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HISTORY 
 
 OF  THE 
 
 CHRISTIAN  CHURCH 
 
 BY 
 
 V 
 
 GEORGE  H.  DRYER,  D.  D. 
 
 Volume  V 
 THE  ADVANCE  OF  CHRISTENDOM 
 
 1800- 1901  A.  D. 
 
 CINCINNATI:  JENNINGS  &  PYE 
 NEW  YORK:  EATON  &  MAINS 
 
COPYRIGHT,  1903, 
 BY  JENNINGS  &  PYIS. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 With  this  volume  the  endeavor  to  trace  the  un- 
 folding of  the  drama  of  Christian  life,  Christian  teach- 
 ing, and  Christian  society  through  the  Christian  cen- 
 turies reaches  our  day.  As  nothing  else  the  illumin- 
 ation of  the  action  of  this  drama  lights  the  pathway 
 of  the  Christian  peoples,  and  gives  a  mighty  impulse 
 toward  the  evangelization  of  the  world  in  this  genera- 
 tion. If  our  eyes  do  not,  or  shall  not,  behold  the  con- 
 summation of  the  drama,  they  see  enough  to  make 
 sure  that  our  Lord  "shall  see  of  the  travail  of  his  soul 
 and  be  satisfied." 
 
 This  volume  is  the  record  of  the  mightiest  of  the 
 centuries.  The  political  changes  were  stupendous. 
 The  advance  in  the  mastery  of  the  physical  world  and 
 in  the  weal  of  the  peoples  was  immeasurable.  Not 
 less  potent  or  transforming  was  the  life  of  the  Chris- 
 tian Church.  The  establishing  of  Christianity  in 
 North  America,  the  founding  of  those  missionary 
 agencies  which  are  to  subdue  the  heathen  world,  and 
 the  grand  successes  of  the  first  onset,  are  of  the  vast- 
 est significance  of  any  changes  which  mark  the  chron- 
 icle of  the  century.  In  Christendom  itself,  the  con- 
 sciousness of  the  value  of  the  Church,  and  the  neces- 
 sity of  understanding  her  history,  first  awakened  by 
 the  Oxford  movement,  has  been  felt  to  its  farthest 
 bounds.  Beside  this  awakening  consciousness  has 
 gone  on  the  unfolding  of  the  drama  of  the  Roman 
 
iv  Preface. 
 
 Catholic  Church  until  it  culminated  in  the  dogma  of 
 papal  infallibility.  In  parallel  development  has  been 
 the  progress  of  the  life  of  the  Evangelical  Churches 
 into  a  consciousness  of  essential  unity  and  practical 
 co-operation.  In  all  lands  the  Christian  faith  has 
 been  strengthened.  As  never  in  history  before,  Chris- 
 tendom has  been  made  ready  for  the  great  conquest 
 of  the  world. 
 
 At  the  end  of  this  record  the  Man  of  Calvary  is 
 not  only  the  unique  figure  in  the  history  of  the  world, 
 not  only  the  Savior  of  the  individual  soul,  and  the 
 Head  of  his  Church,  but  he  stands  before  our  vision 
 as  the  Revelator  saw  him,  *'the  King  of  the  Ages." 
 If  the  work  of  these  years  shall  aid  in  showing  that 
 there  is  a  Divine  plan  in  the  unfolding  life  of  the  Chris- 
 tian Church,  which  should  command  our  attention  in 
 order  that  thought  and  life  and  work  may  be  at  their 
 best;  if  it  shall  make  clear  that  the  history  of  the 
 Church  is  not  an  inextricable  maze  of  contradictions, 
 or  a  revolting  record  of  crimes  against  our  race,  but 
 that  the  labors  of  the  Christian  Church,  humble  and 
 full  of  sacrifice,  yet  have  cut  deep  the  places  for  the  feet 
 of  our  humanity  in  the  upward  march  toward  purer 
 heights  of  moral  progress  and  of  spiritual  vision  and 
 communion,  then  the  work  of  the  author's  life  shall  not 
 have  been  in  vain.  If  this  record  shall  in  any  wise  aid 
 to  a  more  intelligent  faith,  a  better  guided,  more  earnest 
 and  successful  endeavor  for  the  union  of  the  Churches 
 of  Jesus  Christ,  and  a  victorious  attack  upon  heathen- 
 ism both  at  home  and  abroad,  his  prayer  shall  be  an- 
 swered. May  these  volumes  cheer  those  who  work, 
 and  those  who  can  only  wait,  for  the  coming  Kingdom 
 of  God! 
 
Preface.  v 
 
 To  the  author  the  work  of  these  ten  years  has 
 been  a  delight  and  the  inspiration  of  his  life.  He  has 
 spared  no  pains,  but  he  knows  that  the  best  eflforts 
 leave  many  imperfections.  He  has  written  every  line, 
 and  has  read  the  text  five  times  to  eliminate  errors. 
 Knowing  that  some  have  escaped  him,  he  will  esteem 
 any  correction  a  favor. 
 
 The  author's  warmest  thanks  are  due  to  a  crowd 
 of  as  faithful  friends  as  ever  blessed  a  man's  life.  If 
 their  names  may  not  be  recorded  here,  their  work  is ; 
 for  without  their  unfaltering  aid  these  volumes  could 
 not  have  been.  Their  names  are  engraven  here  in 
 living  tables  of  the  heart,  and  there  in  the  Book  of 
 God's  Remembrance. 
 
TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 
 
 l^axt  Itrst 
 THE  REVOLUTION-THE  REACTION-THE  ROMANTIC 
 MOVEMENT— THE  RENEWING  AND  PLANT- 
 ING OF  CHRISTENDOM. 
 
 Introduction. 
 The  Characteristics  of  the  Century. 
 The  People's  Century— Intellectual  Life  —  Popular  Govern- 
 ment—Social Consciousness— Humane  Effort— The  Moral 
 Life— The  Spiritual  Life— The  Conquest  of  Nature— The 
 Christian  Church  — Great  Factors  in  the  Life  of  the 
 Century, ^3-i8 
 
 The  REVOI.UTION. 
 
 The  French  Revolution— The  National  Assembly— The  Work 
 of  the  National  Assembly— The  Legislative  Assembly— 
 The  Convention— The  Directory— Work  of  the  Directory— 
 The  Consulate— The  Men  of  the  Revolution— Mirabeau— 
 Carnot— Talleyrand— Napoleon  Bonaparte— The  Christian 
 Religion  and  the  Revolution— The  Civil  Constitution  of 
 the  Clergy— The  Persecution  and  the  Non-juring  Clergy 
 Law  of  November  29,  1791— Law  of  May  27,  1792— The 
 New  Oath— Law  of  August  26,  1792— September  Massacre, 
 September  2,  3,  1792— The  Laws  of  March  17  and  21,  and 
 October  23,  1793 -The  Efforts  to  Extirpate  Christianity  in 
 France— Antichristian  Orders  of  Fouche,  October,  1793— 
 Shameless  Scenes  in  the  Convention,  November  7,  I793— 
 Worship  of  the  Goddess  of  Reason,  November  10,  1793— 
 The  Terror   and  the  Constitutional  Bishops  — Ferocious 
 
 Vol.  s  vii 
 
viii  Table  of  Contents. 
 
 Law  of  tiie  Convention,  March,  1794  —  Festival  of  the 
 Supreme  Being,  June  8,  1794 — Return  to  Toleration,  Law 
 of  February  21,  1795  —  Reopening  of  Churches,  Law  of 
 May,  1795 — The  Renewed  Persecution,  Law  of  October  24, 
 1795— Penal  Acts  Against  Priests  Repealed,  July  18,  1797 — 
 The  New  Oath — First  National  Council,  August  15  to  No- 
 vember 12,  1797 — The  Bitter  Law  of  November,  1798 — The 
 Directory  and  Pope  Pius  VI — The  Directory  and  the  Chris- 
 tian Sabbath — The  Consulate,  November,  1799,  to  Decem- 
 ber, 1S04 — The  Relaxation  and  Repeal  of  Persecution — 
 Theo-philanthropists  —  Second  National  Council  —  Sum- 
 mary,       19-52 
 
 II. 
 The  Reaction. 
 The  Irreconcilables — Other  Parties  in  the  Emigration — Char- 
 acter of  the  Emigrants — Moderate  Royalists — The  Con- 
 gress of  Vienna,  1815 — The  Reaction  in  France — The  Re- 
 action in  Germany — The  Reaction  in  England— Progress 
 of  the  Revolution  —  The  Revolution  of  1830 — The  Re- 
 action, 1830-1848— The  Revolution  of  1848— The  Revolu- 
 tion in  Austria — The  Revolution  in  Germany — The  Revo- 
 lution in  Italy  —  France  under  Louis  Napoleon  —  Sum- 
 mary,       53-64 
 
 IIL 
 The  Romantic  Movement. 
 Political  Influence  of  the  Movement — Influence  on  Church — 
 The  Characteristic  Features  of  the  Romantic  Movement — 
 The  Romantic  Movement  in  England — The  Romantic 
 Movement  in  France — The  Romantic  Movement  in  Ger- 
 many— The  Romantic  Movement  in  Other  Lands — The 
 Romantic  Movement  and  Historical  Learning  —  Sum- 
 mary,       65-76 
 
 IV. 
 
 The  Roman  Cathoi.ic  Church. 
 The  Church  of  Rome  at  the  Outbreak  of  the  French  Revolu- 
 tion—The Other  Side,  the  Fruitful  Mother  of  Revolu- 
 
 VOL.  5 
 
Table  of  Contents.  ix 
 
 tions — The  Revolution  and  the  Church — The  Papacy — 
 The  Conclave  of  1800— Consalvi— Pius  VII— Leo  XII— 
 Pius  VIII  — Gregory  XVI  — Pius  IX  — The  Church  in 
 France — The  Concordats — Loss  to  the  Pope — Gain  to  the 
 Pope — The  Organic  Articles — Pius  VII  and  Napoleon — 
 The  Concordat  of  Fontainebleau,  18 13 — The  Refounding 
 of  the  Jesuits,  and  the  Restoration  of  the  States  of  the 
 Church  —  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  France  after  the 
 Restoration — Roman  Catholic  Church  in  Germany — Great 
 Britain — Spain  and  Portugal — The  General  Policy  of  the 
 Roman  Catholic  Church— The  Concordats— The  Jesuits- 
 Summary,  77-111 
 
 V. 
 
 EvANGEWCAL  Christendom. 
 In  Continental  Europe  —  The  Evangelical  Church  in  Ger- 
 many —  Schleiermacher  —  Neander  — DeWette  —  The  En- 
 forced Liturgy  —  Tholuck  —  Hengstenberg — Adolf  Har- 
 less  —  David  Frederick  Strauss  —  Christian  Ferdinand 
 Baur  —  Feuerbach — Richard  Rothe  —  Gustavus  Adolphus 
 Verein  or  Union — Deaconesses — Fliedner  —  Inner  Mis- 
 sion; John  Henry  Wichern— The  Rauhe  Haus— Johannes 
 Stift — The  Inner  Missions — Last  Days  of  Wichern — The 
 Evangelical  Church  in  Switzerland  and  France — Jean 
 Monod  —  Frederick  Monod  —  Adolphe  Monod  —  Caesar 
 Malan — D'Aubigne — Alexander  Rodolphe  Vinet,  .  1 12-140 
 
 VI. 
 
 The  Evangewcai,  Church  in  Engi^and. 
 
 The  Archbishops  of  Canterbury — Archbishop  Sutton — Arch- 
 bishop Hov^rley — Archbishop  Sumner — Preaching — Evan- 
 gelism and  Missions — Education — The  Religious  Press — 
 Bible  Societies — Charities — Reforms— John  Newton  and 
 Rowland  Hill — Richard  Cecil  — Charles  Simeon— John 
 Venn  and  Henry  Venn — William  Wilberforce  —  Henry 
 Thornton— James  Stephen — Zachary  Macaulay — Hannah 
 More — Elizabeth  Fry — The  Presbyterians — The  Congrega- 
 tionalists — The  Baptists — Andrew  Fuller — William  Carey 
 —Missions,    England— Robert    Hall— John    Foster— The 
 
 Vol.  5 
 
X  Table  of  Contents. 
 
 Methodists  —  Adam  Clarke  —  Richard  Watson  —  Robert 
 Newton— Jabez  Bunting  —  Nonconformists  and  Educa- 
 tion—Scope of  the  Evangelical  Movement— Elements  of 
 Decay  in  the  Evangelical  Movement  — Static,  not  Dy- 
 namic—Pastoral Neglect  —  Intellectual  Barrenness— Par- 
 — "  tial  View  of  Life— Perversions— The  Broad  Church  Move- 
 ment—Samuel Taylor  Coleridge— Thomas  Arnold— Julius 
 Charles  Hare  — Frederick  William  Robertson— Richard 
 Whately  —  Connop  Thirlwall  —  Radicals  —  The  Oxford 
 Movement  —  Oriel  College— John  H.  Newman —John 
 Keble— Richard  William  Church— The  Causes  of  the  Ox- 
 ford Movement ;  Political  —  Theological  —  Religious  — 
 Moral— Historic— The  Romantic  Tendency— The  Aims  of 
 the  Movement— The  Defects  of  the  Oxford  Movement— 
 Extravagances— Course  of  the  Oxford  Movement— Plym- 
 outh Brethren, 141-210 
 
 VII. 
 The  EVANGE1.1CA1,  Church  in  Scoti^and. 
 Thomas  Erskine  — Robert  Haldane— James  Alexander  Hal. 
 dane— Thomas  Chalmers— The  Disruption  and  Founding 
 of  the  Free  Church  of  Scotland— The  Free  Church  of 
 Scotland— Chalmers's  Parish  Work— Thomas  Guthrie— 
 Alexander  Duff— Norman  McLeod, 211-220 
 
 VIII. 
 The  Christian  Church  in  America. 
 
 In  the  United  States. 
 The  Era  of  Settlement,  1800-1850— Plastic  Social  Condition— 
 Hopefulness — American  Characteristics — Literary  Devel- 
 opment — Education — Politics — Emigration — The  Work  of 
 the  Christian  Church— Planting  in  the  Wilderness — Re- 
 ligious Conditions— Revivals— The  Enlarged  Activities  of 
 the  Church— The  Sunday-school— Missions— Bible  Socie- 
 ties—Tract Societies— Church  Publication  Houses— Edu- 
 cation— Reforms;  Dueling;  Temperance;  Slavery — Sec- 
 tarian Divisions — Perversions — Doctrinal  Change  —  The 
 Leading  Clergy— Timothy  Dwight— Lyman  Beecher— 
 Charles  G.  Finney  —  Adoniram  Judson  —  Francis  Way- 
 
 VOL.  5 
 
Table  of  Contents.  xi 
 
 land — William  Ellery  Channiug— Ralph  Waldo  Emerson— 
 Theodore  Parker — John  M.  Mason  —  Eliphalet  Nott  — 
 William  White — Charles  P.  Mcllvaine — Francis  Asbury — 
 Peter  Cartwright— John  Summerfield — George  G.  Cook- 
 man — Thomas  H.  Stockton — The  Congregational  Church 
 — The  Plan  of  Union — The  Unitarian  Schism — The  Amer- 
 ican Board  —  Education  —  Theological  Schools  —  Theo- 
 logians— lyconard  Woods — Moses  Stuart — Nathaniel  Tay- 
 lor— Statistics — The  Unitarians;  Influence — The  Univer- 
 salists — The  Baptists — Missions  —  Education  —  Free-Will 
 Baptists — Seventh-Day  Baptists — Richard  Furman — Spen- 
 cer Cone  —  Asahel  C.  Kendrick — Statistics  —  The  Disci- 
 ples— The  Christians — The  Presbyterians — Old  and  New 
 School  Presbyterians — Reformed  and  Associate  Presby- 
 terians— The  Cumberland  Presbyterians — Charles  Hodge 
 — Albert  Barnes  —  Gardiner  Spring  —  Edward  G.  Robin- 
 son— Dutch  Reformed — George  W.  Bethune — The  German 
 Reformed  Church— Philip  Schafif— The  Lutherans— Buf- 
 falo Synod — The  Missouri  Synod — Samuel  S.  Schmucker — 
 Statistics — The  Moravians — The  Friends — The  Protestant 
 Episcopal  Church — John  Henry  Hobart — Alexander  V. 
 Griswold  —  Richard  Channing  Moore — John  Stark  Ra- 
 venscroft  —  Philander  Chase  —  The  Methodist  Episcopal 
 Church  —  Slavery  —  African  Methodist  Churches  —  Tem- 
 perance—  Extension  of  the  Church — The  Change  in 
 1820  —  The  Election  of  Presiding  Elders  —  Methodist 
 Protestants — Growth,  1830-1840 — Methodist  Press — Mis- 
 sions—  Slavery — General  Conference,  1844  —  Methodist 
 Episcopal  Church  Education,  1840-1850 — Mission  Work  of 
 the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church — The  United  Brethren — 
 The  Evangelical  Association — Statistics— Joshua  Soule — 
 Elijah  Hedding — Nathan  Bangs — Wilbur  Fisk — Stephen 
 Olin — William  Capers — Henry  B.  Bascom — The  Roman 
 Catholic  Church — Bishop  England — Schisms — Anti-Roman 
 Catholic  Riots  —  New  Archiepiscopal  Sees  —  Councils  — 
 John  Hughes  —  Statistics  —  Work  of  the  Men  of  this 
 Time— The  Spirit  of  this  Era— Adventists— The  Oneida 
 Community — The  Mormons — Spiritualism — Churches  in 
 Canada — Roman    Catholic — The   Evangelical   Churches — 
 
 Vol. 
 
xii  Table  of  Contents. 
 
 Spanish  America — Independence  of  Spanish  American  Re- 
 publics— Mexico — Venezuela — Chili  and  Peru — Ecuador — 
 Bolivia  and  Uruguay — Colombia — Paraguay — Chili  and 
 Argentine — Brazil — The  Roman  Catholic  Episcopate  in 
 Spanish  America, 221-343 
 
 IX. 
 The  Orientai.  or  Greek  Cathoi^ic  Church. 
 Evangelical  Missions — Greek  Independence — The  Church  in 
 Russia — Other  Oriental  Christians, 344-349 
 
 NATIONAL  UNION— SCIENTIFIC  DEVELOPMENT— THE 
 
 CONSCIOUSNESS  OF  CHURCH  LIFE  AND 
 
 ITS  EXPANSION. 
 
 I. 
 The  Characteristics  of  the  Period. 
 The  Political  Development — The  Mohammedan  States — The 
 Heathen  States — America — In  Europe — The  Social  Prog- 
 ress— Literature — The  Scientific  Movement,    .   .    .  351-359 
 
 II. 
 
 NaTIONAI,  DEVEI.OPMENT. 
 
 The  Crimean  War— The  Union  of  Italy— The  Civil  War  in 
 the  United  States — The  Polish  Insurrection — The  New 
 German  Empire — Progress  of  the  Cause — Turkish  Affairs 
 — Russian  Advance — England  and  France  in  the  East — 
 International  Alliance, 360-376 
 
 IIL 
 
 The  Political  and  Social  Progress  of  Great  Britain. 
 
 Political  Reforms — Social  Reform — The  Conditions  of  the  In- 
 dustrial Classes — Pauper  Apprentices — Remedial  Legisla- 
 tion— Report  of  Commission  on  Factory  Labor,  July  13, 
 1833— The  Earl  of  Shaftesbury —  The  Cripples  at  Brad- 
 ford— Labor  in  the  Collieries — Child  Labor  and  Women  in 
 the  Collieries — Legislation,  Act  of  1843 — Obstacles — Agri- 
 cultural Gangs, 377-395 
 
 Vol.  5 
 
Table  of  Contents.  xiii 
 
 IV. 
 
 The  Scientific  Movement. 
 Astronomy  —  Geology  —  Physics  —  Chemistry  —  The  Human 
 Body  —  Medicine  —  Invention  —  Light  —  Photography  — 
 Transportation— Industrial  Inventions— In  Agriculture- 
 Mining— Wood  Working— Metal  Manufactures— Textile 
 Manufactures— The  Press— Electrical  Progress— The  Tele- 
 phone—Inventions for  Defense— The  Scientific  Movement 
 and  the  Christian  Faith— The  Attack  Repulsed,  .  396-420 
 
 V. 
 The  Papacy. 
 
 The  Jesuits— The  Doctrine  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  of 
 the  Virgin— The  Cultus  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus— 
 Intolerance— The  Papal  Government— The  Papal  Army— 
 The  Syllabus— The  Vatican  Council— Vatican  Decrees— 
 Dollinger  —  The  Old  Catholic  Movement  — The  Kultur- 
 kampf— The  Falk  Laws  —  Leo  XIII  and  the  Kultur- 
 kampf— Results  of  the  Kulturkampf— Death  of  Pius  IX— 
 Leo  XIII— Policy  of  Leo  XIII— The  Encyclical,  1885— 
 Form  of  Government  — Religious  Toleration— Scientific 
 Research— Political  Action— Failures  of  Papal  Diplomacy 
 —The  Results  of  the  Vatican  Council— Results  of  this  In- 
 terpretation of  the  Dogma  unfinished, 421-481 
 
 Vol.  5 
 
THE  LITERATURE, 
 
 T 
 
 HE  books  here  mentioned,  as  in  the  lists  accompany- 
 ing the  other  volumes,  have  been  used  in  the  prep- 
 aration for  this  work. 
 
 The  French  Revolution  and  Reaction,  i  789-1 850. 
 
 Sources. 
 
 Pius  VI,  Pont.  Max. ;  **  Acta  quibus  ecclesise  Cathol- 
 icae  Calamitatibus  in  Gallia  Consultum  est,"  2  vols.; 
 "Memoirs  of  Talleyrand,"  3  vols.,  Eng.  trans.; 
 "Memoirs  of  Madame  de  Remusat;"  "History  of 
 Europe,  1789-1815,"  A.  Alison,  4  vols.,  1850;  "His- 
 toire  de  la  Revolution  Fran9aise,"  Eng.  trans.,  A. 
 Thiers,  2  vols.,  1862;  "Histoire  de  la  Revolution 
 Fran9aise,"  F.  A.  Mignet,  1836 ; — best  in  one  volume. 
 "The  Revolution,"  H.  A.  Taine,  Eng.  trans.,  2  vols., 
 1878-1888;  "History  of  the  French  Revolution,"  H. 
 von  Sybel,  4  vols.,  Eng.  trans.,  1868; — indispensable. 
 "Geschichte  Franzosischen  Revolution,  1789-1799," 
 Eudwig  Hausser,  1867  ; — valuable.  Same,  "  Lectures," 
 Max  Lenz,  Berlin ;  "  History  of  the  French  Revolu- 
 tion," T.  Carlyle,  2  vols. ;  "  The  Flight  to  Varennes," 
 Oscar  Browning; — a  searching  criticism  of  Carlyle's 
 methods  and  statements.  "  The  French  Revolution," 
 H.  Morse  Stephens,  2  vols. ;  "  The  Era  of  the  Revo- 
 lution," H.  Morse  Stephens;— in  "Periods  of  Euro- 
 pean History;" — the  best  modern  study.  "The  Gal- 
 ilean Church :  a  History  of  the  Church  of  France," 
 1516-1789;  "The  Church  and  the  Revolution,"  W. 
 Vol.  5  XV 
 
xvi  The  Literature. 
 
 H.  Jervis,  Vol.  Ill,  2  vols.,  1872;  "Religion  and  the 
 "Reign  of  Terror,"  E.  D.  Pressense  ;  "  The  Consulate 
 and  Empire,"  A.  Thiers,  20  vols.,  Eng.  trans.;  "His- 
 toire  de  Napoleon  I,"  P.  Lanfrey,  4  vols.,  1S79,  Eng. 
 trans. ;  "  Bonaparte  et  son  Temps,"  T.  Jung,  2  vols. ; 
 "  Life  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte,"  W.  H.  Sloane,[3  vols. : — 
 the  best  work  on  Napoleon.  "E'Eglise  Romaine  et  le 
 Premier  Empire,  1 800-1814,"  Comte  D'Haussonville, 
 5  vols.,  1868;  "Memoirs  du  Cardinal  Consalvi," 
 Cretin  Eau-Jely,  2  vols.,  1864;  "Vermischten  Schrif- 
 ten,"  L.  von  Ranke;  "The  Administration  of  Car- 
 dinal Consalvi ;"  "  Histoire  des  Deux  Concordats,"  A. 
 Thiers,  2  vols.,  1869;  "Histoire  du  Pape  Pius  VII," 
 Chevalier  Artand,  2  vols.,  1836;  "  Memoire  Storiche," 
 Cardinal  Pacca,  1830;  "  Storia  d'ltalia,"  C.  Botta,  14 
 vols.;  "Annali  d'ltalia,"  Coppi,  6  vols.;  "Manuale 
 del  Sacerdozio  ad  uno  principalmente  de'  Semina- 
 risti,"  Guy  de  Cressi,  1838;  "Histoire  Civile  du  Roy- 
 aume  de  Naples  "  (from  the  time  of  the  Roman  Em- 
 pire to  1723),  Pierre  Giannone,  4  vols.,  1742;  French 
 trans.;  "Storia  del  Reame  di  Napoli,"  1734-1823,  P. 
 Colletta,  2  vols.,  1834;  "  The  Life  and  Times  of  Stein, 
 or  Germany  and  Prussia  in  the  Napoleonic  Age,"  J. 
 R.  Seeley,  2  vols.,  1879;  "  Histoire  General  de  Traites 
 de  Paix,  1648-1815,"  Comte  de  Garden,  14  vols.;  "  Le 
 Congres  de  Vienne,"  M.  Capefigue,  2  vols.,  1863 ; 
 "History  of  Ten  Years,  1830-1840,"  Louis  Blanc,  2 
 vols.,  1844,  Eng.  trans.;  "Vic  de  Monseigneur  Du- 
 panloup,"  Le  Grange,  3  vols.,  1883;  "  Lo  Stato  Ro- 
 mano, 1815-1850,"  Luigi  C.  Farni,  4  vols.,  1853; 
 "  Moto  Proprio  della  Santita  di  nostro  Signore  Papa 
 Pio  Settimo  Sulla  organizzazione  dell'  Amministra- 
 tion  Pubblica,  July  6,  1816,"  1816;  "Storia  Docu- 
 menta  della  Diplomazia  Europea  in  Italia,  1814-1861," 
 Nicomede  Biandchi,  8  vols.;  "  La  Corte  e  la  Societa 
 Romana  nei  Secoli  XVIII  e  XIX,"  David  Salvagni,  3 
 
 Vol  5 
 
The  Literature.  xvii 
 
 vols.;  "Roba  di  Roma,"  W.  W.  Story;  "Walks  in 
 Rome  "  and  "Days  near  Rome,"  A.  J.  C.  Have  ;  "  Mad- 
 emoiselle Mori,"  a  story  of  the  Revolution  of  1849; — 
 good  for  Italian  manners.  "  Handbuch  der  Neuesten 
 Kirchengeschichte,"  F.  Nippold,  3  vols.; — valuable 
 for  facts,  theory  all  wrong.  "  History  of  Protestant 
 "  Theology,"  J.  A.  Dorner,  2  vols. ;  "  I^ife  and  I^etters 
 of  Schleiermacher,"  2  vols.,  Eng.  trans. ;  "  Begrunding 
 der  Deutschen  Reichs,"  H.  von  Sybel,  7  vols. ;  now 
 in  Eng.  trans.  "  The  lycading  Currents  in  the  His- 
 tory of  the  Literature  in  the  Nineteenth  Centur3^" 
 George  Brandes,  6  vols. ;  also  the  leading  works  on 
 the  Romantic  Movement. 
 
 Secular  and  Ecclesiastical  History,  i 850-1901. 
 
 Sources. 
 
 "  Development  of  Theology,"  Otto  Pfleiderer,  1893, 
 Eng.  trans. ;  "  Economic  Interpretation  of  History," 
 Thorold  Rogers,  1888;  "  History  of  Modern  Europe," 
 A.  C.  Fyfie,  3  vols.,  1880-1890;  "Political  History  of 
 Recent  Times,  1816-1875,"  W.  Miiller,  1882,  Eng. 
 trans. ;  "  The  Nineteenth  Century,"  Robert  Macken- 
 zie;  "  The  History  of  Our  Own  Times,"  Justin  Ma- 
 carty,  2  vols.;  "Periods  of  European  History,  1815- 
 1899,"  Alison  Phillipsi,  1901 ;  "  History  of  the  English 
 Parliament,"  G.  Barnett  Smith,  2  vols.,  1892;  "Es- 
 says," T.  B.  Macaulay,  3  vols.,  1876 ;  "  Life  and  Let- 
 ters of  Macaulay,"  G.  O.  Trevelyan,  2  vols.,  1876; 
 "Life  of  Stratford-Canning,"  S.  Lane-Poole,  2  vols., 
 1888;  William  Wilberforce,"  John  Stoughton,  1880; 
 "  Essays  in  Ecclesiastical  Biography,"  James  Stephen, 
 1867;  "Theological  Institutes,"  Richard  Watson,  2 
 vols. ;  "  Life  of  Jabez  Bunting,"  Percival  Bunting : 
 "The  Christian  Year,"  John  Keble;  "Apologia  pro 
 Vita  Sua,"  John  H.  Newman,  1867;  "John  H.  New- 
 man's Letters  and  Correspondence  to  1845,"  2  vols.; 
 
 Vol  5 
 
xviii  The  Literature. 
 
 "  Life  of  Edward  B.  Pusey,"  H.  P.  Liddon  and  others, 
 4  vols,,  1897;  "Spiritual  Letters,"  E.  B.  Pusey,  1897; 
 "  Ireniconos,"  E.  B.  Pusey ;  "  Life  of  Cardinal  Man- 
 ning," E.  S.  Purcell,  2  vols.,  1896;  "  William  George 
 Ward  and  the  Oxford  Movement,"  Wilfrid  Ward, 
 1889 ;  "  Reminiscences  chiefly  of  Oriel  College  and 
 the  Oxford  Movement,"  T.  Mozeley,  2  vols.;  "Histor- 
 ical and  Theological  Essays,"  J.  B.  Mozeley,  2  vols,, 
 1882 ;  "  The  Oxford  Movement  for  Twelve  Years, 
 1833-1845,"  R.  W.  Church,  1891.  Five  great  Oxford 
 leaders — Keble,  Newman,  Pusey,  Liddon,  Church. 
 These  last  two  best,  brief  accounts,  but  they  are 
 partial,  "The  Secret  History  of  the  Oxford  Move- 
 ment," Walter  Walsh,  1899;  "Works  of  S.  T.  Cole- 
 ridge," 7  vols.;  "  Life  of  Frederick  D.  Maurice,"  A.  G. 
 Donaldson,  1900 ;  "  The  Memorials  of  a  Quiet  Life," 
 A.  J.  C.  Hare ;  "  Life  and  Correspondence  of  Arthur  P. 
 Stanley,"  R.  E.  Pothero,  2  vols, ;  "Life  of  Bishop  Sam- 
 uel Wilberforce,"  R.  Wilberforce,  1883;  "  Life  of  Archi- 
 bald Campbell  Tait,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,"  R,  T. 
 Davidson,  2  vols.,  1891 ;  "Life  of  Edward  White  Ben- 
 son, sometime  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,"  A.  C. 
 Benson,  2  vols.,  1900;  "  Life  and  Work  of  the  Seventh 
 Earl  of  Shaftesbury,  K.  G.,"  E.  Hodder,  3  vols.,  1886; 
 "  Sermons,"  H.  P.  Liddon ;  "  The  Divinity  of  Our 
 Lord  Jesus  Christ:  Bampton  Lectures,  1866,"  H.  P. 
 Liddon ;  "  The  Tongue  of  Fire,"  W.  Arthur ;  "  Ser- 
 mons," C.  H.  Spurgeon;  "Sermons,"  Joseph  Parker; 
 "  Come  to  Jesus."  Newman  Hall ;  "  Biblical  Essays  " 
 and  "Essays  on  Supernatural  Religion,"  J.  B.  Light- 
 foot;  "Life  of  Charles  H.  Spurgeon,"  4  vols.;  "The 
 Story  of  Nineteenth  Century  Science,"  H.  S.  Williams ; 
 "  The  Wonderful  Century,"  Alfred  R.  Wallace. 
 
 Vol  5 
 
The  Literature.  xix 
 
 American  Church  History  Series,  i8go-i8g6. 
 
 "Religious  Forces  in  the  United  States,"  H.  W. 
 Carroll :  Baptists,  A.  H.  Newman  ;  Congregationalists, 
 W.  Walker ;  IvUtherans,  G.  E.  Jacobs ;  Methodists,  J. 
 M.  Buckley ;  Protestant  Episcopalians,  C.  C.  Tiffany ; 
 Dutch  and  German  Reformed  and  Moravians,  Corwin 
 Dubbs ;  Roman  Catholics,  T.  O'Gorman  ;  Unitarians 
 and  Universalists,  Allen  and  Eddy ;  Methodist  Epis- 
 copal South,  United  Presbyterians,  Cumberland  Pres- 
 byterians, Presbyterians  South,  Disciples,  Friends, 
 United  Brethren,  Evangelical  Association.  "Relig- 
 ious Progress  in  the  United  States,"  D.  Dorchester; 
 "  History  of  American  Churches,"  E.  W.  Bacon ;  '♦  The 
 Founder  of  Mormonism,"  T.  W.  Riley,  1902;  "Ser- 
 mons for  the  New  Life,"  Horace  Bushnell,  1858; 
 "Nature  and  the  Supernatural,"  Horace  Bushnell, 
 1858;  **Eife  and  Letters  of  Horace  Bushnell,"  Mary 
 B.  Cheney,  1880;  "Faith  and  Philosophy,"  H.  B. 
 Smith;  "  System  of  Christian  Theology,"  H.  B.  Smith, 
 1884;  "Henry  Boynton  Smith,  His  Life  and  Work," 
 Mrs.  H.  B.  Smith,  1880;  "Systematic  Theology," 
 Charles  Hodge,  3  vols.,  1871 ;  "Pastoral  Sketches," 
 I.  Spencer,  2  vols.;  "Revival  Lectures,"  Charles  G. 
 Finney;  "Life  of  Charles  G.  Finney;"  "The  Life  of 
 Dwight  L.  Moody,"  W.  R.  Moody,  1900;  "Martin  B, 
 Anderson;  A  Biography,"  A.  C.  Kendrick,  1895: 
 "Ezekiel  G.  Robinson:  An  Autobiography,"  E.  H. 
 Johnson,  1896;  "  Adoniram  Judson,"  Edward  Judson, 
 1883;  "The  Life  of  Alexander  Duff,"  George  Smith, 
 2  vols. ;  "  The  Personal  Life  of  David  Livingstone," 
 W.  G.  Blaikie,  1881 ;  "  Life  of  John  Coleridge  Patte- 
 son,"  C.  M.  Yonge,  2  vols.,  1873 ;  "  Life  of  John  G. 
 Paton,"  2  vols.;  "Life  of  Phillips  Brooks,"  A.  V. 
 Allen,  3  vols.,  1902;  "Life  of  Bishop  Francis  As- 
 bury,"  W.  P.  Strickland;    "Autobiography  of  Peter 
 
 Vol  5 
 
XX  The  Literature. 
 
 Cartwright,"  W.  P.  Strickland ;  "  Life  of  Bishop  L.  L. 
 Hamline,"  F.  G.  Hibbard;  "lyife  of  Bishop  Matthew 
 Simpson,"  George  R.  Crooks,  1891;  ''Life  of  Bishop 
 Gilbert  Haven,"  George  Prentice;  "Life  of  Bishop  E. 
 O.  Haven,"  C.  C.  Stratton;  "  Life  of  John  P.  Durbin," 
 J.  A.  Roche  ;  "  Life  of  Alfred  Cookman,"  H.  B.  Ridga- 
 way;  "History  of  the  Discipline,"  David  Sherman; 
 Constitutional  History  of  American  Methodism," 
 John  J.  Tigert;  "Leben  Albrecht  Ritschl,"  Otto 
 Ritschl,  2  vols. 
 
 Lexicons. 
 "Real  Bncyclopadia  fiir  Protestant  Theologie  und 
 Kirche,"  Herzog  &  Plitt,  23  vols. ;  new  ed. ;  11  vols, 
 issued.  "  Wetzer  und  Wolte  Roman  Catholic  Kirchen- 
 lexicon,"  11  vols.;  "  Meusel  Kirchliches  Hand  Lexi- 
 con," 6  vols.  (High  Church  Lutheran);  all  three  of 
 these  are  of  the  highest  authority.  "Encyclopedic 
 des  Sciences  Religieuse,"  Lichtenberger,  13  vols. ; 
 "  Dictionary  of  English  Biography,"  Leslie  Stephen, 
 64  vols.;  "Dictionary  of  American  Biography,"  Ap- 
 pleton,  5  vols.;  "Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  9th  ed.,  24 
 vols. ;  Appleton's  "Annual  Enc3dop9edia,"  1880-1902; 
 Dodd  &  Meade's  "International  Annual,"  1900-1902; 
 "  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education,  1899- 
 1900,"  W.  T.  Harris;  The  Church  Year-Books;  Re- 
 views, Theological  and  General — American,  English, 
 French,  and  German,  1890-1903;  "  Grundlinien  der 
 Kirchengeschichte,"  Fredreich  Loofs,  1901 ; — brief,  ac- 
 curate, comprehensive ;  the  best  outline  guide  to  the 
 knowledge  of  Continental  Church  History. 
 
 In  the  Fine  Arts. 
 "History  of  Architecture,"  James  Ferguson,  2  vols.; 
 "  A  History  of  Painting,"  Woltman  &  Woermann,  2 
 vols. ;    "  Greek  and  Roman  Sculpture,"  W.  G.  Perry ; 
 
 Vol  5 
 
The  Literature.  xxi 
 
 "  Franz  von  Assisi  und  die  Anfange  der  Kunst  der 
 Renaissance  in  Italian,"  H.  Thode,  1885;  "Grammar 
 of  Painting  and  Engraving,"  Charles  Blanc,  1884; 
 Artists'  Biographies,  like  those  in  German,  of  Raphael, 
 Holbein,  Titian,  and  the  George  Bell  &  Sons  Series  in 
 London,  of  Perugino,  Giorgione,  etc. 
 
 Vols 
 
f'art  First. 
 
 THE  REVOLUTION— THE  REACTION— 
 THE  ROMANTIC  MOVEMENT— THE 
 RENEWING  AND  PLANTING  OF 
 CHRISTENDOM. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 THE  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THE  CENTURY. 
 
 The  greatest  of  the  Christian  centuries  has  been 
 the  century  of  the  greatest  conquests  of  the  Christian 
 faith.     It  has  reconquered  Europe,  settled 
 and  civilized  America  and  Australia,  taken     centuryr  * 
 possession  of  Africa    and    Oceania,    and 
 dominated  Asia.    A  century  of  war  and  change,   of 
 progress  and  reform,  has  ended  in  an  era  of  armed 
 peace.      The  political,  economic,  social,  and  religious 
 life  of  Christendom    in    the   course   of  this  century 
 passed  through  a  development   more  profound  and 
 more    far-reaching    than    the    previous    millennium. 
 More  of  hope  and  of  possibility    has  come  into  hu- 
 man life  between  1800  and  1901  than  in  the  thousand 
 years  preceding  the  nineteenth  century. 
 
 It  has  been  the  century  of  the  awakened  life  of 
 the  Christian  peoples ;  ^for  the  non-Christian  peoples 
 in  neither  ancient  nor  modern  times,  with  the  excep- 
 tion of  city  States,  and  these  under  great  limitations, 
 have  ever  come  to  political  or  social  consciousness. 
 The  evident  fact  in  the  nineteenth  century  is  that 
 popular  progress  is  known  only  among  Christian 
 peoples  or  those  under  Christian  influence.  Japan, 
 the  only  seeming  exception,  proves  the  rule,  as  her 
 progress  is  a  direct  importation  from  Christendom. 
 
 It  has  been  the  century  of  the  awakened  intellect- 
 ual life  of  the  people.      It  was  the  century  of  popu- 
 
 13 
 
14        History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 lar  education,  popular  intelligence,  the  deepening  and 
 advance  of  popular  culture.   Compare  the  schools  and 
 
 universities,  the  popular  literature,  the 
 '"^Lif^""*    perodical    press,    the   libraries,   museums, 
 
 and  art-galleries  of  the  nineteenth  century 
 with  all  previous  means  of  popular  enlightenment  in 
 the  history  of  the  race ;  in  the  balance  of  the  cen- 
 turies how  the  former  outweighs  all  others. 
 
 The  awakened  intellectual  life  brought  to  the  peo- 
 ple power.      This  power  is  gauged  by  the   advance 
 
 of  popular  government.  At  the  begin- 
 Go^rnment.  ^^"^  ^^  ^^^  ceutury  the  United  States  was 
 
 a  Republic  with  limited  suffrage ;  France  a 
 Republic  with  limited  suffrage  verging  quickly  to  a 
 despotism,  and  her  experiment  had  proven  a  tremen- 
 dous and  ghastly  failure.  At  the  close  of  the  century 
 popular  opinion  was  the  ultimate  force  in  all  civil- 
 ized countries  except  Russia.  Lincoln's  "  government 
 of  the  people,  by  the  people,  and  for  the  people"  was 
 fast  becoming  the  political  standard  of  Christendom. 
 The  awakened  intellectual  life  of  the  people  has 
 always  included  an  awakened  social  consciousness, 
 
 and  a  demand  for  improved  economic  con- 
 Si^ulil^ss.'  ditions.  How  these  have  sprung  from  other 
 
 causes  will  be  further  indicated;  but  the 
 century  closed  with  a  strongly-accentuated  demand 
 for  a  Christian  society  which  should  be  earnest  and 
 hopeful  in  attacking  and  removing  great  abuses  and 
 crimes  in  the  social  order,  and  which  should  stead- 
 fastly seek  the  economic  amelioration  of  the  poor. 
 The  century  has  been  one  of  vast  improvement  in  the 
 well-being  of  the  people.  In  providing  food,  cloth- 
 ing, homes ;  in  the  lightening  of  the  heaviest  toil,  and 
 
Characteristics  of  the  Century.        15 
 
 in  agencies  ministering  to  the  intellectual  and  spirit- 
 ual life  of  the  people,  all  preceding  ones  combined 
 were  surpassed  by  this  century. 
 
 It  has  been  a  humane  century.      Never  in  the  his- 
 tory of  the  race  have  such  intelligence  and  devotion, 
 such  skill   and   financial    resources,  been 
 put  to  effective  use  for  the  blind,  the  deaf,     ""1"^? 
 the  insane,  the  cripple,  the  sick,  the  or- 
 phans, and  the  aged.   Societies,  brotherhoods,  and  in- 
 surance companies,  far  more  than  the  State,  seek  to 
 ameliorate  the  lot  of  those  whose  temporal   depend- 
 ence has  been  stricken  by  disease  or  accident,  or  re- 
 moved by  death.   The  demand  in  Europe  for  old-age 
 pensions  for  working  men  is  a  striking  indication  of 
 this  tendency.      This  spirit  has  reached  the  prisoner 
 and  the  outcast.      Much  remains  undone,  but  never 
 has  more  been  accomplished. 
 
 This  awakened  intellectual  life  and  social  life  of 
 the  people,  with  increased  political  power  and  well- 
 being  did  not  stand  alone.      There  was  an 
 awakening  of  the  conscience  of  the  peo-       Life?*^"* 
 pie.    The  standard  of  popular  morality,  the 
 test  which  it  applied  to  public  men,  and  the  standard 
 by  which  it  judged  public  action  became  higher  with 
 the  progress  of  the  century.      This  was  true  in  spite 
 of  the   official   immorality   fostered  by  great  finan- 
 cial corporations.     But  for  this  advance,  there  would 
 have  been  no  abolition  of  the  slave-trade,  and  then 
 of  slavery.      Nor  would  there  have  been  a  larger  pro- 
 portion of  Christian  people  who  wholly  abstain  from 
 the  use  of  intoxicants  than  in  any  other  age  of  Chris- 
 tian history. 
 
 It  has  also  been  a  century  of  the  awakened  spirit- 
 
1 6       History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 ual  life  of  the  people.  In  its  religious  leadership,  in 
 Christian  scholarship,  in  founding  Christian  institu- 
 tions, in  building  churches,  in  supporting 
 ^**®  ufe!*"**  Christian  work  and  workers,  both  at  home 
 and  in  foreign  mission  fields,  in  the  prop- 
 agation of  Christian  Scriptures  and  of  Christian 
 literature,  the  last  century  shows  the  awakened  relig- 
 ious life  of  the  people.  The  nineteenth  century  wins, 
 beyond  all  comparison,  in  the  work  done  for  the  moral 
 and  religious  life  of  the  people,  the  Christian  conquest 
 of  man.  Though  the  work  done  has  been  great,  yet 
 considered  in  relation  to  need  and  opportunity,  most 
 imperfectly  has  it  been  wrought,  with  large  omissions, 
 and  not  a  few  retrogressions. 
 
 In  material  things,  as  is  always  the  case,  the  task 
 has  been  easier.  The  conquest  of  nature  has  been  much 
 less  difficult  than  that  of  man.  The  nine- 
 ^*cfi  Nature.**  ^ecnth  century  was  one  of  scientific  discov- 
 ery, of  popular  inventions,  and  of  immense 
 mechanical  and  engineering  achievements.  The  steam- 
 ship, canals,  railroads,  the  telegraph,  the  telephone, 
 electric  lighting,  electric  motors,  photography,  and 
 labor-saving  machinery,  have  changed  the  whole  aspect 
 of  the  daily  life  of  man.  The  spectroscope,  the  teach- 
 ing of  the  conservation  of  energy  and  of  the  evolu- 
 tion of  organic  life,  have  pervaded  and  molded  his 
 thoughts.  The  discovery  of  the  nature  of  cell-life  in 
 the  human  body,  of  the  germs  of  prevalent  and  fatal 
 diseases,  of  the  appliances  of  sanitary  medicine  and 
 of  antiseptic  surgery,  has  added  years  of  health  to 
 the  average  duration  of  human  life.  Improved  me- 
 chanical appliances  and  processes  have  revolutionized 
 
Characteristics  of  the  Century.        17 
 
 the  industry  and  commerce  of  the  world.  The  whole 
 structure  of  society  has  felt  the  influence  of  the  con- 
 centration of  population  and  capital  in  great  centers 
 of  production  and  exchange.  The  nineteenth  cen- 
 tury has  been  the  era  of  the  growth  of  great  cities  and 
 of  an  immense  urban  population.  All  this  advance  of 
 scientific  discovery  and  mechanical  invention  has 
 marked  the  century  as  one  in  which,  more  largely 
 than  in  all  others,  man  has  come  into  possession  of  his 
 inheritance  and  his  promised  and  rightful  dominion 
 over  nature.  This  realization  of  dominion  promises 
 to  advance  with  accelerated  velocity. 
 
 In  this  wonderful  century  of  the  awakened  life  of 
 the  Christian  peoples  what  has  been  the  record  and  the 
 achievements  of  the  Christian  Church  ?  Has 
 it  been  outclassed  in  the  race  ?  Has  it  par-  ^**ch^*'rch!'"" 
 taken  of  the  fate  of  the  outworn  creations  of 
 the  past  ?  Has  a  more  capable  and  fitting  successor  been 
 found  to  take  up  and  carry  on  its  mighty  task?  On 
 the  other  hand,  will  it  prove,  on  careful  examination, 
 that  upon  it  is  the  dew  of  a  perpetual  youth ;  that, 
 among  all  the  Titanic  forces  of  this  changeful  age,  it 
 was  of  them  all  the  most  potent  and  far-reaching ;  that 
 as  never  before  it  has  been  demonstrated  that  man  is 
 necessarily  a  religious  being,  and  that  spiritual  forces 
 must  dominate  his  character  and  his  civilization  ?  The 
 decision  of  these  questions  depends  upon  the  unfold- 
 ing of  the  record  of  its  work,  its  influence,  and  its  life. 
 To  this  record  the  last  volume  of  this  history  is  de- 
 voted— a  record  oftenest  unread,  but  not  on  that  ac- 
 count less  important  or  potential. 
 
 To  understand  rightly  the  work  of  the  Christian 
 
1 8       History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 Church  in  this  century,  there  must  be  clearly  seen 
 and  justly  estimated  the  great  factors  in  its  secular 
 ^     ^^    .       life.    In  the  first  half  of  its  duration  we  find 
 
 Qreat  Factors 
 
 in  the  Life  of  these  to  be  the  Revolution,  the  Reaction, 
 the  Century.  ^^^  ^^^  Romautic  Movement  in  litera- 
 ture. These  must  be  considered  before  we  can  at  all 
 understand  the  work  of  the  Christian  Church  in  this 
 great  era  of  change. 
 
Chapter  I. 
 
 THE  REVOLUTION. 
 
 The  greatest  political  revolution  of  the  Christian 
 ages  was  in  mid-career  at  the  opening  of  the  century. 
 The  Empire  of  Napoleon  was  but  the  con- 
 tinuation of  the  Revolution  from  which  it  Revohltion*! 
 sprung.  The  forms  were  different,  the 
 essential  spirit  and  effects  were  the  same.  For 
 twenty-six  years,  from  1789  to  18 15,  from  the  as- 
 sembling of  the  States-General  at  Versailles  to  the 
 battle  of  Waterloo,  the  Revolution  dominated  Europe. 
 Its  armies  devastated  the  soil,  pillaged  the  wealth,  and 
 decimated  the  inhabitants  of  the  Continent  from  I<is- 
 bon  to  Moscow,  and  from  Dantzic  to  Naples.  It  laid 
 a  million  of  men  in  the  prime  of  life  in  bloody  graves, 
 and  cost  the  lives  of  millions  more.  It  was  the  bloody 
 specter  that  sat  in  the  Cabinets  of  European  states- 
 men for  seventy  years.  To  banish  it  were  devoted 
 the  life-long  endeavors  of  Metternich  of  Austria,  and 
 of  Nicholas  of  Russia,  and  their  imitators  great  and 
 small,  until  Thiers  taught  the  world  that  a  French 
 Republic  could  command  order  and  guarantee  security. 
 It  was  the  bitter  spirit  of  mockery  and  unbelief,  of 
 anarchy  and  despair,  which  every  pope  of  the  century 
 before  Leo  XIII  conjured  up,  to  frighten  the  monarchs 
 and  the  people  into  the  embrace  of  the  Roman  Catho- 
 lic Church  as  the  sole  defense  of  modern  society 
 against  the  destruction  which  infallibly  followed  the 
 footsteps  of  the  Revolution.     It  was  this  specter  of 
 
 19 
 
20       History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 ruin  and  anarchy  which  was  invoked  to  show  the 
 absolute  necessity  of  the  temporal  power  of  the  pope 
 and  the  intolerance,  abuses,  and  corruptions  with 
 which  it  was  accompanied.  I^et  us  see,  then,  briefly 
 what,  besides  war  and  blood,  besides  this  specter  of 
 negation  and  destruction,  was  the  French  Revolution. 
 It  began  with  the  assembling  of  the  States-General 
 at  Versailles,  May  5,  1789.  A  bankrupt  State,  a  dis- 
 credited government,  a  population  whose 
 ^AL'^mWyf  ^^^^^  classes  paid  fifty  per  cent  of  their  in- 
 comes in  taxes,  and  whose  privileged  classes, 
 the  nobility  and  clergy,  were  untaxed,  demanded  the 
 attention  of  the  representatives  of  the  nation.  Reform 
 was  inevitable,  revolution  imminent.  The  first  victory 
 of  the  reform  was  the  change  of  the  States-General  to 
 the  National  Assembly,  from  a  legislative  body  of 
 three  Chambers,  each  having  a  veto  and  each  able  to 
 block  all  reform,  to  one  where  all  sat  in  a  single  Cham- 
 ber, and  together  undertook  their  legislative  work  for 
 the  reform  of  France.  To  hinder  this  result,  the  king 
 ordered  the  hall  in  which  met  the  Deputies  of  the 
 Third  Estate  to  be  closed.  The  Deputies  immediately 
 adjourned  to  the  Tennis  Court,  and  there,  on  June  20, 
 1789,  swore  never  to  dissolve  until  they  had  given  to 
 France  a  Constitution.  On  June  23d  the  king  called 
 them  before  him,  and  ordered  them  to  legislate  as 
 three  different  bodies,  but  already  the  lower  clergy 
 and  some  of  the  nobility  had  joined  the  Third  Estate. 
 The  king,  seeing  the  failure  of  his  plan,  then,  June  27, 
 1789,  commanded  them  to  act  together.  Ten  days  be- 
 fore, the  assembled  Deputies  had  taken  the  title  of  the 
 National  Assembly.  The  States-General,  thus  con- 
 verted into  a   Legislative  Constituent  Assembly,  was 
 
The  Revolution.  21 
 
 composed  of  308  deputies  of  the  clergy,  including  41 
 bishops,  205  of  the  nobility,  and  621  of  the  Third 
 Estate. 
 
 On  July  14,  1789,  the  Bastile  was  stormed,  the  first 
 act  of  the  Revolution,  and  the  act  which  revealed  to 
 the  mob  of  Paris  its  power.  It  was  now  a  contest 
 between  reform  and  revolution.  The  reform  might 
 have  been  accomplished  and  the  revolution  have  been 
 averted  but  for  the  folly  of  the  Court,  the  irresolution 
 of  the  king,  and  the  ill-will  of  the  queen.  All  three 
 trusted  far  more  in  the  regiments  of  Swiss  and  Ger- 
 mans in  the  service  of  the  king,  and  in  the  queen's 
 brothers,  Joseph  and  I^eopold,  successively  Kmperors 
 of  Germany,  than  in  any  reforms  of  the  National  As- 
 sembly. 
 
 There  had  been  a  failure  of  the  harvest  the  year 
 before,  and  famine  stared  Paris  in  the  face.  At  this 
 time,  with  measureless  folly,  the  queen  and  the  court 
 party  made  a  banquet  for  the  officers  of  the  royal 
 guard  at  Versailles.  They  trampled  under  foot  the 
 tricolor;  they  wore  the  white  cockade;  they  sang 
 royalists'  songs,  while  the  men  of  the  regiments  were 
 feasted.  The  news  of  this  reached  Paris.  Starving 
 women  led  the  procession  which  marched  to  Ver- 
 sailles on  October  5,  1789.  They  invaded  the  palace, 
 and  pushed  through  the  royal  apartments.  The  next 
 day  the  king  and  his  family  accompanied  the  mob 
 back  to  Paris.  Henceforth  the  king  was  in  the  hands 
 of  that  Paris  which  had  destroyed  the  Bastile. 
 
 In  the  meantime  the  Assembly  had  taken  great 
 strides  in  reform.  It  had  adopted  a  Declaration  of  the 
 Rights  of  Man,  which  stands  side  by  side  with  the 
 English  Bill  of  Rights  and  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
 
22       History  of  the  Christian  Church, 
 
 pendence  in  setting  forth  the  civil  and  religious  liber- 
 ties of  the  citizens.  On  the  night  of  August  4,  1789, 
 under  the  influence  of  that  passion  for  equality  which 
 was  the  strongest  motive  force  of  the  time,  the  nobil. 
 ity  and  clergy  renounced  all  feudal  and  seignioral 
 rights  and  privileges,  and  made  way  for  the  legislation 
 which  was  to  create  modern  France.  The  nobles  who 
 opposed  both  reform  and  its  consequences  began  to 
 emigrate  in  July,  and  still  in  greater  numbers  after 
 the  king  left  Versailles  for  Paris.  These  emigrants 
 included  most  of  the  French  Episcopate,  which  was 
 thoroughly  aristocratic,  as  but  five  of  the  one  hundred 
 and  thirty-four  bishops  were  not  of  noble  birth. 
 They  soon  included  a  large  share  of  the  officers  of 
 the  army  and  navy,  who  were  all  of  like  descent. 
 This  emigration  opposed  any  political  change  in 
 France,  and  put  its  trust  in  the  invasion  of  foreign 
 princes.  In  this  lay  the  tragic  fate  of  Louis  XVI, 
 his  queen  and  children. 
 
 The  National  Assembly  ruled  France  until  Sep- 
 tember 30,  1 79 1.  The  king's  veto  only  suspended  an 
 ^..    «,   .     *  act  of  the  Assembly  for  six  months.     The 
 
 The  Work  of  •' 
 
 the  National  Assembly,  with  untried  men  and  no  na- 
 Assembiy.  t^Qjial  traditions  or  precedents,  conducted 
 the  great  experiment  of  converting  an  absolute  gov- 
 ernment and  a  feudal  monarchy  into  a  constitutional 
 State.  It  made  serious  mistakes,  but  its  success  was 
 signal,  and  upon  its  work  rests,  in  large  measure^ 
 not  only  modern  France,  but  modern  Continental 
 Europe.  It  faced  a  bankrupt  State.  The  wealth  of 
 the  clergy  was  enormous,  and,  as  in  England  in  the 
 sixteenth  century,  and  in  Germany,  Italy,  Spain,  and 
 Portugal  in  the  nineteenth  century,  it  made  impossi. 
 
The  Revolution.  23 
 
 ble  the  modern  State.  No  modern  nation  can  afford 
 to  have  a  corporation  or  class  own  one-half  to  two- 
 thirds  of  its  real  estate.  On  October  10,  1789,  Talley- 
 rand, Bishop  of  Autun,  moved  that  the  goods  of  the 
 Church  be  the  property  of  the  nation.  Two  days 
 later  Mirabeau  supported  this  proposition.  On  No- 
 vember 2d  the  Assembly,  by  a  vote  of  568  to  346, 
 placed  the  property  of  the  Church  at  the  disposal  of 
 the  nation,  with  the  obligation  to  support  the  clergy. 
 In  December,  1789,  assignats  were  issued  based  upon 
 this  real  estate.  The  municipalities  purchased  the 
 property  of  the  State,  and  sold  it  to  individuals,  thus 
 guaranteeing  the  title.  This  floated  the  assignats, 
 and  the  assignats  saved  the  Revolution.  The  main 
 work  of  the  National  Assembly  was  the  formation  of 
 a  constitution  for  France.  In  this  work  it  so  limited 
 the  executive  power  as  to  make  the  I^egislature 
 supreme,  and  then  made  the  Legislature  to  consist  of 
 a  single  Chamber.  This  was  its  great  blunder.  To 
 this  it  added  another  when  it  disqualified  all  members 
 of  the  National  Assembly  for  re-election. 
 
 Nevertheless  the  National  Assembly  rendered  great 
 service  to  France.  On  November  12,  1789,  it  made 
 France  from  a  congeries  of  provinces  into  a  homo- 
 geneous nation  by  dividing  its  soil  into  eighty-three 
 departments,  and  it  organized  a  local  administration 
 which  subsists  to-day.  All  the  intolerable  internal 
 custom  and  excise  taxes  were  swept  away.  All  re- 
 straint upon  trade  and  industry  by  guilds  and  corpo- 
 rations was  abolished.  All  titles  of  nobility,  liveries, 
 etc.,  were  annulled,  July  13,  1790.  A  civil  constitu- 
 tion was  given  to  the  Church.  The  courts  of  law 
 were   thoroughly  reformed   on    a   basis  which   still 
 
24       History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 exists.  Trial  by  jury  was  allowed  in  criminal  cases. 
 All  officials,  even  judges,  bishops,  and  parish  priests^ 
 were  elected.  But  none  could  vote  unless  he  paid 
 taxes  equal  in  value  to  three  days'  wages.  Nor  could 
 he  be  voted  for  unless  he  paid  taxes  equal  to  a  silver 
 mark.  The  National  Assemblj%  in  harmony  with 
 men  like  Lafayette  and  Mirabeau,  desired  a  Constitu- 
 tional Monarchy.  The  flight  to  Varennes  of  the  king 
 and  his  family,  June  20-21,  1791;  the  Emperor 
 Leopold's  Declaration  of  Padua,  July  7,  1791,  making 
 the  cause  of  the  King  of  France  that  of  all  kings; 
 the  Declaration  of  Pilnitz  by  Austria  and  Prussia, 
 August  7,  1 791;  and  the  Papal  Brief  to  Louis  XVI 
 before  the  pope  learned  of  the  failure  of  the  king's 
 flight,  made  vain  their  endeavors.  In  the  midst  of 
 the  revelation  that  the  king  had  no  heart  in  the  new 
 order  in  France,  and  that  France  must  soon  face  a 
 foreign  coalition  to  restore  the  old  regime,  the  National 
 Assembly,  after  proclaiming  a  general  amnesty,  fin- 
 ished its  labors.  Louis  swore  to  obey  the  new  Con- 
 stitution, September  21,  1791. 
 
 The  Legislative  Assembly,  which  took  the  place  of 
 the  most  famous  of  the  legislative  bodies  of  France, 
 The  Leeisia-  ^^^  composcd  of  Untried  men,  as  those  of 
 
 tive  any  political  experience  were  barred  out. 
 Assembly,  j^  endured  from  October  26,  1 791,  to  Sep- 
 tember 22,  1792.  It  could  not  inaugurate  any  change 
 in  the  Constitution.  Its  energies  were  occupied  in 
 dealing  with  non-juring  priests,  who  were  often  the 
 agents  of  political  disaff'ection,  and  with  gathering 
 forces  of  the  foreign  powers  who  sought  to  reinstate 
 the  absolute  government  of  the  king.  In  this  As- 
 sembly the   Deputies   of   the   Gironde   first   became 
 
The  Revolution.  25 
 
 prominent.  As  the  king  refused  his  assent  to  an 
 ecclesiastical  measure,  and  the  Prussians  were  gather- 
 ing on  the  frontier,  the  mob  of  Paris  invaded  the 
 Assembly,  and  then  the  Tuileries,  the  residence  of  the 
 king.  This  ended  all  co-operation  of  the  king  with 
 the  people ;  he  looked  only  for  help  to  foreign  arms. 
 The  insolent  proclamation  of  the  Duke  of  Brunswick, 
 July  25th,  and  the  advance  of  the  Prussian  army, 
 caused  the  insurrection  of  the  Paris  Commune  of  the 
 loth  of  August,  1792.  When  the  mob  massacred  the 
 Swiss  guards  of  the  king,  I^ouis  XVI  took  refuge  in 
 the  Assembly.  Finally,  on  August  30th,  he  was  trans- 
 ferred with  his  family  to  the  Temple,  which  was  their 
 prison  until  he  and  his  queen  died  on  the  scaffold: 
 his  son  died  in  prison,  June  8,  1795,  at  the  age  of  ten 
 years;  his  daughter  was  exchanged,  December  20th 
 of  the  same  year. 
 
 On  August  loth  the  royal  power  was  declared  sus- 
 pended.    This,  of  course,  demanded  a  new  Constitu- 
 tion,  and   hence   a   new   legislative   body. 
 This  brought  into  being  the  National  Con-  convention. 
 vention.    The  lyCgislative  Assembly  having 
 finished  its  labors,  the  Convention  met  September  2 1 , 
 1792.     Its  first  act  was  to  decree  the  Republic,  which 
 was  proclaimed  the  next  day. 
 
 Immense  excitement  and  a  great  political  crime 
 preceded  the  fall  of  the  French  monarchy.  The 
 Prussians  overcame  the  resistance  of  the  French  at 
 Longwy.  Fearful  of  traitors  at  home,  many  thou- 
 sands of  persons  suspected  of  sympathy  with  the  in- 
 vaders, notably  those  of  the  nobility  and  clergy  who 
 had  not  emigrated,  were  imprisoned.  On  September 
 2d  and  3d  thousands  of  these,  thus  detained,  without 
 
26       History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 any  pretext  of  trial,  were  foully  murdered  in  the 
 prisons.  Only  an  insensate  fear  and  a  desire  to  rule 
 by  terror  can  explain  a  crime  which  stains  forever  the 
 annals  of  the  Revolution.  September  20,  1792,  the 
 Prussians  were  repulsed  at  Valmy,  and  began  an  in- 
 glorious retreat.  France  was  saved  from  the  invaders, 
 but  the  fate  of  the  king  was  sealed. 
 
 The  Convention  consisted  of  749  members;  of 
 these,  16  were  bishops  and  26  priests.  The  Conven- 
 tion ruled  France  for  three  years.  The  Girondists 
 were  in  the  majority.  The  Jacobins  had  on  their  side 
 the  Parisian  mob  and  a  fearless  and  unscrupulous 
 patriotism.  The  first  great  question  to  be  decided 
 was  the  disposal  of  the  king.  He  was  tried,  and  con- 
 demned to  death  by  a  vote  of  387  to  334.  He 
 mounted  the  scaffold  January  21,  1793.  Louis  XVI 
 died  like  a  brave  man  and  a  Christian.  Nothing  in 
 his  life  became  him  like  his  leaving  it.  A  man  less 
 fitted  to  rule  has  seldom  been  called  to  reign.  His 
 weakness  was  the  strength  of  the  Revolution  in  its 
 early  days. 
 
 In  September,  1792,  Savoy  and  Nice  had  been 
 overrun;  in  October,  Spires,  Worms,  and  Mainz,  by 
 Custine ;  and  after  the  battle  of  Jemappes,  November 
 6,  1792,  Dumouriez  had  taken  Austrian  Flanders,  or 
 Belgium.  Incited  by  these  successes,  the  Girondists 
 desired  war  with  England.  In  February,  1793,  the 
 Convention  declared  war  with  England,  Holland,  and 
 Spain.  In  November,  1792,  it  had  proclaimed  the 
 war  of  the  Republic  against  all  monarchies. 
 
 But  the  fortune  of  war  changed;  March  18,  1793, 
 Dumouriez  was  defeated  at  Neerwinden.  The  de- 
 feated general  decided  to  march  to  Paris  and  disperse 
 
The  Revolution.  27 
 
 the  Convention,  but,  finding  this  impracticable,  he 
 went  over  to  the  enemy.  His  treachery  brought  on 
 the  fall  of  the  Girondists.  An  invasion  of  the  Paris 
 mob  brought  their  overthrow,  June  27,  1793.  Two 
 Ministers  of  State  and  thirty-one  Deputies  were 
 arrested.  Their  leaders,  who  escaped  arrest,  fled  to 
 the  provinces,  where  they  sought  to  stir  up  rebellion 
 and  overthrow  the  Jacobins  at  Paris.  The  situation 
 was  desperate.  France  was  threatened  from  all  sides, 
 from  Flanders,  Germany,  Italy,  and  Spain.  La  Vendee, 
 incited  by  refractory  priests,  royalists  and  English, 
 rose  in  bloody  revolt  to  resist  the  conscription. 
 Toulon  was  taken  by  the  English,  and  Lyons  was  in 
 open,  successful  rebellion.  The  Jacobins  were  not 
 frightened.  They  then  organized  a  strong,  central, 
 executive  power  in  the  Committee  of  Public  Safety. 
 The  second  Committee  of  that  name  was  in  power 
 from  July  10,  1793,  to  July  27,  1794.  The  Jacobin 
 Club,  and  its  affiliated  clubs  in  the  departments, 
 formed  its  chief  support.  It  was  a  strong  central 
 power,  ruling  by  terror.  Its  agents  on  mission  ruled 
 with  more  than  proconsular  authority  in  the  provinces 
 and  the  army.  The  Convention  proclaimed  a  levy  en 
 masse.  The  Marseillaise  began  to  be  the  hymn  of 
 the  French  conquest.  Lyons  was  taken  and  sacked, 
 October  9,  1793.  The  Austrians  were  defeated  at 
 Wattignies,  October  i6th.  Wurmser  was  driven 
 across  the  Rhine,  and  the  Spaniards  across  the  Pyr- 
 enees. The  battle  of  Fleurus,  the  next  June,  brought 
 again  the  subjugation  of  Flanders. 
 
 In  October,  1793,  the  unfortunate  Queen  Marie 
 Antoinette  and  the  leaders  of  the  Gironde  mounted 
 the  scaflfold.     There  could  be  no  resistance  to  the 
 
28       History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 Terror.  The  Terror,  true  to  its  name,  successful  in 
 driving  back  invaders  and  quelling  insurrection,  now 
 began  to  devour  its  own  children.  Hebert  and  his 
 atheistic  companions  were  guillotined,  March  24, 
 1794;  Danton  and  Camille  Desmoulins,  April  5,  1794. 
 The  Terror  increased  in  its  merciless  slaughter.  The 
 average  executions  were  three  each  week  from  April 
 to  September,  1793;  thirty-two  a  week  from  Sep- 
 tember, 1793,  to  June,  1794;  and  one  hundred  and 
 ninety-six  a  week  from  June  to  August,  1794; 
 making  a  total  of  nearly  2,700  judicial  murders.  All 
 the  ages  of  history  and  the  progress  of  mankind  will 
 never  wash  this  stain  of  blood  from  the  French  Rev- 
 olution. This  Terror  spread  to  the  provinces,  and 
 Nantes  and  I^yons,  like  Paris,  were  defiled  with  the 
 blood  of  the  innocent.  Robespierre,  Couthon,  and  St. 
 Just  were  overthrown  in  the  Convention,  July  27th, 
 and  were  guillotined,  July  28,  1794.  In  December  of 
 that  year  the  Jacobin  Club  was  closed  forever. 
 
 The  victories  of  the  armies  of  France  continued. 
 Holland  was  invaded  October  9,  1 794,  and  during  the 
 next  January  the  whole  country  and  the  fleet  were  in 
 the  hands  of  the  French.  The  Batavian  Republic 
 was  organized,  and  a  treaty  of  peace  between  it  and 
 France  was  signed  in  March,  1795.  The  valley  of  the 
 Rhine,  and  afterward  the  Moselle,  were  occupied. 
 Spain  and  Piedmont  were  invaded.  These  conquests 
 were  followed  by  treaties  of  peace  with  Prussia,  Spain, 
 Tuscany,  and  Hesse-Cassel. 
 
 These  treaties  were  a  great  gain  for  France,  and  a 
 great  service  was  rendered  her  by  the  men  who  over- 
 threw Robespierre.  The  party  of  the  Terrorists  did 
 not  propose,  however,  tamely  to  submit.     They  rose 
 
The  Revolution.  29 
 
 in  insurrection,  April,  1795,  and  broke  into  the  Con- 
 vention. Their  leaders,  the  old  Terrorists,  Billaud- 
 Varennes,  Callot  d'Herbois,  Barere,  and  Vadier,  were 
 sent  to  Guiana  without  trial.  Another  like  attempt 
 was  made  May  20,  1795,  led  by  women  called  the 
 Furies  of  the  Guillotine.  They  were  overpowered 
 and  disarmed,  and  the  Jacobin  party  ceased  to  exist. 
 The  Convention  ended  its  labors  October  25,  1795, 
 leaving  a  name  at  once  memorable  and  infamous.  Its 
 chief  work  was  to  create  the  French  Army  of  the 
 Revolution.  That  crushed  the  insurrection  at  home, 
 and  carried  the  standard  of  France  beyond  her  bor- 
 ders, annexing  Belgium  and  making  Holland  a  tribu- 
 taiy  Republic.  These  successes  broke  up  the  coali- 
 tion against  France,  and  gave  her  again  a  place  in  the 
 comity  of  nations.  A  firm  hand  at  the  same  time  was 
 kept  upon  the  royalists,  whose  insurrection  of  October 
 5,  1795,  was  summarily  suppressed. 
 
 The  place  of  the  Convention  was  taken  by  the 
 Directory,  which  governed  France  from  October,  1795, 
 to   November,  1799.     The  executive  con- 
 sisted of  five  Directors,  one  retiring  each    DjJctory. 
 year,  who  could  not  be  re-elected.     His  suc- 
 cessor was  chosen  by  the   Legislature.     The  legisla- 
 tive body  consisted  of  two  Chambers, — the  Council  of 
 Five  Hundred,  whose  members  must  be  over  twenty- 
 five  years  of  age,  and  the  Council  of  Ancients,  two 
 hundred  and  fifty  in  number,  the  members  of  which 
 must  be  at  least  forty  years  of  age.      Two-thirds  of 
 the  members  of  each  Council  must  have  been  members 
 of  the   Convention.     The  terms  of  one-third  of  the 
 members  expired  yearly,  and  their  successors  were 
 chosen  by  the  electorate.     The  new  Constitution  also 
 
30       History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 provided  that  the  heads  of  local  administration  in  the 
 departments,  the  present  prefects  and  sub-prefects, 
 instead  of  being  elected  as  before,  should  be  appointed 
 by  the  Central  Government  at  Paris.  This  change, 
 which  is  retained  to  this  day,  is  the  leading  principle 
 of  the  French  administration,  and  under  all  changes 
 of  government  has  preserved  its  centralized  character. 
 A  property  qualification  was  required  both  of  elect- 
 ors and  of  the  candidates  for  the  office. 
 
 The  Directory,  aided  by  armies  which  not  only 
 supported  themselves  but  sent  the  spoils  of  conquest 
 to  Paris,  succeeded  in  restoring  the  finances, 
 ^mrectol!**  which  were  in  great  disorder  through  the 
 fall  in  value  of  the  assignats.  The  Di- 
 rectory also  restored  internal  peace.  La  Vendee 
 was  completely  pacified  by  July,  1796,  and  the  gov- 
 ernment abolished  the  Commune  of  Paris. 
 
 The  royalist  Terror  of  the  summer  of  1795  in  the 
 south  of  France,  which  in  pillage  and  murder  equaled 
 the  worst  deeds  of  the  Terror  in  Paris,  was  again 
 feared.  English  agents,  aided  by  General  Pichegru, 
 sought  to  foment  an  insurrection  in  favor  of  the  mon- 
 archy. These  schemes  were  frustrated  by  the  Direct- 
 ory, September  4,  1797,  when  Pichegru  and  fifty-five 
 Deputies  were  arrested  and  sent  to  Guiana. 
 
 The  Directory  left  an  evil  name  for  venality  and 
 corruption.  In  neither  character  nor  conduct  did  it 
 command  the  respect  of  France.  Its  chief  function 
 seemed  to  have  been  to  prepare  the  way  for  Napoleon 
 Bonaparte.  As  its  general  he  fought  the  marvelous 
 campaign  of  1796.  Two  years  later  he  embarked  for 
 his  campaign  in  Egypt  and  Syria.  Having  failed 
 there  in  his  main  purpose,  he  returned  to  France  in 
 
The  Revolution,  31 
 
 October,    1799.      The  restoration  he  planned  he  suc- 
 cessfully carried  out,  November  8,  1799. 
 
 This  brought  the  Consulate  into  being.  It  endured 
 five  years,  until  replaced  by  the  Empire.  These  years 
 were  the  most  fruitful  of  Napoleon's  life  in 
 service  rendered  France.  The  Code  Na-  Consulate, 
 poleon,  of  which  he  was  not  the  author  but  '799-'8o4. 
 the  patron,  will  perpetuate  his  name  longer  than  his 
 victories.  In  the  course  of  his  conquests  the  political 
 and  social  ideals  of  the  Revolution  came  to  prevail  in 
 Western  Europe,  in  Italy,  and  even  in  Spain.  The  after 
 conquests  of  Napoleon  ministered  mostly  to  the  power 
 and  the  vanity  of  the  conqueror;  they  nevertheless 
 broke  the  power  of  feudalism  and  privilege,  abolished 
 serfdom,  and  made  possible  the  economic  and  political 
 regeneration  of  the  peoples  of  Europe.  Napoleon  was 
 the  incarnation  of  the  Revolution,  even  under  the 
 Empire.  He  made  its  ideals  prevail.  It  would  be 
 difiicult  to  see  how  a  united  Italy  or  Germany  could 
 come  into  life  without  the  destruction  of  abuses,  and 
 the  inspiration  of  freedom  and  equality  which  followed 
 the  armies  of  Napoleon. 
 
 In  a  review  of  the  Revolutionary  period  we  see 
 only  small  men  in  the  midst  of  great  events.  The 
 Girondists  were  rhetoricians :   Robespierre  ^. 
 
 ^  The  Men  of 
 
 was  a  sentimentalist;  and  Danton,  the  theRevoiu- 
 ablest  of  the  men  of  the  Terror,  scarcely  an  ^'°"' 
 able  man  of  the  second  class.  Compared  with  the  men 
 of  the  Puritan  and  American  Revolution  they  seem 
 small  indeed.  We  see  but  four  men  of  distinction 
 among  them  all,  though  for  his  patriotism  and  pure  life 
 Lafayette  will  always  be  remembered. 
 
 Gabriel  Riquetti,  Count  de  Mirabeau  (1749-1791), 
 
32       History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 was  the  one  man  in  France   who,   through  ability, 
 
 study,  reflection,  knowledge  of  foreign  countries  and 
 
 of  his  time,  and   noble  traits,  might  have 
 
 riirabeau.  _  .  •  ,     ,        ,         -r^  ,       .  -r^       i      i 
 
 safely  guided  the  Revolution.  He  had 
 been,  however,  so  unrestrained  and  immoral  in  his 
 conduct  that  when  the  time  of  trial  came  he  had  no 
 character  which  could  command  the  confidence  of  the 
 different  parties,  or  be  a  firm  basis  for  his  career  as  a 
 statesman.  Worn  out  with  toils  and  excesses,  he  died 
 an  early  death,  April  2,  1791.  His  loss  was  an  irre- 
 trievable one  for  France. 
 
 Lazare  Nicholas  Marguerite  Carnot  (i 753-1 823) 
 was  a  man  of  incorruptible  integrity,  of  true  patriot- 
 ism, and  whose  attachment  to  Republican 
 institutions  withstood  alike  the  blandish- 
 ments of  office  and  the  pains  of  exile.  He  was  a  mem- 
 ber of  the  Committee  of  Public  Safety  during  the 
 reign  of  Terror,  and  led  the  charge  in  person  at  the 
 battle  of  Wattignies.  His  great  gifts  as  an  adminis- 
 trator were  shown  in  the  organization  and  care  of  those 
 armies  whose  victories  saved  from  destruction  Revo- 
 lutionary France.  His  grandson,  Sadi  Carnot,  Presi- 
 dent of  the  French  Republic,  1 887-1 894,  served  the 
 present  Republic  at  a  critical  time,  and,  dying  by  the 
 hand  of  an  assassin,  sustained  well  the  Republican 
 traditions  of  his  family. 
 
 Charles   Maurice   de    Talleyrand-Perigord   (1754- 
 1838),  Bishop  of  Autun,  afterwards  Grand  Chamber- 
 lain, Vice-Grand  Elector  and  Prince  of  Ben- 
 
 Talleyrand.  ,  ,        ^         .  ,  ,  . 
 
 ventum  under  the  Empire,  was  the  ablest 
 Frenchman  of  that  generation.  He  served  all  the 
 governments  of  France  from  1789  to  1834,  and  knew 
 when  to  leave  them.      In  knowledge  of  men,  of  crises 
 
The  Revolution. 
 
 35 
 
 in  opinion  and  of  the  State,  he  had  no  superior 
 among  the  diplomatists  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
 Though  a  man  utterly  without  scruple,  venal  and  cor- 
 rupt in  his  personal  morals,  he  saved  France  after  the 
 overthrow  ot  Napoleon.  It  is  doubtful  if  any  other 
 Frenchman  in  an  hour  of  peril  and  defeat  ever 
 rendered  a  greater  service  to  his  country. 
 
 Napoleon  Bonaparte,  Emperor  of  the  French  and 
 King  of  Italy  (1769-1821),  was  by  blood  and  birth 
 and  the   main   traits   of   his   character   an 
 Italian.     By  the  conquest  of  Corsica,  and  ^^l^^^^ 
 by  training  in  a  French  military  school,  he 
 was  a  Frenchman.      Napoleon  Bonaparte  was  the  most 
 consummate   military   genius    of   European    history. 
 Great  were  his  gifts  also  in  administration  and  govern- 
 ment.    In  character  he  was  utterly  unscrupulous  and 
 selfish  to  the  core.    Death  at  St.  Helena  seems  a  hght 
 punishment  for  a  man  whose  career  had   orphaned 
 millions. 
 
 For  these  men  there  was  no  religious  basis  for 
 either  life  or  conduct.  A  consideration  of  the  atti- 
 tude of  the  Revolution  towards  religion  is  funda- 
 mental to  an  understanding  of  its  significance  and 
 its  relation  to  modern  life. 
 
 The  Christian  Rei<igion  and  thk  Revoi^ution. 
 
 The  generation  of  Frenchmen  at  the  close  of  the 
 eighteenth  century  represented  the  unbelief  of  that 
 century,  and  not  the  Christianity  of  the  Gospels.  The 
 majority  of  the  aristocracy,  of  the  Episcopate,  of  the 
 literary  and  public  men  of  France,  were  unbelievers. 
 This  was  not  true  of  the  mass  of  the  population, 
 especially  in  the  country ;  but  it  was  true  of  the  lead- 
 3 
 
34       History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 ers  of  the  French  people  and  the  men  who  molded 
 public  opinion.  Though  one-fourth  of  the  members 
 of  the  National  Assembly  were  clergy  led  by  the 
 forty-nine  bishops,  yet  it  may  be  doubted  if  the  ma- 
 jority believed  in  the  Christian  religion.  Certain  it  is 
 that  a  vote  to  the  effect  that  the  Roman  Catholic  re- 
 ligion was  that  of  the  nation  failed  to  carry  in  Sep- 
 tember, 1789,  and  again  in  April,  1790,  although  later 
 on  it  became  the  first  article  in  Napoleon's  Concordat 
 of  1 801. 
 
 The  Church  of  France  as  an  instrument  for  pre- 
 serving and  increasing  the  spiritual  life  of  the  nation 
 in  the  eighteenth  century  was  a  measureless  failure. 
 Profoundly  deficient  in  her  work  and  duty,  at  the  same 
 time  she  was  overloaded  with  wealth.  Her  reform 
 was  as  inevitable  as  that  of  the  State.  The  motion  of 
 Talleyrand,  October  10,  1789,  as  we  have  seen,  led  to 
 making  the  wealthiest  Christian  Church  in  the  world 
 the  poorest  of  established  Churches. 
 
 All  pluralities  were  abolished.  The  archbishops 
 received  a  salary  of  50,000  francs;  bishops  of  cities 
 of  fifty  thousand  inhabitants  or  more  received  a  sal- 
 ary of  20,000  francs;  those  of  a  less  number  of  in- 
 habitants, 12,000  francs;  the  poorest  parish  priest  was 
 assured  1,200  francs,  besides  his  residence  and  garden. 
 This  law  passed  November  2,  1789,  and  in  the  next 
 March  4,000,000,000  francs  of  Church  property  were 
 sold.  February  12,  1790,  all  monasteries  were  dis- 
 solved, and  all  religious  orders,  except  those  devoted 
 to  teaching  and  charity.  All  titles  were  abolished 
 April  14,  1790,  when  the  final  disposition  of  the  eccle- 
 siastical property  was  made. 
 
 The  day  before  this  Act  was  passed,  the  National 
 
The  Revolution.  35 
 
 Assembly  decreed  full  religious  liberty  in  France. 
 Rabaut  St.  Etienne,  son  of  the  most  celebrated  Re- 
 formed pastor  of  the  century,  Paul  Rabaut,  was  sev- 
 eral times  president  of  the  National  Assembly,  and 
 the  days  of  persecution  of  the  Evangelical  faith  in 
 France,  where  its  adherents  had  suffered  so  much, 
 were  ended. 
 
 The  Civil  Constitution  of  the  Clergy  was  reported 
 from  the  Committee  on  Ecclesiastical  Affairs,  and 
 after  prolonged  debate,  was  passed,  July 
 12,  1790.  The  Constitution  was  largely  constitution 
 the  work  of  the  learned  and  able  Jansenist,  o*  ^^^ 
 Camus,  and  was  the  long-delayed  answer  ^^^^' 
 to  the  Bull  Unigenitus  of  the  early  years  of  the  cen- 
 tury. By  this  Constitution  the  dioceses  of  France 
 were  made  of  the  same  number  and  coincident  in 
 boundaries  with  the  departments.  Thus  the  Episco- 
 pal Sees  were  reduced  from  one  hundred  and  thirty- 
 four  to  eighty-three,  fifty-one  bishoprics  being  sup- 
 pressed ;  the  papal  jurisdiction  was  rejected,  except 
 as  a  center  of  doctrinal  unity.  Any  French  subject 
 was  forbidden  to  acknowledge,  in  any  case  or  under 
 any  pretext  whatever,  the  jurisdiction  of  *'  any  bishop 
 or  metropolitan  whose  See  was  within  the  dominions 
 of  foreign  power,  and  likewise  that  of  his  delegates 
 residing  in  France  or  elsewhere."  All  bishops  and 
 all  clerical  incumbents  must  be  elected  by  the  people ; 
 this  was  stated  to  be  a  return  to  an  early  custom  of 
 the  Christian  Church.  Confirmation  of  election  and 
 institution  to  Sees  and  benefices  were  to  be  by  the 
 French  metropolitan,  and  not  by  the  pope  Strict 
 residence  was  enforced  upon  the  bishops  and  clergy. 
 This  Constitution,  it  has  been  claimed,  affected  the 
 
36       History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 Church  only  in  its  civil  relations,  and  where  it  did  so 
 it  only  returned  to  primitive  usage.  The  claim  was 
 well  founded  in  the  early  history  of  the  Christian 
 Church;  but  the  Constitution  also  formed  of  the 
 Church  of  France  a  national  Church  as  really  as 
 Henry  VIII  made  such  the  Church  of  England.  After 
 some  hesitation  the  king  gave  his  consent  to  this  Con- 
 stitution, August  24,  1790. 
 
 Archbishop  Boisgelin  of  Aix  published  an  ''Ex- 
 position of  Principles  upon  the  Civil  Constitution  of 
 the  Clergy,"  which  was  made  the  basis  of  the  papal 
 condemnation  of  the  Constitution  in  the  following 
 year.  The  reduction  of  the  Episcopal  Sees,  upon 
 which  was  made  the  principal  objection,  was  but  the 
 same  measure  which  was  agreed  upon  by  the  pope  in 
 the  Concordat  with  Napoleon. 
 
 The  Civil  Constitution  might  have  been  successful 
 in  a  large  measure  with  the  progress  of  the  Revolu- 
 tion, if  the  National  Assembly,  had  not,  with  incred- 
 ible folly  and  against  every  principle  of  liberty  of 
 conscience,  required  from  the  clergy  an  oath  to  sup- 
 port it.  By  its  decree  all  ecclesiastics,  on  pain  of  dep- 
 rivation, were  to  swear  to  be  faithful  to  the  nation, 
 the  law,  and  the  king,  and  to  maintain  to  the  ut- 
 most of  their  power  the  Constitution  of  the  Clergy 
 decreed  by  the  Assembly  and  accepted  by  the  king. 
 This  oath  was  voted  by  the  Assembly  November  27, 
 1790,  and  received  the  royal  assent  with  reluctance 
 the  26th  of  December. 
 
 No  graver  mistake  was  made  by  the  National  As- 
 sembly. The  division  between  constitutional  and 
 non-juring  clergy  was  of  most  fateful  consequence  to 
 the  Church  and  to  the  Revolution.    The  clerical  mem- 
 
The  Revolution.  37 
 
 bers  of  the  Assembly  had  to  decide  whether  or  not 
 they  would  take  the  new  oath.  On  December  27th, 
 the  day  after  the  king's  assent,  the  Abbe  Gregoire  and 
 sixty-five  clerical  Deputies  took  the  oath.  Talleyrand 
 took  it  the  following  day,  as  did  Gobel,  Bishop  of 
 Lydda,  on  June  2,  1791.  On  January  4th,  one  hun- 
 dred other  clerical  Deputies  obeyed  the  law.  In  all, 
 three  bishops  and  two  coadjutor  bishops,  led  by  Bri- 
 enne,  Cardinal  Archbishop  of  Sens,  took  the  oath. 
 One  hundred  and  twenty-five  bishops  and  three- 
 fourths  of  the  clergy  refused  the  oath.  In  Paris,  of 
 fifty-two  cures,  twenty-three  took  the  oath,  and  twenty- 
 nine  refused.  Of  eighteen  hundred^  Doctors  of  the 
 Sorbonne,  less  than  thirty  took  the  oath. 
 
 The  first  consecration  of  the  constitutional  bishops 
 took  place  February  24,  1791,  when  Louis  Expilly 
 was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Fiuisterre  by  Talleyrand, 
 Gobel,  and  Miroudat;  March  13th,  five  other  bishops 
 were  consecrated,  among  them  Abbe  Gregoire  as 
 Bishop  of  Blois.  March  27th,  Gobel,  Bishop  of  Lydda, 
 was  consecrated  Archbishop  of  Paris,  and  within  the 
 next  five  months  most  of  the  Episcopal  vacancies 
 were  filled. 
 
 The  definite  papal  ^condemnation  of  the  clergy 
 came  in  the  brief  of  Pius  VI,  entitled  "  Caritas,"  April 
 13,  1 79 1.  The  Assembly,  August  27,  1791,  declared 
 marriage  a  civil  contract.  As  the  pope  prematurely 
 congratulated  lyouis  XVI  on  his  flight  to  Varennes, 
 the  National  Assembly,  September  14,  1791,  declared 
 Avignon  and  its  surrounding  territory  annexed  to 
 France. 
 
 November  29,  1791,  a  drastic  measure  was  passed. 
 By  its  provision  all  non-juring  clergy  were  summoned 
 
38       History  of  the  Christian  Church, 
 
 to  take  the  oath.  Those  who  refused  were  to  be  de- 
 prived of  all  allowances  from  the  public  funds.  They 
 The  Persecu-  Were  also  Considered  as  persons  suspected 
 tion  and  the  of  Sedition  and  revolt.  In  any  case  where 
 ciergy^Law^of  disturbances  occurred  such  clergy  might 
 November  29,  be  removed  from  their  houses.  If  they  re- 
 '^^'*  sisted,  the  penalty  was  a  year's  imprison- 
 ment. Those  who  excited  others  to  disobey  the  law 
 were  liable  to  two  years  in  prison.  Churches  main- 
 tained by  the  State  could  only  be  served  by  the  con- 
 stitutional clergy.  Citizens  might  purchase  or  hire 
 churches  not  used  by  the  Establishment,  but  only 
 priests  who  had  taken  the  oath  could  officiate  therein. 
 December  19,  1791,  the  king  vetoed  this  measure,  but 
 the  veto  suspended  it  only  for  six  months.  April  6, 
 1792,  the  congregations  for  teaching  and  charities 
 were  abolished. 
 
 The  Legislative  Assembly,  on  May,  1792,  decreed 
 that  any  non-juring  ecclesiastic,  on  the  petition  of 
 twenty  inhabitants  of  a  canton,  approved 
 ^2^  tjp^r^  ^y  ^^  ^^^^  magistrate,  might  be  banished 
 from  the  kingdom.  If  accused  of  stirring 
 up  sedition  by  overt  acts,  one  person  might  denounce 
 him.  Clergy  so  condemned  must  quit  their  residence 
 in  twenty-four  hours,  the  department  in  three  days, 
 and  France  in  one  month.  A  small  sum  was  given 
 them  to  take  them  to  the  frontier.  If  they  resisted  or 
 returned  they  were  liable  to  ten  years  in  prison.  On 
 June  8th  a  law  was  passed  that  those  refusing  to  swear 
 were  prescribed.  June  20,  1792,  the  king  vetoed  both 
 measures.  This  was  followed  by  the  invasion  of  the 
 Assembly  and  the  royal  apartments  in  the  Tuileries 
 by  the  mob  of  Paris.     August  4,   1792,  all  religious 
 
The  Revolution.  39 
 
 houses  were  ordered  by  the  Assembly  to  be  vacated 
 and  sold;  this  turned  fifty  thousand  nuns  into  the 
 street. 
 
 After  the  suspension  of  the  king,  August  lo,  1792, 
 the  form  of  oath  demanded  of  the  clergy  was  neces- 
 sarily changed.  They  were  henceforth, 
 after  August  14,  1792,  to  swear  "to  main-  ^03^^®'*' 
 tain,  to  the  utmost  of  their  power,  liberty 
 and  equality,  or  to  die  at  their  posts."  To  many,  this 
 was  much  less  objectionable  than  the  former  oath. 
 The  French  prelates  in  France,  fifteen  or  sixteen  in 
 number,  took  this  oath.  Among  others  who  conformed 
 was  Abbe  Emery,  of  St.  Sulpice,  the  real  head  of  the 
 Roman  Catholic  Church  in  France  during  the  troubled 
 years  of  the  Revolution.  The  Emigre  bishops  and 
 clergy,  and  particularly  Archbishop  Maury,  declared 
 against  it,  as  they  wished  no  truce  with  the  Revolu- 
 tion. Upon  this  oath  the  pope  refused  to  pronounce, 
 and  it  was  accepted  to  a  great  extent  by  the  clergy  of 
 France. 
 
 With  this  more  acceptable   form  of  oath   went 
 severer  measures   against  the   non-juring 
 priests,  and  by  decree  of  August  26,  1792,  ^«^^of  August 
 those  not  taking  the  oath  were  banished 
 within  fifteen  days. 
 
 The  massacre  of  September  put   the  inexpiable 
 stain  of  blood  upon  the  Revolution  in  its  war  with 
 the  non-juring  clergy.     About  three  hun-    g^  tember 
 dred  priests  were  massacred  in  Paris,  and    Massacre, 
 probably  a  hundred  more  in  the  provinces.  September 2. 
 Among  those  who  perished  in  Paris  were 
 Du  L<au,   Archbishop   of  Uzes;   the  brothers  De  la 
 Rochefoucauld,  Bishops  of  Saintes  and  Beauvais ;  also 
 
40       History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 Hebert,  confessor  to  the  king ;  De  Gres  Vicar-General 
 of  Paris,  and  the  celebrated  preacher,  I^enfant,  lost 
 their  lives. 
 
 Forty  thousand  of  the  clergy  are  said  to  have  fled 
 from  the  country ;  an  estimate  much  too  large.  Two 
 thousand  went  to  Rome,  four  thousand  to  England, 
 where  collections  and  subscriptions  amounting  to  75,- 
 000  pounds  sterling  were  made  for  them,  and  they 
 were  allowed  a  government  pension.  In  a  few  months 
 six  hundred  died  in  prison  ships.  Of  three  hundred 
 clergy  shipped  at  one  time  to  Guiana,  most  of  them 
 died  in  a  short  time.  By  the  law  of  1793,  priests  were 
 permitted  to  marry.  Two  thousand  priests  married, 
 among  whom  were  several  bishops. 
 
 The  penal  legislation  against  the  refractory  priests, 
 who  were  largely  agents  of  disaffection  against  the 
 Republic — and  no  wonder — was  made  in- 
 March  17  and  creasingly  severe  by  the  acts  of  March  17, 
 2i,andOcto«  Apj-il  21,  and  October  23,  1793.  By  this 
 *  legislation  it  was  ordered  that  those  arrested 
 abroad  should  be  tried  by  military  commission  and 
 shot  within  twenty-four  hours,  if  their  names  were 
 found  on  the  list  of  emigrants,  or  if  they  had  about 
 them  any  counter-revolutionary  badges.  If  in  France 
 and  recognized  by  two  witnesses  as  belonging  to  the 
 class  sentenced  to  transportation,  they  were  to  be  shot 
 within  twenty-four  hours.  If,  after  complying  with 
 all  laws,  any  six  citizens  of  the  canton  preferred  the 
 charge  of  **  incivism,"  they  should  be  deported  to 
 Africa.  Those  in  concealment  were  to  report  in  ten 
 days,  and,  if  found  after  that  time,  the  penalty  was 
 death.  Every  citizen  was  to  denounce  priests  liable 
 to   deportation,   and   the   reward   was   one   hundred 
 
The  Revolution,  41 
 
 francs  for  every  denunciation.  Any  citizen  harboring 
 such  priests  was  liable  to  transportation.  Thus  cul- 
 minated the  penal  legislation  against  the  large  major- 
 ity of  the  Roman  Catholic  priesthood  of  France.  It 
 had  some  excuse  or  palliation  in  the  notorious  royalist 
 sympathies  of  most  of  the  persons  under  penalty  or 
 put  to  death;  but  the  deeper  cause  for  it  was  the 
 bitter  hostility  to  Christianity  itself,  of  the  men  now 
 at  the  head  of  the  Revolution. 
 
 The  sufferings  of  individuals  did  not  answer  the 
 end  of  the  men  of  the  Convention.    They,  like  the  per- 
 secuting Roman  Emperors,  sought  nothing 
 less  than  the  extirpation  of  the  Christian  to  Extirpate 
 name.    August  3,  1793,  a  Republican  Calen-  Christianity 
 dar  was  adopted.     Its  year  was  divided  into 
 twelve  months  of  thirty  days;    each  month  was  di- 
 vided by  three  decadis,  or  days  of  rest.     Thus  was  the 
 Christian  Sabbath  abolished,  and  all  reckoning  of  time 
 in  common  with  Christendom  past  or  present.     The 
 years  were  reckoned  as  the  years  after  the  Republic, 
 and  the  era  began  September  22,  1792. 
 
 Fouche,  a  former  Oratorian,  a  Terrorist,  and  after- 
 wards Minister  of  Police   for   Napoleon,  voiced  the 
 prevailing  sentiment  in  Revolutionary  cir-  Anti-chris- 
 cles  when,  at  Nevers,  October  10,  179^,  he  *'""  orders 
 
 -    .        ,  of  Pouche, 
 
 ordamed :  October. 
 
 1.  That  no  forms  of  religious  worship       '793. 
 be  practiced  except  in  their  respective  temples. 
 
 2.  Since  the  Republic  does  not  recognize  any  dom- 
 inant or  privileged  worship,  all  religious  symbols 
 found  in  the  highways,  parades,  or  other  public  local- 
 ities shall  be  demolished. 
 
 3.  Ministers  of  religion  are  forbidden,  under  pain 
 
42       History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 of  imprisonment,  to  wear  their  official   costumes  in 
 any  other  place  than  their  temples. 
 
 4.  The  corpses  of  citizens  shall  be  conveyed  by 
 their  relations  in  mourning,  accompanied  by  a  public 
 officer  and  an  armed  detachment,  to  the  place  of  com- 
 mon sepulture,  the  coffin  being  covered  with  a  funeral 
 pall  on  which  shall  be  painted  a  representation  of  sleep. 
 
 5.  The  cemetery  shall  be  planted  with  trees,  under 
 the  shade  of  which  shall  be  erected  a  statue  repre- 
 senting sleep. 
 
 6.  The  following  inscription  shall  be  placed  over 
 this  consecrated  inclosure,  out  of  respect  to  the  manes 
 of  the  dead :  "  Death  is  an  eternal  sleep.'* 
 
 A  scene  sad  and  shameful  was  enacted  in  the  Con- 
 vention, November  7,   1793,  when  Lindet  and  Gobel 
 
 Shameless  publicly  abjurcd  the  Christian  faith  amid 
 Scenes  in  the  enthusiastic  plaudits  of  the  members.    Gre- 
 
 November '  goi^e,  Bishop  of  Blois,  Came  in.  He  did 
 7.  «793.  not  know  what  had  happened,  but  he  soon 
 took  in  the  significance  of  the  scene.  He  was  expected 
 to  lay  down  his  trust  and  to  abjure  his  faith.  He  felt 
 that  refusal  was  a  sure  sentence  of  death.  Every  word 
 of  his  defense  was  interrupted  by  those  who  would 
 force  a  repetition  of  the  blasphemous  proceedings.  But 
 Gregoire  was  a  confessor  worthy  of  the  days  of  the 
 Roman  persecution,  and  nobly  did  he  defend  his 
 office  and  his  faith.  Few  scenes  of  the  French  Rev- 
 olution are  so  worthy  of  the  artist's  brush  as  Gregoire's 
 defense  of  the  Christian  faith  from  the  Tribune  of  the 
 Convention.  Abjurations  of  Christianity  were  the 
 fashion,  and  more  than  twenty  constitutional  bishops 
 and  many  clergy  abjured,  among  whom  was  the  cele- 
 brated Abbe  Sieyes. 
 
The  Revolution.  43 
 
 The  Atheists  under  Hebert  now  held  full  sway. 
 November  10,  1793,  at  Notre  Dame,  was  held  a  Fete 
 de  Raison,  or  Feast  of  Reason.     It  was  held  worship  of 
 for  the  worship  of  the  Goddess  of  Reason,  theooddess 
 
 _,.,__._,  ,     ,         of  Reason, 
 
 Mile.  Maillard,  an  actress,  personated  the  November 
 goddess,  and  was  borne  in  triumph  above  '**•  "793. 
 the  heads  of  the  people  to  receive  their  worship, 
 with  all  the  pomp  and  display  the  promoters  could 
 invent.  November  17th  all  the  parish  churches  in 
 Paris  except  three  were  closed.  Fetes  de  Raison  were 
 held  at  Bordeaux  and  Xyons  as  well  as  at  Paris. 
 
 November  26th  the  Commune  at  Paris  ordered  all 
 churches  and  temples  to  be  closed.  All  priests  and 
 ministers  of  religion  were  to  be  held  personally  re- 
 sponsible for  any  trouble  which  might  arise  from  re- 
 ligious opinions.  Whoever  might  demand  the  reopen- 
 ing of  a  church  or  temple  should  be  arrested  as  a 
 ''suspect."  The  fanaticism  of  Atheism  worked  its 
 ruin.  Robespierre  attacked  it  with  vehemence,  and 
 Danton  joined  with  him.  In  response  to  these  ap- 
 peals the  Convention,  December  6,  1793,  forbade  all 
 interference  by  violence  or  threats  with  religious  wor- 
 ship. This  did  not  produce  real  religious  freedom, 
 but  it  ended  the  heathen  rites  in  honor  of  the  God- 
 dess of  Reason.  Hebert  was  executed  March  23, 
 1794,  and  his  party  fell  with  him. 
 
 But  it  went  ill  with  the  constitutional  bishops. 
 Eight  of  them  were  guillotined.   That  was 
 
 ,_  r^,^  r  ^  ^  The  Terror 
 
 the  fate  of  I^a  Mourette  of  Lyons,  Janu-      and  the 
 ary  10,  1794;  of  the  apostate  Gobel,  now  Constitutional 
 repentant,    April    13th;     of    Kxpilly    of 
 Finesterre,  June  21st;  and  of  Fauchet  of  Calvados, 
 October,  1794. 
 
44       History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 Robespierre,   having   overthrown   the   Hebertists 
 
 and  Dan  ton,  showed  no  mercy  to  the  clergy.     The 
 
 Convention  decreed,  in  March,  that  all  sen- 
 Ferocious  .     .  .  I      ■,  -,  ■, 
 Law  of  the  tences  on  the  non-juring  priests  should  be 
 
 Convention,  executcd  without  appeal,  and  all  property 
 
 March.  1794.      ^  ,  .  .      ^  .  .,        ,        /, 
 
 of  such  priests  in  France  or  m  exile  should 
 be  confiscated.  Any  one  sheltering  a  priest  subject 
 to  deportation  should  be  punished  with  death.  Thus 
 did  the  Revolution  answer  the  decrees  of  Louis  XIV 
 against  the  Reformed  clergy.  Louis  did  not  spare  the 
 flock;  the  Revolution  in  its  maddest  moments  did. 
 
 Robespierre,  a  follower  of  Rousseau  and  a  Deist, 
 determined  the  Convention  to  decree  that  the  French 
 
 people  recognize  "  the  existence  of  the  Di- 
 
 Festival  of    ^.     ^    ^    .       ^  ,       ,         .  ,.  -     , 
 
 the  Supreme  Vine   Being,   and    the   immortality   of  the 
 Being,      soul."     It  also  decreed  that  **  the  sole  wor- 
 
 JuneS,  1794.  - 
 
 ship  worthy  of  the  Deity  is  the  practice  of 
 moral  virtue,"  and  "  a  service  of  festivals  should  be 
 instituted  in  order  to  recall  men  to  the  thoughts  of 
 God  and  to  the  dignity  of  their  nature."  With  great 
 pomp  was  celebrated,  June  8,  1794,  the  Festival  of  the 
 Supreme  Being  at  Paris.  This  preceded  but  a  few 
 weeks  the  overthrow  of  Robespierre. 
 
 The  Convention  had  yet  more  than  a  year  of  life 
 
 after  the  fall  of  Robespierre.    It  was  a  year  of  troubled 
 
 Return  to    change  and  of  hopes  raised  only  to  be  over- 
 
 Toieration.  throwu.     In  December,  1794,  Bishop  Gre- 
 
 LawofFeb-         .  ,     ,  ,       ^  .  r 
 
 ruary  ai,    goire  appealed  to  the  Convention  for  mercy 
 1795.       upon  the   priests  who    had   been    cruelly 
 treated  at  the  ports  of  deportation.     Out  of  four  hun- 
 dred imprisoned,  sixty  only  survived  to  be  released 
 in  February,  1795. 
 
 By  the  law  of  February  21,  1795,  the  Convention 
 
The  Revolution.  45 
 
 decreed  that  no  form  of  religious  worship  can  be  mo- 
 lested. The  Republic  grants  no  salary  to  any ;  does 
 not  recognize  any  ministers  of  religion ;  assigns  no 
 building  for  the  exercise  of  religious  rites  or  for  the 
 residence  of  ministers.  No  religious  ceremonies  are 
 allowed  outside  of  houses  of  worship.  No  one  can 
 wear  in  public  a  distinctive  religious  dress.  No  em- 
 blem of  religion  can  be  placed  outside  of  any  public 
 edifice.  No  public  proclamation  or  invitation  can  be 
 made  to  induce  the  attendance  of  citizens.  No  endow- 
 ments can  be  formed  by  parishes  for  the  maintenance 
 of  religion,  nor  can  any  tax  be  levied  for  such  a  pur- 
 pose. 
 
 This  was  at  least  toleration,  although  all  recogni- 
 tion by  the  State  was  expressly  denied.  Roman  Cath- 
 olic churches  began  to  be  opened  on  every  side. 
 
 In  a  still  more  favorable  mood  the  Convention,  in 
 May,  1795,  decreed  that  churches  which  had  been  sold 
 should  be  opened  free  to  citizens  for  wor 
 
 i  .  at^i  1         -I    i-  -.         .  ,  Reopening  of 
 
 ship.     They  were  to  be  delivered  without   churches, 
 cost  to  the  parishes,  but  those  who  used  ^^  <**  ^"y* 
 them  were  to  repair  them  without  levying 
 a  tax.     No   one  was    allowed  to    ofi&ciate   in    these 
 churches  who  did  not  subscribe  to  a   formal  declara- 
 tion of  submission  to  the  laws  of  the  Republic.    Under 
 this  law  fifteen  churches  were  opened  in  Paris.     On 
 the  question  of  making  this  submission  the  non-con- 
 stitutional clergy  were  again  divided. 
 
 This  favorable  mood  soon  changed.  The  descent 
 of  the  expedition  from  England  in  Quiberon  Bay,  June, 
 1795.  led  to  the  renewal  of  the  war  in  La  Vendee. 
 One  bishop  and  seventeen  priests,  taken  with  the  in- 
 vaders, as  well  as  seven  hundred  men  who  bore  arms, 
 
46       History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 were  shot.  The  imprudent  zeal  of  the  royalists  and 
 the  returning  emigrants  brought  on  the  severe  laws 
 of  September,  1795,  which  renewed  with  heavy  pen- 
 alties the  persecution  against  all  such  ecclesiastics  as 
 should  not  make  the  declaration  of  submission.  The 
 overthrow  of  the  royalists  on  the  Day  of  Sections,  Octo- 
 ber 4,  1795,  was  as  fatal  to  any  tolerance  of  non-juring 
 priests  as  to  all  hope  of  reviving  the  monarchy. 
 
 Two  days  before  the  dissolution   on  October  24, 
 
 1795,  the  Convention   decreed  "  the  laws  against  the 
 
 refractory  priests  should  be  put  into  exe- 
 
 The  Renewed  .  .  ,  .  r  ,  , 
 
 Persecution,  cutiou  Within  twcuty-four  hours  through- 
 Law  of  octo-  out  the  territory  of  the  Republic,"  and  that 
 *  "  Magistrates  neglecting  to   enforce  them 
 should  be  punished  with  imprisonment  for  two  years." 
 The  Directory  in  power  from  October  26,  1795,  to 
 November,  t  799,  did  not  persecute  as  did  the  Conven- 
 tion, but  was  no  less  bitterly  hostile  against  Christian- 
 ity and  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.     In  the  early 
 months  of  1796  twenty-one  priests  were  put  to  death 
 without  trial.     In  April  of  the  same  year  the  Council 
 of  Five  Hundred  passed  a  decree  forbidding  the  ring- 
 ing of  church-bells,  and  would  have  renewed  the  most 
 persecuting  measures  of  the  Convention  but  for  the 
 veto  of  the  Council  of  Ancients. 
 
 In  1797  the  public  opinion  seemed  to  favor  a  larger 
 
 tolerance,  and  on  July  i8th,  the  penal  laws  against  the 
 
 PenaiActs    pi'iests  Were  repealed.    The  royalists  again, 
 
 Against     by  their  exultation  and  lack  of  restraint, 
 
 pelied.^juiy  <^efeated  the  movement  for  better  condi- 
 
 18. 1797-     tions  for  the  clergy  and  the  churches.    The 
 
 Anti-Royalist  stroke  of  state  of  September  4,  1797, 
 
The  Revolution.  47 
 
 dashed  their  hopes.  The  law  repealing  the  penalties 
 against  priests  was  annulled.  The  Directors  might 
 banish  at  pleasure  any  priest  whom  they  considered 
 dangerous  to  the  public  safety. 
 
 All  clergy  henceforth  were  to  take  an   oath   of 
 hatred  to  royalty  and  anarchy,  of  attach- 
 ment and  fidelity  to  the  Republic,  and  to    ^^^J^^ 
 the  Constitution  of  the  year  III  (1795). 
 
 In  the  midst  of  this  turmoil  was  held  the  first 
 National  Council  of  the  Constitutional  Church  of 
 France.  It  held  its  sessions  at  Notre  Dame,  First  National 
 August  15  to  November  12,  1797.  Lecoz,  Council, 
 Bishop  of  Rennes,  presided.  There  were  Novenii>er  u. 
 eighty-three  members,  of  whom  thirty  were  '797. 
 bishops.  The  Council  without  hesitation  took  the 
 oath  of  hatred  to  royalty. 
 
 The  hatred  to  the  emigrant  priests  and  those 
 sympathizing  with  them  increased.  In  November, 
 1798,  it  was  enacted  that  all  priests  subject  jhg  Bitter 
 to  banishment  by  the  laws  of  1792  and  Law  of  No-" 
 1793,  if  they  re-entered  France,  were  ^®"*^'"' '^^^' 
 ordered  to  present  themselves  to  the  authorities 
 within  one  month,  to  be  again  sentenced  to  deporta- 
 tion; and  the  same  applied  to  all  those  who  had  not 
 submitted  to  the  law  of  September,  1795.  All  these 
 classes  of  clergy  incurred  the  penalty  of  death,  if  they 
 were  found  on  French  territory.  It  also  enacted  that 
 any  one  concealing  a  rebellious  priest  should  be  im- 
 prisoned, and  the  house  which  sheltered  him  be  con- 
 fiscated. It  is  hard  to  see  how  penal  laws  could  go 
 further.  The  execution  of  these  laws,  however,  was 
 more  lax  than  under  the  Convention. 
 
48       History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 The  prevailing  sentiment  of  the  Directory  and  the 
 The  Directory  P^^ty  ^^^^  ruling  France  can  be  seen  in 
 and  Pope    the  treatment  of  Pope  Pius  VI,  and  in  the 
 Pius  VI.     ^g.^^^  ^^  suppress  the  Christian  Sabbath. 
 
 The  relations  of  the  Directory  with  the  pope  began 
 to  assume  a  practical  character  when  Bonaparte  had 
 conquered  Northern  Italy.  By  the  Treaty  of  Tolen- 
 tino,  February  9,  1797,  Pius  VI  had  been  compelled  to 
 part  with  a  large  portion  of  his  territory,  and  pay  a 
 heavy  ransom  in  money  and  works  of  art.  On  De- 
 cember 28,  1797,  in  a  riot  in  Rome,  the  French  Gen- 
 eral Duphot  was  shot  and  killed.  In  retaliation,  Feb- 
 ruary 10,  1798,  the  French  army  occupied  Rome.  On 
 February  15th  the  temporal  power  of  the  pope  was 
 declared  to  be  at  an  end,  and  the  Roman  Republic  es- 
 tablished in  its  stead.  This  endured  until  the  disas- 
 ters of  the  French  army  in  1799  led  to  its  overthrow. 
 In  the  spring  of  1799  Pius  VI  was  taken  to  France. 
 Weak  and  sick,  he  reached  Valence  July  14,  1799, 
 where,  on  the  29th  of  August  following,  he  died  at  the 
 age  of  eighty-two  years. 
 
 The  Directory  worked  with  good  will  to  replace 
 Sunday  by  the  Decadis.  This  was  obligatory  in  all 
 The  Directory  ^^^^^  matters.  It  was  sought  to  make  such 
 and  the  Chris-  in  all  rcHgious  observances.  A  commis- 
 tian  Sabbath,  gioner  of  the  Directory,  in  1798,  expressed 
 the  prevailing  thought  when  he  wrote :  ' '  The  Decadis 
 must  triumph  over  the  Gregorian  Calendar ;  reason 
 must  triumph  over  ignorance  and  errors  which  were 
 fostered  by  priests  of  every  sect  for  the  sake  of  their 
 own  interests.  Let  those  ministers  who  are  well  dis- 
 posed give  proof  of  their  entire  devotedness  to  the 
 
The  Revolution.  49 
 
 public  welfare  by  declaring  before  the  authorities  that 
 they  transferred  to  the  Decadi  and  the  Quintidi  all 
 solemnities  recognized  by  their  respective  creeds,  and 
 that  they  would  no  longer  observe  the  ci-devant  Di- 
 manches  (Sundays),  with  more  ceremony  than  other 
 days.'  " 
 
 It  is  refreshing  to  know  that  this  effort  wholly 
 failed  with  the  Roman  Catholic  clergy,  and  with  most 
 of  the  clergy  sworn  to  observe  the  Constitution. 
 Some  of  the  latter  weakly  yielded,  and  thus  showed 
 how  feeble  is  the  State  Church  before  an  oppressive 
 government.  The  noble  and  devoted  Bishop  Gregoire, 
 in  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred,  December  15,  1798, 
 spoke  against  their  efforts  to  break  down  the  Chris- 
 tian Sabbath. 
 
 On  August  4  and  September  9,  1798,  it  was  en- 
 acted that,  on  Decadi,  no  business  should  be  trans- 
 acted in  the  courts  of  law  or  the  public  offices ;  all 
 shops  and  factories  should  be  closed  under  penalty  of 
 fine  and  imprisonment.  The  local  magistrates  should 
 repair  in  official  costumes,  to  the  public  hall,  and 
 there  announce  to  the  assembled  citizens  the  acts  of 
 government,  the  births,  deaths,  and  marriages,  to- 
 gether with  the  acts  of  adoption  and  divorce,  which 
 had  taken  place  in  the  ten  days  preceding.  Marriages 
 should  be  celebrated  on  that  day  exclusively,  in  the 
 same  place  of  meeting.  At  Paris  the  Fetes  Decadaires 
 should  be  held  in  the  parish  churches.  Religious 
 worship  must  cease  at  8.30  in  the  morning,  and  could 
 not  again  begin  until  after  the  official  proceedings. 
 
 The  Consulate  was  more  favorable  to  religion  than 
 the  Directory,  but  the  endeavor  to  enforce  the  Decadi 
 4 
 
50       History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 died  hard.     According  to  a  decree  of  December   20, 
 
 1799,  churches  could  be  opened  only  on  Decadi.     But 
 
 in  the  January  following  it  was   enacted 
 
 The  Consulate,     ,  ,  -  ,  ,   ,  n  ^         i 
 
 ^ovember,     that  churchcs  could  be  opened  on  Sunday 
 1799  to  De-     as  well  as  on  Decadi.     On  July,  1800,  Deca- 
 di was  declared  to  be  obligatory  only  upon 
 public  officials.     Nevertheless,  the  Republican  Calen- 
 dar was  that  of  the  State  until  1806. 
 
 December  30,  1799,  it  was  decreed  that  the  oath 
 required  of  the  clergy  had  respect  only  to  civil  govern- 
 ment.    This  satisfied  seven  of  the  ancient 
 tion  and  Re-  bishops  who  had  remained  in  France,  and 
 peal  of  Perse-  many  of  the  clergy.     By  the  Act  of  October 
 20,  1800,  the  refugee  clergy  were  allowed 
 to  return,  but  not  the  emigrant  bishops. 
 
 The  years  of  the  government  of  the  Directory  and 
 the  Consulate  saw  the  rise  and  fall  of  a  new  religious 
 body,  who  expected  great  things  for  them- 
 \*hrrp*istT"  selves  in  dechristianized  France.  They 
 called  themselves  The  Philanthropists; 
 their  patron  was  La  Rivelliere  Lepeaux,  one  of  the 
 Directors.  It  had  begun  in  1796,  and  a  year  later  Le- 
 peaux came  to  its  leadership.  It  is  said  that  when  he 
 asked  Talleyrand  what  was  necessary  to  found  a  new 
 religion  the  latter  replied:  "Nothing  but  to  be  cruci- 
 fied and  to  rise  from  the  dead  the  third  day."  The 
 leader  of  the  new  sect  had  no  toleration  for  the  old 
 faiths.  It  was  a  Deistic  religion,  confessing  only  the 
 existence  of  God  and  the  immortality  of  the  soul, 
 and  it  inculcated  the  moral  virtues.  They  took  pos- 
 session of  the  chief  churches  of  Paris  and  extended 
 into  the  country ;  but  their  time  was  short.     The  law 
 
The  Revolution.  51 
 
 of  October  21,  1801,  excluded  them  from  all  churches 
 owned  by  the  State,  and  they  were  soon  forgotten. 
 
 The  second  National  Council  of  the  constitutional 
 clergy  was  held  at  Paris,  June  29  to  August  16,  1801. 
 Lecoz,  as  before,  presided.  There  were  second 
 present  forty-three  bishops  and  fifty-two  National 
 clerical  Deputies.  The  acceptance  of  the  ^°""*^"- 
 Concordat  of  July  16,  1801,  put  an  end  at  once  to 
 their  labors,  to  the  existence  of  a  constitutional 
 Church  and  clergy,  and  to  the  ecclesiastical  legislation 
 of  the  Revolution.  The  constitutional  clergy  lost  all 
 they  had  contended  for,  the  Roman  Catholic  principles 
 became  supreme;  but  the  name  and  fame  of  Gregoire, 
 Bishop  of  Blois,  will  ever  make  illustrious  their  record. 
 No  other  clergyman  of  this  troubled  time  showed 
 equal  ability,  courage,  devotion  to  principle,  and  self- 
 restraint.  No  wonder  that  on  his  death  lyouis  Philippe 
 compelled  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  to  bury  him  in 
 consecrated  ground. 
 
 Thus  ended  the  ecclesiastical  legislation  of  the 
 French  Revolution.  The  legislation  of  the  Empire, 
 like  that  of  Roman  Catholic  Europe  in  the 
 
 Summary. 
 
 nineteenth  century,  was  based  upon  the 
 Concordat  of  1801.  The  legislation  of  the  Revolution, 
 in  its  inconsistencies,  is  bigotry,  and  persecution,  is 
 the  representative  legislation  of  Anti-christianity  in 
 modern  times.  Never  since  Diocletian  has  the  Anti- 
 christian  spirit  so  triumphed.  No  one  now  is  proud 
 of  the  ecclesiastical  legislation  of  that  era.  Professing 
 enlightenment  and  respect  for  religious  convictions, 
 the  Revolution  entered  upon  the  old  path  of  enforcing 
 oaths   contrary  to   conscience   upon   men,  above   all 
 
52       History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 others,  who  are  pledged  to  regard  their  conscience. 
 The  Acts  against  the  clergy  showed  how  futile  is 
 such  legislation,  and  might  have  proved  a  warning  to 
 Bismarck.  The  blood  of  the  martyrs  for  conscience, 
 religion,  and  Christianity  is  upon  the  French  Revolu- 
 tion. The  hatred  felt  toward  it  by  monarchs  and  the 
 aristocracy  is  easily  explained.  Often,  however,  we 
 forget  that  the  hatred  of  those  to  whom  religion  is  a 
 reality  was  far  more  widespread  and  enduring.  It 
 formed  the  center  of  resistance  which  now  claims  our 
 attention,  and  which  we  call  the  Reaction. 
 
Chapter  II. 
 
 THE     REACTION. 
 
 ThB  Reaction  began  the  day  after  the  fall  of  the 
 Bastile.  Before  the  beginning  of  1790  the  chief  of 
 the  aristocracy,  led  by  the  Comte  d'Artois, 
 the  king's  brother,  afterward  Charles  X,  ,rrecoIcnabies. 
 and  the  most  of  the  French  Episcopate, 
 were  on  foreign  soil.  These  were  the  irreconcilables  ; 
 they  sought  only  the  restoration  of  the  absolute  mon- 
 archy and  the  ancient  regime.  They  cared  nothing  for 
 the  wishes  of  the  French  people,  and  looked  to  foreign 
 armies  for  their  return.  To  their  undisguised  hostility 
 to  any  reform,  and  their  alliance  with  foreign  powers 
 for  the  overthrow  of  France,  may  be  ascribed  the 
 cause  of  some  of  the  worst  atrocities  of  the  French 
 Revolution. 
 
 To  these  irreconcilables  were  joined  many  like 
 those  driven  from  the  provinces  by  the  pillage  and 
 murder  which  distinguished  that  Jacquerie  q^j^^j.  p^^^i^^ 
 which  destroyed  by  violence  the  feudal  in  the 
 rights  of  the  landed  proprietors.  To  these  Emigration, 
 came  to  be  added  the  priests  driven  into  exile  by  the 
 successive  proscriptions  of  the  Revolution,  and- men 
 and  women  endangered  by  the  Terror  who  were  able 
 to  flee  from  France.  Of  course  the  whole  number, 
 though  considerable,  was  but  a  small  portion  of  the 
 population  of  the  kingdom.  It  was  estimated  that 
 fifteen  thousand  refugees  found  a  home  in  England. 
 
 53 
 
54       History  of  the  Christian  Church, 
 
 Some  have  placed  the  number  of  exiled  clergy  as 
 high  as  forty  thousand.  But  it  must  be  remembered 
 that,  as  the  laws  were  relaxed  after  the  era  of  the 
 Convention,  many  returned.  Those  who  were  aged 
 or  infirm  died.  Many  of  all  these  parties  to  the  emi- 
 gration, but  a  small  fraction  of  the  whole,  refused  to 
 return  to  broken  fortunes  and  ruined  homes  under 
 the  Empire,  and  came  back  only  with  the  accession 
 of  I.ouis  XVIII. 
 
 These  emigrants  met  with  profuse  hospitality,  and 
 yet  often  their  lot  was  both  sad  and  hard.  On  the 
 Character      Other  hand,  they  were  themselves  the  worst 
 
 of  the  condemnation  of  the  ancient  regime.  In 
 migran  s.  g^ile  they  showed  fatal  defects  in  morals, 
 in  conduct,  courage,  and  character.  With  abundant 
 opportunities,  none  of  them  made  any  name  in  war  or 
 diplomacy.  Moral  levity,  self-indulgence,  and  often 
 unbelief,  had  left  no  basis  for  efficient  manhood. 
 Against  this  it  may  be  said  that  the  stress  of  trial,  as 
 well  as  their  political  convictions,  drove  them  again  to 
 the  bosom  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  This  was 
 the  party  which  in  France  led  the  extreme  right  of 
 the  Reaction  until  its  final  overthrow,  in  1830. 
 
 To  these  were  joined  the  large  number  who  re- 
 mained in  France  during  all  her  changes  of  fortune, 
 who  believed  republican  institutions  a  fail- 
 Roya*i8ts.  "^^^^  ^^^  wcre  monarchists  from  conviction, 
 and  preferred  the  legitimate  kings  of  France 
 to  a  usurper.  Many  of  these  had  been  blinded  by  the 
 glory  of  the  Empire,  and  had  followed  the  victor's 
 chariot.  But  when  Napoleon  immolated  the  Empire 
 on  the  altar  of  his  insatiable  ambition,  for  him  there 
 could  be  no  successor.     A  nation  wearied  of  political 
 
The  Reaction.  55 
 
 change,  drained  of  its  life-blood  by  war,  desired  the 
 peace  guaranteed  by  all  the  powers  of  Continental 
 Europe. 
 
 This  brought  about  the  unique  opportunity  for  the 
 Congress  of  Vienna  to  remodel  the  Continent  of 
 Europe.  It  brought  also  the  unique  mo-  ^^^  congress 
 ment  for  the  genius  of  Talleyrand  to  show  of 
 
 its  ascendency,  and  make  France,  defeated  *"""*  '  '^' 
 and  the  helpless  prey  of  deeply-injured  conquerors, 
 nevertheless  the  master  of  the  situation.  Talleyrand 
 professed  the  principles  of  legitimacy  as  the  standard 
 of  the  action  and  the  decision  of  the  Congress;  that 
 is,  that  the  restoration  of  the  political  power  of  the 
 Continent  of  Europe  after  the  fall  of  Napoleon  should 
 place  in  power,  and  with  the  same  boundaries  as  far 
 as  possible,  those  princes  dispossessed  by  the  Revo- 
 lution. 
 
 This  principle  assured  the  throne  of  France  to  the 
 Bourbons,  but  also  prevented  any  attempt,  like  that 
 successful  in  1870,  to  dismember  her.  France  thus 
 emerged  from  imperial  rule  and  total  overthrow,  still 
 the  first  nation  in  Europe.  Of  course,  this  principle, 
 like  all  principles,  had  limits  in  its  application.  No 
 one  was  bold  enough  to  .propose  that  it  should  apply 
 to  Poland.  The  Ecclesiastical  Electors  of  the  Rhine 
 were  gone  with  the  Middle  Ages  to  which  they  be- 
 longed. Finally,  Austrian  Flanders,  or  Eelgium, 
 against  every  tie  of  race,  language,  or  religion,  was 
 united  with  Holland.  On  the  other  hand,  the  old  state 
 of  things  returned  in  Spain  and  Portugal.  Austria 
 again  ruled  in  I^ombardy  and  Venice,  the  Spanish 
 Bourbons  in  Naples  and  Sicily,  and  the  pope  again  re- 
 sumed his  temporal  power.     Italy,  which  had  felt  the 
 
56       History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 first  throbbing  of  national  life  under  Napoleon,  be- 
 came once  more  a  mere  geographical  expression. 
 
 In  Germany,  of  course,  the  Old  Empire  could  not 
 be  restored.  Its  place  was  taken  by  a  Germanic 
 Confederation.  In  this  Napoleon's  new  kings  of  Ba- 
 varia, Saxony  and  Wiirtemberg  kept  their  title  and 
 their  place.  Prussia  restored,  became  the  largest 
 Germanic  power.  On  the  other  hand,  Austria,  with 
 large  interests  in  Italian  and  Slavonic  lands,  sought 
 by  alliances  with  the  smaller  States  to  secure  the 
 leadership  of  Germany.  Her  prime  minister,  Prince 
 Metternich,  the  exponent  of  the  policy  of  the  Reac- 
 tion, ruled  in  the  Cabinets  of  Europe  until  1830,  and 
 those  of  Germany  until  1848. 
 
 Only  Switzerland  seemed  by  the  efforts  of  the 
 Congress  to  have  come  to  a  political  condition  much 
 in  advance  of  that  prevailing  at  the  outbreak  of  the 
 Revolution.  The  Congress  gave  Russia  the  greater 
 part  of  Poland  to  repay  her  for  her  effort  to  over- 
 throw Napoleon.  The  policy  of  the  Reaction  was 
 the  maintenance  of  absolutist  governments  against 
 all  attempts  in  favor  of  constitutional  liberty. 
 
 In  France,  I^ouis  XVIII  had  granted  a  Charter  or 
 Constitution,  and  was  willing  to  abide  by  it,  as  he  had 
 no  wish  again  to  go  on  his  travels.  But 
 "^hi*  ^llnlr  t^^  P^^^y  o^  Reaction  had  no  such  inten- 
 tion. Their  bloody  persecution  in  18 15 
 after  Waterloo,  in  Central  and  Southern  France, 
 rivaled  the  worst  excesses  of  the  Revolution.  The 
 Liberal  ministers  were  overthrown.  In  1823,  Charles 
 X  came  to  the  throne.  He  was  a  monarch  of  good 
 manners,  bad  morals,  and  no  character,  a  tool  of  the 
 Jesuits  and  reactionaries.     All  this  time  a  strong  Lib- 
 
The  Reaction.  57 
 
 eral  sentiment  and  part}^  were  growing  in  France.  In 
 1830,  Prince  Polignac,  the  prime  minister,  thought  it 
 a  good  time  to  promulgate  his  "  Ordinances  "  as  a  basis 
 for  arbitrary  power.  The  reply  of  the  French  nation 
 was  the  Revolution  of  1830,  and  the  permanent  exile 
 of  the  elder  branch  of  the  house  of  Bourbon. 
 
 In  these  years  Metternich  was  unremitting,  not 
 only  in  stifling  all  attempts,  so  far  as  possible,  to  se- 
 cure constitutional  government  in  Bavaria, 
 
 „     ,  ,     ,  11        ^  r^  ,         The  Reaction 
 
 Baden,  and  the  smaller  German  States,  but  in  Germany, 
 he  obtained  the  adherence  of  King  Fred- 
 erick William  III  to  his  policy.  The  Prussian  king 
 refused  to  grant  the  Constitution  which  he  had  prom- 
 ised, and  ruled  as  a  reactionist  until  his  death  in  1840. 
 Metternich's  endeavors  against  all  Liberal  move- 
 ments, or,  as  he  would  say,  the  Revolution,  did  not 
 cease  with  his  influence  in  Germany.  With  Alexan- 
 der I  of  Russia  he  entered  heartily  into  the  Holy 
 Alliance,  and  was  a  moving  spirit  in  the  Congress 
 of  Troppau,  Laibach,  and  Verona,  whose  object  was 
 to  crush  all  revolutionary  movements.  A  revolution 
 broke  out  in  Spain.  It  was  bloodily  suppressed,  but 
 the  faithless  Ferdinand,  it  was  felt,  was  not  equal  to 
 the  situation;  so  a  French  occupation  of  Spain  was 
 resolved  upon.  It  took  place  in  1823,  and  continued 
 for  four  years.  In  Naples  a  revolution  to  secure  con- 
 stitutional government  w^as  put  down  with  great  loss 
 of  life  and  merciless  cruelty.  The  Emperor  Alex- 
 ander I  of  Russia  died  in  1825;  his  successor  was 
 Nicholas  I,  who  put  down  in  blood  the  Polish  insur- 
 rection of  1830.  Nicholas  proved  himself,  until  his 
 death  in  1854,  the  strongest  support  of  the  Reaction 
 among  the  monarchs  of  Europe. 
 
58       History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 In  England,  the  first  effort  of  the  French  Revolu- 
 tion met  with   warm  sympathy.      Religious  men  all 
 over  Europe,  like  Schleiermacher  in  Prus- 
 
 The  Reaction     .  ,   ^^5.1        r  ,    ^   ,  ^         .  . 
 
 in  England,  sia  and  Wilberforce  and  J abez  Bunting  m 
 England,  sympathized  with  it.  But  the 
 execution  of  Louis  XVI  and  Marie  Antoinette,  the 
 blood  of  the  Terror,  and  the  Atheistic  orgies  of  Notre 
 Dame,  turned  the  tide.  The  Evangelical  party  in 
 general,  both  within  and  without  the  Church  of  Eng- 
 land, supported  the  person  and  policy  of  Pitt  and  of 
 the  war,  until  Napoleon  was  overthrown.  The  Tory 
 party,  with  a  brief  interval,  had  forty  years  of  power. 
 There  were  few  Whigs  at  the  University  of  Oxford  as 
 late  as  1830.  The  country  was  governed  by  the 
 Tory  party  as  representing  great  interests,  the  West 
 India  slaveholding  interest,  the  East  India  interest, 
 and  the  Established  Church  interest.  Doubtless  the 
 first  occasion  of  the  great  Oxford  movement  was  the 
 political  rise  in  power  of  the  forces  opposed  to  Reac- 
 tion. 
 
 But  all  this  array  did  not  prevent  the  Revolution 
 making  notable  gains.      The  Revolutions  in  Mexico 
 
 Progress     ^^^  Spanish  America,  in  spite  of  Metter- 
 of  the       nich  and  the  Holy  Alliance,  couM  not  be 
 
 Revolution.  ^^^  dowu.  This  was  largely  owing  to  the 
 initiative  of  George  Canning  and  the  Monroe  Doc- 
 trine enunciated  by  the  President  of  the  United 
 vStates.  In  Greece  also,  against  the  wish  of  Russia 
 and  the  English  Tories,  the  Revolution  was  success- 
 ful. The  battle  of  Navarino  October  20,  1827,  broke 
 forever  the  power  of  the  Turk  in  the  land  of  ancient 
 Hellas.  A  new  kingdom  joined  the  comity  of  Euro- 
 pean nations.     In  the  United  States  the  breakdown 
 
The  Reaction.  59 
 
 of  the  Federal  party,  1 800-1 816,  brought  in  the  ex- 
 tension of  the  suffrage  and  the  advance  of  the 
 United  States  to  a  democratic  Republic. 
 
 But  the  year  of  1830  marked  an  epoch  in  the 
 struggle  of  Reaction  with  European  lyiberalism. 
 lyouis  Philippe  ascended  the  throne  July 
 29,  1830.  He  was  acknowledged  by  Eng- JjJ^  ^f  .^^'^f 
 land,  and  under  the  guidance  of  able  states- 
 men added  Algeria  to  France,  and  proved  that  a 
 monarchy  born  of  the  Revolution  could  conduct  a 
 stable  and,  on  the  whole,  beneficent  government. 
 The  same  year  saw  dissolved  the  unnatural  union  be- 
 tween Belgium  and  Holland.  To  the  fright  of  ortho- 
 dox Tories,  Brussels,  and  above  all  Antwerp,  became 
 great  cities.  The  new  King  Leopold,  a  cousin  of 
 Queen  Victoria,  allayed  their  fears.  In  England  the 
 Reform  Bill  of  1832  made  a  great  stride  in  the  same 
 direction.  Henceforth  England  and  France  repre- 
 sented an  entirely  different  scheme  of  political  thought 
 from  the  party  of  the  Reaction. 
 
 The  party  of  Reaction  found  sure  support  in  the 
 papacy.  The  Jesuits  were  restored  in  1814,  and  from 
 that  time  largely  controlled  the  policy  of 
 the  papacy,  especially  during  the  reign  of  ^,''830.7^8!"' 
 Gregory  XVI  (1831-1846).  The  alliance 
 between  the  throne  and  the  altar  was  proclaimed  and 
 emphasized  in  every  country  in  Europe.  The  leaders 
 of  the  policy  of  Reaction  were  Nicholas  I  of  Russia, 
 an  unbending  autocrat,  but  an  honest  man,  and  Prince 
 Metternich.  Frederick  William  IV  of  Prussia  (1840- 
 1858)  was  a  lover  of  the  fine  arts  and  a  Romanticist. 
 He  was  a  brother-in-law  of  Nicholas  I.  His  policy 
 was  as  absolute  as  that  of  his  father,  and  he  showed 
 
6o        History  of  the  Christian  Church, 
 
 no  desire  to  break  from  the  leading-strings  of  Metter- 
 nich.  On  the  other  hand,  the  founding  and  extension 
 of  the  ZoUverein,  or  Customs  Union,  made  Prussia  the 
 economic  leader  of  Germany  in  the  near  future,  and 
 opened  her  way  to  a  political  sovereignty  through 
 her  royal  house.  In  Italy  the  rule  of  the  Austrians 
 and  of  the  pope  grew  increasingly  unpopular.  In 
 Spain  a  civil  war  raged  from  the  death  of  Ferdinand 
 VII  in  1833,  between  the  partisans  of  his  daughter 
 Isabella,  aged  three  years,  and  under  the  regency  of 
 her  mother  Christina,  and  those  of  his  brother  Don 
 Carlos,  One  result  was  the  confiscation  of  the  mo- 
 nastic property  in  Spain. 
 
 In  France  the  government  of  Louis  Philippe,  in 
 spite  of  limited  suffrage  (there  were  but  two  hun- 
 dred and  fifty  thousand  voters,  and  half  of  these  were 
 ofiSceholders),  and  of  electoral  corruption,  gave  France 
 a  rule  under  which  she  grew  rich  and  powerful.  But 
 there  was  a  strong  Republican  party.  The  govern- 
 ment, through  the  king's  pursuit  of  riches,  the  death 
 of  his  oldest  son,  and  the  Spanish  marriages,  weak- 
 ened the  character  and  the  power  of  the  monarchy. 
 
 The  Revolution  broke  out  at  Paris,  February  22, 
 
 1848.     Two  days  later  Louis  Philippe  abdicated  the 
 
 ^ijg        throne,  universal  suffrage  was  proclaimed. 
 
 Revolution  and  government  workshops  were  opened. 
 
 °  '  "*  '  The  latter  proved  a  signal  and  costly  fail- 
 ure. The  election  in  April  under  universal  suffrage 
 returned  a  Chamber  with  a  majority  of  moderate  Re- 
 publicans. There  were  a  few  Socialists,  but  more 
 Monarchists.  The  Socialists,  seeing  that  they  could 
 not  control  the  Legislature,  organized  a  revolt.  It 
 was  thoroughly  suppressed  by  that  true  Republican, 
 
The  Reaction,  6i 
 
 General  Cavaignac,  June  24-26.  In  this  he  rendered 
 a  great  service  to  his  country.  Nevertheless  Prince 
 lyouis  Napoleon  was  elected  President  of  the  Republic 
 in  December,  1848,  by  a  vote  of  four  to  one  to  that 
 received  by  General  Cavaignac. 
 
 The  February  Revolution  at  Paris  woke  all  Europe. 
 In  March,  at  Pressburg  the  Hungarians,  and  at  Prague 
 the  Bohemians,  rose  in  revolt.     On  March 
 
 I  he 
 
 13th  the  rule  of  Metternich  came  to  an  Revolution  in 
 end.  The  same  month  witnessed  the  dec-  ^"**'''«- 
 laration  of  war  by  Sardinia  against  Austria,  and  the 
 revolt  of  Venice  in  the  attempt  to  found  a  Republic- 
 Rome,  and  apparently  the  pope,  sympathized  with 
 these  efforts  until  the  Allocution  of  Pius  IX,  April 
 29,  1848,  pronounced  against  war  with  Austria.  The 
 King  of  Sardinia  was  defeated  at  Custozza,  July  25th, 
 and  evacuated  Milan,  August  5,  1848. 
 
 In  Austria  itself  events  moved  rapidly.  The 
 Emperor  Ferdinand  abandoned  Vienna  May  i6th,  and 
 again  on  October  i,  1848.  Windischgratz  took  it  for 
 him,  November  i,  1848.  Ferdinand  abdicated,  and 
 Francis  Joseph  ascended  the  throne,  December  2, 1848. 
 On  February  27,  1849,  the  Hungarians  were  defeated 
 at  Kapolona.  They  rallied,  gained  victories,  and  pro- 
 claimed the  independence  of  Hungary,  April  14,  1849. 
 The  government  at  Vienna  had  played  off  the  Sclavs 
 against  the  Magyars;  now  they  call  Russia  to  their 
 aid.  Her  iron  dice  were  too  heavy  in  the  scales  of 
 Mars,  and  the  Hungarian  General  Gorgei  capitulated, 
 August  14,  1849.  Hungary  was  at  the  mercy  of  the 
 Reaction,  Kossuth  was  a  fugitive,  and  bloody  execu- 
 tions stained  the  victory  of  the  House  of  Hapsburg. 
 
 In  Germany  the  revolt  at  Berlin  had  been  success- 
 
62       History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 ful  in  securing  the  adhesion  of  the  weak  and  irreso- 
 lute Frederick  WilHam  IV.     A  German  Parliament 
 
 ^j^^  was  called  to  meet  at  Frankfort,  May  i8, 
 Revolution  in  1848,  and  in  June  there  was  established  a 
 Qermany.  pj-Qyjsional  government.  The  imperial 
 crown  was  offered  to  the  King  of  Prussia.  After 
 some  days  of  consideration  he  rejected  it,  April  21, 
 1849.  Prussia,  influenced  in  part  by  Nicholas  I, 
 joined  Austria  in  the  Reaction.  By  the  Convention 
 of  Olmiitz,  November  25,  1850,  Prussia  took  her  place 
 again  under  the  leadership  of  Austria.  In  May,  1850, 
 that  body  of  weakness,  the  old  Germanic  Confedera- 
 tion, was  restored.  Two  years  of  revolution  and  dis- 
 ruption had  only  made  stronger  the  Austrian  predom- 
 inance in  Germany.  Prussia  could  hold  but  a  subor- 
 dinate place  while  the  king  lived  and  the  policy  of 
 Reaction  prevailed.  The  time  had  not  come,  but  was 
 ripening,  for  William  I  and  Bismarck. 
 
 In  Italy  events  moved  decisively.  At  fifst  Pius  IX 
 fell  in  with  the  Liberal  movement,  but,  November  15, 
 
 ^^g  1848,  Count  Rossi,  the  Pontifical  Minister 
 Revolution  of  Justice,  was  assassiuated  on  the  steps 
 In  Italy.  ^^  ^^^  Chaucelleria ;  November  24th  the 
 pope  fled  from  Rome  to  Gaeta.  February  9,  1849, 
 the  Roman  Chambers  proclaimed  the  fall  of  the  tem- 
 poral power  of  the  pope  and  the  accession  to  power 
 of  the  Roman  Republic.  February  i8th  a  Tuscan 
 Republic  was  proclaimed  at  Florence,  and  its  grand- 
 duke  went  to  join  the  pope  at  Gaeta.  March  24,  1849, 
 Charles  Albert  was  defeated  by  the  Austrians  at  No- 
 vara,  and  he  at  once  abdicated  the  throne  of  Sardinia. 
 He  had  bravely  played  a  losing  game  in  the  fortune 
 of  war,  but  he  had  made  the  house  of  Savoy  the 
 
The  Reaction.  63 
 
 center  of  Italian  unity.  To  reinstate  the  pope  the 
 French  Republic  sent  a  military  expedition  under 
 General  Oudinot.  In  thus  planning  to  crush  a  sister 
 Republic  the  French  Republic  invited  its  own  fate  a 
 few  years  later.  Principles  remain,  however  much 
 statesmen  and  politicians  violate  them.  The  Romans 
 made  a  defense  under  General  Garibaldi  which  made 
 glorious  the  name  of  their  Republic.  They  repulsed 
 thej  French  troops  with  loss,  April  30,  1849.  After 
 two  months'  siege  the  French  forced  the  San  Pan- 
 crazio  gate,  June  30,  1849,  and  the  city  surrendered. 
 Garibaldi  withdrew  to  wait  in  a  happier  hour  the 
 realization  of  that  ideal  for  which  he  so  bravely 
 fought.  Worthily  stands  his  statue  on  the  Janiculum 
 overlooking  Rome,  and  commanding  the  gate  of  San 
 Pancrazio  where  he  lost  the  day  in  defeat,  but  neither 
 heart  nor  hope. 
 
 Louis  Napoleon,  by  a  stroke  of  state,  breaking  his 
 oath  to  the  Constitution,  to  which  he  had  sworn  with 
 perjured  lips,  made  himself  Emperor  of  p^. 
 the  French,  December  2,  1852.  By  a  series  under  Louis 
 of  blunders,  both  on  the  part  of  England  NapoUon. 
 and  Russia,  he  was  able  to  lead  in  a  war  against 
 Nicholas  I  in  behalf  of  Turkey.  One  can  not  help 
 feeling  for  the  broken-hearted  Czar,  who  never  in- 
 tended to  be  led  into  war.  This  Crimean  expedition 
 had  the  least  justification  of  any  European  war  of  the 
 century  after  the  Russian  expedition  of  1812.  What- 
 ever results  it  had  in  favor  of  Turkey  did  not  survive 
 thirty  years.  But  this  important  gain  was  realized: 
 it  put  an  end  to  the  political  influence  of  Russia  in 
 Europe  west  of  her  boundaries.  Nicholas  had  led  the 
 forces  of  Reaction  for  thirty  years  in  European  poll- 
 
64       History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 tics.  He  had  crushed  the  Hungarians,  and  so  aided 
 Austria  in  the  reduction  of  Italy,  and  had  kept  in  the 
 path  of  the  Reaction  two  kings  of  Prussia.  With 
 Nicholas  died  the  political  power  of  the  Reaction  of 
 Europe.  Louis  Napoleon,  who  succeeded  to  the  po- 
 litical leadership  of  Europe,  owed  his  throne  to  the 
 Revolution.  He  was  to  open  up  a  new  era  in  Euro- 
 pean history  by  his  war  with  Austria  in  1859.  His 
 successor  in  the  politics  of  Europe,  Bismarck,  founded 
 the  new  German  Empire  on  universal  suffrage.  The 
 era  of  Reaction  was  ended. 
 
 The  Liberalism  which  led  the  Revolution  of  1848 
 
 had  much  to  learn.     It  made  many  mistakes,  but  it 
 
 has  never  been  surpassed   in   enthusiasm 
 
 Summary.  .  ,  ,  .        ,  -     ,      . 
 
 and  devotion.  In  the  white  heat  of  their 
 enthusiasm  the  peoples  were  fused  for  the  mold  of 
 national  unity.  It  supplied  the  motor  force  for  the 
 reorganization  of  Europe  between  1 860-1 870.  We 
 may  smile  at  the  extravagance  and  follies  of  its  lead- 
 ers in  their  lack  of  experience,  but  they  fashioned  the 
 ideals  which  inspired  the  peoples  who  made  the  new 
 Europe.  Mazzini  and  Manzoni,  Manin  and  Garibaldi, 
 will  ever  deserve  the  reverence  of  all  who  have  lived 
 in  and  seen  the  progress  of  united  Italy.  The  doc- 
 trinaire German  professors  who  had  so  little  practical 
 experience  in  governmisnt,  and  raised  up  so  many  ob- 
 stacles to  Bismarck,  nevertheless,  like  the  poets  of  the 
 Fatherland,  laid  the  foundation  on  which  Bismarck 
 builded.  Citizens  of  the  German  Empire,  strong  in 
 its  might,  can  never  forget  the  men  of  1848,  who,  with 
 all  their  lack  of  experience  in  government,  3^et  saw 
 the  vision  splendid  of  the  United  Fatherland,  and  pre- 
 pared the  people  when  the  hour  came  for  its  realization. 
 
Chapter  III. 
 
 THE  ROMANTIC  MOVEMENT. 
 
 It  is  not  possible  to  understand  the  history  of 
 Church  or  State  in  the  nineteenth  century  without 
 taking  into  account  the  great  literary  revolution  of  the 
 age.  The  Romantic  Movement  has  a  sure  place  in  the 
 literary  history  of  all  lands  in  Christendom. 
 
 Its  influence  on  political  thought,  both  on  the  side 
 of  the  Revolution  and  the  Reaction,  was  most  marked. 
 Its  exponents  were  the  leading  political 
 philosophers  of  the  Bourbon  Restoration,    influence 
 and  it  was  no  insignificant  factor  in  that  Rev-  *>*  ***®  Move- 
 
 -        _         ,  ment. 
 
 olution  which  m  1830  drove  the  Bourbons 
 from  the  throne.  In  the  Revolution  of  1848  Lamar- 
 tine  and  Victor  Hugo,  Thiers  and  Montalembert,  were 
 conspicuous  figures.  In  Germany  there  was  the  like 
 exaltation  of  the  past  and  discontent  with  the  present 
 which  was  the  true  seed  of  the  Revolution  of  1848.  In 
 Italy  even  more  clearly  do  Mazzini  and  Manzoni  show 
 how  the  Romantic  Moveflient  awakened  the  conscious- 
 ness of  the  people. 
 
 Quite  as  important  was  its  influence  upon  the  his- 
 tory of  the  Christian  Church.     The  Roman  Catholic 
 Church  in  the  eighteenth  century  lost  her 
 hold  on  the  intellect  of  Europe,  and  has  theChuroh! 
 never    regained  it.      The   Revolution  de- 
 spoiled it  at  once  in  France,   and  gradually  in  other 
 Roman   Catholic  countries,  of  its  wealth.     Political 
 power  came  back  with  the  restoration  of  1815,  with 
 
 5  65 
 
66       History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 the  proclaimed  alliance  of  the  altar  and  the  throne. 
 To  justify  this  restoration  of  power,  to  justify  it  as 
 the  corner-stone  of  modern  civilization,  as  a  necessity 
 for  the  security  of  the  social  order,  was  the  task  of 
 writers  like  Chateaubriand,  De  Maistre,  and  Bonald. 
 
 These  came  from  the  center  of  the  Romantic 
 Movement,  and  in  its  course  it  swept  many  unbe- 
 lievers, and  not  a  few  of  Evangelical  birth  and  train- 
 ing, into  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  Hardenberg 
 and  John  H.  Newman  stand  for  a  multitude  of  others. 
 
 But  it  is  as  a  literary  movement  that  Romanticism 
 
 exerted  its  influence   upon  the  thought   and   life  of 
 
 The  charac-  Europc.     To  See  the  source  and  power  of 
 
 teristic  Fea=  tj^ig  influence  we  must  discern  the  leading 
 
 tures  of  the  .      .  r    a        ^  .      ■»  «- 
 
 Romantic    characteristics  of  the  Romantic  Movement. 
 
 Movement.  ^  V\x^\.  it  was  a  rcvolt.  Its  literature 
 was  a  literature  of  revolt.  This  is  seen  in  the  earlier 
 poems  of  Wordsworth,  and  in  Byron  and  Shelley. 
 Notably  is  this  true  in  France  of  Madame  de  Stael, 
 Chateaubriand,  Madame  Dudevant  (George  Sand),  and 
 Victor  Hugo.  Its  discontent  with  the  present,  whether 
 in  its  political  conditions  or  literary  or  artistic  forms, 
 could  only  be  satisfied  with  a  revolution. 
 
 2.  In  its  revolt  from  the  eighteenth  century  depre- 
 ciation of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  of  any  true  historic 
 life  of  men  and  societies  and  nations,  it  by  preference 
 turned  to  those  eras  so  long  neglected  and  despised. 
 Scott  led  the  way  in  Britain,  Michaud  in  France,  and 
 Von  Raumer  in  Germany.  The  revival  of  Gothic 
 architecture  came  from  the  same  source.  The  British 
 Houses  of  Parliament  are  a  monument  of  this  influence. 
 
 3.  The  Romantic  Movement  was  a  recall  of  the 
 emotions  and  fancy  to  conscious  life  and  legitimate 
 
The  Romantic  Movement.  67 
 
 literary  expression.  In  the  eighteenth  century,  emo- 
 tions and  their  expression  were  not  good  form. 
 Works  of  fantasy  and  the  imagination  with  any  sense 
 of  mystery  were  simply  ridiculous.  The  Romanticists 
 were  nothing  if  not  emotional;  they  reveled  in  the 
 fantastic  in  literature  and  art,  and  mystery  was  the 
 keyword  to  their  moods  and  plots. 
 
 4.  The  Romantic  Movement  was  characterized  by 
 an  intense  appreciation  of  the  beauty  of  nature.  This 
 was  often  like  a  religious  devotion,  as  in  Wordsworth. 
 It  immeasurably  widened  the  literary  horizon,  and 
 opened  new  and  noble  sources  of  joy  and  aspiration 
 in  the  soul.  Nature's  life,  beauty,  and  rhythm  became 
 a  part  of  our  literary  heritage. 
 
 5.  This  literary  movement  treasured  the  peculiari- 
 ties, past  and  present,  of  peoples  and  races.  It  valued 
 national  and  ecclesiastical  legends,  folk-lore,  and  pop- 
 ular ballads.  These  it  gathered  and  preserved  for  all 
 time.  It  saw,  as  the  eighteenth  century  never  did, 
 the  inner  life  of  the  people  of  the  present  and  the 
 historic  past. 
 
 6.  In  philosophy  the  Romantic  Movement  was  the 
 direct  opposite  of  the  bald  common-sense  skepticism 
 of  the  eighteenth  century .~  Kant  had  shown  how  in- 
 secure were  the  boasted  solid  foundations  of  this  phi- 
 losophy. The  philosophy  of  the  Romanticists  was  the 
 German  idealism  which  lay  on  the  verge  of  pantheism, 
 and  not  seldom  crossed  it. 
 
 7.  But  the  revolt  of  the  Romantic  Movement,  more 
 than  against  anything  else,  was  against  the  dry 
 rationalism  in  religion  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
 Whatever  the  Romanticists  believed  or  did  not  be- 
 lieve,  they  had  no  use  for  a  religion  of  denial  and 
 
68       History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 negation.  They  reverenced  the  ages  in  which  faith 
 prevailed,  and  the  mighty  creations  in  architecture 
 and  plastic  arts  in  which  that  faith  found  its  expres- 
 sion. They  could  not  deny  the  religious  element  in 
 the  nature  of  man.  Many  felt  it  in  themselves,  and 
 sought  in  the  Roman  Catholic  forms  in  architecture, 
 in  liturgy,  and  in  the  religious  life  derived  from  the 
 Middle  Ages,  that  satisfaction  for  it  which  too  often  the 
 rationalized  and  anti-artistic  Evangelical  Church  failed 
 to  afiford.  This  was  but  the  sure  revenge  for  its 
 neglect  of  the  ages  before  the  Reformation,  and  of  the 
 craving  for  art  in  the  human  soul. 
 
 Let  us  now  trace  the  course  of  the  Movement  in 
 its  natural  development  in  the  different  literatures  of 
 Europe.  It  is  not  to  be  understood  that  all  traits 
 above  noticed  will  be  seen  equally  in  any  literature  or 
 present  in  any  author. 
 
 In  England  the  movement  may  be  traced  from  the 
 publication  of  Bishop  Percy's  "  Reliques  of  Ancient 
 
 Romantic  English  Poctry  "  in  1765.  It,  however,  re- 
 Movement  ceived  a  mighty  impulse  when,  in  Septem- 
 in  England.  ^^^^  1798,  wcrc  published  the  '*  Lyrical 
 Ballads"  by  Samuel  Taylor  Coleridge  and  William 
 Wordsworth.  This  book,  while  containing  some  in- 
 ferior poems,  included  also  "The  Ancient  Mariner" 
 and  "  Lines  upon  Tintern  Abbey,"  enough  to  make  the 
 fortune  of  a  literary  movement  at  any  time.  Words- 
 worth brought  to  the  Movement  the  revelation  of  na- 
 ture as  a  revealing  God  to  the  soul,  which  is  his 
 marked  contribution  to  English  literature.  He  also, 
 like  Byron  and  Shelley,  later  gave  voice  to  the  spirit 
 of  revolt.  The  supreme  gift  of  imagination  and  music 
 in  words  of  Coleridge  would  ennoble  any  literature. 
 
The  Romantic  Movement.  69 
 
 Byron  and  Shelley  are  emphatic  exponents  of  re- 
 bellion against  moral  standards  and  religious  creeds, 
 as  well  as  political  conditions.  Byron  died  at  thirty- 
 seven,  Shelley  at  thirty,  and  Keats  at  twenty-six. 
 Byron's  verse  has  movement  and  passion,  and  has 
 always  been  a  favorite  in  Continental  Europe.  Shelley 
 wrote  some  of  the  most  beautiful  verse  in  English 
 poetry.  Few  poets,  indeed,  at  his  age  have  surpassed 
 the  work  of  Keats.  In  Sir  Walter  Scott  (i 770-1832), 
 the  Movement  called  the  Middle  Ages  back  to  life, 
 and  powerfully  affected  his  own  and  other  lands. 
 Southey  and  Lockhart  trod  in  his  steps. 
 
 Mrs.  Elizabeth  Barrett  Browning  and  John  Keble, 
 diflfering  as  they  do,  yet  represented  the  same  literary 
 movement.  So  did  the  earlier  poetry  of  Alfred  Tenny- 
 son and  of  Robert  Browning,  though  in  their  after 
 development  they  far  outpassed  the  boundaries  of  the 
 Romantic  Movement. 
 
 In  criticism  the  most  notable  men  in  the  Romantic 
 Movement  in  England  were  Thomas  Carlyle,  John 
 Ruskin,  and  John  H.  Newman.  Not  only  these  great 
 leaders,  but  all  English  literature  of  the  time,  felt  the 
 new  life  that  throbbed  iji  it,  Macaulay  seems  their 
 opposite  in  history  and  criticism,  but  in  his  historical 
 ballads  he  is  their  companion  in  arms.  The  wave 
 reached  across  the  Atlantic,  and  Emerson,  Thoreau, 
 and  Alcott,  with  the  New  England  Transcendentalists, 
 are  true  children  of  the  literary  revolution. 
 
 In  France  the  source  of  the  Romantic  Movement  is 
 found  in  Jean  Jacques  Rousseau.  From  him  came 
 that  love  of  nature  that  marked  so  strongly  the  Ro- 
 manticists, as  well  as  the  revolt  against  conventional 
 standards  in  society,  in  literature,  in  politics,  and  re- 
 
70       History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 ligion.  The  Revolution  had  to  come  before  there  was 
 a  way  broken  for  the  Romantic  development ;  for  no 
 The  Romantic  ^^^^^^^y  or  pliilosophic  traditions  could  be 
 Movement  morc  triumphant,  or  more  narrow  and 
 in  France,  intolerant,  than  the  philosophy  oi  skepti- 
 cism and  enlightenment  on  the  standards  of  literary 
 taste  then  esteemed  correct.  Madame  de  Stael,  the 
 first  great  forerunner  of  the  Movement  in  France,  was 
 at  first  disillusioned,  and  then  brought  to  a  wider 
 acquaintance  with  life  through  the  excesses  of  the 
 Revolution  and  her  banishment  by  Napoleon.  Her 
 novels  "  Delphine "  and  "Corinne,"  her  work  on 
 Germany,  as  well  as  her  wonderful  conversational 
 powers,  make  her  the  first  literary  woman  of  her  age, 
 surpassed  only  in  the  century  by  Madame  Dudevant. 
 In  her  revolt  she  broke  from  moral  standards.  Her  re- 
 lations with  Narbonne,  and  afterward  with  Benjamin 
 Constant,  who  was  the  father  of  her  daughter  Alber- 
 tine,  later  the  Duchess  de  Broglie,  during  the  life  of 
 her  husband,  whom  she  divorced  in  1797,  and  nursed 
 in  his  last  sickness  in  1802,  are  the  too  familiar  ac- 
 companiments of  the  Romantic  Movement.  In  her 
 later  years  Madame  de  Stael  returned  to  the  Christian 
 faith. 
 
 Chateaubriand  was  one  in  opinion  with  the  skep- 
 tical nobility  by  which  he  was  surrounded.  The 
 blood  of  the  Terror  revolted  him,  and  he  emigrated  to 
 America,  where  he  visited  and  afterwards  described 
 the  Falls  of  Niagara.  On  his  return  he  published 
 "  Atala  "  and  "  The  Genius  of  Christianity."  Fervid 
 in  his  professions  of  Christian  belief,  he  w^as  a  de- 
 fender of  absolute  monarchy  and  of  extreme  papal 
 claims. 
 
The  Romantic  Movement. 
 
 71 
 
 Alphouse  de  I^amartine — whose  "Meditations" 
 were  published  in  1820 — Victor  Hugo,  De  Musset, 
 and  Beranger  represent  the  Romantic  poetry  of  France. 
 Theophile  Gautier  and  Sainte  Beuve  represent  its 
 criticism.  The  latter,  in  many  respects,  was  the  first 
 critic  oi  his  time  in  Europe. 
 
 In  fiction,  Victor  Hugo  and  Madame  Dudevant  are 
 the  great  names,  followed  at  a  distance  by  Alexander 
 Dumas  and  Eugene  Sue.  To  this  school  Balzac, 
 perhaps  the  most  powerful  French  novelist  of  the 
 century,  did  not  belong.  He  did  not  sympathize  with 
 the  past.  He  belonged  only  to  his  own  age  and  de- 
 scribed it  with  a  keenness  of  analysis,  a  minuteness 
 of  detail,  and  a  display  of  morbid  psychology  never 
 excelled.  Balzac  became  the  founder  of  a  new  school 
 of  fiction.  When  the  school  of  Romantic  fiction 
 passed,  the  method  of  Balzac  remained. 
 
 In  Germany  the  Romantic  Movement  reaches  back 
 to  Lessing,  and  comes  through  Goethe  and  Schiller 
 to  the  beginning  of  the  century.  Goethe  ^^^  Romantic 
 had  his  Romantic  period  in  his  '*  Sorrows  of  Movement  in 
 Werther,"  and  Schiller,  following  Biirger,  ««'-"«"y- 
 preserved  its  power  in  his  tragedies,  by  far  the  best  in 
 German  language. 
 
 These  men  went  far  beyond  the  limit  of  any  school. 
 The  leaders  of  the  German  Romantic  Movement  came 
 after  them  in  more  senses  than  one.  They  were 
 Hardenberg  (Novalis),  the  brothers  Schlegel,  and 
 Ludwig  Tieck.  Three  out  of  these  four  became 
 Roman  Catholics.  A  poet  of  more  value  than  any  of 
 these  was  Ludwig  Uhland,  whose  ballads  are  a  treasure 
 in  German  literature.  In  fiction  appears  Jean  Paul 
 Richter,  Hofi^man,  with  his  weird  tales,  and  Heinrich 
 
72       History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 von  Kleist.  The  same  Movement  carried  over  to 
 Rome  the  artists  Cornelius  and  Overbeck.  Heinrich 
 Heine,  a  gifted  poet,  with  an  exquisite  lyric  strain 
 and  a  mocking  spirit,  is  said  by  his  ridicule  to  have 
 put  an  end  to  the  German  Romantic  Movement. 
 
 To  this  circle  of  Romanticists  belong  Fichte  and 
 Schelling,  and  the  leader  in  the  new  era  in  theology, 
 Ernest  Frederick  Schleiermacher.  The  latter,  a  room- 
 mate for  years  wnth  Frederick  Schlegel,  has  been 
 called  the  high  priest  of  Romanticism.  He  deserves 
 longer  space  in  another  relation,  but  his  connection 
 with  the  Romantic  Movement  may  be  briefly  sketched 
 here. 
 
 The  revolt  of  the  German  Romanticists  was  mainly 
 against  the  institution  of  marriage.  Political  revolt 
 would  have  been  useless,  and  was  unthought  of,  be- 
 fore Germany  came  to  self-consciousness  in  the  dark 
 days  of  1 807-1 8 13. 
 
 The  German  women  married  in  their  teens  hus- 
 bands chosen  for  them  by  others,  and  with  whom 
 they  had  little  acquaintance  and  no  real  knowledge. 
 Divorce  was  easy,  and  carried  with  it  no  moral  stigma. 
 The  little  German  courts  were  often  centers  of  social 
 corruption.  To  this  was  added  the  impulse  of  the 
 spirit  of  individual  liberty  and  the  right  of  the 
 emotional  life,  and  revolt  against  artificial  conventions, 
 and  we  see  the  sufficient  source  of  the  new  gospel. 
 There  was  in  that  age  no  purer  or  more  truthful  soul 
 than  Schleiermacher,  yet  he  taught  that  if  the 
 marriage  was  a  mere  convention,  and  did  not  bind  in 
 union  the  souls  of  husband  and  wife,  it  was  a  duty  to 
 dissolve  it.  He  changed  his  views  in  later  life,  but  for 
 years  this  was  his  belief.  The  practice  ran  beyond  it. 
 The  influence  of  the  first  literary  man  in  Germany, 
 
The  Romantic  Movement.  73 
 
 Goethe,  helped  to  this  revolt.  However  much  Goethe 
 did  for  Germany  and  for  the  world  in  insisting  on  the 
 right  and  duty  of  self-development  and  self-culture, 
 certain  it  is  that  his  life  of  immorality  with  women 
 permanently  lowered  the  moral  tone  in  literary  circles 
 in  Germany.  After  living  with  Christine  Vulpius  for 
 years,  he  married  her  to  make  legitimate  their  chil- 
 dren, but  with  no  sense  of  moral  obligation.  Schil- 
 ler, who  was  the  best  of  them,  was  for  a  time  a 
 cavalier  serventi  to  Charlotte  von  Kalb,  and  went  to 
 Paris  with  her  long  after  his  marriage. 
 
 The  tone  in  Romantic  circles  may  be  understood 
 from  two  or  three  notable  examples.  Dorothea  Men- 
 delssohn, daughter  of  Moses  Mendelssohn,  married 
 young,  and  without  choice  on  her  part,  the  banker 
 Viet.  After  a  life  of  misery  for  some  years — for  the 
 people  cultivated  these  dangerous  things,  the  feelings 
 — she  divorced  him  to  live  with  Frederick  Schlegel 
 without  marriage.  Years  after,  they  were  married  and 
 both  went  into  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
 
 Henriette  Herz  was  also  a  Jewess;  her  husband 
 was  a  celebrated  physician.  Her  house  was  open  to 
 all  that  was  intellectual  or  distinguished  in  Berlin. 
 Schleiermacher  was  her  fntimate  friend  and  corre- 
 spondent. He  spent  hours  with  her  daily,  teaching 
 her  Greek,  and  discussing  philosophy  and  literature. 
 Her  husband  died,  and  she  found  her  fortune  im- 
 paired. For  a  time  she  was  a  governess  in  the  house 
 of  Schleiermacher's  sister-in-law.  Then,  with  better 
 times  and  fortune,  she  returned  to  Berlin,  and  died 
 in  the  Evangelical  Church. 
 
 During  these  years  (i  802-1 805)  Schleiermacher, 
 then  a  man  past  thirty-four,  though  never  passing  the 
 bounds  of  strictest  friendship  with  Henriette  Herz, 
 
74       History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 became  enamored  with  Elenore  Griinow,  the  wife  of 
 a  Lutheran  clergyman  of  Berlin.  Her  marriage  was 
 most  unhappy,  and  she  was  a  woman  who  lived  in 
 her  emotions,  and  had  great  talent  in  describing  them. 
 Though  Schleiermacher  corresponded  with  her,  he 
 would  listen  to  nothing  clandestine  in  their  inter- 
 course. At  last  it  was  agreed  with  her  husband,  with 
 Schleiermacher,  and  herself,  that  she  should  procure  a 
 divorce  and  marry  Schleiermacher.  All  was  ready  for 
 the  legal  steps  to  be  taken.  At  the  last  her  good 
 angel  prevailed, 'and  Elenore  Griinow  drew  back.  At 
 the  time  Schleiermacher,  now  thirty-seven,  felt  that 
 the  blow  destroyed  all  prospect  of  happiness.  Four 
 years  later  he  married  the  widow  of  his  friend,  Hhren- 
 fried  Willich.  Sixteen  years  later  he  met  Elenore 
 Griinow  for  the  first  time  since  she  refused  him.  He 
 went  up  to  her  and  said,  ''  God  has  been  very  good 
 to  us,  Elenore."  This  incident  in  the  life  of  one  of 
 the  noblest  men  of  the  time  will  show  the  strength  of 
 the  current. 
 
 A  woman  of  even  stronger  intellect  was  Charlotte 
 Michaelis.  Her  father  was  a  celebrated  professor  of 
 theology.  When  very  young  she  married  Dr.  Boh- 
 mer.  He  left  her  a  widow  at  a  little  over  twenty 
 years  of  age  with  a  daughter,  Auguste  Bohmer,  who 
 died  at  fifteen,  but  was  a  most  remarkable  child.  In 
 1779  she  joined  in  a  Revolutionary  movement  at 
 Mainz.  The  plot  was  detected,  and  she  was  im- 
 prisoned. There  she  carried  on  an  intrigue  with  a 
 Frenchman  with  serious  consequences.  A.  W.  Schlegel 
 came  to  her  rescue,  and  gave  her  to  his  brother  Fred- 
 erick to  care  for.  Later  A.  W.  Schlegel  married  her. 
 Then,  tiring  of  her,  he  went  to  live  with  Sophie 
 Bernhardi,  the  sister  of  Ludwig  Tieck,  the  novelist, 
 
The  Romantic  Movement.  75 
 
 who  divorced  her  husband  for  his  sake.  Then  Charlotte 
 Schlegel  procured  a  divorce  and  married  the  philoso- 
 pher Schelling,  with  whom  she  lived  until  her  death. 
 The  remarkable  thing  is  the  affection,  and  even  rev- 
 erence with  which  these  men,  who  were  themselves 
 men  of  no  ordinary  ability,  speak  of  this  woman.  The 
 tribute  of  Schelling  after  her  death  is  especially  re- 
 markable. They  speak  with  a  reverence  of  her  intel- 
 lect and  character,  which,  in  view  of  her  career,  is 
 surprising.  This  relation  shows  something  of  the 
 Germany  of  that  period,  as  well  as  of  the  Romantic 
 Movement.  The  sin,  as  always,  brought  its  punish- 
 ment. But  this  tangle  of  aflSnities  shows  something 
 of  what  Christianity  had  to  overcome  in  order  to  win 
 Germany. 
 
 In  Italy  the  movement  made  its  way  as  in  Spain, 
 Portugal,  the  Scandinavian  countries,   and  the   Sla- 
 vonic  nationalities,  like  Bohemia,   Poland 
 and  Russia.     These  last  we  have  not  space  ^MofeTenT*" 
 to  consider.      In   Italy,  Ugo  Foscolo,  and     in  other 
 Leopardi  represented  the  poets;  Manzoni     *-*"**»• 
 in  his  *'  I  Promesi  Sposi,"  fiction;  Rosminni  and  Gio- 
 berti,  philosophy ;  and  Carlo  Botta,  Pietro  Colletta,  and 
 Caesare  Cantu,  the  historians. 
 
 This  record  sums  up  the  most  remarkable  literary 
 result  of  the  Romantic  Movement  in  poetry,  fiction, 
 and  criticism.    Its  faults  and  excesses  have 
 
 ,  .  ,  ,  .  The  Romantic 
 
 not  been  spared.     A  word  may  be  given  to    Movement 
 efforts  more  indirect,  but   more  far-reach-  *"**  Historical 
 
 ata,         T-w  .  -i  '  Learning. 
 
 mg.      The    Romantic    Movement    by    its 
 return  to  a  reverence  for  the  past,  and  a  recognition 
 of  its  necessary  connection  wnth  the  present,  gave  an 
 immense   impulse  to  the  study   of  history,  and  criti- 
 cism of  its  sources. 
 
76       History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 Niebuhr  easily  led  the  way  in  this  work.  In 
 Church  history  he  was  followed  by  August  Neander, 
 Gieseler  and  Hase.  Dahlman,  Hausser,  Von  Ranke, 
 and  Von  Sybel,  with  Mommsen  and  Curtius,  Giese- 
 brecht  and  Waitz,  have  made  the  German  historical 
 scholarship  renowned  in  this  century.  In  France, 
 Sismondi,  Michaud,  Thierry,  Guizot,  Michelet,  and 
 Thiers,  while  not  so  fundamental  in  research,  added 
 to  the  laurels  of  French  historians.  In  England, 
 Thirl  wall  and  Grote,  Hallam  and  Macaulay,  made 
 illustrious  this  era.  In  philosophy,  the  Romantic 
 Movement  left  little  trace,  except  in  the  idealism  and 
 nature-philosophy  of  Schelling,  and  perhaps  the  eclec- 
 tic philosophy  of  Cousin. 
 
 But  one  thing  the  Romantic  Movement  had,  and 
 that  covered  many  sins, — it  had  enthusiasm.  It  seems 
 Summary.  Sometimes  as  if  the  men  of  the  first  half 
 of  the  nineteenth  century,  if  they  were 
 ignorant  of  much  that  we  know,  and  died  without 
 many  comforts  we  enjoy  and  deem  necessary  to  civil- 
 ized life,  yet  had  a  richer,  fuller  existence.  They  had 
 more  in  themselves;  they  felt  themselves  in  such  re- 
 lations to  the  main  currents  in  the  stream  of  things 
 that  they  easily  kindled  into  great  enthusiasm.  Let 
 us  not  despise  such  enthusiasms ;  for  they  fuse  peo- 
 ples and  races,  nations  and  Churches,  so  that  they  can 
 take  the  impress  of  the  new  molds  of  the  future. 
 Whoever  gathers  the  chief  gems  of  the  literature  of 
 Europe  will  find  sparkling  among  them,  with  a  luster 
 all  their  own,  the  masterpieces  of  the  Romantic  liter- 
 ature of  the  nineteenth  century.  A  movement  of 
 such  power  of  thought,  feeling,  and  expression,  largely 
 affected  the  life  and  problems  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
Chapter  IV. 
 
 THE  ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH. 
 
 As  THK  largest,  wealthiest,  and  most  powerful 
 Christian  Church  in  Europe,  and  the  only  Christian 
 Church  in  France,  Spain,  Italy,  Austria,  and  Bavaria, 
 which  was  even  tolerated  by  the  law,  the  Roman 
 Catholic  Church  sujQfered  most  by  the  Revolution 
 and  gained  most  by  the  Reaction.  The  vicissitudes 
 of  her  fall  and  restoration  have  a  dramatic  unity  and 
 interest  not  surpassed  by  the  history  of  any  nation 
 during  the  century,  not  excepting  France  herself.  If 
 she  had  no  great  pontiff,  Pius  VII  was  an  amiable 
 ruler  and  a  good  man.  If  there  was  no  great  charac- 
 ter at  the  Court  of  Rome,  Hercules  Consalvi  was  a 
 diplomatist  little  inferior  in  abilities  and  success  to 
 Talleyrand,  and  much  his  superior  in  character.  Few 
 great  men  adorned  her  annals,  but  De  lyamennais  and 
 I^acordaire  were  great  preachers,  Mohler  and  Bol- 
 linger must  be  mentioned  in  any  record  of  scholar- 
 ship, while  Rosminni  is  the  author  of  a  well-wrought- 
 out  system  of  philosophy.  Hence,  without  great 
 genius  or  characters,  Rome  won  back  a  large  part 
 of  her  old  dominion  by  the  sagacity  and  dexterity 
 with  which  she  sat  still  during  the  Revolution,  and 
 then  turned  all  things  to  her  profit  in  the  Reaction 
 which  was  sure  to  come.  Whether  this  was  the 
 wisest  statesmanship,  and  whether  it  did  not  bring  on 
 a  greater  disaster  and  permanent  loss,  the  second  half 
 of  the    century   was   to    disclose.     For  the   present 
 
 77 
 
78       History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 Rome  became  more  powerful  than  before  for  the  one 
 hundred  years,  since  the  death  of  Benedict  XIV. 
 
 At  the  outbreak   of  the  French  Revolution  the 
 Church  of  Rome  was  supreme  in  all  Latin  lands.    No 
 The  Church  ^i^sent,  no  Evangelical  preaching  or  socie- 
 of  Rome     tics,  wcrc  allowcd  in  France,  Spain,  Portu- 
 out°brlak  of  g^^'  Belgium,  or  Austria.    On  the  Continent 
 the  French  of   Europe  shc   had   nearly   one  hundred 
 Revolution,  jj^^jj^j^s  ^f  adherents   to  less  than  twenty 
 millions  of  Evangelical  Christians  in  Germany,  Scan- 
 dinavia, and  Holland.    Throwing  into  the  scale  Great 
 Britain  and  Ireland,  she  had  over  a  hundred  million 
 to  less  than  thirty  million  Evangelical  believers  in  all 
 Europe.     In  America,  following  the  estimate  of  popu- 
 lation given  by  Humboldt,  she  had  twenty  millions  to 
 five  of  the  Evangelical  faith.     In  the  whole  world  she 
 could  count  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  millions  to 
 probably  half  that  number  combining  all  populations 
 of  the  Evangelical,  Greek,  and  Oriental  Confessions. 
 To  put  it  differently :  On  the  Continent,  excluding 
 Russia,  five  out  of  six  of  the  population  were  Roman 
 Catholics;    in   all   Europe,  excluding   Russia,  nearly 
 four  out  of   five;    in  all  America,  four  out   of  five; 
 and  in  the  whole  of  Christendom,  two  out  of  three 
 of  the  inhabitants  were  adherents  of  the  Church  of 
 Rome. 
 
 With  this  preponderance  in  population  went,  in 
 large  measure,  that  of  arts  and  arms.  France  was  the 
 leading  military  nation  in  Europe.  With  some  slight 
 eclipse,  vshe  had  been  such  for  one  hundred  and  fifty 
 years.  She  was  to  show  herself  its  conqueror  in  the 
 next  twenty.  She  was  also  the  center  of  refinement 
 and  culture.       Paris  was  the  leader  in  philosophy  as 
 
The  Roman  Catholic  Church.  79 
 
 well  as  in  fashion.  The  three  mOvSt  famous  literary 
 men  of  the  eighteenth  century,  Montesquieu,  Voltaire, 
 and  Rousseau,  made  Paris  splendid  with  their  fame, 
 Spain  had  the  most  wealthy  and  extended  colonial 
 empire  in  the  world.  Rome  was  the  center  of  the 
 world  of  art.  The  Church  of  Rome  possessed  in 
 France,  Belgium,  Spain,  Portugal  and  Italy,  from 
 two-fifths  to  two-thirds  of  real  estate,  and  had  large 
 revenues  besides.  The  proportion  was  nearly  as 
 great  in  Germany.  There  the  emperor  was  a  Roman 
 Catholic;  there  were  no  nobles  in  Europe  who  could 
 vie  in  wealth  and  power  with  the  ecclesiastical  elec- 
 tors or  the  great  prelates  of  the  Rhine  and  Upper 
 Germany.  The  archbishops  in  France,  Spain,  and 
 Italy  outranked  all  the  nobility  but  the  princes  of  the 
 royal  house,  and  their  wealth  was  greater  than  their 
 rank.  The  princes  of  the  Church  in  Europe  and 
 America  held  the  largest  amount  of  real  estate,  and 
 enjoyed  the  largest  revenues  of  any  subjects  of  the 
 crown.  In  these  countries  the  wealth  of  the  clergy 
 as  a  class  was  greater  than  that  of  the  nobility.  Tens 
 of  thousands  of  convents  were  amply  endowed,  while 
 the  hundreds  of  thousands  of  inmates  of  both  sexes 
 formed  a  standing  army  ever  ready  for  active  service. 
 There  was,  of  course,  another  side.  For  one  hun- 
 dred years  in  France ;  for  one  hundred  and  fifty  years 
 in  Austria,  Bavaria,  and  the  ecclesiastical  The  other 
 territories    of    South    Germany    and    the    side,  the 
 
 Fruitful 
 
 Rhine;  for  two  hundred  years  in  Belgium,    Mother  of 
 Spain,  Portugal,  and  Italy,  the  Church  of  ^^^o'"*'**"^- 
 Rome  had  wrought  her  perfect  work.     She  had  con- 
 trolled the  education,  the  social   and  intellectual  life 
 of  the   people.     There    had   been    no    toleration    of 
 
8o       History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 Evangelical  worship  or  thought.  The  printed  page, 
 like  the  preacher,  was  banished.  What  was  the  re- 
 sult ?  Infidelity  ran  riot  among  all  classes  who  could 
 read,  as  never  before  in  the  history  of  Christendom. 
 In  the  whole  course  of  that  unbelieving  century,  then 
 nearing  its  end,  we  look  in  vain  for  one  work  of  con- 
 sequence or  influence  from  the  hand  of  a  single  rep- 
 resentative of  the  wealthiest  and  most  powerful  and 
 most  numerous  clergy  that  ever  owned  allegiance  to 
 the  Church  of  Rome.  The  works  of  its  most  admired 
 author,  the  canonized  St.  Alfonse  de  I^iguori,  are 
 scarcely  calculated  to  win  to  the  faith  a  single  unbe- 
 liever, to  say  nothing  of  staying  the  downfall  of 
 nations.  Nor  was  there  any  popular  movement  for 
 quickening  the  religious  life  among  the  people. 
 
 If  the  Church  of  Rome  could  have  raised  up 
 leaders  who  could  have  dealt  with  French  skepticism 
 and  Atheism  as  the  leaders  of  Evangelical  thought  in 
 England  did  with  Deism,  how  different  would  have 
 been  the  history  of  the  last  two  centuries!  If  there 
 could  have  been  a  revival  of  the  religious  life  like  that 
 under  Wesley,  how  different  would  have  been  the 
 foundation  in  Latin  Europe  on  which  should  rest  the 
 political  reforms  of  the  nineteenth  and  the  social  re- 
 forms of  the  twentieth  century  ! 
 
 It  is  stating  sober  fact,  without  the  least  trace 
 of  ill-will,  to  say  that  the  Church  of  Rome,  in  these 
 lands  where  she  had  for  generations  crushed  out  all 
 Evangelical  teaching,  and  held  unquestioned  suprem- 
 acy, betrayed  the  greatest  trust  ever  committed  to  a 
 Church.  Unbelievers  and  roues  sat  in  her  episcopal 
 and  archiepiscopal  seats.  She  chose  to  be  persecut- 
 ing, bigoted,  and  ignorant.    The  betrayal  of  that  trust 
 
The  Roman  Catholic  Church.  8i 
 
 was  the  fruitful  parent  of  revolutions,  not  only  that 
 of  1789,  but  of  the  revolutions  since,  which  have  been 
 the  chronic  curse  of  Latin  lands. 
 
 The  Church  of  Rome  has  never  believed  in  pop- 
 ular intelligence;  she  has  always  relied  upon  au- 
 thority. In  the  new  era  of  popular  government  the 
 populations  under  her  care,  whether  in  Ireland  or  Po- 
 land, in  France  or  Spain  or  Italy,  have  shown  them- 
 selves conspicuously  unfitted  for  democratic  govern- 
 ment. The  basis  in  popular  intelligence,  morality, 
 and  public  spirit  have  yet  to  be  supplied.  The  sin  of 
 those  generations  of  neglect  and  abuse  was  immense, 
 and  grievous  was  the  atonement  paid. 
 
 Born  of  this  sin  was  the  Revolution.  The  wealth 
 of  the  Church  of  Rome,  gathered  for  a  thousand 
 years,  went  down  in  it.  At  one  stroke  the  ^^^  Revoiu- 
 title  to  Church  property  was  destroyed  tionandth© 
 which  had  an  annual  income  of  200,000,000  ^^^  ' 
 livres,  worth  now  nearly  the  same  amount  in  dollars. 
 One  hundred  and  forty  thousand  monks  and  nuns 
 were  dispossessed  of  their  houses  and  of  their  in- 
 comes, though  some  provision  w^as  made  for  their 
 needs.  In  the  course  of  the  Revolution  the  old 
 ecclesiastical  organization  was  broken  up.  For  ten 
 years  worship  ceased  in  most  of  the  forty  thousand 
 communes  of  France.  The  bells  were  cast  into 
 cannon,  and  in  France,  as  later  in  Germany,  some  of 
 the  most  ancient  and  stately  edifices,  hallowed  by  cen- 
 turies of  Christian  worship,  were  used  as  barns  for 
 forage  or  as  stables  for  the  cavalry.  The  most 
 ancient,  famous,  and  wealthy  abbeys  were  utterly  de- 
 stroyed. 
 
 This  confiscation  of  Church  and  monastic  prop- 
 6 
 
82       History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 erty  passed  from  France  to  Germany  in  1830,  Austria 
 1835-9,  Portugal  1834,  Spain  1836,  Mexico  1863,  and 
 Italy  in  1871.  In  all  these  Roman  Catholic  countries, 
 within  eighty  years  from  the  action  initiated  by  the 
 French  National  Assembly,  the  property  of  the 
 Church  has  been  as  ruthlessly  confiscated,  and  the 
 monastic  orders,  with  few  exceptions,  as  thoroughly 
 rooted  out  as  in  England  under  Henry  VIII.  In 
 all  these  cases,  except  Italy,  the  pope  has  expressly 
 confirmed  these  confiscations.  How  this  was  brought 
 about  we  shall  see  when  we  consider  the  policy  of  the 
 Concordats. 
 
 The  popes  of  the  nineteenth  century,  except  I^eo 
 
 XII  and  Pius  VIII,  enjoyed  long  pontificates.     Leo 
 
 XII   reigned  five  years  and  five  months. 
 
 The  Papacy.  . 
 
 and  Pius  VIII  one  year  and  eight  months. 
 On  the  other  hand,  Gregory  XVI  reigned  fifteen 
 years;  Pius  VII,  twenty-three  years;  Pius  IX,  almost 
 thirty-two  years,  the  longest  reign  of  any  Roman 
 pontifi";  and  Leo  XIII,  at  the  end  of  the  century,  had 
 reigned  twenty-two  years.  These  six  popes  added  to 
 but  three  names  on  the  papal  lists.  There  were  three 
 who  took  the  name  of  Pius,  two  of  Leo,  and  one  of 
 Gregory. 
 
 None  of  these  popes  could  compare  in  learning  or 
 ability  with  Benedict  XIV,  or  Clement  XIV,  in  the 
 preceding  century.  Not  one  of  them  could  be  called 
 a  great  man.  The  progress  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
 Church  has  been  rather  in  spite  of,  than  through, 
 most  of  them.  Only  Pius  VII  and  Leo  XIII  proved 
 that  they  understood  the  times  in  which  they  lived. 
 The  pontificate  of  both  showed  the  work  of  states- 
 men ;  that  of  Pius  through  the  genius  and  ability  of 
 
The  Roman  Catholic  Church.  83 
 
 Consalvi,  and  that  of  lyco  through  his  own  diplomatic 
 aptitudes  and  training. 
 
 In  the  island  of  San  Giorgio  Maggiore  in  Venice, 
 about  three-quarters  of  a  mile  from  San  Marco,  stands 
 the  cruciform  church  of  San  Giorgio,  with  r^^ 
 a  striking  dome  and  fagade.  It  commands  Conclave 
 a  noble  view  of  the  city,  and  is  a  conspicu-  °*  '^°°* 
 ous  object  of  interest  from  the  piazetta  of  San  Marco. 
 Adjoining  it,  in  1800,  was  a  large  Benedictine  convent, 
 now  used  as  barracks.  The  situation  is  isolated,  yet 
 accessible,  and  with  ample  accommodations  for  the 
 cardinals,  made  it  well  adapted  for  the  Conclave  held 
 under  Austrian  protection  to  elect  a  successor  to  Pius 
 VI,  who  had  died  in  hostile  France.  Rome  was  too 
 unsettled  for  the  cardinals  to  venture  thither,  to  say 
 nothing  of  assembling  for  a  papal  election.  Here,  on 
 this  island,  the  thirty-five  cardinals  sat  in  Conclave 
 during  the  cold  and  damp  Venetian  winter  of  1799 
 and  1800.  Their  session  began  December  i,  1799, 
 and  continued  until  March  14,  1800.  Never  since  the 
 Reformation,  or  even  since  the  return  from  Avignon 
 and  the  Councils  of  Constance  and  Basel,  had  a  Con- 
 clave met  with  equal  difficulties  encompassing  the  Ro-  | 
 man  Catholic  Church.  The  whole  ecclesiastical  con-  ' 
 stitution  of  the  Church  was  uprooted  in  France,  and 
 overthrown  in  Italy  and  Germany.  The  temporal 
 power  of  the  pope  had  been  completely  overthrown, 
 and,  though  restored  by  breaking  up  the  Roman  Re- 
 public, yet  was  on  the  most  frail  conceivable  basis. 
 How  to  preserve  the  Church  in  the  midst  of  the  tri- 
 umphant Revolution  w^hich  had  overthrown  the  papacy 
 as  well  as  the  Church  of  France,  and  had  led  away 
 captive  the  last  pope  to  die  in  exile,  was  the  supreme 
 
84       History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 question.  The  Conclave  met  under  Austrian  protec- 
 tion, and  Austrian  arms  had  been  supreme  in  Italy  the 
 preceding  year;  but  Napoleon  Bonaparte  was  now 
 First  Consul  of  France,  and  it  required  little  pre- 
 science to  discern  who  again  would  say  the  decisive 
 word  concerning  the  destiny  of  the  Papal  States  and 
 all  Italy.  Precisely  three  months  after  the  dissolution 
 of  the  Conclave  came  the  battle  of  Marengo,  which 
 made  the  French  supreme  in  Italy.  Amid  these  diffi- 
 culties the  cardinals  remained  in  Conclave  for  one 
 hundred  and  four  days,  when  the  election  of  Pius  VII 
 terminated  their  labors.  This  result  was  due  to  the 
 skill  and  ability  of  the  secretary  of  the  Conclave, 
 Hercules  Consalvi. 
 
 Consalvi  was  born  at  Rome,  June  8,  1757.     In  his 
 
 sixteenth  year  he  entered  the  service  of  the  Papal 
 
 Court  as  a  page.     He  followed  the  regular 
 
 Consalvi.  .         \.  ^,  ,  ,  ,    , 
 
 promotion  of  the  papal  law  courts,  and  by 
 1797  became  auditor  of  the  Rota,  an  important  posi- 
 tion. He  was  a  man  of  high  character,  of  undaunted 
 courage,  of  penetration  and  sagacity,  and  of  great 
 address.  Face  to  face  with  Napoleon,  he  more  than 
 once  held  his  own,  and  won  that  ruler's  respect  and 
 hatred.  He  never  was  ordained  priest,  but  remained 
 a  simple  deacon,  though  cardinal  and  virtual  ruler  for 
 many  years  of  the  Papal  States.  Yet  when  he  died 
 he  had  accumulated  but  a  moderate  fortune,  which  he 
 left  mainly  to  the  poor.  Consalvi  believed  in  and  ac- 
 complished many  political  reforms  in  abolishing  the 
 abuses  which  brought  on  the  Revolution.  He  op- 
 posed, but  in  vain,  the  restoration  of  the  Jesuits;  he 
 was  on  excellent  terms  with  Evangelical  statesmen, 
 artists,  and  men  of  letters;    yet  he  gave  the  watch- 
 
The  Roman  Catholic  Church.  85 
 
 word  for  the  religious  policy  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
 Church  in  the  new  century  in  his  own  expression, 
 "  The  policy  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  is  intol- 
 erance." In  matters  of  religion  she  must  stand  by  the 
 past.  She  could  make  no  compromise  nor  in  any  way 
 recognize  or  affiliate  with  other  Christian  Churches. 
 He  had  rare  knowledge  and  taste  in  the  fine  arts,  and 
 was  their  munificent  patron,  as  the  life  of  Canova 
 testifies.  He  makes  the  impression  of  a  man  coura- 
 geous, sincere,  and  humble.  To  him  the  Roman  Cath- 
 olic Church  owes  more  than  to  any  other  man  who 
 lived  in  the  nineteenth  century.  And  the  Evangel- 
 ical believer  who  knows  his  virtues  will  stand  in  rever- 
 ence before  his  humble  tomb  in  San  Marcello  in  the 
 Corso  at  Rome. 
 
 Consalvi  gained  the  election  for  his  friend,  Cardi- 
 nal Chiaramonti,  by  winning  the  support  of  Cardinal 
 Maury,  who  controlled  the  votes  of  a  flying  squadron 
 of  six  cardinals.  Cardinal  Maury  had  been  the  most 
 bitter  and  irreconcilable  enemy  of  the  French  Revolu- 
 tion and  all  that  belonged  to  it.  Later,  as  Archbishop 
 of  Paris,  he  was  to  be  the  most  pliant  instrument  of 
 Napoleon's  tyranny  over  the  Church  of  France.  Mid- 
 way between  he  gave  the  decisive  voice  in  the  Papal 
 Conclave  at  San  Giorgio,  March  14,  1800. 
 
 Gregorio  Barnaba  Luigi  Chiaramonti,  who  took 
 the  name  of  Pius  VII,  was  born  of  a  noble  family  in 
 Cesena,  the  birthplace  of  his  predecessor, 
 August  14,  1742.     At  the  age  of  sixteen  he   ,8io!,823. 
 entered  the  order  of  the  Benedictines.     He 
 afterwards   taught   philosophy   at  Parma  and  Rome. 
 When  forty-three  years  of  age  he  was  made  Cardinal 
 and  Bishop  of  Imola.      He  had  in  a  measure  sympa- 
 
86       History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 thized  with  the  revolutions  which  accompanied  Na- 
 poleon's campaign  of  1 796.  He  made  a  favorable  im- 
 pression upon  Napoleon,  which  was  fully  reciprocated. 
 At  the  age  of  fifty-eight  he  came  to  the  pontifical 
 throne,  entering  Rome  July  3,  1800.  No  pope  of  mod- 
 ern times  has  found  the  affairs  of  the  Papal  See  and 
 of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  a  condition  so  des- 
 perate. The  Revolution  had  been  everywhere  tri- 
 umphant. The  man  who  was  to  rule  the  most  of 
 Roman  Catholic  Europe,  to  take  away  the  temporal 
 power,  and  to  hold  the  pope  himself  a  prisoner  of 
 state,  and  in  exile  for  almost  five  years,  was  the  most 
 successful  general,  the  most  unscrupulous  and  impe- 
 rious ruler  ever  seen  in  Christendom. 
 
 What  qualities  had  Pius  to  meet  these  circum- 
 stances? He  was  upright  and  devout,  he  was  meek 
 and  amiable  to  the  verge  of  weakness,  he  was  genuinely 
 liberal  in  his  tendencies,  and  sincerely  pious.  For 
 him  the  genius  and  ability  of  Napoleon  had  a  personal 
 attraction.  With  all  his  gentleness,  there  was  a  firm- 
 ness in  adherence  to  what  he  considered  duty  which 
 no  personal  interests  or  affections  could  affect.  When 
 subject  to  the  most  annoying  espionage,  when  his 
 papers  were  seized,  when  threatened  to  be  reduced  to 
 an  allowance  of  five  cents  a  day,  and  forbidden  all 
 communication  with  the  world  without,  he  never 
 flinched  nor  quailed.  What  the  threats  of  Napoleon 
 could  not  effect  was  won  by  his  blandishments.  The 
 French  Episcopal  envoys  to  Savona  in  June,  1810, 
 won  an  assent  which  no  rigors  could  have  extorted. 
 The  Concordat  of  18 13  was  a  terrible  mistake,  and,  if 
 Napoleon  had  been  a  victor  at  Leipzig  and  Waterloo, 
 might  have  been  a  fatal  one.     The  vigor  and  resolu- 
 
The  Roman  Catholic  Church.  87 
 
 tion  of  Consalvi  averted  the  danger,  as  his  tact  and 
 wisdom  made  him  the  savior  of  the  papacy  after  the 
 overthrow  of  the  Revolution.  Pius  proved  the  sin- 
 cerity of  his  liberal  convictions  by  bringing  in  more 
 reforms  in  the  administration  of  the  Papal  States  than 
 any  of  his  predecessors.  The  capital  mistake  of  his 
 administration  was  the  re-establishment  of  the  Com- 
 pany of  Jesus.  It  was  not  long  before  the  sons  of 
 Loyola  took  possession  as  masters  where  they  had 
 sought  admission  as  servants.  In  spite  of  his  knitting 
 and  crocheting,  Pius  VII  was  the  most  liberal  and 
 attractive  ruler  among  the  popes  of  the  nineteenth 
 century.  He  had  reached  the  age  of  eighty-one  when 
 he  died,  August  20,  1823. 
 
 A  very  different  man  was  Annibale  Delia  Genga, 
 who  succeeded  to  the  papacy  under  the  title  of  Leo 
 XII.     Leo  was  born  of  a  noble  family  of 
 Spoleto,  August  22,  1760.     In  the  first  dec-   .s*;^-!^"^. 
 ade    of  the    century   he   served   as   papal 
 nuncio  in  Germany  and  France.      While  exercising 
 these  functions  he  was  credited  with  a  whole  train  of 
 illegitimate  children.     Leo  was  an   opponent  of  Con- 
 salvi's;  but  when  the  latter  unfolded  his  policy,  the 
 comprehensiveness  of  his  grasp  and  the  penetration 
 of  his  vision  at  once  won  the  favor  of  the  pope  in  hio 
 behalf. 
 
 But  Leo  had  no  sympathy  with  the  liberal  views 
 of  either  Consalvi  or  his  predecessor.  In  his  first 
 enc3xlical  he  condemned  religious  toleration  and  free- 
 dom of  conscience,  and  was  especially  bitter  against 
 Bible  Societies  and  the  reading  or  exposition  of  the 
 Bible  in  the  tongue  of  the  people.  July  2,  1826,  he 
 said  expressly :  **  Every  one  separated  from   the  Ro- 
 
88       History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 man  Catholic  Chnrch,  however  blameless  he  may 
 otherwise  be,  has  already,  on  account  of  his  own  sin, 
 because  he  is  separated  from  the  unity  of  Christ,  no 
 part  in  eternal  life;  the  wrath  of  God  hangs  over 
 him."  Leo,  on  entering  his  office,  was  in  the  sixty- 
 fourth  year  and  in  broken  health.  In  his  life  he  was 
 laborious  and  simple.  He  was  firm  and  moderate  in 
 his  foreign  administration ;  but  his  restoration  of  the 
 Inquisition,  his  favor  of  the  Jesuits,  his  meddlesome- 
 ness and  severity,  made  him  the  most  unpopular  pope 
 for  a  century.  In  Rome  he  made  himself  universally 
 hated.  "  From  prince  to  beggar  no  man  was  his 
 friend."  In  moral  character  he  ranks  the  lowest 
 among  the  popes  of  the  centur>^ 
 
 Francesco  Xavier  Castiglioni,  Pius  VIII,  who  fol- 
 lowed Leo  XII,  was  born  in  Cingoli,  in  Ancona,  No- 
 vember 20,  1 761.     He  was  made  Bishop  of 
 isLT-iSao.    Montalto  in  1800,  and  cardinal  in  18 16.    At 
 the  age  of  sixty-eight,  and  infirm  in  health, 
 he  was  chosen  pope,  March  31,  1829;  he  died  the  next 
 year,  on  the  30th  of  November.     In  disposition  he  was 
 w^eak  and  gentle ;  but  he  showed  himself  narrow  and 
 intolerant.     On  his  accession  he  solemnly  cursed  free- 
 dom of  conscience,  Bible  Societies,  and  Freemasonry. 
 He   deserves  grateful  memory  for  his  endeavors  to 
 suppress  the  slave-trade  in  Brazil.     He  was  reputed 
 the  most  learned  canonist  of  the  Papal  Court. 
 
 Bartolommeo  Alberto  Capellari,  who  came  to  the 
 tiara  as  Gregory  XVI,  was  born  at  Belluno,  Septem- 
 ber 18,  1765.  He  entered  the  Camaldolensian  branch 
 of  the  Benedictine  order.  At  the  age  of  twenty-five 
 he  was  made  Professor  of  Theolog3\  In  1801  he 
 became  abbot   of  his  monastery  and  two  3'ears  later 
 
The  Roman  Catholic  Church.  89 
 
 general  of  his  order.  In  1825  he  was  created  cardinal, 
 and  elected  pope  February  2,  1831.  Though  sixty 
 years  of  age,  he  was  vigorous  in  health 
 and  energetic  in  his  rule.  He  favored  ^Isa^-fg^J.'* 
 the  Jesuits  in  every  way,  and,  like  his  pre- 
 decessor, denounced  Bible  Societies.  His  rule  of  the 
 States  of  the  Church  was  an  unbroken  era  of  oppres- 
 sion. At  his  death  more  than  two  thousand  prison- 
 ers were  found  in  the  papal  dungeons. 
 
 Gregory  was  a  thorough  reactionist  in  Church 
 and  State ;  his  is  the  most  repellent  figure  among  the 
 popes  of  the  century. 
 
