6 , 2.7 ^ PRINCETON. N. J. Division Section ■■ FLJS'Ol .H69 vz TRUBNKR’S ORIENTAL SERIES. •Sanantjnc pttsa BALLANIVNE. HANSON AND CO. EUlNbURi.H ANU LONDON MISCELLANEOUS ESSAYS HKLATING TO INDIAN SUBJECTS BY y liHIAN HOl’GHTON HODGSON, Ksq„ F.H.S. LATE OF THE BENGAL CIVIL SERVICE ; COKHESPONDING ilKMBKR OK THE INSTITU'l'E ; CHEVALIER OF THE LEGION OF HONOUR ; HONORARY MEMBER OF THE GERMAN ORIENTAL SOCIETY AND TIIK SOCl^'I'^ ASIATIQUE ; MEMBER OF THE ASIATIC SOCIETIES OF CALCUTTA AND LONDON ; OF THE ETHNOLOGICAL AND ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETIES OF LONDON ; AND LATE BRITISH MINISTER A l THE COURT OF NEPAL. VOL. II. LONDON: T R ti B N E li & CO., L U D G A T E MIL L. 1880. [All rights reserved.] Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2016 https://archive.org/details/miscellaneousess02hodg COI^TE]J^TS OF YOL. II, SECTION III. [Bengal Journal, 1849, vol. xvii., part i., pp. 451-460.] PAGE On the Aborigines of North-Eastern India ... i Comparative Vocabulary of the Tibetan, Bodo, and Garo Tongues 7 SECTION IV. [Bengal Journal, vol. xix., pp. 1-8.] Aborigines of the North-Eastern Frontier . . . 11 SECTION V. [Bengal Journal, vol. xviii., part ii., pp. 967-975.] Aborigines of the Eastern Frontier . . . . 19 SECTION VI. [Bengal Journal, vol. xxii., pp. 1-25.] The Indo-Chinese Borderers, and their connection with THE HiMALATANS AND TiBETANS . . . . . 27 Comparative Vocabulary of Indo-Chinese Borderers in Arakan ......... 34 Comparative Vocabulary of Indo-Chinese Borderers in Tenassbrim . 44 0 VI CONTENTS. SECTION VII. [Bengal Journal, vol. xxii., pp. 26-76.] The Vongouan Affinities of the Caucasians . . . 51 Comparison and Analysis of Caucasian and Mongolian Words 59 SECTION VIII. [Bengal Journal, vol. xvii., pp. 222-23.] rnrsiCAL Type of Tibetans 95 SECTION IX. [Bengal Journal, vols. xvii., xviii., xix.] The Aborigines of Central India . . . . . 97 Comparative Vocabulary of the Aboriginal Languages OF Central India . . . . . . . 99 Aborigines of the Eastern Ghats . . . . .112 Vocabulary of some of the Dialects of the Hill and Wandering Tribes in the Northern Sircars . . 119 Aborigines of the Nilgiris, with Eemarks on their Affinities . .125 Supplement to the Nilgirian Vocabularies . . . 145 The Aborigines of Southern India and Ceylon . . 152 SECTION X. [^'Selections from the Records of Bengal^' No. IV.] Route of Nepalese Mission to Pekin, with Remarks on THE Water-shed and Pi^ateau of Tibet 167 CONTEiXTS. SECTION XL [Bengal Journal, vol. xvii. ; Selections from the Records," No. V.] PACE Route from Kathmandu, the Capital of N^pal, to Dar- jeeling IN SiKiM . . . . . . .191 Memorandum Relative to the Seven Cosis of Nepal . 206 SECTION XII. [“Selections from the Records," No. XL] Some Accounts of the Systems of Law and Police as Recognised in the State of Ni^pal . . . .211 Part I. On the Law and Police of Nepal . 211 I’art II. On the Law and Legal Practice of N^:pal as regards Familiar Inter- course between a Hindu and an Outcast ...... 236 SECTION XIII. [Bengal Journal, vol. i. ; Trans. Agric. Society, India, vol. v.] The Native Method of Making the Paper, denominated Hindustan, Nepalese 251 SECTION XIV. [Letters: Seramyore, 1847, and Friend of India, 1848.] Pre-eshnence of the Vernaculars ; or. The Anglicists Answered : being Letters on the Education of the People of India . 2 55 7 •»" < ‘4 ^ { F -. .. * SECTION III. ON THE ABORIGINES OF NORTH-EASTERN INDIA. PuESUANT to my plan of furnishing to the readers of the Journal a glance at the Ethnic affinities of the Aborigines of India, from the snows to Cape Comorin, I have now the honour to submit a comparative vocabulary, uniform with its precursors, of the Dhimdl, Bodo, and Gdro tongues, preceded by the 'vv'ritteu and spoken Tibetan, for a reason that will presently appear. I regret that I could not on a recent occasion, nor can now, give the Chepang vocables on this model. But it is many years since I have had access to that secluded people, and I cannot now calculate on having it again. As I have already, in a separate work, given the Dhimal and Bodo languages upon a scale much ampler than the present one, and as I have, moreover, in that wmrk demurred to the sufficiency of summary vocabularies, it may be asked wdiy I repeat ni3^self on the present occasion, and in the very manner I have myself objected to ? My answer to this question is ready, and I hope Avill prove satisfactory. Three years have now elapsed since I published the work alluded to, and in that time I have had ample opportunity to observe the general indisposition to enter the field of Indian Ethno- logy, bent i;pon serious labour like the author of that work. Now, general co-operation is the one thing needful in this case : and since I feel certain that there is no want of mental vigour in this land, I am led to ascribe the slackness I have experienced in obtaining co-operators according to the sug- gested model, to the novelty of the subject, whence it happens VOL. II. A ABORIGINES OF NORTH-EASTERN INDIA. that few persons can perceive the extensive bearings and high interest of that subject. By the present series of summary vocabularies I hope to make these points apparent, when I confidently anticipate that many able men who could not be won to give their time and attention to the elucidation of the barbarous jargon of this or that insulated and petty tribe of aborigines, will yet be stimulated to efficient exertion lapon being made aware that the question, in fact, relates to the fate and fortunes, the migrations and improvement or deterioration, of the largest family of human kind. Xo question of ethnology is insulated. It is quite the contrary, and that by its very nature. So that wherever we begin, even with the humblest tribe, we must soon find that we are dealing with the history, and with a material portion of the history, of some great mass of the human race. Thus, the latest investigators of the general subject of human affinities include in the great l\Iongolian family not merely the high Asian Xomades, or the Turks, the Mongols and the Tangus, but also (with daily increasing, though not yet conclusive, evidence) the Tibetans, the Chinese, the Indo-Chinese, and the Tamulians. The Tamubans include the whole of the aborigines of India, whether civibsed or uncivbised, from Cape Comorin to the snows ; except the bihabitants of the great mountainous belt confining the plains of India towards Tibet, China, and Ava. These last are, in the Xorth-'West, derived from the Tibetan stock ; and in the South-East, from the Indo-Chinese stock: the 92° of east longitude, or the Dhansri river of Assam, apparently forming the dividing bne of the two races, which are each vastly numerous and strikingly diversified, yet essentially one, jiist as are the no less numerous and varied races of the single Tamuban stock. Thus, we cannot take up the investigation of a narrow and barren topic like that of the Kfiki, the Che- piing, or the Gond tribe without presently finding ourselves engaged in unravelling some, it may be, dark and intricate, but truly important, chapter of the history of one of those large masses of human kind, the Indo-Chinese, the Tibetans, or the Tamubans. Xor can one prosecute this investigation ABORIGINES OF NORTH-EASTERN INDIA. 3 far without perceiving that our subject has yet ampler rela- tions, connecting itself by indissoluble yet varied links with those tremendous warriors who planted their standards on the walls of Pekin and Delhi, of Vienna and jMoscow. ]\Iuch of their fate and fortunes belongs to history, but much more to pre-historic times, when vast bodies of these so-called Mongols poured themselves upon India, from the North and from the East, both before and subsef|uent to the great immigration of the Arian Hindus. Have you no curiosity to learn what may be learnt anent these important and, for us British denizens of India, domestic events ? Or do you doubt the validity of any available media of proof ? If the latter, as is probable, be the ground of your objection to such inquiries, I would say in the first place, look steadfastly at any man of an aboriginal race (an ubiquitarian Dluinger for instance), and say if a Mon- gol origin is not palpably inscribed on his face ? Or, again, take a score of words of his language and compare them with their equivalents in Hindi, U'rdii, or any other Prakrit, and say if you are not sensible of being in a foreign realm of speech ? And what can that realm be but the North and North- East, the North-AVest being no way available to your purpose ? In the second place, I would observe that every medium of proof wliich has been employed to demonstrate the unity of the Iranian family is available to demonstrate the unity of the Turanian ; whilst, with regard to prima facia improbabilities, much greater ones once encompassed the now admitted fact that Hindus, Persians, Germans, English, Irish, Eussians, are mem- bers of one family, viz., the Iranian, than can attend any similarly perfect demonstration, that Tamiilians, Tibetans, Indo-Chinese, Chinese, Tangus, Mongols, and Turks are so many branches of another single family, viz., the Turanian. Nor are these ques- tions of interest only to the speculative philosopher. They are, on the contrary, of vital importance to the statesman who may be led into the most serious practical errors for want of such lights as ethnology affords. I Avill give a striking and recent instance. The Chief Secretary of the Government, who is likewise one of the most able and accomplished men in India, in speaking of the educational improvability of the Hindus, 4 ABORIGIXES OF NORTH-EASTERN INDIA. has formally alleged the impossibility of making them worthy and vigorous men and citizens by reason of their race,* when it is really as certain as that 2 and 2 make 4, that the race of the Hindus is identical with IMr. Elliot’s own ! Glottology and anatomy combine to place this great truth (and in every educational view it is pre-eminently such for all those who are now seeking to make this splendid country capable of adequate British, and eventually in the fulness of time of self-government) upon an unshakable foundation. Would that the science of Law, national and international, stood upon an equally stable basis of numerous, largely and irrefragably inducted facts. Having said so much, by way of encouragement, upon the extensive bearings and high importance of Indian ethnology, T will now add a few words by way of caution. IMr. Eobinson, in a recent paper upon sundry of the border tribes of Assam, f has not scrupled confidently to assert the affinity of these tribes (the Bodo and Garo amongst others) with the people of Tibet. This may or may not be so. But I apprehend that this alleged affinity demands larger and more careful investi- gation than Mr. Eobinson has yet had leisure to apply to it, and that in thus deciding iipon a most interesting and difficult point, he has adduced maxims which are not very tenable. In the first place, he has wholly neglected the physical and psychical evidence which are, each of them, as important as the glottological towards the just decision of a question of ethnic affinity. In the next place, whilst adducing a copious vocabulary which makes against, and a curt survey of the mechanism of language which (we will allow) makes for, his assertion, he proceeds to lay down the doctrine that the former medium of proof is worthy of very little, and the latter medium of proof (thus imperfectly used and applied) is worthy of very much reliance. In the third place, whilst insisting upon the indispensableness of a written and fixed standard of speech, he has neglected the excellent standard that was available for the Tibetan tongue, and lias proceeded to rest upon two spoken standards, termed by him Bhotia and Changlo, but neither of Preface to tlie Moslem Historians of India. I cordially assent nevertheless to the justice of Mr. Elliot’s strictures. But I find the cause of the actual evil elsewhere, t Journal, No. 201, for March 1849. ABORIGINES OF NORTH-EASTERN INDIA. 5 which agrees with the written or spoken language of Lassa and Digarchi. In the fourth place, he speaks of Bhot, alias Tibet, and Bhutan, alias Lho, as the same country ; and also gives his unknown Changlo a position within the known limits of Bhutan,* without the slightest reference to the latter well-known country ; besides, speaking of the cis-IIima- layans and sub-Himalayans (p. 203) as separate races ! These remarks are by no means captiously made. But some sifting of the evidence adduced is surely indispensaljle when a question of delicacy and difficulty is (I must think) prejudged upon such grounds. ]\Ir. Eobinson is possibly not aware how much of the mechanism of the whole of the Turanian group of languages is common to every one language of that group, nor that the Tamiilian and Tibetan languages are held to be integral parts of that group. Yet such are apparently the facts,! whence it must surely result that a cursory and exclusive view of the organisation of one of these languages, such as Mr. Eobinson gives and rests on, cannot be adequate to settle the Tibetan affinities of the Bodos and Garos (interalia), since the points of lingual agreement cited may be neutral quantities, that is, characteristics common (say) to the Tamiilian and Tibetan tongues, or to the Chinese and Tibetan ; and certainly some of them are so far from being diagnostically, that is, exclu- sively, Tibetan, that they belong to Hindi, Urdu, and even to English ! We have yet much to learn touching the essentials of the structure of the Indo-Chinese tongues, the Chinese and the Tibetan ; and until a philosophical analysis shall have been made of these languages, it will be very hazardous to rest upon a cursory view of the supposed distinctive (structural) characters of Mr. Eobinson’s exclusive standard, or the Tibetan ; in regard to the structure of which tongue, moreover, he has scarcely more fully availed himself of De Koros’ grammar than he has in his vocabulary of De Ivbros’ dictionary. Under these circumstances I am disposed to place at least as much reliance upon Mr. Eobinson’s copious list of vocables! as I can * Viz., 92E east longitude . — Pemhertons Report. t Prichard, Vol. IV. p. 199 ff. , and Bunsen’s Report. J This list seems to gainsay Mr. R.’s theory, for if the Bodos (for example) were 6 ABORIGINES OF NORTH-EASTERN INDIA. do upon his incomplete analysis of structure ; and ^vith regard to Mr. E.’s disparagement of the words of any unwritten and uncultivated tongue as evidence of ethnic affinity, I must say there seems to me a good deal of exaggeration.* Whoever shall take an adequate number, not more than Mr. Eobinson’s, of well-selected words, and shall take them with such care as to be able to reach the roots of the words and to cast off those servile particles, whether prefixes or postfixes, among which deviation is ever most rife, may confidently rely upon his vocabulary for much sound information respecting ethnic affinities, supposing, of course, that he has a good standard and makes the proper use of it. Of course, I reject, with hlr. Eobinson, as neutral quantities, all adopted, imitative and inter] ectional words. But when I find Mr. E. insisting upon “ casual ” resemblances as a class of words equally worth- less with the three above enumerated, I desire to know what this chance means ; for one of the highest of living authorities on ethnology and glottology, and one, too, who insists almost too miicli upon the mechanism of language,t declares that “ the chance is less than one in a million for the same combination of sounds signifying the same precise object.” | With these cautionary remarks, which are given in a spirit of perfect courtesy towards hlr. E., I now conclude, any further observa- tions being unnecessary to explain my purpose in appending the written and spoken Tibetan — the former from De Cores, the latter from a native of Lassa — to my present series of vocables. of Tibetan origin, it is hardly credible that their ordinary vocables should not more plainly reveal the fact, seeing that they have never been out of actual contact with races of the same descent as that ascribed to them. The sub-Him&layan dialects differ from the trans-Himdlayan standard : but identity is here shown in the roots as well as in the mode of agglutinating the servile particles ; not to mention that the snows form such a barrier in this case as exists not in regard to the B6d6 inter- course with tribes of Tibetan origin. The same general result follows from a careful examination of the vocabularies now forwarded. Apparently the Tibetan, like the Hindi, words, are adopted ones. * Mr. Kemble has lately made most important use of the Saxon of the Heptarchy, of its words, and words only, in his “ Saxons in England.” A yet higher and strictly ethnological use has been made of the vocables of tbe old Iberian tongue bj' the younger Humboldt, who was yet reduced to glean these vocables from maps ! AVhat would not Bunsen give for loo plain words of tbe old Egyptian tongue, as spoken ! t See Bopp’s remarks on the structural diagnostics of Sanscrit and Arabic. — Comp. Gram. « Bunsen’s Rej)ort to the Brit. Assoc. ABORIGINES OF NORTH-EASTERN INDIA. 7 COMPARATIVE VOCABULARY OF THE TIBETAN, DHIMAL, b6d6, and Gi.RO TONGUES. English. Tibetan. Dhiindl. Bodb* Gdro. Written. Spoken. Air rSungma Shakj)d Birima Bhirma Bar H Lampdr Ant Grogma Thomd Nhd mhi Hasd brai Gongd, Sambiir Arrow mDah Da Kbdr Bald Phdd liird Byu Chyd Jihd Dou-chen Tou-chap Blood Khrang Thdk Hiki Thoi Chi Boat Grh Kod, Syen Nawdr H Nou H Rung Bone Ruspa Rhko Hdrd H Begdng Kdrdng Buffalo Mahi. s Mdhd Did Moisho Moishi Cat Byila Simi Mdn khou Mouji Myou Cow B& Phd clnik Pid Mash-hii-jo Mdslui Crow Khdta Ablak Kawd Dou-kha Koura Day Nyinmo Nyi mo Nyi tima T Shydn Rasan, Sdn Dog Khyi Uyo Khid T Choi md Kai T Ear Sd Amcho Nhd tdng Khoma Mdchor Earth rNd Sd Bhonoi Hd Hd Egg sGonga Gong nd Tui Dou-doi {fowl’s water.) Touchi (fowl’s blood) Elephant gLdngchdn Ldmbochd Naria Moi gedet Ndpl6 Eye Mig Mik Mi T Mogon Makar Father Pha Pdld A'bd Bipha A'bd Fire Ma Md MdT IVat Ver. AYal Fish Nyd Gnd Haiyd Nd T Nd T Flower Mdtog Mdntok Lhep Bibar Parr Foot rKangpa Kang6 Khokdi Yapha Chaplap Goat Rd Rd E'dchd Biirmd [raon Punin Hair sKrd, sPu Td. Krd hlui tu Khanai, Kho- Kaman, Houru Hand Ldg i)d Lango Khur A'khai Chakreng Head mGo Go Puring Paya Khdro Dakam Hog Phag I’hak Ydma Vak Horn Rd Raio Dang Gong Korong Horse rTd Td Oiihya Kdrai H Ghora H House Khyim Nang did Nob Nagou Iron IChags Chbyd Chir Chiirr Shurr Leaf Lomd Hy6md Lhavd Lai Ldchak Light Hod Hwe. Eu Sdneka Chiirdng Shrang Klangkldng Man Mi Mi Waval, Didng Hiwd Manshi * Miva Monkey sPrebh Tyfi Nhoyd Mdkhara Kouwe Moon zLdva Ddwd Tdli JSIbkhdbir Rang ret Mother Aina A'md Amd Bimd Ama Mountain Ri Ri RdT Hdj6 Hd chiir Mouth Khd Khd Nhi Khouga Hdtong Moschito Sunbd mChurings Sye dongma Jdhd Thdmphdi Sotsd Name Ming Ming Ming T Miing T Miing T Night mTshanmo Chenmd Nhishing H6r Phar Oil hBrhmdr Num Chhiti Thou Tel H Plantain Caret Grdla Yumphi ThdUt Laktai River gTsang po Chang po Chi Doi Chi Road Lam Lani Ddmd T Ldmd T Lam T Salt Tshd Chhd Dese Shyiing kare, Sayung kri Syaug Skin Pdg spa Pdg-pa Dhdle Bigiir Holop Didng aud SI dnshi express mankind, met. F. Wdval and Iliwa, man only. 8 ABORIGINES OF NORTH-EASTERN INDIA English. Tibetan. Dhimdl. B6d6. Gdro. Written. Spoken. Sky N am khah Nam Sorgi H Pu/ihd No khordng ShrgH Snake sBrul Deu .libou Dupu Star sKarma Karma Phviro Hdthot khi Laitan Stone rD6 Do U'nthiir Onthai Long Sun Nyima Nyf md Beld H Shdn Sdn, Rasdn Tiger sTag Tak Khiind Mochd Matsd Tooth So So Si tong Hathai Phd tong Tree IJonshing Shin dong Shing T Bong-pbdng Pan Village Y ul tsho Thong Dera H Phdrd H S6ng V^ater Chhu Chhu Chi T Do'i Chi-kd T Yam D6va Thomd Ling 1 Thd Han I N4 Gnyd Ka A'ng A'ng Thou Khyod Khe Na Ndng Ndng He, she it Kho Khh Wa Bi U' We Nachag Gndnjo Kyel Jong Ning Ye Khyodchag Khenjo Nyel Nang chdr Nanok They Kliochag Khonjo U'bal Bi chiir O'nok, Wonok Mine Nahi, Nayi Gna yi Kdng Angni Angni Thine Khoyod kyi Khe yi Ndng Nangni Nangni U'ni His, &c. Khoyi, Kii6hi Kho yi Wdng Bini Ours Nachaggi Gndnjo yi King Jong ni Ning ni Yours Khyod, Changgi Khenjo yd Ning Nang chiirni Nandkni. Theirs Khochaggi Khonjo yi U'bal ko Bichdmi O'nokni One gChig Chik E'-long Man-che T G6-sha Two gNyis Nyi Nhd-long T Man-nd T Gi-ning, A-ning Three gSiim Sum Sum-lang Man-tham Ga-thdm, A- thdm Four bZhi Zhyi Did-long T Man-bre Bri Five Hna Gnd Nd-long T Man-ba Bongd Six Drhk Thu Tu-long T Man-do Krok T Seven bDun Dun Nhi-long Man-chini Siniiig Eight brGyud Gyd Ye-long Chet Nine dGu Guh Kuhd-long JuT Ten bChu Thdmbd Chuh Te-long [sha-che Chi T Twenty Nvi shii Nyi shh E'long bisd Chokai-bd Bi- Rung shd * Thirty Sfimchh Sdmchu Caret Caret Rdng shd chi Forty bZhibchu Hip chu Nhe bisa Bisha ne Rdng ning Fifty Hnabchu Gnap chu Caret Caret Rung ning chi Hundred brGyd- thambd Gyd, Gyd thambd Na bisa Bishd bd Rung bongd Of Kvi, Gi, Hi, Yi La, Tii, Du, Rd, Su Gi K6 NI Ni To Ld Eng No Nd From Nas, Las Ne, Dine Sho Phra Prd By, inst. Kyis, Gin S. His, Yis I' Dong, Ou Jong Man With, cum, Lhanchig Ld, Dd Dopa, Dosd Lago, J ong Mon S4th, in Hindi and U'rdu Without, sine, Bina Thdna Mdnthd O'ngd, Geyd Tong chani ga- mang in Hindi In, On Ld. Nd Ld Rhutd Chon, Nou, Ou Pumvdi,Pir vai * Bisa, Bishd vel Riing is a score, and the system of enumeration is one score, one score and ten, two score, and so on to 5 score for loo. Cho kai ba in the B6d6 column is 5 groats or Gandas for 20. ABORIGINES OF NORTH-EASTERN INDIA. 9 English. 1 ibeian. Dhimdl. B6d6. Garb. IVrittm. Spoken. Now D^ngtsd, Da Deng Thanda E'lang Diino Tayan Then De tsd Thi dwi K614 Obeld H Te eng When? Gang tsd Nam Khadwi Helou Mabela Biba To-day Dering Thiring Nani Dine H Tingni To-morrow Shng, Thor6 Sdng Jumni G&bhn Ganap Yesterday m Dang Ddng Anji Psho Mifi, Mi vai Here Hadina Dicho Imbo Y ayan There Hena Hacho U'sho Hobo Wang Where ? Gangna Khacho Hesho Mouha Bie Above sTengna Teng, Ghe yegi Rhhta Chli4 Pir vai Below Hogna W6, Syu, Jlagi Leta Sying Churik vai Between Bar, du Bhar Majhata H Gdjer Majar vai H Without, Phyi, rohna Chi Bahiro H Bahirou H Bahir vai H Outside Phma vai Within Nang, na Nang Lipta Singou, Sing Far Ne, Nyd Tharing Durd H Gajang Pij ang Near King Thani Cheng so Khatai Katai Little Nyhng Niguva A'toisa Tisi, Kitisi Kitek si Much Mang, Tu- mo [ma Tsam, Ts6- Ma glia E'shhto Gabaug Takkri How much ? Kha cheve Hd joko Bechd bang Bipang As, rel. Hadetshg Khhnda Jedong J irin J^ganda So, corr. Detshg Thenda Kodong U'dong TJ'rin U'ganda U'ganda Thus, poz. Jitshug Dinda U'rin How 1 TsCig, Chit- sug Kh^chd Khinda He sa, Hd dong Bre Bigauda Why? ... Kha in Haipali IMano A'tang Yes Vn Jeng * O'ngd * Ha No Ma, Mi M6n Mii, Manthu T Ma T Onga Aha (Do) not Ma Da Ta Also, and Yang Ya,ng Caret Bi, Bo Ba Or Mo N4 Na Na This Hade Di I'thoi Imbe I'mara That [J6n De Phi-di U'thoi O'be O'mara Which, rel. T hind a Jedong Je, Jai H Jon H Which The Kodong Bi, (that) Wdn II corr. Ton A'to, Biyo Which? K6n Ging Khangi Hai, Heti Ma What ? Kya Chi Kh&ng Hai Ma A'to Who? K6n Sii, Kha Khangi, Su Hdti Chiir Chang Any thing, Khcoh Chizhig Kh4 in Hete, Haidong Mfmgbd, Jish- 14p Harj murj Any body, K6I Shzhig Khachig Su in Hete Jishlap Ja-ta? Eat! Zo So dial A'm J4 Sa Drink : hThting Thhng Liing Lung Sleep Nyan Nye Jim Mudulang Gur Wake Caret Lho Jakhang Sarai Laugh bGad Ga Leng Mini Mini Weep N(i, Shhm Gno Khar [dop Gap Hep Be silent Kbrog Chhm Chikapahi,Ma- Sritha Tapchilip tong Speak brjod, Smros Caret Dop Rai Brot, Borot Come Hong sByon Syo L6 Phoi Phoi J6ug and 0'ng6 mean rather it is, hast iu Persian, than simjile assent. 10 ABORIGINES OF NORTH-EASTERN INDIA. English. Tibetan. Dhitndl. Bbdb. Gdro. Written. Spoken. Go Song, Gr6, Gyu Gy6 Hade Thing Loi Stand up hChhar Long Jap Jakhang Chap Sit down hDiig Heh Yong Jo Abak Move, >Valk hGro Gyo Ti, Hade Tho, Thing Loi Kun rGyug Gyfigd Chong Dhdp Kbit Talok Give liBIih, Phul,Thona Piling Pi Hot Hi Take bLan, Jung, Hen Leng, Ya Rhii Li, Na T ? Li, Lau Strike bDun, I'Dig Uhng Danghai T Se T Sho Tok Kill Sliig, Sod, h Gum Se Shothit Tok tat Bring hKhyon, sKych Ba syo Chu md Li bo Liphi Take awav hKhur, bKhyer Bilk, song Clihng ph Ling Leling Lift up, raise hDeg, Sion, sNyob Kliur Lhopfl, Bokhing Paicho Hear Nyam, gSon Kyen Hin Khani chong Natini Understand Soma, Go .Sam Bujhte rlih Blijili H Bijai H Tell, relate hShod, hChhod Lap, Chw 4 Hop R,ai Borot Good Bazdng-po Yappo Elka Gham Penim Bad Nang-po Dukpo Maelka Hamma Sarchi Gold Gr&ng-po Thammo Tirka Gishli Chikrop Hot Tsha-po, Dropo Chabo Chaka Gidung Citing Kaw Zvdmbo Sinkha Gathing Piting Kipe Sminho Chembo Minka Gam.ang Papman Sweet Gnarmo Taaka Gadoi Sahnii Sour Caret Dakka Gaphi, Gakho'i Phakka Bitter Khako Khakka T. Gakhi Hani Handsome Hsesmo, sTugpo Jdbo Renika Majing Nenii ITgly Midsesma, Mistug- Men Jebo Marenika Chipma Sarchi Straight Dranpo [po Thangbo Ghenka Thing, jing Preng den Crooked sGhrbo, Tudpo Klikpo Kyoka Khungkra Kikroi Black Kfigpo Nak])0 llaaka Gatcham Penik White dKarpo Kiirpo Jeeka Guphit Bok ling Red sMiikpo Marpo Pka Gaji Pisak Green hjfing, khh Jhangu Nelpfi, Samsram, Khing shir Hing jeling Long Ringpo Rimbo Rhinkfi T Galon Pillo Short Thuugpo Thiin dung Totdka Guching Bandok Tall, ) Short f ““ Thombo Dhangakfi, Gajou Gahai Pillo Mabo Bangraka Bandik Small Chilling, Phra Chhdnpo, sBombo Chun chung Blho'ika Midi! Pamar Great Bombo Dhamka Gedet G( 5 di Round zLumpo Riri Gurmaka Dullit ni, To- lotni G6glot-ni Square Grub, zhi (angles 4) Thiizi angles 4) Dia thuni kfi (angles 4) Kinimanbreni (kind is H) Koni bri ni (kina is H) hlat, ) Level 3 Caret Sarika Somin ni H Gakshan Fat rGyagspo TI16 thenibo DhdrakS, Guphing Kinintwa Thin Srohbo, Ridpo Malm ? Syeiika Gaham Jot kreng AV eariness Gvak Caret Mying dung Rewe kou Thirst sKom Khakum Chi dmli Ging ding Chika ling noitwa Hunger ITogs Tok Mhitu U'nkwi ding Miyu phitwi N. B . — T post-fixed indicates a Tibetan etymon for the word ; and II post-fixed, a Hindi or Urdil origin. Thus it appears that there are, out of the above, 190 words derived from Hindi, or from Tibetan, in Hbim^l, in Bbdd, and in Gird, as follows : — Hindi. Tibetan.^ Dhlmfil 8 '9 C ^ ’9° prime use and necessity. Ergo, B6.-)6 10 ® C these are adopted words ? Giird 8 7 J SECTION IV. ABORIGINES OF THE NORTH-EAST FRONTIER. Darjiling, September i6th, 1850. To the Secretary of the Asiatic Society. Sir, — I have the honour to enclose another series of Voca- bularies obtained for me by the Eev. IST. Brown of Sibsagor, in furtherance of my plan of exhibiting to the Society a sample of the lingual affinities of all the Aborigines of India on an uniform plan. The present series comprises four dialects of the Nagii tongue, — the Chutia, the Ahom, the Kluimti, the Laos, — and tlie Siamese. My valuable correspondent Mr. Brown has favoured me with the following remarks on the present occasion : — “ The first four columns of the table complete the variations, priorly given, of the strangely corrupted Naga language. This tongue affords an extraordinary exemplification of the manner in which an unwritten language may be broken up even upon a small extent of territory. On the other hand, in the great Tai family we have a not less striking instance of the pre- servation of a language in almost its original integrity and purity through many centuries, and in despite of a vast territorial diffusion ; for, from Bankok to Sadiya, along the Meinam, Salwen, Irawadi, and Kyendwen rivers, up to the sources of the Irawadi, through fourteen degrees of latitude, there is but one language, notwithstanding the diversity of governments under which the speakers of it live. “ The Mithan and Tabbing Nagas (see table) reside on the hills east and north of Sibsagor. The Kharis descend upon the plains near Jorhat. They are much sujierior to the other 12 ABORIGINES OF NORTH-EAST FRONTIER. Xagas. The Jabokas and Banferas are the neighbours of the Mithans, with nearly similar tongues. The Angamis occupy the southern end of the Naga country. The Chvitia is the language of one of the old tribes of Assam, now nearly extinct. The Ahom also is nearly extinct as a spoken tongue. The present Ahoms of Assam, descendants of the conquerors, still form one of the largest portions of its population. But their language, as well as their religion, has been relinquished for those of the Hindus. Their ancient creed had little resem- blance to Buddhism or to Brahmanism. The Khamtis retain their tongue, but have lost their creed. They have accepted Buddhism from the Burmas, from whom they have likewise borrowed many new words. “ In answer to your queries I can but say, at present, that I highly appreciate the importance of a standard for the Indo- Chinese tongues ; but which language has the best claim to be constituted such I do not know. I should be inclined, however, to assume the Burmese, which is at least half-brother to the Tibetan. This would bring the Til)etan, the Lhopa or Blnitanese, the Burmese, the Singhpho, the Naga, &c., into a kind of family union. The Siamese Shyan, or, as the people themselves call it, the Tai, cannot be brought into the same category. It has little or no affinity with the neighbouring dialects, and may represent another whole class of languages not yet ascertained. It is probably allied to the Chinese, and is in importance not inferior to the Burmese.” ABORIGINES OF NORTH-EAST FRONTIER. 13 ^ d S 2 c cj- g p-piaj o © ^ -o ^ 'g ci 0 P-. to a S ^ S 2 S^ c ■tJ ^ § £2 — 'c3 0 ^ n 'tcv-s § :: ^ to VC3 . ^ fS ^ ?3 S^~S-S >=3 g 'S '? ° -2 ^U-i >• -*J B -3 ® _= •? :3 c -O £ -C g (U 2i bc.g = '0 S:g' 5 £s c; ?3 ce vo •p t0'?3 S ^ 2 2 to tn*p a vp ^ ^ -u; 'c3 o 2 .2 '- ' -p cut2 a 5 -S p. p- G , vp 2 vr3 .5 J3i 'rt C 2:5 2:g;2 2^, 1 P p*^ ' >. — 3 ' P. • '7H P 2 2 2 c ’P p 2 'j >»'03 3 ^ P ^ ^ C p^rs ^ ^ ^ ^ vce o 3 g £ 'P c.^ "ES '-E c-'ES 'S a s 2 >c 3 c 5 “ S 3 o :p 'O JPP 2 *P ^ ^ Stf3 P rP g S 5 3 2 3 .Si -g ,G 0^^^’^p c>P P-, P ■£P :3 vc3 'g. :3 3 S^- 'c5 3 , *p' : w c D 'd -p sg o 'S^'a.s =-§.g p; si> to « Z 'ra C .2 P "“O 3 ^ 2 C to S w o P fc eI p ^'21= O 3 3 P v3 P ^ 'S? O =? 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IS , ^ ^ 5 a .S'vo v§ s” 'rt *o ^ >m 00^ c c' ■ S S O g . ■^ — ' rt ^ * S £ & "H, is a : .2.0- a “ &.&■ ^ S S'w ”• . '® « ^ 5 ^ X- '3 s « t )000 S"3S3SSSSS N6 to to bO to tiD bo to bfl SSSSSSSSS ‘ *S cd rn O ; g g £ § 2 .S ; - oj 0 ) fl .S d I O ^ ^ S C OT rj c o S-sS'S- r? ^ r> ,*x V O 3 ffi S 3 -3 ., 5 — cg• C ^ ^ Cm *S to i > B tc "2c 3 P 3 -S -i< o > ^ -a ^ 5 " ^ • ?. P’3,_.c5o3^3b- 3 a CN—toSco^rtBa rt '?3 'C^ 'C3 'fiS 'rt 'Cj c3 rO o Ph X-. S ^ rt's g cs G a S 2 Gh 3 ".= cS? £ I o ^ S'g P — o .C .2 h 0 ) Pc: o c; 5 ^ — ^ 6 6““ — r^CS'ai a^r' d o ^ °adOg {► P © rrt G -+-> © tn CJ ** O ^ r^ ^Oj 2 j^ O 0 ^,^^rGt^rG^ (Oj; i6 ABORIGINES OF NORTH-EAST FRONTIER. *73 a 2 ^ g o g-s \ £ cs ^ « o to :3 VC - fl 5 2 __ vc3 0^ r3 C _ cS ^ . 5 22=2 s 2 2 ^ ^ £ 5 _ ^ to bo's OCirvCrtcsB •- « iT:3 'O c 'I 2 :§ rt :§ CU C 5 H - C ^^3 . S 2 a 2 c 2 & ^ ^ to bo’2 a c a ce ^2 ^ £ 5^ S ^ a a a s'g i ^ d n c £ . I:2g w = ••M a :0 cJ ?; ?3 a a c a a a : o E ■“ ’ "5 ^ a .& &i C ^ c/j .£ .5 5 .§ rS 2 v 3 'g '£ 'ca •= a *5 d«2 2 5 2 2 '2 ? j a ^ 0) ^ - a a ? ^ ^ a a a a 2 a x.si § a-^ ^ a ^“2. a 1^- 5 a •.^£2§ ■i|S|i- < C-. rt ,S -cna - • 2 'E ; S '3 SsS .- ce.-'g - sc - E-H ^ c3 — S-a.« 0) " g 2 S-a H _§,,*•=■£ -2 -2 m ' 73 ;: acccti ) 5 '“.S o ' C - tv 2 - = = C - 2 EEgsJ ' S -= E £- 32 ?= i ? fs -, 2-5 1 j=:; C G> ijj - CScSoJlCs — cs ^:^ ■- ^-, j3 ^ 3 -5 .2 a -,-3 « - ?-'3 § o ^ g a a a 2 a rs to a* ^ •- J2 ^.2 S'o*? '^^ jss ^42 a ^ a ^ :;2 ;:3 > a ■'^ ^ *'”' c^ =- :a 2 w 'a c3 22 -4J rt ^ c - 5-5 2 - g - 3 'S 5 ' S - 2 f-S 5 : s-“-S =.- § i | S-s H | a. a.^ ^ rt.S'w a o2 « — > x a S >» 2 2^ =: a: o -*S O 05 'O © 0) ia: • C : ci , a • ‘.^ ^"5 2 to a c a a vc 5 ci — X >> O 'o ^ X "o 2 X'vi bjD«*«^-a © o 3 tobca c to<«rii^^ aaBoap '^*^'^© a O c ^ ^a ci s . e 'b5 "Ci t?5 ^ ,^x l-^fx : X g '3 X tC '^ ^ ' ^ £ to ^ bojj *rt - =S -= 'O '?n ^ ^ = ’ 2 ' 2 ' 3 Va '^ l 2 t X O 53:3 © ^ S ^ ^05 4.^«22 £ 2 >-.>,^.5 a g2 g g ^ ©©-^ ©.S ^ ® — ®r" © o o a a «e t- ©^ ce^ © a-o 2-2 .SlZ £*r - *=• tld, po I po 1 ti, bup I ti, boe ABORIGIXES OF NORTH-EAST FRONTIER. 17 Siamese. •3 ^ - S Laos. % jgg g ilfciItJiltiiilli lilllifiiilii' Khamti. ■rj i" 1 'i ^ 1 if-rfie-E I iJ'll'illll 1 III iais Ahom. pot.ai anmd sung yok, tang nyin hu bok (H khy4 khye, nau r.an, lut lip rung, suk oi sum khum khyeng khye pli d ke, ngok dam phok deng kyi lej au lot sung tarn noi 16ng klom, pan Vi heng Deoria chutia. botecliiro larini laromni lagaromni kanatori takarini churini ebani chepepe kairei pijo munom iiri sitotoi kai iebubare iichini pune kekurai sakokoi puri saru r,r‘ sutugai suini patigaini suru suroni am cha dini tumdru mejirini dugumjini dukhiawe seyawe satele tupele silo we siwe viwe sowe si khakwu memo me die khye ebasi visu sbopur thekba krewi kati kadia mri kapaje josu jii karkhre kbar uo kanaebapo jopiir khrubi pomoja soponoru II yaksitogo heneratli heneraugo ebungotso jaugo meteebau ard mard aiyang tetsa taebim teubiug miang tehsan kba kubaitaro mard matbunjau tikihaug nak mesing tamiiiam shim puluk tilbaun tiitsizau oregu ore jute mingbaji tabpetiau meketaug tabiti aebi =1 . toi cbi yakei nob si nob si ebai ha tau singpu mailuuke yemei wang sam sbem yim urang si kba kom niak beug lau sob tau sui yong nong nittan j It -1 1 „ 'b -'3 ’ ' '.i| \g ■ S 5-2:5 .B.'n'SS 2 s-g -g g -g English. Kill Bring Take away Lift up Hear Understand Tell Good Bad Cold Hot Raw (green) Ripe Sweet Sour Bitter Handsome Ugly Straight Crooked Black White Red Green Long Short Tall (high) Sliort (low) Small Great Round Fat Thin (lean) VOL. II. B SECTION V. OX THE ABORIGINES OF THE EASTERN FRONTIER. In' continuation of my papers already submitted to the Society having in vie'vv to exhibit summarily the affinities of all the aborigines of India, I now submit vocabularies, uniform with their precursors, of the written and spoken Burman, the Singpho, the Naga in three dialects, the Abor and the Miri tongues. For this series I am indebted to the Kev. X. Brown, of Sibsagor, who, in forwarding it to me, favoured me with the following remarks : — “ These specimens appear fully to establish the fact that the Burman, Singplw, NAgd, and Alor languages are very close relatives, and ought not to be separated into different families, as they sometimes have been. The Burman and Singpho, it is true, have been regarded as nearly related ; but I am not aware of its ever having been supposed that the Naga or Abor were closely related to the Burman, or that there was any very intimate connection between the two. The Naga tribes are very numerous, and every village appears to have its own dialect. “ I have not inserted the Khamti or Shyan, because I am not convinced that there is any very close radical connection between either and the Burmese. This affinity seems always to have been taken for granted as a matter of course, but without any just ground. It is true there are a considerable number of Burman words in the Khamti, but they bear the 20 ABORIGINES OF THE EASTERN FRONTIER. marks of recent introduction, and are not to be found in the old Alioni, the parent Shyan, nor in the Siamese, with which the Ahom was nearly, if not exactly, identical. I have inserted the Burmese as ivritten, together with the spoken form. The Mags of Arakan, it is said, pronounce it as it is written, and not like the Burmese. It appears to resemble the Tibetan considerably. The first column of Abor Miri I have collected from a vocabulary published a year or two ago by Captain E. E. Smith (of the Bengal Native Infantry), commanding at Sadiya ; the last colunui I got from a Miri residing at this place. “ In Burman I have used tli to express the sound of tli in tliinh. Also a stroke under the initial letter of a syllable to denote the falling tone, and a dot under the final vowel to denote the short, abrupt tone. The Singpho and Namsang Ni'.gd are taken from a vocabulary published several years ago by the Bev. M. Bronson, and may be depended on as correct. The other two Naga dialects are given by two men from villages near Nowgong — the only Nagas I can find in the station just now ; and as they do not understand Asamese very well, I may have introduced some errors from them. At all events, the words are evidently encumbered with affixes and prefixes that do not properly belong here. I have not, however, ventured to remove any of them, as you will be better able to do this. I am inclined to think that the radical forms in all these languages are monosyllabic, as the Burmese nnqirestionably is. The verbs, &c., would probably show a much greater resemblance if we had all the terms for each idea, as there will generally be many verbs nearly synonymous ; consequently the lists do not always exhibit the corresponding forms, thus creating an apparent difference when there is none in reality.” As it is not my purpose to anticipate the results of the present inquiry, I will add nothing on this occasion to the above obliging and sensible remarks of Mr. Brown. O O ABORIGINES OF THE EASTERN FRONTIER. 21 o < esdr meidng epiig pdtdng iye 611ungd dlong rnenjeg menkuri g6ru puag longko iki yeriing dmoiig apu site auiik bdbit umine orgo ilpun die sdgoli dumed eldg mittub eyeg dreng giire ekum yogir Cajit. Sinith'ii Abor-Miri. asar mirang epuk pettaiig yilpi ui ellong dlong nieiijek mendari gdrdshameh pidk longeh eki norong dmoiig dplu sita dmik yiai eme eiigo dpim die sliviben diiniit dldk tuku, mittuk yuek dreng gdre ekum yaguiah g << mapung matbdn lasan usd di lung telet tyang uieyau mdsi vvalo ttinglu aril teldnnu dli utii suti tenyik apu masi angu nolong tacbing nabung ku teklidt teko dk tdi kuri ki yen It mabung machd lasang iizz azii surung terap chang tanii nasi warn ... azz tenaung dli ant.^ii shiti tenok upd mi angu naru tatsiing nabung kd teklid takoldk dk tazzii kdrr kl yiu Bronson’s Namsang Ndgd. VCI 'rf a '3 ^ fcf, Cr....:::cyn S .-.J3 fco.hi' a rt g'a'cs.^43 s a^ts c3 tc.a a ct — a ^ S *9 . O S C?i o s ?*• - — ^ W ^ ^ tn a rt S.Sv-» fcn 'c > 'rt ^ tiO-S "o -S 'd 'CS a *a 'S S ^ ^ ^ Stoc-^S— CGC^^flti)GC'da3c=feCQQjS-O^^^c:u50S3 Barman, Spoken. ’S ^ G be ^ m V.-. ^ 'O Q ^ so -O G G ^CL.gp':S:Gec^^S'g to ^ sorthtO^^C^^fc-S^ >i'0 ^ 'C3 G ^ ^-= 'G tOrt-Gj^-G^^ ^ C ^ ^P4gC^G:aj^.idG'^G-^s:GG©aO^§S O G.G S English. o ^■sS'HS'SaSa+.&lo^tot.t m'I' 4>'3«-5|ori-s'|rtg)|||a • ^ G O O dH O 2rtO rt c« tp^ t^«e.3.2^ O 2 Iron I Ban UAdu 1 inpri Ijau I yiu I yen I yagui ABORIGINES OF THE EASTERN FRONTIER. Sihsdgor Miri. ekamane piidda dm me shibe polo udnd ddi napiing tamig dmiu kammo tuldng kopage abunge Idmte dllo asiig clomiir tdbbe tdkdr iliing (loaiiye siimyo die ising doliing dcbe dlie ngo no bu Cdjpt. Smith's Abor-Miri. annd piudng amie sibeli paid nanm ddi iiapang songgdu dmin kamogab tuldng kdpagii asie lambeii diu dumder teong tdkdr iling dunid simiti ipdiig esing duloiig dssi ngunii ngo ndiia bu no dm sangaglio mdsung sucbi lutd dpii masan tabdug anjang teiiying dsangdi mdngd mongo tuld uuglan mac hi takap pluimching pbalii lutingting lungmanggo tinglii kbii tapbu sangtung yam tti cbu ngai nang pd pd Nownonq Nwjd. V S “ 1 J -cs *2 1 ? 2 2 'S P 23 2 ^ ^ .2 §)'2 P S -r "H p S' g S 5 g S p § ■■2 -p p = 2 "rt i -S 'S IS -a 'a Bronson’s Namsang Nag A. to c2 223; |.3p = a“5-Sa3pi-S. 3 'C 3 >^-S-35 5 S -3 ^-3 s 3 Is 3=5 £P "S i il-lfl i h 9 as gt|f =f-p| ll-s lls ^ a CO ? ® a w s :^z.zazaz^ Burman, Spoken. o a ^ '0'2s ;; ,.0 3 © vd — -a s ^ c ^ ^ 2 ^ >^4 o«S'o :=: c;2 «« g od g cs g g^'ts Burman, ]\'ritten. to s. ? § M a £ S "la >. = '2'^§'a 'l.-a ^ | frM32-GG^cS-*5GJ4rtGciGG^O^Sa^^G-i»32Sceui::GGG»r3 English. Leaf Idgbt JIan Monkey Moon Mother Mountain Moutb Mosquito Name Nigbt Oil I’lantain Kiver Hoad Salt Skin Sky Snake Star Stone Sun Tiger Toutb Tree Village AVater A'am I Tbou He Sbe ABORIGINES OF THE EASTERN FRONTIER. 23 n C :;3 •S ’S §2^3 M) O 3 n s 3 rM © ® o j<) -M o 2 2 5; bo o -.p bo o 3 " c a 3 a a 3 "c3 ® gi, 3 O O 3 .2 .2 CJJ 3 Qj d .OH a rt 'ci :d vrS ^ d— =d :d :d : o o c %a2 (u a a 3 d to tiC tiD bo 'c 5 .5 .2 -2 f>» >> >> o to g ;d o to g :d >> :d bO .2 :d 0 ^ o o ? 'o a ® ® S o -a o ji! ^ 60 o :a 60^3 :a a a 3 a a 3 ;a o o o o S^SS’^S^S'gj^tobo ,i g ^ VO i 2 .d ;g g 03 vd ^ rt tJO d §2 -p 2 w -p ci da 3 as-. fl -«sa n-i^a H t,-Maa[>i~ a'c3t3tS'd'c3S:a'c3c3a^'«3 rt a a Oi-rt a p.m a~ > >. d2 . — dda bo rt x3 d p ,g ‘ ■'g 43 3 - ^ ^ ^ r « {_ C oj o d ^ 2 'O P4 bO S — "2 .S a -g^ a ^ bo's J g ^ g g ^ g a '<« 'cs o 'd ^ a ^ 02 p— I ^ 0 ■3 a a a a , +> ^2 2 2 id ® 2-s a 2' g ® .:§ i 2 p^ -p X 2 — CO ^ 2 a « 'O 'O VO - 'd ^ H3 -d g .-. 'd c6 g so '$3 ^ vd to o ^ to d g g ’^5 g g ^ g 'd -p ) 2 2 -if Id a ';s d to .t: ^ ® ^ -d ® g3 *7! d pd N C "P *05 ^ ® ^vO;S:i|| i Sp^P^lopit^OQ g':s^ g O g 0 ^ ce pd pd .« '« to d g 'C3 '^'^pd d rt g ^ VO pd O rt j 'O .p- 'O to -tJ CXJy-V ^ 'c3 g ^ 'c3 2 .P- to <« vd w S vd g g m g g oQ ^ "S-p^ 'g g 'O pd 2 ^ rt pd g d - o g 'S 'cS p>» ^ pd pd pd o -H 2 2 to:2 pd W g pd '< 5 P^>rt pdc« a *d d 'd o3 '2 d VO ^"3 ^3 ^ '2 '2 d v^ d 02 - 1 ^ d « 9 *^ pp^ o g > -4-3 ® 5°p g-*^ ill silt nd ® p 'O g d a Sibsagor M iri. ABORIGINES OF THE EASTERN FRONTIER. ^ to ® O S ^ o2 ci-;3 g g -M --^sa S o S-3 ^ 0^2 3^- g4i o^S^'lig Bg2-y -liaS :a '3 ^9 S ;a "o -5 '2 •« 2 45 9 'S '-S’-ts :a S :s ^ -.a 9 >-. "3 :a o "3 Capt. Smith’s Abor-Miri. silo idmpo milo sho ungkolo taleng runiking radaiig lulo drdso aninda eritko depii, au pua kitppida okkiduna ill tndnrui ioka aiu si, issi iiina iiig kdno iiigkua, ong ) kokko j kdpd tbanghi dsang 6sl iga dtiga dtiga tatliak taclmng ulam ind. atap Idngld annangld tesu tebe katekat atti katikiang kadd ho noiigo (tba) m’ (tbi) igdkd dchika kacbi chaba | §i ^ ^ w . ^ o ^ U ^ ^ M ^ =e c3 -5 ■ * ^ ® * ‘ j ^ .2 V3:3'^s Ci 'c5^^rtO— ' fp-scSt^pid 5 3 «0 C?5 g § fe; te) ^ ei fi ci ^ p . ^ ^ S to v^Nr 2 ^ 1t-^cci^crt'5'5 ^ z;z ^ ^ ^ 3rt ^ 2^ Grt-— ^ t) fc- 'O'TsS a^fldrtTrCvrec? > -d*3rts::SO 'cS t^.dCd ® Bronson’s Singpho. yango daini tnphdni mani ndde tode gaddgui ning tsang katdi tsda ni katsi lo gaddmd udaisat fdri raia gala! ng, pining ndai orawd gaddnud phakaimd Barman, Spoken. d > ^ pd rtrtcSd-csSKa?:^ to3 ^ -d jO J S S ^ rt Barman, Written. to c rt v^v»j 'O jj 2>c^a-a®o23'a&vn a:^a)K“vS®®'3-d g *s vo j jq ,d >> d 6>>^ ^ rO rt o c« dirt s ?: o d dd:^ e« ce ,»5 When ? To-day To-morrow Yesterday Here There AVhere ? Above Below Between Without Within Far Near Little Much How much ? As So 'I’ll us How ? Why? Yes No No, not And, also Or This That Which ? What ? ABORIGINES OF THE EASTERN FRONTIER. ; -JJ- O Si ■* 5 i O OQ w ' O Si &. M :3 3 1 t£>^ I f1 to to n s a o o 5 to 1 "I ^ c |to'S)| 2 c c o to rt ^ a c a ^ c NrS n CO o C N (n cs to •H . ^ C3 ^ *a :a ^ _M g C P-rf to !=0 & 2 3 2 3 9 5 - artrt^ri«< 3 a §aav§e'Srt^ '2 = C G rt to a a rt ^ to 5 ,g a ^ 'm S3 to M ■p rt c3 5 to a ►G . ® y G CO C> O ^ VO o ^ 'cS vr3 ^ ^ ^ 2 §3 o'* O a 'o a o au VO G3 ^ 'O C3 •ij y O ^ V3 TP c5 rt O S3 S' a ^ CLi*" G a ^ a 12 a r- _a « a S pi CO a a fS P. '5 9 ° w ^ 3 O 5 -3 p„'S « 'v3 vG to ^ a. 'G 'G ri ^ a r? - Cm Ne 'C3 S.,3 a Np a rt 'c2 ^ ^;3 to C y CO to a >> G 'G x2 va ■s a'S y 'cs y G3 ^ pG . rO ^ JO VD & •S ■'‘® i 3 ® p. S^srS VO jsj o ^ '» J3 1 pM sa &• . O ^ a •G G '3 a 'G «o G CO y y y \yj» M pG J3 pG ^ O pQ Pt ,G W .B" G 'ey _ c^ G 'O ^ ^ j p ^ S3' S: 4 a -•-> a<>— <• CO rt ^ a SP& rt *3'^ pG pG y- ► Ci >» pG VO te p ^ ffl S3 g 9 — ~S ^ S~3 ® '3 M-O :3 5 ^ 'g .e 3 g ^ ^ G pG y i«Ji y to >* .a 'G ^ pi4 © *PJ o « Q^G ePdar^® ® ^ W P CO ^ W CQ OO cc w S Ph O H c/2 I pQ r*^ ^ a, < *"’ o C5 W P3H 3 00 (>4 t- ® pp- rt *G p-j o P 4 ^ y C y o PPHOP 26 ABORIGINES OF THE EASTERN FRONTIER. o . I’l 02 ® ’rt to 5 ,3 2 'a'^ca a-S-3'a'o 'A a " O 2^-0'rt."S3'r3'c3.5(U.^S.^c22^5 a^-^Sa o ic-i; a.t>J4.:4^cSt0tJ) >>J ^2 — t£cj'c3t3'«3'cj'ti'i.art d a ja c3 e . lamme tdi tdman tdnang senla pakld cliongUiang maclidng inatungkolo kdikolo nyakla uiasang malamla tacliam Idiigkolo dtiangld Idngld duangld tesu tapd litiikpu taugik madamka tabdk apo ngiichalio cbebald ) chualo \ cbulale o tatsok ludtok ) tazzu ) tdinau tdnang tdaan pakld kdugatsdng matsdng tumutum tikrak tanak tamasdng luaram tacham talang tatsii taldugka tatsii tilala taluhi taraiig tangakdku matam tabdk apoprr dnyokd tukula seratiir yatiir /Iroiison’s Namsang Ndgd. to « : 3 ^C3 *^to 'S g’ o .S.'S t’etpi'^ giiyjg’a ©^-ja £'3 rS >ri c3 rt CU'cS rtrtrtrtcSNrfrtrtrtv-civzS ^c5c3^ AA u Bronson's Singpho. M : 8 > ... to ►- to ^ to • ©a "gtontoaaa a ^ £P:i 5 ® =-o^.v3 g g|:.s '2 ^552|53:i'g S- 3.3 3 «§ -S -3©-='3_=_a.3agaj.3_=®^3§3rf3.a .3 0 as! rid 3'3a4.3.a.S3.Ho 3.a>^^3 P ^ ^ ^ Kn 3 ®«rtv^v-* ►ft dto rt-d^f^t 0 N :3 to ^ 'O 'w to M_C ^ Q to . 3 ^ vr^.'-O ^ 3 ^ ^ ,S 'O t-^.3 t) 2 ;5 'cS ^ ^ O 3 3 *S -3 ^ 2'3'd uJ'Oa 2 ^ 'o ^ > -3 q S. ^ Barman, Written. a 5 i ^1? *- -^to tOq-S^tO to c 35 rtS d^'O.S C.S vdd-^c^ O'^^*^t 0 v-^ .2 ^ >>'c3 .a .a n' 3 '^cr>» o' ® -a 'd j .a a a _a ^ a o c? ,a j j 3 'O c ^ 3 ►o ^ ^ a s 'o ►si Hot Haw] Ripo Sweet Sour Bitter Handsome Ugly Straight Crooked Black ■White lied Green Bong Sliort Tall Sliort Small Great llouuil Scpiare Flat Fat Thin Weariness Thirst Hunger SECTION VI. ON THE INDO-CHINESE BORDERERS AND THEIR CONNECTION WITH THE HIMALAYANS AND TIBETANS. To the Secretary of the Asiatic Society, SlE, — In further prosecution of my purpose of recording in the pages of our Journal a complete set of comparative vocabu- laries on an uniform plan, I have now the honour to transmit to you two fresh series, one for Arrakan, and the other for the Tenasserim provinces. The first comprises six tongues, viz., the Burmese, the Khyeng, the Kami, the Kumi, the Mru, and the Sak ; the second five, viz., the Burmese, the TaHen, the Tiing-llui, the Shan, and the Siamese. It is needless, I presume, to apologise for thus recording provincial dialects of well-known languages such as the I Burmese and Siamese, because such deviations of a known kind afford inestimable means of testing those which are unknown, and of thus approximating to a just appreciation of the interminable varieties of speech that characterise the enormously-extended family of the fMongolidie. I am indebted for these vocabularies to Captain Phayre, whose name is a warrant for their authenticity, and who has kindly added to their value by the subjoined explanatory note upon the Arrakan tribes. On those of the Tenasserim provinces the only elucidatory addition is the important one that the Tiing-lhu are “ Hillmen,” that is, dislocated aborigines driven to the wilds, or, in other words, broken and dispersed 28 ON THE INDO-CHINESE BORDERERS. tribes, like the Kliyeng, and Kami, and Kiimi, and Mni, and Sak of Arrakan, whose vocables constitute the greatest part of the first half of the vocabularies herewith forwarded. In the course of recording in our Journal these numerous vocabularies, I have purposely avoided any remarks on the affinities they suggest or demonstrate, intending to take up that subject when they should be completed ; but the high interest * excited by my Himalayan series, in connection with the bold and skilful researches wffiich are now demonstrating the unparalleled diffusion over the earth of that branch of the human family to which the Himalayans belong, has induced me on the present occasion to deviate partially from that rule, and to at once compare Caj)tain Phayre’s Arrakanese vocables with my own Himalayan t and Tibetan ones. Having been so fortunate as lately to procure an ample Sihinese series, comprising the tongues of the several peoples bordering on China and Tibet between Konkomir and Yiinan, and having, moreover, made some progress in a careful analysis of a normal and of an abnormal sample of the Himalayan tongues, with a view to determining the amounts of the Turanian and Arian elements, I shall ere long find occasion to recur to the general affinities of the Indian Mongolidm. In the meanwhile, the subjoined comparison of several Arrakanese tongues with those of Tibet and of the Eastern Himalaya will be read with surprise and pleasure by many who, accustomed to regard the Himalayans as Hindus, and the Indo-Chinese, like the Chinese, as distinct from the people of Asie Centrale, and from the Tibetans, will be astonished to find one type of language pre- vailing from the Kali to the Koladan, and from Ladakh to IMalacca, so as to bring the Himalayans, Indo-Chinese, and Tibetans into the same family. Tliat such, however, even in the rigid ethnological sense, is the fact will hardly be denied by him wdio carefully examines the subjoined table, or the documents from which it is taken, because not only are the roots of the nouns and verbs similar * Latham’s History of Man and Ethnology of British Colonies, t My own Himalayan series will be found in the Journal, No. 185, for December 1847. The Arrakanese series is annexed hereto. ON THE INDO-CHINESE BORDERERS. 29 to identity, but the servile particles are so likewise, and that as well in themselves as in the uses made of them, and in the mutations * to which they are liable. It should be added that the resemblances cited are drawn not from “ ransacked diction- aries,” but from vocabularies of less than 300 words for each tongue. To those who, not content with this abstract, shall refer to the original documents, I may offer two remarks suggested by their study to myself, ist. The extraordinary extent to which the presently contemplated affinities hold good has been made out by the helps afforded by the series of cognate tongues, whereby tlie synonyma defective in one tongue are obtained from another, whilst the varying degrees and shades of devia- tion are a clue to the root or basis. t 2d. The other remark suggested by the comparison of the vocabularies is, that it is the nouns and verbs, and not tlie pronouns and numerals, which constitute the enduring part of these languages ; and that con- sequently, whatever may be the case in regard to the Arian group of tongues, we must not always expect to find the best evidence of family connection in regard to the Turanian languages among the pronouns and numerals. Indeed the confused character of these parts of speech seems to be a conspicuous feature of the Mongolian tongues. Comparison of Tibetan and Himalayan tongues on one hand, and of the Indo-Chinese on the other. Blood. — Thak in Bhotia, Thyak in Lhopa, Vi in Lepcha.| Thwe in Burmese, The in Sak, Ka-thf in Khyeng, A-ti in Kami, Wi in Mru. Boat. — Tlni in Sdrpa. Th^ in Burmese. * In order to appreciate this remark and to trace the elements of the vocables, see analytic observations of the following paper on Caucasian and Mongolian Words, appended to the list of those words. t Take the radical word for dog, as a sample. We have khyi, khiii, khi, ki, khw6, kwe, kwi, kii, ki-cha, kti-chu, kho, kyd, cho-i. For the appended particles and their mutations I must refer to the original documents, and to the future con- firmations to be supplied by my Sifanese series of words. J The first line gives the Northern series, the second the Southern. 30 0,y THE IXDO-CHINESE BORDERERS. Cat. — Si-mi in Bhotia, Si-nii in Sokpa. Min in Kliyeng, Min in Kami. Crow. — O’-la in Lhopa, A'-wa in Limbu. O’-a in Kumi, Wa a in Kami and in Mru. Day. — Xyi-ma in Bhotia, Khi in Kewari, Kyim in Lhopa. Ne in Burmese, Ki in Mrii. Dog . — Khyi in Bhotia, Khi in Lhopa, Ku-chii in Kiranti, Ki-cha in Kewari, Khia hi Dhimali. K1itv 4 in Burmese, Ta-kwi in Mni, Ku in Sak. Ear . — Na in Bhotia, Ka-vo in Lhopa. Ka in Burmese, Ka-na in Sak. Eye . — Mig in Bhotia, A-mik in Lepcha, Mo in Murmi and Guriing. !Mye-tsi in Burmese, A- mi in Kami and Sak, Min in Mni. Father . — Pha m Bhotia, Amha in Limhii. Pha 4 in Burmese, Ampa in Kiimi. Fire. — ]\I4 or Mi in Bhotia, and in all Himalayan tongues. ]\Ii, ]\Ia, Ma i, in Burmese, Kami, and Mni. Fish . — Kya in Bhotia, Kgya in Lhopa, Kgo in Lepcha, Kyau in Siinwar. Kga in Burmese, Kgu in Khyeng, Kgho in Kami. Foot . — Kang in Bhotia, Kang in Lhopa, Khwe-li in Siinrvar. Kh}A in Burmese, Ka-ko in Khyeng, Khou in Kiimi. Goat . — Ea in Bhotia. Ta-ra in IMni. Hair. — A-chom in Lepcha, Chiim in IMagar. A-sham in Kami, Sham in Mni and Kiimi. Head . — Go in Bhotia. Ghong in Biu’mese. Hog . — Phak in Bhotia and Lhopa and Kiranti, Mak in Magar. Ta-pak in Mni and Yak in Sak. Horn. — Ar-kyok in Serpa, A-rong in Lepcha. A kyi in Khyeng, A-ning in Sak. Horse . — Ta in Bhotia and Lhopa, Sa la in Xe'nulri. Ta-phii (phii, male suffix) in Kami, Sapii in Sak (piiidem). House . — Khyim in Bhotia and Lepcha. Yum in Magar. Kyim in Sak, Kim in Mni, Um in Kiimh ON THE INDO-CHINESE BORDERERS. 31 Man. — Mi in Bhotia and most Himalayan tongues, Maro in Lepclia, Miiru in Siinwar. Iva-mi in Kami, Mni in Mrii dialect. (Ka-mi in Newari means craftsman.) Moon. — La-va in Bhotia, Lhopa, Lepcha, &c., &c. La in Burmese and Khyeng, Pii-la in Mru. Mountain. — Gun in Newari. Ta-kiin in Kami. Name. — IMing in Bhotia and Lhopa and Limhu and Miirmi, Nang in Newari. A-mi in Burmese, A-min in Kami, Na-mi in Khyeng. Night. — Sa-nap in Lepcha. Nya in Burmese. Oil. — Si-di in Magar. Shi in Burmese and Kami and Mrii, Si-dak in Sak. Boad. — Lam in Bhotia, and all the Himalayan tongues. Lam in Burmese, Khyeng, Kami, and Sak. Salt. — 'Tsha in Bhotia and Lhopa, Chha in Himalayan tongues (most) Sung in Bodo.* Sha in Burmese, Tsi in Khyeng, Sung in Sak. Skin. — Pa-ko in Lhopa, Dhi in Guriing, Hi in Miirmi. P 4 in Kiimi, Pi in Mni. Sky. — Mil in Miirmi, Miin in Guriing. Mil in Mni, Mo in Burmese. Snake. — Bid in Magar, Bii-sa in Siinwar. Phiil in Khyeng, Pii-vi in Kiimi. Stone. — Long in Lepcha, Liing in Limhii, Lining in Magar. Liin in Khyeng, Ka-liin in Kdmi, Ta-liin in Sak. In the verbs, again, we have Eat. — Sa in Lhopa, Z6, So, in Bhotia, CI16 in Limhii, Cho in Kiranti. Sa in Burmese, Tsa in Kami, Tsd in Kiimi. Drink. — Thiing in Bhotia, Thong in Lhopa, Thiing in Limhii and Miirmi, &c. Thouk in Burmese. * My B6(16 and Dliimal vocabularies will be found in the Journal, as well as the Himalayan series. I take this occasion to intimate my now conviction that the IJodo, Dliimill, and Kocch tribes belong to the Tibetan and Himalayan stock rather than to the Tamilian ; that is, with reference to India, to the more recent race of Tartar immigrants, not to the more ancient and more altered. 32 O.V THE INDO-CHINESE BORDERERS. Sleep. — Ip in Siinwar, Ip in Limbii, Im in Iviranti. I'p in Khyeng, V in Kami, I’ in Ivumi. Laugh . — Ye in Limbii, Xye in Miirmi, Xhyu in Xewari. Y 4 in Burmese, A-nwn in Kbyeng, Am-nhwi in Kiimi. Weep. — Xii, ngo, in Bbotia, ngii in Lbopa and Serpa, Kbwo in Xewari. Xgo in Burmese, and Kba in Kami. Say, tell. — Shod in Bbotia. Sbo in Burmese. Come . — Wa in Xewari. Yii in Kami. Go. — Lau in Siinwar. L;i in Kami and in Kiimi. Sit doivn . — Det in Serpa, Xgii-na in Magar. Tat in Kiimi, Xgiin-g 4 in Kbyeng. Move, Walk . — Dyii in Lbopa. Kyii in Burmese. Eun. — Cbong in Serpa, Loya in Kiriinti. Cbo-ne in Kbyeng, Lei in Kiimi. Give . — Bin in Bbotia and Lbopa, Pi in Limbii, Pai in Ku’dnti, Pen in Giiriing. Pd in Burmese, Pd gd in Kbyeng, Pei in Kiimi. (Xa pii in Kami = Xang in Bbotia, asks for self.) Take. — Ya in Bbotia, Lyo in Lepcba, Ld in Limbii. Yii in Burmese, Ld in Kdmi, L6 in Kiimi. Kill. — Tbod in Giiriing, That ui Bodo. That in Burmese. Hear, attend. — Xyen in Bbotia and Lbopa and Lepcba, Xyo in Kewdri. Xd in Kbyeng, Ka-na-i in Kdmi. Pemark, tbe materials for tbe above striking comparative view are derived from my own original vocabularies for tbe Xortbern tongues, as pubbsbed in tbe Journal, Xo. 185, for December 1847, and from Captain Pbayre’s for tbe Sontbern tongues, hereto appended. It is seldom that vocabularies so trustwortby can be bad, and bad in series, for comparison ; and yet it is abundantly ON THE INDO-CHINESE BORDERERS. 33 demonstrable that everything in regard to the discovery of the larger ethnic aflinities of dispersed races depends upon such a presentation of these materials, the distinction of roots and of servile particles, as well as the range of synonymous variation, in each of these classes of words, being thus only testable, and these points being all important as diagnostics, even more so than grammatical peculiarities which, at least in our sense, are apt to be excessively vague, or else palpably borrowed, among the Mongolidai. Syntactic poverty and crudity and etymological rehnement and abundance seem to be the characteristics of this vast group of tongues, and hence the importance of its vocables and the necessity of obtaining them in a state accurate enough for analysis, and copious enough to embrace the average range of synonyms. A common stock of primitive roots and of serviles, similarly employed, indicates unmistakably a common lineage and origin among the several races to which such stock belongs ; pre- ference for this or that synonym among the radicals, as well as various degrees and modes in the employment of serviles, whether prefixed, infixed, or postfixed, indicates as unmis- takably the several branches from the same family stem with the relative ages and distances of their segregation. By the above comparison of vocabularies I purpose to illustrate the common lineage of tribes now and for ages most widely dis- persed, and of which the intimate relationship is ordinarily overlooked ; by a subseqiient and more detailed examination somewhat differently conducted, I will endeavour to illustrate the true character of the minor distinctions of race, showing that these distinctions are by no means inconsistent with the common lineage and family relationship now exhibited. VOL. II. c COMrAILVTIVE VOCABULARY OF INDO-CHINESE BORDERERS IN ARAKAN. 34 ON THE INDO-CHINESE BORDERERS. •ii .a tc- I '«3 c — " >- £is-'“'rt g . v.-cj cj C CU-*^ & S ce <3^ &,C3 ceAd-«-S eS > ^ , ^ vd 15 S 'S ^ S Nd rt O ‘ U ^ CQ -1^ 5 2 e'?-'? M a "c 5 -2 i ‘a — a Ml & ss 5 • O > ^ s sASYO cj u ^ fc£i*d ^<3 ^ '>>>>> s s^^-o A3 va ? _ ~ pAS -a M-a a: ^ -g ^ )2a.5at3^aAiA<:aA a -2 u "5d S £5 . ^£'j3’|-22^ ^|>,tot--e .aatr.a^oosaoSacaa <<;<;?PS?;KSOOOQfiKS A3 fcC S' tc^ s s A3 >> c3 s^SSS;^;osKKa ON THE INDO-CHINESE BORDERERS. 35 J24<:^d”'c3 ^ ^ “ P- to a p o to to a to '5 d 3 '€3 S ^ ^ 'g . 'd .^a £ ® c3 ^ 3^ ^ 2 '^Cd'k^rS 2 oQ d-pW P 00^3 ci^ t> O P 'u S3 *r . G 'd *? • w - d c 'g '7 i 1 2 S3 1 i 3 vd II rt.2 a ^ J3 rt to to d d^ O -9 '5 a d T3 3 rt ^ d ^ -d ■< *co *d v:3 ’ a » >-' ^ ~w TO 'i-' cs rs 3 P«3 ^ ;s Cm P^caj P-.^ ^ ^ to a d , o to O .5 7 sd <3 '«3 CS vd ^^3 dJd v3 i-g, to'd d Q A •s '5 -g S S a 5: _« CO ^ CS ^ J< , -c3 . C ^ C4 ^ ■ - a '3 1 -a I /«) 'c3 O n3 AV'SvgJrt'S.Sc^ •PC3^Cs3(Op^>^^3c2 'c3 to d >>^ c d rt “^SsSS s§2^a„ ce 00 ^ (O fl ^ ^ p>> fl tc^ 5P-a c ' d c d 9 d rt to Ph a 3 So t? 'ri ■? a „ a a S,J3^.p |fc3 a --3.S a-r-?- a rt _a ^ vd « -?„ a -a ■<; 3 d ^ t-i " 2 S 2= rt ^ C-.= O ^ d d d >^S'c3*-P3*^dVr3 9 g P2 C3 9 >>-d d . J V3- to c*' d CQ P d • XQ »M > d d 'c3 fl ^drto N^tecuM^ 2 ^ >» J a. d ' .2d-^r«d^^cst^ •3 S ill!' c S « u u G C O C td ^ S >» e« — .-S 3 232 g?'r«i-(E-i y>5> -, -*j ® rt -p 9 ,o » - rt n La-nd-i 36 ON THE INDO-CHINESE BORDERERS. Mr A or Toung Mru or My A. fj vr 2 9 ^ ^ d w 'S ^ '2 9 Ofe-j3c^c3c3rtv^rt'5'^oj ^ 02 U-> U-P>4 Cm-U ‘i 'S : : § • : 'o ’i? *r • • • ; • • ■ Jt. §1 •r S’ Kami. *d^ rt ' ' rd ^ to • • ^ w ^ d :: ® gdd.i vrt ^ . d .j, -d tb n ,JdoO:3|3'c3^o.-i 'Ti;:3hn _''3o3S"^T -*f ^ ^ 7 ‘f-r-T”r15 •'r.^-r Jii pjajij P-PJ3 P-M P P.-S P PJ3 Khyeng or Shou. kin-nl ndng-ni ni-di, or ni-li ki-ko ndng-ko ni-ko ki-ni-ko ndng-ni-ko nl-di-ko nhdt pan-nlii thdin Ihi nghaii sauk s'hd sdt ko hd kiir tdn gip ILi-glp nghau-glp kld-dt d Id yung Burmese or My- amma. ngd-do mendo thudo ngdi meni ^Mi ngddoi mendoL s >>®p SS® a 5 S g.s « g.£p| g o S M«PlxEHSetilO>"EHOEHHfefea!02W;21E-'&HEH[i,[iH ^ a _5 ^ VO VO ^VO . „ a A vr 3 a a; fc /3 a o o ■^a ^ ^ 8 ^.a ° ^^,'* 7 ’^ O : 3 vJh c 3 ^ ce rt rJ4 a 42 ^ ' vs rM ili' -? a rt pd a a 'd va a a 1 ^ a - eg 5 'g '3 -s 3-3 g_" “ V "3 S ^ 'apa-iJ a^^ a >sa-+^vi. ce*^^ a 'c 3 9 a Q O ^ ^ va 03 pi 4 T 3 -+2 d a M a 'a va i- T" t>> d -a ^ 23 2 ^^ J a ■ 'i '2 t: vpi. d a3 a pC .3 a^. a a . 2 a 3 '^'^^'a pi^pairt^i pad*^paaaO 3 a^ o'S'a-& 3.3 9 oj or^ P-) pd o djpd d © d^a Opd andpisi a pO as >> a aa ,a d o d VO pd o pd ,pd pd fl « « - fcp a o P © _ca ^ p- d oaa:^ ^wO^ZiE-i S'H a -2 o £ ? fe ? J -J S'? ?-S £ feS o°^' P &H &H >1 K H ^ pq pq s ! (Uja ^ ■3 “ fe ” & ^ "^.-^•^.pPvS “3 o^u°5 pi, !zi j S W <1 M H K |S 38 ON THE INDO-CHINESE BORDERERS. o o a 3 & t i ^ o ? ^ -3 Ji cuJ=: c- a.^ . -^5 2 -- : 'o VO 'Ci v;3 vc3 r' c5 ^ rt . 9 1 2 g| Oso o '2 ^ 7 3 rt rt '3 '3 .— a* ? A. ci c , 2 £' c3 s ^ ^3 - S O ' ^ •. 3 M> 3 '■« *3 ^ S3 S|l ':2 ^ M ^ 4^ 3 O *« '9 O ^3 tj) ^ Cm 3} C bO 'O ^ 9 3 3 ^ rt '3 >> rt o t>» >» O rt VO O O c5 >iJtf 9 Xi Cua>3 I' 3 ^ 3 ■53 -5 o B s^sO'<3'0 C-WO''> CV 3 fc 0*7 Jz J 3 ^95-a-ax^ o G t->9^ c-2: ^ 23 4 d o cii vs'g 3 ^ ^ o >»v. ^ - -- 2^2 )2 a- a. >^2s c*^ >> 9 ^2 op « v:> ~ ,9 *3 «-• O ^ := l‘l*-§ -d i 5 o S. o o - - CL. ® ^ 3 O 00 'I ^ o .r S fco '^S C «c>y ^o==fc- 5 >^^ ^ 9 rt 3 : 2 ^ 5 r ?2 il.-tf® 3 .- 2523^2 ^^ — cQcCi«=i?sOc-JSt^EHOCQ2^ ON THE INDO-CHINESE BORDERERS. 39 q 2 £ ^ ^ , c A A ^ J M a M 0 M j "T cs rt rt cj > c4 ^ Ji4 ^ 3 O w o rt T5 *5'i O* ^ S fl fl t 5 c ^ jid • ’ rt g ^ 'T v3 •U -4J Ci ^ .A " fl to s 3 93 a ^ '■' v3 o ? l±d ^'c3'3v:S_ 2-3 •3,^ c4 c3- a ii S d v© «4 C •— ^ v«^ *S ^ « , *T ? 'V ^ Nd ^ ^'A C co'34d'Q as 3-td -«^ O to tuO c 5 Sd -a -2 d 2 I V3 Q ^ d ? •iif e ^ ovd'3 ol g o ^ *‘o3 3 _, Cm O ,2j1 '3 3 5» 3 ^ o OJ ^ M d a ^ i bo C ^0 .5 'O ^ T* a> J o a 2 ^ 5* 03 03 -4J 3 3 CrAr ^ s ►S ^ • K«« H.S 3 ,W)i5 a-S 0> © rt _._5a— I_U^Jm • ^ n © 3 OC2c 2 © 3 3^5^*^ 5- O •— 1^ »3^'-*^ t-— i*:>.C^*-'Oj3d.dS*-^ 3*-a d -3 i 02w«Wt3MO«?^KOHJccE-iwa2O«MfefeEH| 40 ON THE INDO-CHINESE BORDERERS. NOTE TO ACCOMPAXY YOCABULAEIES OF LAXGUAGES SPOKEX EY TEIBES IX AEAK^VX. 1 . — Burmese. This is the language of the Arakanese people, who for the most part live in the lowlands and on the sea-coast of the country called Arakan. I’rovincial words occur in this lan- guage, differing from those of Burmah proper, and the pro- nunciation in Arakan varies considerably from that current’ in the valley of the “ Irrawaddy ; ” yet the written languages of both countries are for the most part alike. Thus the word for a day written is pronounced Eak by the Arakanese, but by the Burmese is softened to Yet : the word for water is called by the Arakanese Ei, by the Burmese Ya It is written with the same letters by both people. The Arakanese and Burmese are of the same race, and have the common national name of 3Iyam-mA, which is however a comparatively modern appellation for the several tribes, into which the race was originally divided. The term Mug is applied by the people of India to the Arakanese. It is exclusively a foreign epithet, unknown to the Arakanese themselves. It probably takes its origin from the tradition of a tribe of Brahmans, termed Magas, said to have emigrated Eastward from Bengal. o o 2. IvHYEXG. This name is given by the Burmese and Arakanese to a numerous race of people who live in the high range of moun- tains called Yo-m& (that is “ great ridge,” or “ back-bone ”), which separates Arakan from the valley of the Irrawaddy. These people call themselves Shyou or Shyic. The word Ivhyeng (pronounced Ivhyang or Ivyang by the Arakanese) is probably a corruption of Klang^"' their word for man ; and * Perhaps so ; but Kydng or Khiilng is a well-known ethnic designation to the Northward, where, by the way, with Chinese and Tibetans, many of the ethnic de.signations of the Indo-Chinese religion are familiar terms of their own, as Mon, Eho, Lao, Sdk, Kyslng, Myau. Nearer at hand we have, as terms allied to Khyeng, Itakheng (whence our Arakan for “the Mugs”); Khyi for the “ Cos- sialis,” Kho or Kyo and Kd for Kambojian tribes, and Kd Khyen for “the ON THE INDO-CHINESE BORDERERS. 41 their own present distinctive name for their tribe is no doubt recently adopted. An Arakanese in wilting down for me words from the mouth of a man of this race, wrote Khytlng for what appeared to me to have the sound of Kldng. The Khyeng country extends along the Yo-ma range (which runs nearly N.X.W. and S.S.E.) from about the nineteenth to the twenty-first degree of north latitude. The people inhabit both the Burmese and British side of the range. The ascertained number of this race under British rule in Arakan is 13,708 souls. An equal number probably reside within the Burmese territory. There are also a large number of Khyeng tribes, which, though living within the nominal British frontier, yet, from the rugged inaccessible nature of their country, are really independent, and which have never yet submitted to any foreign Government, whether Arakanese, Burmese, or British. Their language is unwritten. There appears to be some differ- ence of dialect between the Northern and Southern tribes of Khyeng. The words here given were taken from a man belonging to the Northern tribes. The Khyengs believe them- selves to be of the same lineage as the Burmese and Ara- kanese, the stragglers from armies or moving hordes left in the mountains.* 3. — Kami' or Ku'mT. This race of people, of which there are two divisions called by themselves Kami vel Kimi and Kiimi, and by Arakanese respectively Awa Kumf and Aphya Kumf, inhabits the hills bordering the river which is named by the Arakanese Kiild- ddn (that is, limit or border of the Kula or Western foreigner), Karens,” -whilst the Kambojian Kyo or Gyo reappears in the Kho of the Koladyne river, and in the “ Moitay ” of Maniplir we have the combined appel- lations of the Siamese Tai and the Kochin Chinese “ Moy.” In other words, the Manipurian tribe, called Cossiahs by the Bengillis, belong to the Moi section of the great tribe called Tai by themselves and Shdn or Sydn by the Burmese, the sectional name being also foreign, and equivalent to the native. Khyi or Khydng of Chinese and Khyeng of Burmese. * This native tradition and opinion accord with what follows relative to the Khyau and Mriing in corroborating the doctrine which assigns the whole of the border mountaineers towards Ava, or inhabitants of the Yo-md range from Assam to Arakan, to the Rakheng division of the Myam-ma. 42 ON THE INDO-CHINESE BORDERERS. and by the Kami's Ye-man, by the Ktimis Yan 'pan. It is the chief river of Arakan. It is probable that the Kamis and Kiimis have not been settled in their present seat for more than five or six generations. They gradually expelled there- from a tribe called Mrii or Myu. The Kami clans are now themselves being disturbed in their possessions by more power- ful tribes, and are being gradually driven Westward and South- ward. They state that they once dwelt on the hdls now possessed by the Khyengs, and portions of the tribe have been driven out by the latter within the memory of man. The language of the Kami portion of this interesting race has lately been reduced to writing by the Kev. Mr. Stilson of the Ameri- can Baptist Mission. The Kami words entered in this vocabu- lary have been chiefly furnished by an intelligent Kami young man educated by that gentleman, and are more to be depended upon than the other portions. Tor it is exceedingly difficult to acquire from savages, through the medium of a language foreign to them, any words but those which they use to designate some object or quality. The number of Kamis with- in the British territory amounts to 4129 souls. They are divided into several clans, each having a distinctive name. The dialects of these clans differ more or less from each other. Many clans are independent. 4. — Mru' or Toung Mru'. This is a hill tribe now much reduced from its ancient state. They once dwelt on the river Kuladan and its feeders, but have been gradually driven out by the Kami tribe. They have therefore emigrated to the West, and occupy hills on the border between Arakan and Chittagong. The Eadzaweng, or history of the Arakanese kings, refers to this tribe as already in the country when the Myam-ma race entered it. It states also that one of this tribe was chosen kmg of Arakan about the fourteenth century of the Christian era. The traditions recorded in the same Avork also imply that the Mrii and Myam- ma races are of the same lineage, though this connection is denied by the Arakanese of the present day, who regard the ON THE INDO-CHINESE BORDERERS. 43 Mru tribe as “ wild men ” living in a degraded state, and con- sider that it would be disgraceful to associate with them. The number of the Mru tribe in Arakan amounts to about 2800 souls. Their language is unwritten. They call themselves Mrii,. Toung Mru''' is a name given to some of their clans by the Arakanese. Mrli, is also used by the Arakanese as a generic term for all the hill tribes of their country. The word Khyeng is occasionally used in the same sense. 5. — Sa'k. This is a very small tribe mentioned by Buchanan in his paper On the Eeligion and Literature of the Burmese, “Asiatic Eesearches,” vol. vi. p. 229. He calls them “ Thoek ” (that being the Burmese pronunciation of the word), and states that they are “ the people inhabiting the eastern ” branch of the Nauf river, and are called by the Bengalis Chain and “ Chatnmas.” Chain is no doubt meant for Sdk, which is the name these people now give themselves. Their language is unwritten. There are other tribes in Arakan who have languages or dialects peculiar to themselves. They consist of but a few families, and some no doubt are the descendants of captives brought into the country several generations back by the Arakanese in their warlike expeditions against the adjoining countries. Of these, the language of the tribe called DAing- ndk appears to be a rude corrupt dialect of Bengali. The tribe called Mrung state that their ancestors were brought as captives from the Tripura hills. There is also a curious tribe called Khyau t in the Kuldddn country, consisting of not * Toung means wild, uncultured, as “ hill-men ” with us, and Pahari or Par- batia with Hindus. Mrh alias Myd = Myau of Chinese, which again = Kyilng. t Kyo aforesaid ? The tradition would ally them with the Kuki and Khyi, whence Kyo, Khyen, Khyi, and Kuki may be conjectured to be radically one and the same term, and to be an opprobrious epithet bestowed by the now dominant races of Indo-China upon the prior races whom they have driven to the wilds, for Khyi, Kyi, Ki, Kii has the wide-spread sense of dog. Not one of these tribes is known abroad by its own name. Kami may be readily resolved into “ men of the Ka tribe,” the Ka being a proper name or merely an emphatic particle. Ka, mutable to Ki and Kd, is a prefix as widely prevalent in the Himdlaya and Tibet 44 ON THE INDO-CHINESE BORDERERS. more than from fifty to sixty families. I have not yet been able to obtain satisfactory vocabularies of the languages of these last-named three tribes, but they will be procured on the first opportunity. I regret that there are so few words of the Mrit and Sdk languages given, but as some time might probably elapse before more could be procured, I considered it best to forward them in their present state. Memo. Scheme of vowels, &c., &c., a to be sounded as a in America. 4 i f u 11 e e ai ei ou au o ih th a in father, i in in. i in police, u in push. 00 in foot, e in yet. e in there, ai in air. 1 in mind, ou in ounce, au in audience, o in note. til in thin, the aspirate of t. I have endeavoured to express the sounds of the Khyeng and Kami languages as near as I can, but there are a few wdiich I could not exactly convey through any combination of European letters. N.B . — In the next or Tenasserim series of words the system of spelling follow’ed is the common English. I have not deemed it prudent to alter it. These words were taken down by Dr. hlorton, not Captain Phayre, as above inadvertently stated. Valuable as they are, they lack the extreme accuracy of Captain Phayre’s series, and hence I have not extended my comparisons over them. as tlie word mi for man. The Kamis themselves understand the word in the latter sense — a very significant circumstance quoad affinities. Ka prefix is interchange- able with Ta {Ka-va or Ta-va, a bird in Kami, and so in most of these tongues), and Ta varies its vowel like Ka ; and thus, in Gyariing, Tir-mi, a man, answers to Kimi, a man. Ex his disce alia. COMPAEATIVE VOCABULAEY OF INDO-CHINESE BOEDEEEES IN TENASSERIM. ON THE INDO-CHINESE BORDERERS. 45 3 fl ^ ci a .2 u M M a c-a & aj 3 -S-M-s- !,& s s s- ^ O 'O CO to PH □ r§ § c3 3-PrH^^ > n-- ^ S 2 & Snia m-m .2 -u :2 ^ , .2 2 rt 3.^2 a Oh, C3 3:2 g , rt &H rt ; CL. a .* *-0 o 9 . 2 Cm^ a . to a a b * a 43 ^ fcss ^ ft, j ft c ft N O t= a:S s a rt c3 ® r/j a j ^ ^ 2 >> b B'tS: cl 3 c« a 5 fcPi-p -p 0) -a rt a ^ ^ ^ -2 g 2 41 5) s 2^ S « =S « to CS e rt O -p -3 fe a ^ ^ ^ 33 ^ M . O C 3 '3 ’ to ^ , £P 3 ^ a ^ c3 ;_,— *c0jSv«»0h' 3^'O tp rt a a ^ p 3 ^'•3 t>> > tH-> c3 -3 (z 3 " r ^ H" •' Oh33 ^+533 c6 .^4 ^ a3«i a^ a 2 ^ 0-2 a cj ^-cs Cj®^„ ^.2 <4 .a a C ^ ^ ^ ® ,t4 ? 'IS 2 H - ?« -fc.a-cSg-t>&ofe»^D .-.q^oo 3 csot.'J° -sJMWMpqpqoooflai _. a -a •? a . ■£ M g" ® :3 l-s-s.i'a’S 46 ON THE INDO-CHINESE BORDERERS. ■2 <3 S S ti = ffl I'sl i rt s ^ c. >>. o c S ^ ^ ;2 iS^ irt g g-rt "P c -tj o g — S, 3 2 5 'o 'o a Sf O 2 2 m J3 <0 Co C3 ^ to c 2 n fl a - 5= 2 s ^ ) ^ S v <3 tO*0> jj'O |gSrf-Sogac 3 S-§a-og&§)gg§- 2 js| ® ^ « C .-3 (^-2 ^ a 2 ^ aaa a^ 3 to ^ g d 9 ^ >»il 3 J 5 rt W - 4 :> CQ QO . fl ^ tc = § ^ c 3 C ^ rt to cS c (u 5 ® S 'O A ! s ^ p^S S £ fl to : ^'O S S 3 & a j aa ,2 a a ad I), to to 5 a ' >» ® ^ ^-3 a - §Jn S "rt ;:3 ^ o fl ^ c 3 5 a & ^,- a J 3 -3 2 a «? a; 7 J to ce o c ^ O 53 S e c to ^ o >. 0 ) "2 feg .“-2 1 r VO o ^ SP-gS®a®^^ > ^'s a § s |*3 S £‘ 35 's 5 '§ >. ce ^ a.^ cea — -aara-3eeaa - rf C 3 p & 0 > O >j >a '<5 J C- O ^ ^ c -li ^ a >» -o® ^ ® o SCaa'^—aao^saOTa-S, ag^-^3 2 9 oooog.tpceooooooce .xPra -5-ac'rtl3^a-22_ S^^5-iH4h2lSSSSSSS^^CwP??HMSa2Mwa2ccEHE-» d c3 bO s s ^1 3 g 6 o § ^ a j3 a ^ i -a -e a ft 03 bo ^ bo 5 3 O S o 1 ) o g o S ^ S3 ' ? ':2 ^^bo^hoto bO'd fl S3 P S3 a S3 S3 i ® ^JJJJJJ*i " “ ” bO a P S3 2 '2 . S 2 ga 3 P -4^ Cj © C4 . rP ^ ^ ^ ^ c3 rt Pft ^ c3 jd P to - 4 ^ ft P tft © 'ft ft ft © e Ch a. o. 33 cjja 2 ’^S 22000000 ^ oooooo>> © tH ^ t. S« s: ^ ^ ^ ^ rirf to _ 2 2 2 0 ; ft .. ft ,p ^ ^ P 'O ft © 09 CO , W W iM _ ■ ■*? 9 2 2 >> ^ S g ^ a c:©'©ccft»4j^.^^ca©ur3ccr2t^OftP Oi S3^ SI. ^ ^ Sli Oi O. p.^ P p. P P ^ to P ^ o .Hffi © 48 ON THE INDO-CHINESE BORDERERS. Siamese. klian-rul khan-mon pd-too-uee hpd la lipalahighn wan-nee bpoonel ma-wa-neo hta nee hai-nan kalau tee-nan khan la klialan khan-nonk khan-noung ka-)'Um kard net-ta-ro hton htau riht nee ram-nee men-ran-nee ran-rihn hta mihu tsen rnai-htsa inai-htan S inai kanoung ka-nonk mayohnihn chyain-lmigh chyain-hi ma-hniht md-hpot ma-wa kauiht ka-po kalau pamon palon akhun ka-nouk ka noung an-kdlm an-san aeet talma ht.a-noung neik-yo\ik tso-neik-youk tso-na-youk tso-hoo pen-htsau htsouk-hdo ma-tsouk ma-het-a Tounrj-lhoo. : 5 g ^ : sflill i s §111 gJlUc.! sg lis ii Talien or M6n. hpa atway atoo la mod akha a-khalaraii tang waynau lee ya let-ka-na kha-na-nau kha-na-ko alorau atotd kha ta ta adho ina-ngd kha-tway noo-ma-way tsouk soot hhau ma-tsoo mvay tseik-nau nyonng-tseik-kau top-peim tsou-la moo-parau tot-kwai ha-tsen hd-ka-lon young Jiurmese or Myanima. bd a-htdmha apau ydkoo hto akha bay-thaukha thu kliana net hpangha ma-na-ga thee mha ho-mha bay-mha a-htet-mha ouk-mha alay-mha apyenmha a-hlaymha awd-mha anee-mha ta-htset kalai apon bay-louk kai-tho thu-kai-tho thee atilm bay-nay ban-pyoolo hot-kai mahot-bdo ma-lot-boo yuay English. Without In On Now Then AVhen ? To-day To-morrow Yesterday Here There Where ? Above Below Between Without, outside Within Far Near Little Much How much ? As So Thus How? Why ? Yes No (Do) not And, also ON THE INDO-CHINESE BORDERERS. 49 n O) CLje 5 ^ a s 9^ >*'Z1 >> >> C rt ci a C 4 ^'‘O ^ C c3 G 5 s ^ O t3 S M'O ^ “5 o rt s I c 4J> u c .^3 c: fl -a c’S, mill ‘•+J ’. s ^ a rt 3 a & o o . a : ^ ^ i ^ S to a a a a o o JZ s ^ I §-g aa ^ Ji , S if ^ t>» » rt tO-T a ^i§ . a a a o jfl a ’T'Taao flg 3 >>>Cv 543^ ©H’ CL, o<^ ^ a ^ ^ ^ >) cA I :i : ^ ra : ^ -t^ a e» H _ a !? O ^ a ^ ^ o ^ a 4 j W) a ^ 3 §^-g§-«gg-S o o^ja-a^-a a^ a >> ^ ctJ ^ ^ s g g e« S 7 o'?? — I — I Qj Oi to a.?'^ =J ® >> o ‘§ § t? S ^vS.a toboa a® fe a a & §-^'2 o 5 a a-73 a c^ a aJs^ a-.^ ^ 9 c -d a4 ai ^'c3 - a r a 5 2:^ . ^ ^ a a a ” -a ^ S?S,S>^2 ^ Q 5^ rt • JL ^ o «« fe ^ « a ^a-^ o a a a ^ . a ^ ® S C^ -H ® S ^ « I S -S 2 o L .d rt ' A ^ © _s ™ ci a -- >> o> © a c5 ^-s-^-? J| a ja ^ c 5 a -iij ^ tc^ ^ m ^ ^ ” - •' - * '<3 : ‘-5 J3 ^ . rt 2 £7 .9 > ’■^ . ,r^ *1 O rt rt c-^ ^ ? £ ii = S 2 o- I O CG 4 “ 7 , _o ' «a -*j +j -♦ o . o -*J ‘S ® ’S' ® s g «| ^ s: ■ a -5 •S 2 -9 ^ ® . ® ® • c5 I s |_® 2 « £ 2 M-a ! NO c3 to NO 2j?5 E. I a '*f ' ^ -*-3 ' >4 O O j 3 C j-t a^ a^ 4 ^ k" rt 3 ^-2 ^ : 'a rt { a a a ! to o 2 t-33_=s;5^ c = « OE-'E-'?^?^?^<)-<[ilflcZ2?' VOL. II. C C.~ 4 © 0) © © © OQ CO ^ s d li'H- d § o d fl ' ^ J rt rt 5 -a ^ j ^ . bJ5 o c 44 ^ 41- J S 44 d , ^ S43 Oo m c6‘S ^c O 5 44 ^ O >>^:a -2 CU^ >> S Cl. d. d. £ 44 >> © Stf © w • >» P>» >> i ho , “"¥3 ^ c 4 ?; -a 3 to = _ g toja s^* oc^'3'cj “ a Q..O S :=: -d -s ^ Cd c- yj ^ to d S &; J? =« r O > S >> ? 7 d 5 Id S - 03 CO *-<43 C 'O © 43 rt _5l a 44 4 © -5 ^ r5 r5 Td ^ d O cS V ^ .3 © ^ , ei C^dHd'rt'rtS & 43 544434243 44 44^544^3' d rt O 43 pH 44 42 >> *H 44 a. "3 o 2 d ^ • c3 • rt ■ rt 43 cj -4> c3 44 ^ 44 43 44 0) « A-3» ® ®- ® H t>- © V ^3 tc^ o § 3 a O 3 ^ c= a a >».A g, >> © d rt bO p. ^ Ph c« a s Ijl I j 3 5 -fl :5:3 -f & ® 2 V -a ^"Sd^a^ « 3-^2 P cs 33 -S — - *H O p— < O pH © — * ' =► ©43 c343 9 s- O (d-43 e« 4 5 ajQCWKPa 2 UM^? 50 j- 5 c/ 2Haia20P^c«PiHPhr c ^ •— e? — ,P 43 © (h 77 60 cs ^ d ►^.d a £-' S ■Euglisb system of spelling used in the above, which I have not ventured to alter. SECTION VIL Olf THE MONGOLIAN AFFINITIES OF THE CAUCASIANS. All residents in the East who take an interest in the more general topics of Ethnology must have been exceedingly struck by Dr. Latham’s recent imposing exhibition of the vast ethnic domain of the Mongolidoe. From Easter Island to Archangel, from Tasmania and Madagascar to Kamtchatka and the mouths of the Lena, all is Mongolian ! Caucasus itself, the Arian Ararat, is Mongolian ! India, the time-honoured Aryavartta, is Mongolian ! Granting that this remarkable sketch* is in good part anticipatory with reference to demonstrative proofs, it is yet, I believe, one which the progress of research has already done, and is now doing much, and will do yet more, to sub- stantiate as a whole ; though I think the learned author might have facilitated the acceptance of his splendid paradoxes, if, leaving the Osetif and the Brahmans in unquestioned posses- sion of their Arian honours, he had contented himself with maintaining that the mass of Caucasian and Indian population is nevertheless of Turanian, not Arian, blood and breed ; and if, instead of laying so much stress upon a special Turanian type (the Seriform), he had been more sensible that the technical diagnostics, which have been set upon the several subdivisions of the Mongolidfe, are hindrances, not helps, to a ready percep- tion of the common characteristics of the whole race. * Natural History of Man ; London, 1850. + It will be seen in tire sequel that in the course of those investigations which gave the “ Comparative Analysis ” its present amplitude, I satisfied myself that the Oseti are Mongolian. 52 MONGOLIAN AFFINITIES OF THE CAUCASIANS. I do not propose on the present occasion to advert to what has been lately done in India demonstrative of the facts, that the great mass of the Indian population, whether now using the Tamulian or the Prakritic tongues, whether now following or not following the Hindu creed and customs, is essentially non-Arian as to origin and race, but that this mass has been acted upon and altered to an amazing extent by an Arian element, numerically small, yet of wonderful energy and of high antiquity. These are indubitable facts, the validity of which I am prepared with a large body of evidence to estab- lish; and they are facts which, so far from being inconsistent with each other, as Latham virtually assumes, are such that their joint operation during ages and up to this hour is alone capable of explaining those physical and lingual characteristics of the Indian population, which Dr. Latham’s theory leaves not merely wholly unexplained, but wholly inexplicable. I must however postpone their discussion till I come to treat of the Xewar and Khas tribes of Nepal. In the meanwhile, and with reference to Dr. Latham’s crowning heresy that the most Cau- casian of Caucasians (the Iron or Oseti) are “ more Chinese than Indo-European,” I have a remarkable statement to submit in confirmation of his general, though not his special, position ; my agreement with him being still general, not special. His general position quoad Caucasus is, that the Caucasian races are Mongolidan; and, availing himself with iinusual alertness of the results of local Indian research, he has, at pp. 123-128, given copious extracts from Brown’s Indo- Chinese Vocabularies, as printed in our Journal ; and he has then compared these vocables with others proper to the Caucasian races. IMy recent paper upon the close affinity of the Indo-Chinese tongues with those of the Himalaya and of Tibet, will show how infinitely the so-called “ Chinese ” element of this comparison may be extended and confirmed ; and my Sifanese series, now nearly ready, will yet further augment this element of the comparison, which in these its fuller dimensions certainly displays an extraordinary identity in many of the commonest and most needful words of the languages of Caucasus on the one hand, and of Tibet, Sifan, MONGOLIAN AFFINITIES OF THE CAUCASIANS. 