stop, 
 lady,  stop!”  cries  the  Prince’s  servant;  “she  runs  along 
 like  a peahen  in  summer  with  a tail  in  full  fcathei’,  Avhilst 
 my  master  folloAvs  her  like  the  young  hound  that  chases  the 
 bird  through  the  thicket.”  Luckily  at  this  moment  Charu- 
 
DKAJIAS. 
 
 409 
 
 (latta  ha])peued  to  open  the  side  door  of  his  mansion,  and 
 in  rushed  the  fugitive,  cleverly  making  her  scarf  brush  out 
 the  light  of  the  lamp  as  she  passed  ; and  the  night  being 
 pitch  dark,  the  whole  party  were  then  at  fault.  After  much 
 blustering  and  threatening  the  Prince  and  his  suite  depart. 
 
 Charudatta  relights  his  lamp  and  discovers  Yasanta,  and 
 he  and  she  forthwith  salute  each  other  with  apologies,  until 
 Maitreya  says,  "Whilst  you  two  stand  there  nodding  your 
 heads  to  each  other  like  a field  of  long  grass,  permit  me  to 
 bend  mine,  althoiigh  in  the  style  of  a young  camel’s  stiff 
 knees,  and  request  that  you  will  be  pleased  to  hold  your- 
 selves upright  again.”  As  a pretext  for  further  intercourse 
 ^"asanta  begs  permission  to  leave  a casket  of  jewels  in 
 Charudatta’s  house,  saying,  that  it  was  for  the  jewels  that 
 the  villains  were  pursuing  her. 
 
 In  the  next  scene  of  interest  a robber  is  “ creeping  along 
 the  ground,  like  a snake  crawling  out  of  his  old  skin.”  He 
 feels  the  wall  until  he  discovers  a rat-hole,  which  he  hails 
 as  an  omen  of  success,  and  then  considers  how  to  proceed, 
 saying,  “ The  god  of  the  golden  spear  teaches  four  modes 
 of  breaking  into  a house, — picking  out  burnt  bricks,  cutting 
 tlu’ough  unbaked  ones,  throwing  water  on  a mud  wall,  and 
 boring  through  one  of  wood ;”  and,  as  Charudatta’s  wall  was 
 of  baked  bricks,  he  picked  them  out,  doubting  whether  to 
 make  the  aperture  in  the  shape  of  the  Svastika  or  a water- 
 jar;  and,  feeling  at  a loss  for  a measui’ing-line,  he  makes  use 
 of  his  Brahmanical  thread,  which,  he  observes,  is  a most  use- 
 ful appendage  to  a Brahman  of  his  complexion,  for  it  serves 
 to  measure  the  depth  and  height  of  walls,  to  withdraw'  orna- 
 ments, to  open  a latch,  or  to  make  a ligature  for  the  bite 
 of  a snake. 
 
410 
 
 LIFE  IX  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 Having  entered  through  the  breach,  he  contrives  to  abs- 
 tract the  casket  from  beneath  the  head  of  IMaitreya,  then 
 lets  fly  irhat  he  calls  the  “ fire-flapping  insect,”  which  hovers 
 round  the  light  and  puts  it  out  with  his  wings,  and  finally 
 he  escapes.  The  household  wake  up  just  as  he  departs,  and 
 are  in  a terrible  consternation  at  the  loss  of  the  jewels.  Cha- 
 rudatta  feels  that  a foul  blight  Avill  noiv  for  ever  rest  upon  his 
 fame;  but  his  wife,  in  the  inner  apartments,  whilst  expressing 
 joy  that  he  is  himself  unhurt,  takes  a string  of  jcAvels  “given 
 to  her  in  her  maternal  mansion,”  and  over  which  she  alone 
 had  control;  and,  fearing  that  her  husband’s  “lofty  spirit” 
 Avould  not  accept  them  from  her,  sends  for  ^laitreya,  pretends 
 that  she  gives  them  to  him  because  he  is  a Brahman,  and 
 feels  sure  that  they  will  be  used  for  the  relief  of  her  husband. 
 Her  confidence  is  not  abused  : Maitreya  presents  the  joAvels 
 to  Charudatta,  and,  after  some  reluctance  and  hesitation, 
 Charudatta  bids  [Maitreya  take  them  to  Yasanta,  tell  her 
 that  he  had  unhappily  lost  her  casket  at  play,  and  intreat 
 her  to  accept  this  ofl’ering  in  its  place.  When  Maitreya 
 reaches  the  dAVclling  of  Yasanta,  he  gives  graphic  descrip- 
 tions of  the  jilace  : — 
 
 “ The  threshold  is  very  neatly  coloured,  well  swept,  and 
 Avatered ; the  floor  is  beautified  aa  ith  strings  of  SAveet  floAvers; 
 the  top  of  the  gate  is  lofty,  and  gives  one  the  pleasure  of 
 looking  up  to  the  clouds;  Avhilst  the  jessamine  festoon  hangs 
 tremblingly  down,  as  if  it  Avere  iioav  tossing  on  the  trunk 
 of  Indra’s  elephant.  Over  the  dooi’Avay  is  a lofty  arch  of 
 ivoiy ; above  it  Avave  flags  of  saffi’on  colour,  their  edges 
 curling  in  the  Avind  like  fingers,  saying,  ‘ Come  hither.’ 
 Young  mango-trees  in  crystal  pots  support  the  doorposts ; 
 the  door-panels  are  of  gold  studded  Avith  adamant.  . . . The 
 
DRAMAS. 
 
 411 
 
 whole  cries  ^ Away!’  to  a man  who  is  poor.”  Entering  the 
 first  court,  he  sees  a line  of  palaces  as  white  as  the  moon ; 
 golden  steps  set  with  coloured  stones  lead  to  the  upper 
 chambers,  whence  crystal  windows,  festooned  with  pearls, 
 look  down  upon  Ougein.  The  porter  dozes  in  his  seat  as 
 stately  as  a Brahman  deep  in  the  Vedas  j and  the  very 
 crows,  crammed  with  rice  and  curds,  disdain  the  fragments 
 of  the  sacrifice.  In  the  second  court  are  the  stables, — the 
 carriage-oxen,  the  rams  kept  for  fighting,  a monkey  “ tied 
 as  fast  as  a thief,”  and  the  mahouts  feeding  elephants  with 
 balls  of  rice  and  ghee.  In  the  third  court  young  men  are 
 gambling.  The  fourth  court  is  used  for  music  and  dancmg, 
 and  the  recitation  of  plays  and  poems.  The  fifth  court  is 
 redolent  of  oil  and  assafoetida  : the  kitchen  sighs  softly 
 forth  its  fragrant  and  abundant  smoke ; the  butcher’s  boy 
 is  washing  the  skin  of  an  animal ; the  cook  is  surrounded 
 with  dishes  •,  the  sweetmeats  are  mixing,  and  the  cakes  are 
 baking.  The  sixth  court  is  entered  by  an  arched  gateway 
 of  gold  and  gems  ; it  is  the  jewellers’  court,  where  jewellers 
 are  examining  pearls,  topazes,  sapphires,  emeralds,  rubies, 
 the  lapis-lazuli,  coral,  and  other  jewels  •,  some  set  rubies  in 
 gold,  some  work  gold  ornaments  on  coloured  thread,  some 
 string  pearls,  some  grind  the  lapis-lazuli,  some  pierce  shells, 
 and  some  cut  coral : here  we  have  perfumers  drying  the 
 saffron-bags,  shaking  the  musk-bags,  expi’essing  the  sandal- 
 juice,  and  compounding  essences.  The  seventh  com’t  is  an 
 aviary,  where  the  doves  bill  and  coo  in  comfort,  where  the 
 pampered  parrot  croaks,  like  a Brahman  Pundit  chaunting 
 hymns  when  stuffed  with  curds  and  rice,  and  where  the 
 maina  chatters  as  glibly  as  a lady’s-maid  issuing  her  mis- 
 tresses commands  to  her  fellow- servants,  while  the  ko'il, 
 
412 
 
 LIFE  IX  AXCIEXT  IXDIA. 
 
 cramnipcl  with  juicy  fruit,  whines  like  a water-carrier.”  It 
 must  be  remembered  that  Maitrcya  was  hungry  himself, 
 and  viewed  all  these  overfed  gourmands  with  a little  envy. 
 In  the  eighth  court  he  sees  Vasanta’s  brother,  “ dressed 
 in  silk  raiment,  glittering  with  rich  ornaments,  and  rolling 
 about  as  if  his  limbs  were  out  of  joint and  next  he  ob- 
 serves that  lady’s  mother  “ dressed  in  flowered  muslin,  her 
 feet,  shining  with  oil,  thrust  into  a pair  of  slippers a very 
 portljf  old  dame  he  thinks,  but  cannot  imagine  how  she 
 got  into  her  seat,  unless,  like  an  unwieldy  image  of  Siva, 
 she  was  set  up  first  and  then  the  walls  built  round  her.  At 
 length  he  enters  a lovely  garden,  where  the  yellow  jessamine, 
 and  the  grandiflorum,  and  the  Zamhac,  and  the  blue  CU- 
 toria  float  in  festoons  between  ti’ees  of  delicious  fruit ; here 
 in  an  arbour  he  receives  a kind  welcome  from  Vasanta,  the 
 owner  of  all  this  splendour.  Maitreya  tells  his  story,  and 
 presents  the  string  of  diamonds ; Vasanta  smiles,  takes  the 
 diamonds,  puts  them  to  her  heart,  and  playfully  bids  ]\Iai- 
 treya  tell  that  sad  gambler,  Charudatta,  that  she  will  call 
 upon  him.  Now  it  so  happened  that  ^’asanta  already 
 knew'  the  truth  of  the  case,  and  was  again  in  possession  of 
 her  casket,  for  the  thief  was  in  love  with  a servant-girl  of 
 hers,  to  whom  he  brought  his  prize.  The  girl  immediately 
 recognized  the  casket,  and  succeeded  in  persuading  her 
 lover  to  restore  it  to  Vasanta,  and,  by  saying  that  he  was 
 commissioned  so  to  do  by  Charudatta,  escape  the  reputation 
 of  being  a thief. 
 
 Act  Ak  opens  with  a flue  description  of  a storm  : — 
 
 “ The  gathering  gloom 
 Delights  the  peafowl  and  distracts  the  swan, 
 
 Not  yet  prepared  for  periodic  flight.  . . . 
 
DRAMAS. 
 
 413 
 
 Through  the  air.  . . . The  purple  cloud 
 
 Rolls  stately  on,  girt  by  the  golden  lightning  . . . 
 
 As  by  a yellow  garb  and  bearing  high, 
 
 The  long  white  line  of  storks.  . . . 
 
 From  the  dark  womb  in  rapid  fall  descend 
 The  silvery  drops,  and,  glitterhig  in  the  gleam 
 Shot  from  the  lightning,  bright  and  fitful,  sparkle 
 Like  a rich  fringe  rent  from  the  robe  of  heaven. 
 
 The  firmament  is  filled  with  scattered  clouds ; 
 
 And,  as  they  fly  before  the  wind,  their  forms, 
 
 As  in  a picture,  image  various  shapes. 
 
 The  semblances  of  storks  and  soaring  swans. 
 
 Of  dolphins,  and  the  monsters  of  the  deep. 
 
 Of  dragons  vast  and  pinnacles  and  towers.” 
 
 Ill  the  midst  of  this  deluge  Maitreya  returns^  and  com- 
 plains to  Charudatta  that  Vasanta  and  her  damsels  smiled 
 and  laughed  and  made  signs,  hut  kept  the  jewels:  “A 
 pretty  job,”  he  says,  “to  lose  a necklace  worth  the  fotir 
 seas  for  a thing  of  little  value,  and  one  we  neither  ate  nor 
 drank,  and  which  a tliief  carried  off.”  Whilst  yet  talking, 
 Vasanta  arrives,  under  cover  of  an  umbrella,  but  neverthe- 
 less “ her  locks  are  drenched  with  rain,  her  gentle  nerves 
 shaken  by  angry  tempests,  and  her  delicate  feet  by  cum- 
 bering mire  and  massy  anklets  wearied.”  The  lady  enters, 
 approaches  Charudatta,  throws  flowers  at  him,  and  says, 
 “ Gambler,  good  evening  to  you.”  Playfully  she  makes 
 her  attendant  restore  the  casket,  tells  him  he  should  not 
 have  sent  the  jewels,  and  presently  he  and  she  confess  mu- 
 tual affection. 
 
 In  Act  VI.  Vasanta  sends  the  necklace  to  Charudatta^s 
 wife,  saying,  “ I am  Charudatta’s  handmaid  and  your  slave ; 
 then  be  this  necklace  again  the  ornament  of  that  neck  to 
 which  it  of  right  belongs.”  But  it  is  returned  with  these 
 M'ords,  “ ]\Iadam,  you  are  favoured  by  the  son  of  my  lord ; 
 
414 
 
 HFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 it  is  not  projier  for  me  to  accept  this  necklace  : know  that 
 the  only  ornament  I value  is  my  husband.”  Presently  the 
 child  comes  in,  complaining  of  its  little  cart  because  it  is 
 only  made  of  clay,  whilst  the  child  of  a neighbour  has  one 
 of  gold.  Vasanta  caresses  the  child,  laments  her  poverty, 
 takes  off  her  ornaments,  fills  his  cart  with  her  jewels,  tells 
 him  she  is  his  mother,  and  bids  him  buy  a toy-cart  of  gold, 
 and  it  is  from  this  incident  that  the  drama  obtains  its 
 name. 
 
 Charudatta’s  arrangement  was  that  the  next  day  he  should 
 meet  Vasanta  at  the  Old  Flower  Garden,  and  going  forward 
 himself  he  left  orders  that  Vasanta  should  follow  in  his 
 curtained  carriage  drawn  by  oxen.  But  whilst  Vasanta  was 
 preparing,  the  carriage  of  her  persecutor,  the  dissolute 
 Prince,  was  stopped  at  Charudatta’s  door,  owing  to  the  road 
 being  blocked  up  by  country-carts,  and  in  the  confusion 
 ^'asanta  jumped  in  by  mistake.  Soon  after  the  Prince 
 meets  his  carriage,  and  is  well  enough  pleased  to  discover 
 A'asanta  within,  until,  finding  her  as  obdurate  as  ever,  he 
 tries  to  strangle  her,  and  leaves  her  for  dead  beneath  a heap 
 of  dry  leaves.  Just  then  a Buddhist  devotee  appears  upon 
 the  stage ; he  had  formerly  been  a bathman  and  rubber 
 of  joints,  but,  inveigled  by  gamblers,  he  was  reduced  to  the 
 extreme  of  misery,  and  about  to  be  sold  as  a slave,  when 
 ^'asanta,  with  her  usual  generosity,  gave  him  proteetion 
 and  redeemed  his  debt.  Determined  never  again  to  touch 
 the  dice,  he  had  joined  the  Buddhists,  aud  now,  in  virtue 
 of  his  daily  duty  of  begging  his  food,  he  was  wandering 
 about ; he  had  just  been  washing  his  outer  garment  and 
 n as  about  to  spread  it  out  to  dry  upon  the  heap  of  dry 
 leaves  beneath  which  Vasanta  lay,  when  he  perceived  a 
 
DRAMAS. 
 
 415 
 
 hand  and  heard  a sigh,  and  anon  discovered  his  beloved 
 protectress.  His  expression  is,  “ It  is  the  lady  Vasanta, 
 the  devoted  -worshipper  of  Buddha.”  Vasanta  makes  signs 
 for  water : no  Avater  is  near,  hut  the  Sramana  applies  liis 
 wet  garment  to  her  face  and  she  revives. 
 
 The  plot  of  this  Play  is  further  complicated  by  the  ad- 
 ventures of  Aryaka,  a cowherd,  Avho  conspires  against  the 
 unpopular  and  weak  King  then  upon  the  throne : he  is  de- 
 scribed as  a man  with  “ arms  like  the  elephant’s  vast  tusks, 
 his  breast  and  shoulders  brawny  as  the  lion’s,  his  eyes  a 
 coppery-red.”  The  Government  succeeded  once  in  cap- 
 turing this  insurgent,  hut  he  escaped  from  his  prison  and 
 had  taken  refuge  in  Charudatta’s  carriage  at  the  time  it  Avas 
 Avaiting  at  his  door  for  Vasanta.  The  driver  mistook  the 
 clank  of  his  chain  for  the  jingle  of  the  lady’s  bangles,  droA'e 
 on  and  brought  him  to  the  garden.  The  unhappy  Charu- 
 datta,  grieved  though  he  be  at  his  disappointment,  is  too 
 generous  not  to  help  a fugitive  in  his  distress,  and  desires 
 Aryaka  to  go  fonvard  in  the  carriage  until  safe  beyond  the 
 frontier.  In  Act  IX.  we  are  introduced  to  a Hall  of  Jus- 
 tice, where  the  Prince  accuses  Charudatta  of  being  the  mur- 
 derer of  Vasanta,  and  Avhere  Charudatta  is  tried  according 
 to  the  Code  of  IManu.  The  end  of  the  Avhole  is,  that  Va- 
 santa reappears  just  as  Charudatta,  adorned  with  a funeral 
 Avreath  of  oleander,  is  about  to  he  executed ; and  Aryaka 
 liaA'ing  at  the  same  moment  defeated  the  King  and  obtained 
 possession  of  the  throne,  Charudatta  is  not  only  released, 
 restored  to  life  and  honour,  hut  receives  high  office  and 
 dominion  from  the  ncAv  sovereign.  Charudatta  is  noAv 
 anxious  to  show  his  gratitude  to  the  Buddhist  Sramana 
 Avho  saA'cd  Vasanta ; and,  as  the  devotee  says  it  is  his  Avish 
 
LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 IK) 
 
 “ to  follow  still  tlie  jiatli  he  lias  selected,  because  all  else  is 
 full  of  care  aucl  change,”  he  prociu’es  for  him  the  honour- 
 able appointment  of  “ Chief  of  the  Viharas.”  The  Prince’s 
 servant,  who  had  also  assisted  and  who  was  a slave,  is 
 made  a free  man,  and  the  Chandalas,  who  had  purposely 
 delayed  the  execution,  are  made  heads  of  their  tribe ; even 
 the  wicked  Prince  is  set  free  by  the  benevolence  of  Charii- 
 datta,  whose  wife  embraces  Vasanta,  calling  her  “ happy 
 sister and  the  Tenth  Act  closes  on  a scene  of  perfect  una- 
 nimity and  bliss. 
 
 In  the  eighth  century  arose  another  dramatist,  whose 
 works  still  enjoy  a popularity  second  only  to  those  of 
 Kalidasa.  Bhavabhuti  flourished  at  the  Court  of  Kanouj, 
 A.D.  720  : he  was  a native  of  Berar,  and  delights  in  descrip- 
 tions of  its  gloomy  forests.  His  style  is  vigorous  and  har- 
 monious ; but,  “ although  classical,  it  is  highly  laboured,” 
 — the  author  being  fond  of  an  unseasonable  display  of 
 learning.”  His  Play  of  ‘ Malati  and  iMadhava’  is  interest- 
 ing, not  only  on  account  of  its  plot  and  poetry,  but  for  the 
 hints  it  gives  of  the  prevailing  religious  Siva  Avorship,  then 
 begiuning  to  assume  a terrific  character,  and  Buddhist 
 convents  being  tolerated  under  Brahmanical  governments. 
 To  the  superiors  of  these  convents  indeed  we  find  Kings 
 and  Prime  Ministers  entrusting  the  education  of  their  chil- 
 dren. iMadliava,  the  hero,  is  son  to  a King  of  Behar,  and 
 is  sent  to  Ougein  to  be  instructed  in  logic  under  the  au- 
 spices of  a female  Buddhist  devotee,  a friend  of  his  father’s, 
 and  the  Superior  of  the  Buddhist  Institutions  in  Ougein. 
 This  same  woman  has  been  nurse,  and  is  still  the  confi- 
 dential friend,  of  our  heroine  iMalati,  Avho  is  daughter  to 
 the  Prime  Minister  of  iMalwa.  The  scene  is  laid  in  Ougein, 
 
DRAMAS. 
 
 417 
 
 and  a pleasing  description  given  of  the  town  and  its  sur- 
 rounding scenery  as  seen  from  a neighbouring  height.* 
 
 “ How  wide  the  prospeet  spreads — mountain  and  rock, 
 Towns,  villages,  and  woods,  and  glittering  streams. 
 
 There,  where  the  Para  and  the  Sindhu  wind. 
 
 The  towers,  and  pinnacles,  and  gates, 
 
 And  spires  of  Padmavati,  hke  a city 
 Precipitated  from  the  skies,  appear 
 Inverted  in  the  pure  translucent  wave. 
 
 There  flows  Parana's  frolic  stream,  whose  groves, 
 
 15y  early  rains  refreshed,  afford  the  youth 
 Of  Padmavati  pleasant  haunts,  and  where. 
 
 Upon  the  herbage  brightening  in  the  shower, 
 
 The  heavy-uddered  kine  contented  browse.” 
 
 The  character  who  gives  the  above  description  is  another 
 female  Buddhist  who  has  attained  the  rauk  which  confers  the 
 power  of  flying  through  the  air  : and  consequently  through 
 the  air  she  came  from  a hill  in  Berar,  sacred  to  a Sivaite 
 goddess.  The  whole  Play  shows  that  occasional  union  of 
 Buddhism  and  Sivaism  Avhich  we  have  already  remarked 
 on  coinSj  and  in  the  Tantra  portions  of  the  northern  Bud- 
 dhist books.  The  devotee  pauses  in  her  flight  to  render 
 homage  at  a Sivaite  temple,  “ fane  of  the  Lord  of  Bhavani, 
 whose  illustrious  image  is  not  of  mortal  fabric.”  “ Hail ! 
 all  hail !”  she  cries,  “ Creator  of  the  universe ! source  of 
 the  sacred  Vedas!  God  of  the  crescent-crested  diadem  ! de- 
 stroyer of  love’s  presumptuous  power  !” 
 