 Giovanni  Maria  Mastai  Ferretti  was  born  of  noble 
 parents  at  Sinigaglia,  May  13,  1792.  In  his  youth  he 
 was  subject  to  epileptic  seizures.  Having 
 been  disappointed  in  love,  he  entered  the  .g^^^isjs. 
 priesthood  in  1819  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
 seven.  Though  no  scholar,  he  was  quite  gentle  and 
 devout.  In  1823-182 5  he  was  sent  on  a  mission  to 
 South  America.  On  his  return,  lyco  XII  made  him  a 
 member  of  the  papal  household.  Having  been  made 
 Archbishop  of  Spoleto  in  1829,  he  showed  great  wis- 
 dom in  dealing  with  the  insurgents  of  1830.  In  1832 
 he  was  made  Bishop  of  Imola,  and  in  1839  cardinal. 
 He  was  chosen  the  successor  of  Gregory  XVI,  June 
 16,  1846.  His  election  was  hailed  with  joy  by  the  en- 
 tire Liberal  party  of  Italy.  It  was  a  dream  of  the 
 time,  favored  by  such  men  as  Gioberti,  that  Italy 
 would  realize  her  unity  under  the  rule  of  a  liberal 
 and  reforming  pope.  The  days  of  Pius's  attempt  at 
 constitutional  rule  were  soon  numbered.  November 
 24,  1848,  he  escaped  from  Rome,  and  took  refuge  at 
 Gaeta.    The  Roman  Republic  was  formed.     Garibaldi 
 
90      History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 bravely  defended  the  papal  city,  but  it  fell  before  the 
 French  attack,  July  i,  1849.  Pius  did  not  return  to 
 his  capital  until  April,  1850.  For  participation  in  this 
 Revolution  hundreds  were  executed,  and  thirty  thou- 
 sand were  proscribed.  From  this  time  the  policy  of 
 Pius  IX  was  guided  by  Cardinal  Antonelli,  who  left  a 
 fortune  of  over  a  million  dollars  at  his  death  to  an 
 illegitimate  daughter.  The  misgovernment  of  the 
 Papal  States  was  such  as  to  shock  the  civilized  world. 
 
 The  Church  in  France. 
 
 The  first  and  most  famous  of  the  Concordats, 
 the  pattern  for  the  rest,  was  the  Concordat  with 
 Napoleon  in  1801.  In  that  year  Napo- 
 Concordats.  ^^^^  ^^^  First  Cousul  and  Supreme  Dic- 
 tator of  France.  The  delirium  of  the 
 Revolution  had  run  its  course.  The  masses  of  the 
 people  were  glad  to  sanction  the  usurpation  whereby 
 the  ablest  military  genius  of  modern  times  put  an 
 end  to  the  reign  of  violence,  incompetence,  and  cor- 
 ruption, and  assumed  the  control  of  the  destinies  of 
 France.  The  glories  of  the  conquest  of  Italy  were 
 remembered,  the  defeat  of  his  Egyptian  expedition 
 was  forgotten,  the  laurels  of  Marengo  now  encir- 
 cled his  brow.  He,  and  he  alone,  could  heal  the 
 wounds  inflicted  upon  the  Church  by  the  Revolu- 
 tion. On  his  part.  Napoleon  wished  an  alliance  with 
 the  Church.  In  all  his  plans  for  the  reconstruction 
 of  France,  the  civil  code,  the  system  of  education,  the 
 amnesty  of  the  emigres,  the  reconciliation  with  the 
 Roman  Catholic  Church  was  easily  first.  It  paved  his 
 way  to  a  social  recognition  by  the  rulers  of  Europe, 
 
The  Roman  Catholic  Church.  91 
 
 as  well   as  aided   to  render  stable  the  new  order  in 
 France  itself. 
 
 Thus  arose  the  Concordat.  The  chief  negotiators 
 were,  on  the  side  of  the  pope,  his  faithful  friend  and 
 guide,  to  whom  he  owed  his  election,  the  ablest  states- 
 man the  Church  of  Rome  produced  in  the  nineteenth 
 century,  Cardinal  Hercules  Consalvi;  on  the  side  of 
 Napoleon,  his  brother  Joseph  and  the  Abbe  Bernier. 
 The  treaty,  which  formed  the  foundation  of  the  new 
 political  system  of  the  nineteenth  century,  is  a  short 
 one  of  seventeen  articles.  In  it  the  Roman  Catholic 
 religion  is  recognized  as  the  religion  of  the  great  ma- 
 jority of  the  citizens  of  France,  and  the  pope  recog- 
 nizes that  the  re-establishment  of  that  Church  and  its 
 worship  is  due  to  the  act  of  the  consuls  of  the  Re- 
 public. This  worship  is  allowed,  provided  it  conforms 
 to  the  regulations  of  the  police  which  the  government 
 judges  necessary  for  the  public  tranquillity.  The  suc- 
 ceeding articles  treat  of  a  new  arrangement  of  French 
 dioceses  whereby  the  Archiepiscopal  Sees  are  reduced 
 from  eighteen  to  ten,  and  the  Episcopal  Sees  from 
 one  hundred  and  seventeen  to  fifty,  or  of  both  from 
 one  hundred  and  thirty-five  to  sixty.  These,  having 
 no  real  estate  or  endowments,  were  to  be  paid  by  the 
 State;  the  archbishops  to  receive  from  four  to  ten 
 thousand  dollars  a  year,  and  the  bishops  three  thou- 
 sand dollars,  and  the  average  for  the  cures  was  three 
 hundred  dollars.  Compared  with  the  immense  in- 
 come of  the  prelates  of  the  old  regime,  or  even  the 
 income  of  those  of  the  Church  of  England,  these 
 salaries  seem  small  indeed.  This  arrangement  re- 
 quired the  resignation,  either  voluntary  or  compul- 
 
92       History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 sory,  of  all  the  then  bishops  of  the  Church  in  France. 
 This  the  pope  undertook  to  secure.  The  new  bish- 
 ops, and  those  to  fill  all  future  vacancies,  were  to  be 
 canonically  instituted  by  the  pope.  But  in  this  article 
 there  was  no  time  set  within  which  the  pope  must  in- 
 stitute the  nominee.  This  omission  shattered  all  Na- 
 poleon's plans  for  ruling  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
 in  France.  Both  bishops  and  cures  must  swear  alle- 
 giance to  the  existing  French  government,  and  prom- 
 ise to  pray  for  it  at  each  service  of  the  mass.  The 
 churches  not  already  sold  are  delivered  to  the  proper 
 incumbents  for  the  uses  of  public  worship.  The 
 pope  on  his  part  promises  never,  himself  or  his  suc- 
 cessors, to  meddle  with  the  title  to  church  property 
 seized  and  alienated  by  the  State.  On  the  other  hand, 
 the  French  government  promises  to  pay  the  salaries 
 of  all  the  clergy  from  the  cures  of  the  parish  to  the 
 archbishops.  In  case  the  chief  executive  of  France 
 should  not  be  a  Roman  Catholic,  then  the  nomination 
 of  bishops  should  be  arranged  by  a  new  treaty.  Such 
 was  the  famous  Concordat  of  Pius  VII  with  Napoleon, 
 which  regulates  ecclesiastical  affairs  to-day  as  the 
 Code  Napoleon  does  the  law  of  its  courts.  This 
 treaty  practically  made  the  papacy  supreme  in  the 
 Church  of  Rome.  It  crushed  out  the  Episcopate,  and 
 the  influence  of  any  national  sentiment  in  the  Roman 
 Catholic  Church. 
 
 What  was  the  loss  to  Pope  Pius,  and  what  his 
 gain?  Pius  acknowledged  the  Revolution  and  its 
 results.  In  spite  of  all  after-claims  as  to  the  aid  ren- 
 dered by  the  papacy  to  the  cause  of  legitimacy — the 
 ancient  rights  and  rulers  who  had  been  overthrown 
 by    the    Revolution — the    pope    allowed    the    Revo- 
 
The  Roman  Catholic  Church.  93 
 
 lutionary    government    and    its   militar}^  usurper    to 
 restore   the    Roman     Catholic     Church    in     France, 
 
 and  to  name  each  of  its  sixty  prelates. 
 ^°'po*V'^     Fius  also  acknowledged  the    alienation  of 
 
 the  immense  property  of  the  Church  in 
 France,  and  pledged  that  neither  he  nor  his  suc- 
 cessors would  ever  interfere  with  it.  There  was 
 no  demand  for  the  persecution  or  annoyance  of 
 Christians  who  did  not  belong  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
 Church;  on  the  other  hand,  the  fullest  right  of  the 
 State  to  regulate  the  internal  aflfairs  of  the  Church  is 
 assumed. 
 
 Pius  VII  obtained  the  re-establishment  of  the 
 Roman  Catholic  worship  in  forty  thousand  com- 
 munes in  France.  He  obtained  the  com- 
 plete submission  or  overthrow  of  the  con-  "'"popg.  * 
 stitutional  clergy,  who  were  making  a  most 
 dangerous  schism  in  the  Church  of  France,  and  pav- 
 ing the  w^ay  for  national  Roman  Catholic  Churches. 
 He  received  the  payment  by  the  State  of  all  salaries 
 of  the  clergy,  small  though  they  were,  and  the  right 
 of  the  faithful  to  found  and  endow  Churches.  But, 
 more  than  all,  he  secured  the  right  and  usage,  which 
 in  the  nineteenth  cenlury  the  Roman  Curia  has 
 sought  to  raise  to  a  universal  precedent  and  custom, 
 that  all  matters  relating  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
 Church,  except  doctrine,  shall  be  arranged  between 
 the  pope  and  the  executives  of  the  different  govern- 
 ments without  reference  to  the  claims  or  desires  of 
 the  clergy  or  the  Episcopate.  All  legislative  power 
 is  in  the  hands  of  the  pope ;  even  the  initiation  of  it 
 by  the  local  Episcopate  is  most  rarely  allowed.  For 
 any  efiScient  action  upon  or  regulation  of  the  Church 
 
94      History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 life,  the  Councils,  diocesan  or  national,  are  almost 
 non-existent.  The  Church  of  Rome  used  to  consist 
 of  the  clergy.  The  clergy  no  longer  have  any  regu- 
 lar or  constitutional  voice. 
 
 The  Concordat  was  signed  after  a  most  disreputa- 
 ble attempt  on  the  part  of  Napoleon  to  change  its 
 terms  without  the  knowledge  of  the  papal 
 ^'xrticfe^!''^  negotiators,  in  July,  1800,  and  confirmed 
 the  next  month  by  the  pope.  The  resigna- 
 tion or  deposition  of  the  French  bishops,  and  the 
 other  arrangements  on  the  part  of  the  pope  for  the 
 fulfillment  of  the  Concordat,  delayed  its  proclamation 
 until  the  next  April.  Napoleon  eagerly  awaited  the 
 termination  of  the  affair.  When  at  last  the  Concordat 
 was  proclaimed  as  the  supreme  law  governing  the 
 Church  of  France,  it  was  found  to  be  accompanied  by 
 more  than  seventy  Organic  Articles  regulating  the 
 entire  internal  administration  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
 Church  in  France.  This  was  a  most  disagreeable  sur- 
 prise to  the  pope,  and  he  refused  his  assent  to  them. 
 Nevertheless  they,  with  the  Concordat,  received  the 
 assent  of  the  legislative  body,  and  were  henceforth  a 
 part  of  the  statute  law  of  the  country.  With  a  few 
 minor  alterations,  such  they  have  remained  until  this 
 day.  The  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  France  has  for 
 more  than  one  hundred  years  been  governed  by  the 
 Concordat  and  the  Organic  Articles. 
 
 Except  in  its  foreign  relations  and  in  the  institu- 
 tions of  bishops,  no  Evangelical  State  Church  has 
 ever  been  more  entirely  in  the  control  of  the  govern- 
 ment than  has  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  France 
 for  the  last  century.  This  worked  very  well  while 
 the  Church  practically  controlled  the  government,  as 
 
The  Roman  Catholic  Church.  95 
 
 under  the  Bourbons,  18 15-1830;  or  was  preponderant 
 in  influence,  as  under  Louis  Philippe,  1830- 1848;  or 
 had  things  her  own  way,  as  under  I^ouis  Napoleon, 
 1 848-1 870.  But  with  the  advent  of  the  RepubHc, 
 which  came  into  the  hands  of  Republicans  in  1877, 
 the  scene  changed.  For  the  last  twenty-five  years 
 the  government  of  France  has  been  largely  hostile  to 
 the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  and  the  control  of  the 
 Church  by  the  State  has  been  most  vigorously  as- 
 serted. The  Organic  Articles,  and  legislation  based 
 upon  them,  has  struck  hard  the  Roman  Catholic 
 Church,  especially  as  respects  the  orders  or  congrega- 
 tions and  its  work  in  education,  and  the  activity  of 
 ecclesiastics  in  the  elections. 
 
 The  arrangement  on  which  the  Roman  Catholic 
 Church  was  to  rest  in  the  nineteenth  century  was  the 
 work  of  Consalvi.  He  also  favored  Pius  VII  pj^^  ^„ 
 going  to  Paris  to  crown  Napoleon  in  1804.  and 
 This  the  pope  did,  and  also  secured  the  mar-  '^«p«'«*>"- 
 riage  of  Josephine  anew  to  Napoleon  with  Roman  Cath- 
 olic rites.  ,  In  return,  Pius  expected  that  Napoleon 
 would  restore  to  him  Romagna  and  the  Legations,  and 
 thus  round  out  the  States  of  the  Church  to  their  for- 
 mer boundaries.  This  request  the  emperor  declined, 
 postponing  its  consideration.  Deeply  disappointed 
 and  grieved,  the  pope  returned  to  Rome;  but  worse 
 was  to  follow.  Rome,  alwa3^s  hospitable,  became  a 
 head-center  where  gathered  all  who  hated  or  spoke  ill 
 of  Napoleon.  As  an  independent  sovereign  the  pope 
 could  scarcely  banish  men  for  ill  will  or  even  bitter 
 speech.  Napoleon  disliked  the  ability  and  integrity 
 of  Consalvi,  and  practically  demanded  his  dismissal 
 from  the  office  of  Papal  Secretary  of  State,  which  he 
 
96       History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 had  held  since  the  election  of  the  pope.  He  there- 
 fore resigned,  June  17,  1807.  The  emperor  demanded 
 of  the  pope  that  he  annul  the  marriage  of  his  brother 
 Jerome  with  Miss  Paterson,  of  Baltimore.  This  the 
 pope  rightly  refused  to  do,  though  he  strove  to  make 
 his  refusal  as  inoffensive  as  possible,  1805-1807.  Na- 
 poleon had  already  violated  the  neutrality  of  the  Papal 
 States  in  marching  troops  across  them  when  he  de- 
 manded that  English  ships  should  not  be  allowed  to 
 enter  the  harbor  of  Ancona,  and  the  banishment  of 
 English,  Russians,  Swedes,  and  Sardinians  from  the 
 Papal  States.  This  was  to  treat  with  hostility  powers 
 with  which  Pius  was  in  friendly  relations,  and  Pius 
 again  declined  to  comply  with  the  emperor's  wish.  In 
 the  fall  of  1808,  Pius  yielded  to  these  demands,  but 
 the  emperor,  January  10,  1809,  ordered  Rome  to  be 
 taken  possession  of  by  the  French  troops ;  the  States 
 of  the  Church  were  proclaimed  as  united  to  the  French 
 Empire,  and  the  Papal  Government  to  have  ceased, 
 June  9,  1809. 
 
 The  pope  then  launched  the  thunderbolt  which 
 had  been  long  in  preparation.  On  the  morning  of  June 
 I  ith,  the  Bull  excommunicating  Napoleon,  though  not 
 directly  by  name,  with  all  the  lengthened  and  terrible 
 cursings  of  the  Middle  Ages,  was  found  affixed  to  the 
 churches  of  St.  Peters,  St.  Maria  Maggiore,  and  the 
 Lateran.  On  July  6,  1809,  the  pope  was  arrested  in 
 his  palace  on  the  Quirinal,  and  immediately  removed 
 under  French  escort,  first  to  the  Chartreuse  at  Flor- 
 ence ;  then  he  was  taken  to  France,  arriving  at  Ales- 
 sandria July  15th,  and  at  Grenoble  at  the  end  of  the 
 month.  From  thence  he  was  transferred  to  Valence 
 and  Avignon.     The  reception  of  the  pope  was  so  en- 
 
The  Roman  Catholic  Church.  97 
 
 thusiastic  that  the  prisoner  soon  was  removed  from 
 French  soil  to  Savona,  a  few  miles  west  of  Genoa, 
 August  20,  1809,  which  became  his  residence  for  the 
 next  three  years. 
 
 At  Savona  he  was  in  charge  of  a  French  agent  of 
 the  State  police.  December  18,  18 10,  the  pope  refused 
 to  accept  the  emperor's  appointment  of  Cardinal 
 Maury  as  Archbishop  of  Paris.  January,  181 1,  the 
 expenses  of  the  papal  household  were  cut  down  to 
 five  cents  a  day  for  each  person.  At  one  time  the 
 papers  of  the  pope  were  searched,  and  even  his  brevi- 
 ary was  taken  away.  He  was  forbidden  intercourse 
 with  any  Church  or  subject  of  the  Empire,  but  soon 
 these  rigors  were  relaxed. 
 
 The  emperor  felt  that  something  must  now  be  done 
 to  fill  the  vacant  French  bishoprics,  amounting,  by  this 
 time,  June,  181 1,  to  twenty-seven.  Violence  having 
 failed  to  shake  the  pope,  milder  measures  were  ta- 
 ken. Three  French  Bishops,  and  Mannay,  Bishop 
 of  Treves,  were  sent  by  the  emperor  to  Savona  in  the 
 greatest  secrecy  to  secure  some  accommodations  with 
 the  pope.  The  officer  in  charge  of  the  pope  did  not 
 scruple  to  bribe  the  pope's  physician  to  work  on  his 
 feelings,  and  so  make  him  more  pliant.  The  envoys 
 arrived  May  9th,  and  May  iSth  had  so  worked  on  the 
 pope,  then  weak  and  ill,  that  he  assented  to  a  paper 
 he  had  dictated  to  and  corrected  with  them.  The 
 effect  of  the  paper  was  to  agree  to  institute  all  imperial 
 nominees  to  ecclesiastical  positions  in  France  and  Italy 
 who  have  been  kept  in  waiting,  and  also  to  agree  in  the 
 future  to  institute  all  persons  so  nominated  within  a 
 term  of  six  months.  Pius  signed  nothing  except  a 
 letter  commendatory  of  the  bishops;  but  that  did  not 
 7 
 
98       History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 alter  the  obligation,  which  was  not  observed  as  to 
 the  future.  On  the  other  hand,  all  was  done  under 
 duress  and  in  a  way  that  shames  the  oppressor  far 
 more  than  the  oppressed. 
 
 Twenty-six  cardinals  had  been  invited  to  attend  the 
 marriage  of  Marie  Louise  to  Napoleon.  They  attended 
 the  civil  marriage,  April  i,  1810.  Thirteen  cardinals, 
 led  by  Cardinal  Consalvi,  would  not  attend  the  relig- 
 ion sceremony  the  next  day.  They  were  all  banished 
 from  the  court,  and  strictly  confined  to  different  cities, 
 w^here  they  could  not  consult  with  each  other  for  the 
 next  three  years.  Finally  Napoleon  determined  to 
 call  a  National  Council,  and  such  a  body  of  French 
 prelates  convened  at  Notre  Dame,  June  17,  181 1.  To 
 the  surprise  and  chagrin  of  the  emperor  their  first  act, 
 in  which  they  were  led  by  the  uncle  of  Napoleon, 
 Cardinal  Fesch,  was  to  take  an  oath  of  obedience  to 
 the  pope.  The  emperor  endeavored  to  intimidate  the 
 Council  and  to  carry  his  end,  but  in  vain.  After  the 
 arrest  and  imprisonment  of  three  prelates,  leaders  of 
 the  opposition,  had  failed  to  secure  a  majority  for  his 
 measures,  which  were  the  same  as  those  dictated  by 
 Pius  VII  and  afterwards  rejected  by  him.  Napoleon 
 felt  compelled  to  dissolve  the  Council,  July  12,  181 1. 
 
 Napoleon  being  about  to  set  out  on  his  Russian 
 campaign,  ordered  the  pope  to  be  brought  from  Savona 
 to  Fontainebleau,  where  he  arrived  June  20,  18 12.  He 
 was  very  hospitably  entertained  in  the  old  royal 
 chateau  at  that  place,  and  did  not  see  his  imperial 
 oppressor  until  after  the  disastrous  and  terrible  end 
 of  that  campaign,  begun  with  such  arrogance  and 
 splendor. 
 
The  Roman  Catholic  Church.  99 
 
 In  January,  after  Napoleon's  return  to  Paris,  he 
 began  to  make  approaches  to  the  pope.     He  made  his 
 first  visit  January  19th,  and  was  assiduous 
 in  his  attentions.    After  several  interviews,    concordat 
 Pius  was  persuaded  to  sign  the  Concordat  <**  Fontaine- 
 of  Fontainebleau,  which  conceded  the  points 
 in  regard  to  clerical  institutions,  etc.,  for  which  he  had 
 been  contending  for  the  last  five  years.     When  Pius 
 was  again  with  his  cardinals,  especially  Consalvi  and 
 Pacca,  he  recalled  his   assent,  considering,  he  said, 
 what  he  had  signed  but  as  a  preliminary  to  a  Concor- 
 dat.   It  would  be  strange  to  call  a  document  which  con- 
 ceded all  the  points  at  issue  a  preliminary  agreement. 
 
 The  principal  article  of  this  Concordat  was  the 
 fourth,  which  provided  that,  within  six  months  of 
 the  usual  notifications  and  nominations  to  the  arch- 
 bishoprics and  bishoprics  of  France  and  Italy,  the 
 pope  shall  give  canonical  institution  according  to  the 
 Concordat,  and  in  virtue  of  the  present  indult.  The 
 first  notification  shall  be  given  by  the  metropolitan. 
 If  six  months  expire  without  the  pope  according  the 
 institution,  the  metropolitan  or,  in  his  default,  whoever 
 acts  as  metropolitan,  the  senior  bishop  of  the  pro- 
 vince, shall  proceed  to  the  institution  of  the  bishop 
 named,  so  that  no  See  may  be  vacant  more  than  one 
 year.  The  cardinals  were  now  allowed  to  see  him. 
 Cardinals  Consalvi  and  Pacca,  his  former  Secretaries 
 of  State,  declared  to  him  the  fatal  consequences  of  the 
 Concordat  now  just  signed.  March  24,  1813,  Pius  VII 
 took  back  all  that  had  been  done,  and  declared  the 
 second  Concordat  null  and  void.  January  22,  18 14, 
 the  pope  left  Fontainebleau,  but  did  not  enter  Rome 
 until  May  24,  1814. 
 
loo     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 However,  the  victory  over  a  feeble  old  man  could 
 profit  the  emperor  only  if  he  could  conquer  the  allied 
 forces  of  his  enemies.  Leipzig  gave  terrible  proof 
 that  he  could  not,  and  after  that  the  Concordat  of  1 8 13 
 lost  all  of  its  significance  except  as  showing  how  falli- 
 ble a  pope,  and  a  good  one,  can  be.  The  pope  issued 
 his  protest  against  the  Concordat  concluded  in  January 
 in  the  Allocution  of  the  24th  of  March.  Napoleon 
 kept  the  pope  at  Fontainebleau  until  January  23,  18 14, 
 when  he  was  ordered  to  set  out  for  Rome.  A  few 
 weeks  after,  a  new  government  was  formed,  and  Louis 
 XVIII  came  to  the  throne  of  France.  Consalvi  was 
 the  papal  nuncio  at  Paris.  The  24th  of  May,  Pius 
 made  his  solemn  entry  into  Rome,  which  he  had 
 quitted  nearly  five  years  before. 
 
 Consalvi  was  away  at  Paris.  Cardinal  Pacca  and 
 the  conservatives  surrounded  the  pope.     At  this  time 
 
 ^j^g  Pacca  obtained  from  the  pope  the  refound- 
 Refounding  ing  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  by  a  Bull,  dated 
 je8uit?,lnd   August  7,  1814.     Contrary  to  the  desire  of 
 
 the  those  who  had  best  served  the  Holy  See, 
 "^^o^the^"  the  Jesuits  came  back,  and  they  came  back 
 states  of  the  to  rulc.  Cousalvi  was  scarcely  second  to 
 Church.  Talleyrand  in  his  success  at  the  Congress 
 of  Vienna.  The  States  of  the  Church  in  all  their 
 former  extent,  and  with  unlimited  authority,  were 
 given  back  to  the  pope.  Then  Consalvi  came  back  to 
 govern  the  territory  thus  regained.  He  served  as 
 Papal  Secretary  of  State  from  his  return  in  1815  to 
 the  death  of  Pius  VII  in  1823.  Though  enjoying  un- 
 expected favor  from  Leo  XII,  Consalvi  did  not  long 
 survive  his  old  master  and  friend,  but  died  January 
 22,  1824.  His  expenditures,  largely  for  artistic  and 
 architectural  purposes,  had  necessitated  heavy  taxes, 
 
The  Roman  Catholic  Church.         ioi 
 
 and  when  he  died  he  had  lost  the  popularity  he  had 
 once  enjoyed. 
 
 With  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons  in  France 
 came  an  immense  increase  in  the  power  of  the  pope 
 of  Rome.  This  came,  not  only  from  the  Roman  Cath- 
 reaction  from  the  Revolution  in  politics,    o"c  church 
 
 ...  .  \      r  '"  France 
 
 but  also  from  literature ;  and  not  only  from      after  the 
 the  impulse  of  the  Romantic  Movement,    Restoration. 
 but  as  the  eloquent  plea  for  the  papal  power  as  the 
 only  stable  support  of   modern   society  against   the 
 Revolution. 
 
 In  1796,  Chateaubriand  published  in  London  his 
 first  work,  "Essay  upon  Revolutions;"  in  the  same 
 year  Joseph  de  Maistre  published  in  Neufchatel  his 
 "Reflections  upon  France;"  and  Louis  Gabriel  Bo- 
 nald  published  at  Constance  his  "Theory  of  Political 
 and  Religious  Power  in  the  State."  These  works 
 were  followed  by  others,  notably  by  Chateaubriand's 
 "Genius  of  Christianity,"  which  appeared  in  1802. 
 These  authors  taught  that  the  poison  of  the  Revolu- 
 tion could  find  its  antidote  only  in  religion.  With 
 them  religion  was  Christianity,  Christianity  was 
 Roman  Catholicism,  and  Roman  Catholicism  was  the 
 papacy.  In  the  heavy  sea  of  change  they  looked  for 
 some  sure  principle  and  institution  of  permanency, 
 and  thought  they  found  it  in  the  papacy.  So  De 
 Maistre  said,  "  Thus,  then,  the  more  pope,  the  more 
 sovereignty;  the  more  sovereignty,  the  more  unity; 
 the  more  unity,  the  more  authority ;  the  more  author- 
 ity, the  more  faith."  The  religious  program  of  the 
 Reaction  did  not  find  a  better  expression.  Frederick 
 William  and  Nicholas  demurred  in  part  to  the  first 
 sentence,  but  agreed  with  all  the  rest. 
 
 In  1 8 17,  Lamennais  woke  Europe  as  with  a  trum- 
 
I02     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 pet-blast  in  his  essay  upon  "  Indifiference."  In  this 
 work  he  denounced  toleration  as  indifference,  and  the 
 right  of  private  judgment,  and  called  for  a  return  to 
 the  Roman  Catholic  faith.  Seldom  has  there  been 
 given  to  man  more  burning  eloquence.  Leo  XII 
 offered  him  a  cardinal's  hat,  which  he  declined. 
 
 As  the  absolutist  principles  of  the  Bourbons  de- 
 veloped, lyamennais,  with  Lacordaire  and  Montalem- 
 bert,  felt  that  religion,  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
 and  the  papacy  itself,  must  come  into  some  accord 
 with  the  progress  of  modern  society.  In  September 
 after  the  Revolution  of  1830,  they  began  the  publica- 
 tion of  L' Aveiiir,  a  journal  which  advocated  the 
 spiritual  sovereignty  of  the  pope  and  the  political 
 sovereignty  of  the  people.  Its  mottoes  were,  "  God 
 and  Liberty,"  "The  Pope  and  the  People."  They 
 advocated  in  it,  with  an  enlarged  electorate,  freedom 
 of  conscience,  of  instruction,  of  public  meetings, 
 and  of  the  press.  This  strange  alliance  was  at  once 
 discountenanced  at  Rome.  In  accordance  with  the 
 papal  command,  L Avenir  was  discontinued  in  1831. 
 The  same  year  Lamennais,  Lacordaire,  and  Monta- 
 lembert  went  to  Rome,  but  were  not  received  by  the 
 pope. 
 
 In  1834,  Lamennais  published  "Words  of  a  Be- 
 liever," and  from  that  time  drifted  farther  and  farther 
 from  the  Church  of  Rome.  He  became  an  ardent 
 Republican,  and  advocated,  without  qualification,  the 
 sovereignty  of  the  people.  In  the  Assembly  of  1848 
 he  sat  with  the  Radical  RepubUcans.  Dying  in  1854, 
 he  was  buried,  as  he  desired,  without  religious  cere- 
 monies. Lacordaire  and  Count  Montalembert,  his 
 colleagues,  were  second  only  to  him  in  eloquence. 
 
The  Roman  Catholic  Church.  103 
 
 They  submitted  to  the  pope  outwardly,  but  in 
 inward  convictions  and  political  actions  sought  still 
 the  reconciliation  of  religion  with  modern  progress. 
 They  had  the  persistent  and  virulent  hostility  of  Louis 
 Veuillot,  the  editor  of  the  Ultramontane  Univers. 
 This  contest  divided  the  Roman  Catholics  of  France. 
 The  Univers  prevailed  under  the  Second  Empire, 
 and  its  victory  brought  upon  the  Roman  Catholic 
 Church  in  France  the  full  enmity  of  the  Republic 
 from  1879  to  the  end  of  the  century.  Montalem- 
 bert  and  Lacordaire,  with  Dupanloup  and  the  Jesuit 
 Ravignan,  gave  character  and  splendor  to  the  Church 
 of  France  at  the  middle  of  the  century.  Through 
 their  efiforts  the  Falloux  law  concerning  education  was 
 passed  in  1850.  It  freed  from  State  supervision  the 
 Episcopal  seminaries,  and  gave  liberty  to  the  relig- 
 ious orders,  to  found  schools  and  colleges  carried  on 
 without  the  co-operation  of  the  State.  In  1872  the 
 Roman  Catholics  obtained  the  right  to  found  univer- 
 sities which  could  confer  degrees  equally  with  the 
 University  of  France.  This  mixed  State  and  relig- 
 ious education  prevailed  through  the  rest  of  the  cen- 
 tury. 
 
 The  Revolution  destroyed  the  organization  ot  the 
 Roman  Catholic  Church  in  Germany.  The  old  eccle- 
 siastical electorates  of  the  Rhine  and  the 
 
 Roman 
 
 prince  bishops    of  South   Germany   went     cathoiic 
 down  in  the  flood.     In  18 14  there  were  liv-    church  m 
 
 Germany. 
 
 ing  but  five  German  bishops,  and  four  of 
 these  were  over  seventy  years  of  age.    In  the  reorgan- 
 ization of  the  German  Episcopate  there  was  no  longer 
 a   head.     Mainz,  where  had  been  the  primacy  for  a 
 thousand  years  since  the  days  of  St.  Boniface,  became 
 
I04     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 a  simple  bishopric.  The  title  without  the  primacy- 
 was  transferred  from  Mainz  to  Regensburg,  and  then 
 to  Munich.  In  Prussia  there  were  recognized  the 
 two  archbishoprics  of  Cologne  and  Posen.  The  re- 
 sult of  all  this  was  the  complete  subordination  of  the 
 German  Episcopate  to  the  Church  of  Rome.  In  the- 
 ology the  same  result  came  through  the  papal  con- 
 demnation of  Hermes  and  Gunther.  The  ablest 
 German  theologians,  Mohler,  Bollinger,  and  Hefele 
 were  conected  with  Munich.  John  Adam  Mohler 
 (i 796-1838)  was  an  admirable  man,  a  learned  pro- 
 fessor, and  an  able  theologian.  His  "  Symbolik"  pre- 
 sented an  idealized  Roman  Catholicism  as  against  a 
 caricatured  Evangelical  Church.  Yet  it  was  the 
 ablest  work  of  a  Roman  Catholic  theologian  of  the 
 century.  The  greatest  influence  of  Bollinger  and 
 Hefele  fall  in  the  succeeding  period. 
 
 Roman  Catholic  affairs  in  Germany  took  a  signifi- 
 cant turn,  and  the  papacy  won  a  significant  victory 
 through  the  tergiversations  and  folly  of  the  Prussian 
 administration.  The  Congress  of  Vienna  gave  the 
 old  Westphalian  bishoprics  to  Prussia.  The  Prussian 
 government  had  come  to  a  satisfactory  settlement  of 
 its  relations  with  the  Roman  Catholic  populations  of 
 Posen  and  Silesia,  and  was  anxious  to  conciliate  and 
 make  a  like  arrangement  with  Westphalia. 
 
 Niebuhr  was  the  Prussian  ambassador  at  Rome. 
 He  was  anxious  that  the  Prussian  regulations  should 
 have  the  sanction  of  the  Papal  See,  and  so  made  the 
 control  of  the  Episcopate  and  Roman  Catholic  Church 
 in  the  Circumscriptions  Bull  of  18 18  rest  almost  en- 
 tirely in  the  pope.  The  Prussian  government  wished 
 to  settle  the  question  of  the  education  of  the  children 
 
The  Roman  Catholic  Church  105 
 
 of  mixed  marriages  of  Roman  Catholics  and  Evan- 
 gelicals as  in  Silesia,  where  the  sons  were  educated  in 
 the  faith  of  the  fathers,  and  the  daughters  in  that  of 
 their  mothers.  This  was  satisfactory  to  Count  Von 
 Spiegel,  Archbishop  of  Cologne,  1 825-1 835.  When 
 later  Christian,  later  Baron,  Von  Bunsen  succeeded 
 Niebuhr  in  1828,  negotiations  were  opened  with  Pius 
 VIII  for  a  satisfactory  settlement.  In  a  Brief  of 
 March  25,  1830,  Pius  declared  :  i.  A  mixed  marriage 
 to  be  a  sin,  and  that  Catholic  women  should  be 
 warned  against  it.  2.  Yet  Catholics  contracting  such 
 marriages  shall  not  be  punished  with  ecclesiastical 
 censures.  3.  Priests  shall  withhold  from  such  mar- 
 riages every  sign  of  favor,  and,  when  present,  render 
 only  passive  assistance.  4.  From  this  date  mixed 
 marriages  not  solemnized  by  the  priest  shall  be  con- 
 sidered legitimate,  and  those  contracted  before  this 
 date  shall  be  made  legitimate  by  the  bishop.  It  will 
 be  noticed  that  in  all  this  nothing  is  said  about  the 
 pivotal  question,  What  shall  be  the  education  and  re- 
 ligion of  the  children  ? 
 
 The  Prussian  government  did  not  consider  these 
 concessions — which,  in  truth,  were  small  indeed — as 
 sufficient,  and  in  February,  1831,  sent  back  the  Brief 
 for  a  more  favorable  adjustment.  In  the  meantime 
 Gregory  XIV  had  assumed  the  tiara.  As  cardi- 
 nal he  had  favored  the  Brief,  but  now  he  was  not 
 willing  to  allow  even  these  concessions.  The  utmost 
 efforts  of  Bunsen  only  succeeded  in  securing  its  reis- 
 sue without  change  in  March,  1834.  The  next  month 
 the  Prussian  government  sought  to  obtain  its  ends  by 
 a  convention  or  agreement  between  the  Archbishops 
 of  Cologne  and  Treves  and  the  Bishops  of  Pader- 
 
io6     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 bann  and  Miinster.  This  was  signed  June  19,  1834. 
 The  bishops  understood  that  it  was  to  be  at  once 
 communicated  to  the  pope,  but  the  Prussian  govern- 
 ment sought  to  conceal  it  from  the  Papal  Court.  The 
 Archbishop  of  Treves,  dying,  confessed  it,  and  in- 
 formed the  Curia.  They  charged  it  upon  Bunsen, 
 the  Prussian  ambassador.  He  had  not  been  informed 
 of  the  step,  and  denied  it.  The  evasions  of  the 
 Prussian  government  were  no  credit  to  it,  nor  did 
 they  profit  by  it,  as  the  Curia  was  well  informed. 
 Count  Spiegel  died  in  August,  1835,  and  in  December, 
 1835,  the  Prussian  government,  relying  on  assurances 
 which  the  candidate  never  fulfilled,  with  incredible 
 blindness  and  folly,  presented  Clement  Auguste  Von 
 Droste-Vischering  for  the  Archbishopric  of  Cologne. 
 When  Bunsen  announced  the  appoinmtent  at  Rome, 
 Cardinal  Lambruschini,  who  knew  the  candidate's 
 character  and  record,  said,  "  What !  is  your  govern- 
 ment mad?" 
 
 He  was  now  seventy-two  years  old  and  had  already 
 showed  himself  a  narrow-minded  fanatic,  having  re- 
 signed the  See  of  Miinster  in  1820  rather  than  con- 
 form to  arrangements  sanctioned  by  the  Court  of 
 Rome.  Once  installed  in  the  place,  he  repudiated 
 the  conventions  of  his  predecessor,  and  soon  was 
 in  open  and  violent  conflict  with  the  Prussian  govern- 
 ment. The  archbishop  was  arrested  and  confined 
 without  trial,  November  25,  1837.  The  Papal  Allocu- 
 tion condemning  the  act  followed,  December  loth. 
 The  next  month  appeared  Gorres'  "Athanasius," 
 which  created  a  great  excitement.  Instead  of  trying 
 the  archbishop  in  open  court  for  his  broken  word,  the 
 government  had  so  mismanaged  the  case  from  the 
 
The  Roman  Catholic  Church.  107 
 
 start  that  it  appeared  like  religious  persecution,  and 
 the  public  opinion  was  decidedly  against  it.  It  was 
 charged  with  too  great  appearance  of  truth,  that  it 
 had  used  both  fraud  and  violence  to  secure  illegiti- 
 mate ends;  that  is,  ends  against  the  prelate's  con- 
 science. 
 
 Bunsen  was  recalled  in  disfavor  from  Rome  in 
 April,  1838.  In  June,  1840,  while  the  conflict  was 
 raging,  Frederick  William  III  died,  and  was  suc- 
 ceeded by  the  cultivated  but  visionary  Frederick 
 William  IV.  The  new  king  arranged  a  settlement  as 
 little  creditable  to  his  political  wisdom  as  to  his  Evan- 
 gelical principles.  The  king  granted  more  than  the 
 Curia  had  dared  to  ask:  i.  The  withdrawal  of  the 
 demand  of  the  administration  regarding  mixed  mar- 
 riages ;  2.  Papal  briefs,  etc.,  to  be  published  without 
 inspection  or  consent  of  the  government ;  3.  A  sepa- 
 rate cabinet  division  and  minister  for  the  Roman 
 Catholics.  Thus  all  Prussian  Roman  Catholics  were 
 delivered,  without  the  slightest  safeguard,  to  the  See 
 of  Rome.  On  the  other  hand,  Droste-Vischering 
 must  hand  over  the  administration  of  his  diocese  to 
 the  Bishop  of  Speyer,  and  go  into  exile,  where  he 
 died  on  a  journey  to  Rome  in  1845.  No  wonder  that 
 Von  Ketteler,  the  Bishop  of  Mainz,  said,  **  Never  in 
 our  century  has  a  prince  rendered  greater  service  to 
 the  Roman  Catholic  Church  than  this  Protestant 
 King."  From  this  folly  came,  not  only  the  Kultur- 
 kampf,  but  the  predominance  of  the  Center  party  in 
 Prussian  and  Imperial  politics. 
 
 In  Ireland  the  great  advance  made  by  the  Roman 
 Catholic  Church  was  the  carrying  through  the  British 
 Parliament  of  the  Act  of  Catholic    Emancipation  of 
 
io8     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 1829.    This  repealed  the  penal  legislation  against  Ro- 
 man Catholics  in  Ireland,  which  had  been  in  force 
 since  1689:  legislation  which  was  as  im- 
 
 Qreat Britain.         ,.   .  .  .  ^  ^  ,^     ,. 
 
 politic  as  It  was  unjust.  In  1845,  Parlia- 
 ment voted  $150,000  for  the  enlargement  of  the  build- 
 ings of  Maynooth  College  for  the  education  of  Roman 
 Catholic  priests,  and  an  annual  subsidy  of  $130,000. 
 This  was  paid  until  1871,  when  it  was  commuted  by 
 the  payment  of  over  $1,500,000. 
 
 The  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  England  entered 
 upon  a  new  era  when  Nicholas  Wiseman  was  made 
 bishop  in  1840,  and  Pro-Vicar  Apostolic  of  London  in 
 1847.  It  then  begun  to  be  in  a  position  to  profit  by  the 
 secession  from  the  Church  of  England  accompanying 
 the  Oxford  Movement  which  marked  the  middle  of 
 the  century.  The  famine  of  1 845-1 847  cost  300,000 
 lives  and  an  emigration  of  four  times  that  number. 
 Ireland  has  never  regained  her  former  population. 
 
 The  political  changes  of  the  century,  in  spite  of 
 the  strong  Roman  Catholic  character  of  the  popula- 
 tion, brought  about  the  suppression  of  the 
 iCtugri^     monasteries  and  confiscation  of   monastic 
 property. 
 Two  marked  features  of  the  history  of  the  Roman 
 Catholic  Church  of  this  period  were  the  principles 
 The  General    embodied    in    the    Concordats    and    the 
 R?l'n°c!L'th:- '^^ce^d^'i^y    of    the    revived    Order    of 
 
 lie  Cliurch.       JeSUS. 
 
 The  policy  of  the  Concordats  initiated  by  Consalvi 
 was   carried  out  with  greater  thoroughness  and  ad- 
 vancing claims  by  his  successors  after  the 
 concol-dats      Restoration.      Such   treaties   were   signed 
 with    Bavaria,   Sicily,  Spain,  Austria,   the 
 Rhine  countries  of  Germany,  Sardinia,  Tuscany,  Bel- 
 
The  Roman  Catholic  Church.  109 
 
 gium,  Portugal,  and  Russia;  and,  in  America,  with 
 Costa  Rica,  Guatemala,  Nicaragua,  San  Salvador,  Ec- 
 uador, and  Venezuela.  Bulls  of  Circumscription  to 
 the  same  intent  were  arranged  with  Prussia,  Hanover, 
 and  Holland. 
 
 The  aim  of  the  Concordats  was  the  exaltation  of 
 the  papal  power  as  against  the  Episcopate  and  clergy, 
 and  to  secure  the  uncontested  supremacy  of  the 
 Church  of  Rome  in  all  matters  concerning  the  family 
 and  the  educational  and  religious  life  of  the  people. 
 To  be  more  specific,  it  sought  the  freedom  of  the 
 clergy  from  all  jurisdiction  of  the  civil  law,  and, 
 whenever  possible,  the  punishment  of  heretics  by  the 
 civil  power;  that  all  marriages  and  divorces  should  be 
 invalid  when  not  celebrated  or  granted  by  the  Roman 
 Catholic  Church ;  the  full  dependence  of  the  schools 
 upon  the  clergy;  the  Episcopal  censorship  of  the 
 press  and  the  prohibition  of  the  reading  and  sale  of 
 forbidden  books;  and  the  unrestricted  increase  of 
 Church  property. 
 
 This  aim  was  not  realized,  but  was  sometimes 
 closely  approximated.  The  Concordat  with  Spain  in 
 1 85 1  provided  that  the  Roman  Catholic  religion 
 should  be  recognized  to  the  exclusion  of  every  other 
 religious  worship;  that  public  instruction  should  be 
 under  the  control  of  the  bishops;  that  the  govern- 
 ment should  assist  the  bishops  in  maintaining  purity 
 of  doctrine  and  morals  and  in  the  censorship  of 
 books ;  under  this  latter  head  would  come  copies  of 
 the  Scriptures  in  the  mother  tongue.  On  the  other 
 hand,  holders  of  Church  property  were  not  to  be  dis- 
 turbed. Once  and  again,  in  Bavaria,  the  pope  sought 
 to  place  the  Concordats  above  the  Constitution.  In 
 1868    the   pope    ventured   to   declare   the    regularly- 
 
no     History  of  the  Christian  Church 
 
 enacted  laws  of  the  Austrian  Empire  invalid  because 
 of  the  contradiction  of  some  of  the  provisions  of  the 
 Concordat.  Those  days  are  past.  The  governments 
 now  reserve  the  right  to  amend  the  Concordat  as  did 
 Austria  in  1870,  and  have  a  free  hand  in  all  domestic 
 affairs,  as  the  course  of  the  French  Republic  has 
 proved. 
 
 With   the   Restoration   came  the  revival  of  the 
 
 Jesuits;   the  overthrow  of  the  chief  reform  of  the 
 
 Roman  Catholic  Church  in  the  eighteenth 
 
 The  Jesuits. 
 
 century ;  the  chief  reform,  indeed,  since  the 
 Council  of  Trent.  The  papacy  recalled  the  Jesuits, 
 but  only,  like  the  author  of  *'  Frankenstein,"  to  find 
 in  the  revived  culprit  a  master.  While  Cardinal  Con- 
 salvi  lived,  their  influence  did  not  prevail  at  Rome. 
 But  from  1824,  with  the  exception  of  the  opening 
 years  of  Pius  IX  and  Leo  XIII,  who  was  their  pupil, 
 their  influence  has  ruled  the  policy  of  the  Vatican 
 through  the  century.  It  has  controlled  the  actions 
 of  the  popes  and  prevailed  in  the  councils  of  the 
 Church.  They  have  dominated  the  theological  field. 
 Their  old  opponents,  the  Dominicans,  no  longer  put 
 in  an  appearance.  The  leaders  of  the  opposition  to 
 their  policy,  Lamennais,  Gioberti,  Rosminni,  Hermes, 
 and  Gunther,  have  been  condemned.  They  have 
 been  the  chief  educators  of  the  clergy  in  the  coun- 
 tries from  which  they  have  not  been  driven  out. 
 There  is  no  more  significant  fact  in  the  history  of  the 
 Roman  Catholic  Church  in  the  nineteenth  century 
 than  that  the  greatest  ecclesiastical  organization  in  the 
 world,  in  a  period  of  the  greatest  enlightenment  and 
 progress,  has  been  ruled  by  an  irresponsible  secret 
 society.     At  the  end  of  this  period  the  political  and 
 
The  Roman  Catholic  Church.  m 
 
 theological  policy  of  the  Jesuits  seemed  everywhere 
 triumphant  in  the  Church  of  Rome. 
 
 By  1850  the  Church  of  Rome  had  regained  its  lost 
 position  and  prestige,  in  good  part,  from  the  over- 
 throw of  the  Revolution.    It  had  identified 
 
 ,-     .  i     n  '  t       •>  1-  r  Summary. 
 
 Itself  almost  wholly  with  the  policy  of  po- 
 litical reaction.  It  had  not  the  slightest  sympathy 
 with  democracy  in  any  form.  It  looked,  and  looked 
 only,  to  the  past  for  the  secret  of  its  power.  It 
 seemed  to  be  the  great  obstacle  to  be  overthrown 
 in  the  battle  of  political  freedom  and  religious  prog- 
 ress in  Christendom.  Granted  that  it  had  rallied  the 
 Conservative  forces  against  the  Revolution,  it  had 
 rallied  them  to  a  position  from  whence  there  was 
 neither  defense  nor  exit.  If  human  progress  and  the 
 march  of  the  human  mind  could  not  be  stayed — and 
 they  could  not  be — then  the  papacy  and  the  Roman 
 Catholic  Church  must  suffer  loss  and  suffer  change. 
 How  loss  and  change  came,  and  with  what  result, 
 will  be  the  task  of  the  next  half-century  to  reveal. 
 
Chapter  V. 
 
 EVANGELICAL  CHRISTENDOM. 
 
 Thk  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  this  period  bent 
 all  its  eflforts  at  re-establishment,  so  far  as  possible,  on 
 
 the  basis  of  things  before  the  Revolution. 
 'ta^Eu'lop""'  ^^^  Evangelical  Churches  led  Christendom 
 
 in  theological  science;  in  missionary  endeav- 
 ors ;  in  founding  Christian  nations  in  America,  Austra- 
 lia, and  Africa ;  in  their  organized  efforts  for  popular  re- 
 ligious education,  a  religious  press,  and  their  humane 
 and  philanthropic  enterprises,  which  have  changed 
 the  face  of  the  moral  and  religious  world  in  the  nine- 
 teenth century.  The  vigor  and  aggressiveness  of  the 
 religious  life  of  Evangelical  Christendom  was  amaz- 
 ing. Its  efforts  and  results  are  as  wonderful  and  as 
 transforming  as  anything  in  the  political  or  scientific 
 world.  The  new  life  of  Evangelical  Christendom 
 found  new  agencies  and  new  methods,  and  in  their  use 
 took  the  lead  in  the  work  of  the  Church  of  Christ  in 
 this  period,  whether  in  evangelizing  the  people  of 
 Christian  nations  or  in  carrying  the  gospel  to  heathen 
 lands.  In  these  ^'-ears  the  banner  of  Christian  growth 
 and  progress  passed  definitely  over  to  Evangelical 
 Christendom.  There  were  perversions  and  excres- 
 cences. There  was  a  multiplication  of  sects  and  re- 
 duction to  a  minimum  of  Christian  comprehension  and 
 charity.  There  were  wild  social  and  religious  experi- 
 ments, like  the  Shakers,  the  Oneida  Community,  and 
 Brook  Farm.     There  were  impostures  and  apostasies, 
 
 112 
 
Evangelical  Christendom.  113 
 
 like  Mormonism ;  and  delusions,  like  the  Adventism 
 of  William  Miller's.  These  were  the  results  of  an  ex- 
 uberant life  in  a  social  order  where  it  seemed  as  if  all 
 could  be  made  new.  But  Kvangelical  Christendom 
 looked  to  the  future  rather  than  to  the  past,  and  there 
 was  the  secret  of  its  success;  looked  often  to  the 
 future  with  utter  disregard  of  the  past,  and  there  was 
 the  secret  of  most  of  the  failures  which  marred  the 
 record  of  these  years,  aside  from  the  human  infirmi- 
 ties, ambitions,  and  perversities,  which,  in  every  age 
 and  in  every  Church,  check  the  realization  of  the 
 kingdom  of  God  among  men. 
 
 The  great  event  in  the  German  Church  history  was 
 the  union  in  Prussia  of  the  Reformed  and  lyUtheran 
 Churches  in  the  United  Evangelical  Church. 
 The  intolerant  and  absolutist  policy  of  the  Evangelical 
 government,  the  jealousy  of  Prussia  in  other    church  in 
 German  States,  and  the  zeal  of  the  old  con- 
 fessional lyUtherans,  marred  this  union.    With  all  these 
 drawbacks,  added  to  the  difficulties  and  burdens  of  a 
 State  Church,  nevertheless  it  has  endured  for  nearly 
 one  hundred  years,  and  has  achieved  such  success  that 
 no  one  in  Prussia  would  think  of  undoing  its  work. 
 
 The  gain  has  been  great  in  all  Germany  in  the  birth 
 of  a  new  theological  science  in  which  the  old  differ- 
 ences, if  mentioned,  occupy  only  a  subordinate  place, 
 and  in  an  enlarged  local  administration  and  govern- 
 ment of  the  Church.  The  founding  of  the  Gustavus 
 Adolphus  Union  was  an  advanced  step  for  the  aggress- 
 ive Evangelical  faith.  This  society  looks  after  the 
 interests  of  Evangelical  Christians  in  Roman  or  Greek 
 Catholic  countries,  and  aids  and  plants  Evangelical 
 Churches  where  there  is  occasion  or  opportunity. 
 8 
 
114     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 But  great  as  was  the  gain  in  union  and  aggress- 
 iveness, by  the  movement  organized  on  the  third  cen- 
 tennial of  the  posting  of  Luther's  "Theses,"  the  task 
 of  the  EvangeUcal  Church  in  Germany  was  different 
 and  higher  than  any  remodehng  of  her  constitution. 
 
 Germany  had  been  desolated  by  Rationalism,  her 
 leading  thinkers  and  educated  men  were  under  the  spell 
 of  a  pantheistic  philosophy,  and  the  Revolution,  and 
 later  the  Reaction,  had  wrought  their  will  in  Germany 
 and  Holland,  while  Norway,  Sweden,  and  Denmark 
 were  comparatively  untouched. 
 
 In  the  midst  of  these  elemental  forces,  in  Titanic 
 conflict  with  the  influence  of  Romanticism  pervading 
 her  literature,  the  task  of  the  German  Evangelical 
 Christians  was  to  win  their  native  land  back  to  the 
 Christian  faith.  In  more  than  one  respect  the  task 
 was  harder  than  in  France,  though  in  Germany  there 
 had  not  been  such  riot  of  revolution.  With  all  fail- 
 ures and  deflections  confessed,  yet  the  success  of  the 
 Evangelical  Church  in  Germany  in  making  and 
 keeping  Christian  the  population  has  been  greater 
 than  that  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  France. 
 In  theological  science  there  is  no  comparison;  the 
 epoch-making  works  in  theology  have  not  come  from 
 Roman  Catholic  France,  but  from  Evangelical  Ger- 
 many. She  has,  in  the  allied  branches  of  theological 
 learning,  been  the  teacher  of  all  Churches  and  of  all 
 lands.  Well  may  a  little  space  be  given  to  the  men 
 who,  with  all  deficiencies,  have  wrought  such  a  mar- 
 velous work  for  the  Christian  Church  in  the  nine- 
 teenth century. 
 
 The  man  who  led  in  this  great  work  was  Frederick 
 Daniel  Ernest  Schleiermacher,  who  made  his  name 
 
Evangelical  Christendom.  115 
 
 great  and  influential  in  philosophy,  in  education,  and 
 in  politics,  while  in  theological  science  he  was  pre- 
 eminent as  an  exegete,  a  critic,  a  theolo- 
 gian, and  a  preacher.     Schleiermacher  was    ^Jj^her" 
 the  son  of  a  Reformed  preacher,  who  served 
 as  chaplain  in  the  Prussian  army.     The  father  was  a 
 man  of  wide  learning  and  deep  piety.     The  son  was 
 born  at  Breslau,  November  21,  1768,  and  was  educated 
 at  the   Moravian   schools  connected  with  the  Com- 
 munity at  Herrnhut,  at  Niesky  and  Barby.    His  sister, 
 Charlotte,  joined  the  Community,  and  was  a  devoted 
 member  her  life  long.      She  died  in  their  house  in 
 Berlin. 
 
 In  consequence  of  his  failure  to  receive  the  doc- 
 trines of  the  Divinity  and  atonement  of  Christ,  he  im- 
 plored his  father  to  allow  him  to  leave  the  Moravians 
 and  attend  the  University  of  Halle.  The  correspond- 
 ence with  his  father  was  a  painful  one,  but  reveals  at 
 once  the  truthfulness  and  openmindness  of  the  son 
 and  the  deep  piety  of  the  father. 
 
 As  Schleiermacher  predicted,  only  by  a  personal 
 and  thorough  examination  could  he  come  to  possess 
 the  great  virtues  of  the  Christian  faith.  From  1787 
 to  1790  he  studied  at  Halle.  For  the  next  two  years 
 he  served  as  a  tutor  in  a  nobleman's  family  at  Schlo- 
 bitten  in  Prussia,  where  he  made  lifelong  friends. 
 The  next  j^ear  he  taught  in  Berlin  ;  then  for  two  years 
 he  served  as  country  pastor  at  Landsberg.  In  1796 
 he  returned  to  Berlin  as  chaplain  to  the  Charite  Hos- 
 pital. Here  in  the  next  six  years  he  entered  into 
 those  relations  to  the  Romantic  Movement  of  w^hich 
 mention  has  been  made. 
 
 For  some  years  Frederick  Schlegel  was  his  room- 
 
ii6     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 mate,  and  with  him  he  began  the  translation  of  Plato, 
 which  he  soon  assumed  as  his  life  work,  publishing  it 
 in  successive  volumes  from  1804  to  1828.  In  1802, 
 and  for  two  years,  he  officiated  as  court  preacher  at 
 Stolpe.  This  change  was  of  great  importance  to  him 
 as  liberating  him  from  the  evil  tendencies  of  the  Ro- 
 mantic Movement.  In  1804  he  was  appointed  Pro- 
 fessor of  Theology  at  Halle.  There  he  remained  until 
 after  the  battle  of  Jena,  leaving  there  in  1807,  as  he 
 did  not  wish  to  remain  under  Napoleon.  Before  going 
 to  Halle,  in  1799,  he  had  published  his  "Reden"  or 
 "Discourses  Concerning  Religion,"  in  which  he  vindi- 
 cated religion  as  a  necessary  part  of  man's  nature. 
 
 In  1800  he  published  his  ''Monologues,"  and  in 
 1803  his  "  Criticism  of  Existing  Systems  of  Ethics," 
 a  work  of  profound  learning  and  reflection  and  of  pen- 
 etrating judgment.  In  1807  he  returned  to  Berlin  as 
 pastor  of  the  Trinity  Church.  In  October  of  that 
 year  his  warm  friend  Eberhard  Von  Willich  died,  leav- 
 ing a  widow  twenty-one  years  old  and  two  children. 
 In  May,  1809,  Schleiermacher  married  Henrietta  Von 
 Willich,  he  being  then  forty-one  years  of  age.  Few 
 men  have  developed  more  in  the  family  circle  than 
 this  man  of  great  intellect  and  profound  feeling,  and 
 few  men  have  had  a  happier  married  life.  He  had 
 three  children,  two  daughters  who  survived  him,  and 
 a  son,  Nathaniel,  who  died  aged  nine,  in  1829.  Be- 
 sides these  he  brought  up  in  his  house  the  two  chil- 
 dren of  his  wife  by  her  former  husband,  and  two 
 adopted  children,  one  the  child  of  his  half-sister,  and 
 the  other  of  a  friend.  His  sister  lived  with  him  until 
 her  marriage  to  the  poet  Arndt  in  1817. 
 
 In  1 810,  Schleiermacher  was  called  as  Professor  of 
 
Evangelical  Christendom.  n; 
 
 Philosophy  to  the  newly-founded  University  of  Ber- 
 lin, which  chair  he  filled  until  his  death.     He  also 
 preached  regularly  in  the  Trinity  Church,  and  was  the 
 most   celebrated  preacher   in   Germany.      From   his 
 Moravian  training,  his  personal  experience,  and  his 
 value  of  the  emotional  life,  there  came  from  his  pulpit 
 a  warmth   of  devotion,   with   thoughts  of  scope  and 
 power,  and   a  penetrating  spiritual   insight.     There 
 were  no  gifts  of  the  orator;  in  person  he  was  like 
 Paul,  small  and  slightly  deformed ;  nor  was  there  the 
 charm  of  a  finished  literary  style,  for  nothing  was 
 written  but  the  text,  the  topic,  and  a  few  leading  divis- 
 ions.    But  in  his  sermons  a  great  soul  made  great 
 truths  live  for  men,  so  that  their  strength  and  power 
 entered   into   the   spiritual   being.     In   that   circular 
 church,    with   its   five   tiers    of    galleries,    the   great 
 preacher's  presence  seems  potent  still,  while  Dryander 
 crowds   every   foot   of  space,   and,  in  simplicity  and 
 power,  recalls  the  throngs  and  might  of  the  Word  of 
 the  century's  early  days. 
 
 Schleiermacher  was  great  as  a  philosopher  and 
 teacher  of  ethics.  He  learned  much  from  Plato  and 
 Spinoza,  though  I^eibnitz  and  Kant  were  his  masters. 
 The  latter  system  he  largely  recast,  accepting  elements 
 from  Fichte  and  Jacobi.  His  great  work  in  theology 
 was  his  "Christian  Faith  According  to  the  Funda- 
 mental Principles  of  the  Evangelical  Church,"  1821-2, 
 and  1831-2. 
 
 The  fundamental  position  of  Schleiermacher  was, 
 that  religious  feeling  is  the  highest  form  of  thought 
 and  life ;  in  it  we  are  conscious  of  our  unity  with  the 
 world  and  God.  This  lies  at  the  basis  of  all  knowl- 
 edge.    Christianity  is  specifically  the  mediatorial  re- 
 
ii8      History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 ligion  uniting  the  individual  with  the  infinite  whole  in 
 God,  and  this  mediation  is  by  Jesus  Christ.  Thus  he 
 transcends  the  difference  between  rationalists  and 
 supernaturalists  in  a  higher  conception,  and  renders 
 religion  superior  to  changing  systems  of  metaphysics. 
 In  his  work,  in  his  influence  as  a  preacher,  in  his 
 devotion  as  an  enlightened  patriot,  above  all  in  his 
 character  as  a  man,  as  much  as  by  the  comprehen- 
 siveness, the  penetration  and  value  of  his  thought,  he 
 may  well  be  called  the  restorer  of  the  Christian  faith 
 in  Germany.  Like  Origen  fifteen  hundred  years  be- 
 fore, he  made  Christianity  the  religion  of  the  educated 
 men  as  well  as  of  the  people.  The  value  of  that  work, 
 even  now,  can  scarcel}^  be  estimated.  His  defects 
 were  a  pantheistic  influence,  which  affected  his  con- 
 ception of  the  Trinity  and  of  human  immortality. 
 
 Great  as  was  Schleiermacher  in  his  endowments 
 and  service,  he  was  greater  in  himself  His  was  a 
 rich,  a  deep,  and  a  harmoniously-developed  nature, 
 trained  through  severe  trial  as  well  as  profound  study. 
 His  "  Letters  "  may  well  be  called  the  mirror  of  a  noble 
 soul.  His  passion  for  truth,  his  high,  warm,  and  true 
 affections,  the  elevation  and  scope  of  his  thoughts,  are 
 apparent  on  every  page.  To  read  them  is  to  realize 
 something  of  the  possibilities  of  communion  with  the 
 saints  and  of  the  truthfulness  of  the  human  spirit. 
 
 February  12,  1834,  Schleiermacher  lay  dying  in  his 
 home  in  Berlin.  He  suffered  greatly.  Then  he  said : 
 "  I  have  never  clung  to  the  dead  letter,  and  we  have  the 
 atoning  death  of  Jesus  Christ,  his  body,  and  his  blood, 
 I  have  ever  believed,  and  still  believe,  that  the  Lord 
 Jesus  Christ  gave  the  communion  in  water  and  wine." 
 He  then  raised  himself  up,  consecrated  the  elements, 
 
Evangelical  Christendom.  119 
 
 and  administered  the  communion  to  his  household, 
 and  said:  "On  these  words  of  the  Scripture  ['take, 
 eat,'  etc.]  I  rely.  They  are  the  foundation  of  my 
 faith."  Then,  after  the  blessing,  with  a  look  full  of 
 love  he  said,  "In  this  love  and  communion  we  are,  and 
 ever  will  remain,  united."  In  a  few  minutes  he  was 
 gone. 
 
 The  most  influential  and  truest  scholar  of  Schleier- 
 macher  was  David  Mendel,  the  son  of  a  Jewish  ped- 
 ler,  born  at  Gottingen,  January  17,  1789, 
 
 <  f  •     1  •  I  r  K  Neander. 
 
 who  took  at  his  baptism  the  name  of  August 
 Neander  (i 789-1 850).  He  derived  his  talents  and  dis- 
 position from  his  mother.  When  quite  young  his 
 parents  removed  to  Hamburg.  In  the  Johaneum  and 
 gymnasium  of  that  city  he  prepared  for  the  univer- 
 sity. While  so  engaged  he  became  absorbed  in  Plato, 
 and  Plato  led  him  to  Christ.  He  was  baptized  at 
 Hamburg,  February  25,  1806.  The  same  year  he 
 went  to  Halle,  and  heard  and  came  to  know  Schleier- 
 macher.  When  Schleiermacher  left,  Neander  went  to 
 Gottingen,  where  he  studied  under  Planck,  the  Church 
 hivStorian.  There  finishing  his  course,  he  was  ordained 
 at  Hamburg,  but  rarely  preached.  In  1811  he  was 
 called  to  Heidelberg,  asTrofessor  of  Theology.  In 
 1 8 13  he  was  called  to  Berlin,  where,  with  Schleier- 
 macher and  De  Wette,  he  formed  a  brilliant  trio,  teach- 
 ing until  his  death. 
 
 Thus  was  trained  the  man  whose  massive  erudi- 
 tion, profound  philosophic  insight  into  the  genetic 
 relations  of  opinion,  whose  catholic  spirit  and  depth 
 of  personal  piety,  made  him  the  founder  of  the  new 
 science  of  Church  history.  Recognizing  all  that  others 
 have  done,  and  his  limitations,  the  work  of  no  other 
 
I20     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 man  so  revolutionized  the  study  and  laid  such  deep 
 and  broad  foundations  on  which,  since,  all  have  built. 
 His  monographs  on  **The  Emperor  Julian,"  1812, 
 "St.  Bernard,"  1813,  ''Gnosticism,"  1818,  "Chrysos- 
 tom,"  and  **  Tertullian,"  gave  him  fame  for  their  learn- 
 ing and  use  of  original  sources,  and  their  Christian 
 spirit.  In  1832  appeared  his  **  Planting  and  Training 
 of  the  Christian  Church,"  and  in  1837  his  "Life  of 
 Jesus  Christ "  in  answer  to  Strauss,  the  ablest  contem- 
 porary reply.  In  1822  he  published  his  interesting 
 and  valuable  "  Memorabilia  of  the  Christian  Life." 
 But  his  great  work  was  his  "  History  of  the  Christian 
 Religion  and  Church,"  in  five  volumes,  1 826-1845. 
 The  sixth  volume,  published  after  his  death,  carried 
 the  great  work  down  to  1438.  In  1857  appeared  his 
 "  Lectures  on  History  of  Dogma." 
 
 Whatever  else  the  student  of  Church  history  reads, 
 he  must  read  Neander.  His  heavy  style  and  lack  of 
 conception  of  the  value  of  the  institutional,  or  artistic 
 in  Christendom,  may  repel ;  but  there  is  a  power  of 
 thought,  a  grasp  of  the  essential  elements  in  character, 
 situation,  the  development  of  opinion  and  of  the  per- 
 manent in  Christian  history,  which  will  never  lose 
 their  value  or  cease  to  inspire.  No  other  German 
 theologian  of  the  century  has  probably  been  more 
 widely  read  in  English-speaking  lands,  with  the  pos- 
 sible and  doubtful  exception  of  Tholuck. 
 
 Neander  never  married.  His  dress  and  personal 
 oddities  made  him  often  appear  to  the  stranger  ridicu- 
 lous; but  to  those  who  knew  him,  the  subtlety  and 
 comprehension  of  his  thought,  the  simplicity  of  his 
 character,  and  his  unselfish  and  affectionate  disposi- 
 
Evangelical  Christendom. 
 
 121 
 
 tion,   made    him  loved,  as   his  iron  industry  and  im- 
 mense learning  made  him  revered. 
 
 The  third  in  this  famous  trio  of  Berlin  theologians 
 was  William  Martin  Lieberecht  DeWette(i 780-1 849). 
 He,  Hke  the  other  two,  produced  a  new 
 and  most  important  science,  and  laid  foun-  '^*^^"*- 
 dations  on  which  all  the  world  builds.  DeWette  is  the 
 founder  of  modern  Biblical  criticism  and  Biblical  the- 
 ology. DeWette  was  born  in  a  parsonage-house  near 
 Weimar,  January  12,  1780.  He  entered  the  Univer- 
 sity of  Jena  in  1799,  and  there  heard  Griesbach,  Gab- 
 ler,  and  Paulus,  taking  his  degree  in  1805.  In  1807 
 he  was  Professor  of  Exegesis  at  Heidelberg,  and  was 
 called  to  the  same  chair  in  Berlin  in  18 10.  DeWette 
 did  not  have  the  same  warm  religious  experience  as 
 Schleiermacher  or  Neander,  and  was  more  rational- 
 istic in  his  opinions.  Schleiermacher  said  of  him,  * '  De- 
 Wette is,  of  course,  very  neological,  but  he  is  an  ear- 
 nest, profound,  truth-loving  man,  whose  researches 
 will  lead  to  real  results,  and  perhaps  he  will  also  for 
 himself  yet  come  to  another  outlook." 
 
 In  March,  18 19,  DeWette  wrote  a  confidential 
 letter  of  consolation  to  the  mother  of  Karl  Sand,  who 
 was  executed  for  the~  assassination  of  Kotzebue. 
 There  are  some  imprudent  sentences  in  it,  and  the 
 act  is  compared  to  that  of  Charlotte  Corday;  but  if 
 its  character,  as  written  to  a  heart-broken  mother 
 whose  guest  he  had  been,  is  taken  into  account,  there 
 is  little  that  is  blameworthy.  But  hatred  and  fear  of 
 the  Revolution  predominated  over  every  other  mo- 
 tive, and  Baron  von  Kottwitz,  one  of  the  noblest 
 Christians  of  that  generation,  denounced  DeWette  to 
 
122    History  of  the  Christian  Church, 
 
 the  government.  In  September  he  was  deprived  of 
 his  professorship.  For  the  next  two  years  he  was 
 near  his  birthplace  at  Weimar,  and  to  these  years  we 
 owe  his  unrivaled  collection  of  Luther's  "Letters,"  in 
 six  volumes.  From  1821  until  his  death  in  1849  he 
 was  professor  at  Basel. 
 
 He  was  a  diligent  student  and  author.  His  most 
 noted  works  are  "  Introduction  to  the  New  Testa- 
 ment," 1826,  and  "  Kxegetical  Handbook  of  the  New 
 Testament,"  1838-1848. 
 
 As  Schleiermacher  predicted,  he  grew  less  ration- 
 alistic, and  died  in  earnest  Christian  faith,  giving  his 
 final  confession  in  these  words:  "This  I  know,  that 
 in  no  other  is  salvation  but  in  the  name  of  Jesus 
 Christ  the  crucified,  and  that  for  mankind  there  is 
 nothing  higher  than  the  in-him-realized  God-humanity, 
 and  the  in-him-planted  kingdom  of  God." 
 
 No  man  had  had  so  great  influence  in  forming  the 
 
 United  Church  as  Schleiermacher,  but  Schleiermacher 
 
 wished  it  to  have  independence  and  liberty 
 
 '^  ufJl-gy""*  ^^  ^^^^  ^^  VixAon.  He  desired  a  Presby- 
 terian constitution,  with  regular  assemblies 
 of  elders  and  clergy.  Schleiermacher  deeply  sympa- 
 thized with  the  liberal  movement  in  politics  of  which 
 Arndt  and  Stein  were  the  exponents.  The  dismissal 
 of  DeWette  affected  them  all,  and  in  1820,  and  again 
 in  1823,  Schleiermacher  expected  to  be  dismissed  for 
 his  political  opinions.  But  this  did  not  prevent  him 
 from  speaking  out  against  the  enforced  use  of  the 
 liturgy  prepared  by  the  royal  commission  and  made 
 obligatory,  first  in  1824,  and  throughout  the  kingdom 
 in  1 828-1 839.  Nothing  else  so  hurt  the  cause  of 
 Union. 
 
Evangelical  Christendom. 
 
 123 
 
 But  finally  there  came  some  recognition  of  Schleier- 
 macher's  work.  The  king  conferred  upon  him  the 
 order  of  the  Black  Eagle  in  183 1.  At  his  funeral 
 thirty-six  students  took  turns  in  bearing  the  body  to 
 the  cemetery.  Then  came  the  mourners  on  foot,  ex- 
 tending a  mile;  and  then  one  hundred  carriages,  led 
 by  those  of  the  king  and  the  crown  princes.  Thus 
 was  borne  to  his  burial  the  man,  who  with  Generals 
 Scharnhorst  and  Guersenau  in  the  army,  and  Stein  in 
 the  State,  ranks  as  the  restorer  of  Germany. 
 
 One  of  the  most  attractive  characters  in  the  history 
 of  the  Church  in  the  century,  and  a  potent  force  for  the 
 ennobling  and  extension  of  the  Christian 
 life,  was  Frederick  August  Gottlieb  Tho-     '^**"'"^''- 
 luck  (1799-1877),  who,  like  Schleiermacher,  was  born 
 in  Breslau,  where  he  first  saw  the  light,  March  30, 
 1799.     He  was  the  son  of  a  goldsmith,  and  the  son 
 was  a  remarkable  boy.     At  thirteen  he  had  read  two 
 thousand  volumes,  and  at  seventeen  he  knew  nineteen 
 languages.     At  eighteen  he  resolved  to  go  to  Berlin 
 and  study  Arabic.     He  had  no  introduction,  and  re- 
 solved, if  he  failed,  to  commit  suicide.     He  went  to 
 Dietz,  the  most  famous  Arabic  scholar  in  the  univer- 
 sity.    Dietz  took  him  to  his  own  house,  and  Tholuck 
 had  at  once  friends  in  the  leading  men  of  the  univer- 
 sity.    Soon  after,  Dietz  died  in  his  student's  arms. 
 Tholuck  was  greatly  influenced   by  Schleiermacher 
 and  Neander,  and,  through  Baron  Von  Kottwitz,  came 
 to  a  personal  experience  of  the  forgiveness  of  sins. 
 In  1820  he  determined  to  be  a  theologian  rather  than 
 a  missionary  in  the  East,  as  he  at  first  planned.     He 
 began  teaching  at  Berlin,  1821-1825,  but  was  called 
 to  Halle  in  1825,  and  began  his  duties  there  the  next 
 
124     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 Easter.  There  he  taught  until  his  death  in  1877.  He 
 traveled  in  Holland  and  England,  and  spent  the  years 
 1 827-1 829  in  Rome  with  Bunsen,  as  chaplain  of  the 
 Prussian  embassy.  From  1833  ^^  served  as  univer- 
 sity preacher,  and  from  1842  was  in  charge  of  Church 
 affairs  as  a  member  of  the  Magdeburg  Consistory. 
 Tholuck  lectured  on  Old  and  New  Testament  exege- 
 ses, and  in  1838  wrote  against  Strauss  on  the  "Credi- 
 bility of  the  Gospel  History."  In  his  later  years  he 
 wrote  a  "History  of  Rationalism,"  which  he  left  un- 
 finished. 
 
 No  work  he  left  behind  gives  an  adequate  idea  of 
 his  powers,  though  his  Commentary  on  the  Epistle  to 
 the  Romans  was  translated  into  English,  and  still  has 
 high  rank.  He  married  in  1829,  but  his  wife  died 
 within  the  j^ear.  After  eight  years  he  married  again, 
 and  the  union  was  a  most  happy  one,  but  proved 
 childless.  In  part,  perhaps,  for  this  reason,  Tholuck's 
 home  was  a  resort  for  students,  and  one  or  more  ac- 
 companied him  on  his  daily  walks.  Tholuck  spoke 
 English  fluently,  and  delighted  in  the  company  of 
 English  and  American  students. 
 
 No  German  professor  had  more  friends,  or  loved 
 them  more.  He  built  no  theological  system,  but 
 warm  and  evangelistic  in  his  sympathies,  he  con- 
 quered persons  and  warmly  attached  them  to  himself, 
 and  won  them  to  his  Lord.  Eminent  as  a  philologist 
 and  exegete,  and  more  so  as  a  theologian,  he  excelled 
 as  a  preacher.  His  great  impress  on  his  generation 
 was  as  a  seeker  after  the  souls  of  men.  He  is  an  ex- 
 ample of  what,  by  personal  influence,  a  university 
 professor  can  accomplish. 
 
Evangelical  Christendom.  125 
 
 With  these  men  labored,  but  on  very  dififerent 
 lines,  Ernest  Wilhelm  Hengstenberg  (i  802-1 869), 
 who  was  born  in  the  house  of  a  Reformed 
 
 „^  ....  -^  Hengstenberg. 
 
 pastor  m  Westphalia,  in  1802.  He  was 
 educated  at  Bonn,  and  began  his  work  in  Berlin  Uni- 
 versity in  1824,  where  he  taught  in  the  Theological 
 Faculty  until  his  death  in  1869.  In  1827  he  founded 
 the  "Kirchenzeitung,"  which  he  made  the  organ  of 
 the  most  rigid  orthodoxy,  and  edited  it  until  his  de- 
 cease. In  1830  he  caused  the  denunciation  of  two 
 rationalistic  professors  on  the  ground  of  the  lecture 
 notes  of  some  students.  The  act  was  not  counte- 
 nanced by  either  Schleiermacher  or  Tholuck,  and 
 aroused  great  indignation.  The  professors  kept  their 
 places.  He  sympathized  with  the  efforts  to  enforce  a 
 common  liturgy  in  Prussia.  His  lectures  and  his 
 periodical  were  devoted  to  combating  rationalistic 
 and  infidel  critics,  of  which,  after  Strauss's  attack, 
 there  were  always  plenty.  He  also  kept  an  eye  on 
 all  ecclesiastical  appointments  in  the  same  interest. 
 He  was  narrow  and  dogmatic,  and  his  published 
 works  represent  very  little  value  to-day ;  but  as  it  was 
 a  time  when  Germany  seemed  to  see  the  foundation 
 of  the  faith  dissolving  in  the  fires  of  criticism,  doubt- 
 less there  was  room  and  need  of  a  sturdy  fighter* 
 though  the  cause  must  be  won  by  other  men  and 
 other  means. 
 
 What  Hengstenberg  did  in  the  United  Evangel- 
 ical Church,  Gottlieb  Christoff  Adolph  Harless  (1806- 
 1879)   sought  to  accomplish  by   reviving 
 
 ,  Adolf  Harless. 
 
 a  strict  confessional  Lutheranism.    He  was 
 
 born  at  Nuremberg,  November  21,  1806.    He  taught  at 
 
126     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 Erlangen  and  Leipzig,  1 828-1 850.  He  published  his 
 "  Jesuit's  Mirror  "  in  1839,  but  his  "  Christian  Ethics" 
 is  his  most  important  work.  He  had  charge  of  the 
 affairs  of  the  Evangelical  Church  of  Bavaria  for  many 
 years.  After  a  two  years'  residence  in  Dresden  he 
 was  made,  in  1852,  the  president  of  the  Supreme  Con- 
 sistorial  Council  of  Bavaria,  which  position  he  held 
 for  twenty-six  years.  He  was  the  leader  of  the  Lu- 
 theran movement  in  Germany,  and  the  ablest  and 
 most  influential  of  its  theologians. 
 
 The  course  of  the  recall  to  the  Christian  faith 
 under  men  like  Schleiermacher,  Neander,  and  Tholuck 
 was  grievously  interrupted  by  the  attack  of  the  left 
 wing  of  the  Hegelian  philosophy,  led  by  Strauss, 
 Baur,  and  Feuerbach.  Hegel  was  personally  a  devout 
 Christian,  according  to  the  testimony  of  his  wife. 
 But  his  teaching,  that  all  human  development  and 
 history  is  but  the  unfolding  of  the  idea  through  the 
 realization  of  contrary  tendencies  which  are  recon- 
 ciled in  the  synthesis  of  a  higher  principle,  led  men  to 
 interpret  history  in  the  terms  of  philosophy,  to  the 
 detriment  of  both. 
 
 David  Frederick  Strauss  (i  808-1 874)  graduated  in 
 Tiibingen  in  1830,  and  studied  for  a  time  in  Berlin. 
 
 He  began  his  career  as  a  teacher  in  1832. 
 crick  strlSss.  In   1 835  appeared,  with  a  very  insufficient 
 
 foundation  of  scholarship,  his  epoch-mak- 
 ing, "  Life  of  Jesus."  He  held  that  we  knew  very  little 
 of  the  historical  Jesus.  The  Christ  of  the  Gospels  is 
 the  product  of  the  unconscious  deception  caused  by 
 the  growth  of  myth;  Jesus  Christ  is  an  idea  for  hu- 
 manity; as  an  historical  person  he  is  myth.  The 
 theory  was  well  worked  out,  and  the  work  was  writ- 
 
Evangelical  Christendom.  127 
 
 ten  in  vigorous  German.  It  compelled  a  critical 
 examination  of  the  sources  of  the  New  Testament 
 history,  but  as  an  historical  hypothesis  it  has  been  com- 
 pletely discredited  by  a  better  knowledge  of  the  facts. 
 
 A  much  abler  attack  was  that  of  another  Hegelian, 
 and  a  thorough  historical   student.  Christian   Ferdi- 
 nand  Baur,    (i 792-1 860).      Though   Baur    Christian 
 gave   himself  to  a   study   of  the   sources,    Ferdinand 
 and  was  no  mere  theorist  like  Strauss,  yet      ^*"'"* 
 his    theories   so   controlled   his   investigations   as   to 
 make  it  necessary  to  reject  them  almost  entire.      His 
 teaching  is  the  application  of  the  Hegelian  theory  to 
 the  history  of  the  Christian  Scriptures  and  the  Chris- 
 tian Church.     As  he  said,  *'  Without  philosophy,  his- 
 tory remained  to  me  eternally  dead  and  dumb." 
 
 Baur  was  an  indefatigable  worker  and  a  prolific 
 writer.  Able  men,  like  his  son-in-law  Zeller,  and 
 Schwegler,  with,  at  one  time,  Kostlin  and  Ritschl, 
 and  later  Hilgenfeld  and  Pfleiderer,  formed  his  school. 
 They  taught  that  the  New  Testament  is  the  result  of 
 the  conflicting  parties  of  Paul  and  the  Judaizing 
 Christians,  and  an  effort  to  reconcile  them  repre- 
 sented by  Peter  and  John.  Baur  held  that  the  Epistles 
 to  the  Galatians,  those  to  the  Corinthians,  and  to  the 
 Romans,  alone  were  genuine.  The  other  New  Testa- 
 ment books  were  from  the  latter  part  of  the  second 
 century.  The  impartial  historic  criticism  of  the  last 
 fifty  years  has  made  Baur's  standpoint  like  that  of 
 Strauss,  one  entirely  overcome.  Historical  study  and 
 investigation  have  passed  forever  beyond  them.  Nei- 
 ther Strauss  nor  Baur  knew  Christianity  except  on  its 
 intellectual  side,  and  both  died  in  unbelief,  Strauss 
 even  denying  the  immortality  of  the  soul. 
 
128     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 This  stage  was  quickly  reached  by  Anton   Feuer- 
 
 bach  in  his  "Essence  of  Christianity,  1842,  which  is  a 
 
 complete  rejection  of  historic  Christianity, 
 
 Feuerbach.         ,  .    ,     ,  .  ,  ,  .  ,  -r^ 
 
 which  has  its  value  only  as  idea.  From 
 this  it  was  but  a  step  to  the  pessimism  of  Schopen- 
 hauer and  Hartmann  and  the  materialism  of  Biichner 
 and  Haeckel.  Unbelief  won  a  great  hold  on  the  edu- 
 cated and  middle  classes  from  1840  to  1880;  but  all 
 these  theories  and  hypotheses  have  lost  standing  at 
 the  bar  of  history,  of  philosophy,  and  of  the  com- 
 mon reason.  The  Hegelian  attack  is  as  dead  as  the 
 overestimate  of  the  philosophy  on  which  it  was 
 founded.  Christianity  was  never  stronger  than  to-day 
 in  spite  of  Nietsche  and  the  Social  Democracy.  Edu- 
 cated opinion  stands  more  unitedly  than  at  any  time 
 since  Schleiermacher's  day  on  the  side  of  the  Chris- 
 tian faith. 
 
 In  refreshing  contrast  with  these  ephemeral  crea- 
 tions, which  so  quickly  pass,  is  the  career  and  work 
 of   Richard  Rothe  (1799-1867),  who,   as  a 
 
 Richard  ,      .  .        ,       ;  ,  ' 
 
 Rothe.  speculative  theologian,  has  not  been  sur- 
 passed in  the  century.  He  was  born  at 
 Posen,  January  28,  1799,  and  was  educated  at  Breslau. 
 In  1 819-1820  he  was  at  Berlin  as  a  teacher,  and  1820- 
 1822  at  Wittenberg,  where  he  came  under  decidedly 
 Pietistic  influences,  which  markedly  deepened  his  re- 
 ligious experience.  He  spent  five  fruitful  years  in 
 Rome,  1 823-1 828,  with  Bunsen  as  chaplain  to  the 
 Prussian  embassy.  Returning,  he  taught  at  Witten- 
 berg, 1828-1839.  In  the  latter  year  he  was  called  to 
 Heidelberg,  where  he  spent  the  rest  of  his  life,  except 
 for  a  five  years'  stay  at  Bonn,  1 849-1 854.  Rothe  was 
 simple,  modest,  and  pure,  with  a  singularly  harmo- 
 
Evangelical  Christendom.  129 
 
 nious  intellectual  and  spiritual  development.  In  1837 
 he  published  his  "  Christian  Church,"  but  his  great 
 work  was  his  "Theological  Ethics,"  1845-1848,  1872, 
 in  five  volumes. 
 
 Rothe  was  not  so  versatile  as  Schleiermacher,  nor 
 had  he  the  like  talent  for  society,  the  pulpit,  or  lead- 
 ership ;  but  he  was  the  most  profound  and  compre- 
 hensive theological  thinker  of  the  century.  Yet  no 
 man  was  more  truly  or  humbly  Christian. 
 
 In  1845,  in  the  midst  of  the  commotion  raised  by 
 Strauss  and  Baur,  he  could  write:  ''The  ground  of 
 all  my  thinking,  I  can  truly  say,  is  the  simple  faith  of 
 Christ,  not  yet  a  dogma,  much  less  a  theology,  which 
 for  eighteen  hundred  years  has  overcome  the  world. 
 It  is  my  highest  joy  to  oppose  constantly  and  de- 
 terminedly every  other  pretended  knowledge  which 
 asserts  itself  against  the  faith.  I  know  no  other  firm 
 ground  on  which  I  could  anchor  my  whole  being,  and 
 particularly  my  speculations,  except  that  historical 
 phenomenon,  Jesus  Christ.  He  is  to  me  the  unim- 
 peachable Holy  of  Holies  of  humanity,  the  highest 
 Being  known  to  man,  and  a  sun  rising  in  history, 
 whence  has  come  the  light  by  which  we  see  the 
 world." 
 
 Charitabi^b  Work  in  Evangki^icai,  Germany. 
 
 The  labors   of  Evangelical  Germany  marked  an 
 epoch  in  these  years  in  the  history  of  Christian  the- 
 ology.    Scarcely  less   remarkable   was   its 
 leadership  in  Christian  charity.     After  for-    Adoiphus 
 eign  missions,  the  first  organized  work  of     Verein, 
 the  Churches  of  Evangelical  Germany  was 
 to  provide  for  its  brethren  of  like  common  faith  and 
 9 
 
I30     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 language  in  Roman  Catholic  countries.  This  union 
 was  called  into  being  on  the  two  hundreth  anniversary 
 of  the  death  of  Gustavus  Adolphus,  November  6, 
 1832.  On  the  ninth  of  the  following  December,  it 
 was  organized.  The  Saxon  administration  approved 
 of  it  in  1 834.  It  received  the  patronage  of  Charles 
 XIV  of  Sweden,  and  of  Frederick  William  III,  and 
 of  Frederick  William  IV,  of  Prussia.  In  1841  its 
 funded  capital  was  12,850  thalers.  In  1842,  aroused 
 by  the  work  of  the  preachers,  Le  Grand  and  Zimmer- 
 mann,  it  took  on  new  life.  The  Union  has  a  Central 
 Committee  at  Leipzig,  and  Chief  Committees  in  each 
 of  the  principal  German  States,  with  Branch  Com- 
 mittees in  each  diocese.  Once  in  three  years  is  con- 
 vened an  Assembly  of  Deputies.  In  1844  the  Union 
 was  excluded  from  Bavaria,  but  in  1849  the  prohibi- 
 tion was  withdrawn.  The  chief  objects  of  the  Gusta- 
 vus Adolphus  Verein  are  to  assist  in  building  Evan- 
 gelical churches,  schools,  parsonages,  and  orphan- 
 houses,  and  to  secure  Evangelical  Christians  from  in- 
 tolerance and  oppression  in  Roman  Catholic  lands. 
 In  this  period  it  had  scarcely  begun  its  work,  but  be- 
 fore the  century's  end  it  had  spent  on  these  objects 
 nearly  $10,000,000,  and  given  a  sense  of  Evangelical 
 Union  and  protection  before  unknown. 
 
 The  Evangelical  Order  of  Deaconesses  in  modern 
 Church  life  owes  its  revival  to  Theodore 
 
 Deaconesses.    ^,.     ,  ,         ^       „^    \ 
 
 Fhedner  (1798-1864). 
 He  was  the  son  of  an  Evangelical  pastor  in  Rhenish 
 PrUvSsia,  and  received  his  education  from  his  father. 
 He  felt  called  rather  to  be  a  teacher  than  a 
 
 FlUdner. 
 
 pastor,  but  accepted  the  pastorate  01  the 
 little  village  of  Kaiserwerth  ,on  the  Rhine,  in  1820. 
 
Evangelical  Christendom.  131 
 
 Two  years  later  the  manufactory  on  which  the 
 villagers  depended  for  a  living  failed.  The  next  year 
 Fliedner  went  to  England  to  obtain  aid  for  his  dis- 
 tressed parishioners.  This  he  accomplished;  but, 
 more  important  still,  there  he  met  Elizabeth  Fry, 
 and  became  acquainted  with  her  work.  On  his  return, 
 he  visited  the  jails  and  prisons  near  Kaiserwerth. 
 He  found  practically  the  same  state  of  things  as  had 
 Mrs.  Fry  at  Newgate.  At  once  he  began  personal 
 work  among  the  prisoners.  In  1826  he  organized  the 
 first  society  in  Germany  for  the  improvement  of  pris- 
 ons. By  proper  classifications  he  sought  to  remove 
 the  worst  abuses.  In  trying  to  find  a  matron  for 
 female  prisoners  at  Diisseldorf  he  found  a  wife.  She 
 had  duties  indeed,  as,  besides  all  the  charities  under 
 his  care,  Fliedner  was  the  father  of  eighteen  children. 
 He  saw  two  of  them  become  Evangelical  pastors, 
 and  others  become  connected  with  the  work  of  the 
 deaconesses. 
 
 Fliedner  had  seen  something  like  the  trained  care 
 of  the  deaconesses  among  the  Mennonites  in  Holland. 
 His  personal  charge  of  the  outcasts  began  in  1833  with 
 a  discharged  female  prisoner  in  the  summer-house  in 
 his  garden.  In  1836  he  purchased  a  house,  and  opened 
 the  first  Deaconess  House,  with  no  assets  but  faith. 
 His  hospital  was  started  with  "  one  table,  a  few  broken 
 chairs,  some  well-worn  knives  and  two-pronged  forks, 
 seven  sheets,  and  four  severe  cases  of  illness."  After- 
 wards he  added  a  lunatic  asylum,  and  then  a  training 
 establishment  for  schoolmistresses  and  governesses, 
 one  for  schoolmasters,  and  a  school  for  boys.  All 
 these  institutions  were  utilized  for  the  training  of  his 
 deaconesses.     In   1838,  he  sent  out  two  as  the  first 
 
132     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 fruits  of  Kaiserwerth.  In  1849  he  came  to  America, 
 and  four  deaconesses,  the  first  to  cross  the  Atlantic, 
 accompanied  him  to  Dr.  Passavant's  work  at  Pittsburg, 
 Pa.  The  great  growth  and  spread  of  the  order  came 
 in  the  last  half  of  the  century. 
 
 Pastor  Fliedner  was  not  great  nor  learned,  but  sim- 
 ple and  devout.  In  his  work  he  was  practical,  earnest, 
 and  thorough.  He  never  forgot  the  words  of  a  brother 
 pastor  when,  in  deep  discouragement,  he  undertook 
 the  work  of  finding  aid  for  his  distressed  congrega- 
 tion ;  his  friend  told  him  the  three  essentials  he  needed 
 were  patience,  impudence,  and  a  ready  tongue.  He 
 became  a  most  accomplished  solicitor  of  funds  in 
 France,  Germany,  England,  and  America,  and  even 
 royal  favor  shone  upon  him.  Fliedner  had  rare  and 
 original  gifts  as  a  teacher.  Thus  this  simple  Evan- 
 gelical pastor  began  a  work  of  world-wide  influence 
 and  beneficence. 
 
 A  great  man,  of  far  greater  intellectual  gifts,  was 
 
 John  Henry  Wichern  (i 808-1 881).     Wichern  was  edu- 
 
 inner  Mission.  ^^^^^  ^^  Gottiugeu,  and  Studied  theology  at 
 
 John  Henry  Berlin.     At  the   university,  Wichern  had 
 
 ^  *™'  been  impressed  with  his  need  of  unusual 
 consecration  and  his  call  to  some  special  work  for  God. 
 There  seemed  no  immediate  prospect  for  this,  as  his 
 father  died  when  he  was  little  more  than  an  infant  and 
 his  mother  was  dependent  upon  him.  But  Wichern, 
 like  many  another,  found  the  way  of  duty  the  way  of 
 opportunity.  While  working  in  the  Sunday-school  at 
 Hamburg,  after  his  return  from  the  university,  Wich- 
 ern's  heart  was  touched  by  the  condition  of  the  street 
 urchins  of  that  city,  who  were  growing  up  in  ignorance 
 and  to  a  life  of  crime.    He  succeeded  in  interesting  the 
 
Evangelical  Christendom.  133 
 
 wealthy  and  generous  Syndic  Sieveking  in  his  pro- 
 ject; his  daughter  Amalie  ever  proved  Wichern's 
 strong  friend.  Sieveking  gave  him  a  garden-house  on 
 his  estate  at  Horn,  three  miles  from  Hamburg,  known 
 as  the  Rauhe  Haus,  for  his  experiment. 
 
 It  had  a  thatched  roof,  small  windows,  and  low  ceil- 
 ings.    Wichern  began  with  three  boys,  which  number 
 soon  increased  to  twelve.     He  lived  with 
 them.     His  mother  was  the  house-mother  '"^^^Hfu""*'^ 
 and  the  mother  of  every  boy.     They  looked 
 upon  her  with  love  and  veneration.     The  Bible  was 
 most  carefully  taught  and  thoroughly  studied.     Three 
 times  as  much  time  was  given  to  the  study  of  the 
 Bible,  the  Catechism,  Church  history,  and  music  as  to 
 all  other  studies.     From  the  first  the  boys  were  taught 
 that  God  loved  them,  and  showed  that  love  in  Jesus 
 Christ ;  that  they  could  by  his  help  be  something,  do 
 something,  and  own  something;  and  that  labor  alone 
 gives  title  to  a  living. 
 
 When  the  boys  increased  in  numbers,  another 
 house  was  provided,  the  numbers  in  one  house  always 
 ranging  from  twelve  to  fifteen.  When  the  first  divis- 
 ion was  made,  and  the  second  cottage  was  ready  for 
 occupancy,  '*  on  a  bright  Sabbath  morning,  in  the 
 presence  of  several  hundred  friends,  the  new  cottage 
 was  dedicated  to  the  Good  Shepherd  through  whose 
 love  and  help  twenty-seven  boys  had  already  been 
 gathered  into  a  sheltering  fold."  In  1851  there  were 
 seventy  boys  and  twenty-five  girls  in  four  families  of 
 the  former,  and  two  of  the  latter  at  the  Rauhe  Haus. 
 They  had  a  chapel,  a  bakery,  a  wash-house,  work- 
 shops, and  a  printing-oflSce,  though  the  work  gener- 
 ally taught  was  farming  for  the  boys,  and  domestic 
 
134     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 service  for  the  girls.  The  boys  stay  at  the  Rauhe 
 Haus  four,  and  the  girls  five  years ;  the  coming  or  re- 
 maining is  entirely  voluntary.  When  they  leave  the 
 Rauhe  Haus,  places  are  obtained  for  them  in  the  city. 
 All  the  furniture  and  surroundings  are  of  the  simplest 
 character,  and  the  boys  and  girls  are  trained  to  a  life 
 of  honorable  poverty.  On  the  average,  eighty  per 
 cent  of  those  received  are  permanently  reformed. 
 
 In  1844,  Wichern  began  here  the  publication  of 
 the  Fliegende  Blatter,  or  Flying  Leaves,  which  became 
 the  organ  of  the  Inner  Mission,  and  is  still  published 
 at  the  Rauhe  Haus. 
 
 In  1858,  Wichern  founded  at  Berlin  the  Evangel- 
 ical Johannes  Stift  on  the  same  lines  as  the  Rauhe 
 
 Haus  at  Hamburg,  and  served  by  trained 
 '^''stift!*^     attendants  of  devout  life  and  special  call, 
 
 known  as  the  Johannes  Brotherhood.  It  is 
 designed,  not  only  to  care  for  the  neglected,  but  to 
 train  for  like  service  throughout  Germany. 
 
 At  the  Kirchentag,  or  Church  Diet,  of  1848,  Wi- 
 chern   sounded   a   note   which    struck  a   responsive 
 
 chord    throughout    Evangelical   Germany, 
 MiL'ions'!     ^"^   called   into   life   the   Inner   Missions. 
 
 These  seek  to  oppose  anti-religion  and 
 anti-Christian  influence  among  the  populations.  They 
 favor  street  preaching,  the  better  observance  of  the 
 Sabbath,  and  Bible  distribution.  They  aim,  as  the 
 source  of  all,  to  deepen  the  religious  life.  But  the 
 method  of  the  Inner  Missions  is  constructive,  like 
 our  city  missions,  only  with  a  wider  range.  It  in- 
 cludes the  care  of  the  poor,  and  the  neglected,  the 
 discharged  criminals  and  work  in  prisons,  Magdalen 
 asylums,  etc.,  but  also  Christian  lodging-houses  for 
 
Evangelical  Christendom.  135 
 
 traveling  apprentices,  and  "  Christliche  Hospices"  for 
 the  Christian  traveler,  night-schools,  and  the  different 
 and  changing  needs  for  charitable  effort  in  our 
 time.  It  has  greatly  quickened  the  religious  life 
 of  Germany. 
 
 In  1851,  Wichern  was  chosen  to  inspect  and  report 
 upon   the   correctional   institutions   of    Prussia.      In 
 1858,  he  was  called  to  the  Council  of  the 
 Interior,  with  especial  charge  of  these  in-   ^-fttJ^y^"* 
 
 4.  i.  TT      i  ,  .      .  Wichern. 
 
 terests.  He  kept  up  his  interest  in  prison 
 reform,  and  founded  a  Prussian  military  diaconate. 
 In  1872  he  was  stricken  with  paralysis.  He  lingered 
 on  nine  years,  but  his  great  lifework  was  done. 
 Seldom  have  two  men  in  the  same  generation  done  as 
 much  for  their  country  and  for  mankind,  or  exerted 
 an  influence  at  once  so  practically  helpful  and  wide- 
 spread, as  Theodore  Fliedner  and  John  Henry  Wi- 
 chern. They  brought  trained  service  for  Christ's 
 sake  to  the  sick,  the  neglected,  and  the  criminal. 
 They  marked  a  new  era  in  the  Church  life  of  Bvan- 
 geHcal  Christendom. 
 
 The  Reformed  Church  was  not  unaffected  by  the 
 Revolution  and  the  speculations  of  German  theology ; 
 but  independently  of  them  it  had,  like  the      ^^^ 
 Presbyterians  of  England  and  the  Congre-    Evangelical 
 gationalists  of  Eastern  Massachusetts,  be-   ,^*;"'"*=** '" 
 
 .  .      _       .     .  '  Switzerland 
 
 come  largely  Socinian  or  Arian.  The  most  and 
 marked  feature  of  the  religious  life  of  this  '''•«""• 
 period  was  the  new  awaking  which  came  to  the  lands 
 of  Calvin  from  Scotland.  Thus  was  John  Knox's 
 debt  to  Geneva  repaid.  Erskine  and  the  Haldanes 
 brought  the  warmth  of  Evangelical  life  and  teaching 
 which  renewed  the  life  of  this  ancient  Church.     The 
 
136    History  of  the  Christian  Church, 
 
 change  may  be  traced  in  the  religious  experience  and 
 work  of  the  most  distinguished  leaders. 
 
 Jean  Monod  (i  765-1 836)  was  educated  at  Geneva, 
 and  ordained  in  1786.     In  1793  he  married  at  Copen- 
 hagen, and  the  next  year  he  began  his  min- 
 
 Jean  Monod.    .  .         ,        ^  ,      ^,  ,         ^      , 
 
 istry  m  the  French  Church  of  that  city, 
 where  he  remained  for  the  next  fourteen  years.  He 
 then  accepted  a  call  to  Paris,  where  he  labored  as 
 pastor,  1 808-1 835.  He  was  a  "Moderate"  in  his  re- 
 ligious experience,  and  ethical  in  his  preaching.  His 
 character  and  ability  gave  him  wide  influence. 
 
 His  son,   Frederick  Monod  (1794-1863),  was   an 
 eloquent  preacher,  with  a  different  religious  experi- 
 ence and  a  widely  different  influence.     He 
 ^Monod.''     studied  at  Geneva,   1815-1818,  and  while 
 there  he  was  converted  to  a  religious  life 
 through  the  teaching  and  influence  of  Robert  Hal- 
 dane.     In  1825  he  was  called  as  pastor  to  Paris,  where 
 he  founded  the  first  Sunday-school.     From   1820  to 
 1863  he  edited  the  "Archives  of  Christianity." 
 
 In  1848,  in  the  ferment  of  that  time,  he  withdrew 
 from  the  Reformed  State  Church  of  France,  and,  with 
 Count  Agenor  De  Gasparin,  founded  a  Free  Church, 
 "The  Union  Evangelical  Church  of  France."  He 
 came  to  America,  and  raised  funds  to  build  his 
 church.  The  movement,  however,  did  not  acquire 
 any  great  importance. 
 
 A  man  of  greater  ability  and  influence  was  Fred- 
 erick's younger  brother,  Adolphe  Monod  (1802-1856). 
 From   1820  to   1824  he  was  a  student  at 
 Mrnod*      Geneva.     In  the  latter  year  he  was  awak- 
 ened to  the  need  of  a  new  religious  life  by 
 Thomas  Erskine.     In  1826  he  was  pastor  at  Naples, 
 
Evangelical  Christendom.  137 
 
 where  he  was  converted.  The  same  year  he  became 
 pastor  at  Lyons.  After  six  years  he  was  dismissed 
 from  his  Church  on  account  of  his  Evangelical  fervor ; 
 but  he  established  a  new  Church  at  Lyons  on  a  deeper 
 apprehension  of  Evangelical  truth,  and  remained 
 there  for  the  next  six  years.  In  1836  he  was  called 
 to  the  theological  seminary  of  Montauban  as  Professor 
 of  Sacred  Eloquence;  in  1839  he  exchanged  it  for  the 
 chair  of  Hebrew,  and,  in  1841,  this  for  the  chair  of 
 Biblical  Criticism. 
 
 While  at  Montauban  he  published  "  Lucile ;  or, 
 Reading  the  Bible."  In  1847  he  became  pastor  at 
 Paris.  Unlike  his  brother,  he  did  not  leave  the  State 
 Church.  He  preached  in  London  in  1846  during  the 
 sessions  of  the  Evangelical  Alliance.  For  three  years 
 he  lay  dying,  and,  face  to  face  with  death,  he  composed 
 what  has  been  called  a  new  Imitation  of  Christ,  "The 
 Adieux  of  Adolphe  Monod  to  his  Friends  and  to  the 
 Church,"  1 853-1 856.  He  was,  perhaps,  the  most  elo- 
 quent French  preacher  of  his  Church  and  time. 
 
 Of  an  Evangelical  type  even  more  intense  was 
 Abraham  Caesar  Malan  (i 787-1 864).  He  graduated 
 at   Geneva,   and   was   converted    through 
 
 ^    ,  _^   ,  ,  -r^        -        ^  ^    ,        Casar  Malan. 
 
 Robert  Haldane.  From  1809  to  1818  he 
 was  regent  of  the  university.  Because  of  his  Evan- 
 gelical preaching,  he  was  dismissed  from  this  position, 
 and  forbidden  to  preach  in  any  pulpit  in  Geneva. 
 In  the  same  year  he  began  to  hold  "  Reunions,"  or 
 religious  meetings  for  prayer  and  conference.  This 
 met  with  such  success  that  his  name  was  erased  from 
 the  list  of  Genevan  pastors  in  1823.  He  built  the 
 Chapel  of  The  Testimony  on  his  own  property,  in 
 which  to  hold  these  **  Reunions."     From  1823  to  1830 
 
138     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 the  Church  of  The  Testimony  to  which  he  ministered 
 flourished.  Through  a  division  in  the  latter  year, 
 one-third  of  its  members  seceded.  He  then  began 
 preaching-tours  in  Switzerland,  France,  England,  and 
 Holland.  He  published  dififerei:t  works,  among  them 
 a  volume  of  hymns  entitled  "  Songs  of  Zion."  Malan 
 was  a  true  poet,  a  fiery  evangelist,  and  a  faithful 
 pastor.  His  hymn,  "  It  is  not  death  to  die,"  is  one 
 of  the  noblest  written  in  the  nineteenth  century. 
 
 Jean  Henri  Merle,  who  took  his  maternal  grand- 
 mother's name  of  D'Aubigne  (i 794-1872),  was  con- 
 verted while  a  student  through  the  influ- 
 ence of  Robert  Haldane.  In  18 17  he 
 studied  in  Germany  under  Neander  and  DeWette. 
 From  1818  to  1823  he  was  pastor  of  the  French 
 Church  at  Hamburg,  and  in  1823  to  1830  court 
 preacher  at  Brussels.  In  1830  he  returned  to  Geneva, 
 and  in  1833  he  withdrew  from  the  State  Church  and 
 joined  the  Free  Church,  of  which  he  remained  a 
 member  until  his  death.  He  was  during  these  years 
 Professor  of  Church  History  at  Geneva.  His  "  His- 
 tory of  the  Reformation  in  the  Sixteenth  Century," 
 1835-1853  (new  edition  in  5  vols,  (1861-1862),  and 
 "  History  of  the  Reformation  in  the  Time  of  Calvin," 
 8  vols.  1 862-1877,  are  his  chief  works.  They  show 
 acquaintance  and  use  of  the  sources  and  sympathy 
 with  the  Reformers  and  with  the  Evangelical  faith, 
 but  they  are  too  highly  colored  and  too  partial  for 
 reliable  guides.  Of  the  first  of  these  works  in  the 
 English  translation  it  is  said  that  two  hundred 
 thousand  copies  were  sold  in  England  and  four 
 hundred  thousand  in  the  United  States. 
 
Evangelical  Christendom.  139 
 
 Alexander  Rodolphe  Vinet  (1797- 1847)  was,  as  a 
 thinker  and  a  writer,  a  much  abler  man  than  D'Au- 
 bigne.  In  originality  of  thought  and  bril-  p^x^xaxiA^r 
 liancy  of  style  he  recalls  Pascal.  Sainte  Rodoiphe 
 Beuve  called  him,  as  a  literary  critic,  sa-  '^•"®*- 
 gacious,  precise,  and  far-seeing.  He  was  educated  at 
 Lausanne,  and  for  twenty  years,  181 7-1837,  taught 
 French  language  and  literature  at  Basel.  In  1823 
 he  was  converted,  and  in  1829  he  was  ordained  to  the 
 Christian  ministry.  About  this  time  he  married  his 
 cousin,  Mdlle.  Rotaz.  In  1824-25  he  distinguished 
 himself  in  a  debate  on  religious  liberty.  The  opinions 
 then  formed  grew  stronger  until  his  death.  From 
 1837  to  1845  he  taught  Practical  Theology  at  I^au- 
 sanne,  and  made  his  reputation  as  "  the  most  original 
 of  the  theologians  of  the  French  language  since  Cal- 
 vin." In  1845  he  resigned  his  professorship,  and 
 joined  the  Free  Church.  The  last  two  years  of  his 
 life  he  taught  French  I^iterature  at  Lausanne.  His 
 chief  works  are  five  volumes  of  "  Sermons,"  '*  Out- 
 lines of  French  Literature,"  "History  of  French 
 Literature  of  the  Eighteenth  Century,"  and  "Studies 
 of  Pascal  and  Kant." 
 
 Personally,  Vinet  was  modest,  humble,  and  pain- 
 fully timid.  Vinet  was  not  a  systematic  thinker; 
 but  few  men  are  more  suggestive,  and  all  he  has 
 written  has  clearness,  precision,  and  grace.  A 
 few  sentences  will  show  his  peculiar  value.  Faith 
 he  defines  as  "  a  life  in  communion  with  an  object 
 which  it  knows,"  and  again  as  the  "Gospel  under- 
 stood by  the  heart."  Of  Christianity  he  says  :  "  Does 
 not  Christianity  in  its  last  analysis  consist  only  of 
 
140     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 this,  to  reproduce  all  that  Christ  has  done?  It  is 
 necessary  that  we  relive  spiritually  all  the  life  of 
 Christ ;  and  to  be  in  the  truth,  that  only  is  to  know 
 the  truth." 
 
 The  record  of  these  men  and  their  work  will  give 
 some  idea  of  the  new  life  in  the  Evangelical  Church 
 in  France  and  Switzerland. 
 
Chapter  VL 
 the  evangelical  church  in  england. 
 
 The  history  of  the  Christian  Church  in  England 
 during  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  is  a 
 history  of  great  achievements  and  of  the  beginning 
 of  a  great  movement,  which,  emphasizing  historic  and 
 institutional  Christianity,  has  made  itself  felt,  directly 
 and  indirectly,  throughout  Evangelical  Christendom. 
 The  Oxford  Movement,  with  all  its  limitations  and 
 defects,  still  was  the  great  moral  force  and  exponent 
 of  ecclesiastical  life  in  English  Christianity  in  the 
 nineteenth  century.  It  did  not  come  into  being 
 itself,  but  was  born  of  the  fullness  and  earnestness  of 
 English  religious  life  flowing  from  the  Evangelical 
 Revival.  It  did  not  stand  alone,  but  about  it  were 
 the  vigorous  forces  of  the  Evangelical  and  Broad 
 Church  parties  in  the  English  Church,  and  of  the 
 Evangelical  Dissenters,  never  before  so  vigorous  and 
 aggressive.  Over  against  these  were  the  differing 
 shades  of  unbelief,  Utilitarian  and  later  Positivist, 
 whose  organ  was  the  Westmmster  Review^  and  whose 
 creed  was  a  political  and  religious  liberalism.  This 
 period  was  one  of  laying  the  foundation  on  which 
 other  generations  should  build;  in  it  also  were  the 
 usual  sporadic,  and  sometimes  permanent,  manifesta- 
 tions of  sectarianism,  individualism,  and  also  of  com- 
 munistic endeavor.  The  vigorous  religious  life  of 
 England  and  Scotland  affected  that  of  the  Evangelical 
 
 141 
 
142     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 Churches  of  the  Continent,  and  it  was  also  influenced 
 in  a  degree  by  the  religious  life  of  the  United  States 
 of  America. 
 
 The  course  of  English  history,  and  even  that  of 
 the  Church  of  England,  was  very  little  influenced  in 
 
 The  Arch-    ^^  ^^^^  ^^^^  ^^  ^^^^  ccutury  by  the  occu- 
 
 bishopsof    pants  of  the  See  of  Canterbury.      They, 
 Canterbury.  ^^^  ^  ^^^^^  portion  of  the  English  Episco- 
 pate, preserved  the  traditions  of   the    Georgian   era 
 but  little  modified. 
 
 Charles  Manners  Sutton's  ( 1 755-1 828)  chief  claim 
 to  ecclesiastical  promotion  was  his  aristocratic  con- 
 
 Archbishop  ^^^ctlon,  his  fine  personal  appearance,  and 
 Sutton,      his  attractive  manners.     Of  average  intel- 
 
 1805-1828.  jgj,^^^2  ability,  his  moral  character  and 
 influence  were  good.  He  was  the  son  of  lyord  George 
 M.  Sutton,  and  the  grandson  of  the  Duke  of  Rutland. 
 Charterhouse  and  Cambridge  were  responsible  for  his 
 intellectual  training.  He  took  his  Master's  degree  in 
 1780.  In  1785  he  received  the  two  family  livings  of 
 Aversham  and  Whit  well.  In  1791  he  became  Dean 
 of  Peterborough ;  the  next  year  Bishop  of  Norwich, 
 to  which  was  added,  two  years  later,  the  oflSce  of 
 Dean  of  Windsor.  To  such  rapid  promotion  there 
 could  come  but  one  other.  On  the  death  of  Arch- 
 bishop Moore,  in  1805,  he  was  made  Archbishop  of 
 Canterbury,  which  ofl&ce  he  held  until  his  death  in 
 1828.  The  chief  event  of  his  administration  of 
 twenty-three  years  was  the  sale  of  the  ancient  country 
 seat  of  the  archbishops  at  Croydon,  and  the  purchase 
 in  its  stead  of  Addington.  Sutton  opposed  the  Roman 
 Catholic  Emancipation  Bill,  but  favored  the  removal 
 of  political  disabilities  from  the  Nonconformists. 
 
The  Evangelical  Church,  143 
 
 William  Howley  (i 765-1 848),  was  the  son  of  an 
 English  vicar,  and  did  not  owe  his  promotion  to  his 
 connections  so  much  as  to  the  fact   that,   .    ...  . 
 
 '    Arcnbisnop 
 
 after  graduation,  he  was  tutor  to  the  Prince  Howiey, 
 of  Orange  at  Oxford.  There  he  took  his  '828-1848. 
 degrees  in  1787  and  1791.  In  1794  he  became  Fellow 
 of  Winchester,  and  in  1804  canon  of  Christ  Church, 
 Oxford.  From  1809  to  18 13  he  was  Professor  of  Di- 
 vinity at  Oxford.  In  these  years  he  did  not  avoid 
 pluralities,  holding  the  Vicarage  of  Bishop-Sutton 
 from  1796,  that  of  Andover  from  1802,  and  the  rectory 
 of  Bradford-Powell  from  181 1.  From  1813  to  1828  he 
 was  Bishop  of  London.  He  sided  with  the  king 
 against  Queen  Charlotte,  and  is  quoted  as  saying  in 
 connection  with  the  trial  that  **  The  king  could  do  no 
 wrong,  either  morally  or  physically."  From  1828  to 
 1848  he  was  Archbishop  of  Canterbury. 
 
 He  was  a  consistent  Tory,  opposing  the  Roman 
 Catholic  Emancipation  and  the  Reform  Bills.  He 
 greatly  improved,  in  repairing  at  large  expense,  Lam- 
 beth palace,  the  city  residence  of  the  archbishops. 
 There  is  nothing  in  his  record  to  change  Greville's 
 opinion  that  **he  was  a  ^ery  ordinary  man." 
 
 The  next  occupant  of  the  English  primacy  was  a 
 much  stronger  man.  John  Bird  Sumner  (i  780-1 862) 
 was  a  student  and  an  author  of  books  once  ^    ...  ^ 
 
 ArcnDisnop 
 
 widely  read.      He  received  his  education  at    sumner, 
 Eton,  and  King's  College,  Cambridge,  tak-   '848-862. 
 ing  his  degrees  in  1803  and  1807.     In  1802  he  received 
 a  Fellowship  at  King's,  and  became  assistant  master  at 
 Eton.     The  next  year  he  was  ordained  and  married. 
 
 Pluralities  do  not  seem  to  have  avoided  him  in 
 their  course.     In  1817  he  became  Fellow  of  Eton ;  the 
 
144     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 next  year  the  valuable  living  of  Maple-Durham  came 
 to  him.  From  1820  to  1848  he  was  also  prebend  of 
 Durham;  and  from  1828  to  1848  he  was  Bishop  of 
 Chester;  and  from  1848  to  1862,  Archbishop  of  Can- 
 terbury. He  was  a  popular  writer,  and  published, 
 1815-1829,  "Evangelical  Theology."  Intellectually 
 and  religiously,  he  leads  the  Archbishops  of  Canter- 
 bury for  the  preceding  one  hundred  years. 
 
 We  may  briefly  indicate  some  of  the  general  char- 
 acteristics of  this  period.     It  was  an  era  of  preaching. 
 Never  did  preaching  count  for  so  much  in 
 
 Preaching:.    _^       ...      ^,     .      .       .  _  .     ,       - 
 
 English  Christianity.  It  was  a  period  of 
 political  oratory  addressed  to  great  mass-meetings. 
 These  were  the  years  of  the  Catholic  Emancipation, 
 of  the  Reform  Bill,  of  the  Repeal  of  the  Corn  Laws, 
 and  of  the  Chartist  movement.  They  were  also  the 
 years  of  the  influence  and  power  of  the  great  religious 
 assemblies  and  anniversaries  at  Exeter  Hall. 
 
 The  political  and  social  reforms  of  those  days  were 
 carried  more  by  public  meetings  and  oratory  than  by 
 the  press.  This  which  was  true  in  political  life,  where 
 shone,  as  agitators,  Daniel  O'Connell,  William  Cob- 
 bett,  Richard  Cobden,  and  John  Bright,  as  well  as 
 Parliamentary  orators  like  Macaulay,  Lord  Stanley, 
 and  young  Gladstone,  was  even  more  true  of  the  re- 
 ligious life  of  England. 
 
 The  Evangelicals  had  men  whose  throne  was  the 
 pulpit,  and  who  always  spoke  to  crowded  houses. 
 Such  were  John  Newton,  the  converted  slaver,  and 
 author  of  the  Olney  Hymns ;  Rowland  Hill,  Richard 
 Cecil,  Charles  Simeon,  and  William  Jay.  In  the  Bap- 
 tist pulpit  were  Robert  Hall  and  Andrew  Fuller.  The 
 Methodists  excelled  all  others  in  this  form  of  popular 
 
The  Evangelical  Church.  145 
 
 religious  address.  They  had  great  preachers.  Such 
 were  Richard  Watson,  Robert  Newton,  and  Jabez 
 Bunting.  Then  their  itinerants  and  local  ministers 
 brought  the  gospel  to  the  common  people  as  never 
 before  since  Christianity  was  planted  in  Britain.  The 
 itinerants  preached  week-nights  as  well  as  Sundays, 
 and  often  averaged  over  three  hundred  sermons  a 
 year.  In  this  way  the  English  people,  especially  the 
 middle  and  lower  classes,  became  thoroughly  indoc- 
 trinated with  the  teaching  of  the  gospel. 
 
 The  substance  of  this  preaching  was  a  personal 
 appeal  to  begin  a  Christian  life,  and  then  for  the  young 
 convert  to  seek  to  persuade  others  to  follow  ^^^^  g,|s„ 
 his  example,  and  to  engage  in  active  Chris-  and 
 tian  work.  With  this  was  set  forth  a  high  ^'«*'°"*- 
 standard  of  moral  character  and  of  self-denial  for 
 Christ's  sake.  This,  of  course,  meant  always  an  ear- 
 nest Evangelism,  and  led  at  once  to  the  founding  and 
 support  of  Christian  missions.  Everywhere  they  were 
 born  of  the  Evangelical  Revival,  which  showed  to 
 the  world  Christianity  in  earnest.  The  Baptist  Mis- 
 sionary Society  was  the  first  of  these  organizations. 
 It  was  founded  in  1792,  and  sent  out  its  first  mis- 
 sionary, William  Carey,  in  1793.  The  great  London 
 Missionary  Society  came  next  in  1795,  and  the  Church 
 of  England  Missionary  Society  came  next  in  1797.  A 
 year  later  began  the  work  of  the  Scotch  and  Glasgow 
 Missionary  Societies.  In  1829  the  Scotch  Church 
 sent  Alexander  Duff  to  Calcutta.  The  United  Presby- 
 terian Mission  was  founded  in  1835,  and  the  Free 
 Church  Mission  in  1843. 
 
 Thus  came  into   being  the  Wesleyan  Missionary 
 Society  in  18 13,  the  General  Baptist  Missionary  Society 
 
 JO 
 
146     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 in  181 5,  the  Primitive  Methodist  Missionary  Society 
 in  1842,  and  the  English  Presbyterian  Missionary  So- 
 ciety in  1844.  A  different  line  of  work  was  taken  up 
 by  the  Edinburgh  Medical  Mission  in  1 84 1 .  Work  had 
 been  begun  among  the  Jews  in  1808,  and  in  South 
 America  in  1844. 
 
 The  impulse  of  this  movement  extended  to  other 
 Evangelical  lands.  The  Danish  and  Moravian  mis- 
 sions dated  from  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth 
 century.  Other  Missionary  Societies  were  now 
 founded, — the  Netherlands,  1797;  Basel  Evangelical, 
 1815;  Danish,  1821;  Paris  Evangelical,  1822;  Berlin, 
 1823;  Rhenish,  1828;  Swedish,  1837;  Norwegian, 
 1842;  North  Germany  (at  Bremen),  1835;  The  Evan- 
 gelical Mission  Union  of  Berlin,  in  1842.  Thus  be- 
 gan the  great  Evangelical  Foreign  Mission  movement, 
 which,  before  the  century  ended,  placed  the  Christian 
 Scriptures  in  nearly  all  the  tongues  spoken  by  men, 
 and  preached  the  gospel  in  all  lands. 
 
 The  zeal  for  foreign  missions  only  quickened  that 
 for  home  missions.  The  work  of  the  religious  in- 
 struction  of  the  young  was  felt  to  be  of 
 
 Education.      ,        _  .  ^^ ,  <-»        i 
 
 the  first  importance.  The  great  Sunday- 
 school  movement,  instituted  by  Robert  Raikes  in 
 1780,  had  five  years  later,  it  is  estimated,  two  hundred 
 and  fifty  thousand  scholars ;  soon  it  passed  from  the 
 teaching  of  the  rudiments  of  a  secular  education  to 
 purely  religious  instruction,  and  from  teachers  paid 
 for  their  services  to  those  who  gave  them  voluntarily 
 to  this  work.  These  were  the  great  modifications  on 
 which  depended  its  future  success.  Then,  through 
 the  work  of  the  Bible  and  Tract  Societies,  came  cheap 
 Testaments  and  Bibles,  and  the  founding  of  Sunday- 
 
The  Evangelical  Church.  147 
 
 school  music,  and  the  Sunday-school  press  just  began 
 to  make  evident  their  importance  at  the  close  of  this 
 period.  Sunday-school  architecture  is  of  later  date. 
 The  oldest  of  the  Sunday-school  Societies,  the  I^ondon 
 Sunday-school  Union,  was  organized  in  1803.  By 
 1850  it  is  estimated  that  there  were  in  English-speak- 
 ing lands  six  millions  of  Sunday-school  scholars  in 
 the  Evangelical  Churches.  This  interest  in  religious 
 education  did  not  slacken  the  interest  of  its  promoters 
 in  the  secular  education  of  the  children  of  the  people, 
 and  they  were  forward  in  all  the  plans  to  that  end 
 until  the  passage  of  the  English  Education  Act  of 
 1873- 
 
 John  Wesley  led  the  way  in  the  publication  of 
 tracts  and  in  the  establishment  of  a  powerful  religious 
 periodical  press.     He  sought  to  organize 
 his  tract  work  in   1782.     Hannah  More's  TheR^'J^'ous 
 
 ,  '  Press. 
 
 religious  tracts  began  in  1795.  The  first 
 year  two  millions  of  copies  were  sold.  This  led  to 
 the  formation  of  the  London  Religious  Tract  Society 
 in  1799;  in  18 10  it  began  to  publish  works  suitable  to 
 the  Sunday-school.  Before  its  semi-centennial  it  had 
 published  its  tracts  in  one  hundred  and  twenty-three 
 different  languages,  and  co-operated  with  Evangelical 
 missions  in  every  land. 
 
 The  religious  periodical  press,  first  largely  utilized 
 by  Wesley,  and  distinctly  developed  among  those  fa- 
 voring the  Evangelical  Revival  so  as  to  be  the  ex- 
 pression of  its  life,  has  since  found  its  place  among 
 all  Churches  and  religious  organizations.  Next  to  the 
 pulpit  it  is  the  most  efiBcient  means  of  reaching  the 
 masses  of  the  people,  and  of  guarding  and  elevating 
 the  moral  and  religious  life  of  nations.     Since  the  ab- 
 
148     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 olition  of  press  censorship  in  all  Christendom  except 
 Russia,  it  has  come  to  unexampled  circulation  and  in- 
 fluence. It  rests  upon  popular  education,  and,  though 
 increasing  each  decade  in  scope  and  power,  may  be 
 said  to  be  in  its  infancy,  as  an  organized  power,  to 
 present  Christ,  to  appeal  to  man's  religious  nature,  to 
 show  the  relation  of  Christianity  to  all  human  inter- 
 ests, and  to  bring  in  the  kingdom  of  God. 
 
 Baron  Canstein's  Bible  Society  was  founded  in 
 1 7 10,  and  up  to  1843  it  had  circulated  five  millions  of 
 copies  of  the  Bible  and  three  millions  of 
 Societies,  copics  of  the  Ncw  Testament  in  the  Ger- 
 man tongue.  This  Society  sprang  from  the 
 Pietistic  movement.  So  the  Evangelical  Revival  re- 
 sulted in  the  founding  of  the  British  and  Foreign 
 Bible  Society  in  1804.  This  was  largely  through  the 
 initiative  of  Rev.  Mr.  Charles,  a  clergyman  of  the 
 Church  of  England  at  Bala  in  Wales,  and  Rev.  Joseph 
 Hughes,  a  Baptist. 
 
 From  the  same  need  and  impulse  later  came  the 
 American  Bible  Society.  In  1805  the  first  New  Testa- 
 ment was  printed  from  stereotyped  plates;  this  at 
 once  greatly  reduced  the  price.  Before  the  century 
 ended,  a  New  Testament  could  be  bought  for  two 
 cents ;  within  sixty  years  of  its  founding  it  had  issued 
 over  fifty  millions  of  copies  of  the  Bible,  or  parts  of 
 it,  and  had  published  it  in  more  than  one  hundred 
 languages  and  dialects. 
 
 The  labors  of  the  Bible  Societies  are  the  founda- 
 tion of  all  Sunday-school,  Evangelistic,  and  mission- 
 ary work  of  Evangelical  Christendom  throughout  the 
 world.  Though  they  may  not  publish  one-half  of  the 
 Bibles  sold  and  read,  yet  it  is  through  their  eJBforts 
 that  there  is  the  immense  demand  for  them,  and  that 
 
The  Evangelical  Church.  149 
 
 they  are  in  price  within  the  reach  of  all  classes.  On 
 this  immense  popular  circulation  of  the  Christian 
 Scriptures  in  the  language  of  the  people  rests  the 
 power  of  the  Evangelical  pulpit  and  Sunday-school, 
 the  intelligence  and  moral  character  of  Evangelical 
 Christendom,  the  permanence  of  its  influence,  and 
 the  assurance  of  a  higher  type  of  civilization. 
 
 This  period  was  marked  by  an  expenditure  of 
 money  before  unparalleled  for  religion  and  charitable 
 purposes.  Robert  Newton,  the  secretary 
 of  the  Wesleyan  Missionary  Society,  is 
 said  to  have  raised  more  money  for  these  purposes 
 than  any  other  man  of  his  time.  Where  money  was 
 given  for  such  ends,  there  was  a  noticeable  refine- 
 ment in  manner  and  decrease  in  gross  forms  of  self- 
 indulgence.  The  spirit  of  Christ  in  them  sought  out 
 the  poorest  and  most  degraded  to  make  them  par- 
 takers of  the  riches  and  righteousness  of  Christ. 
 Elizabeth  Fry,  of  the  Society  of  Friends,  will  always 
 be  a  notable  example  of  this  tendency. 
 
 Upon  the  political  history  of  the  time  the  deepest 
 impression  was  made  by  the  abolition  of  the  slave- 
 trade  and  the  emancipation  of  the  slaves  in 
 the  British  Colonies.  This  was  carried  out 
 by  the  Evangelical  party,  aided  by  the  political  Liber- 
 als, but  against  the  vested  interests  in  the  Established 
 Church  as  well  as  those  in  the  commercial  and  political 
 world.  There  are  few  brighter  pages  in  the  history 
 of  the  influence  of  the  Evangelical  Revival.  The 
 men  and  their  successors  of  the  same  faith  who  stood 
 by  Wilberforce  and  Buxton  stood  by  the  reforms  for- 
 ever associated  with  the  names  of  Sir  Rowland  Hill 
 and  Lord  Shaftesbury. 
 
 This  is  certainly  a  record  of  great  achievements 
 
I50     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 for  half  a  century.  The  movement  or  party  which 
 surpasses  it  has  yet  to  come  into  existence.  These 
 results  were  largely,  indeed  almost  altogether,  the 
 work  of  men  within  and  without  the  Church  of  Eng- 
 land who  were  called  Evangelicals,  and  who  were  the 
 product  or  the  heirs  of  the  Evangelical  Revival  of  the 
 eighteenth  century. 
 
 We  will  now  consider  them  more  in  detail. 
 
 At  the  opening  of  the  century  John  Wesley  had 
 been  dead  nearly  nine  years,  but  the  spirit  of  the 
 Evangelical  Revival  ruled  the  aggressive  and  construc- 
 tive religious  life  of  England.  The  achievements  of 
 this  life,  above  noted,  were  the  achievements  of  that 
 spirit.  But  the  finest  fruit  of  a  great  religious  move- 
 ment, and  its  most  permanent  result,  both  for  time 
 and  eternity,  is  in  human  character.  This  is  the  test 
 from  which  the  Evangelical  Christians  of  the  early 
 part  of  the  century  need  not  shrink.  Our  own  lives 
 will  be  richer  for  their  acquaintance. 
 
 Two  of  the  most  eminent  of  the  Evangelical 
 preachers  of  the  metropolis,  John  Newton  and  Row- 
 john  Newton  ^^^^  ^^\\  were  sketched  in  the  preceding 
 
 and  volume.  Newton  will  be  remembered  by 
 Rowland  Hill,  j^-^  -Authentic  Narrative  "  of  his  early  life 
 and  conversion,  by  some  of  the  most  justly  popular 
 of  the  hymns  of  the  Evangelical  Revival,  and  by  his 
 spiritual  letters  in  his  "  Cardiphonia,"  and  elsewhere. 
 In  the  latter  kind  of  writing  he  was  unexcelled  in 
 the  English  Church. 
 
 But  more  important  than  these  was  the  service  in 
 his  generation  in  winning  many  to  a  Christian  life. 
 Among  these  were  such  men  and  women  as  rarely 
 owe  their  conversion  to  a  single  preacher.     The  list 
 
The  Evangelical  Church,  151 
 
 included  Thomas  Scott,  the  commentator;  William 
 Wilberforce;  Claudius  Buchanan,  noted  as  an  Indian 
 chaplain;  Hannah  More,  Charles  Simeon,  and  Wil- 
 liam Jay;  the  latter  regarded  by  Jabez  Bunting,  no 
 mean  judge,  as  the  ablest  preacher  of  his  time.  Old 
 and  blind,  but  richly  blest  of  God  in  soul  and  work, 
 in  1807,  John  Newton  went  to  his  rest. 
 
 Rowland  Hill  continued  his  ministry  for  more 
 than  thirty  years  in  the  new  century.  He  filled  Sur- 
 rey Chapel  in  lyondon,  and  each  summer  made 
 preaching  tours  in  rural  England  after  the  manner  of 
 Wesley. 
 
 The  ablest  of  the  second  generation  of  preachers 
 of  the  Evangelical  party  in  London  was  Richard 
 Cecil  (1748-18 10).     Born  after  his  mother 
 
 nr[  '  J  .       •         Richard  Cecil. 
 
 was  fifty  years  ot  age,  and  much  in- 
 dulged, he  showed  a  special  preference  for  literature 
 and  art.  He  became,  after  the  reigning  fashion,  an 
 infidel  and  profligate.  A  mother's  love  did  not  for- 
 sake him,  and,  like  Monica,  she  saw  the  child  of  her 
 love  turn  to  God  to  become  eminent  in  his  service. 
 Converted  in  1772,  after  four  years  at  Oxford  he  was 
 ordained  in  1777.  For  three  years  he  held  two  small 
 livings  in  Sussex.  In  1780  he  was  called  to  St. 
 John's,  Bedford  Row,  London,  where  he  ministered 
 for  nearly  thirty  years.  He  held  the  Sussex  livings 
 for  seventeen  years  while  in  residence  in  London. 
 When  he  resigned  them  in  favor  of  his  curate,  who 
 had  performed  the  service  they  required,  he  accepted 
 two  others  in  Surrey,  where  he  remained  three 
 months  each  year,  and  wrought  much  good  by  his 
 preaching. 
 
 Cecil    surpassed    all    his    contemporaries    in    the 
 
152     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 Evangelical  pulpit  by  the  originality  of  his  thought 
 and  the  force  of  his  style.  His  "  Sermons  "  and  "  Re- 
 mains" attest  his  piety  and  the  vigor  of  his  mind. 
 
 Charles  Simeon  (i 759-1 836)  v^ho  led  the  Evangel- 
 ical party  in  the  Church  of  England,  was  born  of  a 
 good  family  in  1759.  His  brother  was  Sir 
 Simeon.  John  Simeon,  the  first  baronet,  and  he  was 
 educated  at  Eton.  From  this  training 
 school  of  the  nobility  he  went  to  King's  College, 
 Cambridge.  There  he  was  converted  to  a  religious 
 life  in  1779.  He  became  a  Fellow  in  1782,  and  was 
 ordained  the  following  year.  He  was  appointed  rec- 
 tor of  Holy  Trinity,  Cambridge,  the  same  year,  and 
 so  remained  until  his  death  in  1836.  He  was  an  ear- 
 nest Evangelical,  and  at  first  was  disliked,  but  his 
 service  in  pestilence,  his  high  character,  and  his 
 powerful  preaching  won  the  day.  He  influenced,  as 
 no  other  man  in  England,  for  more  than  forty-five 
 years,  the  academic  youth  at  Cambridge.  Bishop 
 Charles  Wordsworth  says  he  "had  a  large  following 
 of  young  men — larger  and  not  less  devoted  than  that 
 which  followed  Newman,  and  for  a  longer  time."  He 
 was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Church  Missionary 
 Society  and  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society. 
 Another  enterprise  which  he  founded  can  hardly  find 
 favor  in  the  eyes  of  American  Christians ;  that  was  a 
 fund  for  acquiring  and  administering  Church  patron- 
 age so  as  to  secure  a  succession  of  Evangelical  pas- 
 tors. In  his  later  years  he  was  a  venerated  leader, 
 and  his  influence  was  felt  in  Cambridge  fifty  years 
 after  his  death.  His  "  Skeleton  Sermons  on  the 
 Bible,"  in  eleven  volumes,  brought  him  $25,000. 
 Three-fifths  of  this  he  gave  away — one-fifth   to   the 
 
The  Evangelical  Church.  153 
 
 Church  Missionary  Society,  one-fifth  to  the  Society 
 for  the  Conversion  of  the  Jews,  and  one-fifth  for  the 
 education  of  the  clergy. 
 
 John  Venn  was  the  son  of  Wesley's  friend,  and 
 the  rector  of  Clapham.  Henry  Venn,  his  son  (1796- 
 1873)  succeeded  Simeon  as  the  leader  of  j^j^^  y^^^ 
 the  Evangelical,  or  Low  Church  party  in  and 
 the  Church  of  England.  Henry  Venn  be-  "^"'^  ^^""• 
 came  Secretary  of  the  Church  Missionary  Society  in 
 1 84 1,  and  held  that  office  until  his  death.  In  these 
 years  he  sent  out  five  hundred  clergymen  to  foreign 
 mission  fields.  In  character,  as  well  as  attainments, 
 he  stood  worthily  in  the  third  generation  of  Evangel- 
 ical preachers. 
 
 This  movement  produced  remarkable  characters 
 among  the  laymen  attached  to  it.  Quite  a  number 
 resided  at  Clapham  Common,  London,  whence  they 
 were  at  one  time  ridiculed  as  the  Clapham  sect. 
 England  has  never  known  a  nobler  or  more  devoted 
 group  of  men.  In  this  circle  lived  at  once  the  best 
 traditions  of  the  Puritan  Reform  and  of  the  Evan- 
 gelical Revival.  They  supported  Pitt  and  his  policy 
 during  the  wars  against  Napoleon,  but  favored  the 
 Liberal  measures,  the  Roman  Catholic  Emancipation 
 and  the  Reform  Bill  of  1832. 
 
 At  the  head  of  these  men  stood  William  Wilber- 
 force  (i 759-1 833).  The  man  who  abolished  the  Afri- 
 can slave-trade  in  the  British  Empire,  and 
 
 -      .      .  .,  i        i  .  ,  ,  .  William 
 
 made  it  impossible  that  it  could  exist  any-   wiiberforce. 
 where,    deserves  honor   among  the    great 
 benefactors  of  mankind.     Eminent  as  a  Christian,  he 
 was  also  the  polished  gentleman,  welcomed  in  all  cir- 
 cles.    Madame  de  Stael  declared,  after  meeting  him, 
 
154     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 that  the  most  religious  was  the  wittiest  man  in  Eng- 
 land. 
 
 Wilberforce  was  heir  to  a  large  fortune,  his  father 
 having  died  when  he  was  nine  years  old.  He  was  edu- 
 cated at  St.  John's,  Cambridge,  and  at  twenty-one  was 
 elected  to  Parliament  from  his  native  town,  Hull. 
 This  election  cost  him  between  forty  and  forty-five 
 thousand  dollars.  Going  up  to  London,  he  was  a 
 universal  favorite,  and  plunged  into  the  fashionable 
 dissipation  of  the  time,  joining  five  clubs.  One  even- 
 ing he  won  in  gambling  three  thousand  dollars,  much 
 of  it  from  men  who  could  not  afford  to  lose  it.  From 
 that  time  he  would  have  nothing  to  do  with  such 
 play.  In  1784  he  was  elected  to  Parliament  from 
 Yorkshire,  which  seat  he  retained  for  the  next  thirty 
 years,  although  the  election  for  1807  cost  him  $185,- 
 000,  while  it  cost  his  opponents  a  million  of  dollars. 
 Often,  however,  he  was  returned  without  a  contest. 
 He  was  a  warm  friend  of  William  Pitt,  whose  lead 
 he  generally  followed  in  political  action ;  but  he  was 
 an  advocate  of  Roman  Catholic  Emancipation  as  early 
 as  1 81 3.  His  character,  his  charm  of  manner,  his  ab- 
 solute disinterestedness,  made  him  respected  and 
 influential  with  men  of  all  parties.  As  no  other 
 man  he  was  often  an  umpire  between  them.  To 
 lessen  his  cares,  from  1812  to  1825  he  sat  for  the  small 
 borough  of  Bramber,  thus  filling  out  forty-five  years 
 of  continuous  service  in  the  British  Parliament. 
 
 In  September  and  October,  1784,  he  took  a  trip  on 
 the  Continent  with  his  mother  and  Isaac  Milner,  the 
 Church  historian,  with  whom  he  read  the  Greek  Testa- 
 ment and  Doddridge's  "  Rise  and  Progress  of  True  Re- 
 ligion."    This  was  the  means  of  his  religious  conver- 
 
The  Evangelical  Church. 
 
 155 
 
 sion  at  the  age  of  twenty-five.  On  his  return  he  met 
 John  Newton,  who  became  his  spiritual  adviser.  In 
 1787  he  founded  the  Society  for  the  Reformation  of 
 Manners,  which,  in  1802,  became  the  Society  for  the 
 Suppression  of  Vice.  In  1796  he  published  his  "Prac- 
 tical View  of  Christianity,"  which  was  a  kind  of  plat- 
 form of  the  Evangelical  party.  It  was  translated  into 
 French,  Italian,  Spanish,  and  Dutch;  by  1824  it  had 
 passed  through  fifteen  editions  in  England  and  twenty- 
 five  in  America.  Wilberforce  was  active  in  all  plans 
 for  the  education  and  morals  of  the  people  and  in  the 
 cause  of  missions.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
 Church  Missionary  and  Bible  Society,  and  in  181 5 
 promoted  the  Parliamentary  action  which  founded  the 
 See  of  Calcutta. 
 
 The  abolition  of  the  slave-trade  and  of  slavery  had 
 been  agitated  by  the  Quakers  both  of  England  and 
 America.  In  1783  was  founded  the  first  society  for 
 the  discouragement  of  the  slave-trade.  In  1785  Dr. 
 Peckard,  vice-chancellor  of  the  University  of  Cam- 
 bridge, offered  a  prize  for  a  I^atin  essay  on  human 
 slavery.  Thomas  Clarkson  won  the  prize,  and  it  was 
 published  the  next  year  with  the  title  **  Essay  on  the 
 Slavery  and  Commerce  of  the  Human  Species."  This 
 was  the  first  important  and  successful  literary  attack 
 on  the  monstrous  system. 
 
 In  May  22,  1787,  a  committee  for  the  abolition  of 
 the  slave-trade  was  founded  under  the  presidency  of 
 the  Quaker  reformer,  Granville  Sharp.  Wilberforce 
 had  before  independently  been  studying  the  question, 
 and  in  1787  he  assumed  the  leadership  of  the  move- 
 ment in  Parliament,  though  he  did  not  join  the  Society 
 until  some  years  later.     Among  those  who  so  joined 
 
156     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 were  Josiah  Wedgwood,  Z2iQ\i2xy  Macaulay,  James 
 Stephen,  and  Lord  Brougham.  In  1788,  Pitt  carried  a 
 motion  of  inquiry  into  the  slave-trade.  In  1792, 
 Wilberforce  carried  through  the  Commons  a  bill  to 
 suppress  the  trade  after  1796.  The  tactics  of  the 
 slave-dealers  was  to  delay  all  action ;  year  after  year 
 bills  would  be  presented,  only  to  fail.  In  1806  it  was 
 evident  that  the  measure  must  succeed.  It  passed, 
 and  became  a  law,  March  25,  1807.  The  Act  of  181 1, 
 making  slave-trading  a  felony  and  punishable  with 
 transportation,  put  a  stop  to  the  trafl&c.  In  1823, 
 Wilberforce  became  a  member  of  the  Antislavery 
 Society  which  brought  about  the  abolition  of  slavery 
 in  the  British  Colonies  the  year  after  his  death. 
 
 From  ill-health  Wilberforce  retired  from  Parlia- 
 ment in  1825.  The  last  effort  of  an  eloquence  which 
 had  charmed  two  generations  was  made  in  a  speech 
 for  the  Antislavery  Society  in  1830.  Wilberforce  for 
 many  years  actively  supported  Parliamentary  Reform, 
 which  came  in  1832.  In  1831  he  lost  his  fortune,  and 
 died  July  29,  1833.  Wilberforce  married  in  1798. 
 Three  of  his  children  became  clergymen.  Henry  and 
 Robert,  in  the  progress  of  the  Oxford  Movement, 
 went  over  to  the  Church  of  Rome;  their  children, 
 however,  did  not  follow  them.  Robert  was  the  best 
 theologian  of  those  connected  with  that  party.  Samuel 
 Wilberforce,  Bishop  of  Oxford,  and  afterward  of  Win- 
 chester, was  the  most  eminent  bishop  of  the  century 
 in  the  Church  of  England,  and  one  of  the  most  emi- 
 nent orators  of  a  generation  which  heard  Bright  and 
 Gladstone.  In  character,  devotion,  and  success,  Wil- 
 liam Wilberforce  stands  at  the  head  of  the  reformers 
 of  the  nineteenth  century.      Their  names,   like  his, 
 
The  Evangelical  Church.  157 
 
 lend  undying  glory  to  the  work  of  the  Christian 
 Church.  Because  they  lived  and  wrought,  habitations 
 of  cruelty  and  lust,  and  systems  of  injustice,  have 
 perished  from  the  earth,  and  public  opinion  more  in- 
 creasingly and  successfully  applies  to  human  society 
 the  principles  of  the  teaching  of  Jesus  Christ. 
 
 A   neighbor  of   Wilberforce   at   Clapham,   and   a 
 relative  by  marriage,  was  the  banker,  Henry  Thorn- 
 ton (1760-18 1 5).     Thornton  was  for  thirty 
 years  a  governor  and  director  of  the  Bank    i^l^^^^ 
 of    England    and  for    thirty -three    years, 
 1 782-1 8 1 5,  a  member   of   Parliament.      He    was   an 
 authority  in  all  financial  measures,  and  aided  in  draw- 
 ing up  the  celebrated  Bullion  Report.     This  man  was 
 an  earnest  Evangelical   layman.     He  was  active  in 
 every  good  cause.     Before  his  marriage  he  gave  away 
 six-sevenths,  and  after  it  one-third,  of  an  income  that 
 ranged  from  $45,000  to  $60,000  a  year.     His  son  was 
 an  eminent  banker. 
 
 A  neighbor  and  friend  of  Wilberforce  and  Thorn- 
 ton, and  a  man  who  warmly  sympathized  with  their 
 views   was    James   Stephen    (i 758-1832), 
 who  married  for  his  second  wife^  the  wid-    Stephen 
 owed   sister  of  William  Wilberforce.      He 
 was  a  member  of  Parliament,  1808-18 15,  and  a  master 
 in  Chancery  from  181 1  to  183 1.    His  son,  the  author  of 
 **  Essays  in  Ecclesiastical  Biography,"  was  Sir  James 
 Stephen  (i  789-1859),  who  married  the  daughter  of  the 
 rector  of  Clapham,  Rev.  John  Venn,  and  was  a  warm 
 Evangelical.     He  was  under-secretary  for  the  British 
 Colonies  from  1836  to  1847,  and  afterwards  Professor 
 of  History   at  Cambridge.      One  of  his  sons  was  the 
 historian   of  English  Criminal   Law,   and  judge,  Sir 
 
158     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 Fitz  James  Stephen;  another  is  Iveslie  Stephen,  the 
 English  essayist  and  editor  of  the  "  English  National 
 Dictionary  of  Biography,"  in  sixty-four  volumes. 
 
 Another  noted  Evangelical  layman  was  Zachary 
 Macaulay  (i  768-1838).  Early  in  life  Macaulay  was  in 
 the  West  Indies  in  mercantile  pursuits,  and 
 Ma^atTiLy.  there  imbibed  a  bitter  hatred  of  the  slave- 
 trade.  From  1 793  to  1 799,  with  a  brief  inter- 
 val in  England,  he  had  charge  of  the  colony  of  liber- 
 ated slaves  in  Sierra  Leone.  In  the  latter  year  he 
 married.  He  was  secretary  of  the  Sierra  Leone  So- 
 ciety, with  a  salary  of  $2,500  per  year,  and  later,  with 
 his  brother-in-law,  Thomas  Babington,  engaged  in  the 
 West  African  trade.  He  prospered  for  many  years, 
 and  considered  himself  worth  $100,000,  but  in  1819 
 there  came  symptoms  of  disaster.  Later  the  firm  did 
 not  fail,  but  ceased  to  exist,  and  Macaulay's  sons 
 labored  for  years  to  discharge  the  last  of  their  father's 
 debts.  Zachary  Macaulay  was  a  man  of  cultivated 
 and  thoughtful  mind;  he  spoke  and  wrote  French 
 with  ease  and  precision.  He  was  the  soul  of  the 
 movement  to  abolish  the  slave-trade.  He  was  not  an 
 orator,  but  he  supplied  the  facts.  He  knew  the  busi- 
 ness on  both  sides  of  the  ocean.  Few  men  worked 
 harder  for  the  great  result,  and  few  cared  less  for 
 praise.  His  son  was  the  celebrated  orator,  politician, 
 essayist,  and  historian.  Lord  Macaulay  (1800-1859), 
 one  of  the  great  characters  and  great  masters  of  Eng- 
 lish prose  in  the  record  of  a  great  century. 
 
 Lord  Macaulay  was  the  first  man  of  mark  in  letters 
 to  do  justice  to  the  Puritans.  To-day  his  judgments, 
 strange  then,  are  those  of  the  world. 
 
 Zachary  Macaulay,  was  earnest  and  self-denying; 
 
The  Evangelical  Church.  159 
 
 but  his  piety  was  of  a  gloomy  type,  and  his  vSon,  while 
 professing  himself  a  Christian,  was  far  from  being  an 
 Evangelical.  Zachary  Macaulay's  grandson,  George 
 Otto  Trevelyan,  has  made  a  lasting  name  in  both  Eng- 
 lish politics  and  letters.  There  are  few  biographies 
 so  interesting  in  any  language  as  *'  The  Early  Days 
 of  Charles  James  Fox"  and  "The  Life  and  Letters  of 
 Lord  Macaulay."  It  is  pleasant  to  know  that  Tre- 
 velyan's  "  Life  of  Wyclif "  by  his  son,  maintains  the 
 reputation  of  the  family. 
 
 Nor  did  the  Evangelical  circle  lack  in  women  of 
 ability  and  character.  Hannah  More  (i 745-1 833) 
 was  the  daughter  of  a  schoolmaster  near 
 Bristol.  Her  father  taught  her  Latin  and  ^^^^^ 
 mathematics,  and  her  elder  sister,  French. 
 She  afterward  learned  Spanish  and  Italian.  At 
 twenty-two  she  became  engaged  to  a  Mr.  Turner,  a 
 gentleman  of  property  and  character,  but  of  a  very 
 eccentric  disposition.  The  marriage  was  postponed 
 by  him  from  time  to  time  until  she  was  thirty  years 
 of  age.  The  engagement  was  then  broken  off,  and 
 Miss  More  determined  never  to  marry.  Turner  left 
 her  $5,000,  and  $1,000  a  year  during  her  life. 
 From  this  time  she  began  to  be  the  friend  of  Garrick, 
 of  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  and  of  Dr.  Johnson.  Gar- 
 rick's  death  in  1779  made  a  change  in  her  life,  and 
 weaned  her  from  gay  society.  But  for  twenty  years 
 she  spent  her  winters  with  his  widow. 
 
 She  had  begun  to  write  before  twenty,  and  at 
 twenty-two  had  published  a  play,  which  was  acted 
 with  favor.  In  1785,  Newton's  "  Cardiphonia,"  and 
 two  years  later  his  sermons,  made  a  great  impression 
 upon  her.     He  became  her  spiritual  counselor,  and  at 
 
i6o     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 that  time  her  active  religious  life  began.  In  1788 
 she  published  her  "Thoughts  upon  the  Manners  of 
 the  Great,  and  Their  Importance  to  General  Society." 
 The  next  year  she  retired  from  her  school  work  with 
 her  four  unmarried  sisters,  having  acquired  a  compe- 
 tency, at  the  age  of  forty-four.  In  the  same  year 
 she  gathered  some  five  hundred  neglected  children 
 at  Cheddar,  in  Somersetshire,  and  founded  a  school 
 for  them.  She  also  established  three  other  schools, 
 which  ran  successfully  for  forty  years.  She  would 
 not  teach  the  children  to  write  lest  it  should  unfit 
 them  for  their  station  in  life,  but  they  were  taught 
 to  read  and  also  good  manners  and  morals.  She  also 
 wrote  religious  tracts  at  the  rate  of  three  a  month  for 
 three  years.  These  sold  by  the  million  at  two  cents 
 each,  and  led  to  the  establishment  of  modern  Tract 
 Societies.  In  1809  she  published  her  most  successful 
 work,  "Coelebs  in  Search  of  a  Wife."  Her  profit 
 was  $10,000. 
 
 All  her  works  have  a  high  moral  purpose,  and 
 show  a  strong  common  sense.  She  was  a  decided 
 Evangelical,  and  in  sympathy  with  the  great  work  of 
 that  party. 
 
 Hannah  More  died  at  the  age  of  eighty-eight,  uni- 
 versally respected.  Lord  Macaulay's  mother  had 
 been  one  of  her  pupils,  and  he  was  a  great  favorite 
 with  her.  She  left  a  fortune  of  $150,000.  In  her 
 life  and  character  were  strongly  developed  the  Kvan- 
 gelical  virtues  of  common  sense,  industry,  thrift,  and 
 generosity. 
 
 Elizabeth  Fry  (i  780-1845)  was  the  most  successful 
 female  philanthropist  of  this  age.    She  was  the  daugh- 
 
The  Evangelical  Church.  i6r 
 
 ter  of   the  Quaker  banker,  John  Gurney.     Through 
 the  preaching  of  an  American  Quaker  she  was  con- 
 verted.    At  twenty   she   was   married  to 
 Joseph  Fry,  by  whom   she  had   a   large 
 family  of  children,  to  whom  she  was  a  devoted  mother. 
 
 After  her  father's  death,  at  twenty-nine,  much 
 against  her  wishes,  she  felt  called  to  preach.  From 
 that  time  she  was  a  preacher  among  the  Friends. 
 At  thirty-three  she  began  her  work  among  the  female 
 prisoners  at  Newgate.  Here  women  of  all  ages  and 
 conditions,  the  convicted  criminal  and  the  woman, 
 perhaps  innocent  and  held  for  trial,  were  huddled  to- 
 gether. Here  they  ate  and  slept  on  the  floor  in  the 
 garments  they  wore  by  day.  The  begging,  cursing, 
 and  fighting,  she  said,  were  beyond  description.  The 
 language  and  scenes  were  so  vile  that  she  could  not 
 take  a  young  person  with  her.  She  began  by  clothing 
 the  naked,  and  providing  for  evident  physical  necessi- 
 ties; then  she  arranged  to  teach  them  the  rudiments 
 of  a  common  education.  In  all  her  work,  having 
 gained  their  confidence,  the  Bible  was  the  center. 
 The  American  Minister  at  the  Court  of  St.  James 
 said  he  had  seen  a  greater  marvel  than  Westminster 
 Abbey  or  St.  Paul's ;  he  had  seen  Elizabeth  Fry  read- 
 ing to  attentive  listeners  at  Newgate. 
 
 In  1 817  she  formed  an  ''Association  for  Female 
 Prisoners."  She  traveled  on  the  Continent.  She  was 
 received  by  Louis  Philippe,  and  her  influence  was 
 especially  potent  in  Germany.  Much  she  learned 
 from  Fliedner  at  Kaiserwerth  of  the  value  of  trained 
 service.  In  18 19  and  1820  she  founded  shelters  for 
 the  homeless,  and  later  a  society  to  aid  discharged 
 
1 62     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 prisoners.  In  1828  her  husband  lost  his  fortune;  but 
 she  continued  until  the  end  of  life  her  work  as 
 preacher  and  reformer.  These  years  aflford  no  picture 
 of  more  Christlike  service  than  that  of  Elizabeth  Fry 
 reading  God's  Good  News  to  the  prisoners  at  New- 
 gate. 
 
 To  this  noble  group  of  elect  spirits,  in  sympathy 
 and  aim,  were  connected  the  bankers  who  were  the 
 fathers  of  Cardinals  Newman  and  Manning,  and  the 
 family  of  William  E.  Gladstone.  This  is  a  group  of 
 men  and  women  of  whom  any  Church  might  be 
 proud.  They  laid  firm  and  deep  the  foundations  on 
 which  the  Church  of  England  has  since  built. 
 
 The  religious  life  of  the  Independents,  Baptists, 
 Presbyterians,  and  of  course  the  Methodists,  in  this 
 centur)^  was  predominantly,  if  not  exclusively. 
 Evangelical.  This  was  true  of  all  Nonconforming 
 Churches,  except  the  Unitarians  and  the  Universalists. 
 
 The  oldest  of  these,  the  Presbyterians,  never  re- 
 covered from  their  overthrow  by  Cromwell,  and  their 
 worse  disaster,  their  lapse  into  Unitarian- 
 
 Presbyterians.    .  ...  .  . 
 
 ism,  or  Arianism,  m  the  eighteenth  cen- 
 tury. This  took  most  of  their  property  and  member- 
 ship. They  were  kept  alive  in  their  original  form 
 and  purpose  mainly  from  affiliation  with  the  Church 
 of  Scotland.  These  formed,  in  1836,  the  Synod  of 
 the  Presbyterian  Church  in  England.  In  1843  came 
 the  founding  of  the  Free  Church  of  Scotland.  Those 
 who  adhered  to  the  Scotch  Establishment  took  the 
 old  name;  those  who  clave  to  the  Free  Church  took 
 the  name  of  United  Presbyterians.  In  1872  the 
 former  body  had  twenty-three  thousand  communi- 
 cants, and  the  latter  seventeen  thousand. 
 
The  Evangelical  Church.  163 
 
 In  this  period  the  English  Independents  formally 
 adopted  the  name  of  Congregationalists.  They  are  a 
 much  more  numerous  and  influential  body 
 than  the  Presbyterians.  In  18^^  was  TheConjfre- 
 formed  the  Congregational  Union  for  Eng- 
 land and  Wales.  The  London  Missionary  Society  is 
 largely  under  their  influence  and  receives  their  contri- 
 butions. In  this  period  Henry  Rogers,  the  author 
 of  the  "Eclipse  of  Faith,"  John  Angel  James,  a  fer- 
 vent Evangelical  minister,  and  Thomas  Binney,  well 
 sustained  the  record  for  Evangelical  piety  and  influ- 
 ence made  by  Isaac  Watts  and  Philip  Doddridge  in 
 the  preceding  century.  In  1880  the  Congregational- 
 ists in  England,  Wales,  Scotland,  and  Ireland,  were 
 estimated  at  three  hundred  and  sixty  thousand. 
 
 These  years  were  years  of  growth  and   influence 
 in  the  Baptist  Churches  of  Great  Britain. 
 Their    leading    writer    and    representative '^*'^  ^'*^"''*''* 
 man  was  Andrew  Fuller  (1754-18 15). 
 
 At  twenty-one   he   began    to    preach,   with   very 
 slight  educational  advantages.     At  the  age  of  twenty- 
 eight    he    became    pastor    of    the    Baptist 
 Church    in    Kettering,    Northamptonshire,     ^^l^^ 
 
 1-1  1    ,  •  ,         ,     ,  ,  Fuller. 
 
 which  relation  he  held  until  his  death, 
 thirty-three  years  later.  In  1784,  in  a  sermon,  he 
 showed  his  interest  in  missions.  The  Baptist  Mis- 
 sionary Society  was  organized  at  his  church  in  1792. 
 He  became  its  first  secretary  and  main  promoter.  Its 
 success  was  more  largely  due  to  him  than  to  any 
 other  man.  He  was  the  first  of  the  modern  mission- 
 ary secretaries.  Fuller  was  an  earnest  controversial- 
 ist and  a  voluminous  writer.  He  sought  to  draw  the 
 Baptist  Churches  to  a   moderate   Calvinism,  and   to 
 
1 64     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 guard  against  the  Antinomian  tendencies  of  its  ex- 
 treme type. 
 
 A  name  ever  honored  in  Baptist  annals  is  that  of 
 
 William  Carey  (1761-1834).     Carey  was  the  first  of 
 
 modern  English-speaking  missionaries,  and 
 
 ca'iey"  ^^^  ^^^^  ^^  ^^^^  ^°^^^  ^^^^  ^^  pioneer 
 translators  who  not  only  gave  to  heathen 
 millions  the  Bible  in  their  own  tongue,  but  made 
 those  languages  accessible  to  Europeans  by  their 
 learned  labors  in  preparing,  as  the  work  of  their  lives, 
 grammars  and  dictionaries  for  their  companions  and 
 successors  in  the  work  of  Christian  missions.  Carey's 
 father  taught  a  small  school.  From  him  he  received 
 the  rudiments  of  an  English  education.  At  the  age 
 of  fourteen  he  was  apprenticed  to  a  shoemaker.  At 
 twenty-two  he  joined  the  Baptist  Church.  In  1786, 
 just  married,  and  so  poor  that  he  seldom  ate  meat, 
 he  became  pastor  of  the  Baptist  Church  at  Multon. 
 He  now  worked  at  Greek,  Latin,  and  Hebrew.  From 
 1789  to  1792  he  was  pastor  at  Leicester.  He  was 
 present  at  the  founding  of  the  Baptist  Missionary  So- 
 ciety in  1792.  He  offered  himself  as  a  missionary  to 
 India,  saying  to  Andrew  Fuller  in  miner's  phrase,  "  I 
 will  go  down  if  you  will  hold  the  rope."  He  arrived 
 at  Calcutta,  November,  1793,  and  found  the  cost  of 
 living  so  high  that  he  was  soon  out  of  funds.  He  ac- 
 cepted a  position  in  an  indigo  factory  at  Maldah, 
 where  he  worked  for  five  years,  1 794-1 799.  In  1795 
 he  established  a  church  near  the  factory,  and  devoted 
 himself  to  learning  the  vernacular. 
 
 In  1799  he  established  himself  with  Marshman 
 and  Ward  and  their  families  under  Danish  jurisdic- 
 tion at  Serampore.     There  he  founded  a  school  and  a 
 
The  Evangelical  Church.  165 
 
 mission  press.  His  main  work  for  the  rest  of  his 
 life  was  mastering  the  native  tongues  and  making 
 them  accessible  to  his  countrymen. 
 
 In  1 801  he  became  Professor  of  Sanscrit  and 
 Mahratta  in  the  college  at  Fort  William.  In  1805  he 
 published  a  Mahratta  grammar,  and  opened  a  chapel 
 in  Calcutta.  This  mission  spread  until,  in  18 14,  it 
 had  twenty  stations.  In  1806  he  published  a  Sanscrit 
 grammar;  in  18 12,  one  of  Punjabi;  18 14,  one  of 
 Telinga;  1826,  one  of  Bhotana.  These  were  followed 
 by  dictionaries.  In  1806-18 10  he  published  an  Eng- 
 lish translation  in  three  volumes  of  the  great  Sanscrit 
 and  Hindoo  Epic,  "The  Ramayana."  But  all  this 
 work  was  but  preparatory  or  auxiliary  to  his  transla- 
 tion of  the  Bible  into  Bengali,  Mahratta,  and  Tamil. 
 Full  of  years  and  honored  by  all  who  knew  him, 
 this  remarkable  pioneer  scholar  and  missionary 
 founder  passed  to  his  rest  in  1834. 
 
 Unquestionably  the  interest   in   foreign    missions 
 Strengthened  the  Baptist  Church  in  Eng- 
 land.    Its  influence  was  greatly  extended    g^g^^nd.' 
 by  one  of  the  ablest  preachers  of  his  gen- 
 eration, Robert  Hall. 
 
 Robert  Hall  (i 764-1 831),  the  son  of  a  Baptist 
 preacher,  was  the  youngest  of  fourteen  children.  He 
 joined   the   Church   at    fourteen,  and    the 
 
 ,      ,  ,  .      ^  ^  ^  Robert  Hall. 
 
 next  year  preached  his  first  sermon.  After 
 three  years  of  preparatory  training,  he  spent  three 
 years  at  Aberdeen  University,  where  he  graduated  in 
 1784.  For  the  next  five  years  he  was  pastor  at  Bris- 
 tol, and  for  the  following  sixteen  at  Cambridge, 
 1 785-1 806,  working  hard,  and,  ignorant  of  the  evil 
 effects  of  narcotics,  through  the  use  of  tobacco  and 
 
1 66     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 laudanum,  the  latter  in  large  quantities,  he  became 
 mentally  unbalanced. 
 
 For  two  periods,  November  26,  1804,  to  February 
 19,  1805,  and  November  26,  1805,  to  February,  1806, 
 he  was  in  an  insane  hospital.  In  1806  he  experienced 
 a  religious  change,  which  he  called  his  real  conver- 
 sion. In  1808  he  married.  Robert  Hall  preached  in 
 Leicester,  1 807-1 826,  and  again  at  Bristol,  1 826-1 831. 
 Hall  was  a  powerful  preacher.  His  native  eloquence 
 and  thorough  preparation  made  his  sermons  attractive 
 to  large  circles  of  persons  who  never  before  attended 
 a  Baptist  chapel.  His  works  are  published  in  five 
 volumes. 
 
 Another  Baptist  minister  who  never  had  large  con- 
 gregations, and  who  was  unable  to  hold  even  small 
 ones,    but   who,    through    the    vigor    and 
 
 John  Foster -,.,  ^  ,-  - 
 
 origmality  of  his  thought  and  the  power  of 
 his  pen,  brought  honor  to  the  Baptist  name,  was  John 
 Foster  (i  770-1 843).  His  father  was  a  Baptist  farmer. 
 At  seventeen  he  joined  the  Church,  and  soon  after 
 began  to  preach.  For  three  years  he  studied  with 
 Rev.  John  Fawcett,  the  Baptist  author  of  "  Blest  be 
 the  tie  that  binds."  He  spent  a  year  at  the  Baptist 
 College  at  Bristol.  From  1793  to  1796,  with  a  year's 
 interval,  he  was  in  Ireland.  In  1805  he  made  a  name 
 for  himself  by  his  celebrated  "  Essays."  For  the  rest 
 of  his  life  he  gave  himself  to  literature,  though  he 
 tried  preaching  without  success,  181 7-1 821.  For 
 thirty-three  years,  1 806-1 839,  he  was  a  regular  con- 
 tributor to  the  Eclectic  Review.  In  politics  Foster  was 
 a  republican,  and  in  religion  had  little  use  for  Church 
 organizations  or  ordinances.  Original  in  his  thought 
 he  was  an  intense  individualist.     In  1881  the  Baptists 
 
The  Evangelical  Church.  167 
 
 in  the  British  Islands  numbered   two   hundred   and 
 eighty-one  thousand. 
 
 The  largest  of  the  Nonconforming  Churches  was 
 the  Methodist.  It  made  unbroken  progress  during 
 this  entire  period  in  numbers.  It  came  to 
 be  no  longer  a  society,  but  a  regularly-  Methomsts. 
 organized  Church.  In  1813  its  Missionary 
 Society  was  established.  In  1834  its  theological  insti- 
 tution was  founded,  which  now  has  four  colleges.  In 
 1836  its  ministers  were,  and  since  have  been,  ordained 
 by  the  imposition  of  hands.  In  1803  its  first  com- 
 mittee with  laymen  upon  it  was  appointed.  In  18 15 
 they  were  given  seats  in  the  District  Meetings.  From 
 that  time  for  the  next  twenty  years  they  were  given  in- 
 creased power  and  participation  in  the  management  of 
 the  funds  and  departments  of  the  work  of  the  Church. 
 This  was  the  favorite  policy  of  Jabez  Bunting.  The 
 first  secession  of  this  era  was  that  of  those  who  founded 
 the  Primitive  Methodists. 
 
 The  Conference  in  1807  pronounced  against  camp- 
 meetings.  They  were  an  American  novelty,  which 
 did  not  find  favor  in  the  eyes  of  the  Wesleyan  brethren. 
 Two  ministers  of  that  body,  Hugh  Bourne  and  Wil- 
 liam Clowes,  formed  on  that  issue,  in  18 10,  a  body 
 of  men  devoted  mainly  to  Evangelism.  They  have 
 been  a  laborious  and  successful  Church.  In  1880 
 they  numbered  one  hundred  and  eighty  thousand 
 members.  In  181 5  a  similar  secession  took  place  in 
 Cornwall  under  the  leadership  of  a  minister  named 
 O' Bryan.  They  called  themselves,  Bible  Christians, 
 and  in  1880  they  numbered  twenty  thousand.  The 
 other  secessions  were  born  largely  of  the  political 
 unrest  and  democratic  tendencies  of  the  time. 
 
i68     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 Jabez  Bunting,  the  ruling  spirit  in  the  Wesleyan 
 body  for  these  fifty  years,  favored  Roman  Catholic 
 Emancipation  and  the  antislavery  movement.  If  he 
 favored  a  Reform  Bill,  it  was  with  important  modifi- 
 cations. In  1824  he  stated  that  democracy  and  Meth- 
 odism were  a  contradiction  in  terms.  While  he 
 favored  an  increasing  lay  element  on  committees  of 
 administration,  he  sought  to  keep  the  power  in  the 
 hands  of  the  pastors.  In  1828  there  came  a  seces- 
 sion at  Leeds  because  of  the  erection  of  an  organ  in 
 the  Brunswick  Street  Chapel.  Although  it  had  been 
 allowed  by  the  Conference,  it  was  felt  to  be  the  be- 
 ginning of  the  entrance  of  class  and  social  distinc- 
 tions in  the  primitive  equality  of  the  Methodist  body; 
 for  although  John  Wesley  loved  organ  music,  yet  the 
 majority  of  the  Methodist  chapels  could  not  afford 
 organs.  This  secession  took  the  name  of  Protestant 
 Methodist ;  they  were  absorbed  in  the  pronounced 
 movement  of  1836.  In  that  year  Dr.  Samuel  War- 
 ren, author  of  *'  Ten  Thousand  a  Year,"  off'ended  at 
 the  founding  of  a  theological  institute  which  he  at 
 first  favored,  with  others  who  were  disaffected  through 
 the  ordination  of  ministers  by  laying  on  of  hands, 
 formed  a  secession  known  as  the  Wesleyan  Associa- 
 tion, which  absorbed  the  Protestant  Methodists.  In 
 a  few  months  Dr.  Warren  became  a  clergyman  in  the 
 Church  of  England. 
 
 These  defections  did  not  affect  the  steady  increase 
 in  the  membership.  The  centennial  offering  of  1839 
 was  over  a  million  dollars.  But  from  1844  to  1849 
 there  came  a  movement  which  led  to  serious  disaster. 
 
 In  1836  the  Quarterly  Conference  was  given  the 
 right  of  direct  petition  to  the  Conference,  but  with  so 
 
The  Evangelical  Church.  169 
 
 many  restrictions  as  to  make  it  worthless.  This  caused 
 irritation,  and  awakened  suspicion.  There  began  to 
 be  circulated  anonymous  fly-leaves  reflecting  in  severe 
 and  scurrilous  terms  upon  Dr.  Bunting,  his  policy,  and 
 his  friends.  Finally,  at  the  Manchester  Conference  in 
 1849,  William  Griffith,  James  Everett,  and  Samuel 
 Dunn  were  expelled  from  the  Conference  without  an 3^ 
 notice  of  charges,  without  trial,  and  without  any  evi- 
 dence which  showed  any  violation  of  law  or  obliga- 
 tions. This  high-handed  proceeding  resulted  in  the 
 formation,  in  1850,  of  the  Reformed  Methodists  and 
 the  Methodist  Reformed  Union.  This  absorbed  the 
 Wesleyan  Association  of  1836;  but  the  two  branches 
 came  together  in  1857,  when  they  numbered  forty- 
 one  thousand  members.  The  loss  to  the  Wesleyan 
 connection  in  the  next  five  years  was  one  hundred 
 thousand  members,  or  one-third  of  the  body.  The 
 Wesleyans  numbered,  in  1800,  one  hundred  and  nine 
 thousand ;  in  1850,  three  hundred  and  fifty-eight  thou- 
 sand members.  This  remarkable  growth  came  from 
 a  full  and  faithful  preaching  of  the  Gospel,  and 
 through  the  devoted  labors  of  many  itinerants  of  the 
 third  generation,  led  by  some  men  of  remarkable  gifts 
 and  attainments.  Such,  among  others  were,  Adam 
 Clarke,  Richard  Watson,  Robert  Newton,  and  Jabez 
 Bunting. 
 
 Adam  Clarke  (i  762-1 832)  was  born  near  London- 
 derry, Ireland,  and  was  educated  at  the  Kingswood 
 School.     He  became  a  Methodist  at  sixteen, 
 
 ,  ,  .  .  .      ^  Adam  Clarke. 
 
 and  four  years  later  began  to  travel  his  first 
 circuit.     He  preached  in  Ireland,   Scotland,  and  the 
 Shetland  and  Channel  Islands.     After  1805  his  home 
 was  in  I^ondon.     In  all  these  years,  while  excelling  as 
 
lyo     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 a  preacher,  he  was  indefatigable  in  his  studies.  He 
 read  in  Greek  and  Latin,  first  the  classics,  and  then 
 the  Fathers.  Then  he  turned  his  attention  to  Orien- 
 tal languages,  learning  Hebrew,  Syriac,  Arabic,  Per- 
 sian, Sanscrit,  and  others.  From  1808  to  18 18  he  was 
 employed  to  collect  and  arrange  the  documents  for 
 Rymer's  **  Foedera."  The  first  volume  and  the  first  part 
 of  the  second  appeared  under  his  editorship.  He  made 
 important  contributions  to  bibliography,  was  greatly 
 interested  in  geology,  and  was  a  member  of  many 
 learned  societies.  His  most  important  work  was  his 
 "  Commentary"  on  the  whole  Bible  in  eight  volumes, 
 published  18 10-1826.  This  work  shows  good  sense 
 and  scholarship,  though  never  the  work  of  a  specialist. 
 It  did  good  work,  and  a  large  part  of  it  still  has  value, 
 though  no  one  man  could  satisfactorily  accomplish 
 such  a  task.  In  character,  purity,  disposition,  and 
 learning,  Adam  Clarke  was  an  ornament  to  the  Chris- 
 tian Church.  He  was  three  times  president  of  the 
 Conference. 
 
 A  very  difierent  order  of  mind,  but  a  man  of  not 
 less  ability,  was  Richard   Watson  (i 781-1833).     His 
 
 father  was  a  saddler,  and  in  religion  a  Cal- 
 watson.    vinistic  Dissenter.  Richard  was  the  seventh 
 
 of  eighteen  children,  and  acquired  a  good 
 education,  including  a  knowledge  of  Latin,  before  he 
 was  fourteen,  when  he  was  apprenticed  to  a  carpenter. 
 The  next  year  he  preached  his  first  sermon.  He 
 was  already  six  feet  two  inches  in  height.  The  same 
 year  he  was  received  on  trial,  and  five  years  later  in 
 full  connection  in  the  ministry.  He  married  the 
 daughter  of  Alexander  Kilham,  the  founder  of  the 
 Methodist  New  Connection.     He  affiliated  with  that 
 
The  Evangelical  Church.  171 
 
 body  for  three  years  from  1803,  but  rejoined  the  Wes- 
 leyans  in  1806,  and  was  again  received  in  the  Confer- 
 ence in  18 12.  He  was  active  in  the  founding  of  the 
 Wesleyan  Missionary  Society,  and  was  its  secretary 
 from  i8i6to  1827,  and  from  1832  until  his  death. 
 From  1827  to  1832  he  traveled  as  a  circuit  preacher. 
 Devotedly  pious  and  humble  as  a  preacher  of  rare 
 intellectual  power,  he  ranked  with  Thomas  Chalmers 
 and  Robert  Hall. 
 
 He  is  the  author  of  a  popular  Biblical  Dictionary, 
 good  for  its  time.  His  great  work,  however,  is  his 
 **  Theological  Institutes,"  which,  more  than  any  other 
 work,  has  been  the  standard  of  Methodist  theology. 
 Though  now,  of  course,  largely  superseded  by  a  new 
 metaphysic  and  the  new  studies  of  Biblical  theology 
 and  Biblical  Criticism,  yet  for  its  purpose  it  has  an 
 undecaying  value,  and  received  high  commendation 
 from  men  differing  from  many  positions  he  holds, 
 such  as  Dr.  John  Brown,  of  Edinburgh,  and  Dr.  Hodge 
 and  Dr.  J.  W.  Alexander,  of  Princeton.  It  will  ever 
 be  a  standard  in  Arminian  theology. 
 
 The  great  master  of  the  platform  as  of  the  pulpit 
 of  these  years  was  Robert  Newton  (i  780-1 854).     He 
 was  self-educated,  and  at  eighteen  began 
 preaching,  being  admitted  to  the  Confer-     Newton. 
 ence  on  trial  the  next  year.     In  1803  he 
 was  stationed  at  Glasgow.     In  181 2  he  was  appointed 
 to  London,  and  from  that  time   until  his  death  he 
 probably  addressed  more  persons  than  any  other  man 
 of  his  generation.     To  a  musical  voice,  manly  bear- 
 ing,  and    pleasing   delivery,   he   added   not   original 
 thought,  but  rare  vigor  of  mind.     He  was  the  prince 
 of  missionary  advocates,  and  is  said  to  have  raised 
 
172     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 more  money  for  missions  and  charities  than  any  other 
 minister  of  his  time.  He  was  four  times  president  of 
 the  Conference.  In  1839-40  he  visited  the  United 
 States.  A  volume  of  sermons  shows  the  range  and 
 value  of  his  thought. 
 
 The  legislator  and  administrator  of  Methodism, 
 its  ruling  spirit  for  fifty  years,  was  Jabez  Bunting 
 (1779-1858).  Jabez  Bunting  was  born  of 
 Buntfng.  pio^s  parents,  and  early  converted.  He  had 
 not  the  advantages  of  scholastic  training, 
 but  secured  a  good  English  and  Latin  training,  with 
 the  manners  of  good  society,  from  his  residence  in 
 the  family  of  Dr.  Percival,  of  Liverpool,  who  was  his 
 guide,  counselor,  and  friend,  and  made  him  his  execu- 
 tor. He  joined  the  Conference  in  1799,  and  soon 
 came  to  the  best  appointments.  In  1803  he  was  sec- 
 retary of  the  Conference,  which  ofl&ce  he  held  for 
 many  years.  He  was  four  times  its  president.  For 
 eighteen  years  he  was  secretary  of  the  Missionary 
 Society,  from  1833  to  1851.  When  the  Theological 
 Institute  was  founded,  he  was  chosen  president.  He 
 married  a  lady  with  a  private  fortune  of  $10,000. 
 
 For  fifty  years  he  swa3^ed  the  fortunes  and  ruled 
 the  destinies  of  a  great  Church,  and  his  salary  aver- 
 aged $750  a  year.  From  1803  to  1836  his  influence 
 was  salutary  and  progressive;  from  1836  to  1849, 
 always  conservative  and  often  repressive.  Few  men 
 were  more  maligned  or  more  beloved.  Men  of  all 
 shades  of  opinion  came  to  see  the  genuineness  of  his 
 piety  and  the  sincerity  of  his  motives.  Intellectually, 
 he  was  noted  for  the  clearness,  penetration,  and  sa- 
 gacity of  his  thought  and  judgment.  Wesleyan 
 Methodism  represents  his  thought  in  its  constitution 
 
The  Evangelical  Church.  173 
 
 more  than  that  of  any  other.  As  a  preacher,  he  was 
 clear  and  pungent  and  popular.  More  than  any 
 other  man  he  made  friends  for  Methodism  beyond  its 
 bounds. 
 
 This  group  of  four  untrained  men  who  came  to  em- 
 inence teaches  some  things.  First,  that  Nonconform- 
 ists had  no  opportunity  of  university  edu-  Nonconform- 
 cation  in  England  until  the  founding  of  \sxs  and 
 London  University  in  1827.  They  were 
 not  admitted  to  Oxford  and  Cambridge  until  1871. 
 Robert  Hall  had  to  go  to  a  Scotch  university.  This 
 monopoly  of  university  education  was  the  most  griev- 
 ous sin  of  the  Established  Church  in  this  century. 
 These  facts  teach  also  that  work  is  the  true  educator; 
 but  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  what  was  justifia- 
 ble when  privileges  were  scant  or  impossible  is  pre- 
 sumptuous when  these  are  everywhere  available. 
 This  exclusion  from  the  English  public  schools  and 
 universities  led  to  the  establishment  of  denomina- 
 tional schools  and  theological  institutes  by  Congrega- 
 tionalists,  Baptists,  and  Methodists. 
 
 The  Test  and  Corporation  Acts,  making  Noncon- 
 formists ineligible  for  political  office,  were  not  repealed 
 until  1828,  though  for  years  they  had  been  ignored. 
 In  spite  of  these  disadvantages  in  this  period,  the 
 Nonconforming  Churches  increased  greatly  in  num- 
 bers and  influence.  In  1699  they  were  estimated  at 
 214,000,  or  a  little  over  four  per  cent  of  the  popula- 
 tion, in  1850  at  1,938,000,  or  nearly  eleven  per  cent  of 
 the  inhabitants.  Of  these,  the  Unitarians  and  the 
 Universalists  formed  but  a  small  fraction,  numbering 
 probably  not  more  than  four  hundred  small  congrega- 
 tions. 
 
174     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 From  these  facts  something  of  the  strength  of  the 
 Evangelical  sentiment  in  England  may  be  estimated. 
 SCO  e  of  the  '^^^  "^^^  Church  and  Evangelical  Noncon- 
 Evangeiicai  formists  formed  the  great  majority  of  the 
 Movement,  population.  In  Sympathy  with  them  in 
 doctrine,  practice,  and  sentiment  was  the  strongest 
 element  of  the  Scotch  and  Irish  Churches  and  of  the 
 Churches  of  America.  Yet  the  Evangelical  party  in 
 the  Church  of  England  were  on  the  brink  of  a  disas- 
 trous overthrow;  soon  power  was  to  pass  to  other 
 hands.  What  is  the  explanation  of  this  apparently 
 strange  vicissitude? 
 
 There  can  be  no  question  as  to  the  permanent 
 value  and  influence  upon  the  English  character  and 
 
 nation  of  the  Evangelical  movement,  but 
 Decay  in  the  Hke  all  things  human  it  had  its  defects ; 
 Evangelical    thcsc  camc  to  be  vcry  grave  and  to  demand 
 
 rectification.  The  endeavor  to  do  this 
 marks  the  progress  of  English  Christianity  in  the 
 nineteenth  century. 
 
 The  fundamental  mistake  of  the  Evangelical  lead- 
 ers was  that  their  whole   conception  of  Christianity 
 
 and  the   Christian  life  was  static,  not  dy- 
 ^nanuc*  ^2.mic.     That  is,  it  was  conceived  as  always 
 
 uniform;  they  did  not  admit  the  idea  of 
 growth.  This  was  more  true  of  the  second  and  third 
 generation  than  of  the  founders.  So  the  apostolic 
 type  was  the  rule  of  Christian  experience  and  life. 
 This  was  at  once  to  be  reproduced  in  the  Church  of 
 their  time.  Then,  also,  what  had  been  blessed  at  the 
 first  outbreak  of  the  Evangelical  Revival  was  to  be 
 the  standard  of  teaching,  practice,  and  experience. 
 The  result  was  the  repetition  of  words,  phrases,  and 
 
The  Evangelical  Church.  175 
 
 forms  that  had  once  been  vital,  but  had  now  no  living 
 meaning  to  those  who  repeated  them.  This  is  the 
 penalty  of  every  successful  religious  movement.  It 
 is  so  much  easier  to  say  something  that  was  once  alive 
 and  powerful,  than  to  have  God  make  us  alive  with 
 his  new  living  truth.  Hence  there  was  no  progress 
 in  doctrines  or  in  experience.  There  were  no  new  or 
 larger  intellectual  or  spiritual  horizons.  Thus  there 
 came  upon  them  the  curse  of  narrowness  and  barren- 
 ness. The  world  was  growing  wider  and  full  of  new 
 forces ;  they  were  confining  the  wine  perpetually  new 
 of  the  gospel  in  the  old  bottles.  For  the  Evangelicals 
 there  was  no  new  light  or  truth  to  break  forth  from 
 God's  Word.  There  was  no  room  for  Biblical  criti- 
 cism or  progress  in  theology ;  all  was  stationary.  So 
 in  Christian  experience,  while  they  preached  the 
 greatest  of  truths  in  regard  to  conversion  and  the 
 sanctification  of  believers,  these  were  conceived  of  as 
 states  to  be  retained,  not  as  stages  in  the  growth  of 
 the  new  man  in  Christ  Jesus.  This  was  carried  to 
 such  an  extent  that  the  experience  was  sometimes 
 conceived  as  doing  away  with  moral  conflict  or  ethical 
 endeavor. 
 
 Three  things  marked  this  view:    First,  the  neg- 
 lect  of    personal    pastoral    knowledge    and  sympa- 
 thy.    Preaching  was  relied  upon  to  do  all 
 that  was  needed.      The  guidance  of  souls    ^T*ert* 
 was   left   to    general  inference    from    the 
 preaching. 
 
 Another  result  was  that  in  a  world  whose  intellect- 
 ual outlook  was  immensely  broadening,  and  whose 
 social  conditions  were  becoming  more  and  more  com- 
 plex, there  was  no  effort  made  to  understand  the  sit- 
 
176     History  of  the  Christian  Church, 
 
 uation,  to  make  the  gospel  so  applied  as  to  be  of  trans- 
 forming value.  Few  books  of  deep  or  original 
 thought,  or  of  permanent  value,  came  from 
 Balre^ess.  ^he  Evangelical  Movement.  That  adjust- 
 ment which  must  come,  came  from  other 
 sources.  There  can  be  no  neglect  of  study,  of  the 
 demands  of  the  intellectual  life  of  the  times,  without 
 permanent  loss  of  power  and  influence. 
 
 Another  result  was  the  demand  for  a  tj^pe  of  re- 
 ligion which  should  embrace  the  whole  life;  one  which 
 should  have  place  for  childhood  and  youth, 
 ''"of'ufe**^  for  play  and  recreation;  one  which  could 
 know  and  love  art  and  beauty,  and  could 
 consecrate  and  not  stifle  human  affections;  one  in 
 which  joy  and  gladness  mingled  in  the  strain,  as  well 
 as  pain  and  sorrow ;  in  a  word,  a  religion  which  not 
 only  redeemed,  but  developed  the  whole  man.  The 
 Evangelical  ideal  was  a  high  one,  and  resulted  in  noble 
 characters  in  those  who  endeavored  to  realize  it.  Duty 
 was  the  motive  force,  and  duty  alone  can  make  noble 
 men.  But  the  tendency  was  often  to  gloom,  as  with 
 Zachary  Macaulay.  The  inspiration  of  life  must  know 
 and  make  felt  love  and  joy.  Too  often  this  was  a  for- 
 gotten note  to  be  recovered  in  the  gospel  song. 
 
 We  do  not  have   to   go   to   the   caricaturist,  like 
 
 Dickens,  to  see  perversions  of  Evangelical  teaching. 
 
 To  intellectual  indolence  came  sometimes 
 
 Perversions.  .  ^.^^ 
 
 carelessness  m  manners  and  dress.  Then 
 the  calumny  and  scurrility,  the  uncharitableness  and 
 censoriousness,  revealed  in  the  Fly-leaf  Controversy 
 and  its  calamitous  results,  show  that  there  were  hate- 
 ful faults  deeply  ingrained  in  the  spiritual  life.  Often- 
 times Evangelical  Churchmen  were  the  most  unchris- 
 
The  Evangelical  Church.  177 
 
 tian  in  their  treatment  of  Nonconformists.  Hence 
 there  must  come  to  English  Christianity  a  new  force, 
 to  purify  and  to  supplement  its  religious  life,  that  the 
 building  of  the  new  time  should  not  be  a  mere  repeti- 
 tion of  the  old,  but  that  fairer  structure  which  should 
 enhance  and  show  the  true  worth  of  the  work  and 
 workmen  who  had  preceded  it. 
 
 This  came  on  one  side  from  the  demand  for  a  freer, 
 while  reverent  thought,  and  a  wider  intellectual  hori- 
 zon.     This  Broad  Church  Movement  put  ... 
 
 ,  -.,,,,  ^         The  Broad 
 
 Stress  on  intellectual  honesty,  on  ;making  Church 
 your  own  your  beliefs,  and  on  intellectual  ^"^e*"®"*- 
 hospitality,  a  readiness  to  welcome  all  new  truth  and 
 set  at  once  to  adjust  the  new  message,  whether  from 
 the  rocks  or  from  the  stars,  with  the  old  Evangel. 
 Hence  it  was  intensely  practical  and  ethical  in  its  con- 
 ception of  the  religious  life.  Its  chief  thinker  was 
 Samuel  Taylor  Coleridge. 
 
 A  poet  with  the  most  regal  imagination  since 
 Shakespeare;  a  thinker  whose  comprehensive  grasp 
 and  penetration,  though  his  work  was  most  5^^^, 
 fragmentary,  has  not  been  surpassed  among  Taylor 
 Englishmen  of  the  nineteenth  century,  and  ^°'®"^«®- 
 whose  knowledge  of  the  rarest  qualities  of  the  English 
 language  and  of  English  poetry  by  no  Englishman  of 
 any  time,  was  Samuel  Taylor  Coleridge  (1772- 1834). 
 His  father  was  an  English  clergyman,  and  he  was  the 
 youngest  of  ten  children.  His  father  died  young,  and 
 at  an  early  age  he  was  sent  to  Christ's  Hospital,  where 
 Charles  Lamb  and  Bishop  Middleton,  of  Calcutta, 
 were  among  his  schoolmates.  In  1791  he  entered 
 Jesus  College,  Cambridge.  Having  imbibed  Republi- 
 can opinions  in  politics,  and  Unitarian  ones  in  religion, 
 1% 
 
178     History  of  the  Christian  Church, 
 
 he  became  disgusted  with  university  life,  and  enlisted 
 as  a  common  soldier.  By  the  influence  of  friends  he 
 was  discharged,  and  returned  to  Cambridge.  He  left, 
 however,  the  university  in  1794  without  taking  his 
 degree.  In  the  same  year  he  met  Southey,  and  con- 
 ceived his  scheme  of  a  settlement  on  the  banks  of  the 
 Susquehanna,  where,  in  a  *'  Pantisocracy,"  should  be- 
 gin a  new  era  of  unselfish  brotherhood  for  humanity. 
 
 In  1795,  for  lack  of  funds,  this  was  dropped;  then 
 Coleridge  married  Miss  Sarah  Fricker,  and  Southey 
 married  her  sister.  In  1796  Coleridge  published  his 
 ''Juvenile  Poems,"  for  which  he  received  $150.  He 
 then  made  the  acquaintance  of  Wordsworth,  and 
 with  him,  in  1798,  published  "Lyrical  Ballads,"  in 
 which  appeared  "  The  Ancient  Mariner." 
 
 In  the  same  year,  through  the  liberality  of  the 
 Wedgwood  brothers,  he  went  to  Germany  and  studied 
 German  philosophy  and  literature.  On  his  return, 
 after  a  stay  of  fourteen  months,  he  published  in  1800, 
 a  translation  of  Schiller's  "  Wallenstein,"  which,  as  a 
 translation,  is  unsurpassed  in  our  literature.  The 
 next  year  Coleridge  became  a  victim  of  the  opium 
 habit,  in  whose  bonds  of  bitterness  and  impotence  he 
 was  bound  for  fifteen  years.  When  he  did  at  last 
 break  away  and  recover  himself,  health  and  prospects 
 were  ruined.  He  lived  yet  eighteen  years,  and  made 
 his  marvelous  genius  felt,  but  only  fragments  remain 
 of  the  whole,  strong  and  beautiful,  of  which  he  was 
 capable. 
 
 In  these  years  Coleridge  turned  from  the  Unita- 
 rian faith  and  the  Utilitarian  philosophy.  He  became 
 a  devout  communicant  of  the  Church  of  England, 
 and  sought  on  grounds  of  reason  to  preserve  her  Ks- 
 
The  Evangelical  Church.  179 
 
 tablishment.  In  politics  he  remained  a  Liberal,  and 
 in  theory  a  Republican.  As  a  religious  thinker  Cole- 
 ridge sought  to  broaden  the  basis  and  insure  in  per- 
 sonal conviction  the  certitude  of  the  religious  life.  It 
 is  a  phase  of  the  same  movement  which  meets  us  in 
 Schleiermacher  in  Germany,  and  in  Vinet  in  France. 
 In  this  endeavor  Coleridge  followed  Kant  and  the 
 German  idealists,  like  Schelling.  His  great  service 
 may  be  said  to  be  that  he  introduced  German  thought 
 to  Englishmen,  and  taught  them  to  think  in  a  plane 
 above  the  popular  Utilitarianism  of  the  time.  Cole- 
 ridge founded  no  school,  but  he  taught  men  to  verify 
 their  religious  convictions,  instead  of  taking  them  on 
 trust,  and  he  led  them  in  a  passionate  devotion  to 
 truth.  He  left  his  impress  on  the  whole  Broad 
 Church  school,  and  upon  such  eminent  Americans  as 
 Professor  Henry  B.  Smith  and  Bishop  Phillips 
 Brooks. 
 
 The  great  master  of  English  schools  in  this  gener- 
 ation, and  the   man    who   did   most  for   educational 
 ideals   in    England    in    this    century    was 
 Thomas  Arnold  (1795-1842).    Thomas  Ar-     ^™"d! 
 nold  was  the  son  of  an  officer  in  the  cus- 
 toms service,  who  died  when  his  son   was  but   six 
 years   old,     Thomas   was   educated    at    Winchester, 
 1807-1811,  and  at  Corpus  Christi,  Oxford,  1811-1815. 
 In  the  latter  year  he  gained  a  Fellowship  at  Oriel,  and 
 remained  in  residence  for  the  next   four  years.     In 
 181 9-1 828  he  resided  at  Laleham,  near  Staines,  where 
 he  devoted  himself  to  preparing  a  few   young    men 
 each   year  for  the  university.     In  these  years,  as  at 
 Oxford,  he  gave  himself  particularly  to  classics,  his- 
 tory,   and    social   politics.     His    especial    study    was 
 
i8o      History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 Thucydides  and  Aristotle,  and  they  ever  remained  his 
 favorite  authors.  At  this  time,  after  thorough  ex- 
 amination, he  became  a  convinced  Christian.  Thomas 
 Arnold  was  a  deeply  religious  man,  and  his  religion 
 was  of  a  profoundly  ethical  type.  With  him  religion 
 meant  the  supremacy  of  the  moral  and  spiritual  ele- 
 ments in  our  being ;  it  included  as  foundation-stones 
 in  character,  justice,  honesty,  and  truth.  In  June, 
 1828,  he  was  ordained,  and  in  August  he  entered 
 upon  his  work  as  headmaster  at  Rugby,  1 828-1 841. 
 It  may  be  said  with  truth  that  these  years  mark  an 
 epoch  in  the  history  of  English  education.  According 
 to  Arnold's  thought,  education  was  much  more  than 
 training  the  intellect;  it  included  as  chief  elements 
 the  development  of  the  moral  and  religious  nature. 
 The  impression  he  made  upon  his  students  was  inef- 
 faceable. Archbishop  Benson  says  of  the  effect  of 
 his  work,  and  no  one  could  speak  with  better  right, 
 "  His  never-dying  glory  is  to  have  utterly  reformed 
 the  public  schools."  It  is  scarcely  too  much  to  say 
 that  he  found  the  great  schools  of  England  heathen, 
 and  that  his  work  and  its  influence  made  them  Chris- 
 tian. In  1 841  he  was  appointed  Professor  of  History 
 at  Oxford.  Arnold  made  history  live.  His  edition 
 of  Thucydides  and  "  History  of  Rome,"  are  not  the 
 work  of  a  profound  scholar,  but  they  made  men  see 
 the  ancient  world  alive  again.  His  essay  on  a 
 National  Church,  in  1833,  was  a  failure.  His  stand- 
 ards of  thought  and  work  are  seen  in  his  five  vol- 
 umes of  "Sermons."  Most  fortunate  was  Arnold  in 
 his  biographer.  Dean  Stanley,  whose  "  I^ife  of  Ar- 
 nold "  remains  a  classic.     Matthew  Arnold,  the  poet 
 
The  Evangelical  Church. 
 
 i8l 
 
 and  critic,  was  his  son,  and  Mrs.   Humphrey  Ward, 
 the  novelist,  his  granddaughter. 
 
 If  Thomas  Arnold  was  the  teacher  of  the  Broad 
 Church  movement,  Julius  Hare  (i 795-1 855)  was  its 
 most  distinguished  scholar.  Hare  was 
 born  in  Italy  and  partly  educated  in  Ger-  ''"""h^^^^"'''^'' 
 many,  before  he  entered  Charterhouse 
 School.  From  there  he  went  to  Trinity  College, 
 Cambridge.  Being  elected  Fellow  of  Trinity  in  181 8, 
 he  traveled  on  the  Continent.  After  reading  law  for 
 a  time,  he  returned  to  Trinity  as  assistant  tutor,  1823- 
 1832.  In  1827,  with  his  brother,  he  published 
 "Guesses  at  the  Truth."  In  1832  he  became  rector 
 of  the  rich  benefice  of  Hurstmonceaux ;  in  1840  he 
 was  made  Archdeacon  of  Lewes,  in  1853,  chaplain  to 
 the  queen.  In  1840  he  published  "The  Victory  of 
 Faith,"  and  in  1846  "The  Mission  of  the  Com- 
 forter;" in  1848  appeared  the  "Remains  of  John 
 Sterling,"  who  had  been  his  curate.  Hare  was  strong 
 in  his  admiration  of  Luther  and  the  Reformation,  and 
 in  1854,  he  published  against  High  Church  detraction, 
 "A  Vindication  of  Luther  against  his  Recent  English 
 Assailants." 
 
 Hare's  influence  was  greater  than  his  works. 
 His  large  acquaintance  with  the  thought  of  his  time 
 is  shown  in  his  library  of  twelve  thousand  volumes, 
 in  which  German  philosophy  and  theology  were 
 largely  represented.  In  range  and  depth  of  knowl- 
 edge he  was  without  superior  in  the  English  Church. 
 While  his  views  in  general  were  those  of  his  school, 
 yet  he  combined  them  with  those  of  an  Evangelical 
 Arminian  cast. 
 
1 82      History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 The  great  preacher  of  this  school  was  Frederick 
 W.  Robertson  (i8 16-1853),  who  made  famous  Trinity 
 Frederick  Church,  Brighton.  Robertson's  father  was 
 William  a  captain  of  artillery,  and  the  son  had  the 
 Robertson,  jj^^i^aj-y  yirtucs  and  a  desire  for  the  mili- 
 tary life.  At  fourteen  he  spent  a  year  at  Tours,  in 
 France,  and  then  returned  to  take  up  his  work  in  the 
 Academy  and  University  of  Edinburgh.  All  through 
 his  youth  and  young  manhood  he  was  noted  for  purity 
 and  truth.  At  eighteen  he  began  the  study  of  law  ; 
 but  his  health  suflfered  from  the  confinement.  He 
 sought  a  commission  in  the  army,  but  finally  deter- 
 mined to  study  for  the  ministry.  He  entered  Brase- 
 nose  College,  Oxford,  in  1837.  There  he  worked 
 hard  reading  Plato,  Aristotle,  Butler,  Thucydides,  and 
 Jonathan  Edwards.  He  also  committed  to  memory 
 the  New  Testament,  both  in  English  and  Greek.  In 
 1840  he  was  ordained.  His  ascetic  life,  in  1841,  broke 
 his  health.  In  1842  he  traveled  in  Switzerland,  and 
 this  year  he  married.  He  was  curate  at  Cheltenham, 
 1 842-1 846.  In  1846-47,  he  traveled  in  Germany  and 
 the  Tyrol.  There  he  passed  through  a  religious  crisis. 
 The  one  fixed  point  in  his  theological  thought  was 
 the  nobility  of  the  humanity  of  the  Son  of  man. 
 From  that  as  a  firm  basis  he  made  his  own  the  other 
 Christian  truths.  From  1847  to  1853  he  was  pastor  of 
 Trinity  Church,  Brighton.  It  may  be  doubted  if  six 
 years  of  the  ministry  of  any  other  man  of  the  cen- 
 tury left  a  mark  so  deep  or  an  influence  so  wide.  No 
 other  English  preacher  has  so  appealed  to  German 
 thinkers,  and  his  influence  has  been  potent  in 
 America. 
 
 It  is  but  just  to  say  that  Robertson  specially  ap- 
 
The  Evangelical  Church.  183 
 
 peals  to  those  who  seek  final  certitude  for  the  mini- 
 mutQ  of  Christian  truth,  and  from  that  accept  farther 
 truth.  His  own  experience  made  him,  for  such,  an 
 admirable  guide.  For  those  to  whom  God  is  the 
 surest  as  the  greatest  of  realities,  and  his  revelation 
 in  Christ  the  culmination  of  the  religious  education 
 and  the  spiritual  development  of  the  race — that  one 
 focal  point  in  which  all  lines  of  historical  tendency 
 converge,  and  without  whom  they  can  not  be  under- 
 stood— to  such,  much  of  Robertson's  thought  will 
 seem  without  special  illumination  or  help.  His  '*  Life 
 and  Sermons"  are  among  the  most  popular  religious 
 works  of  the  last  half  of  the  century. 
 
 The  leading  bishops  of  the  Broad  Church  party 
 were  Richard  Whately  and  Connop  Thirlwall. 
 
 Richard  Whately  (i  787-1 863)  was  the  youngest  of 
 the  large  family  of  an  English  clergyman.  From  a 
 private  school  at  Bristol  he  went  to  Oriel 
 College,  Oxford,  in  1805,  and  three  years  whrteiij. 
 later  he  graduated  with  the  highest  honors. 
 In  181 1  he  was  elected  Fellow  of  Oriel;  in  18 14  he 
 was  ordained.  In  1821,  Whately  married,  thus  va- 
 cating his  Fellowship.  For  the  next  two  years  he 
 prepared  students  for  the  university  at  Oxford.  The 
 years  from  1 823-1 825  were  spent  in  successful 
 pastoral  work  at  Halesworth ;  but  the  health  of  his 
 wife  required  a  change  of  location.  In  1825  he  be- 
 came principal  of  St.  Alban's  Hall,  Oxford.  His  vig- 
 orous administration  there  opened  a  new  era  in  its 
 history.  In  1831  he  was  made  Archbishop  of  Dublin. 
 The  thirty-two  years  of  his  administration  did  not 
 reach  a  large  measure  of  success;  but  the  situation 
 was  such  that  success  seemed  well-nigh  impossible. 
 
