i 
 
THE CATHEDRAL: 
 
 ITS NECESSARY PLACE IN THE LIFE AND WORK 
 OF THE CHURCH. 
 
THE CATHEDRAL: 
 
 ITS NECESSARY PLACE IN THE LIFE AND WORK 
 OF THE CHURCH. 
 
 By EDWARD WHITE BENSON, 
 
 LORD BISHOP OF TRURO ; 
 LATE CHANCELLOR OF LINCOLN. 
 
 rwv aaXevo/xevwv tyjv /AtTaOtcnv 
 Iva fJLetvr) to. /xr] aaXevofxeva. 
 
 JOHN 
 
 LONDON: 
 MUREAY, ALBEMAELE 
 1878. 
 
 The right of Translation is reserved. 
 
 STEEET. 
 
LONDON : 
 
 PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, 
 STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS. 
 
VIRIS • VENERABILIBVS 
 FRATRIBVS ■ SVIS 
 
 DOMINIS- CANONICIS • HONORARIIS 
 
 ECCLESIAE • CATHEDRALIS • B • V • MARIAE • TRVRONENSIS 
 
 VNA • CVM • ADPROPINQVANTIVM . 
 AMABILIBVS • VMBRIS 
 CANCELLARIORVM • PRAECENTORVM • CETERORVM 
 QVI . INIBI 
 FAXIT • DEVS 
 REI • CHRISTIANAE • FAMVLABVNTVR 
 
 ISTVD • OPVSCVLVM 
 D. 
 
 EPISCOPVS 
 
Editions referred to. 
 
 Labbe, Concilia. Venet. 1728. With Mansi's Supplement. 
 Thomassin, Vetus et Nova Eccl. Disciplina de Beneficiis, pars i. 
 
 lib. iii. cap. vii. to x. Mogunt. 1787. 
 Van Espen, De Institute et Officio Canonicorum, Jus Eccl. 
 
 vol. iii. p. 585, ed. Lovan. 1778. 
 Frances, de Ecclesiis Cathedralibus. Tenet. 1698. 
 Gavanti, Manuale Episcoporum (Thesaur. Rit. vol. iii.). Aug. 
 
 Yindel. 1763. 
 Institutiones Juris Canonici. Paris, 1853. 
 Miraeus. Antv. 1638. 
 
 De Bouix, Tractatus de Capitulis. Paris, 1852. 
 
ADVERTISEMENT. 
 
 The first idea of this little book was as a reprint 
 of an Essay in the ' Quarterly Review,' * and of one 
 in Dean Howson's volume. 
 
 Then it seemed better to recast them into one, 
 with such added work as continued study and 
 experience suggested. 
 
 They were written before I had the honourable 
 delight of being for a few years a member of a 
 Chapter. 
 
 And now that I have come through and out of 
 that happy, busy life, I feel I have needs which 
 I used to think bishops ought to feel. I look at 
 the question from a third point of view, and I see 
 the same solid certainty still : namely that, to the 
 reviving corporate unities of the English Church in 
 her Dioceses, strong and responsible Chapters must 
 be the centres of force. 
 
 I venture to append something about the 
 essay-in-facts on which a new Diocese is entering. 
 
 There are certain clauses of " The Possible 
 Restoration of Conciliar Work to the Chapters " 
 
 * Vol. 130, No. 259. 
 
viii 
 
 Advertisement. 
 
 which it seemed hardly fitting to re-phrase on purely- 
 personal grounds, lest I should seern to hesitate about 
 the principles. I leave them, only praying that 
 6 eXa^tdTOTepo^ of the English College of Bishops 
 may have gained moderation along with deepening 
 convictions ; and that it may be remembered that 
 some of the wording is of former years. 
 
 E. W. Trukon: 
 
 Kenwyn. 
 
 Advent 1878. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Tables of English Cathedrals ; Dates of Sees 
 and Deaneries ; Patronage ; and Suspended 
 
 Canonries x-xii 
 
 I. The Abeyance and the New Need . . 1 
 
 II. Treatment of Subject ..... 7 
 
 III. The Old Activity 8 
 
 IV. The " Essentia " or Idea. Eelation of the 
 
 Chapter to the Bishop .... 44 
 
 (i.) As a Corporation ..... 56 
 
 (n.) As a Council: 
 
 (a) With the Bishop .... 62 
 
 (&) Without the Bishop ... 67 
 (c) In " Simultaneous " Action with the 
 
 Bishop ..... 69 
 
 V. Beneficial Place of Chapters in Church 
 
 Polity ....... 74 
 
 VI. Deterioration and its Causes . . . 79 
 
 Survival of Conciliar Form .... 89 
 
 Disappears with Convocation . . .99 
 VII. Possible Restoration of Conciliar Work . 105 
 VIII. Other Central Works incumbent on Cathe- 
 drals ....... 117 
 
 Essentials to be secured to such ends . . 143 
 
 On the Cathedral Body of Truro . 
 
 QVIS ENIM DESPEXIT DlES PARVOS ? . 
 
 151 
 160 
 
( x ) 
 
 CONSPECTUS OF ENGLISH CATHEDRALS. 
 
 1. With Custom^ Oltfn: than the u Old Foundation." (Four.) 
 
 St. Asaph. Bangor. St. David's. Llaxdaff. 
 Wrested into " New Foundation " in 1843. 
 
 2. OXtS dfotmrJatton. (Nine.) 
 
 Chichester. Exeter. Hereford. Lichfield. 
 Lixcolx. Loxdox. Salisbury. Wells. York. 
 
 3. df0tmtfatt0n of Henry VIII. A. (Eight previously 
 Conventual Chapters.) 
 
 Caxterbcry. Carlisle. Durham. Ely. 
 Norwich. Rochester. Wixchester. Worcester. 
 
 4. fltiQ tfailrilSdLtian of Henry VIII. B. (Five founded for 
 
 new bishoprics out of monastic spoil.) 
 Bristol. Chester. Gloucester. Oxford. Peterborough. 
 
 [Collegiate Churches of Canons founded under Henry VIII. 
 out of Monasteries. 
 Beverley, Kipon, Manchester, Southwell, Wolverhampton, &c. 
 Recently suppressed, except : — ] 
 
 5. $CfcO Catf)e0ral3 founded out of Collegiate Churches. (Two.) 
 
 MaXCKESTER, 1840. KlPON, 1836. 
 
 G. &tt& founded by fresh 33cncfartt0n^. 
 
 St. Alban's, 1876. Canons Honorary. 
 
 Truro, 1876. Canons Honorary with an Act (1878) providing the 
 creation of a Residentiary Chapter. 
 
( xi ) 
 
 DATES OF THE BISHOPEICS AND DEANERIES 
 OF THE OLD FOUNDATION. 
 
 Bishopric. 
 
 London 
 
 A.D. 
 
 604 
 
 First Norman 
 Bishop. 
 
 A.D. 
 
 1075 
 
 Deanery. 
 
 A.D. 
 
 1086 
 
 York 
 
 625 
 
 1070 
 
 1090 
 
 Salisbury 
 
 705 (Sherborn) 
 
 1078 
 
 1091 
 
 Lincoln 
 
 678 (Lindsey) 
 
 1094 
 
 111 
 
 Chichester 
 
 709 (Selsey) 
 
 1070 
 
 1115 
 
 Bath and Wells 909 (Wells) 
 
 1088 
 
 1135 
 
 Hereford 
 
 669 
 
 1079 
 
 1140 
 
 Lichfield 
 
 656 
 
 1072 
 
 1140 
 
 ! 909 Crediton ) 
 [ 1072 1225 
 ? Cornwall J 
 
 Deaneries in the gift of the Crown were founded along with the 
 New Foundations, and Henry VIII. transferred to the Crown the 
 appointments to all other Deaneries. Previously they had been in 
 the election of the Canons. 
 
( xii ) 
 
 NUMBER OF CATHEDRAL APPOINTMENTS 
 IN TWENTY-EIGHT CATHEDRALS. 
 
 In the gift of the Crown, 28 Deaneries, 39 Canonries . . ) 
 
 J 79 
 
 In the gift of the Lord Chancellor, 12 Canonries . . . ) 
 
 In the gift of 28 Bishops . . . . ' . . .90 
 
 In the gift of the Universities ...... 5 
 
 174 
 
 NUMBER OF CANONRIES SUSPENDED 
 by Act 3 & 4 Vict. c. 113. 
 
 Residentiary Canonries 81 
 
 Other Canonries and Prebends ...... 382 
 
 463 
 
THE CATHEDEAL. 
 
 I. — THE ABEYANCE AND THE NEW NEED. 
 
 That the Cathedral, as an institution universal 
 throughout Europe, had distinct and progressive 
 functions in relation to society and polity is probably 
 not questioned. For many centuries the extension and 
 augmentation of its system and resources were pro- 
 moted by governments, by potentates, by landowners, 
 and by the Christian masses. It battled long with 
 monasticism. Puritanism assailed it in vain as the 
 stronghold of church order. 
 
 The era which removed the great lay foundations 
 of the monasteries as past service was not only satis- 
 fied with the working of the secular chapters, but 
 recognised in them an increasing promise. 
 
 To the nine old foundations of England were 
 added by authority of Parliament and the Crown, 
 eight secular chapters, in place of dispossessed 
 chapters of Eegulars, as well as five new cathedral 
 bodies with new sees, and five great collegiate 
 churches of similar constitution up and down the 
 country. 
 
 B 
 
2 
 
 The Abeyance and the New Need. 
 
 They were " popular " institutions ; part of the 
 grand idea of the time under which every order of 
 genius and capability was to find its shelter, its 
 training, and its avenue to influence. What was 
 fiually performed for them was but a fragment of 
 what was planned. The provision was but partial. 
 Then families, then parties fell on them as prey. 
 After some immature promise, and after some 
 struggles for fair usage, they passed for a time into 
 the hands of an oligarchy. Their " liberties " (so 
 called surely in irony) were guarded by immunities 
 from without, and within by what one indignant but 
 powerless council had called "an unmeasured exaction 
 of oaths." Thus they remained too sacred and strong 
 to be improved : sources of revenue to mercantile 
 dignitaries, the children's children of the adherents 
 of successive governments. "What Gibbon wrote 
 ninety years ago of the universities was even more 
 true of our still wealthier cathedrals : "We may 
 scarcely hope that any reformation will be a volun- 
 tary act, and so deeply rooted are they in law and 
 prejudice that even the omnipotence of Parliament 
 would shrink from an inquiry into their state and 
 abuses." Thus they forfeited all sympathy. They 
 forgot their traditions, their origin and their design. 
 If ignorance of all such guidings possessed the legis- 
 lators who in the beginning of this reign devised for 
 their spoliation and mutilation the most unintelli- 
 gent and contradictory of statutes, several of the 
 
TJie Abeyance and the New Need. 
 
 3 
 
 chapters of that day were as unable as they were 
 unwilling to enlighten thein.* One chapter met the 
 commissioners' inquiries by the declaration, " There 
 is no one here who can with accuracy read the most 
 important records in our registry." 
 
 The most far-reaching, the most effectively and 
 beautifully constituted, the but lately most influ- 
 ential Christian institutions of the country, had been 
 enervated, paralysed, devitalised until the basest 
 appointments to their honours could injure them no 
 further. And still suppression was withheld. The 
 merits, the services, the earnestness of some who still 
 worked and prayed in them kept up the belief that 
 there was a vitality below worth preserving. 
 
 The devout and gentle sentiment which lingered 
 still about them was the protest of an ignorant but 
 true instinct, which distantly felt, yet failed to 
 express, their religious power and spiritual office as 
 distinct from the parochial system, and distinct from 
 the religious foundations of the universities. 
 
 Meantime church life had been growing poorer 
 and thinner, in default of their activity. Not onlv 
 is it true that, as the commissioners of 1854 remark,! 
 "almost all the best writers of the Church of 
 England have been connected with her cathedrals ;" 
 but the older annals both of our own and foreign 
 Churches teem with the noble characters formed by 
 
 * 3 & 4 Vict. c. 113. 
 
 f First Keport, p. xxx. 
 
 B 2 
 
4 
 
 The Abeyance and the New Need. 
 
 chapter life and prebeudal work, and the distinctive 
 influences which pervaded them. For us, no sooner 
 had they been crippled than the returning forces of 
 church life (which itself had something to do with 
 the indignation under which they fell) reinvested 
 them with significance. Again their function rises 
 into importance. We turn to them now as to no 
 other institution we possess. Energetic prelates of 
 America who have been among us spoke of cathe- 
 dral bodies as an immediate need.* The progres- 
 sive character of the diocese of Bloemfontein, finds 
 " its vigorous centre of work and influence " in the 
 working reality of its incorporated cathedral canons 
 with the active offices of provost or dean, precentor, 
 and chancellor.f For the "most enfeebling influ- 
 ence on colonial church life is felt to be a selfish 
 ' congregation ism,' " and " it can be stemmed," we are 
 told, " only by diocesan officers not dependent on 
 local support, and more free from local duties."! 
 And thus at the same moment when near £100,000 
 for episcopal and capitular needs is promised to 
 Newcastle-upon-Tyne, the Australian Newcastle 
 has bequeathed to her, by her princely prelate, 
 a quarter of a million for her cathedral and her 
 chapter. What is true of America and the Colonies 
 
 * See too the Bishop of Iowa's 
 pamphlet, 'The American Ca- 
 thedral,' Davenport, Iowa. The 
 Rev. F. Granger's ' The Cathe- 
 dral System adapted to our 
 own wants in America,' with 
 
 Bishop Cleveland Coxe's preface, 
 and Prof. Egar's article in 
 'Church Review,' July, 1877, 
 put the case, I believe, strongly. 
 
 f Bloemfontein Quarterly Pa- 
 pers, Oct. 1877. 
 
Tlie Aheyance and the New Need. 
 
 5 
 
 is true of England, for yet more complex reasons. 
 Various growing pressures demand the resumption 
 of the most active canonical functions, with places 
 and with means for work. 
 
 The Universities (as distinguished from the Theo- 
 logical Faculty in the Universities) have been made 
 to surrender all special obligation of work for the 
 Church of England. Those who claim for her a 
 special influence in life and thought, for grace within 
 her a distinct operation ; who desire that our clergy 
 should be trained still in schools which shall main- 
 tain their pure influence and that of their families in 
 social life : schools, meantime, which shall advance 
 and not retard a full appreciation by our clerics of 
 the thought and science of their own time : those 
 who, looking out on the fields of Nonconformity, 
 see little reason why many a separation should not 
 be absorbed in a larger charity : those who, in what- 
 ever attitude, desire to approach foreign Churches 
 with something of mutual understanding — all who 
 believe that to effect these great ends, set before 
 our generation, there is needed no narrowing scheme 
 but a manifoldly multiplied host of cultivated, 
 politic, tolerant men, students and masters, pastors 
 and missioners of every order ; and that this training- 
 will require every possible gradation of knowledge 
 and experience, modem and ethnic, Continental. 
 Oriental, American, to be brought to bear on it — 
 cannot but look to the Cathedrals, so adequate, so 
 ready for the emergency in particulars which it 
 
6 
 
 The Abeyance and the New Need. 
 
 would be impossible to create, as the natural school 
 in which the general and theoretic teaching of the 
 University may be specialised and applied to the 
 actual circumstances of the practical church-life 
 of the present. Specially we dare to look to their 
 " sociological " as well as their material outlines, 
 to the type of society which they preserve to 
 us — type of "strength in co-operation, strength 
 in due subordination of varying gifts, strength 
 in religious fellowship."* For it is almost amaz- 
 ing to observe the clearness with which the lines 
 of plans, grand beyond any recent conceptions, 
 remain traced in the ground when roof and pillar 
 are gone to build the neighbouring mansions. 
 Ketrenchment, diversion, and redistribution have 
 done their work with axe and hammer, plane and 
 file ; but the dawning age gives signs of being an 
 age of reconstruction. As in art, so in polity, we have, 
 when principles are lost, to study and to reproduce 
 before we can develop a style all our own. To be 
 constructive has rarely been the function of civil 
 powers, rarely of the highest ranks. Other classes 
 create ; and in creating new-create themselves. 
 The laity are less indifferent than ever to the 
 standard assumed for clerical obligations, more 
 impatient of perfunctoriness and incapacity. In all 
 departments of national life the balance of means to 
 end is receiving truer adjustment. 
 
 * Prof. Westcott. 
 
Treatment of Subject. 
 
 : 
 
 EL— TREATMENT OF SUBJECT : — HISTORY. CENTRAL 
 IDEA, RENOVATION. 
 
 In the following pages we propose to ourselves a 
 diffident endeavour after a task which may perhaps 
 excuse some failures. We shall attempt First, to 
 realise a cathedral of the eld foundation in its pris- 
 tine vigour, without ignoring its shortcomings. T o 
 make this worth the drawing, it must be not a fancy 
 sketch or composition of details from various 
 churches, but a truthful study of one.* Secondly, we 
 must try to understand the essential ideas which 
 underlie canonical work, as the foremost of diocesan 
 institutions — in other words, the relation of the 
 chapter to the bishop. Thirdly, to inquire how far true 
 lines of development as well as lines of reform, ex- 
 ternal or inner, are indicated by the unrepealed codes 
 which each chapter still possesses. For we must re- 
 member that every cathedral still has in conn: - ess 
 respects, in spite of the smooth mowing of 1840, living 
 characteristics of diversity. A true intelligence will 
 deprecate nothing more in the process of reconstruction 
 than uniformity of structure under varying conditions. 
 It it is true in polity as it is in physiology that com- 
 plexity or u subordination of parts indicates a high 
 
 * For a masterly picture of a thedral Work in * Macmillan's 
 
 Cathedral of the New Foundation Magazine ' for January and Feb- 
 
 I may be permitted to refer to ruary, 1S70. 
 Canon Westcotfs articles on Ca- 
 
8 
 
 The Old Activity. 
 
 grade of organisation," what shall we say of church- 
 politicians who, having under their hand the vener- 
 able cathedrals of Wales — three of them with the 
 elaborate and business-like constitution of the old 
 foundation, and one of them preserving, besides that 
 constitution, practical and speaking forms, which 
 went back direct and unbroken to the very source of 
 canonical life in the ninth century — enacted in 1843 
 that one and all should be conformed to the pattern 
 of " any cathedral church in England founded by 
 king Henry the Eighth " ? The " New Foundation " 
 of Henry VIII. had been adapted to make as little 
 change as possible in the "Kegular Chapters" which 
 it superseded. But to reduce the " Old Foundations," 
 and a Foundation older than the oldest, all to that 
 even level! These legislators did for the spiritual 
 reality of our churches exactly what churchwardens 
 did for fabrics. One strict uniform wash of lime 
 flattened moulding and sculpture, confounded tomb 
 and reredos and screen, and obliterated diaper and 
 fresco for evermore. 
 
 III.— THE OLD ACTIVITY. 
 
 ^Ye proceed to the First section of our work, the 
 Old Activity. And it will be understood that, unless 
 reference is made to others, the system here de- 
 scribed is that of a single cathedral, the " Church of 
 Lincoln," for many centuries " the most glorious and 
 
The Old Activity. 
 
 9 
 
 vastest of all chapters."* That cathedral possesses a 
 complete body and summary of statutes and customs 
 drawn up and ratified in the year 1440, a period of 
 immense capitular activity. The Bishop of Lincoln, 
 with characteristic spirit, has printed this volume 
 for the use of his own chapter. t 
 
 * Mag. Vita S. Hugonis, iii. 8. | other rubrics and services are 
 t Extracts from it had been legally substituted in the Prayer 
 printed in Wilkins's ' Concilia,' 1 Book. Services such as those of 
 and thence transferred. But it j installations, regulations con- 
 was almost unknown till lately, ', cerning the places of the digni- 
 and was so, one would think, in taries, the apportioned psalms 
 1852, to the chapter of that date, I whose daily recitation is as- 
 when they informed the commis- signed to each member of the 
 sion then sitting that the statutes body, and numerous practical 
 " relating to the duties of the dean usages, even as to the ordinary 
 and residentiary chapter having services, are still carried on in 
 been established during the pre- ! conformity with the statutes, 
 valence of the Roman Catholic which the whole chapter promise 
 religion in this kingdom, the : to obey in all things lawful, and 
 duties detailed in the statutes which comprise a large body of 
 relate to forms and proceedings ' enactments, still acted on as the 
 during divine service in the j valid constitution of the body, 
 cathedral in accordance with As to the Divinity Lecturer 
 that form of worship. The sta- (whose office was also, in the 
 tutes have not been remodelled answers of 1852, ignored), he is 
 at the time of, or since, the Re- i not only provided by the statutes, 
 formation, and are not applic- ; but the holders of the office have 
 able to the performance of divine with little intermission lectured, 
 service according to the Reformed It is singular that the then body 
 Church of England." In point should have taken a view so 
 of fact, directions as to divine different from that taken by other 
 service form only a small part of cathedral bodies ; e.g., Exeter, 
 the whole, and even as to this which stated that the "funda- 
 part the only inapplicable direc- j mental provisions of its ' custom - 
 tions are those rubrics (often mary ' have been acknowledged 
 from missal and breviary) incor- and acted upon." The most 
 porated in the statutes, for which | ancient existing customs of the 
 
10 
 
 The Old Activity. 
 
 The grandest collection of this kind is the mag- 
 nificent volume prepared for the dean and chapter 
 of St. Paul's by Dr. Sparrow Simpson : a very mine 
 of capitular history, and worthy of the other works 
 of that foremost of modern chapters. Those 
 enactments were, however, never summed into one 
 
 churches in question are no less I 
 detailed in one statute-book than 
 in the other. 
 
 It was stated also to the Ca- 
 thedral Commission (1st Eep., 
 1854, p. 254) that " the statutes 
 (of Lincoln) embodied in the 
 4 Novum Registrum ' do not ap- 
 pear to have been altered or 
 modified except as to the time of 
 residence " (a very questionable 
 statement), " and except by the 
 award or determination of Bishop 
 Aluwick, anno Domini 1440." 
 
 However, the 'Novum Regis- 
 trum,' dated Michaelmas, a.d. 
 1440, is posterior to the ' Lau- 
 dum ' of Bishop Alnwick, which 
 is dated 23 June, 1439, and was 
 sealed at Nettleham, 29 June, 
 1439 ; so that the ' Laudum ' did 
 not modify the statutes as con- 
 tained in the ' Novum Regis- 
 trum.' The 1 Novum Registrum ' 
 and the ' Laudum ' both give 
 ample evidence of very frequent 
 modifications. The following 
 Lauda are expressly mentioned, 
 and partly accepted, partly 
 overruled; viz., of Bp. Robert 
 Grostete, 1235-1253, of Bp. Rd. 
 
 Gravesend, 1258-1279, Bp. John 
 Dalderby, 1299-1319, Bp. John 
 Gynewell, 1351-1362, Bp. Hen. 
 Beaufort, 1397-1404, Bp. Wm. 
 Gray, 1420-1435, besides some 
 important modifications called 
 " Articuli quos ipsemet Decanus 
 in prsesentia Dni Thesaurarii 
 Anglise inter se et capitulum 
 concordatos fore fatebatur ac 
 iludemratificavit et subscripsit." 
 The rule traceable through this 
 interesting register is the same 
 which prevailed elsewhere. " The 
 statutes were enacted from time 
 to time pro re nata. They were 
 framed in the form of injunctions 
 from the bishop as visitor, re- 
 quiring the more accurate obser- 
 vance of existing ordinances, or 
 of new statutes, either suggested 
 by the chapter to the visitor, or 
 framed by him at their request 
 and with their concurrence, and 
 finally accepted by the body. No 
 instrument has ever been al- 
 lowed to be of any force unless 
 ratified by the bishop and 
 chapter, and authenticated by the 
 seals of both."- Answer of Chapter 
 1 of Exeter. 
 
Hie Old Activity. 
 
 11 
 
 authenticated code, though happily collected for the 
 purpose more than once. The compactness, pre- 
 cision, and present validity of the Lincoln 'New 
 Register ' make it most convenient for our use.* 
 
 Before we proceed to the examination of this docu- 
 ment of a.d. 1410 we will take passing glances at 
 three earlier periods, just to observe the exceeding 
 vigour and variety of the elements of the cathedral 
 as " a thing of life " indeed. 
 
 The members of the original chapter selected by 
 the founder Remi were known personally to the 
 chronicler, Henry of Huntingdon/f himself the son of 
 one of them, and in his time a canon and archdeacon 
 of the same church. He has given a fine graphic 
 sketch of their spiritual and secular activity in his 
 1 Epistle to Walter.' The canonical qualifications 
 are grouped in rich variety among them. The 
 Ecclesiastic proper, 'The Priest to the Temple,' 
 the Ascetic, the Theologian, the Three Schoolmen 
 
 * The publication of all cathe- 
 dral statutes, and the editing of 
 a great Corpus Cathedrale, or 
 Text us Capitularis, is a work for 
 the future. Whole paragraphs 
 and pages in the statutes of dif- 
 ferent cathedrals run almost ver- 
 batim, even with their little 
 playfulnesses and quotations. 
 Then, again, the local alterations, 
 omissions and insertions are 
 characteristic. The Lincoln Book 
 names Rouen as the source of its I 
 
 main uses. Salisbury, St. Paul's, 
 &c, seem to draw from the same ; 
 yet many points must be due to 
 Sarum itself. There is a whole 
 field of criticism waiting to be 
 worked in this subject. The 
 statutes of St. Peter's at Rome 
 are of a wholly different and in- 
 ferior type. 
 
 t Fl. a.d. 1135-1151. Whar- 
 ton's 'Anglia Sacra,' vol. ii 
 p. 694. 
 
 I 
 
12 
 
 The Old Activity. 
 
 or Canonists, the great Preacher ; then the winning 
 manners of the Administrator, the polished elegance 
 of the Scholar. Three-and-thirty of the first occu- 
 pants of the Lincoln stalls and their first successors 
 are mentioned by name with various touches of 
 character. The whole passage is too long to quote 
 and too beautiful to spoil. Perhaps the following 
 are the most interesting : — 
 
 " The founder Kemigius I never saw, but of 
 the venerable clergy to whom first he gave places 
 in his church, I have seen every one. Ealph, the 
 first dean — a venerable priest. Keyner, first 
 treasurer, full of religion : had prepared a tomb 
 against the day of his death, and oft sate by it 
 singing of psalms, and praying long whiles, to use 
 himself to his eternal home. Hugh, the Chancellor, 
 worthy all memory, the mainstay, and as it were the 
 foundation of the church. Osbert, Archdeacon of 
 Bedford, afterward Chancellor, a man wholly sweet 
 and loveable. William, a young canon of great 
 genius. Albin [my own tutor]. Albin's brothers, 
 * most honourable men, my dearest friends, — men of 
 profoundest science, brightest purity, utter innocence, 
 and yet by God's inscrutable judgment they were 
 smitten with leprosy — but death hath made them 
 clean.' Nicolas, archdeacon of Cambridge, Hunting- 
 don and Hertford, — ' none more beautiful in person, 
 in character beautiful no less;' ' Stella Cleri,' so 
 styled in his epitaph, a married canon, and Henry's 
 
The Old Activity. 
 
 13 
 
 father. * Walter, prince of Orators. Gislebert, 
 elegant in prose, in verse, in dress. With so many 
 other most honoured names I may not tax your 
 patience. Amabant quse amamus ; optabant quse 
 optcunus ; sperabant quse speramus; 1 and Henry closes 
 the noble roll with the lesson of activity they had 
 left behind them — ' to make life something different 
 from a sleep.' " 
 
 Under Henry II. Bishop Saint Hugh is success- 
 fully resisting king and pope in their endeavours 
 to intrude persons into canonries. Doctors of the 
 Sorbonne and of Italy are anxious to be attached 
 w to so glorious a company even by the slenderest 
 title " * of unendowed canon, and are declined by the 
 bishop because, though he admires their learning, 
 piety and morals, they are not suited otherwise to 
 the specialities of capitular work. On the other hand, 
 he offers stalls to suitable persons on the condition 
 of their coming at once into residence and devoting 
 themselves to the discipline and preaching required 
 of them. The fuuctions of the canons were clear 
 and effective. They are selected for their sagacity 
 and high character, they are in closest association 
 with the bishop, he relies on their advice and employs 
 them in administration.! 
 
 * " Insignis multitude) cleri- 
 corum . . vel perexilititulo." (Vit. 
 Hug. iii. 9, 10.) 
 
 t " [In prsebendis] viros sa- 
 pientes et scientia prseditos 
 lateri suo sociare satagebat, quia 
 
 ! absque viroruin proborum ad- 
 jutorio nec populo nec clero con- 
 venienter prodesse sufficeret. 
 Horum consiliis fretus et comita- 
 tus auxiliis," &c. (Vit. Hug. 
 iii. 8.) 
 
14 
 
 TJie Old Activity. 
 
 Shortly before the middle of the thirteenth cen- 
 tury arose the great controversy between Grosseteste 
 and the chapter, which ended in the complete 
 recovery of the already dropped principle of visita- 
 tion. Grosseteste's Epistles give an almost complete 
 account of the events. 
 
 His predecessors had been strange prelates. Hugh 
 of Wells, whom he succeeded, is described as "the 
 foe of every religious man." The precedent of visita- 
 tion was supposed to have lapsed at Lincoln, and in- 
 deed throughout England the bishops are described 
 as " negligent and somnolent " * in their office. 
 Grosseteste in his first diocesan visitation removed and 
 replaced the heads of eleven religious houses. He then 
 turned his attention to the cathedral. But upon his 
 commencing a survey of its prebends, the vicars and 
 chaplains received notice from the chapter to disobey 
 him. Sermons were preached against him in the 
 nave; the canons obtained a licence " from the 
 feojjie " to appeal to Kome ; and when he arrived at 
 the chapter-house on the day appointed for his 
 visitation of the cathedral it was empty. He dreaded 
 the w immortal suits " which would result from an 
 appeal to Kome, but was willing to submit the cause 
 to be decided by divine law, canon law, and common 
 law to any impartial arbitration. This he owned was 
 difficult to find ; " for who would dare to offend such 
 powerful bodies as all the chapters of England, 
 
 * "Negligentes et pigritantes." 
 
The Old Activity. 
 
 15 
 
 which would make common cause with Lincoln?"* 
 " His own chapter, no doubt, for such flagrant 
 contempt merit suspension and excoinmunication.t 
 and it is better even that scandal should arise than 
 that truth should die — still the excommunication of 
 'such men, so venerable and so great' would set the 
 whole country against him." He refrained therefore 
 from this, but prohibited the Deau, Precentor, and 
 Treasurer from entering the cathedral doors, and in 
 this he was apparently obeyed. 
 
