6c-s=fc-(0io / Y/U^ 1 '' § S /\JL^M JtUW-r^ INSTITUTES BIBLICAL CRITICISM. INSTITUTES or BIBLICAL CRITICISM HEADS OF THE COURSE OF LECTURES, ON THAT SUBJECT, READ IN THE UNIVERSITY AND KING'S COLLEGE OF ABERDEEN. GILBERT GERARD, D, D. PROFESSOR OF DIVINITY. SbtttDurgft I 2jSlNT• 142 CHAP. VI. COMPARISON OF SCRIPTURE WITH ITSELF 147 SECT. I. Comparison of Parallel Passages . . „ . 148 SECT. II. Comparison of Passages not Parallel . : 157 -SECT. III. Comparison of Particular Passages with the Analogy of Faith ,..,.,,. 159 CHAP. VIL HISTORY AND MANNERS .... 165 'SECT. I. Of Civil History 165 SECT. II. Of Political History 168 SECT. III. Of Customs and Manners 171 SECT. IV. Of Chronology 179 SECT. CONTENTS. XI Page SECT. V. Of Geography 181 SECT. VI. Of Natural History 185 CHAP. VIII. OPINIONS AND LEARNING. 187 SECT. I. Of the Religious Opinions of Ancient Nations ]8S SECT. II. Of Ancient Learning and Philosophy . , .191 SECT. III. Of the Jewish Sects and Parties . . . . 195 SECT. IV. Of Jewish Opinions 201 SECT. V. Of the Jewish Writers 206 SECT. VI. Of the Ancient Christian Writers . . . .215 SECT. VII. Of Modern Christian Writers 219 SECT. VIII. Of Pagan Writers 224 PART II. THE OBJECTS OF SCRIPTURE CRITICISM 227 CHAP. I. CORRECTIVE OR EMENDATORY CRITICISM 229 SECT. I. The Nature of a Various Reading .... 230 SECT. II. The Sources of False Readings 232 SECT. III. The Kinds of False Readings 249 SECT. IV. Rules of Judging concerning Various Readings 264 CHAP. XU CONTENTS, CHAP. II. Page THE EXPLICATION OF SEPARATE WORDS 292 SECT. I. The Combination of Letters into Words . . 293 SECT. II. Irregular Forms and Flexions of Words . . 297 SECT. III. The Signification of Words . . . . , . 300 SECT. IV. The Usage of Nouns 314 SECT. V. The Usage of Verbs 323 SECT. VI. The Usage of Particle! 349 SECT. VIX Difficulties in determining the Parts of Speech 366 CHAP. III. THE EXPLICATION OF COMBINATIONS OF WORDS 370 SECT. I. Difficulties in Punctuation 371 SECT. II. in Syntax 374 SECT. HI. in Idiom 378 SECT. IV. in Phrases 384 SECT. V. ■■ arising from the Grammatical Fi- gures 386 SECT. VI. arising from the Rhetorical Figures 390 CHAP CONTENTS. SUI CHAP. IV. Page DIFFICULTIES IN THE CIRCUMSTANCES RE- LATING TO THE BOOKS OF SCRIPTURE 396 SECT. I. Difficulties in the Connexion of particular Parts 397 4°5 409 4ir 412 4*3 4*3 SECT. II. > in Plan and Distribution . SECT. III. — — in Scope and Design . . SECT. IV. ■ concerning the Occasion . SECT. V. - ■ ■ ■■ — concerning the Time . SECT. VI. ■ — concerning the yluthors . SECT. VII. ■ 1 ■-— in different hinds of Composition CHAP. V. OF RECONCILING SCRIPTURE TO ITSELF 417 SECT. I. Seeming Contradictions in Quotations . . . 41 S SECT. II. . > 1 in Historical Passages 426 SECT. III. ■ ' between Predictions and their Accomplishment 434 SECT. IV, > ■ ■ — > ■ ■ in Points of Doctrine . 436 CHAP. VI. SEEMING CONTRADICTIONS TO REASON AND MORALITY. SECT. I. Seeming Contradictions to Truth 439 SECT. II. to Morality. . . .442 SECT. III. Passages unreasonably severe .... 449 CHAP. XIV CONTENTS CHAP. VII. Page SEEMING CONTRADICTIONS TO HISTORY, AND MATTERS OF FACT ... 451 SECT. I. Seeming Contradictions to Matters of Fact, in the Narrations of the Sacred 'Writers . .452 SECT. II. Seeming Contradictions in Occasional References 457 SECT. IIJ. ■ 1 — in Prophecies . . . 458 CHAP. VII. COMPLICATED DIFFICULTIES . . 460 SECT. I. Difficulties arising from different Various Readings . 461 SECT. II. Complicated Difficulties in the Sense . * . . 46a SECT. III. Difficulties both in Reading and in Sense . . 465 SECT. IV. Difficulties which admit different Solutions . . 467 CONCLUSION 469 ERRATA. Page i 8. 36. 70. 149. 179. 187. 188. ^37- 238. 239- 240. ast line, for desriable } read desirable. . 4. from bottom, for sential, read essential. . 5. from bottom, for of, read off. . 3. from bottom, for E33WTO, read oanvna. . 9. from bottom, for on, read one. . last, for dead, read bead. . 8. from bottom, for appear, read appears. . 4. from bottom, for t7re^ivovrx, read tKo^ivovT*, . 11. for 8T«? read *t«<. . 5. from bottom, for >"i^ read *)JP. . a. from bottom, for TTni*, read rrrrX ; and, for Achaiah, read Ahijah. 242. 244. ^59- 260. cu 261. 269. 271. 279. 291. 302. 3°4- 3 J 5- 347- 351- 3 8i. 382. 383- 335- 393- 406. 423- 4. from bottom, for jr^^aS-t), read jrAn^^. 7. for xvB-goTrx, read e$vB-^7rn. 16. for quotation, read quotations. 6. for produce difficulties often, read o/? and to apply them to use. PART PART I. THE SOURCES OF SCRIPTURE CRITICISM. 6. 1 HE sources of Scripture criticism are reducible to the following : Manuscripts and editions ; the ori- ginal languages ; the kindred languages ; versions j the occasion, scope, and other circumstances of the books of scripture ; comparison of scripture with itself 5 ancient history and manners ; ancient learning and opi- nions. 7. These are subservient to Scripture criticism, ei- ther by establishing the true readings, by ascertaining the sense, or by displaying the beauties of the Scrip- ture language. CHAP. I. Manuscripts and Editions of the Books of Scripture. 8. The first thing necessary for understanding the Scripture, is, to know what the authors really wrote. 9. We 4- MSS. AND EDITIONS. 9. We cannot determine this by having recourse to their autographa, because all these are long ago lost. Simon Hist. Crit. N. T. c. 29. Pfaff. de gen. lect. N. T. c. 2. § 7. Michaelis Introd. Lect. § 12. 10. There are many MSS. which have been tran- scribed from these or from other MSS. and many edi- tions published from MSS. which are therefore the sources to which we must apply for discovering what the inspired authors wrote. Simon, ib. Michaelis, § 13. 11. It is, chiefly, to the common editions of the books of Scripture that the generality can have recourse for this purpose ; and these are sufficient for what is absolutely necessary to be known. Kennicot, Diss. General, § 7. 12. But, as these editions differ in some places from one another, and MSS. differ much more, we cannot be certain what was originally written, but by a care* ful examination and comparison of the several MSS. and editions ; and therefore it is of great utility that such as have the opportunity, consult these, and com- municate their discoveries to the world. Ken. ib. § 8 — 14. De Rossi, Var. Lect. Prol. SECT. AUTHORITY OF MSS. 5 SECT. I. The Authority of Manuscripts. 13. There are catalogues of the known MSS. of the Scriptures, some of which, or one collected from them, it will be useful to have constantly at hand. Simon, Hist. Crit. V. T. 1. I. c. 21, 22, 23. Houbigant, pFoleg. c. 3. a. 2. Kennicot, Diss. 2. and Diss. Gen. § 364. Mill. Prolegom. Wetstein, Proleg. Dupin, Pre- lim. Diss. Pfaff. ib. c. 4, 5. Michaelis, § 21 — 27. De Rossi, Var. Lect. Prol. Clavis. 14. Of the New Testament, there are several very ancient MSS. ; but few MSS. of the Old Testament are of very great antiquity. Kennicot, Diss. 1. p. 305. Diss, 2. p. 465. Diss. Gen. § 49, 50, 162, 163. 15. The ages of MSS. are ascertained either by testimony, or by internal marks ; with greatest certain- ty by the latter ; not however by any one mark singly, but by the conjunction of several. Simon, Hist. V. T. 1. 1. c. 22, 23. Houbigant, Prol. p. 195. Kennicot, Diss. 1. p. 309,312, 313. Pfaff. c. 3. § 1, 2. Wetstein, Prol. c. 1. § 4, 11, 17. c. 2. c. 3. c. 4. c. .5. Michaelis, § 21, 22. De Rossi, ib. 16. The authority of a MS. depends very much on its antiquity ; and, consequently, it is of importance to ascertain the ages of MSS. as exactly as possible. 17. The principle on which antiquity gives autho- rity to a MS. is, that the risk of falling into mistakes b 3 in- G AUTHORITY OF MSS. increases in proportion to the frequency of transcrib- ing ; and therefore, other things being equal, the au- thority of a MS. is in proportion to its antiquity. Wetstein, Proleg. c. 16. Kennicot, Diss. 2. p. 467. Wal- ton, Proleg. 6. § 6. De Rossi, ib. can. 13 — 16. 18. But, from that very principle, there arises an exception to this general rule ; viz. that a MS. certain- ly copied from one very ancient, has greater authority than another written earlier, but copied from a MS. of no great antiquity. Houbigant, Proleg. p. 105, 106. Kennicot, Diss. I. p. 307. De Rossi, ib. can. 19 — 23. 19. But there are other circumstances, besides their ages, which likewise affect the authority of MSS. 20. MSS. of the Hebrew bible are of greater or less authority, according to the countries in which they were written, and the persons for whose use they were written. Simon, V. T. 1. 1. c. 2r, 22. Houbigant, Prol. p. 107. Ken- nicot, Diss. 1. p. 313. De Rossi, ib. can. 24 — 30. 21. Some MSS. show themselves to have been writ- ten by persons ignorant of the language ; and on this very account have great authority in favour of readings which could not have been introduced without know- ledge of the language. Pfaff. c. 3. §. 4. MichaeHs, $ 88. Marsh's Michaelis, ch. 8. 22. Some MSS. bear plain marks of being written with care, and therefore have great authority j others of USE OF MSSr 7 of being written negligently, and these can claim no authority. Simon, N. T. c. 30. Michaelis, § 28. Walton, ib. Marsh';. Michaelis, ib. De Rossi, ib 23. MSS. which have been designedly render- ed conformable to a particular copy or version, of which there are many instances, have no authority in cases wherein they agree with that copy or version. Simon, N. T. c. 30, 31. Mill, Prol. N° 1268, &c. Wet- stein, Prol. c. 4. § r. Michaelis, § 21, 22, 28. Marsh's Michaelis, ib. De Rossi, ib. 24. A MS. transcribed from another, or MSS. trans- cribed from the same original, or corrected by it, can have no separate or independent authority. Simon, N. T. c. 31. Wetstein, Prol. c. 4. § 3. Michaelis, § 28. Marsh's Michaelis, ib. § 3. De Rossi, ib. 25. MSS. written since the invention of printing, and copied from any printed edition, have no authority. Kennicot, Diss. 1. p. 305. Wetstein, Prol. c. 2. § 8. Micha- elis, § 2o. Marsh's Michaelis, ib. SECT. II. The Use of Manuscripts, and the maimer of using them. 26. The first and principal use of MSS. is, to shew us all the different readings which have taken place, that we may be able to compare them, and to chuse that which is best supported. Kennicot, Diss, passim. c 4 27. If 8 USE OF MSB. 27. If other considerations be equal, that reading is to be preferred, which is found in the most ancient MSS. Pfaff, c. 12. can. 1. Walton, ib. 28. If other circumstances be equal, the reading of the greater number of MSS. is to be preferred to that of a less number. It is on this principle, that most of the received readings have been preferred. Pfaff, ib. Wetstein, c. 16. § 18. Michaelis, § 28. Wal- ton, ib. 29. Great regard is to be paid to a reading found in a MS. which is evidently written with accuracy. SO. In judging of the number of MSS. which sup- port a reading, care must be taken, not to reckon for different MSS. one which has been called by different names. Wetstein, e. I. § 18. c. 4. § 1. 31. It is necessary to know, with respect to every MS. whether it contains the whole of the Old, or of the New Testament, or only a part of them, and what part ; and whether it be complete or defective, and what its defects are. Mill, Prol. N° 1156. Wetstein, c. I. § 12, 13, 16. c. 4. § 3. Marsh's Michaelis, ib. § 4. 32, Besides the principal use which has been men- tioned, MSS. answer indirectly several purposes subor- dinate to that j particularly by indicating in many ways, the USE OF MSS. 9 the occasions of mistakes, and thus leading us to cor- rect both these and similar mistakes. 33. MSS. shew us the various forms of the charac- ters used in different ages, and thus enable us to judge which of them were liable to be confounded. Houbigant, Proleg. Kennicot, Diss. I. p. 313. Simon, V. T. 1. 1. c. 23. Wetst. Prol. ex. § 4> 5> 7* c - 2,3,4,5. 34. From MSS. we learn what abbreviations have been at any time used ; and by knowing this, we are enabled to account for the introduction of many vari- ous readings. Kennicot, Diss. Gen. § 25, 26. Wetst. e. 1. § 7. Michae- lis, § 22. Isa. li. 4. Lowth in loco. 35. From MSS. it appears that, both in the Hebrew and in the Greek Scriptures, numbers were expressed, not only in words at length, but also by single nume- ral letters, and by figures ; by which many corruptions have naturally been occasioned. Kennicot, Diss. 1. and 2. Diss. Gen. § 27. 36. MSS. are often written with black rules, which, by confounding letters otherwise easily distinguishable, lead readers to mistake one of them for the other. a, n. Isa. liii. 10. >brrrr " he hath put him to grief." "'h'rrz " with grief." Vulg. Lowth in 1. Jer. xxviii. 8. Ken. Diss. Gen. § 54, 122, 179. p. 83. note, p. 87. note. 77, E3. Isa. vi. 13. Lowth in 1. vii. 16. Ken. ib. c. 523. 71,1:3. Id. Diss. I. 2 Sam. v. 1. comp. 1 Chron. xi. 1. D,3l. 2 Sam. xxiii. 26. comp. r Chron. xi. 27. Ken. Diss. r. D,>3. 1 Sam. xvii. 32. comp. 70. 3,*>. Josh. vii. 18, Sec. comp. 70. Vat. and v. 26, and 1 Chron. ii. 7. 37. TO USE OF MSS, 37. MSS. were generally written in continued lines, without either punctuation or any breaks between words or sentences ; by which means, letters may be readily taken from one word to another, and words from one clause or sentence to another. Houbigant, Prol. Ken. Diss. I. p. 313, &:c. Simon, N. T. c -33- Wetst. c. 1. § 5, 10. 38. MSS. were often written on rolls, by misplacing which, mistakes may readily have been introduced. Ken. Remarks on select passages in the Old Testament. at 39. MSS. shew the different orders in which the books of Scripture have at different times been placed j and, by so doing, may account for some appearances, or remove some difficulties. 40. MSS. discover the groundlessness of many con- jectures concerning the occasions of various readings, which have been formed by learned men, not much conversant with MSS. Mill, ProJ. N° 1367. Wetst. Prol. c. 1. § 7. 41. Hebrew MSS. are often written without vowel points ; and some of them retain many of the vowel letters, which are omitted in later MSS. and in the printed editions. Simon, V. T. 1. 1. c. 22. Ken. Diss. t. p. 313. 44. Greek MSS. are generally written without ac- cents, spirits, or the iota subscriptum. Simon, N. T. c. ^. Wetst. c. 1. § 5. SECT. AUTHORITY OF EDITIONS. 11 SECT. III. The Authority of the printed Editions, 43. All the printed editions of the Scriptures, however many, are derived from a very few original and independent editions ; the authority, therefore, of all the printed editions resolves itself into the authori- ty of these few ; and, in like manner, the authority of each of these few resolves itself into that of the particu- lar MSS. from which it was printed. 44. Of the Old Testament, there are only two edi- tions which can be considered as original ; for though there were some prior to both, they have been very rare, and little known. 45. The first is that of R. Ben Chaim j and from it all the ordinary printed editions are in general derived \ and, consequently, the authority of them all is resol- vable into that of the MSS. from which his edition was taken ; which, having been all corrected according to the Masora, as well as very late, are entitled to little more than the authority of a single MS. and that of no great antiquity. Simon Catalog. Edit. Bibl. Houbigant Prol. c. 3. a. 2. Ken. Diss. 1. p. 287, 548. Diss. 2. p. 47c. Diss. Gen. § 60. Walton Prsef. & Prol. 4. 46. Therefore also, the printed editions have, all together, little more than the authority of one MS. and less- authority than one MS. more ancient than those 12 AUTHORITY OF EDITIONS. those from which they were taken ; but, of more an- cient MSS. than these, there are many still extant. Ken. ib. 47. The other original edition of the Old Testa- ment, is the Complutensian Bible, it having been in the press at the same time with the former ; but it too was taken from MSS. corrected by the Masora. Ken. ib. & Diss. Gen. § 60. Walton Praef. & Prol. 3. § 14. 48. Consequently, where these two editions agree, their authority is not much greater than if they had been printed from the same MS. Ken. ib. 49. There are some variations between them ; and these are to be judged of, according to the authority of the MSS. from which they were respectively taken, or by the examination of other MSS. 50. Still therefore it holds true, that the concur- rence of the printed editions of the Old Testament has not great force for establishing a disputed reading, in opposition to evidence against it. 51. Of the New Testament, there are four capital editions, in some measure original and independent, from one or other of which all the rest are derived, and into the authority of which, that of them all, con- sequently, resolves itself. Mill. Prol. No. 1088, &c. VVetst. Prol. c. 10, 11, «2, 13, j6. Michael. § 33, 34. AUTHORITY OF EDITIONS. 13 52. The Complutensian, which is the first of these, is thought by some to have been carefully taken from a great number of MSS. and to have chiefly followed one very ancient j and by these persons its authority is highly extolled. Mill. ib. Walton Prol. 4. § 14, 15. 53. Others affirm that it was taken from MSS. of the 14th and following centuries, and, in several in- stances, accommodated to the Latin version ; and, consequently, that it ought to have very little authority. Wetst. ib. 54. Till this question be determined with sufficient evidence, that edition ought to be followed with cau- tion. Marsh's Michael, ch. 12. § r. 55. The second is Erasmus's, who took his first edition from only three MSS. of the Gospels, and one MS. of the other books ; and in his subsequent edi- tions, employed a few more MSS. and made some al- terations according to the Complutensian. The read- ings of his edition, therefore, stand on the authority of a very few MSS. Jid. ib. Mill. ib. No. 1116— 1154. 56. The next is that of Robert Stevens, who fol- lowed chiefly Erasmus's last edition, but used along with it, the Complutensian, and fifteen MSS. but some of them only small fragments, and few of them very ancient j so that the authority of his edition resolves it- self, 14 NECESSITY OF CORRECTING EDITIONS. self, partly into the authority of the two former edi- tions, and partly into that of his fifteen MSS. Jid. ib. Mill. ib. No. 1155 — 1187. 1220 — 1235. 57. The fourth is Beza's, who took his edition chiefly from Stevens' third impression, with one MS. of the Gospels, and one of the Epistles, and often pre- ferred readings supported by a single or dubious au- thority. Where his edition, therefore, differs from others, it has little weight. It is from his, that the common editions are taken. Jid. ib. Mill. ib. No. 1258— 1293. 58. It follows, that the readings found in all the printed editions of the New Testament, rest on the authority of a few MSS. not always the most ancient ; and, consequently, the concurrence of these editions cannot confer great authority on the readings adopted by them, in opposition to others which appear to be well supported. SECT. IV. The Necessity of Correcting the printed Editions by Manuscripts. Jl). That there are many various readings in the copies of the New Testament, and that it is highly use- ful to examine them, has for a long time been generally confessed j and they indeed supply the means of render- ing NECESSITY OF CORRECTING EDITIONS. 13 ing the text of that part of Scripture in a very great de- gree correct. Walton. Prol. 6. § I. 60. But an opinion, however ill founded, has been generally received, the few who ventured to oppose it having been till lately discountenanced and borne down, that the Old Testament, as printed in Hebrew, is abso- lutely correct ; and the prevalence of this opinion has prevented many from employing any care in examining the text of the Old Testament. Walton, Prol. 7. 61. In support of that opinion, is urged the great care and accuracy of the Jews in transcribing their Scriptures. But, as no care is sufficient, without a per- petual miracle, for preventing every mistake in transcri- bing, so, by every kind of evidence of which the mat- ter is capable, it appears that they have actually commit- ted mistakes very often in their copies of the Old Testa- ment. Ken. Diss. 1. p. 235, 379, .351, 371, 411. Diss. 2. p. 315, 404, 441, &c. 260, 273, 274, 278. Diss. Gen. § 23. 62. It is, however, insisted, that, when transcri- bers made any small mistake, it was immediately cor- rected by the Jewish Doctors, so that no mistakes now remain in any of the copies. But, though these Doc- tors did several times review and correct the copies of the Old Testament, this could not be effectual for re- moving every mistake j nor did one review, even in their 16 NECESSITY OF CORRECTING EDITIONS. their own judgment, render other reviews unneces- sary. Ken. Diss. 2. p. 444. Diss. Gen. § 32 — 43. 51 — 58. Hou- big. Prol. c. 1. a. 2. Walton, Prol. 8. § 18 — 29. 63. But it is urged, that the Masora corrected all the mistakes which had crept in prior to it, and gave the means of detecting every subsequent mistake. From the very nature of the Masora, however, it is clear, that it could not possibly answer either of these purpo- ses ; and it is, in fact, very faulty and defective, and formed on late MSS. Simon, V. T. 1. [. c. 24, 25, 26. Houbig. Prol. c. I. a. 3. Ken. Diss. 2. p. 262 — 291. Walton, Prol. 8. § 1 — 16. 64. After the reception of the Masora, the Jews were very careful to correct their MSS. according to it ; but, it being faulty and inadequate to the purpose, this was far from being sufficient for rendering them free from errors ; and, in fact, there are readings in the text, as corrected by it, and printed, which are evi- dently wrong. Houbig. Prol. c. 2. a. 2. Ken. Diss. 1. p. 97, 343, 438, 446, 472, 528, 53J. Diss. 2. p. 314, 356. Deut. x. 6. " Aaron died" in Mosera. Contradicted by Num. xs. 22. xxxiii. 38. " in Hor." 1 " 1 Sam. Ken. in loc. Diss. 2. p. 3 r4- Diss. Gen. \ 18, 165. 2 S^m. xxiv. 15. " Seven years of famine j" inconsistent with 1 Chron. xxi. 12. " Three years j" which probably right- Uniformity. 70. ? for a. Ken. Diss. 1. p. 472. Diss. Gen. § 167. 2 Chron. xxii. 2. " Forty and two years old was Ahaziah :"' contradicted by 2 Kings viii. 26. " Two and twenty $" and by NECESSITY OF CORRECTING EDITIONS. 17 by 2 Chron. xxi. 20. his father Jehoram only forty. Vers. n for b. Ken. Diss. I. p. 97, 528, 535. Diss. 2. p. 356. Josh. xxi. 36, 37. omitted, yet genuine. Context, vers. *^| M3S. f| Edit. Simon, V. T. 1. t. c. 22. Hcubig. in loc. Ken. in loc. Diss. 1. p. 440, 552. Diss. 2. p. 285, 330, 390, 459, 464, 485, 487, 571. Diss. Gen. 5 25, 43, 55, 56, 6c, 61, 80, 2, 98, 123, 125, 179 65. The practice of correcting MSS. according to the Masora, produced a very great degree of unifor- mity ; it was confidently asserted that the uniformity was perfect ; and, for a long time, by reason of the want of access to a variety of ancient MSS, the asser- tion could not be directly disproved, and was very ge- nerally believed. But, since MSS. were examined, it appears with the fullest evidence, that they actually do contain very many variations from the Masoretic text ; the oldest MSS. most ; but even late ones several ; and these often preferable to the received readings ; and of- ten unquestionably the genuine readings. Houbigant, Prol. c. I. a. 2. Ken. Dis;. 1. p. 290, 297. et passim. Diss. 2. f 2 55, 44;. 4^9. Gen. xliv. 24. " We came up unto my father.*' u our father."' 2 JVI5S. Sam. Vers. Ken. in loc. Diss. Gen. I Sam. xvii. 34. u A Hod pr.rl 2. beer took (TV)) him out of the nock." TtV " 2 lamb. - ' Ken. All MSS. Vers. Ken. ibid, and Isa. xxxvi. 5. '* I jay, I have counsel '" CTl&X, absurd. r -'::■- " thou ssyest."' 16 MSS Syr. 2 Kings, xvlii. 20. Eng. out improperly ret?.'- - -eading. C L IS NECESSITY OF CORRECTING EDITIONS. JLovvth et Ken. in loc. 66. The printed editions of the Hebrew text of the Old Testament, and those of the Greek of the New Testament are, therefore, precisely on the same footing ; and the following principles may be justly held with respect to both. Walton, Pro!. 6. 67. There has not hitherto been so great care em- ployed on any edition of the Scriptures, as to render the readings sacred which are adopted in it, or to su- persede the necessity of examining them by MSS. 68. A reading is not rendered even suspicious, mere- ly on account of its not being found in the common editions of the Bible. 69. A reading ought not to be rejected as false, for its not being found in any printed edition of the Bible. 70. So far is there from being reason for adhering tenaciously to the printed text, that it ought to be de- parted from without scruple, whenever another read- ing found in MSS. is clearly preferable. 7 1 . A much more correct edition of the Scriptures than any extant, may be obtained, and would be very desriable. SECT. THE SAMARITAN PENTATEUCH. 19 SECT. V. The Samaritan Pentateuch. 72. For ascertaining the true reading in the books of Moses, we have a peculiar instrument, the Samari- tan Pentateuch, which was little known by Christians till the 17th century; which was then printed from one MS. ; but of which several MSS. have been since examined by learned men. Walton, Prol. n. § io. Simon, V. T. 1. i. c. 12. Hou- bigant, ProL c. 3. Ken. Diss. 2. c. 1. Diss. Gen. cod. 61 — » 66. Brett, Diss, on ancient versions. 73. It is not a version, but the original law itself, written in a character different from the Hebrew. Jid. 74. It was not translated from the Greek version, nor copied from Hebrew books after the time of Ezra ; but was among the ten tribes when they separated from Judah ; and, from the copies then among them, it has been successively transcribed. Houbigant, ibid. a. 1. § 1. Ken. Diss. 2. p. 1 10, 130, &c. Walton, Prol. 11. § 11, j2. 75. The Samaritan, and the Hebrew, are two inde- pendent copies of the original text, preserved by nations who hated one another, and held no intercourse toge- gether ; yet they agree in general. This is a strong e 2 con^ 20 THE SAMARITAN PENTATEUCH. confirmation of the authenticity and integrity of that part of Scripture which they contain. Ken. Diss. I. p. 339. Diss. 2. Walton, ib. § 16, 17, 18. Brett, ib. 76. So far as the Samaritan copy is preserved cor- rect, it shews what readings took place in the time of Rehoboam. 77. It differs in many places from the present He- brew, and that, by all the several sorts of variations. Simon, V. T. !. 1. c. 11. Houbig. Prol. c. 3. a. 1. § 1, 2. Walton, Prol. 11. § 15. [N°8i.] 78. All these differences have been made objections against its authority, because it has been taken for granted, that it must be wrong, wherever it is not con- formable to the Hebrew ; but, as this goes on the false supposition of the absolute integrity of the Masoretic copies, it cannot reasonably be admitted. Houbig. ib. § 1. &c. Walton, Prol. II. 79. The wilful corruption charged upon it, of changing Ebal into Gerizzin, Deut. xxvii. 4. is the only thing that could justly affect its authority ; but even this could not destroy that authority in all cases j and, on a careful examination, it appears highly pro- bable, from many topics, and even from the context of the Hebrew itself, that what has almost universally been reckoned a wilful corruption in it, is the genuine reading, and that the corruption is to be charged on the Jews. Houbig. THE SAMARITAN PENTATEUCH. 21 Houbig. Prol. p. 73. Ken. Diss. 2. c. 1. Walton, Pro!. 11. § 16. 80. All the other differences between the Samari- tan and the Hebrew copies, exhibit various readings ; with respect to which, neither copy should be preferred absolutely and in all cases ; but both copies carefully collated, and the genuine text selected, partly from the one, and partly from the other. Simon, V. T. 1. 1. c. 10, 12. Houbig. Prol. c. 3. a. 1. § 2. 81. The Samaritan seems to be, and, on several ac- counts, may natuially be expected to be, preserved more correct than the Hebrew ; and therefore will supply many emendations or preferable readings. Simon, V. T. 1. i. c. 12. Houbig. ib. § 3. Ken. Diss. 2. Gen. iv. 8. " Cain said unto Abel his brother, — — — and it came to pass when they were in the field," defective. piska. all Heb. MSS. and edit. Sam. li Let us go into the iield." 70. Syr. Vulg. Targums. Aquila. Philo. Ken. Diss. 1. p. 347, &c. Diss. 2. p. 351, 364. Diss. Gen. et in loc. Houbig. Prol. et in loc. Exod. xxxii. 32. " If thou wilt forgive their sin, — and if not, blot me out of thy book. 1 ' defe&ive. all Heb. MSS. and edit. Sam. KU\ " forgive it." 70. Houbig. in loc. Ken. in loc. et DI^s. Exod. xiv. 12. (i Is not this the word that we did tell theoin s Egypt, saying," &c. Not recorded in Heb. but in Sara, after Exod. vi. 9. Jid. Deut. xxvii. 2, 3. " All the words of this law." What law ? defined neither here, nor at the execution of it, Josh. viii. 32.— various opinions — ascertained to be the decalogue, by C 7 a-ddi- 22 THE SAMARITAN PENTATEUCH. by addition in Sam. after Exod. xx, 17. explicitly enjoining it to be thus written. Houbig. in loc. Ken. ib. et Diss. 2. p. 83, &c. Exod. ii. 2r. " Moses swore, bXT'l." Heb. — an oath unneces- sary. Sam. bw), " consented." Chald. Syr. Eng. Ib. " He gave Moses Zippora." Sam. adds myxb " to wife." Gen. xxxvi. 16. " Duke Korah." Heb. Chald. 70. Vul. Arab. Syr. Wanting in Sam. An interpolation — context, v. ir, 12. and 5, 14, 18. 1 Chron. i. 36. Houbig. in loc. Ken. ib. et Diss. 1. p. 376. Gen. iii. 12. " The woman, he gave me, Nirr." — Heb. Sam. " She" H^Xl — above 20 MSS — sense — often elsewhere. Houbig. Prol. p. 49, et m loc. Ken. in loc. Diss. i. p. 34]- Gen. xxvi. 18. ? c Isaac digged again the wells of water which Wl ViSrr they had digged in the days of Abraham," — no no- minative. Sam. " Which '•ill* the servants of Abraham had digged." 70. Vulg. Syr. Houbig. in loc. Ken. ib. et Diss. 1. p. 359. Num. xxiv. 20. " Amalek was the first of the nations, and his posterity "JlX "H]?," literally, " to the destroyer." — ob- scure. Sam. *niO IV " until it perish." Houbig. Prol. et in loc. Ken. ib. Gen. ii. 4. " In the day that the Lord God made the earth and heavens.'''' Heb. — Sam. " The heavens and the earth." — common order. Houbig. and Ken. in loc. Gen. xii. 16. Abraham " had he-asses, and men-servants, and maid-servants, and she-asses, and camels." Sam. " Men- servants, and maid-servants, and he-asses, and she-asses, and camels. Ken. in loc. Houbig. ib. et Prol. p. 72. 82. The Samaritan Pentateuch agrees with the most ancient THE SAMARITAN PENTATEUCH. "23 ancient Hebrew MSS. in some places where it differs from the printed text. [Gen. in. 12. N°8r.] 83. It agrees remarkably with the version of the 70 ; and thus shews that very few variations had crept into the copies of the Hebrew, between the time of the de- fection of the ten tribes and the making of that version. 84. In some instances, it does differ from the 70 version ; and wherever, in these instances, it preserves the genuine reading, it shews, either that corruptions had crept into the Hebrew copies during that interval, or that that version has undergone changes ; and may thus be the means of correcting errors which could not be otherwise corrected. Ken. Diss. 2. Diss. Gen. § 18. Exod. vii — xi. In the Hebrew, the messages given by God, are recorded but once, generally as delivered by him to Mo- ses j but once, ch. xi. 4, &c. only as delivered by Moses to Pharaoh. — Sam. All of them are recorded twice, as deli- vered by God to Moses, and then again as delivered by him to Pharaoh. This agreeable to ancient usage — a propriety in recording the execution of the divine commissions — pre- serves regulaiity throughout — probable that the omission was made by the authors of the 70 version. Ken. Diss. 1. p. 380. Diss. 2. p. 307. Diss. Gen. § 24. [Deut. x. 6. N° 64.] 85. The Samaritan Pentateuch sometimes agrees with the Hebrew copies, in readings which, notwith- standing their concurrence, appear by other means to be faulty ; which proceeds, either from some mistakes c 4 having 2i< THE SAMARITAN PENTATEUCH. having crept into the copies before the defection of the ten tribes, or from the Samaritans having, in these pla- ces, supplied defects in their copies from some Hebrew MSS. Ken. Diss. i. p. 365, 434, &c. Diss. Gen. § 84, 4, 5, 121. Deut. xxi. 23. " He that is hanged, is accursed of God." — Heb. Sam. 70. But the apostle quotes it, Gal. iii. 13. il Cursed is every one that hangeth on a tree." — Syr. God probably added to the Heb. and 70 by the Jews, out of ha- tred to the Christians, and to the Sam. perhaps by Sym- maehus. Ken. Diss. Gen. § 81, 84, 4, 85. Deut. xxxii. 43. " Praise his people, ye nations." — Heb. Sam. But quoted Rom. xv. 10. " Rejoice, ye Gentiles, with his people." — 70. Eng. — DX or DJf omitted. Ken.ib. § 81, 84, 5, 108. c. 507. p. 82. note. 86. There being several MSS. of the Samaritan Pen- tateuch known, and their variations pointed out, its genuine readings can be better ascertained, and more successfully applied to the correction of the Hebrew co* pies, than at its first publication. CHAP. ?HE ORIGINAL LANGUAGES. 25 CHAP. II. The Original Languages . 87. For explaining the Scriptures, some knowledge of the original languages in which they were written, is absolutely necessary ; as without it, whatever sense a person puts upon them, must be taken wholly on the authority of others. 88. To be reduced to this necessity, is shameful in the teachers of religion ; and, therefore, to neglect the study of these languages, is also in them inexcusable. 89. Criticism presupposes the grammar of the par- ticular languages ; and is employed in applying the principles there laid down, to then 4 proper use. * 90. The languages in which the Scriptures are writ- ten, are the Hebrew and the Greek ; on them it there- fore is, that Scripture criticism must be exercised. SECT. 26 ORIGIN OF THE HEBREW. SECT. I. The Origin of the Hebrew Language, and of tlie Greek. 91. Some have ascribed the invention of language, •wholly to the natural powers of men ' ; others, wholly to a divine instruction * ; most probably, the first lan- guage was formed by Adam and Eve for themselves, by the use of their own powers, but supernaturally as- sisted 3 . 1 Died. Sicul. 1. i. Lactant. de cultu. 1. 10. Greg. Nyss. cont. Eunom. or. 12. Simon, V. T. 1. I. c. 14, ij. 2 The Jews in general. Plato. Cratyl. Koran, c. 2. Bux- torf de ling. Heb. orig. Blair on Rhetor. L. 6. Wal- ton, Prol. r. § 4. 3 Universal History, b. 1. c. 2. s. 5. 92. From our supposing the primitive language to have been formed not without divine assistance, or even from its having been immediately of divine original, it cannot be concluded, that it must have- possessed an uncommon degree of perfection j for still, the wisdom of God would adapt it to the necessities of mankind at that period, and to the use which their unimproved fa- culties could make of it ; and consequently, it is natu- ral to think that it was narrow and unpolished, Univ. Hist. ib. Blair, ib. 93 ORIGIN OF THE HEBREW. 27 93. Adam and his posterity continued to use the pri- mitive language, only making some additions to it, as their occasions from time to time required. On account of the longevity of men, and their not being very nu- merous, nor widely scattered, that language probably remained with little variation, till the deluge ; and the same language would, of course, be spoken by the fa- mily of Noah, for some space of time. Univ. Hist. ib. Simon, ib. Walton, Prol. I. § 6. 94. This uniformity of language was broken by the dispersion of mankind at Babel ; and when, in conse- quence of that event, the different tribes were formed into distinct nations, they would naturally run into dif- ferent dialects, which would, in course of time, become more and more different from one another. Gen. xi. 6. &c. Cleric, in loc. Simon V. T. 1. i. c. 14. Scaliger Exercit. in Cardan. Is. Casaubon Diatrib. de ling. Heb. M. Casaubon de 4 ling. Wotton concerning the Con- fusion of Languages. Brett's Essay on the same. Buxt. de ling. Heb. confusione. Walton, ib. § 6, 7. 95. Some have thought that the primitive language is wholly lost ; others, that it still exists, and that the Hebrew is that language. The truth seems to be, that in one sense it is lost, all the languages now known differing from it in many respects ; but in another sense it still exists, to wit, in the several dialects deri- ved from it, all which retain something of it. Greg. Nyss. ib. Simon, ib.c. 14. Grot, in Gen. xi. 1. 96. Of these dialects, that may most properly be reckoned 28 ORIGIN OF, THE HEBREW AND THE GREEK. reckoned the primitive language, which has deviated leasf from it : And, though claims have been urged in favour of many languages, particularly, of all the Ori- ental tongues., this character is shewn, by many plausi- ble arguments, to belong to the Hebrew, in preference to all others. Theodoret. qu. 51. in Gen. Pocock. Pref. in Tograi. Euxt. ib. Chrysost. horn. 30. in Gen. zi. August, de Civ. Dei 1. 17. c. 11. Hieron. Comment, in Sophon. Origen horn. 11. in Num. Selden de Synedr. J. 2. c. 9. Bochart Phaleg. 1. I. c. 15. Simon, V. T. 1. 1. c. 14, 15. Schultens Orat. de ling. Arab. Walton, Prol. 3. § 1 — 22. 97. The Hebrew language was not confined to the Israelites alone, nor even to the descendants of Abra- ham or of Shem ; but was the same with that of the Phoenicians and Canaanites, who were of the posterity of Ham. Simon, ib. 98. The Greek language was ultimately derived from the same source, having taken its rise from some of the Oriental dialects used by the colonies which peo- pled Greece ; but, by reason of the situation of those that used it, their progress in arts and sciences, and their care in refining and improving it, it underwent so great alterations as to become, in time, a very dissimi- lar language. Squire's Inquiry into the Origin of the Greek Language. Oge- rii Grrcca et Latina Ling. Hebraizantes. Monboddo's Ori- gin of Lang, p. 1. b. 3. c. 11, 12. &. p. 2. diss. 1. SECT. WRITTEN LANGUAGE. SECT. II. Of Written Language, particularly the Hebrew and the Greek. 99. Men could not fail soon to become desirous of expressing their thoughts by visible marks, as well as by sounds. 100. The first method which they fell upon for this purpose, was, probably, the fixing upon marks to de- note particular things ; and these would be, in the be- ginning, a rude picture of the thing ; but would, after- wards, be simplified for the sake of expedition. Of marks in this stage, the Chinese characters appear to be an instance. Warburton Div. Leg. Blair on Rhetor. L. 7. Walton, Prol. 2. § 13, 20, 21. 101. By most nations, these marks of things were laid aside, as soon as they had invented or learned a more commodious method of writing, namely by an al- phabet ; but, the Egyptians retained it along with this other method, and improved it to a great degree of re- finement in their hieroglyphical writing, which they appropriated to particular purposes, especially those in respect of which they studied secrecy. Warburton, ib. Blair ib. Walton ib. § 17, 18, 19, 30 WRITTEN LANGUAGES. 102. The Egyptian hieroglyphics being in high esti- mation, the symbols employed in them probably gave occasion to some of the common metaphors of the east ; and, if such metaphors are found in Scripture, the knowledge of these symbols will serve for determining their meaning. Warburton, ib. Num. xxiv. 17. " There shall come njlar out of Jacob, and a sceptre shall rise out of Israel." Hierogl. " a god — a king." 103. The invention of alphabetical writing has al- ways been, with reason, considered as a very great ef- fort of human genius. Whether it was wholly owing to that, or partly also to a divine original ? who was the author of it ? whether Adam, or Abraham, or Mo- ses, or the Assyrians, or the Phenicians, or the Egyp- tians? -are questions which have been moved, but which cannot, perhaps, be answered with any degree of certainty. Walton, Prol. 2. § 1 — 7. Blair, ib. L. 7. 104. It is certain, however, that Moses was ac- quainted with alphabetical writing, and used it in the Pentateuch. Blair, ib. 105. It has been made a question, What were the original Hebrew characters ? Some contend that they were the same with the present ; others maintain, and. perhaps with better reason, that these are properly the Chalde- WRITTEN LANGUAGES. 31 Chaldean characters, which the Jews had learned du- ring their captivity at Babylon, and used ever since ; and, that their ancient characters, in which the Scrip- tures were originally written, were the Phenician, or what are now called the Samaritan,- at least very little different from them. Rabbins in general. Bust. Lightfoot in Mat. iv. Schultens. Robertson, Gram. Heb. Append. I. Hieronym. Morinus. Capellus. Bochart Phaleg. Walton, Prol. 2. § 8. and 3. § 29 — 37. Simon, V. T. 1. 1. c. 13. Ken. Diss. 2. p. 146, &c. Wilson's Heb. Gram. c. 1. 106. The Phenicians used the same characters with Moses and the ancient Hebrews ; and Cadmus carried thence the Alphabet with him into Greece, where, their most ancient letters very much resembled the Sa- maritan, and bore plain marks of being derived from them, though they have been gradually altered till they came to their present form. "Wnlton, Prol. 2. § 4, 6, 9, &c. Ken. ib. Wilson, ib. Llair, ib. SECT. 32 HEBREW VOWEL POINTS. SECT. III. Of the Hebrew Vowel Points and Accents, and the Greek Spirits and Accents. 107. The question that has been much agitated, con- cerning the antiquity and the authority of the present vowel points, is of considerable importance, with respect both to the understanding of the Hebrew language, and to the determining of the sense of scripture. 108. The Jews agree that the reading and the sense fixed by these points, is universally the genuine ; and their common opinion is, that they were first used by Ezra, and continued ever since ; but, some of them hold, that only the consonants were written, and the proper vowels handed down by oral tradition till about 500 years after Christ, when they were first ex- pressed in writing by the present marks. Elias Levita, Prtef. 3. in Mass. Ham. 109. Among Christians, some maintain, that the vowel points, in their, present figure ; some, that at least marks equivalent to these, were always in use, and were affixed as they now stand by Ezra, and con- sequently are of divine authority, and everywhere de- termine the true reading and the true sense. Others think HEBREW VOWEL POINTS. 33 think that they were, long after that time, invented or adopted by the Jewish critics, called the Masorets ; that, therefore, they are merely of human authority, have been often wrong placed, and give a false read- ing and a false sense, which may be departed from, whenever the analogy of the language, or the con- nexion, gives reason for doing so. Buxt. Tiberias. Buxt. de Antiq. pun&orura. Leusden. Philol. Heb. Hottinger. Thes. Philol. Schultens, Instit. Gram. Heb. Robertson, Gram. Heb. Append. 2. and 3. Capell. arcan. punctuat. Walton, Prol. 3. $ 38 — 56. Si- mon, V. T. 1. 1. c. 27. Prideaux Connex. P. 1. b. 5. Masclef. Lowth's Isaiah, Prelim. Dissert, p. 54. Wilson, Heb. Gram. c. 1, 2. 110. That the vowel points are modern, and of human invention, is argued from many topics : there are none such used to this day in the Samaritan Penta- teuch, nor were they anciently used in any other of the oriental languages. 111. The copies of the Scriptures, used in the Jew«. ish synagogues, are constantly written without points; a practice which could never have been introduced, if they had been original to the language, or of divine authority. 112. All the ancient various readings which have been marked by the Jews, regard only the letters, not one of them the vowel points ; which could not have happened, if these had been then in use. \ d 113. 3-i< HEBREW VOWEL POINTS. 1 1 3. The ancient cabbalists draw all their myste- ries and allegories from the letters, none of them from the vowel points, which they could not have neglected if they had been acquainted with them, as they would have been copious sources of the conceits in which they delighted. 114. It appears, from the ancient versions, that they all read the text, in many places, differently from what it is now fixed to by the vowel points ; and therefore had it without them. 115. There is no mention made of the vowel points by any of the ancient Jewish writers, though "they had often the most natural occasions for it, if they had been acquainted with them ; for the books Bahir and Zo- har, alledged in opposition, have been proved not to be very ancient. 1 1 6. Neither is there a hint of vowel points by any of the ancient Christian writers, for several centuries ; not even by Jerome, though he often takes notice of dif- ferent pronunciations of Hebrew words ; but it is al- ways only in reference to the letters. 117. There seems to be sufficient evidence, that the present vowel points were introduced, probably in imi- tation of the Arabians, who had refined much on their own language, after the Hebrew had ceased to be a living tongue, in order to facilitate the reading 'of it ; and, that they were gradually brought to their present state, between the fifth and the tenth century. 118. HEBREW VOWEL POINTS. 35 118. They who introduced them, no doubt intend- ed them for expressing, as nearly as possible, the pro- nunciation of the Hebrew as then in use ; and often successfully ; but it had been so long a dead language, that they could not fail to be often mistaken ; and their system of punctuation renders letters, at one time, qui- escent and useless, which, at other times, have a vari- ety of sounds, and produces great intricacy in the flex- ions of nouns and verbs. 119. From supposing the vowel points modern, it will not follow that the Hebrew must have been a -language consisting only of consonants, which would indeed be absurd ; for it is expressly maintained, that there are vowel letters in the Hebrew alphabet, K a, 1 u, ^ i, to which are now commonly added H e, and JJ o, by means of which, that language might be read without points, almost as well any other can; and that these are really vowels, appears — from their being expressed as such, in most proper names, by the 70, — from the letters corresponding to them in place, be- ing vowels in the Greek alphabet, which was borrow- ed from the Phenician, — and from the frequency of their recurrence, which is found to be just such as ought to belong to these vowels. 120. Though there be many syllables, and even words, in which none of these letters (called Matres lectionis) occur, and though, on that account, they seem insufficient for the pronunciation of the Hebrew; vet they might have been sufficient when that Was a d 2 living 36 HELREW VOWEL POINTS. living language, or even as long as it was preserved entire. They express all the long vowels, and it may be, that the words in which none of them occur, had only short vowels, which it was not unnatural for a rude and simple language, like the Hebrew, to omit in writing, as being implied in enunciating the conso- nants. On the introduction of the vowel points, the vowel letters were omitted wherever they seemed, to the introducers, to serve only as vowels, which has encreased the difficulty of reading without points ; but, as even in the printed bibles, words, which want these letters in one place, retain them in another, — as an- cient MSS. preserve them in many words which are always printed without them, — and as they are con- stantly retained in the Samaritan Pentateuch ; — from these sources, the full writing and regular form of most Hebrew words, might perhaps be recovered. Simon, V. T. 1. I. c. 27. 1. 2. c. 8. Herder on Hebrew Poetry. 121. The Masoretes, in expunging the matres lectio- nis, where they thought they served only for vowels, and their place would consequently be supplied by the newly invented points, have often been mistaken ; and by that means, have introduced a multitude of false readings, or omissions of these letters, where they are essentia! to the sense. 122. From supposing the vowel points modern, it will not follow, that the sense of the text would be al- together uncertain ; for though, in that case, words of different HEBREW VOWEL POINTS. 37 different significations would consist of precisely the same letters, this is no more than what happens in all lan- guages, where the sense and connexion, nevertheless, enable us sufficiently to distinguish them ; and many words, which now would, without points, be the same, were, before the invention of these, distinguished in writing, by some of the vowel letters. 123. By affixing to words which consist of the same letters, different vowel points, according to the diversity of their significations, the Masoretes have de- termined the sense of scripture according to their own idea of it, or their traditional interpretation ; and this sense should not be lightly or hastily depart- ed from. But they were fallible, and have mis- mistaken in many instances ; and therefore, that sense should not be implicitly followed, but abandoned with- out scruple, whenever there are good reasons for pre- ferring another sense. Lowth's Isaiah, Prelim. Diss. p. 54. Simon, V. T. 1. 2* c. i. 124. Though the vowel points be not of authority, yet they are of considerable use, not only for ascer- taining the sense in many instances ; but also, as they often indicate the true reading, by their agreeing to it, not to the false reading received inro the text ; as their not being affixed to some words, points out these as erro- neous ; and, as they sometimes give intimation, where, in consequence of their introduction, vowel letters have been omitted ; and thus lead us to restore the true reading. D 3 Ken. 38 HEBREW VOWEL POINTS, Ken. Diss. I. p. 343. Houbig. Prol. p. 49. Nirr M he " is often erroneously put for jon " she," but al- ways shewn to be an error by being pointed Nirr. ^"IK hav- ing been often, through the superstition of the Jews, writ- ten instead of HW, is often shown to be so, by its having the poincs of this latter word. Ken. ib. Hcubig. ib. Judg. xvi. 18. " He hath shewed (nb) her j" but pointed as h, which right. Keri. 6 MSS. sense. Ken. in loc. and Diss. 1. p. 446. 125. A great multiplicity of accents have been used in Hebrew, concerning which different opinions have been entertained, similar to those concerning the vowel points. There can be no doubtf however, that they were introduced along with these by the Masoretes ; and they are of no authority nor moment, but only embar- rass the language. 126. There has been a question of the same kind, concerning some particulars in the Greek language, on which the sense of words in the New Testament some- times depends ; the iota subscriptum, the spirits, and the accents. 127. It appears that the ancient Greeks did often express the force of the iota subscriptum, though by a different figure from ours ; but it is certain that they often omitted it in writing ; and, as it is never found in the most ancient MSS. of the New Testament, we are sure, either, that the apostles did not write it, or, that we cannot discover where they wrote it ; but that it has been HEBREW VOWEL POINTS. 39 been placed as we now have it, by late transcribers or printers ; and consequently, we arc at liberty to deter- mine for, or against it, in particular passages, according to the sense. Michael. Int. Lect. § 35, 39. Marsh's Michael, ch. 13. -sect. 6. 128. Most anciently, the Greeks expressed the as- piration by the letter H. When, in place of this, they adopted the spiritus asper, it appears from medals and monuments that they did not always write it, and never the spiritus lenis. That it was not written originally in the New Testament, appears from the most ancient ver- sions often confounding words distinguished only by the spirits ; and therefore, we are at liberty to interpret such words, in the manner most suitable to the sense, without regarding the spirits by which late transcribers or editors have restricted them. Michael, ib. § 40. Marsh's Michael, ib. sect. 7. 129. Without inquiring whether the Greeks pro- nounced their language according to the accents, or not, it is allowed that they did not commonly write the accents ; and, as none are found in any MSS. of the New Testament, prior to the eighth century, it is clear that the present accents are not authorised by the apos- tles ; and therefore, we are not bound to determine the signification of words according to them. Michael, ib. § 42. Marsh's Michael, ib. sect. 8. D 4 SECT. 40 STRUCTURE OF THE HEBREW. SECT. IV. Oj the Structure and Genius of the Hebrew Language, 1 30. The nature, the structure, and the genius of a language, are always congruous to the situations, the customs, and the manners of the people who use it ; and must be attended to, in order to understand their writings. In the Hebrew language, there are many- peculiarities necessary to be remarked for interpreting the books written in it. 131. In Hebrew, there are no neuter nouns, and consequently, no neuter gender of adjectives. This is an instance of simplicity, and it introduces peculiar manners of expression. [852.] Glass. Philol. Sacr. 1. 3. can. 19. 132. What are called conjugations in Hebrew, are very unlike to those of other languages ; being different forms which any one verb assumes, by the addition of some letters, in order to express the various modifica- tions of which the action denoted by it, is susceptible ; and thus answering to the several modes, voices, and species of verbs in other languages. Schulren's Gram. reg. 108. 133. Some have affected to multiply the conjuga- tions, under pretence of removing anomalies from the language 5 STRUCTURE OF THE HEBREW. 41 language ; but they would thus introduce a minuteness of distinction, inconsistent with the simplicity of the He- brew. Some of their additional conjugations, and even two of those commonly received, are discriminated only by the vowel points, and therefore arbitrarily ; others of them, perhaps, are either irregular and infrequent forms of words, or inferred from a false reading in some text of Scripture. Schulten's Gram. Heb. Robertson Gram. Hcb. 1. 2. c. i. Wilson's Heb. Gram. c. io. 1 34. Grammarians have generally atttempted to ac- commodate the Hebrew syntax to the rules of the Greek and Latin languages ; but by this they have only- perplexed it ; for it is, in almost every instance, totally dissimilar. Thus, nouns relating to t£ie same thing are, in Hebrew, joined by mere apposition, without any re- gard to their being of the same gender or number. Buxt. Thesaur, 1. 2. c. 3. Robertson's Gram. 1. 4. c. 1. § 1. Wilson's Gram. c. 20. Glass. Deut. xxii. 28. nVina mj*:i " a girl, a virgin.". Gen. xlii. 30. \nx (plur.) WXTl (sing.) " The man, the lord." So very often OTnx mrf " Jehovah God." Hab. i. xvi. ib^NE (masc.) 77X12. (fern.) " Their portion is fatness." 135. When a substantive agrees with an adjective, it is placed first ' ; but, if the adjective stand first, it is an affirmation ; a verb, generally that of existence, being understood *. Buxt. 42 STRUCTURE OF THE HEBREW. Buxt. ib. 1. 2. c. i. Robertson, ib. § 2. Glass, ib. 1. 3. t. 1. 1 Prov. xv. 14. ]123 2.b, " An understanding heart." Ver. 20. con p, " a wise son." 3 [Psal. cxix. 75, 137. N° 136.] 136. An adjective agrees with its substantive, and a verb with its nominative, generally in gender and num- ber ; but not always ; for, sometimes a plural substan- tive has a singular verb or adjective ; and, a collective substantive, or two or more singular substantives may have a plural verb, adjective, or participle. Jid. ib. Glass, ib. 1. 3. t. 4. can. 9. t. 3. can. 55. Buxt. ib. 1. 2. c. 9, 10. Gen.i. 1. cnbx (plur.) jna (sing.) " Creavit Dii." Psal. cxix. 75. *ptasiy>3 p"t¥ " Right are thy judgments." Ver. 137. "T'tOS'iyn *iU^ " Upright are thy judgments." Psal. lxxxix. 15. ''Blessed is the people (DPrr sing.) that know (\t.HV plur.) the joyful sound ; O Jehovah, in the light of thy countenance they shall walk. (^brP plur.)" Gen. xli. 57. All the earth (inxn sing.) came (1K2 plur.) Into Egypt." But Sam. has nvJINH plur. Ken. in Ioc. Psal. lxxxix. 1 2. " Tabor and Hermon, in thy name they shall rejoice" (liDV plur.) Ver. 11. " The world and its fulness^thou hast founded them" (Dmc plur. aff.) 137. As the Hebrews do not distinguish the cases of nouns by varying the termination, they can have no rules for the government of nouns ; they have not even particles for regularly marking a particular case ; those that are commonly reckoned such, being truly prepo- sitions, which have a variety of significations. 3 38. STRUCTURE OF THE HEBREW. 43 138. The only government of nouns, producing a change of termination, is what is called the constructed state ; which is more properly a sort of composition ; for, the change of termination accelerates the pronun- ciation, and, it is made in the governing word ; but, this form of expression has all the same varieties of force, as the government of a genitive in other lan- guages. Buxt. Thes, 1. 2. c. 3. reg. I. Glass, ib. 1. 3 t. 1. can. 30. Ezra. in. 7. UVYD ]VUFD, " according to the decree of Cyrus;" i. e. given by him. Gen. iii. 21. *V)tf rvoro, " coats (made) of skins." Psal. xliv. 22. nrrib }X:J3, " as sheep of (intended for) slaughter." Gen. ii. 9. Q"nrr XJr, " The tree of (giving) life." Prov. i. 7. mm nx'V, " The fear of Jehovah," as its object. Exod. iv. 10. ta^iM w»X, " A man of words," i. e. an elo- quent man. 139. The government of the affix pronouns, by verbs, is in like manner a species of composition. 140. Almost all the other regimens in the Hebrew, are by means of prepositions ; and are, therefore, en- tirely resolvable into the various significations of the prepositions. Buxt. Thes. 1. 2. c. 11. Glass, ib. 1. 3. t. i. can. 31. 141. It is not, perhaps, strictly true, that all the primitive words, or roots, in Hebrew, consist of three letters j but very many of them do j and this regula- rity 44 STRUCTURE OF THE HEBREW. larity is a mark of its being a simple and original lan- guage, not one made up by the mixture of several. 142. It is whimsical to pretend that the Hebrew lan- guage contained as many roots as there are possible combinations of three letters, and consequently, was singularly copious ; for no language was ever formed with such mathematical exactness. Men form words only as they have occasion for them ; and there was nothing in the situation of the Hebrews that could lead them to form a language remarkably copious. Yet it was not, on the other hand, remarkably scanty ; and it is certain that they had many roots which do not now appear in the Bible. Schultens. 