1 84     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 Whately  was  admirably  adapted  for  a  teacher,  but  had 
 little  fitness  for  the  leadership  of  clergy  and  people  in 
 a  crisis  where  sympathy  only  could  win  a  tolerable 
 success.  Whately  had  a  strong  and  well-trained 
 mind,  a  vigorous  understanding,  and  a  keen  wit,  He 
 was  Liberal  in  his  politics,  and  his  religion,  though 
 genuine,  was  of  the  intellect,  not  of  the  heart.  An 
 able  and  logical  thinker,  he  detested  the  Oxford 
 Movement. 
 
 Whately  wrote  much  and  well.  Three  of  his 
 works  were  largely  popular  and  of  permanent  value : 
 "Historic  Doubts  Concerning  Napoleon  Bonaparte;" 
 *' Logic,"  1826;  and  "Rhetoric,"  1828.  His  logic 
 marked  an  era  in  the  study  among  Englishmen. 
 Whately's  daughter  founded  and  carried  on  success- 
 fully a  school  for  native  girls  at  Cairo. 
 
 A  man  of  large  thought  and  equal  vigor  of  intel- 
 lect was  Connop  Thirlwall  (i 797-1 875).  Thirlwall 
 was  distinguished  as  a  scholar,  a  critic,  and 
 Thiriwau.  ^  Statesman.  He  was  a  remarkable  child. 
 The  son  of  an  Knglish  rector,  he  learned 
 Latin  at  three  years  of  age  and  Greek  at  four,  and 
 wrote  sermons  at  seven.  He  prepared  for  the  univer- 
 sity at  Charterhouse  with  Julius  Hare  and  Grote,  the 
 historian  of  Greece.  He  was  at  Trinity,  Cambridge, 
 18  [4-1 8 1 8,  and  then  spent  a  year  on  the  Continent. 
 On  his  return  he  studied  law,  and  translated  Schleier- 
 macher's  essay  on  the  Gospel  of  Luke.  John  Stuart 
 Mill  called  him  the  best  speaker,  in  debate,  he  ever 
 heard.  Finding,  in  spite  of  a  most  judicial  mind,  in 
 himself  no  fitness  for  law,  he  was  ordained  deacon  in 
 1827.  In  1828,  with  Julius  Hare,  he  translated  Nie- 
 buhr's  "History  of  Rome."     In  1832  he  accepted  the 
 
The  Evangelical  Church.  185 
 
 assistant  tutorship  of  Trinity,  Cambridge,  vacated  by 
 Julius  Hare.  Two  years  later  he  resigned,  and  ac- 
 cepted the  living  of  Kirby.  In  1834  he  began  his 
 "History  of  Greece,"  completing  it  in  1847.  This 
 work  is  surpassed  in  English  only  by  that  of  his 
 schoolfellow  Grote.  In  1840  he  was  appointed  to  the 
 See  of  St.  David's,  which  he  held  until  1874.  He 
 learned  to  preach  in  Welsh. 
 
 Thirlwall  never  married,  and  his  aloofness  and 
 sharpness  at  retort  prevented  his  being  popular  with 
 his  clergy.  He  was  said  to  be  tender  toward  all  weak 
 things  except  weak-minded  clergy.  For  years  he 
 showed  the  insight  of  a  statesman  in  the  House  of 
 Lords.  He  favored  the  grant  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
 college  at  Maynooth,  the  admission  to  Parliament  of 
 the  Jews,  and  the  Gorham  Judgment  of  the  Privy 
 Council.  He  voted  for  the  disestablishment  of  the 
 Irish  Church,  though  he  would  have  favored,  rather, 
 concurrent  endowment  with  the  Roman  Catholics. 
 His  Episcopal  ''Charges"  and  his  "Letters,"  all  attest 
 the  scope  and  grasp  of  his  thought  and  the  breadth 
 and  tenderness  of  his  sympathies. 
 
 The  influence  of  these  men  was  an  intellectual 
 ferment,  but  did  not  crystallize  into  associated  or  in- 
 stitutional effort,  and  so  soon  was  overshadowed ;  but, 
 like  leaven,  it  wTought  on  and  effectively. 
 
 There  were  men  in  England  who  went  much 
 farther  than  the  Broad  Church  men.  Such  a  man  was 
 Thomas  Carlyle,  who,  through  German  pan- 
 theism, came  to  doubt  immortality  and  a 
 personal  God,  but  in  his  later  years  returned  to  his 
 earlier  faith.  His  "  Life  of  Sterling"  was  a  blow  at  the 
 teaching  of  Coleridge. 
 
1 86     History  of  the  Christian  Church, 
 
 Jeremy  Bentham ;  Lord  Brougham ;  John  Mill,  and 
 his  son,  John  Stuart  Mill;  George  Grote,   the  histo- 
 rian ;  and  Harriet  Martineau,  the  novelist 
 
 Radicals. 
 
 and  traveler,  were  Utilitarians,  while  the  last 
 named  became  a  Positivist,  they  rejected  Christianity 
 altogether. 
 
 Gray  old  Oxford  has  been  the  seat  of  three  great 
 religious  movements,  which  have  transfused  them- 
 selves into  the  life  of  the  Knglish  people. 
 Movement*!  '^^^  ^^^^  ^as  that  of  WycHf  and  his  ''  Poor 
 Preachers,"  which  heralded  that  sure  com- 
 ing Reformation  which  should  wrest  the  greater  part 
 of  Christendom  from  Rome.  The  second  was  that  of 
 the  Wesleys,  which  brought  Christ  to  the  common 
 people,  and  made  his  gospel  effective  among  them  as 
 never  before  in  the  history  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 The  third  was  that  of  Newman  and  Pusey,  which 
 aimed  to  make  clear  that  the  Church  had  an  independ- 
 ent, self-sufficient,  and  historic  life.  It  was  the  sharp- 
 est blow  ever  struck  in  Europe  at  the  State  Church 
 system.  For  that,  if  for  nothing  else,  it  deserves  our 
 gratitude ;  that  it  was  much  else  this  history  will  show. 
 Cambridge  also  had  its  religious  movements  of 
 which  it  was  the  source  and  hearth,  and  which  have 
 equally  affected  Knglish  life.  The  first  of  these  was 
 the  Reformation.  So  far  as  it  was  a  popular  move- 
 ment it  came  from  Cambridge  men.  If  Oxford  burnt 
 Cranmer  and  Ridley  and  Latimer,  Cambridge  trained 
 them.  The  second  was  the  Puritan  Reform,  which, 
 from  the  days  of  Queen  Elizabeth  to  those  of  Oliver 
 Cromwell,  had  its  headquarters  at  Cambridge,  where 
 not  only  Milton  and  Hampden,  but  Wilberforce  and 
 Macaulay,  were  trained.      The  third  movement  was 
 
The  Evangelical  Church.  187 
 
 that  awakening  of  English  Christian  scholarship  in 
 tjie  last  half  of  the  nineteenth  century,  forever  asso- 
 ciated with  the  names  of  Lightfoot,  Westcott,  and 
 Hort.  This  will  show  something  of  the  debt  the 
 religious  life  of  England  owes  to  her  two  great  uni- 
 versities. 
 
 Among  the  larger  foundations  of  Oxford,  Oriel 
 College  is  not  prominent.  But  between  1820  and  1840 
 there  met  in  its  common  room  a  remarka- 
 ble group  of  men — men  whose  words  and 
 character  changed  the  face  of  affairs  in  the  Church  of 
 England,  and  whose  influence  has  been  felt  through- 
 out Evangelical  Christendom.  Easily  the  first  among 
 these  was  John  H.  Newman. 
 
 John  H.  Newman  (1801-189^,  was  the  son  of  an 
 Evangelical  banker  and  a  Huguenot  mother.     He  was 
 born  in  1801.     Trained  at  Oxford,  he  was 
 elected  Fellow  of  Oriel  in  1822.      Outside    j****""- 
 
 Newman. 
 
 of  his  home  his  chief  religious  influences 
 in  early  life  came  from  Scott,  the  Evangelical  com- 
 mentator, from  Bishop  Butler,  and  from  Whately,  after- 
 ward Archbishop  of  Dublin.  Newman  had  a  keen 
 literary  taste  and  appreciation,  as  became  one  who  was 
 to  become  one  of  the  great  masters  of  English  prose 
 in  his  century,  and  a  poet  whose  words,  though  few, 
 are  fit,  and  will  never  die  from  the  accents  of  English 
 speech.  Newman  felt,  his  life  long,  the  influence  of 
 the  Romantic  Movement  through  the  writings  of 
 Scott,  Coleridge,  and  Wordsworth. 
 
 In  mental  equipment  and  scholarship,  Newman 
 shows  well  among  the  men  of  his  time.  He  knew  the 
 classics  and  philosophy,  English  literature  and  Eng- 
 lish theology.     Of  history,  either  secular  or  ecclesias- 
 
1 88     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 tical,  he  had  never  any  critical  appreciation  or  under- 
 standing; nor  was  he  ever  a  theologian.  He  was  a 
 master  of  moral  distinctions,  of  clear  and  subtle 
 thought,  with  a  power  of  expression  which,  in  vigor, 
 clearness,  and  beauty,  has  seldom  been  equaled  in 
 English  literature. 
 
 Newman  was  of  a  masterful  disposition  and  a  nat- 
 ural leader  of  men.  This  was  felt  at  Oriel  College, 
 where  he  lived  for  twenty  years,  182 2-1 842,  and 
 especially  as  Vicar  of  St.  Mary's,  Oxford,  from  1828 
 to  1843.  As  a  preacher  to  young  men,  especially  to 
 students,  his  spiritual  vision,  his  penetrating  moral 
 criticism,  his  enforcement  of  the  authority  of  con- 
 science, and  his  making  real  the  attractiveness  of  great 
 Christian  ideas,  made  the  pulpit  of  St.  Mary's  a  power 
 which  the  men  of  that  generation  never  forgot. 
 
 But  the  source  of  Newman's  influence  was  not 
 chiefly  intellectual  or  due  to  rare  gifts,  which  were  his 
 as  a  thinker,  a  writer,  or  a  preacher.  The  source  of 
 Newman's  influence  was  his  character  and  his  manner. 
 It  was  his  sincere  love  of  truth  as  he  conceived  it,  and 
 willingness  to  follow  wherever  it  might  lead,  his  dis- 
 interestedness, his  humility,  and  that  elevation  of 
 character  which  was  at  once  a  gentle  and  efiective  in- 
 spiration to  a  moral  and  religious  life,  which,,  with 
 manners  of  unusual  grace  and  attraction,  made  so 
 potent  his  influence. 
 
 Next  to  Newman  stood  a  man  in  many  respects  his 
 opposite,  but  through  all  changes,  his  lifelong  friend, 
 Edward  B.  Pusey  (i 800-1 882).  Pusey  was 
 plLYey.  *  ^^^^  ^^  ^  landed  family  of  wealth  and  influ- 
 ence, and  inherited  large  means.  His  train- 
 ing was  that  of  a  strict  High  Church  family.    He  says 
 
The  Evangelical  Church.  189 
 
 he  learned  to  love  the  Prayer-book  from  his  mother's 
 teachings.  His  piety,  nevertheless,  had  ever  the  tone 
 of  Augustinian  Calvinism.  Sin,  duty,  penitence,  and 
 work  are  its  chief  notes.  The  piety  of  his  "  Spiritual 
 Letters  "  contrasts  sadly  with  the  New  Testament,  or 
 with  even  such  **  Letters  "  as  thqse  of  Fenelon. 
 
 Pusey  was  trained  at  Oxford,  and  was  a  good  stu- 
 dent in  what  was  there  taught.  In  1823  he  was  elected 
 Fellow  of  Oriel.  In  1825,  and  again  in  1826,  he  spent 
 some  time  in  Germany  studying  Hebrew,  Syriac, 
 and  especially  Arabic.  He  had  a  favorable  idea  of  the 
 German  theological  movement,  which  he  soon  lost 
 when  he  came  to  adopt  his  fixed  principle,  which  was 
 his  lifelong  guide  and  that  of  his  party, — that  there  is 
 no  defense  against  unbelief  except  an  authoritative 
 Church  doctrine  and  tradition.  From  this  point  of 
 view  all  criticism  is  barred  from  touching  the  Bible, 
 or  Church  doctrine  and  often  Church  tradition,  as  an 
 enemy  to  the  faith.  Pusey,  within  these  limits  was  a 
 profound  Hebrew  scholar;  but,  of  course,  the  limits 
 were  such  that  his  work  is  of  minor  importance.  As 
 a  thinker,  Pusey  does  not  count;  his  ignorance  of 
 Church  history  and  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  of 
 his  time  was  phenome"^nal.  In  no  sense  was  he  orig- 
 inal. In  his  ecclesiastical  reforms  he  copied,  without 
 improvements,  the  conventual  life,  the  Roman  Cath- 
 olic books  of  devotion,  and  the  practice  of  auricular 
 confession  from  the  Church  of  Rome.  It  was  a 
 strange  comment  on  his  own  practice,  that  he  should 
 be  compelled  to  say,  in  1877,  "The  misery  is  with  the 
 pedantic  copiers  of  Rome."  Yet  Pusey  never  left 
 the  English  Church  for  Rome,  though  in  practice  more 
 Roman  than  Newman.    Manning  discerned  the  reason 
 
I90     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 when  he  wrote,  in  1850,  "  They  both  [Keble  and 
 Pusey]  seem  to  me  to  have  given  up  the  Divine  tra- 
 dition as  the  supreme  authority,  and  to  apply  private 
 judgment  to  antiquity."  Pusey  did  dare  to  criticise 
 the  claims  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  although 
 he  could  arrange  even  the  doctrine  of  the  sacrifice  of 
 the  Mass  according  to  the  Council  of  Trent,  so  as  to 
 swallow  it. 
 
 As  a  thinker,  Pusey  can  not  command  our  respect  ; 
 any  fact  or  argument  against  his  position  made  no 
 more  impression  on  him  than  a  cannon-shot  on  a  bale 
 of  cotton.  On  the  other  hand,  his  humility,  his  self- 
 sacrifice,  his  self-discipline,  his  generosity  and  sympa- 
 thy with  those  in  spiritual  difficulties,  and  the  settled 
 peace  of  his  self-mastery,  were  sources  of  increasing 
 influence  until  his  death. 
 
 In  1828,  Pusey  was  appointed  Regius  Professor  of 
 Hebrew  in  Oxford,  a  position  he  held  until  his  death. 
 The  same  year  he  married.  His  happy  wedded  life 
 ended  in  a  brief  nine  years.  His  children  were  an 
 increasing  blessing  to  him.  From  this  experience 
 came  two  results  :  he  never  ceased  to  mourn  the  death 
 of  his  wife,  nor  to  regard  it  as  a  punishment  of  his  sin  ; 
 and  also  he  never  believed  in  an  enforced  celibacy  for 
 the  English  clergy. 
 
 In  1826  four  men  were  elected  Fellows  of  Oriel, 
 who  influenced  the  Oxford  Movement  in  its  develop- 
 ment, but  were  of  much  less  importance 
 ^^V^oi^^Z  t^^^  t^^s^  leaders.  These  were  Thomas 
 Mozeley,  who  later  married  Newman's  sis- 
 ter, and  was  editor  of  the  British  Critic  when  it  was 
 leading  Romanwards  as  fast  as  thought  could  carry  it 
 without  any  brakes  or  restraint.     He  was  a  brother 
 
The  Evangelical  Church.  191 
 
 of  Canon  James  B.  Mozeley.     Neither  of  the  brothers 
 left  the  English  Church. 
 
 Another  was  William  G.  Ward,  the  most  ardent  Ro- 
 man Catholic  among  them,  who  pushed  Newman  on 
 the  Romeward  way,  and  after  creating  an 
 intense  excitement  by  his  defense  of  Tract  ^"""T  ^' 
 
 •^  Ward. 
 
 No.  90,  and  his  '*  Ideal  Church,"  changed  a 
 tragedy  into  a  farce  by  marrying.  His  genial  good- 
 nature, his  abounding  animal  spirits,  his  perfect  frank- 
 ness and  honesty,  made  the  enemies  of  his  opinions 
 his  friends.  Almost  immediately  after  his  marriage, 
 he  and  his  wife  entered  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
 A  large  fortune  falling  to  him,  he  was  useful  to  the 
 Roman  Catholic  Church  and  the  advocate  of  the  most 
 extreme  views  of  the  Vatican  party. 
 
 The  fourth  was  Hurrell  Froude,  the  elder  brother 
 of  James  A.  Froude,  the  historian,  who  died  ten  years 
 later.     Fronde's    influence   brought    New- 
 man  into   the   Movement.     Newman   was     ""'''■*" 
 
 Froude. 
 
 with  him  in  a  Mediterranean  voyage  in 
 1 832-1 833.  It  was  on  this  voyage  that  Newman 
 wrote  "  Lead,  Kindly  Light."  Froude  must  have  been 
 a  man  of  great  attractiveness  in  manner  and  spirit. 
 He  seems  to  have  been  chiefly  remarkable  for  saying 
 what  he  thought  without  much  consideration  or  re- 
 spect for  the  meaning  or  effect  of  his  words.  At  this 
 distance  the  poverty  of  his  knowledge  and  his 
 thought,  and  the  violence  of  his  language,  especially 
 against  the  Reformation,  seem  to  have  been  his  chief 
 characteristics. 
 
 These  men  were  together  at  Oriel ;  one  other  of 
 the  historic  group  preceded  them,  and  one  other  came 
 more  than  a  decade  later. 
 
192     History  of  the  Christian  Church, 
 
 The  true  founder  of  the  Oxford  Movement,  though 
 
 never  its  leader,  was  John  Keble  (i  792-1866).    Keble's 
 
 father  was  a  clergyman  of  the   Church  of 
 
 JohnKeble.      ^       ,        ,         ^^    ,  ,        ,  ,        ^  r 
 
 England.  Keble,  like  Pusey,  came  01  a 
 High  Church  family.  He  went  to  Oxford  in  1807, 
 and  was  elected  Fellow  of  Oriel  in  181 1.  In  18 16  he 
 was  ordained.  He  remained  at  Oxford  as  tutor  until 
 1823,  a  year  after  Newman  had  been  elected  Fellow. 
 
 In  1823  he  accepted  a  curacy  at  Fairford,  where 
 he  labored  as  his  father's  assistant  until  1835.  In 
 1827  he  published  the  "Christian  Year,"  which 
 largely  helped  the  Oxford  Movement  by  its  rever- 
 ence and  exaltation  of  the  services  of  the  Church. 
 One  hundred  and  forty-eight  thousand  copies  were 
 sold  before  1854.  From  1831  to  1841  he  held  the  po- 
 sition of  "  Lecturer  upon  Poetry  "  at  Oxford,  deliver- 
 ing three  lectures  each  year.  He  identified  himself 
 thoroughly  with  the  Movement,  defending  Tract  No. 
 90,  though  he  wrote  but  four  tracts,  and  those  not  of 
 great  importance.  In  1836  he  married,  at  the  age  of 
 forty-three,  the  sister  of  his  brother's  wife.  The  mar- 
 riage, although  childless,  was  a  very  happy  one.  In 
 the  same  year  he  became  vicar  of  Hursley,  which  he 
 held  until  his  death. 
 
 Keble's  character  was  one  of  rare  attractiveness. 
 He  had  "  a  strong  depreciation  of  mere  intellect  com- 
 pared with  the  less  showy  excellencies  of  faithfulness 
 to  conscience  and  duty,  and  a  horror  and  hatred  of 
 everything  that  seemed  like  display,  or  the  desire  of 
 applause,  or  of  immediate  effect."  He  had  a  holy 
 severity  toward  himself,  and  was  quite  ascetic.  With 
 his  value  of  Divine  truth  and  sense  of  the  personality 
 
The  Evangelical  Church.  193 
 
 of  Christ  came  a  courage  and  gentleness  that  won  to 
 the  man,  if  not  to  his  views. 
 
 Keble  believed  in  confession  and  absolution.  He 
 was  John  H.  Newman's  confessor  in  his  Oxford  days, 
 but  he  took  little  part  in  ritualism.  Keble  published 
 an  edition  of  the  works  of  Richard  Hooker  and  some 
 volumes  of  sermons.  The  sermons  have  sympathy, 
 reality,  and  power. 
 
 Perhaps  Pusey  relates  that  which  best  reveals 
 Keble  as  a  man,  and  the  secret  of  his  influence. 
 Pusey  says:  "I  sent  one  to  dear  John  Keble  to  get 
 settled  as  to  some  Romeward  unsettlement.  He  staid 
 a  fortnight  at  Hursley.  John  Keble  did  not  say  a 
 word  of  controversy,  but  at  the  end  of  the  time  my 
 friend  told  me  that  he  was  quite  settled,  and  could 
 work  heartily  in  the  English  Church." 
 
 Keble  and  Newman  had  been  close  friends.  Their 
 intercourse  was  broken  off  when  Newman  went  over 
 to  Rome  in  1845.  Twenty  years  later,  when  Pusey 
 was  at  Hursley,  they  had  a  most  affecting  meeting. 
 The  three  men  once  so  intimate,  then  so  separated, 
 now  were  meeting  for  the  last  time. 
 
 None  of  these  men  have  more  charm  for  men  of 
 our  time  than  Richard  ^William  Church  (1815-1890), 
 Dean  of  St.  Paul's  Church,  who  was  born     ^,  .    ^ 
 
 Kicnard 
 
 at  lyisbon,  Portugal,  of  a  family  of  Quaker  wmiam 
 descent  and  strong  Evangelical  tendencies.  ^*»"'"*^*»- 
 His  uncle,  Richard  Church,  was  a  distinguished  gen- 
 eral. His  father  was  a  merchant,  and  the  boy  lived 
 abroad  until  his  father's  death  in  1828,  spending  most 
 of  his  life  in  Italy.  In  1838  he  was  elected  Fellow 
 of  Oriel,  and  was  a  fast  friend  of  the  Oxford  Move- 
 13 
 
194     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 ment.  In  1847  he  visited  Italy  and  Greece.  In  1846 
 he  assisted  in  founding  The  Gum-diayi,  the  organ  of 
 the  Movement,  to  which  he  was  a  frequent  contrib- 
 utor. 
 
 He  married  the  niece  of  Dr.  Moberly  in  1853.  In 
 1852  he  accepted  the  charge  of  Whately  in  Somerset- 
 shire, a  parish  of  three  hundred  inhabitants,  ten  miles 
 from  a  railway  station,  where  he  remained  for  nine- 
 teen years.  Then  he  was  made  Dean  of  St.  Paul's  in 
 London,  which  office  he  held  until  his  death. 
 
 Dean  Church  had  more  learning,  more  knowledge 
 of  the  realties  of  the  world,  more  sympathy,  a  clearer 
 vision  of  truth  and  of  humanity  than  any  other  man  at 
 all  prominent  in  the  Oxford  Movement.  His  English 
 style  is  one  of  power  and  charm,  and  his  "  Dante," 
 '*St.  Anselm,"  and  "Sermons"  will  be  read  when 
 most  of  the  works  of  his  friends  are  forgotten.  His 
 "Oxford  Movement,"  though  a  fragment,  and  far  too 
 partial,  is  the  best  single  volume  on  the  subject. 
 
 That  which  brought  these  men  into  a  concerted 
 Movement  to  change  the  reHgious  life  and  the  Church 
 The  Causes  ^^  England  Came  from  many  causes.  The 
 of  the  Oxford  first  of   thcse  was   undoubtedly   political. 
 
 Movement.     ^^^   ^^^^   ^^^^^   ^^^   ^^^^^    -^   pOWer,  with 
 
 Pohticoi.  1^^^  ^  brief  interval,  for  forty  years,  when 
 the  political  revolution  which  carried  the  Reform  Bill 
 of  1832  gave  the  ascendency  to  the  Whigs.  The 
 Church  interest,  like  the  slaveholding  interest  and  the 
 East  India  interest,  had  been  allied  with  the  Tory 
 party.  Oxford  was  the  fervent  heart  of  that  political 
 faith.  The  Revolution  of  1830  in  France,  the  passage 
 of  the  Reform  Bill,  and  the  advent  of  the  people  to 
 
The  Evangelical  Church.  195 
 
 some  limited  share  of  political  power,  all  seemed  to 
 portend  at  Oxford,  where  the  Liberals  were  few  in- 
 deed, the  breaking  up  of  the  foundations.  The 
 Church  of  England,  they  felt,  might  pass  from  the 
 control  of  its  friends,  stanch  and  tried,  to  those  of 
 its  enemies  and  the  enemies  of  the  Christian  faith  as 
 well;  for  were  not  Bentham,  Mill,  and  their  school  all 
 Liberals,  and  was  not  Brougham  a  leader  of  that 
 party  ? 
 
 In  1833  the  new  government  suppressed  a  number 
 of  the  Irish  Sees  of  the  Episcopal  Church.  There 
 was  abundant  reason  for  this  step,  and  the  pope,  at 
 the  demand  of  Napoleon,  had  done  the  same  thing  in 
 France ;  but  if  this  were  the  beginning,  w^here  would 
 the  end  be?  Newman  says  :  "  No  time  was  to  be  lost, 
 for  the  Whigs  had  come  to  do  their  worst,  and  the 
 rescue  might  come  too  late.  Bishoprics  were  already 
 in  course  of  suppression ;  church  property  was  in 
 course  of  confiscation ;  Sees  would  soon  be  receiving 
 unsuitable  occupants."  The  Church  of  England  was 
 a  State  Church,  and  this  political  revolution  was  held 
 to  presage  an  ecclesiastical  one,  as  the  bishops  had 
 already  been  told  "to  put  their  house  in  order." 
 
 The  second  cause,^  and  the  one  which  weighed 
 most  with  Pusej^  was  the  power  and  assaults  of  un- 
 belief in  France  and  Germany.    Pusey  had 
 
 ^  .  ,      .         ,  ^      .    ,  ,        Theological. 
 
 no  faith  m  the  use  of  right  reason;  only 
 authority  could  restore,  or  even  keep,  the  faith.  The 
 authority  must  be  that  of  the  divinely-constituted 
 Church,  enforcing  the  authoritative  doctrines  and  tra- 
 ditional deposit  of  the  Church,  and,  by  consequence, 
 discipline  and  worship  through  the  plenitude  of  its 
 
196     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 power.     From  this  point  of  view  criticism,  however 
 reverent,  is  an  enemy  of  the  Christian  faith. 
 
 The  EvangeUcal   Revival  had  effected  but  little, 
 
 except   indirectly,  in   the  upper  classes.     For  these 
 
 there  was  a  cryins^  need  that  religion  should 
 
 Religious.      ,  ,  ■'^.^  ,  ^,^         .,, 
 
 be  made  a  reality,  and  a  reality  with  the 
 power  of  the  Supreme  Imperative.  Church  says:  *'In 
 the  hands  of  the  average  teachers  of  the  school  [the 
 Evangelical]  the  idea  of  religion  was  becoming  poor, 
 thin,  and  unreal."  There  was  certainly  need  to  make 
 religion  real  and  powerful  to  the  wealthy  and  the  in- 
 telligent. 
 
 It  was  felt  that  the  emphasis  on  faith  in  the  Evan- 
 gelical teaching  often  made  void  the  necessity  of  ac- 
 cordant works.     The  best  answer  to  this 
 
 Moral. 
 
 was  the  discipline  of  the  Methodists,  and 
 works  of  philanthropy  which  are  the  glory  of  that 
 school.  But  these  were  outward,  and  it  was  felt  that 
 there  was  need  for  an  inward  and  continuous  moral 
 discipline.  William  G.  Ward  put  it  strongly  thus: 
 "Careful  moral  discipline  is  the  necessary  foundation 
 whereon  alone  Christian  faith  and  practice  can  be 
 reared."  Of  course,  no  Evangelical  Christian  would 
 agree  that  this  discipline  is  the  foundation,  but  all 
 would  allow  that  it  was  essential. 
 
 The  leaders  of  this  movement  believed  in  a  Church 
 
 founded  by  Christ  and  his  apostles,  and  which  had 
 
 never  ceased  to  exist.     The  conception  of 
 
 Historic.  ,  ,     • 
 
 a  break  in  the  continuity  of  Christian  life 
 and  history  from  the  apostles  to  the  Reformation  was 
 a  most  mischievous  one,  and  the  leaders  of  the  Oxford 
 Movement  rectified  it  by  an  error  equally  great. 
 They  either  ignored  or  denounced  the  Reformation. 
 
The  Evangelical  Church.  197 
 
 William  G.  Ward  declared  that  "  The  Lutheran  doc- 
 trine of  justification,  and  the  principle  of  private 
 judgment,  in  their  abstract  nature  and  necessary  ten- 
 dency, sink  below  Atheism  itself."  The  leaders  of 
 the  Movement  v^ould  not  subscribe  to  the  Martyrs' 
 Memorial,  erected  at  Oxford  to  the  memory  of  Cran- 
 mer,  Ridley,  and  Latimer. 
 
 Then  there  was  the  push  of  the  Romantic  Move- 
 ment, which  was  keenly  felt.  Newman  wrote  to  Dr. 
 Telf  in  1841 :  "  There  is  at  this  moment  a 
 
 ^    , ,  ...  •     J       r   The  Romantic 
 
 great  progress  of  the  religious  mind  of  xendenay. 
 our  Church  to  something  deeper  and  truer 
 than  satisfied  the  mind  of  the  last  century.  .  .  . 
 The  poets  and  philosophers  of  the  age  have  borne 
 witness  to  it  for  many  years.  Those  great  names  in 
 our  literature,  Sir  Walter  Scott,  Mr.  Wordsworth,  Mr. 
 Coleridge— though  in  different  ways  and  with  essen- 
 tial differences  one  from  the  other,  and  perhaps  from 
 any  Church  system — bear  witness  to  it.  The  age  is 
 moving  toward  something,  and  most  unhappily  the 
 one  religious  communion  among  us  which  has  of  late 
 years  been  practically  in  possession  of  that  something 
 is  the  Church  of  Rome.  She  alone,  amid  all  the  errors 
 and  evils  of  her  practical  system,  has  given  free  scope 
 to  the  feelings  of  awe,  mystery,  tenderness,  reverence, 
 devotedness,  and  other  feelings  which  may  especially 
 be  called  Catholic." 
 
 From  these  causes  it  is  not  strange  that  such  a 
 Movement  should  arise.  What,  it  may  be  asked,  were 
 its  aims— especially  those  of  its  leaders  ?  .^^^  ^.^g  ^f 
 Thomas   Mozeley  says:    "For  my  part,  I        the 
 
 ,1    ,  J  .      Movement. 
 
 never  knew  where  it  was  all  to  end,  except 
 somewhere  in  the  first  three  centuries  of  the  Church, 
 
198     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 and  I  have  to  confess  that  I  knew  very  little,  indeed, 
 about  them."  On  the  other  hand,  Dean  Church  tells 
 us  that  Newman  and  Hurrell  Froude  derived  their 
 view  of  the  Church  from  Whately's  definition,  in  1826, 
 of  the  Church  as  '*An  organized  body,  introduced  into 
 the  world  by  Christ  himself,  endowed  with  definite 
 spiritual  powers  and  with  no  other,  and,  whether  con- 
 nected with  the  State  or  not,  having  an  independent 
 existence,  and  unalienable  claims,  with  its  own  objects 
 and  laws,  with  its  own  moral  standard,  and  spirit,  and 
 character."  This  claim  of  independent  and  self-suffi- 
 cient existence,  with  power  of  discipline,  sounded 
 strange  in  the  England  of  those  da3^s,  but  it  was  very 
 real  to  the  men  at  Oxford.  Hurrell  Froude  said: 
 ''Let  us  tell  the  truth  and  shame  the  devil;  let  us 
 give  up  a  national  Church  and  have  a  real  one." 
 
 The  aim  of  the  leaders  went  much  further.  As  the 
 Church  of  England  did  not  have  these  characteristics 
 and  the  Church  of  Rome  did,  the  way  to  bring  about 
 the  "second  and  better  Reformation  of  the  Church  of 
 England "  was  to  make  her  as  like  the  Church  of 
 Rome  as  possible.  Of  what  the  Church  of  Rome 
 really  was  they  knew  even  less  than  of  the  first  three 
 centuries.  All  that  they  saw  of  her,  or  read  of  her, 
 provoked  a  most  childlike  admiration  and  imitation. 
 Of  the  other  side  of  her  life  and  doctrines  and  history 
 they  made  no  investigation,  and  gave  it  no  attention. 
 What  was  "Catholic"  was  the  thing  desired,  with 
 little  care  as  to  its  source,  its  nature,  or  effect.  The 
 time  came  when  transubstantiation  and  papal  suprem- 
 acy offered  little  difficulty,  though  the  worship  of  the 
 Virgin,  purgatory,  and  indulgences,  were  felt  to  be 
 real  difficulties.     The  aim  then  became,  both  of  Pusey 
 
The  Evangelical  Church,  199 
 
 and  Newman,  until  the  Vatican  Council,  to  become 
 united  directly  with  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  but 
 in  some  way  so  as  to  secure  their  own  Episcopal 
 organization,  and  to  perpetuate  it  independent  of  the 
 pope,  to  retain  the  service  in  the  English  tongue,  the 
 reading  of  the  Scriptures  by  the  people,  and  the  mar- 
 riage of  the  clergy.  That  these  men  thought  these 
 things  possible,  and  made  it  the  great  aim  of  their  life 
 and  work,  shows  the  depth  of  their  ignorance. 
 
 The  Vatican  Council  came ;  they  looked  to  it  to  re- 
 alize this  ideal,  and  it  shattered  forever  their  plans  and 
 hopes.  In  1882,  Dr.  Pusey  wrote,  "The  Vatican 
 Council  was  the  greatest  sorrow  I  ever  had  in  a  long 
 life."  In  this  great  aim,  at  least,  the  Movement 
 utterly  failed,  and  its  failure  was  for  the  health  of 
 Christendom. 
 
 The  defects  of  the  Movement  became  evident  in  its 
 progress.  In  its  main  endeavor  to  unite  the  Church  of 
 England  and  that  of  Rome  it  permanently  ^^^  Defects 
 failed.  This  is  so  plain  that  none  can  fail  of  the  Oxford 
 to  understand  its  significance.  The  failure  ^'»^^"«^"t- 
 of  the  leaders  was  necessary  through  their  abysmal 
 ignorance.  Dr.  Lightfoot  once  lamented  Augustine's 
 ignorance  of  Greek  as  a  loss  and  harm  to  Christendom. 
 The  same  can  be  said  of  John  H.  Newman's  ignorance 
 of  the  history  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 Dr.  Bonamy  Price  gives  a  ludicrous  instance  of  this 
 in  a  conversation  with  William  G.  Ward,  who  had 
 come  to  Rugby  to  convert  him  to  the  new  faith.  * '  I  said 
 to  him,  '  You  assume  that  a  certain  fact  occurred,  and 
 a  certain  doctrine  existed  at  the  very  beginning  of  the 
 Church  different  from  the  opinion  held  in  the  Protest- 
 ant Church  of  England;  have  you  examined  the  evi- 
 
200    History  of  the  Christian  Church, 
 
 dence  on  which  you  make  that  objection?'  'O  dear, 
 no!'  he  said.  Then  why  do  you  adopt  it?'  'John 
 Newman  says  it  is  so.'  After  a  while  he  again  brought 
 forward  a  doctrine  built  on  an  alleged  fact,  which  dif- 
 fered from  the  view  taken  in  the  English  Church. 
 Again  I  asked,  '  Have  you  searched  out,  and  can  you 
 state  the  evidence  on  which  you  contradict  the  view 
 you  have  hitherto  held?'  Again  the  answer,  'No,' 
 rolled  from  his  lips,  and  again  he  took  his  stand  on 
 what  Newman  said." 
 
 The  Oxford  Movement  had  most  enthusiastic  ad- 
 herents.    Where  there  is  great  enthusiasm,  the  way  is 
 short   to   extravagances;    and  of  extrava- 
 gMw^*"    gances  the  Oxford  Movement  had  no  lack, — 
 incongruous    association,    achronistic   and 
 tasteless  architecture  and  decoration,  ascetic  extrava- 
 gances of  all  kinds  that  not  seldom  injured  health  and 
 shortened  life.     Whatever  extravagances  marred  the 
 Wesleyan  Movement  among  the  lower  classes  in  the 
 previous  century  can  be  matched,  though  of  course 
 of  a  different  order,  in  the  Oxford  Movement  of  the 
 nineteenth  century.     After  this  view  of  the  character- 
 istics of  the  Oxford  Movement  and  its  leaders,  it  is 
 time  to  trace  its  progress. 
 
 Its  initial  date  has  been  set  as  July  14,  1833,  when 
 John  Keble  preached  his  Assize  Sermon  on  "  National 
 Course  of    Apostasy,"  moved  thereto  by  the  suppres- 
 the  Oxford  siou  of  the  Irish  Bishoprics.     On  July  26th, 
 ovemen  .  ^  meeting  was  held  at  Hadleigh  vicarage. 
 There  were  present  Mr.  Hugh  J.  Rose,  the  most  emi- 
 nent theologian  among  them ;  Mr.  Palmer,  a  man  of 
 liturgical  learning;  Mr.  Percival,  and  Hurrell  Froude. 
 The  manifesto  of  the  Church  Defense  Association  had 
 
The  Evangelical  Church,  201 
 
 received  the  signatures  of  seven  thousand  clergy.  At 
 this  meeting  the  "Tracts  for  the  Times"  were  re- 
 solved upon.  The  first  one  appeared  in  September, 
 1833;  it  was  from  the  pen  of  John  H.  Newman,  and 
 grounded  the  whole  movement  and  the  standing  of 
 the  Church  of  England  as  a  Christian  Church,  and  the 
 value  of  her  ministry  to  the  individual  and  to  the  com- 
 munity, upon  the  doctrine  of  Apostolical  Succession ; 
 that  is,  upon  a  teaching  of  which  there  is  not  a  trace 
 in  the  New  Testament  nor  among  the  Apostolic 
 Fathers  of  the  second  century.  But  this  was,  and  re- 
 mains, a  corner-stone  of  the  Movement. 
 
 Pusey  wrote  in  1879,  "If  I  were  not  absolutely 
 certain  of  having  received  the  power  [through  true 
 succession  from  the  apostles],  every  absolution  I  pro- 
 nounce would  be  a  horrible  blasphemy."  That  is, 
 upon  a  doctrine  which  can  never  be  proved,  against 
 v/hich  are  the  strongest  presumptions,  and  which,  if 
 allowed,  would  prove  to  come  through  such  tainted 
 hands  as  to  make  it,  as  an  exclusive  channel  of  the 
 gift  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  as  incredible  as  it  is  ludicrous, 
 if  it,  indeed,  were  not  refuted  in  the  practical  life  of 
 Christendom  in  every  generation. 
 
 The  Movement  was  now  fairly  launched,  and  the 
 next  year  Pusey  joined  it,  and  the  year  following 
 wrote  his  "  Tract  on  Baptism,"  a  good-sized  volume 
 in  itself.  In  1836  was  begun  the  Oxford  Library  of 
 Translations  from  the  Christian  Fathers.  Those  who 
 performed  the  work  were  good  classical  scholars,  but 
 with  neither  knowledge  of  the  times  nor  of  the  men 
 which  would  qualify  them  for  the  task.  The  work, 
 with  these  limitations,  has  value,  and  value  beyond 
 that  indicated  by  Thomas   Mozeley   when  he   says : 
 
202    History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 "  Perhaps  it  is  impossible  to  translate  a  Christian 
 Father  so  as  to  make  him  pleasant  reading,  or  to  satisfy 
 even  the  requirements  of  common  sense.  Every  at- 
 tempt at  a  translation  only  brought  out  the  immense 
 superiority  of  that  Book  which  is  the  unfailing  de- 
 light of  the  rich  and  the  poor,  the  learned  and  the  un- 
 learned, in  all  places  and  times." 
 
 In  1835,  Dr.  Pusey  and  his  followers  resisted  in 
 vain  the  appointment  of  Dr.  Hampden  as  Regius  Pro- 
 fessor of  Divinity  at  Oxford  on  account  of  the  position 
 taken  in  his  Bampton  Lectures.  The  Oxford  men 
 were  in  the  habit  of  identifying  the  Church  tradition 
 with  the  scholastic  philosophy,  which  made  them  un- 
 usually sensitive.  They  did  not  scruple  to  use  every 
 means  of  academic  opposition,  not  to  say  oppression, 
 to  prevent  Dr.  Hampden's  appointment  or  to  make  it 
 disagreeable  if  he  were  appointed.  When  the  same 
 academic  pressure  was  brought  to  bear  upon  Dr.  Pusey 
 and  his  friends,  he,  of  all  men,  had  no  reason  to  com- 
 plain. Of  course  he  was  within  his  legal  right  in  tak- 
 ing this  action,  but  it  was  neither  generous  nor  wise. 
 Yet,  with  all  errors  of  judgment  and  mistakes,  the 
 Movement  kept  gathering  influence  and  numbers. 
 The  "  Tracts"  were  the  talk  of  the  day,  and  the  sale 
 kept  increasing.  One  by  Isaac  Williams,  on  **  Reserve 
 in  Religious  Teaching,"  stirred  up  the  strongest  kind 
 of  opposition  and  censure  from  the  adversaries  of  the 
 Movement.  Granted  that  the  abstract  principles  of 
 the  tract  were  true,  the  practice  by  the  promoters  of 
 the  Movement  was  such  as  to  awaken  the  liveliest  ap- 
 prehension if  it  were  known. 
 
 As  early  as  1838  Dr.  Pusey  began  to  receive  au- 
 ricular confession,  and  to  pronounce  absolution.     He 
 
The  Evangelical  Church.  203 
 
 carried  the  doctrine  to  extreme  lengths  beyond  that  of 
 Roman  Catholic  confession,  taking  upon  himself 
 "  the  responsibility  before  God  of  the  souls  of  his 
 penitents,"  which  seems  little  short  of  blasphemy. 
 So  far,  often,  do  unthinking  imitators  go  beyond  the 
 original.  Pusey  himself  says,  "  The  first  use  of  the 
 confession,  for  anything  other  than  adultery,  murder, 
 or  apostasy,  was  in  the  latter  part  of  the  fourth  cen- 
 tury when  the  monks  of  St.  Basil  used  it  as  a  disci- 
 pline." So  Newman,  writing  to  Manning,  September 
 I,  1839,  declared  that  his  wish  was  that  "Rome  and 
 the  Church  of  England  should  be  one." 
 
 In  the  same  year  Newman  wrote  that,  when  the 
 secession  to  Rome  takes  place,  **  We  must  boldly  say 
 to  the  Protestant  section  of  our  Church,  You  are  the 
 cause,  5^ou  are  the  cause  of  all  this ;  you  must  con- 
 cede; give  us  more  services,  more  vestments  and 
 decoration  ;  give  us  monasteries.  Till  then  you  will 
 have  continual  secessions  to  Rome."  In  his  "Apolo- 
 gia Pro  Vita  Sua,"  speaking  of  this  demand  in  1841, 
 he  further  specifies :  "  Such,  for  instance,  would  be 
 confraternities,  particular  devotions,  reverence  for  the 
 Blessed  Virgin,  prayers  for  the  dead,  beautiful 
 Churches,  magnificent  offerings,  for  them  and  in 
 them." 
 
 If  there  was  anything  the  English  mind  revolted 
 against  more  than  against  auricular  confession,  it  was 
 against  the  monastic  life;  but  February  21,  1840,  we 
 find  Newman  writing  that  "  Pusey  is  at  present  eager 
 about  setting  up  Sisters  of  Mercy."  No  wonder  that 
 Father  Perry  as  late  as  1869,  wrote,  "They  must  be 
 as  candid  as  they  can,  but  they  must  observe  such 
 reticence  as  is  necessary."     But  the  Articles  of  the 
 
204         IlSTORY  OF  THE  CHRISTIAN  CHURCH. 
 
 Church  of  England,  which  must  be  subscribed  by 
 every  English  clergyman  and  every  Academic  Fellow, 
 were  definite  and  specific  in  denouncing  all  such  Ro- 
 man Catholic  observances. 
 
 In  Tract  90,  February,  1841,  Newman  attempts 
 such  an  interpretation  of  the  Thirty-nine  Articles  as 
 will  justify  these.  Of  course,  it  is  false  to  the  historic 
 circumstances  and  sense ;  for  whatever  the  Reforma- 
 tion did  or  did  not  do  in  England,  it  abolished  the 
 mass,  auricular  confession,  and  monasteries. 
 
 The  pleading  was  evidently  for  a  purpose,  and 
 that  was  to  annul  the  law  by  an  interpretation  foreign 
 to  its  original  intent,  and  contrary  to  the  interpretation 
 which  had  prevailed  for  almost  three  hundred  years. 
 It  is  true  that  the  scope  of  laws  are  sometimes  en- 
 larged, and  their  purpose  changed  with  an  entire 
 change  in  the  situation  they  are  to  govern  and  con- 
 trol; but  this  is  a  dangerous  power,  and  in  each  in. 
 stance  must  legitimate  itself  as  essentially  necessary 
 and  just.  True  it  is  that  we  may  not  blame  Newman 
 for  making  the  attempt ;  certain  it  is  that  those  must 
 not  be  blamed  whose  opposition  caused  the  censure 
 of  the  University  to  fall  upon  it.  Newman  showed 
 himself  the  courteous  Christian  gentleman  and  the 
 adroit  controversialist.  At  the  request  of  his  bishop, 
 the  publication  of  the  Tracts  ceased,  but  this  fact 
 must  not  blind  us  to  the  evil  of  the  course  Newman 
 and  his  friends  pursued.  Such  a  course  could  be  pos- 
 sible only  in  a  State  Church  where  there  w^as  no 
 exercise  of  ecclesiastical  discipline. 
 
 Suppose,  for  instance,  it  were  tried  in  the  Roman 
 Catholic  Church,  how  long  would  it  be  before  the 
 Church    authorities    would    act?     Indeed,    from    the 
 
The  Evangelical  Church.  205 
 
 point  of  view  of  an  independent,  self-governing 
 Church,  Newman  and  his  friends  were  most  indul- 
 gently dealt  with.  Their  purpose  was  deliberately  to 
 work  to  change  the  doctrine,  worship,  and  religious 
 life  of  the  English  Church,  and  so  to  revolutionize  it 
 as  to  make  it  become  a  part  of  its  lifelong,  bitterest, 
 and  strongest  adversary.  Newman  seemed  to  be 
 greatly  surprised  that  he  was  checked  in  his  course. 
 The  only  surprise  is  that  the  check  was  not  antici- 
 pated and  did  not  come  earlier.  In  1842,  Newman 
 removed  to  a  monastic  establishment  he  had  founded 
 at  lyittlemore,  near  Oxford.  In  1843  he  resigned  his 
 charge  at  St.  Mary's,  and  the  voice  of  the  most  influ- 
 ential preacher  at  Oxford  of  that  generation  was 
 hushed.  In  1844  appeared  Ward's  "  Ideal  Church." 
 After  a  struggle  of  three  years,  most  faithfully  and 
 pathetically  described  in  his  ''Apologia  Pro  Vita 
 Sua,"  with  an  interest  that  will  never  cease  to  hold  the 
 reader,  John  H.  Newman,  on  October  9,  1845,  was  re- 
 ceived into  the  Church  of  Rome.  Great  was  the 
 consternation  among  the  friends  of  the  Oxford 
 Movement.  It  set  it  back  for  years,  while  it  sent  a 
 crowd  of  converts  to  Rome.  It  is  customary  to  la- 
 ment Newman's  secession.  He  himself  does  not  seem 
 to  have  done  so,  and  in  the  interests  of  truth,  and  of 
 the  weal  of  Christendom,  Evangelical  and  Roman 
 Catholic  alike,  it  seems  to  have  been  for  the  best.  If 
 Rome  could  make  no  use  of  the  greatest  convert  she 
 has  received  since  the  Reformation,  the  fact  cer- 
 tainly is  a  most  illuminating  one,  and  not  without 
 lessons  of  permanent  value.  That  Newman  submit- 
 ted himself,  and  bowed  to  the  yoke,  and  found  con- 
 tent and  peace,  does  not  make   it  any  less  a  yoke, 
 
2o6     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 or  lessen  the  fact  that  Rome  does  not  know  what  to 
 do  with  a  great  soul  whose  spirit  is  truthful  and  whose 
 loyalty  to  his  conscience  is  supreme. 
 
 The  same  month  of  Newman's  secession,  Pusey 
 consecrated  St.  Savior's  at  Leeds,  a  church  which  he 
 built  with  his  own  money,  and  from  which  five 
 clergymen  in  a  few  years  seceded  to  Rome;  thus 
 verifying  Keble's  statement  in  1850,  "A  larger  num- 
 ber, possibly,  has  seceded  to  Rome  from  under  his  [Dr. 
 Pusey's]  special  teaching  than  from  any  other  indi- 
 vidual among  us." 
 
 In  1845  ^^  organized  his  first  Sisterhood,  and  the 
 next  year  he  spent  some  months  in  Ireland  studying 
 the  Irish  convents.  In  the  same  year  The  Guardian 
 was  founded.  In  1850  came  the  Gorham  judgment, 
 by  which  it  was  decided  that  a  man  could  be  a  clergy- 
 man of  the  Church  of  England  and  not  believe  in 
 baptismal  regeneration.  This  interpretation  seemed 
 to  Manning,  Allies,  and  others,  as  equivalent  to  doc- 
 trinal legislation  for  the  Church  by  laymen.  This 
 was  certainly  a  fallacy.  But  Manning  resigned  his 
 charge  as  Dean  of  Chichester,  and  entered  the  Roman 
 Catholic  Church.  This  seemed  the  favorable  time  to 
 Pius  IX  to  re-establish  the  Roman  Catholic  hierarchy 
 in  England  and  Scotland.  Of  course,  the  excitement 
 was  intense,  and  resulted  in  the  passage  of  the  Papal 
 Agressions  Bill. 
 
 At  the  close  of  this  period  Newman  was  sanguine 
 in  his  belief  that  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in 
 England  had  come  to  its  "second  spring,"  and  would 
 be  the  dominant  religious  force  in  England.  New- 
 man, in  1845,  published  his  "  Essay  on  Development," 
 the  only  possible  defense  for  the  changes  of  the  Ro- 
 
The  Evangelical  Church.  207 
 
 man  Catholic  creed  and  ritual,  based  on  the  lines  of 
 Mohler's  "  Symbolik."  He  spent  more  than  a  year  in 
 Rome  in  1846-1847.  He  then  founded  a  congregation 
 of  the  Oratorians  of  St.  Filippo  Neri,  where  he  re- 
 mained until  1852. 
 
 Thus,  with  the  secession  of  Newman  and  Man- 
 ning, and  those  which  soon  followed  of  Henry  and 
 Robert  Wilberforce,  the  sons  of  William  Wilberforce, 
 and  of  the  son  of  Thomas  Arnold,  father  of  Mrs. 
 Humphrey  Ward,  it  seemed  as  if  the  influences  draw- 
 ing men  to  Rome  from  the  Church  of  England  were 
 to  be  the  controlling  ones  of  the  new  era,  and  that 
 this,  rather  than  the  reinvigoration  of  the  Church  of 
 England,  was  to  be  the  result  of  the  Oxford  Move- 
 ment. That  the  result  was  far  otherwise,  time  only 
 could  show. 
 
 That  the  Church  of  England  put  on  new  and 
 unlooked-for  strength  rather  than  tottered  to  her  fall 
 was  due  to  other  influences  than  the  Oxford  Move- 
 ment. Not  least  among  these  was  the  establishment 
 in  1832  of  a  Commission  to  inquire  into  the  Revenues 
 and  Patronage  of  the  Established  Church  in  England 
 and  Wales.  This  Commission  made  a  thorough  in- 
 vestigation, and  reported;  as  a  result,  the  Act  of  1836 
 constituted  them  a  perpetual  corporation,  entitled 
 "  Ecclesiastical  Commissioners  for  England  and 
 Wales."  This  Commission  has  power  to  fix  the  sal- 
 aries of  the  bishops  and  other  dignitaries  of  the 
 Church.  It  could  also,  with  the  consent  of  the  queen 
 and  Council,  arrange  the  boundaries  of  the  dioceses 
 and  parishes.  In  this  way  many  grievous  abuses 
 were  abolished,  and  the  path  opened  for  permanent 
 progress.     From  the  Conquest  to  the  Reformation  but 
 
2o8     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 two  new  Sees  were  founded,  Ely  and  Carlisle  in  the 
 twelfth  century.  Five  were  added  at  the  Reforma- 
 tion. None  were  erected  from  that  time  until  1836^ 
 when  that  of  Ripon,  and  1847,  when  that  of  Manches- 
 ter were  founded. 
 
 The  bishop's  salaries  were  rearranged  and  equalized. 
 The  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  received  $75,000  per 
 annum;  the  Archbishop  of  York,  $50,000;  the 
 Bishop  of  lyondon,  $50,000;  of  Durham,  $40,000  of 
 Winchester,  $35,000.  The  other  bishops  received 
 from  twenty  to  thirty  thousand  dollars  each. 
 
 An  earnest  endeavor  was  also  made  to  increase  the 
 salaries  of  the  poor  clergy,  of  whom  more  than  a 
 thousand  had  salaries  of  less  than  $250  each.  But 
 pluralities  were  untouched,  and  awaited  a  more  vigor- 
 ous public  opinion,  while  many  and  multiform  abuses 
 of  patronge  and  evil-living  clergy  were  as  yet  beyond 
 the  reach  of  law  or  Episcopal  supervision. 
 
 A  crude  and  startling  contrast  to  the  Oxford  Move- 
 ment, and  its  opposite  extreme,  was  the  rise  of  the 
 Plymouth  Brethren.  The  same  cause — the 
 Brethren,  worldliness  of,  and  secular  power  control- 
 ling, the  Church,  and  the  sectarian  divis- 
 ions which  drove  Newman  into  the  Roman  Catholic 
 Church — drove  the  founder  of  the  Plymouth  Brethren 
 to  conclude  that  there  had  been  no  Christian  Church 
 on  earth  since  the  days  of  the  apostles.  Only  a  new 
 apostolate  could  refound  such  a  Church;  hence  the 
 real  Church  is  in  heaven ;  only  as  small  assemblies  of 
 believers  become  endowed  with  the  Holy  Spirit,  and 
 so  receive  the  gift  of  the  correct  interpretation  of  the 
 Scriptures,  do  they  come  into  communion  with  this 
 
The  Evangelical  Church.  209 
 
 only  real  and  heavenly  Church.     Their  three  princi- 
 ples were : 
 
 1.  The  existing  Churches  are  evil,  and  only  evil. 
 
 2.  The  absolute  authority  of  the  Holy  Scriptures. 
 
 3.  The  Spirit  interpreting  the  Scripture  requires 
 unanimity  in  the  assembly. 
 
 Hence,  all  who  do  not  agree  with  the  interpreta- 
 tions of  the  majority  are  excluded.  With  these  views 
 goes  a  pessimistic  conception  of  all  history,  and  relig- 
 ious progress,  and  the  expectation  of  the  speedy  per- 
 sonal coming  of  the  Savior  to  establish  his  millennial 
 reign.  This  sect — for  it  would  not  call  itself  a 
 Church — arose  from  weekly  meetings  held  in  his  own 
 house  in  Dublin  by  Edward  Cronin,  a  former  Roman 
 Catholic,  in  1827.  He  soon  secured  the  adhesion  of 
 Rev.  John  N.  Darby,  a  clergyman  of  the  Church  of 
 England,  who  became  henceforth  the  leader  of  the 
 new  sect.  Darby  came  from  a  wealthy  family  in 
 England.  He  studied  and  practiced  law,  but  felt  he 
 must  enter  the  ministry.  This  so  displeased  his 
 father  that  he  disinherited  him.  After  entering  upon 
 his  work,  he  came  to  disbelieve  the  doctrine  of  Apos- 
 tolical Succession,  and  then  the  validity  of  all  Church 
 organization.  In  1828  he  published  "Nature  and 
 Unity  of  the  Church  of  Christ."  In  1830  he  visited 
 Paris,  Cambridge,  and  Oxford,  where  he  won  B.  W. 
 Newton,  who  became  an  able  and  zealous  adherent. 
 About  that  time  Captain  Hall  built  Providence  Chapel, 
 at  Plymouth,  and  that  became  the  center  of  the  new 
 sect.  The  policy  of  exclusion  above  noted  was  rig- 
 orously carried  out  by  Mr.  Darby. 
 
 In  T845,  Mr.  Newton  revolted,  and  led  a  secession. 
 14 
 
2IO     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 Newton  differed  from  Darby  on  the  interpretation  of 
 prophecy.  George  Miiller,  of  the  Bristol  orphanages, 
 led  a  party  of  Neutrals,  as  between  the  Exclusive 
 Brethren  of  Darby  and  the  Open  Brethren  of  Newton. 
 Many  other  secessions  from  the  Exclusive  Brethren 
 have  followed.  They  have  not  increased  in  numbers, 
 though  their  opinions  have  been  widely  influential. 
 They  give  most  careful  study  to  the  Scriptures ;  they 
 win  mainly  from  the  Churches  and  little  from  the 
 world.  Those  they  reach  are  conscientious  and  ear- 
 nest Christians.  The  Biblical  scholar,  Samuel  P.  Tre- 
 gelles,  was  of  their  number,  and  Dwight  L.  Moody, 
 and  many  workers  in  the  Young  Men's  Christian  As- 
 sociation, have  been  influenced  by  their  method  of 
 Scriptural  interpretation.  They  rejected  the  limited 
 election  and  reprobation  of  Calvinism,  but  carried  the 
 teaching  of  the  final  perseverance  of  the  saints  to  the 
 verge  of  Antinomianism.  Mr.  Darby  believed  in  in- 
 fant baptism,  but  most  of  the  Brethren  reject  it. 
 
 The  development  of  the  Christian  spirit  among 
 men,  and  the  progress  of  the  Christian  faith  in  the 
 last  half  of  the  nineteenth  century,  show  how  far 
 both  Newman  and  Darby  were  mistaken.  Never 
 were  the  Christian  Churches  stronger  or  more  vigor- 
 ous, and  never  was  there  among  them  more  of  the 
 unity  of  the  Spirit  of  God.  But  the  earnestness  and 
 choice  of  both  Newman  and  Darby  show  the  impres- 
 sion the  situation  made  upon  sensitive  minds,  and 
 enables  us  to  measure  the  progress  of  the  last  fifty 
 years. 
 
Chapter  VII. 
 
 THE  EVANGELICAL  CHURCH  IN  SCOTLAND. 
 
 For  the  last  sixty  years  of  the  eighteenth  century 
 the  Moderate  party  controlled  the  Church  of  Scot- 
 land. They  stood  for  an  educated  ministry,  and  had 
 distinguished  men  among  the  clergy.  They  offered 
 little  or  no  resistance  to  lay  patronage.  The  Church 
 was  dignified,  and  a  powerful  social  force. 
 
 The  Dissenters  increased  in  numbers,  and  the  visits 
 of  the  Evangelical  ministers  from  England  had  a 
 warm  welcome  from  the  people,  if  not  from  the 
 clergy.  Such  were  Rowland  Hill  and  Charles  Simeon. 
 The  parents  of  Alexander  Duff  blessed  the  coming  of 
 Simeon  to  their  dying  day.  At  the  opening  of  the 
 new  century  the  Evangelical  Revival  reached  Scot- 
 land effectively,  and  mainly  through  the  labors  of  the 
 brothers  Haldane.  By  1810,  under  the  lead  of  An- 
 drew Thomson,  the  Evangelicals  became  the  leading 
 force  in  the  Scotch  Church.  Chalmers,  Guthrie,  and 
 Duff  were  leaders  of  Evangelical  spirit  worthy  of 
 their  cause. 
 
 Three  men,  one  a  lawyer  and  the  other  two  sea 
 captains,  broke  the  lethargy  of  that  Moderatism  which 
 marked  the  Georgian  era  in  Scotland. 
 
 Thomas  Erskine  (i 788-1870)  was  a  man  of  large 
 knowledge,  wide  sympathies,  and  earnest 
 thinking.      He    graduated    from    the    uni-      Thomas 
 versity,    and    studied    and   practiced    law. 
 In  18 16  he  fell  heir  to  a  large  estate.      He  retired 
 
 2H 
 
212     History  of  the  Christian  Church 
 
 from  his  profession,  and,  being  unmarried,  gave  his 
 attention  to  theology.  Earnest  and  Evangelical,  he 
 was  also  a  Broad  Churchman.  With  McLeod  Camp- 
 bell, he  held  the  moral  theory  of  the  atonement.  He 
 also  believed  in  the  final  restoration  of  all  men.  The 
 most  distinguished  men  of  the  time  were  his  friends — 
 Carlyle,  Stanley,  Maurice,  Vinet,  Adolphe  Monod,  and 
 also  the  Duchess  de  Broglie,  the  daughter  of  Madam 
 de  Stael,  were  of  the  number.  The  Bible,  Plato,  and 
 Shakespeare  were  his  favorite  books. 
 
 An  earnest  and  successful  evangelist,  and  an 
 able  preacher  was  Robert  Haldane  (i  764-1 842).  He 
 entered  the  navy  and  rose  in  his  profes- 
 Haidane.  ^ion,  but  inheriting  a  large  property,  he  re- 
 tired from  the  service.  At  the  first  out- 
 break of  the  French  Revolution  he  welcomed  it  as 
 a  thorough  democrat.  In  1793  he  was  converted. 
 Later,  with  Rowland  Hill,  he  preached  on  extensive 
 Evangelistic  tours  throughout  Scotland,  and  this  re- 
 sulted in  gracious  revivals.  This  was  too  much  for 
 the  leaders  of  the  Scotch  Church,  and  the  General 
 Assembly,  in  1800,  forbade  field-preaching  and  dis- 
 couraged revivals.  This  caused  Haldane  to  withdraw 
 from  it.  He  then  wished,  with  some  friends,  to  go  as 
 a  missionary  to  India;  but  the  East  India  Company 
 would  not  allow  it.  Robert  Haldane  was  influential 
 in  private  intercourse  as  in  public  address.  In  181 6, 
 in  Geneva,  he  greatly  influenced  Adolphe  Monod  and 
 Caesar  Malan.  Haldane  spent  $300,000  on  home  mis- 
 sion work  in  Scotland.  He  built  Tabernacles  in  all 
 the  large  cities,  and  educated  three  hundred  young 
 men  for  the  ministry.  At  Paris  he  established  a  theo- 
 logical school,  and  educated  native  Africans  in  Scot- 
 
Evangelical  Church  in  Scotland.      213 
 
 land.  In  respect  to  baptism  he  held  views  in  common 
 with  the  Baptist  Churches.  He  wrote  a  popular  treat- 
 ise on  Evangelical  Theology. 
 
 James  A.  Haldane  (i  768-1 851),  brother  of  Robert, 
 ably  seconded  his  brother  in  Evangelical  work.     In 
 1793  he  was  captain  of  the  ship  Mellville      james 
 Castle.    Having  been  converted,  he  sold  his    Alexander 
 command  and  share  of  the  cargo  for  $75,000,     ""'''■"®- 
 and  retired  to  Scotland  in  1794.     He  then  spent  much 
 time  in  itinerant  preaching  in  towns,  and  in  establish- 
 ing Sunday-schools.     Finally  he  settled  at  the  Taber- 
 nacle in  Edinburgh,  which  he  served  for  fifty  years 
 without  salary. 
 
 Four  Christian  ministers  make  memorable  the  an- 
 nals of  Christianity  in  Scotland  in  the  earlier  half  of 
 the  nineteenth  centurv. 
 
 Few  men  in  the  Christian  pulpit   in    weight   of 
 thought,  in  massive  strength  of  argument  and  power- 
 ful effect,  have  equaled  Thomas  Chalmers 
 ( 1 780- 1 847) .     Great  as  was  Chalmers  in  the   chaiTeTs. 
 pulpit,  he  was  equally  great  as  a  Church 
 leader,  and  even  greater  as  a  man.     Chalmers's  father 
 was  a  merchant,  and  he  the  sixth  of  fourteen  children. 
 He  received  his  education  at  St.  Andrew's,  where  he 
 showed   himself   especially    strong    in    mathematics. 
 Two  winters  following  his  graduation  he  studied  at 
 Edinburgh. 
 
 As  pastor  of  Kilmeny  he  served  from  1803  to  181 5. 
 In  1 8 10  he  experienced  what  he  called  his  conversion, 
 largely  through  reading  Wilberforce's  ''Practical 
 Christianity."  From  that  time  Chalmers  was  a  man 
 of  power.  From  18 15  to  1820  he  served  Tron  parish, 
 in  Glasgow.     In  18 17  he  preached  in  I^ondon,  where 
 
214     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 his  eloquence  was  as  efifective  as  in  Glasgow.  Lock- 
 hart  said  he  knew  "  none  whose  eloquence  is  capable 
 of  producing  an  effect  so  strong  and  irresistible."  In 
 1811  he  preached  his  "Astronomical  Discourses,"  of 
 which  twenty  thousand  copies  were  sold  within  a  year. 
 From  1 8 19  to  1823  he  was  pastor  of  St.  John's,  at 
 Glasgow.  In  the  latter  year  he  was  called  as  Professor 
 of  Moral  Philosophy  to  St.  Andrew's,  where  he  re- 
 mained five  years,  when  he  went  to  Edinburgh  as  Pro- 
 fessor of  Theology,  1828-1843.  After  the  disruption 
 he  served  in  the  Chair  of  Divinity  in  the  Free  Church 
 College,  in  Edinburgh.  He  also  ministered  as  royal 
 chaplain  from  1830  to  1847.  In  1833  he  published  a 
 Bridge  water  Treatise  on  the  ''Adaptation  of  External 
 Nature  to  the  Moral  and  Intellectual  Constitution  of 
 Man."  This  was  afterward  expanded  into  his  "  Natu- 
 ral Theology." 
 
 Chalmers  was  profoundly  attached  to  the  Scottish 
 
 Kirk  as  by  law  established,  and  only  injustice  and  op- 
 
 TheDisrup"  P^'^ssion  could   have   driven  him  from  it. 
 
 tionand     In  1 838  he  Icctured  in  London  in  favor  of 
 
 the  F?ee***  ^^^  establishment.    Chalmers  threw  his  soul 
 
 Church  of    into  the  Church  life  of  his  native  land.     In 
 
 Scotland,     jg^^  j^.g  i^|3Qj.g  resulted  in  the   erection  of 
 
 twenty  new  churches  in  Glasgow  and  two  hundred 
 
 and  twenty   in  Scotland,  costing  $1,500,000.     From 
 
 the   original  constitution  of  the  Scottish  Church  the 
 
 congregation  had  a  vote   in  the   election  of  pastors. 
 
 This   right  was  destroyed   by  the  Patronage  Act  of 
 
 Queen  Anne,  171 2,   which  vested  the  choice  in  the 
 
 patron.     In  1833,  Chalmers  secured  the  passage  of  the 
 
 Veto  Act,  by  which  the  male  heads  of  families  in  the 
 
 congregation  had  a  vote  on  the  choice  of  the  patron. 
 
Evangelical  Church  in  Scotland.      215 
 
 This  right  of  vote  the  courts  pronounced  illegal  in  the 
 celebrated  Auchtenrader  case,  where,  in  a  parish  of 
 three  thousand  souls,  but  two  persons  signed  the  call, 
 while  two  hundred  and  eighty-seven  out  of  three  hun- 
 dred, who  under  the  Veto  Act  had  the  right  to  vote, 
 protested.  Other  cases  were  even  worse.  The  Pres- 
 bytery would  not  allow  this  disregard  of  the  Veto 
 Act,  but  the  civil  courts  held  that  that  Act  was  illegal, 
 and  the  decision  was  upheld  on  appeal  by  the  House 
 of  Lords,  in  1839.  In  answer  the  General  Assembly 
 affirmed  the  principle  of  **  Non-intrusion  "  of  the  lay 
 patron  against  the  will  of  the  Church  and  General 
 Assembly. 
 
 The  Assembly  ot  1842  presented  a  petition  to  the 
 queen,  asking  for  redress.  In  November,  1842,  a  large 
 number  of  ministers  signed  and  published  a  declara- 
 tion that  if  no  relief  were  afforded,  they  would  resign 
 their  livings.  The  Home  Secretary  in  January,  1843, 
 gave  them  to  understand  that  no  relief  would  be 
 afforded;  the  House  of  Commons  took  action  to  the 
 same  effect  in  March.  On  May  18,  1843,  four  hundred 
 and  seventy  ministers,  led  by  Dr.  Chalmers,  withdrew 
 from  the  General  Assembly,  and  formed  the  Free 
 Church  ot  Scotland.  ,  After  the  deed  was  done,  Lord 
 Aberdeen  granted  a  tardy  and  partial  concession  by 
 the  vScottish  Benefices  Act  of  1843,  which  provided, 
 that  **  The  people  might  state  objections  personal  to  a 
 presentee  and  bearing  on  his  fitness  to  the  particular 
 charge  to  which  he  was  presented,  and  also  authorized 
 the  Presbyteries,  in  dealing  with  the  objections,  to 
 look  to  the  character  and  number  of  the  objectors." 
 This  Act  was  no  remedy,  and  in  1874  all  patronage 
 was  abolished,  and   the  congregation  was  given  the 
 
2i6    History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 right  to  elect.  This  ended  a  long  struggle  of  one 
 hundred  and  fifty  years.  If  the  formation  of  the  Free 
 Church  had  no  other  effect  than  to  cause  this  reform 
 in  the  parent  body,  it  had  wrought  well. 
 
 Over  one-third  of  the  ministry,  fully  one-third  of 
 the  membership,  and  all  the  foreign  missionaries  ex- 
 The  Free  ^^P^  °^^>  ^^  ^^^  Established  Church,  formed 
 Church  of  the  ucw  Free  Church.  All  endowments 
 Scotland.  ^^^  State  aid  were  renounced,  and  churches, 
 schoolhouses,  parsonages,  and  the  payment  of  all  sal- 
 aries had  to  come  from  the  voluntary  gifts  of  the  peo- 
 ple. Within  four  years,  over  seven  hundred  churches 
 had  been  built,  costing  $1,250,000.  The  New  College 
 at  Edinburgh  was  built,  costing  over  $200,000 ;  and 
 by  1847  five  hundred  and  thirteen  schools  were  pro- 
 vided for,  instructing  forty-four  thousand  scholars. 
 Before  1845,  $400,000  had  been  raised  for  the  support 
 of  the  ministers,  and  for  the  first  ten  years  the  annual 
 amount  raised  was  over  $400,000,  afi"ording  a  support 
 of  $625  each.  This  was  steadily  increased  in  the  years 
 following.  In  the  meantime  it  generally  sustained 
 and  extended  its  Foreign  Mission  work. 
 
 Nothing  finer  in  devotion  to  moral  principle,  in  self- 
 sacrifice  and  generosity,  is  on  the  record  of  these  years 
 than  the  spirit  which  made  successful  and  illustrious 
 the  founding  of  the  Free  Church  of  Scotland. 
 
 The  work  of  Dr.  Chalmers  in  founding  the  Free 
 
 Church  will  always  be  memorable  and  historic;  but 
 
 ,    even  more  attractive  and  instructive  was 
 
 Chalmers  s 
 
 Parish       his  parish  work  in  Glasgow  and  Edinburgh. 
 
 ^*"''''  In  St.  John's  parish,  Glasgow,  he  found  that 
 out  of  two  thousand  families,  eight  hundred  had  no 
 connection    with   any    Church.     The    children    were 
 
Evangelical  Church  in  Scotland.      217 
 
 growing  up  in  ignorance.  He  caused  two  commo- 
 dious schoolhouses  to  be  built,  and  employed  four 
 well-qualified  teachers.  He  opened  forty  or  fifty 
 Sabbath-schools,  in  which  one  thousand  children 
 were  taught.  The  parish  was  divided  into  twenty- 
 five  districts  of  from  sixty  to  one  hundred  families; 
 to  each  was  assigned  an  elder  to  look  after  their  spir- 
 itual welfare,  and  a  deacon  to  aid  in  their  temporal 
 well-being.  Dr.  Chalmers  undertook  the  relief  of  the 
 poor  of  the  parish,  and,  by  this  system  of  supervision 
 and  investigation,  he  reduced  the  charge  to  the  city 
 from  $7,000  to  $1,400  a  3^ear. 
 
 In  1 845-1 847  he  took  charge  of  Westport,  Edin- 
 burgh, a  parish  of  two  thousand  souls  in  the  worst 
 part  of  the  city.  He  most  successfully  applied  his 
 system  tried  at  Glasgow  to  the  new  situation.  No 
 other  man  in  the  century  made  such  an  impression 
 on  the  religious  life  of  Scotland.  He  made  it  more 
 Evangelical,  more  practical,  more  intellectual  and 
 refined. 
 
 An  able  assistant  of  Dr.  Chalmers  in  founding  the 
 Free   Church,   and   a   most   eloquent    preacher,    was 
 Thomas  Guthrie  (1803-18 73).     His  father 
 was  a   trader  and  banker.     He  studied  at    qu^^^. 
 the  University   of  Edinburgh,    181 5-1825, 
 finishing  the  course  for  the  A.  B.  degree.     In  1826- 
 1827  he  studied  Medicine  and  Natural  Theology  at 
 Paris.     He  married  and  accepted  the  pastorate  at  Ar- 
 bilot,  near  Arbroath,  where  he  remained,  1830- 183 7. 
 Besides  his  regular  parish  duties  here,  he  interested 
 himself  in  savings  banks  and  parish  libraries,  as  well 
 as  Sunday-schools.    From  1837  to  1840  he  was  pastor  at 
 Grey  Friars,  Edinburgh,  and  from  1840  to  i86j.  at  St. 
 
2i8     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 John's  Church  in  the  same  city.  From  June,  1845,  to 
 June,  1846,  he  raised  $580,000  for  manses  for  Free 
 Church  clergymen.  From  1844  he  was  that  rare 
 thing,  at  that  time  in  Britain,  a  total  abstainer.  In 
 1847,  and  even  afterwards,  he  was  greatly  interested 
 in  ragged  schools.  He  published  "  The  City,  its  Sins 
 and  Sorrows,"  1851. 
 
 In  1853  he  secured  the  Sunday  closing  of  the 
 liquor  shops.  In  1855  appeared  his  *'  Gospel  in  Ezek- 
 iel,"  which  is  a  good  example  of  his  sermons.  In 
 1862  he  was  presented  with  a  purse  of  $25,000.  He 
 preached  for  twenty  years  after  his  physician  had  for- 
 bidden him,  on  account  of  the  weak  action  of  his 
 heart.  At  his  grave  a  ragged- school  girl  gave  the 
 finest  tribute  to  his  work  and  worth,  as  she  said,  amid 
 falling  tears,  "He  was  all  the  father  I  ever  knew." 
 
 One  of  the  greatest  of  modern  missionaries,  and 
 one  of  the  most  eloquent  who  ever  appeared  on  a 
 
 missionary  platform,  was  Alexander  Duff 
 ^'duS'*^'    (1806-1878).     He  was  born  in  a   peasant 
 
 farmer's  cottage.  His  education  was  re- 
 ceived at  St.  Andrew's,  and  he  studied  under  Chal- 
 mers. In  1829  he  was  ordained  and  sailed  as  a 
 missionary,  arriving  at  Calcutta  in  May,  1830.  There 
 he  began  his  educational  work,  seeking  to  train  native 
 preachers.  In  1834  he  was  again  in  Scotland,  and 
 made  a  great  speech  before  the  General  Assembly. 
 By  1840  he  had  a  college-building  costing  $150,000, 
 and  seven  hundred  students.  In  1843  ^^  went  with 
 the  Free  Church,  and  all  had  to  be  given  up.  He 
 edited  the  Calcutta  Review ^  1845-1849,  and  then  failing 
 health  made  imperative  his  return  to  Scotland.      In 
 
Evangelical  Church  in  Scotland.      219 
 
 1854  he  visited  the  United  States,  and  charmed  great 
 congregations  with  his  impassioned  oratory.  In  1856 
 he  returned  to  India,  where  he  wrought  for  the  next 
 seven  years.  He  was  vice-chancellor  and  founder  of 
 the  University  of  Calcutta.  His  chief  endeavor  was 
 to  teach  the  English  language  and  the  Bible  to  the 
 native  students,  and  thus  reach  the  intellectual 
 classes.  He  saw  the  number  of  native  Evangelical 
 Christians  in  India  increase  from  127,000  in  1850  to 
 318,000  in  1 87 1.  From  1864  until  his  death  he  was 
 missionary  secretary  of  the  Free  Church  of  Scotland 
 and  professor  in  its  college  at  Edinburgh. 
 
 The  power  of  the  new  life  which  made  possible 
 the  founding  of  the  Free  Church  of  Scotland  made 
 itself  felt  in  the  old  Established  Kirk.  The  achieve- 
 ments of  that  life  fall  into  the  next  period,  but  no  bet- 
 ter example  of  it  could  be  named  than  the  manly  and 
 attractive  career  of  Norman  McLeod. 
 
 Norman  McEeod  (18 12-1872)  was  the  son  of  Rev. 
 Dr.  McLeod,  a  distinguished  minister  of  the  Scotch 
 Church.     He   took   his   college   course    at 
 Glasgow,  and  studied  Divinity  under  Chal-     McLTod. 
 mers  at  Edinburgh.     He  taught  as  a  pri- 
 vate tutor,  1 832-1 835,  and  in  the  college  at  Glasgow, 
 1835-1837.     He  was  a  pastor  at  London,  1838-1843, 
 and   at  Dalkeith,    1 843-1 851.     He  took  part   in   the 
 Evangelical  Alliance  at  London,  1846.     He  was  pas- 
 tor of  Barony  Church,  1 851-1872,  and  roj^al  chaplain, 
 1857.     From  i860  he  was  editor  of  Good  Words.      In 
 1864  he  became  missionary   secretary.     In  the  same 
 year  he  visited  Egypt  and  Palestine,  and  three  years 
 later,  India.     In  1869  he  was  chosen  moderator. 
 
220     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 His  influence  was  very  great  through  Good  Words. 
 His  personal  character  and  manners  were  most  attract- 
 ive, and  he  was  a  favorite  chaplain  with  the  queen. 
 
 In  Ireland  the  Established  Church  scarcely  held 
 its  own ;  the  Presbyterians  of  Ulster  and  the  Meth- 
 odists were  diminished  by  emigration  to  America. 
 
Chapter  VIII. 
 
 THE  CHRISTIAN  CHURCH   IN  AMERICA. 
 In  the  United  States. 
 
 This  period  in  the  history  of  the  United  States, 
 from  1800  to  1850,  was  a  period  of  the  expansion  of 
 its  territory.      The  Louisiana  purchase  in    J^^^  ^^^  ^^ 
 1803  added  Louisiana,  Arkansas,  Missouri,    settlement, 
 Iowa,  Minnesota,  Kansas,  Nebraska,  North    '^<*®"'^5o. 
 and  South  Dakota,  most  of  Montana,  Wyoming,  and 
 the  Indian    Territory,  and  a  part  of   Colorado   and 
 Oklahoma;    by  exploration  and  settlement  came,  be- 
 fore 1812,  Washington,  Oregon,  and  Idaho;  by  Span- 
 ish cession,  18 19,  Florida;  by  conquest  and  purchase 
 from  Mexico,  California,  Nevada,  Arizona,  and  a  part 
 of  Wyoming,  Colorado,  and  New  Mexico.     The  total 
 area  thus  acquired  in  the  fifty  years  was  more  than 
 twice  that  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Federal  Gov- 
 ernment at  the  opening  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
 
 This  expansion  in  territory  preceded,  but  was  not 
 greater  in  proportion  than  that  of  settlement  and  the 
 advance  of  civilization.  In  these  years  the  line  of 
 frontier  changed  from  the  Genesee  River  to  the 
 Mississippi;  and  beyond  it,  not  only  Louisiana,  Ar- 
 kansas, Missouri,  and  Texas,  but  on  the  Pacific  Coast, 
 Oregon  and  California.  But  the  great  area  of  settle- 
 ment was  in  the  Central  Basin  of  the  West,  bounded 
 on  the  South  by  the  Ohio,  on  the  north  by  the  Great 
 Lakes,  and  extending  to  the  Mississippi.     The  settle- 
 
 221 
 
222     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 ment  was  facilitated  by  important  canals  in  New 
 York,  Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  and  Ohio.  The  great- 
 est of  these  by  far  was  the  Erie  Canal.  These  canals, 
 and  steam  transportation  on  the  lakes  and  on  rivers, 
 like  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi,  were  the  only  means 
 of  travel  and  of  transport  except  the  canvas-topped 
 wagons,  now  called  ''prairie  schooners."  National 
 and  State  roads  were  opened  along  the  chief  lines  of 
 intercourse  to  a  limited  extent ;  but  the  early  settlers, 
 in  the  main,  made  their  roads  as  they  won  their 
 farms,  by  conquering  them  from  the  forest  or  prairie 
 by  the  sweat  of  their  brows. 
 
 As  the  railroads  did  not  begin  to  improve  the 
 primitive  condition  of  communication  until  the  last 
 decade  of  this  period,  the  canals  did  much  to  deter- 
 mine the  tide  of  emigration  from  the  Hast.  They  also 
 often  made  evident  the  best  route  for  great  systems  ot 
 railways.  Then,  when  the  tide  of  foreign  emigration 
 came,  these  canals,  notably  the  Erie  Canal,  the  water- 
 course of  the  Great  Lakes,  and  the  new  railways 
 through  the  river  valleys  and  over  the  prairies,  di- 
 rected its  flow  and  settlement.  Thus  Western  New 
 York  and  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Mich- 
 igan, and  Wisconsin  were  opened  for  settlement  in 
 this  period. 
 
 South  of  the  Ohio  the  same  westward  movement 
 went  on ;  but  the  settlers  were  slaveholders,  and  took 
 their  slaves  with  them.  Their  civilization  was  essen- 
 tially agricultural  and  commercial.  There  was  very 
 little  manufacturing,  few  large  cities,  and  no  foreign 
 emigration.  Large  estates  and  slaves  formed  a  society 
 little  desired  by  free  labor,  either  from  the  East  or 
 from  Europe. 
 
The  Christian  Church  in  America.      223 
 
 The  conditions  of  life  in  the  new  country  were 
 hard ;  many  died  from  malarial  fevers  or  exposure,  or 
 for  lack  of  medical  aid,  and  not  a  few  from  mere 
 homesickness.  The  size  of  the  cemeteries  in  many 
 of  these  early  settlements  reveals  the  cost  of  conquer- 
 ing the  wilderness.  On  the  other  hand,  the  bound- 
 less hospitality,  the  universal  readiness  to  aid  in 
 trouble,  and  the  genuine  sympathy,  the  quick  im- 
 provement in  the  economic  conditions,  the  hearty  de- 
 mocracy in  society  and  politics,  made  the  life  greatly 
 enjoyed  by  those  who  mastered  the  early  hard  condi- 
 tions, and  it  thrilled  them  with  the  pride  of  conquest 
 over  savage  nature,  and  also  afforded  an  un equaled 
 field  for  the  strong  and  the  enterprising  among  them. 
 
 This  society  in  its  crude  condition  afforded  scope 
 for   all   kinds  of   social   and    political    experiments. 
 Communistic  societies,  from    that    of   the 
 elder  Shakers  to  those  of  Robert  Owen  in  p'»^«^  Social 
 
 Condition. 
 
 Indiana  and  the  Zoar  Community,  flour- 
 ished. It  was  this  same  plastic  social  condition  which 
 made  possible  the  Mormon  experiment  and  the  ear- 
 lier successes  of  the  Spiritualists.  Its  unrest  made 
 good  soil  for  every  kind  of  fad,  from  the  Brook  Farm 
 and  Fourierite  phalansteries  to  "  Graham  flour " 
 diet  and  water-cure  establishments.  Amid  all  this 
 desire  for  change  and  conditions  favoring  it,  two 
 things  are  remarkable — the  general  political  conserva- 
 tism and  conformity  to  the  normal  democratic  type, 
 and  the  great  liberality  and  the  humane  spirit  these 
 settlers  showed  in  their  care  for  the  defective  classes 
 and  adherence  to  the  new  methods  of  prison  reform. 
 This  era  was  one  of  unbounded  hope.  Of  history 
 and  its  lessons  they  knew  little  and  cared  less.    They 
 
224    History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 believed  they  were  well  able  to  make  all  things  new. 
 This  was  the  great  era  of  American  "buncombe." 
 The  eagle  rampant,  with  spread  wings 
 and  harsh  scream,  was  the  symbol  of 
 this  ignorant  and  arrogant  but  good-natured  Ameri- 
 canism. Generations  who  had  made  such  conquests 
 for  their  country  and  from  nature,  and  who  offered 
 such  unparalleled  opportunities  to  the  common  man 
 from  the  ends  of  the  earth,  and  made  their  democ- 
 racy the  political  and  social  gospel  for  all  the  op- 
 pressed peoples  of  the  world,  had  a  right  to  a  gener- 
 ous pride,  and  may  be  pardoned  a  little  boastfulness. 
 
 These  eager,  restless,  masterful  men,  full  of  self- 
 confidence,  cared  little  for  what  the  world  had  done, 
 American    °^  ^^^  ^^  intellectual  treasure  of  the  race. 
 Character-    Culture  and  art  were   beyond   their   hori- 
 
 **"'  zon;  but  for  daring  enterprise,  for  re- 
 source, for  ingenuity,  for  humor  and  generosity,  no 
 generation  of  Americans  has  surpassed  them.  Two 
 Frenchmen  have  left  lasting  record  of  their  character- 
 istics. No  American  can  read  De  Tocqueville's  "De- 
 mocracy in  America"  without  profit,  as  the  best  con- 
 temporary picture  of  these  times,  and  the  imaginative 
 type  is  well  represented  in  Harris  in  Kdmond  About's 
 "Le  Roi  des  Montagues,"  or  "King  of  the  Moun- 
 tains." 
 
 This  picture  is  not  true  of  the  Eastern  or  Middle 
 States.  Washington  Irving,  Fitz-Greene  Halleck, 
 and  William  Cullen  Bryant,  with  James 
 Development.  Fenimore  Cooper,  began  the  literary  rec- 
 ord of  New  York.  Charles  Brockden 
 Brown,  William  Gilmore  Simms,  Henry  T.  Tucker- 
 man,   and   Edgar   Allan   Poe,  came  from  the  States 
 
The  Christian  Church  in  America.      225 
 
 South;  but  the  Romantic  Movement  reached  New 
 England,  and  there  arose  a  school  of  poets,  critics, 
 and  historians  which  made  American  literature  known 
 beyond  the  Atlantic,  though  Irving,  Cooper,  and  nota- 
 bly Poe,  had  then  conquered  their  public.  William 
 Hickling  Prescott's  "  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,"  "  PhiHp 
 Second,"  and  "Conquest  of  Mexico"  and  "Conquest 
 of  Peru;"  George  Ticknor's  "Spanish  I^iterature," 
 and  Bancroft's  "History  of  the  United  States,"  made 
 American  historical  scholarship  respected  in  all  lands, 
 lyongfellow,  lyowell,  Whittier,  and  Holmes  joined,  not 
 unworthily,  the  choir  of  English  poets  of  the  century. 
 Hawthorne,  as  the  first  great  American  novelist, 
 showed  a  purity  and  mastery  of  English  which  makes 
 his  work  rank  among  the  treasures  of  the  mother 
 tongue.  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson  and  James  Russell 
 lyowell,  in  brilliant,  penetrating,  and  suggestive  criti- 
 cism, brought  honor  to  American  letters.  In  art  and 
 music  little  was  done.  The  architects  were  mostly 
 foreigners ;  but  William  W.  Story  and  Hiram  Powers 
 began  the  race  of  American  sculptors,  as  Gilbert 
 Stuart  and  Washington  Allston  had  begun  that  of 
 American  painters. 
 
 The  great  intellectual  advance  in  this  period  was 
 the  founding  and  development  of  the  public-school 
 system,   the    establishment  of    denomina- 
 
 •  ,        .        1  1     ,  .  -,  -i  Education. 
 
 tional  schools,  and  the  rise  and  ascendency 
 of  the  newspaper  press.  No  government  in  all  the 
 history  of  the  race,  when  both  the  university  and  the 
 high  average  achievement  in  common  and  secondary 
 schools  are  taken  into  account,  has  done  so  much  for 
 the  education  of  the  people  as  the  States  of  the  Ameri- 
 can Union.  There  is  now,  and  always  has  been, 
 15 
 
226    History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 abundant  chance  for  improvement ;  but  in  any  wide 
 and  general  comparison  the  American  public  school 
 stands  well  in  the  lead.  In  special  branches  and  in 
 the  development  of  artistic  and  musical  taste  and 
 aptitudes,  other  nations  surpass  it,  but  it  has  given  a 
 higher  average  of  intellectual  acquirement,  among  a 
 most  miscellaneous  and  heterogeneous  population  than 
 the  world  before  had  seen.  Horace  Mann,  secretary 
 of  the  Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Education,  led  in 
 the  establishment  and  development  of  the  common- 
 school  system,  especially  by  founding  normal  schools. 
 
 In  these  years  slavery  disappeared  in  the  Northern 
 States,  and  was  immensely  strengthened  in  the  South, 
 which  imposed  its  policy  on  the  Federal 
 Government.  The  suffrage  came  to  be 
 without  restriction  as  to  property  or  intelligence.  In 
 these  years  the  last  Church  Establishment  was  abol- 
 ished. The  principle  of  rotation  in  office  came  to 
 prevail  with  most  disastrous  consequences,  which  cul- 
 minated in  the  succeeding  generation.  The  one 
 absorbing  political  theme  from  1830  to  i860  was  the 
 extension  or  the  restriction  of  Slave  States  and  Terri- 
 tory. 
 
 The  emigration  from  Europe  did  not  reach  1,000 
 
 a  year  until   1820,  and  it  did  not  reach  30,000  until 
 
 1840.     From  that  year  until  1846  it  ranged 
 
 Emigration.      ^    ^  ''  . 
 
 from  78,000  to  150,000  annually.  In  1846, 
 the  year  of  the  Irish  famine,  it  rose  to  250,000.  The 
 Revolution  of  1848,  and  the  reaction  following,  in- 
 creased the  flood.  By  that  time  railways  and  steam- 
 ships made  swift  and  plain  the  path  of  the  emigrant, 
 and  the  fate  of  the  United  States  was  fixed  as  the  most 
 cosmopolitan  of  nations. 
 
The  Christian  Church  in  America.     227 
 
 The  Work  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 The  great  work  of  the  Christian  Church  was  to 
 win  the  scattered  settlers  and  their  children  to  a  re- 
 ligious life  and  service,  and  to  found  the  p,antine 
 Church,  its  worship,  instruction,  and  means  in  the 
 of  grace  in  the  nascent  communities.  The  ^''<*®''"«s"- 
 Church  in  almost  all  cases  was  begun  in  the  house 
 of  a  godly  man,  or  of  a  new  convert.  When  enough 
 people  of  like  views  and  desires  were  gathered, 
 the  first  thing  was  a  place  of  worship,  at  first  in  the 
 schoolhouse,  and  then  in  a  church  of  the  most  primi- 
 tive pattern.  The  community,  including  men  of  all 
 creeds  and  of  no  creed,  responded  generously  as  the 
 new  building  and  organization  added  to  the  attractive- 
 ness of  the  village  or  town  as  a  place  of  residence. 
 Yet  with  all  this,  the  task  of  clearing  and  building, 
 the  cost  all  coming  from  the  resources  of  the  commu- 
 nity itself,  as  there  were  no  Church  Extension  Socie- 
 ties in  those  days,  was  a  serious  problem,  involving 
 much  toil  and  sacrifice.  If  the  place  grew,  then  the 
 log  church  had  to  give  way  to  a  better  one,  and  within 
 the  same  generation  the  Church  society  would  rebuild 
 two  or  three  times,  or,  after  building  twice,  make  re- 
 pairs and  enlargements  which  were  almost  equal  to 
 rebuilding.  These  sums  probably,  in  the  aggregate, 
 thus  voluntarily  given  and  expended,  were  the  largest, 
 in  comparison  with  the  wealth  ot  the  givers,  raised 
 in  Christendom  in  the  Christian  centuries. 
 
 The  building  of  the  church,  of  course,  signified 
 the  establishment  of  stated  Christian  services,  the 
 preaching  of  the  Word,  the  reading  of  the  Bible,  teach- 
 
228     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 ing  of  the  children,  public  prayer  and  Christian  song, 
 and  the  administration  of  the  sacraments,  with  the  ex- 
 ercise of  a  Christian  discipline  more  or  less  strict. 
 These  taken  out  or  added  to  the  life  of  a  community 
 just  bringing  the  wilderness  from  savagery  to  cultiva- 
 tion, made  all  the  difference  between  a  community 
 which  held  to  all  the  great  common  traditions  and 
 ethical  standards  of  a  Christian  civilization,  and  one 
 which  did  not ;  between  a  community  in  which  people 
 wished  to  live  and  rear  their  children  in  the  Christian 
 faith,  and  one  in  which  they  did  not. 
 
 The  New  England  settlers  as  soon  as  possible  pro- 
 ceeded to  erect  a  schoolhouse  and  a  church.  lyord 
 Stratford  de  Redcliffe,  in  1822,  made  the  journey  from 
 Albany  to  Niagara  Falls  before  the  opening  of  the  Erie 
 Canal.  He  noted  with  pleasure  that  in  the  newest  and 
 smallest  communities  there  was  always  a  church. 
 This  was  not  the  case  with  settlers  from  the  South 
 sometimes,  as  in  a  case  known  to  the  writer  in  West- 
 ern New  York,  where  the  horse-race  and  the  theater 
 had  twenty  years  the  start  of  the  church.  This  was 
 largely  true  at  first  in  the  South  and  Middle  West. 
 Often  the  early  settlers  were  not  only  irreligious,  but 
 positive  unbelievers  of  the  Thomas  Paine  type.  In 
 all  these  conditions,  to  plant  the  Christian  Church  so 
 universally  and  so  permanently  has  been  the  greatest 
 achievement  of  Christian  conquest  since  the  conver- 
 sion of  the  Teutonic  people,  if  not  since  that  of  the 
 Roman  Empire. 
 
 To  arrest  the  tide  of  infidelity,  of  ungodliness,  of 
 religious  indifference,  and  often  of  gross  immorality, 
 required  heroic  efforts  and  the  strongest  appeals  to 
 
The  Christian  Church  in  America.      229 
 
 the  conscience  and  the  will.  In  some  communities 
 the  members  of  the  bar,  the  men  prominent  in  polit- 
 ical and  business  life,  were  followers  of  the  teach- 
 ings of  the  "Age  of  Reason."  When  the 
 Christian  preachers  began  to  make  con-  condSon* 
 verts,  the  opposition  of  such  men  often  was 
 aroused.  Sometimes  even  mock  celebrations  of  the 
 l/ord's  Supper  were  held  by  the  blasphemers.  In  the 
 other  communities,  organized  bands  of  law-breakers 
 had  the  upper  hand.  Amid  such  conditions  the  min- 
 isters of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  proclaimed  both  the 
 Law  and  the  Gospel.  The  entire  period  was  marked 
 by  great  revivals  of  religion.  The  conquests  won  in 
 the  wilderness  were  won  by  the  Trinitarian  and  non- 
 liturgical  Churches.  The  teaching  was  of  the  strong 
 Evangelical  type.  Those  Churches  which  were  will- 
 ing to  employ  a  pious  and  self-denying  though  un- 
 learned ministry  in  the  stress  of  the  great  emergency, 
 were  most  successful  as  the  pioneers  of  the  Christian 
 Church. 
 
 Such  men  could  do  needed  work  among  the 
 settlers  of  the  great  West  and  South.  -Under  their 
 labors  broke  out  the  great  revivals  of  the 
 
 .  _     ,  .    ,  ,  ,  ,  Revivals. 
 
 close  of  the  eighteenth  century  and  at  the 
 opening  years  of  its  successor.  In  July,  1800,  under 
 the  ministry  of  two  brothers,  William  and  John 
 McGee,  the  one  a  Presbyterian  minister  and  the  other 
 a  Methodist  local  preacher,  revival  meetings  were 
 held  throughout  the  Cumberland  region  of  Tennessee 
 and  Kentucky.  The  people  were  so  engaged  in  the 
 revival  that  they  came  out  and  camped  together  for  a 
 week,  during  which  services  were   held   constantly, 
 
230     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 with  many  clear  conversions  and  consequent  reforma- 
 tions of  life.  This  was  the  origin  of  camp-meetings, 
 which  became  a  feature  of  American  Church  life, 
 especially  among  the  Methodists,  and  from  which 
 sprang  the  Chautauquas  and  Ocean  Groves  of  the 
 present  day.  From  this  movement  also  arose  the 
 Cumberland  Presbyterian  and  the  Primitive  Methodist 
 Churches.  Such  revival  meetings  followed  almost 
 invariably  the  preaching  of  the  Methodist  itinerants, 
 and  also  often  that  of  the  Baptists  and  Presbyterians. 
 In  this  manner  were  organized  the  infant  Churches  of 
 the  West  and  South.  Those  who  renewed  their  vows 
 ol  Christian  faith  and  service,  and  the  new  converts, 
 founded  the  first  Churches  of  the  wilderness.  Then 
 came  in  their  train  the  settled  services  of  the  Chris- 
 tian Church,  and  the  blessings  of  Christian  civiliza- 
 tion. Thus  was  the  West  first  won,  and  through  the 
 self-denying  labors  of  the  frontier  preachers  it  was 
 Christianized. 
 
 The  same  revival  services  in  the  better-settled 
 frontiers  of  the  country  were  the  means  of  overcom- 
 ing the  infidelity,  the  religious  indifference,  and  the 
 ungodliness  of  the  people,  and  of  building  up  the 
 Christian  Church.  Here,  as  in  the  West,  the  Meth- 
 odist itinerants  were  always  at  the  front;  but  noted 
 among  the  revival  preachers  of  this  period  were 
 Charles  G.  Finney,  Edwin  N.  Kirk,  Lyman  Beecher^ 
 and  Jacob  Knapp ;  the  three  first  Congregationalists, 
 and  the  last  a  Baptist.  The  great  work  of  founding 
 and  building  up  the  Christian  Church  in  the  United 
 States  in  the  first  half  of  the  century  was  largely 
 wrought  out  through  the  instrumentality  of  the  relig- 
 ious revival. 
 
The  Christian  Church  in  America.      231 
 
 The  Church  thus  founded  or  replenished   under- 
 took a  much  larger  and  more  varied  work  than  any 
 previous  generation  had  known.     As  the       The 
 teaching  and  life  of  the  Church  was  of  the    Enlarged 
 
 ^  ?.       ,  .  ...  Activities 
 
 Evangelical   type,    so   were    its    activities.       of  the 
 The  first  new  and  transforming  agency     Church. 
 was  the  Sunday-school,      By  1825  the  Sunday-school 
 movement   took   possession  of  nearly  all  American 
 Churches  except  the  Primitive,  or  so-called 
 Hardshell  Baptists.     This,  of  course,  made  '^"^^^hTof  ^" 
 a  great   demand   for   Bibles,  for  religious 
 books  and  periodicals,  adapted  to  the  use  of  children 
 and  youth.     It  also  made  necessary  a  closer  stud}^  of 
 the  Bible  by  a  large  body  of  intellectual  laymen  and 
 women,  the  most  intelligent  and  self-sacrificing  per- 
 sons connected  with  the  Church.     Thus  the  children 
 early  in  life  became  connected  with  Christian  people 
 and  conversant  with  the  great  truths  of  the  Christian 
 religion.      From  this  time  each  generation,  came  to 
 know  the   Christian   Church,    Christian   people,   and 
 Christian  truth.     Thus  were  laid  the  foundations  of 
 Christian,  individual,  and  national  life. 
 
 Next  after  caring  for  the  religious  instruction  of 
 the  children  the  Churches  felt  upon  them  the  burden 
 of  fulfilling  our  I^ord's  last  command,  to 
 "disciple the  nations."  The  Mission  Band, 
 first  formed  at  Williams  College,  and  afterward  at 
 Andover  Theological  Seminary,  consisting  of  Mills, 
 Newell,  Rice,  and  Judson,  led  to  the  founding  of  the 
 American  Board  of  Foreign  Missions  among  the  Con- 
 gregationalists  in  18 10.  The  conversion  of  Judson  to 
 Baptist  opinions  in  18 13  led  to  the  formation  of  the 
 Baptist  Missionary  Society  in  1814.     The  Methodists 
 
232     History  of  the  Christian  Church, 
 
 followed  in  1819,  but  sent  out  no  foreign  missionary 
 until  1832.  In  1824  the  Episcopalians  organized 
 their  Missionary  Society.  The  Presbyterians  at  first 
 worked  with  the  American  Board,  but  in  1836  was 
 founded  the  first  Presbyterian  Missionary  Society,  fol- 
 lowed in  this  period  by  the  Reformed  Dutch  Church 
 and  the  Cumberland  Presbyterian  Church  in  1832. 
 The  lyUtheran  Missionary  Society  was  founded  in 
 1837,  the  Free-will  Baptists  in  1834,  and  the  Southern 
 Baptist  and  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  South, 
 in  1845.  Thus  most  of  the  American  Churches  had 
 by  1850  able  representatives  on  foreign  mission  fields. 
 These  works  of  instruction  demanded  the  use  of 
 many  copies  of  the  Bible,  and  the  Evangelical  ideal 
 was  not  only  a  Bible  in  every  family,  but 
 Societksi  ^^^  ^^^  every  adult  person  in  the  com- 
 munities. This  led  to  the  foundation  of 
 the  American  Bible  Society  in  18 16,  an  agency  which 
 is  fundamental  to  the  work  of  the  Evangelical 
 Churches  in  this  and  foreign  lands. 
 
 Before,  and  especially  following,  the  work  of  the 
 
 Bible  Societies,  came  the  Tract  Societies,  to  furnish 
 
 religious  and  revivalistic  literature  for  the 
 
 Societies     Churches.     The  Massachusetts  Society  for 
 
 the  Promotion  of  Christian  Knowledge,  in 
 
 1803;  the  Connecticut    Religious    Tract    Society,   in 
 
 1807;    Vermont   Religious   Tract   Society,    in    1808; 
 
 New  York  Religious  Tract  Society,   in    181 2;    New 
 
 England  Tract  Society,  in  18 14.     Then  the  Church 
 
 Tract    Societies:    The    Protestant    Episcopal    Tract 
 
 Society,   1809;    the   Methodist   Tract    Society,    18 17; 
 
 the    Baptist    General    Tract    Society,    1824;   and  the 
 
 American  Tract  Society,  1825. 
 
The  Christian  Church  in  America.     233 
 
 After  these  Societies  came  usually  the  founding  of 
 the  great  publishing-houses,  though  that  of  the  Meth- 
 odist Episcopal  Church  dated  from  1789.  church 
 Thus  came  into  being  that  agency  second  Publication 
 only  to  preaching,  the  religious  periodical  "°"«®*- 
 press.  It  must  increase  in  interest  and  power  as  the 
 work  of  the  Church  and  the  evangelization  of  the 
 world  advances;  but  it  can  never  in  any  measure  take 
 the  place  of  the  Christian  pulpit.  Thus  it  is  seen  that 
 in  the  work  of  Sunday-schools,  missions,  and  a  Church 
 press,  all  the  American  Churches  except  a  fraction  of 
 the  Baptists,  and  excluding  the  Roman  Catholics,  are 
 united  in  a  large  and  more  varied  Church  work  than 
 any  other  century  has  known.  This  applies  to  all  the 
 Evangelical  Churches  in  regard  to  the  publication  of 
 the  Bible  and  of  religious  literature.  As  the  Church 
 of  Rome  was  not  friendly  to  popular  education,  and 
 has  several  times  vigorously  denounced  Bible  Societies, 
 its  work  in  these  lines  is  necessarily  later  and  more 
 limited  than  among  the  Evangelical  Churches. 
 
 The  Churches  began  about  1820  to  realize  the  ne- 
 cessity of  increased  facilities  for  affording  a  Christian 
 education  in  secondary  schools  and  collee:es, 
 
 J      ,  .         r  i        ,       .      ,         ,        ,        Education. 
 
 and  the  necessity  for  theological  schools. 
 The  latter  came  first  in  the  older  Churches.  The 
 founding  of  Andover  in  1808,  of  Yale  Divinity  School 
 in  1822,  and  those  of  Bangor  in  1816,  and  Hartford 
 in  1834,  supplied  the  needs  of  the  Congregationalists. 
 The  Presbyterians  founded  Princeton  Theological 
 Seminary  in  1812;  Auburn  in  181 6;  Western  at  Alle- 
 gheny, in  1826;  Lane  at  Cincinnati,  in  1827;  Colum- 
 bia, S.  C,  and  Danville,  Ky.,  in  1828;  and  Union  at 
 New  York,  in  1836. 
 
234     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 The  Episcopalians  founded  the  General  Theolog- 
 ical Seminary  in  New  York  in  1822,  and  at  Alexan- 
 dria, Va.,  in  1823;  the  Baptists  did  the  same  work  at 
 Newton,  Mass.,  1826;    the  Methodists  were  last,  be- 
 ginning at  Concord  in  1849.     The  Methodists,  how- 
 ever, were  in  the  advance  in  founding  their  numerous 
 Conference  seminaries.     All  the  Churches  vied  with 
 each  other  in  founding  colleges  in  the  Middle  West. 
 In  the  reform,  the  Churches  showed  the  ethical 
 spirit  of  Christianity  in  denouncing  dueling  and  secur- 
 ing its  abolition.     The  death  of  Alexander 
 Doling.'    Hamilton  by  the  hand  of  Aaron  Burr  em- 
 phasized the  necessity  of  this  reform.     But 
 the  sermons  of  Dr.  John  M.  Mason,  Dr.  Eliphalet  Nott, 
 and  Layman  Beecher  contributed  powerfully  to  that  end. 
 They  also  fell  into  line  in  the  course  of  time,  under 
 the  lead  of  Lyman  Beecher,  against  the  manufacture 
 and  sale  of  intoxicating  liquor.  He  preached 
 
 Temperance.    .  .        _  .,  c^-       c^  -r 
 
 his  lamous  bix  Sermons  on  Intemper- 
 ance "  in  1825.  The  advance  was  slow  but  permanent. 
 It  is  said  that  Albert  Barnes's  Church  in  Morristown, 
 N.  J.,  in  1836,  had  a  Temperance  Society  which  was 
 pledged  to  reduce  daily  the  ration  of  applejack  from  a 
 quart  to  a  pint.  The  Washingtonian  movement  in 
 1840,  and  Father  Mathew's  visit  in  1849,  greatly  ad- 
 vanced the  cause,  and  at  the  end  of  this  period  the 
 Congregational,  Baptist,  Presbyterian,  and  Methodist 
 Churches  were  committed  to  total  abstinence. 
 
 The  attitude  of  the  Church  in  regard  to  slavery  is 
 far  less  honorable.     At  the  beginning  of  the  century 
 
 all   Churches  regarded  slavery  as  an  evil. 
 
 This  position  was  held  in  theory,  though 
 the   practice   did  not  correspond,  until  about    1830. 
 
The  Christian  Church  in  America.     235 
 
 The  Churches  in  the  South  had  bowed  to  the  social, 
 political,  and  economic  necessity  so  long  that  they 
 were  glad  to  discover  that  slavery  was  a  divine  insti- 
 tution, and  sheltered  under  the  aegis  of  the  practice  of 
 the  patriarchs  and  the  Jewish  law ;  the  further  steps 
 of  applying  the  same  reasoning  to  polygamy  was 
 taken  by  the  Mormons  wnthin  ten  years.  Few  things 
 could  show  more  clearly  the  necessity  of  a  view  of  the 
 Bible  which  should  see  in  it  a  progress  of  theological 
 and  ethical  teachings,  instead  of  that  mechanical  view 
 which  esteemed  every  part  as  equally  inspired  and 
 obligatory.  From  the  time  that  Southern  Christians 
 supposed  that  they  had  Biblical  sanction  for  their  pe- 
 culiar institution  until  its  final  overthrow  in  a  bloody 
 and  destructive  Civil  War,  they  grew  more  sensitive 
 and  more  imperious  and  arrogant.  Their  intolerance, 
 which  stifled  all  dissent  or  discussion  south  of  the 
 Ohio  and  the  Potomac,  reached  beyond  to  resent  all 
 criticism  and  crush  all  opposition  in  the  North ;  the 
 system  was  so  contrary  to  the  whole  movement  for 
 liberty  and  the  sentiment  of  humanity  which  charac- 
 terized the  century,  and  to  the  spirit  of  the  institu- 
 tions of  the  Republic,  that  this  attitude  of  intolerance 
 and  armed  precaution^seemed  a  necessity. 
 
 On  the  other  hand,  those  forces  gathered  intensity 
 and  strength.  While  the  South  looked  forward  to  the 
 reopening  of  the  African  slave-trade,  Great  Britain  freed 
 all  her  slaves  in  her  colonies  in  1833.  France  did  the 
 same  in  1848.  The  New  England  Antislavery  Society 
 was  founded  in  1834,  and  the  American  Antislavery 
 Society  in  1836.  William  Lloyd  Garrison  and  his  fol- 
 lowers were  tremendously  in  earnest.  Often  narrow 
 and  unwise,  they  at  last  aroused  increasingly  the  con- 
 
236    History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 science  and  the  intellect  of  the  North.  The  Churches 
 of  the  North  could  not  resist  the  tremendous  moral 
 pressure  of  the  categorical  imperative  which,  in  secu- 
 lar politics,  phrased  itself  in  William  H.  Seward's 
 "  Irrepressible  Conflict,"  and  in  Abraham  Lincoln's 
 "  The  country  can  not  remain  half  slave  and  half  free." 
 
 The  day  of  decision  came  earlier  to  the  Churches 
 than  to  the  nation.  The  situation  was  difficult  and 
 delicate.  Possibly  if,  at  the  beginning,  the  Churches 
 had  stood  together  against  the  iniquitous  system  be- 
 fore cotton  became  a  great  staple,  emancipation  could 
 have  been  secured.  The  difficulties  were  certainly 
 immense.  On  the  other  hand,  after  1830,  a  Church 
 which  should  forbid  its  members  to  hold  slaves  would 
 simply  have  to  emigrate  and  leave  the  South.  Never- 
 theless, nothing  could  stifle  the  voice  of  conscience  in 
 the  North  and  the  whole  civilized  world.  This  made 
 inevitable  the  Civil  War.  We  can  not  say  that  it 
 might  not  have  been  avoided,  but  we  may  safely  say 
 that  only  a  united  movement  of  all  the  moral  forces 
 of  the  South  could  have  averted  it.  The  separation 
 of  the  strongest  Churches  in  the  South — the  Presby- 
 terians in  1837,  the  Methodists  in  1844,  and  the  Bap- 
 tists in  1845 — made  any  such  union  impossible.  The 
 Churches  did  not  secure  peaceful  emancipation.  Those 
 in  the  South  became  the  apologists  and  strong  sup- 
 porters of  slavery,  some  even  feeling  called  solemnly 
 to  declare  that  it  was  of  divine  appointment. 
 
 In  the  North  the  Antislavery  sentiment  strength- 
 ened with  each  passing  year.  The  Northern  Churches 
 fortified  the  sentiment  in  favor  of  Union,  and,  at  the 
 same  time,  declaring  necessary  the  restriction  of 
 slavery  to  the  territory  it  already  occupied.     Thus  was 
 
The  Christian  Church  in  America.     237 
 
 prepared  that  great  uprising  which  surprised  the  world 
 when  the  echoes  of  the  first  gun  of  Sumter  reached 
 the  North.  Not  less  than  of  first  historical  impor- 
 tance were  the  efforts  of  the  Northern  Churches  in 
 preparation,  and  then  in  effort  and  endurance,  when 
 came  the  crisis  out  of  which  was  born  a  free  nation. 
 
 Slavery  divided  most  of  the  Churches;  but,  aside 
 from  this,  it  was  an  era  of  sectarian  separation.  The 
 division  in  each  denominational  group 
 will  be  mentioned  later.  Aside  from  these  ptvision" 
 there  arose  the  Christian  denomination,  the 
 Disciple,  the  Cumberland  Presbyterian,  and  the 
 Methodist  Protestant,  which  may  fairly  be  called 
 Churches.  It  was  an  era  of  eager  sectarian  and  de- 
 nominational rivalry.  The  divisions  of  this  time 
 show  that  there  did  not  exist  the  idea  of  an  Evangel- 
 ical catholic  Church.  If  we  have  missions  we  must 
 have  a  catholic  Church,  and  neither  national  or  racial 
 barriers  can  prevent  its  spread  or  divide  it  into  sec- 
 tions. The  time  of  these  troubles  is  overpast,  but  the 
 results  remain.  On  the  other  hand,  the  rapid  Chris- 
 tianization  of  North  America  was  due  largely  to 
 those  sectarian  divisions  and  the  rivalry  they  called 
 forth.  No  one  organization,  however  venerable,  or 
 well  disciplined,  or  wealthy,  could  have  so  reached  the 
 people,  or  so  planted  the  Christian  Church  in  the  lit- 
 tle communities,  as  well  as  cities,  towns,  and  villages 
 throughout  the  land.  In  the  light  of  this  fact  the 
 sectarian  separation  and  attendant  rivalry  may  be 
 called  providential.  To  sow  this  great  land  with  the 
 gospel  and  the  institutions  of  the  Christian  Church 
 was  the  first  great  need.  This  was  done,  and  no  gen- 
 eration of  men  before  ever  saw  so  many  places  of 
 
238     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 worship  erected  and  consecrated  to  the  service  of  the 
 Christian  faith.  Poor  and  humble  though  most  of 
 them  were,  they  were  the  forerunners  of  stately  edi- 
 fices which  should  worthily  express  in  enduring  form 
 the  faith  and  devotion  of  one  of  the  greatest  peoples 
 of  the  race.  The  sectarian  controversy,  bitterness,  and 
 waste  have  largely  passed  away,  as  in  the  latter  day  a 
 truer  light  has  shone  from  God's  Word  upon  the 
 Church  of  the  lyord  Jesus  Christ. 
 
 To  these  divergencies  from  the  normal  type  were 
 
 added  direct  perversions.     From  William  Miller  arose 
 
 the    Advent    societies.     Miller    had    com- 
 
 Perverslons.  ,      .  ,  .  ,  .  ,  ,    . 
 
 puted  that  the  world  would  end  in  1843, 
 and  drew  away  tens  of  thousands  to  his  convictions. 
 The  failure  of  his  predictions  brought  wide-spread  re- 
 ligious disaster,  as  most  of  his  followers  were  exem- 
 plary and  devout  Christians,  and  great  was  the  shock 
 to  their  faith. 
 
 Another  delusion  was  of  an  altogether  different 
 kind.  Joseph  Smith,  Heber  Kimball,  and  Brigham 
 Young  were  men  brought  up  near  each  other  in 
 Western  New  York,  a  few  miles  east  of  Rochester. 
 In  1839,  Smith  moved  to  Illinois,  and  at  Nauvoo 
 he  built  a  Mormon  temple.  He  was  killed  by  a  mob 
 in  1844,  and  his  followers  were  compelled  to  leave  the 
 country.  They  made  a  perilous  and  weary  march 
 beyond  the  Rocky  Mountains.  This,  like  Moham- 
 med's Hegira  to  Medina,  was  the  turning-point  in 
 their  history.  In  1843  polygamy  was  revealed  as  a 
 part  of  the  Mormon  faith.  The  early  Mormon  lead- 
 ers were  ignorant,  shrewd,  and  unscrupulous.  They 
 made  chief  gain  from  the  lower  classes  of  the  Evan- 
 gelically-trained population  of  the  British  Isles  and 
 
The  Christian  Church  in  America,     239 
 
 Scandinavia.     Few  or  none  came  from  Roman  Cath- 
 olic countries  or  families. 
 
 This  gigantic  imposture  is  in  part  a  mixture  of 
 Christianity  and  Feeemasonry,  and  in  part  a  retro- 
 gression to  stark  heathenism.  Its  estimate  of  woman 
 and  practice  of  polygamy  shows  a  permanent  debasing 
 of  the  Christian  ideal.  Its  power  is  first  in  caring  for 
 and  providing  for  the  economic  future  of  the  poor 
 who  come  to  its  folds  in  a  new  country  with  an  ad- 
 vance of  working  capital.  This  power  is  then  con- 
 served and  mercilessly  used  to  further  the  ends  of  the 
 organization  by  the  strictest  and  most  minute  forms 
 of  hierarchical  discipline.  Its  ability  to  send  mis- 
 sionaries to  the  ends  of  the  earth  comes  from  the  oath 
 every  adult  male  is  compelled  to  take  to  serve  two 
 years  as  Mormon  missionaries  for  his  expenses. 
 These  missionaries  preach,  for  the  most  part,  ordinary 
 Christian  doctrine.  The  sting  is  in  the  tail,  a  few 
 words  at  the  close  of  the  address.  Polygamy  is  for- 
 bidden by  law,  but  is  secretly  practiced,  and  is  openly 
 defended.  The  missionaries  are  generally  ignorant 
 young  men,  knowing  nothing  of  the  Christian  relig- 
 ion or  Church  except  what  they  have  been  taught 
 among  the  Mormons.  -  They  necessarily  learn  many 
 things,  and  are  not  the  same  Mormons  when  they  re- 
 turn. They  gather  no  converts  from  the  Roman 
 Catholic  or  the  Episcopal  Churches,  where  their  peo- 
 ple are  instructed  as  to  the  meaning  and  value  of  the 
 Christian  Church. 
 
 The  Evangelical  Churches  have  paid  no  higher 
 price  in  loss  and  shame  for  their  neglect  to  emphasize 
 the  nature  and  significance  of  the  Christian  Church 
 than  in  the  rise  and  growth  of  Mormonism,  though 
 
240     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 this  unfortunately  is  not  alone.  Probably  no  success- 
 ful effort  can  be  made  to  reach  the  Mormon  people 
 with  the  religion  of  Christ  which  does  not  add  to  the 
 work  of  the  Church  and  school  an  organization,  dis- 
 cipline, and  economic  provision  equal  to  that  afforded 
 by  the  Mormon  Church.  Failing  this,  the  work  of 
 increasing  popular  intelligence  and  changed  economic 
 conditions  must  prepare  the  way  for  a  return  to  the 
 Christian  faith. 
 
 In  1849,  a  few  miles  east  from  the  early  home  of 
 the  Mormon  leaders,  lived  the  Fox  sisters,  from  whose 
 rappings  arose  modern  Spiritualism,  which  at  one 
 time  drew  hundreds  of  thousands  into  its  maelstrom 
 of  delusion,  and  alienated  them  from  the  Christian 
 faith. 
 
 Among  the  mass  of  Christian  believers  there  was 
 little  doctrinal  change  except  in  the  rejection  of  the 
 harsher  tenets  of  Calvinism.  The  entire 
 chal'^'r*  system  was  rejected  by  the  Methodists,  the 
 Free-will  Baptists,  and  the  so-called  Chris- 
 tians, as  well  as  the  Disciples.  The  Cumberland 
 Presbyterians  struck  out  its  cardinal  tenets;  the 
 Oberlin  Congregationalists  omitted  the  articles  in  re- 
 gard to  preterition  and  reprobation  from  their  creed. 
 In  the  very  stronghold  of  New  England  Calvinism 
 the  Yale  Divinity  was  a  marked  declension  from  the 
 teaching  of  Hopkins  and  Emmons.  The  man  in 
 New  England,  probably,  who  did  most  to  loosen  its 
 hold  was  Horace  Bushnell.  The  necessity  for  it  he 
 clearly  sets  forth  in  the  following  paragraph : 
 
 "  To  see  brought  up  in  distinct  array  before  us 
 the  multitudes  of  leaders  and  schools  and  theologic 
 wars  of  only  the  century  past, — the  supralapsarians 
 
The  Christian  Church  in  America.      241 
 
 and  sublapsarians ;  the  Arminianizers  and  the  Cal- 
 vinists;  the  Pelagians  and  the  Augustinians ;  the 
 Fasters  and  Exercisers;  Exercisers  by  Divine  effi- 
 ciency, and  by  human  self-efficiency;  the  love-to- 
 being-general  virtue,  and  the  willing-to-be-damned 
 virtue,  and  the  love-to-one's-greatest-happiness  vir- 
 tue; no  ability,  all  ability,  and  moral  and  natural 
 ability  distinguished;  disciples  by  new-creating  act 
 of  omnipotence,  and  by  change  of  the  governing 
 purpose;  atonement  by  punishment  and  by  expres- 
 sion, limited  and  general,  by  imputation  and  without 
 imputation, — nothing,  I  think,  would  more  certainly 
 disenchant  us  of  our  confidence  in  systematic  orth- 
 odoxy, and  the  possibility  in  human  language  of  an 
 exact  theological  science,  than  an  exposition  so 
 practical  and  serious,  and  withal  so  indisputably 
 mournful — so  mournfully  indisputable." 
 
 It  was  high  time  for  the  religion  of  the  Puritans 
 to  get  out  of  this  wilderness  and  to  face  realities — 
 to  preach  a  faith  that  could  evangelize  and  win  the 
 heathen.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Presbyterians  re- 
 mained true  to  the  old  Calvinist  standards,  the  Old 
 School  strictly  so.  At  Princeton,  Dr.  Charles  Hodge 
 taught  a  limited  atonement  —that  Christ  died  for  the 
 elect  only— but  he  regarded  the  Arminian  doctrine  as 
 not  an  essential  error,  and  that  men  holding  it  could 
 be,  and  were,  greatly  blessed  of  God  in  building  up 
 his  kingdom.  How  strong  was  the  Calvinism  of  the 
 ordinary  Presbyterian  pastor  may  be  seen  by  any 
 one  who  will  read  Dr.  Ichabod  Spencer's  "  Pastoral 
 Sketches."  Nor  did  most  of  them,  especially  in  the 
 West,  hold  Dr.  Hodge's  charitable  view  in  regard  to 
 Arminianism.  Father  Daniel  Rice,  of  Kentucky, 
 16 
 
242     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 stated  the  process  of  descent  to  be  as  follows :  "  Cal- 
 vinism to  Arminianism,  Arminianism  to  Pelagianism, 
 Pelagianism  to  Deism,  Deism  to  Atheism."  So,  ac- 
 cording to  his  statement,  Arminianism  led  directly  to 
 Atheism.  If  it  did  not  arrive  there,  it  was  no  fault  of 
 the  logic  of  the  process. 
 
 As  a  rule,  the  Baptists  were  strong  Calvinists; 
 the  Primitive,  or  so-called  Hardshell,  Baptists  were 
 the  sternest  of  all  in  their  adherence  to  the  sj^stem  of 
 the  Reformer  of  Geneva.  The  deflection  in  regard  to 
 the  Divinity  of  Christ,  and  in  regard  to  the  future 
 punishment  of  the  wicked,  will  be  treated  in  connec- 
 tion with  the  Unitarians  and  Universalists. 
 
 There  were  some  ministers  whose  influence  reached 
 far  beyond  the  bounds  of  the  Church  or  denomination 
 they  served,  and  aflected  all  the  Churches, 
 Clergy*"^  and  even  the  nation  itself.  There  were 
 others  whose  influence  was  only  indirectly 
 felt  beyond  their  Church,  but  whose  work  in  this 
 sphere  was  permanent  and  often  transforming.  An 
 attempt  will  be  made  to  group  together  the  represent- 
 ative clergymen  of  this  era  belonging  to  the  first 
 class.  This  group  would  include,  in  the  Congrega- 
 tional Churches,  Timothy  Dwight,  Lyman  Beecher, 
 and  Charles  G.  Finney;  among  the  Unitarians, 
 William  E.  Channing,  Ralph  W.  Emerson,  and  Theo- 
 dore Parker;  among  the  Baptists,  Adoniram  Judson 
 and  Francis  Wayland;  in  the  Presbyterian  Church, 
 Dr.  John  M.  Mason  and  Albert  Barnes;  in  the  Episco- 
 palian, Bishop  White  and  Bishop  McUvaine;  among 
 the  Methodists,  Francis  Asbury,  Peter  Cartwright, 
 Thomas  H.  Stockton,  John  Summerfield,  and  George 
 G.  Cookman.     These  men  all  made  their  work  felt,  in 
 
The  Christian  Church  in  America.     243 
 
 wider  or  narrower  circles,  far  beyond  the  bounds  of 
 their  own  Communion.  These  were  all  remarkable 
 men,  and  they  wrought  together  mightily  to  make 
 Christian  the  people  of  the  United  States. 
 
 Timothy  Dwight  (1752-18 17)  is  known  to  all 
 Christians  as  the  author  of  the  hymn,  "I  love  thy 
 kingdom,  Lord;"  to  all  who  know  the  re- 
 ligious history  of  the  United  States,  as  the  ^^ghtf 
 man  who  first  stemmed  the  current  of 
 French  infidelity  among  men  of  education  while  pres- 
 ident of  Yale  College,  1795-18 17.  For  this  service  he 
 was  admirably  fitted  by  descent  and  training.  His 
 grandfather  was  Jonathan  Edwards,  and  he  was  born, 
 the  eldest  of  thirteen  children,  at  Northampton,  Mass. 
 At  seventeen  he  graduated  at  Yale,  and,  after  two 
 years,  was  called  there  to  serve  as  tutor  for  the  next 
 six  years.  In  1777  he  resigned,  to  serve  as  chaplain 
 in  the  Continental  Army.  After  a  year's  service,  the 
 death  of  his  father  called  him  home  to  care  for  the 
 orphans.  For  the  next  five  years  he  taught  school  to 
 add  to  the  financial  resources  of  his  own  and  his 
 father's  family.  In  1783  he  became  pastor  at  Green- 
 field, Conn.,  and  remained  until  called  to  the  presi- 
 dency of  Yale  College.  ^  While  at  Greenfield,  to  add  to 
 his  slender  resources,  and  make  them  adequate  to  the 
 care  of  the  family,  he  conducted  an  academy,  in 
 which,  in  these  years,  he  taught  a  thousand  students. 
 When  he  came  to  Yale,  infidelity  was  rife.  Thomas 
 Paine  was  a  favorite  author,  and  but  few  of  the  stu- 
 dents were  Christians.  President  Dwight  was  the 
 man  for  such  a  crisis.  He  taught,  and  in  the  lecture- 
 room  solicited  questions  in  regard  to  the  Christian  re- 
 ligion, and  answered  them.    He  preached,  and  in  eacli 
 
244     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 four  years  brought  before  the  students  a  complete 
 body  of  Divinity.  He  wrote  "The  Nature  and  Dan- 
 ger of  Infidel  Philosophy,"  and  infidelity  was  ban. 
 ished  from  Yale,  while  extensive  and  fervent  revivals, 
 from  '1797  on,  made  the  students  almost  universally 
 Christians.  This  marked  the  turning  of  the  tide  in 
 favor  of  the  Christian  faith.  The  whole  land  profited 
 by  his  manly  and  successful  work. 
 
 Lyman  Beecher  (i 775-1 863),  a  scholar  of  Dwight's, 
 was  a  man  of  national  reputation  as  a  preacher  and  a 
 
 reformer.     Next  after  Dr.  Benjamin  Rush 
 BeecITe".     ^^  Stands  in  the  lead  of  the  temperance 
 
 reform  in  America.  His  six  "  Sermons  on 
 Intemperance"  have  never  been  surpassed  in  their 
 effect.  Lyman  Beecher  was  an  independent  thinker, 
 a  strong  reasoner  in  the  pulpit,  mingling  humor  with 
 pathos,  but  most  effective  in  practical  application  and 
 fervent  appeal.  While  his  occasional  sermons  are 
 models  of  pulpit  eloquence,  he  was  a  most  earnest 
 and  successful  revival  preacher.  He  graduated  from 
 Yale  in  1797.  After  studying  Divinity  for  a  year  with 
 President  D  wight,  he  accepted  a  pastorate  at  Kast- 
 hampton,  Long  Island,  where  he  remained  on  a  salary 
 of  $300  a  year  for  twelve  years.  While  there  he 
 preached  his  famous  sermon  against  dueling.  In 
 18 10  he  removed  to  Litchfield,  Conn.,  which  was  the 
 scene  of  his  labors  for  the  ensuing  sixteen  years. 
 The  next  six  years  he  served  Hanover  Street  Church, 
 Boston.  There  he  was  at  his  best  as  a  successful  re- 
 vivalist and  a  sturdy  and  successful  opponent  of  the 
 prevalent  Unitarianism.  In  1832  he  was  called  to 
 Cincinnati,  Ohio,  as  the  president  of  Lane  Theological 
 Seminary  and  the  pastor  of  the  Second  Presbyterian 
 
The  Christian  Church  in  America.     245 
 
 Church.  This  position  he  held  for  twenty  years. 
 Though  seventy  students  left  Lane  to  found  Oberlin, 
 and  he  was  in  1835  tried  and  acquitted  for  heresy,  his 
 influence  increased  as  a  preacher,  an  antislavery  re- 
 former, and  a  man.  Lyman  Beecher's  three  wives 
 bore  him  thirteen  children,  among  them  Henry  Ward 
 Beecher  and  Mrs.  Harriet  Beecher  Stowe,  the  author 
 of  *' Uncle  Tom's  Cabin."  He  was  said  to  be  the 
 father  of  more  brains  than  any  other  man  in  America. 
 
 Charles   G.    Finney   (i 792-1 875)   had   a   diff"erent 
 training.     After  getting  what  education  he  could  in 
 the  schools  of   Northern  New  York,  and 
 after  teaching   school   for   some   time,   he       p"I,^ey. ' 
 studied  law  and  practiced.     At  the  age  of 
 twenty-nine  he  was  converted;    three  years  later  he 
 was  licensed  to  preach,  and  became  the  most  success- 
 ful revivalist  of  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
 tury.    From  1824  to  1832  he  labored  as  a  revivalist, 
 and  the  influence  of  his  labors  yet  remains.     For  the 
 next  two  years  he  was  at  the  Tabernacle  Church  in 
 New  York.     In  1835  he  went  to  Oberlin  College  as 
 president,  where  he  remained  for  forty  years.     His 
 work  and  influence  there  have  made  the  town  and 
 college,  and  their  spirit,  his  best  monument. 
 
 The  men  best  known  beyond  the  bounds  of  the 
 Baptist  Church  were  Adoniram  Judson  and  Francis 
 Wayland. 
 
 Adoniram  Judson  (1788-1850)  was  the  first  Amer- 
 ican Baptist  missionary,  and  his  noble  wife,  Ann  Has- 
 seltine,  the  first  American  woman  engaged 
 
 1  TT  J       ^    J       Adoniram 
 
 in   foreign    mission  work.     He   graduated      judson. 
 from  Providence  College  (now  Brown  Uni- 
 versity) in  1807.     Though  not  a  professing  Christian, 
 
246     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 he  went  to  Andover  Theological  Seminary,  and  there 
 was  converted  in  1809;  the  next  year  he  resolved  to 
 become  a  missionary.  On  business  connected  with 
 missions,  he  went  to  I^ondon  in  181 1.  With  Newell 
 and  Rice  he  sailed  for  India,  February,  181 2.  Novem- 
 ber I,  18 1 2,  he  was  baptized  by  Ward,  the  Baptist 
 missionary,  having  changed  his  views  on  baptism 
 during  the  voyage.  Judson  was  not  allowed  to  re- 
 main in  Hindustan  by  the  East  India  Company,  and, 
 after  sailing  to  the  Isle  of  France,  he  returned  to  Bur- 
 mah,  making  that  the  land  of  his  labors,  and  arriving 
 there  in  July,  1813.  June  27,  1819,  Judson  baptized 
 his  first  Burmese  convert.  In  1820  he  went  to  the 
 capital,  Ava,  and  sought,  without  success,  to  obtain 
 protection  for  his  mission.  Twice  afterwards  he  was 
 at  the  capital  to  found  there,  if  possible,  a  mission. 
 When  war  broke  out  between  England  and  Burmah, 
 in  June,  1824,  Judson  and  his  heroic  wife  endured  the 
 horrors  of  a  loathsome  imprisonment  and  threatened 
 death.  Judson  was  in  prison  one  year  and  nine 
 months — nine  months  in  three  pairs,  and  two  months 
 in  five  pairs  of  fetters;  then  six  months  in  one  pair. 
 His  wife  never  recovered  the  strain  of  those  days,  dy- 
 ing October  24,  1826.  Six  months  later  her  last  child 
 followed  her.  In  1828,  Judson  and  Boardman  began 
 the  successful  mission  to  the  Karens,  one  of  the  tri- 
 umphs of  modern  missions.  In  1834  he  completed 
 the  translation  of  the  Bible  into  Burmese.  Later  he 
 finished  a  Burmese  and  English  Dictionary.  Few 
 missionaries  ever  mastered  a  native  tongue  as  did 
 Adoniram  Judson,  and  this  was  one  of  the  secrets 
 of  his  success. 
 
 Mrs.  Judson  had  visited  America  in   1824.     Her 
 
The  Christian  Church  in  America.      247 
 
 husband  refused  an  invitation  to  return  for  a  season  to 
 his  native  land.  After  the  death  of  his  wife  he 
 remained  a  widower  for  more  than  seven  years.  Then 
 he  married,  April,  1834,  Mrs.  Sarah  H.  Boardman^ 
 whose  missionary  husband,  George  D.  Boardman, 
 died  in  February,  1831. 
 
 After  thirty-two  years'  absence,  Judson  sailed  for 
 America  in  April,  1845,  on  account  of  the  health  of 
 his  wife.  She,  after  bearing  him  eight  children,  died 
 at  St.  Helena,  September,  1845.  Judson  sailed  on  to 
 America,  where  he  aroused  great  enthusiasm  for  the 
 cause  of  missions.  In  June,  1846,  he  married  Miss 
 Emily  Chubbock,  and  they  sailed  for  Burmah  in  July 
 of  the  same  year.  For  more  than  three  years  he 
 toiled  in  the  land  of  his  love  and  missionary  labors, 
 and  then,  under  medical  advice,  he  sailed  for  the  Isle 
 of  Bourbon,  but  died  at  sea,  April  12,  1850,  in  the 
 sixty-second  year  of  his  age.  The  first  of  American 
 foreign  missionaries  proved  one  of  the  most  heroic, 
 laborious,  and  successful. 
 
 Few  men  had  a  more  permanent  influence  in  the 
 Baptist  Church  than   Francis  Way  land  (i  796-1865). 
 His  parents  came  to  the  United  States  from 
 England  three  years  before  his  birth.     His     way"and. 
 father  became  a  Baptist  minister.    The  son 
 was  able  to  enter  Union  College  in  the  sophomore 
 year,  and  graduated  in   18 13.     He  studied  medicine, 
 and  began  its  practice,  when  his  conversion  made  a 
 change  in  his  career.     He  studied  for  the  ministry  for 
 one  year  at  Andover,  and  then  he  was  offered  the 
 position  of  tutor  at  Union  College.     There  he  taught 
 for  the  next  four  years.     At  twenty-five  years  of  age 
 he  was  called  to  the  pastorate  of  the  First  Baptist 
 
248     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 Church  in  Boston.  For  five  years  he  was  pastor  at 
 Boston,  building  up  an  enviable  reputation  as  a  strong 
 thinker  and  a  hard  worker.  In  1826  he  was  called  to 
 the  chair  of  Moral  Philosophy  at  Union  College;  but 
 after  a  few  months'  service  he  left  the  position,  to 
 become  president  of  Brown  University,  182 7-1 855. 
 There  his  high  educational  ideals,  and  success  in  real- 
 izing them,  made  him  a  name  among  college  instruct- 
 ors of  his  time.  His  literary  work  and  sermons,  and 
 especially  his  text-books  on  Moral  and  Intellectual 
 Philosophy  and  Political  Economy  widened  his  influ- 
 ence. His  thought  was  always  clear,  and  his  illustra- 
 tions often  admirable.  Few  can  estimate  the  value  of 
 his  work  at  Brown  University  to  that  institution,  to 
 his  Church,  and  to  American  Christianity. 
 
 William    Ellery    Channing   (i  780-1 842)   was   the 
 
 most    distinguished    American    clergyman     of    this 
 
 William     period  in  literary  work  and  its  influence  in 
 
 Ellery      Europc  and   America.     His  character,  his 
 
 ann  ng.  g^j^^j-Q^g  nature,  his  eloquence,  and  his 
 unfaltering  labors  for  the  enslaved,  the  poor,  and  the 
 distressed,  gave  him  a  unique  reputation.  In  many 
 respects  he  was  the  most  famous  American  clergyman 
 in  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
 
 Channing  was  born  at  Newport,  R.  I.,  and  in  his 
 nineteenth  j^ear  graduated  at  Harvard  College.  For 
 two  years  he  taught  as  a  private  tutor  in  Richmond^ 
 Va.  He  held  a  subordinate  position  at  Harvard  for 
 the  two  ensuing  years,  and  in  June,  1803,  he  began 
 his  pastorate  at  Federal  Street  Church,  Boston,  which 
 ceased  only  with  his  death.  All  these  years  he  was 
 the  most  popular  preacher  in  Boston.  His  sermon 
 in  Baltimore  in   18 19  makes  the  distinctive  outward 
 
The  Christian  Church  in  America.     249 
 
 separation  of  the  Unitarians  from  the  orthodox 
 Churches,  though  he  was  always  more  of  an  Arian 
 than  a  Socinian.  In  1822  he  visited  Europe,  and  in 
 1830  the  West  Indies.  His  literary  career  began  in 
 1826,  and  his  work  for  the  slave  in  1835.  For  high 
 ethical  impulse  and  ideal,  and  for  a  certain  intellec- 
 tual breadth,  though  not  profound  in  thought,  and 
 for  a  transparent  clearness  of  style,  Channing  will 
 always  hold  his  place. 
 
 A  different  man  was  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson 
 (1803-1882).  A  descendant  of  a  long  series  of  New 
 England  divines,  he  was  the  American  p^,  j^ 
 exponent  of  the  Romantic  Movement,  and  waido 
 was  influenced  by  the  pantheism  with  ^'"*"°"- 
 which  it  was  allied  in  Germany.  As  a  poet  and 
 essayist  he  has  left  his  lasting  mark  upon  American 
 literature.  His  theology  was  too  hazy  to  allow  him 
 ever  to  be  a  preacher.  In  1829  he  was  called  to 
 Second  Church  in  Boston,  but  resigned  in  1832  be- 
 cause of  doctrinal  divergence,  and  because  he  wished 
 to  abolish,  or  entirely  change,  the  significance  of  the 
 Lord's  Supper.  In  1836  he  delivered  his  pantheistic 
 address  on  "  Nature,"  and  two  years  later  his  Di- 
 vinity School  address^  in  which  he  broke  with  his- 
 toric Christianity.  As  a  clergyman,  Emerson  had 
 little  influence,  but  he  led  the  new  departure  of  the 
 Unitarians  from  the  school  of  Channing,  Buckminster^ 
 and  Ware  to  that  represented  by  Theodore  Parker 
 and  the  radical  wing  of  the  later  generation.  As  a 
 thinker  he  became  less  iconoclastic  in  his  later  years, 
 though  he  always  was  an  idealistic  individualist,  who 
 had  little  perception  of  the  meaning  or  value  of  his- 
 toric institutions,  or  even  those  of  more  recent  date. 
 
250     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 Theodore  Parker   (i 810-1860)   was  a  man  of  in- 
 tense intellectual   vigor   and   indefatigable   industry. 
 Self-reliant   and  courageous,   he  knew   no 
 Parker?    fevereuce,  could  not  appreciate  the  intel- 
 lectual position  of  those  who  differed  from 
 him,  and  had  no  historical  perspective.      From  Emer- 
 son he  derived  his  denials,  but  more  than  any  other 
 man  of  his  time  he  was  a  furious  iconoclast.     In  con- 
 structive thought  he  left  no  mark.     For  temperance, 
 for  the  Antislavery  cause,  and  against  political,  social, 
 and   religious   shams   he   struck   sturdy    blows.     He 
 was   a  popular  lecturer,    but  little  permanent  effect 
 remained  from  his  work  after  his  decease.     His  ances- 
 tors were  participants  in  the  Revolutionary  struggle, 
 and  stood  high  in  the  community.     His  father  had  a 
 small  shop  and  a  farm.     There  was  nourished  in  study 
 and  toil  one  of  the  most  keenly-acquisitive  intellects 
 of  the  century.     At  eight  he  had  already  read  a  good 
 deal  of  history  and  poetry.     At  seventeen  he  began  to 
 teach  district  school,  and  at  twenty  entered  Harvard 
 College.     The  next  year  financial   stress  drove   him 
 to  teaching  in  Boston;   there  he  gave  instruction  in 
 Latin,    Greek,    French,    Spanish,    mathematics,    and 
 philosophy.     The  following  year  he  opened  a  private 
 school  at  Watertown,  Mass.    There  he  read  Greek  and 
 Latin  authors.  Cousin's   Philosophy  in  French,  and 
 Goethe,  Schiller,  and  Klopstock  in  German,  besides  re- 
 citing in  Hebrew  at  Cambridge.     In  1834  he  entered 
 the   Cambridge  (Unitarian)  Divinity    School,   where 
 he  remained  until  the  summer  of  1836.     This  was  the 
 chief  systematic  instruction  he  enjoyed.     After  candi- 
 dating,  he  settled  at  West  Roxbury  in  1837,  where  he 
 remained  until  Januury,  1845.      There  he  dipped  into 
 
The  Christian  Church  in  America.     251 
 
 various  studies,  read  euormously,  giviug  the  chief  place 
 to  German  philosophy,  and  richly  storing  a  marvelously 
 capacious  and  retentive  memory.  Here  also  he  trans- 
 lated DeWette's  "Introduction  to  the  New  Testa- 
 ment." In  May,  1841,  he  preached  a  sermon  on 
 "The  Permanent  and  the  Transient  in  Christianity." 
 In  this  he  declared  against  the  inspiration  of  the 
 Bible,  the  Divinity  of  Jesus  Christ,  the  Church,  the 
 ministry,  and  the  Sabbath  as  divine  institutions.  In 
 1842  he  published  a  "Discourse  on  Matters  Pertain- 
 ing to  Religion."  In  this  he  said:  "  Man's  religion  is 
 a  just  development  from  the  nature  within  him  and 
 the  outward  world;  God,  duty,  and  immortality  are 
 conceptions  which  arise  of  themselves  in  human  souls. 
 Out  of  these  fundamental  ideas  all  religious  systems 
 have  been  built  up." 
 
 In  1843,  Parker  went  to  Europe  for  a  year's  so- 
 journ. On  returning,  in  January,  1845,  he  began  his 
 work  as  the  pastor  of  an  independent  congregation 
 meeting  in  a  public  hall  in  Boston.  There  was  no 
 Church  organization,  and  there  were  no  sacraments. 
 There  was  one  address  each  Sunday,  which  was  lit- 
 erary or  philanthropic  quite  as  often  as  religious. 
 The  audience  were  rfiostly  free  religionists  out  of 
 touch  with  the  orthodox  Churches.  These  never 
 failed  to  come  in  for  a  scourging  of  stinging  sar- 
 casm, so  that  many  felt  that  the  great  revival  of  1858 
 was  the  fitting  answer  to  his  irreverent  attacks. 
 Through  overwork  and  lack  of  care  for  his  health, 
 his  strong  physique  began  to  give  away  in  1859.  He 
 sailed  for  Santa  Cruz,  and  then  for  Europe.  In  May, 
 i860,  he  died  in  Florence.  He  was  a  typical  self- 
 made  American,  with  high  moral  ideals  and  intense 
 
252    History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 energy.  The  failure  of  his  work  is  a  most  impress- 
 ive lesson. 
 
 The  Presbyterian  Church  stood  at  the  farthest  ex- 
 treme from  Unitarian  denial  and  theological  radical- 
 ism. Its  intelligent  ministry,  and  the  high  average 
 of  wealth  and  social  position  in  its  congregations, 
 gave  it  great  influence.  While  the  average  ability  of 
 its  pastors  was  probably  surpassed  only  by  the  Con- 
 gregationalists,  if  by  them,  it  did  not  produce  many 
 men  of  national  reputation,  certainly  none  the  equal 
 of  two  presidents  of  Princeton  College  in  the  preced- 
 ing century — Jonathan  Edwards  and  John  Wither- 
 spoon . 
 
 John  Mitchell  Mason  (i 770-1 829)  worthily  repre- 
 sented this  Church  in  these  years.  He  was  born  in 
 New  York  City,  and  graduated  from  Colum- 
 
 Marom  ^i^  College  in  1789.  He  then  pursued  his 
 divinity  studies  at  Edinburgh.  The  death 
 of  his  father  recalled  him  in  1792.  The  same  year 
 he  was  chosen  pastor  of  the  Associated  Reformed 
 Church  of  New  York  City,  of  which  his  father 
 had  been  pastor  for  thirty-one  years.  This  position 
 he  filled  until  18 10,  when  he  resigned,  to  establish  a 
 new  congregation.  In  1804  he  was  associated  in 
 the  founding  of  the  Union  Theological  Seminary, 
 in  which  he  accepted  a  professorship.  In  181 1  he 
 became  also  Provost  of  Columbia  College  and  largely 
 increased  the  efficiency  of  that  institution.  In  1802 
 and  18 16  he  visited  Europe.  From  1821  to  1824 
 he  was  president  of  Dickinson  College.  In  1822  he 
 united  with  the  Presbyterian  Church.  From  1824  to 
 1829  he  lived  in  retirement  in  New  York.  John  M. 
 Mason  was  an  earnest  Christian,  a  high-minded  con- 
 
The  Christian  Church  in  America.     253 
 
 troversialist,  as  shown  in  his  polemic  with  Bishop 
 Hobart.  But  he  was  a  prince  of  pulpit  orators  ;  few 
 men  in  America  ever  preached  such  occasional  ser- 
 mons. His  sermon  upon  the  death  of  Alexander 
 Hamilton  concentrated  public  indignation  against 
 dueling.  His  sermon  before  the  London  Missionary 
 Society  on  **  Messiah's  Throne"  made  Robert  Hall 
 say,  "  I  can  never  preach  again." 
 
 A  man  of  extraordinary  force  of  character,  of 
 great  ability  and  accomplishment,  was  Eliphalet  Nott 
 (177^-1866),   the    founder,    and    for    sixty 
 
 ^  n  ^^    '         r^    ^^  XT  EHphalet 
 
 years  the  president,  of  Union  College.    He         ^^^^^ 
 was  born  at  Ashford,  Wyndham  County, 
 Conn.     At   four  years  of   age   he   read  through  the 
 Bible;    at  sixteen  he  began  teaching  school,  and  was 
 the  head   of   Plainfield   Academy   at   eighteen.      He 
 spent  a  year  in  Brown  University,  and  then  studied 
 theology    under   his    brother,    and    was   licensed    to 
 preach  in  1796.     He  labored  as  a  schoolteacher  and 
 missionary  at  Otsego  Lake  and  Cherry  Valley,  1795- 
 1798.     In  the  latter  year  he  became  pastor  of  the 
 Presbyterian  Church  in  Albany,  and  was  the  most  in- 
 fluential pastor  in  that  city.     In  1804  his  sermon  on 
 the  death  of  Alexander  Hamilton  gave  him  a  national 
 reputation.     In  the  same  year  he  was  elected  president 
 of  Union  College,  and  this  became  his  life  work.     In  it 
 he  achieved  marvelous  success,  drawing  to  it  students 
 from  all  parts  of  the  Union,  especially  from  the  South. 
 He  was  an  expert  mechanic  and  a  successful  inventor. 
 As  a  financier  he  brought  wealth  to  his  college  and  to 
 himself.     His  "Counsels  to  Young  Men  on  the  For- 
 mation of  Character"  and  ''  Lectures  on  Temperance" 
 were  not  only  popular,  but  of  great  value.     But  Dr. 
 
254    History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 Nott  was  at  his  best  as  a  preacher ;  carefully  prepar- 
 ing, and  yet  never  reading,  he  influenced  the  four 
 thousand  3^oung  men  who  graduated  from  his  training 
 as  no  other  college  president  of  that  day  in  America. 
 Even  to  great  age  he  preserved  his  vigor  and  influence. 
 In  this  century,  until  his  death  in  1836,  William 
 White  ( 1 748-1 836)  was  easily  the  foremost  figure  in 
 
 the  Episcopal  Church,  and  the  most  influ- 
 ^'hite"      ential  clergyman  of  that  communion  in  the 
 
 United  States.  His  spotless  character,  his 
 wide  sympathies,  his  evangelical  teaching,  and  his 
 position  as  the  dean  of  the  Episcopate  for  all  these 
 years,  and  practically  the  founder  and  leader  of  the 
 Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  the  United  States, 
 gave  him  unique  claims  upon  the  public  men  of  the 
 nation  of  all  communions.  He  linked  together  in 
 public  service  and  acquaintance  the  administrations 
 of  Washington  and  Jackson.  He  died  respected  and 
 honored  by  Christians  of  every  name. 
 
 Next  to  Bishop  White  in  national  influence  was 
 Charles  P.  Mcllvaine  (i 798-1 873).      His  father  was 
 
 United  States  Senator  from  New  Jersey, 
 M^in'^vaine'    ^^^    youug    Mcllvaiue     graduated     from 
 
 Princeton  in  1816.  He  was  ordained  dea- 
 con by  Bishop  White  in  1820,  and  priest  two  years 
 later.  From  1825  to  1827  he  was  Professor  of  Ethics 
 and  chaplain  at  West  Point.  From  1827  to  1832  he 
 was  Rector  of  St.  Ann's  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  In  the 
 latter  year  he  was  elected  Bishop  of  Ohio,  and  did 
 honor  to  the  Episcopate  for  the  remaining  years  of 
 his  life.  He  published  a  popular  treatise  on  "Chris- 
 tian Evidences."  He  was  a  lifelong  opponent  of  the 
 Oxford   Movement.     In   1841   appeared  his  "Oxford 
 
The  Christian  Church  in  America.     255 
 
 Divinity  Compared  with  that  of  the  Romish  and 
 Anglican  Churches;"  in  1844,  "No  Priest,  no  Altar, 
 no  Sacrifice,  but  Christ;"  in  1855,  a  volume  of  "Ser- 
 mons." These  were  highly  commended  and  enjoyed 
 by  such  men  as  Lord  Shaftesbury.  Mcllvaine's  posi- 
 tion as  the  leader  of  the  Low  Church  party  in  this 
 country  gave  him  a  wide  and  lasting  reputation  and 
 influence.  His  warm  Evangelical  sympathies,  shown 
 in  his  "Life  of  Simeon,"  as  well  as  his  personal  con- 
 duct, made  him  one  of  the  founders  and  a  lifelong 
 friend  of  the  Evangelical  Alliance.  His  influence  as 
 a  patriot  during  the  Civil  War  was  widespread  and 
 commanding. 
 
 The  Methodist  Church  in  the  early  part  of  this 
 period  was  best  known  through  the  heroic  labors  and 
 matchless    self-denial    of    Francis    Asbury 
 (1745-18 1 6).     In  these  years,  amid  many      Xlbury. 
 infirmities  and  the  burdens  of  advancing 
 age,  he  kept  up  his  arduous  labors  and  his  extended 
 travels.     Thus  he  finished  one  of  the  most  successful 
 careers  of  Gospel  Evangelism  the  Christian  Church 
 has  ever  known.     He  laid  the  foundation  of  a  great 
 Church   and   of   the   civilization   of   a   great   empire 
 in  the  heart  of  the  American  Continent.     No  other 
 man  laid  the  molding  hand  of  future  destiny  on  so 
 many  great  communities  and  commonwealths. 
 
 The  typical  pioneer  Methodist  itinerant  in  many 
 respects,  in  the  New  West  in  these  days,  was  Peter 
 Cartwright  (i 785-1 872).  He  was  born  in 
 Virginia,  and  in  1793,  with  his  father's  cartwiight. 
 family,  removed  to  Logan  County,  Ky. 
 There,  at  the  age  of  sixteen,  he  was  converted.  The 
 next  year  he  was  licensed  to  exhort,  and  for  a  few 
 
256     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 months  attended  Brown's  Academy.  In  1804  he  en- 
 tered the  Kentucky  Conference,  and  four  years  later 
 was  ordained  elder.  From  1812  to  18 16  he  was  pre- 
 siding elder.  For  the  succeeding  four  years  he  trav- 
 eled as  a  circuit  preacher  in  Kentucky.  In  182 1  he 
 was  again  appointed  presiding  elder,  an  office  which 
 he  held  until  within  three  years  of  his  death  in  1872. 
 The  wit,  the  muscular  Christianity,  and  the  famous 
 "Autobiography"  of  Peter  Cartwright,  made  him 
 \nown  in  two  continents.  He  was  elected  to  twelve 
 General  Conferences  from  18 16  to  1858.  In  1869  he 
 took  a  superannuate  relation.  He  was  a  man  of  su- 
 perior mental  vigor,  keen  knowledge  of  human  na- 
 ture, and  warm  sympathies.  For  all  time  his  figure 
 stands  out  among  the  backwoods  preachers  who  sub- 
 dued sinners  and  formed  spiritual  empires. 
 
 Two  young  men  of  English  birth  brought  the 
 Methodist  Episcopal  Church  more  before  the  public 
 than  the  long  and  successful  labors  of  men  of  a  dif- 
 ferent order  of  gifts. 
 
 John  Summerfield  (i  798-1825)  was  a  child  of 
 genius  as  a  pulpit  orator.     From  early  youth  he  de- 
 
 ,^^  lighted  to  hear  the  best  speakers  of  the 
 Summer-    pulpit,  the  bar,  the  legislature,  or  the  stage. 
 
 field.  Q£  ^  precocious  intellectual  development 
 and  a  nature  equally  intense  and  sympathetic,  he  had 
 the  gifts  of  pleavSing  popular  address  as  few  men  of 
 his  time.  A  signal  conversion  in  18 19  led  him  to  an 
 earnestness,  devoutness,  and  grace  of  spirit,  as  well  as 
 speech,  seldom  equaled.  His  career  was  brief,  but 
 his  name  was  as  ointment  poured  forth.  In  1818  he 
 was  received  on  trial  in  Ireland,  and  came  to  America 
 
The  Christian  Church  in  America.     257 
 
 in  March,  1821.  His  first  appearance  at  the  Anniver- 
 sary of  the  American  Bible  Society  marked  him  as  a 
 power  in  the  pulpit.  The  largest  churches  could  not 
 contain  those  who  crowded  to  hear  him  until  his 
 health  broke  down  in  June,  1822.  He  spent  the  next 
 year  in  France  for  the  Bible  Society  until  April,  1824. 
 Then,  returning,  he  took  up  work  as  a  missionary 
 speaker,  and  aided  in  the  organization  of  the  Amer- 
 ican Tract  Society.  In  June,  1825,  his  work  was 
 done,  and  he  left  behind  the  fragrance  of  a  saintly 
 life  of  rare  sweetness  and  charm. 
 
 George  G.  Cookman  (i  800-1 841)  had  but  a  little 
 longer  span  of  life  before  he  went  down  in  the  ill- 
 fated  steamer  President.  Like  Summer- 
 field,  he  was  the  son  of  a  Wesleyan  local  cookman*. 
 preacher.  When  twenty  years  of  age  he 
 came  to  this  country  on  business  for  his  father,  and 
 was  licensed  as  a  local  preacher  at  Schenectady,  N.  Y. 
 In  1 82 1  he  returned  to  Hull,  England,  and  entered 
 into  business  with  his  father,  at  the  same  time  doing 
 the  work  ot  a  Methodist  preacher.  In  1825  he  came 
 to  Philadelphia,  and  was  received  the  next  year  into 
 the  Philadelphia  Conference.  The  remainder  of  his 
 life  was  spent  as  an  itinerant  in  Pennsylvania,  New 
 Jersey,  Maryland,  and  in  the  city  of  Washington.  In 
 1 838-1 839  he  served  as  chaplain  to  the  House  of  Rep- 
 resentatives. His  chaste  language,  the  vividness  of 
 his  imagination,  and  his  earnest  appeals  gave  him  a 
 national  reputation,  which  he  did  not  live  to  enjoy, 
 but  which  came  as  a  legacy  to  his  son,  Alfred  Cook- 
 man,  a  man  of  eloquence,  of  rare  purity  and  personal 
 attraction. 
 17 
 
258     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 A    man   of   equal    or   greater   eloquence,    and   of 
 
 greater  ability,  was  Thomas  H.  Stockton  (i 808-1 868). 
 
 He  was  born  at  Mount  Holly,  N.  J.,  and  in 
 
 Thomas  H.   ^^       ^^^  converted  and  united  with  the 
 
 Stockton.  ^ 
 
 Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in  Philadel- 
 phia. In  1829  he  began  to  preach  in  the  Methodist 
 Protestant  Church,  of  which  he  became  a  member. 
 In  1833  he  was  chosen  chaplain  to  Congress,  and  held 
 this  position  for  three  successive  sessions.  He  was 
 again  chosen  to  this  ofi&ce  in  1862.  He  resided  in 
 Philadelphia  from  1838  to  1847;  from  1847  to  1850  he 
 was  in  Cincinnati;  in  Baltimore,  1850  to  1856;  and 
 again  in  Philadelphia  from  1856  to  1868.  In  all 
 these  places  he  served  as  pastor  of  a  congregation  of 
 the  Church  of  which  he  was  the  most  distinguished 
 minister. 
 
 Thomas  H.  Stockton  offered  the  prayer  at  Gettys- 
 burg before  Abraham  Lincoln  delivered  his  celebrated 
 Address.  Those  who  knew  him  well  and  had  a  wide 
 experience  in  hearing  eloquent  men,  pronounced  him 
 as  without  a  peer  as  a  pulpit  orator  in  this  country. 
 
 These  were  the  men  most  prominently  before  the 
 people  of  the  whole  country  without  reference  to 
 Church  communions  or  denominational  preferences. 
 They  were  great  men,  and  their  influence  was  marked 
 and  lasting.  But  often  effects  of  wider  and  more 
 permanent  value  came  from  the  labors  of  those  who 
 were  little  known  outside  of  their  own  communions, 
 but  whose  lives  and  work  made  those  Churches  a 
 power  in  the  land  and  the  world.  We  shall  therefore 
 sketch  briefly  the  history  of  the  Churches  of  this 
 period,  and,  in  outline,  the  lives  of  those  who  most 
 influenced  their  development. 
 
The  Christian  Church  in  America.     259 
 
 The  Congregationai,  Church. 
 
 The  Congregationalists  in  this  period  worked 
 with  the  Presyterians  through  the  Plan  of  Union. 
 They  led  the  American  Churches  in  the  organiza- 
 tion of  the  first  Foreign  Missionary  Society,  and  in 
 theological  education  in  the  founding  of  Andover 
 Theological  Seminary.  New  theological  opinions  at 
 Yale  and  Oberlin  produced  controversies.  They  suf- 
 fered the  loss  of  the  oldest  historic  Churches  of  Massa- 
 chusetts, and  the  wealthiest  of  Boston,  and  of  Harvard 
 College,  through  the  Unitarian  Schism.  They  made 
 large  gains  in  the  newer  West,  and  held  their  own  in 
 New  England  through  extensive  revivals.  Their 
 colleges,  Yale,  Williams,  Bowdoin,  Dartmouth,  and 
 Amherst,  gave  them  an  intellectual  leadership. 
 
 In  1 80 1  the  Congregationahsts  and  Presbyterians 
 arranged  that,  in  all  the  new  Churches  in  the  West, 
 the  Churches  composed  of  Congregational-  ^^^  ^^^^ 
 ists  and  Presbyterians  should  belong  to  of  union, 
 the  Church  of  which  the  pastor  was  a 
 minister,  unless  the  congregation  objected.  This 
 arrangement  brought  almost  all  the  New  England 
 emigrants,  the  most  enterprising  citizens  of  the  new 
 communities,  into  the  Presbyterian  Church,  as  the 
 Congregationalists  made  little  effort  to  plant  Churches 
 west  of  New  York  until  after  the  founding  of  Ober- 
 lin. But  this  New  England  element  in  Presbyterian- 
 ism  brought  in  a  more  Congregationalist  form  of 
 Church  government,  and  also  a  more  liberal  form  of 
 Calvinistic  theology.  These  things  were  an  offense  to 
 the  more  rigid  Presbyterians. 
 
 On  the  other  hand,  the  Presbyterians  supported 
 
26o     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 the  Congregational  foreign  missions  through  the 
 American  Board.  It  thus  came  to  pass  that  in  the 
 new  West  the  gain  was  to  the  Presbyterians,  while 
 the  Foreign  Mission  Churches  were  Congregational. 
 The  separation  of  the  Presbyterians  in  1837  caused 
 the  Old  School  Presbyterians  to  withdraw  from  the 
 Plan  of  Union  and  to  begin  their  own  foreign  mis- 
 sions. The  Congregationalists  themselves  renounced 
 the  Plan  of  Union  in  the  Albany  Convention  of  1854, 
 and  from  that  date  began  an  active,  aggressive  cam- 
 paign in  the  West ;  but  the  ground  lost  in  these  first 
 fifty  years  can  never  be  made  up.  Methodists,  Bap- 
 tists, and  Presbyterians  then  secured  a  leadership 
 which  will  not  soon  pass  away.  In  1869,  on  the  re- 
 union of  the  Old  and  New  School  Presbyterians,  the 
 New  School  ceased  to  co-operate  with  the  Congrega- 
 tionalists, and  the  American  Board  of  Foreign  Mis- 
 sions became  for  the  first  time  exclusively  a  Congre- 
 gational Society.  During  this  period  the  first 
 Congregational  Churches  were  founded  in  the  West 
 as  follows:  Oregon,  1836;  Iowa,  1840;  Michigan, 
 1842;  Illinois,  1846. 
 
 The  first  open  breach  between  the  orthodox  Con- 
 gregationalists and  the  Unitarian  party  came  in  1803, 
 
 ^^g  in  the  election  of  the  Hollis  Professor  of 
 Unitarian  Divinity  at  Harvard  College.  The  pro- 
 schism.  fessorship  was  founded  in  172 1  by  an  Eng- 
 lish Baptist;  but  in  February,  1803,  Rev.  Henry  Ware, 
 a  Unitarian,  was  chosen  professor,  and  practically  from 
 that  date  Harvard  College  became  a  Unitarian  institu- 
 tion. In  the  same  year  Channing  began  his  ministry 
 in  Boston.  In  the  same  year  also  was  founded  the 
 new  organ  of  the  party,  the  Monthly  Anthology.     In 
 
The  Christian  Church  in  America.     261 
 
 June,  1805,  the  leader  of  the  Orthodox  Congregation- 
 alists  founded  the  Payioplist,  a  vigorous  controversial 
 periodical.  In  181 1,  Dr.  Edward  Griffin  came  to  the 
 Park  Street  Church  of  Boston.  In  the  following  year 
 he  and  Dr.  John  Codman  refused  to  exchange  pulpits 
 with  the  Unitarians,  which  caused  great  bitterness  of 
 feeling.  In  1815  there  was  published  **  American 
 Unitarianism,"  being  letters  from  prominent  Boston 
 clergymen  to  the  English  Unitarian,  Theophilus  Lind- 
 sey,  which  were  republished  in  England.  This  made 
 quite  a  sensation,  as  the  letters  marked  a  far  wider  di- 
 vergence from  the  ancestral  faith  of  the  Congrega- 
 tional Churches  than  their  writers  in  this  country 
 were  wont  to  acknowledge.  The  final  break  came  in 
 18 19,  when  Channing  preached  the  installation  sermon 
 of  Jared  Sparks  at  Baltimore,  though  the  origin  of  the 
 American  Unitarian  Church  is  usually  dated  from 
 1815.  Channing's  sermon  was  replied  to  by  the  An- 
 dover  professors,  Leonard  Woods  and  Moses  Stuart; 
 to  them  replied  Henry  Ware  and  Andrews  Norton. 
 
 The  right  of  the  Unitarians  to  the  church  property, 
 given  and  dedicated  by  men  who  abhorred  the  views 
 which  they  preached,  was  affirmed  by  the  Supreme 
 Court  of  Massachusetts  in  the  Dedham  Church  case, 
 in  1820.  In  this  case  the  majority  of  the  inhabitants 
 of  the  parish  called  Rev.  Alvan  Lamson,  a  Unitarian, 
 to  be  pastor  of  the  Church.  Two-thirds  of  the  mem- 
 bers of  the  Church  protested,  but  the  court  decided 
 in  favor  of  the  parish  as  against  the  Church.  This 
 connection  of  the  Church  with  the  State  cost  the  de- 
 scendants of  the  Puritans  the  most  grievous  loss  they 
 ever  sustained.  Nothing  like  it  could  now  be  done. 
 The  first  of  the  churches  thus  to  be  lost  to  the  Con- 
 
262      History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 gregationalists  was  the  Mother  Church  of  them  all, 
 the  old  Pilgrim  Church  at  Plymouth. 
 
 Rev.  James  Kendall,  a  Unitarian,  was  called  to  be 
 pastor  of  the  Church,  and  in  October,  1801,  one  less 
 than  half  of  the  Church  members  withdrew,  and 
 formed  the  Orthodox  Congregational  Church  of  Plym- 
 outh. Ninety-six  Churches,  including  those  earliest 
 planted,  and  the  pride  and  joy  of  their  hearts.  Har- 
 vard College,  were  lost  to  the  Congregationalists.  In 
 Boston  all  but  two  Churches  forsook  the  ancestral 
 faith.  One  of  those  which  stood  fast  was  the  Old 
 South  Church.  In  eighty-one  churches  that  were  di- 
 vided, 3,900  Orthodox  Congregationalists  left  $600,000 
 worth  of  church  property  to  1,282  Unitarians.  Not 
 only  so,  but  the  leading  families  in  wealth  and  culture 
 espoused  the  new  doctrine.  Such  were  the  Adams, 
 Quincy,  Bigelow,  Shaw,  Lowell,  Perkins,  and  Apple- 
 ton  families.  On  the  other  hand,  though  the  defec- 
 tion was  general,  it  was  circumscribed.  A  circle,  with 
 a  radius  of  thirty-five  miles  from  Boston  as  a  center, 
 inclosed  almost  all  of  the  Unitarian  Churches.  There 
 was  but  one  in  Connecticut,  and  only  a  few  in  West- 
 ern Massachusetts  and  Vermont.  This  schism  con- 
 solidated, and  made  more  aggressive,  the  Congrega- 
 tional Churches.  The  change  in  the  State  Constitu- 
 tion of  Connecticut  in  18 18,  and  in  that  of  Massachu- 
 setts in  1833,  caused  them  to  cease  to  be  Established 
 Churches.  As  the  Congregationalists  had  no  Churches 
 in  the  South,  the  slavery  question  did  not  divide 
 them;  but  the  rather  they,  with  the  Unitarians,  be- 
 came the  foremost  of  the  American  Churches  in  the 
 furtherance  of  the  Antislavery  cause.  Perhaps  these 
 did  more  than  all  others  to  prevent  Kansas  from  be- 
 
The  Christian  Church  in  America,      263 
 
 coming  a  slave  State.  The  town  of  Lawrence,  Kansas, 
 and  the  University  stand  as  unmistakable  memorials 
 of  those  days  and  of  those  men. 
 
 A  few  students  of  Williams  College,  meeting  for  a 
 prayer-meeting  in  the  shelter  of  a  haystack,  were  the 
 founders  of  the  foreign  mission  work  of 
 the  American  Churches.     They  went  to   The  American 
 
 "'  t>oara. 
 
 the  Andover  Theological  Seminary,  and 
 were  joined  by  some  like-minded,  and  the  whole 
 band  devoted  themselves  to  mission  work.  The 
 Williams  College  men  were  Samuel  J.  Mills,  Jr., 
 Gordon  Hall,  James  Richards,  Samuel  Newell,  and 
 Luther  Rice,  and  Samuel  Nott,  Jr.,  joined  them.  In 
 June,  1 8 10,  the  American  Board  of  Commissioners  of 
 Foreign  Missions  was  organized.  It  was  constituted 
 on  the  lines  of  the  London  Missionary  Society,  and, 
 in  181 1,  Judson  was  sent  to  London  to  study  the 
 workings  of  that  organization.  September  19,  18 12, 
 there  sailed  from  Salem  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Judson  and 
 Samuel  Newell  and  wife,  the  first  American  mission- 
 aries for  foreign  lands.  They  were  followed  by  Luther 
 Rice,  Gordon  Hall,  and  Samuel  Nott,  Jr.  After  Jud- 
 son and  Rice  became  Baptists,  work  was  begun  in 
 Bombay  by  Hall  and  Nott  in  18 14,  and  extended  to 
 Ahmednuggur,  Satara,  Kolapur,  Madura,  Arcot,  and 
 Madras.  They  carried  on  a  very  successful  work 
 among  the  Cherokee  Indians.  In  1820  they  begun 
 the  Syrian  mission,  and  later  that  to  the  Armenians 
 and  Nestorians.  In  18 19  a  most  successfal  mission 
 was  established  in  Hawaii  under  Messrs.  Bingham, 
 Thurston,  and  Coan,  through  which  the  islands  be- 
 came Christian.  Work  was  begun  in  Africa  in  1830, 
 and  in  China  in  the  same  year. 
 
264     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 The  American  Board,  in  the  years  181 1  to  1851, 
 received  from  collections  $4,774,834,  and  from  lega- 
 cies $440,701,  or  a  total  of  more  than  $5,200,000. 
 Ten  years  later  they  reported,  from  the  beginning, 
 1,200  missionaries,  163  churches,  and  20,621  members, 
 of  whom  14,413  were  in  Hawaii. 
 
 Besides  the  older  colleges,  the  Congregationalists 
 established  in  those  years  Amherst  College,  at  North- 
 ampton, Mass.,  in  1821;  Oberlin,  at  Ober- 
 Education.  ^^^^  ^^  ^^  1833 ;  lowa,  1847,  ^^"^  Grinnell, 
 at  Grinnell,  Iowa;  and  Beloit,  at  Beloit,  Wis.,  in  1847. 
 
 The  first  and  most  influential  of  Congregational 
 
 theological  schools  was  Andover,  founded  May   10, 
 
 1808,  and  opened  the  September  following. 
 
 Theological    ^^^^^  ^^s  founded  in  1 8 1 6 ;  Yale  Divinity 
 
 dcnools.  *=• 
 
 School  in  1822.  In  opposition  to  the  Yale 
 Divinity,  Bennett  Tyler,  former  president  of  Dart- 
 mouth, founded  the  East  Windsor,  afterwards  Hart- 
 ford Theological  Seminary,  in  1834. 
 
 It  was  not  schools,  but  teachers,  that 
 Theologians.   ^^^^  ^^  -j^^^  England  CougregationaHsts 
 
 strong  in  this  new  time. 
 
 Leonard  Woods  (i 774-1 854),  more  than  any  other 
 man,  was  the  founder  of  Andover  Theological  Sem- 
 inary, where  he  was  Professor  of  Theology 
 woodl^      from  its  beginning  in  1808  until  1846.     He 
 graduated  from  Harvard  in  1796  ;  becoming 
 converted,  he  became  a  pastor  in   1798.     He  was  a 
 sturdy  and  consistent  defender  of  New  England  Cal- 
 vinism.    He  did  not  quarrel  with  the   followers  of 
 Hopkins,  though  he  accented  the  system  differently. 
 He  was  the  bulwark  against  the  Unitarian  teaching. 
 As  a  man  and  Christian,  he  had  the  love  and  rever- 
 
The  Christian  Church  in  America.      265 
 
 ence  of  the  thousand  students  who  graduated  from 
 his  teaching. 
 
 Moses  Stuart  (i 780-1852)  was  a  man  of  broader 
 scholarship,  and  the  founder  of  Biblical  learning,  in 
 its  modern  sense,  in   the  United  States. 
 
 T-r        t  1   1  •      •         ii  i  1      1  •<      Moses  Stuart. 
 
 He  showed  his  intellectual  taste  and  abil- 
 ity in  the  leading  of  Jonathan  Edwards's  "  On  the 
 Will"  at  twelve.  He  graduated  from  Yale  in  1799, 
 and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1802.  The  same  year 
 he  accepted  the  offer  of  a  tutorship  at  Yale.  Having 
 been  converted,  he  began  the  study  of  theology  under 
 President  D wight.  In  1806  he  was  called  to  the  pas- 
 torate of  the  First  Church  of  New  Haven.  From 
 1 8 10  to  1848  he  was  Professor  of  Hebrew  at  Andover 
 Theological  Seminary.  His  teaching  was  inspiring; 
 but  he  influenced  thought  perhaps  as  much  by  his 
 contributions,  first  to  the  *'  Biblical  Repository,"  and 
 then  to  the  "  Bibliotheca  Sacra."  He  and  Dr.  Edward 
 G.  Robinson,  of  New  York,  found  their  works  re- 
 printed and  read  on  the  other  side  of  the  Atlantic, 
 
 A  more  original  thinker  than  either  of  these  was 
 Nathaniel  Taylor  (i 786-1 858).     Dr.  Taylor  graduated 
 from  Yale  in  1807,  and  was  pastor  of  First 
 Church,  New  Haven,   from  1810  to   1822.     ^^^^^^^^ 
 Then  he  was  called  to  the  Professorship  of 
 Theology  in  the  Yale  Divinity  School,  which  place  he 
 held  until  his  death  in  1858.     As  a  thinker.  Dr.  Tay- 
 lor broke  with  Hopkins  and  Emmons,  and  sought  to 
 modify  Calvinism   by  teaching   the   freedom   of   the 
 will — the  power  men  have  to  choose,  notwithstanding 
 the  decrees — and  that  Adam's  sin  does  not  impose 
 personal  guilt.     He  made  the  New  England  theology 
 more  preachable  and  better  fitted  for  revival  teaching, 
 
266     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 and  powerfully  affected  the  New  School  Presbyterian 
 Church.  As  a  preacher  and  a  man  he  was  worthy  of 
 high  praise. 
 
 In  1800  there  were  810  Congregational  Churches, 
 with  600  ministers  and  75,000  communicants.  In 
 1850,  there  were  over  1,971  churches,  1,687 
 ministers,  and  197,197  communicants.  Up 
 to  1849,  the  American  Home  Missionary  Society 
 had  received  $1,107,852.  In  Foreign  Missions,  the 
 receipts  were  three  times  more  than  any  other  Amer- 
 ican Church,  and  in  the  Home  Missions  more  than 
 twice  the  amount  given  by  any  other  Church.  To 
 the  same  date  the  American  Tract  Society  received 
 $349,335-  Of  course,  to  these  causes  the  Reformed 
 and  Presbyterians  were  in  those  years  large  con- 
 tributors. 
 
 The  Congregational  Board  of  Publication  to  the 
 same  date  had  received  $225,920.  Adding  these  to- 
 gether, the  grand  total  is  $4,^33'384)  an  amount  for 
 these  objects  nearly  twice  that  received  by  any  other 
 Church  in  America  in  these  years.  In  learning  and 
 liberality,  and  in  revival  work  led  by  such  men  as 
 Charles  G.  Finney,  Edward  N.  Kirk,  and  Asahel  Net- 
 tleton,  the  Church  of  the  Puritans  had  little  reason  to 
 be  ashamed.  Seldom  has  so  small  a  body  of  Chris- 
 tians accomplished  so  much. 
 
 Thb  Unitarians. 
 
 The  origin  of  the  Unitarian  separation  has  already 
 been  given,  as  also  a  sketch  of  their  most  distin- 
 guished preachers,  Channing,  Emerson,  and  Parker. 
 Henry  Ware  (i  794-1 843)  was  a  man  of  ability,  and 
 attractive  in  manners  and  character.     Andrews  Nor- 
 
The  Christian  Church  in  America.      267 
 
 ton  ( 1 786-1 853)  was  the  ablest  scholar  and  the  sound- 
 est divine  the  Unitarians  produced  in  these  years.  He 
 belonged  to  the  school  of  Channing,  and  answered 
 Emerson's  "Divinity  School  Address"  in  1839.  This 
 was  replied  to  by  George  Ripley,  who  afterwards  won 
 fame  as  the  literary  editor  of  the  New  York  Tribune. 
 
 In  1825  the  American  Unitarian  Association  was 
 founded,  and  an  earnest  effort  to  propagate  their  faith 
 and  form  State  Conventions  was  put  forth.  In  1844 
 the  Unitarian  Divinity  School  was  founded  at  Mead- 
 ville,  Pa.,  and  in  1850  Antioch  College,  at  Yellow 
 Springs,  Ohio.  In  1830  there  were  177  Unitarian 
 churches  in  New  England,  and  1 6  outside  its  borders 
 or  193  in  all.  In  1850  these  had  increased  to  206  in 
 New  England;  40  outside  of  it;  246  in  all;  a  growth 
 of  a  little  over  two  a  year  in  twenty  years. 
 
 But  these  figures  give  no  idea  of  the  influence  of 
 the  Unitarian  teaching  in  this  era.  In  it  were  com- 
 bined the  old  common-sense  philosophy 
 and  hatred  of  mystery  and  disregard  of  his- 
 toric truth  which  characterized  the  eighteenth  cen- 
 tury, and  the  German  criticism  and  philosophy  led  by 
 Strauss  and  Baur.  It  had  the  immense  advantage  of 
 Harvard  College,  the  best  institution  of  learning  in 
 America.  Its  presidents  and  professors  were  men  of 
 high  character  and  wide  learning  for  the  time,  as  well 
 as  of  liberal  ideas.  Hence  it  came  to  pass  that,  in  the 
 revolt  against  Calvinism  and  the  acceptance  of  the 
 new  Unitarian  teaching,  not  only  the  wealth  and 
 culture  and  fashion  of  Boston  were  on  that  side,  but 
 the  public  men,  like  the  Adamses,  Quincys,  and 
 Storys,  and  also  the  great  crowd  of  literary  men 
 which  began  to  make  a  name  for  American  literature. 
 
268      History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 Such  were  the  essayists,  Edwin  Whipple,  Ralph  W. 
 Emerson,  James  Russell  Eowell,  and  Oliver  Wendell 
 Holmes;  the  historians,  Bancroft,  Prescott,  Sparks, 
 Parkman,  Palfrey;  the  greatest  of  American  novelists, 
 Nathaniel  Hawthorne;  the  poets,  Bryant,  Eongfellow, 
 Holmes,  Lowell,  and  Emerson;  reformers  and  public 
 men,  like  Garrison,  Sumner,  Edward  Everett,  and 
 Rufus  Choate.  This  list  will  give  some  idea  of  the 
 force  of  the  Unitarian  Movement,  which  was  repre- 
 sented on  the  platform  in  every  chief  city  by  men 
 like  Ralph  W.  Emerson  and  Theodore  Parker.  If 
 ability  and  talent  could  have  given  the  Unitarian 
 Church  the  lead  in  America  in  these  years,  it  should 
 have  had  it.  That  it  did  not,  teaches  an  obvious 
 lesson.  Religion  is,  and  always  must  be,  more  than 
 intellect  or  culture.  These  are  not  substitutes  for  it, 
 even  when  allied  with  the  soundest  ethics. 
 
 The  Universalists. 
 
 The  Universalists  owe  their  origin  in  America  to 
 John  Murray  (i  741-18 15).  His  father,  a  Calvinist, 
 and  a  member  of  the  Church  of  England,  became  a 
 follower  of  Wesley.  When  young  Murray  was 
 eleven  years  of  age,  his  family  removed  to  Ireland, 
 near  Cork.  There  John  Murray  became  a  Wesleyan 
 class-leader  and  local  preacher.  In  1760  he  went  to 
 London  and  met  Whitefield,  when  he  embraced  Cal- 
 vinistic  opinions.  Hearing  of  James  Relly,  he  under- 
 took to  refute  his  opinions,  but  was  converted  to  his 
 belief,  which  was,  that  since  Christ  died  for  all,  all 
 must  be  saved.  In  1770,  after  a  marvelous  escape 
 from  shipwreck,  he  landed  in  New  Jersey,  and,  build- 
 ing   a    church,   began    to    preach   his  doctrine.     He 
 
The  Christian  Church  in  America.     269 
 
 preached,  until  paralyzed  in  1809,  that  as  in  Adam  all 
 are  lost,  in  Christ  all  are  saved.  At  Gloucester, 
 Mass.,  he  organized  the  first  Universalist  Church  in 
 1780,  and   preached   there   until    1793.     He   died   in 
 
 1815. 
 
 Elhanan  Winchester  (i 757-1 797)  a  man  of  remark- 
 ably keen  intellect,  became  a  Baptist  preacher,  and 
 served  Baptist  Churches  from  1771  to  1780.  Through 
 reading  of  the  German  Mystic  Segovicke's  "  Ever- 
 lasting Gospel,"  he  became  a  Restorationist ;  that  is, 
 believing  that  all  things  will  be  restored  in  Christ. 
 This  faith  he  professed  in  1780,  in  Philadelphia,  and 
 was  followed  by  many  Baptists.  He  was  in  Europe, 
 1 787-1 795,  and  died  two  years  after  his  return. 
 
 To  these  men  succeeded  in  the  leadership  of  the 
 Church  Hosea  Ballou  (1771-1852).  Ballou  was  t  he 
 son  of  a  Baptist  minister.  He  united  with  his  fa- 
 ther's Church,  but  became  a  Universalist  in  1791. 
 Marrying  in  1796,  he  became  a  Universalist  pastor  at 
 Dana,  Mass.  In  1795  he  became  a  Unitarian.  He 
 preached  in  Vermont,  New  Hampshire,  and  Salem, 
 Mass.,  until  18 17,  when  he  accepted  the  call  to  the 
 First  Universalist  Church  of  Boston,  of  which  he  re- 
 mained pastor  until  his  death.  Ballou  was  a  volumi- 
 nous controversialist  and  editor  of  the  Universalist 
 periodicals. 
 
 From  1 81 7,  Ballou  taught  that  there  was  no  pun- 
 ishment after  death.  To  all,  death  is  the  end  of  sin 
 and  the  beginning  of  glory.  The  Winchester  Pro- 
 fession of  Faith,  adopted  in  1803  at  Winchester,  N.  H., 
 taught  that  Christ  will  finally  restore  all  men.  Un- 
 doubtedly the  harshness  of  New  England  teaching, 
 and   the   extra    Scriptural    representation    of    future 
 
270     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 punishment,  especially  in  revival  meetings,  gave  the 
 Universalist  doctrines  a  hold  upon  many  men  of  New 
 England  birth  which  the  positive  teaching  of  none  of 
 these  men  mentioned  would  have  won.  Perhaps  it  is 
 but  just  to  say  that  the  Unitarian  and  Universalist 
 teaching  has  had  an  influence  to  make  the  orthodox 
 preaching  more  Scriptural  and  more  ethical.  In  1835 
 there  were  in  New  England  169  Universalist  churches, 
 and  in  the  rest  of  the  United  States  139,  or  a  total  of 
 308.  In  1 85 1  there  were  in  New  England  286,  and 
 outside  of  it  356,  or  a  total  of  625  churches.  The 
 Clinton  Liberal  Institute  was  founded  at  Clinton, 
 N.  Y.,  in  1831. 
 
 The  Baptists. 
 
 In  the  first  half  of  the  century  the  peculiar  task 
 of  the  Baptists,  as  of  the  Methodists,  was  to  plant  the 
 Christian  Church  in  the  South  and  the  West.  It  was 
 also  an  urgent  need  to  bring  an  earnest,  aggressive 
 Church  into  the  broader  life  of  the  Church  as  a 
 whole,  through  Sunda3^-schools,  missions,  educational 
 institutions,  a  religious  press,  and  the  reform  move- 
 ments of  the  time.  The  Baptists,  like  the  other 
 Churches  with  a  membership  in  the  South,  suffered  a 
 division  on  account  of  Slavery. 
 
 The  work  of  Adoniram  Judson  was  of  as  great 
 value  in  its  influence  on  the  Baptist  Churches  in 
 America  as  in  its  direct  result  in  Bur- 
 mah.  His  conversion  to  Baptist  principles 
 led  to  the  formation  of  the  Baptist  Foreign  Mission- 
 ary Society  in  18 14,  this  being  the  second  American 
 Church  to  engage  in  that  work.  No  Church  has  had 
 more  successful  missions   than    the   Baptist   Church 
 
The  Chrisgian  Church  in  America.     271 
 
 among  the  Karens  in  Burmah,  and  the  Telugus  in 
 Hindustan.  The  mission  to  China  was  founded  in 
 1833,  to  Germany  in  1834,  to  the  Telugus  in  1840,  to 
 Assam  1841.  The  Church  has  a  splendid  roll  of 
 master  missionaries.  The  Baptist  Home  Missionary 
 Society  was  founded  in  1832,  and  has  largely  ad- 
 vanced the  work  of  the  Baptist  Church  in  the  newly 
 settled  regions  of  the  United  States. 
 
 Luther  Rice,  who,  like  Judson,  became  converted 
 to  the  Baptist  belief  on  his  voyage  to  India,  came 
 back  and  aroused  the  Baptist  Churches  to 
 their  duty  toward  missions.  He  was  largely 
 instrumental  in  the  formation  of  the  Baptist  Mission- 
 ary Convention  in  1814.  Later  the  work  of  educa- 
 tion engaged  his  attention  In  1822  he  founded 
 Columbian  University  at  Washington,  and  labored  for 
 it  as  its  agent  until  1826,  when  it  became  heavily 
 embarrassed  by  debt.  Its  reorganization  and  finan- 
 cial recovery  came  under  other  auspices.  About  this 
 time  other  Baptist  institutions  of  learning  came  into 
 being.  Madison  (now  Colgate)  University  was 
 founded  in  18 19  at  Hamilton,  N.  Y.  Its  theological 
 school  was  opened  in  1822.  Colby  University,  at 
 Waterville,  Me.,  was  fo^unded  in  1820,  and  the  theo- 
 logical school  at  Newton,  Mass.,  in  1826;  Georgetown 
 College,  in  Kentucky,  in  1829. 
 
 Between  1830  and  1840,  Baptist  Colleges  were 
 founded;  as.  Wake  Forest  Institution  in  1839;  Shurt- 
 leff  College,  111.,  in  1835;  and  Mercer  University,  Ga., 
 in  1837.  Between  1840  and  1850  came:  Franklin 
 College,  Ind.,  1844;  Dennison  University,  Ohio,  1845; 
 Richmond  College,  Virginia,  1845;  and  the  Univer- 
 gity  of  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  1850.     These  were  to  become 
 
272     History  of  the  Christian  Church, 
 
 strong  institutions,  and  at  their  head  was  Brown  Uni- 
 versity, at  Providence,  R.I.,  under  Baptist  patronage 
 and  control,  and  with  its  present  name  since  1804. 
 The  paper  which  eventually  became  the  Baptist 
 Exa^nmer,  began  its  career  in  1819.  The  Baptist 
 Tract  Society  was  founded  in  1824,  and  the  Bible 
 Union  for  improving  in  a  Baptist  sense,  Bible  ver- 
 sions, in  1850.  To  this  record  of  Baptist  work  should 
 be  added  the  work  of  revivals  and  of  planting  the 
 Churches  in  the  wilderness  in  which  this  Church  was 
 foremost. 
 
 On  the  other  hand,  when  the  Baptists  were  ear- 
 nest and  aggressive  in  organizing  State  Conventions 
 from  1 82 1  to  1837,  many  Baptists,  especially  in  the 
 South  and  the  Southwest,  who  did  not  believe  in 
 Sunday-schools,  or  ministerial  education,  or  missions, 
 or  temperance,  would  have  nothing  to  do  with  the 
 State  Conventions.  In  their  literal  interpretation  of 
 Scripture,  and  their  insistence  on  rigid  Congrega- 
 tional polity,  they  kept  entirely  out  of  the  advance  of 
 Christendom.  They  had  plenty  of  zeal,  but  little 
 knowledge.  They  were  the  sternest  of  Calvinists  and 
 often  Antinomians.  It  is  surprising  to  notice  that,  in 
 1850,  they  had  nearly  one-fourth  as  many  churches  as 
 the  Baptists  of  the  North  and  South  combined,  and 
 one-tenth  the  membership.  We  usually  think  of 
 these  as  dwellers  on  the  frontier,  but  the  Baptist 
 Association  of  Baltimore  in  1836  resolved,  "They 
 could  not  hold  fellowship  with  such  Churches  as 
 united  with  these  societies  of  a  benevolent,  religious, 
 and  philanthropic  character."  The  names  of  congre- 
 gations co-operating  in  mission  work,  in  Sunday- 
 school  work,  and  in  the  distribution  of  the  Word  of 
 
The  Christian  Church  in  America.      273 
 
 God  through  the  agency  of  Bible  Socities,  etc.,  were 
 erased  from  the  Minutes  of  the  Association. 
 
 The  secession  of  Alexander  Campbell  in  1829  led 
 to  a  large  loss  of  members.  In  May,  1845,  ^t  Au- 
 gusta, Ga.,  the  Southern  Baptist  Churches  withdrew 
 their  fellowship  from  the  Northern  Churches  on  ac- 
 count of  slavery,  and  organized  the  Southern  Mis- 
 sionary Convention.  These  Southern  Baptists  pushed 
 their  work  both  at  home  and  abroad  with  great  vigor. 
 
 FRKB-W11.L  Baptists. 
 
 The  Free-will  Baptists  made  great  progress  oe- 
 tween  1820  and  1830,  and  were  earnest  revivalists. 
 Their  paper.  The  Morning  Star,  was  founded  in  1826. 
 A  foreign  mission  was  established  in  India  in  1837. 
 In  1839  the  General  Convention  pronounced  against 
 slavery.  In  1841  a  General  Conference  was  organ- 
 ized.    In  1850,  Hillsdale  College  was  founded. 
 
 Sevknth-Day  Baptists. 
 
 The  Seventh-day  Baptists  began  a  mission  to  the 
 Jews  in  New  York  City,  1 836-1842,  which  was  unsuc- 
 cessful, and  one  in  China  in  1847,  with  better  results. 
 Alfred  University  was  ^founded  in  1836,  at  Alfred, 
 New  York. 
 
 The  men  most  influential  in  the  Baptist  Church 
 in  this  era  laid  molding  hand  on  millions  for  genera- 
 tions to  come. 
 
 Such  a  man  was  the  greatly-loved  and  universally- 
 esteemed    Richard    Furman    (i  755-1 825). 
 He  was   born  at  Bsopus,  N.  Y.     When  a     ^'^»^«'-*' 
 
 ^  Furman. 
 
 child  his  father  removed  to   South  Caro- 
 lina, and   there   carefully  reared   and   educated   him. 
 iS 
 
274     History  of  the  Christian  Church, 
 
 At  eighteen  he  began  to  preach.  During  the  Revo- 
 lution he  was  an  active  patriot,  and  won  the  attention 
 of  Patrick  Henry  and  other  leaders.  He  was  a  mem- 
 ber of  the  South  Carolina  State  Convention  which 
 ratified  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States.  He  be- 
 came pastor  in  Charleston  in  1787.  He  was  president 
 of  the  first  Baptist  Missionary  Convention  in  18 14.  He 
 was  an  able  presiding  ofiicer,  an  impressive  preacher, 
 and  the  most  influential  Baptist  minister  of  his  gen- 
 eration. 
 
 A  man  of  very  different  order  and  influence  was 
 
 Spencer  Cone  (i 785-1 855).     Dr.   Cone  was  born  in 
 
 Princeton,  N.  J.,  and  entered  college  there 
 
 Spencer     ^^  ^^^  ^f  twelvc.     A  financial   failure 
 
 Cone.  " 
 
 affecting  his  father,  young  Cone  could  not 
 complete  his  course.  He  taught  school  and  studied 
 law,  but  in  1805  began  his  career  as  an  actor.  This 
 he  followed  until  his  conversion  in  18 14.  The  follow- 
 ing year  he  began  to  preach,  and  was  elected  chaplain 
 to  Congress,  181 5-18 16.  Until  1823  he  was  pastor 
 at  Alexandria,  Va.  The  rest  of  his  life  was  spent  as 
 pastor  in  New  York  City;  1 823-1 841  at  Oliver  Street 
 Church,  and  1 841-1855  at  the  First  Baptist  Church  of 
 the  metropolis.  From  1 832-1 841  he  was  president 
 of  the  Baptist  General  Convention  and  an  officer  of 
 the  Baptist  Home  Missionary  Society.  Dr.  Cone's 
 vigor  of  intellect  and  power  as  a  preacher,  made  him 
 most  influential  in  the  general  work  of  his  Church. 
 In  1 832-1 855  he  also  was  influential  in  founding  the 
 Baptist  Bible  Union.  Kate  Claxton,  the  actress,  was 
 his  grand-daughter. 
 
 Asahel  Clark  Kendrick  (i 809-1 895),  who  for  fifty 
 
The  Christian  Church  in  America,     275 
 
 years  taught  at  Madison  and  Rochester  Universities, 
 is  worthy  of  mention  in  any  sketch  of  Baptist  history. 
 He  was  graduated  from  Madison  Uni- 
 versity in  1 83 1.  For  the  next  nineteen  ^g^j*,'^' 
 years  he  taught  Greek  in  his  Alma  Mater. 
 In  1850,  when  the  University  of  Rochester  was 
 founded,  he  came  to  that  city,  which  was  his  resi- 
 dence, and  where  he  was  loved  and  honored  until  his 
 death.  At  first  he  was  the  virtual  head  of  the  uni- 
 versity. Then  and  always,  however,  he  made  his 
 work  and  his  fame  as  an  instructor  of  Greek.  He 
 was  a  sturdy  exponent  of  Baptist  views.  His  clear 
 and  well-trained  intellect,  warm  sympathies,  and 
 Christian  spirit  made  his  fellowship  go  far  beyond  the 
 bounds  of  his  own  Church.  His  translation  of 
 Olshausen's  "Commetary  on  the  New  Testament," 
 and  "  Life  of  Mrs.  Emily  C.  Judson,"  shows  only 
 what  he  might  have  done  with  his  pen.  His  impress 
 was  left  upon  thousands  of  j^oung  men,  and  felt 
 throughout  the  Church  he  loved  and  served. 
 
 In  1800  the  Regular  Baptists  had  1,500  churches, 
 with  1,200  ministers,  and  100,000  communicants.  In 
 1850  they  had  8,406  churches,  5,142  minis- 
 
 ^^  statistics. 
 
 ters,  and  686,807  communicants.  The 
 Free-will  Baptists  had  increased  from  3,000  members 
 to  50,223,  with  1,126  churches,  and  867  ministers.  In 
 1850  the  Seventh-day  Baptists  had  6,351  communi- 
 cants, 71  churches,  and  58  ministers.  The  Seventh- 
 day  German  Baptists  numbered  400,  with  four  minis- 
 ters; the  Six-Principle  Baptists  3,586  communicants, 
 with  21  churches,  and  25  ministers;  the  Anti-Mission 
 Baptists  (so-called  Hardshell),  67,845  communicants, 
 
276    History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 with  2,035  churches,  and  907  ministers.  The  total  in 
 1850  of  Baptists  of  all  names  was  11,659  churches, 
 7,003  ministers,  with  815,212  communicants.  Of  these, 
 the  greater  part  were  in  the  South;  the  Baptist 
 Church  South  having  390,393  members,  and  the  Anti- 
 Mission  Baptists,  mainly  in  the  South,  67,845,  making 
 a  total  of  458,238  to  356,974  in  the  North,  or,  deduct- 
 ing the  Free-will  Baptists,  306,752;  that  is,  three- 
 fifths  of  the  Baptist  membership  in  1850  were  in  the 
 South.  These  figures  lack  the  precision  of  later 
 years,  but  are  true  as  to  general  proportion  and  tend- 
 encies. 
 
 Thk   DiSCIPIvES. 
 
 Alexander  Campbell  (i  788-1 866)  was  the  founder 
 of  the  Disciples  Church.  His  father,  Thomas  Camp- 
 bell ( 1 763-1854),  had  been  a  Roman  Catholic,  but  be- 
 came an  Episcopalian,  and  afterwards  (1798)  a  minis- 
 ter in  the  Associate  Scotch  Church.  He  was  settled 
 in  county  Antrim,  Ireland,  where  Alexander  was 
 born.  In  1806,  Thomas  Campbell  went  to  Scotland 
 to  secure  the  ecclesiastical  independence  of  the  Asso- 
 ciate Church  in  Ireland,  but  failed  in  his  effort.  In 
 1807  he  came  to  America.  Alexander,  as  the  oldest 
 son,  had  charge  of  the  family,  and  sailed  to  meet  the 
 father  from  Londonderry,  October,  1808.  A  week 
 later  they  were  wrecked  in  the  Hebrides. 
 
 Alexander  Campbell  was  nearly  a  year  in  Scot- 
 land, spending  most  of  his  time  in  Glasgow  in  inter- 
 course with  the  professors  of  the  universit}^  and  espe- 
 cially with  Robert  and  James  Haldane.  Finally  the 
 family  again  embarked,  and  he  arrived  in  America  in 
 1809.  The  same  year  the  conviction  borne  in  upon 
 Thomas  and  Alexander  Campbell  of  the  non-validity 
 
The  Christian  Church  in  America.     277 
 
 of  the  usual  creedal  tests  of  the  Christian  profes- 
 sion, which  had  produced  such  an  abundant  crop  of 
 division  in  the  Scotch  and  Scotch-Irish  Church, 
 and  the  necessity  of  some  simple  Scriptural  con- 
 fession, found  expression  in  the  "Declaration  and 
 Address,"  issued  from  Washington,  Pa.,  in  1809.  On 
 May  4,  18 10,  they,  and  those  who  thought  with  them, 
 formed  the  Independent  Church  of  Christ.  They 
 contended  that  "human  creeds  and  confessions  had 
 destroyed  Christian  union,  and  that  nothing  ought  to 
 be  received  into  the  faith  or  worship  of  the  Church,  or 
 be  made  a  term  of  communion  among  Christians,  that 
 is  not  as  old  as  the  New  Testament.  Nor  ought  any- 
 thing to  be  admitted  as  of  Divine  obligation  in  the 
 Church  constitution  or  management  save  what  is  en- 
 joined by  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  and  his  apostles  upon 
 the  New  Testament  Church,  either  in  express  terms 
 or  by  approved  precedent."  In  18 12  the  Campbells 
 became  convinced  that  immersion  is  the  mode  of  bap- 
 tism, and  the  Baptist  Elder  Luce  immersed  them, 
 June  12,  1812,  Ini8i3  they  joined  the  Redstone  (Pa.) 
 Baptist  Church  Association. 
 
 In  1816,  Alexander  Campbell's  sermon  on  "The 
 Law,"  before  the  Association,  gave  offense,  and  he 
 withdrew  from  it.  Soon  after  he  joined  the  Mahoning 
 Baptist  Association,  and  remained  in  connection  with 
 it  until  1827.  Then  it  was  dissolved  as  lacking  war- 
 rant in  Scripture.  In  1820,  Alexander  Campbell  be- 
 gan his  career  as  a  public  controversialist,  a  role  in 
 which  he  delighted,  and  in  which  figure  and  voice,  as 
 well  as  his  ready  command  of  language  and  his  intel- 
 lectual qualities,  gave  him  more  than  ordinary  ad- 
 vantage.    In  1820  he  held  a  public  debate  at  Mount 
 
278    History  of  the  Christian  Church, 
 
 Pleasant,  Ohio,  with  John  Walker,  a  Presbyterian 
 minister;  in  1823,  with  Rev.  William  McCalla  on 
 Christian  Baptism,  at  Washington,  Ky.;  in  1828,  with 
 Robert  Owen  on  the  Truth  of  Christianity,  at  Cincin- 
 nati ;  in  1836,  with  Archbishop  Purcell  on  the  Infalli- 
 bility of  the  Church  of  Rome;  and  in  1843,  with  Dr. 
 Rice  on  Baptism.  The  controversies  were  carried  on 
 in  the  Christian  Baptist,  1 823-1 830,  and  the  Millennial 
 Harbinger,  1 830-1 870,  both  edited  by  Alexander 
 Campbell. 
 
 That  Campbell  was  able  and  honest,  none  can 
 question;  that  creedal  subscription  and  peculiarities 
 were  a  prolific  cause  of  sectarian  division  and  strife, 
 all  acknowledge;  but  truth  compels  the  statement 
 that  never  did  an  apostle  of  Christian  union  use  more 
 bitter  language,  or  show  a  more  intolerant  spirit* 
 Seventeen  centuries  of  Christian  history  were  wholly 
 disregarded,  and  there  was  no  disposition  to  under- 
 stand the  position  or  accept  any  justification  from 
 those  who  differed  from  him. 
 