53 tlie Himalaya, Indo-China, and China on the other. There is no escaping, as I conceive, from the conclusion that the Caucasian region, as a whole, is decidedly Mongolian, what I have now to add in the shape of grammatical or structural correspondences affording so striking a confirmation of that heterodox belief, "whilst Bopp’s somewhat strained exposition of the Arian characteristics of the Iron (as of the Malayo- Polynesian) provokes a doubt even as to them, despite the “ Edinburgh Eeview.” It is the fashion of the age to stickle, somewhat overmuch perhaps, for structural or grammatical correspondences, as the only or best evidence of ethnic affinity. I am by no means insensible of the value of such evidence ; and, though I may conceive it to be less important in reference to the extremely inartificial class of languages now in question than in reference to the Indo-European class, I proceed to submit "with great pleasure a telling sample of structural identity between the Gyariing tongue, which is spoken on the extreme east or Chinese frontier of Tibet, equidistant from Khokhonur and Yunan, and the Circassian language, which is spoken in the west of Caucasus. The Gyariing sample is the fruit of my own research into a group of tongues heretofore unknown, even by name : the Caucasian sample is derived from Eosen apud Latham, pp. 1 20-122. Eosen, who was the first to penetrate the mysteries of Cau- casian Glossology, states, i st, that the Circassian pronouns have two forms, a complete and separable one, and an incomplete and inseparable one. 2d, That in their incomplete or contracted and concreted form, the pronouns blend themselves alike wdth the nouns and with the verbs. 3d, That these pronouns, lilce * No. 192, article Bopp’s Comp. Grammar — a work that cannot be too highly rated, though its style of demonstration is not equally applicable beyond the Indo-Germanic pale. Its spirit may pass that pale, but not its letter, as when the Georgian sami is identified with the Sanscrit tri, Greek rpia, and Latin tres. My doubt respects the Oseti, not the Malayo-Polynesians, for I am satisfied that ihty are Mongolian, and would now add a striking and novel statement in support of that opinion, but that I must by so doing go too far ahead of my yet unpro- duced Sifan vocabularies. The true and endless Mongolian equivalents for the Georgian numeral may be seen in the Appendix to this Essay. 54 MONGOLIAN AFFINITIES OF THE CAUCASIANS. the nouns, have no inflectional or other case signs ; in other words, are immutahle.'" 4th, That the complete form of the pronouns is distinguished by the suffix Ea. Kow, every one of these very arbitrary peculiarities belongs to the pronouns in the Gyariing language not less than in that of Circassia, as the following examples will show ; and I sliould add that by how much the development of this part of speech is anomalous throughout the Tartar or IVIongolian tongues, by so much is the instanced coincidence with the Circassian more significant, the anomalous or irregular character of the pronouns of both not sufficing to conceal the coincidence, and therefore doubly illus- trating it. Circassian. — Ab, father. "Wara, thou, the full pronoun. AVa, the contracted form, used in composition. Hence Wab or Wa-ab, thy father. Gydrung. — Pe, father. Nanre, thou, the fuE pronoun. Ha, the contracted form, used in composition. Hence Nape or Ka-pe, thy father. Verbal Use. Circassian. — Ward, | | — kwisloit, thou ridest. Gyardng . — Hanrd na — syo, thou knowest. I have changed the Gyariing verb, because I do not possess the equivalent in that tongue for to ride. It matters not, how- ever, as the sample shows the grammatical form to be absolutely the same in both sentences, just as well as if ride were the verb used in both. The other rules and examples (scanty, I admit) given by Latham from Eosen may be matched in each instance by * I have now ascertained that the same principles prevail, with slight varia- tions, in the Hayu, Kuswdr, Kirdnti, and Limbu languages of the Himdlaya, in the U'raon, Ho, Sontdl, and Gondi tongues of Tamulian India, and in the Tagala and Malayu languages of the Pelasgian group, though passing out of use in the last-named tongue as in several of the Himdlayan tongues. See remarks in the Supplement. I may add that in the Hdyu language (of which I have a detailed account nearly comjdeted) the verbs are distinguished into the two classes of transitives and intransitives precisely as in Malay. MONGOLIAN AFFINITIES OF THE CAUCASIANS. 55 Gyarung rule and sample, as will be seen in the sequel. But there is this difference in respect to the Ea suffix, that it is applied to the first and second pronouns in Circassian, though not to the third ; and to the second only in Gydning.''' This, however, is in complete conformity with the other and typical Mongolian tongues ; for in Mantclni, and in Mongol also, the Ea suffix is found, hut attaching only to the third personal ; and if we compare the Tdre of those tongues t with the Chinese Ta and the Sokpo Tlui, we shall perceive the perfect analogy of the suffix throughout these tongues, in spite of its varying apidications. But is there no clue to the irregularities, none to the real force and signification, of this pronominal suffix ? Clearly there is ; for in the Tibetan language, the word rang, meaning self, and attaching to all the personal pronouns alike, J affords iis that clue, though the people of Circassia and the Gyarung, whose common and familiar use of this suffix is so perfectly analogous, seem equally unaware of the fact, and can neither explain the meaning nor the partial application of their suffix, any more than can the Mantcluis and Mongols. This I infer from the silence of authors, and should add that the explana- tions are wholly my own, my Gyarung interpreter being able only to express very unsophisticated surprise when asked to analyse a word. But I have not yet done with the analogy of Circassian and Gydning pronouns, having still to notice that the third personal in Circassian, which drops the Ea suffix, is not really a personal but a demonstrative, equivalent to ille, iste. Now, the Gyarung language has a third personal, which the Circassian lacks ; but it has also a demonstrative, and that demonstrative is the very * The first and second pronouns are so nearly alike in Gydrdng (nga, na), that the rd suffix has probably been reserved to the second, in order to difference it more plainly. t Recherches sur les langues Tartares, pp. 173, 183. I cannot thus revert to the thoughts of my old antagonist (voce Buddhism) without a fresh tear dropped on the untimely grave of that truly amiable and learned man. J Nga, I, ngarang, I myself, egomet ; and so khdrang, khdrang. Rdmusat has sadly confused the Tibetan pronouns, and, as I suspect, those of the other “ langues Tartares,” though his work be a marvel for the time and circumstances of its publication. Rdmusat ut supra, p. 365. 56 MONGOLIAN AFFINITIES OF THE CAUCASIANS. same as the Circassian one ; that is, u or w ; and this pronoun has, in both tongues alike, a separate, full, and a concrete con- tracted form. Moreover, in the Gyarung tongue the forms and uses of this demonstrative afford a perfect elucidation both of its strange metamorphosis (w to t) and of its anomalous suffix (i) in Circassian ; for “ watii ” is the complete separate form in Gyarung ; whilst “ wa,” the contracted form, alone used in composition, constantly takes i, which is really a genitive sign and recognised as such in Tibetan, but is a mere “ particule morte ” in Gyarung as in Circassian. Take the following samples from Gyarung : Watii, he, iste, ille : Wape, his father : Womo,'“ his mother : Waimyek, wa-i-myek, his eye (myek, eye) : Shaimek, shai-i-mek, leaf of tree (shi, tree, mek, leaf) ; and then turn to the Circassian samples in Latham, li-i, he ; t-ab, his father ; t I'-kwisloit, he rides, and you will perceive that (li being the same with w) the nominal t and the verbal f of Circassian are the secondary or suffix portions of the full Gyariing pronoun exalted into primaries in order to difference the third person from the second, the second already having the wa or li (wab, thy father ; li-kwisloit, thou ridest) form. And that such substitution of the secondary for the primary part of a word is no arbitrary assumption of mine, but a regu- lar principle of the Caucasian and of the Llongolian tongues, may be seen by the numerous examples of it occurring in the subjoined list of vocables. The above elucidations of Circassian pronouns for which I am entirely answerable, are so thoroughly in the spirit of Bopp’s system that I trust they may find favour * The change of wa into wo, in wapd and womo, is an instance of that vocalic harmony which these languages so much affect, and which has been erroneously supposed to be peculiar to Turki. We have abundant alliteration both vocalic and consonantal out of, or beyond the Turki branch of, the Mongolian tongues. Shaimek, from shi and mek, has other peculiarities precisely similar to what occur in the Altaic tongues, teste Remusat. f In the supplement co this paper will be found an exact and beautiful pendant for this Circassian sample, derived from the Tamulian tongues, the Soatal language having d and i for the third personal, and these commutable in com- position into the conjunct form of td, precisely as in the Circassian tongue. From the Gondi tongue is there given another example of the commutation of u to t, BO that my exposition from the Gyarung instance is placed beyond doubt, whilst some fresh and beautiful links are added to the chain of affinities, as to which see prior note. MONGOLIAN AFFINITIES OF THE CAUCASIANS. 57 in his eyes, though I have ventured to demur to his Arianising of the Tartars by too strained applications of that system. I know not if Eosen at all explains the peculiarities of the pronouns in Circassian, but Latham does not ; and it will therefore be felt as a truly interesting circumstance that the explanation just given, like that of the Ea suffix, have been fetched from Lhasa and Lithang ! The cultivated tongue of Tibet proper continues, it will be seen, to afford the clue to the labyrinth ; and that it does so, is surely a strong pre- sumptive proof, as well of its superior antiquity as of its superior completeness. So judging, I cannot moreover doubt that the Circassian preterite sign is the same with the Tibetan preterite sign (chen-tshar), though this be beside the mark of pronominal expositions — and to these I must confine myself, or I shall not know where to stop, so constantly do these Tartarian illustrations of the Caucasian tongue flow in upon me. I am iinaware whether the Circassian language is dis- tinguished, like the Gyariing, by a very ample employment of those prefixes which, as more or less employed, characterise so many of the Mongolian tongues, and which are dropped in composition, like the Ea suffix. Thus, tarti, a cap, in Gyan'ing, is compounded of ti the root, and tar the prefix ; but if we join a noun or pronoun to this word the prefix disappears, and “ his cap,” for example, is warti, compounded of the wa above mentioned and the radical ti. In like manner taimek, a leaf, when compounded with shi, a tree, drops the ta prefix and becomes shaimek, as tape, father, becomes ngape, my father.t Eosen, should this paper fall under his eye, or * Ta, the common form, becomes tar, differentially as tlmi, fire ; tirmi, man, root mi, used in both senses. In tirmi, tarti, warti, we have the ra particle, which remains in its conjunct form as a medial, whilst the usual prefix ta dis- appears. The rd, too, would disappear in a compound of roots if not needed to differentials and mark the special sense of such roots, or one of them, or if the root commenced with other than a labial consonant, its prefix being servile. f It has been queried whether the polysynthetic words of the American tongues quoad their principle of construction, as to which there is so much doubt, be not compiled from radical particles only. Judging by the method of forming ordinary compounds in Gydrdng and its allies, I should say. Yes, certainly they are to a great extent, though not exclusively, for the cumulative principle ill brooks control, revelling in reiterations and transpositions of root alike, and of 58 MONGOLIAN AFFINITIES OF THE CA UC ASIANS. Latliam perhaps, "whose quick eye "W'ill not fail to catch it, "will he able to tell whether the same peculiarity distinguishes the Circassian tongue. For myself I doubt not it will so prove, because the rule for nouns is but another phase of the rule for pronouns. In the meantime, the striking grammatical analogies''" I have pointed out stand in no need of further elucidation, and these analogies, together with the explanation from the Tibetan of the widely-used but heretofore unexplained Ea suffix, constitute in themselves, and as sustaining all those numerous identities of the primitive vocables which have been adverted to, some- thing very like a demonstration of the IMongolidan affinities of the Caucasians, though I would be understood to speak with a due sense of the disqualifications inseparable from my secluded position and want of access to books. I subjoin Latham’s sample of the construction of the Circassian language, with its equivalent in Gyaruug. “ I give to my father the horse.” Circassian . — Sara s-ab ace istap I my father horse give G)jdi~ung . — Xgaret nga-pe boroh dovong I my father horse give “ In the house are two doors ” is, in like manner, “ house two doors ” in the Circassian and Gyaning tongues. its servile adjuncts, tliougli clearly, as to simple compounds, constantly observing the rules of contraction and of substitution noted in the text. In the Gydrhng sentence, Tizdcazd paphn, he summoned them to feast, the word for to feast shows the root repeated twice, and each time with a separate servile, though we have here only one verb, not two verbs ; and in kalarlar, round, still no com- pound, we have the root repeated, but yet with a servile, though only one, being the prefix ka. In such cases that servile is usually omitted, as kaka, sky; pyepye, bird ; chacha, hot. * Those analogies might now be largely extended did health and time permit. Take the followiug instances ; — Tam-bus, father ; imbas, my father, in Uraon. Sampa, father ; ampa, my father, in Kirdnti, Ku-kos, child ; ing-kos, my child, U'raon. Tam, sam, ku, SHrviles, replaced by the pronouns ; compare Malayan sam-piyan, san-diri, kan-diri, ka-manus, k’anak, &c. + Ra suffix subjoined for illustration though not in use with this person. See prior note. MONGOLIAN AFFINITIES OF THE CAUCASIANS. 59 The plural sign, kwe in Circassian, mye or kamyd * in Gyariing, is in both languages alike “ the beginning and end of declension.” The following list of Circassian and Gyariing pronouns may facilitate the reader’s apprehension. I Thou He Circassian pronouns — Sa-ra Wa-ra U-i Gyanlng jironouns — Ng4 Nan-rd Wa-tu The same conjoined with a Circassian, t — S-ab W-ab Tab GyArung. — Nga-pe Na-pii Wa-p6 noun. I My, Tliy, II is, father. COMrAPJSON AND ANALYSIS OF CAUCASIAN AND MONGOLIAN WOEDS. Man. — K’mari in Georgian Mare in Suanic Maro in Lepcha Muru in Siinwdr M’rii in Mnl Mano in Newdri Mansi in B6d6 MUa-mdre nomen gentis Man. — Ld-g in Osetic Ld-ng in Burmese Len-ja in Magar Lu in Burmese Ld-k in Tai Ld-g-nya in Khas K’lti-n in K’ldn Boy. — Lap-pu in Osetic Lok-pa in Tai ( K, prefix, servile, as in Indo-Chinese k’lun, a 1 man, and Malayan k’anak, a child ; a sort ( of article and equivalent to the suffixed k. f Md, with the customary change of vowel (see I on to mo-i and mi), is the root throughout, I and it takes the common ra suffix, likewise -J with the usual vocalic diversity. But observe that in m’ru this servile absorbs I the vowel of the root, as in m’se, Georgian f for md-se, voce fire. ) This is the first of numerous samples in which ( the name of the species is that of a tribe. Means husband. ) Means male, especially human, Idn, the root, ( having the sense of mankind, or both sexe.s. i K suffix, servile articular like the g in le-g \ and Id-g. Nya, a synonym. i Compare k’amari and k’anak. Lii root. No- ( men gentis necnon hominis. i Pu suffix, a diminutive. Ld, Id, Id, the root, I as in man. Pa, diminutive = pu. Ld, root. * Ka is the prefix, appended as usual. I have already remarked that the Gydnin tongue is distinguished among its allies by its extensive employment of this class of particles. The Burmese tongue makes less use of them, and in its mya, much, many, we have the Gya- rting plural sign, niyi, or ka-myd. The Suanic mard and Geortti.m k’mari for man, afford precise Caucasian equivalent quoad the servile ka, showing it to be dropped or retained according to circumstances or to dialects in Caucasus, t Ab, father — father, less the prefix. 6o MONGOLIAN AFFINITIES OF THE CAUCASIANS. Luk-wan in Tai S Lii root with articular, k suffixed. Wan, doubtful. Compare wak, in Armenian, sd- wak, a child ; sa in Burmese having the root only. Young person of either sex Bitshi in Geor- gian Bi-shi in Lazic Bo-shi in Mingrelian Bo-zo in Lazic Bisha, Bishi in Bodd Bu-cha in Takpa Pu-sa in Maplu Po-ze in Pasuko Shi, euphonised sha = sa and cha and za, in the following words ; or it may be bi, bo, hu, junior, and shi, human. Means daughter. Zo = za = sa and cha, the common diminu- tive, euphonised to vowel of root. Male and female respectively. The diminutive cha is seen in the conjunct form in Osetic sa-ch voce earth. Zo servile, as in Lazic bo-zo. Z = S, alike in Caucasian and Jfongolian series. Man . — Moi in Osetic Moi in Kong Pu-moi in Pie Moi-tai lilo-n Mo-cha in Kewdri Mdi-bu in Takpa Mii-ni in Siinwdr Man. — Tsd-s in Georgian Tsd in Chinese ! r servile. Md, = md supra et mi infra, is the root. Means sister. { Means woman, pii being a feminine sign. Moi therefore is man. I Nomina gentium. See note at end of supple- ( ment. ( Means child, cha being a diminutive, = sa, I supra. i Mu is the root. For change of vowel therein, I see note, voce dog. i Ru, the ra suffix, with its vowel harmonised ( to that of root. i Means boy, owing to the sa suffix. Tsd there- \ fore is man. Man. — Zo-zi in Osetic Ka-zi in Georgian Y-zi in Horpa D-zi in Chinese Woman. — U's in Osetic U's-res in Gydning ! Zi, = si and shi, is the root. The latter ap- pears in bit-shi, tsd, &c. It is a very widely- spread man root, signifying adults as well as juniors. S The root is d, meaning man. The conjunct a is the feminising suffix. U'-er-ti, 6-shi, &c. have the same root. Res is the ra suffix, with the sa particle repeated. Woman. — Swa-n in Osetic Swa-s-ni in Kbas Dd in Georgian Dd in Sdutal Dd in Kuswdr Da-s, Dd in l/raon .d-da in Bddd Dd-ni in Dhimdli D'si in Chinese Brother ) or > Sister ) Means girl. Mean boy and girl. Means virgin. Ego — Homo . — Mi in Suanic \ Mean I, the pronoun. No fact is better Md iu Georgian f established in Glossology than the frequent Md in Mingrelian i equivalency of the roots for man and I, and Md in Osetic ) it is of much importance to note them here. MONGOLIAN AFFINITIES OF THE CAUCASIANS. 6i Mi in Tibetan Mi in Lhopa Mi in Miirnii Mi in Moitai Mhi in Gtining Bhar-mi in Magar Bar-ma, nomen gentis Tir-mi in Gyartng Mi-va in Gdro Yap-mi in Limbu Mib-pa in Kuki Ka-mi in Kilmi Ku-mi in Kumi Pu-mi in Pld Mi-jang in Newdr Mi-sa in Newilr Mi-ya in Newdr Miyau-lau in Roinga Mim-ma in Burmese Sa-mi in Burmese S'm^ in Horpa Se-md in Kolun Md-jing in Lau I . — Sa in Circassian Sa-ya in Malay Sa in Tagalan Sa in Malay S\i-m in Vayu I . — Mil in Osetic Mil in Mingrelian Mil in Lazic Mi in Snanic Ma in Tinnio Mo-n in Sap Mi in Mongol Mi in Mantchu I. — Jd-s in Armenian Ji in Newdri vJa in Horpa I This and all the following mean man. It is I remarkable bow far the pronominal sense of mi prevails in Caucasus, and the nominal I in the regions east of it. But they run into each other, and the root very generally is further employed to designate tribes from Caucasus to Indo-China, as mi-shi-mi, from the mi and shi roots, md-r-mi, from the mu and mi roots, &c., &c. J ! Tribe names derived from name of species — a very extensively diffused principle. The etj-mology of Burma or the Burmese is thus recovered. See Supplement. S Mi, the species ; jang and sa sexual adjuncts. Jang = mas. Sa = fern. ! Means girl. Ya, differential servile with refer- ence to the various senses of the mi root.* i Means woman. Root mi. Ma is a feminine / and maternal sign. Means girl. See note in sequel. { S'md means girl, like sa-mi and sd-me. The < sa particle in various phases, added to mi ( root. Ya, a differential servile. { An article. See Cr.awford’s work for proof < how these so-called articles blend with the ( pronouns. { Means one. Smidt wittily remarks on the perpetual coincidence of the first personal pronoun, and the first numeral, which is also constantly equivalent to the indefinite article, where wanting. In composition only, as ha-sum, give to me. ( Compare moi, man, in Osetic and mdu the \ Indo-Chinese tribe name. ! Deduced from the derivatives mi-ni and mi- ning-ge. So mi in the sense of man is deduced from mim-ma and sa-mi in Bur- mese. } See remarks, voce dog, on the vocalic changes f to which all roots nearly are subject. ■* The basis of nil these tongues from Cauoa'^us to Oceanica is a small number of mono- syllabic roots bearing necessarily many senses. Hence to distinguish between those several .senses is the chief function of the servile adjuncts of the roots, lii this language, for example, the root wa means come, tooth, lice, rain, throw, and he. 62 MONGOLIAN AFFINITIES OF THE CAUCASIANS. I, — A'-z, A-s in Osetic An-ka in Kirilnti A-ku, A' in Malay A' in Manyak Kii in Dhimdli A' is the root throughout, za, sa, ka, ku, being serviles, though some of them, as ka, fre- quently take the place of the root. Thou. — She-n in Georgian Si in Mingrelian Si in Suanic T'shi in Mongol Se-n in Turki Sa-n in Onigur Sa in Finnic Child in Newdri did in Sokpa Su in Tai 1 !- Si, shi ; sd, shd ; sd, slid, sA, are the several phases of the root, or cycle of customary variation, just as in the nouns. See re- marks on “ kha” voce dog. J The plural, Ye. He . — Nd in Armenian Nd in Chinese Nd in Malay Ni in Khyeng No in Anam Ha-nd-i H’nd-i I in Kami Ha prefix and t suffix, servile. ITe.—TJ'-i in Circassian U'-i in Sdntdl O'd in Magyar U' in Circassian U' in Gdrd O' in Onigur and TArki Wo in Newdri and Gondi Wa in GArAug, in Dhimdli, and in Tunglhu lie . — r in Circassian I' in Mantohu I' in Burmese I' in Dhekra I' in Malay and Tagala He . — Ta in Circassian Ta in Sdntdl Ta in Gondi Td in Mongol Td in Mantchu Td-An in Dhekra Td in Esthonian Thd in Gyami Thi in GArAng Thd in Murmi ThA in Burmese Td-i in Dhekra Deduced from i-ti, i-tu, &c. ' In composition as conjunct prefix or suffix or as disjunct, e.y., t-ap, his father; apa-t, his father ; handa-ta-r, he went. See Rosen, Phillips, and Driberg. With regard to the transposed pronoun, see note voce fire. The law of transposition is so important that I add the following samples to show that even where the actual practice has ceased, analogy supports its quondam use. Suffix Possessive. Baba-ku, Malay. Aba-im, Kuswar. Apa-ing, Sdntdl. . = my father. In i-thu, ithi. Means she. Prefix Possessive. Ang-upa, Vdyu. Im-bas, U'raon. Nga-pe, GydrAng. lie. — I'-s in Georgian I-ti-na in Mingrelian I-td in Dhekra See Remarks in Supplement. MONGOLIAN AFFINITIES OF THE CAUCASIANS. 63 jinMagar I-ti in Malay Sd-i-ti in Koch Sd i in Dhekra I'-ta in Khas Si-ni, si-tvi, in Malay Si-ya in Malay Sky. — Khd-k in Absnd Kd in Lazic Kd-ka in Akush Khd khan in Kdmi Khd-rang in Bdcld Nam-khd in Tibetan Nam-khan in Magar I Mean this, this very one, this one here. Iste qui. Means here. Means here and there.* Hie qui. ( Khd is the aspirate, and ka-ka the reduplicate < state of the root. K final is an articular ( servile, as in talak, bik, &c., &e. S For nam compare nam-sin. It is frequently omitted. Khd is the place, metaphorically sky or heaven. Rang is an emphatic servile, for which see supplement to this paper. Sky. — Ta-la-k in Tshettshentsh Ta-li in Georgian A-li in Georgian Ta-la-k in Ostiac Ta-li-ang in Lepcha Ta-li in Gydrfing Le in Burmese A-li in Kumi KTi in Kbyeng Ga-li in Kdmi La-k in Sdk Li in Rukheng \ La, root. Ta, the common prefix, and k, the } articular suffix. ! Doubtful, and can mean sky only metaphori- cally. Means sun. ! Ta, as before. Ang, a form of the na suffix. Compare pett-ang. Means air. S The nude root whereof the phases are Id, Id, ! Valuable illustrations of the system of serviles, the root being palpable. Its general sense is air, sky, by metaphor. For k’ prefix of kli, see k’mari. Fire . — Mizh in Suanic = Mi-zhi Msd in Georgian — Md-sd Mzd in Absnd = Ma-za Zhi in Kudnchua Zi in Dido Za in Chunsag ( Zhi, s6, zd, are three conjunct suffix forms of the sd particle which is seen in manyak in its separate unaltered form as a prefix. Here it is altered, ist, by dropping its own har- monised vowel (see zhi, infra), 2 d, by ab- sorbing the vowel of the root. Din, den, for di-ni, day, and smd for sdmd, girl, are parallel instances of change as of transposi- tion are mi-sa and sa-mi,+ voce man. See note below ; and that on the ma particle, I- voce “ day.” { These are introduced to show the servile particle of mizh, mza, and to show it super- seding the root, as in fa for ma, here, and in ba for sa, voce cow, and in di for bi, voce skin. * It is because the third personal is so perpetually identical with the demonstratives, of which the direct and exclusive principle is contrast, that the same elements come to express the contrasts of place and time and manner (hero there ; now then : as, so). He who would trace the remoter affinities of race, must treat languages in this thoughtlul manner. t Note. The mi-sa, sa-mi, sample of transposition of the sa particle, cited above to match the me-se, Georgian, sa-me, Manyak, sample here compared with it, is from my Tibcto-Himd- layan vocabularies; thus in full, mi-sa, woman, in Newari, sa-mi, girl, in Burmese and Khyeng, and erne, in Horpa, root mi, me, mankind, and sa, a feminine and diminutive sign. In short, the sa particle, like all others, may be jirefix or suffix, and separate or blended. Hence mse. Georgian = sa-me, Manyak. With regard to the suffixed zhi, zi, or za, clearly = sa, it would seem as if mi were the sun or gre.at fire, of which mi-sa is the diminutive, just as sa is the earth, or terrestrial globe, and sa-ch (cha= sa) earth, soil. See “Earth" in sequel. 64 MONGOLIAN AFFINITIES OF THE CAUCASIANS. Md-fa in Circassian JId in Tibetan Md in Limbu Md in Serpa Md in Murmi Md in Kolim Mhd in Magor Mi in Lepcba Mi in Kirdnti Mi in Newdri Mi in Gurung Mi in Sunwdr Mi in Burmese Mi in Khyeng Mi in Moitai Mi-ung in Maplu Ma-i in Kdmi Mha-i in Kumi Fa-i in Khamti Fd-i in Tai Fo in Kong Md-n in Dbimdii Meli in Takpa Meh in Thochu Sa-raeh in Manyak Sa-mi in Sdk E'-md in AV»or 'i’i-mi in Gydning U-ma in H*' rpa Um-ma in Aka J Fa servile. We shall presently see it usurp- ( ing the place of the root. 'I These abundant instances from the Mongolian series plainly prove the root in the Cau- casian series, and they show that root pre- cisely such in every phase (mi, md, md) as it is seen in the Caucasian series. AVe thus securely proceed to the serviles or rather servile, and this the Manyak word, below, gives in the primitive state, unaltered by blending or by euphony. AVe are therefore certified as to its various altered forms (zhi, zd, sd) in the Caucasian series. Observe also in the Mongolian series that all the tongues which use the mi root in the sense of man have md instead of mi for fire. ("Turn to ma-fd, supra, and note again how the servile supersedes the root, as in zi for mi, fire. So also Tibetan ba for Circassian bsa, voce cow, and Anamese di for Dido bi, voce skin ; the last so decisively proved by the Murmi form of the word wherein root and servile both appear, di-bi. Thus the Cir- ■{ cassian word ma-fa supplements and ex- pounds the Tai and Khdmti word fa-i; and this the Manyak word sameh supplements and expounds the Georgian word msd and its Suanic and Absnd equivalents. The languages must have a deep and radical affinity which can thus be made mutually L to illustrate each other. I Return to the simple root again. ( Here we have the sa particle above cited in its pure unaltered state. The Georgian mse ( shows it transposed and blended. Tiini recurs to the mi form of the root, with the inseparable Gydrting prefix (ta) harmon- ised in its vowel, d servile, like 6, in 6-m6. These last words of the fire series afford excellent illustration of the wide scope of ^ servile adjuncts. Day. — Di-ni in Tshettshentsh D 6n, Dd-n in Ingush Ki-ni in Kasi Kamak Ki-ua in Makash J Di is the da prefix harmonised in its vowel to ( that of the root ni. { Den shows the above prefix conjunct, and the ni root altered to nd, become du per metasta- sin. Or, if we read dd-n, then the particle takes the harmonised vowel of the root which is absorbed, as in din for di-ni, below. ( Has the ka prefix harmonised in its vowel to \ ni root. { Means to-day. Ki, as above. Ha, a new j phases of the root, as ma for mi, fire. MONGOLIAN AFFINITIES OF THE CAUCASIANS. 65 Di-ni in Magar Di-ni in Gurdng Di-ni in B6d6 D-in in Khas Ka-ni in Kumi Ka-nhi in Kliyeng Ko-ni in Koluu gNa in H<5rpa Si-ni in Singpho Nam-sin in Sunvvdr Sak-ni in Lepcha Nhi in Newdri Nd in Burmese Ni in Mru Ni-n in Koreng taNi-n in Mru Nd in Sdnwdr Na-m in Limbu Na-m in Kirdnti Ni-mo in Serpa Ni-bba in Newdri Nhi-ga in Newdri Ka-nhd in Newdri Ba-ha-ni in Newdri Ha-ni in Newdri Tha-ni in Newdri Md-nd-k in Burmese Ma-ni in Kdmi Nyima in Tibetan Nyi-m in Lepcha Na-ni in DLimdli i Tally exactly, root and servile, with the < Tshettshentsh word, and similarly analysed ( of course. Tallies with the den instance. Means day and sun. ( Means sun. The roots for sun and day run < into each other to a great extent. Nhi, vel ( ni, vel nd, is the root. t Si servile is the sa particle with harmonised { vowel. ! Compare nam-kha, voce sky. Sin for si-ni is like din for dini, ni being the root. I I Sak, like nam, is a servile or particule mort ; * N not, however, so utterly dead that its radical ( sense of “sun” cannot be recovered. ( Shows the root again, free of all adjuncts, but < varied by an aspirate, as khd for kd, voce ( sky ; mhd for md, voce fire. 1 Means “sun.” Day, sun, and sky run into \ each other perpetually. ( Compare nam-kha, voce sky ; mean sun or < parent (ma) of day (na) ; or, “ m ” being ser- ( vile, na = ni, will be sun vel day. Means day and sun. Means sun. 'Mean respectively to-morrow and yesterday, evening, then, and to-day, and are most valuable exponents of the function of the particles as well as of the flexibility of the roots nhi, nhd, ni, being as surely phases of one root as mhe, md, ma, mi are, voce L fire. { Means morning, from the roots ma, mother, and nd, day, with the articular k suffix, as in kha-k, sky. The Chinese in like manner name the day the sun’s son. Or the prefix ma may be a servile as in the next word. { The meaning here being simply day, from the root ni, ma must be a servile, no more affecting the sense of the root than the ka, da, and sa prefixes in Dini, Kani, and Sini. f Here the ma particle becomes a suffix, and, as < before, without touching the sense of the ( root. f Ma suffix conjunct = ma in the preceding < word. Seems conjunct in tsari chim, voce ( water. Means then. Na, servile. * Observe therefore that what is said of the universal vitality of all the particles of these tongues, voce dog, is only true in the comprehensive view of the languages, VOL. II. E 66 MONGOLIAN AFFINITIES OF THE CAUCASIANS. Nyi-ti-ma * in Dbimdli Snyi in Gydrting Pish-nyi in Gydrdng Sos-nyi in Gyarung Night. — Ak-sd in Osetic K’shd-r in Armenian Sdri in Mingrelian T’shd-n in Tibetan Chd-n, spoken Tibetan Sdn-lrk |i^Lepcha Sdn-li in Takpa Chd-i in Chinese Cba-i in Buret S Ti and ma, both servile differential. For ma suffix, see chi-m, voce water, si-ma, voce tree, &c. For ti suffix, see purti, voce bird, bi-t, voce cow, &c. Sa prefix, conjunct. I Mean respectively to-day and yesterday. S Ak servile as in akra, voce horn. Sa root = sha, Tibetan. ! K prefix ak, and the final r, the common ra particle, conjunct. ! Ri suffix, servile = r in ksher. See Supple- ment. Initial t’ and final n servHes. Final n servile. I Kii prefix and dik suffix serviles. Sd root. i Li servile, as in chd-li, Georgian, voce hand, and kud-li, Surawdr, voce hand. I Tally exactly with the spoken Tibetan. Summer. — Ach-kd in Mizjeji Cha-ko in Tushi in Tibetan Cha-r-ka Chi-d-ka Chi-a in Chinese Chd-ko in Dhimdli Sa-ko in Dhimdli Chd-n-gu-la in Newari Sun . — bShd in Mingrelian Shd in Tushi. Ta-chdn in Tushi Sha-n in Bddd Sa-n in Gdrd Sd-ne in Dhimdli Sd-cha-k in Lepcha Ach = cha, per metastasin. Kd servile. ! K6 servile, like kd and kd. For vocalic changes, see “dog.” S Mean spring. Medial r and d serviles, for which see the Supplement of this paper. Final a servile. 1 Cha is hot and sd summer.t Yet the adjective I and substantive are really but one word. ! “ The hot months.” Ld means month, and gu is a servile = ka, ko, supra. ! Means day. Final n, servile as in the follow- ing words. \ N servile, as in the prior word and subsequent I one. Means sunshine. ! Sd-chd, sing, song, repetition of the root. K, articular servile. 1 Compare tagalan Ta-vo and Bugis tau, mean- Moon . — Twaiin Suanic=Td-va-i < ing man, for proof of the wide prevalence of ( disjunct and conjunct styles. Final i, servile. * Jlani compare with nyima and nyitima afiford further illustrations of the rule of trans- position already illustrated from the mse and sameh instance, voce fire, as well as from the misa and sami sample, voce man. In fact, no law of these languages can be more certain than this of transposition, passing frequently into substitution (of servile for root), of wliich also we have seen various instances. The rationale is that every element is, in general, equally available in a primary or secondary sense, though there will of course be exceptions if the view be narrowed to one or two of the tongues, and more especially if these be regarded merely in statu quo.' t Compare Malay eha-bi and Endo sa, meaning pepper. Sense, sound, and system seem to tally with ours, the added or omitted servile and the change of root I ! MONGOLIAN AFFINITIES OF THE CAUCASIANS. 67 Tw4 in Georgian mTwd-rd in Georgian Tw6 in Newdri Dd-va in Tibetan Dd-u in Lhdpa Td in Tai Td-li in Dhimdii Earth. — T’shd-do in Dido T’shi in Georgian T’shi-git in Osetic T’shi-git in Dugoian T’sd in Georgian. Sd-ch in Osetic Se-cb in Osetic Mit-za in Georgian Mi-sd in Andi Mu-sd in Akush Di-chd in Mingrelian M’sbd in Horpa Ha-sd in Sontdl Seh in Gydrung Sd in Tibetan Sd in Lbdpa Sdh in Takpa Cbd in Newdri Kat-cbd in Karen Balt. — T’sbd-a in Kubitsh Za-cb in Osetic Se-cb in Wogal D’zd in Akusb, Zi-o in Dido Dd-sd in Dbimdli Dd in Kolunj Rd servile, the common ra suffix. Epithet from colour, white. Li servile, as in cbeli, sen-li, supra. ! Initial t’, servile, .and do suffix. For the suffix see remarks in Supplement. \ Initial t’, the common ta particle ; git, doubt- / ful. i Cb suffix, a phase of the diminutive particle cba, sa. Sa, the root, is the earth. Sach, earth, soil, a little of. Mi-t, double servile, modified like git. /Mi and mu are indubitable serviles, sd being I the root. They serve excellently to show < how these particles attach to the roots. I The mi prefix is very common in the Magar \ tongue, as mi-rong, misya-ros, &c. i Chd, the root, tallies exactly with Newdri. / Di is the common da prefix, i K’ is the ka particle conjunct, as in k’mari, ( k’li, k’anak, &c. &c. Ha servile, or a synonymous root. ! These numerous samples from the Mongolian tongues plainly demonstrate the root of the Caucasian words as before remarked in refer- ence to the fire series. ( Compare kat-shfi, voce hand, and observe that the form is identical in the Caucasian and Mongolian sample (andi and pld). We have here the very same compound servile (ka-ta) similarly employed (prefix). Such perfect coincidence of all the elements of speech could result only from identity of origin and family unity. (The word is radically the same as that for earth, as proved by the Osetic and Wogul terms. The prefix also is the same, and - hence a suffix is required to difference the senses. It is thus we learn the real function I of the serviles. See note, voce ego = I honao. I See Earth. ( Comparing this word with the Akush d’sd, we < see the equivalency of the conjunct and ( disjunct serviles. 68 MONGOLIAN AFFINITIES OF THE CAUCASIANS. T’si in Khyeng T’s4 in Takpa T’sha in Tibetan Sh^ in Burmese Wi-sbd in Mrii Chd-cbd in Gydning Chhd in Lb6pa Chhd in Serpa Chi in Newdri Chhd in Manyak Chhd in Horpa Chhe in Gydrdng S6-ng in Sdk Syd-ng in B6d6 Dab-sti-n in Mantchu Da-ba-sd in Mongol iWi=; water? sha = salt. The salt procured < from water. Else wi = hi, the common ( servile. Root repeated as in kd-kd, voce sky. i This aspirate ch is equivalent to the Tibetan \ and Kabitsh tsh. ( Final nasal servile. Intercalate y, very com- < mon as ni, nyi, voce day. Khi, khyi, voce ( dog. i We cannot doubt that sd is here the root. ) Da-ba, therefore, are servile prefixes, though \ the existence of such has been denied to ( these tongues. River. — O'r in Osetic Hor in Avar Or-(kyurd) in Akush Wd-ran in Osetic 8g-Wd in Georgian O' in Sdk O'ng in Lepcha U'-(sd) in Sokpa Wd in Newdri Ha-wd ) ■ , . K’wd A'd in Mrd Wd-i in Dhimdli Hra in Horpa Hydng in Serpa O'ng-kyong W6-h6ng in Limbu Khydng in Lau Khwdng in Gdrdng Khyong in Burmese O', d, the root, r servile. The same aspirated. For Kydre see on to “rain.” i Means rain. Wd root ; ran servile. See \ Supplement. Means a lake ; wd the root, i O' is the nude root. O'ng the same, with the \ common nasal addition. J U', another phase of the water root. For sd { see on. Same as d ; means water. Prefixes h and k servile. Unites the 6 and d roots. Means rain. S Hra = ho-ra, ho-r, with the vowel of the root absorbed as in msd, voce fire, &c. Compound of yd and ong, sjmonymous roots. Compound of kyd (see rain) and dng, supra. ! Obvious compounds from the precedent ele- ments. River, rain, water, so run into each other that no justice could be done to the real synonyms by technical separation. Rain. — Kd-a, Kwd in Abassian (Or) Kyd-re in Akush Kd-i, Kwi, in Mdrmi Kyd in Gdrdng Li-kd in Sdnwdr Khu-(si) in Newdri ( For t6 suffix see the Supplement. “ Or ” dis- < posed of above. Kyu is ku with the inter- ( calate y as in nyi for ni and khyi for khi. ( Li may be a root = sky, and then liku is sky \ water, or it may be the li servile, i Compound of two synonyms Abassian kd and I Kubitsh si ! For si, apart, see on. MONGOLIAN AFFINITIES OF THE CAUCASIANS. 69 Lake. — D’zo in Armenian T’so in Tibetan Water. — Du in Ingush Dd-d in Armenian Du-n, d6-n, in Osetic Du-i in Singpho Dd-i in Bddd Do-i in Gdrd Dd in Sdntdl Dd in Moasi Di in Magar Tu-i in Khyeng Tu-i in Kdmi Td-i in Mrd Chi in Mizjiji Shi-n in Kubitsh Slii-n in Kasikumak Shd-n in Akush pShi in Tsherkesik dZdk in Absnd T’cha-ri in Mingrelian Chi-m in Tshari Sd in Altekesek Chi in Gdrd Chi in Dhimdli Ti-chi in Gydrdng T’chd in Mopla mChi-n in Jili Cho-du-k in Mongol T-si-ng in Kbyi Wd-si in Ugorian ntSin in Singpho Chd-wa in Kirdnti Chd in Thochu T’zd-n in Kubitsh Shd-r in Armenian T-sd-en in Samoiede Chhd in Tibetan Chhd in Lbdpa Chhd-a in Limbu Chhd-wd in Kirdnti Shd-i in Gyami Sd in Anam Sd in Tdrki ^ V oce ‘ ‘ dog. ” We have summarised the changes to which the elements of words are liable when taken singly or when a single element constitutes a word : we may here take oc- casion of the great water root (or of avail- able space, rather) to summarise the changes those elements are liable to in conjunction, or when more than one goes to the com- position of a word. They are 1st. By reiteration, as kd-kd, voce sky, chd- y chd, voce salt. 2d. By cumulation, as na-ma, si-ni, voce day, i-sd-ua, voce he. 3d. By contraction, as nt-sin, voce water; bb- sd, voce tongue ; msd, voce fire. 4th. By permutation (euphonic of vowels and consonants), as kach-churfor katas kyur, voce sour. 5th. By transposition, as mim-ma and mi-sa, versus sa-mi, and s-md, voce man. 6th. By substitution, as fa for ma, voce fire, ' di for bi, voce skin. } Final n servile. This is easily said by way of disposing of an inconvenient particle. But I appeal to the uniform tenor of the whole of my paper for my proofs. ! M conjunct, ma suffix, as in Lepcha, nyim, voce day, and in Mrd sham, voce hair. ( Often cited with the dd suffix as is dzd in < Absne. See remarks on tshe-do, voce ( earth. S Has the inseparable ta prefix harmonised in its vowel. The same prefix conjunct. Initial m and final n serviles. ( Means “ spring.” Observe that the dd suffix < is frequently attached to Absnd zd and ( Altekesek sd, though omitted here. Compound of two synonymous roots. ( N-t prefix, and n suffix, serviles, si being the ( root. Zd= sd = chd, the root. R final, the common ra suffix, conjunct. ! Cited to illustrate tzd just remarked on ; final en is metastatic ne, a servile. ! Aspirate chh = ts and tsh by numerous ex- amples, though the Tibetan alphabet has both letters. /O MONGOLIAN AFFINITIES OF THE CAUCASIANS. U-sli in Sokpa Ch6-rd in Kalmak Ch6-dti-k in Mongol Cow . — bSa in Circassian Sd in Newdri Sd-lo in Sokpa Sha-r in Mongol Sha-r in Khyeng Bd-sbd in Bd in Tibetan Bi in Sfinwdr Bi-t in Limbu Bi-k in Lepcba K-cbfi-g in Osetic Md-sbd in Bddd Md-chti, spoken Tibetan Loy.—Cb6-i in Avar Cbd-i in Audi Cbd-i in Cbansag Cbii-d in Akusb K-chu-d in Osetic Sbu-n in Armenian Cb6-i in B( 5 d <5 Cbd in Mapar Chi-ta in Moasi Sd-ta in Sdntdl Khd in Circassian K6-a in Kubitsh Gwai in Dido Gwi in Dugoric Khi-d in Dhimdli Kbi-d in Limbu Khl in Lbdpa Khi in Gdrung Kliwd in Thochu Kbwd in Burmese Kbyi in Tibetan Geu, gyfi, in Chinese Na gyti in Gdning Kd in Hdrpa Kd-i in Gdr6 Kou in Gyami Kd in Sdk i lf and su, are synonyms. If is, in fact, the basis of a whole series of words for water. ( Mean rain. The ra suffix = du, to which is < added the articular k. Dd, however, may ( here be a root and synonym. S Turn to the Tibetan word, and mark how root and servile are commutable. ! Lo, servile. La, li, Id, its phases ; r, the common ra suffix. S Note how the surplus silent b of Circassian here becomes a regular prefix. ( Takes up the servile b of the Circassian and < makes root of it as already noted in various ( other instances. K and g serviles ; chu, root. Md, feminine sign. Md, as before. 1 Initial k and final d, serviles. The latter is < the conjunct form of the da, du, do, suffix ( remarked on in the Supplement. 1 Ta, the common servile, which, like all others, j may be prefixed or suffixed. We may take occasion of the cycle of changes seen in this word to make a general remark : that homogeneousness and vitality belong to all the elements (roots and serviles) of words in these tongues is a very important truth, as well for the illustration of general philology as for the explanation of the ex- traordinary extent to which transposition and substitution among those radical and servile elements are carried. It is likewise true that these elements and the words resulting from them are less flexible and I mutable than among the Arian tongues. But it is by no means generally or strictly true that “all the words are invariable.” On the contrary, the words, whether con- sisting of monosyllable roots, or of such roots and their servile adjuncts, are con- stantly subjected to changes, which are clearly systematic, which belong alike to the radical and servile particles, and which may be summarised as follows : — 1st, by aspiration, as khi for ki. 2d, by change of vowel, ko, ku, ke, ka for ki. 3d, by intercalation of y, khyi for khi. 4th, by metastasis, ain for uai, voce ear, &c. MONGOLIAN AFFINITIES OF THE CAUCASIANS. 71 Ta-kwi in Mrii Ktit-chik in Kurd Khl-cha in Newiri Ko-chu in Kiranti Kfi-chting in Sdnwdr Dog . — Htid in Chunsay Hwd in Tunglhu LT-i in Kumi U-yo in spoken Tibetan Tret. — K-Cha-d in Osetic Chd in Mizjeji dSd-g in Circassian dSd in Lazic Se-k in Suanic Shi in Gydrdng Si-ng in Moasi Shi-ng in B<5d6 Shi-ng in Dhimdii Shi-ng in Lhdpa Si-ng in Magar Si-n-du in Gtirting Sd-ng in Anam Si-ma in Newdri T-sing in Mrd Kwi root = Ku-i. These are compounds of the two preceding words — a sort of term very common in all countries wherein many tongues prevail. \ The root varies from chd to chd, and sa to sd, to si, to shi. The suffixes have occurred ' too often to call for further remark in this place. / S Here is a Mongolian sample of the dd suffix, so frequent in the Caucasian series. Ka-n- du, ka-do-t, &c., voce foot, are further samples. ( Sd, si, the root, ut supra. Of ma suffix we < have had samples in nhi-ti-ma, voce day, ( chi-m, voce water, cha-m, voce hair, &c. Forest. — Dish-chd in Mingrelian Din-chd in Dhimdli J The Osetic chd = tree is clearly the basis of / these two words for forest. Bird. — Pd-r-ti in Andi Pdt-tang in Avar Pyd in Gydrdng Pyd in Takpa. Byd in Tibetan Bd in Limbu Pho in Lepcha Fish , — bZhdh in Circassian gZhdh in Thochu i Compare ta-r-ti, a cap, ti-r-mi, a man, nyi-ti, < day, of the Mongolian series, and the pd ( root will be easily apprehended. { Tang, servile, is the ta particle with the common nasal addition. How common it is may be seen by consulting my Himdlayan vocabulary. Pe is the root, borrowing the t from the servile suffix. ( Pyd = pd. The frequent intercalation of < y has been already noted in ni, uyi, khi, { khyi, &c. i Abstract the intercalate y, and the root re- \ produces that of the Andi pd-r-ti. = Audi pd. i Turn to the word for flesh, and you will see \ the differential function of the prefix b. J Initial g = b supra. These are merely the con- junct forms of the ba and ga prefixes. The conjunct and disjunct system of prefixed, as of infixed and postfixed serviles, prevail alike in the Caucasian and Mongolian tongues, as evidenced by this paper throughout ; and the prevalence of both systems is another striking feature of that perfect analogy V which pervades these tongues. Di servile. Di-shd in Magar 72 MONGOLIAN AFFINITIES OF THE CAUCASIANS. Flesh. — Zh4h in Abassian J^-ebu in Suanio Li-chd in Finnic Shd in Tibetan Shd in Takpa Ta-shd in Gydrting A-sd in Burmese Egg. — Dd-khi in Akusb. To-kbd in Gdrd Tou-chi in Gdr6 Tou-d6i in Bddd Td-i in Khyeng Dd-i in Mru Du in Kdmi Tu-i in Dhitndli U in Burmese Ear . — Nd in Armenian, Ain in Tshari Ain in Avar Nd in Burmese rNd in Tibetan Nd in Singpho Nd-vo in Lh6pa Nd-ko in Limbu Nd-ku in Karien Nd-pd in Miirmi Nd-bd in Gdning A-ga-nd in Kdmi Kd-nd in Sdk A-kha-nd in Tankul Nd-i-pong in Newdri Nhd-tong in Dhimdli Li servile. Chd root. ) The prefix ta is as common in Gydrdng as is ^ d in Lepcha and Burmese. Du, Water? Khi, fowl. To, blood, and kha, fowl. Tou, fowl, and chi, blood. Tou, fowl, and ddi, water. , U, Burmese, meaning originally “water,” is ( the root of all the other words, for which see “Water.” The metaphorical and now only current sense of the word is even more ' singular than that of the preceding terms, J amongst which the first is determined ana- I logically. The literal sense of d is lost in Burmese, like mi for man. I Ain = nd-i, per metastasin. ' Nd, the root, speaks for itself. Vo = bo = be = pe are phases of one and the same servile which = ko, ku. De Cores calls f these “articles,” and, like all the serviles, they often perform the articular function of specification or emphasisation. { A rich fund of illustration of the serviles, the nd root being unquestionable. My Himd- layan vocabulary affords numerous samples of the pong and tong suffixes, which are but pa and ta with the frequent nasal addition. Hair. — T-shd-r in Kasikumak Sd-b in Avar Sdb in Anzukh Sd-b in Tshari Shd-ben in Burmese Shd-m in Mrd Chd-m in Magar A-sh6-m in Lepcha A-shd-m in Kdmi Lii-sd-m in Khyeng Lii-sd-m in Khyeng ) Shd the root, t’ prefix, and r suffix, as before \ in endless examples. \ b final, the conjunct form of the ha, bo, suf- ^ fix, so common in Tibetan. i M servile = b, and constantly commutable / with it. i A prefix and m suffix, so common in Lepcha < that almost every adjective in particular is ( thus formed. Lu = man. Hence lusam is human hair. Head. — Td-wi in Georgian Td-n in Khas. Thd-ho in Murmi Td-ng in Kiranti Thd-gek in Limbu Thau in Gyami i Wi servile = bi, vi, infra, compare wi-shd, ( voce salt. Aspirate form of root, with bo suffix. ! Ng servile, the customary nasal appendage often superseded to other serviles. i Gek servile. Compare git in Tshigit, voce / earth. Aspirate root as in Murmi. MONGOLIAN AFFINITIES OF THE CAUCASIANS. 73 Ka-ta word with its Mantchu equivalent, roots and serviles tallying, as in katshu, voce hand. The manner in which the words for hand and foot run into each other, alike in the Mon- golian and in the Circassian series, is truly remarkable, so much so that it is difficult to distinguish the terms. The Georgian > pd-chd, like the Mantchu pdt-chd, in fact, blends the more special names for the lower and upper members, and so do the Manyak lipchd and lapchd, the latter word meaning hand, whilst chdii, hand, in Georgian, has the chd root of foot, with li servile. j Kd, kd, is the root in all these words and in I the next one. Yet the two latter mean I hand — a sufficient confirmation of what just I said ! i For dd suffix, see remarks on tshedd, voce < earth, and compare ka-do and ka-do-t, ( infra. Final ng servile, as in many prior instances. MONGOLIAN AFFINITIES OF THE CAUCASIANS. 75 Kd-Dg-lep in Lhdpa Kd-n-du in Pie Kd-do-t in Mon Kd-do in Pasuko K6 in Hdrpa A-kho in Kdmi Khd-khd-i in Dhimdli Khyd in Burmese Khau in Tunglhu Khd-t in Khoibu Kbu-t in Khas Kbd-ng in Newdri Td-i in Kubitsb Td-ra in Moasi A-td-r in Sdk Td-mi in Gydrung Ka-td in Sdntdl ( Lep may be servile, or it may be tbe radical I lip, lap, of lipcbd, lapcbd, &c. Dd servile, also tbe annectant n. ( Mean leg, yet bave indubitably tbe same root < as tbe foregone, tbe do being servile, as in ( tsbedo, voce earth. J Tbe nude root, vast numbers of such words I occur in all the tongues alike. A servile ; kho, tbe mere aspirate phase of ko. S Root repeated, as in kd-kd, sky ; cho-cbo, hot, &c. Means leg. Ra, the common suffix. I A, tbe servile, so frequent in Lepcha and \ Burmese ; r = ra. Mi, servile, means human. Ta root. Ka, tbe common prefix. Hand. — Kd-r in Tsbari Kd-ch in Osetic Kwd-r in Anzug Kd-r in Sokpa Gd-r in Mongol Kd in Kumi A-kd in Kdmi Ta-kd in Sdk Kwd-li in Sdnwdr Kat-sbd in Andi Kat-sbd in Pld Cbd-li in Georgian Cbd in Mingrelian Shi in Suanic Sbd in Gyami Pat-sbu in Pusako Cbd-a-sd in Pie ! R servile, conjunct ra, as in tbe following words. Cb servile ; compare sd-cb, &c. ( R final servile. Kd-er, observe here that kd, kd, gd, is the root throughout tbe whole series, and note tbe identity of tbe word in Sdnwdr and Anzak with reference to tbe alleged Greek etymon of kwdr. Tbe pure root. I A and ta prefixes, serviles. I Li servile, as in cbd-li, Georgian for band. ■< Tbe word, therefore, is identically anzug, li ( being =: r. i Sbd, tbe root. Kat, a double servile ; ka-ta, ) a marvellous accord ! i Such samples leave no doubt as to li being a \ servile. Pat, double servile, pa-ta. Compound of Andi sbd and Mingrelian cbd ! ! Blood. — T’sbd, sbd in Absnd Sbd in Manyak Sdh in Thochu Sdh in Hdrpa Syd in Gyami Ta-shi in Gydrdng { Compare tbe conjunct servile in the Absnd word, and observe that tbe so-called mono- syllabic and polysyllabic character of lan- guages has been made to rest on this frail foundation ! 76 MONGOLIAN AFFINITIES OF THE CA UC ASIANS. 1 d Observe that the change of root from thd to Th(i in Osetic thwd is exactly similar to that of kd to kwd, Thwd in Burmese < voce hand. This identity of plan prevailing Thd in Sdk Thd in Kasswi Thd-i in Gdrd throughout speaks trumpet-tongued for the truth of the affinity of races contended for. Ka-thi in Khyeng Ka servile. A-thi in Kdmi A servile. Thd-k spoken Tibetan r, d in Dido K, the articular suffix. Hi-n in Andi r in Khyi Hi in Newdri N servUe. Hi-t in Kong T’ servile. Hl-ki in Dhimdli Hi in Khoibu Hi in Marling Hyii in Magar Zi in Tshetshentsh Zi in Ingush Zi in Mezjiji Ki servile, the ka suffix harmonised. LT-si in Siinwdr Chi in Gdrd A-zi in Champhang A-zyd in Maram Bi, pi in Avar Vi in Lepcha Wi in Mrii LT servile as in d-md, voce fire. Skin. — fF^ in Circassian t’Chd-bi in Mingrelian Ga-shi in Armenian Pd in Kdmi Pi in Chinese Fi in Gyami Pi in Mrli Chd-gA in Newdri Pd-ko in Lhdpa Pa-g in Tibetan Skin. — Kd-ni in Georgian Ka-n in Suanic Kdm-pa in Lhopa Bi-k in Dido Di-bi in Murmi Di in Anam Bi-g\ir in Bddd Tongue . — Bb sd in Circassian rdZhd in Tibetan Shd in Chinese Stone. — D6-r in Osetic rDd in Tibetan Gii servile, as in chan-gii, hot. { Ka is the root passim. Ni and n, two phases of the same servile. The “m” in kampa, a euphonic copula with reference to the labial of the root. Pa, servile, the common ba, pa suffix of Tibetan. I Here is another sample of the substitution < of servile for root, as fd for md, voce fire, ( &c. i Gu-ra, double servile. See remarks, voce \ ego = homo. ! These repeated serviles bear direct reference to the very numerous senses of the sd root, and thus we learn the differential function of the serviles. See remarks, voce man. S Note again how the suffixed and prefixed ser- viles tally, the root (dd) being here in- dubitable. So Tsari chi-m and Jill m-chi, voce water. MONGOLIAN AFFINITIES OF THE CAUCASIANS. 77 D6h in Lh6pa D6h in Serpa Dun-ga in Khas L6-di in Georgian Ld-n in Khyeng Lu-ng in Limbu Ta-lu-n in Sdk L6-ng in Lepcha Ka-lu-n in Kdmi Ga suflax, and annectant n, both servile. ( Root is 16, lii. The serviles have been too fre- quently remarked on to need repetition. ( But note well how congruous they are, ab I initio usque ad finem ! Great. — Di-di in Georgian Di-di in Mingrelian Di in Tai. G6-d6-t in B6d6 Dd in Kuanchua Dd-i in Anani Dd in P16 ta-Dhi in Newdri I Root repeated as in cho-cho, pye'-pye, &c., &c. G6, the gd prefix euphonised ; t, conjunct ta. I final servile. j Ta, the common prefix, and dhi, the aspirate \ form of the root, as mhe for m6, &c. Three . — Sami in Georgian Sami in Mingrelian Jum in Lazic. Sum, shum, sam, song, san, tham, turn, in all the Tibeto - Himdlayan and Indo-Chinese tongues Four. — pSi in Circassian pShi in Abassian bZhi in Tibetan Zhi in Lhdpa Zliyi in Serpa Si, Si-kd in Gyami T'si in Siamese T’s6 in Shan Si in Tai 'Both root and servile are identical in all five words ; another marvellous instance of con- cord, capable, like the rest, of only one explanation. ^ Intercalate y, as in the nouns. Kd, a servile. T’ servile, the common ta particle, conjunct. The nude root. Five. — Chd-ba in Circassian Pat-chd in Talien Chd, the root. Pat, a double servile, as in the Pasuko word for hand. Eight. — Yat-sh in Tshetshentsh Yat-sh in Limbu g-Yet in Takpa Ka-yd in Kdmi Ba-yd in Tangus Ri-yd-t in Mrd Re-yd in Kiranti Y6 in Sdnwdr Or-y6t in Gydrdng Rwa in Georgian Rd-a in Mingrelian R6-ya in Kiranti p-R6 in Murmi Eyie in H6rpa Rd-nit in Mrd i Final sh’ servile. Another beautiful sample of affinity. G servile = v, d, p, below. ! Yd, the root throughout the whole series, with the common vocalic changes. Or servile, in Gydrdng. Ed, rd, t4, is the root beyond doubt, though the Kirdnti sample under both this and the ' preceding head shows how readily roots be- come serviles, and vice versd. 78 MONGOLIAN AFFINITIES OF THE CAUCASIANS. Nine . — bGu in Circassian dGii in Tibetan rG(i-re in Thochu Gvi-bi in Manyak Gdh in Sunwdr Gii-n in Newdri G(5 in Hdrpa Kan-gii in Gyari'ing i Note again the wonderful accord of root and ( servile. i The ra particle here appears both as prefix J and suffix. Hi servile, as in Circassian. The pure root. N final, servile. Nude root again. I Kan, double servile, ka-na = katn in kampa, ( voce skin. Ten. — pSh^-n in Circassian Zhd-ba in Abassian Swd-ba in Circassian = Su-a bChu in Tibetan tSha-i in Burmese hSii in Kdmi Chi in Gdrd ta-Chi in Gydrling Shi in Chinese Sha-i in Tangus ta-Shi in Tunghlhu Si-sd in Sdk t-Sa-u in Talien p-Chi in Takpa Chd in Serpa Chd in Gurung Chd in Lhdpa Sd-n-ho in Newdri Chi-chi-bi in Manyak Sd, chd, is the root with the usual cycle of changes by aspiration and by alteration of the vowel ; and to the root, moreover, are added the usual variety of servile appendages in some cases, whilst in others we have the nude root. All this is perfectly conformable to what has been seen in the ) nouns, and it follows, therefore, that the peculiarities commonly ascribed to the numbers do not really exist. The nature of the error, as derived from the examination of a few only of these tongues, may be appreciated by adverting to the remarks in the next paper on the differences presented to all such observations. /Root repeated with ba suffix harmonised and I serial as in Circassian. This feature of the < numeral serviles is of frequent occurrence. I See Essay on Bddd and Dhimdli for two \ good samples. F.S . — The above paper has been considerably augmented in number of vocables, and in the analysis of them, since it was first presented to the Society, though not to the extent I had hoped and purposed if health had not failed me. If, however, the principles of the analysis (sufficiently revealed in their application and in the observations of this and the following paper) be sound, they may be easily carried as much further as is desired. With regard to the soundness of those principles, I am fully prepared for censure of the presumption of attempting to analyse unknown tongues; prepared also to see many errors of detail detected, to afford apjjarent justification of such censure. I can but solicit the particular attention of the candid to the perfect uniformity of the phenomena presented by the Amcables, whether nouns, pronouns, or numerals, from the very beginning to the very end of my paper, and ask how this is to be explained, except upon those principles which a comparison of the numerous Hima- layan tongues with each other and with that of Tibet led me first to detect, and which my opportunities of novel exploration beyond the Himalaya afforded me great advantages for testing the more MONGOLIAN AFFINITIES OF THE CAUCASIANS. 79 extended application of? I have to regret that my investigations have been interrupted just wlien they were beginning to produce their ripest fruit, and to solicit the Society’s favourable construction of what is now submitted as it is, rather than trust to an uncertain future for its improvement. Supplement to the paper on the Mongolian Affinities of the Caucasians. Since the above paper was hastily written I have obtained through the courteous aid of our Secretary the loan of the Mithridates and Asia Polyglotta. The ampler stock of Cau- casian and Mongolian vocables thus placed within my reach (and illustrated too by occasional analytical notices) has needed only to be compared with my own large stores from the Hima- laya, Tibet, Sifan, Indo-China, and Tami'ilian India, to satisfy me that the widest assumed scope of aUophylian affinities might be placed on an unassailable basis. Again, a renewed reference to well-known works* * * § has equally satisfied me that nothing short of a careful analytical demonstration would be accepted after the frequent insufficiently supported assertions and more or less superficial investigations that have been given to the world, even Dr. Latham’s splendid panoramic view of the subject, though in fact well grounded on the opinions at least of numerous scholars,! and fortified, moreover, by the adduction of some special evidence | either priorly overlooked or only recently accessible, having met with a cold, not to say a scoffing, reception.^ I therefore beg permission to withhold for the present the comparative list of Caucasian and JMongolian vocables which I had prepared to accompany the above paper on the resem- blance of Circassian and Gyariing pronouns, pledging myself * Prichard, III. 13, etseq.; IV. 384 et seq. Eeport of tlie British Association for 1850, p. 174, et seq. Madras Journal for July 1837, and January, June, 1850. t Klaproth, Dobrosky, Bask, Rolt, Norris, &c., &c. t Brown’s Indo-Chinese Vocabularies, and Rosen’s Caucasian Researches. § Edinburgh Review.” Article, Bopp’s Grammar. 8o MONGOLIAN AFFINITIES OF THE CAUCASIANS. that that list shall ere long be submitted to the Society, so amplified and analysed as to enable the scholar both to test and to extend the analogies sampled by the list."' In the meanwhile, and with reference to the above paper, I subjoin some farther explanations which will not only serve to illustrate more fully its special topic (pronouns), but to show how continued attention to the general topic teems with fresh proofs of the soundness of the opinion that Caucasus is essen- tially Tartaric, and that the widest sense of the word Tartaric is the truest. Klaproth, who was too well informed on the subject to insist on the Arian origin of the Caucasians generally, yet con- tended that the Osi were Indo-Germanic. I shall soon be able, I think, to show that the elements and the mechanism of words in the Osetic tongue are purely Tartar, and that the very name of the race (0-sit), like that of the Georgians (Swan), proves their Tartaric progeniture, these names being significant, and significant in the special mode in use among the Tartar races. How Bopp could contend for the Arian origin of a race styling themselves Swan, and go to Sanscrit for Georgian etymologies, I am the more surprised, as swan in Sanscrit means dog, and we can hardly suppose that the Georgians or any other people would call themselves dogs, though their neighbours might so compliment them. Hot to travel, however, beyond pronouns, I may mention that I have a long list of hloiigolian equivalents for the Caucasian pro- nouns, and that, for instance, the ma root in all its phases (ma, mi, mo, mii), and in both its senses (nominal and pro- nominal), will be exactly matched by a long series of Tartaric equivalents. Nor are tlie so-called inflections or declensional signs less Tartaric than the roots ; for instance, i or ni for the genitive ; an, ang, nang, for the dative case ; the i being Tibetan, Takpa, Horpa, &c. ; the ni, Mongol, Mantchu, Turki, Bodo ; the an or ang, nan or nang, Dhimali, Turki, Ouigur, &c. Here is a sample : — ■* This has been done, I hope tolerably efifectually, in the list as it now stands. + See the note in the sequel on words with the 6 and si roots, o-as, o-su-ri, o-zu-r-ka, &c. MONGOLIAN AFFINITIES OF THE CAUCASIANS. 8i Pronoun I. Ouighr. Osetic. N. Ma, ma-n Ma, ma-n G. Ma-ni-ng Ma-ni I>. Ma-nang 1 Mdng-ge / Ma-nan In Ouigur the first na suffix is often dropped in the dative, and the second reiterated ; and thus we liave inanggd for nia nang. Both changes are thoroughly consonant to the genius of these tongues, and are in perfect harmony with the alterna- tive nominative form ma, or ma-n. The n final is here simply emphatic, and is the conjunct form of the na suffix. All these particles, in either their servile or radical character and function, may be used conjunctly and disjunctly, that is, with or without their vowel and all may be also augmented by various new elements or by reiteration, without affecting the sense in either case. Here are some samples of the disjunct and reiterated, or added na, with one of these singular equivalents. Pronouns I. Thou. He. Tibetan Na, nani Kh4, kh6na Kli6, kli6na Esthonian Ma, minna Si, sinna Td, temma We see here that the suffix md is equal to the suffix na. So also is the suffix ra, which has been noticed as common, in form and function, to the Circassian and CJyarung tongues, but which in fact has a wide and almost universal prevalence among these tongues, being attached like all the other serviles alike to pronouns, nouns, numerals, adverbs, and changing or dropping its vowel as well as taking the sur-suffix n, ng, with- out more alteration in its meaning than in the other cases of * Here are some examples — k’ ma-ri, man in Georgian, ka-mi, man in Kdmi ; md-rli, man in Stinwdr, m-rii man in Mru (root, mi, ma, mu) ; m-za, fire in Absnd, mi-za, fire in Avar (root mi) ; s-me, girl in Horpa, sd md, girl in Tliunglhu, sa-mi, girl in Burmese (root md, mi). Note also the vocalic changes of roots and of the servile ra in ma-ri and mti-ru-and m-rfi ; ka, servile of Georgian kmari, is dropped in Suanic mard, where again the servile ri becomes rd. In the Indo- Chinese tongues we have the ka prefix present and absent in this very word man, just as in the Caucasian, witne.ss k’ lun in kolun, being lun in Burmese. I may add 1-d-k in Tai and Id-g in Osetic, with the k vel g suffix (root, lii. Id, Id). VOL. II. F 82 MONGOLIAN AFFINITIES OF THE CAUCASIANS. reiteration and elision and vocalic changes above illustrated in the pronominal roots and serviles, and in the nominal ones also, by the subjoined note. In fact, such and much greater reiteration, cumulation, substitution and vocalic change, with concomitant contractions medial and final, affecting roots as well as serviles, are chief almost among the fundamental laws of these languages, and constitute the veil that has so long concealed their complete affinity. Who, for instance, would suppose namasini, or con- tractedly namsin, day, to be the same with ni, nyi, or nin ? Show him, however, the intermediate forms nani, mani, and sini, and show him also this intercalate y and final n of the root, as well as this cumulation and these changes of the serviles, holding good in a great number of other instances, and you will carry him with you in this one and the rest, as I hope to do my readers by and by. Here are some further pronominal illustrations of the ra suffix. It attaches, as ra, to the first and second singular in Cir- cassian, exclusively ; to the second singular only in Gyarung, as re ; to the third singular only in Llongol and Mantchii and Sokpo, as re ; to the third singular only in Gondi, as r ; to the third plural only in Turki, as r^ ; to all three plurals, and to no singular in Eukheng, as ro ; to the same in Burmese as do (local difference and of pronunciation merely) ; to the first and third plural in Mongol as da and de respectively ; to all three plurals in Takpa, and to them only, as ra ; to all the persons singular and plural in Tibetan, as rang, usually rendered by self ; to the first and third plural in Ouigur, as ar vel lar. The usual reading of olar, they, is o-lar, making lar a so-called plural sign. But if ol be “ he,” in Ouigiir and Turki, ol-ar must be “ they.” However, o is undoubtedly the root, as provable by numberless instances in the cognate tongues ; and la is an infix, and o-la-ra the true etymological analysis, as of the Turkish anlar and anlare, the analysis is a-na-la-ra, a being here'"' the root (angge, to him, a-ning, his), and na-la-ra, ser- * The change of the root from 6 to d in Turki ami Ouigtir is continued in Mantchi'i, wherein it becomes i. Precisely in like manner ws have mi, vel md vel me, for five, and ni, vel na, vel nd, for day, in Caucasus. MONGOLIAN AFFINITIES OF THE CAUCASIANS. 83 viles, whereof the first is the emphatic na above illustrated ; and ar, vel ra, vel la-ra, the so-called plural sign or signs, though in my judgment it is to mistake the true genius and character of these tongues to give to any of their particles, except with extreme reserve, the attributes of strict grammar (declensional marks), or a precise independent signification such as self for rang in Tibetan. Eang is a compound of the ra and ang particles. The phases of the latter are a, an, ang, and the reflective or egoistic sense, such as it is (it is most like that of the Sanscrit swa), attaches, not to the compound rang, but to the simple ang. In Bodo and Garo and Hayu ang stands for the first personal pronoun ; in Limbu and many other allied tongues it is the first possessive, in the form of a. In Tagala and Malayu a and aku represent the first personal, and ang is an articular prefix of the same drift. The first personal is an-ka in Kiranti and a-za in Osetic, prefix in all these instances, in others even of the same tongues it is a suffix but still, whether attached to pronouns, verbs, or nouns, and whether prefixed or postfixed or standing alone, as root or servile, it is apt to indicate a reflective character. This is the reason why it so constantly marks the possessive case, with or without a preposed particle ; but if with one, usually the na conjunct, which is only one phase, as ang-ge is another phase, of the repetition of itself; and this is also the reason why in so many of these tongues the ang suffix, when appended to verbs and their participles, designates the first person. Thus kazang, I eat, kazangti, I who eat, I the eater, I eating, from the root za, z6, in Gyariing. Pir4, give ; pi-rdng or pirang-g4 or pirang-ne, give to me, in Limbfi, from the root pi ; davo, give, davong, give to me, in Gyariing, from the root va, vo. These forms are imperative. The indicative ones are similar, thus pire and dovo mean, you or he (quivis praeter meipsum) gives ; and pirang, dovong, I myself give, ang-n4 and ang-g4 are equal, and are reiterations of the a, an, or ang particle.! Com- * As ang is prefix or suffix, so is any other servile ; for instance, the kd of anka, here cited ; thus, k’ mari, man in Georgian (mari in Suanic), and osurka, maid in Mingrelian (osuri in Lazic). See on to further note. + In Sontal, Uraon, Ho, and Hayu, the ang becomes ing, and eng with the very same emphatic reiteration, viz., eng gna and ing ga. 84 MONGOLIAN AFFINITIES OF THE CAUCASIANS. pare ang-g4 to me, in Turki and Ouigiir ; and mang-g4 to me in Ouigiir, with their equivalent ma-nan in Osetic. Pir4 and Pirang show very pointedly that the reflective virtue resides not in the ra particle but in the ang particle. This case also exemplifies their conjunction. Ma-nang is the disjunct form ; mang, the conjunct; and mang-ge is the same, only more emphatic ; mang, to me, miing-gii, to myself ; and mang-ne and mang-re are both equivalents and emphasisers merely. So mini is mine ; and mining-g4 my own, in Mongol and Mant- chii ; the nang becoming ni'ng euphonically to harmonise with the mi root. And, by the way, we may here, as in all the other derivatives, note the forthcomingness of the widely pre- valent mi root, though obsolete as a nominative in these two tongues, just as it is in the analogous sense of man (ego = homo plur. exem.) in Burmese, wherein, however, we similarly gather it from its derivatives, woman and child, mimma* and sa mi. I have illustrated the pronominal and verbal uses of the ra particle, as well as explained its relation to rang. Here are some exemplifications of its nominal and other uses. I fear I shall weary the reader, but he must remember that what is true of this particle is true of all the particles ; and that, whereas a confined view of the character and functions of this grand element of these tongues has led to very erroneous notions as to their general affinity, so a complete conception of the nature of the particles is the best guide to a just perception of that affinity. For instance, Eosen has dwelt on the unique character of the Circassian pronouns arising in good part out of the operation of the ra particle, and I, follow- ing him, have announced with reasonable surprise the fact that the same peculiarities are attached to the Gyariing pronouns, whereas, in very truth, whatever he or I noticed in this respect as to the pronouns is equally true as to the nouns, adverbs, &c., and that not merely in the languages of the * Compare Esthonian temma, supra, where suffix ma = emphatic na. All these tongues affect illiteration and consonantal as well as vocalic harmony to an extent quite perplexing, since each tongue has its fancies in this respect. Here md is a root. MONGOLIAN AFFINITIES OF THE CAUCASIANS. 85 Circassia and Gyarung, but in every tongue from Caucasus to the Pacific. Here is the enumeration. Ma-re, man, Suanic ; ma-ri, man,* Georgian ; ma-ro, man, Lepcha ; mu-rii, man, Sunwar ; m-ni, man, Mni ; ilii-ru, before, Turki ; uz-rd, upon, Turki ; herel-ri, man, Sontal. Lan-rd, once, Tibetan ; kyfi-rd, river, Akiish ; tho-re, to- morrow, Tibetan ; wii-ran, rain, Osetic ; mu-ran, river, Turki ; mai-ran, arm, Mantclni ; kool-ron, child, Mongol ; kho-rang, sky, Bodo ; chak-reng, hand, Garo ; di-rang, this, Serpa ; dd-ring, to-day, Tibetan ; rd-m-bu, man, Limbii ; res-ga, where, Tibetan (samples of prefix) ; lis-rds, man, Gydriing (sa added) ; rgu-re, nine, IManyak ; ma-r, horse, spoken Chinese ; ma-rhi, horse, Sokpa ; ga-r, where, Tibetan ; ga-rfi, where, Tibetan ; dd-r and dd-ni, there, Tibetan ; ta-r-ti, cap, Gyarung ; ti-r-mi, man, Gyarung; ok-ur, ox, Magyar; o-zu-r-ka, maid, Mingreliau (ka added, see note) ; o-su-ri, maid, Lazic ; u-er-ti, boy, Armenian ; pu-r-ti, bird, Andi (ti, added, the rati suffix) ; do-r, stone, Osetic ; teng-er, sea, Magyar ; sha-r, ox, Mongol ; khor, river, Avar ; kii-er, hand, Anzug ; ka-r, hand, Tshari ; ka-r, hand, Sokpo. We thus see that the ra particle changes its vowel to the * I here omit the ka prefix, with full warrant from usage : See prior note on kmari and kltin ; ka suffix in ozurka is the same thing and similarly omissible, witness osuri. Here 6 is the root, = fi, meaning man, and it also takes the k prefix. Su is the sa particle harmonised in its vowel to the root. It is a diminutive, so that o-sa, u-sa, or u-a-sa is child, and kusa is equally child. We have kusa and a-sa in Limbd, and u-a-sa in Aver, u-s in Osetic, li-as in Wogul, fi-er in Armenian ; sa in its capacity of diminutive means woman as well as child when added to any root for man, as u or mi ; and hence Osetic li-sa wo- man = mi-sa, Newdri. Such and so concordant are all the elements. In Ar- menian uerti, child, erti vel rati being servile, it follows that the ti root for man may express juniors as well as adults, whilst the Gydrting tis, man, and Osetic tls, woman, prove that the d root expresses both sexes, meaning man-kind or the species man, and also that sa is not uniformly a diminutive but a synonym. This will be amply proved by and by, when the o-u-w and the sa, si, shi, roots for mankind are arrayed, and then it will be also seen that the name of the Osetic people is derived from two synonyms for man, and that, like td-td, or tshe-tshe- nsh, it is = Allemanni. The Caucasian puzzle as to us, ush, ushi, u-as, u-as-sa, u-er, o-su, o-zu, is solved by this explanation, and if we add the Murnii bii root for man (supra), we have the clue to the Caucasian bo-zo, bo-shi, bit-.shi, bi-shi, for all which I have numerous Mongolian equivalents, thus po-zo in Pasuko, pu-sa in Karen, bu-cha in Tekpa, bi-sha and bi-shi in Bodd. S6 MONGOLIAN AFFINITIES OF THE CAUCASIANS. utmost (ra, re, ri, ro, rii), takes the ang or other additional particle (ti, ka, sa), occupies the initial (res-ga), medial (pii-r-ti), or final (ka-r) position, or even both (r gu-re), with reference to the root, and lastly, blends itself with that root, dropping its vowel (gar), or stands apart, retaining its vowel (ga-rii) ; and all this without change or even modification of the meaning of the word as derived from the root further than a certain emphasising can he so termed, as kho-rang, the sky ; ka-r, the hand. Such elements of speech and all the serviles are essentially alike, can with little propriety he designated by our grammar terms or alleged to be conjugational or declensional marks, except with extreme caution. The essence of a grammatical rule or part of speech is generalisation ; the essence of the function of these particles is the very opposite of specialisa- tion ; and thus it is that unlimited change of place and change of form belong to the latter, whilst nothing of the sort does or can belong to the former. Of the habit of applying our grammatical terms to the elements of these tongues in central Asia without any apparent perception of their true character,* as noted in the south- eastern islands, I will give a sample from the Altaic group of languages. The plurals of the Mantchii personal pronouns are thus stated and commented upon. To this statement of the pronouns it is added that b^, sou we, and tdsdt constitute the ordinary series ; that mousd is a sample of the dualistic form, and that it is regularly derived from mou, I, by the addition of the plural sign se. Now it is quite true that the existence of a dual or rather of an inclusive * To prove this it suffices to advert to Vater’s derivation of the Caucasian kar and kwer, hand, from su'd Klaproth’s of Waran rainm for Mdr^ from I shall give numerous Tartar equivalents for all three, and thus prove their roots to be respectively ka, wa, and ma, the ra, t4, and ran being serviles, or rather phases of one servile. m. B6 Mous4 They. T4s4t. MONGOLIAN AFFINITIES OF THE CAUCASIANS. 87 plural * is one of the characteristics of these tongues, and one that prevails very generally from the Pacific to Caucasus. But how it can he said that in the Mantchu tongue this inclusive plural is formed regularly from the singiilar mou by means of the plural sign sd, I cannot conceive, since a regular pluralising jiarticle would be uniformly applied and wear one shape, whereas there is here in the three persons of the pronouns no vestige of such attributes in the sd particle. The ordinary “ we ” (bd) has no trace of this or other pluralising suffix ; the ordinary “ ye ” (sou wd) has quite a different augment (wd) ; and, lastly, the third person shows the sd particle indeed, but with a foreign element or suffixed t (sdt). Now surely a grammatical rule must have some identity of character, what it includes must be similar in form and application. But that in the Mantclui pronouns the plurals cannot be said to be regularly formed by the addition of sd, is self-apparent ; and if we turn to any collated list of the pronouns of the Altaic tongues generally, we shall immediately perceive the same anomalies prevailing throughout this group of languages, and affecting both the form and the application of all the particles ; the ang suffix, for instance, being at once a genitive and a dative sign in a single tongue (sangge, of thee ; manggd, to me, in Ouigiir), and also changing its form entirely in the same case (meaning, of me ; sanggd, of thee) in that single tongue. Look again beyond the Altaic group and you will see the same anomalies. Everybody had noticed them in this or that instance, and I have on this account myself demurred to the use of the pronouns at all as a test of ethnic affinity. I am now aware that I was misled by the authority of great names, looking at these particles from a too grammatical point of view. We first make the particles grammatical, and then we declare them to be utterly anomalous ; the facts being, that they are not strictly or uniformly grammatical, generally speaking, nor perhaps anywhere so, except as the result of This remarkable and arbitrary feature of a dual and two plurals I have already detected in the Kuswar, Hayu, and Kiranti tongues of the Hiradlaya, and in the Ho, Sontdl, and Uraon tongues of Tamulian India. I need hardly add that the same peculiarity belongs to the Tagalan and Alforian languages, as well as the Altaic. 