143. It is commonly affirmed, that all the Hebrew primitives are verbs; and, it is evident that, at least, most of them are such. This is another mark of its being a simple and original language ; for verbs are expressive of the powers and qualities of things, as in act or ex- ertion, in which case they are most striking, and there- fore, would be first taken notice of, and obtain names. 144. It requires abstraction, to conceive the power by itself, separate from its being exerted ; therefore adjectives, which express a power as quiescent, would be formed later than verbs, and naturally derived from them. In Hebrew, they are thus derived ; and they are very few, which proceeds from the people being little addicted to abstraction, and has produced many methods STRUCTURE OF THE HEBREW. 4.5 methods of supplying their place ; and these form pe- culiar idioms in that language. 145. It was natural for men to denominate sub- stances from some of their powers or qualities, the exertion of which had been most striking to them ; and consequently, to derive their substantive nouns from verbs ; and it is so in the Hebrew tongue. 146. The first words of every language express ob- jects of sense. The Hebrew verbs would, therefore, ori- ginally signify the actions or motions of bodies ; and they would come to have other significations, by being transferred to these from that original sense. b~2it, i. To withe?, Isa. xxiv. 4. " The earth mourneth t (wi- thereth) and fadeth away ; the world languisheth (contrast) and fadeth away." 2. To mourn or pine away with grief. 147. In a language formed in rude times, it is na- tural, likewise, to expect, that the primitives or verbs would express very particular ideas, the motion or ex- ertion of a power as it appears in one object, or one species of objects j and from this, would be transferred to other more general senses. This is the case with the Hebrew ; it necessarily renders the language very tropical ; and, it occasions the idioms in which words of the same original are conjoined. Warburt. Div. Leg. Elair, ib. S2D (prim.) " To smear with pitch." (sec.) " To atone." JOt 1"U '' Seeding seed," for " producing seed." 148. It is by discovering the primary signification of a 46 STRUCTURE OF THE HEBREW* a root, that its secondary senses can be accounted for ; for they have all some analogy to it, though not per- haps to one another. "ISO, (prim.) " To smear with pitch." (Sec.) i. " To cover sin, atone j" 2. u To close," which now appears only in some of its derivatives. 149. Derivatives are, in Hebrew, formed by a very regular analogy, from the roots, by the omission or the change of some of their letters, or by the addi- tion of other letters to the beginning, the middle, or the end ; and, according to the particular manner of their formation, they have some correspondent variety of signification. Wilson, Gram. c. 17. Schultens, Gram. 150. It is only the root of the verb that is properly simple ; all the other parts of it are compounds of that with other words, especially pronouns ; which gives great regularity and significance to the conju- gations. 151. The Hebrew has few compound verbs, though several compound nouns ; but it never compounds these with the negative particle ; and this occasions se- veral idioms. Grammars. Lowth on Isa. x. 15. Schultens ib. reg. 122. Hence a negative particle with hi " all," makes an universal negation. Psal. cxliii. 2. irr - bo pnx> - ah, " No man living shall be justified". Glass. ib. 1. 3. t. 5. can. 19. Prefixed to nouns, it has a privative force. Prov. xxx. 25. " The ants are a people (?y Nb) not strong," 1. e. weak. Job xxvi. 2, 3. Amos vi. 13. Lowth STRUCTURE OF THE HEBREW. 47 Lowth ib. Glass, ib. can. 29. By a natural transition, this particle, with either a verb or ad- jective, comes to denote a strong negation or a contrariety. Exod. xx. 7. " not guiltless," i. e. very guilty. Hos. xi. 9. " I am God (UW xVl) and not man," i.e. far from being man. Isa. v. 15. " As if the staff should lift itself up against (UP xb) the not wood," i. e. the man who uses it, who is far from being wood." [N°. 885] ch. xxxi. 8. lv. 2. In analogy to this, a negative with an adjective forms a super- lative. Prov. xviii. 5. " It is not good (very bad) to accept the person of the wicked." Psal. xliii. 1. " Plead my cause against a nation not godly" very ungodly. Hos. xiii. 13. "A son not wise" very un- wise. 1 52. It is common for those who have a scanty lan- guage, to supply its defects by mixing something of natural language with the artificial ; and hence may &e deduced many peculiarities of the Hebrew. Warburt. Div. Leg. vol. 3. p. 97. Blair, ib. 153. Thus, dwelling on a syllable, or doubling its consonant, gives it an emphasis in pronunciation, and may therefore be adopted for giving intenseness to its signification. Hence the custom in Hebrew, at least since the introduction of the present points, of giving force to a word by a dagesh forte •, and the conjugations which are formed only by the insertion .of it, Pihhel, Pyhhal. 154. In like manner, redoubling a syllable gives emphasis and force. Hence, the nouns formed by doubling some of the radicals, of- ten expressive of rapidity or repetition. Wilson, Gram. 17. Hence 48 STRUCTURE OF THE HEBREW. Hence also, several of the additional conjugations which some have proposed, Pehalhal, Pihlel. Pyhlal, Hithpahlel. Schultens Gram. Rebertson's Gram. 1. 2. c. i. 155. Redoubling or repeating a whole word, has the same effect j and into this, many Hebrew idioms are reducible. Glass, ib. 1. 3. t. 1. can. 5. t. 3. can. 32, 37. Repetition of a noun, to express vehemence, Pfal. xxii. I. u My God, my God." Jer. vii. 4. " Trust not in lying words, saying, " The temple of the Lord, the temple of the Lord, the temple of the Lord." Or, to express continu- ance, Deut. xvi. 20. " Ye shall follow justice, justice," i. e. constantly. Or, to express multitude, Gen. xiv. 10. " The valley of Siddim was slime pits, slime pits," i.e. full of them. Exod. viii. 14. Judg. v. 22. 2 Kings iii. 16. Joel iii. 14. Repetition of an adjective forming its superlative. Eccl. vii. 25. " That which is deep, deep," i.e. very deep. Hence also, a noun governing itself forms a superlative, Gen. ix. 25. u Canaan shall be a servant of servants," i. e. in the most abject slavery. Thus also, a verb governing itself in the infinitive, expresses certainty or vehemence, Gen. ii. 17. " Thou shalt die to die," i. e. certainly. And in like manner, a verb governing a noun derived from it- self, or analogous in sense, is emphatical. " To die the death, to fear with fear." 156. Men while rude and unrefined, do not study- to express themselves with accuracy ; and from this principle, many Hebrew idioms may be accounted for. Hence, some of their particles have a great multitude of sig- nifications ' 7 1 has 75 5 it always connects, but in very dif- ferent relations. Hence STRUCTURE OF THE HEBREW. 49 Hence^also, many circumlocutions, substantives for adverbs, words redundant, definites for indefinites, as " yesterday' 1 for any past time, c< to-morrow " for any future. A relative pronoun for a copulative, Eccles. v. 17. " It is 773"' _> "HyN 1113 good which (and) comely." Glass, ib. 1. 3. t. 7. can. 3, 5. A passive verb for the active of its correlate, into '* to be admonished, warned." Eccl. iv. 13. Ezek. xxxiii. 4, 5. " to take warning, listen to admonition." One verb expressing, not strictly the action intended, but one antecedent to, or connected with it. rrpb strictly " to take," but often " to bring" what had been previously taken. Exod. xxv. 2. " That they take (bring to me) an offering. 1 ' Est. ii. 16. " Esther was taken (brought unto) king Aha- suerus." (N° 871.) Glass, ib. c. 2. Verbs which denote a complete action, used for signifying the beginning of it. 2 Sam. ii. 10. " Ishbosheth was forty years old when he reigned," i. e. began to reign. (N° 873.) Glass, ib. c. 3. On the other hand, verbs denoting the beginning of action, us- ed for signifying the complete action. Isa. lx. 11. inn*>"» " and thy gates shall be opened," tc open," Eng. " kept open." Glass, ib. Verbs of doing, signifying only the continuance of action. Lev. vi. 12. "The fire upon the altar npin shall burn," continue to burn, made to continue. (N° 873.) Glass, ib. c. 4. Or signifying only, the giving occasion to a thing^ being done. Gen. xlii. 38. " Then ormin shall ye bring my grey hairs with sorrow to the grave," be, though undesignedly and involuntarily, the occasion of their falling, Sec. (N° 882.) E 157c 50 STRUCTURE OF THE HEBREW. 157. But men, while rude, study to express them- selves with force ; and many Hebrew idioms take their rise from this propensity. " Always" for " frequently." " Eternity" for " a long du- ration." A negation for a comparative. c< Mercy and not sacrifice," for " mercy rather than sacrifice," Hos. vi. 6. " Receive my instruction, and not (rather than) silver j" for it follows, " and knowledge rather than choice gold." Prov. viii. io. (N°93i.) The nominative absolute, setting the principal word strongly in view ; Psal. xi. 4. " Jehovah ! in heaven is his throne." Horsley's Hosea. Pref. Affirmative verbs for the negation or extenuation of their con- traries j " To hate," for " not to love," or "to love less." Gen. xxix. 31. " Leah was hated," loved less than Rachel, ver. 30. (N° 884.) Glass. I.3. t. 3. can. 19. So, things are said to act, or to be done, when it is only meant, that they are known, discovered, thought to be, or acknowledged. Gen. xxx. 13. " Leah said, the daughters" "OV-iUX literally, " shall make me blessed," reckon me bles- sed, or call me blessed, happy. Eng. (883.) Glass, ib. c. 17, 18. Hence also, the superlative formed by adding any of the names of God. Gen. xxiii. 6. " A prince of God." Ch. xxx. 8. " Wrestlings of God." Ruth ii. 20. " Blessed to the Lord," very blessed. Jon. iii. 3. " Great to the Lord," very great. 15S. Sometimes, these two propensities, to speak with force, but without precision, operate in conjunc- tion ; and there are some Hebrew idioms which bear plain marks of that conjunction. Things are said to be done, when it is only meant that they are notified, STRUCTURE OF THE HEBREW. 31 notified, declared, or foretold. Gen. xxvii. 37- VlTOiy " I have made him thy lord," declared, foretold that he shall be. (883.) Glass 1. 3. t. 3. can. 15. Verbs of acting, signify a number of related conceptions, none of which come fully up to action j as only, the faculty or power of acting. Gen. xvi. io- " It shall not be number- ed," cannot be. Psal. xxii. 17. 1SD " I will tell (may tell) all my bones." (876.) Glass, ib. can. 5. The right of acting. Exod. xxxiii. 5. Ttbvx " I will (justly might) come up into the midst of thee, -^rvbsi and I will (might) consume thee." (877.) Glass, ib. can. 6. The duty of acting. Mai. i. 6. ',' A son 1M* honoureth his father," not, " always honours," but ought, is obliged to honour him. (878.) Glass, ib. The will to act. Exod.'xii. 48. " If a stranger myt will keep the passover," desire, incline to keep it ; for he must first be circumcised (879.) Glass, ib. can. 7. The endeavour or tendency to act. Gen. xxxvii. 21. " Reu- ben heard, inb^^ and he delivered him out of their hands," endeavoured to deliver, ver. 22, &c. (879.) Glass, ib. can. S. A command to act. Gen. xl. 22. (e Pharaoh hanged the chief baker," commanded him to be hanged. (881.) Glass, ib. can. 22. Or, a permission to act. Deut. ii. 28. "O'Vlum, literally, " thou shalt make me provide bread for money." Eng. " sell me," permit me to buy. (881.) Ei SECT. LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. SECT. V. Of the Language of the New Testament. 159. The Greek language, in which the New Tes- tament is written, is, in many particulars of its struc- ture and genius, very different from the Hebrew ; but it has been so often and so fully explained, that it will not be necessary for us to examine it minutely. 160. On account of its being, at that time, the lan- guage most universally known, it was the fittest in which the New Testament could have been written. Marsh's Michael, ch. 4. § 1. 161. The language of the New Testament is not pure Greek, but Hellenistical, formed by a mixture of oriental idioms and expressions with those which are properly Greek. Simon Hist. Crit. N. T. p. I. c. 27. Michael, ib. § 6. Macknight on Epistles, Ess. 4. and Supplement to Ess. 4. Marsh's MicHael. ch. 4. § 3. 162. Most of the words, however, and many of the phrases of the New Testament, are pure Greek ; and so far as they are, they must be explained according to the usage of the classical writers, and, consequently, cannot be understood without having recourse to their works ; for which reason, collections of correspondent terms LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. .53 terms and phrases from them, with the sense in which they use them, have very properly and successfully been made by several learned men, and applied to the illus- tration of the New Testament. Grotius in Comment, passim. Raphel. Eisner. Palairet. Wolfii curte Philolog. in N. T. Eos. Acts xxvii. 13. " Loosing, they sailed oaro-ov (found only here) t»v KgjjTjjv, nearer, close to, Crete." Eisner. Palair. Bos. Raphel. in loc. Rom. I. 31. 2 Tim. iii. 3. cteogyov, ctriro^ov, avvftigct, occur not elsewhere, but frequent in Greek writers, " without na- tural affection, covenant-breakers, fierce." Mark xiv. 72. Kect ti*s<#, '' Praise the Lord." Glass, ib. Zi^xvix, " Tares." (Syr.) Mctppavus, " riches." F.rasm. Drus. Grot. Mx^xv ctS-x. Some, " The Lord is come j" others, tf In the coming of the Lord j" others, " Excommunicated in the highest sense," which was termed NJ"l73iy j others, in general, " Devoted to destruction." Critici in 1 Cor. xvi. 22. Tremell. Vorstius. Locke. Macknight. 167. There are likewise Greek words used ' in a Hebrew or Syriac sense. Michael, ib. Auv«ft 4- E»«ti™A, "Hearken," Acts ii. 14. Grot. Wyss. Dialect. Sacra. 168. USE OF THE ORIGINAL LANGUAGES, 55 168. There are in the New Testament, Hebrew and Syriac constructions. Michael, ib. Wyss. ib. 169. There are in the New Testament, Hebrew and Syriac idioms and phrases. Marsh's Michael, ch. 4. § 5. .SECT. VI. Of the Use of the Original Languages in Criticism. 170. The discovery of the true sense of scripture, is evidently the purpose to which knowledge of the ori- ginal languages is principally and most directly applica- ble ; and the manner of applying it to this purpose be- ing the same as that of coming to the understanding of any language, to enlarge upon it would be unneces- sary. 171. It has been made a question, Whether know- ledge of these languages ought to be at all applied to the discovery of the true reading ; some asserting, that no correction of the ordinary text, by critical conjec- tures founded on the nature of these languages, is at all allowable ; and producing several arguments in support of their assertion. 172. But others have claimed the liberty of making e 4 emendations 56 USE OF THE ORIGINAL LANGUAGES. emendations by critical conjectures ; and, though they have often carried this liberty too far, yet they have shewn, that the arguments urged against it only con- demn the abuse of it, but prove not that it can never be legitimately used. Houbig. Prol. c.3. a. 4. 173. If, among different readings found in MSS. one be agreeable to the nature of the language, and another not, the former ought certainly to be preferred. 1 74. When a reading occurs, though it were in all MSS. which is a plain barbarism or solecism, it is un- doubtedly a mistake of transcribers, and should be cor- rected according to the rules of the language. Hcubig. ib. c. 4. reg. 7, 8, 10. 175. When a passage cannot be reconciled to the grammar of the language, without supplying words which that language never uses to omit, it may be deter- mined that the passage has been corrupted. Houbig. ib. reg. 9. 176. When an expression is clearly inconsistent with the rules of the language, it may be held a corruption, even though we should not be able to discover how it ought to be corrected. Houbig. ib. reg. 11. 177. But, these principles ought to be applied with great caution, and under several limitations. Thus, corrections supported solely by the nature of the lan- guage, USE OF THE ORIGINAL LANGUAGES. 57 guage, ought to be admitted only when they are abso- lutely necessary ; and therefore, a place is not to be looked upon as corrupted, or corrected on conjecture, merely because it might be more commodiously expres- sed. Houbig. ib. reg. 12. &. p, 134. caut. 2. 178. When two readings occur, one of which is suitable to the most common usage of the language, the other agreeable to a real, but less common usage of it, the latter ought to be preferred ; for it is not so probable that a transcriber should, by mistake, have fallen into it, as into the other. Michael, ib. § 15. 179* For detecting mistakes repugnant to the na- ture of the language, and for correcting them, a very thorough acquaintance with that language is absolutely necessary ; and without this, the attempt will produce only blunders. 180. The greater number of independent MSS. there are of any part of scripture, and the nearer they reach to the time of its being written, the less scope there is for conjectural emendations from the nature of the language ; for the less chance there is that a corrup- tion should have crept into all the copies : for the first of which reasons, greater latitude is allowable with res- pect to the Apocalypse than the other books of the New Testament ; and for both, in the Old Testament, than in the new. Michael. 3, 4. 189. It, too, being highly analogous to the Hebrew, would CO KINDRED LANGUAGES. would contribute much to the illustration of Scripture^ were it not that there are very few books extant in it. Walton, lb. 190. The other principal dialect, the Arabic, is somewhat more remote from the Hebrew, but analogous enough for fitting it to throw light upon it ; and, its be- ing still a living language, and one in which there is a multitude of books, makes it very useful for that pur- pose. Simon, V. T. 1. 2. c. 16. Schultens ib. § 14 — 2r. Oratio de Lingua Arab. Bochart. Hier. Praef. Phaleg. 1. I. c. 15. Walton, Prol. 14. § 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 14. 191. From it, the Rabbins received some assistance in restoring the Hebrew language, buf not much ; it has been more extensively, and very successfully, applied by several Christian writers, to the illustration of Scrip- ture. Bochart. L. de Dieu. Fuller. Pococke. Schulten's Orig. Heb. 192. Besides these principal dialects, there are some less considerable branches. 193. The Samaritan dialect is a mixture of Hebrew with the several languages of the colonies transported into Samaria; but, little light can be derived from it, be- cause there are very few books written in it. 194. The Ethiopic, or Abyssinian language, has a great affinity to all the oriental dialects, but greatest to the Arabic, from which it is immediately derived ; and it CONSULTING KINDRED LANGUAGES. 61 it has been applied in some degree to the illustration of scripture. Simon, ib. c. 16. Bocliart. L. de Dieu. Hottinger. Lu- dolf. Hist. Ethiopic. Comment. Schultens, ib. § 22, 23. Walton, Prol. 15. § 6, 7, 8. 195. The Rabbinical Hebrew is a mixture of several languages, which cannot be of great use for illustrating Scripture, but ought not, perhaps, to be totally despi- sed. Schultens, ib. § 5, 6, 7. 196. The Latin is near a-kin to the Greek, which, however, needs little illustration from it. SECT. II. The Necessity and Propriety of seeking Assistance from the Kindred Languages. 197. The Old Testament, comprehending books on different subjects, by many different authors, and in very different ages, does contain more of the Hebrew language than any volume of the same size contains of any other language. 198. Yet, being the only book extant in Hebrew, it is impossible that it should contain the whole of that language ; 62 CONSULTING KINDRED LANGUAGES. language ; and that it does not, there is internal evi- dence, from its having roots without their derivatives, or derivatives without their roots ; besides, that it can- not be supposed sufficient for ascertaining the precise signification of all the words found in it, which seems, in some instances, to have been very early lost by the Jews. Schultensde Defect. Ling. Heb. Orig. Heb. T. I. Intr. T. 2. Intr. Even the 70 version retains some Hebrew words, as not know- ing how to translate them. 2 Kings xii. 7, 12. BeSs*. ch. xxiii. 7. xetfirto-ift. 1 Chron. xxix. 2. c-oxft,. Job xxxix. 13. vtiXxrtrx, xcriSct, varirx. 199. From these circumstances arises a necessity of having recourse to the languages most a-kin to it, that from them we may, as much as possible, supply the deficiencies of the Hebrew, as it stands in the Bible, and learn its full extent. 200. The propriety of illustrating the language of the Bible, from those a-kin to it, arises from their affi- nity to it in every material respect, being so great, as to fit them for throwing very considerable light on the remains of the Hebrew. 201. It is by those who understood not the original dialects, or understood them but imperfectly, that the propriety of applying them to the illustration of Scrip- ture, has been called in question ; they who understood them best, have always agreed that the application of them USES OF THE KINDRED LANGUAGES. C3 them is a legitimate mean of criticism, and of very great utility. 202. The particular objections urged against that application, only prove that it may be abused, and ought to be made with proper limitations ; but do not conclude against the use of it. SECT. III. Uses of the Kindred Languages in determining the true Reading. 203. The Kindred Languages may lead us to disco- ver the occasions of such false readings as transcribers, unskilled in the Hebrew, but accustomed to some of the other dialects, have made, by writing words in the form of that dialect, instead of the Hebrew form. Houbig. Prol. p. 28. 204. The knowledge of the kindred languages often serves to prevent ill-grounded conjectures of a place be- ing corrupted, by shewing that the common reading is susceptible of the very sense which that place requires. 205. When different readings are found in copies of the Bible, the kindred languages may sometimes assist us in judging which of them ought to be preferred. 206. 64 USES OF THE KINDRED LANGUAGES. 206. If these languages can be at all permitted to suggest a conjectural emendation of the text, it ought to be with the most cautious restrictions, and only when they shew clearly how the present reading might have been naturally introduced. SECT. IV. Uses of the Kindred Languages in Interpreting Scripture. • 207. It is chiefly to the interpretation of Scripture, that the Kindred Languages are applicable ; and for this purpose they are useful in many ways. 208. They discover many roots or primitives which are not found in the Bible, though their derivatives oc- cur there ; and by doing so, point out the significations of these derivatives, and either clear the sense, or im- prove the beauty, of the passages in which they occur. Schultens de Defect. Ling. Heb. c. i. § u, &c. Orig. Heb. ]T\> (Arab.) i. " To continue running," as water. 2. " To continue (in general) to endure, to be permanent." 3. (metaph.) *' To be fat." 4. (metaph.) " To be inexhaus- tibly rich." Hence the adjective JJVN rendered, " hard, rough, strong, brave, severe, powerful, &C." Signifies, I. Ever-flowing." Amos v. 24. " Let judgment run down as waters, and righteousness as a mighty stream," an ever- flowing USES OF THE KINDRED LANGUAGES; 65 flowing river. Psal. lxxiv. 15. " Thou driedst up mighty waters" the everflowing rivers. Exod. xiv. 27. " The sea returned to his strength" uninterrupted flowing. 2. " Durable, permanent." Mic. vi. 2. " Hear, ye strong (durable) foundations of the earth." 3. *' Fat, full of moisture." Job xxxiii. 19. " Man is chas- tened with pain upon his bed, and the multitude of his bones strong'" Eng. " bones with strong pain •" rather, " multi- tude of his fat bones." 4. ".Inexhaustibly rich and prosperous." Job xii. 19. " And overthroweth the mighty" but, they are spoken of v. 21. here, the opulent. So Num. xxiv. 21. Jer. xlix. 19. ch. 1. 44. Schultens Orig. Heb. T. I. c. 8, 209. The Kindred Languages point out roots, by shewing such to be in use, which, though found in the Bible, have been overlooked, whose derivatives have therefore been irregularly ascribed to other roots, and whose signification has been erroneously either transfer- red to these others, or borrowed from them, or is left fluctuating and uncertain. Schultens Orig. Heb. T. 1. c. 4. I'jfS (Arab.) but overlooked in Hebrew, and confounded with 2ns, yet occurs thrice. It signifies " to shatter, to break into pieces, to break with scattering or dissipation 5'* which suits all these places. Jer. xxiii. 29. " Is not my word like a hammer (^S^) that (it) breaheth in pieces the rock." Habak. iii. 6. " He beheld and drove asunder the nations ; (l^lfsnvi) and the everlasting mountains were scattered" broken in pieces — a bolder figure. Job xvi. 12. "He hath taken me by my neck (*lX32tlw) and hath shaken (broken) jne to pieces." S 210. 66 USES OF THE KINDRED LANGUAGES. 210. These languages ascertain the precise significa- tion of roots, and, consequently, of their derivatives, which are acknowledged in the Bible, and perhaps oc- cur frequently ; but, whose significations have been fix- ed only by conjecture, and are, on that account, inde- finite, precarious, or fluctuating. Schultens de Defect. Ling. Heb. ib. §43, &c. SIS, with which SSS (209) has been confounded, has been rendered, " to scatter, disperse, dissipate." But in Ara- bic (prim.) " to overflow," (sec.) " to abound, to weep plentifully." 2 Sam. xviii. 8. " The battle was there (niSS3) scattered over (had overflowed) the face of all the country ;" a beautiful figure, from a river. Job xl. 1 r. S 2n " Cast abroad 'the rage (nniP the swellings) of thy wrath." {Make the swellings of thy wrath to overflow} a beautiful figure. Zech. i. 17. (Eng.) " My cities through prosperi- ty shall yet be spread abroad." Not suitable, for nasisn is active. (My cities shall yet overflow with good). Schultens, ib. T. 1. c. 4. 5133 occurs often, is rendered inconstantly j sometimes " to scatter, to scatter by breaking in pieces," which are the senses of SIS and SSS. But Arab. Syr. Chald. '« to shake, to shake out by motion 5" so sometimes by 70. Aqu. and Theod. rendered sktivxg-g-m, which suits all the texts. 1 Kings v. 9. M I will cause them (the trees brought by sea in floats) to be discharged j" the figure lost — (" shake them out of the floats") 70. i»r«y*|«. Chald. p^72*iN projiciam eas. Isa. xxx. 30, " The Lord shall shew the lighting down of his arm, with the flame of a devouring fire, (SS3) scattering," (" shaking out •,") the world by trembling shaken out of its place — (a noble image) "and tempest, and hailstones." Gen. ik 19. " Of them was the whole earth overspread" (rrSS3). " From them tl z whole earth shook out its whole offspring j" ex h;s excusut se universa terra— a beautiful metaphor. Judg. VSES OF THE KINDRED LANGUAGES. 67 Judg. vii. 19. 1 Sam. xiii. 11. Isa. xi. J 2. xxxiii. 3; xxvii. 9. Jer. xiii. 14. xxii. 28. li. 20. Psal. ii. 9. cxxxvii. 9. Schultens, ib. ibl occurs five times in Hiphil. The versions fluctuate. Arab, (prim.) ** to shine like the rising sun." (sec.) r. (in different conjugations) " to shine in general, to be clear, or serene, or manifest, to render clear or serene." 2. " To laugh, to be glad, to remove or allay sor- row." Job ix. 27. "I will forget my complaint, I will leave off my heaviness," nybuxi . 70. " I will sigh." Vulg. " I am wrung with sorroxv." Syr. Arab. " I am pressed with straits." Chald. " I will be confirmed" Eng. " I will comfort myself.'''' Literally, " I will lay aside my sorrowful face, and I will (prim.) make it to shine like the sun •" or, (sec.) " render it serene" Job x. 20. " Let me alone," rtitaMI. 70. " that I may take rest." Vulg. t( bewail my sorrow." Arab. " take breath." Syr. vbrnrt. 70. Arab. "■ Distribut" ing bruising upon strength." Aq. Vulg. " Mocking devas- tation upon the strong." Syr. " Giving dominion." Chald. F 2 Eng. (38 USES OF THE KINDRED LANGUAGES; Eng. " That strengtheneth the spoiled (Grot. Drus. Vat. " the spoiler," — wrong) against the strong." Rather, (prim.) " Who tnaheth devastation to break forth like the dawn (i. e. suddenly) upon the mighty j" a beautiful figure, and used Joel ii. 2. Isa. xlvii. II. Schultens, ib. c. I. Vindiciae Orig. s. 2. 211. The kindred languages afford the best (and where the ancient versions vary in translating them, the only) means of determining with certainty, the signi- fication of such words as occur but once, or very sel- dom, in the Bible. 212. The kindred languages point out the true meaning of some words, whether primitives or deri- vatives, to which wrong significations have been affixed in the Bible. Isa. xviii. 2. " Whose lands the rivers MM j" supposed irre- gular for ina, (which is found in one MS.) Eng. "have spoiled 5 but this irregularity unexampled. (Schult. Gram, p. 491.) Arab. Nte, " to lift itself up, to bring under it." Hence, " have brought under them," or " overflowed." But KTa Syr. and HV2 Chald. signifies " a teat j" so that the verb may mean, " have nourished j" very applicable to the Nile fertilizing Egypt. Lowth's Isaiah in loc. 213. The kindred languages enable us to discover all the senses of words, some of whose significations only have been collected from the Bible, though others of them would better suit particular passages ; and, by this means, both explain these passages, and, illustrate the connexion between roots and their derivatives. 114. USES OF THE KINDRED LANGUAGES. 69 214. In particular, these languages discover the primary signification of many roots, even such as are most commonly used, whose secondary senses alone have been attended to, though the primary sense would throw light on some texts. V^ very common, rendered " to be great." But Arab. (prim.) to twist." Hence es'iVia Deut. xxii. 12. " fringes." 1 Kings vii. 17. " chain-work," i. e. twisted threads. (Sec.) I. " Sinewy, brawny, compact, elegant," in the human make. Exod. xv. 16. " By the greatness (brawniness, firm- ness) of thine arm, they shall be as still as a stone". 2. " To struggle, wrestle, fight." Job vii. 17. " What is man that thou shouldst magnify (struggle) with him ?" con- text. Schultens Defect, ling. Heb. § 202, Sec. p12f, very common, " to be just ;" but this only a secondary sense. Arab, (prim.) " To be stiff, inflexible ;" also " to be inflexibly straight." Hence metaphorically, " to be just, true." Isa. xlix. 24. " Shall p">T^ *my (literally) the captives of the just one be delivered ?" but the devil is here meant. Eng. " the lawful captive j" but this would be unjust. ** The captives of the inflexible, rigid, or inexorable one." Schultens, ib. \ 217, &c. Eccles. vii. 16. " Be not righteous over much."— objection- able. " Be not too rigid or inflexible." Schultens, ib. Hammond. Grot. Patrick, and others in loco. 215. The kindred languages are the only, or the most successful, means of leading us to understand the meaning of phrases, or idiom atical combinations of words, which are found in the Bible, and the pre- * 3 cise 70 USES 0F THE KINDRED LANGUAGES. cise meaning of which cannot be determined by it ; but which, being agreeable to the genius of the ori- ginal languages, are preserved in books written in them. Dan. xii. 7. " And when he shall have accomplished V 2££2 (literally) " to shah the hand," Eng. " to scatter the power of the holy people, all these things shall be finished." But it is a common phrase in Arabic, signifying «* to leave off friendship, society, or intercourse with a person." The meaning therefore is, " When he shall have put an end to his leaving of friendship with the holy people, (i. e. the re- jection of the Jews, who were his peculiar people), all these things shall be finished." A prediction of the future resto- ration of the Jews from their present state of rejection. Schultens Orig. Heb. T. 1. c. 4. CHAP. VERSIONS. 71 CHAP. IV. Versions of the Scriptures. 216. Versions of the Scriptures into other lan- guages, are subservient to criticism, either by suggest- ing the readings which the translators followed, or by giving us, in a tongue more intelligible to us, the sense of the original. Simon, V. T. 1. 2. c. I. Walton, Prol. 5. § 3. 217. Versions are, either such as are confined to the Old Testament, such as extend to the whole scripture, or such as are appropriated to a particular book. 218. The versions of the first kind are, the Chal- dee paraphrases, the Greek versions, the Samaritan versions of the Pentateuch, and modern Jewish ver- sions. Simon 5 ib. c. 1. F if SECT. CHALDEE PARAPHRASE; SECT. I. Of the Chaldee Paraphrases. 219. The Targums, or Chaldee paraphrases, took their rise from the custom which was introduced after the captivity, when the Jews had forgotten the He- brew language, of subjoining, to the portions of scrip- ture read in their synagogues, an explication in Chal- daic, which had then become their vernacular tongue* Simon, ib. c. i, 17. Walton, Prol. 12. § 5. Bret. Diss. 220. For a considerable time, these explications were not probably committed to writing ; then they began to write the ordinary glosses on more difficult texts j and afterwards, by collecting these, and filling them up, they completed targums on whole books ; but at what time is uncertain. Simon, ib. c. 1, 18. Walton, ib. § 7. Bret. ib. 221. The Jews had many of these, all probably collected from scattered or traditional glosses of their doctors ; but with very different degrees of judgment. Walton, Prol. 12. § 8, &c. Bret. ib. 222. There are three Chaldee paraphrases on the Pentateuch ; the first ascribed to Onkelos, the most ancient, and a very literal and exact version ; the se- cond to Jonathan, more modern and inexact; the third CHALDEE PARAPHRASES. 73 third called the Jerusalem targum, modern, and of little value. Simon, ib. c. 18. Walton, Prol. 5. § 4. Prol. 12. § 8, 9, II, 13, 14. Brett, ib. 223. On the prophets, both prior and posterior, there is a Chaldee paraphrase ascribed to Jonathan j ancient, but not very literal, containing many fables, and suit- ing its explications to the prejudices of the Jews. Simon, ib. c. 18. Walton, Prol. 5. ib. Prol. 12. § 8, 10. Brett, ib. 224. There are, likewise, Chaldee paraphrases on all the other books of the Old Testament, the authors of which are unknown, but which appear to be modern and inaccurate ; and, besides all these, the Rabbins re- fer to other targums, which have never been made public. Simon, ib. Walton, ib. Prol. 12. §12,15. Brett, ib. 225. The Chaldee paraphrases are written, sometimes alternately with the Hebrew, verse by verse ; some- times in parallel columns ; and sometimes in separate books. Walton, Prol. 12. § 6. Brett, ib. 226. "While some have condemned the publication of these paraphrases, as giving countenance to Jewish fables and superstitions ; and others have extolled it as sufficient for the confutation of the Jews from their own confessions ; both have carried the matter too far. But, though the Jews may elude arguments deduced from them, as not absolutely irrefragable ; yet, on the other 74 CHALDEE PARAPHRASES. other hand, such arguments are not wholly destitute of force against them. Simon, ib. Walton, Prol. 12. § 11, 16, 18. 227. The printed Chaldee paraphrases agree, in most instances, with the present Hebrew text, which there- fore, many conclude, remains now precisely as it was when these paraphrases were written. But, this conclu- sion falls to the ground, when it is considered, that the MSS. of the Chaldee paraphrases differ much from one another, and from the printed copies ; that these have been often altered, in conformity to the Hebrew ; and that the MSS. are very incorrect, and thus demon- strate the carelessness of Jewish transcribers. Polyglot, Lond. V. 6. Simon, ib. c. 18. Ken. Diss. 2. c. 2. Walton, Prol. 12. § 17. 228. The Chaldee paraphrases, therefore, especially the MSS. of them, still suggest several various read- ings, and may assist in recovering some true readings ; for which purpose, that of Onkelos, by being most literal and accurate, is most useful ; the others, only when it appears that they designed to render the very words. Ken. ib. Houbig. Prol. p. 146. Lovvth's Isaiah, Prelim. Dissert, p. 68. 229. The Chaldee paraphrases being written in the same character with the Hebrew text, will often shew the occasions of false readings in the latter, and the kinds of mistakes to which transcribers were most li- able. Ken. ib. 230. GREEK VERSIONS. 7$ 230. These paraphrases contributed very much, in an indirect manner, to the interpretation of scripture ; for they were the principal means by which the Rab- bins and later Christians recovered the Hebrew lan- guage, without the knowledge of which, the original could not have been at all understood. Simon, ib. c. 18. 231. They contribute likewise to the interpretation of Scripture very considerably, in a direct manner ; as, many of the glosses of the Rabbins, contained in them, are just explications, and elucidate its real mean- ing in obscure passages. Walton, Prol. 12. § 19. SECT. II. Of the Greek Versions. 232. The most ancient version of the Old Testa- ment, seems to be the Greek, commonly called the Sep- tuagint ; for the books which mention others prior to it, are of no authority. Simon, V. T. 1. 2. c. 2. Walton, Prol. 5. § 4. Prol. $.§.6. Brett, ib. 233. It received its name, either from its being ap- proved by the Sanhedrim, which consisted of 70, or rather 76 GREEK VERSIONS, rather 72 members ; or, from the Jewish account of that number of persons having been set to translate it separately, and miraculously coinciding in every word ; which is undoubtedly a fable. Simon, ib. Walton, Prol. 9. § 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10. Is. Vossius de 70 Int. Jos. Scaliger. Hodius de Vers. Graec. auct. Bos. Prol. c. 1. Usser. de 70 Interpret. Brett, ib. Beausobre, Intr. 234. From differences in style, in the degrees of accuracy, and in the manner of translating the same Hebrew words, or expressing proper names, it appears evident, that the different parts of this version were made by different authors, and at different times. Simon, ib. Ken. Diss. 1. p. 197. Diss. 2. p. 321. Diss. Gen. § 17. WaltoH, Prol. 9. § 11,12. Bos. Prol. c. I. Hod. ib. Beausobre, ib. 235. It is agreed, that the Pentateuch was trans- lated into Greek about 280 years before Christ, for the use of the Hellenistical Jews ; and the version is ve ry literal and exact. The other books began to be translated about 1 70 years before Christ, when An- tiochus Epiphanes prohibited their reading the law in their synagogues, and were finished before the year 130, all very literally, but with various degrees of skill and accuracy. Simon, ib. Ken. Diss. 2. p. 21 1, 319. Diss. Gen. ib. Bos. Prol. c. [. 236. The Greek version was held in equal venera- tion with the Hebrew original, and regarded as alike in- spired GREEK VERSIONS. 77 spired, by the Hellenistical Jews, till the early Chris- tians came to use it in their arguments against them ; and then, they began to depreciate it, and to appeal to the original, or to make alterations in it. Simon, ib. and 1. i. c. 17. Ken. Diss. Gen. § 67, 68, 70. 79, 86. Walton, Prol. 9. § 1, 15. Bos. Prol.c. 1. Brett, ib. Isa. xlii. 1. liii. 9. 237. In order farther to discredit it, they procured new Greek versions from the Hebrew ; that of Aquila, about the year of Christ, 1 30, extremely literal ; that of Theodotion, about 175, much less literal ; and that of Symmachus, about 200, likewise not literal ; of all which only some fragments remain, which have been collected by Montfaucon. Simon, ib. c. 9. Ken. Diss. 2. p. 392, &c. 366. Diss. Gen. § 68 — 70. Owen's Inquiry. Walton, Prol. 9. § 19. Brett, ib. Isa.vii. 14. srrtg&v©-', 70. vsxvig, Aq. 238. Origen's Hexapla was an edition of these four versions, along with the original, both in Hebrew and in Greek characters, written in parallel columns, with marks for pointing out the variations of the 70 from the Hebrew, which version he sometimes likewise alter- ed in conformity to the Hebrew, and with marginal notations of the differences between the versions ; a work evidently useful when it was written, and which would have been now of very great use, if it had re- mained entire and uncorrupted ; but it was soon in a great measure lost j and, by the frequency of transcrib- ing 73 GREEK VERSIONS. ing the 70 version from it, and the carelessness of transcribers in omitting the marks of distinction, and taking marginal interpretations into the text, that ver- sion came in time to be much vitiated and mixed with other versions. Simon, ib. c. 3, 7. Ken. Diss. I. p. 127. Diss. 2. p. 362, &c. 377, &c. 384, 397. Walton, Prol. 9. § 20 — 27. Bos. Prol. c. 2. Brett, ib. Hence double renderings of one Hebrew word. Gen. ix. 20. *tvd-£&)7r&> (y2»gy®°) y»jj. 2 Sam. i. 23. 8 2ixzi%ugttrfAivoi f and a etiivvgtc-S-yitrxv. I Chron. xi. 11. U7rx%, and it y.xi^uht. Psal. xxii. 1. Si<&> (ah, and ergons jut, xxix. I. viov .9-J8, and vmg xgiwv. 239. In consequence of Origen's work, the old co- pies of the 70 version were disregarded, and gradually lost ; but, as many were dissatisfied with the altera- tions which he had made, other editions were written by Christians, among which Lucian's was most confor- mable to the old copies. Simon, ib. c. 10. Ken. Diss. 2. p. 393. Walton, ib. Brett, ib. 240. There are several MSS. extant of the 70 ver- sion, or of parts of it ; the most celebrated of which are, the Alexandrian, in the British Museum, and the Vatican, at Rome. Simon, ib. Ken. Diss. 2. p. 406. Diss. Gen. § 173—175- Walton, Prol. 9. § 30, 34. Bos. Prol. c. 2. Grabe Prae- fat. Brett, ib. 241. There are four independent editions of this < version, GREEK YERSI0NS. 73 version ; the Complutensian, in which variations were made from the MSS. in conformity to the Hebrew ; — the Aldine, followed with some alterations in several subsequent impressions ; — the Vatican, from which all the ordinary editions are taken ; — and Grabe's, publish- ed chiefly, though not entirely, from the Alexandrian MS. ' Simon, ib. c. 3. Catalog, edition. Walton, ib. § 28—30. Bos. Prol. c. 2. Fabric. Biblioth. Gr£ec. 1. 3. c. 2. Morin. Exercitat. et Praefat. Grabe, Prcefat. Brett, ib. 242. These editions differ considerably from one another : some give the preference to one, and others to another ; but none of them is perfect. By a careful collation of them all, with the MSS. extant, a more correct edition might be made out, and would be of considerable use, for throwing light upon the Scrip- tures. Walton, Prol. 9. § 28— 5 1. Brett, ib. 243. While the Hellenistical Jews, and many of the ancient Christians, improperly reckoned the Greek version inspired, some moderns have extolled it be- yond measure, and others, as unduly depreciated it ; the truth lies between the two extremes. It is the work of fallible men, who fell into many mistakes ; and therefore, has no authority, except so far as it is conformable to the original Hebrew ; but, having been translated from very ancient copies, it shews in what * manner they read the text ; and therefore, may serve for detecting corruptions which have since crept into the 80 GREEK VERSIONS. the Hebrew copies, and for pointing out the genuine reading ; and accordingly, many of the readings which it points out, are still found in the oldest and best MSS. and ought to be adopted. Morin. ib. Is. Voss. ib. Simon, ib. c. 2, 5. L. Capell. Epist. ad Usser. Houbig. Prol. p. 143. Ken. Diss. 2. p. 336, &c. Walton, Prol. 9. § 8, 14, 15, 52 — 66. Bos. Prol. c. 1. Brett, ib. Gen. xxxi. 53. " The God of Abraham, and the God of Na- hor judge betwixt us, the God of their father" — superflu- ous and improper — wanting in 70. and 2 MSS. Houbig. in loc. Ken. ib. Diss. 1. p. 368. Diss. Gen. cod. 80, 227. Neh. ix. 17. " And appointed a captain to return in their re- bellion, (Q^iCi, which has not this signification) to their bondage." 70. sv AiyvnTu, " to their bondage in Egyfit." taniJWi, 3 or 4 MSS. Edit. Neap. 1487. Agreeable to Num. xiv. 4. Ken. in loc. Diss. Gen. § 49. Zech. v. 6. " This is (03>y) their eye, (Eng. " their re- semblance") through all the earth." ©3W M their ini- quity." 70. ccDtKtx. So Syr. 1 MS. Bos.ib. Ken. in loc' 244. The readings pointed out by the Greek ver- sion, are sometimes the genuine, even when they are not found in any Hebrew MSS. now extant. Bos. Prol. c. 1. Brett ib. Gen. xxiii. 13. ^yraw ib nnx CDN. Lit. " If thou, I pray thee hear me."— obscure, elliptical. >h f " to^me." 70. iweuittv tf-ga; gp* u, (as Gen. xxix. 34. 2 Kings, x. 6.) " since thou art friendly to me, hear me." So Sam. Corrected in 1 MS. GREEK VERSIONS, 8l Bos. ib. Ken. in loc. Gen.iv. 8. (81.) Deut. xxxiii. In the Hebrew, there is no mention of Simeon, But v. 6. 'Zvpia* e«-« zroAvs. 70. Alex. Aid. Complut. Bos. ib. et in loc. 245. When the Greek version and the Hebrew text agree in readings that are false, it proceeds, sometimes, from these having crept into the Hebrew copies before that version was made, and sometimes, from its having been since altered in conformity to them. Ken. Diss. Gen. § 17, 18. Diss. 2. p. 194, &c. Deut. x. 6. (64.) 246. The Greek version was one of the principal means of recovering the Hebrew language ; and, a clo- ser attention to it would have rendered the knowledge of that language, in many instances, more perfect. Simon, ib. c. 5, 8. Capel. Epist. ad. Usser. Houb. Prol. P- M3- 247. The authors of that version used, or were ac- quainted with, languages very analogous to the He- brew ; and therefore, knew significations of words, which have since been unknown or overlooked, and have given them in some passages where they were proper. Simon, ib. c. 5. Walton, Prol. 9. §46. Brett, ib. 24^. They mistranslated, however, some words, by giving them that signification to which they had come o bv S2 GREEK VERSIONS. by use to be restricted, in that dialect to which they were accustomed, though they were capable of another more suitable to the passage. Simon, ib. c. 5. Walton, Prol. 9. § 46. Bos. Prol. c. 1. Gen. i. 6. ^p*'» 7 0, ?*>&*>&* " firmament," from the Syrlac use, " firm, solid." So Vulg. Eng. Rather, " expanse." 249. The authors of this version often render He- brew words in a sense different from that to which they are restricted by the present vowel points ; and often, in a better sense. Simon, ib. c. 5, 8. Eos, Prol. c. 1. Brett, ib. (114). Gen. xlvii. 31. " Israel bowed himself upon the bed's (rrtttt) head." 70. %x/3h " staff," rrfctt. 250. The Greek version often gives a juster sense of texts of Scripture, than what, being given by more mo- dern versions, is generally put upon them. Simon, ib. Walton, Prol. 9. § 46. Bos. Prol. c. 1. Gen. vi. 3. "My Spirit shall not always strive with man," Eng. - -remain, 70. Vulg. connexion. " for that he is flesh, yet his days shall be 120 years." Simon, ib. c. 5. 251. The Greek version, being written in the very same dialect with the New Testament, often serves, both to determine the genuine reading, and, to fix the mean- ing of words, in passages of it. (165.) Bos. Prol. c. 1. Grotius in N. T. Kuchen. Animad. hi Evang. Macknight, ib. Mark v. 38. cthxictfyvTxs, all MSS. yet suspected to be for e^oAv^«vT«5 , but frequent in 70. Mill, in loc. Luke SAMARITAN VERSION. 83 Luke viii. 20. K«< enrnyyiM xvru, teyavrav. Sortie MSS. have «jr>jyysA$?) ccvruv ; but the former is found in 70. (Mill.) Eng. " And it was told him by certain which said." SECT. III. Of the Samaritan Versions. 252. There are three Versions taken notice of, which were made directly from the Samaritan Penta- teuch. Ken. Diss. 2. c. 1. p. 29, &c. Walton, Prol. 11. § 20. 253. One of them is in the Samaritan character, and in their common language, reckoned very ancient, and made on account of their having lost the knowledge of the Hebrew. Simon, V. T. 1. 2. c. 1, 17. Walton, Prol. 5. § 4. and Prol. ii. \ 20. Brett, ib. 254. It is very literal and exact, but incorrectly ren- dered in the Latin version of it published in the Poly- glott. Simon, ib. c. 17. Walton, Prol. 11. ib. 255. It generally agrees with the Samaritan text, where this differs from the Hebrew j and thus, confirms the antiquity of its readings. Simon, ib. G 2 256, 84 SAMARITAN VERSIONS. 256. But, it differs from that text in some places, either, by the translator's mistake of the sense, or, where a corruption has crept into the one or the other ; and, by a collation of the MSS. of it, it might be render- ed more perfect. Simon, ib. 257. There is, likewise, a version from the Samari- tan Pentateuch, into the Arabic language, some copies of which are written in the Arabic character, and others, in the Samaritan ; but, little known. Simon, ib. Walton, ib. § 21. 258. There was a Greek version from the same Pen- tateuch, esteemed very ancient, of which only a few fragments remain, in quotations of the Fathers ; and, from these it appears to have been literal and exact, and to have concurred with the 70, in many readings. Simon, ib. c.9. Ken.ib. Walton, ib. § 22. . 259. The other versions peculiar to the Old Testa- ment, are the modern Jewish versions ; the principal of which are, by R. Saadias Gaon, and an African Jew, into Arabic ; some, into modern Greek j one, into Spanish, and one, into Persic. Simon, ib. c. 19. Walton, Prol. 14. § 15, 16. SECT. LATIN VERSIONS. 8* SECT. IV. Of the Latin Versions. 260* The other class of Versions, is of such as extend both to the Old Testament, and the New ; at least, be- ing made by Christians, do not purposely exclude ei- ther j and, these being ancient, or modern, we shall begin with the former, and, among them, with the La- tin Versions. .• 261. That the Scriptures might be understood by all Christians, there were very early versions of them, probably many, into the Latin tongue j those of the New Testament, immediately from the Greek original; but, those of the Old Testament, from the version of the 70. Simon, V.T. 1. 2. c. n. N. T. t. 2. c. $—6. Ken. Diss. 2. p. 434. Michael. § 61, 62. Walton, Prol. 5. § 5. Prol. 10. § 1. Brett, ib. Beausobre, Intr. Marsh's Mi- chael, ch. 7. sect. 21, 22, 23, 24, 25. 262. There was one Latin Version, of highest au- thority, and most generally received, called the Old, the Italic, or the Vulgate j written probably in the first century ; a considerable part of which remains, and might be collected. G 3 Walton, 86 LATIN VERSIONS. Walton, Prol. 9. § 31, 32. Prol. 10. § I. Beausobre, ib. Macknight, ib. Gen. Pref. Marsh's Michael, ib. sect. 23- 263. This version, being extremely literal, is well fitted for pointing out what were the readings in the Greek copies ; and, by reason of its antiquity, it be- stows great authority on such readings as it proves to have then taken place. 264. By its being often transcribed, many mistakes crept into the Italic version ; other versions were mixt with it ; and, in particular, expressions were interpola- ted from parallel places, and glosses taken from the margin, into the text ; for which reason, whereyer it contains any thing additional to the Greek, it is justly suspicious. Simon, ib. Michael. $ 63, 64. Ken. Diss. Gen. § 8. Brett, ib. Marsh's Michael, ib. sect. 26. 265. To remedy the confusion into which it had gradually fallen, Jerome corrected it ; but afterwards, made a new version of the Old Testament, from the 70; and, not satisfied with this, he made, likewise, a version of it, from the Hebrew, to which, however, he did not always scrupulously adhere. Simon, V. T. ib. c. 11, 12. Michael. § 6$. Ken. Diss. Gen. § 8, 84, ',92. Walton, Prol. 5. § 5. Prol. 10. § 1 — 5. Brett, ib. Beausobre, ib. Macknight, ib. Marsh's Michael, ib. sect. 28. 266. This last version shews that some variations had J.ATIN VERSIONS. 8? had crept into the Hebrew copies, since the time when the 70 version was made. -267. Though Jerome's new version was at first dis- approved by some, it soon came (except the Psalms, his former version of which was still retained) to be uni- versally adopted and used ; and obtained the name of the Vulgate. Simon, V. T. ib. c. 7, n. N. T. t. 2. c. 8, 9. Michael. § 66. Walton, Prol. 5. § 5. Prol. 10. § 7, 8. Brett, ib. Beausobre, ib. 268. The copies of the Vulgate version, having be- come very different from one another, and corrupted in many places, were several times revised ; and several successive editions of it, corrected from MSS. have been published. Simon, N. T. ib. Michael, ib. Ken. Diss. Gen. § 12, 28, 92, 107. Walton, Prol. 10. § g. Marsh's Michael, ib. sect. 29. 269. The Vulgate, in its present state, being a mixture of the old Italic version, and that of Jerome, points out the state of the original text, partly in the first, and partly in the fourth century ; and, it gives great authority to those readings which it clearly indicates 5 and contains several which are preferable to the pre- sent readings, and supported by some of the best and oldest MSS. Marsh's Michael, ib. sect. 27. Jer. li. 19. " He is the former of all things, and the rod of his G 4 inheritance." 88 LATIN VERSIONS. inheritance." Heb. absurd.—" And Israel h the rod," &c. Vulg. Chald. 23 MSS. Jer. x. 16. supplied in Eng. Ken. in loc. Diss. 2. p. 439. Diss. Gen. § 47. 270. The Vulgate is not inspired, nor infallible ; but, it is, in general, skilful and faithful, and often gives the sense of Scripture better than more modern ver- sions. Walton, Prol. io. § 6, 10, II, Marsh's Michael, ib. SECT. V. Of the Syriac Versions. 271. There is a Syriac version of the Old Testa- ment, from the Greek of the 70, part of which only has been published ; which is ancient, and serves principal- ly to shew the state of the Greek copy, at the time when it was made. Simon, V. T. 1. 2. c. ij. Ken. Diss. Gen. § 88. Walton, Prol. 13. $ 8, 17. 272. But, there is, likewise, a Syriac version of the Old Testament, from the Hebrew, as well as of the New Testament, from the Greek 5 probably made in the first century. Simon, V. T. ib. N. T. t. 2. Pocock. Not. in Port. Mos. c. I. Michael, j 47; Walton, Prol. 13. § 8, 15. Brett, ib. Macknight, ib. Gen. Pref. Marsh's Michael, ch. 7, sect. 4, 6, 7, 8. 273. SYRIAC VERSIONS. 89 273. Many MSS. of this version are known ; there have been Several editions of it, and some translations from it. Simon, ib. Ken. Diss. Gen. § 88, 89. n. b. Walton, Prol. 13. § 8. Marsh's Michael, ib. sect. 2, 3. 274. The Syriac version omits the Hebrew titles of the Psalms, and inserts others expressive of their sup- posed subjects ; and, it contains not 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, norjude. Simon, V. T. ib. Marsh's Michael, ib. sect. 2. Psal. l. " Of the manner of living according to the nine beati- tudes mentioned by Matthew." Psal. ii. il Concerning the calling of the nations, and the suffer- ings of Christ." Psal. iii. " Concerning future happiness." 275. The Syriac version being very literal, ascer- tains clearly the readings which it followed ; by reason of its antiquity, it gives great authority to these read- ings ; and, it has preserved some which appear to be ge- nuine. Walton, Prol. 13. § 19. Marsh's Michael, ib. sect. 9. 2 Sam. xv. 7. " After forty years Absalom said." From what ? — Syr. " four." supported by Vulg. in several MSS. and Sixtus' edit. Joseph. Ant. 7. 9. Grot, in loc. Ken. Diss. 2. p. 357. Diss. Gen. § 31. p. 46. n. Prov. xxvi. 4, 5. '* Answer not a fool according to his folly, lest thou also be like unto him. Answer a fool according to his folly, lest he be wise in his own conceit." Contradic- tory — no reason. — Syr. " According to thine oxvn wisdom.' 1 '' So Chald. inblio repeated from the preceding line. Ktn.ib. p. 359. 276. 90 COPTIC VERSIONS. 276. The Syriac version often agrees with the 70, where it differs from the present Hebrew j not by having been taken from it ; but because the MSS. use4 for both these versions agreed ; and their concurrence gives great authority to a reading followed by them. Simpn, V. T. ib. 277. In the New Testament, the Syriac version of- ten agrees with the old Italic, but was not taken from it, for they differ both in readings, and in renderings. Marsh's Michael, ib. sect. 5. 278. The coincidence, therefore, of the Syriac and the Italic versions, in any reading, has arisen from their having been made from MSS. of the same age ; and their great antiquity will generally entitle that reading to the preference. 279. Besides these ancient versions, there are others into Syriac, more modern, of the fifth and seventh cen- turies j hut they are less valuable and useful. SECT. VI. Of the other Ancient Versions. 280. The Egyptian Christians, called Copts, had an ancient version of the Scriptures, supposed to have been COPTIC VERSIONS. 91 been made about the time of the Council of Nice, into the Coptic languge, then vernacular to them, which was a mixture of the old Egyptian language, and the Greek. Simon, V.T. 1. 2. c. 16. N. T. t. 2. Michael. $ S3- Marsh's Michael, ib. sect. 13. 28 1 . There are said to be two versions in this lan- guage extant ; one, known in Europe, in which the Old Testament is thought to have been translated im- mediately from the 70, and of which the New Testa- ment has been published ; the other, used by the Ja- cobite and Melchite Christians; but, which of them is the ancient version, is uncertain. Simon ib. Michael, ib. 282. The Coptic versions are of some use in cri- ticism ; and are considerable, as having given rise to the Arabic versions, when this language came into com- mon use in Egypt. Simon, ib. 283. There are many Arabic versions of the Scrip- tures, made by Christians ; but, they are all posterior to the time of Mahomet ; and, were probably finished in the tenth, or the eleventh century. Simon, V. T. c. 16. N. T. t. 2. Michael. § 53—55. Ken. Diss. 2. p. 453. Diss. Gen. § 44. Walton, Prol. 14. § 17 23. — Beausobre, ib. Marsh's Michael, ib. sect. 15, 16. 284. 92 ARABIC VERSIONS. 284. They are unequal, inaccurate, and often pa- raphrastical. Simon, ib. 285. It is generally supposed, that the Arabic ver- sions were taken, in the Old Testament, from the Greek of the 70, or from the Syriac translations of it j and, so far as they were so, they shew the readings of these at the time when they were taken ; and, either confirm their present readings, or preserve such as have since been altered in these. Simon ib. Ken. Diss. Gen. § 44. Psal. xviii. 13. Arab, wants e * hailstones and coals of fire." So 4 Heb. MSS. 2 Sam. xxii. 14. 70. Ken. Diss. Gen. ib. Ps. Ixviii. 