 In  1832  the  followers  of  Barton  W.  Stone,  who 
 had  been  a  Presbyterian  minister,  but  withdrew  from 
 the  Church  in  consequence  of  proceedings  taken 
 against  those  prominent  in  a  great  revival  at  Cane 
 Ridge,  Ky,,  in  1801,  joined  those  who  received  the 
 teachings  of  Alexander  Campbell  in  1832,  and  took 
 the  name  of  Disciples.  The  only  creed  is  the  afiirma- 
 tive  answer  to  these  two  questions — "  Dost  thou  be- 
 lieve that  Jesus  Christ  is  the  Son  of  God?"  and  ''Wilt 
 thou  be  immersed  for  the  remission  of  sins?"  The 
 Lord's  Supper  is  administered  every  Sunday.  The 
 Church  is  Arminian  in  belief. 
 
 In    1840,   Alexander   Campbell   founded   Bethany 
 
The  Christian  Church  in  America.      279 
 
 College,  West  Virginia,  and  there  he  lived  and  taught 
 in  the  college  until  his  death.  In  1850  there  were 
 1,896  churches,  848  ministers,  and  118,618  communi- 
 cants, and  the  period  of  growth  had  just  begun. 
 
 The  Christians. 
 
 In  1802  the  Republican  Methodists  who  followed 
 the  leadership  of  James  O'Kelly  took  the  name  of 
 Christian.  Two  years  before,  Dr.  Abner  Jones,  a 
 member  of  the  Baptist  Church  in  Hartland,  Vt.,  or- 
 ganized a  Church  of  twenty-five  members  in  Lyndon, 
 Vt.,  on  the  Bible  only  as  their  creed.  In  a  few  years 
 he  received  large  accessions  from  the  Baptist  Churches. 
 Barton  Stone  and  his  followers,  who  founded  the  inde- 
 pendent Springfield  Presbytery  in  1803,  in  1804  took 
 the  name  of  Christian.  These  came  together,  and  in 
 1844  there  were  said  to  be  325,000  members,  with 
 1,800  ministers.  The  Advent  Movement  under 
 William  Miller  in  1844  cut  down  those  numbers  one- 
 half.  These  Christians  practiced  immersion,  and 
 were  Arminian  and  Arian  in  doctrine.  Congrega- 
 tional in  Church  government,  they  most  resembled 
 the  General  Baptists  of  England.  Their  periodical, 
 The  Herald  of  Gospel  Liberty y  founded  September  i, 
 1808,  was  the  first  religious  newspaper  published  in 
 this  country. 
 
 The  Presbyterians. 
 
 The  Presbyterian  Church  in  these  decades  made 
 vigorous  growth,  but  was  rent  with  the  grievous 
 division  of  the  Old  and  New  School  Churches,  the 
 first  religious  division  between  the  North  and  South, 
 in  1837.    The  Cumberland  Presbyterian  Church  arose 
 
28o     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 from  the  new  spirit  in  the  West  seeking  to  reach 
 modern  needs  rather  than  to  conform  to  old  standards, 
 in  1 8 ID.  The  Scotch  Presbyterian  divisions  were  im- 
 ported into  this  country,  and  augmented  in  this 
 period,  to  be  lessened  in  the  one  succeeding.  The 
 Dutch  and  German  Reformed  Churches  made  steady 
 progress  in  Church  consciousness,  in  organization, 
 missions,  and  education.  They  increased  through 
 emigration,  but  showed  little  of  the  aggressiveness 
 and  enterprise  of  the  Methodist  and  Baptist  Churches. 
 As  a  whole,  in  spite  of  division,  the  Presbyterian 
 Churches,  while  not  gaining  as  fast  as  the  more  Evan- 
 gelistic Churches,  deepened  the  intellectual,  moral, 
 and  spiritual  life  of  the  communities,  and  laid,  in 
 these  years,  strong  foundations  of  enduring  usefulness. 
 As  before  mentioned,  the  Plan  of  Union  of  iSoi, 
 while  greatly  increasing  the  Presbyterian  Church, 
 Old  and  brought  into  it  a  large  Congregational 
 New  School  element.  This  school  sympathized  with 
 Presbyterians,  j^^  Taylor's  modification  of  Calvinism, 
 known  as  the  New  Haven  Theology ;  they  supported 
 the  American  Board  in  their  contributions  for  foreign 
 missions,  leaned  toward  a  more  Congregational  polity, 
 and  were  decidedly  Antislavery  in  opinion.  AH  these 
 things  were  an  offense  to  the  conservative  Presby- 
 terians, which  could  not  be  atoned  for  by  a  marvel- 
 ously  rapid  and  progressive  growth.  Indeed,  the 
 growth  increased  the  offense.  In  a  few  years  more 
 the  power  would  forever  depart  from  the  conservative 
 majority.  In  the  years  1 830-1 836,  inclusive,  the  New 
 School  had  the  majority  in  the  General  Assembly 
 every  year  except  in    1835.      Two   causes   increased 
 
The  Christian  Church  in  America,     281 
 
 this  apprehension.  One  was  the  failure  to  convict 
 the  New  School  men  of  heresy. 
 
 Rev.  Albert  Barnes,  in  1829,  preached  a  sermon 
 denying  the  imputation  of  Adam's  sin  to  his  posterity; 
 and  in  1830  he  became  pastor  of  the  First  Presby- 
 terian Church  in  Philadelphia.  A  protest  was  made 
 against  his  installation,  and  the  Presbytery  con- 
 demned the  sermon  in  1830.  The  General  Assembly, 
 in  1 83 1,  declared  that  the  Presbytery  should  be  satis- 
 fied with  Mr.  Barnes's  statements.  In  1832,  George 
 Duffield  was  tried,  but  escaped  with  a  warning.  In 
 1833,  Edward  Beecher,  J.  M.  Sturdevant,  and  William 
 Kirby,  of  Illinois  College,  were  tried  by  the  Illinois 
 Presbytery  for  New  School  teaching,  and  acquitted. 
 In  1835  a  prosecution  of  Lyman  Beecher,  of  the  Lane 
 Theological  Seminary,  at  Cincinnati,  met  with  the 
 same  fate.  In  1836,  Albert  Barnes  was  again  before 
 the  Presbytery,  Synod,  and  General  Assembly  on 
 charges.  The  Synod  of  Philadelphia  suspended  Mr. 
 Barnes  for  a  year.  To  this  suspension  Mr.  Barnes 
 bowed,  and  occupied  his  family  pew  in  his  own 
 Church  each  Sunday  for  the  year;  henceforth  the 
 hearts  of  the  people  of  Philadelphia  were  his  own. 
 
 The  second  cause  of  apprehension  was  the  changed 
 attitude  of  the  conservatives,  and  of  the  Southern 
 Churches  in  particular,  in  regard  to  slavery.  It  had 
 been  looked  upon  as  a  necessary  evil,  and  one  that, 
 in  the  course  of  time,  with  the  advance  of  Christian 
 liberty  and  civilization,  would  pass  away;  a  consum- 
 mation for  which  all  good  people  looked,  and  mean- 
 while endured  it  for  a  season.  But  slavery  became 
 profitable  through  the   invention  of  the  cotton-gin, 
 
282     History  of  the  Christian  Church, 
 
 and  the  laws  of  the  Slave  States,  instead  of  looking 
 toward  the  emancipation  of  the  slaves,  tightened  their 
 shackles  and  formed  about  the  system  every  possible 
 defense.  This  change  became  evident  from  1820.  In 
 1833,  Rev.  James  Smylie,  a  Presbyterian  minister  in 
 Mississippi,  preached  a  sermon  in  which  he  declared 
 slavery  was  authorized  by  Christian  Scripture,  and 
 was  of  permanent  validity  and  under  the  highest 
 religious  sanction.  The  hard,  mechanical  theory  of 
 inspiration  which  raised  the  Old  to  the  level  of  the 
 New  Testament  favored  this  view,  just  as  it  did  in  the 
 polygamy  of  the  Mormons.  This  teaching  soon  made 
 a  revolution  in  the  opinions  and  attitude  toward  all 
 efforts  for  the  abolition,  gradual  or  otherwise,  of  Ne- 
 gro slavery  in  the  Christian  Churches  in  the  South. 
 This  was  shown  in  two  ways:  First,  the  system  of 
 slavery  grew  worse.  Free  people  of  color  could  not 
 live  in  the  South,  and  every  obstacle  was  thrown  in 
 the  way  of  emancipation,  and  new  soil  was  sought  for 
 slavery  in  Texas,  and  through  the  results  of  the  Mex- 
 ican War,  and  efforts  were  openly  avowed  to  take 
 possession  of  Cuba  or  Central  America  and  to  reopen 
 the  slave  trade  with  Africa.  Secondly,  there  was  an  in- 
 creased irritation,  rising  to  rage  and  violence,  which 
 demanded  instant  suppression,  as  the  price  of  ecclesias- 
 tical or  political  union,  of  any  expression  of  opinion 
 or  political  agitation  which  aimed  at  the  abolition  of 
 slavery.  In  1837  a  proslavery  mob  murdered,  at  Al- 
 ton, 111.,  Rev.  Elijah  P.  Lovejoy,  a  Presbyterian  min- 
 ister. These  things  had  not  yet  ripened  for  the  evil 
 and  disastrous  harvest;  but  they  were  growing  and 
 potent  now. 
 
 In  this  situation  the  General  Assembly  met  in 
 
The  Christian  Church  in  America.     283 
 
 Philadelphia  in  1837.  It  was  found  to  have  an  Old 
 School  majority.  This  was  in  part  accidental,  as  the 
 New  School  majority  of  the  year  previous  had  repu- 
 diated the  Presbyterian  Western  Foreign  Missionary 
 Society  in  the  interests  of  the  American  Board.  This 
 action  was  felt  to  be  unwise,  and  contributed  to  the 
 reversal  of  the  majority  of  1836.  Another  cause  for 
 that  reversal  was,  that  the  Union  Theological  Sem- 
 inary of  New  York  was  founded  in  January,  1836. 
 The  Faculty  of  Princeton,  with  all  their  immense  in- 
 fluence, fearing  a  New  School  rival  institution,  hav- 
 ing hitherto  been  neutral,  now  went  over  to  the  Old 
 School. 
 
 The  majority  saw  they  had  the  power ;  they  feared 
 they  might  not  have  another  opportunity ;  they  did 
 not  scruple  to  make  the  utmost  of  it. 
 
 First,  they  passed  a  repeal  of  the  Plan  of  Union. 
 Then  they  resolved,  by  a  vote  of  132  to  105,  that  the 
 Synods  and  Presbyteries  formed  under  that  Plan 
 ceased  to  be  a  part  of  the  Presbyterian  Church.  This 
 "  exscinded,"  or  cut  off,  the  Synods  of  the  Western  Re- 
 serve, Utica,  Geneva,  and  Genesee,  and  the  Presby- 
 teries in  five  other  Synods.  Thus  were  cut  off  533 
 Churches  and  100,000  members.  Whatever  may  be 
 our  opinions  in  regard  to  the  original  differences,  it 
 will  be  difficult  for  fair-minded  men  to  approve  the 
 method  of  this  high-handed  ex  post  facto  legislation. 
 One  can  but  ask,  What  must  be  the  theory  of  the 
 Church  with  which  such  action  could  be  consistent? 
 The  General  Assembly  then  resolved  to  establish  a 
 Presbyterian  Board  of  Foreign  Missions.  In  August, 
 1837,  the  New  School  Churches  met  in  Convention  at 
 Auburn,    and   founded    a    New    School   General  As- 
 
284     History  of  the  Christian  Church, 
 
 sembly,  which  met  in  1838  and  annually  thereafter 
 until  the  reunion  in  1869.  In  1840  the  Old  School 
 had  126,583  members,  and  the  New  School  102,060. 
 Many  conservative  Presbyterians  who  did  not  approve 
 of  the  action  at  Philadelphia,  yet  did  not  sever  their 
 accustomed  relations,  and  remained  with  the  Old 
 School  Church.  On  the  other  hand,  the  powerful 
 Presbytery  of  New  York  joined  the  New  School  As- 
 sembly. 
 
 In  1850  the  Old  School  reported  2,595  churches, 
 1,926  ministers,  and  207,754  communicants;  the  New 
 School  reported  1,568  churches,  1,473  ministers,  and 
 139.796  members.  The  United  South  remained  in 
 the  Old  School  Church,  while  in  1850  the  New  School 
 General  Assembly  declared  slaveholding  a  matter  of 
 discipline  w^hen  not  excused  by  special  circumstances, 
 quite  a  distance  from  abolition. 
 
 Reformed  and  Associate  Presbyterians. 
 
 The  Reformed  Presbyterians  dated  back  to  the 
 battle  of  Bothwell's  Bridge,  in  1679,  and  were  known 
 as  Cameronians  or  Covenanters.  The  Associate  Pres- 
 byterians seceded  from  the  Scotch  Church  in  1.733,  o^ 
 account  of  the  abuse  of  Church  patronage.  In  1747 
 the  Associate  Church  was  divided  into  Burgher  and 
 Anti-Burgher,  because  of  the  acceptance  or  rejection 
 of  the  burgher  oath.  In  June,  1782,  the  Burgher  and 
 the  Anti-Burgher  Churches  in  America  united ;  in  Oc- 
 tober, 1782,  the  Reformed  and  Associate  Churches  in 
 New  York  united  to  form  the  Associate  Reformed 
 Church.  But  these  union  eflforts  only  brought  further 
 divisions.  In  1798  was  formed  the  New  Reformed 
 Presbytery,  which  rejected  the  union  with  the  Asso- 
 
The  Christian  Church  in  America.     285 
 
 ciate  Church,  and  the  original  Associate  Presby- 
 tery, 1782,  which  did  likewise.  In  Scotland,  in  1795, 
 came  a  further  division  of  the  Associate  Church.  On 
 account  of  a  differing  interpretation  of  chapter  xxxiii 
 of  the  Westminster  Confession  as  to  the  perpetual 
 obligation  of  the  Solemn  League  and  Covenant,  both 
 the  Burgher  and  Anti-Burgher  Churches  divided  into 
 Old  lyights  and  New  Lights. 
 
 In  1820  the  Burghers  and  Anti-Burgher  Churches 
 united  to  form  the  United  Secession  Church.  Professor 
 Paxton  thereupon  drew  off  and  founded  the  Church  of 
 the  **  Original  Seceders."  In  1 820-1 832  the  American 
 Associate  Church  joined  these  Original  Seceders.  The 
 Original  Seceders  in  Scotland  joined  the  Free  Church 
 of  Scotland  in  1852.  Finally  in  America  the  Asso- 
 ciate Reformed  and  Associate  Churches  united  in 
 1858  to  form  the  United  Presbyterian  Church.  The 
 Associate  Reformed  Church  established  a  mission  at 
 Damascus  in  1844,  transferred  to  Cairo  in  1853.  ^"^ 
 1850  the  Reformed  General  Synod  of  North  America 
 had  63  churches,  43  ministers,  and  6,500  commu- 
 nicants. The  Reformed  Synod  of  North  America  had 
 50  churches,  33  ministers,  and  6,000  communicants. 
 The  Associate  Church  had  214  churches,  120  minis- 
 ters, and  1,800  communicants.  The  Associate  Re- 
 formed Church  had  332  churches,  219  ministers,  and 
 26,340  communicants. 
 
 ThK   CUMBRRI.AND   PRESBYTERIANS. 
 
 The  Cumberland  Presbyterian  Church  was  born 
 of  the  great  revival  of  1801.  When  proceedings  were 
 taken  against  the  ministers  engaged  in  that  revival 
 work,  certain  Presbyterian  ministers  withdrew  from 
 
286     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 the  jurisdiction  of  the  Synod.  On  February  lo,  1810, 
 Finis  Ewing,  Samuel  King,  and  Samuel  McAdow 
 founded  the  Cumberland  Presbyterian  Church.  James 
 McGready  and  William  McGee,  Presbyterian  minis- 
 ters, who  had  been  prominent  in  the  Great  Revival, 
 joined  the  new  organization.  In  18 13  the  first  Synod 
 was  organized.  A  Confession  of  Faith  and  a  Catechism 
 were  adopted  in  1816.  In  1825  Cumberland  College 
 was  founded  at  Princeton,  Ky.  In  1842  it  was  re- 
 moved to  Lebanon,  Tenn.,  and  called  Cumberland 
 University.  The  first  General  Assembly  was  held 
 at  Princeton,  Ky.,  in  1829.  Great  revivals  were  held 
 in  Pennsylvania,  1 828-1 831,  and  soon  the  Church 
 spread  to  Texas.  Waynesburg  College,  in  Pennsyl- 
 vania, was  founded  in  1850.  The  Cumberland  Pres- 
 byterian was  founded  in  1830,  and  The  Cumberland 
 Presbyteria7i  Quarterly  Review  in  1 845.  The  doctrine 
 of  the  Church  is  Arminian,  and  its  spirit  evangelistic. 
 In  1850  it  had  500  churches,  450  ministers,  and  75,- 
 000  members.  In  1800  there  were  in  the  United 
 States  500  churches,  300  ministers,  and  40,000  com- 
 municants of  the  Presbyterian  Churches.  Of  all 
 branches  of  the  Presbyterians  there  were,  in  1850, 5,322 
 churches,  4,264  ministers  and  487,691  communicants. 
 Among  the  leaders  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in 
 this  era  of  strife  none  stood  higher  in  reputation  and 
 
 influence  than  Charles  Hodge  (1797-1878). 
 Ho^'e*     ^^  ^^^  born  in  Philadelphia,   where  his 
 
 father  was  an  eminent  physician.  In  1815 
 he  graduated  from  Princeton;  four  years  later  he 
 graduated  from  the  Theological  Seminary  connected 
 with  the  same  institution.  He  served  as  a  pastor 
 from  1 819  to  1823,  but  in  May,  1820,  was  chosen  As- 
 
The  Christian  Church  in  America,     287 
 
 sistant  ProfCvSSor  in  Greek  and  Hebrew.  From  that 
 date  he  remained  connected  with  Princeton  Theolog- 
 ical Seminary.  In  1822  he  was  made  full  Professor 
 of  Biblical  and  Oriental  I^iterature.  In  1822  he 
 founded  The  Biblical  Repertory^  which,  in  1829,  was 
 changed  to  The  Princeton  Review.  From  1825  to 
 1829  he  was  in  Europe,  where  he  studied  in  Paris, 
 Halle,  and  Berlin.  In  1835  he  published  his  "Com- 
 mentary on  Romans,"  which  was  reissued  in  1866. 
 In  1840  appeared  his  "Constitutional  History  of  the 
 Presbyterian  Church."  In  1771-72  was  published  his  /> 
 "Systematic  Theology,"  in  three  volumes.  This  is 
 the  standard  Old  School  Presbyterian  Theology.  In 
 1872  he  celebrated  his  fifty  years'  jubilee  as  a  pro- 
 fessor. A  professorship  in  his  name  in  the  seminary 
 to  which  he  had  given  his  life,  was  endowed  with 
 $50,000.  He  himself  was  given  $15,000  from  friends 
 and  alumni. 
 
 A  very  different  man  was  Albert  Barnes  (1798- 
 1870).  He  graduated  from  Hamilton  College  in  1820, 
 and  from  Princeton  Theological  Seminary 
 
 ^  •'    Albert  Barnes. 
 
 in  1824.  He  was  pastor  at  Morristown, 
 N.  J.,  1 824-1 830,  and  at  First  Church,  Philadelphia, 
 1 830-1 870,  though  emeritus  after  1867.  In  1832  he 
 published  "  Notes  on  the  Gospels."  Afterward  he  pub- 
 lished eleven  volumes  of  the  "Practical  Notes"  on 
 the  New  Testament,  and  eight  on  the  Old  Testament, 
 — Job,  Isaiah,  Daniel,  and  Psalms.  Of  these,  more 
 than  a  million  volumes  have  been  sold.  Albert  Barnes 
 was  a  true  Christian,  a  genuine  reformer,  and  an  un- 
 daunted gentleman. 
 
 An  abler  man  of  perhaps  not  less  influence  in  the 
 Church  was  Gardiner  Spring  (i 785-1 873).     He  was 
 
288      History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 born  at  Newburyport,  Mass.,  and  was  at  Yale,  1799- 
 1805,  when  he  graduated.     He  studied  law,  and  then 
 
 went  to  Bermuda  as  a  teacher.     After  re- 
 *Sp'rina'^    turning  North  he  again  went  to  Bermuda, 
 
 and  after  accumulating  $1,500  he  returned 
 finally,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1808.  The 
 same  year  he  joined  the  Church.  He  heard  Dr.  John 
 M.  Mason  preach  a  great  Commencement  sermon  at 
 Yale  from  the  text,  "  The  poor  have  the  gospel 
 preached  to  them,"  and  resolved  to  preach  that  gos- 
 pel. He  was  ordained  in  18 10,  and  the  same  year 
 called  to  the  pastorate  of  the  Brick  Church  in  New 
 York,  where  he  remained  until  his  death  sixty-three 
 years  later.  Dr.  Spring  was  devoted  to  Sabbath  Re- 
 form and  to  every  good  work.  He  was  a  stanch  Pres- 
 byterian and  Calvinist,  and  an  earnest  patriot  and 
 Christian.  Mention  only  can  be  made  of  the  great  Old 
 and  New  School  protagonists,  Dr.  Judkin  and  Dr. 
 Beaman,  of  Troy. 
 
 Dr.  E.  G.  Robinson  (i 794-1863)  was   the   ablest 
 Biblical  scholar  of  America  in  the  first   half  of  the 
 
 nineteenth  century,  and  one  of  the  ablest  in 
 Row^nson  *  ^^^  couutry  of  that  time.     His  father  was 
 
 a  Congregational  pastor  in  Stonington, 
 Conn.,  where  his  son  was  born.  Edward  graduated 
 at  Hamilton  College  in  181 6.  After  a  little  time  spent 
 in  the  study  of  law  he  returned  to  his  Alma  Mater  as 
 tutor,  18 17-182 1.  In  1818  he  married  Miss  Kirkland, 
 who  died  the  next  year.  In  1822  he  went  to  An- 
 dover,  where  he  published  the  first  eleven  books  of  the 
 Iliad  with  notes.  From  1823  to  1826  he  was  assistant 
 to  Professor  Moses  Stuart.  In  1825  he  published  a 
 translation  of  Wahl's  *'  Clavis  Philologica  of  the  New 
 
The  Christian  Church  in  America.     289 
 
 Testament."  He  spent  1 826-1 830  in  Europe,  mainly 
 at  Gottingen,  Halle,  and  Berlin.  He  heard  Tholuck, 
 Neander,  and  especially  Ritter.  At  Halle,  in  1828,  he 
 married  the  daughter  of  Professor  Jacobi.  On  his  re- 
 turn he  was  elected  Professor  of  Biblical  Literature  at 
 Andover,  and  served  from  1830  to  1833.  In  1833  he 
 published  an  edition  of  Calmet's  "Dictionary  of  the 
 Bible,"  and  the  next  year  a  smaller  edition  for  popu- 
 lar use;  in  1833,  also,  a  translation  of  Buttman's 
 "  Greek  Grammar."  From  1835  to  1837  he  lived  in 
 Boston,  engaged  in  literary  work.  In  1834  he  pub- 
 lished an  edition  of  Newcome's  **  Harmony  of  the 
 Gospels."  In  1836  appeared  two  significant  works,  a 
 translation  of  Gesenius's  **  Hebrew  Lexicon  of  the  Old 
 Testament,"  and  Robinson's  "Greek-English  Lexicon 
 of  the  New  Testament."  Three  editions  of  the  latter 
 were  published  in  England  up  to  1850.  These  greatly 
 added  to  the  resources  of  English-speaking  clergy- 
 men. In  1837  he  was  called  to  the  professorship  of 
 Biblical  Literature  in  the  Union  Theological  School, 
 with  the  privilege  of  absence  in  Europe  at  his  own  ex- 
 pense. In  1 837-1 838  he  was  in  Germany  and  Palestine. 
 His  visit  to  Palestine  with  the  companionship  of  Dr. 
 Eli  Smith,  a  Presbyterian  missionary  and  fine  Arabic 
 scholar,  formed  an  epoch  in  our  knowledge  of  that 
 country. 
 
 The  years  1839  and  1840  were  spent  in  Berlin,  pre- 
 paring for  publication  his  "  Biblical  Researches  in  Pal- 
 estine," which  appeared  in  English  and  German,  and 
 has  remained  ever  since  the  standard  work  on  that 
 subject  among  all  scholars.  A  new  and  enlarged  edi- 
 tion appeared  in  1856.  In  1845,  I^^-  Robinson  pub- 
 lished his  "Greek  Harmony  of  the  Gospels,"  and  the 
 19 
 
290     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 next  year  the  same  work  in  English.  In  1851  he 
 again  visited  Germany  and  Palestine,  and  in  1865  ap- 
 peared his  "  Physical  Geography  of  Palestine."  In 
 1862,  with  impaired  eyesight,  hoping  in  vain  for  aid, 
 he  made  his  final  visit  to  Germany,  and  died  in  New 
 York  in  1863.  Dr.  Robinson  honored  American  schol- 
 arship. He  made  all  scholars  and  travelers  in  Pales- 
 tine his  debtors,  and  added  to  the  efficiency  of  all 
 English-speaking  students  who  read  Hebrew  and 
 Greek  through  his  "  Lexicons,"  though  these  are  now 
 superseded,  while  he  aided  English  readers  with  his 
 Biblical  Dictionary  and  "  Harmony  of  the  Gospels." 
 More  than  any  other  man  he  laid  the  foundation  of 
 American  Biblical  scholarship,  and  made  it  respected 
 in  Europe. 
 
 Dutch  Reformed. 
 
 In  1850  the  Dutch  Reformed  Church  had  286 
 churches,  299  ministers,  and  33,780  communicants. 
 In  these  years  it  made  a  splendid  missionary  record. 
 John  Scudder,  M.  D.,  went  to  India  as  a  missionary 
 in  1 82 1,  and  labored  in  Madras  and  Madura.  His 
 seven  sons  grew  up  and  entered  upon  missionary 
 labor  in  India.  There  he  died  in  1855.  Jacob  D. 
 Chamberlain  labored  in  this  mission  most  successfully 
 for  fifty  years.  Cornelius  A.  V.  Van  Dyck  went  to 
 the  Beyrout  Mission  in  1840.  In  company  with  Dr. 
 Eli  Smith  he  made,  in  the  Arabic  tongue,  one  of  the 
 best  versions  of  the  Bible  ever  published.  The  Chris- 
 tian Intellige7icer  was  founded  in  1829. 
 
 This  Church  has  a  high  average  of  learning  and  effi- 
 ciency in  its  ministry,  but  such  a  man  as  George  W.  Be- 
 thune  (1805-1862)  would  honor  any  Church.     He  was 
 
The  Christian  Church  in  America.     291 
 
 born  in  New  York,  and  graduated  at  Dickinson  Col- 
 lege  in    1822.     Afterward   he   studied   at   Princeton 
 Theological  Seminary.     He  was  ordained 
 in  1825,  and  the  same  j^ear  he  went  to  Sa-  ^Bethunr'' 
 vannah  as  a  seaman's  chaplain.     In  1826- 
 1830  he  was  pastor  at  Rhinebeck,  N.  Y.;  1 830-1 834  at 
 Utica;  1834-1848  at  Philadelphia;  1848-1859  at  Brook- 
 lyn.    Dr.  Bethune  was  a  poet,  a  genial  gentleman,  an 
 accomplished  orator,  and  a  devout  Christian.     Some  of 
 his  hymns  are  found  in  almost  all  collections.     His 
 "Orations  and  Discourses"  attest  his  power.     His  last 
 great  speech  was  at  the  Union  Square  meeting,  April 
 20,  1 86 1,  a  never-to-be-forgotten  occasion.     He  died 
 at  Florence  in  1862,  and  left  poorer  the  land  he  loved. 
 
 The  German  Reformed  Church. 
 
 The  history  of  the  German  Reformed  Church  in 
 these  years  centers  around  its  theological  seminary. 
 In  1825  it  was  opened,  in  connection  with  Dickinson 
 College,  with  Lewis  Meyer  (i 783-1 849)  as  professor. 
 James  Ross  Reilly,  of  Irish  and  German  parentage, 
 in  1825,  visited  Germany  and  Switzerland,  and  col- 
 lected $6,669  for  the  seminary.  Jacob  C.  Bercher 
 collected  $10,000  in  this  country  for  the  same  purpose. 
 This  started  the  institution.  In  1829  it  was  removed 
 to  York,  Pa.  In  1835  Marshall  College  was  founded 
 at  Mercersburg,  Pa.  Frederick  Augustus  Ranch,  a 
 pupil  of  Daub  and  graduate  of  Heidelberg,  was  its 
 first  president.  Worn  out  with  excessive  study,  this 
 able  and  pious  man  died  in  1841.  The  Theological 
 Seminary  was  removed  from  Dickinson  College  to 
 Mercersburg  in  1837.  In  18 17  there  had  begun  to  be 
 English  preaching  in  the  congregations  of  the  Church ; 
 
292     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 but  now,  for  a  wonder,  an  American  by  birth  and  lan- 
 guage, was  called  to  the  presidency  of  the  college  and 
 to  the  charge  of  the  Theological  Seminary.  John  W. 
 Nevin  (i  803-1 888)  moved  the  waters  at  Mercersburg 
 very  much  as  John  H.  Newman  did  at  Oxford.  He 
 graduated  at  Union  College  in  1821,  and  from  Prince- 
 ton Theological  Seminary  in  1826.  He  taught  Dr. 
 Hodge's  classes  while  he  was  absent  in  Europe  in 
 1 826-1829.  I^  1828  he  was  licensed  to  preach,  and 
 the  same  year  called  as  Professor  of  Hebrew  to  the 
 Allegheny  Theological  Seminary  of  the  Associate  Re- 
 formed Church;  there  he  remained  until  1840.  In 
 that  year  he  came  to  Mercersburg. 
 
 In  1843,  Dr.  Nevin  published  "The  Anxious  Bench" 
 against  prevalent  revival  methods.  In  1846  his  "  Mys- 
 tical Presence  "  and  * 'Anti-Christ,  or  Spirit  of  Sect 
 and  Schism,"  made  evident  his  High  Church  teach- 
 ing. He  edited  the  Mercersburg  Review  in  1 848-1 853. 
 Dr.  Nevin  resigned  his  professorship  in  1857.  His 
 "  Heidelberg  Catechism  "  showed  his  sense  of  historic 
 continuity.  The  movement  did  not  lack  the  extrava- 
 gances and  loss  of  its  Oxford  contemporar5\  The 
 Evangelical  spirit  was  antagonized,  and  not  a  few 
 went  over  to  Rome.  For  a  while  the  Reformed  Church 
 suffered  loss,  but  in  the  end  it  gained  in  Church  con- 
 sciousness and  wakened  Christian  activity. 
 
 The  great  gain  to  American  scholarship  from  the 
 German  Reformed  Church,  at  this  time  came  with  its 
 
 Phiiipschafi.  ^^^^i^S  ^\vX\V  Schaff  (1820-1893),  a  gradu- 
 '  ate  of  Berlin,  to  a  professorship  at  Mercers- 
 burg in  1844.  Like  Nevin,  he  held  to  the  doctrine  of 
 historic  development,  but  with  a  grounding  of  histor- 
 ical knowledge  and  a  soberness  of  judgment  to  which 
 
The  Christian  Church  in  America.     293 
 
 the  former  could  lay  no  claim.  The  ceaseless  literary 
 activity  of  Dr.  Schaff  made  German  thought,  and, 
 above  all,  the  historic  method,  familiar  to  American 
 readers.  The  University  of  Berlin,  in  1893,  called 
 Dr.  Schaflf's  "Church  History"  ''the  most  notable 
 monument  of  universal  historical  learning  produced 
 by  the  school  of  Neander."  The  publishing-house 
 was  founded  in  1848,  and  Heidelberg  College  at  Tiffin, 
 Ohio,  in  1850.  In  1850  there  were  600  churches,  260 
 ministers,  and  70,000  communicants  in  this  Church. 
 
 The  Lutherans. 
 
 The  factors  in  the  growth  of  the  Lutheran  Church 
 in  this  country  were  the  increase  of  learning  and  emi- 
 gration, the  work  of  the  General  Synod,  and  the  found- 
 ing of  the  Synods  of  Buffalo  and  Missouri.  The  Ger- 
 man emigration,  which  was  1,000  yearly  in  1820,  2,000 
 in  1830,  and  30,000  in  1840,  mounted  up  to  83,000  in 
 1850.  This,  of  course,  opened  a  great  field  before  the 
 Lutheran  Church  in  this  country. 
 
 The  General  Synod  was  formed  in  182 1.  It  stood 
 for  the  independent  existence  of  the  Lutheran  Church 
 in  America  as  against  absorption  by  the  German  Re- 
 formed and  Episcopalians.  It  included  nearly  two- 
 thirds  of  the  Lutherans  in  America.  It  founded  the 
 Theological  Seminary  at  Gettysburg  in  1826,  and  the 
 Pennsylvania  College  for  English  Lutherans,  of  which 
 C.  P.  Krauth,  Sr.,  was  president,  1834-1850.  Witten- 
 berg Theological  Seminary  was  founded  at  Sprmg- 
 field,  Ohio,  in  1845.  'The  Ohio  Synod  founded  the 
 Theological  Seminary  at  Columbus  in  1831,  and  in 
 connection  with  it  the  Capital  University  in  1850.  The 
 Evangelical  Review  was  founded  at  Gettysburg  in  1849- 
 
294     History  of  the  Christian  Church, 
 
 In  1830  was  formed  the  Sunday-school  Union;  in 
 1837,  the  Educational  Society,  and  the  same  year  the 
 Home  Missionary  Society.  The  Pittsburg  Orphan 
 Home  and  Deaconess  Institute,  now  at  Rochester, 
 Pa.,  was  founded  by  Dr.  Passavant  in  1849.  After 
 1837  the  lyUtherans  of  the  General  Synod  contributed 
 to  foreign  missions  through  the  American  Board. 
 The  first  I^utheran  foreign  missionary  from  America 
 was  Charles  Frederick  Heyer  (i 799-1 873).  He  was 
 born  in  Helmstadt,  Germany,  and  came  to  America  in 
 1807.  He  began  work  at  Guntur,  and  among  the 
 Telugus  in  India  in  1842. 
 
 The  Buffalo  Synod  of  the  Lutheran  Church  was 
 
 founded  by  Johannes  A.  A.  Grabau  (1804- 18 79),  pastor 
 
 of  St.  Andrew's  Church  at  Erfurth,  Ger- 
 
 synod!       many.     He  was  imprisoned  for  refusing  to 
 
 conform  to  the  Union  Agenda  of  Prussia, 
 
 and  came  to  America  in  1839.     The  Buffalo  Synod 
 
 was  formed  in  1845. 
 
 Martin  Stephan,  born  in  1777,  was  pastor  of  St. 
 
 John's  Church  in  Dresden,  and  a  rigid  Lutheran.    He 
 
 had  great  influence  over  men,  and  in  1839, 
 
 '^*'%ynod!""  ^t  t^^  ^^^^  ^^  ^^^  hundred  souls,  with  six 
 ministers,  he  came  to  New  Orleans.  Soon 
 after  their  arrival  it  became  evident  that  Stephan  was 
 a  bad  man.  Two  brothers,  Revs.  O.  H.  and  C.  F. 
 Walther,  went  up  the  Mississippi  to  St.  Louis,  and 
 then  to  Perry  County,  Mo.  There,  in  1839,  they 
 opened  a  gymnasium  in  a  log  house  with  three  teach- 
 ers. In  1 84 1,  C.  F.  Walther  removed  to  vSt.  Louis, 
 and  in  1842  built  a  church  for  the  congregation.  In 
 1843  li^  founded  Der  Luther aner,  a  semi-monthly.  In 
 1847,  with  twenty-two  pastors  and  two  candidates, 
 
The  Christian  Church  in  America.     295 
 
 there  was  formed  the  most  aggressive  body  of  I^uther- 
 ans  the  last  three  centuries  have  seen.  April  26th  the 
 Synod  of  Missouri  was  founded,  and  the  Theological 
 Seminary  removed  to  St.  Louis  in  1849.  From  1843, 
 Walther  was  in  controversy  with  the  Buffalo  Synod. 
 
 The  most  prominent  Lutheran  of  this  period,  and 
 the  leader  of  the  General  Synod,  was  Samuel  S. 
 Schmucker  (1799-1873).  After  two  years 
 spent  in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  gchmucker. 
 he  graduated  from  Princeton  Theological 
 Seminary  in  1820.  The  next  year  he  was  ordained. 
 He  was  a  leader  in  the  General  Synod  from  1823  to 
 1870.  In  1822  he  prepared  the  "Formula  for  the 
 Government  and  Discipline  of  the  Lutheran  Church," 
 which  was  afterwards  adopted  by  the  General  Synod. 
 He  was  pastor  (i 820-1 826)  at  Frederick,  Md.  From 
 1826  to  1864  he  was  professor  in  the  Gettysburg 
 Theological  Seminary.  In  1846  he  attended,  at  Lon- 
 don, the  first  session  of  the  Evangelical  Alliance. 
 He  did  not  believe  the  Augsburg  Confession  was  in- 
 fallible. He  was  earnestly  Evangelical  in  spirit. 
 More  than  one  hundred  publications  came  from  his 
 pen. 
 
 In    1850   there    were    1,603    churches,     ^^  ^,_^. 
 
 ^  .  statistics. 
 
 1,400  ministers,  and  163,000  communicants 
 in  the  Lutheran  Church. 
 
 Thk  Moravians. 
 
 In  this  era  the  Moravians  steadily  pursued  their 
 mission  work.  They  were  very  successful  among  the 
 Cherokee  Indians  in  Georgia,  but  it  was  largely  over- 
 thrown by  the  forced  removal  of  the  Indians.  They 
 also  founded  new  settlements  at  Goshen,  Ind.,  1831; 
 
296     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 Camden,  N.  Y.,  1834;  Hopedale,  Pa.,  1836.  Of 
 greater  import,  even,  were  the  changes  in  the  internal 
 constitution.  In  1844  the  Council  decided  to  abolish 
 the  peculiar  institution  of  an  exclusive  religious  estab- 
 lishment. In  1848  the  American  Province  was  made 
 independent  of  Herrnhut.  In  1850  there  were  31 
 churches,  27  ministers,  and  3,027  communicants 
 among  the  Moravians. 
 
 Thk  Friknds. 
 
 The  Friends,  or  Quakers,  in  America  experienced 
 the  same  division  which  carried  the  most  ancient 
 Churches  of  the  Puritans'  faith  into  the  camp  of  the 
 Unitarians.  The  main  agent  in  this  division  was 
 Elias  Hicks. 
 
 Hicks  was  a  great  traveler  and  preacher.  He  had 
 imbibed  extreme  Unitarian  views.  In  his  teaching, 
 Jesus  Christ  was  a  mere  man,  and  the  Holy  Scriptures 
 were  unnecessary,  and  even  an  impediment,  to  a  re- 
 ligious life.  He  was  zealous,  upright,  and  a  man  of 
 strong  will.  He  and  his  followers  placed  great  stress 
 on  morality,  which  was  the  essence  of  religion  for 
 them.  As  many  were  members  of  the  Society  by 
 right  of  birth  only,  and  without  personal  religious  ex- 
 perience, and  as  the  Separatists  inclined  to  a  more 
 liberal  Church  polity  and  usage,  it  was  not  strange 
 that  Klias  Hicks  had  a  large  following.  The  first 
 local  division  took  place  in  1822.  The  separation 
 into  the  Orthodox  and  Hicksite  Churches  was  made 
 in  1 827-1 828.  The  English  Friends  remained  in  fel- 
 lowship with  the  Orthodox  Church. 
 
 As  both  sides  claimed  to  be  the  rightful  represent- 
 ative of  the  original  Friends  in  America,  the  courts 
 
The  Christian  Church  in  America.      297 
 
 were  called  upon  to  decide  as  to  the  title  of  the 
 Church  property.  In  New  Jersey  the  property  was 
 divided  according  to  the  membership.  In  Pennsyl- 
 vania, which  was  the  stronghold  of  the  Friends,  the 
 country  meeting-houses  were  given  to  the  Hicksites; 
 and  Westtown  Boarding-school,  founded  in  1799,  with 
 the  Frankfort  Asylum  for  the  Insane,  came  to  the 
 Orthodox.  The  Hicksites  were  in  the  majority  ex- 
 cept in  Indiana  and  Ohio.  The  visits  of  Jonathan 
 and  Hannah  Backhouse  from  England,  1 830-1 835, 
 aroused  attention  to  the  Bible  among  the  Orthodox. 
 First-day  schools  were  established.  This  more  ag- 
 gressive spirit  was  encouraged  by  the  visit  soon  after 
 of  the  celebrated  English  Quaker,  Joseph  Gurney. 
 This  was  resented  by  Joseph  Wilbur,  who  founded 
 the  Wilburite  Yearly  Meeting,  which  drew  several 
 thousands  from  the  Orthodox  in  Ohio. 
 
 The  Hicksite  Friends,  while  personally  estimable 
 in  the  relations  of  life,  and  upright  and  often  philan- 
 thropic, had,  of  course,  no  great  amount  of  religious 
 zeal.  Hence  they  did  not  grow.  In  1830  they  counted 
 31,000  members;  in  1890  but  21,000,  though  they 
 established  First-day  Schools.  The  Orthodox  con- 
 trolled the  Providence  School,  Providence,  R.  I.,  and 
 in  1833  founded  Haverford  School,  at  Haverford,  Pa., 
 which,  since  1856,  has  won  a  worthy  name  as  Haver- 
 ford College.  Guilford  School,  at  Guilford,  N.  C, 
 was  founded  in  1837.  The  Friends  of  both  divisions 
 were  earnest  Abolitionists  and  temperance  reformers. 
 The  most  celebrated  American  Friend  was  the  Anti- 
 slavery  Quaker  poet,  John  G.  Whittier  (i  807-1 892), 
 who  was,  his  life  long,  in  communion  with  the  Ortho- 
 dox Society. 
 
298     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 In  1800  it  was  estimated  that  there  were  50,000 
 Friends ;  in  1850  the  Orthodox  Friends  were  estimated 
 at  70,000;  Hicksites,  25,000. 
 
 Thk  Protestant  Episcopai,  Church. 
 
 In  this  era  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  may  be 
 said  first  to  cast  off  its  intimate  relation  to  the  Church 
 of  England  and  to  have  begun  an  independent  exist- 
 ence. Formally  this  was  done  in  the  latter  years  of 
 the  preceding  century,  but  only  from  181 1  did  it  cease 
 to  be  thought  of  as,  in  a  sense,  a  foreign  Church  and 
 connected  with  the  unpopular  party  of  the  Revolu- 
 tion. It  became  a  recognized  force  in  American  so- 
 cial and  religious  life  from  the  consecration,  at  the 
 same  time,  of  John  Henry  Hobart  as  Assistant  Bishop 
 of  New  York,  and  Alexander  V.  Griswold  as  Bishop  of 
 the  Eastern  Diocese,  which  included  all  New  England 
 except  Connecticut  and  Vermont.  Soon  after  came 
 the  consecration  of  Richard  Channing  Moore  as  Bishop 
 of  Virginia.  These  men,  with  such  men  as  John 
 Stark  Ravenscroft  and  Philander  Chase,  laid  broad 
 and  firm  the  foundation  of  the  new  order  of  things. 
 They,  like  all  religious  leaders  of  those  days,  were 
 pioneers,  and  the  smallness  of  their  resources  and  the 
 amount  of  their  hardships  should  never  be  forgotten 
 by  those  who  would  estimate  their  work  and  their 
 worth. 
 
 The  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  shared  in  the 
 general  movement  which  led  to  the  establishment  of 
 Sunday-schools,  the  founding  of  theological  semin- 
 aries, and  the  opening  of  foreign  missions.  The  Gen- 
 eral Theological  Seminary  at  New  York  was  founded 
 in  182 1,  and  in  1823  that  at  Alexandria,  Va.     In  1829 
 
The  Christian  Church  in  America.     299 
 
 the  mission  to  Greece  was  begun;  in  1835  the  Domes- 
 tic and  Foreign  Missionary  Society  was  organized. 
 In  1835  the  first  missionaries  were  sent  to  China,  and 
 the  next  year  to  Africa.  The  first  Sisterhoods  were 
 begun  at  New  York  in  1845. 
 
 In  an  Episcopal  Church  much  depends  upon  the 
 character,  piety,  and  energy  of  the  Episcopate  ;  this  is 
 especially  true  in  the  formative  stage  of  the  growth 
 of  the  Church  as  well  as  in  the  great  crises  of  its  ex- 
 istence. 
 
 In  these  years  men  of  more  than  ordinary  devo- 
 tion and  piety  laid  their  molding  hand  on  the  infant 
 Church. 
 
 This  was  true  of  the  ablest  of  them,  John  Henry 
 Hobart  (i  775-1 830),  who  may  well  be  called  the  first 
 American   Bishop   of  New   York,   as    his 
 predecessors     were    more    colonial     than  ''^^Hobart  "^^ 
 otherwise  in  their   feeling   and   relations. 
 Bishop  Hobart    made  his  Church  a   living   force  in 
 New  York  City.     Under  him  the   days   of  apology 
 and  defense  were  past ;  he  made  it  confident  and  ag- 
 gressive. 
 
 Born  in  1775,  Bishop  Hobart  graduated  at  Prince- 
 ton in  1793,  and  was  trained  for  the  university  by 
 Bishop  White.  In  1800  he  became  assistant  to  the 
 rector  of  Trinity  Parish,  New  York  City.  In  1804  he 
 published  "Companion  for  the  Altar,"  and  in  1807, 
 "Apology  for  Apostolic  Order  and  its  Advocates,"  the 
 result  of  his  controversy  with  Dr.  John  M.  Mason. 
 He  had  been,  since  1797,  secretary  to  the  House  of 
 Bishops  and  to  the  Diocesan  Convention.  May  29, 
 181 1,  he  was  consecrated  Assistant  Bishop  of  New 
 York,  and  upon  the  death  of  Bishop  Moore  in   18 16 
 
300     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 he  succeeded  him  as  Bishop  of  New  York.  He  was 
 greatly  interested  in  the  founding  of  the  General 
 Theological  Seminary,  and  was  Professor  of  Pastoral 
 Theology  from  its  opening  until  his  death.  There  he 
 exercised  great  influence,  as  well  as  in  the  administra- 
 tion of  his  diocese.  In  1811  there  were  28  clergy  in 
 the  Dioceseof  New  York;  in  1830,  127.  In  1823-1825 
 he  was  in  Europe.  He  published  in  London  two  vol- 
 umes of  "  Discourses  Preached  in  America." 
 
 Bishop  Hobart  was  the  first  of  American  High 
 Churchmen  who  greatly  influenced  the  clergy.  In 
 experience  and  spirit  he  was  Evangelical,  but  would 
 have  nothing  to  do  with  the  American  Bible  Society; 
 he  tried  to  stop  the  prayer-meeting  at  St.  George's ;  he 
 would  have  had  no  sympathy  with  parochial  missions, 
 or  revivals,  or  Young  Men's  Christian  Associations. 
 His  motto  was  "  Evangelical  truth  and  apostolic  order." 
 Bishop  Hobart  was  not  only  an  able  man,  but  a  man 
 of  the  highest  character.  His  opponent.  Dr.  John  M. 
 Mason,  said,  "  Were  I  compelled  to  intrust  the  safety 
 of  my  country  to  any  one  man,  that  man  should  be 
 John  Henry  Hobart."  Hobart  College,  at  Geneva, 
 N.  Y.,  founded  in  1825,  since  i860  has  borne  his 
 name. 
 
 Alexander  V.  Griswold  (i  766-1843)  had  the  sin- 
 gleness of  purpose,  the  self-sacrifice  and  devotion, 
 which  would  have  made  him  successful 
 ^^Griswold.^'  i^  any  Church.  His  father  sided  with 
 Great  Britain  in  the  War  of  the  Revolu- 
 tion, and  the  son  was  unable  to  complete  his  course 
 at  Yale.  But  while  there  he  was  soundly  converted. 
 In  1786  he  was  confirmed  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
 Church.     He   married  and  began  the  study  of  law, 
 
The  Christian  Church  in  America.     301 
 
 but  felt  he  must  enter  the  ministry.  Rough  and  hard 
 was  his  pathway.  He  must  support  himself  and  wife, 
 and  many  a  night  he  studied,  stretched  on  the  floor 
 that  he  might  use  the  light  of  the  chimney  fire.  The 
 parishes  he  served  were  poor,  and  in  the  summer,  in 
 his  earlier  ministry,  he  used  to  work  in  the  fields  to 
 help  out  his  scanty  support.  His  bishopric  was 
 poorer  still,  and  for  twenty-four  years  from  his  elec- 
 tion he  was  sustained  by  his  services  as  rector  at 
 Bristol,  R.  I.,  1811-1830;  and  at  Salem,  Mass.,  1830- 
 1835.  In  1795  he  was  ordained  deacon  and  priest. 
 He  taught  school  winters,  and  ofiiciated  in  Connecti- 
 cut parishes  until  1804,  when  he  became  rector  of  St. 
 Michael's,  Bristol,  R.  I.  In  181 1  he  was  consecrated 
 Bishop  of  the  Eastern  Diocese,  in  which  the  only 
 strong  Churches  were  at  Boston,  Providence,  and 
 Newport.  From  1838  he  was  the  senior  bishop  in 
 the  Church.  Bishop  Griswold  did  the  work  of  an 
 evangelist,  and  there  were  powerful  revivals  under 
 his  labors.  He  in  large  part  founded  his  Church  in 
 Maine,  New  Hampshire,  Massachusetts,  and  Rhode 
 Island,  and  everywhere  he  deepened  and  intensified 
 the  spiritual  life.  His  saintly  character  and  abundant 
 labors  make  fragrant  hi«  name. 
 
 Richard  Channing  Moore  (i  762-1 841)  was  a  reviv- 
 alist and  Evangelical  Low  Churchman  of  the   type 
 which  would   have  delighted  the  heart  of     i^,chard 
 John  Wesley.     He  was  born  in  New  York    Channing 
 City  of  a  prominent  family,  and  had  both 
 studied  and  practiced  medicine  before  he  entered  the 
 Christian  ministry.     He  was  rector  at  Rye,  N.   Y., 
 1 787-1 789.    In  1789  he  became  rector  of  St.  Andrew's, 
 Staten  Island,  where  he  remained  for  the  next  twenty 
 
302     History  of  the  Christian  Church, 
 
 years,  and  his  son  succeeded  him.  His  power  as  a 
 preacher  here  had  marvelous  attestation.  Having  one 
 evening  preached  the  usual  sermon,  none  of  the  hear- 
 ers rose  to  go  away.  A  gentleman  arose  and  said  to 
 the  rector,  "None  of  the  people  are  prepared  to  go; 
 they  wish  another  sermon."  The  second  sermon  was 
 even  more  impressive  than  the  first;  the  spell  was 
 upon  the  people,  and  Dr.  Moore  was  compelled  to 
 preach  the  third  sermon,  and  then  to  dismiss  the  people 
 because,  if  they  were  not  exhausted  physically,  he  was. 
 From  1809  to  18 14  he  was  rector  of  St.  Stephen's,  New 
 York,  where  the  communicants  rose  from  thirty  in 
 number  to  four  hundred.  May  18,  18 14,  at  Philadel- 
 phia, he  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Virginia.  At  that 
 time  there  were  only  four  or  five  active  clergy  in  the 
 diocese.  Bishop  Moore  was  a  fervent  preacher. 
 Though  much  under  the  influence  of  Bishop  Ho- 
 bart,  he  believed  in  prayer-meetings,  and  was  an 
 earnest  revivalist.  Bishop  Moore  worked  with  the 
 American  Bible  Society,  and  founded  the  Theological 
 Seminary  at  Alexandria,  Va.  Bishop  Moore  was  op- 
 posed to  the  Oxford  Movement.  His  monument  was 
 the  reconstructed  Church  in  the  Old  Dominion,  with 
 nearly  100  clergy  and  170  churches  at  his  death. 
 
 Even  more  strange  it  seems  to  find  among  Episco- 
 palian bishops  John  Stark  Ravenscroft  (i  772-1 830). 
 He  left  William  and  Mary  College  in  1789; 
 RavenSroft.  ^^^^  Went  to  Scotland.     He  was  not  con- 
 verted until  he  was  thirty-eight  years  old. 
 He  was  a  local  elder  among  the  Republican  Method- 
 ists.    He   did  not  become  a  deacon  until  the  age  of 
 forty-five.     At  fifty-one  he  was  made  Bishop  of  North 
 Carolina.     In  his  preaching,  as  in  his  experience,  he 
 
The  Christian  Church  in  America.     303 
 
 was  a  strong  Evangelical.  He  preached  the  law  so 
 that  one  of  his  hearers  said  to  him,  "O,  sir,  you  have 
 made  me  feel  as  I  never  did  before ;  God  is  greatly  to 
 be  feared."  He  was  respected  for  his  rigor  and  ear- 
 nestness in  spite  of  his  brusqueness,  but  was  a  thorough 
 High  Churchman.  He  found  four  churches  in  his 
 diocese,  and  left  twenty-seven. 
 
 The  pioneer  bishop  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
 Church  of  this  time  was  Philander  Chase  (i  775-1851). 
 Bishop  Chase  was  born  in  Vermont  and 
 educated  at  Dartmouth  College.  While  ''ch^f.^' 
 there  he  became  an  Episcopalian.  In  1798 
 he  was  ordained  deacon.  He  then  went  to  Western 
 New  York,  and  founded  Churches  in  Utica,  Auburn, 
 and  Canandaigua.  From  1805  to  181 1  he  was  rector  in 
 New  Orleans;  from  181 1  to  1817,  at  Hartford,  Conn. 
 In  18 18  he  removed  to  Salem,  Ohio.  There  were  then 
 five  Episcopal  clergymen  in  the  State.  They  elected 
 Chase  their  bishop,  and  he  was  consecrated  J'ebruary 
 II,  18 19.  In  1824  he  went  to  England  and  raised 
 funds  for  his  college.  With  the  $20,000  thus  obtained 
 he  founded  Kenyon  College,  at  Gambler,  Ohio.  Both 
 the  college  and  the  town  bear  the  names  of  English 
 noblemen  who  became  patrons  of  his  enterprise. 
 Bishop  Chase  was  president  of  the  college  from  its 
 birth  in  182 1  until  1831,  when  a  difference  with  the 
 trustees  led  to  his  resignation  of  his  bishopric  and  his 
 relations  to  the  college.  For  the  next  few  years  he 
 was  a  farmer  and  missionary  in  Michigan,  and  then 
 removed  to  Illinois.  In  1835  three  clergymen  met 
 and  elected  him  Bishop  of  Illinois.  The  same  year 
 he  again  went  to  England,  and  returned  with  $10,000 
 for  his  Jubilee  College.     In  1839  he  visited  the  South 
 
304     History  of  the  Christian  Church, 
 
 on  the  same  errand  and  was  successful  in  putting  the 
 institution  on  its  feet.  He  was  the  first  bishop  of  two 
 great  States  and  founded  two  colleges.  The  Episco- 
 palians of  Connecticut  founded  Trinity  College,  Hart- 
 ford, in  1824.  In  1800  there  were  in  the  Protestant 
 Episcopal  Church  320  congregations,  264  clergy,  and 
 11,978  communicants.  In  1850  the  numbers  rose  to 
 1,350  churches,  1,595  clergy,  and  89,359  communi- 
 cants. 
 
 The  Methodist  Episcopai,  Church. 
 
 The  best  organized  and  disciplined,  and  the  most 
 thoroughly  effective  and  aggressive,  Evangelical  Chris- 
 tian Church  in  America  in  this  half  century  was  the 
 Methodist  Episcopal  Church.  It  was  the  child  of  the 
 Evangelical  Revival  of  the  previous  century,  and  was 
 true  to  the  traditions  of  its  parentage.  Its  itinerant 
 ministry  was  the  most  effective  form  of  pioneer  evan- 
 gelism the  Christian  Church  had  yet  seen.  It  made 
 the  best  use  of,  and  secured  the  largest  results  from, 
 an  uneducated  ministry  that  a  Church  has  ever  known. 
 At  its  head  was  Francis  Asbury,  who,  as  a  pioneer 
 missionary  and  bishop,  made  a  record  of  labors,  hard- 
 ships, and  achievement  which  has  never  been  surpassed. 
 His  devoted  piety,  heroic  endurance,  and  thorough  dis- 
 cipline, and  yet,  withal,  thorough  Americanism,  im- 
 pressed itself  upon  the  preachers  and  membership  of 
 the  infant  Church.  Undoubtedly  he  was  autocratic, 
 and  no  man  in  our  day  should  have  the  power  in 
 the  Christian  Church  that  Asbury  possessed ;  but  in 
 spite  of  almost  insurmountable  obstacles  he  held  the 
 Church  together,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  all  further 
 progress.  No  bishop  of  any  Church  in  America  has  in- 
 spired the  reverence  with  which  men  regarded  Francis 
 
The  Christian  Church  in  America.      305 
 
 Asbury.  In  his  forty-five  years  of  labor  in  America 
 the  membership  had  increased  from  600  to  2 1 1 ,000. 
 He  traveled  270,000  miles,  preached  16,000  sermons, 
 and  ordained  4,000  preachers. 
 
 The  era  of  Asburian  evangelism  may  be  said  to 
 have  closed  in  1820.  In  this  period  the  Book  Con- 
 cern, established  in  1789,  and  removed  to  New  York 
 in  1804,  flourished,  and  thus  raised  the  intellectual 
 life  of  both  preachers  and  people.  The  Sunday-school 
 movement,  which  had  begun  in  America  under  As- 
 bury in  1786,  and  which  was  recommended  by  the 
 Annual  Conferences  in  1790,  spread  with  the  progress 
 of  the  Church.  Jesse  Lee,  Freeborn  Garrettson,  and 
 William  McKendree,  with  Joshua  Soule  and  Nathan 
 Bangs,  were  the  strong  men  of  the  Church  in  these 
 days.  It  was  a  period  of  fervid  evangelism.  The 
 great  revival  of  1 800-1 805  was  followed  by  those  of 
 1 807-1 808  and  1 8 15-18 16,  which  were  general  through- 
 out the  country.  But  with  the  Methodist  itinerants, 
 each  was  a  revivalist,  and  each  year  was  a  revival  year. 
 There  were  degrees  of  success,  of  course ;  but  this 
 was  the  rule.  In  these  years  the  great  question  fo*- 
 the  future  of  the  Church  was  the  Constitution  of  tht 
 Delegated  General  Conference.  The  plan  was  drawn 
 up  by  Joshua  Soule,  assisted  by  William  McKendree. 
 It  encountered,  and  seemed  likely  to  be  shattered  by, 
 the  opposition  of  Jesse  Lee ;  but  by  a  concession  he 
 was  won,  and  the  first  General  Conference,  the  supreme 
 legislative  and  judicial  body  of  the  Church,  and  the 
 body  which  elects  the  bishops  and  to  whom  the  whole 
 Episcopate  is  responsible,  began  its  sessions  in  1812. 
 This  act  marked  the  passage  of  the  Methodists  in 
 America  from  a  society,  or  sect,  or  denomination,  to 
 20 
 
3o6      History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 a  Church,  with  full  powers  of  discipline,  legislation, 
 and  expansion.  The  General  Conference  sat  under 
 Restrictive  Rules  which  provided  that  it  should  not 
 change  the  Articles  of  Religion  nor  the  General  Rules, 
 nor  do  away  with  Episcopacy  or  the  itinerancy,  nor 
 abolish  the  right  of  trial  and  appeal  of  accused  preach- 
 ers or  members,  nor  appropriate  the  produce  of  the 
 Book  Concern  or  of  the  Chartered  Fund  except  for 
 the  benefit  of  the  preachers  or  their  families.  Each 
 General  Conference  could  fix  the  ratio  of  representa- 
 tion, which  was  at  first  one  in  five  members  in  full 
 connection  of  the  Annual  Conferences.  These  restric- 
 tions could  be  changed  by  the  vote  of  the  Annual 
 Conferences,  concurred  in  by  a  two-thirds  vote  of  the 
 General  Conference.  V/ithin  these  very  wide  limits 
 the  General  Conference  had  full  legislative  power  and 
 discretion  in  the  Church.  Until  1872  it  was  composed 
 solely  of  ministerial  delegates  from  the  Annual  Con- 
 ferences. In  1872  lay  delegates  were  admitted.  In 
 1900  they  were  equal  in  numbers  with  the  clerical 
 delegates,  and  in  1901  a  Constitution  was  adopted 
 which  still  further  defines  and  limits  the  action  of  the 
 General  Conference.  The  Constitution  can  be  changed 
 by  the  vote  of  two-thirds  of  the  Annual  and  Lay  Elec- 
 toral Conferences  and  two-thirds  of  the  General  Con- 
 ference. The  General  Conference  meets  in  May  every 
 four  years. 
 
 In  these  years  the  subject  of  slavery  was  present 
 
 at  each  General  Conference.     In   1808  all  matter  in 
 
 the    Discipline    against    private    members 
 
 holding  slaves  was  stricken  out.     In  1804 
 
 preachers  were  forbidden  to  hold  slaves;  but  North 
 
 Carolina,  South  Carolina,  and  Georgia  were  excepted 
 
The  Christian  Church  in  America.     307 
 
 from  the  rule.     In   181 2  the  question  of  slavery  was 
 left  to  the  Annual  Conferences. 
 
 lu  these  years  also  came  a  division  of  the  Church 
 on  the  color-line.     In  1793,  Richard  Allen,  a  colored 
 layman,  erected  at  his  own  cost  the  Bethel     African 
 African  Church  in  Philadelphia.     In  June,    Methodist 
 1799,  Bishop  Asbury  ordained  Allen  a  dea-   c*'"''*^'*^^- 
 con,  the  first  ordination  of  a  colored  man  to  the  Chris- 
 tian ministry  in  the  United  States.     In  1800  the  col- 
 ored people  of  New  York  built  the  Zion  Church.     In 
 18 1 6  the  African  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  was 
 organized,    and    held    its    first    General    Conference. 
 Richard  Allen  was  elected  its  first  Bishop. 
 
 In   New   York,  in    18 17,   the   African    Methodist 
 Episcopal  Zion  Church  was  organized. 
 
 In  181 2  the  General  Conference  refused  to  forbid 
 local  and  other  preachers  to  sell  intoxicat- 
 
 ^  Temperance. 
 
 mg  liquors,  and  postponed  the  considera- 
 tion of  lotteries.     In  181 6  the  General  Conference  for- 
 bade preachers  to  sell  liquor. 
 
 The  Church  spread  rapidly  in  these  years ;   it  was 
 soon  planted  in   Upper  and  Lower  Canada  in  1802- 
 1804;   and  in  Indiana  in  1802,  in  Illinois    Extension 
 in   1807,  Methodist  preachers  began  their      of  the 
 work.     The  pastoral  term  of  itinerants  in 
 1804  was  made  two  years,  and  such  it  continued  to  be 
 until  1864.     In  18 1 6  a  course  of  study  was  marked 
 out  for  those  desiring  to  enter  the  itinerancy.     Meth- 
 odism  had   always  been   a  missionary  organization. 
 Missionaries  were  sent  to  the  West  Indies  in  1786, 
 but  the  American  Methodists  organized  their  Mission- 
 ary  Society   in    1819.      In    1800,   Richard   Whatcoat 
 ( 1 736-1 806)   was  elected  bishop.     In   1808,  William 
 
3o8    History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 McKendree  (i 757-1 835)  was  chosen  to  the  same 
 office.  In  1816,  Enoch  George  (1767-1828)  and  Rob- 
 ert R.  Roberts  (1778-1843)  were  elected  bishops. 
 
 In    1820   it    became   evident   to    many    that   the 
 Church   must   have   her   schools.      In    181 8,   Wilbur 
 
 Fisk  had  said  there  is  not  an  institution  of 
 ^n  ^830.^^  learning  in  American  Methodism.    Asbury 
 
 had  tried,  but  every  attempt  ended  in  a 
 failure.  Not  only  did  Cokesbury  College,  at  Abing- 
 don, burn  down,  but  also  Asbury  College,  at  Balti- 
 more. Ebenezer  and  Bethel  Schools  in  Virginia  and 
 in  Kentucky  failed  of  permanent  success.  In  181 8, 
 Wesleyan  Academy  was  founded  at  New  Market, 
 N.  H.,  but  failed  to  win  a  permanent  foundation; 
 in  1826  it  opened  at  Wilbraham,  Mass.,  under  Wilbur 
 Fisk,  and  began  a  career  of  great  prosperity  and  use- 
 fulness. 
 
 In  1822,  Augusta  College,  Kentucky,  was  founded, 
 the  first  of  Methodist  colleges  to  receive  a  charter.    In 
 
 1824,  Cazenovia  Seminary,  in  New  York,  was  founded, 
 and  Kent's  Hill,  in  Maine,  in  1827.  With  these  early 
 schools  came  the  establishment  of  the  Methodist  peri- 
 odical press ;   Ziori's  Herald  was  founded  at  Boston  in 
 
 1825,  and   The   Christian  Advocate  in  New  York  in 
 
 1826,  The  Sunday-school  Union  was  organized  in 
 1827. 
 
 The  chief  controversy  of  these  decades  arose  over 
 
 the  question  debated  in  every  General  Conference, 
 
 whether  presiding  elders  should  be  elected. 
 
 Election  of    The  ablest  men  in  the  Church  advocated 
 
 Presiding     ^\^^  measure.     In  1812  it  was  lost  by  a  ma- 
 
 Elders.         .      .  -   ^  . 
 
 jority  of  five ;  in  18 16  the  majority  against 
 it  was  eighteen.     In  1820  the  vote  for  it  was  sixty- 
 
The  Christian  Church  in  America.     309 
 
 one;  that  against  it  twenty-five.  Joshua  Soule  de- 
 clared it  unconstitutional,  and  declined  ordination  to 
 the  Episcopacy  because  of  this  action.  Bishop  Mc- 
 Kendree  held  the  same  views.  On  account  of  this 
 opposition,  this  legislation  was  suspended.  In  1824, 
 after  an  active  canvass,  the  resolution  to  elect  pre- 
 siding elders  was  lost  by  a  majority  of  two.  What- 
 ever be  our  opinion  as  to  the  merits  of  the  question, 
 there  is  no  doubt  that  the  General  Conference  had 
 power  to  make  this  change,  and  that  Soule  and  Mc- 
 Kendree  were  wrong  in  this  ground  for  their  opposi- 
 tion. In  1824,  Joshua  Soule  and  Elijah  Hedding 
 were  elected  bishops. 
 
 The  action  of  the  General  Conference  in  regard  to 
 the  election  of  presiding  elders,  and  the  position 
 assumed  on  the  question  by  Bishop  Soule, 
 
 ,•  •    r        •  T       Tv/r  o    -       Methodist 
 
 caused  just  dissatisfaction.  In  May,  1827,  Protestants, 
 was  formed  the  "  Associate  Methodist  Re- 
 formers," who  became  the  Methodist  Protestant 
 Church,  November  2,  1830.  The  leaders  were  Nicho- 
 las Snethen,  Alexander  McCaine,  and  Asa  Shinn. 
 They  desired  a  Church  in  which  laymen  should  be 
 represented  in  Annual  and  General  Conferences,  and 
 they  had  no  desire  for  presiding  elders  or  bishops. 
 They  certainly  anticipated  other  Methodist  Churches 
 in  lay  representation,  and  the  arbitrary  action  of 
 Bishops  Soule  and  Hedding  in  the  next  decade  would 
 not  increase  their  love  for  the  Episcopacy.  But  when 
 this  is  granted,  it  must  be  stated  that  the  Episcopacy 
 has  been  an  immense  advantage  to  the  Church,  and 
 as  constant  an  aid  to  its  growth  as  to  its  stability.  It 
 is  difficult  to  see  how  an  effective  itinerancy,  as  dis- 
 tinguished  from   a   congregational   pastorate,   could 
 
3IO    History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 exist  in  the  Methodist  Churches  without  the  office 
 and  work  of  presiding  elders.  Both  the  Episcopacy 
 and  the  presiding  eldership  are  much  less  autocratic 
 than  in  1827. 
 
 In  this  decade  the  educational  work  was  still  fur- 
 ther advanced.     In  1831,  Genesee  Wesleyan  Seminary 
 was  founded  at  Lima,  N.  Y.     The  same 
 1830M840.  y^^^'  Wesleyan  University,  the  real  mother 
 of  the   colleges   of   American   Methodism, 
 was  opened  at  Middletown,  Conn.,  under  Wilbur  Fisk. 
 In   1832,   Randolph-Macon   College  was   founded  in 
 Virginia.     In  1834,  Dickinson  College,  at  Carlisle,  Pa., 
 came  under  Methodist  control,  with  John  P.  Durbin  as 
 president.     In  the  same  year  Allegheny  College  was 
 established  at  Meadville,  Pa.;  also  Vermont  Conference 
 Seminary  and  the  school  founded  at  Lebanon,  111.,  in 
 1828  became  McKendree  College.     Kmory  College  was 
 founded  in  1837,  and  Indiana  Asbury  opened  in  1838 
 with  Matthew  Simpson  as  president. 
 
 In  1830  the  Methodist  Magazine  became  the  Meth- 
 odist Quarterly  Review.     In    1834  the   Western  Chris- 
 tian Advocate  was  founded,  and  the  Pitts- 
 Press  ^     b^'^g  Christian  Advocate  the  year  preceding. 
 In    1836   the  Methodist  Book  Concern  at 
 New  York  burned,  causing  a  loss  of  $200,000.     It  soon 
 rose  from  its  ashes  larger  and  more  prosperous  than 
 ever. 
 
 In  1832  the  first  Methodist  missionaries  were  sent 
 
 to  foreign  lands.  Melville  B.  Cox  went  to  Liberia,  where 
 
 he  soon  finished  his  course,  sending  back 
 
 Missions.  ,       ^, 
 
 to  the  Church  the  watch-cry,  "  Let  a  thou- 
 sand die,  but  let  not  Africa  be  given  up."  William 
 Nast  began  preaching  among  the  Germans  in  1835,  and 
 
The  Christian  Church  in  America.      311 
 
 founded  Der  Christliche  Apologete  in  1839.  In  1832, 
 James  O.  Andrew  (1794-1874)  and  John  Kmory  (1789- 
 JS35)  were  elected  bishops  ;  in  1836,  Beverly  Waugh 
 (1789-1858)  and  Thomas  A.  Morris  (1794-1874)  were 
 chosen  to  the  same  office.  Wilbur  Fisk,  who  had  been 
 elected  to  the  Episcopacy,  declined  ordination.  In  1 839 
 the  centennial  of  the  founding  of  Methodism  was  cele- 
 brated ;  $600,000  was  raised  for  its  work  by  the  Meth- 
 odist Episcopal  Church. 
 
 But  the  interest  of  this  decade,  as  of  each  of  those 
 following  until  the  Civil  War,  centered  in  the  ques- 
 tion of  Negro  bondage. 
 
 In  1832  the  New  England  Antislavery  Society  was 
 formed,  and  the  American  Antislavery  Society  the 
 year  following.  The  General  Conference 
 of  1836  censured  George  Storrs  and  Samuel 
 Norris,  two  of  its  delegates,  for  speaking  at  an  Anti- 
 slavery  meeting.  In  1837  the  first  Methodist  Anti- 
 slavery  Society  was  formed  at  Cazenovia,  N.  Y.  Bishop 
 Hedding  presided  at  the  New  England  Conference  in 
 1838,  and  read  a  very  long  address  against  the  Anti- 
 slavery  movement.  La  Roy  Sunderland  was  brought 
 to  trial  four  times,  and  aquitted  each  time,  for  his  work 
 in  connection  with  the  Antislavery  propaganda,  Na- 
 than Bangs  being  his  chief  prosecutor.  In  1840  he 
 was  accused  of  libeling  Bishop  Soule,  and  tried  by  the 
 Conference  at  which  that  bishop  presided.  Soule 
 showed  his  usual  overbearing  disposition.  He  replied 
 to  Sunderland  from  the  chair,  saying  no  man  ever 
 spoke  to  him  so  before.  "Thank  God,"  said  Sunder- 
 land, *'you  have  lived  long  enough  to  find  one  man  to 
 tell  you  to  your  face  what  others  say  behind  your 
 back."     Sunderland  was  found  guilty,  but  sentenced 
 
312      History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 only  to  publish  the  finding  of  the  Committee  in  his 
 paper. 
 
 At  the  General  Conference  in  1840,  Robert  New- 
 ton was  the  delegate  from  the  English  Wesleyans,  and 
 was  enthusiastically  received.  The  resolutions  on 
 slavery  were  not  as  belligerent  against  the  Abolition- 
 ists as  in  1836,  but  were  a  meaningless  compromise. 
 
 La  Roy  Sunderland  had  located  in  1 840.  He,  with 
 Orange  Scott,  Luther  Lee,  and  others,  at  Utica,  N.  Y., 
 May  31,  1843,  formed  the  Wesleyan  Connection  on  an 
 iron-clad  Antislavery  basis,  also  forbidding  member- 
 ship in  secret  societies. 
 
 Under  these  circumstances  met  the  General  Con- 
 ference of  1844.     It  became  known  that  Bishop  James 
 
 General  ^'  Andrew  had,  through  his  wife,  become 
 Conference  a  slaveholder.  If  the  bishop  had  emanci- 
 of  1844.  p^^g(j  ^jjg  slaves  in  the  North,  if  not  in  the 
 South;  if  he  had  agreed  to  suspend  his  Episcopal 
 functions  until  he  had  become  disconnected  with 
 slavery ;  or  if  he  had  resigned, — the  crisis  would  not 
 at  that  time  have  occurred.  Future  generations  will 
 wonder  how  he  could  have  allowed  himself  to  be  put 
 in  the  position  of  dividing  the  greatest  of  American 
 Churches  on  an  issue  so  personal  to  himself  and  so 
 repugnant  to  the  moral  sense  of  Christendom.  But 
 the  Southern  delegates  were  sensitive  on  the  subject 
 of  slavery,  and  determined  to  resent  any  action  which 
 should  imply  that  the  holding  of  slaves  was  any  stain 
 on  the  Christian  or  ministerial  character.  On  the  other 
 hand,  it  was  known  that  the  Northern  Conferences 
 would  not  tolerate  the  presidency  of  a  slaveholding 
 bishop.  Realizing  these  antagonisms  of  feeling  and 
 the  delicacy  of  the  situation  they  caused,  and  with  a 
 
The  Christian  Church  in  America.     313 
 
 lack  of  Church  consciousness  which  is  astounding, 
 both  sides  concurred  in  a  Plan  of  Separation  in  case 
 there  should  be  dissatisfaction  with  the  course  of  the 
 General  Conference.  Dr.  Charles  Elliott  thought  the 
 denomination  already  too  large.  The  whole  debate 
 showed  abundance  of  brotherly  feeling  and  a  desire  to 
 concede  where  possible,  especially  on  the  part  of  the 
 North.  That  any  body  of  delegates  should  suppose 
 themselves  authorized  to  divide  the  Church  without 
 any  reference  to  either  ministers  or  laity,  and  to  plan 
 for  such  division  in  advance  of  any  action  demanding 
 such  a  change,  will  always  seem  one  of  the  wonders  of 
 American  ecclesiastical  history. 
 
 Nevertheless,  the  report  of  the  committee  recom- 
 mending the  Plan  of  Separation  was  adopted  by  a  vote 
 of  139  to  17.  A  convention  was  immediately  called  to 
 be  held  at  lyouisville,  Ky.,  in  1845,  and  a  General  Con- 
 ference called  at  Petersburg,  Va.,  May  i,  1846.  Thus 
 was  organized  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  South ; 
 1,519  preachers  and  459,569  members  formed  its  min- 
 istry and  membership.  The  General  Conference  of 
 1844  elected  Edmund  S.  Janes  (i  807-1 876)  and  Leoni- 
 das  L.  Hamline  (1797-1867)  bishops;  the  Methodist 
 Episcopal  Church,  South,  chose  William  Capers  (1790- 
 1855)  and  Robert  Paine  (1799-1882)  to  the  same  oj0&ce 
 among  them. 
 
 When  the  General  Conference  of  the  Methodist 
 Episcopal  Church  met  in  1848  there  was  a  loss,  as 
 compared  with  1844,  ^^  7^0  ministers  and  532,000 
 members.  The  Conference  decided  that  the  Plan  of 
 Separation  was  unconstitutional,  and  declined  to  admit 
 Dr.  Lovick  Pierce  as  a  fraternal  delegate.  That  the 
 separation  was  unconstitutional  in  ecclesiastical   law 
 
314      History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 was  doubtless  true ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  there  was 
 good  reason  for  the  surprise  and  indignation  of  the 
 Methodist  Church,  South,  at  the  repudiation  of  the 
 almost  unanimous  vote  of  the  Conference  of  1844. 
 
 The  question  of  the  division  of  the  funds  of  the 
 Book  Concern  went  to  the  Supreme  Court  of  the 
 United  States,  and  was  decided  in  favor  of  the  Method- 
 ist Church,  South.  The  whole  action  shows  how 
 vague  was  the  idea  of  a  Church  in  the  minds  of  lead- 
 ing men  of  all  parties.  Thank  God,  there  has  been 
 some  progress  since  that  day.  The  Methodist  Church 
 still  had  Conferences  and  slaveholding  members  in 
 the  Border  States.  The  efforts  of  the  Antislavery 
 element  continued  to  change  the  Discipline  so  as  to 
 make  slaveholding  illegal  in  the  Church.  In  i860 
 preachers  and  members  were  admonished  to  keep 
 themselves  from  this  great  evil ;  but  slaveholding  was 
 not  prohibited  until  arms  had  decided  the  debate 
 in  1864. 
 
 The  second  General  Conference  of  the  Church 
 South  was  held  in  1850.  Henry  B.  Bascom  was 
 elected  bishop,  but  died  the  same  year.  In  1848  the 
 first  foreign  missionaries  were  sent  out  to  Shanghai, 
 China. 
 
 In  the  Methodist  Protestant  Church  there  were 
 compromise  resolutions  adopted  on  the  subject  of 
 slavery  in  1842  and  1846.  In  1850  the  question  was 
 referred  to  the  Annual  Conferences,  but  even  this  did 
 not  prevent  a  division  which  took  place  as  late  as 
 1858.  This  greatest  of  the  ecclesiastical  divisions 
 could  not  fail  to  influence  the  action  of  the  North  and 
 South  in  national  politics.  It  did  not  escape  the  keen 
 and  patriotic  gaze  of  Henry  Clay,  who  wrote  a  letter 
 
The  Christian  Church  in  America.     315 
 
 in  April,  1845,  deprecating  the  division,  which  ensued 
 the  next  month,  and  its  influence  on  the  question  of 
 National  Union. 
 
 It  is  easy  to  say  the  separation  was  unavoidable  in 
 Church  and  State,  and  the  arbitrament  of  arms  una- 
 voidable ;  but  it  is  lamentable  that  there  was  shown 
 in  the  American  Churches  so  little  prevision  and 
 sagacity.  Had  there  been  more  Churches  and  less 
 denominations,  the  ties  of  Union  would  have  been 
 stronger,  and  stronger  would  have  been  those  forces 
 in  the  South  which  favored  the  political  union  of  the 
 American  people. 
 
 In    1844    Willamette    University    was    founded    at 
 Salem,  Oregon.     Jason' Lee  went  there  as  a  mission- 
 ary in  1834;    Marcus  Whitman,  a  Congre-    Methodist 
 gationalist,  in  1836.     Isaac  Owen  went  out    ^l^^^l^^ 
 in    1849,   and   William    Taylor,   afterward   Education. 
 bishop,   in   the   same   year,    to    California.    '840-1850. 
 Baldwin  Institute,  at   Berea,  Ohio,   was    founded   in 
 1841 ;  and  Ohio  Wesleyan  University  at  Delaware  in 
 1844.      New   Hampshire    Conference   Seminary   was 
 founded  in  1845,  ^"^^  Dickinson  Seminary,  Williams- 
 port,  Pa.,  in  1848. 
 
 The  work  was  begun  in  1814  among  the  Indians. 
 It  was  carried  on  with  much  sacrifice  and  at  times 
 with  excellent  results.      It  has  continued  Mission  work 
 until  this  day,   and,  with  a  better  educa-     ^^^^''j^i^^ 
 tional  system,  has  borne  more  permanent     Episcopal 
 fruit.     The  mission  among  the  Germans      church, 
 in  America,  under  the  leadership  of  William  Nast,  was 
 founded  in  1838,  and  in  these  years  just  began  to  form 
 the  foundation  of  a  large  Christian  Church,  with  scores 
 of  thousands  of  members.     Ludwig   S.   Jacoby,   con- 
 
31 6     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 verted  here,  began  the  work  in  Germany  at  Bremen 
 in  1849.  Few  missions,  both  directly  and  indirectly, 
 have  yielded  larger  results.  The  mission  to  South 
 America  was  begun  by  Dr.  John  Dempster,  in  1836, 
 at  Buenos  Ayres,  but  it  was  confined  to  English- 
 speaking  residents  until  1864.  Since  then  it  has  been 
 actively  pushed  among  the  Spanish  Americans.  In 
 1847  missions  to  Asiatic  lands  were  begun  in  China  at 
 Foo-Chow  by  Judson  Dwight  Collins  and  Moses  C. 
 White.  Only  the  beginning  was  made  of  what  is  to 
 become  a  great  Oriental  Church. 
 
 The  United  Brethren  in  Christ  were  organized  as 
 an  Evangelical  Church  in  1785.     In  1800  Philip  Wil- 
 
 ji^g        liam   Otterbein   and   Martin   Boehm  were 
 
 United      chosen  bishops.     The  first  General  Confer- 
 
 '^®"'    ence  was  held  in  18 15.     The  bishops  are 
 
 elected  for  four  3^ears.    This  Church  has  taken  a  strong 
 
 stand  against  secret  societies.     After  the  first  General 
 
 Conference  services  began  to  be  held  in  English. 
 
 The  Evangelical  Association  was  formed  by  Jacob 
 Albright  (i  759-1 808),    a  friend  of  Bishop  Asbury's. 
 
 ^^g        The  first  Council  of  three  ministers  and 
 Evangelical  fourteen   laymen    was    held   November   3 
 Association,  ^g^^       ^^^  ^^^^  Auuual  Conference  was 
 
 convened,  with  twenty-eight  present,  in  1807.  Jacob 
 Albright  was  elected  bishop.  After  his  death,  George 
 Miller  was  the  leading  man  in  the  Church.  In  18 14 
 John  Driesbach  had  a  conversation  with  Bishop  As- 
 bury  in  relation  to  a  union  with  the  Methodist  Epis- 
 copal Church.  Bishop  Asbury  would  not  consent  to 
 the  services  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  being 
 held  in  German.  Thus  the  Evangelical  Association  felt 
 they  had  the  same  call  to  work  among  the  Germans 
 
The  Christian  Church  in  America.      317 
 
 as  the  Methodists  among  English-speaking  people. 
 Their  bishops  also  are  elected  for  four  years.  One  of 
 the  most  remarkable  itinerants  of  the  time  was  Bishop 
 John  Seybert  ( 1 79 1  - 1 860) .  He  was  converted  in  1 8 1  o, 
 and  began  to  preach  in  1819.  Joining  Conference  in 
 1 82 1,  he  was  presiding  elder  in  1825,  Conference  mis- 
 sionary in  T834,  and  bishop  in  1839.  Like  Asbury,  he 
 never  married,  and  was  an  indefatigable  traveler.  He 
 traversed  one  hundred  and  seventy-five  thousand 
 miles  on  horseback,  and  preached  nine  thousand  eight 
 hundred  and  fifty  sermons. 
 
 In  1837  was  established  the  Christliche  Botschafter ^ 
 and  in  1847  the  Evangelical  Messenger  for  English 
 readers.  This  Church,  like  the  United  Brethren,  lays 
 special  stress  on  the  experience  of  perfect  love. 
 
 In  1800  there  were,  of  all  Methodists,  287  minis- 
 ters and  64,284  members.  In  1850  the  Methodist 
 Episcopal  Church  had  d.,129  ministers  and 
 
 ,  ^.\    \-  ^    •  .    statistics. 
 
 693,811  members;  Methodist  Episcopal 
 Church,  South,  1,556  ministers,  514,299  members; 
 African  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  127  ministers, 
 122,127  members;  African  Methodist  Episcopal  Zion 
 Church,  71  ministers,  4,817  members;  Methodist 
 Protestant  Church,  807  ministers,  65,815  members; 
 Wesleyan  Methodist  Church,  400  ministers,  21,400 
 members;  Primitive  Methodist  Church,  12  ministers, 
 1,112  members;  Reformed  Methodist  Church,  50  min- 
 isters, 2,050  members;  Congregational  Methodist 
 Church  (Colored),  200  members;  or  a  total  of  7,152 
 ministers,  and  1,325,631  members. 
 
 The  most  influential  bishops  of  this  period  were 
 Joshua  Soule  and  Elijah  Hedding.  Joshua  Soule 
 (1781-1867)  was  born  at  Bristol,  Me.,  and  converted 
 
3i8     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 at  the  age  of  eighteen.     Two  years  later  he  joined  the 
 
 Conference.    In  1804  he  was  appointed  presiding  elder, 
 
 an  ofl&ce  he  held,  with  the  exception  of 
 
 Joshua  Soule.  .,        ^    ^        _  ^    ^    , 
 
 one  year,  until  18 16.  In  1808  he  was 
 the  main  instrument  in  formulating  the  Plan  under 
 which  the  General  Conference  came  into  existence, 
 and  he  always  felt  like  a  father  to  the  Constitution. 
 From  18 1 6  to  1820  he  was  Book  Agent  at  New  York. 
 For  the  next  two  years  he  was  pastor  at  Baltimore. 
 Having  declined  the  Episcopate  in  1820,  he  accepted 
 the  office  in  1824,  as  he  had  caused  his  views  in  re- 
 gard to  the  election  of  presiding  elders  to  prevail.  In 
 1 845  he  and  Bishop  Andrew  went  over  to  the  Method- 
 ist Church,  South.  He  sympathized  with  the  South 
 in  the  Civil  War,  and  died  two  3^ears  after  it  closed. 
 Bishop  Soule  was  energetic  and  strong-willed ;  not  an 
 intellectual  man,  but  a  good  administrator;  in  his 
 earlier  years  an  impressive  preacher  and  a  leader  of 
 men. 
 
 Elijah  Hedding  (1780-1852)  was  born  at  White 
 Plains,  N.  Y.     Converted  at  eighteen,  he  joined  Con- 
 ference at  twenty-one.     He  was  pastor  from 
 
 HeddfiTg.      ^^^^  ^^  ^^^7'  ^^^  ^^°°^  ^^^^  ^^^^  ^^^^^  ^^^4' 
 presiding  elder.     In  1 810  he  married.     His 
 
 average  salary  for  the  previous  ten  years  was  forty- 
 five  dollars.  He  favored  the  election  of  presiding 
 elders.  In  1824  he  was  elected  bishop.  His  pro- 
 slavery  attitude,  1836-1840,  was  very  offensive  to  the 
 Methodists  of  New  England.  After  1844  he  showed 
 the  feebleness  of  age.  He  was  considered  strong  in 
 counsel  and  administration. 
 
 A  man  in  many  respects  more  able  and  influential 
 than  these  bishops  was  Nathan  Bangs  (i 778-1862). 
 
The  Christian  Church  in  America.      319 
 
 He  was  born  at  Bridgeport,  Conn.,  and  at  the  age  of 
 thirteen  removed  to  Delaware   County,  N.  Y.     Hav- 
 ing pursued  his  education  at  the  common 
 school,   he   began    to    teach    at    eighteen.    ^^^^^ 
 From    1799    to    1802    he  was   in   Canada, 
 teaching  school  and  surveying.     He  was  converted  in 
 1800,  and  joined  Conference  in  1802.     The  next  six 
 years  he  preached  in  Canada.     From  1808  to  1852  he 
 was  a  delegate  to  every  General  Conference.     After 
 1810  he  lived  in  New  York.     From  1820  to  1828  he 
 was  Book  Agent  and  editor  of  the  Methodist  Maga- 
 zine.    From  1828  to  1832  he  was  editor  of  the  Chris- 
 tian Advocate.     From    1832    to    1836   he   edited   the 
 Quarterly  Review  and   the   books  published  by  the 
 Church.     From  1820  to  1836  he  had  served  as  the  un- 
 paid secretary  of  the  Missionary  Society.      For  the 
 next  five  years  he  gave  his  attention  to  this  work  as 
 sole   secretary.     In   the   latter   year   he  was   elected 
 President  of  Wesleyan  University.     After  a  year  in 
 that  office  he  returned  to  the  pastorate,  serving  until 
 1852.     He  was  zealous  in  his  proslavery  views,  but 
 changed    with   time.      He   was   deeply    devout   and 
 greatly  beloved.     He  is  the  author  of  a  "  History  of 
 the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church"  in  four  volumes, 
 1839-1843,  and  of  a  "lyife  of  Freeborn  Garrettson." 
 In  far-reaching  influence,  no  man  of  that  genera- 
 tion was  superior  to  Wilbur  Fisk  (i 792-1 838).     He 
 was  born  at  Brattleboro,  Vt.,  and  graduated 
 
 °  .  Wilbur  Fisk. 
 
 from  the  University  of  Vermont  m  18 15, 
 one  of  the  first  American  Methodist  preachers  who 
 was  a  college  graduate.      He  joined  Conference  in 
 1 81 8,  in  1823  was  presiding  elder,  and  the  next  year  a 
 delegate   to   the   General   Conference.      In    1826   he 
 
320     History  of  the  Christian  Church 
 
 found  his  vocation  as  principal  of  Wilbraham  Acad- 
 emy. Four  years  later  he  was  called  to  Middletown, 
 Conn.,  to  organize  Wesleyan  University.  In  1835- 
 1836  he  was  in  Europe.  In  the  latter  year  he  de- 
 clined the  Episcopacy.  Two  years  later  his  course 
 was  ended.  Wibur  Fisk  was  brilliant  in  intellect  and 
 saintly  in  character.  He  experienced  and  preached 
 entire  sanctification.  He,  more  than  any  other,  was 
 the  founder  of  the  work  of  the  Methodist  Church  in 
 education. 
 
 The  ablest  Methodist  preacher  of  that  generation 
 
 was   Stephen    Olin   (i 797-1 851).      He  was  born  at 
 
 lyeicester,  Vt.     His  father  was  jud^e  of  the 
 
 Stephen  Olin.    „  '  ,•    ,         «  ,    ^ 
 
 Supreme  Court  of  that  State,  and  afterward 
 member  of  Congress.  He  graduated  at  Middlebury 
 College,  Vermont.  Then  for  some  years  he  taught  in 
 South  Carolina,  where  he  was  converted  and  joined 
 Conference  in  1824.  From  1826  to  1834  he  was  Pro- 
 fessor of  English  lyiterature  in  the  University  of 
 Georgia.  In  1827  he  married  a  Georgian  lady,  who 
 died  in  1839.  From  1834  to  1837  he  was  president  of 
 Randolph-Macon  College.  From  1837  to  1841  he 
 traveled  in  Europe  and  the  East.  From  1842  to  1852 
 he  was  president  of  Wesleyan  University,  founded  by 
 Wilbur  Fisk.  These  two  men  gave  it  its  early  repu- 
 tation. In  1843  he  married  the  daughter  of  Judge 
 Lynch,  of  New  York.  In  1846  he  was  present  at  the 
 first  session  of  the  Evangelical  Alliance  in  London. 
 
 Dr.  Olin  had  lived  long  in  the  South,  and  saw 
 slavery  with  Southern  vision.  Wilbur  Fisk  also  had 
 no  sympathy  with  the  Abolitionists.  Intellectual  is 
 not  always  moral  vision.  Dr.  Olin's  mind  was  both 
 penetrating  and  profound.      In   the  pulpit  he  was 
 
The  Christian  Church  in  America.      321 
 
 master.  His  sermons  were  like  Chalmers's,  massive 
 and  convincing.  While  charity  and  humility  v^^ere 
 marked  traits  of  his  character,  he  was  a  prince  of 
 educators. 
 
 The  most  influential  man  in  the  Methodist  Epis- 
 copal Church,  South,  in  these  years,  was  William 
 Capers  (i 790-1 855).  His  father  was  of 
 Huguenot  descent,  and  had  been  a  Revo-  ^3'^^™ 
 lutionary  soldier.  He  was  born  in  South 
 Carolina,  and  received  his  education  in  South  Caro- 
 lina College.  He  entered  Conference  in  1809,  serving 
 until  1 81 5,  when  he  located  for  three  years.  Re- 
 entering Conference,  he  was  a  delegate  to  the  Gen- 
 eral Conference  of  1820.  In  1828  he  was  a  fraternal 
 delegate  to  the  Wesleyan  Conference  in  England, 
 where  he  won  golden  opinions.  In  1835  he  was  pro- 
 fessor in  Columbia  College,  but  the  next  year  became 
 editor  of  the  Southern  Christian  Advocate  until  1840; 
 for  the  next  four  years  he  was  missionary  secretary. 
 In  1846  he  was  elected  bishop.  Although  Bishop 
 Capers  was  a  slaveholder,  and  went  with  the  Method- 
 ist Episcopal  Church,  South,  yet  he  was  of  too  clear  a 
 vision  not  to  see  that  civilization  and  Christendom 
 were  against  slavery,  and  that  it  was  doomed.  Doubt- 
 less he  felt  as  did  Governor  Wise  and  other  intelli- 
 gent Southern  gentlemen,  before  the  war,  to  whom 
 the  situation  was  intolerable,  but  who  did  not  see  the 
 way  out.  Men  with  less  breadth  of  experience,  or 
 less  reflection,  went  more  hopefully  and  more  will- 
 ingly with  the  tide. 
 
 A  man  of  great  native  eloquence  was  Henry  B. 
 Bascom    (i 795-1 850).      He    was    born    at    Hancock, 
 N.  Y.,  and  converted  at  sixteen  years  of  age.     Two 
 21 
 
322     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 years  later  lie  began  preaching.     Ini823he  was  chosen 
 chaplain  to   Congress.     In   1 8 27-1 829   he   was  pres- 
 ident of  Madison    College,    Pennsylvania, 
 Henry  B.     ^^   institution   afterward   absorbed  in  Al- 
 
 Bascom. 
 
 legheny  College,  at  Meadville.  In  1829- 
 1832  he  was  agent  of  the  American  Colonization 
 Society.  For  the  next  ten  years  he  was  Professor  of 
 Moral  Philosophy  at  Augusta  College,  Kentucky.  In 
 1842  he  became  president  of  Transylvania  University. 
 From  1846  to  1850  he  edited  the  Quarterly  Review  of 
 the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  South.  In  1850  he 
 was  chosen  bishop.  In  the  somewhat  florid  style  of 
 eloquence  Bascom  was  an  easy  master,  and  was  prob- 
 ably, in  his  later  years,  the  most  popular  pulpit  orator 
 in  the  United  States.  He  wrote  the  Bill  of  Rights 
 for  the  General  Conference  of  1828,  and  the  Protest 
 of  the  Southern  members  of  the  General  Conference 
 of  1844  against  the  resolution  requesting  Bishop 
 Andrew  to  desist  from  the  exercise  of  Episcopal 
 duties  while  the  impediment  of  his  being  connected 
 with  slavery  existed.  He,  like  the  men  of  his  time, 
 knew  hardships.  One  year  in  his  early  ministry  he 
 preached  four  hundred  times,  traveled  five  thousand 
 miles,  and  received  $12.10  as  his  salary. 
 
 The  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
 
 The  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  the  United  States 
 grew  slowly  until  the  great  tide  of  emigration  set  in, 
 in  1840.  The  Irish  famine,  1 845-1 847,  may  be  said  to 
 have  made  a  new  epoch  in  the  history  of  that  Church 
 in  the  New  World.  Certain  it  is,  it  clearly  divides 
 the  years  before  from  those  that  followed.  Other 
 nationalities  have  sent  large  contingents  to  the  Ro- 
 
The  Christian  Church  in  America.     323 
 
 man  Catholic  Church  in  the  United  States,  and  have 
 found  representation  in  her  Episcopate ;  but  the  Irish 
 prelates  have  ruled,  as  they  have  founded  the  Roman 
 Catholic  Church  in  the  United  States.  A  glance  at 
 the  names  of  the  collective  Episcopate  during  the 
 nineteenth  century  makes  this  evident.  If  they  can 
 not  rule  their  own  land  from  Dublin  Green,  they  can 
 and  do  rule  a  larger  population  than  Ireland  ever  con- 
 tained for  the  Pope  of  Rome.  Few  achievements  of 
 the  sons  of  Ireland  are  more  memorable,  more  far- 
 reaching,  or  more  worthy  of  record  than  this.  And 
 while  this  is  true,  there  is  scarcely  an  Evangelical 
 Church  in  the  United  States  which  does  not  reckon 
 sons  of  Erin  among  the  most  eminent  of  her  minis- 
 ters ;  men  who  did  not  come  from  the  ancestral  Prot- 
 estants of  Ulster,  but  men  like  Thomas  Walsh  of 
 Wesley's  day,  and  Nicholas  Murray,  the  invincible 
 antagonist  of  Archbishop  Hughes,  who  were  born  and 
 reared  in  the  Roman  Catholic  faith.  Irishmen  have 
 stood  high  in  the  military  annals  of  England,  France, 
 Spain,  and  the  United  States;  they  have  made  no 
 small  fame  as  municipal  politicians;  but  it  is  doubtful 
 if  the  Irish  gifts  of  imagination,  warmth  of  heart, 
 and  spontaneous  eloquence  have  found  anywhere 
 wider  scope  or  nobler  exercise  than  in  the  ministry  of 
 the  Christian  Church. 
 
 Bishop  John  Carroll  died  in  18 15.     A  Frenchman, 
 Ambrose  Marechal,  succeeded  him  in  the  See  of  Bal- 
 timore,   18 1 7-1828.      The    most    noted    of 
 the  early  bishops  of  the  Roman  Catholic     England. 
 Church   in    the    United   States  was  John 
 England.     For  some  time  a  papal  junta  had  selected 
 the  bishops  for  the  United  States  from  Irishmen,  but 
 
324     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 with  little  regard  to  either  present  or  prospective  fit- 
 ness. Bishop  England  was  an  exception,  and  the  be- 
 ginning of  a  better  order.  He  was  a  parish  priest  at 
 Bandon,  Ireland.  When  chosen  Bishop  of  Charles- 
 ton, S.  C,  in  1820,  he  refused  to  take  oath  to  the  gov- 
 ernment of  Great  Britain,  as  he  intended  to  be  a  citi- 
 zen of  the  country  of  his  adoption.  His  diocese  in- 
 cluded North  and  South  Carolina  and  Georgia;  there 
 were  in  it  but  a  few  scattered  churches.  In  1833  he 
 went  to  Hayti,  and  the  year  following  to  Rome.  He 
 founded  the  United  States  Catholic  Miscellany ,  the 
 first  Roman  Catholic  periodical  in  the  United  States. 
 He  was  a  pioneer,  and  ardent  controversialist,  a  good 
 administrator,  and  an  eloquent  preacher.  He  was  the 
 first  Roman  Catholic  to  preach  before  the  Houses  of 
 the  United  States  Congress.  Returning  from  Europe, 
 he  was  taken  sick  on  the  voyage,  and  died  in  April, 
 1842. 
 
 The  Roman  Catholic  Church  was  troubled  by  a 
 schism  caused  by  the  trustees  of  the  Church  in  Phila- 
 delphia, which  lasted  from  1820   to   1831. 
 
 Schisms.      ^        .  .  1  ,  , 
 
 One  less  serious,  but  very  troublesome,  oc- 
 curred in  Buffalo,  where  the  trustees  of  St.  Louis 
 Church  stood  out  against  Bishop  Timon  from  1850  to 
 1854.  It  is  still  the  most  independent,  as  well  as  the 
 wealthiest,  congregation  of  that  Church  in  the  city. 
 
 The    Anti-Roman    Catholic    riots    broke   out   in 
 Charlestown,  Mass.,  where  the  Ursuline  Convent  was 
 
 burned  by  the  mob,  August  9,   1834.     It 
 clthoik^Riors.  "^^^  stated  that  the  damages  of  that  night 
 
 were  never  repaid.     Two  years  later,  Maria 
 Monk  began  her  career  of  fraud  and  imposture.     In 
 
The  Christian  Church  in  America.      325 
 
 184.4,  riots  broke  out  against  the  Roman  Catholics  in 
 Philadelphia.  The  firmness  of  the  mayor  prevented 
 like  disorders  in  New  York.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is 
 surprising  to  read  in  a  Roman  Catholic  history,  written 
 by  a  clergyman  and  a  man  of  culture,  a  statement  like 
 this.  Speaking  of  the  success  of  the  mayor's  efforts 
 to  avert  a  riot,  the  author  says :  "  New  York  escaped  a 
 terrible  danger ;  for  a  large  Irish  Society,  with  divis- 
 ions throughout  the  city,  had  resolved  that  in  case  a 
 single  church  was  attacked,  buildings  should  be  fired 
 in  all  quarters  and  the  great  city  should  be  involved 
 in  a  general  conflagration."  Nothing  can  be  more 
 hateful  or  more  cowardly  than  mob  violence,  whether 
 it  be  directed  against  Roman  Catholic,  Jew,  or  Negro, 
 and  it  is  peculiarly  detestable  when  directed  by  relig- 
 ious hate ;  but  where  can  any  Christian  man,  not  to 
 say  clergyman,  find  any  ethical  principle  that  would 
 justify  conduct  like  that  outlined  above?  Certainly 
 the  perpetrators  of  such  fiendish  acts  against  the  inno- 
 cent should  have  had  swift  passage  out  of  the  world, 
 and  Irish  hands  would  not  fail  to  have  aided  in  the 
 process. 
 
 The  Archbishopric  of  Oregon  was  erected  in  July, 
 1846,  in  ignorance  of  the  fact  that  Oregon  was  Amer- 
 ican territory.  The  next  year  that  of  St.  ^^^ 
 lyouis  was  created ;  this  was  followed  by  Archiepiscopai 
 New  York  in  1851,  and  San  Francisco  in 
 1853.  Cincinnati  was  made  an  Episcopal  See  in  1821 ; 
 in  1833  John  Purcell  was  consecrated  to  it,  and  served 
 until  1883.  He  was  an  able  man,  but  became  involved 
 in  financial  operations  which  made  him  a  bankrupt 
 for  a  deficit  of  millions. 
 
326     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 The  Provincial  Councils  of  the  Archdiocese  of  Bal- 
 timore were  held  in  1829,  1833,  1837, 1840,  1843,  1846, 
 1849.     These  gave  way  to  the  first  Plenary 
 Council  of  Baltimore,  held  in  1852.     This 
 is  the  highest  Roman  Catholic  ecclesiastical  body  in 
 the  United  States. 
 
 John  Hughes  (1798- 1864)  was  the  most  noted  and 
 aggressive  ecclesiastic  of  these  years,  though  his  activ- 
 ity reached  far  beyond  them.     Born  in  Ire- 
 
 John  Hughes.  -        ,         .       t  i  •   i  tt       ,  ^ 
 
 land,  Archbishop  Hughes  emigrated  to 
 America  in  18 17.  He  studied  for  the  priesthood  at 
 St.  Mary's  Seminary,  Kmmettsburg,  Md.,  and  was 
 ordained  in  1825.  He  served  a  parish  in  Philadelphia 
 until  he  was  chosen  coadjutor  to  the  Bishop  of  New 
 York  in  1837.  The  full  adminisiration  of  affairs  came 
 into  his  hands  the  next  year ;  but  he  was  not  made 
 bishop  in  title  until  1842.  In  1851  he  was  made  Arch- 
 bishop of  New  York.  In  1841  a  theological  seminary 
 was  added  to  St.  John's  College  at  Fordham.  In  1858 
 the  corner-stone  of  St.  Patrick's  Cathedral  was  laid. 
 
 Bishop  Hughes  was  an  ardent  controversialist, 
 and  debated  with  John  Breckinridge,  1 830-1 834, 
 "  Whether  the  Protestant  religion  is  the  religion  of 
 Christ."  In  1 847-1 848  he  wrote,  in  controversy  with 
 "Kirwan,"  Nicholas  Murray,  on  "The  Claims  of 
 Rome."  These  controversies  gave  Bishop  Hughes 
 great  fame  among  his  fellow-believers ;  but  iu  the  last 
 he  is  not  thought  to  have  been  victorious,  as  he  de- 
 clined to  renew  it.  In  1842  he  broke  up  the  Public- 
 school  Society  of  New  York  City,  with  the  result  that 
 the  schools  of  New  York  City  came  under  the  uni- 
 form law  of  the  State.  The  bishop  opposed  the  read- 
 ing of  the  Bible  in  the  schools,  and  demanded  State 
 
7^ HE  Christian  Church  in  America.     327 
 
 support  for  seven  Roman  Catholic  schools  in  the 
 metropolis.  This,  of  course,  he  did  not  obtain.  Arch- 
 bishop Hughes  was  a  patriotic  American,  and  in  1862, 
 like  Henry  Ward  Beecher,  he  was  sent  on  a  semi- 
 official mission  to  Europe  to  influence  public  opinion 
 and  action  in  favor  of  the  North. 
 
 In  1800  it  is  estimated  there  were  in     statistics, 
 the  United  States  100,000  Roman  Catholics;  in  1850, 
 1,614,000. 
 
 It  may  seem  as  if  there  was  too  much  detail  in 
 outlining  the  careers  of  the  leaders  of  the  American 
 Churches  in  this  period.  But  it  must  be  work  of  the 
 remembered  that  their  work  was  not  ex-  Men  of  this 
 ceeded  in  difficulty  or  value  by  that  of  any  *"*®* 
 land.  These  men,  and  the  devoted  men  and  women 
 v/ho  followed  them,  made  possible  and  realized  a  Free 
 Church  in  a  Free  State.  They  laid  the  sure  founda- 
 tions of  the  most  vigorous,  intelligent,  and  aggress- 
 ive Christian  Churches  the  Christian  ages  have  seen. 
 These  men,  many  of  them  poor  and  humble,  but  all 
 of  them  devoted  and  sincere,  opened  the  way  for  the 
 future  development  of  the  Christian  Church.  What- 
 ever may  be  the  differing  opinions  about  Established 
 Churches  becoming  disestablished,  no  thoughtful  man 
 in  any  communion  would  favor  founding  an  Estab- 
 lished Church.  The  men  who  founded  the  Churches 
 of  the  new  nation,  1800-1850,  proved  that  Christianity 
 can  thrive  and  become  increasingly  potent  and  influ- 
 ential without  the  aid  of  the  State.  The  new  nations 
 of  Canada,  Australia,  and  South  Africa,  and  the  Spanish 
 nations  of  Central  and  South  America,  have  profited 
 by  their  example.  It  was  no  small  task  to  work  out 
 so  complete  and  irrefutable  a  demonstration,  and  to 
 
328      History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 set  such  splendid  and  universall}^  prevalent  an  ex- 
 ample. Their  works  followed  them,  and  might  adorn 
 the  pages  of  any  historic  record. 
 
 The  men  of  these  years  in  the  United  States  lived 
 in  a  new  country,  under  a  new  government,  amid  con- 
 ditions which  allowed  the  trying  of  almost 
 ^this  Era.°  ^^^  Conceivable  financial,  political,  social, 
 or  religious  experiment.  All  were  ex- 
 tremely buoyant  and  hopeful.  Everything  seemed 
 possible.  Not  only  everything  was  to  be  better  than 
 all  that  preceded  it,  but  there  was  so  much  good  that 
 there  was  a  general  expectation  of  the  best.  The  old 
 was  recalled  only  to  be  ignored  or  despised.  All  was 
 to  become  new,  and  a  new  revelation,  or  the  imme- 
 diate beginning  of  the  millennial  reign  of  Christ, 
 seemed  but  the  fulfillment  of  natural  and  legitimate 
 expectations. 
 
 From  1833  for  ten  years  William  Miller,  of  South- 
 ampton, N.  Y.,  taught  that  the  Second  Advent  of  the 
 
 Lord   Jesus    Christ,    or,  as   popularly    ex- 
 Ad  ventists.  *;     ^  1      .-   . 
 
 pressed,  the  end  of  the  world,  would  take 
 
 place  November  23,  1843.  He  was  powerfully  aided  by 
 a  former  minister  of  the  Disciples  of  Christ,  Joshua  V. 
 Himes,  who  published  a  journal  called  the  Sign  of  the 
 Times.  Tens  of  thousands  of  members  of  the  Churches 
 joined  the  new  sect.  Many  had  their  ascension  robes 
 prepared  for  the  expected  day.  Great  was  the  disap- 
 pointment and  falling  away  when  the  calculations 
 proved  fallacious.  Nevertheless,  a  residue  remained, 
 and  these  formed  the  Advent  Christian  Church,  which 
 lays  stress  on  the  expected  coming  of  the  Lord,  soon 
 and  sudden,  though  without  fixing  a  date.  Some  of 
 them,   imitating   the   Seventh-day    Baptists,    became 
 
The  Christian  Church  in  America.     329 
 
 Seventh-day  Adventists.  In  1850  the  number  of 
 Adventists  in  the  United  States  was  estimated  at 
 forty  thousand. 
 
 In  1834,  John  H.  Noyes,  a  graduate  of  Yale,  came  to 
 the  conckision  that  the  Second  Coming  of  Christ  had 
 taken  place  in  the  time  of  the  first  genera- 
 tion of  Christian  believers,  and  that  what  community, 
 we  had  now  to  do  was  to  realize  in  our  lives 
 that  perfect  state.  In  1848  he  founded  on  the  shores 
 of  Oneida  Lake,  New  York,  the  Oneida  Community. 
 This  was  a  society  of  the  strictest  communism,  both 
 in  property  and  in  the  relation  of  the  sexes.  Its  con- 
 trolling power  was  the  character  and  personality  of 
 the  founder,  and  the  principle  of  ''mutual  criticism." 
 However  abhorrent  to  good  morals,  the  Community 
 proved  a  financial  success. 
 
 It  was  from  this  eager,  hopeful  condition  of  the 
 public  mind,  and  from  a  training  to  think  in  the  terms 
 of  the  letter,  rather    than    the  spirit,  of 
 
 ^,  ,  -,     -..-r  ^  -,         ^^  The  Mormons. 
 
 the  Old  and  New  Testament  that  Mor- 
 monism  arose.  The  leader,  Joseph  Smith,  stands 
 unique  among  religious  founders.  It  can  not  be  de- 
 nied that  in  his  life  he  was  illiterate,  drunken,  and 
 licentious.  Yet  he  became  the  founder  of  a  new  re- 
 ligion in  the  nineteenth  century!  The  revelation  he 
 gave  out  in  1843,  which  was  especially  to  command 
 his  wife,  Emma  Hall  Smith,  to  overlook  his  adulteries 
 and  not  to  make  them  a  pattern  for  her  own  conduct, 
 became,  for  two  generations  at  least,  the  corner-stone 
 of  the  new  faith.  The  Church  of  Jesus  Christ,  Latter- 
 day  Saints,  if  for  wise  reasons  it  does  not  continue 
 former  practices,  at  least  does  not  repudiate  them. 
 But  the  above  recital,  though  the  facts  are  beyond 
 / 
 
330     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 dispute,  does  not  explain  the  existence  of  the  Mormon 
 Church  nor  the  phenomenon  of  its  origin.  Joseph 
 Smith  had  some  extraordinary  qualities  that  gave  him 
 a  hearing,  and  afterward  ascendency,  in  the  peculiar 
 circumstances  of  that  time. 
 
 Joseph  Smith,  Jr.,  was  born  at  Sharon,  Vt.,  De- 
 cember 23,  1805.  He  was  descended  from  New  Eng- 
 land "  ne'er-do-weels,"  whose  predominant  traits  were 
 "  shiftlessness "  and  shiftiness,  a  combination  by  no 
 means  uncommon.  His  maternal  grandfather  had 
 been  a  soldier,  at  one  time  drunken  and  epileptic. 
 His  mother  had  dreams  and  visions.  His  father  seems 
 to  have  been  a  man  of  little  account.  In  1 8 1 5  the 
 family  moved  to  Palmyra,  N.  Y.,  and  some  years  after- 
 ward to  Manchester,  a  few  miles  west.  Here  he  had 
 visions  in  1823  and  1826.  It  seems  difficult  not  to  be- 
 lieve that  the  visions  were  real  to  Joseph  Smith.  He 
 soon  began  crystal-gazing.  It  seems,  if  he  did  not 
 have  incipient  epileptic  seizure,  that  he  did  induce  a 
 hypnotic  state  and  the  trance  medium  condition. 
 Smith  claimed  to  have  had  a  vision  of  an  angel  with 
 gold  plates.  The  writing  which  he  transcribed  from 
 them  appears  to  be  the  tracing  of  one  in  the  hypnotic 
 condition.  Smith,  being  able  to  write  with  difficulty, 
 employed  a  schoolmaster,  Oliver  Cowdery,  to  write 
 down  what  he  interpreted  when  behind  a  curtain  in 
 the  vSame  room  as  he  gazed  in  his  crystals.  This  be- 
 gan in  1827.  In  May,  1829,  Cowdery,  Martin  Harris, 
 and  David  Whitmer  were  persuaded  by  a  vision  of  the 
 reality  of  the  revelation  made  to  Joseph  Smith. 
 Though  in  1839  these  men  were  cut  off  from  the  Mor- 
 mon Church  by  Joseph  Smith,  yet  they  believed  in 
 the  reality  of  the  vision  until  their  death.     A  month 
 
The  Christian  Church  in  America.     331 
 
 later  eight  others,  four  from  the  Whitmer  family  and 
 three  from  the  Smith  family,  and  one  Hiram  Poge, 
 testified  to  a  similar  vision  as  attesting  the  revelations 
 of  Joseph  Smith;  that  is,  the  existence  of  the  gold 
 plates.  Smith  had  been  employed  to  use  his  gifts  as 
 a  crystal-gazer  to  discover  buried  treasure,  but  with- 
 out success.  This  seems  to  have  suggested  the  gold- 
 plate  revelation. 
 
 The  principal  use  of  the  vision  seems  to  have  been 
 to  make  Martin  Harris  furnish  the  money  for  printing 
 the  "  Book  of  Mormon,"  which  appeared  in  July,  1829. 
 Soon  after  appeared  the  "Visions  of  Moses"  and  the 
 "Writings  of  Moses."  The  "Book  of  Abraham," 
 translated  from  "  Reformed  Egyptian,"  Smith  must 
 have  known,  was  an  imposture.  Take  out  of  these 
 writings  what  is  borrowed  from  the  Christian  Scrip- 
 tures, and  the  remainder  is  an  insult  to  the  intelligence 
 of  the  most  ordinarily-instructed  reader.  The  power 
 of  the  movement  did  not  reside  in  these  writings, 
 though  they  constituted  a  new  revelation,  but  in  the 
 personality  of  Joseph  Smith,  and  in  the  teachings  of 
 a  present  and  continuous  revelation,  and  the  exercise 
 of  all  the  special  gifts  of  prophecy,  exorcism,  and  heal- 
 ing, known  to  the  early  Church.  Joseph  Smith  was  a 
 large  man,  six  feet  in  height,  and  weighing  nearly  two 
 hundred  pounds.  He  had  light  complexion  and  hair, 
 and  blue  eyes  set  far  back  in  his  head.  He  spoke  in 
 a  loud  voice,  and  his  language  and  manners  were 
 coarse.  But  Smith  had  a  strong  will,  a  mastery  of 
 the  wills  of  others,  a  faith  in  himself,  and  boundless 
 self-conceit,  with  all  the  shrewdness  and  cunning 
 credited  to  his  Yankee  ancestry  and  environment. 
 The  birth  of  the  Mormon  Church  into  a  laro:er  life 
 
332      History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 was  accelerated  by  the  accession  of  Sidney  Rigdon,  a 
 former  minister  of  the  Disciples  of  Christ.  The 
 Church  had  been  organized  at  Fayette,  N.  Y.,  April  6, 
 1 830.  It  consisted  of  about  thirty  members  when 
 Rigdon  visited  it  in  December  of  the  same  year.  He 
 persuaded  Smith  and  his  followers  to  emigrate  to 
 Kirtland,  Ohio,  in  February,  1831.  Through  a  great 
 revival,  marked  by  fanatical  excesses,  the  Church 
 soon  grew;  by  June  it  numbered  two  thousand. 
 
 In  the  autumn  of  that  year  a  new  society  was 
 formed  at  Independence,  Mo.  Soon  they  numbered 
 twelve  hundred  adherents.  Smith  published  "The 
 Doctrine  and  Covenants,"  which  contained  the  reve- 
 lations to  him  from  1828  to  183 1.  In  1833  the  Latter- 
 day  Saints'  Messe^iger  and  Advocate  was  founded.  In 
 1834,  Smith  received  a  new  revelation,  commanding 
 that  all  surplus  property  should  be  in  common  and 
 ordaining  a  perpetual  tithe.  In  1834  the  first  High 
 Council  of  the  Church  of  Christ  was  chosen,  with 
 Smith,  Rigdon,  and  Williams  in  the  First  Presidency. 
 In  1835  were  chosen  the  **  Twelve  Apostles,"  among 
 whom  was  Brigham  Young.  The  next  year  "The 
 Seventy"  were  appointed.  In  1837,  Heber  Kimball 
 and  Orson  Hyde  were  sent  as  missionaries  to  Eng- 
 land. By  this  time  Smith's  banking  scheme  came  to 
 grief,  and  the  Safety  Society  Bank  of  Kirtland,  Ohio, 
 failed  for  $100,000.  Smith  and  Rigdon  had  been 
 tarred  and  feathered  at  Kirtland  in  March,  1832,  and 
 the  failure  of  his  financial  scheme  had  not  increased 
 his  popularity.  There  was  a  large  withdrawal  from 
 the  Church  in  1836. 
 
 The  Mormons  in  1833  had  been  driven  from  Inde- 
 pendence,   Mo.,    with    cruelty    which    disgraced    the 
 
The  Christian  Church  in  America.     333 
 
 community,  and  then  settled  at  Liberty,  Mo.    Smith  set 
 out  to  join  them  with  one  hundred  and  fifty  men,  which 
 increased  on  the  route  to  two  hundred ;  but  he  was 
 unable  to  efiect  his  purpose,  and  returned  to  Kirtland, 
 Ohio.     When,  in  1838,  he  reached  Liberty,  it  was  to 
 organize  the  Danites  to  carry  out  his  will  without 
 scruple,   and   to   make   absurd   claims  of  authority. 
 This,  with  the  ill-will  of  the  neighbors,  caused  friction 
 little  short  of  war.     The  militia  were  called  out,  and 
 the  Mormons,  now  fifteen  thousand  in  number,  in  the 
 dead  of   winter,  were  driven  across  the  Mississippi 
 into  Illinois.     Several  were  massacred.     Smith,  his 
 brother,   and   other   leaders,  were   arrested   and  im- 
 prisoned.    They  escaped  in  April,  1839.     This  era  of 
 persecution  in  Missouri,  1 833-1 839,  was  without  palli- 
 ation or  excuse,  and  violated  every  principle  of  Chris- 
 tian  toleration   and   charity.     The   exiled   Mormons 
 settled  at  Nauvoo,  forty  miles  above  Quincy,  on  the 
 Mississippi  River.     The  first  dwelling  was  erected  in 
 1839,  and  within  two  years  there  were  two  thousand 
 houses.     The  next  year  Nauvoo  City,  University,  and 
 Legion  were  chartered.    Of  course.  Smith  commanded 
 the   latter,  and   rejoiced   in   the   title   of   lieutenant- 
 general.      Smith   was   now   the    autocratic   ruler   of 
 twenty  thousand  people,  with  ten  thousand  adherents 
 in  Great  Britain.     But  his  conceit  and  habits  brought 
 about  his  fate.     In   1843  he  wrote:   ''I   know  more 
 than   all  the   world  put   together.     ...     I    solve 
 mathematical    problems   of    universities,  with   truth, 
 diamond  truth,  and  God  is  my  right-hand  man."     In 
 1844  he  announced  himself    as  a  candidate  for  the 
 Presidency  of  the  United  States.     Smith  had  been  in 
 evil  repute  for  his  relations  with  women  since  1833. 
 
334     History  of  the  Christian  Church, 
 
 In  1843  he  published  his  revelation  sanctioning  and 
 commanding  polygamy  on  pain  of  damnation.  Many 
 revolted.  They  started  an  opposition  paper  called 
 The  Expositor.  In  the  first  number  they  published 
 the  affidavits  of  sixteen  women,  who  swore  that 
 Smith,  Rigdon,  Young,  and  others,  had  "invited  them 
 to  enter  into  a  secret  and  illicit  connection  under  the 
 title  of  spiritual  marriage."  Smith  ordered  his  fol- 
 lowers "to  abate  the  nuisance,"  and  they  demolished 
 the  building  in  which  The  Expositor  was  published. 
 The  proprietors  fled,  and  then  sued  out  a  process 
 against  Joseph  and  Hyrum  Smith  for  riot.  The  war- 
 rant was  resisted.  The  governor  called  out  the  militia, 
 and  the  prophet  and  his  brother  were  placed  in  jail. 
 It  being  rumored  that  the  governor  wished  them  to 
 escape,  a  mob,  two  hundred  in  number,  broke  into 
 the  jail,  June  27,  1844,  and  shot  them  to  death.  The 
 governor  owed  the  protection  of  the  State  to  Joseph 
 Smith.  Seldom  has  murder  by  lynch  law  brought  a 
 more  baneful  harvest.  For  the  Mormons  nothing 
 more  propitious  could  have  happened.  Their  leader, 
 half  mad  with  conceit,  and  spotted  in  character,  at 
 once  became  a  holy  martyr  and  a  chosen  prophet  of 
 God,  with  the  last  and  most  authentic  revelation. 
 
 The  State  of  Illinois  revoked  the  charter  of  Nau- 
 voo  in  1845,  and  the  settlement  had  to  be  broken  up. 
 They  resolved,  in  January,  1846,  to  go  beyond  the 
 Rocky  Mountains,  and  before  the  winter  was  ended 
 sixteen  hundred  persons  started  for  Salt  Lake.  Brig- 
 ham  Young,  who  had  succeeded  to  the  authority  of 
 Smith,  arrived  at  Salt  Lake,  July  24,  1847.  ^he  main 
 body  of  the  Mormons  came  in  the  fall  of  1848.  In 
 March,  1849,  a  Convention  was  held  at  Salt  Lake,  and 
 
Thh  Christian  Church  in  America.     335 
 
 a  State  organized  under  the  name  of  Deseret.  Congress 
 refused  to  recognize  it,  and  organized  the  Territory  of 
 Utah.  President  Fillmore  appointed  Brigham  Young 
 governor  in  1850.  Thus  out  of  ignorance  and  perse- 
 cution had  grown  a  compact  body  of  people,  with  a 
 close  hierarchical  organization,  and  a  united  industry, 
 and  a  founded  capital  which  made  the  desert  blossom 
 as  the  rose,  and  brought  tens  of  thousands  of  able- 
 bodied  emigrants  from  beyond  the  sea,  to  found  the 
 new  Church  State  in  the  untrodden  wilderness.  Cen- 
 tralization, and  a  strict  and  merciless  discipline,  made 
 material  prosperity  as  certain  and  universal  as  that  of 
 the  Jesuit  State  of  Paraguay,  but  with  the  same  limi- 
 tation of  intellect,  though  not  of  individual  initiative. 
 
 But  the  contribution  of  the  State  of  New  York  in 
 the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  to  the  religious 
 aberrations  of  Christendom  did  not  cease 
 with  the  Adventists,  the  Oneida  Com- 
 munity, and  the  Mormons.  In  1848,  within  twenty 
 miles  of  the  old  home  of  Joseph  Smith,  began  the 
 "spirit  rappings"  of  the  Fox  sisters.  At  the  home  of 
 Mr.  J.  D.  Fox,  Hydesville,  N.  Y.,  in  January,  1848,  his 
 daughters — Margaret,  twelve  years  of  age,  and  Kate, 
 nine — began  those  manifestations  which  answered  to 
 the  perennial  desire  of  man  to  see  beyond  death,  and 
 the  eager  expectation  of  a  new,  and  therefore  higher, 
 religious  revelation. 
 
 The  girls  soon  after  went  to  live  with  their  married 
 sister,  Mrs.  Fish,  in  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  where  the  man- 
 ifestations continued  and  attracted  attention.  In  No- 
 vember, 1849,  they  appeared  in  that  city  in  a  public 
 hall.  In  May,  1850,  they  came  to  New  York,  and 
 their  peculiar  manipulations  and  physical  manifesta- 
 
336      History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 tions  soon  made  them  known  throughout  the  world. 
 At  Mr.  Granger's,  in  Rochester,  and  Dr.  Phelps's,  in 
 Stratford,  Conn.,  like  manifestations  appeared,  and 
 soon  it  was  discovered  that  other  persons  besides  the 
 Fox  sisters  could  become  mediums  for  the  new 
 means  of  communication  with  the  spirit  world.  In 
 a  word,  at  the  close  of  this  period,  modern  Spirit- 
 ualism was  fairly  launched.  Its  further  progress  and 
 significance  belongs  to  the  last  half  of  the  nineteenth 
 century. 
 
 Thus  has  passed  before  us  the  work  of  the  Chris- 
 tian Church  in  America  for  fifty  years.  We  have 
 traced  its  glory  and  its  shame.  The  tale  of  its  heroic 
 sacrifices,  its  strenuous  endeavors,  and  its  marvelous 
 triumphs,  will  never  cease  to  stir  the  blood  and  in- 
 spire to  nobler  and  more  unselfish  toil  for  Him  who  is 
 Lord  of  all  ages  and  all  worlds. 
 
 Churches  in  Canada. 
 
 By  the  Quebec  Act,  after  the  British  conquest  of 
 Canada,  the  Roman  Catholic  became  the  established 
 
 Church  in  Lower  Canada.  It  has  the  power 
 CathoHc.     ^y  ^^^  ^^  ^^^^  tithes  and  ecclesiastical  dues 
 
 from  its  adherents,  and  education  is  in  the 
 hands  of  the  clerg>^  It  has  retained  its  immense 
 wealth,  while  the  ecclesiastical  endowments  of  the 
 Roman  Catholic  Church  in  Spanish  America  have 
 been  swept  into  the  coffers  of  the  State.  The  French 
 population,  which  then  numbered  sixty-five  thousand, 
 has  increased  to  nearly  a  million.  Of  course,  religious 
 toleration  to  the  Evangelical  Churches  has  been 
 granted,  and  a  school  system  free  from  clerical  super- 
 
The  Christian  Church  in  America.     337 
 
 vision  has  been  introduced,  though  against  the  per- 
 sistent opposition  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
 Roman  Catholics  in  Canada  are  permitted  to  pay  their 
 school-tax  to  the  support  of  their  own  schools. 
 
 The  Evangelical  Churches  made  strenuous  endeav- 
 ors to  found  colleges^  and  a  university.     The  Church 
 of  England  at  first  sought  control  as  a  quasi        j^^ 
 Established  Church,  but  this  ceased  before  Evangelical 
 the  end  of  the  period.     In  other  respects 
 the  religious  development  was  like  that  of  the  United 
 States,  except  that  immigration  much  more  power- 
 fully  increased    the    membership    of  the  Episcopa. 
 lian  and  Presbyterian  Churches.     In  1851  the  popu- 
 lation of  2,312,919  was  then  divided  among  the  larger 
 Churches:   Roman   Catholic,  983,680;   Presbyterians, 
 310,542;  Episcopalians,  303,907;  Methodists,  208,057; 
 Baptists,   101,169;  lyutherans,  16,196;   Congregation- 
 alists,    14,313- 
 
 Spanish  America. 
 
 These  years  witnessed  a  great  transformation  in 
 Spanish  America,  and  it  affected  materially  the  con- 
 dition of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
 
 The  imprisonment  of  the  Spanish  royal  family, 
 the  invasion  of  Spain  by  Napoleon  in  1808,  and  the 
 consequent   civil   war,   made  the   Spanish  ,  ^ 
 
 ^  .    -     ,      .  .  Independence 
 
 colonies  necessarily,  for  a  long  time,  practi-    of  Spanish 
 cally  independent  of  the  mother  country.    American 
 
 ^.  .r.  K  .         .  ,      .         ^         .         Republics. 
 
 The  strife  began  simultaneously  in  18 10  m 
 Buenos  Ayres  and  in  Mexico.      In  the  latter  country 
 a  Republic  was  formed  in   18 13,  and  independence 
 proclaimed  in  18 16.     The  next  year  the  Spanish  suf- 
 
338      History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 fered  crushing  defeats,  and  the  war  was  at  an  end 
 in  1824. 
 
 In  Mexico  the  royal  power  was  stronger  and  the 
 resistance  much  harder  to  overcome.  In  18 10  a  noble 
 priest,  Don  Miguel  Hidalgo,  raised  the  standard  of  re- 
 volt. He  was  captured  and  executed  in  181 1. 
 Another  priest,  Morelos,  seized  the  fallen 
 banner.  Independence  from  Spain  was  proclaimed  in 
 1813;  in  1815,  Morelos  was  taken  and  put  to  death. 
 But  the  cause  could  not  die.  In  1821,  Iturbide  took 
 the  City  of  Mexico,  and  the  Spanish  left  the  country. 
 In  1823,  Spain  acknowledged  the  independence  of 
 Mexico.  Central  America  became  independent  at  the 
 same  time. 
 
 The  struggle  with  Spain  in  South  America  cen- 
 tered in  Venezuela,  where  General  Bolivar  showed 
 himself  unshaken  by  misfortunes  and  able 
 to  command  success.  Venezuela  declared 
 her  independence,  July  5,  181 1.  Bolivar  entered  Car- 
 acas in  triumph,  August  4,  18 13.  In  the  forepart  of 
 the  next  year  all  Venezuela  was  in  his  power,  and  in 
 December  he  took  Bogota,  the  capital  of  New  Gra- 
 nada. But  now  disasters  followed  in  quick  succes- 
 sion ;  all  of  Venezuela  was  lost  to  the  Royalists  in  the 
 latter  part  of  1814,  and  Bolivar  could  not  hold  his  own 
 in  New  Granada.  He  left  the  country  in  18 15,  and 
 went  to  Kingston,  Jamaica.  From  thence  he  went  to 
 Haj^ti,  and  from  there  sailed  with  an  expedition  for 
 his  native  land  in  December,  18 16.  The  Royalists 
 were  defeated,  February  16,  181 7.  Bolivar  now  be- 
 came supreme  in  Venezuela,  and  was  made  com- 
 mander-in-chief.    In  July,  1 8 19,  he  again  took  Bogota, 
 
The  Christian  Church  in  America.     339 
 
 and  in  June,  1820,  the  Spanish  were  defeated,  and 
 their  power  finally  broken  in  the  battle  of  Carabolo, 
 in  1 82 1.     The  war  was  then  carried  south. 
 
 The  chief  seat  of  the  Spanish  power  was  in  Peru, 
 where  Upper  Peru,  now  Bolivia,  had  mines  which  were 
 the  treasure-house  of  Spain.    Here  it  must 
 
 ,      ,  ,  ,  ^        ^    ,        Chill  and  Peru. 
 
 be  attacked  and  overthrown.  In  July, 
 1 8 10,  the  Chilians  deposed  the  Spanish  President,  and 
 in  September  placed  the  government  in  the  hands  of 
 a  Committee  of  Seven.  In  December,  181 1,  it  was 
 vested  in  a  triumvirate  under  the  lead  of  Juan  Jose 
 Carrera.  In  18 13  he  was  at  iirst  successful  against 
 the  Spaniards,  but  was  at  length  overcome.  In  181 7, 
 having  obtained  re-enforcements  from  Buenos  Ayres, 
 the  Spaniards  were  thoroughly  defeated  at  Chacabuco 
 in  181 7.  General  San  Martin  was  chosen  President. 
 He  advanced  against  the  Spaniards  in  Peru.  Greatly 
 aided  by  the  navy  under  Lord  Cochrane,  San  Martin 
 entered  Lima,  the  center  of  Spanish  power,  July  9, 
 1 82 1.  An  expedition  followed  to  Upper  Peru,  but 
 was  defeated.  The  patriots  who  had  been  engaged  in 
 a  bitter  contest  since  18 10,  and  at  the  beginning  were 
 victorious  through  aid  from  Buenos  Ayres,  now  came 
 to  a  final  triumph  through  the  complete  victory  of 
 Ayacucho,  December  9,  1824,  won  by  General  Sucre, 
 which  sealed  the  fate  of  the  Spanish  dominion  in 
 South  America. 
 
 This  result  came  through  General  Bolivar  sending 
 General  Sucre  to  aid  the  people  of  Ecuador,  who  had 
 risen  asrainst  Spain  in  1820.    General  Sucre, 
 
 ^  •         ^  1  rA  Ecuador. 
 
 combining  with  the  Peruvian  General  Santa 
 
 Cruz  defeated  the  Royalists  on  the  side  of  Mt.  Pichin- 
 
340    History  of  the  Christian  Church, 
 
 cha,  May  22,  1822.  This  secured  the  independence 
 of  Ecuador,  which  united  with  Venezuela  and  New 
 Granada  to  form  the  Republic  of  Colombia  under 
 General  Bolivar. 
 
 In  August,   1825,  Bolivia  declared  her- 
 ^uruglaT.'*    s^^^  independent  of  Peru.      Uruguay  was 
 
 declared  independent  of  both  Brazil  and 
 Buenos  Ayres  in  1826. 
 
 In  1829,  Venezuela  declared  itself  independent  of 
 the  Union,  styling  itself  Colombia;   in  1830  Ecuador 
 
 did  the  same.    The  central  State  then  took, 
 
 Columbia.      .  ^  ,  r    ^t  r^  -,  t 
 
 m  1 83 1,  the  name  of  New  Granada.  In 
 1 86 1  the  name  was  changed  to  the  United  States  of 
 Colombia. 
 
 In    181 1,   Paraguay   declared   itself   independent. 
 
 In   1814,  Dr.  Francia  became  dictator,  and  ruled  to 
 
 1840,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  nephew, 
 
 Paraguay. 
 
 Lopez,  1840-1862,  and  he  by  his  son,  Fran- 
 cisco Solano  Lopez,  whose  death  in  1870  ended  a  war 
 with  Brazil,  Buenos  Ayres,  and  Uruguay,  which  se- 
 cured free  navigation  of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata,  but  left 
 Paraguay  prostrate,  with  a  large  indemnity  to  pay  to 
 the  allies. 
 
 In  1833,  Chili  adopted  a  Constitution,  and  since 
 that  date  has  been  the  most  free  and  prosperous  of 
 
 the    South   American    Republics.      Rosas 
 Argentinl.    ^^^  dictator  of  Bueuos  Ayres  from  1829  to 
 
 1852,  and  was  a  cruel  tyrant.  On  his  fall 
 the  name  of  the  country  was  changed  to  that  of  the 
 Argentine  Confederation.  Since  1874  it  has  increased 
 rapidly  in  population  and  resources,  and  promises  to 
 be  second  to  no  State  in  South  America  in  freedom, 
 culture,  and  power. 
 
The  Christian  Church  in  America.     341 
 
 When  the  French  army  reached  I^isbon,  the  prince 
 regent,  with  the  queen,  sailed  to  Brazil,  November  2^ 
 1807,  arriving  at  Bahia,  January  21,  1808. 
 In  March  they  were  at  Rio  Janeiro.  At 
 once  Brazil  was  declared  open  to  free  trade,  and  in 
 January,  18 15,  was  declared  a  kingdom.  The  queen 
 died,  and  the  prince  regent  was  declared  king  as  Dom 
 Pedro  I,  March,  18 16.  February  26,  1821,  Brazil  was 
 granted  representative  government;  September  7, 
 1822,  Brazil  was  declared  independent  of  Portugal, 
 and  the  following  October  the  king  was  proclaimed 
 Emperor  of  Brazil.  Before  the  end  of  1823  all  Portu- 
 guese troops  and  authority  were  gone.  In  March, 
 1 83 1,  Dom  Pedro  I  left  Brazil  forever.  The  crown 
 descended  to  his  son,  Dom  Pedro  II,  then  five  years 
 old,  who  proved  one  of  the  best  rulers  South  America 
 has  had  in  this  century.  He  began  his  independent 
 rule,  July  23,  1840.  Thus  all  the  Spanish  and  Portu- 
 guese Colonies  in  America  became  independent,  ex- 
 cept Cuba  and  Porto  Rico;  the  Guianas  English, 
 French,  and  Dutch  remained  also  in  colonial  depend- 
 ence.    These  changes  led  to  others. 
 
 First,  slavery  was  abolished  in  all  these  countries. 
 In  the  most  of  these  States,  as  in  Buenos  Ayres,  this 
 came  during  the  War  of  Independence.  In  Mexico 
 it  was  decreed  September,  1829;  in  Colombia  in  1852; 
 in  Venezuela  in  1854;  and  in  Brazil  in  1871. 
 
 Second,  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  which  had 
 been  supreme  in  education  and  religion,  now  lost  its 
 great  wealth.  In  Mexico,  where  the  Church  owned 
 one-third  of  the  soil  and  $375,000,000  of  property, 
 the  process  begun  in  1817  was  completed  in  186 1.  In 
 all  the  States  convents  and  monasteries  have   been 
 
342    History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 suppressed,  and  their  number  for  the  future  limited. 
 The  State  generally  assumes  the  payment  of  the 
 clergy,  and  the  Roman  Catholic  religion  is  the  re- 
 ligion of  the  State. 
 
 In  all  these  States,  except  Ecuador,  Bolivia,  and 
 Peru,  education  has  been  largely  taken  from  the  hands 
 of  the  clergy.  This  was  especially  the  case  in  Mex- 
 ico, Argentine,  and  Chili.  Another  consequence  was 
 the  gradual  granting  of  the  freedom  of  religious  wor- 
 ship to  Evangelical  Christians,  at  first  in  private,  and 
 then  in  public  assemblies.  In  this  period,  only  the 
 former  toleration  was  granted.  The  latter  came  first 
 in  Argentine  and  Chili,  and  last  in  Bolivia  and  Ecua- 
 dor ;   in  the  latter  country  only  recently. 
 
 With  their  freedom  came  the  beginning  of  Evan- 
 gelical mission  work  in  Spanish  America — in  this 
 period,  only  Buenos  Ayres  and  Chili,  and  then  mainly 
 limited  to  foreign  residents.  When  the  work  of 
 Evangelical  Churches  in  Spanish  America  is  as  ag- 
 gressive and  prosperous  as  that  of  the  Roman  Cath- 
 olic Church  in  Canada  and  the  United  States,  it  will 
 be  a  great  gain  for  the  Spanish-speaking  peoples  and 
 for  Christendom,  both  Evangelical  and  Roman  Cath- 
 olic. 
 
 The  Roman  Catholic  Episcopate  in  Spanish  Amer- 
 ica in  1850  was  composed  of  twelve  Archiepiscopal 
 The  Roman  Sces,  with  tvv^enty-uine  suff"ragan  bishops. 
 Catholic      They  were  arranged  as  follows  in  Mexico : 
 
 Episcopate  ^ 
 
 in  Spanish  there  were  the  three  Archbishoprics  of 
 America.  Mexico,  Guadalajara,  and  Michoacan,  the 
 last  erected  in  that  year,  with  six  sufiragan  bishops ; 
 in  Central  America  there  was  the  Archbishopric  of 
 Guatemala,  with  two  suffragan  bishops;    in  the  West 
 
The  Christian  Church  in  America.     343 
 
 Indies,  the  two  Archbishoprics  of  Santiago  de  Cuba, 
 with  the  Bishop  of  Havana  as  a  suffragan ;  and  that 
 of  San  Domingo,  with  the  Bishop  of  Porto  Rico  as 
 suffragan. 
 
 In  South  America  the  Archbishop  of  Caracas  had 
 jurisdiction  over  BoHvia  and  the  Argentine  Republic, 
 as  Buenos  Ayres  was  not  made  an  Archiepiscopal  See 
 until  1865.  The  Archiepiscopal  Diocese  then  con- 
 tained two  bishoprics  in  Bolivia  and  two  in  the 
 Argentine  Republic.  In  Chili  there  was  the  Arch- 
 bishop of  Santiago  and  two  bishops;  in  Peru,  the 
 Archbishop  of  Lima  and  five  bishops.  Ecuador  had 
 its  primate  in  the  Archbishop  of  Quito  and  two  bish- 
 ops. Colombia's  metropoUtan  city  was  Santa  Fe  de 
 Bogota,  with  seven  bishops,  and  Venezuela  had  its 
 Archbishop  of  Caracas  and  three  bishops.  In  Brazil 
 there  was  the  Archbishop  of  Bahia,  with  eight  Epis- 
 copal Sees.  These  are  given,  that  the  progress  of  the 
 Roman  Catholic  Church  in  Spanish  America  and 
 Brazil  can  be  noted  at  the  close  of  the  next  fifty 
 years. 
 
Chapter  IX. 
 
 THE  ORIENTAL  OR  GREEK  CATHOLIC  CHURCH. 
 
 The  notable  events  in  the  history  of  the  Oriental 
 Church  of  this  era  were  the  better  position  secured 
 for  all  Christians  under  Turkish  rule,  the  quickening 
 influence  of  Evangelical  missions  in  Turkey,  the  inde- 
 pendence of  the  Kingdom  of  Greece  and  the  relation 
 of  the  Russian  Church  to  the  circulation  of  the  Scrip- 
 tures in  the  language  of  the  people. 
 
 The  position  of  the  Ecumenical  Patriarch,  the 
 titular  head  of  the  Oriental  Church  at  the  court  of 
 the  sultan,  has  always  been  inglorious  and  often 
 shameful.  This  has  not  prevented  it  from  being  a 
 place  of  great  influence,  as  he  is  the  head  and  the 
 representative  before  the  Sublime  Porte  of  ten  mil- 
 lions of  Greek  Christians.  He  is  removable  at  pleas- 
 ure by  the  Porte,  and  for  cause  at  the  representation 
 of  the  Holy  Synod  of  Constantinople.  The  position 
 is  thus  seen  to  be  very  insecure,  and  it  must  be  said 
 that  residence  at  court  is  not  favorable  to  the  devel- 
 opment of  high  character  among  Oriental  prelates. 
 Too  often,  alas!  the  character  of  the  occupant  added 
 to  the  insecurity  of  the  office. 
 
 The  Patriarchs,  nevertheless,  have  been  the  means 
 of  keeping  together  the  scattered  Greeks  under  Turk- 
 ish rule,  of  sustaining  their  consciousness  of  racial 
 and  religious  unity,  and  of  preparing  them  for  polit- 
 ical independence.      April    22,    1821,    the   Patriarch 
 
 344 
 
Oriental  or  Greek  Catholic  Church.    345 
 
 Gregory  was  hanged  at  his  palace  door  for  sympa- 
 thizing with  the  Greek  revolutionists.  The  same  fate 
 overtook  his  predecessor  at  Adrianople  the  following 
 month.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Patriarch  Agath- 
 anglos,  1 827-1 834,  was  received  with  extraordinary 
 honors  by  the  sultan,  and  became  a  pliant  instrument 
 of  his  policy. 
 
 These  changes  were  so  rapid  that,  between  1820 
 and  1835,  there  were  seventeen  Ecumenical  Patriarchs 
 at  Constantinople,  of  whom  eight  were  living  at  the 
 latter  date.  Nine  of  the  seventeen  were  deposed  by 
 the  Holy  Synod  for  open  scandals,  most  of  them  be- 
 ing cases  of  financial  extortion.  Notwithstanding  the 
 often  unworthy  character  of  the  incumbent,  the  Ori- 
 ental Christians  of  the  Greek  faith  have  great  respect 
 for  the  office  and  high  regard  and  esteem  for  the 
 Church,  which,  through  ages  of  oppression  and  perse- 
 cution, for  over  four  hundred  years,  had  been  all  and 
 more  to  its  adherents  than  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
 has  been  to  those  of  its  faith  in  Ireland  and  Poland. 
 No  wonder  that  the  Greeks  look  upon  it  with  love 
 and  veneration,  especially  when  we  recall  that  its 
 history  reaches  back  to  the  days  of  the  apostles,  and 
 that  its  Churches  were  strong  and  vigorous  when  the 
 Church  of  Rome  was  but  an  infant,  using  the  Greek 
 language  and  ruled  by  men  of  Greek  descent. 
 
 The  greatest  change  that  came  to  the  Greek  sub- 
 jects of  the  sultan  was  that  inaugurated  by  the  Hatti 
 Sheref  of  Gulhane,  in  1839.  This  instrument,  which 
 has  been  called  the  Magna  Charta  of  Turkey,  **  pro- 
 vided for  the  security  of  all  subjects,  without  distinc- 
 tion of  creeds,  in  life,  honor,  and  property ;  for  the 
 equitable  distribution  and  collection  of  taxes  ;  and  for 
 
346     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 the  systematic  recruiting  of  the  army.  It  confirmed 
 Mahmoud's  ordinance,  by  which  no  one  could  be  exe- 
 cuted without  trial  and  sentence,  and  established  the 
 principle  of  public  trial  for  all  accused  parties;  it 
 asserted  the  right  of  all  persons,  criminals  included, 
 to  hold  and  devise  property  without  let  or  hindrance  ; 
 and  appointed  a  council  to  elaborate  the  details  of 
 administrative  reform."  This,  like  the  English  Magna 
 Charta,  required  strong  support  to  make  it  effective, 
 and  that  support  the  edict  of  Gulhane  has  not  had,  but 
 it  has  made  secure  the  position  of  all  Christians  before 
 the  law  in  the  Turkish  Empire. 
 
 This  provision  protected  in  their  religious  rights, 
 for  the  first  time,  Evangelical  Christians  in  the  East; 
 
 and  it  was  time.  Before  this,  **  no  member 
 ^mLXIT*     ^^  ^  Church  or  Synagogue,   v/ho  migrated 
 
 to  another  religious  body,  could  hope  to 
 effect  his  purpose  with  impunity."  This  gave  the 
 Evangelical  Christians  a  recognized  position  as  such, 
 '*  and  the  right  of  converts  to  be  protected  by  the  civil 
 authorities  from  vexation  on  the  part  of  their  relin- 
 quished Churches."  This,  of  course,  did  not  allow 
 protection  to  those  who  should  forsake  the  Moham- 
 medan religion  ;  for  them  the  punishment  was  death. 
 No  influence  for  the  regeneration  of  the  oppressed 
 Christians  under  Turkish  rule  has  been  more  potent 
 or  far-reaching  than  that  of  the  Evangelical  missions 
 established  by  the  American  Board  of  Foreign  Mis- 
 sions at  Beyrout,  and  afterward  among  the  Nestorians 
 and  Armenians,  and  at  Constantinople.  It  is  not  too 
 much  to  say  that,  in  education,  in  the  practice  of 
 medicine,  in  the  position  of  women,  and  in  the  stand- 
 ards of  comfort  and  well-being  among  the  Christian 
 
Oriental  or  Greek  Catholic  Church.    347 
 
 population,  it  has  changed  the  face  of  affairs  among 
 Christians  of  the  East.  And  it  is  this  supremacy  in 
 the  home  and  in  education  which  will  at  length  give 
 the  long-oppressed  Christians  the  supremacy  over 
 their  decadent  Turkish  masters. 
 
 The  missionaries  at  Beyrout  and  at  Constantinople 
 translated  the  Bible  admirably  into  Arabic,  Turkish, 
 and  Bulgarian.  They  established  schools,  and  made 
 known  American  inventions.  Their  schools  for  the 
 instruction  of  women,  and  their  training  in  medicine 
 and  in  the  care  of  the  sick,  were  untold  blessings. 
 Their  mission  press  made  a  constant  appeal  to  the 
 intellectual  and  spiritual  nature  of  their  pupils  and 
 adherents.  They  laid  well  the  foundation  for  the  new 
 Christendom  of  the  East. 
 
 The  withdrawal  of  the  Greeks  of  the  new  king- 
 dom from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Patriarchs  of  Con- 
 stantinople was  necessary,  and  an  unmixed 
 benefit.  The  independence  of  Greece  was  i^^^pg^^j^jj^^^ 
 an  inspiration  to  men  of  the  Greek  race 
 everywhere.  The  tyranny  for  more  than  thirtj^  years 
 of  Ali  Pacha,  of  Jannina,  led  to  the  Greek  Revolution, 
 1821-1827,  which  was  brought  to  a  triumphant  issue 
 by  what  the  Duke  of  Wellington  styled  "that  unfor- 
 tunate event,  the  battle  of  Navarino."  In  1833, 
 Greece  became  an  independent  kingdom,  and  July  2d 
 of  that  year  the  Greek  Church  in  Greece  was  declared 
 independent  of  all  foreign  authority.  At  the  same 
 time  the  monasteries  were  reduced  from  four  hundred 
 to  eighty-two,  and  the  convents  to  three.  The  prop- 
 erty thus  seized  was  devoted  to  the  support  of  churches 
 and  schools. 
 
 The  government  of  the  new  Church  was  vested  in 
 
348     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 a  permanent  Synod  of  five  members,  two  of  which 
 were  lay  officials.  This  Synod  was  chosen  by  the 
 king,  and  was  to  be  renewed  annually.  The  independ- 
 ence of  this  Church  was  not  recognized  by  the  Patri- 
 arch of  Constantinople  until  1850.  In  1836  the  Arch- 
 bishop of  Athens  excommunicated  all  parents  who 
 allowed  their  children  to  attend  Evangelical  mission 
 schools,  especially  those  maintained  by  the  American 
 and  the  English,  as  the  Ecumenical  Patriarch  in  1827 
 had  all  who  possessed  Bibles  or  the  books  of  the  English 
 missionaries.  The  attitude  toward  the  circulation  of 
 the  Scriptures  changed  in  1836.  In  1837  the  Univer- 
 sity of  Athens  was  established,  an  important  step  for 
 the  nation  and  for  the  Church.  Thus  the  new  Church, 
 in  whose  dominion  are  the  celebrated  monasteries  of 
 Mount  Athos,  came  into  strong  and  influential  life. 
 
 The  Emperor  Alexander  I  became  a  member  of  a 
 Bible  Society,  and,  from  18 13  until  his  death  in  1825, 
 
 favored  the  circulation  of  the  Scriptures  in 
 ^inV^ssra.**  ^^^  language  of  the  people.      Nicholas  I, 
 
 in  1826,  forbade  any  version  except  in  Old 
 Slavonic,  which  was  absolete,  fearing  that  the  reading 
 of  the  Bible  might  aid  revolutionary  opinions.  This 
 prohibition  held  good  until  1869.  The  government  of 
 the  P.ussian  Church  was,  and  is,  in  the  hands  of  the 
 Holy  Synod.  This  was  a  body  of  ecclesiastics  and 
 laymen.  The  prelates  can  leave  their  Sees  but  six 
 months  in  the  year,  while  the  laymen  are  always  in 
 attendance.  The  Synod,  however,  is  in  the  control 
 very  largely  of  the  General  Procurator,  who  is  a  high 
 officer  nominated  by  the  emperor  and  representing 
 his  views  in  the  Synod.  He  proposes  all  measures, 
 and  has  the  power  of  absolute  veto.    No  decree  of  the 
 
Oriental  or  Greek  Catholic  Church.    349 
 
 Synod  is  valid  without  his  signature,  and  he  attends  to 
 the  execution  of  all  ecclesiastical  legislation.  The 
 jurisdiction  of  the  Synod  is  all-embracing  and  very 
 minute,  including  a  censorship  of  books.  The  prog- 
 ress of  the  Church  in  these  years  was  the  progress 
 of  the  Russian  State.  It  had  some  enlightened  pre- 
 lates, like  Archbishop  Platon,  who  died  in  181 2; 
 Philarete,  Metropolitan  of  Moscow,  who  was  both 
 learned  and  evangelical,  and  died  in  1836.  Bishops 
 Macarim  and  Platanow  won  renown  as  authors,  the 
 latter  especially  as  a  Church  historian. 
 
 Other  Oriental  Christians,  as  the  Armenian,  Nes- 
 torian,  and  Syrian  Churches,  found  their  position  ma- 
 terially improved  as  far  as  the  reforms  at 
 Constantinople  were  concerned.  Their  re-  %*'hris«lns!"* 
 lations  with  the  Kurds  were  unchanged, 
 and  the  Armenians  and  Nestorians  were  systematically 
 raided  by  their  warlike  and  Mohammedan  neighbors. 
 The  improved  methods  of  education  and  conditions  of 
 living,  and  deeper  religious  life  of  the  missionaries, 
 American  and  English,  elevated  the  plane  of  their 
 living,  the  prospects  of  the  new  generation,  and  their 
 hopes  of  the  future.  Yet  all  these  were  but  in  the  be- 
 ginning at  the  end  of  this  period. 
 
 This  ends  our  survey  of  the  worldwide  work  for 
 Christ  of  fifty  years  which,  in  Christian  missions,  in 
 new  lands  in  America,  in  Australia,  and  Africa,  was 
 but  the  laying  of  the  foundations  on  which  other 
 generations  were  to  build.  This  was  the  era  of  Revo- 
 lution,— the  great  democratic  era,  of  which  Victor 
 Hugo  is  the  literary  exponent.  The  work  for  Christ 
 and  the  advance  of  Christendom  which  followed,  the 
 second  part  of  this  volume  is  to  record. 
 
fart  SBtnttri. 
 
 NATIONAL  UNION— SCIENTIFIC  DEVEL- 
 OPMENT—THE CONSCIOUSNESS  OF 
 CHURCH  LIFE  AND  ITS  EXPANSION. 
 
 351 
 
Chapter  I. 
 
 THE  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THE  PERIOD. 
 
 Few  successive  periods  in  Christian  history  pre- 
 sent more  clearly-defined  contrasts  than  those  in- 
 cluded in  the  nineteenth  century.  Yet  the  one  was 
 the  outgrowth  of  the  other. 
 
 In  the  political  development,  to  Revolution  and 
 Reaction,  succeeded  national  consolidation  on  a  scale 
 never  before  approached  in  history.  The  j^^^ 
 last  fifty  years  made  more  changes  in  the  Political 
 map  0/  the  world,  and  those  not  only  of  a  ®^®  ***''"^"  * 
 revolutionary  but  of  a  permanent  character,  than  all 
 others  since  the  era  of  American  discovery. 
 
 The  greatest  change  has  been  in  the  progressive 
 decay  or  fall  of  the  Mohammedan  powers.     At  the 
 opening  of  this  period   at   Delhi,  on   the        j^^^ 
 throne  of  Akbar  and  Aurungzebe,   there  Mchammedan 
 was   a   Mohammedan   Emperor   of   India. 
 Then  Turkey  was  supposed  to  have  made  advance  in 
 that  career  of  political  and  social  development  which 
 was  to  make  her  stand  on  the  foundations  of  national 
 life  and  prosperity  common  to  the  Christian  States. 
 This  view  led  to  the  Crimean  War,  and  its  result  was 
 supposed  to  uphold  it.     At  that  time  Persia,  the  Cau- 
 casus, Turkestan  or  Independent   Tartary,   Afghan- 
 istan, and  Baluchistan  were  States  independent  of  the 
 power  of  Christian  nations. 
 23  ^^^ 
 
354     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 In  Africa,  while  the  French  were  struggling  to  es- 
 tablish themselves  in  Algeria,  Morocco,  Tunis,  Trip- 
 oli, and  Egypt  were  independent,  owing  only  a  nom- 
 inal allegiance  to  Turkey,  and  Egypt  showing  greater 
 power  than  any  other  Mohammedan  States.  Arabia 
 successfully  maintained  its  ancient  isolation  and  inde- 
 pendence. In  addition  to  this  array  of  power,  there 
 was  a  vigorous  and  successful  propaganda  carried  on 
 in  the  upper  Nile  regions  and  across  Central  Africa 
 south  of  the  Sahara  through  the  Soudan  to  Senegam- 
 bia  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  Besides,  in  China  there 
 was  organized  the  great  Taiping  Rebellion  under 
 Mohammedan  inspiration  and  leadership,  which,  but 
 for  General  Gordon,  would  have  closed  the  days  of 
 the  Manchu  dynasty  and  rule  in  China.  Moham- 
 medan advance  was  also  marked  in  Malaysia. 
 
 At  the  close  of  the  century  how  different  the 
 scene!  The  Mohammedan  rule  of  India  is  forever 
 past.  The  Caucasus  and  all  of  Turkestan  have  been 
 absorbed  by  Russia.  Tunis  is  as  much  French  as 
 Algeria,  and  Tripoli  is  awaiting  French  or  Italian  occu- 
 pancy. Egypt,  Nubia,  and  the  Nile  country  to  Khar- 
 toum are  as  much  in  England's  keeping  as  Malta  or 
 Cyprus.  Persia,  Afghanistan,  and  Baluchistan  are  buf- 
 fer States  under  the  control  of  either  England  or  Rus- 
 sia. In  Arabia,  even  Muscat  and  Aden  are  not  only  in 
 England's  control,  but  so  in  control  that  she  secures 
 the  predominance  of  her  interests  in  the  Arabian 
 peninsula. 
 
 Mohammedan  power  has  ceased  to  be  a  factor  in 
 Chinese  politics,  has  been  checked  in  Malaysia,  and 
 has  met  an  overthrow  from  which  there  is  no  recovery 
 in  Central  Africa. 
 
Characteristics  of  the  Period.         355 
 
 Turkey,  the  sole  independent  Mohammedan  power, 
 in  spite  of  the  vigor  and  ruthless  massacres  of  Abdul 
 Hamid  II,  never  showed  such  evidence  of  fatal  decay. 
 No  one  talks  of  the  possibility  of  a  reformed  Turkey. 
 All  pronounce  the  case  a  hopeless  one.  In  this  period 
 Turkey  lost  Servia,  Roumania,  Bulgaria,  Bosnia,  and 
 Herzegovina,  Thessaly,  a  part  of  Epirus,  with  Cyprus 
 and  Crete.  She  also  lost  her  navy  and  her  credit  in 
 the  money  markets  of  Europe.  She  had,  at  the  close 
 of  these  years,  but  a  precarious  hold  upon  Macedonia, 
 which,  with  Constantinople,  was  the  only  part  left  of 
 her  European  possessions  which  once  controlled  both 
 sides  of  the  Danube  for  the  lower  half  of  its  course. 
 
 At  the  end  of  the  century  the  Mohammedan 
 power  had  sunk  lower  in  might  and  influence  than 
 since  Calif  Omar  took  Jerusalem ;  that  is,  in  eleven 
 hundred  and  fifty  years,  But  for  the  lack  of  union 
 among  Christian  States  there  would  not  be  a  shred  of 
 independence  left  to  a  Mohammedan  State.  What- 
 ever be  the  power  of  the  Mohammedan  faith  among 
 the  people  professing  it,  its  political  power  in  the 
 form  of  organized  State  life  seems  near  its  end.  Its 
 contempt  for  women,  its  utter  lack  of  popular  educa- 
 tion or  industry,  as  well  as  of  military  supplies,  or  navy, 
 and  of  skill  in  finance  or  government,  make  this  in- 
 evitable. The  power  of  the  Mohammedan  State  sys- 
 tem was  in  the  sword.  To  wield  it  longer  it  has 
 neither  brain  nor  nerve. 
 
 The  change  in  the  heathen  world  is  scarcely  less 
 marked.      The  only  independent  heathen 
 powers  remaining   are    China   and   Japan,   ^**state!!*^" 
 Siam  as  a  buffer  State,  and  some  tribes  in 
 Central  Africa  and   in    Malaysia ;   the  power  of  the 
 
356     History  of  the  Christian  Church, 
 
 heathen  red  men  has  disappeared.  Africa  has  come 
 largely  into  the  control  of  the  Christian  nations. 
 This  is  true  almost  altogether  of  the  races  in  Oceania. 
 The  fate  of  China  is  in  the  balance.  Japan  only 
 seems  to  have  joined  the  ranks  of  progressive  nations, 
 and  to  look  forward  to  a  stable  and  increasing  power. 
 The  reason  for  this  is  well  known.  She  has  received 
 to  herself  the  fruits  of  Christian  civilization,  and  is 
 more  accessible  to  Christian  influence  than  any  other 
 non-Christian  people. 
 
 In  American  history  this  era  has  been  quite  as  de- 
 cisive as  that  which  included  1776.     Gettysburg  and 
 Appomattox  assured  that  the  great  powder 
 
 America.  ,         *  .  •  ■%         -^  ■%    t        r 
 
 on  the  American  contment  should  be  free 
 and  republican.  It  also  decided  that  this  free  Federal 
 Republic  should  be  English  in  speech  and  predom- 
 inantly Evangelical  in  religion.  It  made  sure  the 
 foundations  of  the  wealthiest  and  most  powerful 
 Christian  State  of  the  succeeding  century. 
 
 In  Spanish  America  the  results  were  scarcely  less 
 decisive.  European  domination  came  practically  to 
 an  end.  Louis  Napoleon's  Mexican  Empire  vanished 
 like  a  dream.  Spain's  last  American  colonies  severed 
 their  relations  with  the  mother  country.  Only  in 
 Guiana,  a  slice  of  Honduras,  and  some  of  the  smaller 
 West  India  Islands,  is  there  any  European  control 
 among  the  Spanish  or  Portuguese-speaking  people  in 
 America.  This  of  itself  is  an  immense  change.  Yet 
 more  is  true;  in  these  fifty  years,  in  spite  of  great  ob- 
 stacles, Mexico,  Chili,  and  the  Argentine  Republic 
 have  made  large  advance  in  national  prosperity,  and 
 that  advance  promises  to  be  permanent  and  in- 
 creasing. 
 
Characterist-ics  of  the  Period.         357 
 
 Since  the  United  States  purchased  Alaska  in  1867, 
 the  great  European  colony  left  in  America  is  Canada. 
 In  this  period,  from  a  group  of  separated  colonies  she 
 became  a  consolidated  Dominion,  with  a  largely  inde- 
 pendent existence.  Her  increase  in  population  has 
 scarcely  been  equal  10  the  advantages  offered  by  her 
 resources.  Undoubtedly  a  prosperous  future  lies  be- 
 fore the  most  northern  of  American  peoples. 
 
 The  changes  in  the  map  of  Europe  were  not  less 
 startling  than  those  which  mark  the  decay  of  the  Mo- 
 hammedan power.  Three  of  the  greatest  ^^  ^^^^^^^ 
 of  these  were  almost  coincident.  By  one, 
 the  States  of  the  Church,  which  had  endured  for  more 
 than  a  thousand  years,  passed  forever  from  the  map  of 
 Europe  and  of  the  world.  Thus  disappeared  the  last 
 vestige  of  the  politico-religious  system  of  the  Middle 
 Ages.  Whatever  purpose  the  position  of  the  pope  as 
 a  temporal  ruler  once  served,  it  had  been  an  anach- 
 ronism ever  since  the  French  Revolution. 
 
 The  two  great  political  creations  of  the  nineteenth 
 century  fell  in  this  period— the  Empire  of  Germany 
 and  the  Kingdom  of  Italy.  By  the  first,  the  rule  of 
 Central  Europe  came  into  the  hands  of  a  dynasty  and 
 a  people  of  Evangelical  faith.  By  the  second,  the 
 papacy  saw  itself  permanently  excluded  from  its  most 
 precious  possession,  the  temporal  power. 
 
 The  decadence  in  the  last  fifty  years  of  the  former 
 great  Roman  Catholic  powers,  Spain,  Austria,  and 
 France,  has  been  as  marked  as  the  marvelous  growth 
 of  Russia,  Great  Britain,  and  the  United  States.  The 
 century  closed  with  the  transfer  of  Porto  Rico  and 
 the  Philippines  from  the  kingdom  of  Philip  II  to  the 
 control  of  the  American  Union. 
 
358     History  of  the  Christian  Church, 
 
 The  spirit  which  wrought  the  great  reforms  of  the 
 century  was  the  spirit  of  liberty  and  humanity,  the 
 spirit  which  regarded  manhood  as  the  most 
 Progres's!'  precious  Creation  of  God,  and  which  recog- 
 nized that  manhood  amid  all  divergencies 
 of  race,  development,  or  environment.  It  was  the 
 spirit  that  found  the  expression  in  Burns's  "A  man  's 
 a  man  for  a'  that."  It  regarded  the  freeing  of  man- 
 hood from  its  servitude  and  debasements — the  be- 
 stowal of  liberty,  education,  and  self-government,  of 
 Christianity,  and  the  conditions  of  Christian  civiliza- 
 tion— as  the  chiefest  task  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
 That  the  men  of  this  era  had  this  great  faith,  and 
 strove  so  arduously  and,  amid  many  defeats  and  fail- 
 ures, with  such  splendid  success  for  its  realization,  is 
 their  title  to  imperishable  renown. 
 
 The    literature    of    these    years    was    illustrious 
 
 through   the  work  of  Tennyson   and   Browning,  of 
 
 lyongfellow  and  Lowell  and  Victor  Hugo, 
 
 Literature.      .  ^  ^      ^      .  t^.        .  ,   ^.    , 
 
 m  poetry.  In  fiction,  Thackeray  and  Dick- 
 ens, Hawthorne  and  George  Kliot,  Hugo,  Balzac, 
 TurgenefF,  and  Tolstoi,  did  work  which  the  world  will 
 cherish.  The  great  names  were  carried  over  from  the 
 preceding  era.  The  rise  of  the  scientific  movement 
 and  the  prevalence  of  the  scientific  spirit,  while  help- 
 ing criticism  and  history,  have  not  been  favorable  to 
 poetry  and  philosophy.  The  highest  gifts  of  reason 
 and  imagination  have  not  found  place  in  the  literature 
 of  the  later  years  of  the  century. 
 
 Great  conquests  were  made,  great  achievements 
 wrought ;  but  the  constructive  work  of  civilization — 
 the  mastering  of  material  in  science,  in  archaeology, 
 in  philology  and  history — has  been  so  long  a  task 
 
Characteristics  of  the  Period.        359 
 
 that  there  has  been  but  little  opportunity  for  the 
 vision  of  the  poet  and  the  seer.  Yet  it  is  this  vision 
 that  gives  enduring  worth  to  all  the  rest.  Homer's 
 world  has  long  been  dead;  but  it  lives  in  Homer's 
 verse.  Dante's  world  is  perhaps  even  less  under- 
 stood; but  its  passion  and  its  power,  its  sin,  its 
 pathos,  and  its  aspiration,  live  for  us  through  his 
 matchless  lines. 
 
 In  a  word,  it  may  be  said  that  the  intellectual  life 
 of  the  age  has  been  so  filled  with  material  things, 
 their  relations,  uses,  and  values,  that  there  has  been 
 small  increase  in  the  great  ideal  treasures  of  the 
 race.  The  realm  of  the  apparent,  taken  for  the  real, 
 is  made  to  include  all  that  is.  The  might  of  the 
 world  unseen  seldom  finds  voice  for  the  tones  which 
 inspire  and  subdue,  which  thrill  and  melt  the  univer- 
 sal heart  of  man.  There  has  been  a  high  average 
 and  large  production,  but  absent  are  the  greatest 
 gifts.  We  have  had  analysis,  and  synthesis,  and  con- 
 scious effort  in  great  variety ;  but  the  joy  of  creation, 
 the  illuminating  word,  the  fiat  lux  ("Let  there  be 
 light")  for  heart  and  mind,  have  been  unspoken. 
 
 To  compensate,  no  age  has  so  reveled  in  the  afflu- 
 ence of  nature's  treasures  for  the  first  time  unsealed 
 to  men.  After  the  movement  for  national 
 union,  the  scientific  movement  and  its  ^Movement!*' 
 consequences  are  the  most  striking  phe- 
 nomena of  this  period.  One  result  was  the  searching 
 criticisms  of  religious  conceptions,  religious  history, 
 the  Sacred  Scriptures,  and  Christian  institutions. 
 These  great  factors  in  the  life  of  this  time  affected  the 
 influence  and  course  of  Christian  thought.  Christian 
 activity,  and,  the  resultant  of  these,  Christian  history. 
 
Chapter  II. 
 
 NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT. 
 
 The  first  decade  of  the  second  half  of  the  century 
 had  scarcely  opened  before  the  outbreak  of  the  Cri- 
 mean War.  It  was  a  war  that  ought  never 
 ^^''war*"  t^  ^^^'^  ^^^"  waged.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that 
 it  is  the  last  war  for  the  preservation  of 
 that  rule  long  ripe  for  overthrow — the  rule  of  the 
 Turks,  whether  in  Europe  or  Asia.  The  Russians 
 invaded  the  principalities  of  Moldavia  and  Wallachia, 
 June  2  2,  1853.  England  and  France  declared  war 
 against  Russia,  March  27,  1854.  Nicholas  I,  Emperor 
 of  Russia,  died  March  2,  1855,  and  Sebastopol  sur- 
 rendered September  9th  of  the  same  year.  March  30, 
 1856,  the  Treaty  of  Paris  brought  final  peace.  What 
 brief  lines  are  these,  and  yet  how  much  they  include 
 of  cruel  suffering  and  untimely  death ! 
 
 Two  results  followed :  Russia  never  again  could 
 make  her  policy  of  mediaeval  absolutism  prevail  in 
 Western  Europe.  Europe  would  never  become  Cos- 
 sack. The  other  was  that  Louis  Napoleon  and  the 
 French  Empire  came  to  the  front  as  the  arbiter  of 
 Europe  for  the  next  fifteen  years,  or  to  the  advent  of 
 Bismarck.  A  further — an  unlooked-for  and  unwel- 
 come consequence  of  this  war — was  the  union  of 
 Moldavia  and  Wallachia  in  the  principality  of  Rou- 
 mania  in  1859.  This  union  was  acknowledged  by 
 the  powers  in  1862,  and  four  years  later  these  coun- 
 
National  Development.  361 
 
 tries  of  the  Lower  Danube  became  a  kingdom  under 
 a  prince  of  the  house  of  Hohenzollern.  Amid  these 
 results  we  look  in  vain  for  a  hero.  Indeed,  it  may  be 
 well  said  that  the  only  hero  of  the  Crimean  War  was 
 a  woman — Florence  Nightingale. 
 
 One  great  element  in  the  Italian  problem  was  the 
 fatt  that  lyouis  Napoleon,  dreamer  as  he  was  and 
 Dutch  as  he  looked,  had  lived  in  Italy,  and 
 as  a  young  man  had  been  a  member  of  the  ^^'^iJ^"'**"  °* 
 revolutionary  society  of  the  Carbonari. 
 Of  this  pity  and  sympathy  for  Italy  Count  Cavour 
 knew  how  to  take  advantage.  This  Italian  states- 
 man was  to  Victor  Emmanuel  II  all  that  Hercules 
 Consalvi  had  been  to  Pius  VII  as  an  adviser  in  affairs 
 of  State,  and  he,  more  than  any  other  man,  is  the 
 author  of  Italian  unity.  A  Sardinian  contingent  had 
 served  in  the  Crimean  War.  Cavour,  to  the  intense 
 disgust  both  of  Austria  and  of  the  advisers  of  the 
 pope,  took  part  in  the  negotiations  of  the  Treaty  of 
 Paris. 
 
 The  first  direct  step  toward  the  union  of  Italy  was 
 taken  when  Cavour  met  Louis  Napoleon  at  Plom- 
 bieres  in  July,  1858.  Here  it  was  arranged  that 
 France  should  assist  .Victor  Emmanuel  II,  King  of 
 Sardinia,  in  a  w^ar  against  Austria.  In  the  event  of 
 success,  the  king  w^as  to  receive  Lombardy  and 
 Venetia  from  Austria,  Parma  and  Modena  from  their 
 ducal  rulers,  and  Romagna  and  the  Marches  from  the 
 States  of  the  Church,  thus  forming  a  kingdom  of 
 Northern  Italy.  Tuscany  and  Umbria  were  to  form  a 
 kingdom  in  Central  Italy,  while  the  King  of  Naples 
 would  remain  in  possession  of  the  south  of  the  pen- 
 insula.    The  pope  should  retain  Rome  under  the  pro- 
 
362     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 tection  of  a  French  garrison,  while  Savoy  and  Nice 
 should  be  ceded  to  France.  It  was  on  this  basis  that 
 war  was  declared  against  Austria,  April  29,  1859. 
 The  battle  of  Magenta  was  won  June  4th,  and  three 
 days  later  the  French  Emperor  entered  Milan.  June 
 24th  was  fought  the  even  more  decisive  battle  of  Sol- 
 ferino.  Then,  to  the  consternation  and  dismay  of 
 every  friend  of  Italy,  Louis  Napoleon,  after  an  inter- 
 view with  Francis  Joseph,  signed  the  armistice  of 
 Villafranca.  It  was  a  shameless  breach  of  faith,  as 
 the  emperor's  ally,  Victor  Emmanuel,  was  not  con- 
 sulted. The  secret  of  it  was  the  thinly-veiled  menace 
 of  Prussia,  who  feared  that  the  impulse  the  French 
 army  was  receiving  beyond  the  Alps  would  carry  it 
 across  the  Rhine.  Francis  Joseph  showed  himself  the 
 stronger  character  and  the  abler  negotiator  at  Villa- 
 franca. According  to  the  terms  there  agreed  upon, 
 Victor  Emmanuel  should  receive  Lombardy  and 
 Parma ;  Austria  would  retain  Venetia  and  the  great 
 fortresses  known  as  the  Quadrilateral ;  Tuscany  and 
 Modena  were  to  be  returned  to  their  dukes ;  Romagna 
 and  the  Marches  were  to  be  given  back  to  the  pope, 
 so  that  his  dominions  remained  unimpaired.  No 
 wonder  that  the  Italians  burned  with  indignation,  and 
 that,  after  a  stormy  interview  with  his  king,  Cavour, 
 in  an  agony  of  disgust  and  defeat,  threw  up  his  office. 
 But  it  was  one  thing  for  the  emperors  to  lay  down 
 the  terms  of  agreement  at  Villafranca,  and  another  to 
 enforce  them.  The  inhabitants  who  had  driven  out 
 their  rulers  in  Tuscany,  Modena,  and  the  northern 
 part  of  the  Papal  States,  had  no  intention  of  allowing 
 their  return,  or  of  being  cheated  out  of  the  dearest 
 desires  of  their  hearts. 
 
National  Development.  363 
 
 For  a  time  Napoleon  cherished  the  design  of  a 
 kingdom  in  Central  Italy  for  his  cousin,  Prince  Na- 
 poleon, who  had  married  Princess  Clotilde  of  Savoy  ; 
 but  events  moved  with  a  rapidity  that  soon  showed 
 that  this  was  impossible.  January  16,  i860,  Cavour 
 returned  to  office,  now  confident  that  the  plans  which 
 he  thought  had  fatally  miscarried  at  Villafranca  could 
 be  realized.  March  24th,  by  a  treaty  to  be  ratified  by 
 a  vote  of  the  inhabitants,  Savoy  and  Nice  were  ceded 
 to  France.  Subject  to  the  same  ratification,  March 
 31,  i860,  Romagna  and  Bologna  in  the  States  of  the 
 Church,  and  Tuscany  and  Modena,  were  proclaimed 
 parts  of  the  Kingdom  of  Italy. 
 
 The  first  Parliament  of  the  new  kingdom  opened 
 at  Turin,  April  2,  i860.  The  first  great  dream  of  the 
 Italian  patriots  and  statesmen  had  been  realized. 
 Italy  was  no  longer  a  geographical  expression.  An 
 insurrection  broke  out  near  Messina  two  days  after 
 the  assembling  of  the  Italian  Parliament.  May  11, 
 i860,  Garibaldi  landed  at  Marsala  in  Sicily  with  his 
 famous  "Thousand."  Palermo,  with  its  large  garri- 
 son, surrendered  June  20th,  and  by  the  last  of  July 
 all  the  garrisons  of  the  King  of  the  Two  Sicilies  on 
 the  island  were  in  the  power  of  the  invaders,  or  had 
 left  the  country.  Garibaldi,  having  crossed  the 
 Straits,  September  7,  i860,  entered  Naples  in  tri- 
 umph. 
 
 The  same  month  Italian  troops  from  the  north 
 began  to  enter  the  central  and  southern  parts  of  the 
 States  of  the  Church.  Ancona  surrendered  Septem- 
 ber 9,  i860.  Lamoriciere,  a  French  general  of  noble 
 birth,  of  valor,  and  piety,  who  commanded  the  papal 
 troops,  was  completely  defeated  by  the  Italian  army 
 
364     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 at  Castelfidardo  nine  days  later.  This  was  a  crush- 
 ing blow  to  the  clerical  party  in  France.  Finally, 
 October  26,  i860,  Victor  Emmanuel  and  Garibaldi 
 met  at  Teano,  and  the  9th  of  the  following  month  to- 
 gether in  triumph  they  entered  Naples.  The  Bourbon 
 king  prolonged  his  resistance  at  Gaeta,  but  in  vain. 
 Soon  there  was  a  united  Italy,  except  Venetia  and 
 Rome,  including  the  old  patrimony  of  St.  Peter;  that 
 is,  the  country  within  a  radius  of  about  twenty  miles 
 from  the  city.  In  1865  the  Italian  capital  was  re- 
 moved to  Florence.  Cavour  did  not  live  to  see  that 
 day,  as  he  died  June  6,  1861.  Henceforth  the  for- 
 tunes of  the  new  kingdom  were  united  with  Prussia 
 and  the  new  German  Empire. 
 
 In  April,  1866,  a  treaty  was  signed  between  Prussia 
 and  Italy,  which,  on  September  3d  of  that  year,  gave 
 Venetia  to  Italy  and  cleared  the  peninsula  from  the 
 Austrians.  This  sealed  forever  the  fate  of  the  policy 
 of  Metternich  at  the  Congress  of  Vienna. 
 
 In  1864,  Pope  Pius  IX  issued  his  famous  Syllabus 
 against  modern  society  and  civilization.  He  used 
 every  means  to  secure  the  residue  of  his  temporal 
 power,  while  for  the  Italians  there  could  be  no  capi- 
 tal but  Rome.  Their  undaunted  leader.  Garibaldi, 
 attacked  the  French  troops  at  Mentana  in  1867,  but 
 was  driven  back.  What  valor  and  patriotism  could 
 not  do  the  folly  of  the  French  in  declaring  war 
 against  Prussia,  July  14,  1870,  accomplished.  Gen- 
 eral Cardona,  September  20,  1870,  battered  down  the 
 gate  of  Porta  Pia,  and  took  possession  of  Rome. 
 Henceforth  there  was  a  united  Italy,  with  Rome  as 
 its  capital. 
 
 In  spite  of  many  fearful  vaticinations,  of  threats 
 
National  Development.  365 
 
 and  curses  not  a  few ;  in  spite  of  the  most  formidable 
 opposition  encountered  by  any  modern  State;  in  spite 
 of  many  failures  and  miscarriages;  in  spite  of  pov- 
 erty, mismanagement,  and  not  a  little  rascality,  the 
 Kingdom  of  Italy  has  grown  stronger  each  decade, 
 and  at  the  close  of  the  nineteenth  century  was  more 
 potent  and  influential  than  in  any  previous  year  of  its 
 history. 
 
 Cavour,  Garibaldi,  and  Victor  Emmanuel  II, 
 wrought  together  in  this  great  work  of  increasing 
 value  to  their  country  and  the  world.  No  wonder 
 that  their  names  are  borne  by  the  most  important 
 streets  in  the  hundred  cities  of  Italy. 
 
 The  second  great  war  for  national  union,  and  the 
 costliest  and  bloodiest  of  the  century,  was  that  in  the 
 United  States,  1861-1865.  In  its  results  it  xheciviiwar 
 practically  put  an  end  to  African  slavery  ;  in  the 
 it  secured  the  dominance  of  the  democratic  ^"'*®**  states. 
 principle,  that  is,  of  popular  government;  it  created 
 possibly,  or  even  probabl}',  the  strongest  Christian 
 nation  the  world  has  ever  seen.  The  price  in  blood 
 and  sacrifice,  in  treasure  and  in  tears,  was  the  costliest 
 ever  paid  in  the  same  space  of  time ;  but  God  did  not 
 forget  the  reward.  The  history  of  the  Church,  as  of 
 the  world,  has  hope  and  power  in  it,  has  influence  and 
 help  that  could  not  have  been  but  for  those  weary, 
 painful  years,  and  that  oflfering  beyond  all  estimate. 
 The  immigration  into  the  United  States  of  from  three 
 hundred  thousand  to  five  hundred  thousand  each  year 
 for  the  most  of  these  fifty  years  is  unprecedented  in 
 the  records  of  the  race.  The  growth  of  the  United 
 States  in  resources  and  might  has  been  the  most  mar- 
 velous in  history.     The  advance  in  morals  and  in  re- 
 
366    History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 ligious  life  and  influence  has  not  been  less  astounding. 
 The  century  closes  with  this  New  World  power  in  the 
 van  of  Christendom. 
 
 In  1862,  Alexander  II  of  Russia  freed  forty  mil- 
 lion serfs  from  bondage.  In  the  two  years  following, 
 the  last  endeavor  of  the  expiring  Polish 
 Insurrection  ^^^ion  went  out  in  terror,  flame,  and  blood. 
 The  struggle  endured  from  the  beginning 
 of  March,  1863,  until  the  end  of  the  same  month  into 
 the  next  year.  High  and  noble  souls,  richly  dowered 
 with  great  gifts,  have  illuminated  the  history  of  the 
 Polish  nation.  But  the  vices  of  an  incapable  aristoc- 
 racy brought  on  the  inevitable  ruin.  Their  care  for 
 the  peasants  was  never  strong  enough  to  unite  the 
 lower  classes  in  support  of  the  national  cause. 
 
 The  sad  record  of  German  division  and  weakness, 
 
 which  marked  the  national  history  from  the  fall  of  the 
 
 The  N«w    Hohenstaufens,  for  six  hundred  years,  came 
 
 German     to  an  end  in  this  period.     William  I  ruled 
 
 "*''''®*  as  regent  from  1856  to  January  2,  1861,  and 
 from  the  death  of  Frederick  William  IV,  his  brother, 
 on  that  date,  as  King  of  Prussia,  until  the  proclama- 
 tion of  the  German  Empire  at  Versailles,  January  18, 
 1 87 1,  and  from  that  date  as  emperor  until  his  death  at 
 the  age  of  ninety-one  years,  March  9,  1888.  Without 
 being  a  great  man,  he  probably  accomplished  a  greater 
 work  than  any  other  sovereign  of  the  century.  With 
 nothing  of  Napoleon's  genius  he  founded  an  empire 
 which  had  the  quality  which  Napoleon's  lacked — en- 
 durance. William  I  was  honest,  truthful,  reliable, 
 firm,  and  God-fearing.  He  had  that  invaluable  faculty 
 in  a  ruler,  of  knowing  how  to  find  and  use  the  fit  man. 
 Such  a  man  was  Otto  Von  Bismarck  (18 15-1899). 
 
National  Development.  367 
 
 Bismarck  was  from  Pomerania,  and  in  thought  and 
 tradition  more  allied  to  Eastern  than  to  Western 
 Europe;  that  is,  to  absolutism  than  to  popular  gov- 
 ernment; but  this  man  of  autocratic  temper  and  rule 
 founded  the  German  Empire  upon  universal  suffrage. 
 This  shows  both  the  strength  of  the  democratic  cur- 
 rent and  the  sagacity  of  the  statesman  who  so  well 
 read  and  followed  the  signs  of  the  times  when  they 
 were  other  than  those  he  would  have  chosen. 
 
 The  Convention  of  Olmiitz  in  1850,  the  year  of  the 
 promulgation  of  the  new  Constitution,   marked  the 
 deepest  humiliation  of  Prussia.      The  turn    progress 
 came  when,  in  September,  1862,  Bismarck      of  the 
 took  office.     In  will,  ability,  and  knowledge 
 of  men  and  affairs,  no  statesman  of  the  Continent  was 
 his  equal.     When  the  Polish  insurrection  threatened 
 to  break  out  in  February,  1863,  Bismarck  negotiated 
 an  alliance  with  Russia  which  neutralized  any  benevo- 
 lent intentions  of  Louis  Napoleon's,  and,  as  did  Prus- 
 sian neutrality  in  the  Crimean  war,  secured  the  friend- 
 ship of  Russia  in  Prussia's  hour  of  need. 
 
 He  next  took  a  hand  in  the  complicated  and  inter- 
 minable Schleswig-Holstein  affair,  by  which  these 
 duchies  were,  by  the  Danish  power,  ceded  to  Austria 
 and  Prussia,  at  Vienna,  October  30,  1864.  In  August, 
 1865,  the  King  of  Prussia  and  the  Emperor  of  Austria 
 met  at  Gastein,  and  an  arrangement  was  made  whereby 
 Schleswig  was  to  be  administered  by  Prussia  and  Hol- 
 stein  by  Austria.  The  rivalry  of  Austria  and  Prussia, 
 which  had  been  the  chief  characteristic  of  German 
 history  since  the  accession  of  Frederick  the  Great, 
 came  now  to  its  culmination. 
 
 Prussia,  having  allied  herself  with  Italy,  declared 
 
368    History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 war  against  Austria,  June  12,  1866;  the  second  of  the 
 next  month  was  fought  the  decisive  battle  of  Sadowa, 
 which  settled  Austrian  claims  forever.  The  way  was 
 open  to  Vienna,  but  Bismarck  had  no  desire  to  humil- 
 iate Austria;  his  sole  object  was  to  make  Prussia  the 
 unquestioned  head  of  the  German  people. 
 
 July  22d,  preliminaries  to  a  peace  were  signed  at 
 Nikolsburg,  and  a  definitive  treaty  at  Prague,  August 
 23,  1866.  By  this  treaty,  Austria  withdrew  from  all 
 German  affairs ;  the  Germanic  Bund,  or  Confederation, 
 ceased  to  be;  Austria  lost  no  territory  but  Venetia, 
 and  was  a  few  years  later  compensated  with  the  ces- 
 sion to  her  of  Herzegovina  and  Bosnia.  On  the  other 
 hand,  Prussia  received  both  Schleswig  and  Holstein, 
 the  Kingdom  of  Hanover,  Electoral  Hesse,  a  part  of 
 Hesse  Darmstadt,  and  the  ancient  Free  City  of  Frank- 
 fort. Prussia  became  united  in  territory  and  the  head 
 of  the  North  German  Confederation,  while  the  Ger- 
 man States  south  of  the  river  Main  formed  the  South 
 German  Confederation.  Austria  was  further  strength- 
 ened by  the  acceptance  of  the  Ausgleich,  or  Compro- 
 mise, by  which  the  affairs  of  Austria  and  Hungary 
 were  arranged  in  the  spring  of  1867.  In  June  of  that 
 year,  Francis  Joseph  was  crowned  King  of  Hungary 
 at  Pesth. 
 
 Thus,  while  outside  of  the  circle  of  German  States, 
 Austria  became  stronger  than  before  her  defeat.  Prus- 
 sia, whose  Zollverein,  or  customs  treaties,  had  paved 
 the  way  for  her  supremacy  among  the  smaller  German 
 States,  now,  in  1866,  concluded  mihtary  treaties  with 
 Bavaria,  Wiirtemberg,  and  Baden,  whereby  their  mili- 
 tary forces  were  reorganized  on  the  Prussian  model, 
 and  could  be  made  a  part  of  the  Prussian  army.     So 
 
National  Development.  369 
 
 ended  the  first  great  stage  in  the  advance  of  the  House 
 of  Hohenzollern  to  the  throne  of  the  German  Empire. 
 
 Meanwhile  affairs  in  another  country  led  to  the 
 breaking  out  of  the  war  with  France,  which  was  to 
 consummate  what  was  so  well  begun.  The  misgov- 
 ernment  and  follies  of  Isabella  II,  Queen  of  Spain,  the 
 most  sinned  against,  if  not  a  little  sinning,  of  the  sov- 
 ereigns of  her  time,  led  up  to  the  outbreak  of  a  revolt 
 against  her  authority,  led  by  General  Prim  on  the 
 7th  of  September,  1868.  On  the  last  day  of  the  month 
 the  queen  left  Spain.  In  order  to  establish  a  settled 
 order  of  things  the  crown  of  Spain  was  offered  to 
 Prince  Leopold,  a  prince  of  the  house  of  Hohenzol- 
 lern, July  4,  1870.  On  the  12th  day  of  July,  1870,  to 
 satisfy  the  susceptibilities  of  the  French,  Leopold 
 publicly  renounced  any  candidacy  for  the  crown. 
 That  w^ent  to  the  son  of  Victor  Emmanuel  II,  of  Italy, 
 1 870-1 873,  and,  upon  his  resignation,  to  Alphonso  XII, 
 son  of  Queen  Isabella,  1874- 1885.  On  the  same  day 
 of  Leopold's  renunciation  the  Due  De  Gramont  in- 
 structed the  French  ambassador,  Benedetti,  to  demand 
 of  King  William  at  Ems  that  he  would  on  no  future 
 occasion  authorize  the  renewal  of  the  candidacy  of 
 Prince  Leopold.  The  king  considered  the  proposal 
 impudent,  to  say  the  least,  pointedly  refused,  and 
 telegraphed  the  fact  to  Bismarck,  with  permission  to 
 publish  it. 
 
 Bismarck,  Von  Moltke,  and  Von  Roon  were  eager 
 for  a  war  for  which  they  knew  themselves  fully  fur- 
 nished, and  the  French,  while  boasting  great  things, 
 utterly  unprepared.  The  king  desired  peace ;  at  least 
 he  did  not  wish  to  break  it ;  3'et  his  telegram  was 
 the  signal  for  war.  Bismarck  took  it,  and  while  he 
 24, 
 
370     History  of  the  Christian  Church, 
 
 did  not  change  a  word,  he  struck  out  words  which 
 entirely  changed  its  tone,  and  sent  it  to  the  press. 
 The  telegram  reached  Paris  July  14th,  and  that  night, 
 with  a  heedlessness  equal  to  her  folly,  France  de- 
 clared war  against  Prussia.  The  1 6th  began  the  mo- 
 bilization of  the  Prussian  army,  and  two  days  later  the 
 Vatican  Council  adjourned,  never  to  reassemble.  The 
 first  engagement  was  fought  at  Saarbriicken,  August 
 2,  1870.  August  15th  and  i6th,  was  fought  the  terri- 
 ble battle  of  Mars-la-Tour  and  Gravelotte.  September 
 ist,  the  Germans  gained  the  great  victory  of  Sedan, 
 resulting  in  the  capture  of  Louis  Napoleon. 
 
 The  last  French  Empire  fell  September  4,  1870. 
 Then  began  the  siege  of  Paris,  September  4,  1870 — Jan- 
 uary 28,  1 87 1,  which  proved  how  easy  it  is  to  starve  a 
 great  capital.  The  last  ray  of  hope  for  Paris  died  when 
 Bazine  treacherously  surrendered  Metz  with  one  hun- 
 dred and  seventy  thousand  men,  October  27,  1870. 
 Two  days  later  Russia  declared  she  would  be  no  longer 
 bound  by  the  provisions  of  the  Treaty  of  Paris,  which 
 barred  her  war  vessels  from  the  Black  Sea. 
 
 On  the  i8th  day  of  January,  1871,  in  the  Hall  of 
 Mirrors  at  Versailles,  William  I  was  declared  Emperor 
 of  Germany,  and  the  strongest  military  State  of  the 
 century  was  founded.  The  unity  longed  for  dur- 
 ing ages  of  oppression  and  suffering  had  come  at 
 last.  A  preliminary  treaty  of  peace  was  signed  at 
 Paris,  February  26,  1871  ;  but  the  terms  were  perma- 
 nently settled  and  signed  at  Frankfort,  May  10,  1871. 
 
 The  Communist  insurrection  raged  for  six  weeks 
 in  the  presence  of  the  German  army,  but  was  finally 
 put  down  by  the  government  of  M.  Thiers.  By  the 
 treaty   the   German   Empire    acquired    from   France 
 
National  Development,  371 
 
 Alsace  and  Eastern  Lorraine,  with  Metz  and  Stras- 
 burg.  France  also  paid  the  enormous  war  indemnity 
 of  a  billion  of  dollars.  France  had  shown  singular  hero- 
 ism in  her  desperate  struggle  against  overwhelming 
 odds.  She  now  astonished  the  world  with  the  rapidity 
 with  which  she  paid  her  immense  fine,  and  cleared  her 
 soil  thus  from  the  invaders.  The  government  of  M. 
 Thiers,  a  man  whose  services  to  France  in  that  crisis 
 were  inestimable,  endured  from  1871  to  May  24,  1873, 
 when  he  was  replaced  by  Marshal  MacMahon,  1873- 
 1879.  The  hopeless  division  of  the  monarchical  party 
 and  the  stupidity  of  the  Comte  de  Chamford  made 
 Thiers,  though  a  monarchist,  believe  that  the  Repub- 
 lic was  the  sole  hope  of  France.  The  Republic  was 
 proclaimed  February  25,  1875.  With  all  its  faults, 
 probably,  the  Republic  was  the  most  popular  and  the 
 best  government  at  the  end  of  the  century  France  had 
 seen  in  that  changeful  one  hundred  years. 
 
 In  1872,  Bismarck  carried  through  the  Dreibund, 
 or  Alliance  of  Germany,  Austria,  and  Russia.  This 
 endured  until  1890,  though  the  Treaty  of  Berlin  was 
 its  death-blow. 
 
 The  misgovernment  of  the  Turks  was  incurable. 
 In  July,  1875,  Herzegovina  and  Bosnia  were  in  insur- 
 rection against  intolerable  oppression.     In 
 May,  1876,   occurred  the  Bulgarian  massa-     Affairs** 
 ores.    Not  receiving  any  redress,  Russia  de- 
 clared war  against  Turkey,  April  24,  1877.    The  main 
 action  was  the  siege  of  Plevna,  July  16 — December  11, 
 1877.     In  this  siege  the  Grand   Duke  Nicholas   ex- 
 perienced  a   bloody   repulse,    September    nth.     The 
 siege  was  then  converted  into  a  blockade.     The  Rus- 
 sians were  successful,  and  pushed  on  to  Adrianople, 
 
372      History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 January  20,  1878.  The  Treaty  of  San  Stefano  was 
 signed  March  3,  1878.  This  erected  a  great  Bulgarian 
 State,  including  its  present  boundaries  and  most  of 
 Macedonia. 
 
 The  Congress  of  Berlin  to  consider  Russo-Turkish 
 affairs  assembled  June  13,  1878,  and  closed  just  one 
 month  latter.  The  provisions  of  the  treaty  provided 
 that  Roumania,  Servia,  and  Montenegro  should  be  in- 
 dependent and  sovereign ;  Austria  received  Herzego- 
 vina and  Bosnia;  Montenegro,  two  ports;  Greece, 
 Thessaly  and  a  part  of  Epirus ;  Roumania,  the  Do- 
 brudscha;  England,  Cyprus;  and  France,  Tunis; 
 while  Russia,  which  had  borne  the  entire  cost  in  blood 
 and  treasure,  received  Bessarabia  at  the  mouth  of  the 
 Danube,  Batoum  and  Kars,  and  a  yet  unpaid  indem- 
 nity. But  this  small  gain  was  hoped  to  be  supple- 
 mented by  the  gratitude  of  Bulgaria.  Unfortunately 
 the  public  men  of  Bulgaria  had  been  most  of  them 
 educated  at  Robert  College,  an  American  missionary 
 institution  of  high  grade,  located  on  the  banks  of  the 
 Bosphorus,  and  these  men,  like  the  men  of  New  Japan, 
 had  been  taught  the  value  of  representative  govern- 
 ment and  of  free  public  opinion.  The  representatives 
 of  Russia  behaved  as  they  had  been  accustomed  to  do 
 at  home;  and  their  insolence  and  oppression  soon 
 weaned  the  Bulgarians  from  Russia.  The  breach 
 came  in  September,  1883.  Alexander  of  Battenberg 
 proved  an  able  ruler  for  Bulgaria.  In  Septem- 
 ber, 1885,  he  added  Eastern  Roumania  to  the  new 
 State,  nearly  doubling  its  area  and  resources.  He 
 then  defeated  completely  the  Servians,  who  had  wan- 
 tonly attacked  him.  But  he  had  been  too  successful 
 to  be  pardoned  by  his  patron  and  relative,  the  Czar  of 
 
National  Development.  373 
 
 Russia.  Few  more  manly  or  pathetic  letters  have 
 been  written  from  one  ruler  to  another  than  that  of 
 Alexander  of  Bulgaria  to  Alexander  III  of  Russia. 
 But  all  was  in  vain,  and  the  Bulgarian  ruler  resigned 
 his  authority  September  7,  1886. 
 
 The  designs  of  Russia,  however,  were  not  attained. 
 The  Prime  Minister  of  Bulgaria,  1 886-1 895,  was 
 Stambouloff,  the  ablest  Balkan  statesman  of  this 
 period.  He  secured  the  choice  of  Prince  Ferdinand 
 of  Coburg  to  succeed  Alexander,  1 887-1901.  The 
 policy  of  the  new  prince,  if  less  aggressive,  was  not 
 more  favorable  to  Russia,  and  Bulgaria  was  becoming 
 yearly  more  independent  and  stronger.  Russia  never 
 ceased  her  plots,  and  finally  her  agents  killed  Stam- 
 bouloff in  1895.  Prince  Ferdinand  then  humbled 
 himself  at  the  cost  of  separating  himself  from  his  wife, 
 who  was  a  devout  Roman  Catholic,  and  a  descendant 
 of  lyouis  Philippe ;  he  had  his  son  baptized  in  the 
 Greek  faith,  and,  with  the  consent  of  Russia,  was 
 recognized  as  an  independent  sovereign. 
 
 All  this  did  not  secure  Russian  domination,  the 
 murderers  of  Stambouloff  have  recently  been  executed, 
 and  Russia  is  now  endeavoring  to  make  Servia,  in 
 opposition  to  Bulgaria,  the  instrument  of  her  policy 
 in  the  Balkans.  Indeed  Roumania  and  Bulgaria, 
 though  small  States,  are,  with  Greece,  the  chief  oppo- 
 nents of  Russian  supremacy  in  the  late  dominions  of 
 the  Turk.  Bulgaria  and  Servia  are  the  only  Sclav 
 States  where  there  is  representative  government.  The 
 progress  of  political  freedom  and  enlightenment  in 
 Russia  may  perhaps  be  advanced  as  much,  or  more, 
 by  these  States  and  Japan  as  by  the  influence  of  all 
 the  rest  of  Europe. 
 
374     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 By  the  treaty  of  Berlin,  England  became  the  guar- 
 antor of  reforms  in  Armenia.  These  reforms  never 
 came  ;  but  Abdul  Hamid  II  sought  to  exterminate  the 
 elements  of  possible  resistance  in  Armenia  by  a  series 
 of  the  most  horrible  and  cruel  massacres.  England 
 stood  helplessly  by  when  a  fleet  at  Smyrna  or  in  the 
 Dardanelles  would  have  put  an  end  to  the  whole 
 ghastly  business.  The  shame  of  this  betrayal,  like 
 that  of  the  death  of  Gordon  at  Khartoum,  and  the 
 opium  war  with  China,  stains  the  luster  of  British 
 policy  and  arms  in  this  century. 
 
 One  result  of  these  massacres  has  been  thoroughly 
 to  alienate  the  English  people  from  the  Turks  in  any 
 shape.  In  1897  war  broke  out  between  Turkey  and 
 Greece ;  but  though  Turkey  was  successful,  the  chief 
 result  was  that  the  Turks  lost  Crete,  which  has  prac- 
 tically become  a  part  of  the  Kingdom  of  Greece. 
 
 Russia,  thus  repelled   from  the  Balkans,  pushed 
 her  conquests  in  Asia.     In  1881  she  conquered  Tur- 
 kestan ;  in  1884  she  annexed  Merv,  and  the 
 AcTvance.     3'^^^    following    Penjdeh.      A   further   ad- 
 vance was  made  in  the  Pamirs  in   1891- 
 1892,  and  the  century  closed  with  the  assured  com- 
 pletion of  the  Siberian  Railway,  with  Port  Arthur  in 
 possession  for  its  terminus,  and  with  Manchuria  in 
 her  control  if  not  in  her  possession. 
 