 He made every attempt to obtain an arbitration 
 satisfactory to both parties ; but would be content, 
 he said, with no " momentary phantom of a settle- 
 ment ;" nothing but a " true peace " upon sound 
 principles would enable either bishop or chapter to 
 exercise their functions. The chapter insisted on 
 the case being carried to the pope, and then the 
 decision was given speedily and absolutely on the 
 side of Grosseteste. J 
 
 Both canon law and common laiv were clear upon 
 the subject, and if the decision had been given the 
 other way it would have been in defiance of history 
 
 * Grosseteste, Ep. 80. \ A similar controversy on 
 
 t It would not have been com- visitation arose between St. 
 petent for Grosseteste at once to Charles Borromeo and his canons 
 excommunicate them, as above De Scala, was similarly referred 
 stated. He seems, however, to : to the pope, Pius V., and simi- 
 contemplate an intervening pro- i larly decided in favour of the 
 cess, since he says " suspenderem I Archbishop. 
 et postea excommunicarem." I 
 
16 
 
 The Old Activity. 
 
 and the universal practice of Europe. If jus divinum 
 (which also they both appealed to) might be trans- 
 lated on such a subject, " common sense," it must 
 have decided the same way. Grosseteste and his 
 chapter understood it to mean most astonishing 
 arguments from Scripture and natural history. 
 These were so two-edged that perhaps the historical 
 and legal points were even to their minds more con- 
 vincing ; yet there was something grand in the con- 
 viction that the laws which govern a chapter were 
 an outgrowth of the laws of nature and of revelation, 
 and could be investigated upon the principles of 
 physical and moral science. 
 
 The universal capitular system was now pro- 
 nounced to be in force here. Monastic exemption was 
 held in no way applicable to the practical diocesan 
 body of dean and canons, and, with one little 
 ebullition of anger at the period fixed for visita- 
 tion, they seem to have accepted the position with 
 loyalty. 
 
 In the course of the next 190 years no less than 
 six Lauda* are mentioned as given by the bishops of 
 Lincoln to the chapter and so becoming part of the 
 
 * See note on p. 10. Laudare 
 from the tenth century omvard is 
 of frequent use in the sense of ar- 
 bitrari to arbitrate ; as " convicta 
 culpa quse sit laudata per judi- 
 cium parium suorum." — Lau- 
 dum. 1. A decision by arbitra- 
 
 ment — " Rex Anglia3 dicto eorum 
 et Laudo se submittet." 2. Con- 
 sent, approval. 3. Statutes, 
 "Lauda formare ac reformare." 
 The instances are from Ducange. 
 It is in the first precise sense that 
 it is used in the Lincoln Book. 
 
The Old Activity. 
 
 17 
 
 cathedral statutes, and then we come to our complete 
 Register of the year a.d. 1440. And first we must 
 observe how it was made. 
 
 A little before the middle of the fifteenth century 
 certain dissensions between the dean and chapter had 
 reached a complication which induced both sides to 
 have recourse to the visitor's arbitration. He there- 
 fore summoned the whole body of the chapter.* the 
 dignitaries and the officers before liim. They 
 
 * K Xos "Willelnius vocatis de 
 inandato nostro per Decanuni et 
 Capitulum. juxta Eeclesiae nos- 
 tra? consuetudiueni loci, Canon- 
 icis et aliis dignitates et offioia 
 atque personatus in eadem obti- 
 neutibus universis de consuetu- 
 diae hujusmoii evocandis ; et 
 9 die mensis Junii sic vocatis 
 viz. diseretis viris et comparen- 
 tibus, et in capitulo adunatis, 
 prreniissa et alias convocations 
 pra?dicta3 causas aperuitnus su- 
 per quibns comniunicatione et 
 
 deliberatione praehabitis 
 
 nobis et omnibus sic convocatis 
 videbatur saluberrimuni fore " 
 &c. . . . [Marginal note : M Ca- 
 nonici convocantur per Decanum 
 et Capitulum et non Episeo- 
 puni."] 
 
 Preamble to the Laudum, p. 
 114: — " Considerantes quod id 
 quod omnes tangit ab omnibus 
 debet approbari, et ne quis con- 
 fratrum nostrorum dignitates 
 personatus aut praebendas in 
 
 ipsa Ecclesia nostra obtinentium 
 in ea parte possit conqueri se 
 contemptum. et aliis ex oaosis 
 nos moventibus. ad certam diem 
 in capitulo ejusdem ecclesiae eos- 
 dem omnes et singulos feci- 
 mus convocari. quibus dictis 
 die et loco comparentibus, ali- 
 quibus, viz. personaliter, et non- 
 nullis per eorum Procurators 
 comparentibus." kc. 
 
 Here it is assumed that the 
 bishop summons as many or as 
 
 [ few as he will. To summon all 
 is an act of grace in some degree. 
 
 The precise use of terms in all 
 cathedral statutes indicates Hie 
 universal and early character of 
 their institution. Dignitates. per- 
 sonatus. cmicia. are denned by De 
 Boiiix (p. 79 y to be the three 
 tituli beneficiales. DigiAtas is 
 praacedentia cum jurisdictione in 
 
 i foro exterior i. Personatus, pra?- 
 cedentia sine jurisdictione. Ofi- 
 cium, administratio absque juris- 
 dictione, et absque pra?cedentia. 
 
IS 
 
 The Old Activity. 
 
 attended (some by their proctors), in the chapter- 
 house. They and the dean of the day ("Decanus 
 raodernus "), Macworth by name, Chancellor to 
 the Prince of Wales, made unqualified resignation 
 or " compromi8sion " of all existing rights, privileges, 
 customs, and enactments (i ex alto et basso, absolute 
 et libere," into the bishop's hands. William 
 Alnwick, lately come to his throne, was an able 
 statesmanlike prelate. He was the framer of the 
 constitution and statutes of Eton. He seems to have 
 been appalled by the condition of the Lincoln statutes 
 exhibited to him " full of incertitude, obscurity and 
 contrariety, contained in divers books, and on sheets 
 arranged in no order." This was due to their conti- 
 nuous accretion. After twelve months he pronounced 
 an elaborate Laudum, or arbitration, on forty-two 
 articles exhibited by the chapter and fourteen exhi- 
 bited by the dean. This was only the last of many 
 such trials, sumptuosse quamplurimum, which had 
 been brought before various prelates, and been carried 
 even to the Eoman curia. On nearly all the articles 
 the dean was shown to have been the aggressor and 
 in the wrong. Some of these are serious, amounting 
 to assumption of the whole capitular jurisdiction ; 
 others singular, as for instance, the great danger to 
 which the ministers are exposed at night owing to 
 his keeping the close gate unfastened ; again he 
 brings armed retainers into the chapter meetings; 
 altogether they give a most interesting picture of 
 
The OH Activity. 
 
 19 
 
 cathedral life in the 15th century, and of its intense 
 activity. The abuses and irregularities are described 
 as of long standing, and as having grown up. 
 savs the judge, "mainly owing to the non-residence 
 of the Deans." Yet nothing can exceed the delicacy 
 with which ' Dominus Decanus ' is treated, Pre- 
 cautions are taken against the repetition of disorders, 
 and the past is condoned. 
 
 But a new and still more important business 
 had been undertaken at the same time, and within 
 two months more was complete. Bishop Alnwick 
 reviewed the whole of the ancient statutes, which 
 appear to have existed in four different documents, 
 dating from the year a.d. 1000, aud to have been 
 derived from the statutes of Bouen Cathedral ; * ot 
 the various Lauds pronounced by at least six dif- 
 ferent bishops ; of the numerous private agreements 
 with the founders of not less than twenty chantries : 
 and of the records of traditional custom by which 
 much both of the business and of the religious 
 work of the cathedral was regulated ; on this head 
 
 * Till lately a dilapidated Galilee Court." Compare forms 
 
 copy of the oldest Custom Book frequent in Lmcolnshire. such 
 
 was all that was known of the as Holton-le-Clay. Ashby-de-la- 
 
 more ancient Statutes, The Launde, Oarlton-le-Scroope, &e. 
 
 name given it in the Xew Canon Wiekenden has just found 
 
 Register, * Le Black Rx>k.' indi- in the Muniment Rooin fine 
 
 cates either a French notary, or copies of the Consuetudines. the 
 
 is a strange sample of the mixed Liber Niger, The Statuta. v.vA 
 
 tongues. It occurs again in "Le ether documents. 
 
20 
 
 The Old Activity. 
 
 Bishop Alnwick cited and examined numerous wit- 
 nesses. There was much that was contradictory and 
 obscure in this mass of material, and there were 
 many new regulations to be introduced. Nothing 
 can be more creditable than the compact and dis- 
 tinct work which, divided into five books, was 
 shortly presented to the chapter by the bishop, by 
 them accepted, and then ratified and authenticated 
 " with the seals of both " as the sole embodiment of 
 their law — and which, together with the Laudurn 
 itself, is at the present day accepted upon oath by 
 every canon or prebendary at his admission, and is 
 the law of the cathedral in all points in which it 
 has not been overruled by later statutes of the realm. 
 The subjects of the five books of this New Kegister* 
 are as follows : f — 
 
 1. The "primary institution" of the Church of 
 Lincoln, and the number and value of the dignities, 
 canonries, and prebends. 
 
 * Registrum—(l) The volume 
 into which precedents are en- 
 tered (regesta) as they occur. 
 'Statuta Arelat. MSS. Art. 95, 
 De Regestro Comunis. Item sta- 
 tuimus, Quod Comune teneatur 
 habere unum librum de per- 
 ganieno, in quo transcribantur 
 omnia instrumenta ad Comune 
 pertinentia.' — Lit. Phil. vi. ann. 
 1339, torn. G. ' Ordinat. reg. 
 Franc' p. 529, " Gardez les 
 Registres, bons usaiges, et cous- 
 tumes anciens." — Ducange. (2) 
 
 The customs themselves. The 
 older book was called ' Consue- 
 tudinarium,' at Exeter the ' Cus- 
 tomary.' 
 
 f The order of the London 
 ' Collection of Dean Baklock,' 
 a.d. 1305 (and, no doubt, of older 
 ones) is the same. In the con- 
 tents, as described in the preface, 
 much of the wording is identical ; 
 e.g., " De Canonicornm ingressu 
 per Canonicam installationem et 
 de communiter spectantibus ad 
 eosdem." 
 
The Old Activity. 
 
 21 
 
 2. Of the admission (ingressus) of canons and 
 prebendaries. 
 
 3. Of their life (progressus). 
 
 4. Of their departure (egressus), which may occur 
 through " resolution in death," through cession, pri- 
 vation, or translation ; and of their rights on each .of 
 these occasions. 
 
 5. Of the perpetual chaplains of the chantries, 
 and of the vicars and other inferior ministers.* 
 
 A full discussion of the interesting and often 
 amusing detail is not within our scope. For the 
 present we must simply glean what we may out of 
 the five books, illustrative of the true principles of 
 Cathedral life and Cathedral work. " Gleaning " 
 describes the operation ; for the primary institution, 
 the life and "progressus" of the canons are, as 
 regards enunciation of principles, the tantalising 
 parts of the work. The first is brief, a few his- 
 torical memoranda ; the second is almost purely 
 technical and legal. In fact, the theory and prin- 
 ciples of the life and work are assumed to be so clear 
 and familiar as to require no expression. Yet in 
 
 * In this Fifth Book is inserted 
 entire a much more ancient 
 document — the * Vicar's Sta- 
 tutes.' They frequently corre- 
 spond word for word, for some- 
 times twenty or thirty lines 
 together, with the statutes of the 
 Church of Sarum, in other parts 
 
 not to the same extent. A com- 
 parison with the Statutes of 
 Rouen might explain this. In 
 the Cathedral Commission Re- 
 port the Salisbury Statutes are 
 dated 1268, and attributed to 
 the dean and chapter. 
 
22 
 
 The Old Activity. 
 
 some respects the 'Lauduni ' and the ' Xew Kegister' 
 are more valuable than a book of principles would 
 have been. They take the system in full work. 
 They show what was considered possible and prac- 
 ticable after above four centuries of experience ; 
 they give glimpses of what the great institution was 
 doing, not what it was supposed that it ought to do ; 
 and, in plain language, they expose social corrup- 
 tions (for example, with regard to wills and inherit- 
 ances, and not as to these alone,) which under the 
 then wretched circumstances (pathetically called 
 1 moderna ') of the courts of civil and church law 
 must be regarded as having been inevitable, but 
 which, under our " modern " ones, would be not only 
 inexcusable, but inconceivable. 
 
 There was not in the minds of the old cathedral 
 lawgivers the slightest idea that canonical life and 
 cathedral work began and ended with " Cathedral 
 Service.'" The service was indeed all but incessant. 
 The Worship of the diocese was centred here, and 
 " rose like a fountain for it night and day." The 
 employment of the vicars, though the staff was 
 immense, is treated throughout the statutes as a 
 laborious occupation. But with regard to the 
 canons, although attendance at this worship was 
 an essential part of their life, it was the smallest 
 part of their work. Of it the ' Novum Eegistrum ' * 
 
 * In the same words as the Statutes of St. Paul's and (?) 
 Salisbury. 
 
The Old Activity. 
 
 23 
 
 says, " We exact but a moderate assiduity : not that 
 a canon should be compelled to attend all the Hours ; 
 but one Hour every day, or the High Mass . . . 
 u til ess he has leave of absence, or is ill, or is occu- 
 pied elsewhere in the affairs of the church." * 
 
 The corps of the cathedral consisted of the pre- 
 bendaries with their vicars and their superior 
 officers. The prebendaries were fifty-two in number, 
 each for one week in his turn taking the principal 
 position in the cathedral services ; in the rest of the 
 year it is assumed that their occupations will be 
 such as not in most instances to admit of their 
 residing in the close,t or if they do reside, of their 
 attending more than one of the hours of service 
 daily. If they undertake to reside for thirty-four 
 weeks of the year, a house is to be provided for 
 them, and they are to draw a dividend from certain 
 funds. Their name is derived from their j)rwbenda,t 
 
 * N. Reg. part iii. p. 49, " as- 
 siduitatem exigimus moderatam, \ 
 non ut omnibus horis cogatur 
 interesse . . . sed uni horse 
 [daily] vel missse majori nisi 
 minutus [i.e. bled] fuerit vel in- 
 firmus vel alias in negotiis ec- 
 clesise, occupatus." 
 
 f Two hundred and fifty years i 
 before this, the wiser and truer j 
 policy prevailed of appointing | 
 only such as could reside. 
 
 J It is interesting to notice 
 the vicissitudes of names. The 
 cathedral body were canonici 
 
 (canons) originally; but many 
 were unendowed, living on their 
 own means, or on dividends 
 from the common fund (com- 
 muna). Those who were en- 
 dowed were canonici praeben- 
 dati or praebendarii. If they 
 resided they were canonici resi- 
 dentiarii, prsebendati or not as 
 the case might be. Since the 
 prebends have been confiscated 
 to non-cathedral purposes, the 
 name of canons has been retained 
 for the residentiaries who are 
 alone endowed, and that of pre- 
 
24 
 
 The Old Activity. 
 
 each having one or more estates stationed through- 
 out the diocese ; on each estate a house of residence 
 with a "farnilia," and usually a church, either 
 served by themselves " with cure of souls " * or of 
 which the patronage is in their hands, and a school 
 under their direction. Each praebenda was a centre 
 of civilisation to its district. The duties and powers 
 of the prebendary with respect to his prebend are 
 defined and urged in this view. He is exhorted so 
 to administer it that his people may desire to con- 
 tinue (" appetant cornmorari") under his headship. 
 It is organically connected with the cathedral, and 
 visited at regular intervals by the dean, chapter, and 
 bishop ; any abuses observed in the holder's adminis- 
 tration are to be corrected by these authorities at 
 his expense, and appeals lie against him or from 
 him to the cathedral courts. 
 
 The prebendaries and officers formed the Chapter. 
 There was no line drawn between little chapter and 
 grand chapter. There was only one body.j What- 
 
 hendaries designates the unen- I keep the name in which they 
 dowt-d holders of stalls. Still it rightfully assert that claim, 
 is highly undesirable that in \ * Rob. Grosseteste, Ep. lxxiv. 
 cathedrals of the old foundation f 'Quinquaginta etsex canonici 
 "prebendaries" should give up cum capite suo (sc. bishop) corpus 
 the ancient style, and call them- j et capitulum constituunt : nego- 
 selves" canons " only, as if setting tia ecclesiae et secreta tractant ' 
 their seals to their own despolia- : (p. 35). Grosseteste remarks on 
 tion. " Canons," of course, they ' the incorrectness of using the 
 are (p. 47, and note) but the : term Chapter, as if the bishop 
 good of the church -would require I were not part and parcel of it. 
 them to be more, and they should | Ep. lxxiii. 
 
The Old Activity. 
 
 25 
 
 ever portion of this met, according to rule, in the 
 chapter- house, was " a chapter." They absolutely- 
 elected their dean, and nominally their bishop ; for 
 the rest, we find members of the body actively 
 employed at the royal and papal courts, as well as 
 in their more distinct functions of counsel and 
 assistance to the bishop * who selected them, and in 
 business which is described as laborious, under his 
 direction. Accordingly we find among them not 
 only theologians and preachers, but famous legists. 
 They were not all priests; some belonged also to 
 monastic orders, but these could not hold prebends 
 and resigned them if they had been prebendaries 
 before their vow, and so remained as simple 
 " canons." Not only study t is contemplated in the 
 statutes, and in part provided for by the still noble 
 though despoiled library, but higher education was 
 systematised in the " schools " which the chancellor 
 "ruled," and in which he with his staff lectured 
 not to young students only, but to ripe masters4 
 The results appeared in the fact, that from among 
 the prebendaries of the particular cathedral in ques- 
 tion every English see has been filled, and many of 
 them twice ; for of the fifty-two stalls all but one, 
 and some of them more than once, have given a 
 bishop to our church. Giraldus Cambrensis, when 
 
 * See note, p. 13. 
 t ' Studium ' is one of the em- 
 ployments in which the dean is 
 
 warned not to interrupt the 
 canons by too frequent chapters. 
 X See note, p. 109. 
 
26 
 
 The Old Activity. 
 
 Archdeacon of St. David's, at the age of forty-five, 
 spent nearly six years in studying at Lincoln * 
 under Chancellor William de Monte. Among great 
 foreigners, Thorlak the ecclesiastical lawgiver, and 
 first saint of the Icelandic Church (whose day is still 
 their national festival), studied first at Paris and 
 then at Lincoln ; his nephew and successor Paul was 
 probably a Lincoln student too.f 
 
 Altogether prebendal life was then very labo- 
 rious.:]: Some cathedral statutes enjoin that no one 
 
 * " Ubi sanius atque salubrius 
 in AngliaTheologieam scientiam 
 vigere cognovit." — Ger. C. de 
 rebus a se geslis, lib. iii. c. 3. 
 
 t "Bp. Thorlak was born in 
 ad. 1133, was ordained priest 
 about 1152, and shortly after- 
 wards went abroad ; first to the 
 University of Paris, and thence 
 to Lincoln, where he ' contracted 
 much learning useful to himself 
 and to others.' He returned to 
 Iceland, after being six years 
 abroad; his stay in Lincoln 
 would fall in about 1158-1160. 
 In 1178 he received ordination as 
 Bishop of Skalhalt, and died 
 23rd of December, 1193. In 1199 
 he was by the Icelandic Parlia- 
 ment declared Saint (Thorlakr 
 Helgi), aud a very popular saint 
 he was. The Thorlak's Missa is 
 at present the introduction to 
 Christmas. It is a significant 
 token of the independence of the 
 ancient Church that he was 
 
 canonized by the Parliament 
 without any confirmation from 
 Kome asked or given. His name 
 is not, therefore, in the Roman 
 Calendar. In his own country 
 he was an undisputed national 
 saint. 
 
 " A minute account of his life 
 as bishop is contained in the 
 Thorlak's ' Saga ' (published in 
 'Bishupae Saga,' i. 87-199), 
 written by a contemporary cleric, 
 and bearing witness to his learn- 
 ing, gentleness, and purity of 
 life. 
 
 " Saint Thorlak's nephew and 
 successor, Paul (d. 1211), also 
 studied in England. The place 
 is not recorded; it may have 
 well been the place where his 
 uncle studied before him.'' I 
 have to thank for this note the 
 learned author of the ' Icelandic 
 Dictionary,' Mr. Gudbrandt Vig- 
 fusson of Oxford. 
 
 \ "Residentia debet esse la- 
 
The Old Activity. 
 
 27 
 
 shall be appointed whose health is not likely " to 
 endure the labour." One of the reasons which 
 Alnwick gives for assigning large salaries to the 
 holders of stalls is the way in which they " devote 
 themselves to the public service in self-imposed 
 tasks " over and above " their daily expositions, and 
 constant toils and numerous burdens." * The advan- 
 tages, however, of the position were such as even then 
 to excite the mundane cupidity of men who had no 
 intention of working ; while the honour of being 
 associated but titularly with the 'noble multitude 
 of clerks' who frequented Lincoln was, as we have 
 seen, coveted even by famous savants of foreign 
 Universities. One of Bishop St. Hugh's severest 
 wrestles with the Crown arose from royal attempts 
 to force courtiers into stalls, and the reputation and 
 the peacefulness of the vast establishment t were 
 much increased by the determination with which, 
 while he sought for men to fill them, ' eminent for 
 the prerogative of diligence and literature,' he yet 
 would not accept the most eminent, unless he could 
 satisfy himself that they were £ of quiet and modest 
 spirit.' In the same tone we find the great Grosse- 
 
 boriosa, non desidiosa." — Fag- 
 nanus ap. Van Espen, ' De Hist, 
 et Off. Canon.' iii. v. § 2. 
 
 * u Utilitatibus desudant . . . 
 voluntarise obsequiorum neces- 
 sitates .... tractatus quoti- 
 
 diani, continuique labores, mul- 
 taque onera." — MS. Nov. Reg. 
 p. 61. 
 
 t " Cunctis ecclesiis gloriosius 
 copiosiusque," id. iii. 8. 
 
28 
 
 The Old Activity. 
 
 teste — philosopher, statesman, patriot — not only 
 defying an excommunication for resisting the pope's 
 demand for a prebend for his nephew, but, with an 
 eye to the substantial work which he expected, 
 refusing Cardinal Otho's request that he would 
 confer a stall upon one whom Clrosseteste himself 
 admits to be ' eminent in science and illustrious cha- 
 racter ' simply on the ground that work at Lincoln 
 was not such as would suit him best ; while to 
 another scholar of high character he offers a small 
 prebend on condition of his coming at once into 
 residence, there to help feed the flock with the three 
 necessaries, ' the word of preaching ; the pattern of 
 a holy conversation ; and the devotion of single- 
 hearted prayer.' It was for the sake of greater 
 efficiency in this same work, ' to devote himself to 
 the duties of his prebendal stall, that earlier in life 
 he had himself resigned a higher dignity, and 
 become by his own act a poorer man.' 
 
 It is difficult to realise the amount and diversity 
 of interests which centred in this now quiet retreat. 
 From foreign, national, and diocesan relations, from 
 the numerous monasteries which these 'Seculars' 
 superintended, and on which their larger spirit had 
 salutary effect,* let us turn to the cathedral itself, 
 and what was going on around it. 
 
 * Compare in 1 Nov. Reg.' the contrast drawn between the 
 pettiness of monastic discipline and the wider spirit of the 
 cathedral. 
 
The Old Activity. 
 
 29 
 
 L There was then, first, the School of Architecture, 
 which, under the "Masters of the Fabric," was 
 creating continuously from century to century a 
 " Christian Parthenon on a Christian Acropolis," 
 maintaining communications with the progressive 
 architects of the Continent,* radiating adaptations 
 through the diocese, and influencing far and wide 
 the taste of the country in every department of art. 
 
 II. There was the School of Music, which, under 
 the headship of the ' Praecentor ' (second, be it 
 remembered, only to the dean), had offshoots, song- 
 schools (scholae cantus) • in every parish of the 
 diocese, maintained a strict i inspection ' through 
 a ' master of song ' (magister cantus) in the city 
 and county of Lincoln (p. 28), and gave ' grants in 
 aid' to erery school which was not wholly main- 
 tained either by some prebendary, or by the rector 
 and curate of the place. 
 
 The central school of the Choristae themselves 
 (who were not to be * mere hirelings,' nor wholly 
 free scholars,! and who were to be of good birth as 
 well as character) was to be a kind of model, with 
 its strict discipline yet ' gentle punishments 9 % 
 under the precentor's immediate direction. The 
 
 * This I say diffidently, and ! 
 believing Lincoln to be a truly 
 English building; but I think 
 it difficult for anyone to study 
 the architecture of Fe'camp in 
 detail without concluding that 
 
 the old connection between the 
 two churches was kept up. 
 
 t MS. p. 28 ; see the direction 
 " ut expeusis puerorum parcatur." 
 
 \ p. 23 ; " levi castigatione." 
 
30 
 
 The Old Activity. 
 
 boys resided with one of the residentiary canons as 
 warden, had an " industrious seneschal " to cater for 
 them, a trusty man to attend them out of doors, and 
 either one or two masters for singing* and grammar.! 
 
 in. There was the still more important School of 
 Grammar under the Chancellor. He is responsible 
 for all the grammar schools of the city and county, 
 and for all appointments made to them, save only 
 singing-schools, prebend al schools, and (how modern 
 an exception !) those schools which are maintained 
 by heal managers * for the instruction of their 
 parishioners in faith and letters.' He was in fact a 
 minister of education. At St. Paul's London and 
 elsewhere, this officer " has charge of education, not 
 for the church only, but for the whole city. All 
 teachers of grammar are subject to him." J An- 
 
 * The remarks on the style of I old author in answer to a natural 
 singing, Nov. Keg. pp. 46, 49, | inquiry. He points especially to 
 are too long for quotation, but ; the schools of the Barnabites 
 they are excellent ; insisting on throughout Italy, and to the 
 a sharp, crisp style, on the man- litterarum studia, contionum 
 agement of the breath, and on ; munus, ammarum directio, con- 
 the necessity for intelligence of versio infidelium, conducted by 
 the sense. Some ancient pre- all those orders which found 
 center's precept, taken from ( the full daily usus Hymnodisc 
 among the directions prefixed (choral service) to be maxime 
 to the Sarum Fortuaries, " Aus- carus d utilis. Ap. Mmeum 
 cultando cane ; simul incipe ; , Cod. Iiegg. et Constt. Cleric, 
 desine plane," is quoted both 57. 
 
 here and in St. Paul's statutes. , J Dean Colet's • Epitome of 
 t " Chorus non obest scholis " , the Statutes,' p. 227 in the same 
 is the dictum which " ex peri- i grand volume of St. Paul's 
 entia teste," is laid down by an statutes. 
 
The Old Activity. 
 
 31 
 
 tieutly he was chargeable with the maintenance of 
 the fabric of St. Paul's School. At York his office 
 is more antient than that of dean or precentor, 
 under the title of ' inagister scholarum/ which 
 corresponds to the foreign scholasticus, scholaster, 
 escolatre. or capiscol, and to the archischola of "St. 
 Osmund's Register " at Sarum. 
 
 iv. There is the School of Divinity in the city 
 itself. That it was large and widely popular, we 
 saw ; but we have no means of learning its num 
 bers. It was like the Schools of Letters * ruled ' 
 by the Chancellor, and all appointments in it 
 were to be tilled up by him. He was also the 
 keeper of the seal, custodian of the charters 
 and muniments, and the official correspondent of 
 the chapter. It was from cathedral institutions 
 that universities borrowed the idea of this principal 
 literary officer. 
 
 " It is, and it ought to be," says Alnwick, " his 
 office to rule the Theological School ; also actually 
 to lecture in the same." Besides these more clerical 
 or technical lectures, he had fixed days on which he 
 delivered popular lectures or sermons in English (ad 
 2)opidum in Angiitis). He also was responsible for 
 arranging (ordinare) the lectiones or collationes read 
 in the chapter-house, which are characterized (re- 
 markable phrase) as haying proved " most effectual 
 for the reformation of faith and morals." Lastly, 
 he was the warder of the precious treasure of the 
 
32 
 
 The Old Activity. 
 
 libri scholastici, except such as were ' chained in the 
 library.' His multifarious duties, and the extent of 
 the field, made the Chancellor, as we have seen, the 
 ' principium et quasi fundamenturn ecclesise,' and 
 rendered the office of a vice-chancellor indispensable. 
 
 In some cathedrals, as Exeter and London for 
 instance, later prelates added further livings or 
 estates to an office which bore such heavy charges 
 for the diocese at large. But the essential idea and 
 function are long anterior to and independent of 
 such special endowments. 
 
 The principal work of the cathedral Chancellor is 
 thus defined by Dean Colet: — "He is the teacher 
 in erudition and doctrine, and is bound to lecture 
 publicly in divinity, unto the knowledge of God and 
 instruction in life and morals." An interesting 
 document, an ordinance of Bishop Fitzjames (a.d. 
 1506) illustrates the inherent, universal duty of a 
 Chancellor.* He relates " how of antient date it 
 had been healthfully ordained with a view to the 
 discipline, the cherishing through sacred doctrine, 
 and the nourishment with the Divine food of God's 
 Word, of all the ministers of St. Paul's, and of all 
 clerks and presbyters dwelling in the glorious city, 
 and of the rest who daily flow together there, that 
 the Chancellor should lecture continually, or 
 
 * St. Paul's Statutes, p. 413. in the admirable answers of the 
 Compare also the extracts from Chapter of Sarum. App.l,Cath. 
 their various documents supplied Eep. 185-1, p. 367. 
 
The Old Activity. 
 
 33 
 
 provide for lectures in divinity . . " He notice^ 
 how well this duty had been discharged, until, 
 •'through the carelessness, fault, sloth, and negli- 
 gence of certain Chancellors," it had been inter- 
 mitted from time to time, and at length dropped. 
 '•'Grave complaints have been addrest to him on 
 the loss of what was so useful and necessary, and 
 to devout souls so profitable (commorfifera). The 
 present Chancellor, however, declares that he has 
 given it up on account of the word continually, 
 such a duty being a natural impossibility." The 
 bishop naively remarks on the fallibility of human 
 judgment ; since directions felt to be most desirable 
 one day are next day intolerable. Still he consent> 
 to interpret the word u in a benign and favourable 
 sense," and accordingly defines three terms in the 
 year during which the chancellor is henceforth to 
 lecture thrice a week. * 
 
 v. On the u Archdeacons!' whose head-quarters 
 were here, it is not necessary to dwell. Each had 
 one of the seven counties of the diocese under his 
 
 * In foreign cathedrals (it may council of Tours (a. p. 15S3) im- 
 be well to observe) the duties of poses on " the scholastici anil 
 the English Cancellarius Q Chan- \ chancellors" of cathedrals and 
 cellor of the Church ") were fre- ; collegiate churches, to teach 
 quently divided between two accurate reading of the service 
 canons, the Scholasticus and the itself ; and one of Bourges le- 
 Theologus. and the name was quires that " Scholastici and 
 seldom applied except to the ' Chancellors " should be Doctors 
 Caneellarius Episcopi, or Chan- or Licentiates of Divinity or 
 i- el I or of the Diocese. Still the Canon Law. 
 