18. " Thou hast given gifts to men." Arab, old MSS. of 70. Syr. Ital. Eph. iv. 8. Ken. ib. § 44, 77. 286. Some of the Arabic versions, or some parts of them, appear not to have been taken from these other versions, but immediately from the Hebrew ; for they contain readings different from theirs, but confor- mable to Hebrew copies. Ken. Diss. Gen. § 44. j Kings xiii. 20. " As they sat at the table — (piska)— the word of the Lord came unto the prophet." Arab, alone supplies, " and did eat." Ken. Diss. 1. p. 477. Chap. xxii. 19 — ." Hear thou the word of the Lord." Heb. 70. Syr. " Hear ye n (Jehoshaphat and Ahab). Arab. 7 Heb. MSS. Ezek. ETHIOPIC VERSION. 93 Ezek. xxxvii. 4. " Again he said unto me." Arab, adds, " Son of man." So 6 MSS. Chald. v. 3, 9, 1 1, &c. 287. The Arabic versions of the New Testament are thought to be made, from the Greek, in the Gos- pels, and from the Syriac, in the Epistles. 288. Of the Arabic versions, there are many MSS. differing much from one another ; and, different edi- tions, but, some of them altered according to the Vul- gate. Walton, Prol. 14. § 18—23. 289. There was an early version of the Scriptures into' the Ethiopic, or the language of the Abyssinians ; and, as one only is known, this is probably the same which has been oftener than once published, and which agrees much with the Alexandrian MS. Chrysost. Walton, Prol. 15. § io, 12. Beausobre, Intr. Marsh's Michael, ib. sect. 17. 290. The Ethiopic version of the Old Testament was not taken from the Hebrew, but closely follows the 70 ; that of the New is immediately from the Greek ; and better in the Gospels, than in the Epistles. Simon, V. T. 1. 2. c. 16. N. T. t. 2. Houbig. Prol. Mi- chael. § 56. Walton, ib. § 10, 1 1. 291. This version has some peculiar readings ; many of them erroneous j but, where it appears to be exact, its antiquity gives it considerable authority. Walton, ib. § 12. 2 94. 94 PERSIC VERSIONS. 292. The Armenians are said to have made a ver- sion of the scriptures, into their own language, in the fourth century, immediately from the Syriac ; but, they afterwards translated the New Testament from the ori- ginal Greek. Simon, V. T. ib. N. T. ib. Michael. § 57. Beausobrc, ib. Marsh's Michael, ib. sect. 18, 19. 293. In the thirteenth century, the ancient Arme- nian version was altered in some places, according to the Vulgate ; with these alterations the subsequent MSS. were written ; and, when it was published, some other alterations, conformable to the Vulgate, were adopted ; but, it still retains some of its old readings. Simon, ib. Michael. § 58. Beausobre, ib. Mat. xxvii. 16, 17. " Jesus Barabbas." singular j but mention- ed as a common reading by Origen, Horn. 35. on Matt. 294. If the Persians had anciently a version of the Scriptures into their language, it is probably lost; for all the Persic versions known to us, are reckoned modern. Simon, V. T. c. 16. N. T. t. 2. c. 17. Michael. § $9. Walton, Prol. 16. § 6. Beausobre, ib. 295. Two Persic versions have been published, both of which appear to have been taken from the Syriac. Jid. ib. Walton, ib. § 7, 8, 9. Marsh's Michael, ib. sect. 20. 296. It is said, however, that there are several MSS. of the Persic version, considerably different from both MODERN VERSIONS. 95 both these editions ; and, that another version, per- haps more ancient than either, is used by the Persians in their public service. SECT. VII. Of Modern Versions. 296. The several nations in the Western church had versions of the Scriptures into their vernacular lan- guages, which were taken immediately from the Vul- gate ; but, most of them are now lost. Simon, V. T. 1. 2. c. i, 22. Johnson, Histor. Account. 297. There are, however, several Anglo-Saxon ver- sions of the Bible, or of parts of it, in MSS. and of which the Gospels have been published ; and appear to be taken from the old Italic. Michael. § 72. Johnson, ib. Marsh's Michael, ib. sect. 38. 298. The version of the four Gospels, called Co- dex Argenteus, was generally supposed to be a part of the Gothic version of Ulphilas -, but, is affirmed by those who have examined it most carefully, to be an old Frankish version, made, after the middle of the sixth century, immediately from the Greek, scrupu- lously literal, and therefore fit for shewing the read- ings of the copies used for it. Michael. 96 MODERN VERSIONS. Michael. § 68, &c. Beausobre, Intr. Marsh's Michael, ib. sect. 31, &c. 299. The more modern versions are, either into La- tin, or into the vernacular languages ; and both are made, either by Papists, or by Protestants. Simon, V. T. c. 1, 20. SOO. Most of the Latin versions by Papists, are made according to the present Masoretic text, the mo- dern punctuation, and the interpretations of the Rab- bins ; aim at being extremely literal ; and, by this means, are rude, barbaroiis, and often obscure j as, those of the Old Testament, by Pagninus, Arias Mon- tanus, Malvenda, Cajetan. Simon, ib. Brett, ib. Beausobre, ib. 301. Others of them are only editions of the Vul- gate, with some corrections, as Clarius's, &c. 302. Houbigant has given a new version of the Old Testament, not according to the present He- brew, but according to the text, as he thought it should be corrected by MSS. ancient versions, and critical conjectures. 303. Among, Protestants, Munster gave a Latin version of the Old Testament, from the Hebrew, ac- cording to the punctuation and interpretation of the Rabbins. 304. Leo Juda began another, which was finished by Bibliander, likewise from the Hebrew ; rather free than MODERN VERSIONS. 97 than literal ; and the New Testament was added by- others. Simon, V. T. ib. Brett, ib. Beausobre, ib. 305. Castalio gave a version of the Bible, from the originals, without adhering scrupulously to the receiv- ed reading, in which he studied, chiefly, to express the sense in elegant and classical Latin. 306. Junius and Tremellius gave a version of the Old Testament, exactly according to the received text, and punctuation, and were peculiar in expressing the article by demonstrative pronouns. 307. There are several versions, likewise, of the New Testament, from Greek into Latin, by Protestants ; as Beza's, which has the peculiarity of rendering the article by demonstrative pronouns, but is generally and highly esteemed. Walton, Prol. 4. Beausobre, ib. Macknight, ib. 308. Some Protestants have satisfied themselves with only correcting the Vulgate version, according to the originals, as the Osianders. Brett, ib. 309. In consequence of the Reformation from Po- pery, the original Scriptures were translated into most of the modern languages of Europe ; first, by Luther, into German, whose version, though net scrupulously literal, is sufficiently accurate ; was, oftener than once, revised and corrected by himself, as well as by others h since ; *)8 MODERN VERSIONS. since ; and has been translated into the Swedish, Da~ nish, and other northern languages ; next, by Leo Juda, likewise into German, for the use of the Zuing.- lians. Simon, V. T. I. 2. c. I. 23. 3 IP. The Scriptures were translated into French, at Geneva, by Olivetanus ; the preferable renderings in the text, and others, particularly from the 70, in the margin. This version was corrected, chiefly as to the language, by Calvin ; and, again, by Bertram, B?za, and others ; and has, since, from time to time, under- gone some alterations of the same sort. Simon, ib. c. I, 24. 311. By order of the Synod of Dordt, a version was made into the Dutch language, in place of Lu- ther's, which had been used till then ; and well exe- cuted by the learned men who undertook it. Simon, ib. c. 23. 312. There are two versions of the Old Testament into Spanish, in which Pagnin is chiefly followed. Simon, ib. 313. Diodati made a version into Italian, (afterwards translated into French) which follows the 70, in many places where he thought the Hebrew corrupted, and is free, perspicuous, and highly esteemed, Simon, ib. 314. DISTINCTIONS OF VERSIONS. < 9 314: There have been several English versions of the Scriptures ; WicklifFs ; Tyndal's ; Coverdale's ; the Bishops' Bible ; the Geneva Bible ; our present version, the alterations of the latter of which, from the earlier, have not always been for the better ; ail of them, except the first, taken from the originals, none of them, however, particularly not our present version, adhering servilely to the common Masoretic reading of the Old Testament, but, rendering according to the emendations which were judged necessary, especially such as are suggested by the ancient versions. Simon, ib. c. I, 23. Ken. Diss. Gen. § 89. note 108. Beau- sobre, ib. Johnson's Histor. Account: Macknight, ib. 315. In opposition to the vernacular versions of Protestants, Popish versions have been made into se- veral languages ; generally from the Vulgate, but not very accurate. Simon, ib. c. 22. 316. Besides versions peculiar to the Old Testa- ment, and versions extending to the whole Scriptures, there is a third class, those of particular books. SECT. VIII. Distinctions of Versions. 317. In recollecting the account which has been given of the versions of Scripture, it readily occurs, H 2 that 100 DISTINCTIONS OF VERSIONS, that they are distinguishable into different classes, and that these several classes are useful, in different ways, and different degrees. 318. Versions are either ancient or modern. The ancient may serve both for ascertaining the true read- ing, and for interpreting the sense ; the modern can answer only the latter of these purposes. 319. Versions are either independent, taken imme- diately from the originals ; or derived, rendered from another version. 320. To which of these classes a version belongs, may be known either by testimony, or by internal marks. Thus, a version shews itself to be derived, by copying the errors or peculiarities of another, by co- inciding with another in very obscure and doubtful passages, by mistaken renderings, accountable only from a natural misconception of the language of another. 321. Independent versions alone are directly useful for ascertaining the readings of the original j derived versions can shew only the ancient reading of the ver- sion from which they were taken ; but may, by preser- ving it, contribute indirectly to the emendation of the original. 322. Versions are either literal, expressing the ori- ginal, word for word ; or free, intended to give the sense clearly, without adhering scrupulously to the ' words. 323. DISTINCTIONS OF VERSIONS. 101 323. Literal versions shew the readings of the co- pies from which they were taken ; and they are the fit- test for public use, as being simplest, most permanent- ly intelligible, and not unduly limiting the sense. Simon passim. Michael. § 73. 324. A version is too literal, when it retains idioms which, in the language of the version, convey a sense totally different from that of the original. 325. But, to be truly literal, a version should retain the turn of expression of the origmal, as far as it is at all consistent with the language of that version ; peculiar idioms, it should render in words expressive of their sense; ambiguous words or phrases, it should trans- late, if possible, by such as are equally ambiguous ; it should neither unnecessarily depart from the order of words in the original, nor adhere to it in cases where it would render the sense equivocal ; it should, as far as possible, preserve the manner and spirit of the ori- ginal. o 326. Free versions always determine the original to one certain sense, rendering obscure expressions by such as are clear, and ambiguous expressions by words an- swering only to one of their significations. They are, thus, a sort of commentary ; but give only the interpre- tation, without the reasons of it. H 3 SECT. 102 ' USE OF VERSIONS. SECT. IX. Of the Use of Versions for determining Headings. 327. The original Hebrew of the Old Testament, and Greek of the New, are the fountains and standards, by which all versions ought to be examined ; but it fol- lows not from this, that versions may not be of use, for determining the true reading, and of authority, for esta- blishing a reading different from that which is now com- monly received. Walton, Prol. 6. § 8. Prol. 7. Houbig. Prol.c. 3. a. 3. Ken. Diss. 2. p. 323. Diss. Gen. \ 44 — 49, 63, 136. PfafF. cap. 12. can. 2. 328. To allow this authority to versions, is not to prefer a copy to the original ; it is only to collect from them, what was the reading in the MSS. of the origi- nal from which they were taken ; and, because these were more ancient and more correct than any which we now have, to prefer that reading to what is found in later and less correct transcripts. 329. But in applying versions to this purpose, seve- ral cautions are necessary for our determining how the translators really read. 330. USE OF VERSIONS, 103 330. The versions have undergone alterations and corruptions, by transcribers, even more than the origi- nals. Before adopting, therefore, a reading from a version, we must be certain that it is in that place un- corrupted ; and, for this purpose, a correction of the several ancient versions, by a collation of all the known copies of them, would be of great importance. Simon, V. T. 1. 3. c. i. 331 . It is only when it appears that translators under- stood the original, and rendered justly from it, that their version can give authority to a particular reading. 332. From their adding or omitting words, agree- ably to the genius of the language in which they wrote, it cannot be inferred, that they found in their copies words answering to these. Michael, § 29. 333. When they give a sense equivalent to that of the present copies of the original, though not literal, we ought not to presume that they read differently. Michael, ib. Walton, Prol. 6. § II. 334. Sometimes, even when they seem to give the sense of a reading different from the present, they yet had the same reading, but affixed to the word another signification ; and, therefore, in order to ascertain the readings followed by them, an accurate knowledge of the original languages, in their full extent, is highly needful. H 1 Simon, 10'i USE OF VERSIONS. Simon, V. T. 1. 2. c. 5. Psal. xxii. title, nVx, commonly, " kind/ 1 70. arnAtivj"? " defence, assistance." But they read not differently, for they render VTiVn ver. 19. Bon3-ft«*. Simon, ib. c. 7. 335. But, there are cases, in which it is clear that the authors of the ancient versions had readings in the ori- ginal different from the present, and what these read- ings were ; as, when the expression in both is perfectly definite, or when the version suits a word very similar to the present ; and, in these cases, both readings ought to be fairly compared and examined, and that prefer- red which is on the whole best supported. Simon, V. T. I. i. c. 11. 1. 2. c. 5. Houbig. Prol. Wal- ton, ib. § 9, 10. Gen. ii. 2. " On the seventh day God ended his work." Heb. Chald.— " Ttitt>\ n 70. Sam. Syr. Simon, ib. Houbig. ib. & in loc. Cleric, in loc. 336. A reading, certainly expressed in an ancient version, is of the same authority as if it had been found in a MS. of the age when that version was made ; and consequently, of greater authority than if found in any single MS. now extant j and that in proportion to the superior antiquity of the version. 337. Though it would seem, that no single version can have sufficient authority to establish a reading, in opposition to the copies of the original, and the other versions, yet, in some very particular cases, it may have even USE OF VERSIONS. 105 even this authority ; as, for instance, when there is evi- dence that the original and the other versions have been corrupted in that place. 338. In like manner, if the present reading of the original be absurd, or yield no sense, a single version may give probability to another reading, especially when from it the present reading might have naturally ari- sen. 339. The reading of a single ancient version may receive considerable weight, from its being suitable to the sense, the connexion, or parallel places. Num. xxii. 22. " And God's anger was kindled, because he went, — and the angel of the Lord stood," &c. Arab, inserts, " from greediness," according to 2 Peter ii. 14. Some Heb. MSS. Ken. in loc. and Diss. Gen. § 44, 165. Prov. xix. 1. " Better is the poor that walketh in his integrity, than he that is perverse in his lips, and is a fool." No anti- thesis in poor and fool, walketh and lips, no sentiment. Syr. " ways, though he be rich." This gives a proper sense. VSTi, " ways," in above 30 MSS. "liwjr, " rich'''' Collect, var. read. (Ken. Diss. 2. p. 286.) Vulg. " dives et insipiens." Confirmed by Prov. xxviii. 6. Houbig. in loc. Ken. in loc. & Diss. 1. p. 509. Diss. 2. p. 287. Diss. Gen. § 179. 340. The concurrence of several independent an- cient versions in a reading, renders it highly probable ; as it shews the concurrence of at least as many very ancient MSS. perhaps of different ages and countries. 341. 106 USE OF VERSIONS. 341. The concurrence of all the ancient versions in a reading, is sufficient for establishing it, though it should not be found in any MSS. now extant ; for it shews that it took place in many MSS. so ancient, that a few of them ought to outweigh a great number of such as are vastly more modern* 342. If a reading indicated by any, by several, or by all the ancient versions, is likewise found in some MSS. still extant, this will add to the authority of such reading, proportionably to the number or antiquity of the MSS. provided that neither have these been al- tered in conformity to the versions, nor the versions in conformity to them. 343. If, in the books of Moses, the reading follow- ed by ancient versions be likewise found in the Samari- tan Pentateuch, this makes a great addition to the evi- dence which they would have otherwise had, and ge- nerally renders them certain. 344. When all the copies of the original, and all the versions, agree in a reading it is certainly the true one ; and, as that is, in general, the case, we have absolute assurance of the authenticity and purity of the scriptures in general, greater assurance than with regard to any other book whatever. SECT. USE OF VERSIONS. J 07 SECT. X. Of the Use of Versions for Interpretation. 345. Versions contribute much to the interpretation of Scripture. 346. It is only by means of versions, that they who are ignorant of the original languages can at all learn what the Scripture contains ; and, every version, so far as it is just, conveys the sense of scripture to those who understand the language in which it is writ- ten. 347. Though they who have the means of under- standing the originals, especially the teachers of reli- gion, ought not to satisfy themselves with versions, yet there is scarcely any version, which does not express the sense of scripture, so far as it is absolutely neces- sary to be known by those, who have no other means of learning it. 348. Versions give great assistance for understand- ing the sense of Scripture, even to those who are ac- quainted with the originals, wherever the translators were more skiful in these languages, or bestowed greater attention, or had superior advantages of any kind. 349. 108 USE OF VERSIONS. 349. As some versions are made with greater skill and exactness than others, and some parts of every version, with greater than other parts of it ; the compa- rison of different versions, and the selection of the pre- ferable renderings from them all, would contribute very much to our obtaining the true sense of scripture. 350. Neither the ancient versions, nor the modern, ought to be preferred absolutely, and in all cases ; for the deviations of later translators from the renderings of the earlier, are sometimes to the better, and some- times to the worse. 351. Though it be certain, that the authors of the ancient versions often followed readings different from those in the present text ; yet, in many cases, we ought to conclude, that they only rendered the reading which we still have, in a sense not affixed to it by the mo- derns j as, when they frequently give the same render- ings of the same word, or, when that word has still, in any of the kindred languages, the same signification which they assign to it. Houbig. Prol. c. 3. a. 4. 352. Significations of words, in this manner pointed out by the ancient versions, are significations which we may be sure that the words really had ; and we may, without scruple, prefer them to the more modern and common renderings, when the sense or other circum- stances give countenance to them. 353. USE OF VERSIONS. 109 353. The ancient versions, being the works of men who had several advantages above the moderns for un- derstanding the original languages, and the phraseolo- gy of scripture ; and, those of the Old Testament, in particular, being one of the principal means by which the knowledge of the Hebrew was recovered, and, by more careful attention to which, it might be rendered still more perfect ; there can be no doubt but they ge- nerally give us the true sense of scripture, and that, often in places where we could scarcely have discovered it by any other means. Pocock. Porta Mosis, c. I. Michael. § 46. 354. That a version may exhibit the true sense of scripture, it must translate it as it really lies, without regard to any consequences which may seem to follow from a genuine translation, or, to the prejudices or pe- culiar tenets of the translator ; but, very few versions are perfectly unexceptionable in this respect. 355. A version of the scriptures might be made, which would exhibit the sense of scripture more truly and accurately than any now extant, though it would be attended with great difficulties ; and none can, per- haps, be expected absolutely unexceptionable. 356. Such a version should not scrupulously adhere to the text, as commonly received, but follow those rea- dings which appear to be most genuine ; and, for this purpose, it is pre-requisite to our obtaining such a ver- sion, that the preferable readings should be everywhere ascertained, 110 USE OF VERSIONS. ascertained, by a collation of the copies, not only of the original, but also of the several ancient versions ; and it would be proper that, when a reading is found clear- ly preferable, it should be translated; but, when the true reading is doubtful, the commonly received one should be rendered in the text ; and that, in both cases, the renderings of all the other readings which have any de- gree of plausibility, should be marked in the margin. Simon, V.T.I. 3. c. 1. 357. In such a version, that meaning of the original words should be given in every place, which appears to be in that place most proper ; in determining which, the translator should not confine himself to those signi- fications of words which have been adopted by the Rab- bins, and from them by modern Lexicographers ; but should attend to all the significations which either kin- dred languages or ancient versions shew to have really belonged to the words ; and, while the text expresses what appears to be the genuine translation of every pas- sage, the different senses of which the word is capable, especially those which it clearly has in other places, should be marked in the margin, if they can be at all applicable in that passage. Simon, ib. c. 2. 358. Such idioms of the original languages as are ambiguous, should be either retained in the version, or rendered in words capable of the same ambiguity ; but, idioms which have a clear and precise import, should not be copied, but expressed in that form of words which, USE -OF VERSIONS. Ill which, in the language into which the version is made, express that import with greatest propriety and exact- ness. 359. A. version of the Scripture should be varied, so as to express the spirit and manner of the several parts of it. This will be most effectually done, not by ser- vilely copying the style of the original, but , by exhibit- ing the several sentiments and affections painted by it, in those terms which one possessed by the same senti- ments and affections, would naturally use for expres- sing them in the language of the version ; and, by pre- serving the same species of style which, according to the usage of that language, comes nearest to the style of the original. Lowth's Isaiah, Prelim. Diss. p. 35, &c. 360. So many things being pre-requisite to a perfect version of the scriptures, all of which have not been as yet even attempted, it must be long before a perfect version can be expected ; and indeed, the difficulties are so great, particularly, in everywhere determining the best reading and the true sense, that, with all the means which we have of surmounting them, a version of the whole scripture, absolutely perfect, can scarcely, per- haps, be at all expected ; but, every approach to it is highly desirable and important. Simon, V. T. 1. 3. c. 1 — 4. CHAR 112 CIRCUMSTANCES OF SCRIPTURE. CHAP. V. The Circumstances relating to the Books of Scripture, 361. There are several circumstances relating to the books of scripture, knowledge of which is, in some degree or other, useful in criticism j the species of composition, the author, the time, the occasion of writing, the design of the book, its plan, and the con- nexion of the parts. Glass. Pliilol. Sacr. 1. 2. p. 2. sect. 2. 362. When these circumstances cannot be ascer- tained, as in some cases they are not easily or certain- ly determinable, it necessarily occasions some measure of obscurity or ambiguity. 363. But, in many cases, these several circumstances may be determined with certainty, or with considerable probability ; either externally, by testimony ; or, in- ternally, from hints and indications in the books them- selves ; and, wherever they can, they throw light, some more, some less, upon the scriptures. SECT. KINDS OF COMPOSITION. 113 SECT. I. Of the Kinds of Composition in Scripture. 364. The Scripture consists of many books, on dif- ferent subjects, belonging to different species of com- position, and written in different manners ; each of which has its peculiar structure and rules ; and, these must be attended to, and understood, in order to our entering thoroughly into either its sense, or its beauties. 365. In respect of their subjects, the books of Scripture are, historical, didactical, devotional, or pro- phetical; and, in respect of their manner of composi- tion, either prosaical, or poetical. 366. All the books of the New Testament, and all the historical books of the Old, are written in prose ; the rest of the Old Testament is, in general, poetical. 367. The history of the Bible is, properly, sacred history -, it is the history of the world, considered pre- cisely as God's world, as wholly governed by him ; and is directly calculated for unfolding the designs of his providence. Butler's Anal. p. 2. 368. The prevailing character of the Scripture his- tory is simplicity. 1 369. 114/ KINDS OF COMPOSITION. 369. The whole of Scripture history is carried on in a dramatic manner, introducing persons as speak- ing and conferring ; which has great simplicity, and a great effect in expressing sentiments, suited to particular characters, whether good or bad. Kaimes' Sketches. 5. 2. 370. All the didactic books of the New Testament are in prose ; and in the epistolary form, which occa- sions several peculiarities, necessary to be attended to, for understanding them ; and they consist, almost whol- ly, of argumentation and morality. 3?1. All the didactical and devotional books of the Old Testament, with some hymns and songs, inter- spersed in the other books, are generally acknow- ledged to be poetical ; though the precise nature and rules of Hebrew metre, cannot, now, be accurately de- fined. 37-. The prophetical parts of the New Testament are certainly in prose ; and it has been the general opi- nion, that the prophetical books of the Old Testa- ment are likewise in prose 5 but, that these are, for the most part, though not the whole of them, really po- etical, s: ms now to be proved with sufficient evidence, particularly from the conformity of their structure, to that of the confessedly poetical books, in every essen- tial circumstance. Lcnvtb, Poes. Hebr. prelect. 18, 19. Prel. Diss. p. 2, &c. Herder'a Dialogues on Hebrew Pottry. 373. KINDS OF COMPOSITION. 115 S73. The true pronunciation of the Hebrew lan- guage having been lost for many ages, the precise nature of its poetry cannot now be discovered ; but, it seems plainly to be characterised by periods of corre- spondent members, one synonymous with ', amplify- ing *, or contrasted to, another 3 ; and similar in their length and structure ; all which appears even in a li= teral version. Lowth, Prel. Diss. p. n, &c. Herder, ib. 1 Psal. ii. i. — " Why do the heathen rage, And the people imagine a vain thing ? 3. Let us break their bands asunder, And cast away their cords from us. 3 Psal. iii. 3. — But thou, O Lord, art a shield for mej My glory and the lifter up of my head. 3 Prov. x. i. — A wise son maketh a glad father 5 But a foolish son is the heaviness of his mother." 374. The Hebrew poetry is remarkable for con- ciseness j the sentences are short, no superfluous words* 375. It is, likewise, highly figurative, and abounds with the noblest and most beautiful metaphors, and comparisons, derived from a variety of sources ; pro- sopopeias ; bold transitions ; abrupt change of per- sons ; and, in general, all the acknowledged ornaments of discourse. 876. In consequence of both these qualities, it is strong, bold, and nervous. ">77. It is a great beauty in the Hebrew poetry, and t 2 contri- 116 KINDS OF COMPOSITION. contributes much to perspicuity, that the same set of images are constantly appropriated to the same sub- jects . Lowth's Isa. ii. 13. " Mountains," for states. " Cedars, oaks," potentates, princes. " Towers, fortresses," protectors. " Ships," mer- chants. 378. The Bible exhibits specimens of almost all kinds of poetry ; agreeing in the same general fea- tures, but with differences suitable to the peculiar na- ture of each ; didactic, in the Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and many of the Psalms ; elegiac, in Jeremiah's La- mentation, and several lesser pieces ; pastoral, in So- lomon's Song ; and lyric, in hymns, as most of the Psalms, and several interspersed both in the historical and prophetical books ; besides Job, the nature of which is disputed. 379. Besides all these, the Bible contains a species of poetry peculiar to itself, the prophetical ; which, though perhaps scarcely distinguishable from the o- thers, in respect of its poetry, is, in respect of its sub- ject, prediction, a very peculiar kind of composition ; but, most of its peculiarities being such as occasion difficulties, they belong, most properly, to the second part. S80. The structure of the Hebrew poetry, some- times serves for detecting a mistake in our present co- pies, and for suggesting or confirming the true read- ing. Lowth KINDS OF COMPOSITION. 117 Lowth, Prel. Diss. p. 37, 40. Psal. xxxviii. 19. " Mine enemies lively (O^n living) they are strong ; And they that hate me wrongfully are multiplied. 1 ' Lively is not synonymous with wrongfully — suggests &3rr, without cause. This confirmed from Psal. lxix. 4. where this word is put parallel to *lpU>, here used ; but where there seems to be another mistake. Literally it runs, *' They are multiplied more than the hairs of my head, that hate me without cause; They are encreased that would destroy me y (^rvraSffa) mine enemies wrongfully." Not parallel — suggests inttltfn, " more than my locks." So 7 MSS. Lowth, ib. 381. The structure of the Hebrew poetry may like- wise contribute to the interpretation of scripture, by in- dicating in what sense an obscure or ambiguous word ought to be taken in a particular place. Lowth, ib. p. 37—39. Isa. xxviii. 14. " Wherefore, hear the word of the Lord, ye scoffers, Ye who rule (>bufta) this people in Jerusalem." The word signifies not only to rule, but to speak parables or sententious sayings, which is parallel to scoffers. One of their sayings is instanced in ver. 15. " We have made a covenant with death, And with hell are we at agreement.'''' So 7"ttn must, from the nature of the poetry, signify here, as well as niT,n v. 18. but it does so nowhere else. Louth, ib. Vitringa in loc. I 3 Ver, 118 AUTHORS OF BOOKS. Ver. 1 8. " Your covenant with death shall be broken, And your agreement with hell shall not stand.'* Either I'D must here signify to break, which it does nowhere else ; or more probably, the true reading is isn. Chald- So Isa. viii. io. Lowth, ib. Houbig. in loc. SECT. II. Of the Authors of the Boohs of Scripture. 382. To know who are the authors of the several books of Scripture, is necessary, chiefly for establish- ing their authority and inspiration ; in which light it belongs to another part of our plan ; but it is, in some degree, conducive likewise to our understanding them ; and, it is in this view only, that it claims our present notice. 383. We are abundantly certain concerning the authors of most of the books of Scripture, though we be ignorant of many particulars about them, which it might be desirable or useful to know. 384. Though all the authors of Scripture be in- spired, yet, in regard to their manner of writing, they are left to follow each his own genius, turn of thought, and mode of expression ; in all which there is great diversity ; and attention to this will contribute to our reading AUTHORS OF BOOKS. 119 reading their works both with pleasure and with ad- vantage. 385. An author's peculiar character may some- times contribute to our determining the true reading ; for, among various readings, equally supported, that ought to be preferred, which is agreeable to the au- thor's style and manner. 386. But, knowledge of the author's history, situ- ation, and manner of conceiving and expressing things, contributes much more to our entering into his full meaning, and is often absolutely necessary for this purpose. 387. An author's situation, and circumstances, will sometimes account for his choice of matter, for his omitting some topics, and enlarging upon others. Mark is silent concerning tilings honourable to Peter, and large on his faults. He was his companion, and wrote from his information. Lardner's Credibility, Supplem. c. 7. § 5, 8. Jones's Method of Canon. P. 3. 388. In the historical books of Scripture, there is great uniformity of manner j though, even in these, some minute varieties may be discerned, together with considerable differences of style. 389. In the poetical and prophetical books, there is very great variety y every writer having his own cha- racter and manner very strongly marked. 1 4 Lowth 120 AUTHORS OF BOOKS. Louth, Sac. Poes. Heb. prelect, it. Prelim. Diss, to Isaiah. Blair, Rhet. lect. 41. David various, but excels in the tender. Ibid. The writer of Job highly figurative, and characterised by strength of description. Isaiah has all the excellencies of composition, but is eminent for sublimity. Ibid. Jeremiah is tender and pathetic. Ibid. Ezekiel is bold, vehement, and ardent, and often enigmati- cal. Ibid. Hosea is concise and sententious, lively, but obscure. Ibid, and Horsley's Hosea. Amos has no very remarkable characteristic. Ibid. Micah is concise and lively, often elevated and vehement. Ibid. Joel elegant, clear, fluent and figurative. Ibid. Nahum is august, bold, and regular. Ibid. 390. The other parts of Scripture, in which pecu- liarities of manner chiefly appear, are the argumenta- tive parts. The principal of these are the writings of Paul, who was plainly a man eminent for extensive views, warmth of imagination, and quickness of con- ception ; and this turn of mind occasions several pecu- liarities in his manner, which it is absolutely necessary to attend to, in order to our understanding his epistles. Locke's Essay on Epistles. Taylor, Pref. to Romans. Macknight on Epistles, Ess. 3. Care to guard against exceptions producing long parentheses. Rom. ii. 12. connected with v. 16. the intermediate verses a parenthesis, guarding against exceptions to both his as- sertions in v. 12. Locke, Taylor, Macknight, in loc. Carry- TIMES OF WRITING. 121 Carrying on different designs at once. Rom. xiii. I — 8. prin- cipally ' the duty of subjects, 1 but along with this, ' the grounds and end of civil government.' Jid. Prosecuting a design by complicated means* SECT. III. Of the Times of writing tlie Books of Scripture. 391. The books of Scripture are the works of diffe- rent, and very distant, ages ; and each of them bears some characters, derived from the age in which it was written. 392. The age, in which almost all the books of Scripture were written, is easily enough determined. 393. Though there be great difficulty in ascertain- ing the precise date of many of the books of Scrip- ture, yet, that of several of them may be determined with sufficient evidence ; and, whenever it can be deter- mined, it will shew the beauty of some figure, the force of some expression, or the full meaning of some passage. 394. Hence, it has often been mentioned, as what would be of considerable use, that the books of Scrip- ture be placed, or, at least, read, in the order in which they were written. 395. 122 TIMES OF WRITING. 395. Knowledge of the time when a book was written, sometimes shews the reason, and the propriety of things said in it. I Thess. v. 27. " I charge (»£*<£«) you by the Lord, that this Epistle be read unto all the holy brethren." So solemn an adjuration seems unnecessary. But this was the first written book of the New Testament ; only the Old Testa- ment was publicly read before. It is a charge to read this as an inspired book 5 a declaration that it is canonical. This was proper, and extends to the after books of apostles. Lardner's Credibility, Supplem. c. 12. § 2. c. 25. § 2. 396. Inattention to, or ignorance of, the real date of a book, often occasions mistakes concerning the meaning of particular passages. Lardner, ib. c. 12. 2 Cor. xi. 25. K Thrice I suffered shipwreck." That mention- ed Act. xxvii. not one of these, for it was posterior to his writing. Lardner, ib. 1 Cor. xv. 32. "I have fought with beasts at Ephesus." It refers not to Demetrius's riot, Acts xix. for that was poste- rior to his writing. Probably he had, before this, been real- ly exposed to fight with wild beasts, intimated by his saying, bmi T»a " hailstones and cosls of fixe," abrupt. Sam. ^na nya " they were kindled into coals of fire," right. v. 14. Psal. irregular, 3 hemistichs ; the last, " hailstones and coals of fire," improper; wanting in 4 MSS. 70. Ital. and in Sam. they have been taken from the pre- ceding verse. Ken. Diss. 1. p. 464, &c. Diss. 2. p. 564, &c. et in loc. Diss. Gen. § 113, 118, 140, 179. Psal. cv. 1—15. differs from 1 Chron. xyi. 8 — 22. in so very few places, that these differences seem to have arisen from corruptions. Psal. v. 5. V5, " his mouth," irregular. 1TTS in above 30 MSS. Chron. v. 12, and in all copies. Psal. v. 6. " Ye seed of Abraham -J" 1 but, in io MSS. " Israel." Chron. v. 13. " Israel," but, in 2 MSS. H Ab- raham." Psal. v. 8. *Of, " He hath remembered," right, connexion. Chron. v. 15, VlDr, " Remember ye." So 3 MSS. of Psal. Psal. v. 12. Gamma, " when they were." connexion. Chron. v. 19. G20mm.H, " when ye were." So 25 MSS. of Psal. Ken. in loc. L 3 466. 150 PARALLEL PASSAGES. 466. If, in such parallel passages, the sense be ma- nifestly contradictory, we are sure that one of them has been corrupted ; and should endeavour to discover which it is, and to correct it, either from the parallel place, or, by any other means in our power. 467. But when, in two such passages, the sense is the same, though the words be different, we must be very cautious in supposing a false reading in either ; for, in many cases, it is evident, that the sacred writers meant not to confine themselves to the same words, but only to express the same sense ; and, by not observing this rule, transcribers and critics have been led into many mistakes. Cleric. Harm. Evang. Diss. 2. c. 2. Macknight, Obs. I. Michael. § 15. Psal. cxv. 4 — 11. Psal. cxxxv. 15 — 20. Ken. in loc. Isa. ii. 2 — 4. Mic. iv. 1 — 3. There is no presumption that the very same words were intended to be used. Isa. TWt* J133, Mic. pa rviv ; Isa. o-nr, Mic. a*\$ ; Isa. xu>:t, Mic. Ntn KIWI ; Isa. £3*0 n Si, Mic. D^P (3 MSS. Si) j Isa. CD'ai £3V2yb, " many peoples," Mic. pim "W OTOXJJ ts^liib, " strong nations from afar." There is no reason to correct either, though some have proposed it. Lowth's Isa. in loc. Matth. sxvi. 26, 27, 28. Mark xiv. 22, 23, 24. Luke xxii. 19, 20. 1 Cor. xi. 23, 24, 25. The words of the institution are different, but not to be assimilated 5 they are intended only to express the sense. Macknight, ib. 468. When, among various readings, one agrees exactly PARALLEL PASSAGES. 151 exactly with a parallel place, the other only in sense, the former is often, for that very reason, suspicious, and, except it be well supported by authority, the lat- ter will, generally, deserve the preference. Michael, ib. 469. Even when passages are most exactly similar in themselves, the occasions, or the application of them, may contribute to our understanding their full mean- ing. The promises to Abraham, Gen. xii. 3. to Isaac, ch. xxi. 12, xxvi. 4. and to Jacob, ch. xxviii. 14. though in the same words, successively limit the expectation of the Messiah. , Gerard, vol. 1. Serm. 6. Isa. vi. 9, io. is referred to six times in the New Testament ; Mat. xiii. 14. Markiv. 12. Luke viii. 10. John xii. 40. Acts xxviii. 27. Rom. xi. 8. 5 a comparison of all which places will give light to it. 470. Even when passages are very much parallel, a clear and precise expression, in one of them, may illus- trate one more obscure and ambiguous, in another. 471. Secondly, those passages of Scripture are pa- rallel, which relate the same facts. They are nume- rous ; and the comparison of them with one another is productive of great advantage. Many parts of Gen. are parallel to 1 Cbron. — Many parts of Exod. Lev. Num. to Deut. — Sam. King, to Chron. — 2 Kings x viii. 13, &c. and 2 Chron. xxxii. &c. to Isa. xxxvi, Stc.-T-the Gospels. L 4 472. 152 PARALLEL PASSAGES. 472. Such passages often serve for correcting false readings in each other, and may be legitimately ap- plied to this purpose ; particularly in proper names, and numbers ; when the sense of them, as they stand, is irreconcileable ; when the false reading might have arisen from the true, by a natural mistake, or, when it is contradicted by copies or versions. Josh. xxi. 13 — 37. 1 Chron. vi. 42 — 66. The 48 cities of the Levites ; but only 44 in Josh, according to the Masoretic Hebrew, and only 42 in Chron. There are also surprising differences in their names. Ken. in loc. Deut. ii. 26. " with words of peace." wanting in Num. xxi. 21. but found in the Samaritan. Deut. v. 28. M thou shalt sell me meat for money, that I may eat 5 and give me wa- ter for money, that I may drink. ; only I will pass through on my feet." wanting in Num. but in the Samar. 473. But, wherever none of these circumstances take place, it is probable that the different readings found in suqh passages, were originally intended, and neither of them ought to be corrected by the other. 474. Flain and direct expressions, in one narration, explain such as are difficult, in another narration of the same fact. Mark xiv. 72. N° 162. 475. In different relations of the same fact, circum- stances, omitted in one of them, but fit for throwing light upon it, may be often supplied from the other. Mat. ii. 1, Sec. simply relates that Jesus was born at Bethle- hem, PARALLEL PASSAGES. 153 hem, and refers to Micah's prediction of it. But Luke ii. I — 4. informs us of the reason of it, which accounts for it, and renders the accomplishment the more remarkable. 476. Thirdly, passages are parallel, in which the same words or idioms are used in different connexions, or on different subjects ; and the comparison of such passages is of very great utility, for ascertaining the meaning of these words or idioms. Glass, ib. 477. If any one sense of a word be proper, and suitable, in all the places where it occurs, that is most likely to be the true sense of it. Pearoe on 1 Cor. ix. 27. 'TyixmnFx ^^xo-kxXix, " sound doctrine j" the simple doctrine of revelation, as opposed to subtleties, and as practical j 1 Tim. i. 10. vi. 3. 2 Tim. i. 13. iv. 3. Tit. i. 9. ii. 1, 2,8. Gerard, vol. 2. serm. 5, Aixiitupx, translated very variously; Luke i. 6. Heb. ix. 1, 10. " ordinance." Rom. i. 32. Rev. xv. 4. "judgment. 1 ' Rom. ii. 26. v. 18. viii. 4. Rev. xix. 8. " righteousness." Rom. v. 16. "justification." It every where signifies, " A rule justifying or rendering perfect." Locke on Rom. ii. 26. Taylor on ch. v. 16. 478. The signification of words and phrases ought to be taken from those places, in which it is ascertain- ed by the connexion, or the nature of the subject ; and accordingly interpreted in places where there is nothing that can thus ascertain it. Gen. 154? PARALLEL PASSAGES. Gen. iv. 15. " The Lord set (mx) a marh upon Cain." This has given rise to strange conceits j but the word often signi- fies " a pledge or token," Gen. ix. 12, 17. particularly " a miracle," and this is its most common signification ; " a mi- racle, to assure Cain that he should not be killed." Essay for a new translation, p. 1. c. 6. § 4. Gen. vi. 2. " Sons of God," of the great men ; " daughters of men" meaner persons, (Psal. xlix. 2. lxii. 9. lxxxii. 6, 7, &c.) inp s , i( took them by force," (v. 11, 13.) Gen. xx. 2, 3. xxxiv. 2, &c. Essay, &c. ib. c. 8. § 6. Eccles. xi. 1. " Cast thy bread" 0"p2nb) or " corn," (Ruth i, 6. Isa. xxviii. 28.) " upon the waters," (cran) or " moist ground," (Isa. xv. 6. xxx. 23. xxxii. 20. Jer. xlviii. 34.) " and after many days thou shalt find it." connexion, v. 4, 6. beautiful, and a strong argument. Essay, &c. ib. c. 10. § 5. Rom. vii. 5. " When we were iv m fi%, by the law 5" Engl, many Comment, i. e. " excited by it." wrong. " in the state of being under the law." So §»' ctx.e > oZv?ix<; ) c. iv. 11. also 2 Cor. v. 10. 1 Tim. ii. 15. Eph. iii. 6. Locke in loc. 479. The clear meaning of a phrase, in any part of Scripture, has great authority for determining its sense in any other part ; but the usage of it, in the writings of one author, has the greatest authority for fixing its sense, as elsewhere used by the same author j for, in one PARALLEL PASSAGES. 155 one writer, a greater similarity of style may be expect- ed, than in different writers. 480. "When a word is used sometimes in a literal, and sometimes in a metaphorical sense, it must not be supposed that it implies, in the latter case, all that it implies in the former case ; similitude, in some one re- spect, being sufficient for the propriety of metaphor. 481. It is particularly absurd, and of pernicious consequence, to deduce articles of faith from metapho- rical expressions, supposed to be meant in all the strict- ness of their literal sense. 482. The metaphorical sense of a word should be explained by the literal, and the more remote meta- phorical sense by the less remote j and not contrari- wise. 483. Care must be taken not to bring passages to- gether, merely by the sound ; or, to suppose that texts relate to the same subject, or contain the same sentiment, merely because the same expressions are used in them. Locke, Pref. Essay for a new Transl. p. i. c. 6. j i6, lj, 18. 484. Fourthly, those passages are parallel, which treat of the same subject in different expressions ; and the comparison of such is of great use for illustrating one another, and making that subject more perfectly understood. Locke, Pref. Glass, ib. 485. 156 PARALLEL PASSAGES. 48.5. In comparing such passages, obscure expres- sions should be explained by such as are perspicuous ; and ambiguous expressions, by such as are precise. 486. Passages are, in this manner, parallel, which express the same doctrine, or precept, in different terms j and difficult, or figurative expressions, in one such passage, are to be interpreted by such as are easy, or proper, in another. Gal. vi. 15. *' A new Creature." figurative — explained by cli. v. 6. " Faith which worketh by love ;" and by 1 Cor. vii. 19. " The keeping of the commandments of God." proper, all synonymous. 487. It is not from one such passage, taken singly, that a doctrine or precept ought to be collected, as has been too often the practice ; but, from them all, taken in conjunction, consistently explained, with such limi- tations of the expressions in each, as the rest shew to be necessary. 488. Predictions of the same events, given at diffe- rent times, or by different prophets, along with a de- gree of similarity sufficient for indicating the identity of their subject, generally have such variety in the ex- pression, as enables one to illustrate another ; and one of them often intimates some circumstances omitted in another. 489. A passage which contains a prediction, and passages which relate its accomplishment, are parallel j and the latter not only verify the former, but, gene- rally PASSAGES NOT PARALLEL. 157 rally, illustrate the meaning of the expressions em- ployed in it. Gen. xlix. 7. " I will divide them (Simeon and Levi) in Ja- cob, and scatter them in Israel j" not that they were to be confounded with the other tribes ; but Simeon had only part of the land of Judah, Josh. xix. I, 9. and went in search of distant accommodation, 1 Chron. iv. 39 ; and Le- vi some cities in every tribe, Josh. xxi. 1 Chron. vi. Newton on Prophecy, Diss. 4. Isa. iii. 2, 3. explained by 2 King. xxiv. 14. Lowth in loc. Isa. xxxiii by ch. xxxvi. &c. Lowth in Loc. SECT. II. Comparison of Passages not parallel. 490. Passages of Scripture, which have none of the relations hitherto mentioned, cannot be considered as parallel ; yet they may often be compared in some re- spects ; and, from the comparison of them, consider- able light may be derived. 491. Expressions, phrases, and idioms, used in different texts, concerning different subject., may be, though not the same, yet so similar,, as to illustrate ©ne another. 492. 158 PASSAGES NOT PARALLEL. 492. A passage, relating to one subject, may re- ceive illustration from another, in which an analogous subject is treated with a different manner of expres- sion. 493. One passage of Scripture sometimes alludes, or, in some way, refers, to another, and may be ex- plained by being compared with it. 494. One passage of Scripture sometimes point? out the occasion, origin, and meaning of words and phrases used in other passages. Chandler's Defence of Christianity, c. 2. s. I. Newton, ib. Diss. 14. 495. One passage of Scripture may serve for re- stricting general expressions, and duly limiting the sense, in another which cannot be considered as paral- lel to it. Mat. iv. 6, 7. Lukeiv. 9 — 12. Christ limits and explains the devil's quotation from Psal. xci. II. by Deut. vi. 16. 496. Comparison of different passages of Scrip- ture sometimes contributes to our discovering the de- sign of a part of Scripture, or the occasion of writing it. 437. The comparison of passages, in no respect parallel, is often of great use, for fixing the dates and chronology of events. 498. The comparison of different passages often ex- plains customs, manners, or opinions, the knowledge ©f ANALOGY OF FAITH. 159 of which is conducive to our understanding the Scrip- tures. 499. It is often by comparing different passages, that we can ascertain what are the places, or nations, meant in Scripture, by names which occur not in pro- fane history. Chittim is a name which frequently occurs. It is a general name for " the islands and coasts of the Mediterranean i" Gen. x. 5. countries to which the Asiatics went by sea j Isa. xxiii. 1, 12. Carthage and the Mediterranean islands j Jer. ii tc. countries westward from Judea ; Ezek. xxvii. 6. Corsica j Dan. xi. 29. The Romans. Newton, ib. Diss. 5. Lowth's Isaiah, xxiii. 1. SECT. III. Comparison of particular Passages zvith the Analogy of Faith. Stift. As one passage may be compared with another passage, so a particular passage may be compared with the analogy of faith, that is, with the general tenor of the do&rine taught in Scripture. Glass. Philol. Sacr. 1. 2. p. 2. s. 2. 501. All the great principles of religion may be collected from Scripture, while yet many particular texts 160 ANALOGY OF FAITH. texts remain not understood. When thus collected, they form the analogy of faith, and may be applied to the illustration of these texts, which must be explained in a consistency with them. 502. But, the application of this instrument of criti- cism is very liable to abuse. There is considerable difficulty in fairly collefting the genuine tenor of Scrip- ture doctrine ; there is great danger of substituting, in the place of it, preconceived, and precarious opinions, and of wresting particular passages, in order to recon- cile them to these; and, therefore, the greatest care and caution are absolutely necessary, for rendering it really useful. Locke, Prcf. Glass ? ib. 503. No doctrine can belong to the analogy of faith, which is founded on a single text ; for, every essential principle of religion is delivered in more than one place ; but this rule has not always been observed. Extreme unction is founded only on Jam. v. 14, 15. perverted, from a temporary direction, to a perpetual institution, — from a mean of recovery, to a charm, when recovery is des- perate, for the salvation of the soul. Cameron, Grotius, Benson, in ioc. 504. The analogy of faith ought to be collected from, or the tenor of Scripture ascertained by, such texts as are plain and clear, and expressed in proper terms ; not from such as are doubtful, obscure, ambi- guous, or figurative, which ought to be explained by- ANALOGY OF FAITH. 161 by those others 5 but men have often taken the con- trary road * Glass, ib. Transubstantiation is founded on a strictly literal interpretation of figurative expressions, " this is my body," Mat. xxvi. 26, &c. and (which too has no relation to the supper) " eat " my flesh, drink my blood, 1 ' John vi. 51 — c8. 505. In ascertaining the analogy of faith, texts which treat professedly of a subject, have greater weight than such as only touch it incidentally ; and texts which express it absolutely, and as it is in itself, are clearer, and more decisive, than such as have a refe- rence to particular occasions, without a perfect know- ledge of which they cannot be understood, but may be totally misapprehended. 506. In forming the analogy of faith, all the plain texts relating to one subject, or article, ought to be taken together, impartially compared, the expressions of one of them restricted by those of another, and ex- plained in mutual consistency, and that article deduced from them all in conjunction ; not, as has been most commonly the practice, one set of texts selected, which have the same aspect, explained in their greatest pos- sible rigour ; and all others, which look another way, neglected, or explained away, and tortured into a com- patibility with the opinion, in that manner partially deduced. 507. The analogy of faith, as applicable to the exa- mination of particular passages, ought to be very short, m simple. 162 ANALOGY OF FAITH. simple, and purely scriptural j but, most sects conceive it, as taking in all the complex peculiarities, and scho- lastic refinements, of their own favourite systems. 508. If these rules be not strictly observed, the comparison of particular passages with the analogy of faith, will be so far from contributing to the illustra- tion of Scripture, that it will only pervert it, in con- formity to men's prejudices and false opinions, as has been very frequently the case. Locke, Pref. 509. On a supposition of its being most agreeable to the analogy of faith, a false, or suspicious read- ing, has been sometimes adopted ; and, on a supposi- tion of its repugnance to that analogy, a reading or a passage, unquestionably genuine, has been, sometimes, rejected. Michael. § 15. Luke xxii. 43, 44. concerning " an angel strengthening Christ in his agony," omitted in the Alexandrian and some other MSS. and marked with asterisks in others j denied by seve- ral of the Fathers, because reckoned inconsistent with his divinity, and urged by the Arians. Grot. Erasm. inloc. Mill, in loc. & Prol. N°797, 798. The epistle of James, rejected by some, as contrary to the ana- faith concerning justification 5 but undoubtedly ge- nuine. Schultet. Observ. in 2 Tim. i. 13. c. 4. apud Crit. Sac. torn. 7. p. 3S68. 510. But, a reading ought to be examined by the direct evidence for and against it, not by its connexion with ANALOGY OF FAITH. 163 with any set of opinions ; and that reading, which seems fittest for supporting an article of faith, is not always to be preferred to another which has no relation to it j for, it might not be the view of that passage to sup- port that article, however true. Wetstein, Prol. c. 16. § 12. 511. For the same reason, that interpretation of a particular passage which is most favourable to a real, or supposed article of faith, is not, on that account, to be always preferred ; and the most obvious and natural sense is to be set aside, only when it is absolute- ly contradictory to something plainly taught in Scrip- ture ; but, the opposite way has, often, been taken by all sects. Mat. xvi. 1 8. " Thou art Peter, and on this rock I will build my church," s-v riSTgoj. ^ ixi Tavrn tjj kit^u. Building on Peter is explained away by some, as contrary to the faith that Christ is the only foundation, i Cor. iii. il. and as fa- vouring the supremacy of Peter and his successors. But the connexion shews, that Peter is here plainly meant ; the apostles are elsewhere called the foundation on which the church is built, Eph. ii. 20. Rev. xxi. 14. as the persons employed in erecting the church, by preaching. It is here promised, that Peter should begin erecting it, by his preaching, which was fulfilled, both among the Jews, Acts ii. 14, &c. and among the Gentiles, ch. x. xv. 7. This gives no countenance to the papal supremacy, but the con- trary ; for this prerogative was personal and incommuni- cable. Critic, in loc. John xvn. 2. Ivx HAN $i$ax.cc<; ctvra), ^aiirn etvToig £#jjv cciwvuv, may signify, by an enallage, of which there are some in- M 2 stances, 164 ANALOGY OF FAITH, stances, " that he should give eternal life to as many as thou hast given him." Eng. after Beza, most favourable to pre- destination. But, literally, " that he should give to them, all that thou hast given to him, eternal life." This the na- tural and proper sense, and contradicts no article of faith. 