 Meanwhile  England,  while  consolidating  her  rule 
 
 in  India,  extended  it  by  annexing  Burmah  and  the 
 
 England  and  valley  of  the  Indus.     In  November,  1875, 
 
 France  in     I^ord  Beaconsficld  bought  the  shares  of  the 
 
 the  East.     3^^^  ^^j^^j  ^^^^  ^y  ^^^  Khedive  of  Egypt. 
 
 The  debts  of  the  latter  potentate  brought  in  a  dual 
 control  of  England  and  France  in  1878. 
 
National  Development,  375 
 
 In  1 88 1  the  rebellion  of  Arabi  Bey  broke  out,  and 
 England  bombarded  Alexandria  and,  after  a  siege  of 
 317  days,  took  possession  of  Egypt.  In  1883  a  re- 
 bellion broke  out  in  the  Soudan.  General  Gordon, 
 one  of  the  noblest  of  the  sons  which  Britain  possessed 
 in  the  nineteenth  century,  was  sent  to  stay  its  prog- 
 ress. Delay  and  neglect  caused  Gordon's  death,  Jan- 
 uary 26,  1885.  The  century  closed  with  greater  pros- 
 perity and  happiness  among  her  populations  under 
 English  rule  than  Egypt  had  known  for  twelve  hun- 
 dred years. 
 
 In  those  years,  1 862-1 884,  France  took  possession 
 of  Cambodia,  and  later  of  a  slice  of  Southern  China. 
 She  took  the  island  of  Madagascar  in  1890,  and  on 
 the  mainland  France  increased  her  dominion  in  Sene- 
 gambia,  south  of  the  Sahara  and  north  of  the  Congo, 
 but  failed  in  the  Nile  Valley  and  at  Uganda. 
 
 In  1879  a  defensive  alliance  was  formed  between 
 Austria  and  Germany,  and  in  1883  this  was  extended 
 by  including  Italy.  This  produced  strained 
 relations  with  France  toward  Italy.  France  '  An^ncl!""* 
 retaliated  with  a  customs  regulation  much 
 to  the  economic  detriment  of  her  neighbor.  Better 
 relations  were  established  at  the  close  of  the  period. 
 In  1890  a  defensive  alliance  was  formed  between 
 France  and  Russia.  Bismarck's  policy  of  isolating 
 France  because  she  was  a  Republic  was  broken  up  by 
 the  most  autocratic  of  European  rulers.  Meanwhile 
 the  personages  ruling  in  European  politics  changed. 
 William  I  died,  March,  1888,  and  his  son  Frederick  III 
 followed  him  in  June.  A  young  man  of  twenty  nine, 
 William  II,  then  came  to  the  throne  of  the  new  em- 
 pire.    In  March,  1 890,  Bismarck  was  asked  to  resign. 
 
376    History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 Bismarck  had  rendered  great  services  to  Germany, 
 but  in  retirement  he  showed  very  few  of  the  qualities 
 of  a  great  man. 
 
 In  Russia,  Alexander  II  had  freed  the  serfs  in 
 1862,  and  on  March  13,  1881,  when  the  ukase  pro- 
 claiming representative  government  in  the  old  autoc- 
 racy was  just  ready  to  be  signed,  he  was  assassinated 
 by  the  Nihilists.  His  son,  Alexander  III  (i 881-1894), 
 ruled  with  vigor.  His  successor,  Nicholas  II,  has  had 
 able  advisers,  and,  with  the  aid  of  French  loans,  has 
 carried  out  the  great  railway  systems  of  Asiatic 
 Russia.  At  the  end  of  the  century  he  made  memora- 
 ble his  reign  by  calling  together  the  Peace  Congress 
 at  The  Hague. 
 
 Great  Britain's  part  in  this  drama  during  the  great 
 Victorian  reign  will  find  place  in  the  next  chapter. 
 
Chapter  III. 
 
 THE  POLITICAL   AND  SOCIAL   PROGRESS   OF 
 GREAT   BRITAIN. 
 
 In  all  this  century  of  revolution  and  of  war,  Great 
 Britain  was  the  only  great  power  whose  inhabitants 
 never  saw  a  hostile  army  on  their  soil.  The  capitals 
 of  Europe  came  successively  into  the  power  of  the 
 invader.  Frenchmen  ruled,  as  conquerors,  Rome, 
 Vienna,  Berlin,  Lisbon,  Madrid,  and  Moscow,  to  say 
 nothing  of  Brussels,  Berne,  and  The  Hague.  The 
 British  burned  Washington.  Three  times  proud 
 Paris  bowed  her  neck  to  a  foreign  conqueror,  the  last 
 time  after  a  most  memorable  but  vain  resistance. 
 Amid  all  these  changes  no  hostile  foot  pressed  British 
 soil,  and  no  invading  army  even  saw  her  capital.  She 
 grew  rich  in  peace,  expanded  in  colonies,  extended 
 her  power  over  Asiatic  millions  and  African  poten- 
 tates and  wildernesses.  Through  her  power  at  sea 
 and  her  mineral  resources,  she  sprang  far  to  the  front 
 as  a  commercial  and  manufacturing  nation.  In  these 
 respects  her  supremacy  was  without  a  rival  until  the 
 last  years  of  the  century. 
 
 Not  only  was  Great  Britain  kept  free  from  inva- 
 sion, but  she  was  equally  secured  from  revolution  and 
 civil  war.  The  revolutions  of  1789,  1830,  and  1848, 
 which  shook  every  other  great  power,  involving  even 
 Russia  in  Polish  insurrections  and  Napoleonic  wars, 
 
 377 
 
378    History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 left  her  untouched.  While  civil  war  raged  in  France, 
 as  in  La  Vendee,  and  in  Spain  again,  again,  and  again, 
 in  the  Carlist  insurrections,  and  in  a  less  measure  in 
 Italy  and  Germany,  and  in  America  took  on  the  most 
 frightful  proportions  of  any  war  of  the  century,  in 
 Great  Britain  there  was  never  a  rising  which  called 
 for  the  arms  even  of  the  regular  garrisons.  Grape- 
 shot  never  cleared  the  streets  of  London  and  Edin- 
 burgh, and  charging  cavalry  never  rode  down  and 
 trod  under  foot  the  masses  of  her  working  populations. 
 
 There  were  many  reasons  for  this  beneficent  ex- 
 emption from  invasion,  revolution,  and  civil  carnage, 
 but  none  it  seems  so  important  or  so  significant  as 
 that  the  statesmen  and  leaders  of  public  opinion  in 
 the  British  Empire  in  the  nineteenth  century  led  the 
 nation  in  the  path  of  political  and  social  reform,  and 
 so  averted  revolutions  and  maintained  an  unques- 
 tioned industrial  supremacy. 
 
 The  abuses  of  the  British  political  system  were 
 great  and  manifold.  Dissenters  from  the  Established 
 Church  could  hold  no  ofiice,  civil  or  mili- 
 Reforms'  ^^^Y*  exccpt  ou  suflfcrance.  The  Roman 
 Catholics  had  no  rights  as  citizens;  no 
 Jew  could  hold  ofiice.  The  Parliamentary  represen- 
 tation was  a  mockery.  Rotten  boroughs,  like  old 
 Sarum  with  two  electors,  could  return  two  members 
 of  Parliament,  while  great  commercial  and  manufac- 
 turing centers,  like  Liverpool,  Manchester,  Birming- 
 ham, and  Leeds,  were  practically  unrepresented. 
 
 From  the  accession  of  Pitt,  in  1 785-1830,  with 
 brief  and  ineffectual  intervals,  the  Tory  party  had 
 been  in  power.  In  the  latter  part  of  this  period, 
 especially  under  Sir  George  Canning,   the   shackles 
 
Progress  of  Great  Britain.  379 
 
 came  to  be  a  little  loosened.  Under  this  party  su- 
 premacy, Napoleon  had  been  overthrown  and  the 
 slave-trade  abolished;  then,  in  1828,  the  disabilities 
 preventing  the  holding  of  office  by  Nonconformists 
 were  removed.  In  1829  came  the  emancipation  of 
 Roman  Catholics,  so  that  they  took  their  place  as 
 citizens  with  equal  rights.  In  1858  Jews  were  ad- 
 mitted to  Parliament,  and  in  1873  all  religious  tests 
 were  removed;  so  British  statesmen  relieved  the  dis- 
 abilities of  the  subjects  of  the  realm.  With  this 
 went  a  more  far-reaching  reform  in  the  change  of  the 
 basis  of  representation  in  the  House  of  Commons,  so 
 that  the  seat  of  power  in  the  government  of  the  em- 
 pire passed  from  the  landed  aristocracy  to  the  upper 
 middle  classes.  And  by  the  successive  acts  of  1866- 
 1867,  and  later,  the  suffrage  was  extended  until  the 
 secret  ballot  is  now  granted  to  the  electorate. 
 
 With  this  widespread  political  reform,  which  trans- 
 ferred the  power  of  a  great  empire  from  the  landed 
 aristocracy,  who,  on  the  whole,  had  ruled 
 
 ^    .      .  .      .         ,  \  Social  Reform. 
 
 Britam  more  wisely  than  any  other  coun- 
 try in  Europe,  to  the  upper  middle  class,  and  from 
 them  to  the  working  classes,  or,  as  we  may  say,  to  the 
 industrial  population,  the  progress  in  social  reform 
 was  equally  remarkable.  While  England  was  the 
 apostle  of  free  trade,  and  repealed  her  Corn  Laws  in 
 its  interest,  nevertheless  she  first  began  and  led  the 
 world  in  industrial  legislation;  that  is,  legislation  to 
 protect  the  working  classes  from  abuse  and  oppres- 
 sion. To  this  legislation  more  than  to  anything  else 
 she  owed  her  immunity  from  revolution  in  1848. 
 
 The  need  was  very  great.  It  has  never  been  more 
 clearly   depicted   than   by   the    biographer    of   Lord 
 
380     History  of  the  Christian  Church, 
 
 Shaftesbury,  who,  more  than  any  other  man,  changed 
 
 the  reproach  and  shame  of  his  country  to  a  title  to 
 
 lastinsr  prosperity  and  renown.  Kvery  Chris- 
 
 The  Condi-      .  t=>  ^        r         ■> 
 
 tions  of  the  tiau  uecds  to  read  this  record  in  order  to 
 Industrial    remember   two    thinsrs, —  that    self-interest 
 
 Classes 
 
 and  human  greed  need  to  be  checked  by 
 the  strong  arm  of  the  State  or  the  whole  people, 
 if  our  civilization  is  to  be  Christian  or  to  be  saved 
 from  self-destruction ;  and  to  see  over  how  much  the 
 Christian  spirit  has  triumphed,  how  great  have  been 
 its  gains ;  and  so  to  thank  God  and  take  courage  for 
 further,  and  even  more  strenuous,  conflicts  which  may 
 be  before  us. 
 
 The  crying  need,  the  enormous  obstacles,  and  the 
 glorious  success  will  be  briefly  sketched. 
 
 The  first  of  the  abuses  in  the  factories  that  came  to 
 the  public  notice  was  the  treatment  of  pauper  appren- 
 tices. *'  Under  the  apprentice  system,  bar- 
 Appre"n'tices.  g^^^^  Were  made  with  the  Church  wardens 
 and  overseers  of  the  parishes  and  the  owners 
 of  factories,  and  the  pauper  children — some  as  young 
 as  five  years  old — were  bound  to  serve  until  they  were 
 twenty-one.  When  the  gates  of  the  apprentice  house 
 closed  upon  them,  they  were  checked  off^,  according  to 
 invoice,  and  consigned  to  the  sleeping  berths  allotted 
 to  them,  reeking  with  the  foul  oil  with  which  the  bed- 
 ding of  the  older  hands  was  saturated.  Their  first 
 labors  generally  consisted  in  picking  up  loose  cotton 
 from  the  floor.  This  was  done  amidst  the  burning 
 heat  of  machinery,  in  an  average  heat  of  70  to  90  de- 
 grees, and  in  the  fumes  of  the  oil  with  which  the 
 axels  of  twenty  thousand  wheels  and  spindles  were 
 bathed.     Sick,  with  aching  backs  and  inflamed  ankles 
 
Progress  of  Grea  t  Br  it  a  in.  3  8 1 
 
 from  the  constant  stooping,  with  fingers  lacerated 
 from  scraping  the  floors ;  parched  and  suffocated  by 
 the  dust  and  the  heat,  the  little  slaves  toiled  from 
 morning  till  night.  If  they  paused,  the  brutal  over- 
 looker, who  was  responsible  for  a  certain  amount  of 
 work  being  performed  by  each  child  under  him,  urged 
 them  on  by  kicks  and  blows.  When  the  dinner-time 
 came,  after  six  hours'  labor,  it  was  only  to  rest  for 
 forty  minutes,  and  to  partake  of  black  bread  and  por- 
 ridge, or,  occasionally,  some  coarse  Irish  bacon.  I^ost 
 time  had  to  be  made  up  by  overwork.  They  were  re- 
 quired every  other  day  to  stop  at  the  mill  during  din- 
 ner hour  to  clean  the  frames,  and  there  was  scarcely  a 
 moment  of  relaxation  for  them  until  Sunday  came, 
 when  their  one  thought  was  rest.  Stage  by  stage, 
 they  sank  into  the  profoundest  depths  of  wretched- 
 ness. In  weariness  they  often  fell  upon  the  machin- 
 ery, and  almost  every  factory  child  was  more  or  less 
 injured;  through  hunger,  neglect,  and  over-fatigue 
 and  poisonous  air,  they  died  in  terrible  numbers,  swept 
 off  by  contagious  fevers.  There  was  no  redress  of  any 
 kind ;  the  isolation  of  the  mills  aided  the  cruelties 
 practiced  in  them.  When  the  time  came  that  their 
 indentures  expired,  after  years  of  toil,  averaging  four- 
 teen hours  a  day, — with  their  bodies  scarred  with  the 
 wounds  inflicted  by  the  overlookers ;  with  their  minds 
 dwarfed  and  vacant ;  with  their  constitutions,  in  many 
 instances,  hopelessly  injured ;  in  profound  ignorance 
 that  there  was  even  the  semblance  of  law  for  their 
 protection, — these  unfortunate  apprentices,  arrived  at 
 manhood,  found  that  they  had  never  been  taught  the 
 trade  they  should  have  learned,  and  that  they  had  no 
 resource  whatever  but  to  enter  again  upon  the  hateful 
 
382     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 life  from  which  they  were  legally  freed.  Should  it 
 happen  that  they  had  been  crippled  or  diseased  during 
 their  apprenticeships,  their  wages  were  fixed  at  the 
 lowest  possible  sum,  and  their  future  was  a  long,  lin- 
 gering death." 
 
 To  check  this  oppression,  the  first  Sir  Robert  Peel, 
 himself  a  manufacturer,  secured  the  passage  of  an  Act 
 of  Parliament  in  1802,  which  provided  that 
 LfTiatioIi  ^^^  apprentices  should  have  proper  cloth- 
 ing, food,  and  instruction,  and  the  hours  of 
 labor  were  limited  to  twelve,  exclusive  of  meals. 
 Night-work  was  abolished,  and  visitors  were  appointed 
 to  inspect  factories.  This  was  the  first  factory  legis- 
 lation, and  it  is  gratifying  to  state  that  it  was  a  suc- 
 cess ;  its  effect  was  gradually  to  abolish  the  system  of 
 pauper  apprenticeship. 
 
 In  1829,  Sir  Robert  Peel  effected  the  passage  of  a 
 second  Act  of  Parliament,  which  provided  that  no  child 
 under  nine  years  of  age  should  be  allowed  to  work  in 
 a  cotton  factory,  and  no  young  person  under  sixteen 
 to  work  more  than  twelve  hours  a  day,  exclusive  of 
 meals. 
 
 These  Acts  applied  only  to  cotton  factories,  and 
 left  untouched  all  other  manufacturing  establishments. 
 In  1825,  the  Act  of  Sir  John  Hobhouse  made  it  un- 
 lawful to  employ  any  child  under  eighteen  years  of 
 age  more  than  sixty-nine  hours  a  week,  and  forbade 
 night-work  in  certain  specified  departments.  This 
 also  applied  only  to  cotton  factories.  In  1831,  Sir 
 John  Hobhouse  and  Lord  Morpeth  sought  in  their  bill 
 to  limit  the  hours  of  work  to  eleven  and  a  half  a  day, 
 and  eight  and  a  half  on  Saturdays.  Also  to  prohibit 
 all  children  under  nine  years  of  age  from  being  em- 
 
Progress  of  Great  Britain.  383 
 
 ployed,  and  to  exempt  young  persons  under  twenty- 
 one  from  all  night-work.  The  main  advance  in  this 
 bill  was  that  it  applied  to  all  cotton,  woolen,  worsted, 
 and  silk  factories,  and  to  the  operation  of  power-looms. 
 The  factory  owners  bitterly  opposed  it,  and  although 
 it  passed  in  1831,  it  was  so  much  mutilated  as  to  be 
 ineflfective. 
 
 In  the  same  year  Michael  Thomas  Sadler  intro- 
 duced his  famous  Ten-hour  Bill.  He  moved  its  sec- 
 ond reading,  March,  1832.  The  factory  owners  made 
 the  most  strenuous  opposition,  and  to  delay,  if  not 
 defeat,  the  bill,  secured  the  appointment  of  a  Parlia- 
 mentary Commission  to  investigate  the  conditions  of 
 labor  in  the  factories  and  to  report  to  the  House  of 
 Commons.  The  Committee  was  composed  of  men  of 
 high  character,  who  were  supposed  to  be  naturally 
 favorable  to  the  owners  rather  than  to  the  operatives. 
 This  report,  which  was  presented  July  13,  1833,  and 
 which  marks  an  era  in  industrial  legislation,  was  brief 
 and  to  the  point;  it  stated  three  conclusions,  as  follows: 
 
 **  I.  That  the  children  employed  in  all  the  princi- 
 pal branches  of  manufacture  throughout  the  king- 
 dom,  work   during   the   same    number   of    „     _  , 
 
 ^  Report  of 
 
 hours  as  the  adults.        ~  Commission 
 
 "2.  That   the   effects   of   labor   during   ^^Y^b?^^ 
 such    hours    are,    in    a   great    number   of     July  13. 
 cases,  permanent  deterioration  of  the  phys-        '®^^* 
 ical  constitution,  the  production  of  diseases  wholly 
 irremediable,  and  the  partial  or  entire  seclusion  (by 
 reason  of  excessive  fatigue)  from  the  means  of  ob- 
 taining adequate  education,  and  acquiring  useful  habits, 
 or  of  profiting  by  those  means  when  afforded. 
 
 ''3.  That  at  the  age  when  children  suflfer  those  in- 
 
384     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 juries  from  the  labor  they  undergo,  they  are  not  free 
 agents,  but  are  let  out  on  hire,  the  wages  they  earn 
 being  secured  and  appropriated  by  the  parents  and 
 guardians. 
 
 "  Therefore  a  case  is  made  out  for  the  interference 
 of  the  legislature." 
 
 This  report  made  factory  legislation  inevitable. 
 The  leader  in  the  conflict  long  and  arduous  was  at 
 hand.  Mr.  Sadler  had  been  defeated  for  Parliament, 
 and  the  charge  of  the  great  task  must  come  to  other 
 hands. 
 
 In  February,  1833,  Lord  Ashley,  afterward  Karl  of 
 Shaftesbury,  took  up  the  trailing  banner,  and  bore  it 
 for  more  than  fifty  years  to  triumphant  success. 
 
 In  this  hundred  years  there  was  no  knightlier 
 soul  than  Anthony  Ashley  Cooper,  seventh  Earl  of 
 Shaftesbury  (i  801- 1886).  Lord  Houghton, 
 ^**fte8bur*  ^  ^^^  ^^  widest  acquaintance  and  of  keen 
 and  impartial  judgment,  said,  "  Shaftes- 
 bury's life  was  the  greatest  lived  in  England  in  the 
 nineteenth  century."  Lord  Ashley,  as  he  was  called, 
 as  the  heir  to  the  earldom  of  Shaftesbury,  was  the 
 son  of  the  sixth  earl  and  of  the  daughter  of  the 
 Duke  of  Marlborough.  They  knew  little  of  him, 
 and  he  less  of  them.  The  development  of  his  relig- 
 ious nature  came  through  his  mother's  maid,  Maria 
 Millis,  who  died  when  he  was  but  eight  years  of  age. 
 She  left  him  her  watch,  which  he  wore  his  life  long, 
 always  saying,  if  he  mentioned  it,  that  it  was  given 
 him  by  the  best  friend  he  ever  had.  From  his  eighth 
 year  until  his  thirteenth  he  suffered  as  much  misery 
 as  often  comes  into  a  schoolboy's  life.  He  had  no 
 home,  even  on  vacations,  and  such  affection  as  he  had 
 
Progress  of  Great  Britain.  385 
 
 for  his  father  and  mother  came  to  him  when  he  had 
 children  of  his  own.  The  sadness  of  these  years 
 permanently  shadowed  his  spirit,  but  also  gave  him 
 a  keenness  of  sympathy  with  suffering,  and  especially 
 with  suffering  childhood  and  youth,  such  as  few  men 
 have  ever  possessed.  In  18 13  he  went  to  Harrow, 
 and  life  brightened  for  him.  From  1819  to  1822  he 
 was  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  and  graduated  with 
 high  honor,  first  class  in  classics.  In  1826  he  entered 
 the  House  of  Commons,  where  he  sat  until  he  suc- 
 ceeded to  his  father's  title  in  185 1.  In  1830  he  mar 
 ried  Kmily,  daughter  of  Karl  Cowper,  whose  moth- 
 er's second  husband  was  Henry  John  Temple,  Lord 
 Palmerston,  and  who  greatly  aided  Shaftesbury  in 
 his  life  work.  Shaftesbury's  married  life  was  a  most 
 happy  one,  though  the  death  of  children  greatly 
 loved  came  to  them  as  to  others.  Lord  Ashley,  as 
 he  was  then,  entered  public  life  as  a  strong  Tory,  and 
 held  a  cabinet  office  in  the  administration  of  the 
 Duke  of  Wellington. 
 
 In  July,  1828,  a  law  was  passed  for  the  regulation 
 of  the  care  of  lunatics.  Fifteen  metropolitan  com- 
 missioners were  given  general  oversight  of  these 
 cases  in  England  and  Wales.  In  1829,  Lord  Ashley 
 was  made  chairman  of  this  Commission,  a  position  he 
 held  until  his  death,  fifty-seven  years  later,  nor  did 
 his  interest  in  the  care  and  cure  of  the  insane  lessen 
 in  these  years.  The  marvelous  change  for  the  better 
 in  their  housing,  treatment,  and  all  that  could  allevi- 
 ate their  conditions  or  accelerate  their  cure,  owed  as 
 much  to  him  as  to  any  Englishman. 
 
 In  1833,  Shaftesbury  took  up,  as  the  work  of  his 
 life,  the  cause  of  the  working  classes.  To  this  he 
 25 
 
386     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 added  religious  and  philanthropic  work  as  no  other 
 man  of  his  time,  so  that  at  his  death  he  was  a  mem- 
 ber of  no  less  than  one  hundred  and  fifty  such  socie- 
 ties, whose  representatives  followed  him  to  the  grave. 
 For  the  cause  that  he  thus  made  his  own  he  gave  up 
 all  hopes  of  office,  and  all  the  rewards  of  literary 
 fame,  though  he  had  gifts,  acquirements,  and  oppor- 
 tunities that  would  have  brought  to  him  either  in  no 
 common  measure.  He  cast  his  lot  with  the  op- 
 pressed, and  chose  for  himself  the  blessings  of  the 
 poor.  Henceforth,  for  a  half  a  century,  the  history 
 of  social  progress  in  Great  Britain  is  the  record  of  his 
 life.  An  earnest,  reverent,  and  devout  Christian,  he 
 wrought  for  God  and  man,  and  changed  human  con- 
 ditions for  the  better  as  no  other  in  the  reign  of 
 Victoria.  He  made  possible  the  work  of  Florence 
 Nightingale  in  the  Crimea,  and  the  change  of  hun- 
 dreds of  the  worst  thieves  that  infested  London  to 
 honest  and  reputable  settlers  beyond  the  seas. 
 
 And  there  was  need  for  his  coming,  for  his  strong 
 
 heart,   and   brain,   and    commanding    voice.       Forty 
 
 years  after  he  told  of  the  sight  that  met 
 
 at  Bradford'  ^^^  ^^^^  ^^  Bradford  in  1838  in  the  center 
 
 of  the  manufacturing  district: 
 
 *'At  Bradford,  1838,  I  asked  for  a  collection  of 
 cripples  and  deformities.  In  a  short  time  more  than 
 eighty  were  gathered  in  a  large  court,  and  they  were 
 mere  samples  of  the  entire  mass.  I  assert  without 
 exaggeration  that  no  power  of  language  could  de- 
 scribe the  varieties,  and  I  may  say  the  cruelties,  in 
 all  these  degradations  of  the  human  form ;  they  stood 
 or  squatted  before  me  in  all  the  shapes  of  the  letters 
 of  the  alphabet.      This  was  the  effect  of  prolonged 
 
Progress  of  Great  Britain.  387 
 
 toil  on  the  tender  frames  of  children  at  early  ages. 
 When  I  visited  Bradford  under  the  limitations  of 
 hours,  some  years  afterward,  I  called  for  a  similar  ex- 
 hibition of  cripples ;  but,  God  be  praised,  there  was 
 not  one  to  be  found  in  that  vast  city.  Yet  the  work 
 of  these  poor  sufferers  had  been  light  if  measured  by 
 minutes,  but  terrific  when  measured  by  hours."  The 
 Ten-hour  Bill  was  rejected  in  1833.  The  opposition 
 was  strong.  In  1838  the  London  Times  came  out  in 
 its  favor.  In  1840  came  his  first  victory  in  an  Act 
 in  favor  of  chimney-sweepers.  It  punished  with  a 
 fine  all  who  should  compel,  or  knowingly  allow,  any 
 one  under  the  age  of  twenty-one  to  be  employed  in 
 this  work.  Fifteen  hundred  young  persons  of  four- 
 teen years  of  age  and  upwards  worked  in  sweeping 
 chimneys,  to  the  permanent  dwarfing  and  crippling 
 of  body  and  mind,  and  yet  this  abuse  was  not  com- 
 pletely done  away  with  until  1875.  In  1840  also  a 
 second  Commission  on  Factory  Labor  was  appointed, 
 and  made  its  report  in  1842.  In  the  same  year  ap- 
 peared also  lyord  Ashley's  article  in  the  Quarterly  Re- 
 view, entitled  "  Infant  Labor." 
 
 The  report  of  the  Commission  in  1842 
 made  public  the  conditions  of  labor  in  the  '^comeri.s^*' 
 coal-mines,    which    would    have    been    re- 
 garded as  beyond  belief  but  for  such  attestations. 
 
 "  The  first  employment  of  a  very  young  child  was 
 that  of  a  *  trapper.'  An  occupation  more  barbarous 
 it  is  difficult  to  conceive.     The  ventilation  ^   _.  ^ 
 
 .        Child  Labor 
 
 of  a  mine  was  a  very    complicated  affair,  and  Women 
 and  can  not  be  easily  described  in  a  few    ^'"**'® 
 
 •'  Collieries. 
 
 words.     Suffice  it  to  say  that  were  a  door 
 
 or  trap  left  open  after  the  passage  of  a  coal  carriage 
 
388     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 through  it,  the  consequences  would  be  very  serious, 
 causing  great  heat  and  closeness  when  the  miners 
 were  at  work,  and  perchance  an  explosion.  Behind 
 each  door,  therefore,  a  little  child,  or  trapper,  was 
 seated,  whose  duty  it  was,  on  hearing  the  approach  of 
 a  whirley,  or  coal  carriage,  to  pull  open  the  door,  and 
 shut  it  again  immediately  after  the  whirley  had  passed. 
 From  the  time  the  first  coal  was  brought  forward  in 
 the  morning,  until  the  last  whirley  had  passed  at 
 night — that  is  to  say,  for  twelve  to  fourteen  hours  a 
 day — the  trapper  was  at  his  monotonous,  deadening 
 work.  He  had  to  sit  alone  in  the  pitchy  darkness  and 
 the  horrible  silence,  exposed  to  damp  and  unable  to 
 stir  for  more  than  a  dozen  paces  with  safety  lest  he 
 should  be  found  neglecting  his  duty,  and  suffer  ac- 
 cordingly. He  dared  not  go  to  sleep ;  the  punish- 
 ment was  the  strap,  applied  with  brutal  severity. 
 Many  of  the  mines  were  infested  with  rats,  mice, 
 beetles,  and  other  vermin,  and  stories  are  told  of  rats 
 so  bold  that  they  would  eat  the  horses'  food  in  the 
 presence  of  miners,  and  have  been  known  to  run  off 
 with  the  lighted  candles  in  their  mouths  and  explode 
 the  gas.  All  the  circumstances  of  a  little  trapper's 
 life  were  full  of  horror,  and  upon  nervous,  sensitive 
 children  the  effect  was  terrible,  producing  a  state  of 
 imbecility  approaching  almost  to  idiocy.  Except  on 
 Sundays,  they  never  saw  the  sun  ;  they  had  no  hours 
 of  relaxation ;  their  meals  were  mostly  eaten  in  the 
 dark,  and  their  'homes'  were  with  parents  who  de- 
 voted them  to  this  kind  of  life. 
 
 "  As  they  grew  older,   the  trappers  passed  on  to 
 other   employments,  '  hurrying,'    *  filling,'  '  riddling,' 
 
Progress  of  Great  Britain.  389 
 
 '  tipping/  and  occasionally  '  getting,'  and  in  these 
 labors  no  distinction  was  made  between  boys  and 
 girls, — in  their  mode  of  work,  in  the  weight  they  car- 
 ried, in  the  distance  they  walked,  in  the  wages  they 
 received,  or  in  their  dress,  which  consisted  of  no  other 
 garment  than  a  ragged  shirt  or  shift,  or  a  pair  of  tat- 
 tered trousers.  '  Hurrying ' — that  is,  loading  small 
 wagons,  called  corves,  with  coals,  and  pushing  them 
 along  a  passage — was  an  utterly  barbarous  labor,  per- 
 formed by  women  as  well  as  by  children.  They  had  to 
 crawl  on  their  hands  and  knees  and  draw  enormous 
 weights  along  shafts  as  narrow  and  as  wet  as  common 
 sewers.  When  the  passages  were  very  narrow,  not 
 more  than  eighteen  or  twenty-four  inches  in  height, 
 boys  and  girls  performed  the  work  by  'girdle  and 
 chain;'  that  is  to  say,  a  girdle  was  put  round  the 
 naked  waist,  to  which  a  chain  from  the  carriage  was 
 hooked  and  passed  between  the  legs,  and,  crawling  on 
 hands  and  knees,  they  drew  the  carriages  after  them. 
 '"Coal  bearing' — carrying  on  their  backs,  on  un- 
 railed  roads,  burdens  varying  from  half  a  hundred 
 weight  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds — was  almost 
 always  performed  by  girls  and  women,  and  it  was  a  com- 
 mon occurrence  for  Itttle  children  of  the  age  of  six  or 
 seven  years  to  carry  burdens  of  coal  of  fifty  pounds 
 weight  up  steps  that,  in  the  aggregate,  equaled  an 
 ascent,  fourteen  times  a  day,  to  the  summit  of  St. 
 Paul's  Cathedral.  The  coal  was  carried  in  a  creel,  or 
 basket,  formed  to  the  back,  the  tugs  or  straps  of  which 
 were  placed  over  the  forehead,  and  the  body  had  to  be 
 bent  almost  double  to  prevent  the  coals,  which  were 
 piled  high  on  to  the  neck,  from  falling  off.     Sometimes 
 
390      History  of  the  Christian  Church, 
 
 tugs  would  break  in  ascending  the  ladder,  when  the 
 consequences  would  always  be  serious,  and  sometimes 
 fatal,  to  those  who  were  immediately  following. 
 
 "Another  form  of  severe  labor  to  which  the  chil- 
 dren of  eight  years  and  upwards  were  frequently  put, 
 was  that  of  pumping  water  in  the  under  bottom  of  the 
 pits.  The  little  workers  stood,  as  a  rule,  ankle-deep 
 in  water,  performing  their  unceasing  tasks  during 
 hours  as  long  as  those  in  the  other  departments  of 
 labor.  It  sometimes  happened  that  the  children  em- 
 ployed in  the  mines  were  required  to  work  *  double 
 shifts' — that  is  to  say,  thirty-six  hours  continuously — 
 and  the  work  thus  cruelly  protracted  consisted,  not  in 
 tending  self-acting  machinery,  but  in  the  heaviest 
 kind  of  bodily  fatigue ;  such  as  pushing  loaded  wagons, 
 lifting  heavy  weights,  or  driving  and  constantly  right- 
 ing trains  of  loaded  corves. 
 
 "  In  addition  to  the  actual  labor,  the  children, 
 especially  the  apprentices,  suffered  terribly  from  the 
 cruelty  of  the  overlookers,  who  bargained  for  them 
 and  used  them  as  they  pleased.  The  revelation  of  the 
 brutal  punishments  inflicted  for  the  most  trifling 
 offenses,  is  too  sickening  to  dwell  upon,  nor  will  we 
 advert  to  the  fact  that  the  food  of  the  children  was 
 almost  invariably  insufficient,  was  of  the  coarsest  kind, 
 and  was  eaten  irregularly. 
 
 "Education  was  totally  neglected,  and  the  morals 
 of  the  people  in  the  lowest  possible  state.  As  a  rule, 
 the  wages  paid  to  laborers  in  the  mines,  and  especially 
 to  the  women  and  children,  were  unreasonably  low, 
 and  in  some  districts  the  iniquitous  'truck  system' 
 prevailed ;  that  is  to  say,  the  people  were  not  paid  in 
 money,  but  by  advances  of  goods  from  a  shop  in  the 
 
Progress  of  Great  Britain.  391 
 
 neighborhood  where  the  necessaries  of  life  were  dearer 
 by  twenty-five  per  cent  than  in  shops  farther  ofif." 
 
 The  result  of  these  regulations  was  the  passage  of 
 the  Collieries  Act  of  1843.      A  second  report  of  the 
 same  Commission  on  Child  Labor  was  made 
 in    1843.      Lord   Shaftesbury   told   of  the    ^[^of'fs^": 
 labor  in  the  brickfields  : 
 
 "  I  saw  little  children  three  parts  naked,  tottering 
 under  the  weight  of  wet  clay,  some  of  it  on  their  heads 
 and  some  of  it  on  their  shoulders,  and  little  girls  with 
 large  masses  of  wet,  cold,  and  dripping  clay  pressing 
 on  their  abdomens.  Moreover,  the  unhappy  children 
 were  exposed  to  the  most  sudden  transitions  of  heat 
 and  cold;  for  after  carrying  their  burdens  of  wet  clay, 
 they  had  to  endure  the  heat  of  the  kilns,  and  to  enter 
 places  where  the  heat  was  so  fierce  that  I  was  not  my- 
 self able  to  remain  more  than  two  or  three  minutes. 
 Can  it  be  denied  that  in  these  brickfields,  men,  women, 
 and  children,  especially  poor  female  children,  are 
 brought  down  to  a  point  of  degradation  and  suffering 
 lower  than  the  beasts  of  the  field?" 
 
 As  a  result  of  these  reports  came  the  Factory  Acts 
 of  1844.  These  provided  that  no  woman  of  whatever 
 age  should  be  employed  in  any  mill  or  factory  more 
 than  twelve  hours  a  day ;  that  no  children  should  work 
 over  six  hours;  and  gave  protection  against  accident, 
 mutilation,  or  death  from  unguarded  machinery.  It 
 was  found  that,  in  the  calico-print  works,  children 
 were  employed  from  seven  to  nine  years  of  age,  and 
 sometimes  when  but  three  or  four.  Girls  and  adults 
 worked  sixteen  and  eighteen  hours  a  day,  and  of 
 course,  the  wages  were  "  extremely  low."  These 
 abuses  were  remedied  by  the  Print  Works  Act  of  1845. 
 
392     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 lyord  Ashley,  in  1844,  had  carried  a  Ten-hour  Bill 
 through  the  House  of  Commons,  but  Sir  Robert  Peel 
 made  the  victory  useless  by  the  threat  of  resignation ; 
 but  the  victory  came  May  18,  1847,  when  the  Factory 
 Act  was  passed,  which  limited  the  labor  of  all  young 
 persons,  until  May  11,  1848,  to  sixty-three  hours,  and 
 after  that  to  fifty-eight  hours  per  week.  This  limited 
 the  hours  of  three-quarters  of  the  operatives  in  textile 
 industries.  The  courts  rendered  this  act  largely  in- 
 effective through  admitting  a  system  of  relays  which 
 rendered  it  impossible  to  detect  infractions  of  the  law. 
 But  by  the  Factory  Act  of  July,  1850,  the  mills  could 
 run  only  from  6  A.  M.  to  6  P.  M.,  with  an  intermis- 
 sion of  one  and  a  half  hours  for  meals.  This  was  the 
 working-day  for  all  young  persons  and  women,  and  on 
 Saturdays  they  could  not  work  after  two  o'clock  in  the 
 afternoon. 
 
 Three  years  later,  children  between  eight  and 
 thirteen  years  of  age  were  given  the  same  protection ; 
 that  is,  they  could  work  only  between  6  A.  M.  and  6 
 P.  M.  This  has  ever  since  been  the  normal  day  in 
 English  factories,  making  ten  and  a  half  hours  the 
 length  of  the  working  day.  This  was  an  immense  vic- 
 tory. No  other  in  the  same  cause  will  meet  equal  op- 
 position, or  cost  equal  endeavor,  or  meet  equal  need. 
 
 Few  harder  fights  have   ever  been  won  against 
 
 greater  odds.     Against    Lord    Shaftesbury    were  the 
 
 capitalists  and  the  statesmen,  as  well  as  the 
 
 Obstacles.  _  _^__.  ,      ,  ,  ,. 
 
 factory  owners.  With  them  were  the  polit- 
 ical economists  and  free  traders.  The  clergy  sided 
 with  the  strong  against  the  weak.  It  seems  strange 
 to  find  names  everywhere  mentioned  as  the  leaders  of 
 English   political  thought  against  a  remedy  for  this 
 
Progress  of  Great  Britain.  393 
 
 peculiarly  base  form  01  oppression.  Sir  Robert  Peel, 
 Lord  Russell,  Richard  Cobden,  John  Bright,  and  Wil- 
 liam E.  Gladstone,  with  Brougham  and  Harriet  Mar- 
 tineau,  led  the  opposition  to  this  most  needed  and 
 beneficent  legislation.  Bright  was  Shaftesbury's  bit- 
 terest opponent.  Gladstone  never  voted  for  a  single 
 measure  of  relief.  Cobden  and  Lord  John  Russell 
 changed  in  time  to  help  somewhat,  but  Macaulay  was 
 the  only  man  of  large  influence  who  spoke  for  the 
 bill, — a  fact  Lord  Shaftesbury  never  forgot.  The  time 
 came  when  all  men  praised  him.  Sir  James  Graham, 
 who  led  the  hosts  against  him,  regretted  his  course; 
 but  that  was  long  after  the  fighting  was  done.  Slavery 
 in  the  British  Colonies  was  abolished  in  1833.  After  the 
 work  of  Wilberforce  and  Buxton  stands  the  remedial 
 industrial  legislation  of  Lord  Shaftesbury. 
 
 This  work  did  not  cease  with  the  Acts  of  1850  and 
 1853,  above  mentioned,  nor  with  the  life  of  Lord 
 Shaftesbury.  In  i860,  the  bleach  and  dye  works,  and 
 the  year  following  the  lace  works,  were  brought  under 
 the  Factory  Acts.  As  yet  none  of  this  legislation  had 
 affected  the  conditions  of  the  poorest-paid  workmen, 
 those  tilling  the  ground.  The  conditions  of  agricul- 
 tural child-labor  called  urgently  for  legislation. 
 
 This  was  a  system  of  revolting  cruelty,  under  which 
 the  maximum  of  labor  was  obtained  for  the  minimum 
 of  remuneration,  by  extortionate  gang-mas- 
 ters, who  monopolized  all  the  children  in  a      'aangs"*^* 
 district  in  order  that  they  might  not  be  in- 
 dependently employed. 
 
 "The  gangs  are  collected  in  the  morning,  mar- 
 shaled by  the  gangsmen,  and  driven  off  into  the  fields 
 to  clear  it  of  weeds,  to  spread  manure,  to  thin  the  car- 
 
394     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 rots  and  mangel-wurzel,  to  pick  off  stones  from  the 
 land,  or  to  gather  in  root-crops.  At  a  rapid  pace  they 
 were  driven  long  distances  to  the  scene  of  their  labors; 
 the  footsore  and  weary  children,  not  more  than  six  or 
 seven  years  of  age,  being  dragged  by  their  elders  and 
 goaded  on  by  the  brutal  gangsmen.  Year  in,  year 
 out,  in  summer  heat  and  winter  cold,  in  sickness  and 
 in  health ;  with  backs  warped  and  aching  from  con- 
 stant stooping ;  with  hands  cracked  and  swollen  at  the 
 back  by  the  wind,  and  cold,  and  wet ;  with  palms  blis- 
 tered from  pulling  turnips,  and  fingers  lacerated  from 
 weeding  among  stones, — these  English  slaves,  with 
 education  neglected,  with  morals  corrupted,  depraved 
 and  brutalized,  labored  from  early  morning  till  late  at 
 night,  and,  by  the  loss  of  all  things,  gained  the  miser- 
 able pittance  that  barely  kept  them  from  starvation." 
 
 The  Agricultural  Bill  of  August,  1861,  abolished 
 these  gangs,  and  another  Factory  Act  brought  every 
 branch  of  juvenile  labor  under  the  supervision  of  the 
 government.  The  Mines  Act  of  1872,  required  every 
 mine  to  be  under  the  constant  supervision  of  a  man- 
 ager holding  a  government  certificate,  obtained  only 
 upon  examination.  The  legislation  since  has  been  to 
 secure  against  damage  or  injury  by  accident,  to  guard 
 the  specially  dangerous  occupations,  like  the  white- 
 lead  industry,  and  associations  to  protect  employees 
 who  testify  of  infractions  of  the  law  by  employers — 
 until  all  were  consolidated  in  the  Factory  and  Work- 
 shop Acts  of  1 90 1. 
 
 Lord  Shaftesbury  lived  past  his  eighty-sixth  birth- 
 day. He  had  been  interested  in  the  Bible  Society  and 
 Christian  work  of  every  kind  as  became  an  "  Evan- 
 gelical of  the  Evangelicals,"  and  in  the  ragged  schools. 
 
Progress  of  Great  Britain.  395 
 
 and  in  training  ships  for  boys,  as  much  as  in  sanitary 
 and  factory  legislation,  with  which  his  name  will  ever 
 be  connected.  Well  he  wrought ;  for  his  name  and 
 work  mark  an  era,  not  only  in  the  social  and  indus- 
 trial progress  of  Great  Britain,  but  in  the  history  of 
 the  world  and  of  Christian  civilization.  From  his  day 
 the  conditions  of  the  world's  workers,  and  of  the  chil- 
 dren of  the  poor — yes,  of  the  slums — concerns  us  all. 
 The  social  question,  the  condition  of  the  toiling 
 masses  of  the  population  of  the  world,  is  every  man's 
 question.  No  society,  no  Church,  no  nation,  no  man, 
 can  shirk  it.  It  is  with  us,  and  it  will  be  helped  with 
 the  advance  of  the  cross  of  Him  who  toiled  at  the 
 bench  of  the  carpenter. 
 
Chapter  IV. 
 
 THE  SCIENTIFIC  MOVEMENT. 
 
 The  century  was  marked  as  no  other  has  been  by 
 scientific  discoveries  and  resultant  theories  and  in- 
 ventions. As  these  affected  the  thinking  and  the  life 
 of  men,  they  could  not  but  affect  the  work  and  history 
 of  the  Christian  Church.  If  the  scientific  teaching, 
 that  man's  body  is  an  evolution  in  a  progressive  de- 
 velopment running  through  the  geologic  ages,  is  estab- 
 lished, then  it  must  affect  our  thinking  upon  the  great 
 facts  concerning  God  and  man  and  their  relations  to 
 each  other,  which  we  call  theology.  If  men  talk  with 
 the  lightning,  and  human  speech  takes  almost  equal 
 wing  with  human  thought,  and  one  may  traverse  the 
 circle  of  the  globe  in  sixty  days,  it  has  immediate 
 practical  bearing  on  the  work  of  Christian  missions. 
 The  revolving  press,  the  stereotype  and  photographic 
 reproductions  through  the  half-tone  process,  bring 
 in  a  new  era  in  the  history  and  distribution  of  Chris- 
 tian literature,  as  well  as  in  the  advance  to  a  universal 
 dissemination  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  and  an  ability  to 
 read  them.  These  things  have  changed  the  face  of  the 
 Christian  world  and  the  activities  of  its  life.  No  true 
 history  of  the  Christian  Church  can  be  written  that 
 does  not  give  them  place  therein. 
 
 The  discoveries  in  astronomy  revealed  something 
 396 
 
The  Scientific  Movement.  397 
 
 of  the  magnitude  and  constitution  of  the  solar  and 
 sidereal  systems.  I^ittle  as  we  know,  or  can  realize, 
 the  ultimate  facts  of  the  worlds  in  sidereal 
 
 .  .  Astronomy. 
 
 space,    their  origin,  or  their   destiny,    we 
 
 know  immeasurably  more  of,  and  about,  them  than 
 
 ever  men  before  have  known. 
 
 In  the  eighteenth  century,  Herschel  discovered 
 Uranus,  thus  adding  a  planet  to  the  solar  system. 
 Leverrier,  having  finished  his  calculations  at  Paris, 
 told  Galle  at  Berlin  to  point  his  telescope  to  a  certain 
 spot  in  the  heavens,  and  September  23,  1846,  the  planet 
 Neptune  stood  revealed  to  his  vision,  and  to  the  knowl- 
 edge of  all  mankind.  In  1848,  L<asell  discovered  the 
 moons,  and  in  1850,  Professor  Bond,  of  Harvard,  the 
 inner  ring  of  Saturn.  In  1877,  Professor  Hall,  of 
 Washington,  discovered  the  moons  of  Mars.  In  1801, 
 Piazzi  discovered  Ceres,  the  first  asteroid.  Since  then 
 some  four  hundred  in  number  have  been  added.  Dr. 
 Olbers,  in  18 19,  declared  that  the  comet's  tail,  which 
 used  to  cause  so  much  terror,  was  but  a  filmy  vapor ; 
 and  this  was  proved,  notably  in  1 86 1 .  The  Herschels, 
 father  and  son,  turned  their  attention  to  the  stars; 
 they  discovered  the  double  stars,  and  their  elliptical 
 orbits  were  proved.  They  seem  to  be  the  center  of 
 systems  of  worlds,  as  stars  have  been  proven  to  have 
 planet  satellites  like  our  sun.  The  Herschels  found 
 thousands  of  double  stars.  Struve  and  his  successor 
 found  ten  thousand  more;  Dr.  Burnham,  of  Chicago, 
 added  thousands  to  these ;  so  the  great  work  of  map- 
 ping the  heavens  has  gone  on,  largely  aided  by  the 
 processes  of  celestial  photography.  In  1838,  Bessel 
 found  the  parallax  of  a  star,  and  calculated  that  the 
 nearest  star  is  200,000  times  the  distance  of  the  sun 
 
398      History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 from  us,  or  18,600,000,000,000  of  miles  from  the 
 earth. 
 
 We  might  think  that  we  could  have  no  relation 
 with  a  universe  so  far  from  us,  but  the  velocity  of  light 
 was  directly  ascertained  as  182,000  miles  a  second. 
 A  train  traveling  at  that  rate  will  reach  Arcturus  in 
 twenty  days.  But  this  universe  was  brought  infinitely 
 nearer  to  us  through  the  discovery,  by  Kirchoff  and 
 Bunsen  in  1859,  by  means  of  the  spectroscope,  that 
 the  chemical  elements  in  the  sun  are  the  same  as  those 
 we  find  in  our  globe.  The  same  has  proved  true  of 
 the  stars,  so  that  we  can  speak  certainly  of  a  sameness 
 of  constitution  and  a  unity  of  nature  throughout  the 
 physical  universe.  The  theories  known  as  the  nebular 
 hypothesis,  those  regarding  the  results  of  the  dissipa- 
 tion of  energy,  and  those  of  tidal  friction  on  the  rota- 
 tion of  the  earth,  are  but  guesses.  They  are  the  best 
 guesses  we  have,  but  they  are  to  be  carefully  discrim- 
 inated from  verified  facts.  Astronomy  has  no  room 
 for  polytheism ;  there  is  no  God  but  one. 
 
 In  1 78 1,  Dr.  Hutton  set  forth  the  theory  of  the 
 
 formation  of  the  crust  of  the  earth,  or  its  surface  and 
 
 underlying  rocks,  as  caused  by  stratifica- 
 
 Qeology.  ^       o  »  j  - 
 
 tions  in  lake  and  ocean  beds,  the  metamor- 
 phosis of  these  by  heat,  and  then  their  erosion  by  rain, 
 heat,  wind,  and  frost.  In  the  latter  years  of  the  same 
 century  an  English  surveyor,  William  Smith,  claimed 
 that  the  fossil  shells  to  be  seen  in  the  strata  repre- 
 sented successive  populations  of  living  creatures.  In 
 the  early  years  of  the  nineteenth  century  Cuvier,  of 
 Paris,  proved  this  to  be  the  case  with  a  large  suc- 
 cession of  animal  life  of  different  types.  In  1809, 
 Lamarck  set  forth  the  theory  that  there  had  been  a 
 
The  Scientific  Movement.  399 
 
 progression  of  life  on  the  globe  and  the  transmission 
 of  species  through  the  pressure  of  the  environment 
 upon  the  organism ;  but  this  Cuvier  would  not  admit. 
 In  the  meantime  the  strata  of  the  earth's  crust  were 
 carefully  studied  and  classified  in  relation  to  their 
 succession  and  the  succession  of  life  upon  the  globe, 
 by  Murchison  and  Sedgwick,  of  England.  Thus  we 
 have  the  Laurentian  before  records  of  life  appear  in 
 the  rocks;  the  Silurian,  with  invertebrate  remains; 
 the  Devonian,  or  age  of  fishes;  the  Carboniferous,  or 
 era  of  the  coal  measures ;  these  three  form  the  Paleo- 
 zoic ages.  Then  we  have  the  Mesozoic,  or  age  of 
 reptiles;  the  Tertiary,  or  age  of  mammals;  and  the 
 Quaternary,  or  the  age  of  man. 
 
 In  1823  the  fossil  remains  of  huge  reptiles  were 
 found.  In  1845  a  mastodon  was  found  at  Newburg, 
 N.  Y.,  and  many  since.  In  1 870-1 876  Professor 
 Marsh,  of  Yale,  made  the  greatest  of  these  discover- 
 ies in  the  Black  Hills  of  Wyoming.  He  found  three 
 hundred  new  Tertiary  species,  two  hundred  birds 
 with  teeth,  six  hundred  flying  dragons  or  pterodac- 
 tyls, and  fifteen  hundred  sea-serpents  or  mosasaurus. 
 In  1830,  Sir  Charles  I^yell  claimed  that  the  phenom- 
 ena of  the  earth's  crust  could  be  accounted  for  by  the 
 action  of  forces  now  effective  in  fashioning  it.  This 
 displaced  the  theory  of  cataclysms,  but  itself  suffered 
 some  modifications,  notably  by  the  glacial  theory  of 
 Professor  Agassiz,  who  proved,  in  1858,  that  Northern 
 Europe  to  the  Alps,  and  North  America  to  about  the 
 latitude  of  New  York  City,  had  at  one  time  been 
 covered  by  a  great  ice-sheet. 
 
 In  1859,  Charles  Darwin  published  his  theory  of 
 the  origin  and  transmutation  of  species  of  organic 
 
400    History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 beings,  which  had  been  independently  worked  out  by- 
 Alfred  Russell  Wallace.  Darwin  had  given  over 
 twenty  years  to  this  work.  His  "Origin  of  Species" 
 is  a  model  of  thorough  scientific  investigation  and  of 
 careful  and  impartial  statement.  The  argument  was 
 not  carried  to  the  origin  of  the  human  body  until 
 1871  in  the  "  Descent  of  Man."  The  excitement 
 caused  by  these  publications  was  immense.  The 
 claims  of  many  of  the  advocates  of  the  theory  were 
 as  exaggerated  as  the  fears  of  its  opponents.  The 
 discoveries  of  Professor  Marsh  showed  conclusively 
 that  there  had  been  a  development  of  species  through 
 the  geologic  eras.  The  discoveries  of  Von  Baer  and 
 his  successors  in  embryology  showed  that  the  human 
 body  before  birth  went  through,  and  recapitulated, 
 the  history  of  animal  development  on  the  earth 
 through  fish,  reptile,  and  other  divisions  up  to  man. 
 This  seemed  to  make  sure  that  the  human  body  is  the 
 product  of  evolution. 
 
 Sir  Charles  Lyell  then  claimed  that  man  had  been 
 from  an  indefinite  antiquity  an  inhabitant  of  the  earth. 
 In  1865  there  was  discovered  in  a  cave  in  Dordogne, 
 in  France,  a  mammoth's  tusk  with  a  rude  drawing 
 of  a  mammoth  upon  it.  This  was  thought  to  prove 
 that  man  was  a  contemporary  of  the  mammoth, 
 and  was  here  before  the  glacial  period.  Indeed,  such 
 was  the  furore  and  assurance  of  scientific  men  that 
 Professor  Tyndall,  in  his  Belfast  Address  in  1874,  did 
 not  hesitate  to  say  that  he  saw  "in  matter  the  promise 
 and  potency  of  every  form  of  life." 
 
 The  tide  has  receded,  and  we  find  that  the  origin 
 of  man's  body  does  not  account  for  his  intellectual 
 and  moral  being  or  for  his  spiritual  nature;    that  the 
 
The  Scientific  Movement.  401 
 
 whole  question  of  evolution  is  a  question  of  tendency 
 and  final  purpose  as  well  as  of  origin;  and  that  to 
 so  ardent  an  evolutionist  as  John  Fiske,  the  author  of 
 "Cosmic  Philosophy,"  evolution  offers  the  strongest 
 evidence  for  the  existence  of  God,  the  spiritual  na- 
 ture of  man,  and  the  immortality  of  the  soul. 
 
 Thomas  Young  (i  773-1 829),  a  Quaker  by  birth 
 and  a  physician  by  profession,  was  one  of  the  remark- 
 able men  of  the  century.     At  four  years  of 
 
 Physics. 
 
 age  he  had  read  the  Bible  twice  through, 
 and  at  fourteen  he  could  write  in  fourteen  different 
 languages.  He  was  learned  as  an  Egyptologist. 
 He  came  to  lyondon  in  180 1.  In  November  of  that 
 year  he  read  his  **  Theory  of  Light  and  Colors."  He 
 developed  the  undulatory  theory  of  Huyghens  and 
 Kuler,  and  added  to  it  in  showing  the  length  of  light 
 waves,  and  the  interference  of  the  undulations  of  dif- 
 ferent colors.  In  1807  he  showed  that  electric  and  gal- 
 vanic effects  were  the  same.  In  181 8  he  developed  his 
 theory  of  luminiferous  ether  as  a  continuous,  incom- 
 pressible body,  possessing  rigidity  and  elasticity,  and 
 gave  the  name  "  energy  "  to  the  mode  of  motion. 
 
 In  18 15,  Fresnel  proved  the  different  wave-lengths 
 in  different  colors,  ahd  also  the  polarization  of  light 
 before  shown  by  Malus  and  Arago.  In  1806,  Davy 
 proved  chemical  and  electrical  attraction  to  be  alike; 
 in  the  former  acting  on  particles,  in  the  latter  on 
 masses.  In  18 18  the  Dane,  Oersted,  showed  that  a 
 current  of  electricity  deflected  the  magnetic  needle. 
 This  is  the  basal  discovery  in  the  development  of  the 
 electric  telegraph.  In  1827,  Ohm  stated  his  law  of 
 electrical  resistance.  In  1831,  Michael  Faraday,  called 
 "the  greatest  experimental  philosopher  the  world  has 
 26 
 
402      History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 ever  seen,"  and  a  devout  Christian,  proved  galvanism 
 and  all  forms  of  electricity  to  be  identical,  and  that 
 electricity  and  chemical  action  are  convertible.  "  He 
 linked  together  light,  chemical  affinity,  magnetism, 
 and  electricity,  and  in  1840  was  on  the  verge  of  the 
 discovery  of  the  conservation  of  force."  In  1843, 
 James  P.  Joule  demonstrated  the  absolute  equiva- 
 lence between  mechanical  work  and  heat.  He  showed 
 that  a  pound  weight  falling  through  seven  hundred 
 and  seventy-two  feet  at  the  level  of  the  sea  will 
 always  raise  one  pound  of  water  one  degree  Fahren- 
 heit in  temperature.  This  showed  that  heat,  light, 
 electricity,  and  magnetism  are  mutually  convertible, 
 and  that  force,  like  matter,  is  never  used  up  and  lost, 
 but  merely  takes  another  form.  This  is  the  epoch- 
 making  discovery  in  physics.  In  1863,  Professor 
 Clerk  Maxwell  proved  that  the  wave-lengths  of  light 
 and  electro-magnetism  are  the  same,  and  that  heat, 
 light,  and  electricity  travel  at  the  same  velocity. 
 These  results  were  reached  independently  by  Helm- 
 holtz.  In  1859,  Professor  Clark  Maxwell  developed 
 the  kinetic  theory  of  gases,  showing  that  all  the  phe- 
 nomena of  gases  are  due  to  the  motion  of  the  widely- 
 separated  molecules  of  which  they  are  composed. 
 Thus  the  density  of  matter  from  solids  to  fluids, 
 gases,  and  ultra  gaseous  matter,  depends  upon  the 
 number  of  molecules  in  a  given  volume  of  the  sub- 
 stance. Upon  this  basis  we  have  liquefied  gases  and 
 air  through  lowering  the  temperature.  Thus  the 
 names  of  Young,  Faraday,  Joule,  and  Maxwell,  with 
 Oersted  and  Helmholtz,  mark  the  great  stages  in  the 
 advance  of  this  branch  of  science. 
 
 In  1803,  John  Daltoti  (i 776-1 844),  also  a  Quaker, 
 
The  Scientific  Movement.  403 
 
 a  teacher  and  careful  student,  read  his  paper  on  the 
 atomic  weights  of  chemical  elements.  In  1809,  Gay 
 Lussac  showed  the  volumes  of  combining 
 elements.  In  181 1,  Avogadro  gave  the  law  ^"'^  ^^' 
 that  there  was  an  equal  number  of  molecules  in  equal 
 volumes  of  gases.  In  the  same  year  Berzelius  gave 
 us  our  chemical  nomenclature.  In  18 19,  Dulong  and 
 Petit  proved  that  the  specific  heats  of  solids  vary  in- 
 versely as  their  atomic  weights.  Wohler,  in  1828, 
 made  the  first  organic  compound,  urea.  Frankland, 
 in  1852,  showed  the  valency  or  number  of  chemical 
 afiinities  each  element  may  have  at  one  time,  on  which 
 the  new  chemistry  is  built.  Newlands,  in  1864,  showed 
 the  law  of  recurring  serial  proportions  in  atomic 
 weights.  All  through  the  century  the  discovery  of 
 new  chemical  elements  went  on.  Priestley  and  Caven- 
 dish had  given  us  oxygen  and  hydrogen ;  Davy  gave 
 us  barium,  strontium,  calcium,  potassium,  and  sodium ; 
 boron,  cerium,  selenium,  silicon,  zirconium,  and 
 thorium  were  added  by  Berzelius.  Courtois  discov- 
 ered iodine;  Gay  I^ussac,  cyanogen;  and  Ballard, 
 bromine— quite  a  chemical  outfit  for  the  first  twenty- 
 five  years  of  the  century.  But  it  was  added  to  in  each 
 decade,  and  never  more  surprisingly  that  in  the 
 closing  one,  illustrated  by  the  arrival  of  argon  and 
 krj^pton,  radium,  and  a  half-dozen  other  new  chemical 
 elements.  The  advance  in  organic  chemistry  had  been 
 equally  marvelous.  The  X-ray  of  Professor  Rontgen, 
 in  1895,  fitly  crowned  an  era  of  great  discoveries. 
 
 The  next  department  of  scientific  investigation 
 and  achievement  is  of  interest  to  us  ail,  as  it  relates  to 
 the  increased  knowledge  of  the  human  body.  Be- 
 fore  the  opening  of  the  century  Kaspar  Wolff  had 
 
404     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 shown  that  the  cell  was  the  basis  of  organic  life.     In 
 
 1790,  Goethe  had   taught  the  metamorphosis  of  the 
 
 parts,  as  in  plants  all  parts  are  developed 
 
 The  Human     j^^^^  ^j^^  ^^^^      Bichat  had  also  pointed  out 
 
 the  fundamental  tissues  of  the  human  body. 
 Spallanzi,  of  Pavia,  had  shown  that  digestion  and  res- 
 piration involved  a  chemical  process ;  and  Jenner,  in 
 1796,  had  introduced  vaccination. 
 
 The  invention  of  the  compound  microscope  in  1830 
 made  possible  further  knowledge  of  the  fundamental 
 life  of  the  cell.  The  year  previous,  Von  Baer  made 
 known  his  great  researches  in  embryology.  In  1839, 
 Schwann  published  his  conclusions  as  to  the  likeness 
 of  cell  life  in  plants  and  animals.  In  i860,  Virchow 
 showed  that  all  cells  were  produced  from  cells,  and  the 
 nucleus  in  them  from  other  nuclei.  In  the  same  year 
 protoplasm  was  declared  to  be  the  common  basis  of 
 life  in  the  plant  and  animal  cells.  In  1825,  the  case 
 of  Alexis  St.  Martin,  whose  wound  allowed  the  inspec- 
 tion of  his  stomach  during  digestion,  led  to  much 
 better  knowledge  of  the  process.  In  1836  came  the 
 discovery  of  the  functions  of  the  pancreas,  and  about 
 i860  came  the  discovery,  by  Bernard,  of  those  of  the 
 liver.  In  1865,  Kuhn  discovered  the  functions  of 
 haemoglobin  in  the  blood.  In  1811,  Sir  Charles  Bell 
 distinguished  between  the  motor  and  sensory  impulses 
 of  the  brain.  In  1832,  Marshall  Hall  showed  the  cause 
 of  the  reflex  action  of  the  muscles  in  the  different 
 nervous  centers,  or  ganglia,  outside  of  the  brain.  In 
 1 85 1,  Claude  Bernard  pointed  out  that  the  chief  func- 
 tion of  the  sympathetic  fibrils  of  ganglia,  etc.,  is  to 
 cause  the  contraction  of  the  walls  of  the  arteries  of 
 
The  Scientific  Movement.  405 
 
 the  system,  thus  regulating  the  flow  of  blood.  In 
 1858,  he  showed  the  inhibitions  by  nerve  action.  In 
 1 85 1,  Helmholtz  proved  that  the  speed  of  nerve  im- 
 pulse was  less  than  one  hundred  feet  a  second.  The 
 next  year  appeared  Lotze's  "Medical  Psychology," 
 and  eight  years  later  Fechner's  *'  Psychophysics." 
 Fechner  was  the  author  of  the  term,  "  physiological 
 psychology."  Wundt  showed  elaborately  the  action 
 and  response  to  nerve  stimuli  and  the  time  of  nerve 
 action.  Baird,  in  1841,  had  shown  the  phenomena 
 of  hypnotism,  which  was  anew  examined  in  these 
 psychological  laboratories.  All  this  study  of  the  nerv- 
 ous system  led  to  a  closer  examination  of  the  brain. 
 In  1 86 1,  by  an  autopsy  of  a  speechless  patient,  Paul 
 Broca  showed  a  particular  tract  of  the  brain  was  de- 
 stroyed, since  called  Broca's  convolution.  In  1870 
 and  1873,  Fritsch  and  Hitzig  and  Dr.  David  Ferrier 
 made  clear  that  the  stimulations  of  the  brain  cortex 
 of  animals  by  a  galvanic  current  produced  contractions 
 of  definite  sets  of  nerves  on  the  opposite  sides  of  the 
 body.  In  1889,  Dr.  Cajal  showed  that  each  central 
 nerve  brain  cell  has  fibrilar  offshoots  and  is  an  inde- 
 pendent entity. 
 
 If  any  are  inclined  to  think  that  the  knowledge  of 
 the  brain  and  nervous  system  tends  to  show  that  man 
 has  and  needs  nothing  besides  his  physical  organism 
 to  explain  his  being  and  its  capacity,  it  may  reassure 
 them  to  find  that  Professor  William  James,  of  Har- 
 vard, than  whom  no  American  psychologist  stands 
 higher  in  Europe,  most  pointedly  and  emphatically 
 defends  the  spiritual  nature  of  man  and  his  spiritual 
 relationships.    The  Rontgen  rays  have  made  clear  the 
 
4o6     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 bony  skeleton  of  the  living  body,  and  we  await  a  like 
 revelation  of  the  condition  of  the  tissues  and  organs  ot 
 the  viscera. 
 
 The  inventions  of  the  age  made  possible  a  wonder- 
 ful advance  in  surgery  and  therapeutics.     Indeed,  we 
 have  now  solid  foundations  for   scientific 
 
 Medicine.  ,  -r^       ,  ,r  i  • 
 
 medicine.  In  1846,  Dr.  Morton  made  evi- 
 dent the  value  of  ether  as  an  anaesthetic,  a  boon  to 
 suffering  humanity  and  to  the  brute  creatures  never 
 surpassed.  The  next  year  followed  the  use  of  chloro- 
 form, and  some  thirty  years  later  that  of  cocaine  for 
 minor  operations.  These  made  possible  a  multitude 
 of  operations  never  before  dreamed  of.  The  electric- 
 light  illumination,  without  heat,  was  a  great  aid,  and 
 in  cases  of  injury,  the  X-rays,  like  Laennec's  auscula- 
 tion  and  stethoscope  in  181 9,  wrought  a  revolution  in 
 diagnosis.  Perhaps  of  even  greater  value,  so  far  as 
 restoration  to  health  is  concerned,  was  Dr.  Lister's  an- 
 tiseptic surgery  made  public  in  1877.  This  banished 
 surgical  fever  from  the  hospitals  and  nearly  doubled 
 the  chances  of  recovery.  The  work  of  the  surgeon 
 was  helped  out  by  the  invention  of  improved  artificial 
 legs  in  1846,  and  human  health  and  beauty  preserved 
 by  the  advance  in  dentistry ;  notably  the  use  of  rub- 
 ber plates  from  1864,  and  bridge-work  from  1871. 
 
 New  therapeutic  agents  were  discovered  from  qui- 
 nine in  1820,  to  antipyrine  in  1884;  but  the  great 
 change  came  with  the  discovery  of  the  germ  theory  of 
 disease.  This  began  with  the  discovery,  by  the  med- 
 ical faculty,  of  what  had  long  been  known  by  the 
 common  people,  that  the  itch  was  caused  by  an  animal 
 parasite.  In  1833,  trichina  had  been  distinguished, 
 but  not  discovered  in  pork  until  1847.     In  1839,  the 
 
The  Scientific  Movement.  407 
 
 parasite  nature  of  a  scalp  disease,  favus,  was  made 
 evident.  Here  matters  rested  until  the  advent  of  the 
 master  of  bacteriology,  Louis  Pasteur,  who  well  may 
 be  called  the  founder  of  modern  scientific  medicine, 
 and  who,  his  life  long,  was  a  devout  Christian.  In 
 1854  he  began  his  investigation  of  the  process  offer- 
 mentation,  and  in  1865  came  his  epoch-making  work 
 in  bacteriology.  In  1877  he  had  not  only  proved  the 
 nature  of  the  contagious  diseases  of  cattle  and  sheep, 
 known  as  anthrax,  but  had  worked  out  an  antidote. 
 
 In  1 88 1  he  gave  as  convincing  a  demonstration  of 
 the  value  of  his  antitoxine  treatment  as  is  known  in 
 the  annals  of  medicine.  Many  others  carried  on  the 
 work  begun  by  him.  In  1882  came  the  discovery  of 
 the  bacilli  of  tuberculosis,  by  Koch,  and  of  hydropho- 
 bia by  Pasteur.  Two  years  later  came  the  discovery 
 of  those  of  cholera,  diphtheria,  and  lockjaw,  and  a 
 little  later  that  of  yellow  fever. 
 
 The  culture  and  preparation  of  antidotes,  or  anti- 
 toxine, has  gone  on  apace.  That  of  diphtheria,  used 
 from  1894,  has  been  the  most  successful,  and  has  re- 
 duced the  death  rate  from  malignant  diphtheria  from 
 30  to  60  per  cent.  Others  in  use  before  the  end  of 
 the  century  were  those  for  lockjaw,  cholera,  typhus 
 fever,  pneumonia,  and  tuberculosis.  Looking  over 
 this  record,  we  can  only  exclaim,  *' What  power  and 
 blessing  have  come  to  all  men  from  the  larger  knowl- 
 edge of  the  works  of  God!" 
 
 From  this  discovery  of  scientific  principles  re- 
 sulted the  application  of  them  by  inventors  in  ways 
 that  transformed  the  ordinary  methods  of    . 
 
 .  r  c\  Invention. 
 
 business,  social,  and  political  life.     Such  a 
 
 process  is  clearly  seen  in  the  electric  telegraph  and  in 
 
4o8     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 electric  lighting.  In  other  cases  the  need  and  the 
 ingenuity  of  man  came  together,  without  the  develop- 
 ment of  any  new  principles,  and  yet  made  the  farm 
 and  the  home  and  their  industries  something  different 
 from  what  had  ever  before  been  known  by  men,  as  in 
 the  case  of  the  mower  and  reaper  and  steam-thresher, 
 and  the  sewing  and  knitting  machines.  The  amount 
 of  change  and  the  atmosphere  of  change  in  which  the 
 men  of  the  last  fifty  years  of  the  century  lived,  can 
 scarcely  be  appreciated  except  by  a  slight  retrospect. 
 
 First,  imagine  how  much  has  been  done  to  make 
 
 light  this  world  when  the  sun  goes  down.     In  1804 
 
 the  first  gas  company  was  organized,  and  in 
 
 ^  *'  18 12  London  was  the  first  city  in  the  world 
 to  be  lighted  with  gas.  In  1827  friction  matches  were 
 invented.  The  light  for  the  common  man,  or  coal-oil, 
 was  discovered  in  1859.  Some  ten  years  later  natural 
 gas  came  to  be  used  for  fuel  and  illuminating  pur- 
 poses. In  1885  the  Welsbach  burner  was  invented, 
 which  increased  the  light  and  diminished  the  cost; 
 while  in  1893  acetylene  gas  came  to  the  front  as  an 
 illuminant,  but  has  yet  to  make  good  its  claims. 
 Meanwhile  electricity  stepped  in  to  take  the  place 
 of  the  sun.  It  was  first  placed  in  a  lighthouse  in 
 1858,  and  used  to  light  dwellings  the  year  following; 
 but  it  made  slow  progress  until  the  invention  of 
 Edison's  incandescent  lamps  in  1878.  Since  then  our 
 lights  for  streets,  and  incandescent  lamps  for  stores 
 and  houses,  have  turned  night  into  day. 
 
 Besides  this,  light  has  been  made  to  paint  and 
 draw  for  us  in  a  way  which  makes  the  common  pos- 
 session of  the  people  the  beauty  and  the  grandeur  of 
 nature  and  the  best  work  of  the  old  masters.     The 
 
The  Scientific  Movement.  409 
 
 man  who  spent  his  day  at  the  plow  may,  in  the  even- 
 ing, in  his  home,  see  looking  down  on  him  the  Sistine 
 Madonna,  Angelo's  "Sybils,"  or  Titian's 
 
 ,  >^i  .1-1  Photography. 
 
 "Virgin  "  in  the  clouds.  The  toiler  m  the 
 shops,  after  his  evening  meal,  may  almost  feel  the  air 
 of  the  Alps,  or  hear  the  thunder  of  Niagara,  or  see 
 Yosemite  or  the  Yellowstone.  The  scenes  of  great 
 events,  the  great  architectural  achievements  of  the 
 race,  and  the  faces  of  public  men,  are  the  common 
 property  of  the  children  of  the  people,  while  our  dead 
 are  as  once  they  were  when  the  sun  kissed  them  into 
 enduring  life.     The  stars  also  are  brought  nigh  to  us. 
 
 In  1802,  Wedgwood  and  Davy  made  the  first  ex- 
 periments which  developed  into  photography.  In 
 1829  a  Frenchman  gave  his  name  to  the  new  pictures 
 called  the  Daguerreotype.  A  year  later,  Fox  Talbot 
 made  the  first  photographic  prints  from  a  negative. 
 The  next  year  the  new  art  brought  human  faces  and 
 the  stars  to  houses  of  men.  In  1850  it  was  improved 
 by  the  collodion  process,  as  in  1878  by  the  gelatine- 
 bromide  process.  In  1854  came  the  roll-film,  and  the 
 next  year  the  dry  plate.  Meanwhile,  in  1838,  Wheat- 
 stone  had  invented  the  stereoscope,  and  in  1859  came 
 photo-lithography.  These  latter  inventions  have 
 changed  the  functions  and  appearance  of  the  period- 
 ical press.  The  kodak  came  in  1888,  and  since  1890 
 photographs  in  color  have  been  upon  the  market. 
 
 Thus  the  eyes  of  men  who   staid   at   home   saw 
 more  than  those  of  most  travelers;   but  that  was  not 
 enough.     Man,  and  the  products  to  supply 
 his  table,  his  trade,  or  his  daily  increasing    '^''""on?'^' 
 wants,  must  have  an  active  circulation  that 
 would  astound  Aladdin  with  his  wonder-working  lamp. 
 
4IO     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 Fulton  sent  the  first  steamboat,  the  Clermont,  up 
 the  Hudson  in  1807.  The  first  steamboat  to  cross  the 
 ocean  was  American  built,  called  the  Savannah,  and 
 accomplished  what  was  called  her  impossible  feat  in 
 1819.  Screw  propellers,  and,  in  1891,  rotary  steam- 
 turbines,  have  changed  the  means  of  propulsion,  and 
 increased  the  speed  or  greatly  enlarged  the  carrying 
 capacity  of  ocean  steamships. 
 
 In  1825  the  first  railway  was  built.  It  ran  from 
 Stockport  to  Darlington,  in  England.  The  next  year 
 one  was  constructed  in  Quincy,  Mass.  In  1827, 
 Stephenson's  engine.  The  Rocket,  was  built,  and  the 
 first  engine  was  imported  into  the  United  States  in 
 1829.  In  1832  the  first  Baldwin  locomotive  was  made. 
 The  sleeping-car  came  in  1856;  the  Westinghouse 
 brake  in  1872;  and  the  year  following  Janney's  auto- 
 matic car  coupler;  later  still  the  steam-heating  and 
 gas-lighting  of  passenger  cars.  The  horses  were 
 superseded  for  street-cars,  first  by  the  cable-car  sys- 
 tem, in  1876.  Siemens  built  an  electric  railway  in 
 Berlin  in  1879.  The  first  in  America  ran  from  Balti- 
 more to  Hampden  in  1885.  Electricity  will  be  the  mo- 
 tive power,  for  passenger  railways  at  least,  in  the  future. 
 
 In  1 86 1  the  Otis  passenger  elevator  was  patented, 
 which  made  tall  mercantile  and  office  buildings  possi- 
 ble. In  the  midst  of  these  improved  means  of  com- 
 munication came  those  for  the  domestic  use  in  the 
 last  two  decades  of  the  century — the  bicycle  and  the 
 automobile.  The  nations  of  the  earth  have  been 
 made  next-door  neighbors;  let  us  hope  also  friends, 
 for  the  natural  barriers  have  given  way. 
 
 In  1869  the  Suez  Canal  united  the  Indian  Ocean 
 and  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  while  the  Pacific  Railway 
 
The  Scientific  Movement.  411 
 
 made  New  York  and  San  Francisco  unite  the  shores  ot 
 the  Atlantic  and  the  Pacific  Oceans.  So  the  jetties  of 
 Captain  Eads,  in  1879,  made  more  valuable  the  trade 
 route  by  the  greatest  of  North  American  rivers.  The 
 obstructions  in  New  York  harbor  at  Hellgate  were 
 blown  up  in  1885.  To  these  must  be  added  tunnels 
 like  the  Thames  in  1843,  Mt.  Cenis  in  1876,  Hoosac 
 Tunnel,  opened  in  1880,  and  St.  Gothard  Tunnel  in 
 1882;  and  the  great  bridges,  like  that  of  Niagara,  in 
 1855,  St.  Louis  in  1874,  Brooklyn  in  1883,  and  that  of 
 the  Forth  in  1890. 
 
 This  brief  glimpse  will  show  how  much  more 
 movable  a  creature  man  was  at  the  end  than  at  the 
 beginning  of  the  century,  and  how  much  more  also 
 he  could  make  move. 
 
 Of  course  such  an  extensive  multiplication  of  the 
 means  of  transportation  required  an  immense  indus- 
 trial development   to    make   it   profitable. 
 This   came,   not   only    because    of   unsur-  indentions. 
 passed   natural   resources,  but  because  of 
 inventions  w^hich  made  them  available. 
 
 The  vast  prairies  of  the  West  were  transformed  into 
 fields  waving  with  abundant  harvests,  because  of  the 
 inventions  of  the  mower  and  reaper,   and 
 the  corn-cutting  machine  developed  from     cuitm-e." 
 them.       In    1833,     Hussey    patented    his 
 reaper,  and  McCormick  followed  in  1834.     The  self- 
 raking  reaper  came  in  1851,  and  the  twine-binder  in 
 1874.     Of  course  their  general  use  was  from  five  to 
 ten  years  later.     The  steam  thresher  from  about  1870, 
 and  roller-mills  trom  1875,  made  the  grain  in  the  fields 
 ready  tor  the  markets  of  the  world,  and  America  the 
 granary  for  the  race.     The  barbed-wire  fence,  1861- 
 
412      History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 1874,  and  the  organization  of  great  packing-houses, 
 with,  since  1872,  the  production  of  oleomargarine, 
 have  revolutionized  the  live-stock  industry  as  much 
 as  the  inventions  before  mentioned  have  the  raising 
 of  grain. 
 
 In  1 84 1,  artesian  wells  were  first  used,  and  their 
 use  will  be  an  increasing  one.  Twenty  years  later 
 came  the  drive-well,  a  boon  for  shallow  wells  in  a 
 loose  soil. 
 
 Mining  received  great  help  from  the  new  explo- 
 sives, like  nitro-glycerin  in  1847,  and  dynamite  since 
 1867,  and  from  the  invention  of  drills,  like 
 
 Mining.         ^      '. 
 
 the  diamond  drill  in  1854,  and  the  com- 
 pressed-air drill  of  1866,  and  engineering  from  the 
 pneumatic  caisson  of  1841. 
 
 The  year  1801  saw  the  first  mortising  machine,  and 
 the  next  year  the  first  planer.    The  year  18 19  marked 
 a   notable   era  with    Blanchard's    turning 
 WorkLg.    l^t^^>   ^^^    1S28   saw  an  improved  wood- 
 planer.      Gimlet-pointed   screws   and   ma- 
 chine-made, and,  later,  wire  nails  aided  the  work  of 
 the   carpenter,    while   iron   beams   since    1857   have 
 added  to  the  solidity  and  durability  of  building.     The 
 great  forests  of  the  Northwest  brought  into  requisi- 
 tion the  circular  and  gang  saws,  and  after  1876  steam 
 feed  for  the  carriages. 
 
 In  1804,  malleable  iron  castings  were  first  made. 
 In  18 17-1824,  machines  for  making  pins  came  into 
 use.  In  1834,  Burden's  horseshoe  machine 
 Man!!fac"urea.  revolutionized  an  important  industry. 
 Three  years  later  galvanized  iron  was  pro- 
 duced, and  in  1839  Babbitt  metal.  The  steam  ham- 
 mer of  Nasmyth  in  1842,  and  the  Bessemer  process 
 
The  Scientific  Mo  vement.  4 1 3 
 
 of  making  steel  since  1855,  revolutionized  the  iron  in- 
 dustry. In  1 87 1,  phosphorus  bronze  was  produced; 
 in  1885,  aluminum  by  the  Cowles  process;  and  in 
 1889,  nickel  steel. 
 
 No  less  startling  were  the  chief  inventions  in  the 
 process  of  the  textile  industries  and  the  making  of 
 wearing  apparel.  The  Jacquard  pattern- 
 loom  opened  an  imposing  procession  in  Manufacture. 
 1 80 1.  The  next  year  the  steam  loom 
 wrought  an  entire  revolution  in  the  mills.  In  1872 
 came  the  Lyall  positive-motion  loom ;  since  1856  came 
 the  great  change  caused  by  the  introduction  of  aniline 
 dyes.  In  1 806  there  came  a  kind  of  knitting-machine  ; 
 a  circular  ring  improved  it  ten  years  later,  but  it 
 waited  for  development  until  the  latch  needle  came  in 
 J 849.  Elias  Howe  patented  his  sewing-machine  in 
 1846;  Wilson's  motion  feed  was  added  in  1854.  In 
 1 86 1,  McKay  fitted  it  for  the  manufacture  of  shoes; 
 and  in  1881  came  the  much-needed  button-hole  ma- 
 chine. Now,  from  the  fleece  or  cotton-bale  to  suit, 
 finished  for  our  wearing,  machines  may  do  all  of  it. 
 
 With  all  this  marvelous  development  of  power 
 over  material  things,  man's  thought  found  means  for 
 more  complete  expression  and  wider  distri- 
 
 1-1  1      r         i  T  The  Press. 
 
 bution  than  was  ever  before  known.  In  1 800 
 a  paper  web  was  manufactured,  and  in  1814  the  London 
 Times  was  printed  on  a  steam  rotary -press.  In  1838 
 electrotype  printing-plates  came  into  use.  In  1845 
 came  the  Hoe  revolving  type  machine,  improved  in 
 1 87 1  to  the  Hoe's  web-perfecting  press  for  the  New 
 York  Tribune.  The  years  1853,  1858,  and  1867  marked 
 steps  in  the  process  of  making  paper  from  wood  pulp. 
 In  1 884-1 890  came  the  Mergenthaler  linotype  machine. 
 
414     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 These  stages  of  advance,  with  the  resources  of 
 half-tone  engraving  and  photo-lithographs,  mark  the 
 mechanical  evolutions  of  the  modern  newspaper.  This 
 is  also  aided  by  the  typewriter;  Sholer,  1868,  Rem- 
 ington, 1878,  which  has  transformed  the  work  of  the 
 office,  the  courts,  and  the  home.  To  it  are  indebted 
 the  school,  the  pulpit,  and  the  bar,  as  well  as  the  man 
 of  business. 
 
 A  few  other  inventions,  hard  to  classify,  mark  this 
 century;  the  Babbage  calculating  machine  of  1822, 
 and  the  Goodyear  process  of  vulcanizing  India-rubber 
 in  1839,  and,  of  not  less  public  importance,  the  ballot 
 machine.  In  this  list  must  also  go  the  American- 
 made  watch  since  1850,  and  the  Yankee  ice-machine 
 since  i860. 
 
 But  the  crown  of  all  the  achievements  of  the  cen- 
 tury in  the  application  of  the  new  knowledge  of  na- 
 ture to  the  use  and  service  of  man  is  in  the 
 Progre^I  ^^^^  ^^  electrical  discovery.  In  1828, 
 Professor  Henry  invented  the  spool  elec- 
 tric magnet,  an  essential  to  the  use  of  the  telegraph. 
 In  1832,  Professor  Morse  conceived  the  idea  of  the 
 electric  telegraph;  he  obtained  his  French  patent  in 
 1840,  and  sent  the  first  message  from  Washington  to 
 Baltimore  in  1844.  This  was  preceded  by  Daniels's 
 constant  battery  in  1836,  and  the  use  of  the  earth  for 
 return  current  since  1837.  In  1850,  the  first  subma- 
 rine cable  was  laid  from  Dover  to  Calais;  in  1858  one 
 was  laid  across  the  Atlantic.  It  was  not  made  a  suc- 
 cess until  1866,  through  the  untiring  efforts  of  Cyrus 
 W.  Field.  In  1852  was  installed  the  first  fire-alarm 
 telegraph.  The  year  following  came  duplex  telegra- 
 phy, and  in  1874  Edison's  quadruplex  telegraph.     In 
 
The  Scientific  Movement.  415 
 
 1896,  Marconi  used  his  wireless  telegraph  across  the 
 English  Channel,  and  six  years  later  across  the  At- 
 lantic Ocean.  Electroplating  developed  in  1 805-1 834. 
 Professor  Henry  built -an  electric  motor  in  1831,  and 
 Davidson  an  electric  locomotive  in  1842;  but  the  de- 
 velopment of  these  machines  came  forty  years  later. 
 This  came  through  dynamo-electric  machines,  like 
 Siemen's,  1867,  and  Gramnier's,  1870.  Faurer's  stor. 
 age  battery  came  in  1880,  and  electric  welding  six 
 years  later. 
 
 Reis  made  a  crude  telephone  in  i860,  Professor 
 Bell  patented   his  speaking  telephone   in   1876,   and 
 Birliner's  transmitters  came  ten  years  fol- 
 lowing, and  in  1893  the  kinetoscope.     In   je,Z,'j,one 
 1887,  Tesla  showed  the  use  of  polyphase 
 currents.     The  electrical  evolution,  which  began  in 
 1800  with  Volta's  chemical  battery  producing  elec- 
 tricity,  closed   in   the   nineteenth   century  with   the 
 Rontgen  rays  and  wireless  telegraphy.     Morse,  Field 
 and  Bell,   and   Marconi,  well   typify  the  working  of 
 the   nations   together    for   the   advancement   of    the 
 world's  civilization. 
 
 The  treasures  thus  secured  were  guarded  against 
 floods  of  savagery  and  barbarism  by  the  progress  of 
 inventions  in  military  science.  The  over- 
 throw of  the  Roman  Empire  and  its  civili-  fl^orfense. 
 zation  will  not  soon  be  repeated.  In  1836, 
 Colt's  revolver  revolutionized  the  use  of  small  arms. 
 In  1 85 1,  Maynard's  breech-loading  rifle  was  produced, 
 and  three  years  later  Smith  and  Wesson's  magazine 
 fire-arm,  the  foundation  of  the  Winchester  rifle.  So 
 the  development  went  on  through  the  needle-gun, 
 which  brought  victory  to  the  Prussian  army  in  1866^ 
 
41 6      History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 and  revolutionized  the  arming  of  the  infantry  of  the 
 world,  and  the  chassepots,  the  Martini-Henry,  the 
 Mausers,  and  the  Kraag-Jorgensen,  adopted  by  the 
 United  States  army  in  1890.  In  1880  came  Greener's 
 hammerless  gun.  In  1885  the  explosive  vulcanite^ 
 and  in  1889  cordite,  or  smokeless  powder,  wrought 
 as  great  a  change  as  that  in  the  design  of  the  gun. 
 
 In  naval  affairs,  in  1862,  came  the  armored  turret 
 constniction,  first  seen  in  Ericsson's  famous  Monitor. 
 Four  years  later  the  Whitehead  torpedo  was  invented. 
 Then  came,  in  1888,  the  Harvey  annealing  process  of 
 making  armor-plate,  with  that  of  Krupp  in  1895. 
 This  increased  protection  to  ships,  was  matched  by 
 explosives  of  increased  power  of  penetration;  and 
 greater  safety  for  defense  through  the  disappearing 
 gun-carriage,  1 868-1 896. 
 
 It  is  well  that  the  treasures  of  civilization  should 
 be  safely  guarded,  but  the  obligation  to  protect  the 
 weak,  and  not  oppress  or  rob  them,  remains  all  the 
 more  binding;  these  great  armaments  should  be  de- 
 vised mainly  for  mutual  defense  of  Christendom. 
 One  gain  has  been  that  war  is  now  so  costly  and  de- 
 structive that  no  nation  and  no  people  will  enter 
 upon  it  with  a  light  heart.  Armed  peace  is  better 
 than  ceaseless  war,  but  every  Christian  will  pray  that 
 greater  influence,  scope,  and  power  will  come  to  the 
 international  arbitration  represented  by  The  Hague 
 Tribunal. 
 
 Not  only  inventions,  but  Antichristian  theories 
 and  denials,  accompanied  this  development  in  science. 
 How  great  was  the  force  of  this  movement,  and 
 how   strong  the  thrust  and   the  pressure  it  brought 
 
The  Scientific  Mo  j  ement.  4  r  7 
 
 against  the  Christian  faith,  can  scarcely  be  realized 
 by  those  who  were  not   in  active   life  from  1870  to 
 1890.      Of  course  this  was  aided  by  igno- 
 rant denials,  antiquated  claims,  and  foolish    scientific 
 defenses    made    by  some   Christian   men,    ^°^«™«"t 
 
 •^  '       and  the 
 
 notably  those  who  could  not  adapt  them-    christian 
 selves  to  the  new  mode    of  thought  and      '^*'**** 
 the  revelations   of  the   larger  and   more   marvelous 
 universe. 
 
 But  when  all  deductions  are  made,  there  has 
 scarcely  been  a  more  vehement  or,  for  the  time,  more 
 eflfective  attack  upon  the  Christian  faith  since  the 
 days  of  Julian  the  Apostate  than  that  of  those  years, 
 or  a  more  marked  trend  than  at  one  time  toward 
 Atheistic  materialism.  John  Stuart  Mill  was  the 
 great  Liberal  philosopher;  he  was  the  chief  author- 
 ity in  political  economy,  and  he  succeeded  to  New- 
 man's lead  at  Oxford.  John  Morley  shared  with  Mill 
 and  Frederic  Harrison  Positivist  beliefs,  and  spelled 
 God  with  a  little  g.  Matthew  Arnold  had  none  of 
 his  father's  Christian  faith,  and  George  Eliot  lived  in 
 its  rejection.  Charles  Darwin  had  no  more  use  for 
 the  Christian  faith  than  he  had  for  music  or  poetry, 
 and  in  this  denial  siniply  followed  in  the  steps  of  his 
 father.  Thomas  Huxley  delighted  in  controversy, 
 and  invented  the  term  ''agnosticism."  Tyndall  came 
 out  for  materialism ;  Kingdon  Clifford  knew  no  God. 
 The  little  crowd  of  neo-pagans,  from  Symonds,  his- 
 torian of  the  Renaissance,  and  Walter  Pater,  found 
 its  tail  and  its  shame  in  Oscar  Wilde. 
 
 In  France  the  aspect  was  no  better.      Renan  was 
 the  great  literary  and  religious  oracle.     Zola,  the  pop- 
 27 
 
41 8      History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 ular  novelist,  and  Daudet,  for  the  classes  repelled  by 
 Zola's  filth,  not  because  Daudet  was  free  from  it,  but 
 because  he  was  more  refined.  Guy  Maupassant  and 
 Paul  Verlaiue  inclined  still  farther  the  balance.  The 
 literary  worship  of  lewdness  could  hardly  go  farther 
 than  in  the  France  of  these  years. 
 
 In  Germany,  Hseckel  led  Darwinism  to  sheer  ma- 
 terialism as  its  necessary  result.  Carl  Vogt  and  Buch- 
 ner  became  the  teachers  of  the  socialistic  masses, 
 which  rejected  Christianity  because  of  the  militarism 
 and  industrial  conditions  of  the  new  empire.  In  the 
 same  way  Schopenhauer  and  Hartmann  became  the 
 prophets  of  the  educated  classes,  who  turned  from 
 Christ's  gospel  to  that  of  pessimism. 
 
 The  whole  anarchistic  revolt  in  Russia  was  based 
 upon  materialistic  Atheism. 
 
 In  America  converged  all  these  influences.  For 
 years  one  could  hardly  take  up  a  high-class  magazine 
 or  a  review  without  coming  upon  an  open  or  an  indi- 
 rect attack  upon  the  Christian  faith.  Agnosticism 
 and  pessimism  had  many  adherents  among  profes- 
 sional men  and  college  students,  while  Robert  G.  In- 
 gersoll,  with  unsurpassed  wit  and  eloquence  and  a  vigor 
 not  inferior  to  Thomas  Paine,  held  up,  on  lecture  plat- 
 forms throughout  the  country,  the  teachings  of  the 
 Christian  religion  to  ridicule  and  blasphemy  before 
 crowded  audiences.  It  is  difficult  to  measure  the  con- 
 fidence and  the  arrogance  of  the  attack.  It  was  all  the 
 more  effective  because  the  men  making  it  were  men  of 
 high  character,  of  great  ability,  and  wrote  most  vigor- 
 ous and  effective  English.  They  scouted  the  idea  that 
 a  clergyman  could  have  any  conception  of  scientific 
 truth  worthy  of  respect,  though  it  fell  to  an  English 
 
The  Scientific  Movement.  419 
 
 Wesleyan  preacher,  Mr.  Drysdale,  to  demonstrate  be- 
 yond question  the  falsity  of  the  teaching  of  sponta- 
 neous generation,  while  they  did  not  scruple  to  pro- 
 nounce the  most  sweeping  ex-cathedra  judgments 
 upon  the  most  difificult  problems  of  theology  and  of 
 human  origin  and  destiny. 
 
 There  are  few  more  instructive  passages  in  Church 
 history  than  the  repulse  of  this  attack.     For  a  time 
 Lange's  "  History  of  Materialism  "  was  the 
 great   authority   in    human    thought,   and  ^^^^^ 
 Lucretius's  poem,  "  De  Rerum  Natura,"  the 
 great  source  of  inspiration.     Huxley  gave  a  lecture 
 on  "Are  Animals  Automata?"  which  struck  at  moral 
 responsibility,    and   he    even    inquired,    "  What    dis- 
 eased viscera  was  responsible  for  the  priest  in  abso- 
 lution?" for  which  he  was  fittingly  rebuked  by  Fred- 
 eric Harrison,  who  told  him  it  was  materialism,  and 
 not  very  nice  of  its  kind. 
 
 Soon  after  Tyndall's  Belfast  Address,  James  Mar- 
 tineau  published  a  review  of  the  whole  position,  which 
 showed  conclusively  that  evolution,  as  a  process  be- 
 ginning with  the  atom  and  ending  with  man,  was  not 
 self-explanatory.  In  his  language,  no  process  of  evo- 
 lution could  get  out  of  the  atoms  what  was  not  in 
 them  at  the  beginning.  In  other  words,  a  process  is  no 
 substitute  for  a  cause.  The  mystery  of  origin  and 
 destiny,  instead  of  becoming  so  plain  that  no  man 
 can  mistake  it,  by  evolution  only  becomes  more  won- 
 derful; we  may  even  say,  more  divine.  There  was, 
 and  there  has  been,  no  answer  to  this  reasoning.  In 
 the  words  of  Professor  Fairbairn,  "  It  was  largely 
 owing  to  him  that  our  age  was  not  swept  off  its  feet 
 by  the  rising  tide  of  materialistic  and  pseudo-scien- 
 
420     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 tific  speculations ;  his  words  were  equal  to  whole  vic- 
 tories." 
 
 This  is  no  place  to  record  the  names  of  others  who 
 wrought  splendidly  to  the  same  result.  It  is  enough 
 that  materialism  has  been  abandoned  by  thinking  men. 
 that  over  agnosticism  is  written  "  No  thoroughfare," 
 and  that  at  the  end  of  the  century  the  battle  for 
 Christian  Theism  was  won.  It  was  not  won  by  men 
 who  went  into  a  panic  or  a  rage,  but  by  men  who 
 worked  hard  to  see  and  understand  the  facts ;  by  men 
 who  never  scolded  and  never  imputed  evil  motives; 
 by  men  who  insisted  upon  considering  the  whole 
 problem  and  every  factor  of  it.  The  years  have  set 
 their  seal  that  man  has  a  religious  nature,  and  that 
 there  is  no  solution  of  the  problem  of  his  origin  and 
 destiny  which  does  not  take  into  the  account  the  re- 
 ligious element  in  his  nature  and  his  history. 
 
Chapter  V. 
 
 THE   PAPACY. 
 
 The  papacy  in  the  last  half  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
 tury includes  but  two  pontificates, — those  of  Pius  IX 
 and  Leo  XIII.  No  two  successive  popes  have  reigned 
 so  many  years.  They  were  both  good  men,  but  in 
 temper  and  in  policy  they  were  opposites. 
 
 Pius  was  unlearned,  but  undertook  to  stem  the 
 current  of  affairs,  to  rebuke  the  spirit  of  the  age,  and 
 to  reject  whatever  was  counseled  by  public  opinion. 
 He  lived  in,  and  sought  to  give  effect  to,  the  ideas  of  the 
 Middle  Ages.  For  bane  or  blessing,  he  left  the  Ro- 
 man Catholic  Church  a  very  different  institution  from 
 what  the  Council  of  Trent  had  made  it.  His  pontifi- 
 cate will  always  mark  an  era  as  distinct  as  that  of 
 Clement  VII  in  the  history  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
 Church. 
 
 On  the  other  hand,  Leo  XIII  was  a  man  of  learn- 
 ing and  of  literary  tastes.  A  diplomatist  and  a  man 
 of  the  world,  he  sought  to  reconcile  the  Roman 
 Catholic  Church  with  the  modern  State,  with  society, 
 and  with  modern  thought.  His  policy  and  the  success 
 it  has  gained  has  introduced  principles  of  criticism 
 and  of  interpretation  which  most  profoundly  modify 
 the  teachings  and  the  life  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
 Church.  The  study  of  these  contrasted  policies  and 
 of  their  effect  can  not  fail  to  be  of  interest  and  of 
 profit. 
 
 421 
 
422     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 The  papacy  is  quite  as  much  a  political  as  a  re- 
 ligious institution.  This  resulted  from  the  relations 
 of  the  Christian  States  to  the  pope  during  the  Middle 
 Ages,  from  his  relation  to  the  State  Church  system  of 
 modern  Europe,  and  from  his  position  as  an  independ- 
 ent sovereign  ruling  over  some  of  the  fairest  lands  of 
 the  Italian  peninsula  and  the  ancient  capital  of  the 
 world. 
 
 In  politics  Pius  IX  led  the  forces  of  the  Reaction, 
 and  succeeded  to  the  place  formerly  held  by  Nicholas  I. 
 But  the  times  had  changed ;  the  policy  of  Pius  lost 
 forever  to  the  Church  of  Rome  the  temporal  power, 
 and  alienated  from  him  almost  every  court  in  Europe. 
 At  his  death  he  was  in  bitter  strife  with  the  new  Ger- 
 man Empire,  at  war  with  the  Kingdom  of  Italy  as  far 
 as  the  weapons  of  his  spiritual  arsenal  would  carry 
 him,  and  had  broken  off  diplomatic  relations  with 
 Russia,  while  those  with  Austria  were  by  no  means 
 cordial.  The  loss  in  temporal  dominion  and  political 
 influence  of  the  pontificates  of  Pius  was  the  greatest 
 of  any  pontiff  since  the  Council  of  Trent.  Neverthe- 
 less, this  pontiff,  so  unsuccessful  in  political  affairs 
 and  so  ignorant  in  regard  to  either  philosophy  or  the- 
 ology, attempted  and  carried  out  the  greatest  change 
 in  the  discipline  and  doctrine  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
 Church  known  in  three  hundred  years,  and  in  many 
 respects  more  far-reaching  than  the  decrees  of  the 
 Council  of  Trent.  When  he  died  it  was  a  new  Roman 
 Catholic  Church  which  faced  the  modern  world,  and 
 which  denounced  what  it  regarded  as  its  most  precious 
 gains  and  what  it  held  most  dear. 
 
 The  secret  of  this  political  revolution  and  this 
 change  is  seen  in  the  activity  and  influence  of  the  re- 
 
The  Papacy.  423 
 
 restored  Society  of  Jesus,  which  dictated  the  poHcy 
 of  Pius  IX  after  his  return  to  his  capital.     Doubtless 
 the  experience  of  the  pontiff  of  revolution 
 and  exile  made  an  ineffaceable  impression      ,  ^"^.^ 
 upon   him,  and  made  him    sincere  in   his 
 adherence  to  the  counsels  of  the  leaders  in  this  age 
 of  the  sons  of  Loyola. 
 
 The  first  general  of  the  order  chosen  after  its  res- 
 toration was  lyUgui  Fortis  (1820-1829),  elected  in  his 
 seventy-third  year.  He  was  succeeded  by  a  man  of 
 penetration,  and  determination,  the  Hollander,  Johann 
 Roothan  (1829-1853),  elected  when  he  was  forty-four 
 years  old.  During  the  rule  of  the  former  general  the 
 Jesuits  came  back  to  Rome  after  an  absence  of  almost 
 half  a  century,  and  in  1824  again  took  possession  of 
 the  Collegium  Romanum. 
 
 The  Jesuits  had  been  banished  from  Russia  in 
 1820.  Everywhere  they  stood  for  the  dominance  ot 
 the  most  extreme  absolutist  political  principles.  In 
 France  they  supported  the  policy  of  Charles  X;  in 
 Spain,  of  the  pretender  Don  Carlos;  and  in  Portugal, 
 of  the  pretender  Don  Miguel.  The  consequence  was 
 that  they  were  banished  from  France  in  1830,  though 
 the  decree  was  not  made  effective  until  1845,  and  from 
 Spain  in  1834,  and  from  Portugal  in  1835.  They  were 
 driven  out  of  Rome  in  1848.  The  triumph  of  the  Re- 
 action after  that  year  of  revolution  was  their  triumph. 
 
 Peter  Beckx,  a  Belgian,  styled  in  Rome  the  Black 
 Pope,  succeeded  Roothan  as  general  (i 853-1 887).  He 
 ruled  the  order  and  guided  the  pope. 
 
 The  teaching  that  the  Virgin  Mary  had  been  im- 
 maculate from  her  conception  and  birth,  and  hence 
 free   from  any  taint  of  original  sin,  was  favored   by 
 
424    History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 the  Franciscans  and  opposed  by  the  more   learned 
 
 order  of  the  Dominicans  through  the  Middle  Ages. 
 
 The  Doctrine  '^^^  Jesuits  espoused  the  Franciscan  view. 
 
 of  the       Pius  IX  was  noted  for  his  devotion  to  the 
 
 '™oreXn  "^i^gi^^  M^^y-  H^^^^  ^^^^'  December  8, 
 of  the  1854,  the  proclamation  of  the  Immaculate 
 Virgin.  Conception  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  as  a  doc- 
 trine of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  Pius  IX  erected 
 a  Corinthian  column,  taken  from  a  heathen  temple,  in 
 front  of  the  College  of  the  Propaganda  in  the  Piazza 
 di  Spagna  in  Rome,  in  commemoration  of  the  event. 
 A  more  lasting  effect  was  in  the  increase  in  the  devo- 
 tion to  the  Virgin  Mary  among  the  Roman  Catholic 
 populations. 
 
 A  similar  movement  of  popular  devotion  most  an- 
 tagonistic to  Evangelical  ideas  is  the  devotion  to  the 
 Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus.    A  French  nun  and 
 
 The  Culius  .       , ,      .      ,  ^ 
 
 of  the  mystic,  Maria  Margarita  Alacoque,  m  the 
 Sacred  Heart  Burgundiau  monastory  of  Le  Pray  Monial, 
 June  16,  1675,  had  an  ecstatic  vision  in 
 which  she  saw  our  Lord  take  out  his  heart  and  show 
 it  to  her  pierced  and  surrounded  with  flames.  In  the 
 vision  our  Lord  commanded  the  adoration  of  this 
 heart,  and  that  the  Friday  after  Corpus  Christi  day  in 
 June  should  be  a  festival  in  honor  of  the  new  devo- 
 tion. Maria  Alacoque  died  in  1690,  and  her  Jesuit 
 confessor,  La  Combiere,  began  the  cult  by  a  publication 
 of  her  life  and  visions  in  1691.  In  1693  the  first 
 Brotherhood  of  the  Sacred  Heart  was  formed ;  in  1727 
 there  were  four  hundred  of  them. 
 
 The  new  devotion  was  not  favorably  received  at 
 Rome.  Its  claims  were  rejected  there  in  1 704-1 707, 
 and  decisively  in  1727  by  Lambertini,  afterward  Pope 
 
The  Papacy.  425 
 
 Benedict  XIV.  But  the  new  cult  spread.  In  1726, 
 the  Jesuit  Gallifet  wrote  a  volume  "  De  Cultu  Sacro- 
 sancti  Cordis  Dei,"  in  its  defense.  An  Arch  Brother- 
 hood was  founded  at  Rome  in  1732;  in  1765,  there 
 were  more  than  a  thousand  brotherhoods.  There  was 
 also  opposition.  Bishop  Scipio  Ricci,  in  1781,  op- 
 posed the  new  cult,  and  drew  down  upon  him  the 
 wrath  of  the  Jesuits.  After  their  suppression,  writings 
 in  favor  of  this  devotion  were  prohibited  in  Genoa^ 
 Naples,  and  Vienna.  The  Jesuits  looked  upon  this 
 cult  as  a  refuge  for  them.  In  1794,  they  organized 
 the  "  Society  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus." 
 
 The  "  Dames  du  Sacre  Coeur"  is  a  woman's  so- 
 ciety, founded  by  Magdalena  Sophia  Barat  in  Paris  in 
 1800.  They  devoted  themselves  to  the  education  of 
 the  youth,  and  especially  to  that  of  the  daughters  of 
 persons  of  rank  and  station.  They  were  often  fanat- 
 ical in  their  desire  for  the  restoration  of  the  temporal 
 power  of  the  pope.  In  1880  they  had  105  convents, 
 with  47,000  members. 
 
 In  France,  in  1844,  was  founded  the  "  Apostolate  of 
 Prayer  in  Union  with  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus."  In 
 1895  this  Prayer  Union  had  20,000,000  of  members,  and 
 its  periodical  was  printed  in  fourteen  languages.  In 
 1864  was  founded  the  "Arch  Brotherhood  of  the  Virgin 
 of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus,"  devoted  to  the  relations 
 of  the  Virgin  to  the  Sacred  Heart.  However  repel- 
 lent and  semi-pagan  these  rites  and  associations  seem 
 to  the  Evangelical  Christian,  they  form  an  integral 
 part  of  the  Church  life  of  most  devout  Roman  Cath- 
 olics. 
 
 In  1856,  Pius  IX  appointed  the  Friday  after  Cor- 
 pus Christi  day  as  a  festival  for  the  new  form  of  devo- 
 
426      History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 tion.     To  Bvaugelical  Christians  it  seems  little  dififer- 
 ent  from  worship. 
 
 In  1864,  Maria  Alacoque  was  canonized,  and  in 
 1889  Pope  Leo  XIII  commended  the  new  devotion. 
 
 The  Jesuit  policy  not  only  favored  the  new  devo- 
 tion, but  recognized  no  Christian  faith  or  religion  out- 
 side of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  worthy 
 of  toleration  in  a  Roman  Catholic  State. 
 In  the  meanwhile  the  Papal  Government  earned 
 an  evil  renown  for  oppression,  abuses,  and  maladmin- 
 istration throughout  Christendom.     Every 
 The  Papal     gjj^cere  Roman   Catholic,  zealous   for   the 
 
 Government.  ' 
 
 honor  of  his  Church  and  for  the  Christian 
 faith,  should  rejoice  that  this  crying  scandal  has  been 
 removed.  In  illiteracy  and  illegitimacy  the  Papal 
 States  sustained  an  evil  pre-eminence.  The  cry  for 
 relief  from  oppression  reached  not  only  Victor  Em- 
 manuel, but  Louis  Napoleon.  The  French  Emperor 
 had  given  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  free  rein  in 
 France,  and  his  garrison  made  possible  the  rule  of  the 
 Pope  in  Rome  itself.  But  his  alliance  with  Victor 
 Emmanuel  and  the  successes  of  Garibaldi  brought  on 
 the  total  overthrow  of  the  temporal  power  which  had 
 stood  for  more  than  a  thousand  years.  This  revolu- 
 tion brought  about  the  banishment  of  the  Jesuits 
 from  Northern  Italy  in  1859,  and  from  Southern  Italy 
 the  year  following.  When  the  temporal  power  finally 
 fell,  the  Jesuit  rule  in  Rome  ended,  and  their  Col- 
 legium Romanum  came  into  the  hands  of  the  Italian 
 Government. 
 
 Pius  IX  and  his  Jesuit  advisers  did  not  propose  to 
 let  the  temporal  power  fall  if  any  effort  of  theirs 
 could  prevent  it.     They  recruited  a  PapalArmy.    The 
 
The  Papacy,  427 
 
 king  of  united  Italy  was  solemnly  cursed  and  excom- 
 municated, though  not  by  name.     It   seemed  neces- 
 sary to  call  to  the  defense  of  the  endan- 
 gered papacy  every  means  in  the  power  of  p^  aTlTrm 
 the  head  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  to 
 stem  the  tide  of  invasion,  or,  if  that  failed,  to  make 
 sure  that  the  future  would  repair  the  losses  of  the 
 present.    Hence  the  Syllabus  and  the  Vatican  Council. 
 
 The  Syllabus  was  the  first  step  toward  the  convo- 
 cation of  the  Vatican  Council,  and  that  Council  rati- 
 fied what  was  the  chief  teaching  of  the 
 Syllabus   and  what   was   regarded   as   the    g  JJ^Jug 
 sure  and  most  impregnable  support  of  the 
 temporal  power. 
 
 The  Papal  Syllabus  of  Errors  was  promulgated 
 December  8,  1864.  It  names  eighty  errors  which  it 
 condemns.  Its  position  is  stated  entirely  in  the  nega- 
 tive, and  yet  is  not,  therefore,  less  clear  or  unmistaka- 
 ble than  if  its  principles  were  put  in  the  form  of  pos- 
 itive assertions.  It  condemns  much  that  all  Chris- 
 tians unite  in  condemning,  but  it  also  lays  the  ax  at 
 the  root  of  the  modern  State,  of  modern  government, 
 education,  and  society.  It  is  in  ten  chapters,  treating 
 respectively  of  Rationalism,  Moderate  Rationalism, 
 Socialism,  Communism,  Secret  Societies;  Errors  con- 
 cerning Society,  considered  both  in  itself  and  in  rela- 
 tion to  the  Church;  Errors  concerning  Natural  and 
 Christian  Ethics;  Errors  concerning  Christian  Mar- 
 riage ;  Errors  regarding  the  Civil  Power  of  the  Sover- 
 eign Pontiff;  and  Errors  having  reference  to  Modern 
 Liberalism.  The  sting  is  in  the  tail,  and  the  last  two 
 are  the  chief  reasons  for  the  others ;  but  before  these 
 there  are  a  number  that  well  deserve  our  attention. 
 
428     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 The  Syllabus  condemns  Error  i8:  " The  holding 
 that  Protestantism  is  nothing  more  than  another  form 
 of  the  same  true  Christian  religion,  in  which  it  is  pos- 
 sible to  be  equally  pleasing  to  God  as  in  the  Catholic 
 Church." 
 
 Chapter  IV.  Secret  Societies,  Bible  Societies,  etc. 
 "  Pests  of  this  description  are  frequently  rebuked  in 
 the  severest  terms;"  then  follow  references  to  papal 
 utterances  from  1846  to  1863. 
 
 Errors  concerning  the  Church.  21.  "The  Church 
 has  not  the  power  of  defining  dogmatically  that  the 
 religion  of  the  Catholic  Church  is  the  only  true  re- 
 ligion." 
 
 The  control  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  and 
 that  is  the  control  the  Papal  Curia  would  exercise 
 over  intellectual  liberty,  is  stated  in  Error  22,  which 
 condemns  holding  that  "The  obligation  which  binds 
 Catholic  teachers  and  authors  applies  only  to  those 
 things  which  are  proposed  for  universal  belief,  as 
 dogmas  of  the  faith,  by  the  infallible  judgment  of  the 
 Church."  With  this  should  be  taken  the  condemna- 
 tion of  Errors  12  and  13. 
 
 12.  "The  decrees  of  the  Apostolic  See  and  of  the 
 Roman  congregations  fetter  the  free  progress  of  sci- 
 ence." 
 
 13.  "The  methods  and  principles  by  which  the 
 old  scholastic  doctors  cultivated  theology  are  no 
 longer  suitable  to  the  demands  of  the  age  and  the 
 progress  of  science." 
 
 In  Error  23  the  infallibility  of  Roman  pontiffs 
 and  Ecumenical  Councils  is  asserted.  23.  "The  Ro- 
 man pontiffs  and  Ecumenical  Councils  have  exceeded 
 the  limits  of  their  power,  have  usurped  the  rights  of 
 
The  Papacy.  429 
 
 princes,  and  have  even  committed  errors  in  defining 
 matters  of  faith  and  morals." 
 
 In  condemning  Error  24,  the  right  of  the  Church 
 to  coerce  is  asserted.  24.  ''The  Church  has  not  the 
 power  of  avaiUng  herself  of  force,  or  any  direct  or  in- 
 direct temporal  power." 
 
 26.  "  The  Church  has  not  the  innate  and  legitimate 
 right  of  acquisition  and  possession." 
 
 27.  "The  ministers  of  the  Church  and  the  Roman 
 pontiff  ought  to  be  absolutely  excluded  from  all  charge 
 and  dominion  over  temporal  affairs." 
 
 Time  has  taken  this  last  assertion  out  of  the  range 
 of  practical  politics.  Clerical  immunities,  that  ques- 
 tion of  ages  of  bitter  strife,  is  sought  to  be  sheltered 
 by  the  condemnation  of  Errors  31  and  32. 
 
 31.  "Ecclesiastical  courts  for  temporal  causes,  of 
 the  clergy,  whether  civil  or  criminal,  ought  by  all 
 means  to  be  abolished,  either  without  the  concurrence 
 or  against  the  concurrence  of  the  Holy  See." 
 
 32.  "  The  personal  immunity  exonerating  the  clergy 
 from  military  service  may  be  abolished  without  viola- 
 tion either  of  natural  right  or  of  equity.  Its  abolition 
 is  called  for  by  civil  progress,  especially  in  a  commu- 
 nity constituted  upon  principles  of  liberal  govern- 
 ment." 
 
 The  condemnation  of  Errors  36  and  37  is  directed 
 against  National  Councils  and  National  Churches. 
 
 Error  38  condemns,  curiously  enough,  the  belief 
 that  "  The  Roman  pontiffs  have,  by  their  too  arbitrary 
 conduct,  contributed  to  the  division  of  the  Church  into 
 Eastern  and  Western."  This  is  enough  to  provoke  to 
 laughter  the  Greeks. 
 
 We  now  come  to  the   chapter    on   Civil  Society. 
 
430     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 The  teaching  that  political  sovereignty  is  from  the 
 people  gets  a  slant  in  the  condemnation  of  Error  39. 
 "  The  commonwealth  is  the  origin  and  source  of  all 
 rights,  and  possesses  rights  which  are  not  circum- 
 scribed by  any  limits."  Those  adhering  to  the  last 
 statement  are  rare  indeed. 
 
 The  revocation  of  the  Concordats,  a  right  exercised 
 by  almost  every  Roman  Catholic  State,  was  bitterly 
 resented. 
 
 43.  *'  The  civil  power  has  a  right  to  break,  and  to 
 declare  and  render  null,  the  Conventions  (commonly 
 called  Concordats)  concluded  with  the  Apostolic  See, 
 relative  to  the  use  of  rights  appertaining  to  ecclesias- 
 tical immunity,  without  the  consent  of  the  Holy  See, 
 and  even  contrary  to  its  protest." 
 
 The  common-school  system  is  denounced  in  the 
 condemnation  of  Errors  45  and  48. 
 
 45.  ''The  entire  direction  of  public  schools,  in 
 which  the  youth  of  Christian  States  are  educated,  ex- 
 cept (to  a  certain  extent)  in  the  care  of  episcopal  sem- 
 inaries, may  and  must  appertain  to  the  civil  power, 
 and  belong  to  it  so  far  that  no  other  authority  whatso- 
 ever shall  be  recognized  as  having  any  right  to  inter- 
 fere in  the  discipline  of  the  schools,  the  arrangement 
 of  studies,  the  taking  of  degrees,  or  the  choice  and 
 approval  of  teachers." 
 
 48.  "  This  system  of  instructing  youth,  which  con- 
 sists in  separating  it  from  the  Catholic  faith  and  from 
 the  power  of  the  Church,  and  in  teaching  exclusively, 
 or  at  least  primarily,  the  knowledge  of  natural  things 
 and  the  earthly  ends  of  social  life  alone,  may  be  ap- 
 proved by  Catholics." 
 
 The  right  of  the  State  in  any  way  to  interfere  in 
 
The  Papacy.  431 
 
 the  regulation  of  the  monastic  life  is  condemned  in  the 
 statement  of  Errors  52  and  53. 
 
 52.  ''  The  government  has  of  itself  the  right  to 
 alter  the  age  prescribed  by  the  Church  for  the  relig- 
 ious profession,  both  of  men  and  women;  and  it  may- 
 enjoin  upon  all  religious  establishments  to  admit  no 
 person  to  take  solemn  vows  without  its  permission." 
 
 53.  "  The  laws  for  the  protection  of  religious  estab- 
 lishments, and  securing  their  rights  and  duties,  ought 
 to  be  abolished ;  nay,  more,  the  civil  government  may 
 lend  its  assistance  to  all  who  desire  to  quit  the  re- 
 ligious life  they  have  undertaken  and  break  their 
 vows.  The  government  may  also  suppress  the  re- 
 ligious orders,  collegiate  Churches,  and  simple  bene- 
 fices, even  those  belonging  to  private  patronage,  and 
 submit  their  goods  and  revenues  to  the  administra- 
 tion and  the  disposal  of  the  civil  power."  And  yet 
 there  has  not  been  a  Roman  Catholic  State  in  Europe 
 or  America  in  that  century  but  felt  compelled  to  brave 
 such  a  condemnation  when  facing  problems  such  as 
 are  presented  by  the  friars  in  the  Philippines. 
 
 Concerning  Christian  marriage  the  following  Errors 
 are  condemned : 
 
 65.  ''  It  can  not  be  by  any  means  tolerated  to  main- 
 tain that  Christ  has  raised  marriage  to  the  divinity  of 
 a  sacrament." 
 
 66.  **  The  sacrament  of  marriage  is  only  an  adjunct 
 of  the  contract,  and  separable  from  it ;  the  sacrament 
 itself  consists  in  the  nuptial  benediction  alone." 
 
 67.  "  By  the  law  of  nature  the  marriage  tie  is  not 
 indissoluble,  and  in  many  cases  divorce,  properly  so 
 called,  may  be  pronounced  by  the  civil  authorities." 
 Yet  divorce  has  been  legalized  in  France,  and  will  be 
 
432      History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 in  Italy  as  well  as  in  Evangelical  countries.  Both 
 countries  have  long  tried  the  papal  view;  they  do  not 
 believe  it  promotes  morality. 
 
 68.  **  The  Church  has  not  the  power  of  laying 
 down  what  are  direct  impediments  to  marriage.  The 
 civil  authority  does  possess  such  a  power,  and  can  do 
 away  with  existing  impediments  to  marriage."  Every 
 modern  vState  has  its  civil  law  regulating  these. 
 
 71.  ''Matrimonial  causes  and  espousals  belong  by 
 their  very  nature  to  civil  jurisdiction."  The  system 
 of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  had  an  age-long  trial. 
 As  tested  by  the  facts  it  did  not  prove  a  success.  Of 
 course  it  has  a  perfect  right  to  lay  down  the  conditions 
 of  marriage  for  its  own  members,  but  that  is  alto- 
 gether outside  of  the  jurisdiction  of  the  civil  law  and 
 does  not  affect  the  validity  of  that  law. 
 
 Two  Errors  are  condemned  in  the  chapter  on  the 
 temporal  power  of  the  pope : 
 
 75.  "The  children  of  the  Christian  and  Catholic 
 Church  are  not  agreed  upon  the  compatibility  of  the 
 temporal  with  the  spiritual  power."  Indeed,  they 
 were  not  then,  nor  have  they  ever  been  since. 
 
 76.  "  The  abolition  of  the  temporal  power,  of  which 
 the  Apostolic  See  is  possessed,  would  contribute  in 
 the  greatest  degree  to  the  liberty  and  prosperity  of 
 the  Church." 
 
 **N.  B. — Besides  these  Errors,  explicitly  noted, 
 many  others  are  impliedly  rebuked  by  the  proposed 
 and  asserted  doctrine,  which  all  Catholics  are  bound 
 most  firmly  to  hold,  touching  the  temporal  sover- 
 eignty  of  the  Roman  pontiff.     These  doctrines  are 
 
 clearly  stated   in   ".     There  follows  a  list   of 
 
 papal  utterances  from  1849  to  1862.     This  is  the  only 
 
The  Papacy.  433 
 
 doctrine  affirmatively  stated,  though  in  an  appended 
 note.     All  else  was  designed  as  a  bulwark  of  this. 
 
 The  last  chapter  treats  of  modern  Liberalism  ;  the 
 essence  of  the  policy  of  Reaction  in  Church  and  State 
 is  here.  Notice  the  papal  condemnation  of  the  doc- 
 trine of  religious  toleration,  which  is  the  mark  of  a 
 modern  State,  and  without  which  the  Roman  Catholic 
 Church  never  would  have  made  its  gains  in  Great 
 Britain,  her  Colonies,  and  the  United  States. 
 
 Condemning  Errors : 
 
 77.  "  In  the  present  day,  it  is  no  longer  expedient 
 that  the  Catholic  religion  shall  be  held  as  the  only 
 religion  of  the  State,  to  the  exclusion  of  all  other 
 modes  of  worship." 
 
 78.  "  Whence  it  has  been  wisely  provided  by  law, 
 in  some  countries  called  Catholic,  that  persons  com- 
 ing to  reside  therein  shall  enjoy  the  public  exercise  of 
 their  own  worship." 
 
 79.  "  Morever,  it  is  false  that  the  civil  liberty  of 
 every  mode  of  worship,  and  the  full  power  given  to 
 all  of  overtly  and  publicly  manifesting  their  opinions 
 and  their  ideas,  of  all  kinds  whatsoever,  conduce  more 
 easily  to  corrupt  the  morals  and  minds  of  the  people, 
 and  to  the  propagation  of  the  pest  of  indifferentism." 
 
 Here  belongs  55,  which  makes  the  American  rub 
 his  eyes.  The  papal  condemnation  falls  upon  the 
 statement:  55.  ''The  Church  ought  to  be  separated 
 from  the  State,  and  the  State  from  the  Church." 
 
 Clear-thinking  men  of  every  creed,  with  Leo  XIII 
 at  their  head,  join  in  the  statement  of  what  is  desig- 
 nated as  "Error  80,"  rather  than  with  the  condemna- 
 tion of  Pius  IX,  which  was  to  crown  the  whole.  The 
 Syllabus  says,  condemning  Error  80:  "The  Roman 
 28 
 
434    History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 pontiff  can  and  ought  to  reconcile  himself  to,  and 
 agree  with,  progress,  liberalism,  and  civilization  as 
 lately  introduced." 
 
 Many  of  the  Errors  here  condemned  have  been  so 
 accepted  as  to  be  beyond  the  reach  of  practicable  de- 
 bate, but  the  utterances  against  divorce  and  the  com- 
 mon schools  have  present  importance.  The  latter  is 
 potent  in  the  United  States.  What  effect  it  will  have 
 upon  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  and  upon  the  na- 
 tion it  will  take  more  than  one  generation  to  disclose. 
 That  it  was  a  part  of  the  program  of  war  against  the 
 modern  State  and  society  is  clear.  That  the  final 
 issue  may  be  for  good  is  the  prayer  of  all  Christians. 
 
 The  preparations  now  went  on  to  reduce  the  con- 
 demnation of  the  Syllabus  to  articles  of  faith  by  the 
 enactment  of  the  dogma  of  papal  infalli- 
 '^^Counclr"  ^^^ity  by  ^^  Ecumenical  Council.  There 
 was  no  general  demand  for  the  assemblage 
 of  such  a  body  or  the  definition  of  such  a  doctrine. 
 The  strongest  intellectual  forces,  and  the  Roman 
 Catholic  governments,  deprecated  it.  The  German 
 Episcopate  declared  against  it.  But  the  Jesuits  were 
 powerful  and  persistent.  All  plans  were  carefully  laid. 
 There  was  to  be  no  chance  of  failure  so  far  as  the 
 Council  was  concerned.  It  met  for  its  first  session, 
 December  8,  1869.  There  were  present  at  that  session 
 719  members,  and  a  week  later  764.  Of  the  whole 
 Episcopate,  nearly  three-quarters  were  present.  There 
 were  13  present  from  Australia,  14  from  Africa,  83 
 from  Asia,  113  from  America,  aud  540  from  Europe. 
 Of  these  last,  276  were  Italians,  84  French,  48  Aus- 
 trians,  41  from  Spain,  35  from  Great  Britain,  and  19 
 from  Germany.      There  were  in  the  membership  of 
 
The  Papacy.  435 
 
 the   Council   50   cardinals,    10   patriarchs,    130   arch- 
 bishops, 522  bishops,  and  30  generals  of  orders. 
 
 On  November  27th,  the  pope,  in  a  Brief,  promul- 
 gated the  order  of  business.  It  so  arranged  the  mat- 
 ter that  if  there  had  been  a  strong  and  effective  oppo- 
 sition it  would  have  been  powerless.  But  the  opposi- 
 tion was  neither  strong  nor  united.  The  only  fear  of 
 the  Curia  was  the  interference  of  some  of  the  Powers. 
 Many  of  the  members  were  missionary  bishops  or 
 bishops  without  Sees.  Most  of  them  had  been  ap- 
 pointed during  the  pontificate  of  Pius  IX.  Three 
 hundred  of  them  were  entertained  by  him  at  his 
 expense  at  the  Vatican,  and  425  were  dependent  upon 
 him.  The  fear  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Powers  was  a 
 very  genuine  one.  Lord  Odo  Russell,  a  British  am- 
 bassador to  the  pope,  though  an  English  Churchman, 
 rendered  great  service  to  the  majority  by  keeping 
 them  informed  of  the  intentions  of  the  Powers.  All 
 Christians  ought  to  rejoice  that  there  was  no  interfer- 
 ence by  the  civil  power. 
 
 April  24,  1870,  the  first  decrees  were  passed.  They 
 are  in  four  chapters,  and  concerned  "  God  the  Creator, 
 Revelation,  Faith,  and  Reason."  To  these  were  ap- 
 pended eighteen  canons.  The  most  of  these  doc- 
 trinal definitions  express  the  common  belief  of  Chris- 
 tians, but  the  third  canon  of  the  fourth  chapter  as- 
 serts: "If  any  one  shall  assert  it  to  be  possible  that 
 sometimes,  according  to  the  progress  of  science,  a 
 sense  is  to  be  given  to  doctrines  propounded  by  the 
 Church  different  from  that  which  the  Church  has  un- 
 derstood and  understands,  let  him  be  anathema."  In 
 the  light  of  this  teaching  Roman  Catholic  theology 
 can  scarcely  be  called  a  progressive  science.     But  the 
 
436     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 history  of  the  decrees  of  the  Council  itself  were  to 
 furnish  the  strangest  comment  on  this  statement. 
 
 July  13,  1870,  the  further  dogmatic  definitions  of 
 the  infallibility  of  the  pope  were  voted  upon;  of  671 
 present,  451  voted  for  the  decree,  88  against  it,  62  for 
 it  somewhat  modified,  and  70  refrained  from  voting. 
 Before  the  public  session  of  July  18,  1870,  the  minor- 
 ity, all  but  two,  left  Rome;  then  a  bishop  from  Corsica 
 and  one  from  the  United  States  voted  against  it. 
 
 We  will  now  consider  the  contents  and  signifi- 
 cance of  the  decrees  then  made  obligatory  upon 
 the  Roman  Catholic  world.  It  is  entitled. 
 Decree"  '"^^^  ^^^^^  Dogmatic  Constitution  of  the 
 Church  of  Christ."  It  consists  of  four 
 chapters.  Attention  is  usually  concentrated  upon  the 
 last  chapter,  but  the  practical  importance  in  the  gov- 
 ernment of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  of  the  first 
 three  chapters  much  exceeds  the  famous  close  of  this 
 Constitution. 
 
 The  first  chapter  afiirms  that  "The  primacy  of 
 jurisdiction  over  the  universal  Church  of  God  was 
 immediately  and  directly  promised  and  given  to 
 blessed  Peter  the  Apostle,  by  Christ  the  Lord."  "  If 
 any  one,  therefore,  shall  say  that  blessed  Peter  the 
 Apostle  was  not  appointed  the  prince  of  all  the  apos- 
 tles and  visible  head  of  the  whole  Church  militant ;  or 
 that  the  same  directly  and  immediately  received  from 
 our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  a  primacy  of  honor  only,  and 
 not  of  true  and  proper  jurisdiction :  let  him  be  anath- 
 ema." 
 
 Chapter  II  treats  of  the  perpetuity  of  this  primacy 
 of  Peter.  "  For  none  can  doubt,  and  it  is  known  to 
 all  ages,  that  the  holy  and  blessed  Peter,  the  prince 
 
The  Papacy. 
 
 437 
 
 and  chief  of  the  apostles,  the  pillar  of  the  faith,  and 
 the  foundation  of  the  Catholic  Church,  received  the 
 keys  of  the  kingdom  from  our  lyord  Jesus  Christ,  the 
 Savior  and  Redeemer  of  mankind,  and  lives,  presides, 
 and  judges,  to  this  day  and  always,  in  his  successors 
 the  bishops  of  the  Holy  See  of  Rome,  which  was 
 founded  by  him,  and  consecrated  by  his  blood. 
 Whence,  whosoever  succeeds  to  Peter  in  this  See 
 does,  by  the  institution  of  Christ  himself,  obtain  the 
 primacy  of  Peter  over  the  whole  Church."  "  If,  then, 
 any  should  deny  that  it  is  by  the  institution  of  Christ 
 the  lyord,  or  by  divine  right,  that  blessed  Peter  should 
 have  a  perpetual  line  of  successors  in  the  primacy 
 over  the  universal  Church,  or  that  the  Roman  pontiflf 
 is  the  successor  of  the  blessed  Peter  in  this  primacy : 
 let  him  be  anathema." 
 
 The  third  chapter  develops  the  nature  of  this 
 primacy.  In  Rome  it  was  said  that  the  bishops  came 
 to  the  Council  shepherds,  and  departed  from  it  un- 
 fleeced  sheep.  It  is  in  the  third  chapter  that  the 
 shearing  process  is  evident.  Thus  we  read :  "  Hence 
 we  teach  and  declare  that,  by  the  appointment  of  our 
 Lord,  the  Roman  Church  possesses  a  superiority  of 
 ordinary  power  over  all  other  Churches,  and  that  this 
 power  of  jurisdiction  of  the  Roman  pontiff,  which  is 
 truly  episcopal,  is  immediate ;  to  which  all,  of  what- 
 ever rite  and  dignity,  both  pastors  and  faithful,  both 
 individually  and  collectively,  are  bound,  by  their  duty 
 and  hierarchical  subordination  and  true  obedience,  to 
 submit,  not  only  in  matters  w^hich  belong  to  faith 
 and  morals,  but  also  in  those  which  appertain  to  the 
 discipline  and  government  of  the  Church  throughout 
 the  world,  so  that  the  Church  of  Christ  may  be  one 
 
438     History  of  the  Christian  Church, 
 
 flock  under  one  supreme  pastor  through  preservation 
 of  unity,  both  of  communion  and  of  profession  of 
 the  same  faith  with  the  Roman  pontiff." 
 
 This  is  the  teaching  of  Catholic  truth,  "  from 
 which  no  one  can  deviate  without  loss  of  faith  and  of 
 salvation." 
 
 "  If,  then,  any  shall  say  that  the  Roman  pontiff 
 has  the  ofiice  merely  of  inspection  or  direction,  and 
 not  full  and  supreme  power  of  jurisdiction  over  the 
 universal  Church  spread  throughout  the  world ;  or  as- 
 sert that  he  possesses  merely  the  principal  part,  and 
 not  all  the  fullness  of  the  supreme  power;  or  that 
 this  power  which  he  enjoys  is  not  ordinary  and  im- 
 mediate, both  over  each  and  all  the  Churches  and 
 over  each  and  all  the  pastors  and  the  faithful :  let  him 
 be  anathema." 
 
 It  is  here,  and  not  in  the  succeeding  chapter,  that 
 the  real  grip  of  Roman  discipline  passed  into  papal 
 hands  and  made  a  new  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
 
 The  fourth  chapter  speaks  of  the  infallible  teach- 
 ing of  the  Roman  pontiff.  All  that  is  important  is  in 
 the  last  paragraph :  "  Therefore,  faithfully  adhering 
 to  the  traditions  received  from  the  beginning  of  the 
 Christian  faith,  for  the  glory  of  God  our  Savior,  the 
 exaltation  of  the  Catholic  religion,  and  the  salvation 
 of  Christian  people,  the  sacred  Council  approving,  we 
 teach  and  define  that  it  is  a  dogma  divinely  revealed : 
 that  the  Roman  pontiff,  when  he  speaks  ex-cathedra — 
 that  is,  when  in  the  discharge  of  the  office  of  pastor 
 and  doctor  of  all  the  Christians,  by  virtue  of  his 
 supreme  apostolic  authority,  he  defines  a  doctrine  re- 
 garding faith  or  morals  to  be  held  by  the  universal 
 Church,  by  the  divine  assistance  promised  to  him  in 
 
The  Papacy.  439 
 
 blessed  Peter — is  possessed  of  that  infallibility  with 
 which  the  Divine  Redeemer  willed  that  his  Church 
 should  be  endowed  for  defining  doctrine  regarding 
 faith  or  morals;  and  that,  therefore,  such  definitions 
 of  the  Roman  pontiff  are  irreformable  of  themselves, 
 and  not  from  consent  of  the  Church." 
 
 "  But  if  any  one,  which  may  God  avert,  .  .  . 
 presume  to  contradict  this,  our  definition :  let  him  be 
 anathema." 
 
 Before  the  reading  in  the  public  session  ended,  a 
 terrible  thunderstorm  broke  over  Rome,  and  the 
 cupola  of  St.  Peter's  was  struck  by  lightning.  A 
 storm  more  terrible  broke  over  Europe,  and  the 
 armies  of  France  and  Prussia  were  hurled  against 
 each  other.  The  French  Empire  went  down  in  blood, 
 and  the  new  German  Empire  came  to  dominate  Con- 
 tinental Europe.  The  fathers  of  the  Council  never 
 again  assembled  after  the  adjourning  of  the  day. 
 October  20,  1870,  it  was  indefinitely  postponed. 
 
 The  Jesuits  saw  the  consummation  of  their  policy 
 for  fifty  years;  but  the  object  of  so  much  solicitude, 
 the  dear  possession  which,  when  all  other  means  failed, 
 the  Council  was  to  preserve,  the  temporal  power  of 
 the  pope,  was  gone  forever.  September  20,  1870,  the 
 Italian  troops  entered  Rome,  and  Victor  Emmanuel 
 took  possession  of  the  Quirinal  palace.  There  was  a 
 new  Rome  as  well  as  a  new  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
 The  finest  street  in  the  new  capital  bears  the  name  of 
 Via  Nazionale,  the  Street  of  the  Nation ;  while  that 
 before  the  Quirinal  palace  is  called  Via  Venti  Setteni- 
 bre,  the  Street  of  the  Twentieth  of  September. 
 
 Such  were  the  immediate  events,  if  not  results, 
 succeeding  the  Vatican  Council.      Those  closely  fol- 
 
440     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 lowing  were  the  rejection  of  the  Vatican  decrees  by  the 
 most  learned  Church  historian  in  Europe,  Professor 
 Ignaz  Bollinger,  of  Munich,  the  formation  of  the  Old 
 Catholic  Church,  and  the  Kulturkampf  in  Germany. 
 John  Joseph  Ignaz  Bollinger  (i  799-1 890)  was 
 born  at  Bamberg,  February  28,  1799.  His  father  and 
 his  grandfather  were  professors  in  the  Med- 
 
 Dollinger. 
 
 ical  Faculty.  When  quite  young,  his  father 
 removed  from  Bamberg  to  Wiirzburg,  where  he  was 
 Professor  of  Anatomy.  Before  Ignaz  was  ten  years 
 old  he  had  read,  in  French,  Racine,  and  Moliere,  and 
 at  sixteen  he  had  read  more  French  than  German 
 books.  Before  entering  the  university  at  seventeen, 
 he  had  an  easy  mastery  of  French,  Italian,  and  Kng- 
 glish,  and  during  his  university  course  he  acquired 
 Spanish.  He  studied  at  the  Wiirzburg  University, 
 1 8 16-1820,  giving  especial  attention  to  botany,  miner- 
 alogy, and  entomology,  as  well  as  to  the  classics  and 
 philosophy.  While  there  he  read  Baronius,  Petavius, 
 and  Paolo  Sarpi.  He  chose  the  priesthood,  his  father 
 yielding  his  consent  upon  physiological  grounds. 
 Bollinger  himself  chose  this  calling  as  a  means  to  his 
 great  end,  which  was  the  study  and  mastery  of  the- 
 ology, or  of  science  grounded  on  theology. 
 
 He  spent  three  years,  1 820-1 822,  at  the  episcopal 
 seminary  at  Bamberg,  and  was  ordained  priest  in 
 March,  1822.  He  began  his  work  as  a  teacher  as 
 Professor  of  Church  History  and  Law  at  Aschafifen- 
 burg,  1 823-1 826.  In  the  latter  year  he  published 
 "The  Eucharist  in  the  First  Three  Centuries,"  which 
 gained  him  a  name  as  well  as  a  Boctor's  degree,  from 
 the  qualities  which  marked  all  his  works,  learning, 
 and  judgment.      In  the  same  year  he  was  called  to 
 
The  Papacy.  441 
 
 Munich  as  Professor  of  Church  History  and  Church 
 Law,  1 826-1 890.  Between  1830  and  1840  he  pub- 
 lished a  "Handbook,"  and  also  a  "Textbook,"  of 
 Church  History.  In  1836  he  traveled  in  England,  and 
 three  years  later  in  Holland,  Belgium,  and  France. 
 In  1845  he  was  chosen  to  represent  the  University  of 
 Munich  in  the  Bavarian  Landtag.  He  sat  in  the  Frank- 
 fort Parliament,  May,  1848,  to  May,  1849.  There  he 
 agreed  with  General  Radowitz  that  there  was  no  use 
 for  the  Jesuits  in  Germany.  In  1 846-1 848  appeared, 
 in  three  volumes,  his  "Die  Reformation,"  and  in  1851 
 his  article  on  "  Luther."  At  this  time  he  had  read 
 only  some  single  works  of  Luther.  His  "Reformation" 
 is  learned  and  able,  and  demands  the  attention  of  any 
 student  of  the  subject ;  but  it  is  a  series  of  sketches 
 instead  of  a  history,  and  leaves  out  of  the  account 
 some  of  the  weightiest  factors. 
 
 Up  to  this  time  he  had  the  reputation  of  a  most 
 learned,  able,  and  devout  Roman  CathoHc  historian. 
 He  was  considered  devoted  to  the  Roman  See,  and  de- 
 fended the  order  requiring  Evangelical  Christians  in 
 military  service  to  kneel  at  the  elevation  of  the  host, — 
 an  order  which  the  government  had  to  withdraw. 
 Late  in  the  forties,  as  a  result  of  his  studies,  he  took 
 his  position  as  opposing  the  doctrine  of  the  Immacu- 
 late Conception  of  the  Virgin,  and  of  Papal  Infallibil- 
 ity, and  in  favor  of  a  German  National  Roman  Catho- 
 lic Church.  In  1853  appeared  his  learned  work 
 "  Hippolytus  and  Callistus,"  and,  in  1857,  "Heathen- 
 ism and  Judaism,"  or,  as  translated,  "  The  Jew  and 
 Gentile  in  the  Court  of  the  Temple  of  Christ,"  a  work 
 without  equal  as  giving  a  collective  view  of  the  relig- 
 ious life  and  teachings  with  which  Christianity  came 
 
442      History  of  the  Christian  Church, 
 
 in  contact.  In  some  points  further  research  has 
 brought  new  facts  to  light ;  but  this  is  a  work  which, 
 in  many  respects,  will  never  be  out  of  date. 
 
 In  1857,  Dollinger  took  a  journey  through  North- 
 ern and  Central  Italy,  and  lived  some  time  in  Rome. 
 He  used  his  eyes  and  ears,  and  returned  "  extraordi- 
 narily sobered."  He  had  not  been  in  accord  with  the 
 policy  of  Pius  IX  since  his  return  from  Gaeta  in  1850, 
 but  Dollinger's  reputation  as  the  most  learned  and 
 the  ablest  of  Roman  Catholic  Church  historians  gave 
 him  at  Rome  a  most  honorable  reception. 
 
 In  i860  he  published  "  Christianity  and  the  Church 
 in  the  Time  of  its  Founding,"  and  the  next  year, 
 *'  Churches  and  the  Church :  The  Papacy  and  States 
 of  the  Church."  In  1863  he  gave  his  famous  address 
 at  a  Roman  Catholic  assembly  of  leading  theologians 
 and  representative  men  on  *'  The  Past  and  Present  of 
 Catholic  Theology,"  in  which  he  showed  the  lack  of 
 foundation  of  much  of  the  Jesuit  teaching.  In  the 
 same  year  appeared  his  "  Pope-fables  of  the  Middle 
 Ages."  From  1866  on,  he  opposed  unceasingly  the 
 dogma  of  Papal  Infallibility.  In  this  he  had  the  Ger- 
 man Episcopate  with  him,  as  was  proved  by  the 
 Declaration  of  Fulda  in  1869. 
 
 Correspondence  published  in  the  Civita  Catholica 
 in  February,  1869,  showed  that  the  Jesuit  program  for 
 the  Vatican  Council  was  the  definition  of  the  dogma 
 of  Papal  Infallibility,  and  of  the  bodily  ascent  of  the 
 Virgin  Mary  into  heaven  ;  also  the  change  of  the  neg- 
 ative statements  of  the  Syllabus  into  positive  affirma- 
 tion as  articles  of  belief  All  this  Dollinger  opposed 
 in  his  "Janus,  or  Pope  and  Council,"  1869.  It  ap- 
 peared without  his  name,  and  made  an  immense  im- 
 
The  Papacy.  44^ 
 
 pression.  During  the  progress  of  its  session,  his 
 "  Letters  from  the  Council "  were  almost  the  only- 
 arguments  that  affected  public  opinion.  They  had 
 also  great  effect  in  the  Council  itself.  When  the  vote 
 was  taken,  eleven  out  of  fifteen  German  bishops  and 
 twenty-six  out  of  thirty-five  Austrian  prelates  went 
 with  the  minority  against  the  dogmatic  constitution 
 of  the  Council  defining  Papal  Infallibility. 
 
 Then  came  the  stress  of  what  was  to  Dollinger  a 
 question  of  conscience.  The  Franco-German  war 
 rendered  impossible  a  coalition  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
 Powers  against  the  Vatican  Decrees.  Every  sort  of 
 pressure  was  brought  to  bear  upon  the  German  Epis- 
 copate to  cause  submission  to  the  new  dogma.  The 
 ablest  of  them,  Hefele,  submitted  at  last,  in  April, 
 187 1.  On  the  1 8th  of  that  month  the  Archbishop  of 
 Munich  from  the  pulpit  declared  Dollinger  to  be  ex- 
 communicated. 
 
 On  Whitsunday,  1871,  a  great  assembly  of  German 
 Roman  Catholics  published  a  declaration  against  the 
 Decrees.  Dollinger  and  his  friends  held  that  an  un- 
 just excommunication  was  invalid.  Dollinger  wished 
 those  who  did  not  accept  the  new  teaching  to  remain 
 a  part  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  and  in  all  their 
 old  relations  to  it ;  he  did  not  wish  a  new  organiza- 
 tion, nor  did  he  ever  join  the  Old  Catholics,  however 
 much  he  sympathized  with  them.  In  1872  he  put 
 forth  his  "Union  of  the  Churches;"  in  the  same  year, 
 as  the  head  of  the  University  of  Munich,  he  presided 
 at  the  four  hundredth  jubilee  celebration. 
 
 Dollinger's  position  was  not  at  all  comparable  with 
 Cardinal  Newman's.  Newman  opposed  the  definition 
 of  the  dogma  as  inopportune,  but  did  not  deny  that  it 
 
444     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 might  be  true ;  if  so  declared,  he  was  ready  to  submit 
 to  it,  and  did.  This  was  the  attitude  taken  by  many 
 of  the  former  opponents  of  the  new  teaching,  espe- 
 ciall}^  those  occup3ang  Episcopal  Sees.  With  Bollin- 
 ger, it  was  different.  This  dogma  included  in  its  in- 
 fallibility all  the  popes  who  had  ever  taught  or 
 reigned.  For  Bollinger  it  was  a  question  of  fact,  of 
 historic  truth.  When  a  lady  wrote  to  him  and  re- 
 quested him,  in  the  Jesuit  phrase,  to  "immolate  his 
 intellect,"  and  accept  the  decree,  he  replied  that  he 
 could  just  as  easily  deny  the  existence  of  Napoleon 
 Bonaparte. 
 
 Bollinger's  great  reputation  and  influence  at  Mu- 
 nich was  second  to  that  of  no  man  of  learning  in  the 
 century.  His  work  also  w^ent  on ;  with  his  co-opera- 
 tion, in  1887,  appeared  *'The  Autobiography  of  Bel- 
 larmine."  In  1889  he  published,  in  two  volumes,  his 
 "  History  of  Moral  Controversies  in  the  Roman  Cath- 
 olic Church  since  the  Sixteenth  Century  with  Respect 
 to  the  History  and  Characteristics  of  the  Jesuit  Order." 
 In  1890  came  his  last  great  work,  one  of  long-contin- 
 ued and  fundamental  research,  on  the  "  History  of  the 
 Sects  of  the  Middle  Ages."  Three  volumes  of  his 
 academic  lectures  of  great  value  were  published,  the 
 last  after  his  death. 
 
 Ranke,  Bollinger,  and  George  Bancroft  lived  to  be 
 over  ninety  years  of  age,  and  the  two  former  did  most 
 excellent  work  until  the  last.  As  an  historian  Bollin- 
 ger occupied  a  unique  position;  his  profound  erudi- 
 tion, his  breadth  of  view,  his  solidity  of  judgment  and 
 grasp  of  the  historical  situation,  tendencies,  and  re- 
 sults,- make  his  work  valuable  for  all  time.  After 
 1870  he  read  carefully  Luther's  works,  and  came  to  a 
 
The  Papacy. 
 
 445 
 
 different  estimate  of  him.  He  came  to  see  how  lyUther 
 and  his  work  wrought  out  God's  providential  ends. 
 
 Nippold  says  that  "The  history  of  the  nineteenth 
 century  knows  the  name  of  no  other  theologian 
 whose  world  historical  position  can  compare  with 
 Bollinger's.  He  was  no  party  leader,  but,  in  charac- 
 ter and  influence,  no  German  theologian  since  lyUther 
 has  equal  enduring  fame.  No  one  who  has  studied 
 at  the  University  of  Munich,  where  Dollinger's  re- 
 markable library  is  a  part  of  that  of  the  university, 
 and  where  his  name  is  always  mentioned  with  the 
 greatest  respect,  or  who  has  seen  the  students  of  the 
 Collegium  Germanicum  at  Rome  eagerly  bidding  at 
 the  sale  of  his  works,  but  realizes  that  he  is,  like 
 lyUther,  a  real  and  potent  force  in  the  life  of  the 
 religious  world,  and  not  least  in  that  of  the  Roman 
 Catholic  Church.  This  came  from  his  adherence  to 
 his  convictions  of  intellect  and  conscience  at  all  costs. 
 He  acknowledged  his  change  of  view;  in  his  last  year 
 he  wrote:  "The  compulsory  unity  of  the  Papal 
 Church  assures  many  advantages,  but  these  are  far 
 outweighed  by  the  many  evil  consequences.  The  ad- 
 vancing formation  of  ,new  Church  organizations  in 
 the  Protestant  world  is  no  sign  of  weakness,  but  of 
 living  motive  force." 
 
 Of  course,  many  efforts  were  made  to  have  him 
 become  reconciled  to  the  Papal  Church.  To  such  an 
 effort  he  replied  in  1886  to  the  Archbishop  of  Mu- 
 nich, **  Shall  I,  with  the  burden  of  a  double  perjury 
 upon  my  conscience,  appear  before  the  Eternal 
 Judge?"  To  the  papal  nuncio  the  last  year  of  his 
 life  he  wrote,  "  What  I  have  written  will  sufficiently 
 express  my  opinions  in  order  to  make  plain  to  you 
 
446     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 that  one  with  such  convictions  can  be  in  a  condition 
 of  inner  peace  and  spiritual  rest  on  the  threshold  of 
 eternity." 
 
 January  lo,  1890,  a  great  scholar,  a  humble  Chris- 
 tian, a  man  whose  character  and  love  of  truth  out- 
 weighs all  his  works,  great  as  their  influence  will 
 ever  be,  went  from  the  strife  of  tongues  and  warring 
 party  cries  to  God's  eternal  peace. 
 
 The  Whitsunday  Declaration  was  followed  by  the 
 assembling  of  the  first  Old  Catholic  Congress  at  Hei- 
 
 ^^g  delberg,  August  5,  1871;  a  second  suc- 
 oid  Catholic  ceeded  at  Munich  in  September ;  the  third 
 Movement.  ^^^  ^^^^  ^^  Cologne  in  September,  1872; 
 at  the  same  place  in  June,  1873,  the  fourth  gathered. 
 On  June  4th,  Joseph  Hubert  Reinkens  was  chosen 
 bishop  by  twenty-two  clergy  and  fifty-five  lay  dele- 
 gates. Bishop  Reinkens  was  consecrated,  August  11, 
 1873,  by  the  Jansenist  bishop  of  Deventer,  in  Hol- 
 land. Bishop  Reinkens  was  acknowledged  by  the 
 King  of  Prussia,  the  Grand  Duke  of  Baden,  and  the 
 Grand  Duke  of  Hesse.  He  was  the  first  Roman  Cath- 
 olic bishop  without  papal  confirmation,  to  be  so  ac- 
 knowledged, on  German  soil  for  six  hundred  years. 
 
 In  May,  1874,  a  regular  Synodical  Constitution  for 
 the  new  Church  was  adopted.  The  Sjmods  met  annu- 
 ally at  Bonn,  the  seat  of  the  bishops,  until  1879;  since 
 then,  biennially.  Since  1878  the  proceedings  are  taken 
 down  by  stenographers,  and  then  printed.  In  1878 
 compulsory  celibacy  was  abolished,  and  though  many 
 were  at  first  offended,  after  twenty  years  trial  the  re- 
 sults are  said  to  justify  the  change.  The  mass  in 
 German  was  allowed  in  1879,  and  is  now  in  use  in  most 
 places.     An  Episcopal  seminary  was  founded  at  Bonn 
 
The  Papacy.  447 
 
 in  1894.  Union  Church  Congresses  were  held  at  Bonn 
 in  1874  and  1875,  attended  by  Greek,  English,  and 
 American  prelates.  Also  at  Cologne  in  1890;  Lu- 
 zerne, 1892;  and  Rotterdam  in  1894.  Bishop  Rein- 
 kens  died  in  January  of  the  latter  year. 
 
 In  March,  1896,  Professor  Theodore  Webber  was 
 chosen  bishop  in  his  place.  In  1895  there  were  re- 
 ported 120  congregations,  with  49  clergy.  The  work 
 has  been  carried  on  amid  the  greatest  difficulties.  The 
 chief  of  these  has  been  to  raise  up  a  clergy,  learned 
 and  devout  and  influential.  This  has  been  in  a  degree 
 overcome.  The  movement  in  Austria  of  cutting  loose 
 from  Rome  has  recently  helped  the  Old  Catholic  move- 
 ment. This  Church  has  thrown  off  compulsory  auric- 
 ular confession,  invocation  of  saints,  adoration  of  relics, 
 and  pilgrimages.  The  movement  has  not  taken  on 
 large  proportions,  but  it  is  neither  dead  nor  dying. 
 The  worship  at  Munich  had  scarcely  anything  offen- 
 sive to  an  Evangelical  believer.  The  congregation 
 was  evidently  well-to-do,  and  it  was  a  family  Church. 
 These  people  knew  why  they  were  there,  and  they 
 were  there  to  stay.  Probably  there  is  a  much  larger 
 future  before  the  Old  Catholic  Church  than  before  the 
 Jansenist  Church  in  Holland.  Doubtless,  with  wider 
 influence,  it  has  equal  endurance,  and  upon  any  critical 
 occasion  may  become  an  important  factor  in  the  re- 
 ligious world,  especially  if  a  pope  should  reign  who 
 should  revert  to  anything  like  the  policy  of  Pius  IX. 
 
 The  attitude  of  Pius  IX  toward  the  modern  society, 
 as  shown  in  the  Syllabus  and  the  dogma  of 
 Papal  Infallibility,  which  was  expected  to  Kuiturkampi. 
 make  the  opposition  of  the  Syllabus  effect- 
 ive against  them,  caused  excitement  at  the  Roman 
 
448     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 Catholic  courts.  Austria  rejected  her  Concordat  with 
 the  pope;  the  policy  of  Bavaria  and  Baden  was  de- 
 cidedly hostile ;  it  increased  the  rancor  of  the  French 
 Republicans,  who,  against  all  probabilities,  were  soon 
 to  control  the  destinies  of  France.  Above  all,  Bis- 
 marck as  Chancellor  of  the  new  German  Empire,  the 
 object  of  the  undisguised  hatred  of  the  Curialists,  felt 
 the  time  had  come  to  strike  a  heavy  counter-blow  to 
 the  Jesuit  policy  which  triumphed  at  the  Vatican 
 Council.  That  Bismarck  struck  a  blow  destructive 
 of  the  independence  of  the  Church,  and  which  would 
 make  her  an  organ  only  of  the  State  and  of  its  policy, 
 can  not  be  denied.  That,  in  doing  this,  he  coerced 
 the  conscience  is  true,  and  that  the  passive  resistance 
 of  the  Roman  Catholics  of  Prussia  was  successful, 
 must  be  counted  a  gain.  The  series  of  measures  by 
 which  this  was  sought  to  be  accomplished,  and  to 
 raise  up  a  Roman  Cathelic  clergy  as  dependent  upon 
 the  State  as  formerly  upon  the  pope,  was  known  as 
 the  Falk  laws,  from  the  Minister  of  Worship  who  in- 
 troduced them.  Decisive  measures  were  taken  before 
 their  introduction  to  limit  the  power  of  the  Roman 
 Catholic  hierarchy,  and  banish  from  German  soil 
 those  who  were  supposed  to  be  working  for  the  de- 
 struction of  the  new  nation. 
 
 July  8,  1 87 1,  the  Roman  Catholic  division  of  the 
 Ministry  of  Worship  w^as  abolished.  In  December  of 
 the  same  year  clergymen  were  held  responsible  for 
 their  pulpit  utterances  if  they  tended  to  disturb  the 
 peace,  and  might  be  imprisoned  for  two  years  for  a 
 breach  of  this  law,  which  left  a  wide  latitude  to  inter- 
 pretation. Soon  after,  a  law  passed  which  placed  all 
 parish  schools  under  State  inspection.     July  4,  1872, 
 
The  Papacy.  449 
 
 all  Jesuits  were  expelled  from  Germany;  the  year 
 following  their  affiliated  orders,  the  Redemptorists, 
 lyazarists,  Priests  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  Society  of 
 the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus,  met  the  same  fate.  May 
 31,  1875,  all  religious  orders  in  the  empire,  except 
 those  devoted  to  the  care  of  sick,  etc.,  were  dissolved. 
 
 In  May,  1873,  these  laws  were  proposed  and  passed. 
 That  of  May  i  ith,  provided  that  only  a  German  could 
 exercise  a  spiritual   or  clerical  office,  and 
 one  who  had  taken  his  course  of  study  in  a    ^^^g"' 
 State  university  and  then  passed  a  State 
 examination.     It  was  allowed,  in  the  place  of  the  uni- 
 versity course,  to  take  a  course  in  a  theological  semi- 
 nary, provided  such  institution  was  recognized  by  the 
 State. 
 
 The  law  of  May  1 2th  provided  that  cases  of  Church 
 discipline  should  be  decided  in  a  State  Court  by  State 
 officials.  That  of  May  13th  defined  the  use  and  lim- 
 its of  ecclesiastical  punishment  and  sought  to  prevent 
 the  ecclesiastical  punishment,  from  inflicting  any  civil 
 or  social  penalty.  The  law  of  May  14th  provided,  that 
 by  making  a  declaration  of  his  purpose  before  any 
 local  judge,  a  person  may  sever  his  relations  with  any 
 Church.  The  law  of  May  4,  1 874,  decreed  banishment 
 to  the  refractory  clergy  after  a  fixed  limit  of  time. 
 That  of  July  6,  1875,  called  the  Law  of  Civil  Rela- 
 tions, aiTected  unfavorably,  not  only  the  Roman  Cath- 
 olics, but  the  Evangelical  Church.  The  law  of  May 
 20,  1874,  declared  the  property  of  a  vacant  bishopric 
 should  be  taken  in  charge  by  a  State  administrator. 
 The  year  following,  the  laws  were  increased  in  sever- 
 ity by  that  of  April  22,  1875;  institution,  exercises  of 
 office,  and  salary  were  allowed  to  the  clergy,  only 
 29 
 
450    History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 where    the    bishop    or    the    Episcopal    administrator 
 pledged  unconditional  obedience  to  the  law. 
 
 The  law  of  May,  1875,  by  which  the  religious 
 orders,  except  those  given  to  charity,  were  dissolved, 
 was  a  violation  of  the  Prussian  Constitution  of  1850; 
 therefore,  by  the  law  of  May  18,  1875,  Articles  15,  16, 
 and  1 7  of  that  Constitution  were  declared  void.  This 
 made  the  Church  wholly  subject  to  the  State.  June 
 20,  1875,  a  law  was  passed  for  the  State  administration 
 of  the  property  of  vacant  Roman  Catholic  Churches. 
 July  4,  1875,  a  law  was  passed  designed  to  aid  the  Old 
 Catholics,  but  which  only  brought  them  into  odium 
 as  expecting  profit  from  the  persecuting  policy  of  the 
 State.  Of  course,  these  measures  awakened  the  great- 
 est hostility  at  Rome;  but  Bismarck  reasoned  that 
 this  could  hardly  be  increased. 
 
 Pius  IX  in  a  letter  to  the  Emperor  William  I, 
 August  7,  1873,  claimed  authority  over  the  German 
 Emperor  because  he  had  received  Christian  baptism. 
 This  claim  the  emperor  at  once  and  decisively  re- 
 jected. He  said :  "  The  Evangelical  faith  to  which  I, 
 as  my  ancestors  and  the  majority  of  my  subjects,  be- 
 long, does  not  allow  us  to  accept  in  relation  to  God 
 any  other  mediator  than  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ." 
 
 The  Papal  Encyclical  of  February  5,  1875,  declared 
 the  Falk  laws  invalid ;  and  Pius  IX  later  styled  Bis- 
 marck a  new  Attila.  No  resistance  from  Rome,  but 
 the  passive  resistance  of  the  Roman  Catholic  popula- 
 tion and  clergy  led  to  the  failure  of  the  Falk  laws. 
 
 Ledochowski,  Archbishop  of  Posen,  one  of  the  four 
 German  bishops  who  favored  the  new  dogma,  was 
 banished  for  resistance  to  the  law  in  1874,  and  his 
 fellow  archbishop,   Melchers,   of  Cologne,   in    1876; 
 
The  Papacy.  451 
 
 while  Martin,  bishop  of  Paderborn,  Brinkman  of  Mun- 
 ster,  and  Blum  of  Limburg,  experienced  the  same  fate 
 in  1875,  1876,  and  1877.  In  1880,  of  twelve  Prussian 
 bishoprics,  but  three,  Krmeland,  Kulm,  and  Hildes- 
 heim,  were  occupied.  There  were  fourteen  hundred 
 parishes  without  pastors.  This  was  the  state  of  things 
 at  the  death  of  Pius  IX.  If  he  had  lived  ten  years 
 longer,  there  is  no  reason  to  think  there  would  have 
 been  any  change,  though  the  difficulties  of  the  situa- 
 tion increased  each  year. 
 
 On  assuming  his  pontificate,  Leo  XIII  wrote  to  the 
 German  Emperor  announcing  his  accession,  and  ex- 
 pressed a  hope  for  better  relations  between      ^^^^  ^y^^ 
 them.     In   the   same  year  Bismarck  met       and  the 
 the  papal  nuncio  at  Munich,   and  began      "  ""^  ""^ ' 
 negotiations  for  the  realization  of  this  wish. 
 
 After  a  seven  years'  rule,  Dr.  Falk  resigned  his 
 place  as  Minister  of  Worship  in  1879.  In  1880,  Roman 
 Catholic  pastors  were  allowed  to  return  from  banish- 
 ment. The  law  banishing  them  was  repealed  in  1890. 
 Then  the  vacant  bishoprics  were  gradually  filled: 
 Treves  and  Fulda  in  1880,  Paderborn  and  Osnabruck 
 in  1 88 1,  Breslau  in  1882,  Munster  and  Limburg  in 
 1883.  In  1882,  the  Prussian  embassy  to  the  Vatican 
 was  restored ;  in  May  of  the  same  year  the  State  ex- 
 amination of  the  Roman  Catholic  clergy  was  abol- 
 ished. Four  years  later  the  Roman  Catholic  Episco- 
 pal seminaries  were  allowed  to  open.  Eighteen  mil- 
 lions of  marks,  or  $4,500,000  of  Roman  Catholic  money, 
 was  paid  back,  and  Roman  Catholic  theological  stu- 
 dents were  released  from  military  dut3^  But  the 
 Jesuits  were  most  effectively  banished  for  the  thirty 
 years  succeeding  1872. 
 
452     History  of  the  Christian  Church, 
 
 The  Falk  laws  failed;  and,  let  us  say  it,  they  de- 
 served to  fail.  One  cause  of  the  failure,  doubtless,  was 
 the  feeling  that  the  party  chiefly  gratified 
 K^uiturkalnpl!  ^^  ^^^°^  ^^^  ^^^  Anti-religiouists  and  the 
 Jews.  This  evident  result  has  been  her- 
 alded as  an  immense  gain  to  the  papacy  and  a  sure 
 proof  that  Bismarck,  after  all,  went  to  Canossa.  There 
 are  some  deductions  to  be  made  from  this  view.  The 
 one  object  of  Bismarck  was  to  preserve  the  new  Ger- 
 man Empire  from  the  fate  of  having  its  Roman  Cath- 
 olic subjects,  one-third  of  the  population,  made  per- 
 manently disajQfected  and  a  menace  to  German  unity 
 by  the  hostility  of  the  pope  and  the  machinations  of 
 the  Jesuits.  Bismarck  was  not  alone  in  dreading  this 
 result.  Perhaps  he  was  mistaken.  Be  that  as  it  may, 
 the  process  by  which  these  laws  were  repealed  and  the 
 Kulturkampf  ended — that  of  compromise  with  the 
 Center,  or  Roman  Catholic  party,  in  the  Reichstag — 
 has  made  them  the  most  pronounced  of  all  parties  in 
 the  support  of  German  unity,  of  the  house  of  Hohen- 
 zollern,  and  of  loyalty  to  the  new  and  larger  Father- 
 land. Such  a  result,  from  a  statesman's  point  of  view, 
 is  worth  many  risks  and  large  costs.  Few  observers 
 of  political  events  at  the  time  would  have  predicted 
 that  one  result  of  the  Kulturkampf  would  be  the 
 general  acknowledgment  throughout  Europe  that 
 there  is  no  more  loyal  section  of  the  population  of  the 
 new  German  Empire  than  Roman  Catholics.  No 
 Italian  cardinal  is  sanguine  enough  to  reckon  on  a 
 severance  of  these  relations. 
 
 Again,  the  heads  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church' 
 in  Germany,  Archbishops  Melchers  and  Ledochowski, 
 died  in  banishment,  the  one  after  an  exile  of  twenty, 
 
The  Papacy.  453 
 
 and  the  other  of  twenty-five  years.  No  German  prel- 
 ates are  anxious  for  a  renewal  of  the  Kulturkampf. 
 Its  eflfects  upon  religious  life  at  the  time  were  unques- 
 tionably bad ;  but  its  issue  in  the  acknowledgment  of 
 the  right  of  the  Church  to  its  independent  existence 
 and  the  exercise  of  its  functions,  has  had  a  healthful 
 effect  upon  the  Evangelical  Churches.  Some  evil 
 effects  remain  ;  but  we  must  admit  that  the  new  Ger- 
 man Empire,  recognizing  its  legitimate  limitations,  as 
 well  as  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  Germany,  is 
 immensely  stronger  than  at  the  beginning  of  the 
 famous  strife.  Its  issue  was  the  right  one  for  all 
 Churches.  Its  lessons  are  obvious  and  none  clearer 
 than  that  the  observance  of  just  limitations  is  the 
 strength  both  of  the  Church  and  the  State,  and  that 
 there  is  no  power  stronger  than  passive  resistance  for 
 conscience'  sake. 
 
 In  the  midst  of  this  turmoil,  after  the  longest  pon- 
 tificate in  history,  Pius  IX  died,  February,  1878.  One 
 who  marks  the  long  line  of  costly  andosten- 
 
 ,  .  -  J  Death  of 
 
 tatious  monuments  to  his  papal  predecessors,  p.^^  ,x. 
 and  then  goes  to  his  tomb  at  San  Lorenzo, 
 outside  the  walls  of  Rome,  and  reads  that  he  directed 
 that  it  should  cost  but  $200,  will  have  a  respect  for 
 his  modesty  and  piety,  however  ill  he  may  think  ot 
 his  policy  as  directed  by  the  Jesuits  and  Cardinal 
 Antonelli.  He  had  little  estimate  of  any  Christianity 
 besides  that  found  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
 In  December,  1847,  he  declared  it  false  that  "he  be- 
 lieved that  one  could  be  saved  outside  of  the  Roman 
 Catholic  Church."  "  This  [statement]  is  such  a  serious 
 injury  to  him,  that  he  can  not  find  words  in  which  to 
 express  his  abhorrence  of  it." 
 
454     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 Pius  was  ignorant  and  superstitious,  weak  and 
 obstinate  in  administration,  and  without  consistent 
 policy  except  in  the  realization  of  Jesuit  aims.  Yet 
 he  was  so  sincerely  devout,  and  was  so  frank  in  his 
 speech,  and  so  grave  and  gentle  in  his  manner,  that 
 this  man  who  left  the  Church  of  Rome  at  swords' 
 points  with  almost  all  the  world,  and  had  caused  her 
 greater  loss  than  any  pope  since  Clement  VII,  has 
 passed  into  tradition  as  a  saint. 
 
 Vincenzo  Gioachino  Pecci,  son  of  Count  Ludovico 
 and  Anna  Pecci,  was  born  at  Carpineto,  in  the  Papal 
 States,  March  2,  1810.  Early  developing  a 
 ,8*0=1903.  ^^^^^  ^^^  study,  he  was  first  sent  to  the 
 Jesuit  college  at  Viterbo.  Leaving  there 
 at  the  age  of  fourteen,  he  spent  the  next  seven  years 
 under  Jesuit  teachers  in  the  Collegium  Romanum,  the 
 great  school  of  the  order,  graduating  from  thence  in 
 1 83 1.  After  having  exercised  legatine  functions  in 
 some  of  the  smaller  sections  of  the  Papal  States,  he 
 became  Domestic  Prelate,  and  in  1837,  Referendary  to 
 the  Signatura.  On  December  23,  1837,  he  was  or- 
 dained priest.  In  1843  he  v/as  sent  as  nuncio  to  Bel- 
 gium, where  he  remained  three  years,  and  visited 
 Paris  and  London.  He  came  to  the  Episcopate  as 
 Bishop  of  Perugia,  January  19,  1846,  and  was  created 
 cardinal  December  9,  1853.  As  cardinal,  he  did  not 
 favor  the  belligerent  course  pursued  by  Pius  IX.  On 
 Pius's  death  he  was  chosen  pope,  February  18,  1878, 
 and  took  the  title  of  Leo  XIII. 
 
 In  spite  of  the  exaggerations  of  his  admirers,  Leo 
 XIII  is  neither  in  appearance  nor  disposition  a  saint. 
 He  is  a  good  man ;  but  in  his  rule  of  the  Church  he 
 is   a  thorough  prince  of  the  world.     This  very  fact, 
 
The  Papacy.  455 
 
 his  knowledge  of  the  world  and  desire  to  live  in  peace 
 with  Christian  nations  and  governments,  has  made 
 his  pontificate  successful  and  his  rule  of 
 great  value  to  the  Christian  world.  No  ^^l^xl 
 pope  in  two  hundred  years,  except  Pius  VII, 
 at  his  election  faced  graver  problems  than  Leo  XIII. 
 His  first  care  was  to  end  the  Kulturkampf  in  Ger- 
 many. Instead  of  regarding  Bismarck  as  a  second 
 Attila,  he  came  to  have  for  him  a  sincere  respect, 
 especially  after  he  had  referred  to  Leo  the  dispute  be- 
 tween Germany  and  Spain  in  regard  to  the  Caroline 
 Islands  in  1886.  His  great  disillusion  came  with  the 
 dismissal  of  Bismarck,  and  the  realization  that  Wil- 
 liam II  was  as  unbending  in  his  religious  convic- 
 tions, as  firm  in  will,  as  himself,  and  not  his  inferior 
 in  diplomacy. 
 
 At  this  time  Cardinal  Lavigiere  (1825-1892),  who 
 had  been  a  strong  monarchist,  became  convinced  that 
 the  divisions  of  the  monarchical  parties  in  France 
 were  incurable,  and  that  the  Republic  must  be  the 
 permanent  government  of  that  ancient  ally  and  sup- 
 port of  the  papacy.  The  cardinal,  who  had  made  a 
 great  name  by  his  efforts  to  end  the  slave-trade  in 
 Mohammedan  Africa,*  and  by  his  administration  of 
 Church  affairs  in  Algiers,  persuaded  Leo  XIII  that 
 the  true  interest  of  the  papacy  lay  in  the  support  of 
 France  and  the  Republic.  From  this  time  there  was 
 a  turn  in  the  policy  of  Leo  XIII.  For  twelve  years 
 he  had  been  a  steadfast  friend  of  Germany,  and  had 
 used  his  influence  to  build  up  the  Center  party.  He 
 had  been  in  cordial  relations  with  Austria  and  Russia, 
 the  other  parties  to  the  Dreibund ;  his  best  endeavors 
 had  been  put  forth,  in  vain,  to  enter  into  some  ecclesi- 
 
456     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 astical  relations  with  the  Russian  and  Greek  Churches. 
 The  Papal  Sovereignty  and  Infallibility  were  insur- 
 mountable obstacles.  Now  Leo  became  a  friend  of 
 the  French  Republic,  and  no  hostile  legislation  or 
 executive  action  has  been  able  to  cause  him  to  swerve 
 from  this  friendship. 
 
 Having  ended  the  Kulturkampf  in  Germany,  Leo 
 XIII  set  himself  to  reconcile  the  papacy  and  the  Roman 
 
 ^^g  Catholic  Church  with  modern  society  and 
 Encyclical,  the  modern  State.     With  this  end  in  view, 
 
 '^  ^*  he  published  his  Encyclical,  "  Immortali 
 Deo,"  November  i,  1885.  In  this  he  endeavors,  with 
 true  diplomatic  astuteness,  so  to  interpret  the  Syllabus 
 of  1864,  that  the  papacy  can  have  a  modus  vivejidi,  a 
 way  of  living,  in  the  modern  world.  A  few  extracts 
 will  show  better  than  many  words  how  this  is  sought 
 to  be  accomplished. 
 
 One  concession,  when  we  remember  the  relation  of 
 the  papacy  to  European  politics  and  to  the  political 
 reaction  for  the  first  seventy-five  years  of 
 Government.  ^^^  century,  and  the  persistent  cry  of  the 
 alliance  between  the  throne  and  the  altar, 
 is  most  significant  and  illuminating  as  the  recognition 
 of  accomplished  facts.  That  Leo  XIII  has  known 
 how  to  do  this  has  been  the  strong  feature  of  his  policy. 
 Henceforth  neither  the  papacy  nor  the  Church  can  be 
 quoted  against  republics  or  democracies.  Leo  says, 
 "  But  the  right  of  ruling  is  not  conjoined  with  any 
 special  form  of  commonwealth,  but  may  rightly  assume 
 this  or  that  form,  provided  that  it  really  promotes 
 utility  and  the  common  good."  Such  words  from 
 this  source  had  not  been  heard  before  since  the  days 
 of  Louis  XIV.     It  is  difficult  to  conceive  a  more  com- 
 
The  Papacy.  457 
 
 plete  political  change  than  between  this  and  the  papal 
 policy  from  1825  to  1875.  But  for  Gettysburg  and 
 Appomattox  these  words  might  not  have  been  written. 
 
 Concerning  religious  toleration,  the  pope  gives  the 
 rule,  and  then  the  interpretation.     A  comparison  of 
 these  will  show  the  key  to  the  policy  of 
 I.eo  as  a  ruler  of  the  Church.  r'^Sion. 
 
 As  to  the  rule  he  says:  "It  is  a  crime 
 for  private  individuals,  and  a  crime  for  the  State,  to 
 make  no  account  of  the  duties  of  religion,  or  to  treat 
 different  kinds  of  religion  in  the  same  way;  that  the 
 uncontrolled  power  of  thinking  and  proclaiming  one's 
 thoughts  has  no  place  among  the  rights  of  citizens, 
 and  can  not  in  any  way  be  reckoned  among  those 
 things  which  are  worthy  of  favor  and  defense." 
 
 Now  as  to  the  interpretation :  "  In  truth,  though 
 the  Church  judges  that  it  is  not  lawful  that  the  vari. 
 ous  kinds  of  divine  worship  should  have  the  same 
 right  as  the  true  religion,  still  it  does  not,  therefore, 
 condemn  those  governors  of  States  who,  for  the  sake 
 of  acquiring  some  great  good,  or  preventing  some 
 great  ill,  patiently  bear  with  the  manners  and  cus- 
 toms, so  that  each  kind  of  religion  has  its  place  in 
 the  State." 
 
 This  is  a  toleration  of  toleration  for  the  time  be- 
 ing, through  necessity,  but,  like  the  attitude  toward 
 republics,  is  a  recognition  of  accomplished  facts. 
 
 The  pope  then  endeavors  to  adjust  the  teachings 
 of  the  Syllabus  to  the  advance  of  science.     The  con- 
 cession is  small,  but  significant.     He  .says: 
 "Whatever    may    happen    to    extend    the    Research^ 
 range  of  knowledge  the  Church  will  always 
 willingly  and  gladly  accept;    and  she  will,  as  is  her 
 
458     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 wont  in  the  case  of  other  studies,  steadily  encourage 
 and  promote  these  also  which  are  concerned  with  the 
 investigation  of  nature.  If  the  mind  finds  anything 
 new  in  them,  the  Church  offers  no  opposition;  she 
 fights  not  against  the  search  after  more  things  for  the 
 grace  and  convenience  of  life."  Compare  this  with 
 Syllabus,  pages  428,  429,  Errors  22,  12,  13. 
 
 In  touching  upon  the  political  action  of  Roman 
 
 Catholics,  the  pope  gives  the  rule  and  the  exception. 
 
 He  says:  "And  further,  to  speak  generally, 
 
 Political     .^  -g  JJgg(Jf^l  and  honorable  for  the  atten- 
 
 Actlon. 
 
 tion  of  Catholic  men  to  pass  beyond  this 
 narrower  field,  and  to  embrace  every  branch  of  public 
 administration.  Generally,  we  say,  because  thus  our 
 precepts  reach  unto  all  nations.  But  it  may  happen 
 in  some  particular  place,  for  the  most  urgent  and  just 
 reasons,  that  it  is  by  no  means  expedient  to  engage  in 
 public  affairs,  or  to  take  an  active  part  in  political 
 functions." 
 
 The  exception  is  to  justify  the  papal  policy  toward 
 the  Kingdom  of  Italy,  where  the  command  is  that 
 good  Roman  Catholics  are  neither  to  vote  nor  to  be 
 voted  for  at  the  elections.  This  is  sometimes  violated 
 when  it  is  thought  it  will  bring  the  Italian  govern- 
 ment into  contempt,  as  once  in  the  election  of  a  groom 
 to  be  a  deputy  in  the  Italian  Parliament  from  the  city 
 of  Rome. 
 
 In  a  succeeding  Encyclical  entitled  "I<ibertas,"  in 
 1886,  Eeo  XIII  returns  to  the  same  subject.  He  mis- 
 states the  position  of  modern  Liberalism,  and  then 
 proceeds  to  denounce  it.  Thus  he  condemns  liberty 
 of  worship,  of  speech,  and  of  the  press,  of  teaching, 
 and  of  the  conscience,  "because  they  tacitly  assume 
 
The  Papacy.  459 
 
 the  absence  of  truth  as  the  law  of  our  reason,  and  of 
 authority  as  the  law  of  our  will." 
 
 In  this  Encyclical  he  incidentally  calls  the  separa- 
 tion of  Church  and  State  "a  pernicious  maxim." 
 
 Let  us  all  be  thankful  that  the  practice  of  Leo 
 XIII  has  been  better  than  his  preaching.  So  far  his 
 reign  has  been  stained  by  no  act  of  religious  intoler- 
 ance. It  may  be  that  the  loss  of  temporal  power  has 
 something  to  do  with  this  fact,  but  a  careful  study  of 
 Leo's  pontificate  will  convince  us  that  it  is  in  ac- 
 cord with  his  wish  and  desire.  He  acceeded  to  the 
 wish  of  Mr.  Terence  V.  Powderly,  and  did  not  con- 
 demn the  action  of  Roman  Catholics  who  joined  the 
 Knights  of  Labor.  This,  of  course,  applies  to  other 
 labor  organizations. 
 
 Leo  gave  a  good  deal  of  study  to  questions  of 
 labor  and  social  conditions,  and  issued  encyclicals 
 concerning  them.  If  he  did  not  throw  new  light 
 upon  the  subject,  he  showed  that,  like  any  true  pastor, 
 it  lay  near  his  heart  and  was  worthy  of  the  best 
 thought  of  his  brain. 
 
 In  1879,  Leo  XIII  made  John  H.  Newman  a  car- 
 dinal. He  has  been  said  to  be  the  greatest  convert 
 the  Church  of  Rome  has  ever  had.  This  distinction 
 was  favorably  received  by  men  of  all  parties  in  Eng- 
 land, except  by  Cardinal  Manning  and  his  following, 
 who  had  been  violent  partisans  of  the  policy  of  Pius 
 IX.  The  same  can  hardly  be  said  of  the  papal  com- 
 mission under  Monsignor  Persico,  sent  to  Ireland  to 
 investigate  the  operations  of  the  Land  League.  The 
 papal  condemnation  in  1887  is  not  claimed  by  any  to 
 have  been  an  act  of  wisdom. 
 
 The  turn  of  the  papal  policy  was  taken  advantage 
 
460     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 of  by  the  Ultramontane  party.  The  alliance  of  France 
 and  Russia  was  thought  to  weaken  Italy.  The  agents 
 of  this  party  sought  to  enlist  the  higher  classes  in 
 France,  especially  the  ofl&cers  of  the  army,  in  an  at- 
 tempt to  overthrow  the  Italian  government  and  to  re- 
 store the  temporal  power  of  the  pope.  To  this  end 
 were  used  the  institutions  for  training  the  youth  of  the 
 families  of  rank  and  wealth;  the  multitude  through 
 the  Assumptionist  Fathers  and  their  organ  La  Croix ; 
 the  military  party,  and  the  fiscal  regulations  which 
 seriously  affected  the  trade  and  credit  of  Italy.  The 
 pope  invested  his  treasure  in  Spanish  bonds,  and  all 
 the  combined  clerical  interests  in  France,  Spain,  and 
 Italy  were  to  take  advantage  of  Italy's  weakness  to 
 restore  the  pope.  When  the  fatal  reverse  of  Adowah 
 came,  they  thought  their  time  was  at  hand ;  the  Drey- 
 fus agitation  in  France  was  made  to  serve  the  same 
 end.  But  affairs  took  a  different  turn.  The  heir  to 
 the  throne  of  Italy  found  a  bride  in  spite  of  the  pro- 
 hibition placed  by  the  pope  upon  any  Roman  Catho- 
 lic princess  contracting  a  marriage  with  him.  Luz- 
 zato  came  into  the  ministry  of  finance,  an  able  and  an 
 honest  man.  Favorable  commercial  treaties  were  ne- 
 gotiated with  France.  The  Republic  took  a  turn  de- 
 cidedly hostile  to  the  Clerical  party ;  the  Assumption- 
 ist order  was  dissolved.  The  Dreyfus  persecution 
 proved  the  hugest  of  mistakes;  and,  worst  of  all,  the 
 Spanish-American  war  left  the  most  devoted  Roman 
 Catholic  power  impotent  for  good  or  ill.  In  the  effort 
 to  overthrow  Italian  unity,  no  scruples  prevented  the 
 Clerical  enemies  of  the  State  from  joining  with  Anar- 
 chists and  Socialists  in  riot  against  it,  as  was  proved 
 in  Florence  and  Milan  just  before  the  end  of  the 
 
The  Papacy.  461 
 
 century.  No  policy  could  be  more  foolish ;  for  if  the 
 Italian  government  were  overthrown,  the  Vatican 
 would  not  be  safe  from  Anarchist  bombs  for  a  fort- 
 night.    There  could  be  no  second  French  occupation. 
 
 Nevertheless,  the  restoration  of  the  temporal  power 
 of  the  pope  has  been  exalted  almost  to  the  obligation 
 of  an  article  of  faith,  not  only  with  the  prelates  of  the 
 papal  household  and  of  Italy,  but  with  the  whole 
 hierarchy  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  as  foreign 
 chiefs  of  the  Church  find  as  they  make  their  obliga- 
 tory visits  to  the  threshold  of  St.  Peter. 
 
 Two  curious  instances  of  this  are  illustrative.  In 
 1886,  Cardinal  Manning,  who  opposed  the  restoration 
 of  the  temporal  power  of  the  pope,  told  Dr.  Purcell 
 that  the  editor  of  an  influential  organ  of  the  Jesuits 
 wrote  him,  '*  I  am  directed  henceforth  not  to  mention 
 the  name  of  Cardinal  Manning  with  praise."  In 
 December,  1900,  the  Duke  of  Norfolk,  the  premier 
 duke  of  the  English  nobility,  presented  an  address  to 
 the  pope.  In  it  was  a  passage  in  reference  to  the 
 temporal  power  grossly  offensive  to  the  Italian  govern- 
 ment, which  caused  it  to  make  representations  at 
 London.  It  now  appears,  on  unquestioned  Roman 
 Catholic  authority,  that  the  offensive  passage  was  not 
 in  the  original  address,  but  that  the  duke  was  told  by 
 prelates  of  the  papal  household  that  the  address  would 
 not  be  received  by  the  pope  unless  this  passage,  which 
 they  had  drawn  up,  was  inserted. 
 
 In  America  the  conflict  between  the  parties  led  by 
 Archbishop  Ireland  and  Archbishop  Corrigan,  and  the 
 course  of  Dr.  McGlynn,  led  to  the  sending  of  Monsig- 
 nor  Satolli  as  Ablegate  from  the  Papal  See.  He 
 composed  the  strife,  and  ever  since  there  has  been 
 
462      History  of  the  Christian  Church, 
 
 kept  in  residence  a  papal  representative  at  Washing- 
 ton. No  effort  has  been  spared  to  enter  into  political 
 relations  with  the  United  States.  It  is  doubtful 
 whether  the  American  Episcopate  would  favor  such 
 action ;  but  Italian  prelates,  trained  in  the  policy  of 
 the  Concordats,  can  think  of  no  other  way  to  manage 
 the  affairs  of  their  Church,  or  to  bring  effective  press- 
 ure upon  the  American  prelates. 
 
 In  1898  the  pope  issued  an  Encyclical  on  Ameri- 
 canism. The  use  of  the  term  was  most  offensive,  and 
 the  whole  letter  was  even  more  inopportune  than  the 
 manifesto  against  the  Irish  Land  League. 
 
 In  1896  the  pope  decided  against  the  validity  of  the 
 ordinations  of  the  clergy  of  the  Church  of  England. 
 
 As  a  whole,  Leo,  without  changing  an  iota  the 
 most  repellent  claims  or  practices  of  the  Church  of 
 Rome,  has  known  how,  in  manner  and  spirit,  to  ac- 
 commodate his  rule  to  the  demands  of  the  age,  to 
 avoid  friction  and  gain  sympathy,  beyond  any  prede- 
 cessor in  the  papal  succession  in  modern  times. 
 
 There  is,  therefore,  every  desire  to  give  to  Leo 
 
 XIII  all  praise  for  a  policy  which  was  his  own,  and 
 
 Failures  of  which,  on  the  whole,  has  greatly  benefited 
 
 Papal  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  and  Christen- 
 Dipiomacy.  ^^^  On  the  Other  hand,  such  extravagant 
 claims  are  made  for  the  skill  and  success  of  Vatican 
 diplomacy  that  there  is  a  demand  for  the  other  side. 
 Let  it  be  sufficient  to  say  that  if  any  secular  State  had 
 made  the  capital  blunders  which  have  been  made  by 
 the  popes  of  Rome  since  18 15,  its  political  rule  would 
 have  been  as  dead  as  that  of  the  House  of  Hanover  in 
 Germany.  Calling  attention  only  to  the  failures  of 
 the  last  half  of  the  century,  we  find  the  papal  policy 
 
The  Papacy.  463 
 
 favored  Austria  against  France  in  1859,  and  against 
 Prussia  in  1866,  and  France  against  Germany  in 
 1870.  In  1877  it  was  on  the  side  of  Turkey  against 
 Russia.  In  no  great  European  conflict  did  it  side 
 with  the  victors  except  in  the  futile  Crimean  war, 
 which,  by  bringing  forward  Sardinia  and  Cavour,  led 
 to  the  downfall  of  the  temporal  power.  In  America, 
 Pius  IX  sympathized  with  the  Confederate  States, 
 and  gave  his  blessing  to  Maximilian  and  Carlotta  in 
 their  endeavor  to  set  up  a  Latin  Empire  in  Mex- 
 ico. When  the  Spanish  war  broke  out,  it  was  no 
 secret  in  Rome  on  which  side  were  the  sympathies 
 of  Leo  XIII. 
 
 The  temporal  rule  of  the  Papal  States  was  bad 
 enough ;  little  better  was  that  of  the  Church.  The 
 biographer  of  Cardinal  Manning  tells  us  that  Pope 
 Pius  IX  made  many  attempts  to  reform  the  monastic 
 orders  in  Italy,  but  they  were  always  frustrated  by  the 
 obstinate  resistance  of  the  great  religious  houses, 
 especially  the  Dominicans.  At  the  time  of  the  sup- 
 pression of  the  religious  orders  by  the  revolutionary 
 government  of  Italy,  Pius  IX  is  said  to  have  declared 
 that,  though  he  was  bound  publicly  to  condemn  the 
 suppression  of  the  monasteries,  in  his  heart  he  could 
 not  but  rejoice,  as  it  was  a  blessing  in  disguise.  On 
 inquiring,  in  1887,  of  Cardinal  Manning  whether  this 
 reported  declaration  of  Pius  IX  was  true.  His  Emi- 
 nence replied  that,  "whether  such  an  expression  of 
 opinion  had  been  delivered  or  not,  it  truly  represented 
 the  views  of  the  pope."  The  cardinal  added  that "  the 
 success  of  the  revolution  in  Italy  was  in  no  small 
 degree  due  to  laxity  oi  morals  in  the  clergy,  seculars 
 and  regulars,  and  to  defective  education  and  religious 
 
464     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 training  in  the  schools."     What  a  rule  for  a  "  lord  and 
 teacher  of  nations!" 
 
 The  two  powers  most  feared  and  dreaded  by  the 
 papacy  are  the  enduring  creations  of  the  nineteenth 
 century, — the  United  Italy  and  Germany.  For  years 
 the  papal  policy  was  hostile  to  the  French  Republic, 
 while  clerical  hostility  has  brought  upon  the  Roman 
 Catholic  Church  of  France  the  most  drastic  educational 
 legislation  the  last  fifty  years  has  known.  No  greater 
 blunder  was  ever  made,  with  eyes  wide  open,  than  for 
 the  Church  of  Rome  to  side  with  the  persecution  of 
 Dreyfus.  The  coronation  of  Edward  VII  was  that  of 
 the  first  English  monarch  since  the  days  of  William 
 the  Conqueror  who  did  not  think  it  necessary  to  notify 
 the  Pope  of  Rome  of  his  accession.  No  jubilee  year 
 since  the  Reformation  has  brought  so  little  influence 
 or  cash  to  the  Vatican  as  that  of  1900. 
 
 These  failures  arfe  not  enumerated  to  reproach  any 
 Church  or  party,  but  simply  to  point  out  that  the 
 superior  political  wisdom  of  the  Vatican  is  a  journal- 
 istic myth. 
 
 From  the  definition  of  the  dogma  of  Papal  Infalli- 
 bility there  has  been  one  good  result  to  the  Evangel- 
 ical faith ;  when  seeking  to  make  converts 
 
 The  Results    .  ,  r  -  ^      ^  ^     ■,     ^^ 
 
 of  the      from  that  faith   Roman  Catholic  teachers 
 Vatican      ^ould  declare  that  the  infallibility  of  the 
 
 Council. 
 
 pope  was  not,  and  would  not  be,  an  article 
 of  faith,  but  was  a  mere  opinion.  This  wrought  very 
 efiectively  with  many.  The  bishops  of  the  Irish 
 Church  made  the  same  declaration  in  1829,  and  those 
 of  Germany  repeated  it  in  1869.  This  net  for  unwary 
 Evangelical  statesmen  and  believers  has  been  de- 
 stroyed.     But  the  effect  upon  the  Roman  Catholic 
 
The  Papacy.  465 
 
 Church  has  been  profound  and  far-reaching.     It  has, 
 in  a  word,  made  it  more  sectarian  and  less  Catholic. 
 
 At  the  Council  of  Trent  the  Roman  Catholic 
 Church  ceased  to  be  the  Catholic  Church  of  Western 
 Christendom,  and  became  the  Church  of  the  Latin 
 lands  and  race.  It  cut  off  forever  the  hope  of  its  be- 
 ing the  Church  of  the  Teutonic  peoples.  It  is  true 
 that  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  has  made  large 
 gains  in  Germany,  England,  and  the  United  States  in 
 the  last  century ;  but  these  gains  have  been  from  im- 
 migration and  the  increase  of  foreign  populations. 
 The  gain  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  byconversion 
 in  these  countries  has  not  been  as  great  as  the  loss  to 
 the  Evangelical  Churches.  The  prospect  of  a  Roman 
 Catholic  Germany,  Scandinavia,  Holland,  Switzerland, 
 England,  Scotland,  or  the  United  States  was  never 
 more  remote  than  to-day.  The  Council  of  the  Vati- 
 can made  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  of  the  Latin 
 lands  the  Papal  Church.  In  it  there  is  now  no  place 
 for  those  who  do  not  believe  in  the  infallibility  of  the 
 man  chosen  by  the  College  of  Cardinals  at  Rome. 
 Those  born  and  trained  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
 may  be  able  to  do  this.  Those  who  are  not,  will  be 
 won  with  increasing  difficulty.  How  great  the  diffi- 
 culty can  only  be  realized  by  those  who  have  lived  at 
 the  seat  of  papal  power  in  Rome. 
 
 The  Vatican  Council  has  Hmited  the  Roman 
 Catholic  propaganda  in  Evangelical  lands  more  than 
 any  efforts  of  the  Evangelical  Churches  could  do.  In- 
 telHgent  men,  who  respect  their  convictions,  their 
 knowledge,  and  their  faith,  can  not  bow  to  the  Vatican 
 Decrees.  The  stream  of  conversions  in  England, 
 even,  has  dried.  The  Decree  has  strengthened  the 
 30 
 
466     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 Roman  Catholic  Church  by  making  it  more  sectarian. 
 It  has  closed  its  ranks,  stifled  dissent,  and,  with  less 
 intellectual  life,  it  presents  an  external  union  and  an 
 unbroken  front.  It  is  less  Catholic  in  that  it  is  less 
 inclusive  of  Christian  elements  and  populations,  and 
 that  it  has  less  sympathy  with  what  is  Christian  and 
 Christlike  in  other  Christian  communions.  It  is  more 
 rigorous  in  its  demands  and  is  farther  from  any  ap- 
 proximation to  the  Greek  and  English  Churches  than 
 before  in  a  century.  The  liberal  element  is  silent, 
 the  Jesuits  are  supreme,  and  Christians  who  are  not 
 Roman  Catholics  do  not  care  to  be  ruled  by  the  So- 
 ciety of  Jesus. 
 
 The  policy  of  centralized  administration  and  abso- 
 lute authority  at  Rome  accomplished  through  the 
 Concordats  and  the  Vatican  Council  has  effects  which 
 call  for  our  notice.  First,  it  has  immensely  increased 
 the  moral  responsibility  and  accountability  of  the 
 Roman  Catholic  Church.  If  there  is  a  scandal  in 
 South  America  or  China,  in  Mexico  or  France,  the 
 press  and  public  opinion  at  once  place  the  responsi- 
 bility for  dealing  with  it  upon  the  pope  and  the  whole 
 Roman  Catholic  Church.  It  is  to  his  credit  that  Leo 
 XIII  has  recognized  this  fact.  But  in  this  situation 
 there  are  great  perils.  Suppose  the  Mortara  case  re- 
 peated,— a  Jewish  boy  secretly  baptized,  kidnaped, 
 held,  and  trained  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
 The  shame  of  it  would  be  felt  to  the  ends  of  the  earth, 
 and  affect  every  Roman  Catholic  community.  What- 
 ever may  be  the  theory  of  the  powers  of  the  pope  and 
 the  cardinals,  the  success  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
 Church  depends,  more  than  all  else,  upon  the  char- 
 acter and  ability,  the  learning,  piety,  and  efficiency 
 
The  Papacy.  467 
 
 of  her  Episcopate;  it  molds  and  governs  the  clergy. 
 If  they  lack,  we  see  the  results,  as  in  the  West  Indies, 
 the  Philippines,  and  Mexico.  Whether  the  central- 
 ized authority  at  Rome  can  most  promote  or  hinder 
 the  high  character  of  the  Episcopate,  time  has  yet  to 
 show. 
 
 There  has,  however,  been  a  curious  psychological 
 effect  of  the  Vatican  Decrees.  It  was  supposed  to 
 have  great  practical  consequence  as  a  weapon  in  the 
 hands  of  the  papacy.  The  Decree  declared  that  the 
 pope  was  infallible  in  his  declarations  upon  all  ques- 
 tions of  faith  and  morals  when  he  spoke  ex-cathedra. 
 It  did  not  define  when  he  so  spoke,  nor  did  it  give 
 any  marks  to  distinguish  when  he  spoke  ex-cathedra 
 from  times  when  he  did  not.  No  papal  advocate  would 
 claim  that  all  times  the  pope  speaks  ex-cathedra ;  the 
 consequences  of  papal  contradiction  would  be  most 
 disastrous.  This  vagueness  was  in  part  due  to  the 
 difl&culty  of  the  subject,  and  in  part  intentional,  so 
 that  the  popes  themselves  could  make  the  meaning 
 elastic  or  not  as  fitted  their  use.  But  there  is  a  saving 
 sanity  in  human  nature.  When  the  law  strings  the 
 bow  too  taut,  the  interpretation  of  it  relieves  the 
 strain.     So  in  this  case. 
 
 The  pope  has  never  said  that,  in  this  particular  in- 
 stance, he  is  speaking  ex-cathedra.  It  is  safe  to  say 
 that  the  times  when  he  will  so  declare  will  be  few  or 
 none.  So  a  Roman  Catholic  author  says  that  "  it  has 
 been  discovered  that  but  one  man  in  the  Roman  Cath- 
 olic Church  is  infallible,  and  he  but  rarely."  Now 
 the  tendency  is,  especially  in  intelligent  circles,  to  say 
 that  the  pope  is  only  infallible  when  he  specially  de- 
 clares himself  so.    He  has  not  so  declared  himself  and 
 
468     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 probably  will  not,  and  so  the  dogma  is  of  no  practical 
 bearing.  This  tendency  is  most  strenuously  objected 
 to  by  the  Papal  Curia.  To  combat  it  is  one  of  the 
 chief  aims  of  the  famous  document  in  which  Leo  XIII 
 condemns  "  Americanism." 
 
 Thus  it  has  happened  that,  contrary  to  the  will  of 
 the  contrivers,  the  dogma  of  the  infallibility  of  the 
 pope  was  valid  and  effective  before  it  was  defined,  but 
 since  it  was  defined  it  is  neither.  In  intelligent  Ro- 
 man Catholic  circles  there  is  now  greater  freedom  of 
 opinion  and  less  effective  clerical  restraint  than  before 
 1870.  But  by  what  a  tenure  is  this  freedom  of  opin- 
 ion held  and  enjoyed!  For  it  we  congratulate  our 
 Roman  Catholic  brethren,  but  it  can  never  satisfy  an 
 Evangelical  Christian. 
 
 It  seems  possible,  therefore,   so  to  interpret  the 
 
 dogma  of  Papal  Infallibility  as  to   evacuate  it  of  all 
 
 Results       force   and   meaning.      Indeed,   the   great 
 
 of  this        practical  result  of  the  Vatican   Constitu- 
 
 InterpretatioR    '' ,  r     -i        ^  ^     ^     -.•       ^1  -.     -. 
 
 of  the  tion  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  has 
 Dogma.  been  to  make  the  pope  the  universal  bishop 
 and  the  Episcopate  but  his  deputies.  That  this  has 
 resulted  in  immensely  strengthening  and  unifying  the 
 Church  of  Rome  in  this  generation  there  is  no  ques- 
 tion. But  there  are  perils  in  too  much  unity.  It  is 
 yet  to  be  decided  whether  the  pope,  guided  by  Italian 
 cardinals,  will  be  as  well  able  to  meet  the  increasing 
 tide  of  national  sentiment  and  interest  as  a  national 
 Episcopate.  Certain  it  is  that  no  Council  of  American 
 bishops  would  have  advised  the  Encyclical  on  Ameri- 
 canism, nor  would  a  Council  of  Irish  bishops  have 
 sanctioned  the  papal  pronunciamento  on  the  Land 
 League.     The  Papal  Church  must  increasingly  adjust 
 
The  Papacy,  469 
 
 itself  to  the  sentiment  of  race  and  nationality.  That 
 is  true  of  all  Churches,  and  more  true  of  the  Church 
 of  Rome  than  of  any  other.  Whether  the  third  chap- 
 ter of  the  Vatican  Constitution  will  help  or  hinder  in 
 the  most  difficult  task  that  the  papacy  has  yet  met, 
 the  new  century  will  show. 
 
 A  further,  and  unforseen,  result  of  the  Vatican 
 Council  is,  that  the  process  of  interpretation  applied 
 to  the  latest  dogma  of  the  Church  of  Rome  may  be 
 applied  to  all  her  dogmatic  teaching.  If  the  dogma  of 
 Papal  Infallibility  may  be  interpreted  away,  so  may 
 any  other  dogma.  This,  indeed,  opens  the  way  for  a 
 reconciliation  between  the  mediaeval  doctrines  and 
 discipline  of  the  Church  of  Rome  and  modern  knowl- 
 edge and  the  spirit  of  popular  liberty,  education,  and 
 government,  on  which  is  based  modern  civilization. 
 So  Leo  XIII  has  appointed  a  commission  to  pro- 
 nounce on  what  is  allowable  in  Biblical  criticism. 
 