 D 
 
34 
 
 The Old Activity. 
 
 direction, and all the jurisdiction since lost through 
 " the heedlessness of archdeacons or the power- 
 fulness of bishops"* was not without its burdens. 
 Their jurisdiction is expressly fenced off as "ex- 
 terior" to the cathedral.t They rank below pre- 
 centor, chancellor, treasurer, and sub-dean, and, 
 unless they have prebends themselves, below the 
 fifty-two prebendaries. 
 
 Is it a trace of the very ancient connection of 
 St. Paul's with Rome itself that there, alone in 
 England (in spite of the connection of its statutes 
 with our main stream — which in my imperfect 
 information I venture to derive from Rouen), the 
 Archdeacons and Treasurer rank next the dean above 
 the thirty canons, just as at St. Peter's at Rome the 
 Archdeacon and Altarist have precedence next the 
 dean among the thirty canons ? % Or is it (as Dr. 
 Simpson conjectures) a trace of the original Rule of 
 canons — that of St. Chrodogang of Metz, of which 
 more hereafter? So it was at Llandaff, and lasted 
 till the late massacre ; the bishop there sitting in 
 the stall on the right, and the archdeacon on the 
 left of the choir entrance. The bishop there still 
 " had unity of possession with the chapter and 
 constituted part of it," and so late as 1218 "the 
 property of the chapter was undivided from the 
 
 * Frances, c. 8Q, n. 24, 
 
 t See note on p. 57. 
 
 X At St. Peter's an archpres- 
 
 byter (a cardinal) is over the 
 dean. 
 
The Old Activity. 
 
 35 
 
 bishopric and the possession not severed " * nor 
 divided into separate estates for the canons.t 
 
 vi. Under the '' Treasurer/' besides the manage- 
 ment of various funds, and the responsibility of the 
 magnificence with which the pages of Dug-lale flash 
 out, as it passes from its old home to the sideboards 
 or crucibles of Henry VIII.'s friends } (and may such 
 moveable magnificence never mock the cathedral of 
 the future!), was the supply of large quantities of 
 warm cloth for the poor, distributed by the canons; 
 and the dispensary, of which the medicine-niches yet 
 surround the walls of an apartment in the cathedral. 
 
 The present statutes say nothing of the road- 
 making and bridge-making which is described in 
 other cathedral statutes as part of the " work." 
 But their present form sufficiently explains this : 
 and probably the character of the country made it 
 at least as imperative here as elsewhere. 
 
 vii. Lastly, we come to the u Cathedral Service ; 99 
 the sole function of the great institution which was 
 limited to its own walls. The ceaseless Supplica- 
 tion for Grace, the perpetual Intercession, the end- 
 less Praise — unbroken yet ever new — like Nature 
 
 * Cath. Beport. 1854. Gaunt "s executors. It illustrates 
 
 + See p. 48, et seqq. what must have been a most 
 
 J Canon "Wickenden. who is precious portion of the Lincoln 
 
 devoting his great skill and zeal Tre'sor — the glorious 1 Joyalx ' 
 
 to the documents of the Muni- and works of art which he be- 
 
 ment Room, has printed with queathed to it. 'Archaeological 
 
 elucidations a correspondence be- Journal,' vol. xxxii. page 317 
 
 ween the chapter and John of (187.5). 
 
36 
 
 The Old Activity. 
 
 herself with daily-varying, never-changing majesty 
 — practical issue of a still languidly-acknowledged 
 theory.* 
 
 Every prebendary provided a Vicar for the choir 
 service. It is a common idea that priest-vicars 
 arose out of the absenteeism of the canons. The 
 fact is, that the vicars were the working staff of 
 " cathedral service," while the canons were the 
 servers of " cathedral work." There were properly 
 as many vicars as there were canons. The vicars 
 of the non-resident canons were a body corporate 
 under the dean and chapter. The residentiaries had 
 chaplains or commensales who were subject to their 
 own " dominus " alone ; lived in their houses, served 
 their private chapels (of which one remains in the 
 chancery or chancellor's house at Lincoln), and 
 attended them in choir. They and the vicars served 
 the choir whether their prebendary was present or 
 not, and in no case relieved the latter of his duties, 
 which were absolutely distinct not only as to the 
 ' work/ but in the service of the choir itself. No 
 one but a prebendary could act as deputy to a pre- 
 bendary in the church. So at Exeter " each of the 
 twenty-four canons had his vicar from the commence- 
 ment." t The same is the case in every old cathedral. 
 
 * On this important subject — 
 the true theory of the perpetual 
 AeiTovpyia of the cathedral — we 
 may be permitted to refer to the 
 beautiful chapters on the Daily 
 
 Office in the work of the Dean 
 of Norwich, ' On the Principles of 
 the Cathedral System,' 1870. 
 t Cath. Comm. p. 183. 
 
The Old Activity. 
 
 37 
 
 viii. We need scarcely speak of the accretion of 
 twenty chantries, each with its chaplain, and the 
 
 pauperes clerici " who guarded the altars. This 
 system was an after-growth, having no original place 
 in, and no true connection with, the cathedral 
 system ; a temporary enrichment, but, finally and 
 justly, one of the most active causes of dissolution. 
 AYhen at last the fifteenth-century prelate com- 
 missioned two diocesan preachers (who should have 
 had other subject-matter) to stimulate the decreas- 
 ing supply of devotions for the fabric by proclaiming 
 the chapter's care for the souls of departed bene- 
 factors — when the offerings of the dead became the 
 trade of the living, the heart of the fabric was near 
 ceasing to beat. But this sad side of the picture, to 
 which it is only just to advert, need, nevertheless, 
 not detain us, for it belongs only to the centuries 
 in which decay was at work, and is in itself the 
 principal symptom of decay. 
 
 And now it is worth while to pause for a moment 
 to remember that of this great establishment in its 
 integrity — setting aside the chantry priests — not a 
 single line of the plan has perished. Not one office 
 or title (perexiles tituli though they have all become 
 for the time) is extinct, w 7 ith the significant excep- 
 tion of the treasurership. Even that office has 
 never been abolished. It is said that the last 
 treasurer of Lincoln watched the last packages 
 ' of the vessels of the house of the Lord ' carried 
 
38 
 
 The Old Activity. 
 
 forth 'for the king and his princes,' and then 
 exclaimed, " Ceasing the treasure, so ceaseth the 
 office of the treasurer," flung down his keys on the 
 choir-floor, and never sate in his stall again. The 
 chapter never filled up his office. But vicars, pre- 
 bendaries in full tale, chancellor, precentor, dean, 
 sub-dean, succentor, vice-chancellor, have never 
 ceased to be appointed. It is said that when it was 
 proposed to leave the prebendal stalls unabolished 
 while confiscating the funds, the proposal was passed 
 by the House of Commons with a derisive cheer. 
 Members of the then Parliament thought they 
 ' knew the clergy ' too well to suppose that they 
 would accept offices which entailed expense, trouble, 
 journeyings, labour in writing and preaching with- 
 out reward for the sake of maintaining the ancient 
 forms of their cathedrals in honour and respect. Yet 
 they were mistaken. Prebendal stalls are filled, 
 and the duties accepted with pride and without hire. 
 It would be difficult to find one instance in which 
 they had ever been declined, and all prebendal stalls 
 are full. Is there not significance in the fact ? 
 
 In speaking of the daily corporate life of this 
 great body, our space is too scant to allow us to 
 dwell on the many delicate and even tender pro- 
 visions for mutual respect and harmony, on the 
 precautions taken for the honourable discharge of 
 all private debts ; the kindly appeal not to take up 
 the time of the chapter with personal grievances ; 
 
The Old Activity. 
 
 39 
 
 the visiting of the sick ; the thrilling vigils of all 
 the canons through the night on the occurrence of 
 a death in their ranks ; the kindliness towards the 
 'farnilia' of the deceased enjoined on the suc- 
 cessor ; the penalties for violation of such respect ; 
 the undisappointed confidence with which the keep- 
 ing-up of the grand choir-books and lectionaries is 
 committed to the private expenses of the Precentor 
 and Chancellor, and the provision of the countless 
 necessaries for divine worship, similarly to the per- 
 sonal charges of the Treasurer ; or again, the 
 assignment of a portion of the Psalter to the bishop 
 and each prebendary, so that the whole Psalter 
 might be daily recited as a common act of private 
 devotion, and with the thought and memory of com- 
 mon obligation. But there are three points to which 
 we must advert; they show as well as any number 
 could do, what was the spirit which animated that 
 life. 
 
 (1) The consideration of inferiors. In the payment 
 of every dividend and every due the inferior 
 ministers and vicars receive their full salaries before 
 any other persons receive anything ; " not in order 
 to give them higher place," but because they are 
 " Christ's poor," who depend on this their labour 
 " bearing the burden of the night as well as of the 
 day." So also all their special allowances are to be 
 paid at short intervals. • This to promote " gladness 
 and sedulity." 
 
40 
 
 The Oli Activity. 
 
 (2) Elevating influence on subordinates. Every 
 prebendary on his Sunday-turn entertains nineteen 
 of the under officers of the staff at dinner; and 
 daily through his week others, some at luncheon, 
 and some at breakfast The dean, about thirty 
 times a year, gave a " honorificus pastus " in his own 
 house to all the choir and all the vicars, with a view 
 to making " life and work more pleasant to them." 
 One dean having evaded the rule through frequent 
 absence, is enjoined to give the feast equally whether 
 present or absent. But the rule is that the giver 
 shall dine or sup along with his humbler guests, 
 and cultivate personal relations with them. 
 
 (3) Companionship. Its importance to "bachelors," 
 occupied as these men were, is fully recognised. 
 Each prebendary in residence is as far as possible to 
 make a companion of his chaplain ; he is to be his 
 commensalis, he is to accompany him in walking. 
 To us, with our restless movements, and distant 
 communications and crowd of acquaintances, this 
 seems too formal. It was otherwise when all these 
 conditions of society were reversed. But even in 
 modern times it is well known how affectionate and 
 lofty have been the friendships of ecclesiastics thus 
 paired, as they loved to think, after the pattern of 
 the first disciples ; and we can still recognise the 
 beneficial influence the system would have on the 
 selection, and in the cultivation of the younger man. 
 
 From the society itself we pass to the considera- 
 
The. Old Activity. 
 
 41 
 
 tion of the head of the society. The Dean was not 
 an original officer in every chapter even in England, 
 and his position is difficult to delineate. His powers 
 were always great, but indefinite. " What appertains 
 to the office of dean is but slightly laid down in 
 law."* He was simply "pre-eminent." Older than 
 Grossetestef was the gradual assumption of that 
 place with respect to the chapter which belonged 
 originally to the bishop, but which it rarely seemed 
 worth the bishop's while to battle for. 1 
 
 During i( the quiet period " — the Church of Eng- 
 land's siesta-century — a deanery has been often 
 indeed a well-merited reward, which the Church of 
 England was only too blest in being allowed to 
 dispense ; a position in which wit and learning, 
 eloquence, hospitality, and gentle Christian life have 
 most fairly flourished. But antiently the very 
 variety of influence assigned in different cases § 
 
 * " Quid ad Decani officium 
 spectet modicum reperitur in 
 jure decisum." (Nov. Reg. MS. 
 p. 10.) Wazon, Dean of Liege 
 a.d. 1030 (in a very amusing 
 letter in Miraeus, p. 93), says 
 that the name Decanus is rarely 
 used in large churches where 
 there 'are from forty to sixty 
 canons. Prxlatus was more usual. 
 
 t Ep. 127, ed. Luard. 
 
 X In one see an eminent 
 bishop never saw his cathedral 
 during an episcopate of twenty 
 years. It is grotesque, that, in 
 some cathedrals, the bishop can- 
 
 pulpit without invitation ; in 
 others does not ordain without 
 obtaining permission. The late 
 Master of Trinity (Dr. C. Words- 
 worth, in his eloquent letter 
 to the Ecclesiastical Commis- 
 sioners, 1837) expresses sorrow 
 and surprise at the part taken by 
 the bishops against the chapters. 
 But at that time the estrange- 
 ment was complete. 
 
 § " Secundum varias diver- 
 sorum locorum consuetudines in 
 diversis consistit Officium De- 
 cani." (Xov. Reg. 1. c.) 
 
42 
 
 The Old Activity. 
 
 tells of long-felt difficulties. When chapters were 
 in vigour it was no easy place to fill. Here is a 
 specimen : " A dean succeeds to the government of a 
 chapter, say rather, to the guiding of an untameable 
 beast. It is hard and difficult to govern a small 
 house, but great chapters are so much the worse, 
 because there are as many opinions as there are 
 individuals. If a dean be charmed with the dignity 
 of his office, let him fear its burdens ; let him fear 
 its perils. It is no easy task to recount them." * 
 
 In some cases a dean was but one voice in the 
 chapter; in others he was equipollent with the 
 whole chapter ; now independent of it, now superior 
 to it, and indeed its visitor.t Alnwick declares 
 that no law has defined the status of deans, and 
 that it is so various in various places that local 
 custom alone could regulate it. But he does not 
 hesitate to affirm that, while the Arch-Enemy 
 " continually sits in ambuscade waiting for eccle- 
 siastics," and while there arise " innumerable scandal- 
 fraught contentions, so inveterate that an infinity 
 of ills and perils to the souls and bodies and pro- 
 perties of our church have come to pass, and, 
 grievous to say, are coming to pass incessantly," 
 the main cause of the cathedral mischiefs and evils 
 of his day was to be found in the conduct of the 
 deans. So obvious was this that the prebendary's 
 
 * Koderic of Zamora ap. Van 
 Espen, vol. ii. p. 660. 
 t This is clear enough from 
 
 the statutes, in spite of Grosse- 
 teste's logical proof that the dean 
 was visor, not visitator. Ep. 127. 
 
The Old Activity. 
 
 43 
 
 very oath of obedience quaintly anticipated it. At 
 bis admission be promises to obey the chapter " vobis 
 {i.e. decano) absentibus aut negligentibus" u when 
 you, the dean, are absent or neglectful."* 
 
 Keseived for our days have been decanal proposi- 
 tions to diminish decanal difficulties by dissolving- 
 canonical corporations and making the dean into a 
 grander rector, with vicars for curates. And we 
 have had episcopal propositions to loosen episcopal 
 knots by promoting bishops to be deans. Let us 
 trust we have heard the last of these things. A 
 diocese and its clergy need great, bright, central 
 houses of work, worship, counsel, and sympathy ; 
 and a house must have a head. A bishop, too, 
 needs them. Let everything be done to bring them 
 to their ideal and to invest them with all that can 
 advance their " gladness and sedulity." Incidental 
 difficulties attach to these as to other approximating 
 positions of almost plenary power. But how abund- 
 antly clear it has become in our own days that such 
 difficulties, which seemed insuperable in Castles of 
 Indolence, descend to zero when all feel alike that 
 powers are conferred not for the ' magnifying of 
 offices,' but for ' the edifying of the Body of 
 Christ.' 
 
 * Few sketches of mediaeval 
 life are more amusing than the 
 history of Dean Macworth's in- 
 
 genious evasions and tyrannical 
 contraventions of the statutes. 
 
44 
 
 The Idea. 
 
 IV. — THE IDEA. 
 "RELATION OF THE CHAPTER TO THE BISHOP. 
 
 We have set before ourselves a picture of the life 
 that once was in one great cathedral. It is time that 
 we look at the whole institute in relation to the 
 episcopal order and to the church constitution in 
 which it was so conspicuous. This is our Second head. 
 
 What is the essential Kelation of a Chapter to a 
 Bishop ? of the diocesan church to the head of the 
 diocese ? What was the original relation ? Did it 
 subsist unaltered? If alterations took place, were 
 they in obedience to an upward and advancing law ? 
 
 It might have seemed natural to begin sooner at 
 this beginning. But I remember that old prince of 
 lecturers, Adam Sedgwick, telling us how, in forty- 
 years of lecturing, he had one year emptied his 
 lecture room. It was the only year in which he 
 began at the beginning — with the Primitive Rocks. 
 "Since then I've always begun with what was just 
 in sight, and worked backwards." So we have been 
 looking at what was "just in sight" — a body of 
 cathedral statutes still in force, and not so long ago 
 instinct with energies. What, then, were cathedral 
 statutes as a piece of the world ? What had they to 
 do with things in general ? What did they grow 
 out of ? 
 
 The statutes of a cathedral were in no respect 
 
'Relation of the Chapter to the Bishop. 
 
 45 
 
 privilegia ; they were but a fragment of a powerful 
 and well-understood system of law— jus commune — 
 which existed throughout Europe. Statutes framed 
 for particular cathedrals could not contravene this, 
 and could modify it only in some particulars.* 
 
 The exceeding antiquity of the Cathedral Insti- 
 tution is indicated among other things by its dif- 
 fusion, or rather by its universality. Its origin 
 cannot be traced to any enactments — imperial, 
 papal, or conciliar. It is not possible to point to 
 any episcopal chair which is not at once seen sur- 
 rounded by its * senatus,' its * presbytery,' ' council,' 
 or 'cardinals.' The name Chapter (capitulum) 
 designates this body, but it became fashionable only 
 with the popularity of the monastic orders from 
 whom it was adopted. 
 
 The episcopal character of this society was shown 
 
 * Compare even the latest 
 views on this subject, for instance, 
 in the council of Cologne, a.d. 
 1536 : "Habent fere quotquot sunt 
 cathedrales ac collegiat£e ec- 
 clesise suum volumen peculi- 
 arium statutorum .... et quan- 
 tumvis pleraque inter haec iniqua 
 reperiantur, adiguntur tamen 
 omnes [newly admitted canons] 
 ut ad ejusmodi statutorum ob- 
 servationem, etiam ignari quid j 
 contineant ilia, citra ullum de- 
 lectum sesejurejurandoalligent." 
 The bishops and chapters are 
 desired to review these \olumes, I 
 
 and " quse discipline ecclesiasticse 
 minus consentanea reperta fuerint 
 resecare" and are admonished "ad 
 coercendam illam immoderatam 
 in capitulis juramentorum exac- 
 tionem" (part iii. c. 19, Labbe, vol. 
 xix. p. 1238, ed. Venet. 1730> 
 Van Espen remark son how peri- 
 lous a foundation any canons rely 
 who under pretext of Statutes 
 (and what would he say to 
 " Precedent "?) venture to claim 
 exemption from wider ecclesi- 
 astical definitions of their onerous 
 duties (torn. ii. p. 643, ed. Lovan. 
 1778). 
 
46 
 
 Tlie Idea. 
 
 in their wearing habitually the same dress as the 
 bishop, namely the rochet, instead of the alb, and in 
 some chapters even the mitre.* In these early 
 episcopal institutions there are of course resem- 
 blances to the arrangements of the fourth century, 
 and though it would be uncritical to connect them 
 (as was formerly done) in the way of historical 
 descent, yet it would be equally uncritical to say 
 that the example of Augustine was not commonly 
 present to the minds of the societies of the eighth or 
 ninth. 
 
 " I was made a bishop," Augustine says.f " I saw it 
 was necessary for a bishop to be showing constant 
 attentions to all comers, or even passing strangers 
 . . . It would have been unbecoming to allow 
 such habits of intercourse with the world in a 
 monastery" (such as he had lived in hitherto) 
 " and therefore I wanted to have with me in this 
 bishop's house of mine a monastery for clergy .% 
 
 * Toledo, Mainz, Vienne, Macon 
 &c. Walcott, Sacred Archaeology, 
 p. 384. The general dress was, 
 over a surplice, the plain black 
 (or violet) short sleeveless, 
 "choral cope" (perpetuated with 
 little change in the dress of 
 the Burghersh chanters, or four 
 senior singing boys at Lincoln), 
 which has descended in the chi- 
 mere of the English bishops. It 
 was laid aside in the daytime in 
 the summer half. 
 
 t Serm. 1 ad Pop. Hippon. 
 " De communi clericorum suo- 
 rum vita.*' 
 
 % The word monasterium was 
 not uncommonly applied even in 
 the middle ages to cathedrals 
 and collegiate churches which 
 had no extant connection with 
 monastic orders; e.g. Arras, 
 Cambray, Malines, Liere (Atre- 
 batense, Cameracense, Mechlini- 
 ettse, Liranum Monasterium), are 
 quoted from documents. Perhaps 
 
Relation of the Chapter to the Bishop. 47 
 
 This is how we live. No one in our society is 
 allowed to have anything of his own. Perhaps 
 some have. Well, it is not allowed. If any have, 
 they do what is not allowed." 
 
 The term Canonici* i.e. " inscribed on the canon, 
 matricula or album of the church," is said not to 
 occur before the sixth century, but the associates 
 so called did not differ materially from earlier 
 societies. 
 
 The members of this council were naturally at 
 first the " parochi civitatis" presbyters and deacons of 
 the city only ; f here and there we find traces of 
 their sharing the bishop's table and purse ; usually 
 their maintenance was from the common church 
 fund, without a common establishment.^ 
 
 The eighth and ninth centuries, however, saw- 
 community life very generally introduced. In the 
 
 this may, through, some tra- made, though, in common with 
 ditional use, explain Lincoln Van Espen, he unfortunately 
 Minster, Beverley Minster, Wim- considers the name Canonici to 
 borne Minster, York Minster, come from their observing, or 
 Southwell Minster. even from their duty of studying, 
 
 Lye's Anglo - Saxon Diet, canons, 
 gives mynstre-preost = parochus, f Thomassin shows and ac- 
 mynsterham = Ecclesiaj domus, . counts for the fact that we not 
 mynstre cloensung = Ecclesiae unfrequently find mention of 
 reconciliatio. j bishops among those bodies. (De 
 
 * Thomassin (I. iii. 8, 7) I Beneff. P. I. lib. iii. c. vii. § 9, 
 quotes from the Historia Au- 10.) 
 
 gusta the word Canon as of fre- i j This earliest condition was 
 quent occurrence to signify the | represented among us for ages at 
 Catahgus Militum, to whom the Llandaff (p. 34, supra). 
 distributions of annona were 
 
48 
 
 The Idea. 
 
 Kule drawn up for the reform of the Canons of 
 Metz * by their great Bishop Chrodogang (Gode- 
 grand) a.d. 755, Chancellor to Charles Martel and 
 Pepin, which Kule was widely diffused through 
 the influence of Charlemagne and Louis I., occurs 
 perhaps the first absolute prescription of a common 
 dormitory and refectory. There is to be a gated 
 close within which some only of the canons are 
 by licence from the bishop allowed to occupy 
 separate " mansiones." The heads of this society 
 are next to the bishop, — (1) The Archdeacon, (2) 
 The Primicerius,t (3) The Cellerarius. Even this 
 last officer is suffered " to do nothing without the 
 bishop or his deputy." J The bishop, though it 
 seems that they were not under his roof, is spoken of 
 as a constant living member of the society. Each 
 member makes a gift of his property to the cathedral 
 before admission, receiving during his life the 
 interest of it. For a time then after this period an 
 ecclesiastical family is formed as in the days of 
 St. Augustine or St. Honore. Various councils in 
 these centuries adopt or modify this rule, and enjoin 
 or assume on the part of canons a life of absolute 
 intimacy with their bishop. 
 
 Thus in a.d. 789 we have in Capitulare of Aix-la- 
 
 * Lubbe, Concil. vol. ix. p. 
 534. 
 
 t Not primitiarius as Thomas- 
 sin and others write it— Cf. Sec- 
 
 undicerius, &c. [cera]. 
 
 X Labbe, Regula S. Chrodo- 
 gangi, cap. xxv. 
 
Relation of the Chapter to the Bishop. 
 
 49 
 
 Chapelle : * — " They must live canonically after 
 their rule, and the bishop must direct their living 
 as an abbot does that of monks." In the second 
 council of Tours, a.d. 813, " The canons and clerks 
 of the cities who dwell in the bishops 1 houses are to 
 live within closes, to sleep all in one dormitory, 
 take their meals in one refectory .... Food and 
 clothing they are to receive according to the means 
 of the bishop.'^ And in 876 in the councils of 
 Pavia and Pont ion it is ordered "that bishops shall 
 institute in their cities close to their church a 
 cloister in which they themselves with their clergy, 
 according to the canonical rule, may serve God, and 
 constrain their priests not to leave their churches 
 and presume to live elsewhere." J These last and 
 various other enactments are in pursuance of the 
 elaborate Kesrula Canonicorum of the Council of Aix 
 in 816, which was based on the principle of common 
 life, and of which copies were sent with an imperial 
 letter to every metropolitan^ 
 
 *'Capitulare Aquisgranense' claustri vitam . . . Distat inter 
 (a.d. 789) c. 73; Labbe, Concil. canonicain et clericam quod 
 vol. ix. p. 26. Canonico non clerico debetuv 
 
 t Tkomassin, p. i. lib. iii. c. claustrum" 
 ix. § 7. § A letter of Hettus, Abp. of 
 
 ; Labbe, Cone. vol. xi. p. 285, Treves, to the Bp. of Toul, re- 
 c. viii. ; Miraeus, Eeg. Can. Auc- ! commends the bishops every - 
 tarium, c. xvii. p. 92. And so, where, in pursuance of that mis- 
 ibid. p. 93, in a delightful letter sive, to complete the building and 
 from "Wazon. Dean of Lie'ge a.d. furnishing of the Mim&ratorix 
 1030, to a presumptuous Prae- Ca non i corum Officiiix within three 
 positus, we have " Canonicam | years. Labbe, vol. ix. p. 531. 
 
 E 
 
50 
 
 The Idea. 
 
 But the principle of common life and property was 
 never made absolute. The possession of private 
 means was, even under these rules, considered to be 
 as proper to the canonical life * as renunciation was 
 to monasticism. The keeping of cathedral accounts 
 under the two heads of " bishops' table "and " chapter 
 table " (mensa), centuries later, when in most places 
 many canons were non-resident, the residents had 
 private establishments, and the only table kept up 
 was that of the vicars and ministers, was a remi- 
 niscence of that earlier condition. At no time had 
 the Ccenobitic life (however usefully introduced) 
 any connection with the original and essential idea 
 of the institution.! 
 
 Neither is the Daily Service of such essence 
 according to the view of the canonists. Chapters 
 have existed for centuries with no common office 
 except on Sundays and certain festivals. And it is 
 ruled that even these may be intermitted without 
 destroying the capitular character. As a matter of 
 fact some important chapters of France are, owing 
 to " tot alia munia," and also to want of means, 
 
 * " Quanquam canonicis liceat 
 . . . dare et accipere, proprias 
 res et ecclesias habere, quod 
 monacliis penitus inhibitum est. 
 — Canonicos qui suis et ecclesise 
 licite utuntur rebus." (Council of 
 Aix-la-Chapelle a.d. 816, lib, i. 
 c. cxv. ; ap. Labbe, vol. ix. p. 
 479 ; Miraeus, p. 67.) 
 
 f The cathedral of Rheims, 
 among its other glories, appears 
 to have maintained the common 
 life later than any church. Car- 
 dinal Ximenes at Toledo, and 
 St. Charles Borromeo at Milan* 
 made the latest efforts to restore 
 the " apostolic tenor of life." It 
 proved an anachronism however. 
 
Relation of the Chapter to the Bishop. 
 
 51 
 
 unable to give much attendance in choir. And 
 just as Gregory the Great forbids presbyters and 
 deacons to assume too engrossing a part in the 
 public service, so the spirit of our old cathedral 
 statutes is that Canons must often have, and 
 ought to have, more imperative duties * And says 
 Van Linda, the learned Bishop of Ghent, to his 
 canons, "Let them in no wise think that they 
 stand excused before God, if their sole employment 
 is the recitation of the office."f 
 
 Let us here note how beautifully the Eegula 
 Canonicorum (a. d. 816) describes the proper 
 character of that service — "Due praises humbly 
 paid, with such sweetness of reading and of melody 
 as shall comfort the learned and educate the i^no- 
 rant. Their purpose for people's edification rather 
 than empty pleasingness ; " but even this Van Espen 
 correctly urges on the vicars, not the canons.J 
 
 Neither is the possession of common Property, or 
 
 * E.g. " Canonici ecclesiae nos- 
 tra plerumque variis occupa- 
 tionibus prsepediti non semper in 
 ipsa ecclesia residentiam facere 
 possunt . . . utilitatibus deservi- 
 entes ecclesiasticis .... Assidui- 
 tatem [in choro] exigimus 
 moderatam . . . non ut omnibus 
 horis cogatur interesse, sed ut 
 singulis diebus uni horse canon- 
 icfe ad minus vel missse majori 
 illius diei intersit, nisi alias in 
 negotiis ecclesise occupatus sit." 
 
 (Stat. Line.) Van Espen ex- 
 horts the resident canons to be 
 the more diligent in the choir 
 office, "dum sciunt Confratres 
 suos [Docentes in Universitati- 
 bus] aliis majoribus negotiis pro 
 ecclesia occupari" p. iii. c. v. § 6. 
 
 t Quoted by Van Espen, p. i. 
 c. ii. § 1 (vol. i. p. 59). 
 
 X Reg. Can. Concil. Aquisgran. 
 lib. i. c. 33. (Labbe, vol. ix. p. 
 488.) Van Espen, pars iii. c. 2. 
 
 B 2 
 
52 
 
 The Essential Idea of a Chapter 
 
 receipt of Stipends essential, nor the conduct of 
 Divinity schools, or seminaries. All these particulars 
 belong to cathedral chapters, but as the canonists 
 say, only per accidens. 
 
 What is " Essential" is briefly that they be " The 
 Senate of the Diocese," * whose duty is " to aid the 
 bishop when the see is filled, to supply his place 
 when it is vacant."f 
 
 The most splendid relic of the institution is 
 still to be seen in fulness of life in the Eoman 
 College of Cardinals. They, like their " Papa," only 
 preserved for themselves an ancient name and an 
 ancient activity, which were once to be found in 
 every diocese.J And all canons, says Saravia, are 
 Fratres Episcopi, as cardinals are Fratres Papte. 
 
 In the multitude of foundation deeds of cathedrals 
 there is no variation from this object. Thomassin 
 concludes from his mass of evidence that everywhere 
 the " clergy of cathedral churches formed one body 
 with the bishop and entered into their share of the 
 
 * Dicecesis Senatus. 
 
 t "Auxiliari episcopo, sede 
 plena : supplere, sede vacante." 
 