 Professor  Wilson  says  “ there  is  more  passion  in  tlie 
 thoughts  of  Bhavahhuti  than  in  those  of  Kalidasa,  but  less 
 fancy he  makes  no  attempt  at  wit,  but,  “ on  the  other 
 hand,  he  expatiates  more  largely  in  the  description  of  pic- 
 
 * H.  n.  Wilson,  Hindu  Tlieatrc,  vol.  ii.  ; Introduction  to  ‘ Malati  and 
 Madhava.’ 
 
418 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 turesque  scenery  and  in  the  representation  of  human  eino- 
 tionSj  and  is  perhaps  entitled  to  even  a higher  place  tlian 
 his  rival  as  a poet.”* 
 
 The  Mudra  Rakshasaf  is  again  dilferent  from  either  of  its 
 predecessors,  and  witli  this  we  must  conclude  our  notices 
 of  Hindu  dramas.  The  plot  is  a series  of  political  intrigues 
 without  a single  love-scene,  and  almost  without  the  intro- 
 duction of  a woman.  IMucli  variety  is  nevertheless  con- 
 trived : one  of  the  spies  goes  about  with  a scroll  inscribed 
 with  figures  of  Yama,  about  whom  he  sings  verses,  and 
 calls  his  performance  a Yama  show,  in  virtue  of  which  he 
 gains  admission  to  the  houses  of  rich  men,  and  exhibits  in 
 the  courts  where  the  women  and  children  reside.  Another 
 spy,  or  secret  messenger,  disguises  himself  as  a snake- 
 catcher,  holds  the  following  conversation  with  the  passen- 
 gers in  the  street,  fronting  the  house  of  the  man  with  whom 
 he  wants  to  communicate  : — 
 
 “ Scene  before  Rakshasa  s house. 
 
 Enter  Vieadha,  an  agent  of  Rakshasa,  disguised  as  a snake-cateher. 
 
 Yiradha.  Those  who  are  skilled  in  charms  and  potent  signs  may 
 handle  fearlessly  the  fiercest  snakes. 
 
 Passenger.  Ilola  ! what  and  who  are  you  ? 
 
 Viradha.  A snake-catcher,  your  Honour  ; mj’  name  is  Jirnavisha. 
 What  say  you,  you  would  touch  my  snakes  ? What  may  your  pro- 
 fession be,  pray  ? Oh,  I see,  a servant  of  the  Piance, — you  had  bet- 
 ter not  meddle  with  snakes.  A snake-catcher  unskilled  in  charms 
 and  antidotes,  a man  moimted  on  a furious  elephant  without  a goad, 
 and  a servant  of  the  King  appointed  to  a high  station  and  proud  of 
 his  success,  these  three  are  on  the  eve  of  destruction.  Oh ! he  is  off. 
 
 Second  Passenger.  What  have  you  got  in  your  basket,  fellow  ? 
 
 Viradha.  Tame  snakes,  your  Honour,  by  which  I get  my  living. 
 
 * lliudu  Theatre,  vol.  ii.  p.  122. 
 
 + Ibid.,  vol.  h.  p.  127. 
 
DRAMAS. 
 
 419 
 
 Would  you  wish  to  see  them  ? I will  exhibit  tliem  here,  in  the 
 court  of  this  liouse,  as  this  is  not  a convenient  spot. 
 
 Second  Passenger.  This,  you  blockhead,  is  the  house  of  Eak- 
 shasa,  the  Prince’s  minister ; there  is  no  admittance  for  us  here. 
 
 Viradha.  Then  go  your  way.  Sir  : by  the  authority  of  my  occu  - 
 pation I shall  make  bold  to  enter.  So, — I have  got  rid  of  him.” 
 
 Viradha  then  changes  his  language  from  the  Prakrit  ver- 
 nacular to  Sanskrit,  and  makes  a long  soliloquy. 
 
 When  Rakshasa  is  informed  that  a snake-catcher  is 
 anxious  to  see  him,  he  "feels  his  left  eye  throb,  which  is  an 
 unlucky  omen,  and  he  desires  that  the  man  may  receive  a 
 donation  and  be  sent  away.  A servant  goes  therefore  to 
 the  snake-catcher  and  says, — 
 
 “ Servant.  Here  is  for  your  pains  ; for  not  seeing, — not  for  seeing. 
 
 Viradha.  Inform  the  minister  that  besides  exhibiting  snakes  I am 
 a poet,  . . . and  give  him  this.” 
 
 The  verses  show  that  he  is  the  bearer  of  news,  and  procime 
 him  an  immediate  audience. 
 
 We  will  allude  but  to  one  more  drama, — Retnavali,  or 
 the  Necklace.  It  is  considerably  later  than  any  of  those 
 yet  mentioned,  and  shous  a more  complicated  mythology. 
 The  Benediction  alludes  to  Siva  thus  : — “ May  that  pre- 
 sentation of  the  flowery  offering,  made  by  the  mountain- 
 goddess  to  her  mighty  lord,  preserve  you  ! IMay  Siva  ever 
 he  your  trust ! Prosperity  attend  illustrious  Brahmans 
 
 In  the  conduct  of  the  plot,  and  also  in  the  style  of  the 
 language,  there  is  a marked  imitation  of  the  celebrated 
 Kalidasa,  but  more  extravagance.  At  the  commencement 
 the  Queen  and  her  damsels  celebrate  the  festival  of  Kama- 
 deva,  the  flower-armed  God,”  “ the  lord  of  Reti.”  He  is 
 supposed  to  be  abiding  in  an  Asoka-tree,  and  the  Queen, 
 standing  near  this  tree,  presents  to  his  image  gifts  of  san- 
 
 T 2 
 
 cw  Xj  Cw' 
 
420 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 dal^  saffron,  and  flowers  ; and  as  soon  as  the  worship  of  the 
 divinity  is  concluded,  she,  according  to  prescribed  usage, 
 offers  similar  adoration  to  her  husband.  Amongst  other 
 incidents  a great  sage  is  mentioned  as  having  arrived  from 
 a hill-temple  consecrated  to  Siva  in  Berar : his  sanctity  has 
 conferred  upon  him  gifts  of  magic,  and  he  teaches  the  King 
 the  craft  of  making  flowers  blossom  at  any  season  ; but  the 
 most  striking  scene  is  one  in  which  a magician  from  Ougein 
 exhibits  his  art  in  the  presence  of  the  King,  Queen,  and 
 Court.  He  comes  forward  laughing  and  waving  a bunch 
 of  peacock’s  feathers,  saying, — 
 
 “ Eeverence  to  Indra,  who  lends  oiu’  art  hia  name ! . . . What  are 
 your  Majesty's  commands  ? would  you  see  the  moon  brought  down 
 upon  earth,  a mountain  in  mid-air,  a fire  in  the  ocean,  or  night  at 
 noon  ? . . . What  need  of  many  words  ? By  the  force  of  my  mas- 
 ter’s spells  I wiU  place  before  your  eyes  the  person  whom  in  your 
 heart  you  are  most  anxious  to  behold.” 
 
 After  the  King  has  said,  “ Now,  Sir,  display  your  power,” 
 he  waves  his  plume  and  cries, — 
 
 “ Hari,  Ilara,  Bralima,  chiefs  of  the  Gods ! and  thou  their  mighty 
 monarch,  Indra,  with  the  host  of  heavenly  spirits  . . . a])pear  re- 
 joicing and  dancing  in  tlie  heavens  ! 
 
 \Thc  Kiiuj  and  Queen  look  up  and  rise  from  their  scats. 
 
 King.  Most  wonderful ! 
 
 Queen.  Extraordinary  indeed ! 
 
 King.  See,  love ! that  is  Brahma  throned  upon  the  lotus ; that 
 Sankara,  with  the  crescent  moon,  his  ghttering  crest ; that,  Hari, 
 the  destroyer  of  the  demon  race,  in  whose  four  hands  the  bow,  the 
 sv\  ord,  the  mace,  and  the  shell  are  borne.  There,  mounted  on  his 
 stately  elephant,  appears  the  King  of  Swerga ; aroimd  them  count- 
 less spirits  dance  merrily  in  mid-air,  sporting  with  the  lovely  nymphs 
 of  heaven,  whose  anklets  ring  responsive  to  the  measure.” 
 
 Tdic  spectacle  is  intciTuptcd  by  the  arrival  of  ministers 
 
DRAMAS. 
 
 121 
 
 from  Ceylon,  and  the  magician  is  dismissed  ; liut  whilst  the 
 King  is  giving  audience  to  his  newly-arrived  guests,  a ery 
 arises  that 
 
 “ The  inner  apartments  are  on  fire.  The  flames  spread  over  the 
 roof  of  gold ; they  wind  around  with  clouds  of  smoke  . . . and  fill 
 the  female  train  with  fear.” 
 
 The  King  rushes  into  the  flames  to  reseue  g maiden  whom 
 he  loves ; but  he  no  sooner  releases  her  from  her  imprison- 
 ment than  the  flames  disappear,  and  the  palace  stands  un- 
 harmed, and  the  semblanee  of  fire  is  found  to  have  been 
 the  work  of  the  magician,  who  possessed  similar  skill  to 
 that  displayed  in  the  presenee  of  the  King  of  Prasenajit,  at 
 Kosala. 
 
CHAPTER  IV. 
 
 “AYhen  at  length  four  wearv  months  have  fled, 
 
 Vishnu  rises  from  liis  Serpent -bed.”* — Old  Indian  Poetry. 
 
 When  historical  data  are  notoriously  slight  and  scattered, 
 students  can  do  little  more  than  rehearse  and  make  sum- 
 maries. A muster-roll  of  the  kings,  whose  unjjronounceable 
 names  appear  on  eoins,  could  teach  but  little,  for  it  would 
 he  too  hard  a lesson  for  the  memory ; hut  a slight  outline 
 of  the  facts  beaten  out  from  Archaeology  may  he  traced  and 
 retraced  with  advantage,  so  often  as  fresh  facts  appear. 
 
 * The  Serpent-couch  is  the  mythological  snake  Ananta,  whose  thousand 
 heads  formed  a canopy  over  Vishnu  duruig  liis  four  mouths’  sleep, — sup- 
 posed to  allude  to  the  four  months  of  the  ]ieriodical  rains.  (See  Wilson.) 
 
DYNASTIES. 
 
 123 
 
 Commencing*  therefore  about  i?.c.  160,  we  find  Menan- 
 der, Apollodotus,  and  otlier  Greeks,  holding  dominion  on 
 the  Indus.  Guzerat  and  the  lower  part  of  Seinde  is  go- 
 verned either  by  Hindu  viceroys,  under  Greek  sovereigns, 
 or  by  public  assemblies,  choosing  a chief  who  acknowledged 
 fealty  to  the  Greek  superior.  In  b.c.  157,  this  condition  of 
 affairs  was  changed  by  a dynasty  of  Hindus  called  the  Sabs  ; 
 they  were  independent  kings  in  Guzerat,  issued  their  own 
 coins,  and  carried  on  extensive  public  works  successfully 
 for  about  one  hundred  years.  In  b.c.  57  the  Hindu  hero 
 Vikramaditya  conquered  Gi’eeks,  Indo- Scythians,  and 
 Sabs,  extending  his  sovereignty  from  the  Nerbudda  to  the 
 Himalaya,  making  Ougein,  in  INfalwa,  his  capital  city,  but 
 holding  Kashmere  also  under  his  dominion.  In  b.c.  26  the 
 Yu-chi  Scythians,  under  Kadphises,  Kanerki,  and  their  fol- 
 lowers, made  conquests  in  India,  and  for  a time  got  pos- 
 session of  Sciiide  and  ^lalwa.  In  a.d.  91  died  Salihavana, 
 a Brahmanical  Hindu  Baja,  celebrated  for  having  delivered 
 IMalwa  from  the  Kanerkis  and  their  Indo- Scythian  or  Tu- 
 ranian followers.  The  next  important  event  is  the  death 
 of  Meghavahana,  whose  name  signifies  Great  Rider  upon 
 the  clouds.”  He  was  a zealous  Buddhist ; his  death  occurred 
 A.D.  144,  and  from  this  time  forth  Brahmanism  appears  to 
 have  kept  the  ascendency  in  all  the  important  towns  of 
 India.  After  this  period  we  find  Buddhists  of  note  and 
 learning  going  to  China,  or  settling  themselves  in  Nipal, 
 Kashmere,  or  in  Southern  India;  and  it  is  reasonable  to  con- 
 jecture that  persecution  or  neglect  in  earlier  sites  drove  Bud- 
 dhist colonies  to  establish  themselves  among  the  western 
 
 * The  above  sketch  is  made  from  tlie  careful  deductions  of  Mr.  Thoma.s, 
 in  tlie  ‘ Journal  of  the  Asiatic  Society,’  vol.  xiii. 
 
124 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 liills  of  the  Peninsula,  where  their  wonderful  excavations 
 at  Ellora  and  Ajiuita  are  so  notorious. 
 
 The  next  important  Hindu  dynasty  is  the  Guptas;  and, 
 judging  by  the  coinage,  it  appears  that  the  Mint  of  Miu- 
 nagara  on  the  Indus,  established  by  the  Greeks,  was  used 
 first  by  the  Sahs,  then  by  the  Kanerkis,  and  lastly  by  the 
 Gujitas.  The  scries  of  Gupta  is  very  long,  and  the  sym- 
 bols undergo  considerable  variation.  They  commence  with 
 Siva  and  the  Bull,*  and  the  Peacock  of  Siva’s  son,  or  his 
 wife,  seated  on  a lion,  holding  in  her  hand  a lotus.  At 
 length  we  come  to  a stout  man  on  horseback  called  Ma- 
 hendra  Gupta,  dressed  in  loose  trousers,  a buttoned  coat, 
 and  a full-bottomed  wig, — the  counterpart  of  wigs  worn 
 i)oth  in  Buddhist  and  Sivaite  paintings  at  Ajunta  and 
 Arungabad.  In  a.d.  319  the  Guptas  ivcrc  driven  out  of 
 Guzerat  by  the  Sena  family,  who  had  acted  as  their  viT;e- 
 roys,  and,  taking  the  name  of  Vallabhi,  this  became  one  of 
 the  most  celebrated  of  Hindu  dynasties ; their  capital  was 
 on  the  eastern  coast  of  Guzerat,  but  now  lies  buried  be- 
 neath overwhelming  sands.  From  the  Chinese  we  know 
 that  Buddhism  was  still  patronized  in  some  parts  of  Central 
 India  even  so  late  as  a.  d.  645  ; but  during  the  seventh  cen- 
 tury it  gradually  declined  and  disappeared ; whilst  Sivaism 
 adopted  gloomy  and  terrible  forms,  and  then  both  Poetry 
 and  Architecture  point  to  the  rising  superiority  of  the  old 
 God  Vishnu.  This  deity  appears  in  the  earliest  books,  even 
 in  the  Rig- Veda  hymns,  but  merely  as  one  amongst  many 
 
 * Skanda  Gupta  has  liis  fame  recorded  on  a pillar  at  Gorakpur,  as  resem- 
 bling Indra  in  his  rule,  possessed  of  the  cliiefest  of  rielies,  and  born  of  tlie 
 royal  race  of  Guptas,  whose  earthly  throne  was  sliaken  by  tlie  wind  of  the 
 bowing  lieads  of  a hundred  kings.  .1.  A.  S.  11.,  vol.  viii.,  p.  37. 
 
lillACiAVAT  GITA. 
 
 125 
 
 inferior  divinities.  In  tlie  epie  poems  he  is  also  mentioned, 
 but  rather  as  an  after-thought,  to  give  dignity  to  the  po- 
 pular heroes  Rama  and  Krishna.  In  the  Bhagavat  Gita, 
 the  poem  whieli  we  have  now  to  eonsider,  he  is,  on  the  eon- 
 trary,  an  integral  part  of  the  eomposition.  With  Krishna 
 as  a friendly  warrior  we  have  already  made  acquaintance ; 
 but  in  the  Bhagavat  Gita,  Krishna  is  identified  with  the 
 God  Vishnu,  and  the  God  Vishnu  is  declared  to  be  the  Su- 
 preme Deity  from  whom  all  things  have  issued,  and  into 
 whom  all  will  be  absorbed.  This  poem  is  attributed  to  the 
 seventh  or  eighth  century  of  our  era,  and  it  acknowledges 
 the  two  divisions  of  the  Sankhya  philosophy ; but,  avoiding 
 the  Buddhist  error  of  driving  abstract  argument  into  no- 
 thingness, it  rests  mind,  virtue,  and  phenomena  upon  God. 
 It  does  not  deny  inferior  Gods,  and  it  devoutly  believes  in 
 transmigration,  and  in  a material  form  of  Supreme  Deity ; 
 but  to  a Christian  who  has  waded  through  the  arid  wastes 
 of  Buddhist  Sutras  it  sounds  almost  as  a far-off  echo  of 
 home  to  a Siberian  exile.  It  pretends  to  a place  as  episode 
 in  the  Mahabharata,  an  epic  poem  which  must  have  been 
 eight  hundred  years  old  before  the  Bhagavat  Gita  can  have 
 been  written,  but  its  being  so  placed  is  consistent  with 
 the  Brahmanical  aim  of  investing  old  literature  with  a new 
 religious  character.  The  story  of  the  Mahabharata  serves 
 therefore  as  a framework,  giving  us  again  the  generous 
 Arjuua  and  his  friend  the  powerful  Krishna.  The  last 
 tremendous  battle  between  the  Kurus  and  the  Pandus  is 
 about  to  begin.  The  forces  on  either  side  arc  marshalled 
 face  to  face;  Krishna  stands  by  Arjnna  in  his  splendid  cha- 
 riot drawn  by  white  horses,  whilst  on  the  opposite  side  the 
 chief  of  the  Kurus,  shouting  like  a lion,  blows  his  shell  to 
 
LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 1.2G 
 
 raise  the  spirits  of  his  followers  ; immediately  other  shells 
 reply,  and  the  clangour  is  excessive.  Arjuna  is  overcome  with 
 distress  at  the  idea  that  the  enemies  opposed  to  him  arc 
 all  of  his  own  kindred, — grandsires,  cousins,  tutors,  hosom- 
 friends;  he  would  rather  die,  he  says,  than  be  the  mur- 
 derer of  his  race.  “J  wish  not  for  victory;  T want  not 
 dominion;  . . . although  they  would  kill  me,  I wish  not  to 
 fight  them ; no,  not  even  for  the  dominion  of  the  three  re- 
 gions of  the  universe,  much  less  for  this  little  earth.”  And 
 at  length  he  puts  his  how  and  arrows  aside,  and  sits  down, 
 “ his  heart  overwhelmed  with  affliction.”  Krishna  combats 
 his  arguments,  telling  him,  that  to  stand  still  in  the  field 
 of  battle  is  contrary  to  duty.  Arjuna  replies  respectfully, 
 “ I am  thy  disciple,  instruct  me,  my  understanding  is  con- 
 founded ; I see  nothing  that  could  assuage  the  grief  which 
 drieth  up  my  faculties,  even  were  1 to  obtain  a kingdom 
 unrivalled  upon  earth,  or  dominion  over  the  hosts  in  hea- 
 ven.” Krishna  then  applies  a different  argument,  saying, 
 it  is  folly  to  grieve  either  for  the  dead  or  for  the  living, 
 “ because  the  soul  neither  killeth  nor  is  killed,  it  is  with- 
 out birth,  and  cannot  be  destroyed  in  this  its  mortal 
 frame.”  Arjuna  must  therefore  fight  without  trembling ; 
 for  to  fight  is  his  duty  as  a Kshattriya,  and  duty  requires 
 men  to  work  bravely  and  without  concern  for  the  result. 
 Krishna’s  argument  will  be  yet  more  favourably  explained 
 if  we  once  more  borrow  from  the  beautiful  translations  of 
 ^ Old  Indian  Poetry,’  for  which  we  are  indebted  to  Mr. 
 Griffith  : — 
 
 “ Know  that  What  Is  can  never  cease  to  Be, 
 What  Is  Not  can  Be  never  : tlicy  wlio  see 
 Tlie  mystic  Trutli,  tlie  Wise,  alone  can  tell 
 
HHAGAVAT  GITA. 
 
 1.^7 
 
 The  natui’c  of  the  things  they  study  well. 
 
 And  be  thou  sure  the  mighty  boundless  Soul, 
 
 The  Eternal  Essence,  that  pervades  this  Whole, 
 
 Can  never  perish,  never  waste  away  ; 
 
 The  Indestructible  knows  not  decaj'.  . . . 
 
 Up,  then,  and  conquer  ! in  thy  might  arise  ! 
 
 Fear  not  to  slay  It,  for  It  never  dies.  . . . 
 
 As  men  throw  off  their  garments  worn  and  old, 
 
 -And  newer  raiment  round  their  bodies  fold, 
 
 The  ethereal  spirit  leaves  its  mortal  shell, 
 
 -And  finds  another  form  wherein  to  dwell. 
 
 Essence  of  Life ! It  lives,  undimm’d  its  ra}*. 
 
 Though  fiercest  fire  or  keen  dart  seek  to  slay.  . . . 
 Incomprehensible  ! It  knows  not  change. 
 