88 MONGOLIAN AFFINITIES OF THE CAUCASIANS. Arian influences (Tibetan, Newarese, cultivated Tamulian, and so in Caucasus) ; and that they obey their own law with perfect uniformity, and equally so when they attach to pro- nouns as to nouns and to verbs. That they are not strictly grammatical may be shown as well by their inconsistency with any intelligible conception of grammar,* as by the har- monious and simple elucidation they admit of according to their own norma loquendi or mechanism of speech. Look, for instance, at the following explication of the Mantchu plurals above cited, or mouse, souw(i, and tesbt. Mou-se, we = I and thou ; thus mou is the ma, mi, mo, root for I, obsolete as an ordinary nominative in this tongue, but found as such in most of the cognate series of tongues, and forthcoming even in Mantchu in all the oblique cases (mi-ni ; mi-ningge ; mi-ndb) ; s^ again, is the sa, sb, si, so root for thou, still extant as si in this tongue, as se in Turki, as sa in Ouigiir, Finnic, and Esthonian, not to cite more instances from my ample store. Therefore mouse is beyond dispute a compound of two roots meaning I and thou. In like manner precisely is sou-we, ye, a compound of the root above cited for thou, and of the 0 , ri, root for he ; wdiich latter, though obsolete in Mant- chu, is extant in Turki and in Ouigur as o ; in Magyar as oe or we ; in Circassian as lii or wi ; in Garo as u ; in Dhimali, in Gyarung, and in Thunglhu, as wa ; in Newari, as wo, &c. &c. Sou-we, ye, is therefore palpably a compound of the roots expressing thou and he ; so changing to sou, as mo to mou, and 66 to wm ; the e moreover being a synonym of 6, and a phase of the i root, found alike in this very Mantclni tongue and in Circassian ; so that the Magyar 66, Circassian ui, and Mantchu i, with other instances just cited, lead irresistibly to * There should be, though there is not, a higher sort of grammar capable of reconciling Tartaric forma of speech with our own ; that is, of showing the equiva- lency of each to the other. In the meanwhile the use of our technical terms in discussing the Tartar tongues is natural, almost inevitable ; and at all events I beg earnestly to disclaim all purpose of censure whilst attemi)ting to elucidate. There is much grammar in these tongues, but, as I think, borrowed, and shown to be so as well by reference to the much larger and unchanged portion of the languages as by the unharmouising character which the grammatical element wears when it exists. MONGOLIAN AFFINITIES OF THE CAUCASIANS. 89 = he in Mantclni. Therefore souwd, ye, is literally thou and he ; as mousd, wd, is literally I and thou. In like manner the third plural or they, tesdt, is undoubtedly a compound of t6 = he, and s4 = thou. The s^ root has the ta particle added as a conjunct servile (s4-t), according to a rule of universal operation in these tongues. Te is extant in Mant- chii in the sense of he. It has the ra particle suffixed and harmonised in its vowel to the vowel of the root (ter(i), also according to a universal rule governing these particles ; and se, in the sense of thou, is likewise extant, as si in Mantchii, as s4 in Turki, as sa in some one of its phases, in short (sa, si, si, so, sii) in twenty of these tongues. Therefore td-s4-t, or they, is literally he and thou ; and the whole of the three plurals are constructed upon precisely the same principle thus : — Mou-se = we = I and thou.' Sou-w6 = ye = thou and he. T6-s6-t = they = he and thou. In like manner the Mongolian plurals, bi-da, ta, and te-dd-t, might be analysed by means of the Tibetan demonstratives, di and d4, with their analogues in allied tongues, and shown to be nothing more than reiterate pronouns of the singular number, and also that the da, de is no more a plural sign than the third phase of this particle or dou (da, de, di, do) is a dative sign, though widely as erroneously so regarded (just as De Cords regards the equivalent ra * particle), witness t sd-do, to the earth ; ko-da, to the foot, &c., in the Caucasian group, according to Vater. In truth, the da particle is in these latter instances a servile, not a radical, as is the se before given ; biit apparently neither radical nor servile can he regarded in strictness as a declensional sign of case or of * De Coros, pursuant to his view of the rd particle, as a dative case sign, trans- lates namgar in one instance and another, to heaven. Now, nam is the sun, and kha vel gd is place ; and that the ra suflSx only emphasises the sense of khd vel gd may be shown by a familiar pair of examples. Gdr vel gdro and takla-khdr are the names of two well-known places in Nari, gar meaning the place or fort, or headquarters of its district ; and takla-khdr, the place, or fort, or sadr, of Takla. Again, the thirteenth divisions of the spire of a chaitya are called chuksum-khdr in Tibetan = trayodas bhuvan in Sanscrit, i.e., the thirteenth mansion. 90 '..MONGOLIAN AFFINITIES OF THE CAUCASIA A^S. number. Nor in the great majority of these tongues from Caucasus to Oceanica do these or the other particles ordi- narily fulfil the necessary conditions of such a sign, with the scant and obvious exceptions before noted. The sd radical and the da servile are both alike particles, and as such subject to the laws regulating particles, according to which all their alleged anomalies in either character can be explained, includ- ing not only every vocalic change incident to them in both capacities alike, but also that substitution whereby they inter- change functions and the root becomes a servile, or the servile a root. Thus, for example, the sd particle is undoubtedly a root in the instances cited above, and it is as undoubtedly a servile in the Magar tongue, wherein I'-se means this, and 6-se, that ; i and 6 being the near and remote demonstratives, with se as a servile affix, answering exactly to the Georgian s in i-s, he. Compare Circassian i with Georgian I'-s, and the servile and equivalent character of the sa suffix in these instances drawn from the Magyar and Georgian tongues will be at once apparent, and it will be also perceived how the alleged plural sense is here neither admissible nor possible, though the particle be assuredly the identical one to which in the jMantchu tongue the plural quality is attributed. In explaining the Mantclni pronouns I have included almost all that need be said of the Circassian third personal singular, or ri, f, with its change to t’ conjunct, as in t-ab, his father. If we consider the ri, the f, and the t as all radicals, we may yet find numerous equivalents for each in that sense ; and if, again, we regard the t’ as a servile superseding the radical lif or wf, we may find abundant instances of such supersession alike among the Caucasian and the Mongolian tongues, as ma, ma-fa, fa, fire ; bi, di-bi, di, skin ; sa, ba-sa, ba, cow ; and many more for which I must refer to the forth- coming analysed list of vocables. With regard to Mongolian equivalents for the radicals ri, i, * The chd suffix in ma-ch, we, Osetic, is called a plural sign. What is it in sa-ch, earth? Probably what it is in a-ch, one, Circassian; viz., a servile with the usual differential function. MONGOLIAN AFFINITIES OF THE CAUCASIANS. 91 «-\nd ta, in the sense of he, the third personal, the subjoined enumeration must suffice at present. U', Circassian = li in Gdro ; u in Sontal ; 6 (6d) in Magyar ; 6 in Ouigur and Turki ; wo in hiewari; wa in Gyaning, in Dhimali,* and in Thunglhu. I', Circassian = 1 in Mantchu ; f in Sontal ; i in Burmese (this) ; 6 in Magyar (6d) ; e in Kalmak ; e in Lazig ; f-s in Georgian ; i-sd in Magar ; i-tu in Tagalan. Ta, Circassian = td in Mongol ; te in Mantchd ; ta in Esthonian ; ta in Chinese ; tha in Gyami ; thi in Gurung ; thd in Murmi ; tlni in Burmese. If, again, we take the Circassian ri, i, as one root and word, we have parallels for it in the Magyar 66, similarly taken, and in all the wa roots should we read wf (w for u). With regard to the Gyarung wa, tu, which I have com- pared with the Circassian u, 1 , changing in composition to ta, it is very important to observe that if wa, tu, and u, i, be con- sidered as compounds of two synonymous roots, according to the above detailed exposition of roots, then that such reiterated pronouns are completely conformable to the genius of these tongues, and as such harmonise perfectly with the preceding exposition of the plurals. These tongues, in fact, revel in cumulation, pronominal and nominal, varying as to the exact applications of the emphasised or reiterated pronouns, t but * The perfect agreement of the Circassian and Dhimali in regard to the singu- lar of the third personal, d being he, in both tongues, renders the proximate agreement of the perplexing plural, 6-bert and d-bal, very interesting. I have tried the analysis in several ways, but have not succeeded to my own satisfaction ; but I submit the following. U'-ba rt = they = he and he ; one he being the d above elucidated, and the .other, a synonymous bd, b^, bi root, such as bi actually is in Bddd ; rt, servile ; the ra and ta suffixes conjunct. U'-ba-l = they = he and he, as before. The juxtaposition of the Bddd and Dhimal tribes renders the adoption of the bi root from Bddd likely in this instance. It is, however, a word and root widely diffused, and used as a noun and pronoun also. Final 1 ’, servile. The Suanic al, he, and the Ouigdr and Turki ol, he, and ol-ar, they, are very suggestive, as also the Turkish and Ouigdr bi, and the Sokpo bd in abd, with all the numerous words for man having the bi root, as bi-shi, juvenis, alike in Turki and in Bddd. Nominal and pronominal roots are so apt to coincide that I have a long list of coincident roots for ego = homo : for instance, the mi root, and ta root, and sa root, and ba root, + See Mith. voce Turki, i. 467 et seq., and Essay on Koch, B 6 d< 5 , and Dhimal, p. 120, and De Cdriis’ Grammar, p. 65, Crawfurd’s Malayan Grammar, Phillips’ Sontal Grammar, .and Brown’s’Asam Grammar. 92 MONGOLIAN AFFINITIES OF THE CAUCASIANS. preserving a general overruling similitude, of which the follow- ing instance from a Himalayan and a Caucasian tongue is too singular to he omitted. In Georgian the i root for the third personal singular, or he, becomes, by such accretion gradually augmenting, first i-s, and then i-ti-na ; and in Magar the same root with the same sense (ille iste) becomes I'-se and f-sd-na, according as more or less of emphasis and dis- crimination is needed. Again, the Georgian ti in iti na is the Burmese thi in i-thi, a word compounded of two syno- nyms, both meaning this (ille), and conjointly equivalent precisely to isena as well as itina in Magar and Georgian respectively. Thu, again, means he, the third personal, in Burmese, and this word, which is merely another phase of the tha particle (tlui, thi, thu, tho — which last signifies that, and is Tibetan), brings i;s back to the Tagalan f-tii and the Gytirung wa-td, every particle, whether used in a primary or secondary sense, taking the aspirate indifferently (md, mhd, fire ; ni, nhi, day ; ka, kha, sky ; et caet., ad libitum). Now, if we look again at the Gyaning wa tu through the medium of the Malayan and Tagalan f tu and the Circassian rf f and ta, all but the last equally involving a double pro- nominal root and single sense, we shall see in this identical composition and identical idiomatic use of the third personal pronoun, illustrated on all sides as they are by Altaic, Hima- layan, and Indo-Chinese equivalents, reproducing every form and phase of the roots, a marvellous proof of the affinity of all the tongues. But this is not all, for the Circassian li and i, commutable to t, derives the highest and complete illustration from another and most interesting quarter, to wit, the unculti- vated Tamulian tongues of India, amongst which the Sontal exhibits both u and f for the third personal pronoun, as well as their commutation into t,'"' whilst the Gondi has u (w) similarly commutable. Bor the proof of these most remark- * The transpoaableness of the particles in these tongvies has been already stated and abundantly proved. With this hint, look at the following wonderful sample of analogous structure : t-ab, his father, in Circassian ; apa-t, his father, in Sontdl. It is needless almost to add that the word for father is ab in the former tongue, apa in the latter. Not one of 13oj)p’s celebrated Arian affinities surpasses the above in beauty and interest. MONGOLIAN AFFINITIES OF THE CAUCASIANS. 93 able coincidences I refer the student to the works of Phillips and Driberg, merely observing in conclusion that it is but a sample of those analogies derivable from the same interesting quarter which I have already made good progress in the development of, and which when fully exhibited will go far to confirm the conviction that the Tartaric family is one and indivisible from the Caucasus to the Pacific. The prospect of a reunion of all the Tartars suggests the consideration of a fitting designation for the wdiole ; and, whatever my leaning towards the term Scythian,''* from veneration for the father of history who first introduced this mighty herd to our view, I prefer upon the whole the more familiar appellation Tartar; first, because it has a sense as ample as our present requirement, in which respect it has no advantage over Scythian ; second, because it has an etymo- logical significance thoroughly indigenous and in the highest degree appropriate, as well with reference to the structure of those tongues by the dissection of which we have come at a knowledge of the whole scope of Tartar affinities, as with regard to that characteristic idiom according to which the name of a tribe is the name of our species. Ta means man in a score of extant tongues ; and ta designates numerous extant tribes stretching from the Altai to the Gulf of Siam, whilst the same or equivalent names prevail throughout the Mongolian countries and in Caucasus ;t and, lastly, the reitera- * Essay on Koch, B6(16, and Dhinaal, preface, p.ages 8 , 9 , where the reader may see that seven years ago I had a strong presentiment of what I now hope to demonstrate. •)• Tshd-ri, tshd-tshd-nsh, &c., come from the td and sd roots for m.an, and are seen in similar combination, being synonyms, in the Chinese and Georgian tsd meaning man, whereof tsd-s is a diminutive. The Chinese call the Tartars indifferently thd-thd and thd-tsd, and so do the Newars of Ndpdl, whilst ta-i, ta- i-m 6 , ta-i-lung, ta-i-nd, ta-i-yd, names of tribes from Asam to the Ocean, are all not only td but td-td, since the second syllable is in all a synonym, and there- fore as equivalent as tshd-tshd and td-td, which are reiterations. As instances, familiar to us in India, of a tribe-name signifying also man in the language of that tribe, I may mention a-nam, mru, k lun, ka mi, ku-mi, kong, lau, md-n, mo-i, bar-ma. These are simple. Mi-shi-mi, mti-r-mi, &c., are compound. Occasion- ally, as in Burmese, the root may be obsolete in the human sense ; but it will always be f mnd in its derivatives or in the proximate tongue.s, leaving the principle of gentile nomenclature indisputable. In Mishimi we have the mi and 94 MONGOLIAA AFFINITIES OF THE CAUCASIANS. tion whereby the Ta, or Zenghis’ clansmen came to be called ta-ta, vel tha-thd (men pre-eminently, quasi Allemanni) is a normal sample of one of the chief constructive principles of these tongues. Wherefore I would abide by that mediaeval designation by which all the races beyond the confines of Europe have been known to Europe in modern times, and which from and after the middle ages superseded the classical term Scythian — a term of as wide import as the other and so far equally fitting, but now laid aside, and never so etymo- logically just as Tartar, the very r of which word, though carped at by half-informed critics, is in fact thoroughly in accordance with the jus et norma of Tartaric speech, every- where from Oceanic to the Caucasian region. shi roots for man, the former reiterated. In Murmi we have the mi root reiter- ated in different phases (mu and mi). In Burma we have a third phase of the same root (md) with the bd root and synonym preceding it ; and lest this etymo- logy should startle my readers, I will add that this very word barma means man in the Magar tongue, th.at is, in one of those Himdlayau tongues whose close affinity to the Burmese language I have lately shown. SECTION VIII. PHYSICAL TYPE OF TIBETANS. Penjiir of Lliassa, 30 years old. Total height, Length of head, Girth of head, Crown of head to hip, Hip to heel, Breadth of chest only, Sh. point to sh. point. Arm and hand. Girth of chest. Girth of arm, Girth of forearm, . Girth of thigh. Girth of calf, Length of foot, Breadth of foot. Length of head, Breadth of head, . 5 9I] 0 9 H I loi 2 5 3 4 |. I 4 b I 5 \ 2 3 0 0 1 1 0 9 l I H) I 0 10 0 3 0 7fj 4 ' 0 u 3 rt V U (Q A fine young man, but low in flesh from sickness, and the muscles flaccid. Colour a clear ruddy brownish or brunette rather deep hued, as dark as any of the Cis-Himalayans and as most high-caste Hindus. No red on cheeks, which are sunk and hollow. Hair moderately coarse, black, copious, straight, shining, worn long and loose, divided from the top of head. Moustache very small, black. No symptom of beard nor any hair on chest ; sufficient on mons martis, where it is black, and on armpits also. No whiskers. Face moderately 96 PHYSICAL TYPE OF TIBETANS. large, sub-ovoid, widest between angles of jaws, less between cheek-bones, which are prominent, but not very. Forehead rather low and narrowing somewhat upwards ; narrowed also transversely, and much less wide than the back of head. Frontal sinus large, and brows hea%y. Hair of eyebrows and lashes sufficient. Former not arched, but obliquely descendant towards the base of nose. Eyes of good size and shape, but the inner angle decidedly dipped or inclined downwards, though the outer not curved up. Iris a fine deep, clear, chestnut brown. Eyes wide apart, but well and distinctly separated by the basal ridge of nose ; not well opened, cavity being filled with flesh. Xose sufficiently long and well raised even at base, straight, thick, and fleshy towards the end, with large wide nares nearly round. Zygomae large and salient, but moderately so. Angles of the jaws prominent, more so than zygomae, and face widest below the ears. Mouth moderate, well formed, with well-made closed lips hiding the fine, regular, and no way prominent teeth. Upper lip long. Chin rather small, round, well formed, not retiring. Vertical line of the face very good, not at all bulging at the mouth, nor retiring below, and not much above, but more so there towards the roots of the hair. Jaws large. Ears moderate, well made, and not starting from the head. Head well formed and round, but larger a parte post than h parte ante or in the frontal region, which is some- what contracted crosswise, and somewhat narrowed pyramidally upwards. Body well made and well proportioned. Head well set on the neck, neither too short nor too thick. Chest wide, deep, well arched. Shoulders falling, fine. Trunk not in excess of proportionate length compared with the extremities, nor they compared with the trunk and whole stature. Arms rather long, within four inches of knees. Legs and arms defi- cient in muscular development from sickness. Hands and feet small and well formed, with instep hollow and heel moderate. Toes not spread, nor splay foot. Mongolian cast of features decided, but not extremely so, and expression intelligent and amiable. Darjeeling, Jj-ril 1S48. SECTION IX. THE ABORIGINES OF CENTRAL INDIA. I At the close of last year I had the honour to submit to the I Society a summary view of the affinities of the sub-Himalayan aborigines. I have now the honour to submit a similar view of the affinities of the aborigines of Central India, The extra I copies of the former paper which were sent to me by the Society j I forwarded to Colonels Ouseley and Sleeman, to Major Naple- j ton, Mr. Elliot of Madras, and other gentlemen, with a request I that they would get the vocabulary filled up from the languages ! of the several aborigines of their respective neighbourhoods. J The three former gentlemen have obligingly attended to my wishes, and I am assured that Mr. Elliot also is busy with the work. Of the seven languages which I now forward the com- parative vocabulary of, the three first came from Chyehossa, ! where Colonel Ouseley’s assistant. Captain Haughton, prepared ; them ; the fourth and fifth direct from Colonel Ouseley himself at Chota Nagpur; the sixth from Bhaugalpur, prepared by the Eev. Mr. Murder; and the seventh from Jabbalpur, where Colonel Sleeman’s principal assistant drew it up for me. The affinities of these tongues are very striking, so much so that the five first may be safely denominated dialects of the great K61 language ; and through the UTao?i speech we trace without difficulty the further connection of the language of the Ivoles with that of the “ hill men ” of the Eajmahal and Bhau- galpur ranges. Nor are there wanting obvious links between the several tongues above enumerated — all which we may class under the head Kdl — and that of the Gouds of the Vindhia, whose speech again has been lately shown by Mr. Elliot to have much resemblance both in vocables and structure to the culti- vated tongues of the Deccan. Thus we are already rapidly approaching to the realisation of the hypothesis put forth in my essay on the Koch, Bddd, and Dhimiil, to wit, that all the VOL. II. G 98 ABORIGINES OF CENTRAL INDIA. Tamulians of India have a common fountain and origin, like all the Allans; and that the innumerable diversities of spoken language characterising the former race are but the more or less superficial effects of their long and utter dispersion and segre- gation, owing to the savage tyranny of the latter race in clays vdien the rights of concpest were synonymous with a license to destroy, spoil, and enslave. That the Arian population of India descended into it about 3000 years ago from the north- west as conquerors, and that they completely subdued all the open and cultivated parts of Hindostan, Bengal, and the most adjacent tracts of the Deccan,* but failed to extend their effec- tive swrny and colonisation further south, are quasi-historical deductions t confirmed daily more and more by the results of ethnological research. And we thus find an easy and natural explanation of the facts that in the Deccan, where the original tenants of the soil have been able to hold together in possession of it, the aboriginal languages exhibit a deal of integrity and refinement, wdiilst in the north, where the pristine population has been hunted into jungly and malarious recesses, the abori- ginal tongues are broken into innumerable rude and shapeless fragments. Nevertheless those fragments may yet be brought together by large and careful induction ; for modern ethnology has actually accomplished elsewhere yet more brilliant feats than this, throwing upon the great antehistoric movements of nations a light as splendid as useful. But if I hold forth, beforehand, the probable result of this investigation in the shape of a striking hypothesis in order to stimulate the pains- taking accumulator of facts, and even intimate that our present materials already offer the most encouraging earnest of success, I trust that the whole tenor and substance of my essay on the Koch, Bodo, and Dhimal will suffice to assure all candid persons that I am no advocate for sweeping conclusions from insufficient premises, and that I desire to see the ethnology of India con- ducted upon the most extended scale, with careful weighing of every available item of evidence that is calculated to demon- strate the unity, j: or otherwise, of the Tamulian race. * Telingana, Gujerat, and Maliariislitra, or the Maratta country. f Bnichmanes nomeii gentis diffusissinise cujua maxima pars in montibus (Ariana C.abul) degit, reliqui circa Gangem. Cellarius, Geogr. J This unity can, of course, only touch the grander classifications of language, and he analogous to that which aggregates, for examjde, Sanscrit, Greek, Teutonic, and Celtic. COMrAEATIVE VOCABULARY OF THE ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES OF CENTRAL INDIA. ABORIGINES OF CENTRAL INDIA, 99 2 ^ rt .li?- a a cuAd as B Ad -2 a- S Ad ^ o ^ Ad v-j ^"5 A3 -M P-i O ■75 VS v;3VyA3^^ V3vcT>> > o sS ^ Ad 5 'a'o'cs o^'o.^'cs.S'— a,Ad a Ad a AS o Ad "O A3 ' D 'c3 .B . fcO, a S t“ ET._- a -q -E! vE ES '3 .5* oi ^ S3-^ a.^^'< 3JA3 u n O > rtAdAdAd c3Ad^ O d CAAd O 4^ m Ad Ad O bjQ^c} a a3 'd X? w ►-W a ’fi . 'O ^ S' S^.ti 2 - > 5PS 5 -S S vai -3 Ed .J3 .3 ^ -S 33 4^ -C .3 -o S 43 3 S"'o .§43 vq "'O.q^S gEE-cJa c..q -3 cs rt ^ 0..3 xd sj cs ^ i3 33 a m S3 C T3 -^3: Oi-q 4^cSm2 & 3333 S ci3 333!4<3 B'S-SEEmTS Ss3 «o 33 ,, t0_ JP3i 33 to a ^'2 3 .a fi :q .3 32-“ i3'T3'f3 to A rt j ^ M .^3 33 3 2 a JiD o A3 ASvrf'^'o f5'0^ ”a3soa3 w. ^ a.osDAd^Ad B-as3 A3 ^ H3 J ■3 - -5 Ad v<- rt oj O VO T3 a 3 a: rs A3 A3 ^ ^ ^ 'c5 A3 A3 c W fcp rT S3'rtAdAd^A3Ad^ .« q|;2 S-S t-A3A3'^.^ riA3 VD oAdAdAd 3 tOd) ei"z '3 fee a -gj s' a i-l aS:Rs3'&S^i5«-i.S aS sSJ J a^^sllll 'p -o j 'c .§ to •d'V'2 -"qS 0 ^ 42 '3 So 2'*2 .ip'S 3 '2 >>.s =, .S 4 _aSSv=5-^aE:;s-2-a'-^. CQ to ^ toNe a ^'C3 ^ t>> a a" ^ 2 a3'*!^'^'^aAd'^a- ci '^.a'Ova'*^*^'^ a'a aj c1'Ba3 A3 a w cs S >a)Ad a< t^Ad CO copa'OASA3 aAs copa'^w a^^^ So s*^* - ^ Ad 03 "^■5: <1> X-- A3 K^Vp^ - to 2 - -2 ^ . •S c E .S -PM "i o tr ' : C3 C2 r5 ci U ^ > a3 A- 5 P'5 S'o'S-- ^o 2 o e to-2 >> .B .2 ^ o o f t- 'a CD o lOO ABORIGINES OF CENTRAL INDIA. O vy ~ cj a GQ £3 rt cS P • rt ja W'cs 'H u Xi ^ rt rt NO 02 v2 'Sl)*es*^ M 'I® 'tSrtSvosa'^gq X < 1 ^ CO - 4 ^ cQ M Cm 3 >a M . . rs cj .h . 5 - c3 v^3 S' c=; vd tt r?; X3 tO'^ VO -P > o ^ ^ 'O to .'o ^•-'Ovo.-^vD^ga ^ '5^r2'^.2 2.SB;|g,^2^S|'g 22 So': vy ^2 xi a s:3- v-3 cu S a a ,2 ^ c5'«3 §‘o a rt a t> cD^ O aj P ^ (o o o> S fl «3 »a a 02 i=^ 13 s-s S cf "P ra “ - _ 'OPdS3'5Svq'3rt Ptitc‘;§'3-tf.Sn O gq3C'SgJrt.P^g C c3 5 «k TO ' a V-3 tN TO C9 •—< ^ vy ce v5 va c3 ^ tDJ3 X X 2 • S '«f S? , I S3 to ^ .iTT3 wpM^^aa'avri.:: ffiK SK t.'T3 'o_Pe t.43j = 3— 'PpoS “ rT-Z 2v:f s-vapj cSra s ac3>,!- — — ci'Srz qa ciqat>>ci'c3-3Nqp“'opa'<3'oqa'P p.^ P3 q P3 o c? P.-P SI n P.2piSP!)'P-Po S 23^ a as ca'C J2 ca ce 'o td ^ 'a ^ a §:= § a p-^a va o> *- asJ ri '2^-5? a 02 ^.„-S3 ^ a a M a4 toaa a) 2 § *5 ^ ^ ■a u .§ -E ^ ’u as ’5 a*n3 "a -a ■ «>a •a ^ pp ^ p3 a rt 09 a ^ *- m aa 'a a a3 a ‘a ra S 3 ^1 I i3 5 -2 pO a ’5 a a a w) va a o va rt h ‘op-' So p« tOJ X X"S X ^'■ -a 'p . .5 3 ^ ^ 5 ' 02 pM ^3 ^ rt ' • — ^ C<3 rS i -3 •73 TO 02 N3 rt s '2 a 'rf to _ '2 2 2 "2 S ! X 'rt ^ CO o 'o -p 'rt 00 a S3 = . a 'C S 3 s « ,= ' rt ^ S . pi 4 ^^72 rt ^ .M — • § -T'^ g p to '2 *5 'u .a ‘S^.— 2 rt 'rt 'rt rt *3 ,a 'o GO to’a 'a -a 'a £ * » rt .-a . 0) -a -s ,a ® ^ o -4J a CO a ' 1 ^ /*^ i«^ /-»/-» _» ?3 S '-' I— ♦ Ca '*' g g S q; .2 b 3 ° g2 >2 g2 g 2 >2 ^ ^ -t: 5 "3 s ji' a -o -.^ ^ ^ — ^fi(f^^f^,^i^^Of^PiPilLmV2ma2U2V2cr> ••2 pp a 3 K rt A misapplication, probably, of the Hindi word for sleep or sleepy. t Sanscrit? and implies that the sun is worshipped. ABORIGINES OF CENTRAL INDIA. ^■3 , 'cs — c ~ g S c3 rt 5 ® '5 ' U O V □ o S '<3 a v:3 — : Kn • ffl • ^ Ob' , rt SP^-gM C3 a rt s _-‘'c3 o Q'OrtiS^^ rt v-T '2 *rt d a CO 03 ^ c3 fl ^ o C 05 ^ <3 t) H a ® '2 ^ 2 I" ® 2 t>> ^ w «3'cJ^S3t-«^a>toa*o*^ '^coacoe3a*^fraOTc3 a c3 0JX3 OX) aN3X)X3 o X3 a a S "o o' 5 o o a o ’ ? -id a ^ 9 to o «^* -id tJ -d a *n M ^ to ' SvOrt^vOvS-dvTo’wvQCO^ _ vc3 a'd-d^-d^ CO P^tow o CO a to _ a 5 X) rt s« ci .a d X3 ^ ^ ^ C3 ►- ^o jli d) 4) £*a S 5 g .a "d rt x3 o o |3 '§ . 'cO •'H r* h^..* coco®, .2 — jE t; w 3.2.2s a 2 V -« ^ 4i»^-d-d -P4343,»a,p.ka c3voad^ .•'a> a-S^cdx3-*-»ajrc3a^55ortrtrt<3c3rt rtda^ccvrsadoa-d-dcooddooo -P-t»-t:>X) v-^v-avad W) <0 < 3 ) o c'd t- toa^^ ^ rt 52«3<3c3 aad^PHd ad d d d.a c 3 d c 3 cid to to rt ^ ^ to to ^ a a a a d VO rt rt » to to-*^ ^ ” ^vo NQ C5 rt X) ^ Krt ►r»V'- X) ' to ® VO to d ’« ’S ^.2-2 >> dg to to'§)^gj-g ._ 3 Id g ^ ndS3 ^'-A/(Wo3 dd x)-^i; - o c'S-sS'S'S g-2-S-S 2 gv3V5,35 rt a. o. H S .2 .2 rt toQj.aai 8 - *2 "ts as 'c 5 'o ~o t»> a g — c. a va .a c3 c3 X) vrf ^ _ X) *5 ‘fio ^ -a .2 .2 toS,a-d i ej 'cS .,M *a 4-3 I 2 i ?.9 told la ^ o> g« >»©a ttb.i: =1^ 'f 2 ^ S t- -e' ■ to d a > *a ^ ) ^ ® IS _a a -a o .y d ® oa;']<*-i o t- S “ ^S- 3 ' 1 1^ 1^ lOI Gdtang ia aurplusage and Hindi. t Ort to human beings ; others to diverse things. 102 ABORIGINES OF CENTRAL INDIA. d CO « a a ^ KffiH . a » - » ^ ^ j j i-rt L 4 g i s a a a g| a s s « E g .F-o)o®rto^S “ ^ & rt ■§ -g f'u. ci 5 3 'a.’to a .§ VO ' toj3 S -3 .B *= M >5 g> - 2 “ -a o ^ ^ - rt x3 •:? -^ is *1 ^ c3 > ^ fl '2 rt ' C3 > P P . O t> L.^ ^ ji> p rt P rt ^ .2 rt ' > .2 -P . H'-S rt rt ft? y S2 p . P ND . ^ C M -§■ 1 '2 ' . 'O -i- ^ 2 P3 .P' - P O 7) ••— »'^ . 3^0 o M ^ v2 '<5 § P^'g'«3 i o.S'rf:^ H &,3 t 3'P tOrt*''^ti ).2 o o -S . 2 '^o S S .2 P :2 ■ :§'SS •a o P 2 3 o ^ c" p ^ OS 'p c -2 *C ® r* r,W !? a -a a Eisrf -a 3 .-S B b ^ ’So-rS 'S i-r a ^ 3 S-S ■S -B « 2 3 3 3 H '5>3 3 -a a * fP ^ '5? ^ 3 O S -jj -P -P OQ '2;3^' P 3 'P O rp ^ ^ vrs c3 2 P O O fP ,P rt . ' *2 ; C •— P : 'oe p ^ '3 '3 '3 a s -o a '3 -a 3 a o c- 'S? t*>3 .'3s 3 3 2 >p IQ vm ^F^ F^ *P '—3 O S'cspd .Sjvd Pf^ PfP'P bo-P C 2 ^ tT bo •2 yy p ^ '‘2 CO »-i , * c3 rt ^ ^ .W a P : fP p ri o •73 'P 0> fP ft; — ^3 2 n — J •*» -O ^ +S 4^ ^ -. •= . 2 ^ 2 ? S u c3 cs cs d d .S 9 ^ o P o o 0 -tJ bo J P ^ o on rt F. «3 VF, C - -- U n <« a d a Jl fcn^-2 ^ n i ^ v3 3 A I «J .^3 32 o t3 'g -3 „ S *2 - - 3 M. c3 0 * • " EcdaS ® 3>i ._ .^ Cl a &• M) fP fP 'ci rt fP P p O fP fP c4 bo 2 p 3.2 a « a vg ^ .3 .-a “ t” B 3 -2 3 "2 -3 - - > -4» bO-P P P Nr3 'Si 3 p -S rt^.b^P C3 rt-2 rt'P'2 iS'S ■P O (O P 443 (f> fP CO os fP O 4 >» '-S^-2 fP P "p -P fP 'rt v3 p VO o P fP yy ...::? ■a ^ '2 g .2 eg 3.2 5 O s' ;g g -E .-ti ■“ '-' '■pj k - FF ^ ^ ^ 'Oyy'c3 flJ'oSvp'O'O k, P p p P bC-P P P ^ F* 'P c3 ei *2 2 co f O os co-f^ UfP ca PfP^ P fJ . i a ; '23 -a a 2 ci .3 1.^.5^ a-a.2. 'elp3'cS rt,£s P cs'O ^PPfPfPcCSSP g HH O ^ C-l a 2 a3 6 w E-iEh p^d p ®' 2« ®"gfcS;2-a « o POfP^^fP P OfTj^ '"2 • i-'T3 ^ § g a- a '2 w 2 . 'P a NrJ js a ^ ''P *s rr^ a> 0 ) <0 _3 tosri rt «3 !3 - a - '3 V3 vg 2 ^ to a ci Ps'ri 5 fs •'^-^ o cjrp otp.P p^ Orid P-^ J -i»d bo J P ^ ^ CJ Sri P3 'c3 a. M c! ^ !»> s. .- .'g, a a ^ •= '5 -c3 a 'rf a a v;3 . o'i:s' 2 “ii &i-i“a ■i4rtO'P"rri>^ o.^^p'prto'^pa S x: f- vr3 ^ 'ri a X 'P P -TS P a :g;a .gl J '&alH?, 'B, iP a o p : top? .P >s rt 'Ci sx. ^ .?-J S , P 'rt <0 J- P T3 d 3 'P ri4 fl OJ .P 1^ ■3:3 ^ a «« 5 .Jd 3 j _ca^ Sv^ P-Pp^^Jrip rt'cSsri 'p^rtcsort ^ ^ M ^ M 7P 'P •g, m3 -S 2 2 13 P P 3 C 'O PVQ.^'P 'o^'<^P 3 :r;p^j-p^ ^ o O^ C-. 0 -P o P-Pjt 4 -P ^ ^ 2 ri ^ p P 'c 3 aa rt rt d - a-.:paaT :2 ’' a^l i 'd ND -s J !-d a 'c -r^-g a .a, “ -a a 4 a ts .g va >, ^ a to ^ c s eS vA a a d dad “ 2 « Vd „ . s s a a H vd -s ~d "'3 "2 M'S "o 1?:::' § .S 'g 2 tl4 ^ OT - 4 J ^3 n 3 p a p d s d ci a a -0) 9 o’ 3 d d a a d d .a 5 a S 3 y “ S3 a vu a T 3 'd 3 a ?l>a P -p vp S) 3 O S ^ 5 ^ 3 P 3 3^ a 5‘^i V M fco Ui .. p 'ce o5 ci 9 a §33 g Sa'SSSS^^ !lilli-§f ll:|^■s,:llr a -g d d a d3 a ya' .3 a a -g .a .S’ S' S rP >0 P ^ ^ ^ 5 'Pp: p ^ i.a -s a s a P o ri P^ a -5 . a a a J ^ 'P S3 P so ci ' . 'P .li P tO^ ' d rp P'2 a a a^d '3-?' •^-d I d2 d3 d dd rt a 9 a a 5 p a ci ' so s a p ^ g 2 asllll » a 'tOrP J4 giii§ rt 'P 3 ^ 'P pid ^ 0 I> g.§ nv p ri 2 ?A 5 a a S° •a a a § P .P P bo P 'P g| 53 -ri 'P d 9 a 5 d cj S a a^ .2 'd .'P, t0_ P -ri rt 'P • 3 , ri ^ ^ to p rt ^ .P .P .P ri o “ ^ J -p -p • K- -a -P , i td. !>>J d d CA 2 • d g ^ d d d E O k‘ > rt ri E: a rt 5 ~'o -a 2 -t? ^ p .;-• ci X 3 •-< u ri <0 'J rt o , S KOaHMWmeii- 5 Wt 3 HOMol 104 ABORIGINES OF CENTRAL INDIA. a S3 ^ ^ ''3 i-J ‘ ^ tp^ -=1 — ' V3 > 3 .&■ c"-^ C .S '2 •=• S .i= b = _- S = '2 w — ^ c2 oo 3 '“CJ ^ ^ 3 . o ^ a ^ «« 'a ? - ^ ChC rs a a ^ a c ^ ^ ^ v5 2 „ . „ ^J2 ”2-"“ ^ 5 3 'S ovs ci ri.b“' •? 'O r. ^ C 'O i- fi .2 v:p ^ 2'j?^vo 5C to © ^ VO u r^'o rt --0 ■’” =2 •*' — ca Jbd C3 ^ a t£'«5 'S 'o rt 'a 'p rt O O ‘r-i oo C .r-:,^ r3 O c;> ^ to V > ^ 'S ^ ^ ® -id VO a.i! c3 ^ S ':3 1 ,^ a = r; 4T ¥ to VO ^ .5 ^ ^.2 tO.S .= 5 '2 'i '2 'c ■§ 'a j § '« ^ .ti •- ^ .*-,— ►I-J-S .2 c totco SS3-U^ cT S tp-« 23 ^ to 4- r£ • rid ^ t S 'E :5 ^ t^ 3 ; is ® vrs ^ a o c3 v:^ ^ -^v:? c ; ^ -3 C S3 rO £ _ M tn i '“ .s' s'S S '<3 c3 , v' a _2 2 '•2 pid 4'S §|>|-||i: VH Ci •-H C .s'O .o'? • ^45 > S3 A i to 3 a >> r.*"^ ^ pid O ^ ci'sJ •? a jj 2 sot's'll 'H ^ s sg3 s:m ^ .2 -T to to .§ §=3:§ £. 5 o ~ t: '5) g 'tb § a * ce *2 -+J o) o ^ pO 3 pO ^ ^ "2 S.3 S) ^ s 1 2 'Si 3 *rt rt *r! toil ^ - 'w VO •-■ '- 3 O « C ® *2 *2 v3 ^ rt rt ee 5 j-.'o c eo c= V. i-i fc- *-■ a)_3<-c3vc3rtc: _ p 2 * tc.a pid .3 ,3 .2 -3 tCS3 a p3 p3 ^3 b a ^ 2 a to 3 'O 2 § 02J/2 2.S a C3 S ;S ~— v^!5>-§ j.d 5 c (j,-^ vbS o-S-o— g --°«r^£oJ=s^c .3 S ^'3 o -•s 2 SKt 3 MO t § O 5 -w* c3 3 g o a 3 -3 a a CO cc w ^ Ilossii, udi, biira, bar, ai, moan "very,” " extremely, " and are more expletives, I suspect. ABOEIGINES OF THE NILGIEIS AND OF EASTEEN GHATS. ABORIGINES OF THE NILGIRIS. 105 3 =3 3 § 3 a a 3 '3 ^ ^ w — . ;rr a 'C 3 0 ) S 3 to 3 : '3 ®§ ' 5 ' 5 'SS'c. o ' -3 § c 3 3.- -Is v 3 s 33 0 ^ 2 'c 3 c 3 cSV 33 ^3 rt 2 : 3^3 Oh &, rf Q. a .g,>i 4 a a a, >> 3 3 H j ^ 3 3^ *M _a 03 «0 ^ = 2 -a S 3 3 3 ^ 5S s g 2 K 3 '3 •J3 3 > c3 O r 3 « S ^ -3 fco.ts rt,3abo>>a rt43^j3j to j '3.3^'3 3^ a ava^-s^ a^ 3 ■ 33 ^ .3^ 3 _3 _ .2, 3 3 2 '•3 S2 33 .. ^ "S S S > 'S « >3 S 9 3 *•“ n;_iv^ ^ 3 -*^*:i»H s a fl 3 rtJ 3 tot^a^^d cg-pJ4A4 tO-3 *73 -3 ^ ^3 VD 3 : ^ h 2 a3 ^ 3 rt s a 'j 3 -g a'o 0 S'® 3 a s:-a ”'2 S ffl t>' 3 '< 3 'c 3 («.S '3 2 br.3 rtOiatio>-,nc!a.ifift.3to p.- o 3 ci a o o cSx 5 ^ -■s « .3 . - r 3 > 0 ) rid a 1 > .,-, § -3 ^ ^ w II M ^:i^'^ 2 «^os 333 -^CH 3 op 2 ^j:d^.M>g’S Srt, 33 «i_i -o.^'^rtJii§ 3332 ' 0 § 3 ;^rt^^ 02'5 35 S'^ 'a C> 2 ^3 9 c o 4 : (h , t-, u t-t ^ »o-S -73 3 r3 o «>3 (]) 43 .3aC.b.iioSoa2o-s:5'33oo2«333 “.2 c:,-5 .2 .S .2 - 15 <^^Ot)SfeOOO 0 PKWWWHP^^^&^ta -a a>.a & P. cc io6 ABORIGINES OF THE N I LG IRIS. 8 *3 riil - 4) =545 a a "2 ^ r 3 O) i rt O 3 ^^^ gH>i 4 ^ M ^ "S m2 '=• a ^ "d 3 p 5 n! ^ g c3 3 'O C3 S to.s >, > P 3 g> 3 t 5 ==§rt«:2 ®m32 K P-5 t-Co.M3: »-«-s o osrs >2 t 4 "o O' .-S' a &-!<( P -c 3 P k -J^-P P VU a ■T3 P 2 .H 3 pip-P.,- 5 p 0 '<^' 73 rt 4 )aa) 5 K ^ fcc-a ^ ^ a ^ j ^ ^ - J 2 a a >s 1 ■— ^ a rt e« a 'O-^aa) 0 ^>. >>rs B J3 ^ o^r^^OT-a.h >i g rt rt M bo w ^a B ’S ^ ■ vc3 a B 5 ^ «'a* a s a rQ '•o q; 2 4 J V^> •iii © 'B'Z.'V a' a a a o> o a a -a a= ^ ^ ^ p ® -2, p ro ^ >o tO-3 a 3 -9 S ■> s S rt 3 M 0 ) 34 a a 5 da' 0 - 2 Sa) 0 .y>!Uc 3 paa)pcx) a t 034 >j'P apa-M-M 83333 o 3 a.i 3 [3 a T 3 a Jr 3p 3 p'2'g 2. O "8 33 ct 11 ) ■p 34 34 MS tD &, P , 8 fl a p -p .p o 8 33 P 0 ) P, P,M 34 Pi Nrf a; 2 9 vy .ra' ^ — a u R _ a) 0 ®Wf*©ci^'OcJ 4 ) 'cj ’,*3 rt > ?»- « — ^ va Cm ^ b5: T3 to ,'2§ d P^ vj a T3 . r5 ^ u _ ^a ^ ^ rt rt 2 ^-iivrtooapda bo c3 o c3 'a *a rt a rt d a P2 a a-^ 0 ) t>vd^ 41 ^ a j3 d a 'a I p ) cS 5 'bo"S > a — a: u bo k ' > rt o J3 VQ d S ^ ^ © anrtid a bb o ao^.tort^booobarf .i^'ra g ^ © ^ ^ -i *d ' 8 ,M P^p 5 &®3 dsas^as^Q'S), Plantain Ipdvdm ' vdbanne blddbannu I palebannu * pdlepdmbu ABORIGINES OF THE N I LG IRIS. 107 b ^ ^ to a ^ a J a £ B ^3 a _5 s : C C ^ . 4 ) Oh'^ 'c3^'c3cti'c3'<3'0;3c33t-, rtC< ^3^>vc3f^Ci.>r^&.CUCu2'^ n3fc0i a ^ fl a a d rt d d d 'd d « r ^ d fc- d ^ d > > d d > ti ^ •'O rt = ^ 2 'd ^ »»■ W *• " ‘w' II cjcSoiCdcddde^da t> 4) .d t* oj >. a> •— dSe^c^(^t>»dc2t^dctfWd .PN d 2 pM d ptd cd P. c3 ^ a rd 3 ^ t- C rt Vr3 d pM J 'd c vre ce S fc-a 3 :3 cs d“ 3 3 3 ^ t* 3 dn^Q rt 'C3 4) 3^5.^ 3 g-i-S a = ^ : "S 9 3 mhsq «pi^'c34J7irtO3c3irt;5.;-i0a) d ^ pQ rt pd pd a pi^jpdpdpd Spd d d todJ d d d cj 43 3 S’ r^ rt rt >» d • P d d d 3 , 'B ^ 'd ^ ^ cs a ^ d d W a ~'a p^d. d- dptd d.d.d-d d-d rS a ^ d 4> — rt'2'd^- 2 .d o a; “ to d 4> d pd 4) eS © d •« > > -TJ 'cS d ee rt c5 ® 3 ® ij «J 'g -a t: s -a ?^- © 0) - M bb ; S.2 S- >» a ci a P d 43 •-< >> d p^ d pp b. O II ;d O II I'd ^ > d o pd d ^ *P pd d .-T . d =2 « 2 £ 5^ 3'«pd ird'2 d'rf d G- -M d'Cj d-t4)pd 0) dddpldpdpd ddpd d — d t0pi4 ° ^ d > r0 rg c3 rt cS ^ P« PS d a a a ® 3 3 3 3 3- > cS B-^-3'd'3 3-3 > "«S3cS<«drtS(S 3 3 s3 3 '2 '2 rt rt rt - u ° a . c3 d a <0 .d >> d •S o .fe «pq« ^ , (H © 34 <3 i .3 >s-g <4 cj 34 34 .2 3 U 33 o^ 44^.2 SgJE 9^0 £ 5 ^- 2 ^^ g .So^^« 5 ^^ 3;2 = 3 ® rt <5 ^ cy ® ® ^ <3 J ^ P^ d ^ *“ .a 3 .2 a io 8 ABORIGINES OF THE NILGIRIS. 2 "S a a S'-g' a "3 « cjt».3cnocsa)>.t» &,.a a a cj a aj>(.aj.a a a -S' 35 ^_o=^ ci.'o S '5 ' 5 ? g ^ s ^ ® M •4^ d *< "m -1^ rt ® 0) bo 03 ‘S>>rtg'=''^f 3 ti'g J 2 ^i 3 - 2 c 8 So 3 a :§ gl 3 > s « ®''§ g:f 5 ^'§ S,S,S?'B^.a :2 a c 3 fl t>> bo.2 m a > a a a ?3 cq 3 '3 'a ,2 -a- a a g 5; n 3=_ rt>t>>d 30 'c 3 t> 3 >; 5 _2 3 .*J «5 c3 4j- — > ^ 41 : oa:§ a a. a a a-a'a'Da: o'g g, to'o a -a . >j:aaaa;at>» to. a ,^4 a > a .gsrs t>>.g c "S ® -a- •—5 O 03 o ® 2 . = ^:igg att.'owoer^rt, c3 '<3 >> > CL. 3 a a ® ® Ji’®bDo>iJr 2 rt - a .3 cd P^.a a ^ 3 c 3 ^ 4 -^ -a a TO i -3 43 t* ^ ^3* a II ^ cd> 4 q rt o . vr 2 a ^ - O >3 5 > q 2 ” Ch ® a a 'o > a bo.: 3^^ rt a aiS 3 ® a c33a®'>fr ^ « a o j= g EnOHEHfeP^ajajWizia'aHHPqfnWoHn^pi^rjOKiiE-i? 3 a “ *24 o >>;: > E « ^g'H - CS r- qj ) 3 £ 1 • • CO - r® - E-i cH >< N.B . — Genitive case scarcely used, tlic nominative case is used instead of it. ABORIGINES OF THE N I LG IRIS. 109 O ^ gj QJ fco bo C » C o -* ^ ' TO ^ I j _» ^ "ti :3 — _ rt <5 JS rt «« 'O-'S '<3 cc o 3 03 ® 9:^'c3^ _3 ® 3 3 flj ^ ojS'Cfl^'g'Sg: '--— ^ ® u.S^ o' > rt rt t>> ^i'cS 4J -M »-i ei c3 ® o ® s s s g ts Q., ^ CJ j: fl ■« =« s iS’i'll'S 2 :§-S 5 ^'tl ^ 1 . cs d > t-aC'd g o ® § ;=: i -S -c «■ ■- ® 3 ® 'a d o 1 P <« t t>» a ^ a cuva 'a > ^ ^^'cs 'cs >> >» j .t: > © ® a ® fl o © ® a ,© •i’ ^ ^ NO 3 -S 3 „ is-Z >^'«'o S.iPa rt a rt ce t-, 3 P- a ^ ci *£b to •9 ^ tC'M .a -d „ ”5 a ^ so tiOjS -e •+* a ^ bo a bo ^ 3: d © .- ,p.r Sv 3 rt to © © ^ . T3 ©T3 X -*^ a boto^'3 - O © © Ph 03 »d 2 fl ^ a IS ‘a ' a r5 a ^ 3 -3 d « =:g rt © a © a p- a >» 3 t>» t>^.3 .a-a^sjaNS csra >no > © ^ Speak I esLtli bini or arversli biui ■ mausbe | muU dane, mdtddiue I U peshike no ABORIGINES OF THE NILGIRIS. d 3 H ^ d ' ^ 5 ‘C : ^ c > -p '•zi ^ >5.d ^ rt 03 G Cm u rt G- C ^ -M ^.-2 = = ^ 5P: 'O fr-'o'<5 CrSVri c3v3 Gv®^ o ^ CL. VTi ^ fci^.d fT» 5i G ci..iL_« c^ T! C1..M .M « s ce ® ^ fc- ^ ® d o . s S ^ -a £f-S cL^ S ■ o) o O 'O ® a ho^ ^ ^ to d c?3.g vd G . ' 3 ® ® j 2 c 2 _ c .d ^ d d ‘d ^ T3 • > to~ . Srt C Jal C > ^ (>>-a . ^ o — . o)cc;mu»— - oo*^ >^-d ^ C5 -G > ^ •, d 'O S ” '^:3 •- ^ ® CO fc- vd d pG : •- ?n3 -S .-T ST-® ; -G ^ JH 4:? '•^GO^Oei®® : ^ 'm J3 a tC-M J2 ^ tc2 o ® .£P to t3 ^ ® ^ m to ^ Wo w ’d > W O -P rt ^ h. -*J .G : VQ fc. 05 . O w ^ oT ® jn © d ^ M 2 ® cT M ^'2 © w d cs rr •!-• 'd •-« rt d • i—> •-“ •»— > 03 va 00 C3 *- ,-M G rtvndcScS^fi'Ortoo a- G g: G 3 -d 1 ,G ® w ® rG G3 ^ I— CW f3 .d > rG • ® y-. _0 ' . M O -+^ 03 ; d «+-< ,r. --i o d -d ^ .■e-§ s 03 Sd^ ^ ^ ^llllillll-l c-d G.-W G xe o ^ ^ ^ fel e o|^ I OOmWhhI ' ' 03 »-l4 >H d--G ' *' o c c 33® ce & c--Lf :^43 ® wHOWoKKMa 3 MKt 302 OM?« toj.) ^ " Green T^je 'paje I base I base ABORIGINES OF THE N I LG IRIS. Ill 2 •A Ik Sa ce d o _ „ ^ a, to _ :3 -TS 'd,2S-«-=’=43 2 ” &> S ^ ;3 ^ T3 u -rS,^ > > a. S ^ 3 ' c3 S 5 2 3 a 0) :3 S3 O f- - 3 3 .- o| , to a CO 01 fcD'S . 2 ^ « ^ rf <1^ tOr^ •S 'go, I s O) s -s^ ^ 05 W *-• •— I Q5 O c3 Jo 05 c3 ~ c3 to 22 a ^ 05 S J g-2 (1h 3 n 09 fcH *-d c3 •;r! ^ • 22 c5 o . . _ fe 05 ^ ^ •s s'S a t>>'^ c*-, O ^ ^ O c_ I o s ' O Sh Cd c3 S to f-t a :n 05 O 05 ^ trt rt rt «i g J 5 1 ^ S ^ HH r^ ^ I £-2^ ^ ” ^'*^ Wi c/3 I-Oi' 05 W ^ G _S ^ g- 2 w g I a Pi n g o -2 S O w g g ~' 0+3 <15 to ■“ o rt ^ -O pq -' rt 'O 0) *o* .2,^ d 'O .-. CLt id: 3 ' 2 a G ■ -*:> W5 ^ t \i w ^ OJ 05 05 P " o a o P. (3 a d rt Q c3 O (3 _.< -g ® ’S ® S+ 0+ -r o) O +3 cu *-i +^ ^ d o 'S Ph’ .a “ p: • -4 'C^ CJ ■3 'rt ■g ^ 3 "o P P fl “ ^ 1:? >-' cn G ^ ^ to > G O to c3 ^ ?H ^ 5 a ® o ^ ^ H "" y c3 rd G ^ d wg g oT G 05 ' G c/3 C« ' G £3 05 G I o _ 0^5 -p 2 .^p dpg '• ^9 9 ^ tor a 'a § w rf a c3 O 05 3 o ^ . H ^ p . rr-« (-) * , 03 ! .t: 3 c -2 ^ ■*d> ^ G C 2-2-p 0+a,c8^J- 0 >dMr-iCcOPHa2fi,E-lE-iSp 05 G , d O O d p ,2»o ., ig;i 2 ^ ^ G ,0 r:3 G G ri::1 05 Pm cT G G 05 M O fl H-» 0) S S g 3 S ^ i § « ^2^§Sg O' 1-3 o O ^ 0) ^ S rt &■-§; pq;” ^-dCQ P cs-d _ 3 O as . cj o o> 03 S •"O 03 «G <= a “-Si s' 9 .3 <13 g 'W ® “ tg '*+ ,,p3 ^ ^ O o r] OT '4-1 1-^ ^ a •d— odS ^ QC + p >1 d . g j-s ® a-g ^ ^ ^ p^3S S P 5 M'-d .13 Q ca glad's g i S) ‘='25 p„ "J ^§-Sjpa^| +> S'd 5? .2 S ° M +^. acp .3 p -“ pS 2 a 'aSg 0) ^ O 3 73 . P >> c3 bo ; tD oT''^73 «45 o ^ ^ — 03 ^ a 'd .2'C'g'd s oi§ 03 Q a ^,a 03 “235^9 • ^2.2 o pPN* .s S.S5 p|d 1 d|- •'.§ Ildi a a ^ o Gt ^ a S 4^ .-G rn •+^ .52 35 r3 ^ 'T^ t! 4s ^ a *G 3 c3 ^ ® C O)' 'rt «w 1-1 ^ S ^ ^ g 2 .i: -g p ® S g g g § 03 ^ to 5 05 ^ g d «<.a'3 C.P "i.|’|5-2q ■” mS “-82 p .l-S.af s.|p ^ 03 03 c/3 a -^ ^ggSp^“ :a o 73 4> C3 M OT .a 03 ^ 4^ ^ >% to 03 ** 73 u5 t-< }M fl ^ >.2' c c3 a II2 ABORIGINES OF THE GHATS. Aborigines of the Eastern Ghats. To the Secretary of the Bengal Asiatic Society, Sir, — Pursuant to my purpose of submitting to the Society, upon a uniform plan and in successive series, samples of all the languages of the non-Arian races of India and of the adjacent countries, I have now the honour to transmit six more vocabularies, for which I am indebted to Mr. H. Newill, of the Madras Civil Service, at present employed in Vizagapatam. These six comprise the Kondh, Savara, Gadaba, Yerukala, and Chentsu tongues. In forwarding them to me, Mr. Newill, a very good Telugu scholar, has noted by an annexed asterical mark such Avords of these tongues, and particularly of Yerukala, as coincide with Telugu. He has also remarked that many of the Chentsu vocables resemble the UTdu. Having, as you are aware, a purpose of submitting to the Society an analytical dissection of the whole of the voca- bularies collected by me, I shall be sparing of remarks on the present occasion. But I may add to M. NewiH’s brief notes a few words, as follows : The Chentsu tribe, whose language, as here exhibited, is almost entirely corruj)t Hindi and UTdu, with a few additions from Bengali, affords one more example to the many forth- coming of an uncultivated aboriginal race having abandoned their own tongue. Such relinquishment of the mother-tongue has been so general that throughout Hindustan Proper and the Western Himalaya, as well as throughout the whole of the A’-ast Sub-Himalayan tract denominated the Tarai, not excluding the contiguous A^alley of Assam, there are but a few exceptions to this the general state of the case ; Avhilst in the Central Himalaya the aboriginal tongues are daily giving Avay before the Khas language, Avhich, though originally and still traceably Tartaric, has been yet more altered by Arian influences than even the cultivated Dravii’ian tongues. The very significant cause of this phenomenon it will be our business to explain by and by. In the meauAvhile the fact is Avell deserving of ABORIGINES OF THE EASTERN GHAtS. ”3 this passing notice, with reference to the erroneous impression abroad as to the relative amounts of Arian and non-Arian elements in the population of India — an impression deepened and propagated by the further fact, still demonstrable among many of these altered aborigines, of the abandonment of their creed and customs, as well as tongue, for those of the Arians. We thence learn the value, in all ethnological researches, of physiological evidence, which, in regard to all these altered tribes, is sufficient to decide their non-Arian lineage, and to link them, past doubt, with the Himalayan and Indo-Chinese conterminous tribes on the east and north. It should be added, however, that, in a sheerly philological point of view, it becomes much more difficult to determine who are the borrowers and who the borrowed from, when both are non-Arians, than when one is Arian and the other non-Arian ; and that, for instance, and in reference to the present vocabularies, we can decide at once that the Kondh numerals (save the two first) are borrowed from the Arian vernaculars, whereas it is by no means so certain that the Gadada and Yerukala numerals are borrowed from the Telugu and Karnata respectively, merely because they coincide ; and so also of the pronouns where the same coinci- dence recurs. All such questions, however, are subordinate and secondary ; and if we succeed in determining with preci- sion — by physiological, lingual, and other helps — the entire Turanian element of our population, we shall then be able to advance another step and show the respective special affinities of the several cultivated and uncultivated Turanian tribes of India to each other and to certain of the tribes lying beyond India towards Burmah and Tibet, with at least an approxima- tion to the relative antiquity of the successive immigrations into India. A word in defence of these vocabularies, of which the utility has been impugned, and impugned by special comparison with brief grammatical outlines. ■ When I commenced this series of vocabularies I expressed as strongly as any one could do the opinion that their utility must be circumscribed ; and that the ethnology of India would only then be done complete justice to when every branch of VOL. IL n 114 ABORIGINES OF THE EASTERN GHATS. the subject should be carefully and simultaneously studied, upon the plan exemplified in my work on the Koch, Bodo, and Dhimal. Much and toilsome labour has, however, since then, convinced me that inquiries confined wholly to India and its immediate vicinity would yield results far less satisfactory than such as should be greatly more extended even if they were less complete ; whilst these continued labours have more and more satisfied me that limited grammatical comparisons are much more apt to give rise to error than limited glossarial ones. Perhaps the fascination of such extended inquiry may have somewhat biassed my judgment ; but I am still decidedly of the opinion that the true relations of the most shifting and erratic, the most anciently and widely dispersed, branch of the human family cannot be reasonably investigated upon a con- tracted scale, while the subject is so vast that one must needs seek for some feasible means of grasping it in sufficient ampli- tude to comprehend its normal character (a thing rather of surface than of depth), at the same time that one neglects not more complete and searching investigation of certain actual or supposed characteristic samples. Such is the course I have been pursuing for some time past. I have examined, and am still examining, the complete grammatical structure of several of the Himalayan tongues ; and I have at the same time sub- mitted the whole of my vocabularies to the alembic of extended comparative analysis. I hope soon to be able to present the results to the Society. Those of the analysis have been fruitful beyond my hopes, owing to the extraordinary analogy pervad- ing the Tartaric tongues in regard to the laws which govern the construction of all their vocables, save, of course, the mono- syllabic ones, which, however, are very rare. Even a superficial examination of the vocabularies suffices to indicate this preva- lence of common constructive principles ; and to such persons as have neither time nor skill to trace and demonstrate those principles, the mere collocation of the terms as they stand, if done on a sufficiently ample scale, will afford such evidence of general relationship and family union between the whole of the Indian aborigines and the populations of Indo-China, Sifan, Tibet, and Himalaya, aye, and of China also, as philological ABORIGINES OF THE EASTERN GHAtS. 115 superciliousness ■will seek in vain to ignore ; and still more so will the results of the analysis, empirical though that analysis must, to some extent, he admitted to be. It may be conceded at once that these vocabularies must necessarily contain a good deal of error, which could only be completely avoided by a perfect knowledge of each recorded tongue on the part of its recorder. But as the languages are counted by hundreds, and as very few of them ever were or ever will be cultivated, either by those who speak them or by others, it is obvious that such precision can never be reached. On the other hand, it is certain that practical residts of great value have been reached by a much less superfine process than that insisted on ; and that if we suppose some thousands of facts, so simple in their nature as the mere vocables of a language are, collected with ordinary care, their failing to subserve effectually some of the highest ends of ethnological science, more particularly if taken in connection with other available evidence, must result rather from the incompetency of him to whom they are submitted than from their own intrinsic deficiency. Vocabularies illus- trate one another, and furnish to the skilful no small means of correction of palpable errors, if sufficiently numerous. They also furnish means of sound induction from analogy, as I hope to prove by and by beyond the possibility of cavil. In a word, vocabularies seem to me very much like the little instrument which Hamlet puts into the hands of Polonius ; a mere bit of perforated wood, which yet in competent hands can be made to discourse sweet music. Nor can I avoid some emotions of surprise and pain (for to disparage vocabularies is to discourage their collection) when I see learned men citing with applause the inferences built upon a few doubtful words picked out of a classic writer, or perchance out of some old map, and which yet are supposed to furnish sufficient evidence of the affinity of a lost tribe, renowned in the history of past times, whilst these same learned and eminent men allow them- selves to speak of vocabularies containing some hundreds of words, carefully selected and deliberately set down from the mouths of those to whom they are mother-tongues, as if these vocabularies could not furnish any legitimate basis for inference ii6 ABORIGINES OF THE EASTERN GHAtS. respecting ethnological affinities. But the objection adverted to is sufficiently answered by the valuable purposes which my series of vocabularies, long before completion, and with little or no resort to analysis, has been made actually to subserve ; and therefore, I trust, it is no presumption in me to expect to be able to educe yet more ample and important results from their careful analysis* after completion. Fresh ones continue to flow in upon me still, and I have obtained not less than thirty, almost all new, since my analysis was nearly completed. This is the reason why it has been withheld — this, and the daily * I subjoin a sample or two of my method of dealing with the vocables, to demonstrate, ist, identity of roots; 2d, identity of adjuncts; 3d, identity of constructive principles : — Sd, Burmese, a son A-sd, Ku-sa, Limbu a child Ku-sti, Karnatak, a child Ku-sd, Mikir, ditto Ku-ko-s', Oraon, ditto Ta-ng-ko-s', ditto, ditto ’ Sa (vel chd) is the root. It means a non-adult. Ka vel ga is the indefinite article, and a, the definite, or its equiva- lent = my, BO that ku-sa is any child, and a-sa my child. Ta is =: ka, and both take the nasal appendage, n, ng, or m. Oraon iterates the prefix and elides the vowel of its root — ta-ka-sa = ^ta-ga-pa below Pd, passim, father Ta-pd, Gyarung, ditto Ka-pd, Kassia, ditto Ta-ga-pd-n, TamU, ditto] Wa-pd, Gyarung, ditto U-pd, Hayu, ditto W-ab', Circassian, ditto U-pd, Chintang, ditto 0-pd, Rangchhen, ditto U-pd-p, Thulung, ditto U-ka-pd, Kassia, ditto Ap-d, Chowrasi, ditto A-pa, Waling, my father , The root speaks for itself. Gyarung has the ta and Kassia the ka prefix. They are commutable — ta vel da and ka vel ga — and the use of both is normal. Tamil exhibits both, and also the nasal suffix. The ta vel ka, used as an inde- finite article, is a contraction of the third V pronoun, another form of whieh is 6 vel d vel w. Hence u-pd, o-pd, wd-b vel wd-p, ta-pd, and ka-pd = pater illius vel istius, pater cujusvis, a father, whilst d-pd =: m,y father, as above. Thulung iterates the root, and Kassia the arti- cular prefix, like Tamil u-ka-pd = ta- ga-pd.i Yi-n Yd- I Chinese | Mankind, the species ] E-yd-n, Toder, father You-k, Burmese, man, the male Yd, Bhramu, a man) K-yd-ga, Tibetan, ditto Yd, Savara, woman, mother Yd-m, Tibetan, ditto a wife a woman Ta^^d I Tamil Ta-yi, Karnatak and Yerukala, a mother Ta-ng-yd, Oraon, a mother Khyi or Kassia | a mother ; 1 = Ta-i Tha-i Malabar yi Yd, yd, yi, the root, = man, the species, or the male or female, or the emphatic female, viz., mother. Chinese, Bur- mese, and Tibetan have the suffixual definitive m = n, as in Chinese and Tamil supra ; k suffix, the same as k y vel g prefix supra, such transposition being normal and exemplified in ap-d = u-pd = wd-b, supra. Observe that the use of the prefixual a and ta, as respec- tively definite and indefinite articles, is common to Tamil, Lepcha, and Limbu. I might add Burmese, &c., &c. Malabar Vhas ta prefix aspirated. ABORIGINES OF THE EASTERN CHATS. 117 increasing skill in the use of that most potent of instruments, extended comparative analysis. But I cannot now expect, and Er = R^, Ouigur, man Ar =: Ed, Mikir, ditto Ir = Ri, Bhaskir and Nogay, ditto A-ir' =: A-ri, Armenian, ditto E-ri-1, Hd, ditto E-rd-1, Sontdl, ditto E-rd-s, Hungarian, virilis Wi-rd, Scythic, man U-ri, Kasikumak, man G-ri, Kocch and Dliinidl, Paterfamilias G-rd, Bddd, head of Pagus E-ri-n, Kasikumak, man T-ri-n, Shan, ditto Ta-n d ri, Telugu, father Ta-g-ri, Lepcha, man, father ( The rd, rd, ri root for mankind is pal- pable throughout, and the prefixes and suffixes, as well as the cumulation of the former, are normal, and therefore har- monise with the preceding samples ; thus, t-ri, g-rl, ta-g-ri, respond precisely to ta-pd, ka-pd, td-gd-pd, aforegone, while n suffix of the Shan tri-n = the Tamil n in ta-ga-pd-n not less than the Telugu n in ta-n-d-ri. A vel e an a ^ J '^•'o .S-gsaoj-a Bxi ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ rt a - ^ o ^ j a o c3 :«• s to'^ O 3 CQ . a a a cs 4J* Q. &. rt ++ 't 3 's 3 5 - a^n^ ^ 4 a t; g a^.-; q 5 )« rt rt'c^v bo O (>>fM (» t >>-0 P 4 CO Q 4 ( i|( 'cS ^ ^ 3 c 3 rt a 3 > O vrf OQ 'cS fl x/-« 3 O) a S.a nS-.-T'^ '3 P P>> J '3 > t> tOJ3 to m to 3 t ^ 33 3 'B a S ^ -S 3 33- S 3 Jid O cS 03 cS CO va> a to H .^ . CQ —. a ~t3 « cs bb;- 'rt ^ S-aal’S a a 3 a > to ^ u ^ 5 'O >> cS ‘r^-ri > a 3 > a •a2| cS rt -14 a 3 to to.^ s — v g -14 ^ > aa -14 c5 to^ 3 g M3 .-. . ^ ^ 3-3 ' 3 * s 3 * Is c 3 rt ^ M 3 ■‘''^^<33 to p 3 ^ 3 c3 m3 M3 C3 3 M3 2 to 3 be a> 3 vS g ^ H '3 g 1 -3 a .a, ^ ;s? ■3 m 3 ^ 0 ); 5 m 3 ^ rt 3 CO ^ -t^ C^ C?> & p n 3 ^ 53 3 to > O ^ ^ 3 ^0; u toS ^«*5 9*^ So'rt' t>x^ .b w ® o o _ 'd ■■ 3 f 3 to c3 >cs.b. 2-2 o 2 * 322^^3 t In Telugu, kdki. } Telugii, pagalu. I 20 ABORIGINES OF THE EASTERN CHATS. '-'Sad ■ a ,M s ■ , . o G ■3 Q C ^ Q 'tfS G 1-3 rt '•rf ^ ^ cQ to to^ G.rs S 9 9 9 £1-9 9 c V cu- o ^ ^ ^ 2 .3 »• 5^ ^ > '^3 c; 3 0 > c3 pG> © ^ cS ^ ^ G ^ ^ 2 pG'<^S-‘ p 3 > 3_,-^P-^to9©^ — Q . - G 2 pid pG G3 3 p 2 'G-^ c > J to s vG G 3 ■ — • O ■“ p— > ftp e 3 ^^pid C-G £l«a G-4J ci3 to "J3 'o ja •r; t*> o "g h ^ G pid GJ > > .2 . i N<3 © rt 'G- 3 iifl 59 .id C* ® 2 3 u © O 3 .3 to £l>pld -4-3 pid G O G ^ 2 G , © 3 » 2 ^ I V3 ^'p^.p^ o *t£)^ •4^ CQ > c^pidpG ’ 9 3 I o o< to ^ 3 1 3 3 -p .« J pG © eS >» to to t»%-3‘'3 Q CQ C c? 3 v:3 “"g- tp a ■ •?.3 '£ 2 • a" I G cj '=1 ^ G a .2 g --^3a-a^®.-,'g, -' 'G g 2 3 o c>^-^ ‘3 tO--^ CO !0 c 5 > to . G pid G pS’pG P rt .. o rt 3 p5 P-j-G c3 «« to r* 3 G ci ^’><3 s“S.g|€’2 S t: G.Gr^^C 0*«3 rt rt > pid rt cj tO-G to "s 3 a rS"^ 3 -S-S ^ La* >> b b 'S'-a ^ rt ^ to ton -a to -a > . ■drf-«3§o2 —Sa S335 - _ _ S*"^ -T3 .2 ~c3 -a- a 5 a i "o- “=^0 a ^ -t< ?•— 'o -<3 ^ -3,2 n J3‘3 S'c3a'c33oa^2>-'-33't3^'c3 G ^ *9) Gi>G-9cQca>pGpidcd9G S5 ^ ^ - -^ -2 « to d ^33.2 .2 3.iro « SSiSOP^Mp-OJMWWWMWE-E-ipHp'-P'f'* ABORIGINES OF THE EASTERN GHAtS. 121 § 9 c>» a.. >» - ® 3 ^ -C3 a a a .! uo'O ^ -OJ rt ^ -4^ > ^ ^ Itlll* O -cS ^ rt TS 9 > S. g 9 _- ?o-g ■«„-“§,§ -9 S ^ ^ r'csJs^ ON:3rt'o;3, J ^ CO D--0 04 t> -til ,.-• W) 3 o* c > o rt '53 ou CO O 3 S 2 '2 a s ^3 • ^ ’-S* ' ^ ns. p S.al . o -- 3 , 3 3-^ ,3 S S Cr^ 3 3-2 S 5 1 -H 3-i > > = ^-§ 2-3 3^ ^ I S)‘1|>S)3'| S 33 '|-3. a 3 3 * 3 “ 2-J -2 i 3 ? g s a = 2 3 g g a c g a g ,3 •- 3 g -g '“■" c3Qr<2ao3>^,rfflpjvc3P>->t*^004t^ O 4 ei ri4 'cS . a p p ei a p a p p rt-S S 4 - ^ p rP 3 > o Q> « 3 p o. p 0 ^o 'O ^2.3.3 •3 3 £»&? o aj *2 p p : .Z, * * - .. -e- 3 3 bo 3 > J a *. a a a 5 d -5 5 . 3 3 c3 "o; >n c3 * ^ - a b’-o* 393 a a a - u-o > P S ' to ci 5 ^ © c3 © S -4J fl P -+J 9 '^ ■ A . _ § ° a g 9 ! -3 -3 a -3 ^3 a -3 &• 3 •■-> T3- t>,3._:3.A2 i;— 3.^:-^ M M a -3 'g -g* a NJ G • G 'CS G • G VT Q -I-^ \«» wo/ '-U o i PPabouPCaPP.os3^0GS edciPcSrtbOdcdPc^c^NrSrO^^P-td CI PM. o o 'E, 3 3-3 to tO'o - 0-084 O O vfl •3aa3:r; I .tn .‘P 3 ^ ^ cn ^■* tp» 3 'd M 3 e« . 0 . ■i ,9 33 VO 2 a >» p^-S © © 3 p c > 'a > ^■*3 . ^§:g-. to : 43 '5^ ^ ^ - to w T3- "©O'© 'CJ VO srf 4_». W -V-; O 4 OQ CO ^ P 'd -td o «C .“■3 CO -P JP © 'O P j pO «? o O 0> CO >> o .|;s S ii a > M g.sp^ g S -p ® ^ ^ > to o P ■b >* o!P o 5h O H I 3 o -a -P 122 ABORIGINES OF THE EASTERN GHATS. 5 --g 55 c.-?- I 2 o r- ^ rt Wf 2-f P-g- •« Nj w. a « - ^ ’^'3 "S ’*-•2 5 Q *-« "cs w, »'v^ 5 9 *"■ £■-« £"2 &“-3 -:3 ii§ © -3 ^ >% © © rt :a v=j ^ ^ :5 ?J3 ©'^';3x^ ©.9"5 fiNra a> rt pj : ^ MJi ^ 5 C ^ ^ fl > 5 Po to to Cm 3 . 3 -C. 3 . 3 O. 3 , a. .b v3 3 3 ^ © w - z ^ o d >: a. © g © © rt ^..- a © c3 t»%Ji ac>»«i3P^a-fas rS ® ■ 'D*— . ■ © © ci ^ 2 ^.g i3. : 5 15 ^ S ■?» S NO ® ® d -= ..■«• rt* © a >>>>>>« ^ 3 ra 'c3 •;;a .a 3 i^ d e ^0 '3 -- 'C- o 3 S ®. NO 'O „ ^ ^ a-H- H ^ 2 g g a 3 I 3 = 3 -3 , .'3- a :h- 3 ■ e 25 B4 — .OciOoJ»333n3. c3>->t»oa-42>pi4^:^ 3 2 "d :S'^'t O NO © © 'O a £:h g 2 NO '3 p-» o n: 3 k t» C3 t* C* ^ 'O ? V C ^ d<^ a a rf^P d — ^ i ^nadflaa^^gg p p -Tv |Nrfrt';^rt^art I- £?-S •S.'S ^vy> ^ ^ s r ® 223 a >> fl »d c3 -*J > "a 2iu) C t5 a rt © NO ^NO to NO ■S, i 9i . 2^''5’.=P •V N^ a rs 'O ro CO .S N<4 ‘fi. ® '<3 vd ® '^3-3 n:3 a c ^ d © no H ! Sr«a a -2 © 3 £3 ® fe 0) O .5 m - Iggfcaaa: ^.2'? I G r:? ir; !-• :-« 3 ai a > d © *-3 H-^®^©&fn & *d -3 Jh o fe 2 te ^ - d 0,35 o o®®f35^ o ®55 <3^2--.^u2 ® d. ABORIGINES OF THE EASTERN GHATS. 123 o o ^ ^ « _g *' 3 ^ *72 u >*p.v. • ^ o r 5 •«• ffl ^ C;'c5^^P*'_3d _rC^ _52 rt e« ^ .'<3 -rf 'O . 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P p4 P a, rt rt c3 CO 3 ’3 ™ s. • •-( to OS t>» to q O O H 3 3 —. 3 a 5 * 2 ^ .^24 p e 3 ^ — a crsopaas's •E:2f's:a'rt:2|rt3 ►» c« >* rt p4^ P M 'P g 3 •3 a 3 P g .S’. ^ X^ 'cS 2 s ai V-« P C a 3 'P 3 P^ vy -:3 ^ P P -WJ <— * .^ J3 P c3 v5 yS Q-^ rid ^ ^ •H C3 .2 3 P k> ^*1 FH »-<( M Kn -Z a 3 3 § a P S ^ g .§ 3 '«■ 3 "S 24 3 = 3 5 = 3 a 8 rt .a s .2 3 3 k>.E:N.3 4> .isrt'3e-rt>.B 3 3 3 a 24 23 o ^ p ip a . rt ,a u o S3 •^2 .3 rt 2 -3 -P S’>» .5 "3 •S23 23 ^ «.|'|5§“’a'|a I'^gB 2.S^r=.5j£ s 'I s'? -c 2 .g ^ .^. s 124 ABORIGINES OF THE EASTERN GHAtS, s s S3 3 53.3-2 a ■ > e S 5 -cs 3 5-§. ’3 d: 3 -rt J O "O 3 h o rt NS eS 3 3 'tl Ja a 33 -j ja ' ‘ - *42. ^ rt 2 ^ 'S o to c4 : ^ ^ CO Xi M > tO^ O d D ^ > M a fl 2 2 cr jd ^ rt j a Xd :3^ ^ 13 " S3 ^ {>, ^ Q f3 -P § ^ p rt J,x > ^ ^ a «s « o> _3 i" «5 ^ rt 2 ^ o ^ CO P-i 13 r^3 c3 ^ rt ^ .2 CO > 3 oj rt 33 s_ S_I QJ 3 0) cS ^ P P -M 'rf _ 3 c* S'<3'y a* >H'cJrt2 rtPpp^ P P _S tJ 04 rtcJc^ctfedc^Pcv >• >^>»>^ t> c« *T3 3 ^ c •r' ::j CO p 3 H3 ^ ^ to -TJ M ^ O CO ^ rO CS 'P TO a 03 ■ p fcH ® 'a 2 ? = .: t>>^ -» pO > ^ *^* P 'P* P P Ct ® P , NrJ ® to o^ i s lo d :|. 3 sa "P bo a 2 to 9 a 9 S3 g g ,3 r9 .a j 2 tJ ^ -§ ^ 33 os 3 r2 3 § ^ 0,33 >, ^ a o 'o o 3 rt 3 P <3 to pO ^ 2 g a a cd a c9 c( ri4 P c3 OJ s 3.9-5 „-s^. a a g 2 ^ ^ oO^o^o o X tin •!— > Pi 03 > -f— »P*-^ P* OQ c 9 rt P e« p l^*^- 3 a S3 ? p to ^ ci d S p vj P-3 ^ rt '® 2 top. 3 ^ 5 P P o o 2 o •- .2 bo^ 2 > p ‘ Ip, rt e« g >42 t£P If-, w w O P P ^ P to bO O 3 S 55 } rM 0« f .0, rt S a P 04 •p ® 5 “ .a n3'j3 ^ a d 5 ® ’S CO 4-> 0« . O IrP P CO c3 ^c5 O Nre ® p p fc. c3 ^ NrS rt a Mj rO CQ bO ♦ P ' a 'a .M X bO s ^ p.9 . -p p"> c} ^ ed a.^ M M 5> p O* ea ^ ® to p tiD p O f? S J3 P P ^ _ CO t— • P _fl ® «a ^O ® ® rP ^ krs> ^ t>> o Os & o| 02 1/3 n M ^ rra S ® /r, '■"■"^ -- 0-2 gl^-O S n 033 S g S 3 Ui 0 02 O^^^O>~^ 02 b^ 0202 O^ 02 P X ( X a X ^ X s .2 a U Note. — The words marked thus * are also Telugu words. Many of the vocables of the Yerukala people correspond with the Tamil words representing the same objects ; and many also of the Chentsu words resemble the Hindustani, ABORIGINES OF THE NILGIRIS. 125 ABORIGINES OF THE NILGIRIS, WITH REMARKS ON THEIR AFFINITIES. In the autumn of last year I forwarded to the Society a series of Nilgirian vocabularies. This paper was printed soon after in the Journal, but without the accompanying prefatory remarks, which seem to have been accidentally mislaid and omitted. I now forward some corrections and additions to that paper, and shall take the opportunity to mention what, in substance, those prefatory remarks contained. The Nilgirian vocabularies were prepared for me by the German missionaries at Kaity, particularly Mr. Metz, and were then examined and approved by the venerable Schmid, who is now residing at Utakamund, and who added some remarks, partly referring to his own valuable labours in Indian Ethnology, and partly consisting of corrections of my Ceylonese series of vocables. The latter are appended to the present paper. When the Nilgirian vocabularies reached me, I immediately perceived that the verbs were not uniformly given in the imperative mood as required ; and I therefore wrote again to Utakamund desiring that this anomaly might be rectified, and also supplying some further forms, the filling up of which might furnish me with some few essentials of the grammar of the tongues in question. The subjoined paper exhibits the result, and from it and from some further remarks furnished by Mr. Metz and others I derive the following particulars relative to the people, and to the grammar and affinities of their speech. The form and countenance of the Nilgirians, and especially of the Todas, have now been spoken of for years as though these people differed essentially in type from the neighbouring races, and had nothing of the Tartar in their appearance. The like has been said also of the Ho or Lerka of Singhbhum. I have always been inclined to doubt both these assertions, and I have lately had opportunity to confirm my doubt. My 126 ABORIGINES OF THE NILGIRIS. friend Sir J. Colvile, our Society’s able President, having lately visited the Nilgiris, I requested his attention to the point, desiring him to procure me, if he could, some skulls and photographic portraits. Of the latter he obtained for me two, which are herewith transmitted, and which Sir James sent me with the following remarks : — “ I am not much versed in these matters, and I confess I was at first insensible (like others) of the Tartaric traits you speak of, the Eoman nose and long beard of the Todas more especially making me fancy there was something Semitic in their lineage. But when I showed the passage in your letter to Dr. M'Cosh, he said you were right, and that, in spite of the high nose, there were strong Tartaric marks, particularly in the women. The Badagas, who are considered to be of as old date in the hills as the Todas, have a very uniform cast of countenance, not easily distinguishable from the ordinary inhabitants of the plains below the hills.” These last are of course Dravidian or Tamulian, and the comparison drawn is therefore instructive, and doubly so when we advert to the indubitable evidence of language, which leaves no doubt as to the common origin of the highland and lowland, the uncultivated and the cultivated, races of Southern India, as we shall presently see. Upon the origin and affinity of the highlanders Sir James observes, “ People who know a good deal of the Todas say, that wherever they may have originally come from, they have less claim to be considered aborigines of these hills than the Kotas, not more than the Badagas, and are thought not to date higher than some four hundred years in their present abode.” klr. Metz, the resident missionary, who furnished the vocabu- laries, observes on this head, “ The Kotas have so much inter- course with the Badagas that they are often not conscious whether they speak Badaga or their own language. Their original home was Kollimale, a mountainous tract in Mysore. The Kotas understand the Todas perfectly when they speak in the Toda tongue, but answer them always in the Kota dialect, which the Todas perfectly understand.” * Neither Sir James nor any of the other parties I applied to could obtain for me any skulls. ABORIGINES OF THE NILGIRIS. 127 “A Toda tradition states that the Todas, Kotas, and Kurumbas had lived a long time together on the hills before the Badagas came. I know places on the hills where formerly Kurumba villages existed, but where none are now found. It is well known that the Kurumbas were driven down from the health- ful summit to the malarious slopes of the hills, and I have strong reasons for believing that the cromlechs and cairns of the hills were made by the ancestors of the Kurumbas, and not by those of the Todas, as is generally supposed by Europeans.” In entire conformity with those views of the aspect and origin of the Nilgirians is the evidence of language, which palpably demonstrates the relationship of the highland races to the lowland races around them. The amply-experi- enced and well-informed Schmid has no doubt of that relation- ship, which indeed he who runs may read on the face of the vocabularies formerly and now submitted.’^ And it is well deserving of note that whilst that vocabular evidence bears equally upon the question of the affinity of the cultivated tribes around the Nilgiris, this latter affinity is now maintained as an unquestionable fact by the united voices of Ellis, Campbell, Westergaard, Schmid, Elliot — in short, of all the highest authorities. We may thus perceive the value of the evidence in question with reference to the uncultivated tribes, as to whose affinity to each other and to the cultivated tribes Mr. Metz writes thus, “ When I came up to the hills, the Badagas told me that the language I used, which was Canarese, was the Kurumba language.” This reminds us of what we are told by another of that valuable class of ethnological pioneers, the missionaries, who reports that “Speaking Tamulian of the extreme south, he was understood by the Gonds beyond the Nerbudda.” Nor can one fail to remark how this latter observa- tion points to the great fact that Turanian affinities are not to be circumscribed by the Deccan, nor by the Deccan and Central India, nor, I may here add, by the whole continent of India, but spread beyond it into Indo-China, Himalaya, and the northern regions beyond Himalaya, irrespectively of any of those * See the Tamulian proper, the Ceylonese and the Nilgirian proper. 128 ABORIGINES OF THE NILGIRIS. specially marked barriers and lines of separation which Logan and Midler have attempted to establish — the former, on physical and lingual grounds ; the latter, on lingual only. My own conviction is, that we find everywhere throughout the regions now tenanted by the progeny of Tur a large range of variation, physical and lingual, but one not inconsistent with essential unity of t}rpe, though the unity is liable, nay, almost certain to be overlooked, whether our point of view be anatomical, physiological, or philological, unless we carefully eschew confined observation such as misled Captain Harkness about the appearance of the Todas, and not less Captain Tickell about the appearance of the Ho. I have adverted to Harkness’ mistake above. I will now add a few words as to my brother-in-law Tickell’s. Last season Captain Ogilvie, Tickell’s successor, in the charge of that very district wherein the latter studied the Ho physical and lingual characteristics, came to Darjiling. I questioned him regarding the alleged fairness and beauty of the Ho, and well knowing that, without samples before him. Captain Ogilvie must be unable to give a definite answer, produced, from among the many always here, four no doubt unusually fair, well-made, and well-featured V'xkon and Munf?a men, but still all in the service of one gentleman, and I then interrogated him. Captain Ogilvie’s answer was distinct, that the men before him were nearly or quite as fair and handsome as the Ho of Singh bhiim, and not either in feature or in form essentially distinguishable from the Ho, W'hose lingual characteristics, again, we now know, are so far from being peculiar that they are completely shared by the wide-spread tribe of Sontal, and almost as completely by the kluiif/a, Bhumij, U rao?i, Male, and Gond, not to speak of other and remoter tribes of Himalaya and Indo-China having the widely diffused pronomenalised verb type of the Turanian tongues.* Not that I would lay the same stress upon these nicer characteristics of language, as * Viz., the Ndga, Dhirndli, Hdyu, Kuswdr, B6tia, Kintnti, Limbu, Chepdug, Kusunda, and Blirdmu, of all which I hope soon to speak. All these tongues, of which the first is Indo-Chinese and the rest are Hinidlayan, belong to the pro- uominalised class. ABORIGINES OF THE NILGIRIS. 129 seems at present to be so much the fashion in high quarters. But, on the contrary, I would choose, as a Turanian philologist, to rtdy rather upon extent than depth of observation, still remembering that by far the greatest number of Turanian tribes are not merely unlettered, but too many of them also, for ages past, broken and dispersed, barbarously ignorant and miserably segregated, like the Nilgirians. The niceties of such men’s languages can never be accurately reached by us, unless we would devote a whole life to the research ; and, moreover, these niceties are certain to exhibit a great many anomalies, and to be now present, now absent, under circumstances which, whether the absence were origi- nally caused by impatient rejection, by casual non-development, or by spontaneous or factitious decomposition, must detract greatly from the value and certainty of any inferences foundetl thereon ; whilst in regard to the more civilised tribes, we often positively know and may always prudently suspect that their lingual refinements, when they differ from those of the ruder tribes, are so far from being special illustrations of the true norma loquendi of the Tartars that they are exotic and borrowed traits. From this digression (which has reference to IMiiller’s remarks on the relative value of vocabular and gram- matical evidence) I return to my subject by giving the following observation of Mr. Metz upon the affinity of the several Nilgirian tongues now before ns, merely premising upon the interesting subject of the character and habits of these tribes what Sir James Col vile in his recent visit heard and observed. “ They are idle, dirty, intemperate, and un- chaste. Polyandry has always existed among them, and their women are now addicted to general prostitution with men of other races, so that they must soon die out ; and, in fact, I think the population is scantier than it was when I was last here, thongh so few years back.” Upon this I may remark that the traits observed in the ISTilgiris are thoroughly Tartar, and as such are widely prevalent in the Himalaya and Tibet. Even the civilised tribe of the Newiirs, who, by the way, have a recorded tradition uniting them with the Malabar Nairs — a name identical, they say, with Neyar or Newar (y and w VOL. IL I no ABORIGINES OF THE NILGIRIS. being intercalary letters) — were once polyandrists, and are still regardless of female chastity, whilst the Tibetans were and are notoriously both. Mr. Metz, on the subject of the dialectic differences of the Xilgirian tongues, observes : — “ The differences of the several languages of the hill tribes consist, not so much in idiom as in mere pronunciation. But that is so great that the same or nearly the same word in the mouth of a Toda, with his pectoral pronunciation, can scarcely be recognised as the same in the mouth of a Kota, with his dental pronunciation. The Badaga and Kurumba dialects are midway between the former two with regard to pronunciation, only the Badaga is a little more guttural than the Kurumba. “ There is some difference even in the speech of the several branches, or remotely located groups, of any one trihe. For instance, those of the Badaga tribe who, like the Kangaru or Lingaits, emigrated from Targuru and came to the hills at a later period than the others, speak a purer Canarese than the common Badagas. So also the Todas among themselves have differences of pronunciation according to the different districts they inhabit; for instance, some pronounce the s quite pure, others like z, and others again like the English th. And in like manner the Kurumbas round the slopes of the hills have so many little variations in their speech according to the situation of their villages (Motta) on the south, east, or west side of the hills, that it is difficult to say what the real Kurumba tongue is. In Malli, the chief Kurumba place on the south slope, the language is much mixed with Tamil.” I will now conclude with a few remarks on the grammatical traits exhibited by the subjoined papers. Phonology. As much as is forthcoming on this head has been expressed in the vocabular part of this paper and the remarks appended to it. It may be ad^■isable, however, to repeat here that the presence of the English th, and its frequent substitution for s and z, and the equivalence of the two latter, are so far from ABORIGINES OF THE NILGIRIS. 131 being exclusively Toda, as Sclimid supposed, that they are com- mon in Indo-China, Himalaya, and Tibet. Tibetan abounds in sibilants, having, besides the s, cb series, an equivalent z, zy, dz series. The former is possibly borrowed. At all events, z, zy, dz, and ts, tcb are very much commoner in use than the Arian s, cb, series. The second z, represented by me by zy, and equal to the French j in jeu, is the same witli the Tamil zb of Ellis and Elliot. It is a very prevalent sound, and equally prevalent is the French u, or eu in jeu aforesaid. Neither is ever beard from an Arian mouth ; but the Hima- layans most infected with Arian ways and habits are now gradually substituting Arian j for their own z, and Arian u ibr their own eu. D is also taking the place of their bard and aspirated z (dz and zb), and tln;s the Tibetan word zln'-ka-tscM and Newilri Zbi-kba-cbben,* the name of the capital of Tsang, has become liigarche with those who use the popular and spreading Ebas language, which language we hereby perceive also preferring sonants to surds (g for k), whereas the written Tibetan and Newari, like the Tamil and Toda, having a pre- ference for surds. But Tibetan is spoken with all the variety of hard and soft pronunciation noticed by l\Ir. Metz as characterising spoken Toda and indeed the whole of the Nilgiri dialects ; and as there are few things more normally Turanian than the wide extent of legitimate, habitual commutability between the con- sonants and between the vowels also of the languages of the family, so I consider that to lay so much stress as is often * Tlie etymology of this word is curious and important with reference to the evident identity of the term Tibetan. And it is hardly too much to say that the family identity of the two tongues (Newdri and Tibetan) might be rested on it. It means in Newdri “the four-housed,” zhi or zyi being four, khd the generic sign for houses, and chhdn being house. De Kbrbs has said nothing about that most fundamental sign of the Turdnian tongues, the generic or segregative signs ; hut I have good reason to assume that this is one of the several serious defects of his grammar, and that Tibetan kd is = Newdri khd, as zhi = zhi, and tsdn = chdn, though khyim be now the commoner form of the word in written Tibetan. Zbi-khd-chhdn or Zhi-kd-tsen Turanice = Digarchdn Arianice, is the name of the capital of Tsdng — why styled “the four-housed ” I cannot learn. But three suc/i elements, composing one word identical in form and in sense in two se]iarate languages, involve the family oneness of these languages. 132 ABORIGINES OF THE NILGIRIS. done on merely phonetic peculiarities is a great mistahe on the part of Turanian ethnologists, and one apt to lead them much astray when in search of ethnic affinities. For example, the hlyamma is questionless one language, notwithstanding that its phonetic peculiarities in Ava and in Arrakan are very marked ; and a particular friend of mine, who is “genuinely Saxon, by the soul of Hengist,” can by no means deal fairly by r, sh, or th, but calls hash has ; shoes, soes or toes or thoes ; brilliant, bwilliant; there, dere; thought, tought, &c.* A Londoner is not less Saxon, surely, because he is wont to “ wow that weal, wine, and wdnegar are wery good wittals.” Article. Mr. Metz says there is none whatever, but I feel pretty sure that the usual equivalents are recognised, viz., the numeral one, or the indefinite pronoun some, any, in lieu of the indefinite article ; and the demonstratives in lieu of the definite, as also the segregatives van, val, and du, or an, al, and ad, for the three genders, or al and p4 for the major of gender, used as suffixes, and widely applicable to nouns (qualitives) — less widely and uniformly to verbs. We should always remember that the so-called segregatives or generic signs are essentially articles, definite or indefinite according to the context. Adjectives. All qualitives which seem to embrace, as usual, the nominal (genitive), pronominal, participial, numeral, and adjectival, appear to be used botli substantivally and adjectivally, and, when employed in the former way, to add to their crude, as a suffix, the appropriate generic sign, which, in the case of the participle, gives it a relative sense or an agentive, just as in English, the or a striker, or the or a striking person {or thing), and the or a hard thing, are equivalent respectively to the person vAio strikes and the thing which is hard. But the latter form of speech is quite Anti-Turanian. * “Tliree fre.sh fishe.s in the dishes” is, in the mouth of the same friend, “ Tree fes fises in the dises.” ABORIGINES OF THE NILGIRIS. 133 Qualitives are always prefixed when not used affirmatively or substantivally. If placed after the noun they become affirmative, including in their sense the substantive veih. Man (is) mortal. That (is) mine. This the striker = this is the person who strikes.* He (is) loving one or lover = one u'ho loves. That one (is) the Mack = that is the Mack one. Give me the Mack = the Mack being or thing — a difference which must be expressed, and with the sign of gender, too (an, al), in tlie former event. This person two person = this one is the second jxt'son (rend-al),-!" &c. Gender is fully marked in qualitives by the use of the suffixes van, val, du, or an, al, ad = hie, hsec, hoc. But these forms are very imperfectly reproduced in the verb, indeed can hardly be traced except in Badaga and Kurumba, wliere the following is unmistakable evidence of them. The major and minor of gender in beings, not things, seem to be denoted by al and pe suffixes — words having still the inde- pendent signification of man and woman. In Toda, moreover, adum marks the common gender as a separate pronoun, and tan+ as a conjunct prefix. I am not sure as to the major and minor of gender, because the verb does not exhibit them in the peculiar manner of the cultivated Dravidian tongues or otherwise. * In Newdri it would be, 6-hma ddya-hraa, which is in every jiarticular of idiom Dravidian, huia being the van or dl suffix of the above tongues, aud its affixing to the verbal form rendering that a relative participle. f Here final dl is not the contracted sign of the feminine suffix aval, hut is the name for man used as a suffix. X The prefix ta, with or without the nasalisation tan, tang, and with or without the causulate equivalent ka vel ga, is widely prevalent to the north and south, as I have noticed in a recent paper; and so also the other equivalent a vel e, witness ta-pe, ka-pa, ta-ga-pa-n, a-pa-e-ri, g-ri, ta-g-ri, tan-d-ri, a-yi, ta-yi, tan-g-yo, for man and woman in Gyaruiig, Kassia, Kirdnti, Bddd, Kdcch, Tamil, Lepcha, Uraou, &c. Those who deny family connection between the Himdlayan and Dravidian tongues are requested to pause over ta-g-ri (Lepcha), aud tan-d-ri (Telugu), for man, aud a-yi vel ta-ye, in both tongues, for woman — roots, ri and yi, vel i. English. He strikes She strikes It strikes Badaga. Hui-d-an Hui-d-al Hui-d-ad Kurumha, Ilui-t-an Huiyu-t-al Huiyu-t-ad 134 ABORIGINES OF THE NILGIRIS. Noun. The papers furnish no sample of declension, hut it may be safely inferred that it is simply postpositional with cases ad libitum, or none at all, according to the view taken of declension. Gender is marked either by separate words, such as man, woman ; code, hen ; or by sexual prefixes like our lie-goat and slie-goat ; or, lastly, the generic word bears also a male or female sense, when the feminine or masculine gender, as the case may be, is distinguished by the fitting sign prefixed. So lUirmese sa means child and hoy, and mi-sa, or female child, means girl* I know not whether the suffixes van, val, and du, or al and pe (pen, pern — the latter equal major of gender), are added to substantives as well as to qualitives, but I think not. Instances occur in Telegu, but not generally in the Dravidian tongues, nor in the northern. The major and minor of gender (quasi, hie et hmc facilis ; hoc, facile) are common in the Himalaya, Indo-Cliina, and Tibet, but I have nowhere in the north found the fully- developed masculine, feminine, and neuter of the south. In regard to number, the Nilgirian nouns are very defective, having no distinct and uniformly employed dual or plural inflexion or sign. But they seem to follow the cultivated Dravidian in so far as having no dual, but having the double, or exclusive and inclusive, plural at least in the separate pronouns and in the personal endings of the verb. Irula has not even the latter. In the Himalayan tongues it is often difficult to make out disjunct dual and plural forms of the substantive, even when the distinct and conjunct pronouns exhibit an exclusive and inclusive form both of the dual and of the plural of the first person, with correspondent verb forms as is the case in the Kiranti language. The source of the defective plural sign of nouns is to be sought in the fact that Turanian vocables generally, in their crude state, bear the largest and specific or generic meaning — a peculiarity well exemplified by the English word sheep. In the Nilgiri tongues neuter nouns *■ The mi is often suffixed. Thus ta and ta-wa, a child, is tu-mi, a girl, in ndyu and liiiduti. ABORIGINES OF THE NILGIRIS. 