 X Thus, Thomassin, p. i. lib. 
 iii. c. vii. § 8, also § 12, " antiqui- 
 oris et in hac re elimatissimse 
 discipline specimen." In the 
 institution of the chapter at Com- 
 postella, as late as 1099, they are 
 styled " cardinals." Earlier the 
 name was quite familiar ; as, for 
 
 instance, Pope Zachary, 741, re- 
 quests of Pepin that the bishops 
 may be dressed after their rank, 
 and likewise the " presbyteri 
 cardinales." So, Ansehn, Arch- 
 bishop of Milan, "nos cum nos- 
 tris cardinalibus ; " and a bull 
 of Bened. VII., a.d. 975, speaks 
 of the ' cardinal presbyters of 
 Treves.' (Du Cange, s. v.) . 
 
is that of a Council to the Bishop, 53 
 
 anxiety, and into some association with his sacred 
 sway."* Van Espen, with the most contrary church- 
 views to Thomassin's, says " their principal duty was 
 to assist the bishop by their work and their counsels 
 in the government of the church." f So our own 
 Reginald Pole : " The rationale and ground of 
 instituting canonries and prebends in churches was 
 that they who are appointed to them may assist the 
 bishop, and aid him with counsel and work in the 
 discharge of his office, and in divine things."}: As 
 a single illustration of the practical completeness 
 of their unity, we may just refer to the council of 
 Perpignan (Helenense, a.d. 1065), in which the 
 assembled bishops and counts again and again refer 
 offences agaiust the Truce of God to the investigation 
 and sentence of " The bishop or his canons." The 
 bishop or canons have not only power of excom- 
 munication, but of inflicting exile also. However, 
 the principle was simply universal. The Cathe- 
 dral Chapter was the Bishop's Council. § 
 
 * u Clerici eathedralium eccle- 1 das in ecclesiis instituendi ratio et 
 siaruni coalescebant in unum ! causa haec fuerit, ut qui ad eos 
 quoddam veluti corpus cum ' assumuntur Episcopo assistant. 
 episcopo et in partem solici- 1 eumque in munerissui functione 
 tudinis atque imperii sacriquan- j consilio et opera adjuvent, et in 
 dam societatem veniebant." i divinis." (Reg. Poli do Eefor- 
 
 t "Praecipuum officium est \ matione, Deer. 3; Labbe, vol.xx. 
 opera et consilio episcopo in re- p. 1016.) 
 
 gimine ecclesiae assistere." (Van § « Erat Capitulum episcopi 
 Eji.en, pan I. c. ii. § 1, heading.) cujusque et ecclesia? cathedralis, 
 J"Cum canonicatusetprreben- : clerus ille, illi presbyteri dia- 
 
54 The Essential Idea of a Chapter 
 
 Hence the great pains taken to ensure competence 
 in such advisers. Chapters were to consist in about 
 equal proportions of theologians and of canonists. 
 Again various councils limited all the dignities and 
 half or a third of the canonries to the higher 
 university degrees in divinity and law.* 
 
 Modern Popes, though they have done all that 
 was possible to weaken chapters, have not ventured 
 to interfere with the theory. Pius VII. when he 
 suppressed every cathedral in France in 1801, re- 
 erected chapters because it was needful to " provide 
 for bishops having a council." Pius IX., though he 
 in his turn invaded the Spanish chapters, still treated 
 them as constituting " The senate and council of the 
 bishops." 
 
 From these principles, which have been historically 
 observed with almost universal fidelity, it has been 
 ruled to follow that a chapter stripped of its property 
 and withdrawn from liturgies would be a chapter 
 still : but that a chapter deprived of the right of 
 aiding the bishop's work and supplying his place — 
 though exercising every other function — would be 
 excluded from the definition of a chapter. It would 
 be a College of Clerks, but not even the church (say 
 all authorities) could rule that it was a Chapter. 
 
 conique qui cum episcopo de re- 
 bus quibusque deliberabant, qui 
 una clavum regebant ecclesise, 
 qui causas et judicia nomine ejus 
 agitabant, qui una assidebant vel 
 
 astabant synodis, qui ejus nomine 
 et vice conciliis aderant " (Tho- 
 massin, i. iii. vii. 7.) 
 
 * Van Espen, pars i. c. iii. iv. 
 
is that of a Council to the Bishop. 
 
 55 
 
 Again it follows that a chapter must have two 
 real completenesses ; namely, separately and in con- 
 junction with the bishop; and hence that it has two 
 heads, " yet is no monster,'' as an old author says ; 
 because while without the bishop it is not acephalous 
 but an organic body (sociale corpus), it is so in 
 a different relation from that in which it forms the 
 ' mysticum corpus,' of which the bishop is the head. 
 He is " Principale Caput," while the dean, provost, 
 or other, is u Caput Xumerale/'* 
 
 Thus a.) it is a Corporation, free to discuss its 
 corporate affairs ; charged with the regulation, under 
 certain limitations, statutable and other, of the 
 cathedral service, and with the cure of souls. As 
 such ecclesiastical corporation it is subject to the 
 visitation of the bishop. 
 
 It is (ii.) a Council, in which capacity it not only 
 has a right to be consulted, but a claim to offer 
 advice — in certain cases may take the initiative. 
 
 In its first aspect, the bishop neglects an impor- 
 tant part of his diocesan duty if he does not visit it. 
 
 In its second capacity the bishop, though he can- 
 not be constrained by the advice of his council, 
 nevertheless unconstitutionally neglects his chapter 
 if he does not consult it. 
 
 * ' De Duplici Capite ; ' see De i most convenient manual for this 
 Bouix » P. I. § ii. c. 2), whose | part of our subject. 
 ' Traetatus de Capitulis ' is the j 
 
56 
 
 The Idea of a Chapter : 
 
 (I) 
 
 These heads we must follow into detail : and first 
 we will consider the chapter as a Corporation. 
 
 (1) For the transaction of business it was sum- 
 moned by the dean, provost, primicerius, or other 
 chief dignitary, who sent notice of the meeting 
 (when not on fixed days) ; but not necessarily of the 
 business to be transacted. It did not belong to 
 the bishop to summon them individually. They 
 could be cited by the dean or other head of the 
 " sociale corpus," in obedience to a mandate from 
 the bishop addressed to him ;* or, as some cathedral 
 statutes somewhat awkwardly but correctly express 
 it, " The chapter must be summoned by the dean 
 and chapter." If the dean declined to issue a sum- 
 mons, it could be legally issued in obedience to the 
 bishop's mandate by the next senior, and so on, and 
 was a valid summons. 
 
 (2) It is fundamental, as all canonists agree, that 
 the bishop has no voice in negotiis capitularihus. 
 When it meets to discuss its own affairs, the bishop 
 has no right to be present except he is also a pre- 
 bendary; even then he is bound to retire if the 
 chapter desire to discuss questions touching his 
 episcopal office, or his relations to them. His vicar- 
 
 * The dean's power of sum- 
 moning is so absolute, that he is 
 in some statutes requested not to 
 
 exercise it unless sure that the 
 cause ought to outweigh the 
 other calls upon the canons. 
 
I. As a Corporation. 
 
 57 
 
 general is in the same Dosition.* But while the 
 vicar has no rank there except his prebendal 
 seniority, the bishop takes his prebendal place first 
 after the president, whether dean, precentor, or 
 senior, in meetings for capitular business. + 
 
 Pius IX., whose confusions of discipline, if less 
 important, were no less glaring than his inventions 
 of doctrine, by a concordat made with the Spanish 
 cathedrals in 1851, provided that the bishop might 
 be present at every chapter meeting and have a 
 casting vote, and in elections have a fifth part of 
 the votes. But no such customs are to be found in 
 earlier times. 
 
 (3) The chapter had an absolute right to manage 
 its common property, to hold its o'-vn courts, to 
 confer its livings; aud, for internal discipline, 
 to visit through the dean (accompanied usually by 
 two canons) all prebendal estates and churches, to 
 inspect their order and management, and cause all 
 needful corrections to be made, appropriating the 
 incumbent's dividend for the purpose. Abroad 
 where the stipends of the canons are now paid by 
 
 * Archdeacons and other dig- 
 nitaries are not members of the 
 chapters of any country except 
 Italy, unless they have H stall in 
 choir and voice in chapter " 
 assigned at their election. In 
 Italy they are always members 
 of the chapter. 
 
 + In modern times, the Council 
 of Trent has reserved the prima 
 in capitulo sedes to the bishop 
 in capitular as well as diocesan 
 business. Previously the Arch- 
 bishop of Eouen. it seems, was 
 singular in holding that place. 
 (Thomassin, i. iii. x. 6.) 
 
58 
 
 The Idea of a Chapter : 
 
 government, the right of the chapter is not disputed 
 to keep, by fines, the same hold upon discharge of 
 duty by the members which it formerly possessed 
 through the dividend (distributio) of the common 
 fund.* 
 
 (4) The fabric fund is under their administration, 
 subject to the bishop's " correction " in his visits. 
 He could compel them to repair the buildings ; but 
 if the fund was insufficient, a larger power became 
 his,t because his revenues were the first liable to be 
 applied ; it devolved upon him then to fix the taxa- 
 tion, both of his chapter and of all his parishes, 
 for the reparation of the cathedral. Chapters 
 have in Eoman churches frequently maintained 
 against the bishop their independence as to the 
 administration of the fabric fund, but the decision 
 has (according to De Bouix) been usually in favour 
 of the bishop. 
 
 (5) The dean had the cure of souls of the whole 
 
 * " The existing rule at Milan any lose by non-attendance is 
 Cathedral is as follows : The divided among the whole body 
 chapter is major and minor, when the marks are added up, so 
 sixteen in one and eight in the that they receive back a portion 
 other, in their reduced form, of what they pay." (E.V.) The 
 They are bound to attend service lay-people of a certain city used 
 three times a day, and their to call two of the daily services 
 stipends are regulated accord- \ at which there was no distribu- 
 ingly. A system of 'punti,' j tion Horx Domini, and the others 
 marks, for every service and , BZorse, Denarii. (Van Espen, 
 every part of a service, was laid \ p. ii. c. iv. § 8, p. 651.) 
 down by St. C. Borromeo. What | t Frances, c. xiii. 
 
I. As a Corporation. 
 
 59 
 
 chapter * and establishment of the cathedral, and 
 they with him of the parish which was frequently 
 attached to the cathedral. For . the administration, 
 however, of the cathedral-parish custom abroad 
 added a " perpetual vicar " to the vicars choral — a 
 useful practice, which the Council of Trent converted 
 into law. 
 
 (6) All the details of divine service, and the 
 regulation of its officers, fall within the scope of the 
 chapter. But, when the bishop, as " Principal 
 Head," attended, " the other Head " disappeared. 
 The choir-salutations (that seemly usage which our 
 brusqueness, rather than our piety, has given up in 
 some of our cathedrals) which were to be paid to the 
 dean in the bishop's absence, were in his presence 
 made to him only. The absolution and the benedic- 
 tions (those before the Lessons and Grospels, as well 
 as at the close or opening of the services) could be 
 pronounced only by him. When he expressed his 
 intention of celebrating, the u turns " of all other 
 persons gave way. All other seats were assigned. 
 But he could direct his seat to be fixed where he 
 pleased, and could order seats to be placed for him 
 in various parts of the church. At his installation 
 he was placed in the throne and in his seat at the 
 
 * Cathedral statutes often pre- 
 scribe the manner and form in 
 which the dean is to visit, con- 
 fess, and communicate a sick 
 
 canon — requesting him, however, 
 to give place should the canon 
 wish to have another confessor. 
 
60 
 
 The Idea of a Chapter : 
 
 altar, and occupied the dean's stall during a portion 
 of the service. He was conducted to the chapter 
 house, and there seated in the first place. 
 
 (7) These are only symbols. To pass to more 
 important things: in every act and function the 
 dean and chapter are subject to the visitation of the 
 bishop. Inasmuch as he was bound to take care 
 that they passed nothing illegal, he could require to 
 see the capitular acts and resolutions. Canonists 
 have held that he cannot ordinarily visit more than 
 twice a year. The ordinary custom up till the last 
 century was to commence the triennial visitation of 
 the diocese by the visitation of the cathedral. 
 
 He then proceeded to visit their prebendal houses, 
 estates, and churches, and, to avoid complications in 
 this operation, all the jurisdictions of the dean and 
 prebendaries w T ere suspended by a monition from 
 the bishop until the visitation was "dissolved." 
 The vicars who ^ere appointed by each prebendary 
 to the curacy of their prebendal livings had no rela- 
 tion to the chapter at any time, but held immediately 
 under the bishop.* 
 
 Whatever abuses or faults were revealed by the 
 visitation were communicated in a written form to 
 the chapter, with an injunction to correct them by a 
 given day. If this was omitted, the bishop took 
 order himself for their correction. 
 
 * Cf. Stat. Line, " Nobis (Episcopo) subsunfc immediate." 
 
I. As a Corporation. 
 
 61 
 
 Very early the usage of visitations of the cathedrals 
 fell almost into abeyance in this country. But after 
 its revival by Grosseteste — who, in his persevering 
 controversy, was " winning back," as he said, u the 
 dropped rights of all the bishops of England " — no 
 serious objections seem ever to have been offered to 
 this episcopal duty. Resumed after the Restoration, 
 they steadily continued until the great lethargy fell 
 on the living things of the church. 
 
 (8) The Canon Law was careful to state that the 
 bishop's penalties ought not to go beyond such as 
 were sufficient for correction ; bat this obligation 
 was only moral. The proper court for prosecuting a 
 canon was constituted of the bishop himself with two 
 canons designated by him. The bishop had one 
 vote and the two canons one : if they were not 
 agreed, a third canon was introduced, and then, if 
 necessary, the whole case was referred to a neigh- 
 bouring bishop. Appeals could be heard by the 
 archbishop, by the legate, or by the curia. In these 
 respects no formal change has taken place, but by 
 the necessary substitution of other courts of appeal. 
 
 The bishop could inflict excommunication upon 
 individual canons if he thought it necessary, or lay 
 an interdict upon the church, or, if he thought it 
 impolitic to do so, could (as Grosseteste actually did) 
 prohibit the offenders whatever their rank, from 
 setting foot in the cathedral. An excommunication 
 of the whole chapter was illegal. 
 
62 
 
 The Idea of a Chapter : 
 
 (II.) 
 
 We must now secondly consider the chapter as 
 a Council, and — 
 
 (a) In co-operation with the Bishop. 
 
 (1) The chapter, or any part of them, "sum- 
 moned by dean and chapter," in obedience to the 
 bishop's mandate, were bound to assemble, and to 
 consider any subject which he brought before them 
 relating to episcopal dignity, jurisdiction, adminis- 
 tration, or regimen. So say unanimiter canonistse. 
 But not touching his personal " commodum," say 
 most of the authorities ; although according to 
 others this too may be brought before them if. he 
 absents himself from the discussion. 
 
 Their opinions were not taken by votes, but given 
 in speeches; and, as the bishop alone had jurisdic- 
 tion — " monarchia " — he was, of course, not bound 
 to follow their advice. 
 
 There were, however, several points on which his 
 action was invalid, unless he had asked their " con- 
 silium," and some in which their " consensus " was 
 required. This was recognised as fundamental 
 cauon law. Upon the general maxim that the 
 bishop is " positus regere ecclesiam suam," it fol- 
 lowed that any limitations of his power which 
 require consent of others must be defined a jure 
 expresse. They are summed up under these heads : — 
 
II. As a Council with the Bishop. 
 
 63 
 
 Alienation of property; Presentation to benefices 
 in the patronage of the cathedral church ; Union of 
 such benefices, &c. ; Loans or mortgages ; Questions 
 affecting the interest of the chapter, as, e.g., 
 increase or diminution of the number of canonries ; 
 The creation of archdeaconries ; * The convening 
 of synods.f 
 
 (2) It is only custom which has dispensed with the 
 antient principle that the chapter were to be con- 
 sulted before collation to any benefices. "A prelate 
 ought not to institute, or to deprive, or to transact 
 the other business of the church without having the 
 advice of the chapter,"t is the old maxim quoted by 
 De Bouix, who illustrates it by the fact that, in 
 1159, all the institutions made by the Latin Patri- 
 arch at Jerusalem were pronounced invalid, on the 
 representation of his chapter that they had not 
 been consulted. 
 
 Similarly custom § has abolished the necessity of 
 consulting them in criminal proceedings against, and 
 deprivations of, clerks. But this was once recognised 
 as a most important part of the canonical function. 
 
 And generally so intimate were their duties and 
 
 * Gavanti, 1 Man. Epp.' p. 84, § Or " ignorantia canoni- 
 addit. 1. : corum" as Fagnani expresses it 
 
 t 1 Instit. Juris Canonici,' 1. vi. (ap. Tkoniassin), with respect to 
 c. 2 ; Garanti, ' Man. Epp.' p. 93. their own rights. u Be causis 
 
 X " Prselatus sine consilio ca- j criminaltbus cognoscere Episcopi 
 pituli instituere vel destituere vel j haud quaquam possunt nisi cum 
 alia negotia ecclesiae tractare non j canonicis suis" says Thomassin. 
 debet." 
 
64 
 
 The Idea of a Chapter : 
 
 rights that they could not be better expressed than 
 by the complaint laid before Innocent III. by the 
 chapter of Angouleme against their bishop, that 
 he "causas difficiles tractaret sine canonicorum 
 assensu." 
 
 (3) At ordinations they were, properly speaking, 
 the examiners ; the archdeacon of the cathedral 
 jurisdiction presented the candidates, and the canons 
 with the bishop laid hands upon them. The exa- 
 mining office was delegated to one member of their 
 body, whose signature is still seen appended to the 
 long lists of candidates ordained in our ancient 
 episcopal registers. 
 
 The fact that the bishop's examining chaplains 
 are usually made prebendaries or honorary canons 
 is a relic of this usage. 
 
 (4) Before the bishop held a Synod, his first step 
 (and it was held fundamental) was to convene the 
 chapter and consult them as to the manner of 
 holding it, as well as to communicate to them the 
 constitutions intended to be promulgated.* The 
 " pars major et sanior " were to be allowed great 
 weight in determining questions, though they could 
 not overrule his judgment. 
 
 A Synodj was an assembly of the Clerks of the 
 
 * Two months beforehand is 
 the Roman rule. 
 
 f May I be permitted upon 
 this subject to refer to the lucid 
 
 and learned, though brief, expo- 
 sition of the Bishop of Lincoln 
 (' Diocesan Synods, and Diocesan 
 Conferences,' 1871, Rivington). 
 
II. As a Council with the Bishop. 65 
 
 diocese, lawfully summoned, under the bishop, for 
 questions concerning their own diocese. Some 
 canonists hold that to the originally frequent meet- 
 ings of this kind there succeeded by degrees, as 
 numbers increased, the council of the clergy of the 
 city, and finally of the cathedral. It might be more 
 exact to say that the original meetings were those 
 of the clergy of the city, gradually adding to their 
 numbers the clergy of the neighbourhood and those 
 of the diocese, while they themselves answered to 
 and often became the cathedral clergy, or rather 
 the canonical body. The synod was an expanded 
 chapter, and the chapter a condensed synod. Although 
 this is too symmetrical a statement to represent more 
 than the merest outline of events as a historical 
 process, still it presents in the clearest form the fact 
 that there was no difference in character, or in 
 subjects of discussion, between the synod and the 
 chapter. 
 
 Again, the Synod is a "General Visitation," as 
 St. Charles Borromeo, who held very large synods, 
 expressed it. In it the results and experiences of 
 particular visitations were generalised, and also the 
 acts of provincial synods published. 
 
 The Council of Trent as well as our own " Ee- 
 formatio Legum " direct that diocesan synods should 
 be held once a year. Older laws, mostly unobserved, 
 had required them twice. To the convening of 
 them no superior consent was required to be ob- 
 
 F 
 
66 
 
 The Idea of a Chapter : 
 
 tained by the bishop ; and all regulations with 
 respect to them have for their aim to make them 
 as inclusive as possible, both of persons* and sub- 
 jects. Lambertini (Benedict XIV.) points outt 
 that the ancient records of synods are mostly silent 
 as to the summoning of Canons, and that some have 
 held that they " may be invitati, not exaeti as 
 Parochi " and others were, to attend, unless questions 
 which concern them are discussed. Still, as almost 
 every ecclesiastical question must be held to con- 
 cern them, the difficulty has been only theoretical, 
 and they have assigned to them, in their choir order, 
 the third place in synods, i.e., next after the bishop 
 and his vicar-general. 
 
 The laity might be invited to attend, but not 
 to speak. Their " consilium," if required by the 
 bishop, was taken elsewhere. 
 
 The " Synod " being so well defined an assembly, 
 it is to be regretted that the name has been recently 
 applied to some important assemblies of laity and 
 clergy, in which there are motions and divisions, in 
 which all speak and vote alike, and which are more 
 properly to be denominated conferences. In some 
 churches such assemblies are the " governing bodies." 
 
 * E.g. By a Sacred Congrega- 
 tion in 1629 it is defined that un- 
 beneficed clergy are bound to be 
 present, if they receive notice 
 that questions will be brought 
 
 | forward touching "reformatio 
 njorum," or " totus clerus." 
 
 t ' Ap. Institutiones Juris Can.' 
 ix. 2. 
 
as a Council without the Bishop. 
 
 67 
 
 And legitimately. But the "Synod " can never cease 
 to have its proper existence, as a meeting of the 
 bishop with his own clergy, to which the place, 
 the ministering dress, surplice and stole, worn 
 throughout the deliberations, the reception of the 
 Eucharist, &c, give almost the character of an act 
 of worship. 
 
 Addresses were given, and opinions delivered and 
 argued in the synod, but its assent was not necessary 
 to the validity of episcopal constitutions then issued 
 and published. These are subscribed by the bishop 
 alone. It was a deliberative assembly, having 
 weight and effect, but not a legislative one. Its 
 spiritual character is well expressed in words from 
 an old Bishop of Verona, which refresh the drouth 
 of the ' Iustitutiones.' " The day of the synod 
 always is to me the pleasantest of days ; the day 
 which, amid the most pressing troubles — inseparable 
 from the cares of such office — most comforts and 
 restores my spirit."* 
 
 (b) Hie Independent Powers of the Chapter as a 
 Council. 
 
 (1) The chapters met when they pleased, and of 
 their own motion ; the rest of the clergy could only 
 meet by licence of the bishop. 
 
 * " Miki eerte nullus dies die 
 synodi solet esse jucundior qui in 
 niaxiinis molestiis, quas tanti 
 
 muneris cura affert, animnm 
 ineuru raagis consoletur et ie- 
 creet." 
 
 F 2 
 
68 
 
 Hie Idea of a Chapter : 
 
 (2) They had the power of initiation, in case of a 
 bishop's vicious living, misbelief, maladministration, 
 or contempt of their own rights. Their first step 
 was to send a remonstrance * (monitio) as sons to a 
 lather, and if it were unavailing they appealed. 
 
 (3) Cases necessarily arose when the dean and 
 next senior were unwilling to summon the chapter, 
 though the majority desired it. In these cases, if 
 the majority amounted to two-thirds, they simply 
 met, the chapter being said " seipsum eonvocare ;" 
 the senior present presided, and this was a valid 
 chapter. 
 
 (4) Immediately upon the decease of a bishop all 
 the administrative and legislative power devolved 
 upon the chapter. They visited, they convened 
 synods, they held the episcopal courts, issued eccle- 
 siastical censures, instituted to benefices, appointed 
 to canonries which would have been in his gift, &c. 
 Episcopal acts proper they could not do — e.g., grant 
 dimissory letters. During the vacancies of many 
 years which our English kings left in the richer 
 sees, receiving the revenues themselves meantime, 
 these powers were excessively important, and the 
 resignation of them after such vacancies produced 
 complications. They had to appoint as their repre- 
 sentative a " capitular vicar " or "official." 
 
 * It appears that this right of 
 monition has been disputed on 
 the ground that "If a beast 
 
 touch the mountain it shall be 
 stoned." 
 
in ' simultaneous actiox ' with the Bishop. G9 
 
 And here it should, perhaps, be mentioned that 
 the acts of a chapter have no validity except their 
 meetings are held in the chapter-house. As an 
 interesting illustration of this general rule, we may 
 quote the election of St. Hugh to the bishopric of 
 Lincoln. It took place in London and he himself 
 refused to acknowledge it, until it had been freely 
 and freshly made in the chapter-house of the 
 diocese. * Not," says he, " in a royal palace, or in a 
 pontifical council, but in its own chapter-house must 
 a church bishop be elected. There, with prayers 
 and the help of the Holy Ghost, they may elect."* 
 Moreover, the bishop had no right to require their 
 presence elsewhere. When he summoned them he 
 was bound to meet them in the chapter-house. The 
 sole customary exception was that they usually 
 assembled in the bishop's house to hear and 
 consider the subjects which it was proposed to lay 
 before a synod. 
 
 (c) The w Simultaneous Power " of the Bishop and 
 Chapter, 
 
 There were certain matters in which what was 
 called the " Vis Simultanea " of the Bishop and 
 Chapter had to be exercised. 
 
 (1) If a commission were issued to the cathedral 
 church, their reply was given by two votes, of which 
 the bishop had one, the dean and chapter another. 
 
 * 'Mag. Vita S. Hugonis,' c. ii. 
 
70 
 
 The Idea of a Chapter: 
 
 (2) In making statutes for the cathedral it was 
 essential that the bishop and chapter should concur. 
 The excellent replies of the dean and chapter of 
 Exeter to the commission of 1852, contain, in 
 describing the practice of their own cathedral, so 
 precise an account of the common law on the 
 subject that it may be fitly recalled here : — " The 
 statutes which govern the church of Exeter were 
 enacted from time to time pro re nata. They were 
 framed in the form of injunctions from the bishop, 
 as visitor, requiring the more accurate observance 
 of existing ordinances, or of new statutes, either 
 suggested by the chapter to the visitor or framed 
 by him at their request and with their concurrence, 
 and finally accepted by the body. No instrument 
 has ever been allowed to be of any force unless 
 ratified by the bishop and chapter, and authentica- 
 ted by the seals of both." 
 
 (3) In filling up the prebends, the bishop had 
 the nomination, but the chapter had the right of 
 installation. In many of the old cathedrals the pre- 
 bends were of the bishops' own foundation — farms 
 and churches which they alienated from them- 
 selves for this express purpose. But, theoretically, 
 they were supposed to be founded out of common 
 estates of the church ; and not to carry with 
 them any episcopal or any capitular claims. The 
 conferring of canonries is not an essentially episcopal 
 act, upon the general maxim, " Conferre beneficia 
 
in 'SIMULTANEOUS ACTION ' With tll6 SisJlOJ). 71 
 
 non est ordinis sed jurisdictionis," and the exercise . 
 of the " simultaneous power" has varied in every 
 conceivable way. Sometimes bishop and chapter 
 alternately appointed, sometimes jointly ; sometimes 
 by weeks or by months ; sometimes the whole 
 chapter alone ; sometimes the two sides of the choir 
 alternately ; in France universally the bishop alone 
 nominates at present. And while this is perhaps the 
 arrangement which gives most hope of initiating a 
 working council, it is nevertheless a neglect of the 
 jus simultaneum, which would probably be injurious 
 if chapters were once more active and important 
 committees. 
 
 (4) This right applied to the appointment of 
 honorary canons as strictly as to that of others. 
 The neglect of it by bishops led to serious causes 
 which were invariably decided in favour of chapters. 
 Neither the bishop alone nor the chapter alone 
 could upon any ground increase the number of 
 canons. In France, however, the " coutume " of the 
 bishop appointing honorary canons alone is held to 
 have grown into a right. Some bad reasons and 
 many good ones gave rise to the creation of super- 
 numerary or honorary canons. Favour, the reward 
 of service, the decoration of distinguished church- 
 men, the need of assistance in the capitular work, 
 the desire to beautify the liturgy in small establish- 
 ments, the piety of persons wishing to be associated 
 in the worship of some church, the advantage of 
 
72 
 
 The Idea of a Chapter : 
 
 systematic training for the higher ecclesiastical 
 functions, are among the numerous causes specified 
 in biographies and elsewhere as leading to the 
 appointment of canons, either expressly without 
 prebends, or with succession to a vacancy ; and the 
 latter, both in cases where prebendaries received 
 their own rents, and where, although they bore the 
 names of prebends, they received dividends only.* 
 If, as in many of the great antient churches, the 
 number of canons was fixed (ecclesise numerate) 
 then not only honorary canons, but any of more 
 recent foundation, were called super-numerary, 
 which it is well to remember, as the term might 
 otherwise seem to imply some irregularity of tenure 
 or position. Canons waiting for vacancies are irre- 
 verently called " Canons at Grass " (in herbis) in 
 distinction from " Canons in Stall." However, 
 evidently possible abuses led to the abolition of such 
 expectancies by the Council of Trent. 
 
 The number of canons varied in some churches 
 (irrespectively of honorary canons) owing to an 
 arrangement for increase or diminution in propor- 
 tion to the state of the revenues. 
 
 Honorary canons proper (an institution revived 
 among ourselves with sound knowledge of antiquity) 
 
 * An instance in this country tinctive name, but there is no 
 is St. Asaph, where, besides six separate estate, I believe, to 
 prebendaries, there were " seven j more than two of them." 4 Cath. 
 canons, each of which has a dis- j Comm.'App. to 1st Report, p. 425. 
 
in ' SIMULTANEOUS action ' with the Bi 'shop. 73 
 
 are of very antient and very general institution. 
 They had canonical insignia, stall, and order, but 
 no voice in the chapter, at least in matters of 
 property, or in elections.* But if they served in the 
 church they had allowances and were at the direction 
 of the chapter. 
 
 Although Sovereigns were (Charlemagne in several 
 churches) frequently Canons of their chief chapters 
 with or without prebends, it was probably in their 
 sacred character. 
 
 When about the time of Urban II. the subdiaco- 
 nate began to be accounted as a sacred order, a 
 small number of sub-deacons were attached as 
 prebendaries to some cathedrals ; but originally 
 canons could only be presbyters and deacons, and 
 the Council of Trent ordered that at least half should 
 be presbyters. The Eoman chapter of the cardinals 
 stands alone in this respect, that though its cardinal- 
 deaconries, and sub-deaconries are frequently held 
 by bishops, yet they are tenable by cc prselatt M who 
 have been only admitted to the inferior orders. 
 
 Hence, if we read of laymen, founders' kinsmen, 
 jurists, courtiers, or conquerors like the Duke of 
 Bedford at Bouen, holding cathedral stalls in the 
 middle ages, or of hereditary canons, as the Kings of 
 France (Counts of Anjou) and Dukes of Burgundy 
 
 * la the Church of Koine the mere name of Canon was conferred 
 (and may still be) without even a stall. 
 
74 
 
 Beneficent Power of Chajrfers 
 
 in the church of St. Martin of Tours and elsewhere, 
 or the Dukes of Berry in St. John at Lyons, or the 
 Counts of Chastelus at Auxerre,* — it must be under- 
 stood that it was, even then, either a peculiarity of 
 the particular cathedral, or else an abuse. They were 
 not merely ' honorary canons ;' as they occupied the 
 stall, and held the revenues of the prebend assigned 
 to them ; but it may be doubtful whether the chapter 
 always installed them like the Sire de Beauvois, 
 with a surplice over their armour, the amice on the 
 left arm, and a hawk on fist.t 
 
 (5) It is a question which canonists have put, but 
 never resolved, whether, supposing the chapter to 
 refuse to install as dean some person collated by the 
 bishop to the prebend attached to the deanery, he 
 would have power to summon the chapter. 
 