 Boundless  in  being,  limitless  in  range. 
 
 This  is  the  Nature  of  the  Soul,  great  Chief  I 
 It  lives  for  ever,  therefore  spare  thy  grief.  . . . 
 
 -All  that  is  born  must  die, — that  dies,  be  born  again.” 
 
 Krishna  further  warns  his  disciple  not  to  be  guided  exclu- 
 sively by  the  speculative  portion  of  the  Sankhya  philosophy, 
 but  to. attend  also  to  the  practical;  and  not  to  delight  ‘'in 
 the  controversies  of  the  Veds,”  which  ordain  innumerable 
 ceremonies  and  lead  to  mere  transient  enjoyment,  but  to 
 be  “ free  fi’om  duplicity,  to  stand  firm  in  the  path  of  duty, 
 free  from  care  and  trouble.”  “ Let  the  motive,”  he  con- 
 tinues, “ be  in  the  deed,  and  not  in  the  event.  Be  not  one 
 whose  motive  for  action  is  the  hope  of  reward.  Let  not 
 thy  life  be  spent  in  inaction.  Depend  upon  application, 
 perform  thy  duty,  abandon  all  thought  of  the  consequence, 
 and  make  the  event  equal,  whether  it  terminate  in  good  or 
 evil ; for  such  an  equality  is  called  Yog.  The  action  stands 
 at  a distance  inferior  to  the  application  of  wisdom.  Seek 
 an  asylum  then  in  wisdom  alone  . . . When  thy  reason  shall 
 get  the  better  of  the  gloomy  weakness  of  thy  heart,  then 
 
1-28 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 shalt  thou  have  attained  all  knowledge  which  hath  been,  or 
 is  worthy  to  be  taught.  When  thy  understanding,  by  study 
 brought  to  maturity,  shall  be  fixed  immovably  in  contem- 
 plation, then  shall  it  obtain  true  wisdom.” 
 
 Such  a wise  man  is  called  a Muni.  His  wisdom  is  esta- 
 blished when  in  all  things  he  is  without  affection,  and 
 neither  rejoiceth  at  good  nor  is  cast  down  by  evil;  when, 
 like  the  tortoise,  he  can  draw  in  all  his  members  and  re- 
 strain them  from  their  wonted  purposes.  What  happiness 
 can  he  enjoy  who  hath  no  rest  ? The  heart,  which  follow- 
 eth  the  dictates  of  the  moving  passions,  earrieth  away  his 
 reason  as  the  storm  the  bark  in  the  raging  ocean.  But  he 
 obtaineth  happiness  whose  passions  enter  his  soul  (or 
 heart)  as  the  multitudinous  rivers  ffow  into  the  unswelling 
 passive  ocean. 
 
 In  Lecture  HI.  Arjuna  begs  Krishna  to  explain  how  it 
 is  that,  if  the  use  of  the  understanding  be  superior  to  the 
 practice  of  deeds,  he  should  be  urged  to  so  dreadful  an 
 undertaking  as  w’ar  with  relatives.  Krishna  replies,  that 
 exemption  from  action  is  only  to  be  obtained  by  a previous 
 wise  performance  of  action  for  unselfish  motives.  Warn- 
 ings are  then  given  against  self-sufficiency,  and  against  iUi- 
 bcrality  towards  others.  A man  who  has  much  knowledge 
 and  might  dispense  with  outward  works,  must  not  drive 
 those  from  works  who  are  slow  of  comprehension  and  less 
 experienced  than  himself ; rather  should  he  still  perform 
 works,  in  order  to  induce  the  vulgar  to  attend  to  them. 
 But  whilst  a wise  man  performs  works,  he  must  not  be  led 
 astray  by  the  pride  of  self-sufficiency  to  suppose  that  lu* 
 himself  is  the  executor  of  those  actions  which  are  performed 
 by  the  principles  of  his  constitution.  And  then,  speaking 
 
KIIAGAVAT  GITA. 
 
 i29 
 
 ill  his  character  of  Iswara,  God,  or  the  Lord,  Krishna 
 says,— 
 
 “ Throw  every  deed  on  me,  and,  with  a heart  over  which  the  sold 
 presideth,  he  free  from  hope,  he  unpresuming,  he  free  from  trouble, 
 and  resolve  to  fight.” 
 
 In  the  following  Lecture  Arjuna  ventures  to  question 
 Krishna  concerning  his  nature  and  the  length  of  time  which 
 he  has  existed ; Krishna  replies, — 
 
 “ Both  thou  and  I have  passed  many  births  : mine  are  known 
 unto  me,  but  thou  kuowest  not  of  thine. 
 
 “ Although  I am  not  in  my  nature  subject  to  birth  or  decay,  and 
 am  the  Lord  of  all  created  beings  ; yet,  having  command  over  my 
 own  nature,  I am  made  evident  by  my  own  power  ; and  as  often  as 
 there  is  a declhie  of  virtue  and  an  insurrection  of  vice  and  injustice 
 in  the  world,  I make  myself  evident ; and  thus  I appear  from  age  to 
 age  for  the  preservation  of  the  just,  the  destruction  of  the  wicked, 
 and  the  establishment  of  virtue.” 
 
 Some  interesting  observations  follow,  upon  the  great  va- 
 rieties of  men’s  actions  and  the  various  modes  in  whieh 
 they  worship  or  sacrifice.  Some  sacrificing  their  “ breathing 
 spirit,”  others  their  organs  and  faculties;  all  worship  is 
 acknowledged  to  he  beneficial,  but  that  worship  alone  is 
 wise  which  recognizes  God,  or  Iswara,  in  everything : — 
 
 “ God  is  the  gift  of  charity,  God  is  the  offering,  God  is  in  the  fire 
 of  the  altar,  by  God  is  the  sacrifice  performed ; and  God  is  to  be 
 obtained  by  him  who  maketh  God  alone  the  object  of  his  works.” 
 
 In  Lecture  V.  we  learn,  that  to  abandon  works  means  to 
 abandon  the  hope  of  reward,  and  to  act  wholly  in  a spirit 
 of  faith.  Krishna  says : — “ Children  only,  and  not  the 
 learned,  speak  of  the  speculative  and  the  practical  doc- 
 trines as  two ; they  are  but  one,  for  both  obtain  the  same 
 end and  whilst  to  be  a I’eclusc  without  a spiritual  state 
 
130 
 
 I IFIi  I.\  ANflliNT  INDIA. 
 
 of  mind  is  to  obtain  pain  and  trouble,  he  who  is  employed 
 in  the  praetiee  of  his  duty  presently  obtaineth  Brahma. 
 'fo  these  difiieulties  Krishna  replies,  that  the  diseipline 
 called  Yog  only  requires  practice  and  temperance,  and,  al- 
 though difficult,  may  be  attained  by  one  who  hath  his  sold 
 in  his  subjection  ; but  supposing  death  to  occur  before  this 
 happy  consummation,  the  man  endued  with  faith  will  not 
 be  destroyed. 
 
 “No  man  who  hath  done  good  goeth  unto  an  evil  place.  A man 
 \^'hose  devotions  have  been  broken  off  by  death,  having  enjoyed  for 
 an  immensity  of  years  the  rewards  of  his  virtues  in  the  regions  above 
 at  length  is  born  again  in  some  holy  and  respectable  family,  or  per- 
 haps in  the  house  of  some  learned  Yogi.  The  Yogi  is  more  ex- 
 alted than  Tapasas, — those  zealots  who  harass  themselves  in  per- 
 forming penances, — he  is  more  respected  than  the  learned  in  science, 
 and  superior  to  those  who  are  attached  to  moral  works  ; wherefore, 
 O Arjuua!  resolve  thou  to  become  a ITogi.  Of  all  Togas  I respect 
 liini  as  the  most  devout  who  hath  faith  in  me,  and  who  serveth  me 
 with  a sold  possessed  of  my  spirit.” 
 
 It  will  be  unnecessary  to  follow  this  poem  or  treatise 
 through  its  laboiu’ed  exposition  of  the  Vedanta  system, 
 with  its  eight  distinctions  and  its  three  qualities  and  the 
 three  mystic  words,  this,  and  the  Sankhya  systems,  etc.  we 
 studied  sufficiently  in  the  Chapter  on  Philosophy  at  the 
 close  of  Book  I.  But  we  must  dwell  upon  the  views  of 
 Faith  and  Deity  which  arc  here  displayed,  for  they  deviate 
 considerably  from  any  which  we  meet  with  at  an  earlier 
 epoch. 
 
 “ The  man  who  performing  the  duties  of  life,  and  quitting  all 
 interest  in  them,  placeth  them  upon  BraJime,  iloats  like  a lotus  on 
 the  lake  unrullled  by  the  tide.” 
 
 “ The  man  who  keejieth  the  outward  accideiits  from  entering  his 
 nund,  and  his  eyes  lixed  in  contemplation  between  his  brows ; wlio 
 
BHAGAAAT  GITA. 
 
 431 
 
 luaketli  the  breath  to  pass  through  both  his  nostrils  alike  in  expira- 
 tion and  inspiration ; the  man  who  is  haj)py  in  his  heart,  at  rest 
 in  his  mind,  and  enlightened  within,  is  a Yogi,  and  obtaineth  the 
 immaterial  nature  of  Brahme,  the  Supreme.” 
 
 lu  Lecture  YI.  we  find  the  following  sketch  of  a Yoyi : — 
 
 “ He  is  a recluse  of  a subdued  mind  and  spirit,  free  from  hope 
 and  free  from  perception.  He  planteth  his  own  feet  firmly  on  a 
 spot  that  is  undefiled,  neither  too  high  nor  too  low,  and  sitteth  upon 
 the  sacred  grass  which  is  called  Kusa,  covered  with  a skin  and  a 
 cloth.  There  he,  whose  business  is  the  restraining  of  his  passions, 
 shovdd  sit  with  his  mind  fixed  on  one  object  alone,  hi  the  exercise  of 
 his  devotion  for  the  purification  of  his  soid ; keeping  his  head,  his 
 neck,  his  body  steady  without  motion,  his  eyes  fixed  on  the  point  of 
 his  nose,  looking  at  no  other  place  aroimd.” 
 
 This  condition  cannot  be  attained  by  him  who  eats  more 
 than  enough  or  less  than  enough ; neither  by  him  wdio 
 hath  a habit  of  sleeping  much,  nor  by  him  who  sleepeth 
 not  at  all.  A man  is  called  devout  when  his  mind  remaiu- 
 eth  thus  regulated  within  himself ; and  the  Yogi  thus  em- 
 })loyed  is  like  a lamp,  standing  in  a place  without  wind, 
 which  waveth  not. 
 
 Arjuna  ventures  to  express  that,  considering  the  restless- 
 ness of  human  nature,  he  cannot  conceive  the  permanent 
 duration  of  such  a doctrine.  “ The  mind,  O Krishna  \”  he 
 continues,  “ is  naturally  unsteady,  turbulent,  strong,  and 
 stubborn  3 1 esteem  it  as  difficult  to  restrain  as  the  wind.” 
 He  also  intimates  a wish  to  behold  Krishna  as  the  Uni- 
 versal Spirit,  or  “ IMighty  Lord.”  Krishna  says,  that  as 
 his  natural  eye  would  be  unequal  to  the  sight,  he  will  give 
 him  a heavenly  eye  for  the  purpose ; and  having  thus 
 spoken, — 
 
 “ The  mighty  compound  aud  divine  being  Ilari  made  evident 
 
432 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 unto  Arjuna  his  supreme  and  heavenly  form  ; of  many  a mouth  aud 
 eye  ; many  a wondrous  sight ; many  a heavenly  ornament ; many 
 an  up-raised  weapon ; adorned  with  eelestial  robes  and  chaplets  ; ’ 
 anointed  with  heaveidy  essence  ; covered  with  every  marvellous 
 thing  ; the  Eternal  God,  whose  countenance  is  on  every  side  ! The 
 glory  and  amazing  splendour  of  this  mighty  Being  may  be  likened  to 
 tlic  sun  rising  at  once  into  the  heavens  with  a thousand  times  more 
 tliau  usual  brightness.  The  son  of  Pandu  then  beheld  within  the 
 body  of  the  God  of  Gods,  standing  together,  the  wliole  universe  di- 
 vided forth  into  its  vast  variety.  He  was  overwhelmed  with  wonder, 
 and  every  hair  was  raised  an  end.  He  bowed  down  liis  head  before 
 the  God.  and  thus  addressed  him  with  joined  hands : — 
 
 “ ‘ I behold,  O God ! within  thy  breast  the  dewas  assembled,  and 
 every  specific  tribe  of  beings.  I see  Brahma  sitting  on  his  lotus 
 tliroue  ; . . . I see  thyself  of  infinite  shape,  . . . w'ith  abundant  arms, 
 mouths,  eyes,  . . . etc. ; but  I cau  neither  discover  thy  beginning, 
 tliy  middle,  nor  thy  end.  . . . Again  I see  thee  with  a crown,  and 
 armed  with  club  and  Chakra,  a mass  of  glory  darting  refulgent 
 beams  around.  . . . 
 
 “ ‘ Of  the  celestial  bands  I see  some  flying  to  thee  for  refuge  ; 
 whilst  some,  afraid,  with  joined  hands  sing  forth  thy  praise.  . . . The 
 world,  like  me,  are  terrified  to  behold  thy  wondrous  form  gigantic, 
 
 . . . with  many  mouths  and  eyes,  . . . and  with  rows  of  dreadful 
 teeth.  Thus  I see  thee  touching  the  heavens,  and  shining  with  such 
 glory  ; of  such  various  hues,  with  widely  opened  mouths,  and  bright 
 expanded  eyes.  . . . Having  beholden  thy  dreadful  teeth  and  gazed 
 on  thy  countenance.  Time’s  last  fire,  I know  not  which  way  I turn ! 
 
 I find  no  peace.  . . . The  sons  of  Kuru,  and  even  the  fronts  of  our 
 army,  seem  to  be  precipitating  themselves  hastily  into  thy  mouths, 
 discovering  sucli  frightful  rows  of  teeth!  whilst  some  appear  to 
 stick  between  thy  teeth  with  their  bodies  sorely  mangled.  ...  As 
 flowing  rivers  roll  on  to  the  ocean,  so  these  heroes  rush  on  towards 
 thy  flaming  mouths.  As  troops  of  insects  seek  destruction  in  the 
 flaming  fire,  even  so  these  people,  sweUing  with  fury,  seek  their 
 own  destruction.  Thou  involvest  and  swaUowest  them,  whilst  the 
 whole  world  is  filled  with  thy  glory.  Deign  to  make  known  to  me, 
 thou  most  exalted  ! who  is  this  God  of  awful  figure.’  ” 
 
 The  concliuling  chapters  are  chiefly  occupied  with  expla- 
 nations of  Brahinc  or  essential  essence,  substance,  nature, 
 
BHAGAVAD-GITA. 
 
 433 
 
 and  qualities,  taken  apparently  from  the  Upanishads;  but 
 the  applieation  is  different,  for  the  worshipper  is  not  di- 
 reeted  to  fix  his  mind  upon  Brahme,  the  indefinite  essenee 
 of  deity,  but  upon  the  personal  God  Vishnu,  of  whom 
 Krishna  was  a visible  form.  The  following  lines  are  taken 
 from  Mr.  Griffith’s  poetieal  translation  of  these  passages  : — 
 
 “ Life  of  all  hfe  ! prop  of  this  earthly  frame  ! 
 
 Whither  all  creatures  go,  from  whence  they  came, 
 
 I am  the  Best ; from  Me  all  beings  spring. 
 
 And  rest  on  me,  like  pearls  upon  their  string. 
 
 I am  the  Father,  and  the  fostering  Nurse, 
 
 Grandsire,  and  Mother  of  the  Universe  ; 
 
 I am  the  Vedas,  and  the  Mystic  Word, 
 
 The  Way,  Support,  the  Witness,  and  the  Lord. 
 
 They  who  with  pious  care  have  studied  o’er. 
 
 And  made  their  own  the  triple  Veda’s  lore. 
 
 Whose  fires  have  glow’d  ...... 
 
 . . . hie  to  Indra’s  holy  sphere,  and  share 
 
 Tlie  joy  of  Gods, 
 
 And  gain  their  longing  bliss,  but  for  a day. 
 
 But  those  a nobler,  higher'  blessing  find. 
 
 Who  worship  me  with  all  their  heart  and  mind  ; 
 
 Me,  only  Me,  their  wrapt  devotion  knows. 
 
 With  Me  alone  their  tranced  spirit  glows.  . . . 
 
 Do  all  thine  acts  to  Me  through  all  thy  days, 
 
 Tliy  food,  thy  gifts,  thy  sacrifice,  thy  praise  ; 
 
 Then  wdl  the  bonds  of  actions  done  by  thee. 
 
 Worthy  or  evil,  leave  thy  spirit  free  ; 
 
 And  thy  pure  soul,  renouncing  earthly  eai’e. 
 
 Will  come  unshackled,  and  My  Essence  share. 
 
 Though  equal  looks  on  all  things  I bestow. 
 
 Nor  enmity  nor  partial  fondness  know  ; 
 
 Yet  happy  they  who  love  Me  faithfidly, 
 
 I dwell  within  them  ever, — they  in  Me.” 
 
 This  is  the  same  principle  of  bhakti,  or  faith^  which  we 
 found  faintly  appearing  in  the  north-west  Provinces,  where, 
 
 2 F 
 
434 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 shortly  after  the  Christiau  era,  Siva  was  worshipped  as 
 Swarjambhu,  and  Sakya-Sinha  as  Adi-Buddha.  Minor  dei- 
 ties were  in  neither  case  altogether  bauislied ; and  it  was  be- 
 coming possible  to  the  worshipper  to  conceive  the  Eternal 
 Essence,  as  a Unity,  holding  personal  relations  towards  man- 
 kind. Professor  'Wilson  notices  the  resemblance  of  the 
 doctrines  of  the  Bhagavat  Gita  to  those  of  some  divisions  of 
 the  early  Christian  schools,  and  hints  that  the  remodelling 
 of  the  ancient  Hindu  systems  into  popular  forms,  and  “ in 
 particular  the  vital  importance  of  faith,  were  directly  influ- 
 enced by  the  diflusion  of  the  Christian  religion.^’*  4Ve 
 hail  also  with  satisfaction  a similar  opinion  from  Professor 
 Lassen.  Brahmans  he  believes  to  have  met  with  Chris- 
 tianity in  the  countries  bordering  upon  Kashmere.  St. 
 Thomas  he  believes  really  to  have  visited  Parthia ; and  al- 
 though he  denies  the  possibility  of  St.  Thomas  liimself 
 having  reached  Madras  or  any  part  of  India,  he  sees  no 
 reason  to  doubt  that  Christian  churches  were  introduced 
 into  southern  India  within  the  first  four  or  five  centuries 
 of  our  era.t 
 
 * Oriental  Magazine,  vol.  in. 
 
 t Indisclic  Altcrth,  vol.  ii.  p.  1103  ; see  also  Wilson,  Introd.  Vishnu 
 Parana,  p.  8. 
 
CHAPTER  V. 
 
 “ ’Tis  the  old-age  of  day,  methiuks,  or  haply 
 The  infaucy  of  night.”  Baert  Cornwali. 
 
 It  cannot  be  determined  when  the  heroes  Rama  and  Krishna 
 liecame  elevated  to  the  dignity  of  divinities ; but  legends  of 
 Vishnu  thus  personified  are  given  at  length  in  the  Pinanas, 
 and  are  evidently  derived  from  the  same  religious  system  as 
 the  Ramayana  and  the  Mahabharata.  A gradual  change 
 may  be  traced  from  the  domestic  elemental  worship  of  the 
 Vedas,  “ addressed  to  unreal  presences,”  down  to  “ the 
 sectarial  fervour  and  exclusiveness”  of  modern  Hindu  ido- 
 latry. Of  these  modern  modes  the  Puranas  are  the  chief 
 exponents  : they  are  voluminous  works  written  at  difterent 
 periods,  and  compiled  under  various  circumstances ; none 
 of  them,  probably,  in  all  respeets  the  same  works  as  were 
 eurrent  under  this  name  in  the  century  previous  to  Chris- 
 tianity,* and  in  their  present  forms  “the  oldest  of  them 
 not”  estimated  as  “ anterior  to  the  eighth  or  ninth  cen- 
 * Oxford  Lectures,  II.  II.  I^^ilson,  pp.  25,  27,  31. 
 
 2 F 2 
 
43G 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 tiiry/’  whilst  some  are  not  above  three  or  four  centuries 
 old.*  They  appear  to  have  been  composed  chiefly  during 
 the  religious  ferment^  which  had  for  its  object  the  extermi- 
 nation of  the  Buddhists,  beginning  in  the  third  or  fourth 
 century  of  our  era.  The  doctrine  of  the  sufficiency  of  faith 
 alone  is  carried  to  the  very  utmost  of  that  abuse  of  which 
 it  is  susceptible.  Entire  dependence  upon  Krishna,  or  any 
 other  favourite  deity,”  not  only  obviating  the  necessity  of 
 virtue,  but  sanctifying  vice.f  Krishna  as  the  boy  Cowherd, 
 or  Krishna  as  the  lover  of  Radha,  are  the  characters  in 
 Avhich  he  is  most  popular.  These  legends  we  shall  find 
 in  the  Vishnu  Purana,  translated  by  Professor  Wilson;  and 
 some  acquaintance  with  them  is  necessary  if  we  would  un- 
 derstand the  mythology  exhibited  in  literature,  religion, 
 paintings,  and  architecture,  since  the  disappearance  of  Bud- 
 dhism from  India. 
 