135 always lack, says Mr. Metz, a plural form. So also in Newari, wliicli further agrees with the Dravidian tongues in annexing the generic signs to all qualitives, whereas the Himalayan tongues, even those of the pronomenalised type, often omit the sign with pronouns and participles, though they annex it to other qualitives. Masculine nouns form it occasionally hy changing final n into r in Toda (kullan, a thief ; kullar, thieves), or by adding the plural sign kal vel gal in Badaga and Irula. Pronouns. Pronouns and pronominal forms are greatly developed in the Nilgirian languages,* as in all the Turanian tongues, reminding us, when viewed in connection with the paucity of true con- jugational forms, of the fine remark that “ rude people think much more of the actors than of the actiun.” We have in the Nilgiris, ist, personal and possessive forms ; 2d, among tlie former forms excluding and including the person addressed (we — not you, and we — including you) ; 3d, among the latter, or possessives, two complete series, according as tlie pronouns are used conjunctively or disjunctively. I have given all these; and their forms, changes of form and uses, would alone suffice to prove the perfect identity of the Nilgirian tongues with those of the cultivated Dravidian class. The conjunct pro- nouns are prefixed to nouns, suffixed to verbs. But those which denote genders (proper to the third person only) are generally used suffixually with all qualitive nouns, which thus pass from the adjectival to the substantival category. This latter peculiarity is common to the Himalaya and Tibet, and is found even among the non-pronomenalised tongues, such as written Tibetan and Newari,-j- and likewise among the Indo- * Kirdnti, Vdyii, &c. , of Himalaya, show a wonderful agreement with what Muller calls the Munda class of languages in Central India. In all these tongues alike not only the agents (singular, dual, and plural, and inclusive and exclusive of the two latter), but the objects, are welded into the verb, thus showing the maximum of pronomenalisation, whereas the action is nearly smothered by the actors, who, moreover, all reappear in the participial forms. + e.g., Siuya-hma, the wooden one (an idol), nominal (sin = wood, ya = geni- tive) ; u-hma, the that-pronominal ; chha-hma, the one-numeral ; dd-hma, the striker, participial ; hyaku-hma, the black-adjectival. ABORIGINES OF THE NILGIRIS. 136 Chinese tongues, whose wong, pong is cleaiiy the Dravidian van. Tlie former also is found in the Himalaya, but, of course, among the pronomen alised languages only. But among them we have samples of the conjunct pronoun being used prefixually with nouns, and suffixually with verbs, as in the Dravidian tongues,* and others of the use of both suffixually, as in the West Altaic and Ugrofinuic groups of languages.* Separate * Two forms : — H;lyu Kirilnti Bdhing Kirdnti Jjontdwa Kuswar am-pa ang-upa utn-pa uug-upa wa ) wathiia- u pa a-pa >> i-po t a-po J > ung-pa > > am-pa 9f eu-pa >f baba-im ft baba-ir a baba-ik i> [ My { I'hy ) His ( father j iMy is (My father < \ j ml (My ' father < 1 ; Thy ) father I His I To’-p-mum To’-p-nuui To’-p-t-um To’-p-um Tip-t-(5ng Tip-t-u Tip-t-d, Mo-v-iing Td md-v-U Mi5-v-eu Thatba-im- ik-an Thatba-ir- ik-an Thatba-ik- an struck me. struck tbee. or struck him. I Tbou He ( I < Tbou ( He struck. struck. struck. Remarks. — The Hdyu conjunct pronoun (see first form) is falling out of use. Form second gives the full possessive before u-pa used for father, though it be literally a father, any father, bis father, pater illius vel istius vel ejus vel cujusvis jwoeter me et te. The verb is given in the objective or agento-objective form = the passive, the active voice no longer showing clearly the pronomenalisation. There is now used instead of this form, and perhaps ever was (it is a question of decomposition versus non-development), in the active voice the form seen in the sequel in kbwa-chammi, I, thou, he, feed (self). Here it would be to’-p-ummi, or top-t-ummi (p = Bontdwa v, being the transitive sign, iterated or not, in the form of t), I, tbou, be, struck. In Bdbing also, which has a clear discrimination of time into present cum future and past, the former is ti-b-ii, ti-b-i, ti-b-d, I, thou, he, strike or will strike. In these samples we see again the transitive sign b = p = V, and this sign discriminated clearly from the temporal sign or t. The manner in which pd becomes pd in the Bdhing noun (pd, my father ; pd = pa-u, anybody’s father) is most suggestive, and should warn us against laying such iiudue stress on the position (prefix or postfix) of the conjunct pronouns. Frequently both are used, the former being in the full separate form and the t The following is a better illustration : — w!t popo ) i popo >■ my, thy, his, uncle, d popo j tib-u = tib-wa ) tib-i J- 1, thou, he, strikes, tib-.a j The change of dinto 6 (a-pa, i-po) is confined to the words father and mother ; the words for uncle and aunt, which are mere iteratives (po-po, rao-mo), adhere to the l.atter fonn, which is very interesting as a s.ample of suffix pronouns coinciding with the verb form tib-u, pa-u-po ; vapulo, ego pater ejus, a crude pronoun (or noun), is substantival or adjectival according to its use : thus, in Newdri, ji is I or my, ji kai = my hand. ABORIGINES OF THE N I LG IRIS. 137 ■words, meaning two and all, can be added to pronouns and to nouns, to form duals and plurals, and are often added to a true inflective plural pronoun to mark that distinction; thus, nain = we ; naniella = u'e all, plural; nam rendaln = U'e two, dual. Sometimes the pronominal inflexion is repeated, as in emellam, we (or we all ) ; niv ellam, ye ; avar ellam, they, of Toda. Veeb. The verbal forms of the Nilgiri tongues clearly place them in the same category with the cultivated Dravidian ; that is, the pronornenalised class. But, whether from non-development or from decomposition, the pronomenalisation is very imperfect on the whole. Nor is it ea.sy to discern in the one or other group of these southern tongues those generic and temporal signs which are still so palpably traceable as a distinct element of the northern tongue verbs. All of the pronornenalised class, and some that can hardly be ranged in that class, in the Himalaya, as in Altaic and Ugrofinnic, have the verbal root or imperative followed by the transitive or intransitive (often with many subdivisions) sign, and that, again, in the pronome- nalised class, by the personal ending, which, too, is sometimes agentive, sometimes objective (equivalent to active and passive voice respectively), and sometimes both, in which case the agentive form always follows the other and makes the ending. But, even in the northern tongues, the transitive or intransitive latter in the contracted, as in the Altaic tongues, and not less in ^mtdl and Ho, and indeed in all. Thus, in Kuswar, nay father is baba-im, or uiahana baba-im (maha, ego, naa-ha-na, the genitive). Kuswar beautifully demonstrates the character of the infixed pronoun as a mark of the transitive verb, and it will be seen that this language inverts the order of the agentive and objective, and adds a common termination or an. The neuter verb, of course, omits the transitive sign, and runs thus ; walg-en-im, walg-en-ir, walg-en, I, thou, he, fell. En is possibly the participial particle. But it is more probably the neuter sign for the causal = transitive, whilst it resumes the transitive sign “ik,” drops the neuter sign “ en,” thus, walg-im-ik-an, I cause to fall. In topmun, tiptong, and thathaimi kap, the td vel dd root of Chinese, Newdri, Sontdl, &c., is palpably traceable, despite its own modifications (to, ti, tha) and its numerous accessories, all, as usual, suffixed with the single and most interesting exception of the second person in Bontdwa, where ta-mo-vu shows ta prefixed, mo-v-ung, ta-mo-vu, mo-v-en, mo being the root. 138 ABORIGINES OF THE NILGIRIS. sign is constantly confounded with the temporal sign, whilst the personal endings likewise sometimes exhibit as much irre- gularity and defectiveness as they do in the Nilgirian verbs. Nevertheless, judging by analogy, and resting on the wonderful similarity of genius and character pervading all the languages of the sons of Tur, I should not hesitate to say that the culti- vated Dravidian and the Nilgirian tongues are framed on the same model as that above described as belonging to the northern, and tliat the samples above cited from Badaga and Kurumha are palpable proofs of it, notwithstanding the silence of all Dravidian grammarians touching the generic or class sign (transitive, intransitive, &c.) of their verbs. For example: — I have no doubt wliatever about Badaga hni-d-an Kurumba huiyu-t-an Kurumba mad-id-en May be analysed preciselj^ as Turkic sever-d-im Hungarian var-t-am Kiranti (Bdhing) HAyu Hdyu Kuswar tip-t-ong top-t-um *ha-t-um tha-tha-im- ik-an 1 1 struck (him) I made (it) are — , Active voice. I loved (him) I waited for (him) I struck (him) struck him ) Active and gave him / Passive voice. > I struck (him) Active. and numberless others of wdiich I shall have, ere long, to speak in full. That is to say, I hold it for certain that all these verbal forms consist of, ist, the root or crude; 2d, the transi- tive and preterite sign; 3d, the personal ending; and that, moreover, the second of these elements may, in every case, he * Hdtum is active and passive in irdyn, and is regularly derived from the im- perative transitive ha-t-o, give to him or give it, which is common to Khdmti and Ildyu ; and this leads me to add that the so-called monosyllabic tongues, like the simplest Himalayan ones, and the Tibetan and Burmese, exhibit in their impera- tives the compound structure instanced in hdto, e.g., shat shod = kill, i.e., kill him or it, in Lepoha and Burmese, where final t vel d is the well-known objective pronoun seen in all the above samples taken from the highest-structured class. Newdri has shdta for the preterite second and third persons active and for all persons passive ; expressly because the “t” denotes the object or transitiveuess of the action. So also Ilityu has si-t- in the same sense, and si (sh) to in its imperative, which is modified by an enunciative sibilant, but shows the transi- tive “ t ” as before. ABORIGINES OF THE NILGIRIS. 139 resolved into tlie third pronoun, current or obsolete, and used objectively. Kuswar baba-ik = Ids father, compared with tha- tha-ik = strike (i.e., liim, the object), settles the last point even more clearly than Sanioiede lata-da = his stick, and Magyar Cicero-t = Ciceronem* Having mentioned the wonderful analogy of these tongues, I will give a telling instance. In the Hayu language of the Central Himalaya and in the Mantchu we have khwachambi or khwachammi = I feed, that is to say, feed myself ; for khwa, vel khoa is the root, cha the reflex sign, and mbi vel mini the personal ending, and one, too, that in both tongues is invariable, though Hayu appears sometimes to drop the iteration in the second and third persons, khwachammi, khwa-cha-m, khwa- cha-m, I, thou, he, feed (self). Now, that root, reflex sign, and personal ending should thus concur to absolute identity, and that sense also should be as identical as form in two uncon- nected languages, is simply impossible. It follows, therefore, that we have people of the klantchu race forthcoming now in the Central Himalaya close on the verge of the plains ! And, again, what shall we say to such grammatical coincidences as — Turki baba-im = my father, sever-im = I love. Kuswar baba-im = my father, saken-im = I can. The answer is clear, that we have people of the Turkic stem also in the Central Himalaya, close to the verge of the plains of India. Nor need we doubt that such is the case in regard both to the Mantchuric and Turkic relations of the Himalayans, though the precise degree of such family connections can hardly become demonstrable until w'e have (what is now, alas ! wholly wanting) a just definition of the Turanian family, and of its several sub-families, to test our Himalayan analogies by. The IMantcliuric and Mongolia groups of tongues were long alleged to show no sign of pronomenalisation. It is now known that that was a mistake. Other still maintained distinctions will, I anticij^ate, dis- appear before the light of fuller knowledge, when it will plainly appear that not mere and recent neighbours, such as Muller apud Bunsen, I. 319. 140 ABORIGINES OF THE NILGIRIS. are alleged to be the Tibetans proper of our day (Bodpas), or they and the Ugrians, formed the Turanian element of Indian population, from the Himalaya to the Carnatic, but successive swarms from the one and same great northern liive — whether Turkic, Mongolic, IMantchuric, Ugric,* or these and others — who passed into Indo-China as well as India, and directly into tlie latter, as well as through the former into the latter, by all the hundred gates of the Himalaya and its southern ofi- shoots. Simple as the Mongolic and Mantchuric languages are wont to be called, they seem to me to possess entirely the essential Turanian characteristics ; tliat is, in like manner as they liave endless noun-relational marks without any dis- tinct declension, so they have a rich variety of sorts of verb (but all reduceable into the two great classes of action, or that of things and that of beings, equal neuter and transitive), and this peculiar richness united with great poverty of voice, mood, and tense, whilst the participles partake fully of tliis character of the noun and of the verb ; that is, they are poor on one side but luxuriant on the other, and throughout the whole Turanian area perform the very same function or that of con- tinuatives, being employed to supply the place of conjunctions and conjunctive (relative) pronouns. The Central Himalayan languages, but perhaps more espe- cially those of the pronomenalised type, all present these characteristics with perfect general fidelity and with some instances of minute accord, besides those cited above, among which may be mentioned the hyper-luxuriant participial growth of Kiranti and of Mantchu, both of which have ten or rather eleven forms of the gerund, and these obtained by the very same grammatical expedient ! There is another very noticeable peculiarity common to the Himalayan and Nilgirian tongues, which is the emphatic dis- tinction of the first person in conjugation, thus, piuthtstini, Toda, I strike, stands apart from puithtsti, thou, he, she, or it strikes, which are all the same. So Newari lias daya in the present and dayu in the past for I strike, I struck, as opposed * Are not Ugrie, Uigbur, or Igur, the same? and would not the identical name with the common characteristics (pronomenalised) of the tongues go far to identify the Ugrians with the E. Turks ? ABORIGINES OF THE NILGIRIS. 14 1 to the common terminations yu and la respectively for all striking present and past of every other kind save by the first person, da-yu, da-la, any body or thing save me strikes or struck. Hence these forms are used to constitute the passive, as in jita dala, of the sequel. Again, the hardening or doubling of the sign consonant of the intransitive verb in order to make it transitive, a principle supposed to be so peculiarly Dravidian, is quite familiar to the Hayu and Kiranti tongues. And again, the Balling dialect of Kiranti is fully characterised by that indiscriminate use of the transitive and neuter signs for which the Tamil language is so remarkable. Another common characteristic of the Dravidian and Himalayan tongues is the double causal, e.g., bokko = get up ; jiokko = cause to get up ; pongpato = cause to cause to get up — in Baking. Dun = become ; thun = to cause to become ; thumpingko = cause to cause to become — in Viiyu. Another common and radical feature of the Dravidian and Himalayan tongues is the amorphous character of their vocables, which become distinct parts of speech, as noun or verli, by the suffixing of appropriate particles. Thus kan, the eye, and to see ; so neu, goodness, to be good, good, whence neu-gna, I am good ; neu-ba, the good one, &c. — of Baking. I, however, at jiresent forbear to touch on more of these common characteristics of the Dravidian and Himalayan tongues, because they are so apt to run into the common property of all the Turanian tongues. But I may just add that Hoisington’s Taniulian traits (in the “American Or. Journal”) are nearly all found characterizing the northern languages. The general absence of a passive, the partial or total absence of tense distinctions, and the combination of the present and future when there is such partial distinction, as well as the denoting of tense by annexed adverbs (to-day, yesterday, and to-morrow) wlien there is none, are Turanian traits common to the (not to go further) Altaic, Himalayan, Indo-Chinese, and Tamulian tongues. Thus the Toda and Kota verbs are always or generally aoristic, and the three tenses are expressed by the above adverbs of time, used prefixually. Precisely such is the case with the Bontawa dialect of Kiranti and with the Hayu, 142 ABORIGINES OF THE NILGIRIS. whilst the Bahing dialect of Kiranti discriminates the past tense from the other two by the use of an appropriate infix, which is at once the transitive and temporal sign. If such he not visibly the case with the Badaga, Kurumba, and Irula dialects, we may yet discern the cause, partly in the careless- ness of barbarians, partly in that fusion of transitive and preterite signs which cultivated Dravidian also exhibits, and not less Ugrofinnic and Turkic. But in the tin-d-e of Badatra and Kurumba, and tid-d-e of Kota = I ate, as in the mad-id-^ of Kurumba = I made, not to cite more instances, I perceive that identical preterite sign (t, vel, d) which marks it in Balling (tib-ci, he strikes; tib-tf-a, or tip-^-a, he struck), as in endless other northern and north-western tongues. I will add a few more words on these important points, for I conceive that the passive of the cultivated Dravidian tongues is clearly factitious, and suggested by contact with Arianism. There are still extant long works in Canarese, says Mr. j\Ietz, in which hardly one instance of the use of the passive voice occurs, and the fact that the uncultivated Dravidian tongues have it not, is, I think, decisive as to its adopted character in the cultivated. Again, there can be no doubt that the negative conjugation of the cultivated Dravidian tongues presents the primitive form, and that form is aoristic; e.g., mad-en, I do, did, or will, not make. In Himalaya and Tibet and Sifan the passive is wanting. Its absence is wholly or partially supplied by the use of the instrumentive and objective cases of the pronouns for the active and passive forms respectively. Even Khas still adheres to this primitive and indigenous form, over- laid as that tongue is by Arian forms and vocables ; and I have myself not the least doubt that the anomalous ne of the preterite of Hindi and Urdu is nothing but the commutative equivalent of the Khas instrumental sign le. A Khas of Kepal invariably says, hy me struck for I struck, and me struck for I was stntck ; and, moreover, there is still the strongest presumptive proof, internal and external, that this, the present preterite, was a primitive aorist, and the only tense in Khas. Those who are fully conversant with the spoken Prakrits of the plains can testify that the same traits still cleave to the ABORIGINES OF THE NILGIRIS. 143 vernaculars of the so-called Arian class of tongues in the plains — traces, I conceive, of primitive Turanianism as palpable as are to he found in the secondary terms (bhat-wa^, mar-ffn/ {vide infra), kapra-fa^to, &c.) of the Prakrits, and which tlieir grammarians can only explain by calling them tautological sing-song. Tliat all such terms are really genuine samples of the double words so common throughout the Turanian area, and that the latter member of each term is Turanian, I trust by and by to have time to show. Meanwhile, and witli reference to the Tartar substitute for the voices, here are a few examples : — By ?«.e struck = I struck, active voice. Tibetan, ngagi dung; Newari, jing daye; Ilayu, g’ha tolTmi; Khas, mailb kiityo ; Urdu, mam n^ kiita. Me struck = I was struck, passive voice. Tibetan, ngtila dung ; New'dri, jita dala ; Ilayu, go toh’mi ; Khas, ma?dai kiityo ; Urdu, mujh ko kiita (subaudi, usne). The languages which employ conjunct suffix pronouns have a form precisely equivalent to the latter, e.g., Sontal dal-eng, and Hayu toh’-nuim = struck me. And observe that Sontal dal, to strike, reproduces not only the wddespread da vel ta root of the north, but also the 1 of New’dri ddla,* as to wdiich see remarks on the transitive and preterite sign aforegone, and Urdu mdr-fM^, with its comment. AVith regard to the personal endings or pronominal suffixes of the Nilgirian verbs, their obscurity is sufficiently conform- able to the cultivated Dravirian models, with due allowance for mistakes on the part of the rude speakers of the former tongues. Something may also he ascribed with probability to decomposition and disuet ude. But upon the whole we cannot doubt that these tongues belong to the pronomenalised class, and that, for example, the ni and mi of Toda tinsbi-ui, I cat ; * Observe also that Jita ddla reproduces tbe objective sign, ta vel da, above spoken of. Compare lutada and Cicero t. As a transitive sign of verbs it is most widely diffused, and nearly as widely are ka vel ga, and pa, vel ba, vel va. Sa vel eba is a very widely diffused neuter sign which also can be traced indubitably to the third pronoun used to denote the object — in this case, the agent himself or itself. The French forms, Je Ibve and Je me Ibve, &e., very well serve to indicate the latter form, though not the former of Tuidnian verbs. 144 ABORIGINES OF THE NILGIRIS. tinsbi-mi, %ve eat ; with the an, al, ad of nidre-madut-an, madut- al, inadut-ad, he, she, it sleeps, of Kurumba, are instances of suffixed pronouns. And now, having already remarked suffi- ciently upon the other peculiarities of the Xilgiri pronouns under the head of “ pronoun,” I shall here bring these remarks, suggested by the Nilgirian vocabularies, to a close. r.S . — Of the many resembling or identical words in the Himd- layan and Dravidian tongues I say nothing at present. Those who meanwhile wish to see them, have only to consult the several vocabularies printed in the Journal. But with reference to what I have stated above, that there exists an authentic tradition (reduced to writing some five hundred years back) identifying the peoi>le of the Malabar coast with those of Xdpdl proper (or the Newdr tribe), I may just point to such words as wd vel vd = come, and sumaka = silent, as perfectly the same in form and meaning both in the Newdr language and in that of the Nilgirians. SUPPLEMENT TO THE NILGTPJAN VOCABULAPIES. I ABORIGINES OF THE NILGIRIS. 145 i. 2-1 1 CL 3 S D M ! KJ ^ 1 a 9 ! q; 3 ^ t s fl 'O 0) > o t> c o ^ ^ r3 3 'C S 03 O c« c c5 03 k> 3 fl 3 > to ^ 2 a 'O ND t> is ^ CJ s it: 2 ^ ^ ® : 03 o hO to ^ 3 Ad •T3 3 4) 03 d 3 _ P- Ad A4 bO a cJ a CD o p o» s 3 Ad ^ Ad S CL . cs : Ad 3 d a Ad 3 ® , ^ ig C«. JU a s tf^ VO ^A 3 o - ^ 9 M 5 ^ a _, ^ g - to 3 ^ S ^bCAa % • I r3 '1:3 C « . rt ” : a ^ ' '3 3 S3 rt ^ O r s rid rt ^ nr 3 d Ad c 4 cS ^ .*a 3 cS > ■ 3> ‘S -'e > 3-“ g Ci fg CL *3 .2 0 ) n U J> H P W VOL II. Ad «f a G-rWrS 0 ) TO « OJ 4 ; tZ CL o 02 p o o g 3 t ^ •V ® qT 3 '-’ > ia .ti ® w ^ S 4? 3.^' tf Ol cc K * The brackets denote suggestions of my own. t Ch = kh. English ch represented by tsh. Fonner = guttural Scotch ch in loch, itc. 146 ABORIGINES OF THE NILGIRIS. 3 0 > cT > 0 €5 0 g S g s © 0 r3 pirf 3 ^ *5 •^3 5 0 1= SJ ^1 11 1 5:3 s 11 1'a 3 'a -S s s e a: 3 3 3 -3 r3 3 •33 1 II I =.- •e; 13 s 3 s 3 3 c3 ^ ^ ^ J " -3 ® "rt ”S t« 1 i !5 S.E,S.5 5 g. I ■^fl ll V=11 3 3 '3 ’3 ’3 Iasi'S rS’S 1 ^ =3 X 72 C-I W M ABORIGINES OF THE NILGIRIS. 147 3 0 3 © C ^ ns TJ a a a ^ 2 ? c s <3 ^ , CO ± >j 2 ns © ^ 3 © 00 3 © 3 3 M -1 3 S © 3 ^ rt 3 2 c 3 *-5 3 © fc- F- £ S S 3 © ns © e © S © 3 "3 © 3 3 S rq S Ph -J -*-> — 3 3 2 2 Jx © © o> .is tH > -U> 3 +J. > c5 ?3 © -- > C >, 3 rt « -3 tip 2 tib cu ti) © PL. rf <3 © e3 ^ « O © © a, i- j- ^ 3. ce iC 5 rt © c3 tu) 2 ? Mg o .5 r2 2 J> ^ .*3 3 r2 O to to .3 © ns CC 3 ^3 ^ c E° © « fl 2 : rt © ^ ' c "C n C 3 *-5 'n^ : P3 s © ’to © C > 0 {> 3 nS 3 S n M *© k* 0 © E. 0 3 0 III ^ 0 c 3 3: 3 ■*:1-15 *© *s ^ 2 S Cfl *^ © © cc ^ » © -3 © C U *•3 © f 3 © U No dual amellam 3 r§ rt 'v 3 (_ ci 13 © ^ > 5 0 rt !z; 3 > 0 * > 0 > c > 3 © > rt J— ® 3- F- Pm _ © 00 © :5 s ^ -S ®ns © c3 *0 , © ©©©>—(© W (About the Passive, see Remarks.) For omitted Pronouns, see elsewhere. f Adverbs of time used to mark tense. I sleep yesterday = I slept. I sleep to-morrow = T will sleep. 143 ABORIGINES OF THE NILGIRIS. a P P a N:3 'cS c> ^ ^ ce ^ c3 . -i- 0) a o .'P CS V,B a E *-" O bO fco p a § g-cs-l & fe 2 ^ a w _2 TJ O > ^ ^'5 a a 5 > 5 ® • *C rt C3 5> & & 0> ® 3 2; 1^ S' '2 a rt .b ‘a Ch rt .- > K - o rt .52; a "C ^ O) %>. a T3 ! ^ a aa ra ‘a ci C3 ra ^ a "a ra ^ r— rt '3 .a > rt a a u a-i be tn £: & Cm to c5 0 a ci <0 >P .34 ^a ^ j _ nils ^ ^ Q a a a ^ It c g '3 ^ fc t> O (U a» a c3 a ^<3 C 3 CS C3 & ^ •C ^ 5 S? - ■g “ i3 3 J, 3 to cd a p 3 s H "rt >> o C^ l>-l CH P <3 p^ O 33 fe n Eh P Tb^faUier ^'oef I | No such distinction exists in any of these languages • For omitted Pionouns, see elsewhere. t Dual is not a separate form, but rendu = 2, Is added after pronoun instead of ella, as Nam rendal adikeme, ic. ABORIGINES OF THE NILGIRIS. 149 3 *S d T3 s a a a ’73 a va a a : 3 a 3 ‘a *3 a c3 cf SI'S ^ a a 3 ^ a '3 > t> rt ® ® c g I a a a a >t>>a>>aa , cd a a 'S -3 -a e? a rt a . J rd ^ fc- t-« ^ . . . . a . . cd cd cd «d - -- - ._ >>’ 73 >>’T 3 >>> cdc3> ® ‘S a a > c3 cd c a g.s ® a cd CO a to - = JP 3 3 ^^ a ® S 9 3 3 3 • >j >> ® cd ® cd n3 g, a cd O _ a to a a a a 3 3 g'S© 5 s'«i'u »"3 aa^-e— cJcdcd^cocd-'cdcdcd cdcdcdcdcdcdcdcdcocd a 'O cd a a cd a a a ^ ^ ^3 3 co^co --^-»_r^^»^rt cd'TS ^atoc3to”^c3atobOdtocd ed^aatoccdaaaaaeoato > >'T 3 ® a >'c 3 ® ® aj ® s ® a*'-»‘ rt cd cd >icd a cd a t»^cd a 3 S . ^ Cd 'S 1 a bo to to : a a a a a 6> > > 'C > > cdedcdcdcdcdcdcdcdcd fl a a a a 'a S = . O) 'a • = ^ a a . cd *a a ^ a 5 ^ 9 3 p% a a 'a a a a a 73 0 2 cd •5 © -s -s ® ® s 'I'S aa-^cS^ ^aa^aa^a^ aa^ rtS^S — > 3 ®®a®a®a— -fcj-*->ocdac 3 cd>^>^o>>cd>>cdaaaa o 3 5 o cd 5-5 a to o e 3 ^ a - -3 rt a : 5 fl tX) « ; a a rt c . -■ 73 2 ^ J cd 2 rd - > 73 > : cd ed cd 2 o ^ O S CH ® HH O ^ ^ 9 ^ W t^..: H i—i S ? w 2 ^ S; ^ a a3 j j ® o o O C 7 ^ CT* ^ o .a o teSKi 00 >,.a .a 55 S- 000 > .a o w ^ ^ 1 K £h ^ ^ 150 ABORIGINES OF THE NILGIRIS. s m si w ^.3 5 ^ ^ O s g Kt3 s 5 g ■« M'S - 2 S ABORIGINES OF THE NILGIRIS. 5 3 C 'O' H Si «.> c3 ^ +5 ci O ^ ^ “8 '73 ° S -Tl !2i a s cS m ' • cj " . ^ T3 5 S*:S 3 'o 'o vs -3 34 .a -s .a « « w g>9 -s 3 s s ^ -2 S 4T 3 S I . S _ -a 3 J3 -3 -3 W r4) H IZ3 a - ® s -3 I 33 S* -a 3 B 73 te tq 3 33 o ^ 2 SS = 5 C -S & to.^ ^ r: J ^ rf - 7 ; oj - A , s W W ^ ^ |25 ■7S 3 3 •T3 5 :2 2 O -5 J=^^p:,o I 5 I ® 3 aT tyo O 73 ..r rt fc- t“- 3 ; 2 .g I .5 ^ 1 ^ - iJ o O' -<-3 5 3 'xJ jr 'c3 tc o *' • ^ ^ t- 00 5 ^ a 4^ . . ~ , -i I— « o ii ^ M 5 -o ci . CO ii is ® 1? n> *- - ^ « 5>j_G ^ J : -M rt ^ -*-i - ^ 4 ; -*J - 3 0{r O d P-40fl> O *5 5-3*<^ ^ O.SrfcS g 7 3 - § .*.-3 i -5 o ^§-S i Si s o S o^.a § a s I g o s a 2 £ g wXWfc^ 4)d, C ^ ^ e? .22 S ., 43 J r^. h< 7T, L. ^ z o 'O ci ^ T S •73 c CH c3 O 43 c 2 ^ o " - 2 ? O * o 4 J Sr-* w M ^ c-< CQ & ^ 43 O ^ "c "g ^ i o B 3 4) «. rt 0 g'a'S'C ^ I =■« S fcn a 3 B 5“ ® g B O 1 a 8| o o~ £ ^nl-|:^y 0<*. — o >-31 p ^

B..3-3s'r ^ M *^20co ^rt3t0 22,2 4)^rt 4> 4 ;t:; s o’g - O.*. g^t;.■s"* rt 3 5>o;S° a2E:~§- <“-43'S®.”t3o-2b 2 % o n o 73 c w r^ ^ 2: fe !U ^ '5 s ®? ^ o ‘ 2 4} QJ G o rt 5 ™ <1> b-q a ■& 4) f " ® p M ^ o •- ? ^ .a j ° ® a ? HH a ?P “■ -41.123 i^_3;c-ic ■*^a = 3 3a.^^ o ° ^ g § I"? o -2 S o 42 « 03 A3 CO Q > o ^ bo ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ V " o'^ ^^7 ^ 'C '. aajajM"— oB cjaQ3-— — :a^.2ja3> W 2 ® B tg -a ^ -ri" "« ° 5 ^|a a |l§f§^a^-£ao p5oo-^4jce^M.^os A3 bO-P -5 ,’^03 -je c ce S>':3 '7T C 4) ^OA3co^yj^ ^r5 rt o 5 = S : S ^ 2^ « S c3 ^ C =J ^ :3 3 o & to ^ 3 « ^ c5 vc5 O p 5 >» io fc. g6p§ to io -fS s ^ o »2 >> 53 ^ 'S s ^ * Zh is employed, according to Mr. Ellis’ plan, to represent the Tdmil \ which has the sonnd of the French j in jamb, Jacques, &c., but is often pronounced like a iiard 1 by Europeans, Muliammcdans, and other foi eigners, and also by the i*arialis. llius azhal would be alal. t So written, but pronounced chiipa. ABORIGINES OF SOUTHERN INDIA. 155 a > & = -3 3 ^ rs 4^ c >> ci xrj Ph Q< w cJ © Ph H fl 2 C. 3 o P< S P -+3 Pi o 'Z? 3 ^ ^ 3 « O ^ ^ ,i!i -S a: ^ .b 'rf a © T3 P >» P 3 rt fcC-P ; ? '5 p 'rf S"' i © ^ -M yi 3 - -I 3 C3 ^ a ^ 2 c a .®.^ a 2 3 gj =^b'a s'a o'2 a ©3'3esr2rto^33r:p:©-^v §)?"a es 2 *2 ce 3 o - ^ tn ^ g)2 g S © 4) c ^ © ^ p; p: 0 0 3 : = -a -a |t.„ ■ 3 a . • . • © • c3 © * ■ © ® ' ^ 'rt ^059 f3 '3 0 ga:a= P ^ p P pH P P ?o J ^ 9 "5 '2 5 ^ "i § o cc a >■ o -(^ a o 33 3 , ^ 3 ^'3 rt '3 rr ^ 3 ^ -S .F- 5? ’3 a s o PPd 1 ^ f 3 ' ,0 ^ 3-1 Fig > . ^© > v:5 pig : rt 3 ce 3x0^ > S N5 N N ^© n«3 3 '3 3 P ;h © > P > e-.2j a -2 a 3 3 .fh '3 ^ ^•v:i .2 .^--1 .« a ® a a "a a « o c3 ^a a S3 J.SPa o a to 3 t-* © • : •— - UJ ^ ^ia;al 5 i Fig 3.3 © > pig PH ^ 3 .p- •r* > .FH © .fm -4 © .fh 3 © pS 3 F^w u,.p» 3*^ 3 n 2 vc3 O *© '2 3 v3 C rt 3.' S > Fig P.3 © O > 3 - P u ^ -F- 3 pT: © fP N P3 N P-^ C5 © 3 0 .p-'rt ^ 3 fP ^ c- N 0 0 •|a§.. rt fc- © '3 3 oli makana kaduvan *© (-• 0 u ‘© !3 i : B a •-H '© 3 3 . 3 : P 3 ^.a c£ pig ;> pig 4d CO Fig Fig e.ra a P ‘FH > rt 3 > 3 3 > .3 ® -gs.a a a toS Q c rt © O O feOKHWWa eSa-^sla-g § ooo 2 tos;o o PPeoS'fco SS 3 -*^ 3 ^ ® ^ ® -H f 2 •- O 13 ^ F=iS^5l^J^O(l a a 'a parapuuu dardya kail a polutu c5 — la r:3 'a 2 3-^ a 3 >3 a P'3 -S s 0 a a v>3 • 4 ^ a _a 03 ® 'rt -id a ^ ^ ^ a Na a a ® inukulu dkulu ennow innow ^ ^ fe ^ £ 1 3 g.3-^^ va © .— -a ?!S t5 d S a 2 ^ 5 > 3^3 Its va q rt 0 3 a a a: a: b£ a a -a s a S3 'cS -3 a a a r2 ^ a a a > >* > nr a a a a nivu avaru nannadu ninnadu avana nammadu niminadu avarad u Si - 0 * '0 •< ® 2 '3 Us a — -2 ’ 3 'rf 3< £U 3 . a -2 vsi a E-, • ^ g a a a 'a Jg a a d ■3 0 S B 2 ^ 0 C-> 0 &i ^ 3 ^ ^ • vcs c3 a 2 a;::.- a > a a v33 va ^ 'r* ^ > a a > g 0 *« c : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :::::::: ►§ c »-t 0 2 S fl Cl e 2 a 3 2 ^ rt rt a eS "c) > a va S'S kt 0 *a to a a 'a >>'33 a a a d) c a a a 5 aC > © ^ a c a s. 2 a .a > s .a a a © a avanre nangar/e ningarfe avarurfe 1 s 0 ’0 ; : d u 0 s a. a 0 'B a * 7 ? a 'rt ri a< > a« (t« a a 2 i> a .M ♦ a -5 > a '3 a a a 'a a S > > 'tr ^ a a a a > 'a ^ fc, 3 a a -a > c a a a © a -2 3 IIII 3 a g 3 > rt a > a a a '3 "c 0 *0 4 : 0 a : w -a a cij .a c3 a • . fc, 2 . ®* a dd 4> a a 3 a v3 >» : a * a a 'a a >> • 3 .2 ■■ ■'3 .2 a *3 a : a : a S S 2 © a English. -S a - s J2 § i ® .y’ § SJ S £-< H 0 to u a> ^ "3 2 a 0 M H 0 • 3 “ bo c3 > O a o Q S A sS ^:: >» J3 > :« O bo O Ij o £5 3 s ABORIGINES OF SOUTHERN INDIA. 157 : tTf-i-- II s ^ 00 *p ,3 o' s c G c ^ ili iiljillllllll O O «« fc, C-O O o gf = s&J-J '■S I ; : : llliiJilllllltPlii ^ p. ^ 5 J ^ °g,.g&r'S-2-S:«^'3g, ^ j3 2 *S c: o r: '3 c3 t> a a ^ a flJ 5 O 3 w ^ tc^ ^ c 2 g ‘pH o O ^ rt c -3 a ^ o ^ a..H a- ^ o a p 3 p ^ o IH = ■3 viS pa ^ -^, 8>^ ? 'tP 'o o ^ a ‘ a riA s r! C» to 3 -M ^ s s 3 3 ^ V- C 'iS 'O ^ I 2 i S .2 ?-§ -ss'? g '5 -5 - Cm Xfl c 0 -2 O002 •P) 0 coS o 2 3 i 6 o ABORIGINES OF SOUTHERN INDIA. ^ >> P» .PH «« d ~ a a S Vli Tl ‘t: = ==:;=g»^ gpgB'SC^o CQ >• G ^ 0^ -cd pa I -g-s ^ ^ o . c« c3 ce c :z: S rt .‘ti CpS *4^ ^ ^ ^ I 1 ■S 4 2 S = .£<5 P. 5 ci ei p ci OS a .BlS eup4 C-pitf ^ > I— c? c3 c» tp o P.:: ^ O o 'O > c; ct a> ^ O S ^ A "3 a o o pijpid «« 'o J! no 2 c3 Ci^ a s fcecer?*:3 ce^j|p5:,j3 ^t^-^ffpid cJrt- >^,-43 JS ? « S.'a.'tirtrt ■j-fcSp— S-c3tH ri - N ^ C ce c; .S o5 Ph Ch*^ ei piipitf > S p« C3 p* i • ^ ^ a P n >^pa •— F c ^ ^ > E. J .s . ^ to J 1 1 -b >..b ^ o ^ "o b > « I? © .Spirf (-• 'IS ' ^ ^ ' rt p^ H - KH ^Kf 3 “HC rw ^ O © © *"2 ^4 J?>:©P'WC H ^ V> •' P® ‘ To ^3 65 ?s -S 'P © . © bH KO ABORIGINES OF SOUTHERN INDIA. . S W) 7X enO-iS Qi C 00 u o "a ” I ^ ^ c3 «t a 7 «£ 0 2 — :^‘2 p i=^-? !2 S ^ c£ S O C3 U; V U ^ s pj 3 d ^ 3 2 • 3 P.oy> _o ,5 -Sp:-” cc^3 *^ca > 52 .2 '^Cc3 >• CmO P^&jOo c: <9 Si _» «» ii ; 2> rt‘3 rt 5 3 •r >> s rt .s ;i: s rt p N ^ e9 t-| ^ rt O O > 0 C> p4^ ^ 2 C > ^ ^ ^ o> c bIi-3 C o ^ .« O gj ds ^ o “ tf §; c ® .“ 'S o .S 5-3 P S is iN » o *3 <4 ^ rp^ o ^ *73 ^ ^ «9 f= S ^ "k .a' 'o.S-3 W'g • p . -3 « o <4 ^ ^ w O; ^ oT ” S 0^ *H X ^ o o 2 o O X £ o 2-r^ ^ >.2 g^'S c o't « 5 3 : d : ^1 : fccS tJ 5® ■? 5 rf . 1 - 51 ^ ^V2 m c 5 m ?=*?^ YOU II. F H r-' £-• 3 © Q, c a> « 5 © fl c3 O f^ Jh ©42 S ■*^'F 5 3 5-s bo o fl .S ,2 > c «t ;:3 c9 ■4 © c9 - j'* _ 'Ti w ^ C3 Sm rt CJ •— < <9 ^ i-* *73 l .^ s^s cd 2 *73 © 23 r: © © ^ 3 .r! © •- i6i L ABORIGINES OF CEYLON. 162 ABORIGINES OF CEYLON. English. Malabar (of Ceylon). Singalese. Air A gay am Hulanga Ant Eruinbu Kumbeya Arrow Anibu, Kanri Sare, or I'ya Bird Kuruvi, Pullu Kurulla Blood Irattam, Rattam, Uthiram, Kiiruthi Le Boat Thoni, Odam, Morak-kalam Arua Bone Elumbu A'td Buffalo Erumei Miharak.d Cat Punei Balala Cow Pisu, An 1 Eladeua (gawa is the generic term) Crow Kagani, Kakei Kaputa, Kakka D’wasi, Dina Day Nal Dog Nay Balia Bar Kadu, Sevi Kana Earth Punii, Puvi, Prithivi, kc. Polawa Kgs Muttei, &o. Bijja Elephant Yanei At>(i Eye Kan, Vilzi Aha Father Jagapi>en, Thathei, Tandei Piya, Appfi Fire Neruppu, Ji, Kanali, &e. Gini Fish Min Matsia Flower Pu Mai Foot Kal, Thai, Ade Pava Goat A'du, Velladu, &c. EluS. Hair Mayir Kes Hand Kai Ata Head Thalei 01 u a Hog Pandi U'ra Horn Konibu, Kddu Anga Horse Kutherei, Pari, Asuvam Aswaya House Vidu, Manei, Illam, Akam Geva Iron Irunibu Yakada Leaf Ilei Kole Light V elicham Eliya Jlan IManushen, A'daven, &c. Minilni Monkey Kurangku, Manthi Wandara Moon Melavu Sanda Mother Thai, Annei Aunei Ainma Mountain Iflalei, Vetpu Kanda Mouth Vai Kata Mosquito Visei, Melvisei Mailurua Name Per Nama Night Iravu, Iratir Rae Oil Ennei Tel Plantain V alei Kesel Kiver Yarn, Kangei (fanga Koad Theru, Valzi Para Salt Uppu Lunu Skin Thol, Tholi H am a Sky Yanam Ah asa Suake Pambu Sarpaya Star I Natchetiram, Vanamin (fish of sky) ) Natchetheram, Velli, &c. j Tarawa or Tarakawa ABORIGINES OF CEYLON. 163 English. Malabar [of Ceylon). Singalese. Stone Kallu Gala Sun Veyil, Poluthu Siirya Tiger Puli, Vengei AVayaggraya Tooth I’allu Hatha Tree Maram Gaha Village Kurichi Gama Water Thannir, Nir AVatura Yam Kilangu Ala I Nan, Yan Mama Thon Ni, Nir To He, She, It Avan, Aval, Ah thu, or Adu Ohu, ae, eka AVe Nam, Nangal Api Ye Ningel Topi They Avergel Owun Mine Ennudeyathu, Enathu, E'n-adu Magd Thine Ummudeyathu, Umathu, U'n-adu Toge His Avanudeyathu, { i;“ujtyathu } Ohugd Ours Engaludeyathu, Emathu, E'm-adu Ape Yours Uugaludeyalhu, Umathu, Um-adu Tope Theirs Ond, Avergeludeyadu, Aver-adu Owngd One Ondu, &o. Ekay Two Irandu Dekay Three Mhndu Tunai Four Nalu Hatarai Five Eintu Pahai Six A'ru Hayai Seven Elu Hatai Eight Ettu Stai Nine Onpathu Nawayai Ten Pat-thu, Pattis Hahayai Twenty Irupathu AVissai Thirty Muppathu Tihai or Tis Forty Natpathu Hatalehai Fifty Eympathu Panahai A hundred Niiru Seya-yai Of In, Udeya, Thu Caret To Ku Ta From A'l, Irunthu Gen ]!y, instr. Kondu, A'l AVisin AVith, cum. Udan, Odu, Tdattu Samaga AVithout, sine. Vittu, Allathu, Indi Natua In 11, U1 Atule On Mel, Piiril Pita Now Ippothu Dan Then Appothu Ewita AVhen ? Eppothu Kawada To-dr.y Indu, Indeikku Ada To-morrow Nalei Heta Yesterday N4ttu Eeye Here Inga, Ing6 Mehd There A'ng6i, Angd Ehd AVhere? Engei, Engd Koheda Above Melei, Uyara lhala Below K61ei, Kii'le Pahala Itetween U'dei, Idiyil Atare or Mada AVithout, outside Veliye. Purambdr Pita or Bahara AVithin Ullei Atule Near Kitte Langa Little Siru, Konjam Tika ABORIGINES OF CEYLON. 164. English. Malabar (of Ceylon). Singalese. Much Metta Bohoma How much ? Evvalovu Koccharada As Pol, Ena Caret So Appadie, Avoannam Mese Thus Ippadi, Avoethamaka Mesi How? Eppadi, Evoethamaka Kohomada ■Why? En, Edukkaga Ayi Yes A'm, Ora Ou No Alla, Illei Noe Do not Seyathei Apa Ta, da And also Um, Thanum Or Allathu Nohot His Avanudeya Ohirgey That Ah thu, Athu Eka AVliich, jon \ ■Which, ton f Carent K6koda ■Which ? kbu Ethu What? kya Enna, Entha Mokada Who? Yar, Ever Kowda Anything Ethum Monawd numut Anybody Everayenum, Yarainum Kowru hari Eat Thin, Sappedu Kanawa Drink Kudi Bonaw a Sleep Tungu Nida, gannawa, Wake Villippu Nagitenawa I.augh Sirippu Hiuahaweiiawa Weep Alugei = weeping Andanawa Be silent *| Immayiru, Silent be ( Summaviru, Be still. Do nothing < Katakaranda epa (i.e.. Do no speak) Pesudiru, Do not speak (. Speak * Pesu Katakarapan Come ■C^d Waren Go P6 Palavan Stand up Nil Hitapan Sit down Iru, Ulukkam Indagan hlove, walk Nadamadutbal, Nadei Awidapan Run Oduthal Duapan Give Tha Kodu, Ta Kodu Diyan Take Edu, Kai Ganin Strike Adi, Thattu Gahapan Kill Kollu Marapau Bring Konduvfi Genen Take away Eduttupodu, Kondu-p6 Ganin Lift ui>, raise Uvarthu, Thukku Ussapan Hear Kel Ahapan Understand ■Vilangu Terunganin Tell, relate Sollu Kiyapan Good Nalla Honda Bad Agada, Pulsada, Ketta Naraka Cold Kulirinei Sitala Hot Sudu U'sna Raw Pachei Amu Ripe Pazhutta Iduna Sweet Inippu Mihiri Sour Pulippu Ambul Bitter Kasajipu Titta Handsome Alaln-ina, Alagu Laksana Ugly Avalatchana i Kata These Singalose verbs are here put in the imperative mood. ABORIGINES OF CEYLON. i6s English. Malabar {of Ceylon). Singalese. Straight Nere, Ner Kelin Crooked K6ual Aeda Black Karpu Kalu White Venmei Sudu Ked Sivantha Ratu Green Pachei Nil Long Xedia, Ninda Diga Short Kattei, Kurukal Kota Uvaruta Usa Short ) Kullan Miti Small Siria, Sinna Punchi Great Peria Mahat Bound Vattippu Wata or Guli Square Sathuraiuana Hataras Flat Shattei Patali Fat Kolutta, Thdlitha Tara Thin Melintha, Mellia Tuni Weariness Ileita, Kalait-tha Wdhesa Thirst Tagani Pipasa Hunger Pasi Badagiui SECTION X. ROUTE OF NEPALESE MISSION TO PEKIN, WITH KEMARKS ON THE WATER-SHED AND PLATEAU OF TIBET. The two following papers (it may be as well to state, in order to show their trustworthiness) were presented to me by the Maha Rajah of Nepal in 1843, w’hen I took my leave of him, after having resided at his Court for ten years in the capacity of British Minister. His Highness was pleased to say he desired to give me something which, not being of monied value, I should be permitted to retain, and which he knew 1 should set especial store by, and all the more because I was aware that the communicating of any such information to the “Feringe” (European) was contrary to the fixed policy of his Government. And therewith His Highness gave me these two documents, as well as several others of eipial interest. The papers now in question comprise official summaries of the routes of two of those embassies of tribute and dependence, which, since the war of 1792 with Tibet (aided by China), Nepal has been bound by treaty to send to I’ekin once every five years. It is customary for these embassies always to keep nearly or quite to the same track, they being conducted through Tibet and China at the expense of the Celestial Empire and under the guidance of officers appointed by it. The time of departure from Kathmandu is determined by the opening of the passes over the Himalaya, which takes place usually during the first half of June by the melting of the snows ; and that accordingly is the regular period for the setting 1 68 N^:pALESE mission to PEKIN. out of the ambassador, who usually reaches Pekin about the middle of the following January. The ambassador’s suite is rigidly fixed as to number, and as to every other detail ; and, well or ill, tired or not. His Excellency is obliged by his prag- matical Chinese conductor (perhaps we should add in candour, by the character also of the country to be traversed) to push on towards his destination with only one halt of about a month and a half at Lhasa, where, luckily for him, there is always some necessary business to transact, the Xepalese having long had commercial establishments in that city. The ambassador, who is always a man of high rank (Hindu of course) and rather advanced in life, can take his own time, and cook and eat his own food, and use his own comfortable sedan chair or more comfortable litter (dandi, hammock) as far as Tingri. P)ut there the inexorable Chinese Mehmandar (honorary conductor) meets him with the assigned set of ponies for himself and suite, and His Excellency must now mount, and unceasingly, as inflexibly, pursue his journey through a country lamentably deficient in food, fuel, and water, by pretty long stages and without a halt save that above named, on horseback, over a very rough country, for some one thousand seven hundred miles, and then only exchange his pony for the still worse conveyance of a Chinese carriage (more properly cart), which is to convey him with like persistency some seven hundred miles further, fatigue and bad weather notwithstanding, and the high-caste Hindu’s cuisine {horrcsco referens) all the while entirely in the hands of filthy P)li6tias and as filthy Chinese ! Of course there is a grand lustration after each embassy’s return home, which usually happens about two years from the time of its departure for I’ekin ; and many a sad and moving story (but all reserved for friends) the several members of these embassies then have to tell of poisonous compounds of so-called tea* and rancid lard or suet given them for drink in lieu of their accustomed pure lymph or milk ; of heaps of sun-dried flesh incessantly substi- tuted for the farinaceous and vegetable food of all decent O I’agans ; nay, of puppies served up to them for kids, and cats * The so-called brick tea, which is composed of the sweepings of the tea manu- factories, cemented by some coarse kind of gluten. NipALESE MISSION TO PEKIN. 169 for hares, by stolid beastly cooks of Bliot (Tibet), under the orders of a seemingly insouciant and really pragmatical China- man, who answers all objections with “ Orders of the emperor,” “ Food of the country,” “ You nicer than us, forsooth,” “ Fed or unfed, you start at such an hour.” It is singular to observe the Celestial Empire treating Asiatics with like impertinence as Europeans, and it is satisfactory to think that the recent treaty of Ndpal with Tibet has put an end to these and other impertinences. I proceed now to a few remarks on the form and substance of the papers. The form is such as might he expected from men, of a nation of soldiers and statesmen, scant of words and having an eye to business in the survey of a country. Blucher regarded London merely as a huge storehouse of valuables, fit, and haply destined, to make spoil for a conquering army. And a Nepalese regards Tibet and China, not from a picturesque or scientific point of view, but with reference to the obstacles their natural features oppose to a daring invader having an eye to business in Blucher’s line. The chief item, therefore, of both itineraries, and the only one of the shorter, is an enumeration of the mountain ridges or ranges intersecting the way (a most valuable piece of information, as we shall soon see) ; and to this the longer paper adds a similar enumeration of the intervening rivers, with the means of passing them, or the ferries and bridges ; the forts occurring all along the route ; and, lastly, the lakes and tanks where drinking-water can be had — a commodity most scarce in those regions, where half the lakes are brackish. The several items, together with the stages and the distances (computed by marching-time as well as by reference to the Nepiilese kos of 2^ miles each), comprise the whole information conveyed. But it will nevertheless be allowed that so authentic an enumeration of so many important particulars, relating to so vast an extent of country so little known, is of no small value ; and though here packed into the smallest compass, that information might, in the hands of a skilful bookmaker, suffice to furnish forth a goodly volume. But bookmaking is in no repute with the gentry of Nepal. It belongs solely to pandits, whilst on the class of official scribes is devolved the task of 170 A'EPALESE M/SS/ON to PEKIN. recording all useful information, which they are strictly required to embody in the fewest possible words and smallest space. I will only add on this head of the form of the papers — I si. Tliat the records of the two embassies having been made at the several times of those missions, and quite independently of each other, the statements of one may he used to correct and explain those of the other ; and that, where discrepancies occur, the longer paper, which is complete in its details, is probably, on the whole, more correct than the one which is not complete in its details, though I confess a strong leaning to the Chountra statement, because of its sound discrimination of interesting facts. 2d. That the assigned distances, though not measured but computed, yet having a double basis of computation* by march- ing time under given assigned circumstances, and by kos accord- ing also to a given standard in x;se in Nepal, ought, I should think, to he capable of very definite determination in com- petent hands. 3ff. That both papers are literal translations, and that the additional information procured by myself, and embodied for convenience in the documents, is carefully distinguished by the use of brackets ; the rest of such information being thrown into foot-notes. The Chountra’s embassy, as I learnt before I left Kathmandu, set out in 1817; that of the Kaji in 1822, as appears on the face of the document. Chountra and Kaji are titles of ministers of state in Ndpal. I proceed now to the substance of the documents ; and here, in imitation of my friends, I shall be as curt as possible, and endeavour, in a few words, to bring together the most generally interesting items of information furnished by the two papers. The total distance from Kathmandu to I’ekin, according to the Kaji, is 1268^ kos; according to the Chountra, 1250 kos; and in that space occur, according to the former authority, 106 mountain-ranges, which are crossed; according to the latter, 104. The Kaji’s paper gives us the further information, that 150 lakes and tanks occur in the * I have heard that the whole road is measured and marked by the Chinese ; and if so, the Nepalese could never he much out, the only thing required of them being the conversion of Chinese li into kos. aApJlESE mission to PEKIN. 171 route; 652 rivers,* crossed by 607 bridges and 23 ferries; and lastly, 100 forts. It would be very desirable, in dividing the whole space into the political and natural limits of the several countries traversed, to make the Choimtra’s and Kaji’s papers coincide. But I have attempted this in vain, owing to the different names cited in the two papers and the different methods of citation. In regard to political limits, they concur sufficiently, but not in regard to natural limits. I therefore give the former according to both papers ; the latter according to the Chountra’s only, it being quite clear on that head. I annex the langurs or mountain- ranges to both statements. 1 Political Limits according to Mountain-ranges according to Chountra. Kaji. Chountra. Kaji. I. Nepdl (from K 4 tlimAn- kds. k6s. langurs. langiirs. du to KhAsa) . 29 34^ 6 5 II. Tibet (from Khdsa to iron bridge of Ta- chindo) . 636 642^ 63 71 III. China (Tachindo iron bridge to Pekin 585 584^ 35 30 K6s 1250 1268^ 104 106 Eemaeks. I. From Kathmandii to Khasa there is a difference of 5J k6s, obviously caused by the Kaji’s detour via Sankhu, instead of keeping the direct road as the Chountra did. II. From Khasa to the iron bridge of Tachindo, the differ- ence is 1 3^ kos. It is pretty clearly caused, partly by a small detour as before, and partly by a slightly different use of terms. In the Chountra’s paper the specification in the body of the * Say rather rivers and river-crossings, for the same mountain-locked stre.im is here and there crossed twenty or thirty times in a very moderate distance. AVhen I pointed out this at Kathmaudfi, I got the explanation, and was referred to the crossings of the Rkputi River between Hitounda and Bhimphedy on the road to Kathmandh from the plains of India for a sample. 173 kApJlESE Af/SS/ON TO PEKIN. document is “ on this side of Tachindo ; ” in the remarks appended to it “beyond Tachindo;” whereas the Kaji’s paper specifies Tachindo itself. III. From the iron bridge of Tachindo to Pekin the differ- ence is only half a kos, which is not worth mentioning. Natural limits from the Chountra’s paper. Kos. Mountain ridges. I. Cis-Him 4 layan region (Kdthiudndu to Bhairav langur) .... 5° 7 2. Trans-Himdlayan region (Bhairav langur to four kos beyond Chinchi Shan, where the great mountains cease) 635 65 3 . Chinchi Shan to Pouchin (where all mountains cease) .... 212 30 4 . Plains of China (Pouchin to Pekin) 353 2 1250 104 To these distributions I subjoin, though it be a repetition, the excellent concluding remarks of the Chountra’s paper : — “Thus there are 104 langurs (or mountain-passes) between Kathmandu and Pekin, and of these 102 occur in the non- carriageable part of the way, or the first 897 kos ; and the last 2 langurs only, in the remaining 353 kos, or the carriageable part. The last-named part of the way may be said to be wholly through plains, for, of the two hills occurring, only one is at all noticeable, and both are traversed in carriages. From Kath- mandu to the boundary bridge beyond Tachindo (China frontier) is 665 kos, and thence to Chinchi Shan is 20 kos. Throughout these 685 kos from Kathmandu, mountains covered (per- I)etually ?) with snow occur. In the remaining 565 kos no sno’wy mountains occur.” In the way of provincial boundaries we have the following. From Gnaksa, the 37th stage of the Kaji’s paper, to Sangwa, the 51st stage of the same paper, is the province of Fh which contains the metropolis of Tibet or Lhasa. At Sangwa, or in full Kwombo-gyamda-Sangwa, commences the Tibetan province of Kham, which extends to Tachindo or Tazhi-deu, which is the NEPALESE mission to PEKIN. 173 common frontier of China and Tibet, It occurs at the 104th stage of the Kaji’s paper. The native name of Tibet is Pot vel Bod. The Sanskrit name is Shot. This is Tibet Proper, or the country between the Himalaya and the Nyenchhen-thangla, which latter name means (and the meaning is worth quoting for its significance) pass of (to and from) the plains of the Great Nyen or Ovis Ammon, or rather. Great Ammon pass of the plains. That portion of Tibet which lies north of the Nyenchhen-thangla (as far as the Kwanleun) is denominated by the Tibetans the Western half, Horyeul ; and the Eastern half, Sokyeul, after the Hor and Sok tribes respectively. The great lake Namtso demarks Northern Tibet in the same way that the great lake Yamdotso denotes Southern. A word more about the Bhafrav langur, which is equivalent to Mount Everest, as recently explained to the Society. Tlie Chountra’s paper makes it 50 kos from Kathmandu; the Kaji’s, 52^ kos. But to obtain the latter result you must not blindly follow the entry in the itinerary, but remember that his “ huge snow mass ” * covers a large space of the road, which must be understood as commencing soon after leaving the 14th stage or Tholung, and not after leaving the 15th stage or Tfngri Langkot. The documents now submitted themselves suffice to prove the meaning of langur, since they show it to be equivalent to the la of Tibetan and the shan of Chinese ; consequently also (as we know from other sources) to the Turkic tagh and the Mongolic uld. It may therefore be rendered “mountain” as well as “ mountain-pass,” and this is the reason, perhaps, why the Nepalese often do not discriminate between the name of the pass and of the peak of Bhafrava, but blend them both xinder the name of Bhafrav langur, which is equivalent to the Gnalham or Nyfinam thangla of the Tibetans. Colonel Waugh, therefore, may be assured that his Mount Everest is far from lacking native names, and I will add that I would venture in any case of a signal natural object occurring in Ndpal to * This great mass is visil)le alike from the confines of Nei)al proper (the valley) and from those of Sikim, and all the more unmistakably because it has no com- petitor for notice in the whole intervening space. It is precisely half-way between Gosain-than which overlooks Nepal Proper and Kangchan which overlooks Sikim. 174 N^PJLESE M/SSJON to PEKIN. furnish the Colonel ■with its true native name (nay, several, for the country is very polyglottic), upon his furnishing me with the distance and hearings of that object, although neither I nor any European had gone near it.* For the rest, I cannot with- hold my congratulations upon this second splendid result of Colonel W.’s labours, though, alack ! it would seem fatal to my pet theory of sub-Himalayan water-sheds — a term carefully to be discriminated from the Himdlayan water-shed to which I now purpose briefly to advert. Since I presented to the Society in 1849 my paper on the Ifliysical Geography of the Himalaya, a good deal of new information has been published, mixed with the inevitable quantum of speculation, touching the true character of that chain, and the true position of its water-shed, with their inseparable concomitants, the general elevation and surface character of the plateau of Tibet. After an attentive perusal of these interesting speculations, I must, however, confess that I retain my priorly expressed opinion, that the great points in question are inextricably involved with, and consequently can never be settled inde- pendently of, the larger question of the true physical features of the whole of the Bam-i-dunya of Asiatics and the Asie Centrale of Humboldt. It may he that the Himalaya is not a chain at all, but an exemplification of the truth of Elie de Beaumont’s theory, that so-called mountain chains are only parallel dispositions of a series of geological noeuds, which, if laid side by side, constitute the semblance of a chain of longitude, and if laid one over the other constitute the semblance of a chain of latitude. It may he that the Himalaya is not a latitudinal but a meridional chain, and that the geological back-bone of the * It is obvious to remark that no European has ever approached Dhavalasiri, •which yet lacks not a native name known to Europeans ; and, in fact, I myself have been twice as near to Devadhunga, vel Bhairav than, vel Bhairav langur, vel Gniil- ham thangla, as any Euroi)ean ever was to Dhavalagiri. The Bhotias often c.nll the Bhairav langur Thangla, or “ pass of the plain,” viz., of Tingri, omitting the more specific designation, t Gnalham, which also might .alone designate the object, nay, which is the name of the snowy mass as oi)posed to the pass over it and the plain beyond it. t Potius XydnSm. N^pJlESE JIJ/SS/ON TO PEKIN. 175 whole continent of Asia does not run parallel to the greatest development of that continent or east and west, but trans- versely to that development or north and south, and that the Khin gan lila is an indication of the northern extremity of this back-bone, the Giingri or water-shed of the Indus and Brahma- putra an indication of its southern extremity. It may he that the question of the water-shed is not to be regarded with reference to the adjacent countries only, but, as Guyot and others affirm, with reference to the whole eastern half of the continent of Asia; and that the northern part of Tibet, inclusive of the Himalaya, is to be regarded as shedding the Avaters of Eastern Asia from the Arctic to the Indian Ocean. Such things, or some one of them, I repeat, may he, and one of the theories just enumerated may involve the true solution of questions for some time past investigated and debated on the frontier of India, though without any sufficiently distinct reference to those theories, prior though they all be in date. But tlie mere statement of them suffices, I should say, to show that they will not firrd their solution on that frontier, but only when the whole Bam-i-diinya (dome of the world, a fine Orientalism) has become accessible to science. In the meanwhile, without seeking to deny that many facts * seem to indicate that the axial line of the IlimiUaya lies beyond the ghat line,*f* it is obvious to remark tliat this assumed line is still parallel to the ghat line, though beyond it, and conse- quently cannot he reconciled with an essentially meridional axis, such as the Gangri range presents. And, upon the whole, and with reference to organic phenomena especially, the ghat line still presents itself to me as the best deviser of the Indian and Trans-Indian regions and climates, though I am not unaware * These facts are — ist, That several of the Himalayan rivers (lieside the Satluj, Indus, and liralimaphtr.a, wliich cannot be so reckoned) Iiave more or less of Trans- Himklayan courses as the Ganges, Karnali, Salikrami, old Gunduk of Hamilton, Ariin, Tishta, and Monas. 2d, That some of these, after flowing a good way e.ast or west over the plateau of Tibet, are at length deflected southwards, instead of pass- ing north into the Eru, or other stream or lake of Tibet. t Per contra, the numerous determinations of the height of the ghats at far- distant points seem to warrant our assuming 17,000 feet for the mean elevation of the ghat line ; and it may well be questioned if any line of equal height and extent exists nortli of that line. It is the closing of the ghdts that annually stops all access to Tibet, not any obstacle beyond them. i?6 N&pAlESE mission to PEKIN. that Erahmanic geography has, from remote times, carried the Indian frontier up to Mansard var and Eavanhrad, to the Brahmaputra and Indus line in Tibet. And, again, though I do not, nor ever did, doubt that Tibet is a very mountainous country, yet I conceive that there are good reasons for admitting the propriety of Humboldt’s general designation for it. He calls it a plateau or elevated plain, and all those I have con- versed with, who have passed from various parts of the Hima- layan countries into those of Tibet, have expressed themselves in terms implying a strong distinction, at least, between the physiognomy of the former and the latter regions. I would add, that nothing can be juster or finer than Turner’s original contrast of the two. No one acquainted, as I have long been, with the native descriptions of Tibet,* or with the general and special delinea- tions of the country by Danville, based entirely upon native materials, or with such enumerations of mountain ranges occurring between the N(ipalese and Chinese frontiers, as the accompanying documents contain, could for a moment question that mountains abound in Tibet. On the other hand, there are several reasons of a general nature, besides the specific allega- tions of the fact by the people, to prove that widespread plains also abound there. It may be worth while to enumerate these reasons. They are as follows : — 1st. One language only prevails throughout all the provinces of Southern Tibet, that is to say, throughout Balti, Ladak, Nari, Utsang, and Kham ; or,-f- in other words, from the Bolor nearly to the Yunling, whilst in the same extent of country in the Himalaya very many languages are found. 2d. The language of Tibet has express and familiar terms for plain and valley, which are respectively called thang and lining in Tibetan, whereas the Himalayan tongues have no word at all for a plain, no distinct one for a valley. 3fZ. It is well known that there are very many lakes in Tibet, and several of them of great size — a fact which involves the existence of large level tracts also, as the contrary fact in * Journal No. IV. for April 1832, Article T. t Journal No. IV. for April 1832, Article I. A’^PALESE mission to PEKIN. 177 the Himalaya involves (what is notorious) the absence of wide- spread levels. Afth . — The numerous names of places in Tibet which are com- pounded with the word thaiig, a plain, as Chyan thang in Nari, P4kheu thang in Tsang, Nar thang in XT', and I*a thang in Kham, would alone suffice to prove that the general surface of Tibet is very different from that of the Himalaya. ^th . — The numerous names of places similarly compounded with the word Ihiing, a valley, as T(ishu Hiring, Lhasa lining, Phemba lining, &c. ()th. — Tibet is the permanent habitat of wdld animals of the true ox, deer, and antelope types — aU creatures of the plain and not of the mountain, and none therefore found in the Himalaya. yth. — Tibet is annually the seasonal resort of vast numbers of the wading and swimming tribes of birds, which pass from the plains of India to those of Tibet every spring, and stay in the latter till the setting-in of winter, whilst the whole of these birds entirely avoid the Himalaya. “ The storks know their appointed seasons in the heavens,” and their skilfuUy-disposed phalanxes periodically afford one of tlie finest sights we have. Kangchan is swept over as if it were a molehill ! * There are few of the Tibetan plains more noticeable than that which occurs immediately on passing the Himalaya by the Phafrav langur or Nyanamla — few contrasts more palpable than that of the Cis- and Trans-Himalayan regions at this well-known and central point ; and when I lately requested Major Ilamsay, the Pesident in Nepal, to get for me a confirmation or refutation of my opinion, he answered — “ Dr. Hooker must be in error when he says there are no extensive plains in Tibet, because Tingri maidan (plain), for example, is fully sixty miles in length and fifteen to twenty in breadth. Til bikram Thapa assures me that, in the recent w'ar, he marched along that plain for several days and passed a lake three days in circumference, and which he estimates to be as large as the valley of Nepal.”-}* When asked if Tingri maidan was anything like the valley of Nepal, he said — “No ! horsemen could not gallop about Nepal. * See my paper on the Migration of Birds in Bengal Asiatic Society’s Researclies. t The valley of Nepal is about sixteen miles in diameter, or fifty in circuit. VOL. II. M i;8 NEPALESE mission to PEKIN. Tliey would have to keep to the roads and patliways. But numerous regiments of cavalry could gallop at large over the plain of Tingri.” * In a like spirit the Tibetans themselves compare the vast province of Ivham to a “ field,” and that of Utsang to “four channels ”*f* — both expressions plainly imply- ing abundance of flat land; and the latter also indicating those ranges parallel to and North of the Himalaya, which all native authorities attest the existence of in Tibet, not only in Nari, but also in Utsang and Kham. The most remarkable of these parallel chains, and that which divides settled from nomadic, and North from South Tibet, is the Nydnchh^n-thangla, of which I spoke in my paper on the Horsok | and of which I am now enabled pretty confidently to assert that the Karakorum is merely the Western prolongation, but tending gradually towards the Kwanleun to the Westward. But these parallel ranges imply extensive level tracts between them, which is the meaning of the “ four channels” of Utsang, whilst the East and ^V’’est directions of these ranges sustain Humboldt’s conception of the direction of all the greater chains of Asie Centrale, or the Himalaya, Kwanleun, Thian, and Altai, as also of that of the backbone of the whole Asiatic continent, which he supposes to be a continuation Westward of the second of these four chains. Upon the whole, I conceive, there can be no doubt that Tibet Proper, that is, Tibet South of the Nydnchh^n-thangla range, is, as compared with the Himalaya, a level country.§ It may be very well defined by saying it comprises the basins of the Indus (cum Satlaj) and Brahmaputra ; or, if you please, of the IMapham, Pekh^u, and Yamdo Lakes. In this limited sense of Tibet — which the native geographers divide into Western, Central, and Eastern Tibet, called by them- selves Nari, Utsang, and Kham, or, when they would be more * Tingri is the name of the town. The district is called Pekheu or Pekheu thang, and the lake Pekheu tso. By referring to the Itineraries, it will be seen that the plain of Pekheu extends sixty-eight miles in the line of the route, and is succeeded by a still larger plain reaching to Digarchi from Tasyachola (see Chountra’s route). t .Toumal at supra cit. J Journal, No. II. of 1853. Essays II., 65. § See Cooper in Bengal Asiatic Society's Journal, No. S, for May 1869, and Royal Asiatic Society’s Report of the Soiree of March 1870, wherein is given the report of Montgomerie’s Pandit, who states that the Mukhtinath pass, 13,100 feet, is reached from the North by a long smooth grassy slope varied by occasional cultivation. AJiPJLESE mission to PEKIN. 179 precise, Balti, Maryul vel Ladak, Nari, Tsang, U', and Kliam — Gangri is the watershed of Tibet. The region called Tso tso in Tibetan, or that of the lakes IMapham and Lanag, equal to the Mansarovar and Eavanhrad of Sanskrit geography, is situated around Gangrf, where the elevation of the plateau is 15,250 feet. From this region the fall of the plateau to the points where the rivers (Indus and Brahmaputra, or Singklui-bab and E'ni) quit the plateau is great, as we sufficiently know from the productions of Balti and of Kham at and around those points. In Lower Balti snow never falls ; there are two crops of grain each year, and many excellent fruits, as we learn from native writers;* whilst my own information, received viva voce from natives of those parts, assures me that the country towards the gorge of the ETu or Brahmaputra is, like Balti, free of snow and yields two crops a year ; that rice is produced, and silk and cotton ; and that these last articles form the ordinary materials of the people’s dress. These points cannot therefore exceed four to five thou- sand feet in elevation, which gives a fall of above ten thousand feet from the watershed, both ways. I will conclude these hurried remarks, suggested by the am- bassadorial routes from Kathmandu to Pekin now submitted to the Society, with a statement, which I think the Society will perceive the high interest of, with reference to those recent ethnological researches, the whole tendency of which is more and more completely to identify the Turanians of India and Indo-China with those of the Trans-Himalayan countries. It is this — E'ru tsangpo is the name of the river of Tibet : E'rawadi, that of the river of Western Indo-China or Ava: ETu vel ATii, that of a river in the Tamil and Telugu languages. Now, when we remember that Tsangbo is a mere local ajrpen- dage to the Tibetan word,-]- and Wadi vel Vati a mere Prakritic appendage to the Burmese word ; and further, that the Turanians of Tibet, the Himalaya, and Indo-China are still constantly * Journal for April 1832. + Tsangpo, of or belonging to Tsang, the province of which Dig.archi is the capital, and by which place the river (Eru) flows. Even the prefixing of a Y (Yeru — Yaru) is equally Tibetan (in speech) and Dravidian ! Turner's is the first and correctest writing of the word — Eruchambu to wit, for Chanibu is the soft-spoken sound of Tsangpo. (For eru read eru passim). i8o N&pALESE mission to PEKIN. wont to denominate their chief river by the general term for river in their respective languages (teste Meinam, Likhu, &c.), we shall hardly be disposed to hesitate in admitting that the Northmen, as they moved Southwards into the tropical swamps of India and Indo-China, clung to and perpetuated, even amid various changes of language,* that name of the river of their Northern home {viz., the river, /car’ e^oyfiv) with which was associated in their minds the memory of their fatherland. “ By the wateis of Babylon they sat down and wept.” P. S . — Before I went to England in 1853, I had been so for- tunate as to gain access to some Gyarungs and Takpas or inhabitants of Sifaii and of the South-Eastern confines of Tibet. In my paper on the Horsok I gave the substance of their information about Si'fan. I will here add a few scattered par- ticulars about the country lying above Asam, and the rather because, from the date of my return to India up to this hour, I have never again been able to get access to these people. The Tibetans and Sifanese are wholly unacquainted with the terms Daphla, Abor, Bor, Aka, ]\Iiri, Mishmi, Khamti, by which we denominate the tribes lying East of Bhutan. They recognise Cluing vel Sang (Changlo of Eobinson) as the name of a Bhu- tanese tribe or rather profession. They say that above Palyeul or Nepal (Easternmost part — alone known to my informants) is Ti'ngri : above Deunjong or Sikim is Trinsam (the Dingcham of Hooker and Damsen of myself) : above Lho or Bluitan is Nyero : above Towang or Takyeul is Chona or Jluing chona : above Lhokhapta is Kwombo : above Tsarung is Chozogon. These are said to be the respective Cis aa> 3 aooa> oooooooooooooooqoccoasc CCaflflPC 3 flC 39 CS 3 S 030 fiS :3000 Bridges. two none three none one three none four one : four seven : three : three ' none none one none two none none two none none Boat ferries. none none none none none none none none none none none none none none none none none none none none none none none Rivers or river- crossings. two two three two one three none two one five three three three three two one one two one one two two none Lakes and tanks. a)a)©©®o)a)®^Q)©oo©^ ©© ©© ©CCPCPflCCGGGPPCpOOppOcq cooooooooooooooofefeoofeoo oapaflpppaflppppcc^^pp-f^sp Mountain ridges or ranges crossed. none none one one one one none one none none none none none none one (Bhairav langtir none or Thang la)t none one (Khyumrila) one (Gyachila) one (Th 61 A)+ one (i^hdngso§th 6 uld) none none Time in gbadis and pals. lOOOpOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 1 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 II 1 1 1 T 1 1 H ONIOM 0 C0^NCOO 0 0\fO 1000 M ts. H (N mmmmwmmihMmmmcI mm mmhh Distance in kos. one I three four three and a half four four five two and a half two and a half five five four five four ten three six six three four and a half nine five four and a half I Halting place. ! *c rP 0 -c 3 >» .M 0 p 0 S 0 43 0 bo -P 3 ' ;S bo |‘'H 5 1 C,§ t o.S -3 S:S.^'>J‘ 2 S-S 3 to?o.s- 2 |^'S= b OMQMOPnHiPHWoWfrHHHEHSMi-loSHjO ■saSms 1 JO ‘ON 1 M c« CO tT lOvO tNOO Os 0 M W '0 r^ 10*0 KOO O m cO 1 mnmmmmmmmmC^CIC^CJ 18: * 0 - 2 O t: — fo a S = o 3 -- - o e ? a H *c H fco w 3 “ 5 ^ « 2 2 ^ 1 ’ I 5, W ‘ t) c 3 1 ! i; > , ^ ^ O - £ ° S = = ^ S 3 ^ c 3 .lag .a — 'S s ^ 2 2 -2 3 g> p a ^ O Sr 0) fcfi-'T js Z.p, w o « c 3 III at.ta S o .as = = w ^ o o ^ .3 ^ ^ *3 'ca «j ^ w. z .ii rt -^2 • C.5 -O £-• ^ g 2 o « E 5 ^•z s ojU: o •cS tn fl, S Q ^ :2 a.2 o S u ^ '3 ^ X *c 3 3 ^.3 Q ^ ^ 3 O C ^ M< o ^ ^ o oj Q S:>^ 5-3 as. -3 1 - £ q ^ O Mi 1 86 N^PJlES£ miss /on to PEKIN. © © ® © © © c£3ca©©a©©cd coooa;3oacoo CGCflOOCOOflfl ooo ©©©©©© © ©®© ©©©©o©©©©cc3c;;3fla©^©©0ci:: CCCC^CCflCOOOOOOGOcflOOO oooc-^oooos;:casflocoosi=;j © © © © ^ cc©c®c®Ofc: ^ c © © O c ® o o a c ^ o ^ ^ c. o o -+J c ^ 0©rO©©Oc & & O. o 'C M ©©©©©©©©©©© aacacccscpc ooooooooooo PCflpppCPCCC o o o a o o c c S P o fl c o © o © © oo ©©© ©©©© aps©pppppp©cppp oooflocooooaoooo aapoccaacpoccaa OP © «_, ©®©©a©c®®so eacpoaoaco^ OOOOGOOOO^-w © © © © ® fl5 o®po2i2^©2:i?i^®©^o©2oc:C)bo ^ O 0 - p - P « 4 ^^ O 03 - p ^- M-P G - P «^< u >- ©©©©©©© ®© GGGGGGa®®GG oooocooacoo GaaGGGGOCGG © © © © © ©®GGG®GG eCOOOGOO OOCGGOGG © © © © © © CaGGG®®aao ^oooo>>oo^ -paGCCcGP3GG-P C S rt fc0;;s3 5 S a oocooa - - GGOGGOGG © ® ® O C C ►G Q a a M ® © © ® © © CG®GaCG© coGOCOOa CGOGGGGO © © © — ' o © © a G c © o o o a o o a G G O G G c: o a G G © G © G O O O G .S3 A Hi ooo 00 roOcoOcnOOOpOO OQOi^OOOOCOO II I I I I I II I I I T I I I I I I I I WO'PvOiOfN’i-’-'rOMM OH'CJWtv-rJ-'^t'rJ-MO H MM mmmmmh mmmmmmmC^mih OOOfOOOOOOOO I I I I I I I I I I I l>stN.M M o P in*-' '-'VO ro 'O a © G , © © ^ © > > > .2 H M w cG tC td X .5 ^ ’« G 'w ’ W > >. W > k{ ’m qd cd '© 3 p ’'= g ° o.g •3 E P bo. bC'E = — 2 '2 's p '2 "3 s 3 bO S,s : s t D c ^ - Ij 'G O W _ hn-- '£ 3 a; i . j- *o5 »0 c ^ ^ Hiz;^ PsPoOhj to;3 ^0 ^§ '2 bOt? r3 fe'if 'ce ■c bo S '-3'=! - to.„ »— c ^0 g tO-G '2 •S9^)i?^jS I -^-in\o tvoo ON o M rj m ^ m jQ ‘0^ I ■V7alfi,-t6 A^PJLESE mission to PEKIN. 00004)00 O OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO OOOOOOOflOaOOCOOOOOOOOOOOCOOOOOO BCBBcaBoaoflaasaaaBaBaBcaaaaaBaa I 2 ^ V o o c 2 B C O j O O C ^ o *2 oo ©ooosu aojOO'fJoOdJccOOOccaappa ooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo caaaaBaacBaccaaacaacaaaaflflaacaa ooooooooooooooooocooooooocoooco ccaasacaaaaflBaasaaasaaaaaaaaaaa ^ a o o 2: o o o ^ Ca: ^ 0 ^ 0®o00©©000p a^s^acaa^s:© 0+90-*30000-^*-Ma o© c©©oo .®o© © © ooooo©©©© aapoooaaaaaoo^aaaopocoaaaaaaaaa oo^eacooooofciaaoooco^caoooooooco a a -ta oooaaaaaooCiaeaoa-*aaoaaaaaaaea v:^ 9 cn U-t 187 2: >8 "O s c ^ o g .2 fi § '0 >> §1 f= 9 fei o £1 S'O 'B'o a, A 0 VO Lakes and tiinks. one none tliree one none two [two twenty- four two two none none one none none one two one none two two one six seven none none 0 »o Mountain ridges or ranges crossed. none none none none none none none none none none none none none none none none none none none none none none none none none none 102 ( 106 ) Time in gliadis and pals. 0 0 OOOOOOOOQOOOOpOcoOOOQOOOOO 1 iiiiimiTmiiTiiimTimm 0 morornMoocMcicococoMMMMts. moo 00 ^ 0 vo co vo W mWmmCIihmm mmmmmh mmNmmOImmm NO d Distance in kos. nine seven nine six seven ten twelve six six seven seven seven twelve six six six four and a half six and a half nine nine seven one eleven eight eiglit and a half seven 06 0 Cl N. NO Cl Halting place. bO g -rt ci « fco tea ' 5 ^ 0 E -.tN.tN.rNrxtN.| NO •" rt P O} § 3-0 H !h , S 'P I O D I o , O > 1 cn 5 bO P^ 0 .^ . ce ^ o , ^ c ! CJ HC) O ^ 1 N 'S : i « -S3 “S.s o I 35 Eta bo^ K ^ : ^ c’^’c.'^ 3 o o 25 “ S -M O 3 O) rto=S:g^ 3.S S ^"S |5 °<2 = = 5 « o. S O S 'E « . 'g 'C O 3 g ci a) c2-:= 2 «5 _ to,-- 'TS C5 "2 c 5^ ^ =«^hH s s ?'c s c'-S 5 Sj g <“^^-3 2 5 ” § ri *" *t: « o) ••' o rt « w ^ 0 > s- - c s g-" “•nri O ^ O SECTION XL ROUTE FROM KATHMANDU, THE CAPITAL OF NEPAL, TO DARJEELING IN SIKIM, INTERSPERSED WITH REMARKS ON THE PEOPLE AND COUNTRY. First Stage to Choukdt, East, 7 J lc6s. Proceeding via, Mangal, which is within a quarter of a mile of the city, we came to Nangsal, at the like distance from Mangal. Both are petty suburban Ndwar villages. Thence to Deopatan, distance three-quarters of a kos, a large pakka * village inhabited by Ndwars. Thence to Thdmi, one and a quarter kos. Themi is a considerable pakka town of Newars, and is famous for its pottery. Thence to Bhatgaon, distant one kos. Bhatgaon is a large handsome Ndwar town situated near the Eastern end of the valley of Nepal, and is said to contain 12,000 houses. Its palace, temples, and tanks are very striking structures. Thence to Sanga, two kos. This bridge-like place stands on a low ridge separating the great valley of Nepal Proper from the subordinate valley of Bandpa. It is a small place, but the houses are all pakka, as usual with the Ndwars. * Pakka here means built of burnt bricks. This vrord and its correlative kachcha are most convenient terms, for which I know no English equivalents. t The valley of Ndpal is about sixteen miles in either diameter, of shape between oval and lozenge, cultivated throughout, and yields two crops per annum, a spring one of wheat and an autumn one of rice. It is very densely peopled with a popu- lation of probably 350,000 souls, distributed in three principal and many subordinate towns, all of burnt brick and tiled roof, in the tent style of architecture so prevalent in China. Equidistant from snows and plains, elevation 4500. Centrally placed with reference to the length (E. and W.) and breadth (N. and S.) of the kingdom. Eor its people see on to p. 196 infra. Compare note at exordium of vol. on Buddhism, and separate paper therein on Sambu Puran, (Essays 1 ., 115), notices of Valley and Tersi of Nepalya Kallyana in Benga’s A. S. Journal. 192 ROUTE FROM KATHMANDU TO DARJEELING. Thence to Ban(5pa, one kos. Ban^pa is a small pakka town inhabited by Ndwars, and situated in the vale of the same name. Thence to Khanarpii, one kos. It is a nice little Newar village, situated near the point where the dales of Banepa and Panouti blend -with each other. Thence to Choukot, a quarter kos, ascending a low ridge and quitting the level country thus far traversed, and all of which is highly cultivated, yielding autumn crops of rice aud spring ones of wheat. 2n(L Stage to Kdldpdni, East, 6 Icds. Ascend the large ridge of Batasia and come to the mountain village of Phulbari, wdiich is somewhat less than one kos from Kalapani. Thence along the ridge two and a quarter kos to Syampati, another small village of Parbattias. Thence to Salancho, one kos. Salancho is a third small hill village, and it overlooks the glen of Kashi Khand on the left. Thence to Kanpur, a Parbattia village, close to which is the halting-place, at a tank called Kalapani, distant from Mithya Kot one and a quarter kos. Zrd Stage to Jlidngd-jhdli, South-East, Teds. This stage runs along the same ridge of Batasia. But it is here called Tdnnal. Half a kos to the hill village of Bhoatia, and another half a kos to that of Gimti, both inhabited by Miirmis. Thence half a kos to Pokri, another similar village of IMurmis. Thence to Chap Khar, about three-quarters of a kos, a fourth Murmi village. Thence to Garcha, another hamlet of Miirmis, distant from the last rather less than two kos : a quarter kos more brings one to the descent into the Biasi or A’ale of Diimja, on the banks of the Kdsi and Siin Cosi. The Biasi is low, hot, and malarious, but fertile in rice, triangular in shape, and about a mile in greatest width. The Bar, Pipal, Semal, and Khair trees* grow here, and large Dhandses (Buceros Homrai) are seen eating the fruit of the Pipal. The Siin Cosi at Diimja flows freely over a wide bed of sand, and is about * The occurrence of the Imlian figs, cotton-tree, nntl acacia, so far within the mountains, shows that the Biilsis, wherever situated, have a tropical climate. See on. ROUTE FROM KATHmAnDU TO DARJEELING. 193 forty yards broad and one foot deep. This riv'er, if the Milanchi be regarded as its remotest feeder, arises from the eastern side of Gosain-than, the great snowy peak overlooking the valley of Nepal, and is the first of the “seven Cosi” (sapt Cosi) of the Nepalese. Others contend that the true Sun Cosi is tliat wliich arises at Kalingchok, east of Kuti.* There are several upper feeders of the Sun Cosi, which form a delta of perhaps thirty kds either Avay, between Malanchi, Kalingchok, and Dallalghat, where the feeders are all united. From Diimja, which lies a little below^ Dallalghat, proceed along the right bank of the Eiver Siin Cosi to Jhanga-jholi, by the rugged glen of the river two kos, the road impeded by huge masses of rock lying half in the water. 4Dl}lH.n *i,7»0 tl to » k6 0 9 At Hm M it. 1 0 Kknj^rhan t(,l76 17 «l >5 OB.U OO GTS 1 t Chvinalhtri . 17. 4t 0 BB.ie 1) J.A S.itov. nut. 1 e Gemini t i,e oo -t^nt nmtrrlm’o HftrorCIft Jtsr | NOTC thr H'/Si A fhf A'trSt tnmt of M<- Alpinr taj»i of Oit finufff* Ettt hrfaJ tf M/ i’oiiftiU! kottn htti “■ *■■ Pfarnaitc /)' y CiaxiaKtgn S’ y Jltkiiai- P ' V orlAst tftiu • **TVH»i Oir/Si0»s Of n*t mtAur/Uf tuot/ofA/is THE SEVEN COSIS OF NEPAL. 