 V. — BENEFICIAL USES IN CHUKCH POLITY — 
 THEIR VACATED PLACE. 
 
 In this brief, yet I hope sufficiently accurate 
 outline of the mutual relations of the bishop and 
 
 * Charles V. was a Canon of 
 Bologna. The Emperors Henry 
 VII. (1311) and Frederic III. 
 (1452) Canons of St. Peter's. Of 
 the last it is recorded that he 
 " non injucunde cantavit " his 
 portion of the service. Our 
 Henry II. was a Canon of St. 
 Stephen's, Westminster. 
 
 t Cheruel, ' Diet, des Inst.' vol . i. 
 
 p. 132. The Treasurers of Aux- 
 erre and Nivernois carried a hawk 
 in choir on certain feasts in token 
 of their nobility (see Du Cange, 
 " Accipiter "). The Council of 
 Trent contemplates the possi- 
 bility of lay canons, but denies 
 them " voices in chapter," etiam- 
 si hoc sibi ab uliis sit concessum. 
 
as the Legitimate Supplement of Episcopacy. 75 
 
 chapter, we have seen worked out, both in the 
 original conception and by the operation of historical 
 sequences, the appliance of episcopal government to 
 the changeful needs of the churches of progressive 
 nations. 
 
 Those relations are part of the universally diffused 
 system of canon law which, wherever it is " not con- 
 trariant " to the statutes of the realm, is in force 
 still. That law is full of evidence against the papal 
 system, which increasingly violates it. On the other 
 hand the study of it would be corrective of much 
 non-conformity, whose present prevalence and inhe- 
 rent weakness are largely due to its own and our 
 ignorance of the accumulated experience, sense, and 
 policy, which are condensed in that law. It was a 
 measure of present convenience, but of short-sighted 
 expediency which, under Henry VIII., suspended 
 University degrees in Canon Law. The codification 
 and rectification of it were admirably enterprised by 
 Cranmer in the Reformatio Legum. If the cathedral 
 system had been continuously worked, one of its 
 benefits would have been the perpetuation of a 
 deeper study of it. The statutes of all particular 
 cathedrals are local adaptations of such portions of 
 the law as bear upon their efficiency. Hence their 
 universal resemblances and special differences. Such 
 statute books are commonly practical manuals of that 
 portion of the law. Where these had received due sanc- 
 tion, the chapters never ceased, as King Edward VL's 
 
76 Benefits conferred by Capitular System 
 
 Injunctions * state, to be bound to " observe all 
 such statutes as are not contrary, repugnant, or 
 derogatory " to the Eoyal Injunctions ; or, as the 
 Reformatio Legum expresses it (a.d. 1552-1571), 
 " The statutes of founders as heretofore received 
 shall be retained unaltered and in their integrity, so 
 long as they do not contradict the word of God and 
 are not repugnant to our constitutions put forth con- 
 cerning religion or hereafter to be put forth."f But 
 even if no statutes existed, the cathedral was not 
 " without law." It was minutely governed by canon 
 law, and simply had nothing special to plead for any 
 particular usages it might have admitted. 
 
 It would be vain to attempt in short space to 
 estimate the various and complex effects of relations 
 so powerful and on so vast a scale as came into 
 existence when the episcopal organization had 
 universally in every country, in every city, sur- 
 rounded itself with the capitular system as its most 
 intellectual and socially valuable instrument. But 
 
 * a.d. 1547. A copy of those 
 which were sent to Lincoln Ca- 
 thedral (with some curious 
 Marian (?) notes) exists in MS. 
 cviii. of Archbishop Parker's 
 MSS. in Corpus Christi College 
 Library, Cambridge. 
 
 f " Fundatorum Statuta jam 
 abhinc antea recepta retinebun- 
 tur, pura et integra, quamdiu 
 verbo Dei non adversantur, et 
 
 nostris constitutionibus, &c, non 
 repugnant." 'Reform. Legg. de 
 Eccles.' c. 7. Even the, ' Church 
 Commissioners' (2nd Rep. p. 11) 
 recognise that mere practice 
 had not reduced Residence from 
 nine months to three, but that 
 legal change of statutes would be 
 required. (Bp. Wordsworth's 
 Twelve Addresses,' p. 26.) 
 
as to Progressiveness — Security. 
 
 77 
 
 these beneficial uses seem at any rate to fall into 
 three great groups. 
 
 (1) The capitular system aimed at realising a 
 continuous yet flexible tradition in the conduct of that 
 " monarchic " office which, in the absence of fixed 
 principles, must, when great questions arise, be 
 either very variable or very passive ; but which is 
 still more likely to energise over infinite detail. 
 Originality in government, as in thought, requires 
 perfection of science and of resources up to the 
 very point de depart. A tradition snapped at every 
 voidance of the see could no more (it was held) be 
 strong and prompt of action, than we should expect 
 cabinet ministries to work well, were not every 
 minister fortified at his succession by the irremov- 
 able officials of his department. Policy may with 
 safety be changed, but if a whole administration 
 changes too, the tendency both to formality and 
 to audacity (especially in church affairs) is patent. 
 
 (2) A council not only serves to the perpetuation 
 of principle, it is also the security of the individual. 
 Isolation is the vice and weakness of authority. 
 u Episcopal authority," in its present aspect, " seems 
 too much to resemble an inverted pyramid trembling 
 on its apex. In an antient diocesan synod " (and 
 may we not say with equal truth, surrounded 
 habitually by its chapter ?) " it reposed quietly on its 
 base."* If numbers, if dignity, gravity, experience. 
 
 * Bishop Wordsworth, Address on Diocesan Synods, 1871. 
 
78 
 
 Benefits conferred as to Independence. 
 
 are the strength of any social cause, how could they 
 be more effectively arrayed in the church's cause 
 than in conciliar union ? " There are two things," 
 wrote Lord Bacon, " in the administration of bishops 
 wherein I could never be satisfied ; the one is, the 
 sole exercise of their authority; the other, the 
 deputation of their authority . . . One may suppose, 
 on good grounds, that " from the beginning it 
 was not thus, " that the deans and chapters were 
 councils about the sees and chairs of bishops . . 
 It is a matter that will give strength to the bishops, 
 countenance to the inferior degrees of prelates or 
 ministers, and the better issue or proceeding to the 
 causes that shall pass."* We, in the Keformed 
 Church, once had all the substance of " counsel ;" we 
 have still a central force supported by law. We 
 paralyse the latter by isolation ; the former we have 
 attenuated to a skeleton. 
 
 (3) To give value to the support of a council, the 
 independence of the councillors must be secured to 
 the utmost limits of safety. And this the cathedral 
 system sought to provide, giving to the members of 
 that council everything which in a settled country 
 confers independence. It gave real estate, to be held 
 in common ; freeholds, to be held by the members ; 
 a conspicuous rank, a glorious home, spiritual re- 
 sponsibilities, and the inspiration of common and 
 
 * Bacon, " Peace of Church," sect. ii. (quoted in ' Cath. Comm.' 
 Eep. i. p. lvii. 
 
The Deterioration and its Causes. 79 
 
 beautiful worship. Upon his own estate it held each 
 prebendary responsible for the education of the 
 young, for the appointment of the pastor, for the 
 condition of the labourer. 
 
 " What more could have been done for My vine- 
 yard ? " 
 
 Progressiveness, Security, Independence. These 
 three characters at least were designed, and to some 
 extent, and for some time, were assured to the in- 
 ternal self-government of the church by the opera- 
 tion of the capitular system. Personal and political 
 selfishnesses have invalidated and nearly extin- 
 guished it. Nor is any other cause assignable. But 
 the stifling is not irremediable. 
 
 VI. — THE CAUSES OF DEGRADATION. 
 
 With the deterioration of all this nobleness — 
 which has from time to time shown by flashes what 
 it might effect, and which has been instrumental 
 under all adverse influences, in nurturing a re- 
 markable proportion of our most pious, learned and 
 laborious men — there is in England one depravation 
 of public opinion beyond all other causes chargeable ; 
 the placing such large numbers (while they were 
 numerous) of these appointments at the disposal of 
 the successful politician; the filling vacancies in 
 these ecclesiastical councils with family connections 
 and party adherents. " In the case of this church," 
 
80 
 
 Causes of Degradation. 
 
 writes Dean Law of Gloucester, " there is scarcely 
 an instance of a Lord Chancellor making an appoint- 
 ment except in favour of some relative or personal 
 friend, or at the request of some influential person- 
 age. * 
 
 Again, when some unscrupulous minister had 
 placed his solemn adventurer or fascinating financier 
 in a see, he in turn had stalls and prebends for 
 relatives near and distant. One cathedral exhausted, 
 dexterous translation might yield them another. 
 But the church will never again drink of that cup. 
 And that wells have been poisoned is not to the 
 discredit of wells. 
 
 That the capitular posts should not be all in the 
 hands of ecclesiastics, that the government should, 
 in the church of a nation, exercise a right of nomi- 
 nating to a proportion of them, distinctly tends to 
 lessen church feuds and create larger interests ; and 
 the most Roman Catholic countries have surpassed 
 England in assigning such rights to the govern- 
 ment.! For instance, in Spain, the king appointed to 
 
 * Beturn to the House of Lords, printed 22nd May, 1871. 
 
 t Cathedral appointments in (28) cathedrals : — 
 
 Cathedral appointments in patronage of Crown (28 D. 
 
 39 C), and Lord Chancellor (12 C) 79 
 
 Cathedral appointments in patronage of (28) bishops 90 
 Cathedral appointments in patronage of university . 5 
 
 174 
 
 Of residentiary canonries, 81 ; of other canonries and prebends, 
 382 have been suspended. 
 
Severance of Relations. 
 
 81 
 
 all deaneries and, alternately with the bishops, to ail 
 canonries except two (filled up by the pope) in each 
 of the metropolitan churches and in twenty-two 
 cathedrals. 
 
 To govern alone, or with the advice of private 
 and irresponsible friends, or not to govern at all — to 
 reside elsewhere —to connive at the chapter residing 
 elsewhere, — to withdraw from the obligation of con- 
 sulting them, and to waive the right of visiting them 
 — this was the natural course of episcopal comfort. 
 Capitular worldly- wisdom was to convert dignity into 
 ease, neglect into privilege, omission into precedent, 
 to render any qualification superfluous, any special 
 gifts or habits needless, and so, by a vicious circle 
 indeed, justify the method of appointment. 
 
 For about a hundred and fifty years such conditions 
 were not usually thought unsatisfactory. But since 
 our church entered once more upon a period "in 
 which the hearts of her children turned toward their 
 fathers," neither chapters nor prelates are content to 
 be isolated. 
 
 It will be serviceable however to show historically 
 that the breaking up of the cathedral system really 
 took this form of the drawing apart of the chapter 
 and the bishop ; that the severance is due utterly to 
 modern usage and is against the constitution of the 
 churches ; and that for the reparation and invigora- 
 tion of the system nothing more is wanting than to 
 take up the thread, to use powers and faculties which 
 
 G 
 
82 Causes of Degradation : Severance 
 
 exist as really as ever. Upon a historical basis alone 
 could effective relations be resumed. We shall 
 see that, as in all history, decay is traceable even in 
 the most vigorous age ; that some high principles 
 are perhaps extremely active even amid fatal de- 
 cline ; and that again the regeneration of societies 
 may sometimes have begun before the worst habits 
 seem to be shaken. 
 
 It would prove little to draw such illustrations from 
 a mere cento of events in various places. To be 
 distinct we must again make what use we can of 
 the real history of a single church, and hence our 
 illustrations to be true must also be fragmentary. 
 
 Keverting first to the dispute between Grosseteste 
 and his chapter, we found that the chapter pleaded 
 the long interval since his ' negligent and pigritant ' 
 predecessors had visited them as a reason why they 
 should be henceforth left to themselves. " Non-visita- 
 tion had become a consuetudo of their church." The 
 bishop showed that an omissio or negatio could never 
 become a consuetudo. They pleaded they had a libertas. 
 He replied that inasmuch as it was not competent 
 for any bishop to have renounced the duties of his 
 successors, and no exemption granted by the Koman 
 see could be produced — (such as exempted Cistercian 
 abbeys from the episcopal jurisdiction to which 
 Benedictine and Augustinian were subject)* — theirs 
 
 * Some foreign cathedrals jpro- 
 cured similar or partial " exemp- 
 tions," although this correspond- 
 
 ence does not allude to the fact 
 — an absurdity which various 
 councils laboured to mitigate. 
 
of Relations — repaired in Century XIII. 83 
 
 was but a "phantasy of a liberty" They then pro- 
 duced a transparent forgery, still extant, declaring 
 Lincoln to have been a royal peculiar, with an 
 ultimate appeal to the king. They took nothing by 
 this. Their next argument was that the dean was 
 their " visitor." Grosseteste replied that the fre- 
 quentative word visitation implies acts intermittent, 
 resumed, and repeated — that the supervision of the 
 resident dean was continuous — he was their visor, if 
 they pleased. They hoped to show that the bishop's 
 jurisdiction over canons was confined to cases of 
 appeal and of decanal neglect in the correction of 
 offending canons. His demonstration of the impossi- 
 bility of working such a system is very illustrative of 
 their mutual relations. E.g. (I) It would follow that 
 if any canon should offend against the bishop, he 
 could not be cited into the episcopal court, but must 
 be prosecuted by the bishop before an inferior judge. 
 (2) That for offences committed by a canon in 
 parishes not within the chapter's jurisdiction he 
 could not be punished at all. (3) The rights of the 
 cathedral had often to be maintained by the bishop 
 against magnates with whom no dean could cope. 
 (4) Canons might be guilty of offences requiring 
 penalties which existed only in the episcopal 
 armoury, deprivation, degradation, &c. (5) Charges 
 might be brought against them which could be heard 
 legally only in episcopal courts; and supposing the 
 whole chapter, so called, including the dean and 
 
 G 2 
 
84 Causes of Degradation : Severance 
 
 excluding the bishop, should offend against the 
 bishop's rights, or have a cause against any one in 
 his jurisdiction, then the bishop could neither punish 
 nor judge ; all which is absurd. Under the last head 
 he protests against the practice of speaking of the 
 chapter as complete without the bishop.* 
 
 We have seen that Grosseteste's view was, in 
 accordance with all history and sense, victorious 
 completely. And we will, therefore, next observe 
 the relation of the bishop to his chapter as it appears 
 in the statutes of Lincoln near two hundred years 
 later.t 
 
 " The bishop is not only a dignitas in his church, 
 he is culmen dignitatum. Fifty-six canons constitute, 
 together ivith their head, the body and chapter of the 
 Church of the Blessed Virgin Mary of Lincoln. . . . 
 The head of the mystic body is the bishop. The 
 chapter elect the dean. . . . The bishop is bound to 
 compel and constrain the dean ad hoe vel aliud. . . . 
 The bells peal when the bishop attends church . . . 
 he gives all benedictions and receives all salutations 
 (the dean in his absence only). . . . He supersedes 
 any dignitary when he wishes to celebrate. . . . 
 Upon the obit-day of any bishop the tombs of all 
 bishops buried in the cathedral are lit with tapers. 
 
 * Grosseteste, Ep. 73. "Si 
 non caiinumerato episcopo .... 
 dicantur capitulum, et sic nomi- 
 nate capitulo accidat," &c. 
 
 t Bp. Grosseteste died a.d. 
 1253. Bp. Alnwick's 'Novum 
 Begistrum ' belongs to 1440. 
 
of Relations just before the Reformation. So 
 
 " He visits the church, the dean, canons, and all 
 persons connected with the establishment, the pre- 
 bendal churches and congregations, quoties et qua ado 
 vol uer it . . . The perpetual vicars of the prebendal 
 churches are immediately subject to the bishop. . . . 
 If lawfully hindered he may depute a commissary, 
 but such commissary must first be sworn a canon of 
 the church, not necessarily a prebendary. 
 
 " No one may act on such commission who is 
 not a dignity of Lincoln, beyond an unmarried 
 notary and clerk. 
 
 " Bishop Fleming had allowed two canons to be 
 deputed to represent the chapter in the correction of 
 such abuses as the bishop required the chapter to 
 correct. This delegation of power is withdrawn. 
 The chapter itself is to correct abuses. 
 
 * The laudum which had been given by Bishop 
 William Gray is declared null and void, on the 
 ground that the bishop had issued it upon his sole 
 episcopal authority without summoning the absent 
 parties, and without any previous compromissio on 
 the part of the dean and chapter." 
 
 So far then no breakage of relations had happened. 
 They are as intimate as they could well be. The 
 next marked phase of chapter life is on the eve of 
 the Reformation, a.d. 1520-1540. The bishop and 
 chapter are parting company. 
 
 The bishop now resided chiefly in London, and 
 upon his principal manors. Though he visited the 
 
86 Causes of Degradation : Severance 
 
 cathedral, and the prebends attached to it, yet his 
 ordinations were apparently held altogether by his 
 bishops suffragan, of whom he had three. Bishop 
 Alnwick had attributed the chief part of the dis- 
 orders which he found to the non-residence of the 
 deaDS, and now we find that the canons are to such 
 an extent ceasing to reside that many houses in the 
 close are falling to ruin.* They have not however 
 deserted the cathedral for their parochial cures ; in 
 these also Bishop Longland finds the greatest ' mis- 
 living,' and he hints that the prebendal visitations 
 of the dean and chapter have been either intermitted 
 or ineffectual. 
 
 Their conciliar work has entirely ceased. Not 
 only the religious excitements and the excessive 
 worldliness of the age, but even right energy has in 
 so stirring a time withdrawn men from a life which 
 has become solely liturgical. 
 
 In 1547, King Edward VI. issues 23 injunctions 
 to the cathedral, interesting both socially and 
 liturgically, but bearing on our present purpose 
 simply as requiring the strict observance of all 
 the "statutes that be not contrary, repugnant, or 
 derogatory to these Injunctions."! 
 
 The ' Keformatio Legum ' (1552-1571) exhibits a 
 
 * See a letter of Bp. Long- 
 land's printed in Dean Howson's 
 ' Essays on Cathedrals,' p. 237. 
 (Murray, 1872.) 
 
 t MS. Injunctions, 12. Abp. 
 Parker's MSS. in C. C. C. Library 
 at Cambridge, No. cviii. p. 255. 
 
increasing, until completed by the Canons of 1604. S7 
 
 thoroughly puzzled attempt to say ivhat prebendaries 
 are now to do, " who have no fixed functions assigned 
 to them ;"* points out the duty of doing something ; 
 ' ecclesias docendo. concionando, solando' the sick 
 and poor, or in whatever legitimate and right ways 
 bishop and dean may prescribe." It almost eagerly 
 allows themf five years' leave of absence to study in 
 the Universities, requiring them meanwhile to write 
 an annual account of their own progress to the 
 bishop and the chapter. J The residents are to 
 attend all the sermons and three times a week 
 Theological Lectures. 
 
 Thus completely had severance from the bishop's 
 work paralysed the energies of the cathedral in all 
 respects but one. The bishop's authority was how- 
 ever at present intact. 
 
 Before another century has passed the cathedral 
 has seen a change indeed. It had suffered in 
 revenue§ from the suppression of the monasteries. 
 It had suffered from the shameless appropriation by 
 
 * " Qui certa sibi non habent | Legg. De admittendis, &c., c. 16, 
 dispertita munera." 17.) 
 
 t The Quinquennium absen- j § In the same MS. of Abp. 
 tiae was not a new invention I Parker's No. 108, p. 223 is a List 
 however, but had been pre- j ot " Pencions and other dutyes 
 viously allowed to canons under due unto the Deane and chapiter 
 thirty years of age. (Gavanti j of the cathedrall churche of 
 ' Manuale Episcoporum,' p. 85, ! Lincoln whiche hathe not been 
 § 15.) ; payde and ar denyed since the 
 
 J " Eationem vitae et morum et ; dissolution of the abbeys and 
 progressions in doctrina." (Ref. I chantries." 
 
88 Progress of Degradation : 
 
 Protector Somerset of its six chief prebends to 
 favourites' families, and the suppression of the six 
 stalls. It had suffered from kingly brigandage the 
 loss of all its historic treasure. But it had suffered 
 more fatally under the Book of Canons of 1603. 
 The 44th canon required "all residentiaries in 
 any cathedral church . . after the days of their 
 residency expired . . presently to repair to their 
 benefices, or some one of them . . or some other 
 charge." This was the last blow to corporate useful- 
 ness or service. 
 
 Nevertheless, the Offices or posts of duty were 
 untouched. The bishop's authority was untouched. 
 And even the conciliar forms were to survive 
 awhile. 
 
 Let us take some illustrative circumstances. 
 
 We may quote the enthronements of Bishop 
 Neale in 1613, and Bishop Montaigne in 1617.* 
 
 " The dean and chapter assigned and showed him 
 (Bishop Neale's proxy) the bishop's stall in the quire 
 and his place in the chapter-house." 
 
 "The dean and chapter showing the said proxy 
 (of Bishop Montaigne) the episcopal stall in the 
 quire, and the chief place in the chapter-house. 1 ' 
 
 These installations by proxy point to the fact 
 that the bishops were non-resident. "The bishop 
 
 * The memoranda of Bishops Neale, Montaigne, Barlow, Tenison, 
 Wake, are taken from their unpublished registers. 
 
Conciliar Form survives in Visitation. 
 
 89 
 
 must have a little hostel not far from the church," * 
 ruled the 4th Council of Carthage, in the presence 
 of Augustine ; and at their foundation the cathedrals 
 had the palace invariably contiguous, but as Frances 
 says, quite seriously, u At the present day it is of no 
 consequence whether the bishop lives far or near."| 
 
 The bishop's house at Lincoln had been laid in 
 ruins by the Parliamentarians ; but a century was 
 still to pass before all interest of bishops in their 
 cathedral ceased. The " Order of Preachers " by 
 which the prebendaries are still called up under fine 
 is an ordinance made by Bishop Sanderson. 
 
 Bishop William Barlow (1675-1691) whom 
 Clarendon admired without measure as a student of 
 Church history and civil and canon law, was " neyer 
 in all his life at Lincoln he was sarcastically 
 styled, from his house in Huntingdonshire, "Epi- 
 scopus Buckdeniensis."§ 
 
 Of his visitation by his vicar-general in 1690 
 (when he was eighty years old) I am not aware that 
 the articles have been hitherto printed. The com- 
 mission runs " pro visitatione ecclesiae cathedralis 
 tarn in capite quam in membris realiter et efYectu- 
 aliter," and has twenty-two articles " for the cathedral 
 
 * M Episcopus nou longe ab I 29, a. 17.) 
 
 Ecclesia hospitiolum habeat." J Willis's ' Cathedrals,' vol. ii. 
 
 (Canon xv.) p. 71. 
 
 t " Hodie non refert an longe § Godwin, ' Prsesules Anglite ' 
 
 vel prope habitet Episcopus." (1743), p. 305. 
 (' De Ecclesiis Cathedralibus,' c. 
 
90 Progress of Degradation : 
 
 church of Lincoln to be inquired of in the triennial 
 visitation." 
 
 I quote the more immediately interesting ones : 
 " Imprimis, whether doth every member of this 
 church at his first admission swear to observe such 
 statutes as have been hitherto used as statutes and not 
 contrary to the laws of this realm of England." He 
 proceeds to inquire as to the benefices which are 
 held with canonries, &c, the observance of rules of 
 residence, and whether the number of ministers is 
 complete, and the " choir sufficiently furnished with 
 skilfull organist and able singers, and dayly service 
 there sung according to the foundation of this church;" 
 whether " the sacraments (both) be administered in 
 due time . . . and by singing and note according to 
 the statutes of this church ?"* As to the dress of the 
 ministers. Whether the full number of sermons is 
 preached yearly appointed by the statutes and ordi- 
 naries of the church ; and whether there are week- 
 day lectures. He requires further, statistics respect- 
 ing canons, petite canons, officers, and their incomes 
 and stipends, and the education of the choristers. 
 Then come inquiries as to the " Masters of the 
 Fabrick," their accounts and audit, and the revenue 
 of the fabrick; as to the state of repair of the cathe- 
 dral and its appendages and houses, " whether good 
 
 * The reference is to the very full directions on the mode and 
 style of singing, contained in the ' Novum Kegistrum.' 
 
Conciliar Form survives in Visitation. 91 
 
 and sufficient as required by the statute t and as to 
 the decency of the churchyard : whether, contrary 
 to the statutes, there are any usurers, recusants, 
 Papists, disreputable or suspicious people in the 
 precincts ? 
 
 " Whether the capitular meetings are duly and 
 orderly kept as by statute is required ? and the 
 muniments and evidences safely kept, and in such 
 manner as is required by the statutes f 
 
 "Encroachments on the close, and thoroughfare 
 through it or through the cathedral ; walking about 
 of visitors in service time, and begging in the 
 church," do not escape. And it is asked " whether 
 any postern doors of private persons open into the 
 close." * u 
 
 We have also inquiries as to the efficiency of 
 the cathedral school, and is not the same school 
 neglected or abused in any kind ? " 
 
 Lastly, " by virtue of their oath of obedience," 
 the bishop requires the presentment to him of 
 any offence " contrary to the statutes and laudable 
 customs of the said church." 
 
 Bishop Barlow's view — which certainly was likely 
 to be no innovating one — of the obligation and 
 operativeness of the statutes, as they are, is distinct 
 enough. 
 
 In 1693 the bishop appears in the chapter-house 
 as the legislative authority for the chapter — " Die 
 Sabbati 10 Jun. 1693 inter horas 7am et 8vam ante 
 
92 
 
 Causes of Degradation : 
 
 meridiem in Domo Capitulari Ecclesige Cathedralis 
 B.M.V. Lincolnensis coram Eev d0 . in Xto Patre et 
 Dno Dno Thoma [Tenison] .... Quo die Dnus 
 Epus antedictus super inforrnatione " that divers 
 prebendaries, to the great prejudice and detriment 
 of the church and their successors, have not entered 
 (non intraverint) their leases, decrevit that the said 
 prebendaries movendos fore* to register them, and 
 decrevit the amount of the fees. 
 
 In 1706 Bishop Wake held his primary visita- 
 tion, beginning with the cathedral on the 20th 
 of May in the chapter-house. Upon that occasion 
 various orders were made, the execution of which 
 was inquired into upon his second visitation in 1709. 
 An interesting violation of the antient rights of 
 the chapter then occurred which was subsequently 
 acknowledged and rectified. The bishop, being 
 unable to visit in person, issued a commission to his 
 vicar-general, Dr. Newell, and to the dean, sub-dean, 
 precentor, and chancellor, to sit in the chapter- 
 house, convoke all such prebendaries, &c, inquire, 
 punish, and correct. 
 
 But the commission was withdrawn from Dr. 
 Newell, as not being " de gremio, sive membrum 
 ejusdem Ecclesim" according to the "special pri- 
 vilege, confirmed both by statutes and old and 
 approved custom," that the bishop should not visit 
 
 * The unusually bad Latin is due apparently to Mr. Walker, a notary. 
 
Conciliar Form survives in Visitation. 
 
 93 
 
 the chapter by any commissary not of its own body. 
 This is the reason assigned for the concession by 
 Bishop Wake, and it is based upon the statutes. 
 But it was an error to suppose it a special privilege 
 of this cathedral.* The quotations from the 
 canonists Leurenius and Pignatelli show that it 
 was the rule in all cathedrals that the vicar-general 
 could in no way intervene etiam absente episcopo, or 
 be admitted to a meeting of the chapter, unless 
 there were some special right or custom, if he were 
 not de gremio. The copy of the commission in the 
 register book has the name and style of the vicar- 
 general dotted underneath as an incorrectness, and 
 the note of his withdrawal appears in the visitation 
 of 1712. 
 
 I do not know whether it was on account of this 
 mistake that, although the bishop had intended to 
 perform his cathedral visitation by commissioners on 
 the 30th of May, 1709, he issued on 6th May a new 
 commission, requiring them simply to meet on the 
 30th in the chapter-house, to call the prebendaries 
 and all the officers and ministers, and adjourn the 
 visitation till the 16th of June, " at which time I 
 purpose to be there myself in person." 
 
 The law, thus recognised as governing the 
 cathedral and the bishop in his relation to it, is the 
 statute of William Alnwick, and the case is the 
 
 * Do Bouix, § iv. c. vi. 
 
91 
 
 Causes of Degradation : 
 
 same down to the smallest detail — as for instance 
 when " the dignities, archdeacons, praebendaries, 
 vicars-choral, clerks, choristers, officers, and ministers 
 of the said cathedral church are ordered to be 
 summoned by affixing of their citations upon 
 each stall front in hac parte usitatum fuerit" &c. * 
 
 Further the observance of the canons of 1604 is 
 inquired into as law. 
 
 The articles of 1709 are twenty-seven in number. 
 They are fuller, better worded, and much more 
 methodically arranged than those of Bishop Barlow, 
 but of course verbally correspond with them in 
 some instances. 
 
 It is inquired " whether the statute concerning 
 the [sermons] has been put in due execution 
 according to the order made the last visitation with 
 relation to that matter ?" It seems to be assumed 
 that the sacraments and choral service now proceed 
 in due order and with due attire ; but there is a new 
 question as to whether the ru brick is obeyed in the 
 observance of feasts, vigils, fasts, days of abstinence, 
 and other solemn days, and as to the sufficiency of 
 books and ornaments. The education and " cate- 
 chising " of the choristers is more particularly asked 
 about. Kecusants and Papists are not inquired for. 
 The better regulation of property is seen coming 
 under consideration ; it is asked whether the order 
 
 * Monition of Bishop Wake ; MS. Register, p. 108. 
 
Conciliar Form survives in Visitation. 
 
 95 
 
 made in the last visitation has been obeyed, as to 
 the registering of their leases by the prebendaries, 
 and the sending in of their Terrars ; as well as one 
 made with regard to the registration of wills by 
 prebendaries, &c, who exercise jurisdiction and have 
 " liberty to prove " testaments. Another article 
 requires the members to visit their peculiars, and 
 see that the chancels and houses belonging to the 
 same are duly repaired. 
 