 Abbe  Loisy  would  apply  the  same  principle  to  the 
 Church,  her  doctrines,  her  worship,  and  her  institu- 
 tions. This  would  be  to  reconcile  the  Church  of 
 Rome  with  our  historical  knowledge.  Every  lover  of 
 truth  and  every  Evangelical  believer  would  welcome 
 such  a  reconciliation.  ~  But,  then,  where  is  that  unique 
 authority  of  the  teaching  and  practice  of  the  Church 
 of  Rome  which  has  been  her  peculiar  boast  ?  Where, 
 then,  would  be  that  authority  which  Pusey  regarded 
 as  the  sole  defense  against  rationalistic  attacks,  and  in 
 which  alone  John  H.  Newman  could  find  rest  for  his 
 soul  ?  Gone,  forever  gone.  Well  might  the  Evangelical 
 Christian  rejoice  in  such  a  result;  but  what  would  be 
 the  necessary  sentence  ot  condemnation  on  the  Roman 
 Catholic  theology  of  the  last  three  hundred  years  ? 
 
470     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 The  Roman  Catholic  population  at  the  end  of  the 
 
 century,   according  to  the  census  returns  and  giving 
 
 The  Roman  ^i^^^^^  estimates  where  no  census  is  taken, 
 
 Catholic     is  two  hundred  and  sixty  millions.    This  is 
 
 at^thl'^End  ^  ^^^^  °^  I  GO.  6  per  ccut.     This  is  certainly 
 
 of  the      the  greatest  absolute  gain  which  any  cen- 
 
 en  ury.  ^^j-y  ^^^  show,  This  is  accompanied  by  an 
 advance  in  intelligence,  wealth,  and  material  well- 
 being  among  the  masses  of  her  adherents  of  consider- 
 ably more  than  tenfold.  This  is  due  to  the  general 
 increase  of  material  comfort  and  wealth  during  the 
 century.  To  this  advance  the  Church  of  Rome  has 
 contributed  the  brake  rather  than  the  impulse,  but 
 she  has  shared  most  richly  in  the  benefits.  Her 
 churches,  her  schools,  her  charitable  institutions  have 
 increased  even  more  rapidly  in  Evangelical  lands. 
 
 To  this  must  be  added  the  fact  that  the  Church  of 
 Rome  presents  a  united  front  on  all  public  questions 
 through  the  complete  subordination  of  national  aspi- 
 rations, and  an  Episcopate  representing  the  central- 
 ized administration  of  the  Vatican.  The  result  is 
 like  the  imperial  administration  of  ancient  Rome. 
 The  papal  nuncios  are  at  Roman  Catholic .  courts. 
 The  apostolic  delegates  and  ablegates  run  to  the  ends 
 of  the  earth.  The  bishops,  like  the  proconsuls  and 
 procurators,  represent  the  City  on  the  Seven  Hills  by 
 the  Tiber,  and  are  expected  to  repair  thither  once  in 
 five  years  to  give  a  personal  account  of  their  adminis- 
 tration. The  impression  undeniably  is  one  of  unity 
 and  power.  This  is  increased  when  we  note  the  suc- 
 cess of  the  policy  of  Leo  XIII  in  undoing  the  work 
 of  Pius  IX  in  identifying  the  Church  of  Rome  with 
 the  cause  of  political  and  intellectual  reaction,  and 
 
The  Papacy.  471 
 
 the  results  of  the  Oxford  Movement  in  England,  and 
 the  marvelous  growth  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
 in  the  United  States. 
 
 Nothing  is  risked  in  saying  that,  in  numbers,  in 
 the  average  of  wealth,  well-being,  and  intelligence 
 among  her  people,  in  unity  of  purpose  and  adminis- 
 tration, and  in  certain  kinds  of  influence,  the  Church 
 of  Rome  never  appeared  more  imposing  than  at  the 
 close  of  a  century  of  revolution,  and  nearly  four  hun- 
 dred years  after  the  Reformation.  Though  no  longer 
 a  greater  part  of  Christendom,  she  is  to  remain  a 
 potent  factor  in  its  history. 
 
 But  to  this  situation  there  is  another  side.     If  the 
 Roman  Catholic  Church  has  grown,  so  also  have  the 
 other  Christian  Churches.     If  there  were 
 more  than  two  Roman  Catholics  at  the  end    the^^church 
 of  the  century  where  there  was  but  one  at     of  Rome. 
 its  beginning,  it  is  also  true   that  .where   (i)inareia- 
 there  was  but  one  Evangelical  Christian  in     *'^tion!*'" 
 the   populations   in    1800,   there    are   now 
 more  than  five,  an  increase  of  383  per  cent. 
 
 In  the  Greek  Church  the  increase  has  been  266 
 per  cent,  or  an  average  gain  of  325  per  cent  among 
 the  Christians  that  do  not  yield  obedience  to  the  pope 
 of  Rome,  compared  with  an  increase  of  100.6  per  cent 
 among  those  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  It  may 
 make  the  situation  clearer  to  state  that,  in  Europe,  the 
 united  Evangelical  and  Greek  population  outnumbers 
 by  tens  of  millions  the  Roman  Catholic  population. 
 In  America,  North,  South,  Central,  Mexico,  and  the 
 West  Indies,  in  1890,  the  Evangelical  and  Roman 
 Catholic  populations  were  nearly  equal  in  numbers. 
 The  scale  ten  years  later  inclined  to  the  Evangelical 
 
472     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 side.  The  Roman  Catholic  preponderance  in  Asia, 
 Africa,  and  Oceania,  including,  in  the  latter,  Aus- 
 tralia and  the  Philippines,  is  not  large,  and  is  steadily 
 decreasing.  Thus  of  the  entire  Christendom,  the 
 Roman  Catholic  portion  is  a  lesser  and  relatively  de- 
 creasing factor. 
 
 At  the  opening  of  the  century  she  had  a  popula- 
 tion of  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  millions  to 
 thirty-five  millions  of  Evangelical  Christians,  At  its 
 close,  she  had  two  hundred  and  sixty  millions,  to  one 
 hundred  and  sixty-seven  millions  of  Evangelical 
 Christians.  The  increase  of  the  Roman  Catholics  was 
 one  hundred  and  thirty-five  millions;  that  of  the 
 Evangelicals  was  one  hundred  and  thirty-two  mil- 
 lions; that  of  the  Greek  Church,  eighty  millions — a 
 joint  gain  of  two  hundred  and  twelve  millions  com- 
 pared with  one  hundred  and  thirty-five  millions  of 
 the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
 
 At  the  beginning  of  the  century  in  Europe,  ex- 
 cluding Russia,  nearly  four  out  of  five  of  the  popula- 
 tion were  Roman  Catholic;  at  its  end  one  and  one- 
 half  out  of  two  and  one-half.  Including  Russia,  the 
 proportion  at  the  end  of  the  century  was  sixteen 
 Roman  Catholics  to  nineteen  other  Christians.  In  all 
 America  in  1800,  tour  out  of  five  were  Roman  Catho- 
 lics; in  1900,  not  quite  one  out  of  two. 
 
 This  relative  decrease  is  made  more  evident  by 
 the  fact  that  the  Teutonic  and  Slavic  peoples  are  in- 
 ,  ,  „  ,  ,.       creasing  far  more  than   the   Latin  races; 
 
 (2)  Relative  ^  ' 
 
 Loss  by  Race  also  that  their  increase  in  intelligence  and 
 Increase,      ^.galth,  in  commercc,  in  power  and  influ- 
 ence, is  greater  than  their  increase  in  population.     Of 
 the  great  powers  of   the  globe,  no  Roman  Catholic 
 
The  Papacy.  473 
 
 country  can  compare  in  resources  and  influence  with 
 either  Great  Britain,  the  United  States,  Germany,  or 
 Russia.  Their  collective  weight  is  simply  overwhelm- 
 ing. The  future  of  wealth  and  power  in  Christendom 
 will  be  with  the  Teutonic  and  Slavic  peoples.  The 
 most  ardent  Roman  Catholic  will  not  claim  that  they 
 are,  or  are  likely  to  become,  subject  to  the  Church  of 
 Rome.  A  Roman  Catholic  writer  in  the  chief  Jesuit 
 organ  puts  the  situation  at  the  end  of  the  century 
 very  strongly.     He  says  : 
 
 "  Wealth  and  power  no  longer  belong  to  the  Ro- 
 man Catholic  nations;  they  have  become  the  appa- 
 nage of  nations  who  have  separated  from  the  Roman 
 Catholic  Church.  Spain,  Italy,  France,  and  a  large 
 part  of  Austria,  if  compared  with  Germany,  England, 
 and  the  United  States,  are  feebler  in  the  military  de- 
 partment, more  troubled  in  their  politics,  more  men- 
 aced in  their  social  affairs,  and  more  embarrassed  in 
 finance.  The  papacy  has  had  nothing  to  do  with  the 
 conquest  of  one-half  of  the  globe,  of  Asia  and  Africa; 
 that  has  fallen  to  the  arms  of  the  heirs  of  Photius,  of 
 Luther,  of  Henry  VIII.  All  the  vast  colonial  posses- 
 sions of  Spain  are  passing  into  the  hands  of  the  Re- 
 public of  Washington ;  France  yields  the  sovereignty 
 of  the  Nile  to  Great  Britain ;  Italy,  conquered  in  Ab- 
 yssinia, maintains  with  difliculty  her  maritime  influ- 
 ence by  following  in  the  wake  of  England.  Here 
 have  we,  in  fact,  all  the  [Roman]  Catholic  countries 
 reduced  to  submit  to  heretic  purses,  and  to  follow  in 
 their  track  like  so  many  satellites.  The  latter  speak 
 and  act,  the  former  are  silent  or  murmur  impotently. 
 This  is  how  affairs  stand  at  the  end  of  the  nineteenth 
 century,  and  it  is  impossible  to  deny  the  evidence  of 
 
474     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 it.     Politically  speaking,  [Roman]  Catholicism  is  in 
 decadence." 
 
 It  may  be  fairly  claimed  that  the  Church  of  Rome 
 has  held  the  allegiance  generally  of  the  mass  of  the 
 lower  classes  of  her  people.  The  same  can  not  be 
 said  of  the  thinking  and  intelligent  portion  of  the 
 populations  in  France,  Italy,  Spain,  and  Spanish 
 America.  In  these  countries  there  is  more  aggressive 
 and  pronounced  infidelity  and  Atheism  than  else- 
 where in  Christendom.  Within  the  last  thirty  years 
 of  the  century  the  men  of  world-wide  influence  as 
 scholars,  authors,  inventors,  and  statesmen,  have  been 
 a  decreasing  number  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
 as  compared  with  the  thirty  years  before  1850.  The 
 reverse  has  been  the  case  in  the  Evangelical  Churches. 
 On  the  other  hand,  the  revolt  from  the  Roman  and 
 Greek  Catholic  Churches  of  the  lower  classes,  when 
 they  leave  them,  has  often  been  of  a  peculiarly  viru- 
 lent kind.  Anarchist  assassins,  whose  crimes  stained 
 the  latter  decades  of  the  century,  were  without  excep- 
 tion of  Roman  or  Greek  Catholic  birth  and  training. 
 Intellectual  repression  and  recoil,  perhaps,  accounts 
 in  large  measure  for  this  fact. 
 
 In  this  century  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  lost 
 
 her    immense    endowments    in    all   Roman    Catholic 
 
 (3)  Loss  in    countries.     Her  supreme  pontiff,  from  be- 
 
 Prestigeand  ing  an  independent  sovereign,  descended  to 
 
 a  private  station    in   relation  to  the  civil 
 
 rule  of  Italy  and  the  world.     Her  prelates  and  clergy, 
 
 once  the  most  wealthy  and  independent  the  world  has 
 
 known,  have  passed  into  the  pay  of  the  State.     Instead 
 
 of  owning,  as  she  did  in  Roman  Catholic  countries  at 
 
 the  outbreak  of  the  French   Revolution,   from   two- 
 
The  Papacy.  475 
 
 fifths  to  two-thirds  of  the  real  estate,  in  some  of  these 
 countries  at  the  close  of  the  century,  the  churches  even 
 belong  to  the  State,  and  in  all  no  endowments  support 
 the  clergy.  The  losses  in  wealth  and  rank  and  do- 
 minion in  this  century  were  much  greater  than  in  the 
 century  of  the  Reformation. 
 
 It  is  doubtless  true  that  the  Roman  Catholic 
 Church  is  much  stronger  and  more  influential  in  her 
 poverty  than  in  her  riches.  It  must  also  be  added 
 she  is  much  more  dependent.  When  her  clergy  are 
 paid  by  the  State,  on  the  State  they  must  depend. 
 The  lower  classes  of  the  clergy,  except  in  some  great 
 crisis,  will  side  with  the  State,  as  in  France.  No  pope 
 can  afford  to  intermeddle  with  the  internal  govern- 
 ment of  the  State  as  it  affects  the  Church,  with  the 
 clergy  against  him.  The  policy  of  reconciliation  of 
 Leo  XIII  is  the  only  policy  possible  where  the  clergy 
 are  paid  by  the  State,  unless  the  pope  and  people  are 
 ready  for  disestablishment.  Only  where  the  much  re- 
 viled maxim  of  separation  of  the  Church  from  the 
 State  prevails,  is  the  Church  really  free. 
 
 In  Germany,  the  great  battle-ground  of  the 
 Evangelical  and  Roman  Catholic  Churches  in  this 
 period,  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  is  not  (.) particular 
 holding  her  own  in  spite  of  the  political  in-  Losses ; 
 fluence  she  exerts  through  the  Center  party  ®''™""y- 
 in  the  Reichstag.  This  clearly  appears  in  the  census 
 returns.  The  Roman  Catholic  population  in  relation 
 to  the  population  of  the  empire  is  a  decreasing  factor, 
 and  more  markedly  so  during  the  last  decade.  The 
 Roman  Catholic  Church  can  be  said  to  gain  only  in 
 Westphalia  and  Polish  Prussia.  It  loses  in  Baden  and 
 Berlin  in  particular.     In  1890  her  people  were  more 
 
476     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 than  one-third  of  the  population  of  the  German  Kni- 
 pire;  in  1900  the  percentage  is  the  same,  but  the  pre- 
 dominant gain  is  Evangelical.  The  government  re- 
 turns show  all  changes  from  the  Evangelical  to  the 
 Roman  Catholic  faith  and  the  contrary.  In  the  dec 
 ade  1 880- 1 889  there  were  seventeen  thousand  nine  hun- 
 dred and  ninety-two  more  inhabitants  of  the  German 
 Empire  who  changed  from  the  Roman  Catholic  faith 
 and  Church  to  the  Evangelical,  than  Evangelicals  who 
 became  Roman  Catholics.  In  the  decade  1890- 1899  the 
 number  increased  to  thirty-four  thousand  three  hun- 
 dred and  forty-seven.  The  trend  comes  out  strongly  in 
 comparing  the  first  two  and  last  two  of  these  twenty 
 years. 
 
 In  1 880-1 88 1  the  number  more  was  two  thousand 
 five  hundred  and  ninety-eight ;  1898- 1899  it  increased 
 to  nine  thousand  three  hundred  and  sixty-six. 
 
 Of  course,  figures  like  these  are  valuable  only  as 
 showing  the  trend,  and  in  the  German  Empire  it  is 
 not  to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church ;  the  same  trend  is 
 seen  in  Austria,  where  the  same  class  of  statistics  is 
 preserved.  Naturally  one  would  suppose  there  would 
 be  in  that  country  more  changes  to  the  Roman 
 Catholic  faith  than  the  reverse.  This,  however,  is  not 
 the  case.  In  1 880-1 889  there  were  four  thousand 
 three  hundred  and  eighteen  more  Roman  Catholics 
 who  became  Evangelicals  than  Evangelicals  who  ex- 
 changed their  faith  for  the  Roman  Catholic.  In  1890- 
 1 899  the  number  increased  to  ten  thousand  four  hun- 
 dred and  twenty-five,  and  the  "  Eos  vom  Rom"  move- 
 ment had  just  begun. 
 
 In  France,  according  to  Roman  Catholic  authority, 
 the  greater  part  of  the  population  is  lost  to  that 
 Church.     This  is  certainly  true  of  the  men.     The  Sec- 
 
The  Papacy.  477 
 
 ond  Empire  gave  the  Clerical  party  full  sway.  They 
 were  pronounced  enemies  of  all  Liberal  opinion,  and 
 especially  of  all  that  savored  of  a  Republic. 
 Yet  the  National  Assembly  of  187 1,  which 
 contained  the  best  men  of  France,  was  predominantly 
 Roman  Catholic  as  well  as  Royalist.  The  change 
 came  in  1877,  when  France,  because  the  Royalists 
 could  not  agree,  became  a  Republic  without  republi- 
 cans. The  Clerical  party  and  the  Church,  in  spite  of 
 the  efforts  of  Leo  XIII  since  1892,  during  the  whole 
 of  this  peoiod  was  bitterly  anti-republican.  It  was 
 mixed  up  in  every  royalist  conspiracy,  and  fairly  went 
 mad  over  the  Dreyfus  affair.  The  result  has  been  a  po- 
 litical discredit  which  bids  fair  to  last  for  a  generation, 
 and  the  compulsory  closing  of  the  monastic  houses, 
 and  of  the  Church  schools.  The  peasants  seem  to 
 have  deserted  the  Church,  and  the  Legislature  up- 
 holds the  most  drastic  measures  of  the  administration. 
 The  section  of  the  French  clergy  organized  for  the 
 promotion  of  the  study  of  the  Bible  in  the  native 
 tongue  may  make  a  different  and  a  better  Roman 
 Catholic  Church  in  France. 
 
 In  Italy  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  is  against  the 
 State  and  against  every  patriotic  instinct  of  the 
 Italian  people.  A  generation  has  grown 
 up  which  believes  in  the  necessity  of  United 
 Italy,  powerful  and  free.  Her  most  potent  foe  is  the 
 papal  Church.  Italians  know  how  to  compromise  and 
 live  amid  conflicting  relations.  They  must  have  a 
 nation,  and  they  will  see  some  time  that  they  must 
 have  a  religion.  Meantime  most  of  the  men  strive  to 
 live  without  any  religion. 
 
 In  Spain  and  Portugal,  largely  the  same  state  of 
 
478     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 aflfairs  prevails  in  circles  where  there  are  people  of 
 education.  This  is  true  also  in  Spanish  America,  were 
 some  twelve  million  Indians  are  numbered 
 among  the  Roman  Catholic  population, 
 one-half  of  whom  are  still  little  better  than  heathen. 
 The  great  gains  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in 
 this  century  were  from  emigration,  where  the  peas- 
 antry of  her  faith,  in  a  new  environment  and  amid 
 better  conditions,  greatly  increased  in  numbers  and 
 wealth.  This  gain  came  chiefly  in  Great  Britain,  her 
 colonies,  and  most  of  all  in  the  United  States. 
 
 It  is  a  pleasant  duty  to  turn  from  this  survey  to 
 those  gains  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  which  are 
 a  common  gain  to  Christendom. 
 
 The  average  morality  of  the  Roman  Catholic  clergy 
 and  people  has  been  higher  in  the  last  than  in  any 
 
 Moral      preceding  century  since  the  Reformation. 
 
 Gains.  There  has  been  a  great  and  continuous 
 gain  through  the  closing  decades  of  the  century. 
 
 There  has  been  a  great  change  in  the  practice  of 
 the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  if  not  in  the  creed,  in  re- 
 gard to  freedom  of  conscience  and  religious 
 toleration.  The  popes  of  the  century  before 
 I^eo  XIII,  with  the  possible  exception  of  Pius  VII, 
 condemned  in  the  strongest  terms  religious  toleration. 
 Leo  XIII  having  taken  occasion  to  eulogize  America 
 for  her  record  in  respect  to  religious  toleration,  the 
 Methodist  ministers  of  Chicago  sent  to  the  Vatican  a 
 very  courteous  communication,  quoting  the  words  of 
 the  pope,  and  requesting  him  to  extend  the  applica- 
 tion of  this  principle  to  Ecuador  and  any  other  coun- 
 tries where  there  was  not  toleration  granted  to  the 
 worship  of  Evangelical  Christians.    Cardinal  RampoUa 
 
The  Papacy.  479 
 
 felt  constrained  to  answer  this  letter.  He  disclaimed 
 the  power  to  influence  Roman  Catholic  governments, 
 but  made  it  difficult  henceforth  to  quote  the  See  of 
 Rome  on  the  side  of  religious  intolerance. 
 
 A  more  unexpected  gain  has  been  in  the  declara 
 tion   of  Leo  XIII    promising   indulgences   to  those 
 in  Rome  who  will,  for  thirty  days,  read  a 
 portion    of    the    Holy    Scriptures    in    the  ^^nitSre^' 
 mother  tongue.     This  has  only  to  be  ex- 
 tended to  the  whole  Church  for  all  time,  and  amended 
 by  dropping  the  indulgences,  to  make  it  the  greatest 
 benefit  the  pope  could  confer  on  the  Roman  Catholic 
 Church  and  upon  Christendom. 
 
 The  Roman  Catholic  Church  has  been  active  in 
 works  of  mercy  during  the  century.  Those  who  know 
 her  hospitals  and  the  work  of  her  Sisters  g^^j^, 
 of  Charity,  speak  of  them  only  with  praise.  Amelioration 
 This  Church  also  is  awaking  to  the  fact  ""**  *^^'°''°*- 
 that  preventive  measures  and  social  reforms  are 
 equally  a  part  of  the  work  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 It  is  only  in  this  century  that  there  has  been  a  Father 
 Mathew,  a  Cardinal  Manning,  or  a  Roman  Catholic 
 Temperance  Mutual  Benefit  Association.  Many  of 
 her  prelates  are  awaking  to  the  necessity  of  combating 
 intemperance.  May  they  soon  resolve  to  fight  the 
 liquor-traffic  as  well !     These  are  no  small  gains. 
 
 A  word,  in  conclusion,  as  to  the  relations  which 
 should  exist  between  the  Roman  Catholic  and  the 
 Evangelical  Churches : 
 
 They  should  be  kindly.     Any  good  in    Relations 
 either  Church  should  receive  prompt  recog-  between  the 
 nition  by  the  other.     Anything  Christlike 
 in  prelate,  clergy,  or  laity,  in  either  Church,  should 
 
480     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 be  accorded  warm  praise  and  welcome.  In  move- 
 ments for  moral  and  social  reforms  they  ought  to 
 be  near  enough  in  the  Spirit  of  Christ  to  work  to- 
 gether for  the  common  good. 
 
 They  should  be  truthful.  We  should  respect  each 
 other  by  acknowledging  our  differences,  and  yet 
 believing  in  each  other's  Christian  character.  No 
 Evangelical  Christian  can  pretend  to  believe  in  tran- 
 substantiation  or  papal  infallibility;  he  does  not  like 
 auricular  confession  or  clerical  celibacy ;  the  adoration 
 of  the  Virgin  Mary  and  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus, 
 the  invocation  of  the  saints,  as  well  as  indulgences  for 
 the  living  and  the  dead,  are  an  offense  unto  him ;  but 
 he  can  acknowledge  the  spirit  and  works  of  Christ  in 
 those  to  whom  they  are  dear.  The  observations  of 
 the  great  festivals  of  the  Christian  year,  and  the  ex- 
 tension of  the  order  of  deaconesses,  show  that  the 
 Churches  have  more  in  common  than  in  the  earlier 
 part  of  the  century. 
 
 To  be  truthful,  means  that  they  should  be  free  and 
 quick  to  condemn  anything  in  each  other  unworthy 
 of  the  Christian  name,  no  matter  what  the  occasion  or 
 source.  We  should  provoke  each  other  to  put  away 
 causes  of  scandal  or  offense.  More  particularly,  the 
 Evangelical  Christians  should  use  discrimination  when 
 speaking  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  That 
 Church  includes  great  populations  of  every  grade  of 
 intelligence  and  morality.  It  has  more  semi-heathen- 
 ism within  its  pale  than  any  other  Church,  and  not  a 
 little  in  Rome  itself  It  has  its  saints  as  well.  All 
 acknowledge  that  there  are  good  and  bad  Roman 
 Catholics;  so  there  are  good  and  bad  Roman  Catholic 
 priests   and  prelates.     Recent  disclosures  in  France 
 
The  Papacy.  481 
 
 show  that  this  term  can  be  applied  to  conventual  in- 
 stitutions as  well. 
 
 It  is  because  of  the  repression  of  these  semi- 
 heathen  elements  in  popular  teaching,  worship,  and 
 discipline  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  that  her 
 standard  of  thought  and  practice  is  so  much  higher  in 
 Evangelical  countries  than  in  those  where  she  alone 
 represents  the  Christian  faith.  In  Evangelical  lands 
 these  elements  are  repressed  or  unknown.  For  this 
 reason,  no  greater  good  could  come  to  the  Roman 
 Catholic  Church  than  the  conversion  and  training  of  a 
 strong  Evangelical  population  in  Roman  Catholic 
 countries.  Indiscriminate  praise  or  blame  of  a  body 
 so  large  and  so  various  as  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
 is  an  offense  against  the  truth. 
 
 Finally,  Evangelical  Christians,  and  all  good  citi- 
 zens, should  be  on  their  guard  against  unfounded 
 claims  and  encroachments  of  the  Roman  See.  This 
 has  been  necessary  for  every  Roman  Catholic  govern- 
 ment in  Europe,  and  most  especially  in  Spanish 
 America,  in  this  century.  Equal  vigilance  well  be- 
 comes Evangelical  Christians  and  States.  All  such 
 claims,  and  efforts  after  special  favors  or  political 
 power,  must  be  met  with  a  resistance,  stern  and 
 united,  from  the  begiiining,  to  a  final  triumph  of  all 
 that  has  made  great  Evangelical  Christendom. 
 
 In  short,  then,  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  is  a 
 Christian  Church.  It  is  one  of  the  Christian  Churches ; 
 nothing  less,  and  nothing  more.  It  has  tendencies 
 toward  mediaeval  obscurantism,  which  should  be  stead- 
 ily resisted.  It  has  made  a  commendable  progress  to- 
 ward better  things ;  it  can  make  more,  and  should  be 
 encouraged  in  all  that  makes  a  better  Christendom. 
 31 
 
Chapter  VL 
 
 THE  EVANGELICAL  CHURCH  IN  GERMANY. 
 
 The  Evangelical  Church  in  Germany  has  partaken 
 of  the  influences  which  have  made  evident  a  common 
 advance  in  Christendom  in  the  last  fifty  years.  There 
 has  been  an  increase  of  Evangelical  effort  in  the  line 
 of  the  Inner  Mission  and  in  foreign  mission  work. 
 So,  also,  in  deaconess  work  and  the  founding  and 
 support  of  charitable  institutions.  In  church-build- 
 ing, and  in  the  work  of  the  Gustavus  Adolphus  Ver- 
 ein,  there  has  been  such  activity  shown  as  Germany 
 has  not  before  seen  since  the  century  of  Luther. 
 
 In  sixty-six  years,  ending  with  1898,  the  Gustavus 
 Adolphus  Verein  collected  over  $8,000,000,  and  aided 
 4,518  churches;  2,729  of  which  were  in  Germany, 
 1,203  i^  Austria,  and  586  in  other  lands  for  German 
 residents.  It  had  also  built  882  schoolhouses,  768 
 parsonages,  and  568  orphan  homes.  It  has  been  es- 
 pecially active  in  Austria,  Hungary,  and  the  Rhine 
 provinces.  Besides  this  work  of  purely  German 
 origin,  the  Church  life  of  Evangelical  Germany  has 
 been  largely  affected  by  the  Evangelistic  efforts  of  the 
 Baptist  and  the  Methodist  Churches,  founded  by  men 
 converted  in  the  United  States,  and  who  returned  to 
 the  Fatherland.  The  Baptists  report,  in  1900,  155 
 churches,  and  28,898  members;  the  Methodists,  the 
 
 482 
 
Evangelical  Church  in  Germany.        483 
 
 same  year,  in  Germauy  and  German  Switzerland,  179 
 churches  and  27,099  members. 
 
 These  numbers  would  have  been  much  larger, 
 though  the  collective  influence  much  less,  but  for  the 
 efforts  of  Professor  Theodore  Christlieb,  of  Bonn,  who 
 had  lived  and  preached  for  some  years  in  London.  He 
 advised  the  State  Churches  to  assimilate,  so  far  as  pos- 
 sible, the  Evangelical  methods  and  warmth  of  the 
 Baptists  and  the  Methodists.  This  advice  has  been 
 quite  largely  followed.  But  any  one  w^ho  has  attended 
 one  of  these  Baptist  or  Methodist  services,  characterized 
 by  singing  Moody  and  Sankey  hymns  and  by  fervent 
 prayer  and  earnest  exhortations,  and  compared  them 
 with  the  services  of  the  State  Church,  can  not  fail  to 
 see  why  these  attract  the  people.  From  America, 
 also,  have  come  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Associa- 
 tion, the  Christian  Endeavor  Societies,  and  Epworth 
 lycagues;  and,  most  important  of  all,  the  Sunday- 
 school. 
 
 But  the  especial  work  of  the  Evangelical  Church, 
 in  Germany,  in  these  years,  has  been  that  of  teaching 
 the  teachers  of  Christian  truth  in  all  lands.  It  has 
 produced  the  great  theologians  of  the  age,  in  men 
 like  Dorner,  Luthardt,  Frank,  Lipsius,  and  Albrecht 
 Ritschl.  Its  exegetes,  like  I^ange,  Meyer,  Hoflfman, 
 Weiss,  Weisacker,  Wendt,  Jiilicher,  in  the  new  Testa- 
 ment, and  Ewald,  Hupfeld,  Deiltzsch,  Dillman,  Strack, 
 and  many  others,  in  the  Old  Testament,  have  largely 
 influenced  the  interpretation  of  the  Scriptures  through- 
 out Christendom.  This  is  true  of  the  work  of  schol- 
 ars in  the  field  of  Biblical  theology-,  like  Weiss, 
 Beyschlag,  Holtzman,  Haupt,  and  Baldensperger.  Its 
 Church  historians,  like   Nitsch,  Niedner,  A.  Ritschl, 
 
484     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 and  especially  Harnack,  Loofs,  Hauck,  and  a  crowd 
 of  others,  have  led  in  this  department  of  research. 
 
 But  the  great  contribution  of  German  scholarship, 
 in  the  last  half  of  the  century,  has  been  in  the  work 
 done  in  the  science  of  Biblical  criticism.  In  the  criti- 
 cism of  the  text  of  the  New  Testament,  the  discovery 
 of  the  Sinaitic  MSS.  of  the  New  Testament  and  the 
 Septuagint,  in  1859,  by  Tischendorf,  his  researches  in 
 the  libraries  and  monasteries,  and  his  critical  labors, 
 would  make  memorable  any  era.  He  has  been  worth- 
 ily followed  by  the  editor  of  his  unfinished  Prolog- 
 omena,  and  author  of  the  most  thorough  work  on 
 New  Testament  text  criticism,  Professor  Caspar  Renii 
 Gregory,  Leipsic,  by  birth  and  training  an  Amer- 
 ican. 
 
 The  most  striking  work,  however,  of  this  period, 
 in  Germany,  has  been  the  work  done  by  her  scholars 
 in  Higher  Criticism.  That  is,  the  study  of 
 Cri«cum.  ^^  ^^^^^  regarding  the  origin,  form,  and 
 value  of  the  books  of  the  Christian  Scrip- 
 tures, based  upon  their  internal  characteristics  and 
 contents,  while  taking  into  account  whatever  external 
 evidence  may  exist. 
 
 Devout  students  of  the  records  of  a  revelation  they 
 believe  to  be  divine,  and  Christian  believers,  whose 
 faith  and  life,  whose  love  and  hope,  are  based  upon 
 and  nourished  by  the  teachings  of  these  records,  may 
 well  feel  averse  to  the  dissection  and  analysis  of  the 
 Higher  Criticism.  Men  are  sensitive  to  the  autopsy 
 of  the  mother  that  bore  them  or  the  wife  they  loved. 
 Yet  we  must  remember  that  all  writings  that  survive 
 through  the  centuries,  necessarily  undergo  this  exam- 
 ination.    It  is  a  necessity  of  their  human  composition 
 
Evangelical  Church  in  Germany.        485 
 
 and  transmission.  The  more  important  and  influen- 
 tial the  writing,  the  more  searching  the  scrutiny. 
 This  is  true  of  Homer,  of  Dante,  and  of  Shakespeare. 
 In  considering  the  former  period,  we  were  obliged 
 to  take  into  account  the  mythical  theory  ot  Strauss 
 as  applied  to  the  life  of  Christ,  and  the  tendency  criti- 
 cism of  Baur  in  regard  to  the  origin  of  the  books  of 
 the  New  Testament.  This  criticism  of  unbelief  re- 
 ceived a  new  impulse  from  Renan's  "Life  of  Jesus," 
 1863,  and  the  "  Life  of  Jesus,  for  German  People,"  of 
 Strauss,  1874;  but  the  new  attack  was  more  easily 
 repulsed,  and  reached  its  reductio  ad  absurdum  in 
 Strauss's  "Old  and  New  Faith,"  1872,  in  which  he 
 denied,  not  only  revelation,  but  God  and  immortality. 
 Two  years  later,  Strauss  died  an  unbeliever's  death, 
 without  hope.  Rejected  as  his  teachings  are  by  all 
 competent  to  judge,  his  command  of  audacious  state- 
 ment, in  striking  and  beautiful  expression,  has  given 
 his  work  popularity  among  the  masses  who  reject  the 
 Christian  faith.  Renan's  work  was  more  superficial, 
 and,  below  the  surface,  cynical.  While  having  a  great 
 run  for  the  time,  it  left  no  serious  impressions  on  the 
 thought  of  the  age. 
 
 Yet  here,  if  anywhere,  in  the  treatment  of  the  life, 
 the  death,  and  resurrection  of  Jesus  Christ,  the  devout 
 believer  might  feel  that  criticism  lays  its  profaning 
 hand  upon  the  holy  of  holies  of  his  faith.  But  sixty- 
 five  years  from  the  publication  of  Strauss's  "  Life  of 
 Jesus  "  have  shown  us,  not  only  what  destructive  the- 
 ories may  be  advanced,  but  also  what  solid  contribu- 
 tions Higher  Criticism  has  made  to  the  defenses  of  the 
 Christian  faith.  The  works  of  Farrar,  Edersheim, 
 Bernard  Weiss,  and  Schiirer  have  made  more  citar  ihe 
 
486      History  of  the  Christian  Church, 
 
 times  of  our  Lord,  the  surrounding  of  his  career,  and 
 the  events  of  his  life  and  their  order  and  significance. 
 To  this  work  of  New  Testament  criticism  have  been 
 given  the  labors  of  some  of  the  ablest  scholars  of  the 
 time  ;  such  have  been  Ebrard,  Schiirer,  Lechler,  Haus- 
 rath,  Keim,  Weisacker,  Weiss,  Holtzman,  Jiilicher, 
 with  Beyschlag  and  Zahn,  and,  notably,  Ritschl  and 
 Harnack. 
 
 At  the  end  of  the  century  we  may  sum  up  briefly 
 the  conclusions  of  New  Testament  criticism  in  which 
 the  majority  of  men  competent  to  speak 
 agree.  The  Gospel  of  Mark  is  the  earliest 
 Gospel,  and  in  its  present  form  it  dates  from  65  to  80 
 A.  D.,  and  was  derived  from  the  Apostle  Peter.  The 
 Logia,  or  Sayings  of  Jesus,  is  a  common  document 
 used  by  Matthew  and  Luke ;  these  are  not  later  than 
 A.  D.  70,  and  probably  much  earlier.  Probably  Luke 
 used  also  a  special  source  not  common  to  the  others. 
 In  spite  of  Harnack,  Wendt,  Jiilicher,  and  Schiirer, 
 the  weight  of  evidence  seems  to  be  in  favor  of  St. 
 John's  authorship  of  the  Gospel  that  bears  his  name. 
 The  latter  part  of  the  Acts  is  from  Luke.  English 
 and  American  critics  believe  the  whole  book  to  be, 
 but  many  Germans  dissent  as  to  the  first  twelve 
 chapters.  The  Gospels  and  Acts  are  before  A.  D.  90, 
 except  John's  Gospel,  which  is  placed  from  90  to  no 
 A.  D. 
 
 St.  Paul  is  the  author  of  the  Epistles  which  bear  his 
 name.  Some  claim  First  Timothy  to  have  been  edited 
 by  a  later  writer.  Of  Hebrews,  no  man  knows  the 
 author.  The  author  of  John's  Gospel  wrote  his  first 
 Epistle,  and  probably  the  others.  The  Book  of  Rev- 
 elation is  from  the  first  century.     The  only  book  of 
 
Evangelical  Church  in  Germany.         487 
 
 the  Canon  definitely  rejected,  and  attributed  also  to 
 the  second  century,  is  the  Second  Epistle  of  Peter. 
 How  different  is  this  from  the  program  of  Baur  and 
 the  Tiibingen  critics  of  the  middle  of  the  century ! 
 
 The  battle,  however,  has  been  fiercest  in  the  realm 
 of  Old  Testament  criticism.  Only  a  brief  resume  can 
 be  here  given.  That  after  so  fierce  an  at-  ^^^  criticism 
 tack  and  so  successful  a  defense  of  the  New  of  the  oid 
 Testament  Scriptures  there  should  have  '^««^™^"*- 
 been  so  much  excitement  on  both  sides,  seems  sur- 
 prising. 
 
 The  modern  era  in  the  criticism  of  the  Old  Testa- 
 ment began  in  1753,  when  Jean  Astruc  published  his 
 "Documentary  Hypothesis  of  the  Composition  of 
 Genesis."  Jean  Astruc  (1684-1766)  was  a  Roman 
 Catholic  physician,  whose  father  had  been  a  Reformed 
 pastor,  but  who  went  over  to  Rome  at  the  Revocation 
 of  the  Edict  of  Nantes.  Astruc  claimed  that  the  Book 
 of  Genesis  v>^as  composed  of  several  documents ;  the 
 two  larger  ones  were  distinguished  by  the  use  of  the 
 Divine  names.  In  one  of  these,  God  is  called  Elohim, 
 and  in  the  ,other,  Jehovah ;  these  are  two  independent 
 narratives.  ' 
 
 Eichorn  (1752-1827)  was  the  ablest  representative 
 of  this  view,  which  has  won  general  acceptance.  He 
 applied  this  theory  to  Exodus,  Leviticus,  and  Num- 
 bers, as  well  as  to  Genesis.  He  thought  Moses  was 
 the  author  of  Deuteronomy,  which  was  the  book  of 
 the  law  for  the  people,  while  he  called  the  prescrip- 
 tions of  the  earlier  books  the  priests'  code.  The  Pen- 
 tateuch he  believed  to  have  been  mainly  written  by 
 Moses,  but  by  a  fusion  of  previously- written  documents. 
 
 In   1807,  De  Wette   (i  780-1 849)  emphasized  the 
 
488     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 unity  of  the  Pentateuch  as  we  now  have  it,  and  held 
 that  Deuteronomy  was  written  in  the  reign  of  Josiah. 
 g^  ,^_  In  1824,  Bleek  extended  the  criticism  of 
 mentary  the  Pentcteuch  so  as  to  include  the  Book 
 Hypothesis.  ^^  Joshua;  he  also  formulated  the  Supple- 
 mentary Hypothesis.  This  hypothesis  holds  that  the 
 Elohist  Document  was  prior  to  the  others;  that  the 
 Jehovist  document  and  two  others  were  supplement- 
 ary to  the  Elohist  narrative.  In  1831,  Bwald  showed 
 that  the  two  earlier  documents  ran  through  the  first  six 
 books  of  the  Bible.  Hupfeld,  in  1853,  claimed  that 
 Genesis  was  composed  of  an  Elohist,  a  second  Elohist, 
 and  a  Jehovist  document,  and  that  these  were  put 
 together  by  a  redactor.  Bohmer  published  an  edition 
 of  Genesis,  showing,  by  type  of  different  sizes,  the 
 work  of  the  four  authors.  These  results  have  been 
 the  basis  of  all  subsequent  analysis.  They  were  ac- 
 cepted by  such  conservative  scholars  as  Kurtz,  Franz 
 Delitzsch,  and  Schrader,  as  well  as  by  Englishmen  like 
 Samuel  Davidson,  Dr.  Perowne,  and  Dean  Stanley. 
 
 The  Higher  Criticism  shows  the  origin,  approxi- 
 mate date,  and  character  of  a  literary  work  by — (i) 
 Its  literary  characteristics;  that  is,  its  language  and 
 its  style;  (2)  By  its  historical  statements,  and  refer- 
 ences ;  (3)  By  its  theological  statements,  if  a  religious 
 book;  that  is,  opinions  concerning  God  or  religion. 
 
 These  different  lines  of  investigation  were  held  by 
 the  authors  of  the  development  hypothesis,  to  show  a 
 
 ^j^g         change  in  the  order  of  the  documents  used 
 Development  in  the  Composition  of  the  Hexateuch.    The 
 ypo    ess.  ^j^gQj-y  assumes  that  the  credible  recorded 
 history  of  Israel  dates  from  Samuel.     The  first  docu- 
 ment, called  J,  is  the  Jehovist,  a  Judean  prophetic  his 
 
Evangelical  Church  in  Germany.         489 
 
 torian  who  wrote  about  800  B.  C.  The  second  K,  the 
 Elohist,  a  prophetic  historian  from  Ephraim,  about  750 
 B.  C. ;  J.  B.,  a  redactor  about  700  B.  C.  The  third  D, 
 or  Deuteronomy,  written  a  little  before  621 ;  J.  E.  D., 
 a  second  redactor.  The  fourth,  or  P,  a  priest  code, 
 beginning  with  Ezekiel,  and  codified  by  Ezra  444  B.  C; 
 J.  E.  D.  P.,  the  last  redactor  from  444  to  280  B.  C. 
 
 In  1833,  Edward  Reuss  first  took  the  position  that 
 the  Priests'  Code  was  written  after  Deuteronomy. 
 The  theory  as  we  now  know  it  was  first  thoroughly 
 grounded  in  scholarly  research  by  Heinrich  Graf  in 
 1866. 
 
 The  man,   however,   who  called  the  attention  to 
 these  problems  in  a  way  that  centered  upon  them  the 
 interest  of  the  theological  world  was  Abra-     ^^^^^^ 
 ham  Kuenen  (1828-1891).     He  was  a  critic 
 of  the  first  rank,  and  perhaps  the  most  learned  Hebrew 
 scholar  and  the  most  famous  Old  Testament  theologian 
 of  the  century  in  which  he  lived.     However  much  we 
 may  dislike  his  standpoint  and  disagree  with  his  re- 
 sults, we  can  not  but  admire  his  method  and  the  thor- 
 oughness,   learning,    and    impartial    judgment    with 
 which  he  appHes  it.     To  the  author,  from  his  method 
 he   seems   a  much  more  important  man  than  Baur. 
 The  life  of  Kuenen  was  of  the  simplest.     He  was  born 
 the  son  of  an  apothecary,  at  Haarlem ;  he  studied  at 
 Leyden,  and  lectured  as  professor  there  from  1846  to 
 1891.     He  married  in  1855,  and  his  wife,  long  an  in- 
 valid, died  in  1882.     He  took  an  active  part  in  Church 
 afiairs,  and  was  a  member  ot  the  Synod  of  the  State 
 Church  of  Holland,  1885-1891,  and  worked  zealously 
 for  the  interests  of  the  Rationalistic  party.     In  1882 
 he  went  to  England,  and  delivered  the  Hibbert  Lee- 
 
490    History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 tures  on  "  National  and  World  Religions."  This  seems 
 to  have  been  the  extent  of  his  travels. 
 
 In  1861-1864  appeared  his  three-volume  **  Intro- 
 duction to  the  Old  Testament."  His  work,  "  The  Re- 
 ligion of  Israel,"  was  published  1869-1870. 
 
 This  man,  who  served  for  forty-five  years  as  a 
 Professor  of  Theology,  and  the  later  years  of  his  life 
 was  active  in  the  councils  of  the  Reformed  Church  of 
 Holland,  did  not  believe  in  anything  like  an  occur- 
 rence beyond  the  range  of  natural  law;  hence,  neither 
 in  the  miracles,  the  resurrection,  nor  ascension  of  our 
 Lord.  Kuenen  held  that  the  religion  of  Israel  was 
 purely  natural;  that  from  the  grossest  idolatry  and 
 polytheism  it  developed  through  various  stages  to  the 
 monotheistic  theulogy  and  spiritual  religion  of  the 
 prophets.  He  believed  the  Hexateuch  to  be  non- 
 historic,  and  composed  of  ancient  and  non-reliable 
 legends  and  myths.  The  earliest  legislation  was  from 
 the  period  of  the  Kings;  Deuteronomy  was  of  the 
 time  of  Josiah,  the  Priests'  Code  from  Ezra,  and 
 Moses  wrote  only  a  fragment  of  the  Ten  Command- 
 ments. All  the  patriarchs  and  earlier  characters  of 
 Israel's  history  he  held  to  be  tribal  names,  or  myths. 
 The  method  of  Kuenen  was  to  begin  with  that  part 
 of  Israel's  history  for  which  we  have  external  and 
 authentic  evidence,  and  work  backward.  He  did  not 
 get  back  farther  than  Amos. 
 
 Kuenen  was  a  keen  literary  analyst  and  critic,  but 
 he  had  little  perception  for  that  sense  of  necessary 
 historic  presupposition  which  is  the  second  nature  for 
 the  historic  student.  Few  men  have  more  appre- 
 ciated the  prophets  of  Israel;  but  their  appearance 
 and  work  are  impossible  without  an  historic  develop- 
 
Evangelical  Church  in  Germany.         491 
 
 ment,  to  which  Kuenen  seems  blind.  He  had  Httle 
 faith  in  the  records  of  Israel's  greatness,  but  believed 
 in  the  early  fetichism  and  long-continued  idolatry  ex- 
 tending nearly,  or  quite,  to  the  times  of  the  prophets. 
 He  held  that,  because  they  were  ignorant  of  writing, 
 the  Israelites  could  not  have  transmitted  a  written 
 law  from  Moses'  time.  The  discovery  of  the  clay 
 tablets  at  Tel-el-Amarna,  showing  an  active  corre- 
 spondence in  Canaan  with  both  Egypt  and  Babylonia 
 from  Abraham's  time,  shows  the  untenableness  of 
 such  an  objection.  The  negative  criticism,  which  de- 
 clared the  polytheistic  ignorance  of  the  Israelites, 
 with  Kuenen,  now  swings  to  the  opposite  extreme  to 
 claim,  with  Frederick  Delitzsch,  that  their  great  and 
 unique  doctrine  of  God  was  brought  from  Babylon  by 
 Abraham  to  Caanan.  So  soon  are  famous  theories  of 
 men  of  great  learning  disproved  and  forgotten. 
 
 The  most  celebrated  follower  of  Kuenen  was  Julius 
 Wellshausen,  born  in  1844,  and  a  student  of  Ewald  at 
 Gottingen,  1 862-1 865.  After  teaching  at  Griefswald, 
 Halle,  and  Marburg,  he  has  been  for  the  last  ten  years 
 at  Gottingen.  He  published  his  anal3'sis  of  the  Hex- 
 ateuch  in  1876-1877,  and  his  "Prologomena  to  the 
 History  of  Israel"  in  1878.  Some  years  before  this 
 he  had  said  that  he  no  longer  stood  on  the  ground  of 
 the  Evangelical  Church  or  of  Protestantism.  He  de- 
 nies the  supernatural  element  and  the  historical  char- 
 acter of  the  Hexateuch. 
 
 A  turn  in  the  whole  subject  came  with  the  discov- 
 ery by  George  Smith,  in  1872,  of  the  Chaldean  ac- 
 counts of  the  Creation  and  the  Flood. 
 
 The  traditional  view  that  the  Pentateuch  was  writ- 
 ten by  Moses,  though  it  never  expressly  says  so,  was 
 
492     History  of  the  Christian  Church, 
 
 strenuously  defended  by  Hengstenberg,  and  more 
 ably  by  Havernick;   later  by  Kiel,  and  recently  by 
 
 ^^g         Adolph  Zahn,  O.  Nauman,  and  Hodemaker. 
 
 Traditional    In     Britain,    Stanley   Leathes   and  James 
 
 ^^'        Robertson ;  in  America,  William  H.  Green, 
 
 Howard  Osgood,  Henry  M.  Harman,  B.  Cone  Bissell, 
 
 and  many  others,  maintained  the  same  view. 
 
 There  was  no  more  thorough  student  in  Germany 
 than  Christian  Frederick  Dillman  (i  823-1 894).  He 
 The  New  Studied  at  Tiibingen,  1 840-1 845,  and  after- 
 Evangeiicai  ward  at  Paris,  London,  and  Oxford.  He 
 was  easily  the  first  Ethiopic  scholar  in 
 Europe.  After  teaching  in  Tiibingen,  Kiel,  and  Gies- 
 sen,  he  was  called  to  Berlin,  where  he  remained  until 
 his  death.  He  published  the  "Book  of  Enoch"  in 
 Ethiopic  in  1851-1853;  "Ethiopic  Grammar"  in 
 1857  ;  "  Ethiopic  Lexicon,"  1865 ;  "  Book  of  Jubilees," 
 1859;  the  "Ascension  of  Isaiah,"  1877.  His  com- 
 mentaries are  well  known — Job,  1869;  Genesis,  1875; 
 Exodus  and  Leviticus,  1880;  Numbers,  Deuteronomy, 
 and  Joshua,  1886.  He  resisted  the  teachings  of  Graf 
 and  Kuenen.  He  and  his  school,  to  which  belong 
 Baudissin  and  Delitzsch,with  Strack  and  Kettel,  Ryssel 
 and  Riehm,  hold,  in  opposition  to  the  development 
 theory,  that  the  Elohist  is  the  oldest  document,  fol- 
 lowed by  J,  and  both  older  than  Deuteronomy.  They 
 think  that  the  main  part  of  the  legislation  of  P  is 
 before  the  Exile,  and  much  of  it  very  ancient.  Bau- 
 dissin holds  that  P  was  written  before  Deuteronomy. 
 Canon  Driver  represents  this  school  in  England  in 
 his  "Introduction  to  the  Old  Testament." 
 
 The  latest  results  of  Old  Testament  criticism  at 
 the  end  of  the  century  mainly  agree  in  calling  Exodus 
 
Evangelical  Church  in  Germany.        493 
 
 XX,  1-17,  and  Exodus  xxxiv,  11-27,  the  earliest  Pen- 
 tateuchal  legislation.  This  is  followed  by  Exodus 
 XX,  and  xxiii-xxxiii,  forming  the  Book  of  the  Cov- 
 enant. Then  in  order  comes  Deuteronomy,  found 
 B.  C.  621,  and  the  Priests'  Code,  including  the  latter 
 part  of  Exodus,  Leviticus,  and  Numbers,  dating  from 
 the  Exile,  and  edited  by  Ezra.  Ezekiel  knew  the 
 Priests'  Code,  as  Jeremiah  knew  Deuteronomy.  Isaiah 
 xl-lxv,  Job,  Ecclesiastes,  and  Daniel,  as  well  as  a 
 large  part  of  the  Psalms,  are  from  the  Exile. 
 
 In  the  Old  Testament  criticism  are  three  schools— 
 the  Left  and  Right  Wings,  and  the  Center.  The  left 
 wing  forms  the  school  of  critics  who  do  not  believe 
 in  a  supernatural  revelation  of  God  to  Israel.  At 
 that  head  stands  Wellshausen,  and  with  him  Stade, 
 Smend,  Keyser,  Siegfried,  and  Friedrich  Delitzsch. 
 This  school  has  no  representative  among  British  and 
 American  scholars.  The  right  wing  would  be  led  by 
 Dillman,  Baudissin,  and  Strack,  with  Hommel,  Kettel, 
 Orelli,  Konig,  and  Otelli.  With  these  would  be  found 
 archseologists  like  Sayce,  Hilprecht,  and  Rogers. 
 
 In  the  center  between  these  schools  would  be 
 ranged  Kautsch,  Budde,  Cornill,  Gunkel,  and  George 
 Adam  Smith,  with  Driver,  Briggs,  Mitchell  and  Francis 
 Brown,  of  New  York;  Ives  Curtiss,  of  Chicago,  and 
 Willis  J.  Beecher,  of  Auburn.  Toward  the  left-center 
 are  Thomas  K.  Cheyne,  C.  G.  Montefiore,  George  F. 
 Moore,  and  Charles  H.  Toy. 
 
 German  Theology. 
 At  the  opening  of  this  period,  and  through  its  first 
 decade,  the  school  of  Baur  had  the  controlling  influ- 
 ence    The  young  men  and  progressive  thinkers  who 
 
-194     History  of  the  Christian  Church, 
 
 were  not  content  with  the  meditative  theology  of  the 
 
 school  of  Schleiermacher  made  their  way  to  Tiibingen. 
 
 Against    this    tendency     stood    Thoiuck, 
 
 heoiogy.    -j^^^j^^^j.^    Rothe,    and    especially    Heng- 
 
 stenberg  and  the  Confessional  lyUtherans.  The 
 century  closed  with  the  complete  eclipse  of  the 
 theories  and  influence  of  Baur  and  his  school.  That 
 of  Ritschl  has  very  largely  taken  its  place  as  the 
 theology  of  the  leaders  of  German  theological  think- 
 ing. The  change  is  great,  and  marks  a  noteworthy 
 advance  in  the  ruling  tendency  in  the  theological 
 world. 
 
 To  this  change  and  what  preceded  it  a  few  pages 
 must  be  given. 
 
 The  chief  of  the  successors  of  Schleiermacher  in 
 these  years  was  Isaac  August  Dorner  (i 809-1 884). 
 Dorner's  father  was  an  Evangelical  pastor, 
 and  Dorner  studied  at  Tubingen.  Com- 
 pleting his  university  studies,  he  visited  England. 
 After  teaching  for  twenty-eight  years  at  Tiibingen, 
 Kiel,  Konigsberg,  Bonn,  and  Gottingen,  he  was  called 
 to  Berlin,  where  he  taught  until  his  death.  In  1873 
 he  visited  the  United  States. 
 
 He  acquired  enduring  fame  through  his  early  work, 
 "  The  History  of  the  Development  of  the  Doctrine  of 
 the  Person  of  Christ,"  in  three  volumes,  1 834-1 839. 
 In  1867  appeared  his  **  History  of  Protestant  Theology" 
 in  two  volumes.  In  1885  his  "System  of  Christian 
 Doctrine."  These  works  have  all  appeared  in  Eng- 
 lish, and  have  exerted  no  slight  influence  in  English- 
 speaking  lands.  In  1885  appeared  his  "System  of 
 Morals." 
 
 Dorner  was  more  learned  than  original ;  in  a  most 
 
Evangelical  Church  in  Germany.        495 
 
 circumlocutory  style  he  often  set  forth  great  thoughts. 
 He  had  both  comprehensiveness  and  depth  in  his 
 thinking.  Great  in  learning  as  a  theologian,  he  was 
 yet  greater  as  a  Christian  man,  and  the  warmth  of  a 
 Christian  believer's  heart  is  in  his  works. 
 
 The  orthodox  reaction  against  the  school  of  Baur 
 found  a  center  in  the  strictly  Lutheran  university  of 
 Erlangen.     They  sought  to  ''teach  old  truths  by  new 
 
 methods." 
 
 The  systematic  theologian  of  this  school  was  Franz 
 Hermann     Reinhold     Frank     (1827-1894).       Frank 
 studied  at  Leipzig,  1845-1850,  where  he  was     ^^^^ 
 won    to    strict   Lutheranism    by    Harless. 
 After  teaching  at  Altenburg  and  Ratzeburg,  he  was 
 called  to  Erlangen  in  1857,  and  taught  there  until  his 
 death  in  1 894.     Frank,  though  strict  in  his  orthodoxy, 
 was  a  child  of  his  century  and  a  modern  man.     His 
 "Theology  of  the  Formula  of  Concord,"   1858-1864, 
 gave  him  reputation  among  the  Confessional  Luther- 
 ans.    His  chief  work  was  his  *'  System  of  Christian 
 Certainty,"  two  volumes,   1870-1873;  second  edition, 
 1 881-1882.      The  work  is   divided  into  three  parts: 
 The  first  treats  of  the  nature  of  certainty,  of  specific 
 Christian  certainty,  and  its  principal  opposition.     The 
 second  part  treats  of  the  relations  of  Christian  cer- 
 tainty to  the  object  of  faith,  to  the  immanent,    the 
 transcendent,   and    the    trans-euent,  thus  treating  of 
 rationalism,  pantheism,  and  criticism.     In  the  third 
 part  he  treats  of  the  relations  of  Christian  certainty  to 
 objects  of  the  natural  life,  the  establishment  of  cer- 
 tainty    and  the  opposition  to   materialism.     In  this 
 work     Frank    has    performed    a    lasting    service   to 
 Christianity.     English  readers  can  discern  its  nature 
 
496     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 from  the  work  of  the  late  Professor  Stearns,  entitled 
 "The  Evidence  of  Christian  Experience,"  which  is 
 avowedly  founded  upon  it.  It  has  also  been  trans- 
 lated. Frank  also  published  his  "  System  of  Christian 
 Truth,"  in  two  volumes,  1878-1880;  the  third  volume 
 1 893-1 894;  and  in  1 884-1 887,  his  ''  System  of  Christian 
 Morality." 
 
 Of  the  same  school  and  a  prolific  and  effective 
 
 writer,  many  of  whose  publications  have  appeared  in 
 
 English,    is    Christoph    Ernest    Luthardt, 
 
 Luthardt.     ,       ^   .  ^       ,        ,  ,.     ,  .      ^  , 
 
 born  in  1823.  Luthardt  studied  m  Erlangen 
 and  Berlin,  1 841-1845.  After  teaching  in  Munich, 
 Erlangen,  and  Marburg,  he  was  called  to  I^eipzig  in 
 1856. 
 
 At  Leipzig  he  has  taught  New  Testament  exegesis 
 and  theology.  He  is  renowned  as  a  pulpit  orator,  and 
 since  1868  he  has  edited  the  Kirchen  Zeitung,  the 
 organ  of  Confessional  Lutheranism.  In  1865  he  was 
 chosen  Consistorial  Councilor  to  the  Church  in 
 Saxony.  His  "Gospel  of  John"  appeared  in  1852- 
 1853;  "The  Fundamental  Truths  of  Christianity," 
 1864;  "The  Dogmatic  Truths  of  Christianity,"  1866; 
 "The  Saving  Truths  of  Christianity,"  1867;  "The 
 Moral  Truths  of  Christianity,"  1872  ;  "  Luther's  Eth- 
 ics," 1867;  and  "The  Origin  of  the  Fourth  Gospel," 
 1874.  Luthardt  is  a  master  of  clear  expression,  and 
 most  of  the  above  have  appeared  in  an  English  dress. 
 
 A  man  of  an  altogether  different  quality  and  tend- 
 ency was  Richard  Adelbert  Lipsius  (1830-1892).  His 
 work  was  largely  influenced  by  his  early 
 
 Lipsius.  11, 
 
 and  thorough  study  of  Fichte,  Hegel, 
 Schleiermacher,  Rothe,  and  Kant.  The  latter  became 
 his  master,  and  Lipsius  was  the  leader  of  the  New 
 
Evangelical  Church  in  Germany.         497 
 
 Kantian  school  of  theology.  He  also  felt  the  influence 
 of  the  Moravians,  where  his  mother  had  been  trained. 
 Through  the  influence  of  Baur  he  went  over  from  the 
 meditating  to  the  critical  school  of  theology.  After 
 teaching  in  Vienna,  1861-1865,  then  at  Kiel  and  Jena, 
 he  came  to  I,eipzig,  and  there  remained  until  his 
 death.  At  first  he  was  very  radical,  but  in  later 
 years,  and  through  practical  participation  in  Church 
 affairs,  he  became  more  conservative.  Like  Ritschl, 
 he  left  the  school  of  Baur,  but  his  fundamental  theo- 
 logical conception  was  different.  Ritschl  would  shut 
 out  all  scientific  knowledge  in  his  conception  of  Chris- 
 tian truth.  lyipsius  believed  that  scientific  and  re- 
 ligious knowledge  working  together  could  form  a 
 common  conception  which  should  be  without  contra- 
 diction. 
 
 Lipsius  published  in  1883- 1890  the  "Apocryphal 
 Acts  and  Legends  of  the  Apostles,"  in  three  volumes; 
 in  1869,  "  The  Chronology  of  the  Bishops  of  Rome;" 
 1876-1893,  his  "Dogmatics"  in  three  volumes,  his 
 most  important  work.  In  1885  appeared  his  "Phi- 
 losophy and  Religion." 
 
 Lipsius  was  an  able  man,  and  his  work  remains  of 
 value  to  scholars. 
 
 A  man  different  from  all  these,  and  more  original 
 than  any  of  them,  though  not  more  learned,  was 
 Albrecht  Ritschl  (1822-1889),  the  founder     ^.     ^. 
 
 ^  Ritschl. 
 
 of  the  Ritschliau  school  of  theology,  now 
 predominant  in  professors'  chairs,  at  least  in  Ger- 
 many. Ritschl's  father  was  a  son  of  a  gymnasial 
 teacher  in  Erfurth,  and  he  became  first  a  pastor,  and 
 in  1827  a  bishop,  in  the  Evangelical  Church.  His 
 diocese  was  Pommerania,  and  his  residence  was  Stet- 
 32 
 
498     History  of  the  Christian  Church, 
 
 tin.  Ritschl's  mother  was  a  woman  from  Berlin,  of 
 unusual  musical  gifts.  This  talent  for  music,  both 
 vocal  and  as  a  pianist,  her  son  inherited. 
 
 Albrecht  was  born  in  Berlin,  March  25,  1822.  He 
 studied  at  Bonn  and  Halle,  1839-1843;  and  then  he 
 took  three  years  of  further  preparation  at  Berlin  and 
 Heidelberg,  where  he  met  Rothe;  and  Tiibingen, 
 where  he  came  fully  under  the  influence  of  Baur.  In 
 1846  he  published  a  book  entitled  "The  Gospel  of 
 Marcion  and  the  Canonical  Gospel  of  I^uke :  A  Crit- 
 ical Investigation."  This  work  claimed  that  Luke  was 
 the  first  writer  of  our  Gospels,  and  was  later  than  Mar- 
 cion's  Gospel;  hence  all  the  Canonical  Gospels  were 
 from  the  last  of  the  second  century.  This,  of  course, 
 won  the  praise  of  Baur,  but  certainly  did  not  further 
 his  promotion  in  his  academic  career.  In  185 1,  as  the 
 result  of  further  critical  investigations,  he  fully  gave 
 up  this  view,  and  came  to  the  conclusion  that  Mark's 
 Gospel  was  the  first  written.  Later  he  held  that  John 
 was  the  author  of  the  Gospel  that  bears  his  name,  and 
 that  all  the  Gospels  were  written  in  the  first  century. 
 Already,  in  1850,  he  had  published  **  The  Origin  of  the 
 Old  Catholic  Church;"  in  which  he  largely  followed 
 the  lines  of  Baur's  teaching,  though  showing  marked 
 talent  for  historical  investigation.  In  1857  appeared 
 a  new  edition,  which  took  altogether  different  ground 
 as  the  result  of  his  researches.  A  year  later  came  a 
 complete  breach  with  Baur,  and  the  man  who  was  to 
 do  the  most  to  destroy  the  influence  of  the  Tiibingen 
 school  had  entered  upon  his  independent  career. 
 
 Ritschl  taught  at  Bonn  without  salary,  with  only 
 the  fees  of  private  docent,  1 846-1 852,  reading  lectures 
 to  from  six  to  ten  hearers.     In  December,  1852,  he  be- 
 
Evangelical  Church  in  Germany.         499 
 
 came  professor  extraordinary  at  Bonn  on  a  salary  of 
 $300  per  year.  On  this  he  taught  until  August  5, 
 1859,  when  he  became  ordinary  professor  at  Bonn 
 with  a  salary  of  $600  per  year ;  in  1863  this  was  raised 
 to  $750,  and  in  1864  he  removed  to  Gottingen  at  a 
 salary  of  $1,000,  where  he  remained  during  his  life. 
 This  was,  of  course,  increased  from  fees;  but  these 
 must  have  been  small,  as  in  the  first  twelve  years  of 
 his  teaching  he  rarely  lectured  to  a  dozen  hearers. 
 At  Gottingen,  from  the  first,  he  had  thirty  or  more  in 
 attendance  on  his  lectures.  In  these  circumstances, 
 Ritschl  wrote  a  good  deal  for  the  press,  mostly  review 
 articles,  and  taught  the  Introduction  and  a  detailed 
 exposition  of  the  books  of  the  New  Testament,  as  well 
 as  lecturing  upon  the  ''Apostolic  Fathers,"  the  ''His- 
 tory of  Dogma,"  and  "  Theological  Ethics." 
 
 In  prospect  of  the  rise  in  his  salary  to  $600,  he 
 married  in  April,  1859,  at  the  age  of  thirty-seven. 
 His  wife  was  thirty-one,  and  every  way  worthy  of  him. 
 The  succeeding  ten  years  were  the  happiest  of  Ritschl's 
 life.  His  wife  bore  him  three  children,  and  died  in 
 January,  1869.  Henceforth  the  greatly-reserved  and 
 deeply-grieved  man  found  solace  chiefly  in  work,  to 
 which  he  had  never  been  a  stranger. 
 
 Thus  simply  went  on  his  life.  His  holiday  vaca- 
 tions had,  in  younger  days,  brought  him  to  Stettin, 
 his  father's  home,  and  later  he  would  see  Marburg 
 and  Erlangen,  Tiibingen  and  Heidelberg,  and,  leav- 
 ing Frankfort,  would  sometimes  stop  at  Halle  or  even 
 Jena.  For  Berlin,  the  city  of  his  birth,  he  had  no  love  ; 
 it  was  too  large  for  him  even  in  the  days  before  the 
 Empire.  Never  once  did  he  go  beyond  the  bounds  of 
 the  Fatherland,  though  he  did  make  a  daring  trip  to 
 
500     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 Tengersee  in  1881,  where  he  had  a  most  interesting 
 conversation  with  Dollinger. 
 
 Thus  the  chief  events  of  his  life  were  the  issue  of 
 his  books.  The  work  upon  which  rests  his  fame, 
 "  The  Doctrine  of  Justification  and  Reconciliation," 
 was  issued  in  three  volumes :  Vol.  I,  1870:  2d  edition, 
 1882;  3d  edition,  1889.  Vol.  II,  1874:  2d  edition, 
 1882;  3d  edition,  1889.  Vol.  Ill,  1874:  2d  edition, 
 1883;  3d  edition,  1888;  4th  edition,  1895.  The  first 
 volume  contained  the  history  of  the  doctrine;  the 
 second,  the  foundation  of  the  doctrine  in  Biblical  the- 
 ology ;  the  third,  the  development  of  the  doctrine. 
 
 Ritschl  also  published  a  work  in  three  volumes  en- 
 titled ''History  of  Pietism,"  1 880-1 886.  The  first 
 volume  treated  of  Pietism  in  the  Reformed  Church; 
 the  two  following,  of  Pietism  in  the  Lutheran  Church, 
 from  1600  to  1800.  As  a  criticism  of  Pietism  it  has 
 value ;  a  history  it  is  not.  For  the  latter  task  Ritschl 
 lacked  the  first  essential ;  he  could  not  appreciate  his 
 subject.  In  1874  he  published  a  lecture  on  "Chris- 
 tian Perfection,"  which  went  to  a  second  edition.  In 
 1875  appeared  a  small  work  on  "  Instruction  in  the 
 Christian  Religion,"  which  reached  a  fifth  edition. 
 
 Ritschl  was  a  peculiarly  self-centered  man.  Only 
 one  friend  seems  to  have  been  at  all  intimate,  his 
 colleague,  Diestel.  After  he  became  known  as  the 
 founder  of  a  school,  he  gladly  received  the  visits  of 
 his  adherents.  He  was  not  only  independent,  but 
 self-confident  as  well,  and  though  not  a  gentle  critic 
 himself,  he  resented  it  when  his  own  work  came  under 
 the  knife. 
 
 Tholuck  and  Luthardt  were  noted  as  preachers; 
 not  so  Ritschl.     Perhaps  he  preached  a  dozen  times. 
 
Evangelical  Church  in  Germany.         501 
 
 but  that  was  in  his  earlier  career.  Though  his  father 
 was  a  bishop,  he  had  neither  tact  nor  talent  for  preach- 
 ing or  practical  Church  affairs.  In  real  Church  life  in 
 Germany  and  in  the  world  at  large  he  seems  to  have 
 had  little  knowledge  or  interest.  Self-centered  as  he 
 was,  his  horizon  was  small,  and  comprehended  but 
 few  intellectual  interests,  and  these  almost  exclusively 
 academical  and  theological. 
 
 On  the  other  hand,  Albrecht  Ritschl  was  a  thinker 
 and  a  critic.  As  such,  his  and  succeeding  generations 
 will  do  him  honor.  As  a  thinker,  he  was  analytic  in 
 his  method,  and  original  in,  after  having  distinguished 
 differences,  seeking  always  the  comprehensive  whole 
 in  which  the  elements  of  his  analysis  should  reach 
 their  true  union.  His  thinking  was  not  speculative, 
 but  practical.  Hence  he  was  naturally  a  critic,  and 
 his  criticism  never  failed  in  learning  or  thoroughness, 
 while  it  was  clear  and  definite  in  method  and  results. 
 
 Ritschl  was  no  genius  like  Origen  or  Schleier- 
 macher,  nor  is  the  comparison  with  Athanasius  in 
 place.  But  his  service  to  the  educated  world  of  his 
 time  was  like  that  of  Schleiermacher,  though  his 
 method  was  just  the  opposite.  Schleiermacher  ac- 
 centuated the  comprehensiveness  of  the  principles  of 
 the  Gospel  and  of  Christian  life  as  including  all  great 
 truths,  and  harmonizing  them  and  all  acquisitions  of 
 the  human  spirit.  Ritschl,  on  the  other  hand,  exclud- 
 ing all  extraneous  influences,  developed  from  itself 
 the  unique  power  and  scope  of  Christian  truth. 
 
 The  thinking  of  few  men  has  so  met  the  needs  of 
 their  age  as  this  most  retired  and  self-contained  rea- 
 soner  and  critic.  The  notes  of  Ritschl's  theology 
 which  were   in   accord  with   his  time,  were  reality, 
 
502      History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 aversion  to  speculation,  so  limitation  to  the  known, 
 and  the  accentuation  of  the  value  of  the  Christian 
 Church.  This  sense  of  reality  dominated  his  method 
 and  the  contents  of  his  thought. 
 
 The  New  Testament  Scriptures  were  realities ;  these 
 he  sought  to  have  reveal  their  real  significance. 
 Biblical  theology  was  the  foundation  and  material  of 
 all  his  thinking.  The  experience  of  forgiveness  of 
 sin  through  faith  in  Jesus  Christ  is  a  reality,  a  unique 
 fact,  distinctive  of  Christian  teaching  and  fundamental 
 to  Christian  life.  This  fact  became  the  center  of  his 
 theological  system.  The  Christian  Church  is  a  reality, 
 and  the  history  of  its  origin  always  had  a  great  attrac- 
 tion for  him.  These  three  facts  dominated  and  gave 
 reality  to  his  thinking.  Then  the  age  revolted  from 
 the  philosophical  speculation  which  had  ruled  Ger- 
 many for  fifty  years,  and  which  controlled  in  the  do- 
 main of  both  history  and  theology. 
 
 Ritschl  cut  loose  from  all  connection  with  the 
 Greek  philosophy  and  the  speculations  of  his  country- 
 men. The  Church,  in  I^utheran  theology,  had  been 
 but  little  more  than  a  department  of  the  State,  practi- 
 cally ;  and,  theoretically,  a  means  of  education,  train- 
 ing, and  common  worship.  Ritschl  emphasized  the 
 Church  almost  in  the  language  of  Augustine.  In 
 addition  to  this,  he  placed  stress  upon  the  ethical 
 bearings  of  Christianity  and  the  reality  of  Christian 
 faith  as  shown  by  its  fruits  in  Christian  life. 
 
 We  can  here  only  give  a  brief  outline  of  the  distinc- 
 
 RJtschi's    ^^^^  teachings  of   Ritschl's   theology.     In 
 
 Distinctive  his  teaching  concerning  God,  Ritschl   re- 
 
 ngs.  jg^^^g^j  ^j^g  qJ^j  conception  of  his  Being  as 
 
 absolute,  and  then  possessing  certain  attributes.     His 
 
Evangelical  Church  in  Germany.         503 
 
 pyschological  principle  was,  that  everything  is  com- 
 plete in  itself,  and  is  known  by  its  activities.  This 
 he  applied  to  God.  He  taught  that  God  is  in  his 
 attributes,  not  surrounded  by  them;  that,  in  the 
 highest  sense,  God  is  personality,  and,  hence,  that 
 God  is  love.  The  chief  relation  in  which  he  stands 
 to  man  is  as  Father;  he  is,  first,  the  Father  of  our 
 Lord  Jesus  Christ;  then,  the  Creator  of  the  world. 
 The  analogy  of  our  relations  to  him  is  not  to  the 
 State,  but  the  family.  Not  so  much  stress  is  laid 
 upon  God  as  cause  of  all  that  is,  as  that  his  pur- 
 pose is  working  to  assured  fulfillment  in  the  realiz- 
 ation of  the  kingdom  of  God.  He  differs  also,  in 
 his  definition  of  the  righteousness  of  God,  which 
 he  held  to  be  the  perpetual  and  effective  faith- 
 fulness of  God  toward  the  people  of  his  covenant  and 
 toward  the  Christian  Church.  It  is  not  in  opposition 
 with  the  grace  of  God,  but  is  only  a  modification  of  it^ 
 and  in  full  accord  with  his  love.  Hence,  he  rejected 
 every  juristic  significance  in  the  relations  between  God 
 and  man. 
 
 Sin  is  guilt  and  contradiction  against  God.  Sin  is 
 the  opposite  of  the  Christian  ideal.  That  ideal  is  not 
 Adam,  but  Christ;  and  its  social  realization  ^^^ 
 is  the  kingdom  of  God.  Sin  has  two  sides — 
 a  defect  of  reverence  and  trust  in  God,  and  a  direc- 
 tion of  the  will  against  God.  The  latter  results  in  a 
 kingdom  of  sin  over  against  the  kingdom  of  God,  in 
 which  men  are  active,  and  their  transgressions  have 
 their  individual  differences. 
 
 Guilt  is  the  especial  punishment  of  sin.  It  is  an 
 expression  of  separation  and  mistrust.  It  is  a  living 
 contradiction  of  God  and  of  his  appointed  destiny  for 
 
504     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 men.     Hence,  from  the  dej&nition  of  sin,  that  which 
 falls  under  the  first  aspect  is  forgivable,   as  the  wills 
 
 of  his  children  are  directed  toward  the 
 *  realization  of  the  kingdom  of  God.  These 
 sins  he  classes  as  sins  of  ignorance,  and  that  God  is 
 pleased  with  men  notwithstanding  the  commissions 
 of  such  sins,  if  they  are  in  his  Church.  All  the  pun- 
 ishments of  God  toward  his  children  are  exclusively 
 punishments  for  education,  whose  aim  is  their  better- 
 ment. On  the  other  hand,  those  who  permanently 
 harden  themselves  against  the  Christian  salvation 
 offered  to  them,  are  guilty  of  sin  against  the  Holy 
 Ghost.  They  belong  to  the  kingdom  of  sin ;  they 
 are  no  more  capable  of  salvation,  and  their  punish- 
 ment \9  a  definite  destruction  or  annihilation. 
 
 Forgiveness  is  to  restore  the  fore-appointed  com- 
 munion of  men  with  God.     It  is  equivalent  to  pardon 
 
 among  men,   and  restores   to   communion 
 
 Forgiveness.       .,^,t-i./-        •  •         -  c 
 
 With  God.  In  this  forgiveness,  justification 
 takes  away  conscious  guilt,  and  reconciliation  takes 
 away  active  contradiction  against  God.  Both  remove 
 the  contradictions  of  the  will ;  and  this  justification 
 and  reconciliation  is  a  creative  act  of  God.  Forgive- 
 ness is  to  the  whole  of  sinful  men;  hence,  a  syn- 
 thetic, not  an  individual,  act;  and  is  appropriate  as 
 trust  in  God  and  sense  of  the  Divine  childhood.  This 
 appropriation  gives  a  new  direction  of  the  will  toward 
 God. 
 
 Faith   is   the   direct  correlate  of  justification ;   in 
 this,  the  full  dependence  of  man  upon  God  is  relig- 
 iously recognized  and  actually  attained.    In 
 this  connection,  comes  in  what  Ritschl  calls 
 the  master  question  of  theology,  and  whose  solution 
 
Evangelical  Church  in  Germany.        505 
 
 determined  his  whole  theological  method.  That  ques- 
 tion is,  *'  How  the  dependence  upon  God  is  reconcil- 
 able with  human  freedom,  in  which  it  is  even  as 
 necessary  to  think  of  this  action  as  the  same  is  wit- 
 nessed through  our  immediate  self-consciousness." 
 
 Mere  logical  theory  can  not  overcome  this  contra- 
 diction between  freedom  and  dependence.  The  solu- 
 tion must  come  from  empirical  psychological  obser- 
 vation. This  is  shown,  because,  in  the  domain  of 
 Christianity,  every  one  who  endeavors  to  do  the  good 
 willed  of  God  has  the  actual  experience  that  he 
 possesses  real  freedom  only  in  an  especial  kind  of 
 dependence  upon  God.  Freedom,  in  the  full  sense, 
 is  the  power  of  self-command  over  selfish  impulses. 
 This  freedom  is  only  ours  when  the  will  is  directed 
 to  the  final  aim  ot  the  most  universal  good;  i.  e., 
 the  kingdom  of  God.  In  this  kingdom  each  one 
 knows  he  is  dependent  upon  God,  in  the  same  degree 
 that  he  is  conscious  of  moral  freedom. 
 
 Freedom  and  dependence  form  an  identical  experi- 
 ence. This  experience  is  a  religious  judgment.  The 
 ethical  judgment  is,  that  men  are  free  and  responsible; 
 hence,  religious  judgments  have  an  ethical  reverse 
 side.  In  the  religious  functions,  as  faith  in  provi- 
 dence, humility,  patience,  prayer,  man  is  active  and 
 independent,  for  the  soul  is  never  passive.  In  mo- 
 ments of  religious  exaltation,  as  members  of  the  whole, 
 we  have  the  consciousness  of  dependence  upon  God. 
 On  the  other  hand,  the  regular  forms  of  human  self- 
 judgment  are  thoughts  of  freedom,  with  the  conscious- 
 ness of  independence  and  responsibility. 
 
 The  Divine  acts — such  as  justification,  regenera- 
 tion, the  impartation  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  the  bestowal 
 
5o6     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 of  salvation — must  be  so  taught  that  the  correspond- 
 ing self-activities  in  which  these  acts  are  appropriated 
 by  men  will  be  evident,  and  may  be  analyzed. 
 
 Faith  is  a  comprehensive  whole,  and  is  trust  and 
 confidence  in  God.  This  must  rest  on  the  personal 
 convictions  that  God,  Christ,  his  work,  the  Holy 
 Ghost,  the  Trinity,  the  Church,  and  all  other  great  ob- 
 jects of  the  Christian  faith,  exist,  and  are  active  for  us 
 for  the  purpose  of  our  salvation.  In  the  degree  in 
 which  our  ccnfidence  is  placed  upon  these  religious 
 objects  we  appropriate  to  ourselves  their  efficacious 
 grace.  The  revelation  of  Christ  is  the  source  of  the 
 right  and  complete  knowledge  of  God.  Revelation 
 and  faith  are  necessarily  reciprocal  conceptions. 
 
 Ritschl's  teaching  concerning  Christ  culminated  in 
 the  clear  assertion  of  his  Divinity;  but  that  Divinity 
 is  not  asserted  as  a  fact,  but  as  a  judgment 
 of  value.  In  the  section  upon  faith,  moral 
 freedom  was  spoken  of  as  impossible  to  establish  by 
 logical  process,  but  by  experience  it  had  impregnable 
 validity  as  a  religious  judgment.  This  limitation  of 
 logical  reason  and  extension  of  the  evidence  of  experi- 
 ence as  producing  convictions,  Ritschl  now  greatly 
 enlarged  in  scope.  From  the  study  of  Kant  he  now 
 extended  the  range  of  these  value  judgments  to  all 
 expressions  concerning  God,  including  even  his  ex- 
 istence. Such,  then,  is  the  Divinity  of  Christ,  his 
 pre-existence,  and,  with  some,  even  his  resurrection. 
 
 It  is  such  a  judi^ment  when  a  man  recognizes 
 Christ  as  the  revealer  of  the  love  of  God,  and  thus  of 
 the  especial  being  of  God.  In  these  value  judgments 
 there  is  the  highest  subjective  interests,  the  most 
 certain  convictions  of  the  true  reality  of  their  content, 
 
Evangelical  Church  in  Germany.        507 
 
 and,  at  the  same  time,  the  personal  interests  of  the 
 believer  in  their  reality.  Thus  value  judgments  are 
 subjective  and  personal.  We  are  expressly  told  that 
 they  are  not  opposed  to  judgments  of  fact  or  actual 
 existence,  but  only  to  the  theoretic  judgments  of  sci- 
 ence. But  at  the  same  time  these  judgments  are  only 
 personal,  and  never  affirm  actual  existence.  The 
 elasticity  of  the  meaning  of  these  value  judgments 
 has  been  one  secret  of  the  great  success  of  the 
 Ritschlian  theology,  as  it  is  given  a  place  of  promi- 
 nence it  never  had  in  the  earlier  working  out  of  his 
 system  by  Ritschl. 
 
 The  doctrine  of  value  judgments  is  made  espe- 
 cially applicable  to  miracles.  In  Ritschl's  first  edition 
 he  only  alluded  to  them,  and  did  not  make  them  a 
 part  of  his  teaching  until  1883.  They  are  its  greatest 
 weakness  as  well. 
 
 Ritschl,  in  his  conception  of  the  work  of  Christ, 
 rejected  the  distinction  of  active  and  passive  obedi- 
 ence.    The  whole  work  of  Christ  belonged  ^^   ^   ^  , 
 
 .  1     T-»         ■Li.    The  Work  oi 
 
 to  his  kingly  office.  As  Royal  Prophet,  ^.j^j^. 
 Christ  has  power  over  the  whole  world. 
 This  is  shown  in  his  independence  of  the  world  and 
 his  perfect  patience  in  suffering.  He  overcame  the 
 world  and  broke  its  power.  In  the  same  person  he 
 identified  God  and  man.  This  is  a  paradox  for  the 
 reason,  but  truth  for  the  religious  judgment. 
 
 As  Royal  Priest,  according  to  the  Divine  covenant, 
 the  grace  of  the  sacrifice  of  Christ  has  for  its  purpose 
 to  bring  men  into  communion  with  God.  This  was 
 wrought  by  his  obedience  in  life  and  death.  The 
 mission  of  Christ  is  to  realize  the  kingdom  of  God ; 
 he  is  the  revelation  of  God  as  love. 
 
5o8     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 The  founding  (making  possible)  the  forgiveness 
 of  sins  is  the  same  identical  act  as  the  founding  of  the 
 Christian  Church.  As  Royal  Priest,  Christ 
 '  has  ruled  over  the  Church.  The  Church 
 of  Christ  is  that  greatness  in  which  and  through 
 which  the  kingdom  of  God  shall  come  to  reality ;  it 
 is  the  chosen  object  of  the  love  of  God.  The  Church 
 and  the  preaching  of  the  work  of  God  are  the  neces- 
 sary presupposition  and  mediation  for  all  subjective 
 Christianity.  In  this  sense,  the  acquisition  of  Chris- 
 tian salvation  is  possible  only  in  and  through  the 
 Church.  In  the  difference  of  age,  sex,  temperament, 
 types  of  Christian  confession,  there  is  an  inexhausti- 
 ble range  of  kinds  of  religious  estimates  of  Christ. 
 
 Ritschl  was  thorougly  opposed  to  all  evangelistic 
 or  revival  efforts  for  Christian  conversions.  He  re- 
 jected the  possibility  of  a  conscious  conver- 
 ^**^Faith*"  ***  ^^^^  ^^  childhood  or  before  mature  age. 
 Faith  he  defined  as  the  perfect  and  clear 
 expression  for  the  subjective  conviction  of  the 
 truth  of  Christ's  religion.  When  he  said  this  could 
 only  be  expected  in  mature  age,  he  went  against  all 
 that  we  know  of  the  normal  psychology  of  religious 
 experience. 
 
 Ritschl  defines  the  Holy  Spirit  as  the  knowledge 
 which  God  has  of  himself,  and  at  the  same  time  it  is 
 imparted  to  the  Christian  Church  through 
 ^spiHt!^     the  perfected  revelation  of  God.     For  the 
 Church  has  the  same  knowledge  of  God 
 and  his  counsels  toward  men  in  the  world  which  ac- 
 cords with  the  self-knowledge  of  God.     He  farther 
 says  that  the  Holy  Spirit  is  the  power  of  God  which 
 makes  the  Church  capable  of  appropriating  his  reve- 
 
Evangelical  Church  in  Germany.         509 
 
 lation  as  Father  through  his  Son.  This  is  true,  but  a 
 most  inadequate  representation  of  the  work  of  the 
 Holy  Spirit. 
 
 Ritschl  repudiated  all  witness  of  the  Holy  Spirit 
 to  the  believer's  acceptance  in  Christ,  as  he  did  all 
 sense  of  the  personal  presence  of  God,  and  all  that 
 is  called  mysticism  in  communion  with  God;  for 
 Ritschl's  religion  was  of  the  intellect. 
 
 Assurance,  he  taught,  comes  as  the  confidence  of 
 a  child  in  a  loving  father.  Farther,  he  said,  in  words 
 which  make  assurance  the  effect  of  works 
 wrought  after  grace  is  given :  "  There  is  no 
 other  way  to  convince  one's  self  of  reconciliation 
 with  God  through  Christ  but  that  which  one  experi- 
 ences in  active  trust  and  confidence  in  God's  provi- 
 dence, in  patient  surrender  to  the  sufferings  God 
 ordains  as  the  means  of  testing  and  cleansing,  in  the 
 humble  awaiting  of  the  unfolding  of  his  direction  of 
 our  fate,  in  the  courage  of  independence  of  human 
 judgments,  especially  so  far  as  they  rule  religion ; 
 finall}^  in  daily  prayer  for  the  forgiveness  of  sins 
 under  the  conditions  that  man,  through  the  use  of 
 reconciliation,  preserves  his  place  in  the  Church  of 
 God." 
 
 In  regard  to  eschatology,  Ritschl  taught  only  that 
 eternal  life  is  experienced  here,  and  that  there  is  no 
 fear  of  death  to  those  reconciled  to  God. 
 
 There  is  much  that  is  suggestive  and  of  enduring 
 value,  even  in  this  brief  survey.  The  assertions  of  the 
 personality  of  God,  the  makinsr  of  Christ, 
 
 ,.  ^  '  ,  ^^         ,.     .  Summary. 
 
 as  revealmg  God,  the  center  of  religious 
 
 and  theological  thinking;    the  assertions  of  the  great 
 
 Christian  truth  as  the  Divinity  of  Christ,  even  under 
 
5IO      History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 the  guise  of  value  judgments,  as  indispensable  to  the 
 Christian  faith ;  the  affirmation  of  the  freedom  of  the 
 will,  and  of  the  reality  of  reconciliation  with  God; 
 the  necessary  value  ascribed  to  the  Church,  as  well  as 
 his  own  trust  in  God, — these  are  of  unquestioned 
 worth,  and  lead  to  a  better  Christendom  than  quanti- 
 ties of  religious  speculation  without  discernible  basis, 
 especially  in  Germany. 
 
 On  the  other  hand,  Ritschl's  limitation  of  his 
 thought  to  the  world,  as  against  speculation  and  mys- 
 ticism, went  to  the  length  of  leaving  the 
 mass  of  mankind,  those  beyond  the  bounds 
 of  Christendom,  entirely  out  of  consideration,  and 
 without  any  opinion  or  judgment  as  to  their  fate. 
 His  position  in  regard  to  the  beginning  of  Christian 
 life  and  the  conversion  of  children,  has  been  alluded 
 to.  In  his  rejection  of  mysticism  he  repudiated  an 
 element  of  power  which  belongs  to  Christ's  Gospel 
 and  to  all  Christian  leadership.  Granted  that  there  is 
 much  extravagance  and  much  to  criticise  in  manifes- 
 tations of  mysticism,  especially  in  Germany,  neverthe- 
 less it  was  an  essential  element  in  the  experience  and 
 leadership  of  Bernard  of  Clairvaux,  of  Francis  of 
 Assisi,  of  Martin  I^uther,  and  of  John  Wesley.  St. 
 John's  doctrine  of  assurance  is  certainly  far  different 
 from  that  of  Albrecht  Ritschl.  Ritschl's  conception 
 of  sin  and  repentance  is  also  defective. 
 
 Ritschl's  theology,  with  its  elastic  value  judg- 
 ments, is  well  adapted  to  an  age  of  transition,  and  has 
 met  a  real  need ;  but  it  is  far  from  the  ultimate  the- 
 ology, or  even  that  which  must  prevail  in  the  twen- 
 tieth century.  This  theology  is  that  of  criticism,  and 
 serves  well  that  end ;  but  the  theology  of  the  Church 
 
Evangelical  Church  in  Germany.        5 1 1 
 
 which  is  to  conquer  the  semi-heathenism  of  Christen- 
 dom, and  the  entire  heathenism  outside  of  it,  must 
 have  truths  and  convictions  to  proclaim  that  have 
 more  than  subjective  validity. 
 
 The  school  of  Ritschl,  at  the  end  of  the  century, 
 counted  Kaftan  and  Hermann  as  its  theologians,  and 
 with  them  gather  Harnack,  Loofs,  Schiirer,  and  a 
 crowd  of  scholars  of  which  any  land  might  be  proud. 
 The  accomplishment  of  these  men  in  research  has 
 been  of  great  value.  But  in  Germany  the  great 
 enemy  to  Christianity  is  materialistic  socialism.  The 
 Socialists  form  a  great  political  party,  and  their  jour- 
 nals are  edited  and  their  party  managed  with  ac- 
 knowledged ability.  Often  editorial  expressions  in 
 their  periodicals  upon  current  events  are  more  in  har- 
 mony with  the  teachings  of  Christ  than  those  of  their 
 opponents.  Yet  the  great  mass  of  the  party  utterly 
 reject  the  Christian  faith,  and  are  adherents  of  the 
 materialistic  doctrines  of  Carl  Vogt  and  Biichner, 
 which  occupy  a  standpoint  overcome  by  the  educated 
 classes.  Who  shall  call  these  artisan  populations  to 
 Christ?  We  fear,  not  the  men  of  the  school  of  Al- 
 brecht  Ritschl.  Who  shall  train  the  Churches  of 
 Germany  to  take  their  part  in  the  evangelization  of 
 the  world? 
 
 Denmark    and   the    Lutheran    Church    furnished 
 three  men  of  remarkable  power  and  influ-  ^^^^^^^ 
 ence,  whose  careers  ended  in  this  period. 
 
 Soren  Kirkegraad  (1813-1855)  was  the  most  pro- 
 found philosophical  writer  that  Scandinavia  has  pro- 
 duced, and  wrote  in  a  style  whose  charm  ^^^^^^^^^ 
 was  equal  to  the   power  of   his   thought. 
 He  was  never  strong  in  body,  but  was  rich,  and  re- 
 
512      History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 mained  unmarried.  His  greatest  work,  "  Either — Or," 
 appeared  in  1843.  He  published  thirty  volumes,  and 
 left  unpublished  as  many  more.  He  taught  that 
 Christianity  is  a  life ;  he  was  a  thorough  individualist. 
 He  left  a  lasting  impress  on  the  thought  and  litera- 
 ture of  his  native  land. 
 
 Nicholas  Frederick  Severin  Grundtvig  (i  785-1872) 
 
 was  a  poet,  a  scholar,  and  renowned  as  an  orator  and 
 
 leader  in  the  Christian   Church.      In   his 
 
 Orundtvig.  .  .  .  ^    r.       i  i-     i 
 
 university  years,  1 805-1 808,  he  studied 
 Shakespeare,  Schiller,  and  Fichte,  as  well  became  the 
 nephew  of  Steffens.  He  was  greatly  attracted  while 
 a  tutor,  after  his  graduation,  by  the  old  Norse  Sagas. 
 In  1808  he  published  his  "Songs  of  the  Bdda"  and 
 "Northern  Mythology;"  the  year  following,  "The 
 Decline  of  Heroic  I^ife  in  the  North."  He  served  as 
 his  father's  vicar,  1811-1813;  the  next  year  he  had  a 
 controversy  with  the  Danish  scientist,  Oersted.  In 
 18 13-1815  he  preached  in  Copenhagen,  and  then  ac- 
 cepted the  pastorate  of  the  Church  of  the  Redeemer 
 at  Christianshaven.  There  he  translated  Beowulf, 
 Saxo  Grammaticus,  and  Sturlesson's  "Saga."  In 
 1825  he  left  the  State  Church.  The  king  sent  him  to 
 England  to  study. 
 
 Grundtvig  had  some  peculiar  personal  opinions. 
 He  held  that  the  Apostles'  Creed  was  orally,  word  for 
 word,  delivered  by  Christ  to  his  disciples;  this,  and 
 the  baptismal  formula,  made  men  Christians.  Indeed, 
 he  struck  the  Ten  Commandments  from  his  Catechism, 
 and  declared  that  the  preaching  of  repentance  is  not 
 necessary  for  the  children  of  light.  He  was  an  ardent 
 nationalist.     As  an  orator  he  was  unexcelled,  and  un- 
 
Evangelical  Church  in  Denmark.         513 
 
 til  extreme  age  preserved  his  impressive  bearing  and 
 the  fiery  glance  of  his  eye. 
 
 He,  after  having  been  so  long  without  its  pale, 
 was  bishop  in  the  Danish  Church  from  1863  until  his 
 death. 
 
 Hans  Lars  Martensen  (1808- 1884)  has  been  called 
 by  many  Germans  the  greatest  Evangelical  theologian 
 of  the  century.  His  "  Christian  Dog- 
 matics," published  in  1849,  was  translated 
 into  most  European  languages,  even  into  Greek.  It 
 is  said  to  have  had  as  wide  an  influence  on  Evangelical 
 thought  as  any  volume  of  the  century.  Though  de- 
 pendent upon  Confessional  Lutheranism  and  the 
 Hegelian  philosophy,  for  profundity  of  thought,  com- 
 prehensiveness of  grasp,  lucidity,  beauty,  and  concise- 
 ness of  expression,  it  has  not  been  approached  in  the 
 theological  writings  of  the  century.  It  is  the  one 
 work  of  genius  in  theology  after  Schleiermacher. 
 
 Martensen  studied  in  the  University  of  Copen- 
 hagen. In  1832  he  visited  Berlin,  Munich,  Vienna, 
 and  Paris.  He  studied  especially  the  philosophy  of 
 the  Middle  Ages.  In  1837  he  taught  Moral  Philoso- 
 phy in  his  Alma  Mater.  In  1840  he  lectured  on 
 Speculative  Dogmatics.  In  1845  he  was  appointed 
 court  preacher,  and  in  1854  primate  of  Denmark,  the 
 See  which  he  retained  until  his  death.  In  187 1 
 he  published  "Christian  Ethics;"  in  1879,  "Jacob 
 Boehme;"  and  in  1883,  his  "Autobiography."  He 
 was  a  warm  friend  of  Dorner.  The  friendship  of  these 
 men  stands  in  strong  contrast  with  the  isolation  of 
 Ritschl.  As  a  prelate  he  resisted  Grundtvig,  and  was 
 a  High  Tory  in  literature,  politics,  and  philosophy. 
 
514     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 The  Reformed  Church  on  the  Continent  had  little 
 with  which  to  match  his  magnificent  display  of 
 scholarship  and  literary  productions. 
 
 Johannes  Heinrich  August  Ebrard  (1818-1888), 
 however,  in  literary  activity  was  no  equal  match  for 
 any  of  them.  He  was  born  at  Erlangen, 
 where  he  took  his  degree.  He  began  teach- 
 ing there  in  1841,  and  was  at  Zurich,  1 844-1 847,  when 
 he  returned  to  Erlangen.  There  he  taught  until  he 
 was  made  Consistorial  Councilor  at  Speyer,  1853-1861. 
 Resigning  there,  he  returned  to  Erlangen.  After 
 1875  he  was  pastor  of  the  French  Church  there.  In 
 1842  he  published  his  "Scientific  Criticism  of  the 
 Gospel  History;"  i845-i846,the  ''  Dogmaand  History 
 of  the  Lord's  Supper;"  1 85 1,  "  Christian  Dogmatics;" 
 "  History  of  the  Christian  Church  and  Dogma,"  four 
 volumes,  1865-1866.  Many  of  his  works  appeared  in 
 English,  as  his  edition  of  Ohlshausen's  "Commen- 
 tary." He  visited  twice  the  United  States.  Though 
 belonging  to  the  Reformed  Church,  he  rejected  from 
 his  heart  the  doctrine  of  predestination. 
 
 Frederick  Louis  Godet  (18 12-1900)  won  a  large 
 reading  public  in  English-speaking  countries.  Born 
 at  Neufchatel,  Switzerland,  he  studied  at 
 Bonn  and  Berlin.  From  1838  to  1844  he 
 was  preceptor  to  the  Crown  Prince  of  Prussia.  From 
 1845  to  1851  he  supplied  different  churches  in  his  na- 
 tive Canton.  In  1866  he  became  pastor  in  Neuf- 
 chatel. There  he  also  served  as  Professor  of  Exeget- 
 ical  and  Critical  Theology,  1 850-1 887,  when  his  son 
 took  his  place. 
 
 His  Commentaries   on   St.  John,   1863-1865;    St. 
 
Evangelical  Church  IN  France.  515 
 
 lyuke,  1871;  Romans,  1879-1880;  Corinthians,  1886; 
 and  his  Old  and  New  Testament  Studies,  1 873-1 874, 
 two  volumes,  have  had  a  wide  circulation,  and  have 
 deserved  it  for  their  learning,  acuteness  and  good 
 sense. 
 
 Edmund  Dehault  de  Pressense  (i 824-1 891)  at- 
 tained reputation  as  a  preacher,  a  writer,  and  a  states- 
 man. After  studying  in  Paris,  he  was  two 
 years  in  Lausanne  with  Vinet,  and  then 
 two  more  in  Berlin.  He  was  pastor  of  the  Free 
 Evangelical  Congregation,  1 846-1 870,  which  was  in- 
 dependent of  the  State.  In  1 871-1876  he  served  as 
 deputy  in  the  National  Assembly;  in  1883  he  was 
 elected  senator  for  life.  He  wrote  largely  in  an  easy 
 style,  and  most  of  his  works  were  translated  into 
 English.  The  chief  of  them  are  "The  Redeemer," 
 1854,  a  volume  of  sermons;  ''Jesus  Christ:  His  Life 
 and  Work,"  1866;  "  The  First  Three  Centuries  of  the 
 Christian  Church,"  1858-1878;  these  were  in  reply  to 
 M.  Renan.  "The  Church  and  the  French  Revolu- 
 tion," a  valuable  work,  appeared  in  1864,  and  a  "  Study 
 of  Origins,"  in  1882. 
 
 In    speaking    of    Kuenen,    something 
 was    said    of  the    condition    of  the    Re-  '^*' Houand'! '" 
 formed  Church  in  Holland. 
 
 In  these  years  there  were  two  able  leaders  of  the 
 Evangelical  cause.      The  eldest  of  these   was   John 
 Jacob  Van  Oosterzee  (181 7-1888).    He  was 
 educated  at  Utrecht,  and  pastor  at  Eemnes,    qq^^^^^.^, 
 1841-1843;  Alkmaar,  1843-1844;  and  Rot- 
 terdam, 1844-1862.     He  was  then  called  to  a  profess- 
 orship in  the  University  of  Utrecht,  1 862-1 882.      He 
 
5x6     History  of  the  Christian  Church, 
 
 was  learned,  eloquent,  and  pious.  Most  of  his  publi- 
 cations have  appeared  in  English;  among  them  are 
 ''Christian  Dogmatics,"  1872;  "  Practical  Theology," 
 1878.  In  Lange's  Commentary  he  wrote  on  Luke, 
 the  Pastoral  Epistles,  and  Philemon.  In  1872  ap- 
 peared in  English  his  ''Theology  of  the  New  Testa- 
 ment." There  were  published  ten  volumes  of  his 
 sermons. 
 
 Abraham  Kuyper,  born  in  1837,  is  the  other  Evan- 
 gelical leader  in  Holland.  He  was  educated  at  Ley- 
 den  -under  Scholten  and  Kuenen.  He 
 knew  from  personal  experience  the  lack  of 
 vitality  and  spiritual  power  in  their  teachings,  and  he 
 represents  the  strongest  reaction  against  them.  This 
 came  from  his  finding,  studying,  and  winning  a  prize 
 for  an  edition  of  the  works  of  John  a  Lasco,  the 
 Polish  Reformer  of  the  sixteenth  century.  From  that 
 time  he  has  been  a  sturdy  Calvinist.  As  pastor  at 
 Beest  and  Utrecht  he  stood  by  the  side  of  Groen  as 
 leader  of  the  Old  Reform  party  in  the  State  Church 
 from  1869.  On  Groen's  death  in  1876,  he  succeeded 
 to  the  leadership  of  the  party.  He  became  editor  of 
 the  Standard  in  1870,  and  later  founded  the  Herald. 
 Since  1874  he  has  been  Deputy  in  the  National  Legis- 
 lature. In  1878  he  founded  a  Union  to  support  free 
 Christian  schools.  It  has  an  income  of  $50,000  a 
 year.  In  1880  he  founded  a  free  university,  inde- 
 pendent of  the  State.  Preachers  who  followed  him 
 were  excluded  from  the  National  Synod;  but  in  1885 
 one  hundred  and  fifty  Churches  followed  the  example 
 of  Amsterdam  in  welcoming  these  preachers  as  their 
 pastors.     They  have  their  independent  organization. 
 
Evangelical  Church  ln  Holland.         517 
 
 but  there  is  no  formal  breach  with  the  State  Church. 
 These  Churches,  under  the  lead  of  Kuyper,  have  en- 
 tered into  an  alliance  with  the  Roman  Catholics.  Their 
 point  of  contact  is  religious  instruction  in  the  schools 
 of  the  land.  The  opening  of  the  new  century  saw 
 this  leader  of  the  Calvinistic  reaction  against  the 
 naturalism  and  Free  Reli,e;ion  of  Scholten  and  Kuenen 
 the  Prime  Minister  of  Holland. 
 
Chapter  VII. 
 
 THE    EVANGELICAL   CHURCH   IN    GREAT    BRITAIN 
 AND    IRELAND. 
 
 The  last  lialf  of  the  nineteenth  century  saw  the 
 growing  power  and  influence  of  Great  Britain  as  it 
 witnessed  the  increasing  social  amelioration  of  her 
 artisans  and  lower  classes.  The  last  twenty  years,  it 
 is  true,  saw  the  rise  of  new  and  successful  trade  rivals 
 in  the  United  States  and  Germany,  so  that  she  could 
 no  longer  hold  undisputed  her  unique  position  of  com- 
 mand in  manufacture  and  commerce ;  but  the  years 
 under  review  beheld  the  consolidation  and  immense 
 increase  of  her  power  in  India,  Burmah,  and  Afghan- 
 istan. At  the  same  time  came  into  her  possession  the 
 keys  of  Africa  and  the  East  in  the  occupation  of  the 
 Nile  Valley  from  Alexandria  to  Khartoum,  and  her 
 control  of  the  Suez  Canal.  Besides  these,  she  had 
 founded  and  saw  grow,  in  prosperity  and  power,  three 
 great  empires  in  Australia  and  New  Zealand,  in  Canada, 
 and  South  Africa.  The  turn  of  the  centuries  saw  her 
 overcome  her  chief  foe  in  South  Africa,  and  remove 
 the  bitterest  grievance  of  her  rule  in  the  solution  of 
 the  land  question  in  Ireland.  In  repairing  two  capi- 
 tal mistakes  of  her  policy,  she  has  been  hardly  less 
 successful.  The  Crimean  war  was  a  blunder;  but 
 Britain  has  had  the  good  fortune  to  see  Germany  take 
 her   place   in   supporting  the  Turkish  Empire  as  a 
 
 518 
 
Evangelical  Church  in  Great  Britain.  519 
 
 buffer  State  against  Russia.  Her  support  of  the  South 
 in  the  Civil  War  in  the  United  States  was  a  great 
 blunder ;  but  it  was  repaired  by  the  Treaty  of  Wash- 
 ington in  1 87 1,  and  by  friendly  conduct  during  the 
 Spanish-American  War. 
 
 In  the  United  States,  Great  Britain  has  a  trade 
 rival  whose  resources  and  use  of  them  she  must  re- 
 spect and  heed ;  but  she  also  has  the  friendly  support 
 of  one  of  the  greatest  of  the  world  powers,  one  having 
 the  same  language,  literature,  political  traditions,  and 
 ideas.  These  two  in  alliance  would  fear  no  other 
 combination  of  the  nations.  The  rise  of  Germany  as 
 a  check  against  plans  of  French  aggression,  which 
 made  uneasy  the  first  seventy  years  of  the  century, 
 and  as  a  defense  against  Russian  preponderance,  has 
 greatly  strengthened  the  position  of  Great  Britain. 
 
 In  all  that  gives  rule  to  nations ;  in  prestige,  in 
 power,  no  other  century  ever  saw  Great  Britain  in  the 
 position  of  advantage  which  she  occupied  at  the  sun- 
 rising  of  the  twentieth  after  Christ.  It  may  be  truly 
 said  that  this  position  is  not  undeserved.  Serious  are 
 the  blots  of  Turkish  support,  the  Chinese  Opium 
 War,  the  fall  of  Khartoum,  and  the  desertion  of  Ar- 
 menia. But  English  statesmen  have  had  the  ability 
 to  learn.  The  improved  condition  of  England's  popu- 
 lation, the  content  of  her  self-governing  colonies,  and 
 her  government  of  her  dependencies,  in  spite  of  the 
 Indian  Mutiny  and  the  Boer  War,  are  to  her  immense 
 credit.  After  all  deductions  are  made,  she  has  given 
 India  and  Egypt  the  best  rule  they  have  had  in  a 
 thousand  years.  Her  administrative  rule  among  de- 
 pendent races  has  been  the  ablest  and  most  just  the 
 nineteenth  century  knew. 
 
520     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 Of  the  statesmen  under  whom  this  prosperity  came, 
 Palmerston,  Disraeli,  and  Lord  Derby  were  professed 
 Christians  and  members  of  the  Church  of  England, 
 but  thorough  men  of  the  world ;  Gladstone,  Lord  John 
 Russell,  and  Lord  Salisbury,  like  Lord  Shaftesbury, 
 were  not  only  members  of  the  National  Church,  but 
 personally  religious  and  earnest  in  their  Christian 
 faith.  The  latter  may  be  said  of  Cobden  and  Bright, 
 who  were  typical  English  Liberals,  hating  slavery  and 
 absolutism,  and  believing  in  popular  government,  pop- 
 ular education,  and  free  trade. 
 
 In  literature,  the  last  fifty  years  of  the  reign  of 
 Victoria  did  not  fail  of  splendid  examples.  They  saw 
 the  culmination  of  the  renown  of  Tennyson  and 
 Browning  as  they  took  their  place  among  the  bards  of 
 all  time.  This  was  true  of  the  princes  among  Eng- 
 lish essayists,  Macaulay  and  Carlyle,  and  their  succes- 
 sors, Ruskin  and  Matthew  Arnold.  Two  clergymen 
 were  little  beneath  them  in  command  of  the  grace  and 
 beauty  of  the  mother  tongue,  John  H.  Newman  and 
 James  Martineau.  Goldwin  Smith  and  Frederick 
 Harrison  wrote  English  of  singular  purity  and  power. 
 
 It  was  the  great  age  of  the  English  novel,  and 
 Thackeray,  Dickens,  and  George  Eliot  were  its  mas- 
 ters. At  a  distance  followed  Charles  Kingsley,  Charles 
 Reade,  Anthony  Trollope,  and  Sir  Walter  Besant. 
 In  history.  Freeman,  Froude,  Green,  and  Gardiner 
 kept  up  the  goodly  succession ;  while  science  had  able 
 exponents  in  Darwin,  Huxley,  and  Tyndall.  In 
 philosophic  thought  the  men  of  distinction  were  John 
 S.  Mill,  Sir  William  Hamilton,  Thomas  H.  Green, 
 Adam  Sedgwick,  and  Edward  Caird. 
 
 In  education  this  was  England's  progressive  era. 
 
Evangelical  Church  in  Great  Britain  521 
 
 In  1850  an  Educational  Commission  was  appointed  to 
 revise  the  statutes  and  work  of  the  universities  of 
 Oxford  and  Cambridge ;  Arthur,  later  Dean, 
 
 T,  i.    J    •  English 
 
 Stanley  was  its  secretary.  It  reported  in  Education. 
 1858;  the  mediaeval  statutes  were  abol- 
 ished, the  professorships  were  increased,  the  Fellow- 
 ships were  almost  all  thrown  open  to  merit,  and  the 
 income  of  the  scholarships  was  augmented,  while  their 
 number  was  increased.  Religious  tests  were  greatly 
 lessened  and  modified,  but  were  not  abolished  until 
 1871.  In  1877  further  reforms  followed,  which 
 brought  in  better  teaching  in  natural  science,  larger 
 incomes  for  the  universities  as  distinguished  from  the 
 colleges,  and  a  more  effective  use  of  Fellowships  and 
 work  from  the  professors.  Clerical  restrictions  and 
 advantages  were  greatly  modified  where  not  utterly 
 abolished.  University  education  became  less  Churchly, 
 and  for  a  time  certainly  much  less  religious,  and 
 John  S.  Mill  and  Professor  Jowett,  whose  sobriquet 
 was  ''the  old  heathen,"  took  Newman's  place  of  in- 
 fluence at  Oxford.  At  Cambridge  ruled  a  different 
 spirit,  though  neither  Green  nor  Sedgwick  made  for 
 an  aggressive  Christianity;  that  came  with  the  visit  of 
 Moody  and  Sankey  in  1882. 
 
 Universities  were  founded  for  those  who,  on  ac- 
 count of  the  religious  tests,  and,  later,  on  account  of 
 the  expense,  could  not  avail  themselves  of  the  advan- 
 tages of  Oxford  and  Cambridge.  Such  were  London 
 University,  founded  in  1827;  Durham  University, 
 established  in  1837;  and  Victoria  University,  with  its 
 seat  at  Manchester,  dating  from  1851. 
 
 In  1870,  Foster's  Educational  Act  gave  the  chil- 
 dren of  the  English  people  a  right  to  the  rudiments 
 
522    History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 of  an  education.  In  this  they  were  much  behind 
 Scotland,  Germany,  and  the  United  States;  but  the 
 law  has  been  well  enforced,  and  the  English  lower 
 classes  now  can  read  and  write. 
 
 It  was  in  such  an  era  of  change  and  vast  progress 
 that  Evangelical  Christianity  did  its  work  in  Great 
 Britain  and  Ireland. 
 
 The  Church  of  Engi^and. 
 
 The  first  great  event  in  the  constitutional  history 
 
 of  the  Church  of  England  was  the  reassembling  of  the 
 
 Progress  of  Convocation  of  Canterbury  in  1852,  after  an 
 
 the  Oxford  intermission    since    171 7.      The    Convoca- 
 
 Movement.  ^^^^^  ^^  Canterbury  and  York  now   hold 
 
 their  regular  sessions. 
 
 In  the  first  twenty  years  of  this  period,  the  Oxford 
 Movement  kept  on  its  way  with  increasing  power. 
 After  Newman's  secession,  and  especially  after  the  re- 
 forms of  the  Universities  Commission,  it  lost  its  hold 
 at  Oxford.  But  in  the  Church  at  large,  and  especially 
 in  sending  clergymen  and  men  of  rank  to  Rome,  this 
 was  the  height  of  its  influence.  Robert  I.  Wilberforce 
 and  his  brother,  and  a  crowd  of  others,  went  over  to 
 Rome,  while  Newman  prophesied  of  the  second 
 summer  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  England. 
 Newman  wrought  for  seven  years  without  success  at 
 a  Roman  Catholic  university  in  Dublin,  and  then  again 
 at  Birmingham.  Manning's  influence  was  sufficient 
 to  prevent  his  opening  a  school  at  Oxford. 
 
 So  far  as  active  work  is  concerned,  Newman's  life, 
 after  his  adhesion  to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  was 
 a  failure.  There  are  few  more  pathetic  letters  from  a 
 great  man  conscious  of  his  powers  than  that  which  he 
 
Evangelical  Church  in  Great  Britain,  523 
 
 wrote  to  his  friend,  Father  Whitty,  of  the  Society  of 
 Jesus,  October  19,  1865.     It  is  as  follows: 
 
 **  My  Dkar  Father  Whitty, — I  thank  you  very 
 much  for  your  most  kind  letter;  and  thank  you  heartily 
 for  your  prayers,  which  I  value  very  much.  It  is  very 
 kind  in  you  to  be  anxious  about  me,  but,  thank  God, 
 you  have  no  need.  Of  course  it  is  a  constant  source 
 of  sadness  to  me  that  I  have  done  so  little  for  Him 
 during  a  long  twenty  years;  but  then  I  think,  and 
 with  comfort,  that  I  have  ever  tried  to  act  as  others 
 told  me,  and  if  I  have  not  done  more,  it  is  because  I 
 have  not  been  put  to  do  more,  or  have  been  stopped 
 when  I  attempted  to  do  more. 
 
 "The  cardinal  [Wiseman]  brought  me  from  Little- 
 more  to  Oscott;  he  sent  me  to  Rome;  he  stationed 
 and  left  me  in  Birmingham.  When  the  Holy  Father 
 wished  me  to  begin  the  Dublin  Catholic  University,  I 
 did  so  at  once.  When  the  Synod  of  Oscott  gave  me 
 to  do  the  new  translation  of  the  Scriptures,  I  began  it 
 without  a  word.  When  the  cardinal  asked  me  to 
 interfere  in  the  matter  of  the  *  Rambler,'  I  took  on 
 myself,  to  my  sore  disgust,  a  great  trouble  and  trial. 
 Lastly,  when  my  bishop,  propria  7nottc  [on  his  own 
 motion],  asked  me  to  undertake  the  mission  at  Oxford, 
 I  at  once  committed  myself  to  a  very  expensive 
 purchase  of  land,  and  began,  as  he  wished  me,  to 
 collect  money  for  a  church. 
 
 ''  In  all  these  matters,  I  think,  in  spite  of  many 
 incidental  mistakes,  I  should,  on  the  whole,  have  done 
 a  work,  had  I  been  allowed,  or  aided  to  go  on  with 
 them  ;  but  it  has  been  God's  blessed  will  that  I  should 
 have  been  stopped.     If  I  could  get  out  of  my  mind 
 
524     History  of  the  Christian  Church, 
 
 the  notion  that  I  could  do  something  and  am  not  do- 
 ing it,  nothing  could  be  happier,  more  peaceful,  or 
 more  to  my  taste,  than  the  life  I  lead. 
 
 ''Though  I  have  left  notice  of  the  catechism  to 
 the  end  of  the  letter,  be  sure  I  value  it  in  itself  and  as 
 coming  from  you.  The  pope  will  be  very  glad  to  hear 
 the  author  of  it. 
 
 **  Ever  yours,  affectionately, 
 
 "John  H.  Newman." 
 
 This  letter,  showing  the  failure  of  the  Church  of 
 Rome  to  use  or  wisely  direct  the  ablest  English  con- 
 vert she  ever  had,  or  honor  him  until  he  was  almost 
 eighty  years  old,  will  repel  thoughtful  men  from  her 
 communion  more  than  Newman's  "  Grammar  of  As- 
 sent "  will  win.  But  what  was  loss  to  Newman  and  to 
 the  Roman  Catholic  Church  was  gain  to  Christianity 
 and  to  English  Literature.  His  "Apologia  Pro  Vita 
 Sua,"  in  1864,  will  ever  be  the  lasting  memorial  of  his 
 greatness.  Its  sincerity,  its  evident  conscientiousness, 
 and  its  grace  of  style,  rank  it  with  the  great  records  of 
 noble  souls.  Some  poems  written  later  have  the  ex- 
 quisite flavor  of  his  genius.  In  1865,  at  Keble's 
 parsonage,  he  met,  for  the  last  time,  Pusey  and  the 
 author  of  the  "Christian  Year."  In  1879  the  new 
 pope  made  Newman  a  cardinal  of  the  Roman  Church ; 
 eight  years  after  his  life-long  friend,  Pusey,  he  left  the 
 ranks  of  the  Church  militant  for  that  land  "  where 
 severed  ties  are  knitted  up,"  August  11,  1890.  The 
 great  leader  of  the  Oxford  Movement  had  long  sur- 
 vived his  illusions. 
 
 A  very  different  fate  was  that  of  his  fellow-convert 
 to  Rome,  Dean  Manning,  of  Chichester.     He  was  in 
 
Evangelical  Church  in  Great  Britain.  525 
 
 school  at  Rome,  1 851-1854.  In  1857  he  became  pro- 
 vost of  the  Chapter  of  Westminster  and  Archbishop 
 of  Westminster  in  1865.  He  enjoyed  the  fullest  con- 
 fidence of  Pius  IX,  and  was  more  papal  than  the  pope. 
 With  Newman  and  his  friends  he  had  neither  sympa- 
 thy nor  patience,  as  they  were  "  minimizers  of  doc- 
 trine." 
 
 In  the  Vatican  Council  he  was  a  leading  spirit,  and 
 took  a  prominent  part  with  the  supporters  of  infalli- 
 bility. He  lived  long  enough  after  the  Vatican  Coun- 
 cil himself  very  largely  and  trenchantly  to  minimize 
 the  decree  he  had  so  ardently  sought  to  secure.  For 
 twenty-five  years  he  was  the  head  of  the  Roman 
 Catholic  Church  in  England.  Yet  he  also  survived 
 his  illusions.  With  lyco  XIII  he  had  none  of  the 
 influence  he  wielded  with  Pius  IX.  The  cares  of  his 
 ofl&ce  with  "the  Irish  occupation  of  England,"  to  use 
 his  own  phrase,  did  not  meet  the  ideals  of  his  most 
 English  soul.  In  his  later  years,  with  all  the  energy 
 of  his  nature,  he  threw  himself  into  reform  movements, 
 especially  the  temperance  reform,  to  the  great  benefit 
 of  his  people.  In  1875  he  was  made  cardinal;  but,  as 
 his  Roman  Catholic  biographer  says,  "his  heart  was 
 with  Lavington,"  the  -Lavington  of  his  pre-Roman 
 days.  In  January,  1892,  he  followed  his  more  lofty- 
 natured  and  greater  countryman.  Cardinal  Newman, 
 beyond  the  shadows  of  earth's  fleeting  day. 
 
 Dr.  Pusey  most  vigorously  nourished  his  illusions 
 in  the  first  twenty  years  of  this  period.  In  1853  he 
 preached  his  sermon  on  the  Holy  Eucharist,  taking 
 extreme  sacramental  ground.  His  persuading  young 
 girls  to  go  to  confession  against  the  wish  of  their 
 parents,  led  to  a  breach  between  him  and  his  bishop. 
 
526      History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 Samuel  Wilberforce,  of  Oxford.     His  three  labored 
 and  futile  Eirenicons  showed  the  measure  of  that  hope 
 of  corporate  reunion  with  Rome  which  was  shattered 
 by  the  Vatican  Council.      The  great  aim  of  his  life 
 was  further  off  than  ever.     No  Englishman  again  will 
 work  so  hard  to  realize  it.    Henceforth  he  devoted  his 
 energies  to  the  defense  of  all  that  he  conceived  men- 
 aced by  the  oncoming  tide  of  Liberalism,  and  to  the 
 spiritual  direction  and  advice  of  the  numerous  crowd 
 of  clergy  and  laity  who  waited  upon  him.     This  first 
 endeavor  brought  him  into  an  unseemly  opposition  to 
 the  increase  of  the  income  of  Professor  Jowett,  then 
 to  a  violent  attack  upon  the  "  Essays  and  Reviews," 
 and  a  bitter  opposition  to  the  consecration  of  Frederic 
 Temple,    afterward    Archbishop   of   Canterbury,    as 
 Bishop  of  Exeter.     For  Pusey's  character  as  a  man  of 
 holy  life,  and  with  a  sincere  desire  to  promote  holiness 
 in   others,   neither   his    narrow-mindedness    nor   his 
 astuteness  as  a  party  leader  could  prevent  the  rever- 
 ence of  men  of  all  parties.     He  died  September,  1882. 
 Their  companion  in  the  Oxford  Movement,  John 
 Keble,  died  in  1866,  and  Keble  College,  Oxford,  was 
 founded  in  his  name  in   1868,  to  be  a  nursery  and 
 school  of  the  sacramental  principles  and  traditional 
 views  of  the  Oxford  Movement. 
 
 Henry  P.  Liddon,  the  ablest  preacher  among  the 
 High  Churchmen  of  his  time,  and,  in  many  respects, 
 of  his  generation,  became  principal  in  1854,  of  Cudde- 
 son  Hall,  a  school  for  the  training  of  the  clergy, 
 under  the  care  of  the  Bishop  of  Oxford.  In  1866  he 
 delivered  the  Bampton  lyccture  on  ''The  Divinity  of 
 Christ,"  perhaps  the  ablest  apologetic  work  of  the 
 period,  one  which,  in  many  respects,  will  never  be  out 
 
Evangelical  Church  in  Great  Britain.  527 
 
 of  date.  In  1870  he  was  made  Canon  of  St.  Paul's, 
 a  position  which  his  character,  his  learning,  and  his 
 eloquence  fitted  him  to  fill  with  honor  until  his  death ; 
 for  it  he  declined  more  than  one  bishopric.  He  died 
 in  September,  1890. 
 
 Richard  W.  Church,  more  broadminded  and  versa- 
 tile than  these  men,  became  Dean  of  St.  Paul's  in 
 187 1,  succeeding  the  poet  and  scholar,  Henry  H. 
 Milman,  author  of  "  The  History  of  Latin  Christian- 
 ity." Church  did  honor  to  the  place,  and,  deeply 
 loved,  died  in  December,  1890. 
 
 The  history  of  the  Church  of  England  came  to  be 
 largely  influenced  by  its  primates  in  the  nineteenth  cen- 
 tury, from  the  election  of  Archibald  Camp- 
 bell Tait  as  Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  The  ^"'f^^'''' 
 new  Archbishop  was  a  Scotchman,  born  in 
 181 1 ;  his  mother  died  three  years  later.  He  had  his 
 preparatory  training  in  Edinburgh  Academy,  where  he 
 led  the  school.  In  1827  he  entered  Glasgow  Univer- 
 sity. It  was  here,  he  says,  that  "  Evangelical  Gospel 
 truth  first  came  home  to  me,  from  the  preaching  of 
 two  men.  Dr.  Welch  and  Mr.  George  Smith."  In 
 1829  he  won  an  exhibition  at  Balliol  College,  Oxford. 
 The  next  year  he  went  to  Oxford,  and  was  confirmed 
 in  the  Church  of  England,  and  won  a  scholarship. 
 In  1833  he  graduated  first  class,  and,  after  a  trip  on 
 the  Continent,  won  a  Fellowship  in  Balliol,  in  1834. 
 The  next  year  he  became  tutor  in  the  same  college. 
 The  year  following  he  was  ordained.  In  1839  he  was 
 a  student  at  Bonn.  In  1842  he  became  head  master 
 at  Rugby,  succeeding  Dr.  Arnold.  Here  he  made  his 
 reputation.  The  next  year  he  married,  and  two  years 
 later  visited  Italy.     In  1849  he  became  Dean  of  Car- 
 
528      History  of  the  Christian  Church, 
 
 lisle.  In  the  succeeding  six  j^ears  he  showed  his  ad- 
 ministrative ablities  in  the  restoration  of  the  Cathe- 
 dral; and  here  he  suffered  the  severest  blow  of  his 
 life  in  the  loss  of  five  young  daughters,  through 
 scarlet  fever,  in  March  and  April,  1856.  None  who 
 have  read  the  profoundly  touching  account  of  their 
 illness  and  death  in  the  "  I^ife  "  of  their  mother  will 
 ever  forget  it.  In  1856,  Dr.  Tait  was  consecrated 
 Bishop  of  London,  and  in  1868  he  succeeded  to  the 
 See  of  Canterbury,  dying  in   1882. 
 
 As  Bishop  of  London,  Dr.  Tait  gave  his  attention 
 to  evangelistic  work  and  to  diocesan  missions.  In  the 
 "  Essays  and  Reviews  "  controversy,  he  sided  with  his 
 friend,  Arthur  Stanley,  against  the  prosecution.  In 
 1863,  Stanley  was  made  Dean  of  Westminster,  which 
 position  he  held  until  his  death  in  1881.  He  became 
 the  great  dean,  and  of  the  Cathedral,  in  those  years, 
 he  was  "  the  charm,  the  glory,  and  the  soul."  In 
 1867,  there  met  the  first  Lambeth,  or  Pan-Anglican, 
 Council.  Seventy-six  bishops  were  present.  In  1869 
 came  the  election  of  Dr.  Temple  as  Bishop  of  Exeter. 
 The  violence  of  his  opponents,  on  account  of  his  con- 
 nection with  the  *'  Essays  and  Reviews,"  can  be 
 gauged  from  Dr.  Pusey's  charging  him  with  having 
 "participated  in  the  ruin  of  countless  souls."  A 
 clergyman  described  Dr.  Temple's  consecration  "as, 
 perhaps,  the  greatest  sin,  with  respect  to  fidelity  to 
 revealed  truth,  in  which  the  Church  of  England  has 
 been  involved  since  the  Reformation."  In  1870  the 
 Bishopric  of  Dover  was  constituted  as  a  suffragan  to 
 the  See  of  Canterbury,  to  care  for  the  peculiarly 
 diocesan  business  and  duties  of  the  Archiepiscopal 
 See.      In  1870  the  Canterbury  revision  of  the  King 
 
Evangelical  Church  in  Great  Britain.  529 
 
 James  Version  of  the  English  Bible  was  begun.  The 
 New  Testament  was  finished  and  published  in  1881  ; 
 the  Old  Testament  in  1885. 
 
 In  1 87 1  the  Purchas  judgment  condemned  the 
 vestments,  the  eastward  position  of  the  celebrant,  the 
 wafer-bread,  and  the  mixed  chalice  in  the  administra- 
 tion of  the  holy  communion,  as  illegal.  This  was 
 modified  by  the  Risdall  judgment,  1877,  which  de- 
 clared the  vestments  and  wafer-bread  illegal,  but  au- 
 thorized the  eastward  position,  provided  the  manual 
 acts  were  not  concealed  from  the  congregation. 
 
 In  1 87 1  there  arose  a  great   agitation  concerning 
 the  compulsory  use  of  the  so-called  Athanasian  Creed 
 in  divine  service.    Lord  Shaftesbury's  name       ^^^^ 
 led  those  of  seven  thousand  laymen  pro-   Athanasian 
 testing  against  such  use.     Dr.   Pusey  op- 
 posed   any  change   as   a   betrayal   of  the   faith.      A 
 clergyman  wrote  the  archbishop,  asking  him  how,  in 
 his  dying  hour,  he  could  have  any  hope  of  mercy  for 
 this  attempt  to  "  depreciate,  or  set  aside,  one  great 
 portion  of  the  Catholic  faith."     On  the  advocacy  of 
 the  archbishop,  in  1873,  the  following  rubric  on  that 
 Creed  was  adopted: 
 
 "  For  the  removal  of '  doubts,  and  to  prevent  dis- 
 quieting in  the  use  of  the  Creed  commonly  called  the 
 Creed  of  St.  Athanasius,  this  Synod  [the  convocation 
 of  Canterbury]  doth  solemnly  declare : 
 
 "i.  That  the  Confession  of  our  Christian  Faith, 
 commonly  called  the  Creed  of  St.  Athanasius,  doth  not 
 make  any  addition  to  the  faith  as  contained  in  the 
 Holy  Scripture,  but  warneth  against  errors  which, 
 from  time  to  time,  have  arisen  in  the  Church  of  Christ. 
 
 "  2.  That,  as  Holy  Scripture  in  divers  places  doth 
 34 
 
530    History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 promise  life  to  them  that  beheve  and  declare  the  con- 
 demnation of  them  that  believe  not,  so  doth  the 
 Church  in  this  Confession  declare  the  necessity,  for  all 
 who  would  be  in  a  state  of  salvation,  of  holding  fast 
 the  Catholic  faith,  and  the  great  peril  of  rejecting  the 
 same.  Wherefore  the  warnings  in  the  Confession  of 
 Faith  are  to  be  understood  no  otherwise  than  the 
 like  warnings  in  Holy  Scripture ;  for  we  must  receive 
 God's  threatenings,  even  as  his  promises,  in  such  wise 
 as  they  are  generally  set  forth  in  Holy  Writ.  More- 
 over, the  Church  doth  not  herein  pronounce  judgment 
 on  any  particular  person,  or  persons,  God  alone  being 
 judge  of  all." 
 
 In  1874  a  Public  Worship  Regulation  Act  was 
 adopted,  which  was  a  rock  of  offense  to  the  ritualist 
 party.  Some  of  their  members,  as  Messrs.  Tooth  and 
 Green,  lay  a  long  time  in  prison  on  account  of  infrac- 
 tions of  this  law,  and  would  not  accept  pardon.  The 
 lyincoln  judgment  rendered  it  largely  nugatory.  In 
 1875  and  1882,  Mr.  Moody  and  Mr.  Sankey  visited 
 England,  and  accomplished  great  good  at  Oxford, 
 Cambridge,  and  I^ondon.  lyord  Shaftesbury  said  that 
 **  Moody  would  do  more  in  an  hour  than  Canon 
 lyiddon  in  a  century."  Nevertheless,  the  archbishop 
 would  not  give  his  aid  or  countenance  to  the  move- 
 ment. But  in  1876  he  held  a  conference  at  Lambeth; 
 six  English  bishops  meeting  twenty-two  Nonconform- 
 ist ministers  and  two  clergymen  of  the  Church  of 
 Scotland. 
 
 In  1877  ^^  immense  excitement  was  produced  by 
 the  publication  of  ''The  Priest  in  Absolution,"  a 
 translation  of  Gaume's  "  Manual  for  the  Use  of  Ro- 
 man CathoHc  Priests  in  the  Confessional."    The  book 
 
Evangelical  Church  in  Great  Britain.  531 
 
 was  bitterly  denounced  in  the  House  of  Lords,  and 
 was  withdrawn  from  sale.  The  Second  Lambeth  Con- 
 ference was  held  in  1878,  one  hundred  bishops  being 
 present.  They  adopted  a  Declaration  on  Confession, 
 which  affirmed:  "This  special  provision  [tor  occa- 
 sional confession  of  those  in  trouble  or  sick],  how- 
 ever, does  not  authorize  the  ministers  of  the  Church 
 to  require,  from  any  who  may  resort  to  them  to  open 
 their  grief,  a  particular  or  detailed  enumeration  of  all 
 their  sins,  or  to  require  private  confession  previous  to 
 receiving  'Holy  Communion,'  or  to  enjoin  or  even 
 encourage  any  practice  of  habitual  confession  to  a 
 priest,  or  to  teach  that  such  practice  of  habitual  con- 
 fession, or  the  being  subject  to  what  has  been  termed 
 the  direction  of  a  priest,  is  a  condition  of  attaining  to 
 the  highest  spiritual  life."  The  archbishop  wrote  his 
 own  view  in  answer  to  an  inquiry:  "You  ask  if  it  is 
 necessary  to  go  to  confession  before  receiving  Holy 
 Communion?  To  this  I  answer.  Certainly  not.  The 
 Church  of  England  does  not  recognize  what  is  com- 
 monly called  sacramental  confession,  still  less  is  such 
 confession  inculcated  by  our  Church  as  necessary." 
 
 In  1880,  sixteen  thousand  clergymen,  led  by 
 Wordsworth,  Bishop  of  Lincoln,  protested  against 
 the  Burials  Act  allowing  Nonconformists  to  bury  in 
 English  churchyards  with  their  own  burial  service. 
 The  bill,  nevertheless,  passed  in  September;  but  only 
 at  rare  intervals  have  any  cared  to  avail  themselves 
 of  its  provisions. 
 
 The  year  1878  was  an  eventful  one  for  Archbishop 
 Tait.  His  daughter  Edith  married  his  secretary  and 
 chaplain,  the  present  Primate  of  England;  his  son, 
 recently  ordained  and  just  returned  from  America, 
 
532     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 died;  and  in  December  the  devoted  wife  and  mother 
 followed  him.  Archbishop  Tait  was  interested  in  the 
 centennial  of  the  Sunday-school  movement  in  1880, 
 and  in  the  appearance  of  the  Revised  Version  of  the 
 English  Bible.  The  death  of  Dean  Stanley  and  Pres- 
 ident Garfield  deeply  touched  him.  On  Advent  Sun- 
 day, 1882,  he  ceased  from  earthly  toil,  and  entered 
 into  rest. 
 
 Archbishop  Tait  was  more  of  a  statesman  than  a 
 Churchman.  The  foreign  news  was  always  read  to 
 him  first,  and  he  cared  comparatively  little  for  Church 
 periodicals  and  news;  these  came  last.  He  was  a 
 Broad  Churchman,  and  had  no  sympathy  with  ritual- 
 ism or  auricular  confession.  Though  the  Bennett 
 judgment  in  1872  decided  that  "the  objective,  real, 
 actual,  and  spiritual  presence  "  could  be  legally  taught 
 in  the  Church  of  England,  Dr.  Tait  would  not  have 
 cared  to  teach  it.  He  was  a  man  with  many-sided  in- 
 tellectual tastes,  and  read  largely  in  secular  literature 
 until  his  death. 
 
 He  had  admirable  qualities  for  his  great  position. 
 While  of  sound  scholarship,  he  was  not  an  eloquent 
 preacher,  but  was  the  most  persuasive  orator  in  the 
 House  of  Eords  that  has  occupied  the  See  of  Canter- 
 bury in  more  than  a  hundred  years.  Eord  Granville 
 said:  "Of  all  our  great  speakers,  none  had  more  the 
 gift  of  persuasiveness.  This  arose  from  a  sense  of 
 his  strength,  earnestness,  gentleness,  and  charity.  He 
 united,  to  a  remarkable  degree,  dignity  and  sim- 
 plicity." In  his  letters,  "he  said  exactly  what  he 
 meant,  but  he  said  it  with  a  courtesy  which  does  not 
 always  accompany  straightforwardness  and  simplicity 
 of  style." 
 
Evangelical  Church  in  Great  Britain.  533 
 
 His  manner  of  doing  business  reveals  a  first-class 
 administrator,  with  the  instincts  of  a  gentleman  and 
 a  Christian.  "First,"  says  his  secretary  and  son-in- 
 law,  now  Archbishop  Davidson,  "his  invariable  anx- 
 iety was  to  regard  the  matter  rather  than  the  manner 
 of  every  letter  he  received.  'Angry?  Of  course  he 
 is.  Never  mind  that;  what  is  it  he  asks  me  to  do?' 
 The  letter  might  be  prosy  or  longwinded,  or  curt 
 even  to  rudeness.  It  might  be  overflowing  with  per- 
 sonal grievances,  or  sternly  reticent  or  reserved.  It 
 was  all  the  same.  '  What  is  his  point  ?  What  do  you 
 gather  are  the  facts  ?'  If  the  story  was  a  long  one, 
 especially  in  colonial  matters,  where  our  geography 
 or  history  was  at  fault,  he  would  have  written  out  for 
 us  in  black  and  white  a  brief,  cold  statement  of  the 
 unvarnished  facts,  and  then,  if  necessary,  he  would  go 
 into  the  whole  matter  with  that  strange  penetration 
 which  seemed  to  carry  him  straight  to  the  point  of  a 
 controversy,  whether  in  great  things  or  small.  I  have 
 never  known  any  one  else  who  could,  with  the  same 
 quick  clearness,  disentangle  the  threads  of  an  intricate 
 correspondence  on  some  entirely  novel  subject.  He 
 would  always  dictate  an  answer  or  decision  the  mo- 
 ment he  had  listened  ta  the  letter,  and  would  then 
 leave  it,  if  necessary,  to  *  simmer '  for  a  day,  and  to  be 
 criticised  from  end  to  end  before  it  was  sent  off.  And, 
 generally,  if  the  matter  was  a  complicated  one,  he 
 would  at  the  last  moment,  before  signing  the  letter, 
 restate  the  case  aloud  in  a  few  clear  sentences,  as  he 
 walked  about  the  room.  '  The  man  asks  me  to  do  so 
 and  so.  I  have  answered  that  I  won't,  and  for  two 
 reasons:  first,  that  it  isn't  my  business;  and  secondly, 
 that  I  think  he  is  in  the  wrong.     Will  that  do?'  " 
 
534      History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 Archbishop  Tait  was  a  man  of  sincere  piety.  In 
 1864,  Bishop  Whipple  asked  him,  "Why  do  you  per- 
 mit the  ritualism  of  those  clergy  in  East  London?" 
 With  deep  feeling  and  with  tears  in  his  eyes  he  an- 
 swered: "Bishop,  these  men  realize  that  those  poor 
 lost  souls  can  be  saved,  and  that  our  blessed  Lord 
 is  their  Savior  as  he  is  ours.  Who  am  I,  to  meddle 
 with  such  work  as  they  are  doing,  in  the  way  they 
 think  best,  for  those  who  are  going  down  to  death?" 
 
 Few  words  of  greater  practical  wisdom  for  men 
 liable  to  worry  or  overstrain,  or  to  spiritual  forgetful- 
 ness  under  the  pressure  of  administrative  detail,  have 
 been  spoken  than  these  of  Archbishop  Tait:  "Two 
 things  are  essential  to  a  man's  due  discharge  of  each 
 day's  round  of  monotonous  and  often  tiresome  duties. 
 The  first,  to  keep  the  spirit  fresh  by  constant  prayer; 
 the  second,  to  quicken  and  enlarge  the  intelligence  by 
 the  constant  reading,  under  whatever  difl&culties  or 
 drawbacks,  of  books  upon  other  subjects  than  those 
 belonging  to  working  hours." 
 
 The  successor  of  Dr.  Tait  in  the  See  of  Canter- 
 bury was  Edward  White  Benson  (1829-1896).  Dr. 
 Benson  was  educated  with  Bishops  Light- 
 ^Benion!"  ^^^t  and  Wcstcott  at  King  Edward's  School, 
 Birmingham,  and  the  three  were  at  Trinity 
 College,  Cambridge,  and  until  their  deaths  the  most 
 devoted  friends.  This  friendship  had  important  effects 
 upon  the  after  career  of  each  of  them,  and  especially 
 upon  that  of  Benson,  the  youngest  of  them.  Benson's 
 father,  a  chemist  and  manufacturer,  died  while  his  son 
 was  young.  In  1848  he  entered  Cambridge.  Two 
 years  later  his  sister  was  ill  with  typhoid  fever.  He 
 sat   in   his   room   at   college  writing  a  letter   to  his 
 
Evangelical  Church  in  Great  Britain.  535 
 
 mother,  expressing  his  sympathy  and  anxiety,  and 
 hoping  she  was  better,  when  the  message  came  that 
 she  was  dead.  He  took  the  train  for  home,  and 
 arrived  only  to  learn  that  his  mother,  overwearied 
 with  the  care  of  her  daughter,  had  died  the  night 
 after  his  sister's  decease.  He  found  also  that  she  had 
 so  invested  her  property  in  an  annuity  upon  her  own 
 life  that  there  was  but  $500  left  for  the  whole  family. 
 For  young  Benson  there  seemed  as  the  sole  duty  and 
 prospect  to  leave  the  university  and  seek  to  support 
 those  depending  upon  him.  He  went  back  to  Cam- 
 bridge to  prepare  for  this  future.  As  he  entered  the 
 quadrangle,  Mr.  Martin,  the  treasurer  of  the  college, 
 met  him;  he  was  well-to-do  and  unmarried.  That 
 night  he  called  upon  Benson  in  his  room,  and 
 arranged  that  he  should  go  on  unhindered  in  his 
 college  course.  This  unlooked-for  and  providential 
 kindness  was  the  turning-point  in  the  career  of  the 
 future  Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  Well  did  the 
 young  student  justify  the  confidence  placed  in  him. 
 In  1852  he  graduated  and  took  the  highest  honor,  the 
 chancellor's  medal.  No  other  triumph  of  his  life 
 gave  him  greater  joy.  His  eldest  son  bore  his  bene- 
 factor's name. 
 
 The  same  year  he  went  to  Rugby  as  one  of  the 
 masters  of  the  school.  Two  years  later  he  traveled 
 on  the  Continent,  visiting  Rome,  and  was  ordained 
 deacon.  After  seven  years  at  Rugby  he  was  chosen 
 headmaster  at  WeUington  College,  a  new  institution 
 founded  for  the  training  of  the  sons  of  ofiicers  of  the 
 British  army.  There  he  remained,  and  made  a  fine 
 record  as  a  schoolmaster,  until  1873.  In  these  four- 
 teen years  the  man  was  formed.     His  intellectual  de- 
 
536      History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 velopment  was  most  influenced  by  Dr.  Arnold,  the 
 famous  master  of  Rugby.  In  religion  he  was  earnest 
 and  devout.  In  ecclesiastical  relations  he  was  a  High 
 Churchman.  He  loved  pomp  and  ceremony  and 
 ritual.  As  his  son  says,  *'  He  had  a  liturgical  mind." 
 Without  largeness  of  view  or  profundity  of  thought, 
 he  had  a  firm  and  comprehensive  grasp  of  detail. 
 Without  the  precision  of  a  statesman  so  as  to  forecast 
 the  ultimate  issues  of  a  policy,  he  had  that  command 
 of  the  details  of  a  situation  which  mark  a  man  of 
 business  and  of  administrative  capacity.  He  was 
 without  special  powers  of  persuasion,  and  was  subject 
 to  attacks  of  profound  depression  to  the  end  of  his 
 life.  More  than  preacher  or  great  prelate,  his  were 
 the  qualities  of  a  great  master  of  a  school ;  for  one 
 can  not  but  think  that  the  service  he  most  enjoyed 
 was  his  weekly  exposition  of  the  Greek  New  Testa- 
 ment to  a  large  class  of  ladies  of  culture  and  rank, 
 quite  in  the  Rugby  and  Wellington  manner. 
 
 But  Edward  White  Benson  was  a  man  of  character, 
 and  his  scholarship,  if  not  so  profound  or  accurate  as 
 that  of  some  others,  was  both  vivid  and  vital,  qualities 
 by  no  means  to  be  despised.  He  longed  for  more  di- 
 rect service  in  the  Church.  In  1869  he  had  been 
 made  chaplain  to  Bishop  Wordsworth,  of  Lincoln,  by 
 whom  he  was  greatly  attracted,  and  to  whom  and  his 
 family  he  was  tenderly  attached.  At  Wellington  his 
 salary  was  ten  thousand  dollars  per  year,  and  he  was 
 married  the  year  his  work  began  there.  Financial 
 independence  to  a  man  tried  as  Benson  had  been  was 
 not  a  thing  to  be  despised  by  the  head  of  a  growing 
 family;  yet  in  December,  1872,  he  made  the  decision 
 
Evangelical  Church  in  Great  Britain.  537 
 
 and  left  Wellington  to  become  chancellor  of  the  Bishop 
 of  Lincoln,  at  an  income  just  one-half  of  what  he  had 
 before  received.  Three  years  later  he  was  called  as 
 the  first  bishop  to  the  newly-created  See  of  Truro,  for 
 Cornwall.  Here,  in  six  years,  he  achieved  a  great 
 success  in  establishing  the  Church  of  England  in 
 Cornwall,  the  most  Methodist  county  in  England,  and 
 in  founding  Truro  Cathedral,  the  corner-stone  of  which 
 was  laid  in  1880.  The  building  is  to  cost  some  $600,- 
 000  to  complete,  and  a  quarter  of  that  sum  was  raised 
 during  Dr.  Benson's  occupancy  of  the  See.  His  skill 
 and  success,  and  his  S3^mpathies  as  a  High  Churchman 
 made  him  the  successor  of  Archbishop  Tait,  and  he 
 was  consecrated  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  March, 
 1883. 
 
 The  chief  events  of  his  fourteen  years'  adminis- 
 tration of  the  Primacy  of  the  English  Church  were 
 the  addition  of  a  House  of  Laymen,  1886,     jhe  Third 
 to  the  sessions  of  Convocation,  the  Third  Lambeth  con- 
 Lambeth  Conference,   the  Lincoln  judg-      Lambeth 
 ment,  the  Clergy  Discipline  Bill,  the  Pat-    Declaration. 
 ronage  Bill,  and  the  effort  to  secure  the  papal  appro- 
 bation for  the  orders  of  the  Church  of  England.     The 
 Third  Lambeth   Conference  found  one  hundred  and 
 forty-five  bishops  present ;  two  hundred  and  nine  had 
 been  invited.     Its  most  noteworthy  action  was  the  for- 
 mulation of  the  essentials  of  communion  with  other 
 branches  of  the  Christian  Church.     These,  known  as 
 the  Lambeth  Declaration,  are  as  follows : 
 
 A.  The  Holy  Scriptures  of  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
 ments, as  containing  all  things  necessary  to  salvation  ; 
 and  as  being  the  rule  and  ultimate  standard  of  faith. 
 
538      History  of  the  Christian  Church, 
 
 B.  The  Apostle's  Creed  as  the  baptismal  symbol; 
 and  the  Nicene  Creed  as  the  sufficient  statement  of  the 
 Christian  faith. 
 
 C.  The  two  sacraments  ordained  by  Christ  him- 
 self—Baptism and  the  Supper  of  the  Lord — ministered 
 with  unfailing  use  of  Christ's  words  of  Institution  and 
 of  the  elements  ordained  by  him. 
 
 D.  The  Historic  Episcopate,  "  locally  adapted  in 
 the  methods  of  its  administration  to  the  varying  needs 
 of  the  nations  and  peoples  called  of  God  into  the  unity 
 of  his  Church."  They  also  "gladly  and  thankfully 
 recognize  the  real  religious  work  which  is  carried  on 
 by  Christian  bodies  not  of  our  communion."  This 
 declaration  has  not  drawn  a  single  organized  body  of 
 Christians  into  communion  with  the  Church  of  Eng- 
 land, but  it  has  had  great  influence  in  realizing  a 
 much  larger  and  stronger  bond  of  Christian  frater- 
 nity, and  more  in  the  Church  of  England  than  out- 
 side of  it. 
 
 The  Lincoln  judgment  was  pending  for  two  years, 
 1888 — November  21,    1890.     It  was  occasioned  by  a 
 
 ^j^g  suit  brought  against  Dr.  King,  Bishop  of 
 Lincoln  Lincoln,  for  illegal  acts  performed  during 
 Judgment.  ^y^\^^  service.  In  the  case,  Archbishop 
 Benson  showed  a  thorough  mastery  of  all  the  details 
 connected  with  it,  and  the  judgment  he  rendered  has 
 been  generally  admired  for  its  learning,  its  reasoning, 
 and  its  impartiality,  though  the  effect  was  greatly  to 
 strengthen  the  hands  of  the  High  Church  party.  Its 
 restrictions  on  extravagant  ritual  w^ere  little  heeded, 
 and  this  has  made  necessary  further  legislation.  The 
 conclusions  of  this  judgment  are  as  follows : 
 
 I.  The  Mixed  Chalice  (water  with  the  wine).    The 
 
Evangelical  Church  in  Great  Britain.  539 
 
 mixed  chalice  is  not  condemned,  but  the  action  must 
 not  be  performed  during  the  service. 
 
 2.  The  Eastward  Position.  The  eastward  position 
 is  allowed,  but  "  any  special  significance  which  at  once 
 makes  the  position  itself  important  and  condemns  it" 
 was  entirely  and  strongly  set  aside.  The  position 
 was  not  essential.  "  The  imputed  sacrificial  aspect  of 
 the  eastward  position  is  new  and  forced."  Hence  lib- 
 erty is  granted. 
 
 3.  Manual  acts  must  be  in  sight  of  the  congrega- 
 tion. This  is  contrary  to  the  practice  of  the  Church 
 of  Rome. 
 
 4.  Singing  of  the  "Agnus  Dei  "  after  the  prayer  of 
 consecration  is  allowed. 
 
 5.  The  ceremony  of  ablution  after  the  dismission 
 of  the  service  is  allowed. 
 
 6.  lyights  are  allowed,  but  must  not  be  lighted  dur- 
 ing service. 
 
 7.  Signing  the  cross  in  absolution  and  benediction 
 is  forbidden. 
 
 The  Clergy  Discipline  Bill,  which,  after  strenuous 
 effort,  the  archbishop  succeeded  in  getting  enacted  in 
 1892,  simplified  the  procedure  so  that  it 
 became  possible  to  remove  clergymen  from  Discipline  and 
 their  livings  who  were  of  notoriously  evil     Patronage 
 or  of  scandalous  lives.     That  this  was  not 
 done  in  Wesley's  time  shows  the  tremendous  inertia 
 of  the  English  Parliament   in   dealing   with   Church 
 matters. 
 
 An  even  more  difficult  subject  engaged  the  efforts 
 of  the  archbishop  in  1886,  1887,  and  1893, — that  of 
 Church  patronage.  The  provisions  of  the  bills  he 
 favored,   only   became   law  in   1898.     To  Americans 
 
540      History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 they  seemed  like  very  slight  modifications  of  abuses 
 whose  reform  can  not  be  long  delayed.  These  modi- 
 fications required  the  sales  of  advowson,  or  right  of 
 patronage,  to  be  registered,  forbade  the  sale  of  next 
 presentation  or  sale  by  auction  of  any  right  of  patron- 
 age (except  as  part  of  an  estate),  and  invalidated 
 agreement  to  exercise  the  right  of  patronage  in  favor 
 of  a  particular  person.  A  stringent  declaration  was 
 required  of  the  candidate  against  simony. 
 
 A  bishop  also  may  refuse  to  institute  the  candidate 
 because  three  years  have  not  elapsed  since  he  was 
 ordained  deacon,  on  account  of  physical  or  mental  in- 
 firmity, evil  life,  grave  pecuniary  embarrassments, 
 misconduct,  or  neglect  of  duty  in  ecclesiastical  ofl&ce. 
 
 A  bishop  also  can  not  admit  to  a  benefice  until  one 
 month  after  intention  to  do  so  has  been  notified  to  the 
 Church  wardens.  Benefices  formerly  donative  (that 
 is,  given  without  regard  to  the  bishop)  after  1898  be- 
 came presentative ;  that  is,  required  the  bishop's  in- 
 stitution. It  is  sad  to  think  that,  one  thousand  nine 
 hundred  years  after  Christ,  the  right  to  appoint  a 
 pastor  of  Christ's  flock  is  still  in  Evangelical  England 
 a  property  right,  and  is  bought  and  sold  in  most  of  the 
 parishes  of  the  Church  of  England. 
 
 In  1894,  through  the  eager  efforts  of  Lord  Halifax, 
 
 began  the  second  movement  after  the  failure  of  Dr. 
 
 Leo  xiii's     Pusey's  *'  Eirenicons,"  to  reach  some  nearer 
 
 Denial  of  the  approximation   to   a   recognition   by    the 
 
 OMe'r?oftie^  Romau  Catholic  Church  of  the  Church  of 
 
 Church  of     England  as  preparatory  to  an  ecclesiastical 
 
 ng  an  .  intercourse  and  communion  between  them. 
 As  in  the  case  of  Dr.  Pusey  before  the  Vatican  Coun- 
 cil, some  French  ecclesiastics  were  interested  in  the 
 
Evangelical  Church  in  Great  Britalx.  541 
 
 affair  and  a  "Revue  Anglo-Romaine  "  was  started. 
 By  a  zealous  propaganda,  Mr.  Gladstone's  support  for 
 the  movement  was  secured.  Then  the  archbishop  was 
 besieged.  How  far  he  yielded  is  not  quite  clear ;  but  at 
 least  the  appearance  was  gained  that  he  sanctioned  a 
 movement  which  he  owed  to  his  office  most  vigorously 
 to  repel.  Thus,  with  his  implied  sanction,  the  orders, 
 and  hence  ordinations,  of  the  English  Church,  his 
 fellow-prelates  and  his  own  included,  were  submitted 
 to  the  scrutiny  of  a  papal  congregation.  In  Septem- 
 ber, 1896,  appeared  the  Papal  Bull  "Apostolicae 
 Curse,"  in  which  the  archbishop  and  the  High  Church 
 party  found  that  Leo  XIII,  to  their  intense  chagrin, 
 pronounced  the  orders  of  the  Church  of  England  null 
 and  void.  They  were  so  pronounced  on  account  of 
 defects  in  form  up  to  1662,  and  from  that  year  defect- 
 ive in  intention  on  the  part  of  the  framers  of  the 
 Prayer  Book  of  that  date. 
 
 This  is  altogether  the  severest  blow  that  the  Oxford 
 Movement  as  originally  designed,  and  the  ritualistic 
 party  of  the  English  Church,  had  sustained  since  the 
 Vatican  Council.  It  ends  all  hope  of  corporate  reunion 
 except  on  the  basis  of  complete  surrender ;  as  Arch- 
 bishop Benson  wrote  to  Lord  Halifax,  "  It  is  impos- 
 sible that  any  step  could  be  taken  [toward  a  com- 
 munion with  Rome]  whilst  the  validity  of  our  English 
 orders  remained  unacknowledged."  It  ought  to  be 
 said,  also,  that  the  course  of  Leo  XIII  was  the  only 
 one  consistent  with  truth  and  honesty.  The  ritual- 
 istic fatuity  in  regard  to  historic  facts  never  received 
 clearer  illustration  or  brought  greater  humiliation 
 upon  themselves  or  the  Church  to  which  they  be- 
 longed. 
 
542     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 The  High  Church  party  has  the  supremacy  in  the 
 Church  of  England ;  but  the  power  and  influence  of 
 the  ritualistic  movement  has  passed  its  zenith.  In 
 1889,  Archbishop  Benson  visited  Oxford,  and  he  wrote : 
 "  But  in  spite  of  all  [Paget,  Gore,  etc.],  a  gradual  alien- 
 ation of  intellect  is  in  progress  from  the  ritualistic 
 school.  I  see  in  this  school  what  Newman  speaks  of 
 as  '  higher  tints  of  summer  past,'  a  grand  autumnal 
 coloring,  which  has  nothing  but  winter  to  follow  it. 
 It  will  not  leave  such  laymen  as  both  Arnold  and 
 Newman  left  behind  them,  who  have  no  successor. 
 I  believe  the  hard  work  of  the  ritualists  to  be  such 
 as  is  brought  out  by  any  and  every  party  enthusiasm 
 for  a  time,  and  do  not  believe  that  the  Churches  are 
 filled  by  their  ritual,  but  only  as  a  consequence  of 
 that  very  good  work."  Of  another  and  evil  side  a 
 year  later,  while  dwelling  upon  the  lack  of  doctrinal 
 knowledge  and  the  skepticisms  in  high  circles  in 
 Church  and  society,  he  writes,  ''  And  all  of  our  time 
 and  most  of  our  thoughts  are  taken  up  with  those 
 dreadful  lights  and  ablutions." 
 
 His  perception  of  the  harm  and  self-will  of  the 
 extreme  ritualists  deepened  with  his  increased  experi- 
 ence of  the  duties  of  his  office.  In  1893  he  speaks  of 
 a  conversation  with  the  Bishop  of  Rochester,  in  which 
 they  discussed  "the  absolute  necessity  of  dropping 
 Goulden's  College  from  the  list  of  Theological  Colleges; 
 no  reality  in  it;  the  men  obliged  to  teach  in  the 
 Sunday-school  '  The  Mass '  and  the  presence  of  flesh, 
 blood,  soul,  Divinity,  upon  the  altar,  and  other  equally 
 un-Anglican  tenets.  It  is  monstrous,  and  we  can  not 
 be  accomplices  in  it  by  silence."  In  the  same  year 
 he  wrote  of  the  chapel  of  All  Saints  Sisterhood:  "  It 
 
Evangelical  Church  in  Great  Britain.  543 
 
 is  a  noble  place  ;  but  I  am  not  sure  but  the  spirit  of 
 faction  is  as  strong  there  as  in  the  world."  Two  years 
 later  of  another  Sisterhood  he  wrote  :  "  The  fact  is, 
 the  Kilburn  Sisterhood  is  a  dissenting  community, 
 owning  no  bishop  or  authority  of  any  kind.  And 
 there  are  no  worse  mines  under  the  Church  than  such 
 bodies." 
 
 In  respect  to  fasting  communion,  to  the  Reforma- 
 tion, and  to  Church  Union,  Archbishop  Benson  had  no 
 fellowship  with  the  extreme  High  Church  party, 
 whether  of  1842  or  since.  He  says,  quoting  King 
 Bishop  of  Lincoln,  "  Fasting  communion  is  good  for 
 those  for  whom  it  is  good,  and  to  be  recommended  if 
 people  can  bear  it."  But  he  greatly  deprecates  the 
 language  and  practice  used  and  enforced  about  it  by  a 
 certain  party.  He  says  that  Canon  Carter,  Liddon, 
 Bishop  Webb  most  strongly,  and  others  on  that  side, 
 have  all  held  the  same.  There  is  nothing  "  deadly  " 
 in  taking  food  before  it.  **  At  ordinations  he  himself 
 always  beforehand  takes  tea  and  dry  toast."  Of  the 
 Reformation  he  said,  in  strange  contrast  with  the 
 leaders  of  the  Oxford  School :  "  To  my  mind  the  Eng- 
 lish Reformation— and  I  am  as  certain  of  the  fact  as  I 
 can  be  of  anything — is'  the  greatest  event  in  Church 
 history  since  the  days  of  the  apostles.  It  does  bring 
 back  the  Church  of  God  to  the  primitive  model."  On 
 Church  union  he  said,  the  year  before  his  death,  what 
 all  friends  of  Christian  union  would  do  well  to  lay  to 
 heart:  "How  narrow  the  purview  of  reunion  with 
 Rome  is,  especially  when  one  realizes  that  it  means 
 excluding  the  chief  part  of  Christendom." 
 
 Two  or  three  brief  extracts  will  even  more  bring 
 the  man  before  us.     In  his  sermon  before  the  Lambeth 
 
544     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 Conference  in  1888  he  said:  "  Unworldliness  is  not 
 emptiness  of  garners,  but  the  right  and  noble  use  of 
 garners  filled  by  God.  An  unworldly  clergy  is  not  a 
 clergy  without  a  world,  but  one  which  knows  the 
 world,  uses  and  teaches  man  how  to  use  the  world  for 
 God,  until  at  last  it  brings  the  whole  world  home  to 
 God."  A  year  later  he  writes :  "  What  a  strange,  short 
 thing  this  life  of  ours  is — strange  that  so  much  should 
 tumble  into  it !  The  Incarnation  is  the  only  thing 
 which  seems  to  draw  music  out  of  its  fretting  wires." 
 Years  before  he  wrote  what  so  often  strikes  disso- 
 nantly  upon  us  all,  "  Why  do  great  good  men  so  ut- 
 terly mistake  and  ignore  each  other,  when  we  know 
 that  they  will  walk  with  clasped  hands  in  Paradise." 
 
 In  October,  1896,  Archbishop  Benson  and  wife 
 were  on  a  visit  to  Mr.  Gladstone.  October  i  ith,  in 
 Hawarden  Church,  during  the  service  he  sank  in  his 
 seat  and  was  not,  for  toil  had  ceased  and  reward  begun. 
 
 The  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  with  the  strongest 
 intellect  of  any  occupant  of  that  See  in  the  nineteenth 
 century  was  Frederick  Temple  (1821-1902). 
 "^Temple!"  ^^^  father  was  an  officer  of  the  British 
 army,  and  he  was  born  at  Santa  Maura,  in 
 the  Ionian  Islands.  His  father  died  when  he  was 
 quite  young,  and  he  was  left  to  the  care  of  a  widowed 
 mother  and,  as  he  gratefully  records,  of  a  Methodist 
 aunt.  In  those  days  of  poverty  he  could  not  prepare 
 for  the  university  in  any  of  England's  great  public 
 schools  like  Rugby  and  Harrow,  but  at  a  private 
 school,  an  excellent  one  though,  at  Tiverton.  He 
 graduated  double  first-class  at  Oxford  in  1842.  After 
 vSome  experience  in  tutoring,  in  1848  he  became  prin- 
 cipal of   Kneller   Hall,    Twickenham,  where   he  re- 
 
Evangelical  Church  in  Great  Britain.  545 
 
 mained  for  ten  years.  For  the  next  eleven  years  he 
 was  head  master  at  Rugby,  where  he  made  a  reputa- 
 tion for  the  school  and  for  himself.  In  i860  he  wrote 
 an  essay  on  "The  Education  of  the  World  "  for  the 
 "  Essays  and  Reviews."  The  storm  this  evoked  has 
 been  mentioned.  His  friend  Dr.  Benson,  afterward 
 Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  though  a  High  Church- 
 man, came  out  in  his  defense  in  the  London  Times. 
 Temple  was  Bishop  of  Exeter,  1 869-1 885  ;  Bishop  of 
 London,  1 885-1 896;  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  1896- 
 1902.  He  was  a  Radical  in  politics,  a  Broad  Church- 
 man in  Church  affairs,  a  total  abstainer  from  intox- 
 icants, and  a  rigid  disciplinarian.  Somewhat  brusque 
 in  manner,  he  was  noted  for  his  perfect  justice  and 
 common  sense.  The  schoolboy  who  wrote  to  his 
 father  that  *'  Temple  is  a  beast,  but  a  just  beast," 
 touched  his  chief  characteristic.  He  sought  thorough 
 comprehension  in  the  Church.  He  married  at  the  age 
 of  fifty-five  and  was  seventy-five  when  made  arch- 
 bishop. 
 
 He  published  Bampton  Lectures  on  "  Relation  of 
 Religion  and  Science,"  1884,  and  three  volumes  of 
 ''Sermons,"  preached  at  Rugby. 
 
 The  Fourth  Lambeth  Conference,  1898,  had  two 
 hundred  bishops  present,  out  of  the  two  hundred  and 
 fifty  who  were  eligible  and  who  received  invitations. 
 
 The  most  noteworthy  event  in  the  administration 
 of  the  See  of  Canterbury  by  Archbishop  Temple  was 
 the    decision    pronounced  jointly   by    the  The  Decision 
 Archbishops  of  Canterbury  and  York  after  ^^^^^J^'^^^p^ 
 a  full   hearing  of  the   parties   by  counsel  !„  Regard  to 
 upon  the  points  involved  in  the  ritualistic      '^*'""'- 
 controversy.    The  ritualists  in  the  Church  of  England 
 35 
 
546    History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 and  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  America 
 claim  six  points  in  ritual  observance  as  essential  for 
 "Catholic"  worship.  These  are  the  use  of  Eucha- 
 ristic  vestments,  altar  lights,  the  mixed  chalice,  un- 
 leavened bread,  the  eastward  position,  and  the  use 
 of  incense.  Dr.  Pusey  thought,  as  we  have  seen,  the 
 concession  of  the  use  of  the  vestments  and  of  the  east- 
 ward position  would  content  the  ritualistic  party,  but 
 now  nothing  less  than  the  whole  program  would 
 satisfy  them.  Therefore  the  two  archbishops  entered 
 into  an  exhaustive  investigation  of  the  question  as  to 
 what,  if  any,  limitations  of  ritual  were  most  obligatory 
 by  the  law  of  the  English  Church.  They  pronounced, 
 in  their  decision  of  August,  1899,  that  the  use  of  in- 
 cense in  any  act  of  worship,  the  use  of  processional 
 lights,  and,  later,  the  reservation  of  the  elements,  were 
 forbidden  by  the  law  of  the  English  Church.  This 
 decision  rested  upon  the  Act  of  Uniformity  of  1559, 
 which  was  adopted  by  the  Convocations  in  the  revis- 
 ion of  the  English  Prayer-book  in  1662.  This  decis- 
 ion was  the  act  of  the  Archbishops  of  the  English 
 Church  interpreting  the  law  of  the  English  Church, 
 and  upon  any  principles  of  Church  Discipline  or  of 
 Canonical  obedience  was  especially  binding  upon  the 
 ritualistic  clergy. 
 
 Archbishop  Temple,  in  his  Pastoral,  went  farther 
 than  in  the  decision  which  was  confined  to  the  points 
 Archbishop  brought  before  them.     In  his  Pastoral  he 
 Temple's    affirmed  that,  in  the  Church  of  England, 
 Pastoral,    u  ^^^  compulsory  confession,  direct  or  indi- 
 rect, is  ever  allowed,"  and  that  *'  no  external  mark  of 
 adoration  of  Christ,  in  the  Eucharist,  is  allowed."    He 
 further  said,  "  No  invocations  of  Holy  Angels  or  of 
 
Evangelical  Church  in  Great  Britain.  547 
 
 the  Blessed  Virgin,  or  of  departed  saints,  and  no  defi- 
 nite prayers  for  the  dead,  can  be  allowed  to  find  a 
 place  in  any  service  to  be  used  within  the  walls  of  a 
 consecrated  church"  belonging  to  the  Church  of 
 England. 
 
 This  shows  the  line  of  demarkation  between  the 
 worship  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  and  that  al- 
 lowed by  the  Church  of  England. 
 
 In   these  years,  for  the  first  time  in  a  century, 
 England  came  to  make  herself  felt  in  Biblical  scholar- 
 ship.    This   influence   came   chiefly   from       ^^^ 
 Cambridge   University.     It  had    reference  Cambridge 
 mainly  to  studies  in  the  New  Testament    ^^*'°'^"- 
 and  in  the  history  of  the  early  Church.     These  men 
 knew  the  best  work  done  in  Germany,  but  were  not 
 imitators,  but  independent  investigators,  and  two  ot 
 them  were  great  prelates. 
 
 The  scholar  of  the  widest  knowledge  and  the  clear- 
 est insight  into  historic  relationships  was  Joseph 
 Barber  Lightfoot  (1828-1889).     Lightfoot, 
 
 .  1  M  1      Lightfoot. 
 
 later  Bishop  of  Durham,  was  a  sickly  child, 
 and  was  educated  at  home  until  he  was  thirteen  years 
 of  age.  Two  years  later  his  father  died.  In  1844 
 he  entered  King  Edward's  School  at  Birmingham,  ancf, 
 three  years  later,  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  There 
 he  took  private  lessons  of  Brooke  F.  Westcott,  who 
 had  left  the  Birmingham  school  three  years  earlier, 
 and  who  became  his  lifelong  friend.  Graduating 
 from  Trinity  in  1851,  the  next  year  he  was  elected 
 Fellow  of  that  college,  and  taught  private  pupils  for 
 the  three  years  succeeding.  In  1857  he  was  made 
 tutor  in  Trinity,  with  classes  in  New  Testament 
 Greek.    The  year  following  he  was  ordained.    In  iS6i 
 
548     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 he  was  made  Hulsean  Professor  of  Divinity,  and  only 
 Trinity  Hall  could  contain  the  crowd  of  students  who 
 thronged  to  hear  him.  In  1862  he  became  royal 
 chaplain,  and  in  1875  deputy  clerk  of  the  closet,  an 
 important,  confidential  position;  in  the  former  year 
 Archbishop  Tait  appointed  him  examining  chaplain^ 
 His  fame  as  a  preacher  caused  him  to  be  appointed 
 Whitehall  preacher,  1 866-1 867,  and  University  preacher 
 at  Oxford,  1 874-1 875.  In  1871  he  was  made  Canon 
 of  St.  Paul's,  and  in  1877  served  on  the  Universities 
 Commission.  In  1875  ^^  was  chosen  Lady  Margaret 
 Professor  of  Divinity  at  Cambridge.  In  1867  he  had 
 declined  the  Bishopric  of  Litchfield;  but,  on  the  ad- 
 vice of  his  friends,  in  1879  he  accepted  the  great  See 
 of  Durham. 
 
 Bishop  Lightfoot  was  unequaled  in  his  mastery  of 
 the  New  Testament  Greek  and  the  surroundings  of  the 
 early  Church  and  its  patristic  literature.  He  was  the 
 best  Ethiopic  scholar  in  England,  and  gave  careful 
 attention  to  the  different  early  versions  of  the  New 
 Testament.  To  the  learned  world  he  will  ever  be 
 known  by  his  Biblical  essays,  published  in  connection 
 with  his  Commentaries,  and  by  his  great  work  on  the 
 Epistles  of  Ignatius.  His  commentaries  are  of  great 
 value,  though  his  is  not  the  most  penetrating  exegesis. 
 To  the  English-speaking  world  he  has  left  his  monu- 
 ment and  legacy  in  the  Revised  New  Testament  of 
 1 88 1,  which  is  his  work  more  than  that  of  any  other 
 man.  To  all  Christians  everywhere,  his  essay  on 
 '*  The  Christian  Ministry  "  contains  the  wisest  words 
 on  that  subject  written  in  the  century  in  which  he 
 lived,  and  which,  when  he  became  a  great  prelate,  he 
 refused  to  modify. 
 
Evangelical  Church  in  Great  Britain.  549 
 
 Bishop  lyightfoot  was  a  small,  dark-complexioued 
 man,  with  a  squint  in  his  vision ;  but  his  weight  of 
 learning,  impartiality  of  judgment,  and  noble  character, 
 made  him  one  of  the  great  men  of  the  century.  He 
 showed  his  administrative  gifts  in  the  University  Sen- 
 ate and  in  the  great  Diocese  of  Durham.  He  was 
 rich,  and  never  married.  In  his  ten  years  at  Durham, 
 over  a  million  of  dollars  was  raised  for  Church  pur- 
 poses, and  two  hundred  thousand  for  a  church-build- 
 ing fund.  To  all  these  purposes  he  contributed  liber- 
 ally; but  no  gift  showed  more  the  direction  of  his 
 thought  than  that  of  twenty-two  thousand  five  hun- 
 dred dollars,  in  1870,  to  found  scholarships  at  Cam- 
 bridge in  *'  Church  history  in  its  connection  with 
 general  history." 
 
 Brooke  Foss  Westcott  (1825-1901),  the  lifelong 
 friend  of  I^ightfoot,  was  his  successor  in  the  See  of 
 Durham,  and,  like  him,  his  learning  lent 
 
 '  '.   ,         ,  '  ,  .  ,  .,     .  ,        Westcott. 
 
 luster  to  English  scholarship,  while  it  made 
 the  New  Testament  have  a  deeper  significance  and  a 
 clearer  meaning  to  English  readers.  He  was  born 
 near  Birmingham,  and  from  King  Edward's  School  he 
 entered  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  gradu- 
 ated, and  took  a  Fellowship  in  1849.  In  1852  he  be- 
 came assistant  master  at  Harrow,  where  he  remained 
 for  the  next  seventeen  years.  In  1 857  he  was  ordained. 
 In  1869  he  became  Canon  of  Peterborough,  and  the 
 year  after  he  was  made  rector  of  Somersham.  These 
 two  positions  he  held  together  until  1882.  He  became 
 Queen's  Chaplain,  1875-1879,  and  select  preacher  at 
 Oxford,  1 877-1 880.  In  1883  he  was  made  Canon  of 
 Westminster.  From  1870  to  1890  he  was  Regius 
 Professor  of  Divinity  at  Cambridge.     In  1890  he  sue- 
 
550     History  of  the  Christian  Church, 
 
 ceeded  to  the  See  of  Durham,  which  he  held  until  his 
 death.  Bishop  Westcott  will  be  longest  remembered 
 by  his  work  on  the  "  Text  of  the  New  Testament," 
 which  resulted  in  the  Westcott  and  Hort's  Edition  of 
 the  Greek  New  Testament,  1881,  and  which  super- 
 seded all  other  editions. 
 
 In  1855  he  published  the  best  account  in  English 
 of  the  "  History  of  the  New  Testament  Canon,"  and 
 in  i860  an  excellent  manual  for  that  date,  "  Introduc- 
 tion to  the  Study  of  the  Gospels."  His  commentary 
 on  the  Gospel  of  St.  John  in  the  Speaker's  Commen- 
 tary is  the  best  on  that  Gospel,  while  his  Commen- 
 taries on  the  Greek  text  of  the  Epistle  of  St.  John 
 and  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  can  never  lose 
 their  value.  His  "  Gospel  of  the  Resurrection  "  and 
 "  Revelation  of  Our  Risen  Lord"  appeal  to  all  thought- 
 ful readers.  He  is  also  the  author  of  the  most  appre- 
 ciative sketch  of  Origen  and  his  work,  in  English,  in 
 his  "  Religious  Thought  in  the  West."  Bishop  West- 
 cott was  deeply  interested  in  all  social  topics,  and 
 published  much  that  bore  upon  their  solution.  A 
 thorough  scholar,  a  voluminous  writer,  he  made  the 
 Bible  clearer  and  the  world  better  by  his  work. 
 
 With  Bishop  Westcott  was  closely  associated  John 
 Fenton  Hort  (i 828-1 892).  He  was  born  in  Dublin, 
 but  came  to  England  at  the  age  of  nine. 
 He  prepared  for  the  university  at  Rugby, 
 and  entered  Cambridge  in  1846.  In  1852  he  became 
 Fellow.  Hort  was  a  many-sided  man.  For  some 
 years  he  made  a  specialty  of  botany;  then  he  took  a 
 prize  in  moral  philosophy.  He  seemed  equally  at 
 home  in  classics,  mathematics,  philosophy,  and  the- 
 ology.     In    1854,     with    Mayor   and    Lightfoot,    he 
 
Evangelical  Church  in  Great  Britain.  551 
 
 founded  the  Journal  of  Classical  and  Sacred  Philol- 
 ogy y  and  the  same  year  he  was  ordained.  In  1857 
 he  married,  and  was  given  a  living  near  Cambridge. 
 In  1853,  with  Westcott,  he  began  his  labors  on  the 
 new  edition  of  the  Greek  New  Testament,  only  ended 
 with  its  appearance  in  two  volumes  in  1881.  With 
 Lightfoot  and  Westcott,  he  labored  on  the  revision  of 
 the  English  New  Testament,  which  appeared  the  same 
 year.  He  gave  his  labor  also  to  that  most  valuable 
 work,  Smith's  "  Dictionary  of  Christian  Antiquities," 
 1 868-1 877.  From  1880  to  1892  he  worked  on  a  new 
 edition  of  the  Apocrypha.  In  187 1  he  was  appointed 
 Hulsean  Lecturer.  The  next  year  came  a  Fellowship 
 and  Lectureship  on  Theology  at  Cambridge,  and  a 
 professorship  in  1878.  In  1887  he  succeeded  Light- 
 foot  as  Lady  Margaret  Professor  of  Divinity  at  Cam- 
 bridge, which  he  held  at  his  death.  There  were  pub- 
 lished after  his  death,  "The  Way,  the  Truth,  the 
 Life,"  1893;  "Lectures  on  Judaistic  Christianity," 
 1894;  "Six  Popular  Lectures  on  the  Ante-Nicene 
 Fathers,"  1895;  "  The  Christian  Ecclesia,"  1897. 
 
 Hort  was  a  most  lovable  man,  and  ready  to  render 
 any  possible  assistance  to  scholars.  He  undertook 
 too  much,  and  died  early  from  overwork.  His  friend, 
 Professor  Gregory,  says:  "He  was  a  great  man,  a 
 whole  man.  He  sought  the  things  and  persons  God 
 had  made,  and  forgot  only  himself." 
 
 A  man  quite  as  original  as  these  scholars,  and  who 
 has  done  more  than  any  Englishman  to  revise  our 
 conceptions  of  the  life  of  the  early  Church,       _     ^ 
 
 ^  natch . 
 
 was  Edwin  Hatch  (i 835-1 889),  whose  days 
 of  toil  and  appreciation  were  all  too  brief     Like  Ben- 
 son, Lightfoot,  and  Westcott,  he  graduated  from  King 
 
552      History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 Edward's  School,  Birmingham ;  but  instead  of  going 
 to  Cambridge,  he  chose  Oxford,  studying  at  Pembroke 
 College,  1 853-1 857.  For  scholarship  like  his,  Oxford 
 had  little  use;  so  Hatch  came  to  Canada,  teaching  at 
 Toronto  and  Montreal,  1 859-1 866.  In  1 867-1 885  he 
 was  called  to  Oxford  as  vice-principal  of  St.  Mary's 
 Hall.  In  1883  he  was  given  the  rectorship  of  Pur- 
 leigh  in  addition,  a  place  Hawkins,  of  Oriel,  had  held 
 for  fifty-four  years.  The  same  year  he  was  made 
 Lecturer  on  Church  History.  In  1880  he  delivered 
 the  Bampton  Lectures  on  "  The  Organization  of  the 
 Early  Christian  Churches."  The  thorough  scholar- 
 ship shown  in  the  use  of  inscriptions,  the  original  con- 
 ceptions in  regard  to  the  early  Church,  gave  this  book 
 more  influence  with  foreign  scholars  than  any  other 
 contribution  to  Church  history  from  England  in  this 
 period.  Before  this  he  had  made  his  mark  in  articles 
 in  Smith's  ''  Dictionary  of  Christian  Antiquities," 
 1873-1876,  in  which  the  way  is  cleared  for  the  positions 
 taken  in  the  Bampton  Lectures.  In  1887  appeared 
 his  **  Growth  of  Christian  Institutions,"  a  most  illumi- 
 nating book  for  the  study  of  Christianity  in  Western 
 Europe.  In  1888  he  gave  the  Hibbert  Lectures  on 
 **The  Influence  of  Greek  Ideas  and  Usages  upon  the 
 Christian  Church,"  a  book  which  was  hailed  with  de- 
 light by  the  followers  of  Ritschl  in  Germany.  He 
 published  sermons,  essays,  and  poems,  and  worked  to 
 the  last  on  a  concordance  to  the  Septuagint. 
 
 Hatch  was  a  Broad  Churchman,  but  he  had  a  deep 
 personal  conception  of  Christianity.  No  more  sug- 
 gestive works  have  come  from  an  English  historical 
 student. 
 
 Oxford  in  these  years  possessed  another  scholar  of 
 
Evangelical  Church  in  Great  Britain.  553 
 
 European  reputation,  though  late  in  coming  to  his 
 honors  at  home.  William  Stubbs  (1825-1901)  was 
 educated  at  Oxford  and  was  Fellow  of 
 Trinity,  1 848-1 850,  That  year  he  was  ap- 
 pointed Vicar  of  Navestock,  Essex,  where  he  remained 
 for  the  next  sixteen  years.  He  was  made  Librarian 
 of  Lambeth  Palace,  1 862-1 868,  and  in  1866  was  called 
 from  Navestock  to  become  Professor  of  Modern  His- 
 tory at  Oxford,  1 866-1 884.  In  1879  he  was  made 
 Canon  of  St.  Paul's.  From  1884  to  1889  he  was  Bishop 
 of  Chester,  and  1889  to  1901  Bishop  of  Oxford.  His 
 ''Constitutional  History  of  England,"  1874-1878,  is 
 based  upon  such  a  thorough  use  of  the  sources  that  it 
 can  never  be  superseded.  His  "Lectures  on  the 
 Study  of  Mediaeval  and  Modern  History  "  are  more 
 popular,  but  show  his  method.  He  was  recognized  as 
 the  greatest  scholar  of  the  mediaeval  history  in  Eng- 
 land, if  not  in  Europe. 
 
 Mandell  Creighton  (i  843-1 901)  was  much  more  of 
 a  success  socially  than  these  men,  but  not  their  equal 
 in  original  research.  Educated  at  Oxford, 
 he  was  Bishop  of  Peterborough,  1 891-1896, 
 and  in  1896-1901  Bishop  of  London.  His  work  on  the 
 "Papacy  During  the  Reformation,"  1 882-1 894,  is  dis- 
 tinctly inferior  to  the  work  of  Dr.  Ludwig  Pastor  on 
 the  same  period. 
 
 But  a  change  came  over  the  intellectual  atmos- 
 phere of  Oxford  with  the  appearance  in  1890  of  "  Lux 
 Mundi."     This   showed  that  the  heirs  of 
 
 ,      ^  .        .  .  __    ,  -    Lux  Mundi. 
 
 Newman    and    Pusey    reignmg  m    Keble 
 College  and  Pusey  House,  Oxford,  were  no  longer 
 content  to  rest  the  case  against  modern  criticism  on 
 authority  alone.     They  came  out  in  the  open  field, 
 
554      History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 and  took  into  their  own  hands  the  hated  weapons  of 
 criticism.  The  book  was  not  remarkable.  The  essays 
 of  Gore  and  Illingworth  gave  it  value,  but  it  was  said 
 that  its  appearance  caused  the  death  of  Canon  Liddon. 
 The  Oxford  Movement  could  not  secure  the  union  of 
 the  Church  of  England  with  Rome;  equally  futile 
 were  its  efiforts  toward  securing  the  second  darling 
 object  of  its  desire — a  defense  by  authority  and  tradi- 
 tions alone  against  all  assaults  of  criticism.  Since 
 then  High  Churchmen  in  England  have  entered  into 
 the  progressive  intellectual  life  of  Christendom. 
 
 These  years  were  marked  by  an  increase  of  Eng- 
 lish dioceses,  and  a  liberality  in  the  support  of  the 
 Church  of  England  unknown  before  in  her  history. 
 In  1836  the  Diocese  of  Bristol  was  suppressed,  but 
 that  of  Ripon  was  founded,  and  that  of  Manchester 
 followed  in  1847.  These  were  the  only  new  bishop- 
 rics since  the  Reformation  until  our  period  opens. 
 In  1877  the  Diocese  of  Truro  was  formed;  the  year 
 following,  that  of  St.  Albans;  in  1880,  that  of  Liver- 
 pool; in  1882,  that  of  Newcastle  from  Durham;  in 
 1884,  that  of  Southwell;  and  in  1888,  that  of  Wake- 
 field. By  voluntary  subscription  there  had  been 
 raised  for  endowing  these  Sees  to  1890:  Truro,  $350,- 
 000;  St.  Albans,  $275,000;  Liverpool,  $470,000 ;  New- 
 castle, $440,000;  Southwell,  $320,000;  Wakefield, 
 $465,000;  in  all,  $2,345,000. 
 
 The  colonial  bishoprics  now  number  nearly  one 
 hundred,  under  the  supervision  of  the  Archbishop  of 
 Canterbury.  Besides  these,  there  are  seventeen  suf- 
 fragan bishops,  and,  including  the  bishops  of  the 
 Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  America,  some  two 
 
Evangelical  Church  in  Great  Britain.  555 
 
 hundred  and  fifty  bishops    in  communion   with  the 
 Primate  of  England. 
 
 Since  1861  there  has  met  annually  a  Church  Con- 
 gress, in  which  all  shades  of  opinion  in  the  Church  of 
 England   find   representation   and   expres- 
 sion.    It  is  unquestionable  that  these  have  ^^^^^^ 
 
 ^  Congresses. 
 
 promoted  the  peace  and  power  of  the 
 Church.  Though  the  High  Church  party  is  clearly 
 in  the  ascendant,  it  is  largely  because  it  has  ceased  to 
 be  sectarian,  and  has  absorbed  the  best  of  the  Broad 
 Church  teaching  as  proved  by  "  I^ux  Mundi"  and  its 
 successors,  and  by  the  primacy  of  such  a  radical  as 
 Archbishop  Temple.  On  the  other  hand,  though  the 
 old  Evangelicals  died  out  with  Lord  Shaftesbury,  yet 
 Ryle,  Bishop  of  Liverpool,  Moule,  Bishop  of  Durham, 
 and  the  Keswick  movement,  prove  that  the  leaven  is 
 still  there,  and  does  not  cease  to  work.  Indeed,  as 
 Professor  Webb  says,  "  It  must  be  observed,  moreover, 
 that  a  later  generation  of  High  Church  clergy  in  the 
 Anglican  body  have  found  themselves  able  to  give  to 
 the  characteristic  '  Evangelical '  experience  of  conver- 
 sion a  place  in  their  own  scheme  of  spiritual  life 
 which  would  have  been  grudged  to  it  by  their  prede- 
 cessors." 
 
 The  Church  of  England  had  in  England  itself  2 
 archbishops,  23  bishops,  and  17  assistant  bishops,  31 
 deans,  91  archdeans,  810  rural  deans,  13,872   ^^^he  End 
 benefices,  and  8,500  of  these  are  in  the  pat-      of  the 
 ronage  of  lay  proprietors.     There  are,  in      ^•"^"•'y- 
 all,  22,800  clergy. 
 
 The  population  of  England  and  Wales  in  1901  was 
 32,526,075.    There  are  15,309  churches  and  chapels  of 
 
556     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 the  Church  of  England,  and  12,578  churches  and 
 chapels  belonging  to  the  Nonconforming  Churches. 
 The  poorest  showing  the  Church  of  England  makes 
 is  in  its  number  of  communicants,  being  only  1,974,- 
 629.  The  Methodist  bodies  alone  report  a  member- 
 ship of  1,053,452,  and  very  few  of  these  are  non- 
 communicants.  Other  Nonconformists  report  a  mem- 
 bership of  840,000,  excluding  Unitarians  and  Friends. 
 Can  it  be  that  the  triumph  of  the  High  Church  party, 
 by  overemphasizing  the  Sacrament  of  the  Lord's 
 Supper  and  by  Romanizing  practices,  has  repelled  the 
 majority  of  those  who  should  join  in  holy  communion 
 at  her  altars  ? 
 
 The  Nonconforming  Churches  of  Engi^and. 
 
 At  the  beginning  of  this  period  the  Wesleyan 
 Communion,  the  largest  of  the  Methodist  bodies,  was 
 
 rent  by  bitter  internal  divisions.  It  did 
 Methodists.  -^^^  regain  its  former  numbers  until  some 
 
 years  had  elapsed.  The  autocratic  power 
 of  Dr.  Bunting  was  broken,  but  the  body,  as  a  whole, 
 continued  strongly  conservative  for  the  first  half  of 
 this  period.  In  politics,  its  leading  ministers  were 
 Tories,  and  ecclesiastically  leaned  toward  the  Estab- 
 lished Church  much  more  than  toward  their  fellow 
 Nonconformists.  Many  of  their  sons  entered  the 
 ranks  of  the  clergy  of  the  Church  of  England.  The 
 close  of  the  period  saw  all  this  changed.  A  large 
 number  of  the  Methodists  followed  the  lyiberal  party, 
 and  they  took  their  natural  place  in  the  Confederation 
 of  Free  Churches  of  Great  Britain.  Doubtless  the 
 increasing  ritualism  of  the  Church  of  England  con- 
 tributed to  this  result,  but  even  more  a  clear-eyed  con- 
 
Evangelical  Church  in  Great  Britalw  557 
 
 sciousness  of  the  mission  of  the  Methodist  Churches 
 to  the  modern  man  and  modern  society.  This  led  to 
 new  methods  and  much  more  extensive  influence  in 
 reaching  and  saving  men. 
 
 In  1862,  Sir  Francis  Lycett  gave  $250,000  for  a 
 Metropolitan  Building  Fund  to  secure  sites  and  erect 
 Methodist  Chapels  in  I^ondon.  He  raised  $250,000 
 and  left  at  his  death  $  450,000  for  like  purposes,  which 
 became  available  in  1896.  Methodism  was  strong 
 in  the  country,  but  comparatively  weak  in  the  cities 
 At  the  close  of  this  period,  nowhere  as  in  the  cities 
 was  it  doing  such  aggressive  work.  This  was  largely 
 owing  to  two  Methodist  ministers,  Hugh  Price 
 Hughes  and  William  Booth,  the  founder  of  the  Salva- 
 tion Army.  The  London  West  Central  Mission  was 
 established  in  1887. 
 
 Hugh  Price  Hughes  came  to  its  control  in  1886, 
 and  has  been  powerfully  aided  by  Mark  Guy  Pearse 
 since  1887. 
 
 The  "Salvation  Army  is  the  extreme  left  wing  of 
 the  Methodist  Movement,  and  finds  its  chief  mission 
 in   rescue   work    among   the   morally-neg-       .^^^ 
 lected    or    degraded.      It    does    Christlike  salvation 
 work  in  the  prisons,  the  slums,  and  for  the     ^'''"y- 
 outcast  women  of  the  street.     Many  it  has  reached, 
 and  many  it  has  saved.    It  has  proved,  in  a  generation 
 priding  itself  upon  its  intellectual  culture  and  reck- 
 less of  religious  creeds  and  careless  of  religious  emo- 
 tions, that  the  Gospel  of  Jesus  Christ  saves  to  the 
 uttermost  them  that  believe.     With  sensational  fea- 
 tures and  some  extravagances,  it  has  a  strict  disci- 
 pline, a  firm  organization,  and  has  been  ruled  with  a 
 devotion,  wisdom,  and  financial  prudence  that  make 
 
558      History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 it  a  marvel  among  the  religious  organizations  of  its 
 time.  It  has  sought  to  save  the  soul ;  but  it  has  also 
 ministered  to  the  body,  and  endeavored  to  make  men 
 and  women  self-sustaining  and  self-respecting  mem- 
 bers of  society,  and  also  to  make  the  social  surround- 
 ings help,  and  not  hinder,  the  Christian  life. 
 
 William  Booth,  originator  and  commanding  gen- 
 eral of  the  Army,  was  born  in  1829.     He  was  brought 
 
 up  in  the  Church  of  England,  but  at  thirteen 
 Booth"     joined  the  Wesleyans,  and  four  years  later 
 
 began  his  work  as  a  local  preacher.  In  1853 
 he  joined  the  Conference  of  the  Methodist  New  Con- 
 nexion. His  intention  was  to  serve  as  an  evangelist, 
 and  he  was  greatly  influenced  by  the  work  of  James 
 Caughey.  Soon  he  went  into  the  pastorate ;  but  in  1 86 1 
 he  began  again  his  evangelistic  career  in  Cornwall,  and 
 in  1865  came  to  London.  His  wife,  Catherine  Tucker 
 Booth,  is  one  of  the  saints  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
 Having  charge  of  the  East  London  Christian  Mission, 
 he  began  his  Mission  Stations  in  1876.  About  this  time 
 he  wrote  the  famous  sentence  which  gave  the  aistinc- 
 tive  name  to  the  work  he  was  founding  and  had  led : 
 "The  Christian  Mission  is  a  Salvation  Army  of  Con- 
 verted people."  There  was  much  that  seemed  irrev- 
 erent and  revolted  the  religious  feelings  and  taste  of 
 men  like  Lord  Shaftesbury  at  the  beginning  of  tne 
 movement,  but  it  secured  the  attention  of  the  non- 
 church-going  and  the  neglected  classes.  If  Arch- 
 bishop Tait  would  not  condemn  the  work  of  the 
 extreme  ritualists  in  East  London  because  of  their 
 extravagance,  who  shall  condemn  the  Salvation  Army 
 if  they  reach  and  save  the  unreached  and  unsaved, 
 however  much  we  may  dislike  some  of  their  methods? 
 
Evangelical  Church  in  Great  Britain.  559 
 
 In  1 878. appeared  the  "Orders  and  Regulations  of  the 
 Salvation  Army,"  and  the  movement  took  permanent 
 form.  Its  organ,  The  War  Cry,  began  its  work  in 
 1880.  Between  1880  and  1885  it  spread  to  the  Eng- 
 lish Colonies,  British  India,  the  United  States,  and 
 gained  a  footing  in  France,  Switzerland,  Sweden,  and 
 Germany.  Mrs.  Booth  died  October  4,  1890,  leaving 
 four  sons  and  five  daughters,  most,  or  all,  of  whom 
 are  in  one  way  or  another  connected  with  this  move- 
 ment. Before  this  the  Prison  Gate  Brigade  had  be- 
 gun its  work,  and  Rescue  Homes  had  been  founded. 
 In  1890  appeared  General  Booth's  "Darkest  England 
 and  the  Way  Out,"  of  which  two  hundred  thousand 
 copies  were  sold,  and  which  brought  funds  which 
 enabled  the  "Army"  greatly  to  enlarge  its  work.  It 
 founded,  and  has  successfully  carried  on,  labor  colo- 
 nies both  in  manufacturing  and  agricultural  com- 
 munities. In  1896,  Ballington  Booth,  son  of  General 
 Booth,  founded  the  "Volunteers  of  America,"  whose 
 field  is  in  the  United  States.  In  this  country,  how- 
 ever, the  older  organization  has  a  large  following  in 
 the  great  cities.  At  the  close  of  the  century  the  Sal- 
 vation Army  reported  142  institutions  for  the  care 
 and  help  of  the  neglected  or  outcasts,  and  4,200  offi- 
 cers, in  England.  In  the  United  States,  both  branches 
 reported  3,189  officers,  953  stations,  and  42,000  mem- 
 bers. 
 
 A  man,  the  opposite  in  temperament  and  work  of 
 General  Booth,  but  who  wrought  no  less  effectively  in 
 the    Wesleyan    communion    than    General 
 Booth  outside  of  it,  was  William   Arthur     "^^^^^ 
 (18 19-190 1 ).     William  Arthur  was  a  relig- 
 ious genius.     This  genius  was  enshrined   in  a  feeble 
 
56o      History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 body,  but,  perhaps  through  this,  became  even  more 
 efifective.  He  knew  no  blare  of  trumpets;  but  his 
 influence,  hke  the  light,  came,  and  darkness  disap- 
 peared. He  is  the  author  of  the  religious  classic  in 
 the  English  tongue  of  this  period.  If  the  "  Christian 
 Year"  is  the  religious  classic  of  the  first  half,  the 
 "Tongue  of  Fire"  is  the  religious  classic  for  the  sec- 
 ond half  of  the  nineteenth  century.  In  the  same 
 class,  but  at  a  distance,  stands  Hannah  Pearsall 
 Smith's  "  Christian's  Secret  of  a  Happy  Life." 
 
 William  Arthur  was  a  master  of  pure  English,  and 
 an  eloquent  preacher.  He  was  born  at  Kels,  Ireland, 
 in  1819.  In  1839  he  graduated  from  Hoxton  College, 
 London.  From  1840  to  1843  he  was  a  missionary  in 
 India,  and  on  his  return  he  published  an  admirable 
 work  on  Indian  mission  work,  entitled,  "A  Mission  to 
 the  Mysore."  In  1846,  and  for  some  years,  he  served 
 as  a  missionary  in  France.  He  became  greatly  inter- 
 ested in  the  progress  of  Italian  unity  and  in  the  relig- 
 ious regeneration  of  that  country.  He  learned  to  use 
 Italian  with  the  freedom  of  his  native  tongue.  He 
 was  an  easy  master  of  French,  and  knew  German. 
 With  Dr.  James  H.  Rigg  he  won  the  battle  for  free 
 speech  in  the  Wesleyan  Conference,  though  there  was 
 never  aught  of  the  bitterness  of  the  controversialist 
 in  his  disposition.  He  was  earnest  in  his  work  for 
 the  Evangelical  Alliance,  and  exercised  great  influence 
 in  its  councils.  He  was  one  of  the  successful  found- 
 ers of  the  Ecumenical  Conference  of  the  Methodist 
 Churches.  As  a  man,  his  sweetness  of  spirit  and  his 
 warm,  fraternal  feeling,  ever  making  for  peace,  made 
 him  loved  as  have  been  few  Christian  ministers  in 
 
Evangelical  Church  in  Great  Britain.  561 
 
 high  station  and  wide    influence  in    the   century  in 
 which  he  lived. 
 
 His  "Tongue  of  Fire"  appeared  in  1856;  "Italy 
 in  Transition,"  going  to  six  editions,  in  i860;  and, 
 later,  "The  Pope,  the  Kings,  and  the  People,"  in 
 two  volumes.  In  1883  he  published  a  timely  book  on 
 "The  Difference  between  Physical  and  Moral  Law." 
 His  last  work  was  "Religion  without  God,"  1884, 
 against  Frederic  Harrison  and  Herbert  Spencer,  and 
 "God  without  Religion,"  1887,  against  Sir  James 
 Stephen. 
 
 The  maa  who  did  more  than  any  one  man  toward 
 the  transformation  of  the  Wesleyan  Communion  into 
 an  efiective,  aggressive  Church  in  England 
 in  the  last  half  of  the  century,  was  Hugh  "U^^h^'j"" 
 Price  Hughes   (1847-1902).      Dr.  Hughes 
 was  born  in  Caermarthen,  Wales,  where  his  father,  a 
 member  of  the   Royal  College  of  Surgeons,  and  who 
 had  been  educated  at  Kingswood  School,  held  almost 
 every  public  office  ot  honor  and  trust  in  the  com- 
 munity. 
 
 Hugh  Price  Hughes's  grandfather  was  a  Wesleyan 
 preacher,  who  brought  Dr.  Bunting  to  terms.  The 
 grandson  was  converted  while  at  school,  at  thirteen, 
 and  the  next  year  preached  as  a  local  preacher.  The 
 son  wrote  to  his  father  that  he  would  like  to  be  a 
 Methodist  preacher.  The  father  replied,  "  I  would 
 rather  see  you  a  Methodist  preacher  than  Lord  Chan- 
 cellor of  England."  Dr.  Hughes  graduated  at  London 
 University.  He  entered  the  Wesleyan  Conference, 
 and  served  in  the  usual  pastorate  until  coming  to 
 West  London  Mission  in  1887.  In  1885  he  founded 
 36 
 
562      History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 the  Methodist  Times,  which  made  him  a  leader  of  the 
 3^oung  men  and  the  progressive  element  in  the  Wes- 
 leyan  Communion.  He  published,  besides  his  work  as 
 editor  of  the  Methodist  Times,  two  volumes  of  sermons 
 of  wide  influence,  "Social  Christianity,"  1889,  and 
 "The  Philanthropy  of  God,"  1890.  No  Methodist 
 since  John  Wesley  has  been  so  widely  known  outside 
 of  his  own  Church.  He  was  president  of  the  Wes- 
 leyan  Conference  at  his  death.  As  preacher,  evan- 
 gelist, editor,  organizer,  and  party  leader,  while  fore- 
 most in  every  good  work,  he  left  no  successor. 
 
 Methodist  scholarship  in  England  was  well  repre- 
 sented by  Dr.  Wm.  F.  Moulton,  who  translated  and 
 edited  Winer's  "  Grammar  of  the  New  Testament," 
 and  who  served  on  the  Committee  of  Revision  of  the 
 English  New  Testament  of  188 1.  By  his  side  stood 
 Dr.  William  B.  Pope,  author  of  a  "  Systematic  The- 
 ology," and  Dr.  J.  Agar  Beet,  whose  "  Commentaries  " 
 are  of  enduring  value. 
 
 The  century  closed  with  the  raising  of  $5,000,000, 
 as  a  thank-ofiering  for  what  God  had  wrought  for  and 
 ^^g  through  the  Wesleyan  Methodists  in  Eng- 
 
 Twentieth-  land.  A  sitc  opposite  the  house  of  Parlia- 
 century  und.  ^^^^  j^^g  h^QXi  purchased,  and  a  great 
 Central  Church  house,  as  a  head  center  of  aggressive 
 Methodism  in  the  largest  city  in  Christendom  and  the 
 world,  will  be  raised  upon  it.  This  fund  will  also 
 greatly  strengthen  all  other  work  of  that  Church  in 
 England.  No  other  man  contributed  more  to  its  suc- 
 cess than  Hugh  Price  Hughes,  who  is  said  to  have 
 personally  raised  $1,250,000,  besides  all  contributions 
 to  the  Twentieth-century  Fund.  Not  the  least  service 
 to  Evangelical  Christendom  of  this  Twentieth-century 
 
Evangelical  Church  in  Great  Britian.  563 
 
 Fund,  in  idea  and  realization,  was  that  it  was  the 
 fruitful  parent  of  other  Twentieth-century  Funds 
 among  the  Evangelical  Churches,  which,  in  the  aggre- 
 gate, make  the  Papal  Jubilee  look  small  indeed.  At 
 the  close  of  the  century,  by  the  official  census  of 
 Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  the  Wesleyans  reported  in 
 England  and  Wales,  552,933  members;  the  Primitive 
 Methodists,  185,075;  the  Calvinistic  Methodists,  156,- 
 058,  mainly  in  Wales ;  and  other  Methodist  commun- 
 ions, 159,406,  making  a  total  of  1,053,372.  From  this 
 total  should  be  deducted  the  Calvinistic  Methodists, 
 who,  in  doctrine,  though  not  in  origin  or  polity,  be- 
 long with  the  Presbyterians.  But  to  this  should  be 
 added  the  forces  of  the  Salvation  Army,  which  would 
 more  than  counterbalance. 
 