209 the Arun in the Alpine region at Hatia, tlie great mart for the barter trade of the cis and transniveans by the very accessible pass of the Ariin. Lower down the Anin receives many tribu- taries, from the west, the Salpa and Ikhua ; from the east, the Sawai, the Hengwa, the I'ilwa, the Ligua, and the Mamaga. Its course on this side the Himalaya is generally north and south ; but in Tibet it spreads to the west and east also, cover- ing and draining a deal of ground there. ytli. The Tamor Cdsi. The Tamdr, also, is a very fine river, inferior only to the Ariiu. It is alleged to have more than one Trans-Himalayan source. It passes the snows at Wallungchung, or rises there from the snows. Its course from Wallung to the general junction at Tirbdni is south-west, and it receives many aftluents on the way, as the AVallung, the Chung, the Yangma, the Mewa, the Kabaili, the Khawa, the Nhabo, the Tankliua, the Telia, the Nava, the Cherwa, the Kokaya. VOL. TI. o I SECTION XII. SOME ACCOUNT OF THE SYSTEMS OF LAW AND POLICE AS RECOGNISED IN THE STATE OF NEPAL. INTEODUCTION, [With a view to obtain correct and authentic information on the subject of Nepalese law, both in its theoretical principles and practical administra- tion, Mr. Hodgson addressed a series of questions to several individuals who M'ere judged most capable of replying to them in a full and satisfactory manner. Copies of these series of interrogatories, with their respective answers, have been communicated by him to the Eoyal Asiatic Society (together with a separate ]>aper on crimes and punishments) ; and the following article has been drawn up from a careful coiiqiarison of the whole, excluding as much as possible the repetitions unavoidably occurring, in many instances, in the various answers to any particular question. A reference to the works of Kirkpatrick, Hamilton, and others will show how little has hitherto been contributed to the knowledge of Europeans respecting Oriental systems of jurisprudence, as far as regards the kingdom of Nepal ; it is therefore particularly gratifying to be enabled to produce so complete a view of the subject as has been furnished by Mr. Hodgson, ■whose perseverance and energy in obtaining an acquaintance with these and other matters hitherto kept sacred from all strangers, ai-e only equalled by the intelligent and liberal manner in which he communicates to the public the information he has acquired. — Ed. Jodr. Royal Asiatic Soc.] PAET I. ON THE LAW AND POLICE OF NEpAL. Question I. — How many courts of law are tliere at Kath- mandu ? What is the name of each ? Answer. — There are four Kyayasab’has, the first and cliief 212 SYSTEMS OF LAW AND POLICE. of which is called K6t TAnga ; the second, Inta Cliapli ; the third, Talcsdr ; and the fourth, Dhansdr. [Another answer mentions four additional courts, viz., the Kosi* * * § the Bdngya- hitlidk,'\ the Daftar Khdna, and the Chihlidndel. In the Kdsi, the Sirkdr\ itself administers justice. The Bdrigiga-hitlidk is the general record-office of the fisc, and a separate dit'ha § pre- sides over it. It is also a Mahal- Addlat.^ The Kdt Lingu, Inta Chapli, Talcsdr, anid Dhansdr are the proper Addlats, exercising both civil and criminal jurisdiction. In the Daftar Khdna the disputes of the soldiers relative to tlie lands as- signed them for pay are investigated, and the Ch'ibhdndel is a tribunal for the settlement of all disputes relating to houses ; neither of these courts possesses criminal jurisdiction ; and whatever penal matters may arise out of the cases brought before them are carried to the Inta Chapli. All these Addlats are situated in the city of Kathmandu, and within eighty or ninety paces of each other.] Question II. — What are the territorial limits of the juris- diction of each court ? f Answer. — Tliere are no limits expressly assigned. Any citizen of Kathmandu or Bhatgaon, or any subject dwelling in the provinces, may carry his cause to any court, provincial or superior, that lie pleases. [Another answer says, that whencesoever a civil suit comes, and whatever may be its amount, it may be heard in any of the four courts of the capital at the plaintitfs pleasure ; but that grave penal cases must be carried to the Inta Chapli.'l * Also c.alled Bhdraddr Sahhd, or great council of state. t Also called Kuindri Ck 6 k. t The Government, or its representative. § A superintending minister of justice, who does not try causes, but watches over the conduct of the court. — K. HAMILTON. 11 A court for questions relating to land revenue.— E d. •[ See note at Ques. LXXVI. The Sadr courts’ jurisdiction (ordinary) e.ttends east to the Dud Cosi, west to the Trisul. Beyond tlicse limits there are a class of royal judges called mountain bicharis to whom, in assigned lands (and all nearly are assigned), there is an appeal from the decisions of the assignee. Every assignee, save the sipahis and inferior officers, has a good deal of magisterial and judicial authority, and the fines he inflicts, particularly' for breach of the law of caste, are a part of his usual income. But grave cases can always be appealed to the cai>ital, and sen- tences involving death or confiscation must be so, however high the local authority passing such sentences. See p. 200. Balpa and Doti are .administered like DhankCita. SVSTE.US OF LAW AND POLICE. 213 Question III. — Are the four Addlats of the capital of equal and co-ordinate authority, or how far is one subjected to another ? Ansaver. — Tlie other courts of the capital are subject to the K6t Linga, in Avhich the supreme judicial officer or dit'ha per- sonally presides. Question IV. — Do the courts of the capital always sit, or have they terms and vacations ? Answer. — They always sit, with the exception of fifteen days in the twelve months, viz., ten days at the Dasahrd, and five days at the Dr,v:dli* during which the courts are closed. Question V. — Are the courts of the capital permanently fixed there; or do their judges, or any of them, make circuits, civil or criminal ? Ansaver. — Tliey are fixed, nor does any judicial authority of the capital ever quit it. When necessary, the dit’ha sends special judges (bichdri) into the provinces. Question VI. — In Avhat cases does an appeal lie from the* supreme or provincial courts to the Bhdraddr Sahhd 1 Ansaver. — If any one is dissatisfied with the decision of the courts of the capital on his case, he may petition the Govern- ment, AA’hen the bhdraddrs (ministers) assembled in the nhdlcha (palace) receAe his appeal and finally decide. [Another respon- dent says : “ If the matter be grave, and the party, one or other, he dissatisfied Avith the judgment of the courts of la\\q he applies first to the premier ; and if he fails in obtaining satisfaction from him, he tlien proceeds to the palace gate, and calls out, ‘Justice! justice!' A\diich appeal, AA’hen it reaches the rdjd’s ears, is thus met : four kdjis, four sirdurs, four eminent panch- men, one dit'ha, and one bichdri are assembled together in the palace, and to them the matter is referred, their aAA'ard being final.”] Question VII. — Are the bhdraddrs, or ministers, assisted in judicial cases by the chief judicial authorities of the capital, when they hear appeals in the Bhdraddr Sabhd Answer. — They are : the dit’ha, the biclidris, and the dhar- mddhikdri,'\ sit with the ministers in such cases. * Dasahrd and Dtwdli , public festivals. t A higli law officer ; the chancellor. 214 SVST£A/S OF LAW AND POLICE. Question VIII. — What concern has the dharmddhilcdri with the courts of law in civil and penal cases ; and of a hundred cases brought before the courts, what number will come in any way under the cognisance of the dharmddhihdri ? Answer. — Eating with those with whom you ought not to eat ; sexual commerce with those between wdiom it is forbidden ; dritdving water from the hands of those not entitled to offer it — in a word, doing anything from negligence, inadvertence, or licentiousness, by which loss of caste is incurred, renders the sinner liable to the censure of the dJiarmddhikdri. He must ])ay the fine called Gdo-ddn to the dharmddhikdri, who will cause him to perform the prdyascliitta.* In such matters only has the dharmddhikdri any concern. Question IX. — Is any pursuer-general or defender-general recognised in the system ? Answer. — Xo; none whatever. Question X. — If the prosecutor fail to appear at the trial of an offender confined at his instance, is the offender dismissed, or what course is taken ? Answer. — The offender is not dismissed, but remanded to confinement, and the trial is deferred. Question XI. — What, and how many, provincial courts are there ? Answer. — For the provinces west of the capital there are two courts constituted by the supreme judicial authority there ; that is, the dit’ha ; and the provinces east of the capital have also two courts similarly constituted.*f- Question XII. — Is the regular appeal from the provincial courts of justice to the ordinary courts of the capital, or to the Bhdraddr Sablid ? * See Question XXX. t Fiilpa ami Doti (and Kirdnt also, see page 200) are viceroyalties, and their viceroys appoint the judicial establishment ; the other districts beyond the ordinary limits of the Sadr courts’ jurisdiction (Dud Cosi and Trisul) .are administered by mountain Viicharis nominated by the Rajah. There is no dit’ha in the provinces, but an appeal lies from all the mountain Uichdris to the difha of the supreme metropolitan court. To the westward there are eight, ar.d to the eastward four mountain bicharis, besides which every assignee of superior grade exercises a good deal of indefinite magisterial and judicial power in the lands assigned to him for pay by the State. E’rom the ppcision of such assignees there is an apjieal to the court of the adjacent mountain bicharis and thence to the dit’ha of the K6t Linga. SYSTEMS OF LAW AND POLICE. 215 Answer. — To tlie supreme court of the capital, or K6t Linga. Question XIII. — Are not the powers of tlie provincial courts regulated with reference to the rank of the officer who happens to he nominated to the charge of the province ? In other words, what are the limits of a provincial court, of a suha, of a sirdar, and of a INiji ? An.sweii. — T hey are not ; whatever may he the rank of the officer commanding in the province for the time being, the authority of the provincial court is always the same. [Another answer states, that generally all grave criminal cases are carried to the Sadr Addlats ; and the officer receiving charge of a pro- vince has a clause inserted in his commission prohibiting him from exercising judicial authority in certain offences. These are termed I’anch-khdt* viz., 1, Brahmahatya, or slaying a, Brah- man ; 2, Gouhafya, or killing a cow ; 3, Strihatya, or killing a woman; 4, Bdlahatya, or killing children; and 5, Patki, and all unlawful intercourse of the sexes, such as incest, adultery, or whatever involves a loss of caste by the higlier party. All penal cases, with the exception of these five, which must be reported for the direction of the Sirkdr, and all civil cases what- soever, are within the jurisdiction of the provincial authorities.] Question XIV. — When a suba, sirddr, or kdji, is appointed to the government of a province, does the dharmddliikdri of Katli- nicindu send a deputy dharmddliikdri with him ? or tlie ditlia or bichdri of Kathmandu send a deputy bichdri with him ? or does the iirovincial governor appoint his own judicial officers, or does he himself administer justice in his own province ? Answer. — The provincial governor appoints his own judicial authority, called usually fonjddr, who transacts other business for the governor besides the administration of justice. The foujddr’s appointment must, however, be ratified by the JJarbdr. Question XV. — What are the names and functions of every officer, from the highest to the lowest, attached to each Sadr and provincial court ? Answer. — At the capital, one difha for all the four courts ; and for eacli of them two bichdris, one jdmaddr, twenty-five sipdhis, twenty-five mahdnias, and five chaprdssis. Tiie dit'ha ranch, “five,” and the Arabic “ a crime, a sin, fault.' 2i6 SYSTEMS OF LAW AND POLICE. gives orders to the Mchdri, the bicJidri to the jdmaddr ; and the jdmaddr to the sipdhis and mahdnias, who serve processes, and see that all persons are forthcoming when required for the pur- pose of justice. [Another authority adds the following to the list of officers, after the hichdri, viz., the hahiddr, arz-hegi, and two naikid. The ditlia (he says) decides ; the hichdri conducts the interrogation of the parties, and ascertains the truth of their statements; the hahiddr writes the kail-mdma, which the hichdri’ s interrogation has forced from the party in the wrong ; the arz- hegi is the superintendent of the jail, and sheriff or officer who presides over, and is answerable for, executions. The naikids, with their mahdnias, inflict the kord * when needed, and they are also subordinate to the arz-hegi.] Question XVI. — How are the judges and other persons attached to the courts paid ? By fees or salary, or both ? Answer. — By both ; they receive salaries from Government, and take fees also. Question XVII. — Are there separate courts for the cities of Batan and Bhatgaon,! or do the inhabitants of those places resort to the courts of Kathmandu ? Answer. — There are separate courts for Patan and Bhatgaon, one for each city ; and each court has the following function- aries attached to it, viz : — one dwdria, one hichdri, four pradhdns, and fifty mahdnias. There is an appeal from these courts to the chief court at Kathmandu, and important causes are sent by them to that court in the first instance. Question XVIII. — How far, and in what cases, do the Sadr courts use Panchdyets 1 — in civil and criminal cases, or in the former only ? Answer. — Both civil and criminal cases are referred to Pan- clidyets, in any or every instance, at the discretion of the court or the wish of the parties. [The answer of another respondent is as follows : — “ AVith the exception of cases of life destroyed, all matters may be referred to a Panchdyet, at the desire of the parties ; but cases of assault and battery are not usually referred to Panchdyets.”] * A kind of whip. — E d. t Both places are situated in the great valley, the former at the distance of eight, the latter at that of only two miles from Kathmiindu. — B. H. H. SYSTEMS OF LA IV AND POLICE. 217 Question XIX. — Are the persons composing the Panclidyet appointed by the parties to the suit, or by the Government ? or does each party nominate its own members and the Govern- ment add a president or casting-vote, or how ? Answer. — The members of the Panclidyet are never appointed by the Government, but by the judge {dit’ha), at the solicitation of the parties ; and no man can sit on a Panchdyet without the consent of both parties. [Another reply adds, that the judge takes from the parties an obligation to abide by the award of the Panclidyet when given, and that the court or Government never volunteers to appoint a Panclidyet ; but if the parties expressly solicit it by a petition, declaring that they can get no satisfaction from their own nominees, the Government will then appoint a Panclidyet to sit on the case. A third respondent says generally, in answer to the query, “ The parties each name five members, and the Government adds five to their ten.”] Question XX. — What means are adopted to hasten the decision of the Panclidyet, if it be very dilatory ? Answer. — In such cases the matter is taken out of the hands of the Panclidyet, and decided by the court which appointed it to sit. [The answer given by another of the respondents states that there never can be needless delay in the decision of causes by Panclidycts, as these tribunals assemble in the courts out of which they issue, and officers of the court are appointed to see that the members attend regularly and constantly.] Question XXI. — With what powers are the Panclidyets invested to enforce the attendance of parties and witnesses, and the production of papers, and to give validity to their decrees ? Answer. — The Panclidyet has no authority of its own to summon or compel the attendance of any person, to make an unwilling witness depose, or to secure the production of neces- sary papers ; all such executive aid being afforded by the court appointing the Panclidyet ; and, in like manner, the decision of the Panclidyet is referred to the court to be carried into effect. The Panclidyet cannot give orders, far less enforce them, but communicates its judgment to the court, by which it is put in execution. Question XXII. — Are all the Panch required to be unanimous. 2i8 SVSTEJfS OF LA W AND POLICE. or is a simple majority sufficient ? and what course is adopted if there he one or two resolute dissentients ? Answer. — The whole of the Panch must be unanimous. Question XXIII. — Are there any persons at Kathmandu who are regularly employed as members or presidents of Panchdyets, or are persons indiscriminately selected for each occasion ? Ansnxr. — There are no permanent individual members of the Panchdyet ; but in all cases wherein Parhattias are con- cerned, it is necessary to choose the panch-men out of the following distinguished tribes, viz. : — Arjdl Khandal or Khanal, Pandd, Parafh, Bdhara, and Eana ; one person being selected from each tribe. And among the Ndwdrs a similar regulation is observed, the tribes from which the individuals are chosen being the Maik6, Bhanil, Acliar, and Srisht. In matters affect- ing persons who are neither Parhattias nor N4wdrs, there is no restriction as to the selection of the ^)aMc/i-men by the respective parties. Question XXIV. — Are the Panchdyets allowed travelling expenses or diet so long as they attend, or not ? If allowed, by whom are these expenses paid ? Does each party defray its own, or how ? Answer. — Persons who sit on Panchdyets are never paid any sum, either as compensation for travelling expenses, loss of time, or on any other account whatsoever. Question XXV. — What is the nature of the dit’ha’s authority in those three courts of the capital over which he does not personally preside ? Answer. — The hichdris, or judges of these courts, cannot decide independently of the dit’ha of the Kdt Lmga : the hichdris of those courts are not independent. [Another answer is as follows : — “ In those two courts in which the dit'ha personally presides, causes are decided by the joint wisdom of himself and colleagues {hichdris). In those in which he is not personally present, the hichdris decide small matters absolutely, but their investigations of grave ones are reported to the dit’ha, and they decide according to his directions.”] Question XXVI. — What officers of the court are there to search for and apprehend criminals, to bring them and the SVSTE.US OF LA IV AND POLICE. 219 evidences of their guilt before the courts, and to see sentence executed on them ? Answer. — The officers enumerated in the answer to Question XV., as being attached to the courts of the ditlia and the Mchdris. Question XXVII. — What officers are there to serve processes in civil suits, to see that the parties and witnesses in such suits are forthcoming, and to carry the decisions of the courts into effect ? Answer. — Those last mentioned, as being employed in crimi- nal cases. Question XXVIII. — If the plaintiff or defendant in a civil suit neglect to attend at any stage of the trial before decision, is the plaintiff non-suited, the defendant cast, the parties forcibly made to appear, the decision suspended or pronounced conditionally, or what course is adopted ? Answer. — If the plaintiff be absent and the defendant present, it is the custom to take security from the defendant to appear when called upon at some future time, and to let him depart : no decision is come to in such cases. If the plaintiff be present, and the defendant absent, the latter is not therefore cast ; he is searched for, and until he is found, no decision can be pro- nounced. Question XXIX. — What security is provided in criminal cases, that offenders, when apprehended, shall be prosecuted to conviction ; and how are prosecutors and witnesses made forth- coming at the time of trial ? Ansaver. — Mdl zdmini and liazn zdmini are taken from prose- cutors and witnesses. Question XXX. — What are prdyaschitta, chandrdyan, and aptali ? AnsaA'ER. — Prdyaschitta: the ceremonies necessary to be per- formed by an individual for recovering his lost caste. Chan- drdyan : expiatory ceremonies performed by the whole city or kingdom, in atonement for the commission of some heinous sin or uncleanness, the consequences of which have affected a con- siderable body of the citizens. Aptali — escheats : the lapse of property to the prince, for want of heirs to the last possessor. 220 SYSTEMS OF LA IV AND POLICE. Question XXXI. — Is the Kumdri Chdlc an offence of record and registry for all branches of the Government, or for judicial affairs only ; and has it any judicial authority ? Answer. — It is an offence of record and registry for the fisc ; and has no connection with the courts of law, nor does it con- tain their records. [Another respondent, in answer to Question I., reckons it among the courts of law — Addlats.'] Question XXXII. — Describe the forms of procedure in a civil cause, step by step. Answer. — If a person comes into court and states that another person owes him a certain sum of money, which he refuses to pay, the hichdri of the court immediately asks him for the particulars of the debt, which he accordingly furnishes. The hichdri then commands the jdmaddr of the court to send one of his sipdhis to fetch the debtor ; the creditor accompanies the sipdhi to point out the debtor, and pays him two annas per diem, until he has arrested the latter and brought him into court. When he is there produced, the ditlia and hichdris interrogate the parties face to face. The debtor is asked if he acknowledges the debt alleged against him, and will immediately discharge it. The debtor may answer by acknowledging the debt, and stating his willingness to pay it as soon as he can collect the means, which he hopes to do in a few days. In this case, the hichdri will desire the creditor to wait a few days. The creditor may reply that he cannot wait, having immediate need of the money ; and if so one of the chaprdssis of the court is attached to the debtor, with directions to see to the producing of the money in court, by any means. The debtor must then produce money or goods, or whatever property he has, and bring it into court. The dif'hd and hichdris then, calling to their assistance three or four merchants, proceed to appraise the goods produced in satisfaction of the debt, and immediately discharge it ; nor can the creditor object to their appraisement of the debtor’s goods and chattels. In matters thus arranged, that is, where the defendants admit the cause of action to be valid, five per cent, of the property litigated is taken from the one party, and ten per cent, from the other, and no more.* If the defendant, -when * This fine or tax is called das-6nd-Ms-6nd. SVSTEJlfS OF LAW AND POLICE. 221 produced in court in tlie manner above described, denies, instead of confessing, the debt, then the plaintiff’s proofs are called for ; and if he has only a simple note of hand unattested, or an attested acknowledgment, the witnesses to which are dead, then the dltlia and lichdris interrogate the plaintiff thus, “ This paper is of no use as evidence ; how do you propose to establish your claim ? ” The plaintiff may answer, “ I lent the money to the father of the defendant; the note produced is in his hand-writing, and my claim is a just claim.” Hereupon the plaintiff is required to pledge himself formally to prosecute his claim in the court in which he is, and in no other. The words enjoining the plaintiff thus to gage himself are “ B&ri tlidiio ; ” and the mode is by the plaintiff’s taking a rupee in his hand, which he closes, and strikes the ground, exclaiming at the same time, “ My claim is just, and I gage myself to prove it so ! ” The defendant is then commanded to take up the gage of the plaiutiff, or to pledge himself in a similar manner to attend the court duly to the conclusion of the trial, which he does by formally denying the authenticity of the document produced against him, as well as the validity of the debt ; and upon this denial he likewise strikes the earth with his hand closed on a rupee. The rupee of the plaintiff and that of the defendant, which are called hiri, are now deposited in court. The next step is for the court to take the fee called harpan, or five rupees, from each party. The amount of both Uri and liarpan is the perquisite of the various officers of the court, and does not go to the Government. The giving of karpan by the parties implies their desire to defer the dispute to the decision of the ordeal ; and accordingly, as soon as the karpan is paid down, the ditlia acquaints the Government that the parties in a certain cause wish to undergo the ordeal. The necessary order is thereupon issued from the Barbdr ; but when it has reached the court, the dit'lm and hiclidris first of all exhort the parties to come to an understanding and affect a settlement of their dispute by some other means ; if, however, they will not consent, the trial is directed to proceed. The ordeal is called nydya, and the form of it is as follows : — The names of the respective parties are described on two pieces of paper, which are rolled up into 222 SYSTEMS OF LAW AND POLICE. balls, and then have p'ujd * offered to them. From each party a fine or fee f of one rupee is taken ; the balls are then affixed to staffs of reed, and two annas % more are taken from each party. The reeds are then entrusted to two of the liavilddrs of the court to take to the Queen’s Tank ; and with the liavilddrs, a hichdri of the court, a Brahman, and the parties proceed thither, as also two men of the Chdmdkhalalc (or Chamdra) caste. § On arriving at the tank, the hichdri again exhorts the parties to avoid the ordeal by adopting some other mode of settling the business, the merits of which are only known to themselves. If they continue to insist on the ordeal, the two liavilddrs, each holding one of the reeds, go, one to the east and the other to the west side of the tank, entering the -water about knee deep. The Brahman, the parties, and the Chdmdkhalahs all at this moment enter the water a little way ; and the Brahman performs pdjd to Yaeusa in the name of the parties, and repeats a sacred text, the meaning of which is, that mankind know not what passes in the minds of each other, but that all inward thoughts and past acts are known to the gods Su’eya, Chaxde.a, Yaeuxa, and Yama : II and that they will do justice between the parties in this cause. YTien thepty'cf is over, the Brahman gives the tilah to the two Chdmdlcludahs, and says to them, “ Let the champion of truth -win, and let the false one’s champion lose ! ” This being said, the Brahman and the parties come out of the water, and the Chdmdl'halahs separate, one going to each place where a reed is erected. They then enter the deep water, and at a signal given, both immerse themselves in the water at the same instant. Y'hichever of them first rises from the water, the reed nearest to him is instantly destroyed, together with the scroll attached to it. The other reed is carried back to the court, where the ball of paper is opened, and the name read. If the scroll bear the plaintiffs name he wins the cause ; if it be that of the defen- dant, the latter is victorion.s. The fine called jit' houri is then paid by the winner, and that called harouri by the loser ; besides which, five rupees are demanded from the winner in * PCjd, worship — adoration. — E d. + Called gola. J Tills fee is called narkouli. § A verj’ low tribe. •I Su’rya, the sun; Chandra, the moon; -Varuna, the regent of the ocean; Y'ama. the deity presiding over the infernal regions. — E d. ^ Vide answer to Question LXIII. SYSTEMS OF LA IV AND POLICE. 223 return for a turban which he gets,* and the same sum, under the name of sabhdsuddha (or purification of the court), from the loser. The above four demands or* the parties, viz., jit’howri, harouri, pagH, and sabhdsuddha, are Government taxes ; and, exclusive of these, eight annas must be paid to the mahdnias of the court, eight annas more to the Tcotmdl, eiglit more to tlie humhalndikias, and, lastly, eight more to the hharddr or registrar. In this manner multitudes of causes are decided by nydya (ordeal), when the parties cannot be brought to agree upon the subject-matter of dispute, and have neither documentary nor verbal evidence to adduce. Question XXXIII. — Describe the forms of procedure in a criminal cause, step by step. Answer. — If any one comes into court, and states that such an one has killed such another by poison, sword, dagger, or otherwise, the informant is instantly interrogated by the court thus : — How ? Who ? When ? Before whom ? The Corpus delicti : AVhere ? &c., &c. He answers by stating all these particulars according to his knowledge of the facts ; adducing the names of the witnesses, or saying, that though lie has no other witnesses than himself to the fact of murder, he pledges himself to ])rove it, or abide the consequences of a failure in the proof. This last engagement, when tendered by the accuser, is immediately reduced to writing to bind him more effectually ; after which, one or more sipdhis of the court are sent with the informant to secure the murderer, and produce him and the testimony of the deed in court, which, when produced accord- ingly, is followed by an interrogation of the accused. If the accused confesses the murder, there is no necessity to call for evidence ; but if he deny it, evidence is then gone into ; and if the witnesses depose positively to their having seen the accused commit the murder, the latter is again asked what he has to say; and if he still refuses to confess, he is whipped until he does ; the confession, when obtained, is reduced to writing and attested by the murderer, who is then put in irons and sent to jail. Cases of theft, robbery, incest, &c., are also thus dealt with in Xepal, and the convicts sent to prison. When the Hence this fee or tax is called pagrl (turban). 224 SVSTEJ/S OF LA IF AND POLICE. number amounts to twenty or thirty, the dit'lm makes out a calendar of their crimes, to which he appends their confession, and a specification of the punishment usually inflicted in such cases. This list the ditha carries to the Bhdraddr Sahlid (council of state), Avhence it is taken by the premier to the prince, after the dit’ha’s allotment of punishment to each convict has been ratified, or some other punishment substituted. The list, so altered or confirmed in the council of state, and referred by the premier to the prince, is, as a matter of form, sanctioned by the latter, after which it is redelivered to the dit'ha, who makes it over to the arz-lcgi. The latter, taking the prisoners, the malid-ndihias, and some men of the Pdrya caste * with him, proceeds to the banks of the Bishen-'inati, where the sentence of the law is inflicted by the hands of the Boryas, and in the presence of the arz-hcyi and the malid- ndikias. Grave offences, involving the penalty of life or limb, are thus treated. With respect to mutual revilings and quarrels, false evidence, false accusation of moral delinquency, and such like minor crimes and offences, punishment is apportioned with reference to the caste of the offender or offenders. Question XXXIV. — l)o the parties plead vivd voce, or by written statements ? Answer. — They state their own cases invariably vivd voce. Question XXXV. — L)o parties tell their own tales or employ vakils ? Answer. — They tell their own tale — vakils are unknown. [Another respondent says, that instances of a pleader {mukhsdr) being employed have occurred ; it is usually a near relation, and only when the principal was incapable. Professional or permanent pleaders are unknown.] Question XXXVI. — In penal cases, are witnesses compellable to attend to the summons of the accused, and to depose with all the usual sanctions ? Answer. — Yes; the court compels the attendance and deposi- tion, in the usual way, of the witnesses for the accused. Question XXXVII. — Who defrays the expenses of witnesses in criminal cases ? Are such witnesses obliged to feed them- * The vilest of the vile. SYSTEMS OF LAW AND POLICE. 225 selves during their attendance on the court, and journey to and fro, or does the Government support them ? Answer. — The witnesses in penal cases support themselves ; no allowance for food, travelling expenses, &c,, is made them hy any one. Question XXXVIII. — In criminal cases, if the prisoner volun- teers a confession, does his confession supersede the necessity of trial ? Answer. — It does, entirely. Question XXXIX. — If the prisoner be fully convicted by evidence, must his confession nevertheless be had ? Answer. — It must. Question XL. — If he be sullenly silent, how is his confes.sion obtained ? Answer. — He is scolded, beaten, and frightened. Question XLI. — May the prisoner demand to be confronted with his accuser, and cross-examine the witnesses against him ? Ansaver. — He has both privileges always granted to him. Question XLII. — In civil cases, are witnesses allowed their travelling expenses and subsistence, or not ? and when, and how ? Answer. — Witnesses must in all cases bear their own expenses. Question XLIII. — Must the expenses of a witness in a civil case be tendered to him by the party as soon as he is desired to attend, or may they be tendered after the witness has presented himself in court ? Answer. — Witnesses must attend without any allowance being tendered, sooner or later. Question XLIV. — In civil cases, how are costs, exclusive of expenses for witnesses, distributed and realised ? Does each party always bear his own, or are all the costs ever laid as a penalty on the losing party when he is to blame ? Answer. — All costs whatever are distributed between the parties, after the decision, according to fixed rules. Question XLV. — If a witness in a civil cause refuse to attend or to depone, what is the course adopted with respect to him ? May the summoning party recover damages proportioned to the loss sustained by the witness’ absence or silence ? and may any punisliment be inflicted on such contumacious witness ? VuL. II. p 2:6 SYSTEMS OF LAW AND POLICE. Answer. — The court will always compel the attendance of a witness required, and will compel his deposition too; and if there be reason to suppose he is prevaricating or concealing some part of what he knows, he is imprisoned until he makes a full revelation. Question XLVI. — What is the punishment for perjury and subornation of perjury ? Answer. — In trifling cases, the perjurer and suborner are fined ; in grave matters, they are corporally punished, and even capitally, according to the mischief done. Question XLVII. — How many sorts of evidence are admis- sible — oral testimony — writings — decisory oaths — oaths of pur- gation and imprecation — ordeals ? Answer. — In civil cases, the Hari-vansa is put on the head of the witness preparing to depose, and he is solemnly reminded of the sanctity of truth. [Another respondent says : “ Evidence of external witnesses is the first and best sort ; but if there are none, then an oath is tendered on the Hari-vansa to both parties, and they are required to make their statements over again under the sanction of this oath ; by these statements, so taken, the court will sometimes decide, or one party in such a case may tender the other a decisory oath, and, if he will take it, the tenderer must submit.”] Question XLVIII. — Is oral testimony taken on oath or with- out oath ? — what are the forms ? Answer. — On oath ; the form is given above. [By another respondent : “ If the witness be a Sivamdrgi or Brahmanical Hindu, he is sworn on the Hari-vansa ; if a Buddhist, on the Bancha-rakshd ; if a Moslem, on the Kordn!’^ Question XLIX. — In civil causes, if testimony of men and writings is forthcoming, may either party call for ordeal, or is it only a alter I and if one party demands, is the other bound to assent ? Answer. — Ordeals are only a substitute, the best that can be had when oral and writing testimony are both wanting. Question L. — May the prisoner in a penal cause rebut evidence by the ordeal, and are the ordeals allowed to any persons under accusation of crime ? Answer. — If the prisoner be convicted by evidence, but still SYSTEMS OF LA IV AND POLICE. 227 refuses to confess, and asserts his innocence, his demand for the ordeal must be allowed. Question LI. — Do parties ever depose in their own causes, and under the same sanctions as external witnesses ? Answer. — In all causes, civil and criminal, the parties may depose like external witnesses, and under the same penalties for falsehood. Question LII. — How are writings signed or sealed, and attested or proved ? are the attesting parties summoned, or, if dead, is their handwvriting proved, or how ? Answer. — In cases of bonds, &c., the witnesses to which are dead, and no other satisfactory evidence is forthcoming, ordeal is resorted to. Question LIII. — How are unattested or casual writings proved ? Must the writer be produced, or will evidence of his hand-writing he admitted ? Answer. — If the writer he forthcoming, he must he produced ; if not, evidence of his hand-writing is admitted, and any other sort of evidence whatever that can be had; hut if the result of the whole is unsatisfactory to the court, it will direct an ordeal. Question LIV. — Are tradesmen allowed to adduce their entries in their hooks to prove debts to them? and must tlie shopman or enterer of the items he produced to prove the entries ? Answer. — The value of entries in merchants’ books, and in general mercantile affairs, are referred hy the court to a Fanclidyet of merchants. Question LV. — How is the evidence of a man of rank taken ? Answer. — He must go into court and depose like any other person. [Another authority, however, states, on the contrary, that such a person is not required to go into court and depone ; hut an officer of the court is deputed to wait on him at his house, and to procure his evidence hy interrogatories.] Question LVI. — How is the evidence of a woman of rank taken ? Answer. — The court deputes a female to hear the evidence of a lady of rank, and to report it to the court. Question LVII. — Is oral evidence taken down as uttered, hy rapid writers, and enrolled on record ? 228 SYSTEMS OF LAW AND POLICE. Answer. — In general, oral evidence is not taken down or preserved, nor is it ever taken in whole. In trilling matters, no record whatever of the evidence is made ; hut in grave affairs, the substance of the more material depositions is pre- served and recorded. Question LVIll. — Is written evidence, when adduced, re- corded ; and, if so, is it in full or in abstract ? Answer. — Important writings are copied, and the copies are recorded after the decision of the case. Question LIX. — Is the decree recorded, and a copy of it given textile winning party ? Answer. — The decree is written, the original is given to the winner of the cause, and a copy is deposited in the record-office of the court. [Another respondent states : “ The decree is not written or recorded.”] Question LX. — Do the decrees record the cause in full or in abstract ? Answer. — In full, with respect to whatever they profess to record, which, however (as stated above), is not every stage of the proceeding. Question LXI. — Are the records of the several courts of justice preserved in the Kimdri Chok, and sent there immedi- ately after the causes are decided ? Answer. — The Kumdri Chok is the general and ultimate place of deposit, wlnther the records of each court of justice are sent after explanation, and account of receipts rendered to the Government at the close of each year. In the interim, the records stay in the courts where the affairs are decided. Question LX 1 1. — Where the party in a civil cause enters a suit, does he pay any fee, or when he exhibits a document ; and in short, upon what occasions is anything demanded of him ? Answer. — There is no fee paid on any of the occasions alluded to ; what is taken is taken when the cause is decided. Question LXIII. — What hvq jit' hour i and harouri — in what proportion and on what principle are they taken ? Answer. — Jit'hourih what is paid to the Government by the winner of a cause, and haroiiri wliat is paid by the loser. They are proportioned to the amount litigated. Question LXIY. — AVhat is dhungd-ehudyi ? SYSTEMS OF LAW AND POLICE. 229 Answer. — A stone {dhungd), the image of Vishnu, is placed before the loser when he has lost, and he is commanded to touch it; he places one rupee and one pice on the stone^ and then salutes it with a bow, and retires, leaving the offering. Question LXV. — Besides jit’houri, harouri, and dhungd- chudyi, wliat other expenses fall on the litigant ? Answ'ER. — Half as much as is taken as harouri is taken as iit'houri ; both go to the Sirlcdr, and are proportioned in amount to the property litigated. DMingd-cliddyi is one rupee per cause taken from the loser ; sabhdsuddha is one or two rupees per cause, according to circumstances ; d/mngd-chddyi is the perquisite of the hichdri. Question LXVI. — Can a civil action or damages be brought for assault, liattery, defamation, &c. ; or must the party complained against be of necessity prosecuted criminally ? Answer. — A civil action may be brought by the injured party in any of the four courts of the capital. Question LXVIT. — If the defendant in any case as above be cast, is he ever made to pay the plaintiff’s expenses in prosecuting him ? Answer. — In cases of that sort, no expenses fall on the plaintiff, for the Sirkdr takes no fines or taxes from him ; witnesses have no allowance, and vakils are unknowm. Question LXVIII. — What is the jail-delivery at the Dasahrd ? Are not offenders tried and punished at the time of offence ? and, with courts always sitting and competent to hear all causes, how comes it that multitudes of prisoners are collected for the Dasahrd ? Answer. — The jail-delivery is a mere removal of prisoners from the city into an adjacent village, in order that the city may be fully lustrated and purified at tliat season. The usage has no special reference to judicial matters; but so many offenders as ought about that time to be heard and dismissed, or executed, are so lieard and dealt with. Question LXIX. — Is the jail delivered at the DasaJi7-d by the dit’ha’s court, or by the council of hhdi'addi'S ? Answer. — Wlien the Dasahrd approaches, the dit'ha takes to the Bhdraddr Sabltd the criminal calendar of those wdiose 230 SYSTEMS OF LAW AND POLICE. offences have been tried, and states the crime of each, the evidence, and the punishment he conceives applicable. The hhdraddrs, according to their judgment on the dit’ha’s report, set down the punishment to be inflicted on each offender, and return the list to the difha, who makes it over to the arz-hegi or sheriff, and he sees execution done accordingly through tlie medium of the mahd-ndikias. Question LXX. — AVhat is the prisoner’s daily allowance ? — and what is the system of prison discipline ? Answer. — Each prisoner receives daily a seer of parched rice and a few condiments. [Another respondent states that ]>risoners of the common class get one and a half annas per diem ; persons above that class receive, according to their con- dition, from four annas to one rupee per diem.] Question LXX I. — What is the preventive establishment in cities ? Answer. — There is no civil establishment of watchmen, but the military patrol the streets throughout the night at intervals. Question LXXII. — To whom are night-brawls, and riots, and disturbances reported ? Answer. — The night-watch of the city belongs to the soldiery, who go their rounds at stated times. If they apprehend any persons in their rounds, they keep them till morning in the guard-room, and then deliver them to the mahdnias, by whom they are produced in court, when their afiairs are summarily heard, and they are released or committed to prison, as the case may be. Question LXXIII. — What are the village establishments of the preventive and detective kind ? Answer. — In each village one dicdria, four pradhdns, four ndikio.s, and from five to ten mahdnias. Question LXXIY. — In the villages of Xepal is there any establishment similar to the village economy of the plains ? — any hard alotaya, or hard halotaya 1 Answer. — No; there is neither nor patwari, nor mirdhd> nor garait, nor blacksmith, nor carpenter, nor chamdr, nor washerman, nor barber, nor potter, nor kdndu, on the public establishment of any village of Nepal. Question LXXV. — Is the managing zeminddr of each village, SVSTEA/S OF LAW AND POLICE. 231 or are the principal landholders collectively, bound to Govern nient, in cases of theft, to produce the thief, or restore tiie stolen property ? Answer. — No ; there is no such usage. Question LXXVI. — Is the village mdiguzdr usually a farmer of the revenues, or only a collector ? the principal resident ryot or a stranger ? and how do these fiscal arrangements affect those for police purposes ? Answer. — The dicdria and pradhdns above mentioned collect the revenues, and the same persons superintend the police, keep the peace and punish with small fines and whipping trifling breaches of it. The dwdria is chiefly an official person, and the representative of Government or its assignee ; the pradhdns are the most substantial landowners of the village, and chiefly represent the community. They act together for purposes of detection and apprehension — the four pradhdns under the dn'dria.* Question LXXVII. — How much of the law depends on custom, and how much on the Shdstras 1 Answer. — IMany of the decisions of the court are founded on customary laws only ; many also on written and sacred canons. [By another respondent : “ There is no code of laws, no written body of p)ublic enactments. If a question turn upon a caste of a Brahman or a Edjput, then reference is made to the guni {rdj guru), who consults the Shdstra, and enjoins the cere- monies needful for the recovery of the caste or the punishment of him who has lost it. If a question before the courts affect a rarlattia, or Ndv:dr, or Blidtia, it is referred to tlie customs established in the time of Java Thiti jMAl Eaja, for each separate tribe ; dhungd-ch'ddyi being performed as directed by * Note from Mr. Hodfison's Remarks on the Orent Militarii Road which Traverses the Whole Kingdom of Nipdt. — “This State, instead of collecting its revenues and paying its establishments out of them, prefers the method of assigning its revenual claims directly to its functionaries, and leaving them to collect the .amount ; while, as judi- cial follows revenual administrations in Nepal, the Government feels little concern about territorial divisions : in the whole country, westward from Kathmandu as far as the Narayani River, and eastward as far as the Dud Kdsi River, there is no specific arrondissement district, or ziUah. These large tracts of country are assigned princip.ally to the Compii, or army stationed in the capit.al ; and their judicial administration is for the most part in the hands of deputies of the officers, super- vised by certain migratory royal judges, called mountain bichuris.” SYSTEMS OF LAW AND POLICE. tliose customs. Since the G6rl:hdli conquests of Ndpal Proper, the ordeal by immersion in the Queen’s Tank has become the prevalent mode of settling knotty points.” * (,)UESTiox LXXVJII. — In general, what sort of causes are governed by the Shdstras, and what by customary laws ? Answer. — Infringements of the law of caste in any and every way fall under the Shdstra ; other matters are almost entirely governed by customary law (cUs-dchdr). Question LXXIX. — Do the Ndicdrs and Parhattias follow the same or different law Shdstras .? Answer. — The customs of the Bauddha portion of the Ndwdrs are peculiar to themselves. Question LXXX. — With respect to inheritance, adoption, and wills, do you follow the Mitdkshard, the Ddyahhdga, or any other Shdstra of the plains ; or have you only a customary law in such matters ? Answer. — We constantly refer to those books in the decision of such cases. Question LXXXI. — How do sons divide among the KJias tribe ? — sons by wives and those by concubines ; also unmarried daughters ? What is the widow’s share, if there be sons and daughters ? What if there be none ? Answer. — Among the Khas, sons by concubines get a third of what constitutes the share of a son by a wife. [Another respondent says in addition : “ If a Khas has a son born in wed- lock, that son is his heir ; if he has no such son, his brother and his brother’s male descendants are his heirs : his married daughters and their progeny never. If he has a virgin daughter, she is entitled to a marriage portion, and no more.”] Question LXXXII. — Can the Khas adopt an heir not of their kindred, if they have near male relations ? Ansaver. — N o; they must choose for adoption the child of some one of their nearest relatives. Question LXXXIII. — Are wills in force among the 7T/ms .? and how much of ancestral and of acquired property can a Khas alienate by will from his sons or daughters ? * Dr. Buchanan Hamilton observes that orileals were seldom u.sed until the Onrkhd family seized the Government, since which time they have become very fi equent.- -.account of Nepal, p. 103. SVSTi:.US OF LAW AND POLICE. 233 Answer. — If alChas has a son, he cannot alienate a rupee from him by will, save only, and in moderation, to pious uses. Question LXXXIV. — Do the Magars and Gurungs, and other Parbattias differ from the Khas in respect to inheritance, adop- tion, and wills ? Answer. — In general, they agree closely. Question LXXXV. — How is it with respect to the Nthvdrs, Sivamdrgi, and Buddha-mdrgi ? Answer. — T he former section agrees mostly with the Parhattias on all three heads ; the latter section have some rules of their own. Question LXXXVI. — How is it with regard to the Murmi tribe, and the Kirdnti? Answer. — A nswered above : in regard to inheritance, all tribes agree. Question LXXXVII. — Are the customs of the several tribes above mentioned, in respect to inheritance, &c., reduced to writing, collected, and methodised ? If not, can they be ascer- tained with sufficient ease in cases of dispute before the courts ? Answer. — The customary law on those heads is reduced to writing, and the book containing it is studied by tlie bichdris and others whom it may concern. [Another respondent, on the other band, says, with reference to the customary laws : “ They are not reduced to writing ; nor are the dit’has or bichdris regularly educated to the law. A dit'ha or bichdri has nothing to do with the courts till he receives from the Government the turban of investiture ; but that is never conferred, save on persons conversant with the customs of the country, and the usage of its various tribes ; and this general conversancy with such matters, aided by the opinions of elders in any particular cases of difficulty, is his sole stay on the judgment-seat, unless it is that the ci-devant dit’ha or bichdri, when removed by rotation or otherwise, cannot retire until he has imparted to his successor a knowledge of the state of the court, and the general routine of procedures.” A third reply is as follows : — “ When cases of dispute on these topics are brought into the court, the judge calls for the sentiments of a few of the most respectable elders of the tribe to which the litigants belong, and follows their statement of the custom of the tribe.” 234 SYSTEMS OF LAW AND POLICE. Question LXXXVIIT. — Are the hiclidris regularly educated to the law ? Answer. — d'hose who understand dharma and adharma, who are well educated and practised in law affairs, are alone made hichdris. [By another authority : “ Those who are well educated, of high character, and practically acquainted with the law, are alone made hichdris. It is not indispensable that they should have read the law Shdstra, though, if they have, so much the better.”] Question LXXXIX. — The difha is not often a professed lawyer ; yet, is he not president of the supreme court ? How is this ? Answer. — Whether the dit'ha has read the Nydya Shdstra or not, he must understand nydya (justice-law), and be a man of high respectability. Question XC. — Are there separate hichdris for the investiga- tion of the civil causes of Ndivdrs and of Farhattias ? Answer. — There are not. Question XCI. — In the dit’has court, if the dit'ha be the judge, the investigator, and decider, what is the function of the hichdris ? Answer. — The investiga'.ion is the joint work of the dit’has and the hiclidris. [Another respondent says: “They both act together ; the decree proceeds from the dit’ha.”'\ Question XCI I. — In courts where no dit’ha presides, do the hichdris act in his stead ? Answer. — See the answer to Question XXV. Question XCTII. — Among Ndwdrs and Farhattias, may not the creditor seize and detain the debtor in his own house, and beat and misuse him also ? and to what e.vtent ? Answer. — The creditor may attach duns to the debtor, to follow and dun him wherever he goes. The creditor may also stop the debtor wherever he finds him ; take him home, confine, beat, and abuse him; so that he does him no serious injury in health or limbs. [Another answer states that the creditor may seize upon the debtor, confine him in his own house, place him under the spout that discharges the filthy wash of the house, and such like ; but he has no further power over him.] Question XCIV. — Is sitting dhdrnd in use in Xepal? SyS7'EJ/S OF LAW A AD POLICE. 2.35 Answer. — It is. Question XCV. — Give a contrasted catalogue of the principal crimes and their punishments ? Answ'EK. — Destruction of human life, with or without malice, and, in whatever W'ay, must be atoned for by loss of life. Kill- ing a cow is another capital crime. Incest is a third. Deflower- ing a female of the sacred tribe subjects a man of a lower caste to capital punishment, and the confiscation of all his property. Kobbery is a capital crime. Burglary is punished by cutting off the burglar’s hands. [I'he subjoined scale is furnished by another respondent : — Killing in an affray. — The principal is hanged ; the acces- sories before the fact severely fined. Killing hy soine accident. — Long imprisonment and fining, besides undergoing prdyaschitta.* Theft and petty burglary. — For the first offence, one hand is cut off ; for the second, the other ; the third is capital. Petty thefts. — Whipping, fining, and imprisonment for short periods. Treason and petty treason. — Death and confiscation : women and Brahmans are never done to death, but degraded in every possible way, and then expelled the country.] Question XCVI. — If a Ndwdrvfiie. commit adultery, does she forfeit her stridhan f to her husband, or not ? and how is it if she seek a divorce from him from mere caprice ? If, on the other hand, he divorces her from a similar motive, what follows as to the stridhan? Answer. — If a Niicdr husband divorce himself from his wife, she carries away her stridhan with her; if a N6'ivdr wife divorce herself, she may then also carry off with her her otvn property or portion. Adultery the Ndwdrs heed not. Question XCVII. — Among the Parhattia tribes, when the injured husband discovers or suspects the fact, must he inform the courts or the Sirkdr before or afterwards ? and must he prove the adultery in court subsequently ? What, if he then fails in the proof ? Answ'ER. — When a Parhattia has satisfied himself of the adultery, and the identity of the male adulterer, he may kill * Vide answer to Question XXX. t Stridhan, dowry. 236 LAW AND LEGAL PRACTICE. liim before giving any information to the court or to the Sirhdr ; he must afterwards prove the adultery, and if he fails in the proof, he will be hanged. Question XCYIII. — Are such cases investigated in the courts of law, or in the Bhdraddr Sahhd ? Answer. — The investigation is conducted in the dit’ha’s court ; but when completed, the ditlia refers it to the Bhdr- addr Sabhd for instructions, or a final decree. PART II. ON THE LAW AND LEGAL PRACTICE OF NEPAL AS REGARDS FAMILIAR INTERCOURSE BETWEEN A HINDU AND AN OUTCAST. The Penal Law of Nepal, a Hindu state, is necessarily founded on the Shdstras ; nor is there anything material in its marvellous crimes, and more marvellous proofs, for which abundance of justificatory texts may not be produced out of the Code of Menu and others equally well known on the plains. The only exceptions to the truth of the above general remarks are, first, that, by the law of Nepal, the Barbattia husband retains the natural privilege of avenging, with his own liand, the violation of his marriage bed ; and, secondly, that this law expressly confounds Mohammedans with the outcasts of its own community. But it may be remarked, in regard to the first point, that the husband’s privilege is rather a licensed violation of the law than a part of tlie law ; and that all nations have tolerated, and do still, some such privilege. Nor can it be denied, in reference to the second point, that if the followers of Islam are not expressly ranged with ordinary outcasts by the Hindu law Shdstras, it is merely because the antiquity of the books transcends the appearance of the LAW AND LEGAL PRACTICE. 237 Moslems in India; since, by the wliole spirit and tenor of those books, “ all who are not Greeks are harharians ” — aU strangers to Hinduism, l^Richclihas. If, then, there be any material difference between the Hin- duism of Hdpal, considered as a public institution, and that of the Hindu states of the plains, the cause of it must be sought, not in any difference of the law, the sanctity and immutability of which are alilce acknowledged here and there ; but in the different spirit and integrity with which the sacred guides, common to both, are followed in the mountains and in the plains. The Hindu princes of the plains, subject for ages to the dominion or dictation of Mohammedan and European powers, have, by a necessity more or less palpable and direct, ceased to take public judicial cognisance of acts, which they must con- tinue to regard as crimes of the deepest dye, but the sacredly prescribed penalties of wdiich they dare not judicially enforce; and thus have been long since dismissed to domestic tribunals and the forums of conscience, all the most essential but revolt- ing dogmata of Hindu jurisprudence. We must not, however, forget the blander influence of per- suasion and mutual concession, operating through a long tract of time. Tlie Moslems, though the conquerors, gradually laid aside their most offensive ma.xims : the Hindu princes, their allies and dependants, could not do otherwise than imitate this example ; and hence, if there is much diversity between the Hindu laws aud Hindu judgments, now and for ages past given in the public tribunals of the Hindu princes of the plains, tliere is no less between the law of tlie Koran and its first com- mentators, and the judgments of Akbar and his successors. But neither persuasion nor example, nor coercion, has had room to operate such a change in these mountains ; tlie domi- nant classes of the inhabitants of which, originally refugees from Mohammedan bigotry, have in their seclusion nursed their hereditary haired of Islamism, whilst they bade defiance to its power; and they have latterly come very naturally to regard themselves as the sole remaining depositaries of undefiled, national Hinduism. Hence their enthusiasm, which burns all the fiercer for a secret consciousness that their particular and. 233 LAW AND LEGAL PRACTICE. as it were, personal pretensions, as Hindus, are and must be but lowly rated at Benares. The proud Khas, the soi-disant Kshatriyas of N4pal, and tlie Parhattia Brahmans, with all tlieir pharasaical assertions of ceremonial purity, take water from the hands of the Kachar Bhotias — men wlio, tliough they dare not kill the cow under their present Hindu rulers, greedily devour the carrion carcase left by disease — men, whose whole lives are as much opposed to practical, as their whole tenets are to speculative, Hinduism. In very truth, the genius of Polytheism, everywhere accom- modating, is peculiarly so to its professors and their like in Nt^pdl. Here, religious opinions are utterly disregarded ; and ev'en practice is suffered among the privileged to deviate in a thousand ways from the prescribed standard. The Ndwdrs, or aborigines of the valley of Xdpal, are, for the most part, Buddhists ; but they are deemed very good Hindus neverthe- less, pretty much in the same way as B’am Mohun Eaya jiasses for a good Hindu at Calcutta. A variety of practices, too, which would not be tolerated even in a Hindu below, are here notoriously and avowedly fullowed. They are omissions, not commissions, for the most part. But there are daily acts of the positive kind done in the hills which could not be done openly in the plains.* Still these are matters which the Darbar would not brook the discussion of with us ; and I am afraid that their known deviations, in many respects, would only make them more punctilioxrs and obstinate in regard to those few which it is so much our interest and duty to get compromised, if we can, with reference to our followers. Unfortunately, these few topics are the salient points of Hinduism ; are precisely those points which it is the pride and glory of this state to maintain from the throne and judgment-seat, as the chief features of the public law; because, nowhere else throughout India can they be maintained in the same public and authentic manner, or any otherwise than by the domestic tribunals of the people. The * The g.-illant soldiers of these hills cannot endure the tedious ceremonial of Hinduism. Wlien preparing to cook, they satisfy the law by washing their hands and face, instead of their whole bodies ; by taking off their turbans, instead of their whole dress. Nor are they at all afraid of being degraded to k6.Hs if they should carry tea days' provisions, in time of war, on their backs. Et sic de cccleris. LAW AND LEGAL PRACTICE. 239 distinction between Hindus on the one hand, and, on tlie other, outcasts of their own race, as well as all strangers indis- criminately, it is the special duty of the judges of the land to ponder upon day and night, to pursue it through all its prac- tical consequences, as infinitely diversified by the ceremonial observances created to guard and perpetuate it; and to visit, with the utmost vengeance of the Penal Code, every act by which this cardinal distinction is knowingly and essentially violated. Of all these acts, the most severely regarded is intercourse between the sexes of such parties ; because of its leailing directly to the confusion of all castes, of the greatness of the tempta- tion, and of the strong inducement to concealment; and the concealment is deemed almost as bad as the crime itself ; for the Hindu agent or subject will, of course, proceed, tiU detected, to communicate as usual with his or her relations, who again will communicate with theirs, until the foul contamination has reached the ends of the city and kingdom, and imposed upon all (besides the sin) the necessity of submitting themselves to a variety of tedious and expensive purificatory processes, pend- ing the fulfilment of which all their pursuits of business or pleasure are necessarily suspended, and themselves rendered, for the time, outcasts. This, to be sure, is a great and real evil, deserving of severe repressive measures. But is not the evil self-created ? True : but so we may not argue at Kathmandu. The law of caste is the corner-stone of Hinduism. Hence the innumerable ceremonial observances, penetrating into every act of life, which have been erected to perpetuate this law ; and hence the dreadful inflictions with which the breach of it is visited. Of all breaches of it, intercourse between a Hindu and an outcast of different sexes is the most enormous ; but it is not, by many, the only one deemed worthy of punishment by mutilation or death. The Codes of Menu and other Hindu sages are full of these strange enormities ; but it is in Nepal alone (for leasons already stated) that the sword of public justice is now wielded to realise them. It is in Ndpal alone, of all Hindu states, that two-thirds of the time of the judges is employed in the discussion of cases better fitted for the con- fessional, or the tribunal of public opinion, or some domestic 240 LAW AND LEGAL PRACTICE. court, such as the Panclidyet of brethren or fellow- craftsmen, than for a King’s Court of justice. Not such, however, is the opinion of the Nepalese, who, while they are forcing confessions from young men and young women, by dint of scolding and whipping, in order to visit them afterwards with ridiculous penances or savage punishments, instead of discharging such functions with a sigh or a smile, glorify themselves in that they are thus maintaining the holy will of Brahma, enforcing from the judgment-seat those sacred institutes, which elsewhere the magistrate (shame upon him !) neglects through fear, or despises as an infidel. When the banner of Hindriism dropped from the hands of the Mahrattas in 1817, they solemnly conjured the Nepalese to take it up, and wave it proudly, till it could be again un- furled in the plains by the expulsion of the vile Feringis, and the subjection of the insolent followers of Islam. But surely the British Government, so justly famous for its liberality, cannot be fairly subjected to insinuations such as this ? So it may seem ; but let any one turn over the pages of Menu, observe the conspicuous station assigned to the public magistrate as a censor morum under the immensely extensive and com- plicate system of morals there laid down, and remember, that whilst it is the Hindu magistrate’s first duty to enforce them, to the British magistrate they are and have been a dead letter : let him look to the variety of dreadful inflictions assigned to violations of the law of caste, and remember, that whilst their literal fulfilment is the Hindu magistrate’s most sacred obligation, British magistrates shrink with horror and disgust at the very thought of them ; and he will be better prejiared to appreciate and make allowance for the sentiments of Hindu sovereigns and Hindu magistrates. The Hindu sovereigns dare not, and we will not, obey the sacred mandate. But in Ndpal, it is the pride and glory of the magistrate to obey it, literally, blindly, unbiassed by foreign example, unawed by foreign power. An eminent old hichdri or judge of the chief court of Kath- mandu, to whom I am indebted for an excellent sketch of the judicial system of Ndpal, after answering all my questions on tlie subject, concluded with some voluntary observations of his own. from which I extract the following passage : — LA IV AND LEGAL PRACTICE. 241 “Below, let man and woman commit what sin they will, there is no punishment provided, no expiatory right enjoined.* Hence Hinduism is destroyed ; the customs are Mohammedan ; the distinctions of caste are obliterated. Here, on the contrary, all those distinctions are religiously preserved by the public courts of justice, which punish according to caste, and never destroy the life of a Brahman. If a female of the sacred order go astray, and her paramour be not a Brahman, he is capitally punished ; but if he be a Brahman he is degraded from his rank, and banished. If a female of the soldier tribes be seduced, the husband, with his own hand, kills the seducer, and cuts off the nose of the female, and expels her from his house. Then the Brahman or soldier-husband must perform the purificatory rites enjoined, after which he is restored to his caste. Below, the Shdstras are things to talk of: here, they are acted vp to.” I have, by the above remarks, endeavoured to convey an idea of the sort of feeling relative to them which prevails in N^pal. It will serve, I hope, as a sort of apology for the Nepalese ; but will, I fear, also serve to demonstrate the small probability there exists of our inducing the Harbar to waive in our favour so cherished a point of religion, and, I may add, of policy ; for they are well aware of the effect of this rigour, intending to facilitate the restricted intercourse between the Ndpalese and our fol- lowers, a restriction which they seek to maintain with Chinese pertinacity. Besides, the Shdstras are holy things, and frail as holy ; and no Hindu of tolerable shrewdness will submit a single text of them, if he can avoid it, to the calm, free glance of European intellect. Having already given the most abundant materials *f* for judging of the general tenor of the judicial proceedings and of tlie laws of Ndpal, it will not be necessary (or possible), in this paper, to do more than briefly apply them, as regards that inter- course between a Hindu, and a non-Hindu, at present under discussion. The customary law or license which permits the injured * It is the exclusive duty of one of the highest functionaries of this Government (the Dharmddhikdri) to prescribe the fitting penance and purificatory rites for each violation of the ceremonial law of purity. + In allusion to other papers by Mr Hodgson. — E d. VOL. II. Q 2+2 LA W ASD LEGAL PRACTICE. husband in Xepal to be his own avenger, is confined to the Parhattias, the principal divisions of whom are the Braliinam, the Khas, the Magars, and the G-urungs. The Newdrs, Murmis,* Kaclidr-Ehotias, Kirdntis,-\ and other inhabitants of N^pal, pos- sess no such privilege. They must seek redress from the courts of justice, which, guiding themselves by the custom of these tribes prior to the conquest, award to the injured husband a small pecuniary compensation, which the injurer is compelled to pay. Xothing further, therefore, need at present be said of them. In regard to the Parhattias, every injured husband has the option, if he please, of appealing to the courts, instead of using his own sword ; but any one save a learned Brahman or a helpless boy, who should do so, would be covered with eternal disgrace. A Brahman who follows his holy calling cannot, con- sistently with usage, play the avenger ; biit a Brahinan carrying arms must act like his brethren in arms. A boy, whose wife has been seduced, may employ the arm of his grown-up brother or cousin to avenge him. But if he have none such, he, as well as the learned Brahman, may appeal to the prince, wdio, through his courts of justice, comes forward to avenge the wrong (such is the sentiment here), and to wipe out the stain with blood ; death, whether by law or extra-judicially, being the doom of all adulterers with the wives af Parhattias. Brahmans, indeed, by a law superior to all laws, may not be done to death by sentence of a court of justice. But no one will care to question the Parhattia, who, with his own hand, destroys an adulterer. Brah- man though that adulterer be. If the law be required to judge a Brahman for this crime, the sentence is, to be degraded from his caste, and banished for ever, with every mark of infamy. If a Parhattia marry into a tribe such as the Niwdr, which claims no privilege of licensed revenge, he may not, in regard to such wife, exercise the privilege. But must not a Parhattia, before he proceed to avenge him- self, prove the fact and the identity of the offender, in a court of justice ? No ! To appeal to a court would afford a warning to the delinquents to escape, and so foil him. He may pursue * Kachdr = cis-Nivean. t See above, Vol. I., pp. 176 £f. 397 £f. LAW AND LEGAL PRACTICE. ^43 his revenge withoi:t a thought of the magistrate ; he may watch his opportunity for years, till he can safely execute bis design ; and when he has, at last, found it, he may use it to the adul- terer’s destruction. But he may not spare the adulteress : he must cut off her nose, and drive her with ignominy from his house ; her caste and station for ever gone. If the wife have notoriously sinned with many, the husband may not destroy any hut the first seducer, and though the husband need prove nothing beforehand, he must be prepared with legal proof after- wards, in case the wife should deny the fact, and summon him before the courts (no other person can) for murder and mutilation. And what is deemed legal proof in this case ? Tire wife’s confession made in the presence of two witnesses. But who is to warrant us that the confession is free ? This, it must be confessed, is an awkward question ; since, by the law of iSiepal, the husband’s power over his wife is extreme. He may beat her ; lock her up ; stai've her oA libitum, so long as he endanger not her life or limbs ; and that he will do all this and more^ when his whole soul is bent upon procuring the necessary acknowledgment of her frailty, is too probable. But still, her honour, her station, and her beauty ai’e dear to a woman; and every Parbattia wife knows, that the terrible avowal once made, she becomes in an instant a noseless and infamous outcast. There is little real danger, therefore, that a true woman should be false to herself, by confessing, where there was no sin, /or fear of her husband ; and no danger at all, I apprehend, that, as has been imagined, she could be won to become tlie tool of some 'petty malice of her husband, or of the covert political spleen of the Darbar. There are, indeed, some married Brahmans among the soldiery of Nepal; and the wife of a Brahman may not be mutilated. But in proportion as the station of a Brahmani is higher than that of all others, so must its prerogatives be dearer to her; and all these she must lose if she confess. She must be driven from her home by her husband, and be degraded and banished the kingdom by the State. But there is certainly a con- tingent hazard to our followers, arising out of the circumstance of the adulteress, if she have sinned with many, being required to name her first lover; for since she must, in every court, sutler 244 LAW AND LEGAL PRACTICE. the full penalties of her crime, it may well be supposed that, under various circumstances, she might be led to name, as her first paramour, one of our sijpdhis, instead of a country fellow. This, however, seems to me a vague and barely possible con- tingency. PROCEDURE. The proofs and procedure before the Nepal tribunals will fall more naturally under consideration, when we proceed to the next case. Suffice it here to say, that if, when the husband would cut off his wife’s nose, or afterwards, the wife should hurry to a court of justice, and deny her guilt, the husband must be brought up to answer. In ninety-nine cases out of a hundred, the husband’s answer consists in simply producing the two witnesses to his wife’s confession of guilt. She, of course, affirms that the confession was extorted by unwarrantable cruelty towards her ; and if she can support such a plea (it is liard to do so, for the husband’s legal power covers a multitude of sins), in a manner satisfactory to the court, and if the husband have no counter-evidence to this plea, nor any circum- stantial or general evidence of the guilt which he affirms, he may be condemned to death. But, in the vast majority of cases, his two witnesses to the confession, with such circumstantial evidence as the case, if a true bill, can hardly want, will suffice for his justification. INTERCOURSE BETWEEN A IIINDlJ AND A NON-HINDlJ — THE LAW. He who may give water to a pure Hindu to drink, is within the pale of Hinduism ; he whose water may not be drunk by a pure Hindu, is an outcast, an unutterably vile creature, whose intimate contact with one within the pale is foul contamination, communicable to the pure by the slightest and most necessary intercourse held with them, and, through them, to all others. If trivial and involuntary, it may be expiated by the individual, if he alone be affected ; or by all with whom he and they com- municated before the discovery of the taint, if any such persons there be. The expiation is, by a world of purificatory rites, as tedious as expensive ; and the tainted must segregate themselves from society till these rites are completed. But there are many sorts of contact between a Hindu and a non-Hindu, or outcast. LA IV AND LEGAL PRACTICE. 245 the sin of M’hicli is inexpiable, and the penalty, death. Such is intercourse between the sexes. But, by a primary law, the lives and members of Brahmans, and the lives of women, are sacred. Subject to the modification of this primary law, the utmost vengeance of the Code is reserved for this enormorrs sin. Men so offending are done to death. Women have their noses amputated, are rendered outcasts; if they have castes to lose, and are banished the kingdom. A male outcast, who has intercourse, under any circumstances, with a pure Hindu female, and whether the female be the seducer or the seduced, be maid, wife, or widow, chaste, or a wanton, is adjudged to die ; and the female is rendered noseless and an outcast; unless of the sacred order, when her nose is spared. If an outcast female pass herself off for one of a pure caste, and have commerce with a Hindu, she shall have her nose cut off ; and he, if he confess his sin so soon as he discovers it, shall be restored to caste by penance and purification ; but if he have connection knowingly with such a female, he shall be emasculated, and made an outcast. If a Sudra, or one of lower degree, but still within the pale, have commerce with a Brah- mani, he shall suffer death, unless the Brahmani be a prostitute, and then he shall c;o free. If any such Hindu have commerce with a Kdiasni, she having been a chaste widow up to that time,* he shall die. If she were a maid, and willing, he shall be heavily fined ; if a wanton, he shall go free. Hindus, however low, whose water will pass from hand to hand, are in no danger of life or limb from such commerce with any others than Brahman and Khas females. The latter are the Kshatriyas of Xepal and wear the thread. The following are the outcasts of Nepal ; — * Chaste widows are supposed to be dead to the world, and devoted to religious exercises. Most of them burn with their husbands’ corpses. NkWAUS. PARBATTIAS. Kullii. ChdmdJchalak, Pdrya. or Fhunyin. Kassai. Dung, or Dmi. Kusulliah. Sangat. Kdmi. Kingri, or Gdin. Damdi. DJwhi. Sdrki. Musdlm.dns. Bhdr, or Bhdnr. 246 LAW AND LEGAL PRACTICE. The above enumeration of outcast Ndivdrs may serve to intro- duce the remark, that the distinctions of caste, and their penal consequences, do not owe their existence in Ncipal to the Gdrkhd ilynasty. It is true that before that event the majority of the Nepalese proper were Budd’hists, having a law of their own; but so they are still. And when we advert to the facts, that the Budd’hism of the most distinguished tribe of them (the Ndwdrs) admitted the dogma of caste; that the sovereigns of Kathmandu and Piitan, though belouging to this tribe, were, for three or four ages before the conquest, with many of their subjects, Brahmanical Hindus'; that the N4wdrs and others, since the conquest, have all, as far as they were allowed, by availing tliemselves of the privileges of Hinduism, confessed its obliga- tions to be binding on them ; and that lastly, all tribes have now for seventy years acknowledged the paramountship, quoad hoc, of the Hindu law of the conquerors ; — when I say, we recollect all these things, it will appear clear, I think, that we are not at liberty to question the equitableness of the applica- tion of this law to our followers iu Ndpal, inasmuch as it is the unquestioned law of the laud.*' THE PROCEDURE. The round of operations by which a judgment is reached in a Ndpalese court of justice is precisely such as a man of sense, at the head of his family, would apply to the investigation of a domestic offence ; and the contracted range of all rights and wrongs in N4pal renders this sort of procedure as feasible as it is expeditious and effectual. The pleasing spectacle is, however, defaced by the occasional rigour arising out of the maxim, that confession is indispensable; and by the intervention, in the absence of ordinary proof, of ordeals and decisory oaths. An open court, viva voce examination in the presence of the judge, confrontation of the accuser, aid of counsel to the prisoner, and liberty to summon and have examined, under all usual sanctions, the witnesses for the defence — these are the ordinary * The objection that m.ay be raised to tliis law, in reference to our followers, on the ground of its inconsistency with the general princiiiles of justice aud humanity, is altogether another question, with which I presume not to meddle. LA IV AND LEGAL PRACTICE. 