 To these twenty -seven articles we have the 
 answers of the dean and chapter made with much 
 fulness and particularity.* Our limits will not 
 allow us to quote more tban one or two. They give 
 a full account of the personnel of the cathedral, and 
 declare that none of the places had been simoniac- 
 ally rilled; that (3rd Art.)— 44 Neither the dean 
 nor any of the residentiarys have any preferment in 
 your lordship's diocese beside their dignitys. They 
 do each of them keep their residences [9 months] 
 in their respective houses here;" — that (4th Art.) — 
 u We who are residentiarys do generally preach not 
 only our own courses enjoyn'd by the statutes of our 
 church, but likewise upon all solemn occasions, &c., 
 and that some others of the prebendarys do usually 
 preach their own courses, or provide and pay for 
 the supply of them, but others of them neither 
 preach their courses themselves nor give notice to 
 
 Bishop Wake's Register, fo. 119. 
 
96 
 
 Causes of Degradation : 
 
 any of the church to provide for the supply thereof, 
 nor take any care for the payment of those who 
 preach for them; and in such cases their courses 
 are usually supplied by the residentiarys, senior 
 vicars, or some other neighbouring clergy. We 
 desire- to execute the late order, but find great 
 difficulty how to go about it. However, we think 
 the church doth not suffer by this, though we ourselves 
 sometimes do" 
 
 They continue, that their meetings are orderly 
 kept, and the muniments preserved, " such as were 
 not imbezell'd in the great rebellion;" but that 
 some few only of the prebendaries have given in 
 their leases (but no terrars) for registration ; while, 
 of those exercising ecclesiastical jurisdiction, the 
 subdean, the prebendaries of Empingham, Heydour, 
 and five others bring in the original wills, but all 
 the others neglect the late order. Postern doors 
 there have been " time out of mind." " Some idle 
 and disaffected persons sometimes walk in the isles " 
 during divine service, but not unreprovecl. The 
 dean and chapter do visit the peculiars belonging 
 to the common estate of the church. The pre- 
 bendaries must answer for themselves. To the rest 
 of the questions they return satisfactory answers. 
 
 In 1712 the bishop issues a new commission for 
 the visitation of the cathedral church ; the prebend- 
 aries to be called on the 24th of May, and the meeting 
 then adjourned to the 7th of July, " at which time . . . 
 
ConciJiar Form survives in Visitation. 97 
 
 I purpose to be there myself in person. . . ." Xotice 
 to be given to any absentees on the 24th of May 
 " that I shall not excuse their absence at that time, except 
 upon some just and canonical impediment then to 
 be alleged and proved on their behalf, unless they 
 shall before that time have signified to you their 
 assent to, and done what in them lies to fulfil and. 
 execute, the orders made at our last visitation, and 
 shall also give sufficient power to some other 
 member of our said cathedrall church to consent 
 and agree for them, and in their names, not only to 
 the orders already made, but moreover to such further 
 rules and constitutions as shall then by common con- 
 sent he agreed upon"* 
 
 They accordingly assembled, and, after ' divers 
 prorogations,' we have the result of the meetings 
 embodied in M Statutes and Orders made by the 
 Right Eeverend Father in God, William, by Divine 
 permission, Lord Bishop of Lincoln, in his visitation 
 begun in the chapter-house of the cathedrall church, 
 &"e., with the unanimous consent and approbation of 
 the dean, dignitaries, and prebendaries/' t 
 
 This, too, is in form precisely according to the 
 Canon Law. 
 
 The statutes and orders then made are for the 
 registration of leases, the collection of terrars, the 
 visitation of the peculiars by the dean, dignitaries, 
 
 * BisLop "Wake's MS. Register, p. 172. 
 
 t Ibid. fo. 181. 
 H 
 
98 
 
 Causes of Degradation. 
 
 and prebendaries, " in order to their being the better 
 acquainted with the state of the churches under their 
 jurisdiction," and the registration of wills. 
 
 In 1715 the cathedral was again visited by Bishop 
 Wake,* by Bishop Gibson f in 1718, by Bishop 
 Reynolds in 1724 for the last time. 
 
 To the end of the first quarter of last century we 
 find the cathedral at least a living body, recognising 
 the possibility of statutable changes in its constitu- 
 tions. We have found no exclusion of the bishop 
 from capitular affairs ; on the contrary, we find him 
 requiring the presence of the whole great chapter, 
 initiating legislation, and that upon important mat- 
 ters of public business as well as upon the cathe- 
 dral economy, and, with their consent, promulging 
 Statutes. In fact, the Visitation preserved in all its 
 forms the Council of the bishop after the antient 
 pattern. 
 
 It is possible that at the early date when we find 
 that Hugh conceived it to be impossible for him to 
 work his diocese without the constant counsel of 
 numerous efficient men in his chapter, there were no 
 visitations at all ; and it is possible that Grosseteste 
 erred in trying rather to make the discipline of the 
 chapter correct than their labours useful. Never- 
 theless the Councils lived on perfectly as to form 
 
 * Bishop Wake's MS. Register, fo. 2o5. 
 t Bishop Gibson's MS. Register, fo. 53. 
 
Conciliar Life dies with Convocation. 99 
 
 in the Visitations, only the intervals grew longer 
 between them, and their business by degrees became 
 merely disciplinary and mundane. Still, the relation 
 between the bishop and chapter was well understood 
 in accordance with the canon law and the cathedral 
 statutes. The Eeformation had left it unaltered ; 
 the Eestoration had seen it resumed. 
 
 But the life which no convulsions checked, 
 lethargy overpowered. The last Visitations of 
 Cathedrals were held in and about ike first years in 
 which Convocation was not summoned ; and I believe 
 it will be found that, for a century and a half alter 
 that cessation, capitular visitations were quite rare 
 and irregular even where until then they had been 
 regular. All church councils slumbered together. 
 
 Pass little more than a century, and we find the 
 old relations altogether dormant. 
 
 In 1854 the Commission puts to all the English 
 chapters the question : — " Wliat are (he relations 
 between the bishop and the chapter ?" 
 
 Durham replies, "They are considered to be the 
 relations of a body having certain duties to perform, 
 and living under certain statutable rules and regu- 
 lations, to tlie authority appointed by the Crown, to 
 secure the performance of those duties and the 
 observance of those rules and regulations." 
 
 The idea that they are " Fratres Episcopi" his 
 "consilium " the " senate of their diocese" — that he 
 is the " principalis pars capituli," and the " cuhnen " 
 
 B 2 
 
100 
 
 Causes of Degradation. 
 
 of their own dignities — that he and they together 
 possess the power of making and re-modelling 
 statutes — all that gave worth to their institution and 
 reality to their life was gone. He is a Crown 
 Officer, appointed to see that they do not break their 
 law. 
 
 Hereford answers the same question tersely, 
 " Visitational " ; having previously replied to " What 
 are the powers of the ' Visitor ' ? " by " He is inter- 
 preter of the statutes" 
 
 " What are the Rights of the Bishop with respect to 
 the cathedral church ? " asks the Commission. 
 Winchester says, " None, except as visitor." 
 Worcester, u Visitor only." 
 
 Gloucester, " The bishop is entitled to a seat in the 
 cathedral church, and is visitor of the chapter." 
 
 As for his duty or right to feed his flock with the 
 " Verbum Pr«edicationis," Salisbury replies, " No 
 days are set apart for the bishop; whether this 
 implies or negatives any claim of right we know 
 not." 
 
 Again, as to the exercise of the one conceded 
 function. " Have you any account of antient visita- 
 tions or of recent ones ? " Worcester depones, " Yes, 
 of antient, but of no modern visitations," and most 
 follow in a similar sense. The whole conciliar life 
 had in fact hybernated so long, torpid, forgetting and 
 forgotten, that, while in any treatise on capitular 
 
Conciliar Life Extinct. 
 
 101 
 
 law the Definition of a Chapter states the fact 
 unquestionable and historic, and while every page is 
 studded with such expressions as " Episcopi senatus," 
 " cum assensu capituli" " absque consensu episcopi" 
 "jus simultanese" "episcopus capitulum cogit" 
 " canonicos sententiam rogat" " consilium sequi non 
 tenetur" "absque consensu capituli Episcopus non 
 potest" &c, there is not in any single answer from all 
 the deans and chapters of England in 1854 any 
 indication that they regarded themselves as in 
 origin, foundation, design, attributes, rights, or 
 powers, having even a theoretical connection with 
 episcopal government or ecclesiastical counsel.* Even 
 
 * The same disappearance of 
 the theory (and equally modern) 
 is visible in France. De Bouix 
 remarks that the old style of com- 
 mencing episcopal mandates, &c, 
 44 De consilio venerabilium fra- 
 trum nostrorum canonicorum," 
 which remained in use long after 
 the Concordat of 1801, has quite 
 recently (in 1852) been aban- 
 doned. The Mandement of the 
 Archbishop of Rouen, however 
 (1878), seems to show that it is 
 nuw agaia in use. After a 
 preliminary essay on " Le Culte 
 des Morts " it runs, " a ces causes, 
 le saint nom de Dieu invoque, et 
 apres en avoir de'libere avec nos 
 ve'ne'rables Freres les Chanoines 
 et Chapitre de notre Eglise 
 Metropolitaine, nous avons or- 
 
 I donne et ordonnons ce qui suit." 
 Then follow nine rules for the 
 
 j observance of Lent. 
 
 The fact that the foreign 
 
 1 chapters have been crippled in 
 
 i their powers of serving the 
 church and society exactly as 
 our own have,— and feel it as 
 acutely,— is by itself sufficient to 
 shew (were it otherwise doubtful) 
 that the causes of this disability 
 are earlier than the Reformation. 
 They have not had, it is true, 
 the hopeless bane of non-resi- 
 dence to fight against. Their 
 canons invariably reside nine 
 months or more. They usually 
 forfeited dividends for absence 
 even during any part of the other 
 three mouths. Even now that 
 the canonical stipends are paid 
 
102 Causes of Degradation. 
 
 the mere symbol ceased. Even to " shew the bishop 
 his place in the chapter-house " at installation has 
 been given up, no one knows when. 
 
 What a blank century and a half lies between 
 1727, when Bishop Reynolds first intermitted the 
 triennial capitular gathering — the last relic of the 
 Council — and 1871, when the chapter, taking their 
 own place as senatus to the presiding bishop, opened 
 the doors of their house to the priests and deacons 
 of the diocese in Synod. That assembly, more 
 primitive in character than the middle ages ever 
 convoked there, in its turn evoked a Representative 
 body of clergy and laity. Such church Conferences 
 perhaps it belonged entirely to our own age of re- 
 presentative deliberation to create ; but they have 
 arisen simultaneously round almost every English 
 prelate, and certainly they have a place of their own 
 prepared in church history. 
 
 The results of our inquiry into the causes and 
 progress of decline in the Cathedral of the past 
 should be summed up. 
 
 by government, since the seizure 
 of the church estates, the chap- 
 ters (I believe) continue this 
 system by arrangement for fines 
 among themselves. But they 
 have had the worse hindrance of 
 Papal interference, the corroding 
 action of that central power 
 
 which has been labouring for 
 centuries to reduce the bishops 
 to the condition of officials of its 
 court, and to isolate them from 
 every council and person capable 
 of supporting their independence 
 and their dignity. 
 
Separate Pretended Estates — Pluralities. 103 
 
 Those causes, then, are not of modern origin ; 
 although they have acted with accelerating speed 
 in recent times. 
 
 From the very distant period at which separate 
 estates began to be assigned to each canon (although 
 in some places this was not completed until the 
 thirteenth century), the solvents have been at work. 
 That ' prebendal ' system, as we may call it, became 
 at last universal ; it secured great local advantages ; 
 but it was sapping the cathedral system at its 
 centre. Its action was simple. " The prebendaries 
 wished to live at and look after their separate 
 estates."* Further, it left the Common Fund of the 
 Eesidentiaries weak and unimproving. The dividend 
 was small ; in some of even the great cathedrals 
 insufficient to meet the bare outgoings of residence.! 
 Even where it was larger, every canon who put 
 himself into residence of course reduced the divi- 
 dend. Hence the lorn- struggles of the residentiaries 
 
 O Do 
 
 to prevent the increase of their number.^ 
 
 During all this time the system of pluralities 
 
 was growing too ; and at last we were steeped in 
 
 the absenteeism, misrule, ostentation, courtiership, 
 
 Romanism of the later middle age. 
 
 Still up to and all through the Reformation the 
 
 * Append, to First Cathedral J Described by Dr. 'Freeman 
 
 Report, p. 369. with such force in his ' History 
 
 t Bp. Roger Mortival's State- of Wells Cathedral.' 
 ment, a.d. 1319, L c. 
 
104 Causes of Degradation. 
 
 cathedrals were felt to be so useful and practical in 
 their effect* on episcopal work, on study, on teaching, 
 on general cultivation, and in maintaining a high 
 tone both of feeling and worship, that the general 
 desire of the governing powers was to increase and 
 strengthen them. Many of the cathedrals, especially 
 St. Paul's, were in trouble with the more advanced 
 bishops ; but their influence was not really in favour 
 of restoring relations with the papacy, and they con- 
 tributed more than any other influence to make our 
 Reformation, what Lord Macaulay names it, " a pre- 
 serving revolution ;" to make it " of all revolutions 
 the most beneficent."f 
 
 Still spread and grew the gnawing mischief of 
 the system of Absences, called " Residence "; which 
 positively provoked and stimulated what was worldly 
 and selfish in the ecclesiastic. And when in the 
 worry of controversy an active knot vexed its bishop 
 as the chapter of Canterbury did Cranmer, or when 
 a Genevan dean traversed the view of both bishop and 
 chapter, joint counselling grew " much discomfort- 
 able to them all." Both Houses of Convocation alike 
 found it convenient to legalise, and at last even to 
 insist on, non-residence. 
 
 Diocesan councils thus broken up, the Provincial 
 
 * Mark in the pages of Strype 
 the number of active canons and 
 prebendaries engaged in all that 
 was going forward. 
 
 t The noble motto to Dr. Free- 
 man's Essay on " The Churches 
 of the Old Foundation " in Dean 
 Howson's volume. 
 
"Residence" 
 
 105 
 
 council fell next. Convocation was silenced. Simul- 
 taneously with that came the cessation of cathedral 
 Visitations, the last semblance and remnant of the 
 bishop's Senate. Then the palmer- worm, and the 
 canker-worm, and the caterpillar ; the fan.ily, the 
 favourite, the party. Then blank oblivion of the 
 covenant, and inability to decipher it,* 
 
 And now the course begins again. Many obstacles 
 which cumbered it are gone. The separate estates 
 are never more a stumbling-block. Safe in Whitehall. 
 But there is a general return to conciliar principles 
 of action as against isolations. Cathedral life and 
 cathedral work were never more needed or more 
 yearned after. But this time fir) a? waryiSa ifiueaeiv 
 tov Sta{36\ov. "If anything is to be done at all 
 residentiaries must really reside at the cathedral ; 
 it must be their home, and they must hold no office 
 which involves residence elsewhere." So writes our 
 most learned and penetrating historian.! 
 
 VII. — THE TOSSIBLE RESTORATION OF CONCILIAR 
 WORK TO THE CHAPTEES. 
 
 Our Third Head is the Eeturn from Captivity. 
 
 We have done our best to investigate cathe- 
 dral principles in that which is defined by legal 
 writers to be their " essence," viz. the Eelation of 
 the Chapter to the Bishop. We have endeavoured 
 
 * See p. 3. 
 
 t And so in strongest terms the Cathedral Commission, 3rd Rep. 
 p. vii. 
 
106 Restoration to Conciliar Work. 
 
 to pursue so complicated a subject in the way which 
 seemed likely to prove most fruitful and most 
 intelligible, viz. first, by a general sketch of the 
 original conception of those relations, and of the laws 
 by which they worked ; and, secondly, by tracing 
 the disappearance of those old relations through the 
 history of one institution, which began as almost the 
 grandest of them. This mode appeared to be 
 more truthful in spirit than to generalise from mere 
 specimens of the different epochs of many ; but 
 having arrived, in one, at the vanishing point of 
 those relations, we ascertained that, at any rate, the 
 result and status quo seemed to be the same in all at 
 the same periods, so that we may infer the general 
 operation of similar causes. 
 
 We have arrived at the conclusion that, while other 
 important functions are " accidental," the " essential " 
 character of the institution is conciliar : that, through 
 the pressure of the see of Eome, through secular 
 influences, indirectly through legislation not de- 
 signed to produce this effect, and other causes, the 
 bishops ceased to evoke capitular action ; that still 
 the forms of action lingered and possessed consider- 
 able vigour to a much later period, and that at the 
 present time all the forms and all the powers are in 
 being, ready to spring to life at the call of energetic 
 tempers and comprehensive policies. 
 
 Is it well to re-animate them ? This is a question 
 which must be determined now or never. 
 
Cathedral Loss not Church Gain. 107 
 
 Our church polity, the polity of the universal church, 
 has, for evil or for good, been altered by the virtual 
 suppression of the great capitular system of the 
 dioceses as to its principal or essential end. 
 
 Has the modification been beneficial ? If so, the 
 influence of (1) the Chapter itself should, owing to 
 the detachment, have been felt more strongly in some 
 other directions : (2) the Episcopal office should have 
 become more effective through being untrammelled. 
 
 But where are we to look for the increased bene- 
 ficial influence of chapters ? Is it not true that 
 though Churchmen have no single Kei/uurjXiov or 
 heir-loom which they regard with the same reverent 
 instinctive tenderness as their cathedrals, they still 
 feel the present languor of them to be a weak point 
 offered to our detractors ? With regard to increased 
 efficiency in the episcopal office in default of a 
 regular council, even some access of promptitude 
 would have been poor compensation for the loss of 
 deliberations, for the weakness of solitude, — and, 
 have we gained the promptitude ? 
 
 We may judge whether the present graceful ruin 
 can be acquiesced in by a rebuilding age, by reflect- 
 ing first whether, in our wish to make chapters 
 efficient, we could consent to make them powerful as 
 they are? Should we not feel that their present 
 isolation and exclusiveness, if strengthened, would 
 amount to something worse than Cistercian indepen- 
 dence, more dangerous to themselves and to the 
 
108 
 
 Restoration to Conciliar Work. 
 
 institutions bound up with them ? Or thus ; whilst no 
 see in Europe was ever created without a chapter, 
 who would now propose to establish a bishopric any- 
 ivhere in connection with a chapter, according to our 
 prevalent conception of chapters, viz., to transact 
 internal business created simply by their own 
 existence, to give the bishop a seat in church, and 
 to appeal to him in their own controversies? What 
 is the fact ? The province of South Africa, — which 
 is not wanting in ecclesiastical feeling, — has drawn 
 up its " constitution and canons " for the ordering 
 of its five dioceses. In fifty careful pages there is 
 not a single allusion to the very existence of a 
 chapter for any of the sees — no sense of its require- 
 ment. This is not due to any emolumentary or 
 social requirements of chapters according to the 
 true idea of them. The clergy of a town, even two 
 or three, may constitute an episcopal chapter. Com- 
 mon worship, however desirable, is not " essential." 
 The best canonists of France, as we have seen, 
 lament that " munia multa " and absence of means 
 at the present day preclude it in some cathedrals. 
 But the chapters are none the less chapters. It is 
 to be regretted, therefore, that South Africa should 
 not legislate for chapters ; but who can wonder? 
 
 [Deo gratias. The last paragraph is true to the letter no 
 more. Since it was written South Africa, at Bloemfontein, 
 has constituted, and many sees of America desire, a chapter 
 of canons. And parliament has fully legislated for one in 
 England.] 
 
Cathedral Service not enough. 
 
 109 
 
 It may be confidently asked whether any single 
 church improvement could be more effective, or 
 more comprehensive, than the restoration of chapters 
 to their primitive idea. 
 
 Not for the sake of church services only and nave 
 sermons. If that were all, a rector with two curates 
 might organise perhaps a more captivating ceremonial 
 or a more popular cycle of preachers. Nay, not 
 merely for the conservation of the more glorious type 
 of worship or for more fire-abiding edification.* 
 
 Nor yet solely for isolated works. Foreign 
 churches, after having destroyed the true action of 
 the chapters, tried, with some success, to compensate 
 it in this way.t With us there are most important 
 works not done now at all, nowhere likely to be done, 
 nowhere capable of being done, unless cathedrals 
 undertake them. The training of the clergy in such 
 scientific theology as the Universities may decline, 
 in doctrine and in pastoral care and in church 
 discipline ; the diocesan inspection of religious 
 education ; the preparation of an order of Eeaders, 
 one of our principal wants ; the " guidance of the 
 
 * 1 Cor. iii. 13. 
 
 t We may instance the insti- 
 tution in obedience to the Coun- 
 cil of Trent, of a Pcenitentiarius, 
 or Confessor-General, of a Theo- 
 logus, or Divinity Professor, and 
 of a Seminary in every cathedral, 
 and a Divinity School in many. 
 
 I [Schohe Theologies 'and Seminar ia 
 : must be distinguished: the 
 i former ad integral civitatn 
 clerum destinantur ; the latter 
 ad unius dioecesis tantum clerica- 
 lem juventutem. ' Instt. Jui. 
 Canon.' vol. ii. p. 233, pars ii. 
 ! lib. ii.] 
 
110 'Restoration to Conciliar Work. 
 
 younger clergy in study ;" arrangements for "con- 
 ferences with a view to theological, practical, and 
 devotional exercise and discipline ; " " organization 
 of diocesan church and school building societies 
 organization of charitable societies in general ; organi- 
 zation of preaching missions ; organization of Sunday 
 Schools ; — for if one silent change more remarkable 
 and less likely to be remarked than any other is in 
 process among us, it is the wholly altered relation of 
 the Sunday School to Church Order, which is pro- 
 duced by the legislation creating School Boards. 
 They become the Catechetical Institution of the 
 English Church. All these loud-voiced wants 
 appeal at once to Cathedrals as central institutions, 
 competent, endowed, dignified. And no doubt many 
 would be contented if one canon should undertake 
 one, and another another of these, and become in- 
 spector, almoner, "theologus," missioner, and the 
 like, for the diocese. 
 
 But indeed these individual works are at once 
 necessary and subordinate. 
 
 As occupations we grant they ought now to take 
 the place of the scattered parochial charges, and old 
 prebendal livings, which, more than any other one 
 cause, have prevented the redintegration and effec- 
 tiveness of the corporate unities. For these old 
 anti-residential cures let there by all means be sub- 
 stituted, in obedience to our upspringing necessities, 
 such offices as shall naturally bring the canons to 
 
Isolated Works insufficient. 
 
 Ill 
 
 the centre of the diocese. We shall have more to 
 say of these presently, but let their principal activity 
 be corporate, conciliar. 
 
 " But this demands — " Yes ! who knows not what 
 it demands ? — The co-operation — a brotherly co-oper- 
 ation — of the bishop with his chapter — the co- 
 operation of the chapter with their bishop. Perhaps 
 it requires the return of a bygone sentiment, that he 
 should once more stand by what he still names 
 at every institution of every parish priest, "the 
 honour and dignity of our cathedral church ;" that 
 he should stand by her as of old he was commanded 
 to do " like a bridegroom at the side of his bride." 
 But is that to be despaired of? 
 
 May we not with all modesty think (and better be 
 silent than presumptuous) that Isolation is one great 
 cause of episcopal difficulties at this time — difficulties 
 with which no true Churchman can fail to sympathise, 
 and which have never been greater since the Long 
 Parliament? Would not episcopal authority weigh 
 more with laymen were it well understood that 
 it might be depended upon to speak out and to judge 
 when the church lacked counsel and judgment, and 
 that, when it spoke, it was after deliberate consulta- 
 tion with well-known, experienced, and trusted 
 Elders ? Take a single example. How is a modern 
 Charge received ? — And Charges date from just the 
 time when the relations between bishops and chapters 
 came finally to an end ; Bishop Compton's is said to 
 
112 Restoration to Conciliar Work. 
 
 have been the fh\st. — It floats on the waves of the 
 church-world like any other paper ; it is the scroll 
 containing what no Church could at the most call 
 more than the " probable opinions " of one doctor — 
 grave and thoughtful, a theologian, perhaps, or 
 somewhat of a statesman — but only one. 
 
 And what is the precise gain which is due to the 
 modern solitariness of the bishop's action ? Unity ? 
 There is no unity in human affairs without union. 
 The theory of episcopal unity is nowhere so baldly 
 stated as in the Ignatian Epistles. But by unity 
 they do not mean isolation. What they dwell on is 
 the bishop's harmonious action with his Presbytery. 
 " The precious circlet of the Presbytery ; " " The 
 council board of God ; "* that is, practically, the 
 Committee of the nearest gravest clergy .t 
 
 The primitive view of the strength of the episco- 
 pate was certainly not solitariness; but we, whether 
 the causes are social, or whether it is due to some 
 unconscious imitation, have been reproducing in our 
 episcopate nearly that isolation which Kome has 
 effected for her bishops, with the deliberate aim, in 
 her case, of obliging them to turn for support to the 
 Vatican. 
 
 * y &£i6ir\onos crricpavos tov 
 Trpeafivrepiov — avvedpiov 0eoD. 
 
 t Is it not worth observing 
 that, while they almost invari- 
 ably speak of the deacons as 
 units in the plural, they with 
 
 I almost equal invariableness, 
 "speak, not of the presbyters, but 
 of the Presbytery as a union, 
 and especially iD connection with 
 the bishops ? 
 
As in the Primitive work of the Presbytery. 113 
 
 But again, the increasing complications of modern 
 life render concilia r action the more needful. No 
 one culture or experience weighs or does justice to 
 all these. The representative character of our 
 institutions has to be reflected in the regulation of 
 any transaction. Every class, every contour-line in 
 society, is so completely dominated by its own ideas 
 that the representative man for each is wanted to 
 express the thoughts of it, and his expression of them 
 must be heard on almost every subject. In the 
 great eras of church-councils life was complicated 
 with myriad ideas. Classes, bloods, parties, officiali- 
 ties, philosophies, met in the church, and without 
 councils nothing could be done. Then came out- 
 wardly simpler eras, when feudalism, monarchies, 
 imperialism, papacy, threw the thoughts, habits, 
 associations of orders into parallel lines which could 
 not interosculate. Councils drooped. In church 
 administration offices became isolated. In England 
 a single dominant church-state presently dispensed 
 with convocations, with synods, and with chapters. 
 It is so no more. Theological opinions, Christian 
 life and religious benevolence foam in a thousand 
 currents ; a iroXviroUCkos crofyia is again demanded. 
 Unity can be gained only by combinations and 
 associations, and it is proceeding before our eyes. 
 All the <; Dispersions " are re-assembling. Convoca- 
 tion has been learning to work for years. Synods 
 are convened. Congresses and Conferences have 
 
 I 
 
114 Restoration to Conciliar Work. 
 
 sprung up of themselves, and prepare the way for 
 more regular forms. The Vatican herself has held 
 an abnormal council, done an abnormal work, and 
 provoked thunder from the other pole. It is modern 
 life itself which is doing all this, and modern life 
 suggests to the bishops that they should not be slow 
 to revive their chapters. 
 
 To England it seems to be reserved— through her 
 love of the truth — through her primitive organiza- 
 tion — through her world-wide opportunities — to be 
 present, by the grace of God, with the church of 
 the whole earth. Must we not hope that her episco- 
 pacy will present to the world no anomalous spectacle 
 and no unreal image — neither a church-ruler with- 
 out a council, nor a council of shadows ? 
 
 For it is not to fetter action but to develop 
 thought that a council sits. The bishop's power is, 
 according to the old definitions, as we saw, a true 
 monarchia, and he alone has legislative power. The 
 council does not direct — it expresses. It expresses its 
 own thought, and its thought about the thought of 
 the world. It fulfils, in a purer way and concerning 
 the higher class of subjects, the function which the 
 journal fulfils in an unrefined way for the world. Its 
 influence is confined to expressing thoughts — and 
 that influence has no limit. It has no legislative 
 right. It cannot dictate — it formulates. This is 
 exactly the definition of the function of a chapter 
 for its bishop. " He should seek its counsel, but 
 
In accord with modern Movements. 115 
 
 does not need its consent." "He is bound to ask, 
 though not to follow." 
 
 And now to pause. No institution was ever so 
 unfairly tried. No institution is ^o unfairly 
 judged. That in our cathedral bodies have 
 ever flourished our greatest Churchmen is most 
 certain. Trammelled and laden as they have been, 
 they are reproached for moving slowly. The wonder 
 is that of each form which the modern revival of 
 church-life has taken — in church-councils, in 
 systematic and in powerful preaching, in educating 
 clergy, in united worship, in grandeur of service, in 
 historic restoration — it is still in this or that cathe- 
 dral that, with all shortcomings, we find the greatest 
 example. Doubtless their capabilities are as far 
 beyond their performance as freedom is different 
 from their present estate. But if Churchmen are 
 anxious for their liberation, Chapters are more 
 anxious. " Who is offended, and they burn not ?"' 
 
 If it be desirable to resume the old relations we 
 may have learnt, there need be no jar in the 
 resumption. The golden chain is not broken — 
 simply unclasped. The only step needed in foro 
 exteriori is that which is suggested by many other 
 considerations — to extend to canons the law which 
 already requires deans to reside nine months,* hold- 
 
 * This residence of nine 
 months was the universal and 
 imniemurial rule of chapters 
 
 according to the canonists. They 
 hold that no cathedral statute*, 
 no customs, no licence from the 
 
 i 2 
 
116 Restoration to Conciliar Work. 
 
 ing no other benefices, — or, if there exist any modern 
 restriction upon the chapter's and visitor's ancient, 
 universal, statutable power of statute-making, to 
 procure the suspension of that restriction, and then 
 to demand new codes within a fixed time. 
 
 The rest, so far as the form is concerned, is matter 
 of internal organization. In place of the benefices, 
 central diocesan offices ; the staff extended by the 
 restoration of suppressed prebends and canonries, as 
 the existing law directs ; experimentally, by the 
 guarantee of stipends for a term of years. The 
 church's gratitude has already been earned by steps 
 taken by some of the bishops, by the earnest 
 advances of some chapters, by the able and devout 
 labours of many members of chapters, towards these 
 ends, and so far a new spirit may be breathed into 
 the life and work of the individual canon. 
 
 But the corporate life of the whole is something 
 greater than the aggregate activity of its members. 
 And to bid this live rests with our church-fathers 
 only. 
 
 It is for them — if they so will it — to take and 
 make occasions for recognising in their chapters, not 
 
 bishop or from the chapter can 
 extend the vacation of three 
 months, except only for professors 
 in the university, or for the quin- 
 quennial study, above mentioned. 
 And the "inconveniences" 
 arising even from this exemption 
 
 were held to be such that Bel- 
 larmin warns those who avail 
 themselves of it that unless their 
 studies, while out of residence, 
 are most solid, most real, the ex- 
 emption is only good in foro fori 
 and not in foro poli. 
 
Restoration of all Activity. 
 
 117 
 
 merely valued friends, but the greatest and antientest 
 of their own institutions. 
 
 Held, as it was, through many ages of practical 
 work, to be the indispensable auxiliar of their own 
 order and office — misunderstood for a while and 
 misused, yet in substance marvellously preserved to 
 us — the discerning eye and delicate hand may yet 
 again revert to its traces among the elements of 
 modern life as the symmetric ground plan of new 
 church energy and order. 
 