512. But, if all the rules which have been laid down, be strictly observed, the comparison of parti- cular passages with the general tenor of Scripture, will be of the greatest use ; particularly, for preventing our \ overstretching figurative and metaphorical expressions, for enabling us to restrict general expressions, for set- ting aside opinions hastily deduced from a few separate texts, and for giving every doctrine its proper limi- tations. CHAP. HISTORY. 165 CHAP. VII. History and Manners. 513. History, especially ancient history, contri- butes, in many instances, and in different ways, to the illustration of Scripture. 514. To this head belong, civil history, political history, customs and manners, chronology, geography, and natural history. SECT. I. Of Civil History, 515. By civil history we mean, relations of actions and events; and many such relations throw light upon the Scriptures, and have been often applied to this purpose. Shuckford's and Prideaux's Connexions. Stackhouse's Hist, of the Bible. Benson's Hist, of Christianity. Lardner's Credibility, p. i. b. i. 516. Relations, by other historians, of the same facts m 3 which 166 CIVIL HISTORY. which are related in Scripture, illustrate the historical parts of it, in much the same manner as parallel pas- sages of Scripture. 517. Such relations, by other historians, often con- firm the relations of the sacred historians, even con- cerning facts which appear most extraordinary. Matt, xxvii. 51, &c. confirmed by several heathen historians. Usser. Annal. Acts xii. 21 — 23. Luke's account of Herod's death, confirmed in all material circumstances by Josephus. Antiq. 1. 19. c. 8. 518. When other historians relate the same events with the sacred writers, they often record circumstances omitted, or only hinted at, by these, and fit for throw- ing light upon them. Acts xii. 21. " Upon a set day," the second of the shews in honour of the Emperor. Joseph, ib. — " In royal apparel," a robe of silver, reflecting the rays of the rising sun which fell upon it. Jos. ib. 519. Other historians often relate events not men- tioned in Scripture, but connected with such as are there recorded t and fit for throwing light on the narra- tion of them. Acts xii. 1 — 3. Herod's fondness for the Jews, and persecu- tion of the Christians ; the former confirmed, and the latter accounted for, by his great zeal for the law. Joseph. Antiq. I.19. c. 7. 520. Histories of the events foretold in Scripture, whenever we have them accurate and full, throw great light CIVIL HISTORY. 167 light on the meaning of the predictions concerning these events, and generally shew the punctual accomplish- ment of them, even in their minutest circumstances. Gen. xvii. 20. " Twelve princes shall he (Ishmael) beget, 1 ' the names of his twelve sons, ch. xxv. 12 — 16. The Ara- bians have always lived in tribes, each governed by a prince, or Phylarch, (Strabo, 1. 16. Hieron. qusest. Heb. Theve- not, p. 1. b. 2. c. 32. Harris's Voyages, v. 2. b. 2. c. 9 ) and these, for a long time, twelve in number. Melo ap. Euseb. praep. Evang. 1. 9. c. 19. Cleric, in loc. Newton on Proph. Diss. 2. Nahum foretells, ch. i. 10. that Niniveh should be taken when the people were drunk ; and so it was, Diod. Sicul. 1. 2. — chap. ii. 6. that " the gates of the river should be opened, and the palace dissolved j" the river broke down twenty fur- longs of the wall, and overflowed part of the town, and the king burnt himself, with his palace, &c. Diodor. ib. — v. 9. " great spoil of gold and silver j" many talents, Diodcr. ib. — ch. i. 8, 9, ii. n, 13. iii. 17, 18, 19. and Zeph. ii. 13, 14, 15. " its destruction total j" so much, that the oldest historians speak of it only as having once been, and differ even about its situation. Newton, ib. Diss. 9. Isa. vi. 13. is obscure and variously explained, but made clear, partly by sacred history j " a tenth left," 2 Kings xxv. 12, 22. " others gathered themselves and returned," Jer. xl. 7 — 12. j partly from profane history j the destruction of Jerusa- lem — the Jews again multiplying — their being nearly exter- minated by Hadrian, yet subsisting numerous still. Lowth in loc. 521. The Scripture contains allusions to facts not mentioned in it, but related by other historians ; and it m 4 is 16$ POLITICAL HISTORY. is from their relations, that these allusions must be ex- plained. SECT. II. Of Political History, 522. Political History, by which we mean accounts of the constitution of states, their laws, and forms of judgment, is often conducive to the illustration of Scripture. 523. A considerable part of Scripture has for its professed subject the nature of the Hebrew constitution pf government, and its particular laws j and, the right interpretation of that part of Scripture, is coincident with the knowledge of these. 524. It is from the nature of the Hebrew govern- ment, that we can deduce the precise import of expres- sions, which take their rise from particulars belonging to it. 525. The Scripture contains allusions to particulars in the government and laws of the Hebrews, and, there- fore, receives illustration from these particulars, and must be explained by them. t Dan. vii. 9, 10. The images taken from the Sanhedrim. Newton, ib. Diss. 14. Mat. POLITICAL HISTORY. 169 Mat. v. 2r, 22. Three degrees of guilt, expressed in terms borrowed from Jewish judicatories, for different offences, and different punishments. xgD)2p1, wrought as with a needle." A beautiful image of the human tex- ture, but, dignified by needle work being appropriated to some particulars in the sanctuary, Exod. xxvi. 36. xxvii. j6. xxviii. 39. Lowth, ib. Psal. CUSTOMS AND MANNERS. 175 Psal. civ. r, &c. *' Clothed with honour and majesty," allud- ing to the high priest's sacred and magnificent robe. '• Co- verest thyself with light," to the Schechinah. " Stretchest out the heavens like a curtain," that which covered the ta- .bernacle. " Layeth the beams of the chambers in the wa- ters," to the many parts of the tabernacle easily put toge- gether. " Maketh the clouds his chariot, walketh on the wings of the wind," to the Schechinah when the ark moved, aloft in the air. " Maketh the winds his messengers, a flame of fire his servants," to the ministers serving constantly in the tabernacle. Lowth, ib. 537. There are, in Scripture, images taken from the customs and manners of other nations besides the Israelites, which may be explained from these. From hieroglyphical symbols. The luminaries, for empires. Lions and bears, for generals and warriors. From ordinary customs. Dan. ii. 31, &c. In Nebuchadnezzar's vision, 11 A great image of human form," represents empire and dominion •, in medals, cities, and nations, are thus repre- sented, v. 32, 39. " The belly and thighs of brass j" the Macedonian empire, on account of their brazen armour. Joseph. Antiq. 1. 10. c. iq. Newton on Proph. Diss. 13. 538. The sacred writers often allude to particular customs, both of the Israelites, and of other nations, without at all explaining them ; and, it is only by ac- counts of these customs, that the passages which con- tain such allusions, can be rendered intelligible. Exo:I. viii. 26. " .Shall we sacrifice the abomination of the Egyptians ?" what they thought it impious to sacrifice, and would have resented, heifers, rams, goats, &c. Kerodot. 1. 2. c. 4r, 4 2, 45, 6c. Warburt. 176 CUSTOMS AND MANNERS. Warburt. Div. Leg- b. 4. s. 3. Isa. xlvii. 2. " Take the millstones and grind meal ;" a strong metaphor ; grinding was the work of slaves j in the east, of female slaves, low, severe. Lowth in loc. i Cor. iv. 9. " The apostles set forth last, as it were appointed to death." This alludes to the shews, the last of which was, persons combating with wild beasts ; and this the most dange- rous, and appointed to the greatest criminals. ' The apostles most hated, and exposed to the most imminent danger of death.' Grot. Locke, and Macknight in loc, Benson, Hist, of Christ. There are frequent allusions to the Grecian games. 1 Thess. ii. 19. to the victor crowned by the judge, at the end of the course. 1 Cor. ix. 24 — 27. to the crown, and to the strict abstinence by which the competitors prepared themselves, in the Isthmian games, near Corinth. 2 Tim. ii. 5. '? strive lawfully," according to the rules prescribed, viz. contend- ing naked, an image of being divested of love to the world. Ch. iv. 7, 8. to two of the exercises, boxing and running, and to the manner of crowning the victor. Phil. iii. 13, 14. to running, the goal, and the suspended crown. Heb. xii. 1, 2. to many particulars. Acts xiii. 1. " Manaen rwTgo- Qos 'Hgw^s. It alludes to princes educating, at their own expence, companions, along with their sons. Polyb. Plu- tarch. Raphel. Benson, and Macknight, in loc. 539. There are passages of Scripture, in which customs and manners are expressly mentioned, and in. part described ; but, which receive farther light from a more particular description of these. Gen> 1. 2, 3. The embalming of Jacob, alludes to several E- gyptian CUSTOMS AND MANNERS. 177 oyptian customs. They had many physicians 5 one for every disease, (Herod. 1. 2. c. 84.) After laying a body in nitre for 30 days, it was anointed and seasoned with spices 40 days ; this last was the proper embalming. The mourning continued all the time it was in the hands of the embalmer, (Herod, ib. c. 8j, 86. Diod. Sic. 1. I.) that is, 70 days. Warburt. Div. Leg. b. 4. s. 3. Acts xiv. 13. Garlands, either (Grot, in loc.) to crown the apostles as gods 5 which was customary, (Pausan. Dionys. Hal.) or, on the heads of the oxen, the victims 5 which was likewise customary. Lucian. The Jewish custom of read- ing the Scripture weekly, in the synagogues, is often alluded to. Acts xv. 21. " Moses j" the law alone read most an- ciently, ch. xiii. 15. " Law and prophets 5" only these ever read. Luke iv. 16. Jesus reading at Nazareth, was by the appointment of the directors j the 50th haphtharoth of the prophets, which he read, was the lesson of the day 5 and fixes the time to about the beginning of September. It was customary, also, to have discourse:; by desire, or permission ; v. 20, &c. Mat. xiii. 54. Mark i. 21. Acts xiii. 1 5, &c. xiv. 1, &c. Macknight. Benson in loc. Lardner, Credib. Eeau- sobre, Intr. ur.munication is often mentioned : Ezra, x. 7, 8. Neh. xiii. 25. John ix. 22. xvi. 2. It is explained by accounts of its nature and kinds. 1. Private reproof, confinement to home for seven days. 2. Niddui, removal four cubits from the synagogue and society. 3. Shematta, perpetual exclu- sion from the synagogue ; and this generally meant in the Testament. Allud-d to, Mat. xviii. T5 — 18. John xii. 4:. Rom. \'.i. 17. 1 Cor. v. 1, 2. 2 Cor. ii. 6, 7. 2 Thess. iil. i.,. Tit. hi. 10. 2 John 10. Beausobre, Intr. N Acts 178 CUSTOMS AND MANNERS. Acts xii. 6,7. xxi. 33. " Two chains;" it was the Roman manner to chain a prisoner to two soldiers, his keepers. Benson in loc. Lardner, Credib. p. I. b. l.'c. 10. Mat. x. 9, 10. Ev ^avxis, " girdles j" this was the manner of carrying a large sura. nng«y, iC scrip," a large bag for holding provisions ; — " take not a great quantity." 540. There are facts related in Scripture, the rea- son, or propriety of which, arises from certain cus- toms, or manners, and is discovered by just accounts of them. Mat. iii. 4. John ate «xg<5ss, not '' buds of trees," which is a. rare sense of the word, but " locusts ;" they were permit- ted to be eaten, Lev. xi. 22. and were common food in the east. Plin. Mat. ix. 23. '' Minstrels and noise j" the manner of mourn- ing for the dead. Mat. xi. 17. " Piped, not danced ; mourned, not lamented j" the same ; and also the manner at feasts. Both were imitat- ed by children in their games j hence they became a pro- verb \ very apposite here. Of old, and in the East still, inns are not for entertaining, but only for lodging. Many texts have a reference to this. Judg. xix. 19. Mat. xv. 32. Luke x. 33, &c. 2 Cor. xi. 24. " Forty stripes save one." Deut. xxv. 3. forbad exceeding 40 ; the Rabbies had decided for 39 ; the manner of scourging with three thongs confined it to this number. SECT. CHRONOLOGY. 279 SECT. IV. Of Chronology. 541. Chronology, as distinguished from history, is employed in ascertaining the dates, and the order of events. 542. Time is very naturally distinguished into dif- ferent periods, terminated by remarkable events ; and several such, being clearly pointed out in Scripture, they fix the proper division of sacred chronology. 543. The chronology of the first great period, from the creation to the deluge, can be gathered only from the Scripture itself; which, however, gives no other marks of time but the age of each patriarch at the birth of his eldest son, and the duration of his life ; but from these it might be exactly fixed, were it not that the Hebrew, Samaritan, and 70 version, differ from on another in some particulars ; with respect to which, though the two former, agreeing most nearly, would seem to deserve the preference, strong argu- ments are produced in proof of their being corrupted, and of the last giving the true numbers. r. Capell. Chronol. Sucr. Wall's notes. Universal Hist. 0. i. c. i. s. 3. Pearson, Epist. ad Bernard, in Sprott. Chron. Jackson's Chronol. Ken. Diss. Gen. § 30, 73— 76, 81 — 83, 91, 93. Playfair's Chronol. N 2 544. 180 CHRONOLOGY. 544. In the second period, from the deluge to the calling of Abraham, the chronology can be learned only from the Scriptures. In it, too, the Hebrew, Samaritan, and 70, differ very widely ; and the two last, which make the number of years more than double the first, appear to deserve the preference, not only on account of their near agreement, but also, as best suiting the series of events, and the populousness of nations, as represented in the history. Usser. Capell. Wall. Pearson, Jackson, Playfair, Ken. ib. 545. The third period extends from the calling of Abraham to the deliverance of the Israelites from Egypt ; and, its chronology is clearly enough determin- ed from Scripture, all the copies agreeing in it. 546. The fourth period, commencing at that de- liverance, is extended by some to the beginning of the regal government, by Saul's advancement to the throne, or to the death of Samuel, the last of the Judges ; by others, to the building of Solomon's tem- ple ; and its chronology, too, is to be settled chiefly from the Scripture. 547. The fifth period may reach to the return of the Jews from the Babylonian captivity ; and, in it, the chronology may receive considerable light from profane history. 548. The sixth reaches to the birth of Christ ; and is to be collected almost wholly from other writers, the sacred giving very few hints concerning it. 549. GEOGRAPHY. 181 549. The chronology posterior to the birth of Christ, is, in general, clearly established ; but, a very small part of it falls within the compass of the Scrip- ture history. 550. The primary use of chronology, in Scripture criticism, is, to shew the order and connexion of the several events recorded in the historical parts of the Bible. 551. But, chronology is, likewise, of very great importance for ascertaining the accomplishment of ma- ny of the prophecies. 552. Chronology sometimes leads to the discovery and correction of mistakes in numbers and dates, which have crept into particular texts. SECT. V. Of Geography 553. Geography, which gives an account of the si- tuations of places, their several names, the nature of their climate, soil, and the like, is often a mean of throwing light on Scripture. Well's Hist. Geography of the O. and N. T. N 3 554. 182 GEOGRAPHY. 554. The geography of Canaan is of great impor- tance, as it was the theatre of almost the whole that is recorded in Scripture ; it has, therefore, justly, been the object of particular attention ; and, every particular of it that can be ascertained, illustrates some text, or removes some difficulty. Bethsaida is often mentioned in the Gospels ; it is generally placed near Tiberias, west of the lake of Genezareth. But it lay on its north east shore, beyond Jordan. John xii. 21. " Bethsaida of Galilee j" not properly, but Gaulonites often comprehended under it. (Mat. iv. 13, 14, 15. Joseph. Ant. 1. 20. c. 3.) Luke ix. 10. " went aside to Bethsaida," from Herod, into Philip's dominions. Mark vi. 45. " to go to the other side to Bethsaida," not, to the other side of the lake j but of a creek, or bay. Macknight, § 60, 61. 555, But, as many other countries are mentioned in Scripture, or are the scenes of events related there, the geography of these, likewise, is of considerable use for throwing light upon it. Wall's Geogr. U»1D is often mentioned in Scripture j by many supposed Ethio- pia, (Vulg. Genev. Engl.) but this is a wrong supposition. It was Arabia Petraea, or a part of it. Num. xii. 1. "Mo- ses' wife was a Cushite," but she was from Midian, (Exod. ii. 16, Sec.) which was a town in Arabia, (Joseph. Ptolom. Jerom. ) either in the territory of Cush, or contiguous to it, (Habak. iii. 7.) It was near to Judea ; therefore, 2 Kings xix. 9. its king might attack the Assyrians besieging Lib- nah j 2 Chron. xiv. 9. might attack Asa, king of Judahj ch. x.xi. 16. it was near the Arabians j Isa. xx. 3, 4, 5. might enter GEOGRAPHY. 183 enter into alliance with Judah. It lay north-east of Egypt j therefore, Isa. xviii. i. Egypt is properly described as " be- yond the rivers of Cush." Ezek. xxix. io. " from Syene (south) to the borders of Cush," (north-east,) signifies the whole extent of Egypt : ch. xxx. 9. " flying Egyptians might easily go in ships (across the Red Sea) to Cush." Essay for New Translation, p. 2. c. 1. § 6. Wells' Geogr. O. T. v. 1. c. 3. s. 4. § 4. $. 556. By preserving the ancient names of places, tribes, or nations, geography assists us in determining the meaning of the proper names employed in Scrip- ture, which are often different from those which are used by other writers. Well's O. T. v. i.e. 1. Chittim, the countries and islands about the Mediterranean. This is confirmed: " Cetii," a people, and " Cetium," a river in Lesser Asia (Homer. Strabo). " Cittium," a town in Cyprus, which was called also " Chethima," and its inha- bitants " Chethim," (Joseph.) Macedonia, anciently called " Macettia," and the Latins " Cetii." Newton on Proph. Well's O. T. V; 1. c. 3. s. 2. § 21, &c. 557. It is, in some cases, absolutely necessary, and, in all cases, very useful, for our understanding the Scripture history, to be acquainted with the geography of the places where the scene lies. 558. Geography shews the meaning, the justness, and propriety of expressions, used by the sacred wri- n 4 ters, 184 GEOGRAPHY. ters, in describing, or speaking, of places which they mention. Jon. iii. 2, 3. " Niniveh, a great city — exceeding great," greater than Babylon, (Strab. 1. 16. ) the greatest of all ci- ties, (Diodor. Sicul. 1. 2.) — " Of three days journey," at 20 miles a-day, being 480 furlongs, above 60 miles, in cir- cumference, (Diod. ib.) ch. iv. n. " More than six score thousand" children. This, by some calculations, makes about 400,000, by others, 600,000 inhabitants. But the city was about 20 miles long, and 12 broad, (Diod. ib.) and stood on four times as much ground as Paris, which is com- puted at 700,000, or London, computed at 800,000 in- habitants y therefore, there was full room for them. — " And also much cattle," there being in the eastern cities large spaces for gardens and pasture. Newton on Proph. Diss. 9. Wells, ib. c. 5. § 19, &c. Isa. xxi. 1. Babylon is called " the desart (or plain) of the sea." It was situate in a plain always surrounded by wa- ters j but of old, covered with water, and called the Sea, till drained by Semiramis, (Herod. 1. 1. c. 184. Abyden. ap. Euseb. Praep. Evan. 1. 9. c. 41.) and became so again after being taken by Cyrus, and still continues j which, probably, is intimated here. Lowth's Isa. in loc. Newton on Proph. Isa. xlv. 2. Babylon's "gates of brass." It had 100 such, besides others within the city. (Abyd. ib. Herod, ib. c. 179, 180, 181). Lowth in loc. Newton, ib. Jer. Ii. 58. " The broad walls of Babylon." They were 87 feet broad, (Herod, ib.) and could contain six chariots a- breast. (Diod. Sic. 1. 2.) Wells' ib. c. 3. § 4. 559. Knowledge of the several particulars which be- long NATURAL HISTORY. 185 long to the description of countries, shews the import and force of such sentiments as are expressed in allusion to them. Job xxviii. 19. " The topaz of Cush." Not Ethiopia, for it produces none 5 but first discovered in Clntis, an Arabian island, (Pliny) and the name Arabic. Schultens in loc. SECT. VI. Of Natural History. 360. Natural History comprehends accounts of the qualities of all the kinds of natural bodies; and, in general, all facts which fall not with entire propriety under any of the heads already mentioned ; and it con- tributes, in many instances, to the illustration of Scrip- ture. 561. The Scripture sometimes professedly mentions, or in part describes, particular bodies ; and it is only by means of natural history, that the sense of these pas- sages can be truly ascertained. 2 Kings vi. 25. The famine was so great, that the besieged bought at a high price CDWin (Keri 0"w:n) " doves dung." This would have been a strange food, and there are many fancies about it. But the name is given by the Arabi- ans to a kind of pulse, or pease, which is used still fried both in 186 NATURAL HISTORY. in Egypt and Palestine, and carried as provisions by the pil- grims to Mecca. Essay for new translat. p. 2. c. I. § 2. 562. Sometimes, the Scripture expresses sentiments in allusion to, or by metaphors taken from, some fact in natural history, the knowledge of which only can shew the import or propriety of these sentiments. Job xxxvii. 22. " Out of the north cometh nm, (literally) gold." It is generally taken figuratively, but very different- ly. Eng. " fair weather." If the word here mean " gold," whence did it come ? It abounded in Colchis, (Strab. 1. io. Appian) which lay almost directly north from Palestine and Arabia. Schultcns in loc. Rcland. 563. Sometimes, the Scripture describes characters in allusion to some of the objects of natural history; and without the knowledge of these, we cannot perceive the nature of the characters meant. Gen. xvi. 12. " Ishmael will be *n*) a wild ass man." The wild ass is described, Job xxxix. 5, &c. fierce, ranging-, untameable. Ishmael was such, (Gen. xxi. 20.) and such his posterity all along. Isa. xxi. 17. Virgil Georg. 2. v. 448. Lucan, 1. 7. v. 230. Harris' Voyag. vol. 2. b. 2. c. 9. Bochart. Hieroz. p. 1. 1. 3. c. 16. Cleric, in loc. New- ton on Proph. Diss. 2. CHAP. LEARNING. 187 CHAP. VIII. Opinions and Learning. 564. There are many opinions, of different sorts, the knowledge of which will contribute much to the il- lustration of Scripture ; particularly, those of the He- brews, and those of ancient nations. 565. There are, likewise, some parts of learning not properly reducible to the opinions of nations, which are subservient to the same purpose. 566. The religious opinions of ancient idolaters, their philosophy, the Jewish sects, prevailing opinions, and writings, Christian writers, ancient and modern, and Pagan writers — all demand some attention under this dead. SECT. 1S8 RELIGIOUS OPINIONS. SECT. I. Of the Religious Opinions of Ancient Nations. 567. The Israelites were surrounded by, and at times connected with, the Egyptians, the Canaanitish tribes, the Assyrians, the Persians, and other idola- trous nations ; the knowledge of whose religion helps sometimes to illustrate passages of Scripture. 568. Their religious opinions, their rites of worship founded on these, their secret worship, or mysteries, their magical notions and ceremonies, are points, the knowledge of which has some utility. 569. To these, several incidents in the Scripture have a reference j and, therefore, are best explained by them. Num. xxii. 6. 17. Balak sent two embassies to Balaam j great anxiety for Balaam's cursing Israel, appear through the •whole history. This was founded on the universal opinion of the efficacy of devoting an enemy. The Romans had public officers for the purpose, and a set form of execration. (Macrcb. Sat. 1. 3. c. 9.) Newton on Proph. Diss. 5. 570. Many of the ceremonial laws of the Hebrews have a reference to the idolatrous opinions of the neigh- bouring RELTGIOUS OPINIONS. 189 bouring nations, and their corresponding rites, being given in opposition to them ; and, therefore, derive light from the knowledge of them. Exod. xii. The Passover was a memorial of the deliverance of the Israelites. But, many circumstances of it were ap- pointed in opposition to Egyptian superstitions. Among them, " a lamb, or kid," was not sacrificed, but venerated. " A male," was worshipped as a symbol of Hammon ; fe- male sacrifices were always preferred. '' Eat no part raw," as was usual in solemn festivals 5 " Not carried forth," as was also usual ; " No bone broken," as pulled asunder in enthusiasm : '* Not sodden," as in solemn and magical rites : !* Roasted with fire," not by the heat of the sun : " To be eaten with its purtenance," the intestines, which were re- served for divination : ' c No part to remain, but the frag- ments to be burnt," which were usually kept for charms and superstitious purposes. Spencer de Leg. Heb. 1. 2. c. 4. Num. xix. 3, &c. " A heifer," worshipped as sacred to Isis. " Red," most adored. Spencer, ib. 571. In particular, the knowledge of the religious opinions and ceremonies of idolatrous nations, often shews the meaning of Jewish laws, given in reference and opposition to them, which would, otherwise, be ob- scure, or imperfectly understood. Lev. xix. 29. " Do not prostitute thy daughter." Deut. xxiii. 17. *' There shall be no whore — nor a Sodomite." Not prohibitions of these crimes in general, but under pretence of religion j these were common in the worship of some gods, and were reckoned acceptable to them. Spencer, ib. c. 22. 372. 190 RELIGIOUS OPINIONS. 572. The knowledge of such opinions and ceremo- nies, shews the utility, or importance, of laws given in contradiction to them, which would otherwise ap- pear trivial. The law, " Thou shalt not seethe a kid In its mother's milk," seems trivial ; yet it is repeated, Exod. xxiii. 19. xxxiv. 26. Deut. xiv. 21. An idolatrous and magical rite for ferti- lizing. Spencer, ib. c. S. Deut. xxii. 5. " Men wearing women's cloaths, or women men's, an abomination ;" a rite universally prevalent, from the opinion of a difference of sex in the gods, and tending to impurity. 573. The knowledge of such opinions, and cere- monies, shews the reason of laws given in opposition to them, which would otherwise appear to be arbitrary, or unnecessary. Lev. ii. 11. " Offer no leaven, nor honey j" in opposition to gross ideas of the gods, as pleased with delicacies j honey was offered to the infernal and the hero gods. 574. There are, in Scripture, frequent allusions to the opinions and worship of the idolatrous nations, which cannot be understood without the knowledge of these. Psal. xvi. 4. " Drink offerings of blood." A principal cere- mony is here put for the whole of idolatry •, in opposition to which, the law was given for pouring out the blood of sa- crifices, and for the prohibition of eating blood. Jer. xliv. 17, 18. Worshipping " the queen of heaven," the moon, as the means of procuring " plenty." It was the opinion of all, that plenty was procured by care in worship- ping demons ; and this opinion was imbibed by the Israe- lites. Isa. PHILOSOPHY. 191 Isa. xlv. 6,7. " I form light, and — darkness,— peace, and — evil." It alludes to the Magian tenet of two principles, a good and an evil. Both are but the creatures of Jehovah. Lovvth in loc. Ver. "19. '' Not spoken in secret — or dark place — declare righteousness (truth) things that are right (give direct an- swers) j" in opposition to heathen oracles, which were given from caverns, and were ambiguous. Lowth in loc. SECT. II. Of ancient Learning and Philosophy. 5*15. The Egyptians were very early eminent for their learning and wisdom ; there are references to it in Scripture ; and, these derive light from what is known concerning it. Diod. Sic. 1. 1. Herod. 1. 2. Strab. 1. 16, 17. Macrob. Somn. Scip. and Saturn. Diog. Laert. Pliny, Hist. Nat. Burnett Archaeol. 1. 1. Wotton on anc. and mod. learning. Warburt. Div. Leg. Univers. Hist. b. 1. c. 3, s. 2. 1 Kings iv. 30. " Solomon's wisdom excelled the wisdom of Egypt." Acts vii. 22. " Moses learned in all the wisdom of the Egyptians." 576. There are other eastern nations, likewise, who had learning and sciences, to which there are references in Scripture. 1 Kings iv. 30. " the wisdom of the east country." 576. 192 PHILOSOPHY. 577. There was a species of philosophy, supposed to have taken its rise in Egypt, and, therefore, called the Egyptian, which prevailed, in respect of its gene- ral principles, though with many differences as to par- ticular tenets, in Syria, Chaldea, and Persia, and thence called the Oriental. Mosheim. Hist. Eccl. Seec. I. Michael. § 100, &cc. 578. Its speculations gave rise to some of the reli- gious opinions and rites of the nations addicted to it, which were imitated by the Israelites, and are referred to in Scripture ; and will assist in the explication of such passages. Michael, ib. Isa. lxvi. 17. " That sanctify themselves "phi irrx *inK be- hind one in the midst." The supreme God was called One, and never appeared but surrounded with many ^Eons, or in- ferior spirits, who were to be worshipped along with him. (Michael. § 100.) But there are also other interpretations. Lowth in loc. 579. The Jews adopted many of the speculations of this philosophy, accommodated them to their own religious principles, and, by the combination, formed several tenets, particularly fables and genealogies of an- gels, to which there are references in Scripture ; and, it is from the nature of such speculations, that the passages which refer to these are to be explained. 580. Many who were addicted to the Oriental phi- losophy, having embraced Christianity, intermixed the tenets of the former, with the doctrines of £the latter, and PHILOSOPHY. 193 and introduced strange notions, by means of the mix- ture, so early, that there are references to them in the New Testament. Mosheim, Hist. Eccl. s^c. I. Michael. § ior. Macknight, Pref. to I John. 581. The sects of this kind, called, by a general name, Gnostics, professed speculative opinions, which are opposed in some passages of Scripture, and which must be known, in order to our understanding these passages. Mosheim, ib. Michael, ib. Macknight, ib. John i. I — 18. has a reference to, and opposes the opinions of, the Gnostics, particularly, Cerinthus. Jesus is called Aoyos, ftovoysc)]?, but, though o 2 the 196 JEWISH SECTS. the multitude followed them, that title was confined to men of leisure, rank, and fortune. Lightfoot, ib. § 2. Beausobre, ib. 590. The Pharisees acknowledged a twofold sense in scripture, the literal, and the hidden ; but princi- pally regarded the latter ; and, in giving it, indulged themselves very much in allegories. 591. They received not only the written law, or the scriptures, but also the unwritten, consisting of traditions, supposed to have been conveyed orally by their fathers, most of them from Moses ; reckoned these of equal authority with the scripture •> and, by these, explained, or perverted it. Lightfoot, in Mat. xv. 2. Beausobre, ib. Mark vii. 3. " Traditions of the ciders?' because derived from their ancestors. Mat. xxiii. 4. Mark vii. 9, 13. Luke xi. 46. " of the Pha- risees ;" because received and inculcated by them. 592. Their traditions included, not only explications of scripture, but also institutions and ceremonies re- garding practice, founded solely upon them. 593. They affected great exactness in explaining the law, and, likewise, in observing all the ceremonies enjoined, either by it, or by their traditions ; and were ostentatious, hypocritical, and superstitious, in the ob- servance of them. Joseph. B.J. 1. J. c. 5. Beausobre, ib. Acts xxvi. 5. ax.%i/2i7XTyiv at£i is the original and genuine reading. Ken. ib. and p. 354. * Gen. xxii. 8. Abraham says nxv E^nbx, " God will pro- " vide. But it should be mn», for v. 14. it is said invr 77N"P ; by which mistake in v. 8. and a wrong pointing in v. 14. (not n«V, as there, but 7TNV " shall be seen") the latter has been obscured and misunderstood. It should be, " Abraham called the name of that place Jehovah-jireh, " because he had said that day in the mount, Jehovah will u provide." He did say so, v. 8. and God had provided^ Ken. ib. p. 510. * Printed W», MSS. fnm, Gen. xx. 4. MSS. 9. 2 Kings, xix. 23. MSS. 14. Psal. ix. 4. MSS. 61. Isa. vi. r. MSS. 51. v. 8. MSS. 44. v. 1 r. MSS. 33. Isa. vii. 14. MSS, 25. v. 20. MSS. 18. Printed DVibK, Isa. vii. 13. MS. 1, Ken. 206 JEWISH WRITERS. Ken. ib. p. 510. 354. 522. 503, and in loc. Lowth in loo 3 1 Chron. xi. 19. corrected by 2 Sam. xxiii. 17, and by usage- I Sam. xxiv. 5. xxvi. 11. 1 Kings, xxi. 3. Psal. lxviii. TTiTC 1 six times, MS.: three of which also Judg. v - 4. J- Ken. ib. p. 155, &o 623. In consequence of the same superstition, the Jewish transcribers sometimes interpolated ^1N before «"1YT>, omitting likewise EaTPi^ when ^it followed this latter, in order to prevent a reader's inadvertently pro- nouncing the ineffable name. 2 Sam. vii. 24. This is done six times ; but corrected by 1 Chron. xvii. 21, 22. by the punctuation, by some MSS. and by the Chald. Syr. and Vulg. Isa. lxi. 1. corrected by Luke iv. 18. by 70. Vulg. Arab, MSS. also v.i 1. Zeph. 1. 7. MSS. 8. , Ken. Diss. 1. p. 459, 510, 503, et in loc. Lowth in loc. SECT. V. Of the Jezvish Winters. 624. Learning includes the knowledge of books, as well as of facts and opinions ; and there are different kinds of books useful in scripture criticism ; the first of which is the books of the Jewish writers, exclusive of their targums, which have been already mentioned. (Ch. IV. sect. I.) 625. JEWISH WRITERS, 207 625. Philo, a learned Jew of Alexandria, wrote soon after the birth of Christ, and several of his works are extant. 626. They contain many quotations from the scrip- tures, which may shew how the text then stood in the original, or at least in the 70 version. Exod. xx. 3, 4, 5, 6. Late editions have these verses as one commandment 5 but Philo, as two. v. 17. as two, in Edit, but, as one, in Philo, and in most MSS. Ken. Diss. 2. p. 331. Diss. Gen. § 15, 29. 165, etinloc. 627. They contain accounts of many of the cus- toms of the Jews ; of their opinions, especially such as were derived from the oriental philosophy, to which he was addicted ; and of facts, particularly relating to their state under the Roman emperors ; fit to throw light on many passages of scripture. Simon, V. T. c. 17. Beausobre, Introd. 628. Josephus, a priest and a Pharisee, flourished soon after the death of Christ, and wrote after the taking of Jerusalem by the Romans. His works are, Jewish Antiquities ; Jewish War 5 Against Appion 5 His own Life. 629. As he often translated the scriptures, and as, much oftener, his subject coincides with them, some of his works are of great use for shewing how they then stood, and may assist in either confirming, or correcting readings. Exod. \ 208 JEWISH WRITERS. Exod.xx. 3 — 6, 17. Antiq. Jud. 1. 3. c. 5. He confirms the chronology of the 70, from the creation to Abraham. Antiq. 1. 1. 630. His writings contain accounts of many Jewish customs and opinions, and of the different sects, which contribute very much to the illustration of scrip- ture. 6SI. They contain many facts, particularly such as relate to the civil and religious state of the Jews a- bout the time of Christ, which being supposed, allud- ed to, or mentioned, in passages of scripture, enable us to enter into the meaning of these passages. 632. His accurate and minute detail of many of the events of his own time, and, above all, of the Jewish war, and the siege and destruction of Jeru- salem, affords us the means of perceiving the accom- plishment of many of Christ's predictions, especially of his circumstantial prediction of the downfall of the Jewish nation and religion. 633. The Talmud contains the oral, or unwritten, law, which had been handed down by tradition ; it was held in high estimation by the Jews, and, by many of them, preferred to the scripture ; but there were always some who thought more reasonably of it. Buxtorf. Abbrev. p. 221 — 225. Ken. Diss. 2. p. 441. Diss. Gen. § 32. 634. It consists of two parts ; the first, the Misnah, or text, which was first written, according to some, in the JEWISH WRITERS. 209 the second, according to others, in the fourth or fifth century. Ken. ib. 635. The second, the Gemara, or Commentary on the Misnah ; which is twofold ; one compiled by the Jews of Palestine, it is supposed by some between the years 300 and 400, by others, about 600, which (to- gether with the Misnah) is called the Jerusalem Tal- mud ; the other, about 200 years later, by the eastern Jews, and called the Talmud of Babylon, which is most esteemed ; but both are full of absurd fables. Ken. ib. 636. The Talmud contains many quotations from Scripture ; and in these are many readings different from those of the later and Masoretic copies ; in adopting which, caution is necessary, on account of its inaccu- racy ; several being false, but several also preferable, and some of considerable importance. Ken. Diss. 2. ib. Diss. Gen. § $$, 34, 35. Simon, V. T. 1.1. c. 20. Buxtorf. Anticrit. 1.2. c. 12. Capell. Lev. xvi. 11. " Aaron shall lay both (1T») his hand.'''' Heb. absurd j but the Talmud has Vp ^ an d so the Keri, and above 30 MSS. 2 Chron. xxvi. 5. " Zechariah had understanding (nN")l) in the visions of God." This is obscure and unusual. The Talmud has nXTa " in the fear j" and so about 50 MSS. 70. Arab. Syr. Ken. ib. & in loc. t 637. The Talmud can give no assistance in interpret- p ing 210 JEWISH WRITERS. ing Scripture, by its explications of particular texts, which are generally allegorical, scarcely ever literal ; or by its history and chronology, which are totally er- roneous ; but it gives considerable assistance, by pre- serving many Jewish traditions, maxims, opinions, and customs, which are mentioned or alluded to in Scripture. Lightfoot Praef. in Mat. Simon, V. T. 1. 3. c.6. 638. The Masora is a collection of traditionary re- marks, concerning the text of the Old Testament ; and is twofold, the greater, and the lesser. Buxtorf. Tiberias. Walton, Prol. 8. § r. Simon, V. T. 1. 1. c. 24, 25, 26. Houbig. Prol. c. I. a. 3. Ken. Diss. 2. p. 262 — 291. Diss. Gen. § 37 — 40. 639. It contains remarks of very different kinds, and of different degrees of importance ; which, however, may be all reduced to two heads. The first is called by some, the ancient Masora, and regards the various readings of the text ; it includes Ittur Sopherim (ab- latio scribarum), Tikkun Sopherim (correctio scriba- rum), Ken, or various readings collected from MSS. agreeing most with the oldest MSS. and, except four- teen, found all in some MSS. still extant, some con- jectural emendations (severim), and the defective pla- ces marked by a piska. Simon, ib. c. 26. Walton, Prol. 8. § 18 — 26. Houbig. ib. Ken. ib. 640. The other part of it consists of minute obser- vations JEWISH WRITERS. 211 vations concerning the number of letters, words, ver- ses, and sections, in each book, and in the whole Bible ; concerning their position, and irregularities in writing them ; and concerning the vowel points and accents. Walton, ib. § 2 — io. Simon, ib. c. 25. Ken. ib. 641. Some of the Jews, very absurdly, ascribe the Masora to Moses, and most of them to Ezra, though a few of them acknowledge their ignorance of its age, or allow it to be modern ; but it is a collection of remarks made at different times, begun, most probably, in the 6th century, in imitation of the Arabians, containing, however, observations more ancient, gradually carried on by different persons, particularly the Jews of Tibe- rias, and ended about the beginning of the 9th cen- tury. Walton, ib. § ir, 12, 18. Simon, ib. c. 25. and 1. 3. c. 23. Houbig. ib. Ken. Diss. 2. ib. & Diss. Gen. § 40. 642. It has been extolled by the Jews in general, and by many Christians, as sufficient for correcting all the mistakes which had crept into the copies of the Bible, and for preventing any mistakes from creeping in afterwards ; but to these purposes it is totally inade- quate ; the latter part of it is insignificant and useless ; the former part is useful, but neither accurate and com- plete, nor always judicious. Walton, ib. § 13—17. Simon, ib. Ken. ib. 643. The Jews have a Cabala, which, too, they ri- v 2 ridiculously 212 JEWISH WRITERS. diculously represent as a collection of traditions, handed down from Moses, but of which they probably received the idea, either from the Babylonians, during their cap- tivity, or, from the oriental philosophy, after their re- turn ; it is employed in deducing mysteries from letters, words, or points, considered in certain fanciful lights. D'Espeires de Text. Heb. Disp. 2. Dub. 5. Hottinger. Thesaur. Philol. 1. I. c. 3. § 5. Morin. Exercit. 2. c. 7, 8, 9. Walton, Prol. 8. § 30, &c. Simon, ib. 1. 3. c. 23. 644. It is of different kinds ; Gematria, deducing mysteries from a word, by comparing it with, or ex- plaining it by, another, whose letters, as used in rota- tion, amount to the same sum ' ; Notarion, by making each letter stand for a word, of which it is the initial, and thus from one word forming a sentence * ; Permu- tation, by combining the letters of a word differently, changing their order, or substituting in their place others, supposed analogous to them for their position in the alphabet, or some other reason equally chimeri- cal 3 . Jid. Walton, ib. § 34 — 37. Simon, ib. 1. 3. c. 6. 1 Zech. iii. 8. 2 Exod. xv. 1 r. 3 Exod. xxiii. 23. 645. Many of the Jews set a high value on the Ca- bala, and even prefer it to the Scripture, as giving the spiritual meaning of the law ; but, it is truly a fanci- ful and impious method of wresting Scripture to what- ever sense one pleases, equally void of solidity and use. Walton, ib. § 30, 38. 646. JEWISH WRITERS. 213 646. The Jews have, likewise, a practical Cabala, which is a species of magic, being a method of using letters and words as charms for curing diseases, work- ing miracles, obtaining intercourse with angels, and the like ; and this is not only useless, but detestable. Walton, ib. § 33. 647. All the other Jewish writers are comprehended under the name of Rabbins ; and their works are of different kinds, and different degrees of utility. 64S. Though most of them extol the Masora, and adhere to the text, as determined by it ; yet many of them bear testimony to the variation of copies, and in their quotations give readings different from the recei- ved ones ; and some have made collections of various readings, as of the oriental and occidental MSS. of Ben Asher and Ben Naphtali. Ken. Diss. Gen. § 41, 42, 43. 649 Some of the Rabbinical writers employ them- selves wholly on the grammar of the Hebrew language, which they took from the Arabians, and in which they have affected great subtlety ; by this they contributed much to the knowledge of that language, and, conse- quently, to the understanding of the Old Testament ; but all that is useful in them, may now be much more easily learned from later works. 650. In their interpretations of Scripture, they are p 3 either 214 JEWISH WRITERS. either literal, allegorical, or cabalistical ; and some of them unite all these three modes. Eechai. 651. Many of them, especially the most ancient, are wholly set on allegorizing the Scriptures ; and these are of no use, except their fables happen now and then to throw light on opinions referred to in Scriptnre. Jarchi. 652. Their cabalistical interpretations are ridicu- lous, and altogether useless. Ramban. Abraham Seba. Moses Negara, &.c. 653. The literal method of interpreting Scripture was revived among the Jews, by some who rejected all their traditions, allowing authority only to the written word, explained according to reason, and were, on this account, called Caraites, and regarded as a dis- tinct sect, from about the middle of the 8th century. Simon, V. T. 1. i. c. 27. 1. 3. c. 5, 6. & Catalog. Auth. Jud. Beausobre, Intr. Aaron. 654. Many of the Rabbinical writers who censure the Caraites, and do not reject all tradition, yet employ themselves chiefly in finding out the literal sense of Scripture, though often with too minute attention to the subtleties of their grammar, or too great an intermix- ture of their philosophical notions. Simon, ib. Aben Ezra. Maimonides. Kimchi. Levi Een Gerson. Abrabanel. Mordochai. Lombroso. Aben Melech. 655. CHRISTIAN WRITERS. 215 655. The Rabbinical writers have many explications of Scripture handed down to them by tradition, or con- tained in MSS. to which there is not general access ; several of them just, and, therefore, highly useful. 656. They likewise apply much to the study of the Hebrew language, and have great knowledge of it, which enables them to give the sense of Scripture ; and, particularly, they preserve many idioms, phra- ses, and modes of expression, used by their ancestors, which best illustrate texts in which similar ones oc- cur. Mat. xii. $6. lt Every idle word ^ny.x a^yav) they shall give account thereof," their easy, ordinary conversation, whether good or bad, (Kimchi in Psal. i. 3.) we shall be examined concerning our slighter discourse, as well as our more deli- berate. SECT. VI. Of the Ancient Christian Writers. 657. The writings of the ancient Christians, called the Fathers, are of some use in criticism, both with re- spect to the reading, and the sense. 658. They contain many quotations from the origi- nal, at least of the New Testament \ and all have a- p 4 greed, 216 CHRISTIAN WRITERS. greed, that these may supply various readings, some of them genuine ; though not concerning the degree of authority due to them. 659. Some, affirming that they frequently quote in- accurately, or only from memory, determine that they give no authority, or very little, to any reading which is not established by MSS. Michael. § 30. Pfaff. c. 12. can. 3. Whitby Exam. Millii, 1. 1. c. 1. 660. Others, particularly Popish writers, think, that their works, being more ancient than any MSS. now extant, the quotations found in them are the best means of settling the genuine reading, and ought to have the greatest authority. Dupin. Diss. Prelim. Michael, ib. 661. The truth seems to be, that they generally quoted Scripture very exactly, as they had it in their copies ; and, therefore, when a reading followed by them agrees with any ancient MS. it is, probably, the genuine reading. Wetstein, Prol. c. 16. can. 14. PfafF. ib. Mat. vi. 1. " Do not tXaiftos-vvw, alms." So most copies. But clixxios-vvw, " righteousness," in 2 ancient MSS. Vulg. most Fathers, and most agreeable to the Scripture style. Mill. & Pearce in loc. 662. The total silence of the Fathers concerning a reading which would have confirmed their opinion in a controverted CHRISTIAN WRITERS. 217 controverted point, justly renders that reading suspi- cious. Wetstein. lb. 663. The Fathers generally take their quotations from the 70 version ; and the Latin Fathers quote Scripture according to the Latin versions then in use ; they therefore shew what was then read in these ver- sions. 664. Concerning the usefulness of the Fathers for the interpretation of Scripture, there are very different opinions; some, particularly the generality of Popish writers, reckon their authority absolute, and their in- terpretations sacred. G65. Others, considering their interpretations as received by the most ancient of them from the apostles, or their immediate hearers, and successively transmitted to the rest, allow them so great authority, especially when several agree in them, that they ought to be adopted, except there be the most cogent reasons against ihem. 666. Others consider their interpretations as entitled to no authority, except what they derive from their ap- pearing just, on a fair examination of them ; but differ concerning the degree of this authority. 667. Most of the Fathers being totally ignorant of the Hebrew language, and many of the Latin Fathers ignorant of the Greek, as well as of the rules of criti- cism : 213 CHRISTIAN WRITERS. cism ; their literal explications of Scripture are often lame and superficial. 668. In their polemical works, they often stretch the Scripture, in order to favour the doctrines which they maintained. 669. In their homilies, when they stick to the lite- ral sense, they study not so much to determine it with accuracy, as to accommodate the most obvious mean- ing to their subject, or to apply it to practical purposes, in a rhetorical manner. Chrysostom. Basil. 670. Even such of them as did not wholly neglect the literal sense of Scripture, are fond of allegorizing it, and drawing from it mystical meanings, which are altogether fanciful, and of no use. Origen. Augustine. Hilary. Ambrose. Cyril. 671. The later Fathers generally borrowed the in- terpretations of some of the earlier, with some varia- tions. Hilary, Origen's. Ambrose, Origen's, and Basil's. Cassio- dorus, Augustine's. Rabban, Jerome's. 672. It became customary, in later times, to make compendious collections of the different explications of texts of Scripture given by the Fathers ; which were called Catenas, and contain some good, and many triflinc Procop. Nicet. Lipoman. 673. CHRISTIAN WRITERS. 219 673. Many just interpretations of Scripture, and some good rules for interpreting it, may be collected from the works of some of the Fathers, and will be of great advantage. Origen. Augustln. de Doctrin. Christ. Hieronym. Com- ment. &c. Theodoret. Quest. & Comment. SECT. VII. Of Modem Christian Writers. 674. Ever since the revival of learning, Christians have bestowed considerable attention on the Scriptures ; and, besides improved editions, and versions of them, have produced many works, of several kinds, which contribute much to Scripture criticism. 675. Collections of various readings are the only means of making MSS. copies, and versions, exten- sively useful, by enabling those who have not access to all or many of them, to form a judgment concerning the genuine readings of Scripture ; and many such col- lections have been made, first, with respect to the New Testament, and, more lately, with respect to the Old. Laurent. Valla, Annotat. Erasmus, Comment. Stevens, Nov- 220 CHRISTIAN WRITERS. Nov. Test. Grotius, Comment. Hammond, Annot. Lu- cas Brugensis, Comment, in Evang. Walton, Polyglot, torn. 6. Curcellasus, Fell, Gerard of Maestricht, Mill, Kuster, Wetstein, Bengelius, Griesbach, in editions of the N. T. Jo. Hen. Michaelis, Houbigant, Kennicot, in edi- tions of the O. T. 676. Most of the capital editions of the Scriptures are accompanied with prolegomena, or dissertations, which contain many critical observations, particularly concerning the true reading of Scripture, and the means of determining it ; and there are many other treatises, adapted chiefly or only to the same purpose. Walton, Proleg. Houbigant, Proleg. Kennicott, Dissert. General. Mill. Kuster. Wetstein. Griesbach, Proleg. Morin. Exercitat. Bibl. Capell. Critic. Sac. Kennicot's Dissertations, and Remarks on Select Passages in the O. T. Michaelis' Introd. Marsh's Translation. Eichhorn's Introd. Campbell's Dissertations. 677. Concordances are useful, not only for readily rinding particular passages of Scripture, but for com- paring such as are parallel, and for discovering the meaning of words and phrases in the several places where they are used ; and there are many works of this kind, adapted to the Bible, both in the original langua- ges, and in that of the several versions. Heb. O. T. Buxtorf. Calasio. Taylor. Greek N. T. Stevens. Schmid. Xistus Betuleius. 70 Version. KLrcher. Abrah. Trommius. Vulgate. CHRISTIAN WRITERS. 221 Vulgate. Hugo Cardinal. Alberstad. Luca. Pelllcan. R. & H. Stevens. Jun. & Tremell. English Version. Downham. Cotton. Newman. Cam- bridge. Cruden. 678. Commentaries are professed explications, of Scripture ; and there are many such explications, either of the whole Scripture, or of particular books, by Christians of all denominations j but which have very different degrees of merit. 679. The commentaries of Popish writers are ge- nerally filled with the several explications of the different Fathers, most of which are merely allegorical -, or with scholastic subtleties j and some of them con- tain almost nothing else. Cornelius a Lapide. Pererius. Leo Castro. 680. But, many of the Popish commentators, along with the opinions of the Fathers, and a superfluity of controversial dissertations, are at pains to investigate the true and literal sense of Scripture, from the nature of the language \ the comparison of the ancient ver- sions % or the writings of the Rabbins 3 , or from seve- ral of these together 4 . 1 Cajetan. Oleaster. Tostatus. Ribera. Malvenda. Ma- riana. Nicolaus Lyranus. Paulus Burgensis. Laurentius Valla. 2 Bonfrerius. Genebrard. Bellarmin. 3 Serarius. De Muys. 4 Titelman. Augustinus Eugubinus. Maldonatus. Estius. Cordon. 691. 222 CHRISTIAN WRITERS. 681. There are many commentaries on the Scrip- tures, by Protestant writters, written in very different manners ; some of them shew no great knowledge of the original languages, nor are very critical, but are chiefly occupied either about theological questions, or practical observations. Luther. Calvin. Zuinglius. Gallasius. Peter Martyr. - 682. Others, along with theological and practical disquisitions, give a critical explication of the sense of Scripture. Molerus. Musculus. 683. Others confine themselves, wholly, to a criti- cal explication of the Scriptures, and apply to it, either grammatical knowledge of the language ', the ancient versions *, the kindred languages 3 , the examination of Scripture itself 4 , or the several kinds of learning, histo- rical, rabbinical 5 , classical 6 ; which can be conducive to it ; or several of these means together 7 . 1 Mercerus. Fagius. Bain, Forerius. Vatablus. Masius. Ccdurcus. . Liveleius. Ainsworth. 2 Wall's Critical Notes. 3 De Dieu. Pocock. Schultens. 4 Locke. Taylor. Pearce. Benson. Brennius. Crelliu?. Slichtingius. 5 Munster. Lightfoot. 6 Castalio. Casaubon. 7 Dru3ius. Grotius. Patrick. Lowtli. Hammond. Whit- by. Pool. Macknight. Horsely on Hosea. 684. There are many observations or dissertations on CHRISTIAN WRITERS. 223 on particular passages, which generally consider them with greater accuracy than commentaries on whole books, but are conducted on different principles, and executed with different degrees of skill. Hackspan. Knatchbul. 685. There are several treatises employed in laying down general principles of criticism, or rules for the explication of Scripture. Arise Montani pnefationes. De la Haye qusest. preliminar. Sixti Senens. Bibliotheca sancta. Lindanus de optimo ge- nere interpretationis. Masii prsefationes. Matth. Flacc. Illyrici Clavis scripturae. Hottinger. Glassii Philolog. sa- cra. Lowth praelect. de sacra poesi Hebraeorum. Herder's Dialogues on Hebrew Poetry. Campbell's Preliminary Dissertations and Gospels. Macknight on Gospels and Epistles. 686. There are many works written on particular subjects related to the Scriptures, and of great use for understanding them. Usser. et Capell. sacra chronolog. Bocharti, Phaleg. et Hi- erozoicon. Spencer de legibus Hebraeorum. 687. Among the works of Christian writers, useful in Scripture criticism, must be reckoned Harmonies ; but these may be considered with greater advantage afterwards. SECT, 224 PAGAN WRITERS. SECT. VIII. Of Pagan Writers. 688. Even Pagan writers, especially the ancient, may be rendered, in different ways, subservient to the illustration of Scripture. 689. Pagan writers use words and phrases coinci- dent with, or analogous to, those of the sacred writers, and fit for ascertaining the meaning, or shewing the force and propriety, of these. Isa.i. 5. " On what part will ye strike again ?" Ovid. Pont: 2. 7. 42. Euripid. Here. Fur. 1245. Lowth's Isaiah in loc. 690. Pagan writers often employ the same images with the sacred, so as to throw light on their import, and, generally, so as to set off their superior excel- lence. Isa. ii. 4. '' Beat swords into plough-shares," &c. an image of peace. Falx ex ense. Lowth in loc. Joel iii. 10. " Plough-shares into swords," &c. an image of war- '* Fakes in ensem." Virg. Georg. i. $z6, &c. " De- rastri pondere cassis." Ovid. Fast. 1. 697, &c. Lowth ib. Isa. viii. 6, 7, 8. " Soft waters of Shiloah, — — the wa- ters PAGAN WRITERS. 22J ters of the river (Euphrates) strong and many, &c. 1 ' By these images, the two countries are finely contrasted. " In Ty- berim Orontes." Juvenal. ri Euphrates ibat mollior," Virg. JEn. 8. 1. 726. the same image, but without the con- trast. Lowth in loc. Isa. xi. 6 — 8. There is here greater beauty, variety, and force, than in the images of the renewal of the golden age, in Virg. Eel. 4. 1. 22, 24. Horat. Theocr. Jones, Poes. Asiat. Comment, p. 380. Lowth in loc. Isa. xxix. 8. xxxi. 4, 5. xxxii. 2. xlv. 2. xlix. 2. Lowth in loc. Rev. viii. 8. M A great mountain j" a warlike hero. Virg. JEn, 12. 1. 701. V. 10. " A great star j" a prince. Homer, II. 4. 1. 75. 691. ftigan writers contain sentiments, opinions, and facts, which, in different ways, cast light on pas- sages of Scripture. Dan. ii. 32, 33. Four empires, and periods of time, are repre- sented by gold, silver, brass, and iron ; agreeably to the received opinion concerning the four ages of the world. Hesiod. Newton on Proph. Ps. lx. 8. cviii. 9. " Moab is my wash -pot ;" an emblem of being low and contemptible, which is illustrated by the story of A masis forming a bason into an image. Herodot. 1.6. Findlay, Vindicat. p. 2. c. 1. s. 5. PART \ ( 227 ) PART II. THE OBJECTS OF SCRIPTURE CRITICISM, 692. 1 HE objects of Scripture criticism are, the se« veral sorts of difficulties which occur in the sacred writings, and which must be removed, in order to our rightly understanding these writings. 693. As all difficulties must regard either the read- ing, or the sense, criticism is twofold ; — corrective or emendatory, being employed in determining the true reading j — and explanatory, or interpretative, discover- ing the genuine sense ; under the latter of which may naturally enough be comprehended whatever regards the beauties or the peculiarities of composition in Scrip- ture. Harris's Philolog. Inquir. part I. 9 2 694* 228 OBJECTS OF SCRIPTURE CRITICISM. 