247 attributes of penal justice in N4pal ; and these would amply suffice for the prisoner’s just protection, but for the vehemence with which confessions are sought, even when they are utterly superfluous, but for the fatal efficacy of those confessions and but for the intervention of ordeals. Ordeals, however, are more frequently asked for than commanded ; and perhaps it is true that volenti non fit injuria : at all events, with reference to enforced confessions, it must not be supposed that the infamous ingenuity of Europe has any parallel in Nc^'pal, or that terrible engines are ever employed in secret to extort confessions. No ! the only torture known to these tribunals is that of stern inter- rogation and brow-beating, and, more rarely, the application of the kdrd : * but all this is done in the face of day, under the judge’s eye, and in an open tribunal ; and though it may some- times compromise innocence, its by far more common effect is to reach guilt. Besides, with respect to ourselves, the mere presence of the Residency Munslii, pending the trial of one of our followers, would prevent its use, or at least abuse, in regard to him. Or, ere submitting our followers to the Nepalese tribunals, we might bargain successfully with the Darbar for the waiving of this coercion, as well as for the non-intervention of the proof ordeal, unless with the consent of the party. And if these two points were conceded to us, I should, I confess, have no more hesitation in committing one of our followers to a Ndpalese tribunal at Kathmandu, than I should in making him over to our own courts. I have mentioned, that the prisoner is allowed the assistance of counsel ; but the expression must be understood to refer to the aid of friends and relatives, for there are no professional pleaders in N4pal. There are no common spies and informers attached to the courts of justice, nor any public prosecutors in the name of the State. The casual informer is made prosecutor, and he acts under a fearful responsibility ; for if he fails to prove the guilt he charges, if he have no eye-witnesses to the principal fact besides himself, and the accused resolutely persevere in denial, a man of respectability must clear his character by demanding the ordeal, in which, if he be cast, the judgment upon him may be to suffer all, or the greater part of that evil which the law * A kind of whip. 248 LAW AND LEGAL PRACTICE. assigns to the offence he charged. At all events, deep disgrace, and fines more or less heavy, are his certain portion ; and if it seem that he was actuated by malice, he shall surely suffer the doom he would have inflicted on the accused, be it greater or be it less. Informers and prosecutors, who have evidently no personal interest in the matter — those who are the retainers of the Darbar, or of the Minister — are expected and required, under a Hindu Government, to bring under judicial cognisance such breaches of the law of caste, and of the ritual purity of Hinduism, as they may chance to discover, and they are, of course, more considered than other informers ; but they are liable, like ordinary informers, to the predicament of seeing their credit in society ruined, unless they dare the perilous event of purification by ordeal, with its contingency of ignominy and fines. Ordeals, however, whether for proof of innocence or for the clearing of the accuser, are rare, extraordinary, and seldom or never admitted where there is sufficient testimony of witnesses to be had. But whatever quantity of testimony be adduced, the confession of the accused must still be had. That confession is singly sufficient : withoirt it, no quantity and quality of evi- dence will justify a condemnation ; a strange prejudice, produc- ing all that harshness towards the accused, which (omitting the folly of ordeals, and that the people seem to love more than their rulers) is the only grave defect in the criminal judicatures of the country. In Nepal, when the arraignment of the prisoner is completed, he is asked for his answer ; and if he confess, his confession is recorded, he is requested to sign it, and judgment is at once passed. If he deny the fact, the assessors of the judge call upon the prosecutor to come forward and establish his charge. A very animated scene then ensues, in which the parties are suffered to try their strength against each other — to produce their witnesses and counter-witnesses, their presumptions and counter-presirmptions. The result of this conflict is usually to make the guilt of the accused very evident; and he commonly confesses when the trial is closed. But if the accused persist in refusing confession, the assessors of the judge then go formally into the evidence, and urge upon the accused all the criminafiive circumstances, and all the weight of testimony. If LAW AND LEGAL PRACTICE. 249 these be strong and decisive, and he still deny, he is brow- beaten, abused, whipped till he confess ; or, if all will not do, he is remanded indefinitely to prison.* If there be no eye-witness but the informer, or if the informer be not himself an eye-witness to the crime, and have no ex- ternal witness to back his charge, he must, at all events, be furnished with strong presumptive proof (for woe betide him as he w'ell knows, if he have neither !) wherewith to confirm his accusation. This proof is vehemently urged upon the prisoner by the court and by the accuser ; and if the accused prevaricate or be sullen, he is scolded and whipped as before, till he con- fess. If he cannot be thus brought to confess, and there be but the accuser’s assertion to the denial of the accused, the accuser, if he profess to have been an eye-witness, is now expected, for his own credit’s sake, to make the appeal to the God of Truth, that is, to demand the ordeal. But if he be a man of eminent respectability, the court will probably, in such circumstances, instead of permitting the ordeal, administer to the accuser, being an eye-witness, a very solemn oath (witnesses and parties are not ordinarily sworn), under the sanction of which he will be required to depose afresh ; and if his evidence be positive and circumstantial, and in harmony with the probabilities of the case, his single testimony will suffice for the conviction of the court, which will commit the prisoner indefinitely till he confess. In matters of illicit intercourse between the sexes, where there are two parties under accusation, if the one confess and the other deny ; and there is no positive testimony, and all the circumstantial evidence, however sternly urged upon the non- confessing party, fails to draw forth an acknowledgment, the court, as a last resort, may command that the issue be referred to ordeal of the parties; or that the contumacious party be remanded to prison for a time, whence he is again brought before the court, and urged, as before, to confess. And if this second attempt to obtain the sine, qvd non of judgment be ineffectual, the gods must decide where men could not ; ordeal must cut the Gordian knot. * This, in capital cases, is exactly the mode of proceeding formerly observed in the Dutch courts, and probably in many others in Europe.— Ed. 250 LA W AND LEGAL PRACTICE. TTpon the whole, though it be a strange spectacle, and a revolting, to see the judge urging the unhappy prisoner, with threats, abuse, and whipping, “ to confess and be hanged ; ” yet it is clearly true, that whippings and hard words are light in the balance, compared with hanging. A capital felon, therefore, wdll seldom indeed be thus driven to confess a crime he has not committed, when he is sustained and aided by all those favourable circumstances, in the consti- tution of the tribunal, and in the forms of procedure already enumerated. Nor should it be forgotten, that if much rigour is sometimes used to procure a confession, the confession itself is most usually superfluous to justice ; and is sought rather to satisfy a scruple of conscience, than as a substitute for deficient evidence. SECTION XIII. ON THE NATIVE METHOD OF MAKING THE PAPED, DENOMINATED IN HINDUSTAN, NEPALESE. For the manufacture of the Nepalese paper, the following implements are necessary, but a very rude construction of them suffices for the end in view : — ist. A stone mortar, of shallow and wide cavity, or a large block of stone, slightly but smoothly excavated. 2d. A mallet or pestle of hard wood, such as oak, and size proportioned to the mortar,, and to the quantity of boiled rind of the paper plant which it is desired to pound into pulp. 3d. A basket of close wicker work, to put the ashes in, and through which water will pass, only drop by drop. 4th. An earthen vessel or receiver, to receive the juice of the ashes after they have been watered. 5th. A metallic open-mouthed pot, to boil the rind of the plant in. It may be of iron, or cojDper, or brass, indifferently; an earthen one would hardly bear the requisite degree of fire. 6th. A sieve, the reticulation of the bottom of which is wide and open, so as to let all the pulp pass through it, save only the lumpy parts of it. yth. A frame, with stout wooden sides, so that it will float well in rvater, and with a bottom of clotli, only so porous, that the meshes of it will stay all the pulp, even when dilated and diffused in water; but will let the water pass off, when the frame is raised out of the cistern ; the operator must also have the command of a cistern of clear water, plenty of fire-wood, ashes of oak (though I fancy other ashes might answer as well), a fire-place, however rude, and lastly, a sufficient quantity of slips of the inner bark of the paper tree, such as is peeled off METHOD OF MAKING PAPER. the plant by the paper-makers, who commonly use the peelings when fresh from the plant ; but that is not indispensable. With these “ appliances and means to boot,” suppose you take four seers of ashes of oak ; put them into the basket-above mentioned, place the earthen receiver or vessel beneath the basket, and then gradually pour five seers of clear water upon the ashes, and let the water drip slowly through the ashes, and fall into the receiver. This juice of ashes must be strong, or a dark-like red colour, and in quantity about two lbs., and if the first filtering yield not such a produce, pass the juice through the ashes a second time. ISTe.xt, pour this e.xtract of ashes into the metal pot, already described, and boil the extract ; and so soon as it begins to boil, throw into it as many slips or peelings of the inner bark of the paper plant as you can easily grasp ; each slip being about a cubit long, and an inch wide (in fact, the quan- tity of the slips of bark should be to the quantity of juice of ashes, such that the former shall float freely in the latter, and that the juice shall not be absorbed and evaporated with less than half an hour’s boiling). Boil the slips for about half an hour, at the expiration of which time the juice will be nearly absorbed, and the slips quite soft. Then take the softened slips and put them into the stone mortar, and beat them with the oaken mallet, till they are reduced to a homogeneous or uniform pulp, like so much dough. Take this pulp, put it into any wide- mouthed vessel, add a little pure water to it, and churn it with a wooden instrument, like a chocolate mill, for ten minutes, or until it lose all stringiness, and will spread itself out, when shaken about under water. Next, take as much of this pre- pared pulp as will cover your paper frame (with a thicker or thinner coat, according to the strength of the paper you need), toss it into such a sieve as I have described, and lay the sieve upon the paper frame, and let both sieve and frame float in the cistern : agitate them, and the pulp will spread itself over the sieve ; the grosser and knotty parts of the pulp will remain in the sieve, but all the rest of it will ooze througli into the frame. Then put away the sieve, and taking the frame in your left hand, as it floats on the \vater, and pulp smartly with your right hand, and the pulp will readily diffuse itself in an uniform manner over the bottom of the frame. When it is thus pro- METHOD OF JfAHING PAPER. 253 peiiy diffused, raise the frame oiit of the water, easing off the water in such a manner, that the uniformity of the pulp spread shall continue after the frame is clear of the water and the paper is made. To dry it, the frame is set endwise, near a large fire ; and so soon as it is dry, the sheet is peeled off' the bottom of the frame and folded up. When (which seldom is the case) it is deemed needful to smooth and polish the surface of the paper, the dry sheets are laid on wooden boards and rubbed, with the conve.x; entire side of the conch-shell ; or in case of the sheets of paper being large, with the flat surface of a large rubber of hard and smooth grained wood ; no sort of size is ever needed or applied, to prevent the ink from running. It would, probably, surprise the paper-makers of England, to hear that the Kachar Bhoteahs can make up this paper into fine smooth sheets of several yards square. This paper may be purchased at Kathmandu in almost any quantity, at the price of 1 7 annas sicca per dharni of three seers; and the bricks of dried pulp may be had* at the same place, for from 8 to 10 annas sicca per dharni. Though called Ndpalese, the paper is not in fact made in Nepal proper. It is manufactured exclusively in Cis-Himalayan Bhote, and by the race of Bhoteahs, denominated, in their own tongue, Eangbo, in contradistinction to the Trans- Himalayan Bhoteahs, whose ver- nacular name is Sokhpo.-f The Eangbo or Cis-Himalayan Bhoteahs are divided into several tribes (such as Miirmi, Lap- cha, &c., &c.), who do not generally intermarry, and who speak dialects of the Bhote or Tibet language so diverse, that ignorant as they are, several of them cannot effectually communicate together. They are all somewhat ruder, darker, and smaller than the Sokhpos or Trans-Himalayan Bhoteahs, by whom they are all alike held in slight esteem, though most evidently essen- tially one and the same with themselves in race and in language, as well as in religion. * The pulp is dried and made up into the shape of bricks or tiles, for the con- venience of transport. In this form it is admirably adapted for transmission to England. See the P.S. t The Newkr language has terms precisely equivalent to these. The Raugbo being called in Nevvari, Paloo Sen ; and the Sokhpo here spoken of is not really a different being from the Soghpoun nomade, the name ordinarily applied in Bhote to the Mongols. But this word has, at least, a different sense in the mouths of the Tibetans, towards this frontier, on both sides of the snows. 234 METHOD OF MAKING PAPER. To return to our paper-making, — most of the Cis-Himalayan Bhoteahs, east of the Kali river, make the K 4 palese paper ; but the greatest part of it is maniifactured in the tract above Nepal proper, and the best market for it is afforded by the Nepalese people ; hence probably it derived its name : a great quantity is annually made and exported southwards, to Ndpal and Hin- dustan, and northwards, to Sokya-Gumba, Digarchi, and other places in Tramontane Bhote. The manufactories are mere sheds, established in the midst of the immense forest of Cis- Himalayan Bhote, which affords to the paper-makers an inex- haustible supply, on the very spot, of the firewood and ashes, which they consume so largely ; abundance of clear water (another requisite) is likewise procurable everywhere in the same region. I cannot learn by whom or when the valuable properties of the paper plant were discovered; but the Nepalese say that any of their books now existent, which is made of Palmira leaves, may be safely pronounced, on that account, to be 500 years old : whence we may, perhaps, infer that the paper manufacture was founded about that time. I conjecture that tlie art of paper-making was got by the Cis-Himalayan Bho- teahs, via Lhassa, from China; a paper of the very same sort being manufactured at Lhassa ; and most of the useful arts of tliese regions having flowed upon them, through Tibet, from China; and not from Hindustan. N^pdl Residency, November 1831. P.S. — Dr. Wallich having fully described the paper plant, it would be supeiiluous to say a word about it. The raw produce or prdp (beat up into bricks) has been sent to England, and declared by the ablest persons to be of unrivalled excellence, as a material for the manufacture of that sort of paper upon which proof engravings are taken off. The manufactured produce of Nepal is, for office records, incomparably better than any Indian paper, being as strong and durable as leather almost, and quite smooth enough to write on. It has been adopted in one or two offices in the plains, and ought to be generally substituted for the flimsy friable material to which we commit all our records. A. Campbell. SECTION XIV. PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS; OR, THE ANGLICISTS ANSWERED: BEING FOUR LETTERS ON THE EDUCATION OF THE PEOPLE OF INDIA* PEEFACE. Three of the foiir following letters were first published several years back, and lest it should be supposed that the course of time has antiquated their reasonings, I beg leave to suggest that argu- ments so general a.re not so rapidly affected by time, and that in point of fact the Macaulayism of one cycle is but the Trevelyanism + * “ In Alsace and Lorraine the peasantry after two centuries of subjection to France do not know one word of French. In Wales, in Sleswic, and everywhere in Austria and Russia, we see all efforts to force the ruling language on a subject race resented, even when light, civilisation, and enjoyment of equal rights follow in the train of this denationalising schoolmaster.” — Times, April 25, 1872. “There are in almost every department vast hoards of truth which do not exist n an available form, and which, however necessary for us, form no part of our ordinary teaching. When our school-books have been rewritten, and when the proved results of research have been incorporated with them, the benefit will be in every way immense.” — Article on Mr. Gladstone’s Address to the King’s College Students, Times, July 10, 1876. “ Hitherto the English people have begun at the wrong end, and have been educating downwards instead of upwards. What is of real importance is to teach the poor man to do the best for himself, to enlighten the ignorance, and to dissipate the prejudices which make his life so much harder than it need be. AVe have confidence in English good sense, and expect the training-school to do much good.” — Times, May 25, 1874. f These words are used with all honour and respect as the readiest means of speaking of well-known acta et scripta of well-known men, of whom the genius of the one and the benevolence of the other command my unfeigned homage. Mr. Macaulay's Minute is but a second edition of Mr. Trevelyan's Treatise. PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. 256 of another, and that the recent practical measures of Lord Hardinge are but the effectuation of the doctrines contended against in these letters. I admit the sagacity and decision with which Lord Hardinge has carried out the most accredited educational maxims of his prede- cessors ; I admit the possibility of these measures of our revered Governor-General supplying the public service with a superior class of native functionaries, though I confess the apprehension that this new class of functionaries may prove competent in our special acquirements only by losing all competency in their own ! But I contend that anything worthy the name of national education, as being addressed to remedy the intellectual and moral wants of the mass of the people, is not comprised in these measures which address themselves only or chiefly to the u^ants of the public service ; and I would add with submission that the principles and reasonings upon which rest that avowed preference for English, Avhich dates its present ascendancy from the days of Lord Bentinck and Mr. Macaulay, are very far inferior in philosophic compre- hensiveness, as well as in benevolence and expediency, to the ]irinciples and reasonings whence were deduced, according to the Avants of that age, the educational maxims of a Hastings (Warren) and a Wellesley. I confess an unlimited preference for the latter, not only because it is infinitely more practicable to make Europeans familiar with the words and things of India, than to make Indians familiar with the Avords and things of Europe, but also because the former course tends perpetually to rebuke and subdue, the latter course to excuse and foster, those peccant idiosyncrasies of the haughty island race to Avhom God has committed this land, which half neutralise the blessings derived from the no less characteristic integrity and energy of that race. The vivifying spirit of our sound knoAvledge, Avhich it is so desirable to diffuse throughout India, is no Avay inseparably connected Avith its lingual vehicle; and, Avhilst every step Ave make in the grand project of idigenating that knoAvledge in India by means of vernacularisation Avill prove a bond of blessed union betAveen ourselves and the mass of our subjects, and a safe, a sure, and an universally operative agent of the desiderated change in them, the contrary project of Anglicisa- tion Avill help to Aviden the existing lamentable gulf that divides us from the mass of the people, and put into the hands of the fcAV among themselves an exclusive and dangerous poAver, quite similar in essential character to that power Avhich for ages past the scribes and priests of the East have Avielded, to the deplorable detriment PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. 257 of the spiritual ami temporal welfare of their fellows, and therefore j)0ssibly destined only to perpetuate in a new jihase the ancient curse of this land, or exclusive learning ! Sanskrit, Arabic, Persian, have proved the curse of this land, not so much by reason of the false doctrines they have inculcated as by reason of the administra- tive mystery they have created and upheld ; and I hold it to surpass the wit of man to demonstiate that that terrible mystery will not be perpetuated by English ; for, long ages must elapse before public institutions and public opinion become omnipotent in the interior of this land, and in the meanwhile, all those who ])Ossess the exclusive knowledge will find but too ample a field for the exercise of its power in prosecution of the selfish ends of ambition and avarice, and in despite of our best efforts at pre- vention. But, without saying more in repetition of the letters themselves upon the dangers incident to an English organ of know- ledge, I may glance at the objection founded upon its difficulty of acquisition and consequent unsuitableness to the wants and necessi- ties of the many. But this topic also having been amply treated in the letters, I notice it here only to call attention to the essential fact that in the practical proposition I have deduced from my general reasonings, there is nothing whatever savouring of preference for one over another organ of instruction. The learned languages of the East and of the West, English and the vernaculars of India, all meet with equal favour in the proposed Normal College; and, whilst it is assumed that the vast project of Europeanising the Indian mind calls for exi»ress specific measures subsidiary to educa- tion properly so called, it is endeavoured so to shape those measures as to reconcile the adequate cultivation of difficult knowledge by the few with an incessant supply of improved means of easy knoidedge for the many. It seems to me that English, not less than Sanskrit or Arabic, is far too difficult for the many ; that such studies to pro- duce the expected fruit must form the life-long labour of an appro- priate body, the pioneers of a new literature ; and that if this corps be adequately equipped and provided for, and dedicated to the specific functions of translating and of teaching, in the manner expressed in my fourth letter, the interests of deep learning will be duly attended to without any risk of its running into monastic dreaminess or subtilty, and at the same time that the two great wants of ordinary education, or good teachers and good books, will be systematically provided for. Thus the advocate for English and the advocate for the learned orient tongues, and the advocate for VOL. II. R 258 PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. the vernaculars, may all find equal motive and inducement to uphold the proposition of a Normal College; and those who con- sider the extent of the work to be done in the way of education with the inadequacy of all our means and ajipliances, will do well to reflect that every ripe scholar trained in this college will not be a mere well-taught individual, at liberty so soon as he is free of his educational course to forget or misapply those gifts which the public has bestowed upon him for better ends, but a teacher, and a permanent teacher or translator, and consequently one to whom thousands may, and hundreds must, be indebted for the elements of learning at least. Mark, then, the diffusable energy, the expansive force of the institution suggested, and support it with active exertion if you deem it worthy of support. N^pal, 1843. Since the following letters were written vernacular and normal teaching have made much way in public estimation. But still, even in England, if we may credit frequent leaders in the “ Times,” and how much more in India ! there has been a fearful waste of time and money with very inadequate results, owing to the want of fitting books and teachers. Such consequences of the want of system in providing these indispensable 2)re-requisites were long ago foreseen in India by Dr. Ballantyne, and if we may trust the language of the recent native petition to the Governor-General of India, to say nothing of further evidence of the same fact, there is an abiding sense among the people of India of the necessity of adopting those means for supplying adequately, and systematically, and enduringly, good books and good teachers, which the following letters point out. This, perhaps, may excuse the reproduction of the letters here. London, Feb. 1876. PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. 259 “ For as for that our tongue is called barbarouse, is but a fimtasye ; for so is, as every learned man knoweth, every strange language to other : and if they would call it barren of wordes, there is no doubt but it is plenteouse enough to express our myndes in any things whereof one man hath used to speke with another.” — S ir T. More, LETTER I. To THE Editor of the “ Friend of India.” Sir, — In the question now under discussion, whether it is better to convey European knowledge to the natives, indirectly, through the medium of their own languages and literature, or directly, through that of ours — I observe with some surprise that you seem to prefer the latter alternative.* You have, too, with the majority of the Anglomaniasts, whilst disclaiming all express purpose of annihilating the indigenous literature, advocated the justice as well as expediency of the so-called negative course of withdrawing all public patronage from it.* But, sir, have you considered the paramount influence of Government acts in the East, and the consequent imperative effect of even those which profess to be merely negative ? Have you considered the extent to which the spread of the British rule from province to province, and kingdom to kingdom, has had the effect of closing the native seminaries throughout India, either by the political extinction of their patrons, or by the absorption of their resources ? Have you considered the people’s title to be consulted on a question of this sort ? or do you doubt that if their sentiments were deferred to they would claim from our Government that protection’ of their own litera- ture which is conceded to it by every native state ? Thaidc God, I am no lawyer; but to my plain understanding, the British Legislature, when it decreed a small pittance for the “ revival of native learning,” had in view the making of some small atonement for that fiscal rapacity which had merged in the ocean of revenue so many streamlets of national education ! * So far as the worthy editors in question are concerned, this is a mistake which I joyfully retract. 26 o pre-eminence OF THE VERNACULARS. Vested rights are the cry of the West. Let the Anglomaniasts inquire how many of these, appropriated to native instruction, have been violated directly by our indiscriminating resump- tions, or indirectly by our levelling system of rule, and they will be better prepared to judge of the justice of Lord William Lentinck’s sudden refusal of the Parliamentary dole! The Government’s discretion in India is, like the Parliamentary omnipotence in England, sufficient for all things but the changing of wrong into right; and whether I advert to the absorption of native seminaries by the progress of our sway, to the enormous portion of the annual produce of industry which we sweep into the Exchequer, or to our obligation to consult the sentiments of tlie people (let them square with our own or not) upon a question of this sort, I must equally deny the title of the Governor-General in Council, to withhold public patronage from the indigenous literature of our subjects. This is my view of the question, as one of right ; but as I have no wish to push the plea of mcrwn jus on behalf of the people, to the extent of injuring them by compliance with their wishes, I shall proceed to assign some reasons for the opinion I entertain, that their essential welfare, not less than their rights, may be urged against the scheme implied by Lord William Bentinck’s decretum. It may be granted at once, as a general proposition, that that sound knowledge, to diffuse which throughout India is our purpose, is to be found in the European languages, and not in those of the East. What we want is the best instrument for the free and equal diffusion of that knowledge. One party contends that English is the desideratum, the other party that the vernacular languages are. It is assumed by the former that the English language is a perfect and singly sufficient organ, whilst the native languages are equally objectionable from their plurality and their intrinsic feebleness. These assump- tions appear to me somewhat hasty and unfounded. A large portion of the sound knowledge of Europe is not to be found in the Enfrlish lan^uacre, but must be sought in those of France and Germany — to go no further. Does not every educated Englishman daily resort to the languages of France and Germany for those useful and important ideas which are strangers to his own tongue ; and must not, therefore, the PRE EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. 261 assumption that English is coequal with sound knowledge be received with great reserve ? Certainly it must ; and without pushing the argument beyond due limits, it will be found to be worth something, when placed fairly in the scales against tliat plurality which is so extravagantly objected to the colloquial media of India, for Bengalee is the speech of at least thirty- seven millions of people, and Hiiidee is everywhere current from the northern frontiers of Bengal to tlie Indus and the Himalaya, not to mention the ubiquitarian Ilindoostanee ! This surely is a range of language enough to satisfy the most ardent of reasonable reformers * — is a range rather above than below the average of Europe. AVith like cautious circumspection let us now endeavour to ascertain the real extent of that intrinsic force, as an instrument for the communication of thought, which is ascribed to English by those who insist so much upon the feebleness of the native lanf^ua^es. O O Truth and precision require, that, in making this estimate of English, we should exclude the consideration of the unmixed sciences, as wmll as of most of the applied ones which are strictly physical. Those sciences have a language of their own, which is admitted on all hands to be highly efficient, and which is disconnected with all ordinary colloquial media, as well as with the passions and prejudices — tlie ordinary habits and sentiments, of mankind. These circumstances, coupled with the fact that in reference to the sciences in question the native mind is almost a carte blanche, induce me to join those who propose, as the general rule, to convey our knowledge of them to the people of India directly: and that in all senses of directness, lingual as well as others.-f- But the case is far otherwise with the moral sciences : for, blended as these branches of knowledge are, from their very nature, with the daily pursuits and thoughts, and quickly responsive as they are to the strongest prejudices and passions, of mankind ; appealing, too, as they do, for their ultimate evidence, to universal con- sciousness, or to almo.st universal experience, powerful intrinsical * See note at the end of these papers. t The exception of astronomy rests, and rests well, on the conversancy of the people with this hranch of physical science and on their attachment to their own achievements in it. We should avail ourselves of that attachment as far as potsible. 262 PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. reasons may come in aid of the lingnal considerations I am about to show, against the direct communication of our superior lights to the Indians. To those intrinsical reasons I propose to revert in the sequel,* and meanwhile proceed to observe, that, of the lingual considerations, the first I shall note amounts to a demur to the asserted perfectness of our language ; and I would request the particular attention of those who lay such undue stress upon the imperfection of the vernacular tongues of India, to the following quotations from two of the most enlightened of English philosophers on the subject. “ The inadequacy of the words of our ordinary language for the communication, as well as for the discovery of truth, is a frequent complaint of wliich the justice will be felt by all who consider the state to which some of the most important arts would be reduced, if the coarse tools of the common labourer were the only instruments available in the most delicate opera- tions of manual expertness. The watchmaker, the optician, and the surgeon are provided with instruments which are fitted by careful ingenuity to second their skill : the philosopher alone is doomed to use the rudest tools for the most refined purposes, lie must reason in words of which the looseness and vagueness are almost as remote from the extreme exactness and precision required, not only in the conveyance, but in the search of truth, as the hammer and axe would be unfit for the finest exertions of skilful handiwork. He may be compared with an arithmetician compelled to employ numerals not only cumbrous but used so irregularly to denote different quantities, that they not only deceive others, but himself.” Again, “In a mathema- tical definition, although the words in which it is expressed may vary, the meaning which it is intended to convey is always the same. The case is not the same with the definitions of the less strict sciences. In those of morals and politics it is most diffi- cult to use terms which may not be understood differently by different persons. The terms virtue, morality, equity, charity, are in every day use : yet it is by no means agreed what are the par- ticular acts which ought to be classed under these different heads. * See Letter No. II. on the nse that may, and should, be made of the Indian literature as a means of diffusing our sounder knowledge. The present letter is devoted to the consideration of languages. PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. 263 The terms liberty, constitutional liberty, civil liberty, political liberty, political economy, are frequently understood in a different sense by different persons. The sense of the words wealth, capital, productive labour, value, labour, profits, demand, has been lately called in question, though I think without sufficient reason. Asa remedy for these difficulties it has been proposed that a new and more perfect nomenclature should be introduced. But in such sciences as morals, politics, and political economy, it is impossible to suppose that a new nomenclature would be sub- mitted to, or, if it were, that it would render the same service to these sciences as the nomenclatures of Linnmus, Lavoisier, and Cuvier, did to the sciences to which they were respectively applied.” These quotations are from works which were among the last and maturest labours of a IMackintosh and a Malthus ; and though their tenor be not entirely correspondent, I apprehend that Malthus’s not less than Mackintosh’s sentiments demon- strate tlie inaccuracy and scarcity of our specific terms, or, in other words, the poverty of our language ; whilst tliose of the former have other bearings upon this question, which will be recurred to in the sequel. Those who are disposed to object to mere authority, however high, are requested to advert to the prominent facts, that terminology occupies a large portion of the latest and ablest works on the theory of Government, on juris- prudence, on political economy, on mental and on moral phi- losophy — in a word, on every branch of knowledge beyond the limits of the exact sciences ; and tliat the new vocables and definitions of one philosopher are continually rejected by another. And such inquirers will find that they can only excuse our language (if determined so to do), at the expense of our ideas or knowledge. If, then, we begin by a fair estimate of the value of our own language as an instrument of thought ; and forbear, in proceeding to compare it with the vernacular tongues of India, from undue depreciation of them, I conceive that as much exaggeration will be found to have prevailed relative to the poverty of the latter, as to their multiplicity. When we speak of the multitude of Indian languages we are sadly apt to forget the extent of its territory and population ; nor less so, the important distinction between the merely dialectial, and the 264 PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. essential, differences of language. When, again, we speak of the poverty of those languages, as though they neither were, nor could be easily made, competent vehicles of European knowledge, we assume with equal rashness the power of our own speech, and the powerlessness of those of India — alike inattentive to facts directly bearing upon the matter, and to those general considerations which, unless I am much mistaken, may be made to demonstrate the necessary capacity of the Indian spoken languages to bear any weight of knowledge coming home to the business and bosoms of mankind that we can lay on them. I call upon you, sir, and upon your fraternity (which is best able to do so), to explain distinctly and to unfold my general assertions, that Bengalee, the language of thirty-seven millions, has good dictionaries and grammars, as well as works which, quoad language, exhibit a respectable share of precision and compass ; whilst its connection with Sanskrit, and the peculiar genius of the latter, afford extraordinary means of enrichment by new terms competent to express any imaginable modification of thought. I call upon you, sir, to explain and unfold in detail my further assertions, that throughout the Bengal Presidency wherever Bengalee is not spoken, Hindee is the basis of that almost single vernacular language which is common to all Hindoos and all rural Moslems ; that Hindee possesses books which in point of language exhibit very consider- able actual and latent power ; that the latter may be educed and extended to any requisite degree through the connection of Hindee with Sanskrit; and that, lastly, scarcely any part of the population of our vast presidency, which uses not Bengalee or Hindee, has other language than Hindoostanee — a language rich in grammars, dictionaries, and written works ; and from its flexible genius capable of amalgamating with its existing wealth any and every variety of new terms and vocables which Sanskrit and Arabic can furnish from their inexhaustible fountains. Let us now, for a moment, advert to those more general con- siderations above glanced at. That language is an express image of thought is an old and exploded error.* Words do not expressly embody ideas — the function of language being limited to putting and keeping two minds in the same train * Stewart's Phil. Essays, pp. 201-211. PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. 265 of tliought. If the precision of mathematical exp7'ession seem to contradict this important truth, the semblance is nothing more than a real independence upon language, properly so called. It is, further, possibly the fact that philosophy, from its very nature, is incapable of that conciseness which belongs to the exact sciences ; and, at all events, it cannot be denied that it is very far indeed from now possessing such conciseness in Europe, whether from comparative defect of kuowdedge on our part, or from more intrinsical peculiarities. Indeed, the signal failure of those great men who have again and again attempted to subject moral discussions to mathematical re- straints would seem to prove that both the above conjectures are sound. Hence, not less than because of the necessary connection of philosophy with our ordinary thoughts and feelings, the difli- culty — perhaps impossibility — of creating such a language as our philosophers deplore the want of. Wliether Mackintosh’s anticipation that some future Bacon will raise our philosophical langi;age to the level of our scientific * be better grounded than Malthus’s idea of tlie vanity of such a hope, I shall not presume further to indicate. But I assert witliout fear of contradiction, that the existing extreme inaccuracy of all European languages, as instruments of thought, in reference to the principles of every department of that portion of human lore coming home to the business and bosoms of mankind at large, is notorious and undenied ; and that it is precisely in this view that our own language, no way distinguished from the rest, has nevertheless been assumed to possess such wonder- ful efficiency ! So far, however, is it from the truth that it does possess such efficiency that the fact is, it is solely by means of ample definition, ofi much circumlocution, that the English language at present represents the English kuowdedge on these subjects. And, whoever will advert to the nature and extent of tliis circuitous communication of ideas in our tongue (wdiether its * “ A system of names may be imagined, indicating tlie objects of knowledge, and showing the relation of the parts to each other— an order and a language some- what resembling those by which the objects of Botany and Chemistry have, in the 18th century, bean denoted. But so great an undertaking must be reserved for a second Bacon and a future generation.”— Mackintosh’s Eth. Phi. pp. 5, 0. 266 PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. cause be tlie nature of language and the dependence of philo- sophy upon it, or, the nature of philosophy, or, our imperfect knowledge of the latter), can have no further room to doubt that the same ideas may he conveyed to Indian minds, in their own languages, without much further circumlocution. To put two minds in the same train of thought is all that it is ever given to language to accomplish : to effect this by the cumbrous expedient of definitions, amounting almost to dissertation upon the most ordinary and necessary vocables, is all that it has yet been given to philosophic* language to achieve in Europe. Such being the case, is it possible to advert to that universal consciousness, or almost universal experience, which form the basis and evidence of all the truths of philosophy,* in connection with the long-sustained and literary character of Indian civilisation, without reaching the conviction that tlie alleged incapacity of tlie Indian vernacular languages cannot relate to the ordinary topics and functions of language, but must respect that peculiar function and those special topics in reference to which the feebleness of our own language is confessed ; or, that the cure of this particular defect of the oriental vernaculars need excite the despair of those only who are hopeless about its cure in refer- ence to their own ? AVe must exaggerate the perfection of oi:r own language as much as we do the imperfection of those of India — we must further shut our eyes to the essential nature and function of speech, to the connection of philosophy with life, and to the high date of Indian civilisation, before we can admit the assertion that the Indian languages neither are, nor can readily be made, competent to express our knowledge. Their present competency is great, in most ordinary views ; and if a very moderate degree of public patronage continue to be bestowed on the learned languages whence they are derived, the efficient lexicographical and grammatical labours of the past upon the vulgar tongues may be completed so as, without extraordinary pains, delay, or expense, to render the latter as much more * It may be as well, once for all, to say that by this term I mean to express all knowledge beyond the limits of mathematics and strict physics. The latter I indicate by the word science. PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. 267 effective as can be required, or can be expected by those wlio either understand the real state of tlie English language at present, or the nature of language in general. Any number of new terms, as clear to the mind and as little startling to the ear, as the oldest words in the languages, may be introduced into Hindee and Bengalee from Sanskrit, owing to the peculiar genius of the latter,* with much more facility than we can introduce new terms into English : nor does the task of introducing such new terms into the Indian vernaculars imply or exact more than the most ordinary skill or labour on the part of the conductors of education, so tong as they dis- connect not themselves wholly from, Indian literature. With such views of the nature of lancruage in general, and of the existing comparative value of the languages of Europe and of India, I foresee that I may be set down for a lingual sceptic, or, may be, perchance, enlisted under the banners of that party which, without substituting English for the living tongues of India, would improve the latter by directly grafting English terms upon them, in preference to resorting to Sanskrit and Arabic. So far, however, from the truth is it, that my views of the general question are sceptical, that I am thoroughly convinced there is such a thing as idiosyncracy and genius in every cognate group of languages, and that this genius is of so rigid and commanding a nature that it is indispensably necessary humbly to bow to it, in all schemes for the improve- ment of any given tongue : for, if not, how happened it that those wonderful men who flourished in England between the lleformation and the Bevolution, placed as they were close to the sources of our language, and endowed as they were with the highest faculties, yet failed utterly in becoming models of style ? and how happened it that the wits of Queen Anne, much remoter as they were placed from the sources of o\ir language, and incomparably inferior as were their mental powers, became so at once and for ever ? The sole reason is that the former opposed, and the latter yielded to, the genius of our tongue, both in their terms and in their sentences. * I borrow this idea, in his words, from Mackintosh, who applies it to German. Every schol.ar knows, and knows why, it is singularly applicable to the Indian Trakrits, through Sanskrit. 268 PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNAC HEARS. If, again, it be not necessary to consult idiomatic law, the usage of society, and vernacular euphony, whence arises a great part of that difficulty in respect to the introduction of a more copious and precise phraseology into English, which as we have seen, Malthus deemed it impossible to conquer ; and Mackintosh but faintly hoped some future Bacon might subdue ? And how, yet again, are we to account for the steady and successful resis- tance which our language has made, for the last fifty years, against incorporation with either the peculiar nomenclature of science, or that of fashion ? In that period, to go no further, a thousand modish ephemeral phrases have striven in vain to mix themselves with the great stream of our language ; nor has the unusual popularity of the physical sciences, in the same era, en- abled them, dignified and valuable as they are, to wed their phraseology to our common speech ? Facts like the above will satisfy all those who are capable of appreciating them, that the people of India would never endure such an olla podrida as Anglo-Hindee or Anglo-Hindoosthanee ; and that if the vernacular languages of this country are to be preserved, their improvement, so far as it is requisite to convey European ideas, must be effected in the manner exacted hy the genius of these languages. The vague declamation, with which we are overwhelmed upon the subject of the feebleness and inefficiency of the native languages, is partly caused by the unfairness of that controversial spirit, which has laid hold of this question of the best vehicle for communicating our knowledge to India, and partly also by the difficulty of procuring and applying a measure of the value of languages. Standard works, dictionaries and grammars, certainly furnish a relative measure ; yet is it one which few persons can, and many fewer will, apply, even when there is room to apply it. If, however, we look back to the state of our own language three centuries ago, nobody, I presume, will be found hardy enough to assert its superiority, as an organ for the communication of knowledge, to the Bengalee, Hindee, or Ilindoostanee of the present day. Xow should we be able to adduce express evidence, that the most competent of judges deemed the English of 1530 entirely capable of performing that very function which the Indian vernaculars of 1835 are alleged PRE-EM IXEJSiCE OF THE VERNACULARS. 269 to be incapable of performing, such an evidence, it might be hoped, would convince many who cannot, or will not, examine the question more deeply. It is thus then that Sir Thomas ]\Iore expresses himself in 1530 : — “ Tor as for that our tongue is called barbarouse, is but a fantasye, for so is, as every learned man knoweth, every strange language to other : And if they would call it barren of wordes, there is no doubt but it is plenteouse enough to express our myndes in any thinge where- fore one man hath used to speke with another.” May we not, after this, say, for that the Indian vernaculars are called barbar- ouse and barren of wordes, it is but a fantasye ? No one, at least, can pretend to assert that the English language of 1530 had, or that the vernaculars of India at present, have not, dictionaries and grammars ; and he must be lost to all sense of impartiality who would maintain that the English chronicles and romances of the Middle Ages are superior in matter or style to such works as are now extant in Bengalee, Hindee and Hindoostanee. And as for capacitv of rapid and facile improvement, who shall venture to deny it to the Indian vernaculars who considers with what a giant’s pace his own tongue advanced to almost all the power it yet p>ossesses, when the impulse to improvement had once been given ? The English works of the age immediately following that of Sir T. More yet excite our wonder, and despair of rivalling their characteristic excellences. No one has confe.ssed this more freely than that very writer, himself a master of our language (Mackintosh), whose complaints of its poverty and inefficiency, in other respects, were exhibited in the preceding part of tins letter. Should not contrasted facts such as these warn us to forbear from dogmatic opinions ujron the prospective or latent power of foreign languages ? Should they not teach us to ex- amine the question modestly and carefully ? Let us awake the popular mind in India, and assuredly the natives, with our aid and example, will soon demonstrate that their languages possess capabilities equal to any demand. The history, not only of our own language, but of every vulgar tongue in Europe, justifies the presumption that, so soon as effort is directed towards their improvement, the Indian vernaculars will almost immediately and spontaneously put forth the ordinary strength of language ; 2-0 PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. and as for what may be called its extraordinary strength, I tliink I have shown that our own tongi;e has not yet put it forth. Our inability to express without extreme periphrasis the recently-elaborated truths of all departments of the philosophy of life is confessed, as we have seen, by the greatest men of the age. In respect to the remedy of this peculiar defect of all known languages, so far as it is remediable, the Hindoos will enjoy, in the genius of the Sanskrit, and in their freedom from our conventional embarrassments, a liberty denied to us ; and they will in the meanwhile probably be able to express, as we shall for them, all this class of ideas without more circumlocu- tion than we are now compelled by our poverty of direct terms to use in Enolish. O But it may be urged that SirT. More’s assertion in 1530, rela- tive to the then power of our language, was confined to its capa- city for colloquial purposes, and did not contemplate its per- manent prospective use as an instrument .of thought and medium for the communication of knowledge. No, indeed ! Let us then advert to the circumstances under which these remarkable words of More -were uttered, and see how the case stands. The proposition of that age in England was the general diffu- sion of sound knowledge. The existing stock of such knowledge jwssessed by the few, and which it was proposed to make the heritage of the many, was derived from without. The language of that without (Latin or Greek, or both, it matters not to the argument) was a highly-wrought instrument of thought, whilst the English vernacular was a comparatively rude one. Hence arose the question, whether the end to be accomplished (that is, the general diffusion of sound knowledge) anight be more readily and happily attained by setting aside the homely Saxon, and diffusing the new ideas directly through their appropriate tongue (a ready-made and powerful instrument), or, by adhe- rence to, and improvement of, the unfashioned vernacular. One party took the former side of the question ; Sir T. IMore and his friends, the latter ; and it was with .express reference to this state of things that Sir T. More expressed himself in tlie words I have quoted. Now I apprehend, that the question at issue between the Oriental and Occidental parties in India at tliis moment, is precisely that which was proposed to the regenerators PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. 271 of England in 1530. And whilst I do but glance at the speedy and triumphant confirmation of More’s ^’iews, I proceed to insist that unless the Occidentalists can show, either that the feebleness and plurality of the Indian vernaculars are greater than those of the English vernaculars of three centuries back, or that the power of our present English exceeds the force, as an instrument of thought, of Greek and Latin, they will l)e required to demonstrate one or other of these further points, viz., that our means of spreading English in India are superior to those possessed by the regenerators of England for the diffu- sion of Greek and Latin, or, that the more general grounds upon which ]\Iore so wisely rested his main defence of the vernacu- lars, are unsound or inapplicable. More did not deny that the English of his day was an inac- curate organ for the communication of knowledge, as compared with Greek and Latin. He only denied that it was anything like so much so as was asserted. Such (mutatis mutandis) is the argument of the Oriental party to the present debate. IMore asserted that whatever present obstacles to the general diffusion of knowledge might occur from the use of an imperfect instru- ment, much greater present obstacles must arise from the resort to an unknown one. More further asserted that whatever cost and trouble miglit be requisite' for making English pros- pectively an adequate organ of thought, a hundred-fold greater cost and trouble would be required to change the national organ. With More the Orientalists make the like assertions, in refer- ence to the Indian tongues and to the substitution of Enslisli The first of the assertions demonstrates itself, and is not denied by the Occidentalists, however much they overlook its practical importance. I’ass we then on to the second — Is it easier to improve the Indian vernaculars, or to substitute English for them ? Towards the decision of this question we possess advan- tages denied to More. To us the wonderfully rapid and facile improvement of the vernaculars of Europe, so soon as effort was directed that Avay, is matter of historic fact. To us too the invincible tenacity of the habit of language is not less matter of historic fact.* Those only who shall venture to deny the merit of our earliest writers, after the revival of let- * See “Times ” of April 25, 1872, and of May 25, 1S74. Note of 1876. 272 PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. ters, can dispute the first position, or the facility of improvement. Those only who shall venture to deny that the immutability of language has served, by its clear and broad light, to guide us to the determination of many most important points relative to the affiliation and connection of the various families of the human race — points which not even the strong impress of dis- tinctive physical conformation could help us to decide — can challenge the second position, or the dificulty of change. Let us attend for a moment to the nature of this evidence demonstrat- ing the truth of the latter position. In the last age it was thought, that those striking differences of physiognomy, which contradistinguish and designate the varieties of our species, are less changeable than differences of language, how permanent soever the latter were admitted to he. The further and completer researches of the present age have proved the contrary. In the almost Georgian features of the modern descendants of the western Turks, we look in vain for the physical signs of their origin ; whilst we find that origin still distinctly imprinted on their speech. Here is a familiar instance : others may be found in the works of those still living authors, who, from a survey of the whole old world, have deduced the general and uncon- tested inference, that of all the mutable characteristics of mankind national language is the most ohstinately adhesive ! Sir T. More was reduced to argue the comparative feasibility of change and of improvement upon far less strong data than the course of events and knowledge has enabled us now to rest it on ; and looking at this point from the vantage ground of present experience, I maintain, that, quoad feasibility, an incal- culable preponderance of reason belongs to the argument of the Orientalists, who hold that, whatever the difficulty of improving tlie popular languages, the change of them — in other words the conquest of the most tenacious of habits amongst that people which, of all upon the face of the Earth, is most wedded to habit — is a hundred times more difficult. Lest I should swell my letter to inconvenient bounds I forbear to press a detailed comparison of those means of influencing the popular mind to the adoption of a new speech, which were possessed by the antivernacular party in England in 1530, and which are now at the disposal of the same party in India. Upon PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. 273 this point, I assume, as I am well entitled to do, that the former had preponderant advantages in their compatriotism with tlie objects of the proposed experiment, which the latter are wholly devoid of. If, then, the antivernacular party in England failed to answer the following cardinal objection to their scheme, and having failed, lost their cause, I may still hope that the ultimate defeat of the antivernacular party in India is certain ; since the objection, great and vital in itself, applies with double force, here and now. Eoth parties in England admitted that the end in view wuis the making of knowledge the portion of the many : but unless the instrument of its communication were generally acquired, the thing communicated must be perpetually restricted to the few'. Now, Sir T. More contended, that the inspirmg of a general love of knowledge, in itself most difficult, would be rendered hopeless, if the aditus of the temple were rendered so steep and thorny as the necessary acquisition of a difficult foreign language must make it; and that, therefore, in all human probability, the practical consequence of Greek or Latin becoming the sole organ for the communication of truth would be, the defeat of the eiul by the means ; and that, not simply with the loss of the benefit sought, but with the entailing i© perpetuity on England those worst of evils resulting from monopolised and misapplied learning. Such a consequence flowed directly and necessarily from the partial prevalence of a foreign medium — and no general preva- lence could reasonably be anticipated. But even that anticipa- tion could not be entertained unaccompanied by apprehensions lest such a slavish imitation of foreign models should extinguish freedom of thought, and all the generous impulses bound up with the speech of our fatherland. The success, therefore, as w'ell as the failure of the antivernacular organ, was liable to induce mischiefs for which knowledge itself coidd poorly com- pensate ; and as the vernacular organ was free from such damning liabilities, the latter was preferred upon this prepon- derant ground of preference ! In reference to the question as it occurred in England in the beginning of the ICth century, no scheme so extravagant as the cliange of the national language was openly or, at all, willingly, broached by the aiitivernacular party : and it was only More’s far-reaching sagacity which, by VOL. II. s 274 PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. demonstrating this to be a pre-requisite to the success of the antivernacular plan (if, as was pretended, the general spread of knowledge were the object), brought the question to that issue, there. It was reserved for our Indian regenerators to cope directly with such a difficulty — to make nothing of it — to shut their eyes to the consequences of failure : and that under cir- cumstances multiplying infinitessimally the chances of failure, and peculiarly aggravative of its consequences ! Does any one meair to deny, that the researches of the last and present age have demonstrated the extraordinary tenacity of the habit of language?* Does anyone mean to deny the peculiar subserviency of the people of India to the dominion of habit ? And if not, then I would further ask, whether, few as w’e are in India, and limited as are the pecuniary meairs at our disposal to this end, our absolute incommunity of sentiment with the people does not strip of all the semblance of probability a successful attempt by us to vanquish the most rooted of human habits amongst a people entirely wedded to custom ? To me it appears that nothing short of a miracle could avert failure from such an attempt; and that therefore it is peculiarly incumbent on those who have the permanent weal of India at heart, to inquire into the consequences of failure. The proposal is to make English the sole organ of sound knowledge — the sole instrument of its communication : and it needs no words to prove that, if the organ be but very partially adopted, the knowledge must be restricted in the same degree. Either, then, we must succeed in anglicising the speech of tlie Indians, or we must, by such an attempt, create a small exclusive body of pro- ficients in our lore. But knowledge is power : English know- ledge is in India pow'er of the most formidable character : and if that power do hut get associated with office, is it possible to doubt its becoming, in the hands of those natives who possess it, an instrument for the oppression of their fellows more for- midable even than the present priestly monopoly of learning ? Xow it so happens that all the advocates for making our lan- guage the medium of education, have likewise contended for making it the instrument of administration. Such was Mr. Grant’s doctrine in 1792: and such is the doctrine of the * See “Times” above refened to. PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. 275 present claj'-. It is needless, therefore, to argue tendencies : the association of anglicised education to anglicised administration, is avowed, and declared to be a grand desideratum ! This is, indeed, taking the bull by the horns ; for the worst exacerbations of the antivernacular organ must doubtless flow from such association, how mischievous soever its effects might he, unaided by such direct connection with power. Were the question, indeed, a political, and not a philanthropical one ; did we seek the stabilitation of our dominion over India, and in tlm view seek to measure the effects of an English compared with a Persian organ of administration, there might be some room for hesitation — perhaps for even the preference claimed for our language. Such, however, is not the question : our aim is the people’s increase in happiness through increase in knowledge. We seek to regenerate India; and to lay the foundations of a social system which time and God’s blessing on the labours of the founders shall mature, perhaps long after we are no longer forthcoming on the scene. Let, then, the foundations be broad and solid enough to support the vast superstructure. Let us begin in the right way, or fifty years hence we may have to retrace our steps, and commence anew ! Sound knowledge generally diffused is the greatest of all blessings : but the sound- ness of knowledge has ever depended, and ever will, on its free, and equal, and large communication. Partially diffused it is not only no good, but a bitter and lasting curse — the special curse which hath blighted the fairest portion of Asia from time immemorial, and which for hundreds of years made even Chris- tianity a poison to the people of Europe ! Would you inchoate plans of education liable to produce such a result ? Do you mean to deny the liability ? or to contend that it is not a damning one ? No one asserts that it is impossible to change the speech of this vast continent. It is only contended that the attempt is of all others the most difficult, and one for which your means are enormously disproportionate to the end. You are a drop, literally, in the ocean, and a drop, too, separated from the mass of waters by the strongest antipathy. So circum- stanced, should you not consider that the many are unapt to seek knowledge for itself, though the few can always be won to pursue, through it, the path of profit and of power ? and should 276 PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. you not reflect that to 'wrap up knourledge in a mysterious garb and to connect it directly with authority, is the sure way to cause it to be turned into an engine of oppression of the many by the few ? True, Persian is such an instrument at present, and perhaps working more mischief than English could do ; true, were English the language of administration, it would tend greatly to the strengthening of our power, in every sense but that large and ultimate one, which identifies the security of dominion with the happiness of the mass of its objects. But the cardinal and overruling truth is, that dominion as well as knowledge should have no secrets. Now, foreign organs of com- munication universally tend to create and maintain such secrets; whilst all the circumstances of oar situation in India are preg- nant with aptitude to educe that tendency ; and as the evils flowing from the existence of those secrets are proved by the experience of all ages and countries to be the direst to which a nation can be exposed, this damning liability suffices for the rejection of such organs. It sufficed in England — in all Europe — in the hour of its regeneration : far more should it suffice in India, where the one thing to le escheiocd by those who have the happiness of its countless millions at stake, is the hazard of making knowledge an official monopoly in the hands of a small number of the people. Any plan for regenerating India which involves such a hazard should be rejected at once on that single ground ; and the preference of the vernacular over the English instrument of knowledge is sufficiently established by the exemption of the former, and the non-exemption of the latter, from this hazard. Compare the character and effects of Greek and Iioman civilisation (amongst those nations themselves I mean) with Chaldean, Egyptian, old Persian, and Indian civi- lisation; and tell me precisely why the one called forth all the sublime energies of our kind, whilst the other debased even whilst it refined the nations ? Why, but because knowledge associated with power was made a monopoly with the latter, and expressly so by means of an inscrutable medium, whilst with the former it was the common heritage of all, because linked to common use by its vernacular organ. We are told that but for the incessant motion and unrestrained range of the waters of the ocean, they would become a mass of PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. 277 corruption which would speedily poison the world. Have not the waters of knowledge, wherever restrained in their circulation, become corrupt themselves, and corruptive of all else ? And are there any facts better established by the history of all ages and nations, than first, that it is almost better for a nation to have no Icnowledge at all than one which is denied a free and general circulation ? And, secondly, that the strong tendency of knowledge is to centre in the few, who, as surely as they possess, abuse the monopoly ? Leisure and ease are the parents of knowledge, which reveals not its charms to the neophyte: hence the inability and the disinclination of the many — an inability and a disinclination so deeply founded in the nature of things, that he who overlooks them, or fails to make the obviation of them the basis of a national scheme of education, may, if there be any truth in history, any reliance on human nature, be pronounced a mis- chievous friend or traitorous enemy of the many, who, under the pretence of benefiting, would inflict the direst evils on them. It would seem that a certain degree of ease in the circumstances of a people, and a certain degree of popularity in their public institutions, must conspire with the facility and aptitude to common use of vernacular media of education, before knowledge can become a blessing, by becoming the heritage of tlie many, identified with their household wants and familiar experiences, and deriving from such identity the power of influencing and being influenced by them, in an easy and effectual manner. This, I say, would seem to be the case : but there can be no question that, under any conceivable circumstances of the people of India in relation to us, for the next fifty years, any attempt to make our difficult and strange language the organ of the communication of our effective knowledge is infinitely more likely to entail on the country the curse of a monopolised and perverted, than the blessing of a diffused and justly applied, learning. Where shall we find among the people of India the leisure and the ease for anything like a general and disinterested conquest of the vast and odious obstacle we thus place at the threshold of the temple of knowledge, obscuring all the beauty within ? And what more certain than that such obstacle, if it exist, will only be vanquished by the few who are sustained in 278 PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. their efforts, not by the quiet impulse of a love of truth, hut by the lust of profit and power combined ? Let us do nothing rather than do this : and let us consider that the regeneration of India must he so essayed as to avoid the possibility of inflict- ing on the people evils so great, at once, and so incident to every feature of our situation as their teachers and rulers, as those which have never yet failed to flow from knowledge monopolised and associated with office ! The mystification of knowledge and of administration, sepa- rately evil, are dreadful when combined ; and were we to anglicise our courts and our schools, we could scarcely fail, under all the circumstances of the case, to fix on India the curse of this double iniquity. There would soon be no want of English officials among the natives, who would rush to our schools like vultures to the battle-field: but the end of such a system would be worse than the beginning : nor can I find words to express my surprise, that those, who deplore the evils of a Persian organ of administration, should fail to perceive that an English one would perpetuate the greater part of the mischief flowing from the former : for, though the inexpertness of the governors in the use of that instrument work no doubt much evil, by far the largest share of the mischief proceeds from its use being utterly unknown to the governed — a condition of things which the substitution of English would leave where it was before, if it did not even aggravate it. Why did we immortalise our Edward for vernacularising the language* of the courts of law ? because it is of the last importance to the happiness of nations, that the people — the many — should have the readiest possible means of rightly appreciating legal pro- ceedings. And is it not, indeed, perfectly monstrous to impose on the many, who are stripped of all the appliances for its accomplishment, a task which the few alone can perform, by reason of their exclusive possession of those appliances ? But what else than this is it to anglicise the administration in India, in order that our functionaries may be spared the labour of learning the speech of the people, who are thereby obliged to * Retneniber too Whitelock's noble speech, when the question went further and involved the vernacuhirisation of the whole language of the law, and not merely the pleadings as in King Edward's time. PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. 279 learn ours ? To ms, with our leisure, and formed capacity to learn, the acquisition of their speech is most easy ; and tlie knowledge of one suffices to meet the need of thousands, nay, millions. To them, doomed to daily toil from their youth up- wards, the acquisition of our language is next to impossible ; nor can the knowledge of one be made subservient to the need of another. This, the essential view of the case, is not less applicable to educational than to administrative organs : and yet, because of the obvious and comparatively trivial fact, that, so long as a native has not learnt our language, his knowledge miist be bounded by the extent of our translations into his, it is coolly said, that for us to put our knowledge into the native garb is a “confined and ineffectual” manner of enlightening the count- less myriads of our poverty-stricken subjects, in comparison of that of requiring them to master the prodigious difficulties of our speech, ere they shall be allowed to gather a particle of our knowledge ! Tolly methinks could scarcely go further than this ; for I need not say that such a mastery of our language as should empower a native of India to use it safely as an instru- ment of thought, is a far different thing from sucli a knowledge of it as suffices to enable him to make his bread as a copyist. Tad English scholars will make little effectual use of the stores of English meditation : and whoever adverts, but for a moment, to the relative capacity and means of the natives and of our- selves to make a right use of the languages, each of the other, in the communication and search of truth, and yet insists that they should be required to adopt our instruments, and not we theirs, may be safely said to be either too shallow, or too lazy, to understand the subject. It is, however, no less an authority than Mr. Grant who propounds this notable maxim, instancing (to crown the absurdity) in religion ! Now, since the immutable truths of religion are all bound up in one small volume, the labour of one competent translator may, it is obvious, suffice, with the aid of the press, to make those truths for ever accessible to all who can read their mother tongue ; nor is it less obvious that such a translator may be reared in our ranks with a tithe of the labour which would be requisite to unseal the original volume to one single native. Compare this state of things with 28 o PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. that flowing from the opposite plan of making Englisli the sine qua non of knowledge ; no single native can learn the truths of your religion till he has mastered your difficult language — mastered it, I say, and not merely learnt to parrot it ! Nor can tlie knowledge of one suffice, in strictness and in truth, for more than himself — unless he take on himself the office of translator; and in such, event the reiterative labour objected to the ver- nacular plan equally attaches to the antivernacular — only stripped of all its power and energy ! No instance could be more unfortunate than the special one selected by Mr. Grant to illustrate his doctrine ; and which, I humbly submit, is the very one that the skilful adversary would seize for its reductio ad absurdum, for the strongest illustration of its falseness. Without taking undue advantage of the instance of religion, let us use it merely to throw light upon the principle contended for, viz., that as a good translation, once made, directly opens the Icnowledge contained in the work translated to millions of the people, whereas the teaching of our language can only tell quoad the individual taught, the objection that the knowledge conveyed by the first mode must be limited by the extent of our translations, is cast entirely into the shade by the necessary regard for those cardinal difficulties, springing out of the con- dition of the people, which absolutely preclude them from uvailiiifj themselves of the second mode. We, who have leisure and ease, and minds highly trained, and practical conversancy with divers tongues, can, therefore, readily master the languages of India ; and provide, with no insuperable labour or cost a sufficiency of translation to convey the substance of our know- ledge to all its millions. They, who have neither leisure, nor ease, nor minds highly trained, nor practical conversancy with any language differing from their mother tongues, can scarcely, by possibility, master your speech. Yet you would put off the weight from your own shoulders and lay it upon theirs ! would make their acquisition of your most difficult and utterly alien tongue the indispensable preliminary to the communication of your blessed gifts of truth and science : And, lest the still and quiet impulse of a love of knowledge should fail to animate the toil-doomed and custom-ridden multitude to so vast and irksome and apparently useless a preliminary labour, you would PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. 