 Vishnu  is  announced  as  born  on  earth,  in  the  family  of 
 Yadu,  and  consequently  “ whoever  hears  the  account  of 
 the  race  of  Y'adu  shall  be  released  from  all  sin.”  The 
 Y^adus  were  settled  at  Dwaraka,  on  the  west  coast  of  Gu- 
 zerat ; their  government  was  chiefly  carried  on  by  means 
 of  jniblic  assemblies,  at  which  even  women  were  present ; 
 and  although  they  had  a king,  no  great  importance  seems 
 to  have  attached  to  his  office.  At  the  period  of  the  fol- 
 lowing story  Krishna  lived  amongst  the  Yadus  as  a power- 
 ful and  successful  warrior.  At  times  he  is  alluded  to  as  a 
 form  of  the  God  Vishnu,  but  never  in  the  character  of  an 
 earthly  sovereign.  The  following  is  abridged  from  Wil- 
 son’s ‘ Y’ishnu  Purana  — 
 
 * Yislinu  Purana,  Introcl.,  11.  II.  Wilson,  pp.  3,  G,  9. 
 
 t Oxford  Lectures,  II.  II.  Wilson,  pp.  25,  27,  31. 
 
KRISHNA. 
 
 i37 
 
 STORY  OF  THE  SYAMAXTAKA  GEM. 
 
 A king  named  Satrajit  enjoyed  the  pri^dlege  of  a per- 
 sonal acquaintance  with  the  Sun.  As  he  walked  along  the 
 seashore  at  Dwaraka  he  addressed  hymns  and  praises  to 
 him,  and  presently  the  divinity  appeared  and  stood  before 
 him ; but  the  shape  was  indistinct,  and  the  King  said, 
 “ I have  beheld  thee.  Lord,  in  the  heavens  as  a globe  of 
 fire ; noiv  do  thou  show  favour  to  me,  that  I may  see  thee 
 in  thy  proper  form.”  On  this,  taking  the  jewel  called 
 Syamautaka  from  his  neck,  he  placed  it  apart,  and  Satrajit 
 then  beheld  him  of  a dwarfsh  statui’e,  with  a body  bke 
 burnished  copper,  and  with  slightly  reddish  eyes.  Having- 
 offered  his  adorations,  the  Sun  desired  him  to  demand  a 
 boon,  and  he  requested  to  have  the  jewel.  The  Sun  imme- 
 diately presented  it  to  him,  and  then  resumed  his  place  in 
 the  sky.  Satrajit  placed  the  spotless  gem  of  gems  upon 
 his  neck  and  returned  to  Dwaraka;  but  the  inhabitants, 
 startled  at  the  approach  of  such  effulgence,  fled  in  conster- 
 nation to  the  wai'rior  Krishna,  saying,  Lord,  assm-edly 
 the  Divine  Sun  is  coming  to  visit  you.”  Krishna  smiled 
 at  their  feai’s,  and  assm-ed  them  that  they  had  not  seen 
 the  Sun,  but  merely  their  own  king  Satrajit,  to  whom  the 
 Sun  had  presented  the  Syamautaka  gem.  Satrajit  in  the 
 meantime  reached  his  house,  and  there  deposited  the  jewel, 
 which,  by  virtue  of  its  presence,  yielded  eight  loads  of  gold 
 a day,  and  averted  fearful  portents,  wild  beasts,  fire,  rob- 
 bers, and  famine. 
 
 Krishna  was  privately  of  ojiinion  that  this  ivonderful  gem 
 should  have  been  given  to  L^grasena,  another  Yadu  chief 
 and  his  own  near  relative,  but  he  said  nothing,  in  order 
 
438 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 to  avoid  quarrels.  Satrajit  nevertheless  lived  in  terror  lest 
 Krishna  should  demand  the  jewel,  and  in  order  to  preserve 
 it  he  transferred  it  to  his  brother.  Now  it  was  the  peculiar 
 property  of  this  jewel,  that  although  it  was  an  inexhaustible 
 source  of  good  to  a virtuous  man,  it  caused  death  to  the 
 wicked.  The  King’s  brother  was  not  virtuous ; hut  he 
 took  the  gem,  hung  it  round  his  neck,  concealed  it  from 
 view,  mounted  his  horse,  and  went  into  the  woods  to  hunt. 
 
 In  the  chase  a lion  killed  him,  and,  taking  the  jewel  in 
 his  mouth,  was  trotting  off,  when  he  was  observed  and 
 killed  by  the  King  of  the  Bears,  who,  securing  the  gem, 
 retired  to  his  cave  and  gave  it  to  his  little  son  to  play  with. 
 When  a length  of  time  had  elapsed  and  the  King’s  bro- 
 ther did  not  reappear,  whispers  began  to  cu’culate  that  this 
 must  be  Krishna’s  doing,  who,  desirous  of  possessing  the 
 jewel,  had  killed  the  wearer. 
 
 These  immoiirs  no  sooner  reached  the  indignant  Krishna 
 than,  collecting  a number  of  Yadavas  around  him,  he  tracked 
 the  course  of  the  hunter ; and  the  impressions  of  the  horse’s 
 hoofs  giving  full  evidence  that  both  liorse  and  man  had 
 been  killed  by  a lion,  Krishna  was  at  once  acquitted. 
 Wishing  however  to  recover  the  gem  he  followed  the  steps 
 of  the  lion,  and  arrived  at  the  spot  where  the  lion  had  been 
 killed  by  the  bear ; and  then  tracking  the  footsteps  of  the 
 hear  he  arrived  at  the  foot  of  a mountain,  where  he  desired 
 his  followers  to  wait  for  him  whilst  he  ascended  to  the 
 cavern  residence  of  the  King  of  the  Bears. 
 
 He  had  scarcely  entered  when  he  saw  the  nurse  holding 
 up  the  jewel  to  the  child  in  her  arms.  Seeing  Krishna 
 with  his  eyes  fixed  upon  the  gem,  the  nurse  screamed,  and 
 the  King  of  the  Bears  came  at  her  cry.  A conflict  then 
 
liRlSHNA. 
 
 439 
 
 took  place  between  Krishna  and  the  bear,  which  lasted  one 
 and  twenty  days.  After  seven  or  eight  days  Krishna^s 
 followers  gave  him  up,  returned  to  the  town,  and  reported 
 he  was  dead.  This  was  a most  fortunate  circumstance  for 
 Krishna,  for  his  relations  immediately  performed  funeral 
 rites,  and  the  food  and  water  thus  offered  supported  him 
 in  his  combat ; whilst  the  bear,  bruised  in  every  limb  and 
 exhausted  for  want  of  food,  cast  himself  upon  the  ground 
 and  deelared  that  his  mighty  antagonist  must  be  invinei- 
 ble,  and  “ a portion  of  Narayana,  the  defender  of  the  Uni- 
 verse.”* Krishna  acknowledged  this  to  be  the  case,  ex- 
 plained the  purpose  of  his  being  on  earth,  and  relieved  the 
 pain  which  the  bear  suffered  from  his  woimds ; and  he’  and 
 the  bear  then  beeame  such  good  friends  that  the  former 
 aceepted  the  bear’s  daughter  in  marriage,  and  taking  the 
 jewel  accompanied  his  bride  to  Dwaraka. 
 
 AVhen  the  people  beheld  him  returning  to  them  alive, 
 they  were  seized  with  sueh  delight  that  old  people  recovered 
 youthful  vigour,  and  men  and  women  assembled  around 
 the  father  of  the  hero  offering  eongratulations.  Krishna 
 related  to  the  assembly  everything  exactly  as  it  had  hap- 
 pened, and,  restoring  the  jeAvel  to  the  King,  w as  exonerated 
 from  the  crime  of  whieh  he  had  been  accused. 
 
 The  King  alone  remained  uneasy,  reflecting  that  he  had 
 been  the  cause  of  the  aspersions  cast  upon  the  character  of 
 the  hero  ; and,  with  a view’  to  reconcihation  and  safety,  he 
 presented  his  daughter  to  Krishna  as  a wife.  This  pro- 
 ceeding had  precisely  the  reverse  effect  to  that  intended ; 
 for  three  of  the  most  distinguished  Yadu  chiefs  had  afready 
 been  in  treaty  with  the  King  for  the  possession  of  this 
 * Naravaiia  is  one  of  Yislinu’s  names. 
 
440 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 daughter;  and  when  he  disgraeed  them  by  eonfemng  her 
 upon  another^  they  made  a league  amongst  themselves  to 
 kill  the  King,  seize  the  jewel,  and  support  eaeh  other  if 
 attacked  in  consequence  by  the  mighty  Krishna. 
 
 At  this  conjuncture  news  arrived  at  Dwaraka  that 
 Krishna’s  friends,  Aijuna  and  his  four  Pandu  brothers, 
 had  been  burned  in  their  house  by  order  of  the  Kurus. 
 Krishna  knew  that  they  had  escaped,  but  they  were  in 
 danger,  and  he  started  instantly  to  their  assistance.  His 
 absence  gave  the  oft’ended  lovers  a safe  opportunity  for  kill- 
 ing the  King  and  seizing  the  gem;  but  the  King’s  daugh- 
 ter was  Krishna’s  wife,  and  seized  with  fury  she  mounted 
 her  chariot,  travelled  to  her  husband,  and  implored  him  to 
 avenge  the  heinous  wrong.  Although  Krishna  is  ever  in- 
 ternally tranquil,  his  eyes  flashed  whilst  she  told  her  tale ; 
 but  when  he  spoke  it  was  to  beg  his  wife  to  dismiss  exces- 
 sive sorrow,  for  it  required  not  her  lamentations,  he  said, 
 to  excite  his  wrath.  Krishna  quickly  returned  to  Dwaraka, 
 and  the  chief  who  had  struck  the  blow  took  alarm,  and 
 his  two  associates  refused  help  ; he  left  the  jewel  with  the 
 one  named  Akrura,  mounted  a very  swift  mare  that  could 
 travel  a hundred  leagues  in  a day,  and  fled  towards  Upper 
 India.  Krishna  forthwith  harnessed  his  four  horses  to 
 his  car,  and,  accompanied  by  bis  brother,  set  off  in  quick 
 pursuit.  The  mare  of  the  fugitive  was  true  to  her  hundred 
 yojanas ; but  on  reaching  Mithila,  in  Tirhut,  she  dropped 
 down  dead.  When  Krishna  reached  the  spot  he  left  Bala- 
 rama  in  the  car,  and  running  over  a few'  miles  of  rough 
 ground,  which  no  carriage  could  have  traversed,  he  dis- 
 charged his  discus  and  struck  oft'  his  adversary’s  head  whilst 
 yet  at  a considerable  distance.  He  then  searched  the 
 
KRISHNA. 
 
 441 
 
 mail  for  the  jewel,  but  unable  to  find  it  be  returned,  and 
 told  Balarama  wbat  had  occurred.  Balarama  flew  into  a 
 rage,  believing  that  Krishna  bad  secreted  the  precious  gem ; 
 and  in  consequence  be  refused  to  return  to  Dwaraka,  and 
 for  three  years  remained  in  cities  on  the  Ganges.  Akrura 
 in  the  meantime  obtained  the  throne  of  Dwaraka,  and  kept 
 the  gem  in  secret.  For  flfty-two  years  he  lived  in  afflu- 
 ence, the  virtue  of  the  gem  averting  death  and  pestilence ; 
 but  at  the  end  of  that  period  he  abandoned  his  throne  and 
 his  duty,  taking  flight  with  some  allies  in  a neighbouring 
 political  disturbance ; then  came  portents,  snakes,  dearth, 
 and  plague.  So  strange  a coincidence  induced  Krishna  to 
 call  a public  assembly,  at  which  it  was  agreed  that  Akrura 
 must  be  recalled ; and  no  sooner  did  he  return  than  the 
 plague  and  famine  ceased.  Krishna  was  now  confirmed  in 
 his  belief  that  Akrura  had  possession  of  the  Syamantaka 
 gem  ; and  on  the  pretext  of  a festive  celebration,  he  called 
 a meeting  of  Yadavas  at  his  own  house.  After  other 
 business  was  dismissed,  he  laughed  and  joked  and  said  to 
 Akrura,  “ Kinsman,  you  are  a very  prince  in  your  libe- 
 rality ; but  we  know  very  well  that  you  have  the  precious 
 wealth-supplying  jewel  in  your  possession.  Your  holding 
 it  has  been  to  the  great  benefit  of  this  kingdom,  so  with 
 you  let  it  remain  ; but  my  brother  Balarama  suspects  that 
 I have  it,  therefore  out  of  kindness  to  me  show  it  to  this 
 assembly.  Akrura  hesitated,  but  said  at  length,  “ It  is 
 true  that  the  jewel  of  the  Sun  Avas  entrusted  to  me : it  has 
 caused  me  much  anxiety ; and  fearing  that  you  might  not 
 consent  to  my  being  the  holder  of  a jewel  so  essential  to 
 the  welfare  of  the  kingdom,  I forbore  to  divulge  that  it  was 
 in  my  hands ; but  take  it  now  yourself,  and  give  the  care 
 
412 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 of  it  to  whomsoever  you  please. Akrm’a  then  drew  forth 
 a small  gold  box,  and  took  from  it  the  jewel,  and  the  whole 
 ehamber  was  illuminated  by  its  radiance.  “ Here,^'  said 
 Akrura,  “ is  the  gem,  let  him  to  whom  it  belongs  now  take 
 it.”  At  the  sight  of  this  wonderfid  jewel  the  assembly 
 was  clamorous  with  delight.  Balarama  claimed  it  as  the 
 joint  property  of  himself  and  Krishna  ; and  Krishna’s  wife 
 claimed  it  as  having  been  given  to  her  father  ; and  Krishna 
 himself  said  that  he  stood  between  the  two  like  “ an  ox 
 between  the  two  wheels  of  a cart.”  He  addressed  himself 
 however  to  Akrura  as  follows  : — “ This  jewel  has  been  ex- 
 hibited in  order  to  clear  my  reputation  : it  is  the  joint 
 right  of  Balarama  and  myself,  and  is  the  patrimonial  in- 
 heritance of  my  wife  ; but  to  be  of  advantage  to  the  king- 
 dom it  must  be  in  the  charge  of  a person  leading  a life 
 of  perfect  purity.  Now  as  I have  sixteen  thousand  wives, 
 and  Balarama  is  addicted  to  wine,  we  are  out  of  the  ques- 
 tion ; and  I and  my  brother  and  my  wife  unite  with  all  the 
 Yadavas  in  requesting  that  you,  most  bountiful  Akrura, 
 will  retain  the  jewel  as  heretofore  for  the  general  good.” 
 Thus  urged  Akrura  accepted  the  jewel,  and  thenceforth 
 wore  it  publicly  round  his  neck,  where  it  shone  with  daz- 
 zling brightness.  The  story  concludes  with  the  following 
 remark  : — 
 
 “ He  who  calls  to  mind  the  vindication  of  Krishna  from  false 
 asj)ersions,  shall  never  become  the  subject  of  unfoimded  accusation 
 in  the  least  degree,  and  living  in  the  full  exercise  of  his  senses  shall 
 be  cleansed  from  every  sm.” 
 
 In  a subsequent  story,  Vishnu’s  supremacy  is  distinctly 
 declared,  and  the  frolics  of  his  childhood,  when  born  upon 
 
VISHNU. 
 
 4i3 
 
 earth  as  Krishna,  are  related  with  much  dramatic  effect. 
 The  first  scene  is  at  Mathura  (or  Muttra),  on  the  Jumna, 
 then  inhabited  by  the  Bhojas,  a division  of  the  Yadavas. 
 Vasudeva  has  just  married  a maiden  of  celestial  beauty ; 
 he  sits  in  a car  beside  his  bride,  and  Kansa,  the  king  of 
 the  tribe,  acts  as  his  charioteer.  Suddenly  a voice  deep  as 
 thunder  comes  from  the  sky,  telling  Kansa  that  he  is  a fool, 
 for  that  the  eighth  child  of  the  damsel  in  the  car  will  take 
 away  his  life.  Kansa  immediately  draws  his  sword  and  is 
 about  to  destroy  the  prophecy  by  slaying  the  damsel,  but 
 her  husband  interposes,  saying,  “ Kill  her  not,  great  war- 
 rior ! and  I will  deliver  to  you  every  child  that  she  may 
 bring  forth.”  Appeased  by  which  promise,  and  relying  on 
 the  character  of  Vasudeva,  Kansa  desists. 
 
 The  scene  here  changes  : Earth,  groaning  under  her  load 
 of  sin  and  trouble,  seeks  relief  fi’om  the  gods  assembled 
 upon  Mount  Meru.  “ Vishnu,”  she  commences,  “ is  the 
 mighty  inscrutable  being  of  whom  other  gods  are  but  a 
 part.  This  assemblage  is  hut  a part  of  him.  The  sun,  the 
 wind,  the  saints,  the  Rudras,  . . . the  Aswins,  fire,  ...  all 
 are  hut  forms  of  the  mighty  and  inscrutable  Vishnu.  . . . 
 The  heayens  painted  with  planets,  etc.,  fire,  water,  wind, 
 and  myself;  . . . the  whole  universe  consists  of  Vishnu.” 
 She  then  proceeds  to  relate,  that  at  present  many  demons 
 overrun  and  harass  the  region  of  mortals,  and  that  the  chief 
 demon,  formerly  killed  by  Vishnu,  had  reviveej  in  the  per- 
 son of  the  cruel  King  Kansa,  at  Mathura.  M'hen  the  gods 
 had  heard  the  complaints  of  Earth,  Brahma,  at  their  re- 
 quest, explained  how  Earth’s  burden  might  be  lightened ; 
 and  since  even  himself  and  the  other  celestials  were  hut 
 impersonations  of  Vishnu  (or  Narayana),  ‘‘Let  us,”  he 
 
14t 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 says,  “ repair  to  the  northern  shore  of  the  IMilky  Sea,  and, 
 having  glorified  Hari  (Vishnu),  report  to  liim  what  we  have 
 heard.  He  who  is  the  spirit  of  all,  and  of  whom  the  uni- 
 verse consists,  constantly,  for  the  sake  of  Earth,  descends 
 in  a small  portion  of  his  essence  to  establish  righteousness 
 below.”  The  Gods  accordingly  repair  to  Vishnu,  and  ad- 
 dress him,  partly  in  the  language  of  the  Vedas,*  as  “ with- 
 out name  or  colour,  hands  or  feet,  one  and  multiform,  the 
 eye  of  all,  and  wearer  of  many  shapes;  as  fire,  though  one 
 is  variously  kindled,  and  though  imchaugeable  in  essence” 
 is  modified  in  many  ways.  To  thee.  Spirit  Supreme  ! be 
 adoration ; Thou  assumest  a shape,  not  as  a consequence  of 
 virtue  or  of  vice,  but  for  the  sole  object  of  maintaining 
 piety.”  The  unborn,  universal  Hari  (Vishnu),  being  pleased 
 Avith  these  eulogiums,  asked  what  they  desired,  and  when 
 Brahma  explained  that  the  Earth  was  oppressed  by  demons, 
 he  bade  the  gods  go  down  to  the  earth,  each  in  his  own 
 portion,  and  wage  war  with  the  mighty  Asuras,  and  for 
 himself  he  promises  to  become  impersonated  as  the  eighth 
 child  of  Vasudeva,  and  in  that  character  to  destroy  the  evil 
 Kansa. 
 
 In  the  meanwhile  Vasudeva  was  true  to  his  promises,  he 
 had  delivered  up  all  his  children  to  the  King,  and  six  had 
 been  put  to  death  as  soon  as  born.  The  seventh  child  was  a 
 })ortion  of  Sesha,  who  was  a portion  of  Vishnu,  and  this  child, 
 named  Balarama,was  miraculously  transferred  to  Boliini,  an- 
 other wife  of  Vasudeva.  The  eighth  child  was  born  in  prison, 
 and  was  Vishnu,  as  Krishna.  The  guards  of  the  prison  were 
 on  this  occasion  charmed  by  a spell,  and  the  father  enabled 
 to  fly  with  his  infant  to  the  fiuther  side  of  the  river  Jumna, 
 * Vishnu  Parana,  note,  p.  495. 
 
KRISHNA. 
 
 445 
 
 where  he  safely  reached  an  encampment  of  Gopis,  or  cow- 
 herds, who  had  come  to  Mathura  in  order  to  pay  tribute  to 
 Kansa.  Whilst  the  Gopis  were  yet  sleeping,  V asudeva  con- 
 trived to  exchange  his  child  with  that  of  Naiida,  the  chief 
 of  the  Gopis;  and  consequently  when  Nanda’s  wife  awoke, 
 she  found  the  little  Krishna,  and  rejoiced  at  having  a hoy 
 as  black  as  the  dark  leaves  of  the  lotus.  Vasudeva’s  wife, 
 Rohini,  was  one  of  this  tribe,  and  the  brothers  were  conse- 
 quently brought  up  together,  and  became  constant  compa- 
 nions, although  ignorant  of  their  real  birth  and  close  rela- 
 tionship. 
 
 Vasudeva  was  however  very  uneasy  so  long  as  the  Gojiis 
 remained  living  in  their  waggons  on  the  banks  of  the 
 Jumna,  and  going  once  more  to  Nanda,  he  urged  that 
 after  the  yearly  tribute  had  been  paid  it  was  not  safe  for 
 men  of  property  to  tarry  near  the  Court.  “ Up,  Nanda ! 
 quickly,  and  set  off  to  your  pastures  ! ” and  accordingly, 
 their  goods  being  placed  in  their  waggons,  the  cowherds 
 I’eturned  to  their  village,  called  Gokula. 
 