694. Difficulties regarding the sense are of different kinds j there are difficulties — in separate words, — in construction, idiom, phrases, and figures, — in scope, and connexion, and other circumstances — in reconcil- ing Scripture to itself — to the principles of reason and morality, — to history ; — and there are difficulties of a complicated nature. These give a proper division of explanatory criticism, to which we shall proceed, after having given a view of the emendatory. CHAP. EMENDATORY CRITICISM. %29 CHAP. I. Corrective, or Emcndalory Criticism, 695. The Scriptures, as well as all other writings, being preserved and diffused by transcription, were unavoidably liable to be corrupted ; and in the copies of them, different readings are actually found ; whence arises the necessity of criticism, for determining the true reading. 696. In order to this, it will be proper to ascertain the nature of a various reading — to point out the sour- ces of false readings — to distinguish the several kinds of them — and to lay down rules for judging of the genuine reading. Q 3 SECT. 230 NATURE OF A VARIOUS READING. SECT. I. The Nature of a Various Reading. 697. However plain the meaning of a various read- ing may seem to be, it has been sometimes understood, so as to introduce confusion or mistake. 698. Some have allowed the name, only to such readings as may possibly have proceeded from the au- thor ; but this restriction is improper. Whitby Exam. V. L. Mill passim. Kuster Praef. 699. According to this definition, all the differences of copies are reducible to four heads. 700. First, such as are improperly called various readings ; solecisms, absurdities, palpable blunders of transcribers, typographical errors, differences in syllabication, &c. which take in the greatest part of the variations found in copies ; but are to be reckon- ed, some depravations, others trifles, none various readings. Whitby Partit. § 3. &. passim. Kuster, ib. 701. But, to refuse these the name of various read- ings, NATURE OF A VARIOUS READING. 231 ings, is improper ; for it is to call that no reading, which is actually read in some copies ; and it is useless, for the merit, and the real occasion, of a reading, are often matters of difficult discussion. Kuster, ib. Kenrlc. Diss. I. p. 271. 702. Second, such as it is doubtful whether they be improperly various readings, or whether they be pro- perly such, as capable of having come from the author; readings, for instance, in quotations, which may have been taken either from a copy, or from memory. 703. Such too ought to be considered as various rea- dings, till reason appear for rejecting them on examina* tion. 704. Third, such as are real and proper various readings, since any of them might have been the origi- nal reading, but of no importance ; synonymous words, for example, or such as alter not the sense j and of this sort there are many. Kuster, ib. 705. Fourth, such readings as are both real and important, as making an alteration in the sense j and these are not very numerous. Kuster, ib. Whitby Partit. § 4. 706 This division of various readings, when put into accurate expressions, amounts to no more than, Q 4- that '232 SOURCES OF FALSE READINGS. that some are genuine, and some corruptions, some important, and some trivial ; but it does not imply that all these sorts are not truly various readings. 707. To speak properly, wherever, in two copies of a writing, there is a difference, that difference forms a various reading ; except only when it regards merely the manner of syllabication. Kuster, ib. Marsh's Michael, ch. 6; sect. 4. ip W4 or «givj}, y.vTii Or etvri, e2i " his soul" — >iy£3 " my soul," Keri, which is wrong, lix. 10. VTDn " his mercy" — norr " my meicy," Keri. Engl, which is right. ',, -f. Psal. xxii. 27. "pusb " before thee" — V03 1 ? " before him," 1 MS. 70. connexion. Zech. xiv. 5. "■jm' " with thee" — TOf '* with him," 37 MSS connexion. 715. SOURCES OF FALSE READINGS. 235 715. Many false readings have arisen from con- founding letters or words similar in sound ; especially, by reason of indistinctness either in pronouncing or in hearing, when one dictated, and others wrote. N 5 ? is put for lb 15 times, and lb For uh twice, according to the Masora j perhaps oftener. Isa. ix. 3. ah " not multiplied" — lb " multiplied their f Keri. 12 MSS. Syr. Chald. connexion, and therefore right.— Lev. xi. 21. " Which have not (xb) legs" — lb " to which are legs," Keri. Sam. T ^ MSS. 70. Vulg. Eng. the sense requires this reading. Isa. xxxii. 3. naT^n nVi " and the eyes — shall not be dim." Eng. ibl " and him — shall regard." Lowth in loc. 2 Kings viii. 10. Elisha bids Hazael say (*«b) " thou shalt not recover." So it is in the text, and is right j but the Keri, and several MSS. have it lb " to him, thou shalt recover," which is wrong, and gives an equivocal sense, but is follow- ed in the Engl. Vers. Ken. Diss. 1. p. 163, &. in loc. Mar. v. 41. sy«g«<, which is right — but tyei^t in several MSS. and Edit. Mill in loc. Kuster Prsef. Griesbach in loc. So also Rev. xi. 1. (Jid.) Mat. xi. 16. Irxi^oig, right ; but i-rsgfKs in several MSS. (Jid.) Gal. iv. 18. fyhuo-Sai , right ; but £jjAsit3s . Vulg. (Jid.) Luke ii, 12. Iv^rccn ; but Iwpij«« t««, in 4 MSS. Aid. (Jid.) Jam. iv. 12. irsgop, right j probably some wrote Ircttgev ; hence the gloss h-X^ijh, which is in the Alex, and several other MSS. Vulg. Syr. Copt. ./Ethiop. (Jid.) 1 John iv. 2. y«-«STe, " ye know ;" but yivtic-KiTxi, " is known," in several MSS. and Vers, either is suitable. (Jid.) Heb. yi. 37. %tt^t%vxv, " sawn asunder," right ; but lyr^eS-wav, u burnt," Cyril. Jer. (Mill, in loc. Pfaff. p. 145.) 2 Cor. xii. 1. 2», right ; S«, several MSS. Ital. Vulg. Syr. (Mill in loc.) Mat. xx. 15. H c 3f>«Af4» 5 j— ET, 12 MSS. (Mill in loc.) Mat. 236 SOURCES OF FALSE READINGS. Mat. xi. 2. fv',—2i«, 1 M.S. Syr. Pers. Goth. Armen. Ital. perhaps right, altered from Luke vii. 19. (Mill in loc. & Proleg. 387.) 1 Cor. ix. 27, vxuttix^u, " to chastise or keep under j" Alex, and most MSS. Vulg. Ethiop. most Fathers and Edit. viroTTtet^u), " to make blue," all Steph. 6 others. Aid. r. Erasm. Colin, vitami^a, " to emaciate with hunger," 9 MSS. Clem. Alex. Nazian. Mill Proleg. 1204. Kuster and Griesb. in loc. Ch. xv. 49. (p6^b, " before the mercy- seat that is over the testimony." This is wanting in 18 MSS. Sam. and 70 ; it is repeated from the former clause, and, by changing n^*i2rr, " veil," into mssn, ct mercy seat," is contradictory to it, and to Heb. ix. 7. Ken. in loc. and Diss. Gen. p. 70. n. 719. If he cast his eye on a word or a line subsequent to where he was writing, and especially, if he there found a word similar to what he had written last, or to what he should have written next, he would readily write from that subsequent place, omitting all that in- tervened. Mat. xxviii. 9. 'fi? h t?ro^.vovrci AUATTElAAl TOIS MA0H- TAIZ AYTOT. Omitted, from this cause, in several MSS. Vulg. Syr. Copt. Armen. Pers. Arab. Chrysost. Jer. August. Mark xi. 26. omitted from the same cause, in 3 MSS. *23S SOURCES OF FALSE READINGS. MSS. Copt. Edit. Aid. and Frob. (Mill in loc. & Prol. 875.) 720. A person having written one or more words from a wrong place, and not observing it, or not chusing to erase it, might return to the right line, and thus produce an improper insertion of a word, or a clause. Mat. xxvi. 60. The first ov% kv^ov, is wanting in one MS. and is superfluous and improper. (Kuster. Praef.) Griesb. in loc. Mar. iv. 18. The second ovto? turiv, wanting in Alex, and 49 other MSS. Copt. Goth. Arab. Theophylact. and is super- fluous. (Mill. Kuster. & Griesb. in loc.) John vii. 26. The second xtobag wanting in 11 MSS. Vulg. Armen. Arab. Orig. Chrys. Cyril. Epiphan. — the first is wanting in 3 MSS. Syr. Copt. Pers. Ethiop. (Mill. Grot, and Griesb. in loc. Pfaff. p. 166.) J Cor. x. 28. Tov y«g xv^tov i\ y», &c. wanting in Alex, and 10 other MSS. Vuig. Syr. Ethiop. Arab. Copt. Complut. Ed. they are superfluous, and were probably inserted from v. 26. (Mill. & Griesb. in loc.) 2 Cor. xii. 7. The second hx pv V7ri^»i^6)f.tf.( wanting in Alex. and 5 other MSS. Vulg. Ethiop. Iren. Aug. they are superfluous. (Mill. & Kuster. in loc. & Prol. 1205.) Isa. xlviii. 11. ilimh redundant j it is wanting in 1 MS. 70. Syr. perhaps it has been taken in from v. 9. (Lowth in loc.) . — '•DUJ " my name" is added in 1 MS. 70. Eng. and is right. 721. When a transcriber had made an omission, and afterwards observed it, he then subjoined what he had omitted, and thus produced a transposition. Mat.- SOURCES OF FALSE READINGS. 2o9 Mat. v. 4. is subjoined to v. 5. in Camb. Vulg. Jerom. Luke xxiii. 17. is omitted in Alex, and 1 other j it is sub- joined to v. 19. in Camb. Rom. i. 29. is very different in different copies. itoixiet, TTopvtix, •xowiPtoe, , 7rAs«vs|n%ici , Alex. Ethiop. tteitxict, KctKta, 7rogHi&, irhiovi^ict. . Clermont. CCOlXlOt, 7T0!IVII>ltZy TTOgVUX, TfXlOVifyei , xcixtu. Vulg, cioiKix, iropviM, 7rovy£il) slew Goliah." This is not true ; see 1 Sam. xvii. 50. But in 1 Chron. xx. 5. it is, " slew Lahmi, the brother of Goliah," norr 1 ? — DH *7IK, which is right, and accounts for the mistakes in Sa- muel ; 240 SOURCES FALSE READINGS. muel ; DX being changed into n^ — rr prefixed for forming a regular local name, and ^riN changed into DK. Ken. Diss. I. p. 78. 725. Among different readings, that is, probably, the genuine one, from which the others may have easily arisen, but which could not so naturally arise from them. 726. Hence, the most unusual reading is, gene- rally, the true ; for a transcriber would not so readily write it by mistake, as one to which he was more ac- customed. Michael. § 17. 2 Sam. xxiii. 36. ifiirxiy/novy i{67rxucTxi in Alex, and 8 other MSS. Vulg. Syr. Arab. Ethiop. Aug. Jer. and is right. (Mill, in loc. & Prol. 925. Estius & Griesb. in loc.) 728. The second source of false readings, is design ; to which are to be ascribed such as are made know- ingly and wilfully, and such as, having been made accidentally, are wilfully suffered to remain, after being perceived. 729. Mistakes accidentally made, have often been designedly permitted to remain uncorrected, that the beauty or price of the manuscript might not be lessened by blotting. Lowth's Isa. Prel. Diss. p. 58. 730. Many false readings are owing to assimilation 5 when a transcriber had once found or written a word wrong, he purposely altered that, or related words, in conformity to the mistake. Ken. Diss. i. p. 374, 415, &c. Diss. Gen. § 18, 84. 13*3 " a boy" is 21 times, in the Pentateuch, put for my 3 " a girl j M which last is found but once, Deut. xxii. 19. and there, too, iya is found in 12 MSS. But the Masora points as mya, and directs it to be read so. It seems impossible R that 242 SOURCES OF FALSE READINGS. that this could have happened so often, by chance j it must have been by assimilation. i Kings viii. 30. " hear to (Ha) heaven;" but 2 Chron. vi. 21. u from," (]>o), which is right. In v. 32, 34, 36, 39, 43, 45, 49, ])} is wanting, by assimilation ; but it is ne- cessary. Ezek. xl. * the sign of the plural before the suffixed v, is omit- ted in 34 words, by assimilation ; the Keri adds them in all MSS. Ken. Diss. Gen. p. 117. et in loc. 731. Critical transcribers sometimes transferred what they thought a clearer or fuller expression, or added a circumstance, to one place, from a parallel passage; a liberty often taken, especially in the Gospels j and therefore, of two readings, (particularly in the Gospels) one of which is exactly conformable to a correspon- dent passage, and the other not, but yet consistent with it, the latter is preferable. Mat. xii. 8. x«s* is wanting in above 30 MSS. Syr. Pers. A- rab. Ethiop. Erasm. 1. Ed. Aid. it has been taken from Mark, or Luke, as emphatical. (Mill. Kust. Griesbach in loc.) V. 35. t»5 xa^ttes is wanting in all Stephens 7 MSS. except one, and near 40 others ; in Vulg. Syr. Copt. Pers. Arab, and some quotations ; it has been taken from Luke vi. 45. where it is found in most MSS. (Jid. in loc.) Ch. XX. 22, 23. >£ to /2x7rTir/&ci sya ficnrT^cpcu, ficfXTurS-rivcit J— jSccmia-S-r.rttrSi, is wanting in several MSS. Vulg. Ethiop. Copt, and most quotations ; it has been taken from Mark x. 38, 39. (Mill and Griesb. in loc.) Mat. xxvii. 35. lm nXYi^cS-t, x. t. a. to the end of the verse, is wanting in all Stephens', Alex, and $6 others, Syr. Copt. E- thiop. Arab, most copies of Vulg. and in many quotations ; it has been taken from John, xix. 24. (Mill. Kust. Griesb. in SOURCES OF FALSE READINGS. 243 in loc.) Mat. ii. 17. as f&itxvotxv, wanting in Alex, and 9 others. Vulg. Syr. Copt. Goth. Pers. Ethiop. Armen. and in Mat. ix. 13. it is wanting in 6 MSS. and the same ver- sions j it has been taken from Luke v. 32. where it is found in all MSS. and versions. (Jid.) Luke iv. 8 vxxyz oitrnTu f/.ov Zxrxvx — yx%, wanting in several MSS. all ver- sions and quotations ; it has been taken either from Mat. iv. 10. or rather, because wanting there in most ?*TSS. and in Vulg. Syr. from Mat. xvi. 23. (Grot. Mill. Kust. Griesb: in loc.) John vi. 11. rets f&xS-ynriis , el $t ptxd-YiTXi, wanting in Alex, and 4 other MSS. Vulg. Syr. Goth. Copt. Pers. Arab. Ethiop. it has been taken from the other Gospels. (Jd. et Erasm. Zeger. in loc.) 732. Critics sometimes corrected the New Testa- ment from the Greek version of the Old ; and , there- fore, when one reading of a quotation agrees exactly with that version, and another not so exactly, the for- mer, if not well supported, is suspicious, and the lat- ter preferable. Michael. § 18. Luke iv. 8. txFcte-S-xt rovg is added in some MSS. and in Armen. et Irente. — from v. 17. (^Mill.et Griesb.in loc.) Ch. vi. 18. tv (puvigo) is wanting in above 50 MSS. and all versions except the Ethiop. — it has been taken from v. 4, 6. where, too, it is wanting in many copies, and therefore probably ;i gloss. (Kust. et Jid. in loc.) Ch. xxv. 13. em« vn^> tv x»3-£67m t£%trxi, is wanting in Alex, and 12 others j in Vul. Syr. Copt. Pers. Arab. Ethiop. and quotations ; it has been taken from the preceding chapter. (Jid. in loc.) Mark vi. 12. after i\i%'h.t i jts ; this is the right reading •, it has indeed an unusual sense, but is found in the 70. — changed into saAf/srj), or iHXt7rn, in the Alex. Camb. Syr. Pers. Ethiop. (Mill, et Griesb. in loc.) Acts xxi. 3. «»«i§j}«)?, omitted in 6 MSS. and in Arm. it seems includ- ed in xAs^;, and is not in the other Gospels. (Mill, et Griesb. in loc.) 737. Critics, in transcribing, sometimes added words for illustrating what they thought defective or improper. Luke i. 64. hngB-ga&n, ci was loosed," is added in Camb. and Compl. it seemed improper to say that the " tongue" was " opened." (Grot. Mill. Kust. Griesb. in loc.) - 738. It was common to write alterations, or addi- tions, for the sake of illustration, as glosses on the mar- gin, whence transcribers, afterwards, sometimes took them into the text ; and, for this reason, the fuller reading, whenever it could serve for illustration, or correction, is generally suspicious, and to^ be re- jected. Wetstein, Prol. c. 16. can. 9. Ken. Diss. Gen. § 18, 3. -Mat. vi. 33. There is added in some copies xirurt rx fnyxbx, *g rx fctx^x vptiv 7T|«9-j - e3-n§ rx szriyetx v/niv -nr^oa-rt^-Acrzrxi, and in Orig. contra Gels. 1. 7, et de Orat. Clem. Alex. Strom. 1. but it is a gloss. (Mill, in loc. et Prol. 695. Whitby, Exam. 1. 2. s. 1. $ 3. Griesb. in loc.) Mar. i. 16. xSiXtyov xvra—ra Ztpsjvo; is added in all Stephens', in 32 others, and R. Steph. Edit. — xfoxv Xt/xavti'm 1 MS. tk 'Zipaios'm 1 MS. — xvrx Xipmos in 1 MSS. — it is a gloss for removing the ambiguity. (Mill. Kust. et Griesb. in loc.) Luke vii. 16. Xxov xvtx.—us xyxS-w is added in 11 MSS. Arab. Arm. — it is a gloss. (Mill, et Griesb. in loc.) I Cor. v. 6. and Gal. v. 9. fypot is the reading in almost all co. pies ; yet perhaps it is a gloss. AcXot " corrupteth," is found in Clerm. gr. et lat. Germ. lat. Vulg. Iren. and o- R 3 ther 246 SOURCES OF FALSE READINGS. ther quotations. In Gal. SoAo; tppoi are both found in Clerm. gr. The former word is used by the apostle in 2 Cor. iv. 2. but in the above places was, perhaps, not understood, or thought improper. 739. Persons have sometimes made alterations in the copies of Scripture, with a wilful intention of corrupting them, in order to answer some particular purpose. Marsh's Michael, ch. 6. $ 12. 740. It has been a question, Whether the Jews have, in any instance, wilfully corrupted the Old Tes- tament ? It is denied, because of their veneration for the Scriptures, their not being accused of it by Christ, the impossibility of their doing it afterwards without detection, and their having left so many predictions favourable to Christianity. But, it is answered, that their veneration for the Scriptures gives no absolute se- curity \ that there are good reasons for Christ's not accusing them, though guilty ; that they might hope to avoid detection by the ignorance of Hebrew among the first Christians ; that the earliest who understood it do charge them with wilful corruptions ; that their not goir.g all lengths, is no proof that they have attempted none ; that evidence of a single instance, would out- weigh all general arguments ; and, that, though the charge against them has sometimes been carried too far, yet, there is sufficient evidence that, for the ho- nour of their own nation, or from hatred to Christiani- ty, they have wilfully corrupted some texts, and, in others. SOURCES OF FALSE READINGS. ^247 others, given the preference to false readings, which had at first arisen from other causes. Ken. Diss. i. p. 275. Diss. 2. p. 349. Diss. Gen. § 21, 24, 66 f 67,68,76,84. Judg. rviii. 30. u the son of(WU;20) Manasseh." Heb. 70. but wilfully corrupted from nu^2, for the honour of Moses. This is confessed by R. Solomon .Tarchi, and confirmed by the several irregular ways of writing the J, and by the agree- ment in time. Vulg. MSS.of 70. (Ken. Diss. 2. p. 51. Diss. Gen. § 21. cod. 490, 614. et in loc.) Deut. xxvii. 26. " that confirmeth not the words j" but it is quoted, Gal. iii. 10. " all the words," which is necessary for the argument, and bs is found in 4 Heb. "MSS. 6 Chald. MSS. Samar. and its version, and 70. It has been omitted, that the Jews might not seem to be under the curse, or, in opposition to Paul. (Ken. in loc. et Diss. 2. p. 47. Diss, Gen. § Sl> 84, 85.) Josh. xv. 59. Eleven cities are here mentioned in 70, one of which is Efgcc&cc, *vrn trt BmS-tesp. They were probably at first omitted in the Hebrew, by means of the last word being also before this clause ; but the omission has been continu- ed, because Bethlehem (the birth-place of the Messiah, Mic. v. 2.) is no where else called Ephrathah. (Ken. Diss. 2. p. 57. Diss. Gen. § 84.) •Isa. Iii. 14. "pbr, " at thee." This reading confounds the prediction, by the change of person j bujt \ Zech. xii. 10. "They shall look ( s bx) upon me." Heb. 70. Vulg. but this is wrong j it occasions a confusion of persons. The true reading is vhn u upon him," which is found in 40 MSS. John xix. 37. Ken. in loc. Diss. 2. p. 536. Diss. Gen. § 43, 65, 95, 150. ~ Gen. v. 23, 31. ix. 29. *H1, " all his days was," which is wrong; but VTT) is found in many MSS. and in Sam. So Num. ix. 6. (Ken. Diss. Gen. § 167.) Isa. lxv. 1. lbNU> " them that asked j" but ^NW, " asked for me" in 2 MSS. and is better. ^u;p2, " him that sought me } but ^lU>pi, " them," in above 100 MSS. oldest Edit, and all Versions. Rom. x. 20. Lowth in loc. Ken. ib. and Diss. Gen. p. 87. n. 3 Isa. i. 3. " Israel." — bjniy% " but Israel," in 70. Syr. Vulg. Aq. Theod. Eng. (Lowth in loc.) >»Jf — V33N " and my people," in 16 MSS. 70. Syr. Vulg. (Lowth, ib.) Isa. xvii. 14. xxvii. 9. xxx. 14. xli. 5, 7. xlii. 1,7. xlvi. II. xlix.9. I.5. lv. 13. (Jd.) 4 Jer. xxxi. ^. *nn3, " I have put." This is applied by the Jews to their own law, in opposition to Christianity ' t but the connexion shews it to be wrong. *ni"l31, " and I will put," is found in 19 MSS. Chald. and other ancient ver- sions, except 70, in which it is 2<£as $aru. This text is quoted, Heb. x. 16. as a prediction, where it is^Bj; but Swo-6) is found in one MS. Syr. Arab. Ethiop. Copt, and the connexion shews it to be right. Ken. in loc. Diss. Gen. § 66. and n. p. 83. n. Mill in loc. 5 Isa. iii. 13. Cay— i^y, " his people." 70. the sense requires this reading. (Lowth in loc.) 750. 252 KINDS OF FALSE READINGS. 750. The improper omission of \ which has been very frequent, perverts the syntax or the sense, by turning plural into singular nouns ', by changing the persons of verbs z , by altering the future into the past 3 , by suppressing the affix pronoun 4 . Num. xii. 3. " Now the man Moses was very meek." 131?; but this has no connexion with the context, and he every- where represents himself as a man of great warmth. 16 MSS. read V3y, " responsor." Now the man Moses gave forth more answers (from God), or, was highly favoured with answers, &c. Ken. Remarks. 1 Gen. xii. 8. Ittbrr, " his dream ;" but this does not agree with CaniK, " them," in this verse, and he had dreamed twice, v. 5. The Sam. has V»bn, " dreams." (Ken. Diss. Gen. § 167.) Isa. lii. 5. ibiyn, " he that rules over them," lWn\ (plur.) " make them to howl ■," this is wrong, vbwn, " they who rule," Keri. above 1 20 MSS. lbbn\ " make their boast of it," 5 MSS. Chald. (Ken. and Lowth in loc.) Ch. liii. 4'. wbn, " our infirmity ;" but W*ptT, " our infirmi- ties," in 7 MSS. and 3 Edit. (Jid.) « Job xlii. 2. nyi>, " thou knowest j" but>ny"P, " I know." Keri, about 80 MSS. all Vers. Eng. and is right. (Ken. in loc.) Ezek. xvi. 59. rPU^n, " thou wilt deal with thee," absurd. T1W), " I will," &c. Keri. 25 MSS. Vers. Eng. Jid. Psal. xxii. 29. thlN, " have eaten." — ib3N\ " shall eat," I Edit, perhaps right. Eng. (Ken. Diss. Gen. cod. 255.) Isa. iii. 4. tD*Drr — m3n, " my vineyard." 70. Chald. Je- rom. Ch. xii. 2. mnr — »m72-r, " my song." I MS. 70. Vulg. Syr. Engl. (Lowth in loc.) 751. KINDS OF FALSE READINGS'. 253 751. 2. Omissions of entire words are very fre- quent ; and always introduce obscurity, absurdity, or a difference in sense. There are 50 whole words omitted in Isaiah. (Lowth, Prel. Diss. p. 65.) Gen. xxv. 8. jraun, " and full"— of what? CSWS»j " of days,"" is added in 3 MSS. Sam. 70. Syr. Vulg. Arab. This was a customary phrase, ch. xxxv. 29. I Chron. xxiii. 1. xxix. 28. Job xlii. 17. Eng. " of years 1 ." (Ken. Diss. Gen. § 25, 108, 136, 176, 179.) Josh. viii. 27. bXTiy* ; but bN")UP Vfil in 94 MSS. and all Vers. (Ken. Diss. Gen. p. 87. n.) Ch. xxii. 34. " called the altar —for it shall be a witness $" this is defective ; but "11?, '' wit- ness," is found in several MSS. Chald. MSS. Syr. Arab. "Vulg. Eng. the sense requires it. (Ken. in loc. Diss. 1. p. 444. Diss. 2. p. 175, 178. Diss. Gen. § 25, 55, 108) Judg. xv..6. rrax, " her father ;" but TTSX ITS, " the house of her father," in 20 MSS. 70. Syr. Arab. (Ken. in loc. et Diss. Gen. p 87. n.) 1 Sam. xvi. 23. C3>nbx nil \ but npi 0>rr?N nn, *• an evil spirit from the Lord," in 4. MSS. Chald. all Vers, the con- nexion requires this addition. (Ken. in loc. et ib.) 2 Sam. vi. 6. '' Uzzah put forth — to the ark 3" this is defec- tive 3 but IT- " DN, " his hand," in all Vers, and 1 Chron. xiii. 9. Ver. 7. hlUTt by. but there is no such noun, and the suffix is wanting, "it nbttnWK by " because he put foith his hand." Syr. Arab. 1 Chron. xiii. 10. two words omitted, one let- ter changed, two transposed. Ch. xiii. 37. " And — mourned." Who? — TH ynUW " and David heard it, and mourned," in r MS. all Vers. Eng. (Ken. Diss. Gen. p. 80. n.) j Chron. vi. 28. (Heb. v. 13) " the first born "OUn ; this is not 254 KINDS OF FALSE READINGS. not true, but Joel, i Sam. viii. 2. bxv is omitted. " Joel, and the second Abiah." Ken. Diss. Gen. \ 113.) Psal. ix. 18. " The expectation of the poor shall—-perish." Nb, «« not," in 1 MS. Chald. all Vers. Eng. evidently right. Ken. in loc. et Diss. Gen. cod. 153. Job xxviii. 17. " the exchange of it— jewels." Kb, '' not," in 1 MS. Sym. Eng. right. Jid. ib. Psal. lxv. 1. *' vow paid,"— /« 'Jerusalem^ is added in Vulg. Ethiop. Arab. 70. Comp. Aid. and several MSS. right, the structure requires it. Ken. Diss. Gen. § 89. 752. — 3. There have sometimes happened omis- sions of several words together, or of whole clauses, which, in a variety of ways, mutilate or vitiate the sense. Gen. xxxv. 22. '' Israel heard it. Now the sons," &c. piska. But the 70 adds, " and it appeared evil in his eyes." Num. xii. 16. The Sara, adds the speech referred to, and repeated Deut. i. 20 — 23 ; this is right and necessary. Ken. in loc. et Diss. Gen. § 24. 1 Sam. x. 21. After " Matri was taken," virion nm>Uft3 '■pb* tamib, " And when he bad caused the family of Matri to come near man by man," is added in 1 MS. and 70. right j the sense requires it. (Jd. ib. cod. 451.) 2 Kings xxiii. 16. " the man of God proclaimed [when Jero- boam stood by the altar at the feast j and he turned and lifted up his eyes to the sepulchre of the man of God] who pro- claimed these words," &c. 70. Syr. MSS. the sense re- quires it, v. 17. Ken. Diss. Gen. § 89. Prov. xi. 16. " A gracious woman retaineth honour 5 [but she thSt KINDS OF FALSE READINGS. 255 that hateth righteousness is a throne of disgrace. The sloth - ful come to want wealth j] but strong men retaia riches.''' 70 Syr. Arab. Ken. ib. § 165. et Diss. 1. p. 508. Luke xi. 2. rtvn%ra ra 3-tXyux trts, ag tv ygxvy, j£ vrri ti\z y-55, is wanting in some MSS. Vulg. Armen. Origen. Augustin. Ver. 4. xXXx pvrxt ii/Hx? usto nt -rov^x, is wanting in son 1 ." MSS. Vulg. Armen. Copt. August. Origen. Mill, and Griesb. in loc. 753. — II. Additions and interpolations have often been made in transcribing the Scriptures, and per- plex the sense, which will be cleared by removing them. 754, — 1. The interpolation, or addition, of letters, has been common among transcribers; but generally destroys or alters the sense. 2 Chron. iv. 19. niinbiyn, " the tables j" butthere was only- one, }nbu?n, see i Kings vii. 48. vbtf turned into &ffV, by assimilation. Ken. Diss. Gen. § 167. 1 Thess. ii. 7. »jot«<, " gentle," which the sense shews to be right ; — but n«m t " infants," in 10 MSS. Vulg. Ethiop. and quotations. Mill. Kust. and Griesb. in loc. et Prol. 488. 755. In Hebrew, the vowel letters, especially 1 and \ have often been improperly added ; and the lan- guage disfigured, or difficulty occasioned by the ad- dition. 2 Sam. xii. i. " the one rich, and the other VX~\ head V but it 2.36 KINDS OF FALSE READINGS. it is V~\ " poor," in 22 MSS. v. 4. " took. WX*irr " /^rvnu;ra, " corrupters ;" but EaTinWTO, " cor- rupted," in 5 MSS. So Prov. xxv. 26. This last is pre- ferable. VttJ, " separated," from 1T3 ; but Witt, in 32 MSS. and 2 Edit, from T)f, " alienate," which is better. Ken. and Lowth in loc. Ver. 7. The last 0*n?, M strangers," is tautologous j perhaps ent, " inundation." Lowth in loc. Isa. vi. 5. wmi, " I am undone jV — but *rwi3, " I am struck dumb," in 28 MSS. 3 Edit. Vulg. Syr. Sym. Lowth in loc. -. Isa. x. 13. *»"£iO, " as valiant ; — but TUS, '* strongly seated." Keri. 12 MSS. Lowth in loc. 756. The arbitrary and improper insertion of \ changes the personal pronouns, turns singulars into plurals, and gives superfluous conjunctions. Josh. vi. 7. 1~D2N v i, " dixerunt ; but the nominative is " Jo- shuah." The Keri is IMP), and this is found in 34 MSS. Ken. in loc. et Diss. 1. p. 438. Isa. i. 6. lxiii. 7. Lowth in loc. I King; vii. 36. TTTViSDlSI *>jf», lt and on and the borders." but 1 is wanting, Keri. and 21 MSS. Ken. Diss. Gen. § 167. Isa. i. 23. xix. 13. Lowth in loc. 757. The interpolation of has, in very many in- stances, KINDS OF FALSE READINGS. 257 stances, turned singular nouns into plurals, the second persons of verbs into the first, the past into the fu- ture, and gives a suffix pronoun where there should be none ; and, in all these cases, introduces great impro- priety or perversion of the sense. Isa. xiv. ii. T^DDTii j — but ^DDni, " covering," in 28 MSS. 7 Edit. 70. Vulg. Lowth and Ken. in loc. Ruth iii. 3. " anoint thee, and / 'will put on" ^ni3U» (but * is wanting, " thou ihali^ in Keri. and 239 MSS. and Edit) " thy raiment upon thee, and / will get me down" VTTPt (but » wanting, '« thou shah get thee down," in Keri. and in MSS. and Edit.) "to the floor, but make not thyself known." Ken. in loc. and Diss. 1. p. 447. Isa. xxxvi. 5. >m?3K, " i say," wrong ; — taut n*t)0N, thou say- est," in 16 MSS. Syr. 2 Kings xviii. 20. the sense requires this. Lowth in loc. Ken. ib. and Diss. Gen. p. 83. n. Psal. ex. 4. *mn h~S " after my order Melchizc'ek j" this is not sense 5 — but mm, " the order of," &c. in 2 MSS. Vers. Heb. vii.17, 21. Ken. in loc. 758. — 2. There have been interpolations of words, from many causes, and, particularly, from taking mar- ginal glosses into the text j which disturb or destroy the sense. Isa. ii. 20. YV, " for himself," is wanting in j MS. and 70 ; it is superfluous. Lowth in loc. S La, 258 KINDS OF FALSE READINCS. Isa. x. 23. " In the midst of all (baj the land/' wanting Ed 75 MSS. and Edit. Chald. Rom. ix. 28. Lovvth in loc. Ken. ib. and Diss. Gen. p. 87. n. Ezek. v. 7. u Neither {ah) have done," &c. wanting in 26 MSS. and Edit. Ken. in loc. and Diss. Gen. § 104, 179. Isa. liii. ii. pHS, " my righteous servant," wanting in 3 MSS. Lovvth in loc. Mat. xv. 8. t*» rofAKTi civruH) kj , wanting in some ancient MSS. , Vulg. Syr. Armen. Copt. Pers. Ethiop. perhaps it has beep added from Isa. xxix. 13. Erasm. and Griesb. in loc. Mill. ib. and Prol. 389. 759. — 3. Several words, or whole clauses, have been interpolated, to the great disturbance of the sense. Gen. xxxvi. 31 — 43. is found in all copies, yet not written by Moses j it has been added from 1 Chron. i. 43 — 54. Ken. Diss. Gen. § 18,3. Deut. ii. 9 — 12. not by Moses. Jd. ib. § 167. 2 Kings vii. 13. -iiya haw yirarr hn OJn ro vintw, " are left in it, behold they are as all the multitude of Israel, which ;" this clause is repeated twice, but wanting in 36 MSS. 70. Syr. and Chald. mss. Ken. in loc. and Diss. Gen. § 89, 179. Ch. viii. 16. '-* In the fifth year of Joram — and ofjehoshaphat king of Judah," PTWP •fin BSU'im j but this is not true ; the Eng. mistranslates j — but the clause is wanting in 2 MSS. 70. Compl. Aid. Vulg. mss. and all the oldest Edit. Syr. mss. oldest Edit, of Eng. it has been taken from the iine below. Ken. in loc. and Diss. Gen. § 19, 109, p. 49. n. 2 Chron. xxxvi. 22, 23. are improper, for there is an interval of 70 years j the book breaks off abruptly, yet it has long been KINDS OF FALSE READINGS. 259 been the last in the Eible. These verses have been added from Ezra i. I, 2, which is still found immediately following this book, in one Heb. MS. Ken. Diss. I. p. 491. Diss. Gen. cod. 431. Isa. xxx. 26. " as the light of seven days," is wanting in most copies of 70. Lowth in loc. Jer. lii. has been added ; for ch. li. 64. ends Jeremiah's words. It is taken from 2 Kings xxiv. 18. &c. but with several errors. Ver. 28, 29, 30. are interpolated ; they contra- tradict 2 Kings xxiv. 16. Ver. 34. " until the day of his death, all the days of his life," are superfluous 5 and they are wanting in one ancient MS, and 2 Kings xxv. 30. Ken. in loc. et Diss. 1. p. 48 r. Mat. x. 8. vsxga? tyetptts, wanting in $6 MSS. Arraen. Pers. quotation j probably added, for the apostles raised none du- ring Christ's life. Mill. Kust. and Griesb. in loc. Ch. xxiii. 13. omitted in Cam. Arab. mss. very ancient Lat. mss. Sax. Orig. Jerom. Euseb. perhaps added from Mark or Luke j it is transposed with v. 14. in near 30 MSS. se- veral Edit. Vulg. Copt. Syr. Arab. Mill, et Griesb. in loc. Luke xvii. 35. Ave ktovtcu e» t« ay§«, &c. is added in 6 MSS. several Edit. Vulg. Syr. Pers. Goth. Arab, quotations. — probably from Mat. xxiv. 40. for it is wanting in Alex, and most other MSS. and in Copt. Mill. Grot, and Griesb. in loc. Acts viii.37. is wanting in Alex, and about 30 others, in Syr. Ethiop. Copt, it has been a marginal illustration from Rom. x. 9. Mill. Kust. and Griesb. in loc. and Prol. 371. Grot, in loc. \ . 39. For itnvfM K^ig, there is 7rnvux kyiov I'wriviv «? rev S 2 ivvov- 260 KINDS OF FALSE READINGS. iwav^oi' uyyiXof £s Kv^m, in Alex, and several other ancient MSS. and in Jerom ; but probably added from ch. x. 44. or xi. 15. Mill, et Griesb. in loc. 760. — III. Other false readings are produced by transposition ; and produce difficulties often, which can be removed only by correcting them. 761. — 1. The transposition of letters in a word, of- ten changes its sense, or deprives it of all meaning, and, in proper names, occasions an appearance of con- tradiction. The Masora admits the transposition of letters in 62 words., but it is more frequent. In the Bible, mobu? occurs 16 times ; and nhw, 27 times, u garment j" the latter is the right reading. Sam. MSS. frombniy, (Arab.) " vestivit." Isa. i. 25. 1M ; perhaps it should be 13a, " in a furnace." Mic. iii. 3. -iU^KS, " as which." — iNWa, " as morsels." 70. Chald. Eng. Lowth. Jer. xii. 4. " He shall not see (liinrrx) our last end.'''' 70 has, " our ways," lamiTiN ; this is preferable, rr and "1 have been transposed, and 1 changed into \ Ken. Diss. 1. p. 512. Ch. xxviii. 13. ntai)3 and n^lan, '* yokes ;" the former is wrong, but right in 20 MSS. nittltt is found in 16 MSS. in the former place, and in 15 in the latter. ni3)3 is found in 2 MSS. Ken. in loc. and Diss. Gen. § 167. Ch. xxxii. 23. " Neither walked," *]hvin:i, a barbarous word irmna, " in thy law." Keri. above 30 MSS. Jid. Zech. KINDS OF FALSE READINGS. 261 Zech. xii. io. " they have pierced," Vipl, right ; but VTp, H they have insulted," in i MS. 70. in most copies. Ken. in loc. Diss. Gen. § 70. Josh. xxiv. 30. " Timnath-jrn?£," n*TD, right ; — but 'Judg. ii. 9. wn " heras-," but mD is found in 6 MSS. Vulg. Syr. Arab. Ken. ib. and Diss. Gen. § 167. Jehoram's only son is called innnx, " Ahaz-ihu" 18 times j right; — but mxirT' " Ihu-ahaz" thrice, and TPmx, " Aha- ziah," 5 times. 1 Kings x. 11, 12. on^sbx— but 2 Chron. ix. 10, 11. O^bx. 762. — 2. There are transpositions of words, which produce confusion, obscurity, or absurdity. Isa. iv. 5. 113)3 b2, *' every station." wrong, for Zion was the only station ; it is wanting in 4 MSS. but added before nNlptt in above 30 MSS. — " all her assemblies," in one ancient MS. and 70. right ; it has thus changed its place. "tt33"*>;j, " all the glory." wrong. TD3 V3, the glory over all." Zech.ii. v. Ken. et Lowth and loc. 763. — 3. There are likewise transpositions of whole clauses, sentences, or periods 5 which occasions diffi- culties of various kinds. Exod. xxx. 1 — 10. This passage, concerning the altar of in- cense, is improperly inserted here ; it is wanting in the Sam. it has been taken from the end of ch. xxvi. where it is want- ing in the Heb. but retained in the Sam. and is properly in- troduced there, according to ch. xxxi. 6 — 1 1, xxxv. J2 — 16. xxxvii. i. xxxviii. 8. xxxix. 35 — 39. xl. 3 — 7. v. 21 — 30. Ken. in loc. and Diss. Gen. § 22, 24. Job xl. 1 — 14. These verses improperly interrupt the descrip- tion j v. 15. connects properly with ch, xxxix. 30. They S 3 have 26'J KINDS OF FALSE READINGS. have originally followed ch. xlii. 6. where they are proper, forming a striking conclusion of the poem, and connected with v. 7. " after the Lord had spoken these words unto Job," &c. but, at present, Job concludes the poem, which occasions great confusion. 1 Ken. Diss. Gen. § 23, 165. and remarks on select pas- sages. Heath in loc. Isa. vii. S, 9. should stand thus, head of Syria — of Damascus — of Ephraim — of Samaria — and within threescore and five years," &c. Lowth in loc. Isa. xxxviii. 2r, 22. These two verses are no part of the song, and are improper here : v. 22. should follow v. 6. and v. 21. after v. 3. So they stand 2 Kings xx. 7, 8. Lowth in loc. Ken. Diss. Gen. § 23. Isa. xli. 6, 7. These two verses are unconnected j they have probably followed ch. xl. 20. where they are proper, and prevent abruptness. Houbig. in loc. Ken. Diss. Gen. § 23. 764. — IV. Finally, there are many false readings productive of difficulty or error, which consist in change or alteration. 765. — 1. Not only similar letters, but others also, have been confounded and interchanged by tran- scribers ; and important alterations in the sense have thence arisen. The name of Nebuchadnezzar is written in 7 different ways. 1 Sam. xviii. 12. »» 1TOU;, " beware who of Absalom j" but »b, " pieserve to me," in 2 MSS. Chald. 70. Syr. Ken. in loc. and Diss. Gen. § 116. Isa. i. 29. Vi?S>, '* they j" but Wlin, li ye shall be ashamed," in KINDS OF FALSE READINGS. 263 in 2 MSS. one Edit. Chald. Vulg. the connexion requires this. Lowth and Ken. in loc. Ch. vi 9. 1X1, but T7N*) in 13 MSS. regular. Jid. Ch. viii. 9. inn, " associate," but ijn, " know," in 70. which. is better ; being synonymous with " give ear," in the next line. V. 11. npira, " with a strong hand j" but nptro, " as taking me by the hand," in 11 MSS. Syr. Vulg. Sym. Jid. Ch. xiii. 22. vniattbaa. but vniimxa, in i MS. right. Ch. xxii. 19. ^*in\ " he shall pull thee," but "jDinK, " / will," in Syr. Vulg. the connexion requires this. Jid. 766. — 2. Transcribers have often made a false read- ing, by putting one word instead of another. Judg. i. 22. n% " the house of Joseph," but ya, " the sonsf\ in 8 MSS. 70. Arab. Ken. in loc. 2 Chron. xxi. 2. hartW> but rrV\7T> in above 20 MSS. 70. Vulg. the sense requires this. Ken. in loc. and Diss. Gen. p. 83. n. Psal. lxii. 11. Tiimw, but wrnw, " we have heard," in 10 MSS. Arab, this is preferable. Jd. ib. and Diss. Gen. cod. 255. Prov. xv. 20. " A foolish man t=PIN, but p, son," in 6 MSS. 70. Syr. Chald. this makes a proper antithesis to " wise son." Jd. ib. Diss. 2. p. 188. Diss. Gen. § 25. and cod. 92. Isa. ix. 11. njt, "the enemies," but ^W, " the princes of Re- zin," in 21 MSS. Lowth and Ken. in loc. S 4 Ch. •264- RULES CONCERNING VARIOUS READINGS. Ch. xxxv. 2. " It shall rejoice with pv nh^joy and singing." nba, in 4 MSS. and yn\ " Jordan," in 70. Syr. mss. " the well-watered plain of Jordan shall rejoice," on account of Christ's baptism there ; it is thus a prediction of it. It has perhaps been designedly altered. Tib, " to it," but ~\b, " to thee," in 9 MSS. Ken. Lowth, and Houbig. in loc. Ken. Diss. Gen, § 8i ? 176. Lowth, Sacr. Poes. prael. 20. n. 767. — 3. There have sometimes been substitutions of whole clauses or sentences, in place of others to- tally different. Prov. x. 10 — " but a prating fool shall fall j" there is here, neither connexion nor antithesis ; it has been taken from v. 8. where it is proper. — '' but he that freely reproveth, worketh safety," in Syr. Arab. 70. it thus makes a proper •antithesis ; false and true friendship. Ken. Diss. 1. p. 506. Diss. Gen. § 165. SECT. IV. Rules of judging concerning various Readings. 768. From the several particular observations con- cerning the various readings of Scripture, which have been hitherto made, may be deduced such general principles as will serve for determining which are spu- rious, and which genuine, 769, RULES CONCERNING VARIOUS READINGS. 265 769. The evidences by which various readings may- be examined, are of two kinds, — external, — and in- ternal ; the former, arising from the authority of MSS. versions, and quotations ; the latter, from the nature of the languages, the sense and connexion, and the known occasions of false readings j parallel places par- take of the nature of both. Michael. Int. Lect. § 16. Marsh's Michael, ch. 6. sect. 13. 770. When the evidences of both kinds concur in favour of a reading, there can be no doubt that it is the genuine reading ; and, therefore, we have full assur- ance of the genuineness of the great bulk of the Scrip- tures, as contained in ail the common editions. 771. When the evidence for and against a reading is divided, the determination must be made according to the circumstances of each particular case. 772. If the external evidence stands on the one side, and the internal on the other, the former ought, in general, to determine the question, for it is the most direct. 773. But, the internal evidence may, notwithstand- ing, be so strong, as to overbalance a great degree of external evidence ; particularly, where the reading- supported by the latter is palpably false, or, where the introduction and prevalence of it can be easily account- ed for, without supposing it genuine, as in copies plain- ly framed in conformity to the Masora. 774, 266 RULES CONCERNING VARIOUS READINGS, 774. Often, both the external and the internal evi- dence, is partly for one reading, and partly for ano- ther ; and, they are divided with so great varieties of circumstances, that no rules of deciding, strictly uni- versal, can be laid down. 775. But, if we distinguish various readings into four classes — certainly genuine — probable — dubious— and false ; it may be possible to determine, with suffi- cient precision, the circumstances which entitle a read- ing to be placed in one or another of these classes. 776. 1. There are readings certainly genuine ; and there are even different degrees of evidence, which may ascertain them to be such j and all such ought to be adopted without hesitation. 777. Readings are certainly right, and that in the very highest sense at all consistent with the existence of any various reading, which are supported by several of the most ancient, or the majority of MSS. ; by all or most of the ancient versions j by quotations ; by paral- lel places, if there be any, and by the sense ; though these readings be not found in the common editions, nor, perhaps, in any printed edition. Psal. xvi. io. " Neither wilt thou suffer ("j^^DH) thy saints to see corruption j" it is so rendered every where, as Psal. lii. p. lxxix. 2. cxxxii. 9. cxlv. 10. but not true. But it is "]T»Dn '** thy holy one," in Keri, all ancient MSS. and the majority Ijy, Edit. -^£, several editions of the Talmud, Chald. and all ancient versions ; it is so quoted Acts ii. 25 —3 it xiii. 35 — 37, and reasoned from. The alteration might RULES CONCERNING VARIOUS READINGS. 267 might have been accidental, but, probably, has been de- signedly retained. Ken. Diss. i. p. 218, 496. Diss. 2. p. 107, 346, 469, 561. Diss. Gen. § 17, 35, 64, 85, 86, 150, 179. p. 83. n. Jd. and Houb. in loc. I Kings i. 18. " And now (rrnjh) my lord, knowest not j M but nriNI " and tbpii," in 200 MSS. and Edit. Chald. all versions, v. 20. nDKl " And thou, the eyes of Israel are upon thee 5" but nni'1 " and noiv,"" in near 100 MSS. Syr. Arab. Vulg. Chald. The sense requires both these altera- tions. Ken. Diss. Gen. § 55. &. in loc. I Chron. iv. 3. " These are (^N) the father of Etam, Jezreel," &c." this is absurd •, but »J& " the sons," in 8 MSS. on the margin of 4 more, and all versions. ^X "03 in 6 MSS. Ken. in loc. Isa. xxvii. 2. " A vineyard (inn) of red wine ;" but Tort tl the beloved vineyard," in 45 MSS. and Edit. 70. Chald. Ken. and Lowth in loc. Isa. lviii. 3. ' c Wherefore have we afflicted our soul (13U7S3) j but 1:^53 " our souls," in 6 ancient MSS. 21 more, 1 an- cient Edit. Chald. 70. Vulg. v. 8.11:05 but 11131 ie and the glory," in 5 ancient MSS. 11 more, 70. Syr. Vulg. Ken. and Lowth in loc. Isa. lx. 21. " The branch (lyiara) " of his planting 5" but ^irtott " of my planting," in Keri, 7 ancient MSS. 37 more, 6 Edit. Chald. Syr. Vulg. Eng. Jid. ib. Isa. lxiii. 15. "Where is thy powers" ("pmi:i:i plur.) but *]n-i113 sing, in 7 ancient MSS. 25 more, 7 Edit. Jid. ib. Ezek. 'J68 RULES CONCERNING VARIOUS READINGS. Ezek. xxxv. 23. " I shall be sanctified In you before your eyes 1 ' (OS'O'Tb) ; but CDrronrb " before their eyes," in 191 MSS. and Edit. Chald. all versions. Engl. Ken. in loc. and Diss. Gen. § 48, 55, 108. Mat. i. II. \ua-ixi fa ErENNHZE TON IAKEIM (Ii2AKEIM) IAKEIMAE. Thus it is in Edit. H. Steph. and Beza, and in several MSS. •■, but wanting in most MSS. and Edit, and in all versions ; it is an interpolation. Mill. Kust. and Griesb. in loc. Mill. Prol. 702, 1258. Luke v. 7. a?i nAPA TI (iv^ir^xt " so that they sunk a little," Edit. Beza. 2 MSS. Vulg. Copt. Pers. Arab, j but want- ing in all others j it is a gloss. Mill, and Griesb. in loc. Mat. xxv. 29. ccxo fa rov ftn t%oiTos, xxi 'O EXE I u^S-tnTx;, u even that which he hath." So it is in all ancient, and in the majority of MSS. and in all versions but one. fax.u fftuvy ** which he seemeth to have," is found in several MSS. and in Vulg. but it is wrong j it has been corrected from Luke viii. 18. Mill. Kust. and Griesb. in loc. Rom. vii. 6. KXTY)%yri%p.tv xko tov vopov TOY 0ANATOY, in 2 MSS. Vulg. and a few quotations. — uttoS-xvovtos, " that be- ing dead," in 2 MSS. Edit. Eeza. Eng. — xxoB-xvovTii , " we being dead," in Alex, and most MSS. and Edit. Syr. Arab. Ethiop. and several quotations. This last reading is right -, so v. 4. Jid. ib. Macknight in loc. Heb. xii. 20. sj fiohtlit xxTXTo%ivS-ri)" Eng. but 2t^ni " and shall turn away transgression (apmra) from Jacob," in 70. Syr. Chald. Rom. xi. 26. Lowth in loc. 785. In a text evidently corrupted, a parallel place may suggest a reading certainly genuine. Judg. vii. 18. " Say, of the Lord and of Gideon j" this is de- fective. " Ihe sword?" 1 Jin supplied from the execution, v. 20. Eng. Ken. Diss. Gen. § 108, 167. 2 Kings xxv. 3. il On the ninth day of the ■ month j" this is defective. — ^JWitt " the fourth," Jer. lii. 6. Ken. ib. § 108, 113. r Chron. i. 17. " The sons of Shem were Aram and Uz," Sec. " but the sons of Aram," Gen. x. 23. toix 'Oil is omitted, and 1 prefixed toyiy. Ken. in loc. and Diss. Gen. c. 175. Isa. xvi. 7 — 10. " For ^l»N the foundations" (nyJN " men," Jer. xlviii. 31.) " of Kuhareseth" (Kirharesh," v. it. and Jer. ib. 36.) " shall ye mourn." 0^X33 "|K (" surely they are stricken," Eng.) but 70 joins these words with the next verse, piyrr now >J> " for the fields of Heshbon lan- guish j" they render it, " and the fields of Heshbon shall not be put to shame," which is wrong ; but 2 MSS. and Arab, have read pym nmi» l^boj *]K, probably right.) V. 9. " For the shouting TPrr (" the spoiler, or destroyer," *r-K*in) and flow toperh ' — won >; shalt thou fear " in 13 ancient MSS. 30 ocl.e ■ t is last is most agreeable to the structure, for it makes the clause parallel to the next line. T 2 V. 5. 276 RULES CONCERNING VARIOUS READINGS. V.6. "The praises (nibnn) of Jehovah"— nbnn "praise," in 33 MSS. 3 Edit, ancient Veis. V. 9. " The ships of Tarshish (nJWNIi) the first." 5 is prefixed, " as at the first," in 25 MSS. and Syr. Ken. and Lowth in loc. Math. v. 27. t (pxvt^&r, wanting in 6 MSS. Vulg. Copt, and some quotations j but found in most MSS. Syr. Arab. Pers. and more quotations ; the sense shews it to be right. Mill, and Griesb. in loe. Whitby Exam. 1. 2. c. 2. s. 1. Luke ii. 22. " The days of their (avrai) purification" — uvtv,; in 2 MSS. Vulg. Arab. Eng.— «ut«u in 7 MSS. and Aug. but both are wrong, for cturuv is best supported, Alex, and 11 other MSS. Syr. Pers. Ethiop. Goth. Origen. it has been altered, to avoid imputing impurity to Jesus. Griesb. in loc. Mill. ib. and Prol. 676, 759, 1438. Jo'in ii. 17. xxTi(pxyf, Com. Edit. — xxrx \9, " the mouth of Jehovah," in 3 ancient MSS. 2 others. 70. Ken. and Lowth in loc. 2 Cor. v. 15. "If («) one died for all," is omitted in many MSS. some of them very ancient, and in quotations j but T 3 the 278 RULES CONCERNING VARIOUS READINGS. the sense requires it j and it might be easily left out be- fore u$. Mill. Kust. Griesb. and in loc. and Prol. 748-. 1 Tim. ii. 19. Eyva;Ktigy; " a song," is added in 1 ancient MS. and the metre requires it.—" A song of my beloved" >Trt ; perhaps for OTn " of loves." This avoids the impropriety of making the author the same to whom it is sung. Lowth and Ken. in loc, Isa. ix. 14. " The Lord will cut off head and tail, &c. t3V inx one day."— tava " in one day," in 8 MSS. Eng. the sense requires it. Ken. and Lowth, ib. Isa. x. 5. " O Assyrian, the rod of mine anger Nirr ntatt"} IJ3JN DV3, " and he the staff in their hand is my indignation. But RULES CONCERNING VARIOUS READINGS. 279 But intatt, in 2 ancient MSS. 3 more. 70. Alex. •' the staff in whose hand is mine indignation," the sense requires this. Jid. ib. , Isa. xix. 12. " Where are thy wise men i — and let them tell.'' "j is here superfluous and embarrassing. 1X1, " let them come, and," &c. is added in 2 MSS. and is agreeable to the structure. " And let them know," in* — " let them de- clare," IJTTl*. 70. Vulg. Lowth in loc. Isa. xxv. " Thou hast made a palace of slra?igers (Q^T) to be no city." EST?, " the proud," in 2 MSS. and 70. these two words are often confounded ; the last is preferable. — B^llt " adversaries," in 1 MS. but less probable. — V. 5. " the noise (ta^f) of strangers j" but Oil in 70. which makes it parallel to terrible,'' as Psal. liv. 5. lxxxvi. 14. Jid. in loc. Isa. xxx. 32. " where mDItt the grounded staff shall pass, this gives no sense. mDItt, " the rod of correction" in 2 MSS. Prov. xxii. 15. Jid. ib. Acts xi. 20. " They spake Trgos rag sXXwrcts, to the hellenistical Jews j" so most MSS. but it answers not to v. 19. the in- formation is of no moment, and is not new, ch. vi. 1. tXM- »« 5 , in Alex. Vulg. Syr. Arab. Ethiop. " Greeks," Gen- tiles. This is proper, and gives new information 5 it was the first instance after Peter. Mill. Benson, and Griesb. in loc. 2 Cor. v. 3. " If so be that being clothed (t^va-ctfavti') we shall not be found naked." So most MSS. Vers. Clem. Alex, some copies of Ambrose and Chrysost. but the sentiment is trifling, and connects not with v. 2. nor v. 4. Ht^vtrxftsvoi, (i we be even unclothed j" in Clerm. Germ, both very an- cient, some copies of Ambr. and Chrys. Ital. Tertull. T 4 twice. $80 RULES CONCERNING VARIOUS READINGS* twice. This implies a seeming contradiction, and there- fore has been corrected into the former reading. But the contradiction is not real j • though stript of our body by death, we shall not be naked, because we shall receive a glorious body,' v. i. this connects well with v. 2. and v. 4. and is most probable. Mill, inloc. 791. The Samaritan Pentateuch, alone, may render a reading in the books of Moses highly probable, if it be supported by the sense, cqnnexion, or parallel places, in opposition to another found in MSS. and versions, but unsuitable to these internal circumstances. Gen. xx. J3. xxxv. 7. OVibx, meaning the true God, has here a plural verb, which is wrong ; but it is singular in Sam. in all the copies of it. x 792. One, or a few ancient versions, may render a reading probable, when it is strongly supported by the sense, connexion, or parallel places, in opposition to one which suits not these, though found in other ver- sions and in MSS. Gen. xiv. 20. " He gave tythes"— ambiguous, whether Mel- chizedeck or Abraham ? it seems rather the former •, but it was the latter, Heb. vii. 4. and 70. Aid. and Vat. have i%ux.iv uvrm Afi£xu{t, which is probably genuine. Ken. Diss. Gen. $ 31. Isa. v. 30. y*\iih tDiil, " and he shall look to the earth," Heb. 70. Vat. and Alex. — but, " to the heaven above, and to the earth below," in MSS. of 70. and in Copt, which is proper, and agreeable to ch. viii. 22 , it is countenanced by 70. Compl. and Aid. " to the heaven above, and below," and by Arab. " to the heaven, and to the earth below," though both are also defective. Lowth in loc. Isa. RULES CONCERNING VARIOUS READINGS. 281 Isa. ix. 20. " They shall eat every one the flesh of bis own arm,'' IJTrt. but this is inconsistent with v. 21. or an anti- climax. iyi, " of his neighbour," Chald. so Jer. xix. 9, The 70. renders both, t» /3^^<«v9s t« «2eAxu;, 70. Lowth ib. Isa. xl. 5. " All flesh shall see— together." What ?— " the salvation of God." 70. Luke iii. 6. Isa. lii. 10. Lowth ib. Isa. xli. 1. " Keep silence," lU^inrr. — ". be renewed," UlPTnrr, 70. agreeably to the structure. Lowth ib. 793. The concurrence of all, or most of the an- cient versions, in a reading not found in MSS. now extant, renders it probable, if it be agreeable to the sense, though not absolutely necessary to it. j Sam. ix. 7. wxb, " to the man j" but e^nbim wxh, " to the man of God," in only 1 MS. but in Chald. and all the ancient versions. Ken. in loc. and Diss. Gen. p. 87. n. Psal. xcvii. 11. " Light is sown," yir : this is a harsh meta- phor ; but mf, " ariseth," in all the ancient versions ex- cept Chald. So Psal. cxii. 4. Isa. xxxi. 6. 4< They have revolted," ip^rr ; but, "jehave revolted," lpV3J?n in all the ancient versions. Lowth ib. 794. Conjectural readings, strongly supported by the sense, the connexion, the nature of the language, or 282 RULES CONCERNING VARIOUS READINGS. or similar texts, may sometimes have probability ; e- specially, when it can be shewn, that they would easily have given occasion to the present reading ; and, read- ings, first suggested merely by conjecture, have, in several cases, been afterwards found to be actually in MSS. Gen. i. S. " And God saw that it was good," is wanting of the second day, but is found in v. 10. in the middle of the third day. Either, " and the evening," &c. has been transpos- ed from v. 10. to v. 8. or, " and God saw," &c. from v. 8. to v. io. This last seems preferable ; for the 70. has it in both places. Ken. Diss. Gen. 80, 2 — 8r. Josh. xxiv. 19. ibain ah, " Te cannot serve the Lord." This seems strange, after exhortations to serve him, and be- fore reasons Tor serving him. lb^n xb, " cease not to serve the Lord," properly enforced by the reasons which follow. Hallet's Notes, V. 3. p. 2. Ken. Diss. 2. p. 375. Psal. lxxviii. 2. is not suitable to the Psalm, which is histori- cal ; the pronoun is sing, but plur. in v. 3. It is quoted Mat. xiii. $$. as from a prophet, and as a prediction of the Messiah's speaking in parables 5 it is, likewise, originally quoted from Isaiah, in Porphyr. Jerom. some copies in his time, and 3 MSS. and therefore has been originally in Isaiah. Wetst. Griesb. and Mill, inloc. Isa. xxiv. 15. " Glorify the Lord &V1NI in the fires $" the word is irregular. e^-iiNl in 23 MSS. regular, but strange. Hence several conjectures. Ed^iX% " in the ri- vers." CD^ni, " in the mountains." £3*73X1, tS^ya, " a- mong the nations." &«»», " in the islands or distant coasts : ' this last is most probable. Lowth in loc. Isa. RULES CONCERNING VARIOUS READINGS. 283 Isa. xxx. 18. " Therefore will Vie be exalted CDIT' that he may- have mercy." C31T, " be silent," which is more agreeable to the structure and the sense. Lowth ib. Isa. xlii. 20. mm rvx-i, ■* Thou seest many things." mm, " seeing," Keri. 107 MSS. 5 Edit. Eng. — but pro- bably niX"i nvn, " seeing thou shalt see," i. e. " surely, indeed." See ch. vi. 9. riou^ " he heareth," wrong. Daiyn, " thou hearest, in 40 MSS. and all the ancient ver- sions j the sense requires this. Lowth ib. 795. Probable readings may have so high a degree of evidence, as justly entitles them to be inserted into the text, in place of the received readings much less probable ; such as have not considerably higher pro- bability than the common ones, should only be put on the margin ; but, they, and all others, ought to be weighed with impartiality. 796. — 3. Readings are dubious, when the evidence for, and against them, is so equally balanced, that it is difficult to determine which of them preponderates. 797. When MSS. versions, and other authorities, are equally, or almost equally, divided between readings which all suit the sense and connexion, it is difficult to determine which of them ought to be preferred. Gen. iv. 1 5. pb, " therefore," Heb. Sam. Aq.— p tth, " not so," 7c. Syr. Vulg. Theodot. Sym. Ken. Diss. Gen. § 78. Isa.iii. 8. ** To provoke the eyes (^y) of his glory/' common Edit, many MSS. irregular — w/most MSS. several E. dit. 284- RULES CONCERNING VARIOUS READINGS. »3 on a rasure in one MS. 3 in one MS. > in one MS. per- haps it should be \Sg t " the c/oud," alluding to that above the tabernacle. Lovvth and Ken. in loc. Isa. xix. 18. " One shall be called the city D~\nrt of destruc- tion," in most MSS. and Edit. Aq. Theodot. Syr. some think, to intimate the destruction of the Jewish temple in E- gypt j others, as in the Arabic it signifies " a lion," for Lentopolis. D"inn, " of the sun," in [| MSS. 5 Edit. Sym. Vulg. Arab. 70. Compl. Talmud, several copies of the 1 2th century mentioned by Aben Ezra, quoted by Onias in favour of the Jewish temple in Egypt, as predicting the place of it, Heliopolis. Some prefer the former, which, they think, has been corrupted by Onias, designedly, in some co- pies of the Heb. and most of the 70. which have tca-t^ix, " of righteousness." Others prefer the latter, which, they think, has been corrupted by the Jews of Palestine designed- ly, from hatred to the Egyptian temple. Perhaps the latter is rather preferable. Ken. in loc. and Diss. Gen. § 2r, 126. Louth in loc. Ikenii Diss. 16. Owen's State of the 70. p. 41. Bry- ant's Obs. p. 131. Mat. v. 22. " Angry with his brother pen without cause" most MSS. Syr. Copt. Goth. Cypr. — wanting in 3 MSS. Vulg. Arab. Ethiop. Justin. Irenae. &c. in Greek copies according to Augustin. Mill, in loc. and Prol. 302, 343, 369, 384, 857, 1256. Whitby, Exam. 1. 2.c 1. § J. Campbell and Griesb. in loc. Mat. vi. 13. 'On ex tew k /W i/uot « iretrvfy xuya iv t&> uctT(>i. Aftyv, ttf.',nv teyat vftm, ttcv /tv) Xet/inrt to f*x m vtH tv «v^6>^-tf, 4»{ rov aprov t>js Zp*i$, s« t% lTi fyaw v> etvra, in Camb. gr. and lat. Mill, thinks it genuine, (Prol. 779, 780, 1268.) but it has been interpolated from a gloss. Simon, N. T. p. 1. c. 30. Campbell and Griesb. in loc. 2 Cor. xi. 3. " Corrupted xvo rtn ccxhortroi from the simplici- ty." — *yvotnt(&>, " chastity," ancient Latin quot.— -kyvotn- 705 km Tijs ^ttAotjjtos, some ancient MSS. — uzrXorvitos k«i ay- vojviTOi, one MS. Mill, in loc. thinks these a gloss •, but, according to Kuster. praef. they are genuine ; no gloss was necessary, nor are the words synonymous j they both refer to what precedes. Rom. xi. 6. Eih e| i^yuv, &c. to end of the verse, are found in the greatest number of MSS. but wanting in the most an- cient, Alex. Clerm. Germ. Vulg. Copt. Erasm. Zeger. Est. Grot. Mill. Griesb. in loc. I John ii. 23. 'O IpoXoyuv rov vtov, >£ tov irntipA £#£', wanting inmost MSS. but found in Alex, and 12 more. — interpola- tion or omission equally easy, and no argument can be drawn from the connexion. They are inserted in Eng. in a different character. Mill, and Griesb. in loc, 798. The sense, and other internal evidences, may- plead so strongly for one reading, and the authority of MSS. and versions so strongly for another, as to ren- der it doubtful which ought to be preferred. Isa. 1. 13. mXJM \\H, Eng. •* iniquity, even the solemn meet- ing." there are many different translations j the sense of all of thern good, but not arising naturally ftorn the phrase. — 286 RULES CONCERNING VARIOUS READINGS. vYireixv, bil 70. " the fast and the solemn meeting J M it was natural to mention it, as Joel i. 14. ii. 15. Houbig. and Lowth in loc. Rom. vii. 25 Ei/£*g ra> ©ea>, " I thank God," most MSS. and Vers. — #*g KYPIft ^aXtvovrn , " serving the Lord," Alex. 22 more. Vulg. Syr. Arab. Ethiop. several Greek quot. all the Latin except Ambr. Edit. Compl. 