281 anglicise your administration of the country, in order to make j)a/pahly intelligille the connection of English with popular utility ! And wherefore would you do all this ? because, because I say — translations reveal no truths that are untranslated, and because (but this by way of appendix) “community of feeling through the medium of a common language ” is an acknowledged tie of subject to sovereign, and one which your barbarian prede- cessors in dominion thought it proper to knit, for their own convenience and safety, without wasting a moment to consider the effects of such a constrained bond upon the happiness of their people ! So feeble an argument as the former is aptly backed by so iniquitous a one as the latter. Compare the means and opportunities of learning possessed by the few and by the many ; and then, unless you hold that know- ledge and administration should be mystified for the sole benefit of the former, and in despite of the most terrible consequences to the latter, you will have no difficulty in perceiving that the few, who rule and who teach, have no duty comparable to that of laying open the secrets of both, as far as possible, to those whose ignorance and necessities are but too apt, under the most favourable circumstances, to make them bitter sufferers by such secrets ! The aptitude of knowledge to become a fraudful mys- tery, as well as the miserable consequences to the weal of the many of its becoming such, are, I repeat, facts attested by all history ; and facts of which the causes may be at once found in the difficulties inseparable from the acquisition of knowledge, and the overwhelming pressure of those difficulties on the leisureless and necessitous multitude. All history proclaims, too, that of all the circumstances which facilitate and confirm tlie growth and duration of this evil, an unvernacular medium is the most operative ; as of all those which prevent or destroy the evil, a vernacular medium is so. Why ? Because the former at once carries away knowledge (in itself an abstraction) beyond the pale of those household and imminent cares which necessarily engross almost the whole attention of the many; whilst the latter tends incessantly to approximate, to reconcile, and, as far as possible, to identify them. Glorious approxima- tion ; thrice glorious reconciliation, to which alone the too 282 PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. helpless and too little heeded many owe their exemption from the curse of knowledge, as well their partial admission to its blessing ! This is the commanding and overruling view of the question of the best instrument for the communication and search of truth, as it occurs to us at present in relation to the people of India. Their numbers, their necessities, their prejudices pre- scribe the sole use of the most facile and popular instrument, imposing the whole labour of facilitation upon us. Every circumstance of our situation, as joint teachers and rulers, prescribes the sole use of the safest instrument. But the welcome, and easy, and safe instrument is the vernacular. The unwelcome, and difficult, and unsafe, is the English. On each of the three counts, but especially on the last, the preference is due to the former, and would he still so, though its intrinsical feebleness as an organ of thought were considerably greater, in comparison of the English instrument, than it can he allowed to be. I do not deny the reality of those objections to the vernacular plan which consist in the necessary reiteration of translation, and in the augmented difficulty of it, arising out of the inunity and inaccuracy of the living languages. On the contrary, I say of such objections, valcant quantum valeant. Let those difficul- ties be duly considered ; but let them not he exaggerated ; and above all, let them not he pushed forward so as to exclude from \dew the difficulties and hazards which are inseparable from the antivernacular plan of education. The one class of difficulties principally falls on ourselves, as the teachers ; the other class, principally on the people, as the learners. Now because our appliances are, in comparison of those of the people, as infinity almost to unity, I therefore lay the burden where it can best he borne. But it is because the vernacular is free from all liability to do mischief, whereas the antivernacular scheme threatens to make “ the food of one tlie poison of many,” that I abandon all hesitation in my preference of the former. Let us do no harm, at least, if we do but little good. Learning is not, in itself, a blessing; it is so only accord- ing to its use and application. Generally diffused, and identified with the ordinary pursuits, and thouyhts, and wants, of society at PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. 283 large* it is beneficent power — power at once incapable of mis- application to the purposes of tyranny, and capable of aiding, in the highest degree, the accomplishment of every useful and generous aim and end. But not so identified, it becomes stale and unprofitable : not so diffused, it becomes noxious, and noxious in the highest degree — the certain engine of deception and oppression ! Adopt the vernacular organ, and you may at least hope for such general diffusion, and such household identification; be- cause the strong tendency of the instrument itself is to work them out, despite of all obstacles. Adopt the antivernacular organ, and you may not hope for either ; because the strong tendency of the instrument selected is to counteract their development, by favouring that natural proneness of knowledge to contraction and perversion, which results but too easily from the necessities of the many and the temptations of the few ! Consider, above all tilings, those necessities of the many : beware, above all things, of those temptations of the few : for the whole circumstances of the people of India, as well as all those of our relation to them, tend to give those temptations a fatal strength, and to direct it point blank against those necessities. Tlie whole of the circumstances in question consti- tute in themselves, and in despite of your protective prerogatives, an invitation to the few to turn their gifts against the helpless multitude. Would you, indirectly but effectually, sanction and ratify that invitation, anglicise your courts and your schools: would you do all that human prudence can suggest to reverse this doom of Asiatic sovereignty, vernacularise your courts and your schools, and draw the mass of the people yet nearer to you by the largest possible association of themselves to the task of governing them. But ye have heard that the people, like their languages, are inefficient instruments : I deny it not ; but verily I say unto you there is a holy aim and end in sucli courses far heyond instrumental eficiency, and which thus only shall you reach; and that end is to lift the j^eople from the dust, and to breathe that generous fire into their torpid souls, the kindling of which must be the beginning of their regenera- tion ! Why does Elphinstone observe that if Providence should * See “ Times " of April 25, 1S72. Is’ote of 1876. 284 PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. ev2r bless tlie Affgbans with a wise lawgiver, they might bo far more easily regenerated than the people of India ? Because the former possess, and the latter want, intellectual and moral stamina — those seeds of character which alone admit of culture. It is this deplorable want which in India defies the best efforts of education and of administration, and ever will do so till both are principally directed to supply the deficiency, instead of (as at present) compassing inferior ends. Tlie aim is high — its perfect realisation far distant — and probably not reserved for us. But let us do nothing to counteract it — to render its reali- sation yet more impossible : and if we take the direct road to this chief object, let us be encouraged to proceed by the double reflection upon our own abjectness in time gone by, and of our present noble and universal erectness of spirit. Now, I object to the antivernacular organ of education, and of administration, not merely as aiding and confirming the tendency of knowledge itself to become monopolised and per- verted to the uses of oppression, but also because, firstly, it is apt to generate or confirm servile intellectual habits, especially when combined with the absence of political liberty ; and be- cause, secondly, it is not less apt to divorce speculation from experience, theory from practice, abstraction from life. Those who are accustomed to consider the despotic in- fluence of words over ideas — an influence which even that intellectual giant Locke declared his frequent inability to subdue when it was connected with a foreign language, save by rendering the passage mto his own tongue — will be able to appreciate the nature of the first objection ; or, if not, they have only to consider the effects upon national character of the servile adoption of the Greek and Homan learning by the Gauls, and Iberians, and Britons ; and, in later times, by those nations who, having thrown down the Homan colossus, were content for ages to crouch beneath its literature. Tliose whom Home subdued, became twice subject by their slavish acceptance of her language : and those who subdued Home were only saved from vassalage to her learning by the free genius of their political institutions. If, again, you would appreciate the quality of the second objection, look at the character of learning in modern Europe, PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. 285 until it became vernacularised. It consisted entirely of thorny dialectics, or of flowery mysticism : and this, notwithstanding that its stock and root Avas the eminently useful and practical lore of Greece and of Eome ! Can proof more strong be offered or required as to the debasing and disutilitising tendency of a foreign medium, however valuable itsdf, that is, as an organ of thought ! I think not : and therefore would I not employ such a medium in India ! Had it been possible to emasculate the Teutonic national character, the Greek and Eoman languages would have laid their chains on it : had it been possible among those energetic races of men to divorce learning from every species of utility, again the Greek and Eoman languages would have accomplished the divorce. And yet those languages, in their natal soils, were the very heralds of liberty and of utility ! To the Greeks and Eomans themselves, the breathing words lent double power to the burning thoughts ; because those words were autochthonous, were the heritage of every single Greek and Eoman, blended inseparably with his daily experiences, as well as with every movement of those more generous impulses, which made all Greek and Eoman weal and woe a part of his own. The very same noble and useful ideas wEen transplanted to foreign soils were stripped of their nobility and their usefulness, by that very same instrument of their communication, whicli at home had so well sustained and diffused the energy of both those splendid qualities. And how was change so singular wrought ? for the instru- ment, as an instrument, retained its identical character. Was it that the Teutons, the Franks and Saxons, had in their ow)i hearts no chord responsive to the majesty of Greek and Eoman ideas, to all compact of liberty and of practical usefulness? No supposition could be less true ! What was it, then ? It was that the difflculty of acquiring the use of the instrument coinciding with the intrinsic difficulty of knowledge, compelled the many to abandon the pursuit of knowledge altogether, and thus enabled the few to turn it into an engine of deception : it was that the unfamiliar nature of the instrument coinciding with the intrinsic tendency of knowledge to abstraction, speedily shut out utility from the view of scholars, and left them, a segregated 286 PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. and separate caste, with the sole alternative of becoming syllo- gists or mystics. If we may trust the concurrent experience of the Middle Ages in Europe, and of all ages in Asia, it would seem that a vernacular medium is the only expedient for pre- serving either the generous, or the simply useful, properties of knowledge. Would you, then, make English knowledge a wholesome food — would you prevent its speedily becoming innutritive or poisonous — to the people of India, give it a vernacular organ ; for by such an organ only can it acquire and preserve those vital principles of accessibility, and of proneness to identification with household experiences, upon which it must wholly depend, whether that knowledge shall ever be a hlessing, and shall not presently be a eurse, to this land. Auguit 1835 . LETTER II. Sir, — S hould the picture I have drawn of the difficulties and hazards inseparable from the adoption of the English language as the organ of education (and of administration) be allowed to be, upon the wdiole, correct, it will follow that paramount consider- ations connected with the weal of the many enjoin and enforce the rejection of that organ. Should, on the other hand, the indica- tion I have given of the advantages inseparable from the adoption of the vernaculars as the media of education (and of administra- tion) be allowed to be, on the whole, accurate, it will follow that paramount considerations connected with the weal of the many enjoin and enforce the acceptance of those media. Before considerations weighty as those adverted to, the ques- tion of merely instrumental efficiency sinks into an insignificance from which nothing could redeem it, but demonstrative proof of such an utter and extreme degree of feebleness attaching to the vernacular languages, in this view, as absolutely to compel a resort, at whatever risk, to other instruments. But that no sem- blance of such proofs has been, or can be adduced, I think I have satisfactorily shown in my preceding letter ; and by so doing, I have, I trust, placed the preference due to a vernacular organ PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. 287 upon unassailable grounds. It can scarcely be necessary for me to say, that my objections to an English organ of instruction are, in substance, not less applicable to a Sanskrit or an Arabic one. And, as I freely admit that the latter languages, notwithstanding their difficulty, lead to nothing deserving of general study, but to much, the even partial study of which, as heretofore, is on every higher account to be deplored, it may be asked with what pos- sible aims I can seek to uphold the dead languages and literature of India, and to uphold them by public patronage ? I answer distinctly that those aims are, 1st. The improve- ment and literary application of the living languages, considered as the principal organs and instruments of general instruction in European lore. 2d. Means of facilitation and inducement, suited to the prejudices and ineptitude of the unlearned many, and of conciliation and check, adapted to the adverse interests and un- bounded influence of the learned few, with reference to the introduction and establishment of our knowledge, considered as the sole subject matter of general instruction. The use of the learned languages of the country I contemplate merely as subsidiary to the first purposes ; that of its literature sheerly as conducive to the last ; and whilst I concede that these purposes are entirely preliminary, I expect, in the course of this letter, to be able to prove their indispensableness in that view. If I liave succeeded in demonstrating by my precedent letter the cardinal importance and necessity of vernacularising our knowledge, it would seem that systematic means to that end form an indispensable feature of our plans for the regeneration of India : And unless it be meant to be asserted, that the most rooted maxims and most cherished opinions of Indian society do not necessarily militate against the direct and unqualified accept- ance of our staple truths, it would seem that systematic means of accommodation and compromise constitute another indispensable feature of those plans. I shall recur to these features of educa- tional reform (lieretofore so miserably obscured with dust and rubbish), in the sequel, in order to prove the obligation of Government to fix them in a collegiate establishment having for its object the cultivation, with exclusive reference to them, of the learned languages and literature of the country. Meanwhile, having I trust established the necessity of vernacularisation, and 288 PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. its dependence upon the dead languages, I proceed to consider the necessity of accommodation and conciliation, with thdr de- pendence upon the litero.ture. In approaching this topic, I feel a singular perplexity arising, not out of the difficulty of the subject, hut out of that hardihood of assertion which has, of late, attempted to confuse and invali- date the clearest, largest, best-grounded inductions from our experience of the character and condition of the people of India. Until recently, the extremity of their poverty had been as little liable to question as the extremity of their prejudices. But now, it seems, the general acquisition of the English language is as entirely compatible with their means, as the direct adoption of English ideas with their inclinations. Fie upon such stulti- f}'ing extravagances ! for, who not wholly blinded by his impetu- ous pursuit of some favourite theory, can fail to perceive that were the people indeed so easy in their circumstances, and so liberal in their minds, as is here assumed, there could be little or no occasion for our educational interference ? Nay, were the assiimption in question anything but the very reverse of truth, we towering Europeans should be ourselves demonstrably reduced to take shelter under the most grovelling scepticism, entirely without motive to amend others or ourselves, how much soever they or we might need it. Because if extreme moral and physical evil and hindrance did not practically flow from such notions as prevail in this land, the relative value of all con- ceivable human notions, must be reduced, universally, to such stuff as reveries are made of ! How comes it that the advocates of these extremely liberal opinions do not perceive, that their tenets lead distinctly to the conclusion that all opinions whatever are matters of indifference ? Take away from gross error its practical malignity and impotence, and you take away, at the same time, the practical importance of truth ! God forbid that I should dwell upon the hostility, the alienation, the imbecility, of the natives with a view to make them objects of execration or contempt. But for the physician to deny the disease at the very moment of prescribing the remedy, is surely too monstrous a procedure to be attended with advantages. Familiar as I am, and long have been, with the deep seat, and the wide spreading taint, of the disease, I could as soon dismiss the conscious- PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. 2?9 ness of my own identity as the awfully solemn impression I enter- tain, that if this malady be at all remediable with the means at OU7' disposal, it can be so only by a treatment as nicely as possible adapted to the constitution and habits of the particular patient, whilst it is, at the same time, consistent with the general rules of the healing art. I oppose myself unwillingly to the opinions of those who have recently so much distinguished themselves by philanthropical efforts on behalf of the people of India. But, the more I consider the drift and scope of these opinions, the more am I convinced that the great cause of native regeneration Avould be retarded, not advanced, by their adoption into general practice ; and that in proportion to the unparalleled obstacles which exist to the mental emancipation of Indians by Britons, is the inexpediency of direct measures to that end. If we would indigenate a European plant to the plains of India, it is univer- sally admitted that the first stock must be sent to the Hills in the hope of procuring seed ; that there, to the advantage of cli- mate the utmost care must be superadded, if we would rea^^e that hope ; and that, in the retransfer of the gradually-acclimated produce to the plains, we must redouble our previous pains in order to be ultimately successful in tke e:^eriment. And will those who make this admission, assert that the moral and intel- lectual regeneration of the peoj)le of India by the people of Eng- land is an experiment which may be safely and successfully essayed vntliout any soi't oi 2 '>reparation .? Yet what but this is the assertion — the proposition of those, who, having in view the dis- semination of our knowledge throughout India, contemptuously repudiate all connection witli its literature, or with its living lan- guages ? Our institutions, civil and religious — political, social, and domestic, are not merely dissimilar from, but the very anti- podes of, those of the Hindoos. And our knowledge — what is it but the fused extract of our institutions ? And is not their know- ledge the same of theWsI And is the prodigious gulf which now separates their minds from ours, to be, indeed, bridged over by measures involving an equal and utter neglect of the pride and power of the learned, of the necessities and imbecility of the unlearned, and of all the prepossessions, prejudices, and ac- customed thoughts and feelings, of both ? Surely not ; nor, in a choice of difficulties, can the adoption of such measures be, VOL. II. T 290 PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. for an instant, aJinitted to be a closing with the lesser ones. Once for all, I would distinctly state, that I conceive the question to relate to the plan and outline of a system of general* education for the people of India. It is high time tliat some such plan should be devised, and having been devised, should be steadily adhered to by the majority of private educational establishments, as well as by the Oovernment, quoad the extent of its patronage of education. Nor can I fail to deplore that bias towards the fashionable Anglomania which led Lord William Bentinck, wlien his attention had been momentarily arrested by this question, to proceed fer saltiim from the obvious absurdities of Orientalism to the obvious excellences of Occidentalism, without perceiving that, as usual, the real practical case — involving of necessity the consideration of local fitness as well as of abstract perfection, and of means as well as of ends — could have little affinity with such a vulgar palpable extreme. How long are we to go on picking up straggling students, and instructing them according to the un- aided dictates of individual caprice ? The smaller the funds at the disposal of Government to this end, the more carefully should they be husbanded by uniform system steadily prosecuted. I admit, at once and freely, the folly of squandering any portion of those funds upon oriental literature considered as, per se, the matter of instruction — or upon the learned languages considered as, in any tvay, its media. But if the most insuperable obstacles exist to the unqualified transmission of English ideas in the English language, are we not necessarily thrown upon those languages and that literature for the indirect means of removing such obstacles, through vernacularisation and through the coun- tenance and sanction of established notions ? And to what source save the public exchequer can we look for the adequate and steady supply of these appliances and helps of the only sort of education in European lore which the people or can or will accept ? If the obstacles to direct measures be real, of what use can be tlie hardy denial of them ? And is not their reality at- tested by the concurrent testimony of history, of the laws and in- * This is tlie point, a general system or what is needful to lay the foundation of such : for particular cases, as of princes and men of rank, the question is dif- ferent, or rather there is here no question of admissible exceptions to the general ]ilan, and it may he readily admitted that such persons should be taught in the Knglish language or rather taught that language as well as other things. PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. 291 stitutions of the land, and of our daily and hourly experience of the people’s conduct, towards us and towards one another ? * And is it not most unworthy of ns to oppose to such testimony as the above, which is co-cqual with the, magnitude of what is testi- fied to, the favourable state of our schools at Calcutta and at one or two other little Goshens, bearing some siich proportion to that magnitude as the contribution of a single river to the mass of the oceanic waters ? Let me ask you, sir, as a Christian missionary, what yon think of the general result of those efforts at soloing the seed without dressing the ground, which belong to the story of religious mis- sions in the East generally, during the last two and a half centu- ries ? The miserable failure of these efforts, after so much appa- rent promise, I have always heard ascribed principally to their unprepared and exotic character, incapable of striking root into the household wants and habits of the instructed. As it is with religious, so is it with temporal. Truth : the difliculty is to work it into the warp and woof of the popular mind : and until it is so interwoven, it can neither have durability nor efficacy, let zealots affirm what they please. How often was not Europe amused, for a century, with the tale that the East was rapidly and generally evangelising ? Such as were those assurances, such are the pre- sent allegations about the ability and the eagerness of the people of India to drink our knowledge undiluted from the fountain head of English. They cannot, and they may not, so drink : they have neither the means, nor the will, nor the permission so to do. The English language is too costly for them ; sheer English truths are too alien to their distorted judgments, narrow experi- ences and immediate wants, as well as too repugnant to that do- minant influence presiding over their minds, to find uv 2 oreparcd admission. Let it be granted that the first object is to disenchant the popular mind of India ! Do you propose to break the spell which now binds it by the facilities and attractions of the English language ? Or, do you imagine that those magicians to whom the spell is power and wealth and honour unbounded, and whose vigilance has maintained its unabated influence for 3000 ■* Of the 100 Brahmans and Kshetriyas composing my escort, no ten will eat together ; no ten of the one or of the other tribe. Yet the natives have no prejudices ! ! ! 292 PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. years, have, merely to serve your ends, been suddenly stricken with infatuation ? To them belong the parents’ minds ; to those of the parents, the minds of the children. Say that the children were yours for six hours per diem ; would not the rest of their time be necessarily passed at home amid home’s habitual associa- tions ; which, of what nature they are, may, I trust, be briefly indicated without offence, by a glance at the seemingly forgotten, frame work of Indian society. Two circumstances remarkably distinguish and designate the social system of India : one, its inseparable connection with a recondite literature : the other, the universal precurrency of its divine sanctions through all the offices of life, so as to leave no corner of the field of human action as neutral ground. Can these premises be denied ? And, if not denied, can it be necessary to deduce from them a demonstration of the unbounded power of the men of letters in such a society ? or of the conse- quent necessity for procuring, as far as possible, their neutrality in respect to the inchoation of measures, the whole virtual ten- dency of which is to destroy that power ? Touch what spring of human action you please, you must touch, at the same time, the established system. Touch the spring with any just and generous view of remoffing the pressure which that system has laid on its native elasticity ; and you must, at the same moment, challenge the hostility of that tremendous phalanx of priestly sages which wields an inscrutable literature for the express purpose of perpetuating the enthralment of the popular mind. However much the splendour of our political power may seem to have abashed these dark men, the fact is that their empire over the hearts and understandings of the people has been and is almost entirely unaffected by it. With the Saga of Pompeii they say, ‘ The body to Caesar, the mind to us.’ — A profound ambition, suited to the subtile genius of their whole devices, and which I fear some of us commit the lordly absurdity of misinterpreting into iiupotency or indifference ! Before we have set foot almost upon their empire, it is somewhat premature to question their resources for its defence against intrusion. Their tactics are no 'vuilgar ones ; nor will they commit them- selves or sooner or further thau is needful. We now purpose to PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. 293 spread our knowledge ; they know it, and they know the con- sequence. But so have we, for half a century, purposed the spread of our religion ! The purpose must become act, and the act become, or seem likely to become, generally successful, ere these siibtile men will confront us openly ; and perhaps not then, if heaven inspire us wdth tlie prudence to conciliate, check, and awe them by the freest possible resort to that sacred litera- ture which they dare not deny the authority of, however %ised ; and which assuredly is capable of being largely used for the diffusion of Tntth ! * Time has set its solemn impress on that literaUire : the last rays of the national integrity and glory of this land are reflected from its pages : consummate art has interwoven with its meaner materials all those golden threads which nature liberally furnishes from the whole stock of the domestic and social affections and duties. To the people it is the very echo of tlieir heart’s sweetest music : to their pastors — their dangerous and powerful pastors — it is the sole efficient source of tliat unbounded authority wdiich they possess. To deny the existence of that authority is mere moon-slruck idiocy. To admit it is, I conceive, to admit the necessity of compromise and conciliation, so far as may be. Facillime juhetur exemplo. The text is in Seneca. Now for the commentary. The IMoslems, our immediate predecessors in dominion, swayed the sceptre of India, with all the pomp and resources of domestic rule, for 500 years. They had a national system of opinions ; and millions of immigrants flowed into the adopted land to back the precepts of imperial pleasure in recom- mending that system to general adoj:)tion. They colonised ; they naturalised ; they bade the administra- tion adopt their speech ; and, from first to last, nor prince nor peasant among them forgot that their first duty to their new country was to make it consentaneous in doctrine with them- selves. What was the ultimate result ? That India cleaved to its own institutions, and half imposed them on the conquerors ! Now, sir, let me ask you seriously. * Reasoning may be refused attention. Wherefore I propose for consideration the fact of Mr. Wilkinson’s success. Can the fact be denied? Mr. AVilkinson and myself are now about to extend the experiment by printing Ashu Ghosha’s argument from the Shastras against caste. 294 PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. whether, with such an instance staring us in the face, it be not tlie very extremity of fraud or folly to allege that the people of this country have no material prejudices in favour of the lan- guage, the literature, or the customs, of theh fathers ? I am sorry, as I have said, to dissent from the prevalent dicta of well-disposed and active friends of India. But I believe a deep and abiding sense of the nature and extent of existing pre- judices to he a cardinal maxim never to be lost sight of, by those wdio wmuld safely and successfully rebaptize the Indian mind in the fount of European knowledge. And v/hen I see and hear tlie proceedings of our native schools daily urged in proof that no such prejudices exist, and the Government lending itself, (pioad the resources at its disposal, to a system of education im- plying their non-existence, hy reason of this s^ipposcd proof, I am lost in astonishment. Granting the premises, the conclusion has no more just proportion to them, than a molehill to the Hima- laya ! I admit that our knowledge is better fitted, by its superior practical utility, to make way in India, than that of the Moslems. I admit that our technical means of diffusion (the press), are vastly more efficient than any they could employ. But, sir, schools and scholastic lessons are neither the only, nor the most jjotent, media for the inculcation of new modes of thought and action among nations : And when I contrast the plenitude of those other and more operative means in the hands of the Moslems with their penury in our hands, I am compelled by superior evidence to own that wEere they failed, success cannot crown our efforts, unless consummate prudence in the use of all local appli- ances be added to the intrinsic efficacy of our knowledge and of the aid of the press. I point solemnly to the uniform language of the laws, the unchanging voice of history, and the general tenor of what we daily see and hear among the people, as con- curring to prove beyond a question, that the prejudices and prepossessions of this land are the profoundest, most exclusive, and most pervading through all acts and motives, of any irpon record ! And such being the case, I ask in God’s name what probability is there that we, few as we are and miserably insulated as we are, should make any durable beneficial or general impres- sion upon those prejudices and prepossessions, by means of such an abstraction as knowledge, without deliberate measures of gene- PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. 295 ral instniction combining the utmost modal facility with the furthest practicable use of existing sanctions of opinion ? Our knowledge itself militates necessarily, plainly, and directly, witli the highest interests of the few, and with the warmest affections of the many. How, then, are we to procure acceptance for it withoirt preliminary measures calculated to neutralise the hos- tility of the former, and to draw the sympathies of the latter ? Let our knowledge have come fairly into the field against the knowledge of the East; and who could doubt the result? Not we; nor, assuredly, those who are so deeply interested in maintain- ing the present mental darkness of the land ! The difficulty is to bring our knowledge into action, in despite of popular penury and imbecility, backed by the utmost covert opposition of those dark men I How is it to be done — generally and effectually done ? And, mind you, I speak not of the perfect realisation — be that the care of the Almighty — but of such inchoative mea- sures as shall be not unworthy of His blessing from their prud- ence as well as benevolence, and, above all, from their being grounded in a due preference for the superior claims and ex- treme helplessness of the many ! To seek to spread our knowledge directly through an English organ is to lliug away every species of facilitation, conciliation, and compromise. Is this the way for a few insulated strangers to make a durable or useful moral impression upon a country in which the whole mass of opinions has been welded by consummate fraud into one compact system bearing the highest of possible sanctions, which it derives from a sacred literature, the monopolisers of which wield at will the hearts and understandings of the people ? Those formidable pastors of the flock are the apostles of mental thraldom : We are the missionaries of mental liberty. Is it necessary to insist further on their hostility to us ? Surely not : How, then, shall we foil them ? — Let us give to our eminently generous and useful truths the facility and homely aptitude of vernacular media. So, and so only, may we hope gradually to draw over the multitude to our side.* And let us, in the meanwhile neutralise the hostility of the learned, and smooth the passage * Ours is “the poor man’s Raj.” It is so really such that the truth has already passed into a proverb. The/cw hate and fear us, with and without cause. Let us, then, bind the many to ourselves by community of language : let us vcrnacularise ourselves and our knowledye for their and our common benefit ! 296 PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. of Truth into minds so biassed against it, by borrowing, as often, and as far as possible, the maxims and examples of that sacred literature which in our hands is the only charm to con- ciliate confidence, lull suspicion, and paralyse opposition. The many cannot, and the few dare not, resist its spell. To the former it recalls the long-past ages of their national great- ness : to the latter, it is all things, the source of their power, the mystery of their iniquity ; enabling him who knows it to com- mand their willing and unwilling homage ! I have spent many years in India, remote from the Presidencies and large towns and almost entirely amongst the natives, whom consequently it was ever an object with me to conciliate for my own comfort, and whom I trust I always felt anxious to win, in order the better to accomplish my public duties, as well as to influence the people to their own advantage and improvement. Yes ! I say I have so spent many, many years, during which I solemnly declare that the only unequivocal voluntary testimonies I have received of influence over either the hearts or heads of the people have been owing entirely to some little knowledge on my part of their literature ! With this instrument I have waimed hearts and controlled heads which were utterly impassive to kindness, to reason, and to bribery ; and deeply am I persuaded, by experience and reflection, that the use of this instrument is indispensable in paving the way for any general, effective, and safe measures of educational regeneration. It is a splendid compliment we pay to the people to master their difficult literature. The memory of better days connected with it elevates their lowliness to somethin'^ lilre a communi- cable distance from our loftiness. Their shy and shrinking affec- tions, to which we have no direct access of any description, may he poured out to us through this indirect and modest chan- nel which carries the whole waters of their hearts, reflecting from its tranquil bosom every rite and custom, and thought and feeling, of the land ! Hence its influence, with the many, in our hands : and, as for the few, with them to know it is to have been initiated into those mysteries, the participation of which is the ne plus ultra of authority ! they may tremble, but must obey, and, ample as is the ground occupied by this all-pervading lite- rature, we may use its sanctions for general truths to a vast ex- PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. 297 tent as rigliteously as efficaciously. Could anything surprise me in reference to the manner in which this all-important ques- tion has heretofore been treated, it would be the strange incon- sistency of those whose extravagant applause of the people is com- bined with no less extravagant censure of their literature ; and the scarcely less strange inconsistency of those others who would borrow the sanction of that literature for our physical truths, but on no account for our moral ones. The people, say the former, have no material prejudices or prepossessions : for, if they had, it miglit be necessary to consider them when a handful of insulated strangers purposed to lay an absolutely new bias on the popular mind ! The literature of the people (they add) is sheer folly and iniquity : for if it were not, its pervading and mighty authority might seem to suggest it as a necessary means of laying that new bias on the people’s mind ! To a reflecting mind such propositions as the above evidently cannot consist together : whatever be the merits of the people, those merits cannot have been forgotten in that deliberate portraiture of themselves which they have embodied in their literature ! The character of that literature is mixed : but it is more faithful to their virtues than to their vices ; else the limners had not been men. Tor the rest, those conductors of education who seek that literature not as an end but as a means — nor for itself but for its inducements — may safely borrow many of its precepts, examples, and illustrations to re- commend to general attention the substance of a higher know- ledge. Of this obvious truth the second class of objectors to which I have just alluded have not been unaware. But they have drawn a strange distinction between the licitness of such recom- mendation of our physical science, and its illicitness in reference to the other and more important branch of our knowledge,* founding that distinction upon what I conceive to be a false and narrow view of the subject. “ JMuch as I approve of Mr. Wilkinson’s suggestion to teach the natives astronomy by means of the Siddhantas, I am very far from thinking that any good use could be made of their moral system. This is a very differ- ent question from the former : for the truths of astronomy ai’e derived from mathematical demonstration, whereas morality, * “ Calcutta Christiau Observer,” for August, 1843. 298 PRE-EMINENCE OE THE VERNACULARS. when disjointed from revelation, is not so indisputable : but is, even in material points, open to objection : witness the different systems that have been formed concerning the principle of moral approbation.” This is, I confess, language such as I never expected to hear at the present day, and which is certainly opposed to the sentiments of the greatest and best men of Europe. 'With them the Divine geometrician is likewise the universal lawgiver and judge, whose moral attributes and ours alone cause it to he that there is, or liath been, such a thing as Iteligion in the world. That those attributes, on our part, are llis work, is a proof that they are immutable and universal: that they are indispensable to His honour and our happiness, is a proof that they are indisputably vouched to all human appre- hension. Were morality disputable there could be no religion : were there no religion there could be no Eevelation. Have not the mass of mankind in all ages and countries by tlie general tenor of their lives demonstrated the practical indisputableness of morals ? Conscience ! does it speak one language at Benares and another at Canterbury ? Or is that to which it testifies less satisfactorily evidenced, than that two and two make four ? Certainly not ! “ If we bear in mind that the question relates to the coinci- dence of all men in considering the same qualities as virtues, and not to the preference of one class of virtues by some, and of another class by others, the exceptions from the universal agree- ment of mankind in their system of practical morality will be reduced to absolute insignificance.”* “ On convient le plus souvens de ces instincts de la conscience. La plus grande partie du genre humain leur rend temoinage. Les Orientaux, et les Grecs et les Eomains conviennent en cela.”t As to the speculative disputes respecting the principle of moral approbation and disapprobation, they have no more to do with the fact that mankind naturally approve what is right, and disapprove what is wrong, or with the practical system of ethics aestin" on that fact, than have the laws of motion and their * Mackintosli, Eth. Phi. t Leibnitz, CEuvres Phil. To the same effect might be quoted Butler, Berkeley, and all the greatest lights of the Anglican Church. PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. 299 practical consequences, and axioms with the question whetlier space be a plenum or a vacuum. Let the sense of right and wrong be a rational or sensitive principle, an original or a deri- vative one, it will still be the very same sense after these doubts are solved as it was before they were started ; and it is indeeil surprising that an intelligent writer should cite such doubts to bear witness against that which they have no earthly relation to, viz., the immutability and universality of moral distinctions, and the consequent harmony of the moral precepts thence derived by the sages of all nations and of all times. But it is obvious that, beyond the limits of ethics, strictly so called, there is a very large and most important field which the most captious must concede to be neutral ground, quoad objections on our side to the use of Oriental sanctions of opinion. The elemental laws of thought, — including a designation of the necessary boundaries of human inquiry, and the best rules of investigation within those limits — the law of population, the philosophy of wealth, the general principles of jurisprudence, of juchcature and of reformative police ! How are we to incul- cate the elements of our knowledge upon these topics, which are at once infinitely more essential to the welfare of the people of India than mathematical and physical science, and infinitely more liable to the adverse influence of prejudice and preposses- sion ? Physical science is almost unknown in India, and hence there will be little for us to undo : it stands almost wholly aloof from the turmoil of the passions and interests of men, and hence there will be little difficulty in removing obstructions to fair and patient attention. But the philosophy of life, however ill it is yet understood, has been an object of study in this land for 30CO years, in all which time the falsest interests, and the most turbulent pas- sions, and the most fantastic opinions, have contributed the warp, as nature and experience have the woof, to its network. To leave the woof as it is, and to supply a new warp from the schools of European wisdom — hoc opus, hie labor est ! To attempt to remove both warp and woof were, I believe, to dis- organise societ}q and to insure our own destruction in its disor- ganisation ! Here it is, certainly, that the countenance and 300 PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. support, real or seeming, of established maxims and examples, is most needed and most readily to be had — most needed, be- cause of the prejudices and passions that are indissolubly bound up -with the topics — most easily to be had, because of that universal consciousness, and almost universal experience, which necessarily supply the ultimate evidence of such topics. High dated and literary as is the cliaracter of Indian civilisation, it could not he that their literature should have failed to gather ample materials for the just illustration, in some way or other, of most, if not of all, parts of the philosophy of life. And, with respect to the fact, you, sir, need not be told that it has not failed to gather them. In mathematical science, again, the premises 7uust be abso- lutely known or unknown ; and there is a long and rigorous jirocess intervening between them and the conclusion. It is otherwise in the philosophy of life, not to mention that examples furnish their own illustration, data carrying pretty obviously their consequences with them ; and just data are deducible, to an astonishing extent, from £vcry cultivated nation’s existing stock of ideas, merely by superior arrangement and larger generalisation. But, on the other hand, the whole host of preju- dices compasses this latter class of ideas — prejudices of opinion, of affection, and of interest, so much so that, even in the most enlightened part of Europe, it is accepted as a maxim, that “ it is impossible to make too niucli allowance for friction.” If the immediately preceding remarks, be tolerably well grounded, I think it can scarcely be denieel that the induce- ments and sanctions derivable from Oriental literature are at once infinitely more requisite and more procurable, in reference to the diffusion of our moral than of our physical sciences. Nor can I here avoid the expression of my surprise, that those who have been compelled to acknowledge the success of Mr. Wilkinson in removing, by means of the Indian astronomy, those formidable obstacles which stand round the threshold of the native mind, resisting the entrance of our knowledge, should refuse to attend to his repeated declarations, that his object is general, not particular, is moral, not scientific, is mediate, not ultimate ! Mr. AVilkinson’s experience of the people of India is of that PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. 301 genuine sort ^vhicli arises out of close intercourse with them, remote from our Presidencies and large towns. There he learnt the necessity of preparation, conciliation, and compromise ; and ihere he found the means of them all — the means of closing that gulf which separates European and Indian affection and intellect — in the use of that literature 'ivhich, I shall venture to say, cannot le dispensed %vith, and least of all in relation to that very department of our knowledge from which there would seem to be a disposition to exclude its instrumentality upon grounds erroneous as far as they go, and which fail yet more by defect than by error. Whatever may he the case at the Presidency, I trust I have now assigned some solid reasons for the conclu- sion that the general acceptance, as well as the safe and beneficial and durable operation, of our knowledge must depend upon the facilities of the living, and the inducements of the dead, lan- guages of the country : and even wdth respect to the Presidency, it would seem that the apparent anxiety to Anglicise, which is there manifested by the people, is nothing more than a pestilent craving after the profit and power to be derived from the perverted ixse of our language. The following is an extract from “ The Englishman ” of the 7th September: — “A report of the Hindoo Free School has been lying on our table several days. We should have noticed it sooner could we have brought ourselves to view with calmness this further testimony to the disgusting and culpable indiffer- ence of the wealthy Hindoos to the solid interests and intellec- tual advancement of their poorer countrymen. Will it be believed, out of Calcutta, that a school containing 2.50 scholars lias not received pecuniary assistance from more than seven native gentlemen? Were we to tell the story that all the good service rendered to 80 millions in the way of education proceeds from Englishmen, and from poor students, whose parents shainefulhj stint them, and whose intelligence is laughed at, w'e should obtain no cretht for our narrative.” The Editor’s surprise may be real ; but beyond all question his story, were it told, would obtain universal credence everywhere without the limits of Calcutta, as far as the Himalaya and the Indus, both from the whole native community, and from all Europeans accurately conversant with the means and habits and sentiments of that 302 PRE-EMINENCE OE THE VERNACULARS. community ! To those means and habits and sentiments, sheer English knowledge in an English garb has some such relation of htness, as have the English ball-room habiliments to the persons of the 80 millions in the pursuit of their ordinary avocations ! Ah ! would we, instead of circling round and round the pale of the Presidency, but elevate our contemplation to the pliysical and moral condition of those 80 millions, and to the possible means of influencing it beneficially, through our knowledge, with due advertence to our scanty numbers and miserable insulation, then should we perceive the indispensable necessity of a deliberate, systematic, and uniform plan of educa- tion, combining the utmost facilities with the utmost induce- ments to change. And then would the small funds at the dis- posal of Government to this end be devoted entirely to the steady and adequate supply of those facilities and inducements, leaving their application and use to the public. One of the most philosophic writers upon the progress of society in Europe has remarked,* that the vernaeularisation of learning produced a greater effect in disabusing the general intellect of the prejudices of books, and of those of existing institutions and opinions, than all the rest of the glorious events and discoveries of that age which witnessed it, including among those events the invention of printing ! ISTow, is it not the alpha and omega of our hopes, to produce such an effect upon the general intellect in India ? Is' not our knowledge itself but a means to that end ? And shall we overlook vernaeularisation in India, when neither availability, nor safety, nor adequacy, can belong to the instrument of our knowledge, save by and throirgh it ? If there be but a tolerable warranty for the truth of that pre-eminent liberalising influence ascribed to the vernaeularisation of learning in Europe by the author I have adverted to — and he must be a bold man who will dispute the judgment of the finest intellect in Britain — vernacu- larisation should be our chief engine in India, apart from all ad- vertence to its instrumental indispensableness towards the diffu- sion of our knowledge. But if we combine the consideration of its independent moral agency with that of its unequalled energy in spreading abroad any particular truths, what on earth should lead us to overlook its title to be made the corner-stone of the * “ Edinburgh I’eview,” vol. xxvii. p. 203. PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. 3^3 edifice of public instruction ? It is argued that there is no say- ing whence tlie moral spark may be elicited ; and that therefore it is expedient to teach our language, in the hope that the seed of our knowledge, thence procurable, may fall on some happy spot where it may take root, and whence it may be generally propagated. Xow, I would observe, in the first place, that, as the fructifying power belongs to oirr knowledge and not to our speech, the chance of the seed falling upon a congenial soil must be proportioned to the extent of the experimental ground em- ployed to raise it. But the vernacular intrument may convey the seed to hundreds of thousands of minds, whilst the English one must limit it to a few hundreds at most. Need I make the appli- cation, according to the arithmetical rule of cliances ? This, however, is but half the answer to the argument I have stated ; for, in the second place, it is beyond a question that sound know- ledge may be accepted, taught, and studied, for agt s, witliout “ awaking the strong man ” — without stirring the deep waters of a nation’s intellect ; and that universal experience strongly indi- cates the entire dependence, in a national sense, of this vivifying l)Ower of knowledge upon that complete fusion of its precepts with a nation’s familiar experiences and wants which neither hath been, nor can be, without a vernacular medium ! If, then, it be our object to free the Indian mind from the thraldom of prejudice, by means of knowledge, the chances of success from the use of an antivernacular and of a vernacular process are, according to the first of the above modes of com- putation, as very many to one in favour of the latter — and, ac- cording to the second mode of estimation, the unit disappears ! Again, it is argued, let us once reach and move, by English or other media, the Indian intellect ; and the people will presently direct that movement into the vernacular channels of communica- tion. I do not deny the possibility : but, with respect to the pro- bability, I ask, is there not the strongest prejudice in this country against popular learning ? And is not much precious time and opportunity like to be lost by reason of this prejudice, if we our- selves do not set the example of deriding it — if we s«?icA'o» it by the use of an antivernacular orcran ? More than that : obvious O causes, always and everywhere, so much tend to make the cul- tivation of knowledge the special business of the few, and at 3^4 PRE-EMINENCE ON THE VERNA C HEARS. tlie same time to lay so many conscioiis and unconscious biasses on the minds of those few, disposing them to mystify, if not to abuse, it, that the history of letters since the dawn of civili- sation on earth, hardly yields a few solitary exceptions to the general issue of the monopoly of knowledge in impotency or in knavery. And is it in India, and in respect to our knowledge, that we are to presume an easy, voluntary, and necessary trans- mission from the few to the many ? Never was presumption made, so plainly opposed to reason and to history ! * Nor is it, by any means, necessary to suppose an artificial and deliberately fraudful monopoly of our knoAvledge — though that is too pro- bable, if it wear an English dress — since the natural monopoly, resulting from its difficulty, and from the incomjaetency of the means and wit of the many to cope with that difficulty, may abundantly suffice to strip our knowledge of all useful energy, and reduce it to the character of an idle curiosity in the possession of a small number of the people. The noble science of Greece and Eome, what else was it but an idle curiosity to all modern Europe for more than a thousand years ? And why ? Because of its costliness, and because of its disconnection from ordinary use and experience, partly by reason of its lingual, and partly by reason of its essential, incongruity with existing modes of thought and sentiment. And do we really imagine that there are more points of contact (so to speak) between English knowledge in an English dress, and the existing means and modes of thought and feeling in India, than there were between those means and modes in modern Europe from the fifth to the fifteenth century, and Greek and Eoman knowledge in their respective lingual garbs ? Do we really imagine that Anglicised Indians will presently and readily acquire either the so justly to appreciate the philo- sophy of speech and thought as to do justice to English words and ideas in their transfusion to the Indian vernaculars ; or the will so utterly to set their country’s prejudice at defiance, as to bend their efforts to the peculiarly painful and compensating task of working out the literary application of those tongues to the substance of an alien knowledge ? ♦ It cost ns AGES to sliake off the prejudice in favour of learned knowledge ! Is this tlu reason why Mr. T. affects to underrate the hazard of perpetuating this prejudice in India? rRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. 305 If we do cherish such fond imaginations, we are destined to he miserably disappointed : nor can there be a question that all those noble preliminary toils, by which alone European knowledge can be indigenated in India, must owe their entire design and plan, as well as the superior tendency of their execution, to ourselves. To enlarge, strengthen, and purify the common Indian chan- nels of thought — to pour into them the strong waters of our know- ledge, duly tempered to the feeble stomachs of the people — to lead them on from truth to truth under the seeming guidance of their own venerated lore, till they have insensibly learnt to perceive its folly and iniquity — these are labours as much above the unassisted capacity of the people of India as contrary to their unguided inclinations ! The moral and intellectual fetters of thirty centuries are not to be sundered by unprepared and random efforts. To suppose so, is utterly to overlook the strength of those principles which hold society together, alike under the worst as under the best social systems. Pens d pas on va Men loin. If, in India, the whole mass of opinions bear the most authoritative of sanctions — if the affections of the many and the interests of the few combine to root that sanction in the very core of all hearts — we must horroio it, as often and as far as we can : so only shall we check the few, and attract the many, especially in the first stages of our gorogress. But to employ the indispensable sanction (the literature of the land) sufficiently freely, and yet so as not to counteract our ulti- mate object of discrediting and dispensing with it — does it not imply system, perseverance, cost, with such an habitual concur- rence of native learning and European direction and control as we may look for in vain, if Government stand aloof ? If, again, the moral energy of knowledge depend wholly or chiefly upon its intimate fusion with the household thoughts and words of a people, whilst there exists in India the strongest bias against thus lowering the dignity of learning, whence but from the patronage of Government to the systematic, persevering, and costly concurrence of native learning and European superinten- dency, in the improvement and literary application of the vulgar tongues, can we look for the adequate development of this moral energy ? It was because the Moslem scorned the aid of the estab- lished sanctions of opinion, in a land where their force was as VOL. II. u 3 o 6 pre-eminence OF THE VERNACULARS. pervading as imperative ; and because he knew not whence springs the reformative vigour of knowledge, and therefore never poured his own into the popular channels of Indian thought, that the Moslem failed to make the least moral impression on India, despite his vast command over the influences of example, of time, and of domestic sway. To us, those potent influences are wanting ; and, few and in- sulated as we are, it cannot be that such an abstraction as know- ledge should in our hands work out that impression unless we give to the agent its maximum of moral power by systematic vernacularisation, removing at the same time all obstacles to its incipient operation by systematic compromise with existing pre- judices. With these ends and aims the continued public patron- age of the learned languages and literature of India is not only legitimate but desirable — not only desirable but indispensable. Indispensable for what ? for the moral and intellectual regene- ration of India ! How ? by the communication of general truths ! How, again ? solely through the living languages of the country ! How, once again ? with all the recommendation of acknowledged precepts and examples that can be safely borrowed from the vast and various literature of the country ! Until these views be reahsed in a public college of translators and vernacularisers, it is impossible that the business of educa- tion should progress steadily and safely throughout the country, for want of the requisite means and apphances in the hands of the teachers. Lut how, it will be asked, are we to realise the uses of the study of Oriental lore, and to prevent the abuse of that study to pristine purposes, on the part of those scholars who are to be educated in such a college ? make the privilege of learning Arabic or Sanskrit at the public expense contingent upon the learning simultaneously of other things — English, for example, or anatomy and chemistry : and you ensure the mental superiority of these favoured scholars to the errors of their country, fitting them at the same time either to go forth as the accomplished apostles * of truth, or, more usually, to remain * They should go forth, specifically, as schoolmasters ; and the college spoken of should be appropriated to training schoolmasters only, and translators. See Letter No. IV. PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. 307 about you, engaged in concert with yourselves in such lexi- cographical and grammarian labours as are required for the improvement of the vernaculars, or for transfusing our know- ledge into these channels, or for recommending it to general acceptance under the cover of admitted sanctions of opinion, preceptive or exemplary ! If the moral energy of knowledge can be shown to be com- patible with an antivernacular organ : if the learning of the English language can be shown to be compatible with the means of the people of India : if the very partial spread of our know- ledge can be shown to be consistent with their welfare : or lastly, if a voluntary and unaided disposition, on their own part, to popularise our knowledge by identifying it with the cultivation and literary use of the vulgar tongues can be shown to be probably deducible from their own unaided views and hahits in j-espect of letters — I am content to give up my argument. But as for proofs of the contrary of any one of these propositions draw'll from the alleged eagerness of the people to Anglicise, as manifested in our own schools, I must again repeat that were the particular premises granted they are no more adequate to support the general conclusion than I am to poise the Andes in the palm of my hand ! And not merely so : for let the number of those scholars be quintupled, and the whole might still be presumed to belong to that pestilent class which seeks merely the means of turning the power of our kuow'ledge against the universal helplessness ! Where is the stress of education now laid in Europe ? upon facilitation ! Wherefore ? because the procuring of the blessing, as well as the averting of the curse, of knowledge depends upon the free access and effectual participation of the many ; which may not be wdthout the utmost facilities of all kinds. So long as the acquisition of knowledge is difficult, so long must it centre in the few; and so long as it centres in the few, so long will it lapse into useless mysticism or subtility, if it be not turned into an engine of oppression. It is not the quality of knowledge, how good soever, which makes it work beneficially : it is its identification wdth familiar general thoughts and feelings in the land where it is planted : and if Greek and Homan knowledge attained no such identi- 3oS PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. fication in modern Europe for a thousand years, and conse- quently stirred not the slumber of the strong man (according to Milton’s noble allegory) ; whence is derhmd the presumption that European knowledge is so capable of allying itself to the familiar thoughts and feelings of India, that we may dispense with all facilities in the mode of propagating it ? a proposition more directly opposed to reason and to history was never, I conceive, hazarded. For knowledge to produce any moral effect, it must be wedded to general sympathy ; for knowledge to produce any intellectual effect, it must be wedded to general practical experience. And that a handful of strangers, shut out from popular sympathies and from all the intimate things of local experience, should cause these banns to be celebrated in India by the sheer agency of European science, without deliberate, systematic, public measures of education exclusively directed to the one end of creating a popular disposition and means to- wards their celebration, appears to me a chimera ! But such popular means entirely, and such popular disposition mainly, ever have depended, and ever will, upon the use oi vernacular media : and that part of popular disposition which hath not hinged upon those media, where shall we look for its subjection to the moral influence of learning, save in the use of acknowledged sanctions of opinion. To enable the people to think, have not the great minds of Europe forced themselves to think with the people ? To induce them to think, have not those minds, in all ages, deferred to prejudice? Christ Himself and His favourite disciples were “all things to all men r ” nor, if we exclude the agency of uncon- trolled enthusiasm — an energy which we neither dare nor purpose to employ — has one great and happy moral change been effected in the world except by long and careful com- promise and conciliation and preparation ? Now, no case can be imagined in which compromise and conciliation are more requisite than in the present one : and because all personal means of either are almost wholly denied to us, I point to those ample means which the sacred literature of the land can afford us. True, its employment is liable to objections: but what then ? PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. 309 It is necessary — it is indispensable : it sways all interests — it hallows all opinions : and the Babel of thirty centuries, resting upon its foundations, will stand for ever, in despite of our know- ledge, unless that knowledge be worked into the people’s hearts and understandings with the precepts and examples of this omnipotent make-w'ayl As to religious or moral scruples on our part, they are more than answered by the conduct and sentiments of the founder of our creed ; and by the innocuous use of classic paganism by Europe for ages. There is, or recently was, somewhat more pith in the objection from expediency, that to protect the study of the learned languages and literature by public patronage tended to maintain their influence and that of the evils they support. I admit the force of this objection as it applied to the system of instruction in the public schools prior to Lord William Bentinck’s reform. That system made Sanskrit and Arabic the direct means, and Oriental lore the direct end, of instruction ; and it sought further to recommend those languages by conveying into them the treasures of our knowledge ! Such a plan of education, acting under the con- tinuance of the jurisprudential sanction of those languages, and under the disadvantages of so difficult and alien an instru- ment for the general communication of European truths as the English language, might indeed have realised the appre- hension adverted to. But these measures, except the last, belong to obsolete follies : and, in respect to retrospective censure of the first of them, it should not be forgotten that so long as the ultimate reference in all legal questions was to Oriental lore, the j^ublic could scarcely be excused from the obligation of protecting the study of those difficult languages which formed its sole depositaries, The great question still remaining to be settled is, whether, assuming our knowledge to be the sole subject-matter of instruc- tion, we can dispense with the facilities of vernacular media and with the inducements of established opinion ? and, if not, whether the public patronage of the learned languages and literature in such a college as I have indicated the necessity of, be not indispensable to the adequate and steady supply of those facilities and inducements to all those who shall be directly engaged in the business of education ? With that 310 PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. business the college of translation and vernacularisation would have no direct concern, the sole function of its masters and students being the conjoint preparation for our teachers, public and private, of those indirect means and appliances of education without the fullest aid of which it is believed that the tree of European knowledge can never take root in this land; and the adequate furnishing of which appliances and helps implies labours as much above individual means and leisure on our part, as transcending the capacity, and repugnant to the fixed bias, of the native mind. The higher uses and influences of vernacularisation have here- tofore failed entirely to attract attention. Knowledge itself, even sound knowledge, owes its moral energy to this instru- ment. If the word of Junius * be an insufficient warrant for this cardinal truth, let reference be had to any and all the great writers of Europe who have expounded the causes of the pro- gress of society : there is no difference of opinion amongst them on this point. But, if vernacularisation be indispensable, it can scarcely be denied that the highly skilful, steadily continuous, and purely preliminary labours involved in the successful effectuation of it in reference to the substance of our knowledge, are pre-eminently European in the whole conception and direction ; and at the same time, so remarkably the business of no one, as to fall, quoad cost, to the care of the State. Hence my impression of the necessity of public patronage of these labours — involving, of course, such patronage of the study of the learned languages and literature of the country : but their study directed to ends how different, and by methods how remote, from those lately in practice, I need not further explain. I may remark, however, in reference to the applicability of the objection just stated, to the protected pursuit of Orientalism that, thus restricted and directed, it could not,, by possibility, produce the apprehended effects, were, as I propose,,our eminently useful and generous knowledge recommended to general attention by the facility and aptitude to common use and experience of verna- cularisation — including in that term the accommodation of These letters were first published under this signature. PJ^E-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. 31 1 thoughts as well as of words to the state of popular intellect and affection in this land. September, 1835. P. S. I have perused an article on the education of the people in the third No. of the Meerut Magazine. So far as I understand the writer’s views, it tvould seem that he considers their edu- cation ought to consist in a very extended application of legal sanctions to the enforcement of moral duties. If this he the real scope of the essay — as I suppose — I would suggest to its author, 1st, that w'e are too few and too ignorant of the intimate framework of Indian society, to play the censor’s part, magis- terially or judicially, w’itli much probability of success. 2d, That the glory of morality consists in its perfect voluntariness — a truth the neglect of which by Eastern lawgivers has led them to extend public coercion over the whole field of human action with no better general consequence than the dwarf ug and emascidation of the national character ! I fully admit, with this writer, the importance of the “ concurrence and co-operation of the people themselves ” in the business of education. Upon that rock I too build, laying the corner-stones of my edifice in facilitation, and conciliation, wdth reference to their penury and prepossessions. Pity so vigorous a writer will have nothing to do with the first half of the maxim, Suaviter in niodo : fortitcr in re ! It is scarcely practically convenient to give so unlimited a sense to the idea of education as does the writer in qxiestion. Hut I have not hesitated to say, incidentally in my first letter, that I consider the general association of the people to the business of administration, through Juries,* to be, educationally, at least as important as the general admission of them into the circle of European speculation, through vernacularisation. Sound doc- trines are not everything : neither are they nothing ; and I think the author of the paper adverted to will admit, upon reflection, that his notion of creating a general spirit of industry by pub- lic means of coercion or punishment — in other words, by the * Panchayets are, in a large view, essentially the same thing, viz., a qualification of the sheerly official administration of justice by certain popular elements. 312 PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. instrumentality of the laws — is a sad mistake, Mitius jubeUir doctrina. In respect of industry, in particular, it is universally allowed that the operation of the laws of all Europe has been — from the times adverted to by this writer up to our own day almost — singularly injurious ; so much so that the celebrated ‘ laissez nov^sfaire ’ has passed into a proverb. LETTER III. My reason for reverting to the subject of these letters, is to be found in the following extract from the “Friend of India:” “It is a truism, which we almost fear to hazard, that our only chance of effecting permanent and extensive good in India, must arise from the adoption of a system of vernacular education ; and yet, viewing the apathy which prevails on this subject, it would almost appear as though this fact was not yet received into the number of truths. It is now nearly twenty-five years since I’arliament appropriated a large grant for educational purposes in India, and to this moment no single effort has been made to give the great body of the people the benefit of this grant. It has been invariably applied in succession to the encouragement of some foreign language or other, the Arabic, the Persian, the Sanskrit, the English ; never to that of the vernacular lan- guages. It is a twelvemonth since the Education Board stated in their Report, that the creation of a national literature and of a national system of education, was the ultimate object to which all their labours were directed. What step has been taken to attain this ultimate object — what book has been translated into Bengalee or Hindustani — what indigenous school erected ? Of what system of education has even the foundation been laid ? ]\Ir. Adam’s report of his researches, which it was understood would form the basis of an educational structure, has now been before Government a twelvemonth. What single measure has grown out of his labours and researches ? The answer is lamentably simple ; none. The stillness of death reigns in the department of vernacular education.” This is a lamentable PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. 313 statement : but as I have an unabating and full confidence in the cause, so I believe that further discussion must and will eventually open the eyes of the public. With the hope of conducing to that end, I now reprint my two first letters, and add some further remarks suited to the changing and I think improving aspect of the si;bject, though there is, alas, but too much room for amendment still, and for continued revertence to first principles. The letters are an answer to Mr. Trevelyan’s Essay * on the means of communicating the civilisation of Europe to India. No other person has yet attempted formally to justify by argu- ment the novel and exclusive measures of the Education Com- mittee. Wherefore an answer to Mr. Trevelyan’s Essay is an answer to all that has, thus far, been deliberately advanced in favour of Anglomania. In the last Eeport of the Committee there are, indeed, a few stray sentences mentioning the vernaculars with respect : but those “ epea pteroenta ” are so foreign to the general scope of that Eeport, are so signally at variance with the whole previous sayings and doings of the Committee, and are so belied by the subsequent acts and attempts (buried in the archives of the Council Eoom !) of that body, that charity must seek to cover these egregious sentences with oblivion. Such persons, however, as are content to be thankful for small mercies, may congratulate the vernacularists upon their having at least compelled the other party to speak respectfully of the languages of the people ! Should Mr. Trevelyan feel inclined to favour me with a response, now that I avow my letters (challenging him directly to appear and answer), I would beg of him to address himself exclusively to the main topic of the letters, or the pre-eminent and overruling importance of vernacular media, universally, or in all times and places. I have assigned the largest and most pervading reasons deducible from history and from the nature of man, for that transcendent energy which I have ascribed to such media ; and I have endea- voured to show that, were the objections made to the vernacular languages of India, in their present state, much stronger than * Mr. Grant’s essay on the same subject may be considered as the basis of Mr. Trevelyan’s. I have studied them both. 314 PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. they really are, the reasons above alluded to would still suffice to justify a present practical preference on the part of Govern- ment of the vernaculars to English — if our object be really to rencrve, and to give a right direction to, the mental vigour of this land, safely, gradually, and with a reasonable prospect of producing expansive and durable effects. Let, then, Mr. T. address himself to the express grounds and reasons upon w’hich the paramountship of the vernaculars is rested. If the cory- ])heus of the Anglicists (whose active benevolence I honour and love) can show that these grounds are less comprehensive, or less firm than I assume, w^ell and good ; but, if he cannot show it, let him be assured that less comprehensive ones, though just as far as they go, must yet leave the vital merits of this great question untouched. And let him remember, too, that the real question is the regeneration of this land, or the means of break- ing its intellectual torpor by a fresh and vigorous impulsion from sound knowledge, that is, from European knowledge. As a practical measure for the immediate adoption of Govern- ment, 1 have no hesitation in saying that to found a college for the rearing of a competent body of translators and of school- masters — in other words, for the systematic supply of good vernacular books and good vernacular teachers (leaving the public to employ both, in case the Government fund be adequate to no more than the maintenance of such college), would be an infinitely better disposal of the Parliamentary grant than the present application of it to the training of a promiscuous crowd of English smatterers, whose average period of schooling cannot, by possibility, fit them to be the regenerators of their country, yet for whose further and efficient prosecution of studies so difficult and so alien to ordinary uses, there is no provision nor inducement whatever ! ! * l\Ir. Trevelyan seems to have thought it enough for his argu- * Note of 1846. — These have been partially afforded by Lord Hardinge. I trust the experiment may work well for the country beyond meeting the calls of the Government for native functionaries, and that these may be found sufficiently at home in the appropriate knowledge of their class in addition to their European lore. My proposed college, it will be seen in the sequel (Letter IV.), makes no distinction between mental culture in the English and vernacular languages. It proposes to combine the two and to give the combination the most definite at once and most effective form with reference to the general intellectual wants of the people of India. PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. 