 Krishna  occasionally  startled  the  community  by  amazing- 
 feats  of  strength  ;*  as  on  one  occasion  when  put  to  sleep  in 
 a little  bed  beneath  a waggon,  he  kicked  up  his  feet,  upset 
 the  vehicle,  and  broke  in  consequence  a whole  set  of  pots 
 and  pans.  He  and  his  brother  were  in  fact  most  trouble- 
 some children,  creeping  everywhere  amongst  dust  and  ashes 
 and  getting  into  the  cow-pens  amongst  the  calves  to  pull 
 their  tails ; and  when  tied  to  a large  mortar  to  keep  him 
 quiet,  Krishna  ran  off  with  it  and  pulled  down  a couple  of 
 trees,  laughing  and  showing  his  little  white  teeth  at  those 
 who  came  to  see  what  had  caused  the  crackling  noise.  When 
 
 * Yishnu  Parana,  note,  p.  509. 
 
416 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 Krishna  became  a lad,  he  had  a long  and  arduous  contest 
 with  a serpent,  which,  ending  successfully,  is  a favourite 
 subject  with  Hindu  artists.  On  another  occasion  his  bro- 
 
 ther Balarama  fought  a demon  who  had  mingled  in  their 
 boyish  sports : the  game  consists  of  j umping  with  both 
 feet  at  once,  two  boys  together,  and  the  one  who  holds  out 
 longest,  or  comes  first  to  a given  point,  is  victor,  and  the 
 vanquished  then  carries  him  on  his  shoulders.* 
 
 At  the  conclusion  of  the  rainy  season,  when  the  skies 
 were  bright  with  stars,  the  herdsmen  were  busily  engaged 
 in  preparing  a sacrifice  for  Indra ; but  Krishna,  resolving 
 to  put  the  king  of  the  celestials  into  a passion,  persuaded 
 Nanda  to  worship  mountains  and  cattle,  and  have  nothing 
 to  do  with  Indra.  “ Kine,”  he  said,  are  om’  support ; 
 we  have  neither  fields  nor  houses ; we  wander  about  haji- 
 * Vishnu  Parana,  >iofe,  ]).  518. 
 
KRISHNA. 
 
 ur 
 
 pily  where  we  list,  travelling  in  our  waggons ; we  are  then 
 bound  to  worship  the  mountains  and  offer  saerifices  to 
 eattle.  What  have  we  to  do  with  Indra?”  Offerings  of 
 curd,  milk,  and  flesh  were  in  consequence  presented  to  the 
 mountain,  and  then  the  worshippers  circumambulated  the 
 cows  and  bulls,  who  bellowed  as  loud  as  roaring  clouds. 
 Indra’s  anger  broke  forth  in  a furious  tempest,  which  lasted 
 seven  days  and  seven  nights,  but  Krishna  protected  the  dis- 
 tressed community  by  plucking  up  the  mountain  and  hold- 
 ing it  aloft  as  an  umbrella  until  the  tempest  ceased,  when 
 he  planted  it  again  upon  the  earth.*  Upon  witnessing  these 
 marvels,  the  herdsmen  wished  to  render  worship  to  Krishna, 
 but  he  desired  them  not  to  inquire  into  his  nature,  but  to 
 be  contented  that  he  lived  among  them  as  a friendly  rela- 
 tive. He  next  amuses  himself  amongst  the  Gopis,  or  young 
 damsels  of  the  tribe : he  begins  by  singing  sweet  low 
 strains,  such  as  women  love,  and  the  girls  all  quit  their 
 homes,  approach,  and  are  entranced. 
 
 At  about  this  period  the  cruel  King  Kansa  gets  informa- 
 tion that  Krishna  is  the  eighth  child  of  Vasudeva,  whom  he 
 believed  he  had  killed  when  an  infant,  and  from  whom  it 
 was  predicted  he  would  meet  his  death.  He  sent  therefore 
 for  one  of  his  nobles,  and  told  him  confidently  that  two  vile 
 boys,  portions  of  Vishnu,  had  been  born  amongst  the  Gopis 
 for  the  express  purpose  of  destroying  him,  and  he  bade  the 
 Yadu  chief  go  to  the  settlement  and  bring  them  to  Mathura, 
 on  the  pretext  of  their  being  present  at  the  festival  of  arms 
 to  be  celebrated  at  the  lunation.  During  the  trial  of  arms, 
 he  intended  to  oppose  the  youths  to  his  most  experienced 
 
 * A remarkable  representation  of  this  occurs  upon  the  sculptured  rocks  of 
 Mahabalipur. — Wilson’s  Yislmn  Piuana,  note,  p.  527. 
 
418 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 boxers,  and  if  not  tlius  destroyed  to  send  Ins  elephant 
 against  them ; and  lastly,  his  design  was  to  seize  upon  the 
 flocks  and  herds  of  their  supposed  fathers,  for  the  Gopis,  he 
 says,  have  always  been  his  foes.  The  Yadu  chief  accepts 
 the  commission,  hut  secretly  rejoices  in  ha\dng  thus  an 
 opportunity  of  beholding  a form  of  Vishnu.  “ I shall,”  he 
 says,  see  Kesava,  who  is  without  beginning  or  end ; by 
 worshipping  whom  with  a hundred  sacrifices  Indra  obtained 
 the  sovereignty  over  the  Gods.  Hari,  whose  nature  is  un- 
 known to  Brahma,  Indra,  etc.,  he  who  is  all  and  is  pre- 
 sent to  all,  he,  the  unborn,  who  has  preserved  this  world 
 in  the  various  forms  of  a fish,  a tortoise,  a boar,  a horse, 
 a lion,  glory  to  that  being  whose  deceptive  adoption  of 
 father,  son,  brother,  friend,  mother,  relative,  the  world  is 
 unable  to  penetrate ! Glory  to  him  who  is  one  u'ith  true 
 knowledge,  who  is  inscrutable,  and  through  whom,  seated 
 in  his  heart,  the  Yogi  crosses  the  wide  expanse  of  worldly 
 ignorance  and  illusion ! I put  my  trust  in  that  unborn,  eter- 
 nal Hari,  by  meditation  on  whom  man  becomes  the  repo- 
 sitory of  all  good  things.”  On  another  occasion,  the  same 
 person  makes  an  address  to  Vishnu,  from  which  the  follow- 
 ing are*  extracts  : — 
 
 “ ‘ Salutation  to  thee  who  art  uniform  and  manifold ! . . . Salu- 
 tation to  thee  who  art  truth  and  the  essence  of  oblations ! Saluta- 
 tion to  thee  whose  nature  is  unknown,  who  art  beyond  primeval 
 matter,  who  existed  in  five  forms,  as  one  with  the  faculties,  with 
 matter,  with  the  living  soul,  with  supreme  spirit!  Show  favour  to 
 me,  whether  addressed  as  Brahma,  Vishnu,  Siva,  or  the  like.  I 
 adore  thee  whose  nature  is  indescribable,  whose  purposes  are  in- 
 scrutable, whose  name  even  is  unknown  ; for  the  attributes  of  kind 
 or  appellation  are  not  applicable  to  tliee,  who  art  That.  . . . But  as 
 the  accomplishment  of  ovm  objects  cannot  he  obtained  except  tlirough 
 some  specific  form,  thou  art  termed  l\v  us  Kri^ia,  Achyuta,  Ananta, 
 
KRISHNA. 
 
 449 
 
 or  Vishnu.  ...  To  liini  who  is  one  with  true  knowledge,  who  is 
 and  is  not  perceptible,  I bow.  Glory  he  to  him,  the  lord  V asu- 
 deva !’  ” 
 
 Three  other  names  are  added,  it  being  customary  for  wor- 
 shippers of  Yishnu  to  address  him  as  identical  with  his 
 brother,  his  son,  and  his  grandson,  and  the  names  usually 
 given  are  Krishna,  Balarama,  Pradyumna,  and  Anirudha.* 
 
 Krishna’s  visit  to  Mathura  ended  of  comse  in  the  death 
 of  Kansa ; but  it  is  unnecessary  to  follow  all  the  strange 
 jumble  which  it  makes,  of  Krishna  as  Yishnu,  and  Krishna 
 sporting  with  men  and  maidens.  On  one  occasion  he  of- 
 fended the  King  of  Benares,  who  worshipped  Siva,  and 
 Siva  sent  in  consequence  a vast  and  formidable  female, 
 like  flame  out  of  fire,  blazing  with  ruddy  light,  and  with 
 fieiy  radiance  streaming  amidst  her  hair.  Angrily  she 
 called  to  Krishna  and  departed  to  Dw  araka.  Krishna  was 
 playing  at  dice,  and,  seeing  the  apparition,  said  to  his  discus, 
 “ Kill  this  fierce  creatm’e  whose  tresses  are  of  plaited  fire.” 
 The  fiend  terrified  fled  to  Benai'es,  but  the  discus  pursued, 
 and,  consuming  the  King  and  all  his  forces  by  its  radiance, 
 afterwards  set  fire  to  the  city,  in  which  the  magic  power  of 
 Siva  had  concealed  herself. 
 
 ^lany  stories  are  told  also  of  his  marriage  w ith  Rukmi- 
 mi,  daughter  of  a king  of  Behar,  and  of  his  wild  music  and 
 dancing  with  Radha  and  the  Gopis.  These  arc  favourite 
 subjects  of  poems,  from  one  of  which  Mr.  Griffith  gives  us 
 the  following  pleasing  verses.  Xanda,  Krishna’s  foster- 
 father,  is  the  first  speaker  : — 
 
 “ Go,  gentle  Radha ! seek  thy  fearful  love ; 
 
 Uusk  are  the  woodlands,  black  the  sky  above ; 
 
 Vishnu  Purana,  note,  p.  .530. 
 
450 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 Bring  til}’  dear  wandei-er  home,  and  bid  him  rest 
 His  weary  head  upon  thy  faithful  breast.” 
 
 A pitying  maiden  then  reveals  that  Krishna  is  near  at 
 hand,  and  says, — 
 
 “ In  this  love-tide  of  spring,  when  the  spirit  is  glad, 
 
 And  the  parted — j’es,  oidy  the  parted — are  sad. 
 
 Thy  lover,  thy  Krishna,  is  daneuig  in  glee 
 A^'ith  troops  of  young  maidens,  forgetful  of  thee. 
 
 “ The  season  is  come  when  the  desolate  hride 
 ^\'ould  woo  with  laments  her  dear  lord  to  her  side. 
 
 When  the  rich-laden  stems  of  the  Yakul  bend  low 
 ’Keath  the  clustering  flowers  in  the  pride  of  their  glow  : 
 
 In  this  love-tide  of  spring  when  the  spirit  is  glad,  . . . 
 
 Thine  own,  thy  dear  Krishna,  is  dancing  in  glee. 
 
 He  loves  his  fair  partners  and  thinks  not  of  thee.” 
 
 Radha’s  image  however  lingered  in  his  lireast,  and  dissatis- 
 fied amid  his  dancing,  “ he  sought  his  faithfid  love,  and 
 mourned  his  darling  in  the  shady  grove.”  But  she  was  no 
 longer  there,  and  he  sings, — 
 
 “ She  is  fled,  she  is  gone ! Oh,  how  angry  was  she 
 When  she  saw  the  gay  shepherd-girls  dancing  with  me  ! 
 
 Oh ! how  could  I speak  to  her  ? how  could  I dare 
 Entreat  her  to  stay  and  to  pardon  me  there  ? 
 
 Oh,  Hari ! vile  Hari ! lament  thee  and  mourn. 
 
 Thy  lady  has  left  thee,  has  left  thee  in  scorn  ! 
 
 “ How  bright  in  her  anger  she  seems  to  me  now. 
 
 With  her  scorn-flashing  glance  and  her  passiou-arch’d  brow ! 
 And  her  proud  trembling  eye  in  ni}-  fancy  I see. 
 
 Like  the  lotus  that  throhs  ’ueath  the  wing  of  the  hec. 
 
 Oh,  Hari ! vile  Hari ! lament  thee  and  mourn. 
 
 Thy  fiiir  one  has  left  thee,  has  left  thee  in  scorn  !” 
 
 Krishna’s  life  appears  to  have  closed  amid  civil  feuds; 
 
KRISHNA. 
 
 451 
 
 for  he  is  said  to  have  assisted  in  destroying  his  native  eity 
 of  Dwaraka,  and  to  have  migrated  with  the  remnant  of  the 
 Yadava  trilie  to  the  Punjab,  and  finally  to  have  received  his 
 death  from  a hunter,  w'ho  shot  him  whilst  absorbed  in  con- 
 templation under  the  trees  of  a lonely  forest. 
 
 2 G 2 
 
CHAPTER  VI 
 
 “Far,  like  the  comet's  way  through  iiifiiiitc  space, 
 
 Stretches  the  long,  untravell’d  path  of  light 
 Into  the  depth  of  ages.” — "Brtant. 
 
 Our  way  has  uow  been  threaded  hastily,  but  raethodieally, 
 through  the  three  mftrked  periods  of  Ancient  India;  and  in 
 concluding  this  sketch  of  those  great  periods,  it  oidy  re- 
 mains for  Its  to  indicate  the  onward  progress  of  the  schemes 
 
lilFECT  OF  CASTE, 
 
 153 
 
 wliicli  then  originated.  Tliree  privileged  castes  and  one 
 sidtordinatc  we  have  seen  as  the  intention,  but  now  we 
 read,  “ In  the  present  day  the  only  one  of  the  original  castes 
 extant  is  the  Brahman ; the  Kshatriya,  V aisya,  and  Sudra 
 are  extinct ; and  the  innumerable  castes  which  are  now 
 met  with  are  in  part  the  representations  of  the  ancient 
 mixed  castes,  but  in  a still  greater  degree  are  the  progeny 
 of  later  times,  and  distinctions  unauthorizedly  assumed  by 
 the  people  themselves,”*  Even  Brahmans  are  very  differ- 
 ent to  what  was  intended ; for  Avhilst  men  of  this  caste  are 
 often  poor  and  illiterate,  and  obliged  to  support  themselves 
 by  the  Avork  of  their  hands,  men  of  Ioav  caste  are  frequently 
 the  influential  religious  guides  of  society. t 
 
 And  also,  '‘the  Kshatriya  caste  is  extinct;”  that  is, 
 Kshatriyas  no  longer  exist  as  a division  of  society.  The 
 Avhole  country  of  Rajputana  claims  to  be  inhabited  by  Ksha- 
 triyas ; but  if  such  claims  Avere  admitted,  Kshatriyas  would 
 be  changed  from  a caste  into  a tribe;  and  the  fact  still 
 remain,  that  soldiers,  and  even  Rajas,  may  be  and  usually 
 are  Avithout  the  sacrificial  thread  Avith  which  Kshatriyas 
 Avere  originally  invested.  The  thii’d  privileged  caste,  the 
 \’^aisyas,  are  no  longer  heard  of;  and  Sudras  are  more 
 changed  than  even  Brahmans.  Instead  of  being  serfs,  as 
 Avas  intended,  they  are  a small  independent  race  or  family, 
 proud  of  their  lineage.  Kings  of  Magadha  have  been  Su- 
 dras, the  Avhole  nation  of  Mahratta  is  Sudra,  and  in  many 
 parts  of  India  Avriters  and  artists  are  exclusively  Sudras. 
 The  Brahraanical  system  of  caste  has  therefore  proved  a 
 failure  ; failing  to  maintain  nobility,  but  fixing  fast  the  fet- 
 ters of  hereditary  self-importance. 
 
 II,  II.  Wilson,  Oxford  Lectures,  p.  59.  t p.  29. 
 
454 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 The  effect  of  Bralimauical  regiilatious  upon  iTomeii  may 
 be  considered  more  at  length,  for  the  position  of  women 
 has  ever  been  one  of  the  most  remarkable  features  of  social 
 life  in  India.  The  Code  of  ^lauu  gives  woman  no  inde- 
 pendence; she  belongs  to  father,  brother,  or  husband,  “ and 
 neither  by  sale  nor  desertion  can  she  be  released.”*  So 
 long  as  the  husband  bved  and  loved,  the  wife’s  happiness 
 required  no  more;  but  under  any  circumstances  she  had  no 
 resource,  and  if  he  died  she  was  required  to  live  in  a state 
 of  ascetic  penance  for  the  benefit  of  his  disembodied  soul, 
 and  in  the  hope  of  securing  to  herself  a place  in  his  man- 
 sion of  eternal  bliss.  And  behold  the  consequence;  manj^ 
 Koolin  Brahmans  marry  ten  or  fifteen  udves  for  the  sake 
 of  money,  and  never  see  the  greater  number  of  them  after 
 the  day  of  marriage.”  They  wash,  scour,  and  cook  by  night 
 and  by  day,  and  “ are  treated  worse  than  the  inferior  ani- 
 mals;” and  when  the  husband  dies,  the  chief  wife  is  bound 
 down  tidth  bamboos  and  burned  upon  his  funeral  pile.  Here 
 is  the  moral ! The  law  makes  woman  the  property  of  man, 
 and  her  fate  is  slavish  drudgery  whilst  he  lives,  and  death 
 upon  his  funeral  pyre  when  he  dies  ! But  nature  has  not 
 entirely  succumbed  to  law,  and  the  fine  free  woman’s  cha- 
 racter of  the  Sanskrit  epics  has  not  been  universally  sup- 
 pressed in  India.  Colonel  Sleeman  gives  a most  touching 
 account  of  a Hindu  Avoman  Avhom  he  had  knoAvn  upon  the 
 banks  of  the  Nerbudda ; she  Avas  the  AvidoAv  of  a Brahman 
 of  a numerous  and  highly  respectable  family,  and  begged 
 permission  to  burn  herself  Avith  the  body  of  her  husband. 
 This  being  refused,  and  a guard  placed  to  ensure  obedience, 
 she  sat  down  by  the  edge  of  the  Avater  and  refused  food. 
 
 * Code  of  Mail u,  ch.  is.,  pp.  198,  85,  86,  87. 
 
SUTTEES. 
 
 455 
 
 The  family  were  iirgeut  that  she  should  return  home  if  she 
 could  not  get  permission  to  be  burned,  for  whilst  she  re- 
 mained fasting  on  the  bare  rock  the  law  required  that  they 
 should  likewise  fast;  but  neither  children  nor  grandchildren 
 could  induce  her  to  relent,  although  she  was  certain  of  re- 
 spect and  kindness  from  them  if  she  lived.  From  Tuesday 
 the  24th  November,  1829,  when  her  husband  died,  until 
 the  Saturday  following,  did  she  sit  immovable,  and  then 
 Colonel  Sleeman  believed  it  his  duty  to  withdraw  the  pro- 
 hibition. He  rode  to  the  spot  and  spoke  to  her ; her  mind 
 was  firm  and  collected,  and  she  said  that  her  determina- 
 tion was  to  mix  her  ashes  with  those  of  her  departed  hus- 
 band, and  she  shonld  wait  until  he  gave  permission,  assured 
 that  God  would  in  the  meanwhile  sustain  her  life,  although 
 she  dared  not  eat  or  drink.  Looking  at  the  sun  then 
 rising  over  a beantiful  reach  of  the  Nei'budda  river,  she 
 said  calmly,  “ My  soul  has  been  for  five  days  with  my 
 husband’s  near  that  sun ; nothing  but  my  earthly  frame  is 
 left,  and  this  I know  you  will  in  time  snffer  to  be  mixed 
 with  the  ashes  of  his  in  yonder  pit,  because  it  is  not  in  your 
 nature  or  your  usage  wantonly  to  prolong  the  miseries  of  a 
 poor  old  woman.”  After  much  conversation,  she  convinced 
 Colonel  Sleeman  that  religion  alone  impelled  her.  “ My 
 soul,”  she  repeated,  “ is  with  Omed,  and  my  ashes  must 
 here  mix  with  his.”  Colonel  Sleeman  could  make  no  im- 
 pression on  her,  either  by  promising  wealth  and  honour  if 
 she  lived,  or  suggesting  the  displeasure  of  Government  to- 
 wards her  children  if  she  were  burned.  She  held  out  her 
 arm,  saying,  “ My  pulse  has  long  ceased  to  beat,  my  spirit 
 has  departed,  and  I have  nothing  left  but  a little  earth, 
 which  I desire  to  mingle  with  the  ashes  of  my  husband.  I 
 
45G 
 
 LIFE  IX  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 shall  sutler  uothing  in  burning,  and  if  you  would  have 
 proof,  order  some  fire,  and  you  shall  see  this  arm  consumed 
 without  my  feeling  pain.'’  Colonel  Sleemau  asked  her 
 when  she  had  first  resolved  upon  being  a Suttee,  and  she 
 said  it  was  thirteen  years  ago,  when  bathing  in  the  river 
 near  the  spot  on  which  she  then  sat;  and  the  idea  fixed  itself 
 in  her  mind  as  she  looked  at  the  splendid  temples  before 
 her,  erected  by  the  different  branches  of  her  family  over  the 
 ashes  of  their  relatives  who  had  fi’Oin  time  to  time  been 
 Inirned  as  Suttees.  The  Colonel  thought  it  unjustifiable 
 any  longer  to  resist  her  determination ; but  he  required 
 from  her  chief  relations  a formal  written  agreement  that  no 
 other  member  of  their  family  should  ever  attempt  the  same. 
 1 le  also  prohibited  the  building  of  any  temple  on  the  spot ; 
 but  unfortunately,  during  his  absence,  his  post  was  held  by 
 a Resident  unacquainted  with  the  circumstances,  and  a com- 
 memorative temple  was  erected.* 
 
 One  of  the  most  illustrious  characters  in  native  Indian 
 history  is  Alia  (or  more  correctly,  Ahalya)  Bhye,  a w oman — 
 pious,  compassionate,  clever,  and  energetic — who  governed 
 the  country  with  so  much  w isdom  and  firmness  that  her  su- 
 premacy was  acknowledged  by  all  the  surrounding  states : 
 but  she  Avas  a jMahratta,  and  owed  her  independence  of 
 character  to  the  free  though  turbulent  character  of  her  na- 
 tion. AA'hen  the  daughter  of  Alia  Bhye  lost  her  husband,  she 
 desired  to  burn  herself  upon  his  fmieral  pile.  Unlike  an 
 orthodox  Hindu,  Alia  Bhye  remonstrated  and  endeavomed 
 to  dissuade  her  daughter ; but  the  touching  reply  of  the 
 young  w idow  w as,  “ You  arc  old,  mother,  and  a fcAV  years 
 will  end  your  pious  life.  iSIy  husband  and  my  only  child 
 * ‘ Itamblcs,’  by  Colonel  Sleeman,  eh.  iv. 
 