 VIII. — OF OTHER CENTRAL WORKS INCUMBENT ON 
 CATHEDRALS. 
 
 We have studied as we could the essential con- 
 stitution as well as some of the more popular 
 functions of the large compact body which consti- 
 tuted an antient chapter. "We have not averted our 
 eyes from its possible, its actual failure. Its scope 
 and aims might be summed in three words — 
 " science, law, religion." Xot severed like monastic 
 orders from the daily interests of the citizens, the 
 secular foundation continued for centuries to be 
 of the people as it sprang from the people. Its 
 members were the busiest of men and the least 
 recluse. The history of an early English bishop of 
 that age — himself a man of the people — is often a 
 narrative of successful war against nobles, courts 
 and popes. The identity of his interests with the 
 
118 Other demands on Cathedrals : 
 
 interests of the commons is set forth in the old 
 metaphor that he was betrothed to his church, and 
 pledged to stand by her as her husband. The con- 
 tinuity of the tradition was set forth with a strange 
 beauty in the church of Lincoln, when, on the 
 recurrence of any bishop's "obit," the canons lit 
 with tapers not his tomb only, but the tomb of every 
 bishop through the church. The brightness of that 
 continuity has ceased for a while, and various influences 
 effected a divorce* which gave to both sides ease with- 
 out peace, awoke jealousies which shifted their ground 
 from the best interests of society to poorest trivi- 
 alities, distorted the view of chapter life, and for- 
 feits claim to administrate noble means. 
 
 The cathedral has in our day to begin the world 
 again, and inch by inch to win its way back to a 
 usefulness commensurate with its dignity. 
 
 For is there no need? Bather is not the con- 
 viction very general and very strong that the 
 Church of England labours under disabilities which 
 no existent machinery is at work to remedy ; 
 that its great plan is invalidated by deficiencies 
 which are scarcely supplemented, much less re- 
 
 * Nearly the same severance 
 has occurred in the Church of 
 Rome, for which Saravia gives 
 two causes : — 1. Negligentia Ca- 
 nonicorum, 2. The fact that the 
 chapters were not represented at 
 
 the Council of Trent, and that 
 their antient rights were theu 
 curtailed. In England at least 
 one of those causes has not been 
 operative. 
 
Clergy Training. 
 
 119 
 
 paired ? It may not be possible to deny the neces- 
 sity of such changes as have been made from other 
 points of view; but we cannot refuse to see the 
 fact, that while the church is unable in any way to 
 contract her operation, and must accelerate her 
 work of evangelization, not only upon Divine prin- 
 ciples but upon national grounds, she must, for 
 a complete training of ecclesiastical or clerical 
 energies, cease to look to the universities. They 
 have altered their aims. They have their Scientific 
 Faculty of Theology still. Noblest and holiest 
 personal influences may and do live in them. But, 
 owing to their altered relation to the Church, she 
 has been for years past without sufficient "centres" 
 or " organisms " from and through which new and 
 living energies of the character required can come 
 into operation or receive their direction. Yet we 
 already possess in our cathedrals — if the church 
 shall devote itself to renew their vitality, and to 
 reconstruct them — organic centres, bases of opera- 
 tion, outlines of advance. We have in them types 
 of societies — shrunken, yet alive — which resemble, 
 which indeed gave the pattern to the universities 
 themselves, and are specially adapted to address 
 themselves successfully to the solution of these 
 problems. On the one side lie definite necessary 
 functions to be performed ; on the other side there 
 are capable bodies, craving these very functions, and 
 with faculties for expansion in just proportion to the 
 
120 Other demands on Cathedrals: 
 
 demands. May we not forge the link which shall 
 restore the office to the officers ? 
 
 The cathedral bodies themselves are inseparably 
 connected with the history and progress of Chris- 
 tianity in England. They date back to its very 
 planting. They have needed revision and renova- 
 tion from time to time. Speaking approximately, 
 the 11 th, the 14th, and the 16th centuries have 
 been the periods of their successive regenerations. 
 Now the 19th claims its own revival. 
 
 The spirit of four hundred and forty years ago 
 demanded and effected such a rehabilitation on the 
 express ground that "Old institutions are not at 
 present adequate to the questions and the transac- 
 tions that are daily confronting us."* Is not the 
 axiom conceived in the very spirit of our own times ? 
 We must then briefly touch the needs of our modern 
 church (and we would willingly touch them in a 
 spirit not less reverent than practical), and examine 
 how far remedies are to be found in the revival of 
 diocesan and cathedral institutions. 
 
 i. Clergy Training. (1) Knowledge. — The fore- 
 most place in the functions of the cathedral must 
 be assigned to it as a home and hearth of theological 
 learning. The Church of England cannot abnegate 
 her position as a learned church. That position 
 
 * " Qugestionibus et negotiis 
 indies occurrentibus antiqua non 
 sufficiunt instituta." Bp. Aln- 
 
 wick's Proem to the New 
 Register. 
 
Clergy Training. 
 
 121 
 
 has made her sympathetic with every advance 
 in knowledge, appreciative of every expansion of 
 art, capable of every development of method. In 
 criticism, in science, in every walk of literature, her 
 clergy claim some of the highest names. In wel- 
 coming and in popularising new discoveries they 
 have no equals. If in any quarter of a century 
 there has been in her a declension of learning, then 
 the steadiness of her spiritual advance has slackened 
 too. The immediate prospects of Christianity itself 
 are so compromised in her truthfulness, that not for 
 a moment can her light be suffered to flicker. 
 " Practical work " is the popular demand just now, 
 and " results " immediate, examinable, the test of 
 " work." It is a standard which, superficial as it is, 
 the English Church has no reason to fear. But 
 the history of civilisation is read to little purpose, 
 if it is doubted that " practical work " can only be 
 built on living truth, progressive science, accurate 
 knowledge. 
 
 If these beliefs of ours as Churchmen of Christ 
 are to live, are to work, to make life purer and deeds 
 stronger than they are, the first " practical work" 
 is with men before they receive the Holy Seals 
 which either consecrate them effectively to the most 
 teaching ministry under heaven, or * make a show of 
 them " as u blind leaders of the blind." The promise 
 of the Spirit is not that they shall teach what they 
 do not know. Yet it is an undisguised fact that 
 
122 
 
 Other demands on Cathedrals : 
 
 bishops and bishops' examiners are dissatisfied with 
 the acquirements of those whom they examine and 
 certify for holy orders. Not a tenth of the candi- 
 dates in the most attractive dioceses can be said to 
 pass each examination as all ought to pass it. The 
 deficiency is general. Accurate comprehensive 
 study of Scripture, the Greek Testament, the Chris- 
 tian evidences, scientific knowledge of Creed and 
 Articles, are very rare. Church history is commonly 
 the best prepared subject, but the knowledge is 
 desultory. Latin, even when required, is less satis- 
 factory still as evidence of sound study. Of the 
 " Sermons " it can only be said that they are better 
 than could be expected. An observant examiner 
 perceives that what his examinees lack, is not 
 ability or earnestness, but cultivation. An experi- 
 enced examiner knows that more systematic Scrip- 
 ture knowledge is produced not only from men's but 
 from girls' training-schools, than by the untrained 
 average "candidate." Many are the men who 
 " pick up " their work as they best can in two or 
 three months after the bishop's secretary has 
 furnished them with a list of famous books, some 
 known to them by name, some not, and the 
 chaplain has recommended them to study the Bible 
 or Greek Testament in a method and upon a system 
 with which they never read a book before. But 
 there is a more piteous person still. The youth 
 wiser than the aged, able and willing to rebuke 
 
Clergy Training. 
 
 123 
 
 judge or prelate, who, from what he probably calls 
 " the Use " of the district-church to which he has 
 been a serui-attached acolyte, and from the droppings 
 of journalists whom he takes to be divines, has gotten 
 him some stray, chipped shells of the shore of that 
 vast archaeology called Ritual. This Archaeology is 
 as good or better than other Archaeology. For it 
 has a fine old heart within. But it is a very 
 difficult subject, and he believes it to be easy and 
 amusing. He thinks his little scraplets will do 
 more for him and his people than the "History 
 of the Jews." Yet his intentions are good, his spirit 
 self-denying, his life devout. Send him as he is into 
 a parish, he will do harm. Give him two or three 
 years of wise, broad, sympathetic teaching ; " at last 
 he beats his music ont," and many are the souls 
 that will bless him before they die. 
 
 " Ne pretiosa nostra vilescant, et ministri sint sic in 
 contemptum" is one of William Alnwick's weighty 
 warnings to his chapter and vicars, as he urges on 
 them a high and intelligent tone of devotion. The 
 warning is needed now. What proportion of the 
 examinees, at any ordination, are competent to deal 
 with problems which every educated layman of their 
 own age suggests ? or to explain a 16 hard place " to 
 a half-informed inquirer ? to reproduce with accuracy 
 the reasoning on which the most important dogmas 
 rest ? to replace with a sounder evidence one which 
 has proved fallacious ? Let examiners say. 
 
124 
 
 Other demands on Cathedrals : 
 
 We need a skilled clergy more than ever, yet it 
 may be doubted whether we have been ever more de- 
 fective. The country clergyman of a hundred years 
 ago was often a learned man in his retirement. The 
 town clergy were above the average of their equals in 
 attainment. But let our working clergy pass a 
 quarter of a century more in their present rela- 
 tions to the ' educated class,' and then pretiosa nostra 
 vilescent. As a caste they would necessarily still 
 subsist; perhaps even invested for the devouter 
 minds with some added touches of quasi-religious 
 awe ; always received with the regard loyally rendered 
 to diligence and to benevolence. But even now an 
 ominous kindly silence too frequently closes a 
 discussion begun in presence of a clergyman. His 
 character commands regard ; he has credit for 
 sincerely believing what his friends might equally 
 accept, if the living speech of the teacher defended 
 or even clearly stated his truth. But that habitual 
 gentle silence, if it is not broken soon, means night 
 or storm. 
 
 Now, ivhere are all the men to be taught, who are 
 wanted and who come in increasing numbers ? No 
 disinterested person will maintain that either fitter 
 places can be found than diocesan cathedral colleges, 
 or that the cathedrals are unable to undertake such 
 noble duty. The universities cannot do it. The 
 uniyersities cannot succeed in giving clerical training 
 to more than a select few. But were they ever so 
 
Clergy Training. 
 
 125 
 
 successful, and were the current of university move- 
 ment more favourable to such training than it is, they 
 would not supply much more than a single diocese 
 with cultivated men. There is wanted rational, 
 truthful and serviceable knowledge, substantial 
 teaching for every man, whatever his calibre, or how- 
 ever imperfectly educated in classics, who, in earnest- 
 ness and sober zeal (and these qualities abundantly 
 exist) presents himself to be accredited as qualified 
 to impart the church's knowledge, to defend to 
 some extent the church's position. 
 
 But by this time nearly all the university endow- 
 ments given by old bishops expressly to secure a 
 learned clergy to their own dioceses or to the 
 country at large have been by recent enactments 
 devoted to laymen and their babes. New associa- 
 tions are forced on us, new uses of such provision as 
 we have. Neither alone, nor unendowed can Church 
 scholars work and live. 
 
 The Universities must ever be the centres of 
 theological science properly so called. That is 
 admitted. Their libraries, their professorships, their 
 tradition, above all the genius they attract to them- 
 selves, secure this rightful pre-eminence. Used, 
 misused, or neglected theirs is a spiritual office,* if 
 the "treasures of wisdom" are really Christ's. 
 
 * See Prof. Westcott " On the drals in relation to Religious 
 
 Religious Office of the Univer- Thought" in Dean Howson's 
 
 sities," Macmillan, 1873, and collection, Murray, 1872. 
 again his Essay on " Cathe- J 
 
126 Other demands on Cathedrals : 
 
 Oxford apparently dwells less on the importance of 
 a school for undergraduates, more, if so be, on other 
 things. The Cambridge school has not only pur- 
 sued the most refined criticism and hermeneutics, 
 but has developed an immense power among her 
 younger students. Again by offering " the Prelimi- 
 nary Examination " to all candidates for orders in 
 the country she has applied a beneficial stimulus and 
 given a truer standard to all theological colleges, 
 to all men reading anywhere for the same ends, and 
 has raised the tone of most ordination examinations. 
 
 But when the Theological Faculty has so con- 
 solidated itself, so concentrated and classified its 
 professorial schools, as to give adequate training 
 in the literary and historical sections of Theological 
 Science — Biblical Criticism, Ecclesiastical and Doc- 
 trinal History, Liturgiology, — there would still 
 remain as pure clerical training the gravest 
 Dogmatical Studies, there would still be the 
 necessary supplement of Pastoral Divinity. It 
 comes to this. The universities do not, could not, 
 train a quarter of the clerical labour now required : 
 again, for those whom they do train in their truest 
 ways there must always remain subjects of import- 
 ance still to be acquired. For these other men, 
 these other matters, the cathedral schools would offer 
 the fairest, the safest and the most natural opening. 
 
 One sole legislative enactment is needed ; the 
 same which on so many other grounds is called for. 
 It is to place the future holders of canonries on the 
 
Clergy Training. 
 
 127 
 
 same footing as the holders of every other benefice 
 including deaneries ; to withdraw their pluralities 
 and to require nine months' cathedral residence. 
 The canons will still be not less well endowed than 
 most college tutors or university professors. This 
 done, the colleges ipso facto exist. The difference 
 between the " old " and " new " foundations lies 
 mainly here. The new foundations, colleges of from 
 seven to thirteen men, were founded with this for 
 their leading purpose* The "old foundations," 
 
 * " Towards the latter end of 
 this year (1539) several new 
 deaneries and colleges of pre- 
 bends were founded out of divers 
 priories belonging to cathedral 
 churches. Cranmer laboured 
 with the king that in these new 
 foundations there should be 
 readers of Divinity, Greek, and 
 Hebrew, and students trained up 
 in religion and learning, from 
 whence, as from a nursery, the 
 bishops should supply their 
 dioceses with honest and able 
 ministers; and so every bishop 
 should have a college of clergy- 
 men under his eye, to be pre- 
 ferred according to their merits ; 
 for it icas our archbishop's regret 
 that the prebendaries were be- 
 stowed as they were." Strype, 
 ' Mem. Cran.,' i. p. 107. See also 
 among the citations in 1st Eep. 
 Cath. Commission, p. xxiv., 
 ' Cranmer's Letter to Cromwell 
 concerning the Maintenance of 
 Twenty Divines at Canterbury 
 for reading Lectures in Theology 
 
 and Arts.' " It appears,"' says 
 Bishop Gibson (p. 180) from 31 
 Hen. VIII. c. 9, " that the great 
 design was to make cathedrals 
 nurseries of young divines for the 
 service of the church, who, 
 being trained in the study of 
 divinity under the immediate 
 inspection of the bishops, deans, 
 and chapters," &c. See also Dr. 
 C. Wordsworth's (Master of 
 Trinity) account in the Letter 
 previously referred to, of the 
 College projected in the reign of 
 James I. " to be attached to the 
 Collegiate Church and Minster of 
 Ripon," restored, as it was to be, 
 to its antient use and dignity, 
 with its splendid design for 30 
 colleagues, 70 junior fellows (10 
 students in arts, 8 in tongues, 
 &c), 120 probationers, 120 
 scholars, and 60 grammar 
 scholars. See also Dr. W.'s ex- 
 tracts from Sir E. Sandys and 
 Lord Bacon on the necessity of 
 Divinity instruction. 
 
128 Other demands on Cathedrals: 
 
 though the same was a principal work of theirs, 
 yet, were intended as colleges of thirty, fifty, or 
 sixty men, to incorporate with this ' theoretic ' (and 
 by it to vivify), a vast mass of ' practical work 1 
 besides. In their restoration the aim must be not 
 to revive the latter alone ; this severed from the 
 former must * lose its savour ; ' each may best be 
 carried on in unison with the other — above all, if 
 there be a specialising co-operation in the divisions 
 of study. 
 
 If the possible encouragement of a spirit of 
 f clique ' has sometimes seemed to be an objection 
 to * theological colleges,' this is a danger against 
 which the open character of English theology, the 
 tone of modern cultivation, the variety of class 
 which would yield both canon-tutors and students, 
 are adequate securities. But, in fact, it is the absence 
 of mutual culture, it is the want of intercom- 
 munion of ideas, it is the missing of earlier collision 
 with other minds, upon great subjects, which is — far 
 more than any special association — the cause of our 
 starveling tendencies to cliquetry. 
 
 ii. Clergy Training in (2) Pastoral Care. — Again, 
 the young clergy need preliminary instruction as to 
 ' visiting/ as to meeting on equal terms the dis- 
 senter, the semi-detached churchman, the doubter, 
 the scoffer, the inquirer. In the cottage it craves a 
 nice skill to hush the querulous garrulous tongue, 
 yet leave no sting; to touch a hardened heart and 
 leave no shame of defeat ; so to read the sad secret 
 
Pastoral Care. 
 
 129 
 
 as not to leave hearts comfortless and passionate for 
 years. And there is many a cottage whose wonderful 
 peace is not understood ; its inmates as they look 
 after the healthy active figure, quitting the threshold, 
 gravely say in their language, "He means well, but 
 he is not converted ;" and there is a depth in what 
 they say beyond their own penetrating. How in- 
 finitely complex do all the problems which hence 
 arise become, when they spring up among the young 
 clergyman's equals in constant intercourse, and 
 among his superiors, who in one great sense are 
 ready to treat him as theirs, if he vindicate the 
 meaning of his commission. No doubt our clergy 
 " visit " with much of wisdom, simply because they 
 are so true and frank. Still, through how many 
 painful failures, through how much impatience, 
 how much blank tongue-tied distress do they 
 pass ! How much do they feel to have been sacri- 
 ficed to many an undisciplined dash into the valley 
 of death! With their school-teaching it is the 
 same. How long it is before the fresh curate com- 
 mands stillness without effort in the Sunday-school ! 
 How long with his best scholars he wavers between 
 baldness and formula! How long it is before he 
 finds that footing from which he may so seem to 
 climb with his hearers that they may climb without 
 shrinking! How universal the complaint that the 
 "Meeting" reaps the fruit of his labours! Our 
 certificated schoolmasters have an advantage here 
 
 K 
 
130 
 
 Other Central Works demanded : 
 
 which compensates for many a defect. They have 
 method at least, the clergyman has none. The 
 earnest, pious man can acquire, can be taught, the 
 method. There is no doubt about it. 
 
 (1) To meet such deficiencies as oppress the 
 individual, and tend directly to lower the order, we 
 require throughout England certain centres which 
 shall adequately train not more than from thirty to 
 fifty men at once — numbers which will admit of 
 being broken up into small ' lectures ' or classes, 
 such as the best colleges form for themselves in the 
 universities for kindred subjects of morality, meta- 
 physics, or political economy. There is nothing to 
 be gained by massing such students. They do not 
 want the ' little world ' theory of school and college 
 applied to them at the age of from 21 to 30. They 
 want contact with disciplined thoughtful minds. 
 This is the only way of teaching higher subjects to 
 grown men. There are wanted facilities for dia- 
 logising; they want ' papers ' to work at, to consider, 
 and to answer; not long hours of teaching ; constant 
 exercitations in writing, and (though we have yet 
 to form our method in this department) some ora- 
 torical instruction which shall elevate and advance 
 the present level. What a Cyprian and an Augustine 
 did not disdain to teach — what Cicero, at the age 
 of twenty-eight, did not disdain to learn in the 
 lecture-room of Molo — can be despised only by a 
 * rustic ' or a ' banausic' spirit. 
 
Pastoral Care. 
 
 131 
 
 (2) Thus much for one side of the training. For 
 the other, men preparing for ministerial work should, 
 for certain periods, during the curriculum of the 
 preparation, be broken up into threes and fours, and 
 placed uuder the direction of able parish priests of 
 experience. How many of these there are of mature 
 age, whose youth was passed under certain great 
 personal influences ! And again, what an immense 
 effect the church experiences of recent years have 
 had on all observant, thoughtful clergy. Many are, 
 or are becoming, most valuable guides, most meet 
 at once to encourage and to temper the zeal and the 
 energies of aspirants to work like their own. Our 
 true modern theological college would make arrange- 
 ments, whether in the cathedral town or in neigh- 
 bouring parishes, for setting its alumni to work 
 under the eye of such men as these, and to listen to 
 their shrewd affectionateness. So would they be 
 not only instructed, but enabled to deal with the 
 shop and the cottage and the railway ; useful from 
 the first to some exteut in church and school to 
 the rector or vicar who receives them, and learning 
 from him such method as will save them years 
 of disappointing labour, as they gain the effectual 
 unobtrusive art of giving expression to their 
 sympathy and their devotion. 
 
 We know how one great scholar and self-denying 
 priest gathered above a hundred university men in 
 ten years, daily studied the Greek Testament for an 
 
 k 2 
 
132 Other Central Works demanded: 
 
 hour with them, and gave pastoral training in his 
 parish to those who would come and live within its 
 boundary. Well-organized institutions, in which 
 one man should supply another's need — for few are 
 they whose ability and ready learning and Christian 
 tact could effect so much unaided — which could 
 attract the interest of some of the leading clergy 
 of the diocese ; which could carry out pecuniary 
 arrangements with economy and skill, might spring 
 up in every cathedral city, whilst beautiful and 
 glorious associations would dignify the work. 
 
 in. Again, is it hopeless to believe that we may 
 by degrees create a staff of Free Preachers f This 
 belongs distinctly both to the antient and to the 
 Reformed notion of a cathedral. The Report* — 
 that noble monument of conscientious work — quotes 
 Bishop Stillingfleet's account of early London, with 
 its " retired " Westminster, " intended for a nursery 
 to the church, while St. Paul's was assigned to those 
 who were sent up and down by the bishop to such 
 places as he thought fit, for instructing the people." 
 Cranmer's Foundation of the Six Preachers of Can- 
 terbury is well known : these were provided with 
 horses for their tours through the county of Kent as 
 well as houses of residence. Knowing the effective 
 use which both Rome and Nonconformity make of 
 such institutions, we can never doubt their advisa- 
 
 First, p. xxxiv. 
 
Free Mission Preachers. 
 
 133 
 
 bility or their feasibility. Still less can we doubt 
 that the most vigorous and most temperate rendez- 
 vous would be the head-quarters of the diocese. 
 
 The Mission movement has assumed great propor- 
 tions. But there is no real organization of missions 
 hitherto. Every diocese ought to have its own 
 large staff of Missioners regularly associated and 
 authorized from among its own parochial clergy. 
 But beyond this there ought to be " in connection 
 with the cathedral a band of men who would reserve 
 themselves for missions, for lecturing in towns on 
 topics of importance to the church and to society, 
 for conducting services in special seasons, going 
 where they were asked to help in prepariug for 
 confirmations or communions, perhaps actually 
 taking charge of parishes, sometimes when the 
 incumbent needed or desired diocesan help ; perhaps 
 sometimes taking itinerant preaching tours, preach- 
 ing out of doors or elsewhere, when the pastor wished 
 it."* And the whole band ought to be centred 
 round a permanent head, a ' Secretary for Missions,' 
 in fact a Canon Missioner. No organization short of 
 this will fill the gaps which we all are staring at. 
 
 IV. But the cathedral owes a peculiar debt to its 
 own City. It is a debt which the statutes frequently 
 recognise. A severance of feeling which sometimes 
 
 * I quote from the admirable address of Canon Mason to the 
 First Truro Conference, 1877. 
 
134 
 
 Other Central Worhs demanded : 
 
 exists (though by no means always), has its origin 
 in recent apathies, not in old usage. The very 
 fabric — the magnitude, for iustance, of the nave — 
 represents the fact. Diocesan gatherings and city 
 organizations also are beginning to require and to 
 replenish them at intervals ; and it is scarcely 
 necessary to assure ourselves that we see but the 
 beginning of such combinations. Yet the class in 
 society which (if we can single out one) we neglect 
 more shamefully, more inexcusably, than any others 
 is a city class ; a class whose work lies under the 
 shadow of cathedrals, of collegiate churches, of the 
 great old parish churches, — young men in bankers', 
 in attorneys' offices, in large warehouses, and in shops 
 of every order. They have been well educated up to 
 a certain age ; well cared for in good schools ; they 
 are of excellent character, or they would not be 
 where they are. But from the hour they enter on 
 their business-training higher influences surrender 
 and almost shun them. They need but a little 
 living interest to be found for them, witness certain 
 London congregations. But, alas! what falls for 
 the many of them ! Alas, what years of impurity ! 
 Separated from home — lonely in lodgings, what 
 does society provide for them? The theatre, the 
 music-hall, the dancing-room, unless after sedentary 
 days they have some special heat of intellect left 
 for solitary study. Some efforts are made, no 
 doubt ; but " Christian Associations," or " Church 
 
Duty to the City. 
 
 135 
 
 Societies," thankfully as we own good service to 
 good causes and still look onward for developments 
 not stimulated by party spirit, have no great 
 lifting power. But wherever there is a body of 
 clergy, wherever there is anything like a college, 
 wherever there are lecture rooms and libraries, 
 there not only the authorities, but the students 
 themselves may be infinitely serviceable to the very 
 class in whom grows up what will be the whole tone, 
 temper and character of the city. The college should 
 have its open lectures, as well as its close ones. Its late 
 evening lectures on subjects not purely theological 
 should enrol its classes of these men. If formerly 
 the construction of vaulted roofs, the thrust of walls, 
 the balance of buttresses — nay, the construction of 
 bridges, the formation and repair of highways were 
 not unworthy studies in the most religious ages of. 
 the old and new foundation — will history, or phy- 
 siology, or mathematics be beneath their teaching 
 now ? 31inds furrowed with some intellectual plough 
 best receive the seed of revealed Truth. What a field 
 here for association of clergy with able laymen in 
 the actual instruction ! what a fjbaOijreva-^ of young 
 laymen to be the very strength of the church in its 
 most important ranks ! Let the cathedral body take 
 a lead here. Its affiliations would overspread the 
 diocese, and its associations would have an effect 
 which the higher spirit even in commerce would 
 gladly recognise and promote. 
 
136 Other Central Works demanded : 
 
 V. There is another modern exigency which a 
 cathedral staff conld help more wisely and more 
 safely than any other. Some due preparation for 
 the order of Headers. Far and wide tbe use of 
 that Order has begun, upon a small scale, but duly 
 sanctioned and with good results. The history of 
 it will be that it will grow very slowly indeed for a 
 time, and then have a very rapid large development. 
 But an erratic development would rouse prejudice, 
 and would bring some mischief. To impart the 
 sense of unity to their work, to shape their zeal and 
 to steady it, to gather them round centres of thought- 
 fulness and devotion and discipline, to assemble 
 them there from time to time pour se retremper, will 
 be essential to the permanence of their body and 
 the fixity of their plan. 
 
 VI. There is another point in which the co-opera- 
 tion of laymen in cathedrals is seriously wanted 
 on many accounts. The Library was in the old 
 times a prominent feature of the cathedral. It 
 ought to be so still. In most such libraries there 
 are strata as it were of collections — plenteous ore in 
 one generation, from folios to broad-sheets, in the 
 next generation * tenuis argilla.' When the chapter 
 meant sixty people, and when those who had daily 
 right and pressure to use the library, and had no other 
 books to use, were two or three hundred, then it was 
 at once a college library and a grand repository of 
 archives. This it ought still to be. It ought 
 
Order of Readers — Library — Music. 137 
 
 to contain archives of every town, every marked 
 family, and every corporation in the diocese, as well 
 as to maintain at full efficiency a library of reference 
 and a theological library. It was a singular instance 
 of the good sense and far sight of Bishop Phillpotts 
 of Exeter that desiring and believing in the revival 
 of the See of Cornwall, he gave all his theological 
 collections to Truro on condition that a library 
 should be built to receive them and future gifts. It 
 was not beneath the dignity of a Synod of Rheims to 
 represent to the clergy what petty sums their 
 cherished books fetched at sales after their deaths 
 and to beg that they would rather bequeath them to 
 the cathedral libraries where they would be prized. 
 
 VII. After books we will take Music : but in a 
 few words only. The cathedral was once — as we saw, 
 in speaking of the precentorship — the musical centre 
 of the diocese. Now, we see the musical centre 
 fixed elsewhere. In some one or two dioceses, an 
 officer discharges the identical office of the antient 
 Succentor. They travel from choir to choir through- 
 out its counties, testing, giving hints, introducing 
 uniformity of style, organising a really great musical 
 power. But they are not officers of the cathedral. 
 The cathedral is the last church to concern itself 
 with other churches. How much both it and they 
 lose by the severance ! 
 
 viii. Equally practical, equally manageable, and 
 already to some extent operative, is a cathedral 
 
138 
 
 Other Central Works demanded : 
 
 system of School Inspection. Here too St. Paul's has 
 set the great example, re-endowing a confiscate stall 
 for the purpose. Diocesan religious inspection, 
 worked from the cathedral as a matter of modern 
 utility, would be a simple revival of the most 
 marked feature of the Chancellorship.* 
 
 We need say little of the city and cathedral 
 schools themselves, because it is not every cathedral 
 which has such schools ; and as chapters have frozen 
 into dignities, the school has sometimes found their 
 shadow chill; and though as typical work it is 
 important, yet the cathedral education should not 
 be supposed to limit itself to this work ; and again 
 the Endowed Schools Act exempts the choristers' 
 school from certain rules rather than groups others 
 with it. But the ' Archididascalus,' and 1 Ostiarius ' 
 Stall in some of the cathedrals have a moral, while 
 here and there the training colleges take their 
 cathedral place, the principal as prebendary, or as 
 minor canon, even though the students are but as 
 other strangers. 
 
 ix. There are other points on which it would be 
 premature to enter, except in the pure spirit of 
 
 * Our best arrangements for 
 Religious Instruction and Inspec- 
 tion are very imperfect at present. 
 It was startling to hear American 
 bishops tell us that the English 
 Churchmen who leave these 
 shores for theirs are swept off to 
 
 every form of sect, and that their 
 own American Churchmen are 
 not ; and that the faithfulness of 
 their people is simply due to the 
 regular, systematic, catechetical 
 
 ' training in true doctrine which 
 
 ; they use. 
 
School Inspection — Hospital Work. 139 
 
 hope that when oar church at large awakes to 
 grander views of duty to all classes, the cathedrals 
 may be the first to inaugurate them. 
 