 The  next  most  numerous  of  the  Nonconforming 
 Churches  in  England   and    Wales  is  the  Congrega- 
 tional.    Its  history  was  illustrated  in  this 
 period  by  such  preachers  as  R.  W.  Dale,  g^tio^auYte" 
 of  Birmingham;  Robert  F.  Horton,  of  lyon- 
 don;  and  John    Brown,  of  Bedford,  who  have  each 
 crossed  the  Atlantic  and  lectured  on  preaching   on 
 the  Beecher  foundation  at  Yale. 
 
 Newman  Hall  (1816-^1902),  for  years  preached  to 
 large  congregations  at  Surrey  Chapel,  London,  1854- 
 1893,  and  of  which  he  was  pastor  emeritus  at  his 
 death.  He  was  a  warm  friend  of  the  North  during 
 the  Civil  War,  and  visited  the  United  States  several 
 times.  His  tract  "  Come  to  Jesus,"  written  in  1846, 
 had  a  wider  circulation  than  any  other  tract  of  the  cen- 
 tury. It  was  translated  into  forty  languages  and  four 
 million  copies  were  sold. 
 
 A  preacher  of  unusual  vigor  of  thought  and  often 
 
564    History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 rare   beauty   of  diction,   both  in  praj^er  and  public 
 address,  was  Joseph  Parker   (i  830-1 902).     Dramatic 
 
 in  his  delivery,  he  denounced  sin  in  high 
 Joseph      places    and    oppression    everywhere.      Of 
 
 humble  origin,  he  was  converted  in  a 
 Methodist  chapel,  and  early  began  to  preach.  With 
 scant  opportunities  for  an  education,  in  large  measure 
 he  was  a  self-trained  man.  He  was  ordained  in  the 
 Congregational  ministry  in  1853.  Banbury  was  his 
 first  pastorate,  1853-1858.  Then  followed  Man- 
 chester, 1 858-1 869.  In  the  latter  year  he  became 
 pastor  of  the  oldest  Congregational  society  in  L,on- 
 don.  In  1874  its  new  church  edifice.  City  Temple, 
 was  dedicated.  He  remained  its  pastor  until  his 
 death.  His  leading  works  were  "Ecce  Deus,"  1868; 
 •'Ad  Clerum,"  1870;  "The  Paraclete,"  1874,  and 
 twenty-five  volumes  of  sermons.  They  had  a  large 
 sale,  yet  not  equal  to  Spurgeon's,  though  they  were 
 of  much  higher  intellectual  value.  From  boyhood 
 Dr.  Parker  was  a  total  abstainer.  Twice  he  visited 
 the  United  States.  He  was  an  earnest  and  devoted 
 man,  and  his  pulpit  was  a  power  for  righteousness. 
 
 At  the  close  of  the  century  the  English  Congre- 
 gationalists  numbered  398,741  members. 
 
 The  Baptists  increased  in  numbers  and  influence 
 
 during  this  period.     They  had  in  Dr.  Alex- 
 B  Dtists     3-^^^^    Maclaren,    of   Manchester,   a  great 
 
 preacher,  and  in  Dr.  John  Clifford  a  great 
 Church  leader. 
 
 Charles  Haddon  Spurgeon  (1834-1892),  however, 
 
 was   the    most  celebrated    Baptist    in   the 
 
 world  during  this  period.  His  father  and 
 grandfather  were  Congregational  preachers.     He  was 
 
Evangelical  Church  in  Great  Britain.  565 
 
 born  at  Kelvedon,  Essex,  and  got  a  fair  academic  edu- 
 cation at  Colchester  and  Newmarket.  In  January, 
 1850,  in  a  Primitive  Methodist  chapel  in  Colchester, 
 Spurgeon  heard  a  sermon  from  "  Look  unto  me  and 
 be  ye  saved,  all  ye  ends  of  the  earth ;  for  I  am  God, 
 and  there  is  none  else,"  and  Spurgeon  found  the  salva- 
 tion which  he  was  so  wondrously  and  successfully  to 
 preach.  He  was  baptized  in  the  Baptist  Church,  May 
 3,  1 85 1,  and  the  same  year  began  preaching.  In 
 April,  1854,  he  entered  upon  his  ministry  at  New 
 Park  Street  Chapel,  South wark.  His  first  sermon  was 
 published  before  he  became  of  age.  In  January,  1856, 
 he  married,  and  his  wife  proved  a  worthy  helpmeet  to 
 his  life  and  in  his  work. 
 
 In  October,  1856,  Mr.  Spurgeon  began  preaching 
 at  the  Royal  Surrey  Gardens  Music  Hall,  which  he 
 occupied  until  the  completion  of  his  Tabernacle,  which 
 was  dedicated  in  March,  1861.  It  cost  $155,000,  and 
 has  seats  for  5,500  people,  with  standing  room  for  a 
 thousand  more.  It  has  a  double  row  of  galleries,  and 
 its  dimensions  are  148  by  81  by  68.  At  the  dedica- 
 tion, the  church  had  1,178  members;  in  the  succeed- 
 ing ten  years  3,569  were  added  to  its  membership,  and 
 it  grew  to  6,000  before  "his  death.  From  1855  his 
 sermons  were  published  until  their  number  reached 
 2,200.  In  1865  he  founded  his  periodical,  The  Sword 
 and  the  Trowel.  In  1857  he  sent  out  his  first  student 
 preacher.  In  1867  three  Orphan  Houses  at  Stockwell 
 were  begun.  By  1875  his  building  for  the  Pastor's 
 College,  costing  $75,000,  was  completed  and  paid  for, 
 and  by  1 890  had  sent  out  nearly  a  thousand  preachers. 
 The  Stockwell  Orphanage  takes  children  from  six  to 
 ten,  and  keeps  them  until  they   are  fourteen;  they 
 
566     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 accommodate  five  hundred  boys  and  girls.  His  col- 
 portage  work  came  to  employ  nearly  one  hundred  men 
 in  selling  Christian  literature  of  a  popular  character, 
 so  as  to  displace  the  vile.  He  also  erected  an  alms- 
 house for  the  aged  poor,  and  founded  a  Ragged  School 
 where  four  hundred  children  were  taught.  The  in- 
 come for  his  church  poor  fund  was  $5,000  a  year. 
 
 Spurgeon's  sermons  had  a  larger  circulation  and 
 in  greater  quantity  than  any  other  English  preacher. 
 They  were  sincere  and  earnest ;  they  were  well  illus- 
 trated, with  not  seldom  a  pithy  saying  or  a  touch  of 
 humor.  His  "  John  Ploughman's  Talks,"  which  have 
 some  of  their  best  qualities  without  their  repetitions, 
 reached  a  sale  of  320,000  copies  before  his  death. 
 Spurgeon  had  a  marvelous  voice,  clear  and  sweet ;  it 
 could  reach  12,000  persons,  and  he  preached  some- 
 times to  audiences  of  20,000  people.  His  chief  liter- 
 ary work  is  his  "Treasury  of  David,"  a  Puritan  com- 
 ment on  the  Psalms. 
 
 Spurgeon's  orthodoxy  was  of  the  rigid  sort.  He 
 left  the  London  Baptist  Union  because  they  saw  the 
 Lord's  leading  in  moving  rather  than  in  standing  still. 
 Spurgeon  was  warm-hearted  and  unselfish,  and  could 
 always  be  counted  upon  to  remain  where  he  was.  In 
 Lord  Shaftesbury  he  had  a  warm  friend.  His  was  an 
 active  life  of  great  usefulness,  not  one  of  intellectual 
 progress.  His  noblest  monument  is  not  the  Metro- 
 politan Tabernacle,  or  his  Pastor's  College,  or  his 
 Orphan  Houses,  but  the  changed  conditions  of  that 
 section  of  London  in  which  his  Tabernacle  stands 
 and  where  his  work  was  wrought.  **  The  whole 
 quarter  has  been  converted  from  a  scene  of  sordid 
 poverty  and  the  lowest  forms  of  vice  to  one  of  health- 
 
E\' ANGELICAL   ClJURCH  IN  GrEAT  BRITAIN.    567 
 
 ful  peace  and  comparative  prosperity."  I^ike  the  true, 
 stubborn  Englishman  he  was,  he  did  not  take  kindly 
 to  the  total  abstinence  movement.  But,  with  all  de- 
 fects, he  wrought  such  a  work  as  was  not  equaled  in 
 his  day.  At  the  end  of  the  century  there  were  346,08  2 
 Baptists  in  England  and  Wales. 
 
 The  Presbyterians,  who  are  the  people  in  Scotland, 
 and  a  strong  contingent  in  Ulster,  are  a  comparatively 
 small  body  in  England.    Perhaps  the  mem-  ^     ^  ^  ^ 
 
 J  '=>  ^  Presbyterians. 
 
 ory  of  the  forcible  imposition  of  the  Solemn 
 League  and  Covenant  remains.  However,  they  rank 
 well  in  quality,  and  Professor  Oswald  Dykes,  of  their 
 Theological  Training-school,  furnished  the  creed  of 
 the  United  Free  Churches  in  1898,  the  most  success- 
 ful efifort  of  creedal  irenics  of  the  century  among  Eng- 
 lish-speaking people.  At  the  close  of  the  period  they 
 numbered  in  England  74,57 1- 
 
 The  Friends,  or  Quakers,  numbered  16,611;  but 
 of  that  number  was  Professor  Rendall  Harris,  of  Cam- 
 bridge  University,   one   of  the   first  New 
 Testament  scholars  living.    The  Unitarians  uniuHan". 
 report  no  membership,  but  350  churches. 
 They  can  hardly  be  said  to  have  grown,  and  they  do 
 not  occupy  relatively  anything  like  the  position  of 
 one  hundred  years  ago. 
 
 But  they  gave  to  Christendom  one  of  the  purest 
 characters  and  one  of  the  clearest  thinkers  of  the  cen- 
 tury, who  wrote  with  an  ease  and  grace  un- 
 equaled  by  any  other  ethical  or  philosoph-  ^artki^t^u. 
 ical  writer  of  his  generation.      James  Mar- 
 tineau  (1805- 1900)  was  educated  at  Manchester  New 
 College,  and  ordained  in    1828.     For  the  next  four 
 years  he  was  pastor  in  Dublin,  but  in  1832  he  came  to 
 
568     History  of  the  Christian  Church, 
 
 Paradise  Street,  Liverpool,  of  which  he  remained  pas- 
 tor until  1857.  Then  he  came  to  Portland  Street, 
 London,  where  he  was  pastor  from  1857  to  1872,  and 
 made  a  reputation  as  one  of  the  foremost  English 
 preachers  of  his  time ;  in  the  latter  year  friends  pre- 
 sented him  with  a  purse  of  nearly  $50,000.  Besides 
 this  work,  he  taught  Moral  Philosophy  from  1840  at 
 Manchester  College.  He  was  its  principal,  1 869-1 885 ; 
 president,  1885-1887;  and  vice-president,  1887-1900. 
 In  1848  he  studied  in  Berlin  and  Dresden,  and  knew 
 well  modern  as  well  as  ancient  thought.  The  charac- 
 ter of  his  mind  and  the  value  of  his  thinking  can  well 
 be  discerned  from  his  works, — ''  Religion  as  Affected 
 by  Modern  Materialism,"  1874;  "Modern  Material- 
 ism: Its  Attitude  Toward  Theology,"  1876;  "Study 
 of  Spinoza,"  1882  ;  "  Types  of  Ethical  Theory,"  1885; 
 "A  Study  of  Religion,"  1888;  "Seat  of  Authority  in 
 Religion,"  1890;  and  "Essays,  Reviews,  and  Ad- 
 dresses," 1 890-1 89 1.  Of  these,  "A  Study  of  Religion" 
 is  easily  the  ablest  and  most  comprehensive.  In  his 
 "Seat  of  Authority  in  Religion  '  he  showed  that  his 
 historical  knowledge  and  judgment  were  hardly  equal 
 to  his  ethical  thinking. 
 
 James  Martineau  was  a  deeply  religious  man,  with 
 a  depth  of  religious  feeling  and  sentiment  beyond  his 
 creed.  In  the  battle  with  materialism,  no  other  man 
 or  score  of  men  rendered  the  service  which  he  did, 
 and  he  put  an  end  to  the  scornful  assumptions  of 
 scientists  who  had  only  half  thought  out  the  problems 
 of  our  being  and  destiny.  For  character  like  his,  and 
 work  like  his,  however  soon  some  of  it  is  superseded, 
 and  however  far  we  are  from  his  individualist  and 
 
Evangelical  Church  in  Greai  Britain.  569 
 
 anti-Trinitarian  position,  Christian  men  can  only  have 
 
 praise. 
 
 Two  visits  of  Americans  largely  affected  the  Chris- 
 tianity of  England  in  this  period.  One  was  that  of 
 Messrs.   Moody  and  Sankey  in   1873  and 
 
 ^  ^1-1  1     ,L      /^     r      J      Moody  and 
 
 1881,  who  came  from  Edmburghto  Oxtord,     gank.y. 
 Cambridge,  and  London,  and  left  an  endur- 
 ing impress  upon  the  Christian  life  and  work  of  Eng- 
 land. 
 
 The  second  was  that  of  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Pearsall 
 Smith,  1875.  From  their  teaching,  particularly  that  of 
 Mrs.  Smith,  arose  the  Keswick  Movement  ^^^^^^^,^^ 
 in  the  English  Church  and  in  the  Noncon-  jviovement. 
 forming  bodies.  It  seeks  the  definite  ex- 
 perience and  attendant  conduct  and  witness  of  the 
 Higher  Christian  Life.  It  has  done  much  for  a  spirit- 
 ual life  in  the  Church  of  England  that  is  not  nourished 
 by,  but  rejects,  the  predominant  tendency  to  ritual 
 observance  as  a  means  to  a  holy  life. 
 
 There   are    1,500,000  Roman  Catholics 
 in  England  and  Wales,  most  of  them  Irish    cathoiios. 
 or  of  Irish  descent.     They  had  1,572  chap- 
 els and  stations  and  3,018  clergy. 
 
 The  former  half  of  the  century  was  one  of  awaken- 
 ing and  disruption  in  the  Church  of  Scotland;  the 
 latter  part  was  one  of  quickened  and  act-  3^„^,^„j_ 
 ive  Church  life  and  of  reunion.  The  for- 
 mation of  the  United  Presbyterian  Church  in  1858 
 has  already  been  mentioned.  In  1 900  the  Free  Church 
 and  the  United  Presbyterian  Churches  united.  This 
 has  greatly  strengthened  the  Christian  Church  and  re- 
 ligion in  the  land  of  Knox.     This  growth  and  union 
 
570     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 among  the  Nonconforming  bodies  was  accompanied 
 by  a  large  increase  in  power  and  influence  of  the 
 Established  Kirk.  In  1900  it  had  1,374  parishes  and 
 1,795  churches,  chapels,  and  stations,  with  an  income 
 of  $1,700,000.  Since  1845  there  were  added  408  new 
 parishes  and  $12,500,000  in  endowments  for  parish 
 support.  In  1900  the  Church  reported  661,629  com- 
 municants, a  most  favorable  contrast  with  the  number 
 of  communicants  in  the  Church  of  England.  On  the 
 other  hand,  the  now  United  Free  Church  reported  in 
 1900,  1,661  congregations,  with  1,781  clergy,  and  488,- 
 795  members,  and  voluntary  ofierings  of  over  $5,000,- 
 000  a  year.  It  has  three  theological  colleges  in 
 Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  and  Aberdeen.  In  scholar- 
 ship, the  Free  Church  clearly  leads,  having  given  to 
 Christendom  in  this  period,  Alexander  B.  Bruce,  A. 
 B.  Davidson,  Marcus  Dods,  James  Robertson,  George 
 Adam  Smith,  and  Professor  William  Ramsay. 
 
 The  Episcopal  Church  in  Scotland,  in  1900,  had 
 318  clergy  and  121,000  adherents;  communicants  not 
 given.  The  Roman  Catholics  had  482  clergy,  354 
 chapels,  and  365,000  people,  mostly  from  Ireland. 
 
 The  most  noteworthy  event  in  the  Church  history 
 of  Ireland  in  this  period  was  the  disestablishment  of 
 the  Episcopal  Church.  This  act  of  justice 
 removed  an  ancient  wrong,  and  the  great- 
 est hindrance  to  Evangelical  work  in  Ireland  after  the 
 conquest  of  Cromwell  and  the  penal  laws  of  William 
 of  Orange.  In  1900  the  census  showed  a  decrease  of 
 6.  7  per  cent  in  the  population  in  ten  years.  The  only 
 Church  that  increased  in  numbers  between  1890  and 
 1900  was  the  Methodist.  The  census  shows  the 
 Roman  Catholic  population  to  be  3,310,028,  consider- 
 
Evangelical  Church  in  Great  Britain.  571 
 
 ably  less  than  the  Irish  element  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
 population  in  the  United  States. 
 
 The  Episcopal  Church  has  1,400  churches,  1,700 
 clergy,  and  a  population  of  579,385;  the  voluntary 
 offerings  are  $850,000  annually.  The  Presbyterians 
 have  669  clergy,  106,070  members,  and  a  population 
 of  443,494.  The  Methodists  come  next  with  61,255 
 members.  There  are  in  Ireland  9,898  Congregation- 
 alists,  6,896  Baptists,  and  2,623  Friends,  or  Quakers, 
 in  the  land  where  William  Penn  was  converted  to 
 their  faith.  With  the  settlement  of  the  land  question, 
 it  may  be  that  the  tide  of  emigration  which  has  di- 
 minished Ireland's  population  nearly  one-half  in  fifty 
 years  will  be  stayed. 
 
Chapter  VIII. 
 
 THE  CHRISTIAN  CHURCH  IN  THE   UNITED  STATES. 
 
 A  MARKED  increase  in  population  and  wealth  in  the 
 last  fifty  years  of  the  nineteenth  century  was  a  chief 
 characteristic  of  the  nations  of  Christen- 
 ^clndilions!  ^^^'  except  France,  Ireland,  and  Spain. 
 In  some,  as  Great  Britain,  Germany,  and 
 Russia,  the  advance  has  been  beyond  all  precedent. 
 But  that  of  the  United  States  in  population  and 
 wealth,  in  education  and  culture,  in  power  and  influ- 
 ence, has  been  beyond  all  comparison  in  ancient  or 
 modern  times.  A  population  increasing  from  five  to 
 seventy-six  millions,  and  area  open  to  settlement  from 
 400,000  to  3,000,000  square  miles  in  a  century,  is  a 
 record  without  parallel.  If  by  the  side  of  this  we 
 place  the  lines  of  steam  communication  by  water  and 
 by  rail,  and  the  great  cities  which  have  grown  up  be- 
 side them,  we  may  see  something  of  the  material 
 growth  in  the  creations  of  one  hundred  years.  Never 
 in  any  land  in  the  same  length  of  time  has  there  been 
 anything  like  the  same  expenditure  for  common 
 schools,  Sunday-schools,  colleges  and  universities,  and 
 schools  for  technical  and  professional  education.  In 
 no  land  beneath  the  sun  has  so  much  money  been 
 given  in  the  same  number  of  years  as  in  the  United 
 States  in  the  last  decade  of  the  century  for  public 
 charities  and  benevolence.  The  same  may  probably 
 be  said  of  expenditures  for  churches  and  for  the  found- 
 
 572 
 
Christian  Church  in  United  States.    573 
 
 ing,  endowment,  and  support  of  distinctively  Christian 
 institutions  of  education  and  charity.  At  the  end  of 
 the  century  the  United  States  was  in  the  foremost 
 rank  in  mining,  agriculture,  manufacturing,  and  in 
 commerce  among  the  nations  of  the  earth. 
 
 There  were  influences  which  affected  the  stages  of 
 the  nation's  growth  and  the  life  and  work  of  the 
 Church.     These  will  pass  in  rapid  review  : 
 
 The   Civil  War,   1 861-1865,  overthrew  the  social 
 order  and  industrial  system  of  the  South,  and  left  her 
 a   heart-sickening  heritage  in  impoverish- 
 ment and  desolation.     The  courage  shown    ^^g^'^" 
 in  the  dark  days  of  reconstruction  and  the 
 refounding  of  free  commonwealths  was  not  less  than 
 that  shown  on  the  battlefield.     In  North  and  South 
 alike  there  had  been  a  deluge  of  blood  and  tears,  and 
 a  destruction  of  property  and  an  accumulation  of  in- 
 debtedness that  seemed  appalling.     The  war  did  onev 
 thing,  it  sobered  and  disciplined  the  nation.     There 
 was  none  of  the  political  buncombe  and  desire  to  whip 
 all  creation  of  ante-bellum  days.    Men  addressed  them^ 
 selves  to  realities,  and  these  were  often  sad  and  hard 
 enough.     Ten  years  after  the  war,  in  1876,  was  held  \^ 
 the  first  great  World's  Exposition  in  America.     It 
 probably  was,  up   to  that   date,  the   greatest  object 
 lesson  and  popular   educator  in  the  history   of  the 
 American  people.     What  they  had  to  show  so  soon 
 after  such  a  devastating  conflict  was  indeed  wonder- 
 ful, but  what  they  learned  from  what  other  nations 
 had  to  show  was  even  more  wonderful.     The  Centen- 
 nial Exposition   at  Philadelphia  will  always  mark  a 
 distinctive  era  in  the  nation's  progress. 
 
 But  the  Christian  nations  of  Europe  sent  over  the 
 
574     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 sea  to  the  New  World,  not  only  their  goods  and  the 
 
 evidences  of  their  art  and  refinement,  they  sent  over 
 
 their  people  by  the  million.    In  the  last  fifty 
 
 Immigration.  r    .-*  ^  ^i  ^  •  • 
 
 years  of  the  century  they  sent  as  immi- 
 grants over  16,000,000,  nearly  17,000,000,  of  people. 
 In  1850  the  population  of  Knglandand  Wales  was  17,- 
 927,000,  and  that  of  the  United  States  was  23,000,000. 
 So  a  new  nation,  as  large  as  England  and  nearly 
 three-fourths  as  large  as  the  United  States,  came  to 
 this  country  from  over  the  sea  in  these  years.  These 
 immigrants  dug  the  canals,  built  the  railways,  sewered 
 and  paved  the  city  streets,  and  in  large  part  settled 
 the  Great  West.  Their  descendants  of  the  second 
 and  third  generation  became  the  truest  of  Americans 
 in  the  country  where  they  and  theirs  have  prospered. 
 Indeed,  many  in  the  first  generation  have  become 
 princes  in  the  land,  like  Alexander  T.  Stewart  and 
 Andrew  Carnegie. 
 
 Invention  and  emigration  made  possible  the  win- 
 ning of  the  West  to  civilization  in  this  period.  While 
 the  most  of  the  settlers  in  the  West  were 
 of  American  birth,  their  places  were  taken 
 by  immigrants  in  the  communities  they  left.  Owing 
 to  the  fact  that  the  advance  guard  was  of  native 
 origin,  there  has  been  preserved  a  remarkable  homo- 
 geneity in  language,  in  political,  social,  and  religious 
 institutions  throughout  the  country.  Foreign  colo- 
 nies which  have  preserved  another  speech  and  other 
 customs  are  the  exceptions. 
 
 These  elements  of  growth  itself  would  cause  a 
 financial  expansion,  but  this  was  accelerated  by  "  Wild 
 Cat"  banking  before  i860,  by  an  irredeemable  paper 
 currency  after  the  war,   and  by  speculation   in   real 
 
Christian  Church  in  United  States.    575 
 
 estate  and  mines  which  always  outran  all  legitimate 
 growth.     In  consequence  came  the  financial  crises  of 
 1857,  1873,  1884,  and  1893.     The  suffering 
 and  the  brave  endurance  of  it  by  multitudes  Expansion 
 of  business  men,  who  were  impoverished       ""^ 
 by  the  results  of  fatuous  legislation  prev- 
 ious  to    1873   and    1893,  will  always   remain  one  of 
 the  saddest  and  one  of  the  most  inspiring  memories 
 of  the   generation  which  witnessed   the  Civil  War. 
 That   economic   revolution   which,  in   1884  and   the 
 years  following,  caused  a  decline  of  thirty  per  cent  in 
 the  price  of  wheat,  caused  financial  stringency  and 
 suffering  difi&cult  to  estimate. 
 
 One  effect  of  this  fall  in  values  in  farm  products 
 and  lands  was  a  necessary  emigration   to  the  cities. 
 This  growth  of  the  urban  population  from 
 1885  to  1890  was  too  rapid  to  be  healthful,   ^ci^es.**' 
 It  was  one  cause  of  the  dire  effects  of  the 
 panic  of   1893.     With   returning  prosperity  came  a 
 more  varied  industry  and  advance  in  prices,  which  in 
 some  measure  restored  the  equilibrium,  which  electric 
 traction  in  the  country  districts  will  yet  more  facilitate. 
 
 The  opportunities  for  speculation,  and,  not  to  put 
 too  fine  a  point  upon  it,  for  thieving  from  the  public, 
 afforded  by  the  Civil  War,  the  era  of  irre- 
 deemable paper   money,  the   financing  of  corrupUon. 
 railway  systems,   the  expansion  of  cities, 
 and  a  flood  of  public  improvements,  proved  too  much 
 for  the  virtue  of  the  ordinary  politician.     There  came 
 a  lowering  of  the  tone  of  the  public  conscience,  a 
 lowering  of  the  standards  of  public  service.     Specu- 
 lation and  peculation  brought  in  a  reign  of  political 
 corruption.     **  Rings"  and  "bosses"  made  their  nox- 
 
 / 
 
576     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 ious  influence  felt.  The  Tweed  Ring,  the  Philadelphia 
 Gas  Ring,  the  Whisky  Ring,  the  Ring  whose  rule 
 caused  the  Cincinnati  riots,  the  rule  of  Tammany,  and 
 the  rule  of  the  boss  and  the  party  machine,  are  un- 
 pleasant memories,  as  they  were  unpleasant  experi- 
 ences in  our  national  life.  Fortunately  the  record  of 
 the  National,  and  as  a  rule  the  State,  administrative 
 service  has  been  exceptionally  good.  The  worst  evils 
 were  in  houses  of  legislation  and  markedly  in  city 
 governments.  The  progress  in  the  last  ten  years 
 of  this  period  in  civic  righteousness,  in  the  extension  of 
 the  civil  service  reform,  in  the  scrutiny,  publicity,  and 
 reform  of  municipal  expenditure  and  administration, 
 has  been  one  of  the  most  cheering  signs  of  the  better 
 political  conditions  which  are  to  prevail,  and  which 
 must  come,  before  the  community  can  deal  effectively 
 with  the  liquor-traffic.  When  we  remember  the  im- 
 mense national  debt  at  the  end  of  the  war  of 
 $2,845,000,000,  and  that  in  the  North,  the  States, 
 counties,  cities,  and  townships  were  loaded  down  with 
 war  debts,  while  so  much  of  the  public  and  private 
 property  in  the  South  was  destroyed;  when  we 
 recall  the  Whisky  Ring,  the  Tweed  Ring,  the  recon- 
 struction era,  and  municipal  extravagance,  and  re- 
 member that  these  debts  have  been  paid,  in  the  local 
 governments  wholly,  in  the  national  government 
 more  than  half ;  that  all  thought  of  repudiation  was 
 rejected  by  a  population  sorely  tested  by  a  great  fall 
 in  values,  and  that  the  reform  of  the  civil  service 
 and  of  municipal  government  have  become  accom- 
 plished facts  in  the  life  of  one  generation,  we  con- 
 clude that  religious  influence  and  sentiment,  that 
 Church  life,  that  the  preaching  and  living  of  right- 
 
Christian  Church  in  United  States.    577 
 
 eousness,  have  not  been  in  vain  in  the  generation 
 that  freed  the  slaves  and  saved  the  Union.  We  may 
 well  hope  that  the  present  generation  will  have  wis- 
 dom and  conscience  enough  to  deal  with  the  "boss," 
 the  race  problem,  and  the  liquor-traffic. 
 
 A  comparison  between  the  ordinary  home  and  its 
 comforts  in  1850  and  the  same  in  1900,  would  be  most 
 significant.    In  architecture,  in  labor-saving 
 
 ..  .  ^  '  ,  .        ^        Popular 
 
 appliances,  m  refinement,  where  there  is  no  comfort  and 
 increase  in  the  cost,  the  change  is  most      Artistic 
 
 .       ,      ^,  ,  ,  ,.  ,  ,  Conditions. 
 
 marked.  Photography,  chromo-lithography, 
 and  the  illustrated  periodical  press,  notably  the  Amer- 
 ican magazines,  have  made  a  new  artistic  world  and 
 environment  for  the  people.  An  almost  equal  advance 
 has  been  made  in  music  for  the  people  in  its  addition 
 to  the  course  of  instruction  in  the  common  schools,  in 
 the  wide  use  of  the  reed  organ  and  the  piano,  as  well 
 as  in  the  musical  culture  of  our  cities. 
 
 In  the  churches  the  general  use  of  hymnals  with 
 music  set  to  the  hymns,  the  popularity  of  the  Moody 
 and  Sankey  **  Gospel  Hymns,"  and  the  flood  of  evan- 
 gelistic and  Sunday-school  music,  mark  a  great  change 
 since  1850,  as  well  as  the  much  more  extensive  use  of 
 the  pipe-organ  in  churches.' 
 
 In  church  architecture,  there  has  been  an  immense 
 advance  in  comfort,  convenience,  and  artistic  effect, 
 though  sometimes  the  different  orders  and  styles  of 
 architecture  sit  down  in  amazing  proquinity,  if  not 
 concord,  in  the  same  edifice.  As  a  rule,  the  more  am- 
 bitious efforts  of  the  church  architect,  if  they  do  not 
 achieve  lasting  success,  are  not  examples  of  monu- 
 mental ugliness  or  colossal  ignorance.  There  are 
 some  traditions  of  ecclesiastical  order  that  the  boldest 
 37 
 
578     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 do  not  defy;  but  with  our  public  buildings  it  is  not 
 so.  Here  American  architecture  is  at  its  worst. 
 While  there  are  some  fine  exceptions,  from  the  Cap- 
 itol at  Washington  down,  nevertheless,  in  many  of 
 our  public  structures,  especially  those  adapted  for  and 
 expressing  the  public  life  of  the  county  or  the  mu- 
 nicipality, it  is  evident  that  the  choice  of  the  archi- 
 tect was  political,  not  artistic.  That  upon  a  county 
 whose  seat  is  a  populous  city  of  wealth,  education, 
 and  culture,  should  be  foisted  the  private  dwelling  of 
 a  foreign  nobleman  as  the  expression  of  its  public 
 life,  with  a  fitness  equal  to  that  of  a  palm-tree  in  an 
 arctic  landscape,  only  shows  how  dignity  and  sim- 
 plicity, the  expression  of  public  spirit,  and  the  power 
 of  the  community  may  be  thrown  to  the  winds,  if 
 made  up  by  an  ostentatious  interior. 
 
 From  this  sketch  of  the  trials  and  triumphs  of  our 
 national  life  it  may  be  seen  how  naturally  the  mind 
 
 and  the  endeavors  of  the  people  have  been 
 ^^^Tre^ndT'^   ^^sorbed  in  commercial  pursuits  and  their 
 
 aims  have  been  directed  so  largely  to  finan- 
 cial ends.  Money  value  and  financial  influence  have 
 more  power  at  the  end  of  the  century  than  at  its 
 meridian.  The  literature  that  found  its  leadership  in 
 Bryant,  Longfellow,  Lowell,  Whittier,  and  Holmes, 
 has  seen  no  successors  to  these  bards  with  their  ideal 
 aims  and  high  ethical  standards.  On  the  other  hand, 
 no  generation  has  ever  seen  money  so  universally  and 
 so  generously  given  to  Churches  and  the  purposes  of 
 Church  life,  for  education,  for  benevolences,  and  for 
 charities.  With  an  equal  sacrifice  of  time  and  self, 
 culture  of  the  soul,  and  discipline  of  the  life,  great 
 
Christian  Church  in  United  States.    579 
 
 things  for  the  establishment  of  the  kingdom  of  God 
 may  come  from  Christian  America,  the  future  far  sur- 
 passing a  wonderful  past. 
 
 To  this  tendency  toward  money-making  and  busi- 
 ness absorption,  added  to  the  natural  selfishness  and 
 sinfulness  of  man  which  the  gospel  of  Jesus 
 Christ  had  to  combat,  came  two  specific  conJ-'fjo^g 
 Antichristian  movements.  The  one  was 
 led  by  Theodore  Parker,  and  presented  a  purely 
 human  and  humanitarian  Christ.  Reform  and  benev- 
 olence constituted  the  sum  of  human  duties.  For 
 prayer,  or  religious  worship,  or  reverence,  it  had  but 
 little  place.  The  apathy  of  many  of  the  Churches  on 
 the  question  of  slavery  gave  large  entrance  for  this 
 teaching  to  many  minds.  The  havoc  made  in  the  re- 
 ligious experience  and  life  of  thousands  of  earnest 
 men  and  women  through  this  "  liberal  theology  "  is 
 sad  to  contemplate.  Its  consequences  reach  often  to 
 the  second  and  third  generations. 
 
 Soon  after  the  close  of  the  Civil  War,  Colonel  Rob- 
 ert G.  Ingersoll,  an  eloquent  orator  and  a  witty  de- 
 bater, lectured  in  all  the  chief  cities  on  "  Hell,"  "  The 
 Mistakes  of  Moses,"  and  kindred  themes.  Arrogant, 
 superficial,  and  without  a  touch  of  reverence  for  any- 
 thing human  or  divine,  he  caught  many  who  wished 
 to  believe  there  was  no  God  and  no  hereafter,  as  well 
 as  many  unthinking  people  who  were  carried  away  by 
 his  audacity  or  the  novelty  of  his  statements.  There 
 was  nothing  new  in  his  thought  or  the  objections  he 
 brought  forward;  but  to  many  he  made  the  Christian 
 religion  appear  as  a  sham  and  a  fraud.  At  first  he  was 
 bold  and  defiant  in  his  denials  of  all  realities  beyond 
 
5So     History  of  the  CnkisTiAN  Church, 
 
 this  life.  In  his  later  years  he  said,  **  I  do  not  know." 
 The  trend  of  scientific  skepticism  greatly  helped  him 
 at  first ;  but  it  soon  appeared  that  he  had  no  solution 
 to  the  problem  of  human  destiny,  and  men  like  Joseph 
 Cook  showed  how  much  larger  that  problem  was  than 
 he  had  been  able  to  conceive,  and  how  the  best 
 thought  of  the  world  was  against  him,  as  well  as  the 
 feelings  and  instincts  of  the  race. 
 
 As  if  in  response  to  these  challenges  came  the 
 great  revivals  of  1857  and  1875-9.  The  first  was  very 
 general  throughout  the  Northern  States,  and  had  no 
 particular  leader  or  center.  It  especially  honored 
 Christian  prayer  everywhere.  The  second  was  led  by 
 Mr.  Dwight  L.  Moody,  with  Mr.  Ira  D.  Sankey  assist- 
 ing him.  This  was  at  first  efiective  mainly  in  the 
 large  cities;  but  its  influence  pervaded  the  remotest 
 hamlet,  and  largely  changed  the  methods  of  revival 
 work,  and  the  expressions  of  Christian  experience. 
 
 The  work  of  the  Church  in  these  years,  never  more 
 
 arduous  or  important  or,  in  the  main,  successful,  was 
 
 carried  on  by  the  tens  of  thousands  of  de- 
 
 The  Work  of  ^^^^^j  ^^^  consecratcd  men  and  women  in 
 
 the   Church. 
 
 every  communion,  among  the  laity  and 
 clergy  alike,  whose  names  and  records  can  not  find 
 place  upon  history's  page,  but  which  are  in  God's 
 keeping,  and  whose  reward  will  be  beyond  all  human 
 computation.  These  founders  of  Christian  homes, 
 Christian  Churches,  Christian  institutions,  and  Chris- 
 tian communities  will  one  day  shine  as  the  sun  in  the 
 firmament  and  as  the  stars  for  ever  and  ever.  Here 
 we  can  find  record  only  for  those  whose  opportunity 
 or  ability  made  them  conspicuous  among  the  captains 
 of  the  host  of  our  Lord. 
 
Christian  Church  in  United  States.    581 
 
 When  we  come  to  name  those  clergymen  who  in 
 this  period  had  a  national  reputation  and  L^a^grs  of 
 influence,  we   see  that  the  Congregational     National 
 Church,   though    small   among   the   great    *"""*"*^*- 
 American  Churches,  was  strongest  in  men  of  widest 
 fame. 
 
 Horace  Bushnell  (i 802-1 876)  was  the  most  orig- 
 inal, suggestive,  and  powerful  thinker  among  the 
 American  preachers  of  the  century.  He 
 was  born  in  Litchfield,  Conn.  Educated  at  3"°^^^,,^ 
 Yale  College,  he  spent  the  years  of  his 
 ministry  and  of  his  life,  when  not  traveling  in  search 
 of  health,  in  Hartford.  He  was  a  New  Englander  of 
 the  New  Knglanders,  and  a  lifelong  loyal  son  of  Con- 
 necticut. He  understood  the  New  England  mind,  and 
 some  of  his  books  can  hardly  be  understood  without 
 taking  into  account  his  environment.  His  father's 
 mother  was  a  woman  of  vigorous  mind  and  a  zealous 
 Methodist.  His  father,  though  he  joined  the  Congre- 
 gational Church  as  the  only  one  near  enough  for  his 
 family  to  attend,  was  always  an  Arminian  in  his  opin- 
 ions. It  is  not  strange  that  from  such  ancestry  came 
 the  man  who  more  than  any  other  was  to  disintegrate 
 New  England  Calvinism.  Young  Bushnell  spent  the 
 years  of  his  boyhood  on  his  father's  farm  and  in  his 
 woolen  mill,  and  finally  entered  college  at  twenty-one. 
 Four  years  latter  he  graduated.  Then  he  taught 
 school,  went  to  New  York  for  a  few  months  to  edit 
 the  Jotirnal  of  Commerce,  studied  law  for  a  little  time, 
 and  finally,  in  1829,  accepted  a  tutorship  at  Yale. 
 There  he  finished  his  two  years'  study  of  law,  and  was 
 ready  for  admission  to  the  bar  when,  in  the  winter  of 
 1 83 1,  he  was  thoroughly  converted.      In  February, 
 
582      History  of  the  Christian  Church, 
 
 1833,  he  accepted  a  call  from  the  North  Congrega- 
 tional Church  of  Hartford,  of  which  he  remained  the 
 pastor  until  1859.  Dr.  Bushnell  prepared  his  sermons 
 with  great  care,  and,  when  fully  written  out,  read 
 them.  With  no  knowledge  of  how  to  use  his  vocal 
 organs,  he  brought  on,  first,  clergyman's  sore  throat, 
 and  then  a  lifelong  battle  with  consumption. 
 
 By  1845,  for  his  health,  he  spent  a  year  in  Europe, 
 visiting  England,  Scotland,  the  Rhine  country,  Switz- 
 erland, Italy  to  Rome,  France  and  back  to  England 
 again.  Few  letters  of  travel  give  one  so  vivid  an  idea 
 of  the  influence  of  the  enlarged  horizon  on  the  trav- 
 eler as  those  of  Dr.  Bushnell.  Soon  after  his  return 
 he  published  his  first  book  on  "  Christian  Nurture,"  a 
 book  well  worth  reading  now. 
 
 In  1848  he  entered  upon  a  deeper  experience  of  the 
 things  of  God,  which  enriched  his  life  and  strength- 
 ened his  ministry.  This  came  through  reading  the 
 "  lyife  of  Madame  Guyon  "  and  Fenelon.  He  did  not 
 rest  in  Quietism,  but  passed  to  a  positive  and  clear 
 knowledge  of  God,  which  made  a  new  man  and  a  new 
 preacher  of  him.  In  1849  he  published  *' God  in 
 Christ,"  an  attempt  to  solve  Unitarian  difiiculties 
 through  the  necessary  limitations  of  language.  For 
 this,  as  for  his  former  book,  he  was  trenchantly  as- 
 sailed, and  the  Fairfield  West  Association  sought  to 
 secure  a  Church  trial  of  his  orthodoxy,  1850  and  June 
 27,  1852.  On  the  latter  date  his  Church  withdrew 
 from  the  Hartford  Association  and  stood  alone,  but 
 impregnable.  Some  two  years  later  his  strongest  op- 
 ponent and  colleague  in  the  ministry  in  Hartford,  Dr. 
 Hawes,  became  reconciled  to  him  and  remained  his 
 lifelong  friend.     Dr.   Bushnell's    bearing   in  contro- 
 
Christian  Church  in  United  States.    583 
 
 versy  was  an  admirable  manifestation  of  the  Christian 
 spirit.  In  1851  he  published  "Christ  in  Theology," 
 developing  more  in  the  line  of  defense  the  views  ex- 
 pressed in  *'  God  in  Christ."  His  health  requiring  a 
 change,  he  took  a  trip  in  1852  to  Minnesota  and 
 Missouri.  In  1 855-1 856  he  spent  the  winter  in  Cuba 
 and  the  South;  in  1856-1857  he  was  in  California. 
 
 In  1858  he  published  two  books  which  will  ever 
 make  memorable  his  name ;  they  were  "  Sermons  for 
 the  New  Life"  and  *' Nature  and  the  Supernatural." 
 Few  have  ever  read  them  without  having  their  own 
 thought  cleared  and  their  hearts  warmed.  The  latter 
 book  is,  perhaps,  the  chiefest  American  contribution 
 to  Christian  apologetics  of  the  century. 
 
 In  1859,  with  inexpressible  sadness,  he  resigned 
 his  twenty-six  years'  pastorate.  From  henceforth  he 
 was  the  most  public-spirited  and  distinguished  citizen 
 of  Hartford.  Well  does  its  beautiful  park  bear  his 
 name.  The  winter  of  1 859-1 860  was  spent  in  Min- 
 nesota. 
 
 In  1863  appeared  his  volume  of  sermons,  entitled 
 "Christ  and  His  Salvation;"  in  1872,  "Sermons  on 
 Living  Subjects."  In  1866  he  published  the  "Vica- 
 rious Sacrifice,"  and  the  continuation  of  its  thought  in 
 1874,  "  Forgiveness  and  Law."  In  these  he  advocated 
 the  moral  theory  of  the  atonement,  but  in  such  a  way 
 as  to  deepen  the  reader's  conception  of  its  meaning 
 and  significance,  even  if  he  did  not  agree  with  him. 
 
 Dr.  Bushnell  was  not  a  great  scholar,  but  he  was  a 
 most  vigorous  and  original  thinker.  Had  he  read 
 more  it  would  have  saved  him  some  unnecessary  work, 
 but,  doubtless,  with  the  loss  of  some  of  his  verve  and 
 original  flavor.     The  man  who  can  read  Bushnell's 
 
584     History  of  the  Christian  Church, 
 
 sermons  and  not  know  himself  and  God  better,  must 
 be  strangely  constituted. 
 
 Henry  Ward  Beecher  (18 13-1877)  was  a  fellow- 
 townsman  of  Horace  Bushnell's,  being  born  in  lyitch- 
 field,  Conn.,  eleven  years  later.  He  was 
 "  BeTchIr'*  probably  the  most  largely-gifted  and  richly- 
 endowed  pulpit  orator  in  America  in  the 
 nineteenth  century.  Son  of  a  strong  thinker  and  a 
 famous  preacher.  Dr.  Lyman  Beecher,  Henry  Ward 
 received  his  education  at  Amherst  College,  and  his 
 theological  tuition  at  I^ane  Theological  Seminary.  In 
 1837  he  began  his  first  pastorate  at  I^awrenceburg, 
 Ind.,  and  two  years  later  he  went  to  Indianapolis, 
 where  he  remained  for  the  next  eight  years.  In  1847 
 he  accepted  a  call  to  Plymouth  Church,  Brooklyn, 
 where  he  remained  as  pastor  until  his  death,  forty 
 years  later.  This  church  seated  three  thousand,  and 
 was  crowded  during  his  ministry.  Besides  his  pulpit 
 work,  for  twenty  years  he  was  a  contributor  to  The 
 Independent,  and  its  editor  in  1861-1863.  In  1870  he 
 founded  the  Christian  Union,  now  The  Outlook.  Be- 
 sides this  work  he  lectured  in  the  chief  cities  in  the 
 United  States  and  in  England,  receiving  sometimes  as 
 much  as  $500  a  night.  In  addition,  he  was  active 
 and  earnest  as  a  political  orator,  whose  words  had 
 immense  influence  until  after  the  Civil  War.  In 
 1863,  at  the  instance  of  the  Government,  he  went  to 
 England  to  affect  public  sentiment  favorably  to  the 
 North.  He  achieved  great  success,  and  his  addresses 
 were  published  under  the  title  "  Freedom  and  War." 
 In  1865  he  went  to  Charleston  and  Fort  Sumter  when 
 the  flag  was  again  raised  over  the  Fort,  and  delivered 
 the  address;   he  was  there  when  President  L^incoln 
 
Christian  Church  in  United  States.    585 
 
 was  shot.  He  was  a  zealous  Republican  until  1884; 
 after  that,  a  Democrat.  In  1872,  1873,  and  1874  he 
 delivered  the  Yale  "  I^ectures  on  Preaching."  Two 
 volumes  of  his  "  Sermons"  were  published  and  a  "  Life 
 of  Christ."  In  1878  he  declared  his  disbelief  in 
 eternal  punishment,  and  in  1882  he  and  his  Church 
 withdrew  from  the  Congregational  Association. 
 
 In  1874  he  was  sued  for  breaking  up  the  home  of 
 Theodore  Tilton.     The  jury  did  not  agree,  standing 
 nine  for  acquittal  and  three  for  conviction.     But  the 
 trial  revealed  enough  to  check  the  popularity  of  the 
 most  popular  of  American  preachers.     No  other  man, 
 for  so  long  a  time,  so  held  and  inspired  his  audience. 
 God  gave  great  gifts  to  Henry  Ward  Beecher.     He 
 had  a  regal  imagination  of  almost  inexhaustible  fertil_ 
 ity.     He  had  breadth  of  mind,  great  warmth  of  hearty 
 and  strong  spiritual   aspirations.      His  was  a  large 
 nature,  and  its  outpouring  in  prayer  and  sermon  were 
 wonderful.     On  the  other  hand,  he  had  little  place  for 
 argument  or  philosophy.     Theology  of  the  schools  sat 
 lightly  upon  him.     A  widely  read,  well-informed  man^ 
 he  was  not  a  scholar.     Nor  had  he  a  well-thought-out 
 or  consistent  view  of  life.     He  was,  first  and  last,  an 
 orator.     He  had  none  of  that  organizing  ability  which 
 crystallizes  a  life  or  the  work  of  a  Church  in  an  insti- 
 tution.    Had  his  reason  been  equal  to  his  imagination, 
 or  his  judgment  to  his  impulse,  or  his  devotion  to  his 
 oratorical  fervor,  his  record  would  have  been  difi"erent 
 and  his  fame  unsurpassed. 
 
 Richard  Salter   Storrs  (1821-1900)  was  the  most 
 distinguished  citizen  in  the  great  city  in  ^^  ^^^^^^ 
 which  he  ministered   for  over  fifty  years, 
 the   most  eminent  clergyman  of  his  Church,  and  a 
 
586     History  of  the  Christian  Church, 
 
 man  whose  abilities,  devotion,  and  lofty  character 
 made  his  name  a  potent  influence  throughout  the 
 world.  Like  Henry  Ward  Beecher,  Dr.  Storrs's  father 
 was  a  clergyman,  and  he  came  to  Brooklyn  one  year 
 before  his  famous  compeer.  Two  more  dissimilar 
 natures  and  careers  it  would  be  hard  to  imagine.  Dr. 
 Storrs  was  a  scholar,  a  man  of  not  only  depth  of 
 thought  and  breadth  of  view,  but  of  remarkable  sound- 
 ness of  judgment,  and  whose  influence  increased  each 
 year  he  lived.  No  great  crowds  hung  upon  his  lips, 
 but  he  built  up  an  influential  Church,  and  made  a 
 permanent  impression  upon  the  city  and  his  Church 
 communion.  His  sermons  and  addresses  have  interest 
 and  unfailing  value.  Born  in  Braintree,  Mass.,  he  was 
 graduated  from  Amherst  in  1839.  He  studied  law 
 with  Rufus  Choate  for  two  years;  then  making  the 
 ministry  his  life  work,  he  was  graduated  from  Andover 
 Theological  Seminary  in  1 845.  The  same  year  he  was 
 ordained  and  served  at  Brookline,  Mass.,  for  a  year, 
 when,  in  November,  1846,  he  became  pastor  of  the 
 Church  of  the  Pilgrims  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  This 
 position  he  held  until  his  death,  but  his  active  pastor- 
 ate ceased  in  1899.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of 
 The  Independent,  and  one  of  its  editors,  1848-1861. 
 He  was  President  of  the  American  Board  of  Foreign 
 Missions  in  a  critical  period  of  its  history,  1 887-1 897. 
 His  address  at  the  opening  of  the  Brooklyn  Bridge, 
 and  that  on  Foreign  Missions  before  the  International 
 I  Council  of  Congregationalists  in  1899,  show  how  a 
 great  man  can  use  a  great  theme  on  a  great  occasion. 
 In  1875  he  published  a  small  volume  on  "Preaching 
 Without  Notes,"  which  had  a  wide  influence.  His 
 chief  works  are  the  Graham  Lectures,  1856,  on  ''The 
 
Christian  Church  in  United  States.    587 
 
 Constitution  of  the  Human  Soul ; "  the  Lowell  Lec- 
 tures, 1884,  on  "The  Divine  Origin  of  Christianity 
 Indicated  by  Its  Historical  Effect,"  one  of  the  noblest 
 monuments  of  Christian  thought  and  scholarship  of 
 this  period;  and  "Bernard  of  Clairvaux,"  1892.  His 
 life  went  out  amid  increasing  honors,  as  he  honored 
 his  native  land,  his  Church,  and  his  Lord. 
 
 Far  different  from  all  these  men,  and  of  a  wide 
 and  powerful  influence  on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic, 
 was  Dwight  Lyman  Moody  (i  837-1899). 
 Mr.  Moody  was  born  at  Northfield,  Mass.  ^  MSdy*!' 
 His  father  dying  when  he  was  four  years  of 
 age,  his  mother,  with  nine  children,  was  able  to  afford 
 him  only  the  advantages  of  the  common  school.  After 
 having  worked  for  some  years  on  the  farm  about 
 Northfield,  in  1854  he  went  to  Boston,  finding  a  place 
 as  clerk  in  a  shoestore.  There  he  gave  himself  to 
 Christ,  and  offered  himself  to  the  Congregational 
 Church  in  May,  1855,  but  was  not  received  until  a 
 year  later.  He  himself  fixed  the  date  of  his  conver- 
 sion as  in  1856.  In  September  of  that  year  he  went 
 to  Chicago  and  engaged  in  business  with  all  the  over- 
 flowing energy  of  his  eager,  impulsive  nature.  Until 
 i860  he  was  a  salesman  and  commercial  traveler  for  a 
 firm  dealing  in  boots  and  shoes.  He  was  enthusiastic 
 and  successful  in  business ;  but  he  felt  that  the  call 
 of  God  was  upon  him,  and  in  i860  he  became  city 
 missionary,  having  from  his  first  coming  to  Chicago 
 been  interested  and  active  in  Sunday-school  work  and 
 in  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association.  In  1862  he 
 married,  and  the  same  spring  he  went  to  the  front  as 
 a  member  of  the  Christian  Commission,  and  continued 
 in  this  work  until  the  end  of  the  war.     Here,  in  ad- 
 
588    History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 dition  to  his  natural  qualities  and  gift  of  speaking 
 helpfully  to  a  perfect  stranger,  he  acquired  that  habit 
 of  expectation  of  immediate  results  from  the  presen- 
 tation of  the  truths  of  the  gospel  which  characterized 
 his  work.  Preaching  to  men  about  to  go  into  battle, 
 and  pointing  men  dying  in  the  hospitals  to  the  Savior 
 crucified  and  risen,  gave  an  earnestness  and  immedi- 
 ateness  to  his  preaching  such  as  is  not  often  seen.  On 
 his  return  he  threw  himself  into  the  State  Sunday- 
 school  work,  assisting  in  the  first  series  of  Inter- 
 national Sunday-school  Lessons  in  1869.  In  these 
 years  he  was  active,  as  he  was  his  life  long  interested, 
 in  the  work  of  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Associa- 
 tion, and  was  president  of  its  International  Convention 
 in  1879,  having  greatly  aided  in  the  erection  of  the 
 buildings  for  the  Chicago  Association  which  preceded 
 the  present  structure,  the  finest  of  the  kind  in  the 
 world. 
 
 In  1867,  partly  on  account  of  his  wife's  health,  he 
 made  a  visit  to  Great  Britain,  and  made  valuable  ac- 
 quaintances as  a  Young  Men's  Christian  Association 
 worker.  In  1 87 1 ,  largely  through  an  English  preacher 
 who  came  to  Chicago,  Henry  Moorehouse,  he  came 
 into  a  deeper  experience  in  the  spiritual  life  and 
 greater  power  in  preaching  the  gospel.  In  1872  he 
 was  again  in  London  for  a  short  time,  and  attended 
 the  Mildmay  Conference.  Incidentally  this  prepared 
 the  way  for  his  extended  evangelistic  tour,  June,  1873, 
 to  August,  1875.  In  this  tour  he  began  his  work  at 
 York,  and  went  north.  He  met  with  great  success  at 
 Edinburgh  and  Glasgow,  powerfully  stirring,  as  no 
 other  man  of  the  Century,  Scotchmen  of  all  Churches 
 and  creeds.     In  both  places,  in  departing,  he  preached 
 
Christian  Church  in  United  States.    589 
 
 to  audiences  of  twenty  thousand.  Then  he  preached 
 in  the  north  of  Ireland,  and  thence  came  to  London. 
 Here,  as  in  Scotland  and  Ireland,  he  achieved  great 
 success.  His  tour  was  made  in  connection  with  Mr. 
 Ira  D.  Sankey,  whom  he  first  met  in  1870.  Their  book 
 of  "Sacred  Songs  and  Solos"  was  first  published  in 
 1873.  In  1875  it  was  published  in  America  as  "  Gospel 
 Hymns."  Six  different  books  of  that  title  have  been 
 published.  The  profits  to  Messrs.  Moody  and  Sankey 
 have  been  $354,000,  before  1901,  of  which  not  one 
 cent  went  into  their  pockets,  but  all  has  been  given  to 
 benevolent  work. 
 
 On  Mr.  Moody's  return  to  America  he  held  five 
 series  of  special  religious  services,  1 875-1 877,  in 
 Brooklyn,  Philadelphia,  New  York,  Chicago,  and 
 Boston.  These  meetings  may  be  said  not  only  to 
 have  resulted  in  bringing  many  thousands  to  Christ, 
 but  they  also  made  the  entire  service  and  work  of  the 
 Evangelical  Churches  less  conventional  and  more 
 effective.  In  1881-1884,  Mr.  Moody  was  again  in 
 Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  Again  he  conducted  a 
 great  campaign  in  London.  He  also  worked  in  1882 
 in  Oxford  and  Cambridge.  In  189 1  and  1892  he  was 
 again  in  Great  Britain,  and  in  the  latter  year  visited 
 the  Holy  Land.  In  1893,  during  the  World's  Fair, 
 he  conducted  a  six  months'  campaign  in  Chicago,  ex- 
 pending in  it  $60,000.  From  1875  until  his  death, 
 when  in  this  country,  he  held  each  year  special  re- 
 vival services  or  missions  in  the  chief  cities  of  the 
 
 land. 
 
 But  Mr.  Moody  was  more  than  a  revivalist.  He 
 felt  his  own  lack  of  early  training  and  resolved  to  help 
 those  who  wished  a  better  education,  and  yet  were 
 
590     History  of  the  Christian  Church 
 
 very  poor ;  also  he  desired  to  give  a  suitable  training 
 to  lay  workers  in  the  Church.  From  this  arose  the 
 Northfield  Seminary  for  girls.  Here  they  are  given  a 
 good,  thorough,  secondary  education.  They  do  the 
 necessary  domestic  work  of  the  institution  themselves. 
 This  school  was  established  in  1879;  in  1881  came  the 
 Mt.  Hermon  School  for  boys.  Boys  do  manual  work. 
 The  tuition  and  board  is  $100  a  year.  In  both 
 schools  the  Bible  is  thoroughly  taught.  Before  the 
 century's  end,  nearly  six  thousand  students  had  en- 
 joyed the  advantages  of  these  schools.  The  Bible  Insti- 
 tute at  Chicago  for  the  training  of  Christian  workers 
 was  founded  in  1889.  It  has  a  two  years'  course.  In 
 the  first  ten  years  it  sent  out  one  hundred  and  eighty- 
 six  foreign  missionaries,  besides  all  the  workers  at 
 home.     Its  property  is  valued  at  $300,000. 
 
 But  Mr.  Moody's  work  and  influence  culminated 
 in  his  Northfield  Bible  Conferences.  The  first  was  held 
 in  1880,  and  since  1885  they  have  been  held  annually. 
 In  wide  influence  and  permanent  results,  probably  no 
 evangelist  of  the  nineteenth  century  equaled  Mr. 
 Moody,  though  very  many  of  them  were  men  of  much 
 greater  intellectual  ability.  A  part  of  Mr.  Moody's 
 power,  doubtless,  was  that  he  was  a  layman,  and  pre- 
 sented the  gospel  in  such  a  direct,  telling,  and  entirely 
 unconventional  manner,  But  Mr.  Moody  had  great 
 gifts.  He  loved  men,  he  loved  his  lyord,  and  he  was 
 thoroughly  unselfish.  He  was  an  excellent  man  of 
 business,  and  had  a  practical  sense  seldom  equaled. 
 He  knew  men  as  few  men  have  ever  done,  and  he 
 knew  his  Bible.  He  received  the  love  of  God  in  its 
 fullness,  and  did  more  than  any  other  man  of  his  time 
 to  bring  together  and  in  active  co-operation  Christians 
 
Christian  Church  in  United  States     591 
 
 of  different  Churches.  He  had  intense  earnestness, 
 wonderful  directness  of  appeal,  and  entire  simplicity. 
 He  said,  "  I  know  that,  in  any  place  I  go,  there  are 
 better  preachers  of  the  gospel  than  I ;  but  God  uses 
 me."  And  how  wonderfully  God  used  him  !  There 
 are  two  marked  characteristics  of  his  life.  He  was 
 always  a  man  of  prayer,  and  he  was  always  learning 
 better  how  to  do  God's  work  in  reaching  and  saving 
 men.  His  work  was  his  great  school ;  and  how  he 
 grew  in  it ! 
 
 A  very  different  man  from  these,  but  the  equal  of 
 any  of  them  in  the  command  of  an  audience,  and  un- 
 surpassed in  the  century  as  a  master  of 
 pathetic  eloquence,  was  Bishop  Matthew  gimp^n. 
 Simpson  (1811-1884),  of  the  Methodist 
 Episcopal  Church.  Bishop  Simpson  was  born  at 
 Cadiz,  Ohio.  His  father  died  when  he  was  a  year 
 old.  He  was  brought  up  by  his  mother,  and  owed  his 
 training  to  two  uncles — his  mother's  brother,  William 
 Tingley,  for  more  than  twenty  years  the  clerk  of  the 
 court;  but  mostly  to  his  father's  brother,  for  whom  he 
 was  named,  and  who,  unmarried,  became  a  father  to 
 his  brother's  only  son.  This  uncle,  Matthew  Simp- 
 son, was  quite  an  inventor,  an  efficient  schoolmaster, 
 and  for  ten  years  a  member  of  the  Senate  of  the 
 State  of  Ohio. 
 
 Young  Simpson  was  a  delicate  child,  with  a  thirst 
 for  learning,  and  remarkable  power  of  application  and 
 acquisition.  He  was  in  the  elementary  school  but  a 
 few  months;  then  at  home  he  picked  up  German  and 
 some  French,  botany,  chemistry,  and  geology.  At 
 last,  in  1823,  by  agreeing  to  do  half  a  day's  work  each 
 day  besides,  he  went  to  the  academy  and  made  rapid 
 
592      History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 progress  in  Latin  and  Greek.  His  uncle  opening  a 
 school,  he  served  as  his  assistant,  1 826-1 828.  In  the 
 latter  j^ear  he  was  two  months  at  Madison  College, 
 but  left  for  want  of  funds,  having  walked  all  the  way 
 to  college  and  walking  all  the  way  back.  On  his  re- 
 turn, in  1829,  he  was  converted  at  a  camp-meeting, 
 though  with  no  unusual  demonstrations.  From  1830 
 to  1833,  while  supporting  himself,  he  studied  medi- 
 cine, and  in  the  spring  ot  that  year  began  its  practice. 
 At  the  Conference  in  July  he  was  appointed  third 
 preacher  on  his  home  circuit,  it  being  understood 
 that  he  could  not  leave  home  on  account  of  the  fatal 
 illness  of  his  sister. 
 
 Matthew  Simpson  was  now  a  young  man  of  un- 
 usually alert  and  receptive  mind,  with  the  tempera- 
 ment of  an  orator,  but  with  a  quickness  and  firmness 
 of  practical  judgment  seldom  surpassed.  He  was 
 tall,  thin,  ungainly  in  appearance,  bashful  in  manner, 
 with  a  high,  thin  voice,  a  tendency  he  never  over- 
 came to  flat  his  vowels,  and  with  weak  lungs.  He 
 would  do  nothing  in  any  way  toward  securing  a 
 license  or  entering  Conference.  These  steps  were  all 
 taken  without  his  co-operation.  Finally  he  told  his 
 mother  that  he  thought  God  called  him  to  preach. 
 To  his  great  surprise  she  replied,  "  My  son,  I  have 
 been  looking  for  this  hour  ever  since  you  were 
 born,"  and  she  told  him  how  his  dying  father  prayed 
 that  the  infant  son  might  become  a  minister  of 
 Christ's  Gospel.  In  the  spring  of  1834,  his  sister 
 having  died,  he  gave  up  his  medical  practice  and 
 gave  himself  wholly  to  the  work  of  his  circuit.  In 
 July,  1834,  he  was  appointed  to  Pittsburg,  Pa., 
 against  his  desire  and  expectation.      In  1835  he  was 
 
Christian  Church  in  United  States.    593 
 
 appointed  to  Liberty  Street,  Pittsburg,  the  circuit 
 being  divided,  and  in  that  year  he  married  the  com- 
 panion of  his  heart  and  life.  In  1836  he  was  ap- 
 pointed to  what  is  now  Monongahela  City,  twenty 
 miles  below  Pittsburg. 
 
 These  four  years  were  the  extent  of  the  pastoral 
 service  of  Matthew  Simpson.  In  1837  he  became 
 Professor  of  Natural  Science  in  Allegheny  College,  at 
 Meadville,  Pa.  Here  he  staid  two  years  and  learned 
 the  routine  of  college  work  and  administration ;  but, 
 best  of  all,  he  had  an  opportunity,  which  he  prized 
 and  improved,  in  the  college  library  of  six  thousand 
 volumes.  In  1839  he  was  chosen  president  of  In- 
 diana Asbury  University  at  Greencastle,  then  in  the 
 acorn  stage  of  its  development.  Here  he  remained 
 and  wrought  for  the  next  nine  years,  living  largely 
 on  hope,  but  making  many  acquaintances,  acquiring 
 a  powerful  influence  as  a  pulpit  orator,  and  showing 
 rare  gifts  as  an  administrator.  In  1848  he  became 
 editor  of  the  Western  Christian  Advocate.  Here  he 
 took  his  position  in  the  days  of  political  compromise 
 as  a  determined  Antislavery  man,  winning  for  his 
 editorials  the  written  commendations  of  Salmon  P. 
 Chase. 
 
 Matthew  Simpson  had  been  a  member  of  the 
 General  Conference  of  1844.  In  that  of  1848  he,  in 
 part,  framed  the  resolution  which  declared  the  Plan 
 of  Separation  null  and  void.  In  that  of  1852  he 
 wrote  the  report  which  was  adopted,  and  w4iich  de- 
 clared lay  delegation  at  that  time  inexpedient. 
 Bishop  Simpson  had  to  this  time  never  been  a  robust 
 man.  He  changed  from  Meadville  to  Greencastle, 
 and  from  Greencastle  to  Cincinnati,  mainly  on  ac- 
 38 
 
594     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 count  of  his  health.  In  1852,  on  the  first  ballot,  he, 
 with  Scott,  Ames,  and  Baker,  was  elected  bishop. 
 In  1853,  the  first  bishop  of  any  Church  from  the 
 East,  he  visited  California  and  Oregon,  revisiting  this 
 field  again  in  1862.  In  1 857-1858  he  crossed  the 
 Atlantic,  being,  with  Dr.  McClintock,  fraternal  dele- 
 gate to  the  Wesleyan  Conference.  Before  the  Con- 
 ference, where  he  carried  all  before  him,  he  visited 
 Norway.  Afterward  he  was  present  at  the  meeting 
 of  the  Evangelical  Alliance  in  Berlin,  and  preached, 
 in  English  of  course,  in  the  Garnison  Kirche. 
 Thence  by  Prague,  Vienna,  and  Constantinople,  he 
 journeyed  to  the  Holy  Land.  Thence  to  Egypt, 
 Naples,  Marseilles,  Paris,  and  London,  home. 
 
 Bishop  Simpson,  in  understanding  and  grasp  of 
 the  situation,  in  genuine  kindness  of  heart,  in  the 
 unfailing  courtesy  of  Christian  brotherhood,  has  had 
 no  superior  in  the  high  office  he  held.  The  discharge 
 of  its  duties  and  the  countless  calls  for  special  public 
 service  as  a  chief  pastor  of  his  Church  might  well 
 absorb  all  his  time.  Yet  probably,  outside  of  this,  he 
 rendered  his  greatest  service  in  cheering  his  country- 
 men in  the  dark  days  of  the  Civil  War,  where  no 
 man  in  the  American  Churches  exerted  a  wider  influ- 
 ence, in  his  advocacy  of  lay  representation  in  the 
 General  Conference,  and  in  his  paving  the  way  for 
 fraternal  relations  between  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
 Church  and  her  separated  sister  of  the  South. 
 
 Bishop  Simpson  was  a  personal  friend  of  Presi- 
 dent Lincoln,  and  of  Secretary  Edwin  M.  Stanton, 
 who  was  born  of  a  Methodist  family.  He  was  often 
 sent  for  to  consult  with  them,  and  when,  in  the  hour 
 of  triumph,  the  "First  Great  American"  lay  low  by 
 
Christian  Church  in  United  Srates.    595 
 
 the  hand  of  an  assassin,  it  was  Bishop  Simpson  who 
 delivered  the  address  at  his  grave.  His  great  speeches 
 in  New  York  in  November,  1864,  in  Philadelphia  at 
 the  opening  of  the  Fair  of  the  Sanitary  Commission 
 in  the  spring  of  that  year,  and  in  the  House  of  Repre- 
 sentatives in  January,  1866,  were  upon  great  occasions 
 for  his  patriotic  eloquence,  and  occasions  nobly  met. 
 
 In  1852  he  had  opposed  lay  representation;  he 
 came  out  for  it  strongly  in  1863,  the  only  one  of  the 
 Episcopal  Board,  and  against  a  powerful  opposition. 
 In  1868  the  minority  became  a  majority,  and  in  1872 
 lay  representation  became  an  accomplished  fact.  In 
 1870,  by  visiting  the  bishops  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
 copal Church,  South,  in  company  with  Bishop  Janes, 
 the  way  was  prepared  for  the  sending  of  the  first  fra- 
 ternal delegates  to  their  General  Conference  at  Nash- 
 ville in  1874,  and  the  return  of  the  courtesy  by  that 
 Church  to  the  General  Conference  of  the  Methodist 
 Episcopal  Church  at  Baltimore  in  1876.  This  made 
 way  for  the  Cape  May  Commission  of  August,  1876, 
 which  removed  all  obstacles  to  fraternal  union. 
 
 In  1874,  Bishop  Simpson  made  an  Episcopal  visit 
 to  Mexico,  and  the  year  following  to  Italy,  Germany, 
 and  Scandinavia.  In  the  winter  of  1 878-1 879  he  de- 
 livered the  Yale  '*  Lectures  on  Preaching."  It  is  sug- 
 gestive that  Plorace  Bushnell,  with  a  splendid  phy- 
 sique, by  reading  his  sermons  preached  himself  into 
 the  consumption,  which  made  the  last  twenty  years  of 
 his  life  one  long  disease,  while  Matthew  Simpson, 
 never  vigorous,  hollow-chested,  and  with  weak  lungs, 
 preached  himself  by  extempore  speaking  into  health 
 and  the  vigor  of  large  performance  until  past  seventy 
 years  of  age. 
 
596      History  of  the  Christian  Church, 
 
 He  was  a  fraternal  delegate  again  to  the  Wesleyan 
 Conference  in  1870,  at  Burslem,  and  seldom  surpassed 
 the  effect  of  his  address  on  that  occasion.  He  was 
 greatly  interested  in  the  First  Ecumenical  Conference 
 in  London  in  188 1.  In  the  address  on  the  death  of 
 President  Garfield  in  Exeter  Hall,  he  swayed  the 
 audience  and  brought  it  to  its  feet  with  all  the  ease  of 
 his  younger  years.  In  great  feebleness,  he  attended 
 the  sessions  of  the  General  Conference  of  1884,  and 
 gave  the  parting  address.  Humbly  and  devotedly  he 
 had  lived  the  Christian  life,  and  on  the  i8th  of  June 
 1884,  the  great  preacher  and  bishop  passed  to  his 
 reward. 
 
 Bishop  Simpson  was  the  rare  combination  of  a 
 poetic  imagination,  practical  judgment,  and  admirable 
 administrative  capacity.  His  oratory  was  persuasive 
 rather  than  instructive,  but  it  was  overwhelming.  A 
 thorough  Christian  gentleman,  at  his  death  he  left 
 nothing  that  could  wound  those  who  loved  and  trusted 
 him  while  living.  Few  men  more  loved  their  kind 
 than  this  man,  whose  words  moved  multitudes  as  the 
 tempest  moves  the  forest. 
 
 Bishop  John  H.  Vincent  is  the  originator  of  the 
 Chautauqua  Assembly,  the  Chautauqua  Literary  and 
 Scientific  Circle,  the  Chautauqua  Univer- 
 vincent.     ^^^^ ^  ^"^  perhaps,  more  than  any  one  man, 
 has  influenced  the  interdenominational  de- 
 velopment of  the  Sunday-school  work  of  the  Evangel- 
 ical Churches,  and  indeed  in  no  slight  degree  of  all 
 Churches  in  all  lands.     In  this  latter  work  he  has  had 
 able  co-workers,  notably  in  Rev.  Henry  Clay  Trum- 
 bull, editor  of  the  Sunday-school  Times.     Hence,  no 
 man  in  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  is  so  widely 
 
Christian  Church  in  United  States.    597 
 
 known  and  loved  in  all  the  American  Churches  and  in 
 foreign  lands  as  the  founder  of  the  Chautauqua  Move- 
 ment. No  man  has  done  more  to  raise  the  standards 
 and  ideals  of  Sunday-school  teaching,  or  has  more 
 widely  reached  the  children  of  the  Methodist  Churches 
 in  the  nineteenth  century,  than  John  H.  Vincent. 
 
 John  Heyl  Vincent  was  born  in  Tuscaloosa,  Ala.^ 
 in  1832.  Six  years  later,  with  his  parents,  he 
 came  to  Northumberland  County,  Pa.  He  studied  in 
 Milton  and  Lewisburg  Academies,  in  the  Preparatory 
 School  of  Lewisburg  University,  and  the  Wesleyan 
 Institute  at  Newark,  N.  J.  He  was  licensed  as  a  local 
 preacher  in  1850,  and  joined  the  Conference  in  1853. 
 From  1853  to  1857  he  served  Churches  in  New  Jersey, 
 and  in  the  latter  year  was  transferred  to  the  Rock 
 River  Conference,  where  he  was  pastor  at  Joliet,  Ga- 
 lena, Rockford,  and  Chicago.  At  Galena  he  was  pas- 
 tor of  the  family  of  General  Grant.  His  interest, 
 enthusiasm,  intelligence,  and  success  in  Sunday-school 
 work  caused  him  to  be  called  to  New  York  in  1865, 
 to  take  charge  of  that  work  in  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
 Church.  This  position  he  occupied  until  his  election 
 as  bishop  in  1888.  Before  this  election  he  had  visited 
 Europe  six  times,  and  Egypt  and  Palestine  twice. 
 
 In  1874,  with  Mr.  Lewis  Miller,  of  Akron,  Ohio,  he 
 organized,  on  Chautauqua  Lake,  the  Chautauqua  As- 
 sembly, a  radical  modification  of  the  Methodist  Camp- 
 meeting.  The  gates  were  not  open  on  Sunday,  the 
 main  interest  was  in  the  study  and  teaching  of  the 
 Bible,  and  the  time  was  extended  to  a  month  instead 
 of  a  week.  This  became  the  parent  of  many  scores  of 
 like  Assemblies,  which  are  known  from  the  Atlantic 
 to   the   Pacific,   including  those   among   the   Roman 
 
598      History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 Catholics  and  the  Jews,  and  have  come  to  be  a  very 
 considerable  factor  in  the  summer  life  of  the  American 
 people.  Four  years  later  the  Chautauqua  Literary 
 and  Scientific  Circle  was  founded,  and  brought  more 
 intellectual  culture  in  a  religious  spirit  into  the  Amer- 
 ican home  than  any  other  single  means  used  in  the 
 last  fifty  years.  Its  work  and  influence  is  felt  in  all 
 lands.  Bishop  Vincent  has  been  assiduous,  faithful, 
 and  successful  in  the  duties  of  his  office.  Since  his 
 election  as  Bishop  he  has  been  repeatedly  chosen  uni- 
 versity preacher  at  Harvard  and  Cornell.  Long  may 
 he  remain  with  the  Church,  and  long  after  may  his 
 work  flourish ! 
 
 Another  Methodist  preacher  of  national  influence 
 
 and  world-wide  reputation  was  William  H.  Milburn 
 
 (\%2'\-\<^o%),  he  havinar  served  for  twenty- 
 
 Dr.  Milburn.    ^  ,        ,    •  ^  r        ./ 
 
 two  years  as  chaplain  to  Congress,  lor  the 
 last  eighteen  continuously,  a  much  longer  period  than 
 that  occupied  by  any  of  his  predecessors  in  office.  Dr. 
 Milburn  was  born  in  Philadelphia.  His  sight  was 
 perfect  until,  at  the  age  of  five  years,  an  accident  in 
 play  and  a  physician's  malpractice  destroyed  one  eye 
 and  gradually  extinguished  the  sight  of  the  other. 
 After  two  years  in  darkness,  for  over  fifteen  years, 
 with  great  difficulty  he  was  able  to  read  a  little  each 
 day.  His  father,  a  prosperous  merchant  in  Philadel- 
 phia, lost  his  fortune  in  1837,  and  the  family  moved 
 to  Jacksonville,  111.  There  he  assisted  his  father  in  a 
 store,  and  read  largely  from  a  good  library  to  which 
 he  had  access.  He  learned  Latin  and  Greek ;  but  the 
 cramped  posture  necessary  to  read  made  it  necessary 
 for  him  to  give  up  college  work  in  order  to  retain  his 
 health.     Hence,  at  twenty  years  of  age,  he  joined  the 
 
Christian  Church  in  United  States.    599 
 
 Illinois  Conference  and  traveled  its  circuits.  Two 
 years  later,  having  been  appointed  financial  agent  of  a 
 Western  college,  he  set  out  for  the  East.  He  left 
 Cincinnati  for  Wheeling  on  a  steamboat.  There  was 
 a  crowd  on  the  boat,  and  among  them  several  Con- 
 gressmen of  each  House.  They  swore,  played  cards, 
 and  drank  heavily.  On  Sunday  morning,  young  Mil- 
 burn  was  asked  to  preach.  Toward  the  close,  he  ad- 
 dressed these  representatives  of  the  people,  saying: 
 "  Consider  the  influence  of  your  example  upon  the 
 young  men  of  the  nation— what  a  school  of  vice  you 
 are  establishing !  If  you  insist  upon  the  right  of  ruin- 
 ing yourselves,  do  not,  by  your  example,  corrupt  and 
 debauch  those  who  are  the  hope  of  the  land.  I  must 
 tell  you  that,  as  an  American  citizen,  I  feel  disgraced 
 by  your  behavior ;  as  a  preacher  of  the  gospel,  I  am 
 commissioned  to  tell  you  that,  unless  you  renounce 
 your  evil  courses,  repent  of  your  sins,  and  believe  on 
 the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  with  your  hearts  unto  righteous- 
 ness, you  will  certainly  be  damned." 
 
 Soon  after  the  service,  and  while  he  was  in  his 
 room,  a  gentleman  called  upon  him  and  presented  him 
 with  a  purse  of  between  fifty  and  one  hundred  dollars, 
 and  said  that,  if  he  would  allow  the  use  of  his  name, 
 that  would  assure  him  of  an  honorable  election  as 
 chaplain  to  Congress.  After  consulting  with  a  clergy- 
 man on  the  steamer,  he  gave  his  consent.  Thus  he 
 became  chaplain  of  the  House  of  Representatives, 
 1 844-1 846.  After  serving  six  years  in  the  pastorate 
 in  the  South,  he  came  North,  and  was  again  chosen 
 chaplain,  1853-1855.  Then  he  was  in  the  pastorate, 
 mainly  in  New  York,  until  1862.  Meantime,  he  came 
 to  be  in  great  demand  as  a  lecturer.     In   1862  he  lo- 
 
6oo     History  of  the  Christian  Church, 
 
 cated  and  joined  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church. 
 Sixteen  years  after,  he  returned  to  the  Church  of  his 
 love  and  the  Conference  of  his  early  service.  For 
 forty  years  he  traveled,  preaching  and  lecturing  exten- 
 sively in  all  the  United  States,  Canada,  Great  Britain, 
 and  Ireland.  Before  1898  he  calculated  he  had  trav- 
 eled one  million  six  hundred  thousand  miles. 
 
 Dr.  Milburn  brought  the  cultivation  of  the  memory 
 and  the  voice  to  a  perfection  unequaled  by  any  public 
 man  of  his  time.  To  the  author,  his  conduct  of  the 
 service  in  dignit}^  and  the  modulation  of  his  voice  in 
 beauty  and  in  harmony  with  his  thought,  excelled 
 anything  he  has  ever  heard.  He  was  the  author  of 
 several  works,  "The  Rifle,  Ax,  and  Saddlebag  "  being 
 the  first.  "What  a  Blind  Man  Saw  in  England"  was 
 his  most  popular  lecture.  As  a  preacher  he  ranked 
 with  the  best.  The  London  Athenczum  described  his 
 eloquence  as  next  to  Milton's,  and  the  editor  of  the 
 Christian  World  pronounced  him  superior  to  any 
 preacher  he  had  ever  heard. 
 
 When  PhiUp  Schaflf  came  to  New  York  as  a  pro- 
 fessor in  the  Union  Theological  Seminary  and  a  mem- 
 ber of  the  Presbyterian  Church,  he  was  the 
 schltt!*'^  most  distinguished  teacher  of  Church  His- 
 tory in  the  United  States,  and  such  he  re- 
 mained until  his  death.  In  these  years  he  published 
 his  translation  and  American  edition  of  Lange's 
 "Commentary;"  his  "Creeds  of  Christendom,"  the 
 fullest  and  best  work  on  Christian  creeds  ;  his  edition 
 of  Bryennios's  "Teachingof  the  Twelve  ;"  his  abridg- 
 ment, translation,  and  additions  to  Herzog's  "  Ency- 
 clopedia for  Protestant  Theology  and  the  Church," 
 and  "  Library  of  the  Christian  Fathers,"  in  which  he 
 
Christian  Church  in  United  States.    6oi 
 
 co-operated  with  Bishop  Coxe  and  others.  His  life 
 long,  he  was  interested  in  the  progress  of  religious 
 toleration,  especially  in  Roman  Catholic  lands,  though 
 Evangelical  intolerance  seemed  to  hurt  him  worse 
 than  any  other.  He  was  greatly  interested  in  the 
 Parliament  of  Religions  held  in  connection  with  the 
 Columbian  Exposition  in  Chicago  in  1893.  He  soon 
 became  ill,  and  survived  his  return  from  it  but  a  few 
 weeks. 
 
 The  man  who,  more  than   any   other  American, 
 
 made  his  countrymen  at  home  in  German  theological 
 
 thought,  was  Henry  Boynton  Smith  ( 1815- 
 
 Professor     ^g     >        Professor   Smith   was  delicate   in 
 
 Smith.  /  /  ^  _ 
 
 physique  and  refined  in  expression,  but  a 
 tireless  worker.  Early  in  his  college  and  theological 
 course  his  health  was  on  the  point  of  giving  way. 
 Having  finished  his  college  course  with  distinction  at 
 Bowdoin,  and  studied  theology  at  Andover  and  Ban- 
 gor, and  taught  awhile  at  Bowdoin,  in  1837,  at  the  age 
 of  twenty-two,  he  was  sent  to  Europe  to  check,  and  if 
 possible  cure,  incipient  consumption.  Few  letters  of 
 an  American  student  in  Germany  have  the  value  of 
 Professor  Smith's  letters,  1 837-1 840.  He  became  a 
 lifelong  and  intimate  friend  of  Tholuck  and  his  wife. 
 He  heard,  besides  Tholuck,  Erdmann,  Ulrici,  and 
 Kahnis,  at  Halle,  and  at  Berlin  Neander,  Hengsten- 
 berg,  and  Twesten.  He  not  only  heard,  but  he  assimi- 
 lated. Probably  no  American  of  the  century  better 
 understood  German  theological  thought  or  more  inde- 
 pendently judged  it. 
 
 For  two  years  after  his  return  there  seemed  to  be 
 no  opening  for  him  in  a  college  or  in  the  settled  pas- 
 torate.     Finally,    after   years   of  discouragement,  in 
 
6o2      History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 which  he  came  to  know  all  that  was  worth  knowing 
 in  Boston  through  his  addresses  on  German  philoso- 
 phy, he  accepted  a  call  to  West  Amesbury,  Mass., 
 and  became  a  townsman  of  John  G.  Whittier,  1843- 
 1847.  He  was  ordained  and  married  soon  after  on  a 
 salary  of  $500  a  year,  the  parsonage,  and  the  wood 
 lot  from  which  to  procure  his  fuel.  In  1847  he  be- 
 came Professor  of  Moral  and  Mental  Philosophy  at 
 Amherst  College,  where  he  remained  until  1850.  In 
 that  year  he  accepted  a  call  to  the  Presbyterian  Union 
 Theological  Seminary  in  New  York  at  $2,000  a  year. 
 This,  in  view  of  the  increased  expense,  was  less  than  he 
 received  at  Amherst.  The  sad  thing  about  it  was,  that 
 these  narrow  circumstances  necessitated  a  large  amount 
 of  literary  work,  which  both  prevented  his  giving  his 
 best  to  the  world,  but  also  finally  broke  his  health. 
 Elected  Professor  of  Church  History  in  1850,  and 
 three  years  later  of  Systematic  Theology,  this  work 
 was  but  a  fraction  of  his  toil.  His  health  weakened 
 in  the  strain,  and  in  1859  he  had  a  second  time  to  seek 
 rest  across  the  Atlantic.  This  year  he  gave  his  atten- 
 tion to  Ireland  and  Great  Britain,  France  and  Switz- 
 erland, going  on  to  Italy,  and  returning  by  the  Rhine. 
 In  1866  he  revisited  the  familiar  scenes  and  the  old 
 friends  of  his  student  life  more  than  twenty-five  years 
 before.  In  1 869-1 870,  in  great  weakness,  he  set  out 
 for  a  tour  of  the  Mediterranean  countries,  on  the  way 
 passing  through  England  and  German}^  both  in  going 
 and  returning,  including  especially  Egypt,  Palestine, 
 Constantinople,  and  Athens.  There  came  a  partial 
 relief,  but  in  January,  1874,  ^^  felt  compelled  by  his 
 health  to  resign  his  professorship.     For  three  years  he 
 
Christian  Church  in  United  States.    603 
 
 held  the  post  of  librarian,  and  then,  on  February  7, 
 1877,  went  home  to  God. 
 
 Professor  Henry  B.  Smith,  though  of  frail  physical 
 constitution,  had  work  born  in  him  as  a  constituent  of 
 his  blood.  To  his  tireless  energy  we  owe  his  "  Chron- 
 ological Tables  of  Church  History,"  1853-1859;  his 
 translation  and  editing  of  Hagenbach's  "  History  of 
 Doctrines;"  his  translation  of  Gieseler's  "History  of 
 the  Christian  Church,"  1 857-1 877  ;  and  his  revision  of 
 the  translation  of  Stier's  "  Words  of  the  Lord  Jesus." 
 His  "System  of  Christian  Theology"  was  published 
 after  his  death.  No  work  was  more  important  than 
 his  "Faith  and  Philosophy." 
 
 Besides  all  this,  beginning  with  his  Andover  ad- 
 dress on  "  The  Relation  Between  Faith  and  Philoso- 
 phy," he  gave  addresses  of  great  value  each  year  at 
 college  commencements  and  on  other  special  occa« 
 sions.  As  if  this  were  not  enough,  he  was  a  constant 
 contributor  to  the  best  theological  periodicals  and  to 
 encyclopedias.  In  1859  he  began  The  Ajnerican  Theo- 
 logical Review,  which  four  years  later  was  merged  in 
 The  Presbyterian  Quarterly. 
 
 The  hard  financial  conditions  which  made  these  ex- 
 pedients necessary,  in  later  years  gave  way.  Through 
 George  Bancroft,  who  could  appreciate  the  needs  of 
 a  sensitive  scholar  better  than  his  colleagues,  and 
 was  better  able  to  head  a  subscription,  in  1864  over 
 $5,000  was  raised  to  pay  off  a  mortgage  on  his  home. 
 In  later  years  the  salary  was  made  adequate.  Per- 
 haps the  best  contribution  which  he  made  to  the  life 
 of  the  American  Churches  was  his  forwarding,  as  no 
 other  man,  the  reunion  of  the  Old  School  and  New 
 
6o4     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 School  Presbyterian  Churches  in  1869.  His  character, 
 his  learning,  and  his  disposition,  alike,  contributed  to 
 that  end. 
 
 Trained  a  Congregationalist,  educated  in  the  best 
 teaching  of  Germany,  and  doing  his  life  work  as  a 
 Presbyterian,  he  belonged  to  Evangelical  Christen- 
 dom. In  the  goodly  company  of  thinkers  and  schol- 
 ars who  have  adorned  the  teaching  and  the  life  of  the 
 Christian  Church,  Henry  B.  Smith  has  his  sure  re- 
 membrance. 
 
 John  Henry  Barrows  (1847-1902)  was  the  son  of  a 
 professor  in  Olivet  College,  a  Congregational  institu- 
 tion in  Michigan.  He  studied  at  Yale  Col- 
 lege and  at  Union  and  Andover  Theolog- 
 ical Seminaries.  He  was  ordained  in  the  Congrega- 
 tional Church,  but  in  1881  he  became  pastor  of  the 
 First  Presbyterian  Church  of  Chicago,  which  position 
 he  held  until  1895.  ^^  ^893  he  was  the  moving  spirit 
 and  the  president  of  the  World's  Parliament  of  Re- 
 ligions. In  1896  he  went  to  India  to  lecture  on  the 
 Haskell  Foundation.  These  lectures  were  published 
 on  his  return.  In  November,  1898,  he  became  presi- 
 dent of  Oberlin  College.  He  had  begun  a  great  work 
 for  that  famous  school  of  learning,  when,  in  the  midst 
 of  his  years,  the  days  of  toil  ended,  and  he  hastened 
 whither  are  gathered  God's  elect. 
 
 Phillips  Brooks  (i  835-1 893)  was  the  son  of  a  well- 
 to-do  merchant,  and  born  in  Boston,  and  was  graduated 
 from  Harvard  College  in  1855.     He  studied 
 Brook*,     theology  and  read  largely  the  best  English 
 literature,  making  copious  notes,  at  Alex- 
 andria, Va.,   1 856-1 859,  and  was  ordained  the  latter 
 year.     From  1859  to  1862  he  was  pastor  in  Philadel- 
 
Christian  Church  in  United  States.    605 
 
 phia  of  the  Church  of  the  Advent.  From  the  first  he 
 made  his  mark  as  a  preacher.  lu  1 862-1 869  he  was 
 rector  of  Holy  Trinity,  Boston.  This  was  the  throne 
 of  his  power.  Here  the  finest  church,  architecturally 
 speaking,  in  that  great  city  was  erected  for  the  use  of 
 his  congregation.  Here  he  remained  until  he  was 
 elected  Bishop  of  Massachusetts,  1891.  This  honor 
 he  did  not  long  survive,  dying  January  23,  1893. 
 
 Phillips  Brooks  was  one  of  the  great  preachers  of 
 the  century.  He  instructed  and  built  up  as  well  as 
 enchained  the  congregation.  It  was  not  logic  or 
 emotion,  but  the  whole  man,  that  preached  in  Phillips 
 Brooks's  pulpit,  and  its  appeal  was  to  the  whole  man. 
 Few  men  have  so  exalted  Christian  manhood.  His 
 are  the  rare  sermons  enjoyed  in  book- form  by  both 
 preachers  and  people. 
 
 Henry  W.  Bellows  (1814-1882)  w^as  of  Massachu. 
 setts  birth  and  educated  at  Harvard,  where  he  was 
 graduated  in  1832,  and  from  the  Cambridge  ^^  seiiows. 
 Divinity  School  in  1837.  In  1837  he  was 
 called  to  the  pastorate  of  the  first  Unitarian  Church  in 
 New  York  City,  which  became  the  scene  of  his  labors 
 until  the  end  of  his  life.  In  1857  he  delivered  the 
 Lowell  lectures  on  '*  The  Treatment  of  Social  Dis- 
 eases;" the  same  year  he  publicly  defended  the 
 theater.  In  1868  he  published  a  volume  of  sermons, 
 and  in  this  year  visited  Europe.  His  great  and  never- 
 to-be-forgotten  service  was  as  president  of  the  United 
 States  Sanitary  Commission,  1861-1878.  In  the  years 
 of  the  Civil  War  the  Commission  raised  and  dis- 
 tributed $15,000,000  in  supplies  and  $5,000,000  in 
 money.  In  his  church  there  is  a  memorial  tablet  to 
 his  memory  by  St.  Gaudens. 
 
6o6     History  of  the  Christian  Church, 
 
 What  profession  has  given  more  exalted  and  de- 
 voted pubhc  service  than  that  rendered  by  these  men? 
 Where  is  there  a  larger  field  for  the  noblest  influence 
 of  the  greatest  gitts  than  in  the  Christian  ministry  ? 
 
 As  in  England,  so  in  the  United  States,  the  middle 
 
 of  the  century  saw  a  divided  Methodism.     In  1852  the 
 
 membership   of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
 
 The  Methodist  ^,  ,  ^  ti    ^  ^i        r  r  i-i. 
 
 Churches.      Church  was  728,700.     But  the  force  of  the 
 The  Methodist  expanding  life  was  in  this  as  in  the  other 
 
 Episcopal  Churches.  The  University  of  the  Pacific^ 
 at  San  Jose,  Cal.,  was  founded  in  1851,  and 
 the  same  year  came  into  being  that  great  educational 
 center  for  Methodism  in  the  Northwest,  the  North- 
 western University,  at  Evanston,  111.  Iowa  Wesleyan 
 University  was  founded  in  1854,  and  Garrett  Biblical 
 Institute  at  Evanston,  in  1855  ;  while,  farther  east, 
 Genesee  College,  later  Syracuse  University,  began  its 
 career  in  1850, 
 
 There  was  a  similar  expansion  in  the  Church  press. 
 The  Northwestern  Christian  Advocate,  Chicago,  was 
 established  in  1852  ;  the  California  Christian  Advo- 
 cate y  San  Francisco,  in  1854;  the  Pacific  Christian 
 Advocate,  Portland,  Ore.,  in  1856;  and  in  the  same 
 year  the  Central  Christian  Advocate,  at  St.  Louis  ;  and 
 the  Northern  Independent,  1 857-1 868,  at  Auburn, 
 N.  Y.,  in  1857. 
 
 The  new  era  in  the  development  of  the  Methodist 
 Episcopal  Church  opened  with  the  election,  in  1852, 
 of  Levi  Scott,  Matthew  Simpson,  Osmon  C.  Baker, 
 and  Edward  R.  Ames  to  the  Episcopacy.  Two  of 
 these  men.  Bishops  Simpson  and  Ames,  were  admin- 
 istrators of  unusual  ability;  Bishop  Scott  came  from 
 the  Book  Concern,  and  Bishop  Baker,  more  than  any 
 
Christian  Church  in  United  States.    607 
 
 other  bishop,  was  the  father  of  theological  education 
 in  the  Methodist  Churches.  Bishop  Waugh  died 
 February  9,  1858. 
 
 In  i860  came  the  legislation  against  slavery,  of 
 which  mention  has  been  made.  In  the  same  year,  out 
 of  an  excitement  and  concerted  effort  to  restore  the 
 earlier  usages  of  Methodism,  in  which  the  teaching  of 
 entire  sanctification  and  opposition  to  secret  societies 
 came  to  the  front,  in  what  was  known  as  the  "Naza- 
 rite"  movement  in  the  Genesee  Conference,  arose  the 
 Free  Methodist  Church.  Not  a  little  fanaticism  and 
 bitterness  accompanied  the  movement.  Notwith- 
 standing it  carried  away  some  of  the  most  conscien- 
 tious of  the  membership  of  the  mother  Church,  it  has 
 never  made  large  growth  in  the  territory  of  its  origin. 
 Its  school,  Chesborough  Seminary,  is  doing  good  work. 
 In  1 86 1  and  1862  a  vote  of  the  membership  of  the 
 Methodist  Episcopal  Church  was  taken  on  lay  repre- 
 sentation, and  the  majority  was  against  it. 
 
 The  war  caused  at  its  opening  a  loss  in  the  border 
 Conferences;  66  preachers  and  16,756  members  with- 
 drew in  the  Baltimore  Conference  alone.  The  General 
 Conference  of  1864  prohibited  slaveholding  altogether 
 in  the  membership.  All  the  Churches  Id  the  North 
 rallied  to  the  defense  of  the  Union,  but  none  more 
 than  the  Methodist  Episcopal.  In  some  cases  the 
 able-bodied  men  of  the  Church,  with  the  pastor  at 
 their  head,  enlisted  for  the  war.  This  fact  was  recog- 
 nized by  President  Lincoln  when  the  Committee  of 
 the  General  Conference  waited  on  him,  May  18,  1864, 
 when  General  Grant  was  fighting  his  way  with  great 
 loss  to  Richmond.     In  reply  to  them,  he  said : 
 
 *' Gentlemen,— In  response  to  your  address,  allow 
 
6o8     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 me  to  attest  the  accuracy  of  its  historical  statements, 
 indorse  the  sentiment  it  expresses,  and  thank  you,  in 
 the  nation's  name,  for  the  sure  promise  it  gives. 
 Nobly  sustained  as  the  government  has  been  by  all 
 the  Churches,  I  would  alter  nothing  which  might  in 
 the  least  appear  invidious  against  any.  Yet,  without 
 this,  it  may  fairly  be  said  that  the  Methodist  Episco- 
 pal Church,  not  less  devoted  than  the  best,  is  by  its 
 greater  numbers,  the  most  important  of  all.  It  is  no 
 fault  in  others  that  the  Methodist  Church  sends  more 
 soldiers  to  the  field,  more  nurses  to  the  hospitals,  and 
 more  prayers  to  Heaven  than  any.  God  bless  the 
 Methodist  Church — bless  all  the  Churches — and 
 blessed  be  God,  who,  in  this  our  great  trial,  giveth  us 
 the  Churches." 
 
 The  drain  of  the  war  was  shown  in  the  statistics 
 for  1864  which  reported  a  decrease  of  50,951  members. 
 After  the  close  of  the  war,  this  Church  extended  the 
 sphere  of  her  operations  in  the  South.  The  Missis- 
 sippi Conference  was  organized  in  September,  1865; 
 the  South  Carolina  and  Tennessee  Conferences  in 
 1866;  the  Texas  and  Georgia  Conferences  in  1867. 
 These  were  Conferences  of  colored  Churches.  In 
 June,  1868,  the  Holston  Conference  of  white  member- 
 ship was  organized.  In  1868  there  was  reported  a 
 gain  of  1 17,000  members  from  the  South.  The  Gen- 
 eral Conference  of  1864  extended  the  term  of  the 
 Methodist  Episcopal  pastorate  from  two  to  three 
 years,  and  attendance  upon  class-meeting  was  made 
 voluntary.  At  this  session,  Davis  W.  Clark,  Edward 
 Thomson,  and  Calvin  Kingsley  were  elected  bishops. 
 Bishop  Clark  came  from  the  editorship  of  the  Ladies* 
 Repository,  Bishop  Thomson  from  the  editorship  of  the 
 
Christian  Church  in  United  States.    609 
 
 New  York  Christian  Advocate,  and  Bishop  Kingsley 
 from  that  of  the  Western  Christian  Advocate,  At  this 
 time  the  Church  Extension  Society  was  authorized,  but 
 did  not  begin  its  work  until  three  years  later.  In  this 
 decade,  in  1866,  fell  the  Centennial  of  the  first  Meth- 
 odist preaching  and  society  in  America.  The  gifts  of 
 the  people  at  this  commemoration  amounted  to  18,709,- 
 498.  This  started  the  Church-  in  a  career  of  large  use- 
 fulness. The  Drew  Theological  Seminary,  the  Hack- 
 ettstown  Centenary  Institute,  the  Central  Tennessee 
 College  at  Nashville,  one  of  the  first  and  largest  of  the 
 schools  for  the  colored  people,  and  the  Children's 
 Fund  to  help  students  in  the  schools  of  the  Methodist 
 Episcopal  Church,  owed  their  origin  to  this  move- 
 ment, as  did  countless  new  churches,  and  churches 
 thoroughly  repaired  or  freed  from  debt. 
 
 In  1867  the  Freedmen's  Aid  Society,  which  has 
 done  so  much  where  there  was  greatest  need,  was 
 organized.  In  1869,  Boston  University  was  founded, 
 and  the  same  year,  in  the  same  city,  the  Woman's 
 Foreign  Missionary  Society.  In  1869  and  1870  a  vote 
 of  the  membership  declared  in  favor  of  lay  represen- 
 tation. This  was  concurred  in  by  the  members  of  the 
 Annual  Conferences.  ^  These  years  saw  many  of  the 
 strong  men  of  the  Church  removed. 
 
 Bishop  Thomson  died  March  22,  1870;  Bishop 
 Kingsley,  April  6,  1870;  Bishop  Clark,  May  23,  1871 ; 
 and  Bishop  Baker,  December  8,  187 1.  With  these 
 went  the  sturdy  educator,  editor,  and  controversialist, 
 Dr.  Charles  Elliott,  January  6,  1869;  and  the  accom- 
 plished John  McClintock,  president  of  Drew  Theo- 
 logical Seminary,  perhaps  at  that  time  the  most 
 scholarly  mind  in  Methodism,  March  4,  1870.  He 
 39 
 
6io      History  of  the  Christian  Church 
 
 originated,  and  Dr.  Strong  carried  to  completion, 
 "  McClintock  and  Strong's  Encyclopedia,"  a  work 
 needing  such  revision  as  Herzog's  Encyclopedia  in 
 German  is  now  receiving,  but  still  the  best  religious 
 Encyclopedia  in  the  English  language. 
 
 In  1872  the  General  Conference  opened  the  new 
 and  larger  sphere  of  action  and  influence  for  the 
 Church  in  admitting  laj'^men  to  member- 
 ship to  the  General  Conference  (the  An- 
 nual Conferences  as  before  were  composed  of  minis- 
 ters), and  by  electing  eight  bishops:  Thomas 
 Bowman,  William  Iv.  Harris,  Randolph  S.  Foster, 
 Isaac  W.  Wiley,  Stephen  M.  Merrill,  Gilbert  Haven, 
 Edward  G.  Andrews,  and  Jesse  T.  Peck.  Of  these, 
 Bishop  Bowman  was  the  president  of  Indiana  Asbury 
 University,  Bishop  Foster  of  Drew  Theological  Semi- 
 nary, Bishop  Harris  was  Missionary  Secretary,  Bishop 
 Wiley  was  editor  of  the  Ladies'  Repository ,  Bishop 
 Merrill  of  the  Western  Christian  Advocate,  Bishop 
 Gilbert  Haven  of  Zion's  Herald,  and  Bishops  Peck 
 and  Andrews  came  from  the  pastorate. 
 
 This  Conference  opened  the  way  for  fraternal  re- 
 lations with  the  South,  and  allowed  separate  colored 
 Conferences.  It  also  ordered  a  greatly-needed  work, 
 which  was  well  done,  the  revision  of  the  Hymnal. 
 Soon  institutions  for  the  colored  people  of  the  South 
 sprung  up,  like  Clark  University,  at  Atlanta,  Ga.; 
 New  Orleans  University,  at  New  Orleans;  Wiley 
 University,  at  Marshall,  Texas ;  and  Claflin  Univer- 
 sity, at  Orangeburg,  S.  C.  Bishop  Ames  (i 806-1 879) 
 died  April  25,  1879.  Bishop  Janes  (1807-1876)  died 
 September  18,  1876;  he  was  a  deeply  spiritual  man 
 and  tireless  in  his  work.    Bishop  Gilbert  Haven  (1821- 
 
Christian  Church  in  United  States.    6ii 
 
 1880)  died  January  3,  1880;  he  was  the  first  of  the 
 younger  bishops  to  be  called  from  their  work ;  he  had 
 proved  himself  a  brilliant  and  a  versatile  man. 
 
 In  the  General  Conference  of  1880,  Henry  W. 
 Warren  was  called  from  a  most  successful  pastorate ; 
 Cyrus  D.  Foss  from  an  exceptionally  able  ^^^^ 
 presidency  of  Wesleyan  University  at  Mid- 
 dletown,  Conn.;  John  F.  Hurst,  the  Church  historian 
 of  Methodism,  from  the  presidency  of  Drew  Theolog- 
 ical Seminary ;  and  Erastus  O.  Haven,  after  having 
 been  a  popular  college  president  at  Michigan  State, 
 Northwestern,  and  Syracuse  Universities,  from  the 
 secretaryship  of  the  Board  of  Education,  to  the  re 
 sponsibilities  of  the  Episcopacy. 
 
 Dr.  James  M.  Buckley  was  elected  editor  of  the 
 Christian  Advocate,  a  position  he  held  with  ability  and 
 usefulness  until  the  end  of  our  period,  surpassing  all 
 his  predecessors  in  length  of  service,  and  for  it  de- 
 clining the  Episcopacy. 
 
 The  Ecumenical  Conference  at  London,  England, 
 September,  1881,  marked  a  new  stadium  in  the  de- 
 velopment of  world-wide  Methodism.  In  1880  the 
 Woman's  Home  Missionary  Society  was  organized, 
 and  in  the  same  year  the  University  of  Denver  was 
 founded.  In  1865  had  been  founded  the  Philadelphia 
 Home  for  the  Aged;  in  1879,  the  Bennett  Orphan 
 Asylum  at  the  same  city;  and  in  1887,  the  Brooklyn 
 Hospital,  the  beginning  of  the  charitable  institutional 
 work  of  Episcopal  Methodism  on  a  large  scale.  The 
 German  Methodists  began  their  work  in  Orphan 
 Asylums  in  1864. 
 
 Bishop  Levi  Scott  (1802-1882),  leaving  a  name 
 fragrant  as  a  Christian,  died  July   13,    1882.     Bishop 
 
6i2     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 Jesse  T.  Peck  (1811-1883),  versatile  in  occupation  and 
 achievement,  who  left  his  main  impress  upon  the 
 Church  in  the  founding  ol  Syracuse  University,  died 
 May  17,  1883. 
 
 In  1884,  William  X.  Ninde,  president  of  North- 
 western University;   John  M.  Walden,  agent  of  the 
 
 Western  Book  Concern ;    William  F.  Mai- 
 188^ 
 
 lalieu,    presiding    elder;    and    Charles    H. 
 
 Fowler,   who  had  been   president   of  Northwestern 
 
 University,  editor  of  the  Christian  Advocate ^  and  was 
 
 then  missionary  secretary,  were  elected  bishops.     In 
 
 the  same  year,  in  December,  was  held  at  Baltimore 
 
 the  Centennial   commemoration  of   the   organization 
 
 of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church. 
 
 June  18,  1884,  Bishop  Simpson  (1811-1884)  en- 
 tered into  rest,  leaving  a  peerless  name  among  Amer- 
 ican Methodists.  Bishop  Wiley  (1825-1884)  died  in 
 China,  November  22,  1884,  where  in  early  life  he  had 
 been  a  missionary.  Bishop  Harris  (18 17-1887),  the 
 first  of  the  bishops  to  make  an  episcopal  tour  of  the 
 globe,  and  a  wise  administrator,  died  September  2, 
 1887. 
 
 In  1888,  the  General  Conference  elected  as  bishops, 
 John  H.  Vincent,  secretary  of  the  Sunday-school 
 Union;  James  N.  FitzGerald,  recording- 
 secretary  of  the  Missionary  Society ;  Isaac 
 W.  Joyce,  from  the  pastorate  at  Cincinnati;  John  P. 
 Newman,  pastor  at  Washington ;  and  Daniel  A.  Good- 
 sell,  who  had  spent  his  life  in  influential  pastorates, 
 but  was  at  that  time  secretary  of  the  Board  of  Educa- 
 tion. It  also  extended  the  pastoral  term  from  three 
 to  five  years,  and  authorized  the  Deaconess  Movement, 
 order,  and  institutions. 
 
Christian  Church  in  United  States.    613 
 
 In  1884,  William  Taylor,  of  world-wide  fame  as  an 
 evangelist,  was  elected  Missionary  Bishop  for  Africa ; 
 in  1888,  James  M.  Thoburn,  the  Indian  missionary  of 
 his  Church,  was  elected  Missionary  Bishop  for  India. 
 
 In  October,  1891,  the  second  Ecumenical  Confer- 
 ence was  held  at  Washington.     The  General  Confer- 
 ence of  1892  recognized   the  organization 
 of  the  Epworth  League  for  the  young  peo-       ,892. 
 pie,  which  had  been  founded  May  14,  1889. 
 
 In  1896  the  General  Conference  elected  Charles  C. 
 McCabe  and  Earl  Cranston  bishops.     Bishop  McCabe 
 served  as  chaplain  in  the  army,  and  raised       ^^^^ 
 large  sums  of  money  for  the  Christian  Com- 
 mission  during  the   war.     He   originated   the   Loan 
 Fund  of  the  Church  Extension  Society,  and  carried  it 
 well  towards  a  million  of  dollars,  which  it  has  since 
 far  passed.     He  also  carried  the  Missionary  Society  to 
 enlarged  usefulness  by  his  cry  of  "A  Million  for  Mis- 
 sions from  Collections  Only,"  which  has  been  greatly 
 exceeded.      Bishop  McCabe  has  probably  sung   the 
 gospel  to   more   people   than   any   other   Methodist 
 preacher   in   the   world.     Bishop  Cranston  made  his 
 reputation  as  an  able  preacher  and  wise  administrator 
 as  presiding  elder  in  Colorado,  as  pastor,  and  as  Agent 
 of  the  Western  Book  Concern  at  Cincinnati.     Bishops 
 Bowman,  Foster,  and  Taylor  were  retired  on  account 
 of  age.     Joseph  C.  Hartzell,  for  many  years  secretary 
 of  the  Freedmen's  Aid  and  Southern  Education  So- 
 ciety, was  made  Missionary  Bishop  of  Africa. 
 
 The  General  Conference   of   1900  was  an  epoch- 
 making  body.     It  admitted  the  laymen  in       ^^^^ 
 equal  numbers  to  the  General  Conference. 
 It  adopted  a  constitution  for  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
 
6 14     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 Church,  which  received  the  necessary  concurrent  votes 
 of  the  Annual  Conferences.  This  settled  the  question 
 of  the  admission  of  women  as  delegates  to  the  Gen- 
 eral Conference,  which  had  been  a  burning  question 
 since  1888,  by  making  legal  their  election.  It  also  re- 
 moved the  time-limit  from  service  in  the  pastorate  in 
 the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church.  It  fixed  a  term  of 
 five  years  for  the  supernumary  relation,  and  assigned 
 the  bishops  to  Episcopal  residences.  The  laymen 
 made  their  influence  felt  in  the  reduction  of  mission- 
 ary secretaries,  and  in  a  determined  movement  for  the 
 consolidation  of  the  publishing  interests  and  of  the 
 Church  benevolences. 
 
 Bishop  John  P.  Newman  (i  826-1 899),  an  impress- 
 ive, pulpit  orator,  and  the  lifelong  friend  of  General 
 Grant,  died  July  5,  1899.  In  1900,  David  H.  Moore, 
 editor  of  the  Western  Christian  Advocate^  and  former 
 chancellor  of  the  University  of  Denver,  was  elected 
 Bishop.  John  W.  Hamilton,  secretary  of  the  Freed- 
 men's  Aid  and  Southern  Education  Society,  and  for- 
 merly pastor  of  the  People's  Church  in  Boston,  was 
 chosen  to  the  same  office.  Edwin  W.  Parker  and 
 Frank  W.  Warne  were  chosen  Missionary  Bishops  for 
 Southern  Asia. 
 
 Three  men  largely  affected  the  life  of  this  Church 
 
 in  the  earlier  years  of  this  period.     John  P.  Durbin 
 
 ^    ^    ^.     ( 1 800-1 876)   was  a  most  excellent  orator. 
 
 Dr.  Durbin.  , 
 
 and  the  man  who  made  the  Missionary  So- 
 ciety take  its  rightful  place  in  the  love  and  service  of 
 the  people.  Born  in  Kentucky,  he  was  converted  at 
 seventeen,  and  at  twenty  joined  the  Ohio  Conference. 
 From  1822  to  1825  he  attended  the  Miami  and  Cincin- 
 nati Universities.     In  1 830-1 832  he  was  professor  in 
 
Christian  Church  in  United  States.    615 
 
 Augusta  College.  In  1 832-1 834  he  edited  the  Ckris- 
 tiaii  Advocate.  In  1 834-1 850  he  was  president  of 
 Dickinson  College.  In  1 842-1 843  he  visited  Europe. 
 In  1 850-1 876  he  was  the  missionary  secretary  in  his 
 Church.  In  him  a  powerful  spirit,  equal  to  great 
 efforts,  dwelt  in  a  slight  and  frail  physical  tenement. 
 
 Daniel  Curry  (i  809-1 887)  possessed  one  of  the 
 strongest  minds  that  guided  the  Methodist  press.  His 
 command  of  terse  and  expressive  English 
 was  remarkable.  He  made  the  Christian 
 Advocate  such  a  power  as  it  had  never  been.  In  the 
 first  half  of  this  period  few  men  were  so  influential  in 
 the  Church.  He  strenuously  opposed  lay  representa- 
 tion, but  gracefully  yielded  when  it  became  the  law 
 and  the  fact.  He  was  graduated  from  Wesleyan  Univer- 
 sity in  1837.  He  taught  in  Troy  Conference  Academy 
 and  Georgia  Female  Seminary,  Macon,  Ga.,  1 837-1 839. 
 He  was  in  the  pastorate  in  Georgia,  1844 ;  then  in 
 the  North  in  the  pastorate.  In  1 854-1 857  he  was 
 professor  in  Indiana  Asbury  University ;  then  again 
 in  the  pastorate.  In  1 864-1 876  he  was  editor  of  the 
 Christian  Advocate ;  1 876-1 880,  of  the  Natiojial  Reposi_ 
 tory;  N.  Y.,  1884-1887,-of  the  Methodist  Quarterly  Re. 
 view.  He  was  a  stanch  antislavery  man,  and,  with 
 Matthew  Simpson,  was  most  instrumental  in  declar- 
 ing the  Plan  of  Separation  null  and  void. 
 
 Daniel  D.  Whedon  (1808- 1885)  was,  after  Wilbur 
 Fisk,  one  of  the  first  Methodist  preachers  to  receive  a 
 college  education.  In  1828  he  was  graduated 
 
 °  ^  Dr.  Whedon. 
 
 from  Hamilton  College,  and  then   studied 
 law  at  Rochester,  N.  Y.     In  1831-1833  he  was  a  tutor 
 at  Hamilton,  and  for  the  next  ten  years  was  professor 
 in  Wesleyan  University,  at    Middletown,  Conn.     In 
 
6i6     History  of  the  Christian  Church, 
 
 1 843- 1 845  he  was  in  the  pastorate.  Then  for  the 
 next  ten  years  he  taught  Rhetoric  and  Logic  in  the 
 University  of  Michigan.  After  a  year  in  the  pastorate, 
 he  was  elected  editor  of  the  Methodist  Quarterly  Re- 
 view, a  position  he  occupied  from  1856  to  1884.  His 
 chief  work  was  a  treatise  **  On  the  Will."  He  was  a 
 controversialist  of  courtesy,  but  of  remarkable  vigor. 
 His  notes  to  a  Calvinistic  article  caused  The  Independ- 
 ent to  say  that  they  gave  a  new  meaning  to  the  term 
 "foot-notes."  The  Quarterly  of  these  twenty-eight 
 years  is  his  monument. 
 
 Two  men  made  memorable  their  service  for  the 
 Church  in  these  years  through  their  authorship. 
 
 Charles  W.  Bennett  (1828-1891)  was  graduated  at 
 Wesley,  1852  ;  he  then,  for  ten  years,  taught,  joining  the 
 Conference  in  1862.  From  1864  to  1866  he 
 ^BennetT*  ^^^  principal  of  Genesee  Wesleyan  Semi- 
 nary at  Lima,  N.  Y. ;  1 866-1869  he  spent  in 
 study  abroad,  chiefly  at  Berlin.  On  his  return  he  was 
 two  years  in  the  pastorate.  From  1871  to  1889  he  was 
 Professor  of  History  in  Syracuse  University;  1889- 
 1 89 1  he  was  Professor  of  Church  History  in  Garrett 
 Biblical  Institute  at  Evanston.  His  "  Christian  Archae- 
 ology" is  the  fruit  of  the  ripest  scholarship  of  the 
 Methodist  Church  in  any  land.  The  curator  of  the 
 Museum  for  Christian  Archaeology  at  Berlin,  Professor 
 Nicholas  Miiller,  told  the  author  that  it  was  always 
 open  on  his  table. 
 
 Dr.  John  Miley  (18 13-1895)  was  honored  and  suc- 
 cessful as  Professor  of  Systematic  Theology  at  Drew 
 ^    „..        Theological  Seminary.     He  was  the  author 
 
 Dr.  Miley.        ^     ,  »^,         . 
 
 of  "The  Atonement  m  Christ,  "1879,  and 
 of  "  Systematic  Theology,"  2  vols.,  1892,  which  is  the 
 
Christian  Church  in  United  States.    617 
 
 standard  work  for  Methodist  preachers  in  the  Course 
 of  Study. 
 
 Dr.  James  Strong's  work  culminated  in  his  monu- 
 mental achievement,  the  greatest  of  concordances, 
 *'  The  Exhaustive  Concordance,"  a  concordance  of  the 
 Holy  Scripture  in  the  original  Greek  and  Hebrew,  as 
 well  as  English. 
 
 John  Morrison  Reid  (1820- 1896)  developed  a  many- 
 sided  activity.  He  was  graduated  from  the  Univer- 
 sity of  the  City  of  New  York  in  1839.     For 
 
 ■^  "^  "^  Dr.  Reid. 
 
 the  next  five  years  he  was  principal  of  the 
 school  connected  with  the  Mechanics'  Institute  of  that 
 city.  He  was  graduated  from  the  Union  Theological 
 Seminary  in  1844,  and  joined  Conference  the  same 
 year.  After  successful  years  in  the  pastorate,  he  was 
 chosen  president  of  Genesee  College,  1 858-1 864.  In 
 1864  he  was  chosen  editor  of  the  Western  Christian 
 Advocate y  and  in  1868  of  the  Northwestern  Christian 
 Advocate.  In  1872  he  became  missionary  secretary, 
 which  post  he  held  until  his  death.  He  purchased 
 and  gave  the  Von  Ranke  library  to  Syracuse  Univer- 
 sity. In  1880  he  published  a  "  History  of  the  Mission- 
 ary Society  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,"  two 
 volumes. 
 
 Bishop  John  F.  Hurst  (i  834-1903)  was  easily  the 
 first  writer  on  Church  history  in  his  Church  in  this 
 period.     With  a  fine  acquaintance  with  the 
 
 ^  .        ^  Bishop  Hurst. 
 
 German  language  and  literature  from  study 
 in  the  Fatherland,  he  always  read  widely.  He  did 
 excellent  work  as  professor  at  Drew  Theological 
 Seminary,  besides  securing  a  permanent  endowment 
 for  the  institution.  In  his  earlier  works  he  is  in  some 
 respects  at  his  best,  as  in  his  "  History  of  Rationalism  " 
 
6i8     History  of  the  Christian  Church, 
 
 and  translation  of  Hagenbach's  "Church  History  of 
 the  Eighteenth  and  Nineteenth  Centuries."  His 
 "Shorter  History  of  the  Christian  Church"  is  a  good 
 book.  In  his  later  work  the  best  is  often  by  other 
 hands,  as  in  his  "  History  of  the  Christian  Church," 
 two  volumes.  His  greatest  influence  was  in  his  irenic 
 spirit  and  in  his  scientific  method  of  the  study  of 
 Church  history.  One  of  the  best  things  from  his  pen 
 was  the  last  article  from  him  published  in  the  Meth- 
 odist Review  on  the  "  Counter  Reformation."  The 
 American  University  at  Washington  will  be  the  en- 
 during monument  of  his  breadth  and  clearness  of 
 vision  as  well  as  of  his  faith  and  courage. 
 
 Dr.  Sheldon,  of  Boston  School  of  Theology,  pub- 
 lished a  most  valuable  "  History  of  Doctrine,"  two 
 volumes,  and  in   1894  his  Church  history 
 
 Sheldon.      ,  '  ^^.  ^     ,         ^,     .      . 
 
 lectures  as  a  History  of  the  Christian 
 Church,"  a  work  of  enduring  value.  Dr.  Bradford  P. 
 Raymond,  published  a  "System  of  Theology." 
 
 The  succession  in  Methodist  hymnology  in  this 
 period  fell  to  Mrs.  Frances  Crosby  Van  Alstyne,  who 
 has  published  more  popular  hymns  and 
 sacred  songs  than  any  other  author  of  her 
 time.  Her  songs,  with  their  accompanying  music, 
 won  many  who  would  not  have  cared  for  the  statelier 
 and  more  enduring  songs  of  the  Church.  Never 
 great,  her  work  has  always  been  good  in  sentiment 
 and  taste  and  helpful  to  the  Christian  life. 
 
 The  General  Conference  of  1854  made  Nashville, 
 
 Tenn.,  the  headquarters  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
 
 The  Methodist  Church,    South.      It    chose,    as    bishops, 
 
 chi?ch"'      George  F.   Pierce,  who  died  in  1884,  and 
 
 South.'        Hubbard  K.  Kavanaugh,  who  died  in  the 
 
 same  year,  and  John  Early,  who  died  in  1873. 
 
Christian  Church  in  United  States.    619 
 
 ,  The  next  General  Conference  met  in  Nashville  in 
 1858,  and  struck  out  of  the  Discipline  all  reference  to 
 slavery ;  but,  alas !  this  did  not  abolish  the  fact.  In 
 i860  there  were  reported  757,205  members.  Then 
 came  the  Civil  War,  and  the  besom  of  destruction 
 passed  over  the  South.  The  General  Conference  did 
 not  meet  again  until  1866,  in  New  Orleans.  There 
 were  then  reported  511,161  members,  a  loss  of  nearly 
 one- third  since  i860.  Many  of  these  were  in  bloody 
 graves,  for  this  Church  was  as  zealous  in  the  cause  of 
 the  South  as  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  was 
 in  behalf  of  the  Union.  This  General  Conference 
 adopted  lay  representation  in  equal  numbers  in  the 
 General  Conference,  and  also  in  the  Annual  Confer- 
 ences. It  abolished  membership  on  probation,  and 
 extended  the  pastoral  term  from  two  to  four  years. 
 It  elected  as  bishops,  W.  M.  Wightman,  who  died  in 
 1882  ;  E.  M.  Marvin,  died  in  1877  ;  D.  S.  Doggett,  died 
 in   1880;  H.  N.  McTyeire,  died  in  1889. 
 
 The  General  Conference  of  1880  gave  the  Episco- 
 pate power  to  veto  acts  which  they  deemed  unconsti- 
 tutional. Then  they  could  only  be  enacted  by  a  two- 
 thirds  vote.  This  General  Conference  constituted  the 
 "  Colored  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  "  as  a  separate 
 organization  under  its  care,  with  60,000  members. 
 Colored  schools  also  were  founded  for  this  Church  at 
 Augusta,  Ga.,  and  Jackson,  Tenn.  The  Southern  Re- 
 view was  accepted  as  a  General  Conference  periodical. 
 John  C.  Keener  was  elected  bishop.  In  1871  died 
 Bishop  J.  O.  Andrew,  the  original  occasion  of  the 
 separation  of  1844.  In  1874  the  membership  had  risen 
 to  712,717  members,  nearly  the  number  in  i860,  which, 
 however  was  not  passed  until  1878,  at  798,862  mem- 
 bers.     This  session  witnessed  the  first  reception  of 
 
620    History  of  the  Christian  Church, 
 
 fraternal  delegates  from  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
 Church,— Dr.  Albert  S.  Hunt,  Dr.  Charles  H.  Fowler, 
 and  General  Clinton  B.  Fisk. 
 
 Vanderbilt  University,  Nashville,  Tenn.,  was 
 founded  in  April,  1874,  and  opened  in  1875.  The 
 veteran  editor,  T.  O.  Summers,  died  May  3,  1882.  In 
 1882  the  Board  of  Church  Extension  was  founded. 
 In  1886  a  rapid  increase  in  membership  was  reported. 
 There  were  elected  bishops,  W.  W.  Duncan,  C.  B. 
 Galloway,  E.  R.  Hendrix,  and  J.  S.  Key. 
 
 Dr.  J.  B.  McFerrin,  probably  for  the  previous 
 thirty  years  the  most  influential  member  of  this 
 Church,  died  May,  1887.  For  many  years  he  had 
 charge  of  its  publishing  interests.  In  1890,  the  broad- 
 minded  and  greatly-loved  Atticus  G.  Haygood  was 
 elected  bishop,  and  also  O.  P.  Fitzgerald. 
 
 The  Centennial  Offering  of  1884  was  $1,382,771. 
 
 The  African  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  saw 
 Wilberforce  University  founded  in  Ohio,  for  the 
 education  of  Negroes,  in  1856,  and  since  its  transfer 
 to  the  care  of  that  Church,  it  has  done  much  for  its 
 work. 
 
 African  Methodist  Episcopal  Zion  Church  endured 
 a  schism  in  1 852-1 860,  which  was  then  healed.  Its 
 periodical  is  the  Star  of  Zion.  In  1880,  Livingstone 
 College  was  founded  at  Salisbury,  North  Carolina. 
 
 The  Methodist  Protestant  Church  has  grown  dur- 
 ing this  period,  though  not  as  rapidly  as  those  with 
 an  Episcopal  form  of  government.  In  1857,  Adrian 
 College,  a  flourishing  institution,  was  founded  at 
 Adrian,  Mich.;  in  1868,  Western  Maryland  College, 
 at  Westminster,  Md.;  and  in  1896,  Kansas  City  Uni- 
 versity, at  Kansas  City,  Kan.,  came  into  being. 
 
 The  United  Brethren  Church  founded  its  theolog- 
 
Christian  Church  in  United  States.    621 
 
 ical  school  at  Dayton,  Ohio,  in  1871,  and  its  Young 
 People's  Christian  Union  in  1890.  In  1890  this  Church 
 suffered  a  division  because  the  rule  against  secret  so- 
 cieties was  relaxed.  Sixteen  thousand  members  with- 
 drew. Now  less  than  half  the  services  are  in  German. 
 In  1 86 1  the  Northwestern  College  of  the  Evangel- 
 ical Association  was  founded  at  Napierville..  near 
 Chicago.  The  Ebenezer  Orphan  Home  was  estab- 
 lished at  Flat  Rock,  Ohio,  in  1870.  The  Young  Peo- 
 ple's Alliance  began  its  work  in  1890.  In  consequence 
 of  a  division  in  the  Episcopacy  in  1891,  twenty- five 
 thousand  members  withdrew;  but  one  hundred  and 
 twenty-five  thousand  remained,  and  the  breach  has 
 been  well-nigh  healed. 
 
 Statistics  in  1900. 
 Parsonages,  11,202;  value,  $19,486,073.    Churches, 
 27,382;  value,  $126,293,871.     Sunday-schools,  32,119; 
 teachers,  350,271;  scholars,  2,700,543. 
 
 Churches. 
 
 Clergy. 
 
 Members. 
 
 Methodist  Episcopal,  .... 
 
 1850-1900  :  Gain 
 
 Methodist  Episcopal,  South, 
 
 1850-1900  :  Gain, 
 
 African  Methodist  Episcopal 
 
 1850-1900  :  Gain, 
 
 African  Methodist  Episcopal  : 
 
 18S0-1900:  Gain, 
 
 Methodist  Protestant,  .... 
 
 ^ion 
 
 14,190 
 
 5.852 
 
 i",8o8 
 
 2,341 
 
 506 
 
 92 
 
 857 
 
 1.427 
 
 2,367 
 
 4.898 
 
 17.752 
 13,622 
 5.950 
 4.354 
 5.630 
 5.503 
 
 ifi 
 
 1.505 
 1,698 
 
 595 
 195 
 65 
 53 
 975 
 
 2,039 
 
 1,106 
 2,465 
 2,015 
 
 2,924,764 
 2,235.863 
 1,468,390 
 954.091 
 675.462 
 553.335 
 536,271 
 531.454 
 183,714 
 
 1850-1900:  Gain, 
 
 Wesleyan         ....       .... 
 
 117,899 
 17,201 
 
 1850-1900 :  lyoss 
 
 3.209 
 
 Gain, 
 
 Free  Methodist 
 
 5.437 
 27,292 
 
 204,972 
 
 i'57.33S"" 
 
 135.694 
 
 265,935 
 
 Gain, 
 
 Gain, 
 
 Evangelical  Association,   .   . 
 
 Gain 
 
 United  Brethren 
 
 Gain 
 
 215.483 
 
 1850-1900:  Gain 
 
 36,316 
 
 4.693.503 
 
622      History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 Total  Methodists  in  the  United  States,  and  mis- 
 sions, in  1900,  excluding  the  United  Brethren  and  the 
 Evangelical  Association,  was  5,916,249,  a  gain  since 
 1850  of  4,590,618. 
 
 The  Missionary  Society  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
 Church  raised  for  missions  in  1900,  $1,223,904.  Of 
 this  amount,  $677,653,  was  for  foreign  missions. 
 The  Woman's  Foreign  Missionary  Society  raised  in 
 the  same  year  $414,531,  a  total  for  foreign  missions  of 
 $1,092,184.  The  Missionary  Society  gave  $460,710 
 to  home  missions,  and  the  Woman's  Home  Missionary 
 added  $240,911,  making  a  total  of  $701,621  for  home 
 missions. 
 
 The  Missionary  Society  employs  546  foreign  mis- 
 sionaries. Among  them  are  not  only  men  of  devo- 
 tion, but  of  ability  equal  to  the  task  of 
 
 The  Workers.    ,       .  ,  ^        \      .  r     ■,       r^-,     ■ 
 
 laymg  the  strong  foundation  of  the  Chris- 
 tian Empire  of  the  future.  India  and  China  have 
 been  the  greatest  mission  fields  of  this  Church.  It 
 has  had  large  success  also  in  Japan,  Mexico,  South 
 America,  and  in  Europe. 
 
 In  1900,  on  the  foreign  fields  of  this  Church,  there 
 were  181,956  members  and  probationers.  There  were 
 in  the  United  States,  in  1900,  5,916,349  members  in 
 Methodist  Churches;  in  Canada,  284,901;  in  Great 
 Britain  and  her  other  dependencies,  1,202,663;  a  total 
 in  world-wide  Methodism  of  7,403,913. 
 
 The  Church  Extension  Society  of  the  Methodist 
 Episcopal  Church  had,  in  1900,  a  lyoan  Fund  of 
 $1,136,954,  and  its  income  from  collec- 
 Benevoiences.  ^^^^^  ^as  $99,238.  It  has  aided  11,677 
 Churches.  The  Freedmen's  Aid  and  South- 
 ern Education  Society,  at  the  end  of  the  century,  had 
 
Christian  Church  in  United  States.    623 
 
 forty-seven  schools,  nearly  equally  divided  between 
 the  white  and  colored  people  of  the  South.  It  had 
 lands  and  buildings  worth  $2,165,000.  In  1900  its 
 receipts  from  collections  from  the  Churches  was  $91,- 
 218,  and  from  all  sources,  $355,805.  It  had,  in  1900, 
 nearly  3,000  colored  students  in  industrial  work,  be- 
 sides the  scholastic  training;  $50,000  was  collected 
 from  the  Churches  in  1900  for  the  work  of  the  Sunday- 
 school  Union  and  the  Tract  Societies.  The  educa- 
 tional work  of  this  Church  is  under  the  charge  of  its 
 Board  of  Education.  The  Children's-day  collections 
 for  the  aid  of  students  in  Methodist  schools,  in  1900, 
 amounted  to  $60,328.  In  that  year,  1,830  students 
 were  assisted. 
 
 At  the  close  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  Meth- 
 odist Episcopal  Church  had  three  prosperous  and 
 fairly-well-endowed  theological  schools  :  at 
 Boston  ;  Drew,  at  Madison,  N.  J. ;  and  Gar-  stattstk:"* 
 rett,  at  Evanston,  111.,  besides  the  Iliff  The- 
 ological School  at  Denver,  Col.  The  attendance  upon 
 these  three  schools  was  very  evenly  divided,  ranging 
 from  173  to  178,  an  aggregate  of  527  students.  At 
 Atlanta,  Ga.,  in  connection  with  Clark  University,  is 
 Gammon  Theological  School,  a  well-endowed  and 
 equipped  school  for  colored  men,  with  an  attendance 
 of  83.  In  all,  this  Church  had,  at  that  date,  including 
 theological  schools  on  mission  fields,  25  theological 
 institutions,  with  buildings  valued  at  $1,659,136,  an 
 endowment  of  $1,702,341,  and  1,225  students.  It  also 
 had  56  colleges  and  universities,  with  buildings  and 
 equipment,  valued  at  $10,843,402,  and  endowment  of 
 $12,093,404,  and  28,619  students.  Of  these  institu- 
 tions, six  had  an  attendance  of  over  one  thousand  stu- 
 
624      History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 dents  each;  nine  others,  of  five  hundred  or  more. 
 Four  had  an  endowment  of  over  $1,000,000,  exclusive 
 of  buildings,  etc.,  and  three  others  of  over  $500,000. 
 These  figures  have  been  largely  surpassed  each  year 
 since,  and  are  valuable  chiefly  for  comparisons  with 
 the  past  with  the  institutions  of  other  Churches,  and 
 with  the  growth  of  future  years. 
 
 At  this  date,  the  leading  institutions  of  the  Meth- 
 odist Episcopal  Church  were:  Boston  University; 
 Wesleyan  University,  Middletown,  Conn. ;  Syracuse 
 University;  Ohio  Wesleyan,  Delaware,  O. ;  DePauw 
 University,  Greencastle,  Ind. ;  Northwestern  Univer- 
 sity, Evanston,  111.;  Denver  University;  and  Dickin- 
 son College,  Carlisle,  Pa. 
 
 The  educational  work  of  this  Church  has  been 
 wisely  planted,  with  little  rivalry  and  waste,  and  the 
 opening  years  of  the  new  century  have  seen  it  greatly 
 strengthened.  Its  greatest  need,  compared  with  either 
 the  increase  in  the  number  of  its  churches  or  its  min- 
 istry, or  the  provision  of  other  churches,  is  to  augment 
 its  facilities  for  theological  instruction  and  training. 
 
 It  has  also  60  classical  seminaries,  35  of  which  had 
 an  attendance  of  150  or  more.  The  buildings,  etc., 
 of  these  institutions  are  valued  at  $3,121,261,  and  en- 
 dowment of  $754,588;  9,320  students  were  in  attend- 
 ance. 
 
 There  were  eight  institutions  for  women ;  their 
 buildings  w^ere  valued  at  $1,413,000;  endowment, 
 $375,000;  and  attendance,  1,178.  There  were  also  four 
 Missionary  Institutes  and  Bible-training  Schools,  with 
 buildings  valued  at  $284,000;  endowment,  $26,000; 
 and  attendance,  of  453.  On  the  foreign  mission  fields 
 there  are  99  schools  for  higher  education ;  their  build- 
 
Christian  Church  in  United  States.    625 
 
 ings  are  valued  at  $628,632,  and  their  endowment  at 
 $30,000 ;  they  have  7,454  students  in  attendance.  In 
 the  United  States,  at  the  schools  for  higher  education 
 of  this  Church,  there  were  in  attendance,  in  1900, 
 38,091  students. 
 
 In  1900,  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  South, 
 reported  twenty  universities  and  colleges,  with  3,224 
 students  in  the  regular  courses,  and  1,585   Educational 
 in    the    preparatory    departments.     These    statistics. 
 schools  had  buildings,  etc.,  valued  at  $2,-    Methodist 
 476,000,  and  an  endowment  of  $2,601,000.    churches. 
 The  smaller  institutions  are  doing  good  work,  and 
 some  of  them  are  of  historic  renown.     Vanderbilt 
 University,  at  Nashville,  Tenn.,  had  200  students  in 
 collegiate  work,  and  600  in  professional  schools.     Its 
 buildings,  etc.,  are  valued   at   $750,000,  and  its  en- 
 dowment is  $1,200,000. 
 
 The  African  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  had  four 
 institutions,  with  238  in  college  courses  and  314  in 
 preparatory  departments.  The  property  of  these  in- 
 stitutions is  valued  at  $294,000,  with  $30,000  endow- 
 ment. The  African  Methodist  Episcopal  Zion  Church 
 had  one  college,  with  50-students  and  130  in  prepara- 
 tory work.  Its  buildings  were  valued  at  $125,000. 
 This  seems  a  good  record  for  purely  colored  churches. 
 The  Methodist  Protestants  had  two  institutions  doing 
 good  work.  They  have  250  in  college  work  and  174 
 in  preparatory  departments.  Their  buildings  are 
 valued  at  $300,000,  with  $80,000  endowment.  The 
 Free  Methodists  had  one  college,  with  14  students  and 
 25  in  preparatory  work.  The  building  is  valued  at 
 $30,000  and  the  endowment  $8,000.  The  Evangel- 
 ical Association  had  two  colleges,  with  87  students 
 40 
 
626     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 and  147  in  the  preparatory  departments,  with  $62,cx)o 
 in  buildings,  and  $40,000  in  endowments.  The 
 United  Brethren  had  eight  small  colleges,  but  well 
 located,  with  336  students  and  552  in  preparatory- 
 work.  These  institutions  are  valued  at  $421,000  with 
 $182,000  of  endowment. 
 
 More  than  ninety  per  cent  of  this  enrollment, 
 property,  and  endowment  in  these  schools  in  all 
 Churches  in  Methodism,  and  its  allied  branches,  is  the 
 increase  of  the  last  fifty  years,  and  the  far  greater  part 
 of  it  of  the  last  twenty-five  years. 
 
 The  charitable  work  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
 Church  is  largely  under  the  charge  of  the  Order  of 
 Deaconesses  instituted  in  1888.  There  are 
 ^work***^  ten  institutions  for  the  training  of  deacon- 
 esses. The  oldest  of  these  is  at  Chicago ; 
 others  are  at  New  York,  Boston,  and  Cincinnati.  The 
 Woman's  Home  Missionary  Society  has  training- 
 schools  at  Washington,  San  Francisco,  and  Kansas 
 City.  The  Annual  Conferences  have  such  schools  at 
 Brooklyn,  Grand  Rapids,  and  Des  Moines.  These  in- 
 stitutions had  property  in  1900  worth  over  $350,000. 
 There  were  over  600  licensed  deaconesses  and  700 
 probationers  at  the  cl6se  of  this  period,  and  there 
 were  80  institutions  in  the  United  States,  13  in 
 Europe,  and  9  in  Asia,  under  their  care.  Besides  the 
 money  invested  in  Orphanages,  Hospitals,  and  Homes 
 for  the  Aged,  there  are  $800,000  invested  in  buildings 
 for  Deaconess  Work  in  the  United  States,  and  $300,- 
 000  in  Germany,  where  there  were  over  200  deacon- 
 esses employed.  The  initiation  of  Deaconess  Work 
 in  this  Church  is  due  to  the  Germans  in  Europe  and 
 
Christian  Church  in  United  States.    627 
 
 America.     The  deaconesses  wear  a  distinctive  garb, 
 but  are  under  no  vows. 
 
 The  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  had  Immigrant 
 Homes  established  at  New  York  and  Boston. 
 
 At  the  end  of  the  century  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
 Church  had  in  the  United  States  fifteen  Orphanages, 
 caring   for  over   a   thousand   orphans,    in 
 buildings  valued  at  $862,000,  and  with  over 
 $300,000  endowment. 
 
 This  Church  had  also  eighteen  Hospitals,  with 
 buildings  and  equipments  valued  at  over 
 
 ^  -i  ^f^  ^  r  Hospitals. 
 
 $1,700,000,  and  with  over  $500,000  of  en- 
 dowment. 
 
 It  also  had  established  nine  Homes  for  the  Aged, 
 caring  for  over  five  hundred  inmates.     The  buildings 
 for  this  purpose  were  valued  at  $460,000, 
 and  there  is  $50,000  endowment.     Besides  ^^^^^^l 
 this,  one  institution  reports  an  annual  in- 
 come of  $15,000. 
 
 This  is  but  the  beginning,  for  almost  all  of  it  was 
 the  bestowal  of  the  last  twenty-five  years  of  the  cen- 
 tury. 
 
 All  these  institutions,  especially  those  for  educa- 
 tion, received  great  and  needed  help  from  the  Twenti- 
 eth-century  Fund.     This,   under   its   able 
 and   skillful    secretary.    Dr.    Edmund    M.  Twentieth- 
 Mills,  raised  $20,000,000  for  the  work  of    Century 
 
 Fund. 
 
 the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  as  a  Thank- 
 offering  at  the  opening  of  the  twentieth  century.    The 
 offering  of  the  Methodist  Church,  South,  for  the  same 
 purpose  reached  $  i  ,500,000 ;  that  of  British  Methodism 
 was  over  $5,000,000.     In  all,  probably,  nearly  or  quite 
 
628     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 $30,000,000  came  to  world-wide  Methodism  in  conse- 
 quence of  this  movement,  besides  all  the  new  churches 
 and  parsonages  built  and  repairs  made.  Through  it 
 two-thirds  of  the  indebtedness  upon  Methodist 
 Churches  has  been  paid,  and  at  the  same  time  its  con- 
 nectional  benevolences  have  increased. 
 
 The  Baptists,  being  congregational  in  their  gov- 
 ernment, do  not  have  as  plainly-marked  stages  of 
 ecclesiastical  growth  as  the  Methodists, 
 Baptists  ^^^  ^^^y  stand  by  their  side  in  numbers 
 and  influence.  They  have  not  the  same 
 eminence  in  scholarship  and  education  as  the  Congre- 
 gationalists,  but  their  work  at  Vassar  and  Chicago 
 vies  with  the  best.  The  secret  of  their  growth, 
 largely,  is  the  emphasis  upon  individual  responsi- 
 bility and  personal  work  for  Christ  and  his  Church. 
 Two  things  mark  the  passing  of  the  years  in  this 
 Church — the  added  interest  in  the  education  of  the 
 ministry,  and  the  lessened  Calvinism  in  Baptist  teach- 
 ing. The  endowment  of  Lewisburg,  now  Bucknell 
 University,  and  of  Madison,  now  Colgate  University; 
 the  added  facilities  at  Colby  University,  and  Brown, 
 as  well  as  at  Newton  Theological  Seminary;  the 
 founding  and  endowment  of  the  Rochester  Univer- 
 sity and  of  the  Rochester  Theological  Seminary;  the 
 removal  of  the  Southern  Theological  Seminary  from 
 Greenville,  S.  C,  to  Louisville,  Ky,,  and  its  endow- 
 ment, as  well  as  the  munificent  gifts  that  mark  the 
 founding  of  Vassar  College  and  of  Chicago  Univer- 
 sity,— show  the  mighty  influence  this  Church  is  to 
 exert  in  Christian  education  in  the  United  States. 
 
 In  these  years  missions  were  established  in  several 
 European  countries.    In  Sweden,  in  1855,  Dr.  Oncken 
 
Christian  Church  in  United  States.     629 
 
 began  a  mission  which  at  the  end  of  the  century  num- 
 bered 40,000  members.  In  1870  a  mission  was  estab- 
 lished in  Spain,  and  in  1874  one  in  Italy.    _^    , 
 
 ^  '^  .      -r^  Missions. 
 
 In  1887  mission  work  was  begun  m  Rus- 
 sia where,  in  1900,  there  were  reported  21,000 
 Baptists;  in  1889,  in  Finland;  in  1891,  in  Denmark; 
 and  in  1892,  in  Norway.  In  Finland  and  Denmark 
 there  were  reported,  in  1900,  over  2,000  members 
 each,  and  over  3,000  in  Norway.  The  most  success- 
 ful work  of  the  Baptist  missions  has  been  in  Southern 
 India  and  in  Assam  and  Burmah.  They  also  have  a 
 flourishing  mission  in  Cuba. 
 
 I^ike  all  great  Churches,  the  work  done  in  the 
 Baptist  Churches  is,  in  the  main,  by  the  mass  of  the 
 ministers  and  the  people.  A  few  men,  however,  have 
 rendered  such  conspicuous  service  that,  in  any  record 
 of  the  life  of  the  Church,  their  names  must  find  men- 
 tion. 
 
 Such  a  man  was  Martin  B.  Anderson  (18 15-1890), 
 the  founder  of  Rochester  University.     Dr.  Anderson 
 was  born  at  Bath,  Maine,  and  educated  at 
 Waterville  College,  now  Colby  University,  Anderson. 
 1 836-1 840.     He  then  spent  a  year  at  New- 
 ton Theological  Seminary,  after  which  he  returned  to 
 Waterville  to  teach.     He  was  never  ordained  to  the 
 ministry,  though  his  life  and  service  were  most  effect- 
 ive preaching  of  the  gospel.     At  Waterville  he  re- 
 mained, teaching   first   Latin   and   Greek,  and   then 
 rhetoric,  logic,  and  history,  from   1841  to  1850,  mean- 
 while preaching  often  as  a  supply.     On  one  of  these 
 occasions,  in  New  York,  he  met  his  wife,  and  they 
 were    married    in    August,    1848.      In    1850    he   left 
 Waterville  to  go  to  New  York  as  editor  of  the  Chris- 
 
630     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 Han  Recorder,  which  later,  under  Dr.  Edward  Bright, 
 became  The  Examiner ^  1 853-1 894,  and  the  leading 
 periodical  of  the  Baptist  Church. 
 
 In  1853,  Dr.  Anderson  accepted  a  call  to  the  infant 
 University  of  Rochester.  He  gave  his  life  to  the 
 work,  except  that  in  1 862-1863  ^^  visited  Europe. 
 Of  that  institution  he  was  the  motive  power  and  soul 
 until  his  resignation  in  June,  1888.  He  did  not  long 
 survive,  but  February  26,  1890,  four  days  after  the 
 death  of  his  beloved  wife,  he  died  in  Florida.  To- 
 gether their  remains  were  brought  to  Rochester,  and 
 borne  to  the  church  and  to  the  grave.  One  should 
 have  seen  the  stalwart  form  of  Dr.  Anderson,  and 
 heard  him  in  the  classroom  or  in  his  chapel  talks,  to 
 appreciate  his  influence.  He  was  a  man  of  wide 
 reading  and  of  comprehensive  and  practical  thought. 
 For  years  he  was  the  most  eminent  and  influential 
 citizen  of  the  fair  city  in  which  he  lived.  Rochester 
 University,  which  he  loved  as  his  child,  is  his  endur- 
 ing monument. 
 
 With  Dr.  Anderson  wrought,  for  many  years,  his 
 early  friend,  Ezekiel  G.   Robinson   (i 815-1894),  the 
 
 founder  in  the  true  sense  of  the  Rochester 
 Robinson.     Theological  Seminar}^    The  two  men  were 
 
 very  diff"erent.  Dr.  Anderson  was  in  a  very 
 real  sense  a  public  man.  Dr.  Robinson  was  a  deeper 
 and  more  logical  thinker,  with  little  of  Dr.  Anderson's 
 wealth  and  variety  of  thought  or  his  breadth  of  view 
 and  warm  human  vSympathies.  Dr.  Robinson's  quest 
 was  truth,  and  his  life  its  expression  as  he  saw  it. 
 Other  things  were  secondary.  He  was  born  in  Massa- 
 chusetts, six  miles  from  Providence,  R.  I.  When  he 
 was  four  years  of  age  his  father  died,  leaving  him  the 
 
Christian  Church  in  United  States.    631 
 
 youngest  of  four  children.  His  education,  in  these 
 circumstances,  as  depicted  by  himself,  seems  to  have 
 been  as  desultory  and  ineffective  as  could  be  imagined 
 for  any  one  who  enjoyed  such  opportunities  at  all. 
 He  owed  his  intellectual  awakening  to  a  friend,  who, 
 having  graduated  from  New  Hampton,  N.  H.,  came 
 back  to  review  his  studies.  He  joined  the  Baptist 
 Church  in  1829.  With  a  poor  preparation  he  entered 
 Brown,  1 835-1 839,  where  the  teaching  was  meager, 
 except  but  one  year  under  President  Wayland  and 
 work  with  Dr.  Hackett.  Six  months'  post-graduate 
 study  did  little  for  him,  and  he  turned  to  Newton 
 Theological  Seminary,  where  Dr.  Hackett's  and  Dr. 
 Sears's  teaching  greatly  benefited  him.  After  two 
 years  at  Newton  he  accepted  a  pastorate  at  Norfolk, 
 Va.,  1842.  While  there  he  was  invited  to  serve  as 
 one  of  the  chaplains  of  the  University  of  Virginia, 
 and  while  serving  there  he  met  the  lady  who  became 
 his  wife.  On  account  of  malaria  he  left  Norfolk  for 
 Cambridge,  Mass.,  where  his  wife  suffered  a  hemor- 
 rhage, which  necessitated  another  removal.  He  ac- 
 cepted the  Professorship  in  Hebrew  in  the  Western 
 Theological  Institute  at  Covington,  Ky.  After  two 
 years,  the  antislavery  sentiments  of  the  president 
 were  too  much  for  the  Board  of  Trustees.  He  and 
 Dr.  Robinson  resigned  in  June,  1848.  For  the  next 
 five  years  he  occupied  a  pastorate  in  Cincinnati,  Ohio. 
 Finally,  in  1853,  at  the  solicitation  of  Dr.  Anderson, 
 he  came  to  Rochester  as  Professor  of  Theology  in  the 
 new  University  of  Rochester.  In  1868,  Trevor  Hall 
 was  erected  on  a  site  removed  from  the  university 
 campus.  From  1859  an  independent  endowment  was 
 sought  to  be  secured.     In  1863  the  course  of  study 
 
632     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 was  extended  from  two  to  three  years.  It  will  always 
 be  a  matter  of  regret  that  the  two  institutions  which 
 began  life  together  could  not  have  done  their  work  on 
 the  same  campus. 
 
 In  1S65-1867,  Dr.  Robinson  spent  two  years  in 
 Europe,  and  richly  profited  by  them.  Of  the  sep- 
 arated institution,  of  course,  Dr.  Robinson  was  the 
 president.  In  1868  his  salary  was  made  $4,000,  and 
 good  progress  was  made  toward  a  satisfactory  endow- 
 ment, $240,000  being  raised.  In  1872,  Dr.  Robinson 
 accepted  the  presidency  of  Brown  University,  where 
 he  remained  until  1889.  In  these  years,  in  buildings, 
 in  endowment,  and  in  enlargement  of  the  course  of 
 study,  he  saw  the  refounding  of  Brown  University. 
 He  died  Jime  13,  1894,  and  was  buried  at  Rochester 
 beside  five  daughters  who  had  preceded  him  to  the 
 real  world  for  immortal  spirits. 
 
 Dr.  Robinson  left  his  mark  upon  the  ministry  and 
 the  Church  he  served.  He  could  not  be  called  a  con- 
 structive theologian,  but  he  was  a  stimulating  and  in- 
 spiring teacher.  Dr.  Robinson  had  an  analytical  and 
 critical  mind,  and  a  gift  of  incisive  speech.  Both  Dr. 
 Anderson  and  himself  opposed  the  plans  of  the 
 American  (Baptist)  Bible  Union,  but  only  Dr.  Robin- 
 son could  say,  "  The  scandal  brought  upon  the  de- 
 nomination by  the  Bible  Union  among  intelligent 
 men,  to  say  nothing  of  the  useless  waste  of  funds,  is 
 among  the  painful  memories  among  those  of  us  who 
 have  survived  those  days  of  noise,  pretense,  and 
 fanaticism." 
 
 Dr.  Robinson  gave  the  Yale  "  Lectures  on  Preach- 
 ing" in  1883.  In  1865  he  published  the  translation 
 of  Neander's  "  Planting  and  Training  of  the  Christian 
 
Christian  Church  in  United  States.    633 
 
 Church."  In  1888  appeared  his  "  Principles  and  Prac- 
 tice of  Morahty."  After  his  death  in  1894,  his  "Chris- 
 tian Theology  "  was  published,  and  the  next  year  his 
 **  Christian  Evidences." 
 
 A  man  of  more  power  in  the  pulpit  than  Dr.  Rob- 
 inson was  Dr.  John  Albert  Broadus  (1827-1895).  He 
 was  educated  at  the  University  of  Virsrinia 
 
 ,  .        ,      ,  -  -  .  ,         .  Dr.  Broadus. 
 
 and  remained  there  after  his  graduation, 
 1851-1853,  as  Assistant  Professor  of  Latin  and  Greek. 
 From  1 85 1  to  1859  he  was  pastor  of  the  Baptist  Church 
 at  Charlottesville,  Va.  In  that  year  he  was  called  to 
 the  Chair  of  New  Testament  Exegesis  and  Homiletics 
 at  Greenville,  S.  C.  Later,  under  his  presidency,  the 
 institution  was  removed  to  Louisville,  Ky.,  where  it 
 became  the  strongest  Baptist  Theological  Institution 
 in  the  South.  Dr.  Broadus  will  be  long  remembered 
 by  his  valuable  works  on  "  The  Preparation  and  De- 
 livery of  a  Sermon,"  1870;  his  "History  of  Preaching," 
 1877;  his  "Sermons  and  Addresses,"  1886;  and  his 
 "Commentary  on  Matthew"  of  the  same  year.  In- 
 fluential as  a  preacher  and  a  president  of  the  Theolog- 
 ical Seminary,  in  this  work  he  still  speaks  to  men. 
 
 The  Baptist  Educational  Society  was  founded  in 
 1888;  the  Woman's  Foreign  Missionary  Society  in 
 1871 ;  the  Woman's  Home  Missionary  Society  in  1877; 
 the  Baptist  Young  People's  Union  in  1891 ;  and  the 
 American  Baptist  Historical  Society  in  1853. 
 
 In  1900,  the  Regular  Baptists  reported  43,959 
 churches,  29,890  ministers,  and  4,223,236  communi- 
 cants.     The    total    of    Baptists,    thirteen 
 
 ^  statistics. 
 
 organizations,  is:    Churches,  50,257;  min- 
 isters,   34,221;     communicants,     4,535,462, — a    gain, 
 1850-1900,   of    35,553    churches;     24,748    ministers, 
 
634     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 and  3,536,429  communicants  among  the  Regular  Bap- 
 tists, and  of  38,598  churches,  27,218  ministers,  and 
 3,720,250  communicants  in  the  total.  Regular 
 Baptist  Sunday-schools,  25,200;  teachers,  197,484; 
 scholars,  1,974,820.  Value  of  church  property,  $88,- 
 146,386.  Number  of  parsonages,  1,543.  Total  cur- 
 rent expenditures  and  benevolences,  $13,790,000. 
 Total  Baptists  throughout  the  world,  5,012,880. 
 
 In  1900,  the  Baptist  Churches  reported  622  foreign 
 
 missionaries,  with  1,912  churches  in  foreign  fields,  and 
 
 206,746  members.     Their  most  flourishing 
 
 Missions.  .      .  ,  ,  .        -r-»  1         A 
 
 missions  have  been  m  Burmah,  Assam, 
 Southern  India,  Germany,  Scandinavia,  and  Russia, 
 They  raised  over  $550,000  for  foreign  missions  in 
 1900. 
 
 The  Baptist  Churches  have  seven  well-endowed 
 and  well-equipped  theological  seminaries;  the  Free- 
 will Baptists  have  two  theological  depart- 
 
 Education.  ^  o  x- 
 
 ments  in  colleges ;  the  Seventh-day  Baptists, 
 one.  The  seven  institutions  above  mentioned  had 
 995  students,  $1,275,238  of  property,  and  $2,640,952 
 of  endowment. 
 
 The  Baptists  reported  in  1900,  105  universities  and 
 colleges,  with  27,241  students.  These  institutions 
 have  $13,891,684  in  property,  and  $13,660,842  in  en- 
 dowment. Of  this  amount,  Chicago  University  re- 
 ported 1,966  students,  buildings  valued  at  $3,079,384, 
 and  $5,726,350  in  endowment.  There  are  three  insti- 
 tutions having  over  one  thousand  students,  and  three 
 more  having  over  five  hundred. 
 
 The  leading  Baptist  Universities  are :  Brown  Uni- 
 versity, Providence,  R.  I.;  Columbian  University, 
 Washington,  D.  C;  Chicago  University  ;  Colgate  Uni- 
 
Christian  Church  in  United  States.    635 
 
 versity,  Hamilton,  N.  Y. ;  Richmond  University,  Rich- 
 mond, Va.;  Rochester  University;  Denison  Univer- 
 sity, Granville,  O.;  and  Vassar  College,  Poughkeepsie, 
 N.  Y.  The  Baptist  Church  also  had  90  seminaries  and 
 academies,  with  11,127  students;  31  of  these  had  an 
 attendance  of  150  or  more. 
 
 The  Baptist  Church,  in  1900,  reported 
 fifteen  Orphanages,  with  $494,000  of  pro-   ,^^tituJion,. 
 perty;  thirteen  Homes  for  the  Aged,  etc., 
 with  $931,000  of  property;  and  five  Hospitals,  with 
 $10,000  of  property. 
 
 The  Presbyterian  Church,  perhaps  from  its  form  of 
 government,  has  its  strong  influence  in  the  local  com- 
 munities.    While  its  ministry  is  surpassed 
 
 ,  ,  ^  ,         ^,  ,     .  ,      ,         ,  .         Presbyterians. 
 
 by  that  of  no  other  Church  m  scholarship, 
 it  has  not  so  widely  affected  our  national  life  as  would 
 naturally  be  expected.  It  prides  itself  upon  being  a 
 theological  Church.  Such  Churches,  like  the  Presby- 
 terian and  Lutheran,  will  always  be  strong  in  theolog- 
 ical seminaries,  but  will  always  carry  in  their  train 
 any  amount  of  powder  prepared  for  sudden  and  unex- 
 pected explosions.  Much  of  the  time  and  effective 
 force  in  each  Church  has  been  taken  up  with  internal 
 divisions  and  efforts  to  heal  the  breaches.  All  must 
 be  thankful  that  in  each  a  better  era  has  dawned.  In 
 local  influence,  in  the  character  of  its  leading  laymen, 
 in  certain  elements  of  stability  and  power,  no  Amerl  A 
 ican  Church  surpasses  the  Presbyterian  Church.  '/ 
 
 The  great  events  in  the  history  of  the  Presbyterian 
 Churches  in  this  period  were  Reunion  and  Revision.'p 
 In   1857   the  Associate  and  the   Associate  Reformed 
 Churches    united   to   form    the   United   Presbyterian 
 Church;    in  1858  they   were  joined  by  the  General 
 
t 
 
 636        H [STORY  OF  THE  CHRISTIAN    CHURCH. 
 
 Synod  Reformed  Church.  The  Southern  Presbyte- 
 rian Church  was  founded  in  1861,  in  consequence  of 
 the  war  and  the  attitude  of  the  Northern  Churches  on 
 slavery.  The  Kentucky  and  Missouri  Synods  joined 
 them  in  1868  and  1874,  and  the  Associate  Reformed 
 Presbyteries  of  Alabama  and  Kentucky,  in  1867  and 
 1870.  The  Pan-Presbyterian  Council  was  held  at 
 Philadelphia,  November  8,  1867.  November  8,  1869, 
 at  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  occurred  the  healing  of  the  schism 
 which,  since  1837,  had  rent  the  Presbyterians  into  the 
 Old  and  New  School  Churches.  This  reunion  was 
 consummated  in  the  one  General  Assemby  at  Phila- 
 delphia in  1870.  The  Thank-offering  for  this  reunion 
 in  1870  amounted  to  $7,607,491.  This  was  the  great- 
 est act  of  ecclesiastical  reunion  which  has  taken  place 
 in  the  history  of  the  Christian  Church  in  the  United 
 States. 
 
 In  1874,  Professor  David  Swing  was  tried  for  her- 
 esy, and  acquitted,  but  withdrew  from  the  Presbyte- 
 rian Church.  In  1889  the  movement  for  the 
 RevTs^on.  ^evisiou  of  the  Westminster  Confession  be- 
 gan; with  it,  in  1891,  was  connected  the 
 charges  against  Professor  Charles  S.  Briggs,  of  the 
 Union  Theological  Seminary  in  New  York.  The 
 shibboleth  of  his  accusers  was  "the  inerrancy  of  the 
 Scriptures."  The  prosecution  in  1897  was  extended 
 to  include  Dr.  Archibald  C.  McGififert,  a  professor  in 
 the  same  institution  with  Dr.  Briggs,  for  some  pas- 
 sages in  his  work  on  the  Apostolic  Church.  Dr. 
 Briggs  was  suspended  in  1893,  after  proceedings  drawn 
 out  for  five  years;  in  1898  he  withdrew,  and  joined 
 the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church.  In  the  same  year 
 Dr.  McGififert  withdrew,  and  joined  the  Congregational 
 
Christian  Church  in  United  States.    637 
 
 Church,  and  so  stopped  the  proceedings  in  his  case. 
 The  trustees  sustained  the  professors,  so  their  connec- 
 tion with  Union  Theological  Seminary  remained  un- 
 changed. In  their  departments  there  are  not  two  men 
 of  greater  learning  in  the  United  States.  Ten  years 
 later  the  utterances  for  which  they  were  summoned 
 to  trial  would  not  excite  an  ecclesiastical  ripple  in  the 
 same  Church.  The  matter  of  creed  revision  was  set- 
 tled in  1902,  and  consummated  the  following  year, 
 (i)  By  revising  certain  chapters  and  sections  in  the 
 Confession  of  Westminster;  (2)  By  the  addition  of 
 chapters  on  the  Love  of  God,  on  Missions,  and  on  the 
 Holy  Spirit.  Besides,  there  was  reported  a  "  Brief 
 Statement"  designed  to  be  used  as  an  explanation 
 and  popular  statement  of  the  confessional  position  of 
 the  Church.  These  were  all  adopted  by  the  General 
 Assembly  in  New  York  in  1902,  without  a  dissenting 
 voice.  All  but  the  "Brief  Statement"  was  adopted 
 by  the  Presbyteries,  and  becomes  the  law  of  the  Pres- 
 byterian Church.  The  "  Brief  Statement "  was  also 
 adopted  in  1903.  All  good  Christians  will  rejoice  in 
 this  result  and  in  this  happy  ending  of  a  dozen  years 
 of  strife. 
 
 The    Presbyterians    participated    in    the    general 
 movement  of  Church  life  in  the  United  States.    They      y 
 greatly  profited  by  the  Moody  and  Sankey  revivals,    y 
 In  1870  was  formed  their  Woman's  Board  of  Foreign  ^ 
 Missions,  and,    five   years  later,   that  of  the   United 
 Presbyterian  Church,  and  in  1880  that  of  the  Cumber- 
 land Presbyterian  Church.  The  Southern  Presbyterians . 
 did  not  approve  of  this  work   for  women.     In   1878 
 was  formed  the  Presbyterian  Woman's  Board  of  Home 
 Missions,  and,  ten   years  later,  the  like  organization 
 
638      History  of  the  Christiais  Church. 
 
 came  into  being  in  the  United  Presbyterian  Church. 
 In  1869  the  colored  members  withdrew  from  the 
 Cumberland  Presbyterian  Church,  and  formed  a  sep- 
 arate organization  with  13,000  members. 
 
 The  Westminster  I^eague  of  Young  People  was 
 \/  formed  in  18 — ,  but  most  of  the  Churches  support  the 
 Christian  Endeavor  Society.  Pan-Presbyterian  Coun- 
 cils were  held  in  1867,  at  Philadelphia;  in  1877,  at 
 Edinburgh;  in  1887,  at  Belfast;  and,  in  1897,  at 
 
 Men  who  largely  influenced  the  life  of  the  Presby- 
 terian Church  were  James  McCosh,  John  Hall,  How- 
 ard Crosby,  Samuel  Irenseus  Prime,  Henry  M.  Field, 
 and  Benjamin  M.  Palmer. 
 
 James  McCosh  (1811-1894)  was  the  last  represent- 
 ative of  the  Scotch  philosophy  of  Stewart,  Reid,  and 
 Hamilton.      He   was    born    in    Ayrshire, 
 
 Dr.  McCosh.    ^        ,        ,  ,  ,.     ,    .        ,       ^^    .  .  ' 
 
 Scotland,  and  studied  in  the  University  of 
 Glasgow,  1 824-1 829,  and  in  that  of  Edinburgh,  1829- 
 1834.  In  the  latter  instiution  he  was  a  pupil  of  Chal- 
 mers; 1 835-1 839,  he  was  pastor  at  Arbroath,  and, 
 1839-1852,  at  Brechin.  In  1843  he  went  with  the 
 Free  Church.  In  1 852-1 868  he  was  professor  in 
 Queen's  College,  Belfast,  Ireland.  In  the  latter  year 
 he  came  to  America,  and,  from  1868  to  1888,  he  was 
 president  of  Princeton  University,  which  was  practi- 
 cally re  founded  in  these  years. 
 
 His  "  Method  of  Divine  Government,"  1850,  and 
 "Supernatural  in  Relation  to  the  Natural,"  1852,  pro- 
 cured him  his  professorship  at  Belfast.  His  "  Intui- 
 tions of  the  Human  Mind  "  appeared  in  i860,  and  his 
 "  Psychology  of  the  Motive  Powers"  in  1888.  His 
 philosophic  system  receives  its  clearest  statement  in 
 his  "Realistic  Philosophy,"  2  vols.,  1887. 
 
Christian  Church  in  United  States.    639 
 
 The  ability  of  Dr.  McCosh  turned  the  tide  of  stu- 
 dents toward  Princeton ;  their  number  rose  from  264 
 to  603,  and  he  often  had  200  in  his  classes  to  hear  his 
 lectures. 
 
 Dr.  John  Hall  (1829-1898)  was  born  in  the  county 
 of  Armagh,  Ireland.  At  thirteen,  he  entered  the  Bel- 
 fast College,  and  was  there  graduated.     In 
 
 John  Hall. 
 
 1849  he  was  licensed  to  preach.  He 
 preached  in  Armagh,  1 852-1 858,  and  in  Dublin, 
 1858-67.  In  the  latter  year  he  came  to  New  York, 
 and  was  chosen  pastor  of  the  Fifth  Avenue  Presby- 
 terian Church.  Their  new  church  edifice,  erected  in 
 1875,  cost  over  a  million  of  dollars.  Alexander  T. 
 Stewart  was  his  steady  and  influential  friend.  In  1882 
 he  was  chosen  chancellor  of  the  University  of  the  city 
 of  New  York.  He  was  selected  to  preach  the  funeral 
 sermon  of  the  Hon.  Salmon  P.  Chase.  In  1875  he 
 delivered  the  Yale  *'  Lectures  on  Preaching." 
 
 Howard  Crosby  (i  826-1 861)  was  one  of  the  most 
 scholarly  preachers  of  his  time.  He  was  graduated 
 from  the   University   of  the  City  of  New  ^    ^     ^ 
 
 -   -        Dr.  Crosby. 
 
 York  in  1844.  In  1851,  after  years  of  for- 
 eign study  and  travel,  he  was  called  to  the  professor- 
 ship of  Greek  in  his  Alma  Mater,  185 1 -1859.  In  the 
 latter  year  he  accepted  a  call  to  the  same  position  at 
 Rutgers  College.  There  he  remained  for  the  next 
 four  years,  and  also  served  as  pastor  of  the  church 
 in  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.  In  1863  he  was  called  to 
 the  pastorate  of  the  Fourth  Avenue  Presbyterian 
 Church  in  New  York  City,  which  he  held  at  his  death. 
 In  1 87 1  he  delivered  the  Yale  "Lectures  on  Preaching;" 
 in  1877  he  was  a  delegate  to  the  Pan-Presbyterian 
 Council  at  Edinburgh.    In  the  same  year  he  founded 
 
640     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 the  "  Society  for  the  Prevention  of  Vice."  In  185 1  he 
 published  an  edition  of  Sophocles'  '*  CBdipus  Tyran- 
 nus;"  also  Yale  "Lectures  on  Preaching,"  1871; 
 "The  Humanity  of  Christ,"  1880,  and  a  Commentary 
 on  the  New  Testatament,  1885.  He  wrote  largely 
 for  the  Sunday-school  Times.  He  stood  against  total 
 abstinence  from  intoxicants,  to  the  regret  of  most  of 
 the  American  Churches. 
 
 Samuel  Irenseus  Prime  (18 12-1885)  was  the  in- 
 fluential editor  of  the  New  York  Observer,  in  these 
 years  the  organ  of  the  Old  School  Presby- 
 terians, Dr.  Prime  received  his  education 
 at  Williams  College,  and  spent  one  year  at  Princeton, 
 when  his  health  failed.  He  was  licensed  to  preach  in 
 1833.  He  was  pastor  at  Balston  Spa,  1833-1835,  and 
 at  Matteawan,  1 837-1 840.  Then,  on  account  of 
 chronic  affection  of  the  throat,  he  was  forced  to  give 
 up  the  active  ministry.  In  1 840-1 885  he  was  editor 
 of  The  Observer.  He  traveled  largely  abroad  in  1853, 
 1856-1857,  and  1876-1877.  He  wrote  more  than  forty 
 volumes,  including  many  books  of  travel.  He  also 
 wrote  the  "  Life  of  Professor  S.  F.  B.  Morse  "  and  the 
 "Life  of  Nicholas  Butler."  Of  his  "  Power  of  Prayer" 
 175,000  copies  were  sold. 
 
 Henry  M.  Field  (1822-19  ")>  brother  of  Cyrus  W. 
 Field  who  laid  the  Atlantic  cable,  and  of  the  distin- 
 guished jurists,  David  Dudley  Field  and 
 Justice  Stephen  G.  Field,  of  the  Supreme 
 Court  of  the  United  States,  was  a  minister's  son.  He 
 was  graduated  from  Williams  College  in  1838,  and 
 studied  theology  at  Windsor  and  New  Haven  the  next 
 four  years.  From  1842  to  1847  he  was  pastor  at  St. 
 Louis.    In  the  latter  year  he  went  to  Europe.    This  was 
 
Christian  Church  in  United  States.    641 
 
 the  turning  point  of  his  Hie.  There  he  married  a  culti- 
 vated French  lady.  On  his  return  he  published  "  The 
 Good  and  Bad  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,"  and, 
 in  1 85 1,  "The  Irish  Confederates,  a  History  of  the 
 Rebellion  of  1798."  He  resumed  the  pastorate  at 
 West  Springfield,  Mass.,  1851-1854.  In  the  latter 
 year  he  became  editor  of  the  New  York  Evangelist, 
 which  place  he  retained  for  many  years.  He  published 
 many  books  of  travel.     He  enjoys  an  honored  age. 
 
 More  eloquent  than  any  of  these  eminent  men,  and 
 in  his  own  Church  more  influential,  was  Dr.  Benjamin 
 Morgan  Palmer  (1818-1902),  the  founder, 
 
 ,  .         ,.     ,  ,  ,  ,  Dr.  Palmer. 
 
 and  in  all  these  years  the  ablest  minister, 
 of  the  Southern  Presbyterian  Church.  He  was  gradu- 
 ated from  the  University  of  Georgia  in  1838,  and  three 
 years  later  from  the  Theological  Seminary  at  Colum- 
 bia, S.  C.  Entering  the  pastorate,  he  preached  at 
 Savannah  and  Columbia,  S.  C,  and  in  1856  he  went 
 to  New  Orleans,  which  was  his  residence  until  his 
 death  in  1902.  In  1847  he  founded,  and  since  then 
 edited  or  contributed  to,  the  Southern  Presbyterian  J 
 Review.  He  published  "  Life  of  Dr.  James  H.  Thorn- 
 well,"  1875,  and  "Sermons,"  two  volumes,  1875-1876. 
 In  this  period  these  Churches  made  steady  and 
 substantial  growth.  They  changed  their  Church 
 names  to  "  The  Reformed  Church  in  Amer- 
 
 The  Dutch 
 
 ica"  and  "The  Reformed  Church  in  the  and oerm.n 
 United  States,"  respectively.     They  have    Reformed 
 
 '  ^  .        ,  ,      .       Churches. 
 
 shown  their  zeal  in  Sunday-school  work,  in 
 education   and  in  missions,  and  in  Young  People's 
 Societies.     A  large  emigration  from  Holland  to  Michi- 
 gan led  to  the  founding  of  Hope  College  at  Holland, 
 Michigan. 
 41 
 
642      History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 The  German  Reformed  Church  celebrated  the 
 tercentenary  of  the  Heidelberg  Catechism  in  1863. 
 English  Synods  were  organized  in  this  Church,  1870- 
 1873.  Soon  there  were  five  English  Synods  to  three 
 German  ones.  The  Liturgical  Movement,  which 
 opened  with  the  **  Provisional  Liturgy"  of  1857  was 
 finally  brought  to  a  conclusion,  after  a  sharp  contro- 
 versy from  1863,  by  the  adoption  of  the  "Revised 
 Directory  of  Worship  "  in  1887.  Most  of  the  classes 
 in  both  Churches  voted  to  a  union  of  these  Churches 
 in  1 886-1 892,  but  on  technical  grounds  it  fell  through. 
 It  is  to  be  hoped  that  it  will  soon  succeed,  and  join 
 both  to  the  great  Presbyterian  Church. 
 
 In  1900,  Presbyterians  formerly  included  in  the 
 Old  and  New  School  Churches  reported  7,779  churches, 
 7,532  clergy,  and  1,025,388  communicants. 
 This  is  a  gain  since  1850  of  3,576  churches, 
 3,533  clergy,  and  677,837  communicants.  There  are 
 in  the  Sunday-schools,  1,058,110  scholars;  total  cur- 
 rent expenses  and  benevolences,  $16,338,361. 
 
 In  1900  there  were 
 
 5tasti5tic8. 
 
 Cumberland  Presbyterians, 
 
 Cumberland  Presbyterians,  colored, 
 
 vSouthern   Presbyterians, 
 
 Two  Associate  Churches 
 
 Four  Reformed  Churches 
 
 United   Presbyterians, 
 
 Welsh  Calviuists 
 
 CLERGY 
 
 CHURCHES 
 
 1.596 
 
 2,957 
 
 450 
 
 400 
 
 I.461 
 
 2,959 
 
 116 
 
 243 
 
 159 
 
 151 
 
 918 
 
 911 
 
 89 
 
 158 
 
 MEMBERS 
 
 180,192 
 39,000 
 225,890 
 
 2X,i34 
 
 15.335 
 1 15.901 
 12,152 
 
 Total  in  twelve  bodies,  11,959  clergy,  15,157 
 churches,  and  1,584,400  members. 
 
 This  Church  reported  in  1900,  690  ministers,  619 
 churches,  and   107,504  members.      This  was  a  gain, 
 
Christian  Church  in  United  States.    643 
 
 since  1850,  of  404  ministers,  320  churches,  and  73-974 
 members.  In  the  same  year  the  German  Reformed 
 Church    reported    1,074    ministers,     1,653 
 
 ,  ^  1  ATM  •  Dutch 
 
 churches,  and  242,831  members.     This  was    Reformed, 
 a  gain,  since  1850,  of  774  ministers,  1,397 
 churches,  and  172,831   members.     Thus,  at  the  close 
 of  this  era,  the  great  Presbyterian  family  in  the  United 
 States  numbered  about  2,000,000  of  communicants. 
 
 The  Presbyterians  have  six  well-endowed  theolog- 
 ical  seminaries, — Princeton,  Western,    Lane,   Union, 
 Auburn,  and  McCormick.     These,  in  1900,   Education. 
 had  6s2  students,  and  their  buildings  were  Theological 
 
 ^  -  ■,      At.  c     Tralnlnjf. 
 
 valued  at  $1,876,000,  with  $3,941,000  ot 
 endowment.  Since  then,  Princeton  has  become  the 
 wealthiest  of  American  theological  seminaries,  with 
 an  endowment  of  over  $3,500,000.  In  1900  there  were 
 thirteen  theological  seminaries  belonging  to  the  Pres- 
 byterian Church.  Two  of  these  were  for  colored 
 preachers,  and  had  27  students.  The  eleven  semi- 
 naries had  803  students,  their  buildings  were  valued 
 at  $2,502,000,  and  their  endowment  was  $4,618,000. 
 Five  institutions  of  the  Southern  Presbyterians  had 
 156  students;  the  buildings  were  valued  at  $290,000, 
 with  an  endowment  of  $738,000.  The  United  Pres- 
 byterians had  two  institutions,  94  students,  buildings 
 valued  at  $155,000,  and  endowment  of  $381,000.  The 
 Cumberland  Presbyterians  had  one  institution,  with 
 54  students,  $50,000  in  buildings,  and  $82,000  in  en- 
 dowment. The  Reformed  Presbyterians  had  two  in- 
 stitutions, with  15  students,  buildings  valued  at  $25,- 
 000,  and  an  endowment  of  $107,000.  The  Reformed 
 Dutch  had  two  institutions,  with  63  students,  the 
 buildings  were  considered  worth  $260,000,  and  the 
 
644     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 endowment  was  $475,000.  The  German  Reformed 
 had  four  institutions,  with  127  students;  their  build- 
 ings were  valued  at  $86,000,  with  $218,000  of  endow- 
 ment. 
 
 That  is,  these  Presbyterian  Churches  in  1900  had, 
 in  all,  twenty-seven  institutions  for  theological  train- 
 ing. These  schools  had  1,139  students,  their  build- 
 ings were  valued  at  $3,368,000,  with  an  endowment  of 
 $6,609,000. 
 
 The  Presbyterian  Church  had,  in  1900,  forty-four 
 
 institutions  of  college  grade ;  these  had  3,914  students 
 
 in  college  work,  and  1,506  in  preparatory 
 
 Colleges.       ,  ^  ',,.,.  ^  ,  / 
 
 departments.  The  buildings  and  grounds 
 were  valued  at  $10,206,000,  and  the  endowment  at 
 $7,992,000.  The  other  Presbyterian  Churches  in  the 
 United  States,  including  the  Dutch  and  German  Re- 
 formed Churches,  had  twentj^-two  institutions  of  col- 
 lege grade:  these  had  in  the  college  2,203  students, 
 with  2,233  in  preparatory  work.  They  also  have  102 
 academies,  with  4,902  students. 
 
 The  leading  Presbyterian  universities  and  colleges 
 in  this  country  are  Princeton  University,  New  York 
 University,  Rutgers  College,  Hamilton  College,  Frank- 
 lin and  Marshall  College,  Lancaster,  Pa.;  I^a  Fayette 
 College,  Easton,  Pa.;  Wooster  University,  Ohio;  and 
 Lake  Forest  University. 
 
 The  Presbyterians  give  a  generous  support  to  local 
 charities,  but  have  fine  hospitals  in  the  large  centers 
 of  population,  at  New  York,  Philadelphia, 
 Chicago,  Cincinnati,  Allegheny,  Pa.,  and 
 other  cities.  The  two  hospitals  at  New  York  and 
 Philadelphia  cost  nearly  $350,090  a  year  for  running 
 expenses,  and  treat  nearly  20,000  patients.     The  hos- 
 
Christian  Church  in  United  States.    645 
 
 pital  at  Canton,  China,  was  founded  in  1838,  the  first 
 of  foreign  missionary  hospitals. 
 
 Next  to  the  Roman  Catholics,  the  Lutherans  have 
 profited  most  by  the   immense  immigration  of  these 
 fifty  years,  which   brought  to  the  United 
 States   nearly   or   quite   seven  millions  of  Lutherans. 
 people    from    Germany    and    Scandinavia. 
 There  are  in  this  country  seventeen  different  kinds  of 
 Lutherans.     This  era  is  marked  by  the  decline  of  the 
 General  Synod,  the  formation  of  the  General  Coun- 
 cil in  1866,  and  the  advance   of  the  Missouri  Synod, 
 which  became  the  Synodical  Conference  in  1872. 
 
 In  this  latter  body  there  is  no  language  for  use  in 
 the  Church  or  in  the  transaction  of  its  business  but 
 the  German,  and  as  much  attention  is  paid 
 to  the  school  as  to  the  Church.     There  are  conJ^r'ln^. 
 no  open  questions  in  its  theology,  in  which 
 it  is  quite  predestinarian.     All  the  symbolical  books 
 of  the  Lutheran  Church  must  be  received.    The  books 
 used  in  all  churches  and  schools  must  be  of  the  strict- 
 est Lutheran  pattern.      There  must  be  a  regular  call 
 of  the  pastors.     The  Church  government  is  congre- 
 gational, yet  there  is  a  district  president,  who  visits 
 all  congregations,  hears  the  preachers  preach,  and  ex- 
 amines the  schools  and  the  details  of  the  Church  ad- 
 ministration. 
 
 All  synodical  resolutions,  to  be  valid,  must  be  rati- 
 fied by  the  congregations.  The  practical  result  of 
 this  exclusive  German  and  High  Church  tendency  is, 
 that  they  fellowship  with  no  other  Christian  Church. 
 They  will  have  no  mingling  of  Churches  or  faith. 
 They  are  the  most  exclusive  and  the  most  proselyt- 
 ing of  all  the  Evangelical  denominations.     In  1850, 
 
646    History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 C.  F.  W.  Walther  resigned  his  pastorate  in  St.  Louis, 
 and  devoted  himself  to  teaching  theology  in  the  theo- 
 logical seminary  in  that  city.  In  185 1  he  revisited 
 Germany.  In  1853  he  established  his  theological 
 journal  Lehre  und  Wehre.  Those  following  his  lead- 
 ership founded  the  Synodical  Conference  in  1872. 
 As  the  head  and  soul  of  this  organization,  Dr.  Walther 
 wrought  until  his  death  in  1887. 
 
 The  General  Council  of  Lutherans  was  founded  in 
 1867.     Its  leader  was  Charles  P.  Krauth,  Jr.     At  first 
 
 it  admitted  pulpit  exchange  at  the  discre- 
 co^undi!     ^i^^  of  the  pastor.      Then   arose  the  cry, 
 
 "  Lutheran  pulpits  for  Lutheran  ministers 
 only;  Lutheran  altars  for  Lutheran  communicants 
 only."  In  1875  it  was  decided  that  all  exceptions 
 were  of  privilege,  and  not  of  right,  and  the  rule  in- 
 cludes those  who  accord  with  the  Word  of  God  and 
 the  Confession  of  the  Church.  An  English  Church 
 Book  was  published  in  1868,  a  German  Church  Book 
 in  1877.  The  General  Council  has  missions  in  India 
 and  Muhlenburg  College,  at  AUentown,  Pa.  It  has 
 also  a  theological  seminary  in  Chicago  and  at  Mount 
 Airy,  near  Philadelphia. 
 
 The  General  Synod,  formed  in  1821,  is  the  oldest 
 and  most  liberal  of  the  larger  Lutheran  bodies.     It 
 
 stands  for  American  Lutheranism  and  ex- 
 syno'd.*     change  of  pulpits.      In   1866  the  General 
 
 Synod  lost  half  its  strength  by  the  with- 
 drawal of  the  Pennsylvania  Ministerium,  and  that  of 
 New  York,  and  the  Synods  of  Pittsburg,  Texas,  and 
 the  English  Synods  of  Ohio,  Illinois,  and  Minnesota, 
 because  a  Synod  was  admitted  to  the  General  Synod 
 
Christian  Church  in  United  States.    647 
 
 with  only  a  prospective  subscription  to  the  Augsburg 
 Confession. 
 
 The  statistics  for  1900  show  the  immense  prepon- 
 derance of  the  Synodical  Conference.  While  the  tide 
 of  German  immigration  keeps  up,  this  may 
 
 u  •    4.    •       J       Y    4.    ^1,        ^-  -11  statistic*. 
 
 be  maintained;    but  the    time   will    come 
 when  the  language  question  will  be  one  of  life  and 
 death.     For  that  time  the  great  Synodical  Conference 
 is  not  ready. 
 
 The  Synodical  Conference  reports  590,987  com- 
 municants; the  General  Council,  362,409;  the  General 
 Synod,  198,575.  Independent  Synods  report  515,253 
 communicants.  They  claim  a  population  in  the 
 United  States  of  9,000,000,  and  in  the  world  of  65,000,- 
 000 ;  but  these  figures  seem  to  be  exaggerated. 
 
 The  Lutherans  in  the  United  States  have  24  theo- 
 logical schools ;  these  have  1,015  students ;  their  build- 
 ings   are  valued   at   $1,078,000,  and   they 
 
 1  *    r./-  1  ATM  Education. 
 
 have  ^586,000  m  endowment.  The  strong- 
 est of  these  are  at  Philadelphia,  Gettysburg,  Columbus^ 
 O. ;  and  at  Chicago,  Springfield,  111.,  and  St.  Louis. 
 They  also  have  22  colleges,  with  1,908  students  in 
 college  work,  and  1,460  in  preparatory  departments. 
 These  institutions  have  buildings  valued  at  $2,124,- 
 000,  and  an  endowment  of  $1,275,000.  The  largest 
 of  these  colleges  is  Augustana,  at  Rock  Island,  111. ; 
 Capital  University,  at  Columbus,  O.;  Wittenberg,  at 
 Springfield,  O. ;  and  the  College  of  Pennsylvania,  at 
 Gettysburg,  Pa. 
 
 The  Lutherans  have  been  forward,  according  to 
 their  means,  in  establishing  Orphanages,  Homes  for 
 the  Aged,  and  in  Deaconess  Work.* 
 
 *The  IvUtheran  Church  has  in  the  L  iiited  States  more  thau  filly 
 Hospitals  and  many  Orphanages  and  Homes  for  the  Aged.  No  Amer- 
 ican Church  has  been  more  forward  in  these  charities  in  proportion  t.-. 
 its  ability. 
 
648     History  of  the  Christian  Church, 
 
 In  1893  the  Ministerium  of  Philadelphia  reported 
 115,000  communicants.  The  Liturgical  and  Confes- 
 sional controversy  in  the  General  Synod  ended  in  the 
 adoption  of  the  "  Common  Service"  of  1888,  and  this 
 was  included  in  the  "Church  Book"  of  the  General 
 Council  in  1891. 
 
 The  Iowa  Synod  was  formed  by  the  pulpits  of 
 Nettelsdau,  in  Germany  ;  it  is  more  liberal  in  the  inter- 
 pretation of  the  Church  Symbols  than  the  Missou- 
 rians.  The  Theological  Seminary  was  founded  at 
 Dubuque,  in  1853.  The  Norwegian  Lutheran  Church 
 was  founded  in  Wisconsin  in  1853.  Lars  Paul  Ebs- 
 jorn  founded  the  Swedish  Lutheran  Church  in  the 
 United  States  in  1850;  in  1862  he  returned  to  Sweden. 
 The  Danish  Synod  was  formed  in  1872.  The  Nor- 
 wegians and  Swedes  and  Danes  do  not  take  kindly  to 
 the  Sy nodical  Conference,  as  they  prefer  to  have  the 
 debates  in  Church  Assemblies  in  English  rather  than 
 in  German. 
 
 This   young    and   vigorous    Church    made    rapid 
 
 growth  in  these  years.     Its  largest  constituency  is  in 
 
 the  valley  of  the  Ohio  River,  and  in  the 
 
 The  Disciples.    ,  ,  ,         ^    -  .  ,  •  , 
 
 last  decade  of  the  century  it  made  consider- 
 able gains  across  the  Mississippi  River.  In  1875  it 
 entered  into  the  common  life  of  the  Churches  in  the 
 organization  of  its  Missionary  Society.  Its  mission  in 
 India  was  founded  in  1882.  In  1873  a  Woman's  Board 
 of  Missions  was  organized,  but  mainly  for  work  in  the 
 United  States.  Its  new  educational  institutions,  like 
 Drake  University,  at  Des  Moines,  Iowa ;  Cotner  Uni- 
 versity, near  Lincoln,  Neb.;  and  Carleton  College, 
 Bonham,  Tex.,  testify  to  this  new  life  in  the  Church. 
 It  also  has  its  Young  People's  organizations,  and  is 
 
Christian  Church  in  United  States.    649 
 
 doing  good  work  in  its  Sunday-schools.     In  1890  this 
 Church  reported  6,528  ministers,  10,528  churches,  and 
 1,149,982  members.     This  was  a  gain,  since  1850.  of 
 5,685  ministers,  8,632  churches,  and  1,031,364  members. 
 The  Disciples  had,  in  1900,  three  theological  sem- 
 inaries,—one  at  Canton,  Mo.,  one  at  Berkeley,  Cal., 
 and  one  at  Eugene,  Ore.      These   schools    Disciples- 
 had  74  students.     The  buildings  were  val-  Educational 
 ued  at   $16,000,  and  the  endowment   was 
 $50,000.     The  work  in  the  colleges  is  older  and  better 
 established.     In   1900   they  reported   19  institutions, 
 with  1,620  students  in  college  work,  and  1,343  iii  Pre- 
 paratory departments.     These  institutions  had  build- 
 ings valued    at    $1,171,000,    and    an    endowment    of 
 $1 ,049,000.    The  strongest  of  the  colleges  are  :  Butler, 
 at'lrvington,  Ind.;  Kentucky  University,  at   Lexing- 
 ton, Ky. ;    Hiram  College,  at  Hiram,  O. ;  and  Drake 
 University,  at  Des  Moines,  Iowa. 
 
 The  growth  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in 
 these  years  was  not  so  rapid  as  some  others ;  but  in 
 wealth  and  influence  it  has  more  than  held  protesunt 
 its  place.     It  has  been  influenced  by  the    Epjiscopai 
 changes  in  the  Church  life  of  the  Church  of 
 England.     The  same  parties  have  been  formed  here  as 
 there.     During  his  life.  Bishop  Whittingham,  of  Mary- 
 land was  the  man  of  greatest  weight  and  influence, 
 and,'  following  him,  the  Dean  of  the  Episcopate  for 
 many  years,  Bishop  John  Williams,  of  Connecticut. 
 These  were  both  High  Churchmen  of  the  school  of 
 Bishop  Wilberforce.     Bishop  Whipple  went  to  Minne- 
 sota in  1859,  and  made  a  distinguished  name  as  a  fron- 
 tier bishop,  a  missionary  to  the  Indians,  and  a  founder 
 of  Church  institutions.     Bishop  Perry,  of  Iowa,  and 
 
650      History  of  the  Christian  Church 
 
 Bishop  Coxe,  of  Western  New  York,  left  their  mark 
 upon  Christian  literature ;  the  former  by  his  work  on 
 Church  history,  and  the  latter  as  a  poet,  and  by  his 
 work  in  connection  with  Dr.  Schaff  in  making  access- 
 ible to  American  clergymen  the  Ante  and  Post  Nicene 
 Fathers.  Bishop  Huntington,  of  Central  New  York, 
 and  Bishop  Phillips  Brooks,  of  Massachusetts,  repre- 
 sented the  Broad  Church  element  in  the  Protestant 
 Episcopal  Church.  Dr.  DeKoven,  of  Racine,  Wis., 
 who  died  in  1879,  was  the  leader  in  the  ritualistic 
 movement  in  this  Church.  His  party  has  had  an  in- 
 creasing following,  though  his  favorite  scheme  to 
 make  Racine  College  a  great  institution  proved  a 
 failure. 
 
 Perhaps  after  Phillip  Brooks,  Dr.  Edward  A.  Wash- 
 burn was  the  most  distinguished  leader  in  the  Broad 
 Church  party.  Here  would  belong  Dr.  Elisha  Mul- 
 ford,  author  of  "The  Nation"  and  "The  Republic  of 
 God,"  works  of  permanent  value  when  the  controver- 
 sies of  the  time  have  passed  away.  With  them,  also, 
 would  stand  Dr.  A.  V.  G.  Allen,  of  the  Episcopal 
 Divinity  School  of  Harvard,  whose  "Continuity  of 
 Christian  Thought"  is,  at  the  same  time,  able  and 
 brilliant. 
 
 In  1853,  Dr.  William  A.  Muhlenburg,  whose  life 
 work  is  connected  with  St.  Luke's  Hospital,  presented 
 a  memorial  on  Liturgical  Revision.  Dr.  Muhlenburg 
 was  a  Churchman  after  the  model  of  Bishop  White. 
 This  memorial  began  a  movement  which  caused  a 
 great  deal  of  controversy,  and  which  did  not  end  until 
 the  completion  of  the  revision  of  the  Prayer-book  in 
 1892.  This  work  occupied  the  twelve  preceding 
 years. 
 
Christian  Church  in  United  States.    651 
 
 The  revivsion  of  the  Hymnal  was  carried  on  from 
 1859,  and  found  its  completion  in  the  same  year  that 
 saw  the  revised  Prayer-book.  The  Revision  of  the 
 Constitution  of  the  Church  was  finished  at  the  Tri- 
 ennial Convention  of  1899.  The  revision  of  the 
 Canons  was  in  progress  when  the  century  ended. 
 
 The  war,  1 861-1865,  brought  on  a  temporary  sep- 
 aration  of    the    Northern    and    Southern    Dioceses. 
 Bishop  Polk,  of  Tennessee,  became  a  Confederate  gen- 
 eral, and  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Kenesaw  Moun- 
 tain while  resisting  Sherman's  advance  upon  Atlanta. 
 In  1 87 1  the  bishops  issued  a  declaration  affirming 
 that  baptism  *'  does  not  determine  that  a  moral  change 
 is  wrought "  in  the  recipient.    In  1873,  Bishop  Geo.  D. 
 Cummins,  of  Kentucky,  withdrew  from  this  Churchy 
 and  founded  the  Reformed  Episcopal  Church  for  those 
 Episcopalians  who    could   not    assent   to   the    High 
 Church  principles  that  were  becoming  predominant 
 in  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church.    This  Church  has 
 not  grown  largely  in  the  later  years  of  the  century. 
 The  sentiment  seems  among  American  Christians  to 
 be  not  more,  but  fewer.  Churches,  and  those  larger, 
 more  comprehensive,  more  efficient,  and  more  worthy 
 of  the  name  they  bear.     In  1874,  a  canon,  restricting 
 ritual  innovation,  was  adopted  by  the  Protestant  Epis- 
 copal  Church.     It    forbade   any   elevation   or  act  of 
 adoration   toward   the  elements  in  the  sacrament  of 
 the  Lord's  Supper. 
 
 In  1874  was  held  the  first  Church  Congress.  The 
 Declaration  of  the  House  of  Bishops,  in  1886,  on 
 Christian  unity  brought  to  pass  the  Lambeth  Declara- 
 tion of  1888.  Missions  were  establislied  in  Japan  in 
 1859;  in  Hayti,  in  1874;  and,  in  Mexico,  in  1879. 
 
652      History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 Berkeley  Divinity  School,  Middletown,  Conn.,  was 
 founded  in  1850;  the  Divinity  School  at  Faribault, 
 Minn.,  in  1857;  the  Philadelphia  Divinity 
 School  in  1862;  and  the  Divinity  School  at 
 Harvard  University  in  1867.  St.  Stephen's  College, 
 New  York  City,  was  founded  in  i860,  and  Hobart 
 College,  Geneva,  N.  Y.,  in  the  same  year  took  its 
 present  name.  The  University  of  the  South  took  its 
 beginning  from  i860  at  Sewanee,  Tenn.  Lehigh 
 University  was  founded  in  1865. 
 
 No  Church  in  America  possesses  anything  like  the 
 position  and  power  represented  by  the  buildings  at 
 Morningside  Heights,  in  New  York  City.  There  are 
 grouped  Columbia  University,  the  wealthiest  institu- 
 tion in  resources  in  America,  the  marble  buildings  of 
 St.  Ivuke's  Hospital,  and  there  future  generations  will 
 worship  in  the  magnificent  cathedral  of  St.  John  the 
 Divine. 
 
 In  organizations  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church 
 has  partaken  of  the  spirit  and  movements  of  the  time. 
 The  Woman's  Auxiliary  to  the  Board  of  Missions  was 
 formed  in  1871.  The  Church-building  Society  came 
 into  being  in  1880,  and  Brotherhood  of  St.  Andrew  for 
 young  men  in  1886.  The  Church  also  strongly  pat- 
 ronizes "The  King's  Daughters." 
 
 Laymen  of  ability  and  wealth,  like  Seth  Low, 
 Pierpont  Morgan,  and  Andrew  J.  Drexel,  as  well  as 
 families  like  the  Astors  and  the  Vanderbilts,  give  this 
 Church  levers  of  influence  which  it  is  its  mission 
 wisely  to  use.  At  the  same  time  it  has  not  been  slow 
 to  enter  upon  Rescue  Mission  work  and  work  in  the 
 slums. 
 
Christian  Church  in  United  States.    653 
 
 In  1900,  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  had 
 4,811  clergy,  6,421  churches,  and  710,356  communi- 
 cants.     This   is   a   gain   of    ^,216   clerery, 
 
 ,  ^  ^  .      ^^       Protestant 
 
 5,071  churches,  and  620,997  communicants     Episcopal 
 
 since     1850.       The    Reformed     Episcopal      church 
 rAi        1  .  J    •  ^  r.    statistics. 
 
 Church   reported  in    1900,   100  clergy,   78 
 
 churches,  and  9,282  communicants. 
 
 The  former  Church,  in  1890,  had  thirteen  theolog- 
 ical schools,  with  422  students.  The  buildings  were 
 valued  at  $2,468,000,  and  their  endowment 
 
 „  ata<        r~<  atai        1  Education. 
 
 was  $3,256,000.  The  General  Theological 
 Seminary  in  New  York  had,  in  that  year,  127  stu- 
 dents, buildings  worth  $1,473,000,  and  an  endowment 
 of  $2,096,000.  The  next  most  influential  schools  are 
 the  Theological  School  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  Berkeley 
 Divinity  School  at  Middletown,  Conn.,  the  Divinity 
 School  at  Philadelphia,  and  the  Seminary  at  Alex- 
 andria, Va. 
 
 They  also  had  seven  colleges  and  universities, 
 with  1,886  students  in  college  work,  and  253  in  pre- 
 paratory departments.  The  buildings  of  these  insti- 
 tutions were  valued  at  $11,381,000,  and  the  endow- 
 ments at  $16,936,000.  -Columbia  University  easily 
 leads  in  this  list.  She  had,  in  1900,  956  students  in 
 college  work,  329  in  post-graduate  work,  and  1,197  iii 
 professional  schools.  Her  buildings  were  valued  at 
 $8,200,000,  and  endowment  at  $13,265,000.  In  its 
 site  and  its  library,  Columbia  University  is  unsur- 
 passed in  America.  Trinity  College,  Hartford,  Conn., 
 and  Lehigh  University,  at  Bethlehem,  Pa.,  are  well- 
 endowed  institutions,  doing  effective  work. 
 
 The  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  is  doing  good 
 
654     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 work  in  its  charities.     Its  deaconesses,  sisterhoods, 
 
 hospitals,    Homes   for  the  Aged  and  Orphans,  attest 
 
 its    zeal    and    effort.      Unfortunately    this 
 
 Charities.  ,     .  ,  ,        ,.  ^ 
 
 work  IS  so  largely  diocesan  that  statistics 
 are  not  available.  Its  preparatory  schools,  like  St. 
 Paul's  at  Concord,  N.  H.,  and  Garden  City,  I^ong 
 Island,  and  its  splendid  St.  Luke's  Hospital  in  New 
 York,  are  examples  of  its  best  work.  * 
 
 The  Congregational  Church  in  this  era  produced 
 men.  Some  of  the  chief  of  these  have  been  noticed. 
 The  congre-  ^^^  there  remain  Dr.  Leonard  Bacon,  from 
 gationai  1825  to  1 866,  pastor  of  First  Church,  New 
 Church.  Haven ;  Joseph  P.  Thompson,  pastor  of  the 
 Broadway  Tabernacle,  from  1845  to  1871,  and  others 
 like  them  in  the  pastorate. 
 
 In    the    schools    were    men    like   Mark   Hopkins 
 (i 802-1 887),  president  of  Williams  College,  and  Pres- 
 ident Garfield's  old  instructor.    Dr.  Hopkins 
 
 Dr.  Hopkins.  ,  ,  ,^th-  •  ^  -r-r 
 
 was  graduated  at  Williams  m  1824.  He 
 remained  there  as  tutor,  1 825-1 827.  He  then  studied 
 medicine,  and  in  1829  began  practice  in  New  York 
 City.  In  1830  he  was  called  back  to  Williams  as  Pro- 
 fessor of  Moral  Philosophy.  Here  he  spent  the  rest 
 of  his  life;  from  1836  to  1872  as  president  of  the 
 College,  and  from  1836  to  1883  as  pastor  of  the  Col- 
 lege Church.  He  was  "one  of  the  most  acute"  stu- 
 dents of  Moral  Philosophy  since  Jonathan  Edwards. 
 His  teaching  is  set  forth  in  his  works,  "Law  of  Love 
 and  Love  as  a  Law,"  1869,  and  "Outline  Study  of 
 Man,"  1873.  ^^w  men  have  exerted  in  that  century 
 an  influence  equally  wide  and  profound. 
 
 Austin  PlKjlps  ( 1 820-1 890)  was,  perhaps,  the  most 
 brilliant  teacher  of  sacred  rhetoric  in  America  in  these 
 
 *The  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  has  large  and  finely  equipped 
 Hospitals  in  New  York  and  Philadelphia,  and  an  excellent  one  in  Al- 
 bany. There  are  many  others,  as  well  as  Homes  for  the  Aged  and  Or- 
 phanages under  diocesan  control. 
 