MO. MEN. 
 
 457 
 
 arc  gone,  and  then  you  follow ; life  Mill  be  insupportable 
 to  me ; but  the  opportunity  of  terminating  it  Mutli  honour 
 Mill  then  have  passed.^^* 
 
 But  whilst  Hindu  Momen  of  the  present  day  are  chiefly 
 remarkable  for  helpless  submission  and  frivolity,  the  m omen 
 of  the  free  Bheels,  mIio  inhabit  hills  and  forests,  are  men- 
 tioned M'ith  much  interest  by  Sir  John  ^Malcolm  and  others 
 labouring  successfully  for  their  advancement.  The  follow- 
 ing short  anecdote  shows  a generous  courage  and  self- 
 reliance  wholly  wanting  under  Brahmanical  institutions.t 
 During  the  examination  into  the  guilt  of  Xadir  Singh,  a 
 gu’l  fourteen  years  of  age  M-as  examined,  whose  father  and 
 husband  had  been  instruments  in  committing  the  murder 
 of  which  he  was  accused.  She  M as  asked  if  they  put  the 
 deceased  to  death : ‘‘  Certainly  they  did,^’  was  her  firm 
 reply;  “ but  they  acted  by  the  Dhumnee’s  (or  lord’s)  order.” 
 She  M'as  told  this  did  not  clear  them ; for  that  it  was  not 
 an  affray,  but  a deed  committed  in  cold  blood.  “ Still,” 
 she  remonstrated,  “ they  had  the  Dhumnee’s  order.”  The 
 person  conducting  the  examination  shook  his  head,  M'here- 
 upon  the  girl  rose  from  the  ground  on  whieh  she  was  sit- 
 ting, and,  pointing  to  the  tM  O sentries  who  guarded  the 
 door,  exclaimed  M'ith  strong  feeling,  “ These  are  yom’  sol- 
 diers ; you  are  their  Dhumnee ; your  words  are  their  laws ; 
 if  you  order  them  this  moment  to  advance  and  put  me,  my 
 mother,  and  my  cousin,  who  arc  noAV  before  you,  to  death, 
 would  they  hesitate  in  slaying  three  female  Bheels  ? If  m c 
 were  innocent,  would  you  be  guilty  of  our  blood,  or  those 
 
 * Oriental  Magazine,  vol.  i.  p.  117. 
 
 t Sir  John  Malcolm’s  ‘ Central  India  Captain  T.  D.  Stuart  assisted  at 
 the  trial,  and  noted  down  the  expressions  at  the  time. 
 
158 
 
 LIFE  IX  AXCIEXT  INDIA. 
 
 faithful  men  ?”  She  then  sat  down,  saying,  “ My  father  and 
 husband  are  Nadii’’s  soldiers.” 
 
 The  religions  of  India  have  fared  no  better  than  the 
 political  institutions.  The  Brahmans  tried  to  debar  the 
 people  from  spiritual  light,  and  the  people  dragged  the 
 Brahmans  down  into  idolatrous  darkness.  Popular  heroes 
 and  Avild  fancies  became  exalted  into  divinities,  and  Siva  and 
 Mshnu  Avere  but  the  forerunners  of  an  ever-increasing  my- 
 thological assemblage.  Durga  is  Avife  to  Siva ; Kartikeya, 
 nding  a peacock,  son  to  Siva ; Ganesa,  a fat  man  wdth  an 
 elephant’s  head,  removes  difficulties,  presides  over  the  en- 
 trance of  edifices,  and  is  inAoked  at  the  commencement 
 of  all  undertakings.*  But  one  feels  Aery  little  encouraged 
 to  pursue  the  subject  of  India’s  idolatries,  for  in  general 
 they  are  lamentably  debasing,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  ce- 
 remonies daily  enacted,  or  as  may  be  learned  from  the 
 pages  of  the  missionary  Ward,  or  the  fearful  revelations  of 
 Thuggism. 
 
 Turning  from  religion  to  architecture,  Ave  find  splendid 
 temples  arising  after  the  religion  had  ceased  to  be  sublime. 
 Tbe  age  of  the  Vedas  has  left  no  buildings ; and  even  the 
 Greeks,  Avho  AArite  of  India  b.c.  300,  and  Avho  tell  us  of 
 cities,  gates,  tOAvers,  and  Avells,  mention  no  large  or  public 
 building.  All  the  knoAvn  architecture  of  India  dates  later 
 than  the  periods  of  foreign  occupation  ; and  the  splendid 
 ruins,  consecrated  to  Vishnu  or  Siva,  Avhich  are  figured  in 
 the  works  of  Tod  and  Fergusson,  are  supposed  to  range 
 from  the  fifth  or  sixth,  down  to  the  ninth  century,  a.d. 
 The  ornamentation  of  these  temples  is  singularly  beauti- 
 ful, as  may  be  seen  in  the  elaborate  draAvings  made  under 
 * Elphinstonc,  Hist.  Ind.,  89. 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 459 
 
 the  direction  of  Colonel  Tod^  and  bequeathed  by  him  to  the 
 Royal  Asiatic  Society. 
 
 The  semicircular  panel  ornament  figured  above^  the 
 leaf-scroll  at  the  conclusion  of  Book  I.,  the  vases  which 
 conclude  this  Chapter  and  Chapter  IV.^  and  the  peacock 
 panel  heading  Chapter  V.,  are  all  from  pillars  in  a temple 
 at  Cheetore,*  which  Mr.  Fergusson  thinks  cannot  be  ear- 
 lier than  A.D.  727 ; whilst  the  beautiful  ceilings  in  Tod’s 
 Rajasthan  are  from  temples  at  Chandravarti^  about  a.d. 
 692.  It  is  worth  while  to  make  close  acquaintance  with 
 these  fine  buildings,  and  with  those  at  Barolli  and  in  the 
 Mokundara  Pass,  for  they  belong  strictly  to  Hindu  history ; 
 whilst  nearly  all  architecture  of  later  date  in  India  “ is  so 
 mixed  up  with  Mohammedan  details  as  to  be  scarcely  recog- 
 nizable at  first  sight  from  that  style.”t  It  is  not  perhaps 
 sufficiently  remembered  in  England  that  some  of  the  most 
 celebrated  cities  in  Western  India,  as  Anrungabad  and 
 
 * Tod’s  Rajasthan,  vol.  ii.  p.  734. 
 
 + Fergusson’s  Ancient  Architectmv  of  Ilindostan,  Preface,  p.  ir.  and  pp. 
 33,  31,  36,  plates  v.  vi.  vii.  and  others. 
 
100 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 Dowlatabadj  arc  “in  all  their  Iniildings  and  forms  as  purely 
 ^Mohammedan  as  Bagdad  or  Damascus.”*’  But  putting  aside 
 Mohammedan  Iniildings,  with  which  we  are  not  at  present 
 concerned,  we  shall  find  almost  universally  that  the  finest 
 temples  in  India  are  the  oldest.  For  in  that  country, 
 iMr.  Fergusson  says,  “ all  the  styles  of  architecture  have 
 their  history  written  in  decay  : of  any  two  buildings  or 
 specimens  of  art  of  any  sort,  if  one  is  more  perfect  or  of  a 
 higher  class  than  the  other,  w e may  at  once  feel  certain  that 
 it  is  also  the  more  ancient  of  the  two.”t  As  national 
 monuments  of  a difterent  character,  we  may  point  to  the 
 
 lofty  Dial  and  extraordinary  “ mural  instruments  for  astro- 
 nomical purposes” J near  Delhi,  which  immortalize  the 
 
 * Fergus.son’s  Ancient  Architecture  of  Ilindostan,  Introduction,  p.  2. 
 t Ibkl.,  p.  11. 
 
 J DanieU’s  Antiiiuities  of  India,  jdates  xix.  and  xx.  A fidl  account  of 
 
astr()\o:my. 
 
 4(51 
 
 memory  of  tlic  Raja  Jcy  or  Java  Sing,*  who  reigned  from 
 A.D.  1699  to  1743.  The  beautiful  vignette  heading  to  this 
 Chapter  is  the  balcony  of  Jey  Sing’s  Observatory  at  Be- 
 nares, whieh  affords  another  memorial  of  the  delight  which 
 this  Emperor  took  in  scientific  observations. 
 
 Astronomy  is  one  of  those  sciences  which  has  resisted 
 the  deadening  influences  of  the  last  nine  centuries,  and 
 even  in  these  degenerate  days  can  boast  of  votaries  capable 
 of  mastering  ancient  Hindu  learning,  and  of  comprehend- 
 ing European  science,  if  it  be  exhibited  from  a Hindu 
 point  of  view.  At  a meeting  of  the  Asiatic  Society,  in 
 Calcutta,  June  17,  1837,  two  works  were  presented  written 
 in  the  IMahratta  and  Hindi  languages,  by  two  natives,  for 
 the  purpose  of  explaining  the  correct  system  of  astronomy 
 to  their  countrymen.  After  arguing  in  vain  for  eight  years, 
 Mr.  Lancelot  ’Wilkinson  had  an  oppoi’tunity  of  making 
 them  acquainted  with  Hindu  astronomical  books ; and  im- 
 mediately the  real  size  and  shape  of  the  earth,  and  other 
 important  physical  facts,  were  understood,  and  conviction 
 carried  to  their  minds.*  Subhaji  Bapu  had  the  master 
 mind  Avhich  exercised  its  influence  over  all  the  other  Pun- 
 dits. “ He  was  lost  in  admiration  when  he  came  fully  to 
 comprehend  all  the  facts  resulting  from  the  spherical  form 
 of  the  earth  ; and  when  the  retrogressions  of  the  planets 
 Averc  shoAvn  to  be  so  naturally  accounted  for  on  the  theory 
 of  the  earth’s  annual  motion,  and  Avhen  he  reflected  on  the 
 vastly  superior  simplicity  and  credibility  of  the  supposition 
 
 these  Astronomical  Buildings  is  given  by  Dr.  Hunter  in  the  fifth  volume  of 
 the  ‘ Asiatic  Researches.’ 
 
 * This  is  supposed  by  Hr.  Kitto  to  be  the  form  of  the  dial  seen  by  King 
 Hezekiah,  described  as  the  “ Steps  of  Ahaz.”  Buddhists  reckoned  time  by 
 inches  (see  ante,  p.  291),  but  the  form  of  their  dial  is  not  indicated. 
 
LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INDIA. 
 
 K)2 
 
 that  the  earth  liacl  a diurnal  motion,  than  that  the  sun  and 
 all  the  stars  daily  revolve  round  the  earth,  he  became  a 
 zealous  defender  of  the  system  of  Copernicus.  He  lamented 
 that  his  life  had  been  spent  in  maintaining  foolish  fancies, 
 and  spoke  evith  a bitter  indignation  against  all  those  of  his 
 predecessors  who  had  contributed  to  the  wilful  concealment 
 of  the  truths  that  had  once  been  acknowledged  in  the 
 land.”* 
 
 In  Metaphysics  we  have  already  had  occasion  to  notice 
 the  ingenuity  and  perseverance  of  Hindu  speculation. f Of 
 Hindu  attainment  in  medicine  much  also  might  be  said, 
 as  attested  by  the  flourishing  schools  in  Calcutta  and  other 
 parts  of  India.  And  that  India  has  not  lost  her  ancient  skill 
 in  arts  and  manufactures,  we  have  had  ample  evidence  in 
 the  exquisite  muslins,  embroideries,  shawls,  and  kincobs,  the 
 dyes  and  scents,  the  magnificent  carved  furniture,  the  gold 
 and  silver  filagree,  the  trophies  of  jewelled  arms,  and  other 
 attractions  of  the  Indian  Department  of  our  Great  Exhibi- 
 tion in  1851,  and  that  of  Paris  in  1855.  And  when  thinking 
 of  India’s  actual  attainments  and  resources,  it  is  difficult  to 
 refrain  from  a digression  upon  the  magic  of  railway  com- 
 munication ; upon  the  good  which  one  hopefully  anticipates, 
 although  evil  effects  be  first  apparent : we  see  indeed  that  it 
 first  unearths  and  exasperates  wild  Santhals,  but  one  hopes 
 that  it  may  bring  many  groups  of  retired  Pundits  within 
 the  influence  of  European  civilization,  although  denied  the 
 rare  blessing  of  a Lancelot  Wilkinson  as  resident  amongst 
 them.  And  religiously,  how  wide  the  question  ! — but  we 
 
 * Letter  from  Mr.  Wilkinson,  the  Governor- General’s  Agent  at  Bliilsa. 
 Journal  of  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal,  vol.  vi.  j).  401. 
 
 f Ante,  p.  292. 
 
CONCLUSION. 
 
 4G3 
 
 racist  forbear.  Ancient  India  is  our  subject^  and  of  Ancient 
 India  we  must  take  leave,  casting  one  lingering  glance  upon 
 its  best-loved  features. 
 
 Wherever  man  has  thought  much,  we  find  that  he  has 
 by  necessity  thought  much  upon  religion,  for  the  mind  of 
 man  seeks  for  God  as  surely  as  the  sunflower  seeks  the  sun. 
 Ancient  Hindus  were  men  of  intellect;  their  institutions 
 devoted  a large  portion  of  their  society  to  contemplation, 
 and  the  result  is,  that  religion  was  ever  the  strongest  point 
 of  interest  in  their  history.  But  India’s  holy  books,  in- 
 stead of  being  a record  of  God’s  commands  or  a narrative 
 of  man’s  confiding  ti’ust,  are  a mass  of  heterogeneous  tales 
 and  wild  conjectures,  in  which  practical  views  of  duty, 
 chiefly  negative,  alternate  with  intuitions  sublime  but  eva- 
 nescent and  theoretical.  First,  we  have  seen  Brahmans 
 capable  of  sublime  thought  striving  to  fetter  their  fellow- 
 creatures  with  hereditary  rank  and  hereditary  occupations. 
 Secondly,  we  have  seen  the  democracy  of  Buddhism  sweep- 
 ing aAvay  Brahmauical  institutions  and  upholding  universal 
 rights,  but,  at  the  same  time,  blighting  the  poetry  of  life 
 and  literature.  And  thirdly,  we  have  seen  a regenerated 
 corrupt  Brahmanical  system  triumph  over  Buddhism,  and 
 partially  restore  the  poetry  of  earlier  days,  but  fail  essen- 
 tially in  the  working  of  its  fourfold  system  of  Caste. 
 
 The  old  Brahman  was  not  so  wanting  in  abstract  belief  as 
 in  obedience  to  law  and  knowledge  of  God’s  will.  The  Bud- 
 dhist tried  to  give  the  law,  but  it  was  law  without  God,  and 
 resulted  in  barren  formalism.  The  Buddhist  w'as  republican 
 but  not  spiritual,  the  old  Brahman  spiritual  but  exclusive, 
 and  thus  we  may  compare  them  with  those  terrible  insects 
 of  India  known  as  white  ants.  Periodically  they  are  clothed 
 
164. 
 
 LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  INOIA. 
 
 with  wings,  burst  from  their  dark  homes  and  soar  upwards; 
 uuguided,  they  fly  equally  towai’d  sun  or  lamp  or  rushlight: 
 many  perish  in  flame;  others  fall  exhausted,  and,  crawling 
 home  without  wings,  again  become  an  industrious  commu- 
 nity, but  incapable  of  flights  toward  heaven.  And  thus  we 
 close  these  studies,  standing  like  weather-bouud  travellers 
 on  a mountain-top, — 
 
 “ Wrapt  as  in  the  cloud 
 III  which  light  dwelt  before  tlie  sun  was  born.” 
 
 l*RINTBl>  BY  JOHN  EDWARD  TATLOH, 
 LITTLE  gUEKPr  STRELT,  LINCOLN’S  INN  FIELDS. 
 
September,  1856. 
 
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 A EESIDENCe'^IN  TASMANIA. 
 
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 Demy  8vo,  luith  Plates,  Cuts,  and  a Map,  price  14s.  cloth. 
 
 SIGHTS  AND  SCENES  IN  THE  EAST. 
 
 By  JAMES  BRUCE.  Price  5s.  cloth. 
 
 “ Mr.  Bruce  has  written  intelligibly  and  unaffectedly  about  Hindustan,  with  acuteness  of 
 remark  and  ease  of  expression.” — Athcnceum. 
 
 “ This  book  presents  the  best  of  the  author’s  notes  of  life  in  India,  Ceylon,  and  Egypt.  Mr. 
 Bruce  sees  for  himself,  and  speaks  for  himself,  with  more  than  customary  plainness.” — Examiner. 
 
 THE  POLITICAL  LIFE  OF  SIR  R.  PEEL. 
 
 By  THOMAS  DOUBLEDAY, 
 
 Author  of  the  “ Financial  History  of  England,”  “ The  True  Law  of 
 Population,”  &c. 
 
 Two  Volumes,  8vo,  price  30s.  cloth. 
 
 “ Let  all  readers,  before  they  take  in  hand  the  personal  memoirs  of  Sir  Robert  Peel,  peruse 
 these  volumes  of  Mr.  Doubleday : in  them  the  statesman’s  character  and  public  acts  are 
 analysed  in  the  spirit  neither  of  a detractor  nor  of  a panegyrist.  This  biography  is  a work  of 
 great  merit,  conscientiously  prepared,  plain,  clear,  and  practically  interesting.” — Leader. 
 
 “ The  work  possesses  a good  deal  of  interest.  The  reader  is  enabled  to  retrace  the  leading 
 events  of  the  best  part  of  fifty  years.  The  author  is  plain,  shrewd,  homely,  and  generally  sound 
 in  his  opinions  and  judgments.” — Spectator. 
 
Smith,  Elder  and  Co. 
 
 3 
 
 VII. 
 
 ANNALS  OF  BRITISH  LEGISLATION, 
 
 A Classified  Summary  of  Parliamentary  Papers. 
 EDITED  BY  PROFESSOR  LEOXE  LEVI. 
 
 The  Yearly  Issue  will  consist  of  1000  pages  super  royal  8vo,  the  subseription 
 for  which  is  Two  Guineas,  payable  in  advance.  The  successive  parts 
 will  be  delivered  post  free,  and  to  subscribers  only. 
 
 The  Sixth  Part  is  just  issued,  illustrated  iy  a Chart  showing  the  Wrecks 
 during  the  past  year  on  the  British  Coast,  compiled  by  the  Board  of 
 Trade. 
 
 “ It  would  not  be  easy  to  over-estimate  the  utility  of  Professor  Levi’s  serial.  It  has  the  merit 
 of  being  an  excellent  idea  zealously  carried  out.” — Athenaeum. 
 
 “ We  cannot  imagine  a more  truly  valuable  and  nationally  important  work  than  this.  It  is 
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 “ Such  a workis  much  needed.  The  firstpart  seems  to  be  well  done.” — Economist. 
 
 vin. 
 
 THE  EUROPEAN  REVOLUTIONS  OF  1848. 
 
 By  EDWARD  CAYLEY. 
 
 Two  Volumes,  Crown  %vo,  price  18s.  cloth. 
 
 “ If  these  volumes  were  a mere  resume  of  the  events  of  the  last  revolutionary  epoch,  they 
 would  he  useful  and  welcome.  Mr.  Cayley  has  produced  a book  which  is  in  many  respects  good, 
 which  might  have  been  better,  but  which,  so  far  from  having  been  yet  superseded,  has  not  at 
 present  even  a competitor.  As  far  as  our  examination  has  gone,  we  have  found  it  generally 
 accurate ; and  independently  of  its  accuracy  it  is  valuable  for  two  qualities — the  sturdy  common 
 sense  and  pleasant  humour  of  the  author.  In  short  the  book  is  useful  because  it  is  amusing,  and 
 because  it  has  the  rare  merit  of  being  a lively  abridgment  of  a history  which  people  will  read 
 before  they  place  it  on  their  shelves.  It  is  also  in  the  main  practical  and  sound.” — Times. 
 
 “ A graphic,  compendious,  and  popular  narrative  of  by  far  the  most  deeply  interesting  series 
 of  events  that  have  occunred  in  our  time,  of  which  no  collective  rdsumd  can  anywhere  else  be 
 found  which  is  at  once  so  condensed  and  so  readable  as  that  here  supplied  by  Mr.  Cayley.” — Daily 
 News. 
 