 We may name one. Organised charitable work 
 in Hospital Service. The church, that is, ' the whole 
 congregation of Christian people 1 has grievously 
 forfeited ground that was all her own, and the 
 continent puts to shame our poor appreciation 
 (except on some tremendous emergency) of the 
 religious aspect and uses of the sacred office of 
 nursing the sick. Our earliest attempts at the 
 resumption were too full of excitement. " Medical 
 jealousy," if it has any existence is no mere in- 
 difference to religion. The most religious surgeon 
 may not see lives endangered through inexperience, 
 however zealous. But some of the best nursed 
 hospitals in London by their connection with 
 St. John's House and other Sisterhoods have given 
 precedents which will be followed. Trained lady 
 nurses with their staff are the very angels of sick 
 men. Noi can institutions for the training of 
 Deaconesses have their head-quarters or local 
 centres for country districts better than in the chief 
 towns of the diocese — where counsel, buildings, 
 money, recruits, and practice, can well be con- 
 centrated. 
 
 While the Leper's Hospital, founded in Lincoln 
 by the founder of the cathedral himself ; while the 
 "medicine-niches" within the very walls of the 
 
140 
 
 Other Central Works demanded, 
 
 church bear witness to the old views of the situation ; 
 while Hugh's biographer tells of the 'matriculse' 
 for incurables, on several of the episcopal farms, and 
 of the bishop's frequent visits to them, "soothing 
 them with a mother's gentleness; and with mar- 
 vellous sweetness inweaving lessons of goodness in 
 his comforting words " — is it a hopeless vision that 
 the shadow of minster-towers passing round day by 
 day might have some healing within its circle, some 
 spiritual provision for those days of languor when 
 the rudest are impressionable, and for those rare 
 w r eeks of leisure ? is it a hopeless vision to dream 
 that there may one day exist a cathedral corps of 
 hospital chaplains, a diocesan staff of trained nurses, 
 deaconesses, Sisters? 
 
 The review of our Needs as Churchmen, even in a 
 few particulars, has much in it that is saddening. 
 Yet they are needs of a special order. Not one 
 of these necessities is such as individual effort can 
 deal with. They are equally beyond the grasp of 
 a metropolitan centralisation. They can only be 
 grappled with by association, by groups of forces 
 around local centres. Various as they are, they 
 admit to a great degree of being administered 
 in concert from such points, while their variety 
 would keep those centres distinct, and give to each 
 the special, the individual, and, as it were the 
 personal character which is desirable for healthy 
 action. In none would all the elements be combined ; 
 
Reconstruction. 
 
 141 
 
 at none would they meet in the same proportions. 
 Each would be an integral, living, organic, specific 
 whole. But the point to observe is, that however 
 feeble for a time this vital action, we do possess such 
 " ganglia " already. We have such centres, types of 
 a true mode of action. Our aim should be to 
 complete, as it were, the electric circuit — Fill 
 hominis, viventne credis ? Domine Deus, Tu nosti. 
 
 If means have for a while been crippled, local 
 forces partly exhausted, we may remember that it is 
 our own fault ; that the neglect and misuse of grand 
 means could no longer be borne with. We may take 
 some comfort from the thought that if we have lost 
 the power of applying them when we now perhaps 
 have learnt wisdom to apply them, the resources are 
 at least not any longer wasted. The treasure 
 unvalued till lost is serviceable elsewhere ; and the 
 legislation of the destroyer itself conferred the singular 
 but important right to restore every single stall to 
 existence by the foundation of a small stipend. 
 Past misuse does not make our e centres,' our ■ types,' 
 our ' lines ' one whit less clear or less precious to us. 
 
 Let us gather up briefly the conclusions to which 
 we are led. To solve in the most economical and in 
 the most 'political ' way the particular problems before 
 us, we require and must effect the Reconstruction, upon 
 a liberal and popular basis, of a Cathedral System. 
 Popular, first as to the method of filling up the 
 appointments. They must not be the joint-stock of 
 
142 
 
 Demands to be met only by 
 
 a circle of families however wide, or the guerdon of 
 political adherence, nor even be sacrificed as pensions. 
 Well-earned repose has a value of its own. But for 
 the present we want work out of these institutions, 
 not repose. Capability for responsible posts must be 
 the sole pretext on which they, like other offices, 
 must be assigned. Popular, secondly, as to the 
 simple, self-denying lives of those who hold them. 
 Popular, thirdly, as to the publicity of the work 
 done. And this points at once to the renewed 
 intimity of the bishop. 
 
 "Precedent," that potent Cathedral Spectre, 
 though, when faced, it rarely proves to be fifty years 
 old, must no more rule cathedrals than it rules any 
 useful institution. Imagine a public school, a rail- 
 way, a parish, a manufactory, in which nothing could 
 Le done which had not been done before ! 
 
 But to develop the applicability of the institution 
 to modern ends and needs, we come to details. And 
 once again — we find every track explored brings 
 us back to the same centre — the most important 
 of all details essential to this "renewed intimity" 
 of the bishop, to the counsel and service of the 
 chapter to practical ends is — 
 
 (1) The Besidence of the Canons and Prebendaries. 
 This must be restored to the universal old perpetual 
 or " major residence " of two-thirds of the year at 
 least. The decay of practical usefulness began when 
 the term of residence was altered and reduced to what 
 
(1) Perpetual Residence * (2) Distinct Offices. 143 
 
 had formerly been the term of non-residence, and in 
 some cases even to less. The old foundations and the 
 new were alike originally legislated for upon the idea 
 of constant residence as fundamental. Since the 
 change, the fellow-counsellors, the fellow-workers 
 the office-bearers of a once mighty group have, as 
 "canons in residence," proceeded in solemn train 
 through the year, like the apostles in Strasburg 
 clock, each gazing on his predecessor's departing 
 hood. What corporate action is possible for the 
 most enlightened men so placed? Some of our 
 least reforming cathedrals have had the most 
 reforming: canons. But intercourse was essential for 
 determinate action, and how was intercourse to be 
 had? 
 
 (2) The Distinctness of Offices. The one church 
 of which we have spoken most has happily preserved 
 the offices of the 'majores persons ' as they were 
 called — Precentor, Chancellor, Sub-dean, (Treasurer 
 being extinct) — in conjunction with its residentiary- 
 ships, owing to the fact that, even in the last century, 
 its canons were generally resident,* and that the tra- 
 dition of duties was never quite broken ; the chan- 
 cellor lecturing from time to time, and the precentor 
 invariably ordering the service. But how grave an 
 error has been committed in some cathedrals bv 
 severing the four dignities from the four residen- 
 
 * Page 49. 
 
144 
 
 Demands to be met only by 
 
 tiaryships. At St. Paul's, " an entirely new body of 
 four canons was created by the Act of 1840 ; and 
 yet there are no provisions in the Act to define the 
 relation of the new body to the old, and no formal 
 clause conferring on them the privileges of the 
 antient chapter. A fragment at least of the old 
 constitution might have been retained, had this new 
 body of four canons taken the place of four of the 
 major es persons of old time — the Archdeacon of 
 London, the Treasurer, the Precentor, and the 
 Chancellor. But even such deference to antiquity," 
 [or to utility — a still more proper virtue in 
 Eeformers] " was too great an effort."* So prepos- 
 terous is the working of this, that, should one of 
 these canons desire to undertake the office and work 
 of Chancellor or Precentor in their own church, he 
 would forfeit his canonry ; because, the unendowed 
 offices being filled up by the bishop and the canonries 
 by the Crown, would constitute pluralities ! f No 
 other church has this disability. 
 
 * Eeg. Statutomm .. S. Pauli, ' alive the sense of work to be ex- 
 Lond. p. lxviii. I pected and to be done, the Ec- 
 
 f Another smaller and more clesiastical Commissioners since 
 ludicrous specimen of the style 1840 address their communica- 
 of work is that, at cathedrals tions to the Precentor, or Chan- 
 where the Names of Office are cellor, as " The Reverend The 
 over each stall, and form the sole Incumbent of Canonry Number 
 key to the statutes, and designate One, Canonry Number Two" &c. 
 
 each house of residence, and are 
 in the mouth of every townsman, 
 and are the only names known, 
 and, above all, have acted to keep 
 
 Neither the "Incumbent" him- 
 self, nor the postman himself 
 ascertains which canon is meant 
 until the letter has been opened. 
 
(3) Non-plurality. 
 
 145 
 
 Where the dignities are still held by residentiaries 
 the incumbent is not discharged of the duties of 
 his office by the confiscation of any separate estate 
 once attached to his dignity. Not endowment, but 
 position is the essence of a canonry. The duty 
 belonged to the office centuries before the estate 
 was added. Such added estates were usually meant 
 to bear some charge now extinct. And now there 
 is a dividend (a principle more antient and better 
 than that of separate estates) often larger than 
 the old income, and there is the antient title of 
 honour. 
 
 (3) The perpetual residence of the canons would 
 probably lead to the resigning of parochial cures. This 
 might imaginably not be everywhere necessary, yet 
 it would seem to be pure gain. The prebendary is 
 no longer needed to be the well-to-do civiliser of a 
 rural, unsettled district. His prebend has become a 
 simple parochial cure, and his presence is wanted at 
 the cathedral church. Even in the time of Grosse- 
 teste, even earlier in the time of Hugh, we have 
 seen that those statesmen-bishops felt the latter 
 need to be growing more urgent than the former, and 
 would appoint no one to a stall who would not 
 promise constant residence. The bishops have it still 
 in their own hands. But, indeed, the difficulty is 
 now less than it ever was. The canons income is 
 become a stipend ; it is not derived from a separate 
 estate, and if canonical work becomes a reality, the 
 
 L 
 
146 
 
 Demands to be met only by 
 
 stipend will like other stipends be made adequate.* 
 A canon who kept a " major residence " antiently had 
 larger allowances than those who resided on their 
 cures, and the regulation is sufficiently simple. 
 
 (4) We shall need the gradual but extensive 
 restoration of suspended canonries. The havoc 
 wrought by the statutes, 3 & 4 Vict. c. 113, and 
 those succeeding it, when, for the time being, by 
 the felling of more than 460 prebends,! " the antient 
 polity of the Church of England was ruthlessly 
 broken up," left us still this permission to pick our- 
 selves up again. "Power is given to remove the 
 suspension of a canonry if an endowment of £200 a 
 year is provided.'^ This important provision leaves 
 us not permanently crippled, considering what the 
 powers, what the liberality, what the willingness to 
 provide funds for honest work, which are extant in 
 the church. For every distinct round of fixed duties 
 it will be no more difficult to provide such a sum 
 than it is to provide a mastership in a school. And 
 even if we shiver slightly at the thought that the 
 future may once again drink up such foundations, 
 
 * It is scarcely necessary to sake alone) is to balance them 
 observe that a u poor cathedral " \ by rich livings, 
 has as much claim on the love j t The English clergy number 
 and duty of spiritual incumbents j about 23,000. Six hundred 
 as any other benefice. The \ canonical appointments would 
 worst policy with regard to such j not nowadays seem excessive for 
 canonries (regarded for their own | practical purposes. 
 
 X First Kep. p. xiii. 17. 
 
(4) Re-foundation. 
 
 147 
 
 the possibility canuot affect the duty of supplying 
 present needs and obeying present convictions.* v 
 " The canonries of the future, then, will be poor 
 things f " We have seen that even in the best days 
 some of them were but " perexiles tituli" and in this 
 thought we rise at once to higher ground, and to 
 principles which we are persuaded are not dead 
 among us. The revived cathedral societies must be 
 of necessity associations in which, as they always 
 ought to have been, humility and self-denial shall be 
 recognised elements. Those virtues are of an 
 invigorating nature ; and we want vigour. They 
 promote companionship, and companionship was of 
 the essence of the old cathedral life, and companion- 
 ship will be the life-spring of the new societies. The 
 Vicar's College at Hereford, with its common hall 
 (never disused till the fire a few years back), sug- 
 gests possibilities of associated families which should 
 far excel the old companionships of solitary men, 
 whether as regards happiness or as regards useful- 
 ness. There is none of the many benefits which 
 the clerical family confers on the parish (and they 
 have been often dilated on) which could not be 
 multiplied indefinitely by such associations in the 
 city. It is no new ideal. We conjure up difficulties 
 as to how colleges of families would work. But the 
 
 * A permission amended aud 
 facilitated by Mr. Beresford- 
 Hope's Act, 36 & 37 Vict c. 89, 
 
 and already needing more facili- 
 tation. 
 
 L 2 
 
148 
 
 Patience. 
 
 difficulty felt in England, and at Lincoln itself as 
 late as the eleventh century, was as to how colleges 
 of celibates would work. Henry of Huntingdon, 
 himself a Canon, was son of Nicolas, Archdeacon of 
 Huntingdon and Cambridge, and Canon Residentiary 
 of Lincoln, that " Stella Cleri, Splendor Nicolai," so 
 affectionately commemorated by the son, who dwells 
 bitterly on the anti-matrimonial policy and incon- 
 sistency of Rome. 
 
 The vulgar objection which may be raised from 
 the pitifulness and pettiness of life is one which 
 ought to melt away, as society advances, before the 
 steadfast application of true principles of self-denial 
 and humility. Truth and reality of daily life, severe 
 simplicity with perfect culture would be, next to its 
 spirit of worship and work, the dearest heritage of 
 such a corporation. Such societies would be strong 
 to restore what it is denied to the individual to effect ; 
 a veritable — may we not say it without offence ? — a 
 Greek union of simplicity with dignity : fyiXoKaXelv 
 fier evre\eia<; ical (piXoaofelv avev fiaXa/cla?. 
 
 Societies have arisen and done their work on 
 these principles against far more and greater im- 
 pediments, and with far less to sweeten and to 
 sanctify. " Les peres de families, ils sont capables 
 de tout." The sting of Talleyrand's evil wit lies, 
 as in so many of bis sayings, in the very fact that 
 he describes his objects by inverted ideals of their 
 class. The " father of the family " is one who by 
 
Hope. 
 
 149 
 
 his very duty to that family ought in idea to he, 
 and commonly is, rendered by them incapable 6f 
 what can sully or corrupt ; for them he grows to 
 hate what is ignoble, by them he forgets self- 
 seeking. But make that father of the family a 
 voluntary priest, and let a company of such priests 
 with their houses, and "like-minded" laymen with 
 them, be, for the extension of religion, for the 
 " kindling of a greater natural light," for the help 
 of the helpless, together dedicated and associated 
 by the most powerful motives and resolutions, by 
 the most splendid memories of the past, by the 
 most trustful hopes of the future, in a word, by 
 devoted love to Christ and His Church, and let the 
 wholesome light of public life stream ever in on the 
 society and its work, and once again we should 
 possess such a Vehicle of that Word " which is 
 powerful to the casting down of strongholds," as 
 might face the evils of our time, and last until the 
 old age of all human needs. It would have all 
 elements of durability. It would be calm and 
 strong. The Spirit of Keverence and the Spirit of 
 Progress would dwell in it together. 
 
\ 
 
 ADDRESS 
 
 TO THE 
 
 FIRST DIOCESAN CONFERENCE OF TRURO 
 
 Oct. 26, 1877. 
 
 OX THE CATHEDRAL BODY. 
 
 " In Thy book were all my members written 
 Which day by day were fashioned 
 When as yet there was none of them." 
 
ON THE CATHEDRAL BODY, TRURO. 
 
 Thirty years ago cathedral bodies were in the 
 very depth of unpopularity. Nothing but some 
 Heaven-born instinct in the English people then 
 prevented their extinction. They were mutilated, 
 yet that " there was some good thing to be found in 
 them " — in these antient and universal societies — 
 was still believed. 
 
 Even then a foreign liberal thinker shared with 
 England's most liberal Churchman and educa- 
 tionalist his horror at the parliamentary mania 
 that was bent on dribbling away the cathedral 
 funds which should have been kept together for 
 such church purposes as had grandeur and great- 
 ness in them. " The cathedrals," wrote Bunsen to 
 Arnold, "ought to be the fountains both of prac- 
 tical and theoretical divinity." "The chapters," 
 he wrote again, " ought to share in the government 
 of the church, as the * Book of Canons ' intends 
 them to do, and as they do in other countries." 
 
 Towards such large and noble views the church 
 reaction moves slowly but surely. The cathedrals 
 have long regained their place in public interest. 
 
154 
 
 On the Cathedral Body, Truro. 
 
 Their mutilation is a subject of grief to men who 
 now see^what they might have done. Victimised 
 first by the ministers of George II., who in an age 
 of bribery found them the least costly kind of 
 bribes; next, farmed by men of business, who, by 
 birth or political connection, stood within reach of 
 them ; who " took orders " with a view to accumu- 
 lating their leases on themselves and their families, 
 under a vicious system now impossible ; who re- 
 garded their commanding positions as otium cum 
 dignitate, and who often amassed large wealth by 
 unscrupulous pluralism, these old mother churches 
 became mere camps entrenched alike against 
 bishops and parishes. 
 
 Up till the beginning of the period of which I 
 speak, there is scarcely a name of any great church 
 author, or thinker, or preacher, theologian, philoso- 
 pher, commentator, antiquarian, or sacred poet, who 
 was not a member of some cathedral or collegiate 
 church. After that, until quite recently again, such 
 names are few and far between upon their lists. So 
 that even their defenders, when short work seemed 
 likely to be made with them, only urged that they 
 were venerable places of retirement for worn-out 
 scholars and clergy, and that they were schools of 
 sacred music. Strange that it had to be re-discovered 
 that their one antient character and interest were in 
 exact harmony with the most practical modern 
 needs : — That first, they were intended to invest the 
 
On the Cathedral Body, Truro. 155 
 
 bishop w ith a council of his learned and experienced 
 clergy; and, secondly, that they had been provided 
 with a staff of diocesan officers, who at the centre of 
 the diocese were charged with functions correspond- 
 ing to those of our secretaries of civil government. 
 The cathedrals of the new foundation (i.e. of 
 Henry VIII. 's time) were less complete in their 
 adaptations, but those of the old foundation, of 
 which Exeter was an admirable type, were simply 
 perfect in their organization. Man's Avit has never 
 devised a more sensibly practical kind of institution. 
 
 At the head of the canons was the Dean, whose 
 functions lay in the general government of the 
 house, in the chief administration of the estates, 
 the holding of the courts, and the visitation of the 
 numerous dependent churches and parishes. Until 
 the increasing property and the material ramifica- 
 tion of a cathedral demanded such headship, there was 
 frequently no dean. None was appointed at Exeter 
 for some two centuries after the foundation of the 
 church ; and a modern cathedral, landless, money- 
 less, churchless, would naturally begin the world 
 without one. Next to the dean was the Precentor, 
 to whom was committed the entire care of the 
 liturgy of the cathedral itself, and also an authority 
 over all the numerous song-schools of the diocese. 
 Then came the Chancellor. He had the direction 
 of all the preaching of the cathedral ; was bound to 
 instruct theological students, and was provided with 
 
156 On the Cathedral Body, Truro. 
 
 funds to assist those students and to maintain lec- 
 turers. The library of the cathedral and its muni- 
 ments were also his charge. His duties were 
 onerous, so that a vice-chancellor (from which office 
 strangely enough, the chief resident officer of a far 
 more modern institution is called) was provided to 
 assist him. Lastly, the Treasurer not only had the 
 care of the church and its gear, but was at the head 
 of the diocesan and cathedral charities. These Four 
 diocesan officers, with duties so practical, so useful, 
 so eminently modern (so to say), were to be found 
 in every cathedral, not only of this country, but of 
 the Christian world ; and in Greece alike and 
 Norway they exist still. In some of our cathedrals 
 they have become honorary. In others, as Lincoln, 
 they have been perpetuated in function as well as 
 in name, and have scarcely, for even a brief interval, 
 ceased to involve constant residence and the dis- 
 charge of special duties. Next to these ranked the 
 Archdeacons, whose jurisdiction was exterior to the 
 cathedral itself. And then came the Canons and 
 Prebendaries, sometimes numbering, as at my dear 
 Lincoln, between fifty and sixty, each with an 
 originally separate small estate, in right of which 
 he was bound to attend the bishop's council when- 
 ever summoned, to go out a-preaching whenever 
 sent, and to administer the parish to which his 
 estate and patronage belonged. 
 
 Singular it seems that when these magnificent 
 
On the Cathedral Body, Truro. 
 
 157 
 
 establishments, instead of being really, substantively 
 utilised, were virtually desiccated, the four officers 
 were everywhere left, and even enriched some- 
 times. At Exeter itself a fifth canonry was allowed 
 to remain, and it was allowed (I may be permitted 
 to observe), on the urgent solicitation of far-seeing 
 Bishop Phillpotts, with an especial view to Corn- 
 wall. The prebendal stalls, though rifled, were 
 everywhere left as names of honour, with their 
 old local titles, with their rights and duties of 
 voting and assembling unimpaired. And even in 
 the cathedrals of the new foundation, where no 
 prebends had yet been founded, there were in 
 1852 attached to each cathedral a body of twenty- 
 four Honorary Canons. About honorary canons it 
 should be remarked that every great writer on 
 ecclesiastical jurisprudence in all centuries has laid 
 it down that the possession of endowment is not an 
 essential element (however convenient an adjunct) 
 to a cathedral canonry. In the history of the 
 Church many a time canons have had no property, 
 have held common property, have been some of 
 them endowed, some unendowed in the same church, 
 have had every farthing confiscated, have even had 
 no daily or common service at all, and yet their 
 status was unaffected, because their position had 
 relation to the council of the bishop and to diocesan 
 affairs, which were unaffected by the accidents of 
 their funds and property. 
 
158 
 
 On the Cathedral Body, Truro. 
 
 " There now " (the nation virtually said to the 
 cathedrals in 1852), "we divert your property 
 to other uses; but we leave you your lines of 
 existence — nay, we even bring them out more 
 clearly and fully. Eesume, if you will, your 
 place in our respect; win your way to confidence 
 again, as your predecessors did." It might have 
 been supposed that the dispossessed stalls would 
 remain vacant. It was so supposed. The clause 
 which (framed by Bishop Blomfield) preserved those 
 stately outlines when the endowments were confis- 
 cated, was passed by the Commons with con- 
 temptuous laughter. " What Churchman " (it was 
 said) " will ever accept a penniless post?" When 
 some one asked that at least the fees of institution 
 might be remitted to encourage the maintenance of 
 the old ranks, " No," said Lord Melbourne, " if 
 gentlemen like to wear feathers they shall pay for 
 them." Yet there have never been wanting men to 
 keep up the tradition, and support its burdens, until 
 better times came. It is said no stall has ever been 
 declined in England. 
 
 This is the singular line of history, which, to my 
 happiness, has led quite naturally, through Act of 
 Parliament and Order in Council, to the creation, in 
 this 1877, of four-and-twenty Honorary Canonries in 
 the cathedral church of Truro, and to the special 
 provision in that order, that it shall be lawful for 
 the bishop to make, without the consent of any 
 
Oil the Cathedral Body, Truro. 
 
 159 
 
 dean and chapter, regulations respecting the hono- 
 rary canons so appointed." 
 
 The prebendal stalls in the old cathedrals are, 
 even to this day, inscribed with the local names of 
 the estates and churches with which they were until 
 lately endowed. We have no such names to give to 
 ours. But in a county like this, where the names of 
 places are so lastingly identified with the history of 
 its Christianity through the Xarnes of the great 
 Missionaries who brought us to Christ, you would 
 deem it inexcusable if I tamely entitled the stalls 
 Number one, two, three, up to twenty-four. I pro- 
 pose, therefore, to appropriate to them such local 
 names [as shall not only sound true Cornish, but 
 also, by the help of your own distinguished 
 antiquary and student, Mr. Boase, to place them 
 chronologically, so as to read into a record of our 
 own past, and of our connection with the other 
 antient churches prior to the Eomish usurpations. 
 And so until the time arrives — and arrive it will — 
 when some grand munificence shall arise, or self- 
 denials shall combine, to found in the beauty of 
 holy order the great cathedral offices, I believe in 
 my heart that there will not fail among Church- 
 men the devotion to discharge the duties apart from 
 the emoluments. 
 
 For I am sure we shall need those Offices, one 
 and all. The decanal stall may, as I said, bide its 
 time until the men and funds to be governed demand 
 
160 
 
 On the Cathedral Body, Truro. 
 
 a governor. An archdeacon we have of old who, until 
 we have stalls endowed (I need scarcely observe), ranks 
 above all other ecclesiastics of the diocese. Mean- 
 time, the twenty-four canons must have at least an 
 annual president for their council. The rector, who 
 has marked his cordial acceptance of the changed 
 circumstances of the church (of which he is patron 
 as well as rector), by immediately transferring his 
 advowson to the patronage of the see, has further 
 expressed to me his willingness to be advised in the 
 church services by an honorary precentor of whom 
 Cornwall may be proud. Seconded by his liberal 
 churchwardens and sidesmen, the parish, and a 
 partly voluntary choir, he has striven to make a 
 beginning of the daily church service. But, con- 
 sidering that the income of the living is under 
 £100 a-year, I cannot help expressing some con- 
 fidence that the larger area of the diocese will (in 
 whatever manner it may seem best) offer some 
 kindly aid to what is always esteemed the charac- 
 teristic of a cathedral church. 
 
 As to the Chancellorship a commencement is 
 already before us. I should almost shrink from 
 telling, even to this conference, how serious is our 
 present lack of a young rising clergy, were 1 not 
 clear that entire, open confidence, with both clergy 
 and laity, is my first duty. I see that a theological 
 college is an absolute necessity. Out of nine men, 
 whom I must ordain at Christmas to supply imme- 
 
On the Cathedral Body, Truro. 161 
 
 diate necessities (and for whose character ^and 
 devotion I have entire respect), only two have had 
 collegiate training of any kind. An honorary 
 Chancellor then we must have. A most true son 
 of the church, who has no connection with this 
 diocese (beyond his former liberal contributions to 
 its revival), has offered us £500 w r ith which to make 
 a beginning. The way to employ this I have 
 already had the satisfaction of trying at Lincoln — 
 there also thanks to the same friendly hand — 
 namely, as providing a small stipend for two years 
 for an honorary Chancellor while the school is 
 forming. If after that we have gathered some 
 students able to pay the fees of £30 a-year, and 
 if the church has friends enough to provide small 
 exhibitions of £20 to £30 a-year to assist poorer 
 students with their fees (a lady from a distance 
 offered, only yesterday, one of £25 a-year), we shall 
 be able to carry on permanently the education of 
 theological students, giving them also thorough 
 training in parish work. And I cannot but think 
 that this will be a boon to our diocese, provided by 
 her good Churchmen at but small cost. My dear 
 friend and chaplain Mr. Mason, who has surrendered 
 his Cambridge parish and his Trinity tutorship for 
 our Cornish work at his ow r n charges, has already 
 begun this work for us with four men, and he will 
 pass it on to a worthy successor, I hope, after 
 Christmas. But he will not here leave us. 
 
 M 
 
162 On the Cathedral Body, Truro. 
 
 He will enter (I expect) upon another work on which 
 I look with gravest hope and much prayerful eager- 
 ness — a work on which he will himself speak to you 
 a little later. It is no true reverence to follow up 
 old lines without extending them. They give dig- 
 nity if we know how to develop them ; but if we 
 will not step beyond them on vital call, we make 
 trammels for ourselves, and are most unlike those 
 old founders whom we propose to imitate. Travels 
 and observations up and down this county, inquiry, 
 reading, conversation, and reflection, have convinced 
 me that the work antiently expected of the old 
 prebendaries, who preached up and down the 
 diocese, seconding, aiding, enforcing the work of the 
 parish priest at his own request, is no less required 
 than ever. The tried and weary and often lonely 
 clergyman asks it ; the people ask it ; their con- 
 dition asks it. I should be no true shepherd here 
 did I veil the truth from such an assemblage as this. 
 And sure I am that the chaotic religious beliefs, and 
 the inexplicable severance and gulf which in some 
 places exists between moral practice and fervent 
 religionism, do absolutely need this identical work 
 to be done. One Missioner attached to the cathedral 
 will be unus pro multis^ will stand single-handed to 
 represent the many Mission Preachers of the old 
 idea. But I believe he will not want for helpers, 
 I believe that the mission chapels, fast multiplying, 
 with their lay Readers, who will need some help, 
 
On the Cathedral Body, Truro. 
 
 163 
 
 some cautions, some training, will be deemed, by 
 us all to offer great scope for such work — to say 
 nothing of parochial missions, which have so hap- 
 pily affected the well-being of many parishes. And 
 I am sure that neither he nor any other man, who 
 puts his shoulder to the wheel to place a cathedral 
 body in a position to do the special works which 
 must go undone unless there is such a body to do 
 them (even though it take years to develop it and 
 though beginnings are to some men tedious), will 
 ever want your good wishes, your liberality, and 
 your availing prayers. 
 
164 " Quis enim despexit Dies Parvos f " 
 
 " QVIS ENIM DESPEXIT DIES PAItVOS ? " 
 
 Since the preceding Address was delivered twelve 
 months ago, the following steps have been taken 
 in pursuance of its lines : — 
 
 Ten honorary Canons have been appointed, insti- 
 tuted, and installed, and regulations made for their 
 governance in accordance with the powers vested 
 by the Act and Order in Council in the Bishop. 
 The Senior Honorary Canon has become Treasurer. 
 
 One of the honorary Canons has entered on the 
 work of chief Missioner in the diocese : lecturing, 
 preaching, and assisting parochial clergy in many 
 important places, forming or strengthening various 
 organizations. He has taken a house, and expects 
 the assistance shortly of other devoted friends. 
 
 Another honorary Canon has undertaken the duties 
 of Chancellor of the cathedral. The Theological 
 College already numbers eighteen students ; a Hostel 
 has been opened, and two bursaries formed for 
 assisting students. 
 
 The cathedral service has been made more 
 effective by the appointment of another clerical 
 Vicar. 
 
 A second archdeaconry has been formed by a 
 division of the diocese, and the "Archdeacon of 
 Bodmin" has been appointed, and has held his 
 primary visitation. 
 
" Quis enim despexit Dies Parvos f " 165 
 
 The Act of Parliament introduced by the Govern- 
 ment, has been carried, transferring to Truro cathe- 
 dral the endowment of the fifth canonry of Exeter. 
 This was originally retained to that see on account 
 of its inclusion of Cornwall. It will be divided to 
 form two Eesidentiary Canonries at Truro. The 
 generous consents of the Bishop, Dean and Chapter 
 of Exeter, to this transference deserve the warm 
 thanks of the Cornish diocese. 
 
 The Truro Chapter Act further provides for the 
 application of any fund which may be raised for the 
 Foundation of new canonries. 
 
 The County, under the Lord Lieutenant, has 
 entered upon the erection of a suitable cathedral. 
 £28,000 has been hitherto subscribed. The making 
 of designs for the work has been entrusted to 
 J. L. Pearson, Esq., A.K.A., as architect. It is 
 intended to commence a choir and transept so soon 
 as sufficient funds shall have been raised. 
 
 Thus, although the completion of such a work 
 far outpasses the resources of a county subscription, 
 and although there are at present no endowments for 
 clergy, or choir, or theological college, or missions, 
 we acknowledge with a thankful heart the sympathy 
 universally expressed towards these good works. 
 
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