1 Erasm. Bez. This gives a good and obvious sense, and points out the ob- ject of zeal. — xouqu, " the opportunity,'' in 2 of Steph. mss. Clerm. Germ. Ital. Ambr. Edit. 2, &c of Erasm. Steph. This, too, gives a proper sense, the regulation of zeal ac- cording to seasons, but less obvious, and therefore might be altered. Mill, in loc. and Prol. 643. Crell. Vorst. Griesb. in loc. 800 There are passages, especially in the Old Testament, where the paucity of independent MSS. or their discordance, the obscurity, or the variations, of the versions, or other defects of evidence for any one reading, render it very doubtful what is the ge- nuine reading, and leave room for different conjectures. Isa. RULES CONCERNING VARIOUS READINGS. 287 Isa. ix. 9. '*■ All the people (liw) shall know." What > inl*\ " carry themselves haughtily," which makes it paral- to the next clause, Chald. — iy*P, " are depraved," Hou- big. 1 MS. — mi*, " shall speak," referring to *l»X 1 ?, " and say," in the next line. Seeker. Lowth in loc. Isa. xvii. 2. " The cities "liny of Aroer are forsaken." but, to say, cities of a city is improper, and it has no relation to Damascus. — ny iy, " for ever," 70. — " are laid waste," Chald. Lowth ib. Isa. lii. 15. '* So (n^) shall he sprinkle many nations." This is the constant sense, here supposed metaphorical, of the word 5 but it is always followed by by. — 9-ctvpxe-ovTXi, " ma- ny nations shall admire," 70. thus it is parallel to the next clause ; but what have they read ? — nrri> is so used. ch. ii. 2. Jer. xxxi. 12. Ii. 44. but it is unlike the other word. (Seeker.) — "lUT 1 is like it, and is used for " looking with approbation or admiration,'' Psal. xi. 7. xvii. 15. xxvii. 4, Ixviii. 2. and for " looking on God," Exod. xxiv. if. Job xix. 26. (Durel. Jubb.) Lowth in loc. 801. No dubious reading should be taken into the text, in place of what is already there ; for, no altera- tion ought to be made in the received copies, without positive reason ; and, such dubious readings as are al- ready in the text, should be marked as such, and the others put on the margin ; but, every person is at liber- ty to use his own judgment in chusing which he pleases. $02. — 4. There are readings which are wrong; and 288 RULES CONCERNRIG VARIOUS READINGS. and of this kind, are far the greatest part of the varia- tions from the received copies ; but, to it belong, like- wise, several which have, by the injudiciousness, the inattention, or the prejudices of transcribers and edi- tors, been admitted into these ; and, such readings are either, certainly wrong, — or, probably wrong. 803. All readings are certainly wrong, which stand in opposition to the several classes of readings certain- ly genuine ; of which, therefore, many examples have been already given ; but others may, without impro- priety, be added ; particularly, such as have been very generally received, and yet bear plain marks of their being corruptions, as implying barbarism, incon- sistency, or the like. I Sam. ii. 3. ea'Stt pnj? N¥\ " let — arrogancy come out of your mouth." — bn is omitted, •■ let not," &c. Chald. 70. Syr. Arab. Eng. the sense requires it. — "OSna xV), c( and actions are not weighed j this is absurd ; but iV), " and by him," Keri, about 40 MSS. Eng. Vulg. Ken. in loc. and Diss. 1. p. 450. I Sam. xii. 10. IpJWl, " and they cried, "173N^ and he said." but vittNV), " and they said," Keri, above 50 MSS. Ken. ib. and Diss. Gen. § 38. 804. Readings which imply barbarism, solecism, or absurdity, may be pronounced certainly wrong, though we know of no reading, certainly right, to be substitut- ed in their place. Isa. xliv. 8. imn no where occurs. — irrvn in 2 MSS. perhaps it should be 1XTTI, " fear ye." Seeker. Lowth in loc. 805. RULES CONCERNING VARIOUS READINGS. 289 805. All readings are probably wrong, which stand in opposition to such as are probably genuine ; and these, too, have been already exemplified in many in- stances. 806. Readings which imply considerable irregula- rity, or impropriety, are probably false, though it be not clear what reading should be adopted instead of them. 807. Readings, certainly or very probably false, ought to be expunged from the editions of the Scrip- tures, and departed from in versions of them, how- ever long and generally they have usurped a place there, as being manifest corruptions, which impair the purity of the sacred books. 808. Among texts, the true reading of which is con- troverted, the most remarkable in several respects is 1 John v. 7, 8. where the words, sv tu apuvca, r o ttocttjp, o Koy^y, koci to ccyiev vrvsvu.oc, xui Htoi ol tphq sv hHg htlv [aocptvpxvtss sv tv { yp are by some held to be genuine, and by others to be spurious j and, all the kinds of evidence, both external and internal, hav- ing been urged on both sides, it is only by a fair com- parison of them all, that it can be determined, in which of the four classes this reading ought to be placed. Mill in loc. Wetst. ib. Bengel. ib. Griesb. ib. Simon, N. T. p. I. c 1 8. Marsh's Michael. Pappelbaum. External. MSS. For the text.— It is supposed to be in 8 of Steph. Vat. some seen by Simon, one mentioned by Eras- U mus, 'J90 RULES CONCERNING VARIOUS READINGS. mus, some by Cajetan, some by Valla, some by the Lou- vaine divines } it is in 2, the Dublin and Berlin MSS.— Against it. It is not in any of Steph. nor in the Vat. nor in any seen by Simon. Erasmus says not that he saw one, nor has any person found it. Cajetan was misinformed, and Valla is misrepresented. The Louvaine divines mean Latin copies. The Dublin MS. is very modern ; and the Berlin MS. has been carefully collated by Pappelbaum, and pro- ved to be almost a mere transcript from the Complutensian. Versions. For it. Vulg. in all Edit, and most MSS. j all modern versions j supposed to be in Ital. and Armen.— Against it. Arab. Ethiop. Copt. Pers. Russ. Syr. in all MSS. and some Edit. Armen. in all ancient copies. Vulg. in many PvlSS. and the most ancient ; in others, differently placed ; in Jerome's and Ital. Luther, in some editions. Zuingl. Bullinger. Eng. edit, till after 1556. Quotations. For it. (Greek.) Dissertation placed in Atha « nas. Lateran Council, as from some Greek copies of the 13th century. Calecas, 14th century. (Latin) supposed in Tertull. and Cyprian, and Explan. fidei \ it is in the Pre- face to the Catholic Epistles, Victor Vitens. Vigilius Tap- sens. Fulgentius, and is positively rejected by none.— Against it. (Greek.) No Antenicene writer, nor Nicene Council ; no writer for above 700 years, though it might often have been for their purpose. (Latin.) No writer for above 800 years. Tertul. and Cypr. are misunderstood. The Preface to the Catholic Epistles is spurious and late j all the others are too late. The text could not be positively rejected, because it was not known. Editions. For it. Compl. Erasm. 3d, Sec. Steph. Beza, and all the common ones derived from these.— Against it. Erasm. 1st and 2d. Aid. Haguenau. Strasburg. Colinceus, and several derived from these. Griesb. Internal. Connexion. For it. The connexion is imperfect, as there would be only witnesses on earth j it is referred to v. 9. RULES CONCERNING VARIOUS READINGS. 291 v. 9, el the witness of God ; It is a proof of v. 5, 6. and pro- perly begins with on, v. 7. and not with xat, v. 8. — — Against it. The connexion requires it not ; three witnesses are sufficient, and the apostle says not that they are " on earth." V. 9. refers not this, but to what follows, and the proof does begin with on. The connexion will not bear it j it disjoins v. 6. and v. 8. improperly j and the same wit- ness would be unfairly reckoned twice. Occasion. For it. The text has been omitted by the Arians or Gnostics, accidentally and easily j it could not be added from a gloss, because there is no such gloss in any Greek MS.— Against it. It was a mystical interpretation of v. 8. written on the margin of some Latin copies j whence it was taken into the text, and' translated into Greek j it could not easily be omitted accidentally, far less so, generally. n 2 CHAP, 292 SEPARATE WORDS. CHAP. II. The Explication of Separate Words. 809. The first and simplest object of explanatory, or interpretative criticism, is, separate words. 810. The difficulties in these regard — the combina- tion of letters into words— irregular forms and flexions — the general signification of words — their different kinds, as nouns, verbs, particles — and the determina- tion of the kind to which they belong ; and, these seve- ral classes of difficulties suggest a natural distribution of this branch of criticism. SECT. COMBINATION OF LETTERS INTO WORDS, 293 SECT. I. The Combination of Letters into Words. 811. The proper combination of letters into the dif- ferent words which they were designed to form, natu- rally claims our first attention, both by its analogy to corrective criticism, and by its being fundamental to what is properly explanatory. 812. All ancient MSS. being written without any distances between words, they cannot shew in what manner the author meant that the words should be dis- tinguished ; and, in distinguishing them rightly, there is often difficulty, and mistakes may be, and have been, committed. Ken. Diss. Gen. § 28, 124. 813. One word may be, and has sometimes been, improperly divided into two. Psal. cvi. 7. " They provoked C3* by " at the sea j" this is su- perfluous. o>bir. Ken. Diss. Gen. p. 13. n. Mark vi. 25. " Give me {%% »uns t literally, " out of her") the head," &c. So most MSS. j #g«s to be supplied, (Be- za) but this is an aukward phrase. — s|*vtj;j " immediately," all Vers. Mill, in loc. U 3 814& 294* COMBINATION OF LETTER.S INTO WORDS. 814. Two words may be, and have been, improper- ly united into one. Psal. Ixxiii. 4. " No bands (distresses) into their death]* Dninb j this is obscure. — on 173b, " happen to tbem\ per- fect and firm is their strength." Merrick, addenda. 815. Letters, which belong to the end of one word, have been separated from it, and joined to the begin- ning of the subsequent word. I Chron. ii. i.8. " Caleb begat Azubah (DW n*0 HUW) wife and Jerioth j" this is absurd. The 70. Vulg. and Eng. mistranslate.— nvn> nx inutt* " begat Jeiioth of Azubah bis wife." Syr. Arab. Ken. Diss. 1. p. 482. 816. Letters, which belong to the beginning of one word, have been added to the end of the preceding word, Hos. vi. 5. Titf ^tssjyttl, " And thy judgments the light goeth forth j this gives no sense. — *ilX3 ^t3.&y?ttl, " And my judge- ment shall go forth as the light" all ancient Vers, except Vulg. Ken. Diss. r. p. 517. 817. When, in later MSS. and in editions, words came to be written ■with distances between them, they were distinguished only according to the judgment of the transcribers and editors, who had no other means of direction than we still have ; and, therefore, their judgment has no authority, farther than it appears to be well founded ; and, when they differ, the difference ought to be impartially examined. Jsa. ■COMBINATION OF LETTERS INTO WORDS. 295 Isa. liv. 9. V3 *3 " For the waters." Masora. — *fa*3 " as the days," in 2 MSS. 2 Edit. Chald. Syr. Vulg. Sym. Theod. Ken. and Lowth in loc. 818. Versions, quotations illustrated or applied, and commentaries, shew how the authors of them dis- tinguished words ; and, where they differ, suggest dif- ferent modes of arrangement, which ought to be fairly- examined ; but, as these authors were not infallible, we have the same right to distinguish the words differ- ently, and generally, the same means of judging, which they had. 819. Whenever, therefore, a text can be explained, or a difficulty removed, by altering the present, or the common distinction of the words, such alteration may be made without scruple. 2 Sam. v. 2. N^ltt rrrvn, " thou wast he that leddest out j" both the words are irregular. — X^ITirr rvvrT, Keri. n^n in 14 MSS. M*iW3Vt in 21 MSS. Ken. in loc. and Diss. 1. p. 24. 820. In judging how letters ought to be combined into words, great regard is due to the nature of the lan- guage ; the words formed by the combination, must al- ways be such as belong to it ; and, those which are re- gular, should be preferred to such as would be unusual* Iy anomalous. Isa. ii. 11. " The lofty looks (plur.) shall be humbled, and the haughtiness," &c. myi hsw (sing.) — nwhsiV. Lowth in loc. F 4 821. 296 COMBINATION OF LETTERS INTO WORDS. 821. Of different arrangements of letters int© words, consistent with the nature of the language, that ought to be preferred which best suits the sense and connexion, though it be not so entirely regular or com- mon as the others. 822. But, generally, the nature of the language, and the sense of the place, concur in favouring the same combination of letters ; and, when they do, that com- bination is certainly right. 823. When a particular combination, suitable to the language and the sense, is likewise countenanced by MSS. versions, or quotations, this is a farther confir- mation of its being right. Jer. xv. i8. fivnn vn, " Wilt thou be altogether?" this is ir- regular, and an abrupt transition to God. nTr DITT, " it is become," in I ancient MS. 70. Vulg. Ken.inloc. and Diss. 1. p. 512. Wall in loc. Jer. xxiii. 33. " Thou shalt say NU'tt TTO T\H what burden?" this is odd and incoherent. — NU?72n ipriN, " Ye are the bur- den." 70. Vulg. Ken. ib. p. 518. Jam. v. 12. " Lest ye fall" (us Ivrtxgietv) literally, into hypo- crisy." So most MSS. — two x£t?iv, " umer judgment," in ,Alex. and a few others, some Edit. Vulg. Syr. Arab. Ethiop. Mill in loc. and Pro!. 1208. Griesb. in loc. SECT. JRREGULAR FORMS. 297 SECT. II. Irregular Forms and Flexions oj Words. 824. In the Hebrew of the Old Testament, there are many words which have some irregularity in their form. 825. The Jews, and, on their authority, or in imita- tion of them, many Christians, suppose all these irregu- larities to have been intended by the inspired writer, and to contain some mysterious meaning ; but, the supposition is groundless, and the mysteries inferred are imaginary, and often ridiculous. 826. These irregularities regard, either the vowel points, or the letters. 827. Of those which regard the vowel points, some indicate false readings ; as, when a word is left wholly without points, because it was supposed not to be ge- nuine, or, has not its own points, but those of another which ought to be substituted in its place. 828. Other irregularities in the vowel points, only shew the injudiciousness of those who affixed them ; and, therefore, no regard should be paid to them, but the 298 IRREGULAR FORMS* the words considered and interpreted, as if they had been regularly pointed. Glass. 1. 3. t. 3. can. 31. 829. Of irregularities regarding the letters, many consist in the defect, the redundance, the transposition, or the change of some of them j and, all such are false readings, owing to the blunders of transcribers, though consecrated by the Masora 5 and ought to be correct ted. Isa. xxx. 5. WKirr, K is superfluous, and not pointed.— WITl in 8 MSS. and is regular j " they were ashamed." Lowth and Ken. in loc. V. 28. £3*1:1 nS3nb, the first word is very irregular j Ms wanting, and n superfluous j it should be 0^77 ^pnV, "to sift the nations." Honbig. and Lowth in loc. Ezek. xiv. 1. N"Q*i, irregular. — fl&*1 in 2 MSS. ivhich is right j others vary, N^l in 28 MSS. ; IXWm 2 MSS. Ken. in loc. and Diss. Gen. p. 83. n. 830. Other irregularities respecting the letters, seem to arise from a mixture of different persons, tenses, and conjugations ; and it has been common to suppose, that such words unite the sense of both the forms which are mixed in them ; but the supposition is without foundation, the irregularity being only a false reading, which ought to be corrected. Glass, ib. Exod. xxv. 31. myyn, an irregular compound of myjrn " thou shaltmake," and tnty*, " let be made." It is sup- posed to contain some mysterious meaning j but it has none. The IRREGULAR FORMS. 299 The connexion shews the former reading to be right ; and it is found in the Sam. and above 140 MSS. Ken. inloc. and Diss. 1. p. 402. Diss. Gen. § 42, 52: Isa. lxiii. 3. ^nbiOK, compounded of the future hma " I will stain," and the preterite irftm " I have stained," — but inbtfiN in 1 MS. which is regular, viz. the future with the affix pronoun, affected by the conversive 1 before, w I have stained them." Glass, ib. Ken. and Lowth in loc. Jer. xxii. 23. S"DUV)>, a compound, with jod paragogical, of the praeterite Italy*, and participle naTyi > , " who inhabitedst and still dost inhabit j" but Jtaw* in Keri, and 11 MSS. and ItlWV in 1 MS. ; the former is best supported, but the points are wrong. — TiDipft, a compound, with jod paragog. of the prseterite n33p, and participle nuiptt, both in Pyh. 11 nestled and nestleth," but DMptt in Keri and 9 MSS. and JtJ31p)3 in 7 MSS. j it is the participle wrong pointed j ** thou inhabitedst Lebanon, nestling in the cedars." — T12TT3, but n:n3 in Keri and 59 MSS. which is right. Ken. in loc. Glass, ib. 831. There are, likewise, irregular words, which seem to be compounded of different roots ; and which have, therefore, been supposed to imply the significa- tion of both ; but these, too, are only false readings, and ought to be corrected. Jer. ii. 11. u Hath a nation changed (fttTrrr) their gods." compounded of tid " to change," and ttt* " to boast } M but tnsnn in 65 MSS. which is regular from fitt. Ezek. xxxvi. 1 1. *ma*BTT) u And I will do good," compoun- ded 300 SIGNIFICATION OF WORDS. ded of a"iB and 1L> ; but ^naiaini from the former, in 23 MSS. Zecli. x. 6. eynilWim compounded of nw " to sit," which would gi%'e C^nnurm, and 31)11 " to return," which would give O^JTQyjm " I will bring them again to place them," Eng. — but the former is regular in 25 MSS. " I will set them." Glass, ib. Ken. in loc. SECT. III. The Signification of Words. 832. The Scripture being written in dead languages, the words of which, habit has not led us to associate with the things denoted by them, there must often be difficulty in discovering the signification of the seve- ral words employed. 833. In discovering the signification of Hebrew words, there is peculiar difficulty ; because, that lan- guage having been almost wholly lost for several ages, and no book, except the Bible, being extant in it, the knowledge of it is but imperfectly recovered by means of the kindred languages, the ancient versions, atten- tion to etymology, and regard to the scope and con- nexion ; and, by means of all these, it cannot, perhaps, be completely recovered, in every instance. 834, SIGNIFICATION OF WORDS. SOI 834, The Greek having been of more extensive and constant usage, it is easier to discover the mean- ing of words in the New Testament j but even this is not always exempt from difficulty. 835. Difficulties respecting the signification of single words, are reducible to two, — Obscurity, — and Am- biguity. 836. — 1. A word is obscure, when there is diffi- culty in affixing any meaning to it. Such obscurity proceeds from different causes, according to which the means of removing it are likewise different. 837. Obscurity sometimes arises from a word bein£ rare in the language, or at least in Scripture, especi- ally, when it occurs only in places where there is little in the sense and connexion that can indicate its precise meaning ; and, in this case, its signification must be collected, as well as possible, from its etymology, or from the usage of it, in the few instances in which it occurs, or from kindred languages. Isa. be. 5. \XV pND occur nowhere else ; — " battle," Rabbin. Eng. Sym. — <' violenta praedatio," Vulg. — <^cMv wnvvny- pin*, " robe gathered together," 70. The phrase is used for " shoes," by the Syriac, in Luke xv. 22. Acts xii. 8. It probably means our substance," Vatabl. Macknight.— i( of our necessity," Syr.— " alimentarium," Castal. — 2. from eznac-a, " follow- ing," subauditur *i{M£x, " tomorrow j" whence into, " of to-morrow," Heb. Gospel. Grot, synedoch. for, " what is sufficient for the future part of life j" this is not inconsistent with v. 34. and is agreeable to Phil. iv. 6. — u quotidianum," Ital. " daily," Eng. and most modern versions. Mark xiv. 3. AXct,&cc?£ov j the word is used only here, and in Mat. xxvi. 7. Luke vii. 37. " alabaster/' Jer. Zeger. Grot. Eng. Pliny. — or, from * priv. and Xxp/ixva, •' which could not be held j" — either " smooth," Erasm. or " without handles." Knatchb. — rvvr^aa-ct, " brake," Eng. this is the common sense of the word in the New Testament j but it signifies also " shook," in Greek writers, and »perhaps in Luke ix. 39. which agrees better with this place. Knatchb. Phil. iii. 20. YloXirsvpx occurs nowhere else in the New Tes- tament, but often in Greek writers, where it is always used with a reference to political society, particularly to confede- rated states, living under the same laws and polity, though in different places j — " our polity," that to which we be- long. Palairet. " our conversation," Eng. but this sense is not authorized ; our translators have been led to it by wa- Mtivu being twice used for, " to behave.'' First, Act. xxiii. 1. TliTro>.iiivfioit, " I have lived," Eng. and most in- terpreters \ but it may refer to Paul's behaviour as a citi- zen ; for he was accused as an enemy, and seditious, ch. xxiv. 5. " I have lived as a good citizen." Again, Phil. i. 27. IIoXmv, " Sorek," 70. Theod. — " chosen." Sym. Vulg. — " with the choicest vines," Eng. Ch. xv. 9. r»1SD13, *' additions more," Vulg. Eng. — " the Arabians," 70. TTnN, " a lion," Vulg. Eng. — and Ariel,'* 70. nmx, " the Ian J," Vulg. Eng. — " Adama," 70 Ezek. xxxviii. 2. UW> JOUtt. " the prince of the head, or chief," Vulg. — " chief prince," Eng. " of Ro<\" 70. to inti- mate that the Ros or Russians were a colony of Meshech or Tubal. Wells ib. c. 3. s. 2. § 41. 844. General terms are used, sometimes, in their whole extent, sometimes, in a restricted sense, to de- note only some of the particulars included under them ; and whether, in any text, they are to be taken in the one way or the other, may be determined by the sense as appearing from the scope, the words by which they are explained, or those to which they are opposed. "pIX, Sixxtos, signify in general, " virtuous, a person of uni- versal rectitude." They are determined to this sense, — by words explaining them. Gen. vi. 9. " Noah was just" for it follows, " perfect, and walked with God " Psal. xxxii. 1 1. " Ye righteous," explained by, ** upright in heart." Psal. xxxiii. 1. lxiv. 10. xcvii. II. cxl. 13. Prov. ix. 9. Ch. xxiii. 24. Mat. v. 45. " just and unjust," explained by "■ good and evil." Luke i. 6. " both righteous," for it fol- lows, " walking in all commandments and ordinances, blameless." Acts x. 22. " Cornelius just," " feared God, . was of good report" — by what is affirmed concerning them. Job xxxvi. 7. " God withdraweth not his eyes from the righ- teous" " doth establish them, they are exalted." Psal v. I2« '« wilt bless the righteous" Psal. lviii iu "a reward for the righteous. Mat. xiii. 43. " the righteous shall shine X 2 forth t 11 30$ SIGNIFICATION OF WORDS. fdfth}-' these blessings belong not to a single virtue. Luke xiv. 14. " the resurrection of the just." Ch. xviii. 9. " trusted in themselves that they were righteous." — by being opposed to terms expressive of wickedness in general. Job .\xii. 18, 19. " counsel of the wicked, the righteous see." Ch. xxvii. 13 — 17. •' the portion of a wicked man, the just shall put it on." Psal. i. 5, 6. " ungodly nor sinners, the righteous." Prov. x. 3. " the soul of the righteous, the substance of the wicked." Mat. xiii. 49. srov^as, ^iutctiwv. Ch. xxiii. 28. ducctiot, ftiroi v-zroxfyrtus Kent etvofttus. Luke i. iy. «5T«9-£5, 0MI, eso-s- In this general sense, the' words are applied to laws, or to con- duct. " righteous judgments," &c. a very common expres- sion. Luke xii. 57. a Why judge ye not what is ($ } Acts iii. 14. vii. 52. xxii. 14. 1 Pet. iii. 18. 1 John ii. 1. But the words are often taken in more restricted significations, indi- cated by the same means ; and these are various. 1. Inno- cence, or guiltlessness, in respect of any particular vice. Gen. xx. 4. " a righteous nation," guiltless in respect of Sa- rah. David often of himself, as to the crimes imputed to him. 2. Duty to men. Luke ii. 25. '* Simeon just and devout." 3. Strict justice." Exod. ix. 27. " The Lord righteous," in the judgment of hail. Ch. xxiii. 8. " gift perverteth," &c. i Chron. xii. 6. " The Lord righteous," in punishing. Tit. i. 8. " just,'' enumerated among many other virtues. This sense is frequent, and applied to laws or conduct. Mat. xx. 4. 7. " what is right I will give." John v. 30. " my judg- ment just." 4. Kind, benign, beneficent, merciful. Ezra ix. 15. " Lord righteous," for we remain, &c* Psal. cxii. 4. " righteous " synonymous with *' gracious," &c. and. explained by " sheweth favour," &c. v. 6. it has the same sense. SIGNIFICATION OF WORDS. 309 sense. Psal. cxvi. 5. t( righteous " synonymous with " gra- cious, merciful." Prov. xii. 10. " righteous regardeth beast," and opposed to M cruelty." Mat. i. 19. " Joseph just," for " not willing," &c. Grot. Knatchb. Rom. iii. 26. "just and the justifier," &c. Some, ' Christ rendered it consistent with justice to justify ;' some, ' just in keeping his promise,' Locke ; but simpler, u merciful," as v. 24. "justified by grace," Taylor. 1 John i. 9. "just to for- give." The words should be rendered uniformly, when the same sense is clear, and differently from the others. The meaning remains somewhat doubtful, when different prin- ciples favour different senses, or, when there is no certain principle. Rom. v. 7. " for a righteous man," ' virtuous,' for it is opposed to iC ungodly," v. 6. and to " sinners," v. 8.— or, * strictly just,' for it is immediately opposed to " good •" this last is preferable. Prov. xxix. 7. " The righteous consi- dered! the cause of the poor," ' virtuous,' for it is opposed to 44 wicked j" or, * merciful,' if respecting common life j or, * just,' if relating to judicial proceedings. Mat. ix. 13. Mark. ii. 17. Luke v. 32. " not to call the righteous;" it is commonly understood of * self-righteous ;' but, in this sense the word is never used, nor could it be opposed to " sin- ners j" it means ' truly or eminently virtuous,' opposed ,'to * gross sinners ;' he speaks comparatively, [157] and of a to- tal change of life. 845. Many words, being common and indefinite3 equally applicable to many different subjects or events, they ought not to be explained in the same way in all the places where they occur, but varied and restricted, according to the sense, the connexion, or parallel £exts. " The coming of Christ," is used in very different senses, which it is of importance to distinguish ' His birth, or coming in the body,' John xvi. 28. " came from the Father, into the X 3 world " 310 SIGNIFICATION OF WORDb. world." i John iv. 2, 3. 2 John 7. — ' Executing his un- dertaking,' John xviii. 37. " came into the world," distin- guished from " was born." Mat. xviii. 1 1. xx. 28. Mark x. 45. Luke xvii. 20. xix. 10. John i. 9, [I. iii. 2. iv. 25 vii.27, 28, 31, 41,42. x. 10. Eph. ii. 17. 1 Tim. 1. 13. — Hence, particularly, ' his entering on his ministry. So, " came after John," Mat. iii. 11. Mark i. 7. Luke iii. 16. John i. r NOUNS. tions ; and, by tracing these, a word may be properly interpreted in texts, where its primary signification, or any of its most common significations, would be totally unsuitable. Psal. xlix 4. bwab " to a parable?* >T\Vn u a dark saying ;" neither, however, applicable to the subject. Parables were originally used for familiar illustration j afterwards, for con- cealing the meaning j and thus proceeded to enigma or xiddle 5 the interpretation of such was reckoned great wis- dom, Judg. xiv. 12, &c. Prov. i. 5, 6. Hence, 'wise- sayings' came to signify any important instruction. Such is here given, and called " wisdom, understanding," v. 3. 851. Similar words have sometimes totally different significations, which may very readily be, and often are, confounded ; but, must be carefully distinguished, else the sense will be perverted, or obscured. SECT. IV. The Usage of Nouns, 852. The peculiar usage of nouns regards their se- veral accidents, gender, case, number j or, their va- rieties, as substantives or adjectives, abstract or con- crete ; and, the difficulties attending it arise from irre- gularities in relation to any of these. Macknight on Epistles, Essay 4. 850. NOUNS. 315 853. The Hebrew language having no neuter gen- der, either in nouns or pronouns, sometimes the mas- culine, but generally the feminine, is used in place of it; and, this usage being sometimes adopted in the Greek of the New Testament, it is to be decided by the sense, and is generally to be admitted, when there is not a concord with an antecedent of the same gen- der. Glass. 1. 3. t. 1. c. 19: Gen. i. 31. ii. 18. Psal. cxix. 65. 1113 masc. for neut. " good." Gen. 1. 20. miD fem. for " good," neut. ny-j fern, for •' evil," neut. Isa. v. 20. Eccl. ix. 9. Job v. 9. Gen. xv. 6. and often elsewhere. Psal. cxviii. 23. NTr fem. Mat. xxi. 42. Mark xii. 11. ««tij, not referring topN, " stone," 7T33, yaitus, " corner," or xUpxXvi, " head." (Orig. Chrysost. Theophyl. Erasm.) but to the whole sentence. Bez. Causab. John xvii. 3. awry for tst«, u this is life eternal," viz. " to know thee," &c. 854. The writers of the New Testament sometimes use the neuter for expressing a person ; but, this ought not to be supposed, except when the sense, or some other clear principle, requires it. Mat. i. 20. Te yw&sv, Luke i. 35. ytvvvfiivov, '' that which is born," viz. "Jesus." Mat. xii. 41, 42. ttXuov, ' a greater person,' Christ. Ch. xviii. II. to x7roh*>Xog, " that which was (those which were) lo?t." John iii. 6. vi. 39. j Cor. i. 27, 28. Heb. vii. 7. 1 John v. 4. 1 John i. 1,3. 'o >jv, *' that which," theA«y«5, parallel to John i. 1, 14. 855. As a word has sometimes the very same form in different genders, it leaves an ambiguity in which gender C16 NOUNS. gender it ought to be taken, and that considerably af- fecting the sense ; but it may generally be determined by the connexion, parallel texts, or other means, though not always with absolate certainty. Luke vi. 35. " Lend MHAEN «i*a5r<£oi/T£;," neut. " hoping for nothing again," Eng. Bez. Wolf. Casaub. Grot. Hackspan. opposed to " sinners hoping for as much," v. 34. But if so, the manner of expression would have been retain- ed, and w7ii>.7in^oi never means " to hope again," but " to despair j" therefore, taking f.t,r^tv adverbially, " not at all despairing," Macknight. Campb. But ftydtv may be masc. " causing no man to despair," (the verb having the force of Hiphil, as 70. Isa. xxix. 19. and Ecclus. xxvii. 24.) Syr. Arab. Pers. This sense suits Mat. v. 42, and seems prefer- able. Jun. De Dieu. Tessel. Hanim. Knatchb. Cleric. I Cor. ii. 6, " We speak wisdom tv ict$ TtXuot?, (masc.) among them that are perfect." Eng. l Christians' in general, Va- tab. Casaub. Grot, and others — or i initiated, far advanced,' and " wisdom" means sublimer points. Macknight. But the Corinthians were not perfect,' ch.iii. 1, &c. and there is no open and secret doctrine in Christianity j the whole gospel is here evidently meant — or rieut. " concerning perfect things," Arab, which supposes not the Corinthians to be perfect, and suits the connexion j for the apostle all along speaks of things taught, not persons to whom he spoke, v. 7, 9, 10, 13. This last is the simplest, and the preferable explication. — Knatchb. 856. The Hebrew nouns having no cases by flexion, its usage, in relation to them, resolves itself into that of prepositions j and, in the New Testament, the cases are employed in the same manner as by Greek writers, even NOUNS, 317 even when they seem to be used promiscuously, as the nominative for the vocative. Glass, ib. c. 29. Mat. i. 20. xxvii. 29. Mark x. 47. Luke via. 54. xii.32. xviii. 13. Rom. viii. 15. Gal. iv. 6. Eph. vi. I. 857. When the cases of a noun are not distinguished by their form ; the sense, the usage of Scripture, or of the language, must determine in which of them it should be taken. Acts vii. 59. Kvgii U 18. Isa. xv. 9. Hos. v. 6. Jon. ii. 4. Rev. xxi. 21. n Tr^xruoi. (the street) u the streets," v. 16. 560, 318 NOUNS. 860. In the New Testament, the dual number is ne- ver used ; in the Hebrew, it is distinguished from the plural only by the vowel points ; but, if the authority of these be admitted, it is often used irregularly, there being singulars with a dual termination ', and duals with plural significations A , particularly in numerals 3 . Glass, ib. c. 23. Schult. Gram. Heb. re^. 71. 1 OV3, water. 0*)2U;, heaven, onrr^. mid-day. 2 Lev. xi. 23. B^:n " feet," dual, joined with " four." 1 Sam. ii. 13. 0*312; n " teeth," dual, joined with H three." Ezek. i. 6 O^SSD " wings," dual, with " four." Zech. iii.9. O"0*tf il eyes," dual, with " seven." 3 2 Sam. xii. 6. 0>nyi-iM " fourfold." Prov. vi. 31. O^nyiltf " sevenfold" — not " twice four, twice seven." Pagn. 861. Plural nouns are sometimes intended to signi- fy, not many, but one among many ; in which usage, some suppose an ellipsis of the numeral for one. Glass, ib. c. 27. Macknight, Ess. 4. Gen. viii. 4. " Rested on **irr the mountains," &c. on one of them. Ch. xix. 29. " The cities in which (one of which) Lot dwelt." Judg. xii. 7. " was buried in (one of) the ci- ties of Gilead." Neh. iii. 8. vi. 2. Zech. ix. 9. Mat. xxiv. 1. ct fictB-TiTxi " his disciples" — ! " the healths" — ' health of every kind ;' rather, simply * health.' Prov. i. 20. ni)2DT"T " wisdoms" — ' the excellent wisdom,' or, simply ' wisdom ;' the word is singular in other texts. So ch. ix. 1. Eccl. v. 7. Isa. lviii. 2. Lam. iii. 22. Ezek. xxviii. 10. Nah. ii. 6. Mat. viii. 11. Luke xiii. 29. avxrcXm kxi dvtrpat, " east and west." So Mat. ii. 1. xxiv. 27. Rev. xvi. 12. and else- where 5 no sublety is meant. Mark xii. 25. yg«vo]«-tfv for ij #g>is-aT»)7es, " the goodness of God leadeth to repentance." 1 Cor. i. 25. Toftu^ov for >j pa^tx (which is the word, v. 18.) " the foolishness of God" — to ttvfomt for « xj-S-uux, ' the weakness of God. 2 Cor. viii. 8. " To prove to yvtinov the sincerity of your love.'* Phil. iv. 5. " Let to araixsf for it i7ristxux, your moderation be known." 865. Adjectives, or epithets, sometimes serve for distinguishing that to which they are applied, from other things ; and, sometimes, only for describing that thing itself; and care must be taken to understand them accordingly. M The true God," not * who has the attribute of truth,' but * who alone is truly God,' distinguished from those 4 who are Y called 322 nouns. called gods j' it is determined" to this sense, either by what is joined with it, or by being opposed to these. l Pet. iv. 3. " Walked in *3*fttTei$ u^uXoXxr^uuii unlawful idolatries," not, distinguished from any ' lawful' idolatries, according to Popish writers, but describes all idolatry as un- lawful ; it is determined to this sense by the nature of the thing, and other texts. 866. Epithets do not always imply that the qualities, or characters which are the foundation of them, do pre- sently belong to the subjects to which they are ap- plied ; but are applied, sometimes, because they for- merly belonged ', and, sometimes, because they were afterwards to belong, to them *j but, this' is not to be supposed rashly K Glass, ib. c. 3. 1 Gen. ii» 23. " This is bone of my bones>" &c— was so, be- ing made from his rib, v. 21, 22. 2 Sam. xxiv. 23. " These things did Araunah "jb)2rr (Eng. " as a king," wrong) the king give ;" king of the Jebu- sites, probably, before David reduced them. Exod. vii. 12. " Aaron's rod swallowed up their rods j" they had been, and were to be such-, though at present ser- pents. Isa. xi. 6. " The wolf shall dwell with the lamb," &c. figu- rative expressions for persons fierce like these ; they for- merly were so, but now totally changed, so as to dwell, &c. This gives beauty and force to the description. Mat. xi. 5. " The blind see, the lame walk," &c. They who weie blind, lame, &c. So John ix. 17. " the blind man," * that had been blind.' — or, ' receive sight, the power of walking;,' &.c. So, Mat. x. 3. xxvi. 6. xxi. 3L Rom, iv. 5. 1 Cor. xv. 5. Heb. xi.31. 3 Gen. VERBS* 323 a Gen. xxix. 21. Deut. xxii. 24. Mat. i. 20. "Wife," a woman betrothed. John x. 16. " Other sheep I have." ch. xi. $2. " Children of God," not then, but were to be. Eph. v. 27. " The church glorious," &c. not now, but shall be in heaven. 3 Mat. xxvi. 26. 1 Cor. x. 16. xi. 26, 27, 28. " Bread," not because such only before blessing, according to Popish writers j for it still remains bread. SECT. V. The Usage of Verbs. 867. The usage of verbs respects their general sig- nification — and their several accidents, mode — tense- person — number — voice ; in all which there are peculia- rities productive of difficulty. 868. The genius of the Hebrew language occasions many peculiarities in the signification of its verbs j [151. 156. 157. 158.] which must be attended to in explain- ing them j and these are, likewise, carried into the Greek of the New Testament. 869. The Hebrew language having no compound verbs, simple verbs, both in it and the Greek of the v 2 New 324 VERBS. New Testament, have often the signification of what would, in other languages, be their compounds with different prepositions ; but, as this is not always the case, it may, sometimes, produce an ambiguity, which is to be determined by the sense, or by parallel passa- ges. Glass. 1. 3. t. 3. c. 1. "Ifty simply ■ to stand ,' but Dan. xi. 3, 4. ' to stand against, resist.' " A mighty king (Alexander) shall (stand up, Eng.) resist; and when he shall (stand up, Eng.) have re- sisted, his kingdom shall be broken." The connexion, v. 2. shews this to be the sense. bS3 ' to fall' — but also ' to fall away' or desert. Jer. xxxvii. 13. Thou fallest (away) to the Chaldeans.'' — ' to fall off, fail. Josh. xxi. 45. 1 Kings viii. $6. " There hath not failed,'' become void. John x. 16. '' Them also I must bring, uyxynv, for a-vvxyxyav ' gather together,' ch. xi. 52. or rr^rxyxyuv, ' bring to' the fold. John xiv. 31. Aywf/.w, for v7rxy*>[A,iv, " let us withdraw," re- tire, v. 18, 28. Egxefixt " I come," for xn^y^y.xi " I re- turn"— ensilage for xvitevrtuat " I will return." 870. In the Hebrew, and, from its usage, in the Greek of the New Testament, a verb, besides the ac- tion strictly denoted by it, implies, likewise, another related action ; so that the idiom of other languages re- quires the supplying of another verb for expressing its full force, or its real meaning. Glass, ib. c. 2. CTp^ " to take," but often, " to take and bring," or, " having takc;i to bring." Gen. xv. 9, 10. Exod. xviii. 2. xxvii. 2D. Num. xix. 2. — Mat. iv. 5, 8. ar*g«*<***/&e«i, "took," i. e. VERBS. 325 i. e. ' having taken carried.' So ch. xxvii. 27, Gen. xliii. 34. Nim " And he took (and sent, Eng.) messes unto them." V. ■$$. injn bn imx C3^:xn innm, " the men marvelled one at another," Eng. but this is not the sense •, they all marvelled at Joseph's behaviour. Literally, " marvelled one to ano- ther," but not English — " marvelling they looked," or, " they looked with wonder one at another." Rev. xiii. 3. iS-avpxs-iv tirto-u ts d-vgas, " wondered after the beast," Eng. this is literal, but wants precision — " looked with wonder," or " wondering followed after the beast." Ezr. ii. 62. lb JO*), literally, " And they were polluted from the priesthood $" " as polluted put from," Eng. which is right, v. 63. P^al. lxxxix. 39. nbbn "thou hast profaned his crown to the ground ;" — lf by casting it to," Eng. isa. xiv. 17. nrci nns Kb WOtf, literally, ". loosed not his prisoners homeward." — Eng. " opened not the house of his prisoners," no version. — supply, " that they might return," or, " sent them" home. Ch. xxxviii. 17. Tipton " thou hast loved my soul from the pit." — Eng." hast in love to my soul delivered it from." Luke xxi. 38. " All the people afte,^* ^0; cevrov, literally, " rose early in the morning, or by the dawn, to him" — " came to him," Eng. — " rising came." 87 1 . Verbs sometimes denote, not the action or ef- fect expressed by them simply, but under some particu- lar modification of it. [876. J 872. Thus, verbs expressing an action or effect, y 3 sometimes- 326 VERBS. sometimes denote only the beginning r , and, some* times, only the continuance of it z . [156.] Glass, ib. c. 3, 4. 1 I Sam. iii. 21. " The Lord appeared again (continued to ap- pear) nb:o O, Eng. " for he revealed >" others, " after he had revealed (begun to reveal) himself to Samuel." I Kings vi. 1. ** In the fourth year jyi and he built," "be- gan to build," Eng. for it was finished in the eleventh, v. 38. confirmed by 2 Chron. iii. i, 2. Mat. ii. 7. " The time m (pxivefiivv ctn^s when the star ap- peared," began to appear, v. 16. Luke v. 6. " Their net dti^yyvvro brake," began to break, or, was like to break, v. 7. 2 Lev. xxvi. 11. Tirol " And I will set my tabernacle (con- tinue) among you." Jer. vii. 3. rrD3tt»tt " And I will cause you to dwell (con- tinue to dwell) in this place." 873. Verbs sometimes express, not simply doing the action, but doing it in a particular manner, conno* ting some quality, adjunct, or condition of it. Glass, ib. c. 13, 14. Ezek. xxvi. 14. " Thou shalt be built no more," Tyre— not strictly true, Palsetyrus— but « not built magnificently, ele- gantly.' Prov. xxxi. 4. " It is not for kings to drink wine," immode- rately, to excess. Mat. xi. 18, 19. " Neither eating nor drinking," abstemious in both — " eating and drinking," not immoderately, but free- ly, like other men. Mat. x. 32. " Confess roe," not simply, but with faith, bold- VERBS. 327 •ness, subjection, v. 27, 28. Rom. x. 9. So 1 John iy. John viii. 34. 1 John iii. 9. v. 18. " Commit sin," wilfully, deliberately, habitually. j Sam. x. 24. I Kings i. 25. "p)37T W, Eng. " God save the king,' : but literally, « may the king live," prosperous- ly, happily. 1 Sam. xxv. 6. " to him that liveth," Eng. supply " in prosperity." So Psal. xxii. 26. lxix. 32. •I Thess. iii. 8. " Now we live," are happy. " To will," does not signify always simple volition.— ' To will with alacrity and readiness,' Mark x. 35. QsXefitv, "We will," wish earnestly. Ch. xii. 38. S-ihovrav, " who will," leve' Eng. Gal. iv. 21. BsXovri?, Eng. " who desire to be under the law." 1 Tim. vi. 9. fixhopivoi ttAsts/p, u they that willbe rich," who wish for it earnestly, immoderately. — ' To will, not absolutely, but under a condition.' Mat. xi. 27. *' To whomsoever the Son (/3»a^tjm) will reveal," not arbi- trarily, but to those who are qualified, as appears from the connexion, v.' 25, 28. Rom. ix. 18. " He hath mercy on whom he will," o» $iXu, who are qualified as he requires. *' And whom he will, he hardeneth," who deserve it by ob- stinacy. Locke, Taylor in loc. " Can, cannot," signify not simply what is possible or impos- sible, but can with ease, convenience, safety, inclination 5 cannot without difficulty, pain, inconvenience, danger, loss. Gen. xliv. 22. " The lad cannot leave his father," conveniently, safely, " for his father would die." Ruth iv. 6. " I cannot redeem," without loss, inconvenience, " lest I mar," &c. 2 Sam. xvii. 17. " They might not be seen," without danger, v. 18, &c. Luke xi. 7. " I cannot rise,", without trouble, inconvenience. Mark vi. 5. " He could there do no mighty work" — would not, or, did not, John '.:i. 7. " The world cannot (will not) hate you." Rev. ii. Y 4 2, 328 VERBS. 2. " Thou canst not bear them that are evil," without pain, or, wilt not. 874. Verbs expressive of an action, are often used, not to signify the doing of that action, but only to de- note some of the causes, or prerequisites to the doing of it. 875. Thus, verbs of acting, often in Scripture are intended to signify only the power of acting ; and this usage gives great beauty and force to description. Glass, ib. c. 5. Exod.ix. 15. TinMy " I have stretched (Eng. " will stretch," wrong) out my hand, ~]tft and I have smote (Eng. " that I rmy smite." wrong) thee — and thou shalt be cut off." This is not true, as appears from the sequel ; it is contrary to v. 36. " For this cause *]*n*T)3yrr (" have I raised thee up,'' Eng. but) " have I made thee to stand," preserved thee safe from all plagues, " for to shew in thee my power," more signally, ch. xiv. 23, &c. Therefore it should be, " I could stretch out, and smite, and cut off; but for this cause," &.c. Job ix. 5, 6, 7. " Which removeth — over- turned — shaketh — commandeth— sealeth," &c. not actual- ly does, but can do. Zech. ii. 4. " Jerusalem shall he inhabited — without walls ," not actually, but might be with safety. Mat. vii. 16. " Do (can) men gather." Rom. x. 14. "How shall (can) they call," &c. 1 Cor. ii. 15. " He that is spi- ritual judgeth (can judge) all things — himself is (can be) judged of no man." 876. As power is limited by right, verbs denoting the* VERBS. 329 the power of acting', and, likewise, verbs denoting ac- tion % often signify only the right of acting, or what can be lawfully done. Glass, ib. c. 6, 12. 1 Gen. xxiv. 50. " We C2rmot (lawfully) speak, bad or good." So ch. xxxiv. 14. xliii. 31. Deut. xvi. 5. " Thou canst not (lawfully. Eng. " mayest not") sacrifice the passover within thy gates." Acts iv. 20. " We cannot (lawfully) but speak." I Cor. iii. 11. " Other foundation can no man (lawfully) lay." - Gen. xx. 9. " Thou hast done deeds which vvy> ah, shall not (cannot lawfully, ought not to) be done." Heb. v. 4. " No man taketh this honour," lawfully can, ought to take. 877. By a farther extension, verbs of action some- times denote the obligation to act, not only in nega- tive propositions, where ' unlawful' and ' ought not* are synonymous, but also in affirmative propositions, where obligation to do is different from mere lawful- ness. Glass, ib. Neh. v. 8. " We have redeemed the Jews," ought to havs redeemed j but had not, " Will ye sell them ?" Psal. xxxii. 8. " The way which thou shalt go," oughtest to go. Mai. ii. 7. " The priest's lips wavy shall keep knowledge," ought to keep, but did nojt, v. 8. Mat. xxvi. 52. " Shall perish," ought, deserve to perish." Luke iii. 14. " What shall we (ought we to) do ?'■ What are our duties ? ae appears from the sequel. Ch. 330 VERBS. Ch. vii. 42. " Which of them will (ought to) love most." 873. Verbs of aetion sometimes signify the will or inclination to do that action ', or the endeavour to do it *, or both these together 3 . Glass, ib. c. 7, 8. Macknight, Epist. Essay 4. i. I. 1 Gen. xxiv. 58. "obnrT " Wilt thou go ? y^x I will go." not simple futurity, but, chuse, incline to go. Exod. xvi. 23. " Bake that which you will (chuse to) bake," &.C. I Sam. xxi. 9. " If thou wilt (chuse to) take that, take it." Mat. xiii. 13. " Seeing they see not," &c chuse not to see, hear, understand. Cb. xxiii. 8. M>j xXvfrwi, " Be not ye called Rabbi," desire not, affect not to be, as appears from the connexion, v. 6, 7. ' love to be called.' Luke xxii. 26. " He that is greatest, he that is chief," wishes to be, Mat. xx. 22. Mark x. 43. John xv. 15. " What his lord doth," chuses, intends to do. a Exod. viii. 18. " The magicians did so with their enchant- ments," endeavoured to do it, " but they could not." Ezek. xxiv. 13. " I have purified thee," endeavoured, used means, been at pains, " and thou wast not purged." John v. 44. AxpfixveyTis, " who receive honour," labour to obtain it. Rom. ii. 4. " The goodness of God ccy&t leadeth thee to repen- tance," endeavours or tends to lead, or, ought to lead. 1 Cor. x. 33. " I please all men," endeavour to please. Gal. v. 4. rt Whosoever of you are justified by the law,'" en- deavour to be justified by keeping it. 3 Psal. lxix. 4. >rvttjftt, " they that destroy me," wish and endea- vour to destroy. Amos VERBS. 331 Amosix. 3. " Though they be hid from my sight. ?t wish and endeavour to hide themselves, though they could not actu- ally do it. John v. 34,41. Ov hxp/Sxva, " I receive not," affect not and endeavour not to receive. Acts vii. 26. "ZwriXue-iv, " set them at one." Eng. ** would have set," wished and endeavoured, Exod. ii. 1$. 879. Verbs of action sometimes denote, not the energy, but the habit and custom of acting ', or a permanent quality disposing to act % or even a perma- nent quality not so disposing, but only possessed 3 . Glass, ib. c. 9, 21. 1 Gen. vi. 21. "5 All food that is eaten," uses to be, customary food of all species. Ch. xxix. 26. rtaMtf Nb, " It shall not be done." Eng. " it must not j" it is not customary. Mark xv. 6. A.7riXviv, " he released," was wont to release, Mat. xxvii. 15. 2 Exod. iv. 14. " Aaron *ia"P *0*T, literally, " speaking he speaks." Eng. " speaks well," has the quality which fits him for speaking eloquently. 3 Lev. xi. 3, &c. " Which part the hoof," have it parted or di- vided. Mat. xxiii. 5. TlXxrvvxri, " they make broad their phylacteries, x} piyctXwisirt, and enlarge the borders," &c. have or use them broad, large. 880. Verbs expressive of a person's doing an action, sometimes signify only his giving another power or in- clination to do it 1 , or commanding and directing him to ~J2 VERBS. to do it % or permitting his doing it 3 , or consenting to, and approving of it 4 . Glass, ib.c. ir, 22. Macknight, Epist. prel. Ess. 4. i. 4. 1 Acts x. 20. " I (the Spirit) have sent them." Cornelius had sent them, v. 8, 21. but the Spirit inclined and moved him, and that not immediately, but by an angel commanding and directing him, v. 3, 5. - Gen. xlvi. 29. " Joseph made ready his chariot," by his ser- vants, commanded them to make ready. 2 Sam. xii. 9. " Thou hast killed Uriah." David did not kill him himself, but " with the sword of the children of Am- nion," to which he was exposed by David's order, ch. xi. 15. John iii. 22. iv. I. " Jesus baptized," commanded his disciples, they by his order and authority baptized, v. 2. 3 1 Sam. xiv. $6. 1NUO, u Let us not preserve a man of them." Eng. " leave," suffer to remain. Job i. 21. " The Lord hath taken away" permitted the Sabe- ans, &c. to take away, v. 15, 17. Psal. cxix. 31. " Put me not (permit me not to be put) to shame," i. e. deliver me from what would make my enemies insult. Isa. Ixiii. 17. " Why hast thou made us to err from thy ways r" permitted us. Jer. xv. 15. " Take me not away in thy long suffering," per- mit not my persecutors to take me away, by forbearing long to punish them. Mat. vi. 13. " Lead us not into temptation," permit us not to be led. I Cor. vi. 7. " Why rather ccSikuo-B-z, efxt^i^c^-i are ye not in- jured, defrauded ?" — " do ye not take wrong, suffer your- selves to be defrauded ?" Eng. 4 Judg. VERBS. 333 4 Judg. ix. 18. Of the men of Shechem., *' Vc have slain his sons." Abimelech did it, v. 5. but they consented, gave him the money which enabled him, strengthened his hands, v. 4, 24. 2 Sam, iii. 30. " Joab and Abishai slew Abner." Joab slew him, v. 27. 1 Kings ii. 5. Abner only consented or approv- ed. Mark x. 35. " The sons of Zebedee " asked tue chief places j but Mat. xx. 20. their mother asked them for them. Some, 1 She of her own accord, as kinswoman and constant atten- dant of Jesus, but they consenting -,' therefore they are an- swered v. 22. and said by Mark, to ask. Grot. Maldonat. Others, { She by their instigation,' to avoid envy, and ob- tain greater favour - 7 therefore, they alone are answered; v« 22. Glass, ib. 881. Verbs which attribute an action or effect to a person or thing, are sometimes intended to signify only that that person or thing gives occasion to it \ or is an instrument in producing it *. Glass, ib. c. 10, 22. Macknight, Ess. 4. 1 Exod. xxiii. 8. " The gift blindelh the eyes — and perverteth the words j" is the occasion of cot discerning and following what is light. 2 Sam. xii. 14. " By this deed n^ND fN3 irritating thou hast irritated 'the enemies to blaspheme." — '* given great occa- sion," Eng. Psal. lxxvi. 10. '' The wrath of man shall praise thee," shall pfove an occasion of praising, though its aim and tendency be the reverse. Isa. xliii. 24. ' k Thou hast made me to serve with thy sins." Acts i. 18. Judas t>£7ij«-«T<» " purchased a field with the reward 334 VERBS. of iniquity," was only the occasion of its being purchased, by returning the money, Mat. xxvii. 3, &c. Rom. xiv. 15. u Destroy not him with thy meat," &.c. give not occasion for his being destroyed, by turning from the faith. 2 Exod. xiv. 16. " Stretch out thy hand over the sea, and di- vide it." Moses could not j God did it by him, ch. xv. 4, &C. I Cor. vii. 16. Zaisrtts, " shalt save," be the means, instru- ment of saving. I Tim. iv. 16. " Thou shalt save them that hear thee," be the instrument. 882. Verbs expressive of a person's doing an action, or producing an effect, are often used for signifying only, his supposing it 1 , his discovering and acknow- ledging it % or his notifying, declaring, promising, or foretelling it 3 , which last usage it is of peculiar im- portance to attend to, in the prophetical writings 4 . Glass, ib. c. 15, 17, 18. Macknight, Ess. 4. i. 3. 1 Gen. xlii. 30. }n"% " And he placed us as spies."— " took us for spies," Eng. — supposed, reckoned us. 1 Kings i. 21. " I and my son Solomon ^D^n shall be offend- ers," — " counted offenders," Eng. Mat. x. 39. " He t'nz.X.Jindeth svguiv, his life, shall lose it," who thinks that he can find it by deserting the gospel, or endeavours to find it. Ch. xiii. 12. «.« Whosoever hath not, from him shall be taken away *«< s^e*, even that he hath," thinketh that he hath, " seemeth to have," Eng. Luke viii. 18. John vii. 28. " Ye both know me, and ye know whence I am," think that ye know. 2 Job. v. 3. nipxi " and I cursed his habitation," knew that it would be made unhappy. Psal. VERBS. 335 Psal. cxix. 128. Tnw* " I rectify," or make right j « esteem to be right,"' Eng. know and acknowledge. Hos. v. 15. " I will go till ittUW they be guilty," become sen- sible of, and acknowledge their guilt. 1 Cor. iii. 18. Ma^of ymrS-v, " let him become a fool," be sen- sible that he is a fool. 2 Cor. vii. 14. " Our boasting aX&ixcc tyiv^ is become truth, 1 discovered to be. " found a truth," Eng. ^ 3 Exod. xiii. 2. 2Ln and shall defile him," pronounce him unclean. So v. 13, 17. THE, " cleanse," declare clean. ^ Psal. xxxiv. 3. this, « make great, magnify the Lord," declare or acknowledge him to be great. Actsx. 15. «'What God mx^u^itn hath cleansed (pronounced clean) that do not thou xowi make (call) common," v. 28. 4 Gen. xxxv. 12. " The land which I gave to Abraham and Isaac, to thee will I give it, and to thy seed will I give it," which I promised to Abraham and Isaac, I promise to thee, and will give to thy seed. Ch. xli. 13. " Me he restored unto mine office, and him he hanged," foretold these events, ch. xl. 13,19. 1 Kings xix. 15, 16. " Anoint Hazael to be king over Syria/' foretell that he shall be, 2 Kings viii. 13. — " And Jehu shalt thou anoint to be king over Israel," only could foretell it, for Elisha anointed him, 2 Kings ix. 2, &c. Isa, vi. 9, 10. " Make the heart of this people fat, make their ears heavy, shut their eyes," prophecy that they shall be fat, deaf, blind. Jer. i. 10. ° I have set thee over the nations, to root out, pull down, destroy, throw down, build, plant," to foretell all these things. Ch. xv. I. * Cast them out of my sight," foretell that they shall be cast out, V. 7, Ezek, 336 VERBS. Ezek. xiii. 19. « Will ye (the false prophets) pollute me— to slay the souls that ( Eng. f should ") shall not die, and to save the souls alive that (should) shall not live ?" to foretell that they shall be slain, saved alive j for it is added, " by your lying to my people." Ch. xxi. 26. " Remove the diadem, take off the crown, exall him that is low, abase him that is high," predict that these things shall be. Ch. xliii. 3. " The vision which I saw when I came to destroy the city," to predict its destruction, ch. ix. x. 883, Affirmative verbs are sometimes to be under- stood only in the sense of their contraries, with a nega- tion or an extenuation. Glass, ib. c. 19. Deut. iii. 26. "iiyirn, " But the Lord was wroth with me for your sakesj" the term implies great wrath, but here, only the not granting his request to enter into Canaan, v. 25. Mai. i. 2, 3. " I loved Jacob, and I hated Esau," quoted Rom.ix. 13. — loved Jacob more than Esau, preferred him. Luke xiv. 26. " If any man hate not his father and mother," &C. love not them less than me, Mat. x. 37. 884. Negative verbs are often put for the contrary affirmative verbs, and sometimes express the sense of them with emphasis, Glass, ib. c. 20. Lev. x. 1. " Strange fire which he commanded them not," ex- pressly forbade. I Sam. xii. 21," Vain things which cannot profit," idols which will hurt you by provoking God. Psal. lxxxiv. it. " No good thing will he withhold from them that walk uprightly," will give them all good things. Prov. VERBS. 337 Prov. xii. 3. " A man shall not be established by wicked- ness," shall be overthrown. Ch. xvii. 21. " The father of a fool hath not joy," hath great- sorrow. Zech. viii. 17. " Love not a false oath," hate it. John xiv. 18. " I will not leave you egpsevsj orphans." Eng. '• comfortless," will protect, give comfort, " I will come to you." Rom. iv. 19. Mti aeff&ems-fljs , " being not weak in faith," very strong, as appears from the connexion. Rev. xii. 11. " They loved not their lives unto the death," they readily resigned them to death. 885. It is sometimes taken notice of, as an usage in the Hebrew verbs, that the persons are interchanged \ but the instances alleged, of the second person being put for the third, and the third person for the first or the second, seem to be only false readings, of which, some are corrected by manuscripts still extant, and none are countenanced by the ancient versions ; and, when the first person is used for either of the other two, it is properly a figure, which will be considered afterwards. Glass, ib. c. 50. 886. Plural verbs are sometimes used in a singular sense ; confessedly in the second and third persons ', and most probably in the first also *. Glass, ib. c. 51. 1 Job xviii. 2. " How long will it be ere jwa/n y e make an end of words >" Bildad to Job. Z. Gen* 338 VERBS. Gen. xxxiv. '27. Because 1N)313 they had defiled their sister" Shechem alone had done it, v. 2, &c. one of them. (861.) Mat. ii. 20. " They are dead which sought the child's life," Herod. " Gen.xxix. 27. * Fulfil her week nann and we will give thee this also." Laban alone says this. 2 Sam. xvi. 20. Give counsel what Tltyra we shall do." Absa- lom alone speaks, and there is no intimation of his includ- ing his generals along with him. 1 Kings xii. 9. " What counsel give ye a*Wl that we may answer this people ?" Rehoboam alone spoken to, and he a- lone answered, v. 13, 14. Ch. xxii. 3. " Raraoth is ours, and we be still and take it not." Ahab. Job xviii. 