 “ Mr.  Cayley  has  evidently  studied  his  subject  thoroughly ; he  has  consequently  produced  an 
 interesting  and  philosophic  history  of  an  important  epoch.” — New  Quarterly  Review. 
 
 IX. 
 
 SIGNS  OF  THE  TIMES: 
 
 BEING 
 
 LETTERS  ON  THE  DANGERS  TO  RELIGIOUS  LIBERTY  IN  THE 
 PRESENT  DAY. 
 
 By  the  chevalier  BUNSEN. 
 
 Translated  by  Miss  Susanna  Winkworth. 
 
 One  Volume,  Svo,  price  16s.  cloth. 
 
 “ An  investigation  of  the  religious  principles  at  work  in  the  Christian  world  ; tracuig,  as  far 
 as  modern  politics  extend,  the  action  of  priesthood,  associations,  and  secular  decrees  enforcing 
 spiritual  dogmas.  It  is  the  most  remarkable  work  that  has  appeared  in  modem  times  from  the 
 pen  of  a statesman.” — Leader. 
 
 “ A valuable  work,  by  a man  of  consummate  intellect,  and  upon  a subject  second  to  none  in 
 interest  aud  importance.” — Economist. 
 
 “ The  moral  character  aud  the  intellectual  powers  of  M.  Bunsen  are  impressed  on  every  one 
 of  these  letters.” — Globe. 
 
 “ There  is  much  to  be  found  here  that  is  really  instructive  and  practical.” — John  Bull. 
 
4 
 
 Works  Published  hi/ 
 
 Mlorlifj  of  ilurjliin.  | 
 
 MODERN  PAi'nTERS,  Vol.  IV.  i 
 
 By  .TOIIX  EUSKIX,  M.A.,  1 
 
 Imperial  8vo,  with  Tldrty-Jire  Illustrations  engraved  on  Steel, 
 and  116  Woodcuts,  drawn  hy  the  Author,  pnce  2l.  10s.  cloth. 
 
 “ Of  all  the  volumes  which  Mr.  Ruskin  has  issued,  there  is  probably  none  that  exhibits  his  two 
 counterbalaucins  faculties  of  speculation  and  observation  in  a state  of  such  intense  activity. 
 
 * * * If  the  reader’s  entertainment  flags,  his  deference  for  the  author's  immense  study  and 
 knowledge  of  natural  phenomena,  and  for  his  cons<iuent  judgement  in  art  matters,  must  rise 
 considerably.  He  will  find  that  it  is  not  without  reason,  not  without  labour  and  preparation  and 
 experiment,  that  Ruskin  claims  to  know  when  nature  is  truthfully  or  untruthfully  rendered. 
 
 • * * Considered  as  an  illustrated  volume,  this  is  the  most  remarkable  which  Mr.  Ruskin  has 
 yet  issued.  The  plates  and  woodcuts  are  profuse,  and  include  numerous  drawings  of  mountain 
 form  by  the  author,  which  prove  Mr.  Ruskin  to  be  essentially  an  artist.  Keen  sight,  keen 
 feeling,  and  keen  power  of  expression  are  the  qualities  which  go  to  the  making  of  an  artist,  and  ‘ 
 all  these  Mr.  Ruskin  possesses.  He  adds  to  them  a peculiarly  subtle  turn  for  theory,  investiga- 
 tion and  exposition.  This  combination  makes  him  an  unique  man,  both  among  artists  and  j 
 writers.” — Spectator. 
 
 “ The  present  volume  of  Mr.  Ruskin's  elaborate  work  treats  chiefly  of  mountain  scenery,  and 
 discusses  at  length  the  principles  involved  in  the  pleasure  we  derive  from  mountains  and  their  ' 
 pictorial  representation.  The  author  is  more  philosophical  and  less  critical  than  before,  Mr. 
 Ruskin  is  establishing  what  he  considers  to  be  true  principle?,  and  only  casually  notices  adversa- 
 ries who  advocate  theories  which  contradict  his  own.  The  work  is  essentially  positive,  and 
 we  have  less  negation  than  we  are  accustomed  to  meet  with  in  treatises  by  this  author.  There 
 is  less  declamation  and  more  proof.  Mr.  Ruskin  does  not  wish  the  reader  to  adopt  his  conclu- 
 sions merely  on  his  authorit)’.  He  labours  diligently  to  give  evidence  of  * the  faith  that  is  in  him.’ 
 
 Mr.  Ruskin  occupies  a peculiar  position  as  a writer.  He  compels  his  most  vehement 
 adversaries  to  admire  even  while  they  dissent.  The  singular  beauty  of  his  style,  the  hearty 
 sympathy  with  all  forms  of  natural  loveliness,  the  profusion  of  his  illustrations,  and  above  ail  ' 
 the  earnest  denunciation  of  cant,  form  irresistible  attractions.  You  may  quarrel  with  the  critic, 
 but  you  cannot  fail  to  admire  the  writer  and  resx>ect  the  man.  High  thoughts,  clothed  in  elo- 
 quent language,  are  the  characteristics  of  Mr,  Ruskin’s  productions.  *»*»»»* 
 
 The  present  volume  contains  the  most  connected  exposition  of  the  author’s  theory  which  he  has 
 yet  given  to  the  world.” — Dailt/  Xetrs.  \ 
 
 “ All  art  is  one,  and  Mr.  Ruskin  writes  of  painting  with  the  ever  present  consciousness  of 
 poetry,  sculpture  and  architecture,  as  equally  implied.  This  it  is  which  gives  the  wide  and  per- 
 manent charm  to  his  writings.  Interesting  as  they  are  to  painters,  they  almost  equally  fascinate 
 the  general  public,  because  in  them  may  be  read  rare  criticisms  of  natural  appearances  and  of 
 artistic  representations.  » ♦ * We  must  all  feel  subdued  by  his  eloquence,  enlightened  by 
 his  novel  views,  stimulated  by  his  thoughts,  instructed  by  his  accurate  obsen-ations  of  nature. 
 
 Such  a writer  is  really  a national  possession.  He  adds  to  our  store  of  knowledge  and  enjoy- 
 ment.”— Leader. 
 
 MODERN  PAINTERS,  Yol.  III. 
 
 With  Eighteen  Elustrations  drawn  hy  the  Author,  and 
 engraved  on  Steel,  pnce  38s.  cloth. 
 
 “ This  book  may  be  taken  up  with  equal  pleasure  whether  the  reader  be  acquainted  or  not 
 with  the  previous  volumes,  and  no  special  artistic  culture  is  necessary  in  order  to  enjoy  its 
 excellences  or  profit  by  its  suggestions.  Every  one  who  cares  about  nature,  or  poetry,  or  the 
 stor>'  of  human  development — every  one  who  has  a tinge  of  literature  or  philosophy,  will  find 
 something  that  is  for  him  in  this  volume.” — Westminster  Reriew. 
 
 “ Mr.  Ruskin’s  third  volume  of  ‘ Modem  Painters’ will  be  hailed  with  interest  and  curiosity, 
 if  not  with  submissive  attention,  by  the  Art-world  of  England.  « * * Mr.  Ruskin  is  in 
 possession  of  a clear  and  penetrating  mind ; he  is  undeniably  practical  in  his  fundamental  ideas ; 
 full  of  the  deepest  reverence  for  all  that  appears  to  him  beautiful  and  holy,  and,  though  owning 
 to  very  strong  preferences,  founding  those  preferences  on  reason.  * » » His  style  is,  as 
 usual,  clear,  bold,  and  racy.  3Ir.  Ruskin  is  one  of  the  first  wTiters  of  the  day.” — Economist. 
 
 “ The  present  volume,  viewed  as  a literarj-  achievement,  is  the  highest  and  most  striking  , 
 
 evidence  of  the  author's  abilities  that  has  yet  been  published.  It  shows  the  maturity  of  his  ! 
 
 powers  of  thought,  and  the  perfection  of  his  grace  of  style.” — Leader. 
 
 “ All,  it  is  to  be  hoped,  will  read  the  book  for  themselves.  They  will  find  it  well  worth  a 
 careful  perusal.  This  third  volume  fully  realizes  the  expectations*  we  had  formed  of  it.” — 
 Saturday  Retie\r. 
 
Elder  Co.  5 
 
 tSIorlifi  c|  IJlr.  Jlufiliin.  ' 
 
 III. 
 
 M O D E E N P A I N T E E S. 
 
 Imperial  8vo.  Vol.  1.  Fifth  Edition,  18s.  cloth. 
 
 Vol.  II.  Fourth  Edition,  10s.  6<7.  cloth.  ^ 
 
 “ Mr.  Enskin’s  work  will  send  the  painter  more  than  ever  to  the  study  of  nature ; will  train 
 men  who  have  always  been  delighted  spectators  of  nature,  to  be  also  attentive  observers.  Our 
 critics  will  learn  to  admire,  and  mere  a<^irers  will  learn  how  to  criticise ; thus  a public  will  be 
 educated.” — Blacku: cod's  Magazine. 
 
 “ A generous  and  impassioned  review  of  the  works  of  living  painters.  A hearty  and  earnest 
 work,  full  of  deep  thought,  and  developing  great  and  striking  truths  in  art.” — British  Quarterly 
 Reriew. 
 
 “A  very  extraordinary  and  delightfol  book,  full  of  truth  and  goodness,  of  power  and 
 beauty.” — North  British  Review. 
 
 THE  STONE  s’  OF  VENICE. 
 
 Now  complete  in  Three  Vohimes,  Imperial  8co,  with  Fifty-three  Plates  and 
 numerous  Woodcuts,  drawn  by  the  Author. 
 
 Price  51.  los.  6d.,  in  embossed  cloth,  with  top  edge  gilt. 
 
 EACH  VOLUME  MAY  BE  HAD  SEPARATELY,  VIZ.— 
 
 Vol.  I.  The  Fousdatioxs,  with  21  Plates,  price  'll.  Is. 
 
 Vol.  II.  The  Se.a  Stories,  with  20  Plates,  price  'll.  Is. 
 
 Vol.  m.  The  Fall,  with  12  Plates,  price  IZ.  11s.  6<Z. 
 
 “ This  book  is  one  which,  perhaps,  no  other  man  could  have  Amtten,  and  one  for  which  the 
 world  ought  to  be  and  will  be  thankfol.  It  is  in  the  highest  degree  eloquent,  acute,  stimulating 
 to  thought,  and  fertile  in  su^:estion.  It  shows  a power  of  practical  criticism  which,  when  fixed 
 on  a definite  object,  nothing  absurd  or  evil  can  withstand;  and  a power  of  appreciation  which 
 has  restored  treasures  of  beauty  to  mankind.  It  will,  we  are  convinced,  elevate  taste  and 
 intellect,  raise  the  tone  of  moral  feeling,  kindle  benevolence  towards  men,  and  increase  the  love 
 and  fear  of  God.” — Times. 
 
 ” The  ‘ Stones  of  Venice’  is  the  production  of  an  earnest,  religious,  progressive,  and  informed 
 mind.  The  author  of  tliis  essay  on  architecture  lias  condensed  into  it  a poetic  apprehension,  the 
 fruit  of  awe  of  God,  and  delight  in  nature ; a knowledge,  love,  and  just  estimate  of  art ; a 
 holding  fiist  to  fact  and  repudiation  of  hearsay ; an  historic  breadth,  and  a fearless  challenge  of 
 existing  social  problems,  whose  union  we  know  not  where  to  find  paralleled.” — Spectator. 
 
 “ No  one  who  has  visited  Venice  can  read  this  book  without  having  a richer  glow  thrown 
 over  his  remembrances  of  that  city , and  for  those  who  have  not,  Mr.  Ruskin  paints  it  with  a 
 firmness  of  outline  and  vividness  of  colouring  that  will  bring  it  before  the  imagination  with 
 the  force  of  reahty.” — Literary  Gazette. 
 
 ” This  work  shows  that  3dr.  Ruskin’s  powers  of  composition  and  criticism  were  never  in 
 greater  force.  His  eloquence  is  as  rich,  his  enthusiasm  as  hearty,  his  sympathy  for  all  that  is 
 high  and  noble  in  art  as  keen  as  ever.  The  book,  like  all  he  writes,  is  manly  and  high-minded, 
 and,  as  usual,  keeps  the  attention  alive  to  the  last.” — Guardian. 
 
 THE  SEVEN  LAMPS^^’OF  AECHITECTUEE. 
 
 Second  Edition,  with  Fourteen  Plates  drawn  by  the  Author. 
 
 Imperial  8vo,  11.  Is.  cloth. 
 
 “ By  the  ‘ Seven  Lamps  of  Architecture,’  we  understand  Mr.  Ruskin  to  mean  the  seven  I 
 fundamental  and  cardinal  laws,  the  observance  of  and  obedience  to  which  are  indispensable  to 
 the  arcliitect,  who  would  deserve  the  name.  The  politician,  the  moralist,  the  divine,  will  find 
 in  it  ample  store  of  instructive  matter,  as  well  as  the  artist.  The  author  of  this  work  belongs  ; 
 to  a class  of  thinkers  of  whom  we  have  too  few  among  us.” — Examiner.  ' 
 
 ” Mr.  Ruskin’s  book  bears  so  unmistakeably  the  marks  of  keen  and  accurate  observation,  of  i 
 a true  aud  subtle  judgment  and  refined  sense  of  beauty,  joined  with  so  much  earnestness,  so  j 
 
 noble  a sense  of  the  purposes  and  business  of  art,  and  such  a command  of  rich  and  glowing  1 
 
 language,  that  it  cannot  but  tell  powerfiilly  in  producing  a more  religious  view  of  the  uses  of  i 
 architecture,  and  a deeper  insight  into  its  artistic  principles.” — Guardian. 
 
 “A  lively,  poetical,  and  thoughtful  book;  rich  in  refined  criticism  and  glowing  eloquence.  ' 
 Mr.  Ruskin’s  poetry  is  always  to  the  purpose  of  his  doctrines,  and  always  the  vehicle  of  acute 
 thought  and  profound  feeling.” — Fraser's  Magazine. 
 
6 Works  Published  by 
 
 ‘SglorllS  0f  Ilufiliiit. 
 
 n, 
 
 LECTURES  ON  ARCHITECTURE  AND  PAINTING. 
 
 With  Fourteen  Cuts  drawn  by  the  Author.  Second  Edition. 
 
 Crown  8vo,  price  8s.  6d.  cloth. 
 
 “ Mr.  Rnskin's  Lectures — eloquent,  graphic,  and  impassioned — exposing  and  ridiculing  some 
 of  the  vices  of  onr  present  system  of  building,  and  exciting  his  hearers  by  strong  motives  of 
 duty  and  pleasure  to  attend  to  architecture — are  very  successful ; and,  like  his  former  works, 
 V ill  command  public  attention.  His  style  is  terse,  vigorous,  and  sparkling,  and  his  book  is  both 
 animated  and  attractive.” — Economist. 
 
 “ We  conceive  it  to  be  impossible  that  any  Intelligent  persons  could  listen  to  the  lectures, 
 however  they  might  differ  from  the  judgments  asserted,  and  from  the  general  propositions  laid 
 down,  without  an  elevating  influence  and  an  aroused  enthusiasm,  which  are  often  more  fruitful 
 in  producing  true  taste  and  correct  views  of  art  than  the  soundest  historical  generalizations 
 and  the  most  learned  technical  criticism  in  which  the  heart  and  the  senses  own  no  interest.” — 
 Spectator. 
 
 TH. 
 
 NOTES  ON  THE  PRINCIPAL  PICTURES  EXHIBITED 
 AT  THE  ROYAL  ACADEMY,  and  the  SOCIETY  OF 
 PAINTERS  IN  WATER  COLOURS.  No.  IL— 1856. 
 
 Sixth  Edition,  with  Postscript.  8vo,  price  6d. 
 
 vm. 
 
 PRE-RAPHAELITISM. 
 
 8vo,  2s.  served. 
 
 “ We  wish  that  this  pamphlet  might  be  largely  read  by  our  art-patrons,  and  studied  by  our 
 art-critics.  There  is  much  to  be  collected  from  it  which  is  very  important  to  remember.” — 
 Guardian. 
 
 IN. 
 
 THE  OPENING  OF  THE  CRYSTAL  PALACE: 
 
 Considered  in  some  of  its  relations  to  the  Prospects  of  Art. 
 
 8po,  price  Is.,  sewed. 
 
 “ An  earnest  and  eloquent  appeal  for  the  preservation  of  the  ancient  monuments  of  Gothic 
 architecture.” — English  Churchman. 
 
 “ A wholesome  and  much  needed  protest.” — Leader. 
 
 X, 
 
 THE  KING  OF  THE  GOLDEN  RIVER; 
 
 OR,  THE  BLACK  BROTHERS. 
 
 Third  Edition,  rcith  22  Plustrations  by  Richard  Doyle.  2s.  6d. 
 
 “ This  little  fairy  tale  is  by  a master  hand.  The  story  has  a charming  moral,  and  the  writing 
 is  so  excellent,  that  it  would  be  hard  to  say  which  it  will  give  most  pleasure  to,  the  very  wise 
 man  or  the  very  simple  child.” — Examiner. 
 
 XI. 
 
 EXAMPLES  OF  THE  ARCHITECTURE  OF  VENICE, 
 
 SELECTED  AND  DRAWN  TO  MEASUREMENT  FROM  THE  EDIFICES. 
 
 In  Parts  of  Folio  Imperial  size,  each  containing  Five  Plates,  and  a short 
 Explanatory  Text,  price  \l.  Is.  each. 
 
 PARTS  I.  TO  III.  ARE  PUBLISHED. 
 
 Fifty  India  Proofs  only  are  tahen  on  Atlas  Folio,  price  21.  2s.  each  Part. 
 
Smithy  Elder  and  Co.  7 
 
 l^eccnt  ualorh. 
 
 SERMONS.  By  the  late  Ret.  Feed.  W.  Robeetson, 
 
 A.M.,  Incumbent  of  Trinity  Chapel,  Brighton. 
 
 Fiest  Seeies — Third  Edition,  Post  8vo,  price  9s.  cloth. 
 Second  Seeies — Third  Edition,  price  9s.  cloth. 
 
 “ Mr.  Robertson,  of  Brighton,  is  a name  familiar  to  most  of  ns,  and  honoured  hy  all  to  whom 
 it  is  familiar.  A true  servant  of  Christ,  a bold  and  heart-stirring  preacher  of  the  Gospel,  his 
 teaching  was  heantified  and  intensified  by  genius.  New  truth,  new  light,  streamed  from  each 
 weU-wom  test  when  he  handled  it.  The  present  volume  is  rich  in  evidence  of  his  pious,  manly, 
 and  soaring  faith,  and  of  his  power  not  only  to  point  to  heaven,  but  to  lead  the  way.”— Globe. 
 
 PAPERS  OF  THE  LATE  LORD  METCALFE. 
 
 Selected  and  Edited  by  J.  lY.  KAY’E.  Demy  8vo,  price  16s.  cloth. 
 
 “ We  commend  this  volume  to  all  persons  who  like  to  study  state  papers,  in  which  the  practical 
 sense  of  a man  of  the  world  is  joined  to  the  speculative  sagacity  of  a philosophical  statesman. 
 No  Indian  library  should  be  without  it.” — Press. 
 
 RIFLE  PRACTICE.  By  Lieut.-Col.  John  Jacob,  C.B. 
 
 With  Plates.  Second  Edition,  price  2s. 
 
 TWO  SUMMER  CRUISES  WITH  THE  BALTIC 
 FLEET  IN  1854-5 ; Being  the  LOO  of  the  “ PET.” 
 
 By  K.  E.  hughes,  M.A. 
 
 Second  Edition,  Post  8co,  with  Views  and  Charts.  lOs.  Qd.,  cloth. 
 
 “ There  are  few  readers  to  whom  this  volume  will  not  be  welcome.  It  is  light  and  pleasant 
 reading,  and  conveys  not  a little  valuable  information.  Few  unprofessional  men  are  so  capable 
 of  forming  a judgment  on  naval  tactics  as  Mr.  Hughes  appears  to  be.” — Economist, 
 
 THE  COURT  OF  HENRY  VIII.: 
 Being  a Selection  of  the  Despatches  of  Sebastian  OirsTmAN, 
 Venetian  Ambassador,  1515-1519. 
 
 Translated  by  EATYDOX  BROWX.  Two  Vols.,  crown  8vo,  21s.,  cloth. 
 
 “ These  volumes  present  such  a portrait  of  the  times  as  is  nowhere  else  to  be  found.  They 
 are  a most  important  contribution  to  the  materials  for  history.” — Quarterly  Retiexc. 
 
 A CAiMPAIGN  WITH  THE  TURKS  IN  ASIA. 
 
 By  CHARLES  DUXCAX.  Two  Vols.,  post  8vo,  2\s.  cloth. 
 
 “ These  volumes  contain  an  account  of  a winter  residence  at  Erzeronm,  a sojourn  with  the 
 Turkish  army  at  Kars,  including  the  campaign  of  1854,  and  journeys  to  and  from  Constantinople 
 via  Trebizond.  The  novelty  of  the  scenes  and  characters,  the  picturesque  sketches  of  the 
 Turkish  army,  and  the  solid  informatiou  which  is  scattered  through  the  book,  render  the  volumes 
 of  present  interest  and  of  importance  as  a future  record.” — Spectator. 
 
 THE  RED  RIVER  SETTLEMENT. 
 
 By  ALEXANDER  ROSS,  Author  of  “ Fur-Hunters  of  the  Ear  West.” 
 
 One  Volume,  post  8vo,  price  10s.  6d.  cloth. 
 
 THE  FUR-HUNTERS  OF  THE  FAR  WEST. 
 