Christian  Church  in  United  States.    655 
 
 years.  He  was  the  husband  of  oue  gifted  authoress  and 
 the  father  of  another.  Born  in  Massachusetts,  he  was 
 graduated  from  the  University  of  Pennsyl- 
 
 .       .  ^  ^       r  \  ,.     ,  Dr.  Phelps. 
 
 vania  m  1837,  and  afterward  studied  at 
 Andover  and  Union  Theological  Seminaries.  He  was 
 pastor  at  Boston,  1 842-1 848.  Then  he  began  his  life 
 work  as  professor  at  Andover,  1 848-1 879,  and  from 
 that  time  he  was  Professor  Emeritus  until  his  death. 
 He  is  known  from  his  books,  "  The  Still  Hour,"  1858; 
 "The  New  Birth,"  1867;  "  The  Theory  of  Preaching," 
 1881;  "Men  and  Books,"  1882;  and  "English  Style 
 in  Public  Discourse,"  1883.  Seldom  has  such  a  man 
 of  genius  had  the  mission  of  training  men  for  the 
 Christian  pulpit. 
 
 With  these  men  in  the  schools  wrought  those 
 sturdy  defenders  of  the  Congregational  faith  and 
 polity,  Dr.  Henry  Martyn  Dexter  and  Dr.  Alonzo  H. 
 Quint. 
 
 Henry  M.  Dexter  (i  821-1890)  was  graduated  at  Yale 
 in  1840,  and  at  Andover  in  1844.  He  served  as  pastor 
 at  Manchester,  N.  H.,   1844-1849,  and  at  ^    ^    ^ 
 
 J  >  Tt         T7»  p^  Dexter. 
 
 Berkeley  Temple,  Boston,  1 849-1 867.     The 
 Co7igregationalist  was  founded  in  1849,  and  Dr.  Dex- 
 ter was  editor  from  1851  to  1890;  also  with  Drs.  Clark 
 and  Quint,  of  the  Co7igregationalist  Quarterly,   1859- 
 1866. 
 
 Dr.  Dexter  is  the  author  of  "Congregationalism; 
 What  is  it?"  1865,  "The  Congregationalism  of  Three 
 Hundred  Years  as  seen  in  its  Literature,"  1880,  a 
 monumental  work  of  great  interest  and  value ;  also  of 
 "As  to  Roger  Williams,"  1876,  and  "The  Story  of 
 John  Smyth,"  1881.  He  was  unsurpassed  in  his 
 knowledge  of  early  Congregational  history. 
 
656     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 Dr.  Alonzo  H.  Quint  (i  828-1896)  contributed  four 
 hundred  articles  on  Antiquities  of  Congregational 
 history.  He  was  graduated  at  Dartmouth 
 in  1846,  and  Andover  in  1852.  As  pastor, 
 he  served  at  Roxbury,  1 853-1 863.  As  chaplain  he  was 
 at  the  front  with  the  Second  Massachusetts  Infantry, 
 1 861-1864.  He  was  pastor  at  New  Bedford,  1865- 
 1873.  He  was  member  of  the  I^egislature  of  New 
 Hampshire,  1881-1882,  and  member  of  the  Massachu- 
 setts Board  of  Education,  1 855-1 861.  He  edited  the 
 Congregationalist  Quarterly,  1 859-1 876.  Dr.  Quint 
 served  as  secretary  of  the  Massachusetts  General  As- 
 sociation, 1 856-1 88 1,  and  of  the  National  Congrega- 
 tional Council,  1871-1883. 
 
 The  Congregational  Church  Building  Society  was 
 organized  in  1853,  and  ^  "  Congregational  Year-Book" 
 was  published  from  1854.  The  Congregational 
 Library  Association  was  founded,  1 851-1853,  and  in 
 187 1  came  into  possession  of  its  new  home  in  the 
 Congregational  House  in  Boston,  1871. 
 
 In  education  this  Church,  in  these  years,  remained 
 
 true   to   its   traditions.      The    Chicago    Theological 
 
 Seminary   was  founded    in    i8s8:  that  at 
 
 Education.     ^    ,  ,  --  . 
 
 Oakland,  Cal.,  in  1869;  Washburn  College, 
 Topeka,  Kan.,  began  its  career  in  1865;  Carleton 
 College,  Northfield,  Minn.,  in  1867;  Doane  College, 
 Crete,  Neb.,  in  1872;  Drury  College,  Springfield,  Mo., 
 in  1873;  Colorado  College,  Colorado  Springs,  in  1874; 
 Yankton  College,  Dakota,  in  1881;  and  Whitman 
 College,  Walla  Walla,  Wash.,  in  1883. 
 
 Two  things  specially  marked  the  conciousness  of 
 Church  life  which  this  Church  shared  with  the  other 
 Christian    Churches, — the    formation    of  a  bond  of 
 
Christian  Church  in  United  States.    657 
 
 national  union  among  the  Congregational  Churches, 
 and  the  splendid  support  it  has  rendered  to  the 
 American  Board  of  Foreign  Missions. 
 
 The  year  1886  marks  the  beginning  of  serious  con- 
 troversy in  the  Congregational  Churches  of  America 
 with  regard  to  the  hypothesis  of  a  proba- 
 tion in  the  future  life  for  those  to  whom  cont7ove"8ie8. 
 the  gospel  message  has  not  come  in  the 
 present  world.  The  storm-centers  of  this  controversy 
 were  the  American  Board  of  Commissioners  for  For- 
 eign Missions,  the  Foreign  Missionary  Agency  of  the 
 Congregational  Churches,  and  Andover  Theological 
 Seminary,  the  oldest  divinity  school  of  the  Church. 
 
 The  Rev.  R.  A.  Hume,  a  returned  missionary  from 
 India,  had  expressed  the  opinion  that  the  hypothesis 
 of  a  future  probation  for  those  who  had  not  heard  the 
 gospel  in  this  life  might  bring  relief  to  the  minds  of 
 converts  from  heathenism,  who  were  troubled  as  they 
 thought  of  the  future  of  relatives  and  friends  who  had 
 died  in  heathenism  before  the  message  of  Christ  could 
 be  brought  to  them.  On  account  of  the  utterance  of 
 these  views,  Mr.  Hume's  application  for  reappoint- 
 ment as  a  missionary  to  the  field  in  India,  where  he 
 had  formerly  labored,  was  not  granted  until  a  long 
 and  significant  delay  had  occurred. 
 
 At  the  annual  meeting  of  the  Board  following  this 
 action,  in  Des  Moines,  Iowa,  October,  1886,  the  issue 
 was  sharply  joined  between  the  liberal  and  conserva- 
 tive elements  in  the  Church  as  to  what  theological 
 tests  should  be  applied  to  candidates  for  missionary 
 service.  For  several  years  the  Prudential  Committee 
 rejected  all  candidates  for  missionary  service  who  in- 
 clined toward  the  disputed  doctrines.  After  long  de- 
 42 
 
658      History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 lay,  Mr.  Hume  was  reappointed  as  a  missionary  on 
 account  of  his  excellent  record  of  service,  and  in  view 
 of  the  fact  that  his  statements  with  regard  to  a  future 
 probation  did  not  involve  a  declaration  that  he  posi- 
 tively accepted  the  doctrine.  As  other  candidates  for 
 service  in  the  foreign  field  who  looked  favorably  upon 
 the  hypothesis  were  uniformly  rejected,  the  dissatis- 
 faction of  the  liberal  party  in  the  Church  continued, 
 and  each  recurring  annual  meeting  of  the  Board  was 
 clouded  by  this  controversy.  As  a  result,  interest  in 
 foreign  missionary  work  decreased,  contributions  fell 
 off,  and  it  seemed  as  if  the  organization  of  another 
 Foreign  Missionary  Society  would  be  inevitable. 
 
 The  Rev.  W.  H.  Noyes,  whose  application  for  ap- 
 pointment as  a  missionary  had  been  rejected  by  the 
 Prudential  Committee  because  he  held  that  the  doc- 
 trine of  a  future  probation  was  a  permissible  hypothe- 
 sis, was  sent  to  Japan  as  a  missionary  by  one  of  the 
 leading  Congregational  Churches  of  Boston,  the 
 Berkeley  Temple,  with  the  co-operation  of  other 
 Churches  opposed  to  the  policy  ^f  the  Board. 
 
 Happily,  however,  at  the  annual  meeting  of  the 
 Board  in  October,  1893,  a  basis  of  agreement  between 
 the  opposing  elements  in  the  constituency  was 
 reached,  and  the  necessity  of  a  permanent  division  of 
 the  denomination  in  its  foreign  missionary  interests 
 was  avoided.  The  Board  requested  the  Prudential 
 Committee  to  appoint  Mr.  Noyes  as  one  of  its  staff  of 
 missionaries  in  Japan.  The  Des  Moines  resolution 
 against  the  doctrine  of  future  probation  was  not  re- 
 scinded, but  the  decision  to  appoint  to  missionary 
 service  a  man  who  had  before  been  rejected  on  ac- 
 count of  his  apparent  sympathy  with  this  doctrine 
 
Christian  Church  in  United  States.    659 
 
 indicated  a  marked  modification  of  the  policy  that  had 
 governed  the  Board  since  1886.  Since  this  action  was 
 taken,  the  Board  has  received  the  undivided  support 
 of  the  Congregational  Churches. 
 
 In  the  discussions  relative  to  the  doctrine  of  a 
 Christian  probation  in  the  future  life,  certain  profess- 
 ors in  Andover  Theological  Seminary  took  a  leading 
 part.  In  the  Andover  Review,  and  particularly  in  a 
 series  of  papers  entitled  "  Progressive  Orthodoxy," 
 these  professors  set  forth  in  outline  a  system  of  theo- 
 logical opinions  closely  akin  to  the  systems  of  Dorner 
 and  other  theologians  of  the  school  of  Schleiermacher. 
 Charges  were  preferred,  before  the  Board  of  Visitors 
 of  the  seminary,  that  Professors  Egbert  G.  Smyth, 
 William  J.  Tucker,  J.  W.  Churchill,  George  Harris, 
 and  Edward  Y.  Hincks  were  teaching  doctrines  con- 
 trary to  the  creed  of  the  seminary,  to  which  all  mem- 
 bers of  the  Faculty  were,  by  the  terms  of  the  charter, 
 required  to  subscribe. 
 
 The  Board  of  Visitors  decided  that  the  charges 
 were  sustained  in  the  case  of  Professor  Smyth,  the 
 president  of  the  Faculty,  and  that  therefore  his  rela- 
 tion to  the  seminar}^  as  president  and  professor  should 
 cease.  The  Board  of  Trustees,  however,  refused  to 
 accede  to  this  demand,  claiming  that  the  Board  of 
 Visitors  did  not  have  the  original,  but  only  appellate 
 jurisdiction,  in  such  cases;  that  the  charges  should 
 have  been  presented  to  the  trustees  rather  than  to  the 
 visitors,  and  that,  on  independent  investigation,  the 
 trustees  had  reached  the  conclusion  that  the  teachings 
 of  Dr.  Smyth  and  the  other  professors  had  been  within 
 the  limits  of  liberty  allowed  by  the  creed  of  the  semi- 
 nary.    Professor  Smyth  appealed  from  the  decision  of 
 
66o     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 the  visitors  to  the  court  of  Essex  County,  Massachu- 
 setts. The  opponents  of  the  accused  professors  were 
 unsuccessful  in  their  efforts,  and  the  controversy  re- 
 sulted in  vindicating  and  permanently  establishing  the 
 right  of  the  members  of  the  seminary  Faculty  to 
 Christian  liberty  of  thought  and  instruction. 
 
 The  American  Board  Controversy,  which  at  times 
 threatened  to  divide  the  denomination,  served  indi- 
 rectly to  deepen  the  sense  of  denominational  solidarity, 
 by  bringing  the  missionary  agencies  of  Congregation- 
 alism under  the  direct  control  of  the  Churches.  The 
 boards  and  societies  through  which  American  Congre- 
 gationalists  had  conducted  their  missionary  enterprises 
 at  home  and  abroad,  were  independent,  self-governing 
 bodies.  They  had  been  founded,  not  b}^  the  Churches 
 as  such,  but  by  individuals  interested  in  the  special 
 departments  of  missionary  work  that  the  several 
 societies  were  doing.  As  the  denomination  had  not 
 created  these  organizations,  it  could  not  control  them. 
 The  American  Board  controversy  called  attention  to 
 the  powerlessness  of  the  denomination  in  the  matter 
 of  the  control  of  its  missionary  agencies,  and  an  urgent 
 demand  arose  that  such  changes  should  be  made  in 
 the  organization  of  these  agencies  that  the  Churches 
 sustaining  them  should  also  control  them.  These 
 changes  have  gradually  been  made,  and  the  Congrega- 
 tional Missionary  Societies  are  now  composed  of  repre- 
 sentatives elected  or  nominated  by  the  contributing 
 Churches  or  by  the  district  and  State  organizations  of 
 Churches.  This  joint  responsibility  of  the  Churches 
 for  the  support  of  their  missionary  enterprises  and 
 the  management  of  their  missionary  agencies  has 
 greatly  strengthened  the  bond  uniting  the  Churches 
 to  one  another. 
 
Christian  Church  in  United  States.    66 r 
 
 During  the  past  decade,  Congregationalists  have 
 been  true  to  their  history  as  a  college-building  denom- 
 ination. Dr.  D.  K.  Pearsons,  of  Chicago,  has  made 
 generous  gifts  to  many  colleges  and  academies,  prin- 
 cipally in  the  West  and  South,  conditional  on  their 
 raising  such  a  sum  as  will  make  the  united  gift  suffi- 
 cient to  carry  them  to  a  vigorous  life. 
 
 The  National  Councils,  meeting  every  three  years 
 since  1865,  have  been  a  bond  of  increasing  union. 
 The  great  International  Council  of  Congregationalists 
 held  its  second  session  in  Boston  in  1899.  Represent- 
 atives were  present  from  the  United  States,  Canada, 
 Great  Britain,  Australia,  Norway,  Turkey,  India,  China, 
 Japan,  Africa,  Hawaii,  and  Micronesia. 
 
 Churches,    5,650;    clergy,   5,560;    communicants, 
 635,791.    This  is  a  gain,  since  1850,  of  3,679  churches, 
 3,873  clergy,    and   438,997   communicants. 
 Sunday-school  scholars,  671,743,  and  186,- 
 448  in  Societies  of  Christian  Endeavor.    Benevolences, 
 $2,201,161  ;  Current  expenses,  $7,497,930. 
 
 In  1900,  the  Congregationalists  gave  $697,371  for 
 foreign  missions,  and  $1,699,074  for  home  missions. 
 Their  successful  missions  in  Turkey,  In- 
 dia, China,  and  Oceania  deserve  a  history  ^^^"flistg*'**"' 
 of  their  own    They  made  Christian  Hawaii. 
 
 In  1900  the  Congregationalists  had  seven  theolog- 
 ical  seminaries.     These  had  323  students,  buildings 
 valued  at  $1,042,000,  and  an  endowment  of 
 $3,386,000.     Those    most   largely  attended      ^rk."* 
 were :  Yale,  Hartford,  Oberlin,  and  Chicago. 
 The  last  had  the  largest  endowment,  nearly  a  million 
 of  dollars. 
 
 The  Congregationalists  lead  all  American  Churches 
 
662      History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 in  the  amount  of  money  invested  in  colleges,  and  in 
 their  renown.  This  is  but  natural ;  they  inherited  more 
 than  the  others  at  the  beginning  of  the  century. 
 They  have  22  universities  and  colleges  among  the 
 white  people  of  the  United  States.  These  had,  in 
 1900,  7,480  college  students,  with  3,009  in  prepar- 
 atory departments.  The  buildings  of  these  institu- 
 tions were  valued  at  $14,346,000,  and  their  endow- 
 ment was  $17,062,000.  Besides  these,  there  were 
 six  colleges  among  the  colored  people,  with  property 
 worth  over  a  million  of  dollars,  and  nearly  a  thousand 
 students.  The  three  chief  of  these  institutions  were : 
 Atlanta  University,  which  has  also  a  theological  de- 
 partment; Fisk  University,  at  Nashville,  Tenn.;  and 
 Straight  University,  at  New  Orleans,  I^a.  The  strong- 
 hold of  Congregational  education  is  still  in  New 
 England,  though  they  have  large  schools  at  Oberlin, 
 O. ;  Jacksonville,  111. ;  Beloit,  Wis. ;  Grinnell,  Iowa  ; 
 and  at  Colorado  Springs,  Colo.  In  New  England  they 
 have  Yale,  Dartmouth,  Williams,  Bowdoin,  Amherst, 
 and  Middlebury.  These  are  all  famous  names.  In 
 1900  they  enrolled  3,439  students;  their  buildings 
 were  valued  at  $6,775,000,  and  their  endowment  at 
 $10,914,000.  The  three  Women's  Colleges  of  New 
 England— Mt.  Holyoke,  Smith,  and  Wellesley — had, 
 in  the  same  year,  2,300  students;  their  buildings  were 
 valued  at  $2,537,000,  and  their  endowment  was 
 $1,541,000.  Together,  these  institutions  had  5,755 
 students,  with  buildings  worth  $9,387,000,  and  an  en- 
 dowment of  $12,465,000.  Five-sevenths  of  the  stu- 
 dents, and  over  two-thirds  of  the  wealth,  were  in  New 
 England.  Yale,  of  course,  led  the  list,  with  1,719 
 students  in  college  work,  137  in  post-graduate  studies, 
 
Christian  Church  in  United  States.    663 
 
 and  430  in  professional  schools.  Her  buildings  were 
 worth  over  $4,000,000,  and  her  endowment  was 
 $4,942,000. 
 
 In  the  higher  education  of  women,  this  Church 
 maintains  her  superiority.  Next  to  her  Women's 
 Colleges,  the  best  in  the  country,  in  1900,  were: 
 Vassar,  Bryn  Mawr,  and  Baltimore ;  together,  these 
 had  1,263  students,  with  buildings  worth  $2,511,000, 
 and  $2,414,000  endowment.  The  united  effort  of 
 Baptists,  Methodists,  and  Friends  in  these  institutions 
 do  not,  on  the  whole,  equal  her  work  in  New  Eng- 
 land for  the  higher  education  of  women. 
 
 The  Friends  in  these  years  made  a  slow  growth, 
 but  with  a  gratifying,  internal  development.  They 
 fell  into  line  with  the  great  Sunday-school  ^^^  ^^^^^^^ 
 movement.  The  Orthodox  Friends  sing 
 Gospel  hymns,  and  the  Conference  in  1887,  at  Rich- 
 mond, Ind.,  introduced  a  pastorate  for  the  churches. 
 They  have  been  earnest  and  wonderfully  successful 
 in  mission  work  among  the  Indians  in  the  United 
 States,  and  in  mission  work  in  Alaska.  In  1865  their 
 first  foreign  mission  was  begun  at  Ramleh,  near  Jeru- 
 salem In  1893  their  Board  of  Foreign  Missions  was 
 organized,  and  it  had,  at  the  close  of  this  period,  mis- 
 sions in  Japan,  Syria,  and  Mexico. 
 
 In  education  they  have  distinguished  themselves  m 
 the  last  half  of  the  century.  Besides  sustaining  several 
 thoroughly-endowed  secondary  schools,  g^„^,t,„„. 
 they  had  seven  institutions  of  higher  edu- 
 cation at  the  close  of  our  period.  All  but  two  were 
 founded  after  1850,  and  those  two  were  refounded. 
 The  leading  institutions  were:  Haverford  College, 
 Pennsylvania;    Earlham    College,    Richmond,    Ind, 
 
664    History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 Wilmington  College,  Ohio;  Bryn  Mawr,  Pennsyl- 
 vania, founded  in  1885,  among  the  Orthodox;  and 
 Swarthmore,  founded  in  1869,  among  the  Hicksite 
 Friends.  In  1900,  in  the  college  work  of  the  Friends, 
 was  reported  1,028  students,  besides  305  in  the 
 preparatory  departments.  These  institutions  had 
 property  in  buildings  valued  at  $2,268,000,  and  an 
 endowment  of  $2,535,000.  This  is  certainly  a  fine 
 showing  for  the  size  of  the  communion.  In  1900,  in 
 the  United  States,  there  were  reported  among  the 
 Orthodox  Friends,  1,279  ministers,  830  churches,  and 
 92,468  members;  among  the  Hicksite  Friends,  115 
 ministers,  201  churches,  21,992  members;  all  other 
 Friends,  49  ministers,  62  churches,  4,700  members. 
 This  is  a  total  of  1,443  ministers,  1,093  churches,  and 
 119,160  members,  a  gain,  since  1850,  of  24,160.  The 
 Orthodox  gained  22,468 ;  the  Hicksite  lost  3,008. 
 
 No  Church  has  been  a  better  or  more  influential 
 friend  of  the  American  Indian. 
 
 The  Moravians  continue  to  be  one  of  the  smallest 
 of  American  Churches,  but  also  one  of  the  most  zeal- 
 ous in  missionary  effort.     These  years  saw 
 
 Moravians. 
 
 great  changes  in  the  internal  organization 
 of  the  Church,  which  might  well  have  come  earlier 
 for  the  growth  of  their  communion.  In  1857  the 
 General  Synod  granted  home  self-government  to  each 
 province.  In  June,  1850,  the  Provincial  Constitution 
 of  the  American  Church,  North,  was  adopted  at  Beth- 
 lehem. The  sum  of  $11 6,000  was  given  from  the  real 
 estate  to  the  Sustentation  Fund,  and  the  publishing- 
 house  was  removed  from  Philadelphia  to  Bethlehem, 
 Pa.  This  Church  has  always  been  zealous  in  missions 
 among  the  American   Indians.     In   1895  it  counted 
 
Christian  Church  in  United  States.    665 
 
 among  them  12,000  communicants,  besides  20,000  ad- 
 herents.    Their  mission  in  Alaska  dated  from  1885. 
 
 The  Moravians  have  but  one  college,  and  that  is 
 located  at  Bethlehem,  Pa.,  and  has  but  28  students, 
 with  property  valued  at  $215,000.  They  g^^^^,^^ 
 support,  also,  a  Young  Ladies'  Seminary  at 
 Bethlehem,  Pa.,  and  Nazareth  Hall  and  Linden  Hall, 
 all  three  institutions  dating  from  the  eighteenth  cen- 
 tury. In  the  West  they  have  Chaska  Seminary  in 
 Minnesota,  for  boys,  founded  in  1864,  and  Hope  Sem- 
 inary in  Indiana,  for  girls,  founded  in  1866.  Perhaps 
 their  most  distinguished  minister  was  Bishop  Edmund 
 de  Schweinitz,  the  Church  historian,  who  died  in  1887. 
 In  1900  the  Moravians  in  the  United  States  numbered 
 117  ministers,  122  churches,  and  14,817  members. 
 
 This  Church  has  increased  slowly  in  this  period. 
 Its  ministers  are  better  trained,  and  it  has  become 
 much  more  Trinitarian  in  belief  and  senti- 
 ment.    Its  leading  institution  of  learning  is  christians. 
 Antioch   College,  in   Ohio.      In  1900  the 
 Church  numbered  1,151  ministers,  1,517  churches,  and 
 109,278  members.     Of  these,  84,838  formed  the  Chris- 
 tian Connection,  and  24,440  were  known  as  Christians, 
 South. 
 
 The  Adventists  in  the  United  States  in  1900  were 
 divided  into  six  divisions.  In  all,  they  embraced  i  ,505 
 ministers,  2,286  churches,  and  88,705  mem- 
 
 -  Tlie 
 
 bers.     In  1850  they  reported  40,000  mem-  ^dventista. 
 bers.     The   Seventh-day  Adventists  were 
 the  most  numerous  of  these  bodies.     They  reported 
 386  ministers,   1,494  churches,  and  54-539  members. 
 They  had  one  institution  of  higher  education  at  Col- 
 lege View,  Neb.     It  is  called  Union  College,  and  had 
 
666     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 113  students,  besides  413  in  preparatory  work.  It 
 was  founded  in  1891 ;  its  buildings  were  valued  at 
 $200,000,  and  it  reported  no  endowment. 
 
 Of  those  in  the  United  States  there  were, 
 
 Tne 
 
 piymoth    in  1900,  four  divisions,  with  314  churches, 
 Brethren.    ^^^  ^^^^^  members. 
 
 These  progenitors  of  all  the  modern  Baptists,  re- 
 tain many  of  their  old-world  and  old-time  customs. 
 There  are  twelve  branches  of  them,  diflfer- 
 Mennonites.  ^^^  largely   in  the  strictness  with  which 
 they   adhere  to  these  customs.     In  all,  in 
 1900,  in  the  United  States,  they  numbered  1,112  min- 
 isters, 673  churches,  and  58,728  members. 
 
 Of  these  German  Conservative  Baptists, 
 
 TheDunkards.   ,  .  ,       ^^    .       ,    ^  ^ 
 
 m  1900,  in  the  United  States,  there  were 
 four  branches,  with  2,987  ministers,  1,081  churches, 
 and  112,194  members. 
 
 A  branch  of  the  German  Reformed  Church  of  God 
 
 was  founded  in   T830  by  John  Winebrenner.     They 
 
 The  Church  of  ^^^^  ^^  immcrsion,  feet-washing,  Church 
 
 God  (Wine-    care  of  the  poor,  and  evangelistic  services. 
 
 brennarlans).    ^^^^    ^^j^^^  ^^^  Calvinistic  doctriue.       In 
 
 1900  they  numbered  460  ministers,  580  churches,  and 
 38,000  members.  They  have  a  small  college  at 
 Findlay,  Ohio. 
 
 Church  of  the      In  this  Communiou  there  were  in  the 
 
 ^^ ^ill^n-  United  States,  in  1900,  143  ministers,  173 
 
 borgians.)     churches,  and  7,679  members. 
 
 The  Salvation  Army  in  the  United  States,  in  1900, 
 
 was   reported  as  having  2,361  ofl&cers,  663 
 
 Army!"    statious,    and    19,490   members.      This   is, 
 
 however,   but   a   slight   indication    of  the 
 
 work  or  its  influence. 
 
Christian  Church  in  United  States.    667 
 
 The  Unitarians  had  during  this  period  some  able 
 men;  such  preachers  as  Thomas  Starr  King  (1825- 
 1860),  and  Robert  Laird  Collier  (1837-  y^j^^^,^^^^ 
 1890) — who  went  to  them  from  the  Meth- 
 odists in  1866  ;  such  leaders  in  Boston  as  James  Free- 
 man Clarke  (1810-1888),  author  of  "Ten  Great  Re- 
 ligions," and  foremost  in  every  philanthropic  enter- 
 prise ;  and  Edward  Everett  Hale,  still  among  us  and 
 greatly  revered.  They  had  also,  at  Harvard  College, 
 such  a  saintly  soul  as  Andrew  F.  Peabody,  and  such 
 a  representative  of  the  best  culture  as  Frederick  H. 
 Hedge  (1805- 1890)  ;  to  say  nothing  of  the  influence  of 
 Harvard  University,  the  most  famous  institution  of 
 learning  in  America,  as  it  is  the  oldest,  under  the 
 brilliant  and  successful  administration  of  Dr.  Charles 
 W.  Eliot. 
 
 In  this  connection  may  be  mentioned  Dr.  Orville 
 Dewey  (1790-1882),  who  stands  next  to  Channing 
 among  Unitarian  leaders  in  the  United  ^^  ^^^^^ 
 States.  Dr.  Dewey  was  graduated  from 
 Williams  in  1814,  and  from  Andover  in  18 19.  He 
 had  been  a  Calvinist,  but  now  became  a  Unitarian, 
 and  served  in  the  pastorate  at  New  Bedford,  1823- 
 1833.  In  that  year  he  visited  Europe,  and  again  in 
 1842-1844.  He  was  pastor  of  Second  Church,  New 
 York  City,  1 835-1 848.  Then,  on  account  of  his 
 health,  he  went  on  a  farm  at  Sheffield.  He  delivered 
 two  courses  of  Lowell  Lectures,  which  were  published, 
 one  on  "The  Problems  of  Human  Destiny,"  and  the 
 other  on  "  The  Education  of  the  Human  Race."  He 
 was  again  in  the  pastorate  one  year  at  Albany,  two  at 
 Washington,  and  four  years  at  Boston,  when  he  finally 
 retired  to  his  farm,  after  a  pastorate  of  thirty  years. 
 
668     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 Dr.  Howard  Furness,  of  Philadelphia,  has  long 
 enjoyed  the  reputation  of  being  the  most  learned 
 Shakespearean  scholar  living. 
 
 When  we  see  these,  and  other  names  that  might 
 be  mentioned,  we  feel  that,  if  the  Unitarian  Church  is 
 not  one  of  the  leading  Churches  of  the  land,  and  if  it 
 has  not  maintained  its  relative  place  among  the 
 American  Churches,  it  has  not  been  for  the  lack  of 
 culture,  nor  of  men  of  character  and  of  remarkable 
 intellectual  ability.  We  can  only  conclude  that  the 
 defect  is  in  the  message  they  bear. 
 
 In  1850  there  were  reported  246  churches ;  in  1900, 
 460  churches,  with  71,000  members,  and  this,  with  the 
 stimulus  of  the  National  Conferences  of  1864,  1886, 
 and  1893.     I^  1S50  they  reported  206  churches. 
 
 Harvard  College  is  under  the  control  of  this 
 Church.  Under  President  Eliot  it  has  become  the 
 first,  as  it  is  the  oldest,  of  American  universities.  In 
 1900  it  had  2,421  students  in  collegiate  work,  313  in 
 post-graduate  studies,  and  1,363  in  professional  schools. 
 Its  buildings,  etc.,  were  valued  at  $4,500,000,  and  its 
 endowment  was  $12,615,000. 
 
 This  Church  has  developed  internally,  but  has  not 
 held  its  relative  position  among  the  Churches.  In 
 1 85 1  it  reported  642  churches;  in  1900,  776 
 unive^rsaiists.  ^^^^^^^S'  ^ith  52,739  members.  In  these 
 years  it  has  founded  Tufts  College,  at  Med- 
 ford,  Mass.,  in  1852,  and  its  Divinity  School  in  1869; 
 Lombard  University,  at  Galesburg,  111.,  in  1853;  St. 
 Lawrence  University,  at  Canton,  N.  Y.,  in  1858; 
 Buchtel  College,  at  Akron,  Ohio,  in  1872;  andThroop 
 Institute,  at  Pasadena,  Cal.,  in  1891.  A  Young  Peo- 
 ple's Union  was  formed  in  1889,  as  a  branch  of  the 
 
Christian  Church  in  United  States.    669 
 
 Christian  Endeavor  Society.  The  Church  seems  to 
 have  no  gospel  for  the  heathen ;  at  least,  it  has  no 
 Foreign  Missionary  Society. 
 
 The  most  famous  Universalist  preacher  of  this 
 period  was  Edwin  H.  Chapin  (18 14-1880.)  He  studied 
 at  the  seminary  at  Burlinsrton,  Vt.,  and  was 
 ordained  m  1837.  He  preached  at  Rich- 
 mond, Va.,  1837-1840;  Charlestown,  Mass.,  1840-1846; 
 and  New  York  City,  1848-1880.  In  1850  he  was  in 
 Europe.  In  1866  his  new  church  took  the  title  of  the 
 Divine  Paternity.  He  was  in  large  demand  as  a 
 popular  lecturer.  He  published  some  volumes  of 
 sermons.  The  Chapin  Home  for  the  Aged  perpetu- 
 ates his  name. 
 
 In  the  early  part  ofthis  period  the  Mormon  Church 
 grew  largely  from  immigration.     This  in  the  last  ten 
 3^ears  was  largely  checked.     The  increase, 
 however,  has  been  mainly  from  the  growth  ^"sltnts.*^ 
 of  the  Mormon  population  in  the  new  States 
 of  the  Rocky  Mountain  territory.     In  1894  the  bill  for 
 the  admission  of  Utah  as  a  State  put  an  end  to  the 
 public  practice  of  polygamy.     Upon  promising  com- 
 pliance with  this  law  Utah  was  admitted  as  a  State  in 
 the  Federal  Union  in  1896. 
 
 In  1899,  B.  H.  Roberts,  a  confirmed  polygamist, 
 was  refused  a  seat  in  the  House  of  Representatives 
 by  an  overwhelming  vote.  Economic  causes,  as  well 
 as  moral  influence,  and  public  opinion,  are  working 
 against  this  "relic  of  barbarism."  It  is  hoped  that 
 soon  its  secret  practice  and  public  defense  will  alike 
 disappear.  In  1900  they  were  reported  as  having 
 2,900  ministers,  1,396  churches,  and  343,824  members  ; 
 43,000  belonged  to  the  branch  which  has  never  recog- 
 
670     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 nized  polygamy.  In  1900  they  reported  two  colleges, 
 Graceland  College  in  Iowa,  of  the  latter  division,  with 
 23  students  and  $22,000  worth  of  property ;  and 
 Brigham  Young  College,  at  Logan,  Utah,  with  9 
 college  students  and  591  in  the  preparatory  work. 
 
 The  greatest  rise  and  fall  of  any  religious  body  in 
 
 these  years  was  that  of  the  Spiritualists.     At  one  time 
 
 they   claimed   hundreds   of   thousands   of 
 
 Spiritualists.  "^  ,  ,         ,, 
 
 members,  and  adherents  by  the  million. 
 Exposures  manifold,  and  the  inherent  barrenness  of 
 the  teaching,  as  well  as  the  often  attendant  impostures, 
 could  but  have  their  natural  result.  In  spite  of  the 
 adhesion  of  many  able  men  and  women,  and  those  of 
 wealth  as  well,  in  1900  they  counted  in  the  United 
 States  but  334  churches  and  45,030  members,  and 
 their  decrease  in  influence  was  more  than  that  in 
 members. 
 
 These,  like  the  Spiritualists,  in  this  era,  suffered 
 marked  decline.     Some,  like  the  Oneida  Community 
 and  several  Shaker  Communities,  became 
 ""leties!*^  totally  extinct.      In   1900,   in   the   United 
 States  there  were  seven  such  societies,  with 
 31  places  of  worship  and  4,010  members.     Of  these, 
 the  Shakers  had  1,650  members,  and  the  Amana  1,600; 
 none  others  over  250.     The  course  of  their  experiment 
 in  religious  life  may  be  said  to  have  been  finally  de- 
 termined. 
 
 In  these  years  there  was  no  such  defection  from 
 the  Christian  faith  as  that  of  Mormonism  or  Spiritu- 
 alism.    But  a  perversion  arose  in  an  electi- 
 Sdence."    ^^^"^  which  mixed  the  Vedantic  philosophy 
 and  pantheism  of  the  Hindus  with  Chris- 
 tianity in  its  phraseology,  but  with  a  complete  empty- 
 
Christian  Church  in  United  States.    671 
 
 ing  of  the  meaning  of  the  leading  truths  of  Christian 
 teaching.  Mary  Baker  Eddy,  with  Mother  Ann  Lee 
 and  Joanna  Southcote,  form  a  trio  of  female  founders 
 of  religion.  The  movement  gained  impetus  as  a  re- 
 action from  the  teachings  of  materialistic  science,  and 
 as  the  aftergrowth  of  the  idealistic  pantheism  of  Emer- 
 son and  the  New  England  Trancendentalists.  Its 
 positive  teaching,  and  a  teaching  in  which  there  was 
 value,  was  the  power  of  the  mind  over  the  body. 
 The  importance  and  influence  of  mental  states  and 
 the  emphasis  upon  mental  hygiene  are  of  unques- 
 tioned benefit  to  a  race  as  nervous  as  the  Americans. 
 That  this  often  resulted  in  physical  cure  is  not  strange ; 
 that  it  also  resulted  in  the  crudest  fanaticism  and  loss 
 of  health  and  life,  is  also  undeniable.  Mrs.  Eddy 
 claimed  that  the  revelation  of  this  new  religious  prin- 
 ciple came  to  her  in  1866,  when  she  was  cured  of 
 sickness.  The  "  Science  of  Health,"  by  Mrs.  Eddy, 
 was  published  in  1875.  The  first  Church  of  Christian 
 Scientists  was  formed  in  Boston  in  1875.  The 
 Christian  Science  Journal  h^gOiXi  its  work  in  1883.  In 
 1887,  Mrs.  Eddy  published  a  work  entitled  "The 
 Unity  of  Good  and  the  Unreality  of  Evil."  The  new 
 edifice  for  their  church  in  Boston,  built  in  1895,  cost 
 $250,000. 
 
 They  were  reported  in  1900  as  having  90,000 
 members;  but  the  next  year  but  48,000.  Evidently 
 the  former  report  was  too  large.  They  will  prove 
 whether  sin  and  evil  and  disease  can  be  overcome  by 
 denying  their  existence. 
 
 John  Alexander  Dowie,  a  Scotchman  who  came  to 
 the  United  States  from  Australia,  in  Chicago  since  i  S90, 
 has»  by  his  personal  magnetism,  colossal  conceit,  and 
 
6/2     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 preposterous  claims,  led  away  a  multitude.  It  only 
 shows  how  much  of  ignorance  of  Christ,  his  teachings, 
 his  work,  and  the  offices  of  his  Church, 
 there  is  among  professedly  Christian  peo- 
 ple. In  view  of  this,  there  can  hardly  be  too  much 
 emphasis  laid  upon  the  intelligent,  reverent,  and  care- 
 ful study  of  the  Bible  and  the  history  of  the  Christian 
 Church.  In  1900  it  was  estimated  he  had  40,000 
 followers. 
 
 The  growth  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  the 
 
 United  States  in  this  period  was  phenomenal.     In  no 
 
 Roman       Other  part  of  the  world  was  there  a  like  in- 
 
 Catholic      crease  in  numbers,  wealth,  churches,  mo- 
 
 Churchin  .  .  .  '  ^      ,        .      ,  ,       .         . 
 
 the  United  uastic,  educational,  and  charitable  mstitu- 
 states.  tions;  we  may  also  say,  in  the  average  in- 
 telligence and  comfort  of  its  population.  In  numbers 
 it  increased  considerably  over  seven  millions  in  these 
 years.  Its  growth  was  not  only  in  numbers,  but  in 
 costly  churches,  with  St.  Patrick's  Cathedral  at  New 
 York  at  their  head,  whose  corner-stone  was  laid 
 August  15,  1858,  and  which  was  dedicated  May  25, 
 1879. 
 
 This  Church  is  the  Church  of  the  immigration. 
 That  it  has  been  so  successfully  gathered  and  firmly 
 established  speaks  volumes  for  the  wisdom  of  the 
 Episcopate  and  the  devotion,  zeal,  and  industry  of 
 the  clergy — a  clergy  which,  in  intelligence  and  char- 
 acter, is  not  surpassed  by  the  Roman  Catholic  clergy 
 of  any  other  country. 
 
 But  to  this  great  success  there  is  another  side. 
 From  the  immense  immigration  from  Roman  Catholic 
 lands  there  has  been  an  immense  leakage.  The  Ro- 
 man Catholic  Church  has  gathered   not  more  than 
 
Christian  Church  in  United  States.    673 
 
 one-half  to  two-thirds  of  those  owning  allegiance  to 
 her  beyond  the  sea  who  have  made  their  homes  in  the 
 New  World.  Many  of  these  have  found  homes  in 
 the  Evangelical  Churches.  They  are  found  in  the 
 ministry  and  among  the  laity  of  every  considerable 
 Evangelical  Church  in  this  country.  The  author  has 
 never  had  a  parish  where  he  did  not  number  some 
 such  among  the  communicants  of  his  Church.  But 
 there  are  large  numbers  who  depart  from  any  form  of 
 religious  faith,  and  many  from  any  restraints  of  mo- 
 rality. Many  of  the  latter  are  found  in  our  peniten- 
 tiaries and  prisons.  This  is  especially  true  with  the 
 large  influx  of  immigrants  from  Southern  Italy  and 
 Sicily,  where  the  ignorance,  immorality,  and  supersti- 
 tion for  which  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  those 
 fair  lands  for  ages  has  been  responsible,  shows  at  its 
 worst. 
 
 Then,  in  the  United  States,  the  Roman  Catholic 
 Church,  more  than  any  other  Church,  is  a  foreign 
 Church.  Comparatively  few,  except  those  of  recent 
 foreign  extraction,  kneel  at  its  altars.  Its  forms  of 
 worship  and  discipline  are  foreign,  its  higher  ecclesi- 
 astics are  educated  abroad,  and  in  many  dioceses  the 
 majority  of  its  priesthood  are  of  foreign  birth.  This, 
 of  course,  is  but  a  temporary  phase,  and  would  not  be 
 important  but  for  the  policy  of  educating  Roman 
 Catholic  children  in  Roman  Catholic  schools.  But  for 
 this,  the  children  of  the  second  and  third  generation 
 of  immigrants  would  mix  in  all  social  and  political, 
 civic  and  religious  life  as  Americans.  This  they  will 
 not  now  do ;  it  is  not  intended  that  they  should  do  so. 
 
 For  purely  defensive  purposes,  no  doubt,  this  is  a 
 wise  policy.  For  any  policy  of  aggressive  conquest 
 43 
 
674     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 and  impression  upon  the  great  masses  of  the  people 
 who  are  not  of  Roman  Catholic  descent,  it  can  not  be 
 effective.  It  increases  and  perpetuates  the  foreign 
 aspect  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  the  United 
 States.  No  greater  defense  against  Roman  Catholic 
 growth  among  native  Americans  than  the  Roman 
 Catholic  school  system  could  be  devised. 
 
 One  greater  blunder  they  have  been  delivered 
 from  by  the  wise  prevision  of  Archbishop  Ireland 
 and  of  Cardinal  Gibbons.  The  policy  of  perpetuating 
 foreign  peculiarities  of  race  and  speech,  known  as 
 Cahensleyism,  did  not  prevail.  The  English  speech 
 and  loyalty  to  American  political  and  governmental 
 •institutions  will  prevail  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
 Church  in  the  United  States.  Upon  this  both  that 
 Church  and  the  nation  are  to  be  congratulated. 
 
 The  growth  of  the  Church,  as  shown  in  its  rec- 
 ords, is  chiefly  the  growth  of  its  hierarchy  and  the 
 prosperity  of  its  individual  dioceses.  Nowhere  else 
 in  Christendom  does  more  depend  upon  the  character 
 and  the  ability  of  the  Episcopate  than  in  the  Roman 
 Catholic  Church  in  the  United  States.  Their  power 
 has  been  so  great  and  so  unchecked  that  a  permanent 
 limitation  has  been  put  upon  it.  In  1866  there  met 
 the  second  Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore.  The  third 
 met  in  1884.  The  administration  of  two  members  of 
 the  Episcopate  in  the  United  States  led  to  a  funda- 
 mental change  in  the  relations  of  the  prelates  to  the 
 Vatican.  The  controversy  between  Archbishop  Cor- 
 rigan,  of  New  York,  and  Dr.  McGlynn,  rector  of  St. 
 Stephen's  parish  in  that  city,  and  that  between  Bishop 
 McQuaid,  of  Rochester,  and  Father  Lambert,  a 
 learned  priest  and  the  author   of   one  of  the  most 
 
Christian  Church  in  United  States.    675 
 
 effective  replies  against  Robert  G.  Ingersoll,  led  to  the 
 sending  of  Archbishop  Satolli  to  the  United  States 
 as  papal  ablegate  in  1893.  The  decision  was  in  each 
 case  against  the  incumbent  of  the  Episcopal  office. 
 There  was  such  a  division  in  the  hierarchy  between 
 the  followers  of  Archbishop  Ireland  and  Cardinal 
 Gibbons  on  the  one  side,  and  those  of  Archbishop 
 Corrigan  and  Bishop  McQuaid  on  the  other,  that  the 
 mission  of  Archbishop  Satolli  was  made  permanent 
 as  an  apostolic  delegation,  and  when  he  was  recalled, 
 Monsignore  Martinelli  was  sent  to  take  his  place. 
 Thus  there  is  established  a  permanent  representative 
 at  Washington  who  is  to  report  upon  the  condition  of 
 the  Episcopate,  and,  even  more  important,  give  advice 
 upon  the  selection  of  candidates  for  vacant  Sees. 
 The  way  of  favor  at  the  Vatican  will  largely  be 
 through  the  influence  of  the  papal  representative  at 
 Washington.  This  is  hardly  offset  by  the  creation  of 
 Archbishop  McCloskey  in  New  York,  as  Cardinal  in 
 1878,  or  of  Archbishop  Gibbons,  of  Baltimore,  in  1886. 
 
 In  1899  was  founded  the  Roman  Catholic  Univer- 
 sity of  America,  at  Washington,  through  the  gift  of 
 $325,000  by  Miss  Caldwell.  At  the  close  of  the  cen- 
 tury it  reported  23  professors,  with  180  students.  Its 
 grounds  and  buildings  were  valued  at  $757>6o7,  and 
 its  endowment  at  $910,907. 
 
 In  the  war  against  Spain,  the  sympathies  of  Leo 
 XIII  were  with  Spain,  as  those  of  Pius  IX  had  been 
 with  the  Southern  Confederacy.  Nevertheless,  the  con- 
 quest of  the  Philippines  and  the  acquisition  of  Porto 
 Rico,  adding  as  many  more  people  of  Roman  Catholic 
 descent  and  training  as  were  before  under  the  protec- 
 tion of  the  United  States  flag,  at  the  same  time  in- 
 
676      History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 creased  the  importance  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
 in  the  United  States,  and  made  it  more  un-American 
 than  before.  The  bridge  over  this  increasing  chasm 
 will  not  be  formed  by  Italian  ecclesiastics,  or  by  the 
 Vatican  authorities,  but  by  those  able  architects  of  the 
 Roman  Catholic  Church  in  the  United  States  in  the 
 last  century, — by  the  sons  of  Ireland,  who  sit  in  high 
 places  in  the  Church  ruled  from  the  banks  of  the 
 Tiber. 
 
 In  1900,  in  the  United  States,  there  were  reported: 
 
 11,848   Roman  Catholic  clergy,  12,263  churches,  and 
 
 8,600,658  communicants  ;   Polish  Catholics: 
 
 statistics.  ,  ^       i  j 
 
 19  clergy,  18  churcnes,  and  20,000  com- 
 municants; Russian  Orthodox :  40  clergy,  31  churches, 
 40,000  communicants;  Greek  Orthodox:  5  clergy,  5 
 churches,  and  5,000  communicants;  Armenians:  15 
 clergy,  21  churches,  and  8,500  communicants;  Old 
 Catholics:  3  clergy,  5  churches,  and  425  communi- 
 cants ;  Reformed  Catholics :  6  clergy,  6  churches,  and 
 1 ,500  communicants.  Total — clergy,  1 1 ,936 ;  churches, 
 12,349;  communicants,  8,766,083. 
 
 In    1900   the   Roman   Catholics   reported,  in   the 
 United  States,  30  institutions  of  theological  instruc- 
 tion.   These  institutions  had  1,913  students. 
 
 Education  in  ^,      .     ,      .,  ..  i         i      .     *      r> 
 
 Roman      Their  buildiugs  were  valued  at  |52, 839,000, 
 Catiionc     and  their  endowment  was  $366,000.     This 
 
 CtlUrcil.  „,  ,,,-..,  •  1  -r-r       •  -I 
 
 Church  also  had  m  that  year,  in  the  United 
 States,  63  institutions  giving  collegiate  instruction. 
 All  of  these  had  preparatory  departments,  except  the 
 Catholic  University  of  America,  at  Washington.  They 
 had  1,384  instructors,  7,147  students  in  the  preparatory 
 departments,  and  5,859  in  collegiate  work.  Thirty- 
 eight  of  these  institutions  had  less  than  100  students 
 
Christian  Church  in  United  States.    677 
 
 in  college  work.  Only  four  colleges  had  over  200 
 students  in  collegiate  studies.  These  were :  the  Uni- 
 versity of  Notre  Dame,  Indiana,  with  408  ;  Georgetown 
 College,  District  of  Columbia,  367  ;  St.  Ignatius,  Cleve- 
 land, O.,  360;  and  Boston  College,  Massachusetts,  220 
 students.  The  Catholic  University  of  America  had 
 122  students,  buildings  valued  at  $757,000,  and  endow- 
 ment of  $310,000.  The  buildings  of  these  63  institu- 
 tions were  valued  at  $i7,7i3.ooO'  and  there  was  but 
 $640,000  of  endowment.  They  claim  1,000,000 
 children  in  parochial  and  secondary  schools.  These 
 schools  number  4,000. 
 
 The  policy  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  its 
 theological  and  college  instruction,  seems  to  be  to 
 erect  costly  buildings,  and  then  to  make  the  tuition 
 fees,  or  charity,  pay  the  expenses.  This  is  also  the 
 policy  in  its  secondary  schools  and  charitable  work. 
 It  can  do  this  the  better,  as  most  of  its  instruction 
 and  care  cost  very  little. 
 
 This  Church  carries  on  extensive  charitable  work 
 in  the  great  cities,  mainly  in  its  orphanages  and  hos- 
 pitals ;  the  latter  are  largely  supported  by  those  out- 
 side of  the  communion  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
 They  report,  with  no  great  definiteness  but  in  round 
 numbers,  250  protectories  and  orphanages,  caring  for 
 60,000  children,  50  foundling  asylums  ;  also  340  hos- 
 pitals, large  and  small. 
 
 The  great  consolidation  of  Churches  in  this  period, 
 after  that  of  the  Presbyterians  in  the  United  States, 
 was  that  of  the  Methodists  of  all  branches  j^^  christian 
 in  Canada  in  1883.     This  made  them  the     ^^^hurch^ 
 largest  of  the  Evangelical  Churches  in  the 
 Dominion.     This  was  followed  by  a  similar  union  of 
 
678      History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 Methodist  Churches  in  Australia  in  1900.  The 
 Churches  in  Canada  have  grown  in  wealth,  institu- 
 tions, and  influence,  quite  equal  to  the  increase  in 
 numbers  in  the  last  fifty  years  of  the  century. 
 
 According  to  the  census  of  1901,  Canada  had  a 
 population  of  5,338,813.  Of  the  Evangelical  Churches, 
 the  Methodists  had  916,862  members;  Presbyterians, 
 842,301;  Episcopal  Church,  680,346;  Baptists,  292,- 
 485;  Free- Will  Baptists,  24,229;  Lutherans,  90,394; 
 Congregationalists,  28,283;  Disciples,  14,872  ;  Salva- 
 tation  Army,  10,307;  Plymouth  Brethren,  8,071 ;  Ad- 
 ventists,  8,064;  Friends,  4,007;  Universalists,  2,589; 
 Unitarians,  1,934;  Dunkards,  1,531. 
 
 The  Free-Will  Baptists  and  the  Plymouth  Breth- 
 ren showed  a  large  decrease  since  1891.  Smaller 
 decrease  was  reported  by  the  Universalists  and  the 
 Friends.  The  large  gains  were  made  by  the  Meth- 
 odists, Presbyterians,  Episcopalians,  Baptists,  and  the 
 Lutherans. 
 
 The  Roman  Catholics  numbered  2,228,997.  ^^'^ 
 jews  had  16,402. 
 
Chapter  VIII. 
 
 EASTERN  CHRISTENDOM. 
 
 For  the  first  time  since  the  Saracen  Conquest  in 
 the  seventeenth  century,  the  Eastern  Christians,  as  a 
 whole,  had  opened  before  them  the  path  of  tolerance, 
 respect,  and  development.  France  brought  to  an  end 
 the  expensive  war  in  Algeria  by  allowing  the  Mo- 
 hammedan population  to  have  their  own  mosques  and 
 manage  their  own  religious  affairs.  In  return  for  this, 
 when  the  maddened  Druses  and  Mohammedans,  in 
 i860,  began  massacring  the  Christians  in  Lebanon, 
 and  the  craze  reached  Damascus,  Abd-el-Keber,  the 
 exiled  leader  of  the  Algerians,  opened  his  house  and 
 did  all  that  he  could  to  save  from  slaughter  the  Chris- 
 tians of  Damascus.  This  uprising  resulted  in  a  French 
 intervention  and  a  Christian  protectorate  over  Leb- 
 anon. The  increasing  crowds  of  Christian  tourists, 
 and  the  building  of  railroads  in  Egypt  up  the  Nile, 
 and  in  Palestine  itself,  has  increased  the  necessity  for 
 the  protection  of  Christians.  This,  of  course,  has 
 been  made  more  secure  and  complete  by  the  English 
 occupation  of  Egypt  since  1881,  and  of  Cyprus  in 
 1880,  the  French  occupation  of  Tunis  in  1880,  and 
 the  Greek  occupation  of  Crete  in  1897.  In  Turkey 
 and  Europe  this  process  has  rapidly  extended.  Rou- 
 mania  became  independent  of  the  sultan  in  1863,  and 
 Bulgaria,  Bosnia,  and  Herzegovina,  with  Thessaly  and  a 
 
 679 
 
68o    History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 part  of  Epirus,  in  1880,  as  a  result  of  the  Russo-Turk- 
 ish  war.  Thus,  there  came  relief  to  a  large  number 
 of  Eastern  Christians.  The  Nestorians,  however, 
 were  systematically  raided  by  the  Kurds.  Of  the 
 Armenians,  nearly  one-half  ot  the  people  became 
 Russian  subjects  in  1880.  The  remainder  Sultan 
 Abdul  Hamid  II  sought  to  exterminate,  in  a  series  of 
 bloody  massacres,  in  1897. 
 
 The  Christians  in  Macedonia  were  yet  under  that 
 same  misrule  and  violence  from  which  Greece,  Servia, 
 Bulgaria,  Roumania,  Bosnia,  and  Herzegovina  have 
 been  freed.    May  the  redemption  be  not  long  delayed! 
 
 In  ecclesiastical  matters,  the  Greek  Church  of 
 Greece  has  taken  the  lead,  especially  in  establishing 
 the  schools  as  well  as  churches  beyond  the  bounds  of 
 Greece.  Notably  is  this  true  in  Macedonia,  in  the 
 ports  of  Asia  Minor,  and  in  Syria  and  Palestine. 
 Russia  has  not  been  pleased  with  this  growth  of 
 ecclesiastical  power  and  jurisdictions  of  Greece.  She 
 is  anxious  that  all  the  religious  influence  of  the 
 Greek  Church  should  advance  her  political  and  na- 
 tional interests.  Hence  she  favored  the  Bulgarian 
 Church  in  declaring  its  independence  of  the, Ecumen- 
 ical Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  and  appointing  an 
 Exarch  as  the  head  of  its  National  Church  in  1870. 
 The  Church  of  Roumania  had  declared  itself  inde- 
 pendent in  1865.  It  has  also  sought  to  stir  up  the 
 Servians  against  the  Greeks  in  Macedonia,  and  the 
 Syrians  against  them  in  Palestine  and  Syria.  Russia 
 has  established  a  Russian  State  Normal  School  at 
 Nazareth,  and  has  sought  steadily  to  increase  her 
 power  and  influence  in  the  monasteries  at  Mount 
 Athos,  that  nursery  of  Greek  priests  and  ecclesiastics. 
 
Eastern  Christendom.  68  i 
 
 We  can  hardly  speak  of  any  wide  development  or 
 growth  among  the  Eastern  Churches  except  the 
 Greek,  unless  in  intelligence,  in  self-respect,  and  in 
 general  well-being.  In  all  these  there  has  been  ad- 
 vance among  the  Armenians,  Nestorians,  the  Maron- 
 ites,  the  Copts,  and,  last  and  least,  among  the 
 Abyssinians,  who  have  preserved  both  their  inde- 
 pendence and  their  ignorance.  These,  together,  are 
 supposed  to  number  ten  millions  of  people.  The 
 American  schools  and  pervasive  influence  at  Beyrout, 
 and  the  Jesuit  rivalry  in  schools,  press,  and  medical 
 work,  have  immensely  raised  the  tone  of  the  intellect- 
 ual and  religious  life  in  that  part  of  Syria.  The 
 missions  of  the  American  United  Presbyterians  in 
 Egypt  has  been  of  steady  growth  in  numbers  and 
 influence.  Few  missions  have  been  more  far-reaching 
 in  aff"ecting  the  immediate  environment.  The  mission 
 of  the  American  Board  at  Constantinople,  and  the 
 influence  of  Robert  College  and  the  missions  in  South- 
 ern Bulgaria,  have  been  permanent  and  widespread. 
 All  these  influences  have  elevated  the  position  and 
 alleviated  the  lot  of  the  Eastern  Christians.  The 
 most  marked  characteristic  has  been  the  progress 
 made  in  the  education  of  the  daughters  of  the  people. 
 
 In  the  course  of  these  years,  since  i860,  the  posi- 
 tion of  the  Ecumenical  Patriarch  at  Constantinople 
 has  been  becoming  slowly  more  independent.  He 
 promises  soon  to  be  a  real  head  of  the  Greeks  under 
 the  rule  of  the  sultan,  and  not  a  mere  creature  of 
 Turkish  politics.  There  are  said  to  be  ten  millions  of 
 Greeks  under  Turkish  rule. 
 
 The  Russian  Church  has  grown  with  the  expansion 
 of  Russian  power  in  these  years.     She  has  not  lacked 
 
682      History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 able  scholars,  or  devoted  missionaries,  or  saintly  v/ork- 
 
 ers.     On  the  other  hand,  the  clergy  are  undisciplined 
 
 and  the  people  are  untaught.    It  is  true  that 
 
 Russian     ^^^  ^^^  ^^^  circulation  of  the  Bible  is  al- 
 
 Churcn. 
 
 lowed  in  the  language  of  the  people ;  but 
 how  can  that  greatly  help  them  when  eighty  per  cent 
 of  the  people  can  not  read?  The  grossest  superstitions 
 flourish  amid  their  ignorance  and  with  a  non-preach- 
 ing clergy.  The  Russian  Middle  Ages  have  yet  to  see 
 their  Reformation  and  Revolution.  God  grant  that  it 
 may  come  peaceably,  but  grant  also  that  it  may  come 
 quickly!  There  are  in  Russia  14  archbishops,  48 
 bishops,  and  66,000  churches,  of  which  36,500  are 
 parish  churches.  Seventy-one  per  cent  of  the  popula- 
 tion are  said  to  belong  to  the  Greek  Church,  on  the 
 authority  of  the  "Statesman's  Year-Book;"  that  is, 
 92,590,000  people,  nine  per  cent  to  the  Roman  Catho- 
 lics, nine  per  cent  to  the  Mohammedans,  and  five  per 
 cent  to  the  Evangelical  Churches,  mainly  in  the  Bal- 
 tic provinces  and  Finland.  The  oppressions  of  these 
 Christians  in  the  Russification  of  these  countries  is 
 the  heavies^  burden  the  Evangelical  Churches  have 
 had  to  bear  in  the  last  thirty  years.  This  policy  has 
 known  no  scruple  and  shown  no  mercy.  There  are 
 three  millions  of  Germans  in  the  Baltic  provinces. 
 In  1874  mixed  marriages  were  declared  void;  that  is, 
 both  parties  must  become  members  of  the  Greek 
 Church.  After  1886,  no  foreigners  could  buy  land  in 
 Western  Russia.  This  was  to  put  a  final  end  to  that 
 tide  of  German  immigration  which,  in  nineteen  years, 
 1 857-1 876,  had  carried  558,000  Germans  into  Russia. 
 In  the  same  year  the  names  of  their  cities  and  towns 
 were  made  Russian  instead  of  German,  and  the  Rus- 
 
Eastern  Christendom.  683 
 
 sian  language  was  made  compulsory  in  the  law  courts. 
 In  1887  all  the  German  corporation  schools  were  made 
 to  teach  Russian,  and  two  years  later  the  same  course 
 was  made  obligatory  in  the  private  schools.  In  the 
 same  year  the  University  of  Dorpat,  founded  in  1630, 
 and  the  glory  of  the  Baltic  provinces,  was  Russianized. 
 All  administrators,  judges,  schoolmasters,  and  univer- 
 sity professors  were  replaced  by  Russians.  In  the 
 year  1889  the  final  step  was  taken,  and  the  teaching  of 
 the  German  language  was  made  a  crime,  and  the  Ger- 
 man local  administration  was  destroyed.  The  same 
 course  of  procedure  was  begun  in  the  last  of  the  cen- 
 tury in  Finland,  whose  liberties  were  protected  by  the 
 strongest  treaty  and  constitutional  guarantees.  We 
 are  forced  to  the  sad  conviction  that  civil  and  religious 
 liberty  and  Russia  can  not  dwell  together,  a  convic- 
 tion strengthened  by  the  last  twelve  years  of  persecu- 
 tion of  the  Russian  Jews,  which  has  driven  hundreds 
 of  thousands  of  them  to  America.  There  are  said  to 
 be  12,000,000  of  Dissenters  in  Russia ;  that  is,  of  those 
 who  are  Greek  Christians  in  faith,  but  out  of  com- 
 munion with  the  State  Church.  Unless  the  oppressive 
 policy  of  the  government  ceases,  there  will  be  more 
 of  them  in  spite  of  constant  emigration. 
 
 A  marked  feature  of  Russian  religious  life  is  a  ten- 
 dency to  mysticism  and  utter  distaste  and  disregard 
 for  this  world.  This  was  seen  in  Gogol,  who,  for  the 
 last  twenty  years  of  his  life,  lived  as  a  recluse  in 
 Rome.  This  was  a  strange  end  for  the  author  of 
 ''Dead  Souls'*  and  '' Taras  Bulbas."  Count  Tolstoi 
 shows  the  same  tendency  in  his  later  years.  This  is 
 also  seen  in  different  Russian  sects,  of  whom  the 
 Dukhoubers    are  the  most   familiar  to  us.      To  the 
 
684     History  of  the  Christian  Church, 
 
 great  Slavic  race  and  the  great  Russian  nation  an 
 awakening  must  come.  May  the  railway  bring  the 
 spelling-book,  and,  in  the  new  era,  may  the  Church 
 of  Jesus  Christ  in  Russia  triumph  in  light  and  rule 
 in  love! 
 statistics,  Russian     Greek     Church,    92,500,000; 
 
 Population.  Greek  Oriental  Church,  10,000,000;  other 
 Eastern  Churches,  10,000,000.     Total,  122,000,000. 
 
 At  the  end  of  the  nineteenth  century,  of  those  peo- 
 ple from  whom  sprang  the  I<ord  Jesus  Christ  and  his 
 apostles,  the  early  founders  of  the  Christian 
 Church,  there  were  reported  as  being  in 
 the  world  1 1,242,665.  Of  these  there  were  in  Europe, 
 9.35i>735;  Asia,  368,000;  Africa,  430,800;  America, 
 1,103,135  ;  Australia,  16,000.  There  were  reported  in 
 the  United  States  at  that  date  301  rabbis,  570  syna- 
 gogues, and  they  claimed  a  population  of  1,058,135. 
 These  are  almost  all  in  the  large  cities,  600,000  being 
 said  to  be  in  New  York  alone. 
 
Chapter  IX. 
 
 OUTER  CHRISTENDOM.* 
 
 Outer  Christendom  is  that  body  of  Christian 
 people,  clergy,  and  laity,  who  live  where  Moham- 
 medan or  heathen  religions  prevail,  and  including  the 
 early  home  and  conquests  of  the  Christian  faith  now 
 under  the  rule  of  the  Turks,  and  who  are  included 
 in  that  body  of  one  hundred  and  thirty  millions  of 
 Christian  believers  who  compose  Eastern  Christen- 
 dom. Outer  Christendom  then  includes  the  mission 
 fields  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 Unfortunately,  late  and  reliable  accounts  of  the 
 missionary  activity  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  are 
 not   accessible.     France   has   always  been      R^^^n 
 the  protector  of  Roman  Catholic  Missions,     cathoHc 
 even  when  her  government  has  been  nifi- 
 del,  and  never  more  than  at  the  close  of  the  century. 
 There  is  little  missionary  activity  in  the  former  Span- 
 ish or  present  Portuguese  colonies.    Austria  and  Italy 
 have  no  colonies.     Leopold  II,  of  Belgium,  would  be 
 a  queer  protector  of  any  Christian  enterprise.    Hence 
 the  field  is  clear  to  France,  and  nowhere  m  the  world 
 are  Roman  Catholic  missions   more  strenuously  fur- 
 thered by  the  government  than  in  all  the  French  col- 
 onies.     Madagascar   will   do   as   a   specimen   of   all. 
 
 :^^;;7T^ormation  here  given  is  from  many  «°"'-".''  ^^*;^^^;;'fp^ 
 from  the  "Geography  and  Atlas  of  Protestant  Missions,  by  Harlan  P. 
 Beach.     New.York,  1S92. 
 
 685 
 
686     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 Other  Roman  Catholic  missions  are  in  Evangelical 
 and  Slavic  countries,  or  in  such  non-Christian  lands 
 as  China,  Japan,  and  India.  They  have  also  large 
 establishments  in  Syria  and  Palestine  under  French 
 protection.  In  China  it  is  estimated  there  are 
 1,000,000  Roman  Catholics.  They  have  had  missions 
 there  since  1550;  the  Evangelical  Churches  only  since 
 1840,  to  reach  the  population.  In  India  the  census 
 returns  1,315,000  Roman  Catholics,  a  little  less  than 
 half  of  the  Christian  population.  In  Africa  the 
 activity  of  the  Roman  Catholic  missionaries  is  very 
 conspicuous,  especially  within  the  territory  protected 
 by  the  flag  of  France.  Eastern  Christians  do  little 
 mission  work  outside  of  Turkey  in  Asia  and  Europe 
 and  the  territories  of  the  Russian  Empire. 
 
 Hence  our  consideration  of  Outer  Christendom  is 
 largely  concerned  with  the  work  of  the  Evangelical 
 
 Churches  of  America,  Great  Britain,  Ger- 
 ^ivusslons^'    ^^^y'  Scandinavia,  the  Netherlands,  and 
 
 the  Churches  of  France  and  Switzerland. 
 There  are  in  this  Outer  Christendom  435  Mission- 
 ary Societies  and  organizations  at  work.    Of  these,  134 
 
 are  American,   211   are  British,  including 
 sodl^"eY.^  ^I'itish  Colonies  and  dependencies,  and  90 
 
 are  Continental  in  Europe,  or  Asiatic. 
 Many  of  these  are  strong  organizations.  The  Church 
 Missionary  Society  of  Great  Britain  has  an  income  a 
 little  less  than  $2,000,000.  The  London  Missionary 
 Society  comes  next  with  $666,526;  then  the  Society 
 for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel,  $661,775.  The 
 Wesleyans  follow  with  $557,901 ;  the  Baptists,  with 
 $376,657;  English  Presbyterians,  $117,985;   English 
 
Outer  Christendom.  687 
 
 Universities  Mission,  $174,950.  Of  this  amount,  the 
 Church  of  England  is  represented  by  $2,725,860  in 
 the  three  large  Societies.  The  English  Nonconform- 
 ists contributed  from  their  chief  Societies  $1,880,922. 
 But  there  are  so  many  organizations,  many  for  work 
 among  the  Jews,  others  for  educational  or  medical 
 work,  including  missions  to  the  lepers  and  the  blind, 
 that  the  total  contribution  of  the  Evangelical  Mission- 
 ary Societies  of  Great  Britain  in  the  year  1900  was 
 $7,766,740. 
 
 In  America  the  Societies  connected  with  the  large 
 Churches  contributed,  approximately:  the  Presby- 
 terian, $1,387,694;  the  Methodist,  $1,092,184;  the 
 Baptist,  $730,180;  the  Congregationalist,  $644,200; 
 the  Protestant  Episcopalian,  $235,029;  the  Disciples, 
 $144,000;  the  Lutheran,  $72,000;  in  all,  $4,620,579. 
 The  total  contributions  of  other  Societies  was  but 
 $100,000,  or,  in  all,  $4,720,579. 
 
 The  chief  of  the  Continental  Societies  are  the  Basel, 
 with  an  income  of  $250,000;  the  Berlin,  $100,000; 
 the  Moravian,  $125,000;  the  Rhenish,  $120,000; 
 Leipzig,  $100,000;  Hermannsburg,  of  Pastor  Harms, 
 $58,000;  Gessuer,  $40,000.  Besides  these  German 
 Societies  are  the  Danish,  Norwegian,  and  Swedish 
 Societies;  the  two  latter  contribute  annually  358,000 
 and  315,000  kroner  annually. 
 
 The  Paris  Missionary  Society's  income  is  $75,000; 
 the  Free  Church  of  Switzerland,  $15,000;  or  in  all 
 the  Continental  Societies,  $  i  ,886,744.  Adding  to  these 
 the  income  of  the  Societies  in  Canada,  Australia, 
 Africa,  and  Asia,  mainly  British,  $966,779,  the  grand 
 total  at  the  beginning  of  1900  for  foreign  missions 
 
688     History  of  the  Christian  Church, 
 
 from  the  Evangelical  Churches  of  the  world  was  $15,- 
 360,693,  and  this  amount  has  increased  a  million  a 
 year  each  year  since. 
 
 But  the  contributions  of  these  Societies  have  been 
 greater  in  men  and  women  than  in  money.  Mission- 
 aries, like  Bishops  Selwyn,  Patteson,  and 
 ChristlnTm'  Hannington,  the  two  latter  who  fell  as 
 martyrs ;  like  Mackay  and  Paton ;  like 
 James  Gilmore,  of  Mongolia,  and  Falconer,  of  Arabia ; 
 like  Moflfat  and  Livingstone ;  like  Ashmore  and  Mar- 
 tin; like  William  Taylor  and  James  M.  Thoburn, 
 with  others  of  the  uncounted  host  best  known  to 
 God, — would  make  illustrious  in  any  age  the  annals 
 of  the  Christian  Church.  The  men  and  women  of 
 Outer  Christendom  will  stand  with  the  martyrs  and 
 saints  on  yonder  holy  ground.  Their  converts  have 
 not  been  unworthy  of  them,  as  has  been  often  proved 
 in  the  South  Sea  Islands,  among  the  cannibals,  in 
 Africa  at  Uganda,  and  in  the  Chinese  uprising  of 
 1898.  There  were  as  true  martyrs  and  as  holy  seed 
 of  a  future  Church  as  any  Christian  century  saw. 
 
 Let  us  now  look  a  little  nearer  at  this  Outer  Chris- 
 tendom, and  see  what  it  is.  In  the  first  place,  it 
 does  not  include  Siberia,  Eastern  Turkestan,  Thibet, 
 Afghanistan,  Baluchistan,  Arabia,  or  French  Indo- 
 China,  which  are  practically  unoccupied  by  Evangel- 
 ical Christian  missionaries,  and  are  the  only  countries 
 so  unoccupied. 
 
 In  America  we  have  missions  among  the  Indians, 
 the  Chinese  and  Japanese  in  the  United  States,  mis- 
 sions in  Alaska,  and  in  Canada.     In  these 
 
 America.      /.    ,  ,         , 
 
 fields   there  are   813   foreign  missionaries 
 and  413  native  workers.     There  are  17,657  communi- 
 
Outer  Christendom,  689 
 
 cants,  with  14,875  adherents,  or  a  total  of  32,526. 
 There  are  211  day-schools,  with  5,307  pupils;  35  high 
 schools,  with  780  pupils  and  12  hospitals.  There  is 
 in  these  fields  about  one  foreign  worker  to  1,250  of 
 the  people. 
 
 In  Mexico,  21  societies  are  at  work  with  2 10  foreign 
 and  547  native  workers.  These  have  the  care  of  20,- 
 769  communicants  and  17,000  adherents,  or  a  total 
 of  37769.  In  educational  work  there  are  148  day- 
 schools,  with  7,073  pupils,  and  18  high-schools,  with 
 2,217  pupils,  and  there  are  four  hospitals  and  dis- 
 pensaries. There  is  one  foreign  missionary  to  64,502 
 of  the  people. 
 
 In  Central  America  there  are  11  societies  at  work. 
 There  are  102  foreign  and  293  native  workers,  with 
 4,969  communicants  and  6,454  adherents,  or  a  total  of 
 11,423  ;  one  foreign  worker  to  34,804  of  the  people. 
 
 In  the  West  Indies  the  work  has  been  carried  on 
 much  longer,  and  largely  among  the  Negro  population. 
 There  are  36  societies  at  work.  There  are  444  foreign 
 and  4,073  native  workers.  The  number  of  communi- 
 cants is  68,807,  with  170,773  adherents,  or  a  total  of 
 259,580.  These  have  494  day-schools  with  an  at- 
 tendance of  54,608;  and  weight  high-schools,  with  163 
 pupils. 
 
 In  South  America  there  are  36  societies  at  work. 
 There  are  employed  682  foreign  missionaries  and  1,087 
 native  workers.  There  are  37,843  communicants,  with 
 55,173  adherents,  a  total  of  93,016,  or  almost  as  many 
 Evangelical  Christians  in  South  America  in  1900  as 
 there  were  Roman  Catholics  in  the  United  States  in 
 1800.  Of  the  schools,  there  are  200  day-schools,  with 
 16,437  pupils;  and  14  high-schools,  with  943  pupils. 
 44 
 
690     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 There  was  a  foreign  worker  to  54,935  ot  the  people. 
 That  is,  in  Spanish  America  and  Brazil  the  Evangel- 
 ical Churches  have  1,438  foreign  workers,  6,000  native 
 workers,  132,388  communicants,  249,400  adherents,  or 
 a  total  of  381,788.  What  may  these  not  come  to  in 
 the  next  fifty  years  as  these  countries  come  to  be 
 opened  up  to  civilization  and  econonomic  develop- 
 ment? These  Christians  have  735  pupils  in  the  day- 
 schools,  and  3,323  in  the  high-schools.  In  these  latter 
 lies  the  hope  of  speedy  and  rapid  advance. 
 
 Now  let  us  add  to  these  the  work  in  Papal  Europe. 
 
 There    are    at  work   27  societies.      They    have    274 
 
 foreign  and  930  native  workers.      There 
 
 Papal  Europe.  ^  .  .  ,        ^ 
 
 are  10,007  communicants,  with  18,502  ad- 
 herents, a  total  of  28,509.  These  have  106  day-schools, 
 with  7,910  pupils;  and  nine  high-schools,  with  462 
 pupils;  and  seven  hospitals  and  dispensaries.  That 
 is,  in  Roman  Catholic  countries  on  the  fringe  of  this 
 Outer  Christendom,  there  are  nearly  1,800  foreign 
 missionaries  and  nearly  7,000  native  workers,  with  a 
 communicant  membership  of  139,395,  and  a  total  con- 
 stituency of  over  410,000  in  these  countries,  not  far 
 from  and  soon  to  be  half  a  million  of  people ;  and  all 
 of  this,  except  a  little  work  in  British  West  India,  in 
 the  last  thirty  years  of  the  nineteenth  century.  Why 
 should  we  not  expect  full  as  large  an  Evangelical  pop- 
 ulation in  these  lands,  as  Roman  Catholic  population 
 in  Evangelical  lands?  Would  it  not  be  a  blessing  to 
 entire  Christendom  ? 
 
 This  outer  Christendom,  not  according  to  our  defi- 
 nition, but  in  fact,  comes  in  contact  with  the  Sons  of 
 Israel.  There  are  112  societies  working  for  the  re- 
 demption of  Israel.     In  these  are  812  foreign  and  204 
 
Outer  Christendom.  691 
 
 native  workers.  There  is  one  foreign  worker  to  13,777 
 of  the  Jewish  people.  There  are  35  day-schools,  with 
 1,594  scholars,  and  35  hospitals  and  dis- 
 pensaries. There  are  on  record  in  the  nine- 
 teenth century,  the  names  of  250,000  Jews  who  have 
 become  Christians.  Among  these  were  such  men  as 
 Mendelssohn,  the  great  musician ;  August  Neander, 
 Delitzsch,  Philippi,  and  Stahl,  and  eminent  scholars 
 in  England  as  well  as  in  Germany.  The  work  seems 
 scattering.  Perhaps  the  time  may  come  for  stronger 
 and  more  concentrated  effort  to  win  the  people  of 
 whom  was  our  Lord  according  to  the  flesh. 
 
 In  Persia  are  six  societies  in  the  field.  There  are 
 85  foreign  and  281  native  workers.  These  have  charge 
 of  ';,i20  communicants  and   79  adherents, 
 
 .         ,,        AT^,  ,  Persia. 
 
 or  3,199  in  all.  There  are  among  them  1 14 
 day-schools,  with  3,060  scholars;  one  high-school, 
 with  70  scholars ;  and  1 1  hospitals  and  dispensaries. 
 There  is  a  foreign  worker  to  105,882  of  the  people. 
 In  Turkey  there  is  much  activity.  There  are  31  so- 
 cieties at  work.  They  employ  637  foreign  and  805 
 native  workers.  There  are  168,367  communicants 
 and  51,244  adherents,  a  total  of  219,611.  In  no  mis- 
 sion is  more  attention  paid  to  education.  There  are 
 767  day-schools,  with  36,719  scholars;  and  51  high- 
 schools,  with  an  attendance  of  3,251.  There  are  also 
 63  hospitals  and  dispensaries.  There  is  one  foreign 
 worker  to  37,416.  In  these  two  Mohammedan  coun- 
 tries there  are  722  foreign  and  2,086  native  Christian 
 workers.  There  are  171,487  communicants,  with  a 
 total  constituency  of  222,810.  Certainly  not  a  small 
 number,  when  we  remember  that  there  are  40,000  in 
 in  the  day-schools  and  over  3,300  in  the  high-schools. 
 
692     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 But,  alas !  but  few  of  these  are  Mohammedans.  This 
 work  is  largely  for  the  regeneration  of  Eastern  Chris- 
 tendom in  Bible  lands.  When  will  the  day  come  that 
 will  open  these  countries  to  Evangelical  Christian 
 missions,  as  Papal  Europe  was  opened  to  them  in  1870? 
 Certain  it  is,  that  in  India  converted  Mohammedans 
 make  the  best  of  Christian  preachers  and  teachers. 
 May  that  be  true  of  Turkey,  Persia,  and  Arabia  in  the 
 days  in  which  we  live  ! 
 
 We  are  now  come  to  the  real  Outer  Christendom 
 We  will  consider,  first,  Oceania,  in  the  Pacific.     There 
 are  nine  societies.    In  these  are  338  foreign 
 
 Oceania.  ,  ^  •  i  atai 
 
 and  3,058  native  workers.  There  are  75,- 
 681  communicants,  277,458  adherents, — a  total  con- 
 stituency 353,139.  There  are  2,756  day-schools,  with 
 an  attendance  of  72,638;  and  38  high-schools,  with 
 over  a  thousand  pupils.  Thirteen  hospitals  are  also 
 established  among  them.  Here  the  English  Wesley- 
 ans  won  their  great  triumph  at  Fiji,  and  the  American 
 Congregationalists  in  Hawaii. 
 
 In  New  Zealand,  among  the  Aborigines  of  Aus- 
 tralia, and  in  New  Guinea,  there  are  14  societies  on 
 
 the  ground.     They  have   135  foreign  and 
 
 Australasia.  .  v^s^  o 
 
 548  native  workers.  These  have  4,958  com* 
 municants  and  28,942  adherents,  a  total  of  33,900. 
 There  are  loi  day-schools,  4,451  pupils.  There  are 
 three  high-schools,  with  an  attendance  of  81  ;  and 
 there  are  ten  hospitals. 
 
 In  Malaysia  there  are  26  societies  employed,  hav- 
 ing 30  foreign  and  1,553  native  workers.  There  are 
 37,746  communicants  and  56,494  adherents;  a  total  of 
 94,240.  For  these  there  are  393  day-schools,  with  an 
 attendance  of  19,190.     There  are  also  15  high-schools, 
 
Outer  Christendom.  693 
 
 with  250  pupils ;  and  there  are  8  hospitals.  In  all 
 these  islands — that  is,  in  Oceania  and  Malaysia — there 
 are  778  foreign  and  5,159  native  workers.  These  have 
 the  care  of  118,385  communicants,  and  a  total  con- 
 stituency of  481,279,  with  95,000  in  day-schools.  This 
 is  not  a  small  result  of  Christian  effort. 
 
 As  we  come  to  Asia,  we  first  consider  the  Japanese 
 Empire.  There  we  find  at  work  47  societies,  employ- 
 ing 772  foreign  and  1,817  native  workers. 
 There  are  42,835  communicants  and  41,559 
 adherents,  a  total  of  84,394.  There  are  148  day- 
 schools,  with  87,094  pupils  ;  and  54  high-schools,  with 
 3,735  scholars.  Thirteen  hospitals  also  are  main- 
 tained. There  is  one  foreign  worker  to  60,172  of  the 
 people. 
 
 Korea,  an  independent  kingdom,  once  owning  al- 
 legiance to  China,  has  a  population  of  some  12,000,- 
 000.    There  are  1 1  societies  at  work.    These 
 
 Korea. 
 
 have    141  foreign  and  157  native  workers. 
 There  are  8,288  communicants,  with  2,042  adherents, 
 a  total  of  10,330.     Among  these  are  43  day-schools, 
 with  600  pupils;  and  6  high-schools,  with  113  pupils. 
 There  are  also  12  hospitals. 
 
 China,  India,  and  Darkest  Africa  are  the  three 
 great  centers  of  Outer  Christendom.  In  this  most 
 populous  of  the  nations,  there  are  in  the  ^.^^ 
 field  68  societies;  these  employ  2,735  for- 
 eign and  6,388  native  workers.  There  are  112,808 
 Chinese  communicants  and  91,111  adherents,  a  total 
 constituency  of  204,072.  As  China  is  a  literary  nation^ 
 of  course  there  must  be  schools.  There  are  18 19  day- 
 schools,  with  an  attendance  of  35412  ;  and  170  high- 
 schools,  with   5,150  pupils.     There  are  no  less  than 
 
694     History  of  the  Christian  Church, 
 
 259  hospitals.  Not  in  vain,  we  believe,  has  been  this 
 sowing,  among  a  great  people,  capable  of  producing 
 great  Christians.  There  is  one  foreign  worker  to  132,- 
 136  of  the  people. 
 
 In    all    India   there   are   9    societies   at   work    in 
 Siam,  lyaos,  and  the  Straits  Settlements;    there  are 
 
 11  in  Burmah,    11   in  Ceylon,  and    93   in 
 
 India.  -r        i-  -r  ■^^        -k  •  i 
 
 India  proper.  In  all  these  countries  there 
 are  4,431  foreign  and  28,411  native  workers.  There 
 are,  in  the  larger  India,  437,482  communicants  and 
 703,423  adherents,  a  total  Christian  constituency,  in  a 
 population  of  over  300,000,000,  of  1,140,905.  Soon 
 every  two  hundreth  person  in  the  population  will  be 
 a  Christian.  There  is  one  foreign  worker  to  about 
 70,000  of  the  people.  In  education  there  are  9,758 
 day-schools,  with  the  large  attendance  of  421,740. 
 There  are  also  444  high-schools,  with  27,535  scholars. 
 There  were,  besides,  349  hospitals  and  dispensaries. 
 
 Africa  and  her  islands  make  our  last  division.     In 
 Africa  there  are  95,  and  in  Madagascar  and  the  islands, 
 
 12  societies  in   the  field.      These  employ 
 
 Africa.  _        .  ,  .  , 
 
 3,341  foreign  and  22,279  native  workers. 
 There  are  in  the  Dark  Continent  and  these  African 
 islands,  under  the  care  of  these  workers,  342,857  com- 
 municants, with  679,695  adherents,  or  a  total  Chris- 
 tian constituency  of  1,022,502,  excluding  white  set- 
 tlers. In  the  6,528  day-schools  there  is  an  attendance 
 of  369,650,  and  in  the  132  high-schools  there  are 
 4,880  pupils.  There  are  143  hospitals  and  dispensa- 
 ries. There  is  one  foreign  worker  in  Africa  to  49,559 
 of  the  people. 
 
 In  this  Outer  Christendom,  with  the  large  exten- 
 sion before  given,  there  are  16,668  foreign  mission- 
 
Outer  Christendom.  695 
 
 aries,  including  medical  missionaries.  There  are  also 
 75,381  native  workers,  or  over  92,000  missionary 
 workers.  Not  a  bad  result  for  107  years 
 work,  only  the  last  half  of  which  could  be, 
 in  any  sense,  productive;  and  these  are,  of  course, 
 mainly  those,  in  these  years,  gathered  into  the 
 Churches.  To  these  workers  is  committed  the  care  of 
 i>397>042  communicants  and  2,216,349  adherents,  or  a 
 total  Christian  constituency  of  3,613,391  gathered 
 from  non-Christian  people.  Care  is  taken  of  the  body 
 as  well  as  the  soul,  in  347  hospitals  and  dispensaries. 
 From  one  of  these  went  that  Methodist  woman- 
 physician,  Miss  Leonora  Howard,  who  successfully 
 treated  the  wife  of  Li  Hung  Chang,  and  opened  the 
 way  to  the  highest  circles  of  Chinese  society.  This 
 work  is  to  be  perpetuated,  as  the  activity  of  23,723 
 day-schools,  with  1,093,205  scholars,  attests.  These 
 will  be  taught  from  the  graduates  of  1,005  high- 
 schools,  some  of  them  equal  to  high-class  colleges  and 
 universities,  which  now  have  54,648  students. 
 
 These  figures  speak  with  decisive  voice  in  answer 
 to  the  question,  "  Are  missions  a  failure?"  They  are, 
 indeed,  when  the  obstacles  are  taken  into  the  account, 
 the  great  success  of  an  age  of  successes.  But  figures 
 can  not  express  the  spirit  of  a  great  movement.  It  is 
 this  spirit  that  is  the  judge  of  the  ultimate  success,  in 
 the  largest  sense  of  the  word,  of  Christian  missions. 
 
 This  spirit  was  shown  in  the  organization  of  the 
 Students'  Volunteer  Movement  in  1886,  until  it  has 
 gathered  volume  and  power  in  each  year    s>xn^inxs' 
 since.     It  appeals  to  the  consecrated  man-    volunteer 
 hood   and    womanhood    among    the    best-     °^*"* 
 trained  minds  and  lives  of  the  schools  of  America  and 
 
696     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 of  the  world.  So  great  is  its  success  that  soon,  from 
 the  United  States  alone,  five  hundred  well-trained  men 
 and  women  will  go  each  year  to  foreign  fields.  For 
 the  last  years  of  the  century  the  Church  Missionary  . 
 Society,  the  largest  and  wealthiest  Evangelical  Mis- 
 sionary Society,  sent  out  every  applicant,  of  whose 
 fitness  they  were  assured,  without  respect  to  the  funds 
 on  hand,  believing  that  the  needs  of  these  workers 
 God  and  his  Church  would  supply.  Wonderfully  was 
 their  faith  justified  by  the  result.  When  God  raises 
 up  the  men,  the  means  have  not  been  lacking.  Won- 
 derful as  the  century  has  been,  in  nothing  has  it  been 
 more  wonderful  than  in  the  creation  of  this  Outer 
 Christendom,  with  its  noble  men  and  women,  its  reflex 
 influence  on  Christendom  at  the  centers,  its  calling 
 millions  of  money  into  this  service,  like  waters  from 
 the  rock  at  the  touch  of  Moses'  rod,  and  its  results  in 
 Christian  character  and  in  the  new  Christian  society. 
 This  is,  then,  the  thin,  red  line  of  conquest. 
 
 The  crowning  event  in  this  development  in  this 
 
 era  of  Outer  Christendom  was  the  Ecumenical  Mis- 
 
 Ecumenicai  siouary  Conference  in  New  York,  April  2 1 
 
 Mission      tQ  ]y[ay   i^  1900.      There  were   1,666  mis- 
 
 Conference, 
 
 New  York,  sionary  members;  50,000  tickets  were  sold; 
 1900.  2,500  were  present  at  its  first  session.  Ex- 
 President  Benjamin  Harrison,  President  William  Mc- 
 Kinley,  and  his  successor,  Theodore  Roosevelt,  spoke 
 from  the  platform  of  the  Conference.  Such  indorse- 
 ment from  three  Presidents  of  the  United  States  could 
 scarcely  have  been  received  in  any  of  the  earlier 
 decades  of  the  century.  The  proceedings  were  of  great 
 interest  and  value,  and  were  published  by  that  accom- 
 plished missionary  editor.  Dr.  John  T.  Gracey. 
 
Chapter  X. 
 
 CHARACTERISTICS  AND  TENDENCIES. 
 
 ThkrK  are  certain  plainly-marked  characteristics 
 of  every  age  of  Church  life.     These  are  as  evident  in 
 this  era  as  in  any  other.     It  was  an  era,  Enlargement 
 especially  in  America,   of  expansion  and    g^^,^^^^„j 
 enrichment   of  the   life   of  the   Christian    of  christian 
 Church.    The  eighteenth  century,  in  preva-        ^''*- 
 lence  and  permanence,  gave  us  the  prayer-meeting  and 
 the  revival ;  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
 the  Sunday-school  and  the  missionary  societies.     To 
 these  permanent  elements  in  the  life  of  the  Evangel- 
 ical Christian  Church,  the  latter  half  of  the  nineteenth 
 century  added  woman's  work  for  women  in  organized 
 form. 
 
 In  this  period  arose  the  Woman's  Foreign  and  the 
 Woman's     Home     Missionary    Societies    in    all    the 
 Churches,  which,  in  America  alone,  collect,    woman'i 
 annually,  over  a  million  "and  a  half  of  dol-  work  in  the 
 
 ^  -.«-  ^        -NT  Church. 
 
 lars,  and  the  Deaconess  Movement,  No 
 work  was  more  needed  in  foreign  fields  and  at  home 
 than  this  Christlike  ministration  to  tliose  who  could 
 have  no  other  helpers.  The  second  contribution,  of 
 the  later  years  of  the  nineteenth  century,  was  the 
 great  Young  People's  Movement,  and  the  establish- 
 ment of  Young  Men's  and  Young  Women's  Christian 
 Associations  in  all  large  centers  of  population  through- 
 out the  world. 
 
 697 
 
698     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 These  characteristics  are  plainly  seen  in  two  organ- 
 izations originating  in  the  United  States,  but  of  world- 
 wide extent,  the  Woman's  Christian  Temperance 
 Union  and  the  Society  of  Christian  Endeavor,  and  the 
 different  Church  I^eagues  and  Unions  of  Young 
 People. 
 
 The  spirit  ot  the  age  was  a  spirit  of  political  and 
 of  social  reform.  The  great  triumph  of  the  Christian 
 spirit  in  this  era  was  the  overthrow  of  slav- 
 christian  ery  in  America,  and  so  throughout  the 
 Temperance  world.  This  reforming  spirit  could  not 
 pass  by  on  the  other  side,  and  leave  the 
 drunkard  and  his  family,  his  business,  his  reputation, 
 and  character  at  the  mercy  of  the  liquor-traffic.  These 
 two  tendencies,  the  enlarged  scope  of  effort  for  Chris- 
 tian women,  and  this  reforming  spirit,  came  together 
 in  1874,  and,  as  a  result  of  the  Women's  Crusade  in 
 Ohio,  founded  the  Woman's  Christian  Temperance 
 Union.  Of  that  organization,  for  the  twenty  years 
 preceding  her  death,  Frances  E.  Willard  was  the  soul 
 and  leader.  No  more  courteous,  chivalric,  or  Chris- 
 tian leader  ever  entered  the  list  of  the  world's  great 
 reforms.  In  ability  and  courage,  in  hope  and  temper, 
 she  is  a  model  for  all  leaders  in  the  work  of  moral  re- 
 form. The  State  of  Illinois  is  erecting  a  statue  to  her 
 memory.  Some  day,  all  Americans  will  write  her 
 name  high  on  the  roll  of  the  world's  saintly  Christian 
 women  and  reformers. 
 
 The  temperance  movement  aroused  the  hostility, 
 not  without  fault  of  its  own,  of  the  two  great  political 
 parties ;  the  number  addicted  to  the  use  of  intoxicat- 
 ing liquors  was  increased  by  each  shipload  of  emi- 
 grants ;  those  of  the  wealthier  classes  who  crossed  the 
 
Characteristics  and  Tendencies.      699 
 
 Atlantic,  often  came  back  bringing  foreign  drinking 
 habits  with  them;  but  the  work,  though  checked, 
 moved  on.  Industrial  and  commercial  conditions 
 made  necessary  total  abstinence.  No  man  wanted  a 
 drunken  engineer ;  costly  machinery  can  not  be  run 
 by  drunken  men.  Commercial  conditions  were  such 
 that  only  men  who  could  be  depended  upon  to  be 
 themselves  could  be  employed  or  trusted.  The  drink- 
 ing man  was  alwa3^s  at  a  discount.  Then  the  move- 
 ment for  the  purification,  elevation,  and  invigoration 
 of  local  government  in  our  American  cities  and  com- 
 munities meant  the  overthrow  of  the  saloon  power. 
 An  awakened  personal  responsibility  for  the  public 
 weal,  and  a  will  to  destroy  what  works  against  it,  will 
 abolish  the  liquor-traffic.  To  this  must  be  added  the 
 fact  that,  owing  to  the  w^ork  of  the  Woman's  Christian 
 Temperance  Union,  the  voters  coming  of  age  in  the 
 United  States  for  the  last  ten  years  have  been  in- 
 structed in  the  common  schools,  as  well  as  their 
 sisters,  in  the  physiological  effects  of  alcohol  and 
 narcotics.  But,  most  of  all,  the  Church  of  Jesus 
 Christ  must  be  true  to  her  duty,  and  rouse  the  Chris- 
 tian conscience  against  this  ally  of  the  gambling-hell 
 and  the  brothel,  this  enemy  of  the  Church,  the  home, 
 and  the  soul. 
 
 In  1888  a  gentleman  of  New  York,  in  memory  of  a 
 greatly-loved  daughter,  deceased,  founded  the  Florence 
 Crittendon  Mission  for  fallen  women.     It    pi^rence 
 seems   to    have  proved   itself  the   sanest,  cnttendon 
 truest,  and  most   successful  effort  of  the     °^*'"^°  • 
 kind  known  in  years.     Of  course,  such  work  is  always 
 carried  on  in  connection  with  Rescue  Missions  and  by 
 the  Salvation   Army.      The  motto   of  the   Christian 
 
700     History  of  the  Christian  Church, 
 
 worker  in  the  last  decades  of  the  century  was,  "  The 
 whole  man  for  Christ,  and  Christ  for  every  class  and 
 individual  in  society." 
 
 The  second  world-wide  movement  of  American 
 origin  was  the  Young  People's  Society  of  Christian 
 
 Y^yj^  Endeavor,  which  originated  in  the  Con- 
 Peopie's  gregational  Church  of  Portland,  Maine, 
 Movement,  ti^-ough  its  pastor,  Dr.  Francis  B.  Clark,' 
 in  1 88 1.  It  has  entered  every  American  Church, 
 either  in  the  original  form,  or  in  some  other  which  is 
 more  in  accord  with  the  spirit  of  its  Church  life.  It 
 has  compassed  the  globe,  and  is  known  wherever 
 Christian  people  assemble  to  form  a  Church,  and  find 
 young  people  among  them.  As  the  Society  of  Chris- 
 tian Endeavor,  as  the  Epworth  League,  1889,  as  the 
 Baptist  Young  People's  Union,  1891,  as  the  West- 
 minster and  Luther  Leagues,  and  other  Young  Peo- 
 ple's Societies,  its  worship  and  work  have  become  as 
 much  a  part  of  the  Church  life  of  the  Evangelical 
 Churches  as  the  Sunday-school.  It  needs  devotion, 
 tact,  and  leadership  beyond  any  other  department  of 
 the  work  of  the  Church,  and  none  has  greater  possi- 
 bilities. 
 
 If  we  turn  our  gaze  from  that  which  was  peculiarly 
 American,  in  origin  at  least,  to  tendencies  felt  through- 
 out the  Christian  world,  we  shall  find  four  of  them 
 plainly  discernible.  These  are  not  the  only,  or  the 
 chief  ones,  but  they  are  those  upon  which  the  Church 
 in  all  lands  and  of  all  names  laid  particular  emphasis. 
 
 We  are  in  an  age  of  renewed  appreciation  of  the 
 value  of  just  political  and  social  institutions.  They 
 are  the  great  conquests  and  treasures  of  the  race. 
 The  Christian  Church  is  the  noblest  of  them,  and 
 
Characteristics  and  Tendencies.      701 
 
 the  foundation  upon  which  in  Christendom  the  others 
 rest.  The  practical  value  of  the  Church  could  not 
 but  strike  a  practical  age.  Then  only  the  ^^^  increased 
 Church  can  meet  the  awakened  need  of  vaiue  of  the 
 Christian    brotherhood   in    the   believer's      churches 
 
 and  of 
 
 heart.  So  the  experience  of  the  Chris-  institutional 
 tian  life  demands  the  Church.  Again  the  Christianity. 
 conquest  of  the  world  for  Christ  is  vain  without  that 
 organization  Christ  founded.  All  these  considerations 
 prepared  Christian  people  to  pay  more  attention  to 
 the  record  of  the  life  of  the  Early  Church  in  the  New 
 Testament  and  in.  the  earliest  of  its  recorded  monu- 
 ments. Now  it  was  seen  that  to  the  personal  relation 
 which  the  believer  sustains  to  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ 
 there  is  given  a  form  of  expression  in  life,  and  in 
 alliance  with  other  Christian  believers  in  the  Church 
 he  loved  and  purchased  with  his  own  blood. 
 
 So  the  increasing  scope  and  importance  of  the 
 work  of  the  Church  has  led  to  greater  interest  in  the 
 manifold  agencies  employed  in  the  life  of  the  local 
 Church,  and  in  great  missionary  organizations  and 
 their  work,  in  the  educational  and  charitable  institu- 
 tions in  which  the  Church  trains  and  serves  the  gen- 
 erations. This,  of  course,  has  led  to  a  necessary  in- 
 quiry into  the  history  of  an  institution  of  such  age  and 
 extent,  scope  and  beneficence. 
 
 This  wider  acquaintance  has  allowed  us  to  preserve 
 what  was  good  in  the  old,  without  rejecting  what  is 
 better  in  the  new,  life  of  the  Christian  Church.  Christ- 
 mas, Easter,  Pentecost,  belong  to  all  Christians. 
 
 From  this  inquiry  into  the  life  of  the  Christian 
 Church,  came  an  historic  valuation  of  the  creeds.  The 
 creeds  of  Christendom  have  to  be  judged  from  the 
 
702     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 circumstances  of  their  origin,  and  the  end  they  were 
 
 to  serve  when  they  were  formulated.     We  do  not  see 
 
 how  one  with  a  sense  of  the  life  of  the 
 
 The  Creeds.      _,  ,     .        ,  .    .  ,,      -     ^         <  . 
 
 Church  m  the  past  vividly  before  him,  can 
 wish  to  destroy  the  Westminster  Confession.  It  is  a 
 great  monument  of  a  great  age,  much  of  it  of  un- 
 changeable value.  But  how  could  any  one,  with  a 
 sense  of  the  life  of  the  Church  of  the  present  tingling 
 in  his  veins,  wish  to  be  shut  up  in  the  Westminster 
 Confession  ?  God  was  wdth  the  Fathers  as  they  wrote 
 with  their  best  light,  and  we  prize  their  work;  but 
 God  is  also  with  the  sons,  and  the  interpretation  or 
 the  addition  may  be  as  essential  as  was  the  original 
 creed.  We  must  hold  fast  the  form  of  sound  words, 
 but  also  remember  that  the  Holy  Scriptures  are  the 
 sole  rule  of  our  faith  and  practice,  and  that  the  best 
 creed  is  that  which  best  interprets  and  sets  forth  the 
 truths  they  teach.  But  because  the  words  of  the 
 various  creeds  are  not  of  themselves  conclusive  or  ex- 
 clusive, all  the  more  the  believers  recognize  in  them 
 great  monuments  of  the  Christian  faith, — results  of 
 imperishable  value  as  the  conclusion  of  great  contro- 
 versies ;  and  hence  always  worthy  of  his  respect,  his 
 careful  study,  and  his  reverent  regard.  There  will 
 always  be  the  necessity  for  the  statement  of  the  things 
 Christians  believe,  and  the  Church  of  the  future  will 
 not  have  less,  but  more  profound,  convictions  of  the 
 value  of  distinctive  Christian  truths.  The  Church  of 
 definite  convictions  and  beliefs  is  the  Church  of  the 
 people. 
 
 Doubtless  there  is  a  decided  change  in  the  attitude 
 of  the  average  Christian  believer  or  Sunday-school 
 
Characteristics  and  Tendencies.      703 
 
 teacher  toward  the  Bible  at  the  beginning  and  at  the 
 end  of  the  nineteenth  century.  Why  should  there  not" 
 be  ?    Has  any  other  century  since  the  beerin- 
 
 ^,  ill.  ,  '^  The  Bible. 
 
 ning  thrown  so  much  light  upon  the  mean- 
 ing of  the  sacred  page?  It  has  not  weakened  or  dis- 
 credited one  fundamental  doctrine  of  the  Christian 
 faith,  while  it  has  shed  light  upon  the  whole  method 
 and  purpose  of  the  Divine  redemption  in  the  better 
 understanding  of  the  Christian  Scriptures.  The  criti- 
 cism of  the  Old  Testament  has  made  void  and  of  none 
 effect  most  of  the  objections  of  Thomas  Paine  and 
 of  Robert  G.  Ingersoll.  Has  this  change  of  view 
 in  respect  to  the  Bible  made  men  believe  it  less?  Nay, 
 verily.  It  was  never  so  extensively  read,  never  so  in- 
 telligently studied,  so  greatly  loved,  or  so  helpful  in 
 uplifting  and  keeping  men,  as  to-day.  What  have  the 
 centuries  found  to  take  its  place  ?  What  other  words 
 are  like  these  words  of  life  to  men  born  to  die? 
 What  other  words  are  such  sure  guides  for  conduct 
 here,  or  reveal  such  a  living  hope  for  the  hereafter  ? 
 The  Bible  has  passed  through  the  fires  of  criticism, 
 but  from  them  it  has  emerged  more  valuable,  better 
 understood,  and  more  highly  prized  than  ever. 
 
 Christian  experience,"  as  the  result  of  faith  in  the 
 revelation  of  God  in  Christ,  and  of  trust  in  Christ  as 
 the  Savior  of  the  whole  man  in  both  worlds, 
 with,  and  also  without,  the  attendant  emo-  Exper'en". 
 tion,  has  justified  itself  to  thinking  men. 
 But  its  value  is  not  solely  or  chiefly  in  its  initial  stage, 
 but  in  the  result  of  the  process.     That  is,   Christian 
 character  is  the  test  and  result  of  a  genuine  Christian 
 faith,  and  the  pledge  of  the  acceptance  of  God's  prom- 
 
704     History  of  the  Christian  Church, 
 
 ise  for  the  hereafter.     That  knowledge  of  God  which 
 
 results  in  Christian  character  is  eternal  life. 
 
 i>     .*   .  .u         At  the  close  of  the  century  of  revolu- 
 
 Result  of  the  •' 
 
 Study  of  the   tiou,   of  criticism,  of  the  freest   possible 
 
 ^"of"he°"    investigation  and  discussion,  these  things 
 
 Christian      Seem   assured  as    the   conclusion   of  the 
 
 ^^^^^'        best   scholarship   and  the   ripest  thought 
 
 of  the  times : 
 
 1.  That  the  battle  of  Materialism  and  Panthe- 
 ism with  Christian  Theism  has  been  fought  out, 
 and  Christian  Theism  has  won.  A  personal  God  is 
 the  only  solution  for  the  riddle  of  the  universe.  All 
 other  explanations  explain  only  by  leaving  out  the 
 most  significant  factors  of  the  problem.  In  this  vic- 
 tory for  the  personality  of  God  comes  that  of  the 
 supernatural  order,  law,  and  manifestation. 
 
 2.  The  one  representative  man,  the  ideal  man  of 
 the  race,  is  Jesus  Christ.     There  is  none  other  to  com- 
 pare with  him.      Our  enemies  being  our 
 judges,  in  any  survey   of  the   history   of 
 
 these  centuries,  his  is  the  supreme  character  and  the 
 supreme  influence  of  the  race.  Christians  affirm  that 
 he,  and  he  alone,  as  the  Son  of  God,  makes  reasonable 
 man's  being  and  destiny. 
 
 3.  There  is  a  general  consensus  among  thinkers 
 that  man  is,  by  his  constitution,  a  religious  being. 
 Ignoring  does  not  change  this  fact. 
 
 4.  Fair-minded  men  all  allow  that  the  experiences 
 of  the  religious  life  are  as  valid  facts  as  those  of  the 
 intellectual,  emotional,  or  aesthetic  life.  They  deserve 
 attention  and  regard.  Meanwhile,  Christians  unite  in 
 affirming  that  prayer  and  the  communion  of  the  hu- 
 
Characteristics  and  Tendencies.      705 
 
 man  spirit  with  the  Divine  Spirit  are  not  fancies,  but 
 realities  of  life  and  power. 
 
 5.  The  reception  of  the  Spirit  of  Christ,  and  its 
 fruits  in  Christlike  service,  are  facts  whose  benefi- 
 cence no  man  disputes ;  men  who  serve  Jesus  Christ 
 are  better  men. 
 
 6.  Eternal  life  and  the  kingdom  of  God  are  the 
 great  Christian  ideals.  There  are  none  like  them  in 
 the  thinking  and  teaching  of  the  race. 
 
 7.  The  Christian  Church  exists  for  the  realization 
 of  these  ideals  in  the  individual  and  in  society.  Its 
 chief  and  primary  work  must  be  spiritual,  with  the 
 things  of  man's  spirit  and  the  Spirit  of  God.  But, 
 like  the  Spirit  of  God,  it  will  pervade  and  shape  all 
 human  thought,  customs,  standards  of  conduct,  and 
 institutions.  That  God  has  been,  is  now,  and  will  be, 
 in  the  Church  and  in  his  world  for  human  redemption, 
 is  the  profoundest  conviction  resulting  from  the  study 
 of  the  life  and  work  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 The  century  closed  with  two  chief  tendencies 
 clearly  discernible, — the  one  toward  Christian  union, 
 the  other  toward  Christian  conquest. 
 
 The  movement  in  America  resulting  in  7enden«ie!. 
 organic  union  among  the  Presbyterians  in 
 the  United  States  and  the  Methodists  in  Canada,  and 
 also  the  Methodists  in  Australia,  are  the  forerunners 
 of  the  union  on  a  more  extensive  scale  of 
 Churches  which  are  similar  in  doctrine  or    ^^^j'^JJl,*" 
 organization.       The     marked     movement 
 toward  Church  consciousness  of  the  last  century  has 
 accentuated,  sometimes,  distinctive  differences  in  wor- 
 ship and  customs,  but  it  must  lead  to  a  consideration 
 
 45 
 
7o6     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 of  the  larger  life  of  Christendom,  and  that  tends 
 toward  a  closer  union.  This  is  seen  in  the  unity  of 
 doctrine  and  of  Church  life,  increasingly  evident  in 
 Free  Evangelical  Churches.  The  preaching  is  practi- 
 cally the  same  in  all  Churches  in  regard  to  the  funda- 
 mental truths  of  the  Gospel.  The  author  has  heard 
 sermons  in  Roman  Catholic  and  old  Catholic  pulpits 
 in  which  there  was  not  a  word  that  could  offend  an 
 Evangelical  Christian.  Seldom  did  he  attend  a  serv- 
 ice, during  two  years  in  Germany,  in  a  Lutheran 
 Church,  without  being  fed  with  the  bread  of  life. 
 The  prayer-meetings,  missions,  and  revivals  in  the 
 different  Churches  have  the  same  spirit,  even  though 
 they  may  differ  in  minor  essentials. 
 
 In  Church  government,  even,  there  is  a  growing 
 approximation  in  methods  under  different  forms. 
 The  Reformation  brought  an  open  Bible,  and  the 
 right  of  private  judgment.  The  Puritan  Reform 
 brought  individual  liberty  in  Church  and  State.  The 
 Evangelical  revival  brought  to  the  man,  free  be- 
 fore God  from  external  authority,  submission  of  the 
 will  and  personal  assurance  of  salvation.  This  right, 
 liberty,  and  assurance  of  the  individual .  soul,  the 
 Evangelical  Churches  will  preserve.  But  to  this  they 
 will  also  add  efficiency  in  their  work.  This  involves 
 union  and  supervision;  this,  in  some  form  or  under 
 some  name,  will  come  in  all  the  Churches. 
 
 Not  that  there  are  no  differences ;  for  there  are, 
 and  are  not  all  unimportant ;  but  where  Churches  lay 
 emphasis  on  the  vital  and  saving  truths  of  Christian- 
 ity, they  are  always  of  subordinate  value  and  influence. 
 
 The  whole  tendency  of  Christian  history  seems,  as 
 evidently  as  the  last  charge  of  our  Lord  to  his  dis- 
 
Characteristics  and  Tendencies.      707 
 
 ciples,  to  lead  to  the  Christian  conquest  of  the  world. 
 This  tendency  is  especially  marked  in  the  history  of 
 the  nineteenth  century.  Great  as  has  been 
 the  progress  of  the  race  in  that  century  co^n'^g"" 
 in  personal  and  political  liberty,  in  pop- 
 ular enlightenment  and  comfort,  and  in  humane 
 service  to  dependent  classes;  marvelous  as  has  been 
 the  advance  in  science,  in  inventions,  in  the  transfer 
 of  populations  and  the  settlement  of  new  countries 
 far  outstripping  all  known  in  the  history  of  the  race, 
 nevertheless,  the  internal  development  and  external 
 conquest  of  the  Christian  Church  has  equaled  or  sur- 
 passed them  all.  In  secular  life,  the  growth  and  de- 
 velopment of  the  United  States  has  been  the  most 
 striking  phenomenon  of  the  century.  Yet  the  growth 
 of  the  Christian  Church  in  America  has  been  much 
 more  rapid  than  that  of  the  population.  Compare  the 
 position  of  the  Christian  Church  at  the  beginning  of 
 Napoleon's  consulate  and  at  the  death  of  Queen  Vic- 
 toria, and  there  is  no  other  contrast  in  the  history  of 
 the  century  so  striking  or  so  significant.  To  the  high 
 service  of  this  purpose  have  come  all  revision  of 
 creeds  and  liturgies,  and  searching  criticism  of  the 
 Bible  text  and  authorship.  Christians  bring  a  better 
 Bible,  a  more  united  and  better  Church,  than  ever 
 before,  to  the  non-Christian  millions  of  the  world. 
 What  will  not  serve  this  purpose  must  soon  drop 
 away.  Our  Lord  shall  see  of  the  travail  of  his  soul, 
 and  be  satisfied. 
 
 This  purpose  imposes,  upon  this  and  succeeding 
 generations  of  Christians,  obligations  as  serious  and 
 as  weighty  as  upon  the  Christians  of  the  first  genera- 
 tion.   Only  a  devotion  and  sacrifice  equal  to  theirs  will 
 
7o8     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 meet  them ;  for  this  purpose  includes  the  thorough 
 Christianization  of  Christendom.  It  means  the  Chris- 
 tianization  of  public  and  commercial  life.  It  means 
 the  Christianization  of  wealth  and  labor.  It  means 
 missions  to  university  students  and  to  men  of  wealth 
 and  high  position,  and  the  most  intelligent  and  ag- 
 gressive work  among  artisans  and  laboring  men  and 
 their  families.  It  means  the  fearless  facing  of  the 
 problems  of  the  times,  and  no  cowardly  shrinking,  as 
 in  the  slavery  agitation,  from  the  liquor-trafi&c,  polit- 
 ical corruption,  or  social  problems.  In  a  word,  it 
 means  a  serious  and  united  attempt  to  Christianize  the 
 populations  of  Christendom.  It  means,  at  the  same 
 time,  the  pushing  of  all  the  spiritual  forces  of  the 
 Church,  and  the  moral  and  intellectual  forces  of  Chris- 
 tendom, upon  the  non-Christian  world  for  its  speedy 
 and  effective  conquest. 
 
 This  work  demands  the  whole  man,  and  demands 
 this  of  every  one  who  names  himself  by  the  name  of 
 Jesus  Christ  crucified  and  risen,  and  who  believes  in 
 and  has  received'his  kingdom. 
 
 So  will  the  twentieth  century  see  surpassed  the 
 wonderful  record  of  its  predecessors,  including  the 
 splendid  achievements  of  the  last  of  them,  in  receiv- 
 ing the  fulfillment  of  the  prayer  taught  by  our  Lord, 
 "Thy  Kingdom  come." 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Abd-eIv-KedER,  679. 
 
 Abdul  Hamid  II,  Sultan  of 
 Turkey,  355,  374,  685. 
 
 About,  Edmond,  224. 
 
 Adventists,  113;  origin,  238, 
 328,  665,  666. 
 
 Affirmations  of  the  Christian 
 Faith,  704,  705, 
 
 Akbar,  Emperor  of  India,  353. 
 
 Albright,  Jacob,  316. 
 
 Alacoque,  Maria  Margarita, 
 424,  426. 
 
 Alcott,  Bronson,  69. 
 
 Alexander  I,  Emperor  of  Rus- 
 sia, 57. 
 
 Alexander  II,  Emperor  of  Rus- 
 sia, 366,  376. 
 
 Alexander  III,  Emperor  of 
 Russia,  Z'JZ,  2>7^. 
 
 Alexander  I,  Prince  of  Bul- 
 garia, 372. 
 
 Alexander,  Joseph  W.,  171. 
 
 Allen,  Alexander  V.  G.,  650. 
 
 Allen,  Richard,  Bishop,  307. 
 
 Allies,  Dr.,  206. 
 
 Allston,  Washington,  225. 
 
 American  Board  Controversy, 
 657,  658. 
 
 Ames,  Edward  R.,  Bishop,  606, 
 610. 
 
 Anderson,  Martin  B.,  629,  630, 
 631,  632. 
 
 Andover  Theological  Semmary 
 Controversy,  659,  660. 
 
 Andrew,  James  O.,  Bishop,  311, 
 312,  619. 
 
 Andrews^  Edward  G.,  Bishop, 
 610. 
 
 Antonelli,  Cardinal,  90,  453- 
 
 Appomattox,  457. 
 
 Arabi  Bey,  375. 
 
 Archbishops'  Decisions  on  Rit- 
 ual, 545,  546. 
 
 Armenia,  374. 
 
 Arndt,  Moritz,  116,  122. 
 
 Arnold,  Matthew,  180,  417,  520, 
 536. 
 
 Arnold,  Thomas,  179-181,  207, 
 527,  542. 
 
 Arnold,  Thomas,  Jr.,  207. 
 
 Arthur,  William,  559-561. 
 
 Aurungzebe,  Emperor  of  India, 
 
 353.       ^ 
 Asbury,   Francis,    Bishop,   242, 
 
 255,  304,  305,  307,  316. 
 Ashmore,  Dr.,  688. 
 Assembly,  The  National,  20,  22, 
 
 23,  24,  34,  35,  36,  ?>7,  82. 
 Assembly,  The  Legislative,  24, 
 
 25,  38. 
 Astruc,  Jean,  487. 
 Athanasian  Creed.  529,  530. 
 Aubigne,  J.  H.  Merle  d',  138. 
 Auricular  Confession,  202,  525, 
 
 531,  546. 
 Austro-Hungary,  368. 
 
 Babington,  Thomas,  158. 
 Backhouse,  Jonathan,  297. 
 Backhouse,   Hannah,  297. 
 Bacon,  Leonard,  654. 
 Baker,  Osmon  C,  Bishop,  606, 
 
 609. 
 Baldensparger,  W.,  483. 
 Ballon,  Hosea,  269,  270. 
 Balzac,  Ilonore,  71. 
 Bancroft,  George,  225.  268,  444, 
 
 603. 
 
 709 
 
7IO 
 
 Index. 
 
 Bangs,  Nathan,  305,  318,  319. 
 Baptists : 
 
 English,   163-167,  564-567. 
 
 Statistics,  567. 
 American,  270-276,  628-635. 
 Missions,  270,  634. 
 Education,    271,    272;    634, 
 
 635. 
 Statistics,  274-276,  6z7i. 
 Charities,  635. 
 Southern,  273,  633. 
 Seventh-Day,  273,  6z2>. 
 Free-Will,  273,  633. 
 Primitive,      or      Hard-Shell, 
 272,  633. 
 Barat,  Magdalena  Sophia,  425. 
 Barnes,  Albert,  234,  281,  287. 
 Barere,  Bertrand,  29. 
 Barrows,  John  Henry,  604. 
 Bascom,  Henry  B.,  314,321,322. 
 Baudissin,  Grafton,  492,  493. 
 Baur,   Ferdinand   C.,    126,    127, 
 
 129,  267,  48s,  493,  494. 
 Beajnan,  Dr.,  288. 
 Beckx,  Peter,  Jesuit,  423. 
 Beecher,  Lyman,  230,  244,  245, 
 
 234,  242,  281,  584. 
 Beecher,  Henry  Ward,  245,  327, 
 
 584,  585,  586. 
 Beecher,  Harriet  (  Mrs.  Stowe ) , 
 
 245. 
 
 Beecher,  Edward,  281. 
 
 Beecher,  Willis  J.,  493. 
 
 Beet,  Joseph  Agar,  562. 
 
 Bellows,  Henry  W.,  605. 
 
 Benedetti,  Count,  369. 
 
 Benedict  XIV,  78,  82,  424. 
 
 Bennett,  Charles  W.,  616. 
 
 Benson,     Edward    W.,    Arch- 
 bishop, 180,  534-544,  545,  55 1- 
 
 Bentham,  Jeremy.  186,  195. 
 
 Beranger,  Pierre  Jean,  71. 
 
 Bercher,  Jacob  C,  291. 
 
 Berlin,  Treaty  of,  372. 
 
 Bernhardi,  Sophie,  74. 
 
 Bernier,  Abbe,  91. 
 
 Bcsant,  Sir  Walter.  520. 
 
 Bethune.  George  W.,  290,  291. 
 
 Bcuve,  Sainte,  71. 
 
 Beyschlag,  W.,  483,  485. 
 
 Bible,  703. 
 
 Bible  Societies,  148,  149,  232. 
 
 Bingham,   Missionary,  263. 
 
 Binney,  Thomas,  163. 
 
 Bismarck,  Otto  von,  64,  52,  (i2, 
 356,  360,  Z^^-ZT^,  375,  376, 
 447,  448,  451,  452,  455. 
 
 Bissell,  E.  Cone,  492. 
 
 Bleek,  Johann  F.,  488. 
 
 Blum,  Bishop,  451. 
 
 Bohmer,  448. 
 
 Boisgelin,  Archbishop,  36. 
 
 Bolivar,  Simon,  338,^  339. 
 
 Bonald,  Louis  Gabriel,  66,  loi. 
 
 Bonaparte,  Napoleon,  30,  31, 
 ZZ,  34,  48,  54,  55,  56,  58,  70, 
 84,  85,  86,  90,  91,  94,  95,  96, 
 97,  98,  99,  153,  195,  366,  379, 
 444. 
 
 Bonaparte,  Louis  Napoleon,  61, 
 63,  64,  95,  356,  360,  361,  362, 
 
 363,  z^y^  370,  426. 
 
 Bonaparte,  Joseph,  91. 
 Bonaparte,  Jerome,  96. 
 Bonaparte,    Jerome    Napoleon, 
 
 Z^Z- 
 Booth,  William,   General,  557- 
 
 559. 
 Booth,  Catherine  Tucker,  558, 
 
 559. 
 Booth,  Ballington,  559. 
 Bosnia,  371,  Zl^- 
 Botta,  Carlo,  75. 
 Bourne,  Hugh,  167; 
 Bowman,  Thomas,  Bishop,  610, 
 
 613. 
 Brienne,  Cardinal  de,  z^- 
 Briggs,  Charles  S.,  493,  636. 
 Bright,  John,  144,  156,  393,  520. 
 Brinkman,  Bishop,  451. 
 Broadus,  John  A.,  633. 
 Brougham,  Lord,  156,  195,  393. 
 Brook  Farm,  112,  223. 
 Brooks,    Phillips,   Bishop,    179, 
 
 604,  605,  650. 
 Brown,  Brockden,  224. 
 Brown,  Francis,  493. 
 Brown,  Dr.  John,  171. 
 
Index. 
 
 711 
 
 Brown,  John,  563. 
 Browning,  Elizabeth  B.,  69. 
 Browning,  Robert,  69.  358,  520 
 Bryant,    William    Cullen,    224, 
 
 268,  578. 
 Buchanan,  Claudius,  151. 
 Biichner,  128,  418. 
 Buckley,  James  M..  611. 
 Buckminster,  249. 
 Budde,  493. 
 Bulgaria,  ZJ^^-ZIT^^ 
 Bunsen,  Jonas  C,  105,  106,  129. 
 Bunting,   Jabez,   145,   151,    167, 
 
 168,  169.  172,  173,  556,  561. 
 Burger,  Gottfried  A.,  71. 
 Burr,  Aaron,  234. 
 Bushnell,  Horace,  240,  581-584. 
 Burials  Act,  531. 
 Butler,  Joseph,  Bishop,  187. 
 Buxton,  Thomas  F.,  149,  393. 
 Byron,   Geor.ge   Gordon,   Lord, 
 
 (^,  (^,  69. 
 
 Caird,  Edward,  520. 
 Calvin,  John,  135. 
 Camus,  Antoine,  35. 
 Campbell,  Thomas,  276. 
 Campbell,  Alexander,  273,  276- 
 
 278.  , 
 Cambridge  Scholars,  547-551. 
 Campbell,  McLeod,  212. 
 Camp-Meetings,  Origin  of,  230. 
 Canning,  George,  58,  378. 
 Canning,    Lord    Stratford    de 
 
 Redcliffe,  228. 
 Cantu,  C?esare,  75. 
 Capers,   William,    Bishop,  313, 
 
 321. 
 Carlos,  Don,  60,  423. 
 Cardona,  General,  364. 
 Carlotta,   Empress   of   IMexico, 
 
 463. 
 Carlyle,  Thomas,  69,  185,  520. 
 Carey,  William,  145,  164,  165. 
 Carnegie,  Andrew,  574. 
 Carnot,  Lazare  N.,  32. 
 Carnot,  Sadi,  32. 
 Carroll,  John,  Bishop,  323. 
 Cartwright,  Peter,  242,  255,  256. 
 
 Catholics,  Old,  446,  447. 
 Cavaignac,    Louis    J.,    General 
 
 61. 
 Cavour,  Camillo  B.,  Count,  361, 
 
 362,  zdz,  364. 
 Cecil,  Richard,  144,  164,  165. 
 Centennial  Expo.^ition  1876,573. 
 Centennial  of  American  Aletli- 
 
 odism  1866,  609. 
 Centennial  of  Methodism  1839, 
 
 168,  311. 
 Chalmers,    Thomas,    211.    213- 
 
 217. 
 Chamberlain,  Jacob  D..  290. 
 Chambord,  Conite  de,  371. 
 Channing,  William  E.,  248,  249, 
 
 260,  266,  267. 
 Chapin,  Edwin  H.,  669. 
 Charities,  English,  149. 
 Charities  in  Germany,  129-135, 
 Charities,  Baptist  Church,  635. 
 Charities,  Lutheran  Church.  000 
 Charities,     Methodist     Church, 
 
 (>2(i,  627. 
 Charities,  Protestant  Episcopal 
 
 Church,  654. 
 Charities    in    Roman    Catholic 
 
 Church.  677. 
 Charles   X   of   France,   53.   56, 
 
 423. 
 Charles   Albert,   King  of   Sar- 
 dinia, (i2. 
 Charles  XTV  of  Sweden,  130. 
 Chase,  Salmon  P.,  593. 
 Chase,  Philander,  Bishop,  303, 
 
 304. 
 Chateaubriand.     Frangois     A., 
 
 Comte  de,  66,  70,  loi. 
 Characteristics  and  Tendencies, 
 
 696-705. 
 Cheyne,  Thomas  KL,  493. 
 Choate,  Rufus,  268. 
 Christian  Church  in  the  United 
 States,  227-242. 
 Planting   in  the  Wilderness, 
 
 227-229. 
 Religious  Conditions,  229. 
 Revivals,  229.  230. 
 Enlarged  Activities.  231. 
 
712 
 
 Index, 
 
 Christian  Church  in  the  United 
 States — Continued. 
 
 Education,  233. 
 
 Reforms,  234. 
 
 Sectarian  Divisions,  22,7. 
 
 Perversions,  238-240. 
 
 Doctrinal  Change,  240-242. 
 Christianity,  effort  to  extirpate 
 
 it  in  France,  A^S^. 
 Christian  Conquest,  707,  708. 
 Christian  Experience,  703,  704. 
 Christian  Science,  670,  671. 
 Christian  Union,  705,  706. 
 Christians,  The,  279,  665. 
 ChristHeb,  Theodore,  483- 
 Christina,  Queen  of  Spain,  60. 
 Church  Congress,  555- 
 Church  Extension  Board,  609. 
 Church  Publication  Boards,  233. 
 Church   and   State,   Separation 
 
 of,  327,  328. 
 Church    Property    Secularized, 
 
 22,  23,  34,  81,  82. 
 Churches  in  Canada,  336,  2>2>7, 
 
 677,  678. 
 Church,  Richard  W.,  193,  I94- 
 Church,  Richard,  General,  193. 
 Circumscriptions,  Bull  of,  104. 
 Churchill,  J.  W.,  659. 
 Civil    War    in    United    States, 
 
 365,  474,  475,  573. 
 Clarke,  Adam,  169,  170. 
 Clark,  Davis  W.,  Bishop,  608, 
 
 609. 
 Clarke,  Tames  Freeman,  667. 
 Clark,  Francis  E.,  700. 
 Clarkson,  Thomas,  155. 
 Clay,  Henry,  314. 
 Clement  VII,  421,  454- 
 Clement  XIV,  82. 
 Clergy,  French,  persecutions  of, 
 
 38-41,46-51.  ,      ^ 
 
 Clergy,    Civil    Constitution   of, 
 
 35,  Z^,  ?>7,  38. 
 Clergy  Discipline  Act,  539. 
 Clerical  Patronage  Act,  539,  540. 
 Clifford,  John,  564. 
 Clifford,  Kingdon,  417. 
 Clotilde,  Princess,  363. 
 
 Coan,  Missionary,  262,- 
 Cobbett,  William,  144. 
 Cobden,  Richard,  144,  393,  520. 
 Cochrane,  Thomas,  Lord,  339. 
 Codman,  John,  261. 
 Coleridge,  Samuel  T.,  66,  177- 
 
 179,  185,  187,  197- 
 Colletta,  Pietro,  75- 
 Collier,  Robert  Laird,  667. 
 Collins,  Judson  D.,  316. 
 Committee  of  Public  Safety,  27. 
 Commune    in    Insurrection    at 
 
 Paris,  370. 
 Communistic  Societies,  670. 
 Concordats,  90-94- 
 Concordat  of  Fontainebleau,  90, 
 
 108,  no. 
 Cone,  Spencer,  274. 
 Congregationalists :  /^ 
 
 English,  163,  563,  564. 
 American,    259-266,    581-591, 
 654-663. 
 Plan  of  Union,  259. 
 Unitarian  Schism,  260-263. 
 The  American  Board,  263, 
 
 264. 
 Education,  264,  656. 
 Statistics,  266. 
 American    Board    Contro- 
 versy, 657,  658. 
 Andover  Seminary  Contro- 
 versy, 659,  660. 
 Statistics,  661. 
 Educational  W^ork,  661-663. 
 Constant,  Albertine,  70. 
 Constant,  Benjamin,  70, 
 Consalvi,    Hercules,    Cardinal, 
 77,  84,  85,  86,  95,  98,  99,  100, 
 108,  no,  361. 
 Consulate,  31,  49. 
 Convention,  The  National,  25, 
 
 26,  27,  42,  43,  44.  45,  46,  47. 
 Convocation  Re-established,  522. 
 Cookman,  George  C,  242,  257. 
 Cooper,  James  F.,  224,  225. 
 Corday,  Charlotte,  121. 
 Corporation  Act  Repealed,  173. 
 Cornelius,  C.  Peter,  72. 
 Cornill,  493. 
 
Index. 
 
 713 
 
 Corrigan,  Michael  A.,  Arch- 
 bishop, 461,  474,  475. 
 
 Council,  National,  of  the  Con- 
 stitutional Church  of  France, 
 47,  51,  98. 
 
 Cousin,  Victor,  "jd, 
 
 Couthon,  Georges,  28. 
 
 Cowdery,  Oliver,  330. 
 
 Cowles,  William,  167. 
 
 Cox,  Melville  B.,  310. 
 
 Coxe,  Arthur  C,  Bishop,  601, 
 650. 
 
 Cranmer,  Thomas,  Archbishop, 
 186,  197. 
 
 Cranston,  Earl,  Bishop,  613. 
 
 Creeds,  702. 
 
 Crete,  374- 
 
 Cromwell,  Oliver,  162,  186,  570. 
 
 Creighton,  Mandell,  Bishop, 
 553. 
 
 Crimean  War,  360. 
 
 Crittendon,  Florence,  Mission, 
 699,  700. 
 
 Cronin,  Edward,  209. 
 
 Crosby,  Frances  J.  (Mrs.  Van- 
 Alstyne),  618. 
 
 Crosby,  Howard,  639. 
 
 Cumberland  Presbyterian 
 Church,  Its  origin,  230. 
 
 Cummings,  George  D.,  657. 
 
 Curry,  Daniel,  615. 
 
 Curtiss,  Ives,  493. 
 
 Curtius,  Ernst,  'jd. 
 
 Custine,  Adam  P.,  26. 
 
 Dahlman,  Frif.drich  C,  Pro- 
 fessor, 'jd. 
 
 Dale,  R.  W,  563. 
 
 Dante,  359,  485. 
 
 Danton,  Georges  J.,  28,  31,  43, 
 44. 
 
 Darby,  John  N.,  209,  210. 
 
 Darwin,  Charles,  417,  520. 
 
 Daub,  Karl,  Professor,  291. 
 
 Daudet,   Leon,  418. 
 
 Davidson,  A.  B.,  570. 
 
 Davidson,  Randall  T.,  Arch- 
 bishop, 531,  533. 
 
 Davidson,  Samuel,  488. 
 
 Deaconess  Movement,  130-132, 
 
 612. 
 Decadis,  48-50. 
 Declaration  of  Padua,  24. 
 Declaration  of  Pilnitz,  24. 
 DeKoven,  Reginald,  650, 
 Derby,  Earl  of,  520. 
 Delitzsch,  Franz,  483,  488,  492. 
 Delitzsch,  Frederick,  491. 
 Dempster,  John,  317, 
 Dumouriez,  Charles  F.,  26. 
 Desmoulins,  Camille,  28. 
 DeWette,  William  xM.  L.,   121, 
 
 122,  138,  251,  487. 
 Dewey,  Orville,  667. 
 Dexter,  Henry  ]\Iartyn,  655. 
 Dickens,  Charles,  176,  358,  520. 
 Dietz,  Friedrich  C,  Professor, 
 
 123. 
 Dillman,    Christian    Frederick, 
 
 483,  492,  493. 
 Diocletian,  51. 
 Directory,    French,    29-31,    46, 
 
 48,  49,  50. 
 Disciples,  237,  276-279,  648;  ed- 
 ucation, 649;  statistics,  649. 
 D'Israeli,  Benjamin,  520. 
 Dods,  Marcus,  570. 
 Doggett,  D.  S.,  Bishop,  609. 
 Dollinger,  Ignatz,  TJ,  104,  440- 
 
 446. 
 Dorner,  J.  A.,  483,  494,  495- 
 Dowie,    John    Alexander,   671, 
 
 672. 
 Drexel,  Andrew  J.,  653. 
 Dreyfus.  Captain,  460,  464,  477. 
 Driesbach,  John,  317. 
 Driver,  S.  R.,  492. 
 Droste-Vischering.     Clement 
 
 Auguste  Von,  106,  107. 
 Dryander,  117. 
 Drysdalc.  James,  419. 
 Dueling,  234. 
 Duff,  Alexander,  145,  211,  218, 
 
 219. 
 Duffield,  George.  281. 
 Dumas,  Alexandre.  71. 
 Duncan,  W.  W..  Bishop.  620. 
 Durbin,  John  P.,  614,  615. 
 
7H 
 
 Index, 
 
 Dunkards,  (i^(i. 
 Dunn,  Samuel,  169. 
 Dupanloup,  Felix  A.  P.,  103, 
 Duphot,  General,  48. 
 Dwight,  Timothy.  242,  243,  244. 
 Dykes,  Oswald,  567. 
 
 Eari,y,  John,  Bishop,  618. 
 Eastern  Christendom,  344,  349, 
 678-684. 
 
 Greek  Church,  344,  678-681. 
 
 Evangelical  JNIissions,  346. 
 
 Greek  Independence,  347. 
 
 Russian  Church,  348,  681-684. 
 
 Other  Eastern  Churches,  349. 
 Ebrard,  Johannes   H.  A.,  486, 
 
 Ecclesiastical  Commissioners, 
 207. 
 
 Ecumenical  Conference,  Meth- 
 odist, 1st  611,  2d  613. 
 
 Ecumenical  Conference  Mis- 
 sions, 696. 
 
 Eddy,  Mary  Baker,  671. 
 
 Edersheim,  485. 
 
 Edward  VII,  King  of  England, 
 
 464. 
 Edwards,    Jonathan,    243,    252, 
 
 265. 
 Education,  225,  233,  521,  522. 
 Egypt,  375- 
 Eichom,  487. 
 Elizabeth,   Queen  of  England, 
 
 186. 
 Eliot,  Charles  W.,  668. 
 Eliot,  George  (Marian  Evans), 
 
 358,  417,  520. 
 Elliott,  Charles,  313,  609. 
 Emerson,    Ralph   W.,   69,   225, 
 
 249,  250,  266,  267,  268,  671. 
 Emery,  Abbe,  39. 
 Emigration,  French,  22,  53,  54, 
 
 226,  645. 
 Emmons,  265. 
 Emory,  John,  Bishop,  311. 
 Encyclical,    Papal,    1885,    456- 
 
 458. 
 
 Encyclical,    Papal,    1886,    458- 
 
 459. 
 Encyclical,     Papal,     1898,     on 
 
 Americanism,  462,  468. 
 England,    374. 
 England,    Church    of,    150-160, 
 
 174-208,  522-556. 
 England,     Nonconforming 
 
 Churches,  160-174,  S57-569. 
 England,  John,  Bishop,  323, 324. 
 English  Education,  521,  522. 
 English   Orders,    Clerical,   540, 
 
 541. 
 
 Episcopalians  in  Scotland,  570. 
 
 Episcopalians    in   Ireland,   571. 
 
 Ep worth  League,  613. 
 
 Erdman,  Johann  E.,  601. 
 
 Erskine,  Thomas,  135,  136,  211, 
 212. 
 
 Evangelical  Association,  316, 
 317,  621. 
 
 Evangelical  Christendom,  iii- 
 140. 
 
 Evangelical  Churches  In  Eng- 
 land, 141-210,  522-569. 
 
 Evangelical  Churches  in  Ger- 
 many,  1 13-135,  482-517. 
 
 Evangelical  Church  in  France, 
 135-140,  514^  515. 
 
 Evangelical  Church  in  Den- 
 mark, 511-514. 
 
 Evangelical  Chui;ch  in  Holland, 
 
 ^515-517. 
 
 Evangelical  Church  in  Sweden 
 and  Norway,  512, 
 
 Evangelical  Church  in  Scot- 
 land, 211-222,  569,  570. 
 
 Evangelical  Church  in  Ireland, 
 
 571. 
 Evangelical  Party,  150-162,  174- 
 
 176. 
 Evangelical   Revival,   141,   145, 
 
 147,  174,  196. 
 Everett,  Edward,  268. 
 Everett,  James,  169. 
 Ewald,  George  H.  A.,  483,  488. 
 Ewing,  Finis,  286. 
 Expilly,  Louis,  Bishop,  Z7,  43- 
 
Index, 
 
 715 
 
 Factory  Legislation.  391-395- 
 The    Cripples    at    Bradford, 
 386. 
 
 Fairbaim,  Professor,  419. 
 
 Falconer,  Keith,  688. 
 
 Falk  Laws,  449,  450. 
 
 Falloux  Law,  103. 
 
 Farrar,  Frederick  W.,  485. 
 
 Fasting  Communion,  543. 
 
 Fauchet,  Bishop,  43. 
 
 Fawcett,  John,  156. 
 
 Fenelon,  189,  582. 
 
 Ferdinand  I,  Emperor  of  Aus- 
 tria, 61. 
 
 Ferdinand  VII,  King  of  Spain, 
 57,  60. 
 
 Ferdinand,  Prince  of  Bulgaria, 
 
 Fesch,  Joseph,  Cardinal,  98. 
 Feuerbach,  Anton,  126,  128. 
 Fichte,  Johann  G.,  72,  117. 
 Field,  Henry  M.,  640,  641. 
 Fillmore,  Millard,  335- 
 Finney,    Charles   G.,   230,   242, 
 
 245,  266. 
 Fisk,  Clinton  B.,  620. 
 Fisk,  Wilbur,  308,  311,  319,  320. 
 FitzGerald,  James  N.,  Bishop, 
 
 612. 
 Fitzgerald,  O.  P.,  Bishop,  620. 
 Fliedner,     Theodore,     130-132, 
 
 135,  161. 
 Forster,  John,  166. 
 Foster,    Randoph    S.,    Bishop, 
 
 610,  613. 
 Fortis,  Lugui,  423. 
 Foscolo,  Ugo,  75. 
 
 Foss,  Cyrus  D.,  Bishop,  611. 
 Fouche,  Joseph,  41. 
 Fourierites,  223. 
 Fowler,    Charles    H.,    Bishop, 
 
 611,  620. 
 
 Fox  Sisters,  240,  335. 
 Francia,  Jose  G.  R.,  Dr.,  340. 
 Francis    Joseph,     Emperor    of 
 
 Austria,  61.  Z62,  367,  368. 
 France,  374,  375- 
 Frank,  Hermann  R.,  463,  495, 
 
 496. 
 
 Frederick  II,  of  Prussia,  367. 
 
 Frederick  III,  Emperor  of  Ger- 
 many, 375. 
 
 Frederick  William  III  of  Prus- 
 sia, 57,  107,  130. 
 
 Frederick  William  IV,  59  ,62, 
 loi,  107,  366. 
 
 Free  Church  of  Scotland, 
 founded,  214,   215,   216,   569, 
 
 ^  570. 
 
 Frecdmen's  Aid  Society,  609. 
 
 Freeman,  Edward,  520. 
 
 French  Revolution,  18-52,  59, 
 60,  61. 
 
 French  Republic  founded,  370, 
 
 371. 
 Friends.  The.  or  Quakers,  296- 
 
 298.  (idz,  664. 
 Froude,  Hurrell,  191,  198,  200. 
 Froude,    James    Anthony,    191, 
 
 520. 
 Fry,    Elizabeth,    131,    149,    160- 
 
 162. 
 Fry,  Joseph,  161. 
 Fuller,  Andrew,  144,  163,  164. 
 Furman,  Richard,  273,  274. 
 Furness,  Howard,  668. 
 
 Gabler,  Johann  P.,  121. 
 Galifet,  Jesuit.  425. 
 Galloway.  C.  B.,  Bishop,  620. 
 Garibaldi,  Giuseppe,  (iZ,  64,  89, 
 
 363.  364,  365.  426. 
 Gardiner,  Samuel  R.,  520. 
 Garfield,  James  A..  532.  596. 
 Garrettson,  Freeborn,  305. 
 Garrison,   William   Lloyd,  235, 
 
 268. 
 Gasparin,    Count    Agenor    De, 
 
 136. 
 Gautier,  Theophile.  71. 
 General    Conference,    305.    306, 
 
 312,  313.  600.  612,  613,  614. 
 George,  Enoch.  Bishop.  30S. 
 German  Empire  founded,  z^- 
 
 371- 
 Gettysburg,  457. 
 Gibbons,  James,  Cardinal,  674. 
 
7i6 
 
 Index, 
 
 Giesebrecht,    Friedrich  W.    B., 
 
 Gieseler,  Johnn  C.  L.,  76. 
 
 Gilmore,  James,  688. 
 
 Gioberti,   Giovanni   A.,   75,  89, 
 
 no. 
 Gladstone,  William  E.,  144,  156, 
 
 162,  393,  520,  540,  544- 
 Girondists,  24,  25,  26,  27,  31. 
 Gobel,  Bishop,  Z7,  42,  43- 
 Godet,    Frederick    Louis,    514, 
 
 515. 
 Goethe,  Johnn  W.,  71,  7Z' 
 Gogol,  Nikolai  V.,  683. 
 Goodsell,    Daniel    A.,    Bishop, 
 
 612. 
 Gorres,  Jacob  J.,  106. 
 Gorgei,  General,  61. 
 Gore,  Charles,  Bishop,  554. 
 Gordon,  Charles,  General,  364. 
 
 374,  375. 
 Gorham  Judgment,  200. 
 Grabau,  A.  A.,  294. 
 Gracey,  John  T.,  696. 
 Graf,  Heinrich,  489,  492. 
 Graham,  G.,  Sir  James,  393. 
 Grammont,  Due  de,  369. 
 Granville,  George,  Sir,  Earl  of, 
 
 592. 
 Grant,  Ulysses  S.,  597,  607. 
 Great  Britain,  377-395,  518-522. 
 
 Political  Reforms,  378,  379. 
 
 Social  Reform,  379. 
 
 Condition  of  Industrial 
 Classes,  380. 
 
 Pauper  Apprentices,  380-382. 
 
 Remedial     Legislation,     382, 
 
 Report  of  Commission  on 
 Factory  Labor  1833,  383, 
 384. 
 
 Report  in  1842,  387-391. 
 
 Child  Labor  and  Women  in 
 Colleries,  387-391.. 
 
 Child   Labor  in   Brick-fields, 
 
 391. 
 Factory  Acts,  391,  392. 
 Obstacles,  392,  393. 
 Agricultural  Gangs,  393,  394- 
 
 Greece,  ^"7^,  374- 
 Green,  James  R.,  520. 
 Green,  Thomas  H.,  520,  521. 
 Green,  William  H.,  492. 
 Gregoire,  Henri,  Bishop,  2)7,  42, 
 
 44,49. 
 Gregory  XVI,  82,  88,  89,  105. 
 Gregor}^  Caspar  Renu,  484,  551. 
 Griesbach,  Johann  J.,  121. 
 Griffin,  Edward,  261. 
 Griffith,  William,  169. 
 Griswold,    Alexander    V.,    198, 
 
 300,  301. 
 Grote,  George,  'jd,  184,  186. 
 Grundtvig,  Nicholas  F.  S.,  512. 
 Griinow,  Elenore,  74. 
 Gueisenau,  General,  123. 
 Guizot,  Frangois  P.  G.,  yd. 
 Gunkel,  H.,  Professor,  493. 
 Gunther,  Anton,  104,  iio^ 
 Gurney,  John,  161. 
 Gustavus  Adolphus,  130. 
 Gustavus  Adolphus  Verein,  113, 
 
 129,  130. 
 Guthrie,  Thomas,  211,  217,  218. 
 
 Hackett,  H.  B.,  631. 
 Haeckel,  Ernst  H.,  128,  418. 
 Hague  Peace  Conference,  376. 
 Haldane,    James    A.,    135,    276, 
 
 211,  213. 
 Haldane,  Robert,  135,  136,  137, 
 
 138,  211,  212,  213,  2.'j6. 
 Hale,  Edward  E.,  667. 
 Plall,  Gordon,  263. 
 Halifax,  Charles  Wood,  Lord, 
 
 540,  541. 
 Hall,  John,  639. 
 Hall,  Newman,  563. 
 Hall,  Robert,  144,  165,  166,  173, 
 
 253. 
 Hallam,  Henry,  jd. 
 Halleck,  Fitz-Greene,  224. 
 Hamilton,  Alexander,  234,  253. 
 Hamilton,  John   W.,  614, 
 Hamilton,  Sir  William,  520. 
 Hamline,  Leonidas  L.,  Bishop, 
 
 313- 
 Hampden,  John,  186. 
 
Index. 
 
 717 
 
 Hampden,    Renn    D.,    Bishop, 
 
 202. 
 Hannington,  Bishop,  688. 
 Hardenburg   (Novahs),  66,  71- 
 Hare,  Julius  C,  181,  184,  185. 
 Harless,    Gottlieb    C.    A.,    125, 
 
 126. 
 Harman,  Henry  M.,  492. 
 Harnack,  Adolph,  484.  485-  SH- 
 Harris,  George,  659. 
 Harris,  Martin,  330,  33T. 
 Harris,  Randall,  567-. 
 Harris  William  L.,  Bishop,  610 
 
 612. 
 Harrison,    Frederic,    417,    4i9 
 
 520. 
 Harrison,  Benjamm,  696. 
 Hartman,  Edward,  128,  418. 
 Hartzell,    Joseph    C.,    Bishop 
 
 613. 
 Hase,  Karl,  7^- 
 Hatch,  Edwin,  55 1,  552. 
 Hauck,  484. 
 Haupt,  E.,  483-    ^ 
 Hausrath.  A.,  486. 
 Hausser,  Ludwig,  76. 
 Haven,  Gilbert,  Bishop,  610. 
 Haven,  Erastus  O.,  611. 
 Havernick,  492. 
 Hawes,  Joseph,  582.^ 
 Hawthorne,  Nathaniel,  225,  268, 
 
 Haygood,  Atticus  G.,  620. 
 Hebert,  Jacques  R- 43- 
 Hedding,   Elijah,   Bishop,   309, 
 
 Hedge,  Frederic  H.,  667. 
 Hefele,  Karl  J.,  Cardinal,  104. 
 
 H^ei,  Georg  W.  F.,  126. 
 Heine.  Heinrich,  7^-  . 
 
 Hendrix,  E.  R    Bishop   620. 
 Hengstenberg,  Ernest  W.,  125 
 
 492,  494.  601.  ,       ^    o 
 
 Henry  VHI  of  England,  2>^,  82 
 
 473. 
 Henry,  Patrick,  274. 
 Herbois,  Collot  d',  29. 
 Hermann,  51 1- 
 
 Hermes,  Georg,  T04.  no. 
 Heyer,  Charles  F.,  294. 
 Hcrz,  Hcnriettc,  72>- 
 Hicks,  Elias,  296.  ^ 
 
 Hicksite   Quakers,   origin,   296. 
 
 297.  663,  664.  ^^.       ,        . 
 Hidalgo.  Dom  Miguel,  338. 
 Hilgenfeld,  A.,  127. 
 Higher  Criticism,  484-493- 
 Hill,   Rowland,    144,    i50,    ^Si, 
 
 211,  212. 
 Hill,  Sir  Rowland,  I49- 
 Hilprecht,  A.  V.,  493- 
 Himes,  Jonathan  V.,  328. 
 Hincks,  Edward  Y.   659. 
 Hobart,  John  H.,  Bishop.  198, 
 
 199,  200. 
 Hobhouse,  Sir  John,  382. 
 Hodemacher.  Professor,  492. 
 Hoffman,  Ernest,  7i- 
 Hoffman,  Professor,  483. 
 Holtzman,  H.  J.,  Professor,  483, 
 
 485.     , 
 Hommel,  493- 
 
 Homer,  359,  485- .  ,  ^  .  , 
 Homes  for  the  Aged,  627,  635. 
 Hodge,  Charles,   171,  241,  286, 
 
 287  292. 
 Holme's,   Oliver  W.,   225,   268, 
 
 578. 
 Hopkins,  Samuel,  265. 
 Hopkins,  Mark,  654. 
 Hort,   John   Fenton,    187,   550, 
 
 Horton,  Robert  F.,  563. 
 Hospitals,  627,  635,  644.     , 
 Howley,  William,  Archbishop, 
 
 Hiighes,  Hugh  P..  557.  561,  562. 
 Hughes,  John,  Archbishop,  223. 
 
 226,  227. 
 Hugo.  Victor,  65,  66,  70,  3.->8. 
 Humboldt,  Alexander,  78. 
 Hume,  R.  A.,  657- 
 Hunt,  Albert  S.,  620., 
 Huntingdon,  Frederick  D.,  O^o. 
 Hupfeld,  483.  488. 
 Hurst,   John    F.,   Bishop,   611, 
 
 617,  618. 
 
7i8 
 
 Index. 
 
 Huxley,  Thomas,  417,  419,  520. 
 Hyde,  Orson,  Z2,^. 
 
 Illingworth,  J.  R.,  554. 
 Immaculate     Conception,     424, 
 
 441. 
 Ingersoll,  Robert  G.,  579,  4i8, 
 
 675. 
 Inner  Mission,  134,  I35- 
 Institutional    Christianity,    711. 
 Inventions  in — 
 
 Lighting,  408,  409. 
 
 Photography,  409. 
 
 Transportation,  409-411. 
 
 Agriculture,  411,  412. 
 
 Mining,  412. 
 
 Woodworking,  412. 
 
 Metal  manufactures,  412. 
 
 Textile,  413. 
 
 Printing,  413. 
 
 Electricity : 
 Telegraph,  414,  415. 
 Telephone,  415. 
 
 Military-arms,  415,  416. 
 Inventors : — 
 
 Wedgwood,  Josiah,  409, 
 
 Davy,  Sir  Hurnphrey,  409. 
 
 Daguerre,  Louis  J.,  409. 
 
 Talbot,  Fox,  409. 
 
 Wheatstone,  Sir  Charles,  409. 
 
 Fulton,  Robert,  410. 
 
 Stephenson,  Robert,  410. 
 
 Baldwin,  410. 
 
 Westinghouse,  410. 
 
 Janney,  410. 
 
 Otis,  410. 
 
 Eads,  Captain  James  B.,  411. 
 
 Plussey,  411. 
 
 McCormick,  Richard,  411. 
 
 Blanchard,  Thomas,  412. 
 
 Burden,  Henry,  412. 
 
 Babbitt,  412. 
 
 Bessemer,  Henry,  412. 
 
 Nasmyth,  James,  412. 
 
 Jacquard,  Joseph  M.,  413. 
 
 Lyall,  413. 
 
 Howe,  EHas,  413. 
 
 Wilson,  413. 
 
 McKay,  413. 
 
 Inventors — Continued. 
 
 Hoe,  Robert,  413. 
 
 Mergenthaler,  413. 
 
 Sholer,  414. 
 
 Remington,  Philo  E.,  414. 
 
 Babbage,  Charles,  414. 
 
 Goodyear,  Charles,  414. 
 
 Henry,  Joseph,  414,  415. 
 
 Morse,  Franklin  S.  B.,  414. 
 
 Daniels,  414. 
 
 Field,  Cyrus  W.,  414. 
 
 Edison,  Thomas,  414, 
 
 Marconi,  415. 
 
 Davidson,  415. 
 
 Siemens,  Werner,  415. 
 
 Faurer,  415. 
 
 Reis,  415. 
 
 Bell,  Graham,  415. 
 
 Berliner,  415, 
 
 Tesla,  415. 
 
 Colt,  Samuel,  415. 
 
 Maynard,  415. 
 
 Smith  &  Wesson,  415. 
 
 Winchester,  415. 
 
 Martini-Henry,  416. 
 
 Mauser,  416. 
 
 Kraag-Jorgensen,  416. 
 
 Greener,  416. 
 
 Ericsson,  John,  416. 
 
 Whitehead,  416. 
 
 Harvey,  416. 
 
 Krupp,  416. 
 Ireland,  Catholic  Emancipation 
 
 in,  107,  108 ;  statistics,  570. 
 Irish  as  Church  Rulers,  323. 
 Ireland,  John,  Archbishop,  674, 
 
 675. 
 Irving,  Washington,  224.  ^ 
 Isabella  II,  Queen  of  Spain,  60, 
 
 369-  ^ 
 Italy,    Founding  of  the   JCing- 
 
 dom,  361-365. 
 Iturbide,  Emperor  of  Mexico, 
 
 338. 
 
 Jackson,  Andre;w,  254. 
 Jacobi,  Friedrich  H.,  117. 
 Jacobins,  26,  27,  28,  29. 
 Jacoby,  Ludwig  S.,  31 5- 
 
Index, 
 
 719 
 
 James,  John  Angell,  163. 
 
 Janes,  Edmund  S.,  Bishop,  313, 
 610. 
 
 Jay.  William,  144,  151. 
 
 Jelf,  Dr.,  197. 
 
 Jesuits,  59,  87,  88,  89,  100,  no, 
 III,  423-426,  434,  439,  441, 
 442,  448,  449,  451,  452,  453, 
 454,  466. 
 
 Jews,  684. 
 
 Jones,  Abner,  279. 
 
 Joseph  II,  Emperor  of  Ger- 
 many, 21. 
 
 Jowett,  Benjamin,  326,  521. 
 
 Joyce,  Isaac  W.,  Bishop,  612. 
 
 Judson,  Adoniram,  231,  242, 
 245-247,  263,  270,  271. 
 
 Judson,  Ann  Hasseltine,  245. 
 246. 
 
 Judson,  Sarah  Boardman,  247. 
 
 Judson,   Emily  Chubbuck,  247. 
 
 Judkin,  Dr.,  288. 
 
 Jiilicher,  A.,  Professor,  483,486. 
 
 Kaftan,  Julius,  511. 
 
 Kalmis,  601. 
 
 Kalb,  Charlotte  von,  T>>' 
 
 Kant,  Immanuel,  dy,  117,  179. 
 
 Kautsch,  493. 
 
 Keats,  John,  69. 
 
 Keble,  John,  69,   192,   193,  200. 
 
 206,  524,  526. 
 Kavanaugh,     Hubbard    IL, 
 
 Bishop,  618. 
 Keener,  John  C,  Bishop,  619.     - 
 Keil,  492. 
 
 Keim,  Theodor,  486. 
 Kendall,  James,  262. 
 Kcndrick,  Asahel  C,  274,  275. 
 Keswick  Movement,  555,  569. 
 Kettel.  492,  493. 
 Ketteler,  Von,  Bishop,  107. 
 Key,  J.  S.,  Bishop,  620. 
 Keyser,  493. 
 
 Kilburn  Sisterhood,  543. 
 Kilham.  Alexander.  170. 
 Kimball,  Heber.  238,  ZZ2. 
 King,  Samuel,  286. 
 King,  Thomas  Starr,  667. 
 
 Kingsley,  Calvin,  Bishop,  608, 
 
 609. 
 Kingsley,  Charles,  520. 
 Kirby,  William,  281. 
 Ivirchenzcitung,  125. 
 Ivirk,  Edwin  N.,  230,  266. 
 Kirkegraad,  Soren.  511, 
 !  Kleist,  Heinrich  von,  ^2. 
 Knapp,  Jacob,  230. 
 Knox,  John,  135.  569. 
 Konig,  Edward,  493. 
 Kossuth,  Louis,  61. 
 Kotzebue,  August  F.  F.,  121. 
 Kottwitz,  Baron  von,  121,  123. 
 Krauth,  Charles  P.,  Sr.,  293. 
 Kuenen,  Abraham,  489-491,  492, 
 ,515,  517- 
 
 Kulturkampf,  447-453. 
 Kuyper,  Abraham,  516,  517. 
 
 La  Combiere,  424. 
 
 Lacordaire,  Jean  B.  H.,  'j'],  102, 
 103. 
 
 Lafayette,  Gilbert  M.,  Marquis 
 de,  24.  31. 
 
 Lamb,  Charles,  177. 
 
 Lamarline,  Alphonsc  M.  L.  de, 
 6s,  70. 
 
 Lambert,  Father,  674. 
 
 Lambertini,  Benedict  XIV,  424. 
 
 La'.Tibeth,    Pan   Anglican,   Con- 
 ferences : — 
 I  First,  528. 
 
 I  Second,  531. 
 
 I  Third,  537- 
 
 !  Fourth,  545. 
 
 i  Lambeth  Declaration,  537,  438. 
 '  Lanibrnschini.  Cardinal,   106. 
 j  Lamennais,   Ungues  F,  R.,  77, 
 :      loi,  102,  no. 
 
 Lamoriciere,  General,  363. 
 j  Lamson,  Alvan.  261. 
 !  Lange,  Friodrich.  419. 
 I  Lange,  Jr^hann  P.,  483. 
 I  Lasco,  John  A..  516. 
 
 Latimer,  Hugh.  186,  197. 
 
 Lavigiere,  Cardinal.  455. 
 
 Laymen,    House   of,   added    to 
 I      Convocation,  537. 
 
720 
 
 Index, 
 
 Leathes,  Stanley,  492. 
 
 Ledocho wski,  Cardinal,  450, 452. 
 
 Lee,  Ann,  671. 
 
 Lee,  Jason,  314. 
 
 Lee,  Jesse,  305. 
 
 Lee,  Luther,  312. 
 
 Lecoz,  Bishop,  47,  51. 
 
 Le  Grand,  130. 
 
 Leibnitz,  Gottfried  W.,  117. 
 
 Leo  Xn,  82,  87,  88,  89,  100. 
 
 Leo  Xin,  82,  no,  421,  426,  433, 
 451,  454,  455,  456-462,  463, 
 466,  468,  469,  470,  475,  477, 
 478,  479,  525,  541,  675. 
 
 Leopold  L  Emperor  of  Ger- 
 many, 21,  24. 
 
 Leopold  L  King  of  Belgium,  59. 
 
 Leopold  II,  King  of  Belgium, 
 685. 
 
 Leopold,  Prince  of  Hohenzol- 
 lern,  369. 
 
 Leopardi,  75. 
 
 Lepeaux,  La  Rivelliere,  50. 
 
 Lessing,  Gotthold  E.,  71. 
 
 Lichler,  G.  V,  486. 
 
 Liddon,  Henry  P.,  526,  527,  530, 
 
 543,  554. 
 Lightfoot,  Joseph  B.,  187,  199, 
 
 534,  547-549,  551- 
 Liguori,  St.  Alfonse  de,  80. 
 Lincoln,  Abraham,  233,  256,358, 
 
 584,  607. 
 Lincoln  Judgment,  538,  539. 
 Lindet,  Bishop,  42. 
 Lindsey,  Theophilus,  261. 
 Lipsius,  Richard  A.,  483,  496, 
 
 497. 
 
 Liturgy,  The,  Enforced  in  Ger- 
 many, 122. 
 
 Livingstone,  David,  688. 
 
 Lockhart,  John  G.,  214. 
 
 Loisy,  Abbe,  469. 
 
 Longfellow,  Henry  W.,  225, 
 268,  358,  578. 
 
 Loofs,  Franz,  484,  511. 
 
 Lopez,  Carlos  A.,  340. 
 
 Lopez,  Francisco  S.,  340. 
 
 Louis  XIV  of  France,  44,  456. 
 
 Louis  XVI  of  France,  20,  21, 
 
 24,  25,  26,  27,  2>7,  58. 
 Louis  XVIII  of  France,  54,  56, 
 
 100. 
 Louis    Napoleon.      See    Bona- 
 parte. 
 Louis  Philippe,  59,  60,  161,  ZIZ- 
 Love  joy,  Elijah  P.,  282. 
 Low,  Seth,  652. 
 
 Lowell,  James  R.,  225,  268,  578, 
 Loyola,  Ignatius,  423. 
 Luce,  Baptist  Elder,  277. 
 Lucretius,  419. 
 Luthardt,    Christoph    E.,    483, 
 
 496. 
 Luther,   Martin,   114,   122,   181, 
 
 444,  445,  473- 
 Lutheran  Church  in  the  United 
 States,  293-295,  645-648. 
 General  Synod,  293,  646. 
 Buffalo  Synod,  294. 
 Missouri  Synod,  294,  295. 
 Synodical  Conference,  645, 
 
 646. 
 General  Council,  646. 
 Iowa  Synod,  648. 
 Ministerium    of    Philadel- 
 phia, Swedish,  and  Nor- 
 wegian Lutherans,  648. 
 Statistics,  295,  647. 
 Education,  647. 
 Charities.     Note. 
 Lux  Mundi,  553,. 554- 
 Lycett,  Sir  Francis,  557. 
 
 Mackay,  Alexander,  688. 
 
 MacMahon,  Patrice  M.,  Mar- 
 shal, 371. 
 
 Macaulay,  Thomas  B.,  69,  ^6, 
 144,  158,  186,  393,  520. 
 
 Macaulay,  Zachary,  156,  158, 
 159,  176. 
 
 McAdow,  Samuel,  286. 
 
 McCabe,  Charles  C,  Bishop, 
 613.. 
 
 McCaine,  Alexander,  309. 
 
 McClintock,  John,  609. 
 
 McCloskey,  John,  Cardinal,  675. 
 
Index, 
 
 721 
 
 McCosh,  James,  638,  639. 
 McGee,  John,  229. 
 McGee,  William,  229,  286. 
 McGiffert,  Archibald  C,  636. 
 McGlynn,  Edward,  461. 
 McGrady,  James,  286. 
 Mcllvaine,  Charles  P.,  Bishop, 
 
 242,  254,  255. 
 McKendree,  William,  305,  308. 
 McKinley,  William,  696. 
 Maclaren,  Alexander,  564. 
 McLeod,  Norman,  319,  320. 
 McQuaid,  Bernard,  Bishop,  674, 
 
 McPherson,  J.  B.,  620. 
 
 McTyeire,  Holland  N.,  619. 
 
 Maillard,  Mile.,  43. 
 
 Maistre,  Joseph  de,  66,  loi. 
 
 Malan,  Abraham  C,  137,  138. 
 
 Mallalleu,  Willard  R,  Bishop, 
 612. 
 
 Manin,  Daniel,  64. 
 
 Mann,  Horace,  226. 
 
 Manning,  Edward,  Cardinal, 
 162,  189,  203,  206,  207,  459, 
 461,  463,  479,  522,  524,  525. 
 
 Manzoni,    Alessandro,    64,    65, 
 
 75. 
 Marie    Antoinette,    Queen    of 
 
 France,  21,  22,  24,  27,  58. 
 Marie  Louise,  Empress,  98. 
 Martin,  Bishop,  451. 
 Marshman,  Missionary,  164. 
 Martensen,  Hans  L.,  513. 
 Martin,  W.  P.,  688. 
 Martinelli,  Monsig.,  675. 
 Martineau,  Harriet,  186. 
 Martineau,  James,  419,  520,  568. 
 Marvin,  E.  M.,  Bishop,  619. 
 Massacres  of  September,  1792, 
 
 39. 
 
 Mason,  John  M.,  234,  242,  252, 
 253,  288.  300. 
 
 Mathew,  Father,  234,  479. 
 
 Maupassant,  Guy,  418. 
 
 Maury,  Jean  S.,  Archbishop 
 and  Cardinal,  39,  85. 
 
 Maximilian,  Emperor  of  Mex- 
 ico, 463. 
 
 Maynooth  College,  loS. 
 Mazzini,  Giuseppe,  64,  65. 
 Melchers,  Archbishop,  450,  452. 
 Mendelssohn,  Dorothea,  "Ji. 
 Mendelssohn,  Moses,  72, 
 Mennonites,  (^. 
 Merrill,    Stephen    ^L,    Bishop, 
 
 610. 
 Methodists  in  England,  167-173, 
 556-563. 
 Bible  Christians,  167. 
 Primitive,  167,  230,  565. 
 Reformed     Methodists,     169, 
 556-563.. 
 Methodists  in  Ireland,  571. 
 Methodists  in  Canada,  678. 
 Methodists    in    Australia,   677, 
 
 678. 
 Methodists  in  the  United  States  : 
 Methodist  Episcopal  Church, 
 
 304-322,  606-628. 
 Methodist    Episcopal    South, 
 
 312-314,  317,  618-625. 
 Methodist    Protestants,    237, 
 
 309,  314,  628. 
 Free  Methodists.  607.  _ 
 African  Methodist  Episcopal, 
 
 307,  620. 
 African  Methodist  Episcopal, 
 
 Zion,  307,  620. 
 Colored  Methodist  Episcopal, 
 
 619. 
 Slavery,  306.  307. 
 Methodist  Statistics,  317,  621. 
 Missions,  315,  3^6,  622. 
 Education,  623-626. 
 Benevolences,  622,  623. 
 Charities,  626.  627. 
 Lincoln's  Address.  607.  608. 
 Effect  of  Civil  War,  608. 
 Methodists    in    Germany,   482, 
 
 483. 
 Metternich,  Prince,   19,  56,  57, 
 
 58,  59,  60,  61,  364. 
 Meyer,  Heinrich  A.  W.,  483. 
 Meyer,  Lewis.  292. 
 Michaud,  Joseph  F.,  (^^,  7(>- 
 Michaelis,  Charlotte  Schclling. 
 
 74,  75. 
 
7^2 
 
 Index, 
 
 Michelet,  Jules,  yd. 
 Middleton,  Thomas,  F.,  Bishop, 
 
 177. 
 Miguel,  Dom,  423. 
 Milburn,  William  H.,  598-600. 
 Miley,  John,  616. 
 Mill,  John,  186,  195. 
 Mill,  John  Stuart,  186,  417,  520, 
 
 521. 
 Miller,  George,  316. 
 Miller,  Lewis,  597. 
 Miller,  William,  238,  279,  328. 
 Milner,  Isaac,  154. 
 Mills,  Edmund  M.,  627. 
 Mills,  Samuel  J.,  231,  2^)2- 
 Milton,  John,  186.  600. 
 Mirabeau,   Gabriel   R.,  24,   31, 
 
 Miroudat,  Bishop,  ZT- 
 Missions,  231,  232,  685-696. 
 Missionary  Societies,  145,  146, 
 
 686,     687.       (See    under 
 
 Churches,  as  Baptist,  etc.) 
 Moffat,  M.  Robert,  688. 
 Mohler,  Adam,  'jy,  104. 
 Moltke,  Helmuth  K.  B.,  Count 
 
 von,  369. 
 Mommsen,  Theodore,  'j^. 
 Monasteries : — 
 
 French,  34. 
 
 Spanish,  60. 
 
 Italian,  463. 
 Monk,  Maria,  324. 
 Monod,  Adolphe,  136,  137. 
 Monod,  Frederick,  136. 
 Monod,  Jean,  136. 
 Montefiore,  C.  G.,  493. 
 Montalembert,    Charles   F.   R., 
 
 65,  102,  103. 
 Moody,   Dwight   L.,   210,   521, 
 
 530,  569,  587-591,  ^-M' 
 Moore,  David  H.,  Bishop,  614. 
 Moore,  George  F.,  493, 
 Moore,  John,  Archbishop,  142. 
 Moore,  Richard  C,  Bishop,  298, 
 
 301,  302. 
 Moorehouse,  Henry,  588. 
 Moravians,  295,  296,  664,  665. 
 More,  Hannah,  148,  151, 159, 160.  I 
 
 Morelos,  Jose  M.,  338. 
 Morgan,  J.  Pierpont,  652. 
 Morley,  John,  417. 
 Mormons,  112,  223,  235,238-240, 
 
 329-335,  669,  670. 
 Morris,    Thomas    A.,    Bishop, 
 
 311. 
 Mortara,  466. 
 
 Moule,  H.  C.  G.,  Bishop,  555. 
 Moulton,  William  F.,  562. 
 Mozeley,  James  B.,  190. 
 Mozeley,  Thomas,  190,  197,  201. 
 Muhlenberg,   William  A.,  650. 
 Miiller,  George,  210. 
 Miiller,  Nicholas,  616. 
 Murray,  John,  268,  269. 
 Murray,  Nicholas,  323,  326. 
 Musset,  Alfred  de,  71. 
 
 Narbonne,  Count,  jo. 
 
 Nast,  William,  310,  315. 
 
 Nauman,  O.,  492. 
 
 Navarino,  Battle  of,  58. 
 
 Neander,  August,  jd,  119-121, 
 123,  126,  138,  288. 
 
 Nettleton,  Asahel,  266. 
 
 Nevin,  John  W.,  292. 
 
 Newell,  Harriet,  263. 
 
 Newell,  Samuel,  231,  246. 
 
 Newman,  John  H.,  Cardinal, 
 6(>,  69,  152,  162,  186,  187,  188, 
 198,  199,  200,  201,  202,  203, 
 204,  205,  207,  210,  292,  417, 
 443,  459,  469,  520,  521,  522, 
 523,  524,  525,  542,  553. 
 
 Newman,  John  P.,  Bishop,  612, 
 614. 
 
 Newton,  B.  W.,  209,  210. 
 
 Newton,  John,  144,  150,  155, 
 159. 
 
 Newton,  Robert,  145,  149,  169, 
 171,  172,  312. 
 
 Nicholas  I  of  Russia,  19,  57,  59, 
 (i2,  63,  64,  1 01,  360. 
 
 Nicholas  II  of  Russia,  Z'^-^- 
 
 Nicholas,  Grand  Duke,  371. 
 
 Niebuhr,  Barthold  G.,  553. 
 
 Niedner,  483. 
 
 Nietsche,  128, 
 
Index. 
 
 723 
 
 Nightingale,  Florence,  361. 
 Ninde,  William  X.,  Bishop,  612. 
 Nippold,  Friedrich,  445. 
 Nitsch,  Karl  L.,  483. 
 Norfolk,  Duke  of,  461. 
 Norris,  Samuel,  311. 
 Norton,  Andrews,  261,  266. 
 Nott,   Eliphalet,  234,  242,  253, 
 
 254. 
 Nott,  Samuel,  263. 
 Noyes,  John  H.,  329. 
 Noyes,  William  H.,  658. 
 
 O'Bryan,  167. 
 
 O'Connell,  Daniel,  144. 
 
 O'Kelly,  James,  279. 
 
 Olin,  Stephen,  320,  321. 
 
 Omar,  Calif,  355. 
 
 Oneida  Community,  112,  329, 
 670. 
 
 Oosterzee.  Jacob  Van,  515,  516. 
 
 Orange,  William  III  of  Eng- 
 land, 570. 
 
 Orders,  English,  540,  541. 
 
 Orelli,  493. 
 
 Organic  Articles,  94,  95. 
 
 Oriel  College,  187. 
 
 Origen,  118. 
 
 Orphanages,  627,  635. 
 
 Osgood,  Howard,  492. 
 
 Otelli,  493- 
 
 Oudinot.  Marshal,  ^2>- 
 
 Overbeck,  72. 
 
 Owen,  Robert,  223,  278. 
 
 Outer  Christendom,  684-696. 
 (See  Table  of  Contents.) 
 
 Oxford  Movement,  186-208, 141, 
 184;  causes,  194-196;  Roman- 
 ist tendency,  198,  202,  203 ; 
 aims,  197-199;  defects,  199. 
 200 ;  course,  205-208,  254,  470, 
 522,  527,  541. 
 
 Paine,  Robert,  Bishop,  313. 
 Paine,  Thomas,  228,  243,  418. 
 Palfrey,  John  G.,  268. 
 Palmer,  200. 
 Palmer,  Benjamin  M.,  641. 
 
 Palmerston,  Henry  J.  Temple, 
 
 Viscount,  385-520. 
 Papacy,  76-1  n,  420-481. 
 
 Pius  VII. 
 
 Leo   XII. 
 
 Pius  VIII. 
 
 Gregory  XVI. 
 
 Pius  IX. 
 
 Leo  XIH. 
 Papal  Army,  427, 
 Papal  Government,  426. 
 Papal  Diplomacy,  its  Failures, 
 
 462,  463. 
 Parker,  Edwin  W.,  614. 
 Parker,  Joseph,  564. 
 Parker,  Theodore,  249,  250-252, 
 
 266,  268,  579. 
 Parkman,  Francis,  268. 
 Parsavant,  Dr.,  132,  294. 
 Pastor,  Ludwig,  553. 
 Pater,  Walter,  417. 
 Paterson,  Elizabeth,  96. 
 Patteson,    John    Coleridgi^?'; 
 
 Bishop,  688. 
 Paulus,  Heinrich  E.  G?^2i. 
 Paxton,  Professor,  285. 
 Peabody,  Andrew  P.,  667. 
 Pearse,  Guy  M.,  557. 
 Pearsons,  D.  K.,  661. 
 Peck,  Jesse  T.,  Bishop,  610,  612, 
 Peckard,  Dr.,  155. 
 Peel,  Sir  Robert,  393- 
 Peel,  Sir  Robert,  Sr.,  382. 
 Pedro    I,    Emperor   of   Brazil, 
 
 341. 
 Pedro   II,  Emperor  of  Brazil, 
 
 341. 
 Penn,  William,  571. 
 Percy,  Thomas,  Bishop,  68. 
 Percival.  Dr.,  200. 
 Perowne.  Dr.,  488. 
 Perry,  Father,  203. 
 Persico,  Monsig.,  459. 
 Pfleiderer,  Otto,  127. 
 Philip  II  of  Spain,  357. 
 Photius,  473. 
 Phelps,  Au-^tin.  655. 
 Pichegru.  Charles,  General,  30. 
 Pierce,  George  F.,  Bishop,  *6i8. 
 
724 
 
 Index, 
 
 Pierce,  Lovick,  313. 
 
 Pitt,  William,  58,  i53,  i54,  156. 
 
 Pius  VI,  ZT,  48,  83. 
 
 Pius  VII,  T7,  82,  83,  84,  85-87, 
 
 92,  93,  95,  96,  97»  98,  99,  100, 
 
 361,  455,  478. 
 Pius  VIII,  82,  83,  105. 
 Pius  IX,  61,  62,  no,  206,  364, 
 
 421,  422,  423,  424,  425,  426, 
 
 433,  435,  442,  447,  450,  45 1, 
 
 453,  454,  463,  470,  52s,  675. 
 Planck,  Gottlieb  J.,  Professor, 
 
 119. 
 Plato,  117,  119- 
 Plymouth     Brethren,     208-210, 
 
 666. 
 Poe,  Edgar  Allan,  224,  225. 
 Polignae,  Armand,   Prince  de, 
 
 Polish  Insurrection,  366,  307. 
 Pope,  William  B.,  562. 
 Powderly,  Terence  V.,  459. 
 Powers,  Hiram,  225. 
 Preaching,  144. 
 Presbyterian   Church,   279-290, 
 
 635-641. 
 
 Slavery,  281-283. 
 
 Old  School  and  New  School, 
 283,  284. 
 
 Statistics,  214,  642. 
 
 Reunion,  635,  6z(i. 
 
 Revision,  636,  637. 
 
 Education,  643,  644. 
 
 Charities,  644.. 
 
 Reformed  and  Associate,  284, 
 285. 
 
 Cumberland,  285,  286. 
 
 English,  162,  567. 
 
 Irish,  571. 
 
 Scotland,  211-219,  569,  570. 
 Prescott,  William  H.,  235,  268. 
 Pressense,  Edmond  D.  de,  515. 
 Price,  Bonamy,  199,  200. 
 Priest  in  Absolution,  531,  532, 
 Prim,  Juan,  General,  369. 
 Prime,  Samuel  I.,  640. 
 Protestant    Episcopal    Church, 
 298-304  ,649-652. 
 
 Statistics,  304,  653. 
 
 |Protestant  Episcopal  Church — 
 Continued, 
 
 Education,  652,  653. 
 
 Charities,  654. 
 Public    Worship   Regulation 
 
 Act,  530. 
 Purcell,  John  B.,  Archbishop, 
 
 235. 
 
 Purcell,  Edmund  S.,  461. 
 
 Purchas  Judgment,  529. 
 
 Pusey,  Edward  B.,  186,  188-190, 
 201,  202,  203,  206,  469,  524, 
 526,  528,  529,  540,  546,  553. 
 
 Quint,  AIvONzo  H.,  656. 
 
 Rabaut,  Paui,,  35. 
 Rabaut,  St.  Etienne,  35. 
 Raikes,  Robert,  146. 
 Ramsay,  William,  570. 
 Rampolla,  Cardinal,  478. 
 Ranke,  Leopold  von,  'jd,  444. 
 Rauhe  Haus,  133. 
 Ravenscroft,  John  S.,  Bishop, 
 
 302,  303. 
 Ravignac,  FranQois,  Jesuit,  103. 
 Rationalism,  114. 
 Rauch,  Friedrich  A.,  291. 
 Raymond,  Bradford  P.,  618. 
 Reaction,  53-64,  114. 
 Reaction  in  England,  58. 
 Reaction  in  France,  56,  57. 
 Reaction  in  Germany,  57. 
 Reade,  Charles,  520. 
 Reason.  Festival  of,  43. 
 Redcliffe,  Lord  Stratford  de,  228. 
 Reforms,  149,  234 
 Reform  Bill  1832,  194,  378,  379- 
 Reformation,  The,  191,  543. 
 Reformed  Dutch  Church,  290, 
 
 291. 
 Reformed  Church  in  America, 
 
 641,  642. 
 Reformed     Church,     German, 
 
 291-293. 
 Reformed    Church    in    United 
 
 States,  641,  642. 
 Reformed    Episcopal    Church, 
 
 651. 
 
Index. 
 
 725 
 
 Reformed  Methodists,  169. 
 Reformed  Presbyterians,  000. 
 Refoiinding  of  the  Jesuits,  100. 
 Reid,  John  M.,  617. 
 Reilly,  James  Ross,  291. 
 Reinkens,   Joseph   H.,   Bishop, 
 
 446,  447. 
 Relly,  James,  268, 
 Renan,  Joseph  E.,  417,  485,  5i5- 
 Republican  Calendar.  41,  50. 
 Restoration  of  the  States  of  the 
 
 Church,  100. 
 Reuss,  Edouard,  489. 
 Revision  of  the  English  Bible, 
 
 529. 
 
 Revivals,  229. 
 
 Revolution,  The,  19-52,  114. 
 
 Revolution  and  the  Roman 
 Catholic  Church,  81,  82. 
 
 Revolution  1830,  57,  .59- 
 
 Revolution  in  Spanish  Amer- 
 ica, 58. 
 
 Revolution  of  1848,  60-64,  65. 
 
 Ricci,  Scipio,  425. 
 
 Rice,  David,   241. 
 
 Rice,  Luther,  231,  246,  263, 
 271. 
 
 Richards,  James,  263. 
 
 Richter,  Jean  Paul,  71. 
 
 Ridley,  Nicholas,  197. 
 
 Riehm,  E.  K.  A.,  492. 
 
 Rigdon,  Sidney,  Z7,2-ZZ^, 
 
 Ripley,  George,  267. 
 
 Rigg,  James  H.,  560. 
 
 Risdale  Judgment,  529. 
 
 Ritschl,  Albrecht,  483,  486,  494, 
 497-502,  502-511. 
 
 Ritter,  289. 
 
 Roberts,  Robert  R.,  Bishop,  308. 
 
 Roberts,  B.  H.,  669. 
 
 Robertson,  Frederick  W.,  182, 
 
 183. 
 Robertson,  James.  492,  570. 
 Robespierre,  28,  31,  43,  44. 
 Robinson,  Edward  G.,  265,  288^ 
 
 290. 
 Robinson,  Ezekiel  G.,  630-633. 
 Rogers,  493. 
 Rogers,  Henry,  163. 
 
 Roman    Catholic    Church,    76- 
 III,  420-482. 
 In  United  States,  322-327. 
 Schisms,  324. 
 Anti-Roman  Catholic  Riots, 
 
 324- 
 Education,  676. 
 Statistics,  327,  672-676. 
 In  Canada,  336,  2>y7,  678. 
 In  Spanish  America,  000. 
 In    Germany,    107,    108,   341- 
 
 343,  475.  476. 
 Relations    with    Other 
 Churches,  479-481. 
 In  England,  569. 
 In  Scotland,  570. 
 In  Ireland,  570. 
 At  the  End  of  the  Century, 
 470-482. 
 
 Losses,  471-478. 
 Gains,  478. 
 Romantic      Movement,     64-76. 
 (See     Table     of     Contents, 
 Chapter  IV.) 
 Rome  Occupied  by  the  French, 
 
 48. 
 Roon,  Marshal,  369. 
 Roosevelt,  Theodore.  696. 
 Rosas,  Juan  M.,  Dictator,  339. 
 Rose,  Hugh  J.,  200. 
 Rossi,  Pelegrino,  Count  de,  62. 
 Rosminni,  Antonio,  75,  TJ,  no. 
 Roothan,  Johann,  423. 
 Roumania.  360,  361. 
 Rotaz,  Mile.,  139. 
 Rothe,  Richard,  128,  129,  494. 
 Rousseau,  Jean  J..  44.  69,  79. 
 Royalists,  Moderate,  54- 
 Royalists'  Terror,  30,  56. 
 Rush.  Benjamin.  244. 
 Ruskin,  John,  69,  520. 
 Russell,  Lord  John,  393,  520. 
 Russell.  Lord  Odo,  435. 
 Russo-Turkish  War,  yj\-yj},. 
 Russian  Advance,  374- 
 Russian  Church,  348,  349,  681- 
 684. 
 Persecution     of     Dissenters, 
 682,  683. 
 
726 
 
 Index, 
 
 Russian  Church — Continued. 
 
 Statistics,  684. 
 Ryle,  J.  C.  Bishop,  555- 
 Ryssel,  492. 
 
 Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus,  424. 
 
 Sadler,  Michael  T.,  383. 
 
 St.    Andrew,    Brotherhood    of, 
 
 652. 
 Salisbury,   Robert   Cecil,    Earl 
 
 of,  520. 
 Salvation  Army,  557-559,  666. 
 Sand,  George,  Madame  Dude- 
 
 vant,  66,  70,  71,  121. 
 Sand,  Karl,  521,  530. 
 Sankey,  Ira  D.,  569,  580,  637. 
 San  Martin,  General,  339- 
 Sayce,  A.  H.,  493- 
 Satolli,  Cardinal,  461. 
 Schaff,    Philip,    292,    293,    600, 
 
 601,  650. 
 Scharnhorst,  123. 
 Schelling,  Frederick  W.,  72,  75, 
 
 76,   179- 
 Schiller,  Friednch,  71. 
 Schlegel,  Augustus  W.,  71,  74, 
 
 75- 
 Schlegel,  Friedrich,  71,  72,  73, 
 
 74,  115. 
 Schleiermacher,    Friedrich    D. 
 
 E.,  58,  72,  73,  74,  114-119,  121, 
 
 122, 123, 125, 126, 129,  179,  494. 
 Scholten,  517. 
 
 Schmucker,  Samuel  S.,  295. 
 Schopenhauer,  Arthur,  128,  417. 
 Schrader,  488. 
 
 Schiirer,  Emil,  485,  486,  511. 
 Schwegler,  Albrecht,  127. 
 Science,  Men  of,  396-407. 
 
 Herschel,  Sir  John,  397. 
 
 Herschel,  William,  397. 
 
 Leverrier,  397. 
 
 Galle,  397. 
 
 Lasall,  397. 
 
 Bond,  397. 
 
 Hall,  Asaph,  397. 
 
 Piazzi,  397, 
 
 Olbers,  Heinrich  W.  M.,  397. 
 
 Struve,  Friedrich  W.,  397- 
 
 Science,  Men  of— Continued. 
 Burnham,  397, 
 Bessel,  Friedrich  W,,  397. 
 Kirchoff,  Gustav  R.,  398. 
 Bunsen,  Robert  W.,  398. 
 Hutton,  James,  398. 
 Smith,  William,  398. 
 Cuvier,   Georges  C.   L.,  398, 
 
 399. 
 Murchison,  Robert  T.,  398. 
 Sedgwick,  Adam,  399. 
 Marsh,  O.  C,  399,  400. 
 Lyell,  Sir  Charles,  399,  400. 
 Agassiz,  Louis,  399. 
 Darwin,  Charles,  399,  400. 
 Wallace,  Alfred  R.,  400. 
 Baer,  Von,  400,  404. 
 Tyndall,  John,  400. 
 Fiske,  John,  401. 
 Young,  Thomas,  401. 
 Fresnel,  August  J.,  401. 
 Malus,  Etienne  L.,  401. 
 Arago,  Dominique  F.,  401. 
 Davy,    Sir   Humphrey,    401, 
 
 403- 
 Oersted,  Hans  C,  401. 
 Ohm,  Georg  S.,  401. 
 Faraday,  Michael,  401. 
 Joule,  James  P.,  402. 
 Maxwell,  Clerk,  402. 
 Dalton,  John,  402,  403. 
 Lussac,  Gay,  403. 
 Avogadro,  403. 
 Berzelius,  Johann  J.,  403. 
 Dulong,  Pierre  L.,  403. 
 Petit,  403. 
 
 Wohler,  Friedrich,  403. 
 Frankland,  403. 
 Newlands,  403. 
 Priestley,  Joseph,  403. 
 Cavendish,  Sir  William,  403. 
 Courtois,  403. 
 Ballard,  403. 
 Rontgen,  403. 
 Wolff,  Kaspar,  403. 
 Goethe,  John  W.,  404. 
 Richat,  Frangois  X.,  404, 
 Spallanzi,  404. 
 Jenner,  Edward,  404. 
 
Index. 
 
 727 
 
 Science,  Men  of — Continued. 
 
 Schwann,  404. 
 
 Virchow,  Rudolph,  404. 
 
 Bernard,  Claude,  404. 
 
 Kuhn,  404. 
 
 Bell,  Sir  Charles,  404. 
 
 Hall,  Marshall,  404. 
 
 Helmholtz,  Hermann  L.,  405. 
 
 Lotze,  Rudolph  H.,  405. 
 
 Wundt,  405. 
 
 Broca,  Paul,  405. 
 
 Baird,  405. 
 
 Fritsch,  405. 
 
 Fechner,  405. 
 
 Hitzig,  405. 
 
 Ferrier,  David,  405. 
 
 Cajal,  405. 
 
 James,  William,  405. 
 
 Morton,  William  T.,  406. 
 
 Lsennec,  406. 
 
 Lister,  Sir,  406. 
 
 Pasteur,  Louis,  407. 
 
 Koch,  Edward,  407.^ 
 Scientific  Discoveries  in — 
 
 Astronomy,  397,  398. 
 
 Geology,  398-401. 
 
 Physics,  401-403. 
 
 Chemistry,  403,  404. 
 
 Relating  to  the  Human  Body, 
 404-406. 
 
 In  ^ledicine,  406,  407. 
 Scientific  Attack  on  the  Chris- 
 tian Faith,  The,  417-420. 
 Scott,  Levi,  Bishop,  606,  611. 
 Scott,  Orange,  312. 
 Scott,  Thomas,  151,  187. 
 Scott,  Sir  Walter,  66,  69,  187, 
 
 197. 
 
 Scudder  John,  290. 
 
 Sections,  Day  of,  46. 
 
 Secularization  of  Church  Prop- 
 erty, 34,  60,  81,  82. 
 
 Sedgwick,  Adam,  520,  521. 
 
 Selwyn,  George  A.,  Bishop,  6S8. 
 
 Serfdom  Abolished  in  Russia, 
 366. 
 
 Servia,  372,  373- 
 
 Seward,  William  H.,  236. 
 
 Shaftesbury,  Anthony  Ashley, 
 Seventh  Earl  of,  149,  384-395, 
 520,  529,  530,  555.  558. 
 
 Shakers,  112,  223,  670. 
 
 Shakespeare,  William,  177,  485. 
 
 Sharp,  Granville,  155. 
 
 Sheldon.  Henry  C,  618. 
 
 Shelley,  Percy  B.,  66,  68,  69. 
 
 Shinn,  Asa,  309. 
 
 Siegfried,  493. 
 
 Sieveking,  Amalie,  133. 
 
 Simeon,  Charles,  144,  150,  152, 
 
 153. 
 
 Simms,  William  G.,  224. 
 
 Simpson,  Matthew,  Bishop,  591- 
 596,  606,  612. 
 
 Sismondi,  76. 
 
 Slavery,  234-236. 
 
 Slave-trade  Abolished,  156. 
 
 Slavery  in  British  Colonies 
 Abolished,  156. 
 
 Slavery  in  Spanish  America 
 Abolished,  34i- 
 
 Slavery  in  United  States  Abol- 
 ished, 365. 
 
 Smend.  493. 
 
 Smith,  Eli,  290. 
 
 Smith,  George,  491. 
 
 Smith,  George,  Scotch 
 Preacher,  527. 
 
 Smith,  George  Adam,  493,  570. 
 
 Smith,  Goldwin,  520. 
 
 Smith,    Hannah    Pearsall,   560, 
 
 569- 
 Smith,  Henry  B..  179,  601-604. 
 Smith.   Hyrum,  334. 
 Smith,  Joseph,  238,  329-334- 
 Smylie.  James,  282. 
 Smyth,  Egbert  G.,  659. 
 Snethen,  Nicholas,  309. 
 Social  Democracy,  128. 
 Soule,  Joshua,  Bishop,  305.  309. 
 
 311,  z^i^  318. 
 
 Southcote.  Johanna,  671. 
 Southey,  Robert,  178. 
 Struggle  for  Independence,  Z}>7> 
 
 341. 
 Sparks,  Jared,  261. 
 
728 
 
 Index. 
 
 Speigel,  Count  von,  Archbishop, 
 105. 
 
 Spencer,  Ichabod,  241. 
 
 Spinoza,  Bartich,  117. 
 
 Spring,  Gardiner,  287,  288. 
 
 Spiritualists,  223,  235,  236,  670. 
 
 Spurgeon,  Charles  H.,  564-566. 
 
 Stade,  493. 
 
 Stael,  Madame  de,  66,  70,  153. 
 
 Stambouloff,  ZIZ- 
 
 Stanley,  Lord,  Earl  of  Derby, 
 144. 
 
 Stanley,  Arthur  P.,  180,  488, 
 521,  528,  532. 
 
 Stearns,  Professor,  496. 
 
 Stein,  Baron  von,  122,  123. 
 
 Stephan,  Martin,  294. 
 
 Stephen,  James,  156,  157,  158. 
 
 Stephen,  Sir  Fitz-James,  158. 
 
 Stewart,  Alexander  L.,  574,  639. 
 
 Stift,  Johannes,  134. 
 
 Stockton,  Thomas  H.,  242,  258. 
 
 Stone,  Barton  W.,  278,  279. 
 
 Storrs,  George,  211. 
 
 Storrs,  Richard  S.,  585-587. 
 
 Stack,  Hermann,  483,  492,  493. 
 
 Strauss,  Friedrich  D.,  120,  125. 
 126,  127,  129,  267,  485. 
 
 Strong,  James,  617. 
 
 Story,  William  W.,  225. 
 
 Stuart,  Gilbert,  225. 
 
 Stuart,  Moses,  261,  265,  288. 
 
 Stubbs,  William,  Bishop,  553. 
 
 Students  Volunteer  Movement, 
 
 -.695.  696. 
 
 Sturdevant,  J.  M.,  281. 
 
 Sucre,  General,  339. 
 
 Sue,  Eugene,  71. 
 
 Suez  Canal,  374. 
 
 Sumner,  Charles,  268. 
 
 Sumner,  Charles  Bird,  Arch- 
 bishop, 143,  144. 
 
 Sunday  Abolished,  48,  49. 
 
 Sunday-schools,  136,  146,  147, 
 231. 
 
 Summerfield,    John,    242,    256, 
 
 257. 
 Sunderland,  La  Roy,  311,  312. 
 Supreme  Being,  Festival  of,  44. 
 
 Sutton,  Charles  M.,  Archbishop , 
 
 142. 
 Swedenborgians,  166. 
 Sybel,  Heinrich  von,  76. 
 Syllabus,  Papal,  427-434. 
 Symonds,  John  A.,  417. 
 
 Tait,  Archibald  C,  Arch- 
 bishop, 526,  528,  527-534. 
 
 Tait,  Edith,  531- 
 
 Talleyrand,  Charles  M.,  Prince 
 de,  23,  Z2,  33,  34,  2n,  55,  100. 
 
 Taylor,  Nathaniel,  265,  266,  280. 
 
 Taylor,  William,  Bishop,  315, 
 613,  688. 
 
 Temperance,  234,  307,  698,  699. 
 
 Temple,  Frederick,  Archbishop, 
 526,  528,  544-547,  555. 
 
 Temple,  Frederick,  his  Pastoral 
 on  Ritualism,  546,  547. 
 
 Tennyson,  Alfred,  69,  358,  520. 
 
 Terror,  Royalist,  30,  56. 
 
 Terror,  The,  28,  29,  31,  53,  58. 
 
 Test  Act  Repealed,  173. 
 
 Thackeray,  William  M.,  358. 
 
 Theological     Seminaries,     233, 
 
 234. 
 Theophilanthropists,  50. 
 Thiers,    Adolphe,    65,    76,    370, 
 
 371. 
 Thierry,  Augustin,  76. 
 Thirlwall,  Connop,  76,  184,  185. 
 Thoburn,  James  M.,  613,  688. 
 Tholuck,  Friedrich  A.  G.,  120, 
 
 123,   124,   125,   126,  288,  404, 
 
 601. 
 Thomson,  Andrew,  211. 
 Thomson,  Edward,  Bishop,  608, 
 
 609. 
 Thompson,  Joseph  P.,  654. 
 Thoreau,  Henry  D.,  69. 
 Thornton,  Henry,  157. 
 Thurston,  Missionary,  263. 
 Ticknor,  George,  225. 
 Tieck,  Ludwig,  71,  74- 
 Tilton,  Theodore,  585. 
 Tischendorf,  Constantine,  484. 
 Tocqueville,  224. 
 
Index. 
 
 729 
 
 Tolentino,  Treaty  of,  48. 
 Tolstoi,  Leo,  358. 
 "Tongue  of  Fire,'*  560. 
 Toy,  Charles  H.,  493. 
 Tract,  90,  204,  205. 
 Tract  Societies,  147,  232. 
 Tregelles,  Samuel  P.,  210. 
 Trevelyan,  George  O.,  159. 
 Trollope,  Anthony,  520. 
 Trumbull,  Henry  C,  596. 
 Tucker,  William  J.,  659. 
 Tuckerman,  Henry  T.,  224. 
 'i  urgeneff,  Ivan,  358. 
 Twentieth  Century  Fund,  526, 
 
 627. 
 Twesten,  Karl,  601. 
 Tyler,  Bennett,  264. 
 Tyndall,  John,  417,  419,  520. 
 
 UhIvANd,  Ludwig,  71. 
 
 Ulrici,  Hermann,  601. 
 
 Union   of  Reformed   and   Lu- 
 therans in  Prussia,  113. 
 
 Union,      Gustavus      Adolphus, 
 113.  129,  130. 
 
 Unitarians,  England,   162,  173. 
 567,568. 
 
 Unitarians    in    United    States, 
 261,  262,  266-268,  667,  668. 
 
 United  Brethren,  316,  620. 
 
 United  States,  58,  5Q. 
 Era   of    Settlement,   221-223, 
 
 574-       ^ 
 
 Plastic  Social  Conditions, 
 223,  224. 
 
 Hopefulness,  224. 
 
 American  Characteristics,  224. 
 
 Literary  Development,  224, 
 225. 
 
 Education,  225-236. 
 
 Politics,  226. 
 
 Immigration,  226,  574. 
 
 Civil  War,  355.  356,  573. 
 
 Financial  Crises,  575. 
 
 Growth  of  Cities,  575. 
 
 Political  Corruption,  575-577. 
 
 Popular  Comfort  and  Artis- 
 tic Conditions,  577,  578. 
 
 Materialistic  Trend,  578. 
 
 United  S\.2X.^^— Continued. 
 
 Religious  Conditions,  579, 
 
 Work  of  the  Church,  580. 
 
 Church  Leaders  of  National 
 Influence,  581-606. 
 Universalists,  162,  173,  268-270. 
 
 668.  669. 
 
 Vadier,  29. 
 
 Van  Dyck,  Comeliu<5,  295. 
 Varennes,  Billaud,  29. 
 Vatican  Council,  199,  370,  427, 
 434-436.  442.  525.  526,  541! 
 
 Results  of,  464-468. 
 
 In   Interpretation  of  Dog- 
 ma, 468-470. 
 Vatican  Decrees,  436-439. 
 Venn,  Henry,  153. 
 Venn,  John,  153,  157. 
 Verlaine,  Paul,  418. 
 Veuillot.  Louis,  103. 
 Victor  Emmanuel  TI,  King  of 
 
 Italy,  361,  362.  363,  364,  365, 
 
 369,  426,  439. 
 Vienna,  Congress  of,  55,  56. 
 Vincent,  John  H.,  Bishop,  396- 
 
 398,  612. 
 Vinet,  Alexandre  R.,  139,  140, 
 
 178. 
 Vogt,  Carl,  418. 
 Voltaire,  79.         _ 
 Vijlpius,^  Cbmtine,  yz- 
 
 Wa*^/  Georg,  yd. 
 
 Walden,  John  M.,  Bishop,  612. 
 
 Walsh,  Thomas.  323. 
 
 Walther,  Carl  F.  W.,  294,  646. 
 
 Walther.  O.  F.,  294. 
 
 Ward,  Missionary,  164. 
 
 Ward,    William    G.,    191,    196, 
 
 197,  199. 
 Ward,    Mrs.    Humphrey,    181, 
 
 207. 
 Ware,  Henry.  249.  260.  261,  266. 
 Warne,  Frank  W.,  Bishop.  614, 
 Warren,    Henry    W.,    Bishop, 
 
 611. 
 Warren.  Samuel.  168. 
 Washburn,   Edward   A.,  650. 
 
730 
 
 Index, 
 
 Washington,  George,  242,  254. 
 Watson,  Richard,  14S,  169,  170- 
 
 172. 
 Waugh,   Beverly,  Bishop,  311, 
 
 607. 
 Wayland,  Francis,  242,  244,  246, 
 
 247,  631.  ^   ^ 
 
 Webb,  Professor  J.  C,  555- 
 Webber,  Theodore,  Bishop,  447. 
 Wedgwood,  Josiah,  156,  178. 
 Weisacker,  C.,  483,  486. 
 Weiss,  Bernard,  483,  486. 
 Welch,  Dr.,  527. 
 Wellington,  Arthur,  Duke  of, 
 
 385. 
 Wellshausen,  Julius,  491,  493. 
 Wendt,  483,  485. 
 Westcott,    Brooke   F.,   Bishop, 
 
 534,  547,  549,  550,  551- 
 Wesley,  John,  80,  147,  150,  168, 
 
 186,  268,  539,  562. 
 Wesleyan  Connection,  Its  Ori- 
 gin, 312. 
 Whatcoat,  Richard,  Bishop,  307. 
 Whateley,  Richard,  Archbishop, 
 
 183,  184,  187,  198. 
 Whedon,  Daniel  D.,  615,  616. 
 Whipple,  Bishop,  534,  649. 
 Whipple,  Edwin  P.,  268. 
 White,  Moses  C,  316. 
 White,    William,    Bishop,   254, 
 
 289,  650. 
 Whitefield,  George,  268. 
 Whitman,  Marcus,  31S. 
 Whitmer,  David,  330. 
 Whittier,  John  G.,  225,  297,  578. 
 Whittingham,  Bishop,  649. 
 Whitty,  Father,  Jesuit,  523. 
 Wichern,  John  H.,  132-135- 
 Wightman,  W.  M.,  Bishop,  619. 
 Wilberforce,  Henry,  156,  207. 
 Wilberforce,  Robert  I.,  156,  207, 
 
 522. 
 Wilberforce,  Samuel,  156,  526, 
 
 649. 
 
 Wilberforce,  William,  58,  149, 
 151,    153-157,    186,   207,  213, 
 
 Wilbur,  Joseph,  297. 
 
 Wilde,  Oscar,  417. 
 
 Wiley,  Isaac  W.,  Bishop,  610, 
 612. 
 
 Willard,  Frances  E,  698. 
 
 William  I,  Emperor  of  Ger- 
 many, 62,  360-371,  375,  450. 
 
 William   II   of  Germany,   375, 
 
 455. 
 William  the  Conqueror,  464. 
 Williams,  Isaac,  202. 
 Williams,  John,  649. 
 Willich,  Henriette  von,  116. 
 Winchester,  Elhanan,  269. 
 Windischgratz,  Prince,  61. 
 Winebrennerians,  666. 
 Wiseman,   Nicholas,   Cardinal, 
 
 108,  523. 
 Witherspoon,  John,  252. 
 Woman's    Foreign    Missionary 
 
 Societies,  609,  633,  d^l,  652. 
 Woman's     Home     Missionary 
 
 Societies,  611,  633,  637. 
 Woman's     Christian    Temper- 
 ance Union,  698. 
 Woods,  Leonard,  261,  264,  265. 
 Wordsworth,  Charles,  Bishop, 
 
 152. 
 Wordsworth,  Bishop,  531,  536. 
 Wordsworth,  William,  66,  ^T, 
 
 68,  187,  197. 
 Wyclif,  John,  186. 
 
 Young,  Brigham,  238,  332,  334, 
 
 335. 
 Young  People's  Societies,  700. 
 
 Zahn,  485,  492. 
 Zeller,  Edouard,  127. 
 Zimmerman,   130. 
 Zoar  Community,  223. 
 Zola,  Emile,  417. 
 ZoUverein,  60,  368. 
 
Date  Due 
 
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BW901.D79V.5  ^      ^ 
 
 History  of  the  Christian  church. 
 
 Princeton  Theological  Seminary-Speer  Library 
 
 1    1012  00077  6528