2; 3. " We will speak j wherefore are we counted," &c. Bildad. Dan. ii. 36: "TONS', " We will tell the interpretation." Dani- el, perhaps joining his companions with him, v. 17, 18. but perhaps himself only, v. 16, 19, 23—27. Mark iv. 30. " Whereunto shall we liken, &c. shall we compare it ?" Christ. John iii. 11. " We speak that we do know," &c. Christ, not along with the prophets, Beza.— nor, with the Father and Spirit; it suits Christ himself, ch. i. 18. iii. 32. Rom. i. 5. " We have received grace and apostleship." Paul. Gen. i. 26. " Let us make man," &c. it does not necessarily imply a plurality of persons. 887. The preterite has sometimes the force of the plusquam-perfect ; not only in the Hebrew, where the want of the latter makes it necessary ; but like- wise in the Greek of the New Testament, both it and the aorists. Gloss. VERBS. 339 Class, ib. c. 46. Macknight, ib. Ess. 4. ii. 3. Gen. xii. K. *)72>n, ie The Lord had said to Abram/' Eng. before Terah's death, ch. xi. 31. Acts vii. 2, 3. Gen. xxix. 12. "tan, " And Jacob (had) told Rachel," before what is related v. 11. Exod. xxxiii. 5. "inx^, " And the Lord said (had said, Eng.) unto Moses," as appears from the connexion. Luke xix. 15. u He commanded these servants to be called unto him, to whom tHuy.i he had given (Eng.) the mo- ney." Mat. xiv. 3. " Herod having seized John, t^nv xvrov j£ g3-g- t« had bound him and put him in prison," a considerable time before. Joha iv. 44. " He departed thence — for Jesus tftx^rvgnriv had testified," before his departure. 8S8. The past has sometimes the force of the present ; not only in the Hebrew, which wants a pre- sent tense, but also in the Greek of the New Testa- ment. Glass, and Macknight ib. Gen. xxxii. 10. " I was (am) small for (less than) the least of all thy mercies." Exod. xxxiii. 19. *ri12m, " And I have been (am, will be) gracious to whom I will be gracious, in?2mi and have shewn (shew, will shew) mercy," &.c. Mat.iii. 17. u My beloved Son, in whom tvdoKvm I am well pleased." So Luke iii. 22. Mat. xxiii. 2. " The Scribes and Pharisees sx«& hath ascended," for «v«/3n- c-iTcct shall ascend. Ch. v. 24. «y«^£/3ij3£e» " hath passed from death to life," not spi- ritual but eternal, as appears from the connexion. Erasm. Vatab. Zeger. Macknight. Glass, ib. Ch. xv. 6. " If a man abide not in me, $fiM&v> — *mi sf»ig«v$7), he has been cast forth, and withered j" " is," Eng. shall be. Rom. viii. 10. " Whom he justified, them also sSafae-s he glo- rified," will glorify. S90. The future fense is sometimes put to express the VERBS. 341 the sense of the present, both in the Hebrew, from necessity, and in the Greek, from following its idiom. Glass, ib. c. 49. Gen. ii. 10. " From thence *ns> , » it shall be (was) parted." Num. xviii. 7. ]T)it, " I will give (I give ) your priest's office unto you." Psal. i. 2. u In his law nan" 1 shall (doth) he meditate." JL.uke xxiii. 46. " Into thy hands Trx^xB-rivofixt will I commend my spirit," do I j but 7rx£XTt$-ipxi, 7rx£XT&»ifti, are found in several 1VISS. Mill. a,nd Griesb. in lop. 891. The future is sometimes, also, used in the sig- nification of the past. Exod. xv. 5. " 'I he depths WD3\ shall cover," " have cover- ed," Eng. Num. xxiii. 13. nxin, " Thou shalt see," Eng. and some in- terpreters ; but others, ( \ hast seen," which the sense re- quires. Judg. ii. 1. nbyK, " I will make you to go out ,of Egypt," " have made," Eng. Ch. v. 8. *im\ they shall chuse new gods," u chose," Eng. 2 Sam/xii. 31. HUW pi, M And thus shall he do unto all the cities," — " did he," Eng. 892. The future of the indicative is often used in the sense of the imperative. In all negative precepts, particularly of the decalogue. 893. On the other hand, the imperative is often put for the future of the indicative ; attention to which is of great importance for the interpretation of many predictions. Glass, ib. c. 43. ^ 3 -Gen, 342 VERBS. Gen. xx. 7. « He shall pray for thee, rjMTt and live thou,'' thou shalt live. So ch. xlii. 18. Ch. xlv. 18. " I will give you the good of the land, ^3N1 and eat ye the fat of the land," ye shall eat. Deut. xxxii. 50. m?2l, " And die in'the mount, *pxm and be gathered unto thy people," thou shalt die and be gathered.— death is not the subject of a command. Psal. xxxvii. 27. " Depart from evil, and do good, pU>1 and dwell for evermore," thou shalt dwell. — it is not a command, but a promise. Prov. iii. 4. NSW 1 , " Arid find favour," " so shalt thou find," Eng. it is a promise, v. 3. Ch. iv- 4. " Keep my commandments, TlTTI and ^thou shalt) live." Isa. liv. 14. '•pm, " Ee thou (thou shalt be) far from op- pression." John ii. 19. Ava-ure, " Destroy this temple," ye shall destroy j it is not a command, but a prediction. 894. Both the future of the indicative 1 , and the im- perative % have sometimes the force of the optative mode, which is wanting in the Hebrew language. Glass, ib. c. 45. 1 Job iii. 3. " The day lixi shall perish," may it perish. So also in the following verbs. Psal. lxx. 2, 3, 4. 1U?n% &c. «« They shall be ashamed, con- founded, turned back," &c — *' let them be," Eng. 2 Psal. xlv. 4. " In thy majesty ribx ride prosperously," it is a wish. Often in prayers, as in all the petitions of the Lord's prayer. 895. The imperative, as in all languages, often signifies in Scripture, not command, but merely per- mission. Glass, ib, c. 43, 2 Sam. VERBS. 343 2 Sam. xviii. 23. Joab says, yitt " run," not commanding, for he had forbidden him, v. 20, 22. but permitting him on his importunity, v. 19, 22. 23. 2 Kings ii. 17. Elisha says irrbll> " send," not a command, for he had dissuaded and forbidden them, v. 16, 18. but mere permission. I Kings xxii. 22. p nu?rt N2J " Go forth and do so," not a com- mand to deceive, but permission. Mat. viii. 32. Jesus says to the demons, v7ru,yi?i } " go," he only permitted them, Luke viii. 32. 896. The imperative has sometimes the force of the subjunctive mode with a conjunction ; expressing, not a prediction of what shall be, but a supposition of what may or may not be. Glass, ib. Num. xxiv. 21. -fcwyi " Put thy nest in a rock," though thou puttest, &c. " nevertheless the Kenites shall be wasted," v. 22. Nah. iii. 15. "Make thyself many -as the canker-worm," though thou make. Luke x. 28. Tsto 7T6iit, " this do, and thou shalt live," if thou do this, thou shalt live. Eph. iv. 26. O^yi^ia-B-s, " be ye angry, and sin not," if, though ye be angry, sin not. 897. The infinitive mode, which, in all languages, has a great analogy to substantive nouns, is often, in the Hebrew language, used as a noun. I Kings viii. 52. " Hearken unto them £2JOp V^l (in omni orare eorum) in all their prayers." I Chron. xvi. 36. " All the people said, Amen Ti s ,TTjv, through all their life- time," Eng. 893. When the infinitive is said to be used in the sense of the preterite, or the future, it is observable, that it generally differs from these tenses only in the vowel points ; and, therefore, though the usage may be real, it is not in all instances indisputable. 899. When the infinitive appears to be put for the imperative, it may, sometimes, be accounted for in the same manner !; but, as the usage likewise takes place in the Greek of the New Testament, to which that ac- count is not applicable, the usage is, undoubtedly, real, and is accounted for, either by an enallage of these two modes, or by an ellipsis of an imperative verb governing the infinitive *j r Exod. xx. 8. Deut. v. 12. i Mat. v. 39. " I say unto you pj «ms7jiw not to resist"— " resist VERBS. 345 " resist not," Eng. Glass, ib. or supply 6ite, fAipwo-t, Knatchb. So v. 34. Lukeix.3. Luke xxii. 42. E* /3«Pi« Tru^tvtyxtfv. Some MSS. have ■x-xgwiyxi, ■srstgiviyx.tui, vx^myrtn, but they are false read- ings — ** let it pass," Eng. Mark xiv. 36. — or supply, Site, Knatchb. — or governed by/3*As«, " be pleased to let it pass," Grot. 900. Participles being in their form exactly similar to adjective nouns, though implying time, it is not surpri- sing that they should sometimes drop this implication, and be used in the signification of adjectives l , or that, like them, they should be put for substantives *. Glass, ib. t. 4. c. 2. Macknight ib. 1 Jer. xxiii. 2. " Thus saith the Lord against t3\imrr taWin the pastors that feed my people." Mark vi. 14. " John fixTrn^ay baptising," for /Saw-ora?, " baptist." ? Psal. xvii. 14. " Whose belly thou fillest with JISX " hid- den," what men are at pains to hide. Eng. supplies " treasure." Heb. i. 6. Otxxtctyn " inhabited" — ' world.' So ch. ii. 5. Rev. xii. 9. 901. In Scripture, the present participle has some- times the signification of the present of the indicative, which is wanting in the Hebrew language. Glass, ib. c. 4. Exod. ii. 14. intt " speaking (speakest. Eng. " intendest") thou to kill me ? " Exod. xxiii. 20. " Behold I rrbw sending (send) an angel be- fore thee.'* Josh. 34-6 VERES. josh. i. 2. " The land which I }p13 giving (give) to them." Rom. v. ii. " But we also kuv^u^ivci, boasting, glorying (boast, giory. Eng. " joy") in God." 902. Active verbs of the third person, sometimes re- fer not to any preceding noun, but have the force of impersonals, or are to be interpreted passively- Glass, ib. c. 23. Chandler, Life of David, b. 4. c. 9. Gen. xvi. 14. " Wherefore Nip (literally) he called the well Beerlahairoi j" but it is Hagar who speaks ; " was called," Eng. £xod. x. 21. " That there may be darkness, wen and be shall feel," any one may feel, or "may be felt," Eng. I Sam. xxiii. 22. " For *))2K he told me that he dealeth very subtlely." Some, David himself formerly j but this is fpr- ced ; — " it is told me,*' Eng. or ' I am told.' Luke xii. 20. " This night etxectrttrui they shall require thy soul" — " shall be required." Eng. 903. Verbs of the infinitive active, have, sometimes, a passive signification '; and, in consequence of this, it may be doubtful, in particular instances, whether they ought to be explained actively or passively, and must be determined by the sense *. 1 Exod. ix. 16. *i£)D ]$vh (literally) propter enarrare — l( that my name may be declared" Eng. or ' for the declaration, celebration, of my name. Psal. xlii.3. "\12X5. in dicere — " while they say," Eng. ' in its being said, while it is said.' Psal. lxvi. 10. " Thou hast tried us" rp»»<3 secundum conflare, — " as silver is tried,'* Eng. or ' according to the trial % — but, without the vowels, the verb is preterite. " Geiv VERBS. 34>7 a Gen. iv. 26. " Then it was begun Kiyh to call upon the name of the Lord" — " men began to call," Eng. or " the name began to be called upon," Pagn. Drus. or, ' they be- gan to be called by the name.' Psal. li. 5. " That thou mightest be clear 'jtiSttD in judicare tuo," " when thou judgest," Eng. " when thou art judged." It is quoted Rom. iii. 4. iv ra xgtvird-xi ot, " when thou art judged," Eng. — But, it may be the middle voice, in which sense it suits the Psalm, where *pm is active, " when thou speakest," referring to 2 Sam. vii. 12, &e. In like man- ner, " judgest," referring to ch. iii. 9, &c. Taylor. 904. Active verbs have sometimes the signification of the passive of their correlatives '$ and passive verbs, that of the active of their correlatives . 1 Mark iv. 21. " Doth a candle (sg^6T««) come ?"— is it brought ? Ch. ix. 29. " This kind can i%i7Skiv come forth" — be cast cut. 2 Eccl. iv. 13. " An old and foolish king, who knoweth not "irunb to be admonished" — to receive admonition. 905. Passive verbs have sometimes an active 1 , and sometimes a neuter signification a ; whence it becomes doubtful, in particular texts, in what manner they should be understood 3 . Glass, ib. c. 24, 25. 1 Judg. xi. 25. « Did he fight," onbiNiphal. Zech. ix. 9. " He is just ytyiil and saved" — " having salva- tion,*' Eng. — " saving himself," marg. — " saviour," Glass. Acts xviii. 14. hhnrtti " received." Ch, xiii. 47. svtst«A- 2 Exod. S48 VERBS. 3 Exod. xv. 6. " By thy right hand vytN3 thou art magnified/* made great — •' art great, powerful," 5 Mat. V. 42. Tev S-iktrTH tfxo «■e{^ ,, pass. " is known," Eng. approved, loved ; — or Hoph. ' 13 made to know, taught by him,' opposed to false know- ledge, v. I, 2. Macknight, Ess. 4. and in loc. SECT. VI. The Usage of Particles. 907. All other words may, properly enough, be comprehended under the name of Particles j and are reducible to — the article — pronouns — adverbs — prepo- sitions — and conjunctions. Glass. Nold. Macknight, Ess. 4. and Sappl. Hoogeveen., 908. — 1. Both the Hebrew and the Greek langua- ges have an article ; but in both, it is often used when it has no special force or emphasis. Deut. viii. 3. " Man doth not live by Eanbn the bread only f* quoted Mat. iv. 4. «§t« " bread." 909. But, the article is often used with a peculiar force, and that in different ways. It is sometimes used for ascertaining a precise individual, formerly mention- ed. Gen, 350 PARTICLES. Gen. xxlv. 50. "ann "the thing," the proposal made by the servant, " proceedeth from the Lord." Exod. ix. 27. " I have sinned O^arr the (this) time," by the refusal just now given. Mat.i. 17. " All cct yivixi the generations," not, that had al- ready passed, for some are omitted, but, that had been enu- merated. John vi. 10. " There was much grass ev t*» tottw in the place," viz. already mentioned, v. 1, or, where they then were. Acts ix. 17. " Ananias entered sPvs-N, " If a ruler hath sinned," Onk. 70. Syr. Arab, v. 3, 27. " When>" Eng. Pagn. Luth. Trem. Vatab. Deut. xi. 27. lyttiyn "itiNC, " If ye obey," (DK v. 28. 2 Chron. vi, 22.) Eng. Onk. 70. Syr. Vulg. &c. 1 Kings viii. 31. "U^k Ntorp -1U7K, " //"any man trespass," Eng. Eut in such instances, it may perhaps retain its own signi- fication, the antecedent being either omitted or transposed. r '20. The relative pronoun has sometimes the sig- a a nification oS4f ^ARTICLES. nification of the final 1 , the illative % or the causal con- junctions 3 . Glass, ib. can. 20. Nold. 1 Gen. xi. 7. " That they may not understand." Onk. Syr. 70. Vulg. Pagn. Luth. Trem. Eng. Deut. iv. 40. " That it may go well with thee." So explained by ]Jf»V, " that thou mayest prolong thy days." Onk. Syr. 73. Vulg. Pagn. Luth. Eng. Gen. xxiv. 3. Exod. xx. 26. Deut. iv. 10. vi. 3. xi. 10. xxxii. 45. Josh. iii. 7. Ruth iii. 1. 1 Sara. ii. 23. 2 Chron. i. if. ii. 5. xviii. 15. Ezra ii. 63. Neh. ii. 5, 7, 8. vii. 65. viii. 14, 15. Psal. cxliv. 12. Eccl. v. 4. vii. 21. Isa. lxv. 16. Jer. xlii. 14. Dan. i. 8. - Psal. xcv. 11. *)U?N, " To whom I swarej" but, '* therefore I sware," Pagn. Diod. it is the conclusion from v. 8, 9, 10. 3 Deut. iii. 24. " For what God is there," Onk. 70. Syr. Vulg. Pagn. Luth. Eng. &c. Job viii. 14. iSd3 laip* 1VK, " Whose hope shall be cut off," Eng. but it suppresses the pronoun V " For his hope," Chald. 70. Luth. Isa. xix. 25. " Whom the Lord shall bless," Eng. but it sup- presses 1 in liia. " For the Lord shall bless him." Zech. i. 15. " For I was but a little displeased," Eng. Josh. xxii. 31. " Because ye have not committed this trespass," 70. Chald. Syr, Vulg. Eng. I Sam. xx. 42. xxv. 16. 2 Sam. xiv. 22. and many other texts referred to in Nold. sig. 12, 13. 921. — 3. Adverbs are reduced into many diffe- rent classes, which belongs to grammar ; but, in all of them, difficulties, especially ambiguities, often oc- cur. 922. PARTICLES. 35.> 922. Adverbs which properly signify rest in a place, sometimes denote motion to a place. Glass. 1. 3. t. 5. can. 4. Deut. i. 37. " Thou also shalt not go £312; thither" Eng. 2 Kings xix. 32. {t Nor shout an arrow OU> there," Eng. " hither," or, " thither." Judg. xviii. 3. 1 Sam. ii. 14. ix. 6. x. 5. 2 Sam. ii. 2. xvii. 18. 2 Kings ii. 2i. vi. 9. Psal.cxxxix. io. Isa. xxxvii. 33. lvii. 7. Jer. xxii. ii. Ezek. xlvii. 9. Mat. ii. 22. " fie was afraid to go sku thither" Eng. Mat. xvii. 20. xxiv. 28. Luke xvii. 37. xxi. 2. John xviii. 3. Rom. xv. 24. 923. Adverbs of place have sometimes the significa-* tion of adverbs of time. Glass, ib. Eccl. iii. 17. " There is a time tSVi there" Eng. but, there is here no reference to place. ' then,' viz. when God shall judge. Psal. xxxvi. 12. w There," Eng. rather, u Then are the work- ers of iniquity fallen." Hos. ii. 15. " I will give her vineyards tSWbfrom thence^* Eng. i. e. from the wilderness. Or, ' from that time,' im* mediately. 924. Adverbs of time expressing perpetuity, some- times denote only frequency, or regularity at stated times, or a considerable length of duration. Glass, ib. can. 6. Exod. xxvii. 20. " To cause the lamp to burn TEfi always,'* not strictly, for only "from evening to morning," v. 21. ch. xxx. 8. Lev. xxiv. 3. 1 Sam. iii, 3. * A a- 2 Exod* 'Jo6 PARTICLES. Exod. xxviii. 30. " Aaron shall bear the judgment of the children of Israel* on his heart TV3n always j" but only 11 when he went in before the Lord," as appears from the preceding clause. 1 Kings x. 8. " Which stand n^n continually before thee," frequently, at the proper times of attendance. Luke xviii. 1. " That men should pray -rxyroTt " always," very frequently, with perseverance. V. 5. 6 Vran yesterday and the day before," formerly. So, v. 5. " To-day," for the present time. Deut. xxvii. 9. avn " This day thou art become the people of the Lord." ' Now art.' u . To-morrow," for any future time. Gen. xxx. 33. " So shall my righteousness answer for me "iTTia to-morrow," " in time to come," Eng. Exod. xiii. 14. " When thy son asketh thee inw to-morrow," " in time to come," Eng. Luke xiii. 32. " I do cures a-yi^ov >£ avgioy to day and to-mor~ row,"'' i. e. at present, and for a short time j «j ry\ t§{, " If by arty means I might attain," ckc. no doubt of his resurrection. Rom. PARTICLES. 359 Rom. x\. 21. Mn srus, " Lest he spare not thee," not doubt- ful, but certain, v. 22. So i Cor. ix. 27. Gal. ii. 2. 1 Thess. iii. 5. 930. Adverbs of negation are often used, only to intimate comparison, signifying preference of that which is affirmed, to that which seems to be denied. Glass, ib. can. 22. Gen. xlv. 8. " Not you sent me hither, but God j" not so much you as God, rather God than you. Exod. xvi. 8. " Your murmurings are not against us, but a- gainst the Lord," more against him than us. 1 Sam. viii. 7. " They have not rejected thee, but they have rejected me ;" rather, ' more me than thee,' or, ' not only thee, but me.' Prov. viii. 10. Hos. vi. 6. Prov. xvii. 12. Jer. vii. 22. xxxi. 34. Joel ii. 13. Amos v. 25. Psal. cxlvi. 3. Mat. v. 39. " Resist not evil, but whosoever shall smite thee on the right cheek, turn to him the other." (Proverbial, Lam. iii. 30.) ' Do so, rather than resist violently.' Mat. vi. 19, 20. " Lay not up treasures upon earth, — but lay up treasures in heaven ;" ' rather, more carefully, in heaven than on earth.' Mat. x. 20. " It is not ye that speak, but the Spirit of your Father," not only, not so much, ye as the Spirit. Mark ix. 37. " Whosoever shall receive me, receiveth not me, but him that sent me," not only, not so much, me as him. Mark. xiii. 11. Luke xiv. 12. John v. 22, 30, 45. vi. 27. xii. 44. Acts v. 4. 1 Cor. i. 17. Eph. vi. 12. Col. iii. 2: 1 Thess. iv. 8. 93 1, Adverbs of comparison sometimes express, no similitude, but the thing itself j being thus redun- dant. A a 4 Glass. 360 PARTICLES. Glass, ib. c. 28. Num. xi. 1. " The people were Q^3ixn^3 as complainers," ** complained," Lrig. Deut. ix. 10. " On them were written hsS as (Eng. accord- cording to) all the words," &c. i. e. the words themselves. Judg. xiii. 23. " Nor would DP3 as at this time have told us UNI as these things," twice redundant. Obad. i. 11. " Thou wast as one of them. Neh. vii. 2. Job xxiv. 14. Psal. exxii. 3. Isa. i. 7. xiii. 6. Hos. iv. 4. Mat. xiv. 5. " They held him as a prophet," i. e. to be. Luke xxii. 44. " His sweat was urn as it were drops of blood." Some, i only, like blood,' Theophyl. Others, ' real blood,' Jerom. John i. 14. Rom. ix. 32. 1 Cor. iv. 1. 2 Cor. ii. 17. iii. 18. Phil. ii. I, 2. Philem. 9. 2 Pet. i. 3. 932. Adverbs of similitude often denote, not equa- lity, but such an imperfect degree of resemblance, or analogy, as is pointed out by the nature of the things spoken of. Glass, ib. can. 27. Mat. v. 48. " Be ye perfect, inritt^ even as your Father in heaven is perfect." equality is here impossible. So Luke vi. 3*- 933. — 4. As to Prepositions : Such as properly de- note motion to a place or thing, are sometimes used for signifying rest in it. Glass. 1. 3. t. 6. can. 4. Nold. Gen. xlix. 29. " Bury me bx (to, into) in the cave." I Kings viii. 30. " Hear thou bn in thy dwelling place, bit in heaven." Mat. PARTICLES. 361 Mat. ii. 23. f* He dwelt «? ttoAjv (into) in a city." Marki. 9. " Was baptized by John pg in Jordan." Acts viii. 23. " Thou art s«; in the gall of bitterness. 934. On the other hand, prepositions of rest have sometimes the force of those of motion. Lev. xvi. 22. " He shall let go the goat mittl in (into) the wilderness." Luke i. 17. " The disobedient ev, in (unto) the wisdom of the just." Luke vii. 17. " This rumour went forth v, in (into, through) Judea.'' Luke xxi. 23. Rom. i. 23, 24. 25. 1 Thess. iv. 7. 1 John iv. 9. 935. Prepositions primarily expressive of local mo- tion, or rest, are often used for denoting conceptions in any way analogous to motion, or rest, and without any reference to place. Glass, ib. can. 5, 6, 8, 9. Nold. I. Those of motion to a place signify, sometimes ' concern- ing,' as a subject. Job xlii. 8. " Ye have not spoken >bii (to) concerning q/*me, what is right." Ezek.xxi. 28. " Thussaith the Lord bx concerning the Am- monites, and concerning their reproach." Luke xix. 9. " Jesus said k^ds (unto, Eng.) concerning him. 1 ' Acts ii. 25. " David speaketh g;j (unto) concerning .him," Eng. Sometimes, ■ on account of, for.' Gen. xxxvii. 35. " I will go down into the grave hx (unto, 70. Vulg. Eng.) on account of ray son, mourning,'' Onk. Syr. x Sam. 362 PARTICLES. 1 Sam. iv. 2r. " She named the child, &c. b» because of the ark. of God being taken. Mat. xix. 8. " Moses, *■£<&', because of the hardness of your hearts," Eng. So Mark x. 5. Mat. vi. 34. " Take no thought m for to-morrow." Mark 1. 38. "For s«j t»t* therefore (Eng. " on account," for the sake of this) came I forth. Sometimes, * against.' Gen. iv. 8. " Cain rose up bit against Abel." Eng. Syr. Vulg. Pagn. &c. Num. xxxii. 14. " Anger of the Lord bit (Eng. " towards,") against Israel." Judg. xii. 3. M Wherefore are ye come up ''hit (Eng. " unto) against me, to fight against me ? a Sam. v. 6. " The hand of the Lord Was heavy bit (Eng. " upon") against Ashdod." 2 Sam. xiii. 19. xiv. 1. ttbwiit bit, Eng. " unto, toward," or, *' against." doubtful. Mark xii. 12. '* Parable ;»•£©■> ttvrit?, against them," Eng. John x. 35. rr^o? »{. Eng. " Unto whom the word of God came." — '' against whom,'' Psal. lxxxii. 2, 5, 7. Act. xi. 2. " They that were of the circumcision tnK^tvotro xgs; turn*. Eng. ,{ contended with him."—" argued, cavilled against him," Vulg. 2 Cor. v. 12. " That you may have somewhat -zsrgaj tb; (Eng. ** to answer") them which glory. — " against them," ckc. which is simpler. 2. Prepositions expressive of motion from a place, sometimes denote derivation from an efficient cause. Gen. xv. 4. " He that shall come forth yJttDtt from thine own bowels." Prov. xiii. it. " Wealth by vanity bzrrn shall be diminish- ed." Eng. supplies gotten, which is wrong. Mat. PARTICLES. 363 Mat. i. 20. », "from the Holy Spirit," as the author. 3. Prepositions signifying motion through a place, denote sometimes ' by', or ' by means of.' John vi. 57. " I live £<* by the Father — he shall live 2«' by me." Heb. ii. 2. " The word spoken h' by angels." ' Sometimes, ■ on account, for the sake of.' Rom. iv. 25. « Delivered %txfor our offences— raised for our justification." Sometimes, * with respect to, in relation to.' Rom. iii. 25. Aixmv wagjjim (Eng. for) " with respect to the remission (passing over) of sins which are past." Taylor and Macknight in loc. So ch. iv. 23. viii. 10. 4. Prepositions of rest have the like variety of significations, denoting, sometimes, 'concerning.' 1 Sam. xix. 3. " I will commune with my father "[U of (con- cerning) thee." Rom. xi. 2. 2 Tim. i. 13. Sometimes, ' by. Luke iv. 1. " Was led t» by the Spirit," Eng. it is so explain- ed, Mat. iv. 1: vtto. Sometimes, ' with.' Mat. iii. 11. Luke xix. 34. Mat. vi. 29. Eph. vi. 2. Sometimes, ' on account of, for the sake of.' Gen. xxix. 18. Deut. xxiv. 16. Mat. vi. 7. xi. 6. Acts vii. 29. 936. Some prepositions are used, both in reference to place, and to time. Buxt. Gram. c. 58. 937. — 5. With respect to Conjunctions. The co- pulative conjunction, sometimes, does not merely con- nect 364 PARTICLES. nect a thing with the preceding, but likewise indicates some singularity, or pre-eminence in it. Glass. 1. 3. t. 7- can. 3. Josh. ii. 1. « View the land, and (especially) Jericho." 2 Sam. ii. 30. 2 Chron. xxvi. 10. Neh. viii. 15. Mark. iii. 7, 8. Mark xvi. 7. " Go, tell his disciples, and (especially) Peter." Acts i. 14. xxvi. 22. I Cor. ix. 5. 938. The copulative conjunction has, sometimes, the force of the relative pronoun. Glass. 1. 3. t. 2. can. 15. Exod. x. 25. " Thou must give us sacrifices — WtyjPi lit. "and we will sacrifice j" which we may sacrifice. Isa. xxxix. 6. " The days come, xiyji and shall be carried (in which) all that is in thine house." 939. The conditional conjunction has, often, the force of an interrogative l — of an adverb of denial z — of a causal conjunction 3 . Glass, ib. can. 6. 1 Job vi. 13. Mat. xii. 10. 2 Gen. xiv. 23. 1 Kings i. 51. Mark viii. 12. 3 Job xiv. 5. Ezek. xxxv. 6. Mark xv. 44. John x. 35. xiii. 32. Actsiv. 9. xi. 17. xxvi. 8, 23. Rom. xi. 17. viii. 31. 1 Tim. v. 10. Heb. vii. 15. I Pet. i. 17. i John ii. 29. 940. Disjunctive conjunctions do not always denote separation PARTICLES. 36.5 separation of things opposite, but, sometimes, only- distinction of things of the same kind, and, generally, so as likewise to intimate their connexion. Glass, ib. can. 8. Mat. v. 17. " The law or the prophets." J Cor. xi. 27. " Whosoever shall eat this bread, »j or drink." Hence Papists argue, that the bread alone is sufficient. But this is groundless, as appears from the connexion ; they are disjoined, to shew that they are entitled to equal reverence. I Cor. xii. 13. '• All baptized into one body, im whether Jews, nit or Gentiles, or bond, or free," i. c. ' and,' all of us Christians. 1 Cor. xiii. 8. Col. i. 20. Gal. i. 12. 2 Thess. ii. 15. « Traditions un either by word, or by epistle." Papists, that therefore they are different : groundless— the same, delivered in these different manners. 941. The causal conjunction denotes, sometimes, not the cause of the thing spoken of, but only the rea- son of the conclusion deduced. Ib. can. 17. Matth. xvi. 2. « Fair weather, Jot sky red" — this not the cause of fair weather, but sign from which they inferred it. John x. 26. " Ye believe'not, n y«g tn for ye are not of my sheep'' — this, not the cause of infidelity, but its effect. 942. The other causal conjunction sometimes de- notes, not the final cause, but only the event. Ib. can. 19. Exod. xi. 9. " Pharaoh shall not hearken unto you, ]^i2h that my wonders may be multiplied" — not Pharaoh's design, bu the consequence of hi.^ conduct. Num. 366 DIFFICULTIES IN DETERMINING Num. xxxii. 14. Deut. xxix. 19. Psal. li. 4. Jer. vii. 18. xxvii. 15. Ezek. xxi. 15. Amos ii. 7. Matth. xxiii. 34- Johnix. 2, 3, 39. Rom. i. 20. 1 Cor. xi. 19. 2 Cor. iii. 13. 1 John ii. 19. " That it might be fulfilled," frequent. Mat. xxvii. 35. John xv. 25. xvii. 12. xix.24. xii. 38. It has likewise other significations : " on account of,' Gen. xviii. 24. Deut. iii. 26. Prov. xvi. 4. Isa. lxvi. 10. is explanative, John xv. 8, 13. xvi. 7, 32. "so that," 2 Cor. i. 17. vii. 9. Rev. viii. 12. SECT. VII. Difficulties in determining the Parts of Speech 943. There is, sometimes, difficulty in determi- ning, to what class a word belongs, or, what part of speech it is, in a particular passage. 944. — 1. Words belonging to different classes, sometimes consist of the very same letters, so that it cannot be known, by the mere inspection of them, in what class they should be reckoned in a passage. A word may, for any thing that appears in the structure of it, be — a noun, or a verb, or a particle ' — one part of a noun, or of a verb, or another part of it a — ^a par- ticle THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 367 tide of one species, or of another species 3 ; and the sense will be different, according as it is taken for one or another : it can be determined only by the scope and connexion, or by parallel places ; but, when different senses are consistent with these, it may remain doubtful which ought to be preferred. 1 Isa. xiv. 9. tTWirr wab . - V)Sh is regular, VTph in 35 MSS. of which 10 ancient, and 3 editions ; a noun signifying '* cloathing, raiment," Eng. " and as the raiment of those that are slain" — supplement groundless j without it, abrupt: or, the participle preterite of tUlb, " cloathed, covered." " Cloathed with the slain," covered with the dead bodies, sense. Lowth in loc. Isa. xxix. 22. " Thus saiththe Lord who redeemed Abraham ipj^ ITa-bx ', bx '' to the house of Jacob" — but, no address to them : Eng. « concerning the house of Jacob." — bu God, " the God of the house of Jacob"— common phrase.— Lowth. Isa. xxxiii. 21. " But mTV inx Dli; ; CaW adverb. " there the glorious Lord will be unto us a " place of broad rivers," Eng. — but DU7 name ; " the glorious name of the Lord.' 70. Syr. structure. See Ps. xx. 1. Prov. xviii. 20.— Lowth. Isa. xlviii. 16. " From the time that it was," nnvn. but 2 MSS. Dnvrr " they were,'' began to exist. — >3X Diy, Eng. M there I am," adverb, but tDV verb. •' I decreed it." sense." Lowth. a Isa. xxi. 5. "py, nSS, Vdk. nnw, infinitives ; or, other- wise pointed, imperative singular. Eng. in the latter way, ■' prepare the table, watch in the watch-tower, eat, drink.'* Others, in the former way, infinitive absolute (as Ezek. i. 14.) " The table is prepared, the watch is set, they ate, * they drink." Lowth, Isa. 368 DIFFICULTIES IN DETERMINING Isa. xlvii. 3. C3-JX yssti nVi. "And I will not meet (Eng. supplies thee as) a man' 1 — obscure ; but, with other points, or written fully r>>5N Hiph. " I will not suffer man to in- tercede 1 ' — plain. Lowth. Isa. Ivii. 14. " He that putteth his trust in me, " shall possess the land — 173N1 and shall say" Eng : but to be pointed as the 1st pers. fut. " and I will say." God the speaker, for, " my people" follows. Lowth. 3 Mark xi. 13. Oo yu% w xaigos "vpets jsgm« ; do not ye judge them that are within ?" not consistent with itself, or with scope. — x%,i' th? iffu vpnr, x£ cmosac-Hx, tt^utov. lit. " that if there come not a falling away first." defective. Eng. " for that day shall not come, ex- cept there come," &c. sense, but not syntax. — «V«, (sup. iviTvix.iv v. 2.) i«.v fA/i, &c. " that it is at handy except there come," &c. Knatchb. I Tim. ii. 6. 7. 1 Cor. vii. 16, 17,35. id. 1 Cor. xvi. 3. Grot. Locke. 1 Pet. i. 13. Knatchb. 960. It is sometimes doubtful whether one punctu- ation or another should be preferred, as either gives a good sense. John, v. 27. 28. Mill. Wh. 1 Cor. vii. 29. " This I say, brethren, ou x*' to Xotirov in. ha," &c. *' the time is short. It remaineth that," &c. Eng. easier. j Car. xi. 21. Knatchb. B b 3 SECT. SY4 SYNTAX. SECT, II. Syntax. 961. Languages being formed by accidental usage, there are many irregularities in the syntax of every language, which may, in particular instances, occasion difficulty, even to those who understand it well. 962. Every language has some peculiarities in its syntax, which must occasion difficulty to those who are more accustomed to another language. 963. In the language of scripture, there are diffi- culties arising from both these causes ; and, in the New Testament, there are difficulties also, from the introduction of Hebrew constructions into the Greek language. 964. The removing of difficulties in syntax, from the Scriptures, both contributes to our understanding the precise meaning of them, and vindicates their style from the imputation of solecisms. 965. The principal means of removing difficulties in syntax, are — exact knowledge of the original lan- guages, — the sense and connexion, — texts where the force SYNTAX. 375 force of the construction is more determinate, — paral- lel places where the same sense is expressed in a diffe- rent form of words, — and the usage of other writers, in the same, or a kindred language. 96Q. As the repetition of a noun denotes, sometimes emphasis, sometimes vehemence, sometimes continu- ance, sometimes multitude, and sometimes distribution, it may be doubtful which of these is its force in a par- ticular passage ; it can be determined only by the sense and connexion ; and these cannot always determine it with certainty. Deut. xv. 20. " Thou shalt follow "piX \>TX justice, justice," — " that which is altogether just," Eng. — or, " justice ear- nestly," — or, " justice constantly." 967. As, of two nouns in the constructed state in Hebrew, or, in the state of government in the New Testament, one is sometimes put for an adjective, and sometimes not ; and, as the governed noun may sig- nify the efficient, or the instrumental cause, or the effect, or the material cause, or the final cause, or the subject or recipient, or the object, or the adjunct, of the thing expressed by the other noun, there must of- ten be an ambiguity which of these relations is meant to be expressed ; and it should be fixed as the sense and scope require. Psal. lxxvii. 4. t( Thou holdest the watches of mine eyes. 1 — subst. " thou watchest over mine eyes''— adj. " keepest mine eyes watchful or waiving." Eng. connexion. Psal. cl. 1. ie Praise God in the firmament of his- pqiver."' — B b 4 if 376 SYNTAX. if the latter be taken as an adj. */ his powerful firmament or expanse," i. e. the effect of his power.— if the former, " on account of his expanded or extended power." Gal. iii. 14. " That we might'receive w inocyyiXixv rv mtv/ix- T®-,- — Eng. " the promise of the spirit." — adj. " spiritual promise," Zeger. — " promised spirit," Vat. Grot. Locke. Eph. iv. 29. " No corrupt communication, but that which is good wgo? otx»eoft,Yiv tyis %(>etct{. — Eng. " to the use of edify- ing."*"this the original does not bfiar. — lit. " to the edifying of use or need." i. e. " needful edification." I Thess. i. 3. Work of faith — labour of love — patience of hope," — " working faith — laborious love — patient hope," Drus. Glass. — or, "works, the effects of faith — labours, the effects of love — patience, of hope.'' Grot. Tit. ii. 13. " Looking for t7ri,. he speaketh of his own, for he is a liar, x} Twnjg AYTOT — referring to the devil, " and his father,'' Manich. ; or, to -^ivm, " father of him,'''' the liar, Grot. — or, to i^si;£©->, " father of it." Eng. Erasm. Zeger. Macknight. right. John vi. 50. " This is the bread which cometh down from hea- ven." — not manna, v. 49. — but Christ, v. 48. Heb. xiii. 17. u Though he sought it (ttvrrni) earnestly with tears." SYNTAX. 377 tears."— to the nearest antecedent fttrxveix — " his own re- pentance." Clar. and perhaps Eng. — or " good effects of re- pentance" did not profit him. Zeger. Cast. Grot. — or, " his father's repentance." J. Capel. — or, to remoter antecedent tvMyixv, " his father's blessing.* 7 ' Glass. Gen. xxvii. 34. j John v. 20. '■' This is the true God and eternal life." nearer antecedent, Christ — remoter the Father. Mark iii. 21. " For they said, on t^im. — nearest antecedent, Jesus, — he is mad," Eng. unbecoming, no occasion given. — remoter .antecedent e#A©-', " it is beside itself." sense, connexion. Matth. xii. 23. i\i?ctvT6. Knatchb. Macknight. 969. A pronoun sometimes refers, not to any thing going before, but to some noun following after. Numb. xxiv. 17. "I shall see him (or, it) but not now j I shall behold him (or, it) but not nigh." — star and sceptre. Psal. lxxxvii. 1. ft His (or, its) foundation is in the holy moun- tains." — Zion, r. 1. Matth. xvii. 18. " Jesus rebuked him." whom ? u the demoiv came out of him." 970. When two verbs are joined together by a co- pulative, the former of them is sometimes not de- signed to affirm, but has merely the force of a par- ticiple. Matth. xi. 25. " I thank thee — because thou hast hid these things from the wise and prudent, and hast revealed them unto babes," — having hid. SECT. 578 laioM. SECT. III. Idiom. 971. Every peculiarity in the structure of a lan- guage, is called an idiom j and, therefore, many ob- servations which truly regard the idioms of the Scrip- ture language, have been already made under other heads ; but, there are some observations which still re- main to be made. 972. An idiom, in the sense in which we are now to consider it, is, when a number of words combined, acquire, from arbitrary usage, a sense which could not be collected from the known meaning of the se- parate words. 973. Some nouns, when joined with, or governing, other nouns, form an idiomatical expression, in which their force is not always the same. 974. VW, and other words, signifying a man, are often idiomatically used in this manner, even sometimes when a man is not intended ; and that in different sig- nifications in different instances, which must be deter- mined by the sense. 975. idiom. 379 975. Sometimes, it expresses the 'subject, whose adjunct is signified by the other noun, and denotes a. person eminent for that. 1 Sam. xvi. «8. rrnnbtf VX " a man of war" a great war- rior — " and "iKD XWN a man of form" — " a beautiful per- son." 2 Sam. xvi. 7. Shimei says, «' Come forth WNl t3»mn WK ^P^bnn thou man of bloods, and thou man of Belial.'' — bloody and worthless man. I Kings ii. a6. Solomon says to Abiathsr, ei thou art DID Whi a man of death." — worthy of death. Isa. liii. 3. miJOD WX " a man of sorrows" — : a suffering man. Ps. cxix. 24. " Thy testimonies are *rvX3f ''WiX the men of my counsel." — my counsellers. 976. Sometimes, on the contrary, it expresses the adjunct, whose subject is expressed by the other noun. Gen. ix. 20. " Noah was nmxn IWK a man of the earth"— who cultivated the earth. 977. Sometimes, it denotes the efficient cause, whose effect or action is expressed by the other noun. Judg. xii. 2. " Jephthah says, " I and my people were :r>*i iy N N a man of strife with the children of Ammon" — at strife. I Sam. xvii. 4. Goliah is called tD^arr 12PX a man of middles — a champion, who comes between the two camps to chal- lenge. Isa. xlvi. 11. "I am God — calling a ravenous bird from the east, ^nar Wit the man of my counsel from a far country" who executeth my counsel. 978. Sometimes again, it denotes the effect, or what some way or other proceeds from the person express- sed by the other noun. 380 IDIOM. tsTiha U^X and «vfyz>7rog t« B-at, " a man of God"— inspired by God, or who teaches his word. 979. The words tya, " lord, master," and nS>D, " mistress," similarly construed, form an idiomatical expression, very like to the former in its powers. 980. It signifies the possessor of a thing expressed by the other noun. i Sam. xxvili. 7. The witch of Endor 21N nbyi " the mistress of a familiar spirit." 2 Kings i. 8. Ahaziah's messengers describe the prophet as lyw'jya " a lord of hair" — a hairy man. Prov. i. 17. " In vain the net is spread in sight of any tm b]?a lord of a wvig" — bird. 981. It signifies an inhabitant oi the place, expres- sed by the other noun. Numb. xxi. 28. " It hath consumed— mm ^JKl the lords of the high places of Anion'' — the inhabitants. 982. It signifies the subject of that quality, or thing which is expressed by the other noun. Gen. xiv. 13. It is said of Mamre, Eshcol, and Aner, " These were mis ^?J?2 lords of covenant with Abram" — confede- rate. 983. In analogy to this signification, it denotes a person any how addicted to what is expressed by the other noun. Gen. xxxvii. 19. Behold mmnn bya this lord (or master) of dreams'' — dreamer. Prov. xviii. 9. " He that is slothful, is brother DTlWn bl^h to IDIOM. 381 to a mailer of waste* — a waster. Eng. " a great waster," as if emphatical, but is not. 984. p and HS and 'vi^>, and the like, joined with another noun, express almost any relation to the thing signified by it, and are used of inanimate things, as well as of persons. bybi "Oi, " Sons of Belial or of wickedness" — wicked persons." Vrr »3i, " sons of strength" — strong men. '0< via xm A««$, '' of perdition'— «§VJ?> " of wrath — x«7#g#s, " of malediction" — ugi/ims, 11 of peace" — worthy of these. " Sons of a place" — its in- habitants. Psal. cxlix. 2." Sons of Zion." Ezra ii. i. " of the province." Isa. xi. 14. " of the east." Gen. xvii. 1. Abram is called " the son of 99 years" — 99 years old. Eccl. xii. 4. " Daughters of music'* — sonorous things. Matth. viii. 12. " Sons of the kingdom" — heirs of it. Job xli. 19. " Sons of the bow" — Lam. iii. 13. " of the quiver" — arrows. Isa. xxi. 10. " Sons of the flour" — corn. 985. Some words, joined with other words, are re- dundant, adding nothing to the sense of these,, but forming merely an idiomatical expression. E^33, Ti^tnTUTt^. Gen. i. 2. '* the face of the deep." Gen. xxiii. 3. " Abraham stood up from upon the face of his dead." 1 Sam. xiv. 25. " Honey upon the face of the field." Luke xxi. 35. " On the face of the whole earth." 712. Gen. xliii. 7. " We answered him according to the mouth of these words." Numb. xxv ; . 56. " According to the mouth of the lot shall the possession be divided." Prov. 382 idiom. xxii. 6. " Train up a child according to the month of his way." S3U7. " The name of God" — God. occurs often. Rev. xi. 13. " Were slain 7000 names of men." *?n. Job xli. 12. li I will not conceal the word of his pow- er." Psal. lxv. 3. " W01 ds of iniquities prevail against me." In the midst — in the heart," means only in or among. Gen. xlv. 6. " Famine in the midst of the land. Matth, xii. 40. " So shall the Son of man be three days and three nights in the heart of the earth." no proof of descent into hell. Bellarm. Grot. Glass. Macknight. 986. The expression of the superlative, by joining any of the names of God to an adjective, is idiomati- cal ; and, as this junction is not always intended to form a superlative, it may sometimes produce ambiguity. 2 Cor. x. 4. *' The weapons of our warfare are <$wxt& tm Bsm to the pulling down of strong holds." — idiom. " very pow- erful." Glass. Knatchb. Macknight. — Jit. " mighty througli God." Eng. Eras. Vat. Cast. Zeger. Grot. Locke.— right. 2 Cor. xi. 2. Zn**> y»% fy*«s 3"£* fyxu. lit. " I am jealous over you with a godly jealousy." Eng. Eras. Vat. Grot. Locke. — idiom, " I love you with an exceeding zeal. Knatchb. preferable. Prov. xx. 27. *' The Spirit of man is the candle (lamp) of the Lord.' 1 '' — idiom. u a great or piercing light." Knatchb. in 2 Cor. x. 4. connexion, v. 26. — gives a reason for what is there said, " a wise king scattereth the wicked jf? for the spirit of a man which he possesses, is very piercing. 987. "ASS, 7T(iMT(yrox.<§r' 9 is sometimes used literally for " first-born," and sometimes, idiomatically, to form a superlative j whence k may become ambigu- ous J&IQM. 383 «us in which of these ways it is used in a particular text. Col. i. i$. tIj>&>TOToxos munis xrtriws, rt the first -begotten of every creature." Arians, therefore one of the creatures. — ^^Ts'ro*^, K first begetter." Eras. Zeger. suits not the scope. — for n%9-ei? »rga, " begotten before all creation." Causab. Vat. Eras. Zeger. — idiom. " prince, lord, chief, most excellent." — " the Lord of the whole creation." Drus. Cam. Macknight, scope. 988. A noun repeated, and governed by different prepositions, forms an idiomatical expression, denot- ing continuance and encrease. Ps. Ixxxiv. 7. " They go from strength to strength."— continu- ally become stronger. Ps. cxliv. 13. ll Our garners yielding from store to store."— continual plenty. Jer. ix. 3. " They proceed from evil to evil."— grow conti- nually worse. Rom. i. 17. " Tire righteousness of God revealed from faith to faith."— from first to last by faith, and that a progressive and improving faith. 989. Idioms which, when translated into another language, appear to have it in a peculiar emphasis, have none in the original, and should not be under- stood as having any. 990. An idiom of one language translated literally into another, would sometimes express the opposite of the idea intended. Psal. cxliii. 2. " Everyman living shall not be justified." — no man. Prov. xxii. 24. " Make no friendship with r\X bra a master of 384 PHRASES. of anger," i. e. angry, given to anger. In English, it would be, " one who has the command of his passion." Ch. xxiii. 2. " Put a knife to thy throat, if thou be U7S3 bya a master of appetite," — given to it. In Eng. the reverse. Gal. ii. 6. " Those who seemed to be something."—- were of high reputation. SECT. IV Phrases. 991. There is sometimes a difficulty in phrases, not arising from either the ambiguity or obscurity of a single word, or from any grammatical irregularity in the combination of the words, or from idiom. 992. A difficulty sometimes arises from the mean- ing of a particular word being somewhat altered by the words with which it is joined, or by the manner in which it is joined with them. Acts xviii. $. STNEIXETO Til nNETMATI a n*vAoj. — usu- ally " constrain." — " -was pressed in spirit" Eng. — " con- strained by the Holy Spirit," agitated, carried out of him- self, " to testify to the Jews that Jesus is the Christ." Grot. — tl testified with reluctance," foreseeing that it would be in vain. Eras. — a phrase taken altogether, " had an earnest mind to testify." Knatchb. teneri desiderio. John Phrases. 385 John i. 16. it!§* supposed an interpolation. Wall, without evidence. — " even the grace of the gospel instead of that of the law," v. 17. Erasm. Cast. Zeger. Scaliger. — "grace on account of the grace of Christ." Vat. Grot.— ~ " grace upon (xvrt for mi) grace," abundance. Camer. — " even grace for his grace." Clarke. Campbell, ambiguity from unusualness. 993. A difficulty in a phrase sometimes arises from its implying an illusion to some opinions, sentiments, or customs. oVitf, ciiuv, the interval between jubilees. — hence atom; and sometimes octai/, the whole duration of the Mosaic dispensa- tion. — hence -the phrases enro rav etiuvw, not, " from the beginning of the ivorld,'''' Eng. — but )VTii yswgyav *s< -zT^MTtv tuv xxa&uv y.iix- Xxftfixmv, u the husbandman that laboureth, must be first partaker of the fruits," Eng. — for k67tiuvtx n^uraiy u the husbandman first labouring, must be partaker," &c. Rev. xiii. 8. " Whose names are not written' tv rn /3 rm £<»n? t« et^vm ic-^Kyfiiva ana xxtx/ZoMs x.6io$. I Tim. vi. 4. Nofti^ovTUV Trogto-pov hvxi r»v ivr&fietav — Eng. " Supposing that gain is godliness" — obscure ; metath. " sup- posing that godliness is a trade to gain by," Arab. Ethiop. Knatchb. 1009. There is a transposition of clauses, which oc- casions difficulty till they be restored to their natural or- der ; and, sometimes, there is a transposition of whole sentences or periods. 1010. Before we admit any of the grammatical figures in a passage, we should be certain that we have the true reading ; for, in several instances, the appear- ance of them arises only from a false reading. 101 1. We should neither reject grammatical figures altogether, nor recur to them without necessity ; but, suppose them only when the sense requires them, or the connexion points them out : and, admit only such as are agreeable to the nature of the language, and the usage of Scripture, or of other writers in the lan- guage. C c 5 SECT, 390 THE RHETORICAL FIGURES. SECT. VI; The Rhetorical Figures. 1012. Rhetorical Figures are ornaments of dis- course ; and they are, likewise, occasions of difficulty. In both views, they are objects of criticism; but, tore- move the difficulties occasioned by them, is more mate- rial, than to point out the beauties which they pro- duce. 1013. They are, either Tropes, which affect and change the signification of the words employed j or, Figures, which only add force or beauty to the expres- sion. 1014. — 1. The simplest tropes occasion difficulty, chiefly, with respect to the signification of separate words, which have been considered already ; but, there are others, which throw difficulty into whole sentences or periods. 1015. If all languages used the same tropes for ex- pressing the same ideas, there would be, in Scripture, no peculiar difficulties arising from them ; but, it uses quite a different set of tropes from those used by the Greeks, THE RHETORICAL FIGURES. 391 Greeks, Romans, and moderns ; hence, many difficul- ties, from an unusual dialect. 1016. Prosopopeia, which is a species of metaphor, is frequent in Scripture, and produces great vivacity j but, sometimes, also, occasions obscurity. 1017. Antiphrasis, or irony, turns words to a signi- fication opposite to their proper meaning, which the sense or connexion points out. Gen. iii. 22. " The man is become as one of us, to know good and evil.'' 1 Kings xviii. 27. " Cry aloud j for he is a god, either he is talking," &c. Eccl. xi. 9. " Rejoice, O young man, in thy youth," &c. 1018. Catachresis is a harshness or violence of any of the tropes, of which there are several instances in Scripture. 2 Sam. xxiii. 17. " Is not this the blood of the men that went in jeopardy of their lives ?" a harsh metonyme. Matth. xii. 5. "The priests in the temple profane the sab- bath." Mark vii. 21, 22. " Out of the heart proceedeth— an evil eye" — envy, of which it is the sign. 1019. Hyperbole, whether consisting in bold tropes ', exaggerated comparisons % impossible suppo- sitions ? , &c. gives an appearance of falsehood; to a- void which, the sense, not the expression, must be re- garded. 1 " Heaven," for great height or exaltation. c * Hell," great C c 4 depth 392 THE RHETORICAL FIGURES. depth or depression. " Rivers of oil," abundance of good things. Gal. iv. 15. " Ye would have plucked out your own eyes, and have given them to me.'' 2 Gen. xiii. 16. " I will make thy seed as the dust of the earth" — very numerous. Job vi. 3. " Grief heavier than the sand of the sea." 3 Prov. xxvii. 22. " Bray a fool in a mortar, yet will not his foolishness depart from him." Matth. xvi. 26. " If he shall gain the whole world," &c. John xxi. 25. " The world itself could not contain the books that should be •written." 1020. Allegory is a continued trope, especially a continued metaphor, containing a hidden sense, differ- ent from what the words imply, in their plain and literal signification. 1021. It is sometimes doubtful whether a passage be allegorical or not. History of the Fall. Sentence on the serpent. 1022. When a passage is known to be allegorical, it is sometimes difficult to discover the meaning of it, as it generally introduces some degree of obscurity. 1023. Allegory sometimes arises from the continua- tion of the same image, through the whole description of a subject. Prov. ix. 1—6. " Wisdom hath builded her house," &.c. Parables. 1024. Some-times, it arises from describing the dif- ferent THE RHETORICAL FIGURES. 393 ferent circumstances of the subject, by different images in succession. Eccl. xli. 2, &c. 1025. When an allegory becomes very obscure, it is what the Scripture calls a dark saying, an enigma, or an enigmatical discourse. Sampson's riddle. Ezekiel's description. 1026. — 2. Figures. Epizeuxis, or the continued repetition of the same word, or combination of words, is merely a figure expressive of earnestness, and is not a foundation of argument for points of doctrine. Isa. vi. 3. " Holy, holy, holy'' — no argument for the Trinity. 1027. Antanaclasis, by which the same word is used in different senses in the same passage, generally produ- ces some degree of difficulty. Matth. xxvi. 29. " I will not drink of the product of the vine, (lit.) till I drink it new," &c. — joys of heaven. Rom. ix. 6. " They are not all Israel, which are of Israe/." 2 Cor. v. 2r. " He hath made him to be sin for us (sin-offering) who knew no sin" 1028. Prolepsis, or occupation, anticipating and answering an objection, occasions considerable difficul- ty when it is covert, removing the objection, without statins: it. o This figure frequent in Paul's writings. 1029. Permission, or yielding to a person what he claims, 394 THE RHETORICAL FIGURES. claims, may occasion difficulty, as that either may, or may not, truly belong to him. 1030. Metastasis is the transferring to one person what belongs to another ; as, speaking of one self, or of an imaginary person, what is intended of another real person. This often occasions difficulty, particular- ly in Paul's writings, who, speaking in the first person, means sometimes himself, sometimes any Christian, sometimes a Jew, and sometimes any man. Locke, Pref. 1031. Proverbs and proverbial phrases, answering to the rhetorical figures called yvwpxt and " sententise," are frequent in Scripture, and generally attended with some difficulty. 1032. We must not explain them strictly, or seek for an application of them, in all their circumstances, to the subject on which they are employed ; but, being intended to set that subject in one striking point of view, we must discover what this point is, by the use of them in other places, or other writers, or by the sense and connexion. 1033. Some of them are sentiments expressed in proper terms, which, on account of their force, beauty, or conciseness, have become general maxims ; and, the only difficulty is to determine, with what limitations they must be understood in a particular passage. " The fear of die Lord is the beginning of wisdom." *< The disciple is not above hi? master 1 '— cannot expect better treatment, THE RHETORICAL FIGURES. 395 treatment, Matth. x. 24. Luke vi. 40. John xv. 20.— Should not grudge the same offices, John xiii. 16. 1034. Some proverbial expressions consist in an explicit comparison, and become difficult only when they imply remote or obscure allusions. Gen. x. 9. " Even as Nimrod, the mighty hunter, before the Lord." 1035. But, most proverbs are expressed tropically, in metaphor, metonyme, or synecdoche ; and, this manner of expression both gives them their force and beauty, and occasions such difficulty as naturally arises from these tropes. 1 Sam. x. 12. " Is Saul also among the prophets ?" synec. Jer. xxxi. 29. **. The fathers have eaten sour grapes, and the children's teeth are set on edge." JDeut. xxv. 4. " Thou shalt not muzzle the ox when he treadeth out the corn" — take care of those who serve us. Luke iv. 23. " Physician, heal thyself" — more solicitous for strangers, than for connections. Matth. vii. 3, &c. " Why beholdest thou the mote that is in thy brother's eye, but considerest not the beam that is in thine own eye ?" &.c. — blind to one's own faults, quick- sighted to other men's, v. 6. Matth. xix. 24. *' Easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle,'' &c. — rare, difficult, impossible. Matth. xxiii. 24. xxiv. 28. CHAP. 396 DIFFICULTIES IN THE CHAP. IV. Difficulties in the Circumstances relating to the Books of Scripture. 1036. It is not sufficient, that we understand the several words employed, and the manner of their com- bination into sentences and propositions ; it is necessa- ry, also, that we know how sentences and propositions are connected in periods and discourses, and be able to judge of a composition as a whole ; and in this, there is often considerable difficulty, and that of several kinds. SECT, CONNEXION OF PARTICULAR PARTS. 397 SECT. I. Difficulties in the Connexion of particular Parts. 1037. From difficulties in the combination of words, already considered, we pass naturally to such difficulties as regard the connexion of the particular parts ; and these arise from many different causes. 1038. — 1. There is sometimes a difficulty in deter- mining whether a word belongs to one sentence, or to another, which affects the connexion of different sen- tences or propositions. 1039. The Scriptures are, at present, divided into verses j there were ancient divisions of the Scripture into verses, but very different from the present, which, both in the Old Testament and the New, is modern, and merely of human invention. 1040. If a verse always contains a complete sense, this division will direct us to the real connexion of Scripture ; if not, it will perplex the connexion. 1041. Whenever, therefore, a difficulty can be re- moved, or the sense cleared, by altering the present division 398 DIFFICULTIES IN THE division into verses, the alteration may be made with- out scruple. 1042. The verses are sometimes divided, so as to separate words into different sentences, which ought to be joined in the same sentence. Ps. xcv. 7. tl The sheep of his hand, to-day if ye will hear his voice j" — but Heb. iii. 7, 8. " To-day, if ye will hear his voice, harden not your hearts," &c. John vii. 21, 22. 'Ev igyov tiror/trx, xcti ttocvth B-ctvfcx<^iri. A«« T8T0 Mwmjj SicfaKiv Ifitv rtjv srggjv, &c. all editions, except Griesbach's. " Moses therefore," &c. Wherefore ?— but frxvpccfas dm thto. Mwinis, &c. " wonder because of it.'* Theophyl. Casaub. Knatchb. Macknight. Gal. iv. 18. 19. Locke. 1043. This division, by breaking the Scripture into small parts, often obstructs our attending to, or per- ceiving, the connexion and dependence of the several sentences, and how one of them is explained, or limit- ed, by others with which it is joined. 1044. It would, therefore, be an advantage, that the Scriptures were published without any breaks, and the verses only marked on the margin, for facility in references : at any rate, we should, as much as possi- ble, read them as if they were thus printed. 1045. — 2. Difficulties in connexion often arise from ambiguity in the signification of the connective particles, which is very great in the Hebrew language, and in the New Testament, where the Greek conjunctions are used after the manner of the Hebrew. 1046. CONNEXION OF PARTICULAR PARTS. 399 1046. The meaning affixed to a conjunction in any passage, must be some one of those which it really has in the language. 1047. It is seldom, if ever, necessary to give a conjunction a sense, in one passage of Scripture, which it has not, in some other passage of Scripture ; at least, it is a confirmation of the sense put upon it in one place, that it has it in other texts. 1048. For fixing the signification of a Greek con- junction in the New Testament, the usage of the cor- respondent Hebrew one has as great authority, as the usage of Greek writers. 