 By  ALEXAXDER  ROSS. 
 
 Two  Volumes,  post  8vo.  With  Map  and  Plate.  21s.  cloth. 
 
 “ Many  accounts  of  hardships  and  adventures  with  savage  men  and  beasts  will  be  found  in 
 these  volumes.  There  are  some  striking  sketches  of  landscape  and  TpHian  life  and  character,  as 
 well  as  a great  deal  of  information  about  the  old  Fur  Trade.  The  book  is  of  considerable  value 
 as  a picture  of  an  almost  past  mode  of  human  existence,  as  well  as  for  its  information  upon  the 
 Indians  of  Oregon.” — Spectator. 
 
8 
 
 Works  Published  by 
 
 RUSSO-TURKISH  CAMPAIGNS  OF  1828-9. 
 
 By  col.  CHESNEY,  R.A.,  D.C.L.,  F.K.S.  Third  Edition. 
 
 Post  8vo,  with  Maps,  price  12s.  cloth. 
 
 “ The  only  work  on  the  subject  suited  to  the  military  reader.” — United  Service  Gazette. 
 
 MILITARY  FORCES  AND  INSTITUTIONS 
 OF  GREAT  BRITAIN. 
 
 By  H.  BYERLEY  THOMSON,  of  the  Inner  Temple.  8vo,  15s.  cloth. 
 
 “ Such  a book  is  much  wanted,  and  it  contains  a great  mass  of  information  on  military  topics, 
 now  undergoing  daily  discussion.” — Economist. 
 
 A MANUAL  OF  THE  MERCANTILE  LAW 
 OF  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND. 
 
 By  professor  LEONE  LEVI,  Author  of  “ Commercial  Law  of 
 the  World.”  8vo.,  price  12s.  cloth. 
 
 “ We  recommend  to  all  merchants  and  tradesmen,  and  to  all  who  are  studying  great  questions 
 of  social  reform,  this  Manual  of  Mercantile  Law.  Its  simplicity  and  faithfulness  make  it 
 an  extremely  serviceable  tioo]s.”— Examiner. 
 
 THE  LAWS  OF  WAR  AFFECTING 
 COMMERCE  AND  SHIPPING. 
 
 By  H.  BYERLEY  THOMSON,  of  the  Inner  Temple.  Second  Edition, 
 greatly  enlarged.  8vo,  price  4s.  6d.  hoards. 
 
 tSIorli'i  0|  Sir.  ®Ittukrag. 
 
 LECTURES  ON  the  ENGLISH  HUMOURISTS 
 OF  THE  18th  century. 
 
 By  W.  M.  THACKERAY, 
 
 Author  of  “ Vanity  Fair,”  “ The  Newcomes,”  &c. 
 
 Second  Edition.  Croicn  8vo,  price  10s.  6c?.  cloth. 
 
 “ To  those  who  attended  the  lectures,  the  book  will  be  a pleasant  reminiscence,  to  others  an 
 exciting  novelty.  The  style — clear,  idiomatic,' forcible,  familiar,  but  never  slovenly;  the 
 searching  strokes  of  sarcasm  or  irony ; the  occasional  flashes  of  generous  scorn  ; the  touches  of 
 pathos,  pity,  and  tenderness ; the  morality  tempered  but  never  weakened  by  experience  and 
 sv-rapathy ; the  feUcitous  phrases,  the  striking  anecdotes,  the  passages  of  wise,  practical  reflec- 
 tion ; all  these  lose  much  less  than  we  could  have  expected  from  the  absence  of  the  voice, 
 manner,  and  look  of  the  lecturer.” — Spectator. 
 
 ESMOND.  By  W.  M.  Thackeray. 
 
 Second  Edition,  3 vols..  Crown  8vo,  reduced  to  15s.  cloth. 
 
 “ Mr.  Thackeray  has  selected  for  his  hero  a very  noble  type  of  the  cavalier  softening  into  the 
 man  of  the  eighteenth  century,  and  for  his  heroine  one  of  the  sweetest  women  that  ever 
 breathed  from  canvas  or  from  book,  since  Raffaelle  painted  and  Shakspeare  wrote.  The  style 
 is  manly,  clear,  terse,  and  vigorous,  reflecting  every  mood — pathetic,  graphic,  or  sarcastic — of  the 
 vrxitiev."— Spectator. 
 
 THE  ROSE  AND  THE  RING;  or,  the  History  of 
 Prince  Giglio  and  Prince  Bulbo. 
 
 By  Mr.  M.  A.  TITMARSH. 
 
 With  58  Cuts  drawn  by  the  Author.  3rd  Edition,  price  5s. 
 
Smith,  Elder  and  Co.  9 
 
 I. 
 
 YOUNG  SINGLETON.  Bt  Talbot  Gwtnne, 
 
 Author  of  “ The  School  for  Fathers,”  &c.  2 vols. 
 
 “ Mr.  Talbot  Gwynne  has  made  a considerable  advance  in  ‘ Young  Singleton  ’ over  his 
 previous  fictions.  In  his  present  story  he  rises  into  the  varied  action,  the  more  numerous 
 persons,  and  the  complicated  interests  of  a novel.  It  has  also  a moral ; being  designed  to  paint 
 the  wretched  consequences  that  follow  fi-om  envy  and  vanity.” — Spectator. 
 
 “ Power  of  description,  dramatic  force,  and  ready  invention,  give  vitality  to  the  story.” — Press. 
 
 II. 
 
 E V E L E E N.  By  E.  L.  A.  Berwick, 
 
 Author  of  “ The  Dwarf.”  3 vols. 
 
 “ A most  interesting  story,  evincing  power  of  expression  with  vividness  in  detail,  great  feeling, 
 and  skilful  delineation  of  character.” — Sun. 
 
 “ A compound  of  the  romance  and  the  novel,  not  the  less  pleasantly  exciting  on  that  account. 
 The  plot  is  romantic,  and  great  literary  skill  and  considerable  power  are  shown  in  the  truth  and 
 artistic  contrast  of  character  presented.  As  a story  to  attract,  to  interest,  to  improve,  few 
 modern  novels  are  superior  to  it.” — Globe. 
 
 “ ‘ Eveleen  ’ is  a work  of  promise  ; it  bears  evidences  of  care,  pains-taking,  and  honest  hard 
 work — qualities  to  which  we  always  give  honour.” — Athenaeum. 
 
 III. 
 
 ERLESMERE:  or,  Contrasts  of  Character. 
 By  L.  S.  Lavenu.  In  2 vols. 
 
 “ ‘Erlesmere’  belongs  to  the  same  class  of  novels  as  the  stories  of  Miss  Young,  ‘The  Heir  of 
 Redclyffe,’ &c.,  nor  is  it  inferior  to  them  in  ability  and  in  the  exhibition  of  internal  conflict, 
 though  the  incidents  are  more  stormy.  There  are  many  passages  of  extraordinary  force ; 
 tragic  circumstances  being  revealed  in  momentary  flashes  of  dramatic  force.” — Press. 
 
 “ Thought,  and  the  forceful  style  of  writing  which  is  said  to  exhibit  power,  will  be  found  in 
 the  book ; and  there  are  scenes  of  passion,  though  injured  by  violence.” — Spectator. 
 
 IV. 
 
 PERVERSION; 
 
 Or,  The  Cahses  and  Consequences  of  Infidelity. 
 
 A Tale  for  the  Times.  In  3 vols. 
 
 “ This  is  a good  and  noble  book.  It  is  indeed  a ‘ Tale  for  the  Times,’  and  is  the  production  of 
 a gentleman,  a scholar,  and  a Christian.  It  is  the  best  timed  and  most  useful  book  which 
 has  appeared  for  years.” — New  Quarterly  Review. 
 
 “ ‘ Perversion  ’ is  powerful  as  a composition.  An  unflagging  energy  sustains  the  writer  from 
 first  to  last.” — Spectator. 
 
 “ A novel  written  with  a strong  sense  both  of  what  is  amusing  and  what  is  right.  It  is  a 
 religious  novel,  free  from  dullness.” — Examiner. 
 
 “ This  work  is  extremely  clever,  and  well  and  temperately  -written.  The  story  has  a touching 
 interest,  which  lingers  -with  the  reader  after  he  has  closed  his  book.” — Athenaeum. 
 
 “ The  ablest  novel  that  has  appeared  for  many  a day.” — Literary  Gazette. 
 
 V. 
 
 BEYMINSTRE. 
 
 By  the  Author  of  “ Lena,”  “ King’s  Cope,”  &c.  3 vols. 
 
 “ Abounding  in  romantic  adventure,  and  distinguished  by  pure  feeling  and  natural  pathos 
 Beyminstre  is  one  of  the  best  novels  of  the  season.” — Post. 
 
 “ A composition  much  above  the  average.  There  is  a great  strength  about  it,  and  a sustained 
 interest  from  first  to  last.  The  characters  are  real  and  living  persons.” — Guardian. 
 
 “ We  have  still  some  good  novel  writers  left,  and  among  them  is  the  author  of  ‘ Beyminstre.* 
 The  conduct  of  the  story  is  excellent.  Many  of  the  subordhiate  parts  are  highly  comic ; an  air  of 
 nature  and  life  breathes  through  the  whole.  It  is  a work  of  unusual  merit.” — Saturday  Review. 
 
 “ There  are  admirable  points  in  this  novel,  and  great  breadth  of  humour  in  the  comic  scenes. 
 ‘ Beyminstre  * is  beyond  all  comparison  the  best  work  by  the  author.” — Daily  News. 
 
 “ There  is  not  a dull  page  in  the  work.” — Globe. 
 
 “ A really  admirable  novel,  abounding  in  character.”- -Pms. 
 
10 
 
 Works  Published  by 
 
 TI. 
 
 LEONORA.  By  the  Hon.  Mrs.  Mabebly.  3 vols. 
 
 “ In  the  story  of  ‘ Leonora  ’ Mrs.  Maberly  has  described  the  career  of  an  ambitious,  beautiful, 
 but  unprincipled  woman.  Many  of  the  scenes  are  drawn  with  great  skill,  and  lively  sketches  of 
 fashionable  life  are  introduced.” — Literary  Gazette. 
 
 “ Leonora  is  drawn  with  more  than  usual  power.  Her  pride,  her  imperious  will,  her  sins,  her 
 punishment,  and  her  penitence,  are  skilfully  wrought,  and  sustain  the  reader’s  attention  to  the 
 last.” — Critic. 
 
 “ The  story  is  told  with  a fearful  amount  of  fascination : it  is  that  of  a woman  whose  loveliness 
 is  only  surpassed  by  her  baseness,  and  whose  schemes  result  in  perfect  retribution.” — Dispatch. 
 
 VII. 
 
 AFTER  DARK.  By  Wilkie  Collins, 
 
 Author  of  “ Basil,”  “ Hide  and  Seek,”  &c.  2 vols. 
 
 “ Mr.  Wilkie  Collins  tells  a story  well  and  forcibly,  his  style  is  eloquent  and  picturesque,  he 
 has  considerable  power  of  pathos,  understands  the  art  of  construction,  and  has  a keen  insight 
 into  character.”— llaiVy  News. 
 
 “ The  tales  are  stories  of  adventure,  well  varied,  and  often  striking  in  the  incidents,  or  with 
 thrilling  situations ; and  are  as  pleasant  reading  as  a novel  reader  could  desire.” — Spectator. 
 
 “ Mr.  Wilkie  Collins  takes  high  rank  among  the  few  who  can  invent  a thrilling  story,  and  tell 
 it  with  brief  simplicity.” — Globe. 
 
 “Mr.  Wilkie  Collins  possesses  a rare  faculty : V art  de  center.  No  man  living  better  tells  a 
 story.” — Leader. 
 
 “ The  volumes  abound  with  genuine  touches  of  nature.” — British  Quarterly  Review. 
 
 “ These  stories  possess  aU  the  author’s  well-known  dramatic  power.” — New  Quarterly  Review. 
 
 VUI. 
 
 AMBERHILL.  By  A,  J.  Baebowcliffe.  2 vols. 
 
 “There  is  great  power  in  ‘Amherhill,’  and  its  faults  are  forgotten  in  the  sustained  excitement 
 of  the  narrative.  There  are  in  the  book  some  of  the  shrewdest  sketches  of  character  we  have 
 ever  met  with.  If  we  suppose  the  story  to  be  the  work  of  an  artist,  the  leading  characters  to  he 
 imagined,  and  her  whole  career  from  first  to  last  to  be  shaped  by  design,  we  must  regard  it  as  a 
 wonderful  work  of  creative  genius.” — Press. 
 
 “ ‘Amherhill’  is  an  exciting  book,  not  belonging  to  any  established  school  of  novel,  unless  it 
 be  the  defiant.  There  is  a freshness  and  force,  a petulant  grace,  and  a warm-hearted  satirical 
 vein  in  ‘Amherhill,’  which  will  give  it  a charm  to  every  blasi  novel  reader.  The  characters  are 
 vigorously  dra\vn  and  have  genuine  life  in  them.” — Globe. 
 
 “ There  is  talent  and  vigour  about  this  work  ; we  welcome  it,  in  spite  of  the  morbid  and  painful 
 interest  of  the  story.  The  story  is  told  with  great  energy  and  some  eloquence.  If  the  author 
 will  cultivate  her  talents,  she  may  produce  something  far  better  than  ‘Amherhill.’  ” — Athenaeum. 
 
 “ ‘Amherhill’  appears  to  be  intended  as  a lesson  against  weakness  of  character,  over-lust  of 
 wealth,  and  disregard  of  religion.  The  wTiter  has  one  great  quahty  for  fiction,  that  of  com- 
 manding the  attention  of  the  reader.” — Spectator. 
 
 IX. 
 
 MAURICE  ELVINGTON: 
 
 OR,  ONE  OUT  OF  SUITS  WITH  FORTUNE.  An  Autobiography. 
 Edited  by  Wilfrid  East.  3 vols. 
 
 “ A very  powerfully  wrought  story.  Passion,  pathos,  and  tragedy  are  mingled  with  artistic 
 skill.” — Weekly  Dispatch. 
 
 “ A story  of  English  life  in  a variety  of  phases,  which  can  scarcely  fail  to  interest  the  English 
 reader.” — Examiner. 
 
 “ A careful  study  of  modem  life  and  manners,  written  in  a pointed  scholarly  style 
 
 It  is  a work  of  talent.” — Leader. 
 
 In  Preparation. 
 
 I. 
 
 OLIVER  CROMWELL  : a Story  of  the  Civil  Wars. 
 By  Charles  Stewart.  2 vols. 
 
 II. 
 
 THE  ROUA  P ASS  : 
 
 OR,  Englishmen  in  the  Highlands.  3 vols. 
 
Smith,  Elder  and  Co.  1 1 
 
 GILBERT  MASSENGER.  By  Holme  Lee. 
 
 6s.  cloth. 
 
 “ One  of  the  best  novellettes  we  have  seen.  The  whole  tone  of  the  book  is  healthy ; the 
 sentiments  are  just  and  right,  and  the  feelings  always  beautiful,  gentle,  and  true ; the  delinea- 
 tion of  character  is  clear,  and  the  style  is  fresh,  flo^ving,  simple,  and  correct.” — Economist. 
 
 “ The  subject  is  handled  with  singular  deUcacy  and  truthfulness.” — Examiner. 
 
 “ A condensed  and  powerfully  written  story.” — Athenoeum. 
 
 “ A work  of  remarkable  skill  and  power.” — Spectator. 
 
 “ The  story  enthrals  and  edifies  the  reader.” — Globe. 
 
 THORNEY  HALL.  By  Holme  Lee.  6s.  cloth. 
 
 “ There  is  much  quiet  power  evinced  in  ‘Thomey  HaU,’  combined  with  a thoroughly  healthy 
 and  invigorating  tone  of  thought.  It  develops  the  practical  heroism  that  lies  in  the  most 
 unromantic  duties  of  daily  life.  The  story  is  extremely  interesting.” — Athenaeum. 
 
 “ Few  who  read  this  tale  but  will  feel  that  they  are  reading  something  true,  and  that  they 
 have  known  the  characters.” — Guardian. 
 
 ‘ ‘ A story  which  sustains  to  the  end  so  unflagging  an  interest  that  few  will  leave  it  unfinished.” 
 — Morning  Chronicle. 
 
 MY  FIRST  SEASON.  By  Beatrice  Reynolds. 
 
 Edited  by  the  Author  of  “ Charles  Auchester”  and  “ Counterparts.” 
 
 lOs.  Qd.  cloth. 
 
 “ A very  well-written  story,  ingenious  in  its  construction,  bo  Id  and  vigorous  in  its  delineation 
 of  character,  graphic  in  its  descriptive  passages,  and  ‘ as  full  of  spirit  as  the  month  of  May.’  ” 
 — Morning  Post. 
 
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 the  pages  are  crowded  with  sathical  sketching,  and  close,  clever  presentations  of  life  and 
 character,  drawn  with  artistic  skill.” — Press. 
 
 A LOST  LOVE.  By  Ashford  Owen.  10s.  Qd.  cloth. 
 
 “ A tale  at  once  moving  and  winning,  natural  and  romantic,  and  certain  to  raise  all  the  finer 
 sjTnpathies  of  the  reader’s  nature.  Its  deep,  pure  sentiment,  admirable  style  and  composition, 
 will  win  for  it  a lasting  place  in  English  fiction,  as  one  of  the  truest  and  most  touching  pictures 
 ever  drawn  of  woman’s  love.” — Press. 
 
 “ ‘ A Lost  Love  ’ is  a story  full  of  grace  and  genius.” — Athenaeum. 
 
 “ A striking  and  original  story ; a work  of  genius  and  sensibfiity.” — Saturday  Review. 
 
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 WOMEN  OF  CHRISTIANITY  EXEMPLARY  FOR 
 PIETY  AND  CHARITY. 
 
 Post  Svo,  with  Portraits,  price  12s.  in  embossed  cloth,  gilt  edges. 
 
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 this  work,  to  which  the  gifted  authoress  has  brought  talents  of  no  ordinary  range,  and,  more 
 than  ail,  a spirit  of  eminent  piety.” — Church  of  England  (Quarterly  Review. 
 
 WOMAN  IN  FRANCE  during  the  18th  CENTURY. 
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 _ “ Miss  Kavan^h  has  undertaken  a delicate  task,  and  she  has  performed  it  on  the  whole  with 
 discretion  and  judgment.  Her  volumes  may  lie  on  any  drawing-room  table  without  scandal, 
 and  may  be  read  by  all  but  her  youngest  coimtrywomen  without  risk.” — Quarterly  Review. 
 
 GRACE  LEE.  By  Julia  Kavanagh. 
 
 3 vols.  PostSvo,  price  31s.  6d.  cloth. 
 
 “ A remarkable  fiction,  abounding  in  romantic  incidents.” — Morning  Post. 
 
12  Works  Published  by 
 
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 VILLETTE.  By  Cuebee  Bell. 
 
 JS^ew  Edition,  in  One  Volume,  Crown  Svo,  6s.  cloth. 
 
 “ This  novel  amply  sustains  the  fame  of  the  author  of  ‘ Jane  Eyre’  and  ‘ Shirley’  as  an  original 
 and  powerful  writer.” — Examiner. 
 
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 Fifth  Edition.  Croion  8vo.  6s.  cloth. 
 
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 enable  this  tale  to  stand  boldly  out  from  the  mass,  and  to  assume  its  owm  place  in  the  bright 
 field  of  romantic  literature.” — Times. 
 
 WUTHERING  HEIGHTS  and  AGNES  GREY. 
 
 By  ELLIS  and  ACTON  BELL. 
 
 With  a Biograpliical  Notice  of  both  Authors,  hy  Cukres  Bell. 
 
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 POEMS.  By  CuEEEE,  Ellis,  and  Acton  Bell. 
 
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 space,  and  the  interest  concentrated  with  so  much  effect  and  truthfulness.” — Britannia. 
 
 THE  LIFE  AND  DEATH  OF  SILAS 
 
 BARNSTARKE. 
 
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 THE  SCHOOL  FOR  FATHERS. 
 
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 direct,  unaffected  manner  of  writing,  and  nicely  managed,  well-turned  narrative.  The  descrip- 
 tions are  excellent ; some  of  the  country  painting  is  as  fresh  as  a landscape  by  Constable,  or  an 
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 THE  SCHOOL  FOR  DREAMERS. 
 
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Smithy  Elder  and  Co.  13 
 
 ©i|ii?ntal 
 
 THE  CHINESE  AND  THEIR  REBELLIONS, 
 
 WITH  AN  ESSAY  ON  CIVILIZATION. 
 
 By  T1I0]MAS  TAYLOR  MEADOWS. 
 
 One  Thick  Volume,  %vo,  with  Maps,  price  18s.  cloth. 
 
 “ In  this  hook  is  a vast  amount  of  valuable  information  respecting  China,  and  the  statements  it 
 contains  bear  on  them  the  face  of  truth.  Mr.  Meadows  has  produced  a work  which  deserves  to 
 be  studied  by  all  who  would  gain  a true  appreciation  of  Chinese  character.  Information  is  sown 
 broad-cast  through  every  page.” — Athenaeum. 
 
 “ This  instructive  volume  conveys  with  clearness  and  accuracy  the  true  character  of  the 
 social  and  political  institutions  of  China,  and  the  customs  and  manners  of  the  Chinese  : it  affords 
 a complete  compendium  of  the  Chinese  Empire.  The  whole  of  the  political  geography  and 
 administrative  machinery  of  the  empire  is  described,  and  the  theory  and  practical  working  of 
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