315 ment (see Essay 2^<^ssim) to cite the hare fact that knowledge has been generally conimnnicated and spread through exotic organs. I shall not attempt at present to bring any fresh proofs that Mr. Trevelyan’s historical emmples may be easily turned into solemn and fearful warnings : I shall not attempt further to show that the general history of knowledge is, “ propter hanc causam exotici medii,” a disgraceful and lameyitaUe story ; that (not to travel for illustrations out of the limits of Europe) it was the practically, if not necessarily, exclusive genius of this system of learning, which turned our beautiful religion into a scandal and curse ; our noble liberty into slavery : I shall not attempt to trace the waste of time and of means generated by this adherence to foreign media ; nor, lastly, to urge the very legitimate presumption that, after all, “ the strong man ” was awakened in Europe from the lethargy of ages not by, but in despite of, exotic lore. All these general topics I reserve till Mr. T. appear in his justification. Meanwhile, and with express reference to his present notion that the best way of exciting the Indian intellect, and of creat- ing a genuine literary spirit, is to scatter the small Educational fund at Government’s disposal amongst the seventy millions of our subjects, by picking up at random pauper pupils, teaching them to prate English for five or six years, and then dismissing them, to regenerate their country ! living themselves, I sujipose, upon air, and increasing their store of this facile knowledge by cer- tain inspirations of which it were mere impiety to doubt the probability ! ! ! Such a p)lan appears to me radically and hopelessly futile ; and, certainly, no anticipation of success in this method of naturalising European knowledge in India can be drawn from the fact of the success which attended the incorporation of Greek and Eoman knowledge with our familiar words and thoughts. True, the difficult and inapt science of Greece and Home ^oas, in modern Europe, first mastered in itself, and eventually worked into our own speech and minds. But how ? by the employment of means adequate to the end, and by the existence of circumstances most powerfully efficient to forward that end. A thousand predisposing causes led a mighty nobility to seek 3i6 pre-eminence OF THE VERNACULARS. in this lore the appropriate ornament of their rank and station. A church, which monopolised a third of the wealth of the con- tinent, called Eome its mother and Greece its foster mother : and throughout the great part of that continent, the Law, ecclesiastic and civil, was even lingually Koman. Hence the magnificent endowments and establishments and permanent inducements of all kinds by which a difficult and exotic learn- ing was at length effectually naturalised amongst us. Hence the scholar, if lie pleased, might pursue in retirement letters as a profession, assured of a comfortable provision for life ; or, if he pleased, he might devote himself to the task of instructing the scions of a most influential and wealthy nobility, all of them, from peculiar associations, necessitated to become his pupils whether they profited by his lessons or not, and thereby afford- ing him the certainty of an enduring means of livelihood; or, if he pleased, he might pass from the cloister or the college into the world, and there find the greater part of its most important con- cerns subservient (by virtue of special causes that had operated upon the social system since its very genesis) to the uses and abuses of his peculiar gifts. If these things be so, we see at least that, in modern Europe, due provision and inducement existed for the steady pursuit throughout a long succession of laborious lives, of Greek and Eoman knowled"e : in other words, means were forthcomincr adequate to achieve (in the lapse of ages ! !) the difficult end proposed to be accomplished. Now, unless Mr. Trevelyan can demonstrate that it is much less difficult for the people of India to master our speech and to transmute its treasures into their own, I think he will find in the total absence of those vast appli- ances, or of those most potent favouring predispositions, by virtue of which alone Europe was Eomanised, a decisive objec- tion to his scheme of direct Anglicisation, being no less than a demonstration of the utter present and prospective futility of that scheme. Mr. Trevelyan has insisted, throughout and always, on the parallel case of European progression by virtue of dead tongues. The above is my answer, quoad his present specific plan of operations: the parallel is utterly naught; and the plan, palpably baseless. Let me add, that I take this plan in its last ami freshest form, or that indicated in and by the memorable PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. 317 paragraphs of the Education Committee’s Eeport* already- adverted to. And, if I make no allusions to ground-shifting between the dates of the Essay and of the Report, I may yet remind Mr. Trevelyan that the recent vernacularisation of our Courts has, by sundering the last possible link between sheer English learning and any material local usefulness, doubled the cogency of all arguments like that just used against the feasi- bility of the presently alleged plan. Neither in the associations nor in the wants of the native society, nor yet in the public or private institutions of the country, is there sufficient 'basis whereon to rest Mr. Trevelyan’s argument and scheme.*!- With respect to my own suggestion of an establishment devoted to the regular supply of good vernacular books and good vernacular teachers, I have to observe that, if I have not very much overstated the overruling and absorbing importance of the vulgar tongues as media for the communication of all and any knowledge, it will follow, pretty obviously, from the admission of that importance, that to inchoate and organise a system of vernacularisation must be the best employment of the small Educational fund in the hands of Government. It is obvious that any such measure as the one just suggested surpasses all individual efforts : but I am very certain that did Government, by the organisation of the college proposed, pro- vide an enduring and wholesome stock of the appliances of popular education, there are hundreds of individuals who would hasten to use and employ that stock (a function quite within their power), in district schools of their own founding. Already and everywhere there is a call for vernacular books and teachers, in very defiance of the Anglicists ! Nor need the seemingly Herculean labour of translating our knowledge into the vulgar tongues of India, alarm a rational and unpre- judiced person ; for, it is just as certain that not one English work in 50,000 would require or even justify translation, as that Hindustani, Hindi and Bengali (and it were folly to * Viz., the paragraph-s in which it is asserted that however exclusive the Com- mittee’s patronage of English in the meanwhile, it is all with ultimate views to the formation of a vernacular literature ! t I need hardly remark that Jlr. T.’s scheme is the Committee’s scheme, and that those who would know what the Committee have done and purpose to do, must con- sult Mr. T.’s writings. PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. 318 perpetuate more media) are competent, each and all, to sustain the weight proposed to be laid on them.* There is another consideration which, whilst it is well worthy of attention in itself, is calculated to show that the extent of necessary translation is by no means such as the enemies of vernacular media have tried to make it. In edu- cating the people of India it should be our object, not so much to imprint in detail all our express thoughts or facts on their minds, as to instil, generally, our methods of reasoning, our mathematical and inductive processes, together with that yet small essence of indisputable truths in science, philosophy, and history, which has been eliminated by those processes, and which forms with us, and should do with them, hut the starting- point of fresh and vigorous research. By the one course we should he apt to trammel the Indian intellect for several generations, if not for ever, assuming that we succeeded in conveying to it, totidem verbis, our exotic lore : by the other course, we should at once and at small cost of books set it free to take a vigorous hut discriminating range over those topical idiosyncrasies of nature and experience which, in every large section of the globe, exist by God’s ap- pointment, subject only to man’s modification, but not oblitera- tion. In the most enlightened parts of Europe the general opinion now is that schools for teachers have, in the present century, created a new era in the practical science of education. Why then is Government inattentive to so noble and successful an experiment ? Especially since there is about this method of normal instruction, or teaching of teachers, just that sort of definiteness which may he compassed by limited public funds, with yet a concomitant prospect of great and diffusive benefits to the country from the adoption of the measure. But work- * In recently translating Prinsei>’s Transactions into Hindi, I found no difficulty arising out of the alleged poverty of this vernacular ; and I suspect that those who have clamoured most about the feebleness of the Indian vulgar tongues, know as little about the express facts as they do about the inferred capabilities or rather incapabilities. Dante found the Italian language cruder th.an any Indian vern.acular now is ; and vet this sinpic man, by a single xcork, made the vulgar tongue of his country capable of supporting the most sublime, novel, and abstract ideas. E.x uno disce oinnes. PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. 319 men must have tools ; and good workmen, good tools : where- fore, to a nursery for the regular supply of competent vernacular schoolmasters, should be added one for the equally regular supply of sound loohs in the three prime vulgar tongues of our * Presi- dency, books embodying the substance only of our really useful knowledge, with stimuli and directions for the various sorts of mental exertion ; so that, in the result, there might exist, for the people at large, the easy and obvious bridge of the vulgar tongues, leading from exotic principles to local practices, from European theory to Indian experience ! The incalculable importance to the public weal of the bridge just adverted to, even when principles and theories have been chiefly deduced from local experience and practice, is the last and greatest discovery of Western meditation upon the many methods of intellectual culture which have been used by nations in the past 3000 years ; and as whatever is exotic in theory becomes on that account less easily marriageable with home practices and observations, it is doubly incumbent upon us so to indoctrinate the people of this country, that those who learn may pass from our schools to life with alert, instead of with encumbered, minds. Again, in laying the foundation of the educational regenera- tion of this land, it is well worthy of the attention of a fore- casting Government to avoid coincidence with existing and most injurious prepossessions. Now, this land is absolutely saturated with dead learning ; absolutely bloated with the false pride of that learning ; so much so, that there is no prepossession stronger than that which consigns to contempt all knowledge, however valuable in itself, of which the medium is the vernacular, or, as it is significantly said, the vulgar tongues. If, then, in taking our first measures, we actually, though unintentionally, countenance this prejudice, what hope that the people wiU spontaneously, as is alleged, lay it aside ; and will, no sooner than they have imbibed, vcrnacu- larise, our lore ? I see no rational prospect of the kind, and conceive that the old style of learning (through exotic media) will perpetuate the old goride of learning, be the substance of * Viz., Urdu, Hindi, and BengalL 320 PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. that learning Orient or Occident. I am, too, quite certain that the true mystery of vernacularisation (challenge to all minds to think, and to think purpose-like on what comes home to the business and bosoms of the community) must, in that event, con- tinue for ages as much out of the range of Indian contemplation as it now is. I say that the solution of this mystery, in relation to tlie happiness and vigour of nations, is the last and noblest result of European cogitation upon the general effects of all the various systems of education that have anywhere and at any time pre- vailed in the world : and by so much as both the materials and the hahit of such cogitations are peculiarly beyond the reach of Asiatics, by so much is it folly in us to assert any such readi- ness at spontaneous vernacularisation ! Though no admirer of the priina philosophia of the Anglicists, 1 am yet ready to admit that they are far ahead of the people they would proselyte : and since the former have not yet dis- covered the sublime mystery (it may well be called so) to which I allude, I cannot subscribe to the doctrine that it is level to the ^l7ulersta7lding or will of the latter. NkPAL, July, 1837. LETTER IV. You ask me to give, in a condensed form, my ideas on the general subject of education in India, together with their express application to the proposed Normal College. With regard to the general subject, from much experience of the sentiments and habits of natives, I conclude that the real lescs of book learning are unknown to them ; that they dream not of the great objects of arousing the many to think purpose-like on the achial lusiness of life, and of making an easy bridge from theory to practice, so that the millions shall have a chance of producing a Bacon or a Newton from among their vast number, whilst every practical farmer, trader, and craftsman, is placed within reach of the prin- ciples lying at the bottom of his daily toil, and men following PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. 321 letters as a craft are made to come Tinder the wholesome influ- ence of common sense. These, the real objects of national edu- cation, are, I think, undreamt of in India, as they were till lately in Europe; and thus I account for the deplorable (as indubitable) fact that natives are habitually neglectful of their mother tongue, and are eager to acquire English, Sanskrit, or Persian, solely for the power or pelf, thence directly derivable by the in- dividual acquirer of one or the other. Now, I consider that if we would benefit India by book learning, it must be as we bene- fit her by our government and laws — that is, by reaching the many, by discasting book lore or enfranchising it, in fact ; and that, with the objects above spoken of, as the only real and sound ones, we should make knowledge the handmaid of everyday utility, and give its acquisition the utmost possible facilities. Such are my wishes, and therefore I give an unlimited prefer- ence to a vernacular medium both for its facility and for its aptitude, to make the knowledge conveyed through it practically elfective in a beneficial way, and also for its diffusible quality, book-knowledge being so apt to pass away from utility, or to be abused as a mere engine of selfish aggrandisement. But though I give the mother tongues of the people the first and second place, I give English the third ; and in my Normal College, which is not so much an educational establishment as an in- direct means of making all such establishments efficient, I would have the alumni equally versed in both tongues — their own and ours. Again, I think that to indigenate a sound literature ill India, to kindle a wholesome spirit of knowledge and to fit the spoken tongues of the land for being its organs, are mighty projects that call for express systematic measures, subsidiary to education ordinarily so called, but which alone can make sue’ education valuable and effective ; and in my college I want to establish and realise such measures : I want to locate therein a set of able men of the West, who shall be competent to give to India the essence of our indisputable knowledge ; and to asso- ciate with them other men of this land, English and native, who, together with them, shall transfer this essence into the vulgar tongues of India in the most attractive and efficient man- ner, whilst both classes, as professors and originators of the great change, shall have under them a set of piqiils, chosen VOL. II. X 322 PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. from the best alumni of all our seminaries, for the express and perpetual purpose of diffusing the labours of the professors, iii the capacities of teachers and of translators, and of replacing those professors gradually as heads of the college : these alumni to have scholarships and to be devoted for their lives as the pioneers of a new literature ; bound to translating within the college, and to teaching abroad ; giving their undivided time and talents to indigenate European lore ; and being to the usual educational establishments a perpetual fount for the supply of good books and good teaehers. Well begun is half done, empha- tically : let us once set the people of India in the right path, and they will follow it successfully. But to accomplish this we must produce the essence of our indisputable knowledge in the most attractive form, and spread it with systematic skill ; the books and the teachers should be excellent : and yet we have in India now not only not either of the desiderata, but no ade- quate means of reaching them, except through a wasteful series of failures. Xo man among us is competent to select the very best books and parts of books : no man among us nor institution is competent to furnish the best translation that might be had soon on system : no man among us can set afoot in India, with- out system, the splendid methods of teaching now in use in Europe. As for the alumni we now raise, it is passing absurd to suppose that they either can or will put their shoulders to the wheel of a radical change in knowledge and education. We must devote a set of select instruments to that work, making them the pioneers of the new literature, providhig for them for life, and binding them to teaching and translating for life. We must also give them exemplars of what is wanted and how to remedy the defect, in the professors of the central or Normal College, and we must choose those professors from among the really able of England and of India, so that their books and their teaching shall be first-rate, and fitted to set going the vast and noble project of the Europeanisation of the Indian mind. It is idle for any of us in India to fancy we are masters of any one branch of science, or that, not being so, we can transfuse its essence into Indian tongues in the most effective mode : and it is still idler to suppose that our random pupils of ordinary schools will ever, voluntarily and unpaid, devote themselves to the PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. 323 projitlcss and painful walks of instruction and literature, either as book makers or book expounders * Yet we must have the best books best translated ; we must have a steady supply of able teachers ; we must have a corps of native pioneers of the new knowledge ; and the professors and alumni of my Normal College are to furnish and to be these ; the alumni being pro- vided for well for life and bound for life to letters as their vocation and glory ; and the professors, picked men of England and of India, European and native, masters of the most essential branches of knowledge, and capable of attractively transfusing its vital spirit into the spoken tongues of India, through their books and through their alumni, fully trained by them in the art and science of teaching, one of the most noble and most difficult of the arts and sciences and the handmaid of them all, yet supposed “ to come naturally ” like the Frenchman’s discovery of prose ! ! Ecce totum ! behold my college in its professors and its alumni — the latter the normal teachers of any and every school that wants them, and the heirs of the original professors in their own institution whenever fit to direct it. Abroad, these alumni are to teach in English or in the vernaculars (Hindi, Urdu, or Ben- gali,! more), as the institution which sends for them, and for the time pays them, shall please. At home they are to study the genius of both tongues, lYestern and Eastern, and to labour subordinately as translators or transfusers (in original works as they are able), whilst they resume their scholarship allowance, suspended so long as they were abroad ; their con- stant, suggestive, and useful labours as translators or as teachers preventing idleness or dreamy habits, and their perpetual scholar- ship being liable to forfeiture for proven indolence, incapacity, or bad conduct. Let us thus systematically and adequately set to work, and * These avocations are never remuneratory till the public has become their patrons, and the public will never become so till a close reference to life and its active aims govern letters and education, a result we are just reaching in Europe, slowly and painfully. But yesterday, there, men of letters and teachers were poor and despised! Can you read my riddle now? I want to make literature and educa- tion such in India that the native public will become their munificent patrons, and thus anticipate the work of time — of ages lost in India, as in Europe, for want of rational and adequate foundation-laying. t N.B. Our proposed college was suggested for what used to be called the Bengal Presidency. We would, of course, now include any other generally used vernacular. 324 PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. we shall lay a solid foundation. Let us fiddle-faddle, as at present, and fifty years hence that foundation will have to be laid with a nearly sheer loss of all ad interim labours. — Believe me, &c., B. H. Hoogson. Nj^pal, April, 1843. P. S. You perceive that the plan above suggested has nothing exclusive about it ; that it aims at establishing a really national system of education for the benefit of the mass of the people ; that it has an expansive energy about it not inadequate to realise its great end, for it proposes to train only thos» who as teachers or translators will each of them be a certain nucleus of knowledge whence it may reach hundreds ; that it proposes to supply the two great wants of good books and good teachers, and that in laying an adequate foundation for the efficient work- ing of education all over the land, it reconciles the policy of upholding deep lore with the necessity of adequate facilities, in regard to the general diffusion of such lore by giving the learned tongues of East and West to the lifelong student, and the best fruits of their study to the many in the shape of improved vernacular instruction. Such an institution seems to deserve the attention of the conductors of education : for though Lord Hardinge’s measures may result in supplying the country with an able body of native functionaries, they seem little calculated to meet the wants of the mass of the people, their design indeed being to meet those of the Government only. LETTEB V. Sir, — As you have recently noticed the new edition of my Letters on Education, I take leave through your journal to call public attention to two striking historical confirmations of the great principle I have contended for ; viz., that if European knowledge is to be indigenated in India, and brought home effectively through the medium of the vernaculars to the busi- ness and bosoms of the many in this vast country, itself so anciently lettered and cultivated, the object can only be attained by sy.stematic preliminary measures, which must precede all educational labours in the ordinary sense, and which alone can rRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. 325 make such labours fructify in India. The historical facts I allude to are as follows : — First. When it was proposed to transfer the Buddhist religion and literature from India to Tibet, that is, to indigenate Indian ideas in a soil entirely alien to them, how was this most difficult design set about, so as to ensure that perfect success which has given an entirely new character to the fierce Nomades of High Asia ? Why, a college of translators was created, and a set of ripe scholars (Lotsava), men of India and Tibet, were devoted to the work, and directed, first, to bring together all the leading terms, or terminology, of the subject in the original Sanskrit, and next to ascertain and fix adequate equivalents for each of those Sanskrit terms in the language of Tibet ; which wms or- dained to be the medium of conveying the new light. And those glossaries of equivalents exist to this hour, per- petual monuments of the good sense and sincerity, the adequacy and sound direction of exertion, whereby the greatest moral change that Asia has ever known was accomplished on the soil where it was first attempted, and whence it has been since similarly propagated (such is the expansive vigour of wholesome projects) throughout the vast extent of Central Asia, everywhere transforming the immemorial devastators of the earth into settled, peaceful agriculturists and shepherds ! Now, if we consider, on the one hand, the great difficulties opposed to the success of this project by the totally different character and genius of the Cis and Trans-Himalayan tongues and ideas, and, on the other hand, the enduring completeness of that success, in a field, too, where Christianity itself with an excellent start yet failed * to achieve anything beyond an ephemeral triumph, we must, if impressible at all, be strongly impressed by this first historical instance of the value of adequate preliminaries in the case of every great project of change and reform. I proceed now to the other instance. Second. When the Chinese towards the close of the last cen- tury had established their political dominion as far west as the Belur Tagh, they were forced by the sad experience of repeated failures upon the reflection how much easier it is to overrun and • The last relics of the Christian missions of High Asia have just been recovered and transmitted to his Holiness the Pope. 326 PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. subdue, than to retain peacefully, and administer successful!}', territories inhabited by numerous races differing widely from each other and from their conquerors in language as in other points. In order to master the difficulties that beset the Chinese, how did this sagacious nation proceed ? They assembled able men of the several vanquished tribes, Tungus, Mongol, Turk, Tangutian and Tibetan ; and these persons they caused to con- struct a pentaglot (answering to the five grand distinctions of nations) glossary of all the chief geographic, topographic, and administrative terms, in the shape of a table of equivalents which was completed by a Chinese column, leaving no one material topical featnre or administrative function, though cited by what- ever people, thereafter liable to possible misconstruction on the part of the Government or of its servants or subjects ; the language of administration being at the same time ordained to be the vernacular of each grand ethnical division of the country. The Chinese dominion, theretofore, precarious in High Asia, has since the completion of this wise measure been stably fixed; nor does any one conversant with those countries doubt that this stability has been and is greatly owing to the wisdom of my second instance of the value of deliberate adequate pre- liminaries to every great change. These polyglot official glos- saries of the Chinese have lately fallen into the hands of European scholars: a Guizot has paused over the political sagacity which suggested their compilation; a Klaproth, a Eemusat, a Julien and a Humboldt* have thence learned to deal effectively, as philosophers, with that same confused mass of human kind which had priorly so frustrated the efforts of the Chinese as statesmen. I will not weaken the force of these historical examples by a single word of commentary, but go on to point the moral of my tales, by remarking that the prevalent mere lip tribute to the value of the vernaculars, I for one repu- diate as a mischievous delusion. We are told that the vernaculars now at least are allowed fair play, and are on their trial.f I deny it utterly, and maintain that the experiment of educating * Vide Asia Polyglotta, M^moires relatifs a I'Asie, Melanges Asiatiques et Asie Centrale. t A distinguished and valued member of the Education Committee lately told me so, himself convinced that the fact was as stated. Happily he now has some pregnant doubts. PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. 327 the people of India in their own tongues never can have fair play, never can have a chance, until those preliminary measures are carried out upon which alone vernacular education must rest as its foundation. What those measures are, and how they should be effected, are points explained in the fourth letter with the utmost care and precision; and for my part, from much recent correspondence with the most experienced men in the interior, I am convinced that thus, or thus wise, only, can ver- nacular education be furnished with the “indispensable pre- requisites of an adequate steady supply of good books and good teachers.” Let vernacularisation be but accepted in good faith and truth, and those who shall be nominated to effect the object will, I trust, not be slow to adopt the sage measure of the Tibetans and Chinese as above described ; for that is obviously the first right move on the right road; and that vernacularisatioir is the right road, and the only right road, wdiat better proofs can be asked for, or given, than the two signal ones just cited ? None! None! But honest acceptance and adequate inchoa- tion are indispensable to the success of any and every project ; and what these mean, in the project before us, let my historical examples tell ! The same correspondence has likewise deepened my prior conviction as to the prevalent notion that Lord Hardinge’s measures will result in furnishing at least a “ superior class of subordinate native functionaries.” That notion is founded upon want of intimate information of the interior economy of this country. In India the rights and duties of all classes have long been minutely systematised and reduced to written forms of the most complex kind.* And this complicity of its relations and records, added to the circumstance of its having been for ages under tlie dominion of foreigners very little really versed in those relations and records, has given rise to a vast class of subordinate functionaries, whose astonishing practical readiness alone it is that, in the absence of such helps as mechanical science (printing) and other European devices (shorthand, &c.;, lend in Europe to the daily transaction of business, keeps the Indian administrative machine in motion. * I beg to refer the stranger to the Ayin-i Akbari and Gladwin’s Revenue accounts, both forthcoming in English. 328 PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. Xow our new aspirants to office know nothing of the wheel within wheel of this machine, and still less are they able to work the machine with that prompt facility which results from a life devoted to that sole task. Whilst the old class are toiling in their vocation from youth upwards, and thus slowly attaining that exrpiisite skill in details which needs only the general know- ledge of Europeans for purposes of superintendence, the new class are learning Shakespeare and Milton, Bacon and Newton; and with that sort of training only they are despatched into the interior to become officials, possessed of but a poor and mimicked semblance of our own peculiar knowledge, though 'purchased at the expense of all their own ! Yet it is expected that grave men, responsible for the weal of the country, should prefer the claims to office of one of these young parrots to the claims of persons growing grey in the constant discharge of the complex peculiar duties of this all-important body of function- aries, the professional scribes of the East, upon whose shoulders from time immemorial has ever rested the real burden of administration.* If justice did not forbid such supercession, expedience would : the Europeans cannot possibly dispense with the old class of functionaries ; cannot possibly get through the work with the help of the new class ; and thus the scheme which looks so well at Calcutta, finds no serious approver or adopter in the interior. Inquire, l\Ir. Editor, and I think you will find the matter so ; reflect, and you will have the rational of the fact. But then if the fact be so, — I pray you tell me whether the metropolitan expectation of thus creating a new and superior class of native functionaries (not to speak of thus indigenating a new knowledge ■!■) be not a mere delusion ? Young Bengal is notoriously malcontent; and for my part I cannot help thinking that the dilettante as well as exotic char- acter of the steps we have taken in the educational department ♦ In all ages in the East, wise China excepted, the nohlesse de V ipi, the nobles and gentry or dominant classes, have been haughty and ignorant contemners of letters; and this explains at once the low rank and high qualifications of the subordinate functionaries, whose qualifications we are certainly in no condition to dispense with, and are unwise to suffer dilettante educationists to tamper with, even fora moment. What is to become of the country if the subordinate functionaries be allowed to become as vaguely conversant with its intimate affairs as are now the superior functionaries? t Risum teneatis, amici ! PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. 329 could not have had any other result than that of sending forth a host of grandiloquent grumblers, as able to clamour as .unable to work. Wliat has been taught them has as little reference to the real work before the scholars when they set foot in the world of business, to the living wants and affairs, public or private, of the land they live in, as has the language in which that teaching has been conveyed ; and we have in these doings a fresh and glaring proof of the “ inevitable tendency of unvernacular media to divorce learning from utility.” I know nothing so like it as those contemporaneous Encyclopedic labours which have reproduced for the benefit of India the childish fables just exploded by the scholars of Europe ! ! Let me add, I have no desire or purpose to speak harshly, but only to impress the necessity for deliberately building on right foundations. I honour all the labourers in the vineyard of pliilanthropy. But the grand projects of Europeanising the Indian mind, and of meeting the practical wants of this land and day, by educational means, are, and will be, retarded, not advanced, by misdirected unsystematised efforts. Considering how little difference of opinion exists upon these points among men of the highest experience in the interior, it has been remarked to me with surprise how singular it is that Calcutta has not yet begun to suspect the unsoundness of her favourite educational maxims. But there is no room, alas ! for surprise, nor much for blame ; and so long as amour 'propre holds its usual sway in human affairs, so long will Calcutta be biassed against every vernacular view of the education question, and in favour of every English one : for at Calcutta the great body of influen- tial men, influential from their stations, their talents, and their knowledge, are, have been, and must continue to be, strangers to India, and of course (like all human kind) inclined favour- ably towards all such projects relating to the commonwealth as may consist with their predominant weight of opinion and judgment thereon, and by the same rule averse from all such projects touching the commonwealth as may not consist with that same predominant weight. — This is plain speaking : but in a matter of such vast moment, I trust that it will be pardoned and even profited by. Since this letter was com- menced I have seen the last report of the Education Committee. 330 PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. The President in Council is made to deplore the wretched state of vernacular education and to censure tartly its nominal controllers. But I would ask, Can a carriage go without wheels ? Can a workman labour without tools ? Can a work advance without workmen or tools ? And if not, how can vernacular education advance without books, without teachers, and without any arrangement to furnish either, even prospec- tively ? Yet it is now said that “ the vernaculars are allowed a fair trial ; ” and I foresee it will ere long be said that “ the trial has proved a failure.” What is now doing is doing nearly in sheer waste, at the rate of 15,000 per annum. That sum, multiplied by the number of years since I backed a proposition of an institution that was to furnish a steady adequate supply of good books and good teachers with the tender of 35,000 Es. raised by private subscription, would by this time have sufficed to place vernacular education, the one grand stay of a nation’s intellectual life, upon an indestructible basis ! The English department of education has obtained a Normal School, that is the means of procuring abundance of good teachers, whilst abundance of good books were, from the circumstances of the case, priorly forthcoming in this depart- ment. On the other hand, the vernacular department is kept devoid of organised means of procuring either of these appli- ances of education. And yet it is clear to demonstration that in the former department there was not any indispensable necessity for creative machinery, since books and teachers were forthcoming without it, whilst in the latter department it is as clear that there xvas and is that indispensable necessity, since neither books nor teachers were, are, or can be, forthcoming without it. That is, where Ettle or no need existed, much has been done ; and where the utmost need, nothing ! And, to cap the contrast, the former state of things respects the case of the comparatively able and greedy few, the latter, that of the wholly helpless many, among the objects of these partial proceedings ! Let me add, in conclusion, that in the above two historical examples it has been my more immediate object to show how sincere approvers of vernacularisation proceed to effectuate it. But the examples equally demonstrate the intrinsic value and PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. 331 power of vernacular media : and, if more historic illustration of the latter point be sought, it may be found in the diffusion of Buddhism in India, and in the character of Chinese, as compared with every other Asiatic, mental culture. Why are the Chinese so remarkable as a people for their good sense, and their Government for its stability, in the fantastic and mutable East ? Because their knowledge, and their knowledge only, is vernacular ! How did the Buddhists, despite the drawbacks of their mischievous monachism and their sceptical speculative principles, yet contrive to assail and carry the strongholds of Brahmanism, and for fifteen centuries to maintain the ground they had w'on — the sole suceessful assailants of Hinduism to this hour ! Why, expressly by vernacularisation ! by teaching and preaching in the vulgar tongues, and by opposing this method of indoctrination to the anti-vernacular instructions of their rivals ! These are two remarkable instances of the power and value of living learning as opposed to dead, and, with the other two before cited, embrace the citation of the efficient cause of every great moral change and lasting benefit the East has known. — Yet this is the infant Hercules to which the Education Committee plays the part of the cruel stepmother. B. H. Hodgson. Daejeeling, “ Eriend of India,” March 16, 1848. LETTER VI. VERNACULAR EDUCATION. Sir, — I have read with attention your remarks upon tho subject of education, as called forth by my letter to you which you published in your paper of the IGth instant. No one is better aware than yourself that all practical reforms of moment proceed on the gutta eavat lapidem principle. Wherefore I shall make no apology for recurring to this most important topic. I am very anxious not to be misunderstood upon the point of education in the English language, to which you and others 332 PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. seem to fancy me entirely opposed. And yet so far is this from being the case, that I can as little sympathise as you can ,\vith any wish to abandon the support of English education “ for those who are able to profit by it; ” and I am surprised that you should have inferred anything to the contrary from my writings. Credit me, the only questions on which you and I are at issue, are, Who are those likely to profit by such studies? and How shall we enable them really to reap the benefit with due rettard to the educational claims of the masses ? For the rest, ami speaking as an individual about what an individual may and can do in his own humble sphere in reference to the weal of millions, I beg leave to say distinctly that I have throughout my Indian career uniformly given all the support in my power to the study of English by all those who were at all likely to profit by it; that at Kathmandu I took ceaseless pains, for many years, to make two persons, selected by the l\Iiuister Bhim Sen for the purpose, competent English scholars, and to induce them to establish a school for the instruction of the sons of the Bharadars or chiefs ; that Karbir Khatri, one of the two selected teachers, is yet forthcoming to bear witness by his attainments to the unwearied pains bestowed on him, though the political convulsions of Ndpal since my departure have had the necessary effect of closing his school ; and, lastly, that though my employment as a diplomatic functionary in foreign realms necessarily restricted rny exertions to promote the study of our language in the British territories, yet have I done what- ever I could there also. Only so lately as last month I sent a present of books to the eldest son of the Bajah of Bettiah in testimony of my approbation of his continued application to Ifnglish, according to my suggestion to him and his father in 1843. And I have always, where opportunity permitted, given similar advice and encouragement to our substantial Zamindars along the whole extended frontier of Nepal. So much for acts. Then for writings ; is not the practical result deduced from my reasonings the suggestion of an institution, all the professors and alumni of which are to be thorough English scholars, per- petually engaged, as teachers, translators, and transfusers, in works the whole conception and execution of which imply and exact a complete mastery of our language, and also an assiduous PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. 333 diffusion of its stores, directly and indirectly, according to the ■wants and demands of the country ? This, sir, is very careful provision for profitable English studies — more careful and effective, too, than I can perceive in the present system ! And such having been the tenor of my doings and sayings (I must crave pardon for such egotistic allusion to them), I think I may claim as clear an exemption as yourself from the absurd char- acter of an exclusionist; and if any detached part of my writings, which extend over a period of fifteen years, seems to coun- tenance such an imputation, you must remember, sir, tliat this vast topic has many parts and aspects ; that I commenced this discussion in opposition to real and violent exclusives ; * and that when a very undue bias has been laid on one side, the equilibrium cannot well be restored without some apparently undue weighting of the other scale. What I first complained of — and with reason, as you have often affirmed — was the pro- scription alike of the learning and of the living languages of the country. Wliat I have since complained of, and still do — and again with reason, as you have often admitted and yet do — is a practical adherence to this same proscription, only veiled from scrutiny at present by various unfair devices, such as merely ostensible concessions, barren lip service, antagonistic projects pushed the length of virtual nullification of all things else, and, lastly, damning with faint praise. Is this exaggera- tion ? Let us see. The system of education adverted to, is that dictated by authority and supported by the public funds. It is the only thing like national education which we possess, and it is uniformly styled the system of education of the country. Well ! the country has some seventy millions of inhabitants ; and, whilst nine-tenths of the whole educational funds derived from the seventy millions and designed for the seventy mil- lions’ benefit, are appropriated to the training of “ 2000 actual, and 5000 prospective scholars ” in the English department, the remaining fraction of those funds is all that is allotted to the countless host who are concerned solely with the efficiency of the vernacular department. The one hundred schools nominally * Remember the denunciation of native literature in the “waste paper” edict, and-t)f the living tongues, on .all sorts of occasions, as being impracticably numeious and irredeemably inefficient — a style of talk which, by the way, still lingers in some places, and, it may be, in high ones, though no longer enunciated ex cathedra. 334 PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. assigned to the vernacular department have necessarily, under such circumstances, been “ starved to death ; ” and whilst addi- tional funds were and are being constantly assigned to the English department, in order to givm the highest perfection to its books and its teachers, the official controllers of the verna- cular schools have been in vain reporting the utter and complete want of those indispensable appliances of education (teachers and books) in all our seminaries for the many. But this is not all ; for, whilst the actual and necessary expenses of teaching in the English department are from ten to twenty times as great as in the otlier department, the injudicious selection and disposal of the recipients of this very costly training necessitate a total waste of the money in reference to “four-fifths” of those taught, because that large proportion of them does not, and cannot, acquire more than a “ useless smattering which they can turn to no account.” And all this, sir, has had and has place irnder the auspices of those who profess to have solely in view the fostering and founding of home-bred learning, “ the formation of a vernacular literature,” according to the memorable Eeport of 1837 ! ! ! I quote the very words of that Report, leaving the task of comment thereon to you. The above statistics, sir, are derived from yourself : they are also conformable to my own knowledge ; and with regard to the last important point, or the class of pupils in the English department, I say, let all such gentlemen as are now subject to the delusion that these pupils belong to the highest or to the central grade of native society, call for the muster rolls and interrogate the boys, when they will find that these boys, Avith hardly an exception, belong most distinctly to neither of those grades, and consequently are not amongst those whom the decus et decorum of English Rterature can for one moment be rationally supposed to befit. This is the reason why “four-fifths” (you should have said nine-tenths) of those Avho are instructed in English, are taught to no earthly purpose, are taught in sheer waste, though at such an extreme cost as to entail necessary helplessness in the vernacular depart- ment. And it is because there is nothing in the existing insti- tutions or wants of native society at all in harmony with such attainments on the part of such persons, that the Education Committee ha^m been driven, by the clamour of their dleves, PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. 335 to seek to thrust them all upon the G overnment, lest they should starve ! In my last letter I have given my reasons for the opinion I entertain that this expedient — the last plank of Anglomania — will fail. I may now add that with its failure will corns a material augmentation of that significant “ discon- tent” which is certainly at present a far more palpable char- acteristic of Young Bengal, of the Chukerbutties, or Cameronians, ns I hear the youths are now dubbed, than is any real tincture of the mind and heart of Europe on their part. Else, what means the pitiful insincerity of the demonstrations they were lately led (unwisely led) to make in behalf of their most amiable and able, though on this point deluded, patrons ? I note the hollowness of those demonstrations as one of the signs of the times ! What, sir, say you to this sign V or to that other associated sign, to wit, the proven indifference of the native community, generally, for what they w'ere asserted so authorita- tively to take deep and real interest in, namely, the fashionable educational follies of the day 1 I most earnestly desire to see the upper, wealthy, and influ- ential classes of native society instructed in English : but those classes have not sent, nor are likely to send, as you well know, one single child to our schools ; nor, if they did, could much be looked for from those “ children of ease ” in the way of such severe and abiding labours as can alone originate “ the regenerating and elevating of the nation,” though English may well serve to grace their rank, refine their taste, and facilitate their social intercourse with their masters. Look to those whose names are now associated with the revival of letters in Europe, and you will find that the pioneers of knowledge in our quarter of the globe were all men of life- long devotion to incredible toils ! Now, the more carefully I advert to the constitution and spirit of native society in India — and I have studied them for a quarter of a century — the deeper becomes my conviction, that this indispensable corps of pioneers will never pick up any effective recruits among the impatient class of paupers craving only for office, which singly and solely fills our English schools. From the same premises I deduce the further conclusions that men of a liigher inde- pendent stamp will neither seek our schools, nor, if they did so. 336 PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. would they perform the required work. And thence, sir, I derive my general conception as to what English teaching is likely to prove profitable to the recipient or the public, as well as my special impression of the value of the corps above adverted to. But that corps must, according to the same premises, be raised, trained, recruited, equipped, and employed as a standing body, by ourselves, with enduring adherence to the lofty end in view, and in some such manner as I have indicated in my fourth letter, my object, as therein explained, being to reconcile the interests of deep lore (the implanting of a novel and healthful stock of learning) with the current claims of ordinary education, and to ensure satisfactory results by providing that both pur- poses shall be adequately and harmoniously worked out without waste. That you should have found anything savouring of the rejection of profitable English studies in that letter, I confess, surprises me not a little ; for my only rejection is of studies almost wholly profitless, yet eating up all our educational funds ! Nor less is my wonder that with such just ideas as you entertain of the greatness and difficulty of the objects aimed at, and of the consequent necessity there exists for a “Normal vernacular school, well-trained vernacular teachers, a vernacular library, — and a travelling inspector of vernacular seminaries ” — you should have anything to object to my proposition : for, sir, in very truth, the desiderata ymu have enumerated (in the above quotation) comprise the substance of whatever I have con- tended for for years, or do now still contend for ! ]\Iy proposi- tion is only so far peculiar that it also involves the exposition of definite adequate means to the ends you insist upon, but insist with hardly admissible oblivion of that excessively waste- ful antagonism inseparable from the dominant system, which, so long as that system stands on its present footing, must render all the professions of its partizans in favour of vernacu- larisation a delusion and a snare. All I say of instruction in English is, that its extreme costliness and no less extreme inappropriateness to ordinary uses, prescribe its employment at the public cost* in a special, instead of a general or pro- • Observe the limitation, at the jniblic cost. For the rest, if there be any real spontaneous demands for an education in “Shakespeare and Milton, Kacon and Newton,” private Schools of that stami> will flourish, and I heartily wish them PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. 337 miscuous manner, as at present; and tins, as well to ensure efficient or profitable study as to prevent such excessive waste of funds as has heretofore totally crippled, and must still do so, that sort of education which alone is suitable to ordinary wants and therefore primarily entitled to public support. If, sir, you can persuade the Government to double or quad- ruple the funds appropriated to education, then I am content to see the present system in the English department “ go hand in hand ” with such a system in the vernacular department as you have sketched. But if you cannot so persuade the Govern- ment, then, sir, it behoves you to consider whether the existing inevitabj.e as total sacrifice of the latter to the former, be defen- sible ; for the two are demonstrably incompatible, without a vast addition to the funds now assigned to the promotion of education by the State. I, sir, expect no such addition ; and as I know that under the existing constitution of native society men of rank and wealth will never send their children to mu- schools but abide by domestic education, whilst I feel convinced that in regard to the only sort of children frequenting mu- schools, so costly, difficult, and peculiar an education as that now in vogue, can neither yield its appropriate fruits in ripe maturity, nor yet find any adequate market for those fruits even if matured,* I would grant no such an education at the public cost to the promiscuous herd of comers, but only to such persons as would consent to thorough training and to the dedication of their rare attainments to the permanent service of the public as normal teachers and translators. Such, sir, is my proposition, and such the grounds of it. B. II. Hodgson. Darjeeling, 28th Mareh 1848. success. But their success is too i>rohleiiiatical, their sphere of possible utility too restricted, and their necessary cost too enormous, to warrant the primary or general application of that system, at the public cost, to the necessary annihilation of all effective teaching in the only style suited to the ordinary wants of the people. * On this point see above, p. 317, f., showing by comparison what means an effective demand for exotic learning. VOL. II. y PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. LETTER VII. Sir, — In your issue of the 28th ult., you have some observa- tions on Mr. Hodgson’s letters on education, in the general tenor of whose views you concur, hut say that some of his doctrines are repugnant to your judgment. If, however, you will look more closely into the treatise, you will find that there is really no difference between you and it, for Mr. Hodgson not only does not eschew English, but purposes special and costly means for its cultivation. Mr. Hodgson distinguishes between education for the many — education in any ordinary sense, and all those subsidiary measures which, however connected with the general question as it occurs for consideration and decision in India, yet really belong rather to the literary than educational phase of the question. Mr. Hodgson desires to make ordinary education for the many efficient, and extraordinary education for the few no less efficient. He considers the English language and its higher literature to be fit only for the few, and that studies so difficult cannot possibly yield their appropriate fruit without adequate and special provision for their enduring and effective prosecu- tion. But he holds that neither in the wants of native society nor in the resources at the disposal of our Government, is there anything like a foundation for such costly and enduring studies as the ordinary system of education ; that therefore any general system for their prosecution must prove a failure, at the same time that it ahsorhs all the funds that are available ; and he would therefore limit such studies, so far as they depend on public support, in such a way as to conform with existing wants and means ; whilst whatever is learnt is learnt adequately, and these special studies of the few are made perpetually to minister to the universally allowed requirements of instruction for the many. I think ]\Ir. Hodgson is right in insisting that to create a fresh literary spirit in India requires a special body of pioneers of the new learning ; and also that the improvement of the vernaculars is indispensable to the efficient working of the most ordinary system of vernacular education ; inquire and you will find that vernacular education is languishing to death for want of books and PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. 339 teachers : inquire again and you will find that tlie Chakerbutty class of promiscuous smatterers in European languages and lore, neither do nor can make any efficient use of their acquirements. Now, Mr. Hodgson’s plan ensures the steady prosecution of Eng- lish studies to a point that will enable them to yield their appro- priate fruit ; and that fruit is to assume systematically a shape and flavour suitetl to the popular stomach. The lifelong teachers and translators — the pioneers of tlie new literature— are to be equally accomplished in our and their learning — are to study Eng- lish throughout their learned lives — are to teach in English when- ever required so to do — are to translate and transfuse from English whenever not employed in teaching ; and thus, while their own adequate studies and teachings must tend effectively to the propagation of a knowledge so difficult as that of our language and literature, the people — the many — will be per- petually reaping all the advantage from such knowledge that they are now capable of ; and in this way our noble language and literature will be gradually and surely worked more and more into the frame of the Indian mind. Mr. Hodgson contends only for adequacy of study and due regard to the general wants and means of existing society. — Yours, &c., VEHNACULARI3. February lO, 1848 . LETTEE VIII. Vernacular Education. Sir, — I have attentively followed the course of your recent lucubrations on the education question, as afresh stirred by Mr. Hodgson’s letters; and I should probably ere this have attempted a rejoinder had not your rather eccentric movements rendered the task difficult. To avoid labour in waste it seems indispen- sable to revert to the state of the question. Now, sir, the subject of debate is at present, and has been for twelve years past, this — Is the existing exclusive patronage of English by the Education Committee, “ with a view to the forma- tion of a vernacular literature” (Eeport of 1836), wisely conceived 340 PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. and honestly -worked out ? Or, does it sin against -wisdom in origin and fair dealing in progress ? Such, I say, has been, and is, the state of the question ; and tlierefore you, -who ridicule the very idea of the formation of a vernacular literature, are not precisely in a position to judge reasonably of the aptness or otherwise of those historical illustrations of Mr. Hodgson, which necessarily assume the question as it really is, and not as you conceive it is, or ought to be. This, sir, is a long-standing debate upon a most extensive topic ; and if, as would seem, the contro- versy he new to you, I would recommend your consulting Mr. Trevelyan’s treatise or ]\Ir. IMacaulay’s minute, in connection with the statistics and reports of the department, when I con- jecture you may discover that Mr. Hodgson’s array of facts and reasonings against the ruling system of education has a pertin- ency you are now little aware of. I say, sir, I so conjecture, and I will tell you why : because you have never approved Mr. Cameron’s parting address to his alumni, nor yet, that Chaker- buttyism with which your city is plagued — said addresses being nothing but a rifacimento of the doctrines I have just referred you to, and said Chakerbuttyism nothing but the characteristic and inevitable result of those doctrines — doctrines to which, I need but add, Mr. Cameron has remorselessly sacrificed* any and every system of vernacular instruction, as well the system which you contend for, as that Mr. Hodgson has advocated ! You will observe, sir, that the Education Committee’s end, and Mr. Hodgson’s end, are one and the same ; viz., the formation of a vernacular literature, or the literary application of the spoken tongues of India to the substance of European knowledge. Now, this end may be wise or it may be foolish : you and I cannot discuss that point at present. But I think you must allow that, if the wisdom of the end be granted, the Committee’s practical means of realising it are as unfit as Mr. Hodgson’s are fit ! What can we reason but from what we know ? Well, we know by the uniform tenor of the Committee’s doings for fifteen years past, that the vernaculars are utterly and hopelessly neglected, sacrificed to a vehement determination to push Enghsh Take a recent item as a sample of all ; estaklishment for nonnal teaching, English dejiartmeiit 900 rupees; vernacular depuitmeut 50 rupees — that is, 18 to 1 against the latter. PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. 341 all lengths and primarily. Thence Mr. Hodgson infers ^yant of judgment and want of sincerity on the Committee’s part ; and his suggestion for the promotion of vernacularisation amounts to this, primary, direct, systematic, and adequate but not exclusive atten- tion to the object professedly aimed at. And now, sir, if you revert to Mr. Hodgson’s recent historical illustrations, you will find them, I think, sufficiently pertinent ; for what are they ? hour signal instances, drawn from Asiatic story, of the vigour and efficacy of living tongues, no more cultivated than those of modern India, as instruments for the successful diffusion of knowledge, two of the instances being, further, successful exem- plifications on the largest scale of that very method of procedure in the effectuation of the object for which Mr. Hodgson contends! How, sir, quot homines tot sententiee: you and I and others may differ till doomsday as to the efficacy of transfused knowledge, as to the best method of transfusion, or as to the adequacy of the express channel or medium of transfusion in the given case. But, sir, it is because such differences of individual opinion on points so weighty are as inevitable as they are obstructive, that adequate precedents — prerogative instances, as Bacon would have called them, of the soundness of what an individual may urge, become so valuable : and where shall we find those over- ruling precedents save in history ? And with all due submission i take leave to say that the diffusion of Buddhism threughout High Asia, and the stabilitation of Chinese dominion there, are, as stated by Mr. Hodgson, in all the recorded circumstances and results of either event, signal demonstrations both of the feasibi- lity and of tlie desirableness of Mr. Hodgson’s proposed means and end, in reference to the diffusion of European lore through tlie medium of the wlgar tongues of India, The historical illustra- tiens, sir, are instances of direct, systematic, combined, and autho- ritative measures of vernacularisation, conducted by a body of men skilled thoroughly in the transfusing and transfused media, commenced by that most admirable step, the fixation of the true equivalency of the leading and essential terms,* and completed and applied over vast realms with perfect success. How, ]\Ir. * If you will refer to the reports of the Delhi and Benares Colleges, you will find specific lament over the perpetual obstructions caused by the want of these glossaries of primary equivalents. 342 PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. Hodgson had priorly contended for directness, system, combina- tion, and authoritative support and sanction in this very way, as essential to the success of vernacularisation ; had denounced the total absence of every one of these characteristics in the Committee’s plan of vernacularisation, as inevitably nullificatoi7^ of the alleged end ; and depend upon it, sir, you must resort to some one of your own hypotheses, damnatory of that end, ere you can blemish the pertinency of Mr. Hodgson’s historical proofs ; for proofs they are, and not merely illustrations ; and when I add that they likewise furnish the strongest presumptions against one and all of your hypotheses, I but state without exaggeration the full force and effect of tlie two historical facts more specially rested on. Those hypotheses of yours are, that translated knowledge is valueless, and that the spoken tongues of India from their feebleness and plurality are impracticable media for the communication of the knowledge of Europe. I will not irk you by further insisting upon the demonstration involved in the historical instances, all the four, of the fallacy of both your assumptions. I will, instead thereof, refer you to the opinions and the practices of the most eminent men in the educational department — the workmen, I mean, not the talkers — beyond the ditch ; and I answer you, without fear of refutation that the Eeports and the works of the Principals of the Benares, Delhi, and (I think also) Dacca Colleges gainsay your assertions — one and the other of them — with all the irresistible authority of ample direct experience supported by correspondent realising labours. These most able men, equally familiar with Western and Eastern learning, whilst they contend for systematic im- provement of the vernaculars considered as organs of European knowledge, uphold by word and deed their improvability to any needful extent ; Dr. Ballantyne expressly arguing that “ he who cannot convey a European idea through the vernaculars, in conjunction with their founts, may very well suspect that he himself possesses only the shadow, not the substance, of such idea,” and all three agreeing that for every practical purpose there are throughout the vast Bengal Presidency hut three* vulgar tongues. What say you, sir, to such opinions of such men as * Each of these languages is spoken by a population far more numerous than that using English in Britain ! What is your answer to this fact ? 'PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. 343 Prs. Ballantyne and Sprenger ? And with regard to the innumer able tongues you are fain to talk of — fifty to wit — how comes it that you are insensible to the broad fact that whilst the adminis- trations of justice, revenue, and police are avowedly vernacular, only three tongues are used in our courts ? Wherefore, then, more in our schools ? In a word, sir, if you can spare time to look into the whole matter a little more calmly and clearly, I feel convinced you will not again consent to re-echo the old exploded cry of the Anglomaniacs against all sorts of vernacular instruction — yours alike and Mr. Hodgson’s — to wit, tliat the living tongues of the people are so numerous and so feeble as to be presently and prospectively unavailable. I proceed now briefly to notice one or two heresies more peculiarly your own. You insist that learning for the masses ought to be confined to the merest elements of knowledge, con- veyed in the unaltered spoken tongues of those masses ; and you instance the example of England — of Europe — in support of this notable maxim. But, sir, you are therein citing an exemplar really and deplorably irrelevant, as, without more recon- dite research, you may satisfy yourself by turning to the “ Edin- burgh Eeview,” No. 174, Article 10, and to the “ Westminster,” No. 95, Article 8, or to the “ Calcutta Eeview,” No. 16, p. 303 ct seq. Your notion that the unimproved language of the masses can be employed at all for educational purposes is a fallacy of which you will be aware if you reflect that the most imperfect colloquial medium (even that of brutes) may very well serve for its customary colloquial ends, and yet prove totally unequal to a new end, such as education, according to any sane concep- tion of it, is and must be. And, accordingly, whilst the opinion and the practice of all the enlightened parts of Europe are daily becoming more decided and consentaneous as to the indispensable necessity of education for the masses of a sort very superior to what you insist is enough, the novel extended measures of popular education now rapidly bringing into operation in Switzerland, England, Holland, Prussia, and Scot- land, are expressly based upon the proven worthlessness of sheer elements, attempted to be communicated, as of old, through so utterly inadequate a medium as the unfashioned speech of the many. 344 PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. Of all this you will find abundant and various confirmation in the recent educational doings of Europe, as cited and referred to in the periodicals above-named ; and I think, sir, you will be a little startled to find, upon perusal of the articles specified, that you have recklessly put forth an educational dogma upon alleged European warranty than which none is more utterly and expressly repudiated by all the best and latest words and deeds of Europe ! “ A total reform ” of that old apparatus of popular teaching to which you cling is there “ imperatively called for;” and in the recent “Peoples’ Colleges” at Sheffield and at Birmingham we have (“Westminster,” No. 95, p. 437, 8) express samples of that sort of education for the vjorking classes which is now deemed to be alone efficacious for them ; and so deemed all over enlightened Europe, as you may learn from Cousin’s Eeports. Your notion, however, of elemental education for the masses seeirrs rather vague; for you now insist that it should he limited to “ sheer reading, writing, and accounts,” and anon you require that the masses aforesaid should he instructed “ how best to turn their time and talents to account in industrial pursuits and mechanical arts,” and that they should also “be made acquainted with the history of their own country.” I agree with you in these latter conceptions, so far as they go. But I ask you, sir, whether such ends can by possibility be achieved or attempted in the unfashioned colloquials of the \mlgar ? And, again, whether the attainment of the former end does not most expressly imply and exact, not only cultivation of the Indian vernaculars, but the conveyance into them by translation and transfusion of European knowledge ? You cannot, I should say, avoid answ'ering these questions so as to make you well nigh a convert to Mr. Hodgson’s plan of vernacularisation ; for where, save in the stores of European knowledge, will you find any portion of that lore which turns the peasant into a Briareus, the craftsman into a magician, the trader into an instrument of Providence for the practical diffu- sion of “ peace and good-will upon earth,” and the farmer into a servant and interpreter of Nature, performing miracles of pro- duction merely by right interpretation of her occult signs ? I love to dwell upon this special phase of a vast topic, and wdth PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. 345 reference to it I pray you to observe, that in order to render this fine country capable of supporting full and adequate European administration (it is now not half administered) we must call forth the industrial energies of the people ; that beyond doubt we can do so only by communicating largely and freely the substance of our special and recent knowledge ; * that that com- munication can be effected solely through the ready and familiar channel of the native languages, duly improved and systemati- cally applied to that object; and that the substance of all our really useful and indisputable knowledge can be most efficiently conveyed to the masses through that channel ! You speak, sir, as if all translation must prove “useless, impossible, mis- chievous : ” and yet you are a Protestant Christian, knowing what the translation of the Bible has done! — and yet you are a scholar who cannot have failed to learn that “ in the consentaneous judgment of the highest minds of Europe the vernacularisation of learning did more there in disabusing the general intellect of the prejudices of existing institutions and opinions, than all the rest of the glorious events and discoveries of that age which witnessed it, including among those events the invention of printing ! ” — and yet you are a gentleman of the press, and by the special power of the instrument you daily wield should be prepared to recognise the perfectly analogous diffusive vigour of vernacularisation ! Why, then, write and speak in the style and spirit of 150 years back, as if all these things were beyond your ken ? and as if that sound knowledge, which is the common product and inheritance of all the race of man,f were inseparably connected with this or that particular language ? Why, sir, I have but to raise my head from the paper I am now driving my quill over to see opposite me on the shelves of a moderate library fifty books of History, Political Economy, Literature, Philosophy and Science, so translated that their whole treasures of original knowledge are completely secured in the traduction, one-half of them, moreover, preserving unimpaired all the manner as well as matter of the originals ! E grege, Sabine’s Cosmos, of which the second part has just reached me. There * To wit, the economic applications of chemistry and of mechanics to agriculture, and to the useful arts of primary importance. t See the splendid concluding paragraphs of Cosmos, vol. 1. 346 PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. are even some in which the redacteur has been a vast improver, as Dumont’s Bentham. Your objections to translations, sir, have no semblance of validity save in the departments of poetry and oratory ; and in those departments you overlook the unques- tionable fact that the very same causes which make translations inefficient, debar the foreigner equally almost from adequate appreciation of the original ! Your Chakerbutties and their proners may hold forth, as they will, touching the beauties of Shakespeare and Milton, Burke and Fox and Sheridan. But unless the greatest critics of poetry and of oratory be dolts, said Chakerbutties are, after all, mere “ learned pigs ” in sucli matters ; because the soul of eloquence in verse or prose is autocthonous, is so much bound up with the peculiar domestic, social, and political institutions and habits of each land, with its traditional glories and its infantine associations and myths, that a Hindu can scarcely more really appreciate the English masters of song and of oratory in our tongue than he could in his own ! Thus, you perceive, sir, that your objection to transla- tions in general, deduced from the worthlessness of translations in the Homeric and Demosthenian departments of human know- ledge, is every way inadmissible, not being really sound even in the special view, and having little or no relevancy in a general view. But sound knowledge, sir, generally speaking, is so far from being “ cribbed, cabined, and confined ” to the lingual organ which first happened to enshrine it, that nearly every month’s mail brings us translations, little, if at all, inferior to the originals, whether those originals be German, Italian, or French. Now, sir, the mere fact that such works are constantly coming to us under the sanction of the highest names, and are in daily profitable use amongst us, is a sufficient answer to your general doctrine of the uselessness of “ second-hand works ; ” * * In reference to this sxiperficial dogma of pedagogues and pedants, let me beg your attention to the justly world-renowned apophthegm of Ilohbes, ‘‘Words are the counters of wise men and the money of fools.” It may be safely said that he who has a correct notion of the real nature and function of all language will not allow his efforts for the national diffusion of the benefits of knowledge to be impeded by such pedantic hypercriticisms. Leave them, sir, I pray, to the Anglomaniacs, and when they next dun their nonsense in your ears, ask them if those historical works which are now commanding the best attention of themselves and their countrymen be not simply “ second-hand ” Niebuhrs, and Kankes, and Michelets, and Thiers, and Lamartines, and Guizots, and Thierries? And civilly entreat them for a response ! PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. 347 whilst in reply to your incautious reiteration of the Anglomaniac cry against the communication of the same benefits to our sable brethren through their tongues, I can only state that it has been proved, over and over again, by sound induction from philosophy and history, by recent facts, by cogent arguments and by express experiments, that the substance of all really useful English lore can be conveyed into the spoken tongues of India with perfect success, provided only that the known and demonstrated conditions of such success be not neglected. — Yours, &c., Vernaculakis. March 30 , 1848 . APPENDIX. PROPOSAL OF A NORMAL VERNACULAR COLLEGE FOR SCHOOL- MASTERS AND TRANSLATORS. It is believed that very many of the best friends of the cause of education in India, who ardently seek India’s regeneration through European knowledge, are yet satisfied that all sound effective national instruction must be conveyed by and througli the living languages of the people ; that those languages in India — a country so anciently and eminently literary — cannot be and are not inadequate to the communication of European know- ledge ; and, lastly, that however ardent our zeal in this cause, we must be convinced we cannot directly provide for the mental wants of a population so vastly numerous as that of India. From the above simple premises, when viewed in connection with the wonders achieved lately in Europe by the regular teaching of teachers, results very obviously the course we should adopt for the educational regeneration of India, Let us not meddle directly with the education of the people in their own tongues ; but let us establish an institution having for its object systematically and adequately to furnish the means of such education, to pro- vide a succession of good vernacxdar books and good vernacular teachers. Give to incipient education in European lore in India these 348 PRE-EMINENCE OF THE VERNACULARS. appliances, and that lore cannot fail to take root and flourish, naturally and wholesomely in this soil : withhold these appliances from such education, and it can never so take root and floiirish, but will prove a sickly and unwholesome exotic. Let us then have a school of indigenation — a school to all other schools succeed — a school to furnish good hooks and good teachers in the living tongues of the people — a school to rear translators, who by staying within its walls, and schoolmastci s, who by going abroad, shall together give a solid and safe herjiu- ning to the Europeanisation of India. Good books and good teachers ! are you not assured that these are wdiat we want ; well, then, let us bend our efforts, firstly and chiefly, to their attainment by founding the Normal Institution I have spoken of, and the plan of which may be easily settled by and by in Committee. Meanwhile let us manifest our sincerity and earnestness by coming forward with the requisite funds, and be assured, my friends, that we have but to show the way in order soon to behold it crowded with followers, wondering that these things had never before occurred to them. PRINTED BY BALLANTYNE, HANSON AND CO EDINBURGH AND LONDON LINGUISTIC PUBLICATIONS OF TRUBNER & CO., 57 AND 59, LTJDGATE HILL, LONDON, E.C. Adi Granth (The) ; OH, The Holy Scuipthees of the Sikhs, trans- lated from the original Gurmukhi, with Introductory Essays, hy Dr. Ernest Trumpp, Professor Regius of Oriental Languages at the University of Munich, etc. Roy. 8vo. cloth, pp. 866. £2 12a’. (id. Ahlwardt. — The DrviNS of the Six Ancient Aeabic Poets, Ennabiga, ’Antara, Tarafa, Zuhair, ’Algama, and Imruolgais; chiefly according to the MSS. of Paris, Gotha, and Leyden, and the collection of their Fragments : with a complete list of the various readings of the Text. Edited hy W. Ahlwaedt, 8vo. pp. XXX. 310, sewed. 1870. 12«. Aitareya Brahmanam of the Big Veda. 2 vols. See under Hahg. Alabaster. — The Wheel of the Law : Buddhism illustrated from Siamese Sources hy the Modern Buddhist, a Life of Buddha, and an account of H.M. Consulate-General in Siam ; M.R.A.S. 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