1049. Of the acknowledged significations of a connective particle, that is to be adopted, in a particu- lar passage, which best suits the sense and scope of the passage. 1050. — 3. Difficulty in connexion sometimes arises from the interposition of parentheses, on account of which, clauses and sentences, which stand at some distance, are, notwithstanding, to be joined together. Locke, Pref. 1051. It is only by careful attention to the sense, that this kind of difficulty can be removed ; 2nd, it is often not easy to determine whether a parenthesis should be supposed, or not. Heb. vi. i, 2, 3. " Therefore, leaving the principles of the doctrine of Christ, let us go on unto perfection, not laying again the foundation of repentance," Sec. — " let us (not laying 400 DIFFICULTIES IN THE laying again the foundation) go on unto the perfection of repentance," &c. Knatchb. connexion j other texts. 1052. — 4. Difficulty in connexion sometimes arises from a dialogue being carried on covertly, without marking the speakers, or distinguishing what is said by each of them. Without attending to this, what is only a plausible objection, introduced in order to be confuted, may be mistaken for the sentiment of an in- spired writer. 1053. Attention to the whole run and scope of the passage, as well as to the Scripture phraseology, and to other texts, is sometimes necessary, for discovering and tracing out the dialogue. Ecclesiastes. Rom. iii. and iv. Dialogue between Paul and the unbelieving Jews. Locke. Taylor. Isa. Hi. 13. liii. llv. Dialogue between God, the prophet, and the unbelieving Jews. Ps. xxiv. xv. xx. civ. 1054. — 5. Difficulties in connexion sometimes arise from something being left out, which we must supply, in order to perceive it ; which may, perhaps, be sup- plied in different ways ; and, according as it is supplied in one way or another, will make the connexion appear different. 1055. In an argument, the principles or premises are sometimes laid down, but the conclusion is left to be supplied j and yet, what follows has a reference to that CONNEXION OF PARTICULAR PARTS. 401 that conclusion, and cannot be understood without sup- plying it. Rom. iii. 22, 23, 24. " All have sinned, and come short of the glory of God, [consequently, none can be justified by works, v. 20.] being justified freely by his grace," &c. i. e. but whoever is justified, whether Jew or Gentile, inust be justified, &c. 1056. Sometimes, one step in an argument, or chain of reasoning, is omitted, and must be supplied, either from the tenor of the discourse, or by common under- standing. Rom. viii. 17. ' ' Heirs of Christ, if we suffer with him" — only on this condition ; v. 18. " for I reckon," &c. 1057. Something is often said, for preventing or re- moving an objection, which has not been at all propo- sed ; and cannot be rightly understood, without our conceiving what that objection was. Matth. ix. 3, &c. John iii. Discourse with Nicodemus. Grot. Macknight. Rom. ix. 6, &c. Taylor. 1058. — 6. Difficulty in connexion sometimes arises from an abrupt transition from one subject to another, putting us in danger of confounding together, things that are really different. Abruptness in history — events different, even distant, often joined— owing to brevity and inartificial manner. Great abruptness in prophecy. Isa. vii. 13, 14, 15. "Behold! the virgin shall conceive and bear a son, and shall call his name lmmanuel j milk and ho- ney shall he eat, till he know to refuse the evil, and choose ♦he good."— Messiah ; addressed to the whole house of Da- l>d vid.— 402 CONNEXION OF PARTICULAR PARTS. vid, — v. 16. w But, before this child shall know to refuse the evil, and choose the good, the land that thou abhorrest shall be forsaken of both her kings" — of Shearjashub, Isaiah's son. addressed to Ahaz. Kennicott Sermon. 1059. — 7- Sometimes, it is difficult to perceive what purpose a sentence or member is intended to answer ; as, whether it be a point to be illustrated,' or a part of the illustration ; whether a principle argued from, an argument employed, or an inference deduced. John viii. 25. " What art thou ? and Jesus said unto them, T»jy «§^»)v ot* x«< XctXa iifitv. — 1. Some, answer to their ques- tion — " Even the same that I said unto you from the begin- ning," Eng.— Ti<;, " having the same conflict which ye saw in me"— commonly connected with vptv, v. 29. " unto you it is given to suffer for his sake" — irregular j enal. Bez. Grot. — better with jroPtmvsc-^s or ert «-»xsts, v. 27. "that ye standfast — having the same conflict." Knatchb. £ph. ii. r, &c. Locke. Knatchb. 1064. If one connexion seems to violate the syntax, and another to violate the sense, almost equally, the preference should be determined by the general manner of the writer, or of the Scripture. 1065. In other cases, the difficulty of determining with what a particular part should be connected, arises not from any thing in the grammatical construction, but regards, solely, the sense. 1066. An argument sometimes appears obscure or difficult, from its not being clear what is the precise point that it is intended to prove. 2 Pet. i. 16- — 19. " A more jure word of prophecy." — Some, for proving the truth of the gospel j surer than fables, v '6 y D d 2 not 404 CONNEXION OF PARTICULAR PARTS, not than the transfiguration, v. 17, 18. forced. Chandler. Others, for proving Christ's coming to judgment, v. 16. surer than the transfiguration, a directer proof. Sherlock on Proph. 1067. It is, sometimes, plain, that a particular pas- sage is an inference, when yet it is not clear what is the precise principle or position from which the infer- ence is drawn. Phil. iii. 15. " Let us, therefore, as many as be perfect, be thus minded," &c. — Some, with v. 13, 14. " forgetting things behind — I press"— do you the same. Zeger.— Some, with beginning of v. 13. "I count not myself to have appre- heuded." — Some, with v. 10. his desiring fellowship of Christ's sufferings, Knatchb. — Some, with v. 9. " not having my own righteousness, which is of the law, but that which is through faith of Christ" — Vat. aukward in the middle of his account of himself \ — rather, which gives the same sense with v. 3. '* we are the circumcision, which worship God in the spirit, and rejoice in Christ Jesus, and have no confidence in the flesh." Grot. 1068. Sometimes, there is a difficulty in perceiving how an inference follows from, and is supported by, the principle or position from which it is deduced. SECT. DIFFICULTIES IN TLAN AND DISTRIBUTION. 405 SECT. II. Difficulties in Plan and Distribution. 1069. There is often considerable difficulty in discovering the plan and distribution of a book of Scrip- ture. 1070. — 1. There is difficulty in distinguishing what are the different members into which a book ought natu- rally to be divided. 1071. The Jews have long been in use of distin- guishing the Old Testament into large divisions, or sections, one of which was read every Sabbath in the synagogues. The New Testament, also, was early di- vided into KstpaXaia, or chapters, probably with no other view than to facilitate references. 1072. The present division into chapters is different from these ; we are apt to suppose that it is made accord- ing to the sense ; but, this not being the case, it ob- structs our perceiving the real plan of a book. Gen. ii. I, 2, 3. improperly separated from ch. i, Vulg. joins Ps. ix. and x, and divides Ps. cxlvii. into two. Ps. xlii. and xliii. originally one. Structure. 7 MSS. Kennic. Remarks. Rom. v. i. from ch. iv. Rom. viii. 1. from ch. vii. Rom. P d 3 xv. 406 FLAN AND DISTRIBUTION. Rom. xv. I— 13. form ch. xiv. 1 Cor. iv. 21. from ch. v. J Cor. xi. r. from ch. x. 2 Cor. iv. 1 — 6. from ch. iii. 2 Cor. v. 1. from ch. iv. 2 Cor. vi. 1. rrom ch. v. 2 Cor. vii. 1. from :h. vi. Eph. v. j, 2.fromch.iv. Col. iii. i.fromci. ii. J 073. The proper division would be, into as many chapters as there are general heads in the plan ; and, to subdivide these into sections, according to the seve- ral branches or topics under each head. 1074. But, it would not be always easy to make such a division, because it is not easy to ascertain, in every case, where one branch of the division ends, and another begins. 1075. Many prophecies, pronounced at different times, and relating to different events, follow one an- other without any mark of distinction, and thus may be confounded. 1076. In the argumentative parts of Scripture, there is great difficulty in distinguishing and separating the several members of the plan, from the authors not writing in an artificial order, with studied transitions, but sliding insensibly from one part of the subject into another. 1077. The distribution can be discovered, only by repeated and careful attention to the whole book at once, that its general tenor and tendency may be per- ceived. 1078. When a book has one simple design, its na- tural FLAN AND DISTRIBUTION. 407 tural distribution is, into the several steps and argu- ment, by which that design is prosecuted. 1079. When a book aims at different designs, each design is a separate subject, and the division of it is into these several subjects proposed. 1080. In dividing a book, the joining together such members as are really distinct ; and, the separat- ing one member improperly into different branches, are two extremes which ought equally to be avoided. Rom. Introd. ch. i. I — 15. — Part 1. ch. i. 16. — ch. vi. That mankind can be justified only by faith, not by works. Part 2. ch. vi. vii. viii. Obligation to holiness in consequence of this justification. Part 3. ch. ix. x. xi. Vindicates the rejection of the Jews for their unbelief. Part. 4. ch. xii. 1. — xv. 13. Practical exhortations. Concl. ch. xv. 14. to the end. Vorst. Taylor. 1 Cor. Introd. ch. i. i—g. Part i. ch. i. 9. — to end of ch. vi. To draw them off from the false teacher or teachers, and reclaim them from the faults into which he had led them. , Part 2. ch. vii. to end of ch. xv. Answering questions that had been proposed, resolving doubts, correcting abuses, and confuting errors. Concl. ch. xvi. Vorst. Locke. 2 Cor. Vindication of himself from calumnies, with a digression ch. viii. ix. on almsgiving, occasioned by one of these. Members. The several calumnies from which he defends himself. Vorst. Locke. Gal. Introd. — Part r. The true doctrine of justification. D d 4 Part 408 PLAN AND DISTRIBUTION. Part 2. To check the divisions arising from their disputes on this subject. Conclusion. 10S1. 2. — There is difficulty in perceiving in what precise manner each member of the general plan is prosecuted. 1082. The sacred writers do not studiously, or artificially, distinguish the several topics which they employ under each member. 1083. Different prophecies are pursued and filled up in very different and dissimilar ways. 1084. In the argumentative parts of Scripture, ob- scurity and intricacy sometimes arise, from the authors not pursuing their arguments in the shortest and most direct wa*y ; but, with a view to the situation, preju- dices, and opinions of those to whom they write. 1085. Sometimes, they carry on, at once, two dif- ferent designs, in consistence with, or subordination to, one another, without attention to both which, the force and tendency of their expressions cannot be perceived. Gal. ch. i. and ii. to establish the authority of his apostleship —and to vindicate himself from the charge of sometimes preaching circumcision. 1086. Sometimes, they do not content themselves with what is absolutely necessary for their point, but take occasion to throw in, and interweave, instruc- tions SCOPE AND DESIGN. 409 tions of a general and important nature, which intro- duce some perplexity into their arguments. The whole nature of the gospel, and all God's dealings with mankind, in Romans. 1087. It is necessary to ascertain the several topics employed under each head, to distinguish them pro- perly from one another, and from every thing inci- dental and extraneous, and to view them simply in themselves. Rom. Part r. Arg. I. to the end of ch. iii. from the actual state of both Jews and Gentiles. — Arg. 2. from ch. iv. i. to ch. v. ii. from the manner of Abraham's justification.— Arg. 3. from ch. v. 12. to end of the ch. from the univer- sality of the effects of Adam's fall. SECT. III. Difficulties in Scope and Design. 1088. There are often difficulties in discovering the general scope and design of a book, many of which are analogous to those which regard the plan and distribution. 1089. Our not knowing the precise view, or all the views which the sacred historians had, occasions considerable difficulty in accounting for their selection of 410 SCOPE AND DESIGN. of materials, and their manner of pursuing their narrations. Act. John's gospel — whether a mere history — controversial, or a compound of both. 1090. The best way of finding out the scope and design of an argumentative book, is to read it all over at once, and several times. Locke. 1091. The difficulty of discovering their scope a- rises from their not being written in an artificial and methodical manner, and from our ignorance, in some in- stances, of the precise occasion of their writing. 1092. The design cannot be perceived, without some knowledge of the tendency of the several argu- ments ; and this tendency cannot be perceived, without some knowledge of the design ; hence, these two mu- tually throw difficulty upon each oth^r, and, whatever tends to clear up the one, proportionally gives light to the other. 1093. The ascertaining the true sense of the lead- ing expressions in a book, contributes much to the discovery of its general scope. Rom. ambiguity of the leading expressions, — depend on the view in which he considers Jews and Gentiles, whether in- dividually or nationally ; and this, on the occasion of the epistle. Rom. and Gal. different designs. Taylor. Mac- night. — but so similar, that they have been generally reckon- ed the same. SECT. THE OCCASION. 411 SECT. IV. Difficulties concerning the Occasion. 1094. All the books of Scripture are, in some sense, occasional ; and ignorance of the occasion of writing them, produces in all of them some obscuri- ties : but the Epistles are, in the strictest sense, and in the highest degree, occasional ; and, are rendered es- pecially obscure and difficult, by ignorance of the oc- casion, whenever this ignorance takes place. 1095. There is sometimes a difficulty in ascertain- ing who were the persons for whose use an epistle was immediately intended. General Epistles. Ephes. Mill. Prol. 71. &c. Kuster. Pref. Pierce. Benson. Lardner. Macknight. , Marsh's Michael. 1096. We have seldom explicit accounts of the oc- casion of a particular epistle ; it must be collected, from general accounts of the state of Christians, at the time of writing it, and from incidental hints in the book itself. 1097. When there is difficulty in ascertaining the special reasons for writing an epistle, it is still more material, and more obstructs our understanding it. SECT. 412 THE TIME. SECT. V. Difficulties concerning the Time. 1098. There is often considerable difficulty in fix- ing the time of writing a book of Scripture. It can only be collected, with different degrees of probabi- lity, from expresssions in the book itself, from hints in other places of scripture, and from a variety of other circumstances. Gal. A. 61. Theodoret. Athanas. synops. Oecumen. Light- foot.— A. 57. or 58. Capell. Wits. Wall. Pearson. Mill. Locke. A. 52. or 53. Barringt. misc. sac. Benson Hist. B. 3. c. 5. Lardn. supp. c. 12. § 3. Michael. L'enfant. Beausobre. A. 49. Marsh's Michael. Vol. 4. ch. 11. sect. 1. 1099. There is difficulty in arranging the Psalms in the order of time. 1100. Whenever prophecies are not delivered ac- cording to the order in which they were pronounced, it occasions considerable obscurity. SECT. THE AUTHORS. 413 SECT. VI. Difficulties concerning the Authors. 1101. There is sometimes difficulty in determining who was the author of a particular book of Scrip- ture. 1102. Ignorance of the author occasions obscurity in a book, chiefly, when it introduces uncertainty con- cerning the time and the scope of the book. Pentateuch. Epistle to the Hebrews. SECT. VII. Difficulties in different kinds of Composition. 1 103. As the Scripture contains different sorts of compositions, each sort has some difficulty peculiar to itself, and suitable to its general nature. 1104. There is, sometimes, difficulty in determin- ing how far the sacred historians intended to observe, or •1<14 KINDS OF COMPOSITION. or have observed the chronological order of events ; and yet, it is often of importance to determine it. 1105. In the book of Judges, the time of each Judge is not marked ; it is not specified, whether all the judges were successive, or whether some of them were not contemporary ; and the last six chap- ters contain events which happened soon after Moses' death, and much prior to those which are recorded in many preceding chapters, perhaps, in all, from chap, iii. 1. 1106. There is sometimes difficulty in determin- ing whether the Evangelists observed the order of time; if any of them did, which of them it is.; if they did not in all cases, what are the cases in which they deviated. 1107. All the doctrinal books of the New Testa- ment are Epistles ; and epistolary writing is, from Jits very nature, liable to many peculiar difficulties, ex- cept to the persons to whom a letter is directed, and who are acquainted with all the circumstances relating to it. 1108. There are many difficulties, with regard to the Hebrew poetry, considered in every point of view. Lowth. Herder. 1109. The prophecies have all the same kinds of difficulties with the other poetical books ; and, they have also many peculiar to themselves, on account of their being prophetical. 1110. KINDS OF COMPOSITION. 415 1110. There is difficulty in ascertaining and ex- plaining the several ways in which the prophetical in- spiration was communicated, as by dreams, visions, &c. 1111. In prophecy, the figures and images are more complex than in other poetry ; and, therefore, there is greater difficulty in analysing them. 1112. There is great difficulty in explaining, apply- ing, and vindicating the signs or emblematical actions, by which the prophets foretell future events. Ezekiel. Horsley's Hosea, , 1113. When future events are predicted in parabo- lical discourses, this generally occasions some degree of obscurity. Ezek. xvii. i. &c. xix. i. &c. 1114. There is, sometimes, difficulty in determin- ing whether a prediction has a single or a double meaning. 1115. When a prediction clearly refers only to one event, or, when there is no mark of its being in- tended to signify more, it ought to be explained only of that one ; and they err, who, in every prophecy of the Messiah, search for a reference also to some other event. Grot. Cler. 1116. In prophecies which have a double sense, it is sometimes difficult to perceive what parts of them relate 416 KINDS OF COMPOSITION. relate to each of the two events, what parts to both, and in what manner. Isa. vii. viii. ix. ch. x. xi. ch. xxxiv. xxxv. Lowth on Isa. viii. Isa. xl. Lowth. The book of Job is an instance of almost all the difficulties in this chapter. Some reckon it very ancient, in the time of Moses, or before it. Chappel. Michael. Schult. Lowth. Others, very modern, during or after the Kings. Heath. Warburt. Some, written by Job or Elihu, or some con- temporary. Dupin. Hist, of Can. B. i. c. 3. s. 10. Lowth prael. 32. Schult. praef. Lightfoot. Some, translated by Moses. Patrick, pref. Grey, pref. Some, written by Mo- ses. Huet, dem. evan. pr. 4. Lowth. Michael. — or, by Solomon, or some prophet about that time. Dup. ib. Span- heim, hist. Job. c. 16. Chapp. — or, by Isaiah, Codurc. — during the Babylonian captivity, Heath Essay. — by Efcra after the captivity, Warburt. B. 6. s. 2.— Whether a dra- matic poem or not ? Whether a real history, (Lowth. Schult. Chappel.) or an allegorical poem ? Michael. War- burt. Heath. Scope— an example of patience, Schult. Grey. — whether one so much afflicted could be really pi- ous, Lowth. — to shew God's supreme power over the whole creation, Chappel. — to oppose the Manichean doctrine, Sherlock. — or, the transmigration of souls. — to comfort the Israelites in Egypt, Michael. — or, to comfort them during the captivity, Heath.— on ceasing of an equal providence after the captivity. Warburt. CHAP. OF RECONCILING SCRIPTURE TO ITSELF. 417 CHAP. V. Of Reconciling Scripture to Itself. 1117. When Scripture is compared with itself, one passage has, sometimes, the appearance of contradict- ing another. 1118. There are seeming contradictions, in quota- tions, — in historical passages, — between predictions and their accomplishment, and in points of doctrine. E c SECT 41 S SEEMING CONTRADICTIONS SECT. I. Seeming Contradictions in Quotations. 1119. Some passages of Scripture are quoted in other passages ; particularly, passages of the Old Tes- tament are quoted in the New : and, in these, there is often an appearance of difference, or inconsistence, be- tween the original and the quotation. 1120. The appearance of inconsistence regards, ei- ther the words in which the quotation is made, — or, the purpose to which it is applied. 1121.-— -l. The former occurs, when the words in which the quotation is made, differ from those of the original, that is, the Hebrew text. 1122. Several quotations of the Old Testament, by the writers of the New, are made according to the 70 version, and that, when it seems to differ from the sense of the Hebrew. 1123. To vindicate such quotations, it must be shown, either that the 70 version does really express the IN QUOTATIONS. 419 the true sense of the Hebrew, as it now stands, — or, that there is a corruption in the one or the other. 1124. The 70 version, copied in the quotations of the New Testament, often expresses the true sense of the present Hebrew, deducible from the kindred lan- guages, or, even from the style of Scripture, or the connexion of the passage ; though not the sense put upon it by modern translators and commentators : and, the appearance of contradiction is removed by a just interpretation of the Hebrew. Ps. civ. 4. " Who maketh the winds his messengers, and the flaming fire his ministers." — but, Heb. i. 7. from 70. " his angels spirits — ministers a flame of fire." equally agreeable to the words, and more to the connexion. Isa. xxviii. 16. " He that believeth shall not make haste" Vulg. Eng. modern versions. But Rom. ix. 33. x. ir, and 1 Pet. ii. 6. " be ashamed." — no corruption in the He- brew, Capel. Grot. — a real sense of WY\ in Arab. 70. Arab. Chald. Syr. Jer. xxxi. 31, 32, 33, 34. with Heb. viii. 8 — 12. " Which my covenant they brake, although I was an husband unto them," Eng. — SEEMING CONTRADICTIONS 1187- The pretended contrariety between the Old Testament, and the New, 1188. The contrariety, pretended by Morgan and Bolingbroke, between the gospel of Christ, and that of Paul CHAP. VI. Seeming Contradictions to Reason and Morality. 1189. There are, in Scripture, some passages which have the appearance of contradicting the princi- ples of reason and morality, and which must be explain- ed so as to be reconciled to these principles. 1190. They are, either — seeming contradictions to truth — or, seemingly contradictory to good morals — or, in appearance unreasonably severe, or impractU cable. SECT. TO TRUTH. 435 SECT. r. Seeming Contradictions to Truth, 1191. There are, in Scripture, passages which seem to be contradictory to truth, to imply some absur- dity, or, at least, to be inconsistent with true opi- nions. 1192. Some seeming absurdities, or contradictions to truth, arise only from false readings, and are remo- ved by restoring the true reading. 1193. Some seeming contradictions to truth arise only from the use of figurative expressions, accommo- dated to the weakness of human conceptions, or, to the ordinary way of thinking of mankind. Bodily parts and passions ascribed to God. Representations not according to the true system of nature. 1194. The account of the creation, as implying that light was made on the first day, and the sun, moon, and stars, only on the fourth day, and that there are waters above and below, divided by a solid partition, cannot be pronounced absurd or impossible, though it may be difficult, from the nature and singularity of the subject, f f 4 to 440 SEEMING CONTRADICTIONS to give an explication of these, and other particulars, that shall be, in all respects, satisfactory. Bui net Archoeol. 1. 2. c. 8, 9. Jennings' Astron. Append. Winston's Theory, Pref. Edwards' r.xercitations, No. l, Patrick on Gen. i. 3 — 15. Nichols' Confer, vol. 1. p. 90, &.c. Univ. Hist. vol. I. 1 1 95. The appearances of absurdity in the account of the fall, of supposing a brute serpent to speak, Eve not to.be alarmed at it, and the serpent to be sentenced to what he always did, and could not but do, to go upon his belly, arise, according to some, only from ta- king, in" a literal sense, figurative expressions used con- cerning the devil. Chandler's Serm. Gerard's Serm. vol. 1. Serm. 4. 1 1 96. There is no absurdity in supposing the de* luge universal, on account of the vast quantity of water necessary for overflowing the earth to such a depth as Moses asserts ; for, that quantity might, possibly, be naturally brought upon it, and certainly could, by a miracle. Burnet. Whitston. Keil, Saurin. Nichols. Edwards. Ray. Univ. Hist. 1197. We are too much ignorant of the real di- mensions of Noah's ark, and, likewise, of the number of the originally distinct kinds of animals, to be able to determine that it was impossible for it to contain the numbers said by Moses to have been received into it. Wells' Geog. of O. T. v. 1. Saurin Diss. v. 1. Univ. Hist. v. 1. Calmet's Diet. Wilkins' Real Char. p. 2. c - 5- §6, 7. Stillingf. Orig. Sacr. 1. 3. c. 4. § 7. 1198. TO TRUTH. 441 1198. It is said to be absurd to represent the rain- bow as created after the deluge, and made the sign of a covenant then entered into, when it necessarily results from the nature of light and of rain ; but, either the constitution of the antediluvian world may have been such as to prevent its appearanee, or, it might have been, after the flood, only appropriated to a new pur- pose, though it had always appeared. Burnett. Whist. Nichols. Saurin. 1199. Objections raised against incidents related in Scripture, as, Balaam's ass speaking, some of Samp- son's exploits, &c. are not sufficient to render them in- credible ; such facts being professedly related as mira- culous, and some of them, too, being capable of inter- pretations, which render them less marvellous than they are generally thought to be. Stackhouse. 1 200. The Scripture seems to suppose the reality of magical operations, and witchcraft ; but, they cannot be, on that account, proved absurd ; for, though the greatest part of what has passed as such, has doubtless been the effect of a disordered imagination, or artificial contrivance, or mere fiction and imposition j yet, we cannot be certain that evil spirits have never been per- mitted such communication with mankind. 1201. There is no absurdity in the accounts so fre- quent in the New Testament, of demoniacs, or persons possessed by evil spirits, andjtormented with diseases by 44-2 SEEMING CONTRADICTIONS by their influence ; whether, with some, we explain these passages as speaking only of certain natural disea- ses, in language accommodated to the notions then commonly entertained of them j or whether, as is the general opinion, we consider them as real possessions. 1202. The healing virtue of the pool at Bethesda, after its being moved by the angel, is miraculous, but, not absurd or incredible. John v. 4. Macknight. Griesb. 1 203. When some of the doctrines of revelation are represented as contrary to reason, the contrariety ai- ledged generally affects, not the expressions of any text of Scripture concerning them, but, some of the expli- cations which men have given of these doctrines ; and;, therefore, belongs more properly to the system, than to Scripture criticism. SECT. II. Seeming Contradictions to Morality. 1204. Though it must be acknowledged by every person of common candour, that the Scripture contains, in general, the purest morality, yet, there are some particular passages, which have been represented as giving TO MORALITY. 443 giving countenance to immorality. There are instances of this in historical relations — in occasional com- mands— in standing precepts — in doctrines — and in prophecies. 1205. — 1. The characters of some of the saints mentioned in Scripture, are, in some respects, faulty ; but, as their faults are, sometimes, expressly con- demned — sometimes, merely related as facts ; as their characters are often, notwithstanding these faults, excel- lent upon the whole ; as the not concealing them shews the integrity of the writers, and tends to answer many good purposes, they give no countenance to im- morality. Noah's drunkenness. Jacob's deceiving Isaac. Jephtha and Sampson bad characters, yet commended for faith, Heb- xi. 39. David. Chandler's Life of David, and Answer to history of the man after God's own heart. Solomon. Jere- miah's complaint, ch. xx. 7. seems impious and undutiful ; but, this inconsistent with v. 11, 13. nns signifies, not deceive, but allure, alluding to ch. i. 5, 10. xv. 16. not deceived, for warned, ch. i. 17 — 19. The word so used Gen. ix. 29. on our margin, Prov. xxv. 15. Hos. ii. 14.— stronger, prevail, not forced. p|ii fortify, or encourage. Deut. i. 38. iii. 28. Isa. xii. 7, &c. Blayn. — Peter and Paul's contest. Dissention between Paul and Barnabas. Paul's excuse, Acts xxiii. 5. 1206. None of the actions recorded of Jesus Christ are, in the smallest degree, immoral, or inconsistent with sinless perfection. His severe rebukes of the Tews, of Peter. His hurtful mira- cles. John ii, 4, io, seeming disrespect to his mother-— as- sertion 444 SEEMING CONTRADICTIONS sertion that his hour was not come— encouraging intem- perance. Chandler, Ans. to Woolston. John vii. 8. not going up to the feast. John viii. 3, &c. the woman caught in adultery. The passage, however, is doubtful. Michael. Marsh's Transl. Griesb. 1207. — 2. God's command to Abraham to sacrifice Isaac, has been represented as a command to commit murder in its most horrid form, and, consequently, as inconsistent with the holiness of God to give : but, it may be vindicated, whether we consider it as only a symbolical action, or whether, without this, we resolve it into God's sovereignty over the lives of his crea- tures. Warb. Dlv. Leg. Tillots. vol. 2. Serm. 2. Answerers to Morgan. 1208. The Israelites borrowing from the Egyptians valuable things, which they never intended to restore, is represented as an act of injustice, and the divine di- rection, by which they did it, as authorising theft : but, God has the property of all things, and may trans- fer it from one to another in what way he pleases ; if they had intended to restore them, Pharaoh's sudden order to them to leave Egypt, might have put it out of their power ; but, in fact, the words signify, not that they borrowed, but that they asked or demanded therm, and that they were given them voluntarily. Tillots. V. 2. Burnett's B. L. Kennic. Remarks. 1209. The extirpation of the Canaanites, which the Jews executed by divine command, is represented as a shocking TO MORALITY. 445 shocking instance of cruelty ; but, their wickedness was so great, as to deserve such exemplary punishment from God, as might prove a warning to other nations ; he might as justly destroy them by the sword of the Israelites, as by famine, pestilence, or any other judg- ment ; he gave full proof, by miracles, that he had commissioned the Israelites for this very purpose ; and, their being thus commissioned, had the strongest ten- dency to impress them with an abhorrence of idolatry.' Shuckford's Connex. Findlay, Part. 2. p. 125. Leland against Morgan. Lowman, Heb. Gov. p. 220, &c. 1210. — 3. The Mosaic law punishing idolatry with death, has been represented as unjust, and giving countenance to persecution for religious opinions : but, the Israelites were commanded to put to death only such Israelites as apostatized to idolatry, and still re- mained members of their own community; and their go- vernment being a Theocracy, idolatry was in it, strictly, the political crime of high treason, which, in every state, is justly punishable with death. Locke on Toleration. Warb. Div. Leg. 1211. It has been asserted by some, that the law of Moses, Lev. xxvii. 28, 29. concerning devoted things to be put to death, authorized human sacrifices ; and, Jephtha's sacrificing his daughter, Judg. xi. 34, &c. Samuel's hewing Agag in pieces before the Lord, 1 Sam. xv. 33. and David's delivering seven of Saul's posterity to the Gibeonites, to be put to death by them, 2 Sam. xxi. 2, &c. have been represented as instances of 440 SEEMING CONTRADICTIONS of human sacrifices, conformably to that law ; but, as there are express prohibitions of sacrificing their chil- dren, Deut. xii. 30, 31. Ps. cvi. 37, 38. Jer. vii. 31. Ezek. xvi. 20, 21. So, there not only is no direction to sacrifice any other human creature, nor any rites ap- pointed for such sacrifice, but also, it would have ren- dered the priest unclean, by touching a dead body, and the sacrifice of a man is expressly declared abominable, Isa. lxvi. 3. As no devoted thing could be sacrificed at all, the law in question cannot possibly relate to sacri- fice, and it is capable of a very different meaning ; it is most probable, that Jephtha did not sacrifice his daugh- ter, but devoted her to perpetual virginity ; and the other two instances alledged have no relation to sacri- fice. Sykes' Connex. c. 13. Chandler's Answ. to Hist, of the Man after God's own heart. Lowth on Isa. xlii. 16. 1212. — 4. The Scripture seems, in some places, to ascribe to God such human passions, and such ac- tions, as are vicious ; but, it is only by figurative ex- pressions, which, when properly explained, imply nothing immoral. Jealousy — fury— swearing in wrath — repenting — deceiving men — hardening Pharaoh's heart — putting a lying spirit into prophets — punishing children for the sins of their parents. Isa. xl. 2. Lowth. 1213. There is no part of the doctrine of the New Testament that gives encouragement to any species of immorality ; the appearance of it has arisen only from misinterpreting TO MORALITY. 447 misinterpreting particular texts, or misexplaining gene- ral doctrines. Matth. x. 34, Sec. " Send a sword" — only foretells persecu- tion by enemies. Luke xvi. I — 12. Parable of unjust steward gives no encou- ragement to dishonesty. Death of Christ. Justification by faith. Divine assistances. 1214. — 5. It is objected to the prophets, that they foretell things which did not come to pass ; but without reason ; for the examples produced are either misun- derstood, or, they are conditional promises and threa- tenings, not absolute predictions. Tindal, c. 13. 2 Kings viii. ic. Elisha's answer to Hazael. "h for ah. 2 Chron. xxxiv. 28. xxxv. 23. Jonah. Seeming assertions that the last day was near, 1 Cor. x. n. Rom. xiii. 11, 12. Heb. ix. 26. Jam. v. 7, 8. 1 John ii. 18. 2 Pet. iii. 12, 13, Phil. iv. 5. 1 Thess. iv. 15, Sec. 1215. It is asserted, that the imprecations pronoun- ced by the prophets, particularly in many passages of the Psalms, show a spirit of malice inconsistent with hu- manity, and highly vicious : it is an improper vindica- tion of these, either to allow that malice was consistent with the spirit of the Old Testament, though not of the New, or, to say that the prophets pronounced them against men, not as their own enemies, but as the ene- mies of God : but, some of them appear harsh only by the strong figurative style in which they are expressed, and, when taken out of this, appear very allowable wishes * ; 448 SEEMING CONTRADICTIONS wishes ' ; all of them may be considered, not as prayers, but simple predictions, the imperative being put for the future, (which is a common Hebrew idiom) and shewn to be so put, by the future being used in other parts of the prediction * ; and this idiom is more natural in pre- diction, than in other kinds of composition, because it is the immediate result of combining idioms common in the prophetical style ; for, as the prophets are often commanded to do a thing, when it is only meant that they should foretell it 3 , so, they often do foretell a thing, by commanding it to be done 4 , and they often express their predictions in an address to God 5 ; the union of which two idioms gives them the appearance of imprecations. 1 Ps. x. 5. — 2 Ps. xxviil. 4, 5. — 3 Jer. i. 10. Isa. vi. 10. Ezek. xliii. 3. — 4 Isa. xlvii. I. — 5 Isa. ix. 3. 1216. It is said, that some of the actions which the prophets did by the direction of God, are indecent or immoral ; but, some of them are by no means so when rightly conceived, and others were either merely sym- bolical, or only represented in vision, or even merely related by the prophet. Tindal, ib. / Isa. xx. 3. Going naked. Jer. xiii. 4, 6. xxvii. 2, 3. Ezek. iv. passim. Hos. i. 2, &c. Horsley's Hosea, Pref. 1217. It is said, that there are, in some places of Seripture, expressions and figures which are indecent, or nearly obscene ; but, the simplicity of manners which PASSAGES UNREASONABLY SEVERE. 449 which then prevailed, made such expressions much less offensive than they appear to us. Song of Solomon. Ezek. xvi. xxiii. SECT. III. Passages unreasonably Severe. 1218. There are passages in Scripture, which seem unreasonably severe, or to enjoin what is impracticable. 1219. There are instances of punishments inflicted, which seem too severe for the crimes committed ; but, they only seem such, when all the circumstances of the crimes, and the exigencies which required the punish- ments, are not duly considered. 1220. There are doctrines and assertions which ap- pear hard, inconsitsten with the goodness of God, or unsuitable to the weakness of man ; but, the appearance vanishes, when the passages which contain them are properly explained. Matth. xix. 23, &c. " A rich man, enter into the kingdom of God" — who " trusts in riches," Mark x. 24. John vi. 51 — 58. Eating Christ's flesh. Matth. xii. 31. Mark iii. 2S. Luke xii. jo. Blasphemy against the Holy Ghost, v. 36. Idle words. Heb. vi. 4 — 6. Impossible to renew to repentance. John v. 16. The sin unto death. o sr 2221. 4-50 PASSAGES UNREASONABLY SEVERE. 1221. Of the precepts of Scripture objected to as unreasonably severe, or impracticable, some appear such, only by their being expressed in figurative and metaphorical terms, the meaning of which, and not the sound, ought to be attended to. Matth. v. 30. " Cut off a right hand, pluck, out a right eye." Matth. xix. 12. Eunuchs for the kingdom of heaven. 1222. Others appear hard, only on account of some idiom in which they are expressed, but which has an established meaning, according to which they are just and reasonable precepts. Expressed absolutely, when only comparison meant. Matth. vi. 19. " Lay not up treasures on earth." John vi. 27. " Labour not for the meat which perisheth." Col. iii. 2. " Set not your affections on things on earth." 1223. Others derive their seeming severity, only from the ambiguity of some of the expressions used in them. Matth. v. 28. " Look on a woman te lust after her — adultery" — married woman — desire to have carnal intercourse with her. 1224. Others appear hard, only by their being ex- pressed in general terms, which the nature of the thing, and often the context, shews, require some restrictions and limitations. Matth. v. 39, 40. " Resist not evil." Luke vi. 30. Jam.ii. 10. Seeker, vol. 7. Serm. 3. Sherlock, vol. 1. Disc. 18. p. 347. Porteus Serm. 15, 16. 1225. Others are only hard to corrupt appetites and passions, SEEMING CONTRADICTIONS. 4A1 passions, but really enjoin no more than good morals absolutely require, in the circumstances to which the precepts refer. Denying oneself. Taking up the cross. Enduring persecu- tion. CHAP. VII. Seeming Contradictions to History, and Matters of Fact. 1226. There are, in Scripture, some appearances of contradiction to matters of fact belonging to history,, geography, and the like. Such appearances are found, either in the professed narrations of the sacred writers, —or, in their occasional allusions and references — or, in the prophecies. G sz SECT. 452 SEEMING CONTRADICTIONS SECT. 1. Seeming Contradictions to Matters of Fact, in the Narrations of the Sacred Writers. 1227. The silence of profane histories concerning facts related in the sacred, cannot be considered as contradicting them, because many of these facts are "too ancient to come within the verge of profane histo- ries, or, of such a kind, that they could not naturally take notice of them. The silence, or omission, even of many historians, ought not to overturn the testimony of any one author who positively relates a matter of fact. Beausobre, p. 154. 1228. Contradictions of facts related in Scripture, by historians who lived long after the date of them, ought to have no weight. Justin's account of the Israelites being driven out of Egypt. 1229. The Scripture account of the peopling of the earth, first, by one pair, Adam and Eve, and af- terwards, by the one family of Noah, has been repre- sented as inconsistent with facts, which indicate diffe- rent races of men, and with the disjoined situation of America from all the old world : but, no certain proof of the inconsistence has ever been produced ; on the contrary, many known facts render it perfectly credible. 1230. TO MATTERS OF FACT. 453 1230. The Egyptian and Chinese catalogues of kings and heroes, carried back farther than the be- ginning of the world according to Moses, are to be re- garded as altogether fabulous. 1231. Moses' account of the rise of the Assyrian Empire so early after the flood, in the time of Nim- rod, is thought inconsistent with the greatness ascrib- ed to it by Herodotus and Ctesias : but, their accounts may be exaggerated ; and, by the chronology of the Samaritan and 70, its distance from the flood is much encreased. Newton's Chron. c. 3. Whiston's Rem. on Newt. Shuck- ford's Connex. v. 2. Pref. StilHngfleet, Orig. Sac. 1. 3. c. 4. § 9. Cumberland, Orig. Gent. Winder's Hist, of Knowledge, v. 2. Whiston's Theory, p. 137, &c. Jack- son's Chronol. 1232. Moses' account of the division of the land of Egypt has been represented as contradictory to Di- odorus Siculus, but, is really consistent with his ac- count. Warburt. Div. Leg. Vol. 3. p. 63. 1233. Several circumstances relating to the consti- tution, the customs, and the state of Egypt mention- ed by Moses, seem to contradict the accounts given in other histories ; but, are really consistent with them, so far as these histories are authentic. 1234. It is said, that the land of Canaan could not have nourished so many inhabitants as to supply the f f 3 number 454 SEEMING CONTRADICTIONS number of frghtfng ft n, a fnillfdn and a half, mention- ed 2 Sam. xxiv. 9. 1 Chron. xxi. 5. nor to have sup- ported so many catf;, as are said to have been sacri- ficed, particularly 1 20,000 sheep, and 22,000 oxen, at Solomon's dedication of the temple, 1 Kings viii. 63. but, if there has no mistake crept into the numbers, it must be ascribed to the surprising fertility of the country. 1235. It is said, that the treasure mentioned as amassed by David, for the purpose of building a tem- ple, 1 Chron. xxix. 4. 7. is incredible, being more than all the gold of all the princes now upon earth, put to- gether : but, there may be a corruption in the num- bers , and, besides, we are not so well acquainted with the weights mentioned, as to be sure what was the real quantity ; nor do we know certainly, what was then the comparative value of the precious metals, nor what resources for obtaining them, now lost, there were at that time. 1236. Several seeming contradictions, of the sacred to profane historians, arise only from their calling the same persons, or places, by different names. Prid. Connex. B. i. Tiglath Pileser is said, i Chron. v. 26. to have carried the ten tribes, and multitudes, from Damascus, into Media ; and it is pretended, that he was Ninus junior ; and, th^t not he, but Arbaces, had Media (Usher. Annal. a. 3257.) : but, it nppears from Diodorus Siculus (lib. 2.) that Arbaces had both these countries 3 and, consequently, he is the same tvith Tiglath Pileser. Herod. TO MATTERS OF FACT. 455 Herod. 1. 2. gives an account of Necho's taking the city of Cadytes, after his victory at Magdolum. From 2 Chron. xxxvi. 3. it appears that he had taken Jerusalem, after his victory at Megiddo. — this the same ; Jerusalem called Al- kuds, i. e. the holy city, by the neighbouring nations, and so called by them to this day. 1237. Some seeming contradictions, between the sa- cred and profane historians, arise from the latter trans- ferring to others what belonged to the Israelites, and disguising the real facts with false circumstances. Isa. xxxxii. 1 Kings xix. 2 Chron. xxxii. The destruction of Sennacherib's army before Jerusalem — probably by the Siroc wind. — but, Herod. 1. 2. destruction of the, same army before Pelusium, In the time of Sethon, by rats making their arms useless ; — from Egyptian priests, who hated the Jews, in honour of their own nation. Prid. Con. B. r. 123S. Some seeming contradictions of the sacred history to profane arise from the latter being confused and inaccurate in points of chronology. 1239. Some seeming contradictions between sacred and profane historians are reconciled by the more ac- curate narrations of other profane historians. Daniel mentions four kings of Babylon and Persia, — Nebuch- adnezzar, — Belshazzar, — Darius, the Mede, — and Cyrus. The first is acknowledged ; the second is mentioned, though by other names, — Labynetus, by Herod. — Nabonnedochu.% by Megisth. — Nabonedus, by Beros. — the third is not men- tioned at all, nor room left for him in Beros. and Canon of Ptolomy, but he is the Cyaxares of Xenophon ; (Halifax, Serm. 2. Prid, Con. B. 2.) omitted by the others, because G g 4 he 456 SEEMING CONTRADICTIONS he was only the nominal king, Cyrus having the real power. 1240. Most of the seeming contradictions between the sacred historians and Josephus arise from his hav- ing disguised, and departed from the truth, in order to accommodate his work to the taste, or to avoid the censure of the Greeks and Romans, to whom he was desirous of recommending it. 1241. Some seeming contradictions between sacred and profane history, are owing only to their reckoning their time from different aeras. Cyrus' reign 30 years, viz. from his coming to assist Cyaxares. Cic. de Div. 1. i. — 9 years, viz. from his taking Babylon. Ptolem. can. — 7 years, from his becoming sole monarch. Xenoph. Cyropaed. This last is followed by Ezra i. 1. " the first year of Cyrus." Shuckford's Conn. Prid. Con. Stackhouse, Hist, of the Bible. Warb. Div. Leg. SECT. TO MATTERS OF FACT. 457 SECT, II. Seeming Contradictions to Matters of Fact, in occa- sional References. 1242. The Scripture often occasionally refers, or incidentally alludes, to matters of fact, in a way that seems contradictory to the accounts of these matters of fact given by profane historians. 1243. These appearances of contradiction are of the same kinds, arise from the same causes, and are re- moved by the same means, with the appearances of contradiction in professed narrations. Jer. li. 25. Babylon is addressed, ** O destroying mountain." —but, lay in a plain. — reconciled from Berosus. Newton on Prophecy, v. I. p. 279. Isa. iii. 16. to the end. Lowth. Ch. xlix. 16, 23. 1. 1, 6. li. 23. Hi. 2. Hii. 8. lvii. 6 — 9. lxv. 3, 4. Matth. xxi. 12. See Lowth on Isa. lxii. 6. 1244. There are, in the New Testament, several re- ferences and allusions to facts, customs, and manners, which seem, at first sight, contrary, to the accounts of these in profane histories ; but, are so far from being really inconsistent with them, that, for the most part, they shew very great exactness. Lardner's Credib. P. 1. V. 2. SECT. 458 SEEMING CONTRADICTIONS SECT. III. Seeming Contradictions to Matters of Fact, in Prophecies. 1245. The events foretold in the prophecies of Scrip- ture, are often such as fall within the province of pro- fane history ; and, the relations of them given in it, are sometimes such, as seem not to verify the predic- tions. 1246. When the histories of any period, to which a prediction relates, are lost or imperfect, this renders it impossible for us to perceive clearly and fully the complexion of the prediction. Want of regular histories of the Eastern nations. Isa.xliii. 3. Lowth. " I gave Egypt for thy ransom, Ethio- pia (or Cush,) and Seba for thee." Commonly applied to Senacherib's invasion, who, when he was just .ready to fall upon Jerusalem, was providentially diverted from that de- sign, and led to turn his arms agains the Egyptians, and their allies, the Cushian Arabians, who were perhaps joined by their neighbours the Sabians. Some objections, See ch, xx. xxxvii. 9. Vitringa explains it of Shalmanezer's being di- verted from his designs against the kingdom of Judah, after he had destroyed that of Samaria, by turning the war against the Egyptians, Cushians, and Sabians. But, no clear proof of TO MATTERS OF FACT. 445 of this from history, which, however, is very deficient. Others refer it to no particular events, but think, it means, in general, that God often saved his people at the expence of other nations, whom he gave up to destruction, as it were, in their stead. 1247. Sometimes, there is an appearance of incon- sistence, between some parts of a prediction, and some particulars of the event, as related by profane histori- ans ; but, it proceeds from some confusion, or mistake, in the relations of these historians. CHAP. 460 COMPLICATED DIFFICULTIES, CHAP. VIII, Complicated Difficulties, 1243. Besides the several simple kinds of difficul- ties which have been already considered, there are, in Scripture, complicated difficulties ; that is, passages in which several of these simple kinds occur together. 1249. There are passages, in which there are diffe- rent difficulties, in the reading, — or, in the sense, — or in both, and which must be removed on different principles, — and difficulties admitting different pro- bable solutions, but none of which can be adopted with perfect certainty. SECT. Difficulties in reading and sense. 461 SECT. I. Difficulties arising from different various Readings. 1250. There are texts in which there are different various readings, which arise from different causes, and must be determined on different principles. Gen. xlix. 6. ( ' In their self-will they digged down a wall." — 11W, " a wall," — no such circumstance in the history, ch. xxxiv. 25, &c. — would have been the least part of their crime. Some read "Tilir " an ox" — " houghed the oxen," marg. but this not true, ch. xxxiv. 28, 29. they carried them away. — probably TU> " prince,"— this said ch. xxxiv. 26. " Hamor also, and Sichem (the prince and his son) they slew." pm, " self-will" — but, every where signifies *' be- nevolence, favour." — probably should be niiy, " wrath," as in the next verse, structure. " In their 3nger they slew a man, and in their wrath they slew a prince. Cursed be their anger, for it was fierce j and their wrath, for it was cruel." Syr. Ken. Diss. 1. p. 56, &c. I Chron. xi. 8. lb. p. 48. &c. Acts xiii. 23. Mill. " Of this man's seed, hath God, accord- ing to his promise (V/«£s) raised unto Israel, a Saviour, Jesus." Instead of jjy«gs, is found «y«yt in 14 MSS. some of them of great authority. Arab. Ethiop. Vulg. Chrysost. Athanas. Theophyl. 2 editions, the best supported read- 462 DIFFICULTIES IN READING AND SJENSI. ing j the other, taken by mistake from v. 22. Instead of raiT^a Ijjj-sv, is cra>T»£ixv in 1 5 MSS. Arab. Ethiop. Chry- sost. — this, though so well supported, disturbs the sense, and construes not with what follows. Jer. xlvi. 15. Ken. Diss. Gen. Isa. v. 18, Lowth. Isa. vii. 18, rp, 20, &c. Jid. Isa. xvi. 8, 9. Jid. Isa. xxxii. 13; Jid. Isa. xlii. 16. Jid; SECT. II. Complicated Difficulties in the Sense* 1251. In some passages, there are difficulties in the sense, of different kinds, and which must be removed by different means. I Cor. xi. 3 — 15. " Man praying or prophesying with his head covered, dishonoureth his head," allusion to the customs and sentiments of the Greeks, to whom he wrote, for the Jewish custom contrary. '' His head," i. e. himseJf, does what must appear indecent to his hearers. But, " every woman — with her head uncovered, dishonoureth her head." Here, various difficulties. 1. He supposes women to speak in public, yet forbids this, ch. xiv. 34, 35. Some under- stand this prohibition with the exception of a special commis- sion, by having the gift of prophecy ; but it is absolute, and given in relation to this very case of the gift of prophecy. — Others, DIFFICULTIES IN READING AND SENSE. 463 Others, that by praying or prophecying here, he means, being, present at them ; this a sense without authority. Others, that the prohibition respects the church where men and wo- men meet together j the supposition, separate assemblies of women only j the church not mentioned in this paragraph. This agreeable to the Greek manners j this the most proba- ble sense.— 2. How is the man the glory of God, and the woman the glory of the man ? v. 7. Some, " glories in j" others, " is an effulgence from j" this, one signification of 1123 which the 70 render &>|at. Others, " glorifies," was made to glorify. Others, " is the likeness or similitude j" this the sense of rrilttn which is twice rendered 2«|<» by the 70. 3. What is meant by the woman having i'^mrtav power on her head } v. 10. Some, figuratively for a veil j but no evidence for this sense of the word — connects not with the principle v. 9. from which it is an inference. Others, lite- rally ; and, (i her head," figuratively, for the man — " to hold or acknowledge power in the man," viz. in her gene- ral behaviour. This equivalent to 1 Tim. ii. 11, 12, 13.— 4. Ai» rag ctyyiXxs, "because of the angels." (1) Some, evil angels, who would be gratified by their indecency , but this not probable. (2) Others, good angels, " after the example of the angels," Isa. vi. 2. ; but this not the mean- ing of t)tct. Others, "because they observe your conduct." Others, " to shew subjection to the angels." Others, " out of reverence to angels," as fellow-worshippers, according to an opinion of the Jews. (3) Others, " the teachers of the church." Others, " messengers, sent by the men into the separate assemblies of the women" — or, " spies sent by the Pagans j" hard to fix on one meaning. — 5. " Nature," v. 14. general and extensive custom. 1 Cor. iii. 13— iv. 6. An allegorical discourse, for which the apostle takes occasion, from the preceding mention of Moses throwing a veil over his face, when it shone — v. 13. " that the children of Israel could not look," &c. referring it to Moses : 464 DIFFICULTIES IN READING AND SENSE. Moses ; — this suits not the apostle's design, to vindicate his plainness of speech, nor almost makes sense j — refers to the ministers of the gospel, " not any veil of ours that prevents them from perceiving the design of the law, but (v. 14) the blindness of their own minds, as if they were veiled when they read the Old Testament, though Christ answers its description so exactly, as might convince them j but (v. 16) when they lay aside prejudice, they will see it clearly." v. 17. " The Lord is that Spirit," alluding to v. 6. " ami- nister, not of the letter, but of the spirit," the spirit and in- tention of the Old Testament, v. 18. connected with the beginning of v. 13. " Moses put a veil — but we all with open face," &c. ; c< we," the ministers of the New Testament, li with open face," not veiled, xaT07rri£opMt " reflecting as mirrors the glory of the Lord," the shining light of the gos- pel, " are changed into the same image, from glory to glo- ry," with a continued and increasing brightness, not like the transient lustre of Moses' face, v. 7. " as from the Lord, the Spirit," xaS-x7ri£ euro xv(>iv, TrvivfAxros, illumina- ted with brighter rays of light than Moses, and, therefore, might speak with greater freedom, as he infers, ch. iv. 1. '* Therefore — we faint not," v* txxuxupiv, restrain not speech ; " but v. 2. having renounced," &c. preach can- didly. He goes on, v. 3. alluding to veil and open face. SECT. t)LFFICULTl£S IN READING AND SENSE. 465 SECT. III. Difficulties both in Reading and in Sense. 1 252. In some passages, there are difficulties both concerning the true reading, and the sense. • Isa. liii. David's lamentation. Ken, Diss. r. p. u8. Mic. v. 1—5. A remarkable prediction, quoted by the college of priests, Matth. ii. 6. both the beginning and end of it wrong marked in the Hebrew, v. 1. belongs to the prece- ding prediction ; this begins only v. 2. The end of it is cut off*, and joined with v. 5. very improperly, " this man shall be our peace in our war with the Assyrians."— v. 2. literal- ly, " And thou, Bethlehem Ephratah, art little to be among the thousands of Judah j" but in Matth. " art not the least." This affects not the accomplishment of the prophecy — no in- consistency ; though little, not the least. Some suppose the negative omitted in Micah, but without evidence. Others, that *)^¥ signifies great as well as Iiule y and means so in Mi- cah. Others read the text in Micah interrogatively, " Art thou little ? No." This simplest. Arab. Pers. — ^sbx " thousands," put for «5lbx " princes." " Whose goings forth have been from of old, from the days of the age." V. 3. " Therefore," &.c. expresses not the sense of the Hebrew. " Truly he will continue to give them, until the time that she who is a-bearing hath born j" allusion to Isa. vii. 14. " Then, his excellent brethren, his chosen compa- nions, shall dwell with the children of Israel.'V V. 4. " And he shall stand and feed in the strength of the Lord, in the majesty of the name of Jehovah his God j and they (his bre- Hh threu) 466 DIFFICULTIES IN READING AND SENSE. thrcn) shall abide," be established j " for now shall he be great unto the ends of the earth. And (v. 5) " this man shall be the peace," reconcile us to God. Isa. iii. 6, 7. Lowth in 1. vi. 10. Jd. viii. 12 — 18. Jd. xvi. 1. Jd. xvi. 7. Jd. xlviii. iC. Jd. Jer. xvi. 7. Ken. Diss. Gen. § 177. John xvi. 8 — 11. P. 2. C. 2. S. 2. Acts ii. 30, &c. ib. Rom. i. 32. Mill in 1. Gal. iv. 22 — 31. It is an allegory, but is produced as an argu- ment. Collins. But utivx i